----------------------------------------
--------------------------              
,transcribera,euro7,,tm7s note3         
,genus names are not consistenly        
italicized in the original book4        
,these have been corrected for          
consistency according to the            
modern usage except in the ,index where 
they are consistently         printed in
 regular fontface4                      
----------------------------------------
--------------------------              
,illustration3 ,,life ,,in ,,the        
,,silurian ,,age4     ,,the ,,chain ,,of
 ,,life   ,,in   ,,geological ,,time    
,a ,,sketch ,,of ,,the ,,origin ,,and   
,,succession ,,of   ,,animals ,,and     
,,plants    ,,by   ,,sir ,j4 ,,william  
,,dawson   ,c4,m4,g41 ,,ll4,d41         
,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,g4,s41 ,,etc4    ,,author
 ,,of   a,eurooe,a,c,a,d,i,a,n          
,,geology1a,euro a,eurooe,t,h,e ,,story 
,,of ,,the ,,earth1a,euro               
a,eurooe,e,g,y,p,t ,,and ,,syria2       
,,their   ,,physical ,,features ,,in    

,,relation ,,to ,,bible ,,history1a,euro
 ,,etc4    ,,third ,,and ,,revised      
,,edition    ,,with ,,numerous          
,,illustrations    ,,the ,,religious    
,,tract ,,society1   #ef ,,paternoster  
,,row2 #fe ,,st4 ,p,a,u,la,euro7,,tm7,s 
,,churchyard2   ,,and #afd ,,piccadilly 
#ahhh     ,,richard ,,clay ,,and ,,sons4
   ,,london ,,and ,,bungay4             
,,preface4   ,questions as to the origin
 and history of life are not at the     
present time answered by mere           
philosophical speculation and poetical  
imagining4 ,such solutions of these     
questions as science can profess to have
 obtained are based on vast             
accumulations of facts respecting the   
remains of animals and plants preserved 
in the rocky beds of the                
eartha,euro7,,tm7s crust1 which have    
been successively accumulated in the    
course of its long geological history4  
,these facts undoubtedly afford the     
means of attaining to very certain      
conclusions on many points relating to  

the history of life on the earth4 ,but1 
on the other hand1 they have furnished  
the material for hypotheses which1      
though confidently affirmed to be       
indisputable1 have no real foundation in
 nature1 and are indirectly subversive  
of some of the most sacred beliefs of   
mankind4  ,in these circumstances it is 
most desirable that those who are not   
specialists in such matters should be in
 a position to judge for themselves2 and
 it does not appear impossible in the   
actual state of knowledge1 to present1  
in terms intelligible to the general    
reader1 such a view of the ascertained  
sequence of the forms of life as may    
serve at once to give exalted and       
elevating views of the great plan of    
creation1 and to prevent the deceptions 
of pseudo-scientists from doing their   
evil work4 ,difficulties1 no doubt1     
attend the attempt4 ,they arise from the
 number and variety of the facts1 from  
the uncertainties attending many        
important points1 from the new views    

constantly opening up in the progress of
 discovery1 and from the difficulty of  
presenting in an intelligible form the  
preliminary data in biology and geology 
necessary for the understanding of the  
questions in hand4 ,in order1 as far as 
possible1 to obviate these difficulties1
 the plan adopted in this work has been 
to note the first known appearance of   
each leading type of life1 and to follow
 its progress down to the present time  
or until it became extinct4 ,this method
 is at least natural and historical1 and
 has commended itself to the writer as  
giving a very clear comprehension of the
 actual state of our knowledge1 and as  
presenting some aspects of the subject  
which may be novel and suggestive even  
to those who have studied it most       
deeply4  ,in selecting examples and     
illustrations1 the writer has           
endeavoured to avoid1 as far as         
possible1 those already familiar to the 
general reader4 ,he has carefully sought
 for the latest facts1 while rejecting  

as unproved many things that are        
confidently asserted2 and has           
endeavoured to avoid all that is        
irrelevant to the subject in hand1 and  
to abstain from all technical terms not 
absolutely essential4 ,in a work at once
 so wide in its scope1 so popular in its
 character1 and so limited in its       
dimensions1 a certain amount of hostile 
criticism on the part of specialists is 
to be expected1 some portion of it      
perhaps just1 other portions arising    
from narrow prejudices due to limited   
lines of study4 ,the writer is willing  
to receive such comments with attention 
and gratitude1 but he would deprecate   
the misuse of them in the interest of   
those coteries which are at present     
engaged in the effort to torture nature 
into a confession of belief in the      
doctrines of a materialistic or agnostic
 philosophy4  ,the title of the work was
 suggested by that of                   
,gaudrya,euro7,,tm7s recent attractive  
book1 ,les ,encha,a7,r7nements du ,monde

 animal4 ,it seemed well fitted to      
express the connection and succession of
 forms of life1 without implying their  
derivation from one another1 while it   
reminds us that nature is not a         
fortuitously tangled skein1 and that the
 links which connect man himself with   
the lowest and oldest creatures bind him
 also to the throne of the ,eternal4    
,in the few years that have elapsed     
since the publication of the first      
edition of this work1 great additions   
have been made to our knowledge of      
fossil animals and plants4 ,many new    
species have been described1 and many   
new facts have been discovered1         
respecting species previously known4    
,this rapid progress of discovery has1  
however1 invalidated few of the         
statements made in the first edition1   
and has certainly established nothing   
against the general laws of the         
succession of life as stated in this    
work4  ,perhaps the most interesting    
phase of recent discovery is the tracing

 back of certain forms of life to       
earlier periods of the                  
eartha,euro7,,tm7s geological history4  
,some of the most recent facts of this  
kind are the finding1 by ,m4 ,charles   
,brongniart1 of a fossil insect1 allied 
to the ,blattae or cockroaches1 in the  
,silurian of ,spain1 that of true       
,scorpions in the ,upper ,silurian of   
,sweden by ,lindstr,am1 and in the      
,upper ,silurian of ,scotland by ,peach1
 who has also described fossil          
,millipedes from the ,lower ,devonian4  
,the tendency of such discoveries is to 
carry farther back the origin of highly 
specialised forms of life1 and thus to  
render less probable their origin by any
 process of gradual derivation4  ,other 
discoveries serve to fill up blanks in  
our knowledge1 and thus to render the   
geological record less imperfect4 ,of   
this kind is the close approximation now
 worked out in ,western ,america between
 the end of the reign of the great      
,mesozo,a-c reptiles and the beginning  

of that of the mammals of the           
,tertiarya,euroa great and abrupt       
revolution1 effected apparently by a    
coup de main4 ,i have myself had        
opportunity to show that a similarly    
sharp line separates that quaint old    
,mesozo,a-c flora of pines1 cycads and  
ferns1 which extends upward into the    
,lower ,cretaceous1 from the rich and   
luxuriant assemblage of broad-leaved    
trees of modern aspect1 which takes its 
place in the middle part of the same    
formation4  ,it is not too much to say  
that these and similar discoveries1     
while they serve to bridge over gaps in 
the succession of organic beings1 do not
 favour the theory of slow modification 
of types4 ,they rather point to a law of
 rapid development of new forms under   
special conditions as yet unknown to    
science1 and this accompanied with the  
extinction of older species4 ,recent    
discoveries also present many remarkable
 instances of the early introduction of 
highly specialised types1 of higher     

forms preceding those that are lower in 
the same class1 and of the persistence  
of certain types throughout geological  
time without any important change4      
,j4 ,w4 ,d4   ,,mcgill ,,college4       
,,contents4     ,,chap4                 
,,page    ,i4 ,,preliminary             
,,considerations ,,as ,,to ,,the        
,,extent ,,and        ,,sources ,,of    
,,our ,,knowledge                       
#a    ,,ii4 ,,the ,,beginning ,,of      
,,life ,,on ,,the ,,earth               
#ba    ,,iii4 ,,the ,,age ,,of          
,,invertebrates ,,of ,,the ,,sea        
#de    ,,iv4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,plant
 ,,life ,,on ,,the ,,land               
#hi    ,v4 ,,the ,,appearance ,,of      
,,vertebrate ,,animals                  
#aag    ,,vi4 ,,the ,,first             
,,air-,,breathers                       
#acg    ,,vii4 ,,the ,,empire ,,of ,,the
 ,,great ,,reptiles                     
#afe    ,,viii4 ,,the ,,first ,,forests 
,,of ,,modern ,,type                    
#ahe    ,,ix4 ,,the ,,reign ,,of        

,,mammals                               
#bjg    ,x4 ,,the ,,advent ,,of ,,man   
#bcc    ,,xi4 ,,review ,,of ,,the       
,,history ,,of ,,life                   
#bec     ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4   
,,frontispiece4a,euro,life in the       
,silurian ,age              ,to face    
,title4    ,,fig4                       
,,page    #a4 ,bank of stream or coast1 
showing stratification                  
#d    #b4 ,section at ,niagara ,falls   
#d    #c4 ,section obtained by boring1  
near ,goderich1 ,ontario                
#e    #d4 ,inclined beds1 holding fossil
 plants                             #f  
#e4 ,ideal section of the ,apalachian   
,mountains                        #g    
#f4 ,generalised section across ,england
 from ,menai ,straits to        the     
,valley of the ,thames                  
#i    #g4 ,generalised section from the 
,laurentian of ,canada to the           
coal-field of ,michigan                 
#i    #h4 ,unconformable superposition  
of ,devonian ,conglomerate on           

,silurian slates1 at ,st4               
,abba,euro7,,tm7s ,head1 ,berwickshire  
#aj    #i4 ,section of ,trenton         
limestone1 ,montreal                    
#ad    #aj4 ,diagram showing different  
state of fossilisation of a         cell
 of a ,tabulate ,coral                  
#ae    #aa4 ,cast of erect tree         
7,sigillaria7 in ,sandstone             
#af    #ab4 ,protichnites septem-notatus
                                  #ag   
#ab;a4 ,footprints of modern ,limulus1  
or king-crab                #ah    #ac4 
,current markings on shale1 resembling a
 fossil plant           #ah             
,frontispiece4 ,magnified and restored  
section of a portion         of ,eozoon 
canadense                               
#bj    #ad4 ,ideal section1 showing the 
relations of the ,laurentian and        
,huronian                               
#bd    #ae4 ,small weathered specimen of
 ,eozoon                           #bh  
#af4 ,nature-printed specimen of ,eozoon
 slightly etched with acid  #bi    #ag4 

,magnified group of canals in           
supplemental skeleton of         ,eozoon
                                        
#ca    #ah4 ,portion of ,eozoon         
magnified #ajj diameters                
#ca    #ai4 ,magnified portion of shell 
of ,calcarina                      #cb  
#bj4 ,am,aba1 a fresh-water naked       
,rhizopod2 and ,actinophrys1          a 
fresh-water ,protozoon                  
#cd    #ba4 ,nonionina1 a modern marine 
,foraminifer                       #cd  
#bb4 ,stromatopora concentrica          
#ce    #bc4 ,caunopora planulata        
#cf    #bd4 ,arch,aocyathus minganensis4
 ,a ,primordial ,protozoon              
#cg    #be4 ,receptaculites4 ,restored  
#ch    #bf4 ,section of ,loftusia       
,persica4 ,an ,eocene ,foraminifer      
#ci    #bg4 ,foraminiferal ,rock        
,builders1 in the ,cretaceous and       
,eocene      #da    ,frontispiece4      
,paradoxides ,regina 7,matthew7         
#dd    #bh4 ,group of ,cambrian ,animals
                                        

#df    #bi4 ,portion of skeleton of     
,hexactinellid ,sponge 7,,caloptychium7 
#di    #cj4 ,protospongia fenestrata    
7,salter7                               
#ej    #ca4 ,astylospongia pr,amorsa    
7,roemer7                               
#ea    #cb4 ,spicules of ,lithistid     
,sponge 7,trichospongia1 ,billings7     
#ea    #cc4 ,oldhamia antiqua 7,forbes7 
#eb    #cd4 ,dictyonema sociale4        
,enlarged                               
#eb    #ce4 ,dictyonema ,websteri 7,dn47
                                    #ec 
#cf4 ,group of modern ,hydroids allied  
to ,graptolites                 #ed     
#cg4 ,silurian ,graptolitid,a           
#ee    #ch4 ,central portion of         
,graptolite1 with membrane1 or float    
7,dichograpsus octobrachiatus1 ,hall7   
#ee    #ci4 ,ptilodictya acuta 7,hall74 
,bryozoan                           #ee 
#ci;a4 ,fenestella ,lyelli 7,dn474 ,a   
,carboniferous ,bryozoan         #ef    
#dj4 ,chaetetes fibrosa4 ,a ,tabulate   
,coral with microscopic          cells  

#ef    #da4 a1 ,stenopora exilis 7,dn474
 b1 ,chaetetes tumidus         7,edwards
 and ,haine7                            
#eg    #db4 ,living ,anthozoan ,coral   
7,astr,aa7                              
#eh    #dc4 ,tabulate ,corals           
7,halisites and ,favosites7             
#ei    #dd4 ,rugose ,coral              
7,heliophyllum ,halli7                  
#ei    #dd;a4 ,zaphrentis prolifica     
7,billings7                             
#fj    #de4 ,rugose ,corals 7,zaphrentis
 ,minas1 ,dn41 and ,cyathophyllum       
,billingsi1 ,dn47                       
#fj    #df4 ,modern ,crinoid            
7,rhizocrinus ,lofotensis7              
#fa    #dg4 ,pal,aaster ,niagarensis    
7,hall7                                 
#fb    #dh4 ,pal,achinus ellipticus     
7,mc,coy7                               
#fb    #di4 ,pleurocystites squamosus   
#fc    #ej4 ,heterocrinus simplex       
7,meek7                                 
#fc    #ea4 ,body of ,glyptocrinus      
#fc    #eb4 ,extracrinus ,briareus      

#fd    #ec4 ,pentacrinus caput-medus,a  
#fd    #ed4 ,lingula anatina            
#fe    #ee4 ,cambrian and ,silurian     
,lingul,a                               
#fe    #ef4 ,terebratula sacculus       
7,martin7                               
#ff    #eg4 ,brachiopods2 genus ,orthis 
#ff    #eh4 ,rhynchonella increbrescens 
7,hall7                            #ff  
#ei4 ,spirifer mucronatus 7,conrad7     
#fg    #ei;a4 ,athyris subtilita 7,hall7
                                  #fg   
#fj4 ,productus cora                    
7,da,euro7,,tm7,orbigny7                
#fh    #fa4 ,group of ,older ,pal,aozoic
 ,lamellibranchs                        
#fi    #fb4 ,conularia planicostata     
7,dn474 ,a ,carboniferous ,pteropod     
#gj    #fc4 ,silurian ,sea-snails       
#gj    #fd4 ,squid 7,loligo7            
#gb    #fe4 ,pearly ,nautilus 7,nautilus
 pompilius7                         #gb 
#ff4 ,orthoceras                        
#gc    #fg4 ,gomphoceras                
#gc    #fh4 ,lituites                   

#gc    #fi4 ,nautilus ,avonensis 7,dn47 
#gd    #gj4 ,goniatites crenistria      
7,philips7                              
#gd    #ga4 ,ceratites nodosus          
7,schloth7                              
#ge    #gb4 ,ammonites ,jason           
7,reinecke7                             
#gf    #gb;a4 ,suture of ,ammonites     
componens 7,meek7                       
#gf    #gc4 ,cretaceous ,ammonitid,a    
#gg    #gd4 ,belemnite                  
#gh    #gd;a4 ,belemnoteuthis antiquus  
#gh    #ge4 ,cambrian ,trilobites       
#gi    #gf4 ,transverse section of      
,calymene4 ,a ,silurian ,trilobite      
#hj    #gf;a4 ,burrows of ,trilobite and
 of modern ,king-crab                #ha
    #gg4 ,silurian ,trilobites          
#hb    #gh4 ,devonian and ,carboniferous
 ,trilobites                            
#hc    #gi4 ,pal,aozoic ,ostracod       
,crustaceans                            
#hc    #hj4 ,pterygotus anglicus        
#hd    #ha4 ,amphipeltis paradoxus      
7,salter7                               

#he    #hb4 ,anthropal,amon ,hilliana   
7,dn47                                  
#he    ,frontispiece4 ,cordaites1 of the
 group of ,dory-,cordaites      #hh     
#hc4 ,protannularia ,harknessii         
7,nicholson7                         #ia
    #hd4 ,american ,lower ,silurian     
,plants                                 
#ib    #hf4 ,fragment of outer surface  
of ,glyptodendron of ,claypole       #ic
    #hg4 ,psilophyton princeps 7,dn47   
#ie    #hh4 ,trunk of a ,devonian       
,tree-fern 7,caulopteris ,lockwoodi1    
,dn47   #ig    #hi4 ,frond of           
,arch,aopteris ,jacksoni 7,dn47         
#ih    #ij4 ,portion of a branch of     
,leptophleum rhombicum 7,dn47           
#ih    #ia4 ,calamites radiatus         
7,brongniart7                           
#ii    #ib4 ,a ,devonian ,taxine        
,conifer 7,dadoxylon ouangondianum1     
,dn47    #ajj    #ic4 ,group of         
,devonian fruits1 c4                    
#aja    #id4 ,structures of the         
oldest-known ,angiospermous ,exogen     

7,syringoxylon mirabile1 ,dn47          
#ajb    #ie4 ,asterophyllites parvula   
7,dn47 and ,sphenophyllum               
antiquum 7,dn47                         
#ajc    #if4 ,calamites                 
#ajd    #ig4 ,carboniferous ,ferns      
#aje    #ih4 ,carboniferous ,tree-ferns 
#ajg    #ii4 ,lepidodendron corrugatum  
7,dn47                              #ajh
    #ajj4 ,sigillari,a of the           
,carboniferous                          
#aji    #aja4 ,trigonocarpum ,hookeri   
7,dn47                                  
#aaa    ,frontispiece4 ,pteraspis4      
,restored                               
#aaf    #ajb4 ,siluro-,cambrian         
,conodonts                              
#aah    #ajc4 ,lower ,carboniferous     
,conodont                               
#aai    #ajd4 a1 ,head-shield of an     
,upper ,silurian ,fish 7,cyathaspis72   
b1 ,spine of a ,silurian ,shark 7,onchus
 tenui-striatus1           ,agass472 c1 
d1 ,scales of ,thecodus                 
#aba    #aje4 ,cephalaspis ,dawsoni     

7,lankester7                            
#abb    #ajf4 ,devonian ,placoganoid    
,fishes 7,pterichthys cornutus1         
,cephalaspis ,lyelli7                   
#abc    #ajg4 ,devonian ,lepidoganoid   
,fishes 7,diplacanthus and              
,osteolepis7                            
#abd    #ajh4 ,modern ,dipnoi           
7,ceratodus ,fosteri and ,lepidosiren   
annectus7                               
#abd    #aji4 ,anterior part of the     
palate of ,dipterus                     
#abe    #aaj4 ,dental plate of          
,conchodus plicatus 7,dn47              
#abf    #aaa4 ,dental plate of          
,ceratodus ,barrandii                   
#abf    #aab4 ,dental plate of          
,ceratodus serratus                     
#abg    #aac4 ,jaws of ,dinichthys      
,hertzeri 7,newberry7                   
#abg    #aad4 ,lower ,jaw of ,dinichthys
 ,hertzeri                              
#abh    #aae4 ,jaws of ,lepidosiren     
#abh    #aaf4 ,a small ,carboniferous   
,ganoid 7,pal,aoniscus                  

7,rhadinichthys7 ,modulus1 ,dn47        
#abi    #aag4 ,teeth and ,spines of     
,carboniferous ,sharks                  
#acj    #aah4 ,teeth of ,cretaceous     
,sharks 7,otodus and ,ptychodus7        
#aca    #aai4 ,tooth of a ,tertiary     
,shark 7,carcharodon7                   
#acb    #abj4 ,a ,liassic ,ganoid       
7,dapedius7                             
#acb    #aba4 ,cretaceous ,fishes of the
 modern or ,teleostian type             
7,beryx ,lewesiensis and ,portheus      
molossus1 ,cope7        #acc    #abb4   
,modern ,ganoids 7,polypterus and       
,lepidosteus7              #acd         
,frontispiece4 ,a ,microsaurian of the  
,carboniferous ,period      7,hylonomus 
,lyelli7                                
#acf    #abc4 ,wings of ,devonian       
,insects                                
#adj    #abd4 ,land-snail 7,pupa        
vetusta1 ,dn47                          
#adc    #abe4 ,land-snail 7,zonites     
7,conulus7 priscus1 ,carpenter7         
#adc    #abf4 ,millipedes 7,xylobius    

sigillari,a1 ,dn42 ,archiulus           
,xylobioides1 ,scudder2 ,x4 farctus1    
,scudder7              #ade    #abg4    
,wings of ,cockroaches                  
#adf    #abh4 ,wing of ,may-fly         
7,haplophlebium ,barnesii1 ,scudder7    
#adg    #abi4 ,a ,jurassic ,sphinx-moth 
7,sphinx ,snelleri1 ,weyenburgh7        
#adh    #acj4 ,an ,eocene ,butterfly    
7,prodryas persephone1 ,scudder7        
#adi    #aca4 ,abdominal part of a      
,carboniferous ,scorpion                
#aej    #acb4 ,carboniferous ,scorpion  
7,eoscorpius carbonarius1          ,meek
 and ,worthen7                          
#aea    #acc4 ,footprints of one of the 
oldest known ,batrachians1              
probably a species of ,dendrerpeton     
#aeb    #acd4 ,archegosaurus ,decheni   
#aed    #ace4 ,ptyonius                 
#aed    #acf4 ,a large ,carboniferous   
,labyrinthodont 7,baphetes              
planiceps1 ,owen7                       
#aee    #acg4 ,baphetes planiceps       
7,owen7                                 

#aef    #ach4 ,a lizard-like ,amphibian 
7,hylonomus aciedentatus7           #aeg
    #aci4 ,stelliosaurus longicostatus  
7,fritsch7                      #aeh    
#adj4 ,section showing the position of  
an erect ,sigillaria1                   
containing remains of land animals      
#afj    #adj;a4 ,section of base of     
erect ,sigillaria1 containing           
remains of land animals                 
#afa    ,frontispiece4 ,inhabitants of  
the ,english ,seas in the ,age of       
,reptiles                               
#afd    #ada4 ,arm of ,proterosaurus    
,speneri                                
#aff    #adb4 ,skeleton of              
,ichthyosaurus                          
#afg    #adb;a4 ,head of ,pliosaurus    
#afh    #adb;b4 ,paddle of ,plesiosaurus
 ,oxoniensis                       #afh 
#adc4 ,skeleton of ,clidastes           
#agj    #add4 ,an ,anomodont ,reptile of
 the ,trias 7,dicynodon                 
lacerticeps1 ,owen7                     
#agj    #ade4 ,a ,theriodont ,reptile of

 the ,trias 7,lycosaurus7               
#agj    #adf4 ,skeleton of              
,pterodochylus crassirostris            
#agj    #adg4 ,restoration of           
,rhamphorhyncus ,bucklandi              
#aga    #adh4 ,a ,jurassic bird         
7,arch,aopteryx macroura7               
#agb    #adi4 ,jaw of a ,cretaceous     
,toothed ,bird 7,ichthyornis dispar7    
#agc    #aej4 ,jaw of ,bathygnathus     
borealis 7,leidy7                       
#agd    #aea4 ,hadrosaurus ,foulkii     
7,cope7                                 
#age    #aeb4 ,jaws of ,megalosaurus    
#agf    #aec4 ,tooth of ,megalosaurus   
#agg    #aed4 ,compsognathus            
#agi    ,frontispiece4 ,lower           
,cretaceous ,leaves                     
#ahd    #aee4 ,sassafras cretaceum      
7,newberry7                             
#aij    #aef4 ,liriodendron prim,avum   
7,newberry7                             
#aia    #aeg4 ,onoclea sensibilis       
#aia    #aeh4 ,davallia tenuifolia      
#aib    #aei4 ,eocene ,leaves           

#aid    #afj4 ,an ,ancient ,clover      
7,trifolium pal,aog,aum1 ,saporta7      
#aie    #afa4 ,an ,eocene ,maple 7,acer 
sextianus1 ,saporta7                    
#aie    #afb4 ,a ,european ,magnolia of 
the ,eocene 7,m4 dian,a1 ,saporta7      
#aie    #afc4 ,flower and ,leaf of      
,bombax sepultiflorum                   
#aif    #afd4 ,branch and ,fruit of     
,sequoia ,couttsi,a 7,heer7             
#aig    #afe4 ,cinnamomum ,scheuchzeri  
7,heer7                                 
#aih    ,frontispiece4 ,sivatherium     
giganteum                           #bjf
    #aff4 ,jaw of ,dromatherium         
sylvestre 7,emmons7                     
#bji    #afg4 ,myrmecobius fasciatus    
#bji    #afh4 ,jaw and ,molar of        
,phascolotherium ,bucklandi             
#baj    #afi4 ,jaw and ,pre-molar of    
,plagiaulax ,becklesii                  
#baj    #agj4 ,restoration of           
,pal,aotherium magnum                   
#baa    #aga4 ,skull of a ,lower ,eocene
 ,perissodactyl 7,coryphodon            

,hamatus7                               
#bad    #agb4 ,fore-foot of ,coryphodon 
#bae    #agc4 ,skull of ,upper ,eocene  
,perissodactyl 7,dinoceras              
mirabilis7                              
#baf    #agd4 ,fore-foot of ,dinoceras  
#bag    #age4 ,skull of ,miocene        
,perissodactyl 7,brontotherium ingens1  
,marsh7                                 
#bag    #agf4 ,series of ,equine feet   
#bah    #agg4 ,skull of generalised     
,miocene ,ruminant 7,oreodon major7     
#bba    #agh4 ,lower ,jaw of            
,megatherium                            
#bbb    #agi4 ,ungual ,phalanx and      
,claw-core of ,megatherium              
#bbb    #ahj4 ,tooth of ,eocene ,whale  
7,zeuglodon cetioides7                  
#bbc    #aha4 ,mastodon ohioticus       
#bbe    #ahb4 ,head of ,dinotherium     
giganteum                               
#bbf    #ahc4 ,wing of ,eocene ,bat     
7,vespertilio aquensis7                 
#bbf    #ahd4 ,skull of a               
,cymetar-toothed ,tiger 7,machairodus   

cultridens7                             
#bbh    #ahe4 ,lower ,jaw of            
,dryopithecus ,fontani                  
#bbi    ,frontispiece4 ,contemporaries  
of ,post-,glacial ,man                  
#bcb    #ahf4 ,elephas primigenius      
#bda    #ahg4 ,tooth of ,elasmotherium  
#bdb    #ahh4 ,engis ,skull             
#bdc    #ahi4 ,outlines of ,three       
,prehistoric ,european ,skulls compared 
with an ,american ,skull                
#bdd    #aij4 ,flint ,implement found in
 ,kenta,euro7,,tm7s ,cavern1 ,torquay   
#bde    #aia4 ,bone ,harpoon            
7,pal,aocosmic7                         
#bdf    #aib4 ,sketch of a ,mammoth     
carved on a portion of a ,tusk of the   
same ,animal                            
#bdi     ,tabular ,view of ,geological  
,periods and of ,life-,epochs4          
----------------------------------------
---------------------------             
,,geological ,,periods4                 
,,animal ,,life4   ,,vegetable          
,,life4                                 

----------------------------------------
---------------------------             
,c     ,post-       ,modern4            
,age of ,man                 ,a   ,n    
,tertiary or ,post-,glacial4      and   
modern                  ,i   ,e         
,quaternary4                            
,mammals4       ,age of      ,n o ,o    
,angiosperms  ,o r ,z ,tertiary         
,pleistocene or   ,age of ,extinct and  
,palms4   ,z   ,o              ,glacial4
             ,mammals4                  
,o   ,i              ,pliocene4         
7,earliest                   ,i   ,c4   
,miocene4            ,placental         
,c                  ,eocene4            
,mammals47                              
----------------------------------------
-----------------                       
,upper1                                 
,m   ,cretaceous ,lower1 or             
,e                ,neocomian4           
,s                                      
,age of                       ,o        
,jurassic   ,oolite4           ,reptiles

 and  7,earliest       ,z               
,lias4               ,birds4    ,modern 
,trees47    ,o                          
,age of        ,i                       
,cycads and     ,c4                     
,upper1              7,earliest         
,pines4                        ,middle1 
or          ,marsupial                  
,triassic   ,muschelkalk4               
,mammals47                              
,lower                                  
----------------------------------------
---------------------                   
,upper1                                 
,permian    ,middle1 or                 
,magnesian          7,earliest          
,limestone4       true                  
,lower4             ,reptiles47         
,upper                                  
,coal-,formation4                       
,carbon-     ,coal-,formation           
iferous    ,carboniferous               
,limestone4                             
,lower                                  
,p                  ,coal-,formation4   

,a                                      
,l                ,upper4               
,age of       ,age of          ,a       
,devonian   ,middle4                    
,amphibians ,acrogens and    ,o         
,lower4             and                 
,fishes4,gymnosperms4    ,z             
7,earliest        ,o   ,silurian        
,upper4                          ,land  
,plants47     ,i                ,lower4 
,age of         ,c4                     
,alg,a4            ,siluro-,cam-        
,age of                                 
brian or   ,upper4                      
,mollusks1                              
,ordovician ,lower4            ,corals1 
and                                     
,crustaceans4                           
,upper4                                 
,cambrian   ,middle4                    
,lower                                  
----------------------------------------
---------------------                   
,huronian   ,upper4                     
,lower4                                 

,e                                      
,age of                       ,o        
,protozoa4  ,indications      ,z        
7,first animal    ,plants         ,o    
,upper4              remains47          
not          ,i   ,laurentian ,middle1  
determinable4     ,c4                   
,lower1 or                              
,bojian4                                
----------------------------------------
---------------------------     ,,the   
,,chain ,,of ,,life4     ,,chapter ,i4  
,,preliminary ,,considerations ,,as ,,to
 ,,the ,,extent ,,and ,,sources ,,of    
,,our ,,knowledge4   ,it is of the      
nature of true science to take nothing  
on trust or on authority4 ,every fact   
must be established by accurate         
observation1 experiment1 or calculation4
 ,every law and principle must rest on  
inductive argument4 ,the apostolic      
motto1 a,eurooe,prove all things1 hold  
fast that which is good1a,euro is       
thoroughly scientific4 ,it is true that 
the mere reader of popular science must 

often be content to take that on        
testimony which he cannot personally    
verify2 but it is desirable that even   
the most cursory reader should fully    
comprehend the modes in which facts are 
ascertained and the reasons on which    
conclusions are based4 ,failing this1 he
 loses all the benefit of his reading in
 so far as training is concerned1 and   
cannot have full assurance of that which
 he believes4 ,when1 therefore1 we speak
 of life-epochs1 or of links in a chain 
of living beings1 the question is at    
once raiseda,euro,what evidence have we 
of the succession of such epochs8 ,this 
question1 with some accessory points1   
must engage our attention in the present
 chapter4  ,geology as a practical      
science consists of three leading parts4
 ,the first and most elementary of these
 is the study of the different kinds of 
rocks which enter into the composition  
of those parts of the earth which are   
accessible to us1 and which we are in   
the habit of calling the crust of the   

earth4 ,this is the subject of          
,lithology1 which is based on the       
knowledge of minerals1 and has recently 
become a much more precise department of
 science than heretofore1 owing to the  
successful employment of the microscope 
in the investigation of the minute      
structure and composition of rocks4 ,the
 second is the study of the arrangement 
of the materials of the earth on the    
large scale1 as beds1 veins1 and        
irregular masses2 and inasmuch as the   
greater part of the rocks known to us in
 the eartha,euro7,,tm7s crust are       
arranged in beds or strata1 this        
department may be named ,stratigraphy4  
,a more general name sometimes employed 
is that of ,petrography4 ,the third     
division of geology relates to the      
remains of animals and plants buried in 
the rocks of the earth1 and which have  
lived at the time when those rocks were 
in process of formation4 ,these fossil  
remains introduce us to the history of  
life on the earth1 and constitute the   

subject of ,pal,aontology4  ,it is plain
 that in considering what may be learned
 as to epochs in the history of life we 
are chiefly concerned with the last of  
these divisions4 ,the second may also be
 important as a means of determining the
 relative ages of the fossils4 ,with the
 first we have comparatively little to  
do4  ,previous to observation and       
inquiry1 we might suppose that the kinds
 of animals and plants which now inhabit
 the earth are those which have always  
peopled it2 but a very little study of  
fossils suffices to convince us that    
vast numbers of creatures once          
inhabitants of this world have become   
extinct1 and can be known to us only by 
their remains buried in the earth4 ,when
 we place this in connection with       
stratigraphical facts1 we further find  
that these extinct species have         
succeeded each other at different times1
 so as to constitute successive         
dynasties of life4 ,on the one hand1    
when we know the successive ages of     

fossil forms1 these become to us1 like  
medals or coins to the historian1       
evidences of periods in the             
eartha,euro7,,tm7s history4 ,on the     
other hand1 we are obliged in the first 
instance to ascertain the ages of the   
medals themselves by their position in  
the successive strata which have been   
accumulated on the surface4 ,the series 
of layers which explorers like          
,schliemann find on the site of an      
ancient city1 and which hold the works  
of successive peoples who have inhabited
 the place1 thus present on a small     
scale a faithful picture of the         
succession of beds and of forms of life 
on the great earth itself4  ,our leading
 criterion for estimating the relative  
ages of rocks is the superposition of   
their beds on each other4 ,the beds of  
sandstone1 shale1 limestone1 and other  
rocks which constitute the              
eartha,euro7,,tm7s crust have nearly all
 been deposited thereon by water1 and   
originally in attitudes approaching to  

horizontality4 ,hence the bed that is   
the lower is the older of any two beds4 
,hence also1 when any cutting or section
 reveals to us the succession of several
 beds1 we know that fossil remains      
contained in the lower beds must be of  
older date4  ,we can scarcely walk by   
the side of a stream which has been     
cutting into its banks1 or at the foot  
of a sea-cliff1 or through a            
road-cutting1 without observing         
illustrations of this4 ,for instance1 in
 the section represented in ,fig4 #a1 we
 see at the surface the vegetable soil1 
below this layers of gravel and sand1   
below this a bed of clay1 and below this
 hard limestone4 ,of these beds a is the
 newest1 d the oldest2 and if1 for      
example1 we should find some marine     
shells in d1 some fresh-water shells in 
c1 bones of land animals and flint      
arrowheads in b1 and fragments of modern
 pottery in a1 we should be able at once
 to assign their relative ages to these 
fossils1 and to form some idea of the   

succession of conditions and of life    
which had occurred in the locality4  ,on
 a somewhat larger scale1 we have in    
,fig4 #b a section of the beds cut      
through by the great ,fall of ,niagara4 
,all of these except that marked a are  
very ancient marine rocks1 holding      
fossil shells and corals1 but now       
forming part of the interior of a       
continent1 and cut through by a         
fresh-water river4  ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #a4;a,euro,bank of stream or     
coast1 showing stratification4    a1    
,vegetable soil4   b1 ,gravel and sand4 
c1 ,clays4   d1 ,limestone rock1        
slightly inclined4  ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #b4;a,euro,section at ,niagara   
,falls1 showing the strata cut through  
by the action of the ,fall4 ,thickness  
of beds about #bej feet4    a1 ,boulder 
clay and gravela,euro,post-pliocene4    
b1 ,niagara limestone   ,upper          
,silurian1 with   c1 ,niagara shale     
marine shells and   d1 ,clinton         
limestone    corals4   e1 ,medina       

sandstone     ,in deep mines and borings
 still more profound sections may be    
laid open1 as in ,fig4 #c1 which        
represents the sequence of beds         
ascertained by boring with the diamond  
drill in search of rock salt near       
,goderich in ,canada4 ,here we have a   
succession of #a1ejj feet of beds1 some 
of which must have been formed under    
very peculiar and exceptional           
conditions4 ,the beds of rock salt and  
gypsum must have been formed by the     
drying up of sea-water in limited       
basins4 ,those of ,dolomite imply       
precipitation of carbonate of lime and  
magnesia in the sea-bottom4 ,the marls  
must have been formed largely by the    
driftage of sand and clay1 while some of
 the limestone was produced by          
accumulation of corals and shells4 ,such
 deposits must not only have been       
successive1 but must have required a    
long time for their formation4          
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4;a,euro,section
 obtained by boring with the diamond    

drill1 near ,goderich1 ,ontario1        
,canada1 in the ,salina series of the   
,upper ,silurian4 ,from a memoir by ,dr4
 ,hunt in the ,report of the ,geological
 ,survey of ,canada for #ahgf-g4    ,no4
 #a1 ,clay1 gravel1 and                 
bouldersa,euro,post-pliocene4   ,nos4   
#b1 #d1 #g1 #i1 #ac1 ,dol omite or      
magnesian limestone1 with layers   of   
marl1 limestone1 and gypsum4   ,no4 #c1 
,limestone with coralsa,euro,favosites1 
etc4   ,nos4 #e1 #aa1 #ae1 #ag1 ,marls  
with layers of ,dolomite and anhydrous  
gypsum4   ,nos4 #f1 #h1 #aj1 #ab1 #ad1  
#af1 ,rock salt4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#d4;a,euro,inclined beds1 holding fossil
 plants4 ,carboniferous4 ,south         
,joggins1 ,nova ,scotia4    #a4 ,shale  
and sandstone4 ,plants with ,spirorbis  
attached2        rain marks 7874   #b4  
,sandstone and shale1 #h feet4 ,erect   
,calamites4               ,an erect     
coniferous 787 tree1 rooted   #c4 ,gray 
sandstone1 #g feet4     on the shale1   
passes up through #ae   #d4 ,gray shale1

 #d feet4         feet of the sandstones
 and shale4   #e4 ,gray sandstone1 #d   
feet4   #f4 ,gray shale1 #f inches4     
,prostrate and erect trees1 with        
rootlets1        leaves1 ,naiadites1 and
 ,spirorbis on the plants4   #g4 ,main  
coal-seam1 #e feet coal in two beds4    
#h4 ,underclay1 with rootlets4  ,in     
,fig4 #d we have a bed of coal and its  
accompaniments4 ,the coal itself was    
produced by the slow accumulation of    
vegetable matter on a water-soaked soil1
 and this was buried under successive   
beds of sand and clay1 now hardened into
 sandstone and shale1 some of the beds  
holding trees and reed-like plants1     
which still stand on the soils on which 
they grew1 and which must have been     
buried in sediment deposited in         
inundations or after subsidence of the  
land4 ,in this section we may also      
observe that the beds are somewhat      
inclined2 and that this is not their    
original position is shown by the       
posture of the stems of trees1 once     

erect1 but now inclined with the beds4  
,this leads to a consideration very     
important with reference to our present 
subject2 namely1 that as our continents 
are mostly made up of beds deposited    
under water and afterwards elevated1    
these beds have in this process         
experienced such disturbances that they 
rarely retain their horizontal position1
 but are tilted at various angles4 ,when
 we follow such inclined strata over    
large areas1 we find that they undulate 
in great waves or folds1 forming what   
are called anticlinal and synclinal     
lines1 and that the irregularities of   
the surface of the land depend to a     
great extent on these undulations1 along
 with the projection of hard beds whose 
edges protrude at the surface4 ,in point
 of fact1 as shown in ,fig4 #e1 mountain
 ranges depend on these crumplings of   
the eartha,euro7,,tm7s crust2 and the   
primary cause of these is probably the  
shrinkage of the mass of the earth owing
 to contraction in cooling4 ,when the   

disturbances of beds are extreme1 they  
often cause intricacies of structure    
difficult to unravel2 but when of       
moderate extent they very much aid us in
 penetrating below the surface1 for we  
can often see a great thickness of beds 
rising one from beneath another1 and can
 thus know by mere superficial          
examination the structure of the earth  
to a great depth4 ,it thus happens that 
geologists reckon the thickness of the  
stratified deposits of the crust of the 
earth at more than #gj1jjj feet1 though 
they cannot penetrate it perpendicularly
 to more than a fraction of that depth4 
,the two sections1 ,figs4 #f and #g1    
showing the sequence of beds in ,england
 and in the northern part of ,north     
,america1 will serve1 if studied by the 
reader1 to show how1 by merely          
travelling over the surface and         
measuring the upturned edges of beds1   
many thousands of feet of deposits may  
be observed1 and their relative ages    
distinctly ascertained4  ,illustration3 

,,fig4 #e4;a,euro,ideal section of the  
,apalachian ,mountains showing folding  
of the eartha,euro7,,tm7s crust4    a1  
,anticlinal axes4   b1 ,overturned      
strata4   c1 ,synclinals4   d1          
,unconformable beds4  ,in studying any  
extensive section of rock we find that  
its members may more or less readily be 
separated into distinct groups4         
,sometimes these are distinguished by   
what is termed unconformability1 that   
is1 the lower series has been disturbed 
or inclined before the upper has been   
deposited upon it4 ,this is seen on a   
grand scale in the section ,fig4 #g1 in 
the case of the ,laurentian and         
,cambrian formations1 and on a smaller  
scale in ,fig4 #h in the unconformable  
superposition of ,devonian conglomerate 
on ,silurian slates at ,st4             
,abba,euro7,,tm7s ,head4 ,in the last   
section it is quite evident that the    
beds of the lower series have been bent 
into abrupt folds and worn away to a    
considerable extent before the          

deposition of the overlying series4 ,in 
such a case we know not merely that the 
upper series is newer than the lower1   
but that some considerable time must    
have elapsed after the deposition of the
 one before the other was laid down2 and
 we are not surprised to find that the  
fossils in the groups thus unconformable
 to each other are very different4  ,but
 even when the beds are conformable1    
they can usually be separated into      
groups1 depending upon differences of   
mineral character1 or changes which have
 occurred in the mode of deposition4    
,one group of beds1 for example1 may be 
largely composed of limestone1 another  
of sandstone or shale4 ,one group may be
 distinguished by containing some       
special mineral1 as1 for example1 rock  
salt or coal1 while others may be       
destitute of such special minerals4 ,one
 group may show by its fossils that it  
was deposited in the sea1 others may be 
estuarine or lacustrine4 ,thus we obtain
 the means of dividing the rocks of the 

earth into groups of different ages1    
known as a,eurooe,formations1a,euro and 
marking particular periods of geological
 time4 ,by tracing these formations from
 one district or region to another1 we  
learn the further truth that the        
succession is not merely local1 but     
that1 though liable to variation in     
detail1 its larger subdivisions hold so 
extensively that they may be regarded as
 world-wide in their distribution4      
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,generalised  
section across ,england from ,menai     
,straits to the ,valley of the          
,thames4a,euro,after ,ramsay4    #j     
,huronian8 or ,laurentian8   #a         
,cambrian and ,lower ,silurian4   #b    
,upper ,silurian4   #c ,devonian4   #f1 
#g1 #h ,trias and lias4   #i and #aj    
,jurassic4   #aa ,cretaceous4   #ab     
,eocene4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4         
#g4;a,euro,generalised section from the 
,laurentian of ,canada to the coal-field
 of ,michigan4    #j ,laurentian 7the   
,huronian is absent in the line of this 

section74   #a ,cambrian4   #b ,lower   
,silurian4   #c ,upper ,silurian4   #d  
,devonian4   #e ,carboniferous4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#h4;a,euro,unconformable superposition  
of ,devonian conglomerate on ,silurian  
slates1 at ,st4 ,abba,euro7,,tm7s ,head1
 ,berwickshire4a,euro,after ,lyell4     
,putting together the facts thus        
obtained1 we can frame a tabular        
arrangement of the eartha,euro7,,tm7s   
strata1 as in the table prefixed to this
 chapter2 and when we add the further   
discovery1 very early made by           
geologists1 that the successive         
formations differ from each other in    
their fossil remains1 we have the means 
of recognising any particular formation 
by its fossils1 even when the           
stratigraphical evidence may be obscure 
or wanting4 ,thus our knowledge of      
,epochs of ,life1 and indeed of the     
whole geological history of the earth1  
is based on the superposition of beds in
 the eartha,euro7,,tm7s crust1 and on   

the diversity of fossil remains in the  
successive beds so superimposed on each 
other2 and it is on these grounds that  
we are enabled to construct a ,table of 
,geological ,formations representing the
 whole series of beds as far as known1  
with the characteristic groups of       
fossils of each period4 ,here ,i might  
close these preliminary considerations1 
but there are a few accessory questions1
 important to our clear comprehension of
 the subject1 which may profitably      
occupy our attention for a short time4  
,one of these relates to the absolute   
duration of the time represented by the 
geological history of the earth4 ,such  
estimates as our present knowledge      
enables us to form are very indefinite4 
,whether we seek for astronomical or    
geological data1 we find great          
uncertainty4 ,to such an extent is this 
the case1 that current estimates of the 
time necessary to bring the earth from a
 state of primitive incandescence to its
 present condition have varied from     

fifteen millions of years to five       
hundred millions4 ,of the various modes 
proposed1 perhaps the most satisfactory 
as well as instructive is that based on 
the rate of denudation of our present   
continents1 as indicated by the amount  
of sediment carried down by great       
rivers4 ,the ,mississippi1 draining a   
vast and varied area in temperate       
latitudes1 is washing away the ,american
 land at the rate of one foot in #f1jjj 
years4 ,the ,ganges1 in a tropical      
climate and draining many mountain      
valleys1 works at the rate of one foot  
in #b1ceh years4 ,the mean of these two 
great rivers would give one foot in     
#d1agi years1 at which rate our         
continents would be levelled with the   
waters in about six millions of years4  
,but the land has been in process of    
renewal as well as of waste in          
geological time2 and a better measure   
will be afforded by the amount of beds  
actually deposited4 ,the entire         
thickness of all the stratified rocks of

 ,great ,britain has been calculated by 
,ramsay at #gb1jjj feet4 ,now1 if we    
suppose the waste in all geological time
 to have been on the average the same as
 at present1 and that this material has 
been deposited to the thickness of      
#gb1jjj feet on a belt of sea margin    
#ajj miles in width1 we shall have about
 #hf millions of years as the time      
required4#a ,this has the merit of      
approximating to ,sir ,william          
,thomsona,euro7,,tm7s calculation1 based
 on the rate of cooling of the earth1   
that a minimum of #ajj millions of years
 may represent the time since a solid   
crust first began to form4 ,as it is    
more likely that the rate of denudation 
has on the average been greater in      
former geological periods than at       
present1 we may perhaps estimate fifty  
or sixty millions of years as the time  
required for the accumulation of all our
 formations4 ,some geologists object to 
this as too little1 but in this some of 
them are influenced by the exigencies of

 theories of evolution1 and others      
appear to have no adequate conception of
 the vast lapse of time represented by  
such numbers1 in its relation to the    
actual rates of denudation and          
deposition4  ,it should be mentioned    
here1 however1 that1 on certain theories
 now somewhat generally accepted1       
respecting the nature and source of     
solar heat1 the absolute duration of    
geological time would be much reduced   
below the estimate of ,sir ,wm4         
,thomson4 ,prof4 ,tait has based on such
 data an estimate of fifteen millions of
 years4 ,prof4 ,simon ,newcomb says that
 a,eurooeon the only hypothesis science 
will now allow us to make respecting the
 source of the solar heata,euro 7the    
gravitation hypothesis of ,helmholtz7   
a,eurooethe earth was1 twenty millions  
of years ago1 enveloped in the fiery    
atmosphere of the sun4a,euro ,dr4       
,kirkwood has called attention to these 
results in connection with the planetary
 hypothesis of ,la ,place1 in the       

,proceedings of the ,american           
,philosophical ,society4#b ,should such 
views prove to be well-founded1         
geological calculations as to the time  
required for the successive formations  
may have to be revised4  ,if now we     
attempt to divide this time among the   
formations known to us1 according to    
their relative thicknesses1 we have1    
according to an elaborate estimate of   
,professor ,dana1 the time ratios of    
#ab1 #c1 and #a for the ,pal,aozoic1    
,mesozoic1 and ,cainozoic periods       
respectively4 ,taking the whole time    
since the beginning of the ,cambrian as 
forty-eight millions of years1 we should
 thus have for the ,pal,aozoic          
thirty-six millions1 for the ,mesozoic  
nine1 and for the ,tertiary three4      
,another calculation1 recently made by  
,professors ,hull and ,haughton1 gives  
the following ratios3a,euro     ,azoic  
#cd;,a4#c per cent4   ,pal,aozoic       
#db;,a4#e    a,euro   ,mesozoic and     
,cainozoic    #bc;,a4#b    a,euro       

