,libr>ies7         ,,lectures  ,,on  ,,!
 ,,true1 ,,! ,,beautiful ,,& ,,! ,,good4
  ,,by ,m4 ,v4 ,,c\s94  ,,increas$ ,,by 
,an ,app5dix on ,fr5* ,art4             
,,translat$1 ,,) ,,! ,,approbation ,,(  
,m4 ,,c\s91 ,,by  ,o4 ,w4 ,,wight1      
,,translator ,,( ,,c\s9',s ,,c\rse ,,(  
,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,mod]n ,,philosophy1  
,,am]ican ,,editor ,,( ,,! ,,philosophy 
,,( ,,sir ,,william ,,hamilton1 ,,b>t41 
,,au?or ,,( ,,! ,,romance ,,( ,,abel>d  
,,& ,,heloise1 ,,etc41 ,,etc4  ,god is !
 life ( ! s\l1 z ! s\l is ! life ( !    
body4                                   
,,! ,,platoni/s ,,& ,,! ,,fa!rs4  ,,new 
,,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,& ,,company1   
#edi  #eea ,,broadway4 #ahgb4           
,ent]$1 accord+ to ,act ( ,congress1 9 !
 ye> #ahed1  ,,by ,d4 ,,appleton  ,,co41
  ,9 ! ,cl]k's ,(fice ( ! ,di/rict ,c\rt
 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates = ! ,s\!rn ,di/rict (
 ,new ,york4                            
,,to                    ,,sir ,,william 
,,hamilton1 ,,b>t41   ,pr(essor ( ,logic
 & ,metaphysics 9 ! ,univ]sity (        

,ed9burgh3       ,,:o ,,has ,,cle>ly    
,,elucidat$1 ,,&1 ,,) ,,great           
,,erudition1             ,,sket*$ ,,!   
,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,doctr9e ,,(          
,,common ,,s5se2  ,,:o1 ,,foll[+ ,,9 ,,!
 ,,foot/eps ,,( ,,8 ,,illu/ri\s         
,,c\ntryman1 ,,reid                ,,has
 ,,e/abli%$ ,,! ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,!       
,,imm$iat5ess ,,( ,,p]ception1          
,,!reby ,,=tify+ ,,philosophy ,,aga9/   
,,! ,,assaults ,,( ,,skepticism2        
,,:o1 ,,tak+ ,a ,,/ep ,,9 ,,advance ,,( 
,,all ,,o!rs1              ,,has ,,giv5 
,,to ,,! ,,_w ,a ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,!      
,,condition$1     ,,! ,,orig9ality ,,&  
,,importance ,,( ,,:i* ,,are ,,ackn[l$g$
 ,,by ,,!            ,,few ,,qualifi$   
,,to ,,judge ,,9 ,,su* ,,matt]s2 ,,^:   
,,new ,,analytic ,,( ,,logical ,,=ms    
,,completes ,,! ,,hi!rto ,,unf9i%$      
,,works ,,( ,,ari/otle2                 
,,?is ,,translation ,,( ,m4 ,,c\s9',s   
,lectures on ! ,true1 ! ,beautiful1 & ! 
,good1                   ,,is           
,,respectfully ,,d$icat$1         ,,9   

,,admiration ,,( ,a ,,pr(\nd ,,&        
,,indep5d5t ,,?9k]1          ,,( ,,an   
,,incomp>able ,,ma/] ,,( ,,philosophic  
,,criticism2             ,,z ,a ,,tok5  
,,( ,,e/eem ,,= ,a ,,man ,,9 ,,:om      
,,g5ius                  ,,& ,,almo/    
,,unequall$ ,,le>n+                     
,,h ,,be5 ,,adorn$ ,,by                 
,,tru?1 ,,beauty1 ,,& ,,goodness ,,(    
,,life4     ,,au?or',s ,,preface4   ,=  
"s "t pa/ we h be5 ask$1 on v>i\s sides1
 to collect 9 a body ( doctr9e ! !ories 
scatt]$ 9 our diff]5t works1 & to sum   
up1 9 j proportions1 :at m5 are pleas$  
to call our philosophy4  ,?is resume 0  
:olly made4 ,we _h only to take aga9 !  
lectures already q old1 b little kn[n1  
because !y belong$ to a "t :5 ! c\rses (
 ! ,faculte des ,lettres _h sc>cely any 
influ5ce beyond ! ,qu>ti] ,lat91 &1     
also1 because !y c\ld be f\nd only 9 a  
consid]able collection1 compris+ all our
 fir/ in/ruction1 f #ahae to #ahba4a ,^!
 lectures 7 !re1 z x 71 lo/ 9 ! cr[d4   
,we h drawn !m h5ce1 & give !m ap>t1    

sev]ely correct$1 9 ! hope t !y w ?us be
 accessible to a great] numb] ( read]s1 
& t _! true "* w ! bett] appe>4  ,!     
eighte5 lectures t compose ?is volume h 
9 fact ! p>ticul> trait t1 if ! hi/ory (
 philosophy furni%es _! frame-"w1       
philosophy itself occupies 9 !m ! fir/  
place1 & t1 in/ead ( rese>*es (         
erudition & criticism1 !y pres5t a      
regul> exposition ( ! doctr9e :i* 0 at  
fir/ fix$ 9 our m9d1 :i* has n ceas$ to 
preside ov] our labors4  ,?is book1 !n1 
conta9s ! abridg$ b exact expression (  
our convictions on ! fundam5tal po9ts ( 
philosophic sci5ce4 ,9 x w be op5ly se5 
! me?od t is ! s\l ( our ent]prise1 our 
pr9ciples1 our processes1 our results4  
,"u ^! ?ree heads1 ! ,true1 !           
,beautiful1 ! ,good1 we embrace         
psy*ology1 plac$ by u at ! head ( all   
philosophy1 ae/hetics1 e?ics1 natural   
"r1 ev5 public "r to a c]ta9 ext5t1     
f9ally !odicea1 t p]il\s r5dez-v\s ( all
 sy/ems1 :]e diff]5t pr9ciples are      
condemn$ or ju/ifi$ by _! consequ5ces4  

,x is ! affair ( our book to plead its  
own cause4 ,we only desire t x may be   
appreciat$ & judg$ accord+ to :at x     
really is1 & n accord+ to an op9ion too 
mu* accr$it$4  ,eclecticism is p]si/5tly
 repres5t$ z ! doctr9e to :i* m5 deign  
to atta* our "n4 ,we decl>e t           
eclecticism is v de> to u1 = x is 9 our 
eyes ! light ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy2 b 
! s\rce ( t light is else:]e4           
,eclecticism is "o ( ! mo/ important &  
mo/ useful applications ( ! philosophy  
:i* we tea*1 b x is n its pr9ciple4     
,our true doctr9e1 our true flag is     
spiritualism1 t philosophy z solid z    
g5]\s1 :i* began ) ,socrates & ,plato1  
:i* ! ,gospel has spread abroad 9 ! _w1 
:i* ,desc>tes put "u ! sev]e =ms ( mod]n
 g5ius1 :i* 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury 0 "o ( !
 glories & =ces ( our c\ntry1 :i* p]i%$ 
) ! national gr&eur 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1
 :i* at ! comm5cem5t ( ! pres5t c5tury  
,m4 ,roy]-,coll>d came to re-e/abli% 9  
public in/ruction1 :il/ ,m4 de          
,*ateaubri&1 ,madame de ,/ael1 & ,m4    

,quatrem]e de ,qu9cy transf]r$ x into   
lit]ature & ! arts4 ,to x is rightly    
giv5 ! "n ( spiritualism1 because its "*
 9 fact is t ( subord9at+ ! s5ses to !  
_s1 & t5d+1 by all ! means t reason     
ackn[l$ges1 to elevate & ennoble man4 ,x
 tea*es ! spirituality ( ! s\l1 ! lib]ty
 & responsibility ( human actions1 moral
 obligation1 dis9t]e/$ virtue1 ! dignity
 ( ju/ice1 ! beauty ( *>ity2 & beyond ! 
limits ( ?is _w x %[s a ,god1 au?or &   
type ( humanity1 :o1 aft] hav+ evid5tly 
made man = an excell5t end1 w n ab&on   
him 9 ! my/]i\s developm5t ( 8 de/9y4   
,?is philosophy is ! natural ally ( all 
good causes4 ,x su/a9s religi\s s5tim5t2
 x seconds true art1 poesy wor?y ( ! "n1
 & a great lit]ature2 x is ! support (  
"r2 x equally repels ! craft ( !        
demagogue & tyranny2 x tea*es all m5 to 
respect & value !mselves1 &1 little by  
little1 x conducts human societies to ! 
true republic1 t dream ( all g5]\s s\ls 
:i* 9 our times c be realiz$ 9 ,europe  
only by con/itutional mon>*y4  ,to aid1 

) all our p[]1 9 sett+ up1 def5d+1 &    
propagat+ ?is noble philosophy1 su* is !
 object t e>ly inspir$ u1 t has su/a9$  
dur+ a c>e] already l5g?y1 9 :i*        
difficulties h n be5 want+4 ,?ank ,god1 
"t has r /r5g!n$ ?an weak5$ our         
convictions1 & we end z we began3 ?is   
new edition ( "o ( our fir/ works is a  
la/ ef=t 9 favor ( ! holy cause = :i* we
 h combat$ ne>ly =ty ye>s4  ,may our    
voice be he>d by new g5]ations z x 0 by 
! s]i\s y\? ( ! ,re/oration6 ,yes1 x is 
p>ticul>ly to y t we address ?is "w1 "y 
m5 :om we no long] "k1 b :om we be> 9   
our he>t1 because y are ! se$ & ! hope (
 ! future4 ,we h %[n y ! pr9ciple ( our 
evils & _! rem$y4 ,if y love lib]ty &   
y\r c\ntry1 %un :at has de/roy$ !m4 ,f> 
f y be t sad philosophy :i* prea*es to y
 mat]ialism & a!ism z new doctr9es de/9$
 to reg5]ate ! _w3 !y kill1 x is true1 b
 !y d n reg5]ate4 ,d n li/5 to ^?       
sup]ficial spirits :o give !mselves out 
z pr(\nd ?9k]s1 because aft] ,voltaire  
!y h discov]$ difficulties 9            

,*ri/ianity3 measure y\r progress 9     
philosophy by y\r progress 9 t5d]       
v5]ation = ! religion ( ! ,gospel4 ,be  
well p]suad$ t1 9 ,france1 democracy w  
always trav]se lib]ty1 t x br+s all "r  
into disord]1 & ?r\gh disord] into      
dictator%ip4 ,ask1 !n1 only a mod]at$   
lib]ty1 & atta* y\rself to t ) all !    
p[]s ( y\r s\l4 ,d n b5d ! knee to      
=tune1 b accu/om y\rselves to b[ to law4
 ,ent]ta9 ! noble s5tim5t ( respect4 ,"k
 h[ to admire1--possess ! wor%ip ( great
 m5 & great ?+s4 ,reject t en]vat+      
lit]ature1 by turns gross & ref9$1 :i*  
delights 9 pa9t+ ! mis]ies ( human      
nature1 :i* c>esses all our weaknesses1 
:i* pays c\rt to ! s5ses & ! imag9ation1
 in/ead ( speak+ to ! s\l & awak5+      
?\ght4 ,gu>d y\rselves aga9/ ! malady ( 
our c5tury1 t fatal ta/e ( an           
accommodat+ life1 incompatible ) all    
g5]\s ambition4 ,:atev] c>e] y embrace1 
propose to y\rselves an elevat$ aim1 &  
put 9 its s]vice an unalt]able con/ancy4
 ,sursum corda1 value highly y\r he>t1  

:]e9 is se5 all philosophy1 t :i* we h  
reta9$ f all our /udies1 :i* we h taught
 to y\r pr$ecessors1 :i* we leave to y z
 our la/ ^w1 our f9al lecture4          
,v4 ,,c\s94      ,june #ae1 #ahec4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,a too indulg5t public hav+ promptly    
r5d]$ necess>y a new edition ( ?is book1
 we are =c$ to r5d] x less unwor?y ( !  
suffrages :i* x has obta9$1 by review+ x
 ) sev]e att5tion1 by introduc+ a mass (
 corrections 9 detail1 & a consid]able  
numb] ( additions1 among :i* ! only ones
 t ne$ be indicat$ "h are "s pages on   
,*ri/ianity at ! end ( ,lecture ,,xvi41 
& ! notes plac$ z an ,app5dix#b at ! end
 ( ! volume1 on v>i\s works ( ,fr5*     
ma/]s :i* we h q rec5tly se5 9 ,engl&1  
:i* h confirm$ & increas$ our old       
admiration = our national art ( !       
sev5te5? c5tury4      ,novemb] #a1      
#ahec4  ,,footnotes3  #a #a/ ,s]ies (   
our "w1 ,c\rs de l',hi/oire de la       
,philosophie ,mod]ne1 five volumes4  #b 
,! ,app5dix has be5 translat$ by ,mr4   

,n4 ,e4 ,s4 ,a4 ,hamilton ( ! ,briti%   
,museum1 :o is alone entitl$ to cr$it & 
alone responsible4--,,tr4               
,,translator',s ,,preface4   ,! nature (
 ?is publication is suffici5tly expla9$ 
9 ! preface ( ,m4 ,c\s94  ,we h attempt$
 to r5d] 8 book1 )\t comm5t1 fai?fully  
into ,engli%4 ,n only h we endeavor$ to 
give 8 ?\ght )\t increase or dim9ution1 
b h also tri$ to pres]ve ! ma9          
*>act]i/ics ( 8 /yle4 ,on ! "o h&1 we h 
c>efully %unn$ idioms peculi> to !      
,fr5*2 on ! o!r1 :5 p]mitt$ by ! laws ( 
/ructure common to bo? languages1 we h  
foll[$ ! g5]al ord] ( s5t5ces1 ev5 !    
succession ( words4 ,x has be5 our aim  
to make ?is "w :olly ,c\s9's 9 sub/ance1
 & 9 =m z ne>ly 8 z possible1 ) a total 
*ange ( dress4 ,t1 h[ev]1 we may h n[h]e
 miss$ a %ade ( mean+1 n[h]e introduc$ a
 gallicism1 is too mu* to be hop$ =1 too
 mu* to be dem&$4  ,m4 ,c\s91 9 8       
,philosophical ,discussions1 def9es !   
t]ms t he uses4 ,9 ! translation ( ^! we
 h ma9ta9$ uni=mity1 s t 9 ?is reg>d no 

f>!r explanation is necess>y4  ,?is is1 
p]haps1 9 a philosophical po9t ( view1 !
 mo/ important ( all ,m4 ,c\s9's works1 
= x conta9s a complete summ>y & lucid   
exposition ( ! v>i\s p>ts ( 8 sy/em4 ,x 
is n[ ! la/ ^w ( ,european philosophy1 &
 m]its s]i\s & ?\ghtful att5tion4  ,?is 
& _m m l x1 are ne$$ 9 ^! times1 :5     
noisy & pret5ti\s demagogues are speak+ 
( metaphysics ) idiotic laught]1 :5     
utilit>ian /atesm5 are sne]+ at         
philosophy1 :5 undiscipl9$ sect>ians ( e
 k9d are decry+ x2 :51 too1 e>ne/ m51 9 
/ate & *ur*1 m5 on ^: %\ld]s ! social _w
 really re/s1 are invok+ philosophy1 n  
only z ! be/ in/rum5t ( ! highe/ culture
 & ! sev]e/ m5tal discipl9e1 b also z ! 
be/ human means ( guid+ politics t[>ds !
 et]nally true & ! et]nally j1 ( pres]v+
 !ology f ! ab]rations ( a zeal )\t k1 &
 f ! p]v]sion ( ! int]e/$ & ! cunn+2 :5 
_m an arti/1 :o feels ! nobility ( 8    
call+1 :o w\ld address ! m9d ( man r ?an
 8 s5ses1 is ask+ a g5]\s philosophy to 
expla9 to him t ravi%+ & tortur+ ,ideal 

:i* is ev] elud+ 8 grasp1 :i* (t5       
disc\rages unless und]/ood2 :51 above   
all1 dev\t & t5d] s\ls are le>n+ to     
prize philosophy1 s9ce1 9 h>mony )      
,revelation1 x /r5g!ns _! belief 9 ,god1
 fre$om1 immortality4  ,grateful to an  
indulg5t public1 on bo? sides ( ! ocean1
 = a k9dly & v favorable reception ( our
 v]sion ( ,m4 ,c\s9's ,c\rse ( ! ,hi/ory
 ( ,mod]n ,philosophy1 we add ?is       
translation ( 8 ,lectures on ! ,true1 ! 
,beautiful1 & ! ,good1 hop+ t 8         
explanation ( human nature w aid "s 9   
solv+ ! grave problem ( life1--= !re are
 always ^?1 & ! mo/ gift$1 too1 :o feel 
! ne$ ( und]/&+ !mselves1--believ+ t 8  
eloqu5ce1 8 elevat$ s5tim5t1 & elevat$  
?\ght1 w af=d gratification to a ref9$  
ta/e1 a *a/e imag9ation1 & a discipl9$  
m9d4                                    
,o4 ,w4 ,,wight4      ,,london1 ,dec4   
#ba1 #ahec   ,,adv]tisem5t4   ,!        
,publi%]s h to express _! ?anks to ,m4  
,,c\s9 = 8 cordial concurr5ce1 &        
especially = 8 k9dness 9 transmitt+ !   

%eets ( ! ,fr5* orig9al z pr9t$1 s t ?is
 translation appe>s almo/ simultane\sly 
) x4      ,,ed9burgh1 #ch               
,,george-,,/reet1         ,dec4 #bf1    
#ahec4     ,,! ,,/em4     ,,cont5ts4    
,,au?or',s ,,preface                    
,page  #g  ,,translator',s ,,preface    
#ae  ,,disc\rse ,,pron\nc$ ,,at ,,!     
,,op5+ ,,( ,,! ,,c\rse4--,,philosophy   
,,( ,,! ,,n9ete5? ,,c5tury              
#be      ,_s & g5]al pr9ciples ( !      
,c\rse4--,object ( !     ,lectures ( ?is
 ye>3--application ( ! pr9ciples ( :i*  
an exposition is giv51 to ! ?ree        
,problems ( ! ,true1 !     ,beautiful1 &
 ! ,good4   ,,"p ,,fir/4--,,! ,,true4   
,,lecture ,i4--,,! ,,exi/5ce ,,(        
,,univ]sal ,,& ,,necess>y ,,pr9ciples   
#ci      ,two great wants1 t ( absolute 
tru?s1 & t ( absolute     tru?s t may n 
be *im]as4 ,to satisfy ^! two wants is  
! problem ( ! philosophy ( our          
"t4--,univ]sal &     necess>y           
pr9ciples4--,examples ( diff]5t k9ds (  
su*     pr9ciples4--,di/9ction betwe5   

univ]sal & necess>y     pr9ciples &     
g5]al pr9ciples4--,exp]i5ce alone is    
incapable ( expla9+ univ]sal & necess>y 
pr9ciples1 &     also incapable (       
disp5s+ ) !m 9 ord] to arrive at !     k
 ( ! s5sible _w4--,reason z be+ t       
faculty     ( ours :i* discov]s to u ^! 
pr9ciples4--,! /udy (     univ]sal &    
necess>y pr9ciples introduces u to !    
highe/     p>ts ( philosophy4  ,,lecture
 ,,ii4--,,orig9 ,,( ,,univ]sal ,,&      
,,necess>y ,,pr9ciples             #ea  
,resume ( ! prec$+ ,lecture4 ,a new "q1 
t ( !     orig9 ( univ]sal & necess>y   
pr9ciples4--,dang] ( ?is     "q1 & its  
necessity4--,diff]5t =ms "u :i* tru?    
pres5ts itself to u1 & ! successive ord]
 ( ^! =ms3     !ory ( spontaneity &     
reflection4--,! primitive =m (          
pr9ciples2 ab/raction t dis5gages !m f t
 =m1     & gives !m _! actual           
=m4--,exam9ation & refutation (     !   
!ory t attempts to expla9 ! orig9 (     
pr9ciples by     an induction f\nd$ on  
p>ticul> notions4  ,,lecture            

,,iii4--,,on ,,! ,,value ,,( ,,univ]sal 
,,& ,,necess>y ,,pr9ciples      #fe     
,exam9ation & refutation ( ,kant's      
skepticism4--,recurr5ce to     ! !ory ( 
spontaneity & reflection4  ,,lecture    
,,iv4--,,god ,,! ,,pr9ciple ,,(         
,,pr9ciples                          #ge
      ,object ( ! lecture3 ,:at is !    
ultimate basis ( absolute               
tru?8--,f\r hypo!ses3 ,absolute tru? may
 reside ei!r 9 u1     9 p>ticul> be+s & 
! _w1 9 itself1 or 9 ,god4 #a4 ,we      
p]ceive absolute tru?1 we d n con/itute 
x4 #b4 ,p>ticul>     be+s p>ticipate 9  
absolute tru?1 b d n expla9 x2          
refutation ( ,ari/otle4 #c4 ,tru? does n
 exi/ 9 itself2     def5ce ( ,plato4 #d4
 ,tru? resides 9 ,god4--,plato2 ,/4     
,augu/9e2 ,desc>tes2 ,malebran*e2       
,f5elon2 ,bossuet2     ,leibnitz4--,tru?
 ! m$iator betwe5 ,god & man4--,ess5tial
     di/9ctions4  ,,lecture ,v4--,,on   
,,my/icism                              
#ajb      ,di/9ction betwe5 ! philosophy
 t we pr(ess &     my/icism4 ,my/icism  

consi/s 9 pret5d+ to "k ,god )\t     an 
int]m$i>y4--,two sorts (                
my/icism4--,my/icism (     s5tim5t4     
,!ory ( s5sibility4 ,two s5sibilities--!
 "o     ext]nal1 ! o!r int]nal1 &       
correspond+ to ! s\l z     ext]nal      
s5sibility corresponds to               
nature4--,legitimate "p (               
s5tim5t4--,its                          
ab]rations4--,philosophical my/icism4   
,plot9us3     ,god1 or absolute unity1  
p]ceiv$ )\t an int]m$i>y by     pure    
?\ght4--,ec/asy4--,mixture ( sup]/ition 
& ab/raction     9                      
my/icism4--,conclusion ( ! fir/ "p ( !  
c\rse4   ,,"p ,,second4--,,!            
,,beautiful4  ,,lecture ,,vi4--,,!      
,,beautiful ,,9 ,,! ,,m9d ,,( ,,man     
#abc      ,! me?od t mu/ gov]n rese>*es 
on ! beautiful & art     is1 z 9 !      
inve/igation ( ! true1 to comm5ce by    
psy*ology4--,faculties ( ! s\l t unite 9
 ! p]ception     ( ! beautiful4--,!     
s5ses give only ! agreeable2 reason     
alone gives ! idea ( !                  

beautiful4--,refutation (               
empiricism1 t conf\nds ! agreeable & !  
beautiful4--,pre-em95ce (               
reason4--,s5tim5t ( ! beautiful2        
diff]5t f s5sation & desire4--,di/9ction
 betwe5 !     s5tim5t ( ! beautiful & t 
( !                                     
sublime4--,imag9ation4--,influ5ce (     
s5tim5t on     imag9ation4--,influ5ce ( 
imag9ation on s5tim5t4--,!ory (         
ta/e4  ,,lecture ,,vii4--,,! ,,beautiful
 ,,9 ,,objects                          
#adj      ,refutation ( diff]5t !ories  
on ! nature ( ! beautiful3     !        
beautiful _c be r$uc$ to :at is         
useful4--,nor to     conv5i5ce4--,nor to
 proportion4--,ess5tial *>act]s ( !     
beautiful4--,diff]5t k9ds ( beauties4 ,!
 beautiful & !     sublime4 ,physical   
beauty4 ,intellectual beauty4 ,moral    
beauty4--,ideal beauty3 x is especially 
moral beauty4--,god1 !     fir/ pr9ciple
 ( ! beautiful4--,!ory ( ,plato4        
,,lecture ,,viii4--,,on ,,art           
#aed      ,g5ius3--its attribute is     

creative p[]4--,refutation ( !          
op9ion t art is ! imitation (           
nature--,m4 ,em]ic ,david1     & ,m4    
,quatrem]e de ,qu9cy4--,refutation ( !  
!ory (     illusion4 ,t dramatic art has
 n solely = its end to excite     !     
passions ( t]ror & pity4--,nor ev5      
directly ! moral     & religi\s         
s5tim5t4--,! prop] & direct object ( art
 is     to produce ! idea & ! s5tim5t ( 
! beautiful2 ?is     idea & ?is s5tim5t 
purify & elevate ! s\l by !     aff9ity 
betwe5 ! beautiful & ! good1 & by !     
relation     ( ideal beauty to its      
pr9ciple1 :i* is ,god4--,true mission ( 
art4  ,,lecture ,,ix4--,,! ,,diff]5t    
,,arts                                  
#afe      ,expression is ! g5]al law (  
art4--,division (     arts4--,di/9ction 
betwe5 lib]al arts & trades4--,eloqu5ce 
itself1 philosophy1 & hi/ory d n make a 
"p ( ! f9e     arts4--,t ! arts ga9 no?+
 by encroa*+ ^u ea*     o!r1 & usurp+   
ea* o!r's means &                       
processes4--,classification ( !         

