,,arts ,,and ,,crafts ,,essays     ,arts
 and ,crafts ,essays  ,by  ,members of  
the ,arts and ,crafts ,exhibition       
,society  ,with a ,preface ,by ,william 
,morris  ,london ,,rivington1           
,,percival1  ,,co4 #ahic     ,,preface  
,the papers that follow this need no    
explanation1 since they are directed    
towards special sides of the ,arts and  
,crafts4 ,mr4 ,crane has put forward the
 aims of the ,arts and ,crafts          
,exhibition ,society as an ,exhibition  
,society1 therefore ,i need not enlarge 
upon that phase of this book4 ,but ,i   
will write a few words on the way in    
which it seems to me we ought to face   
the present position of that revival in 
decorative art of which our ,society is 
one of the tokens4  ,and1 in the first  
place1 the very fact that there is a    
revival shows that the arts aforesaid   
have been sick unto death4 ,in all such 
changes the first of the new does not   
appear till there is little or no life  
left in the old1 and yet the old1 even  

when it is all but dead1 goes on living 
in corruption1 and refuses to get itself
 put quietly out of the way and decently
 buried4 ,so that while the revival     
advances and does some good work1 the   
period of corruption goes on from worse 
to worse1 till it arrives at the point  
when it can no longer be borne1 and     
disappears4 ,to give a concrete example3
 in these last days there are many      
buildings erected which 7in spite of our
 eclecticism1 our lack of a traditional 
style7 are at least well designed and   
give pleasure to the eye2 nevertheless1 
so hopelessly hideous and vulgar is     
general building that persons of taste  
find themselves regretting the brown    
brick box with its feeble and trumpery  
attempts at ornament1 which             
characterises the style of building     
current at the end of the last and      
beginning of this century1 because there
 is some style about it1 and even some  
merit of design1 if only negative4  ,the
 position which we have to face then is 

this3 the lack of beauty in modern life 
7of decoration in the best sense of the 
word71 which in the earlier part of the 
century was unnoticed1 is now recognised
 by a part of the public as an evil to  
be remedied if possible2 but by far the 
larger part of civilised mankind does   
not feel that lack in the least1 so that
 no general sense of beauty is extant   
which would force us into the creation  
of a feeling for art which in its turn  
would force us into taking up the       
dropped links of tradition1 and once    
more producing genuine organic art4     
,such art as we have is not the work of 
the mass of craftsmen unconscious of any
 definite style1 but producing beauty   
instinctively2 conscious rather of the  
desire to turn out a creditable piece of
 work than of any aim towards positive  
beauty4 ,that is the essential motive   
power towards art in past ages2 but our 
art is the work of a small minority     
composed of educated persons1 fully     
conscious of their aim of producing     

beauty1 and distinguished from the great
 body of workmen by the possession of   
that aim4  ,i do not1 indeed1 ignore the
 fact that there is a school of artists 
belonging to this decade who set forth  
that beauty is not an essential part of 
art2 which they consider rather as an   
instrument for the statement of fact1 or
 an exhibition of the artist's          
intellectual observation and skill of   
hand4 ,such a school would seem at first
 sight to have an interest of its own as
 a genuine traditional development of   
the art of the eighteenth century1      
which1 like all intellectual movements  
in that century1 was negative and       
destructive2 and this all the more as   
the above-mentioned school is connected 
with science rather than art4 ,but on   
looking closer into the matter it will  
be seen that this school cannot claim   
any special interest on the score of    
tradition4 ,for the eighteenth century  
art was quite unconscious of its        
tendency towards ugliness and nullity1  

whereas the modern ,impressionists      
loudly proclaim their enmity to beauty1 
and are no more unconscious of their aim
 than the artists of the revival are of 
their longing to link themselves to the 
traditional art of the past4  ,here we  
have then1 on the one hand1 a school    
which is pushing rather than drifting   
into the domain of the empirical science
 of to-day1 and another which can only  
work through its observation of an art  
which was once organic1 but which died  
centuries ago1 leaving us what by this  
time has become but the wreckage of its 
brilliant and eager life1 while at the  
same time the great mass of civilisation
 lives on content to forgo art almost   
altogether4 ,nevertheless the artists of
 both the schools spoken of are         
undoubtedly honest and eager in pursuit 
of art under the conditions of modern   
civilisation2 that is to say1 that they 
have this much in common with the       
schools of tradition1 that they do what 
they are impelled to do1 and that the   

public would be quite wrong in supposing
 them to be swayed by mere affectation4 
,now it seems to me that this impulse in
 men of certain minds and moods towards 
certain forms of art1 this genuine      
eclecticism1 is all that we can expect  
under modern civilisation2 that we can  
expect no general impulse towards the   
fine arts till civilisation has been    
transformed into some other condition of
 life1 the details of which we cannot   
foresee4 ,let us then make the best of  
it1 and admit that those who practise   
art must nowadays be conscious of that  
practice2 conscious ,i mean that they   
are either adding a certain amount of   
artistic beauty and interest to a piece 
of goods which would1 if produced in the
 ordinary way1 have no beauty or        
artistic interest1 or to produce works  
of art1 to supply the lack of tradition 
by diligently cultivating in ourselves  
the sense of beauty 7pace the           
,impressionists71 skill of hand1 and    
niceness of observation1 without which  

only a makeshift of art can be got2 and 
also1 so far as we can1 to call the     
attention of the public to the fact that
 there are a few persons who are doing  
this1 and even earning a livelihood by  
so doing1 and that therefore1 in spite  
of the destructive tradition of our     
immediate past1 in spite of the great   
revolution in the production of wares1  
which this century only has seen on the 
road to completion1 and which on the    
face of it1 and perhaps essentially1 is 
hostile to art1 in spite of all         
difficulties which the evolution of the 
later days of society has thrown in the 
way of that side of human pleasure which
 is called art1 there is still a        
minority with a good deal of life in it 
which is not content with what is called
 utilitarianism1 which1 being           
interpreted1 means the reckless waste of
 life in the pursuit of the means of    
life4  ,it is this conscious cultivation
 of art and the attempt to interest the 
public in it which the ,arts and ,crafts

 ,exhibition ,society has set itself to 
help1 by calling special attention to   
that really most important side of art1 
the decoration of utilities by          
furnishing them with genuine artistic   
finish in place of trade finish4        
,,william ,,morris4  ,july #ahic4       
,,contents                              
,,page  ,,of ,,the ,,revival ,,of       
,,design ,,and ,,handicraft3   with     
,notes on the ,work of the ,arts and    
,crafts ,exhibition ,society4           
,walter ,crane                          
#a  ,,textiles4 ,william ,morris        
#bb  ,,of ,,decorative ,,painting ,,and 
,,design4 ,walter ,crane                
#ci  ,,of ,,wall ,,papers4 ,walter      
,crane                                  
#eb  ,,fictiles4 ,g4 ,t4 ,robinson      
#fb  ,,metal ,,work4 ,w4 ,a4 ,s4 ,benson
                                        
#fh  ,,stone ,,and ,,wood ,,carving4    
,somers ,clarke                         
#ha  ,,furniture4 ,stephen ,webb        
#hi  ,,stained ,,glass4 ,somers ,clarke 

#ih  ,,table ,,glass4 ,somers ,clarke   
#ajf  ,,printing4 ,william ,morris and  
,emery ,walker                          
#aaa  ,,bookbinding4 ,t4 ,j4            
,cobden-,sanderson                      
#acd  ,,of ,,mural ,,painting4 ,f4      
,madox ,brown                           
#adi  ,,of ,,sgraffito ,,work4 ,heywood 
,sumner                                 
#afa  ,,of ,,stucco ,,and ,,gesso4 ,g4  
,t4 ,robinson                           
#agb  ,,of ,,cast ,,iron4 ,w4 ,r4       
,lethaby                                
#ahd  ,,of ,,dyeing ,,as ,,an ,,art4    
,william ,morris                        
#aif  ,,of ,,embroidery4 ,may ,morris   
#bab  ,,of ,,lace4 ,alan ,s4 ,cole      
#bbd  ,,of ,,book ,,illustration ,,and  
,,book ,,decoration4 ,reginald          
,blomfield         #bcg  ,,of ,,designs 
,,and ,,working ,,drawings4 ,lewis ,f4  
,day                        #bdi        
,,furniture ,,and ,,the ,,room4 ,edward 
,s4 ,prior                              
#bfa  ,,of ,,the ,,room ,,and           

,,furniture4 ,halsey ,ricardo           
#bgd  ,,the ,,english ,,tradition4      
,reginald ,blomfield                    
#bhi  ,,carpenters' ,,furniture4 ,w4 ,r4
 ,lethaby                               
#cjb  ,,of ,,decorated ,,furniture4 ,j4 
,h4 ,pollen                             
#caj  ,,of ,,carving4 ,stephen ,webb    
#cbb  ,,intarsia ,,and ,,inlaid         
,,wood-,,work4 ,t4 ,g4 ,jackson         
#ccj  ,,woods ,,and ,,other ,,materials4
 ,stephen ,webb                         
#cde  ,,of ,,modern ,,embroidery4 ,mary 
,e4 ,turner                             
#cee  ,,of ,,materials4 ,may ,morris    
#cfe  ,,colour4 ,may ,morris            
#cgf  ,,stitches ,,and ,,mechanism4     
,alan ,s4 ,cole                         
#chg  ,,design4 ,john ,d4 ,sedding      
#dje  ,,on ,,designing ,,for ,,the ,,art
 ,,of ,,embroidery4 ,selwyn ,image      
#dad    ,,of ,,the ,,revival ,,of       
,,design ,,and   ,,handicraft3 ,,with   
,,notes ,,on   ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,the  
,,arts ,,and   ,,crafts ,,exhibition    

,,society   ,the decorative artist and  
the handicraftsman have hitherto had but
 little opportunity of displaying their 
work in the public eye1 or rather of    
appealing to it upon strictly artistic  
grounds in the same sense as the        
pictorial artist2 and it is a somewhat  
singular state of things that at a time 
when the ,arts are perhaps more looked  
after1 and certainly more talked about1 
than they have ever been before1 and the
 beautifying of houses1 to those to whom
 it is possible1 has become in some     
cases almost a religion1 so little is   
known of the actual designer and maker  
7as distinct from the proprietary       
manufacturer or middleman7 of those     
familiar things which contribute so much
 to the comfort and refinement of       
life--of our chairs and cabinets1 our   
chintzes and wall-papers1 our lamps and 
pitchers--the ,lares and ,penates of our
 households1 which with the touch of    
time and association often come to be   
regarded with so peculiar an affection4 

,nor is this condition of affairs in    
regard to applied ,art without an       
explanation1 since it is undeniable that
 under the modern industrial system that
 personal element1 which is so important
 in all forms of ,art1 has been thrust  
farther and farther into the background1
 until the production of what are called
 ornamental objects1 and the supply of  
ornamental additions generally1 instead 
of growing out of organic necessities1  
have become1 under a misapplication of  
machinery1 driven by the keen           
competition of trade1 purely commercial 
affairs--questions of the supply and    
demand of the market artificially       
stimulated and controlled by the arts of
 the advertiser and the salesman bidding
 against each other for the favour of a 
capricious and passing fashion1 which   
too often takes the place of a real love
 of ,art in our days4  ,of late years1  
however1 a kind of revival has been     
going on1 as a protest against the      
conviction that1 with all our modern    

mechanical achievements1 comforts1 and  
luxuries1 life is growing uglier every  
day1 as ,mr4 ,morris puts it4 ,even our 
painters are driven to rely rather on   
the accidental beauty which1 like a     
struggling ray through a ,london fog1   
sometimes illumes and transfigures the  
sordid commonplace of everyday life4 ,we
 cannot1 however1 live on sensational   
effects without impairing our sense of  
form and balance--of beauty1 in short4  
,we cannot concentrate our attention on 
pictorial and graphic art1 and come to  
regard it as the one form worth         
pursuing1 without losing our sense of   
construction and power of adaptation in 
design to all kinds of very different   
materials and purposes--that sense of   
relation--that architectonic sense which
 built up the great monuments of the    
past4  ,the true root and basis of all  
,art lies in the handicrafts4 ,if there 
is no room or chance of recognition for 
really artistic power and feeling in    
design and craftsmanship--if ,art is not

 recognised in the humblest object and  
material1 and felt to be as valuable in 
its own way as the more highly rewarded 
pictorial skill--the arts cannot be in a
 sound condition2 and if artists cease  
to be found among the crafts there is   
great danger that they will vanish from 
the arts also1 and become manufacturers 
and salesmen instead4  ,it was with the 
object of giving some visible expression
 to these views that the ,exhibitions of
 the ,arts and ,crafts ,society were    
organised4  ,as was to be expected1 many
 difficulties had to be encountered4 ,in
 the endeavour to assign due credit to  
the responsible designer and workman1 it
 was found sometimes difficult to do so 
amid the very numerous artificers 7in   
some cases7 who under our industrial    
conditions contribute to the production 
of a work4  ,it will readily be         
understood that the organisation of     
exhibitions of this character1 and with 
such objects as have been stated1 is a  
far less simple matter than an ordinary 

picture exhibition4 ,instead of having  
an array of artists whose names and     
addresses are in every catalogue1 our   
constituency1 as it were1 outside the   
personal knowledge of the ,committee1   
had to be discovered4 ,under the        
designation of ,so-and-so and ,co4 many 
a skilful designer and craftsman may be 
concealed2 and individual and           
independent artists in design and       
handicraft are as yet few and far       
between4  ,however1 in the belief1 as   
elsewhere expressed1 that it is little  
good nourishing the tree at the head if 
it is dying at the root1 and that1      
living or dying1 the desirability of an 
accurate diagnosis while there is any   
doubt of our artistic health will at    
once be admitted1 the ,society          
determined to try the experiment and so 
opened their first ,exhibition4  ,the   
reception given to it having so far     
justified our plea for the due          
recognition of the arts and crafts of   
design1 and our belief in their         

fundamental importance--the amount of   
public interest and support accorded to 
the ,exhibition having1 in fact1 far    
exceeded our anticipations1 it was      
determined to hold a second on the same 
lines1 and to endeavour to carry out1   
with more completeness than was at first
 found possible1 those principles of    
work1 ideas1 and aims in art for which  
we contended1 and to make the           
,exhibition a rallying point1 as it     
were1 for all sympathetic workers4      
,regarding design as a species of       
language capable of very varied         
expression through the medium of        
different methods and materials1 it     
naturally follows that there is all the 
difference in the world between one     
treatment and another1 both of design   
and material2 and1 moreover1 every      
material has its own proper capacity and
 appropriate range of expression1 so    
that it becomes the business of the     
sympathetic workman to discover this and
 give it due expansion4  ,for the       

absence of this discriminating sense no 
amount of mechanical smoothness or      
imitative skill can compensate2 and it  
is obvious that any attempt to imitate  
or render the qualities peculiar to one 
material in another leads the workman on
 a false track4  ,now1 we have only to  
consider how much of the work commonly  
produced1 which comes under the head of 
what is called industrial art1 depends  
upon this very false quality of         
imitation 7whether as to design or      
material7 to show how far we have       
departed in the ordinary processes of   
manufacture and standards of trade from 
primitive and true artistic instincts4  
,the demand1 artificially stimulated1 is
 less for thought or beauty than for    
novelty1 and all sorts of mechanical    
invention are applied1 chiefly with the 
view of increasing the rate of          
production and diminishing its cost1    
regardless of the fact that anything in 
the nature of bad or false art is dear  
at any price4  ,plain materials and     

surfaces are infinitely preferable to   
inorganic and inappropriate ornament2   
yet there is not the simplest article of
 common use made by the hand of man that
 is not capable of receiving some touch 
of art--whether it lies in the planning 
and proportions1 or in the final        
decorative adornment2 whether in the    
work of the smith1 the carpenter1 the   
carver1 the weaver1 or the potter1 and  
the other indispensable crafts4  ,with  
the organisation of industry on the     
grand scale1 and the enormous           
application of machinery in the         
interests of competitive production for 
profit1 when both art and industry are  
forced to make their appeal to the      
unreal and impersonal average1 rather   
than to the real and personal you and   
me1 it is not wonderful that beauty     
should have become divorced from use1   
and that attempts to concede its        
demands1 and the desire for it1 should  
too often mean the ill-considered       
bedizenment of meaningless and unrelated

 ornament4  ,the very producer1 the     
designer1 and craftsman1 too1 has been  
lost sight of1 and his personality      
submerged in that of a business firm1 so
 that we have reached the reductio ad   
absurdum of an impersonal artist or     
craftsman trying to produce things of   
beauty for an impersonal and unknown    
public--a purely conjectural matter from
 first to last4  ,under such conditions 
it is hardly surprising that the arts of
 design should have declined1 and that  
the idea of art should have become      
limited to pictorial work 7where1 at    
least1 the artist may be known1 in some 
relation to his public1 and             
comparatively free74  ,partly as a      
protest against this state of things1   
and partly to concentrate the awakened  
feeling for beauty in the accessories of
 life1 the ,arts and ,crafts ,exhibition
 ,society commenced their work4  ,the   
movement1 however1 towards a revival of 
design and handicraft1 the effort to    
unite--or rather to re-unite--the artist

 and the craftsman1 so sundered by the  
industrial conditions of our century1   
has been growing and gathering force for
 some time past4 ,it reflects in art the
 intellectual movement of inquiry into  
fundamental principles and necessities1 
and is a practical expression of the    
philosophy of the conditioned4 ,it is   
true it has many different sides and    
manifestations1 and is under many       
different influences and impelled by    
different aims4 ,with some the question 
is closely connected with the commercial
 prosperity of ,england1 and her prowess
 in the competitive race for wealth2    
with others it is enough if the social  
well-being and happiness of her people  
is advanced1 and that the touch of art  
should lighten the toil of joyless      
lives4 ,the movement1 indeed1 represents
 in some sense a revolt against the hard
 mechanical conventional life and its   
insensibility to beauty 7quite another  
thing to ornament74 ,it is a protest    
against that so-called industrial       

progress which produces shoddy wares1   
the cheapness of which is paid for by   
the lives of their producers and the    
degradation of their users4 ,it is a    
protest against the turning of men into 
machines1 against artificial            
distinctions in art1 and against making 
the immediate market value1 or          
possibility of profit1 the chief test of
 artistic merit4 ,it also advances the  
claim of all and each to the common     
possession of beauty in things common   
and familiar1 and would awaken the sense
 of this beauty1 deadened and depressed 
as it now too often is1 either on the   
one hand by luxurious superfluities1 or 
on the other by the absence of the      
commonest necessities and the gnawing   
anxiety for the means of livelihood2 not
 to speak of the everyday uglinesses to 
which we have accustomed our eyes1      
confused by the flood of false taste1 or
 darkened by the hurried life of modern 
towns in which huge aggregations of     
humanity exist1 equally removed from    

both art and nature and their kindly and
 refining influences4  ,it asserts1     
moreover1 the value of the practice of  
handicraft as a good training for the   
faculties1 and as a most valuable       
counteraction to that overstraining of  
purely mental effort under the fierce   
competitive conditions of the day2 apart
 from the very wholesome and real       
pleasure in the fashioning of a thing   
with claims to art and beauty1 the      
struggle with and triumph over the      
stubborn technical necessities which    
refuse to be gainsaid4 ,and1 finally1   
thus claiming for man this primitive and
 common delight in common things made   
beautiful1 it makes1 through art1 the   
great socialiser for a common and       
kindred life1 for sympathetic and       
helpful fellowship1 and demands         
conditions under which your artist and  
craftsman shall be free4  ,see how great
 a matter a little fire kindleth4 ,some 
may think this is an extensive          
programme--a remote ideal for a purely  

artistic movement to touch4 ,yet if the 
revival of art and handicraft is not a  
mere theatric and imitative impulse2 if 
it is not merely to gratify a passing   
whim of fashion1 or demand of commerce2 
if it has reality and roots of its own2 
if it is not merely a delicate luxury--a
 little glow of colour at the end of a  
sombre day--it can hardly mean less than
 what ,i have written4 ,it must mean    
either the sunset or the dawn4  ,the    
success which had hitherto attended the 
efforts of our ,society1 the sympathy   
and response elicited by the claims     
which had been advanced by us on behalf 
of the ,arts and ,crafts of ,design1 and
 7despite difficulties and              
imperfections7 ,i think it may be said  
the character of our exhibitions1 and   
last1 but not least1 the public interest
 and support1 manifested in various     
ways1 and from different parts of the   
country1 went far to prove both their   
necessity and importance4  ,we were     
therefore encouraged to open a third    

,exhibition in the autumn of #ahij4 ,in 
this last it was the ,society's object  
to make in it leading features of two   
crafts in which good design and         
handicraft are of the utmost importance1
 namely1 ,furniture and ,embroidery2 and
 endeavours were made to get together   
good examples of each4  ,it may be noted
 that while some well-known firms1 who  
had hitherto held aloof1 now exhibited  
with us1 the old difficulty about the   
names of the responsible executants     
continued2 but while some evaded the    
question1 others were models of         
exactitude in this respect1 proving that
 in this as in other questions where    
there is a will there is a way4  ,the   
,arts and ,crafts ,exhibition ,society1 
while at first1 of necessity1 depending 
on the work of a comparatively limited  
circle1 had no wish to be narrower than 
the recognition of certain fundamental  
principles in design will allow1 and1   
indeed1 desired but to receive and to   
show the best after its kind in         

contemporary design and handicraft4     
,judgment is not always infallible1 and 
the best is not always forthcoming1 and 
in a mixed exhibition it is difficult to
 maintain an unvarying standard4 ,at    
present1 indeed1 an exhibition may be   
said to be but a necessary evil2 but it 
is the only means of obtaining a        
standard1 and giving publicity to the   
works of ,designer and ,craftsman2 but  
it must be more or less of a compromise1
 and of course no more can be done than 
to make an exhibition of contemporary   
work representative of current ideas and
 skill1 since it is impossible to get   
outside our own time4  ,in some quarters
 it appears to have been supposed that  
our ,exhibitions are intended to appeal1
 by the exhibition of cheap and saleable
 articles1 to what are rudely termed the
 masses2 we appeal to all certainly1 but
 it should be remembered that cheapness 
in art and handicraft is well-nigh      
impossible1 save in some forms of more  
or less mechanical reproduction4 ,in    

fact1 cheapness as a rule1 in the sense 
of low-priced production1 can only be   
obtained at the cost of cheapness--that 
is1 the cheapening of human life and    
labour2 surely1 in reality1 a most      
wasteful and extravagant cheapness6 ,it 
is difficult to see how1 under present  
economic conditions1 it can be          
otherwise4 ,art is1 in its true sense1  
after all1 the crown and flowering of   
life and labour1 and we cannot          
reasonably expect to gain that crown    
except at the true value of the human   
life and labour of which it is the      
result4  ,of course there is the        
difference of cost between materials to 
be taken into account3 a table may be of
 oak or of deal2 a cloth may be of silk 
or of linen2 but the labour1 skill1     
taste1 intelligence1 thought1 and fancy1
 which give the sense of art to the     
work1 are much the same1 and1 being     
bound up with human lives1 need the     
means of life in its completion for     
their proper sustenance4  ,at all       

events1 ,i think it may be said that the
 principle of the essential unity and   
interdependence of the arts has been    
again asserted--the brotherhood of      
designer and craftsman2 that goes for   
something1 with whatever imperfections  
or disadvantages its acknowledgment may 
have been obscured4  ,in putting this   
principle before the public1 the ,arts  
and ,crafts ,exhibition ,society has    
availed itself from the first of both   
lecture and essay1 as well as the       
display of examples4 ,lectures and      
demonstrations were given during the    
progress of the ,exhibitions1 and essays
 written by well-known workers in the   
crafts of which they treated have       
accompanied the catalogues4 ,these      
papers have now been collected together1
 and revised by their authors1 and      
appear in book form under the editorship
 of ,mr4 ,william ,morris1 whose name   
has been practically associated with the
 revival of beauty in the arts and      
crafts of design in many ways before our

 ,society came into existence1 and who  
with his co-workers may be said to have 
been the pioneer of our ,english        
,renascence1 which it is our earnest    
desire to foster and perpetuate4  ,every
 movement which has any substance and   
vitality must expect to encounter       
misrepresentation1 and even abuse1 as   
well as sympathy and support4 ,in its   
work1 so far1 the ,society to which ,i  
have the honour to belong has had its   
share of both1 perhaps4  ,those pledged 
to the support of existing conditions1  
whether in art or social life1 are      
always sensitive to attacks upon their  
weak points1 and it is not possible to  
avoid touching them to any man who      
ventures to look an inch or two beyond  
the immediate present4 ,but the         
hostility of some is as much a mark of  
vitality and progress as the sympathy of
 others4 ,the sun strikes hottest as the
 traveller climbs the hill2 and we must 
be content to leave the value of our    
work to the unfailing test of time4     

,,walter ,,crane4     ,,textiles        
,there are several ways of ornamenting a
 woven cloth3 7#a7 real tapestry1 7#b7  
carpet-weaving1 7#c7 mechanical weaving1
 7#d7 printing or painting1 and 7#e7    
embroidery4 ,there has been no          
improvement 7indeed1 as to the main     
processes1 no change7 in the manufacture
 of the wares in all these branches     
since the fourteenth century1 as far as 
the wares themselves are concerned2     
whatever improvements have been         
introduced have been purely commercial1 
and have had to do merely with reducing 
the cost of production2 nay1 more1 the  
commercial improvements have on the     
whole been decidedly injurious to the   
quality of the wares themselves4  ,the  
noblest of the weaving arts is          
,tapestry1 in which there is nothing    
mechanical3 it may be looked upon as a  
mosaic of pieces of colour made up of   
dyed threads1 and is capable of         
producing wall ornament of any degree of
 elaboration within the proper limits of

 duly considered decorative work4  ,as  
in all wall-decoration1 the first thing 
to be considered in the designing of    
,tapestry is the force1 purity1 and     
elegance of the silhouette of the       
objects represented1 and nothing vague  
or indeterminate is admissible4 ,but    
special excellences can be expected from
 it4 ,depth of tone1 richness of colour1
 and exquisite gradation of tints are   
easily to be obtained in ,tapestry2 and 
it also demands that crispness and      
abundance of beautiful detail which was 
the especial characteristic of fully    
developed ,mediaeval ,art4 ,the style of
 even the best period of the            
,renaissance is wholly unfit for        
,tapestry3 accordingly we find that     
,tapestry retained its ,gothic character
 longer than any other of the pictorial 
arts4 ,a comparison of the wall-hangings
 in the ,great ,hall at ,hampton ,court 
with those in the ,solar or             
,drawing-room1 will make this           
superiority of the earlier design for   

its purpose clear to any one not lacking
 in artistic perception3 and the        
comparison is all the fairer1 as both   
the ,gothic tapestries of the ,solar and
 the post-,gothic hangings of the ,hall 
are pre-eminently good of their kinds4  
,not to go into a description of the    
process of weaving tapestry1 which would
 be futile without illustrations1 ,i may
 say that in contradistinction to       
mechanical weaving1 the warp is quite   
hidden1 with the result that the colours
 are as solid as they can be made in    
painting4  ,carpet-weaving is somewhat  
of the nature of ,tapestry3 it also is  
wholly unmechanical1 but its use as a   
floor-cloth somewhat degrades it1       
especially in our northern or western   
countries1 where people come out of the 
muddy streets into rooms without taking 
off their shoes4 ,carpet-weaving        
undoubtedly arose among peoples living a
 tent life1 and for such a dwelling as a
 tent1 carpets are the best possible    
ornaments4  ,carpets form a mosaic of   

small squares of worsted1 or hair1 or   
silk threads1 tied into a coarse canvas1
 which is made as the work progresses4  
,owing to the comparative coarseness of 
the work1 the designs should always be  
very elementary in form1 and suggestive 
merely of forms of leafage1 flowers1    
beasts and birds1 etc4 ,the soft        
gradations of tint to which ,tapestry   
lends itself are unfit for              
,carpet-weaving2 beauty and variety of  
colour must be attained by harmonious   
juxtaposition of tints1 bounded by      
judiciously chosen outlines2 and the    
pattern should lie absolutely flat upon 
the ground4 ,on the whole1 in designing 
carpets the method of contrast is the   
best one to employ1 and blue and red1   
quite frankly used1 with white or very  
light outlines on a dark ground1 and    
black or some very dark colour on a     
light ground1 are the main colours on   
which the designer should depend4  ,in  
making the above remarks ,i have been   
thinking only of the genuine or         

hand-made carpets4 ,the                 
mechanically-made carpets of to-day must
 be looked upon as makeshifts for       
cheapness' sake4 ,of these1 the velvet  
pile and ,brussels are simply coarse    
worsted velvets woven over wires like   
other velvet1 and cut1 in the case of   
the velvet pile2 and ,kidderminster     
carpets are stout cloths1 in which      
abundance of warp 7a warp to each weft7 
is used for the sake of wear and tear4  
,the velvet carpets need the same kind  
of design as to colour and quality as   
the real carpets2 only1 as the colours  
are necessarily limited in number1 and  
the pattern must repeat at certain      
distances1 the design should be simpler 
and smaller than in a real carpet4 ,a   
,kidderminster carpet calls for a small 
design in which the different planes1 or
 plies1 as they are called1 are well    
interlocked4  ,mechanical weaving has to
 repeat the pattern on the cloth within 
comparatively narrow limits2 the number 
of colours also is limited in most cases

 to four or five4 ,in most cloths so    
woven1 therefore1 the best plan seems to
 be to choose a pleasant ground colour  
and to superimpose a pattern mainly     
composed of either a lighter shade of   
that colour1 or a colour in no very     
strong contrast to the ground2 and then1
 if you are using several colours1 to   
light up this general arrangement either
 with a more forcible outline1 or by    
spots of stronger colour carefully      
disposed4 ,often the lighter shade on   
the darker suffices1 and hardly calls   
for anything else3 some very beautiful  
cloths are merely damasks1 in which the 
warp and weft are of the same colour1   
but a different tone is obtained by the 
figure and the ground being woven with a
 longer or shorter twill3 the tabby     
being tied by the warp very often1 the  
satin much more rarely4 ,in any case1   
the patterned webs produced by          
mechanical weaving1 if the ornament is  
to be effective and worth the doing1    
require that same ,gothic crispness and 

clearness of detail which has been      
spoken of before3 the geometrical       
structure of the pattern1 which is a    
necessity in all recurring patterns1    
should be boldly insisted upon1 so as to
 draw the eye from accidental figures1  
which the recurrence of the pattern is  
apt to produce4  ,the meaningless       
stripes and spots and other tormentings 
of the simple twill of the web1 which   
are so common in the woven ornament of  
the eighteenth century and in our own   
times1 should be carefully avoided3 all 
these things are the last resource of a 
jaded invention and a contempt of the   
simple and fresh beauty that comes of a 
sympathetic suggestion of natural forms3
 if the pattern be vigorously and firmly
 drawn with a true feeling for the      
beauty of line and silhouette1 the play 
of light and shade on the material of   
the simple twill will give all the      
necessary variety4 ,i invite my readers 
to make another comparison3 to go to the
 ,south ,kensington ,museum and study   

the invaluable fragments of the stuffs  
of the thirteenth and fourteenth        
centuries of ,syrian and ,sicilian      
manufacture1 or the almost equally      
beautiful webs of ,persian design1 which
 are later in date1 but instinct with   
the purest and best ,eastern feeling2   
they may also note the splendid stuffs  
produced mostly in ,italy in the later  
,middle ,ages1 which are unsurpassed for
 richness and effect of design1 and when
 they have impressed their minds with   
the productions of this great historic  
school1 let them contrast with them the 
work of the vile ,pompadour period1     
passing by the early seventeenth century
 as a period of transition into         
corruption4 ,they will then 7if1 once   
more1 they have real artistic           
perception7 see at once the difference  
between the results of irrepressible    
imagination and love of beauty1 on the  
one hand1 and1 on the other1 of restless
 and weary vacuity of mind1 forced by   
the exigencies of fashion to do         

something or other to the innocent      
surface of the cloth in order to        
distinguish it in the market from other 
cloths2 between the handiwork of the    
free craftsman doing as he pleased with 
his work1 and the drudgery of the       
operative set to his task by the        
tradesman competing for the custom of a 
frivolous public1 which had forgotten   
that there was such a thing as art4     
,the next method of ornamenting cloth is
 by painting it or printing on it with  
dyes4 ,as to the painting of cloths with
 dyes by hand1 which is no doubt a very 
old and widely practised art1 it has now
 quite disappeared 7modern society not  
being rich enough to pay the necessary  
price for such work71 and its place has 
now been taken by printing by block or  
cylinder-machine4 ,the remarks made on  
the design for mechanically woven cloths
 apply pretty much to these printed     
stuffs3 only1 in the first place1 more  
play of delicate and pretty colour is   
possible1 and more variety of colour    

also2 and in the second1 much more use  
can be made of hatching and dotting1    
which are obviously suitable to the     
method of block-printing4 ,in the       
many-coloured printed cloths1 frank red 
and blue are again the mainstays of the 
colour arrangement2 these colours1      
softened by the paler shades of red1    
outlined with black and made more tender
 by the addition of yellow in small     
quantities1 mostly forming part of      
brightish greens1 make up the colouring 
of the old ,persian prints1 which carry 
the art as far as it can be carried4    
,it must be added that no textile       
ornament has suffered so much as        
cloth-printing from those               
above-mentioned commercial inventions4  
,a hundred years ago the processes for  
printing on cloth differed little from  
those used by the ,indians and          
,persians2 and even up to within forty  
years ago they produced colours that    
were in themselves good enough1 however 
inartistically they might be used4 ,then

 came one of the most wonderful and most
 useless of the inventions of modern    
,chemistry1 that of the dyes made from  
coal-tar1 producing a series of hideous 
colours1 crude1 livid--and cheap1--which
 every person of taste loathes1 but     
which nevertheless we can by no means   
get rid of until we are able to struggle
 successfully against the doom of cheap 
and nasty which has overtaken us4  ,last
 of the methods of ornamenting cloth    
comes ,embroidery3 of the design for    
which it must be said that one of its   
aims should be the exhibition of        
beautiful material4 ,furthermore1 it is 
not worth doing unless it is either very
 copious and rich1 or very delicate--or 
both4 ,for such an art nothing patchy or
 scrappy1 or half-starved1 should be    
done3 there is no excuse for doing      
anything which is not strikingly        
beautiful2 and that more especially as  
the exuberance of beauty of the work of 
the ,east and of ,mediaeval ,europe1 and
 even of the time of the ,renaissance1  

is at hand to reproach us4 ,it may be   
well here to warn those occupied in     
,embroidery against the feeble          
imitations of ,japanese art which are so
 disastrously common amongst us4 ,the   
,japanese are admirable naturalists1    
wonderfully skilful draughtsmen1 deft   
beyond all others in mere execution of  
whatever they take in hand2 and also    
great masters of style within certain   
narrow limitations4 ,but with all this1 
a ,japanese design is absolutely        
worthless unless it is executed with    
,japanese skill4 ,in truth1 with all    
their brilliant qualities as            
handicraftsmen1 which have so dazzled   
us1 the ,japanese have no architectural1
 and therefore no decorative1 instinct4 
,their works of art are isolated and    
blankly individualistic1 and in         
consequence1 unless where they rise1 as 
they sometimes do1 to the dignity of a  
suggestion for a picture 7always devoid 
of human interest71 they remain mere    
wonderful toys1 things quite outside the

 pale of the evolution of art1 which1 ,i
 repeat1 cannot be carried on without   
the architectural sense that connects it
 with the history of mankind4  ,to      
conclude with some general remarks about
 designing for textiles3 the aim should 
be to combine clearness of form and     
firmness of structure with the mystery  
which comes of abundance and richness of
 detail2 and this is easier of          
attainment in woven goods than in flat  
painted decoration and paper-hangings2  
because in the former the stuffs usually
 hang in folds and the pattern is broken
 more or less1 while in the latter it is
 spread out flat against the wall4 ,do  
not introduce any lines or objects which
 cannot be explained by the structure of
 the pattern2 it is just this logical   
sequence of form1 this growth which     
looks as if1 under the circumstances1 it
 could not have been otherwise1 which   
prevents the eye wearying of the        
repetition of the pattern4  ,never      
introduce any shading for the purpose of

 making an object look round2 whatever  
shading you use should be used for      
explanation only1 to show what you mean 
by such and such a piece of drawing2 and
 even that you had better be sparing of4
  ,do not be afraid of large patterns2  
if properly designed they are more      
restful to the eye than small ones3 on  
the whole1 a pattern where the structure
 is large and the details much broken up
 is the most useful4 ,large patterns are
 not necessarily startling2 this comes  
more of violent relief of the figure    
from the ground1 or inharmonious        
colouring3 beautiful and logical form   
relieved from the ground by well-managed
 contrast or gradation1 and lying flat  
on the ground1 will never weary the eye4
 ,very small rooms1 as well as very     
large ones1 look best ornamented with   
large patterns1 whatever you do with the
 middling-sized ones4  ,as final maxims3
 never forget the material you are      
working with1 and try always to use it  
for doing what it can do best3 if you   

feel yourself hampered by the material  
in which you are working1 instead of    
being helped by it1 you have so far not 
learned your business1 any more than a  
would-be poet has1 who complains of the 
hardship of writing in measure and      
rhyme4 ,the special limitations of the  
material should be a pleasure to you1   
not a hindrance3 a designer1 therefore1 
should always thoroughly understand the 
processes of the special manufacture he 
is dealing with1 or the result will be a
 mere tour de force4 ,on the other hand1
 it is the pleasure in understanding the
 capabilities of a special material1 and
 using them for suggesting 7not         
imitating7 natural beauty and incident1 
that gives the raison d'etre of         
decorative art4  ,,william ,,morris4    
,,of ,,decorative ,,painting ,,and      
,,design   ,the term ,decorative        
painting implies the existence of       
painting which is not decorative3 a     
strange state of things for an art which
 primarily and pre-eminently appeals to 

the eye4 ,if we look back to the times  
when the arts and crafts were in their  
most flourishing and vigorous condition1
 and dwelt together1 like brethren1 in  
unity--say to the fifteenth             
century--such a distinction did not     
exist4 ,painting only differed in its   
application1 and in degree1 not in kind4
 ,in the painting of a ,,ms41 of the    
panels of a coffer1 of a ceiling1 a     
wall1 or an altar-piece1 the painter was
 alike--however different his theme and 
conception--possessed with a paramount  
impulse to decorate1 to make the space  
or surface he dealt with as lovely to   
the eye in design and colour as he had  
skill to do4  ,the art of painting has1 
however1 become considerably            
differentiated since those days4 ,we are
 here in the nineteenth century         
encumbered with many distinctions in the
 art4 ,there is obviously much painting 
which is not decorative1 or ornamental  
in any sense1 which has indeed quite    
other objects4 ,it may be the           

presentment of the more superficial     
natural facts1 phases1 or accidents of  
light2 the pictorial dramatising of life
 or past history2 the pointing of a     
moral2 or the embodiment of romance and 
poetic thought or symbol4 ,not but what 
it is quite possible for a painter to   
deal with such things and yet to produce
 a work that shall be decorative4  ,a   
picture1 of course1 may be a piece of   
decorative art of the most beautiful    
kind2 but to begin with1 if it is an    
easel picture1 it is not necessarily    
related to anything but itself3 its     
painter is not bound to consider        
anything outside its own dimensions2    
and1 indeed1 the practice of holding    
large and mixed picture-shows has taught
 him the uselessness of so doing4       
,then1 too1 the demand for literal      
presentment of the superficial facts or 
phases of nature often removes the      
painter and his picture still farther   
from the architectural1 decorative1 and 
constructive artist and the             

handicraftsman1 who are bound to think  
of plan1 and design1 and materials--of  
the adaptation of their work1 in        
short--while the painter seeks only to  
be an unbiassed recorder of all         
accidents and sensational conditions of 
nature and life1--and so we get our     
illustrated newspapers on a grand scale4
  ,an illustrated newspaper1 however1 in
 spite of the skill and enterprise it   
may absorb1 is not somehow a joy for    
ever2 and1 after all1 if literalism and 
instantaneous appearances are the only  
things worth striving for in painting1  
the photograph beats any painter at     
that4  ,if truth is the object of the   
modern painter of pictures--truth as    
distinct from or opposed to             
beauty--beauty is certainly the object  
of the decorative painter1 but beauty   
not necessarily severed from truth4     
,without beauty1 however1 decoration has
 no reason for existence2 indeed it can 
hardly be said to exist4  ,next to      
beauty1 the first essential of a        

decoration is that it shall be related  
to its environment1 that it shall       
express or acknowledge the conditions   
under which it exists4 ,if a fresco on a
 wall1 for instance1 it adorns the wall 
without attempting to look like a hole  
cut in it through which something is    
accidentally seen2 if a painting on a   
vase1 it acknowledges the convexity of  
the shape1 and helps to express instead 
of contradicting it2 if on a panel in a 
cabinet or door1 it spreads itself in an
 appropriate filling on an organic plan 
to cover it2 being1 in short1 ornamental
 by its very nature1 its first business 
is to ornament4  ,there exist1          
therefore1 certain definite tests for   
the work of the decorative artist4 ,does
 the design fit its place and material8 
,is it in scale with its surroundings   
and in harmony with itself8 ,is it fair 
and lovely in colour8 ,has it beauty and
 invention8 ,has it thought and poetic  
feeling8 ,these are the demands a       
decorator has to answer1 and by his     

answer he must stand or fall2 but such  
questions show that the scope of        
decoration is no mean one4  ,it must be 
acknowledged that a mixed exhibition    
does not easily afford the fairest or   
completest tests of such qualities4 ,an 
exhibition is at best a compromise1 a   
convenience1 a means of comparison1 and 
to enable work to be shown to the       
public2 but of course is1 after all1    
only really and properly exhibited when 
it is in the place and position and     
light for which it was destined4 ,the   
tests by which to judge a designer's    
work are only complete then4  ,as the   
stem and branches to the leaves1        
flowers1 and fruit of a tree1 so is     
design to painting4 ,in decoration one  
cannot exist without the other1 as the  
beauty of a figure depends upon the     
well-built and well-proportioned        
skeleton and its mechanism4 ,you cannot 
separate a house from its plan and      
foundations4 ,so it is in decoration2   
often thought of lightly as something   

trivial and superficial1 a merely       
aimless combination of curves and       
colours1 or a mere rechauffe of the dead
 languages of art1 but really demanding 
the best thought and capacity of a man2 
and in the range of its application it  
is not less comprehensive4  ,the mural  
painter is not only a painter1 but a    
poet1 historian1 dramatist1 philosopher4
 ,what should we know1 how much should  
we realise1 of the ancient world and its
 life without him1 and his brother the  
architectural sculptor8 ,how would      
ancient ,egypt live without her wall    
paintings--or ,rome1 or ,pompeii1 or    
,mediaeval ,italy8 ,how much of beauty  
as well as of history is contained in   
the illuminated pages of the books of   
the ,middle ,ages6  ,some modern essays 
in mural painting show that the habit of
 mind and method of work fostered by the
 production of trifles for the picture  
market is not favourable to monumental  
painting4 ,neither the mood nor the     
skill1 indeed1 can be grown like a      

mushroom2 such works as the ,sistine    
,chapel1 the ,stanzi of ,raphael1 or the
 ,apartimenti ,borgia1 are the result of
 long practice through many centuries1  
and intimate relationship and harmony in
 the arts1 as well as a certain unity of
 public sentiment4  ,the true soil for  
the growth of the painter in this higher
 sense is a rich and varied external    
life3 familiarity from early youth with 
the uses of materials and methods1 and  
the hand facility which comes of close  
and constant acquaintanceship with the  
tools of the artist1 who sums up and    
includes in himself other crafts1 such  
as modelling1 carving1 and the hammering
 of metal1 architectural design1 and a  
knowledge of all the ways man has used  
to beautify and deck the surroundings   
and accessories of life to satisfy his  
delight in beauty4  ,we know that       
painting was strictly an applied art in 
its earlier history1 and all through the
 ,middle ,ages painters were in close   
alliance with the other crafts of       

design1 and their work in one craft no  
doubt reacted on and influenced that in 
another1 while each was kept distinct4  
,at all events1 painters like ,albert   
,duerer and ,holbein were also masters  
of design in all ways4  ,through the    
various arts and crafts of the ,greek1  
,mediaeval1 or ,early ,renaissance      
periods1 there is evident1 from the     
examples which have come down to us1 a  
certain unity and common character in   
design1 asserting itself through all    
diverse individualities3 each art is    
kept distinct1 with a complete          
recognition of the capacity and         
advantages of its own particular method 
and purpose4  ,in our age1 for various  
reasons 7social1 commercial1 economic71 
the specialised and purely pictorial    
painter is dominant4 ,his aims and      
methods influence other arts and crafts1
 but by no means advantageously as a    
rule2 since1 unchecked by judicious     
ideas of design1 attempts are made in   
unsuitable materials to produce         

so-called realistic force1 and          
superficial and accidental appearances  
dependent on peculiar qualities of      
lighting and atmosphere1 quite out of   
place in any other method than painting1
 or in any place but an easel picture4  
,from such tendencies1 such influences  
as these1 in the matter of applied art  
and design1 we are striving to recover4 
,one of the first results is1 perhaps1  
this apparently artificial distinction  
between decorative and other painting4  
,but along with this we have painters   
whose easel pictures are in feeling and 
treatment quite adaptable as wall and   
panel decorations1 and they are painters
 who1 as a rule1 have studied other     
methods in art1 and drawn their         
inspiration from the mode of ,mediaeval 
or ,early ,renaissance times4  ,much    
might be said of different methods and  
materials of work in decorative         
painting1 but ,i have hardly space here4
 ,the decorative painter prefers a      
certain flatness of effect1 and         

therefore such methods as fresco1 in    
which the colours are laid on while the 
plaster ground is wet1 and tempera      
naturally appeal to him4 ,in the latter 
the colours ground in water and used    
with size1 or white and yolk of egg1 or 
prepared with starch1 worked on a dry   
ground1 drying lighter than when they   
are put on1 have a peculiar luminous    
quality1 while the surface is free from 
any gloss4 ,both these methods need     
direct painting and finishing as the    
work proceeds4  ,by a method of working 
in ordinary oil colours on a ground of  
fibrous plaster1 using rectified spirit 
of turpentine or benzine as a medium1   
much of the quality of fresco or tempera
 may be obtained1 with the advantage    
that the plaster ground may be a movable
 panel4  ,there are1 however1 other     
fields for the decorative painter than  
wall painting2 as1 for instance1        
domestic furniture1 which may vary in   
degree of elaboration from the highly   
ornate cassone or marriage coffer of    