,this calculation is1 however1 based on 
the absolute thickness of the several   
series as ascertained in ,great         
,britain1 without reference to the      
nature of the beds1 as indicating       
different rates of accumulation4 ,under 
either estimate it will be seen that the
 ,pal,aozoic time greatly exceeds the   
,mesozoic and ,cainozoic together1 and  
consequently that changes of life seem  
to have proceeded at an accelerated rate
 as time wore on4  ,another inquiry of  
some importance relates to the manner of
 preservation of fossils1 and the extent
 to which they constitute the material  
of rocks4 ,this inquiry is doubly       
important1 as it bears on the           
genuineness of fossil remains1 and on   
the means we have of understanding their
 nature4  ,some rocks are entirely made 
up of matter that once was alive1 or    
formed part of living organisms4 ,this  
is the case with some limestones1 which 
consist of microscopic shells1 or of    
larger shells1 corals1 and similar      

calcareous organisms1 either entire or  
broken into fragments and cemented      
together with pasty or crystalline      
limestone filling their interstices4    
,this may be seen in ,fig4 #i1 which    
represents a magnified slice of a       
,silurian limestone4 ,coal in like      
manner consists of carbonised vegetable 
matter1 retaining more or less perfectly
 its organic structure1 and sometimes   
even the external forms of its          
constituent parts4 ,more frequently1    
fossils are dispersed more or less      
sparsely through the substance of beds  
composed of earthy matter2 and they have
 usually been more or less affected by  
chemical changes1 or by mechanical      
pressure1 or are mineralised by         
different substances which have either  
filled their pores by infiltration or   
have more or less completely replaced   
their substance4 ,of course1 as a rule1 
the softer and more putrescible organic 
matters have perished by decay1 and it  
is only the harder and more resisting   

parts that remain4 ,even these have     
often yielded to the enormous pressure  
to which they have been subjected1 and  
if at all porous1 have been changed by  
the slow action of percolating water    
charged with various kinds of mineral   
matter in solution4  ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #i4;a,euro,section of ,trenton   
limestone1 magnified1 showing that it is
 composed of fragments of corals1       
crinoids1 and shells4 ,montreal4        
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#aj4;a,euro,diagram showing different   
state of fossilisation of a cell of a   
tabulate coral 7,dawsona,euro7,,tm7s    
,dawn of ,life74    a ,natural          
condition1 wall calcite cell empty4   b 
,wall calcite1 cells filled with the    
same4   c ,walls calcite1 cells filled  
with silica or a silicate4   d ,wall    
silicified1 cells filled with calcite4  
e ,wall silicified1 cell filled with    
silica4  ,it thus happens that many     
fossils are infiltrated with mineral    
matter4 ,wood1 for example1 may have the

 cavities of its cells and vessels      
filled with silica or silicates1 with   
sulphide or carbonate of iron1 or with  
limestone1 while the woody walls of the 
cells may remain either as coaly matter 
or charcoal4 ,i have often seen the     
microscopic cells of fossil wood not    
only filled in this way1 but presenting 
under a high power successive coats of  
deposit1 like the banded structure of an
 agate4  ,in some cases not only are the
 pores filled with mineral matter1 but  
the solid parts themselves have been    
replaced1 and the whole mass has        
actually become stone1 while still      
retaining its original structure4 ,thus 
silicified wood is often as hard and    
solid as agate1 and under the microscope
 we see that the wood has entirely      
perished1 and is represented by silica  
or flint1 differing merely in colour    
from that which fills the cavities4 ,in 
this case we may imagine the wood to    
have been acted on by water holding in  
solution silica1 combined with soda or  

potash1 in the manner of what is termed 
soluble glass4 ,the wood1 in decay1     
would be converted into carbon dioxide1 
and this as formed would seize on the   
potash or soda1 leaving the silica in an
 insoluble state1 to be deposited       
instead of the carbon4 ,thus each       
particle of the carbon of the wood1 as  
removed by decay1 would be replaced by a
 particle of silica1 till the whole     
became stone4 ,by similar chemical      
changes corals and shells are often     
represented by silica1 or by pyrite1    
which has taken the place of the        
original calcareous matter2 and still   
more remarkable changes sometimes occur1
 as when the siliceous spicules of      
sponges have been replaced by carbonate 
of lime4 ,the organic matter present in 
the fossils greatly promotes these      
changes1 by the substances produced in  
its decay1 and thus it often happens    
that the shells1 corals1 etc41 contained
 in limestone have been replaced by     
flint1 while the inclosing limestone is 

unchanged4 ,fig4 #aj shows the various  
conditions which a coral may assume     
under these different modes of          
treatment4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#aa4;a,euro,cast of erect tree          
7,sigillaria7 in sandstone1 standing on 
a small bed of coal1 ,south ,joggins1   
,nova ,scotia 7,dawsona,euro7,,tm7s     
,acadian ,geology74  ,the substance of a
 fossil may be entirely removed by decay
 or solution1 leaving a mere mould      
representing its external form1 and this
 may subsequently be filled with mineral
 matter1 so as to produce a natural cast
 of the object4 ,this is very common in 
the case of fossil plants2 and large    
trunks of trees may sometimes be found  
represented1 as seen in ,fig4 #aa1 by   
stony pillars retaining nothing of the  
original wood except perhaps a portion  
of the bark in the state of coal4 ,it   
sometimes happens that the substance of 
fossils has been removed1 leaving mere  
empty cavities1 sometimes containing    
stony cores representing the internal   

chambers of the fossils4 ,again1        
calcareous fossils imbedded in hard     
rocks are often removed by weathering1  
leaving very perfect impressions of     
their forms4 ,for this reason the fossil
 remains contained in some hard         
resisting rocks can be best seen as     
impressed moulds on the weathered       
surfaces4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4        
#ab4;a,euro,protichnites septem-notatus4
 ,a supposed series of crustacean       
footprints made in sand1 now hardened   
into sandstone4 ,cambrian4a,euro,after  
,logan4  ,lastly1 we sometimes have     
impressions or footprints representing  
the locomotion of fossil animals1 rather
 than the fossils themselves4 ,in this  
way some extinct creatures are known to 
us only by their footsteps on sand or   
clay1 once soft1 but now hardened into  
stone2 and in the case of some of the   
lower animals the trails thus made are  
often not easily interpreted 7,figs4    
#ab1 #ab;a74 ,it has been found that    
even sea-weeds drifted by the tide make 

impressions of this kind1 which1 when   
they occur in old rocks1 are very       
mysterious4 ,even rain-drops are capable
 of being permanently impressed on      
rocks1 and constitute a kind of fossils4
 ,besides these we have many kinds of   
imitative markings which simulate       
fossils1 as those of concretions or     
nodules1 which are often very fantastic 
in shape1 those of dendritic            
crystallisation giving moss-like forms1 
and the complicated tracery produced on 
muddy shores by the little rills of     
water which follow the receding tide    
7,fig4 #ac74 ,such things are often     
mistaken by the ignorant for fossil     
remains1 but are easily distinguished by
 a practised eye4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4
 #ab;a4a,euro,footprints of modern      
,limulus1 or king-crab1 in the sand1    
which enable us to interpret those in   
,fig4 #ab4  ,the reader who has followed
 these1 perhaps somewhat dry1 details1  
will be rewarded for his patience by    
having some conception of the conditions

 in which we find fossil remains1 and of
 the evidence by which we can refer     
these to different periods in the       
history of the earth4  ,illustration3   
,,fig4 #ac4;a,euro,current markings on  
shale1 resembling a fossil plant4       
,reduced from a photograph              
7,dawsona,euro7,,tm7s ,acadian          
,geology74  ,carrying this knowledge    
with us1 and at the same time glancing  
at the table of successive formations   
prefixed to this chapter1 we shall be   
prepared1 without any additional        
geological study1 to understand the     
statements to be made in the following  
chapters1 and to appreciate the actual  
nature of the succession of life in so  
far as it is at present known4          
,illustration3 ,,magnified ,,and        
,,restored ,,section ,,of ,a ,,portion  
,,of ,,eozoon ,,canadense4  ,the shaded 
portions show the animal matter of the  
,chambers1 ,tubuli1 ,canals1 and        
,pseudopodia2 the unshaded portions the 
calcareous skeleton4  ,,chapter ,,ii4   

,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,life ,,on ,,the
 ,,earth4   ,the day must have been when
 the first living being appeared for the
 first time on our planet4 ,was it plant
 or animal8 or a generalised organism   
uniting in some mysterious way the      
properties and powers of two kingdoms of
 nature1 now so distinct1 and even      
contrary to each other in their         
manifestations8 ,did it appear suddenly1
 or was it slowly evolved from dead     
matter by some process in which the     
albuminous or protoplasmic matter1 which
 we know forms the basal substance of   
living beings1 was first produced and   
then endowed with life8 ,did the first  
living being appear in a mature state1  
or was it merely a germ from which the  
mature individual could be produced8    
,these are questions which science in   
its present state has no means of       
answering4 ,we do not know any process  
by which the ingredients of protoplasm  
can be combined so as to produce that   
substance without a previous living     

being4 ,we do not know what molecular   
differences may exist between dead      
albumen and that which we see growing   
and moving and instinct with life2 still
 less do we know how to set up or       
establish these differences4 ,we do not 
know the precise nature or relation to  
other forces of the energy which        
actuates living organisms4 ,in our      
experience the simplest creatures that  
have life spring from previous germs1   
themselves the products of previous     
generations of living beings4 ,thus we  
are in the presence of great mysteries  
which it might be impossible for us to  
solve1 even if we were permitted to     
visit some new planet on which the dawn 
of life was breaking4  ,some things1    
however1 we can infer as to the         
conditions of the introduction of life4 
,first1 there is every reason to believe
 that the earth we inhabit was once a   
glowing1 incandescent mass1 condensing  
from a vaporous condition1 and quite    
unfit for the abode of living beings1   

and which1 even if in some previous     
state its materials had constituted the 
mass of an inhabited world1 must have   
lost every trace of any living germ in  
the fervent heat to which it had been   
subjected4 ,there must1 therefore1 have 
been in some way an absolute creation or
 origination of life and organisation4  
,secondly1 we may infer that in the     
earlier stages of the earth1 when it was
 perhaps wholly or almost entirely      
covered with the waters1 when it was    
still uniformly warmed with its own     
internal heat1 when it was surrounded   
with a pall of dense vapours preventing 
radiation1 and nursing its heat within  
itself1 though in a condition entirely  
unsuited to the higher forms of life1 it
 may have presented circumstances more  
favourable to the origination and       
multiplication of living beings of low  
organisation than at any subsequent     
time4 ,this incubation of creative power
 in the vaporous mantle over the        
prim,aval ocean was a favourite         

imagination of old thinkers1 and is not 
obscurely hinted at in the ,book of     
,genesis4 ,it has been revived and much 
insisted on by evolutionists in our own 
time1 though it has no certain          
foundation in scientific observation or 
experiment4  ,thirdly1 from the fact    
that plant-life alone has the power of  
subsisting on inorganic matter1 and that
 plants furnish all the nourishment of  
animals1 we may fairly infer that the   
life of the plant preceded that of the  
animal4 ,it has1 indeed1 been suggested 
that some of the humbler forms of life  
may combine in a rude and simple way    
enough of the powers of the plant and   
the animal to enable them to bridge over
 the double gap between the animal and  
the plant1 and the animal and the       
mineral1 or that such creatures may in  
their early stages carry on vegetable   
functions1 and in their later those of  
the animal4 ,it is theoretically        
possible that life may have begun with  
such creatures1 which some of the       

results of microscopical research would 
lead us to believe still exist4 ,it is1 
however1 on the whole more probable that
 simple plants first existed1 and       
furnished pabulum to animals of low     
grade introduced almost                 
contemporaneously4  ,fourthly1 all our  
knowledge of the succession of life     
leads us to believe that it was not the 
higher plants and animals that first    
sprang into existence from the teeming  
earth1 but creatures of low and humble  
organisation1 suited to the then        
immature and unfinished condition of the
 planet4 ,it is also in accordance with 
the amazing fecundity of the seas in all
 geological periods in these lower forms
 of life1 to suppose that the earliest  
living things originated in the waters1 
and that the plants and animals of the  
land are of later date4  ,do we know    
anything from actual observation of this
 earliest population of the world8 ,such
 knowledge we can hope to acquire only  
by studying the oldest formations known 

to us2 and these1 it must be confessed1 
exist in a state so highly crystalline1 
and so much affected by internal heat1  
by mechanical pressure1 and by movement1
 as to render it little likely that     
organic remains should be preserved in  
them in a state fit for recognition4    
,in many parts of the world1 and notably
 in ,canada and ,scandinavia1 as well as
 in ,wales1 ,scotland1 and ,bavaria1 the
 older ,pal,aozoic rocks1 the lowest    
containing plants in great abundance1   
rest on still older crystalline beds1   
which have become hard and crystalline  
in pre-,pal,aozoic times1 and have      
contributed sand and pebbles to the     
succeeding very ancient deposits4 ,these
 old rocksa,eurothe ,eozoic series of   
our tablea,euromay be grouped in two    
great systems1 the ,laurentian and      
,huronian 7,fig4 #ad74 ,the former may  
be conveniently divided into three      
members3 ,first1 the ,bojian1 or ,ottawa
 gneiss1 consisting of stratified       
granite rocks1 usually of a red colour1 

and of very great thickness4 ,this      
contains1 so far as known1 no limestone1
 and has afforded as yet no trace of    
fossils4 ,secondly1 the ,middle         
,laurentian1 the greater part of which  
consists of gneiss1 but containing      
important beds of other rocks1 as       
quartzite1 iron ore1 and limestone4 ,it 
is in this series that we have the first
 evidence of life1 and it is here also  
that we find the greatest abundance of  
carbon1 in the form of graphite or      
plumbago1 and also large quantities of  
calcium phosphate1 or bone earth4       
,thirdly1 the ,upper ,laurentian or     
,norian series4 ,this consists in great 
part of ,labadorite1 or lime feldspar1  
but has also beds of ordinary gneiss1   
limestone1 and iron ore4  ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #ad4;a,euro,ideal section1      
showing the relations of the ,laurentian
 and ,huronian4    a1 ,lower            
,laurentian4   b1 ,middle ,laurentian4  
c1 ,upper ,laurentian4   d1 ,huronian4  
e1 ,cambrian and ,silurian4  ,the       

latter1 the ,huronian1 is much less     
crystalline1 and is divisible into two  
seriesa,eurothe ,lower ,huronian1 which 
includes many beds of volcanic origin1  
and the ,upper ,huronian1 which has     
afforded some obscure fossils4 ,the     
,huronian was first recognised by ,sir  
,w4 ,e4 ,logan in ,canada1 but          
corresponding rocks exist in ,europe4   
,the ,pebidian series of ,hicks in      
,wales is probably of this age4  ,it is 
likely that much of the present         
appearance and condition of the most    
ancient rocks may be attributed to      
metamorphism1 that is1 to the slow      
baking under the influence of heat1     
heated water1 and pressure1 to which    
they have been subjected in the lower   
parts of the eartha,euro7,,tm7s crust1  
when buried deeply under newer deposits4
 ,it is also true1 however1 as ,dr4     
,sterry ,hunt has pointed out in detail1
 that they present mineral characters   
which show a mode of deposition         
different from that which has prevailed 

subsequently1 and probably indicating   
great ejections of heated mineral matter
 into the primitive ocean1 and          
comparatively little of that deposit    
therein of mere sand and clay which has 
prevailed in subsequent geological      
periods4 ,in short1 these rocks have an 
unmistakably primitive aspect1          
distinguishing them from those of later 
times1 and conveying the impression that
 they approach at least to the records  
of that time when a heated ocean first  
rested on the thin and recently         
solidified crust of our planet4 ,if this
 is really the case1 then our ,lower    
,laurentiana,eurohard1 compact1         
destitute of limestone1 and composed of 
material which may be little else than  
the d,a7,c7bris of products of internal 
heat merely spread out into bedded forms
 by watera,euromay represent a time when
 no living thing as yet tenanted the    
waters2 and the dawn of life may have   
appeared in that period when the ,middle
 ,laurentian beds were laid down4 ,here 

at least we find two kinds of evidence  
pointing to the existence of certain    
forms of life in the waters4  ,the first
 depends on the mineral character of the
 beds themselves4 ,this formation holds 
several very thick beds of limestone4   
,now although this kind of rock may1    
under certain circumstances1 be         
deposited directly from solution in     
water1 it is not ordinarily so          
deposited1 but more usually through the 
agency of living beings inhabiting the  
waters1 and forming their skeletons or  
hard parts of limestone derived from the
 water1 usually through the medium of   
humble forms of plant life4 ,in this way
 are formed reefs of coral and beds of  
shells and of chalky ooze1 all composed 
of material once constituting the       
skeletons of animals4 ,the study of     
limestones of all geological ages shows 
that this has been the usual mode of    
their formation4 ,if the ,laurentian    
limestones had a similar origin1 the    
seas of that period must have swarmed   

with animals having calcareous          
coverings2 and the study of more modern 
limestones which have become highly     
crystalline shows that it is quite      
possible that the forms and structures  
of these organisms may have been        
obliterated4  ,again1 the ,middle       
,laurentian abounds in carbon or coaly  
matter4 ,true1 this is in the form of   
graphite or plumbago1 but this condition
 may be a result of metamorphism2 and we
 know that the carbon of coal-beds and  
bituminous shales of much more modern   
times has been altered into graphite4   
,further1 the graphite occurs in the way
 in which we should expect it to occur  
if of organic origin4 ,it is found      
disseminated in the limestone1 just as  
bituminous matter is found in unaltered 
rocks of this kind4 ,it is found        
interlaminated with gneiss1 as          
carbonaceous and bituminous matters are 
found in the shales of the ordinary     
fossiliferous rocks1 where these        
substances are known to be of organic   

origin4 ,the graphite also occurs in a  
very pure form in irregular veins1 just 
as in some bituminous formations the    
rock oil1 oozing into fissures1 has been
 hardened into asphalt or coaly         
matter4#c  ,to these facts may be added 
the presence of thick beds and veins of 
iron ore and of apatite or calcium      
phosphate 7bone earth74 ,both of these  
substances occur in a disseminated state
 in nearly all rocks1 but they are      
concentrated into definite deposits by  
the action of life4 ,iron is usually    
dissolved out and redeposited by acids  
produced in the decay of vegetable      
matter1 as we see in the clay ironstones
 of the coal formation and in bog-iron  
ores4 ,calcic phosphate is taken up by  
many animals1 and forms their shells or 
skeletons1 and on their death is        
deposited in beds on the sea-bottom1    
sometimes to a very considerable extent4
  ,the concurrence of all these         
phenomena in the ,middle ,laurentian may
 be held to afford a strong presumption 

that1 could we discover these rocks in  
an unaltered state1 we should find the  
limestones filled with marine fossils   
and the graphite showing the forms or   
structure of plants4 ,the only startling
 feature in this conclusion is1 that if 
we admit it1 we must also admit that    
life was developed in the ,laurentian   
time in an exuberance not surpassed1 if 
equalled1 in any subsequent period4     
,still1 there is nothing incredible in  
this1 for if the forms of life were few 
and low1 their increase may have been   
rapid1 because unchecked2 and they no   
doubt found in the ancient seas a       
surplusage of material on which to feed 
and with which to construct their       
skeletons4 ,dr4 ,hunt has estimated that
 the amount of carbon now sealed up as  
coaly matter would1 if diffused in the  
atmosphere as carbon dioxide1 afford    
#fjj times the quantity of that gas at  
present floating in the air4 ,a still   
more vast amount is sealed up in the    
limestone of the several geological     

formations4 ,the same chemist has shown 
that the quantity of lime held in       
solution in the ocean must have been    
much greater in ,laurentian times than  
at present4 ,these facts at least allow 
us to suppose that in the ,eozoic times 
there were great supplies of carbon and 
of lime available to such creatures of  
low organisation as were capable of     
profiting by them2 and we have no reason
 to doubt that there may have been      
plants and animals so constituted as to 
flourish in conditions of this kind1 in 
which perhaps scarcely any modern       
species could exist4  ,these            
probabilities have caused geologists    
anxiously to search for any traces of   
fossil organic remains in the old       
,laurentian rocks2 and they have been   
rewarded by the discovery of one        
species1 ,eozoon ,canadense1 still often
 referred to as only a problematical    
fossil2 but this arises to a large      
extent from the prevalent want of       
knowledge sufficient to appreciate the  

evidence for its organic character4     
,this being once admitted1 we have in   
the existence of ,eozoon alone a        
sufficient cause for the accumulation of
 much of the ,laurentian limestone1     
though there is reason to believe that  
it was not the only inhabitant of those 
ancient seas4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae
 7,nos4 #a to #d74;a,euro,small         
weathered specimen of ,eozoon4 ,from    
,petite ,nation4  #a1 ,natural size2    
showing general form1 and acervuline    
portion above and laminated portion     
below4 #b1 ,enlarged casts of cells from
 upper part4 #c1 ,enlarged casts of     
cells from the lower part of the        
acervuline portion4 #d1 ,enlarged casts 
of sarcode layers from the laminated    
part4  ,the best specimens of ,eozoon   
occur as rounded1 flattened1 or more or 
less irregular lumps or masses in       
certain layers of the ,laurentian       
limestone4 ,when weathered on the       
surface of the rock1 these lumps show a 
regular concentric lamination1 caused by

 thin fibres of limestone1 alternating  
with other mineral substances1 filling  
up the spaces between them4 ,when these 
intervening layers are composed of such 
minerals as ,serpentine1 ,loganite1     
,pyroxene1 or ,dolomite1 which are more 
resisting than the limestone1 they      
project when weathered1 or when the     
limestone is etched by an acid1 so as to
 show the lamination very distinctly4   
,at the lower surface of the masses the 
layers are seen to be thicker than they 
are above1 and in perfect specimens they
 are seen toward the surface to break up
 into small rounded vesicles of calcite1
 like little bubbles1 which constitute  
the so-called acervuline condition of   
,eozoon 7,fig4 #ae1 ,no4 #b74 ,slices of
 the fossil etched with an acid show    
these appearances very perfectly1 and   
can even be printed from1 so as to      
present perfect nature-prints of the    
structure 7,fig4 #af74  ,,fig4          
#af4;a,euro,nature-printed specimen of  
,eozoon slightly etched with acid4 ,it  

shows the lamination1 and at one side   
fragmental ,eozoon 7,lifea,euro7,,tm7s  
,dawn on ,earth74  ,on etching a small  
fragment or slice with very dilute acid1
 so as to dissolve away the calcite     
slowly1 if the specimen be well         
preserved1 we find that the calcite     
layers have a very curious structure4   
,this is indicated by the appearance of 
little white or transparent threads of  
,serpentine1 ,dolomite1 or ,pyroxene1   
which ramify throughout the substance of
 the limestone layers1 and are left     
intact when they have been dissolved4   
,these little processes must originally 
have been pores in the limestone layers1
 which have been filled with the        
substance which constitutes the         
alternate lamin,a4 ,in addition to this1
 if we use a somewhat high microscopic  
power1 and especially if we study the   
structures as seen in thin transparent  
slices1 we can perceive a still finer   
tubulation along the sides of the       
calcite layers1 represented by extremely

 minute parallel rods of mineral matter 
7,figs4 #ag1 #ah74  ,now if we regard   
these structures as those of an         
infiltrated fossil1 as described in last
 chapter1 their interpretation will not 
be difficult4 ,the original organism was
 composed of calcareous matter in thin  
concentric lamin,a1 connected with each 
other by pillars and plates of similar  
material4 ,between these lamin,a was    
lodged the soft1 jelly-like substance of
 a marine animal1 growing by the        
addition of successive layers1 each     
protected by a thin calcareous crust4   
,the layers were originally traversed by
 very numerous parallel tubuli1         
permitting the soft protoplasm to       
penetrate them2 and when1 in the        
progress of growth1 it was necessary to 
strengthen these layers1 they were      
thickened by a supplemental deposit     
traversed by larger and ramifying       
canals4 ,when the animal was dead1 and  
its soft parts removed by decay1 the    
chambers between the lamin,a1 as well as

 the minute canals and tubuli1 became   
infiltrated with mineral matter1 in the 
manner described in the last chapter1   
and when so preserved became absolutely 
imperishable under any circumstances    
short of absolute fusion4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ag4;a,euro,magnified group of canals in
 supplemental skeleton of ,eozoon4      
,taken from the specimen in which they  
were first recognised                   
7,lifea,euro7,,tm7s ,dawn on ,earth74   
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ah4;a,euro,portion of ,eozoon magnified
 #ajj diameters1 showing the original   
cell-wall with tubulation1 and the      
supplemental skeleton with              
canals4a,euro,after ,carpenter4  a1     
,original tubulated wall or             
a,eurooe,nummuline layer4a,euro ,more   
magnified in ,fig4 ,a4 b1 c1            
,intermediate skeleton1 with canals4    
,this interpretation leads to the       
conclusion1 at which ,i arrived from the
 study of the first well-preserved      

specimen ever submitted to microscopic  
examination1 that the animal which      
produced the calcareous skeleton of     
,eozoon was a member of that lowest     
grade of ,protozoa known as             
,foraminifera2 and which1 after living  
through the whole of geological time1   
still abound in the sea4 ,the main      
differences are1 that ,eozoon presents a
 somewhat generalised structure1        
intermediate between two modern types1  
and that it attained to a gigantic size 
compared with most of these organisms in
 later periods4 ,how near it approaches 
in structure to some modern forms may be
 seen by comparison of the recent       
species represented in ,fig4 #ai1 in    
which the parts corresponding to the    
chambers1 lamin,a1 tubuli1 and canals of
 ,eozoon can be readily distinguished4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ai4;a,euro,magnified portion of shell  
of ,calcarina4a,euro,after ,carpenter4  
a1 ,cells4   b1 ,original cell-wall with
 tubuli4   c1 ,supplementary skeleton   

with canals4  ,the modern animals of    
this group are wholly composed of soft  
gelatinous protoplasm or sarcode1 the   
outer layer of which is usually somewhat
 denser than the inner portion2 but both
 are structureless1 except that the     
inner layer may present a more or less  
distinct granular appearance4 ,many of  
them show a distinct spot or cell1      
called the nucleus1 and some have minute
 transparent vesicles1 which contract   
and expand alternately1 and appear to be
 of the nature of circulatory or        
excretory organs4 ,they have no proper  
alimentary canal1 but receive their food
 into the general mass and digest it in 
temporary cavities4 ,their means of     
locomotion and prehension are soft      
thread-like or finger-like processes1   
extended at will from the surface of any
 part of the body1 and known as false   
feet 7pseudopodia74 ,from these         
processes the whole group has obtained  
the name of ,rhizopods1 or rootfooted   
animals4 ,they may be regarded as       

constituting the simplest and humblest  
form of animal life certainly known to  
us4  ,the very numerous species of these
 creatures existing in the waters of the
 modern world may be arranged under     
three principal groups4 ,the first and  
highest includes those which have lobate
 or finger-like pseudopods1 and a       
well-developed nucleus and pulsating    
vesicle 7,fig4 #bj1 a74 ,they are mostly
 inhabitants of fresh water1 and        
destitute of a hard crust or shell4 ,a  
second group1 including many inhabitants
 of the sea as well as of fresh waters1 
has thread-like radiating pseudopodia#d 
7,fig4 #bj b74 ,some of these form      
beautiful silicious skeletons4 ,a third 
group1 essentially marine1 consists of  
those with reticulated pseudopodia1 and 
usually destitute of distinct nucleus   
and pulsating vesicle 7,fig4 #ba74 ,they
 produce beautiful calcareous skeletons1
 often very complex1 or sometimes are   
content to cover themselves with a crust
 of agglutinated grains of sand4 ,it is 

to this last group that ,eozoon belongs1
 and to the highest division of         
ita,eurothat which has the shell        
perforated with minute pores1 often of  
two kinds4 ,it is curious that just as  
we have the chambers and pores of       
,eozoon filled with serpentine1 so in   
all geological formations and in the    
modern seas it is not uncommon to find  
,foraminifera having their cavities     
filled with glauconite and other hydrous
 silicates allied to serpentine4        
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4;a,euroa1     
,am,aba1 a fresh-water naked ,rhizopod2 
and b1 ,actinophrys1 a fresh-water      
,protozoon of the group ,radiolaria1    
with thread-like pseudopodia4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ba4;a,euro,nonionina1 a modern marine  
,foraminifer4 ,showing its chambered    
shell and netted                        
pseudopodia4a,euro,after ,carpenter4    
,if we attempt to trace the ,rhizopods  
onward from the ,middle ,laurentian1 we 
are met with a great hiatus in the      

,upper ,laurentian4 ,the species ,eozoon
 ,bavaricum has1 however1 been found in 
rocks apparently of ,huronian age2 but  
this is the last known appearance of    
,eozoon1 properly so-called4 ,in the    
,cambrian or ,siluro-,cambrian1 however1
 we meet with many gigantic ,protozoa1  
more especially those known as          
,stromatopora1 ,arch,aocyathus1         
,receptaculites1 and ,cryptozoon4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#bb4;a,euro,stromatopora                
concentrica4a,euro,after ,hall4    a1   
,section of the same1 magnified4   b1   
,small portion highly magnified1 showing
 lamin,a and pillars4  ,the typical     
,stromatopor,a1 or ,layer-corals1       
consist1 like ,eozoon1 of concentric    
layers1 connected by numerous pillars1  
which are often1 though not always1 more
 definite and regular than in the       
,laurentian fossil4 ,the lamin,a are    
perforated1 but more coarsely than in   
,eozoon1 and they are often thickened   
with supplemental deposit which1 in some

 of the forms1 presents canals radiating
 from vertical tubes or bundles of tubes
 penetrating the mass 7,figs4 #bb1 #bc74
 ,the mode of growth of ,stromatopora   
must have closely resembled that of     
,eozoon1 and the forms produced are so  
similar that it is often quite          
impossible to distinguish them by the   
naked eye4 ,like ,eozoon1 they form the 
substance of important limestones1 and  
single masses are sometimes found as    
much as three feet in diameter4 ,the    
,stromatopor,a extend from the ,upper   
,cambrian to the ,devonian inclusive4   
,in the ,carboniferous they are         
continued by smaller and more regular   
organisms of the genus ,loftusia1#e and 
this genus seems to extend without      
marked change up to the ,eocene         
,tertiary4 ,recent students of the      
,stromatopor,a seem disposed to promote 
them from the province of ,protozoa to  
that of the ,hydroids4#f ,the reasons   
for this seem cogent in the case of some
 of the forms1 but in my judgment fail  

in others1 more especially in the older 
forms4 ,it may ultimately be found that 
the group as now held includes very     
different types of structure4 ,in modern
 times ,i know of no nearer             
representative than the animal whose    
skeleton often adheres in red encrusting
 patches to our specimens of corals1 and
 which is known as ,polytrema4 ,in      
general structure it is not very far    
from being a very degenerate kind of    
,stromatopora4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#bc4;a,euro,caunopora planulata4        
,showing the radiating canals on a      
weathered surface4                      
,devonian4a,euro,after ,hall4  ,it is   
curious that in the line of succession  
above stated1 the beautiful tubulated   
cell-wall of ,eozoon disappears2 and    
this structure seems1 after the         
,laurentian1 to be for ever divorced    
from the great laminated ,protozoans4   
,it reappears in the ,carboniferous1 in 
certain smaller organisms of the type of
 the ,nummulites1 or ,money-stone       

,foraminifers1 and is continued in this 
group of smaller and free animals down  
to the present time4 ,in the ,cretaceous
 and early ,tertiary periods1 the       
,foraminifera of different types have   
been nearly as great rock-builders as   
they were in the ,laurentian4 ,some of  
these later rock-builders1 however1 have
 belonged to the lower or imperforate   
group2 others to the higher or ,rotaline
 and ,nummuline groups2 and1 as a whole1
 they have been individually small1     
making up in numbers what they lacked in
 size4 ,probably the conditions for     
enabling animals of this type rapidly1  
and on a large scale1 to collect        
calcareous matter1 were more favourable 
in the ,laurentian than they have ever  
been since4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#bd4;a,euro,arch,aocyathus minganensis4 
,a ,primordial ,protozoon4a,euro,after  
,billings4  a1 ,pores of the inner wall4
  ,in the ,siluro-,cambrian age two     
other forms of gigantic ,foraminiferal  
,protozoans were introduced1 widely     

different from ,eozoon1 and destined    
apparently not to survive the period in 
which they appeared4 ,these were        
,arch,aocyathus1 the ancient            
,cup-corals1 and ,receptaculites1 which 
may perhaps be called the ,sack-corals4 
,both are quite remote from ,eozoon in  
structure1 wanting its complexity in the
 matter of minute tubules1 and having   
greater regularity and complication on  
the large scale4 ,arch,aocyathus had the
 form of a hollow inverted cone with    
double perforated walls1 connected by   
radiating irregular plates1 also        
perforated 7,fig4 #bd74 ,it has been    
regarded as a sponge1 and some species  
are certainly accompanied with spicules2
 but these ,i have ascertained to be    
merely accidental1 and will be referred 
to in the next chapter4 ,the true       
structure of ,arch,aocyathus consists of
 radiating calcareous plates enclosing  
chambers connected by pores4            
,arch,aocyathus came in with the ,later 
,cambrian1 and seems to have died out in

 the ,siluro-,cambrian4 ,the only more  
modern things which at all resemble it  
are the ,foraminifera called            
,dactylopora1 which belong to the       
,tertiary period4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4
 #be4;a,euro,receptaculites4            
,restored4a,euro,after ,billings4    a1 
,aperture4   b1 ,inner wall4   c1 ,outer
 wall4   n1 ,nucleus1 or primary        
chamber4   v1 ,internal cavity4         
,receptaculites is a still more complex 
organism4 ,it has a sack-like form1     
often attaining a large size1 and the   
double walls are composed of square or  
rhombic plates1 connected with each     
other by hollow tubes from which proceed
 canals perforating the plates 7,fig4   
#be74 ,this curious structure is        
confined to the ,siluro-,cambrian1 and  
is so dissimilar from modern forms that 
its affinities have been subject to     
grave doubts4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#bf4;a,euro,section of ,loftusia        
,persica4 ,an ,eocene ,foraminifer4     
,magnified five diameters4a,euro,after  

,carpenter and ,brady4  ,we thus have   
presented to us the remarkable fact that
 in the ,pal,aozoic age we have no      
precise representative of ,eozoon1 but  
instead three divergent types1 differing
 from it and from each other1 all       
apparently specialised to particular    
uses1 all temporary in their duration2  
while in later times nature seems to    
have returned nearer to the type of     
,eozoon1 though on a smaller scale1 and 
separating some characters conjoined in 
it4 ,some portion of this curious result
 may be due to our ignorance2 and it    
would be interesting to know1 what we   
may know some day1 how this type of life
 was represented in the long interval   
between the ,huronian and the ,upper    
,cambrian1 when perhaps there may have  
been forms that would at least enable us
 to connect ,eozoon and ,stromatopora4  
,another link in the chain of being     
remains to be noticed here4 ,in the     
,laurentian limestones we meet with     
numerous minute spherical bodies and    

groups of spheres with calcareous       
tubulated tests4#g ,these may either be 
small ,foraminifer,a1 distinct from     
,eozoon1 or may be germs or detached    
cells from its surface4 ,similar bodies 
are found in the lower part of the      
,siluro-,cambrian1 in the ,quebec group 
at ,point ,levis2 and there they are    
filled with a species of glauconite     
constituting a sort of greensand rock4  
,still higher1 in the ,carboniferous1   
there are very numerous species of      
,foraminifera1 presenting forms very    
similar to those in the modern seas1 so 
that in the smaller shells of this group
 we seem to have evidence of a          
continuous series all the way from the  
,laurentian to the present time4 ,the   
greater laminated forms co-exist with   
these up to the ,eocene ,tertiary4      
,throughout the whole of geological     
timea,eurofrom the formation of the     
,laurentian limestones to that of the   
chalky ooze accumulating in the modern  
oceana,eurothese humble creatures have  

been among the chief instruments in     
seizing on the calcareous matter of the 
waters and depositing it in the form of 
limestone4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#bg4;a,euro,foraminiferal ,rock         
,builders1 in the ,cretaceous and       
,eocene4  a1 ,nummulites                
l,avigataa,euro,eocene4 b1 ,the same1   
showing chambered interior4 c1          
,milioline limestone1                   
magnifieda,euro,eocene1 ,paris4 d1 ,hard
 ,chalk1 section                        
magnifieda,euro,cretaceous4  ,i have    
said nothing of the development of      
higher forms of animal life from        
,eozoon1 simply because ,i know nothing 
of it4 ,we shall see in the next chapter
 that these are introduced seemingly in 
an independent manner4 ,we may be       
content to trace foraminiferal life     
along its own line of development1      
waxing and waning1 but ever confined    
within the same general boundaries1 from
 the ,laurentian to the present time4   
,it is likely that if1 in any of the    

ages constituting this vast lapse of    
time1 a dredge had been dropped into the
 depths of ocean1 it would have brought 
up ,foraminifera not essentially        
different in form and structure4 ,if any
 one asks to what extent the successive 
species constituting this almost endless
 chain may be descendants one of the    
other1 we have no absolutely certain    
information to give4 ,on the one hand1  
it is not inconceivable that such forms 
as ,stromatopora or ,nummulina may have 
descended from ,eozoon4 ,on the other   
hand1 it is equally conceivable that the
 same power which produced ,eozoon at   
first1 whether from dead matter or from 
some unknown lower form of life1 may    
have repeated the process in later times
 with modifications4 ,in any case it is 
probable that the ,foraminifera have    
experienced alternations of expansion   
and shrinkage1 of elevation and         
decadence1 in the lapse of geological   
time4 ,there were times in which many   
new forms swarmed into existence1 and   

times in which old forms were becoming  
extinct without being replaced by       
others4 ,in so far as the areas of the  
continents and the adjacent waters are  
concerned1 those periods when the land  
was subsiding under the ocean must have 
been their times of prosperity1 those in
 which the crust of the earth shrunk and
 raised up large areas of land must have
 been their times of decay4 ,still this 
lowest form of animal life has never    
perished1 but has always found abundant 
place for itself1 however pressed by    
physical change and by the introduction 
of higher beings4     ,illustration3    
,paradoxides ,regina 7,matthews74 ,lower
 ,cambrian of ,new ,brunswick4  #a_/fth 
,nat4 ,size4  ,,chapter ,,iii4  ,,the   
,,age ,,of ,,invertebrates ,,of ,,the   
,,sea4   ,if the middle portion of the  
,laurentian age was really a time of    
exuberant and abounding life1 either    
this met with strange reverses in       
succeeding periods1 or the conditions of
 preservation have been such as to      

prevent us from tracing its onward      
history4 ,certain it is1 that according 
to present appearances we have a new    
beginning in the ,cambrian1 which       
introduces the great ,pal,aozoic age1   
and few links of connection are known   
between this and the previous ,eozoic4  
,at the beginning of the ,pal,aozoic we 
have reason to believe that our         
continents were slowly subsiding under  
the sea1 after a period of general      
continental elevation which was         
consequent on the crumbling of the      
eartha,euro7,,tm7s crust at the close of
 the ,eozoic2 and on the new sea-bottoms
 formed by this subsidence came in1     
slowly at first1 but in ever-increasing 
swarms1 the abundant and varied life of 
the early ,pal,aozoic4  ,in the oldest  
portion of the ,cambrian series in      
,wales1 ,hicks has catalogued species of
 no less than seventeen genera1         
embracing ,crustaceans1 the             
representatives of our crabs and        
lobsters1 bivalve and univalve          

shell-fishes of different types1 worms1 
sea-stars1 zoophytes1 and sponges4 ,if  
we could have walked on the shores of   
the old ,cambrian sea1 or cast our      
dredge or trawl into its depths1 we     
should have found representatives of    
most of the humbler forms of sea life   
still extant1 though of specific forms  
strange to us4 ,perhaps the nearest     
approach to such experience which we can
 make is to examine the group of        
,cambrian animals delineated in ,fig4   
#bh1 and to notice1 under the guidance  
of the geologist above named1 the       
sections seen at ,st4                   
,davida,euro7,,tm7s1 in ,south ,wales4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4;a,euro,group 
of ,cambrian ,animals 7from ,nicholson74
  a1 ,arenicolites didymus1 worm tubes4 
b1 ,lingulella ferruginea4 c1 ,theca    
,davidii4 d1 ,modiolopsis solvensis4 e1 
,orthis ,hicksii4 f1 ,obolella          
sagittalis4 g1 ,hymenocaris vermicauda4 
h1 ,trilobite1 ,olenus micrurus4  ,here 
we find a nucleus of ancient rocks      

supposed to be ,laurentian1 though in   
mineral character more nearly akin to   
the ,huronian1 but which have hitherto  
afforded no trace of fossils4 ,resting  
unconformably on these is a series of   
partially altered rocks1 regarded as    
,lower ,cambrian1 and also destitute of 
organic remains4 ,these have a thickness
 of almost #a1jjj feet1 and they are    
succeeded by #c1jjj feet more of similar
 rocks1 still classed as ,lower         
,cambrian1 but which have afforded      
fossils4 ,the lowest bed which contains 
indications of life is a red shale1     
perhaps a deep-sea bed1 and possibly    
itself partly of organic origin1 by that
 strange process of decomposition or    
dissolution of foraminiferal ooze and   
volcanic fragments1 going on in the     
depths of the modern ocean1 and         
described by ,dr4 ,wyville ,thomson as  
occurring over large areas in the ,south
 ,pacific4 ,the species are two         
,lingulell,a1 a ,discina and a          
,leperditia4 ,supposing these to be all1

 it is remarkable that we have no       
,protozoa or ,corals or ,echinoderms1   
and that the types of ,brachiopods and  
,crustaceans are of comparatively modern
 affinities4 ,passing upward through    
another #a1jjj feet of barren sandstone1
 we reach a zone in which no less than  
five genera of ,trilobites are found1   
along with ,pteropods and a sponge4     
,thus it is that life comes in at the   
base of the ,cambrian in ,wales1 and it 
may be regarded as a fair specimen of   
the facts as they appear in the earlier 
fossiliferous beds succeeding the       
,laurentian4 ,taking the first of these 
groups of fossils1 we may recognise in  
the ,leperditia a two-valved ,crustacean
 closely allied to forms still living in
 the seas and fresh waters4 ,the        
,lingulell,a1 whether we regard them as 
molluscoids1 or1 with ,professor ,morse1
 as singularly specialised worms1       
represent a peculiar and distinct type1 
handed down1 through all the            
vicissitudes of the geological ages1 to 

the present day4 ,the ,pteropods and the
 sponge are very similar to forms now   
living4 ,the ,trilobites are an extinct 
group1 but closely allied to some modern
 ,crustaceans4 ,had the primordial life 
begun with species altogether           
inscrutable and unexampled in succeeding
 ages1 this would no doubt have been    
mysterious2 but next to this is the     
mystery of the oldest forms of life     
being also among the newest4 ,whatever  
the origin of these creatures1 they     
represent families which have endured   
till now in the struggle for existence  
without either elevation or degradation4
 ,yet1 though thus vast in their        
duration1 they seem to have swarmed in  
together and in great numbers1 in the   
,cambrian1 without any previous         
preparation4 ,from the ,cambrian onward1
 throughout the whole ,pal,aozoic1 there
 is no decided break in the continuity  
of marine life2 and already in the      
,silurian period the sea was tenanted   
with all the forms of invertebrate life 

it yet presents1 and these in a teeming 
abundance not surpassed in any          
succeeding age4 ,let us now1 in         
accordance with our plan1 select some of
 these ancient inhabitants of the waters
 and trace their subsequent history4    
,remains of sea-weeds are undoubtedly   
present in the ,cambrian rocks4 ,one of 
the lowest beds in ,sweden has been     
named from their abundance the ,fucoidal
 ,sandstone2 and wherever fossiliferous 
,cambrian rocks occur1 some traces1 more
 or less obscure1 of these plants may be
 found4 ,nearly all that we can say of  
them1 however1 is1 that1 in so far as   
their remains give any information1 they
 are very like the plants of the same   
group that now abound in our seas4 ,in  
the fucoidal sandstone of ,sweden       
certain striated or ribbed bodies have  
been found1 which have even been        
regarded as land plants2#h but they seem
 rather to be trails or marks left by   
sea-weeds dragged by currents over a    
muddy bottom4 ,the plants of the sea    

thus precede those of the land1 and they
 begin on the same level as to structure
 that they have since maintained4 ,i    
agree with ,nathorst1 however1 in       
holding that the ,bilobites and many    
other forms believed by some to be      
sea-weeds1 are really trails and tracks 
of animals4#i  ,the ,foraminifera of the
 ,pal,aozoic we have noticed in the last
 chapter2 but we now find a new type of 
,protozoana,eurothat of the ,sponge4    
,sponges as they exist at present may be
 defined to be composite animals1 made  
up of a great number of one-celled or   
gelatinous zoids1 provided with         
vibrating threads or cilia1 and so      
arranged that currents of water are     
driven through passages or canals in the
 mass1 by the action of the cilia1      
bringing food and aerated water for     
respiration4 ,to support these soft     
sarcodic sponge-masses1 they secrete    
fibres of horny matter and needles      
7spicul,a7 of flint or of limestone1    
forming complicated fibrous and spicular

 skeletons1 often of great beauty4 ,they
 abound in all seas1 and some species   
are found in fresh waters4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#bi4;a,euro,portion of skeleton of      
,hexactinellid ,sponge 7,,caloptychium74
 ,magnified4 ,after ,zittel4  ,with the 
exception of a very few species         
destitute of skeleton1 and which we     
cannot expect to find in a fossil state1
 the sponges may be roughly divided into
 three groups3 #a1 those with corneous  
or horny skeleton1 like our common      
washing sponges2 #b1 those with         
skeletons composed of silicious needles 
of various forms and arrangement2 #c1   
those with calcareous spicules4 ,of     
these1 the second or silicious group has
 precedence in point of time1 beginning 
in the ,early ,cambrian1 and continuing 
to the present4 ,two of its subdivisions
 are especially interesting in their    
range4 ,the first is that of the        
,lattice-sponges 7,hexactinellid,a71 in 
which the spicules have six rays placed 

at right angles1 and are attached to    
each other by their points1 so as to    
form a very regular network 7,fig4 #bi74
 ,the second is that of the             
,stone-sponges 7,lithistid,a71 in which 
the spicules are four-rayed or          
irregular1 and are united by the        
branching root-like ends of the rays4   
,the most beautiful of all sponges1 the 
,venus ,flower-basket 7,euplectella71 is
 a modern ,hexactinellid1 and the       
wonderful weaving of its spicules is as 
marvellous a triumph of constructive    
skill as its general form is graceful4  
,the ,lithistids are less beautiful1 but
 are the densest and most compact of    
sponges1 and are represented by several 
species in the modern seas4 ,both of    
these types go back to the ,early       
,cambrian1 and have continued side by   
side to the present day1 as             
representatives of two distinct         
geometrical methods for the construction
 of a spicular skeleton4                
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   

#cj4;a,euro,protospongia fenestrata     
7,salter74 ,menevian group4  a1         
,fragment showing the spicules partially
 displaced4 b1 ,portion enlarged4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ca4;a,euro,astylospongia pr,amorsa     
7,roemer74 ,niagara group4a,euro,after  
,hall4  a1 ,spicules magnified4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#cb4;a,euro,spicules of ,lithistid      
sponge 7,trichospongia of ,billings74   
,from the ,cambrian of ,labrador4  ,many
 years ago the keen eye of the late     
lamented ,salter detected in a stain on 
the surface of a slab of ,cambrian slate
 the remains of a sponge2 and minute    
examination showed that its spicules    
crossed each other1 and formed          
lattice-work on the hexactinellid plan4 
,salter boldly named it ,protospongia   
7the first sponge71 and it is still the 
earliest that we know 7,fig4 #cj74 ,thus
 the type whose skeleton is the most    
perfect in a mechanical point of view   
takes the lead4 ,it is continued in the 

,silurian in many curious forms1 of     
which the stalkless sponges             
7,astylospongia7 are the most common    
7,fig4 #ca74 ,it perhaps attains its    
maximum in the ,cretaceous1 from which  
the beautiful example in ,fig4 #bi is   
taken1 and it still flourishes1 giving  
us the most beautiful of all recent     
forms4 ,before the close of the         
,cambrian there were other sponges of   
the ,lithistid type4 ,fig4 #cb          
represents a group of spicules from the 
,calciferous 7,lowest ,silurian or      
,upper ,cambrian7 of ,mingan1#aj and    
which probably belong to a large        
,lithistid sponge of that early time4   
,the ,lithistids have been recognised in
 the ,upper ,silurian and               
,carboniferous1 and continuing upward to
 the ,cretaceous1 there become vastly   
numerous1 while their modern            
representatives are by no means few4    
,the silicious sponges with simple      
spicules appear to have existed as far  
back as the ,siluro-,cambrian1 and there

 is believed to be almost as early      
evidence of horny or corneous sponges4  
,the calcareous sponges have been       
recognised as far back as the           
,silurian4#aa ,thus from the close of   
the ,pal,aozoic all the types of sponges
 seem to have existed side by side2 and 
in the ,cretaceous period1 when such    
large areas of our continents were      
deeply submerged1 they attained a       
wonderful development1 perhaps not      
equalled in any other era of the        
eartha,euro7,,tm7s history4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#cc4;a,euro,oldhamia antiqua 7,forbes74 
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#cd4;a,euro,dictyonema sociale4         
,enlarged4 ,lingula flags4a,euro,after  
,salter4  ,sponges may be regarded as   
the highest or most complex of the      
,protozoa or the lowest of the          
,coelenterates4 ,we have no links       
wherewith to connect them with the lower
 ,protozoa of the ,eozoic period2 and   
through their long history1 though very 

numerous in genera and species1 they    
show no closer relationship with the    
,foraminifera below1 and the ,corals    
above1 than do their successors in the  
modern seas4 ,they thus stand very much 
apart2 and modern studies of their      
development and minute structures do not
 seem to remove them from this          
isolation4 ,though we are treating here 
of inhabitants of the sea1 it may be    
proper to mention that ,geinitz has     
described two species from the ,permian 
which he believed to be early precursors
 of the ,spongill,a1 or fresh-water     
sponges2 but more recently he seems to  
regard them as probably ,alg,a4 ,young  
has1 however1 recently found true       
spicules of ,spongilla in the ,purbeck  
beds4#ab  ,illustration3 ,,fig4         
#ce4;a,euro,dictyonema ,websteri 7,dn74 
,niagara formation4  a1 ,enlarged       
portion 7,acadian ,geology74            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4;a,euro,group 
of modern ,hydroids allied to           
,graptolites4 ,magnified1 and natural   

size4  a1 ,sertularia4 b1 ,tubularia4 c1
 ,campanularia4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#cg4;a,euro,silurian ,graptolitid,a4  a1
 ,graptolithus4 b1 ,diplograpsus4 c1    
,phyllograpsus4 d1 ,tetragrapsus4 e1    
,didymograpsus4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#ch4;a,euro,central portion of          
,graptolite1 with membrane1 or float    
7,dichograpsus octobrachiatus1 ,hall74  
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ci;a,euro,ptilodictya acuta 7,hall74   
,bryozoan4 ,siluro-,cambrian4  ,a stage 
higher than the sponges are those little
 polyp-like animals with sac-like bodies
 and radiating arms or tentacles1 which 
form minute horny or calcareous cells1  
and bud out into branching communities1 
looking to untrained eyes like delicate 
sea-weedsa,eurothe sea-firs and         
sea-mosses of our coasts 7,fig4 #cf74   
,these belong to a very old group1 for  
in the oldest ,cambrian we have a form  
referred to this type 7,fig4 #cc71 and  
in the ,upper ,cambrian another still   
more decided example 7,fig4 #cd74ac     