arts3--its true pr9ciple is             
expression4--,comp>ison ( arts ) ea*    
o!r4--,poetry !     fir/ ( arts4        
,,lecture ,x4--,,fr5* ,,art ,,9 ,,!     
,,sev5te5? ,,c5tury                     
#agh      ,expression n only s]ves to   
appreciate ! diff]5t arts1 b     !      
diff]5t s*ools ( art4 ,example3--,fr5*  
art 9 !     sev5te5? c5tury4 ,fr5*      
poetry3--,corneille4 ,rac9e4 ,moli]e4   
,la ,fonta9e4                           
,boileau4--,pa9t+3--,lesueur4 ,p\ss94   
,le ,lorra94                            
,*ampagne4--,engrav+4--,sculpture3--,s>r
az94 ,! ,angui]s4     ,gir>don4         
,pujet4--,le ,notre4--,ar*itecture4     
,,"p ,,?ird4--,,! ,,good4  ,,lecture    
,,xi4--,,prim>y ,,notions ,,( ,,common  
,,s5se                         #bae     
,ext5t ( ! "q ( ! good4--,position ( !  
"q     accord+ to ! psy*ological me?od3 
,:at is1 9 reg>d to !     good1 !       
natural belief ( mank9d8--,! natural    
beliefs (     humanity mu/ n be s\ght 9 
a pret5d$ /ate ( nature4--     ,/udy ( !

 s5tim5ts & ideas ( m5 9 languages1 9   
life1     9                             
consci\sness4--,dis9t]e/$ness &         
devot$ness4--,lib]ty4--     ,e/eem &    
contempt4--,respect4--,admiration &     
indignation4--     ,dignity4--,empire ( 
op9ion4--,ridicule4--,regret &          
rep5tance4--     ,natural & necess>y    
f\ndations ( all ju/ice4--,di/9ction    
betwe5 fact & "r4--,common s5se1 true & 
false philosophy4  ,,lecture ,,xii4--,,!
 ,,e?ics ,,( ,,int]e/                   
#bbi      ,exposition ( ! doctr9e (     
int]e/4--,:at !re is ( tru?     9 ?is   
doctr9e4--,its defects4 #a/4 ,x conf\nds
 lib]ty &     desire1 & !reby aboli%es  
lib]ty4 #b;d4 ,x _c expla9 !            
fundam5tal di/9ction betwe5 good & evil4
 #c;d4 ,x _c     expla9 obligation &    
duty4 #d?4 ,nor "r4 #e?4 ,nor !         
pr9ciple ( m]it & dem]it4--,consequ5ces 
( ! e?ics (     int]e/3 t !y _c admit a 
provid5ce1 & lead to     despotism4     
,,lecture ,,xiii4--,,o!r ,,defective    
,,pr9ciples                             

#bee      ,! e?ics ( s5tim5t4--,! e?ics 
f\nd$ on ! pr9ciple (     ! int]e/ ( !  
greate/ numb]4--,! e?ics f\nd$ on !     
w ( ,god alone4--,! e?ics f\nd$ on !    
puni%m5ts &     rew>ds ( ano!r life4    
,,lecture ,,xiv4--,,true ,,pr9ciples ,,(
 ,,e?ics                                
#bgd      ,description ( ! diff]5t facts
 t compose ! moral                      
ph5om5a4--,analysis ( ea* ( ^!          
facts3--#a/1 ,judgm5t &     idea ( !    
good4 ,t ?is judgm5t is absolute4       
,relation     betwe5 ! true & !         
good4--#b;d1 ,obligation4 ,refutation ( 
! doctr9e ( ,kant t draws ! idea ( !    
good f     obligation in/ead ( f\nd+    
obligation on ! idea ( !                
good4--#c;d1 ,lib]ty1 & ! moral notions 
atta*$ to ! notion     ( lib]ty4--#d?1  
,pr9ciple ( m]it & dem]it4 ,puni%m5ts   
& rew>ds4--#e?1 ,moral                  
s5tim5ts4--,h>mony ( all ^! facts     9 
nature & sci5ce4  ,,lecture             
,,xv4--,,private ,,& ,,public ,,e?ics   
#cja      ,application ( ! prec$+       

pr9ciples4--,g5]al =mula (              
int]e/1--to obey reason4--,rule = judg+ 
:e!r an action     is or is n con=m$ to 
reason1--to elevate ! motive ( ?is      
action into a maxim ( univ]sal          
legislation4--,individual     e?ics4 ,x 
is n t[>ds ! individual1 b t[>ds ! moral
     p]son t "o is obligat$4 ,pr9ciple (
 all individual     duties1--to respect 
& develop ! moral p]son4--,social       
e?ics1--duties ( ju/ice & duties (      
*>ity4--,civil     society4 ,gov]nm5t4  
,law4 ,! "r to puni%4  ,,lecture        
,,xvi4--,,god ,,! ,,pr9ciple ,,( ,,!    
,,idea ,,( ,,! ,,good              #cbe 
,pr9ciple on :i* true !odicea re/s4 ,god
 ! la/ f\ndation     ( moral tru?1 ( !  
good1 & ( ! moral p]son4--,lib]ty     ( 
,god4--,! div9e ju/ice & *>ity4--,god ! 
sanction (     ! moral law4 ,immortality
 ( ! s\l2 argum5t f m]it &     dem]it2  
argum5t f ! simplicity ( ! s\l2 argum5t 
f     f9al causes4--,religi\s           
s5tim5t4--,adoration4--,wor%ip4--,moral 
beauty ( ,*ri/ianity4  ,,lecture        

,,xvii4--,,resume ,,( ,,doctr9e         
#cdf      ,review ( ! doctr9e conta9$ 9 
^! lectures1 & !     ?ree ord]s ( facts 
on :i* ?is doctr9e re/s1 ) !            
relation ( ea* "o ( !m to ! mod]n s*ool 
t has     recogniz$ & develop$ x1 b     
almo/ always exagg]at$     x4--,exp]i5ce
 & empiricism4--,reason &               
idealism4--,s5tim5t     &               
my/icism4--,!odicea4 ,defects ( diff]5t 
kn[n     sy/ems4--,! process t conducts 
to true !odicea1 & !     "* ( c]ta9ty & 
reality t ?is process gives to     x4   
,,app5dix                               
#cga     ,,lectures  ,,on  ,,! ,,true1  
,,! ,,beautiful1 ,,& ,,! ,,good4        
,,disc\rse  ,,pron\nc$ ,,at ,,! ,,op5+  
,,( ,,! ,,c\rse1  ,,decemb] #d1 #ahag4  
,,philosophy ,,9 ,,! ,,n9ete5? ,,c5tury4
      ,_s & g5]al pr9ciples ( !         
,c\rse4--,object ( !     ,lectures ( ?is
 ye>3--application ( ! pr9ciples ( :i*  
an exposition is giv51 to ! ?ree        
,problems ( ! ,true1 !     ,beautiful1 &
 ! ,good4   ,x seems natural t a c5tury1

 9 its beg9n+1 %\ld borr[ its philosophy
 f ! c5tury t prec$$ x4 ,b1 z free &    
intellig5t be+s1 we are n born m]ely to 
cont9ue our pr$ecessors1 b to increase  
_! "w1 & also to d our own4 ,we _c      
accept f !m an inh]itance except "u !   
condition ( improv+ x4 ,our fir/ duty   
is1 !n1 to r5d] to ourselves an acc\nt (
 ! philosophy ( ! eighte5? c5tury2 to   
recognize its "* & its pr9ciples1 !     
problems :i* x agitat$1 & ! solutions   
:i* x gave ( !m2 to disc]n1 9 f9e1 :at x
 transmits to u ( ! true & ! productive1
 & :at x also leaves ( ! /]ile & !      
false1 9 ord] t1 ) reflective *oice1 we 
may embrace ! =m] & reject ! latt]4#c   
,plac$ at ! entrance ( ! new times1 let 
u "k1 fir/ ( all1 ) :at views we w\ld   
occupy ourselves4 ,moreov]1--:y %\ld ,i 
n say x8--aft] two ye>s ( in/ruction1 9 
:i* ! pr(essor1 9 "s sort1 has be5      
inve/igat+ himself1 "o has a "r to dem& 
( him :at he is2 :at are 8 mo/ g5]al    
pr9ciples on all ! ess5tial p>ts (      
philosophic sci5ce2 :at flag1 9 f9e1 9 !

 mid/ ( p>ties :i* cont5d ) ea* o!r s   
viol5tly1 he proposes = y1 "y m51 :o    
frequ5t ?is auditory1 & :o are call$ ^u 
to p>ticipate 9 a de/9y /ill s unc]ta9 &
 s obscure 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 to foll[4
         99       99       99       99  
99  ,x is n patriotism1 x is a pr(\nd   
s5tim5t ( tru? & ju/ice1 :i* makes u    
place ! :ole philosophy n[ exp&$ 9 ! _w 
"u ! invocation ( ! "n ( ,desc>tes4     
,yes1 ! :ole ( mod]n philosophy is ! "w 
( ?is great man1 = x owes to him ! _s t 
animates x1 & ! me?od t con/itutes its  
p[]4  ,aft] ! d[nfall ( s*ola/icism & ! 
m\rnful disruptures ( ! sixte5? c5tury1 
! fir/ object :i* ! bold good s5se (    
,desc>tes propos$ to itself 0 to make   
philosophy a human sci5ce1 l a/ronomy1  
physiology1 m$ic9e1 subject to ! same   
unc]ta9ties & to ! same ab]rations1 b   
capable also ( ! same progress4         
,desc>tes enc\nt]$ ! skepticism spread  
on e side 9 ! tra9 ( s _m revolutions1  
ambiti\s hypo!ses1 born out ( ! fir/ use
 ( an ill-regulat$ lib]ty1 & ! old      

=mulas surviv+ ! ru9s ( s*ola/icism4 ,9 
8 c\rage\s passion = tru?1 he resolv$ to
 reject1 provisorily at lea/1 all !     
ideas t hi!rto he _h receiv$ )\t        
controll+ !m1 firmly decid$ n to admit  
any b ^? :i*1 aft] a s]i\s exam9ation1  
might appe> to him evid5t4 ,b he p]ceiv$
 t !re 0 "o ?+ :i* he c\ld n reject1 ev5
 provisorily1 9 8 univ]sal d\bt1--t ?+ 0
 ! exi/5ce itself ( 8 d\bt1 t is to say1
 ( 8 ?\ght2 = al?\gh all ! re/ might be 
only an illusion1 ?is fact1 t he ?\ght1 
c\ld n be an illusion4 ,desc>tes1 !re=e1
 /opp$ at ?is fact1 ( an irresi/ible    
evid5ce1 z at ! fir/ tru? :i* he c\ld   
accept )\t fe>4 ,recogniz+ at ! same "t 
t ?\ght is ! necess>y in/rum5t ( all !  
inve/igations :i* he might propose to   
himself1 z well z ! in/rum5t ( ! human  
race 9 ! acquisition ( its natural      
kn[l$ges1#d he devot$ himself to a      
regul> /udy ( x1 to ! analysis ( ?\ght z
 ! condition ( all legitimate           
philosophy1 & ^u ?is solid f\ndation he 
re>$ a doctr9e ( a "* at once c]ta9 &   

liv+1 capable ( resi/+ skepticism1      
exempt f hypo!ses1 & affran*is$ f !     
=mulas ( ! s*ools4  ,?us ! analysis (   
?\ght1 & ( ! m9d :i* is ! subject ( x1 t
 is to say1 psy*ology1 has become ! po9t
 ( dep>ture1 ! mo/ g5]al pr9ciple1 !    
important me?od ( mod]n philosophy4#e   
,nev]!less1 x mu/ inde$ be own$1        
philosophy has n entirely lo/1 &        
sometimes /ill reta9s1 s9ce ,desc>tes & 
9 ,desc>tes himself1 its old habits4 ,x 
r>ely belongs to ! same man to op5 & run
 a c>e]1 & usually ! inv5tor succumbs "u
 ! weight ( 8 own inv5tion4 ,s          
,desc>tes1 aft] hav+ s well plac$ ! po9t
 ( dep>ture = all philosophical         
inve/igation1 m ?an once =gets analysis1
 & returns1 at lea/ 9 =m1 to ! anci5t   
philosophy4#f ,! true me?od1 aga91 is m 
?an once effac$ 9 ! h&s ( 8 fir/        
successors1 "u ! always increas+        
influ5ce ( ! ma!matical me?od4  ,two    
p]iods may be di/+ui%$ 9 ! ,c>tesian    
era1--"o 9 :i* ! me?od1 9 its newness1  
is (t5 misconceiv$2 ! o!r1 9 :i* "o is  

=c$1 at lea/1 to re-ent] ! salut>y way  
op5$ by ,desc>tes4 ,to ! fir/ belong    
,malebran*e1 ,sp9oza1 ,leibnitz himself2
 to ! second1 ! philosoph]s ( ! eighte5?
 c5tury4  ,)\t d\bt ,malebran*e1 ^u "s  
po9ts1 desc5d$ v f> into int]ior        
inve/igation2 b mo/ ( ! "t he gave      
himself up to w&] 9 an imag9>y _w1 & lo/
 sight ( ! real _w4 ,x is n a me?od t is
 want+ to ,sp9oza1 b a good me?od2 8    
error consi/s 9 hav+ appli$ to          
philosophy ! geometrical me?od1 :i*     
proce$s by axioms1 def9itions1 !orems1  
coroll>ies2 no "o has made less use ( ! 
psy*ological me?od2 t is ! pr9ciple & ! 
condemnation ( 8 sy/em4 ,! ,n\veaux     
,essais sur l',ent5dem5t ,huma9 exhibit 
,leibnitz oppos+ obs]vation to          
obs]vation1 analysis to analysis2 b 8   
g5ius usually hov]s ov] sci5ce1 in/ead (
 advanc+ 9 x /ep by /ep2 h5ce ! results 
at :i* he arrives are (t5 only brilliant
 hypo!ses1 = example1 ! pre-e/abli%$    
h>mony1 n[ relegat$ among ! analog\s    
hypo!ses ( occasional causes & a pla/ic 

m$iator4 ,9 g5]al1 ! philosophy ( !     
sev5te5? c5tury1 by n employ+ )         
suffici5t rigor & firmness ! me?od ) :i*
 ,desc>tes _h arm$ x1 produc$ little    
else ?an sy/ems1 +5i\s )\t d\bt1 bold & 
pr(\nd1 b (t5 also ra%1--sy/ems t h     
fail$ to keep _! place 9 sci5ce4#g ,9   
fact1 no?+ is durable except t :i* is   
f\nd$ ^u a s\nd me?od2 "t de/roys all ! 
re/2 "t1 :i* re-collects1 fecundates1   
aggr&izes ! lea/ g]ms ( tru? deposit$ 9 
! humble/ analyses1 /rikes )\t pity1    
engulfs hypo!ses1 ev5 ^? ( g5ius4 ,"t   
takes a /ep1 & arbitr>y sy/ems are      
ov]turn$2 ! /atues ( _! au?ors alone    
rema9 /&+ ov] _! ru9s4 ,! task ( ! fri5d
 ( tru? is to se>* = ! useful rema9s (  
!m1 t survive & c s]ve = new & m solid  
con/ructions4  ,! philosophy ( !        
eighte5? c5tury op5s ! second p]iod ( ! 
,c>tesian era2 x propos$ to itself to   
apply ! me?od already discov]$ & too mu*
 neglect$1--x appli$ itself to !        
analysis ( ?\ght4 ,disabus$ ( ambiti\s &
 /]ile attempts1 &1 l ,desc>tes1        

disda9ful ( ! pa/1 ! eighte5? c5tury d>$
 to ?9k t e ?+ 9 philosophy 0 to be done
 ov] aga91 & t1 9 ord] n to w&] anew1 x 
0 necess>y to set out ) ! mode/ /udy (  
man4 ,in/ead1 !re=e1 ( build+ up all at 
once sy/ems risk$ ^u ! univ]sality (    
?+s1 x und]took to exam9e :at man kn[s1 
:at he c "k2 x br\ght back entire       
philosophy to ! /udy ( our faculties1 z 
physics _h j be5 br\ght back to ! /udy (
 ! prop]ties ( bodies1--:i* 0 giv+ to   
philosophy1 if n its end1 at lea/ its   
true beg9n+4  ,! great s*ools :i* divide
 ! eighte5? c5tury are ! ,engli% & ,fr5*
 s*ool1 ! ,scot* s*ool1 & ! ,g]man      
s*ool1 t is to say1 ! s*ool ( ,locke &  
,condillac1 t ( ,reid1 t ( ,kant4 ,x is 
impossible to misconceive ! common      
pr9ciple :i* animates !m1 ! unity ( _!  
me?od4 ,:5 "o exam9es ) imp>tiality !   
me?od ( ,locke1 he sees t x consi/s 9 ! 
analysis ( ?\ght2 & x is !reby t ,locke 
is a disciple1 n ( ,bacon & ,hobbes1 b (
 our great c\ntryman1 ,desc>tes4#h ,to  
/udy ! human und]/&+ z x is 9 ea* "o (  

u1 to recognize its p[]s1 & also its    
limits1 is ! problem :i* ! ,engli%      
philosoph] propos$ to himself1 & :i* he 
attempt$ to solve4 ,i d n wi% to judge  
"h ( ! solution :i* he gave ( ?is       
problem2 ,i limit myself to indicat+    
cle>ly :at 0 = him ! fundam5tal problem4
 ,condillac1 ! ,fr5* disciple ( ,locke1 
made himself ev]y:]e ! apo/le (         
analysis2 & analysis 0 also 9 him1 or at
 lea/ %\ld h be51 ! /udy ( ?\ght4 ,no   
philosoph]1 n ev5 ,sp9oza1 has w&]$ f>!r
 ?an ,condillac#i f ! true exp]im5tal   
me?od1 & has /ray$ f>!r on ! r\te (     
ab/ractions1 ev5 v]bal ab/ractions2 b1  
/range en\gh1 no "o is sev]] ?an he     
aga9/ hypo!ses1 save t ( ! /atue-man4 ,!
 au?or ( ! ,traite des ,s5sations has v 
unfai?fully practis$ analysis2 b he     
speaks ( x )\t cessation4 ,! ,scot*     
s*ool combats ,locke & ,condillac2 x    
combats !m1 b ) _! own arms1 ) ! same   
me?od :i* x pret5ds to apply bett]4#aj  
,9 ,g]many1 ,kant wi%es to replace 9    
light & honor ! sup]ior elem5t ( human  

consci\sness1 left 9 ! %ade1 & decri$ by
 ! philosophy ( 8 times2 & = t end1 :at 
does he d8 ,he und]takes a pr(\nd       
exam9ation ( ! faculty ( kn[+2 ! title (
 8 pr9cipal "w is1 ,critique ( ,pure    
,reason2#aa x is a critique1 t is to say
 aga91 an analysis2 ! me?od ( ,kant is  
!n no o!r ?an t ( ,locke & ,reid4 ,foll[
 x until x rea*es ! h&s ( ,fi*te1#ab !  
successor ( ,kant1 :o di$ b a few ye>s  
s9ce2 !re1 aga91 ! analysis ( ?\ght is  
giv5 z ! f\ndation ( philosophy4 ,kant 0
 s firmly e/abli%$ 9 ! subject ( k1 t he
 c\ld sc>cely g out ( x--t1 9 fact1 he  
nev] did legitimately g out ( x4 ,fi*te 
plung$ into ! subject ( k s deeply t he 
buri$ himself 9 x1 & absorb$ 9 ! human  
me all exi/5ces1 z well z all           
sci5ces--sad %ipwreck ( analysis1 :i*   
signalizes at once its greate/ ef=t &   
its rock6  ,! same _s1 !re=e1 gov]ns all
 ! s*ools ( ! eighte5? c5tury2 ?is      
c5tury disda9s arbitr>y =mulas2 x has a 
horror = hypo!ses1 & atta*es itself1 or 
pret5ds to atta* itself1 to ! obs]vation

 ( facts1 & p>ticul>ly to ! analysis (  
?\ght4  ,let u ackn[l$ge ) fre$om & )   
grief1 t ! eighte5? c5tury appli$       
analysis to all ?+s )\t pity & )\t      
measure4 ,x cit$ be=e its tribunal all  
doctr9es1 all sci5ces2 nei!r !          
metaphysics ( ! prec$+ age1 ) _! impos+ 
sy/ems1 nor ! arts ) _! pre/ige1 nor !  
gov]nm5ts ) _! anci5t au?ority1 nor !   
religions ) _! maje/y1--no?+ f\nd favor 
be=e x4 ,al?\gh x spi$ abysses at !     
bottom ( :at x call$ philosophy1 x ?rew 
itself into !m ) a c\rage :i* is n )\t  
gr&eur2 = ! gr&eur ( man is to pref] :at
 he believes to be tru? to himself4 ,!  
eighte5? c5tury let loose tempe/s4      
,humanity no m progress$1 except ov]    
ru9s4 ,! _w 0 aga9 agitat$ 9 t /ate (   
disord] 9 :i* x _h already be5 once se51
 at ! decl9e ( ! anci5t beliefs1 & be=e 
! triumphs ( ,*ri/ianity1 :5 m5 w&]$    
?r\gh all contr>ies1 )\t p[] to re/     
any:]e1 giv5 up to e disquietude ( _s1  
to e mis]y ( he>t1 fanatical & a!i/ical1
 my/ical & incr$ul\s1 voluptu\s &       

sangu9>y4#ac ,b if ! philosophy ( !     
eighte5? c5tury has left u a vacuity =  
an inh]itance1 x has also left u an     
en]getic & fecund love ( tru?4 ,!       
eighte5? c5tury 0 ! age ( criticism &   
de/ructions2 ! n9ete5? %\ld be t (      
intellig5t rehabilitations4 ,x belongs  
to x to f9d 9 a pr(\nd] analysis ( ?\ght
 ! pr9ciples ( ! future1 & ) s _m rema9s
 to raise1 9 f9e1 an edifice t reason   
may be able to ackn[l$ge4  ,a feeble b  
zeal\s workman1 ,i come to br+ my /one2 
,i come to d my "w2 ,i come to extract f
 ! mid/ ( ! ru9s :at has n p]i%$1 :at _c
 p]i%4 ,?is c\rse is at once a return to
 ! pa/1 an ef=t t[>ds ! future4 ,i      
propose nei!r to attack nor to def5d any
 ( ! ?ree great s*ools t divide !       
eighte5? c5tury4 ,i w n attempt to      
p]petuate & env5om ! w>f>e :i* divides  
!m1 complac5tly designat+ ! diff]5ces   
:i* sep>ate !m1 )\t tak+ an acc\nt ( !  
community ( me?od :i* unites !m4 ,i     
come1 on ! contr>y1 a devot$ soldi] (   
philosophy1 a common fri5d ( all !      

s*ools :i* x has produc$1 to (f] to all 
! words ( peace4  ,! unity ( mod]n      
philosophy1 z we h said1 resides 9 its  
me?od1 t is to say1 9 ! analysis (      
?\ght--a me?od sup]ior to its own       
results1 = x conta9s 9 itself ! means ( 
repair+ ! errors t escape x1 (          
indef9itely add+ new ri*es to ri*es     
already acquir$4 ,! physical sci5ces    
!mselves h no o!r unity4 ,! great       
physicians :o h appe>$ )9 two c5turies1 
al?\gh unit$ among/ !mselves by ! same  
po9t ( dep>ture & by ! same end1 g5]ally
 accept$1 h nev]!less proce$$ )         
indep5d5ce & 9 ways (t5 opposite4 ,"t   
has re-collect$ 9 _! diff]5t !ories ! "p
 ( tru? t produc$ !m & su/a9$ !m2 x has 
neglect$ _! errors f :i* !y 7 unable to 
extricate !mselves1 & unit+ all !       
discov]ies wor?y ( ! "n1 x has little by
 little =m$ ( !m a va/ & h>moni\s :ole4 
,mod]n philosophy has also be5 enri*$   
dur+ ! two c5turies ) a multitude (     
exact obs]vations1 ( solid & pr(\nd     
!ories1 = :i* x is indebt$ to ! common  

me?od4 ,:at has h9d]$ h] f progress+ at 
an equal pace ) ! physical sci5ces ^:   
si/] %e is8 ,%e has be5 h9d]$ by n      
und]/&+ bett] h] own int]e/s1 by n      
tol]at+ div]sities t are inevitable1 t  
are ev5 useful1 & by n pr(it+ by ! tru?s
 :i* all ! p>ticul> doctr9es conta91 9  
ord] to d$uce f !m a g5]al doctr9e1 :i* 
is successively & p]petually purifi$ &  
aggr&iz$4  ,n1 inde$1 t ,i w\ld recomm5d
 t bl9d syncretism :i* de/roy$ ! s*ool (
 ,alex&ria1 :i* attempt$ to br+ contr>y 
sy/ems toge!r by =ce2 :at ,i recomm5d is
 an enlight5$ eclecticism1 :i*1 judg+ ) 
equity1 & ev5 ) b5evol5ce1 all s*ools1  
borr[s f !m :at !y possess ( ! true1 &  
neglects :at 9 !m is false4 ,s9ce ! _s (
 p>ty has hi!rto succe$$ s ill ) u1 let 
u try ! _s ( conciliation4 ,human ?\ght 
is imm5se4 ,ea* s*ool has look$ at x    
only f its own po9t ( view4 ,?is po9t ( 
view is n false1 b x is incomplete1 &   
moreov]1 x is exclusive4 ,x expresses b 
"o side ( tru?1 & rejects all ! o!rs4 ,!
 "q is n to decry & recomm5ce ! "w ( our

 pr$ecessors1 b to p]fect x 9 reunit+1 &
 9 =tify+ by t reunion1 all ! tru?s     
scatt]$ 9 ! diff]5t sy/ems :i* !        
eighte5? c5tury has transmitt$ to u4    
,su* is ! pr9ciple to :i* we h be5      
conduct$ by two ye>s ( /udy ^u mod]n    
philosophy1 f ,desc>tes to our times4   
,?is pr9ciple1 badly dis5gag$ at fir/1  
we appli$ = ! fir/ "t )9 ! n>r[e/       
limits1 & only to !ories relative to !  
"q ( p]sonal exi/5ce4#ad ,we !n ext5d$ x
 to a great] numb] ( que/ions & !ories2 
we t\*$ ! pr9cipal po9ts ( !            
intellectual & moral ord]1#ae & at !    
same "t t we 7 cont9u+ ! inve/igations (
 our illu/ri\s pr$ecessor1 ,m4          
,roy]-,coll>d1 ^u ! s*ools ( ,france1   
,engl&1 & ,scotl&1 we comm5c$ ! /udy new
 among u1 ! difficult b int]e/+ & fecund
 /udy1 ( ! philosophy ( ,ko5igsb]g4 ,we 
c at ! pres5t "t1 !re=e1 embrace all !  
s*ools ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 & all !     
problems :i* !y agitat$4  ,philosophy1 9
 all times1 turns ^u ! fundam5tal ideas 
( ! true1 ! beautiful1 & ! good4 ,! idea