,mediaeval ,italy to the wreaths and    
sprays which decked chairs and bed-posts
 even within our century4 ,there has    
been of late some revival of painting as
 applied chiefly to the panels of       
cabinets1 or the decoration of piano    
fronts and cases4  ,the same causes     
produce the same results4 ,with the     
search after1 and desire for1 beauty in 
life1 we are again driven to study the  
laws of beauty in design and painting2  
and in so doing painters will find again
 the lost thread1 the golden link of    
connection and intimate association with
 the sister arts and handicrafts1       
whereof none is before or after another1
 none is greater or less than the other4
  ,,walter ,,crane4     ,,of ,,wall     
,,papers   ,while the tradition and     
practice of mural painting as applied to
 interior walls and ceilings of houses  
still linger in ,italy1 in the form of  
often skilful if not always tasteful    
tempera work1 in more western countries1
 like ,england1 ,france1 and ,america1  

under the economic conditions and       
customs of commercial civilisation1 with
 its smoky cities1 and its houses built 
by the hundred to one pattern1 perhaps1 
and let on short terms1 as regards      
domestic decoration--except in the case 
of a few wealthy freeholders--mural     
painting has ceased to exist4 ,its place
 has been taken by what after all is but
 a substitute for it1 namely1 wall      
paper4  ,i am not aware that any        
specimen of wall paper has been         
discovered that has claims to any higher
 antiquity than the sixteenth century1  
and it only came much into use in the   
last1 increasing in the present1 until  
it has become well-nigh a universal     
covering for domestic walls1 and at the 
same time has shown a remarkable        
development in design1 varying from very
 unpretending patterns and printings in 
one colour to elaborate block-printed   
designs in many colours1 besides cheap  
machine-printed papers1 where all the   
tints are printed from the design on a  

roller at once4  ,since ,mr4 ,william   
,morris has shown what beauty and       
character in pattern1 and good and      
delicate choice of tint can do for us1  
giving in short a new impulse in design1
 a great amount of ingenuity and        
enterprise has been spent on wall papers
 in ,england1 and in the better kinds a 
very distinct advance has been made upon
 the patterns of inconceivable          
hideousness1 often of ,french origin1 of
 the period of the ,second ,empire--a   
period which perhaps represents the most
 degraded level of taste in decoration  
generally4  ,the designer of patterns   
for wall papers heretofore has been     
content to imitate other materials1 and 
adapt the characteristics of the        
patterns found1 say1 in silk damask     
hangings or tapestry1 or even imitate   
the veining of wood1 or marble1 or      
tiles2 but since the revival of interest
 in art1 the study of its history1 and  
knowledge of style1 a new impulse has   
been given1 and patterns are constructed

 with more direct reference to their    
beauty1 and interest as such1 while     
strictly adapted to the methods of      
manufacture4 ,great pains are often     
taken by our principal makers to secure 
good designs and harmonious colourings1 
and though a manufacturer and director  
of works is always more or less         
controlled by the exigencies of the     
market and the demands of the tentative 
salesman--considerations which have no  
natural connection with art1 though     
highly important as economic conditions 
affecting its welfare--very remarkable  
results have been produced1 and a       
special development of applied design   
may almost be said to have come into    
existence with the modern use of wall   
papers4 ,the manufacture suffers like   
most others from the keenness and       
unscrupulousness of commercial          
competition1 which leads to the         
production of specious imitations of    
bona fide designs1 and unauthorised use 
of designs originally intended for other

 purposes1 and this of course presses   
unfairly upon the more conscientious    
maker1 so long as the public do not     
decline to be deceived4  ,english wall  
papers are made in lengths #ba inches   
wide4 ,french wall papers are #ah inches
 wide4 ,this has probably been found    
most convenient in working in           
block-printing3 it is obvious to any one
 who has seen the printers at work that 
a wider block than #ba inches would be  
unwieldy1 since the block is printed by 
hand1 being suspended from above by a   
cord1 and guided by the workman's hand  
from the well of colour1 into which it  
is dipped1 to the paper flat on a table 
before him4  ,the designer must work to 
the given width1 and though his design  
may vary in depth1 must never exceed #ba
 inches square1 except where double     
blocks are used4 ,his main business is  
to devise his pattern so that it will   
repeat satisfactorily over an indefinite
 wall space without running into awkward
 holes or lines4 ,it may be easy enough 

to draw a spray or two of leaves or     
flowers which will stand by themselves1 
but to combine them in an organic       
pattern which shall repeat pleasantly   
over a wall surface requires much       
ingenuity and a knowledge of the        
conditions of the manufacture1 apart    
from play of fancy and artistic skill4  
,one way of concealing the joints of the
 repeat of the pattern is by contriving 
what is called a drop-repeat1 so that1  
in hanging1 the paper-hanger1 instead of
 placing each repeat of pattern side by 
side1 is enabled to join the pattern at 
a point its own depth below1 which      
varies the effect1 and arranges the     
chief features or masses on an          
alternating plan4  ,the modern habit of 
regarding the walls of a room chiefly as
 a background to pictures1 furniture1 or
 people1 and perhaps the smallness of   
the average room1 has brought rather    
small1 thickly dispersed1 leafy patterns
 into vogue1 retiring in colour for the 
most part4 ,while1 however1 we used to  

see rotund and accidental bunches of    
roses 7the pictorial or sketchy         
treatment of which contrasted awkwardly 
with their formal repetition71 we now   
get a certain sense of adaptation1 and  
the necessity of a certain flatness of  
treatment2 and most of us who have given
 much thought to the subject feel that  
when natural forms are dealt with1 under
 such conditions1 suggestion is better  
than any attempt at realisation1 or     
naturalistic or pictorial treatment1 and
 that a design must be constructed upon 
some systematic plan1 if not absolutely 
controlled by a geometric basis4  ,wall 
papers are printed from blocks prepared 
from designs1 the outlines of which are 
reproduced by means of flat brass wire  
driven edgeways into the wood block4    
,one block for each tint is used4 ,first
 one colour is printed on a length of   
paper1 a piece of #ab yards long and #ba
 inches wide1 which is passed over      
sticks suspended across the workshop4   
,when the first colour is dry the next  

is printed1 and so on2 the colours being
 mixed with size and put in shallow     
trays or wells1 into which the blocks   
are dipped4  ,a cheaper kind is printed 
by steam power from rollers on which the
 design has been reproduced in the same 
way by brass wire1 which holds the      
colour2 but in the case of              
machine-printed papers all the tints are
 printed at once4 ,thus the pattern is  
often imperfect and blurred4  ,a more   
elaborate and costly kind of wall paper 
is that which is stamped and gilded1 in 
emulation of stamped and gilded leather1
 which it resembles in effect and       
quality of surface4 ,for this method the
 design is reproduced in relief as a    
repoussee brass plate1 and from this a  
mould or matrix is made1 and the paper  
being damped is stamped in a press into 
the matrix1 and so takes the pattern in 
relief1 which is generally covered with 
white metal and lacquered to a gold hue1
 and this again may be rubbed in with   
black1 which by filling the interstices 

gives emphasis to the design and darkens
 the gold to bronze2 or the gilded      
surface may be treated in any variety of
 colour by means of painting or lacquer1
 or simply relieved by colouring the    
ground4  ,but few of us own our own     
walls1 or the ground they stand upon3   
but few of us can afford to employ      
ourselves or skilled artists and        
craftsmen in painting our rooms with    
beautiful fancies3 but if we can get    
well-designed repeating patterns by the 
yard1 in agreeable tints1 with a        
pleasant flavour perchance of nature or 
antiquity1 for a few shillings or       
pounds1 ought we not to be happy8 ,at   
all events1 wall-paper makers should    
naturally think so4  ,,walter ,,crane4  
,,fictiles   ,earliest amongst the      
inventions of man and his endeavour to  
unite ,art with ,craft is the ,fictile  
,art4 ,his first needs in domestic life1
 his first utensils1 his first efforts  
at civilisation1 came from the ,mother  
,earth1 whose son he believed himself to

 be1 and his ashes or his bones returned
 to ,earth enshrined in the fictile     
vases he created from their common clay4
 ,and these ,fictiles tell the story of 
his first ,art-instincts1 and of his    
yearnings to unite beauty with use4     
,they tell1 too1 more of his history    
than is enshrined and preserved by any  
other art2 for almost all we know of    
many a people and many a tongue is      
learned from the fictile record1 the    
sole relic of past civilisations which  
the ,destroyer ,time has left us4       
,begun in the simplest fashion1         
fashioned by the simplest means1 created
 from the commonest materials1 ,fictile 
,art grew with man's intellectual       
growth1 and ,fictile ,craft grew with   
his knowledge2 the latter conquering1 in
 this our day1 when the craftsman       
strangles the artist alike in this as in
 all other arts4 ,to truly foster and   
forward the art1 the craftsman and the  
artist should1 where possible1 be       
united1 or at least should work in      

common1 as was the case when1 in each   
civilisation1 the ,potter's ,art        
flourished most1 and when the scientific
 base was of less account than was the  
art employed upon it4 ,in its earliest  
stages the local clay sufficed for the  
formative portion of the work1 and the  
faiences of most ,european countries    
offer more artistic results to us than  
do the more scientifically compounded   
porcelains4 ,in the former case the     
native clay seemed more easily to ally  
itself with native art1 to record more  
of current history1 to create artistic  
genius rather than to be content with   
attempting to copy misunderstood efforts
 of other peoples and other times4 ,but 
when science ransacked the earth for    
foreign bodies and ingredients1 foreign 
decorative ideas came with them and     
,fictile ,art was no more a vernacular  
one4 ,it attempted to disguise itself1  
to show the craftsman superior to the   
artist2 and then came the ,manufacturer 
and the reign of quantity over quality1 

the casting in moulds by the gross and  
the printing by the thousands4 ,be it   
understood these remarks only apply to  
the introduction of porcelain into      
,europe4 ,in the ,east where the clay is
 native1 the art is native2 the potter's
 hand and the wheel yet maintain the    
power of giving the potter his          
individuality as the creator and the    
artist1 and save him from being but the 
servant and the slave of a machine4     
,between faience and porcelain comes1   
midway1 ,stoneware1 in which many       
wonderfully1 and some fearfully1 made   
things have been done of late1 but which
 possesses the combined qualities of    
faience and porcelain--the ease of      
manipulation of the former1 and the     
hardness and durability of the latter2  
but the tendency to over-elaborate the  
detail of its decoration1 and rely less 
on the beauty of its semi-glossy surface
 than on meretricious ornament1 has     
rather spoiled a very hopeful movement  
in ,ceramic ,art4 ,probably the wisest  

course to pursue at the present would be
 to pay more attention to faiences      
decorated with simple glazes or with    
slip decoration1 and this especially in 
modelled work4 ,a continuation of the   
artistic career of the ,della ,robbia   
family is yet an unfulfilled            
desideratum1 notwithstanding that glazed
 faiences have never since their time   
ceased to be made1 and that glazed      
figure work of large scale prevailed in 
the eighteenth century4 ,unglazed terra 
cotta1 an artistic product eminently    
suited to our climate and to our urban  
architecture1 has but partially         
developed itself1 and this more in the  
direction of moulded and cast work than 
that of really plastic art2 and albeit  
that from its dawn to this present the  
,fictile ,art has been exercised        
abundantly1 its role is by no means     
exhausted4 ,the artist and the craftsman
 have yet a wide field before them1 but 
it would be well that the former should1
 for some while to come1 take the lead4 

,science has too long reigned supreme in
 a domain wherein she should have been  
not more than equal sovereign4 ,she has 
had her triumphs1 great triumphs too1   
triumphs which have been fraught with   
good in an utilitarian sense1 but she   
has tyrannised too rigidly over the     
realm of ,art4 ,let us now try to       
equalise the dual rule4  ,g4 ,t4        
,,robinson4     ,,metal ,,work   ,in    
discussing the artistic aspect of metal 
work1 we have to take into account the  
physical properties and appropriate     
treatment of the following metals3 the  
precious metals1 gold and silver2       
copper1 both pure and alloyed with other
 metals1 especially tin and zinc in     
various proportions to form the many    
kinds of brass and bronze2 lead1 with a 
group of alloys of which pewter is      
typical2 and iron1 in the three forms of
 cast iron1 wrought iron1 and steel4    
,all these have been made to serve the  
purpose of the artist1 and the          
manipulation of them1 while presenting  

many differences in detail1 presents    
certain broad characteristics in common 
which distinguish them from the raw     
material of other crafts4 ,whether they 
are found native in the metallic state  
as is usual in the case of gold1 or     
combined with many other minerals in the
 form of ore as is more common with     
other metals1 fire is the primal agency 
by which they are made available for our
 needs4 ,the first stage in their       
manipulation is to melt and cast them   
into ingots of a size convenient to the 
purpose intended4 ,secondly1 all these  
metals when pure1 and many alloys1 are  
in varying degree malleable and ductile1
 are1 in fact1 if sufficient force be   
applied1 plastic4 ,hence arises the     
first broad division in the treatment of
 metals4 ,the fluid metal may1 by the   
use of suitable moulds1 be cast at once 
to the shape required1 or the casting   
may be treated merely as the            
starting-point for a whole series of    
operations--forging1 rolling1 chipping1 

chasing1 wire-drawing1 and many more4   
,another property of the metals which   
must be noticed is1 that not only can   
separate masses of metals be melted down
 and fused into one1 but it is possible1
 under various conditions1 of which the 
one invariably necessary is perfectly   
clean surfaces of contact1 to unite     
separate portions of the same or        
different metals without fusion of the  
mass4 ,for our present purpose the most 
important instance of this is the       
process of soldering1 by which two      
surfaces are united by the application  
of sufficient heat to melt more fusible 
metal which is introduced between them1 
and which combines with both so as      
firmly to unite them on solidifying4    
,closely allied to this are the         
processes by which one metal is1 for    
purposes of adornment or preservation   
from corrosion1 coated with a thin film 
or deposit of another1 usually more     
costly1 metal4  ,though hereafter       
electro-metallurgy may assert its claim 

to artistic originality as a third      
division1 for the present all metal     
work1 so far as its artistic aspect     
depends upon process1 falls naturally   
into one of the two broad divisions of  
cast metal and wrought metal4 ,both have
 been employed from a time long anterior
 to written history2 ornaments of beaten
 gold1 and tools of cast bronze1 are    
alike found among the relics of very    
early stages of civilisation1 and in    
early stages both alike are artistic4   
,the choice between the two processes is
 determined by such considerations as   
convenience of manufacture and the      
physical properties of the metals1 and  
the different purposes in view4 ,when a 
thick and comparatively massive shape is
 required1 it is often easier to cast it
 at once4 ,for thinner and lighter forms
 it is usually more convenient to treat 
the ingot or crude product of the       
furnace as mere raw material for a long 
series of workings under the hammer1 or 
its patent mechanical equivalents1 the  

rolling and pressing mills of modern    
mechanics4 ,the choice is further       
influenced by the toughness generally   
characteristic of wrought metal1 whereas
 the alloys which yield the cleanest    
castings are by no means universally the
 best in other respects4 ,iron is the   
extreme instance of this3 ordinary cast 
iron being an impure form of the metal1 
which is too brittle to be worked under 
the hammer1 but is readily cast into    
moulds1 being fluid at a temperature    
which1 though high1 is easily obtained  
in a blast furnace4 ,wrought iron1      
however1 which is usually obtained from 
cast iron by a process called puddling1 
whereby the impurities are burnt out1   
does not become fluid enough to pour    
into moulds2 but on the other hand1     
pieces at a white heat can be united    
into a solid mass by skilful hammering1 
a process which is called welding1 and1 
together with the fact that from its    
great hardness it is usually worked hot1
 is specially distinctive of the        

blacksmith's craft4 ,in no other metal  
is the separation between the two       
branches so wide as in iron4 ,the       
misdirected skill of some modern        
iron-founders has caused the name of    
cast iron to be regarded as the very    
negative of art1 and has even thrown    
suspicion on the process of casting     
itself as one of questionable honesty4  
,nevertheless1 as a craft capable of    
giving final shape to metal1 it has     
manifestly an artistic aspect1 and1 in  
fact1 bronze statuary1 a fine art pure  
and simple1 is reproduced from the clay 
model merely by moulding and casting4   
,we must therefore look for the artistic
 conditions in the preparation of the   
model or pattern1 the impress of which  
in sand or loam forms the mould2 the    
pattern may be carved in wood or        
modelled in clay1 but the handling of   
the wood or clay is modified by the     
conditions under which the form is      
reproduced4 ,and lastly1 the finished   
object may either retain the surface    

formed as the metal solidifies1 as in   
the case of the bronzes cast by the wax 
process1 or the skin may be removed by  
the use of cutting tools1 chisels and   
files and gravers1 so that1 as in the   
case of many of the better ,french      
bronzes1 the finished work is strictly  
carved work4 ,on the contrary1 much     
silversmith's work1 as well as such     
simple objects as ,chinese gongs and    
,indian lotahs1 after being cast        
approximately to shape are finished by  
hammer work1 that is1 treated as plastic
 material with tools that force the     
material into shape instead of cutting  
the shape out of the mass by removing   
exterior portions of material4 ,attempts
 to imitate both processes by casting   
only1 thus dispensing with the cost of  
finishing1 are common1 but as they      
dispense likewise with all beauty in the
 product1 even if they do not substitute
 varnished and tinted zinc for better   
metal1 their success is commercial only4
  ,we have thus three characteristic    

kinds of surface resulting from the     
conditions of treatment1 marking out    
three natural divisions of the art3 and 
be it noted that questions of surface or
 texture are all-important in the arts2 
beauty is skin deep4 ,first1 the natural
 skin of the metal solidified in contact
 with the mould1 and more or less       
closely imitative of the surface of the 
original model1 usually for our purposes
 a plastic surface2 secondly1 there is  
carved1 technically called chased1 work2
 and thirdly1 beaten or wrought work1   
which in ornament is termed embossing4  
,superimposed on these we have the cross
 divisions of the crafts according to   
the special metal operated on1 and in   
the existing industrial organisation the
 groups thus obtained have to be further
 divided into many sub-heads1 according 
to the articles produced2 and finally1  
another commercial distinction has to be
 drawn which greatly affects the present
 condition of handicraft1 that is1 the  
division of the several trades into     

craftsmen and salesmen4 ,there can be no
 doubt that the extent of the existing  
dissociation of the producing craftsman 
from the consumer is an evil for the    
arts1 and that the growing preponderance
 of great stores is inimical to         
excellence of workmanship4 ,it is1      
perhaps1 an advantage for the workman to
 be relieved from the office of         
salesman2 the position of the village   
smith plying his calling in face of his 
customers might not suit every craft1   
but the services of the middleman are   
dearly bought at the price of artistic  
freedom4 ,it is too often in the power  
of the middleman to dictate the quality 
of workmanship1 too often his seeming   
interest to ordain that it shall be bad4
  ,the choice of a metal for any        
particular purpose is determined by     
physical properties combined with       
considerations of cost4 ,iron1 if only  
for its cheapness1 is the material for  
the largest works of metal2 while in the
 form of steel it is the best available 

material for many very small works1     
watch-springs for instance3 it has the  
defect of liability to rust2 the        
surfaces of other metals may tarnish1   
but iron rusts through4 ,for the present
 only one application of cast iron      
concerns us--its use for grates and     
stoves4 ,the point to remember is1 that 
as the material has but little beauty1  
its employment should be restricted to  
the quantity prescribed by the demands  
of utility4 ,wrought iron1 on the       
contrary1 gives very great scope to the 
artist1 and it offers this peculiar     
advantage1 that the necessity of        
striking while the iron is hot enforces 
such free dexterity of handling in the  
ordinary smith1 that he has             
comparatively little to learn if set to 
produce ornamental work1 and thus       
renewed interest in the art has found   
craftsmen enough who could readily      
respond to the demand made upon them4   
,copper1 distinguished among metals by  
its glowing red tint1 has as a material 

for artistic work been overshadowed by  
its alloys1 brass and bronze2 partly    
because they make sounder castings1     
partly it is to be feared from the      
approach of their colour to gold4       
,holding an intermediate position       
between iron and the precious metals1   
they are the material of innumerable    
household utensils and smaller          
architectural fittings4  ,lead1 tin1 and
 zinc scarcely concern the artist       
to-day1 though neither plumber nor      
pewterer has always been restricted to  
plain utilitarianism4 ,gold and silver  
have been distinguished in all ages as  
the precious metals1 both for their     
comparative rarity and their freedom    
from corrosion1 and their extreme       
beauty4 ,they are both extremely        
malleable and very readily worked4      
,unhappily there is little original     
,english work being done in these       
metals4 ,the more ordinary wares have   
all life and feeling taken out of them  
by mechanical finish1 an abrasive       

process being employed to remove every  
sign of tool-marks4 ,the all-important  
surface is thus obliterated4 ,as to     
design1 fashion oscillates between      
copies of one past period and another4  
,a comparison of one of these copies    
with an original will make the          
distinction between the work of a man   
paid to do his quickest and one paid to 
do his best clearer than volumes of     
description4 ,indeed1 when all is said1 
a writer can but indicate the logic that
 underlies the craft1 or hint at the    
relation which subsists between the     
process1 the material1 and the finished 
ware3 the distinction between good and  
bad in art eludes definition2 it is not 
an affair of reason1 but of perception4 
,w4 ,a4 ,s4 ,,benson4     ,,stone ,,and 
,,wood ,,carving   ,the crafts of the   
stone and wood carver may fairly be     
taken in review at the same time1       
although they differ in themselves4  ,it
 is a misfortune that there should be so
 great a gulf as there is between the   

craftsman who is called1 and considers  
himself to be properly called1 a        
sculptor and his fellow-craftsman who is
 called a carver4 ,in these days the    
sculptor is but too often a man who     
would think it a condescension to       
execute what1 for want of a better name1
 we must call decorative work4 ,in      
truth1 the sculptor is the outcome of   
that entire separation which has come   
about between the love of beauty1 once  
common in everyday life1 and art1 as it 
is now called--a thing degraded to the  
purposes of a toy1 a mere ornament for  
the rich4 ,the sculptor is trained to   
make these ornaments1 things which have 
no relation to their surroundings1 but  
which may be placed now in a            
drawing-room1 now in a conservatory or a
 public square1 alone and unsheltered4  
,he is a child of the studio4  ,the     
result of this training is1 he has lost 
all knowledge how to produce work of a  
decorative character4 ,he understands   
nothing of design in a wide sense1 but  

being able to model a figure with       
tolerable success he rests therewith    
content4 ,being designed1 as it is1 in  
the studio1 his work is wanting in      
sympathy with its surroundings2 it does 
not fall into its place1 it is not a    
part of a complete conception4  ,things 
were not so when sculpture and what1 for
 want of a better term1 we have called  
stone and wood carving were at their    
prime4  ,the ,greek craftsman could     
produce both the great figure of the    
god1 which stood alone as the central   
object in the temple1 and 7working in   
thorough sympathy with the architect7   
the decorative sculpture of less        
importance which was attached to the    
building round about1 and without which 
the beauty of the fabric was incomplete4
  ,so also the great ,florentine        
sculptors spent themselves with equal   
zeal on a door1 the enclosure of a      
choir1 a pulpit1 or a tomb1 which in    
those days meant not merely the effigy  
of the departed1 but a complete design  

of many parts all full of beauty and    
skill4  ,in the great days of ,mediaeval
 ,art sculpture played a part of the    
highest importance4 ,the works then     
produced are not only excellent in      
themselves1 but are so designed as to   
form a part of the building they adorn4 
,how thoroughly unfinished would be the 
west front of the ,cathedral at ,wells1 
or the portals of ,amiens or ,reims1    
without their sculpture4  ,how rarely   
can we feel this sense of satisfaction1 
of unity of result1 between the work of 
the sculptor and the architect in our   
buildings of to-day4 ,the figures are   
stood about like ornaments on the       
mantelpiece4 ,the architect seems as    
unable to prepare for them as the       
sculptor to make them4 ,we seldom see   
congruity even between the figure and   
the pedestal on which it stands4  ,the  
want of this extended sympathy leads to 
another ill result4 ,wood1 stone1 and   
metal1 different as they are1 are       
treated by the artist in much the same  

fashion4 ,the original model in clay    
seems to stand behind everything4 ,the  
artist makes the clay model2 his        
subordinates work it out in one or      
another material4 ,the result can only  
be unsatisfactory because the natural   
limitations fixed by the qualities of   
the different materials have been       
neglected1 whereas they should stand    
forth prominently in the mind of the    
artist from the moment he first         
conceives his design4  ,marble1         
stones--some hard1 some soft1--terra    
cotta1 metals1 or wood1 each demand a   
difference of treatment4 ,for example1  
the fibrous nature of wood enables the  
craftsman to produce work which would   
fall to pieces at the first blow if     
executed in stone4 ,the polished and    
varied surface of marble demands a      
treatment of surface and section of     
mouldings which in stone would seem tame
 and poor4 ,again1 it must not be       
forgotten that most works in stone or   
marble are built up4 ,they are composed 

of many blocks standing one on the      
other4 ,with wood it is quite different4
 ,used in thick pieces it splits2 good  
wood-work is therefore framed together1 
the framing and intermediate panelling  
lending itself to the richest           
decoration2 but anything in the design  
which suggests stone construction is    
obviously wrong4 ,in short1 wood must be
 treated as a material that is fibrous  
and tenacious1 and in planks or slabs2  
stone or marble as of close1 even       
texture1 brittle and in blocks4         
,consequent on these differences of     
texture1 we find that the tools and     
method of handling them used by the     
wood-carver differ in many respects from
 those used by the worker in stone or   
marble4 ,one material is scooped and cut
 out1 the other is attacked by a        
constant repetition of blows4  ,in the  
history of ,mediaeval ,art we find that 
the craft of the stone-carver was       
perfectly understood long before that of
 his brother craftsman in wood4 ,whilst 

the first had all through ,europe       
attained great perfection in the        
thirteenth century1 the second did not  
reach the same standard till the        
fifteenth1 and with the classic revival 
it died out4 ,nothing displays more     
fully the adaptation of design and      
decoration to the material than much of 
the fifteenth-century stall-work in our 
,english cathedrals4 ,these could only  
be executed in wood2 the design is      
suited to that material only2 but when  
the ,italian influence creeps in1 the   
designs adopted are in fact suited to   
fine stone1 marble1 or alabaster1 and   
not to wood4  ,until the craftsman in   
stone and wood is more of an architect1 
and the architect more of a craftsman1  
we cannot hope for improvement4         
,,somers ,,clarke4     ,,furniture      
,the institution of schools of art and  
design1 and the efforts of serials and  
magazines devoted to artistic matters1  
have had their proper effect in the     
creation of a pretty general distaste   

for the clumsy and inartistic forms     
which characterised cabinets and        
furniture generally some years back4    
,unfortunately for the movement1 some   
manufacturers saw their opportunity in  
the demand thus created for better and  
more artistic shapes to produce bad and 
ill-made copies of good designs1 which  
undermined the self-respect of the      
unfortunate man 7frequently a good and  
sufficient craftsman7 whose ill hap it  
was to be obliged to make them1 and     
vexed the soul of the equally           
unfortunate purchaser4  ,the            
introduction of machinery for moulding1 
which left only the fitting and         
polishing to be done by the craftsman1  
and which enabled manufacturers to      
produce two or three cabinets in the    
time formerly occupied in the making of 
one1 was all against the quality and    
stability of the work4 ,no good work was
 ever done in a hurry3 the craftsman may
 be rapid1 but his rapidity is the      
result of very deliberate thought1 and  

not of hurry4 ,good furniture1 however1 
cannot be made rapidly4 ,all wood1 no   
matter how long it is kept1 nor how dry 
it may be superficially1 will always    
shrink again when cut into4  ,it follows
 that the longer the interval between   
the cutting up of the wood1 and its     
fitting together1 the better for the    
work4 ,in the old times the parts of a  
cabinet lay about in the workman's      
benchway for weeks1 and even months1 and
 were continually turned over and       
handled by him while he was engaged on  
the mouldings and other details4 ,the   
wood thus became really dry1 and no     
further shrinkage could take place after
 it was put together4  ,a word here     
about the designing of cabinets4        
,modern furniture designers are far too 
much influenced by considerations of    
style1 and sacrifice a good deal that is
 valuable in order to conform to certain
 rules which1 though sound enough in    
their relation to architecture1 do not  
really apply to furniture at all4 ,much 

more pleasing1 and not necessarily less 
artistic work would be produced1 were   
designers1 and handicraftsmen too1      
encouraged to allow their imagination   
more scope1 and to get more of their own
 individuality into their work1 instead 
of being the slaves of styles invented  
by people who lived under quite         
different conditions from those now     
prevailing4  ,mouldings as applied to   
cabinets are nearly always too coarse1  
and project too much4 ,this applies     
equally to the carvings1 which should   
always be quite subordinate to the      
general design and mouldings1 and 7in   
its application to surfaces7 should be  
in low relief4 ,this is quite compatible
 with all necessary vigour as well as   
refinement4 ,the idea that              
boldness--viz4 high projection of parts 
in carving--has anything to do with     
vigour is a common one1 but is quite    
erroneous4 ,all the power and vigour    
which he is capable of putting into     
anything1 the clever carver can put into

 a piece of ornament which shall not    
project more than a quarter of an inch  
from the ground in any part4 ,indeed1 ,i
 have known good carvers who did their  
best work within those limits4          
,knowledge of line1 of the management of
 planes1 with dexterity in the handling 
of surfaces1 is all he requires4        
,another common mistake is to suppose   
that smoothness of surface has anything 
to do with finish properly so called4   
,if only half the time which is commonly
 spent in smoothing and polishing carved
 surfaces was devoted to the more       
thorough study and development of the   
various parts of the design1 and the    
correction of the outlines1 the surface 
might very well be left to take care of 
itself1 and the work would be the better
 for it4  ,there is not space in this   
paper to do more than glance at a few   
other methods in ordinary use for       
cabinet decoration4 ,marquetry1 inlays  
of ivory1 and various other materials   
have always been extensively used1 and  

sometimes with excellent effect4 ,in    
many old examples the surface of the    
solid wood was cut away to the pattern1 
and various other kinds of wood pressed 
into the lines so sunk4 ,the method more
 generally adopted now is to insert the 
pattern into veneer which has been      
prepared to receive it1 and mount the   
whole on a solid panel or shape with    
glue4  ,the besetting sin of the modern 
designer or maker of marquetry is a     
tendency to loud colour and violent     
contrasts of both colour and grain4 ,it 
is common to see as many as a dozen     
different kinds of wood used in the     
decoration of a modern cabinet--some of 
them stained woods1 and the colours of  
no two of them in harmony4  ,the best   
work in this kind depends for its effect
 on a rich1 though it may be low tone of
 colour4 ,it is seldom that more than   
two or three different kinds of wood are
 used1 but each kind is so carefully    
selected for the purpose of the design1 
and is used in so many different ways1  

that1 while the all-important tone is   
kept throughout1 the variety of surface 
is almost infinite4 ,for this reason1   
though it is not necessary that the     
designer should actually cut the work   
himself1 it is most essential that he   
should always be within call of the     
cutter1 and should himself select every 
piece of wood which is introduced into  
the design4 ,this kind of work is       
sometimes shaded with hot sand2 at other
 times a darker wood is introduced into 
the pattern for the shadows4 ,the latter
 is the better way2 the former is the   
cheaper4  ,the polishing of cabinet     
work4 ,i have so strong an objection in 
this connection to the ,french polisher 
and all his works and ways1 that1       
notwithstanding the popular prejudice in
 favour of brilliant surfaces1 ,i would 
have none of him4 ,formerly the         
cabinetmaker was accustomed to polish   
his own work1 sometimes by exposing the 
finished surfaces to the light for a few
 weeks in order to darken them1 and then

 applying beeswax with plentiful        
rubbing4 ,this was the earliest and the 
best method1 but in later times a polish
 composed of naphtha and shellac was    
used4 ,the latter polish1 though open to
 many of the objections which may be    
urged against that now in use1 was at   
least hard and lasting1 which can hardly
 be said of its modern substitute4  ,the
 action of the more reputable           
cabinetmaking firms has been1 of late1  
almost wholly in the direction of better
 design and construction2 but a still   
better guarantee of progress in the     
future of the craft is found in the fact
 that the craftsman who takes an        
artistic and intelligent1 and not a     
merely mechanical interest in his work1 
is now often to be met4 ,to such men    
greater individual freedom is alone     
wanting4  ,,stephen ,,webb4             
,,stained ,,glass   ,in these days there
 is a tendency to judge the merits of   
stained glass from the standpoint of the
 archaeologist4 ,it is good or bad in so

 far as it is directly imitative of work
 of the fourteenth or fifteenth century4
 ,the art had reached to a surprising   
degree of beauty and perfection in the  
fifteenth century1 and although under   
the influence of the ,renaissance some  
good work was done1 it rapidly declined 
only to lift its head once more with the
 revived study of the architecture of   
the ,middle ,ages4  ,the burning energy 
of ,pugin1 which nothing could escape1  
was directed towards this end1 but the  
attainment of a mere archaeological     
correctness was the chief aim in view4  
,the crude draughtsmanship of the       
ancient craftsman was diligently        
imitated1 but the spirit and charm of   
the original was lost1 as1 in a mere    
imitation1 it must be4 ,in the revival  
of the art1 whilst there was an attempt 
to imitate the drawing1 there was no    
attempt to reproduce the quality of the 
ancient glass4 ,thus1 brilliant1        
transparent1 and unbroken tints were    
used1 lacking all the richness and      

splendour of colour so characteristic of
 the originals4 ,under these conditions 
of blind imitation the modern worker in 
stained glass produced things probably  
more hideous than the world ever saw    
before4  ,departing altogether from the 
traditions of the mediaeval schools1    
whether ancient or modern1 there has    
arisen another school which has found   
its chief exponents at ,munich4 ,the    
object of these people has been1        
ignoring the condition under which they 
must necessarily work1 to produce an    
ordinary picture in enamelled colours   
upon sheets of glass4 ,the result has   
been the production of mere             
transparencies no better than painted   
blinds4  ,what then1 it may be asked1   
are the limiting conditions1 imposed    
upon him by the nature of the materials1
 within which the craftsman must work to
 produce a satisfactory result8  ,in the
 first place1 a stained glass window is 
not an easel picture4 ,it does not stand
 within a frame1 as does the easel      

picture1 in isolation from the objects  
surrounding it2 it is not even an object
 to be looked at by itself2 its duty is1
 not only to be beautiful1 but to play  
its part in the adornment of the        
building in which it is placed1 being   
subordinated to the effect the interior 
is intended to produce as a whole4 ,it  
is1 in fact1 but one of many parts that 
go to produce a complete result4 ,a     
visit to one of our mediaeval churches1 
such as ,york ,minster1 ,gloucester     
,cathedral1 or ,malvern ,priory1 church 
buildings1 which still retain much of   
their ancient glass1 and a comparison of
 the unity of effect there experienced  
with the internecine struggle exhibited 
in most buildings furnished by the glass
 painters of to-day1 will surely        
convince the most indifferent that there
 is yet much to be learned4  ,secondly1 
the great difference between coloured   
glass and painted glass must be kept in 
view4 ,a coloured glass window is in the
 nature of a mosaic4 ,not only are no   

large pieces of glass used1 but each    
piece is separated from and at the same 
time joined to its neighbour by a thin  
grooved strip of lead which holds the   
two4 ,coloured glass is obtained by a   
mixture of metallic oxides whilst in a  
state of fusion4 ,this colouring        
pervades the substance of the glass and 
becomes incorporated with it4#a ,it is  
termed pot-metal4 ,an examination of    
such a piece of glass will show it to be
 full of varieties of a given colour1   
uneven in thickness1 full of little     
air-bubbles and other accidents which   
cause the rays of light to play in and  
through it with endless variety of      
effect4 ,it is the exact opposite to the
 clear sheet of ordinary window-glass4  
,to build up a decorative work 7and such
 a form of expression may be found very 
appropriate in this craft7 in coloured  
glass1 the pieces must be carefully     
selected1 the gradations of tint in a   
given piece being made use of to gain   
the result aimed at4 ,the leaded canes  

by which the whole is held together are 
made use of to aid the effect4 ,fine    
lines and hatchings are painted as with 
silver stain1 and in this respect only  
is there any approach to enamelling in  
the making of a coloured glass window4  
,the glass mosaic as above described is 
held in its place in the window by      
horizontal iron bars1 and the position  
of these is a matter of some importance1
 and is by no means overlooked by the   
artist in considering the effect of his 
finished work4 ,a well-designed coloured
 glass window is1 in fact1 like nothing 
else in the world but itself4 ,it is not
 only a mosaic2 it is not merely a      
picture4 ,it is the honest outcome of   
the use of glass for making a beautiful 
window which shall transmit light and   
not look like anything but what it is4  
,the effect of the work is obtained by  
the contrast of the rich colours of the 
pot-metal with the pearly tones of the  
clear glass4  ,we must now describe a   
painted window1 so that the distinction 

between a coloured and a painted window 
may be clearly made out4 ,quoting from  
the same book as before--,to paint glass
 the artist uses a plate of translucent 
glass1 and applies the design and       
colouring with vitrifiable colours4     
,these colours1 true enamels1 are the   
product of metallic oxides combined with
 vitreous compounds called fluxes4      
,through the medium of these1 assisted  
by a strong heat1 the colouring matters 
are fixed upon the plate of glass4 ,in  
the painted window we are invited to    
forget that glass is being used4        
,shadows are obtained by loading the    
surface with enamel colours2 the fullest
 rotundity of modelling is aimed at2 the
 lead and iron so essentially necessary 
to the construction and safety of the   
window are concealed with extraordinary 
skill and ingenuity4 ,the spectator     
perceives a hole in the wall with a very
 indifferent picture in it--overdone in 
the high lights1 smoky and unpleasant in
 the shadows1 in no sense decorative4   

,we need concern ourselves no more with 
painted windows2 they are thoroughly    
false and unworthy of consideration4    
,of coloured or stained windows1 as they
 are more commonly called1 many are     
made1 mostly bad1 but there are amongst 
us a few who know how to make them well1
 and these are better than any made     
elsewhere in ,europe at this time4      
,,somers ,,clarke4  ,,footnotes3  #a    
,industrial ,arts1 ,historical          
,sketches1 p4 #aie1 published for the   
,committee of ,council on ,education4   
,chapman and ,hall4     ,,table ,,glass 
,few materials lend themselves more     
readily to the skill of the craftsman   
than glass4 ,the fluid or viscous       
condition of the metal as it comes from 
the pot1 the way in which it is shaped  
by the breath of the craftsman1 and by  
his skill in making use of centrifugal  
force1 these and many other things too  
numerous to mention are all manifested  
in the triumphs of the ,venetian        
glass-blower4 ,at the first glance we   

see that the vessel he has made is of a 
material once liquid4 ,he takes the     
fullest advantage of the conditions     
under which he works1 and the result is 
a beautiful thing which can be produced 
in but one way4  ,for many centuries the
 old methods were followed1 but with the
 power to produce the metal1 or glass of
 extreme purity and transparency1 came  
the desire to leave the old paths1 and  
produce work in imitation of crystal4   
,the wheel came into play1 and cut and  
engraved glass became general4 ,at first
 there was nothing but a genuine advance
 or variation on the old modes4  ,the   
specimens of clear glass made at the end
 of the seventeenth and beginning of the
 eighteenth centuries are well designed 
to suit the capabilities of the         
material4 ,the form given to the liquid 
metal by the craftsman's skill is still 
manifest1 its delicate transparency     
accentuated here and there by cutting   
the surface into small facets1 or       
engraving upon it graceful designs2 but 

as skill increased so taste degraded4   
,the graceful outlines and natural      
curves of the old workers gave place to 
distortions of line but too common in   
all decorative works of the period4 ,a  
little later and the material was       
produced in mere lumps1 cut and         
tormented into a thousand surfaces1     
suggesting that the work was made from  
the solid1 as1 in part1 it was4 ,this   
miserable stuff reached its climax in   
the early years of the present reign4   
,since then a great reaction has taken  
place4 ,for example1 the old decanter1 a
 massive lump of misshapen material     
better suited to the purpose of braining
 a burglar than decorating a table1 has 
given place to a light and gracefully   
formed vessel1 covered in many cases    
with well-designed surface engraving1   
and thoroughly suited both to the uses  
it is intended to fulfil and the        
material of which it is made4 ,and not  
only so1 but a distinct variation and   
development upon the old types has been 

made4 ,the works produced have not been 
merely copies1 but they have their own  
character4 ,it is not necessary to      
describe the craft of the glass-blower4 
,it is sufficient to say that he deals  
with a material which1 when it comes to 
his hands1 is a liquid1 solidifying     
rapidly on exposure to the air2 that    
there is hardly a limit to the delicacy 
of the film that can be made2 and1 in   
addition to using a material of one     
colour1 different colours can be laid   
one over the other1 the outer ones being
 afterwards cut through by the wheel1   
leaving a pattern in one colour on a    
ground of another4  ,there has developed
 itself of late an unfortunate tendency 
to stray from the path of improvement1#a
 but a due consideration on the part    
both of the purchaser and of the        
craftsman of how the material should be 
used will result1 it may be hoped1 in   
farther advances on the right road4     
,,somers ,,clarke4   ,,footnotes3  #a   
,novelty rather than improvement is the 

rock on which our craftsmen are but too 
often wrecked4     ,,printing           
,printing1 in the only sense with which 
we are at present concerned1 differs    
from most if not from all the arts and  
crafts represented in the ,exhibition in
 being comparatively modern4 ,for       
although the ,chinese took impressions  
from wood blocks engraved in relief for 
centuries before the wood-cutters of the
 ,netherlands1 by a similar process1    
produced the block books1 which were the
 immediate predecessors of the true     
printed book1 the invention of movable  
metal letters in the middle of the      
fifteenth century may justly be         
considered as the invention of the art  
of printing4 ,and it is worth mention in
 passing that1 as an example of fine    
typography1 the earliest book printed   
with movable types1 the ,gutenberg1 or  
forty-two line ,bible of about #adee1   
has never been surpassed4  ,printing1   
then1 for our purpose1 may be considered
 as the art of making books by means of 

movable types4 ,now1 as all books not   
primarily intended as picture-books     
consist principally of types composed to
 form letterpress1 it is of the first   
importance that the letter used should  
be fine in form2 especially as no more  
time is occupied1 or cost incurred1 in  
casting1 setting1 or printing beautiful 
letters than in the same operations with
 ugly ones4 ,and it was a matter of     
course that in the ,middle ,ages1 when  
the craftsmen took care that beautiful  
form should always be a part of their   
productions whatever they were1 the     
forms of printed letters should be      
beautiful1 and that their arrangement on
 the page should be reasonable and a    
help to the shapeliness of the letters  
themselves4 ,the ,middle ,ages brought  
caligraphy to perfection1 and it was    
natural therefore that the forms of     
printed letters should follow more or   
less closely those of the written       
character1 and they followed them very  
closely4 ,the first books were printed  

in black letter1 i4e4 the letter which  
was a ,gothic development of the ancient
 ,roman character1 and which developed  
more completely and satisfactorily on   
the side of the lower-case than the     
capital letters2 the lower-case being in
 fact invented in the early ,middle     
,ages4 ,the earliest book printed with  
movable type1 the aforesaid ,gutenberg  
,bible1 is printed in letters which are 
an exact imitation of the more formal   
ecclesiastical writing which obtained at
 that time2 this has since been called  
missal type1 and was in fact the kind of
 letter used in the many splendid       
missals1 psalters1 etc41 produced by    
printing in the fifteenth century4 ,but 
the first ,bible actually dated 7which  
also was printed at ,maintz by ,peter   
,schoeffer in the year #adfb7 imitates a
 much freer hand1 simpler1 rounder1 and 
less spiky1 and therefore far pleasanter
 and easier to read4 ,on the whole the  
type of this book may be considered the 
ne-plus-ultra of ,gothic type1          

especially as regards the lower-case    
letters2 and type very similar was used 
during the next fifteen or twenty years 
not only by ,schoeffer1 but by printers 
in ,strasburg1 ,basle1 ,paris1 ,lubeck1 
and other cities4 ,but though on the    
whole1 except in ,italy1 ,gothic letter 
was most often used1 a very few years   
saw the birth of ,roman character not   
only in ,italy1 but in ,germany and     
,france4 ,in #adfe ,sweynheim and       
,pannartz began printing in the         
monastery of ,subiaco near ,rome1 and   
used an exceedingly beautiful type1     
which is indeed to look at a transition 
between ,gothic and ,roman1 but which   
must certainly have come from the study 
of the twelfth or even the eleventh     
century ,,mss4 ,they printed very few   
books in this type1 three only2 but in  
their very first books in ,rome1        
beginning with the year #adfh1 they     
discarded this for a more completely    
,roman and far less beautiful letter4   
,but about the same year ,mentelin at   