,this style of life1 once introduced1   
must have increased in variety and      
extended itself with amazing rapidity1  
for in the ,siluro-,cambrian age we find
 it already as characteristic as in our 
modern seas1 and so abundant that vast  
thicknesses of shale are filled and     
blackened with the d,a7,c7bris of forms 
allied to the sea-firs1 and masses of   
limestone largely made up of the more   
calcareous forms of the sea-mosses4 ,as 
examples of the former we may take the  
,graptolites1 so named from their       
resemblance to lines of writing1 and of 
which several forms are represented in  
,fig4 #cg4 ,the little teeth on the     
sides of these were cells1 inhabited    
probably by polyps1 like those          
represented in the modern ,sertularia in
 ,fig4 #cf4 ,some of them were probably 
attached to the bottom4 ,in others the  
branches radiated from a central film   
which may have been a hollow vesicle or 
float1 enabling them to live at the     
surface of the water 7,fig4 #ch74 ,these

 ,graptolites are specially             
characteristic of the ,upper ,cambrian  
and ,lower ,silurian4 ,the netted ones  
7,dictyonema71 as may be seen from      
,figs4 #cd and #ce1 came in before the  
close of the ,cambrian1 and continue    
unchanged to the ,silurian1 where they  
disappear4 ,the branching forms1 seen in
 ,fig4 #cg1 have scarcely so great a    
range4 ,they thus form most certain     
marks of the period to which they       
belong1 and being oceanic and probably  
floaters1 they diffused themselves so   
rapidly that they appear to indicate the
 same geological time in countries so   
widely separated as ,europe1 ,north     
,america1 and ,australia4 ,it is        
curious1 too1 that while the            
,graptolites thus mark a definite       
geological time1 and seem to disappear  
abruptly and without apparent cause1    
they are the first link in the long     
chain of the ,hydroids1 which1 though   
under different family forms1 continue  
to this day1 apparently neither better  

nor worse than their perished           
,pal,aozoic relatives4 ,there is a group
 of little ,stony ,corals               
7,monticuliporid,a71 which were possibly
 also the cells of ,hydroids1 that have 
a similar history4 ,they are the only   
known ,corals that date so far back as  
the ,upper ,cambrian2 and they continue 
under very similar forms all through the
 ,pal,aozic1 and are represented by the 
millepore corals of the present day4    
,fig4 #dj represents a form found at the
 base of the ,siluro-,cambrian1 and     
,fig4 #da shows forms characteristic of 
the ,carboniferous ,limestone4          
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ci;a4a,euro,fenestella ,lyelli         
7,dawson74 ,a ,carboniferous ,bryozoan4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#dj4;a,euro,chaetetes fibrosa4 ,a       
tubulate coral with microscopic cells4  
,siluro-,cambrian4  ,if we turn now to  
the sea-mosses 7,bryozoa71 we have a    
group of minute polyp-like animals      
inhabiting cells not unlike those of the

 ,hydroids1 and which form plant-like   
aggregates4 ,but the animals themselves 
are so different in structure that they 
are considered to be nearer allies of   
the bivalve shell-fishes than of the    
,corals4 ,they are1 in short1 so        
different1 that the most ardent         
evolutionist would scarcely hold a      
community of origin between them and    
such creatures as the ,graptolites and  
,millepores1 though an ordinary observer
 might readily confound the one with the
 other4 ,these animals appear at the    
beginning of the ,siluro-,cambrian1 and 
such forms as that represented in ,fig4 
#ci1 very closely allied to some now    
living1 are large constituents of some  
of the limestones of that period4 ,other
 forms1 like that represented in ,fig4  
#ci;a1 are very characteristic of the   
,carboniferous4 ,these animals1         
individually small1 though complicated  
in structure and branching into         
communities1 scarcely ever of any great 
magnitude1 humble creatures which have  

never played any great part in the      
world1 have1 nevertheless1 been so      
persistent that1 though specific and    
generic forms have been changed1 the    
group may be said to be in the modern   
seas exactly what it was in those of the
 early ,pal,aozoic1 nor can it be       
affirmed to have originated in anything 
different1 or to have produced anything4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4;a,euroa1   
,stenopora exilis 7,dawson74 b1         
,chaetetes tumidus 7,edwards and        
,haine74 ,carboniferous4  ,the true     
,stony ,corals 7,anthozoa7 are as yet   
unknown in the ,cambrian4 ,they entered 
on the stage in immense abundance in the
 ,siluro-,cambrian1 where considerable  
limestones are largely composed of their
 remains1 mixed1 however1 and sometimes 
overpowered with those of ,bryozoa and  
,hydroids4 ,an ordinary coral1 such as  
those of which coral reefs are          
builta,eurothe red coral1 used for      
ornament is not quite similara,eurois   
the skeleton of an animal constructed on

 the plan of a sea anemone2 with a      
central stomach surrounded by radiating 
chambers1 and having above a crown of   
tentacles4 ,the stony coral surrounds   
and protects the soft body of the       
animal1 and may either be a single cell1
 for one animal1 or an aggregation of   
such cells1 constituting a rounded or   
branching mass4 ,the modern star coral1 
represented in ,fig4 #db1 is an instance
 of the latter condition4 ,it shows     
nineteen or twenty animals1 each with a 
central mouth and fringe of short       
tentacles1 aggregated together1 and two 
of them showing the spontaneous division
 by which the number of animals in the  
mass is progressively increased4 ,the   
living coral shows only the soft animals
 and the animal matter connecting them2 
but if dead there would be a white stony
 mass with a star-like cell or          
depression corresponding to each animal4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4                 
#db4;a,euro,living ,anthozoan ,coral    
7,astr,aa74  ,in their general plan1 the

 oldest ,corals were precisely of this  
character1 but they presented some      
differences in detail1 which have caused
 them to be divided into two groups1    
which are eminently characteristic of   
the ,pal,aozoic agea,eurothe tabulate or
 floored corals1 and the rugose or      
wrinkled corals4 ,in the former 7,fig4  
#dc7 the cells are usually small and    
thin-walled1 often hexagonal1 like a    
honeycomb1 and are floored across at    
intervals with tabul,a or horizontal    
plates4 ,a few modern corals present a  
similar arrangement1#ad but this kind of
 structure was far more prevalent in the
 ,pal,aozoic4 ,in the second type the   
animals are usually larger and often    
solitary1 the cell has strongly marked  
radiating plates1 while the horizontal  
floors are absent or subordinate1 and   
there is usually a thick external rind  
or outer coat 7,figs4 #dd1 #de74 ,in    
general plan1 these rugose corals       
closely resemble those of our modern    
reefs2 but they differ in their details 

of structure1 and only a very few modern
 forms from the deep sea are regarded as
 actual modern representatives4#ae ,one 
curious point of difference is that     
their radiating lamin,a begin with four1
 and increase by multiples of that      
number1 while in modern corals the      
numbers are six and multiples of six2 a 
change of mathematical relation not     
easily accounted for1 and which         
assimilates them to ,hydroids on the one
 hand1 and to a higher group1 the       
,alcyonids1 on the other1 both of which 
prefer four and eight to six1 or have   
had these numbers chosen for them4 ,in  
the ,mesozoic period the tabulate and   
rugose corals were replaced by others1  
the porous and solid corals of the      
modern seas2 but1 in so far as we know1 
the animals producing these1 though     
differing in some details1 were neither 
more nor less elevated than their       
predecessors1 and they took up precisely
 the same r,a'le as reef-builders in the
 sea1 though with probably more tendency

 to the accumulation of great masses of 
coral limestone in particular spots4    
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#dc4;a,euro,tabulate ,corals4  a1       
,halisites1 and b1 ,favosites4 ,upper   
,silurian4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#dd4;a,euro,rugose ,coral 7,heliophyllum
 ,halli74 ,devonian4  ,illustration3    
,,fig4 #dd;a4a,euro,zaphrentis prolifica
 7,billings74 ,devonian4  ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #de4;a,euro,rugose ,corals4  a1 
,zaphrentis ,minas 7,dn471 and b1       
,cyathophyllum ,billingsi 7,dn474       
,carboniferous4  ,leaving the corals1 we
 may turn to the sea-stars and          
sea-urchins4 ,these merely put in an    
appearance in the ,early ,cambrian1 but 
become vastly multiplied in the         
,silurian1 where the stalked feather    
stars 7,crinoids7 7,fig4 #df7 seem to   
have covered great areas of sea-bottom1 
and multiplied so rapidly that thick    
sheets of limestone are largely made up 
of the fragments of their skeletons4    
,the ordinary star-fishes appear first  

in the ,silurian 7,fig4 #dg74 ,the      
sea-urchins begin in the ,upper         
,silurian1 the early species having     
numerous and loosely attached plates1   
like some of those now found in the deep
 sea#af 7,fig4 #dh74  ,illustration3    
,,fig4 #df4;a,euro,modern ,crinoid      
7,rhisocrinus ,lofotensis74a,euro,after 
,sars4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4           
#dg4;a,euro,pal,aaster ,niagarensis     
7,hall74 ,one of the oldest star fishes4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4                 
#dh4;a,euro,pal,achinus ellipticus      
7,mc,coy74 ,one of the oldest types of  
sea-urchins4  ,the most curious history 
in this group is that of the            
feather-stars4 ,in the ,early ,cambrian 
they are represented by a few species   
known to us only in fragments1 and these
 belong to a humble group 7,cystideans7 
resembling the larval or immature       
condition of the higher ,crinoids4 ,fig4
 #di shows one of these animals of      
somewhat later age4 ,they have few or   
rudimentary arms and short stalks1 and  

want the beautiful radial symmetry of   
the typical star-fishes4 ,in the        
,silurian these creatures are reinforced
 by a vast number of beautiful and      
perfect feather-stars 7,figs4 #ej1 #ea74
 ,these continue to increase in number  
and beauty1 and apparently culminate in 
the ,mesozoic1 where gigantic forms     
exist1 some of them probably having more
 complicated skeletons1 in so far as    
number of distinct parts is concerned1  
than any other animals4 ,buckland has   
calculated that in a crinoid similar to 
that in ,fig4 #eb there are no less than
 #aej1jjj little bones1 and #cjj1jjj    
contractile bundles of fibres to move   
them4 ,in the modern seas the           
feather-stars have somewhat dwindled    
both in numbers and complexity1 and are 
mostly confined to the depths of the    
ocean4 ,on the other hand1 the various  
types of ordinary star-fishes and       
sea-urchins have increased in number and
 importance4 ,we thus find in this group
 a certain advance and improvement from 

the ,cystideans of the ,early           
,pal,aozoic to the sea-urchins and their
 allies4 ,this advance is not1 however1 
along one line for the ,cystideans      
continue unimproved to the end4 ,the    
,crinoids culminate in the ,mesozoic1   
and are not known to give origin to     
anything higher4 ,the star-fishes and   
sea-urchins commence independently1     
before the culmination of the ,crinoids1
 and1 though greatly increased in number
 and variety1 still adhere very closely 
to their original types4  ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #di4;a,euro,pleurocystites      
squamosus4 ,siluro-,cambrian4 ,after    
,billings4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#ej4;a,euro,heterocrinus simplex        
7,meek74 ,one of the least complex      
crinoids of that period4                
,siluro-,cambrian4  ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #ea4;a,euro,body of              
,glyptocrinus4 ,siluro-,cambrian4  ,the 
great sub-kingdom of the ,mollusca1     
including the bivalve and univalve      
shell-fishes1 makes its first appearance

 in the ,cambrian1 where its earliest   
representatives belong to a group1 the  
,arm-bearers or ,lamp shells            
7,brachiopods71 held by some to be      
allied to worms as much as to mollusks4 
,the oldest of all these shells are     
allies of the modern ,lingul,a 7,fig4   
#ed71 some of the earliest of which are 
shown in ,fig4 #ee4 ,the modern ,lingula
 is protected by a delicate two-valved  
shell1 composed1 unlike that of most    
other mollusks1 of phosphate of lime or 
bone earth4 ,it lives on sand-banks1    
attached by its long flexible stalk1    
which it buries like a root in the      
bottom4 ,its food consists of           
microscopic organisms1 drifted to its   
mouth by cilia placed on two arm-like   
processes1 from which the group derives 
its name4 ,in the modern world about one
 hundred species of ,brachiopods are    
known1 belonging to about twenty genera1
 some of which differ considerably from 
the ,lingul,a4 ,the genus ,terebratula1 
represented at ,fig4 #ef1 is one of the 

most common modern as well as fossil    
forms1 and has the valves unequal1 with 
a round opening in one of them for the  
stalk1 which is attached to some hard   
object1 and there is an internal shelly 
loop for supporting the arms4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#eb4;a,euro,extracrinus ,briareus4      
,reduced4 ,jurassic4  ,illustration3    
,,fig4 #ec4;a,euro,pentacrinus          
caput-medus,a4 ,reduced4 ,modern4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ed4;a,euro,lingula anatina4 ,with      
flexible muscular stalk4 ,modern4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ee4;a,euro,cambrian and ,silurian      
,lingul,a4  a1 ,lingulella ,matthewi    
7,hartt74 ,acadian group4 b1 ,lingula   
quadrata 7,hall74 ,siluro-,cambrian4 c1 
,lingulella prima 7,hall74 ,potsdam4 d1 
,lingulella antiqua 7,hall74 ,potsdam4  
,these curious1 and in the modern seas1 
exceptional shells1 were dominant in the
 ,pal,aozoic period4 ,upwards of three  
thousand fossil species are known1 of   

which a large proportion belong to the  
,cambrian and ,silurian1 nine genera    
appearing in the ,cambrian1 and no less 
than fifty-two in the ,silurian4 ,the   
history of these creatures is very      
remarkable4 ,the ,lingul,a1 which are   
the first to appear1 continue unchanged 
and with the same phosphatic shells to  
the present day4 ,morse1 who has        
carefully studied an ,american species1 
remarks in illustration of this1 that it
 is exceedingly tenacious of life1      
bearing much change of depth1           
temperature1 etc41 without being        
destroyed4 ,the genus ,discina1 which is
 nearly as old1 also continues          
throughout geological time4 ,the genus  
,orthis 7,fig4 #eg71 which appears at   
the same time with the last1 becomes    
vastly abundant in ,silurian times1 but 
dies out altogether before the end of   
the ,pal,aozoic4 ,rhynchonella 7,fig4   
#eh71 which comes in a little later1    
near the beginning of the               
,siluro-,cambrian1 continues to this    

day4 ,spirifer and ,productus 7,figs4   
#ei and #fj7 appear later1 and die out  
at the close of the ,pal,aozoic4 ,so    
strange and inscrutable are the fortunes
 of these animals1 which on the whole   
have lost in the battle of life1 that   
their place in nature is vastly less    
important than it was4 ,it has been     
suggested that if any group of creatures
 could throw light upon the theory of   
descent with modification1 it would be  
these2 but ,davidson1 who has perhaps   
studied them more thoroughly than any   
other naturalist1 found them as silent  
on the subject as the sponges or the    
corals4 ,in a series of papers published
 in the ,geological ,magazine1 a short  
time before his death1 he remarked as   
follows3  ,illustration3 ,,fig4         
#ef4;a,euro,terebratula sacculus        
7,martin74 ,carboniferous4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#eg4;a,euro,brachiopods2 genus ,orthis4 
a1 ,o4 ,billingsi 7,hartt74 ,lower      
,cambrian4 b1 ,o4 pectinella 7,hall74   

,siluro-,cambrian4 c1 ,o4 lynx          
7,eichwald74 ,siluro-,cambrian4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#eh4;a,euro,rhynchonella increbrescens  
7,hall74 ,siluro-,cambrian4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ei4;a,euro,spirifer mucronatus         
7,conrad74 ,devonian4  ,illustration3   
,,fig4 #ei;a4a,euro,athyris subtilita   
7,hall74 ,carboniferous4  a1 b1         
,exteriors4 c1 ,interior1 showing       
spirals4  a,eurooe,we find that the     
large number of genera made their first 
appearance during the ,pal,aozoic       
periods1 and since they have been       
decreasing in number to the present     
period4 ,we will leave out of question  
the species1 for they vary so little    
that it is often very difficult to trace
 really good distinctive characters     
between them2 it is different with the  
genera1 as they are1 or should be1      
founded on much greater and more        
permanent distinctions4 ,thus1 for      
example1 the family ,spiriferid,a       

includes genera which are all           
characterised by a calcified spiral     
lamina for the support of the brachial  
appendages2 and1 however varied these   
may be1 they always retain the          
distinctive characters of the group from
 their first appearance to their        
extinction4 ,the ,brachiopodist labours 
under the difficulties of not being able
 to determine what are the simplest1 or 
which are the highest families into     
which either of the two great groups of 
his favourite class is divided2 so far1 
then1 he is unable to point out any     
evidence favouring progressive          
development in it4 ,but1 confining      
himself to species1 he sees often before
 him great varietal changes1 so much so 
as to make it difficult for him to      
define the species2 and it leads him to 
the belief that such groups were not of 
independent origin1 as was universally  
thought before ,darwin published his    
great work on the ,origin of ,species4  
,but in this respect the ,brachiopoda   

reveal nothing more than other groups of
 the organic kingdoms4  ,illustration3  
,,fig4 #fj4;a,euro,productus cora       
7,da,euro7,,tm7,orbigny74               
,carboniferous4  a,eurooe,now1 although 
certain genera1 such as ,terebratula1   
,rhynchonella1 ,crania1 and ,discina1   
have enjoyed a very considerable        
geological existence1 there are genera1 
such as ,stringocephalus1 ,uncites1     
,porambonites1 ,koninckina1 and several 
others1 which made their appearance very
 suddenly and without any warning2 after
 a while they disappeared in a similar  
abrupt manner1 having enjoyed a         
comparatively short existence4 ,they are
 all possessed of such marked and       
distinctive internal characters that we 
cannot trace between them and associated
 or synchronous genera any evidence of  
their being either modifications of one 
or the other1 or of being the result of 
descent with modification4 ,therefore1  
although far from denying the           
possibility or probability of the       

correctness of the ,darwinian theory1 ,i
 could not conscientiously affirm that  
the ,brachiopoda1 as far as ,i am at    
present acquainted with them1 would be  
of much service in proving it4 ,the     
subject is worthy of the continued and  
serious attention of every well-informed
 man of science4 ,the sublime ,creator  
of the universe has bestowed on him a   
thinking mind2 therefore all that can be
 discovered is legitimate4 ,science has 
this advantage1 that it is continually  
on the advance1 and is ever ready to    
correct its errors when fresh light or  
new discoveries make such               
necessary4a,euro ,the late ,joachim     
,barrande1 the great pal,aontologist of 
,bohemia1 bears similar testimony4      
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4;a,euro,group 
of ,older ,pal,aozoic                   
,lamellibranchs4a,euro,after ,billings4 
#a1 ,cucullea opima4 #b1 ,nucula        
oblonga4 #c1 ,nucula lineata4 #d1       
,cypricardia truncata4 #e1 ,tellina     
ovata4 #f1 ,nucula bellatula4 #g1       

,modiola concentrica4  ,the ordinary    
bivalves1 like the mussels and cockles1 
now so very plentiful on our coasts1 are
 rare in the ,cambrian and ,silurian1   
and for the first time make a somewhat  
conspicuous appearance in the ,upper    
,silurian and ,devonian4 ,but from the  
first they resemble very closely their  
modern successors1 though on the whole  
neither so large nor so ornate 7,fig4   
#fa74 ,their fortunes have thus been    
precisely the opposite of those of the  
,brachiopods1 though in neither case is 
there very marked elevation or          
deterioration in the individual animals4
 ,a very similar statement may be made  
as to the sea-snails1 whether the       
curious winged snails 7,pteropods7 or   
the ordinary crawlers 7,gastropods74    
,the former come in early1 and are      
represented by ,pal,aozoic forms finer  
than any now extant4 ,the genus         
,conularia 7,fig4 #fb7 presents some    
,silurian species six inches or more in 
length1 which are giants in comparison  

with any now living4 ,the forms of more 
ordinary ,gastropods from the ,silurian 
represented in ,fig4 #fc will suffice to
 show that their styles are not very    
dissimilar from those still extant4#ag  
,as in the case of the ordinary         
bivalves1 however1 the modern           
,gastropods much exceed in numbers and  
magnitude those of the ,pal,aozoic4     
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#fb4;a,euro,conularia planicostata      
7,dn474 ,a ,carboniferous ,pteropod4    
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#fc4;a,euro,silurian ,sea-snails4       
,canada4  a1 ,murchisonia bicincta      
7,hall74 b1 ,pleurotomaria umbilicatula 
7,hall74 c1 ,murchisonia gracilis       
7,hall74 d1 ,bellerophon sulcatinus     
7,billings74  ,the highest group of     
,mollusks1 represented in the modern    
ocean by the ,nautili and               
,cuttle-fishes1 has a history so strange
 and eventful1 and so different from    
what might have been anticipated1 that  
it perhaps deserves a more detailed     

notice1 more especially as ,barrande has
 recently directed marked attention to  
it in his magnificent work on the       
,pal,aontology of ,bohemia4  ,the       
,cuttle-fishes and ,squids and their    
allies are1 in the modern seas1 a most  
important group 7,fig4 #fd74 ,the great 
numbers in which the smaller species    
appear on many coasts1 and the immense  
size and formidable character of others2
 their singular apparatus of arms1      
bearing suckers1 their strange forms1   
and the inky secretion with which they  
can darken the water1 have at all times 
attracted popular attention4 ,the great 
complexity of their structures1 and the 
fact that in many points they stand     
quite at the head of the invertebrates  
of the sea1 and approach most nearly to 
the elevation of the true fishes1 have  
secured to them the attention of        
naturalists4 ,some of these animals have
 shelly internal supports1 and one      
genus1 that of the ,argonauts1 or ,paper
 ,nautili1 has an external protective   

shell4 ,allied1 though more distantly1  
to the ,cuttle-fishes1 are the true     
,nautili1 represented in the modern sea 
principally by the ,pearly ,nautilus1   
though there are two other species1 both
 of them very rare4 ,the modern pearly  
nautilus 7,fig4 #fe7 may be regarded as 
a peculiar kind of cuttle-fish provided 
with a discoidal shell for protection1  
and also for floatage4 ,the shell is    
divided into a number of chambers by    
partitions4 ,of these the animal        
inhabits the last and largest4 ,the     
others are empty1 and are connected with
 the body of the animal only by a pipe1 
or siphuncle1 with membranous walls and 
filled with fluid4 ,thus provided1 the  
nautilus1 when in the water1 has        
practically no weight1 and can move up  
or down in the sea with the greatest    
facility1 using its sucker-bearing arms 
and horny beak to seize and devour the  
animals on which it preys4 ,the buoyancy
 of the shell seems exactly adapted to  
the weight of the animal2 and this      

proportion is kept up by the addition of
 new air-chambers as the body increases 
in size4 ,in the modern seas this       
singular little group stands entirely   
isolated1 and its individuals are so    
rare that it is difficult to procure    
perfect specimens for collections1      
though its mechanical structure and     
advantages for the struggle for         
existence seem of the highest order4    
,but in the old world of past geological
 time the case was altogether different4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4                 
#fd4;a,euro,squid 7,loligo74            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4;a,euro,pearly
 ,nautilus 7,nautilus pompilius74  a1   
,mantle4 b1 ,its dorsal fold4 c1 ,hood4 
o1 ,eye4 t1 ,tentacles4 f1 ,funnel4 g1  
,air chambers4 h1 ,siphuncle4  ,the     
,nautiloid shell-fishes burst suddenly  
upon us in the beginning of the         
,siluro-,cambrian1 or ,lower ,silurian1 
,barrandea,euro7,,tm7s second fauna2 and
 this applies to all the countries where
 they have been studied4 ,in this       

formation alone about #dej species are  
known1 and in the ,silurian these       
increase to #a1bjj2 and here the group  
culminates4 ,it returns in the ,devonian
 to about the same number with the      
,lower ,silurian1 diminishes in the     
,carboniferous to #cej1 and in the      
,mesozoic1 where the ,nautiloid forms   
are replaced by others of the type of   
the ,ammonites1 becomes largely reduced4
 ,in the ,tertiary there are but        
nineteen species1 and1 as already       
stated1 in the modern world three4      
,these statements do not1 however1      
represent the whole truth4 ,in the      
,pal,aozoic1 in addition to the genus   
,nautilus1 we have a great number of    
other genera1 some with perfectly       
straight shells1 like ,orthoceras 7,fig4
 #ff71 others bent 7,cyrtoceras71 others
 differing in the style of siphuncle1 or
 aperture1 or chambers 7,endoceras1     
,gomphoceras1 ,lituites1 ,figs4 #fg to  
#fi71 or inflated into sac-like forms   
7,ascoceras74 ,there is1 besides1 the   

family of the ,goniatid,a 7,fig4 #gj71  
with the chambers thrown into angular   
folds and the siphuncle at the back4    
,further1 some of the early forms1 as   
the ,orthoceratid,a1 attain to gigantic 
dimensions1 being six feet or more in   
length1 and nearly a foot in diameter4  
,thus the idea that we should naturally 
form from the study of the ,nautilus1   
that it represents a type suited for    
much more varied and important          
adaptations than those that we now see1 
is more than realised in those          
,pal,aozoic ages when these animals seem
 to have been the lords of the seas4    
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ff4;a,euro,orthoceras4                 
,siluro-,cambrian4 ,the dotted line     
shows the position of the siphuncle4    
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#fg4;a,euro,gomphoceras4  ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #fh4;a,euro,lituites4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#fi4;a,euro,nautilus ,avonensis 7,dn474 
,carboniferous4  a1 ,shell1 reduced4 b1 

,section1 showing siphuncle4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#gj4;a,euro,goniatites crenistria       
7,philips74 ,carboniferous4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ga4;a,euro,ceratites nodosus           
7,schloth74 ,triassic4  ,when we leave  
the ,pal,aozoic and enter the ,mesozoic1
 though the ,nautiloid shells still     
abound1 we find them superseded1 in     
great part1 by a nobler form1 that of   
the ,ammonitid,a 7,figs4 #ga1 #gb74     
,these are remarkable for the ornate    
markings on the surfaces of their       
shells1 and for the beautifully waved   
edges of the partitions 7,fig4 #gb;a71  
which1 by giving a much more complete   
support to the sides of the shell1 must 
have contributed greatly to the union of
 lightness and strength so important to 
the utility of the shell as a float4    
,this type admits of all the same       
variety of straight1 bent1 and curled   
forms with the simpler ,nautiloid type1 
and some of the species are of great    

size1 ,ammonites being known three feet 
or more in diameter4 ,these animals1    
unknown in the ,pal,aozoic1 appear in   
numerous species in the ,early          
,mesozoic1 culminate in hundreds of     
beautiful species in the middle of that 
era1 and disappear for ever at its      
close1 leaving no modern successors4    
,many and beautiful species of          
,ammonites and their allies have been   
obtained from the ,mesozoic rocks of    
,british ,columbia and other parts of   
the west coast of ,north ,america1      
perfectly representing this group as it 
occurs at the same period in ,europe1   
and closely resembling the ,mesozoic    
,ammonites of ,india4 ,these animals    
have all perished1 yet the ,atlantic and
 the ,pacific roll between1 apparently  
with conditions as favourable for their 
comfortable existence as those of any   
previous time4 ,they perished long ago1 
at the dawn of the ,tertiary2 yet the   
genus ,nautilus1 one of the oldest and  
least improved of the whole1 survived1  

and still testifies to the wonderful    
contrivance embodied in these animals4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#gb4;a,euro,ammonites ,jason            
7,reinecke74 ,jurassic4  ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #gb;a4a,euro,suture of ,ammonites
 componens 7,meek71 of ,british         
,columbia4 ,showing the complicated     
folding of the edges of the chambers to 
give strength to the shell4 ,cretaceous4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4                 
#gc4;a,euro,cretaceous ,ammonitid,a4  a1
 ,baculites4 b1 ,ancyloceras4 c1        
,crioceras4 d1 ,turrilites4  ,these are 
merely general considerations1 but      
,barrande1 in his ,atudes               
,,ga7,c7n,a7,c7rales1 goes much farther4
 ,he sums up all the known facts in the 
most elaborate manner1 considering first
 the embryonic characters of the shell  
in the different genera1 then their     
distribution in space and time1 then all
 the different parts and characters of  
the shells in the different             
groupsa,eurothe whole with reference to 

any possible derivation of the species2 
and he finds that all leads to the      
result that in every respect these      
shells seem to have been so introduced  
as to make any theory of evolution with 
respect to them altogether untenable4   
,in his concluding sentence this        
greatest of ,pal,aozoic pal,aontologists
 affirms that1 a,eurooe,the theoretical 
evolution of the ,cephalopods is1 like  
that of the ,trilobites1 a mere figment 
of imagination1 without any foundation  
in fact4a,euro#ah  ,illustration3 ,,fig4
 #gd4;a,euro,belemnite4a,euro,after     
,philips4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4        
#gd;a4a,euro,belemnoteuthis antiquus4   
,supposed to be a ,belemnite1 with soft 
parts                                   
preserved4a,euro,jurassic4a,euro,after  
,mantell4  ,i have reserved no space to 
notice the geological history of the    
other and higher group of ,cephalopods1 
including the true ,cuttles and ,squids4
 ,this is perhaps less to be regretted1 
as1 from the absence of external shells1

 they are likely to be much less        
perfectly known as fossils4 ,so far as  
known1 they are vastly younger than the 
,nautiloids1 for no examples whatever   
have been found in the ,pal,aozoic4     
,they appear abundantly in the          
,mesozoic1 but are there represented    
principally by an extinct group of      
squids 7,belemnites and their allies1   
,figs4 #gd1 #gd;a71 remarkable for the  
great and complicated development of    
their internal support1 which has a     
chambered float as well as a solid      
sheath4 ,this family becomes extinct at 
the close of the ,mesozoic1 though the  
cuttles as a whole perhaps culminate in 
the modern4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#ge4;a,euro,cambrian ,trilobites4  a1   
,paradoxides4 b1 ,dikellocephalus4 c1   
,conocoryphe 7head74 d1 ,agnostus 7head 
and tail74  ,the remarkable group of the
 ,trilobites had precedence in order of 
time of the ,nautiloid shell-fishes4 ,no
 animal structures can well be more     
dissimilar than those of the two great  

groups of aquatic animals which popular 
speech confounds under the name of      
a,eurooeshell-fishes4a,euro ,take a     
whelk and a crab1 for example1 and      
compare their general forms1 the        
structure of their shells1 and their    
organs of motion1 and it is scarcely    
possible to imagine any two animals more
 unlike2 and when we examine their      
anatomy in detail this difference does  
not diminish4 ,they have1 it is true1   
corresponding parts1 and these parts    
serve similar uses1 but in plan of      
structure they are wholly different4    
,yet both animals may live in the same  
pool1 and may subsist on nearly the same
 food4 ,if we attempt to find some      
common type which both resemble1 we may 
trace the structure of the crab back to 
those of some of the marine worms with  
which it has some affinity1 and those of
 the whelk to such creatures as the     
,lingula1 which are supposed to have a  
resemblance to the worms4 ,but still the
 two types1 that of the ,mollusk and the

 ,articulate1 are distinct even from    
their first appearance in the egg1 nor  
have either any close affinities with   
the ,protozoa1 the ,hydroids1 or the    
,corals4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4         
#gf4;a,euro,transverse section of       
,calymene4 ,a ,silurian                 
,trilobite4a,euro,after ,wolcott4  a1   
,dorsal shell4 b1 ,visceral cavity4 c1  
,legs4 d1 ,epipoditea,eurogill-cleaner  
or palp4 e1 ,spiral gills4  ,both types 
meet us in the ,early ,cambrian1 but    
while the ,mollusk is there represented 
only by low forms1 the ,articulate is   
then not only in the humble guise of the
 worm1 but in the complex and highly    
organised form of the ,trilobite 7,figs4
 #bh and #ge74 ,what older phases they  
may have passed through we know not2 but
 in the ,lower ,cambrian we have various
 forms of these animals1 including some 
of the largest known as well as some of 
the smallest2 some of the most complex  
in number of parts as well as some of   
the simplest4 ,these animals1 in short1 

seem to have appeared at once all over  
the world fully formed1 and in a variety
 of generic and specific forms2 and     
nothing short of a very large faith in  
the imperfection of the geological      
record can suffice to account for their 
evolution4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#gf;a4a,euro,burrows of ,trilobite and  
of modern ,king-crab4 ,the ,trilobite   
burrow is known as ,ruschinites1 and has
 been supposed to be a sea-weed of the  
kind called ,bilobites4  ,a ,trilobite  
is a creature in whose structure the    
number three is dominant4 ,seen from    
above1 it presents three divisions from 
front to rear3a,eurofirst1 a cephalic   
shield or head-piece2 secondly1 a       
thorax1 divided into several segments   
movable upon each other2 and thirdly1 a 
tail-piece or pygidium1 which1 when     
brought against the head by the rolling 
up of the body segments1 effectually    
covers the lower parts4 ,this lower     
portion was until lately little known2  
but the discoveries of ,billings and of 

,wolcott have enabled us to restore the 
jaws under the head1 the jointed legs   
and spiral gills under the thorax1 and  
thus to complete the structure of the   
animal1 and understand better its       
relations to modern crabs and shrimps   
7,fig4 #gf74 ,of these it certainly     
comes nearest to the ,king-crabs and    
,horseshoe-crabs1 a somewhat limited    
group at present1 and one which reaches 
back in geological time only to the     
,upper ,silurian1 when the ,trilobites  
had perhaps already passed their        
culmination4  ,constructed as above     
described1 the ,trilobite could swim1 as
 is supposed1 usually on its back or    
side4 ,it could crawl on the bottom4    
,using its snout as a shovel1 it could  
burrow like a modern ,king-crab 7,fig4  
#gf;a72 and when pressed by danger some 
species could roll themselves into balls
 and defy their enemies4  ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #gg4;a,euro,silurian            
,trilobites4  a1 ,isotelus4 b1          
,homalonotus4 c1 ,calymene4  ,this type 

of animal1 entering on the stage in full
 force in the ,older ,cambrian1         
continues under many forms through the  
whole ,pal,aozoic age1 dying out finally
 in the ,carboniferous4 ,figs4 #gg and  
#gh show a few of the forms of the      
,silurian1 ,devonian1 and               
,carboniferous4  ,contemporaneously with
 the dawn of the ,trilobite group1      
appear some small shrimp-like forms     
7,fig4 #bh71ai and others with bivalve  
shells 7,fig4 #gi71 which are closely   
allied to modern forms1#bj and1 like the
 ,lingul,a1 persist through the         
succeeding formations with little more  
than specific changea,europresenting in 
this a strange contrast to the          
,trilobites4 ,while the latter were     
still flourishing1 about the close of   
the ,lower ,silurian1 a remarkable group
 of large and highly-developed          
creatures1 allied to the ,trilobites1   
but suited for rapid swimming rather    
than creeping1 was introduced2 and in   
the ,upper ,silurian and ,devonian these

 creatures#ba attained to gigantic      
sizes1 exceeding1 probably1 any modern  
,crustaceans1 and were tyrants of the   
seas4 ,pterygotus anglicus 7,fig4 #hj7  
is supposed to have attained the length 
of six feet4 ,yet these noble           
representatives of the ,crustaceans     
became extinct in the ,carboniferous4   
,on the other hand1 a few small         
king-crabs appear in the ,upper         
,silurian1 and this type still          
continues1 and seems to culminate as to 
size in modern times2 so diverse have   
been the fortunes of these various      
groups4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4          
#gh4;a,euro,devonian and ,carboniferous 
,trilobites4  a1 ,phaceps latifrons     
7,bronn74 b1 ,philipsia ,howi           
7,billings7 7tail74  ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #gi4;a,euro,pal,aozoic ,ostracod 
,crustaceans4 ,magnified4  a1 ,bairdia4 
b1 ,cytherella inflata 7,jones74 c1     
,cythere4 ,carboniferous4 d1 ,beyrichia 
,jonesii 7,dn474 ,carboniferous4 e1     
,beyrichia pustulosa 7,hall74 ,silurian4

  ,the higher1 or decapod ,crustaceans1 
now familiar to us in the modern crabs  
and lobsters1 are first found in a few  
small species in the ,devonian#bb and   
,carboniferous1 and they are accompanied
 in the ,devonian by at least one       
species of the allied group of the      
,stomapods 7,figs4 #ha1 #hb74           
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#hj4;a,euro,pterygotus anglicus4        
,reduced4a,euro,after ,page and         
,woodward4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#ha4;a,euro,amphipeltis paradoxus       
7,salter74 ,a ,devonian ,stomapod from  
,new ,brunswick4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#hb4;a,euro,anthropal,amon ,hilliana    
7,dn74 ,a ,carboniferous ,decapod from  
,nova ,scotia4 ,the carapace only4  ,the
 ,pal,aozoic age of geology is thus     
emphatically an age of invertebrates of 
the sea4 ,in this period they were      
dominant in the waters1 and until toward
 its close almost without rivals4 ,we   
shall find1 however1 that in the ,upper 
,silurian1 fishes made their appearance1

 and in the ,carboniferous amphibian    
reptiles1 and that1 before the close of 
the ,pal,aozoic1 vertebrate life in     
these forms had become predominant4 ,we 
shall also see that just as the leading 
groups of ,mollusks and ,crustaceans    
seem to have had no ancestors1 so it is 
with the groups of ,vertebrates which   
take their places4 ,it is also          
interesting to observe that already in  
the ,pal,aozoic all the types of        
invertebrate marine life were as fully  
represented as at present1 and that this
 swarming marine life breaks upon us in 
successive waves as we proceed upward   
from the ,cambrian4 ,thus the progress  
of life is not gradual1 but             
intermittent1 and consists in the sudden
 and rapid influx of new forms destined 
to increase and multiply in the place of
 those which are becoming effete and    
ready to vanish away or to sink to a    
lower place4 ,farther1 since the great  
waves of aquatic life roll in with each 
great subsidence of the land1 a fact    

which coincides with their appearance in
 the limestones of the successive       
periods1 it follows that it is not      
struggle for existence1 but expansion   
under favourable circumstances and the  
opening up of new fields of migration   
that is favourable to the introduction  
of new species4 ,the testimony of       
pal,aontology on this point1 which ,i   
have elsewhere adduced at length1#bc in 
my judgment altogether subverts the     
prevalent theory of a,eurooesurvival of 
the fittest1a,euro and shows that the   
struggle for existence1 so far from     
being a cause of development and        
improvement1 has led only to decay and  
extinction1 whereas the advent of new   
and favourable conditions1 and the      
removal of severe competition1 are the  
circumstances favourable to introduction
 of new and advanced species4 ,this     
testimony of the invertebrates of the   
sea we shall find is confirmed by other 
groups of living beings1 to be noticed  
in the sequel4#bd         99       99   

99       99       99  ,,note4a,euro,the 
term a,eurooe,siluro-,cambrian1a,euro as
 used in this and the next chapter1 is  
synonymous with                         
a,eurooe,ordoviciana,euro of ,lapworth1 
which is now coming into somewhat       
general use4     ,illustration3         
,,cordaites1 ,,of ,,the ,,group ,,of    
,,dory-,,cordaites4 ,,branch            
,,restored4a,euro,after                 
,granda,euro7,,tm7 ,eury4  ,,chapter    
,,iv4  ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,plant      
,,life ,,on ,,the ,,land4   ,if the     
graphite of the ,laurentian rocks was   
derived from vegetable matter1 the      
further question arises1 ,was this      
vegetation of the land1 or of the sea8  
and something may be said on both sides 
of this question4 ,if there were land   
plants in the ,laurentian period1 they  
must have grown either on rocks older   
than the ,laurentian itself1 or on such 
portions of the beds of the latter as   
had been raised out of the sea1 forming 
perhaps swampy flats of newly-made soil4

 ,but we know no rocks older than the   
,laurentian1 and there is no positive   
evidence that any of the beds of that   
formation were other than marine4 ,still
 it is not impossible that some of the  
beds which are now graphitic gneisses   
may originally have been similar to the 
bituminous shales1 coals1 or under-clays
 of the coal formation4 ,the graphite   
occurring in veins1 if of vegetable     
origin1 must have been derived from     
liquid bitumen oozing into fissures2 and
 veins of this kind occur in later      
formations1 both in marine and          
fresh-water beds4 ,the only other       
positive argument which has been adduced
 in favour of the existence of abundant 
land plants in the ,laurentian is that  
of ,dr4 ,sterry ,hunt1 derived from the 
great beds of iron ore1 which it is     
difficult to account for chemically     
except on the hypothesis of the decay in
 the air of great quantities of         
vegetable matter4 ,the question must    
remain in doubt till some one is        

fortunate enough to find portions of the
 ,laurentian carbon retaining traces of 
organic structure4 ,my own observations1
 though somewhat numerous1 allow me only
 to say that the graphite sometimes     
presents fibrous forms1 that it         
occasionally appears as vermicular      
threadsa,eurowhich1 however1 ,i suppose 
to be fillings of canals of             
,eozoona,euroand that in the graphitic  
beds there are occasionally slender     
root-like bodies of a lighter colour    
than the mass2 but none of these        
indications are sufficient to determine 
anything as to its vegetable origin1 or 
the nature of the plants from which it  
may have been derived4  ,in any case1   
the quantity of carbon which has been   
accumulated in the ,laurentian rocks is 
very great4 ,i have measured one bed at 
,buckingham1 on the ,ottawa1 estimated  
to contain #bj per cent4 of carbon1 and 
which is at least eight feet in         
thickness4 ,sir ,william ,logan has     
described another similar bed from ten  

to twelve feet thick1 and more recent   
reports of the ,geological ,survey of   
,canada mention a bed supposed to be    
twenty-five feet thick1 in which ,mr4   
,hoffman finds #cj per cent4 of carbon4 
,on the whole the quantity of carbon in 
the graphitic zone of the ,laurentian is
 comparable with that in certain        
productive coal-fields1 and we certainly
 have in the subsequent geological      
history no examples of such             
accumulations except from remains of the
 luxuriant vegetation of swampy flats4  
,the ,upper ,laurentian and ,huronian   
have as yet afforded no evidence of land
 vegetation4 ,the ,cambrian1 as already 
stated1 abounds in remains of sea-weeds2
 but though the forms which have been   
named ,eophyton have been regarded as   
land plants1 this claim is1 to say the  
least1 very doubtful2 and ,i have as yet
 seen nothing of this kind which did not
 appear to me to be merely markings made
 by objects drifted over the bottom or  
remains of marine plants4 ,yet in the   

,upper ,cambrian there are wide surfaces
 of littoral sandstone often containing 
minute carbonised fragments1 and which  
might be expected to afford indications 
of land vegetation1 had such existed4 ,i
 have myself devoted many days of       
fruitless labour to the examination of  
the large areas of ,potsdam sandstone   
exposed in some parts of ,canada4 ,but  
as these rocks were evidently formed    
along the borders of a ,laurentian      
continent capable of supporting         
vegetation1 we may still hope for some  
discovery of this kind1 more especially 
if we could find the point where some   
fresh-water stream ran into the         
,cambrian sea4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#hc4;a,euro,protannularia ,harknessii   
7,nicholson74 ,a ,siluro-,cambrian      
,plant1 from the ,skiddaw series4  ,the 
oldest plants1 probably higher than     
,alg,a1 known to me by their external   
forms1 are those described by           
,nicholson#be from the ,siluro-,cambrian
 ,skiddaw slates of the north of        

,england 7,fig4 #hc74 ,their discoverer 
has named them ,buthotrephis ,harknessii
 and ,b4 radiata1#bf stating1 however1  
that these two species are not          
improbably portions of the same plant1  
and that its form is rather that of a   
land plant than of an ,alga4 ,the       
specimens of these plants which ,i have 
seen appear to me to support the        
conclusion that they represent one      
species1 and this allied to the         
,annulari,a of the ,devonian and        
,carboniferous periods1 which probably  
grew in shallow water with only their   
upper parts in the air1 and bore whorls 
or verticles of narrow leaves4 ,they    
were either relatives of the            
,marea,euro7,,tm7s-tails1 or of the     
,rhosocarps1 of our modern swamps and   
ponds4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4           
#hd4;a,euro,american ,lower ,silurian   
,plants4a,euro,after ,lesquereux4  a1   
,sphenophyllum prim,avum4 b1            
,protostigma sigillarioides4  ,somewhat 
higher up in the ,lower ,silurian1 in   

the ,cincinnati group of ,america1      
,lesquereux finds objects which he      
refers to the genus ,sphenophyllum1     
which is closely allied to ,annularia   
7,fig4 #hd1 a71 and also a plant which  
he terms ,protostigma 7,fig4 #hd1 b71   
and believes to be the stem of a tree   
allied to the club-mosses4#bg ,he also  
finds minute branching stems1 which he  
refers to the genus ,psilophyton1 to be 
mentioned in the sequel2 but as to these
 ,i have some doubts whether they may   
not be ,zoophytes allied to the         
,graptolites1 rather than plants of that
 genus4 ,these discoveries tend to show 
the probable existence in the           
,siluro-,cambrian of plants representing
 two of the three leading families of   
the higher cryptogams or flowerless     
plants1 namely1 the ,club-mosses and the
 ,marea,euro7,,tm7s-tails4 ,thus land   
vegetation begins with the highest      
members of the lower of the two great   
series into which botanists divide the  
vegetable kingdom4  ,illustration3      

,,fig4 #hf4;a,euro,fragment of outer    
surface of ,glyptodendron of ,claypole4 
,a ,silurian ,tree4  ,if we now turn to 
the ,silurian1 further evidence of land 
vegetation presents itself4 ,near the   
base of this great series1 the club-moss
 family is represented by a plant       
discovered by ,claypole in the ,clinton 
group1 and referred to a new genus      
7,glyptodendron1 ,fig4 #hf74 ,plants of 
this family have also been noticed by   
,barrande in ,bohemia1 and by page in   
,scotland2 and a humble but interesting 
member of the family1 connecting it with
 the pillworts1 ,psilophyton 7,fig4     
#hg71 though more characteristic of the 
,devonian1 has been found in the ,upper 
,silurian both in ,canada and the       
,united ,states4 ,no ,ferns or ,equiseta
 have as yet been found in the          
,silurian2 but in #ahgj ,i recognised in
 some fragments of wood from the ,ludlow
 bone-bed1 in the ,museum of the        
,geological ,survey of ,great ,britain1 
the structure of that curious prototypal

 tree1 to which ,i have given the name  
,nematophyton1 and which was first      
recognised in the ,devonian of          
,gasp,a7,c74 ,since that time ,i have   
found in the ,upper ,silurian beds of   
,cape ,bon ,ami1 in ,new ,brunswick1    
similar fragments of fossil wood1       
associated with round seed-like bodies1 
having a central nucleus and a thick    
wall or test of radiating fibres4 ,these
 bodies show a structure similar to that
 of those found in the ,upper ,ludlow of
 ,england1 and described by ,hooker     
under the name ,pachytheca4 ,in my      
judgment they are certainly true        
seeds4#bh ,seeds of this kind have also 
been found by ,hicks in the still older 
,denbighshire grits of ,north ,wales1   
along with fragments of the wood of     
,nematophyton1 and with remains of      
branching stems which have been         
described under the name ,berwynia1     
though it is not unlikely that they     
represent the branches of ,nematophyton4
 ,it is proper to add that these ancient

 vegetable fossils are regarded by some 
,english botanists as gigantic alg,a or 
sea-weeds1 but ,i confess ,i am unable  
to adopt this view of their nature4 ,the
 supposed fern of the ,upper ,silurian1 
figured in the first edition of this    
work1 has proved on further examination 
to be merely an imitative form produced 
by crystallisation4 ,on the other hand1 
the recent discovery of a cockroach and 
two species of ,scorpion in the         
,silurian1 proves the existence of land 
animals as well as plants at this       
period4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4          
#hg4;a,euro,psilophyton princeps 7,dn47 
,silurian and ,devonian4 ,restored4  a1 
,fruit1 natural size4 b1 ,stem1 natural 
size4 c1 ,scalariform tissue of the     
axis1 highly magnified4 ,in the         
restoration one side is represented in  
vernation1 and the other in fruit4  ,it 
is probable that these discoveries      
represent merely a small proportion of  
the plants actually existing in the     
,silurian period4 ,all the deposits of  

this age at present known to us are     
marine2 and most of them were probably  
formed at a distance from land1 so that 
it is little likely that land plants    
could find their way into them4 ,at any 
time the discovery of an estuarine or   
lacustrine deposit of ,silurian age     
might wonderfully extend our knowledge  
of this ancient flora4  ,the ,devonian  
or ,erian age1 that of the classic ,old 
,red ,sandstone of ,scotland1 is that in
 which we find the first great and      
complete land flora2 and though this is 
inferior in number of species to that of
 the succeeding ,carboniferous1 and     
greatly less important with reference to
 its practical bearing on our welfare1  
it is in some respects superior in that 
variety which depends on diversity of   
soil and of station4 ,to appreciate     
this1 it will be necessary to glance at 
the range and subdivisions of the modern
 flora4  ,in the modern world we divide 
all vegetation into two great series1   
that of the ,flowering ,plants          

7,ph,anogams71 which also produce true  
fruits and seeds1 and that of the       
,flowerless ,plants 7,cryptogams71 which
 produce minute spores instead of seeds4
 ,the latter is in every respect the    
lower group4 ,this lower series is again
 divisible into three classesa,eurofirst
 and lowest1 that of the ,seaweeds1     
,moulds1 and ,lichens 7,thallophytes74  
,secondly1 that of the ,mosses and their
 allies 7,anophytes74 ,thirdly1 that of 
the ,ferns1 ,equisetums and ,club-mosses
 7,acrogens74 ,in like manner the       
second1 or higher series is divisible   
into three classes3 that of the ,pines  
and ,cycads 7,gymnosperms71 having naked
 seeds not covered by true fruits1 and  
woody tissue of simple structure2 that  
of the ,palms and ,grasses and their    
allies 7,endogens72 and last and        
highest1 that of the ordinary timber    
trees and other plants allied to them1  
with exogenous stems1 netted-veined     
leaves1 and a two-leaved embryo         
7,exogens74 ,these last are in every    

respect the dominant plants on our      
present continents4 ,carrying with us   
this twofold division of the vegetable  
kingdom and its subdivisions1 we shall  
be prepared to understand the relation  
of the more ancient floras to that now  
living4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4          
#hh4;a,euro,trunk of a ,devonian        
,tree-fern 7,caulopteris ,lockwoodi1    
,dn474 ,gilboa1 ,new ,york4 ,one-third  
natural size4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#hi4;a,euro,frond of ,arch,aopteris     
,jacksoni 7,dn474 ,devonian1 of ,maine4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ij4;a,euro,portion of a branch of      
,leptophleum rhombicum 7,dn474 ,a       
,lycopodiaceous tree of the ,devonian of
 ,maine4 ,natural size4  ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #ia4;a,euro,calamites radiatus   
7,brongniart74 ,middle ,devonian of ,n4 
,brunswick4  ,in the ,devonian age we   
meet with no land plants of the two     
lower classes of the ,cryptogams1 and   
with scarcely any that can be referred  
to the two higher classes of            