 ( ! true1 philosophically develop$1 is 
psy*ology1 logic1 metaphysic2 ! idea ( !
 good is private & public morals2 ! idea
 ( ! beautiful is t sci5ce :i*1 9       
,g]many1 is call$ ae/hetics1 ! details (
 :i* p]ta9 to ! criticism ( lit]ature1 !
 criticism ( arts1 b ^: g5]al pr9ciples 
h always occupi$ a m or less consid]able
 place 9 ! rese>*es1 & ev5 9 ! tea*+ (  
philosoph]s1 f ,plato & ,ari/otle to    
,hut*eson & ,kant4  ,^u ^! ess5tial     
po9ts :i* con/itute ! entire doma9 (    
philosophy1 we w successively int]rogate
 ! pr9cipal s*ools ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 
,:5 we exam9e !m all ) att5tion1 we c   
easily r$uce !m to two1--"o ( :i*1 9 !  
analysis ( ?\ght1 ! common subject ( all
 _! works1 gives to s5sation an         
excessive "p2 ! o!r ( :i*1 9 ?is same   
analysis1 go+ to ! opposite extreme1    
d$uces consci\sness almo/ :olly f a     
faculty diff]5t f t ( s5sation--reason4 
,! fir/ ( ^! s*ools is ! empirical      
s*ool1 ( :i* ! fa!r1 or r ! wise/       
repres5tative1 is ,locke1 & ,condillac !

 extreme repres5tative2 ! second is !   
spirituali/ic or rationali/ic s*ool1 z x
 is call$1 :i* reckons among its        
illu/ri\s int]pret]s ,reid1 :o is ! mo/ 
irreproa*able1 & ,kant1 :o is ! mo/     
sy/ematic4 ,surely !re is tru? 9 ^! two 
s*ools1 & tru? is a good :i* mu/ be tak5
 :]ev] "o f9ds x4 ,we will+ly admit1 ) !
 empirical s*ool1 t ! s5ses h n be5 giv5
 u 9 va92 t ?is admirable organization  
:i* elevates u above all o!r animate    
be+s1 is a ri* & v>i$ in/rum5t1 :i* x   
w\ld be folly to neglect4 ,we are       
conv9c$ t ! spectacle ( ! _w is a       
p]man5t s\rce ( s\nd & sublime          
in/ruction4 ,^u ?is po9t nei!r          
,ari/otle1 nor ,bacon1 nor ,locke1 has 9
 u an adv]s>y1 b a disciple4 ,we        
ackn[l$ge1 or r we proclaim1 t 9 !      
analysis ( human k1 x is necess>y to    
assign to ! s5ses an important "p4 ,b :5
 ! empirical s*ool pret5ds t all t      
passes beyond ! rea* ( ! s5ses is a     
*im]a1 !n we ab&on x1 & g ov] to !      
opposite s*ool4 ,we pr(ess to believe1 =

 example1 t1 )\t an agreeable           
impression1 nev] %\ld we h conceiv$ !   
beautiful1 & t1 not)/&+1 ! beautiful is 
n m]ely ! agreeable2 t1 ?ank heav51     
happ9ess is usually add$ to virtue1 b t 
! idea itself ( virtue is ess5tially    
diff]5t f t ( happ9ess4 ,on ?is po9t we 
are op5ly ( ! op9ion ( ,reid & ,kant4   
,we h also e/abli%$1 & w aga9 e/abli%1 t
 ! reason ( man is 9 possession (       
pr9ciples :i* s5sation prec$es b does n 
expla91 & :i* are directly sugge/$ to u 
by ! p[] ( reason alone4 ,we w foll[    
,kant ?us f>1 b n f>!r4 ,f> f foll[+    
him1 we w combat him1 :51 aft] hav+     
victori\sly def5d$ ! great pr9ciples ( e
 k9d aga9/ empiricism1 he /rikes !m )   
/]ility1 9 pret5d+ t !y h no value      
beyond ! inclosure ( ! reason :i*       
possesses !m1 condemn+ also to impot5ce 
t same reason :i* he has j elevat$ s    
high1 & op5+ ! way to a ref9$ & le>n$   
skepticism :i*1 aft] all1 ends at ! same
 abyss ) ord9>y skepticism4  ,y p]ceive 
t we %all be by turns ) ,locke1 ) ,reid1

 & ) ,kant1 9 t j & /rong measure :i* is
 call$ eclecticism4  ,eclecticism is 9  
our eyes ! true hi/orical me?od1 & x has
 = u all ! importance ( ! hi/ory (      
philosophy2 b !re is some?+ :i* we place
 above ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 &1        
consequ5tly1 above                      
eclecticism1--philosophy itself4  ,!    
hi/ory ( philosophy does n c>ry its own 
light ) x1 x is n its own end4 ,h[ c\ld 
eclecticism1 :i* has no o!r field ?an   
hi/ory1 be our only1 our prim>y1 object8
  ,x is1 d\btless1 j1 x is ( ! highe/   
utility1 to discrim9ate 9 ea* sy/em :at 
!re is true 9 x f :at !re is false 9 x2 
fir/1 9 ord] to appreciate ?is sy/em    
rightly2 !n1 9 ord] to r5d] ! false ( no
 acc\nt1 to dis5gage & re-collect !     
true1 & ?us to enri* & aggr&ize         
philosophy by hi/ory4 ,b y conceive t we
 mu/ already "k :at tru? is1 9 ord] to  
recognize x1 & to di/+ui% x f ! error ) 
:i* x is mix$2 s t ! criticism ( sy/ems 
almo/ dem&s a sy/em1 s t ! hi/ory (     
philosophy is con/ra9$ to fir/ borr[ f  

philosophy ! light :i* x mu/ "o day     
return to x ) usury4  ,9 f9e1 ! hi/ory (
 philosophy is only a bran*1 or r an    
in/rum5t1 ( philosophical sci5ce4       
,surely x is ! int]e/ :i* we feel =     
philosophy t alone atta*es u to its     
hi/ory2 x is ! love ( tru? :i* makes u  
ev]y:]e pursue its ve/iges1 & int]rogate
 ) a passionate curiosity ^? :o be=e u h
 also lov$ & s\ght tru?4  ,?us          
philosophy is at once ! supreme object &
 ! tor* ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,by ?is
 d\ble title x has a "r to preside ov]  
our in/ruction4  ,9 reg>d to ?is1 "o ^w 
( explanation1 ,i beg y4  ,he :o is     
speak+ be=e y to-day is1 x is true1     
(ficially *>g$ only ) ! c\rse ( ! hi/ory
 ( philosophy2 9 t is our task1 & 9 t1  
once m1 our guide %all be               
eclecticism4#af ,b1 we confess1 if      
philosophy has n ! "r to pres5t itself  
"h 9 "s sort on ! fir/ plan2 if x %\ld  
appe> only beh9d its hi/ory1 x 9 reality
 holds dom9ion2 & to x all our wi%es1 z 
well z all our ef=ts1 are relat$4 ,we   

hold1 d\btless1 9 great e/eem1 bo?      
,bruck] & ,t5nemann1#ag s wise1 s       
judici\s2 nev]!less our models1 our     
v]itable ma/]s1 always pres5t to our    
?\ght1 are1 9 antiquity1 ,plato &       
,socrates1 among ! mod]ns1 ,desc>tes1 &1
 :y %\ld ,i hesitate to say x1 among u1 
& 9 our times1 ! illu/ri\s man :o has   
be5 pleas$ to call u to ?is *air4 ,m4   
,roy]-,coll>d 0 also only a pr(essor ( !
 hi/ory ( philosophy2 b he rightly      
pret5d$ to h an op9ion 9 philosophy2 he 
s]v$ a cause :i* he has transmitt$ to u1
 & we w s]ve x 9 our turn4  ,?is great  
cause is kn[n to y2 x is t ( a s\nd &   
g5]\s philosophy1 wor?y ( our c5tury by 
! sev]ity ( its me?ods1 & answ]+ to !   
immortal wants ( humanity1 sett+ out    
mode/ly f psy*ology1 f ! humble /udy ( !
 human m9d1 9 ord] to elevate itself to 
! highe/ regions1 & to trav]se          
metaphysics1 ae/hetics1 !odicea1 morals1
 & politics4  ,our ent]prise is n !n    
simply to r5ew ! hi/ory ( philosophy by 
eclecticism2 we also wi%1 we especially 

wi%1 & hi/ory well und]/ood1 ?anks to   
eclecticism1 w !re9 p[]fully assi/ u1 to
 d$uce f ! /udy ( sy/ems1 _! /rifes1 &  
ev5 _! ru9s1 a sy/em :i* may be pro(    
aga9/ criticism1 & :i* c be accept$ by  
y\r reason1 & also by y\r he>t1 noble   
y\? ( ! n9ete5? c5tury6  ,9 ord] to     
fulfil ?is great object1 :i* is our     
v]itable mission to y1 we %all d>e ?is  
ye>1 = ! fir/ & = ! la/ "t1 to g beyond 
! n>r[ limits :i* are impos$ ^u u4 ,9 ! 
hi/ory ( ! philosophy ( ! eighte5?      
c5tury1 we h resolv$ to leave a little 9
 ! %ade ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 9 ord] to
 make philosophy itself appe>1 & :ile   
exhibit+ to y ! di/9ctive traits ( !    
pr9cipal doctr9es ( ! la/ c5tury1 to    
expose to y ! doctr9e :i* seems to u    
adapt$ to ! wants & to ! _s ( our times1
 & /ill1 to expla9 x to y briefly1 b 9  
its full ext5t1 in/ead ( dwell+ ^u "s "o
 ( its p>ts1 z hi!rto we h done4 ,) ye>s
 we w correct1 we w task ourselves to   
aggr&ize & elevate our "w4 ,to-day we   
pres5t x y v imp]fect /ill1 b e/abli%$  

^u f\ndations :i* we believe solid1 &   
already /amp$ ) a "* t w n *ange4  ,y w 
"h see1 !n1 br\ght toge!r 9 a %ort      
space1 our pr9ciples1 our processes1 our
 results4 ,we ard5tly desire to recomm5d
 !m to y1 "y m51 :o are ! hope ( sci5ce 
z well z ( y\r c\ntry4 ,may we at lea/  
be able1 9 ! va/ c>e] :i* we h to run1  
to meet 9 y ! same k9dness :i* hi!rto   
has su/a9$ u4  ,,footnotes3  #c ,we h s 
mu* felt ! necessity ( und]/&+ well !   
philosophy ( ! c5tury t ours succe$s1 t 
?ree times we h und]tak5 ! hi/ory (     
philosophy 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 "h fir/1
 9 #ahah1 !n 9 #ahai & #ahbj1 & t is !  
subject ( ! la/ ?ree volumes ( ! #a/    
,s]ies ( our works2 f9ally1 we resum$ x 
9 #ahbi1 vol4 ii4 & iii4 ( ! #b;d       
,s]ies4  #d ,?is ^w 0 us$ by ! old      
,engli% writ]s1 & !re is no reason :y x 
%\ld n be reta9$4  #e ,on ! me?od (     
,desc>tes1 see #a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 iv41    
lecture #bj2 #b;d ,s]ies1 vol4 i41      
lecture #b2 vol4 ii41 lecture #aa2 #c;d 
,s]ies1 vol4 iii41 ,philosophie ,mod]ne1

 z well z ,fragm5ts de ,philosophie     
,c>tesi5ne2 #e? ,s]ies1 ,in/ruction     
,publique1 vol4 ii41 ,def5se de         
l',univ]site et de la ,philosophie1 p4  
#aab1 etc4  #f ,on ?is return to !      
s*ola/ic =m 9 ,desc>tes1 see #a/ ,s]ies1
 vol iv41 lecture #ab1 especially ?ree  
articles ( ! ,j\rnal des ,savants1      
,augu/1 ,septemb]1 & ,octob]1 #ahej1 9  
:i* we h exam9$ anew ! pr9ciples (      
,c>tesianism1 a propos ! ,leibnitii     
,animadv]siones ad ,c>tesii ,pr9cipia   
,philosophiae4  #g ,see on ,malebran*e1 
,sp9oza1 & ,leibnitz1 #b;d ,s]ies1 vol4 
ii41 lectures #aa & #ab2 #c;d ,s]ies1   
vol4 iv41 ,introduction aux ,oeuvres    
,philosophiques de ,m4 de ,biran1 p4    
#bhh2 & ! ,fragm5ts de ,philosophie     
,c>tesi5ne1 passim4  #h ,on ,locke1 see 
#a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 iii41 lecture #a1      
especially #b;d ,s]ies1 vol4 iii41      
,exam5 du ,sy/eme de ,locke4  #i #a/    
,s]ies1 vol4 iii41 lectures #b & #c4    
#aj #a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 iv41 lectures on ! 
,scot* ,s*ool4  #aa ,see on ,kant & !   

,critique ( ,pure ,reason1 vol4 v4 ( !  
#a/ ,s]ies1 :]e t great "w is exam9$ ) z
 mu* ext5t z t ( ,reid 9 vol4 iv41 & !  
,essay ( ,locke 9 vol4 iii4 ( ! #b;d    
,s]ies4  #ab ,on ,fi*te1 #b;d ,s]ies1   
vol4 i41 lecture #ab2 #c;d ,s]ies1 vol4 
iv41 ,introduction aux ,oeuvres de ,m4  
de ,biran1 p4 #cbd4  #ac ,we express$   
ourselves ?us 9 ,decemb]1 #ahag1 :51    
foll[+ ! great w>s ( ! ,revolution1 &   
aft] ! d[nfall ( ! empire1 !            
con/itutional mon>*y1 /ill poorly       
e/abli%$1 left ! future ( ,france & ( ! 
_w obscure4 ,x is sad to be oblig$ to   
hold ! same language 9 #ahce1 ov] ! ru9s
 accumulat$ ar\nd u4  #ad #a/ ,s]ies1   
vol4 i41 ,c\rse ( #ahaf4  #ae ,ibid41   
,c\rse ( #ahag4  #af ,on ! legitimate   
employm5t & ! imp]ative conditions (    
eclecticism1 see #c;d ,s]ies1 ,fragm5ts 
,philosophiques1 vol4 iv41 preface ( !  
fir/ edition1 p4 #da1 c41 especially !  
article entitl$ ,de la ,philosophie en  
,belgique1 pp4 #bbh & #bbi4  #ag ,we h  
translat$ 8 excell5t ,manual ( ! ,hi/ory

 ( ,philosophy4 ,see ! second edition1  
vol4 ii41 #hvo41 #ahci4     ,,"p ,,fir/4
  ,,! ,,true4     ,,lecture ,i4  ,,!    
,,exi/5ce ,,( ,,univ]sal ,,& ,,necess>y 
,,pr9ciples4      ,two great wants1 t ( 
absolute tru?s1 & t ( absolute     tru?s
 t may n be *im]as4 ,to satisfy ^! two  
wants is     ! problem ( ! philosophy ( 
our "t4--,univ]sal &     necess>y       
pr9ciples4--,examples ( diff]5t k9ds (  
su*     pr9ciples4--,di/9ction betwe5   
univ]sal & necess>y     pr9ciples &     
g5]al pr9ciples4--,exp]i5ce alone is    
incapable ( expla9+ univ]sal & necess>y 
pr9ciples1 &     also incapable (       
disp5s+ ) !m 9 ord] to arrive at !     k
 ( ! s5sible _w4--,reason z be+ t       
faculty     ( ours :i* discov]s to u ^! 
pr9ciples4--,! /udy (     univ]sal &    
necess>y pr9ciples introduces u to !    
highe/     p>ts ( philosophy4   ,to-day1
 z 9 all "t1 two great wants are felt by
 man4 ,! fir/1 ! mo/ imp]i\s1 is t (    
fix$1 immutable pr9ciples1 :i* dep5d ^u 
nei!r times nor places nor circum/ances1

 & on :i* ! m9d reposes ) an unb\nd$    
confid5ce4 ,9 all inve/igations1 z long 
z we h seiz$ only isolat$1 disconnect$  
facts1 z long z we h n ref]r$ !m to a   
g5]al law1 we possess ! mat]ials (      
sci5ce1 b !re is yet no sci5ce4 ,ev5    
physics comm5ce only :5 univ]sal tru?s  
appe>1 to :i* all ! facts ( ! same ord] 
t obs]vation discov]s to u 9 nature may 
be ref]r$4 ,plato has said1 t !re is no 
sci5ce ( ! transitory4  ,?is is our fir/
 ne$4 ,b !re is ano!r1 n less           
legitimate1 ! ne$ ( n be+ ! dupe (      
*im]ical pr9ciples1 ( b>r5 ab/ractions1 
( comb9ations m or less +5i\s1 b        
artificial1 ! ne$ ( re/+ ^u reality &   
life1 ! ne$ ( exp]i5ce4 ,! physical &   
natural sci5ces1 ^: regul> & rapid      
conque/s /rike & dazzle ! mo/ ignorant1 
owe _! progress to ! exp]im5tal me?od4  
,h5ce ! imm5se popul>ity ( ?is me?od1   
:i* is c>ri$ to su* an ext5t t "o w\ld n
 n[ condesc5d to l5d ! lea/ att5tion to 
a sci5ce ov] :i* ?is me?od %\ld n seem  
to preside4  ,to unite obs]vation &     

reason1 n to lose sight ( ! ideal (     
sci5ce to :i* man aspires1 & to se>* = x
 & f9d x by ! r\te ( exp]i5ce1--su* is !
 problem ( philosophy4  ,n[ we address  
ourselves to y\r recollections ( ! la/  
two ye>s3--h we n e/abli%$1 by ! sev]e/ 
exp]im5tal me?od1 by reflection appli$  
to ! /udy ( ! human m9d1 ) ! delib]ation
 & ! rigor :i* su* demon/rations        
exact1--h we n e/abli%$ t !re are 9 all 
m51 )\t di/9ction1 9 ! wise & !         
ignorant1 ideas1 notions1 beliefs1      
pr9ciples :i* ! mo/ det]m9$ skeptic _c 9
 ! slighte/ degree d5y1 by :i* he is    
unconsci\sly1 & 9 spite ( himself1      
gov]n$ bo? 9 8 words & actions1 & :i*1  
by a /rik+ contra/ ) our o!r kn[l$ges1  
are m>k$ ) ! at once m>vell\s &         
inconte/able "*1 t !y are enc\nt]$ 9 !  
mo/ common exp]i5ce1 & t1 at ! same "t1 
in/ead ( be+ circumscrib$ )9 ! limits ( 
?is exp]i5ce1 !y surpass & gov]n x1     
univ]sal 9 ! mid/ ( p>ticul> ph5om5a to 
:i* !y are appli$2 necess>y1 al?\gh m+l$
 ) ?+s cont+5t2 to our eyes inf9ite &   

absolute1 ev5 :ile appe>+ )9 u 9 t      
relative & f9ite be+ :i* we are8 ,x is n
 an unprem$itat$ p>adox t we pres5t to  
y2 we are only express+ "h ! result (   
num]\s lectures4#ah  ,x 0 n difficult = 
u to %[ t !re are univ]sal & necess>y   
pr9ciples at ! head ( all sci5ces4  ,x  
is v evid5t t !re are no ma!matics )\t  
axioms & def9itions1 t is to say1 )\t   
absolute pr9ciples4  ,:at w\ld logic    
become1 ^? ma!matics ( ?\ght1 if y %\ld 
take away f x a c]ta9 numb] ( pr9ciples1
 :i* are a little b>b>\s1 p]haps1 9 _!  
s*ola/ic =m1 b mu/ be univ]sal &        
necess>y 9 ord] to preside ov] all      
reason+ & e demon/ration8  ,are physics 
possible1 if e ph5om5on :i* beg9s to    
appe> does n suppose a cause & a law8   
,)\t ! pr9ciple ( f9al causes1 c\ld     
physiology proce$ a s+le /ep1 r5d] to   
itself an acc\nt ( a s+le organ1 or     
det]m9e a s+le function8  ,is n !       
pr9ciple on :i* ! :ole ( morals re/s1 ! 
pr9ciple :i* obligates man to good &    
lays ! f\ndation ( virtue1 ( ! same     

nature8 ,does x n ext5d to all moral    
be+s1 )\t di/9ction ( "t & place8 ,c y  
conceive ( a moral be+ :o does n        
recognize 9 ! dep? ( 8 consci5ce t      
reason ought to gov]n passion1 t x is   
necess>y to pres]ve sworn fai?1 &1 aga9/
 ! mo/ press+ int]e/1 to re/ore !       
treasure t has be5 confid$ to u8  ,& ^! 
are n m]e metaphysical prejudices &     
=mulas ( ! s*ools3 ,i appeal to ! mo/   
vulg> common s5se4  ,if ,i %\ld say to y
 t a murd] has j be5 committ$1 c\ld y n 
ask me :51 :]e1 by :om1 :]e=e8 ,t is to 
say1 y\r m9d is direct$ by ! univ]sal & 
necess>y pr9ciples ( "t1 ( space1 (     
cause1 & ev5 ( f9al cause4  ,if ,i %\ld 
say to y t love or ambition caus$ !     
murd]1 w\ld y n at ! same in/ant        
conceive a lov]1 an ambiti\s p]son8 ,?is
 means1 aga91 t !re is = y no act )\t an
 ag5t1 no quality & ph5om5on )\t a      
sub/ance1 )\t a real subject4  ,if ,i   
%\ld say to y t ! accus$ pret5ds t he is
 n ! same p]son :o conceiv$1 will$1 &   
execut$ ?is murd]1 & t1 at int]vals1 8  

p]sonality has m ?an once be5 *ang$1    
w\ld y n say he is a fool if he is      
s9c]e1 & t1 al?\gh ! acts & ! incid5ts h
 v>i$1 ! p]son & ! be+ h rema9$ ! same8 
,suppose t ! accus$ %\ld def5d himself  
on ?is gr\nd1 t ! murd] mu/ s]ve 8      
int]e/2 t1 moreov]1 ! p]son kill$ 0 s   
unhappy t life 0 a burd5 to him2 t !    
/ate loses no?+1 s9ce 9 place ( two     
wor?less citiz5s x acquires "o :o       
becomes useful to x2 t1 9 f9e1 mank9d w 
n p]i% by ! loss ( an individual1 c42 to
 all ^! reason+s w\ld y n oppose ! v    
simple response1 t ?is murd]1 useful    
p]haps to its au?or1 is n ! less unju/1 
& t1 !re=e1 "u no pretext 0 x p]mitt$8  
,! same good s5se :i* admits univ]sal & 
necess>y tru?s1 easily di/+ui%es !m f ^?
 t are n univ]sal & necess>y1 & are only
 g5]al1 t is to say1 are appli$ only to 
a great] or less numb] ( cases4  ,=     
example1 ! foll[+ is a v g5]al tru?3 !  
day succe$s ! night2 b is x a univ]sal &
 necess>y tru?8 ,does x ext5d to all    
l&s8 ,yes1 to all kn[n l&s4 ,b does x   