,strasburg began to print in a type     
which is distinctly ,roman2 and the next
 year ,gunther ,zeiner at ,augsburg     
followed suit2 while in #adgj at ,paris 
,udalric ,gering and his associates     
turned out the first books printed in   
,france1 also in ,roman character4 ,the 
,roman type of all these printers is    
similar in character1 and is very simple
 and legible1 and unaffectedly designed 
for use2 but it is by no means without  
beauty4 ,it must be said that it is in  
no way like the transition type of      
,subiaco1 and though more ,roman than   
that1 yet scarcely more like the        
complete ,roman type of the earliest    
printers of ,rome4  ,a further          
development of the ,roman letter took   
place at ,venice4 ,john of ,spires and  
his brother ,vindelin1 followed by      
,nicholas ,jenson1 began to print in    
that city1 #adfi1 #adgj2 their type is  
on the lines of the ,german and ,french 
rather than of the ,roman printers4 ,of 
,jenson it must be said that he carried 

the development of ,roman type as far as
 it can go3 his letter is admirably     
clear and regular1 but at least as      
beautiful as any other ,roman type4     
,after his death in the fourteen        
eighties1 or at least by #adij1 printing
 in ,venice had declined very much2 and 
though the famous family of ,aldus      
restored its technical excellence1      
rejecting battered letters1 and paying  
great attention to the press work or    
actual process of printing1 yet their   
type is artistically on a much lower    
level than ,jenson's1 and in fact they  
must be considered to have ended the age
 of fine printing in ,italy4  ,jenson1  
however1 had many contemporaries who    
used beautiful type1 some of which--as1 
e4g41 that of ,jacobus ,rubeus or       
,jacques le ,rouge--is scarcely         
distinguishable from his4 ,it was these 
great ,venetian printers1 together with 
their brethren of ,rome1 ,milan1 ,parma1
 and one or two other cities1 who       
produced the splendid editions of the   

,classics1 which are one of the great   
glories of the printer's art1 and are   
worthy representatives of the eager     
enthusiasm for the revived learning of  
that epoch4 ,by far the greater part of 
these ,italian printers1 it should be   
mentioned1 were ,germans or ,frenchmen1 
working under the influence of ,italian 
opinion and aims4  ,it must be          
understood that through the whole of the
 fifteenth and the first quarter of the 
sixteenth centuries the ,roman letter   
was used side by side with the ,gothic4 
,even in ,italy most of the theological 
and law books were printed in ,gothic   
letter1 which was generally more        
formally ,gothic than the printing of   
the ,german workmen1 many of whose      
types1 indeed1 like that of the ,subiaco
 works1 are of a transitional character4
 ,this was notably the case with the    
early works printed at ,ulm1 and in a   
somewhat lesser degree at ,augsburg4 ,in
 fact ,gunther ,zeiner's first type     
7afterwards used by ,schussler7 is      

remarkably like the type of the         
before-mentioned ,subiaco books4  ,in   
the ,low ,countries and ,cologne1 which 
were very fertile of printed books1     
,gothic was the favourite4 ,the         
characteristic ,dutch type1 as          
represented by the excellent printer    
,gerard ,leew1 is very pronounced and   
uncompromising ,gothic4 ,this type was  
introduced into ,england by ,wynkyn de  
,worde1 ,caxton's successor1 and was    
used there with very little variation   
all through the sixteenth and           
seventeenth centuries1 and indeed into  
the eighteenth4 ,most of ,caxton's own  
types are of an earlier character1      
though they also much resemble ,flemish 
or ,cologne letter4 ,after the end of   
the fifteenth century the degradation of
 printing1 especially in ,germany and   
,italy1 went on apace2 and by the end of
 the sixteenth century there was no     
really beautiful printing done3 the     
best1 mostly ,french or ,low-,country1  
was neat and clear1 but without any     

distinction2 the worst1 which perhaps   
was the ,english1 was a terrible        
falling-off from the work of the earlier
 presses2 and things got worse and worse
 through the whole of the seventeenth   
century1 so that in the eighteenth      
printing was very miserably performed4  
,in ,england about this time1 an attempt
 was made 7notably by ,caslon1 who      
started business in ,london as a        
type-founder in #agbj7 to improve the   
letter in form4 ,caslon's type is clear 
and neat1 and fairly well designed2 he  
seems to have taken the letter of the   
,elzevirs of the seventeenth century for
 his model3 type cast from his matrices 
is still in everyday use4  ,in spite1   
however1 of his praiseworthy efforts1   
printing had still one last degradation 
to undergo4 ,the seventeenth century    
founts were bad rather negatively than  
positively4 ,but for the beauty of the  
earlier work they might have seemed     
tolerable4 ,it was reserved for the     
founders of the later eighteenth century

 to produce letters which are positively
 ugly1 and which1 it may be added1 are  
dazzling and unpleasant to the eye owing
 to the clumsy thickening and vulgar    
thinning of the lines3 for the          
seventeenth-century letters are at least
 pure and simple in line4 ,the ,italian1
 ,bodoni1 and the ,frenchman1 ,didot1   
were the leaders in this luckless       
change1 though our own ,baskerville1 who
 was at work some years before them1    
went much on the same lines2 but his    
letters1 though uninteresting and poor1 
are not nearly so gross and vulgar as   
those of either the ,italian or the     
,frenchman4  ,with this change the art  
of printing touched bottom1 so far as   
fine printing is concerned1 though paper
 did not get to its worst till about    
#ahdj4 ,the ,chiswick press in #ahdd    
revived ,caslon's founts1 printing for  
,messrs4 ,longman the ,diary of ,lady   
,willoughby4 ,this experiment was so far
 successful that about #ahej ,messrs4   
,miller and ,richard of ,edinburgh were 

induced to cut punches for a series of  
old style letters4 ,these and similar   
founts1 cast by the above firm and      
others1 have now come into general use  
and are obviously a great improvement on
 the ordinary modern style in use in    
,england1 which is in fact the ,bodoni  
type a little reduced in ugliness4 ,the 
design of the letters of this modern old
 style leaves a good deal to be desired1
 and the whole effect is a little too   
gray1 owing to the thinness of the      
letters4 ,it must be remembered1        
however1 that most modern printing is   
done by machinery on soft paper1 and not
 by the hand press1 and these somewhat  
wiry letters are suitable for the       
machine process1 which would not do     
justice to letters of more generous     
design4  ,it is discouraging to note    
that the improvement of the last fifty  
years is almost wholly confined to      
,great ,britain4 ,here and there a book 
is printed in ,france or ,germany with  
some pretension to good taste1 but the  

general revival of the old forms has    
made no way in those countries4 ,italy  
is contentedly stagnant4 ,america has   
produced a good many showy books1 the   
typography1 paper1 and illustrations of 
which are1 however1 all wrong1 oddity   
rather than rational beauty and meaning 
being apparently the thing sought for   
both in the letters and the             
illustrations4  ,to say a few words on  
the principles of design in typography3 
it is obvious that legibility is the    
first thing to be aimed at in the forms 
of the letters2 this is best furthered  
by the avoidance of irrational swellings
 and spiky projections1 and by the using
 of careful purity of line4 ,even the   
,caslon type when enlarged shows great  
shortcomings in this respect3 the ends  
of many of the letters such as the t and
 e are hooked up in a vulgar and        
meaningless way1 instead of ending in   
the sharp and clear stroke of ,jenson's 
letters2 there is a grossness in the    
upper finishings of letters like the c1 

the a1 and so on1 an ugly pear-shaped   
swelling defacing the form of the       
letter3 in short1 it happens to this    
craft1 as to others1 that the           
utilitarian practice1 though it         
professes to avoid ornament1 still      
clings to a foolish1 because            
misunderstood conventionality1 deduced  
from what was once ornament1 and is by  
no means useful2 which title can only be
 claimed by artistic practice1 whether  
the art in it be conscious or           
unconscious4  ,in no characters is the  
contrast between the ugly and vulgar    
illegibility of the modern type and the 
elegance and legibility of the ancient  
more striking than in the ,arabic       
numerals4 ,in the old print each figure 
has its definite individuality1 and one 
cannot be mistaken for the other2 in    
reading the modern figures the eyes must
 be strained before the reader can have 
any reasonable assurance that he has a  
#e1 an #h1 or a #c before him1 unless   
the press work is of the best3 this is  

awkward if you have to read ,bradshaw's 
,guide in a hurry4  ,one of the         
differences between the fine type and   
the utilitarian must probably be put    
down to a misapprehension of a          
commercial necessity3 this is the       
narrowing of the modern letters4 ,most  
of ,jenson's letters are designed within
 a square1 the modern letters are       
narrowed by a third or thereabout2 but  
while this gain of space very much      
hampers the possibility of beauty of    
design1 it is not a real gain1 for the  
modern printer throws the gain away by  
putting inordinately wide spaces between
 his lines1 which1 probably1 the lateral
 compression of his letters renders     
necessary4 ,commercialism again compels 
the use of type too small in size to be 
comfortable reading3 the size known as  
,long primer ought to be the smallest   
size used in a book meant to be read4   
,here1 again1 if the practice of leading
 were retrenched larger type could be   
used without enhancing the price of a   

book4  ,one very important matter in    
setting up for fine printing is the     
spacing1 that is1 the lateral distance  
of words from one another4 ,in good     
printing the spaces between the words   
should be as near as possible equal 7it 
is impossible that they should be quite 
equal except in lines of poetry72 modern
 printers understand this1 but it is    
only practised in the very best         
establishments4 ,but another point which
 they should attend to they almost      
always disregard2 this is the tendency  
to the formation of ugly meandering     
white lines or rivers in the page1 a    
blemish which can be nearly1 though not 
wholly1 avoided by care and forethought1
 the desirable thing being the breaking 
of the line as in bonding masonry or    
brickwork1 thus3                 ,the   
general solidity of a page is much to be
 sought for3 modern printers generally  
overdo the whites in the spacing1 a     
defect probably forced on them by the   
characterless quality of the letters4   

,for where these are boldly and         
carefully designed1 and each letter is  
thoroughly individual in form1 the words
 may be set much closer together1       
without loss of clearness4 ,no definite 
rules1 however1 except the avoidance of 
rivers and excess of white1 can be given
 for the spacing1 which requires the    
constant exercise of judgment and taste 
on the part of the printer4  ,the       
position of the page on the paper should
 be considered if the book is to have a 
satisfactory look4 ,here once more the  
almost invariable modern practice is in 
opposition to a natural sense of        
proportion4 ,from the time when books   
first took their present shape till the 
end of the sixteenth century1 or indeed 
later1 the page so lay on the paper that
 there was more space allowed to the    
bottom and fore margin than to the top  
and back of the paper1 thus3            
------------------      xxxxx  xxxxx    
xxxxx  xxxxx         xxxxx  xxxxx       
xxxxx  xxxxx         xxxxx  xxxxx       

xxxxx  xxxxx                            
------------------  the unit of the book
 being looked on as the two pages       
forming an opening4 ,the modern printer1
 in the teeth of the evidence given by  
his own eyes1 considers the single page 
as the unit1 and prints the page in the 
middle of his paper--only nominally so1 
however1 in many cases1 since when he   
uses a headline he counts that in1 the  
result as measured by the eye being that
 the lower margin is less than the top  
one1 and that the whole opening has an  
upside-down look vertically1 and that   
laterally the page looks as if it were  
being driven off the paper4  ,the paper 
on which the printing is to be done is a
 necessary part of our subject3 of this 
it may be said that though there is some
 good paper made now1 it is never used  
except for very expensive books1        
although it would not materially        
increase the cost in all but the very   
cheapest4 ,the paper that is used for   
ordinary books is exceedingly bad even  

in this country1 but is beaten in the   
race for vileness by that made in       
,america1 which is the worst            
conceivable4 ,there seems to be no      
reason why ordinary paper should not be 
better made1 even allowing the necessity
 for a very low price2 but any          
improvement must be based on showing    
openly that the cheap article is cheap1 
e4g4 the cheap paper should not         
sacrifice toughness and durability to a 
smooth and white surface1 which should  
be indications of a delicacy of material
 and manufacture which would of         
necessity increase its cost4 ,one       
fruitful source of badness in paper is  
the habit that publishers have of eking 
out a thin volume by printing it on     
thick paper almost of the substance of  
cardboard1 a device which deceives      
nobody1 and makes a book very unpleasant
 to read4 ,on the whole1 a small book   
should be printed on paper which is as  
thin as may be without being            
transparent4 ,the paper used for        

printing the small highly ornamented    
,french service-books about the         
beginning of the sixteenth century is a 
model in this respect1 being thin1      
tough1 and opaque4 ,however1 the fact   
must not be blinked that machine-made   
paper cannot in the nature of things be 
made of so good a texture as that made  
by hand4  ,the ornamentation of printed 
books is too wide a subject to be dealt 
with fully here2 but one thing must be  
said on it4 ,the essential point to be  
remembered is that the ornament1        
whatever it is1 whether picture or      
pattern-work1 should form part of the   
page1 should be a part of the whole     
scheme of the book4 ,simple as this     
proposition is1 it is necessary to be   
stated1 because the modern practice is  
to disregard the relation between the   
printing and the ornament altogether1 so
 that if the two are helpful to one     
another it is a mere matter of accident4
 ,the due relation of letter to pictures
 and other ornament was thoroughly      

understood by the old printers2 so that 
even when the woodcuts are very rude    
indeed1 the proportions of the page     
still give pleasure by the sense of     
richness that the cuts and letter       
together convey4 ,when1 as is most often
 the case1 there is actual beauty in the
 cuts1 the books so ornamented are      
amongst the most delightful works of art
 that have ever been produced4          
,therefore1 granted well-designed type1 
due spacing of the lines and words1 and 
proper position of the page on the      
paper1 all books might be at least      
comely and well-looking3 and if to these
 good qualities were added really       
beautiful ornament and pictures1 printed
 books might once again illustrate to   
the full the position of our ,society   
that a work of utility might be also a  
work of art1 if we cared to make it so4 
,,william ,,morris4 ,,emery ,,walker4   
,,bookbinding   ,modern bookbinding     
dates from the application of printing  
to literature1 and in essentials has    

remained unchanged to the present day1  
though in those outward characteristics1
 which appeal to the touch and to the   
eye1 and constitute binding in an       
artistic sense1 it has gone through many
 changes for better and for worse1      
which1 in the opinion of the writer1    
have resulted1 in the main1 in the      
exaggeration of technical skill and in  
the death of artistic fancy4         99 
99       99       99       99  ,the     
first operation of the modern binder is 
to fold or refold the printed sheet into
 a section1 and to gather the sections1 
numbered or lettered at the foot1 in    
their proper order into a volume4  ,the 
sections are then taken1 one by one1    
placed face downwards in a frame1 and   
sewn through the back by a continuous   
thread running backwards and forwards   
along the backs of the sections to      
upright strings fastened at regular     
intervals in the sewing frame4 ,this    
process unites the sections to one      
another in series one after the other1  

and permits the perusal of the book by  
the simple turning of leaf after leaf   
upon the hinge formed by the thread and 
the back of the section4  ,a volume1 or 
series of sections1 so treated1 the ends
 of the string being properly secured1  
is essentially bound2 all that is       
subsequently done is done for the       
protection or for the decoration of the 
volume or of its cover4  ,the sides of a
 volume are protected by millboards1    
called shortly boards4 ,the boards      
themselves and the back are protected by
 a cover of leather1 vellum1 silk1      
linen1 or paper1 wholly or in part4 ,the
 edges of the volume are protected by   
the projection of the boards beyond them
 at top1 bottom1 and fore-edge1 and     
usually by being cut smooth and gilt4   
,a volume so bound and protected may be 
decorated by tooling or otherwise upon  
all the exposed surfaces 7upon the      
edges1 the sides1 and the back7 and may 
be designated by lettering upon the back
 or the sides4  ,the degree in which a  

bound book is protected and decorated   
will determine the class to which the   
binding will belong4  7#a7 ,in cloth    
binding1 the cover1 called a case1 is   
made apart from the book1 and is        
attached as a whole after the book is   
sewn4  7#b7 ,in half binding1 the cover 
is built up for and on each individual  
book1 but the boards of which it is     
composed are only partly covered with   
the leather or other material which     
covers the back4  7#c7 ,in whole        
binding1 the boards are wholly covered  
with leather or other durable material1 
which in half binding covers only a     
portion of them4  7#d7 ,in extra        
binding1 whole binding is advanced a    
stage higher by decoration4 ,of course  
in the various stages the details vary  
commensurately with the stage itself1   
being more or less elaborate as the     
stage is higher or lower in the scale4  
,the process of extra binding set out in
 more detail is as follows3--  7#a7     
,first the sections are folded or       

refolded4  7#b7 ,then                   
end-papers--sections of plain paper     
added at the beginning and end of the   
volume to protect the first and last1   
the most exposed1 sections of printed   
matter constituting the volume          
proper--having been prepared and added1 
the sections are beaten1 or rolled1 or  
pressed1 to make them solid4  ,the      
end-papers are usually added at a later 
stage1 and are pasted on1 and not sewn1 
but1 in the opinion of the writer1 it is
 better to add them at this stage1 and  
to sew them and not to paste them4  7#c7
 ,then the sections are sewn as already 
described4  7#d7 ,when sewn the volume  
passes into the hands of the forwarder1 
who  7#e7 ,makes the back1 beating it   
round1 if the back is to be round1 and  
backing it1 or making it fan out from   
the centre to right and left and project
 at the edges1 to form a kind of ridge  
to receive and to protect the edges of  
the boards which form the sides of the  
cover4  7#f7 ,the back having been made1

 the boards 7made of millboard1 and     
originally of wood7 for the protection  
of the sides are made and cut to shape1 
and attached by lacing into them the    
ends of the strings upon which the book 
has been sewn4  7#g7 ,the boards having 
been attached1 the edges of the book are
 now cut smooth and even at the top1    
bottom1 and fore-edge1 the edges of the 
boards being used as guides for the     
purpose4 ,in some cases the order is    
reversed1 and the edges are first cut   
and then the boards4  7#h7 ,the edges   
may now be coloured and gilt1 and if it 
is proposed to gauffer or to decorate   
them with tooling1 they are so treated  
at this stage4  7#i7 ,the head-band is  
next worked on at head and tail1 and the
 back lined with paper or leather or    
other material to keep the head-band in 
its place and to strengthen the back    
itself4  ,the book is now ready to be   
covered4  7#aj7 ,if the book is covered 
with leather1 the leather is carefully  
pared all round the edges and along the 

line of the back1 to make the edges     
sharp and the joints free4  7#aa7 ,the  
book having been covered1 the depression
 on the inside of the boards caused by  
the overlap of the leather is filled in 
with paper1 so that the entire inner    
surface may be smooth and even1 and     
ready to receive the first and last     
leaves of the end-papers1 which finally 
are cut to shape and pasted down1       
leaving the borders only uncovered4     
,sometimes1 however1 the first and last 
leaves of the end-papers are of silk1   
and the joint of leather1 in which case1
 of course1 the end-papers are not      
pasted down1 but the insides of the     
boards are independently treated1 and   
are covered1 sometimes with leather1    
sometimes with silk or other material4  
,the book is now forwarded1 and passes  
into the hands of the finisher to be    
tooled or decorated1 or finished as it  
is called4  ,the decoration in gold on  
the surface of leather is wrought out1  
bit by bit1 by means of small brass     

stamps called tools4  ,the steps of the 
process are shortly as follows3--  7#ab7
 ,the pattern having been settled and   
worked out on paper1 it is transferred  
to1 or marked out on1 the various       
surfaces to which it is to be applied4  
,each surface is then prepared in       
succession1 and1 if large1 bit by bit1  
to receive the gold4  7#ac7 ,first the  
leather is washed with water or with    
vinegar4  7#ad7 ,then the pattern is    
pencilled over with glaire 7white of egg
 beaten up and drained off71 or the     
surface is wholly washed with it4  7#ae7
 ,next it is smeared lightly with grease
 or oil4  7#af7 ,and1 finally1 the gold 
7gold leaf7 is applied by a pad of      
cotton wool1 or a flat thin brush called
 a tip4  7#ag7 ,the pattern1 visible    
through the gold1 is now reimpressed or 
worked with the tools heated to about   
the temperature of boiling water1 and   
the unimpressed or waste gold is removed
 by an oiled rag1 leaving the pattern in
 gold and the rest of the leather clear4

         99       99       99       99  
99  ,these several operations are1 in   
,england1 usually distributed among five
 classes of persons4  7#a7 ,the         
superintendent or person responsible for
 the whole work4  7#b7 ,the sewer1      
usually a woman1 who folds1 sews1 and   
makes the head-bands4  7#c7 ,the        
book-edge gilder1 who gilds the edges4  
,usually a craft apart4  7#d7 ,the      
forwarder1 who performs all the other   
operations leading up to the finishing4 
7#e7 ,the finisher1 who decorates and   
letters the volume after it is          
forwarded4  ,in ,paris the work is still
 further distributed1 a special workman 
7couvreur7 being employed to prepare the
 leather for covering and to cover4  ,in
 the opinion of the writer1 the work1 as
 a craft of beauty1 suffers1 as do the  
workmen1 from the allocation of         
different operations to different       
workmen4 ,the work should be conceived  
of as one1 and be wholly executed by one
 person1 or at most by two1 and         

especially should there be no           
distinction between finisher and        
forwarder1 between executant and artist4
         99       99       99       99  
99  ,the following technical names may  
serve to call attention to the principal
 features of a bound book4  7#a7 ,the   
back1 the posterior edge of the volume  
upon which at the present time the title
 is usually placed4 ,formerly it was    
placed on the fore-edge or side4  ,the  
back may be 7a7 convex or concave or    
flat2 7b7 marked horizontally with      
bands1 or smooth from head to tail2 7c7 
tight1 the leather or other covering    
adhering to the back itself1 or hollow1 
the leather or other covering not so    
adhering2 and 7d7 stiff or flexible4    
7#b7 ,edges1 the three other edges of   
the book1--the top1 the bottom1 and the 
fore-edge4  7#c7 ,bands1 the cords upon 
which the book is sewn1 and which1 if   
not let in or embedded in the back1     
appear on it as parallel ridges4 ,the   
ridges are1 however1 usually artificial1

 the real bands being let in to         
facilitate the sewing1 and their places 
supplied by thin slips of leather cut to
 resemble them and glued on the back4   
,this process also enables the forwarder
 to give great sharpness and finish to  
this part of his work1 if he think it   
worth while4  7#d7 ,between-bands1 the  
space between the bands4  7#e7 ,head and
 tail1 the top and bottom of the back4  
7#f7 ,the head-band and head-cap1 the   
fillet of silk worked in buttonhole     
stitch at the head and tail1 and the cap
 or cover of leather over it4 ,the      
head-band had its origin probably in the
 desire to strengthen the back and to   
resist the strain when a book is pulled 
by head or tail from the shelf4  7#g7   
,boards1 the sides of the cover1 stiff  
or limp1 thick or thin1 in all degrees4 
7#h7 ,squares1 the projection of the    
boards beyond the edges of the book4    
,these may be shallow or deep in all    
degrees1 limited only by the purpose    
they have to fulfil and the danger they 

will themselves be exposed to if too    
deep4  7#i7 ,borders1 the overlaps of   
leather on the insides of the boards4   
7#aj7 ,proof1 the rough edges of leaves 
left uncut in cutting the edges to show 
where the original margin was1 and to   
prove that the cutting has not been too 
severe4  ,the life of bookbinding is in 
the dainty mutation of its mutable      
elements--back1 bands1 boards1 squares1 
decoration4 ,these elements admit of    
almost endless variation1 singly and in 
combination1 in kind and in degree4 ,in 
fact1 however1 they are now almost      
always uniformly treated or worked up to
 one type or set of types4 ,this is the 
death of bookbinding as a craft of      
beauty4  ,the finish1 moreover1 or      
execution1 has outrun invention1 and is 
the great characteristic of modern      
bookbinding4 ,this again1 the inversion 
of the due order1 is1 in the opinion of 
the writer1 but as the carving on the   
tomb of a dead art1 and itself dead4  ,a
 well-bound beautiful book is neither of

 one type1 nor finished so that its     
highest praise is that had it been made 
by a machine it could not have been made
 better4 ,it is individual2 it is       
instinct with the hand of him who made  
it2 it is pleasant to feel1 to handle1  
and to see2 it is the original work of  
an original mind working in freedom     
simultaneously with hand and heart and  
brain to produce a thing of use1 which  
all time shall agree ever more and more 
also to call a thing of beauty4  ,t4 ,j4
 ,,cobden-,,sanderson4     ,,of ,,mural 
,,painting   ,there seems no precise    
reason why the subject of this note     
should differ much from that of ,mr4    
,crane's article on ,decorative         
,painting 7pp4 #ci-ea74 ,mural ,painting
 need not1 as such1 consist of any one  
sort of painting more than another4     
,decorative ,painting does seem1 on the 
other hand1 to indicate a certain desire
 or undertaking to render the object    
painted more pleasant to the beholder's 
eye4  ,from long habit1 however1 chiefly

 induced by the constant practice of the
 ,italians of modern times1 ,mural      
,painting has come to be looked upon as 
figure painting 7in fact1 the human     
figure exclusively7 on walls--and no    
other sort of objects can sufficiently  
impart that dignity to a building which 
it seems to crave for4 ,i can think of  
no valid reason why a set of rooms1 or  
walls1 should not be decorated with     
animals in lieu of humans1 as the late  
,mr4 ,trelawney used to call us3 one    
wall to be devoted to monkeys1 a second 
to be filled in with tigers1 a third to 
be given up to horses1 etc4 etc4 ,i know
 men in ,england1 and1 ,i believe1 some 
artists1 who would be delighted with the
 substitution4 ,but ,i hope the general 
sense of the public would be set against
 such subjects1 and the lowering effects
 of them on every one1 and the kind of  
humiliation we should feel at knowing   
them to exist4  ,i have been informed   
that in ,berlin the walls of the rooms  
where the antique statues are kept have 

been painted with mixed subjects        
representing antique buildings with     
antique ,greek views and landscapes1 to 
back up1 as it were1 the statues4 ,i    
must own it1 that without having seen   
the decoration in question1 ,i feel     
filled with extreme aversion for the    
plan4 ,the more so when one considers   
the extreme unlikelihood of the same    
being made tolerable in colour at       
,berlin4 ,i have also been told that    
some painters in the ,north of ,england1
 bitten with a desire to decorate       
buildings1 have painted one set of rooms
 with landscapes4 ,this1 without the    
least knowledge of the works in         
question1 as landscapes1 ,i must allow  
,i regret4 ,there is1 it seems to me1 an
 unbridgeable chasm1 not to be passed1  
between landscape art and the decoration
 of walls2 for the very essence of the  
landscape art is distance1 whereas the  
very essence of the wall-picture is its 
solidity1 or1 at least1 its not         
appearing to be a hole in the wall4 ,on 

the matter of subjects fit for painting 
on walls ,i may have a few words to say 
farther on in this paper1 but first ,i  
had better set down what little ,i have 
to advise with regard to the material   
and mode of executing4  ,the            
old-fashioned ,italian or ,buon ,fresco 
,i look upon as practically given up in 
this country1 and every other ,european 
country that has not a climate to equal 
,italy4 ,if the climate of ,paris will  
not admit of this process1 how much less
 is our damp1 foggy1 changeable         
atmosphere likely to put up with it for 
many years6 ,it is true that the        
frescoes of ,william ,dyce have lasted  
for some thirty years without apparent  
damage2 but also it is the case that the
 ,queen's ,robing ,rooms in the ,house  
of ,lords have been specially guarded   
against atmospheric changes of          
temperature4 ,next to real fresco1 there
 has been in repute for a time the      
waterglass process1 in which ,daniel    
,maclise's great paintings have been    

executed4 ,i see no precise reason why  
these noble works should not last1 and  
defy climate for many1 many long years  
yet2 though from want of experience he  
very much endangered this durability    
through the too lavish application of   
the medium4 ,but in ,germany1 the       
country of waterglass1 the process is   
already in bad repute4 ,the third       
alternative1 spirit fresco1 or what we  
in ,england claim as the ,gambier-,parry
 process1 has1 ,i understand1 superseded
 it4 ,i have myself painted in this     
system seven works on the walls of the  
,manchester ,town ,hall1 and have had no
 reason to complain of their behaviour4 
,since beginning the series1 however1 a 
fresh change has come over the fortunes 
of mural art in the fact that1 in       
,france 7what most strongly recommends  
itself to common sense71 the mural      
painters have now taken to painting on  
canvas1 which is afterwards cemented1 or
 what the ,french call maronflee1 on to 
the wall4 ,white-lead and oil1 with a   

very small admixture of rosin melted in 
oil1 are the ingredients used4 ,it is   
laid on cold and plentifully on the wall
 and on the back of the picture1 and the
 painting pressed down with a cloth or  
handkerchief3 nothing further being     
required1 saving to guard the edges of  
the canvas from curling up before the   
white-lead has had time to harden4 ,the 
advantage of this process of cementing  
lies in the fact that with each         
succeeding year it must become harder   
and more like stone in its consistency4 
,the canvases may be prepared as if for 
oil painting1 and painted with common   
oil-colours flatted 7or matted7         
afterwards by gum-elemi and spike-oil4  
,or the canvas may be prepared with the 
,gambier-,parry colour and painted in   
that very mat medium4 ,the canvases     
should if possible be fine in texture1  
as better adapted for adhering to the   
wall4 ,the advantage of this process is 
that1 should at any time1 through       
neglect1 damp invade the wall1 and the  

canvas show a tendency to get loose1 it 
would be easy to replace it2 or the     
canvas might be altogether detached from
 the wall and strained as a picture4  ,i
 must now return to the choice of       
subject1 a matter of much importance1   
but on which it is difficult to give    
advice4 ,one thing1 however1 may be     
urged as a rule1 and that is1 that very 
dark or ,rembrandtesque subjects are    
particularly unsuited for mural         
paintings4 ,i cannot go into the reasons
 for this1 but a slight experiment ought
 to satisfy the painter1 having once    
heard the principle enunciated3 that is1
 if he belong to the class likely to    
succeed at such work4  ,another sine qua
 non as to subject is that the painter  
himself must be allowed to select it4   
,it is true that certain limitations may
 be accorded--for instance1 the artist  
may be required to select a subject with
 certain tendencies in it--but the      
actual invention of the subject and     
working out of it must be his4 ,in fact1

 the painter himself is the only judge  
of what he is likely to carry out well  
and of the subjects that are paintable4 
,then much depends on whom the works are
 for2 if for the general public1 and    
carried out with their money1 care 7it  
seems to me but fair7 should be taken   
that the subjects are such as they can  
understand and take interest in4 ,if1 on
 the contrary1 you are painting for     
highly-cultured people with a turn for  
,greek myths1 it is quite another thing2
 then1 such a subject as ,eros          
reproaching his brother ,anteros for his
 coldness might be one offering         
opportunities for shades of sentiment   
suited to the givers of the commissions 
concerned4 ,but for such as have not    
been trained to entertain these         
refinements1 downright facts1 either in 
history or in sociology1 are calculated 
most to excite the imagination4 ,it is  
not always necessary for the spectator  
to be exact in his conclusions4 ,i      
remember once at ,manchester1 the       

members of a ,young ,men's ,christian   
,association had come to a meeting in   
the great hall4 ,some of them were there
 too soon1 and so were looking round the
 room4 ,one observed3 ,what's this      
about8 ,his friend answered3 ,fallen off
 a ladder1 the police are running him   
in6 ,well1 this was not quite correct4  
,a wounded young ,danish chieftain was  
being hurried out of ,manchester on his 
comrade's shoulders1 with a view to save
 his life4 ,the ,phrygian helmets of the
 ,danes indicated neither firemen nor   
policemen2 but the idea was one of      
misfortune1 and care bestowed on it--and
 did as well1 and showed sympathy in a  
somewhat uncultivated1 though           
well-intentioned1 class of              
,lancastrians4 ,on the other hand1 ,i   
have noticed that subjects that interest
 infallibly all classes1 educated or    
illiterate1 are religious subjects4 ,it 
is not a question of piety--but comes   
from the simple breadth of poetry and   
humanity usually involved in this class 

of subject4 ,that the amount of         
religiosity in either spectator or      
producer has nothing to do with the     
feeling is clear if we consider4  ,the  
,spaniards are one of the most religious
 peoples ever known1 and yet their art  
is singularly deficient in this quality4
 ,were there ever two great painters as 
wanting in the sacred feeling as        
,velasquez and ,murillo8 and yet1 in all
 probability1 they were more religious  
than ourselves4  ,it only remains for me
 to point to the fact that mural        
painting1 when it has been practised    
jointly by those who were at the same   
time easel-painters1 has invariably     
raised those painters to far higher     
flights and instances of style than they
 seem capable of in the smaller path4   
,take the examples left us1 say by      
,raphael and ,michel ,angelo1 or some of
 the earlier masters1 such as the       
,fulminati of ,signorelli1 compared with
 his specimens in our ,national         
,gallery2 or the works left on walls by 

even less favoured artists1 such as     
,domenichino and ,andrea del ,sarto1 or 
the ,french de la ,roche's ,hemicycle1  
or our own great painters ,dyce and     
,maclise's frescoes2 the same rise in   
style1 the same improvement1 is         
everywhere to be noticed1 both in       
drawing1 in colour1 and in              
flesh-painting4  ,f4 ,,madox ,,brown4   
,,of ,,sgraffito ,,work   ,the ,italian 
words ,graffiato1 ,sgraffiato1 or       
,sgraffito1 mean ,scratched1 and        
scratched work is the oldest form of    
graphic expression and surface          
decoration used by man4  ,the term      
,sgraffito is1 however1 specially used  
to denote decoration scratched or       
incised upon plaster or potter's clay   
while still soft1 and for beauty of     
effect depends either solely upon lines 
thus incised according to design1 with  
the resulting contrast of surfaces1 or  
partly upon such lines and contrast1 and
 partly upon an under-coat of colour    
revealed by the incisions2 while1 again1

 the means at disposal may be increased 
by varying the colours of the under-coat
 in accordance with the design4  ,of the
 potter's sgraffito ,i have no          
experience1 but it is my present purpose
 briefly and practically to examine the 
method1 special aptitudes1 and          
limitations of polychrome sgraffito as  
applied to the plasterer's craft4       
,first1 then1 as to method4 ,given the  
wall intended to be treated3 granted the
 completion of the scheme of decoration1
 the cartoons having been executed in   
several colours and the outlines firmly 
pricked1 and further1 all things being  
ready for beginning work4 ,hack off any 
existing plaster from the wall3 when    
bare1 rake and sweep out the joints     
thoroughly3 when clean1 give the wall as
 much water as it will drink3 lay the   
coarse coat1 leaving the face rough in  
order to make a good key for the next   
coat3 when sufficiently set1 fix your   
cartoon in its destined position with   
slate nails3 pounce through the pricked 

outlines3 remove the cartoon3 replace   
the nails in the register holes3 mark in
 with a brush in white oil paint the    
spaces for the different colours as     
shown in the cartoon1 and pounced in    
outline on the coarse coat1 placing the 
letters ,b1 ,r1 ,y1 etc41 as the case   
may be1 in order to show the plasterer  
where to lay the different              
colours--,black1 ,red1 ,yellow1 etc43   
give the wall as much water as it will  
drink3 lay the colour coat in accordance
 with the lettered spaces on the coarse 
coat1 taking care not to displace the   
register nails1 and leaving plenty of   
key for the final surface coat4  ,in    
laying the colour coat1 calculate how   
much of the colour surface it may be    
advisable to get on the wall1 as the    
same duration of time should be         
maintained throughout the work between  
the laying of the colour coat and the   
following on with the final surface     
coat--for this reason1 if the colour    
coat sets hard before the final coat is 

laid1 it will not be possible to scrape 
up the colour to its full strength      
wherever it may be revealed by incision 
of the design4 ,when sufficiently set1  
i4e4 in about #bd hours1 follow on with 
the final surface coat1 only laying as  
much as can be cut and cleaned up in a  
day3 when this is sufficiently steady1  
fix up the cartoon in its registered    
position3 pounce through the pricked    
outlines3 remove the cartoon and cut the
 design in the surface coat before it   
sets3 then1 if your register is correct1
 you will cut through to different      
colours according to the design1 and in 
the course of a few days the work should
 set as hard and homogeneous as stone1  
and as damp-proof as the nature of      
things permits4  ,the three coats above 
referred to may be gauged as follows3-- 
,coarse ,coat4--#b or #c of sharp clean 
sand to #a of ,portland1 to be laid     
about #c_/d inch in thickness4 ,this    
coat is to promote an even suction and  
to keep back damp4  ,colour ,coat4--#a  

of colour to #a-a_/b of old ,portland1  
to be laid about #a_/h inch in          
thickness4 ,specially prepared distemper
 colours should be used1 and amongst    
such may be mentioned golden ochre1     
,turkey red1 ,indian red1 manganese     
black1 lime blue1 and umber4  ,final    
,surface ,coat4--,aberthaw lime and     
selenitic cement1 both sifted through a 
fine sieve--the proportions of the gauge
 depend upon the heat of the lime3 or1  
,parian cement sifted as                
above--air-slaked for #bd hours1 and    
gauged with water coloured with ochre1  
so as to give a creamy tone when the    
plaster dries out3 or1 #c of selenitic  
cement to #b of silver sand1 both sifted
 as above--this may be used for out-door
 work4  ,individual taste and experience
 must decide as to the thickness of the 
final coat1 but if laid between #a_/h   
and #a_/ab inch1 and the lines cut with 
slanting edges1 a side light gives      
emphasis to the finished result1 making 
the outlines tell alternately as they   

take the light or cast a shadow4        
,plasterers' small tools of various     
kinds and knife-blades fixed in tool    
handles will be found suited to the     
simple craft of cutting and clearing off
 the final surface coat2 but as to this 
a craftsman finds his own tools by      
experience1 and indeed by the same      
acquired perception must be interpreted 
all the foregoing directions1 and       
specially that ambiguous word1 dear to  
the writers of recipes1--,sufficient4   
,thus far method4 ,now1 as to special   
aptitudes and limitations4 ,sgraffito   
work may claim a special aptitude for   
design whose centre of aim is line4 ,it 
has no beauty of material like glass1 no
 mystery of surface like mosaic1 no     
pre-eminence of subtly-woven tone and   
colour like tapestry2 yet it gives freer
 play to line than any of these         
mentioned fields of design1 and a       
cartoon for sgraffito can be executed in
 facsimile1 undeviated by warp and woof1
 and unchecked by angular tesserae or   

lead lines4 ,true1 hardness of design   
may easily result from this aptitude1   
indeed is to a certain extent inherent  
to the method under examination1 but in 
overcoming this danger and in making the
 most of this aptitude is the artist    
discovered4  ,sgraffito from its very   
nature asserts the wall2 that is1       
preserves the solid appearance of the   
building which it is intended to        
decorate4 ,the decoration is in the wall
 rather than on the wall4 ,it seems to  
be organic4 ,the inner surface of the   
actual wall changes colour in puzzling  
but orderly sequence1 as the upper      
surface passes into expressive lines and
 spaces1 delivers its simple message1   
and then relapses into silence2 but     
whether incised with intricate design1  
or left in plain relieving spaces1 the  
wall receives no further treatment1 the 
marks of float1 trowel1 and scraper     
remain1 and combine to make a natural   
surface4  ,it compels the work to be    
executed in situ4 ,the studio must be   

exchanged for the scaffold1 and the     
result should justify the inconvenience4
 ,however carefully the scheme of       
decoration may be designed1 slight yet  
important modifications and             
readjustments will probably be found    
necessary in the transfer from cartoon  
to wall2 and though the ascent of the   
scaffold may seem an indignity to those 
who prefer to suffer vicariously in the 
execution of their works1 and though we 
of the nineteenth know1 as ,cennini of  
the fifteenth century knew1 that        
painting pictures is the proper         
employment of a gentleman1 and with     
velvet on his back he may paint what he 
pleases1 still the fact remains1 that if
 decoration is to attain that inevitable
 fitness for its place which is the     
fulfilment of design1 this proper       
employment of a gentleman must be       
postponed1 and velvet exchanged for     
blouse4  ,it compels a quick1 sure      
manner of work2 and this quickness of   
execution1 due to the setting nature of 

the final coat1 and to the consequent   
necessity of working against time1 gives
 an appearance of strenuous ease to the 
firm incisions and spaces by which the  
design is expressed1 and a living energy
 of line to the whole4 ,again1 the      
setting nature of the colour coat       
suggests1 and naturally lends itself to1
 an occasional addition in the shape of 
mosaic to the means at disposal1 and a  
little glitter here and there will be   
found to go a long way in giving points 
of emphasis and play to large surfaces4 
,it compels the artist to adopt a       
limited colour scheme--a limitation1 and
 yet one which may almost be welcomed as
 an aptitude1 for of colours in         
decorative work multiplication may be   
said to be a vexation4  ,finally1 the   
limitations of sgraffito as a method of 
expression are the same as those of all 
incised or line work4 ,by it you can    
express ideas and suggest life1 but you 
cannot realise1--cannot imitate the     
natural objects on which your graphic   

language is founded4 ,the means at      
disposal are too scanty4 ,item3 white   
lines and spaces relieved against and   
slightly raised on a coloured ground2   
coloured lines and spaces slightly sunk 
on a white surface2 intricacy relieved  
by simplicity of line1 and again either 
relieved by plain spaces of coloured    
ground or white surface4 ,indeed they   
are simple means4 ,yet line still       
remains the readiest manner of graphic  
expression2 and if in the strength of   
limitation our past masters of the arts 
and crafts have had power to free1      
arouse1 dilate by their simple record of
 hand and soul1 we also should be able  
to bring forth new achievement from old 
method1 and to suggest the life and     
express the ideas which sway the latter 
years of our own century4  ,,heywood    
,,sumner4     ,,of ,,stucco ,,and       
,,gesso   ,few things are more          
disheartening to the pursuer of plastic 
art than finding that1 when he has      
carried his own labour to a certain     

point1 he has to entrust it to another  
in order to render it permanent and     
useful4 ,if he models in clay and wishes
 it burnt into terra cotta1 the         
shrinkage and risk in firing1 and the   
danger in transport to the kiln1 are a  
nightmare to him4 ,if he wishes it cast 
in plaster1 the distortion by           
waste-moulding1 or the cost of          
piece-moulding1 are serious grievances  
to him1 considering that after all he   
has but a friable result2 and though    
this latter objection is minimised by   
,mrs4 ,laxton ,clark's ingenious process
 of indurating plaster1 yet ,i am       
persuaded that most modellers would     
prefer to complete their work in some   
permanent form with their own hands4    
,having this desirable end in view1 ,i  
wish to draw their attention to some    
disused processes which once largely    
prevailed1 by which the artist is       
enabled to finish1 and render durable   
and vendible1 his work1 without having  
to part with it or pay for another's    

aid4  ,these old processes are modelling
 in ,stucco-duro and ,gesso4            
,stucco-duro1 although of very ancient  
practice1 is now practically a lost art4
 ,the materials required are simply     
well-burnt and slacked lime1 a little   
fine sand1 and some finely-ground       
unburnt lime-stone or white marble dust4
 ,these are well tempered together with 
water and beaten up with sticks until a 
good workable paste results4 ,in fact1  
the preparation of the materials is     
exactly the same as that described by   
,vitruvius1 who recommends that the     
fragments of marble be sifted into three
 degrees of fineness1 using the coarser 
for the rough bossage1 the medium for   
the general modelling1 and the finest   
for the surface finish1 after which it  
can be polished with chalk and powdered 
lime if necessary4 ,indeed1 to so fine a
 surface can this material be brought1  
and so highly can it be polished1 that  
he mentions its use for mirrors4  ,the  
only caution that it is needful to give 

is to avoid working too quickly2 for1 as
 ,sir ,henry ,wooton1 ,king ,james's    
ambassador at ,venice1 who greatly      
advocated the use of stucco-duro1       
observed1 the stucco worker makes his   
figures by addition and the carver by   
subtraction1 and to avoid too great risk
 of the work cracking in drying1 these  
additions must be made slowly where the 
relief is great4 ,if the relief is very 
great1 or if a figure of large          
dimensions is essayed1 it may be needful
 even to delay the drying of the stucco1
 and the addition of a little stiff     
paste will insure this1 so that the work
 may be consecutively worked upon for   
many days4  ,from the remains of the    
stucco work of classic times left us1 we
 can realise how perfectly workable this
 material was2 and if you examine the   
plaster casts taken from some most      
delicate low-relief plaques in stucco   
exhumed some ten years ago near the     
,villa ,farnesina at ,rome1 or the      
rougher and readier fragments of        

stucco-duro itself from some            
,italo-,greek tombs1 both of which are  
to be seen in the ,south ,kensington    
,museum1 you will at once be convinced  
of the great applicability of the       
process4  ,with the decadence of classic
 art some portion of the process seems  
to have been lost1 and the use of       
pounded travertine was substituted for  
white marble2 but1 as the bassi-relievi 
of the early ,renaissance were mostly   
decorated with colour1 this was not     
important4 ,the ground colours seem     
generally to have been laid on whilst   
the stucco was wet1 as in fresco1 and   
the details heightened with tempera or  
encaustic colours1 sometimes with       
accessories enriched in gilt gesso 7of  
which hereafter74 ,many remains of these
 exist1 and in the ,nineteenth ,winter  
,exhibition of the ,royal ,academy there
 were no less than twelve very          
interesting examples of it exhibited1   
and in the ,south ,kensington ,museum   
are some few moderately good            

illustrations of it4  ,it was not1      
however1 until the sixteenth century    
that the old means of producing the     
highly-finished white stucchi were      
rediscovered1 and this revival of the   
art as an architectonic accessory is due
 to the exhumation of the baths of      
,titus under ,leo ,x4 ,raphael and      
,giovanni da ,udine were then so struck 
with the beauty of the stucco work thus 
exposed to view that its re-use was at  
once determined upon1 and the ,loggia of
 the ,vatican was the first result of   
many experiments1 though the re-invented
 process seems to have been precisely   
that described by ,vitruvius4           
,naturally1 the art of modelling in     
stucco at once became popular3 the      
patronage of it by the ,pope1 and the   
practice of it by the artists who worked
 for him1 gave it the highest sanction1 
and hardly a building of any            
architectural importance was erected in 
,italy during the sixteenth century that
 did not bear evidence of the artistic  

craft of the stuccatori4  ,there has    
just 7,autumn1 #ahhi7 arrived at the    
,south ,kensington ,museum a model of   
the central hall of the ,villa ,madama  
in ,rome1 thus decorated by ,giulio     
,romano and ,giovanni da ,udine1 which  
exemplifies the adaptability of the     
process2 and in this model ,cav4        
,mariani has employed stucco-duro for   
its execution1 showing to how high a    
pitch of finish this material is capable
 of being carried4 ,indeed1 it was used 
by goldsmiths for the models for their  
craft1 as being less liable to injury   
than wax1 yet capable of receiving      
equally delicate treatment2 and         
,benvenuto ,cellini modelled the        
celebrated button1 with that magnificent
 big diamond in the middle1 for the cope
 of ,pope ,clement1 with all its        
intricate detail1 in this material4 ,how
 minute this work of some six inches    
diameter was may be inferred from       
,cellini's own description of it4 ,above
 the diamond1 in the centre of the      

piece1 was shown ,god the ,father       
seated1 in the act of giving the        
benediction2 below were three children1 
who1 with their arms upraised1 were     
supporting the jewel4 ,one of them1 in  
the middle1 was in full relief1 the     
other two in half-relief4 ,all round ,i 
set a crowd of cherubs in divers        
attitudes4 ,a mantle undulated to the   
wind around the figure of the ,father1  
from the folds of which cherubs peeped  
out2 and there were many other ornaments
 besides1 which1 adds he1 and for once  
we may believe him1 made a very         
beautiful effect4 ,at the same time1    
figures larger than life1 indeed        
colossal figures1 were executed in it1  
and in our own country the ,italian     
artists brought over by our ,henry      
,,viii4 worked in that style for his    
vanished palace of ,nonsuch4 ,gradually1
 stucco-duro fell into disuse1 and      
coarse pargetry and modelled plaster    
ceilings became in later years its sole 
and degenerate descendants4  ,gesso is  

really a painter's art rather than a    
sculptor's1 and consists in impasto     
painting with a mixture of plaster of   
,paris or whiting in glue 7the          
composition with which the ground of his
 pictures is laid7 after roughly        
modelling the higher forms with tow or  
some fibrous material incorporated with 
the gesso2 but it is questionable if    
gesso is the best vehicle for any but   
the lowest relief4 ,by it the most      
subtle and delicate variation of surface
 can be obtained1 and the finest lines  
pencilled1 analogous1 in fact1 to the   
fine pate sur pate work in porcelain4   
,its chief use in early times was in the
 accessories of painting1 as the nimbi1 
attributes1 and jewellery of the        
personage represented1 and it was almost
 entirely used as a ground-work for     
gilding upon4 ,abundant illustration of 
this usage will be found in the pictures
 by the early ,italian masters in the   
,national ,gallery4 ,the retables of    
altars were largely decorated in this   

material1 a notable example being that  
still existing in ,westminster ,abbey4  
,many of the gorgeous accessories to the
 panoply of war in mediaeval times1 such
 as decorative shields and the lighter  
military accoutrements1 were thus       
ornamented in low relief1 and on the    
high-cruppered and high-peaked saddles  
it was abundantly displayed4 ,in the    
sixteenth-century work of ,germany it   
seems to have received an admixture of  
finely-pounded lithographic stone1 or   
hone stone1 by which it became of such  
hardness as to be taken for sculpture in
 these materials4 ,its chief use1       
however1 was for the decoration of the  
caskets and ornamental objects which    
make up the refinement of domestic life1
 and the base representative of it which
 figures on our picture-frames claims a 
noble ancestry4  ,its tenacity1 when    
well prepared1 is exceedingly great1 and
 ,i have used it on glass1 on polished  
marble1 on porcelain1 and such like     
non-absorbent surfaces1 from which it   

can scarcely be separated without       
destruction of its base4 ,indeed1 for   
miniature art1 gesso possesses          
innumerable advantages not presented by 
any other medium1 but it is hardly      
available for larger works4  ,time and  
space will not permit my entering more  
fully into these two forms of plastic   
art2 but seeing that we are annually    
receiving such large accessions to the  
numbers of our modellers1 and as1 of    
course1 it is not possible for all these
 to achieve success in1 or find a means 
of living by1 the art of sculpture in   
marble1 ,i have sought to indicate a    
home-art means by which1 at very        
moderate cost1 they can bring their     
labours in useful form before the world1
 and at the same time learn and live4   
,g4 ,t4 ,,robinson4     ,,of ,,cast     
,,iron   ,cast iron is nearly our       
humblest material1 and with associations
 less than all artistic1 for it has been
 almost hopelessly vulgarised in the    
present century1 so much so that ,mr4   