,ph,anogams1 so that the vegetation of  
this period presents a remarkable       
character of mediocrity1 being composed 
almost entirely of the highest class of 
the flowerless plants and the lowest    
class of those that flower4 ,of the     
former there are ,tree-ferns and vast   
numbers of herbaceous forms 7,figs4 #hh1
 #hi71 great ,lycopodiaceous plants1    
immensely better developed than those   
now existing 7,fig4 #ij71 and gigantic  
,calamites1 allied to the               
,maresa,euro7,,tm7-tails 7,fig4 #ia71   
along with humbler members of the same  
group 7,fig4 #ie74 ,of the latter there 
were ,pines of great stature1 known to  
us at present only by their wood 7,fig4 
#ib72 and that other allied trees       
existed we have evidence in numerous    
seeds which must have belonged to this  
class 7,fig4 #ic71 and in long flag-like
 leaves#bi which modern discoveries     
would refer to the same group4 ,as yet  
we know no ,devonian ,palms or ,grasses2
 and only a single specimen has been    

found indicating the existence of a     
plant of the highest vegetable class1   
that of the true exogens4 ,this unique  
specimen1 found by ,hall in the         
,devonian of the shores of ,lake ,erie1 
is a fragment of mineralised wood1 the  
structures of which are represented in  
,fig4 #id4 ,the large ducts seen in     
cross section in ,nos4 #a1 #b1 and #c1  
and in longitudinal section in ,nos4 #d 
and #e1 and the medullary rays1 seen in 
,nos4 #a1 #d1 and #f1 testify to the    
fact that this chip of wood must have   
belonged to a tree of the same type     
which contains our oaks1 maples1 and    
poplars2 a type which does not appear to
 have become dominant till near the     
close of the ,mesozoic1 but which       
already existed1 though perhaps only in 
few species1 and only in upland and     
inland positions1 as far back as the    
,middle ,devonian4 ,perhaps one of the  
most interesting discoveries in the     
,erian or ,devonian rocks has been that 
of the immense abundance of spores of   

those humble plants the ,rhizocarps1    
represented in modern times by the      
,pillworts and ,salvini,a1 c4 ,to these 
it is believed that ,sphenophyllum and  
,psilophyton were allied2 but in        
addition to this there are thick and    
vastly extended beds of bituminous shale
 which owe their inflammable properties 
to countless multitudes of ,macrospores 
7,sporangites7 of the genus             
,protosalvinia4#cj ,in ,ohio there are  
beds of this kind #cej feet thick1 and  
extending across the ,state4 ,they occur
 also in ,canada1 where these forms were
 first recognised by the writer in the  
bituminous shale of ,kettle ,point1     
,lake ,huron4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#ib4;a,euro,a ,devonian ,taxine ,conifer
 7,dadoxylon ouangondianum1 ,dn474 ,st4 
,john1 ,new ,brunswick4  ,a1 ,fragment  
showing ,sternbergia pith and wood2 a1  
,medullary sheath2 b1 ,pith2 c1 ,wood2  
d1 ,section of pith4  ,b1 ,wood cell a1 
and hexagonal areole and pore b4  ,c1   
,longitudinal section of wood1 showing  

a1 ,areolation1 and b1 ,medullary rays4 
,d1 ,transverse section showing a1      
,wood-cells1 and b1 ,limit of layer of  
growth4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4          
#ic4;a,euro,group of ,devonian ,fruits1 
c4 ,middle ,devonian1 ,new ,brunswick4  
,a1 ,cardiocarpum cornutum4   ,b1       
,cardiocarpum acutum4   ,c1             
,cardiocarpum ,crampii4   ,d1           
,cardiocarpum ,baileyi4   ,e1           
,trigonocarpum racemosum4   ,,ea1 ,,ea  
squared1 ,fruits enlarged4   ,f1        
,antholithes ,devonicus4   ,,fa1 ,fruit 
of the same4   ,g1 ,annularia acuminata4
   ,h1 ,asterophyllites acicularis4     
,,ha1 ,leaf4   ,k1 ,cardiocarpum4 78    
young of ,a47   ,l1 ,pinnularia         
dispalans4  ,from ,acadian ,geology4    
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#id4;a,euro,structures of the           
oldest-known ,angiospermous ,exogen     
7,syringoxylon mirabile1 ,dn474 ,from   
,eighteen-mile ,creek1 ,lake ,erie4     
#a1 ,transverse section x #ajj4   #b and
 #c1 ,portions of the same x #cjj4   #d1

 ,longitudinal section x #cjj4   #e1    
,fragment of duct from the same x #fjj4 
#f1 ,wood cells and medullary ray x     
#fjj4  ,the ,devonian flora seems to    
have been introduced in the northern    
parts of the ,american continent at a   
time of warm and equable climate1 and of
 elevation of new land out of the       
,silurian sea4 ,it spread itself to the 
southward1 and was finally destroyed in 
the great subsidences and disturbances  
which closed the ,devonian age1 and     
which were probably accompanied with    
refrigeration of climate4 ,it was       
succeeded by the more massive and       
richer1 but more monotonous flora of the
 ,carboniferous1 a period in which large
 areas of our continents were in the    
state of swampy and often submerged     
flats1 and in which the climate was     
again warm and uniform4  ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #ie4;a,euro,asterophyllites      
parvula 7,dn471 and ,sphenophyllum      
antiquum 7,dn474 ,middle ,devonian1 ,new
 ,brunswick4  ,the ,carboniferous age   

was1 even more emphatically than the    
,devonian1 an age of ,acrogens and      
,conifers4 ,a few ,carboniferous ,fungi 
have recently been discovered1 but there
 are no known ,lichens or ,mosses4      
,there seem to be a few ,endogens1 but  
no true ,exogens4 ,the great bulk of the
 plants consists of ,acrogens and       
,gymnosperms1 as in the previous period4
 ,as this flora is so very important and
 so much better known than any other of 
those belonging to the infancy of the   
vegetable kingdom1 we may notice a      
little in detail some of its leading    
forms4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4           
#if4;a,euro,calamites4 ,carboniferous4  
,a1 ,c4 ,suckovii4 ,b1 ,c4 ,cistii      
7,bt474 ,c1 ,base of ,calamites4 ,d1 ,e1
 ,structures4  ,from ,acadian ,geology4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ig4;a,euro,carboniferous ,ferns4    ,a1
 ,odontopteris subcuneata 7,bunbury74   
,b1 ,neuropteris cordata 7,brongniart74 
,c1 ,alethopteris tonchitica            
7,brongniart74  ,beginning with the     

,maresa,euro7,,tm7-tails1 we find these 
represented in the ,carboniferous by    
many gigantic species1 attaining to     
almost tree-like dimensions 7,fig4 #if74
 ,these are the ,calamites1 which formed
 dense brakes and jungles on the margins
 of the great swampy flats of this      
period4 ,their tall stems1 ribbed and   
jointed1 bore whorls of leaves or       
branchlets4 ,sending out horizontal     
root-stocks and budding out from the    
base1 they grew in great clumps1 and had
 the capacity to resist the effects of  
accumulating sediment by constantly     
sending out new stems at higher and     
higher levels4 ,the larger species      
assumed a complexity in the structure of
 their stems unknown in their modern    
congeners1 and enabling them to grow to 
a great height2#ca but their foliage and
 fructification were not correspondingly
 advanced4 ,thus the family of the      
,equisetace,a culminated in the         
,carboniferous1 and thenceforth         
descended gradually in the succeeding   

ages1 leaving the comparatively humble  
,maresa,euro7,,tm7-tails and ,scouring  
,rushes as its present representatives4 
,the ,ferns of the ,carboniferous1 like 
those of the ,devonian1 presented both  
gigantic forms like those of the        
tree-ferns of the modern tropics1 and   
delicate herbaceous species1 and these  
in great profusion4 ,on the whole1 they 
do not strike the observer as very      
dissimilar from those of modern times4  
,a more critical examination1 however1  
shows that the bulk of the tree-ferns of
 the ,devonian and ,carboniferous are   
allied not to the ,polypod type1 which  
is the most common at present1 but to   
certain comparatively rare southern     
ferns1 the ,marattias and their allies1 
characterised by a peculiar style of    
fructification1 perhaps adapting them to
 a moist and warm atmosphere 7,fig4     
#ig74cb ,thus the ferns1 while a        
wonderfully persistent type1 were in    
their grander forms far more widely     
distributed in the ,carboniferous than  

at present2 and genera now comparatively
 rare1 and limited to warm and moist    
climates1 were then abundant1 and ranged
 over those temperate and boreal regions
 of the ,northern ,hemisphere where only
 a few humble and hardy species can now 
subsist4 ,there were also some          
remarkable and anomalous tree-ferns1 of 
which that represented in ,fig4 #ih is  
an example4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#ih4;a,euro,carboniferous ,tree-ferns4  
,a1 ,megaphyton magnificum 7,dn474   ,c1
 ,pal,aopteris ,hartii 7,dn474   ,d1 ,p4
 ,acadica 7,dn474  ,the family of the   
,club-mosses1 already1 even in the      
,devonian1 in advance of its modern     
development1 experiences in the         
,carboniferous a remarkable and         
portentous extension into great trees of
 several genera and many species1       
constituting apparently extensive       
forests1 and having the woody tissues of
 their stems developed to a degree      
unheard of in their present             
representatives 7,fig4 #ii74 ,further1  

they become closely linked1 in external 
form at least1 with another and more    
advanced type1 that of the ,sigillari,a4
 ,these remarkable trees were the most  
abundant of all in the swamps of the    
coal-formation1 and probably those which
 most contributed to the accumulation of
 coal4 ,they presented tall pillar-like 
trunks1 often ribbed longitudinally1 and
 with perpendicular rows of scars of    
fallen leaves4 ,dividing at top into a  
few thick branches1 they were covered   
with long rigid grass-like foliage4     
,their fruit was borne in rings or      
whorls of spikes surrounding the        
branches at intervals 7,fig4 #ajj74     
,their roots were strangely symmetrical1
 spreading out like underground branches
 into the soft soil by a regular process
 of bifurcation1 and were covered with  
rootlets diverging in every direction1  
and so jointed to the main root that    
when broken off they left round marks   
regularly arranged4 ,these roots are the
 so-called ,stigmari,a1 so abundant in  

every coal-field1 and especially filling
 the a,eurooeunder-claysa,euro of the   
coal-beds1 which are the soils on which 
the plants forming these beds were      
supported4 ,the true botanical position 
of the ,sigillari,a has been a matter of
 much controversy4 ,some of them        
undoubtedly have structures akin to     
those of the tree-like ,club-mosses1 as 
,williamson has well shown1 and may have
 been cryptogamous4 ,others have        
structures of higher character1 akin to 
those of the modern ,cycads1 and seem to
 have borne nutlets allied to those of  
these plants4 ,yet the external forms of
 these diverse sorts are so similar that
 no definite separation of them has yet 
been made4 ,either these anomalous trees
 constitute a link connecting the two   
great series of the vegetable kingdom1  
or we have been confounding two distinct
 groups1 owing to imperfect information4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4                 
#ii4;a,euro,lepidodendron corrugatum    
7,dn474 ,a characteristic ,lycopod of   

the ,lower ,carboniferous of ,america4  
,a1 ,restoration4   ,b1 ,leaf1 natural  
size4   ,c1 ,cone4 ,d1 ,leafy branch4   
,e1 ,forms of leaf-bases4   ,f1         
,sporangium4   ,i1 ,l1 ,m1 ,n1 ,o1      
,markings on stem and branches1 in      
various states4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#ajj4;a,euro,sigillari,a of the         
,carboniferous4    ,a1 ,sigillaria      
,brownii 7,dn474   ,b1 ,s4 elegans      
7,brongniart74   ,,ba1 c4 ,leaf and     
,leaf-scars4  ,another curious1 and till
 recently little understood1 group of   
,carboniferous trees is that known as   
,cordaites1 which existed already in    
some of its species in the ,devonian4   
,their leaves are long1 and often broad 
as well1 and with numerous delicate     
parallel veins1 resembling in this the  
leaves of grasses4 ,corda long ago      
showed that one species at least has a  
stem allied to the ,club-mosses4 ,more  
recently ,granda,euro7,,tm7 ,eury has   
found in the ,south of ,france admirably
 preserved specimens1 which show that   

others more resembled in their structure
 the ,pines and ,yews1 and were probably
 ,gymnosperms1 approaching to the       
,pines1 but with very peculiar and      
exceptional foliage1 of which the only  
modern examples are the broad-leaved    
,pines of the genus ,dammara            
7,frontispiece to ,chapter74 ,here again
 we have either two very distinct       
groups1 combined through our ignorance1 
or a connecting link between the        
,lycopods and the ,pines4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#aja4;a,euro,trigonocarpum ,hookeri     
7,dn474 ,a ,gymnospermous seed4  a1     
,testa4 b1 ,tegmen4 c1 ,nucleus4 d1     
,embryo4  ,the ,yews and their allies   
among modern trees1 while members of the
 great ,cone-bearing order1 bear        
nut-like seeds in fleshy envelopes1     
sometimes1 as in the ,,ga-nkgo of       
,japan1 constituting edible fruits4     
,seeds of this type seem to have been   
extremely abundant in the ,carboniferous
 age in all parts of the world1 and were

 probably produced by trees of several  
genera 7,dadoxylon1 ,sigillaria1        
,cordaites1 etc47 7,fig4 #aja74 ,charles
 ,brongniart has recently described no  
less than seventeen genera of these     
seeds from the coal-field of ,st4       
,atienne alone1 and it would be a low   
estimate to say that we probably know as
 many as sixty or seventy species in    
all1 while the trunks of great          
coniferous trees allied to ,taxine,a1   
and showing well-preserved structure1   
are by no means uncommon in the         
,devonian and ,carboniferous4 ,had these
 great ,yews appeared for the first time
 in the ,coal-formation1 we might have  
supposed that they had been developed   
from such ,lycopods as ,lepidodendra1   
and that the ,cordaites are the         
intermediate forms2 but unfortunately   
the ,pines go almost as far back in     
geological time as the ,lycopods1 and it
 does not help us1 when in search of    
evidence of evolution1 to find the link 
which is missing or imperfect in the    

,early ,devonian supplied in the        
,coal-formation1 where1 for this purpose
 at least1 it is no longer needed4  ,we 
have said something of what was in the  
,pal,aozoic flora2 but what of that     
which was not8 ,we may                  
answer3a,euro,nearly all that is        
characteristic of our modern forests1   
whether in the ordinary ,exogens1 which 
predominate so greatly in the trees and 
shrubs of temperate climates1 or in the 
,palms and their allies1 which figure so
 conspicuously within the tropics4 ,the 
few rare1 and to some extent doubtful1  
representatives of these types scarcely 
deserve to be noted as exceptions4 ,had 
a botanist searched the ,pal,aozoic     
forests for precursors of the future1 he
 would probably have found only a few   
rare species1 while he would have seen  
all around him the giant forms and      
peculiar and monotonous foliage of      
tribes now degraded in magnitude and    
structure1 and of small account in the  
system of nature4  ,it must not be      

supposed that the ,pal,aozoic flora     
remained in undisturbed possession of   
the continents during the whole of that 
long period4 ,in the successive         
subsidences of the continental plateaux1
 in which the marine limestones were    
deposited1 it was to a great extent     
swept away1 or was restricted to limited
 insular areas1 and these more          
especially in the far north1 so that on 
re-elevation of the land it was always  
peopled with northern plants4 ,thus     
there were alternate restrictions and   
expansions of vegetation1 and the latter
 were always signalised by the          
introduction of new species1 for here1  
as elsewhere1 it was not struggle1 but  
opportunity1 that favoured improvement4 
,in the ,lower ,silurian such plants as 
existed must have experienced great     
restriction at the age of the ,niagara  
or ,wenlock limestone4 ,those of the    
,upper ,silurian suffered a similar     
reverse at the time of the ,lower       
,helderberg or ,ludlow limestones4 ,this

 recurred at the close of the ,devonian 
and in the time of the ,lower           
,carboniferous limestone2 and finally   
the ,pal,aozoic flora disappeared       
altogether in the ,permian1 to be       
replaced by new types in the ,mesozoic4 
,while1 therefore1 there is a great     
general similarity in the successive    
,pal,aozoic floras1 there are minor     
differences1 so that the ,devonian      
plants are for the most part distinct   
specifically from those of the ,lower   
,carboniferous1 those of the ,lower     
,carboniferous from those of the        
,coal-formation1 and those of the latter
 from those of the ,permian4  ,with all 
these vicissitudes it is to be observed 
that there is no apparent elevation of  
type in all the long ages from the      
,devonian to the ,permian1 that the     
,acrogens and ,gymnosperms of these     
periods are in some respects superior1  
in all respects equal1 to their modern  
successors1 and that their history shows
 a decadence toward the modern period2  

that intermediate forms arrive too late 
to form connecting links in time1 that  
several distinct types appear together  
at the beginning1 and that all utterly  
and apparently simultaneously perish at 
the end of the ,pal,aozoic1 to make way 
for the entirely new vegetation of the  
succeeding age4 ,theories of evolution  
receive no support from facts like      
these1 though their practical           
significance1 as parts of the one great 
uniform scheme of nature1 is            
sufficiently manifest4  ,of what use    
then were these old floras8 ,to the     
naturalist1 vegetable life1 with regard 
to its modern uses1 is the great        
accumulator of pabulum for the          
sustenance of the higher forms of vital 
energy manifested in the animal4 ,in the
 ,pal,aozoic this consideration sinks in
 importance4 ,in the ,coal period we    
know few land animals1 and these not    
vegetable feeders1 with the exception of
 some insects1 millipedes1 and snails4  
,but the ,carboniferous forests did not 

live in vain1 if their only use was to  
store up the light and heat of those old
 summers in the form of coal1 and to    
remove the excess of carbonic acid from 
the atmosphere4 ,in the ,devonian period
 even these utilities fail1 for coal    
does not seem to have been accumulated  
to any great extent1 and the petroleum  
of the ,devonian appears to have been   
produced from aquatic vegetation4 ,even 
with reference to theories of evolution1
 there seems no necessity for the long  
continuance and frequent changes of     
species of acrogenous plants without any
 perceptible elevation4 ,we may have    
much yet to learn of the life of the    
,devonian2 but for the present the great
 plan of vegetable nature goes beyond   
our measures of utility2 and there      
remains only what is perhaps the most   
wonderful and suggestive correlation of 
all1 namely1 that our minds1 made in the
 image of the ,creator1 are able to     
trace in these perished organisms       
structures similar to those of modern   

plants1 and thus to reproduce in        
imagination the forms and habits of     
growth of living things which so long   
preceded us on the earth4 ,we may indeed
 proceed a step further1 and hold that1 
independently of human appreciation1    
these primitive plants commended        
themselves to the approval of their     
,maker1 and perhaps of higher           
intelligences unknown to us2 and that in
 the last resort it was for ,his        
pleasure that they were created4        
,illustration3 ,,pteraspis4             
,,restored4a,euro,,after ,,lankester4   
,,chapter ,v4  ,,the ,,appearance ,,of  
,,vertebrate ,,animals4   ,confessedly  
the highest style of animal is that     
which possesses a skull and backbone1   
with brain and nerve system to match1   
and which embodies the general plan of  
structure employed in man himself4 ,yet 
among the fishes1 which constitute the  
lowest manifestation of this type1 are  
some so rudimentary that the brain is   
scarcely developed1 and the skeleton is 

merely a cord of gristle4 ,these are    
represented in the modern world only by 
the ,lancelot1#cc a creature which has  
sometimes been mistaken for a worm1 and 
by a slightly more advanced type1 that  
of the ,lampreys4#cd ,in these animals  
the ,vertebrates make the nearest       
approach to the lower domains of the    
animal kingdom1 collectively known as   
,invertebrates4 ,we should naturally    
expect that since the vertebrates       
succeed the inferior animals in time1   
their lower types should appear first1  
and that these should be aquatic rather 
than terrestrial4 ,on the other hand1 as
 the oldest fishes that are certainly   
known are strongly protected with bony  
armour1 and had to contend against      
formidable ,crustaceans and ,cuttles1 we
 might suppose that the ,lancelot and   
the ,lampreys are rather degraded types 
belonging to the modern period1 than the
 true precursors of the other fishes4   
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ajb4;a,euro,siluro-,cambrian           

,conodonts4 ,magnified4a,euro,after     
,pander4  ,but if fishes like the       
,lancelot preceded all others1 we may   
never find in a fossil state any traces 
of their soft and perishable bodies2 and
 even the ,lampreys have no hard parts  
except small horny teeth1 which might   
easily escape observation4 ,but         
pal,aontologists have sharp eyes1 and it
 has not escaped them that certain      
microscopic tooth-like bodies are       
somewhat widely distributed in the older
 rocks4 ,in ,russia1 ,pander has found  
in the ,upper ,cambrian and ,lower      
,silurian1 and also in the ,devonian and
 ,carboniferous1 minute conical and     
comb-like teeth1 to which he has given  
the name of ,conodonts 7,fig4 #ajb71 and
 which he supposes to be the teeth of   
ancient ,lampreys4 ,similar teeth have  
been found by ,moore and others in the  
,carboniferous of ,england1 and by      
,newberry in ,carboniferous shales in   
,ohio4 ,in point of form1 these bodies  
certainly resemble the teeth of the     

humble fishes to which they have been   
referred4 ,in the case of the           
,carboniferous specimens from           
,ohioa,eurothe only ones ,i have had an 
opportunity to examinethe material is   
calcium phosphate1 and the structures   
are more like those of teeth of ,sharks 
than of ,lampreys1 so that there can be 
no doubt that they are really teeth of  
fishes1 and probably of fishes of       
somewhat higher grade than the          
,lampreys4#ce ,the ,cambrian and        
,silurian specimens are said to be      
composed of calcium carbonate1 which    
would render it more probable that1 as  
has been suggested by ,prof4 ,owen1 they
 may have been teeth of some species of 
,sea-snail destitute of shell4 ,it is1  
however1 possible that they may have    
originally been horny1 and that the     
animal matter has been replaced by      
carbonate of lime4 ,rohon and ,zittel   
have recently shown that many of these  
are more allied to the teeth of worms   
than of any other animals4#cf           

,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4;a,euro,lower
 ,carboniferous ,conodont4              
,magnified4a,euro,after ,newberry4  ,if 
these older ,conodonts were really teeth
 of fishes1 they carry the introduction 
of these nearly as far back as that of  
the ,mollusks and ,crustaceans4 ,if they
 were not1 then the earliest known      
representatives of this class belong to 
a much later age1 that of the ,silurian4
 ,here we have undoubted remains of     
fishes belonging to two of the higher   
orders of the class2 and in the         
succeeding ,devonian these became       
multiplied and extended exceedingly4    
,besides the inferior tribes already    
referred to1 the modern seas and rivers 
present four leading types of           
fishes3a,eurofirst1 the ordinary bony   
fishes 7,teleostians71 such as the ,cod1
 ,salmon1 and ,herring2 secondly1 the   
,ganoid fishes1 protected with bony     
plates on the skin1 as the ,bony-pike#cg
 and ,sturgeon2 thirdly1 the ,sharks and
 their allies1 the ,dog-fishes and      

,rays2 fourthly1 the peculiar and at    
present rare group of semi-reptilian    
fishes to which the name of ,dipnoi has 
been given1 on account of their capacity
 for breathing both in air and in water4
  ,of these four types the first is     
altogether modern1 and includes the     
great majority of our present fishes4   
,it does not make its appearance till   
the ,cretaceous age1 and then is at once
 represented by at least three of the   
modern families1 those of the ,salmon1  
,herring1 and ,perch4 ,the history of   
the other three groups is precisely the 
opposite of this4 ,they abound          
exceedingly at an early period1 and     
dwindle to a much smaller number in the 
modern time4 ,this is especially the    
case with the ,ganoids and the ,dipnoi4 
,it is also remarkable that these groups
 of old-fashioned fishes#ch are in some 
respects the highest members of the     
class1 approaching the nearest to the   
reptiles2 but this accords with a       
well-known pal,aontological law1 namely1

 that the higher members of low groups  
give way on the introduction of more    
elevated types1 while the lower members 
may continue4 ,thus the decadence of    
these higher fish begins with the       
incoming of the reptiles1 just as the   
decadence of the higher ,mollusks and   
predaceous ,crustaceans began with the  
incoming of the fishes4 ,further1 the   
modern ,ganoids and ,dipnoi are mostly  
fresh-water animals1 though the ,sharks 
are largely pelagic4 ,in the ,pal,aozoic
 there seem to have been abundance of   
marine species of all these types2 but  
though marine1 they probably flourished 
most in bays and estuaries and on       
shallow banks2 and the existence of     
these implies continental masses of     
land4 ,this explains the curious        
coincidence that the introduction of    
fishes and of an abundant land flora    
synchronise1 and that the ocean was     
still dominated by ,invertebrates long  
after the fishes had become supreme in  
bays1 estuaries1 and rivers4            

,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4;a,euroa1    
,head-shield of an ,upper ,silurian fish
 7,cyathaspis74 b1 ,spine of a ,silurian
 ,shark 7,onchus tenui-striatus1        
,agass474 c1 d1 ,scales of ,thecodus1   
enlarged4  ,the first fishes that we    
certainly know are the ,ganoids and     
,sharks1 which appear near the close of 
the ,upper ,silurian1 in the ,english   
,ludlow for example 7,fig4 #ajd74 ,the  
,ganoids found here all belong to an    
extinct group1 characterised by the     
covering of the head and anterior part  
of the body with large bony plates4     
,they are mostly small fishes1 and      
probably fed at the bottom1 and used    
their long or rounded bony snouts for   
grubbing in the mud for food4 ,in this  
respect they present a singular         
resemblance to the ,trilobites1 so that 
we seem to have here animals of an      
entirely new type1 the ,vertebrate1 and 
with bony instead of shelly coverings1  
taking up the r,a'le and1 to some       
extent1 the external form of a group    

about to pass away4 ,yet ,i presume that
 no derivationist would be hardy enough 
to affirm that the ,trilobites could    
have been the ancestors of these fishes4
 ,nor indeed is any ancestry even       
hypothetically known for them1 for the  
doubtful ,lampreys of the ,cambrian     
,silurian are too remote and uncertain  
to be used in that way4 ,the head-shield
 copied in outline in ,fig4 #ajd1 and   
the restoration after ,lankester in the 
frontispiece to this chapter1 may serve 
to represent these curious primitive    
,ganoids1 which are continued in the    
,devonian fishes represented in ,figs4  
#aje1 #ajf4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#aje4;a,euro,cephalaspis ,dawsoni       
7,lankester74 ,lower ,devonian of       
,gasp,a7,c74  ,along with these1 and not
 improbably their enemies1 were certain 
,sharks 7,fig4 #ajd71 known to us only  
by the spines which were attached to    
their fins as weapons of defence1 and by
 detached bony tubercles which protected
 their skin4 ,these remains are chiefly 

interesting as indications that two of  
the great leading divisions of the class
 of fishes originated together4  ,in the
 ,devonian age the ,ganoids and ,sharks1
 thus introduced in the ,silurian1 may  
be said to culminate4 ,the former1 more 
especially1 are represented by a great  
variety of species1 some of them nearly 
allied to their ,silurian predecessors  
7,fig4 #ajf71 others of forms and       
structure not dissimilar to those of the
 few surviving representatives of the   
order1 or altogether peculiar to the    
,devonian 7,fig4 #ajg74 ,so numerous are
 these fishes1 and of so many genera and
 speciesa,euroand this not merely in one
 region1 but in widely separated parts  
of the worlda,eurothat the ,devonian has
 not inaptly been called the reign of   
,ganoids4 ,as an illustration at once of
 the very peculiar forms of some of     
these fishes and of their wide          
distribution1 ,i figure here along with 
the ,british species a ,cephalaspis     
7,fig4 #aje7 found in the ,lower        

,devonian of ,gasp,a7,c71 in the same   
beds with some of the antique ,devonian 
plants described in the last chapter4   
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ajf4;a,euro,devonian ,placoganoid      
,fishes 7,pterichthys cornutus1         
,cephalaspis ,lyelli71 from ,scotland4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ajg4;a,euro,devonian ,lepidoganoid     
,fishes 7,diplacanthus and ,osteolepis74
 ,after ,page and ,nicholson4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ajh4;a,euro,modern ,dipnoi4  a1        
,ceratodus ,fosteri4 ,australia4 b1     
,lepidosiren annectus4 ,africa4  ,a new 
and interesting light has recently been 
cast upon some of the most anomalous of 
the ancient fishes by the study of the  
now rare and peculiar species of the    
group of ,dipnoi4 ,two of these1        
belonging to the genus ,lepidosiren1 are
 the a,eurooe,mud-fishesa,euro of the   
rivers of tropical ,africa and ,america 
7,fig4 #ajh1 b47 ,these creatures have  
an elongated and elegant form1 and the  

body is covered with overlapping horny  
scales like those of ordinary fishes2   
but the pectoral and ventral fins are   
rod-like1 and are supported by simple   
cartilaginous rays1 while the tailfin   
forms a fringe around the posterior part
 of the body4 ,unlike ordinary fishes1  
they have lungs as well as gills1 and   
their mouths are armed with sharp1 bony1
 beak-like teeth 7,fig4 #aae71 with     
which they can inflict terrible bites on
 the small fishes and frogs which       
furnish them with food4 ,their most     
remarkable habit is that of burying     
themselves in the mud of dried-up ponds1
 thus forming a sort of water-chamber or
 a,eurooecocoon1a,euro in which they    
remain in a torpid state until the      
return of the rainy season sets them    
free4  ,another example of these ,dipnoi
 is the ,barramunda1 or ,ceratodus of   
the ,australian rivers 7,fig4 #ajh;a74  
,this fish resembles the ,lepidosiren in
 many essential points of structure2 but
 its fins have lateral rays1 and are    

consequently of some breadth1 though of 
peculiar form1 and its mouth is armed   
with flat1 pavement-like teeth1         
wherewith it browses on aquatic grasses4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4                 
#aji4;a,euro,anterior part of the palate
 of ,dipterus4 ,showing the dental      
plates at a1 ,devonian4a,euro,after     
,traquair4  ,these modern fishes have   
enabled us to understand several        
mysterious forms met with in the older  
rocks4 ,in the first place1 they show   
the meaning of certain flat-toothed     
fishes1 like ,dipterus of the ,devonian 
7,fig4 #aji71 ,conchodus of the         
,carboniferous 7,fig4 #aaj71 and        
,ceratodus of the ,carboniferous and    
,trias 7,figs4 #aaa1 #aab71 previously  
of very doubtful character4 ,these must 
all have been of similar structure and  
habits with the ,barramunda1 which is   
thus the sole survivor1 perhaps itself  
verging on extinction1 of a group of    
herbivorous fishes introduced1 it may   
be1 contemporaneously with the first    

stream affording the requisite vegetable
 food1 and which have continued almost  
without improvement or deterioration to 
the present time4 ,these fishes are1    
however1 very closely connected with the
 ,ganoids1 and there are some of these1 
with fringed fins and overlapping       
scales1 which1 while regarded as true   
,ganoids1 resemble the ,dipnoi very     
closely4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4         
#aaj4;a,euro,dental plate of ,conchodus 
plicatus 7,dn474 ,coal-formation of     
,nova ,scotia4 ,acadian ,geology4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#aaa4;a,euro,dental plate of ,ceratodus 
,barrandii4 ,coal-formation of ,bohemia4
 ,after ,fritsch4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4
 #aab4;a,euro,dental plate of ,ceratodus
 serratus4 ,from the ,trias4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aac4;a,euro,jaws 
of ,dinichthys ,hertzeri 7,newberry74   
,laterally compressed2 one-sixth natural
 size4  ,again1 certain huge fishes1    
whose remains are found in the ,devonian
 of ,ohio1#ci had jaws on the same plan 

with those of ,lepidosiren1 but of      
enormous size and strength 7,figs4 #aac1
 #aad1 #aae71 so that in this and some  
other points of structure they may be   
regarded as colossal ,mud-fishes1 and   
they must have had the same destructive 
powers1 but on a far grander scale4     
,they were besides clothed with heavy   
armour of bony scales1 having some      
resemblance to that of those mailed     
fishes of smaller size already referred 
to1 and indicating that1 huge though    
they were1 and formidable in destructive
 power1 they also had enemies to be     
dreaded4 ,these plates serve to ally    
them with the ,ganoids1 as their jaws do
 with ,lepidosiren4  ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #aad4;a,euro,lower ,jaw of       
,dinichthys ,hertzeri4 ,one-sixth       
natural size4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#aae4;a,euro,jaws of ,lepidosiren4      
,natural size4a,euro,after ,newberry4   
,we are thus enabled to see in the      
streams1 lakes1 and bays of the         
,pal,aozoic1 harmless fishes1 of the    

type of ,ceratodus1 feeding on plants1  
and huge precursors of the ,mud-fishes  
darting from the depths1 and provided   
with a dental apparatus more formidable 
than that of any modern fish1 sufficient
 to pierce the strongest armour of the  
,ganoids1 and to destroy and devour the 
largest aquatic animals4 ,these huge    
fishes1 armed with shears two or three  
feet in length1 and capable of cutting  
asunder scale1 flesh1 and bone1 are the 
beau id,a7,c7al of destructive monsters 
of the deep1 far surpassing our modern  
,sharks2 and if1 by means of            
supplementary lungs1 they could breathe 
in air as well as in water1 they would  
on that account be all the more vigorous
 and voracious4  ,newberry has well     
remarked that while in the ,devonian the
 ,ganoids and ,dipnoi were the real     
tyrants of the sea1 as well as of the   
streams1 in the ,carboniferous they     
already diminish in size1 though still  
abundant as to numbers1 and are more    
limited to estuaries and fresh waters4  

,thus their departure from power had    
already begun1 and went on until in     
modern times the proportion of ,ganoids 
to ordinary fishes is1 according to     
,,ga#a_/dnther1 nine out of #i1jjj4 ,the
 ,carboniferous1 indeed1 very specially 
abounds in small ,ganoids1 though there 
are many large and formidable species4  
,one of these smaller species1 a very   
beautiful little fish1 of fresh-water   
ponds and streams in the older part of  
the ,carboniferous age1 is represented  
of the natural size in ,fig4 #aaf1 and  
is not a restoration1 being found       
preserved entire1 though flattened1 in a
 fine bituminous shale1 which has       
perfectly preserved even the most       
delicate sculpturing of its bony scales4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4;a,euro,a  
small ,carboniferous ,ganoid            
7,pal,aoniscus 7,rhadinichthys7 ,modulus
 ,dn474 ,lower ,carboniferous1 ,new     
,brunswick4  a1 ,outline4 b1 c1 d1      
,sculpture of scales magnified4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aag4;a,euro,teeth

 and ,spines of ,carboniferous ,sharks4 
,nova ,scotia4  a1 ,diplodus penetrans4 
b1 ,psammodus4 c1 ,ctenoptychius        
cristatus4 d1 ,spine1 ,gyracanthus      
magnificus4 ,one-eighth natural         
size4a,euro,acadian ,geology4  ,the     
,sharks in the ,carboniferous increase  
in number and importance4 ,fig4 #aag    
shows a few examples of their teeth and 
spines4 ,in the ,carboniferous1 however1
 there is a great preponderance of those
 species with flat1 crushing teeth      
fitted for grinding shells1#dj which in 
diminishing numbers continue up to the  
present time1 when they are represented 
by the ,port ,jackson ,shark and a few  
other species4 ,the increase toward the 
modern time of the true ,sharks#da with 
sharp cutting teeth1 is obviously       
related to the increase of the ordinary 
fishes which furnish them with food4    
,another curious difference1 connected  
probably with the same circumstance1 is 
the fact that in the sharp toothed      
,sharks of the ,carboniferous the two   

side fangs of each tooth are the        
largest1 or are exclusively developed   
7,fig4 #aag1 a71 while in later periods 
the central point becomes dominant1 or  
is developed to the exclusion of the    
others 7,figs4 #aah1 #aai74             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aah4;a,euro,teeth
 of ,cretaceous ,sharks 7,otodus and    
,ptychodus74a,euro,after ,leidy4        
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai4;a,euro,tooth
 of a ,tertiary ,shark 7,carcharodon74  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj4;a,euro,a    
,liassic ,ganoid 7,dapedius74           
,restored4a,euro,after ,nicholson4  ,the
 ,ganoids and ,dipnoi still1 however1   
occupy a very important place through   
the ,mesozoic ages 7,fig4 #abj71 and it 
is only at the close of the ,cretaceous 
that they finally give place to the     
,teleosts1 or common fishes1 which1     
though perhaps more fully specialised in
 purely ichthyic features1 have dropped 
the reptilian characteristics of their  
predecessors 7,fig4 #aba74 ,it is       
interesting to observe that these       

old-fashioned fishes had culminated     
before the advent of air-breathing      
,vertebrates1 which appear for the first
 time in the ,carboniferous4 ,it is     
further to be observed that groups of   
fishes furnished with means of aiding   
their gills by rudimentary lungs were   
especially suited to waters more charged
 with carbonic acid1 and less with free 
oxygen1 than those of more recent times4
 ,this remark especially applies to the 
mephitic and sluggish streams and       
lagoons of the ,carboniferous swamps1   
where1 in the midst of a rank vegetation
 and reeking masses of decaying organic 
matter1 the half air-breathing fishes   
and the amphibious reptilian animals met
 with each other and found equally      
congenial abodes4 ,thus1 independently  
of the fact that some of these fishes   
were probably vegetable feeders1 it is  
not altogether an accident1 but a wise  
adaptation1 that caused the culmination 
of the reptilian fishes and batrachian  
reptiles to coincide with the enormous  

development of the lower forms of       
land-plants in the ,devonian and        
,carboniferous4 ,another curious        
illustration of the diminishing         
necessity for air-breathing to the      
fishes1 is the change of the tail from  
the unequally-lobed or heterocercal     
form1 which prevailed in the            
,pal,aozoic1 to the more modern         
equally-lobed 7homocercal7 style in the 
,mesozoic4 ,the former is better suited 
to animals which have to rise rapidly to
 the surface for air1 and is still      
continued in some modern fishes1 which  
for other reasons need to ascend and    
descend1 or to turn themselves in the   
water2 but the homocercal form is best  
suited to the ordinary fish1 whether    
,ganoids or ,teleosts 7,fig4 #abb74 ,it 
is curious also to find the beginning of
 the dominancy of the ordinary fish to  
coincide with that of the broad-leaved  
exogenous trees in the later            
,cretaceous1 and to precede immediately 
the appearance of the mammals on the    

land2 all these changes being related to
 the purer air1 the clearer waters1 and 
the more varied continental profiles of 
the later geological periods4 ,thus     
physical improvement and the changes of 
animal and vegetable life are linked    
together by correlations which imply not
 only design1 but prescience1 whether we
 attribute these qualities to a         
spiritual ,creator or to mere atoms and 
forces4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4          
#aba4;a,euro,cretaceous ,fishes of the  
modern or ,teleostian type4  a1 ,beryx  
,lewesiensis4 ,english chalk4 b1        
,portheus molossus 7,cope74 ,a large    
fish from the ,american ,cretaceous4    
,one twenty-eighth natural size4  ,the  
history of fishes extends further       
through geological time than that of any
 other ,vertebrates1 and is perhaps more
 completely known to us1 in consequence 
of the greater facilities for the       
preservation of their remains in aqueous
 deposits4 ,if we receive               
,pandera,euro7,,tm7s ,conodonts as      

indicating a low type of cartilaginous  
fishes1 these must have continued for   
vast ages without any elevation1 and    
struggling for a bare existence amidst  
formidable ,cuttle-fishes and           
,crustaceans1 before1 under more        
favourable conditions1 they suddenly    
expanded into the high and perfect types
 of ,ganoids and ,sharks4 ,if we reject 
the early ,conodonts1 then the two      
last-mentioned types spring together and
 suddenly into existence1 like the armed
 men from the dragona,euro7,,tm7s teeth 
of ,cadmus4 ,they rapidly attain to     
numbers and grandeur unexampled in later
 times1 and become the lords of the     
waters at the time when there was       
probably no ,vertebrate life on the     
land4 ,as the reptiles establish        
themselves on the land and in the       
waters1 the ,ganoids diminish1 but the  
,sharks hold their own4 ,at length the  
reign of reptiles is over1 but the      
,ganoids1 instead of resuming their     
pristine numbers1 give place to the     

,teleosts1 and become reduced to        
insignificance2 while the ,sharks1      
profiting by the decadence of the great 
marine reptiles1 remain the tyrants of  
the seas4 ,this history is strangely    
unlike a continuous evolution2 but we   
are anticipating facts which will fall  
to be discussed in a subsequent chapter4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4                 
#abb4;a,euro,modern ,ganoids            
7,polypterus4 ,africa4 ,lepidosteus4    
,america74     ,illustration3 ,a        
,,microsaurian ,,of ,,the               
,,carboniferous ,,period 7,hylonomus    
,lyelli74 ,,restored ,,from ,,the       
,,skeleton ,,and ,,dermal ,,appendages  
,,found ,,in ,,an ,,erect ,,sigillaria4 
,,half ,,natural ,,size4  ,,chapter     
,,vi4  ,,the ,,first ,,air-,,breathers4 
,were our experience limited to the     
animals whose remains are found in the  
earlier ,pal,aozoic rocks1 we might be  
unable to conceive the possibility of an
 animal capable of living and breathing 
in the thin and apparently uncongenial  

medium of air4 ,more especially would   
this appear doubtful if our experience  
of the atmosphere presented it to us as 
loaded with carbonic acid1 and less rich
 in vital air than it is at present4    
,even the mechanical difficulties of the
 case might strike us as considerable1  
in our ignorance of the capabilities of 
limbs4 ,still1 as time wore on1 we      
should find this problem worked out     
along three distinct lines of           
advancementa,eurothose of the ,mollusk1 
the ,arthropod1 and the ,vertebrate1 and
 in each of these with different        
machinery1 related to the previous      
locomotive and water-breathing apparatus
 of the type4  ,respiration under water 
depends1 not on the water itself1 but on
 the small percentage of free oxygen    
which it contains1 and this is utilised 
for the a,aration of the blood of       
animals1 by that wonderful and often    
extremely beautiful apparatus of        
delicate fibres or lamin,a penetrated   
with blood-vessels1 which we call a     

gill4 ,except those lowest creatures    
which a,arate their blood merely at the 
general surface of the body1 all animals
 capable of respiration in water are    
provided with gills in some form1 though
 in many of the humbler types1 like that
 of the familiar ,oyster1 the gills are 
used for the double purpose of a,arating
 the blood and1 by their minute         
vibrating threads or cilia1 drifting    
food to the mouth4  ,in the great group 
of radiated animals1 the ,protozoa1     
,,calenterata1 and ,echinodermata1 no   
air-breathing creature exists1 or1 in so
 far as is known1 has existed1 so that  
this vast group of animals is limited   
altogether to the waters2 and this is   
undoubtedly one mark of its inferiority4
  ,in the sub-kingdom of the ,mollusks  
the highest class1 that of the          
,cuttle-fishes and ,nautili1 has been1  
singularly enough1 rejected as unfit for
 this promotion1 though it was early    
introduced1 and attains to a high       
development of muscular energy and      

nervous power4 ,the group next in order1
 that of the ,snails and their allies1  
alone ventures in some of its families  
to assume the r,a'le of air-breathing4  
,as might be expected1 in creatures of  
this stamp the simplest means are       
employed to effect the result4 ,in the  
sub-aquatic species the gills are       
contained in a chamber1 where they are  
protected and kept supplied with water4 
,in the air-breathing species1 this     
gill-chamber is merely emptied of its   
contents and converted into an air-sac  
or functional lung4 ,thus a rude and    
imperfect method of air-breathing is    
contrived1 which scarcely separates the 
animals that possess it from their      
aquatic relatives1 but which            
nevertheless gives to us the beautiful  
and varied groups of the ,land-snails   
and of the air-breathing fresh-water    
,snails4  ,in the worms and ,crustaceans
 the gills are placed at the sides of   
the body1 and connected with its several
 segments4 ,but the ,crustaceans1 like  

the ,cuttle-fishes1 though the highest  
aquatic type1 never become              
air-breathers4 ,it is true some of them1
 like the ,land-crabs1 live in the air2 
but they retain their gills1 and have to
 carry with them a supply of water to   
keep these moist4  ,but in order to     
elevate the ,annulose type to the true  
dignity of air breathing1 three new     
classes had to be introduced1 differing 
altogether in their details of          
structure2 and all three seem to have   
been placed on the earth about the same 
time4 ,they are3 ,first1 the ,myriapods1
 or ,gallyworms and ,centipedes2        
secondly1 the ,insects2 and thirdly1 the
 ,arachnidans1 or ,spiders and          
,scorpions4  ,in the ,myriapods a system
 of air-tubes1 kept open by elastic     
spiral fibres1 penetrates the body by   
lateral pores1 thus retaining the       
resemblance to the lateral respiration  
of the ,crustaceans and worms4 ,in the  
,insects1 where this type of structure  
rises to its highest mechanical         

perfection1 and where the animal is     
enabled to be not merely an             
air-breather1 but a flier1 the same     
system of lateral pores and internal    
air-tubes is adopted1 and is so extended
 and ramified as to give a very perfect 
respiration4 ,in the ,spiders and       
,scorpions the system is the same1      
except that in the latter and a part of 
the former the whole or a part of the   
tracheal system becomes expanded into   
air-chambers simulating true lungs4     
,among the ,vertebrates1 the fishes are 
breathers by gills attached to arches at
 the sides of the neck4 ,but already in 
the ,devonian we have reason to believe 
that there were fishes having the       
swimming-bladder opening into the back  
of the mouth to receive air1 and divided
 into chambers1 so as to constitute an  
imperfect lung4 ,and here we have not1  
as in the lower types1 an adaptation of 
the old water-breathing organs1 but an  
entirely new apparatus4 ,in the next    
grade of ,vertebrates we find1 as in the

 ,frogs1 ,water-lizards1 etc41 that the 
young are aquatic and breathe by gills1 
while the adults acquire lungs1         
sometimes retaining their gills also1   
but in the higher forms parting with    
them4 ,thus in the vertebrates alone we 
have true lungs1 distinct structurally  
from gills2 and these lungs attain to   
their highest perfection in the birds   
and mammals4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#abc4;a,euro,wings of ,devonian         
,insects4 ,middle ,devonian of ,new     
,brunswick4    a1 ,platephemera antiqua 
7,scudder74   b1 ,homothetus fossilis   
7,scudder74   c1 ,lithentomum ,harttii  
7,scudder74   d1 ,xenoneura antiquorum  
7,scudder74  ,the oldest air breathers  
at present known are ,scorpions and     
insects allied to the modern ,may-flies1
 which have been found in the ,silurian4
 ,next to these1 and more important in  
number and variety1 are the insects of  
the ,erian plant beds of ,new           
,brunswick4 ,they were discovered by the
 late lamented ,prof4 ,c4 ,f4 ,hartt in 

the plant-bearing shales of the ,middle 
,devonian 7,fig4 #abc74 ,the beds       
containing them hold also a species of  
,eurypterus1 an obscure ,trilobite1 and 
a ,crustacean allied to the modern      
,stomapods1#db besides a shell which may
 possibly be that of a ,land-snail1 to  
be mentioned in the sequel4 ,they are   
also exceedingly rich in                
beautifully-preserved remains of        
,devonian plants4 ,the collection made  
by ,prof4 ,hartt is limited to a few    
fragments of wings2 but these1 in the   
skilful hands of ,mr4 ,scudder1 have    
proved to be rich in geological         
interest4 ,one is a gigantic ,ephemera  
or ,may-fly1 which must have been five  
inches in the expanse of the wings1     
which are more complex in their venation
 than those of its modern allies 7,fig4 
#abc1 a74 ,another presents             
peculiarities between those of the      
,may-flies and ,dragon-flies 7,fig4     
#abc1 b74 ,a third is a ,neuropter1 not 
belonging to any known family1 but      

allied to some in the ,coal-formation   
7,fig4 #abc1 c74 ,a fourth 7,fig4 #abc1 
d7 is a small and delicate wing1        
supposed to have belonged to an animal  
having some points of resemblance to the
 modern crickets4 ,two others are       
represented by mere fragments of wings1 
insufficient to determine their         
affinities with certainty4 ,no other    
insects of this age have been discovered
 elsewhere2 but it is to be borne in    
mind that no other locality rich in     
,devonian plants has probably been so   
thoroughly explored4 ,the hard slaty    
ridges containing these fossils are well
 exposed on the coast near the city of  
,st4 ,john1 and ,messrs4 ,hartt and     
,matthew of that city1 acting1 ,i       
believe1 in concert with and aided by   
the ,natural ,history ,society of the   
place1 not only searched superficially1 
but removed by blasting large portions  
of the richest beds1 and examined every 
fragment with the greatest care4 ,their 
primary object was fossil plants1 of    

which they obtained magnificent         
collections2 and it is scarcely possible
 that the insects could have been found 
but for the exhaustive methods of       
exploration employed4  ,it is           
interesting to observe1 respecting these
 oldest insects1 that they all belong to
 those families which have jaws1 and not
 suctorial apparatus1 that they are not 
of those which undergo a complete       
metamorphosis1 and that their modern    
congeners pass their larval stage in the
 water4 ,thus the waters gave birth to  
the first insects1 and their earliest   
families were not of those which suck   
honied juices or the blood of animals1  
or which pass through a worm-like       
infancy4 ,these groups belong apparently
 to much later times4  ,on one of the   
specimens collected by ,messrs4 ,hartt  
and ,matthew1 and placed by them in my  
hands1 is a spiral form which in every  
particular of external marking resembles
 a genus of modern ,west ,indian        
,land-snails4#dc ,i have hesitated to   

describe it1 as the structure is lost   
and the form imperfect2 but ,i cannot   
help regarding it as an indication that 
this group of land animals also will be 
traced back to the ,devonian age4       
,ascending from the ,devonian to the    
,carboniferous1 we at once find         
ourselves in the midst of air-breathers 
of various types4 ,here are ,myriapods1 
insects of several orders1 ,spiders1    
,scorpions1 ,land-snails1 and           
,batrachian reptiles1 and these of many 
species1 and found in many localities   
widely separated4 ,we can thus people   
those dark1 luxuriant forests1 to which 
we owe our most valuable beds of coal1  
with many forms of life2 and as most of 
these belong to tribes likely to        
multiply abundantly where food was      
plentiful1 we can imagine multitudes of 
,snails and ,millepedes feeding on      
succulent or decaying vegetable matter1 
swarms of insects flitting through the  
air in the sunnier spots1 while their   
larv,a luxuriated in decaying masses of 

leaves or wood1 or peopled the pools and
 streams4 ,in like manner1 in           
imagination we can render these old     
woods vocal with the trill of crickets  
and with the piping or booming of       
smaller and larger ,batrachians4 ,let us
 now1 in accordance with our plan1      
inquire as to the nature of these early 
air-breathers and the fortunes of their 
families in the geological history4     
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#abd4;a,euro,land-snail 7,pupa vetusta1 
,dawson74 ,from the ,coal-formation4  a1
 ,natural size4 b1 ,magnified4 c1 ,apex4
 d1 ,sculpture4 ,enlarged4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#abe4;a,euro,land-snail 7,zonites       
7,conulus7 priscus1 ,carpenter74 ,from  
the ,coal-formation4  a1 ,shell4        
,enlarged2 the line below shows the     
natural size4 b1 ,sculpture4 ,enlarged4 
,the ,land-snails known as yet in the   
,carboniferous are limited to five or   
six species1 belonging to four genera1  
all ,american and related to existing   