ext5d to all possible l&s8 ,no2 = x is  
possible to conceive ( l&s plung$ 9     
et]nal night1 ano!r sy/em ( ! _w be+    
giv54 ,! laws ( ! mat]ial _w are :at !y 
are2 !y are n necess>y4 ,_! ,au?or might
 h *os5 o!rs4 ,) ano!r sy/em ( ! _w "o  
conceives o!r physics1 b we _c conceive 
o!r ma!matics & o!r morals4 ,?us x is   
possible to conceive t day & night may n
 be 9 ! same relation to ea* z t 9 :i*  
we see !m2 !re=e ! tru? t day succe$s   
night is a v g5]al tru?1 p]haps ev5 a   
univ]sal tru?1 b by no means a necess>y 
tru?4  ,montesquieu has said t lib]ty is
 n a fruit ( w>m climates4 ,i ackn[l$ge1
 if x is desir$1 t heat en]vates ! _s1 &
 t w>m c\ntries ma9ta9 free gov]nm5ts ) 
difficulty2 b x does n foll[ t !re may  
be no possible exception to ?is         
pr9ciple3 moreov]1 !re h be5 exceptions2
 h5ce x is n an absolutely univ]sal     
pr9ciple1 mu* less is x a necess>y      
pr9ciple4 ,c\ld y say z mu* ( ! pr9ciple
 ( cause8 ,c\ld y 9 any way conceive1 9 
any "t & 9 any place1 a ph5om5on :i*    

beg9s to appe> )\t a cause1 physical or 
moral8  ,& 7 x possible to r$uce        
univ]sal & necess>y pr9ciples to g5]al  
pr9ciples1 9 ord] to employ & apply ^!  
pr9ciples ?us abas$1 & to f\nd ^u !m any
 reason+ :atev]1 x w\ld be necess>y to  
admit :at is call$ 9 logic ! pr9ciple ( 
contradiction1 viz41 t a ?+ _c at ! same
 "t be & n be1 9 ord] to ma9ta9 !       
integrity ( ea* "p ( ! reason+2 z well z
 ! pr9ciple ( suffici5t reason1 :i*     
alone e/abli%es _! connection & !       
legitimacy ( ! conclusion4 ,n[1 ^! two  
pr9ciples1 )\t :i* !re is no reason+1   
are !mselves univ]sal & necess>y        
pr9ciples2 s t ! circle is manife/4     
,ev5 7 we to de/roy 9 ?\ght all         
exi/5ces1 save t ( a s+le m9d1 we %\ld  
be compell$ to place 9 t m9d1 9 ord] t x
 might ex]cise itself at all--& ! m9d is
 su* only on ! condition t x            
?9ks--sev]al necess>y pr9ciples2 x w\ld 
be beyond ! p[] ( ?\ght to conceive x   
depriv$ ( ! pr9ciple ( contradiction & !
 pr9ciple ( suffici5t reason4  ,h[ _m   

times h we demon/rat$ ! vanity ( ! ef=ts
 ( ! empirical s*ool to di/urb ! exi/5ce
 or weak5 ! be>+ ( univ]sal & necess>y  
pr9ciples6 ,li/5 to ?is s*ool3 x w say  
to y t ! pr9ciple ( cause1 giv5 by u z  
univ]sal & necess>y1 is1 aft] all1 only 
a habit ( ! m9d1 :i*1 see+ 9 nature a   
fact succe$+ ano!r fact1 puts betwe5 ^! 
t connection :i* we h call$ ! relation (
 effect to cause4 ,?is explanation is   
no?+ b ! de/ruction1 n only ( ! pr9ciple
 ( causality1 b ev5 ( ! notion ( cause4 
,! s5ses %[ me two balls1 "o ( :i* beg9s
 to move1 ! o!r ( :i* moves aft] x4     
,suppose t ?is succession is r5ew$ &    
cont9ues2 x w be con/ancy add$ to       
succession2 x w by no means be !        
connection ( a causative p[] ) its      
effect2 = example1 t :i* consci\sness   
atte/s to u is ! lea/ ef=t ( volition4  
,?us a consequ5t empirici/1 l ,hume1#ai 
easily proves t no s5sible exp]i5ce     
legitimately gives ! idea ( cause4  ,:at
 we say ( ! notion ( cause we might say 
( all notions ( ! same k9d4 ,let u at   

lea/ in/ance ^? ( sub/ance & unity4  ,! 
s5ses p]ceive only qualities1 ph5om5a4  
,i t\* ! ext5sion1 ,i see ! color1 ,i am
 s5sible ( ! odor2 b d our s5ses atta9 !
 sub/ance t is ext5d$1 color$1 or       
odor\s8 ,on ?is po9t ,hume#bj indulges 9
 pleasantries4 ,he asks :i* "o ( our    
s5ses takes cognizance ( sub/ance4 ,:at1
 !n1 accord+ to him & 9 ! sy/em (       
empiricism1 is ! notion ( sub/ance8 ,an 
illusion l ! notion ( cause4  ,nei!r d !
 s5ses give u unity2 = unity is id5tity1
 is simplicity1 & ! s5ses %[ u e ?+ 9   
succession & composition4 ,! works ( art
 possess unity only because ,art1 t is  
to say1 ! m9d ( man puts x !re4 ,if we  
p]ceive unity 9 ! works ( nature1 x is n
 ! s5ses t discov] x to u4 ,! arrangem5t
 ( ! diff]5t p>ts ( an object may conta9
 unity1 b x is a unity ( organization1  
an ideal & moral unity :i* ! m9d alone  
conceives1 & :i* escapes ! s5ses4  ,if !
 s5ses are n able to expla9 simple      
notions1 mu* less /ill are !y able to   
expla9 ! pr9ciples 9 :i* ^! notions are 

met1 :i* are univ]sal & necess>y4 ,9    
fact1 ! s5ses cle>ly p]ceive su* & su*  
facts1 b x is impossible = !m to embrace
 :at is univ]sal2 exp]i5ce atte/s :at   
is1 x does n rea* :at _c b be4  ,we g   
f>!r4 ,n only is empiricism unable to   
expla9 univ]sal & necess>y pr9ciples2 b 
we ma9ta9 t1 )\t ^! pr9ciples1          
empiricism _c ev5 acc\nt = ! k ( !      
s5sible _w4  ,take away ! pr9ciple (    
causality1 & ! human m9d is condemn$    
nev] to g out ( itself & its own        
modifications4 ,all ! s5sations ( he>+1 
( smell1 ( ta/e1 ( t\*1 ( feel+ ev51 _c 
in=m y :at _! cause is1 nor :e!r !y h a 
cause4 ,b give to ! human m9d ! pr9ciple
 ( causality1 admit t e s5sation1 z well
 z e ph5om5on1 e *ange1 e ev5t1 has a   
cause1 z evid5tly we are n ! cause (    
c]ta9 s5sations1 & t especially ^!      
s5sations mu/ h a cause1 & we are       
naturally l$ to recognize = ^? s5sations
 causes diff]5t f ourselves1 & t is !   
fir/ notion ( an ext]ior _w4 ,! univ]sal
 & necess>y pr9ciple ( causality alone  

gives x & ju/ifies x4 ,o!r pr9ciples ( !
 same ord] increase & develop x4  ,z    
soon z y "k t !re are ext]nal objects1  
,i ask y :e!r y d n conceive !m 9 a     
place t conta9s !m4 ,9 ord] to d5y x1 x 
w\ld be necess>y to d5y t e body is 9 a 
place1 t is to say1 to reject a tru? (  
physics1 :i* is at ! same "t a pr9ciple 
( metaphysics1 z well z an axiom (      
common s5se4 ,b ! place t conta9s a body
 is (t5 itself a body1 :i* is only m    
capaci\s ?an ! fir/4 ,?is new body is 9 
its turn 9 a place4 ,is ?is new place   
also a body8 ,!n x is conta9$ 9 ano!r   
place m ext5d$1 & s on2 s t x is        
impossible = y to conceive a body :i* is
 n 9 a place2 & y arrive at ! conception
 ( a b\ndless & inf9ite place1 t conta9s
 all limit$ places & all possible       
bodies3 t b\ndless & inf9ite place is   
space4  ,& ,i tell y 9 ?is no?+ t is n v
 simple4 ,look4 ,d y d5y t ?is wat] is 9
 a vase8 ,d y d5y t ?is vase is 9 ?is   
hall8 ,d y d5y t ?is hall is 9 a l>g]   
place1 :i* is 9 its turn 9 ano!r l>g]   

/ill8 ,i c ?us c>ry y on to inf9ite     
space4 ,if y d5y a s+le "o ( ^!         
propositions1 y d5y all1 ! fir/ z well z
 ! la/2 & if y admit ! fir/1 y are =c$  
to admit ! la/4  ,x _c be suppos$ t     
s5sibility1 :i* is n able to give u ev5 
! idea ( body1 alone elevates u to !    
idea ( space4 ,! int]v5tion ( a sup]ior 
pr9ciple is1 !re=e1 "h necess>y4  ,z we 
believe t e body is conta9$ 9 a place1 s
 we believe t e ev5t happ5s 9 "t4 ,c y  
conceive an ev5t happ5+1 except 9 "s    
po9t ( duration8 ,?is duration is ext5d$
 & successively increas$ to y\r m9d's   
eye1 & y end by conceiv+ x unlimit$ l   
space4 ,d5y duration1 & y d5y all !     
sci5ces t measure x1 y de/roy all !     
natural beliefs ^u :i* human life       
reposes4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to add t  
s5sibility alone no m expla9s ! notion (
 "t ?an t ( space1 bo? ( :i* are        
nev]!less inh]5t 9 ! k ( ! ext]nal _w4  
,empiricism is1 !re=e1 convict$ ( be+   
unable to disp5se ) univ]sal & necess>y 
pr9ciples1 & ( be+ unable to expla9 !m4 

,let u pause3 ei!r all our prec$+ works 
h t]m9at$ 9 no?+ b *im]as1 or !y p]mit u
 to consid] z a po9t def9itely acquir$ =
 sci5ce1 t !re are 9 ! human m9d1 =     
:omsoev] int]rogates x s9c]ely1         
pr9ciples really /amp$ ) ! "* (         
univ]sality & necessity4  ,aft] hav+    
e/abli%$ & def5d$ ! exi/5ce ( univ]sal &
 necess>y pr9ciples1 we might inve/igate
 & pursue ?is k9d ( pr9ciples 9 all !   
dep>tm5ts ( human k1 & attempt an exact 
& rigor\s classification2 b illu/ri\s   
examples h taught u to fe> to compromise
 tru?s ( ! greate/ price by mix+ ) !m   
conjectures :i*1 9 giv+ brilliancy1     
p]haps1 to ! _s ( philosophy1 dim9i% its
 au?ority 9 ! eyes ( ! wise4 ,we1 also1 
foll[+ ! example ( ,kant1 attempt$ be=e 
y1 la/ ye>1#ba a classification1 ev5 a  
r$uction ( univ]sal & necess>y          
pr9ciples1 & ( all ! notions t are      
connect$ ) !m4 ,?is "w has n lo/ = u its
 importance1 b we w n reproduce x4 ,9 ! 
int]e/ ( ! great cause :i* we s]ve1 &   
tak+ ?\ght "h only to e/abli% ^u solid  

f\ndations ! doctr9e :i* is adapt$ to ! 
,fr5* g5ius 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 we w    
c>efully %un e ?+ t might seem p]sonal &
 haz>d\s2 &1 in/ead ( exam9+1           
criticis+1#bb & recon/itut+ !           
classification :i* ! philosophy (       
,ko5igsb]g has giv5 ( univ]sal &        
necess>y pr9ciples1 we pref]1 we f9d x  
mu* m useful1 to enable y to p5etrate   
deep] into ! nature ( ^! pr9ciples1 by  
%[+ y :at faculty ( ours x is t discov]s
 !m to u1 & to :i* !y are relat$ &      
correspond4  ,! peculi>ity ( ^!         
pr9ciples is1 t ea* "o ( u 9 reflection 
recognizes t he possesses !m1 b t he is 
n _! au?or4 ,we conceive !m & apply !m1 
we d n con/itute !m4 ,let u int]rogate  
our consci\sness4 ,d we ref] to         
ourselves1 = example1 ! def9itions (    
geometry1 z we d c]ta9 movem5ts ( :i* we
 feel ourselves to be ! cause8 ,if x is 
,i :o make ^! def9itions1 !y are !re=e  
m9e1 ,i c unmake !m1 modify !m1 *ange   
!m1 ev5 annihilate !m4 ,x is c]ta9 t ,i 
_c d x4 ,i am n1 !n1 ! au?or ( !m4 ,x   

has also be5 demon/rat$ t ! pr9ciples ( 
:i* we h spok5 _c be d]iv$ f s5sation1  
:i* is v>iable1 limit$1 incapable (     
produc+ & au?oriz+ any ?+ univ]sal &    
necess>y4 ,i arrive1 !n1 at ! foll[+    
consequ5ce1 also necess>y3--tru? is 9 me
 & n by me4 ,z s5sibility puts me 9     
relation ) ! physical _w1 s ano!r       
faculty puts me 9 communication ) !     
tru?s t dep5d ^u nei!r ! _w nor me1 & t 
faculty is reason4  ,!re are 9 m5 ?ree  
g5]al faculties :i* are always m+l$     
toge!r1 & are r>ely ex]cis$ except      
simultane\sly1 b :i* analysis divides 9 
ord] to /udy !m bett]1 )\t misconceiv+  
_! reciprocal play1 _! intimate         
connection1 _! indivisible unity4 ,!    
fir/ ( ^! faculties is activity1        
volunt>y & free activity1 9 :i* human   
p]sonality especially appe>s1 & )\t :i* 
! o!r faculties w\ld be z if !y 7 n1    
s9ce we %\ld n exi/ = ourselves4 ,let u 
exam9e ourselves at ! mom5t :5 a        
s5sation is produc$ 9 u2 we %all        
recognize t !re is p]ception only s f> z

 !re is "s degree ( att5tion1 & t       
p]ception ends at ! mom5t :5 our        
activity ends4 ,"o does n recollect :at 
he did 9 p]fect sleep or 9 a swoon2     
because !n he _h lo/ volunt>y activity1 
consequ5tly consci\sness2 consequ5tly1  
aga91 memory4 ,passion (t51 9 depriv+ u 
( lib]ty1 deprives u1 at ! same "t1 ( ! 
consci\sness ( our actions & (          
ourselves2 !n1 to use a j & common      
expression1 "o kn[s n :at he does4 ,x is
 by lib]ty t man is truly man1 t he     
possesses himself & gov]ns himself2 )\t 
x1 he falls aga9 "u ! yoke ( nature2 he 
is1 )\t x1 only a m admirable & m       
beautiful "p ( nature4 ,b :ile ,i am    
end[$ ) activity & lib]ty1 ,i am also   
passive 9 o!r respects2 ,i am subject to
 ! laws ( ! ext]nal _w2 ,i suff] & ,i   
enjoy )\t be+ myself ! au?or ( my joys &
 my suff]+s2 ,i feel ris+ )9 me ne$s1   
desires1 passions1 :i* ,i h n made1 :i* 
by turns fill my life ) happ9ess &      
mis]y4 ,f9ally1 besides volition &      
s5sibility1 man has ! faculty ( kn[+1   

has und]/&+1 intellig5ce1 reason1 ! "n  
matt]s little1 by means ( :i* he is     
elevat$ to tru?s ( diff]5t ord]s1 &     
among o!rs1 to univ]sal & necess>y      
tru?s1 :i* suppose 9 reason1 atta*$ to  
its ex]cise1 pr9ciples entirely di/9ct f
 ! impressions ( ! s5ses & ! resolutions
 ( ! w4#bc  ,volunt>y activity1         
s5sibility1 reason1 are all equally     
c]ta94 ,consci\sness v]ifies ! exi/5ce (
 necess>y pr9ciples1 :i* direct ! reason
 q z well z t ( s5sations & volitions4  
,i call e ?+ real t falls "u obs]vation4
 ,i suff]2 my suff]+ is real1 inasmu* z 
,i am consci\s ( x3 x is ! same )       
lib]ty3 x is ! same ) reason & !        
pr9ciples t gov]n x4 ,we c affirm1 !n1 t
 ! exi/5ce ( univ]sal & necess>y        
pr9ciples re/s ^u ! te/imony (          
obs]vation1 & ev5 ( ! mo/ imm$iate &    
sure/ obs]vation1 t ( consci\sness4  ,b 
consci\sness is only a witness1--x makes
 :at is appe>2 x creates no?+4 ,x is n  
because consci\sness ann\nces x to y1 t 
y h produc$ su* or su* a movem5t1 t y h 

exp]i5c$ su* or su* an impression4      
,nei!r is x because consci\sness says to
 u t reason is con/ra9$ to admit su* or 
su* a tru?1 t ?is tru? exi/s2 x is      
because x exi/s t x is impossible =     
reason n to admit x4 ,! tru?s t reason  
atta9s by ! aid ( univ]sal & necess>y   
pr9ciples ) :i* x is provid$1 are       
absolute tru?s2 reason does n create !m1
 x discov]s !m4 ,reason is n ! judge (  
its own pr9ciples1 & _c acc\nt = !m1 = x
 only judges by !m1 & !y are to x its   
own laws4 ,mu* less does consci\sness   
make ^! pr9ciples1 or ! tru?s :i* !y    
reveal to u2 = consci\sness has no o!r  
(fice1 no o!r p[] ?an 9 "s sort to s]ve 
z a mirror = reason4 ,absolute tru?s    
are1 !re=e1 indep5d5t ( exp]i5ce &      
consci\sness1 & at ! same "t1 !y are    
atte/$ by exp]i5ce & consci\sness4 ,on !
 "o h&1 ^! tru?s decl>e !mselves 9      
exp]i5ce2 on ! o!r1 no exp]i5ce expla9s 
!m4 ,behold h[ exp]i5ce & reason diff] &
 agree1 & h[1 by means ( exp]i5ce1 we   
come to f9d some?+ :i* surpasses x4  ,s 

! philosophy :i* we tea* re/s nei!r ^u  
hypo!tical pr9ciples1 nor ^u empirical  
pr9ciples4 ,x is obs]vation itself1 b   
obs]vation appli$ to ! high] portion (  
our k1 :i* furni%es u ) ! pr9ciples t we
 seek1 ) a po9t ( dep>ture at once solid
 & elevat$4#bd  ,?is po9t ( dep>ture we 
h f\nd1 & we d n ab&on x4 ,we rema9     
immovably atta*$ to x4 ,! /udy (        
univ]sal & necess>y pr9ciples1 consid]$ 
"u _! diff]5t aspects1 & 9 ! great      
problems :i* !y solve1 is almo/ ! :ole (
 philosophy2 x fills x1 measures x1     
divides x4 ,if psy*ology is ! regul>    
/udy ( ! human m9d & its laws1 x is     
evid5t t t ( univ]sal & necess>y        
pr9ciples :i* preside ov] ! ex]cise (   
reason1 is ! especial doma9 ( psy*ology1
 :i* 9 ,g]many is call$ rational        
psy*ology1 & is v diff]5t f empirical   
psy*ology4 ,s9ce logic is ! exam9ation (
 ! value & ! legitimacy ( our diff]5t   
means ( kn[+1 its mo/ important         
employm5t mu/ be to e/imate ! value & ! 
legitimacy ( ! pr9ciples :i* are !      

f\ndations ( our mo/ important          
cognitions4 ,9 f9e1 ! m$itation ( ^!    
same pr9ciples conducts u to !odicea1 & 
op5s to u ! sanctu>y ( philosophy1 if we
 w\ld asc5d to _! true s\rce1 to t      
sov]eign reason :i* is ! fir/ & la/     
explanation ( our own4  ,,footnotes3    
#ah #a/ ,s]ies ( our ,c\rse1 vol4 i4    
#ai #a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 i4  #bj ,ibid4  #ba
 #a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 i41 ,fragm5ts ( !     
,c\rse ( #ahag4  #bb ,see t criticism1  
#a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 v41 ,kant1 lecture #h4 
#bc ,?is classification ( ! human       
faculties1 save "s diff]5ces m nom9al   
?an real1 is n[ g5]ally adopt$1 & makes 
! f\ndation ( ! psy*ology ( our times4  
,see our writ+s1 among o!rs1 #a/ ,s]ies1
 ,c\rse ( #ahaf1 lectures #bc & #bd3    
,hi/oire du moi2 ibid41 ,des faits de   
,consci5ce2 vol4 iii41 lecture #c1      
,exam5 de la ,!orie des ,facultes dans  
,condillac2 vol4 iv41 lecture #ba1 des  
,facultes selon ,reid2 vol4 v41 lecture 
#h1 ,exam5 de la ,!orie de ,kant2 #c;d  
,s]ies1 vol iv41 ,preface de la ,premi]e

 ,edition1 ,exam5 des ,lecons de ,m4    
,l>omigui]e1 ,introduction aux ,oeuvres 
de ,m4 de ,biran1 etc4  #bd ,?is lecture
 on ! exi/5ce ( univ]sal & necess>y     
pr9ciples1 :i* 0 easily compreh5d$1 9   
#ahah1 by an auditory to :i* long       
discussions _h already be5 pres5t$ dur+ 
! two previ\s ye>s1 appe>+ "h )\t !     
support ( ^! prelim9>ies1 w n p]haps be 
entirely satisfactory to ! read]4 ,we   
besee* him to consult c>efully ! fir/   
volume ( ! #a/ ,s]ies ( our ,c\rse1 :i* 
conta9s an abridgm5t1 at lea/1 ( !      
num]\s lectures ( #ahaf & #ahag1 ( :i*  
?is is a resume2 especially to read 9 ! 
?ird1 f\r?1 & fif? volumes ( ! #a/      
,s]ies1 ! develop$ analyses1 9 :i*1 "u  
diff]5t =ms1 univ]sal & necess>y        
pr9ciples are demon/rat$ z f> z may be1 
& 9 ! ?ird volume ( ! #b;d ,s]ies !     
lectures devot$ to e/abli% aga9/ ,locke 
! same pr9ciples4     ,,lecture ,,ii4   
,,orig9 ,,( ,,univ]sal ,,& ,,necess>y   
,,pr9ciples4      ,resume ( ! prec$+    
,lecture4 ,a new "q1 t ( !     orig9 (  

univ]sal & necess>y pr9ciples4--,dang] (
 ?is     "q1 & its necessity4--,diff]5t 
=ms "u :i* tru?     pres5ts itself to u1
 & ! successive ord] ( ^! =ms3     !ory 
( spontaneity & reflection4--,!         
primitive =m (     pr9ciples2 ab/raction
 t dis5gages !m f t =m1 &     gives !m  
_! actual =m4--,exam9ation & refutation 
( !     !ory t attempts to expla9 !     
orig9 ( pr9ciples by an     induction   
f\nd$ on p>ticul> notions4   ,we may    
reg>d z a c]ta9 conque/ ( ! exp]im5tal  
me?od & ( true psy*ological analysis1 ! 
e/abli%m5t ( pr9ciples :i* at ! same "t 
t !y are giv5 to u by ! sure/ ( all     
exp]i5ces1 t ( consci\sness1 h a be>+   
sup]ior to exp]i5ce1 & op5 to u regions 
inaccessible to empiricism4 ,we h       
recogniz$ su* pr9ciples at ! head (     
ne>ly all ! sci5ces2 !n1 se>*+ among our
 diff]5t faculties = t :i* may h giv5 !m
 to u1 we h asc]ta9$ t x is impossible  
to ref] !m to any o!r faculty ?an to t  
g5]al faculty ( kn[+ :i* we call reason1
 v diff]5t f reason+1 to :i* x furni%es 

its laws4  ,t is ! po9t at :i* we h     
arriv$4 ,b is x possible to /op !re8  ,9
 human intellig5ce1 z x is n[ develop$1 
univ]sal & necess>y pr9ciples are (f]$  
to u "u =ms 9 "s sort consecrat$4 ,!    
pr9ciple ( causality1 = example1 is ?us 
en\nc$ to u3--,e ?+ t beg9s to appe>    
necess>ily has a cause4 ,o!r pr9ciples h
 ?is same axiomatic =m4 ,b h !y always  
_h x1 & did !y spr+ f ! human m9d ) ?is 
logical & s*ola/ic app>el1 z ,m9]va     
sprang all arm$ f ! head ( ,jupit]8 ,)  
:at *>act]s did !y %[ !mselves at fir/1 
be=e tak+ ^? 9 :i* !y are n[ clo!d1 &   
:i* c sc>cely be _! primitive *>act]s8  
,9 a ^w1 is x possible to f9d ! orig9 ( 
univ]sal & necess>y pr9ciples1 & ! r\te 
:i* !y mu/ h foll[$ 9 ord] to arrive at 
:at !y are to-day8 ,a new problem1 !    
importance ( :i* x is easy to feel2 =1  
if x c be resolv$1 :at light w be %$ ^u 
^! pr9ciples6 ,on ! o!r h&1 :at         
difficulties mu/ be enc\nt]$6 ,h[ c we  
p5etrate to ! s\rces ( human k1 :i* are 
conceal$1 l ^? ( ! ,nile8 ,is x n to be 

fe>$ t1 9 plung+ into ! obscure pa/1    
in/ead ( tru?1 "o may enc\nt] an        
hypo!sis2 t1 atta*+ himself1 !n1 to ?is 
hypo!sis1 he may transport x f ! pa/ to 
! pres5t1 & t1 be+ deceiv$ 9 reg>d to ! 
orig9 ( pr9ciples1 he may be l$ to      
misconceive _! actual & c]ta9 *>act]s1  
or1 at lea/1 to mutilate & enfeeble ^?  
:i* ! adopt$ orig9 w\ld n easily expla98
 ,?is dang] is s great1 ?is rock is s   
celebrat$ 9 %ipwrecks1 t be=e brav+ x "o
 %\ld "k h[ to take _m precautions aga9/
 ! s$uctions ( ! _s ( ! sy/em4 ,x is ev5
 conceiv$ t great philosoph]s1 :o 7     
timid 9 no place1 h suppress$ ! p]il\s  
problem4 ,9 fact1 by und]tak+ to grapple
 ) ?is problem at fir/1 ,locke &        
,condillac w5t f> a/ray1#be & x mu/ be  
said1 corrupt$ all philosophy at its    
s\rce4 ,! empirical s*ool1 :i* lauds !  
exp]im5tal me?od s mu*1 turns its back  
^u x1 ?us to speak1 :51 in/ead ( comm5c+
 by ! /udy ( ! actual *>act]s ( our     
cognitions1 z !y are atte/$ to u by     
consci\sness & reflection1 x plunges1   