,ruskin1 with his fearless use of       
paradox to shock one into thought1 has  
laid it down that cast iron is an       
artistic solecism1 impossible for       
architectural service now1 or at any    
time4 ,and yet1 although we can never   
claim for iron the beauty of bronze1 it 
is in some degree a parallel material1  
and has been used with appreciation in  
many ways up to the beginning of this   
century4  ,iron was already known in    
,sussex at the coming of the ,romans4   
,throughout this county and ,kent1 in   
out-of-the-way farm-houses1 iron        
fire-backs to open hearths1 fine        
specimens of the founder's art1 are     
still in daily use as they have been for
 three hundred years or more4 ,some have
 ,gothic diapers and meanders of vine   
with heraldic badges and initials1 and  
are evidently cast from models made in  
the fifteenth century1 patterns that    
remained in stock and were cast from    
again and again4 ,others1 of the        
following centuries1 have coat-arms and 

supporters1 salamanders in the flames1  
figures1 a triton or centaur1 or even a 
scene1 the ,judgment of ,solomon1 or    
,marriage of ,alexander1 or1 more       
appropriately1 mere pattern-work1 vases 
of flowers and the like4 ,however crude 
they may be1 and some are absurdly      
inadequate as sculpture1 the sense of   
treatment and relief suitable to the    
material never fails to give them a fit 
interest4  ,with these backs cast-iron  
fire-dogs are often found1 of which some
 ,gothic examples also remain1 simple in
 form with soft dull modelling2 later1  
these were often a mere obelisk on a    
base surmounted by a ball or a bird1 or 
rude terminal figures2 sometimes a more 
delicate full figure1 the limbs well    
together1 so that nothing projects from 
the general post-like form2 and within  
their limitations they are not without  
grace and character4  ,in ,frant church1
 near ,tunbridge1 are several cast-iron 
grave slabs about six feet long by half 
that width1 perfectly flat1 one with a  

single shield of arms and some letters1 
others with several2 they are quite     
successful1 natural1 and not in the     
least vulgar4  ,iron railings are the   
most usual form of cast iron as an      
accessory to architecture2 the earlier  
examples of these in ,london are        
thoroughly fit for their purpose and    
their material2 sturdily simple forms of
 gently swelling curves1 or with        
slightly rounded reliefs4 ,the original 
railing at ,st4 ,paul's1 of ,lamberhurst
 iron1 is the finest of these1 a large  
portion of which around the west front  
was removed in #ahgc4 ,another example  
encloses the portico of ,st4            
,martin's-in-the-,fields4 ,the railing  
of the central area of ,berkeley ,square
 is beautifully designed1 and there are 
instances here1 as in ,grosvenor        
,square1 where cast iron is used        
together with wrought1 a difficult      
combination4  ,balcony railings and     
staircase balustrades are quite general 
to houses of the late eighteenth        

century4 ,refined and thoroughly good of
 their kind1 they never fail to please1 
and never1 of course1 imitate wrought   
iron4 ,the design is always direct1     
unpretentious and effortless1 in a      
manner that became at this time quite a 
tradition4  ,the verandahs also1 of     
which there are so many in ,piccadilly  
or ,mayfair1 with posts reeded and of   
delicate profiles1 are of the same kind1
 confessedly cast iron1 and never       
without the characterising dulness of   
the forms1 so that they have no jutting 
members to be broken off1 to expose a   
repulsive jagged fracture4 ,the opposite
 of all these qualities may be found in 
the expensive-looking railing on the    
,embankment enclosing the gardens1 whose
 tiny fretted and fretful forms invite  
an experiment often successful4  ,it    
must be understood that cast iron should
 be merely a flat lattice-like design1  
obviously cast in panels1 or plain post 
and rail construction with cast uprights
 and terminal knops tenoned into rails1 

so that there is no doubt of            
straightforward unaffected fitting4 ,the
 ,british ,museum screen may be taken to
 instance how ample ability will not    
redeem false principles of design3 the  
construction is not clear1 nor are the  
forms sufficiently simple1 the result   
being only a high order of commonplace  
grandeur4  ,even the lamp-posts set up  
in the beginning of the century for oil 
lights1 a few of which have not yet been
 improved away from back streets1 show  
the same care for appropriate form4     
,some of the ,pall ,mall ,clubs1 again1 
have well-designed candelabra of a more 
pretentious kind2 also ,london and      
,waterloo ,bridges4  ,the fire-grates1  
both with hobs and close fronts1 that   
came into use about the middle of the   
last century1 are decorated all over the
 field with tiny flutings1 beads1 and   
leaf mouldings1 sometimes even with     
little figure medallions1 and carry     
delicacy to its limit4 ,the better      
examples are entirely successful1 both  

in form and in the ornamentation1 which1
 adapted to this new purpose1 does no   
more than gracefully acknowledge its    
debt to the past1 just as the best      
ornament at all times is neither        
original nor copied3 it must recognise  
tradition1 and add something which shall
 be the tradition of the future4 ,the   
method followed is to keep the general  
form quite simple and the areas flat1   
while the decoration1 just an embroidery
 of the surface1 is of one substance and
 in the slightest possible relief4      
,other larger grates there were with    
plain surfaces simply framed with       
mouldings4  ,even the sculptor has not  
refused iron4 ,pliny says there were two
 statues in ,rhodes1 one of iron and    
copper1 and the other1 a ,hercules1     
entirely of iron4 ,in the palace at     
,prague there is a ,st4 ,george horsed  
and armed1 the work of the fourteenth   
century4 ,the qualities natural to iron 
which it has to offer for sculpture may 
best be appreciated by seeing the       

examples at the ,museum of ,geology1 in 
,jermyn ,street4 ,on the staircase there
 are two large dogs1 two ornamental     
candelabra1 and two figures2 the dogs1  
although not fine as sculpture1 are well
 treated1 in mass and surface1 for the  
metal4 ,in the same museum there is a   
smaller statue still better for surface 
and finish1 a ,french work signed and   
dated #ahda1 and1 therefore1 half an    
antique4 ,but for ordinary foundry-work 
without surface finish--probably the    
most appropriate1 certainly the most    
available1 method--the little lions on  
the outer rail at the ,british ,museum  
are proof of how sufficient feeling for 
design will dignify any material for any
 object2 they are by the late ,alfred   
,stevens1 and are thoroughly iron       
beasts1 so slightly modelled that they  
would be only blocked out for bronze4   
,in the ,geological ,museum are also    
specimens of ,berlin and ,ilsenburg     
manufacture2 they serve to point the    
moral that ingenuity is not art1 nor    

tenuity refinement4  ,the question of   
rust is a difficult one1 the oxide not  
being an added beauty like the patina   
acquired by bronze1 yet the decay of    
cast iron is much less than is generally
 thought1 especially on large smooth    
surfaces1 if the casting has been once  
treated by an oil bath or a coating of  
hot tar3 the celebrated iron pillar of  
,delhi1 some twenty feet high1 has stood
 for fourteen centuries1 and shows1 it  
is said1 little evidence of decay4 ,it  
would be interesting to see how cast    
spheres of good iron would be affected  
in our climate1 if occasionally coated  
with a lacquer4 ,in painting1 the range 
of tints best approved is black through 
gray to white3 the simple negative gray 
gives a pleasant unobtrusiveness to the 
well-designed iron-work of the ,northern
 ,station in ,paris1 whereas our almost 
universal ,indian red is a very bad     
choice--a hot coarse colour1 you must   
see it1 and be irritated1 and it is     
surely the only colour that gets worse  

as it bleaches in the sun4 ,gilding is  
suitable to a certain extent2 but for   
internal work the homely black-leading  
cannot be bettered4  ,to put together   
the results obtained in our examination 
of examples4  7#a7 ,the metal must be   
both good and carefully manipulated4    
7#b7 ,the design must be thought out    
through the material and its traditional
 methods4  7#c7 ,the pattern must have  
the ornament modelled1 not carved1 as is
 almost universally the case now1       
carving in wood being entirely unfit to 
give the soft suggestive relief required
 both by the nature of the sand-mould   
into which it is impressed1 and the     
crystalline structure of the metal when 
cast4  7#d7 ,flat surfaces like grate   
fronts may be decorated with some       
intricacy if the relief is delicate4    
,but the relief must be less than the   
basis of attachment1 so that the        
moulding may be easily practicable1 and 
no portions invite one to test how      
easily they might be detached4  7#e7    

,objects in the round must have a simple
 and substantial bounding form with but 
little ornament1 and that only          
suggested4 ,this applies equally to     
figures4 ,in them homogeneous structure 
is of the first importance4  7#f7 ,when 
possible1 the surface should be finished
 and left as a metal casting4 ,it may1  
however1 be entirely gilt4 ,if painted1 
the colour must be neutral and gray4    
,casting in iron has been so abased and 
abused that it is almost difficult to   
believe that the metal has anything to  
offer to the arts4 ,at no other time and
 in no other country would a national   
staple commodity have been so degraded4 
,yet in its strength under pressure1 but
 fragility to a blow1 in certain        
qualities of texture and of required    
manipulation1 it invites a specially    
characterised treatment in the design1  
and it offers one of the few materials  
naturally black available in the colour 
arrangement of interiors4  ,w4 ,r4      
,,lethaby4     ,,of ,,dyeing ,,as ,,an  

,,art   ,dyeing is a very ancient art2  
from the earliest times of the ancient  
civilisations till within about forty   
years ago there had been no essential   
change in it1 and not much change of any
 kind4 ,up to the time of the discovery 
of the process of ,prussian-blue dyeing 
in about #ahaj 7it was known as a       
pigment thirty or forty years earlier71 
the only changes in the art were the    
result of the introduction of the       
,american insect dye 7cochineal71 which 
gradually superseded the ,european one  
7kermes71 and the ,american wood-dyes   
now known as logwood and ,brazil-wood3  
the latter differs little from the      
,asiatic and ,african ,red ,saunders1   
and other red dye-woods2 the former has 
cheapened and worsened black-dyeing1 in 
so far as it has taken the place of the 
indigo-vat as a basis4 ,the ,american   
quercitron bark gives us also a useful  
additional yellow dye4  ,these changes1 
and one or two others1 however1 did     
little towards revolutionising the art2 

that revolution was left for our own    
days1 and resulted from the discovery of
 what are known as the ,aniline dyes1   
deduced by a long process from the      
plants of the coal-measures4 ,of these  
dyes it must be enough to say that their
 discovery1 while conferring the        
greatest honour on the abstract science 
of chemistry1 and while doing great     
service to capitalists in their hunt    
after profits1 has terribly injured the 
art of dyeing1 and for the general      
public has nearly destroyed it as an    
art4 ,henceforward there is an absolute 
divorce between the commercial process  
and the art of dyeing4 ,anyone wanting  
to produce dyed textiles with any       
artistic quality in them must entirely  
forgo the modern and commercial methods 
in favour of those which are at least as
 old as ,pliny1 who speaks of them as   
being old in his time4  ,now1 in order  
to dye textiles in patterns or          
otherwise1 we need four colours to start
 with--to wit1 blue1 red1 yellow1 and   

brown2 green1 purple1 black1 and all    
intermediate shades can be made from a  
mixture of these colours4  ,blue is     
given us by indigo and woad1 which do   
not differ in colour in the least1 their
 chemical product being the same4 ,woad 
may be called northern indigo2 and      
indigo tropical or sub-tropical woad4   
,note that until the introduction of    
,prussian blue about #ahaj there was no 
other blue dye except this indigotine   
that could be called a dye2 the other   
blue dyes were mere stains which would  
not bear the sun for more than a few    
days4  ,red is yielded by the insect    
dyes kermes1 lac-dye1 and cochineal1 and
 by the vegetable dye madder4 ,of these1
 kermes is the king2 brighter than      
madder and at once more permanent and   
more beautiful than cochineal3 the      
latter on an aluminous basis gives a    
rather cold crimson1 and on a tin basis 
a rather hot scarlet 7e4g4 the          
dress-coat of a line officer74 ,madder  
yields on wool a deep-toned blood-red1  

somewhat bricky and tending to scarlet4 
,on cotton and linen1 all imaginable    
shades of red according to the process4 
,it is not of much use in dyeing silk1  
which it is apt to blind2 i4e4 it takes 
off the gloss4 ,lac-dye gives a hot and 
not pleasant scarlet1 as may be noted in
 a private militiaman's coat4 ,the      
,french liners' trousers1 by the way1   
are1 or were1 dyed with madder1 so that 
their countrymen sometimes call them the
 ,madder-wearers2 but their cloth is    
somewhat too cheaply dyed to do credit  
to the drysaltery4  ,besides these      
permanent red dyes there are others     
produced from woods1 called in the      
,middle ,ages by the general name of    
,brazil2 whence the name of the         
,american country1 because the          
conquerors found so much dyeing-wood    
growing there4 ,some of these wood-dyes 
are very beautiful in colour2 but       
unluckily they are none of them         
permanent1 as you may see by examining  
the beautiful stuffs of the thirteenth  

and fourteenth centuries at the ,south  
,kensington ,museum1 in which you will  
scarcely find any red1 but plenty of    
fawn-colour1 which is in fact the       
wood-red of #ejj years ago thus faded4  
,if you turn from them to the ,gothic   
tapestries1 and note the reds in them1  
you will have the measure of the        
relative permanence of kermes and       
,brazil1 the tapestry reds being all    
dyed with kermes1 and still retaining   
the greater part of their colour4 ,the  
mediaeval dyers must be partly excused1 
however1 because ,brazil is especially a
 silk dye1 kermes sharing somewhat in   
the ill qualities of madder for silk2   
though ,i have dyed silk in kermes and  
got very beautiful and powerful colours 
by means of it4  ,yellow dyes are       
chiefly given us by weld 7sometimes     
called wild mignonette71 quercitron bark
 7above mentioned71 and old fustic1 an  
,american dye-wood4 ,of these weld is   
much the prettiest1 and is the yellow   
silk dye par excellence1 though it dyes 

wool well enough4 ,but yellow dyes are  
the commonest to be met with in nature1 
and our fields and hedgerows bear plenty
 of greening-weeds1 as our forefathers  
called them1 since they used them       
chiefly for greening blue woollen cloth2
 for1 as you may well believe1 they1    
being good colourists1 had no great     
taste for yellow woollen stuff4         
,dyers'-broom1 saw-wort1 the twigs of   
the poplar1 the osier1 and the birch1   
heather1 broom1 flowers and twigs1 will 
all of them give yellows of more or less
 permanence4 ,of these ,i have tried    
poplar and osier twigs1 which both gave 
a strong yellow1 but the former not a   
very permanent one4  ,speaking          
generally1 yellow dyes are the least    
permanent of all1 as once more you may  
see by looking at an old tapestry1 in   
which the greens have always faded more 
than the reds or blues2 the best yellow 
dyes1 however1 lose only their brighter 
shade1 the lemon colour1 and leave a    
residuum of brownish yellow1 which still

 makes a kind of a green over the blue4 
,brown is best got from the roots of the
 walnut tree1 or in their default from  
the green husks of the nuts4 ,this      
material is especially best for         
saddening1 as the old dyers used to call
 it4 ,the best and most enduring blacks 
also were done with this simple         
dye-stuff1 the goods being first dyed in
 the indigo or woad-vat till they were a
 very dark blue and then browned into   
black by means of the walnut-root4      
,catechu1 the inspissated juice of a    
plant or plants1 which comes to us from 
,india1 also gives rich and useful      
permanent browns of various shades4     
,green is obtained by dyeing a blue of  
the required shade in the indigo-vat1   
and then greening it with a good yellow 
dye1 adding what else may be necessary  
7as1 e4g41 madder7 to modify the colour 
according to taste4  ,purple is got by  
blueing in the indigo-vat1 and          
afterwards by a bath of cochineal1 or   
kermes1 or madder2 all intermediate     

shades of claret and murrey and russet  
can be got by these drugs helped out by 
saddening4  ,black1 as aforesaid1 is    
best made by dyeing dark blue wool with 
brown2 and walnut is better than iron   
for the brown part1 because the         
iron-brown is apt to rot the fibre2 as  
once more you will see in some pieces of
 old tapestry or old ,persian carpets1  
where the black is quite perished1 or at
 least in the case of the carpet gone   
down to the knots4 ,all intermediate    
shades can1 as aforesaid1 be got by the 
blending of these prime colours1 or by  
using weak baths of them4 ,for instance1
 all shades of flesh colour can be got  
by means of weak baths of madder and    
walnut saddening2 madder or cochineal   
mixed with weld gives us orange1 and    
with saddening all imaginable shades    
between yellow and red1 including the   
ambers1 maize-colour1 etc4 ,the crimsons
 in ,gothic tapestries must have been   
got by dyeing kermes over pale shades of
 blue1 since the crimson red-dye1       

cochineal1 had not yet come to ,europe4 
,a word or two 7entirely unscientific7  
about the processes of this             
old-fashioned or artistic dyeing4  ,in  
the first place1 all dyes must be       
soluble colours1 differing in this      
respect from pigments2 most of which are
 insoluble1 and are only very finely    
divided1 as1 e4g41 ultramarine1 umber1  
terre-verte4  ,next1 dyes may be divided
 into those which need a mordant and    
those which do not2 or1 as the old      
chemist ,bancroft very conveniently     
expresses it1 into adjective and        
substantive dyes4  ,indigo is the great 
substantive dye3 the indigo has to be   
de-oxidised and thereby made soluble1 in
 which state it loses its blue colour in
 proportion as the solution is complete2
 the goods are plunged into this        
solution and worked in it between two   
waters1 as the phrase goes1 and when    
exposed to the air the indigo they have 
got on them is swiftly oxidised1 and    
once more becomes insoluble4 ,this      

process is repeated till the required   
shade is got4 ,all shades of blue can be
 got by this means1 from the pale       
watchet1 as our forefathers called it1  
up to the blue which the                
eighteenth-century ,french dyers called 
,bleu d'enfer4 ,navy ,blue is the       
politer name for it to-day in ,england4 
,i must add that1 though this seems an  
easy process1 the setting of the        
blue-vat is a ticklish job1 and         
requires1 ,i should say1 more experience
 than any other dyeing process4  ,the   
brown dyes1 walnut and catechu1 need no 
mordant1 and are substantive dyes2 some 
of the yellows also can be dyed without 
mordant1 but are much improved by it4   
,the red dyes1 kermes and madder1 and   
the yellow dye weld1 are especially     
mordant or adjective dyes3 they are all 
dyed on an aluminous basis4 ,to put the 
matter plainly1 the goods are worked in 
a solution of alum 7usually with a      
little acid added71 and after an        
interval of a day or two 7ageing7 are   

dyed in a bath of the dissolved         
dye-stuff4  ,a lake is thus formed on   
the fibre which is in most cases very   
durable4 ,the effect of this mordanting 
of the fibre is clearest seen in the    
maddering of printed cotton goods1 which
 are first printed with aluminous       
mordants of various degrees of strength 
7or with iron if black is needed1 or a  
mixture of iron with alumina for        
purple71 and then dyed wholesale in the 
madder-beck3 the result being that the  
parts which have been mordanted come out
 various shades of red1 etc41 according 
to the strength or composition of the   
mordant1 while the unmordanted parts    
remain a dirty pink1 which has to be    
cleared into white by soaping and       
exposure to the sun and air2 which      
process both brightens and fixes the    
dyed parts4  ,pliny saw this going on in
 ,egypt1 and it puzzled him very much1  
that a cloth dyed in one colour should  
come out coloured diversely4  ,that     
reminds me to say a word on the fish-dye

 of the ancients3 it was a substantive  
dye and behaved somewhat as indigo4 ,it 
was very permanent4 ,the colour was a   
real purple in the modern sense of the  
word1 i4e4 a colour or shades of a      
colour between red and blue4 ,the real  
,byzantine books which are written on   
purple vellum give you some1 at least1  
of its shades4 ,the ancients1 you must  
remember1 used words for colours in a   
way that seems vague to us1 because they
 were generally thinking of the tone    
rather than the tint4 ,when they wanted 
to specify a red dye they would not use 
the word purpureus1 but coccineus1 i4e4 
scarlet of kermes4  ,the art of dyeing1 
,i am bound to say1 is a difficult one1 
needing for its practice a good         
craftsman1 with plenty of experience4   
,matching a colour by means of it is an 
agreeable but somewhat anxious game to  
play4  ,as to the artistic value of     
these dye-stuffs1 most of which1        
together with the necessary mordant     
alumina1 the world discovered in early  

times 7,i mean early historical times71 
,i must tell you that they all make in  
their simplest forms beautiful colours2 
they need no muddling into artistic     
usefulness1 when you need your colours  
bright 7as ,i hope you usually do71 and 
they can be modified and toned without  
dirtying1 as the foul blotches of the   
capitalist dyer cannot be4 ,like all    
dyes1 they are not eternal2 the sun in  
lighting them and beautifying them      
consumes them2 yet gradually1 and for   
the most part kindly1 as 7to use my     
example for the last time in this paper7
 you will see if you look at the ,gothic
 tapestries in the drawing-room at      
,hampton ,court4 ,these colours in      
fading still remain beautiful1 and      
never1 even after long wear1 pass into  
nothingness1 through that stage of livid
 ugliness which distinguishes the       
commercial dyes as nuisances1 even more 
than their short and by no means merry  
life4  ,i may also note that no textiles
 dyed blue or green1 otherwise than by  

indigo1 keep an agreeable colour by     
candle-light3 many quite bright greens  
turning into sheer drab4 ,a fashionable 
blue which simulates indigo turns into a
 slaty purple by candle-light2 and      
,prussian blues are also much damaged by
 it4 ,i except from this condemnation a 
commercial green known as gas-green1    
which is as abominable as its name1 both
 by daylight and gaslight1 and indeed   
one would almost expect it to make      
unlighted midnight hideous4  ,,william  
,,morris4     ,,of ,,embroidery   ,the  
technicalities of ,embroidery are very  
simple and its tools few--practically   
consisting of a needle1 and nothing     
else4 ,the work can be wrought loose in 
the hand1 or stretched in a frame1 which
 latter mode is often advisable1 always 
when smooth and minute work is aimed at4
 ,there are no mysteries of method      
beyond a few elementary rules that can  
be quickly learnt2 no way to perfection 
except that of care and patience and    
love of the work itself4 ,this being so1

 the more is demanded from design and   
execution3 we look for complete triumph 
over the limitations of process and     
material1 and1 what is equally          
important1 a certain judgment and       
self-restraint2 and1 in short1 those    
mental qualities that distinguish       
mechanical from intelligent work4 ,the  
latitude allowed to the worker2 the     
lavishness and ingenuity displayed in   
the stitches employed2 in short1 the    
vivid expression of the worker's        
individuality1 form a great part of the 
success of needlework4  ,the varieties  
of stitch are too many to be closely    
described without diagrams1 but the     
chief are as follows3--  ,chain-stitch  
consists of loops simulating the links  
of a simple chain4 ,some of the most    
famous work of the ,middle ,ages was    
worked in this stitch1 which is         
enduring1 and of its nature necessitates
 careful execution4 ,we are more        
familiar with it in the dainty work of  
the seventeenth and eighteenth          

centuries1 in the airy brightness and   
simplicity of which lies a peculiar     
charm1 contrasted with the more pompous 
and pretentious work of the same period4
 ,this stitch is also wrought with a    
hook on any loose material stretched in 
a tambour frame4  ,tapestry-stitch      
consists of a building-up of stitches   
laid one beside another1 and gives a    
surface slightly resembling that of     
tapestry4 ,i give the name as it is so  
often used1 but it is vague1 and leads  
to the confusion that exists in people's
 minds between loom-tapestry and        
embroidery4 ,the stitch is worked in a  
frame1 and is particularly suitable for 
the drapery of figures and anything that
 requires skilful blending of several   
colours1 or a certain amount of shading4
 ,this facility of painting with the    
needle is in itself a danger1 for it    
tempts some people to produce a highly  
shaded imitation of a picture1 an       
attempt which must be a failure both as 
a decorative and as a pictorial         

achievement4 ,it cannot be said too     
often that the essential qualities of   
all good needlework are a broad surface1
 bold lines and pure1 brilliant and1 as 
a rule1 simple colouring2 all of which  
being qualities attainable through1 and 
prescribed by1 the limitations of this  
art4  ,applique has been1 and is still1 
a favourite method of work1 which       
,vasari tells us ,botticelli praised as 
being very suitable to processional     
banners and hangings used in the open   
air1 as it is solid and enduring1 also  
bold and effective in style4 ,it is more
 accurately described as a method of    
work in which various stitches are made 
use of1 for it consists of designs      
embroidered on a stout ground and then  
cut out and laid on silk or velvet1 and 
edged round with lines of gold or silk1 
and sometimes with pearls4 ,it requires 
considerable deftness and judgment in   
applying1 as the work could well be     
spoilt by clumsy and heavy finishing4   
,it is now looked upon as solely        

ecclesiastical1 ,i believe1 and is      
associated in our minds with garish red1
 gold and white1 and with dull geometric
 ornament1 though there is absolutely no
 reason why church embroidery of to-day 
should be limited to ungraceful forms   
and staring colours4 ,a certain period  
of work1 thick and solid1 but not very  
interesting1 either as to method or     
design1 has been stereotyped into what  
is known as ,ecclesiastical ,embroidery1
 the mechanical characteristics of the  
style being1 of course1 emphasised and  
exaggerated in the process4 ,church work
 will never be of the finest while these
 characteristics are insisted on2 the   
more pity1 as it is seemly that the     
richest and noblest work should be      
devoted to churches1 and to all         
buildings that belong to and are an     
expression of the communal life of the  
people4 ,another and simpler form of    
applied work is to cut out the desired  
forms in one material and lay upon      
another1 securing the applique with     

stitches round the outline1 which are   
hidden by an edging cord4 ,the work may 
be further enriched by light ornament of
 lines and flourishes laid directly on  
the ground material4  ,couching is an   
effective method of work1 in which broad
 masses of silk or gold thread are laid 
down and secured by a network or diaper 
of crossing threads1 through which the  
under surface shines very prettily4 ,it 
is often used in conjunction with       
applique4 ,there are as many varieties  
of couching stitches as the worker has  
invention for2 in some the threads are  
laid simply and flatly on the form to be
 covered1 while in others a slight      
relief is obtained by layers of soft    
linen thread which form a kind of       
moulding or stuffing1 and which are     
covered by the silk threads or whatever 
is to be the final decorative surface4  
,the ingenious patchwork coverlets of   
our grandmothers1 formed of scraps of   
old gowns pieced together in certain    
symmetrical forms1 constitute the       

romance of family history1 but this     
method has an older origin than would be
 imagined4 ,queen ,isis-em-,kheb's      
embalmed body went down the ,nile to its
 burial-place under a canopy that was   
lately discovered1 and is preserved in  
the ,boulak ,museum4 ,it consists of    
many squares of gazelle-hide of         
different colours sewn together and     
ornamented with various devices4 ,under 
the name of patchwork1 or mosaic-like   
piecing together of different coloured  
stuffs1 comes also the ,persian work    
made at ,resht4 ,bits of fine cloth are 
cut out for leaves1 flowers1 and so     
forth1 and neatly stitched together with
 great accuracy4 ,this done1 the work is
 further carried out and enriched by    
chain and other stitches4 ,the result is
 perfectly smooth flat work1 no easy    
feat when done on a large scale1 as it  
often is4  ,darning and running need    
little explanation4 ,the former stitch  
is familiar to us in the well-known     
,cretan and ,turkish cloths3 the stitch 

here is used mechanically in parallel   
lines1 and simulates weaving1 so that   
these handsome borders in a deep rich   
red might as well have come from the    
loom as from the needle4 ,another method
 of darning is looser and coarser1 and  
suitable only for cloths and hangings   
not subject to much wear and rubbing2   
the stitches follow the curves of the   
design1 which the needle paints1 as it  
were1 shading and blending the colours4 
,it is necessary to use this facility   
for shading temperately1 however1 or the
 flatness essential to decorative work  
is lost4  ,the foregoing is a rough list
 of stitches which could be copiously   
supplemented1 but that ,i am obliged to 
pass on to another important point1 that
 of design4 ,if needlework is to be     
looked upon seriously1 it is necessary  
to secure appropriate and practicable   
designs4 ,where the worker does not     
invent for herself1 she should at least 
interpret her designer1 just as the     
designer interprets and does not attempt

 to imitate nature4 ,it follows from    
this1 that it is better to avoid using  
designs of artists who know nothing of  
the capacities of needlework1 and design
 beautiful and intricate forms without  
reference to the execution1 the result  
being unsatisfactory and incomplete4    
,regarding the design itself1 broad bold
 lines should be chosen1 and broad      
harmonious colour 7which should be      
roughly planned before setting to work71
 with as much minute work1 and stitches 
introducing play of colour1 as befits   
the purpose of the work and humour of   
the worker2 there should be no          
scratching1 no indefiniteness of form or
 colour1 no vagueness that allows the   
eye to puzzle over the design--beyond   
that indefinable sense of mystery which 
arrests the attention and withholds the 
full charm of the work for a moment1 to 
unfold it to those who stop to give it  
more than a glance4 ,but there are so   
many different stitches and so many     
different modes of setting to work1 that

 it will soon be seen that these few    
hints do not apply to all of them4 ,one 
method1 for instance1 consists of       
trusting entirely to design1 and leaves 
colour out of account3 white work on    
white linen1 white on dark ground1 or   
black or dark blue upon white4 ,again1  
some work depends more on magnificence  
of colour than on form1 as1 for example1
 the handsome ,italian hangings of the  
seventeenth century1 worked in          
floss-silk1 on linen sometimes1 and     
sometimes on a dusky open canvas which  
makes the silks gleam and glow like     
precious stones4  ,in thus slightly     
describing the methods chiefly used in  
embroidery1 ,i do so principally from   
old examples1 as modern embroidery1     
being a dilettante pastime1 has little  
distinct character1 and is1 in its best 
points1 usually imitative4 ,eastern work
 still retains the old professional     
skill1 but beauty of colour is rapidly  
disappearing1 and little attention is   
paid to durability of the dyes used4 ,in

 speaking rather slightingly of modern  
needlework1 ,i must add that its        
non-success is often due more to the use
 of poor materials than to want of skill
 in working4 ,it is surely folly to     
waste time over work that looks shabby  
in a month4 ,the worker should use      
judgment and thought to procure         
materials1 not necessarily rich1 but    
each good and genuine of its kind4      
,lastly1 she should not be sparing of   
her own handiwork1 for1 while a slightly
 executed piece of work depends wholly  
on design1 in one where the actual      
stitchery is more elaborate1 but the    
design less masterly1 the patience and  
thought lavished on it render it in a   
different way equally pleasing1 and     
bring it more within the scope of the   
amateur4  ,,may ,,morris4     ,,of      
,,lace   ,lace is a term freely used at 
the present time to describe various    
sorts of open ornament in thread work1  
the successful effect of which depends  
very much upon the contrasting of more  

or less closely-textured forms with     
grounds or intervening spaces filled in 
with meshes of equal size or with       
cross-ties1 bars1 etc4 ,whence it has   
come to pass that fabrics having an     
appearance of this description1 such as 
embroideries upon nets1 cut linen works1
 drawn thread works1 and machine-woven  
counterfeits of lace-like fabrics1 are  
frequently called laces4 ,but they      
differ in make from those productions of
 certain specialised handicrafts to     
which from the sixteenth to the         
eighteenth centuries lace owes its fame4
  ,these specialised handicrafts are    
divisible into two branches4 ,the one   
branch involves the employment of a     
needle to loop a continuous thread into 
varieties of shapes and devices2 the    
other is in the nature of making        
corresponding or similar ornament by    
twisting and plaiting together a number 
of separate threads1 the loose ends of  
which have to be fastened in a row on a 
cushion or pillow1 the supply of the    

threads being wound around the heads of 
lengthened bobbins1 so shaped for       
convenience in handling4 ,the           
first-named branch is needlepoint       
lace-making2 the second1 bobbin or      
pillow lace-making4 ,needlepoint        
lace-making may be regarded as a species
 of embroidery1 whilst bobbin or pillow 
lace-making is closely allied to the    
twisting and knotting together of       
threads for fringes4 ,embroidery1       
however1 postulates a foundation of     
material to be enriched with needlework1
 whereas needlepoint and pillow lace are
 wrought independently of any           
corresponding foundation of material4   
,the production of slender needles and  
small metal pins is an important        
incident in the history of lace-making  
by hand4 ,broadly speaking1 the         
manufacture for a widespread consumption
 of such metal pins and needles does not
 date earlier than the fourteenth       
century4 ,without small implements of   
this character delicate lace-making is  

not possible4 ,it is therefore fair to  
assume that although historic nations   
like the ,egyptian1 ,assyrian1 ,hebrew1 
,greek1 and ,roman1 made use of fringes 
and knotted cords upon their hangings1  
cloaks1 and tunics1 lace was unknown to 
them4 ,their bone1 wooden1 or metal pins
 and needles were suited to certain     
classes of embroidery and to the making 
of nets1 looped cords1 etc41 but not to 
such lace-making as we know it from the 
early days of the sixteenth century4    
,about the end of the fifteenth century1
 with the development in ,europe of fine
 linen for underclothing1 collars and   
cuffs just visible beyond the outer     
garments came into vogue1 and a taste   
was speedily manifested for trimming    
linen undershirts1 collars and cuffs1   
with insertions and borders of kindred  
material4 ,this taste seems to have been
 first displayed in a marked manner by  
,venetian and ,flemish women2 for the   
earliest known books of engraved        
patterns for linen ornamental borders   

and insertions are those which were     
published during the commencement of the
 sixteenth century at ,venice and       
,antwerp4 ,but such patterns were       
designed in the first place for various 
sorts of embroidery upon a material1    
such as darning upon canvas 7punto fa su
 la rete a maglia quadra71 drawn thread 
work of reticulated patterns 7punto     
tirato or punto a reticella71 and cut   
work 7punto tagliato74 ,patterns for    
quite other sorts of work1 such as point
 in the air 7punto in aere7 and thread  
work twisted and plaited by means of    
little leaden weights or bobbins        
7merletti a piombini71 were about thirty
 years later in publication4 ,these two 
last-named classes of work are          
respectively identifiable 7punto in     
aere7 with needlepoint and 7merletti a  
piombini7 with bobbin lace-making2 and  
they seem to date from about #aedj4     
,the sixteenth-century and earliest     
known needlepoint laces 7punto in aere7 
are of narrow lengths or bands1 the     

patterns of which are composed          
principally of repeated open squares    
filled in with circular1 star1 and other
 geometric shapes1 set upon diagonal and
 cross lines which radiate from the     
centre of each square to its corners and
 sides4 ,when the bands were to serve as
 borders they would have a dentated     
edging added to them2 this edging might 
be made of either needlepoint or bobbin 
lace4 ,as time went on the dimensions of
 both lace bands and lace vandykes      
increased so that1 whilst these served  
as trimmings to linen1 lace of          
considerable width and various shapes   
came to be made1 and ruffs1 collars1 and
 cuffs were wholly made of it4 ,such    
lace was thin and wiry in appearance4   
,the leading lines of the patterns      
formed squares and geometrical figures1 
amongst which were disposed small wheel 
and seed forms1 little triangles1 and   
such like4 ,a few years later the       
details of these geometrically planned  
patterns became more varied1 tiny human 

figures1 fruits1 vases and flowers1     
being used as ornamental details4 ,but a
 more distinct change in character of   
pattern was effected when flowing       
scrolls with leaf and blossom devices1  
held together by means of little ties or
 bars1 were adopted4 ,different portions
 of the scrolls and blossoms with their 
connecting links or bars would often be 
enriched with little loops or picots1   
with stitched reliefs1 and varieties of 
close and open work4 ,then came a taste 
for arranging the bars or ties into     
trellis grounds1 or grounds of hexagons1
 over which small ornamental devices    
would be scattered in balanced groups4  
,at the same time1 the bobbin or pillow 
lace-workers produced grounds of small  
equal-size meshes in plaited threads4   
,this inventiveness on the part of the  
bobbin or pillow workers reacted upon   
the needlepoint workers1 who in their   
turn produced still more delicate       
grounds with meshes of single and double
 twisted threads4  ,lace1 passing from  

stage to stage1 thus became a filmy     
tissue or fabric1 and its original use  
as a somewhat stiff1 wiry-looking       
trimming to linen consequently changed4 
,larger articles than borders1 collars1 
and cuffs were made of the new filmy    
material1 and lace flounces1 veils1     
loose sleeves1 curtains1 and bed-covers 
were produced4 ,this transition may be  
traced through the first hundred and    
twenty years of lace-making4 ,it        
culminated during the succeeding ninety 
years in a development of fanciful      
pattern-making1 in which realistic      
representation of flowers1 trees1       
cupids1 warriors1 sportsmen1 animals of 
the chase1 emblems of all sorts1 rococo 
and architectural ornament1 is typical4 
,whilst the eighteenth century may      
perhaps be regarded as a period of      
questionable propriety in the employment
 of ornament hardly appropriate to the  
twisting1 plaiting1 and looping together
 of threads1 it is nevertheless notable 
for tours de force in lace-making       

achieved without regard to cost or      
trouble4 ,from this stage1 the climax of
 which may be placed about #agfj1 the   
designing of lace patterns declined2 and
 from the end of the eighteenth to the  
first twenty years or so of the         
nineteenth centuries1 laces1 although   
still made with the needle and bobbins1 
became little more than finely-meshed   
nets powdered over with dots or leaves1 
or single blossoms1 or tiny sprays4     
,within the limits of a brief note like 
the present1 it is not possible to      
discuss local peculiarities in methods  
of work and styles of design which      
established the characters of the       
various ,venetian and other ,italian    
points1 of the ,french points of        
,alencon and ,argentan1 of the cloudy   
,valenciennes1 ,mechlin1 and ,brussels  
laces4 ,neither can one touch upon the  
nurturing of the industry by nuns in    
convents1 by workers subsidised by      
,state grants1 and so forth4 ,it would  
require more space than is available to 

fairly discuss what styles of ornament  
are least or most suited to lace-making2
 or whether lace is less rightly        
employed as a tissue for the making of  
entire articles of costume or of        
household use1 than as an ornamental    
accessory or trimming to costume4       
,whilst very much lace is a fantastic   
adjunct to costume1 serving a purpose   
sometimes like that of appoggiature and 
fioriture in music1 other lace1 such as 
the carved-ivory-looking scrolls of     
,venetian raised points1 which are      
principally associated with the jabots  
and ruffles of kings1 ministers1 and    
marshals1 and with the ornamentation of 
priests' vestments1 is certainly more   
dignified in character4 ,the loops1     
twists1 and plaits of threads are more  
noticeable in laces of comparatively    
small dimensions than they are in laces 
of great size4 ,size rather tempts the  
lace-worker to strive for ready effect1 
and to sacrifice the minuteness and     
finish of hand work1 which give quality 

of preciousness to lace4 ,the via media 
to this quality lies between two        
extremes2 namely1 applying dainty       
threads to the interpretation of badly  
shaped and ill-grouped forms on the one 
hand1 and on the other hand adopting a  
style of ornament which depends upon    
largeness of detail and massiveness in  
grouping1 and is therefore unsuited to  
lace4 ,without finish of handicraft1    
producing beautiful ornament suited to  
the material in which it is expressed1  
lace worthy the name cannot be made4    
,the industry is still pursued in       
,france1 ,belgium1 ,venice1 ,austria1   
,bohemia1 and ,ireland4 ,honiton has    
acquired a notoriety for its pillow     
laces1 many of which some hundred years 
ago were as varied and well executed as 
,brussels pillow laces4 ,other ,english 
towns in the ,midland counties followed 
the lead chiefly of ,mechlin1           
,valenciennes1 ,lille1 and ,arras1 but  
were rarely as successful as their      
leaders4 ,saxony1 ,russia1 and the      