,american forms4 ,the two earliest known
 are represented in ,figs4 #abd and     
#abe4dd ,one of them is a ,pupa1 or     
elongated ,land-snail1 so similar to    
modern forms that it does not merit a   
generic distinction1 and is indeed very 
near to some existing ,west ,indian     
species4 ,the other is in like manner a 
member of the modern genus ,zonites4    
,these are from the ,coal-formation of  
,nova ,scotia1 and the ,pupa must have  
been very abundant1 as it has been found
 in considerable numbers in a layer of  
shale1 and in the stumps of erect trees1
 in beds separated from each other by a 
thickness of #b1jjj feet of strata4 ,the
 ,zonites is much more rare4 ,a second  
,pupa is found in ,nova ,scotia1 and two
 species occur in the ,coal-field of    
,illinois4 ,one of these is a ,pupa     
still smaller than ,p4 vetusta1 and1    
like some modern species1 with a        
tooth-like process on the inner lip4    
,the other has been placed in a new     
genus1#de but is very near to some of   

the smaller ,american ,snails still     
living4 ,its most special character is a
 plate extending from the inner lip over
 half the aperture1 a contrivance for   
protection still seen in some modern    
forms4 ,thus the ,land-snails come on   
the stage in at least three generic     
forms1 similar to those which still     
live1 but all of small size1 indicating 
perhaps that the conditions were less   
favourable for such creatures than those
 of the temperate and warmer climates at
 present4 ,it may seem a small step in  
advance for ,sea-snails to lose their   
gills and to become ,land-snails1 and   
this without any elevation of their     
general structure2 but it must be borne 
in mind that we have here not only the  
dropping of the gills for an air-sac1   
but profound changes in teeth1 mucous   
glands1 shell1 and other particulars1 to
 fit them for new food and new habits4  
,it is also singular that the           
,land-snails at once appear instead of  
the intermediate forms of the           

air-breathing fresh-water snails4 ,these
 last may1 however1 yet be found4  ,the 
,millepedes1 like the ,land-snails1 were
 first found in the ,coal-formation of  
,nova ,scotia1 but species have since   
been discovered not only in ,illinois1  
but also in ,great ,britain and in      
,bohemia4 ,in ,nova ,scotia alone two   
genera and five distinct species have   
been found1 all in the interior of erect
 trees1 to which these creatures        
probably resorted for food and shelter  
7,fig4 #abf74 ,all the species yet known
 are allied to the modern ,gallyworms1  
though presenting special features which
 seem to separate them as a distinct    
family1#df and were probably            
vegetable-feeders4 ,some of the species 
have the peculiarity1 unknown among     
their modern successors1 of being armed 
with long spines4#dg ,the moist1 equable
 climate and exuberant vegetation of the
 ,coal-period would naturally be very   
favourable to ,millepedes1 and it is    
likely that the discoveries made as yet 

give but a faint idea of their actual   
abundance4 ,it is not improbable that   
they subsequently declined1 as we know  
of none between the ,carboniferous and  
the ,jurassic1 and they do not seem to  
have improved up to the modern period4  
,the ,carnivorous ,myriapods1 however1  
or ,centipedes proper1 a higher and     
essentially distinct type1 are not known
 until much more recent times4          
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#abf4;a,euro,millepedes4 ,from the      
,coal-formation4  a1 ,xylobius          
sigillari,a 7,dawson74 b1 ,archiulus    
xylobioides 7,scudder74 ,anterior       
segments4 ,enlarged1 c1 ,x4 farctus     
7,scudder74 ,caudal portion4 ,enlarged4 
,the insects of the ,carboniferous as   
yet known1 belong to three out of the   
ten or more orders into which the class 
is divided4 ,one of these is represented
 by a number of species of ,cockroach1  
another by ,may-flies and a ,dragon-fly1
 and another by some weevil-like        
,beetles4 ,the ,cockroach is            

characterised by ,huxley as one of the  
a,eurooeoldest1 least modified1 and in  
many ways most instructive forms of     
insects2a,euro and both he and          
,rolleston take its anatomy as typical  
of that of the class4 ,that these       
creatures should have abounded in the   
,coal-period we need not wonder1 when we
 consider the habits of those that      
infest our houses1 and when we further  
bear in mind the number of species1 some
 of them two inches in length1 that     
exist in tropical climates4 ,so many    
species of this family have been found  
in the ,coal-formation on both sides of 
the ,atlantic1#dh that we may fairly    
regard them as constituting one of its  
most characteristic features1 and as    
probably the oldest representatives of  
the order to which they belong#di 7,fig4
 #abg74 ,there were also in the         
,coal-period insects allied to the      
,locusts and to the ,mantids1 a         
carnivorous group4 ,one of the latter   
7,lithomantis71 described by ,woodward1 

is a magnificent insect1 not unlike some
 modern tropical species4 ,it was found 
in the ,coal-formation of ,scotland4 ,a 
still larger species1 probably the      
largest insect known1 has been described
 by ,brongniart4 ,the ,may-flies        
7,ephemerid,a7 are represented in the   
,carboniferous by several very large    
species4 ,that of which the wing is     
shown in ,fig4 #abh must have been seven
 inches in expanse of wings4 ,the habits
 of the modern ,may-flies show us how   
animals of this group1 living as larv,a 
in the streams and lakes1 must have     
afforded large supplies of food to      
fishes1 and when mature must have       
emerged from the waters in countless    
myriads1 filling the air for the brief  
term of their existence in the perfect  
state4 ,the ,may-flies represent another
 insect order4#ej ,the ,coal-measures of
 ,saarbruck have afforded several       
species allied to the white ants        
7,termites71 insects which must have    
found abundant scope for their activity 

in the dead trees of the carboniferous  
forests4 ,the occurrence of beetles1#ea 
especially of the weevil family1 which  
have as yet been found only in ,europe1 
might have been expected1 considering   
the habits and modern distribution of   
this group4 ,it has been asserted that  
moths#eb have been found in the         
,carboniferous2 but the proof of this1  
so far as known to me1 is the occurrence
 of leaves1 noticed by ,sternberg1 with 
markings similar to those made by the   
larv,a of minute leaf-mining moths4     
,this1 however1 is uncertain evidence4  
,if we consider the orders of insects   
not found in the ,coal-formation1 we can
 perceive good reasons for the absence  
of some of them4 ,those containing the  
lice and fleas1 and other minute and    
parasitic insects1 we can scarcely      
expect to find4 ,the bees and wasps1 and
 the butterflies and moths1 are little  
likely to have been present where there 
were scarcely any flowering plants2 but 
such groups as those of the two-winged  

flies1 the plant-bugs and the ants1 we  
might have expected1 but for the fact of
 their being highly specialised forms1  
and for that reason likely to have      
appeared later4#ec ,there are1 indeed1  
as yet no haustellate or suctorial      
insects known in this early period4     
,plausible theories of the phylogeny of 
insects are not wanting2 but they do not
 well suit the known facts as to their  
first appearance2 and perhaps we may    
venture without much blame to apply to  
the insects of the ,coal-period the     
remark made by ,wollaston with reference
 to the rich insect fauna of the        
isolated rock of ,st4 ,helena3          
a,eurooe,to a mind which1 like my own1  
can accept the doctrine of creative acts
 as not necessarily                     
a,eurounphilosophical1a,euro7,,tm7 the  
mysteries of the existence of these     
species in an island so remote from     
other lands1 however great1 become at   
least conceivable2 but those which are  
not able to do this may1 perhaps1       

succeed in elaborating some special     
theory of their own1 which1 even if it  
does not satisfy all the requirements of
 the problem1 may at least prove        
convincing to themselves4a,euro         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abg4;a,euro,wings
 of ,cockroaches4 ,from the             
,coal-formation4  a1 ,archimulacris     
,acadicus 7,scudder74 b1 ,blattina      
,bretonensis 7,scudder74 c1 ,b4 ,hesri  
7,scudder74  ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#abh4;a,euro,wing of ,may-fly           
7,haplophlebium ,barnesii1 ,scudder74   
,from the ,coal-formation4              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abi4;a,euro,a    
,jurassic ,sphinx-moth 7,sphinx         
,snelleri1 ,weyenburgh74  ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #acj4;a,euro,an ,eocene         
,butterfly 7,prodryas persephone1       
,scudder74 ,from ,colorado4  ,the       
suctorial insects make their first      
certain appearance in the ,jurassic2 and
 the magnificent ,sphinx ,moth in ,fig4 
#abi is an example of the magnitude and 
perfection to which that tribe attained 

in the age of the ,solenhofen slate2    
though ,weyenburgh1 who describes it1   
fancies that he sees evidence that it   
may1 unlike any modern moths1 have been 
provided with a sting4 ,the most perfect
 and beautiful fossil butterfly known to
 me is that represented in ,fig4 #acj1  
from a photograph kindly given to me by 
,mr4 ,scudder4 ,it is from the ,tertiary
 rocks of ,western ,america1 and is laid
 out in stone as neatly as if prepared  
by an entomologist1 while its           
preservation is so perfect that even the
 microscopic scales on the wings can be 
made out4 ,it belongs to one of the     
highest types of modern butterflies1    
that to which the ,vaness,a belong1 but 
with some points of structure pointing  
to the lower group of the               
a,eurooe,skippersa,euro 7,hesperiad,a74 
,scudder remarks that while the         
fore-wings resemble those of the former 
group1 the hind-wings look more like    
those of the latter2 and this seems to  
be a common character of two or three   

others of the few fossil species known1 
none of which are older than the        
,tertiary4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#aca4;a,euro,abdominal part of a        
,carboniferous ,scorpion4#ed  ,we know  
too little of the spiders and scorpions 
of the ,carboniferous to say more than  
that they closely resemble modern forms4
 ,two of the scorpions are represented  
in ,figs4 #aca and #acb2 and the only   
spider certainly known1 which is from   
,silesia1 is said to belong to the group
 of the hunting or trap-door spiders    
7,lycosa74#ee  ,the ,batrachians of the 
,coal are its most characteristic and   
remarkable                              
air-breathers1a,euroespecially so as the
 precursors of the reptiles of the      
,mesozoic age4 ,cope in a recent summary
 enumerates no less than thirty-nine    
genera and about one hundred species2   
and to these have to be added at least a
 dozen more recently discovered in      
,europe2 though it was only in #ahda    
that the first indications of such      

creatures were found1 and were then     
regarded by geologists with the same    
scepticism which some of them still     
apply to ,eozoon4 ,the first trace ever 
observed of batrachians in the          
,carboniferous consisted of a series of 
small but well-marked footprints found  
by the late ,sir ,w4 ,e4 ,logan in the  
,lower ,carboniferous shales of ,horton 
,bluff1 in ,nova ,scotia4 ,in that year 
this painstaking geologist had examined 
the coal-fields of ,pennsylvania and    
,nova ,scotia1 with the view of         
following up his important discovery of 
the ,stigmari,a1 or roots of            
,sigillaria1 as accompaniments of the   
coal-underclays4 ,on his return he read 
a paper1 detailing his observations1    
before the ,geological ,society of      
,london4 ,in this he mentioned the      
footprints in question2 but the paper   
was published only in abstract1 and the 
importance of the discovery was         
overlooked for a time1 the anatomists   
evidently being shy to acknowledge the  

validity of the evidence for a fact so  
unexpected4 ,fig4 #acc is a             
representation of another slab          
subsequently found in beds of the same  
age in ,nova ,scotia1 and which may     
serve to indicate the nature of ,sir    
,williama,euro7,,tm7s discovery4 ,in    
consequence of the neglect of this first
 hint by the ,london geologists1 the    
discovery of bones of a batrachian by   
von ,dechen at ,saarbruck in #ahdd1 and 
that of footprints by ,king in          
,pennsylvania in the same year1 are     
usually represented as the first facts  
of this kind4 ,my own earliest discovery
 of reptilian bones in ,nova ,scotia was
 made in #ahdd1 though not published    
till some time afterward1 and was       
followed up by further collections in   
company with ,sir ,charles ,lyell in    
#ahea1 at which time also the earliest  
land-snail was found1 and in the        
following year the first millepede4     
,since that time the progress of        
discovery has been astonishingly rapid1 

and has extended over most of the       
principal coal-areas on both sides of   
the ,atlantic4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#acb4;a,euro,carboniferous ,scorpion    
7,eoscorpius carbonarius1 ,meek and     
,worthen74 ,illinois4  ,illustration3   
,,fig4 #acc4;a,euro,footprints of one of
 the oldest known ,batrachians1 probably
 a species of ,dendrerpeton4 ,from the  
,lower ,carboniferous of                
,parrsboroa,euro7,,tm71 ,nova ,scotia4  
,upper figure natural size4  ,we may1   
for convenience1 call these animals     
reptiles1 but they are regarded as      
belonging to that lower grade of        
reptilian animals1 the ,amphibians or   
,batrachians1 which includes the modern 
frogs and newts and water-lizards4#ef   
,still it would be doing great injustice
 to the carboniferous reptiles not to   
say1 that while related to this low     
type1 they presented a much greater     
range of organisation than it shows at  
present1 evincing a capability to fill  
most of the places now occupied by the  

true reptiles4 ,some of them were       
aquatic1 and with limbs rudimentary or  
little developed1 but many of them      
walked on the land1 and were powerful   
and predaceous creatures4 ,they had     
large and complex teeth1 they were      
protected by external bony plates1 and  
some of them had in addition a beautiful
 covering of horny plates and spines1   
and ornamental lappets4 ,many had       
well-developed ribs1 indicating a       
condition of respiration much in advance
 of that in the ribless batrachians4    
,some of them attained to size and      
strength rivalling those of the modern  
alligators1 while some of the smallest  
species exhibit characters approaching  
in some respects to the lizards4        
,perhaps the most fish-like of these    
animals are those first discovered by   
von ,dechen 7,archegosaurus1 ,fig4      
#acd74 ,their long heads1 short necks1  
supports for gills1 feeble limbs and    
long flat tail1 show that they were     
aquatic creatures presenting many points

 of resemblance to the ,ganoid fishes   
which must have been their companions4  
,yet they show what no fish can exhibit1
 fore and hind limbs with proper toes1  
and the complete series of bones that   
appear in our own arms and legs1 while  
they must have had true lungs and       
breathed through nostrils4 ,so different
 are they from the fish in details1 that
 a single limb bone1 a vertebra1 a rib1 
or a fragment of a skull bone1 suffices 
to distinguish them4 ,much has been said
 recently of the genesis of limbs2 and  
here1 as far as now known1 we have the  
first true limbs2 but it is scarcely too
 much to say that the feet of           
,archegosaurus differ more from the fins
 of any carboniferous fish than they do 
from the human hand2 while it is certain
 that the feet which made the           
impressions represented in ,fig4 #acc1  
on the lowest beds of the               
,carboniferous1 or that from the upper  
coal-formation represented in ,fig4     
#aci1 were not less typical or perfectly

 formed feet than those of modern       
lizards4  ,leaving these fish-like      
forms1 we find the remainder of the     
carboniferous reptiles to diverge from  
them along three lines4  ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #acd4;a,euro,archegosaurus       
,decheni4 ,head and anterior limb       
reduced4 ,coal-field of ,saarbruck4     
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ace4;a,euro,ptyonius4 ,a ,snake-like   
,amphibian4 ,coal-measures of           
,ohio4a,euro,after ,cope4  ,the first   
leads to snake-like creatures1 destitute
 of limbs1 and which must have been     
functionally the representatives of the 
serpents in the ,pal,aozoic1 though     
batrachian in their affinities 7,fig4   
#ace74 ,they are found both in ,europe  
and ,america2 and ,huxley describes one 
from ,ireland more than twenty-one      
inches long1 and with over one hundred  
vertebr,a4#eg ,some extraordinary traces
 are found on the sandstones of the     
coal-formation1#eh which appear to      
indicate that there may have been       

species of this type much larger than   
any represented by skeletons1 and with  
bodies perhaps six inches in diameter4  
,it is not unlikely that they had the   
habits of the modern water snakes4      
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acf4;a,euro,a    
large ,carboniferous ,labyrinthodont    
7,baphetes planiceps1 ,owen74  a1       
,anterior part of the skull1 viewed from
 beneath4 ,one-sixth natural size1 b1   
,one of the largest teeth1 natural size4
  ,a second line leads upward to large  
crocodile-like creatures1 with          
formidable teeth1 strong bony armour1   
and well-developed limbs                
7,labyrinthodontia1 ,figs4 #acf1 #acg74 
,some of them must have attained a      
length of ten feet4 ,they were          
lizard-like in form1 could walk well1 as
 is seen from the footprints of some of 
the species which present a considerable
 stride1 and moved over mud without the 
belly touching the ground4 ,their tails 
were long1 and probably useful in       
swimming4 ,their heads were flat and    

massive1 and their teeth were           
strengthened by a remarkable folding    
inward of the outer plate of enamel     
7,fig4 #acg b74 ,the belly was protected
 by bony plates and closely imbricated  
scales4 ,in some of the species at least
 the upper parts were clothed with horny
 scales1 and the throat and sides were  
ornamented with pendent scaly fringes or
 lappets4#ei ,their general aspect and  
mode of life must have resembled those  
of modern alligators2 and in the vast   
swamps of the ,coal-period1 full of     
ponds and sluggish streams swarming with
 fish1 they must have found a most      
suitable abode4 ,while rigid anatomy may
 ally these animals rather with the     
batrachians than the true reptiles1 it  
is evident that their great size1 their 
capacity for walking with the body borne
 well above the ground1 their bony and  
scaly armour1 their powerful teeth and  
their capacious chests1 with            
well-developed ribs1 indicate conditions
 of respiration and general vitality    

quite comparable with those of the      
highest modern members of the class     
,reptilia4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#acg4;a,euro,baphetes planiceps 7,owen74
  a1 ,fragment of maxillary bone showing
 sculpture1 four outer teeth1 and one   
inner tooth4 ,natural size4 b1 ,section 
of inner tooth4 ,magnified1 c1 ,dermal  
scale4 ,natural size4  ,the third line  
of progress leads to some slender and   
beautiful creatures 7,microsauria71     
chiefly known to us by remains found in 
erect trees1 and which resembled in form
 and habits the smaller modern lizards4 
,they have simple teeth1 a              
well-developed brain-case1 limbs of some
 length1 and bony and scaly armour1 the 
latter in some cases highly ornate4#fj  
,they were probably the most thoroughly 
terrestrial1 and the most active of the 
coal batrachians1 if indeed they were   
not strictly intermediate between them  
and the lizards proper4 ,fig4 #ach shows
 some fragments of one of these animals2
 and the animal represented in ,fig4    

#aci1 recently figured by ,fritsch1     
probably belongs to this group4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ach4;a,euro,a    
lizard-like ,amphibian 7,hylonomus      
aciedentatus74    a1 ,maxillary bone2   
enlarged4   b1 ,mandible2 enlarged4   c1
 ,teeth2 magnified1 showing front and   
side view of           ordinary tooth   
and grooved anterior tooth4   d1        
,section of tooth2 magnified4   e1      
,scale2 natural size and magnified4   f1
 ,pelvic bone 7872 natural size4   g1   
,rib2 natural size4   h1 ,scapular bone 
7872 natural size4   i1 ,palate2 natural
 size4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4           
#aci4;a,euro,stelliosaurus longicostatus
 7,fritsch74 ,upper ,coal-formation of  
,bohemia4  ,the ,labyrinthodonts of the 
,carboniferous continue upward into the 
,permian1 where they meet with the true 
reptiles2 and in the earlier ,mesozoic  
some of the largest and most typical    
examples are found4#fa ,but here their  
reign ceases1 and they give place to    
reptiles of more elevated type1 whose   

history we must consider in the next    
chapter4  ,nothing can be more          
remarkable than the apparently sudden   
and simultaneous incoming of the        
batrachian reptiles in the              
,coal-formation4 ,as if at a given      
signal1 they came up like the frogs of  
,egypt everywhere and in all varieties  
of form4 ,if1 as evolutionists suppose1 
they were developed from fishes1 this   
must have been by some sudden change1   
occurring at once all over the world1   
unless indeed some great and unknown gap
 separates the ,devonian from the       
,carboniferousa,euroa supposition which 
seems quite contrary to facta,euroor    
unless in some region yet unexplored    
this change was proceeding1 and at a    
particular time its products spread     
themselves over the worlda,euroa        
supposition equally improbable4 ,in     
short1 the hypothesis of evolution1 as  
applied to these animals1 is surrounded 
with geological improbabilities4  ,a    
remarkable picture of the conditions of 

,pal,aozoic land life is presented by   
the occurrence of remains of reptiles1  
millepedes and land-snails in such erect
 trees as that represented in ,fig4     
#adj4 ,in the now celebrated section of 
the ,south ,joggins in ,nova ,scotia1   
trees of this kind occur at more than   
sixty different levels2 but only in one 
of these have they as yet been found to 
be rich in animal remains4 ,fortunately 
this bed is so well exposed and so      
abundant in trees1 that ,i have myself1 
within a few years1 removed from it     
about twenty of them1 the greater number
 affording remains of land animals4     
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#adj4;a,euro,section showing the        
position of an erect ,sigillaria1       
containing remains of land animals4     
#a4 ,underclay1 with rootlets of        
,stigmaria1 resting on gray shale1      
with two thin coaly seams4   #b4 ,gray  
sandstone1 with erect trees1 ,calamites1
 and other stems3         #i feet4   #c4
 ,coal1 with erect tree on its surface3 

#f inches4   #d4 ,underclay with        
,stigmaria rootlets4            a1      
,calamites4           b1 ,stem of plant 
undetermined4           c1 ,stigmaria   
roots4           d1 ,erect trunk1 #i    
feet high4  ,the history of one of these
 trees may be shortly stated thus4 ,it  
was a ,sigillaria1 perhaps two feet in  
diameter1 and its stem had a dense and  
imperishable outer bark1 a soft cellular
 inner bark liable to rapid decay1 and a
 slender woody axis not very durable4   
,it grew on the surface of a swamp1 now 
represented by a bed of coal4 ,by       
inundations and by subsidence1 this     
swamp was exposed to the invasion of    
muddy and sandy sediment1 and this went 
on accumulating until the stem of the   
tree was buried to the height of about  
nine feet1 before which time it was no  
doubt killed4 ,after a time the top     
decayed and fell1 leaving the buried    
stump imbedded in the sandy soil1 which 
had now become dry1 or nearly so4 ,the  
trunk decayed1 its inner bark and axis  

rotting away and falling in shreds into 
the bottom of the cylindrical hole1     
about nine feet deep1 once occupied by  
the stem1 and now kept open like a shaft
 or well by the hard resisting outer    
bank4 ,the ground around this opening   
became clothed with ferns and reed-like 
,calamites1 partly masking and          
concealing it4 ,and now millepedes and  
land snails made the buried trunk a     
home1 or fell into it in their          
wanderings2 and small reptiles sporting 
around1 in pursuit of prey1 or          
themselves pursued1 stumbled into the   
open pitfall1 and were unable to        
extricate themselves1 though ,i have    
found in some of the layers in these    
trees trails which show that these      
imprisoned reptiles had wearily wandered
 round and round1 in the vain search for
 means of exit1 till they died of       
exhaustion and famine4 ,the bones of    
these dead reptiles1 shells of          
land-snails and crusts of millepedes1   
accumulated in these natural coffins1   

and became mixed with vegetable debris  
falling into them1 and with thin layers 
of mud washed in by the rains2 and this 
process continued so long that a layer  
of six inches to a foot in thickness1   
full of bones1 was sometimes produced4  
,at length a new change supervened1 the 
area was again inundated and drifted    
over with sand1 and the hollow trunk was
 filled to the top and buried under many
 feet of sediment1 never to be re-opened
 till1 after the whole had been hardened
 into sandstone and elevated to form a  
part of the modern coast1 when the old  
tree and its forest companions which had
 shared the same fate with it1 are made 
to yield up their treasures to the      
geologist4 ,this history is no fancy    
picture4 ,it represents the results of  
long and careful study of the beds      
holding these erect trees1 and of the   
laborious extraction of great numbers of
 them1 and the breaking-up of their     
contents into thin flakes1 to be        
carefully examined with the lens under a

 bright light in search of the relics   
they contained4 ,fig4 #aa in ,chap4 ,i4 
represents the extraction of one of     
these trees1 which happened to be       
partially exposed by the wasting of the 
cliff2 but many others had to be        
laboriously mined out of the rock by    
blasting with gunpowder4  ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #adj;a4a,euro,section of base of
 erect ,sigillaria1 containing remains  
of land animals4  a1 ,mineral charcoal4 
b1 ,dark-coloured sandstone1 with       
plants1 bones1 c4 c1 ,gray sandstone1   
with ,calamites and ,cordaites4  ,it is 
evident that the combination of         
circumstances referred to above could   
not often occur2 and it is therefore not
 wonderful that only in one place and   
one bed has evidence of it been found1  
and that even in this some of the trees 
have been filled up at once by sand and 
clay1 or so crushed by falling in or    
lateral pressure1 that they could       
receive no animal remains4 ,in one      
respect this is a striking evidence of  

the imperfection of the geological      
record1 since1 but for what may be      
called a fortunate accident1 many of the
 most interesting inhabitants of the    
coal forests might have been altogether 
unknown to us4 ,on the other hand1 it   
shows how strange and unexpected are the
 ways in which the relics of the old    
world have been preserved for our       
inspection1 and that there is probably  
scarcely any animal or plant that has   
ever lived of which some fragment does  
not exist1 did we know where to look for
 it4  ,it may be well to remark1 in     
closing this chapter1 how many new forms
 of life1 air-breathing and otherwise1  
make their first appearance in the      
,carboniferous1 and have continued to   
prevail until now4 ,here we find the    
first specimens of ,amphibians1         
,spiders1 ,myriapods1 ,orthopterous and 
,coleopterous ,insects1 and of the      
,crabs among ten-footed ,crustaceans4   
,in the latter group ,woodward has      
recently described the oldest known     

crab1 from the ,coal-formation of       
,belgium4     ,illustration3            
,,inhabitants ,,of ,,the ,,english      
,,seas ,,in ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,reptiles4
  ,pliosaurus1 ,ichthyosaurus1          
,plesiosaurus1 ,mososaurus1 and         
,teleosaurus4  ,,chapter ,,vii4  ,,the  
,,empire ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,reptiles4 
,had we lived in the ,carboniferous     
period1 we might have supposed that the 
line of the great ,labyrinthodont       
,batrachians would have been continued  
onward and elevated1 perhaps1 in the    
direction of the ,mammalia1 to which    
some features of their structure point4 
,but we should have been mistaken in    
this4 ,the ,labyrinthodonts1 it is true1
 extend into the ,trias2 but there is   
perhaps a sign of their coming          
degradation in the appearance in the    
,permian of the first known mud-eel1 a  
humble ,batrachian form allied to the   
,newts and ,water-lizards4#fb ,their    
special peculiarities are dropped in the
 ,mesozoic in favour of those of certain

 small and feeble lizard-like animals1  
appearing first in the ,carboniferous1  
and more manifestly in the ,permian1 and
 which are the true forerunners1 though 
they can scarcely be the ancestors1 of  
the magnificent reptilian species of the
 ,mesozoic1 which have caused this      
period to be called a,eurooethe age of  
reptiles4a,euro  ,the leading reptilian 
animal from the ,european ,permian has  
long been the ,proterosaurus1 from the  
copper slates of ,thuringia 7,fig4      
#ada71 a reptile of lizard-like form1   
with well-developed limbs1 and attaining
 a length of three or four feet4 ,it    
resembles more nearly those large modern
 lizards known as                       
a,eurooe,monitors1a,euro than any other 
existing form4 ,the fore-limb           
represented in the figure foreshadows   
very closely the bones of the human arm 
and hand4 ,besides this we find in the  
,permian certain lizards 7,theriodonts  
of ,owen7 which present the remarkable  
and advanced peculiarity already        

predicted by some ,carboniferous        
,microsauria1#fc of having distinct     
canine teeth1 producing a division into 
incisors1 canines1 and molars1 in the   
manner of the ,carnivorous quadrupeds1  
which they seem also to have resembled  
in some other parts of their skeletons4 
,it is not impossible that the          
footprints in the ,permian sandstones of
 ,scotland1 which have been referred to 
tortoises1 were those of animals of this
 type4 ,cope has recently described from
 the ,permian of ,texas a number of     
reptiles which have the complex         
dentition of the ,theriodonts1 and      
others which simulate that of           
,herbivorous mammals1 by the possession 
of flat grinding teeth supposed to be   
adapted to vegetable food4#fd ,the teeth
 of all these ,permian reptiles were set
 in sockets1 also an advanced           
peculiarity4 ,thus already in the       
,permian1 before the final decadence of 
the ,carboniferous flora1 and while the 
,pal,aozoic invertebrates still lingered

 in the sea1 the age of reptiles dawned1
 and gave promise of its future         
greatness by the assumption on the part 
of reptilian species of structures now  
limited to the ,mammalia4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ada4;a,euro,arm  
of ,proterosaurus ,speneri4 ,reduced4   
,permian4  ,but the great ,mesozoic     
reptiles were not fully enthroned1 till 
the ,permian1 an unsettled and disturbed
 age1 characterised by great earth      
movements1 had passed away1 and until   
that period of continental elevation1   
with local deserts and desiccation1 and 
much volcanic action1 which we call the 
,trias1 had also passed4  ,then in the  
,jurassic and early ,cretaceous the     
reptiles culminated1 and presented      
features of magnitude and structural    
complexity unrivalled in later times4   
,at the same time the ,labyrinthodonts  
disappear1 or are degraded into the     
humble stations which the modern        
,batrachians now occupy4  ,to understand
 the reptiles of this age1 it will be   

necessary to notice the subdivisions of 
their modern representatives4 ,the true 
reptiles now existing constitute the    
following orders3a,euro#a1 the ,turtles 
and ,tortoises 7,chelonia72 #b1 the     
,snakes 7,ophidia72 #c1 the ,lizards    
7,lacertilia72 #d1 the ,crocodiles and  
,alligators 7,crocodilia74 ,all of      
these1 except the snakes1 are well      
represented among ,mesozoic fossils2 but
 we have in this middle age of the      
eartha,euro7,,tm7s geological history to
 add to them from five to seven orders  
now altogether extinct1 and these not of
 low and inferior organisation1 but     
including species far in advance of any 
now existing both in elevation and      
magnitude1 and constituting the         
veritable aristocracy of the reptile    
race4 ,it will best serve our purpose   
here to consider chiefly these perished 
orders and their history1 and then to   
notice very shortly those that now      
survive4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4         
#adb4;a,euro,skeleton of ,ichthyosaurus4

 ,lias4 ,england4  ,the first of the    
extinct orders is that of the great     
,sea-lizards1#fe of which the now       
familiar ,ichthyosaurus and             
,plesiosaurus of the ,english seas1 to  
be seen in all museums and text-books1  
are the types 7,figs4 #adb1 #adb;a and  
#adb;b74 ,these were marine animals of  
large size1 but not fishes or           
amphibians4 ,they were true             
air-breathing reptiles1 but with paddles
 for swimming instead of feet1 and some 
of them with long flattened tails for   
steering and propulsion4 ,they bore1 in 
short1 precisely the same relation to   
the other members of the class ,reptilia
 which the ,whales and ,porpoises bear  
to the ordinary quadrupeds4 ,some of    
these animals are believed to have been 
fifty or sixty feet in length1 thus     
rivalling the ,whales1 while others were
 of smaller dimensions1 like the        
,porpoises and ,dolphins4 ,some1 like   
the ,ichthyosaurus and ,pliosaurus      
7,fig4 #adb;a71 were strongly built and 

powerful swimmers1 and able to destroy  
the largest fishes1 while others1 like  
,plesiosaurus1 had the body short and   
compact1 the head small1 and the neck   
long and flexible1 and probably preyed  
on small animals near the borders of the
 waters4 ,catalogues of ,british fossils
 alone include about thirty species of  
,enaliosaurs1 which haunted the coasts  
of ,mesozoic ,europe1 a wonderful fact1 
when we consider the absence of these   
creatures from the modern seas1 and the 
probability that only a fraction of the 
species are yet known to us4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adb;a4a,euro,head
 of ,pliosaurus4 ,jurassic4 ,much       
reduced4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4         
#adb;b4a,euro,paddle of ,plesiosaurus   
,oxoniensis4 ,jurassic4a,euro,after     
,phillips4 ,one-tenth natural size4     
,another remarkable group is that to    
which ,cope has given the name of       
,pythonomorpha1 and which he regards as 
allied to the serpents1 or as gigantic  
sea-serpents provided with swimming     

paddles1 but which ,owen considers more 
nearly connected with the lizards4 ,in  
either case they constitute a group by  
themselves1 remarkable not only on      
account of their anatomical affinities  
with animals so unlike them in general  
port1 but also for their enormously     
extended length and formidable dentition
 7,fig4 #adc74 ,such animals as the     
,mososaurus of ,maestricht and          
,clidastes of ,western ,america may have
 exceeded in length the largest         
,ichthyosaurs and the most bulky of     
living ,cetaceans1 though their slender 
forms and numerous vertebr,a remind one 
of the semi-fabulous sea-serpent1 rather
 than of any known animal of our modern 
age4 ,they were characteristic of the   
,later ,mesozoic1 more especially of the
 ,cretaceous period1 and must have been 
formidable enemies to the fishes of     
their time4  ,owen has formed two       
orders#ff for the reception of some     
remarkable extinct reptiles of this age1
 found especially in ,south ,africa and 

,india1 but also in ,europe and         
,america4 ,the first includes large     
lizard-like animals having horny jaws   
like those of turtles1 and in some of   
the species with great defensive tusks  
7,fig4 #add74 ,their mode of life is not
 well known1 but they may have been     
peaceable and harmless vegetable        
feeders4 ,the second has been already   
referred to1 in connection with the     
,permian1 where it first appears1 though
 it is continued in the ,trias 7,fig4   
#ade74 ,the resemblance of the skulls of
 these creatures to those of            
,carnivorous mammals is very striking1  
and nothing can be more singular than   
their early appearance and their        
decadence before the advent of those    
,tertiary mammals which in more modern  
times occupy their place4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#adc4;a,euro,skeleton of ,clidastes4 ,a 
great ,mososauroid ,sea ,reptile of the 
,cretaceous4a,euro,after ,cope1 much    
reduced4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4         

#add4;a,euro,an ,anomodont ,reptile of  
the ,trias 7,dicynodon lacerticeps1     
,owen74 ,reduced4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4
 #ade4;a,euro,a ,theriodont ,reptile of 
the ,trias 7,lycosaurus74a,euro,after   
,owen4 ,reduced4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#adf4;a,euro,skeleton of ,pterodochylus 
crassirostris4 ,jurassic of ,solenhofen4
 ,reduced4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#adg4;a,euro,restoration of             
,rhamphorhyncus ,bucklandi4 ,jurassic of
 ,england4a,euro,after ,phillips4    a1 
,one of the teeth4 ,natural size4       
,perhaps the most extraordinary of all  
the ,mesozoic modifications of the      
reptilian type was that of the flying   
reptiles1 or ,pterodactyls4 ,these were1
 in short1 lizards modified for flight1 
somewhat in the same manner with the    
bats among the mammals4 ,if the bat may 
be likened to a flying shrew-mouse1 a   
,pterodactyl may in like manner be      
compared to a flying lizard2 but the    
modification in the latter case is by   
much the more remarkable1 inasmuch as   

the lizard is a cold-blooded animal1 and
 far less likely to be endowed with the 
active circulation and muscular power   
necessary to flight than is the mouse4  
,in point of fact1 there can be no doubt
 that the ,pterodactyls must have been  
provided with some approach to a        
mammalian or ornithic heart1 as they    
certainly were with great breast-muscles
 attached to a keel in the breast-bone  
for working their large membranous      
wings4 ,these wings were also somewhat  
original in their construction4 ,they   
were not furnished with pinions1 like   
those of the bird1 but with a membrane  
like that of the bat1 and this1 instead 
of being stretched over four enormously 
lengthened fingers1 as in that          
quadruped1 was supported on a single    
elongated finger1 corresponding1        
singularly enough1 to the little finger1
 which usually inconspicuous member     
constituted in some of these strange    
creatures a limb longer than the whole  
body 7,figs4 #adf1 #adg47 ,the other    

fingers of the hand were left free for  
walking or grasping4 ,they are thus     
believed to have been able to walk as   
well as to fly1 and even in case of     
need1 to swim2 while they could probably
 perch like birds on rocks and trees4   
,their heads1 though very lightly       
framed1 were large and reptilian in     
aspect1 and furnished with sharp teeth1 
and sometimes probably with a beak as   
well4 ,few creatures of the old world   
are of more hideous and sinister aspect4
 ,yet some of them must have been as    
light and graceful on the wing as       
swallows or sea-gulls4 ,there are many  
species1 most of them small1 but some of
 those in the later ,mesozoic attained  
to so great a size that the expanse of  
their wings must have exceeded twenty   
feet1 making them veritable flying      
dragons1 probably formidable to all the 
smaller animals of their time4 ,though  
these animals were strictly reptiles1   
they combined in their structures       
contrivances for a,arial locomotion now 

distributed between the bats and the    
birds4 ,they had bat-like wings and     
bird-like chests4 ,some had horny beaks4
 ,all had hollow limb bones1 and air    
cavities to give lightness to the skull4
 ,their brains approach to those of     
birds1 and1 as already stated1 their    
respiration and circulation must have   
been of a high order4 ,these facts are  
very suggestive1 and perhaps in no point
 is the imagination or the faith of the 
devout evolutionist more severely tested
 than in realising the spontaneous      
assumption of these characters by       
reptiles1 and their subsequent          
distribution between the very dissimilar
 types in which they are now continued4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adh4;a,euro,a    
,jurassic ,bird 7,arch,aopteryx         
macroura74a,euro,after ,owen4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adi4;a,euro,jaw  
of a ,cretaceous ,toothed ,bird         
7,ichthyornis dispar74a,euro,after      
,marsh4 ,natural size4  ,the            
approximation of the winged reptiles to 

the birds is further increased by the   
facts that in the ,jurassic and         
,cretaceous periods there were birds    
having reptilian tails and probably     
toothed jaws 7,arch,aopteryx macroura1  
,fig4 #adh74 ,the species just named1   
while in its limbs1 trunk1 and feathers 
a veritable perching bird1 resembles a  
reptile in its head and tail4 ,in the   
,cretaceous of ,western ,america1 ,marsh
 has recently discovered two distinct   
types of toothed birds1 one having the  
teeth in regular sockets1 the other     
having them implanted in a groove in the
 jaw4 ,one of these birds 7,ichthyornis 
dispar1 ,fig4 #adi7 was larger than a   
pigeon1 with powerful wings constructed 
like those of ordinary birds4 ,it had   
also the curious and old-fashioned      
peculiarity of biconcave vertebr,a1 like
 those of fishes and some reptiles4     
,another 7,hesperornis regalis7 stood   
five or six feet high1 and had          
rudimentary wings like those of the     
,penguins4 ,these toothed birds extend  

into the ,eocene ,tertiary1 where the   
,odontopteryx of ,owen has been known   
for some time4 ,in the ,eocene1 however1
 this toothed bird is associated with   
others of ordinary types1 allied closely
 to the ,ostriches1 the ,pelicans1 the  
,ibis1 the ,woodpeckers1 the ,hawks1 the
 ,owls1 the ,vultures1 and the ordinary 
perching birds4 ,in the ,later          
,mesozoic1 indeed1 some reptiles became 
so bird-like that they nearly approached
 the earliest birds2 but this was a     
final and futile effort of the reptile  
to obtain in the air that supremacy     
which it had long enjoyed in earth and  
water2 and its failure was immediately  
succeeded in the ,eocene by the         
appearance of a cloud of true birds1    
representing all the existing orders of 
the class4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#aej4;a,euro,jaw of ,bathygnathus       
borealis 7,leidy74 ,a ,triassic         
,dinosaur from ,prince ,edward ,island4 
a1 ,cross section of second tooth1      
natural size4 b1 ,fifth tooth1 natural  

size4  ,we may close our notice of the  
winged reptiles of the ,mesozoic by     
quoting from ,phillips his summary of   
the characters of ,rhamphorhyncus 7,fig4
 #adg7fg3 a,eurooe,gifted with ample    
means of flight1 able at least to perch 
on rocks and scuffle along the shore1   
perhaps competent to dive1 though not so
 well as a palmiped bird1 many fishes   
must have yielded to the cruel beak and 
sharp teeth of the ,rhamphorhyncus4 ,if 
we ask to which of the many families of 
birds the analogy of structure and      
probable way of life would lead us to   
assimilate ,rhamphorhyncus1 the answer  
must point to the swimming races1 with  
long wings1 clawed feet1 hooked beak1   
and habits of violence and voracity2 and
 for preference1 the shortness of the   
legs and other circumstances may be held
 to claim for the ,stonesfield fossil a 
more than fanciful similitude to the    
groups of ,cormorants and other marine  
divers which constitute an effective    
part of the picturesque army of robbers 

of the sea4a,euro  ,illustration3 ,,fig4
 #aea4;a,euro,hadrosaurus ,foulkii      
7,cope74 ,an ,herbivorous ,dinosaur1 #bh
 feet long4a,euro,after                 
,hawkinsa,euro7,,tm7s restoration4      
,lastly1 the reptiles1 in this age of   
their imperial sway1 culminated in the  
,dinosaurians1 animals far above any    
modern ,reptilia in the perfection of   
their organisation1 and many of them of 
gigantic size4 ,just as the ,pterosaurs 
filled the place now occupied by the    
birds1 so the ,dinosaurs filled that    
represented by the mammals1 or rather   
they took up a place holding some close 
relations with both the birds and the   
mammals4 ,there were thus reptilian     
animals which on the one hand were the  
elephants and lions of their time1 and  
on the other bore a grotesque           
resemblance to creatures so unlike these
 as the ,ostriches1 in so far as their  
anatomical structure was concerned2     
while it is evident that their whole    
organisation places them in the highest 

position possible within the reptilian  
class4 ,some of them must have been     
herbivorous1 and probably slow in       
movement and quiet in nature4 ,others   
were carnivorous and of terrible energy1
 while furnished with the most          
destructive weapons 7,figs4 #aeb1 #aec74
 ,many had the power of erecting        
themselves on their hind-feet and       
walking as bipeds2 and to adapt them to 
this end their hinder limbs were very   
large and strong1 and they had long     
pillar-like tails1 while their fore-feet
 were comparatively small1 and used     
perhaps mainly for prehension 7,figs4   
#aea1 #aed74  ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#aeb4;a,euro,jaws of                    
,megalosaurus4a,euro,after ,phillips4   
,one-tenth natural size4  ,the size of  
some of these creatures was stupendous4 
,the ,hadrosaurus of ,new ,jersey1 an   
,herbivorous species 7,fig4 #aea71 when 
erected on its hind limbs and tail1 must
 have stood more than twenty feet in    
height4 ,megalosaurus and ,iguanodon1 of

 the ,english ,jurassic and ,wealden1   
must have been of still more gigantic   
size4 ,the former was a carnivorous     
animal1 its head 7,fig4 #aeb7 four or   
five feet in length1 armed with teeth1  
sabre-shaped1 sharp and crenate on the  
edges 7,fig4 #aec71 its hind limbs of   
enormous power1 so that if our          
imagination does not fail us in the     
attempt to realise such a wonder1 we may
 even suppose this huge animal1 much    
larger than the largest elephant1       
springing like a tiger on its prey1 a   
miracle of terrible strength and        
ferocity1 before which no living thing  
could stand4 ,its companion1 ,iguanodon1
 was1 on the contrary1 a harmless       
herbivorous creature1 using its great   
strength and stature as a means of      
obtaining leaves and fruits for food1   
and perhaps falling a prey to the larger
 ,carnivorous ,dinosaurs its            
contemporaries4 ,a still more bulky     
animal was the ,ceteosaurus1 so         
admirably described by ,phillips4 ,its  

thigh-bone measures more than five feet 
in length and a foot in diameter2 and it
 must have stood ten feet high when on  
all fours1 while its length must have   
reached forty or fifty feet4 ,it seems  
from the forms of its bones to have been
 able to walk on land1 but probably     
spent most of its time in the water1    
where it may be compared to a huge      
reptilian hippopotamus4 ,very recently  
some bones found in rocks1 possibly of  
,wealden age1 in ,western ,america1 and 
described by ,cope and by ,marsh1       
indicate that even ,ceteosaurus had not 
attained to the maximum of ,dinosaurian 
dimensions4 ,these new animals have     
vertebr,a twenty inches in length and   
from twelve inches to thirteen inches in
 the diameter of their bodies1 while    
their lateral processes stretched three 
and a half feet4 ,the shoulder-blade of 
one species is five feet in length1 and 
its thigh-bone is six feet long4 ,from  
these measurements ,cope concludes that1
 unlike most other ,dinosaurs1 it had   

the fore-feet larger in proportion than 
the hind-feet1 so as to have somewhat   
the appearance of a large giraffe4 ,the 
bones of the back have a remarkable     
cavernous structure1 which ,cope        
interprets as indicating air cavities1  
to give lightness1 as in the case of the
 bones of birds2 but ,owen suggests that
 the cavities were filled with          
cartilage1 and that the animals were    
aquatic in their habits4 ,evidently in  
point of size the ,dinosaurs had a      
better claim than even ,behemoth to be  
called the a,eurooechief of the ways of 
,god4a,euro ,some of them1 however1 were
 of small size1 and probably active and 
bird-like in their movements4 ,one of   
these is the animal represented in ,fig4
 #aed1 a species from the lithographic  
limestone of ,solenhofen4#fh            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aec4;a,euro,tooth
 of ,megalosaurus4 ,natural size4  a1   
,cross section4 b1 ,crenellation of     
edges4 ,enlarged4  ,nothing in the life 
of the ,mesozoic has so seized on the   

imagination of evolutionists as the     
links of connection between birds and   
reptiles1 which has even been introduced
 by ,huxley into the classification of  
animals1 by his grouping these          
heretofore very distinct classes in one 
gigantic and comprehensive class of     
,sauropsida4 ,it is necessary1          
therefore1 to glance at these           
connections1 and if possible to arrive  
at some conception of their true value4 
,the links which connect the reptiles   
and the birds are twofold4 ,first1 that 
between the ,dinosaurs and the ostrich  
tribe1#fi and1 secondly1 that between   
the ,pterodactyls and their allies1 and 
the peculiar ,mesozoic birds1 such as   
,arch,aopteryx4 ,the first would serve  
to account for the few exceptional      
,struthious birds of the modern world4  
,the second would account for the       
,passerine and other more ordinary      
birds2 and thus1 according to evolution1
 the now somewhat homogeneous class of  
birds would have a double1 or more      

probably multiple1 origin from several  
lines of reptilian ancestors4 ,this1 no 
doubt1 greatly complicates the links of 
connection1 whether these be supposed to
 indicate derivation or not4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#aed4;a,euro,compsognathus4 ,one of the 
smaller ,dinosaurs4a,euro,after ,wagner4
  ,if we inquire as to the first        
connection above stated1 we may define  
it briefly in the words of ,prof4       
,phillips1 with reference to            
,megalosaurus1 which a,eurooewas not a  
ground-crawler1 like the alligator1 but 
moving with free steps1 chiefly1 if not 
solely1 on the hind limbs1 and claiming 
a curious analogy1 if not some degree of
 affinity1 with the ostrich4a,euro#gj   
,but the question arises1 ,was this     
resemblance merely that of two oviparous
 bipeds1 or anything more8 and when we  
set off1 against the resemblance in     
haunch bones and hind limbs1 the entire 
dissimilarity in head1 in fore limbs1 in
 vertebr,a1 in tail1 and probably in    

external covering1 we are disposed to   
agree with ,huxley in his statement1    
with respect to the ,struthious birds1  
that their a,eurooetotal amount of      
approximation to the reptilian type is  
but small2 and the gap between reptiles 
and birds is but very slightly narrowed 
by their existence4a,euro ,there is     
therefore here a great gap1 even in the 
linking together of the types1          
independently of any question of        
derivation4  ,the second line of        
connection appears at first sight more  
promising4 ,arch,aopteryx has a         
reptilian tail1 and claws on the wing2  
and1 as it had toothed jaws1 like some  
of the birds in the ,cretaceous1 must   
have altogether made a much nearer      
approach to a reptile than any modern   
bird does4 ,the remarkable              
a,eurooefish-birda,euro 7,ichthyornis7  
of ,marsh is also very reptilian in some
 of its characters4 ,but when we compare
 these reptilian birds with the         
,pterodactyls and their allies1 a vast  

gap at once becomes apparent4           
,disregarding the external clothing1 we 
find the wing in the two groups entirely
 dissimilar in details of construction1 
and this dissimilarity extends to the   
hind limbs as well1 so that the         
,pterodactyls resemble bats rather than 
birds4  ,without committing ourselves to
 any doctrine of development1 we might  
have rejoiced if our geological         
discoveries had established a continuous
 chain1 or two continuous chains1 of    
being between the reptiles and the      
birds2 but this end is evidently still  
far from being attained1 though some    
approximation has undoubtedly been made4
 ,to quote again the admission of       
,huxley3 a,eurooe,birds are no more     
modified reptiles than reptiles are     
modified birds1 the reptilian and       
ornithic types being both in reality    
somewhat different superstructures1     
raised upon one and the same            
ground-plana,euroa,eurothat ground-plan 
being the idea of the air-breathing     

oviparous vertebrate1 and the reptile   
representing the less specialized and   
less ornate building4 ,as yet the origin
 of that idea1 and the mode of carrying 
it out to completion1 remain unknown1   
except to the ,architect and ,builder1  
who may reveal them to earnest seekers  
for truth in ,his own good time4  ,as to
 links of connection with the ,mammalia1
 these are still more obscure4 ,in the  
,mesozoic the mammals are represented as
 yet only by a few small species allied 
to the pouched 7,marsupial7 and         
insectivorous quadrupeds of ,australia1 
and these are closely linked with some  
of the smaller carnivorous ,mammalia of 
the early ,tertiary2 but neither        
approach very closely to any known      
reptilian types4 ,nor have we yet any   
connecting links between the great      
marine reptiles and the ,cetaceans and  
,sirenians which in the ,tertiary take  
their place in the sea4  ,it is an      
interesting fact1 to come before us in  
our next chapter1 that the great land   

reptiles of the ,mesozoic survived long 
enough to become contemporary with the  
introduction and first luxuriance of the
 modern types of vegetation in the later
 ,cretaceous4 ,it would be natural to   
suppose that access to these great      
supplies of better food would have      
stimulated the increase and development 
of the herbivorous species1 and would   
have indirectly had the same effect on  
those that were carnivorous2 but the    
opposite result seems to have followed1 
and in the next period the reptiles     
altogether gave place to the mammals1   
unless1 indeed1 they were themselves by 
some mysterious and comparatively rapid 
process transformed into ,mammalia1 to  
suit them to the better conditions of an
 improved world4  ,so far as yet known1 
the reign of reptiles was world-wide in 
its time2 and the imagination is taxed  
to conceive of a state of things in     
which the seas swarmed with great       
reptiles on every coast1 when the land  
was trodden by colossal reptilian bipeds

 and quadrupeds1 in comparison with some
 of which our elephants are pygmies1 and
 when the air was filled with the       
grotesque and formidable ,pterodactyls4 
,yet this is no fancy picture4 ,it      
represents a time which actually        
existed1 when that comparatively low1   
brutal1 and insensate type of existence 
represented by the modern crocodiles and
 alligators was supreme in the world4   
,the duration of these creatures was    
long1 and in watching the progress of   
creation1 they would have seemed the    
permanent inhabitants of the earth4 ,yet
 all have perished1 and their modern    
successors1 except a few large species  
existing in the warmer climates1 have   
become subject to the more recently     
introduced ,mammalia4  ,how did the     
ancient reptile aristocracy perish8 ,we 
are ignorant of the details of the      
catastrophe1 but their final            
disappearance and replacement by the    
more modern fauna was connected with a  
great continental subsidence in the     