)\t light & )\t guidance1 into ! pursuit
 ( _! orig94 ,reid#bf & ,kant#bg %[$    
!mselves mu* m obs]v+ by conf9+ !mselves
 )9 ! limits ( ! pres5t1 ?r\gh fe> (    
los+ !mselves 9 ! d>kness ( ! pa/4 ,bo? 
freely treat ( univ]sal & necess>y      
pr9ciples 9 ! =m :i* !y n[ h1 )\t ask+  
:at 0 _! primitive =m4 ,we mu* pref] ?is
 wise circumspection to ! adv5tur\s _s (
 ! empirical s*ool4 ,nev]!less1 :5 a    
problem is giv5 out1 s long z x is n    
solv$1 x tr\bles & besets ! human m9d4  
,philosophy ought n to %un x !n1 b its  
duty is to approa* x only ) extreme     
prud5ce & a sev]e me?od4  ,we _c        
recollect too well1 = ! sake ( o!rs &   
ourselves1 t ! primitive /ate ( human   
cognitions is remote f u2 we c sc>cely  
br+ x )9 ! rea* ( our vision & submit x 
to obs]vation2 ! actual /ate1 on !      
contr>y1 is always at our disposal3 x is
 suffici5t = u to ent] into ourselves1  
to fa?om consci\sness by reflection1 &  
make x give up :at x conta9s4 ,sett+ out
 f c]ta9 facts1 we %all n be liable to  

w&] subsequ5tly into hypo!ses1 or if1 9 
asc5d+ to ! primitive /ate1 we fall into
 any error1 we %all be able to p]ceive x
 & repair x by ! aid ( ! tru? :i* an    
imp>tial obs]vation %all h giv5 u2 e    
orig9 :i* %all n legitimately end at !  
po9t :]e we are1 is by t alone convict$ 
( be+ false1 & w des]ve to be           
disc>d$4#bh  ,y "k t a l>ge portion ( ! 
la/ ye> 0 sp5t ^u ?is "q4 ,we took1 "o  
by "o1 univ]sal & necess>y que/ions     
submitt$ to our exam9ation1 9 ord] to   
det]m9e ! orig9 ( ea* "o ( !m1 its      
primitive =m1 & ! diff]5t =ms :i* h     
successively clo!d x2 only aft] hav+    
op]at$ ?us ^u a suffici5tly l>ge numb] (
 pr9ciples1 did we come sl[ly to a g5]al
 conclusion1 & t conclusion we believe  
ourselves entitl$ to express "h briefly 
z ! solid result ( a mo/ circumspect    
analysis1 &1 at lea/1 a mo/ me?odical   
labor4 ,we mu/ ei!r r5ew be=e y ?is     
labor1 ?is analysis1 & !reby run ! risk 
( n be+ able to complete ! long c\rse t 
we h m>k$ out = ourselves1 or we mu/    

limit ourselves to rem9d+ y ( ! ess5tial
 traits ( ! !ory at :i* we arriv$4  ,?is
 !ory1 moreov]1 is 9 itself s simple1 t1
 )\t ! dress ( regul> demon/rations ^u  
:i* x is f\nd$1 its own evid5ce w       
suffici5tly e/abli% x4 ,x :olly re/s ^u 
! di/9ction betwe5 ! diff]5t =ms "u :i* 
tru? is pres5t$ to u4 ,x is1 9 its      
some:at arid g5]ality1 z foll[s3  #a/4  
,"o c p]ceive tru? 9 two diff]5t ways4  
,sometimes "o p]ceives x 9 su* or su* a 
p>ticul> circum/ance4 ,= example1 9     
pres5ce ( two apples or two /ones1 & (  
two o!r simil> objects plac$ by ! side (
 ! fir/1 ,i p]ceive ?is tru? ) absolute 
c]ta9ty1 viz41 t ^! two /ones & ^! two  
o!r /ones make f\r /ones1--:i* is 9 "s  
sort a concrete app]ception ( ! tru?1   
because ! tru? is giv5 to u 9 reg>d to  
real & det]m9ate objects4 ,sometimes ,i 
also affirm 9 a g5]al mann] t two & two 
equal f\r1 ab/ract+ e det]m9ate         
object1--:i* is ! ab/ract conception (  
tru?4  ,n[1 ( ^! two ways ( kn[+ tru?1  
:i* prec$es 9 ! *ronological ord] (     

human k8 ,is x n c]ta91 may x n be av[$ 
by e "o1 t ! p>ticul> prec$es ! g5]al1 t
 ! concrete prec$es ! ab/ract1 t we beg9
 by p]ceiv+ su* or su* a det]m9ate tru?1
 9 su* or su* a case1 at su* or su* a   
mom5t1 9 su* or su* a place1 be=e       
conceiv+ a g5]al tru?1 indep5d5tly ( e  
application & diff]5t circum/ances (    
place & "t8  #b;d4 ,we c p]ceive ! same 
tru? )\t ask+ ourselves ?is "q3 ,h we ! 
ability n to admit ?is tru?8 ,we p]ceive
 x1 !n1 by virtue alone ( ! intellig5ce 
:i* has be5 giv5 u1 & :i* ent]s         
spontane\sly into ex]cise2 or r1 we try 
to d\bt ! tru? :i* we p]ceive1 we       
attempt to d5y x2 we are n able to d x1 
& !n x is pres5t$ to reflection z       
sup]ior to all possible negation2 x     
appe>s to u no long] only z a tru?1 b z 
a necess>y tru?4  ,is x n also evid5t1 t
 we d n beg9 by reflection1 t reflection
 supposes an ant]ior op]ation1 & t ?is  
op]ation1 9 ord] n to be "o (           
reflection1 & n to suppose ano!r be=e x1
 mu/ be entirely spontane\s2 t ?us !    

spontane\s & in/9ctive intuition ( tru? 
prec$es its reflection & necess>y       
conception8  ,reflection is a progress m
 or less t>dy 9 ! individual & 9 ! race4
 ,x is1 p> excell5ce1 ! philosophic     
faculty2 x sometimes eng5d]s d\bt &     
skepticism1 sometimes convictions t1 =  
be+ rational1 are only ! m pr(\nd4 ,x   
con/ructs sy/ems1 x creates artificial  
logic1 & all ^? =mulas :i* we n[ use by 
! =ce ( habit z if !y 7 natural to u4 ,b
 spontane\s intuition is ! true logic ( 
nature4 ,x presides ov] ! acquisition ( 
ne>ly all our cognitions4 ,*ildr51 ! p1 
?ree-f\r?s ( ! human race nev] pass     
beyond x1 & re/ !re ) b\ndless security4
  ,! "q ( ! orig9 ( human cognitions is 
?us resolv$ = u 9 ! simple/ mann]3 x is 
en\gh = u to det]m9e t op]ation ( ! m9d 
:i* prec$es all o!rs1 )\t :i* no o!r    
w\ld take place1 & :i* is ! fir/        
ex]cise1 & ! fir/ =m ( our faculty (    
kn[+4#bi  ,s9ce e ?+ t be>s ! "* (      
reflection _c be primitive1 & supposes  
an ant]ior /ate1 x foll[s1 t ! pr9ciples

 :i* are ! subject ( our /udy c\ld n h  
possess$ at fir/ ! reflective & ab/ract 
"* ) :i* !y are n[ m>k$1 t !y mu/ h %[n 
!mselves at _! orig9 9 "s p>ticul>      
circum/ance1 "u a concrete & det]m9ate  
=m1 & t 9 "t !y 7 dis5gag$ f ?is =m1 9  
ord] to be inve/$ ) _! actual1 ab/ract1 
& univ]sal =m4 ,^! are ! two ends ( !   
*a92 x rema9s = u to seek h[ ! human m9d
 has be5 f "o to ! o!r1 f ! primitive   
/ate to ! actual /ate1 f ! concrete /ate
 to ! ab/ract /ate4  ,h[ c we g f !     
concrete to ! ab/ract8 ,evid5tly by t   
well-kn[n op]ation :i* is call$         
ab/raction4 ,?us f>1 no?+ is m simple4  
,b x is necess>y to discrim9ate betwe5  
two sorts ( ab/ractions4  ,9 pres5ce (  
sev]al p>ticul> objects1 y omit !       
*>act]s :i* di/+ui% !m1 & sep>ately     
consid] a "* :i* is common to !m all--y 
ab/ract ?is "*4 ,exam9e ! nature &      
conditions ( ?is ab/raction2 x proce$s  
by means ( comp>ison1 & x is f\nd$ on a 
c]ta9 numb] ( p>ticul> & diff]5t cases4 
,take an example3 exam9e h[ we =m !     

ab/ract & g5]al idea ( color4 ,place    
be=e my eyes = ! fir/ "t a :ite object4 
,c ,i "h at ! fir/ /ep imm$iately arrive
 at a g5]al idea ( color8 ,c ,i at fir/ 
place on "o side ! :it5ess1 & on ! o!r  
side ! color8 ,analyze :at passes )9 y4 
,y exp]i5ce a s5sation ( :it5ess4 ,omit 
! individuality ( ?is s5sation1 & y     
:olly de/roy x2 y _c neglect ! :it5ess1 
& pres]ve or ab/ract ! color2 =1 a s+le 
color be+ giv51 :i* is a :ite color1 if 
y take away t1 !re rema9s to y          
absolutely no?+ 9 reg>d to color4 ,let a
 blue object succe$ ?is :ite object1 !n 
a r$ object1 etc42 hav+ s5sations diff]+
 f ea* o!r1 y c neglect _! diff]5ces1 & 
only consid] :at !y h 9 common1 t !y are
 s5sations ( sight1 t is to say1 colors1
 & y ?us obta9 ! ab/ract & g5]al idea ( 
color4 ,take ano!r example3 if y _h nev]
 smell$ b a s+le fl[]1 ! violet1 =      
in/ance1 w\ld y h _h ! idea ( odor 9    
g5]al8 ,no4 ,! odor ( ! violet w\ld be =
 y ! only odor1 beyond :i* y w\ld n     
seek1 y c\ld n ev5 imag9e ano!r4 ,b if  

to ! odor ( ! violet is add$ t ( ! rose1
 & o!r diff]5t odors1 9 a great] or less
 numb]1 provid$ !re be sev]al1 & a      
comp>ison be possible1 & consequ5tly1 k 
( _! diff]5ces & _! resemblances1 !n y w
 be able to =m ! g5]al idea ( odor4 ,:at
 is !re 9 common betwe5 ! odor ( "o fl[]
 & t ( ano!r fl[]1 except t !y h be5    
smell$ by aid ( ! same organ1 & by !    
same p]son8 ,:at "h r5d]s g5]alization  
possible1 is ! unity ( ! s5ti5t subject 
:i* rememb]s hav+ be5 modifi$1 :ile     
rema9+ ! same1 by diff]5t s5sations2 n[1
 ?is subject c feel itself id5tical "u  
diff]5t modifications1 & x c conceive 9 
! qualities ( ! object felt "s          
resemblance & "s dissimil>ity1 only on !
 condition ( a c]ta9 numb] ( s5sations  
exp]i5c$1 ( odors smell$4 ,9 t case1 b 9
 t case alone1 !re c be comp>ison1      
ab/raction1 & g5]alization1 because !re 
are diff]5t & simil> elem5ts4  ,9 ord]  
to arrive at ! ab/ract =m ( univ]sal &  
necess>y pr9ciples1 we h no ne$ ( all   
?is labor4 ,let u take aga91 = example1 

! pr9ciple ( cause4 ,if y suppose six   
p>ticul> cases f :i* y h ab/ract$ ?is   
pr9ciple1 x w conta9 nei!r m nor less   
ideas ?an if y _h d$uc$ x f a s+le "o4  
,to be able to say t ! ev5t :i* ,i see  
mu/ h a cause1 x is n indisp5sable to h 
se5 sev]al ev5ts succe$ ea* o!r4 ,!     
pr9ciple :i* compels me to pron\nce ?is 
judgm5t1 is already complete 9 ! fir/ z 
9 ! la/ ev5t2 x c *ange 9 respect to its
 object1 x _c *ange 9 itself2 x nei!r   
increases nor decreases ) ! great] or   
less numb] ( its applications4 ,! only  
diff]5ce t x is subject to 9 reg>d to u1
 is1 t we apply x :e!r we rem>k x or n1 
:e!r we dis5gage x or n f its p>ticul>  
application4 ,! "q is n to elim9ate !   
p>ticul>ity ( ! ph5om5on1 :]e9 x appe>s 
to u1 :e!r x be ! fall ( a leaf or !    
murd] ( a man1 9 ord] imm$iately to     
conceive1 9 a g5]al & ab/ract mann]1 !  
necessity ( a cause = e ?+ t beg9s to   
exi/4 ,"h1 x is n because ,i h be5 !    
same1 or h be5 affect$ 9 ! same mann] 9 
sev]al diff]5t cases1 t ,i h come to ?is

 g5]al & ab/ract conception4 ,a leaf    
falls3 at ! same in/ant ,i ?9k1 ,i      
believe1 ,i decl>e t ?is fall+ ( ! leaf 
mu/ h a cause4 ,a man has be5 kill$3 at 
! same in/ant ,i believe1 ,i proclaim t 
?is dea? mu/ h a cause4 ,ea* "o ( ^!    
facts conta9s p>ticul> & v>iable        
circum/ances1 & some?+ univ]sal &       
necess>y1 to wit1 bo? ( !m _c b h a     
cause4 ,n[1 ,i am p]fectly able to      
dis5gage ! univ]sal f ! p>ticul>1 9     
reg>d to ! fir/ fact z well z 9 reg>d to
 ! second fact1 = ! univ]sal is 9 ! fir/
 q z well z 9 ! second4 ,9 fact1 if !   
pr9ciple ( causality is n univ]sal 9 !  
fir/ fact1 nei!r w x be 9 ! second1 nor 
9 ! ?ird1 nor 9 a ?\s&?2 = a ?\s& are n 
ne>] ?an "o to ! inf9ite1 to absolute   
univ]sality4 ,x is ! same1 & /ill m     
evid5tly1 ) necessity4 ,pay p>ticul>    
att5tion to ?is po9t3 if necessity is n 
9 ! fir/ fact1 x _c be 9 any2 =         
necessity _c be =m$ little by little1 & 
by successive increm5t4 ,if1 at ! fir/  
murd] t ,i see1 ,i d n exclaim t ?is    

murd] necess>ily has a cause1 at ! ?\s&?
 murd]1 al?\gh x %all h be5 prov$ t all 
! o!rs h _h causes1 ,i %all h ! "r to   
?9k t ?is new murd] has1 v probably1    
also its cause2 b ,i %all nev] h ! "r to
 decl>e t x necess>ily has a cause4 ,b  
:5 necessity & univ]sality are already 9
 a s+le case1 t case alone is suffici5t 
to entitle u to d$uce !m f x4#cj  ,we h 
e/abli%$ ! exi/5ce ( univ]sal & necess>y
 pr9ciples3 we h m>k$ _! orig92 we h %[n
 t !y appe> to u at fir/ f a p>ticul>   
fact1 & we h %[n by :at process1 by :at 
sort ( ab/raction ! m9d dis5gages !m f !
 det]m9ate & concrete =m :i* envelops   
!m1 b does n con/itute !m4 ,our task1   
!n1 seems accompli%$4 ,b x is n1--we mu/
 def5d ! solution :i* we h j pres5t$ to 
y ( ! problem ( ! orig9 ( pr9ciples     
aga9/ ! !ory ( an em95t metaphysician1  
^: j au?ority might s$uce y4 ,m4 ,ma9e  
de ,biran#ca is1 l u1 ! decl>$ adv]s>y (
 ! philosophy ( s5sation1--he admits    
univ]sal & necess>y pr9ciples2 b ! orig9
 :i* he assigns to !m1 puts !m1 accord+ 

to u1 9 p]il1 & w\ld lead back by a     
det\r to ! empirical s*ool4  ,univ]sal &
 necess>y pr9ciples1 if express$ 9      
propositions1 embrace sev]al t]ms4 ,=   
example1 9 ! pr9ciple t e ph5om5on      
supposes a cause2 & 9 ?is1 t e quality  
supposes a sub/ance1 by ! side ( ! ideas
 ( quality & ph5om5on are met ! ideas ( 
cause & sub/ance1 :i* seem ! f\ndation (
 ^! two pr9ciples4 ,m4 de ,biran pret5ds
 t ! two ideas are ant]ior to ! two     
pr9ciples :i* conta9 !m1 & t we at fir/ 
f9d ^! ideas 9 ourselves 9 !            
consci\sness t we are cause & sub/ance1 
& t1 ^! ideas once be+ ?us acquir$1     
induction transports !m out ( ourselves1
 makes u conceive causes & sub/ances    
:]ev] !re are ph5om5a & qualities1 & t !
 pr9ciples ( cause & sub/ance are ?us   
expla9$4 ,i beg p>don ( my illu/ri\s    
fri5d2 b x is impossible to admit 9 !   
lea/ degree ?is explanation4  ,!        
possession ( ! orig9 ( ! idea ( cause is
 by no means suffici5t = ! possession ( 
! orig9 ( ! pr9ciple ( causality2 = !   

idea & ! pr9ciple are ?+s ess5tially    
diff]5t4 ,y h e/abli%$1 ,i w\ld say to  
,m4 de ,biran1 t ! idea ( cause is f\nd 
9 t ( productive volition3--y w to      
produce c]ta9 effects1 & y produce !m2  
h5ce ! idea ( a cause1 ( a p>ticul>     
cause1 :i* is y\rself2 b betwe5 ?is fact
 & ! axiom t all ph5om5a :i* appe>      
necess>ily h a cause1 !re is a gulf4  ,y
 believe t y c bridge x ov] by          
induction4 ,! idea ( cause once f\nd 9  
ourselves1 induction applies x1 y say1  
:]ev] a new ph5om5on appe>s4 ,b let u n 
be deceiv$ by words1 & let u acc\nt =   
?is extraord9>y induction4 ,! foll[+    
dilemma ,i submit ) confid5ce to ! loyal
 dialectics ( ,m4 de ,biran3  ,is !     
induction ( :i* y speak univ]sal &      
necess>y8 ,!n x is a diff]5t "n = ! same
 ?+4 ,an induction :i* =ces u univ]sally
 & necess>ily to associate ! idea (     
cause ) t ( e ph5om5on t beg9s to appe> 
is precisely :at is call$ ! pr9ciple (  
causality4 ,on ! contr>y1 is ?is        
induction nei!r univ]sal nor necess>y8  

,x _c supply ! place ( ! pr9ciple (     
cause1 & ! explanation de/roys ! ?+ to  
be expla9$4  ,x foll[s f ?is t ! only   
true result ( ^! v>i\s psy*ological     
inve/igations is1 t ! idea ( p]sonal &  
free cause prec$es all ex]cise ( !      
pr9ciple ( causality1 b )\t expla9+ x4  
,! !ory :i* we combat is mu* m p[]less 9
 reg>d to o!r pr9ciples :i*1 f> f be+   
ex]cis$ be=e ! ideas f :i* x is pret5d$ 
to d$uce !m1 prec$e !m1 & ev5 give bir? 
to !m4 ,h[ h we acquir$ ! idea ( "t & t 
( space1 except by aid ( ! pr9ciple t ! 
bodies & ev5ts1 :i* we see are 9 "t & 9 
space8 ,we h se5#cb t1 )\t ?is pr9ciple1
 & conf9$ to ! data ( ! s5ses &         
consci\sness1 nei!r "t nor space w\ld   
exi/ = u4 ,:5ce h we d$uc$ ! idea ( !   
inf9ite1 except f ! pr9ciple t ! f9ite  
supposes ! inf9ite1 t all f9ite &       
defective ?+s1 :i* we p]ceive by our    
s5ses & feel )9 u1 are n suffici5t =    
!mselves1 & suppose some?+ inf9ite &    
p]fect8 ,omit ! pr9ciple1 & ! idea ( !  
inf9ite is de/roy$4 ,evid5tly ?is idea  

is d]iv$ f ! application ( ! pr9ciple1 &
 x is n ! pr9ciple :i* is d]iv$ f !     
idea4  ,let u dwell a little long] on ! 
pr9ciple ( sub/ances4 ,! "q is to "k    
:e!r ! idea ( subject1 ( sub/ance1      
prec$es or foll[s ! ex]cise ( !         
pr9ciple4 ,^u :at gr\nd c\ld ! idea (   
sub/ance be ant]ior to ! pr9ciple t e   
quality supposes a sub/ance8 ,^u ! gr\nd
 alone t sub/ance be ! object (         
self-obs]vation1 z cause is said to be4 
,:5 ,i produce a c]ta9 effect1 ,i may   
p]ceive myself 9 action & z cause2 9 t  
case1 !re w\ld be no ne$ ( ! int]v5tion 
( any pr9ciple2 b x is n1 x _c be1 !    
same1 :5 ! "q is conc]n+ ! sub/ance :i* 
is ! basis ( ! ph5om5a ( consci\sness1 (
 our qualities1 our acts1 our faculties 
ev52 = ?is sub/ance is n directly       
obs]vable2 x does n p]ceive itself1 x   
conceives itself4 ,consci\sness p]ceives
 s5sation1 volition1 ?\ght1 x does n    
p]ceive _! subject4 ,:o has ev] p]ceiv$ 
! s\l8 ,has x n be5 necess>y1 9 ord] to 
atta9 ?is invisible ess5ce1 to set out f

 a pr9ciple :i* has ! p[] to b9d !      
visible to ! invisible1 ph5om5on to be+1
 to wit1 ! pr9ciple ( sub/ances8#cc ,!  
idea ( sub/ance is necess>ily po/]ior to
 ! application ( ! pr9ciple1 &1         
consequ5tly1 x _c expla9 its =mation4   
,let u be well und]/ood4 ,we d n mean to
 say t we h 9 ! m9d ! pr9ciple (        
sub/ances be=e p]ceiv+ a ph5om5on1 q    
ready to apply ! pr9ciple to ! ph5om5on1
 :5 x %all pres5t itself2 we only say t 
x is impossible = u to p]ceive a        
ph5om5on )\t conceiv+ at ! same in/ant a
 sub/ance1 t is to say1 to ! p[] (      
p]ceiv+ a ph5om5on1 ei!r by ! s5ses or  
by consci\sness1 is jo9$ t ( conceiv+ ! 
sub/ance 9 :i* x inh]es4 ,! facts ?us   
take place3--! p]ception ( ph5om5a & !  
conception ( ! sub/ance :i* is _! basis 
are n successive1 !y are simultane\s4   
,be=e ?is imp>tial analysis fall at once
 two equal & opposite errors--"o1 t     
exp]i5ce1 ext]ior or int]ior1 c beget   
pr9ciples2 ! o!r1 t pr9ciples prec$e    
exp]i5ce4#cd  ,to sum up1 ! pret5sion ( 

expla9+ pr9ciples by ! ideas :i* !y     
conta91 is a *im]ical "o4 ,9 suppos+ t  
all ! ideas :i* ent] into pr9ciples are 
ant]ior to !m1 x is necess>y to %[ h[   
pr9ciples are d$uc$ f ^! ideas1--:i* is 
! fir/ & radical difficulty4 ,moreov]1 x
 is n true t 9 all cases ideas prec$e   
pr9ciples1 = (t5 pr9ciples prec$e       
ideas1--a second difficulty equally     
insurm\ntable4 ,b :e!r ideas are ant]ior
 or po/]ior to pr9ciples1 pr9ciples are 
always indep5d5t ( !m2 !y surpass !m by 
all ! sup]iority ( univ]sal & necess>y  
pr9ciples ov] simple ideas4#ce  ,we     
%\ld1 p]haps1 beg y\r p>don = ! au/]ity 
( ?is lecture4 ,b philosophical que/ions
 mu/ be treat$ philosophically3 x does n
 belong to u to *ange _! "*4 ,on o!r    
subjects1 ano!r language4 ,psy*ology has
 its own language1 ! entire m]it ( :i*  
is a sev]e precision1 z ! highe/ law (  
psy*ology itself is ! %unn+ ( e         
hypo!sis1 & an inviolable respect =     
facts4 ,?is law we h religi\sly foll[$4 
,:ile inve/igat+ ! orig9 ( univ]sal &   

necess>y pr9ciples1 we h especially     
endeavor$ n to de/roy ! ?+ to be expla9$
 by a sy/ematic explanation4 ,univ]sal &
 necess>y pr9ciples h come =? 9 _!      
integrity f our analysis4 ,we h giv5 !  
hi/ory ( ! diff]5t =ms :i* !y           
successively assume1 & we h %[n1 t 9 all
 ^! *anges !y rema9 ! same1 & ( ! same  
au?ority1 :e!r !y ent] spontane\sly &   
involunt>ily into ex]cise1 & apply      
!mselves to p>ticul> & det]m9ate        
objects1 or reflection turns !m back ^u 
!mselves 9 ord] to int]rogate !m 9 reg>d
 to _! nature1 or ab/raction makes !m   
appe> "u ! =m 9 :i* _! univ]sality & _! 
necessity are manife/4 ,_! c]ta9ty is ! 
same "u all _! =ms1 9 all _!            
applications2 x has nei!r g5]ation nor  
orig92 x is n born su* or su* a day1 & x
 does n increase ) "t1 = x kn[s no      
degrees4 ,we h n comm5c$ by believ+ a   
little 9 ! pr9ciple ( causality1 (      
sub/ances1 ( "t1 ( space1 ( ! inf9ite1  
etc41 !n believ+ a little m1 !n believ+ 
:olly4 ,^! pr9ciples h be51 f ! beg9n+1 