,auvergne produce quantities of pillow  
laces1 having little pretence to design1
 though capable of pretty effects when  
artistically worn4 ,there is no question
 that the want of a sustained           
intelligence in appreciating ingenious  
hand-made laces has told severely upon  
the industry2 and as with other artistic
 handicrafts1 so with lace-making1      
machinery has very considerably         
supplanted the hand4 ,there is at       
present a limited revival in the demand 
for hand-made laces1 and efforts are    
made at certain centres to give new life
 to the industry by infusing into it    
artistic feeling derived from a study of
 work done during the periods when the  
art flourished4  ,,alan ,s4 ,,cole4     
,,of ,,book ,,illustration ,,and ,,book 
,,decoration   ,book illustration is    
supposed to have made a great advance in
 the last few years4 ,no doubt it has1  
but this advance has not been made on   
any definite principle1 but1 as it were1
 in and out of a network of             

cross-purposes4 ,no attempt has been    
made to classify illustration in        
relation to the purpose it has to       
fulfil4  ,broadly speaking1 this purpose
 is threefold4 ,it is either            
utilitarian1 or partly utilitarian      
partly artistic1 or purely artistic4    
,the first may be dismissed at once4    
,such drawings as technical diagrams    
must be clear and accurate1 but by their
 very nature they are non-artistic1 and 
in regard to art it is a case of hands  
off to the draughtsman4  ,illustration  
as an art1 that is1 book decoration1    
begins with the second class4 ,from this
 standpoint an illustration involves    
something more than mere drawing4 ,in   
the first place1 the drawing must       
illustrate the subject1 but as the      
drawing will not be set in a plain      
mount1 but surrounded or bordered by    
printed type1 there is the further      
problem of the relation of the drawing  
to the printed type4 ,the relative      
importance attached to the printed type 

or the drawing is the crucial point for 
the illustrator4 ,if all his thoughts   
are concentrated on his own drawing1 one
 line to him will be much as another2   
but if he considers his illustration as 
going with the type to form one         
homogeneous design1 each line becomes a 
matter of deliberate intention4  ,now1  
in the early days of printing1 when both
 type and illustration were printed off 
a single block1 the latter standpoint   
was adopted as a matter of course1 and  
as the art developed and men of genuine 
ability applied themselves to design1   
this intimate relation between printer  
and designer produced results of        
inimitable beauty4 ,each page of a fine 
,aldine is a work of art in itself4 ,the
 eye can run over page after page for   
the simple pleasure of its decoration4  
,no black blots in a sea of ignoble type
 break the quiet dignity of the page2   
each part of it works together with the 
rest for one premeditated harmony4 ,but 
gradually1 with the severance of the    

arts1 the printer lost sight of the     
artist1 and the latter cared only for   
himself2 and there came the inevitable  
result which has followed this          
selfishness in all the other arts of    
design4 ,printing ceased to be an art at
 all1 and the art of book decoration    
died of neglect2 the illustrator made   
his drawing without thought of the type1
 and left it to the printer to pitch it 
into the text1 and reproduce it as best 
he could4  ,the low-water mark in       
artistic illustration was reached       
perhaps in the early part of this       
century1 and the greatest offender was  
,turner himself4 ,the illustrations     
which ,turner made for ,rogers's ,poems 
show no sort of modification of his     
habitual practice in painting4 ,they may
 have been beautiful in themselves1 but 
it evidently never entered into         
,turner's head that the method1 which   
was admirable in a picture aided by all 
the resources of colour1 was beside the 
mark when applied to the printed page   

with all the limitations of black and   
white and the simple line4 ,one looks in
 vain in ,turner's illustrations for any
 evidence that he was conscious of the  
existence of the rest of the page at    
all4 ,something more than a landscape   
painter's knowledge of drawing is       
necessary4 ,the custom of getting       
illustrations from painters who have    
little knowledge of decorative design   
has led to the invention of all sorts of
 mechanical processes in order to       
transfer easel-work direct to the       
printed page4 ,the effect of this upon  
book decoration has been deadly4        
,process-work of this sort has gone far 
to kill wood-engraving2 and as to its   
result1 instead of a uniform texture of 
line woven as it were over the entire   
page1 the eye is arrested by harsh      
patches of black or gray which show a   
disregard of the printed type which is  
little less than brutal4 ,leaving recent
 work out of account1 one exception only
 can be made1 and that is in the case of

 ,william ,blake4  ,the inherent        
conditions of book decoration point to  
the line drawn by hand1 and reproduced1 
either by wood-engraving or by direct   
facsimile process1 as its proper method4
 ,indeed1 the ideal of paginal beauty   
would be reached by leaving both the    
text and the illustrative design to     
hand1 if not to one hand4 ,this1        
however1 is out of the question2 the    
cost alone is prohibitive4 ,the point   
for the book-decorator to consider is1  
what sort of line will range best with  
the type4 ,in the case of the second    
division of our classification1 which1  
in default of a better name1 may be     
called record work1 it is impossible to 
apply to the line the amount of         
abstraction and selection which would be
 necessary in pure design4 ,to do so1   
for instance1 in the case of an         
architectural illustration1 would       
destroy the vraisemblance which is of   
the essence of such a drawing4 ,even in 
this case1 however1 the line ought to be

 very carefully considered4 ,it is      
important to recollect that the type    
establishes a sort of scale of its own1 
and1 taking ordinary lettering1 this    
would exclude very minute work where the
 lines are close together and there is  
much cross-hatching2 and also simple    
outline work such as ,retsch used to    
labour at1 for the latter errs on the   
side of tenuity and meagreness as much  
as process-reproduction of brush-work   
sins in the opposite extreme4 ,the line 
used in architectural illustration      
should be free1 accurate1 and           
unfaltering1 drawn with sufficient      
technical knowledge of architecture to  
enable the draughtsman to know where he 
can stop without injury to his subject4 
,the line should not be obstinate1 but  
so light and subtle as to reflect       
without effort each thought that flits  
across the artist's mind4 ,vierge has   
shown how much can be done in this way4 
,with a few free lines and the contrast 
of some dark piece of shading in exactly

 the right place1 he will often tell you
 more of a subject than will the most   
elaborately finished picture4 ,this is  
the method to aim at in architectural   
illustration4 ,the poetry of            
architecture and its highest qualities  
of dignity of mass and outline are      
smothered by that laborious accuracy    
which covers every part of the drawing  
with a vain repetition of unfeeling     
lines4  ,where1 however1 the            
illustration is purely imaginative1 the 
decorative standpoint should be kept    
steadily in view1 and the process of    
selection and abstraction carried very  
much farther4 ,here1 at length1 the     
illustrator can so order his design that
 the drawing and the printed type form a
 single piece of decoration1 not        
disregarding the type1 but using it as  
in itself a means of obtaining texture  
and scale and distributed effect4 ,the  
type is1 as it were1 the technical datum
 of the design1 which determines the    
scale of the line to be used with it4   

,with a wiry type no doubt a wiry       
drawing is desirable1 but the types of  
the great periods of printing are firm  
in outline and large and ample in       
distribution4 ,assuming1 then1 that one 
of these types can be used1 the line of 
the accompanying design should be       
strongly drawn1 and designed from end to
 end with full allowance for the white  
paper4 ,no better model can be followed 
than ,duerer's woodcuts4 ,the amount of 
work which ,duerer would get out of a   
single line is something extraordinary1 
and perhaps to us impossible2 for in    
view of our complex modern ideas and    
total absence of tradition1 probably no 
modern designer can hope to attain to   
the great ,german's magnificent         
directness and tremendous intensity of  
expression4  ,deliberate selection1 both
 in subject and treatment1 becomes      
therefore a matter of the first         
importance4 ,the designer should reject 
subjects which do not admit of a        
decorative treatment4 ,his business is  

not with science1 or morals1 but with   
art for its own sake2 he should1        
therefore1 select his subject with a    
single eye to its artistic              
possibilities4 ,as to the line itself1  
it is impossible to offer any           
suggestion1 for the line used is as much
 a part of the designer's idea as the   
words of a poem are of a poet's poetry2 
and the invention of these must come of 
itself4 ,but once in consciousness1 the 
line must be put under rigid control as 
simply a means of expression4 ,there is 
an insidious danger in the line4        
,designers sometimes seem to be         
inebriated with their own cunning2 they 
go on drawing line after line1          
apparently for the simple pleasure of   
deftly placing them side by side1 or at 
best to produce some spurious imitation 
of texture4 ,as soon as the line is made
 an end in itself1 it becomes a         
wearisome thing4 ,the use of the line   
and the imitation of texture should be  
absolutely subordinated to the          

decorative purposes of the design1 and  
the neglect of this rule is as bad art  
as if a musician1 from perverse delight 
in the intricacies of a fugue1 were to  
lose his theme in a chaos of            
counterpoint4  ,if1 then1 to conclude1  
we are to return to the best traditions 
of book decoration1 the artist must     
abandon the selfish isolation in which  
he has hitherto worked4 ,he must regard 
the printed type not as a necessary     
evil1 but as a valuable material for the
 decoration of the page1 and the type   
and the illustration should be          
considered in strict relation to each   
other4 ,this will involve a             
self-restraint far more rigid than any  
required in etching1 because the point  
to be aimed at is not so much the direct
 suggestion of nature1 as the best      
decorative treatment of the line in     
relation to the entire page4 ,thus1 to  
the skill of the draughtsman must be    
added the far-seeing imagination of the 
designer1 which1 instead of being       

content with a hole-and-corner success1 
involving disgrace to the rest of the   
page1 embraces in its consciousness all 
the materials available for the         
beautification of the page as a whole4  
,it is only by this severe intellectual 
effort1 by this self-abnegation1 by this
 ready acceptance of the union of the   
arts1 that the art of book illustration 
can again attain to a permanent value4  
,,reginald ,,blomfield4     ,,of        
,,designs ,,and ,,working ,,drawings    
,the drawings which most deeply interest
 the workman are working drawings--just 
the last to be appreciated by the       
public1 because they are the last to be 
understood4 ,the most admired of show   
drawings are to us craftsmen            
comparatively without interest4 ,we     
recognise the competition drawing at    
once2 we see how it was made in order to
 secure the commission1 not with a view 
to its effect in execution 7which is the
 true and only end of a design71 and we 
do not wonder at the failure of         

competitions in general4 ,for the man   
who cares least1 if even he knows at    
all1 how a design will appear in        
execution is the most likely to         
perpetrate a prettiness which may gain  
the favour of the inexpert1 with whom   
the selection is likely to rest4  ,the  
general public1 and all in fact who are 
technically ignorant on the subject1    
need to be warned that the most         
attractive and what are called taking   
drawings are just those which are least 
likely to be designs--still less bona   
fide working drawings4 ,the real workman
 has not the time1 even if he had the   
inclination1 to finish up his drawings  
to the point that is generally          
considered pleasing2 the inventive      
spirit has not the patience4 ,we have   
each of us the failings complementary to
 our faculties1 and vice versa2 and you 
will usually find--certainly it is my   
experience--that the makers of very     
elaborately finished drawings seldom do 
anything but what we have often seen    

before2 and that men of any             
individuality1 actual designers that is 
to say1 have a way of considering a     
drawing finished as soon as ever it     
expresses what they mean4  ,you may take
 it1 then1 as a general rule that highly
 finished and elaborate drawings are got
 up for show1 finished for exhibition as
 they say 7in compliance with the       
supposed requirements of an exhibition  
rather than with a view to practical    
purposes71 and that drawings completed  
only so far as is necessary1 precise in 
their details1 disfigured by notes in   
writing1 sections1 and so on1 are at    
least genuine workaday designs4  ,if you
 ask what a design should be like--well1
 like a design4 ,it is altogether a     
different thing from a picture2 it is   
almost the reverse of it4 ,practically  
no man has1 as ,i said1 the leisure1    
even if he had the ability1 to make an  
effective finished picture of a thing   
yet to be carried out--perhaps not to be
 carried out4 ,this last is a most      

serious consideration for him1 and may  
have a sad effect upon his work4 ,the   
artist who could afford thus to give    
himself away gratis would certainly not 
do so2 the man who might be willing to  
do it could not2 for if he has got no   
work to do--that is at least presumptive
 evidence that he is not precisely a    
master of his craft4  ,the design that  
looks like a picture is likely to be at 
best a reminiscence of something done   
before2 and the more often it has been  
done the more likely it is to be        
pictorially successful--and by so much  
the less is it1 strictly speaking1 a    
design4  ,this applies especially to    
designs on a small scale1 such as are   
usually submitted to catch the rare     
commission4 ,to imitate in a full-sized 
cartoon the texture of material1 the    
casualty of reflected light1 and other  
such accidents of effect1 is sheer      
nonsense1 and no practical workman would
 think of such a thing4 ,a painter put  
to the uncongenial task of decorative   

design might be excused for attempting  
to make his productions pass muster by  
workmanship excellent in itself1        
although not in the least to the point3 
one does what one can1 or what one must2
 and if a man has a faculty he needs    
must show it4 ,only1 the perfection of  
painting will not1 for all that1 make   
design4  ,in the first small            
sketch-design1 everything need not of   
course be expressed2 but it should be   
indicated--for the purpose is simply to 
explain the scheme proposed3 so much of 
pictorial representation as may be      
necessary to that is desirable1 and no  
more4 ,it should be in the nature of a  
diagram1 specific enough to illustrate  
the idea and how it is to be worked out4
 ,it ought by strict rights to commit   
one definitely to a certain method of   
execution1 as a written specification   
would2 and may often with advantage be  
helped out by written notes1 which      
explain more definitely than any        
pictorial rendering just how this is to 

be wrought1 that cast1 the other chased1
 and so on1 as the case may be4         
,whatever the method of expression the  
artist may adopt1 he should be perfectly
 clear in his own mind how his design is
 to be worked out2 and he ought to make 
it clear also to any one with sufficient
 technical knowledge to understand a    
drawing4  ,in the first sketch for a    
window1 for example1 he need not show   
every lead and every piece of glass2 but
 there should be no possible mistake as 
to how it is to be glazed1 or which is  
painted glass and which is mosaic4 ,to  
omit the necessary bars in a sketch for 
glass seems to me a weak concession to  
the prejudice of the public4 ,one may   
have to concede such points sometimes2  
but the concession is due less to       
necessity than to the--what shall we    
call it8--not perhaps exactly the       
cowardice1 but at all events the        
timidity1 of the artist4  ,in a         
full-sized working drawing or cartoon   
everything material to the design should

 be expressed1 and that as definitely as
 possible4 ,in a cartoon for glass 7to  
take again the same example7 every      
lead-line should be shown1 as well as   
the saddle bars2 to omit them is about  
as excusable as it would be to leave out
 the sections from a design for cabinet 
work4 ,it is contended sometimes that   
such details are not necessary1 that the
 artist can bear all that in mind4      
,doubtless he can1 more or less2 but ,i 
am inclined to believe more strongly in 
the less4 ,at any rate he will much more
 certainly have them in view whilst he  
keeps them visibly before his eyes4 ,one
 thing that deters him is the fear of   
offending the client1 who will not      
believe1 when he sees leads and bars in 
a drawing1 how little they are likely to
 assert themselves in the glass4  ,very 
much the same thing applies to designs  
and working drawings generally4 ,a      
thorough craftsman never suggests a form
 or colour without realising in his own 
mind how he will be able to get such    

form or colour in the actual work2 and  
in his working drawing he explains that 
fully1 making allowance even for some   
not impossible dulness of apprehension  
on the part of the executant4 ,thus1 if 
a pattern is to be woven he indicates   
the cards to be employed1 he arranges   
what parts are single1 what double1 as  
the weavers call it1 what changes in the
 shuttle are proposed1 and by the       
crossing of which threads certain       
intermediate tints are to be obtained4  
,or again1 if the design is for         
wall-paper printing1 he arranges not    
only for the blocks1 but the order in   
which they shall be printed2 and        
provides for possible printing in flock1
 or for the printing of one transparent 
colour over another1 so as to get more  
colours than there are blocks used1 and 
so on4  ,in either case1 too1 he shows  
quite plainly the limits of each colour1
 not so much seeking the softness of    
effect which is his ultimate aim1 as the
 precision which will enable the block  

or card cutter to see at a glance what  
he means1--even at the risk of a certain
 hardness in his drawing2 for the       
drawing is in itself of no account2 it  
is only the means to an end2 and his end
 is the stuff1 the paper1 or whatever it
 may be1 in execution4  ,a workman      
intent on his design will sacrifice his 
drawing to it--harden it1 as ,i said1   
for the sake of emphasis1 annotate it1  
patch it1 cut it up into pieces to prove
 it1 if need be do anything to make his 
meaning clear to the workman who comes  
after him4 ,it is as a rule only the    
dilettante who is dainty about          
preserving his drawings4  ,to an artist 
very much in repute there may be some   
temptation to be careful of his designs1
 and to elaborate them 7himself1 or by  
the hands of his assistants71 because1  
so finished1 they have a commercial     
value as drawings--but this is at best  
pot-boiling2 and the only men who are   
subject to this temptation are just     
those who might be proof against it4    

,men of such rank that even their       
working drawings are in demand have no  
very urgent need to work for the pot2   
and the working drawings of men to whom 
pounds and shillings must needs be a    
real consideration are not sought after4
  ,in the case of very smart and highly 
finished drawings by comparatively      
unknown designers--of ninety-nine out of
 a hundred1 that is to say1 or nine     
hundred and ninety-nine out of a        
thousand perhaps--elaboration implies   
either that1 having little to say1 a man
 fills up his time in saying it at      
unnecessary length1 or that he is       
working for exhibition4  ,and why not   
work for exhibition8 it may be asked4   
,there is a simple answer to that3 ,the 
exhibition pitch is in much too high a  
key1 and in the long run it will ruin   
the faculty of the workman who adopts   
it4  ,it is only fair to admit that an  
exhibition of fragmentary and unfinished
 drawings1 soiled1 tattered1 and torn1  
as they almost invariably come from the 

workshop or factory1 would make a very  
poor show--which may be an argument     
against exhibiting them at all4         
,certainly it is a reason for mending1  
cleaning1 and mounting them1 and putting
 them in some sort of frame 7for what is
 not worth the pains of making          
presentable is not worth showing71 but  
that is a very different thing from     
working designs up to picture pitch4    
,when all is said1 designs1 if          
exhibited1 appeal primarily to          
designers4 ,we all want to see each     
other's work1 and especially each       
other's way of working2 but it should   
not be altogether uninteresting to the  
intelligent amateur to see what working 
drawings are1 and to compare them with  
the kind of specious competition        
drawings by which he is so apt to be    
misled4  ,,lewis ,f4 ,,day4             
,,furniture ,,and ,,the ,,room   ,the   
art of furnishing runs on two           
wheels--the room and the furniture4 ,as 
in the bicycle1 the inordinate          

development of one wheel at the expense 
of its colleague has been not without   
some great feats1 yet too often has     
provoked catastrophe2 so furnishing     
makes safest progression when1 with a   
juster proportion1 its two wheels are   
kept to moderate and uniform diameters4 
,the room should be for the furniture   
just as much as the furniture for the   
room4  ,of late it has not been so2 we  
have been indulging in the              
disproportionately wheeled type1 and the
 result has been to crowd our rooms1 and
 reduce them to insignificance4 ,even   
locomotion in them is often             
embarrassing1 especially when the       
upholsterer has been allowed carte      
blanche4 ,but1 apart from this1 there is
 a sense of repletion in these masses of
 chattel--miscellanies brought together 
with no subordination to each other1 or 
to the effect of the room as a whole4   
,taken in the single piece1 our         
furniture is sometimes not without its  
merit1 but it is rarely exempt from     

self-assertion1 or1 to use a slang term1
 fussiness4 ,and an aggregation of      
fussinesses becomes fatiguing4 ,one is  
betrayed into uncivilised longings for  
the workhouse1 or even the convict's    
cell1 the simplicity of bare boards and 
tables6  ,but we must not use our dictum
 for aggressive purposes merely1 faulty 
as modern systems may be4 ,in the       
distinction of the two sides of the     
problem of furnishing--the room for the 
furniture1 and the furniture for the    
room--there is some historical          
significance4 ,under these titles might 
be written respectively the first and   
last chapters in the history of this    
art--its rise and its decadence4        
,furniture in the embryonic state of    
chests1 which held the possessions of   
early times1 and served1 as they moved  
from place to place1 for tables1 chairs1
 and wardrobes1 may have been in        
existence while the tents and sheds     
which accommodated them were of less    
value4 ,but furnishing began with       

settled architecture1 when the room grew
 first into importance1 and overshadowed
 its contents4 ,the art of the builder  
had soared far beyond the ambitions of  
the furnisher4  ,later1 the two         
constituents of our art came to be      
produced simultaneously1 and under one  
impulse of design4 ,the room1 whether   
church or hall1 had now its specific    
furniture4 ,in the former this was      
adapted for ritual1 in the latter for   
feasting2 but in both the contents      
formed in idea an integral part of the  
interior in which they stood4 ,and while
 these conditions endured1 the art was  
in its palmy state4  ,later1 furniture  
came to be considered apart from its    
position4 ,it grew fanciful and         
fortuitous4 ,the problem of fitting it  
to the room was no problem at all while 
both sprang from a common conception3 it
 became so when its independent design1 
at first a foible of luxury1 grew to be 
a necessity of production4 ,as long1    
however1 as architecture remained       

dominant1 and painting and sculpture    
were its acknowledged vassals1 furniture
 retained its legitimate position and   
shared in their triumphs4 ,but when     
these the elder sisters shook off their 
allegiance1 furniture followed suit4 ,it
 developed the self-assertion of which  
we have spoken1 and1 in the belief that 
it could stand alone1 divorced itself   
from that support which was the final   
cause of its existence4 ,there have been
 doubtless many slackenings and         
tightenings of the chain which links the
 arts of design together2 but it is to  
be noted how with each slackening       
furniture grew gorgeous and artificial1 
failed to sympathise with common needs1 
and sank slowly but surely into         
feebleness and insipidity4  ,we had     
passed through some such cycle by the   
middle of this century4 ,with the       
dissolution of old ties the majority of 
the decorative arts had perished4       
,painting remained to us1 arrogating to 
herself the role which hitherto the     

whole company had combined to make      
successful4 ,in her struggle to fill the
 giant's robe1 she has run unresistingly
 in the ruts of the age4 ,she has       
crowded her portable canvases1 side by  
side1 into exhibitions and galleries1   
and claimed the title of art for        
literary rather than aesthetic          
suggestions4 ,the minor coquetries of   
craftsmanship1 from which once was      
nourished the burly strength of art1    
have felt out of place in such          
illustrious company4 ,so we have the    
forced art of public display1 but it has
 ceased to be the habit in which our    
common rooms and homely walls could be  
dressed4  ,the attendant symptom has    
been the loss from our houses of all    
that architectural amalgam1 which in    
former times blended the structure with 
its contents1 the screens and           
panellings1 which1 half room1 half      
furniture1 cemented the one to the      
other4 ,the eighteenth century carried  
on the tradition to a great extent with 

plinth and dado1 cornice and encrusted  
ceiling2 but by the middle of the       
nineteenth we had our interiors handed  
over to us by the architect almost      
completely void of architectural        
feature4 ,we are asked to take as a     
substitute1 what is naively called      
decoration1 two coats of paint1 and a   
veneer of machine-printed wall-papers4  
,in this progress of obliteration an    
important factor has been the increasing
 brevity of our tenures4 ,three or four 
times in twenty years the outgoing      
tenant will make good his dilapidations1
 and the house-agent will put the       
premises into tenantable repair--as     
these things are settled for us by      
lawyers and surveyors4 ,after a series  
of such processes1 what can remain of   
internal architecture8 ,can there be    
left even a room worth furnishing1 in   
the true sense of the term8 ,the first  
step to render it so must usually be the
 obliteration of as much as possible of 
the maimed and distorted construction1  

which our leasehold house offers4  ,what
 wonder1 then1 if furniture1 beginning  
again to account herself an art1 should 
have transgressed her limits and invaded
 the room8 ,ceilings1 walls and floors1 
chimneypieces1 grates1 doors and        
windows1 all nowadays come into the     
hands of the artistic furnisher1 and are
 at the mercy of upholsterers and       
cabinetmakers to begin with1 and of the 
antiquity-collector to follow4 ,then we 
bring in our gardens1 and finish off our
 drawing-room as a mixture of a         
conservatory and a bric-a-brac shop4    
,the fashion for archaeological mimicry 
has been another pitfall4 ,the attempt  
to bring back art by complete           
reproductions of old-day furnishings has
 been much the vogue abroad4 ,the       
,parisians distinguish many styles and  
affect to carry them out in every       
detail4 ,the ,americans have copied     
,paris1 and we have done a little       
ourselves4 ,but the weak element in all 
this is1 that the occupier of these     

mediaeval or classic apartments remains 
still the nineteenth-century embodiment1
 which we meet in railway carriage and  
omnibus4 ,we cannot be cultured         
,epicureans in a drawing-room of the    
,roman ,empire1 and by the opening of a 
door walk as ,flemish ,burgomasters into
 our libraries4 ,the heart of the age   
will mould its productions irrespective 
of fashion or archaeology1 and such     
miserable shams fail to reach it4  ,if  
we1 who live in this century1 can at all
 ourselves appraise the position1 its   
most essential characteristic in its    
bearing upon art has been the commercial
 tendency4 ,thereby an indelible stamp  
is set upon our furniture4 ,the making  
of it under the supreme condition of    
profitable sale has affected it in both 
its functions4 ,on the side of utility  
our furniture has been shaped to the    
uses of the million1 not of the         
individual4 ,hence its monotonously     
average character1 its failure to become
 part of ourselves1 its lack of personal

 and local charm4 ,how should a stock   
article possess either8  ,but the blight
 has fallen more cruelly on that other  
function1 which is a necessity of human 
craftsmanship--the effort to express    
itself and please the eye by the        
expression4 ,art being the monopoly of  
painting1 and having nothing to do with 
such vulgar matters as furniture1       
commercialism has been able to advance a
 standard of beauty of its own1 with one
 canon1 that of speedy profits4         
,furniture has become a mere ware in the
 market of fashion4 ,bought to-day as   
the rage1 it is discarded to-morrow1 and
 some new fancy purchased4 ,the         
tradesman has a new margin of profit1   
but the customer is just where he was4  
,it may be granted that a genuine       
necessity of sale is the stimulus to    
which all serious effort in the arts    
must look for progress1 and without     
which they would become faddism and     
conceit4 ,but it is a different thing   
altogether when this passes from        

stimulus into motive--the exclusive     
motive of profit to the producer4 ,the  
worth of the article is impaired as much
 as the well-being of the craftsman1 and
 furniture is degraded to the position  
of a pawn in the game of the sweater4   
,we must1 ,i fear1 be content at present
 to put up with exhibitions and         
unarchitectural rooms4 ,but while making
 the best of these conditions1 we need  
not acquiesce in them or maintain their 
permanence4 ,at any rate we may fight a 
good fight with commercialism4 ,the     
evils of heartless and unloving         
production1 under the grind of an       
unnecessary greed1 are patent enough to 
lead us to reflect that we have after   
all in these matters a choice4 ,we need 
not spend our money on that which is not
 bread4 ,we can go for our furniture to 
the individual craftsman and not the    
commercial firm4 ,the penalty for so    
doing is no longer prohibitive4  ,in    
closing our remarks we cannot do better 
than repeat our initial axiom--the art  

of furnishing lies with the room as much
 as with the furniture4 ,the old ways   
are still the only ways4 ,when we care  
for art sufficiently to summon her from 
her state prison-house of exhibitions   
and galleries1 to live again a free life
 among us in our homes1 she will appear 
as a controlling force1 using not only  
painting and sculpture1 but all the     
decorative arts to shape room and       
furniture under one purpose of design4  
,whether we shall then give her the     
time-honoured title of architecture1 or 
call her by another name1 is of no      
moment4  ,,edward ,s4 ,,prior4     ,,of 
,,the ,,room ,,and ,,furniture   ,the   
transient tenure that most of us have in
 our dwellings1 and the absorbing nature
 of the struggle that most of us have to
 make to win the necessary provisions of
 life1 prevent our encouraging the      
manufacture of well-wrought furniture4  
,we mean to outgrow our houses--our     
lease expires after so many years and   
then we shall want an entirely different

 class of furniture2 consequently we    
purchase articles that have only        
sufficient life in them to last the     
brief period of our occupation1 and are 
content to abide by the want of         
appropriateness or beauty1 in the clear 
intention of some day surrounding       
ourselves with objects that shall be    
joys to us for the remainder of our     
life4 ,another deterrent condition to   
making a serious outlay in furniture is 
the instability of fashion3 each decade 
sees a new style1 and the furniture that
 we have acquired in the exercise of our
 experienced taste will in all          
probability be discarded by the         
impetuous purism of the succeeding      
generation4  ,at present we are         
suffering from such a catholicity of    
taste as sees good in everything1 and   
has an indifferent and tepid            
appreciation of all and sundry1         
especially if consecrated by age4  ,this
 is mainly a reaction against the       
austerity of those moralists who        

preached the logic of construction1 and 
who required outward proof of the       
principles on which and by which each   
piece was designed4  ,another cause     
prejudicial to the growth of modern     
furniture is the canonisation of old4   
,that tables and chairs should have     
lasted one hundred years is indeed proof
 that they were originally well made3   
that the conditions of the moment of    
their make were better than they are now
 is possible1 and such aureole as is    
their due let us hasten to offer4 ,but1 
to take advantage of their survival and 
to increase their number by facsimile   
reproduction is to paralyse all healthy 
growth of manufacture4  ,as an answer to
 the needs and habits of our ancestors  
of one hundred years ago--both in       
construction and design--let them serve 
us as models showing the attitude of    
mind in which we should meet the        
problems of our day--and so far as the  
needs and habits of the present time are
 unchanged1 as models of form1 not to be

 incorporated with our vernacular1 but  
which we should recognise as successful 
form1 and discover the plastic secrets  
of its shape4  ,with this possession we 
may borrow what forms we will--shapes of
 the ,ind and far ,cathay--the whole    
wide world is open to us--of past       
imaginations and of the dreams of our   
own4  ,but without this master-key the  
copying is slavish1 and the bondage of  
the task is both cruel and destructive4 
,cruel1 because mindless1 work can be   
reproduced more rapidly than thoughtful 
work can be invented1 and the rate of   
production affects the price of other   
articles of similar kind1 so that the   
one dictates what the other shall       
receive2 and destructive1 because it    
treats the craftsman as a mere machine1 
whose only standard can be mechanical   
excellence4  ,now1 all furniture that   
has any permanent value has been        
designed and wrought to meet the ends it
 had to serve1 and the careful          
elaboration of it gave its maker scope  

for his pleasure and occasion for his   
pride4  ,if a man really likes what he  
has got to do1 he will make great shifts
 to express and realise his pleasure2 he
 will choose carefully his materials1   
and either in playfulness of fancy1 or  
in grave renunciation of the garniture  
of his art1 will put the stamp of his   
individuality on his work4  ,an example 
of living art in modern furniture is a  
costermonger's barrow4 ,affectionately  
put together1 carved and painted1 it    
expresses almost in words the pride and 
taste of its owner4  ,as long as we are 
incapable of recognising and            
sympathising with the delight of the    
workman in the realisation of his art1  
our admiration of his work is a         
pretence1 and our encouragement of it   
blind--and this blindness makes us      
insensitive as to whether the delight is
 really there or no2 consequently our   
patronage will most often be disastrous 
rather than helpful4  ,the value of     
furniture depends on the directness of  

its response to the requirements that   
called it into being1 and to the nature 
of the conditions that evoked it4  ,to  
obtain good furniture we must contrive  
that the conditions of its service are  
worthy conditions1 and not merely the   
dictates of our fancy or our sloth4  ,at
 the present moment modern furniture may
 be roughly divided into two classes3   
furniture for service1 and furniture for
 display4 ,most of us1 however1 have to 
confine ourselves to the possession of  
serviceable furniture only2 and a more  
frank recognition of this limitation    
would assist us greatly in our          
selection4 ,if only we kept our real    
needs steadily before us1 how much more 
beauty we could import into our homes6  
,owing to lack of observation1 and of   
experienced canons of taste1 our fancies
 are caught by some chance object that  
pleases--one of that huge collection of 
ephemeral articles which have been      
created to supply a want that hitherto  
has never been felt--and as the cost of 

these fictions is 7by the nature of the 
case7 so low as to be of no great moment
 to us1 the thing is purchased and helps
 henceforth to swell the museum of      
incongruous accumulation that goes by   
the name of a furnished drawing-room4   
,a fancy1 so caught1 is soon outworn1   
but the precept of economy forbids the  
discharge of the superfluous purchase1  
and so it adds its unit to the sum of   
daily labour spent on its preservation  
and its appearance4 ,this burden of     
unnecessary toil is the index of the    
needlessness and cruelty with which we  
spend the labour of those whom need has 
put under our service4  ,and the sum of 
money spent on these ill-considered     
acquisitions which have gone to swell   
the general total of distress1 an       
ever-widening ring of bitter ripple1    
might1 concentrated1 have purchased some
 one thing1 both beautiful and useful1  
whose fashioning had been a pleasure to 
the artificer1 and whose presence was an
 increasing delight to the owner and an 

added unit to this world's real wealth4 
,such indiscriminate collection defeats 
its own aim4 ,compare the way ,giovanni 
,bellini fits up ,st4 ,jerome's study   
for him in the ,national ,gallery4      
,there is no stint of money evidently2  
the ,saint gets all that he can properly
 want1 and he gets over and above--the  
addition born of his denial--the look of
 peace and calm in his room1 that can so
 seldom be found with us4 ,another      
reason why our rooms are so glaringly   
over-furnished is1 that many of us aim  
at a standard of profusion1 in          
forgetfulness of the circumstances which
 created that standard4 ,families1 whose
 descent has been historic1 and whose   
home has been their pride1 accumulate1  
in the lapse of time1 heirlooms of many 
kinds--pictures1 furniture1 trinkets1   
etc4--and as these increase in numbers1 
the rooms in which they are contained   
become filled and crowded beyond what   
beauty or comfort permits1 and such     
sacrifice is justly made for the demands

 of filial pride4  ,this emotion is so  
conspicuously an honourable one that we 
are all eager to possess and give scope 
to our own1 and so long as the scope is 
honest there is nothing more laudable4  
,but the temptation is to add to our    
uninherited display in this particular  
by substitutes1 and to surround         
ourselves with immemorable articles1 the
 justification of whose presence really 
should be that they form part of the    
history of our lives in more important  
respects than the mere occasions of     
their purchase4  ,it is this unreasoning
 ambition that leads to the rivalling of
 princely houses by the acquisition of  
family portraits purchased in ,wardour  
,street--the rivalling of historic      
libraries by the purchase of thousands  
of books to form our yesterday's        
libraries of undisturbed volumes--the   
rivalling of memorable chairs and       
tables1 by recently bought articles of  
our own1 crowded in imitation of our    
model with innumerable trifles1 to the  

infinite tax of our space1 our patience1
 and our purse4  ,our want of care and  
restraint in the selection of our       
furniture affects both its design and   
manufacture4  ,constantly articles are  
bought for temporary use--we postponing 
the responsibility of wise purchase     
until we have more time1 or else we buy 
what is not precisely what we want but  
which must do1 since we cannot wait to  
have the exact things made1 and have not
 the time to search elsewhere for them4 
,furniture1 in response to this demand1 
must be made either so striking as to   
arrest the eye1 or so variedly          
serviceable as to meet some considerable
 proportion of the conflicting          
requirements made on it by the chance   
intending purchaser1 or else it must    
fall back on the impregnable basis of   
antiquity and silence all argument with 
the canon that what the late ,mr4       
,chippendale did was bound to be good   
taste4  ,there should be a place for    
everything1 and everything in its place4

 ,very true4 ,but in the exercise of our
 orderliness we require the hearty      
co-operation of the place itself4 ',tis 
a wonderful aid when the place fits the 
object it is intended to contain4  ,take
 the common male chest of drawers as a  
case in point4 ,its function is to hold 
a man's shirts and his clothes1 articles
 of a known and constant size4 ,why are 
the drawers not made proportionate for  
their duty8 ,why are they so few and so 
deep that when filled--as they needs    
must be--they are uneasy to draw out1   
and to obtain the particular article of 
which we are in quest1 and which of     
course is at the bottom1 we must burrow 
into the heavy super-incumbent mass of  
clothes in our search1 and--that        
successful--spend a weary while in      
contriving to repack the ill-disposed   
space4 ,it can hardly be economy of     
labour and material that dictates this1 
for--if so--why is the usual hanging    
wardrobe made so preposterously too     
tall8 ,does the idiot maker suppose that

 a woman's dress is hung all in one     
piece1 body and skirt1 from the nape of 
the neck1 to trail its extremest length8
  ,the art of buying furniture1 or      
having it made for us1 is to be acquired
 only by study and pains1 and we must   
either pursue the necessary education1  
or depute the furnishing of our rooms to
 competent hands3 and the responsibility
 does not end here1 for there is the    
duty of discovering who are competent1  
and this must be done indirectly since  
direct inquiry only elicits the one     
criterion1 omnipotent1 omnipresent1 of  
cost4  ,the object to be gained in      
furnishing a room is to supply the just 
requirements of the occupants1 to       
accentuate or further the character of  
the room1 and to indicate the individual
 habits and tastes of the owner4  ,each 
piece should be beautiful in itself1    
and1 still more important1 should       
minister to and increase the beauty of  
the others4 ,collective beauty is to be 
aimed at2 not so much individual4       

,proportion is another essential4 ,not  
that the proportions of furniture should
 vary with the size of the rooms3 the   
dimensions of chairs1 height of tables1 
sizes of doors1 have long been all fixed
 and1 having direct reference to the    
human body1 are immutable4              
,substantially1 the size of man's body  
is the same and has been the same from  
the dawn of history until now1 and will 
be the same whether in a cottage parlour
 or the ,albert ,hall4 ,but there is a  
proportion in the relations of the      
spaces of a room to its furniture which 
must be secured4 ,if this is not done1  
no individual beauty of the objects in  
the room will repair the lost harmony or
 be compensation for the picture that   
might have been4  ,a museum of beautiful
 objects has its educational value1 but 
no one pretends that it claims to be    
more than a storehouse of beauty4  ,the 
painter who crowds his canvas with the  
innumerable spots of colour that can be 
squeezed out of every tube of beautiful 

paint that the colourman sells1 is no   
nearer his goal than he who fills his   
rooms with a heterogeneous miscellany of
 articles swept together from every     
clime and of every age4  ,,halsey       
,,ricardo4     ,,the ,,english          
,,tradition   ,the sense of a           
consecutive tradition has so completely 
faded out of ,english art that it has   
become difficult to realise the meaning 
of tradition1 or the possibility of its 
ever again reviving2 and this state of  
things is not improved by the fact that 
it is due to uncertainty of purpose1 and
 not to any burning fever of            
individualism4 ,tradition in art is a   
matter of environment1 of intellectual  
atmosphere4 ,as the result of many      
generations of work along one continuous
 line1 there has accumulated a certain  
amount of ability in design and manual  
dexterity1 certain ideas are in the air1
 certain ways of doing things come to be
 recognised as the right ways4 ,to all  
this endowment an artist born in any of 

the living ages of art succeeded as a   
matter of course1 and it is the absence 
of this inherited knowledge that places 
the modern craftsman under exceptional  
disabilities4  ,there is evidence to    
prove the existence in ,england of      
hereditary crafts in which the son      
succeeded the father for generations1   
and to show that the guilds were rather 
the guardians of high traditional skill 
than mere trades unions2 but there is   
surer proof of a common thread of       
tradition in certain qualities all along
 the line1 which gave to ,english work a
 character peculiar to itself4          
,instances of genuine ,gothic furniture 
are rare2 in ,england at any rate it was
 usually simple and solid1 sufficient to
 answer the needs of an age without any 
highly developed sense of the luxuries  
of life4 ,it is not till the            
,renaissance that much material can be  
found for a history of ,english         
furniture4 ,much of the motif of this   
work came from ,italy and the           