,cretaceous age1 and with changes of    
climate and conditions preceding and    
subsequent to it4 ,yet the struggle for 
continued dominion was hard and         
protracted2 and toward its close some of
 the champions of the reign of reptiles 
were the greatest and most magnificent  
examples of the type2 as if they had    
risen in their might to defy approaching
 ruin4 ,thus some of the most stupendous
 forms appear in the later ,cretaceous1 
after the great subsidence had made     
progress and almost attained its        
consummation4 ,like the antediluvian    
giants1 they were undismayed even when  
the land began to sink beneath their    
feet2 and for them there was no ark of  
deliverance4     ,illustration3 ,,lower 
,,cretaceous ,,leaves4 ,,reduced ,,in   
,,size4a,euro,after ,lesquereux4  a1    
,aralia ,saporteana4 b1 ,sassafras      
araliopsis4 c1 ,quercus primordialis4 d1
 ,fagus polyclada4 e1 ,salix            
prote,afolia4 f1 ,laurus prote,afolia4  
,,chapter ,,viii4  ,,the ,,first        

,,forests ,,of ,,modern ,,type4   ,for a
 long time it was believed by geologists
 that a great and mysterious gap        
separated the ,upper ,cretaceous from   
the oldest ,tertiary formations2 and in 
,western ,europe1 in so far as physical 
conditions and animal life are          
concerned1 the severance seemed nearly  
complete4 ,oceanic deposits1 like the   
,upper ,chalk1 are succeeded by beds of 
littoral and estuarine characters4 ,the 
last and some of the greatest of the    
,mesozoic ,saurians have their          
burial-places in the ,upper ,cretaceous1
 and appear no more on earth4 ,the      
wonderful shell-fishes of the ,ammonite 
group1 and the cuttle-fishes of the     
,belemnite type1 share the same fate4   
,with the earliest deposits of the      
,eocene ,tertiary came in multitudes of 
large ,mammalia heretofore unknown1 and 
the ,cetaceans appear in the sea instead
 of the great marine lizards2 while     
shells1 corals1 and crustaceans of      
modern types swarm in the waters4 ,thus 

it is true that a great and apparently  
somewhat abrupt change takes place at   
the close of the ,cretaceous1 and       
terminates for ever the reptilian age4  
,even in regions like ,western ,america1
 where physically the later ,cretaceous 
shades gradually into the earlier       
,tertiary1 so that there have been      
doubts as to the limits of these several
 periods1 the same great change in      
animal life occurs4  ,but a link of     
connection has at length been found in  
the history of the vegetable kingdom4   
,the modern flora came in with its full 
force in the later ,cretaceous1 before  
the end of the reptilian age1 and       
continued onward to the present time4   
,thus the plant takes precedence of the 
animal1 and the preparation was made for
 the mammalian life of the ,eocene by   
the introduction of the modern flora in 
the ,cretaceous period4 ,in like manner 
it is possible that the great graphite  
deposits of the ,laurentian indicate a  
vegetation which preceded the swarming  

marine life of the ,cambrian2 and it is 
not improbable that the ,pal,aozoic land
 flora existed long before the first    
land animals4 ,thus the plant1 as in the
 old ,mosaic record1 ever appears on the
 day before the animal1 in each stage of
 the development of the world4  ,in     
,chapter ,,iv4 we traced the history of 
the old and rich vegetation of the ,coal
 period4 ,but this vegetation consisted 
principally of cryptogams and those     
lowest ph,anogams1 of the pine and cycad
 groups1 which have naked seeds4 ,in the
 modern flora we may arrange the several
 groups of plants1 somewhat naturally1  
as follows3a,euro  ,series ,i41         
,,cryptogams3a,euro    ,class #a1       
,thallophytes1 sea-weeds1 lichens1      
fungi4     a,euro   #b1 ,anophytes1     
mosses1 c4     a,euro   #c1 ,acrogens1  
ferns1 lycopods1 horsetails4  ,series   
,,ii41 ,,pha,,nogams3a,euro    ,class   
#d1 ,gymnosperms1 pines1 cycads1 c4     
a,euro   #e1 ,endogens1 palms1 grasses1 
c4     a,euro   #f1 ,exogens1 oaks1     

maples1 c4  ,with reference to the      
history of these groups the record      
stands as follows3a,euro,in the         
,pal,aozoic age classes #c and #d       
culminated1 and constituted the great   
mass of the arboreal vegetation4 ,on    
entering the ,mesozoic1 ,no4 #c becomes 
somewhat diminished1 but ,no4 #d        
continues with unabated prevalence1 so  
that the ,mesozoic has sometimes been   
characterized as emphatically the age of
 ,gymnosperms4 ,with these appear some  
,endogens1 allied to the modern ,yuccas 
and ,screw pines and ,arums4 ,but in the
 lower ,mesozoic rocks we have no       
representatives of the broad-leaved     
,exogens 7,angiosperms71 which          
constitute the great mass of ordinary   
forest vegetation2 and it is only in the
 ,cretaceous that we find them appearing
 in force1 and that the monotonous      
vegetation of the older style was       
replaced by the more beautiful and      
varied forms of our modern woods4  ,in  
,europe1 in the lower part of the ,upper

 ,cretaceous of ,bohemia 7,cenomanian71 
have been found some leaves which       
indicate the beginning of this change4  
,these have been referred to            
,,casalpinias or ,brasilettos1          
pod-bearing trees of ,india and tropical
 ,america1 ,aralias or ,ginsengs1       
,magnolias1 ,laurels1 an ,ivy1 and a    
peculiar and uncertain genus            
7,credneria74 ,with these are noble     
palms1 both of the types with pinnate   
and palmate leaves1 and trees allied to 
the ,giant ,sequoias of ,california1 and
 to the ,araucarian pines of the        
southern hemisphere4 7,see ,frontispiece
 to this ,chapter47 ,these ancient      
,cretaceous forests of ,eastern ,europe 
are compared by ,saporta with those     
which now live in the warmer portions of
 ,china or in ,south ,americaa,eurotruly
 a marvellous change from the sombre and
 uniform vegetation by which they seem  
to have been immediately preceded4 ,a   
still further development of modern     
vegetation takes place in the next or   

highest member of the ,cretaceous1 the  
,maestricht beds 7,senonian71 where we  
find a crowd of modern types4 ,on this  
great change ,count ,saporta remarks    
with truth that there seem to have been 
periods of pause and of activity in the 
introduction of plants4 ,the ,jurassic  
period was one of inactivity2 and a new 
and vigorous evolution1 as he regards   
it1 is introduced in the middle of the  
,cretaceous4  ,this new and grand       
elevation of the vegetable kingdom in   
the ,cretaceous age was not local       
merely4 ,in ,moravia1 in the ,hartz1 in 
,belgium and ,france1 even in           
,greenland1 the same great renewing of  
the face of the earth was in progress4  
,in ,america it was proceeding on a     
grand scale1 and seems to have set in   
earlier than in ,europe4#ga ,in the     
,dakota group of the ,west1 one of the  
lower members of the ,cretaceous1 and   
covering a vast area1 a rich            
angiospermous flora has been discovered 
by ,hayden1 and described by ,lesquereux

 and ,newberry1 and beds of coal have   
been formed from its remains4 ,in       
,vancouvera,euro7,,tm7s ,island in      
,british ,columbia1 ,cretaceous coal    
measures occur1 comparable in value and 
in the excellence of the fuel they      
afford with those of the true coal      
formation4 ,some of the beds of coal are
 eight feet in thickness1 and the shales
 associated with them abound in leaves  
of exogenous trees generally similar to 
those still living in ,america4 ,in     
these beds are also found mineralized   
trunks1 which present under the         
microscope the familiar structures of   
our oaks1 birches1 and other modern     
trees4 ,thus all over the northern      
hemisphere the elevation of the land out
 of the waters of the great ,cretaceous 
subsidence was signalized by a          
development of noble and exuberant      
forest vegetation1 of the types still   
extant4 ,the following list of families 
found in the ,cretaceous1 after         
,saporta1 will show the botanist how    

fully our modern ,exogens are           
represented3a,euro    ,,apetala4        
,myricace,a4   ,cupulifer,a4            
,betulace,a4   ,salicace,a4   ,more,a4  
,proteace,a4   ,laurace,a4              
,,gamopetala4   ,apocynace,a4           
,ericace,a4   ,ebenace,a4   ,myrsine,a4 
,,polypetala4   ,araliace,a4            
,hamameliace,a4   ,helleborine,a4       
,magnoliace,a4   ,tiliace,a4            
,celastrace,a4   ,anacardiace,a4        
,myrtace,a4  ,of the plants in this     
list1 some1 like the oaks1 birches1     
willows1 and heaths1 are common and     
familiar members of the flora of the    
northern hemisphere to-day1 and even of 
the ,european flora4 ,some1 like the    
,magnolias1 ,myricas1 and witch-hazels1 
are characteristically ,american1 and a 
few1 like the ,proteace,a1 are now      
confined to the southern hemisphere4    
,some of these families have dwindled   
since the ,cretaceous time1 so as to be 
represented by very few species1 or at  
least have not advanced1 while others   

have multiplied and prospered2 and on   
the whole the flora of the northern     
hemisphere seems to have been as rich in
 this early beginning of our modern     
forests as it is at the present day4    
,lesquereuxa,euro7,,tm7s results1 with  
reference to the ,american flora of the 
,dakota group1 are very similar1 and    
present some surprising features of     
resemblance to modern ,american forests1
 though he remarks that these           
,cretaceous trees are generally         
characterized by the even or unserrated 
edges of their leaves2 and the same     
remark seems to apply to the oldest     
,cretaceous leaves of ,europe4  ,a very 
singular feature of the ,cretaceous     
flora is the number of species of some  
genera now represented by few or even a 
single species2 and this is the more    
remarkable when we consider how few     
species1 comparatively1 of the older    
flora1 are known to us4 ,for example1   
,lesquereux1 though aware of the great  
variability of the modern ,sassafras of 

,america1 recognizes eight species of   
this genus in the ,dakota ,cretaceous1  
one of which seems to be that still     
living in ,america1 so that it has      
continued unchanged1 while the others   
have perished 7,fig4 #aee74 ,thus this  
genus culminates at once in the         
,cretaceous1 but continues still in one 
of its species4 ,again1 the tulip-tree1 
,liriodendron1 one of the most          
beautiful1 unique1 and invariable of    
,american trees1 is represented by one  
sole species in the present world4      
,there seem to be no less than four in  
the ,dakota beds1 besides others in the 
,cretaceous of ,new ,jersey1 and one    
species is found in the ,tertiary of    
,greenland as well as in that of ,europe
 7,fig4 #aef74 ,there are probably four 
or five species of plane-tree           
7,platanus7 now extant1 of which but one
 occurs in ,america1 unless ,p4         
,mexicana1 the ,mexican plane-tree1 is a
 good species as distinct from the      
ordinary1 more northern1 form4 ,there   

are seven species1 according to         
,lesquereux1 in the ,cretaceous of      
,dakota alone4 ,this sort of evolution  
backward1 or from many species to few1  
would probably be greatly increased1 had
 we fuller knowledge of the ,cretaceous 
flora1 as there are several genera      
already represented by as many species  
as they can boast in modern times4 ,we  
have already seen that this abrupt and  
sudden culmination of genera and        
families1 and their subsequent          
decadence1 is no rare thing in geology1 
and it connects itself with that idea of
 periods of creative activity which we  
have already had occasion to notice4    
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#aee4;a,euro,sassafras cretaceum        
7,newberry74  ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#aef4;a,euro,liriodendron prim,avum     
7,newberry74 ,a ,cretaceous ,tulip-tree4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4                 
#aeg4;a,euro,onoclea sensibilis4        
,eocene4a,euro,after ,newberry4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   

#aeh4;a,euro,davallia tenuifolia4       
,eocene4a,euro,after ,dawson4 ,natural  
size and enlarged4  ,i have dwelt       
principally on the ph,anogamous plants  
of the ,cretaceous1 as presenting the   
most noteworthy and new features of the 
time2 but we must not forget that though
 cryptogams were deposed from the high  
position they held in the ,pal,aozoic1  
they still existed2 and there are more  
especially many interesting species of  
ferns and equisetums in the ,cretaceous 
and ,eocene rocks4 ,these are1 however1 
of modern types2 and it is remarkable   
that some of them appear to have        
continued without even specific change  
from the later ,cretaceous up to the    
present time4 ,a striking illustration  
of this is afforded by two ferns        
discovered side by side in the oldest   
,eocene beds#gb of the plains west of   
,red ,river1 and described in ,dr4 ,g4  
,m4 ,dawsona,euro7,,tm7s report on the  
#dith parallel4 ,one of these is the    
well-known and very common ,onoclea     

sensibilis 7,fig4 #aeg71 or sensitive   
fern of ,eastern ,america4#gc ,this     
species came into existence at latest at
 the close of the ,cretaceous1 and has  
apparently been continued in ,america up
 to the present time4 ,in ,europe1 where
 it does not now live1 it occurs as a   
fossil in ,eocene beds in the ,isle of  
,mull4 ,the other is ,davallia          
tenuifolia 7,fig4 #aeh71 a delicate     
little plant belonging to a genus not   
now represented in ,america1 and to a   
species at present found only in ,asia4 
,yet this species also lived in ,america
 in early ,eocene times1 but has since  
been banished1 though its former        
companion1 the ,onoclea1 still holds its
 ground4 ,such cases of specific        
persistence along with great changes of 
habitat are very instructive as to the  
permanence of species4  ,count ,saporta1
 whose just remarks on the marvellously 
sudden incoming of the ,cretaceous flora
 we have already referred to1 also      
notices the fact that the families and  

genera represented in this flora are a  
most miscellaneous and unconnected      
assemblage1 showing either the          
simultaneous appearance of many         
dissimilar types1 or requiring us to    
believe in the existence of these and of
 intermediate forms for a very long     
period before that in which they are    
first found4 ,this may1 however1 be     
placed in connection with the appearance
 of an exogenous tree 7,syringoxylon7 in
 the ,devonian1 referred to in a        
previous chapter4 ,it would be a strange
 and now little suspected case of       
imperfection of the record1 if it should
 be found that trees of this type were  
lurking in exceptional corners through  
all the vast periods between the        
,devonian and the ,cretaceous1 to burst 
forth in unwonted variety and luxuriance
 in the latter period4  ,the new        
,cretaceous flora appears first in beds 
which had been recently elevated from   
the ocean of the great ,cretaceous      
subsidence2 and when it first           

flourished1 in temperate regions at     
least1 the continents were of small     
dimensions1 and broken up into groups of
 islands4 ,farther1 ,america would seem 
to have had precedence of the ,eastern  
,continent1 and the ,arctic of the      
,temperate regions4 ,thus on the        
elevation of the later ,cretaceous land1
 plants previously established in the   
far north spread themselves southward1  
over newly-raised lands1 radiating from 
the polar regions into ,europe1 ,asia1  
and ,america4 ,this seems the only way  
of accounting for the similarity of the 
plants in these distant countries4 ,the 
new flora of the ,upper ,cretaceous in  
its journey southward met with a climate
 probably warmer than the present1 yet  
not so warm as to prevent trees similar 
to those now living in the same         
latitudes from flourishing4  ,let us now
 trace this flora through the succeeding
 ages1 in which ,i shall follow pretty  
closely some general statements made by 
,count ,de ,saporta in memoirs recently 

published4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#aei4;a,euro,eocene ,leaves4 ,from ,aix4
  a1 ,quercus antecedens 7,saporta74 b1 
,diospyros pyrifolia 7,saporta74 c1     
,myrica ,mathesonii 7,saporta74  ,at the
 beginning of the ,eocene we find a     
humid and warm climate in ,europe1 with 
great forests of oaks1 chestnuts1       
laurels1 giant pines1 and other genera1 
some of them still ,european1 others    
,asiatic or ,american1 and many of them 
survivors of the ,cretaceous 7,figs4    
#aei to #afb72 and at the same period   
similar forests overspread those great  
plains of ,north ,america which were    
rising from out the ,cretaceous sea1 and
 there vast swampy beds were formed of  
vegetable d,a7,c7bris1 giving origin to 
beds of brown coal1 some of them        
eighteen feet in thickness4 ,then came  
in ,europe and ,asia that great         
subsidence under the sea1 during which  
the ,nummuline limestones were          
deposited1 and when the old continent   
was resolved again into an archipelago  

of islands1 perhaps closely connected   
with more southern lands4 ,this led to a
 great increase of southern forms of    
plants1 which does not seem to have     
occurred to the same extent in ,america1
 where the flora is more continuous1    
though showing a warmer climate in the  
older than in the newer ,eocene4 ,at    
this period ,palms1 ,screw pines1       
,proteaceous shrubs1 ,myrtles1 ,acacias1
 and other plants of the character of   
those of more southern climates were    
dominant in ,europe 7,fig4 #afc74 ,the  
well-known beds of ,bournemouth1 in the 
south of ,england1#gd contain a rich    
flora of the ,eocene age1 perhaps of its
 middle period1 and reminding us of the 
forests of sub-tropical ,india or       
,australia4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#afj4;a,euro,an ,ancient ,clover        
7,trifolium pal,aog,aum1 ,saporta74     
,eocene4 ,aix4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#afa4;a,euro,an ,eocene ,maple 7,acer   
sextianus1 ,saporta74 ,aix4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afb4;a,euro,a    

,european ,magnolia of the ,eocene 7,m4 
dian,a1 ,saporta74 ,aix4  ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #afc4;a,euro,flower and ,leaf of
 ,bombax sepultiflorum4 ,eocene of      
,aix4a,euro,after ,saporta4  ,a         
,european representative of the         
,silk-cotton-tree of the ,east ,indies  
and ,tropical ,america4  ,gradual       
elevation of the land favoured for a    
time the extension of these plants1 and 
the warmth of the climate allowed them  
to extend even into ,arctic latitudes4  
,but in the middle of the ,eocene       
another subsidence occurred1 which      
exterminated much of the ,eocene flora1 
and was perhaps accompanied with a      
reduction of temperature1 in which the  
more northern lands became covered with 
great forests of trees allied to the    
,pines4 ,in ,england a remarkable       
deposit of this age is that of ,bovey   
,tracey1 in ,devonshire1 where beds of  
clay and brown coal have afforded a rich
 flora of ,american and southern types4 
,the ,sequoia shown in ,fig4 #afd       

abounds at this place1 and is a near    
relation to the celebrated a,eurooebig  
treesa,euro of ,california2 the         
,cinnamomum in ,fig4 #afe is a type     
equally foreign from modern ,england4   
,it is a curious feature of the ,bovey  
deposit that immediately above these    
,eocene beds1 holding a rich flora of   
warm temperate character1 are glacial   
clays with leaves of ,arctic willows and
 of the dwarf birch1 indicating a       
climate much more severe than that of   
the ,british ,islands at present4#ge    
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#afd4;a,euro,branch and ,fruit of       
,sequoia ,couttsi,a 7,heer74 ,eocene4   
,england4  ,in the ,miocene period the  
land again rose1 and the northern flora 
spread itself southward equally over    
,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america1 so that   
the ,miocene flora of all these regions 
is very similar2 and this ,miocene flora
 continues substantially to this day in 
,eastern ,america and ,eastern ,asia1   
except that it has been greatly reduced 

in number of species by the intervention
 of the cold glacial period2 but in     
,europe and ,western ,america it has    
been largely replaced by other          
apparently more modern species4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#afe4;a,euro,cinnamomum ,scheuchzeri    
7,heer74 ,eocene4 ,england4  ,a striking
 result of recent discoveries is the    
fact that in ,cretaceous and ,eocene    
times a very warm climate prevailed in  
the extreme ,arctic regions1 and trees  
of temperate latitudes grew there       
freely4 ,in the recent ,arctic          
expedition1 ,captain ,fielden found in  
latitude #ha;,a deg4 #dj;a,euro7,,tm71  
within #fjj miles of the ,pole1 a bed of
 lignite1 from twenty-five to thirty    
feet in thickness1 associated with      
remains of plants such as now grow only 
in temperate latitudes4  a,eurooe,from  
the character of the plant-remains1 ,dr4
 ,heer infers that the lignite of this  
locality represents an ancient          
peat-moss1 which must have been of wide 

extent1 with reeds1 sedges1 birches1    
poplar1 and certain conifers growing on 
its banks2 while the higher and drier   
ground in the neighbourhood probably    
supported a growth of pines and firs1   
with elms and hazel-bushes4 ,the remains
 of water-lilies suggest the existence  
of a fresh-water lake in the old        
peat-moss1 which must have remained     
unfrozen during a great part of the     
year4a,euro  ,it is to be observed with 
reference to the age of these beds1 that
 as the ,later ,cretaceous and ,eocene  
flora of ,europe and ,america migrated  
from the north1 the plants found in the 
beds of that age in the temperate       
latitudes may really be somewhat older  
in the ,arctic regions1 a fact which    
produces some uncertainty as to their   
actual age4  ,the warmth required for   
the growth of luxuriant forests near the
 ,pole might be secured by a different  
distribution of land and water1 and of  
the oceanic currents1 but the           
requirements of plants as to light seem 

more difficult to meet1 and it has been 
doubted whether species similar to those
 which are accustomed in modern times to
 regular alternations of day and night  
could submit to the long ,arctic winter 
darkness4 ,it is known1 however1 that in
 conservatories in ,northern ,russia    
plants supplied with heat and moisture  
can endure in winter great deprivation  
of light1 and at ,disco1 in ,greenland1 
roses and fuchsias flourish as house    
plants4#gf ,these facts show that if    
there were sufficient light and heat in 
summer1 a great number of the plants of 
temperate latitudes could endure extreme
 cold and much deprivation of light in  
winter4  ,it may be well here to inform 
the reader that some confusion as to the
 succession of the ,cretaceous and      
,tertiary floras in ,america has arisen 
from the fact that the plants which are 
evidently ,eocene in ,greenland and     
,america have been until lately         
incorrectly regarded as ,miocene in     
,europe4 ,in the ,western ,states1 the  

,dakota group of ,lesquereux is overlain
 by #bjjj feet of ,cretaceous beds1     
containing the marine shells            
characteristic of that age1 but no      
plants4 ,but in ,vancouvera,euro7,,tm7s 
,island these same ,upper ,cretaceous   
beds contain an abundant flora1 which   
some botanists have called ,tertiary for
 the reason already mentioned4 ,above   
the #bjjj feet of marine beds overlying 
the ,dakota group is the ,lower ,lignite
 group of ,lesquereux1 holding many     
fossil plants1 including ,palms and     
other evidences of a warmer climate than
 that of the ,cretaceous1 and which     
constitute a ,lower ,eocene flora       
corresponding in some respects to that  
of ,europe4 ,this is succeeded by an    
,upper ,lignite group1 also ,eocene1 but
 representing a more temperate climate1 
and therefore resembling more nearly the
 ,cretaceous flora4 ,this is nearly     
identical with the so-called ,miocene of
 ,greenland1 ,alaska1 and ,mackenzie    
,river1 which the facts collected by the

 ,canadian geologists have shown to be  
really ,eocene4#gg ,but the ,canadian   
reports containing these facts are      
comparatively little known in ,europe1  
hence incorrect ideas as to the         
succession of these floras have been    
handed from one writer to another4  ,to 
those who adopt extreme views as to the 
refrigeration of the northern hemisphere
 in so-called glacial times1 there is   
great difficulty in accounting for the  
continued existence of the early        
,tertiary flora2 but if we adopt        
moderate views as to this1 and demand   
merely a great subsidence1 with much    
reduction of mean temperature1 we may   
suppose that the plants previously      
existing were preserved on insular      
spots1 whence they were ready to        
recolonize the land on its emergence    
from the sea4 ,it seems certain1        
however1 that our continents never      
regained1 after the ,glacial period1 the
 exuberance of plant life which they    
presented in the ,miocene and earlier   

,pliocene2 and we shall find that this  
statement applies to the world of       
animals as well as to that of plants4   
,this reduction was more extreme in     
,europe than in ,eastern ,asia and      
,eastern ,america1 and the fact is thus 
accounted for in a recent lecture by    
,prof4 ,asa ,gray3a,euro  a,eurooe,i    
conceive that three things have         
conspired to this loss4 ,first1 ,europe1
 hardly extending south of latitude     
#dj;,a deg41 is all within the limits   
generally assigned to severe glacial    
action4 ,second1 its mountains trend    
east and west1 from the ,pyrenees to the
 ,carpathians and the ,caucasus beyond1 
near its southern border2 and they had  
glaciers of their own1 which must have  
begun their operations1 and poured down 
the northward flanks1 while the plains  
were still covered with forest1 on the  
retreat from the great ice-wave coming  
from the north4 ,attacked both on front 
and rear1 much of the forest must have  
perished then and there4 ,third1 across 

the line of retreat of those which may  
have flanked the mountain-ranges1 or    
were stationed south of them1 stretched 
the ,mediterranean1 an impassable       
barrier4 ,some hardy trees may have eked
 out their existence on the northern    
shore of the ,mediterranean and the     
,atlantic coast4 ,but we doubt not1     
,taxodium and ,sequoias1 ,magnolias and 
,liquidambars1 and even ,hickories and  
the like1 were among the missing4       
,escape by the east1 and rehabilitation 
from that quarter until a very late     
period1 were apparently prevented by the
 prolongation of the ,mediterranean to  
the ,caspian1 and thence to the         
,siberian ocean4 ,if we accept the      
supposition of ,nordenski,ald1 that1    
anterior to the ,glacial period1 ,europe
 was a,eurobounded on the south by an   
ocean extending from the ,atlantic over 
the present deserts of ,sahara and      
,central ,asia to the                   
,pacific1a,euro7,,tm7 all chance of     
these ,american types having escaped    

from or re-entered ,europe from the     
south and east is excluded4 ,europe may 
thus be conceived to have been for a    
time somewhat in the condition in which 
,greenland is now1 and indeed to have   
been connected with ,greenland in this  
or in earlier times4#gh ,such a         
junction1 cutting off access of the     
,gulf ,stream to the ,polar ,sea1 would1
 as some think1 other things remaining  
as they are1 almost of itself give      
glaciation to ,europe4 ,greenland may be
 referred to1 by way of comparison1 as a
 country which1 having undergone extreme
 glaciation1 bears the marks of it in   
the extreme poverty of its flora1 and in
 the absence of the plants to which its 
southern portion1 extending six degrees 
below the ,arctic ,circle1 might be     
entitled4 ,it ought to have trees1 and  
might support them4 ,but since          
destruction by glaciation no way has    
been opened for their return4 ,europe   
fared much better1 but suffered in its  
degree in a similar way4                

a,eurooe,turning for a moment to the    
,american continent for a contrast1 we  
find the land unbroken and open down to 
the tropic1 and the mountains running   
north and south4 ,the trees1 when       
touched on the north by the on-coming   
refrigeration1 had only to move their   
southern border southward1 along an open
 way1 as far as the exigency required2  
and there was no impediment to their due
 return4 ,then the more southern        
latitude of the ,united ,states gave    
great advantage over ,europe4 ,on the   
,atlantic border1 proper glaciation was 
felt only in the northern part1 down to 
about latitude #dj;,a deg44 ,in the     
interior of the country1 owing doubtless
 to greater dryness and summer heat1 the
 limit receded greatly northward in the 
,mississippi ,valley1 and gave only     
local glaciers to the ,rocky ,mountains2
 and no volcanic outbreaks or violent   
changes of any kind have here occurred  
since the types of our present          
vegetation came to the land4 ,so our    

lines have been cast in pleasant places1
 and the goodly heritage of forest-trees
 is one of the consequences4            
a,eurooe,the still greater richness of  
,north-east ,asia in arboreal vegetation
 may find explanation in the prevalence 
of particularly favourable conditions1  
both ante-glacial and recent4 ,the trees
 of the ,miocene circumpolar forest     
appear to have found there a secure     
home2 and the ,japanese islands1 to     
which most of these trees belong1 must  
be remarkably adapted to them4 ,the     
situation of these                      
islandsa,euroanalogous to that of ,great
 ,britain1 but with the advantage of    
lower latitude and greater sunshinetheir
 ample extent north and south1 their    
diversified configuration1 their        
proximity to the great ,pacific         
gulf-stream1 by which a vast body of    
warm water sweeps along their           
accentuated shores1 and the             
comparatively equable diffusion of rain 
throughout the year1 all probably       

conspire to the preservation and        
development of an originally ample      
inheritance4a,euro  ,the comparative    
paucity in species of the west coast of 
,america1 though the ,sequoias and some 
other forms which have perished         
elsewhere are retained there1 is        
admitted to be exceptional1 and not     
easily explained1 except by the         
supposition of peculiar local conditions
 affecting the comparatively narrow     
strip of land between the ,rocky        
,mountains and coast ranges1 and the    
,pacific4  ,to such widely-distributed  
and varied and complex phenomena as     
those which have been discussed in the  
present chapter1 it is impossible to do 
justice in the space at our command4    
,details in relation to them will be    
found in the publications of ,heer1 of  
,saporta1 and of ,lesquereux1 and are   
well worthy of study by botanists1 to   
whom alone they can be made fully       
intelligible4 ,in general1 with         
reference to now prevalent theories of  

derivation1 they present two very       
dissimilar aspects4 ,no difficulty can  
be greater to the evolutionist than to  
account for the simultaneous appearance 
of so many modern generic forms in the  
,cretaceous2 and the fact of many of the
 genera presenting more and more species
 the farther we trace them back is a    
strange anomaly of evolution4 ,on the   
other hand1 the number of species       
continuing unchanged from the ,eocene to
 the ,modern1 the others only slightly  
modified1 and the representative species
 occurring in the floras of the old and 
new continents1 appear to many to give  
great support to the doctrine of gradual
 transformation of species4 ,farther    
facts and farther comprehension of the  
difference between species and races    
will be necessary to the settlement of  
these questions4 ,in the meantime it    
would appear that the ,jurassic flora   
rapidly gave place1 at a particular     
point of geological time1 to that of the
 modern world1 and this not merely in   

one locality1 but over the whole        
northern hemisphere2 and there are      
apparently similar facts in the southern
 hemisphere as well4 ,it farther appears
 that each genus was at first           
represented by many species1 and that as
 time went on these were gradually      
reduced to a few best suited to survive2
 and that the changes of climate and    
level which occurred distributed these  
over different parts of the continents  
in a way at first sight very anomalous1 
but which ,prof4 ,gray somewhat quaintly
 represents as follows3a,euro           
a,eurooe,it is as if ,nature1 when she  
had enough species of a genus to go     
round the four floral regions 7,europe1 
,east ,asia1 ,west ,america1 and ,east  
,america71 dealt them fairly one at     
least to each quarter of our zone2 but  
when she had only two of some peculiar  
kind1 gave one to us1 and the other to  
,japan1 ,mantchuria1 or the ,himalayas2 
and when she had only one1 divided it   
between the two partners on the opposite

 sides of the table4a,euro  ,lastly1 it 
seems very probable that many so-called 
species are nothing more than varietal  
forms1 which may very well be modified  
descendants of ,miocene or ,eocene      
plants now figuring in our lists under  
different names4     ,illustration3     
,,sivatherium ,,giganteum4  ,a ,great   
,ruminant of the ,miocene of ,india4    
,copied by special permission of ,james 
,murie1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,g4,s41 c4  ,,chapter
 ,,ix4  ,,the ,,reign ,,of ,,mammals4   
,the incoming of that highest order of  
animals in which man himself1 in so far 
as his physical nature is concerned1    
takes his place1 presents some features 
which1 though not unparalleled in the   
history of other forms of life1 are     
still very striking4 ,the modern        
,mammalia are somewhat sharply divided  
into three very unequal groups4 ,first1 
those which present in their full       
perfection the property of producing    
fully developed young1 which is one of  
the distinctive characters of the class4

 ,these are the ,placental ,mammals4    
,secondly1 those in which the young are 
produced in a very imperfect condition1 
and are usually nourished for a time in 
a marsupium or pouch4 ,these are hence  
called ,marsupials4 ,they are for the   
most part confined to ,australasia1     
though a few occur in ,america2 and are 
decidedly inferior in rank to the       
ordinary mammals4 ,thirdly1 those in    
which there is a bird-like bill1 and    
also certain bird-like or reptilian     
peculiarities of skeleton and of the    
alimentary canal4 ,these are the        
,monotremes1 represented by a very few  
species in ,australia and ,new ,guinea4 
,in geological history1 so far as the   
facts are at present known1 the second  
group1 that of the ,marsupials1         
antedated the others by a vast lapse of 
time4 ,the ,marsupials appear in the    
,trias1 near the beginning of the       
,mesozoic period4 ,the ,placentals are  
not found until we reach the beginning  
of the ,tertiary4 ,the ,monotremes would

 seem to be a comparatively modern      
degraded type4 ,thus the ,marsupials    
existed throughout the reptilian age1   
and this in those countries of the      
northern hemisphere in which they are   
not now found4 ,the ,mesozoic           
,marsupials were1 it is true1 of small  
size1 but there were probably numerous  
species1 and though unable to cope with 
the great reptiles that swarmed by the  
shores and on the plains1 they may have 
found abundant scope in the upland and  
interior regions of the continents4     
,the ,upper ,trias of ,germany has      
afforded to ,professor ,pleininger two  
teeth of a small mammal1 to which the   
name of ,microlestes antiquus has been  
given1 under the impression that it was 
carnivorous1 though it now seems more   
likely that it was a vegetable feeder4  
,in rocks of nearly the same age in     
,america1 ,emmons found a jaw-bone of   
another species 7,dromatherium          
sylvestre71 which has been supposed to  
be a near ally of the existing          

,myrmecobius fasciatus of ,australia    
7,figs4 #aff1 #afg74 ,in the            
,stonesfield slate1 a member of the     
,english ,jurassic1 several other       
species have been found 7,fig4 #afh71   
and a still larger number in the        
fresh-water beds of the ,upper ,purbeck4
 ,marsh has obtained many others from   
the ,jurassic of ,america4 ,none appear 
to have yet been found in the           
,cretaceous1 but they reappear in the   
,eocene ,tertiary1 and continue to the  
modern time4 ,their absence in the      
,cretaceous is probably a mere accident1
 and they present an illustration of a  
very permanent type little changed since
 its first introduction4 ,lyell         
enumerates in all thirty-three species  
from the ,mesozoic1 all of them of small
 size1 and all more or less nearly      
related to existing ,australian         
,marsupials1 though differing much among
 themselves1 and including both         
carnivorous and herbivorous forms 7,fig4
 #afi74 ,marsh has recently suggested a 

somewhat new interpretation of these    
interesting mammalian remains4#gi ,he   
considers them divisible into two       
groups1 one allied to the modern        
,insectivora 7,moles1 ,shrews1          
,hedgehogs1 c471 but of generalized     
forms4 ,for these he constitutes a new  
order 7,pantotheria1 ,marsh74 ,the other
 group is less numerous and is          
,marsupial 7,allotheria1 ,marsh74 ,the  
jaws in ,figs4 #aff and #afh belong to  
the former group1 that in ,fig4 #afi to 
the latter4 ,we should thus have both   
placental and ,marsupial mammals in the 
,mesozoic4 ,marsh remarks that the      
descent of these different types from a 
common ancestry would require us to     
trace mammals back into the ,pal,aozoic1
 that is1 on the doctrine of gradual    
evolution4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#aff4;a,euro,jaw of ,dromatherium       
sylvestre 7,emmons74 ,from the ,trias of
 ,north ,carolina4  ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #afg4;a,euro,myrmecobius         
fasciatus4 ,a modern ,australian        

marsupial1 allied to ,mesozoic species4 
,so soon as the pal,aontologist passes  
from the ,upper ,cretaceous to the      
,eocene1 he finds himself in the domain 
of the placental mammals1 which appear  
in numerous and large species1 and this1
 not merely in one region1 but in every 
part of the world in which these        
deposits are known to exist4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afh4;a,euro,jaw1 
and enlarged molar of ,phascolotherium  
,bucklandi4 ,stonesfield slate4         
,england4a,euro,after ,phillips4        
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#afi4;a,euro,plagiaulax ,becklesii4     
,jaw1 and pre-molar enlarged1 showing   
flat surface1 with                      
ridges4a,euro,purbeck4  ,indeed1 the    
recent discoveries in ,america and in   
the east of ,europe have almost thrown  
into the shade those researches of      
,cuvier in the ,paris basin which first 
brought this important fact to light4   
,the ,eocene mammals1 like the          
,carboniferous amphibians1 the ,mesozoic

 reptiles1 and the ,cretaceous forests1 
appear to spring full-grown from the    
earth1 and this at nearly the same time 
in every part of the northern           
hemisphere4 ,it has been suggested that 
they may have come in gradually without 
our knowledge in the ,cretaceous period2
 but if so1 we should have found some of
 their remains along with those of the  
,upper ,cretaceous plants4 ,but the     
prevalence of the great reptiles up to  
the close of the ,cretaceous would seem 
to render the co-existence of large     
mammals unlikely4 ,it has further been  
supposed that geological changes in the 
southern and northern hemispheres may   
have alternated with each other1 so that
 there may be in the former ,cretaceous 
beds in which the remains of ancestors  
of the ,eocene mammals may be found4    
,but we do not as yet know of such      
deposits4 ,we may be content1 therefore1
 to suppose that at the close of the    
,cretaceous there was established       
somewhere a sort of ,eden for the first 

placental mammals1 in which they were   
introduced and could live unharmed by   
the decaying monsters of the reptilian  
age1 until the time came when they could
 increase and multiply and replenish the
 earth4 ,the nearest approach to such a 
centre of mammalian life is perhaps to  
be found in those great ,american lake  
basins embedded in the mountains of the 
,west1 which have been so well described
 by ,hayden and ,newberry1 and which    
have yielded so many animal remains to  
the researches of ,leidy1 ,marsh1 and   
,cope4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4           
#agj4;a,euro,restoration of             
,pal,aotherium magnum4                  
,eocene4a,euro,after ,cuvier and ,owen4 
,the typical deposits of the ,early     
,eocene have long been those of the     
,basin of ,paris1 where thick and highly
 fossiliferous deposits of this age rest
 on the more or less denuded surface of 
the ,upper ,chalk1 and have afforded a  
rich harvest of remains of about fifty  
species of placental quadrupeds1 whose  

bones have been found in the gypsum     
quarries of ,montmartre4 ,the great     
majority belong to the ,ungulates1 or   
hoofed animals1 and the most abundant   
genera are those called by ,cuvier      
,pal,aotherium 7,fig4 #agj7 and         
,anoplotherium1 of which there are      
several species1 and which have         
affinities with the modern ,tapirs on   
the one hand1 and with the ,horse on the
 other4 ,of the ,unguiculate or clawed  
orders there are carnivorous forms      
allied to the ,hy,ana and the ,fox1 a   
,bat and a ,squirrel2 and the           
,marsupials are represented by an       
,opossum4 ,lyell describes a bed of clay
 associated with the gypsum1 in which   
are numerous footprints1 probably       
produced on the margin of a lake4 ,many 
of these might be referred to the       
,pal,aothere and its allies2 but there  
are others belonging to quadrupeds yet  
unknown1 and there are also tracks of   
tortoises1 crocodiles1 and lizards1 and 
of a large wading bird4 ,such a bed1    

perhaps deposited on the margin of a    
salt lake1 resorted to as a             
a,eurooelicka,euro by herbivorous       
animals1 and by the carnivorous species 
which preyed on them1 is well fitted1 by
 the thronging life which it indicates1 
to teach how little we can know of the  
actual number and variety of the old    
inhabitants of the earth4  ,in ,england1
 ,eocene beds of the age of those of    
,paris1 occupy the valley of the ,thames
 and the ,isle of ,wight and            
neighbouring parts of ,hants4 ,they have
 afforded mammalian fossils similar to  
those of ,paris1 though less abundantly1
 but they are rich in remains of marine 
animals and of land plants4  ,instead of
 describing the well-known animals of   
the ,french and ,english ,tertiaries1   
from these ,eocene deposits upwards1 ,i 
shall shortly sketch the succession in  
,america1 as worked out by ,marsh and   
,cope1 with the aid of the admirable    
summary given by ,gaudry of the present 
state of knowledge with reference to the

 sequence of mammalian life from its    
appearance in the ,early ,eocene up to  
the present time4#hj  ,eocene mammals1  
especially those gigantic whale-like    
creatures called ,zeuglodon 7,fig4      
#ahj71 have been found in ,eastern      
,north ,america1 but the most remarkable
 discoveries have been made in the      
,western ,territories1 where vast       
numbers of bones are imbedded in certain
 ancient and wide-spread lacustrine     
beds4 ,it may be well to premise here   
that though the division into ,eocene1  
,miocene1 and ,pliocene is recognised in
 ,america as well as in ,europe1 the    
limits of these groups may not precisely
 correspond with those in the ,old      
,world4 ,still we have this certain     
point of departure1 that the ,eocene    
begins where the peculiar animals of the
 ,cretaceous end1 and that the drying up
 of the later ,cretaceous sea and the   
establishment of the ,eocene land were  
probably nearly contemporaneous in both 
continents4 ,it is true1 however1 in    

animals as in plants1 that in the       
successive periods of the ,tertiary1    
,america presents an older aspect than  
,europe1 just as its modern fauna still 
contains such old forms as the opossum4 
,it would seem that as the              
mountain-ranges and table-lands of      
,western ,america emerged from the      
,cretaceous waters1 they became clothed 
with ,eocene forests and inhabited by   
,eocene mammals4 ,but the waters1 dammed
 up by surrounding ridges1 formed large 
lake basins1 which were drained only by 
the slow excavation of                  
a,eurooeca,a-onsa,euro as the land rose 
still higher4 ,in the successive        
deposits formed in these lakes both by  
ordinary deposition of silt and by      
paroxysmal showers of volcanic ashes    
were entombed great numbers of the      
animals which fed on their banks4 ,it   
appears that these deposits1 which in   
some places are estimated at not less   
than #hjjj feet in thickness1 hold the  
remains of three successive faunas1     

differing materially from each other1   
and representing the ,lower1 ,middle1   
and ,upper ,eocene4 ,on the flanks of   
the elevated region supporting the beds 
formed in the ,eocene lakes1 are other  
later lake basins of ,miocene age1 also 
abounding in animal remains4 ,east of   
the ,rocky ,mountains1 and also on the  
,pacific coast1 are still later         
,pliocene deposits holding other and    
more modern ,mammalia4 ,the vast area of
 these formations and the complete      
sequence which they show are scarcely   
equalled elsewhere4  ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #aga4;a,euro,coryphodon ,hamatus4
 ,a ,lower ,eocene ,perissodactyl skull1
 greatly reduced1 showing small size of 
brain1 a4a,euro,after ,marsh4  ,as in   
the ,paris basin1 the large ,ungulates  
constitute the most conspicuous feature4
 ,the great group is now usually divided
 into those that are odd-toed           
7,perissodactyl7 and those that are     
even-toed 7,artiodactyl74 ,though these 
are apparently arbitrary characters1    

they correspond with other more         
fundamental differences4 ,the first     
includes such modern animals as the     
,rhinoceros1 ,tapir1 and ,horse4 ,the   
second includes two somewhat distinct   
assemblagesa,eurothat with mammillated  
teeth1 of which the ,hog and            
,hippopotamus are types 7,bunodonts71   
and that with crescental plates of      
enamel in the teeth1 of which the       
,ruminants like the ,deer1 ,ox and      
,camel1 are examples 7,selenodonts74    
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#agb4;a,euro,fore-foot of ,coryphodon4  
,greatly reduced4a,euro,after ,marsh4   
,the most characteristic animals of the 
lowest ,eocene belong to the genus      
,coryphodon 7,figs4 #aga1 #agb71 which  
so abounded in ,eocene ,america that    
bones of about #aej individuals were    
found by the ,wheeler ,expedition in one
 year in the ,eocene beds of ,new       
,mexico4 ,these animals in their        
dentition approached the ,american      
tapirs1 except that they had great      

canines like the bear1 while their feet 
resembled those of the elephant1 and    
some of them attained the dimensions of 
the ox4 ,coryphodon is thus1 as might be
 expected in a primal placental mammal1 
a creature of somewhat generalised type4
 ,another point in which it resembles   
some at least of its early ,tertiary    
contemporaries is the small size of the 
brain1 especially in those parts of it  
supposed to minister to the intelligence
 and higher instincts 7,fig4 #aga1 a74  
,it is certainly remarkable that as     
,tertiary time went on the successive   
groups of mammals were gifted with      
brains of larger and larger size1       
fitting them for higher functions2 and  
ultimately for associating with man4    
,animals thus low in development of     
brain were probably slow and sluggish   
and stubbornly ferocious1 and dependent 
on brute force for subsistence and      
defence2 and they would have been       
altogether unsuitable for domestication 
had they lived to the present time4     