:at !y w be 9 ! end1 all-p[]ful1        
necess>y1 irresi/ible4 ,! conviction :i*
 !y give is always absolute1 only x is n
 always accompani$ by a cle>            
consci\sness4 ,leibnitz himself has no m
 confid5ce 9 ! pr9ciple ( causality1 &  
ev5 9 8 favorite pr9ciple ( suffici5t   
reason1 ?an ! mo/ ignorant ( m52 b !    
latt] applies ^! pr9ciples )\t reflect+ 
on _! p[]1 by :i* he is unconsci\sly    
gov]n$1 :il/ ,leibnitz is a/oni%$ at _! 
p[]1 /udies x1 & = all explanation1     
ref]s x to ! human m9d1 & to ! nature ( 
?+s1 t is to say1 he elevates1 to borr[ 
! f9e expression ( ,m4 ,roy]-,coll>d1#cf
 ! ignorance ( ! mass ( m5 to its highe/
 s\rce4 ,su* is1 ?ank heav51 ! only     
diff]5ce t sep>ates ! peasant f !       
philosoph]1 9 reg>d to ^? great         
pr9ciples ( e k9d :i*1 9 "o way or      
ano!r1 discov] to m5 ! same tru?s       
indisp5sable to _! physical1            
intellectual1 & moral exi/5ce1 &1 9 _!  
ephem]al life1 on ! circumscrib$ po9t ( 
space & "t :]e =tune has ?r[n !m1 reveal

 to !m some?+ ( ! univ]sal1 ! necess>y1 
& ! inf9ite4  ,,footnotes3  #be ,fir/   
,s]ies1 vol4 iv41 lectures #a1 #b1 & #c4
  #bf ,ibid41 vol4 iv41 etc4  #bg       
,ibid41 vol4 v41 lecture #h4  #bh ,we h 
ev]y:]e call$ to m9d1 ma9ta9$1 &        
confirm$ by ! errors ( ^? :o h d>$ to   
break x1 ?is rule ( true psy*ological   
analysis1 t1 be=e pass+ to ! "q ( !     
orig9 ( an idea1 a notion1 a belief1 any
 pr9ciple :atev]1 ! actual *>act]s ( ?is
 idea1 ?is notion1 ?is belief1 ?is      
pr9ciple1 mu/ h be5 a long "t /udi$ &   
well e/abli%$1 ) ! firm resolution ( n  
alt]+ !m "u any pretext :atev] 9 wi%+ to
 expla9 !m4 ,we believe t we h1 z       
,leibnitz says1 settl$ ?is po9t4 ,see   
#a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 i41 ,programme ( !     
,c\rse ( #ahag1 & ! ,op5+ ,disc\rse2    
vol4 iii41 lecture #a1 ,locke2 lecture  
#b1 ,condillac2 lecture #c1 almo/       
entire1 & lecture #h1 p4 #bfj2 #b;d     
,s]ies1 vol4 iii41 ,exam5 du ,sy/eme de 
,locke1 lecture #af1 p4 #gg-hg2 #c;d    
,s]ies1 vol4 iv41 ,exam9ation ( !       

,lectures ( ,m4 ,loremqui]e1 p4 #bfh4   
#bi ,?is !ory ( spontaneity & (         
reflection1 :i* 9 our view is ! key to s
 _m difficulties1 cont9ually recurs 9   
our works4 ,"o may see1 vol4 i4 ( ! #a/ 
,s]ies1 9 a programme ( ! ,c\rse (      
#ahag1 & 9 a fragm5t entitl$ ,de la     
,spontaneite et de la ,reflexion2 vol4  
iv4 ( ! same ,s]ies1 ,exam9ation (      
,reid's ,philosophy1 passim2 vol4 v41   
,exam9ation ( ,kant's ,sy/em1 lecture   
#h2 #b;d ,s]ies1 vol4 i41 passim2 vol4  
iii41 ,lectures on ,judgm5t2 #c;d       
,s]ies1 ,fragm5ts ,philosophiques1 vol4 
iv41 preface ( ! fir/ edition1 p4 #cg1  
etc42 x w be f\nd 9 diff]5t lectures (  
?is volume1 among o!rs1 9 ! ?ird1 ,on ! 
value ( ,univ]sal & ,necess>y           
,pr9ciples2 9 ! fif?1 ,on ,my/icism2 & 9
 ! elev5?1 ,prim>y ,data ( ,common      
,s5se4  #cj ,on imm$iate ab/raction &   
comp>ative ab/raction1 see #a/ ,s]ies1  
vol4 i41 ,programme ( ! ,c\rse ( #ahag1 
& ev]y:]e 9 our o!r ,c\rses4  #ca ,on   
,m4 de ,biran1 on 8 m]its & defects1 see

 our ,introduction at ! head ( 8 ,works4
  #cb ,see lecture #a4  #cc ,see vol4 i4
 ( ! #a/ ,s]ies1 c\rse ( #ahaf1 & #b;d  
,s]ies1 vol4 iii41 lecture #ah1 p4      
#adj-adf4  #cd ,we h develop$ ?is       
analysis1 & elucidat$ ^! results 9 !    
#ag? lecture ( vol4 ii4 ( ! #b;d ,s]ies4
  #ce ,we h already twice recurr$1 & m 9
 detail1 to ! impossibility (           
legitimately expla9+ univ]sal & necess>y
 pr9ciples by any association or        
induction :atev]1 f\nd$ ^u any p>ticul> 
idea1 #b;d ,s]ies1 vol4 iii41 ,exam5 du 
,sy/eme de ,locke1 lecture #ai1 p4 #aff2
 & #c;d ,s]ies1 vol4 iv41 ,introduction 
aux ,oeuvres de ,m4 de ,biran1 p4 #cai4 
,we h also made kn[n ! op9ion ( ,reid1  
#a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 iv41 lecture #bb1 p4   
#dhi4 ,f9ally1 ! pr(\nde/ ( ,reid's     
disciples1 ! mo/ enlight5$ judge t we "k
 ( ?+s philosophical1 ,sir ,w4          
,hamilton1 pr(essor ( logic 9 !         
,univ]sity ( ,ed9burgh1 has n hesitat$  
to adopt ! conclusions ( our discussion1
 to :i* he is pleas$ to ref] 8          

read]s3--,discussions on ,philosophy &  
,lit]ature1 etc41 by ,sir ,william      
,hamilton1 ,london1 #aheb4 ,app5dix ,i1 
p4 #ehh4  #cf ,oeuvres de ,reid1 vol4   
iv41 p4 #dce4 ,:5 we revolt aga9/       
primitive facts1 we equally misconceive 
! con/itution ( our intellig5ce & ! end 
( philosophy4 ,is expla9+ a fact any ?+ 
else ?an d]iv+ x f ano!r fact1 & if ?is 
k9d ( explanation is to t]m9ate at all1 
does x n suppose facts inexplicable8 ,! 
sci5ce ( ! human m9d w h be5 c>ri$ to ! 
highe/ degree ( p]fection x c atta91 x w
 be complete1 :5 x %all "k h[ to d]ive  
ignorance f ! mo/ elevat$ s\rce4        
,,lecture ,,iii4  ,,on ,,! ,,value ,,(  
,,univ]sal ,,& ,,necess>y ,,pr9ciples4  
,exam9ation & refutation ( ,kant's      
skepticism4--,recurr5ce to     ! !ory ( 
spontaneity & reflection4   ,aft] hav+  
recogniz$ ! exi/5ce ( univ]sal &        
necess>y pr9ciples1 _! actual *>act]s1 &
 _! primitive *>act]s1 we h to exam9e _!
 value1 & ! legitimacy ( ! conclusions  
:i* may be drawn f !m1--we pass f       

psy*ology to logic4  ,we h def5d$ aga9/ 
,locke & 8 s*ool ! necessity &          
univ]sality ( c]ta9 pr9ciples4 ,we n[   
come to ,kant1 :o recognizes ) u ^!     
pr9ciples1 b conf9es _! p[] )9 ! limits 
( ! subject t conceives !m1 &1 s f> z   
subjective1 decl>es !m to be )\t        
legitimate application to any object1 t 
is to say1 )\t objectivity1 to use !    
language ( ! philosoph] ( ,ko5igsb]g1   
:i*1 "r or wrong1 beg9s to pass into !  
philosophic language ( ,europe4  ,let u 
compreh5d well ! import ( ?is new       
discussion4 ,! pr9ciples t gov]n our    
judgm5ts1 t preside ov] mo/ sci5ces1 t  
rule our actions1--h !y 9 !mselves an   
absolute tru?1 or are !y only regulat+  
laws ( our ?\ght8 ,! "q is1 to "k :e!r x
 is true 9 itself1 t e ph5om5on has a   
cause1 & e quality a subject1 :e!r e ?+ 
ext5d$ is really 9 space1 & e succession
 9 "t1 etc4 ,if x is n absolutely true t
 e quality has its subject ( inh]5ce1 x 
is n1 !n1 c]ta91 t we h a s\l1 a real   
sub/ance ( all ! qualities :i*          

consci\sness atte/s4 ,if ! pr9ciple (   
causality is only a law ( our m9d1 !    
ext]nal _w1 :i* ?is pr9ciple discov]s to
 u1 loses its reality1 x is only a      
succession ( ph5om5a1 )\t any effective 
action ov] ea* o!r1 z ,hume w\ld h x1 & 
ev5 ! impressions ( our s5ses are       
de/itute ( causes4 ,matt] exi/s no m ?an
 ! s\l4 ,no?+ exi/s2 e ?+ is r$uc$ to   
mobile appe>ances1 giv5 up to a p]petual
 becom+1 :i* aga9 is accompli%$ we "k n 
:]e1 s9ce 9 reality !re is nei!r "t nor 
space4 ,s9ce ! pr9ciple ( suffici5t     
reason only s]ves to put 9 motion human 
curiosity1 once 9 possession ( ! fatal  
secret t x c atta9 no?+ real1 ?is       
curiosity w\ld be v good to we>y itself 
9 se>*+ = reasons :i* inevitably escape 
x1 & 9 discov]+ relations :i* correspond
 only to ! wants ( our m9d1 & d n 9 !   
lea/ correspond to ! nature ( ?+s4 ,9   
f9e1 if ! pr9ciple ( causality1 (       
sub/ances1 ( f9al causes1 ( suffici5t   
reason1 are only our modes ( conception1
 ,god1 :om all ^! pr9ciples reveal to u1

 w no m be any ?+ b ! la/ ( *im]as1 :i* 
vani%es ) all ! o!rs 9 ! brea? ( !      
,critique4  ,kant has e/abli%$1 z well z
 ,reid & ourself1 ! exi/5ce ( univ]sal &
 necess>y pr9ciples2 b an involunt>y    
disciple ( 8 c5tury1 an unconsci\s      
s]vant ( ! empirical s*ool1 to :i* he   
places himself 9 ! attitude ( an        
adv]s>y1 he makes to x ! imm5se         
concession t ^! pr9ciples are appli$    
only to ! impressions ( s5sibility1 t _!
 "p is to put ^! impressions 9 a c]ta9  
ord]1 b t beyond ^! impressions1 beyond 
exp]i5ce1 _! p[] expires4 ,?is          
concession has ru9$ ! :ole ent]prise ( !
 ,g]man philosoph]4  ,?is ent]prise 0 at
 once hone/ & great4 ,kant1 griev$ at ! 
skepticism ( 8 times1 propos$ to arre/ x
 by fairly meet+ x4 ,he ?\ght to dis>m  
,hume by conc$+ to him t our highe/     
conceptions d n ext5d !mselves beyond ! 
inclosure ( ! human m9d2 & at ! same "t1
 he suppos$ t he _h suffici5tly v9dicat$
 ! human m9d by re/or+ to x ! univ]sal &
 necess>y pr9ciples :i* direct x4 ,b1   

accord+ to ! /rong expression ( ,m4     
,roy]-,coll>d1 "o does n enc\nt]        
skepticism1--z soon z he has p5etrat$   
into ! human und]/&+ he has completely  
tak5 x by /orm4 ,a sev]e circumspection 
is "o ?+1 skepticism is ano!r4 ,d\bt is 
n only p]mitt$1 x is comm&$ by reason   
itself 9 ! employm5t & legitimate       
applications ( our diff]5t faculties2 b 
:5 x is appli$ to ! legitimacy itself ( 
our faculties1 x no long] elucidates    
reason1 x ov]:elms x4 ,9 fact1 ) :at    
w\ld y h reason def5d h]self1 :5 %e has 
call$ h]self 9 "q8 ,kant himself1 !n1   
ov]turn$ ! dogmatism :i* he propos$ at  
once to re/ra9 & save1 at lea/ 9 morals1
 & he put ,g]man philosophy ^u a r\te1  
at ! end ( :i* 0 an abyss4 ,9 va9 has   
?is great man--= 8 int5tions & 8 "*1 )\t
 speak+ ( 8 g5ius1 m]it = him ?is       
"n--und]tak5 ) ,hume an +5i\s & le>n$   
controv]sy2 he has be5 vanqui%$ 9 ?is   
controv]sy1 & ,hume rema9s ma/] ( !     
field ( battle4  ,:at matt]s x1 9 fact1 
:e!r !re may or may n be 9 ! human m9d  

univ]sal & necess>y pr9ciples1 if ^!    
pr9ciples only s]ve to classify our     
s5sations1 & to make u asc5d1 /ep by    
/ep1 to ideas t are mo/ sublime1 b h =  
ourselves no reality8 ,! human m9d is1  
!n1 z ,kant himself well express$ x1 l a
 bank] :o %\ld take bills rang$ 9 ord]  
on 8 desk = real values2--he possesses  
no?+ b pap]s4 ,we h ?us return$1 !n1 to 
t conceptualism ( ! middle age1 :i*1    
conc5trat+ tru? )9 ! human intellig5ce1 
makes ! nature ( ?+s a phantom (        
intellig5ce project+ itself ev]y:]e out 
( itself1 at once triumphant & impot5t1 
s9ce x produces e ?+1 & produces only   
*im]as4#cg   ,! reproa* :i* a s\nd      
philosophy w cont5t itself ) mak+ to    
,kant1 is1 t 8 sy/em is n 9 accordance )
 facts4 ,philosophy c & mu/ sep>ate     
itself f ! cr[d = ! explanation ( facts2
 b1 x _c be too (t5 repeat$1 x mu/ n 9 !
 explanation de/roy :at x pret5ds to    
expla92 o!rwise x does n expla91 x      
imag9es4 ,"h1 ! important fact :i* x is 
! "q to expla9 is ! belief ( ! human    

m9d1 & ! sy/em ( ,kant annihilates x4   
,9 fact1 :5 we are speak+ ( ! tru? (    
univ]sal & necess>y pr9ciples1 we d n   
believe !y are true only = u3--we       
believe !m to be true 9 !mselves1 & /ill
 true1 7 !re no m9ds ( ours to conceive 
!m4 ,we reg>d !m z indep5d5t ( u2 !y    
seem to u to impose !mselves ^u our     
intellig5ce by ! =ce ( ! tru? t is 9 !m4
 ,s1 9 ord] to express fai?fully :at    
passes )9 u1 x w\ld be necess>y to      
rev]se ! proposition ( ,kant1 & in/ead (
 say+ ) him1 t ^! pr9ciples are !       
necess>y laws ( our m9d1 !re=e !y h no  
absolute value out ( m9d2 we %\ld mu* r 
say1 t ^! pr9ciples h an absolute value 
9 !mselves1 !re=e we _c b believe !m4   
,& ev5 ?is necessity ( belief ) :i* !   
new skepticism arms itself1 is n !      
indisp5sable condition ( ! application (
 pr9ciples4 ,we h e/abli%$#ch t !       
necessity ( believ+ supposes reflection1
 exam9ation1 an ef=t to d5y & ! want (  
p[] to d x2 b be=e all reflection1      
intellig5ce spontane\sly seizes ! tru?1 

&1 9 ! spontane\s app]ception1 is n !   
s5tim5t ( necessity1 nor consequ5tly t  
"* ( subjectivity ( :i* ! ,g]man s*ool  
speaks s mu*4  ,let u1 !n1 "h recur to t
 spontane\s intuition ( tru?1 :i* ,kant 
knew n1 9 ! circle :]e 8 pr(\ndly       
reflective & some:at s*ola/ic habits    
held him captive4  ,is x true t !re is  
no judgm5t1 ev5 affirmative 9 =m1 :i* is
 n mix$ ) negation8  ,x seems inde$ t e 
affirmative judgm5t is at ! same "t     
negative2 9 fact1 to affirm t a ?+      
exi/s1 is to d5y its non-exi/5ce2 z e   
negative judgm5t is at ! same "t        
affirmative2 = to d5y ! exi/5ce ( a ?+1 
is to affirm its non-exi/5ce4 ,if x is  
s1 !n e judgm5t1 :atev] may be its =m1  
affirmative or negative1 s9ce ^! two =ms
 come back to ea* o!r1 supposes a       
pre-e/abli%$ d\bt 9 reg>d to ! exi/5ce (
 ! ?+ 9 "q1 supposes "s ex]cise (       
reflection1 9 ! c\rse ( :i* ! m9d feels 
itself con/ra9$ to be> su* or su* a     
judgm5t1 s t at ?is po9t ( view !       
f\ndation ( ! judgm5t seems to be 9 its 

necessity2 & !n recurs ! celebrat$      
objection3--if y judge ?us only because 
x is impossible = y n to d x1 y h = a   
gu>anty ( ! tru? no?+ b y\rself & y\r   
own ways ( conceiv+2 x is ! human m9d t 
transports its laws out ( itself2 x is !
 subject t makes ! object out ( its own 
image1 )\t ev] go+ beyond ! inclosure ( 
subjectivity4  ,we respond1 go+ directly
 to ! root ( ! difficulty3--x is n true 
t all our judgm5ts are negative4 ,we    
admit t 9 ! reflective /ate e           
affirmative judgm5t supposes a negative 
judgm5t1 & reciprocally4 ,b is reason   
ex]cis$ only on ! condition (           
reflection8 ,is !re n a primitive       
affirmation :i* implies no negation8 ,z 
we (t5 act )\t delib]at+ on our action1 
)\t prem$itat+ x1 & z we manife/ 9 ?is  
case an activity t is free /ill1 b free 
) a lib]ty t is n reflective2 s reason  
(t5 p]ceives ! tru? )\t trav]s+ d\bt or 
error4 ,reflection is a return to       
consci\sness1 or to an op]ation :olly   
diff]5t f x4 ,we d n f9d1 !n1 9 any     

primitive fact1 t e judgm5t :i* conta9s 
x presupposes ano!r 9 :i* x is n4 ,we   
?us arrive at a judgm5t free f all      
reflection1 to an affirmation )\t any   
mixture ( negation1 to an imm$iate      
intuition1 ! legitimate *ild ( ! natural
 en]gy ( ?\ght1 l ! inspiration ( !     
poet1 ! in/9ct ( ! h]o1 ! en?usiasm ( ! 
prophet4 ,su* is ! fir/ act ( ! faculty 
( kn[+4 ,if "o contradicts ?is primitive
 affirmation1 ! faculty ( kn[+ falls    
back up ^u itself1 exam9es itself1      
attempts to call 9 d\bt ! tru? x has    
p]ceiv$2 x _c2 x affirms anew :at x _h  
affirm$ at fir/2 x adh]es to ! tru?     
already recogniz$1 b ) a new s5tim5t1 ! 
s5tim5t t x is n 9 its p[] to dive/     
itself ( ! evid5ce ( ?is same tru?2 !n1 
b only !n1 appe>s t "* ( necessity &    
subjectivity t "s w\ld turn aga9/ !     
tru?1 z ?\gh tru? c\ld lose its own     
value1 :ile p5etrat+ deep] into ! m9d & 
!re triumph+ ov] d\bt2 z ?\gh reflective
 evid5ce ( x 7 ! less evid5ce2 z ?\gh1  
moreov]1 ! necess>y conception ( x 7 !  

only =m1 ! prim>y =m ( ! p]ception (    
tru?4 ,! skepticism ( ,kant1 to :i* good
 s5se s easily does ju/ice1 is driv5 to 
! extreme & =c$ )9 its intr5*m5t by !   
di/9ction betwe5 spontane\s reason &    
reflective reason4 ,reflection is !     
!atre ( ! combats :i* reason engages 9 )
 itself1 ) d\bt1 sophism1 & error4 ,b   
above reflection is a sph]e ( light &   
peace1 :]e reason p]ceives tru? )\t     
return+ on itself1 = ! sole reason t    
tru? is tru?1 & because ,god has made ! 
reason to p]ceive x1 z he has made ! eye
 to see & ! e> to he>4  ,analyze1 9     
fact1 ) imp>tiality1 ! fact ( spontane\s
 app]ception1 & y w be sure t x has no?+
 subjective 9 x except :at x is         
impossible x %\ld n h1 to wit1 ! me :i* 
is m+l$ ) ! fact )\t con/itut+ x4 ,! me 
inevitably ent]s into all k1 s9ce x is !
 subject ( x4 ,reason directly p]ceives 
tru?2 b x is 9 "s sort augm5t$1 9       
consci\sness1 & !n we h k4 ,consci\sness
 is !re its witness1 & n its judge2 its 
only judge is reason1 a faculty         

subjective & objective toge!r1 accord+  
to ! language ( ,g]many1 :i* imm$iately 
atta9s absolute tru?1 almo/ )\t p]sonal 
int]v5tion on our "p1 al?\gh x might n  
ent] into ex]cise if p]sonality did n   
prec$e or 7 n add$ to x4#ci  ,spontane\s
 app]ception con/itutes natural logic4  
,reflective conception is ! f\ndation ( 
logic prop]ly s call$4 ,"o is bas$ ^u   
itself1 v]um index sui2 ! o!r is bas$ ^u
 ! impossibility ( ! reason1 9 spite (  
all its ef=ts1 n betak+ itself to tru? &
 believ+ 9 x4 ,! =m ( ! fir/ is an      
affirmation accompani$ ) an absolute    
security1 & )\t ! lea/ suspicion ( a    
possible negation2 ! =m ( ! second is   
reflective affirmation1 t is to say1 !  
impossibility ( d5y+ & ! necessity (    
affirm+4 ,! idea ( negation gov]ns      
ord9>y logic1 ^: affirmations are only !
 labori\s product ( two negations4      
,natural logic proce$s by affirmations  
/amp$ ) a simple fai?1 :i* in/9ct alone 
produces & su/a9s4  ,n[1 w ,kant reply t
 ?is reason1 :i* is mu* pur] ?an t :i*  

he has kn[n & describ$1 :i* is :olly    
pure1 :i* is conceiv$ z some?+ dis5gag$ 
f reflection1 f volition1 f e ?+ t      
con/itutes p]sonality1 is nev]!less     
p]sonal1 s9ce we h a consci\sness ( x1 &
 s9ce x is ?us m>k$ ) subjectivity8 ,to 
?is argum5t we h no?+ to respond1 except
 t x is de/roy$ 9 ! excess ( its        
pret5sion4 ,9 fact1 if1 t reason may n  
be subjective1 we mu/ 9 no way          
p>ticipate 9 x1 & mu/ n h ev5 a         
consci\sness ( its ex]cise1 !n !re is no
 means ( ev] escap+ ?is reproa* (       
subjectivity1 & ! ideal ( objectivity   
:i* ,kant pursu$ is a *im]ical1         
extravagant ideal1 above1 or r b5ea?1   
all true intellig5ce1 all reason wor?y !
 "n2 = x is dem&+ t ?is intellig5ce &   
?is reason %\ld cease to h consci\sness 
( !mselves1 :il/ ?is is precisely :at   
*>act]izes intellig5ce & reason4#dj     
,does ,kant mean1 !n1 t reason1 9 ord]  
to possess a really objective p[]1 _c   
make its appe>ance 9 a p>ticul> subject1
 t x mu/ be1 = example1 :olly outside ( 