,netherlands2 indeed cabinet work was   
imported largely from the latter        
country4 ,it was just here1 however1    
that tradition stepped in1 and gave to  
our sixteenth and seventeenth century   
furniture a distinctly national         
character4 ,the delicate mouldings1 the 
skilful turnings1 the quiet inlays of   
ebony1 ivory1 cherry wood1 and walnut1  
above all the breadth and sobriety of   
its design1 point to a tradition of     
craftsmanship strong enough to          
assimilate all the ideas which it       
borrowed from other ages and other      
countries4 ,contrast1 for instance1 a   
piece of ,tottenham ,court ,road        
marquetry with the mother-of-pearl and  
ebony inlay on an ,english cabinet at   
,south ,kensington4 ,so far as mere     
skill in cutting goes there may be no   
great difference between the two1 but   
the latter is charming1 and the former  
tedious in the last degree2 and the     
reason is that in the seventeenth       
century the craftsman loved his work1   

and was master of it4 ,he started with  
an idea in his head1 and used his       
material with meaning1 and so his inlay 
is as fanciful as the seaweed1 and yet  
entirely subordinated to the harmony of 
the whole design4 ,perhaps some of the  
best furniture work ever done in        
,england was done between #afjj and     
#affj4 ,i refer1 of course1 to the good 
examples1 to work which depended for its
 effect on refined design and delicate  
detail1 not to the bulbous legs and     
coarse carving of ordinary ,elizabethan1
 though even this had a naivete and     
spontaneity entirely lacking in modern  
reproductions4  ,after the ,restoration1
 signs of ,french influence appear in   
,english furniture1 but the tradition of
 structural fitness and dignity of      
design was preserved through the great  
architectural age of ,wren and ,gibbs1  
and lasted till the latter half of the  
eighteenth century4 ,if that century was
 not particularly inspired1 it at least 
understood consummate workmanship4 ,the 

average of technical skill in the       
handicrafts was far in advance of the   
ordinary trade work of the present day4 
,some curious evidences of the activity 
prevailing in what are called the minor 
arts may be found in ,the ,laboratory   
and ,school of ,arts1 a small octavo    
volume published in #agch4 ,the work of 
this period furnishes a standing        
instance of the value of tradition4 ,by 
the beginning of the eighteenth century 
a school of carvers had grown up in     
,england who could carve1 with absolute 
precision and without mechanical aids1  
all such ornament as egg and tongue     
work1 or the acanthus1 and other        
conventional foliage used for the       
decoration of the mouldings of doors1   
mantelpieces1 and the like4 ,grinling   
,gibbons is usually named as the founder
 of this school1 but ,gibbons was       
himself trained by such men as ,wren and
 ,gibbs1 and for the source from which  
this work derives the real stamp of     
style one must go back to the austere   

genius of ,inigo ,jones4 ,the importance
 of the architect1 in influencing       
craftsmen in all such matters as this1  
cannot be overrated4 ,he has1 or ought  
to have1 sufficient knowledge of the    
crafts to settle for the craftsman the  
all-important points of scale and       
proportion to the rest of the design2   
and this is just one of those points in 
which contemporary architecture1 both as
 regards the education of the architect 
and current practice1 is exceedingly apt
 to fail4 ,sir ,william ,chambers and   
the brothers ,adam were the last of the 
architects before the cataclysm of the  
nineteenth century who made designs for 
furniture with any degree of skill4  ,in
 the latter half of the eighteenth      
century occur the familiar names of     
,chippendale1 ,heppelwhite1 and         
,sheraton1 and if these excellent       
cabinetmakers did a tenth of the work   
with which the dealers credit them1 they
 must each have had the hundred hands of
 ,gyas4 ,the rosewood furniture inlaid  

with arabesques in thin flat brass1 and 
made by ,gillow at the end of the last  
century1 is perhaps the last genuine    
effort in ,english furniture1 though the
 tradition of good work and simple      
design died very hard in old-fashioned  
country places4 ,the mischief began with
 the ridiculous mediaevalism of ,horace 
,walpole1 which substituted amateur     
fancy for craftsmanship1 and led in the 
following century to the complete       
extinction of any tradition whatever4   
,the heavy attempts at furniture in the 
,greek style which accompanied the      
architecture of ,wilkins and ,soane were
 as artificial as this literary ,gothic1
 and the two resulted in the chaos of   
art which found its expression in the   
great ,exhibition of #ahea4  ,three     
great qualities stamped the ,english    
tradition in furniture so long as it was
 a living force--steadfastness of       
purpose1 reserve in design1 and thorough
 workmanship4 ,take any good period of  
,english furniture1 and one finds       

certain well-recognised types           
consistently adhered to throughout the  
country4 ,there is no difficulty in     
grasping their general characteristics1 
whereas the very genius of              
classification could furnish no clue to 
the labyrinth of nineteenth-century     
design4 ,the men of these earlier times 
made no laborious search for quaintness1
 no disordered attempt to combine the   
peculiarities of a dozen different ages4
 ,one general type was adhered to       
because it was the legacy of            
generations1 and there was no reason for
 departing from such an excellent model4
 ,the designers and the workmen had only
 to perfect what was already good2 they 
made no experiments in ornament1 but    
used it with nice judgment1 and full    
knowledge of its effect4 ,the result was
 that1 instead of being forced and      
unreasonable1 their work was thoroughly 
happy2 one cannot think of it as better 
done than it is4  ,the quality of       
reserve and sobriety is even more       

important4 ,as compared with the later  
developments of the ,renaissance on the 
,continent1 ,english furniture was      
always distinguished by its simplicity  
and self-restraint4 ,yet it is this very
 quality which is most conspicuously    
absent from modern work4 ,as a people we
 rather pride ourselves on the resolute 
suppression of any florid display of    
feeling1 but art in this country is so  
completely divorced from everyday       
existence1 that it never seems to occur 
to an ,englishman to import some of this
 fine insular quality into his daily    
surroundings4  ,it has been reserved for
 this generation to part company with   
the tradition of finished workmanship4  
,good work of course can be done1 but it
 is exceedingly difficult to find the   
workman1 and the average is bad4 ,we    
have nothing to take the place of the   
admirable craftsmanship of the last     
century1 which included not only great  
manual skill1 but also an assured       
knowledge of the purpose of any given   

piece of furniture1 of the form best    
suited for it1 and the exact strength of
 material necessary1 a knowledge which  
came of long familiarity with the       
difficulties of design and execution1   
which never hesitated in its technique1 
which attained a rightness of method so 
complete as to seem inevitable4         
,craftsmanship of this order hardly     
exists nowadays4 ,it is the result of   
tradition1 of the labour of many        
generations of cunning workmen4         
,lastly1 as the complement of these     
lapses on the part of the craftsman1    
there has been a gradual decadence in   
the taste of the public4 ,science and   
mechanical ingenuity have gone far to   
destroy the art of the handicrafts4 ,art
 is a matter of the imagination1 and of 
the skill of one's hands--but the pace  
nowadays is too much for it4 ,certainly 
from the sixteenth to the eighteenth    
century a well-educated ,english        
gentleman had some knowledge of the     
arts1 and especially of architecture2   

the ,earl of ,burlington even designed  
important buildings1 though not with    
remarkable success2 but at any rate     
educated people had some insight into   
the arts1 whether inherited or acquired4
 ,nowadays good education and breeding  
are no guarantee for anything of the    
sort1 unless it is some miscellaneous   
knowledge of pictures4 ,few people1     
outside the artists1 and not too many of
 them1 give any serious attention to    
architecture and sculpture1 and         
consequently an art such as furniture1  
which is based almost entirely upon     
these1 is hardly recognised by the      
public as an art at all4 ,how much the  
artist and his public react upon each   
other is shown by the plain fact that up
 to the last few years they have        
steadily marched down hill together1 and
 it is not very certain that they have  
yet begun to turn the corner4 ,that our 
,english tradition was once a living    
thing is shown by the beautiful         
furniture1 purely ,english in design and

 execution1 still to be seen in great   
houses and museums1 but it is not likely
 that such a tradition will spring up   
again till the artists try to make the  
unity of the arts a real thing1 and the 
craftsman grows callous to fashion and  
archaeology1 and the public resolutely  
turns its back on what is tawdry and    
silly4  ,,reginald ,,blomfield4         
,,carpenters' ,,furniture   ,it requires
 a far search to gather up examples of  
furniture really representative in this 
kind1 and thus to gain a point of view  
for a prospect into the more ideal where
 furniture no longer is bought to look  
expensively useless in a boudoir1 but   
serves everyday and commonplace need1   
such as must always be the wont1 where  
most men work1 and exchange in some sort
 life for life4  ,the best present-day  
example is the deal table in those last 
places to be vulgarised1 farm-house or  
cottage kitchen4 ,but in the ,middle    
,ages things as simply made as a kitchen
 table1 mere carpenters' framings1 were 

decorated to the utmost stretch of the  
imagination by means simple and rude as 
their construction4 ,design1 indeed1    
really fresh and penetrating1 co-exists 
it seems only with simplest conditions4 
,simple1 serviceable movables fall into 
few kinds3 the box1 cupboard1 and table1
 the stool1 bench1 and chair4 ,the box  
was once the most frequent1 useful1 and 
beautiful of all these2 now it is never 
made as furniture4 ,often it was seat1  
coffer1 and table in one1 with chequers 
inlaid on the top for chess4 ,there are 
a great number of chests in ,england as 
early as the thirteenth century4 ,one   
type of construction1 perhaps the       
earliest1 is to clamp the wood-work     
together and beautifully decorate it by 
branching scrolls of iron-work4 ,another
 kind was ornamented by a sort of       
butter-print patterning1 cut into the   
wood in ingenious fillings to squares   
and circles1 which you can imitate by   
drawing the intersecting lines the      
compasses seem to make of their own will

 in a circle1 and cutting down each     
space to a shallow ,v4 ,this simple     
carpenter's decoration is especially    
identified with chests4 ,the same kind  
of work is still done in ,iceland and   
,norway1 the separate compartments often
 brightly painted into a mosaic of      
colour2 or patterns of simple           
scroll-work are made out in incised line
 and space4 ,in ,italy this charming art
 of incising was carried much farther in
 the cassoni1 the fronts of which1 broad
 planks of cypress wood1 are often      
romantic with quite a tapestry of kings 
and ladies1 beasts1 birds1 and foliage1 
cut in outline with a knife and punched 
with dots1 the cavities being filled    
with a coloured mastic like sealing-wax4
 ,panelling1 rough inlaying in the      
solid1 carving and painting1 and casing 
with repousse or pierced metal1 or      
covering with leather incised into      
designs1 and making out patterns with   
nail-heads1 were all methods of         
decoration used by the maker of boxes3  

other examples1 and those not the least 
stately1 had no other ornament than the 
purfling at the edges formed by         
ingeniously elaborate dovetails fitting 
together like a puzzle and showing a    
pattern like an inlay4  ,when people    
work naturally1 it is as wearisome and  
unnecessary often to repeat the same    
design as to continually paint the same 
picture4 ,design comes by designing4 ,on
 the one hand tradition carefully and   
continuously shapes the object to fill  
its use1 on the other spontaneous and   
eager excursions are made into the      
limitless fields of beautiful device4   
,where construction and form are thus   
the result of a long tradition          
undisturbed by fashion1 they are always 
absolutely right as to use and          
distinctive as to beauty1 the           
construction being not only visible1 but
 one with the decoration4 ,take a       
present-day survival1 the large country 
cart1 the body shaped like the waist of 
a sailing ship1 and every rail and      

upright unalterably logical1 and then   
decorated by quaint chamferings1 the    
facets of which are made out in         
brightest paint4 ,or look at an old     
table1 always with stretching rails at  
the bottom and framed together with     
strong tenons and cross pins into turned
 posts1 but so thoughtfully done that   
every one is original and all beautiful4
 ,turning1 a delightful old art1 half   
for convenience1 half for beauty1 itself
 comes down to us from long before the  
,conquest4  ,the great charm in         
furniture of the simplest structure may 
best be seen in old illuminated         
manuscripts1 where a chest1 a bench1 and
 against the wall a cupboard1 the top   
rising in steps where are set out tall  
,venice glasses1 or a garnish of plate  
under a tester of some bright stuff1    
make up a whole of fairy beauty in the  
frank simplicity of the forms and the   
innocent gaiety of bright colour4 ,take 
the ,st4 ,jerome in his study of ,duerer
 or ,bellini1 and compare the dignity of

 serene and satisfying order with the   
most beautifully furnished room you     
know3 how vulgar our good taste appears 
and how foreign to the end of           
culture--,peace4  ,from records1 and    
what remains to us1 we know that the    
room1 the hangings1 and the furniture   
were patterned all over with scattered  
flowers and inscriptions--violets and   
the words bonne pensee2 or vases of     
lilies and pax1 angels and incense pots1
 ciphers and initials1 badges and       
devices1 or whatever there be of        
suggestion and mystery4 ,the panelling  
and furniture were green like a curtain1
 as the old accounts have it2 or        
vermilion and white1 like some painted  
chairs at ,knole2 or even decorated with
 paintings and gilt gesso patterns like 
the ,norfolk screens4 ,fancy a bed with 
the underside of the canopy having an   
,annunciation or spreading trellis of   
roses1 and the chamber carved like one  
in thirteenth-century romance3--        
,n'a el monde beste n'oisel     ,qui n'i

 soit ovre a cisel4  ,if we would know  
how far we are from the soul of art1 we 
have but to remember that all this1 the 
romance element in design1 the joy in   
life1 nature1 and colour1 which in one  
past development we call ,gothic1 and   
which is ever the well of beauty        
undefiled1 is not now so much impossible
 of attainment as entirely out of range 
with our spirit and life1 a felt        
anachronism and affectation4  ,all art  
is sentiment embodied in form4 ,to find 
beauty we must consider what really     
gives us pleasure--pleasure1 not        
pride--and show our unashamed delight in
 it2 and so1 when we have leisure to be 
happy and strength to be simple we shall
 find ,art again--the art of the        
workman4  ,w4 ,r4 ,,lethaby4     ,,of   
,,decorated ,,furniture   ,decorated or 
sumptuous furniture is not merely       
furniture that is expensive to buy1 but 
that which has been elaborated with much
 thought1 knowledge1 and skill4 ,such   
furniture cannot be cheap1 certainly1   

but the real cost of it is sometimes    
borne by the artist who produces rather 
than by the man who may happen to buy   
it4 ,furniture on which valuable labour 
is bestowed may consist of--#a4 ,large  
standing objects which1 though actually 
movable1 are practically fixtures1 such 
as cabinets1 presses1 sideboards of     
various kinds2 monumental objects4 #b4  
,chairs1 tables of convenient shapes1   
stands for lights and other purposes1   
coffers1 caskets1 mirror and picture    
frames4 #c4 ,numberless small convenient
 utensils4 ,here we can but notice class
 #a1 the large standing objects which   
most absorb the energies of artists of  
every degree and order in their         
construction or decoration4  ,cabinets  
seem to have been so named as being     
little strongholds--offices of men of   
business for stowing papers and         
documents in orderly receptacles4 ,they 
are secured with the best locks         
procurable4 ,they often contain secret  
drawers and cavities1 hidden from all   

eyes but those of the owner4 ,nor are   
instances wanting of owners leaving no  
information on these matters to their   
heirs1 so that casual buyers sometimes  
come in for a windfall1 or such a       
catastrophe as befell the owner of      
,richard the ,third's bed4  ,it is not  
to be expected that elaborate systems of
 secret drawers and hiding-places should
 be contrived in cabinets of our time4  
,money and jewels are considered safer  
when deposited in banks4 ,but1 ingenuity
 of construction in a complicated piece 
of furniture must certainly be counted  
as one of its perfections4 ,sound and   
accurate joinery with well-seasoned     
woods1 properly understood as to        
shrinkage and as to the relations       
between one kind of timber and another  
in these respects1 is no small merit4   
,some old ,english cabinets are to be   
met with in the construction of which   
wood only is used1 the morticing        
admirable1 the boards1 used to hold ends
 and divisions together from end to end1

 strained and secured by wedges that    
turn on pivots1 etc4 ,furniture of this 
kind can be taken to pieces and set up1 
resuming proper rigidity toties quoties4
  ,to look at the subject historically1 
it seems that the cabinet1 dresser1 or  
sideboard is a chest set on legs1 and   
that the press1 or cupboard 7closet1 not
 proper cup-board71 takes the place of  
the panelled recess closed by doors1    
generally contrived1 and sometimes      
ingeniously hidden1 in the construction 
of a panelled room4 ,the front of the   
elevated chest is hinged1 and flaps     
down1 while the lid is a fixture2 the   
interior is more complicated than that  
of the chest1 as its subdivisions are   
more conveniently reached4  ,before     
leaving this part of the subject1 it is 
worth notice that the architectural1 or 
rather architectonic1 character seems to
 have deeply impressed the makers of    
cabinets when the chest-type had        
gradually been lost4 ,italian1 ,german1 
,english1 and other cabinets are often  

found representing a church front or a  
house front1 with columns1 doors1       
sometimes ebony and ivory pavements1    
etc4  ,next as to methods of decorating 
cabinets1 etc4 ,the kind which deserves 
our first attention is that of          
sculpture4 ,here1 undoubtedly1 we must  
look to the ,italians as our masters1   
and to that admirable school of         
wood-carving which maintained itself so 
long in ,flanders1 with an ,italian     
grace grafted on the ingenuity1 vigour1 
and playfulness of a northern race4 ,our
 ,english carvers1 admirable craftsmen  
during the fifteenth and sixteenth      
centuries1 seem to have been closely    
allied with the contemporary ,flemings4 
,fronts of cabinets1 dressers1          
chimneypieces1 etc41 were imported from 
,belgium and were made up by ,english   
joiners with panelling1 supplemented    
with carving where required1 for our    
great houses4 ,but the best ,italian    
carving remains on chests and chest     
fronts which were made in great numbers 

in the sixteenth century4  ,some of     
these chests are toilet chests2 some    
have formed wall-seats1 laid along the  
sides of halls and galleries to hold    
hangings1 etc41 when the house was      
empty1 and have served as seats or as   
monumental pieces when company was      
received4  ,as the chest grew into the  
cabinet1 or bureau1 or dresser1 great   
attention was paid to the supports4 ,it 
need hardly be pointed out that1 for the
 support of seats1 tables1 etc41        
animals1 typical of strength or other   
qualities--the lion or the sphinx1 the  
horse1 sometimes the slave--have been   
employed by long traditional usage4 ,and
 carvers of wood have not failed to give
 full attention to the use and          
decoration of conventional supports to  
the furniture now under discussion4     
,they are made to unite the central mass
 to a shallow base1 leaving the         
remaining space open4  ,next to         
sculptured decoration comes incrusted4  
,the most costly kinds of material1     

precious stones1 such as lapis lazuli1  
agate1 rare marbles1 etc41 have been    
employed on furniture surfaces4 ,but    
such work is rather that of the lapidary
 than of the cabinetmaker4 ,it is very  
costly1 and seems to have been confined1
 in fact1 to the factories kept up in   
,italy1 ,russia1 and other states1 at   
government expense4 ,we do not produce  
them in this country2 and the number of 
such objects is probably limited        
wherever we look for them4              
,incrustation of precious woods is a    
more natural system of wood-decoration4 
,veneered wood1 which is laid on a      
roughened surface with thin glue at     
immense pressure1 if well made1 is very 
long-lived4 ,the woods used give a      
coloured surface1 and are polished so as
 to bring the colour fully out1 and to  
protect the material from damp4 ,in fine
 examples the veneers form little       
pictures1 or patterns1 either by the    
arrangement of the grain of the pieces  
used1 so as to make pictorial lines by  

means of the grain itself1 or by using  
woods of various colours4  ,a very fine 
surface decoration was invented1 or     
carried to perfection1 by ,andre        
,charles ,boule1 for ,louis ,,xiv4 ,it  
is a veneer of tortoise-shell and brass1
 with occasional white metal4 ,an       
important element in ,boule decoration  
is noticeable in the chiselled angle    
mounts1 lines of moulding1 claws1 feet1 
etc41 all of which are imposed1 though  
they have the general character of metal
 angle supports4 ,in fact1 the          
tortoise-shell is held by glue1 and the 
metal by fine nails of the same         
material1 the heads of which are filed  
down4 ,incrustation1 or marquetry1 of   
this kind is costly1 and most of it is  
due to the labours of artists and       
craftsmen employed by the kings of      
,france at the expense of the           
,government4 ,a considerable quantity of
 it is still made in that country4  ,now
 as to the way in which sculptors1 or   
incrusters1 should dispose of their     

decoration1 and the fidelity to nature  
which is to be expected of them1 whether
 in sculpture or wood mosaic1 i4e4 wood 
painting4 ,first1 we may suppose they   
will concentrate their more important   
details in recognisable divisions of    
their pieces1 or in such ways that a    
proportion and rhythm shall be expressed
 by their dispositions of masses and    
fine details2 placing their figures in  
central panels1 on angles1 or on        
dividing members2 leaving some plain    
surface to set off their decorative     
detail2 and taking care that the        
contours of running mouldings shall not 
be lost sight of by the carver4 ,but how
 far is absolute natural truth1 even    
absolute obedience to the laws of his   
art in every particular of his details1 
to be expected from the artist8 ,we     
cannot doubt that such absolute         
obedience is sometimes departed from    
intentionally and with success4 ,all    
,greek sculpture is not always          
absolutely true to nature nor as        

beautiful as the sculptor1 if free1     
could have made it4 ,statues are        
conventionalised1 decorative scrolls    
exaggerated1 figures turned into columns
 for good reasons1 and in the result    
successfully4 ,in furniture1 as in      
architecture1 carved work or            
incrustation is not free1 but is in     
service2 and compromises with           
verisimilitude to nature1 even violence1
 may sometimes be required on details in
 the interests of the entire structure4 
,next let a word or two be reserved for 
,painted ,furniture4 ,painting has been 
employed on furniture of all kinds at   
many periods4 ,the ancients made theirs 
of bronze1 or of ivory1 carved or       
inlaid4 ,in the ,middle ,ages           
wood-carving and many kinds of furniture
 were painted4 ,the coronation chair at 
,westminster was so decorated4 ,the     
chest fronts of ,delli and other        
painters are often pictures of great    
intrinsic merit1 and very generally     
these family chest fronts are valuable  

records of costumes and fashions of     
their day4 ,in this country the practice
 of painting pianoforte cases1          
chair-backs1 table-tops1 panels of all  
sorts1 has been much resorted to4       
,distinguished painters1 ,angelica      
,kauffmann and her contemporaries1 and a
 whole race of coach-painters have left 
monuments of their skill in this line4  
,it must suffice here to recall certain 
modern examples1 e4g4 a small dresser1  
now in the national collections1 with   
doors painted by ,mr4 ,poynter1 with    
spirited figures representing the ,beers
 and the ,wines2 the fine piano case    
painted by ,mr4 ,burne-,jones2 another  
by ,mr4 ,alma ,tadema2 lastly1 a tall   
clock-case by ,mr4 ,stanhope1 which1 as 
well as other promising examples1 have  
been exhibited by the ,arts and ,crafts 
,society4  ,j4 ,h4 ,,pollen4     ,,of   
,,carving   ,it is not uncommon to see  
an elaborate piece of furniture1 in     
decorating which it is evident that the 
carver has had opportunity for the      

exercise of all his skill1 and which1   
indeed1 bears evidence of the most      
skilful woodcutting on almost every     
square inch of its surface1 from the    
contemplation of which neither an artist
 nor an educated craftsman can derive   
any pleasure or satisfaction4 ,this     
would seem to point to the designer of  
the ornament as the cause of failure1   
and the writer of this believes that in 
such cases it will generally be found   
that the designer1 though he may know   
everything that he ought to know about  
the production of designs which shall   
look well on paper or on a flat surface1
 has had no experience1 by actually     
working at the material1 of its         
difficulties1 special capabilities1 or  
limitations4  ,if at the same time he   
has had but a limited experience of the 
difference in treatment necessary for   
carving which is to be seen at various  
altitudes1 his failure may be taken as  
sufficiently accounted for4  ,an idea   
now prevalent that it is not advisable  

to make models for wood-carving is not  
by any means borne out by the experience
 of the writer of this paper4  ,models  
are certainly not necessary for ordinary
 work1 such as mouldings1 or even for   
work in panels when the surfaces are    
intended to be almost wholly on one     
plane1 but the carved decoration of a   
panel1 which pretends to be in any      
degree a work of art1 often depends for 
its effect quite as much on the masterly
 treatment of surface planes1 and the   
relative projection from the surface of 
the more prominent parts1 as upon the   
outline4 ,now1 there are many men who1  
though able to carve wood exquisitely1  
have never given themselves the trouble1
 or perhaps have scarcely had the       
opportunity1 to learn how to read an    
ordinary drawing4 ,the practice obtains 
in many carving shops for one or two    
leading men to rough out 7viz4 shape out
 roughly7 all the work so far as that is
 practicable1 and the others take it up 
after them and finish it4 ,the followers

 are not necessarily less skilful       
carvers or cutters than the leaders1 but
 have1 presumably1 less knowledge of    
form4 ,if1 then1 one wishes to avail    
oneself of the skill of these men for   
carrying out really important work1 it  
is much the simpler way to make a model 
7however rough7 which shall accurately  
express everything one wishes to see in 
the finished work2 and1 assuming the    
designer to be fairly dexterous in the  
use of clay or other plastic material1 a
 sketch model will not occupy any more  
of his time than a drawing would4  ,to  
put it plainly1 no designer can ever    
know what he ought to expect from a     
worker in any material if he has not    
worked in that material himself4 ,if he 
has carved marble1 for instance1 he     
knows the extreme care required in      
under-cutting the projecting parts of   
the design1 and the cost entailed by the
 processes necessary to be employed for 
that purpose4 ,he therefore so arranges 
the various parts of his design that    

wherever it is possible these projecting
 portions shall be supported by other   
forms1 so avoiding the labour and cost  
of relieving 7or under-cutting7 them2   
and if he be skilful his skill will     
appear in the fact that his motive in   
this will be apparent only to experts1  
while to others the whole will appear to
 grow naturally out of the design4      
,moreover1 he knows that he must depend 
for the success of this thing on an     
effect of breadth and dignity4 ,he is   
not afraid of a somewhat elaborate      
surface treatment1 being aware that     
nearly any variety of surface which he  
can readily produce in clay may be      
rendered in marble with a reasonable    
amount of trouble4  ,in designing for   
the wood-carver he is on altogether     
different ground4 ,he may safely lay    
aside some portion of his late dignity1 
and depend almost entirely on vigour of 
line2 the ease with which under-cutting 
is done in this material enabling him to
 obtain contrast by the use of          

delicately relieved forms4 ,here1       
however1 he must not allow the effect in
 his model to depend in any degree on   
surface treatment4 ,care in that respect
 will prevent disappointment in the     
finished work4  ,the most noticeable    
feature in modern carved surface        
decoration is the almost universal      
tendency to overcrowding4 ,it appears   
seldom to have occurred to the craftsman
 or designer that decorating a panel1   
for instance1 is not at all the same    
thing as covering it with decoration4   
,still less does he seem to have felt   
that occasionally some portions of the  
ground are much more valuable in the    
design than anything which he can put on
 them4 ,indeed1 the thoughtful designer 
who understands its use and appreciates 
its value1 frequently has more trouble  
with his ground than with anything else 
in the panel4 ,also1 if he have the true
 decorative spirit1 his mind is         
constantly on the general scheme        
surrounding his work1 and he is always  

ready to subordinate himself and his    
work in order that it may enhance and   
not disturb this general scheme4  ,we   
will suppose1 for example1 that he has  
to decorate a column with raised        
ornament4 ,he feels at once that the    
outlines of that column are of          
infinitely more importance than anything
 which he can put on it1 however        
ingenious or beautiful his design may   
be4 ,he therefore keeps his necessary   
projecting parts as small and low as    
possible1 leaving as much of the column 
as he can showing between the lines of  
his pattern4 ,by this means the idea of 
strength and support is not interfered  
with1 and the tout ensemble is not      
destroyed4  ,this may seem somewhat     
elementary to many who will read it4 ,my
 excuse must be that one sees many      
columns in which every vestige of the   
outline is so covered by the carving    
which has been built round them1 that   
the idea of their supporting anything   
other than their ornament appears       

preposterous4  ,there has been no       
opportunity to do more than glance at   
such a subject as this in a space so    
limited2 but the purposes of this paper 
will have been served if it has supplied
 a useful hint to any craftsman1 or if  
by its means any designer shall have    
been induced to make a more thorough    
study of the materials within his reach4
  ,,stephen ,,webb4     ,,intarsia ,,and
 ,,inlaid ,,wood-,,work   ,although     
decoration by inlaying woods of         
different colours must naturally have   
suggested itself in very early times1 as
 soon indeed as there were workmen of   
skill sufficient for it1 the history of 
this branch of art practically begins in
 the fifteenth century4 ,it is eminently
 an ,italian art1 which according to    
,vasari had its origin in the days of   
,brunelleschi and ,paolo ,uccello2 and  
it had its birth in a land which has a  
greater variety of mild close-grained   
woods with a greater variety of colour  
than ,northern ,europe4 ,by the         

,italians it was regarded as a lower    
form of painting4 ,like all mosaic1 of  
which art it is properly a branch1 it   
has its limitations2 and it is only so  
long as it confines itself to these that
 it is a legitimate form of decoration4 
,tarsia is at the best one of the minor 
decorative arts1 but when well employed 
it is one that gives an immense deal of 
pleasure1 and one to which it cannot be 
denied that the buildings of ,italy owe 
much of their splendour4 ,their polished
 and inlaid furniture harmonises with   
the rare delicacy of their marble and   
mosaic1 and goes far towards producing  
that air of rich refinement and         
elaborate culture which is to the       
severer styles and simpler materials of 
the ,north what the velvet-robed        
,senator of ,st4 ,mark was to the       
mail-clad feudal chief from beyond the  
,alps4 ,as to its durability1 the       
experience of four centuries since      
,vasari's time has proved that with     
ordinary care1 or perhaps with nothing  

worse than mere neglect1 ,intarsia will 
last as long as painting4 ,its only real
 enemy is damp1 as will be readily      
understood from the nature of the       
materials and the mode of putting them  
together4 ,for though in a few          
instances1 when the art was in its      
infancy1 the inlaid pattern may have    
been cut of a substantial thickness and 
sunk into a solid ground ploughed out to
 receive it1 this method was obviously  
very laborious1 and admitted only of    
very simple design1 for it is very      
difficult in this way to keep the lines 
of the drawing accurately4 ,the         
recognised way of making ,intarsia was1 
and is1 to form both pattern and ground 
in thin veneers about #a_/af of an inch 
thick1 which are glued down upon a solid
 panel4 ,at first sight this method may 
appear too slight and unsubstantial for 
work intended to last for centuries1 but
 it has1 in fact1 stood the test of time
 extremely well1 when the work has been 
kept in the dry even temperature of     

churches and great houses1 where there  
is neither damp to melt the glue and    
swell the veneer1 nor excessive heat to 
make the wood shrink and start asunder4 
,when these conditions were not         
observed1 of course the work was soon   
ruined1 and ,vasari tells an amusing    
story of the humiliation which befell   
,benedetto da ,majano1 who began his    
career as an ,intarsiatore1 in the      
matter of two splendid chests which he  
had made for ,matthias ,corvinus1 from  
which the veneers1 loosened by the damp 
of a sea voyage1 fell off in the royal  
presence4  ,the veneers being so thin1  
it is of course easy to cut through     
several layers of them at once1 and this
 suggested1 or at all events lent itself
 admirably to the design of the earlier 
examples1 which are generally arabesques
 symmetrically disposed right and left  
of a central line4 ,if two dark and two 
light veneers are put together1 the     
whole of one panel1 both ground and     
pattern1 can be cut at one operation    

with a thin fret saw2 the ornamental    
pattern drops into the space cut out of 
the ground1 which it1 of course1 fits   
exactly except for the thickness of the 
saw-cut1 and the two half-patterns thus 
filled in are handed right and left1 and
 so complete the symmetrical design4    
,the line given by the thickness of the 
saw is then filled in with glue and     
black colour so as to define the        
outline1 and additional saw-cuts are    
made or lines are engraved1 and in      
either case filled in with the same     
stopping1 wherever additional lines are 
wanted for the design4 ,it only remains 
to glue the whole down to a solid panel1
 and to polish and varnish the surface1 
and it is then ready to be framed into  
its place as the back of a church stall1
 or the lining of a courtly hall1       
library1 or cabinet4  ,it was thus that 
the simpler ,italian ,intarsia was done1
 such as that in the dado surrounding   
,perugino's ,sala del ,cambio in his    
native city1 where the design consists  

of light arabesques in box or some      
similar wood on a walnut ground1 defined
 by black lines just as ,i have         
described4  ,but like all true artists  
the ,intarsiatore did not stand still4  
,having successfully accomplished simple
 outline and accurate drawing1 he was   
dissatisfied until he could carry his   
art farther by introducing the          
refinement of shading4 ,this was done at
 different times and by different       
artists in a variety of ways2 either by 
inlaying the shadow in different kinds  
of woods1 by scorching it with fire1 or 
by staining it with chemical solutions4 
,in the book desks of the choir at the  
,certosa or ,charterhouse of ,pavia1 the
 effect of shading is got in a direct   
but somewhat imperfect way by laying    
strips of different coloured woods side 
by side4 ,each flower or leaf was       
probably built up of tolerably thick    
pieces of wood glued together in        
position1 so that they could be sliced  
off in veneers and yield several flowers

 or leaves from the same block1 much in 
the way of ,tunbridge ,wells ware1      
though the ,italian specimens are1 ,i   
believe1 always cut with the grain and  
not across it4 ,the designs thus        
produced are very effective at a short  
distance1 but the method is1 of course1 
suitable only to bold and simple        
conventional patterns4  ,the panels of  
the high screen or back to the stalls at
 the same church afford an instance of a
 more elaborate method4 ,these splendid 
panels1 which go all round the choir1   
contain each a three-quarter-length     
figure of a saint4 ,lanzi deservedly    
praises them as the largest and most    
perfect figures of tarsia which he had  
seen4 ,they date from #adhf1 and were   
executed by an ,istrian artist1         
,bartolommeo da ,pola1 perhaps from the 
designs of ,borgognone4 ,the method by  
which their highly pictorial effect is  
produced is a mixed one1 the shading    
being partly inlaid with woods of       
different colours1 and partly obtained  

by scorching the wood with fire or hot  
sand in the manner generally in use for 
marqueterie at the present day4 ,the    
inexhaustible patience as well as the   
fertility of resource displayed by      
,messer ,bartolommeo is astonishing4    
,where the saw-cut did not give him a   
strong enough line he has inlaid a firm 
line of black wood1 the high lights of  
the draperies are inlaid in white1 the  
folds shaded by burning1 and the flowing
 lines of the curling hair are all      
inlaid1 each several tress being shaded 
by three narrow strips of gradated      
colour following the curved lines of the
 lock to which they belong4 ,when it is 
remembered that there are some forty or 
more of these panels1 each differing    
from the rest1 the splendour as well as 
the laborious nature of the decoration  
of this unrivalled choir will be better 
understood4  ,of all the examples of    
pictorial ,intarsia the most elaborate  
are perhaps those in the choir stalls of
 ,sta4 ,maria ,maggiore in ,bergamo4    

,they are attributed to ,gianfrancesco  
,capo di ,ferro1 who worked from the    
designs of ,lotto1 and was either a     
rival or pupil of ,fra ,damiano di      
,bergamo1 a famous master of the art4   
,they consist of figure subjects and    
landscapes on a small scale1 shaded with
 all the delicacy and roundness         
attainable in a tinted drawing1 and     
certainly show how near ,intarsia can   
approach to painting4 ,their drawing is 
excellent and their execution           
marvellous2 but at the same time one    
feels that1 however one may admire them 
as a tour de force1 the limitations of  
good sense and proper use of the        
material have been reached and          
overstepped4 ,when the delicacy of the  
work is so great that it requires to be 
covered up or kept under glass1 it      
obviously quits the province of         
decorative art2 furniture is meant to be
 used1 and when it is too precious to be
 usable on account of the over-delicate 
ornament bestowed upon it1 it must be   

admitted that the ornament is out of    
place1 and1 therefore1 bad art4  ,the   
later ,italian ,intarsia was betrayed   
into extravagance by the dexterity of   
the craftsman4 ,the temptation before   
which he fell was that of rivalling the 
painter1 and as he advanced in facility 
of technique1 and found wider resources 
at his command1 he threw aside not only 
those restraints which necessity had    
hitherto imposed1 but also those which  
good taste and judgment still called him
 to obey4 ,in the plain unshaded        
arabesques of the ,sala del ,cambio1 and
 even in the figure panels of the       
,certosa1 the treatment is purely       
decorative2 the idea of a plane surface 
is rightly observed1 and there is no    
attempt to represent distance or to     
produce illusory effects of relief4     
,above all1 the work is solid and simple
 enough to bear handling2 the stalls may
 be sat in1 the desks may be used for   
books1 the doors may be opened and shut1
 without fear of injury to their        

decoration4 ,working within these       
limits1 the art was safe2 but they came 
in time to be disregarded1 and in this1 
as in other branches of art1 the style  
was ruined by the over-ingenuity of the 
artists4 ,conscious of their own        
dexterity1 they attempted things never  
done before1 with means quite unsuited  
to the purpose1 and with the sole result
 that they did imperfectly and          
laboriously with their wooden veneers1  
their glue-pot1 and their chemicals1    
what the painter did with crayon and    
brush perfectly and easily4 ,their      
greatest triumphs after they began to   
run riot in this way1 however           
interesting as miracles of dexterity1   
have no value as works of art in the    
eyes of those who know the true         
principles of decorative design2 while  
nothing can be much duller than the     
elaborate playfulness of the            
,intarsiatore who loved to cover his    
panelling with sham book-cases1 birds in
 cages1 guitars1 and military           

instruments in elaborate perspective4   
,it would take too long to say much     
about the art in its application to     
furniture1 such as tables1 chairs1      
cabinets1 and other movables1 which are 
decorated with inlay that generally goes
 by the ,french name of marqueterie4    
,marqueterie and ,intarsia are the same 
thing1 though from habit the ,french    
title is generally used when speaking of
 work on a smaller scale4 ,and as the   
methods and materials are the same1     
whether used on a grand or a small      
scale1 so the same rules and restraints 
apply to both classes of design1 and can
 no more be infringed with impunity on  
the door of a tall clock-case than on   
the doors of a palatial hall of         
audience4 ,nothing can be a prettier or 
more practical and durable mode of      
decorating furniture than marqueterie in
 simple brown1 black1 yellow1 and white2
 and when used with judgment there is   
nothing to forbid the employment of dyed
 woods2 while the smallness of the scale

 puts at our disposal ivory1            
mother-of-pearl1 and tortoise-shell1    
materials which in larger works are     
naturally out of the question4 ,nothing1
 on the other hand1 is more offensive to
 good taste than some of the overdone   
marqueterie of the ,french school of the
 last century1 with its picture panels1 
and naturalesque figures1 flowers1 and  
foliage1 straggling all over the        
surface1 as if the article of furniture 
were merely a vehicle for the cleverness
 of the marqueterie cutter4 ,still worse
 is the modern work of the kind1 whether
 ,english or foreign1 of which so much  
that is hopelessly pretentious and      
vulgar is turned out nowadays1 in which 
the aim of the designer seems to have   
been to cover the surface as thickly as 
he could with flowers and festoons of   
all conceivable colours1 without any    
regard for the form of the thing he was 
decorating1 the nature of the material  
he was using1 or the graceful           
disposition and economy of the ornament 

he was contriving4  ,t4 ,g4 ,,jackson4  
,,woods ,,and ,,other ,,materials   ,the
 woods in ordinary use by cabinetmakers 
may be divided broadly into two classes1
 viz4 those which by their strength1    
toughness1 and other qualities are      
suitable for construction1 and those    
which by reason of the beauty of their  
texture or grain1 their rarity1 or their
 costliness1 have come to be used       
chiefly for decorative                  
purposes--veneering or inlaying4 ,there 
are certainly several woods which       
combine the qualities necessary for     
either purpose1 as will be noticed later
 on4 ,at present the above              
classification is sufficiently accurate 
for the purposes of this paper4 ,the    
woods chiefly used in the construction  
of cabinet work and furniture are oak1  
walnut1 mahogany1 rosewood1 satin-wood1 
cedar1 plane1 sycamore4  ,the oak has   
been made the standard by which to      
measure all other woods for the         
qualities of strength1 toughness1 and   

durability4 ,there are said to be nearly
 fifty species of oak known1 but the    
common ,english oak possesses these     
qualities in a far greater degree than  
any other wood4 ,it is1 however1 very   
cross-grained and difficult to manage   
where delicate details are required1 and
 its qualities recommend it to the      
carpenter rather than to the            
furniture-maker1 who prefers the softer 
and straight-grained oak from ,turkey or
 wainscot from ,holland1 which1 in      
addition to being more easily worked and
 taking a higher finish1 is not so      
liable to warp or split4  ,there is also
 a species called white oak1 which is   
imported into this country from         
,america1 and is largely used for       
interior fittings and cabinet-making4   
,it is not equal to the ,british oak in 
strength or durability1 and it is       
inferior to the wainscot in the beauty  
of its markings4 ,the better the quality
 of this oak1 the more it shrinks in    
drying4  ,walnut is a favourite wood    

with the furniture-maker1 as well as the
 carver1 on account of its even texture 
and straight grain4 ,the ,english       
variety is of a light grayish-brown     
colour1 which colour improves much by   
age under polish4 ,that from ,italy has 
more gray in it1 and though it looks    
extremely well when carved is less liked
 by carvers on account of its           
brittleness4 ,it is but little liable to
 the attacks of worms4 ,in the ,english 
kind1 the older 7and therefore1         
generally speaking1 the better7 wood may
 be recognised by its darker colour4    
,of mahogany there are two kinds1 viz4  
those which are grown in the islands of 
,cuba and ,jamaica1 and in ,honduras4   
,the ,cuba or ,spanish mahogany is much 
the harder and more durable1 and is1 in 
the opinion of the writer1 the very best
 wood for all the purposes of the       
cabinet or furniture maker known to us4 
,it is beautifully figured1 takes a fine
 polish1 is not difficult to work1 when 
its extreme hardness is taken into      

account1 and is less subject to twisting
 and warping than any other kind of     
wood4 ,it has become so costly of late  
years1 however1 that it is mostly cut   
into veneers1 and used for the          
decoration of furniture surfaces4       
,honduras mahogany1 or1 as cabinetmakers
 call it1 ,bay ,wood1 is that which is  
now in most frequent demand for the     
construction of the best kinds of       
furniture and cabinet work4 ,it is      
fairly strong 7though it cannot compare 
in that respect with ,cuba or rosewood71
 works easily1 does not shrink1 resists 
changes of temperature without          
alteration1 and holds glue well1 all of 
which qualities specially recommend it  
for the purposes of construction where  
veneers are to be used4 ,many           
cabinetmakers prefer to use this wood   
for drawers1 even in an oak job4        
,rosewood is one of those woods used    
indifferently for construction or for   
the decoration of other woods4 ,though  
beautiful specimens of grain and figure 

are often seen1 its colour does not     
compare with good specimens of ,cuba    
veneer4 ,its purple tone 7whatever      
stains are used7 is not so agreeable as 
the rich1 deep1 mellow browns of the    
mahogany2 nor does it harmonise so      
readily with its surroundings in an     
ordinary room4 ,it has great strength   
and durability1 and is not difficult to 
work4 ,probably the best way to use it  
constructively is in the making of small
 cabinets1 chairs1 etc4--that is1 if one
 wishes for an appearance of lightness  
with real strength4 ,the writer does not
 here offer any opinion as to whether a 
piece of furniture1 or indeed anything  
else1 should or should not look strong  
when it really is so4  ,satin-wood1 most
 of which comes from the ,west ,india   
islands1 is well known for its fine     
lustre and grain1 as also for its warm  
colour1 which is usually deepened by    
yellow stain4 ,it is much used for      
painted furniture1 and the plain variety
 is liked by the carver4  ,cedar is too 

well known to need any description here4
 ,it is commonly believed that no worm  
will touch it1 and it is therefore      
greatly in demand for the interior      
fitting of cabinets1 drawers1 etc4 ,it  
is a straight-grained wood and fairly   
easy to work1 though liable to split4   
,it is impossible in a short paper like 
the present to do more than glance at a 
few of the numerous other woods in      
common use4 ,ebony has always been      
greatly liked for small or elaborate    
caskets or cabinets1 its extreme        
closeness of grain and hardness enabling
 the carver to bring up the smallest    
details with all the sharpness of metal 
work4  ,sycamore1 beech1 and holly are  
frequently stained to imitate walnut1   
rosewood1 or other materials2 of these  
the first two are used constructively1  
but the latter1 which takes the stain   
best1 is nearly all cut into veneer1    
and1 in addition to its use for covering
 large surfaces1 forms an important     
element in the modern marquetry         

decorations4  ,bass wood1 on account of 
its softness and the facility with which
 it can be stained to any requisite     
shade1 is extensively used to imitate   
other woods in modern furniture of the  
cheaper sort4 ,it should1 however1 never
 be used for furniture at all1 as it has
 7as a cabinetmaker would say7 no nature
 in it1 and in the result there is no   
wear in it4  ,other woods1 coming under 
the second category1 as amboyna1        
coromandel1 snake-wood1 orange-wood1    
thuyer1 are all woods of a beautiful    
figure1 which may be varied indefinitely
 by cutting the veneers at different    
angles to the grain of the wood1 and the
 tone may also be varied by the         
introduction of colour into the polish  
which is used on them4 ,coromandel wood 
is one of the most beautiful of these1  
but it is not so available as it would  
otherwise be on account of its          
resistance to glue4 ,orange-wood1 when  
not stained1 is very wasteful in use1 as
 the natural colour is confined to the  

heart of the tree4  ,silver1 white      
metal1 brass1 etc41 are cut into a      
veneer of tortoise-shell or             
mother-of-pearl1 producing a decorative 
effect which1 in the opinion of the     
writer1 is more accurately described as 
gorgeous than beautiful4  ,there are    
many processes and materials used to    
alter or modify the colour of woods and 
to convert one wood into another4 ,oak  
is made dark by being subjected to the  
fumes of liquid ammonia1 which penetrate
 it to almost any depth4 ,ordinary oak  
is made into brown oak by being treated 
with a solution of chromate of potash   
7which is also used to convert various  
light woods into mahogany1 etc474       
,pearlash is used for the same purpose1 
though not commonly4 ,for converting    
pear-tree1 sycamore1 etc41 into ebony1  
two or more applications of logwood     
chips1 with an after application of     
vinegar and steel filings1 are used4  ,a
 good deal of bedroom and other         
furniture is enamelled1 and here the    

ground is prepared with size and        
whiting1 and this is worked over with   
flake white1 transparent polish1 and    
bismuth4 ,but by far the most beautiful 
surface treatment in this kind are the  
lacquers1 composed of spirit and various
 gums1 or of shellac and spirit into    
which colour is introduced4  ,,stephen  
,,webb4     ,,of ,,modern ,,embroidery  
,if we wish to arrive at a true estimate
 of the value of modern embroidery1 we  
must examine the work being sold in the 
fancy-work shops1 illustrated in ladies'
 newspapers or embroidered in the       
drawing-rooms of to-day1 and consider in
 what respect it differs from the old   
work such as that exhibited in the      
,south ,kensington ,museum4  ,the old   
embroidery and the modern differ        
widely--in design1 in colour1 and in    
material2 nor would any one deny that a 
very large proportion of modern work is 
greatly inferior to that of past times4 
,what1 then1 are the special            
characteristics of the design of the    

present day8  ,modern design is         
frequently very naturalistic1 and seems 
rather to seek after a life-like        
rendering of the object to be           
embroidered than the decoration of the  
material to be ornamented4  ,then again 
it may be noted that modern designs are 
often ill adapted to the requirements of
 embroidery4 ,this is probably because  
many of the people who design for       
embroidery do not understand it4 ,very  
often a design that has been made for   
this purpose would have been better     
suited to a wall paper1 a panel of      
tiles1 or a woven pattern4 ,the designer
 should either be also an embroiderer or
 have studied the subject so thoroughly 
as to be able to direct the worker1 for 
the design should be drawn in relation  
to the colours and stitches in which it 
is to be carried out4  ,the more1       
indeed1 people will study the fine      
designs of the past1 and compare with   
them the designs of the art-needlework  
of the present1 the more they will      

realise that1 where the former is rich1 
dignified1 and restrained1 obedient to  
law in every curve and line1 the latter 
is florid1 careless1 weak1 and ignores  
law4 ,and how finished that old         
embroidery was1 and how full6 ,no       
grudging of the time or the labour spent
 either on design or needlework2 no     
scamping2 no mere outlining4 ,border    
within border we often see1 and all the 
space within covered up to the edges and
 into the corners4 ,contrast with this  
very much of our modern work4 ,let us   
take as an example one piece that was on
 view this summer at a well-known place 
in ,london where embroidery is sold4 ,it
 is merely a type of many others in many
 other places4 ,this was a threefold    
screen made of dark red-brown velveteen4
 ,all over it ran diagonal crossing     
lines coarsely worked in light silk1 to 
imitate a wire trellis1 with occasional 
upright supports worked in brown wool1  
imitating knotty sticks4 ,up one side of
 this trellis climbed a scrambling mass 