,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agc4;a,euro,skull
 of an ,upper ,eocene ,perissodactyl    
7,dinoceras mirabilis71 showing three   
pairs of horn-bases4 ,greatly           
reduced4a,euro,after ,marsh4  ,in the   
,middle ,eocene1 the place of           
,coryphodon was taken by ,dinoceras and 
allied forms4 ,some of the species      
nearly equalled the elephant in size1   
but had shorter and stouter limbs1 each 
supported on five great toesa,eurothe   
most perfect possible sort of pedestal  
foot 7,figs4 #agb1 #agd74 ,they were    
heavily armed with immense canines on   
the upper jaws1 and two or even three   
pairs of horns or hard protuberances on 
the head 7,fig4 #agc74 ,creatures so    
supported and so armed1 and living where
 food was plentiful1 might well dispense
 with any great degree of intelligence1 
and their development of brain is       
consequently little better than that of 
,coryphodon4 ,these great and           
characteristic ,eocene families have no 
known successors2 and in the ,miocene   

age their place is taken by a very      
different group1 that of which          
,brontotherium is the type 7,fig4 #age74
 ,they are creatures of huge size1 with 
a pair of horn-cores on the nose1 and   
feet with four toes in front and three  
behind1 resembling in form those of the 
rhinoceros4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#agd4;a,euro,fore-foot of ,dinoceras4   
,greatly reduced4a,euro,after ,marsh4   
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #age4;a,euro,skull
 of ,brontotherium ingens 7,marsh74     
,greatly reduced4 ,a ,miocene           
,perissodactyl4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#agf4;a,euro,series of ,equine          
,feet4a,euro,after ,marsh4  a1          
,orohippus1 ,eocene4 b1 ,miohippus1     
,miocene4 c1 ,protohippus1 ,lower       
,pliocene4 d1 ,pliohippus1 ,upper       
,pliocene4 e1 ,equus1 ,post-,pliocene   
and ,modern4  ,while these gigantic     
,perissodactyles have no successors as  
yet known to us1 another and less       
conspicuous ,eocene type can be traced  
onward to modern times by a chain of    

successors which the imagination of     
evolutionists has converted into a      
veritable genetic series1 to which they 
appeal as a a,eurooedemonstrationa,euro 
of the process of descent with specific 
modifications4 ,in the ,lower ,eocene   
are found the remains of a diminutive   
ungulate 7,eohippus71 of the stature of 
a moderately-sized dog4 ,it has four    
toes and a rudiment of a fifth in front1
 and three toes behind2 and has teeth   
slightly resembling those of the horse1 
but more simple and shorter in the      
crown4 ,in this creature it has been    
supposed that we have a direct ancestor 
of the modern horse4 ,a very similar    
genus 7,orohippus71 lacking only the    
fifth rudimentary toe1 replaces         
,eohippus in the ,middle ,eocene4       
,mesohippus of the ,lower ,miocene is as
 large as a sheep1 and has only three   
toes on the fore-foot and a splint bone1
 while its teeth assume a more equine   
character 7,fig4 #agf74 ,in the ,upper  
,miocene ,miohippus continues the line1 

while ,protohippus of the ,lower        
,pliocene is still more equine and as   
large as an ass1 and corresponds with   
the ,european ,hipparion in having the  
middle toe of each foot alone long      
enough to reach the ground4 ,in the     
,upper ,pliocene true horses appear with
 only a single toe1 and splint bones    
instead of the others4 ,in ,america1    
though the horse was unknown at the time
 of the discovery of the continent1     
several species occur in the ,tertiary  
and ,post-,pliocene1 showing that the   
genus existed there up to a             
comparatively late period2 and when     
re-introduced it has thriven and run    
wild in the more temperate regions4     
,what cause could have led to its       
extinction in ,post-,glacial times is as
 yet a mystery4 ,this genealogy of the  
horse1 independently of its evolutionist
 application1 is very interesting4 ,it  
shows that some ,eocene types were      
suited to continuance1 and even adapted 
for extension1 while others were        

destined to become altogether extinct at
 an early date4 ,it shows farther that  
the power of continuance resided not so 
much in the gigantic and prominent      
species as in smaller forms4 ,it is to  
be observed1 however1 that ,gaudry and  
other orthodox evolutionists in ,europe 
deduce the horse1 not from ,eohippus1   
but from ,pal,aotherium1 and that it is 
equally impossible to verify either     
phylogeny1 since the mere sequence of   
more or less closely allied species in  
time does not prove continuous          
derivation4 ,nor indeed are we certain  
that one-toed horses like those now     
living did not exist on the dry plains  
in ,eocene times1 since the inhabitants 
of these plains are probably unknown to 
us4 ,an amusing illustration of the     
probable reason of the disappearance of 
the missing links has recently been     
given by a writer not very favourable to
 the new philosophy4 ,the several       
consecutive species may be represented  
by coins4 ,we may suppose1 for example1 

sixpences to have been coined first1    
then sevenpenny and eightpenny pieces1  
and so on up to a shilling1 then pieces 
representing thirteen1 fourteen and     
fifteen pence1 and so on up to a        
half-crown or crown2 but all the        
intervening denominations between the   
sixpence and the shilling1 and between  
the shilling and the half-crown1 were   
found practically of little use4 ,hence 
few were coined1 and they soon became   
obsolete4 ,thus the antiquary would find
 only a few denominations1 and those    
connecting them would be seldom or never
 found4 ,it is plain that if we could   
suppose that nations constructed their  
coinage after this unthinking and       
empirical fashion1 and that if we were  
justified in ascribing a similar        
procedure to the ,creator1 it might help
 to account for the facts as we find    
them1 otherwise we should rather suppose
 that in both cases something like plan 
and calculation determined the selection
 of the species produced1 whether of    

coins or animals4 ,but ,chance is a     
blind goddess1 and if we instal her as  
creator1 we must expect the work to     
proceed by a series of abortive         
experiments4  ,the ,perissodactyls are  
not numerous at present4 ,the three     
groups represented by the ,horse1       
,rhinoceros1 and ,tapir constitute the  
whole2 and the two latter forms can be  
traced back to predecessors in ,eocene  
times1 even more closely resembling them
 than those supposed to be ancestors of 
the horse resemble that animal4 ,but the
 few species now living have thus a vast
 surplusage of possible ancestors4 ,many
 species and genera are dropped without 
any modern representatives1 so that the 
tendency has been to a gradual          
elimination of surplus types1 until only
 a few isolated and somewhat specialised
 forms remain at present4 ,yet this     
process of elimination is not           
necessarily an evolution or survival of 
the fittest1 in the sense of modern     
derivationists4 ,it rather implies that 

in certain past states of the earth the 
conditions of life afforded scope for   
many forms not now required1 or replaced
 by other types more suited to the      
advanced and specialised nature of the  
world4  ,on the other hand1 the         
,artiodactyls have gained in numbers and
 importance1 in comparison with their   
odd-toed comrades2 and this1 though an  
odd number1 namely five1 was the typical
 number with which the earliest         
quadrupedal forms began life far back in
 the ,pal,aozoic4 ,the typical          
,artiodactyls are those that cleave the 
hoof1 and many of which also chew the   
cud2 and they are of all others1 the    
horse perhaps excepted1 those that are  
most valuable to man4 ,the lower type   
7,bunodont71 to which the hog belongs1  
is the older2 and many hog-like animals 
occur from the earlier ,tertiary        
upwards4 ,in the ,upper ,eocene1        
even-toed species appear with an        
approach at least to the crescent-shaped
 teeth of the modern deer and oxen4     

,some of the species are obviously      
forerunners of the modern antelopes and 
deer1 though as yet destitute of horns  
or antlers4 ,others1 like ,oreodon1 are 
of more hog-like aspect1 though believed
 to have been ruminants 7,fig4 #agg74   
,these are characteristic of the ,middle
 ,miocene1 at which stage true deer     
appear in ,europe 7,dicroceras71 though 
they are not known in ,america until the
 ,pliocene period4 ,the earliest deer   
have small and simple antlers1 these    
ornaments becoming larger and more      
elaborate in approaching the modern era4
 ,the hollow-horned ruminants appear for
 the first time in ,america in the      
,lower ,pliocene2 and no ancestry has so
 far been attempted to be traced for    
them4 ,the antelopes of this group1 as  
well as the gigantic ,sivatherium of    
,india1#ha allied to the modern         
prong-horned antelope of ,north         
,america1 were prominent in the ,old    
,world in the ,miocene4  ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #agg4;a,euro,oreodon major4 ,a   

generalised ,miocene ruminant1 with     
affinities to the ,deer1 ,camel1 and    
,hog4 ,greatly reduced4a,euro,after     
,leidy4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4          
#agh4;a,euro,lower ,jaw of ,megatherium4
 ,greatly reduced4 ,post-,pliocene of   
,south ,america4a,euro,after ,owen4     
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#agi4;a,euro,ungual ,phalanx and        
,claw-core of ,megatherium4 ,greatly    
reduced4  ,a very noteworthy and        
specially ,american group of mammals is 
that of the ,edentates1 the ,sloths and 
,ant-eaters1 a group which ,a  priori we
 should have supposed would have been   
one of the earliest in time4 ,they      
appear1 however1 first in the ,miocene1 
without even any suggested ancestry1 and
 are represented from the first by large
 species1 though they attain their      
grandest stature in the ,megatherium and
 ,mylodon of the ,post-,pliocene 7,figs4
 #agh1 #agi71 which were sloths of so   
gigantic size that they must have pulled
 down trees to feed on their leaves1    

unless1 indeed1 there were trees equally
 colossal for them to climb4 ,but before
 the modern time1 like the ,american    
horses1 the larger herbivorous forms    
suddenly disappear1 and are now         
represented only by a few diminutive    
,south ,american species1 which can     
scarcely1 by any stretch of imagination1
 be supposed to be descendants of their 
gigantic predecessors4 ,the history of  
these animals1 like those of the great  
,tertiary marsupials of ,australia and  
the many ,miocene elephants of ,india1  
affords a remarkable illustration of the
 persistence of similar groups of       
creatures in successive ages in the same
 region1 along with diminution in       
magnitude and number of species toward  
the modern times4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4
 #ahj4;a,euro,tooth of ,eocene ,whale   
7,zeuglodon cetioides74 ,one-half       
natural size4  ,the ,whale-tribe        
7,cetaceans7 at once in the earliest    
,eocene takes the place of the great    
,sea-lizards of the ,cretaceous2 and the

 oldest of the whales are in their      
dentition more perfect than any of their
 successors1 since their teeth are each 
implanted by two roots1 and have        
serrated crowns1 like those of the      
,seals4 ,the great ,eocene whales of the
 ,southern ,atlantic 7,zeuglodon7 7,fig4
 #ahj71 which have these characters1    
attained the length of seventy feet1 and
 are undoubtedly the first of the whales
 in rank as well as in time4 ,this is   
perhaps one of the most difficult facts 
to be explained on the theory of        
evolution4 ,allied to the whales is the 
small and peculiar group of the         
,sea-cows or ,dugongs 7,sirenians74     
,these creatures1 highly specialised and
 very distinct from all others1 appear  
in the ,early ,tertiary in forms very   
similar to those which now exist1 and   
probably in much more numerous species1 
and they pursue the even tenor of their 
way down to modern times without        
perceptible elevation or degradation4   
a,eurooe,we have questioned1a,euro says 

,gaudry1 when speaking of the ,tertiary 
,cetaceans1 a,eurooethese strange and   
gigantic sovereigns of the ,tertiary    
oceans as to their progenitorsa,eurothey
 leave us without reply4a,euro ,their   
silence is the more significant as one  
can scarcely suppose these animals to   
have been nurtured in any limited or    
secluded space in the early stages of   
their development4 ,the true ,seals1    
which are more elevated than the        
,whales1 and very different in type1    
appear much later1 and without any      
probable ancestry4  ,the ,elephants1 two
 or three species of which constitute in
 the modern world the sole              
representatives of an order1 are a      
remnant of an ancient race once vastly  
more numerous4 ,they appear in ,europe  
and ,asia in the ,miocene1 when they    
were represented by three distinct      
genera 7,elephas1 ,mastodon1 and        
,dinotherium74 ,the second genus 7,fig4 
#aha7 differs from the proper ,elephants
 in having tuberculated teeth1          

indicating a more swinish habit1 and    
probably a more fierce disposition4 ,the
 third 7,fig4 #ahb7 is remarkable for   
the immense size of some of its species1
 far exceeding the modern ,elephants1   
and has the farther peculiarity of a    
pair of descending tusks on the lower   
jaw1 constituting a strong and heavy    
grubbing-hoe1 with which it could       
probably dig deeply for roots4 ,so      
important was the group in ,miocene     
times that seven elephants are already  
known from this formation in ,india     
alone1 besides three species of         
,mastodon4 ,four or five ,miocene       
,mastodons are known in ,europe1 besides
 two ,dinotheria2 and the true          
,elephants appear there in the          
,pliocene1 and continue to the beginning
 of the ,modern4 ,the elephantine       
animals are not known in ,america till  
the ,pliocene1 but in that and the      
,pleistocene1 and perhaps up to the     
human period1 the western continent1 now
 altogether destitute of elephants1     

possessed several species both of       
,elephas and ,mastodon1 which extended1 
as in ,siberia1 even into the ,arctic   
regions2 and1 as we know from specimens 
preserved in a frozen state in the      
latter region1 some of the species were 
so protected by dense fur as to be able 
to endure extreme cold4 ,the candid     
,gaudry closes his summary of the       
history and affinities of the           
elephantine animals with the words3     
a,eurooe,however1 the sum of the        
differences compared with that of the   
resemblances is too great to permit us  
to indicate any relation of descent     
between the proboscidians and the       
animals of other orders known to us at  
present4a,euro ,so these greatest of all
 the animals of the land1 with their    
strangely specialised forms and almost  
human sagacity1 stand alone1 without    
father or mother1 without descent4      
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#aha4;a,euro,mastodon ohioticus4 ,an    
,american ,elephant4 ,post-,glacial4    

,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahb4;a,euro,head 
of ,dinotherium giganteum4 ,greatly     
reduced4 ,miocene of ,europe4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahc4;a,euro,wing 
of ,vespertilio aquensis4 ,an ,eocene   
,bat4 ,after ,gaudry4  ,the ,rodents1 or
 gnawing animals1 appear in the ,early  
,eocene on both continents in familiar  
forms allied to our ,squirrels and      
,rats4 ,porcupines and ,beavers are     
added in the ,miocene4 ,this group seems
 thus to have continued much as it was2 
and it is still perhaps represented by  
as many species as at any previous time4
 ,many of the ancient forms were1       
however1 much larger than any modern    
species1 and some of these larger       
forms#hb present singular points of     
approach to very distinct types1 as1 for
 example1 to that of the ,bears2 but    
these large and composite species are   
long since extinct4 ,the insectivorous  
mammals have much the same history with 
the ,rodents4 ,such highly specialised  
and abnormal forms as the ,bats might be

 supposed to be modern4 ,but1 strange to
 say1 they appear with fully developed  
wings both in ,europe and ,america in   
the ,eocene 7,fig4 #ahc74 ,gaudry thinks
 that it is a,eurooenatural to          
supposea,euro that there must have been 
species existing previously with shorter
 fingers and rudimentary wings2 but     
there are no facts to support this      
supposition1 which is the more          
questionable since the supposed         
rudimentary wings would be useless1 and 
perhaps harmful to their possessors4    
,besides1 if from the ,eocene to the    
present the ,bats have remained the     
same1 how long would it take to develop 
an animal with ordinary feet1 like those
 of a shrew1 into a bat8  ,the ,early   
,eocene was not altogether a time of    
peace in the animal world4 ,the old     
carnivorous ,saurians were dead and     
buried1 but their place was taken by    
carnivorous mammals1 allied to our      
modern ,tigers1 ,hy,anas1 ,foxes1 and   
,weasels4 ,the ,carnivora1 however1 were

 subordinate in the ,eocene1 and1 as    
already remarked1 some of them appear to
 be intermediate between marsupial and  
placental formsa,euroa fact which       
evolutionists have noticed with much    
satisfaction4 ,they appear to attain to 
their culmination in the ,miocene1 when 
their powers seem to be proportionate to
 those of the great and well-armed      
quadrupeds they had to deal with4 ,to   
this age belongs the introduction of the
 terrible a,eurooe,cymetar-toothed      
,tigera,euro 7,machairodus1 ,fig4 #ahd74
 ,its huge tusk-like canines and        
powerful limbs seem to fit it more than 
any other of the cat family for         
destructive efficiency4 ,yet ordinary   
cat-like animals were contemporary with 
it1 and have survived it1 since         
,machairodus disappears in the          
,post-,pliocene1 though in previous     
periods it had been very widely         
distributed on both continents4 ,it is a
 curious fact1 perhaps of more          
significance in various ways than we yet

 understand1 that the ,dog-bear         
7,arctocyon71 of the oldest ,french     
,eocene1 believed to be the oldest      
placental mammal known1 though          
technically placed among the ,carnivora1
 has a kind of dentition indicating     
that1 like the modern ,bears1 it was    
really omnivorous2 and its skull shows  
some peculiarities tending to those of  
the ,marsupials4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#ahd4;a,euro,skull of a ,cymetar-toothed
 ,tiger 7,machairodus cultridens74      
,pliocene1 ,france4 ,reduced4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahe4;a,euro,lower
 ,jaw of ,dryopithecus ,fontani4 ,an    
,anthropoid ,ape of the ,middle ,miocene
 of ,france4 ,natural size4  ,much      
interest attaches to the first          
appearance of the order of ,apes        
7,quadrumana71 or1 if we take the       
somewhat deceptive classification       
favoured by some modern zoologists1 the 
,primates1 including the apes and man4  
,they begin in the ,eocene1 both in     
,europe and ,america1 with the lowest   

tribe1 that of the ,lemurs1 now confined
 to the island of ,madagascar and parts 
of ,africa and ,southern ,asia1 and     
which may1 ,gaudry thinks1 be modified  
,marsupials1 though he admits that this 
is hard to understand4 ,he mentions the 
resemblance of the teeth of monkeys to  
those of some hog-like animals1 a       
resemblance1 however1 merely marking a  
similarity of food1 and suggests on this
 ground that some of the primitive      
ancestors of the hog may have also given
 rise to the ,monkeys4 ,in the ,miocene 
of ,europe and ,asia we have true ,apes2
 and one of these1 which rivals man in  
stature 7,dryopithecus71 belongs to the 
group of the gibbons1 or long-armed     
apes1 one of the higher families of the 
modern ,quadrumana 7,fig4 #ahe74 ,this  
animal presents1 indeed1 the nearest    
approach to man made by any ,tertiary   
mammal4 ,still the differences are      
great1 as1 for instance1 in the much    
larger size of the canines and          
premolars4 ,yet so much confidence has  

,gaudry in the resemblances1 that he    
even ventures to suggest that certain   
flint chips found in the ,miocene of    
,thenay1 and which have been supposed to
 indicate human workmanship1 may have   
been chipped by the hands of            
,dryopithecus4 ,should this view be     
adopted by evolutionists1 it will at    
least have the effect of preventing     
flint chips from being received as      
evidences of the antiquity of man4  ,it 
is scarcely necessary to sum up this    
review of the history of the ,tertiary  
mammals4 ,much that has been said may be
 modified or changed by future          
discoveries2 but the great facts of the 
late appearance of the placental        
mammals1 of their rapid introduction1   
with their ordinal differentiation      
nearly complete over all the continents1
 of the speedy culmination and early    
decadence of many types1 and of the     
unchanged permanence of others1 must in 
the main be sustained4 ,it is not too   
much to say that to account for these   

facts the evolutionist must abandon the 
idea of gradual change1 and adopt that  
of a,eurooecritical periodsa,euro when  
sudden changes occurred4 ,the history   
becomes inexplicable1 unless with       
,mivart1 ,le ,conte1 and ,saporta1 we   
admit a,eurooeperiods of rapid          
evolutiona,euro alternating with others 
of stagnation or retrogression2 and if  
we admit these1 we practically fall back
 on the old idea of creation2 only it   
may perhaps be a,eurooe,creation by     
,law4a,euro     ,illustration3          
,,contemporaries ,,of ,,post-,,glacial  
,,man4 ,from a painting by ,waterhouse  
,hawkins4  ,,chapter ,x4  ,,the ,,advent
 ,,of ,,man4   ,hitherto we have met    
with no trace of man or of his works4   
,yet there have been in our upward      
progress from the dawn of life mute     
prophecies of his advent4 ,man is in his
 bodily frame a vertebrate animal and a 
mammal2 and when first the ,amphibians  
were introduced in the ,pal,aozoic1 the 
framework of mana,euro7,,tm7s body was  

already sketched out and its principles 
settled4 ,those great reptilian lords1  
the biped ,saurians of the ,mesozoic1   
already foreshadowed his erect posture1 
though their limbs may have been more   
ornithic than mammalian4 ,the gradual   
advance in the brain-development of the 
,tertiary mammals presaged a coming time
 when mind would obtain the mastery over
 claw and tooth and horn2 and in the    
,miocene ages there was already some    
hint of the precise style of structure  
in which this new creative idea would be
 realised4 ,yet it might have been      
impossible to imagine beforehand the    
vast changes which this new idea would  
inaugurate4 ,in the lower animals such  
intelligence as they possess is so tied 
to the physical organisation that it    
manifests itself as a mechanical        
unvarying instinct4 ,man bursts this    
bond1 and in doing so revolutionises the
 whole scheme of nature4 ,old things are
 now put to new uses1 the face of nature
 is changed1 varied arts are introduced1

 and thought enters into the domain of  
general and abstract truth4 ,objects are
 arranged1 classified1 understood1 and  
while in some respects the whole        
creation is made to groan under the     
tyrannous inventions of man1 yet these  
are the inventions of imagination and   
design4 ,they are the triumph1 not of   
brute force1 but of will and            
intelligence4  ,that man was not in all 
the earlier ages of the world1 except in
 these prophecies of his coming1 geology
 assures us4 ,that he is1 we know4 ,how 
he came to be1 is1 independently of     
,divine revelation1 an impenetrable     
mysterya,euroone which it is doubtful if
 in all its bearings science will ever  
be competent to solve4 ,yet there are   
legitimate scientific questions of great
 interest relating to the time and      
manner of his appearance1 and to the    
condition of his earlier existence and  
subsequent history1 which belong to     
geology1 and in which so great stores of
 material have been accumulated that a  

treatise rather than a chapter would be 
required for their discussion4 ,we may  
endeavour to select a few of the more   
important points4  ,one of the first    
questions meeting us is that which      
relates to the point in geological time 
signalised by the advent of our species4
 ,in the ,eocene period our continents  
were being gradually raised out of the  
ocean1 and were still in great part     
under the waters1 which several times   
returned upon the land1 and seemed ready
 again to engulf it4 ,in this period not
 only have we no traces of man1 but all 
the higher animals of that age are now  
extinct4 ,in the later ,eocene and      
,miocene the extent of land became      
greater1 but it was so disposed as to   
allow the influx into the ,arctic ,sea  
of vast volumes of heated water from the
 equatorial regions2 and there may have 
been also astronomical causes at work to
 increase this influx of warm water1 and
 so to raise the temperature of the     
,arctic regions still higher4#hc ,the   

middle period of the ,tertiary was      
undoubtedly a time very favourable to   
the wide distribution of the higher     
forms of life both animal and vegetable4
 ,but we cannot trace man or any of the 
contemporary mammals back to the        
,miocene4 ,in the ,pliocene the         
continents had attained to their present
 elevations1 and climates were not      
dissimilar from those prevailing at     
present2 but still we have no certain   
indication of the presence of man2 and  
if other modern mammals extend back to  
this period their number is very small4 
,in this age also the greater part of   
the continents must have been covered   
with a great thickness of soil and      
disintegrated rock favourable to        
vegetation1 and there seemed nothing to 
preclude the introduction of man4 ,but a
 new and at first sight most            
unfavourable change was to intervene4   
,whether through internal changes       
affecting the distribution of land and  
water1 or through astronomical          

vicissitudes1 the northern hemisphere1  
and possibly the whole world1 entered on
 an era of refrigeration1 the so-called 
a,eurooe,glacial ,agea,euro of the      
,post-,pliocene or ,pleistocene period4 
,that in this period our continents as  
far south as the latitude of #dj;,a deg4
 were overwhelmed with ice or ice-laden 
seas is rendered evident by the fact    
that the whole surface up to several    
thousands of feet above the sea-level   
has been bared of its accumulated       
d,a7,c7bris and polished and grooved by 
ice1 and laden with boulders and other  
glacial deposits1 while in many places  
at heights of even #a1jjj or #a1bjj feet
 these deposits contain sea-shells of   
species now living in the colder parts  
of the ocean4 ,these phenomena do not   
exist in the tropical regions1 except in
 the vicinity of high mountains1 but    
they recur in the southern hemisphere4  
,it is still uncertain whether the      
period of greatest cold in the two      
hemispheres was at the same time or in  

successive ages4 ,geologically1 however1
 they are approximately contemporaneous1
 both occurring between the end of the  
,pliocene and the modern period2 but    
nevertheless they may not have coincided
 in absolute date4  ,very different     
views have been held as to the precise  
condition of the continents in the      
,glacial ,age1 though all agree in the  
prevalence of cold and the action of    
ice1 and in the fact of a great         
submergence at one or more stages of the
 period4 ,my own conclusions1 which ,i  
have advocated elsewhere1#hd and which  
are based on extensive study of the     
northern parts of ,america1 where the   
deposits of this age are more widely    
developed than elsewhere1 are that there
 was one great subsidence1 leading to a 
condition in which the lower levels of  
the continents were covered with        
ice-laden water and the higher regions  
were occupied with permanent snow and   
glaciers4 ,this submergence went on till
 even high mountains #d1jjj feet or more

 in elevation were under water4 ,then   
there was a gradual though intermittent 
elevation1 during which the climate     
became ameliorated1 and lastly there was
 a condition in which the land of the   
northern hemisphere stood higher than at
 present1 and which immediately preceded
 the modern period4 ,as these conditions
 have great significance in relation to 
the appearance of man1 ,i have tabulated
 them for reference as they occur in    
,scandinavia1 ,great ,britain1 and      
,north ,america4 ,the so-called         
a,eurooe,interglacial ,periodsa,euro of 
some geologists are in reality local    
results of the stages of intermittent   
elevation in which were deposited beds  
which in some cases1 as in ,scotland1   
,sweden1 and ,eastern ,canada1 hold     
sea-shells1 and in others1 as in the    
central areas of ,north ,america1       
contain remains of plants of northern   
species4  ,we shall name1 for           
convenience1 the parts of this          
,pleistocene revolution which include   

the great subsidence and glaciation1 the
 ,glacial ,age1 that extending from the 
re-elevation to the modern the          
,post-glacial4  ,the ,glacial ,age      
proved fatal to a large proportion of   
the land life of the previous periods4  
,according to ,professor ,boyd ,dawkins1
 out of fifty-three species known in    
,britain in the ,post-glacial1 only     
twelve are survivors of the ,pliocene2  
and probably the proportions would not  
be greater in any part of the northern  
hemisphere4 ,some1 however1 did survive1
 either by migrating southward or by    
being inhabitants of places less        
severely affected than most by the      
general cold and submergence4 ,there was
 thus no absolute break in the chain of 
life effected by the ,glacial ,age4     
,,table ,,of ,,pleistocene ,,deposits   
,,in ,,scandinavia1 ,,england1 ,,and    
,,america4 7,order descending47         
----------------------------------------
---------------------------             
,,scandinavia4       ,,great ,,britain4 

,,north ,,america4                      
7,torell47          7,lyell1 c47        
----------------------------------------
---------------------------             
,valley-clays and     ,hoxne ,deposits  
and  ,terrace ,gravels                  
,heath-sands of       ,upper ,terrace   
and ,loess                   ,sweden4   
7,no          ,gravels4                 
,deposits4                   fossils47  
,pal,aolithic                           
,implements4                            
,placer ,gravels of ,west4              
,terrace-gravels of   ,upper ,glacial   
,beds4                                  
,norway and ,sweden4   ,bridlington     
,beds4 ,do4  ,sand and ,gravel1         
7,no fossils47        ,upper ,boulder   
,newer ,boulder ,drift4                 
,beds4                                  
,so-called ,interglacial                
,dryas-clay with      ,so-called        
,beds1 with ,plants1 c4      ,fossil    
plants of     ,interglacial             
northern species4    ,deposits4         

,loess ,deposits of                     
,mississippi4                           
,uddevalla beds with  ,clyde ,beds and  
,upper ,leda ,clay and           ,boreal
 ,marine        ,marine ,clays4         
,champlain ,clay1 with        shells4   
,boreal ,shells4                        
,white ,silts of ,british               
,columbia4                              
,mid-,glacial ,sands4  ,erie ,clays and 
similar                                 
,beds of ,west4                         
,yoldia ,clay and                       
,lower ,leda ,clay1 with         ,sand4 
,arctic                                 
,arctic ,shells4              ,marine   
,shells4                                
,port ,hudson ,deposit of               
,mississippi4              ,yellow      
,stony ,clay                            
and ,sand1 and                          
,syrtensian ,beds of          ,gravel of
 ,scania4                        ,new   
,brunswick4                             
,orange ,sand of                        

,mississippi4                           
,moraines de ,fond1  ,till1 or ,older   
,boulder ,clays1 with           or      
,boulder ,clay      ,boulder ,clay4     
,local and some              proper4    
,travelled ,boulders4                   
,old ,land ,surfaces--,peat     ,ancient
 ,diluvial     ,pebbly ,beds and        
under ,boulder ,clay1         ,sand4    
,weyburne ,sands1     ,local ,gravels   
and                                     
,lignitic ,forest     ,sands4           
,beds4                                  
,pre-glacial ,gravels of                
,british ,columbia4                     
----------------------------------------
---------------------------  ,in what   
part of this sequence did man appear8   
,in answer to this1 ,i think it is now  
generally admitted that he is not       
certainly known earlier than the        
,post-glacial period4 ,various supposed 
indications of his presence in          
a,eurooe,interglaciala,euro ,glacial1   
,pliocene1 and even ,miocene deposits   

have proved on examination to be        
unreliable4 ,america has recently put   
forth claims to have been inhabited by  
man in the ,pliocene1 on the faith of   
remains found in auriferous gravels in  
the ,west4 ,but the facts that the      
implements and bones found are modern in
 type1 that the gravels were deeply     
mined by the ,indians1 and that the     
objects found1 as mortars for dressing  
gravel1 etc41 are in many cases such as 
they would be likely to leave in their  
excavations1 have discredited these     
supposed discoveries4 ,still more       
recently1 chipped flints found in       
gravels in ,new ,jersey1 by ,abbott1    
have been supposed to carry back the    
,indians of the ,east coast to the      
,glacial period4 ,it is evident1        
however1 from the description of these  
deposits by the late ,mr4 ,belt and by  
,professor ,cook1 director of the       
,survey of ,new ,jersey1 that they are  
really ,post-glacial1 that their age    
must be estimated by study of the local 

conditions1 and that there is no good   
ground for correlating them with the    
upper members of the true ,glacial drift
 to the northwards1 with which they had 
been somewhat rashly identified4        
,irrespective of the doubtful character 
of many if not all of the so-called     
implements1 the deposits in which they  
are found is confessedly not a product  
of the ice of the ,glacial period       
proper1 whether that was1 as some       
maintain1 a period of land glaciation as
 far south as ,new ,jersey or not4 ,it  
belongs to a time of denudation by      
water1 aided perhaps by floating ice1   
and is not necessarily older than the   
river gravels of the ,somme1 which1 like
 it1 contain boulders and imply         
conditions of torrential action and     
climate which have long since passed    
away4 ,if1 however1 these implements are
 genuine1 they would imply the presence 
of ,pal,aocosmic or ,antediluvian man in
 ,america4 ,this would in itself be an  
important discovery4  ,for the present1 

therefore1 man is geologically a        
,post-glacial species1 and there is     
nothing unreasonable in supposing that  
he dates no farther back1 since several 
animals his contemporaries are in the   
same case2 and by supposing him to have 
originated after the ,glacial age we    
avoid the difficulties attendant on his 
survival of that great revolution4 ,the 
only necessity for supposing an earlier 
appearance arises from the requirements 
of the hypothesis of evolution4 ,those1 
however1 who hold this theory1 may with 
,haeckel take refuge in that shadowy    
continent supposed to have extended from
 ,africa to ,australia1#he and to have  
sheltered man in his transition from the
 ape to humanity1 in the ,tertiary      
period4 ,the name ,lemuria is taken from
 the ,lemurs1 supposed ancestors of the 
,apes1 which still haunt the margin of  
the ,indian ,ocean2 but it may be taken 
also in its old ,latin sense of ghosts  
of the evil dead2 and as we are not     
likely to obtain any more tangible      

evidence of the old natives of ,lemuria1
 perhaps we may hope that some          
spiritualist may succeed in charming    
them from the vasty deep for our        
enlightenment4 ,should this be so1 it is
 to be hoped that no a,eurooedrum       
ecclesiastica,euro will be beaten to    
drive them away till they have revealed 
all they can tell4  ,it may be well to  
add that1 in addition to the negative   
evidence1 there is at least one positive
 evidence of the recent origin of man   
which has been well urged by ,le ,conte4
 ,it is this3 animals have continued    
long in geological time in the inverse  
ratio of their rank4 ,some ,mesozoic    
protozoa still survive4 ,so do many     
early ,tertiary mollusks4 ,but the      
mammals are of much less duration4 ,no  
living species goes back farther than   
the ,pliocene4 ,few extend farther than 
the ,glacial age4 ,on the same principle
 it is not to be expected that man1 the 
highest of all animals1 should extend   
far back in geological time4  ,accepting

 the ,post-glacial age as that of the   
advent of man1 it may be interesting to 
ask what we know of the condition of our
 continents when he appeared4 ,in       
,western ,asia1 in ,europe1 except in   
its more northern portions1 and it would
 now seem also in ,america1 man had been
 introduced at a time closely following 
the emergence of the land from the      
,glacial sea4 ,at this time the land    
area of both continents was larger than 
it is at present1 and the character of  
the fauna shows that much of the surface
 was occupied with great steppes or     
prairies1 over which migration would be 
easy2 while there were probably         
connections by land or chains of islands
 between the continents of the northern 
hemisphere4 ,the land animals of the    
continents were more numerous and of    
greater stature than at present4        
,several species of elephants 7,fig4    
#ahf7 and a rhinoceros roamed over the  
plains4 ,the formidable ,elasmotherium  
7,fig4 #ahg71hf an animal allied to the 

rhinoceros1 but more fleet and active1  
and of immense size1 inhabited ,asia and
 ,europe4 ,hippopotami1 wild horses1 the
 gigantic ,irish stag1 several species  
of wild cattle1 and bisons of greater   
size than their successors1 haunted the 
streams and steppes4 ,the cave bear1 the
 cave lion1 the spotted hy,ana1 and     
possibly the ,machairodus1 were among   
the beasts of prey even in the temperate
 latitudes4 ,the climate must have been 
a continental one1 ranging through      
considerable extremes2 but the          
conditions favoured migration of animals
 on the great scale1 so as to avoid     
these extremes1 and hence species of    
types now comparatively restricted      
enjoyed a wide distribution4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ahf4;a,euro,elephas primigenius4       
,post-glacial4  ,to establish themselves
 in such a world1 the primitive men must
 have been no puny race1 either in mind 
or body1 and they must have been        
sheltered in some ,eden of plenty and   

comparative safety till1 by increase of 
numbers1 invention of weapons and       
implements1 and domestication of useful 
animals1 they became able to cope with  
the monarchs of the waste4 ,but this    
position once attained in the original  
seats of the species1 the wide          
continents presented great facilities   
for their movements1 and there were     
ample stores of food for wandering      
tribes subsisting by the chase4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahg4;a,euro,tooth
 of ,elasmotherium4 ,grinding surface1  
natural size4 ,siberia4 ,from ,nature4  
,with such views the skeletons of the   
most ancient known men#hg fully accord4 
,they indicate a people of great        
stature1 of powerful muscular           
development1 especially in the lower    
limbs1 of large brain1 indicating great 
capacity and resources 7,fig4 #ahh71 but
 of coarse ,turanian features1 like     
those of the tribes that now roam over  
the plains of ,northern ,asia 7,fig4    
#ahi74 ,they used flint and bone        

implements1 which they manufactured with
 much skill 7,figs4 #aij1 #aia74 ,they  
were probably clothed in dressed skins1 
ornamented with embroidery1 in the      
manner of the ,north ,american ,indians4
 ,they used shells and carved bones as  
ornaments4 ,recent discoveries at       
,soloutre1 in ,france1 render it        
probable that some of the tribes had    
tamed the horse1 and resided in         
fortified villages4 ,they buried their  
dead with offerings1 indicating a belief
 in immortality4 ,these ,post-glacial   
men are certainly known as yet only in  
,europe and ,western ,asia2 and we      
cannot therefore determine if they      
represent the average man of the period4
 ,there were in ,belgium and other parts
 of ,europe1 men of smaller stature and 
of lower cranial type1 contemporary or  
nearly so with the higher race4 ,there  
may have been fruit-eating or           
agricultural peoples in the more genial 
and fertile lands of the east and south4
 ,the conditions above sketched are1 ,i 

think1 fairly deducible from the facts  
stated by ,christy and ,lartet1 ,dupont1
 ,rivi,are1 ,dawkins1 and others1 who   
have studied the remains of these early 
men1 the ,pal,aolithic men of some      
writers1 or the men of the ,mammoth age1
 and whom ,i have elsewhere named       
,pal,aocosmic men1 as a term less       
objectionable than those founded on     
implements not confined to any age1 or  
animals which may have long antedated   
man4 ,recent discoveries in the caves of
 ,spy in ,belgium1#hh taken in          
connection with the previous discoveries
 of ,schmerling and ,dupont1 seem to    
show the existence in that country of   
men of the low-browed ,neanderthal or   
,canstadt type 7,fig4 #ahi third        
outline71 perhaps locally preceding but 
perhaps contemporaneous with1 the larger
 and better developed men of the        
,cro-,magnon type 7,fig4 #ahi first     
outline74 ,these two types are1 however1
 allied1 and there are intermediate     
forms1 so that they are to be regarded  

as two races of ,pal,aocosmic men not   
more dissimilar than we find in cognate 
rude races at present4  ,illustration3  
,,fig4 #ahh4;a,euro,engis ,skull4       
,reduced4a,euro,after ,lyell4 ,the      
,skull of one of the ,men of the        
,mammoth age4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#ahi4;a,euro,outlines of ,three         
,prehistoric ,european ,skulls compared 
with an ,american ,skull from           
,hochelaga4  ,outer outline1            
,cro-,magnon ,skull4 ,second outline1   
,engis ,skull4 ,third outline 7dotted71 
,neanderthal ,skull4 ,inner figure1     
,hochelagan ,skull on a smaller scale4  
,they were succeeded in ,western ,europe
 by a smaller and less elevated race1   
identical apparently with the modern    
,lapps and ,basques1 and in whose time  
the mammoth and many large animals had  
disappeared1 ,europe had become clad    
with dense forests1 and the reindeer had
 extended his range far to the south1   
while the land of our continents had    
become narrowed to its present limits1  

or even less4 ,the cause of these       
changes must have been physical1 and to 
some extent cataclysmal2 and its        
wide-spread and effectual character is  
shown by the fact that it exterminated  
so many animals of both continents which
 had survived the ,glacial age4 ,similar
 testimony is borne by the occurrence of
 the implements and remains of          
,pal,aocosmic men in gravels and in     
diluvial clays in caverns1 and by the   
changes of level and deep erosions of   
valleys that are referable to the close 
of the ,pal,aocosmic age4 ,the most     
probable agencies in this revolution    
were subsidences of the land1           
accompanied with climatal changes2 but  
the precise nature and extent of these  
is still unknown2 and the prevalent     
tendency on the part of geologists to   
stretch the doctrine of uniformity1 so  
valuable within proper limits1 to the   
absurd extreme of excluding all changes 
not exemplified even in amount in the   
modern period1 will probably for some   

time prevent any adequate conception of 
them4  ,it would be premature to        
correlate what is yet known of the      
,pal,aocosmic age with historical       
periods2 but the tendency of the facts  
accumulated is1 ,i think1 toward the    
identification of the ,pal,aocosmic men 
with the ,antediluvians2 and their      
,neocosmic successors1 whether of the   
reindeer age1 of the ,danish            
shell-mounds1 or the ,swiss lake        
habitations1 with ,postdiluvian and     
still existing tribes4  ,illustration3  
,,fig4 #aij4;a,euro,flint ,implement    
found in ,kenta,euro7,,tm7s ,cavern1    
,torquay1 under four feet of cave mud   
and one foot of stalagmite4a,euro,after 
,pengelly4  ,after what has been already
 said1 it will be unnecessary to dwell  
upon the characteristics of the first   
race of men known to us4 ,they were rude
 and uncivilised1 in so far as outward  
appliances are concerned2 but they are  
confessedly altogether men1 and in no   
respect akin to apes1 and their volume  

of brain is rather greater than that of 
the average ,european of to-day2 so that
 they must have had quite as much       
natural sagacity and capacity for       
culture1 and1 like the modern and       
historic ,turanian nations1 they were   
probably superior to the average        
,european in the instinct for art and   
construction4 ,thus if we suppose these 
men derived from apes by any process of 
gradual change1 we must look for their  
brute ancestors1 not in the ,pliocene or
 ,miocene1 but in the ,eocene itself4   
,this causes us to recur to the doctrine
 of critical periods1 when many species 
were introduced together1 alternating   
with periods of decay and extinction4   
,post-glacial man appears at the end of 
a time of sifting and trial1 a time in  
which a vast number of species succumbed
 to great physical reverses4 ,no very   
great number of species came in with    
him1 and in the early period of his     
history there was a decadence or        
destruction either by the diluvial      

cataclysm or gradually4 ,out of         
ninety-eight species of mammals         
contemporary with early man in ,europe1 
forty-one are wholly or locally extinct1
 and none have been introduced except   
those brought by man himself4 ,thus man 
stands alone1 the grand product of his  
period and a lord of creation1 for whom 
great preparatory changes were made1 and
 multitudes of lower animals swept away 
to make room for him4 ,according to our 
sacred ,scriptures1 this change is still
 imperfect1 and great additional        
ameliorations would have taken place but
 for a moral catastrophe not within the 
domain of geologya,eurothe fall of man4 
,if we identify the ,pal,aocosmic men   
with the ,antediluvians of the same     
venerable record1 the roving tribes     
whose remains are known to us represent 
that part of the race of ,cain of whom  
,jubal was the father1 the nomads       
dwelling in tents1 as distinguished from
 the settled agricultural peoples4 ,in  
this case1 also1 the catastrophe which  

destroyed these rude and lawless men was
 that which culminated in the deluge of 
,noah1 which may represent the          
extinction of the last great body of    
this primitive race1 whose arts1 handed 
down to the physically inferior men of  
,postdiluvian times1 astonish us by     
their early development in ,chald,aa and
 in ,egypt4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#aia4;a,euro,bone ,harpoon              
7,pal,aocosmic71 from ,,pa7,c7rigord    
,cavern4  ,if man is so recent          
geologically1 he may still be very old  
historically2 and the question remains1 
,have we any facts bearing on the       
absolute antiquity of man8 ,for the     
properly historical aspect of this      
question1 ,i may refer to the excellent 
work of ,canon ,rawlinson on the ,origin
 of ,nations1#hi which shows            
conclusively that the historic origin of
 all the great nations of antiquity     
extends backward less than #d1djj years 
from our time4 ,beyond this we have1    
however1 the ,pal,aocosmic or           

,antediluvian men2 and their extension  
backward seems limited geologically only
 by the close of the ,glacial period1   
while many hold that the ,genealogy in  
,genesis does not require us to limit   
very narrowly their antiquity4 ,the date
 of the ,glacial period is1 however1 at 
present very uncertain4 ,on the one     
hand1 some geologists1 like ,lyell1 have
 supposed it may be as far back as      
#bjj1jjj years ago4 ,others1 like       
,croll1 are contented with the more     
moderate estimate of #hj1jjj years4 ,on 
the other hand1 the calculations of     
,andrews1 based on the recession of the 
,american lakes1 those of ,winchell on  
the recession of the ,falls of ,st4     
,anthony1 and the recent surveys of the 
recession of the ,falls of ,niagara1    
reduce the time to from #g1jjj to       
#aj1jjj years4 ,it is impossible in the 
present state of knowledge to settle    
these disputes2 but one may refer in the
 sequel to some of the evidences which  
have been adduced in favour of great    

antiquity4 ,since the publication of the
 second edition of this work ,prof4     
,prestwich1 in a paper read before the  
,geological ,society1#ij has brought    
forward other reasons which induce him  
to conclude that the close of the       
,glacial epoch occurred a,eurooefrom    
#h1jjj to #aj1jjj years since4a,euro ,it
 is true1 he admits1 on geological      
evidence still in dispute1 that man may 
have existed in ,europe before that     
time1 and he also admits1 on historical1
 not geological evidence1 the existence 
of a,eurooe,neolithica,euro man in      
,asia1 a,eurooeat an earlier date than  
#d1jjj ,b4,c4a,euro ,still the          
repudiation1 by so good an authority1 of
 the exaggerated antiquity which it has 
been the fashion1 since the rise of     
,darwinian evolution1 to assign to man1 
contrary to the geological evidence1 is 
a satisfactory indication of a return to
 more rational views2 and when          
geologists get rid of the fiction of a  
continental ice-sheet1 still farther    

progress in this direction may be       
expected4  ,we may1 ,i think1 at once   
take it for granted1 that none of the   
,neocosmic races date farther back than 
the origin of the great eastern nations4
 ,there are certainly no geological     
evidences requiring a greater antiquity1
 for in their time the land had attained
 to its present configuration1 and the  
changes which have occurred in the      
succession of forests and the growth of 
peat are such as our experience in      
,america shows to be possibly quite     
modern4 ,there is besides no doubt that 
these people1 from the ,reindeer men of 
,france and ,belgium to the people of   
the ,swiss lakes1 are modern races1     
whose descendants still live in ,europe4
 ,we can thus limit our inquiry to the  
,pal,aocosmic men2 and with respect to  
them we know only what may be gathered  
from a consideration of the physical    
changes which have occurred since they  
lived4  ,in ,europe a great number of   
considerations have been adduced as     

evidence of their high antiquity2 and   
these deserve careful attention1 though 
,i think it will be found that they are 
all liable to serious objections or     
great abatements on geological grounds4 
7#a7 ,the occurrence of human remains   
with those of animals now extinct       
affords no certain evidence of          
antiquity4 ,admitting that human remains
 are found along with those of the      
mammoth in ,europe1 and with those of   
the mastodon in ,america1 the question  
remains1 ,how late did these species    
survive8 ,in ,europe we know that       
several large animals now extinct       
existed up to comparatively modern      
times4 ,this is the case with the ,irish
 deer 7,megaceros71 the urus1 the       
aurochs1 and the reindeer1 in temperate 
,europe4 ,how long previously the       
mammoth or the hairy rhinoceros         
disappeared we do not know1 but need not
 suppose the time very long4  7#b7 ,the 
accumulation of sediment or of          
stalagmite over human remains in caverns

 is not necessarily indicative of very  
great antiquity4 ,we know that in       
favourable circumstances mud1 sand1 and 
gravel may be rapidly deposited in caves
 by land floods or river inundations1   
and that d,a7,c7bris of various sorts   
accumulates in such places from decay of
 rock and vegetable and animal agencies4
 ,the deposition of stalagmite is also  
very variable in its rate2 and the fact 
that it is being very slowly deposited  
in any cave now does not prove that more
 rapid deposition may not have taken    
place formerly4 ,dawkins and others have
 ascertained a rate of a quarter of an  
inch per annum in some caverns2 and this
 would allow the stalagmite crust of    
,kenta,euro7,,tm7s cave1 for which an   
antiquity of half a million of years has
 been claimed1 to have been formed in a 
thousand years4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#aib4;a,euro,sketch of a ,mammoth1      
carved on a portion of a ,tusk of the   
same ,animal 7,lartet74  7#c7 ,the      
erosion of river valleys to great depths

 since the ,glacial period fails to     
establish the great antiquity of the    
caves left on their sides or the high   
level gravels of their banks4           
,throughout the northern hemisphere1 the
 river valleys are of old date1 and were
 merely filled with loose detritus in   
the ,glacial age4 ,the sweeping out of  
this d,a7,c7bris would be a rapid       
process1 more especially when changes of
 level were occurring1 and when the     
rainfall was greater than at present4   
,besides1 as ,croll has well remarked1  
the actual configuration of our         
continents1 the amount of drift still   
remaining1 and the imperfect manner in  
which the river valleys have been       
cleared out1 all testify to the         
comparative recency of the ,glacial     
period4#ia ,these considerations would1 
indeed1 materially reduce the antiquity 
which he claims on astronomical grounds 
for the ice age4  7#d7 ,the growth of   
peat and the deposition of silt are very
 deceptive as indications of great      

antiquity4 ,for instance1 accurate      
observations made by a ,french engineer 
in the construction of docks at ,st4    
,nazaire1#ib show that in #a1fjj years  
the ,loire had deposited over           
,gallo-,roman remains six metres of mud4
 ,relics of the ,bronze age occur below 
these at a depth indicating #ejj years  
previously as their date2 and the       
beginning of the modern deposit of the  
,loire would1 on the same evidence1 be  
only #f1jjj years ago4                  
,hilgarda,euro7,,tm7s observations on   
the delta of the ,mississippi in like   
manner tend greatly to reduce our       
estimates of the time occupied in the   
deposit of the modern silt of that      
river4 ,the peat deposit at ,abbeville1 
at the mouth of the ,somme1 has been    
supposed to have required #cj1jjj years 
for its formation4 ,but this estimate   
was based upon the present rate of      
growth2 and1 as ,andrews has shown1 the 
fact admitted by ,boucher de ,perthes1  
that birch stems three feet high stand  

in this peat1 implies a much more rapid 
rate1 which is also proved by the depth 
at which ,roman remains have been found4
 ,in like manner the ,scandinavian      
peats1 to which a fabulous antiquity has
 been ascribed1 have been proved to be  
comparatively modern by the depths at   
which metallic works of art are found in
 them4  7#e7 ,the paucity of remains of 
,pal,aocosmic men in ,europe1 with their
 wide distribution1 indicate that their 
sojourn was not long1 or that the       
population was very small and much      
scattered4 ,even in a few thousands of  
years1 an active and vigorous people1   
living in a country well supplied with  
food1 must have multiplied greatly1 and 
must have left considerable remains4 ,on
 the theory that these men inhabited    
,europe even for #b1jjj years1 we have  
to suppose that the greater part of     
their remains have been swept away1 or  
remain under the waters1 or buried out  
of sight in diluvial sediments4  7#f7   
,much importance has been attached to   

the early works and high culture of     
,egypt and ,chald,aa1 as evidence of    
vast time during which arts were growing
 from a supposed rude stone age4 ,but it
 must be observed that no such period is
 known to antedate civilisation in the  
,east1 and that if the early empires    
were established by survivors of the    
,deluge1 they must have brought with    
them the culture of ,antediluvian times4
 ,farther1 the notion of men emerging   
from a half-brutal state1 and from the  
use of the rudest implements1 is purely 
conjectural and not supported by facts4 
,in ,america1 where the semi-civilised  
agricultural races are unquestionably   
the oldest1 the rudest possible         
implements were used by these partially 
civilised agricultural people along with
 polished stone and metal2 and          
,schliemann has shown that a rude stone 
age succeeded the civilisation of ,troy1
 and this at a time when ,ph,anicia and 
,egypt were at the height of their      
civilisation4 ,such facts1 which might  

fill volumes1 show how little value is  
to be attached to supposed ages of rough
 and polished stone4  7#g7 ,the         
difficulties attending the establishment
 of geological dates for deposits like  
those containing the remains of men are 
very great4 ,they are altogether        
superficial and local1 not wide-spread  
marine beds in which a distinct order of
 superposition can be clearly traced4   
,they are not easily separated from the 
glacial beds below1 or from those above 
which have been modified by human       
agency1 by land-floods1 or by landslips4
 ,thus the application of geological    
criteria of age to them is very         
difficult and uncertain4 ,evidence of   
this could easily be given1 in the many 
errors which have been promulgated1 and 
which have had to be retracted by their 
authors1 or have been disproved by the  
observations of others4 ,for example1 no
 country was at one time richer in      
supposed evidences of the antiquity of  
man than ,scandinavia2 but ,professor   