! subject :i* ,i am8 ,!n x is no?+ = me2
 a reason t is n m9e1 t1 "u ! pretext ( 
be+ univ]sal1 inf9ite1 & absolute 9 its 
ess5ce1 does n fall "u ! p]ception ( my 
consci\sness1 is = me z if x 7 n4 ,to   
wi% t reason %\ld :olly cease to be     
subjective1 is to dem& some?+ impossible
 to ,god himself4 ,no1 ,god himself c   
und]/& no?+ except 9 kn[+ x1 ) 8        
intellig5ce & ) ! consci\sness ( ?is    
intellig5ce4 ,!re is subjectivity1 !n1 9
 div9e k itself2 if ?is subjectivity    
involves skepticism1 ,god is also       
condemn$ to skepticism1 & he c no m     
escape f x ?an m52 or inde$1 if ?is is  
too ridicul\s1 if ! k :i* ,god has ( !  
ex]cise ( 8 own intellig5ce does n      
involve skepticism = him1 nei!r d ! k   
:i* we h ( ! ex]cise ( our intellig5ce1 
& ! subjectivity atta*$ to ?is k1       
involve x = u4  ,9 tru?1 :5 we see !    
fa!r ( ,g]man philosophy ?us los+       
himself 9 ! labyr9? ( ! problem ( !     
subjectivity & ! objectivity ( fir/     
pr9ciples1 we are tempt$ to p>don ,reid 

= hav+ disda9$ ?is problem1 = limit+    
himself to repeat+ t ! absolute tru? (  
univ]sal & necess>y pr9ciples re/s ^u ! 
v]acity ( our faculties1 & t ^u !       
v]acity ( our faculties we are compell$ 
to accept _! te/imony4 ,to expla91 says 
he1 :y we are conv9c$ by our s5ses1 by  
consci\sness1 by our faculties1 is an   
impossible ?+2 we say--?is is s1 x _c be
 o!rwise1 & we c g no f>!r4 ,is n ?is ! 
expression ( an irresi/ible belief1 ( a 
belief :i* is ! voice ( nature1 & aga9/ 
:i* we cont5d 9 va98 ,d we wi% to       
p5etrate f>!r1 to dem& ( our faculties1 
"o by "o1 :at are _! titles to our      
confid5ce1 & to refuse !m confid5ce     
until !y h produc$ _! claims8 ,!n1 ,i   
fe> t ?is extreme wisdom w\ld conduct u 
to folly1 & t1 n hav+ be5 will+ to      
submit to ! common lot ( humanity1 we   
%\ld be depriv$ ( ! light ( common      
s5se4#da  ,let u support ourselves also 
by ! foll[+ admirable passage ( him :o  
is1 = s _m reasons1 ! v5]at$ ma/] ( !   
,fr5* philosophy ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4    

,intellectual life1 says ,m4            
,roy]-,coll>d1 is an un9t]rupt$         
succession1 n only ( ideas1 b ( explicit
 or implicit beliefs4 ,! beliefs ( ! m9d
 are ! p[]s ( ! s\l & ! motives ( ! w4  
,t :i* det]m9es u to belief we call     
evid5ce4 ,reason r5d]s no acc\nt (      
evid5ce2 to condemn reason to acc\nt =  
evid5ce1 is to annihilate x1 = x ne$s   
itself an evid5ce :i* is fitt$ = x4 ,^! 
are fundam5tal laws ( belief :i*        
con/itute intellig5ce1 & z !y fl[ f !   
same s\rce !y h ! same au?ority2 !y     
judge by ! same "r2 !re is no appeal f !
 tribunal ( "o to t ( ano!r4 ,he :o     
revolts aga9/ a s+le "o revolts aga9/   
all1 & abdicates 8 :ole nature4#db  ,let
 u d$uce ! consequ5ces ( ! facts ( :i*  
we h j giv5 an exposition4  #a/4 ,!     
argum5t ( ,kant1 :i* is bas$ ^u ! "* (  
necessity 9 pr9ciples 9 ord] to weak5 _!
 objective au?ority1 applies only to !  
=m impos$ by reflection on ^! pr9ciples1
 & does n rea* _! spontane\s            
application1 :]e9 ! "* ( necessity no   

long] appe>s4  #b;d4 ,aft] all1 to      
conclude ) ! human race f ! necessity ( 
believ+ 9 ! tru? ( :at we believe1 is n 
to conclude badly2 = x is reason+ f     
effect to cause1 f ! sign to ! ?+       
signifi$4  #c;d4 ,moreov]1 ! value (    
pr9ciples is above all demon/ration4    
,psy*ological analysis seizes1 takes1 z 
x 71 by surprise1 9 ! fact ( intuition1 
an affirmation t is absolute1 t is      
inaccessible to d\bt2 x e/abli%es x2 &  
?is is equival5t to demon/ration4 ,to   
dem& any o!r demon/ration ?an ?is1 is to
 dem& ( reason an impossibility1 s9ce   
absolute pr9ciples1 be+ necess>y to all 
demon/ration1 c\ld only be demon/rat$ by
 !mselves4#dc  ,,footnotes3  #cg ,on    
conceptualism1 z well z on nom9alism &  
realism1 see ! ,introduction to ! in$it$
 works ( ,abel>d1 & also #a/ ,s]ies1    
vol4 iv41 lecture #ba1 p4 #deg2 #b;d    
,s]ies1 vol4 iii41 lecture #bj1 p4 #bae1
 & ! "w already cit$ on ! ,metaphysics (
 ,ari/otle1 p4 #di3 ,no?+ exi/s 9 ?is _w
 :i* has n its law m g5]al ?an itself4  

,!re is no individual t is n relat$ to a
 species2 !re are no ph5om5a b\nd toge!r
 t are n unit$ to a plan4 ,& x is       
necess>y !re %\ld really be 9 nature    
species & a plan1 if e ?+ has be5 made )
 weight & measure1 cum pond]e et m5sura1
 )\t :i* our v ideas ( species & a plan 
w\ld only be *im]as1 & human sci5ce a   
sy/ematic illusion4 ,if x is pret5d$ t  
!re are individuals & no species1 ?+s 9 
juxtaposition & no plan2 = example1     
human individuals m or less diff]5t1 &  
no human type1 & a ?\s& o!r ?+s ( ! same
 sort1 well & good2 b 9 t case !re is   
no?+ g5]al 9 ! _w1 except 9 ! human     
und]/&+1 t is to say1 9 o!r t]ms1 ! _w &
 nature are de/itute ( ord] & reason    
except 9 ! head ( man4  #ch ,see prec$+ 
lecture4  #ci ,on ! j limits ( !        
p]sonality & ! imp]sonality ( reason1   
see ! foll[+ lecture1 ne> ! close4  #dj 
,we h ev]y:]e ma9ta9$1 t consci\sness is
 ! condition1 or r ! necess>y =m (      
intellig5ce4 ,n to g beyond ?is volume1 
see f>!r on1 lecture #e4  #da #a/       

,s]ies1 vol4 iv41 lecture #bb1 p4 #did4 
#db ,oeuvres de ,reid1 vol4 iii41 p4    
#dej4  #dc ,we h n ?\ght x be/ to make  
?is lecture l5g?y by an exposition &    
detail$ refutation ( ! ,critique ( ,pure
 ,reason & its sad conclusion2 ! little 
t we say ( x is suffici5t = our purpose1
 :i* is mu* less hi/orical ?an          
dogmatical4 ,we ref] ! read] to a volume
 t we h devot$ to ! fa!r ( ,g]man       
philosophy1 #a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 v41 9 :i*  
we h aga9 tak5 up & develop$ "s ( !     
argum5ts t are "h us$1 9 :i* we believe 
t we h irresi/ibly expos$ ! capital     
defect ( ! transc5d5tal logic ( ,kant1 &
 ( ! :ole ,g]man s*ool1 t x leads to    
skepticism1 inasmu* z x raises          
sup]human1 *im]ical1 extravagant        
problems1 &1 :5 well und]/ood1 _c solve 
!m4 ,see especially lectures #f & #h4   
,,lecture ,,iv4  ,,god ,,! ,,pr9ciple   
,,( ,,pr9ciples4      ,object ( !       
lecture3 ,:at is ! ultimate basis (     
absolute     tru?8--,f\r hypo!ses3      
,absolute tru? may reside ei!r 9 u1     

9 p>ticul> be+s & ! _w1 9 itself1 or 9  
,god4 #a4 ,we     p]ceive absolute tru?1
 we d n con/itute x4 #b4 ,p>ticul>      
be+s p>ticipate 9 absolute tru?1 b d n  
expla9 x2     refutation ( ,ari/otle4   
#c4 ,tru? does n exi/ 9 itself2         
def5ce ( ,plato4 #d4 ,tru? resides 9    
,god4--,plato2 ,/4     ,augu/9e2        
,desc>tes2 ,malebran*e2 ,f5elon2        
,bossuet2     ,leibnitz4--,tru? !       
m$iator betwe5 ,god & man4--,ess5tial   
di/9ctions4   ,we h ju/ifi$ ! pr9ciples 
t gov]n our intellig5ce2 we h become    
confid5t t !re is tru? outside ( u1 t   
!re are v]ities wor?y ( t "n1 :i* we c  
p]ceive1 :i* we d n make1 :i* are n     
solely conceptions ( our m9d1 :i* w\ld  
/ill exi/ al?\gh our m9d %\ld n p]ceive 
!m4 ,n[ ?is o!r problem naturally       
pres5ts itself3 ,:at1 !n1 9 !mselves1   
are ^! univ]sal & necess>y tru?s8 :]e d 
!y reside8 :5ce d !y come8 ,we d n raise
 ?is problem1 & ! problems t x embraces2
 ! human m9d itself proposes !m1 & x is 
fully satisfi$ only :5 x has resolv$ !m1

 & :5 x has rea*$ ! extreme limit ( k t 
x is )9 its p[] to atta94  ,x is c]ta9 t
 ! pr9ciples :i*1 9 all ! ord]s ( k1    
discov] to u absolute & necess>y tru?s1 
con/itute "p ( our reason1 :i* surely   
makes its dwell+ 9 u1 & is intimately   
connect$ ) p]sonality 9 ! dep?s (       
intellectual life4 ,x foll[s t ! tru?1  
:i* reason reveals to u1 falls !reby    
into close relation ) ! subject t       
p]ceives x1 & seems only a conception ( 
our m9d4 ,nev]!less1 z we h prov$1 we   
p]ceive tru?1 we are n ! au?ors ( x4 ,if
 ! p]son t ,i am1 if ! individual me    
does n1 p]haps1 expla9 ! :ole ( reason1 
h[ c\ld x expla9 tru?1 & absolute tru?8 
,man1 limit$ & pass+ away1 p]ceives     
necess>y1 et]nal1 inf9ite tru?2 t is =  
him a privilege suffici5tly high2 b he  
is nei!r ! pr9ciple t su/a9s tru?1 nor !
 pr9ciple t gives x be+4 ,man may say1  
,my reason2 b give him cr$it = nev] hav+
 d>$ to say1 ,my tru?4  ,if absolute    
tru?s are beyond man :o p]ceives !m1    
once m1 :]e are !y1 !n8 ,a p]ipatetic   

w\ld respond--,9 nature4 ,is x1 9 fact1 
necess>y to seek = !m any o!r subject   
?an ! be+s !mselves :i* !y gov]n8 ,:at  
are ! laws ( nature1 except c]ta9       
prop]ties :i* our m9d dis5gages f ! be+s
 & ph5om5a 9 :i* !y are met1 9 ord] to  
consid] !m ap>t8 ,ma!matical pr9ciples  
are no?+ m4 ,= example1 ! axiom ?us     
express$--,! :ole is great] ?an any (   
its p>ts1 is true ( any :ole & "p       
:atev]4 ,! pr9ciple ( contradiction1    
consid]$ 9 its logical title1 z !       
condition ( all our judgm5ts1 ( all our 
reason+s1 con/itutes a "p ( ! ess5ce (  
all be+1 & no be+ c exi/ )\t conta9+ x4 
,! univ]sal exi/s1 says ,ari/otle1 b x  
does n exi/ ap>t f p>ticul> be+s4#dd    
,?is !ory :i* consid]s univ]sals z hav+ 
_! basis 9 ?+s1 is a progress t[>ds !   
pure conceptualism :i* we h 9 ! beg9n+  
indicat$ & %unn$4 ,ari/otle is mu* m ( a
 reali/ ?an ,abel>d & ,kant4 ,he is q "r
 9 ma9ta9+ t univ]sals are 9 p>ticul>   
?+s1 = p>ticul> ?+s c\ld n be )\t       
univ]sals2 univ]sals give to !m _!      

fixity1 ev5 = a day1 & _! unity4 ,b f ! 
fact t univ]sals are 9 p>ticul> be+s1 is
 x necess>y to conclude t !y1 :olly &   
exclusively1 reside !re1 & t !y h no o!r
 reality ?an t ( ! objects to :i* !y are
 appli$8 ,x is ! same ) pr9ciples ( :i* 
univ]sals are ! con/itutive elem5ts4 ,x 
is1 x is true1 9 ! p>ticul> fact1 ( a   
p>ticul> cause produc+ a p>ticul> ev5t1 
t is giv5 u ! univ]sal pr9ciple (       
causality2 b ?is pr9ciple is mu* m      
ext5sive ?an ! facts1 = x is appli$1 n  
only to ?is fact1 b to a ?\s& o!rs4 ,!  
p>ticul> fact conta9s ! pr9ciple1 b x   
does n :olly conta9 x1 &1 f> f giv+ !   
basis ( ! pr9ciple1 x is bas$ ^u x4 ,z  
mu* may be said ( o!r pr9ciples4        
,p]haps x w be repli$ t1 if a pr9ciple  
is c]ta9ly m ext5sive ?an su* a fact1 or
 su* a be+1 x is n m ext5sive ?an all   
facts & all be+s1 & t nature1 consid]$ z
 a :ole1 c expla9 t :i* ea* p>ticul> be+
 does n expla94 ,b nature1 9 its        
totality1 is /ill only a f9ite & cont+5t
 ?+1 :il/ ! pr9ciples to be expla9$ h a 

necess>y & inf9ite be>+4 ,! idea ( !    
inf9ite c come nei!r f any p>ticul> be+1
 nor f ! :ole ( be+s4 ,entire nature w n
 furni% u ! idea ( p]fection1 = all !   
be+s ( nature are imp]fect4 ,absolute   
pr9ciples gov]n1 !n1 all facts & all    
be+s1 !y d n spr+ f !m4  ,w x be        
necess>y to come to ! op9ion1 !n1 t     
absolute tru?s1 be+ explicable nei!r by 
humanity nor by nature1 subsi/ by       
!mselves1 & are to !mselves _! own      
f\ndation & _! own subject8  ,b ?is     
op9ion conta9s /ill m absurdities ?an ! 
prec$+2 =1 ,i ask1 :at are tru?s1       
absolute or cont+5t1 t exi/ by !mselves1
 out ( ?+s 9 :i* !y are f\nd1 & out ( ! 
intellig5ce t conceives !m8 ,tru? is1   
!n1 only a realiz$ ab/raction4 ,!re are 
no qu9tess5tial metaphysics :i* c       
prevail aga9/ good s5se2 & if su* is !  
,platonic !ory ( ideas1 ,ari/otle is "r 
9 8 opposition to x4 ,b su* a !ory is   
only a *im]a t ,ari/otle creat$ = !     
pleasure ( combat+ x4  ,let u ha/5 to   
remove absolute tru?s f ?is ambigu\s &  

equivocal /ate4 ,& h[8 ,by apply+ to !m 
a pr9ciple :i* %\ld n[ be famili> to y4 
,yes1 tru? necess>ily appeals to some?+ 
beyond itself4 ,z e ph5om5on has its    
subject ( inh]5ce1 z our faculties1 our 
?\ghts1 our volitions1 our s5sations1   
exi/ only 9 a be+ :i* is ourselves1 s   
tru? supposes a be+ 9 :i* x resides1 &  
absolute tru?s suppose a be+ absolute z 
!mselves1 :]e9 !y h _! f9al f\ndation4  
,we come ?us to some?+ absolute1 :i* is 
no long] susp5d$ 9 ! vagu5ess (         
ab/raction1 b is a be+ sub/antially     
exi/+4 ,?is be+1 absolute & necess>y1   
s9ce x is ! subject ( necess>y &        
absolute tru?s1 ?is be+ :i* is at !     
f\ndation ( tru? z its v ess5ce1 9 a    
s+le ^w1 is call$ ,god4#de  ,?is !ory1  
:i* conducts f absolute tru? to absolute
 be+1 is n new 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy3 
x goes back to ,plato4  ,plato1#df 9    
se>*+ = ! pr9ciples ( k cle>ly saw1 )   
,socrates 8 ma/]1 t ! lea/ def9ition1   
)\t :i* !re c be no precise k1 supposes 
some?+ univ]sal & "o1 :i* does n come )9

 ! rea* ( ! s5ses1 :i* reason alone c   
discov]2 ?is some?+ univ]sal & "o he    
call$ ,idea4  ,ideas1 :i* possess       
univ]sality & unity1 d n come f mat]ial1
 *ang+1 & mobile ?+s1 to :i* !y are     
appli$1 & :i* r5d] !m intelligible4 ,on 
! o!r h&1 x is n ! human m9d t          
con/itutes ideas2 = man is n ! measure (
 tru?4  ,plato calls ,ideas v]itable    
be+s1 ,greek3 ta ontos onta1 s9ce !y    
alone communicate to s5sible ?+s & to   
human cognitions _! tru? & _! unity4 ,b 
does x foll[ t ,plato gives to ,ideas a 
sub/antial exi/5ce1 t he makes ( !m be+s
 prop]ly s call$8 ,x is important t no  
cl\d %\ld be left on ?is fundam5tal po9t
 ( ! ,platonic !ory4  ,at fir/1 if any  
"o %\ld pret5d t 9 ,plato ,ideas are    
be+s subsi/+ by !mselves1 )\t           
int]connection & )\t relation to a      
common c5tre1 num]\s passages ( !       
,timaeus might be object$ to him1#dg 9  
:i* ,plato speaks ( ,ideas z =m+ 9 _!   
:ole an ideal unity1 :i* is ! reason ( !
 unity ( ! visible _w4#dh  ,w x be said 

t ?is ideal _w =ms a di/9ct unity1 a    
unity sep>ate f ,god8 ,b1 9 ord] to     
su/a9 ?is ass]tion1 x is necess>y to    
=get s _m passages ( ! ,republic1 9 :i* 
! relations ( tru? & sci5ce ) ! ,good1 t
 is to say1 ) ,god1 are m>k$ 9 brilliant
 *>act]s4  ,let n t magnific5t comp>ison
 be =gott51 9 :i*1 aft] hav+ said t !   
sun produces 9 ! physical _w light &    
life1 ,socrates adds3 ,s ?\ art able to 
say1 intelligible be+s n only hold f !  
,good t :i* r5d]s !m intelligible1 b    
also _! be+ & _! ess5ce4#di ,s1         
intelligible be+s1 t is to say1 ,ideas1 
are n be+s t exi/ by !mselves4  ,m5 g on
 repeat+ ) assurance t ! ,good1 9       
,plato1 is only ! idea ( ! good1 & t an 
idea is n ,god4 ,i reply1 t ! ,good is 9
 fact an idea1 accord+ to ,plato1 b t ! 
idea "h is n a pure conception ( ! m9d1 
an object ( ?\ght1 z ! p]ipatetic s*ool 
und]/ood x2 ,i add1 t ! ,idea ( ! ,good 
is 9 ,plato ! fir/ ( ,ideas1 & t1 = ?is 
reason1 :ile rema9+ = u an object (     
?\ght1 x is conf\nd$ z to exi/5ce )     

,god4 ,if ! ,idea ( ! ,good is n ,god   
himself1 h[ w ! foll[+ passage1 also    
tak5 f ! ,republic1 be expla9$8 ,at !   
extreme limits ( ! intellectual _w is ! 
,idea ( ! ,good1 :i* is p]ceiv$ )       
difficulty1 b1 9 f9e1 _c be p]ceiv$ )\t 
conclud+ t x is ! s\rce ( all t is      
beautiful & good2 t 9 ! visible _w x    
produces light1 & ! /> :5ce ! light     
directly comes1 t 9 ! invisible _w x    
directly produces tru? & intellig5ce4#ej
 ,:o c produce1 on ! "o h&1 ! sun &     
light1 on ! o!r1 tru? & intellig5ce1    
except a real be+8  ,b all d\bt         
disappe>s be=e ! foll[+ passages f !    
,pha$rus1 neglect$1 z x w\ld seem       
design$ly1 by ! detractors ( ,plato3 ,9 
?is transition1 7! s\l7 contemplates    
ju/ice1 contemplates wisdom1            
contemplates sci5ce1 n t :]e9 ent]s     
*ange1 nor t :i* %[s itself diff]5t 9 ! 
diff]5t objects :i* we are pleas$ to    
call be+s1 b sci5ce z x exi/s 9 t :i* is
 call$ be+1 p> excell5ce4444#ea--;,x    
belongs to ! s\l to conceive ! univ]sal1

 t is to say1 t :i*1 9 ! div]sity (     
s5sations1 c be compreh5d$ "u a rational
 unity4 ,?is is ! remembrance ( :at !   
s\l has se5 dur+ its j\rney 9 ! tra9 (  
,deity1 :51 disda9+ :at we improp]ly    
call be+s1 x look$ upw>ds to ! only true
 be+4 ,s x is j t ! ?\ght ( ! philosoph]
 %\ld alone h w+s2 = its remembrance is 
always z mu* z possible ) ! ?+s :i* make
 ,god a true ,god1 inasmu* z he is )    
!m4#eb  ,s ! objects ( ! philosoph]'s   
contemplation1 t is to say1 ,ideas1 are 
9 ,god1 & x is by ^!1 by 8 ess5tial     
union ) ^!1 t ,god is ! true ,god1 !    
,god :o1 z ,plato admirably says 9 !    
,sophi/1 p>ticipates 9 augu/ & holy     
intellig5ce4#ec  ,x is !re=e c]ta91 t1 9
 ! true ,platonic !ory1 ,ideas are n    
be+s 9 ! vulg> s5se ( ! ^w1 be+s :i*    
w\ld be nei!r 9 ! m9d ( man1 nor 9      
nature1 nor 9 ,god1 & w\ld subsi/ only  
by !mselves4 ,no1 ,plato consid]s ,ideas
 z be+ at once ! pr9ciples ( s5sible    
?+s1 ( :i* !y are ! laws1 & ! pr9ciples 
also ( human k1 :i* owes to !m its      

light1 its rule1 & its end1 & ! ess5tial
 attributes ( ,god1 t is to say1 ,god   
himself4  ,plato is truly ! fa!r ( !    
doctr9e :i* we h expla9$1 & ! great     
philosoph]s :o h atta*$ !mselves to 8   
s*ool h always pr(ess$ ?is same doctr9e4
  ,! f\nd] ( ,*ri/ian metaphysics1 ,/4  
,augu/9e1 is a decl>$ disciple ( ,plato3
 ev]y:]e he speaks1 l ,plato1 ( !       
relation ( human reason to ! div9e      
reason1 & ( tru? to ,god4 ,9 ! ,city (  
,god1 book x41 *ap4 ii41 & 9 *ap4 ix4 ( 
book vii4 ( ! ,confessions1 he goes to !
 ext5t ( comp>+ ! ,platonic doctr9e ) t 
( ,/4 ,john4  ,he adopts1 )\t res]ve1 ! 
!ory ( ,ideas4 ,book ( ,eighty-?ree     
,que/ions1 "q #df3 ,ideas are !         
primordial =ms1 &1 z x 71 ! immutable   
reasons ( ?+s2 !y are n creat$1 !y are  
et]nal1 & always ! same3 !y are conta9$ 
9 ! div9e intellig5ce2 & )\t be+ subject
 to bir? & dea?1 !y are ! types accord+ 
to :i* is =m$ e ?+ t is born & dies4#ed 
,:at man1 pi\s1 & p5etrat$ ) true       
religion1 w\ld d>e to d5y t all ?+s t   

exi/1 t is to say1 all ?+s t1 ea* ( its 
k9d1 possess a det]m9ate nature1 h be5  
creat$ by ,god8 ,?is po9t be+ once      
conc$$1 c x be said t ,god has creat$   
?+s )\t reason8 ,if x is impossible to  
say or ?9k ?is1 x foll[s t all ?+s h be5
 creat$ ) reason4 ,b ! reason ( !       
exi/5ce ( a man _c be ! same z ! reason 
( ! exi/5ce ( a horse2 t is absurd2 ea* 
?+ has !re=e be5 creat$ by virtue ( a   
reason t is peculi> to x4 ,n[1 :]e c ^! 
reasons be1 except 9 ! m9d ( ! ,creator8
 ,= he saw no?+ out ( himself1 :i* he   
c\ld use z a model = creat+ :at he      
creat$3 su* an op9ion w\ld be           
sacrilege4#ee  ,if ! reasons ( ?+s to be
 creat$ & ?+s creat$ are conta9$ 9 !    
div9e intellig5ce1 & if !re is no?+ 9 ! 
div9e intellig5ce b ! et]nal &          
immutable1 ! reasons ( ?+s :i* ,plato   
calls ,ideas1 are ! et]nal & immutable  
tru?s1 by ! p>ticipation 9 :i* e ?+ t is
 is su* z x is4#ef  ,/4 ,?omas himself1 
:o sc>cely knew ,plato1 & :o 0 (t5 en\gh
 held by ,ari/otle 9 a k9d ( empiricism1

 c>ri$ away by ,*ri/ianity & ,/4        
,augu/9e1 let ! s5tim5t escape him1 t   
our natural reason is a sort (          
p>ticipation 9 ! div9e reason1 t to ?is 
we owe our k & our judgm5ts1 t ?is is ! 
reason :y x is said1 t we see e ?+ 9    
,god4#eg ,!re are 9 ,/4 ,?omas _m o!r   
simil> passages1 ( p]haps an expressive 
,platonism1 :i* is n ! ,platonism (     
,plato1 b ( ! ,alex&rians4  ,! ,c>tesian
 philosophy1 9 spite ( its pr(\nd       
orig9ality1 & its :olly ,fr5* "*1 is    
full ( ! ,platonic _s4 ,desc>tes has no 
?\ght ( ,plato1 :om app>5tly he has nev]
 read2 9 no?+ does he imitate or        
resemble him3 nev]!less1 f ! fir/1 he is
 met 9 ! same regions ) ,plato1 :i!r he 
goes by a diff]5t r\te4  ,! notion ( !  
inf9ite & ! p]fect is = ,desc>tes :at ! 
univ]sal1 ! ,idea1 is = ,plato4 ,no     
soon] has ,desc>tes f\nd by consci\sness
 t he ?9ks1 ?an he concludes f ?is t he 
exi/s1 !n1 9 c\rse1 by consci\sness     
/ill1 he recognizes himself z imp]fect1 
full ( defects1 limitations1 mis]ies1 &1

 at ! same "t1 conceives some?+ inf9ite 
& p]fect4 ,he possesses ! idea ( !      
inf9ite & ! p]fect2 b ?is idea is n 8   
own "w1 = he is imp]fect2 x mu/ !n h be5
 put into him by ano!r be+ end[$ )      
p]fection1 :om he conceives1 :om he does
 n possess3--t be+ is ,god4 ,su* is !   
process by :i* ,desc>tes1 sett+ out f 8 
own ?\ght1 & 8 own be+1 elevat$ himself 
to ,god4 ,?is process1 s simple1 :i* he 
s simply exposes 9 ! ,disc\rs de la     
,me?ode1 he w put successively1 9 !     
,m$itations1 9 ! ,responses aux         
,objections1 9 ! ,pr9cipes1 "u ! mo/    
div]se =ms1 he w accommodate x1 if x is 
necess>y1 to ! language ( ! s*ools1 9   
ord] t x may p5etrate into !m4 ,aft]    
all1 ?is process is compell$ to         
conclude1 f ! idea ( ! inf9ite & !      
p]fect1 9 ! exi/5ce ( a cause ( ?is     
idea1 adequate1 at lea/1 to ! idea      
itself1 t is to say1 inf9ite & p]fect4  
,"o sees t ! fir/ diff]5ce betwe5 ,plato
 & ,desc>tes is1 t ! ideas :i* 9 ,plato 
are at once conceptions ( our m9d1 & !  