of white clematis2 one spray wandering  
along the top fell a little way down the
 other side4 ,thus a good part of the   
screen was bare of embroidery1 except   
for the trellis4 ,naturalism could not  
go much farther1 design is almost       
absent1 and the result is feeble and    
devoid of beauty4  ,if we turn now to   
material1 we shall find that embroidery1
 like some other arts1 depends much for 
its excellence on the minor crafts which
 provide it with material2 and these    
crafts supplied it with better material 
in former times than they do now4 ,a    
stuff to be used as a ground for        
embroidery should have endless          
capacities for wear4 ,this was a quality
 eminently possessed by hand-spun and   
hand-woven linen1 which1 with its       
rounded and separate thread1 and the    
creamy tint of its partial bleaching1   
made an ideal ground for embroidery4 ,or
 if silk were preferred1 the silks of   
past centuries were at once thick1 firm1
 soft and pure1 quite free from the     

dress or artificial thickening1 by whose
 aid a silk nowadays tries to look rich 
when it is not4 ,the oatmeal cloth1     
diagonal cloth1 cotton-backed satin1    
velveteen and plush1 so much used now1  
are very inferior materials as grounds  
for needlework to the hand-loom linens  
and silks on which so large a part of   
the old embroidery remaining to us was  
worked4 ,and so very much of the beauty 
of the embroidery depends on the        
appropriateness of the material4#a      
,cloth1 serge1 and plush are not        
appropriate2 embroidery never looks half
 so well on them as on silk and linen4  
,it is equally important that the       
thread1 whether of silk1 wool1 flax1 or 
metal1 should be pure and as well made  
as it can be1 and1 if dyed1 dyed with   
colours that will stand light and       
washing4 ,most of the silk1 wool1 and   
flax thread sold for embroidery is not  
as good as it should be4 ,the filoselles
 and crewels very soon get worn away    
from the surface of the material they   

are worked on4 ,the crewels are made of 
too soft a wool1 and are not twisted    
tight enough1 and the filoselles1 not   
being made of pure silk1 should never be
 used at all1 pretty and soft though    
their effect undoubtedly is while fresh4
 ,though every imaginable shade of      
colour can be produced by modern dyers1 
the craft seems to have been better     
understood by the dyers of times not    
very long past1 who1 though they may not
 have been able to produce so many      
shades1 could dye colours which would   
wash and did not quickly fade1 or when  
they faded merely lost some colour1     
instead of changing colour1 as so many  
modern dyes do4 ,the old embroidery is  
worked with purer and fewer colours2 now
 all kinds of dull intermediate tints   
are used of gold1 brown1 olive1 and the 
like1 which generally fade rapidly and  
will not wash4 ,many people1 admiring   
old embroidery and desiring to make     
their new work look like it at least in 
colour1 will use tints as faint and     

delicate as the faded old colours1      
forgetting that in a few years their    
work will be almost colourless4 ,it is  
wiser to use strong good colours1 for a 
little fading does not spoil but really 
improves them4  ,so we see that many    
things combine to render embroidery as  
fine as that of the past difficult of   
production1 and there is nothing more   
against it than machinery1 which floods 
the market with its cheap imitations1 so
 that an embroidered dress is no longer 
the choice and rare production it once  
was2 the machine-made imitation is so   
common and so cheap that a refined      
taste1 sick of the vulgarity of the     
imitation1 cares little even for the    
reality1 and seeks refuge in an         
unornamented plainness4 ,the hand-worked
 embroidery glorified and gave value to 
the material it was worked on4 ,the     
machine-work cannot lift it above the   
commonplace4 ,when will people          
understand that the more ornament is    
slow and difficult of production1 the   

more we appreciate it when we have got  
it2 that it is because we know that the 
thought of a human brain and the skill  
of a human hand went into every stroke  
of a chisel1 every touch of a brush1 or 
every stitch placed by the needle1 that 
we admire1 enjoy1 and wonder at the     
statue1 the picture1 or the needlework  
that is the result of that patience and 
that skill2 and that we do not care     
about the ornament at all1 and that it  
becomes lifeless always1 and often      
vulgar1 when it has been made at little 
or no cost by a machine which is ready  
at any moment to produce any quantity   
more of the same thing8 ,all ornament   
and pattern was once produced by hand   
only1 therefore it was always rare and  
costly and was valued accordingly4      
,fashions did not change quickly4 ,it   
was worth while to embroider a garment  
beautifully1 for it would be worn for   
years1 for a lifetime perhaps2 and the  
elaborately worked counterpane would    
cover the bed in the guest-chamber for  

more than one generation4  ,these       
remarks must be understood to apply to  
the ordinary fancy-work and so-called   
art-needlework of the present day4      
,twenty years ago there would have been 
no ray of light in the depths to which  
the art of embroidery had fallen4 ,now  
for some years steady and successful    
efforts have been made by a few people  
to produce once more works worthy of the
 past glories of the art4 ,they have    
proved to us that designers can design  
and that women can execute fine         
embroidery1 but their productions are   
but as a drop in the ocean of inferior  
and valueless work4  ,,mary ,e4         
,,turner4  ,,footnotes3  #a ,but cf4 ,of
 ,materials1 p4 #cfe4     ,,of          
,,materials   ,almost every fabric that 
is good of its kind is suitable for a   
ground for needlework1 and any thread of
 silk1 linen1 cotton1 or wool1 is       
suitable for laying on a web1 with the  
purpose of decorating it4 ,yet these    
materials should not be wedded          

indiscriminately1 every surface         
requiring its peculiar treatment2 a     
loose woollen fabric1 for example1 being
 best covered with wool-work rather than
 with silk4 ,not that it is necessary to
 work in linen thread on linen ground1  
in silk on silk ground1 and so forth2   
silk upon linen1 silk on canvas1 wool on
 linen1 are legitimate1 because suitable
 combinations2 it being scarcely        
necessary to note that linen or wool    
threads should not be used on silk      
surface1 as to place the poorer on the  
richer material would be an error in    
taste4 ,gold thread and precious stones 
will of course be reserved for the      
richer grounds1 and the more elaborate  
kinds of work4  ,a plain or a figured   
7damask7 silk can be employed as a      
ground for needlework1 the broken       
surface of a good damask sometimes      
enriching and helping out the design4   
,if work is to be laid directly on silk 
ground1 it should be rather open and    
light in character2 if closer stitches  

are wanted1 the principal forms are     
usually done on a canvas or linen       
backing1 which is then cut out and      
applied to the final silk ground1 the   
design being carried on and completed by
 lighter work of lines and curves1 and  
by the enrichment of gold thread1 and   
sometimes even precious stones4 ,these  
two methods are a serious and dignified 
form of embroidery1 and were often used 
by the great mediaeval embroiderers on a
 rich figured or damask silk1 and       
sometimes on plain silk1 and sometimes  
on a silky velvet4 ,it is not easy to   
procure absolutely pure undressed silk  
now1 and pliable silk velvet of a       
suitable nature is still more difficult 
to obtain4 ,satin is1 to my thinking1   
almost too shiny a surface for a ground1
 but it may1 occasionally1 be useful for
 small work4 ,a sort of imitation called
 ,roman satin is sometimes employed on  
account of its cheapness and            
effectiveness1 ,i suppose1 as it cannot 
be for its beauty2 the texture1 when    

much handled1 being woolly and          
unpleasant4 ,no one taking trouble to   
procure choice materials will think of  
making use of it4  ,floss silk lends    
itself particularly to the kind of      
needlework we are speaking of2 there is 
no twist on it1 the silk is pure and    
untouched1 if properly dyed has a soft  
gloss1 and a yielding surface that      
renders it quite the foremost of        
embroidery silks1 though its delicate   
texture requires skilful handling4 ,but 
avoid silks that profess to be floss    
with the difficulty in handling removed4
 ,if the old workers could use a pure   
untwisted floss1 surely we can take the 
trouble to conquer this difficulty and  
do the same4 ,twisted silk1 if used on a
 silk ground1 should1 ,i think1 be      
rather fine2 if thick and much twisted1 
it stands out in relief against the     
ground and gives a hard and ropy        
appearance4 ,i am1 in fact1 assuming    
that work on so costly a material as    
pure thick silk is to be rather fine    

than coarse4 ,gold and silver thread is 
much used with silk1 but it is almost   
impossible to keep the silver from      
tarnishing4 ,ordinary gold passing1     
which consists of a gilt silver thread  
wound round silk1 is also apt to        
tarnish1 and should always be lacquered 
before using--a rather troublesome      
process to do at home1 as the gold has  
to be unwound and brushed over with the 
lacquer1 and should be dried in a warm  
room free from damp1 or on a hot sunny  
day4 ,japanese paper-gold is useful1 for
 the reason that it does not tarnish1   
though in some ways it is more          
troublesome to manage than the gold that
 can be threaded in a needle and passed 
through the material4 ,it consists1 like
 much of the ancient gold thread1 of a  
gilded strip of paper wound round silk1 
the old gold being gilded vellum1 when  
not the flat gold beaten out thin 7as1  
by the bye1 in many of the ,eastern     
towels made to-day where the flat tinsel
 is very cleverly used74  ,for          

needlework for more ordinary uses1 linen
 is by far the most pleasing and        
enduring web4 ,unlike silk on the one   
side1 and wool on the other1 it has     
scarcely any limitations in treatment1  
or in material suitable to be used on   
it4 ,for hangings it can be chosen of a 
loose large texture1 and covered with   
bold work executed in silk1 linen       
thread1 or wool1 or it can be chosen of 
the finest thread1 and covered with     
minute delicate stitches2 it can be     
worked equally well in the hand1 or in a
 frame1 and usually the more it is      
handled the better it looks4 ,a thick   
twisted silk is excellent for big and   
coarse work on linen1 the stitches used 
being on the same scale1 big and bold1  
and finer silk used sparingly if needed4
 ,white linen thread is often the       
material employed for linen altar       
cloths1 coverlets1 etc41 and some       
extremely choice examples of such work  
are to be seen in our museums1 some     
worked roughly with a large linen thread

 and big stitches1 some with patient    
minuteness4 ,it is hardly necessary to  
say how important the design of such    
work is4  ,different qualities of this  
material will be suggested to the       
embroideress by her needs2 but1 before  
passing to other things1 ,i should not  
omit mention of the charming linen woven
 at ,langdale4 ,for some purposes it is 
very useful1 as good linen for          
embroidering on is not easy to obtain4  
,we have1 however1 yet to find a web    
which will resemble the rougher and     
coarser linens used for old             
embroideries1 rather loosely woven1 with
 a thick glossy thread1 and of a heavy  
yet yielding substance1 quite unlike the
 hard paper-like surfaces of            
machine-made linens4 ,the ,langdale     
linen is1 of course1 hand-spun and      
hand-made1 and the flat silky thread    
gives a very pleasant surface2 but1     
owing to its price and fine texture1 it 
is not always suitable for the purposes 
of large hangings4 ,many fine examples  

of ,persian work1 such as quilts and so 
forth1 are executed on a white cotton   
ground1 neither very fine nor very      
coarse1 entirely in floss silk1 a       
variety of stitches being used1 and the 
brightest possible colours chosen4 ,the 
cool silky surface of linen1 however1   
commends itself more to us than cotton1 
each country rightly choosing the       
materials nearest to hand1 in this as in
 other decorative arts4 ,both linen and 
cotton are good grounds for wool-work1  
of which the most satisfactory kind is  
that done on a large scale1 with a      
variety of close and curious stitches   
within bold curves and outlines4        
,canvas and net are open textures of    
linen or cotton1 and can be used either 
as a ground-work covered entirely with  
some stitch like the old-fashioned      
cross-stitch or tent-stitch1 or some    
kindred mechanical stitch1 or it can    
stand as the ground1 to be decorated    
with bright silks4 ,the texture of      
canvas being coarse1 the design for it  

should be chosen on a large scale1 and  
thick silk used2 floss preferably as the
 glossiest1 but a thick twisted silk is 
almost equally effective1 and rather    
easier to handle4 ,this canvas is used  
frequently in seventeenth-century       
,italian room-hangings1 either in the   
natural brownish colour1 or dyed blue or
 green1 the dye on it giving a dusky    
neutral colour which well shows up the  
richness of the silk4  ,of woollen      
materials1 cloth is the king2 though as 
a ground for needle-decoration it has   
its limitations4 ,it forms a good basis 
for applique1 the groups of ornament    
being worked separately1 and laid on the
 cloth with threads and cords of silk1  
gold1 or wool1 according to the         
treatment decided on4 ,rough serge gives
 a good surface for large open          
wool-work4 ,such work is quickly done1  
and could be made a very pleasing       
decoration for walls4 ,see the          
delightful inventories of the worldly   
goods of ,sir ,john ,fastolf in the     

notes to the ,paston ,letters1 where the
 description of green and blue worsted  
hangings1 and bankers worked over with  
roses and boughs1 and hunting scenes1   
make one long to emulate the rich       
fancies of forgotten arts1 and try to   
plan out similar work1 much of which was
 quite unambitious and simple1 both in  
design and execution4 ,slack1 a slightly
 twisted wool1 worsted and crewel are   
usually the forms of work used2 of these
 slack wool is the pleasantest for large
 work1 worsted being too harsh2 crewel  
is very fine and much twisted1#a often  
met with in old work of a fine kind4    
,the advantage of wool over silk in cost
 is obvious1 and renders it suitable for
 the commoner uses of life1 where       
lavishness would be out of place4  ,,may
 ,,morris4   ,,footnotes3  #a ,crewel1  
crull1 curly3--      ,his locks were    
crull as they were laid in press1  says 
,chaucer of the ,squire in ,the         
,canterbury ,tales4     ,,colour   ,it  
is not unusual to hear said of textiles 

and embroideries1 ,i like soft quiet    
colouring2 such and such is too bright4 
,this assertion is both right and wrong2
 it shows an instinctive pleasure in    
harmony combined with ignorance of      
technique4 ,to begin with1 colour cannot
 be too bright in itself2 if it appears 
so1 it is the skill of the craftsman    
that is at fault4 ,it will be noted in a
 fine piece of work that far from       
blazing with colour in a way to disturb 
the eye1 its general effect is that of a
 subdued glow2 and yet1 on considering  
the different shades of the colours     
used1 they are found to be in themselves
 of the brightest the dyer can produce4 
,thus ,i have seen in an old ,persian   
rug light and dark blue flowers and     
orange leaves outlined with turquoise   
blue on a strong red ground1 a          
combination that sounds daring1 and yet 
nothing could be more peaceful in tone  
than the beautiful and complicated      
groups of colours here displayed4       
,harmony1 then1 produces this repose1   

which is demanded instinctively1 purity 
and crispness being further obtained by 
the quality of the colours used4  ,thus 
in blues1 use the shades that are only  
obtained satisfactorily by indigo dye1  
with such modifications as slightly     
greening with yellow when a green-blue  
is wanted1 and so forth4 ,the pure blue 
of indigo1#a neither slaty nor too hot  
and red on the one hand1 nor tending to 
a coarse peacock green-blue on the      
other1 is perfect in all its tones1 and 
of all colours the safest to use in     
masses4 ,its modifications to purple on 
one side and green-blue on the other are
 also useful1 though to be employed with
 moderation4 ,there are endless         
varieties of useful reds1 from pink1    
salmon1 orange1 and scarlet1 to         
blood-red and deep purple-red1 obtained 
by different dyes and by different      
processes of dyeing4 ,kermes1 an insect 
dye1 gives a very beautiful and         
permanent colour1 rather scarlet4       
,cochineal1 also an insect dye1 gives a 

red1 rather inferior1 but useful for    
mixed shades1 and much used on silk1 of 
which madder and kermes are apt to      
destroy the gloss1 the former a good    
deal1 the latter slightly4 ,madder1 a   
vegetable dye1 yields on wool a         
deep-toned blood-red1 somewhat bricky   
and tending to scarlet4 ,on cotton and  
linen all imaginable shades of red1     
according to the process4#b ,of the     
shades into which red enters1 avoid     
over-abundant use of warm orange or     
scarlet1 which are the more valuable    
7especially the latter7 the more        
sparingly used2 there is a dusky orange 
and a faint clear bricky scarlet1       
sometimes met with in old work1 that do 
not need this reservation1 being quiet  
colours of impure yet beautiful tone4   
,clear1 full yellow1 fine in itself1    
also loses its value if too plentifully 
used1 or lacking due relief by other    
colours4 ,the pure colour is neither    
reddish and hot in tone1 nor greenish   
and sickly4 ,it is very abundant1 for   

example1 in ,persian silk embroidery1   
also in ,chinese1 and again in ,spanish 
and ,italian work of the sixteenth and  
seventeenth centuries4 ,the best and    
most permanent yellow dye1 especially   
valuable on silk1 is weld or wild       
mignonette4  ,next to blue1 green seems 
the most natural colour to live with1   
and the most restful to the eye and     
brain2 yet it is curious to those not   
familiar with the ins and outs of dyeing
 that it should be so difficult to      
obtain through ordinary commercial      
channels a full1 rich1 permanent green1 
neither muddy yellow nor coarse bluish4 
,a dyer who employed old-fashioned      
dye-stuffs and methods would1 however1  
tell us that the greens of commerce are 
obtained by messes1 and not by dyes1 the
 only method for obtaining good shades  
being that of dyeing a blue of the depth
 required in the indigo-vat1 and        
afterwards greening it with yellow1 with
 whatever modifications are needed4     
,three sets of greens will be found     

useful for needlework1 full             
yellow-greens of two or three shades1   
grayish-greens1 and blue-greens4 ,of    
these1 the shades tending to            
grayish-green are the most manageable in
 large masses4 ,there is also an        
olive-green that is good1 if not too    
dark and brown1 when it becomes a       
nondescript1 and as such to be          
condemned4  ,walnut 7the roots or the   
husks or the nut7 and catechu 7the juice
 of a plant7 are the most reliable brown
 dye-stuffs1 giving good rich colour4   
,the best black1 by the bye1 formerly   
used1 consisted of the darkest indigo   
shade the material would take1 dipped   
afterwards in the walnut root dye4      
,this hasty enumeration of dye-stuffs   
gives an idea of those principally used 
until this century1 but now very rarely1
 since the reign of ,aniline4 ,yet they 
give the only really pure and permanent 
colours known1 not losing their value by
 artificial light1 and very little and  
gradually fading through centuries of   

exposure to sunlight4 ,it would be      
pleasant if in purchasing silk or cloth 
one had not to pause and consider will  
it fade8 meaning not will it fade in a  
hundred1 or ten1 or three years8 but    
will it fade and be an unsightly rag    
this time next month8 ,i cannot see that
 ,aniline has done more for us than     
this4  ,colour can be treated in several
 different ways3 by distinctly light    
shades1 whether few or many1 on a dark  
ground1 which treatment lends itself to 
great variety and effect2 or by dark on 
a light ground1 not so rich or          
satisfying in effect2 or again1 by      
colour placed on colour of equal tone1  
as it were a mosaic or piecing together 
of colours united1 or jointed1 by       
outlining round the various members of  
the design4 ,black on white1 or white on
 white1 a mere drawing of a design on   
the material1 scarcely comes under the  
head of ,colour1 though1 as aforesaid1  
some very beautiful work has been done  
in this way4  ,as regards method of     

colouring1 it is not very possible to   
give much indication of what to use and 
what to avoid1 it being greatly a matter
 of practice1 and somewhat of instinct1 
how to unite colour into beautiful and  
complex groups4 ,a few hints for and    
against certain combinations may perhaps
 be given3 for instance1 avoid placing a
 blue immediately against a green of    
nearly the same tone2 an outline of a   
different colour disposes of this       
difficulty1 but even so1 blue and green 
for equally leading colours should be   
avoided4 ,again1 red and yellow1 if both
 of a vivid tone1 will need a softening 
outline2 also1 ,i think1 red and green  
if at all strong2 avoid cold green in   
contact with misty blue-green1 which in 
itself is rather a pretty colour3 the   
warning seems futile1 but ,i have seen  
these colours used persistently         
together1 and do not like the resulting 
undecided gray tone4 ,a cold strong     
green renders service sometimes1 notably
 for placing against a clear brilliant  

yellow1 which is apt to deaden certain  
softer greens4 ,brown1 when used1 should
 be chosen carefully1 warm in tint1 but 
not hot2 avoid the mixture of brown and 
yellow1 often seen in ,art ,depots1 but 
not in nature1 an unfortunate groping   
after the picturesque1 as brown wants   
cooling down1 and to marry it to a      
flaming yellow is not the way to do it4 
,black should be used very sparingly    
indeed1 though by no means banished from
 the palette4 ,blue and pink1 blue and  
red1 with a little tender green for     
relief1 are perfectly safe combinations 
for the leading colours in a piece of   
work2 again1 yellow and green1 or       
yellow1 pink1 and green1 make a         
delightfully fresh and joyous show4     
,there is a large coverlet to be seen at
 the ,south ,kensington ,museum 7in the 
,persian gallery7 which is worked in    
these colours1 all very much the same   
bright tone1 the centre being green and 
yellow and pink1 and the several borders
 the same1 with the order and proportion

 altered to make a variety4 ,in         
recalling bright colouring like this1   
one is reminded of ,chaucer and his     
unfailing delight in gay colours1 which 
he constantly brings before us in       
describing garden1 woodland1 or         
beflowered gown4 ,as--      ,everich    
tree well from his fellow grewe         
,with branches broad laden with leaves  
newe     ,that sprongen out against the 
sonne sheene     ,some golden red and   
some a glad bright grene4  ,or1 again1  
the ,squire's dress in the ,prologue to 
,the ,canterbury ,tales--               
,embrouded was he1 as it were a mede    
,alle ful of freshe floures1 white and  
rede4  ,,may ,,morris4  ,,footnotes3  #a
 ,for notes on the dyer's art and the   
nature of dye stuffs1 see ,william      
,morris's essay on ,dyeing as an ,art1  
p4 #aif4  #b ,william ,morris1 ,dyeing  
as an ,art4     ,,stitches ,,and        
,,mechanism   ,as a guiding             
classification of methods of embroidery 
considered from the technical point of  

view1 ,i have set down the following    
heads3--      7a7 ,embroidery of        
materials in frames4      7b7           
,embroidery of materials held in the    
hand4      7c7 ,positions of the needle 
in making stitches4      7d7 ,varieties 
of stitches4      7e7 ,effects of       
stitches in relation to materials into  
which they     are worked4      7f7     
,methods of stitching different         
materials together4      7g7 ,embroidery
 in relief4      7h7 ,embroidery on open
 grounds like net1 etc4      7i7 ,drawn 
thread work2 needlepoint lace4      7j7 
,embroidery allied to tapestry weaving4 
,in the first place1 ,i define          
embroidery as the ornamental enrichment 
by needlework of a given material4 ,such
 material is usually a closely-woven    
stuff2 but skins of animals1 leather1   
etc41 also serve as foundations for     
embroidery1 and so do nets4  7a7        
,materials to be embroidered may be     
either stretched out in a frame1 or held
 loosely 7b7 in the hand4 ,experience   

decides when either way is the better4  
,for embroidery upon nets1 frames are   
indispensable4 ,the use of frames is    
also necessary when a particular aim of 
the embroiderer is to secure an even    
tension of stitch throughout his work4  
,there are various frames1 some large   
and standing on trestles2 in these many 
feet of material can be stretched out4  
,then there are small handy frames in   
which a square foot or two of material  
is stretched2 and again there are       
smaller frames1 usually circular1 in    
which a few inches of materials of      
delicate texture1 like muslin and       
cambric1 may be stretched4  ,oriental   
embroiderers1 like those of ,china1     
,japan1 ,persia1 and ,india1 are great  
users of frames for their work4  7c7    
,stitches having peculiar or individual 
characteristics are comparatively few4  
,almost all are in use for plain        
needlework4 ,it is through the          
employment of them to render or express 
ornament or pattern that they become    

embroidery stitches4 ,some embroiderers 
and some schools of embroidery contend  
that the number of embroidery stitches  
is almost infinite4 ,this1 however1 is  
probably one of the myths of the craft4 
,to begin with1 there are barely more   
than two different positions in which   
the needle is held for making a         
stitch--one when the needle is passed   
more or less horizontally through the   
material1 the other when the needle is  
worked more or less vertically4 ,in     
respect of the first-named way1 the     
point of the needle enters the material 
usually in two places1 and one pull     
takes the embroidery thread into the    
material more or less horizontally1 or  
along or behind its surface 7,fig4 #a74 
,in the second1 the needle is passed    
upwards from beneath the material1      
pulled right through it1 and then       
returned downwards1 so that there are   
two pulls instead of one to complete a  
single stitch4  ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#a4--,stem ,stitch--a peculiar use of   

short stitches4  ,a hooked or crochet   
needle with a handle is held more or    
less vertically for working a chain     
stitch upon the surface of a material   
stretched in a frame1 but this is a     
method of embroidery involving the use  
of an implement distinct from that done 
with the ordinary and freely-plied      
needle4 ,still1 including this          
last-named method1 which comes into the 
class of embroidery done with the needle
 in a more or less vertical position1 we
 do not get more than two distinctive   
positions for holding the embroidery    
needle4  ,illustration3 ,fig4           
#b4--;,chain ,stitch4  7d7 ,varieties of
 stitches may be classified under two   
sections3 one of stitches in which the  
thread is looped1 as in chain stitch1   
knotted stitches1 and button-hole       
stitch2 the other of stitches in which  
the thread is not looped1 but lies      
flatly1 as in short and long            
stitches--crewel or feather stitches as 
they are sometimes called1--darning     

stitches1 tent and cross stitches1 and  
satin stitch4  ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#c4--,satin ,stitch4  ,almost all of    
these stitches produce different sorts  
of surface or texture in the embroidery 
done with them4 ,chain stitches1 for    
instance1 give a broken or              
granular-looking surface 7,fig4 #b74    
,this effect in surface is more strongly
 marked when knotted stitches are used4 
,satin stitches give a flat surface     
7,fig4 #c71 and are generally used for  
embroidery or details which are to be of
 an even tint of colour4 ,crewel or long
 and short stitches combined 7,fig4 #d7 
give a slightly less even texture than  
satin stitches4 ,crewel stitch is       
specially adapted to the rendering of   
coloured surfaces of work in which      
different tints are to modulate into one
 another4  ,illustration3 ,fig4         
#d4--;,feather or ,crewel ,stitch--a    
mixture of long and short stitches4  7e7
 ,the effects of stitches in relation to
 the materials into which they are      

worked can be considered under two      
broadly-marked divisions4 ,the one is in
 regard to embroidery which is to       
produce an effect on one side only of a 
material2 the other to embroidery which 
shall produce similar effects equally on
 both the back and front of the         
material4 ,a darning and a satin stitch 
may be worked so that the embroidery has
 almost the same effect on both sides of
 the material4 ,chain stitch and crewel 
stitch can only be used with regard to  
effect on one side of a material4  7f7  
,but these suggestions for a simple     
classification of embroidery do not by  
any means apply to many methods of      
so-called embroidery1 the effects of    
which depend upon something more than   
stitches4 ,in these other methods       
cutting materials into shapes1 stitching
 materials together1 or on to one       
another1 and drawing certain threads out
 of a woven material and then working   
over the undrawn threads1 are involved4 
,applied or applique work is generally  

used in connection with ornament of bold
 forms4 ,the larger and principal forms 
are cut out of one material and then    
stitched down to another--the junctures 
of the edges of the cut-out forms being 
usually concealed and the shapes of the 
forms emphasised by cord stitched along 
them4 ,patchwork depends for successful 
effect upon skill in cutting out the    
several pieces which are to be stitched 
together4 ,patchwork is a sort of mosaic
 work in textile materials2 and1 far    
beyond the homely patchwork quilt of    
country cottages1 patchwork lends itself
 to the production of ingenious         
counterchanges of form and colour in    
complex patterns4 ,these methods of     
applique and patchwork are peculiarly   
adapted to ornamental needlework which  
is to lie1 or hang1 stretched out       
flatly1 and are not suited therefore to 
work in which is involved a calculated  
beauty of effect from folds4  7g7 ,there
 are two or three classes of embroidery 
in relief which are not well adapted to 

embroideries on lissome materials in    
which folds are to be considered4       
,quilting is one of these classes4 ,it  
may be artistically employed for        
rendering low-relief ornament1 by means 
of a stout cord or padding placed       
between two bits of stuff1 which are    
then ornamentally stitched together so  
that the cord or padding may fill out   
and give slight relief to the ornamental
 portions defined by and enclosed       
between the lines of stitching4 ,there  
is also padded embroidery or work       
consisting of a number of details       
separately wrought in relief over       
padding of hanks of thread1 wadding1 and
 such like4 ,effects of high relief are 
obtainable by this method4 ,another     
class1 but of lower relief embroidery1  
is couching 7,fig4 #e71 in which cords  
and gimps are laid side by side1 in     
groups1 upon the face of a material1 and
 then stitched down to it4 ,various     
effects can be obtained in this method4 
,the colour of the thread used to stitch

 the cords or gimp down may be different
 from that of the cords or gimp1 and the
 stitches may of course be so taken as  
to produce small powdered or diaper     
patterns over the face of the groups of 
cords or gimp4 ,gold cords are often    
used in this class of work1 which is    
peculiarly identified with              
ecclesiastical embroideries of the      
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 as   
also with ,japanese work of later date4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--;,a form of   
,embroidery in relief1 called ,couching4
  7h7 ,the embroidery and work hitherto 
alluded to has been such as requires a  
foundation of a closely woven nature1   
like linen1 cloth1 silk1 and velvet4    
,but there are varieties of embroidery  
done upon netted or meshed grounds4 ,and
 on to these open grounds1 embroidery in
 darning and chain stitches can be      
wrought4 ,for the most part the         
embroideries upon open or meshed grounds
 have a lace-like appearance4 ,in lace1 
the contrast between close work and     

open1 or partially open1 spaces about it
 plays an important part4 ,the methods  
of making lace by the needle1 or by     
bobbins on a cushion1 are totally       
distinct from the methods of making     
lace-like embroideries upon net4  7i7   
,akin to lace and embroideries upon net 
is embroidery in which much of its      
special effect is obtained by the       
withdrawal of threads from the material1
 and then either whipping or overcasting
 in button-hole stitches the undrawn    
threads4 ,the ,persians and embroiderers
 in the ,grecian ,archipelago have      
excelled in such work1 producing        
wondrously delicate textile grills of   
ingenious geometric patterns4 ,in this  
drawn thread work1 as it is called1 we  
often meet with the employment of       
button-hole stitching1 which is an      
important stitch in making needlepoint  
lace 7,fig4 #f74  ,illustration3 ,fig4  
#f4--;,button-hole ,stitching1 as used  
in needlepoint lace4  7j7 ,we also meet 
with the use of a weaving stitch        

resembling in effect1 on a small scale1 
willow weaving for hurdles4 ,this       
weaving stitch1 and the method of       
compacting together the threads made    
with it1 are closely allied to that     
special method of weaving known as      
tapestry weaving4 ,some of the earliest 
specimens of tapestry weaving consist of
 ornamental borders1 bands1 and panels1 
which were inwoven into tunics and      
cloaks worn by ,greeks and ,romans from 
the fourth century before ,christ1 up to
 the eighth or ninth after ,christ4 ,the
 scale of the work in these is so small1
 as compared with that of large tapestry
 wall-hangings of the fifteenth century1
 that the method may be regarded as     
being related more to drawn thread      
embroidery than to weaving into an      
extensive field of warp threads4  ,a    
sketch of the different employments of  
the foregoing methods of embroidery is  
not to be included in this paper4 ,the  
universality of embroidery from the     
earliest of historic times is attested  

by evidences of its practice amongst    
primitive tribes throughout the world4  
,fragments of stitched materials or     
undoubted indications of them have been 
found in the remains of early ,american 
,indians1 and in the cave dwellings of  
men who lived thousands of years before 
the period of historic ,egyptians and   
,assyrians4 ,of ,greek short and long   
stitch1 and chain stitch and applique   
embroidery1 there are specimens of the  
third or fourth century ,b4,c4 preserved
 in the ,hermitage at ,st4 ,petersburg4 
,babylonians1 ,egyptians1 ,greeks1 and  
,romans were skilful in the use of      
tapestry weaving stitches4 ,dainty      
embroidery1 with delicate silken        
threads1 was practised by the ,chinese  
long before similar work was done in the
 countries west of ,persia1 or in       
countries which came within the         
,byzantine ,empire4 ,in the early days  
of that ,empire1 the ,emperor           
,theodosius ,i4 framed rules respecting 
the importation of silk1 and made       

regulations for the labour employed in  
the gynaecea1 the public weaving and    
embroidering rooms of that period1 the  
development and organisation of which   
are traceable to the apartments allotted
 in private houses to the sempstresses  
and embroideresses who formed part of   
the well-to-do households of early      
classic times4  ,,alan ,s4 ,,cole4      
,,design      ,drink waters out of thine
 own cistern1 and running waters out of 
thine own well4--,,solomon4             
,produce2 produce2 be it but the        
infinitesimallest product1              
produce4--,,carlyle4   ,for the last    
sixty years1 ever since the ,gothic     
,revival set in1 we have done our best  
to resuscitate the art of embroidery4   
,first the ,church and then the world   
took up the task1 and much admirable    
work has been done by the ,schools1 the 
shops1 and at home4 ,and yet the verdict
 still must be the old is better4       
,considering all things1 this lack of   
absolute success is perplexing and needs

 to be explained4 ,for we have realised 
our ideals4 ,never was a time when the  
art and science of needlework were so   
thoroughly understood as in ,england at 
the present moment4 ,our designers can  
design in any style4 ,every old method  
is at our fingers' ends4 ,every         
ingenious stitch of old humanity has    
been mastered1 and a descriptive name   
given to it of our own devising4 ,every 
traditional pattern--wave1 lotus1 daisy1
 convolvulus1 honeysuckle1 ,sacred ,horn
 or tree of life2 every animal form1 or 
bird1 fish or reptile1 has been traced  
to its source1 and its symbolism laid   
bare4 ,every phase of the world's primal
 schools of design--,egyptian1          
,babylonian1 ,indian1 ,chinese1 ,greek1 
,byzantine1 ,european--has been         
illustrated and made easy of imitation4 
,we are archaeologists3 we are critics3 
we are artists4 ,we are lovers of old   
work3 we are learned in historical and  
aesthetic questions1 in technical rules 
and principles of design4 ,we are       

colourists1 and can play with colour as 
musicians play with notes4 ,what is     
more1 we are in terrible earnestness    
about the whole business4 ,the honour of
 the ,british nation1 the credit of     
,royalty1 are1 in a manner1 staked upon 
the success of our ,schools of          
,needlework4 ,and yet1 in spite of all  
these favouring circumstances1 we get no
 nearer to the old work that first      
mocked us to emulation in regard to     
power of initiative and human interest4 
,truth and gallantry prompt me to add1  
it is not in stitchery but in design    
that we lag behind the old4 ,fair       
,english hands can copy every trick of  
ancient artistry3 finger-skill was never
 defter1 will was never more ardent to  
do fine things1 than now4 ,yet our work 
hangs fire4 ,it fails in design4 ,why8  
,now1 ,emerson has well said that all   
the arts have their origin in some      
enthusiasm4 ,mark this1 however3 that   
whereas the design of old needlework is 
based upon enthusiasm for birds1        

flowers1 and animal life1#a the design  
of modern needlework has its origin in  
enthusiasm for antique art4 ,nature is1 
of course1 the groundwork of all art1   
even of ours2 but it is not to ,nature  
at first-hand that we go4 ,the flowers  
we embroider were not plucked from field
 and garden1 but from the               
camphor-scented preserves at            
,kensington4 ,our needlework conveys no 
pretty message of      ,the life that   
breathes1 the life that lives1  it      
savours only of the now stiff and stark 
device of dead hands4 ,our art holds no 
mirror up to ,nature as we see her1 it  
only reflects the reflection of dead    
periods4 ,nay1 not content with merely  
rifling the motifs of moth-fretted rags1
 we must needs turn for novelty to an   
old ,persian tile which1 well magnified1
 makes a capital design for a quilt that
 one might perchance sleep under in     
spite of what is outside6 ,or we are not
 ashamed to ask our best embroideresses 
to copy the barbaric wriggles and       

childlike crudities of a seventh-century
 ,book of ,kells1 a task which cramps   
her style and robs ,celtic art of all   
its wonder4  ,we have1 ,i said1 realised
 our ideals4 ,we can do splendidly what 
we set ourselves to do--namely1 to mimic
 old masterpieces4 ,the question is1    
,what next8 ,shall we continue to hunt  
old trails1 and die1 not leaving the    
world richer than we found it8 ,or shall
 we for art and honour's sake boldly    
adventure something--drop this wearisome
 translation of old styles and translate
 ,nature instead8  ,think of the gain to
 the ,schools1 and to the designers     
themselves1 if we elect to take another 
starting-point6 ,no more museum-inspired
 work6 ,no more scruples about styles6  
,no more dry-as-dust stock patterns6 ,no
 more loathly ,persian-tile quilts6 ,no 
more awful ,zoomorphic table-cloths6 ,no
 more cast-iron-looking altar cloths1 or
 ,syon ,cope angels1 or stumpy          
,norfolk-screen saints6 ,no more ,tudor 
roses and pumped-out ,christian imagery 

suggesting that ,christianity is dead   
and buried6 ,but1 instead1 we shall have
 design by living men for living        
men--something that expresses fresh     
realisations of sacred facts1 personal  
broodings1 skill1 joy in ,nature--in    
grace of form and gladness of colour2   
design that shall recall ,shakespeare's 
maid who            444 with her neeld  
composes     ,nature's own shape1 of    
bud1 bird1 branch1 or berry1       ,that
 even ,art sisters the natural roses4   
,for1 after all1 modern design should be
 as the old--living thought1 artfully   
expressed3 fancy that has taken fair    
shapes4 ,and needlework is still a      
pictorial art that requires a real      
artist to direct the design1 a real     
artist to ply the needle4 ,given these1 
and our needlework can be as full of    
story as the ,bayeux tapestry1 as full  
of imagery as the ,syon ,cope1 and      
better drawn4 ,the charm of old         
embroidery lies in this1 that it clothes
 current thought in current shapes4 ,it 

meant something to the workers1 and to  
the man in the street for whom it was   
done4 ,and for our work to gain the same
 sensibility1 the same range of appeal1 
the same human interest1 we must employ 
the same means4 ,we must clothe modern  
ideas in modern dress2 adorn our design 
with living fancy1 and rise to the      
height of our knowledge and capacities4 
,doubtless there is danger to the       
untrained designer in direct resort to  
,nature4 ,for the tendency in his or her
 case is to copy outright1 to give us   
pure crude fact and not to design at    
all4 ,still there is hope in honest     
error3 none in the icy perfections of   
the mere stylist4 ,for the unskilled    
designer there is no training like      
drawing from an old herbal2 for in all  
old drawing of ,nature there is a large 
element of design4 ,besides which1 the  
very limitations of the materials used  
in realising a design in needlework1 be 
it ever so naturally coloured1 hinders a
 too definite presentation of the real4 

,for the professional stylist1 the      
confirmed conventionalist1 an hour in   
his garden1 a stroll in the embroidered 
meadows1 a dip into an old herbal1 a few
 carefully-drawn cribs from ,curtis's   
,botanical ,magazine1 or even--for lack 
of something better--,sutton's last     
,illustrated ,catalogue1 is wholesome   
exercise1 and will do more to revive the
 original instincts of a true designer  
than a month of sixpenny days at a      
stuffy museum4 ,the old masters are     
dead1 but the flowers1 as ,victor ,hugo 
says1 the flowers last always4  ,,john  
,d4 ,,sedding4  ,,footnotes3  #a ,a     
strip of sixteenth-century needlework in
 my possession 7#f ft4 by #b ft4 #f in47
 figures thirty different specimens of  
plants1 six animals1 and four birds1    
besides ornamental sprays of foliage4   
,,on ,,designing ,,for ,,the ,,art ,,of 
,,embroidery   ,in every form of art the
 thing which is of primary importance is
 the question of ,design4  ,by ,design  
,i understand the inventive arrangement 

of lines and masses1 for their own sake1
 in such a relation to one another1 that
 they form a fine1 harmonious whole3 a  
whole1 that is1 towards which each part 
contributes1 and is in such a           
combination with every other part that  
the result is a unity of effect1 so     
completely satisfying us that we have no
 sense of demanding in it more or less4 
,after this statement and definition let
 me proceed to touch briefly upon four  
points in relation to the matter1 as it 
concerns itself with the art of         
,embroidery2 and the first of these four
 points shall be this4 ,before you      
commence your design1 consider carefully
 the conditions under which the finished
 work is to be seen4 ,there is a        
tendency in embroidery to be too        
uniformly delicate and minute4 ,to be   
too delicate1 or even minute1 in        
something which is always to be seen    
close under one's eyes is1 it may be1   
impossible2 but in an altar-cloth1 a    
banner1 a wall-hanging1 this delicacy   

and minuteness are not merely thrown    
away1 but they tend to make the thing   
ineffective4 ,for such objects as these 
,i have mentioned1 the main lines and   
masses of the design should1 it would   
seem in the nature of the case1 be well 
emphasised2 if they are well emphasised1
 and of course fine in their character  
and arrangement1 there is produced a    
sense of largeness and dignity which is 
of the highest value1 and for the       
absence of which no amount of curious   
workmanship will atone4 ,in making your 
design1 let these main lines and masses 
be the first things you attend to1 and  
secure4 ,stand away at a distance1 and  
see if they tell out satisfactorily1    
before you go on to put in a single     
touch of detail4  ,for the second point3
 remember that embroidery deals with its
 objects as if they were all on the same
 plane4 ,it has been sometimes described
 as the art of painting with the needle2
 but it necessarily and essentially     
differs from the art of painting in     

this1 that it1 properly1 represents all 
things as being equally near to you1 as 
laid out before you on the same plane4  
,it would seem1 therefore1 to be a sound
 rule to fill the spaces1 left for you  
by the arrangement of your main lines   
and masses1 with such forms as shall    
occupy these spaces1 one by one1        
completely2 with such patterns1 ,i mean1
 as shall appear to have their natural  
and full development within the limits  
of each space3 avoid the appearance of  
one thing being behind the other1 with  
portions of it cut off and obscured by  
what comes in front of it4 ,but in this1
 as in so much else1 an immense deal    
must be left to the instinct of the     
artist4  ,thirdly3 aim at simplicity in 
the elements or motives of your design2 
do not crowd it with a score of         
different elements1 which produce a     
sense of confusion and irritation1 and1 
in reality1 prove only a poverty of     
invention4 ,a real richness of          
invention1 as well as a richness of     

effect1 lies in using one or two1       
perhaps at most three1 elements1 with   
variety in the treatment of them4 ,make 
yourself thoroughly master of the       
essential points1 in whatever elements  
you choose as the basis of your design1 
before you set pencil to paper2 and you 
will find in almost any natural form you
 fix upon more than enough to give you  
all the variety and richness you        
require1 if you have sufficient natural 
fancy to play with it4  ,lastly3 return 
again and again1 and for evermore1 to   
,nature4 ,the value of studying         
specimens of old embroidery is immense2 
it makes you familiar with the          
principles and methods1 which experience
 has found to be true and useful2 it    
puts you into possession of the         
traditions of the art4 ,he that has no  
reverence for the traditions of his art 
seals his own doom2 he that is careless 
about them1 or treats them with         
superciliousness1 or will not give the  
time and pains necessary to understand  

them1 but thinks to start off afresh    
along clean new lines of his own1 stamps
 himself as an upstart--makes himself   
perhaps1 if he is clever1 a nine days'  
curiosity--but loses himself1 by and by1
 in extravagances1 and brings no fruit  
to perfection4 ,the study of old work1  
then1 is of the highest importance1 is  
essential2 the patient and humble study 
of it4 ,but for what end8 ,to learn     
principles and methods1 to secure a     
sound foundation for oneself2 not to    
slavishly imitate results1 and live on  
bound hand and foot in the swaddling    
clothes of precedent4 ,learn your       
business in the schools1 but go out to  
,nature for your inspirations4 ,see     
,nature through your own eyes1 and be a 
persistent and curious observer of her  
infinite wonders4 ,yet to see ,nature in
 herself is not everything1 it is but   
half the matter2 the other half is to   
know how to use her for the purposes of 
fine art1 to know how to translate her  
into the language of art4 ,and this     

knowledge we acquire by a sound         
acquaintance with the essential         
conditions of whatever art we practise1 
a frank acceptance of these conditions1 
and a reverential appreciation of the   
teaching and examples of past workmen4  
,timidity and impudence are both alike  
fatal to an artist3 timidity1 which     
makes it impossible for him to see with 
his own eyes1 and find his own methods2 
and impudence1 which makes him imagine  
that his own eyes1 and his own methods1 
are the best that ever were4  ,,selwyn  
,,image4         99       99       99   
99       99  ,printed by ,r4  ,r4       
,,clark1 ,edinburgh         99       99 
99       99       99     ,a ,,selection 
,,from ,,the  ,recent ,publications     
,,of   ,,messrs4 ,,percival  ,,king     
,,street1 ,,covent ,,garden             
,,london         99       99       99   
99       99  #cd ,,king ,,street1       
,,covent ,,garden1         ,,london1    
,w4,c4  ,april #ahic4         99        
99       99       99       99  ,crown   