,torell1 the director of the ,geological
 ,survey of ,sweden1 has recently made a
 careful re-examination of the facts1   
and has found that there is no evidence 
whatever of the existence of man in     
,scandinavia before the ,neolithic or   
polished stone age4 ,there are1 however1
 evidences of considerable changes of   
level since that time1 and it would seem
 even since the twelfth century of our  
era4 ,the remarkable and seemingly      
inexcusable errors of observation       
referred to in ,professor               
,torella,euro7,,tm7s memoir1 should     
enforce a caution on geologists as to   
the uncertainties of such evidence4     
,lyell sifted the testimony bearing on  
this subject with great care in the     
first edition of his ,antiquity of ,man4
 ,in later editions he had to make large
 abatements1 and now much of the        
evidence in the latest edition would    
have to be withdrawn or otherwise       
applied4  ,from all these considerations
 the conclusion is obvious that while we

 have no certain data for assigning a   
definite number of years to the         
residence of man on the earth1 we have  
no geological evidence for the rash     
assertion often made that in comparison 
with historical periods the date of the 
earliest races of men recedes into a    
dim1 mysterious1 and measureless        
antiquity4 ,on the basis of that        
,lyellian principle of the application  
of modern causes to explain past        
changes1 which is the stable foundation 
of modern geology1 we fail to erect any 
such edifice as the indefinite antiquity
 of man1 or to extend this comparatively
 insignificant interval to an equality  
with the long ,aons of the preceding    
,tertiary4 ,the demand for such         
indefinite extension of the history of  
man rests not on geological facts1 but  
on the necessities of hypotheses which1 
whatever their foundation1 have no basis
 in the discoveries of that science1 and
 are not required to account for the    
sequence which it discloses4            

,,chapter ,,xi4  ,,review ,,of ,,the    
,,history ,,of ,,life4   ,what general  
conclusions can we reach as to this long
 and strange history of the progress of 
life on our planet8 ,perhaps the most   
comprehensive of these is that the links
 in the chain of life1 or rather in its 
many chains1 are not scattered and      
disunited things1 but members of a great
 and complex plan2 and that when we     
discern their combinations and their    
pattern1 we find them not only orderly  
and symmetrical1 but all tending to one 
point and bound to one central object1  
even the throne of the ,eternal4 ,it    
must also appear evident that the       
original plan of nature1 both in the    
animal and vegetable worlds1 was too    
vast to be realised at one time on a    
globe so limited as ours1 but had to be 
distributed in time as well as in space1
 thus realising the idea of time-worlds3
 successive ,aons in which1 one after   
the other1 the work of creation could   
rise to successive stages of perfection 

and completeness till it culminated in  
man4 ,all this is sufficiently plain on 
the theistic view of nature1 and may    
suffice for those who reverently regard 
the ,god of nature as the ,father of    
their own spirits4 ,but there are others
 who ask further questions4 ,do we know 
anything of the secondary causes and    
origin of life1 of the manner of its    
introduction and advance1 of the laws of
 its succession8  ,as to the first of   
these questions1 it is certain that1 up 
to this time1 the origination of the    
living being from the non-living is an  
inscrutable mystery4 ,no one has        
witnessed this change1 or has been able 
to effect it experimentally4 ,nor have  
we any direct evidence of the           
origination of one specific type from   
another4 ,such reasonings as assume the 
possibility of these things1 or on      
analogical grounds assert their         
probability1 belong rather to the domain
 of philosophical speculation than to   
science4 ,as to the laws of the         

succession of life1 however1 it is      
possible to learn something from the    
sequence of facts as already            
ascertained2 and though much remains to 
be discovered1 there are a few leading  
statements on this subject which can    
already be made with safety4  ,unity and
 uniformity1 within the limits imposed  
by progress and increasing complexity1  
can be affirmed of the whole process4   
,from the dawn of life to the present   
time the great laws of physical nature  
which operate on animals and plants have
 been uniform4 ,these stable laws have  
regulated the action of the outer world 
on organisms4 ,the plans of structure of
 these organisms laid down at the first 
have been followed throughout4 ,thus the
 succession of life presents nothing    
fortuitous or arbitrary1 but a          
continuous plan carried out uniformly in
 time and space1 with certain materials 
of fixed properties1 and with certain   
structures predetermined from the first4
 ,there is1 for example1 a great        

sameness of plan throughout the whole   
history of the marine invertebrate life 
of the ,pal,aozoic4 ,if we turn over the
 pages of an illustrated text-book of   
geology1 or examine the cases or drawers
 of a collection of fossils1 we shall   
find extending through every succeeding 
formation1 representative forms of      
,crustaceans1 ,mollusks1 and ,corals1 in
 such a manner as to indicate that in   
each successive period there has been a 
reproduction of the same type with      
modifications2 and if the series is not 
continuous1 this appears to be due to   
lack of specimens1 or to abrupt physical
 changes2 since sometimes1 where two    
formations pass into each other1 we find
 a gradual change in the fossils by the 
dropping out and introduction of species
 one by one4 ,thus in the whole of the  
great ,pal,aozoic period1 both in its   
fauna and flora1 we have a continuity   
and similarity of a most marked         
character4  ,there is1 indeed1 nothing  
to preclude the supposition that many   

forms reckoned as species are really    
only race modifications4 ,my own        
provisional conclusion1 based on the    
study of ,pal,aozoic plants1 published  
many years ago1#ic is that the general  
law will be found to be the existence of
 distinct specific types independent of 
each other1 but liable in geological    
time to minor modifications1 which have 
often been regarded as distinct species4
  ,while this unity of successive faun,a
 at first sight presents an appearance  
of hereditary succession1 it loses much 
of this character when we consider the  
number of new types introduced without  
apparent predecessors1 or ceasing       
without successors1 and the almost      
changeless persistence of other types2  
the necessity that there should be      
similarity of type in successive faun,a 
on any hypothesis of a continuous plan2 
and1 above all1 the fact that the       
recurrence of representative species or 
races in large proportion marks times of
 decadence rather than of expansion in  

the types to which they belong4 ,to     
return to a later period1 this is very  
manifest in that singular resemblance   
which obtains between the modern mammals
 of ,south ,america and ,australia and  
their immediate fossil                  
predecessorsa,eurothe phenomenon being  
here manifestly that of decadence of    
large and abundant species into a few   
depauperated representatives4 ,this will
 be found to be a very general law1     
elevation being accompanied by the      
abrupt appearance of new types1 and     
decadence by the apparent continuation  
of old species1 or modifications of     
them4  ,this resemblance with difference
 in successive faun,a also connects     
itself very directly with the successive
 elevations and depressions of our      
continental plateaus in geological time4
  ,every great ,pal,aozoic limestone1   
for example1 indicates a depression with
 succeeding elevation4 ,on each         
elevation marine animals were driven    
back into the ocean1 and on each        

depression swarmed in over the land1    
reinforced by new species1 either then  
introduced or derived by migration from 
other localities4 ,in like manner on    
every depression1 land plants and       
animals were driven in upon insular     
areas1 and on re-elevation again spread 
themselves widely4 ,now ,i think it will
 be found to be a law here that periods 
of expansion were eminently those of    
introduction of new specific types1 and 
periods of contraction those of         
extinction1 and also of continuance of  
old types under new varietal forms4 ,it 
must also be borne in mind that all the 
leading types of invertebrate life were 
early introduced1 that change within    
these was necessarily limited1 and that 
elevation could take place mainly by the
 introduction of the vertebrate orders4 
,so in plants1 ,cryptogams early        
attained their maximum as well as       
,gymnosperms1 and elevation occurred in 
the introduction of ,ph,anogams4        
,another allied fact is the simultaneous

 appearance of like types of life in one
 and the same geological period1 over   
widely separated regions of the         
eartha,euro7,,tm7s surface4 ,this       
strikes us especially in the            
comparatively simple and homogeneous    
life-dynasties of the ,pal,aozoic1 when 
for example we find the same types of   
,silurian ,graptolites1 ,trilobites and 
,brachiopods appearing simultaneously in
 ,australia1 ,america1 and ,europe4     
,perhaps in no department is it more    
impressive than in the introduction in  
the ,devonian and ,carboniferous ages of
 that grand cryptogamous and            
gymnospermous flora which ranges from   
,brazil to ,spitzbergen1 and from       
,australia to ,scotland1 accompanied in 
all by the same groups of marine        
invertebrates2 or in the like wholesale 
production of modern types of trees in  
the ,cretaceous4 ,such facts may depend 
either on that long life of specific    
types which gives them ample time to    
spread to all possible habitats1 before 

their extinction2 or on some general law
 whereby the conditions suitable to     
similar types of life emerge at one time
 in all parts of the world4 ,both causes
 may be influential1 as the one does not
 exclude the other1 and there is reason 
to believe that both are natural facts4 
,should it be ultimately proved that    
species allied and representative1 but  
distinct in origin1 come into being     
simultaneously everywhere1 we shall     
arrive at one of the laws of creation1  
and one probably connected with the     
gradual change of the physical          
conditions of the world4  ,a closely    
related truth is the periodicity of     
introduction of species4 ,they come in  
by bursts or flood-tides at particular  
points of time1 while these great       
life-waves are followed and preceded by 
times of ebb in which little that is new
 is being produced4 ,we labour in our   
investigation of this matter under the  
disadvantage that the modern period is  
evidently one of the times of pause in  

the creative work4 ,had our time been   
that of the early ,tertiary or early    
,mesozoic1 our views as to the question 
of origin of species might have been    
very different4 ,it is a striking fact1 
in illustration of this1 that since the 
,glacial age no new species of mammal   
can be proved to have originated on our 
continents1 while a great number of     
large and conspicuous forms have        
disappeared4 ,it is possible that the   
proximate or secondary causes of the ebb
 and flow of life-production may be in  
part at least physical2 but other and   
more important efficient causes may be  
behind these4 ,in any case these        
undulations in the history of life are  
in harmony with much that we see in     
other departments of nature4  ,it       
results from the above and the          
immediately preceding statement that    
specific and generic types enter on the 
stage in great force1 and gradually     
taper off toward extinction4 ,they      
should so appear in the geological      

diagrams made to illustrate the         
succession of life4 ,this applies even  
to those forms of life which come in    
with fewest species and under the most  
humble guise4 ,what a remarkable        
swarming1 for example1 there must have  
been of ,marsupial ,mammals in the early
 ,mesozoic2 and in the ,coal formation  
the only known ,pulmonates1 four or five
 in number1 belong to as many generic   
types4  ,i have already referred to the 
permanence of certain species in        
geological time4 ,i may now place this  
in connection with the law of           
origination and more or less continuous 
transmission of varietal forms4 ,i may1 
perhaps1 best illustrate this in        
connection with a group of species with 
which ,i am very familiar1 that which   
came into our seas at the beginning of  
the ,glacial age1 and still exists4     
,with regard to their permanence1 it can
 be affirmed that the shells now        
elevated in ,wales to #a1bjj and in     
,canada to #fjj feet above the sea1 and 

which lived before the last great       
revolution of our continents1 a period  
vastly remote as compared with human    
history1 differ in no tittle from their 
modern successors after thousands or    
tens of thousands of generations4 ,it   
can also be affirmed that the more      
variable species appear under precisely 
the same varietal forms then as now1    
though these varieties have changed much
 in their local distribution4 ,the real 
import of these statements1 which might 
also be made with regard to other groups
 well known to pal,aontologists1 is of  
so great significance that it can be    
realised only after we have thought of  
the vast time and numerous changes      
through which these humble creatures    
have survived4 ,i may call in evidence  
here a familiar ,british and ,american  
animal1 the common sand clam1 ,mya      
arenaria1 and its relative1 ,mya        
truncata1 which now inhabit together all
 the northern seas2 for the ,pacific    
specimens1 from ,japan and ,california1 

though differently named1 are           
undoubtedly the same4 ,mya truncata     
appears in ,europe in the older         
,pliocene1 and was followed by ,m4      
arenaria a little later4 ,both shells   
occur in the ,pleistocene of ,america1  
and their several varietal forms had    
then already developed themselves1 and  
remain the same to-day2 so that these   
humble mollusks1 littoral in their      
habits1 and subjected to a great variety
 of conditions1 have continued1 perhaps 
for one or two thousand centuries1 to   
construct their shells precisely as at  
present4 ,nor are there any indications 
of a transition between the two species4
 ,similar statements may be made with   
regard to other mollusks of the         
,pliocene and ,modern periods1 and there
 are even species which extend unchanged
 from the early ,eocene4 ,nor is it     
impossible that some modern bivalves of 
the ,brachiopod group may be scarcely   
modified descendants even of ,pal,aozoic
 species4  ,perhaps some of the most    

remarkable facts in connection with the 
permanence of species and varietal forms
 are those furnished by that magnificent
 flora which burst in all its majesty on
 the ,american continent in the         
,cretaceous period1 and still survives  
among us even in some of its specific   
types1 ,i say survives2 for we have but 
a remnant of its forms living1 and      
comparatively little that is new has    
probably been added since4 ,take1 for   
example1 the facts stated in ,chapter   
,,viii4 as to the continuance to the    
present time of species of plants       
introduced in the ,cretaceous and       
,eocene1 and which thus came in at the  
very time when the great ,mesozoic      
reptiles were decaying or had just      
disappeared1 and when the placental     
mammals were being introduced4 ,some of 
these plants must have propagated       
themselves unchanged for half a million 
of years4  ,plants and the lower tribes 
of animals are1 however1 more permanent 
than the higher animals2 and a strange  

contrast is afforded to the foregoing   
examples of persistence by the repeated 
revolutions that have affected          
vertebrate life since the ,mesozoic age4
 ,yet even in the case of vertebrates   
there seems to have been little change1 
except in the extinction of species1    
since the ,pliocene period4  ,in        
conclusion of this review1 can we       
formulate a few of the general laws1 or 
perhaps ,i had better call them the     
general conclusions respecting life1 in 
which all pal,aontologists may agree8   
,perhaps it is not possible to do this  
at present satisfactorily1 but the      
attempt may do no harm4 ,we may1 then1  
,i think1 make the following            
affirmations3a,euro  7#a7 ,the existence
 of life and organisation on the earth  
is not eternal1 or even coeval with the 
beginning of the physical universe1 but 
may possibly date from ,laurentian or   
immediately pre-,laurentian times4  7#b7
 ,the introduction of new species of    
animals and plants has been a continuous

 process1 not necessarily in the sense  
of derivation of one species from       
another1 but in the higher sense of the 
continued operation of the cause or     
causes which introduced life at first4  
,this1 as already stated1 ,i take to be 
the true theological or ,scriptural as  
well as scientific idea of what we      
ordinarily and somewhat loosely term    
creation4  7#c7 ,though thus continuous1
 the process has not been uniform2 but  
periods of rapid production of species  
have alternated with others in which    
many disappeared and few were           
introduced4 ,this may have been an      
effect of physical cycles reacting on   
the progress of life4  7#d7 ,species1   
like individuals1 have greater energy   
and vitality in their younger stages1   
and rapidly assume all their varietal   
forms1 and extend themselves as widely  
as external circumstances will permit4  
,like individuals1 also1 they have their
 periods of old age and decay1 though   
the life of some species has been of    

enormous duration in comparison with    
that of others2 the difference appearing
 to be connected with degrees of        
adaptation to different conditions of   
life4  7#e7 ,many allied species1       
constituting groups of animals and      
plants1 have made their appearance at   
once in various parts of the earth1 and 
these groups have obeyed the same laws  
with the individual and the species in  
culminating rapidly1 and then slowly    
diminishing1 though a large group once  
introduced has rarely disappeared       
altogether4  7#f7 ,groups of species1 as
 genera and orders1 do not usually begin
 with their highest or lowest forms1 but
 with intermediate and generalised      
types1 and they show a capacity for both
 elevation and degradation in their     
subsequent history4  7#g7 ,the history  
of life presents a progress from the    
lower to the higher1 and from the       
simpler to the more complex1 and from   
the more generalised to the more        
specialised4 ,in this progress new types

 are introduced1 and take the place of  
the older ones1 which sink to a         
relatively subordinate place1 and become
 thus degraded4 ,but the physical and   
organic changes have been so correlated 
and adjusted that life has not only     
always maintained its existence1 but has
 been enabled to assume more complex    
forms1 and that older forms have been   
made to prepare the way for newer1 so   
that there has been on the whole a      
steady elevation culminating in man     
himself4 ,elevation and specialisation  
have1 however1 been secured at the      
expense of vital energy and range of    
adaptation1 until the new element of a  
rational and inventive nature was       
introduced in the case of man4  7#h7 ,in
 regard to the larger and more distinct 
types1 we cannot find evidence that they
 have1 in their introduction1 been      
preceded by similar forms connecting    
them with previous groups2 but there is 
reason to believe that many supposed    
representative species in successive    

formations are really only races or     
varieties4  7#i7 ,in so far as we can   
trace their history1 specific types are 
permanent in their characters from their
 introduction to their extinction1 and  
their earlier varietal forms are similar
 to their later ones4  7#aj7            
,pal,aontology furnishes no direct      
evidence1 perhaps never can furnish any1
 as to the actual transformation of one 
species into another1 or as to the      
actual circumstances of creation of a   
species1 but the drift of its testimony 
is to show that species come in per     
saltum1 rather than by any slow and     
gradual process4  7#aa7 ,the origin and 
history of life cannot1 any more than   
the origin and determination of matter  
and force1 be explained on purely       
material grounds1 but involve the       
consideration of power referable to the 
unseen and spiritual world4  ,different 
minds may state these principles in     
different ways1 but ,i believe that in  
so far as pal,aontology is concerned1 in

 substance they must hold good1 at least
 as steps to higher truths4 ,and now ,i 
may be permitted to add that we should  
be thankful that it is given to us to   
deal with so great questions1 and that  
in doing so deep humility1 earnest      
seeking for truth1 patient collection of
 all facts1 self-denying abstinence from
 hasty generalisations1 forbearance and 
generous estimation with regard to our  
fellow-labourers1 and reliance on that  
,divine ,spirit which has breathed into 
us our intelligent life1 and is the     
source of all true wisdom1 are the      
qualities which best become us4  ,as we 
have traced onward the succession of    
life1 reference has been made here and  
there to the defects of those bold      
theories of descent with modification   
which are held forth in our time as the 
true bond of the links of the chain of  
life4 ,it must have been apparent that  
these theories1 however specious when   
placed in connection with a limited     
induction of facts selected for the     

purpose of illustrating them1 are very  
far from affording a satisfactory       
solution of all difficulties4 ,they     
cannot perhaps be expected to take us   
back to the origin of living beings2 but
 they also fail to explain why so vast  
numbers of highly organised species     
struggle into existence simultaneously  
in one age and disappear in another1 why
 no continuous chain of succession in   
time can be found gradually blending    
species into each other1 and why in the 
natural succession of things degradation
 under the influence of external        
conditions and final extinction seem to 
be laws of organic existence4 ,it is    
useless here to appeal to the           
imperfection of the record or to the    
movements or migrations of species4 ,the
 record is now in many important parts  
too complete1 and the simultaneousness  
of the entrance of the faunas and floras
 too certainly established1 while the   
moving of species from place to place   
only evades the difficulty4 ,the truth  

is that such hypotheses are at present  
premature1 and that we require to have  
larger collections of facts4            
,independently of this1 however1 it     
would seem that from a philosophical    
point of view all theories of evolution1
 as at present applied to life1 are     
fundamentally defective in being too    
partial in their character2 and this    
applies more particularly to those which
 are a,eurooemonstica,euro or           
a,eurooeagnostic1a,euro and thus        
endeavour to dispense with a ,creative  
,will behind nature4 ,it may be         
instructive to illustrate from the facts
 developed in preceding chapters this   
feature of most of the attempts at      
generalisation on this subject4  ,first1
 then1 these hypotheses are too partial1
 in their tendency to refer numerous and
 complex phenomena to one cause1 or to a
 few causes only1 when all trustworthy  
analogy would indicate that they must   
result from many concurrent forces and  
determinations of force4 ,we have of    

late been very familiar with those      
ingenious1 not to say amusing1          
speculations in which some entomologists
 and botanists have indulged with       
reference to the mutual relations of    
flowers and haustellate insects4        
,geologically the facts oblige us to    
begin with ,cryptogamous plants and     
mandibulate insects2 and out of the     
desire of insects for non-existent      
honey1 and the adaptations of plants to 
the requirements of non-existent        
suctorial apparatus1 we have to evolve  
the marvellous complexity of floral form
 and colouring1 and the exquisitely     
delicate apparatus of the mouths of     
haustellate insects4 ,now when it is    
borne in mind that this theory implies a
 mental confusion on our part precisely 
similar to that which in the department 
of mechanics actuates the seekers for   
perpetual motion1 that we have not the  
smallest tittle of evidence that the    
changes required have actually occurred 
in any one case1 and that the thousands 

of other structures and relations of the
 plant and the insect have to be worked 
out by a series of concurrent evolutions
 so complex and absolutely incalculable 
in the aggregate that the cycles and    
epicycles of the ,ptolemaic astronomy   
were childa,euro7,,tm7s play in         
comparison1 we need not wonder that the 
common sense of mankind revolts against 
such fancies1 and that we are accused of
 attempting to construct the universe by
 methods that would baffle ,omnipotence 
itself1 because they are simply absurd4 
,in this aspect of them1 indeed1 such   
speculations are necessarily futile1    
because no mind can grasp all the       
complexities of even any one case1 and  
it is useless to follow out an imaginary
 line of development which unexplained  
facts must contradict at every step4    
,this is also no doubt the reason why   
all recent attempts at constructing     
a,eurooe,phylogeniesa,euro are so       
changeable1 and why no two experts can  
agree about almost any of them4  ,a     

second aspect in which such speculations
 are too partial is in the unwarranted  
use which they make of analogy4 ,it is  
not unusual to find such analogies as   
that between the embryonic development  
of the individual animal and the        
succession of animals in geological time
 placed on a level with that reasoning  
from analogy by which geologists apply  
modern causes to explain geological     
formations4 ,no claim could be more     
unfounded4 ,when the geologist studies  
ancient limestones built up of the      
remains of corals1 and then applies the 
phenomena of modern coral reefs to      
explain their origin1 he brings the     
latter to bear on the former by an      
analogy which includes not merely the   
apparent results but the causes at work1
 and the conditions of their action2 and
 it is on this that the validity of his 
comparison depends1 in so far as it     
relates to similarity of mode of        
formation4 ,but when we compare the     
development of an animal from an embryo 

cell with the progress of animals in    
time1 though we have a curious analogy  
as to the steps of the process1 the     
conditions and agents at work are known 
to be altogether dissimilar1 and        
therefore we have no evidence whatever  
as to identity of cause1 and our        
reasoning becomes at once the most      
transparent of fallacies4 ,farther1 we  
have no right here to overlook the fact 
that the conditions of the embryo are   
determined by those of a previous adult1
 and that no sooner does this hereditary
 potentiality produce a new adult animal
 than the terrible external agencies of 
the physical world1 in presence of which
 all life exists1 begin to tell on the  
organism1 and after a struggle of longer
 or shorter duration it succumbs to     
death1 and its substance returns into   
inorganic nature1 a law from which even 
the longer life of the species does not 
seem to exempt it4 ,all this is so plain
 and manifest that it is extraordinary  
that evolutionists will continue to use 

such partial and imperfect arguments4   
,another example may be taken from that 
application of the doctrine of natural  
selection to explain the introduction of
 species in geological time which is so 
elaborately discussed by ,sir ,c4 ,lyell
 in the last edition of his ,principles 
of ,geology4 ,the great geologist       
evidently leans strongly to the theory1 
and claims for it the a,eurooehighest   
degree of probability1a,euro yet he     
perceives that there is a serious gap in
 it2 since no modern fact has ever      
proved the origin of a new species by   
modification4 ,such a gap1 if it existed
 in those grand analogies by which we   
explain geological formations through   
modern causes1 would be admitted to be  
fatal4  ,a third illustration of the    
partial character of these hypotheses   
may be taken from the use made of the   
theory deduced from modern physical     
discoveries1 that life must be merely a 
product of the continuous operation of  
physical laws4 ,the assumption1 for it  

is nothing more1 that the phenomena of  
life are produced merely by some        
arrangement of physical forces1 even if 
it be admitted to be true1 gives only a 
partial explanation of the possible     
origin of life4 ,it does not account for
 the fact that life as a force or       
combination of forces is set in         
antagonism to all other forces4 ,it does
 not account for the marvellous         
connection of life with organisation4   
,it does not account for the            
determination and arrangement of forces 
implied in life4 ,a very simple         
illustration may make this plain4 ,if   
the problem to be solved were the origin
 of the marinera,euro7,,tm7s compass1   
one might assert that it is wholly a    
physical arrangement both as to matter  
and force4 ,another might assert that it
 involves mind and intelligence in      
addition4 ,in some sense both would be  
right4 ,the properties of magnetic force
 and of iron or steel are purely        
physical1 and it might even be within   

the bounds of possibility that somewhere
 in the universe a mass of natural      
loadstone may have been so balanced as  
to swing in harmony with the            
eartha,euro7,,tm7s magnetism4 ,yet we   
should surely be regarded as very       
credulous if we could be induced to     
believe that the marinera,euro7,,tm7s   
compass has originated in that way4     
,this argument applies with a           
thousandfold greater force to the origin
 of life1 which involves even in its    
simplest forms so many more adjustments 
of force and so much more complex       
machinery4  ,fourthly1 these hypotheses 
are partial1 inasmuch as they fail to   
account for the vastly varied and       
correlated interdependencies of natural 
things and forces1 and for the unity of 
plan which pervades the whole4 ,these   
can be explained only by taking into the
 account another element from without4  
,even when it professes to admit the    
existence of a ,god1 the evolutionist   
reasoning of our day limits itself      

practically to the physical or visible  
universe1 and leaves entirely out of    
sight the power of the unseen and       
spiritual1 as if this were something    
with which science has nothing to do1   
but which belongs only to imagination or
 sentiment4 ,so much has this been the  
case that when recently a few physicists
 and naturalists have turned to this    
aspect of the subject1 they have seemed 
to be teaching new and startling truths1
 though only reviving some of the oldest
 and most permanent ideas of our race4  
,from the dawn of human thought it has  
been the conclusion alike of            
philosophers1 theologians1 and the      
common sense of mankind1 that the seen  
can be explained only by reference to   
the unseen1 and that any merely physical
 theory of the world is necessarily     
partial4 ,this1 too1 is the position of 
our sacred ,scriptures1 and is broadly  
stated in their opening verse2 and      
indeed it lies alike at the basis of all
 true religion and all sound philosophy1

 for it must necessarily be that        
a,eurooethe things that are seen are    
temporal1 the things that are unseen1   
eternal4a,euro ,with reference to the   
primal aggregation of energy in the     
visible universe1 with reference to the 
introduction of life1 with reference to 
the soul of man1 with reference to the  
heavenly gifts of genius and prophecy1  
with reference to the introduction of   
the ,saviour ,himself into the world1   
and with reference to the spiritual     
gifts and graces of ,goda,euro7,,tm7s   
people1 all these spring not from       
sporadic acts of intervention1 but from 
the continuous action of ,god and the   
unseen world2 and this1 we must never   
forget1 is the true ideal of creation in
 ,scripture and in sound theology4 ,only
 in such exceptional and little         
influential philosophies as that of     
,democritus1 and in the speculations of 
a few men carried off their balance by  
the brilliant physical discoveries of   
our age1 has this necessarily partial   

and imperfect view been adopted4 ,never 
indeed was its imperfection more clear  
than in the light of modern science4    
,geology1 by tracing back all present   
things to their origin1 was the first   
science to establish on a basis of      
observed facts the necessity of a       
beginning and end of the world4 ,but    
even physical science now teaches us    
that the visible universe is a vast     
machine for the dissipation of energy2  
that the processes going on in it must  
have had a beginning in time1 and that  
all things tend to a final and helpless 
equilibrium4 ,this necessity implies an 
unseen power1 an invisible universe1 in 
which the visible universe must have    
originated1 and to which its energy is  
ever returning4 ,the hiatus between the 
seen and the unseen may be bridged over 
by the conceptions of atomic vortices of
 force1 and by the universal and        
continuous ether2 but whether or not1 it
 has become clear that the conception of
 the unseen as existing has become      

necessary to our belief in the possible 
existence of the physical universe      
itself1 even without taking life into   
the account4  ,it is in the domain of   
life1 however1 that this necessity      
becomes most apparent2 and it is in the 
plant that we first clearly perceive a  
visible testimony to that unseen which  
is the counterpart of the seen4 ,life in
 the plant opposes the outward rush of  
force in our system1 arrests a part of  
it on its way1 fixes it as potential    
energy1 and thus1 forming a mere eddy1  
so to speak1 in the process of          
dissipation of energy1 it accumulates   
that on which animal life and man       
himself may subsist1 and assert for a   
time supremacy over the seen and        
temporal on behalf of the unseen and    
eternal4 ,i say1 for a time1 because    
life is1 in the visible universe1 as at 
present constituted1 but a temporary    
exception1 introduced from that unseen  
world where it is no longer the         
exception but the eternal rule4 ,in a   

still higher sense1 then1 than that in  
which matter and force testify to a     
,creator1 organisation and life1 whether
 in the plant1 the animal1 or man1 bear 
the same testimony1 and exist as        
outposts put forth in the succession of 
ages from that higher heaven that       
surrounds the visible universe4 ,in     
them1 as in dead matter1 ,almighty power
 is no doubt conditioned by law1 yet    
they bear more distinctly upon them the 
impress of their ,maker1 and while all  
explanations of the physical universe   
which refuse to recognise its spiritual 
and unseen origin must necessarily be   
partial and in the end incomprehensible1
 this destiny falls more quickly and    
surely on the attempt to account for    
life and its succession on merely       
materialistic principles4  ,here1       
however1 we must remember that creation1
 as maintained against such             
materialistic evolution1 whether by     
theology1 philosophy1 or ,holy          
,scripture1 is necessarily a continuous1

 nay1 an eternal influence1 not an      
intervention of disconnected acts4 ,it  
is the true continuity1 which includes  
and binds together all other continuity4
  ,it is here that natural science meets
 with theology1 not as an antagonist1   
but as a friend and ally in its time of 
greatest need2 and ,i must here record  
my belief that neither men of science   
nor theologians have a right to separate
 what ,god in ,holy ,scripture has      
joined together1 or to build up a wall  
between nature and religion1 and write  
upon it a,eurooeno thoroughfare4a,euro  
,the science that does this must be     
impotent to explain nature and without  
hold on the higher sentiments of man4   
,the theology that does this must sink  
into mere superstition4  ,in the light  
of all these considerations1 whether    
bearing on our knowledge or our         
ignorance1 a higher and deeper question 
presents itself1 namely1 that as to the 
relation of nature and of man to a      
,personal ,creator4 ,to this it seems to

 me that the study of the succession of 
life yields no uncertain reply4 ,call   
the progress of life an evolution if you
 will2 trace it back to prim,aval       
,protozoa1 or to a congeries of atoms3  
still the truth remains that nothing can
 be evolved out of these primitive      
materials except what they originally   
contained4 ,now we find in the existence
 of man1 and in the tendency of the     
scheme of nature towards his            
introduction1 evidence that at least all
 that is involved in the reasoning and  
moral nature of man must have existed   
potentially before atoms began to shape 
themselves into crystals or into organic
 forms4 ,nay1 more than this is implied1
 for we do not know that man and what he
 has hitherto been and done constitute  
the ultimate perfection of nature1 and  
we must suspect that something much more
 than what we see in man must be        
required for the origination of the     
chain of life4 ,what does this prove1 in
 any sense in which human reason can    

understand it8 ,nothing less1 it seems  
to me1 than that doctrine of the        
,almighty ,divine ,logos1 or ,creative  
,reason1 as the cause of all things1    
asserted in our sacred ,scriptures1 and 
held in one form or another by all the  
greatest thinkers who have attempted to 
deal with the question of origins4      
,falling back on this great truth1      
whether presented to us in the simple   
a,eurooe,god saida,euro of ,genesis1 or 
in the more definite form of the ,new   
,testament1 a,eurooe,the ,word was with 
,god1 and the ,word was ,god1a,euro we  
find ourselves in the presence of a     
,divine plan pervading all the ages of  
the eartha,euro7,,tm7s history and      
culminating in man1 who presents for the
 first time the image and likeness of   
the ,divine ,maker2 and this forms the  
true nexus of all the separate chains of
 life4 ,had man never existed1 such     
reasoning might have been speculative   
merely1 but the existence of man1 taken 
in connection with the progress of the  

plan which has terminated in his advent1
 proves the existence of ,god4  ,divine 
revelation carries us a step farther1   
and teaches us to recognise in ,jesus of
 ,nazareth ,god manifest in the flesh1  
the ,divine ,logos dwelling among men4  
,but though this is a doctrine of       
revelation and not of science1 it is in 
perfect harmony with the plan of        
progress which we have been sketching4  
,it is the natural outcome of a process 
leading to the introduction of a        
rational and accountable being1         
understanding something of the works and
 ways of ,god1 that to him ,god should  
reveal ,himself1 and that the ,divine   
,logos1 by whom were a,eurooeconstituted
 the agesa,euro#id of the               
worlda,euro7,,tm7s geological history1  
should preside also over its future     
consummation1 when all the degradation  
that has sprung from the aberrations of 
fallen and imperfect humanity shall be  
removed1 and man himself shall become   
fully a partaker of the ,divine nature4 

,the world we live in is thus not       
necessarily a finished world1 and it is 
now marred by the sins of man4 ,what it 
may be in the future1 we can perhaps as 
little guess as an intelligence studying
 the ,pal,aozoic world could have       
understood that of the present time4    
,but it is a glorious truth to know that
 our ,maker has revealed ,himself to us 
also as a ,saviour1 and that as         
individuals we shall not perish1 to be  
replaced by an improved species in the  
future1 but that we ourselves1 as sons  
of ,god1 may enter into and possess the 
new earth and new heavens of future     
,aons of the universe4 ,thus it would   
seem that the ,gospel of ,jesus ,christ 
is that which was wanting to complete   
and justify the history of nature by    
bringing to light the final             
a,eurooerestitution of all things1a,euro
 and our own union to ,god in a happy   
immortality4     ,,footnotes3   #a      
,croll has elaborated this calculation  
in his work1 ,climate and ,time4  #b    

,sept4 #ahgi4  #c ,analyses recently    
made by ,mr4 ,c4 ,hoffman1 of the       
,geological ,survey of ,canada1 show    
that beds of graphitic gneiss1 some of  
them #h feet in thickness1 contain as   
much as #be;,a4#e to #cj per cent4 of   
carbon1 the remaining earthy matter     
consisting principally of silica1       
alumina1 and lime4 ,the graphite from   
veins was nearly pure carbon1 containing
 from #ig;,a4#f to #ii;,a4#h per cent4  
of that substance4  #d ,sometimes       
separated as a distinct order under the 
name of ,radiolaria4  #e ,loftusia      
,columbiana1 ,dawson1 from ,british     
,columbia1 is the only ,carboniferous   
species yet known4  #f ,see ,nicholson  
in the ,memoirs of the                  
,pal,aontographical ,society4  #g       
,arch,aospherin,a of the author4  #h    
,eophyton ,linn,aanum 7,torrell74  #i   
,see ,paper on a,eurooe,footprints and  
,impressions of ,animals1a,euro ,am4    
,journal of ,science1 #ahgc4  #aj ,they 
probably belong to a large sponge named 

by ,billings ,trichospongia sericea4    
#aa ,amphispongia4  #ab ,geological     
,magazine1 ,may1 #ahgh4  #ac ,it is     
regarded as somewhat doubtful whether   
these are ,hydroids or ,bryozoa4  #ad   
,heliopora1 an ,alcyonarian2            
,pocillopora1 an ,anthozoan4  #ae       
,haplophyllia1 ,guynia1 ,duncania1 of   
,pourtales4  #af ,pal,achinus4  #ag     
,some of the earliest appear to be      
allies of the modern limpets4  #ah      
a,eurooe,un produit de                  
la,euro7,,tm7imagination1 sans aucun    
fondement dans la                       
r,a7,c7alit,a7,c74a,euro  #ai           
,hymenocaris4  #bj ,phyllopods and      
,ostracods4  #ba ,pterygotus1           
,eurypterus1 c4  #bb ,whitfield1 ,am4   
,journ4 of ,sci41 #ahhj4  #bc ,report on
 ,devonian ,fossil ,plants of ,canada1  
#ahga4 ,story of the ,earth and ,man1   
#ahgc4 ,address to ,american            
,association1 #ahge4  #bd ,see the      
important memoir of ,barrande on the    
,silurian ,brachiopods1 in which1 as the

 result of the most elaborate and       
detailed comparisons1 he concludes that 
in the case of these shells1 as in that 
of the ,cephalopods and ,trilobites1 the
 introduction of species in geological  
time has not occurred by modification1  
but must have depended on a creative    
process4 ,it is such painstaking        
researches as those of the great        
,bohemian pal,aontologist which must    
finally settle these questions1 in so   
far as geology is concerned4  #be       
,geological ,magazine1 ,november1 #ahfi4
  #bf ,the genus ,buthotrephis includes 
supposed branching sea-weeds of the     
,silurian4 ,for this reason ,i would    
propose the name ,protannularia for     
these plants4  #bg ,lycopodiace,a4  #bh 
,allied to those named by ,brongniart   
,aetheotesta4  #bi ,cordaites4  #cj     
,paper by ,sir ,w4 ,dawson in ,chicago  
,academya,euro7,,tm7s ,bulletin1 #ahhf4 
#ca ,calamodendron and ,arthropitys are 
forms of this kind4  #cb                
,granda,euro7,,tm7 ,eury and ,williamson

 have directed attention to this in the 
case of those of ,france and ,england4  
#cc ,amphioxus4  #cd ,petromyzon1 c4    
#ce ,dr4 ,newberry has kindly furnished 
me with specimens1 and ,dr4 ,harrington 
has submitted to analysis portions of   
shale filled with these little teeth1   
the result giving #b;,a4#eh of calcium  
phosphate for the whole1 which indicates
 that the ,conodonts are really bone4   
,their microscopic structure approaches 
to that of the dentine of such          
,carboniferous fishes as ,diplodus4     
,hinde has described ,conodonts from the
 ,silurian of ,canada4  #cf ,ueber      
,conodonten3 ,munich1 #ahhf4  #cg       
,lepidosteus4  #ch ,pal,aichthyes of    
,,ga#a_/dnther4  #ci ,dinichthys        
,terrelli and ,d4 ,hertzeri 7,newberry74
  #dj ,cestracionts4  #da ,selachians4  
#db ,amphipeltis paradoxus of ,salter4  
#dc ,genus ,strophia4 ,i have           
provisionally named the ,st4 ,john      
species ,strophites erianus4  #dd ,the  
enlarged figure of ,pupa vetusta is too 

much elongated1 and the aperture is     
somewhat conjectural1 as it is usually  
crushed4  #de ,dawsonella of ,bradley4  
#df ,archiulid,a of ,scudder4  #dg      
,euphobesia armigera 7,meek and         
,worthen71 from ,illinois4  #dh ,about  
fifty in all1 as ,i learn from ,mr4     
,scudder4  #di ,orthoptera4  #ej        
,neuroptera4  #ea ,coleoptera4  #eb     
,tinc,a4  #ec ,one highly specialised   
,carboniferous insect recently found is 
the ,protophasma of ,brongniart1 a      
relative of the modern                  
a,eurooe,walking-sticks4a,euro  #ed     
,this was first described as part of the
 larva of a ,dragon-fly4 ,it is now     
recognised as belonging to a ,scorpion4 
#ee ,protolycosa 7,roemer74  #ef        
,menopoma1 ,menobranchus1 c4  #eg       
,ophiderpeton ,brownriggii4  #eh        
,diplichnites4  #ei ,these are known in 
some of the smaller species1 but not as 
yet in the larger4  #fj ,hylonomus4 ,see
 ,fig4 facing this chapter4  #fa        
,mastodonsaurus or ,labyrinthodon4  #fb 

,pal,aosiren ,beinertii of ,geinitz4    
#fc ,hyleopeton4  #fd ,diadictes and    
,bolasaurus 7,cope74  #fe ,enaliosauria1
 including ,ichthyopterygia and         
,sauropterygia4  #ff ,anomodontia and   
,theriodontia4  #fg ,geology of ,oxford1
 p4 #bbg4  #fh ,cope has proposed the   
names ,camerosaurus1 ,amphic,alias1 c41 
for these problematical animals4 ,marsh 
names them ,titanosaurus1               
,atlantosaurus1 c41 while ,owen holds   
that some of them at least are identical
 with his genus ,chondrosteosaurus4     
,seeley and ,hulke adopt the name       
,ornithopsis1 and support               
,copea,euro7,,tm7s view of their nature4
  #fi ,ratit,a4  #gj ,woodward in a     
recent paper refers to a still more     
curious resemblance of the ,dinosaurs to
 the biped lizard of ,australia         
7,chlamydosaurus71 which runs on its    
hind limbs1 and even perches on trees4  
#ga ,a poplar occurs in ,greenland1 in  
beds held to be ,lower ,cretaceous4  #gb
 ,by some regarded as ,upper            

,cretaceous4  #gc ,first recognized in  
,american ,eocene by ,newberry4  #gd    
,described by ,la ,harpe and ,gaudin1   
and recently by ,gardner4  #ge ,recent  
discoveries have since the publication  
of the first edition removed the ,bovey 
,tracey beds from the ,miocene to the   
,eocene4 ,see ,reports of ,mr4 ,starkie 
,gardner to the ,british ,association4  
#gf ,lyell1 ,principles2 ,brown1        
,florula ,discoana4  #gg ,g4 ,m4        
,dawson1 ,report on #dith ,parallel2    
,reports on ,british ,columbia4  #gh    
,graya,euro7,,tm7s reasoning is based on
 the extreme view of the ,glacial period
 now prevalent in ,america1 contrary1 as
 it appears to me1 to the actual facts2 
but with limitations it holds good on   
more moderate views as well4  #gi       
,geological ,magazine1 ,july1 #ahhg4    
#hj ,les ,enchainements du ,monde       
,animal4  #ha ,see ,frontispiece to this
 ,chapter4  #hb ,for example1           
,tillotherium of the ,american ,eocene1 
which was as large as a tapir1 and in   

form resembled a bear4  #hc ,croll1     
,climate and ,time4  #hd ,notes on      
,post-,pliocene of ,canada2 ,acadian    
,geology1 #crd edition4  #he ,the actual
 reason for belief in the past existence
 of land in the basin of the ,indian    
,ocean is found in the close            
relationship of forms of life found in  
,madagascar1 ,southern ,asia1 and       
,australia4  #hf ,traditions of this    
animal1 a veritable prim,aval unicorn1  
are said still to exist in ,siberia4    
#hg ,as1 for instance1 those of         
,cro-,magnon1 and ,mentone1 and ,engis4 
#hh ,de ,puyot and ,lohert1 ,namur1     
#ahhg4  #hi ,religious ,tract ,society1 
#ahgh4  #ij ,may1 #ahhg4  #ia ,climate  
and ,time1 a work in which these and    
other matters relating to the ,glacial  
period are very well discussed4  #ib    
,kimber1 quoted by ,southall4  #ic      
,report on ,devonian ,plants of ,canada1
 #ahga4  #id ,the true meaning of       
,hebrews i4 #b and xi4 #c4     ,,index4 
7,principally to ,forms of ,life noticed

 or illustrated47     ,agnostus1 #gi    
,alethopteris1 #aje   ,ammonites1 #gf   
,amphibians1 #aeb   ,amphipeltis1 #he   
,ancyloceras1 #gg   ,antholithes1 #aja  
,anthozoa1 #eg   ,angiosperms1 #ahg     
,anthropal,amon1 #he   ,antiquity of    
,man1 #bdg   ,apes1 #bbh   ,arachnida1  
#aej   ,arch,aocyathus1 #ch             
,arch,aopteryx1 #agb   ,archegosaurus1  
#aec   ,archimulacris1 #adf             
,arctocyon1 #bbh   ,asterophyllites1    
#ajc   ,astylospongia1 #ea   ,athyris1  
#fg    ,baculites1 #gg   ,baphetes1 #aee
   ,bathygnathus1 #agd   ,batrachians1  
#aeb   ,bats1 #bbf   ,beetles1 #ade     
,beginning of ,life1 #bc   ,belemnites1 
#gh   ,beryx1 #acc   ,beyrichia1 #hc    
,birds1 #agb   ,bivalve shells1 #fi     
,blattina1 #adf   ,brachiopods1 #fc     
,brontotherium1 #bag   ,buthotrephis1   
#ib   ,butterflies1 #aej    ,calamites1 
#ii1 #aje   ,calymene1 #hj1 #hb         
,campsognathus1 #agi   ,carcharodon1    
#acb   ,cardiocarpum1 #aja              
,cephalaspis1 #abb   ,cephalopods1 #ga  

,ceratites1 #ge   ,ceratodus1 #abf      
,ceteosaurus1 #agh   ,cinnamomum1 #aih  
,clidastes1 #afi   ,cockroaches1 #adf   
,conocephalites1 #gi   ,conodonts1 #aah 
,corals1 #ee   ,cordaites1 #aaj         
,coryphodon1 #bae   ,crinoids1 #fa      
,crioceras1 #gg   ,crustacea1 #gi       
,cuttle-fishes1 #ga   ,cyathaspis1 #aba 
,cyathophyllum1 #fj   ,cystideans1 #fb  
,cythere1 #hc    ,dadoxylon1 #ajj       
,dapedius1 #acb   ,davallia1 #aib       
,dictyonema1 #ec   ,dikellocephalus1 #gi
   ,dinichthys1 #abg   ,dinoceras1 #baf 
,dinosaurs1 #agd   ,dipnoi1 #abc        
,discina1 #ff   ,dragon-fly1 #adh       
,dromatherium1 #bji   ,dryopithecus1    
#bbi    ,echinoderms1 #fa               
,elasmotherium1 #bdb   ,elephants1 #bbd 
,eocene age1 #bac   ,eopteris1 #ic      
,eoscorpius1 #aea   ,eozoon1 #bg        
,equine feet1 #bah   ,equisetace,a1 #ig 
,extracrinus1 #fd    ,favosites1 #ei    
,ferns of ,pal,aozoic1 #ajf   ,ferns1   
,tree1 #ig   ,fishes1 #abj   ,floras1   
distribution of1 #bja   ,footprints1    

#aeb   ,foraminifera1 #cb   ,fruits of  
,devonian1 #aja    ,ganoids1 #abj       
,gastropods1 #gj   ,glacial age1 #bcc   
,glyptocrinus1 #fc   ,glyptodendron1 #id
   ,gomphoceras1 #gc   ,graptolites1 #ec
    ,halisites1 #ei   ,heliophyllum1 #ei
   ,heterocrinus1 #fc   ,horse1 #bah    
,huronian age1 #bd   ,hydrozoa1 #ed     
,hylonomus1 #aeg    ,ichthyosaurus1 #afg
   ,implements1 #bde   ,insects1 #aci   
,isotelus1 #hb    ,labyrinthodonts1 #aee
   ,lamellibranchiata1 #fi   ,lampreys1 
#aag   ,land-snails1 #adb   ,laurentian 
age1 #bd   ,lepidodendron1 #ajh         
,lepidosiren1 #abd   ,leptophleum1 #ih  
,libellula1 #adh   ,lingula1 #fe        
,liriodendron1 #aia   ,lituites1 #gc    
,loligo1 #gb    ,machairodus1 #bbg      
,mammals1 #bjg   ,mammoth1 #bdj   ,man1 
advent of1 #bcc   ,mantids1 #adf        
,mares-tails1 #ig   ,marsupials1 #bjg   
,mastodon1 #bbd   ,may-flies1 #adf      
,megalosaurus1 #a   ,megaphyton1 #ajg   
,megatherium1 #bbb   ,microlestes1 #bjh 
,microsauria1 #aef   ,millepedes1 #ade  

,modern forests1 #ahf   ,monotremes1    
#bjh   ,mososaurus1 #afi   ,moths1 #adh 
,murchisonia1 #gj   ,myrica1 #aid       
,nautilus1 #ga   ,neuropteris1 #aje     
,oldhamia1 #eb   ,onchus1 #aba          
,onoclea1 #aia   ,oreodon1 #bba         
,origin of ,life1 #bc   ,orthis1 #ff    
,orthoceras1 #gc   ,osteolepis1 #abd    
,ostracods1 #hc   ,otodus1 #aca         
,pal,aaster1 #fb   ,pal,achinus1 #fb    
,pal,aoniscus1 #abi   ,pal,aotherium1   
#bab   ,paradoxides1 #gi   ,pentacrinus1
 #fd   ,phaceps1 #hc   ,phascolotherium1
 #baj   ,pinnularia1 #aja   ,plagiaulax1
 #baj   ,plants1 earliest1 #hi          
,pleistocene1 #bdj   ,plesiosaurus1 #afg
   ,pleurocystites1 #fc                 
,pleurotomaria1 #gj   ,pliosaurus1 #afh 
,polyzoa1 #ei   ,post-glacial1 #bcf     
,prodryas1 #aej   ,productus1 #fh       
,protannularia1 #ia   ,protosalvinia1   
#aja   ,proterosaurus1 #aff             
,protostigma1 #ib   ,protozoa1 #bg      
,psilophyton1 #ie   ,pterichthys1 #abc  
,pterodactyls1 #aga   ,pteropods1 #gj   

,pterygotus1 #hd   ,ptilodictya1 #ee    
,ptyonius1 #aed    ,quadrumana1 #bbh    
,quercus1 #aid    ,receptaculites1 #ch  
,reptiles1 #afe   ,rhamphorhyncus1 #aga 
,rhizopods1 #cd   ,ruschinites1 #ha     
,sassafras1 #aij   ,scorpions1 #aea     
,sea-lizards1 #afg   ,selachians1 #acj  
,sequoia1 #aig   ,sharks1 #abj          
,sigillaria1 #aji   ,sphenophyllum1 #ib1
 #ajc   ,sphinx-moth1 #adi   ,spirifer1 
#fg   ,sponges1 #dh   ,squids1 #gb      
,stelliosaurus1 #aeh   ,stenopora1 #eg  
,stromatopora1 #cf   ,syringoxylon1 #ajb
    ,tabulata1 #ei   ,teliosts1 #abj    
,terebratula1 #ff   ,trichospongia1 #ea 
,trigonocarpum1 #aja   ,trilobites1 #gh 
,turrilites1 #gg    ,xylobius1 #ade     
,zaphrentis1 #fj   ,zonites1 #adc       
,,richard ,,clay ,,and ,,sons1 ,,london 
,,and ,,bungay4