#hvo4 ,with ,illustrations4 #fs4        
,recollections of ,dr4 ,john ,brown     
,author of ',rab and ,his ,friends4'    
,with ,selections from ,correspondence4 
,by ,,alexander ,,peddie1 ,m4,d41       
,f4,r4,c4,p4,e41 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 ,,etc4   
99       99       99       99       99  
,demy #afmo4 #cs4   ,my ,book of ,songs 
and ,sonnets  ,by ,,maude ,,egerton     
,,king4         99       99       99    
99       99  ,crown #hvo4 #fs4          
,outlines of ,british ,colonisation  ,by
 the ,,rev4 ,,william ,,parr ,,greswell1
 ,m4,a4  ,author of ',our ,south        
,african ,empire1' ',a ,history of the  
,dominion of ,canada1' and ',geography  
of ,africa ,south of the ,zambesi1' etc4
  ,with an ,introduction by ,,lord      
,,brassey4  ,,contents4--,the ,west     
,indies--,the ,leeward                  
,islands--,newfoundland--,the ,dominion 
of ,canada--,the ,west ,african         
,settlements--,the ,south ,african      
,colonies--,the ,australian             
,colonies--,tasmania--,south            

,australia--,new ,zealand--,the ,islands
 of the ,pacific and ,fiji--,ceylon and 
the ,maldive                            
,archipelago--,mauritius--,hong         
,kong--,appendices of ,facts and        
,figures4         99       99       99  
99       99  ,demy #hvo4 ,with ,maps and
 a ,plan4 #afs4   ,venice  ,an          
,historical ,sketch of the ,republic    
,by ,,horatio ,f4 ,,brown1  ,author of  
',life on the ,lagoons4'  ,the ,author's
 endeavour in this ,work is to view     
,venice as a personality2 to trace1 as  
it were1 in brief her biography2        
attempting to show what made her2 how   
she grew2 what mistakes she committed1  
and how she paid for them2 and this     
attempt seemed the more reasonable in   
this case1 because throughout the       
history of ,venice the personality of   
the ,states is always more prominent    
than the personality of individual      
,venetians4      ',although1 in general 
terms1 this work may be described as a  
history     of ,venice1 it has been     

carried out on so original a plan as to 
deserve a distinct and prominent place  
amongst the many volumes     which have 
been devoted to a record of the rise1   
development1 and     decline of the     
,venetian ,republic4'--,glasgow ,herald4
      ',mr4 ,brown has imprisoned the   
atmosphere of ,venice into his pages1   
has for the most part made her heroes   
live again1 and has brought     out     
fully the poetry and pathos of her      
wonderful career4 ,he is     already    
known as a sympathetic writer on        
,venetian subjects1 but he     has done 
nothing so good as this account of 'the 
city that looks as     though she were  
putting out to sea4'--,westminster      
,gazette4      ',mr4 ,brown has         
performed his task with skill and taste2
 and a     picture is presented of the  
process by which ,venice was built up   
and     fell from its high estate1 which
 is at once brilliant and               
accurate4'--,scotsman4      ',mr4       
,brown's learned and yet thoroughly     

readable book is published     in a     
fortunate hour1 both for author and     
reader4 ,when he writes     about       
,venice we feel that his sympathy with  
his subject has given     him the power 
both of comprehending things ,venetian  
and of extending     that comprehension 
to his readers4'--,manchester ,guardian4
      ',this is in truth a chronicle    
which follows out with industry and     
accuracy the maze of ,venetian          
history4444 ,as an historical sketch it 
is admirable4'--,times4      ',a        
valuable and fascinating work1 evidently
 the result of research     and         
study4444 ,every visitor to the         
beautiful shrine of ,st4 ,mark          
should be possessed of this handsome    
volume4'--,daily ,telegraph4         99 
99       99       99       99  ,demy    
#hvo4 #afs4   ,a ,history of the        
,theories of ,production and            
,distribution in ,english ,political    
,economy1 from #aggf to #ahdh  ,by      
,,edwin ,,cannan1 ,m4,a41 ,balliol      

,college1 ,oxford4  ,,contents4--,the   
,wealth of a ,nation--,the ,idea of the 
,production of ,wealth--,the ,first     
',requisite of ,production1'            
,labour--,the ,second ',requisite of    
,production1' ,capital--,the ,third     
',requisite of ,production1' ,land--,the
 ,idea of the ,distribution of          
,wealth--,pseudo ,distribution 7causes  
which affect 7#a7 the absolute amount of
 ,wages per head2 7#b7 the rate of      
,profits2 and 7#c7 the absolute amount  
of ,rent7--,distribution ,proper 7causes
 which affect the proportions in which a
 given produce is divided between       
different classes and                   
individuals7--,politics and ,economics4 
99       99       99       99       99  
,in two ,volumes1 sold separately4      
,crown #hvo1 #fs4 each4   ,the          
,victorian ,age of ,english ,literature 
,by ,,mrs4 ,,oliphant and ,f4 ,r4       
,,oliphant1 ,b4,a4  ,,contents4  ,,vol4 
,i4--,the ,state of ,literature at the  
,queen's ,accession1 and of those whose 

work was already done--,men who had made
 their name1 especially ,john ,gibson   
,lockhart1 ,walter ,savage ,landor1     
,leigh ,hunt--,thomas ,carlyle and ,john
 ,stuart ,mill1 and other ,essayists and
 ,critics--,macaulay and the other      
,historians and ,biographers in the     
early part of the reign--,the ,greater  
,poets--,dickens1 ,thackeray1 and the   
older ,novelists--,index4  ,,vol4       
,,ii4--,writers on ,religious and       
,theological subjects--,scientific      
,writers--,philosophical ,writers--,the 
,younger ,poets--,the ,younger          
,novelists--,writers on ,art--,later    
,historians1 ,biographers1 ,essayists1  
etc41 and the present condition of      
,literature--,journalists--,index4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,demy #hvo4 #bas4 net4   ,the ,hygiene1 
,diseases1 and ,mortality of            
,occupations  ,by ,j4 ,t4 ,,arlidge1    
,m4,d41 ,a4,b4 7,,lond471 ,f4,r4,c4,p4  
7,,lond472  ,consulting ,physician to   
the ,north ,staffordshire ,infirmary2   

late ,milroy ,lecturer at the ,royal    
,college of ,physicians1 etc4 etc4      
',dr4 ,arlidge's work should be welcomed
 by legislators and     philanthropists 
as well as by the members of the medical
 profession1     whose duty it is to be 
specially acquainted with those causes  
which     affect the health of the      
different sections of the industrial    
community4444 ,it only remains for us to
 say that1 having gone     carefully    
through the book1 we can confidently    
recommend it as a     valuable work of  
reference to all who are interested in  
the welfare     of the industrial       
classes4'--,lancet4      ',a novel and  
important work dealing with a subject of
 great public     as well as medical    
interest4'--,times4      ',we have      
already briefly noticed ,dr4 ,arlidge's 
interesting work2 but     the importance
 of the questions with which it deals is
 sufficient to     justify a more       
complete account of the conclusions at  
which the     author has arrived1 and of

 the principal data upon which these    
conclusions have been founded4'--,times4
      ',from what we have quoted it will
 be seen that the researches            
undertaken by ,dr4 ,arlidge1 for his    
,milroy ,lectures1 and embodied in      
the volume before us1 are1 from a       
practical as well as a scientific       
point of view1 of the most suggestive   
character to all who are     concerned  
that wealth shall not increase while men
     decay4'--,standard4      ',will be 
considered the standard authority on the
 subject for many     years to          
come4'--,glasgow ,herald4      ',this   
masterly work4444 ,dr4 ,arlidge in the  
preparation of this work     has        
rendered a signal public                
service4'--,aberdeen ,journal4          
',this invaluable work4'--,daily        
,telegraph4      ',few1 if any1 ,british
 men have a better right than ,dr4      
,arlidge to be     heard on this        
particular subject4444 7,the volume is7 
crammed from     cover to cover with    

most interesting and important          
information1     given with a plainness 
of speech and a freedom from technical  
pretence that make it delightful reading
 for those without a     smattering of  
medicine4'--,national ,observer4        
99       99       99       99       99  
,crown #hvo4 ,with numerous             
,illustrations4 #ds4 #f;d4   ,the       
,evolution of ,decorative ,art  ,an     
,essay upon its ,origin and ,development
 as illustrated by the ,art of ,modern  
,races of ,mankind4  ,by ,,henry        
,,balfour1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,z4,s41  ,curator 
of the ,ethnographical ,department      
7,pitt-,rivers ,collection71 ,university
 ,museum1 ,oxford4         99       99  
99       99       99  ,crown #hvo4 ,in  
,may4   ,technical ,essays  ,by ,members
 of the ,arts and ,crafts ,exhibition   
,society4  ,edited with a ,preface by   
,,william ,,morris4  ,,contents4  ,the  
,revival of ,design and ,handicraft3    
with ,notes on the work of the ,arts and
 ,crafts ,exhibition ,society1 ,,walter 

,,crane4--,textiles1 ,,william          
,,morris4--,decorative ,painting and    
,design1 ,,walter ,,crane4--,wall       
,papers1 ,,walter ,,crane4--,fictiles1  
,g4 ,t4 ,,robinson4--,metal ,work1 ,w4  
,a4 ,s4 ,,benson4--,stone and ,wood     
,carving1 ,,somers                      
,,clarke4--,furniture1 ,,stephen        
,,webb4--,stained ,glass1 ,,somers      
,,clarke4--,table ,glass1 ,,somers      
,,clarke4--,printing1 ,,william ,,morris
 and ,,emery ,,walker4--,bookbinding1   
,t4 ,j4 ,,cobden ,,sanderson4--,mural   
,painting1 ,f4                          
,,madox-,,brown4--,sgraffito ,work1     
,,heywood ,,sumner4--,stucco and ,gesso1
 ,g4 ,t4 ,,robinson4--,cast ,iron1 ,w4  
,r4 ,,lethaby4--,dyeing as an ,art1     
,,william ,,morris4--,embroidery1 ,,may 
,,morris4--,lace1 ,,alan ,s4            
,,cole4--,book ,illustration and ,book  
,decoration1 ,,reginald                 
,,blomfield4--,designs and ,working     
,drawings1 ,,lewis ,f4                  
,,day4--,furniture and the ,room1       

,,edward ,s4 ,,prior4--,the ,room and   
,furniture1 ,,halsley ,,ricardo4--,the  
,english ,tradition1 ,r4                
,,blomfield4--,carpenters' ,furniture1  
,w4 ,r4 ,,lethaby4--,decorated          
,furniture1 ,j4 ,h4 ,,pollen4--,carving1
 ,,stephen ,,webb4--,intarsia and       
,inlaid ,woodwork1 ,t4 ,g4              
,,jackson4--,woods and other ,materials1
 ,,stephen ,,webb4--,modern ,embroidery1
 ,,mary ,e4 ,,turner4--,materials1 ,,may
 ,,morris4--,colour1 ,,may              
,,morris4--,stitches and ,mechanism1    
,,alan ,s4 ,,cole4--,design1 ,,john ,d4 
,,sedding4--,designing for the ,art of  
,embroidery1 ,,selwyn ,,image4          
99       99       99       99       99  
,crown #hvo4 ,in ,may4   ,european      
,history1 #aghi-ahae  ,by ,h4 ,,morse   
,,stephens1 ,m4,a41  ,balliol ,college1 
,oxford4  ,forming a ,volume of         
,,periods ,,of ,,european ,,history4    
99       99       99       99       99  
,crown #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4   ,spain and    
,morocco  ,studies in ,local ,colour4   

,by ,,henry ,t4 ,,finck1  ,author of    
',chopin1 and other ,musical ,essays1'  
etc4         99       99       99       
99       99  ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4    
,faith  ,eleven ,sermons1 with a        
,preface4  ,by the ,,rev4 ,h4 ,c4       
,,beeching1 ,m4,a41 ,rector of          
,yattendon1 ,berks4  ,,contents4--,the  
,object of ,faith--,the ,worship of     
,faith--,the ,righteousness of          
,faith--,the ,food of ,faith--,national 
,faith--,the ,eye of ,faith--,the ,ear  
of ,faith--,the ,activity of            
,faith--,the ,gentleness of ,faith--,the
 ,discipline of ,faith--,faith in ,man4 
99       99       99       99       99  
,royal #cbmo4 #bs4  ,or in #b vols4 7the
 ',hours' and ',mirror' separately74    
#bs4 #f;d4  ,copies may also be had in  
sheets1 complete4 #as4 #f;d4   ,the     
,hours of the ,blessed ,virgin ,mary    
,according to the ,sarum ,breviary1     
together with a brief ,commentary from  
',the ,mirror of our ,lady4'      ,this 
book is printed in red and black on     

toned paper1 with a fine                
reproduction of an old engraving4       
99       99       99       99       99  
,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4  ,with          
,illustrations by the ,author1 and      
,maps4   ,from ,abraham to ,david  ,the 
,story of their ,country and ,times4    
,by ,,henry ,a4 ,,harper1  ,author of   
',the ,bible and ,modern ,discoveries1' 
and ,member of the ,executive ,committee
 of the ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4  
,this book is intended as a help to the 
better understanding of the wonderful   
story of the ,old ,testament4 ,the      
period contained in it comprises some of
 the most interesting and critical times
 of ,jewish history4  ,,contents4--,the 
,call and ,life of ,abram--,the ,cities 
of the ,plain--,the ,life of            
,joseph--,the ,oppression of the        
,israelites--,the ,exodus and the       
,desert ,route--,the ,land of           
,promise--,the                          
,judges--,samson--,samuel--,saul--,david
--,david the ,king--,david's            

,flight--,david's ,return and ,death4   
99       99       99       99       99  
,crown #hvo4 #fs4   ,from ,advent to    
,advent  ,sermons preached at the       
,chapel ,royal1 ,whitehall4  ,by the    
late ,,aubrey ,l4 ,,moore1 ,m4,a4       
99       99       99       99       99  
,third ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4
   ,some ,aspects of ,sin  ,three       
,courses of ,sermons4  ,by the late     
,,aubrey ,l4 ,,moore1 ,m4,a4         99 
99       99       99       99  ,crown   
#hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4   ,the ,message of the 
,gospel  ,addresses to ,candidates for  
,ordination1 and ,sermons preached      
chiefly before the ,university of       
,oxford4  ,by the late ,,aubrey ,l4     
,,moore1 ,m4,a4         99       99     
99       99       99  ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 
#f;d4   ,the ,fire upon the ,altar      
,sermons preached to ,harrow ,boys4     
#ahhg to #ahij4  ,by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,e4  
,c4 ,,welldon1 ,m4,a41 ,head ,master of 
,harrow ,school1 and ,hon4 ,chaplain to 
the ,queen4         99       99       99

       99       99  ,crown #hvo4 #gs4   
#f;d4   ,old ,truths in ,modern ,lights 
,the ,boyle ,lectures for #ahij1 with   
other ,sermons4  ,by ,t4 ,g4 ,,bonney1  
,d4,sc1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,s4,a41 
,f4,g4,s41 ,fellow of ,st4 ,john's      
,college1 ,cambridge1 ,honorary ,canon  
of ,manchester4         99       99     
99       99       99  ,second ,edition4 
,demy #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4   ,high and ,low 
,church  ,by ,,lord ,,norton4  ,being a 
,discussion relating to ,differences of 
,views within the ,church of ,england as
 to matters connected with its ,doctrine
 and ,practice4         99       99     
99       99       99  ,crown #hvo4 #es4 
,things ,old and ,new  ,sermons and     
,papers4  ,by the ,rev4 ,g4 ,h4         
,,fowler1 ,late ,principal of the       
,clergy ,school1 ,leeds4  ,with a       
,preface by the ,rev4 ,,dr4 ,,talbot1   
,vicar of ,leeds4         99       99   
99       99       99  ,crown #hvo4 ,with
 ,illustrations4 #as4   ,plain          
,handicrafts  ,being ,essays by ,artists

 setting forth the ,principles of       
,design and ,established ,methods of    
,workmanship4  ,a ,guide to ,elementary 
,practice4  ,edited by ,a4 ,h4          
,,mackmurdo4  ,with a ,preface by ,g4   
,f4 ,,watts1 ,r4,a4         99       99 
99       99       99  ,eleventh         
,thousand4 ,fcap #hvo4 #as4 #f;d4       
,popular ,lessons on ,cookery  ,by      
,,mrs4 ,,boyd ,,carpenter4         99   
99       99       99       99  ,post    
,free to ,subscribers1 ,ten ,shillings a
 year1 paid in advance2 or ,three       
,shillings a ,number4   ,the ,economic  
,review  ,a ,quarterly ,review for the  
,consideration of ,social and ,economic 
,questions4  ,in ,connection with the   
,oxford ,university ,branch of the      
,christian ,social ,union4  ,,contents  
,,of ,,the ,,april ,,number1 #ahic4     
,the ,history of ,english ,serfdom4     
,prof4 ,w4 ,j4 ,,ashley1 ,m4,a4 ,edward 
,vansittart ,neale as ,christian        
,socialist4     ,his ,honour ,,judge    
,,hughes1 ,q4,c4 ,the ,ethics of ,wills4

     ,the ,rev4 ,t4 ,c4 ,,fry1 ,d4,d4   
,co-operators and ,profit-,sharing4     
,w4 ,e4 ,,snell4 ,the ,alcohol ,monopoly
 in ,switzerland4     ,,joseph ,,king4  
,the ,special ,importance of the study  
of ,christian ,ethics for the ,church   
in the present day4 ,the ,rev4 ,r4 ,l4  
,,ottley1 ,m4,a4 ,legislation1          
,parliamentary ,inquiries1 and ,official
 ,returns4     ,,edwin ,,cannan1 ,m4,a4 
,reviews and ,short ,notices4         99
       99       99       99       99    
,crown #hvo4 #fs4   ,the ,religion of   
,humanity  ,and other ,poems4  ,by      
,,annie ,,matheson4         99       99 
99       99       99  ,folio1 #as4      
,technical ,exercises for the           
,pianoforte  ,by ,,basil ,,johnson1     
,organist of ,rugby ,school4         99 
99       99       99       99  ,second  
,edition1 ,revised4 ,in two ,volumes4   
,crown #hvo4 #afs4  ,with numerous      
,illustrations1 including ,pen and      
,pencil ,drawings by ,,jane ,e4 ,,cook4 
,also a large-paper edition de luxe of  

,thirty-six signed and numbered copies1 
with the illustrations hand printed upon
 ,japanese paper and mounted1 price     
,five ,guineas net each4   ,old         
,touraine  ,the ,life and ,history of   
the ,famous ,chateaux of ,france4  ,by  
,,theodore ,,andrea ,,cook1 ,b4,a41     
sometime ,scholar of ,wadham ,college1  
,oxford4  ,there is an itinerary for the
 tourist1 and a map1 genealogical       
tables1 lists of pictures1 manuscripts1 
etc41 and an index1 which will1 it is   
hoped1 save the necessity of purchasing 
guide-books for each of the ,chateaux4  
99       99       99       99       99  
,in two ,volumes4 ,large ,post #hvo4    
#bas4 net4   ,a ,paradise of ,english   
,poetry  ,arranged by the ,,rev4 ,h4 ,c4
 ,,beeching1 ,m4,a41  ,rector of        
,yattendon1 ,berks4  ,this work is      
printed on hand-made paper1 bound in    
buckram1 and published in a limited     
edition1 which will not1 under any      
circumstances1 be reprinted4 ,the       
publishers reserve the right to issue at

 a future date1 should they think fit1 a
 smaller and cheaper edition4           
',that those who walk in the            
rose-scented avenues of ,mr4 ,beeching's
     garden will say that the planting  
has been well done1 we cannot     doubt 
for a moment4 ,he has not only a        
knowledge of ,english     literature    
which is as sympathetic as it is        
profound1 but he has the     critical   
faculty1 without which a knowledge of1  
and even a love for1     literature is  
wasted4 ,he does more than know what is 
good in     literature1--that is        
comparatively easy4 ,he knows what is   
bad1 and     with him base metal is     
never offered us for gold4 ,there are   
not many     men who can stand this     
test1 but ,mr4 ,beeching comes through  
it     triumphantly4444 ,before we leave
 this book1 we must commend ,mr4        
,beeching's excellent notes4 ,they are  
interesting1 to the point1 not     too  
long1 and often enable one to get an    
additional touch of     pleasure from   

the verse they annotate4'--,spectator4  
',a very skilful selection1 and         
eminently worthy of its name4444 ,will  
commend itself to all true lovers of    
,english poetry4'--,times4         99   
99       99       99       99  ,second  
,edition4 ,demy #afmo4 #bs4 #f;d4  ,may 
also be had bound in ,cloth extra1 gilt 
lettered1 and with gilt edges1 #cs4     
#f;d4   ,a ,calendar of ,verse  ,being a
 ,short ,selection for every day in the 
year from ,twelve ,poets1 one for each  
month4  ,with an ,introduction by       
,,george ,,saintsbury4      ',an        
admirable little book2 perhaps the best 
of its kind in     existence4444 ,we can
 heartily commend this charming         
',calendar of     ,verse4' ,if we had   
not praised it as a string of pearls1 we
 should     have called it a book of    
gold4'--,glasgow ,herald4               
',delightful to handle and to look at1  
delightful to read in4 ,no     extract  
exceeds twenty lines4 ,the purpose of   
the volume is not that     of           

introduction1 much less of substitution1
 but rather to remind and               
refresh4'--,speaker4         99       99
       99       99       99  ,with      
,maps4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4          
,history of ,english  ,a ,sketch of the 
,origin and ,development of the ,english
 ,language1 with examples1 down to the  
,present ,day4  ,by ,a4 ,c4 ,,champneys1
 ,m4,a41 ,assistant ,master at          
,marlborough ,college4      ',a         
scholarly and well-written introduction 
to the study of ,english                
philology4'--,times4      ',it is       
pleasant to be able to say that this    
volume is very far above     the        
ordinary level of its                   
class4'--,manchester ,guardian4         
',to the teacher who has not always time
 nor opportunity to consult     all the 
larger books upon which this is based1  
it will come as a     boon4 ,to the     
student of ,english literature who      
wishes to gain some     intelligent     
knowledge of a subject closely connected

 with his own1     it will be quite as  
welcome4'--,daily ,chronicle4      ',a  
fresh and valuable book4444 ,a          
remarkably good condensation4444        
,the book is an exceedingly suggestive  
one4'--,glasgow ,herald4         99     
99       99       99       99  ,crown   
#hvo4 #es4  ,with ,maps and             
,illustrations4   ,norway and the       
,norwegians  ,by ,c4 ,f4 ,,keary1       
,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4  ,,contents4--,,the   
,,land3 ,the ,glacial ,era and its      
,remains2 ,islands2 ,mountains2 ,fjords2
 ,valleys2 ,forests2 ,conformation of   
the ,country--,,the ,,people3 ,traces of
 ,prehistoric ,life in ,modern          
,norway--,,seafaring3 ,the              
,vikings--,,the ,,edda ,,and ,,its      
,,mythology3 ,discovery of ,iceland1    
,greenland1 and ,america2 ,origin of    
,old ,norse ,poetry2 ,the ,mythology of 
the ,edda--,,the ,,sagas--,,history3    
,harald ,fairhair2 ,hakon2 ,gunhild's   
,sons2 ,olaf ,tryggvason2 ,st4 ,olaf2   
,magnus the ,good2 ,harald ,hardradi2   

,the ,end of the ,heroic ,age2 ,the     
,civil ,wars2 ,sverri2 ,hakon           
,hakonsson2 ,magnus the ,law ,reformer2 
,the ,union of ,calmar2 ,transition to  
,modern ,times--,,modern ,,norway3      
,constitution2 ,religion2 ,education2   
,land ,tenure and the ,means of         
,living--,,norse ,,literature--,,the    
,,wild ,,flowers ,,of                   
,,norway--,,genealogical                
,,tables--,,index4      ',the visitor to
 ,norway cannot do better than supply   
himself with     this volume4 ,it is not
 a guide-book2 but it is a most         
intelligent     and useful guide1 in the
 best sense of the word1 to a           
comprehensive     understanding of the  
country and its people4'--,spectator4   
',every ,english and ,american visitor  
to ,norway sufficiently     intelligent 
to desire to know something about the   
country1 its     peoples1 and its       
history1 will rejoice over this pleasant
 little     book4 ,this book1 in size   
and binding well suited to a place in a 

portmanteau1 and not a cumbrous addition
 even to a knapsack1 will     give him  
briefly and pleasantly the information  
that he     wants4--,while ,mr4 ,keary's
 book is one that is good to read at all
     times and in any land1 the tourist 
in ,norway will find it an              
invaluable and delightful               
companion4'--,saturday ,review4         
',we cordially commend this most        
instructive and comprehensive little    
book to all intending tourists1 and even
 those who may have to stay     at home 
could hardly do better than console     
themselves by travelling     in         
imagination under such an excellent     
conductor as ,mr4     ,keary4'--,glasgow
 ,herald4      ',certainly everybody who
 takes any interest in ,scandinavia     
should     read this book2 for there are
 few whom it will not enlighten1 and    
probably fewer whom it will not         
delight4'--,st4 ,james' ,gazette4       
',it is a useful work for the more      
intellectual class of travellers     in 

,norway4'--,daily ,telegraph4      ',we 
have little doubt that it will hold its 
own as a handy work of     reference4   
,plans and pictures heighten the charm  
of this painstaking     and admirable   
record4'--,leeds ,mercury4         99   
99       99       99       99  ,vol4 ,i4
 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4   ,france of   
,to-day  ,a ,survey1 ,comparative and   
,retrospective4  ,to be completed in    
,two ,volumes4 ,sold separately4  ,by   
,m4 ,,betham ,,edwards1  ,officier de   
,l',instruction ,publique de ,france4   
,editor of ,arthur ,young's ',travels in
 ,france4'  ,,contents ,,of ,,vol4 ,i4  
,,introductory4 ,,part ,i4--,provinces3 
,bourbonnais1 ,auvergne1 ,velay1        
,languedoc1 ,pyrenees4 ,,part           
,,ii4--,provinces3 ,anjou1 ,poitou1     
,gascoigne1 ,berry4 ,,part              
,,iii4--,alsace-,lorraine4 ,,part       
,,iv4--,franche-,comte1 ,burgundy1 ,le  
,morvan4 ,,appendix4 ,,index4           
',your excellent work1 ,france of       
,to-day1 fulfils my highest             

expectations4 ,it is in every way worthy
 of your high reputation as     our     
first living authority on               
,france4'--,mr4 ,,frederic ,,harrison4  
',no living ,english writer1 perhaps no 
living ,french writer1 has a     more   
intimate acquaintance than ,miss ,betham
 ,edwards with ,france and     the      
,french4 ,like ,arthur ,young in the    
last century1 she has wandered          
throughout the whole length and breadth 
of the country1 and she adds     to that
 writer's faculty of observation1       
broader sympathies and a     greater    
range of intellectual cultivation4 ,her 
,france of ,to-day is     a delightful  
book1 setting forth the ,french peasant 
and the ,french     bourgeois as they   
are1 naught extenuating nor aught       
setting down in     malice4'--,daily    
,news4      ',the author is chiefly     
concerned with the ,france of the       
,republic2     and within a short space 
she gives us a description which is     
undeniably interesting and readable1 and

 can hardly fail1 so far as     it goes1
 to be instructive4 ,a more elaborate   
work might convey more     information1 
but not in a more attractive            
shape4'--,st4 ,james'     ,gazette4     
',undoubtedly a work inspired by a happy
 idea4 ,miss ,betham ,edwards     styles
 her book a survey1 comparative and     
retrospective1 and such     it is1 in   
the widest acceptation of the           
term4'--,saturday ,review4      ',miss  
,betham ,edwards knows more of rural    
life in ,france than     probably does  
any other ,englishwoman4 ,the present   
volume describes     the ,south-,west1  
the ,south1 and the ,east of ,france4   
,no one interested     in agriculture   
and industry will regret taking it as a 
companion     there4 ,we look forward   
eagerly to the volume which will        
complete the     work4'--,academy4      
',the characteristics of rural ,france1 
and the simplicity and     strength     
which pervade the popular interpretation
 of life and duty1     are charmingly   

indicated in these pages1 and pessimists
 who profess     to be in despair of    
human progress1 will find not a little  
in this     calm and philosophic survey 
of the social problem in modern ,france1
     to disarm their fears4'--,leeds    
,mercury4      ',the tourist1 the       
student of certain economical problems1 
and the     general reader1 will all    
find the book worth their               
attention4'--,yorkshire ,post4          
99       99       99       99       99  
,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4  ,with a ,map4  
,the ,forest ,cantons of ,switzerland   
,luzern1 ,schwyz1 ,uri1 ,unterwalden4   
,by ,j4 ,,sowerby1 ,m4,a4               
,,contents4--,introduction--,topography 
and ,characteristics--,political        
,history--,constitutional               
,history--,subject and ,protected       
,lands--,ecclesiastical                 
,history--,economical ,condition1       
,trade1 etc4--,manners and              
,customs--,language and                 
,dialects--,legends1 ,poetry1           

,literature1 ,art1 etc4--,remarkable    
,men--,geology1 ,fauna1 ,flora1         
etc4--,canton and ,town of              
,lucerne--,lake of ,lucerne--,rigi and  
,pilatus--,schwyz3 the ,fortress of the 
,lands--,canton ,uri--,st4              
,gotthard--,canton ,unterwalden--,alpine
 ,exploration--,local                   
,traditions--,index4      ',will be     
found an interesting companion by any   
whose holiday haunts     lie in         
,lucerne1 ,schwyz1 ,uri1 or             
,unterwalden4 ,mr4 ,sowerby begins with 
history1 goes on to trades1 manners1    
customs1 and legends1 and ends     up   
with ,alpine exploration--in which      
department he himself has to be         
credited with several first ascents4    
,the book is easily portable1     and   
has a good map and a full index4'--,pall
 ,mall ,gazette4      ',this interesting
 and useful little book4'--,spectator4  
',portable1 as a guide book should be1  
it is admirably readable from     the   
first page to the last4'--,saturday     

,review4      ',to the intelligent and  
inquiring traveller no better           
description of     these primitive      
communities could be recommended4 ,the  
book1 it     should be added1 contains a
 good map4'--,scottish ,leader4         
',an excellent and handy little book1   
which should meet with a warm           
welcome4'--,manchester ,guardian4       
',we advise all who take an interest in 
this delightful country to     procure a
 copy of ,mr4 ,sowerby's                
book4'--,westminster ,review4           
',packed with explicit and diversified  
information1 and that of a     kind with
 which the guide books seldom           
intermeddle4 ,in saying this     we are 
not speaking at random1 for we can truly
 assert that it is     not often our    
experience to come across a manual      
filled to better     advantage with     
well-selected and admirably arranged    
facts4'--,leeds     ,mercury4           
',will be an invaluable companion to    
those who spend their summer            

holidays in the neighbourhood of the    
,lake of ,lucerne4'--,morning     ,post4
      ',an excellent and handy little   
book1 which should meet with a warm     
welcome from the hundreds of ,british   
and ,american tourists who may          
legitimately wish to know more than     
ordinary guide-books can tell     them  
about the history1 manners1 and customs1
 social and economical     conditions1  
language1 etc41 of the ,forest ,cantons1
 the heart and     conscience of        
,switzerland4'--,manchester ,guardian4  
99       99       99       99       99  
,crown #hvo4 #fs4   ,outlines of ,roman 
,history  ,with ,maps4  ,by ,h4 ,f4     
,,pelham1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a41  ,camden   
,professor of ,ancient ,history in the  
,university of ,oxford4  ,the object of 
this book is to give a clear and        
readable sketch of the general course of
 ,roman history4 ,care has been also    
taken to give full references to the    
chief authorities ancient and modern4   
,,contents4--,the ,beginnings of ,rome  

and the ,monarchy--,the ,early          
,republic1 #eji-bge ,b4,c4--,rome and   
the ,mediterranean ,states1 #bfe-adf    
,b4,c4--,the ,period of the ,revolution1
 #acc-di ,b4,c4--,the ,foundation of the
 ,imperial ,system1 and the ,rule of the
 ,early ,caesars1 #di ,b4,c4-#fi        
,a4,d4--,the ,organisation of the       
,imperial ,government1 and the ,first   
,conflict with the ,barbarians1 #fi-bhd 
,a4,d4--,the ,barbaric ,invasions1      
#bhd-dgf ,a4,d4         99       99     
99       99       99  ,crown #hvo4 #ds4 
#f;d4   ,the ,french ,wars of ,religion 
,their ,political ,aspects4  ,by        
,,edward ,,armstrong1 ,m4,a41 ,fellow1  
,lecturer1 and ,senior ,bursar of       
,queen's ,college1 ,oxford4         99  
99       99       99       99  ,one     
,volume4 #hvo4 #ahs4 net4   ,the ,iliad 
of ,homer  ,translated into ,english    
,prose by ,,john ,,purves1 ,m4,a41 ,late
 ,fellow of ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford4 
,with an ,introduction by ,,evelyn      
,,abbott1 ,,ll4,d41 ,fellow and ,tutor  

of ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford4          
99       99       99       99       99  
,crown #hvo4 #fs4   ,a ,short ,history  
of ,greek ,philosophy  ,for ,students   
and ,general ,readers4  ,by ,,john      
,,marshall1 ,m4,a4 ,oxon41 ,,ll4,d4     
,edin41  ,rector of the ,royal ,high    
,school1 ,edinburgh1 formerly ,professor
 of ,classical ,literature and          
,philosophy in the ,yorkshire ,college1 
,leeds4         99       99       99    
99       99  ,super ,royal #dto1 #cbd   
pp4 ,l#c1 #cs4 net4  ,with ,one ,hundred
 and ,fifty ,illustrations1 of which    
,sixty are ,full-,page1 and ,six        
,photogravure ,plates4   ,english ,pen  
,artists of ,to-day  ,examples of their 
,work1 with some ,criticisms and        
,appreciations4  ,by ,,charles ,g4      
,,harper4  ,the ,english edition of this
 book is limited to #ejj copies1 and    
will not1 under any circumstances1 be   
reprinted in any form4 ,twenty-five     
numbered and signed copies only are     
issued in a special form1 the           

illustrations hand printed upon         
,japanese paper and mounted4 ,the       
binding of these copies is in half      
morocco1 and the price of the remaining 
copies at this date is ,ten ,guineas    
net4      ',exceedingly well done1 and  
,mr4 ,harper deserves the success which 
we     believe is assured for his       
work4'--,pall ,mall ,gazette4      ',a  
splendid and tasteful tribute of        
recognition has been paid by ,mr4       
,harper to the ',pen ,artists of        
,to-day' in the shape of a stately      
volume1 containing many admirably       
executed examples of their work1        
accompanied by apposite criticisms and  
nice appreciations4'--,daily            
,telegraph4      ',a very acceptable and
 useful work in editing the             
accomplishments of     the most         
conspicuous pen-and-ink artists in      
,england4 ,this task1     which we      
imagine must have proved at once a      
laborious and a pleasant     one1 ,mr4  
,harper has accomplished in a very      

first-rate manner1 and     the result   
lies before us in a very                
excellently-produced quarto4 ,the       
volume is a creditable production1 even 
for the present day1 the     paper1     
type1 and printing being admirable1     
whilst the author has     clothed the   
whole in a nicely designed and useful   
binding4'--,british     ,architect4     
99       99       99       99       99  
,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4   ,the ,art     
,teaching of ,john ,ruskin  ,,by ,w4 ,g4
 ,,collingwood1 ,m4,a4         99       
99       99       99       99  ,crown   
#hvo4 ,with ,illustrations4 #es4   ,the 
,dawn of ,art in the ,ancient ,world    
,an ,archaeological ,sketch4  ,by       
,,william ,,martin ,,conway4  ,sometime 
,roscoe ,professor of ,art in           
,university ,college1 ,liverpool1       
,victoria ,university4         99       
99       99       99       99  ,crown   
#hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4  ,with ,frontispiece   
and ,thirty ,illustrations in the ,text4
   ,architecture1 ,mysticism1 and ,myth 

,an ,essay in ,comparative              
,architecture1 being an ,inquiry as to  
the ,basis of certain ,ideas common to  
the ,sacred ,buildings of many ,lands4  
,by ,w4 ,r4 ,,lethaby4         99       
99       99       99       99  ,royal   
#afmo4 #es4   ,love's ,looking-,glass   
,a ,volume of ,poems4  ,by the ,authors 
of ',love in ,idleness4'      ',a little
 volume of poems entitled ,love in      
,idleness1 was published     a few years
 ago by three ,oxford friends--,mr4 ,j4 
,w4 ,mackail1 ,mr4 ,h4     ,c4          
,beeching1 and ,mr4 ,j4 ,b4 ,b4         
,nichols--and being speedily            
appreciated by all lovers of graceful   
and scholarly versification1     it soon
 went out of print4 ,the three writers  
now reappear in the     same association
 in ,love's ,looking-,glass1 which      
contains the     original poems1        
together with many additions4444 ,the   
volume should     prove as attractive as
 its predecessor1 for the new poems it  
contains are not less scholarly1        

melodious1 and graceful than the        
old4'--,times4      ',this delightful   
volume of verse4444 ,all the verse is   
full of an     academic spirit1 but it  
is that spirit in its happiest mood1    
without     a touch of pedantry or      
artificiality4'--,spectator4         99 
99       99       99       99  ,demy    
#afmo4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4  ,bound in paper
 boards1 with parchment back4   ,the    
,pocket ,library of ,english ,literature
  ,edited by ,,george ,,saintsbury4     
sc,vol4   ,i4--,,tales ,,of ,,mystery4  
,,vol4  ,,ii4--,,political ,,verse4     
,,vol4 ,,iii4--,,defoe',s ,,minor       
,,novels4 ,,vol4  ,,iv4--,,political    
,,pamphlets4 ,,vol4   ,v4--,,seventeenth
 ,,century ,,lyrics4 ,,second ,,edition4
 ,,vol4  ,,vi4--,,elizabethan ,,and     
,,jacobean ,,pamphlets4      ',mr4      
,george ,saintsbury is the editor1 and1 
as nobody living has a     purer1 wider1
 or better instructed taste than his in 
,english     literature1 the series     
promises good things to a lover of      

books4 ,mr4     ,saintsbury's           
introduction to the extracts 7,tales of 
,mystery7 is an     interesting sketch  
in criticism1 and enables a reader to   
see at once     what is best in the     
stories themselves4'--,scotsman4        
',it is not surprising to find that this
 volume 7,seventeenth ,century          
,lyrics7 wherein are gathered so many   
lyric gems1 has passed into a     second
 edition4444 ,it is almost unnecessary  
to say that ,mr4     ,saintsbury's      
selections are admirable1 and there are 
few poems     excluded which we could   
wish admitted1 fewer still admitted     
which we     should desire              
excluded4'--,birmingham ,daily ,gazette4
      ',mr4 ,saintsbury's selections    
from all three writers are fairly       
representative2 indeed1 those from ,mrs4
 ,radcliffe and ,maturin show a         
nicety of judgment which the most       
fastidious critic cannot but            
approve4'--,saturday ,review4      ',we 
cannot part with the charming chaplets  

7,political ,verse7 which     ,mr4      
,saintsbury has arranged1 without       
thanking him for the result of     his  
wide knowledge1 his untiring industry1  
and his impartial     comprehensiveness 
of view4'--,daily ,news4                
',political ,verse4 ,a most readable and
 entertaining     volume4'--,times4     
',political ,pamphlets is a very        
attractive volume4'--,times4      ',we  
are heartily glad that ,mr4 ,saintsbury 
has put together his     pretty little  
volumes4'--,spectator4  ,the            
',seventeenth ,century ,lyrics' may also
 be had bound in ,cloth1 gilt lettered1 
#cs4 #f;d4         99       99       99 
99       99  ,second ,edition1 ,revised4
 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4   ,essays in   
,english ,literature  #aghj to #ahfj4   
,by ,,george ,,saintsbury4              
,,contents4--,the kinds of              
,criticism--,crabbe--,hogg 7,ettrick    
,shepherd7--,sydney                     
,smith--,jeffrey--,hazlitt--,moore--,lei
gh ,hunt--,peacock--,wilson             

7,christopher ,north7--,de              
,quincey--,lockhart--,praed--,borrow4   
99       99       99       99       99  
,second ,edition1 ,revised4 ,crown #hvo4
 #gs4 #f;d4   ,essays on ,french        
,novelists  ,by ,,george ,,saintsbury4  
,,contents4--,the ,present ,state of the
 ,french ,novel--,anthony               
,hamilton--,alain ,rene ,lesage--,a     
,study of ,sensibility--,charles de     
,bernard--,alexandre ,dumas--,theophile 
,gautier--,jules ,sandeau--,octave      
,feuillet--,gustave ,flaubert--,henry   
,murger--,victor ,cherbuliez4      ,as a
 judge of romantic literature ,mr4      
,saintsbury stands on a very     high   
eminence indeed1 and few will deny that 
a critic of his taste     and           
penetration is well qualified to act as 
cicerone to     excursionists into those
 fields of fiction4'--,times4      ',we 
should like to notice many masterly     
touches of critical     knowledge and   
insight1 many delightful remarks which  
no worthy     reader will pass over or  

forget1 but this is really not          
necessary4     ,everybody who knows ,mr4
 ,saintsbury's former books will read   
and     enjoy this book4 ,there are few 
studies more fascinating than that of   
,french literature4'--,spectator4       
99       99       99       99       99  
,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4   ,miscellaneous
 ,essays  ,by ,,george ,,saintsbury4    
,,contents4--,english ,prose            
,style--,chamfort and ,rivarol--,modern 
,english ,prose 7#ahgf7--;,ernest       
,renan--,thoughts on                    
,republics--,saint-,evremond--,charles  
,baudelaire--,the ,young ,england       
,movement2 its place in our ,history--,a
 ,paradox on ,quinet--,the ,contrasts of
 ,english and ,french ,literature--,a   
,frame of ,miniatures3--,parny1 ,dorat1 
,desaugiers1 ,vade1 ,piron1             
,panard--,the ,present ,state of the    
,english ,novel 7#ahib74         99     
99       99       99       99  ,crown   
#hvo4 #fs4   ,a ,guide to ,greek        
,tragedy  ,for ,english ,readers4  ,by  

the ,rev4 ,l4 ,,campbell1 ,,ll4,d41     
,emeritus ,professor of ,greek in the   
,university of ,st4 ,andrews4         99
       99       99       99       99    
,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4   ,studies in   
,secondary ,education  ,edited by       
,,arthur ,h4 ,d4 ,,acland1 ,m4,p41      
,vice-,president of the ,council of     
,education2  and  ,h4 ,,llewellyn       
,,smith1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc41  ,with an     
,introduction by the ,right ,hon4       
,,james ,,bryce1 ,m4,p41 ,chancellor of 
the ,duchy of ,lancaster4  ,published   
under the ,auspices of the ,national    
,association for the promotion of       
,technical and ,secondary ,education4   
99       99       99       99       99  
,crown #hvo4 #es4   ,teachers' ,guild   
,addresses1 and the ,registration of    
,teachers  ,by ,s4 ,s4 ,,laurie1        
,,ll4,d4  ,professor of the ,theory1    
,history1 and ,art of ,education in the 
,university of ,edinburgh4              
,,contents4--,the ,philosophy of ,mind1 
and the ,training of ,teachers--,theory1

 and the ,curriculum of ,secondary      
,schools--,method1 and the ,sunday      
,school ,teacher--,montaigne1 the       
,rationalist--,roger ,ascham1 the       
,humanist--,comenius1 the               
,encyclopaedist and ,founder of         
,method--,the ,schoolmaster and         
,university 7,day7 ,training            
,colleges--,selection from ,evidence    
given before a ,select ,parliamentary   
,committee on a ,teachers' ,registration
 and ,organisation ,bill--,report of    
,select ,committee of the ,house of     
,commons4         99       99       99  
99       99  ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4    
,thirteen ,essays on ,education  ,edited
 by the ,hon4 and ,rev4 ,e4 ,,lyttelton1
 ,m4,a41 ,head ,master of ,haileybury   
,college4         99       99       99  
99       99  ,london3 #cd ,king ,street1
 ,covent ,garden4         99       99   
99       99       99  ,,messrs4         
,,percival issue the undermentioned     
,catalogues1 which may be had on        
application3--  ,crown #hvo4  #a4 ,a    

,,selection ,,from ,,their ,,recent     
,,publications ,,in ,,general           
,,literature4  ,crown #hvo4  #b4 ,a     
,,catalogue ,,of ,,educational ,,works4 
,demy #hvo4  #c4 ,,complete ,,catalogue 
,,of ,,all ,,their ,,publications4      
,,percival  ,,co4 #cd ,,king ,,street1  
,,covent ,,garden1 ,w4,c4 ,london