pr9ciples ( ?+s1 are = ,desc>tes1 z well
 z = all mod]n philosophy1 only our     
conceptions1 among/ :i* t ( ! inf9ite & 
p]fect occupies ! fir/ place2 ! second  
diff]5ce is1 t ,plato goes f ideas to   
,god by ! pr9ciple ( sub/ances1 if we   
may be all[$ to use ?is te*nical        
language ( mod]n philosophy2 :il/       
,desc>tes employs r ! pr9ciple (        
causality1 & concludes--well und]/ood   
)\t syllogism--f ! idea ( ! inf9ite & ! 
p]fect 9 a cause also p]fect &          
inf9ite4#eh ,b "u ^! diff]5ces1 & 9     
spite ( _m m1 is a common basis1 a g5ius
 ! same1 :i* at fir/ elevates u above ! 
s5ses1 &1 by ! int]m$i>y ( m>vell\s     
ideas t are inconte/ably 9 u1 be>s u    
t[>ds him :o alone c be _! sub/ance1 :o 
is ! inf9ite & p]fect au?or ( our idea (
 inf9ity & p]fection4 ,= ?is reason1    
,desc>tes belongs to ! family ( ,plato &
 ,socrates4  ,! idea ( ! p]fect & !     
f9ite be+ once introduc$ into !         
philosophy ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 x       
becomes !re = ! successors ( ,desc>tes  

:at ! !ory ( ideas became = ! successors
 ( ,plato4  ,among ! ,fr5* writ]s1      
,malebran*e1 p]haps1 rem9ds u ) ! lea/  
disadvantage1 al?\gh v imp]fectly /ill1 
( ! mann] ( ,plato3 he sometimes        
expresses its elevation & grace2 b he is
 f> f possess+ ! ,socratic good s5se1 &1
 x mu/ be confess$1 no "o has cl\d$ m ! 
!ory ( ideas by exagg]ations ( e k9d :i*
 he has m+l$ ) !m4#ei ,in/ead ( e/abli%+
 t !re is 9 ! human reason1 :olly       
p]sonal z x is by its intimate relation 
) our o!r faculties1 some?+ also :i* is 
n p]sonal1 some?+ univ]sal :i* p]mits x 
to elevate itself to univ]sal tru?s1    
,malebran*e does n hesitate to          
absolutely conf\nd ! reason t is 9 u ) !
 div9e reason itself4 ,moreov]1 accord+ 
to ,malebran*e1 we d n directly "k      
p>ticul> ?+s1 s5sible objects2 we "k !m 
only by ideas2 x is ! intelligible      
ext5sion & n ! mat]ial ext5sion t we    
imm$iately p]ceive2 9 vision ! prop]    
object ( ! m9d is ! univ]sal1 ! idea2 & 
z ! idea is 9 ,god1 x is 9 ,god t we see

 all ?+s4 ,we c und]/& h[ well-=m$ m9ds 
mu/ h be5 %ock$ by su* a !ory2 b x is n 
j to conf\nd ,plato ) 8 brilliant &     
unfai?ful disciple4 ,9 ,plato1          
s5sibility directly atta9s s5sible ?+s2 
x makes !m kn[n to u z !y are1 t is to  
say1 z v imp]fect & und]go+ p]petual    
*ange1 :i* r5d]s ! k t we h ( !m almo/  
unwor?y ( ! "n ( k4 ,x is reason1       
diff]5t 9 u f s5sibility1 :i*1 above    
s5sible objects1 discov]s to u !        
univ]sal1 ! idea1 & gives a k solid &   
durable4 ,hav+ once atta9$ ideas1 we h  
rea*$ ,god himself1 9 :om !y h _!       
f\ndation1 :o f9i%es & consummates true 
k4 ,b we h no ne$ ( ,god1 nor ( ideas1 9
 ord] to p]ceive s5sible objects1 :i*   
are defective & *ang+2 = ?is our s5ses  
are suffici5t4 ,reason is di/9ct f !    
s5ses2 x transc5ds ! imp]fect k ( :at !y
 are capable2 x atta9s ! univ]sal1      
because x possesses some?+ univ]sal     
itself2 x p>ticipates 9 ! div9e reason1 
b x is n ! div9e reason2 x is enlight5$ 
by x1 x comes f x1--x is n x4  ,f5elon  

is inspir$ at once by ,malebran*e &     
,desc>tes 9 ! treatise1 de l',exi/5ce de
 ,dieu4 ,! second "p is entirely        
,c>tesian 9 me?od1 9 ! ord] & sequ5ce ( 
! pro(s4 ,nev]!less1 ,malebran*e also   
appe>s !re1 especially 9 ! f\r? *apt]1  
on ! nature ( ideas1 & he pr$om9ates 9  
all ! metaphysical portions ( ! fir/ "p4
 ,aft] ! explanations :i* we h giv51 x w
 n be difficult = y to disc]n :at is    
true & :at is at times excessive 9 !    
passages :i* foll[3#fj  ,"p i41 *ap4    
lii4 ,oh6 h[ great is ! m9d ( man6 ,x   
be>s 9 itself :at a/oni%es itself &     
inf9itely surpasses itself4 ,its ideas  
are univ]sal1 et]nal1 & immutable4444 ,!
 idea ( ! inf9ite is 9 me z well z t (  
l9es1 numb]s1 & circles4444--,*ap4 liv4 
,besides ?is idea ( ! inf9ite1 ,i h also
 univ]sal & immutable notions1 :i* are !
 rule ( all my judgm5ts4 ,i c judge (   
no?+ except by consult+ !m1 & x is n 9  
my p[] to judge aga9/ :at !y repres5t to
 me4 ,my ?\ghts1 f> f be+ able to       
correct ?is rule1 are !mselves correct$ 

9 spite ( me by ?is sup]ior rule1 & !y  
are irresi/ibly adju/$ to its decision4 
,:atev] ef=t ( m9d ,i may make1 ,i c    
nev] succe$ 9 d\bt+ t two & two are f\r2
 t ! :ole is n great] ?an any ( its     
p>ts2 t ! c5tre ( a p]fect circle is n  
equidi/ant f all po9ts ( ! circumf]5ce4 
,i am n at lib]ty to d5y ^!             
propositions2 & if ,i d5y ^! tru?s1 or  
o!rs simil> to !m1 ,i h 9 me some?+ t is
 above me1 t =ces me to ! conclusion4   
,?is fix$ & immutable rule is s int]nal 
& s intimate t ,i am incl9$ to take x = 
myself2 b x is above me s9ce x corrects 
me1 r$resses me1 & puts me 9 defiance   
aga9/ myself1 & rem9ds me ( my impot5ce4
 ,x is some?+ t sudd5ly inspires me1    
provid$ ,i li/5 to x1 & ,i am nev]      
deceiv$ except 9 n li/5+ to x4444 ,?is  
int]nal rule is :at ,i call my          
reason4444--,*ap4 lv4 ,9 tru? my reason 
is 9 me2 = ,i mu/ cont9ually ent] into  
myself 9 ord] to f9d x4 ,b ! high]      
reason :i* corrects me :5 necess>y1 :i* 
,i consult1 exi/s n by me1 & makes no "p

 ( me4 ,?is rule is p]fect & immutable2 
,i am *ang+ & imp]fect4 ,:5 ,i am       
deceiv$1 x does n lose its integrity4   
,:5 ,i am undeceiv$1 x is n ?is t       
returns to its end3 x is ?is :i*1 )\t   
ev] hav+ deviat$1 has ! au?ority ov] me 
to rem9d me ( my error1 & to make me    
return4 ,x is a ma/] )91 :i* makes me   
keep sil5t1 :i* makes me speak1 :i*     
makes me believe1 :i* makes me d\bt1 :i*
 makes me ackn[l$ge my errors or confirm
 my judgm5ts4 ,li/5+ to x1 ,i am        
in/ruct$2 li/5+ to myself1 ,i err4 ,?is 
ma/] is ev]y:]e1 & its voice makes      
itself he>d1 f end to end ( ! univ]se1 9
 all m5 z well z 9 me4444--,*ap4 lvi4444
 ,t :i* appe>s ! mo/ 9 u & seems to be !
 f\ndation ( ourselves1 ,i mean our     
reason1 is t :i* is lea/ ( all our own1 
:i* we are con/ra9$ to believe to be    
especially borr[$4 ,we receive )\t      
cessation1 & at all mom5ts1 a reason    
sup]ior to u1 z we brea! )\t cessation !
 air1 :i* is a =eign body4444--,*ap4    
lvii4 ,! int]nal & univ]sal ma/] always 

& ev]y:]e speaks ! same tru?s4 ,we are n
 ?is ma/]4 ,x is true t we (t5 speak )\t
 x1 & m l(tily ?an x4 ,b we are !n      
deceiv$1 we are /amm]+1 we d n und]/&   
ourselves4 ,we ev5 fe> to see t we are  
deceiv$1 & we close ! e> ?r\gh fe> ( be+
 humiliat$ by its corrections4 ,)\t     
d\bt1 man1 :o fe>s be+ correct$ by ?is  
incorruptible reason1 :o always w&]s 9 n
 foll[+ x1 is n t p]fect1 univ]sal1     
immutable reason :i* corrects him 9     
spite ( himself4 ,9 all ?+s we f9d1 z x 
71 two pr9ciples )9 u4 ,"o gives1 ! o!r 
receives2 "o wants1 ! o!r supplies2 "o  
is deceiv$1 ! o!r corrects2 "o goes     
wrong by its own incl9ation1 ! o!r      
rectifies x4444 ,ea* "o feels )9 himself
 a limit$ & subalt]n reason1 :i* w&]s :5
 x escapes a complete subord9ation1 :i* 
is correct$ only by return+ to ! yoke ( 
ano!r sup]ior1 univ]sal1 & immutable    
p[]4 ,s e ?+ 9 u be>s ! m>k ( a         
subalt]n1 limit$1 p>tial1 borr[$ reason1
 :i* ne$s ano!r to correct x at e mom5t4
 ,all m5 are rational1 because !y       

possess ! same reason :i* is communicat$
 to !m 9 diff]5t degrees4 ,!re is a     
c]ta9 numb] ( wise m52 b ! wisdom :i* !y
 receive1 z x 71 f ! f\nta9-head1 :i*   
makes !m :at !y are1 is "o & !          
same4444--,*ap4 lviii4 ,:]e is ?is      
wisdom8 ,:]e is ?is reason1 :i* is bo?  
common & sup]ior to all ! limit$ &      
imp]fect reasons ( ! human race8 ,:]e1  
!n1 is ?is oracle :i* is nev] sil5t1    
aga9/ :i* ! va9 prejudices ( peoples are
 always impot5t8 ,:]e is ?is reason :i* 
we ev] ne$ to consult1 :i* comes to u to
 inspire u ) ! desire ( li/5+ to its    
voice8 ,:]e is ?is light t light5e? e   
man t come? into ! _w4444 ,! sub/ance ( 
! human eye is n light2 on ! contr>y1 ! 
eye borr[s at ea* mom5t ! light ( !     
sun's rays4 ,s my m9d is n ! primitive  
reason1 ! univ]sal & immutable tru?1 x  
is only ! m$ium t conducts ?is orig9al  
light1 t is illum9at$ by x4444--,*ap4   
lx4 ,i f9d two reasons 9 myself1--"o is 
myself1 ! o!r is above me4 ,t :i* is 9  
me is v imp]fect1 faulty1 unc]ta91      

preoccupi$1 precipitate1 subject to     
ab]ration1 *ang+1 conceit$1 ignorant1 & 
limit$2 9 f9e1 x possesses no?+ b :at x 
borr[s4 ,! o!r is common to all m51 & is
 sup]ior to all2 x is p]fect1 et]nal1   
immutable1 always ready to communicate  
itself 9 all places1 & to rectify all   
m9ds t are deceiv$1 9 f9e1 incapable (  
ev] be+ exhau/$ or divid$1 al?\gh x     
gives itself to ^? :o desire x4 ,:]e is 
?is p]fect reason1 t is s ne> me & s    
diff]5t f me8 ,:]e is x8 ,x mu/ be      
some?+ real4444 ,:]e is ?is supreme     
reason8 ,is x n ,god t ,i am seek+8  ,"p
 ii41 *ap4 i41 sect4 #bh4fa ,i h 9 me ! 
idea ( ! inf9ite & ( inf9ite            
p]fection4444 ,give me a f9ite ?+ z     
great z y please--let x q transc5d !    
rea* ( my s5ses1 s t x becomes1 z x 71  
inf9ite to my imag9ation2 x always      
rema9s f9ite 9 my m9d2 ,i conceive a    
limit to x1 ev5 :5 ,i _c imag9e x4 ,i am
 n able to m>k ! limit2 b ,i "k t x     
exi/s2 & f> f conf\nd+ x ) ! inf9ite1 ,i
 conceive x z inf9itely di/ant f ! idea 

t ,i h ( ! v]itable inf9ite4 ,if "o     
speaks to me ( ! indef9ite z a mean     
betwe5 ! two extremes ( ! inf9ite & !   
limit$1 ,i reply1 t x signifies no?+1 t1
 at lea/1 x only signifies some?+ truly 
f9ite1 ^: b\nd>ies escape ! imag9ation  
)\t escap+ ! m9d4444 ,sect4 #bi4 ,:]e h 
,i obta9$ ?is idea1 :i* is s mu* above  
me1 :i* inf9itely surpasses me1 :i*     
a/oni%es me1 :i* makes me disappe> 9 my 
own eyes1 :i* r5d]s ! inf9ite pres5t to 
me8 ,:5ce does x come8 ,:]e h ,i obta9$ 
x8444 ,once m1 :5ce comes ?is m>vell\s  
repres5tation ( ! inf9ite1 :i* p]ta9s to
 ! inf9ite itself1 :i* resembles no?+   
f9ite8 ,x is 9 me1 x is m ?an myself2 x 
seems to me e ?+1 & myself no?+4 ,i c   
nei!r efface1 obscure1 dim9i%1 nor      
contradict x4 ,x is 9 me2 ,i h n put x  
!re1 ,i h f\nd x !re2 & ,i h f\nd x !re 
only because x 0 already !re be=e ,i    
s\ght x4 ,x rema9s !re inv>iable1 ev5 :5
 ,i d n ?9k ( x1 :5 ,i ?9k ( some?+     
else4 ,i f9d x :5ev] ,i seek x1 & x (t5 
pres5ts itself :5 ,i am n seek+ x4 ,x   

does n dep5d ^u me2 ,i dep5d ^u x4444   
,moreov]1 :o has made ?is inf9ite       
repres5tation ( ! inf9ite1 s z to give x
 to me8 ,has x made itself8 ,has !      
inf9ite image#fb ( ! inf9ite _h no      
orig9al1 accord+ to :i* x has be5 made1 
no real cause t has produc$ x8 ,:]e are 
we 9 relation to x8 ,& :at a mass (     
extravagances6 ,x is1 !re=e1 absolutely 
necess>y to conclude t x is ! inf9itely 
p]fect be+ t r5d]s himself imm$iately   
pres5t to me1 :5 ,i conceive him1 & t he
 himself is ! idea :i* ,i h ( him4444   
,*ap4 iv41 sect4 #di4 444 ,my ideas are 
myself2 = !y are my reason4444 ,my      
ideas1 & ! basis ( myself1 or ( my m9d1 
appe> b ! same ?+4 ,on ! o!r h&1 my m9d 
is *ang+1 unc]ta91 ignorant1 subject to 
error1 precipitate 9 its judgm5ts1      
accu/om$ to believe :at x does n cle>ly 
und]/&1 & to judge )\t hav+ suffici5tly 
consult$ its ideas1 :i* are by !mselves 
c]ta9 & immutable4 ,my ideas1 !n1 are n 
myself1 & ,i am n my ideas4 ,:at %all ,i
 believe1 !n1 !y c be8444 ,:at !n6 are  

my ideas ,god8 ,!y are sup]ior to my    
m9d1 s9ce !y rectify & correct x2 !y h !
 "* ( ! ,div9ity1 = !y are univ]sal &   
immutable l ,god2 !y really subsi/1     
accord+ to a pr9ciple t we h already    
e/abli%$3 no?+ exi/s s really z t :i* is
 univ]sal & immutable4 ,if t :i* is     
*ang+1 transitory1 & d]iv$1 truly exi/s1
 mu* m does t :i* _c *ange1 & is        
necess>y4 ,x is !n necess>y to f9d 9    
nature some?+ exi/+ & real1 t is1 my    
ideas1 some?+ t is )9 me1 & is n myself1
 t is sup]ior to me1 t is 9 me ev5 :5 ,i
 am n ?9k+ ( x1 ) :i* ,i believe myself 
to be alone1 z ?\gh ,i 7 only ) myself1 
9 f9e1 t is m pres5t to me1 & m intimate
 ?an my own f\ndation4 ,i "k n :at ?is  
some?+1 s admirable1 s famili>1 s       
unkn[n1 c be1 except ,god4  ,let u n[   
he> ! mo/ solid1 ! mo/ au?oritative ( ! 
,*ri/ian doctors ( ! sev5te5?           
c5tury--let u he> ,bossuet 9 8 ,logic1 &
 9 ! ,treatise on ! ,k ( ,god &         
,self4#fc  ,bossuet may be said to h _h 
?ree ma/]s 9 philosophy--,/4 ,augu/9e1  

,/4 ,?omas1 & ,desc>tes4 ,he _h be5     
taught at ! college ( ,nav>re ! doctr9e 
( ,/4 ,?omas1 t is to say1 a modifi$    
p]ipateticism2 at ! same "t he 0 n\ri%$ 
by ! read+ ( ,/4 ,augu/9e1 & out ( !    
s*ools he f\nd spread abroad !          
philosophy ( ,desc>tes4 ,he adopt$ x1 & 
_h no difficulty 9 reconcil+ x ) t ( ,/4
 ,augu/9e1 :ile1 ^u m ?an "o po9t1 x    
corroborat$ ! doctr9e ( ,/4 ,?omas4     
,bossuet inv5t$ no?+ 9 philosophy2 he   
receiv$ e ?+1 b e ?+ unit$ & purifi$1   
?anks to t supreme good s5se :i* 9 him  
is a quality pr$om9at+ ov] =ce1 gr&eur1 
& eloqu5ce4#fd ,9 ! passages :i* ,i am  
ab\t to exhibit to y1 :i* ,i hope y w   
impress ^u y\r memories1 y w n f9d !    
grace ( ,malebran*e1 ! exhau/less       
abundance ( ,f5elon2 y w f9d :at is     
bett] ?an ei!r1 to wit1 cle>ness &      
precision--all ! re/ 9 him is 9 "s sort 
an addition to ^!4  ,f5elon dis5gages   
badly en\gh ! process :i* conducts f    
ideas1 f univ]sal & necess>y tru?s1 to  
,god4 ,bossuet r5d]s to himself a /rict 

acc\nt ( ?is process1 & m>ks x ) =ce2 x 
is ! pr9ciple t we h invok$1 t :i*      
concludes f attributes 9 a subject1 f   
qualities 9 a be+1 f laws 9 a           
legislator1 f et]nal v]ities 9 an et]nal
 m9d t compreh5ds !m & et]nally         
possesses !m4 ,bossuet cites ,/4        
,augu/9e1 cites ,plato himself1         
int]prets him & def5ds him 9 advance    
aga9/ ^? :o w\ld make ,platonic ideas   
be+s subsi/+ by !mselves1 :il/ !y really
 exi/ only 9 ! m9d ( ,god4  ,logic1 book
 i41 *ap4 xxxvi4 ,:5 ,i consid] a       
rectil9eal triangle z a figure b\nd$ by 
?ree /raight l9es1 & hav+ ?ree angles   
equal to two "r angles1 nei!r m nor     
less2 & :5 ,i pass f ?is to an          
equilat]al triangle ) its ?ree sides &  
its ?ree angles equal1 :5ce x foll[s1 t 
,i consid] ea* angle ( ?is triangle z   
less ?an a "r angle2 & :5 ,i come aga9  
to consid] a "r-angl$ triangle1 & :at ,i
 cle>ly see 9 ?is idea1 9 connection ) !
 prec$+ ideas1 t ! two angles ( ?is     
triangle are necess>ily acute1 & t ^!   

two acute angles are exactly equal to "o
 "r angle1 nei!r m nor less--,i see no?+
 cont+5t & mutable1 & consequ5tly1 !    
ideas t repres5t to me ^! tru?s are     
et]nal4 ,7 !re n 9 nature a s+le        
equilat]al or "r-angl$ triangle1 or any 
triangle :atev]1 e ?+ t ,i h j consid]$ 
w\ld rema9 always true & indubitable4 ,9
 fact1 ,i am n sure ( hav+ ev] se5 an   
equilat]al or rectil9eal triangle4      
,nei!r ! rule nor ! divid]s c\ld assure 
me t any human h&1 h[ev] skilful1 c\ld  
ev] make a l9e exactly /raight1 or sides
 & angles p]fectly equal to ea* o!r4 ,9 
/rictness1 we %\ld only ne$ a           
microscope1 9 ord]1 n to und]/&1 b to   
see at a glance1 t ! l9es :i* we trace  
deviate f /raightness1 & diff] 9 l5g?4  
,we h nev] se51 !n1 any b imp]fect      
images ( equilat]al1 rectil9eal1 or     
isosceles triangles1 s9ce !y nei!r exi/ 
9 nature1 nor c be con/ruct$ by art4    
,nev]!less1 :at we see ( ! nature & !   
prop]ties ( a triangle1 indep5d5tly ( e 
exi/+ triangle1 is c]ta9 & indubitable4 

,place an und]/&+ 9 any giv5 "t1 or at  
any po9t 9 et]nity1 ?us to speak1 & x w 
see ^! tru?s equally manife/2 !y are1   
!re=e1 et]nal4 ,s9ce ! und]/&+ does n   
give be+ to tru?1 b is only employ$ 9   
p]ceiv+ tru?1 x foll[s1 t 7 e creat$    
und]/&+ de/roy$1 ^! tru?s w\ld immutably
 subsi/4444  ,*ap4 xxxvii4 ,s9ce !re is 
no?+ et]nal1 immutable1 indep5d5t1 b    
,god alone1 we mu/ conclude t ^! tru?s d
 n subsi/ 9 !mselves1 b 9 ,god alone1 & 
9 8 et]nal ideas1 :i* are no?+ else ?an 
himself4  ,!re are ^? :o1 9 ord] to     
v]ify ^! et]nal tru?s :i* we h propos$1 
& o!rs ( ! same nature1 h figur$ to     
!mselves et]nal ess5ces aside f deity--a
 pure illusion1 :i* comes f n und]/&+ t 
9 ,god1 z 9 ! s\rce ( be+1 & 9 8        
und]/&+1 :]e resides ! art ( mak+ &     
ord]+ all ?+s1 are f\nd primitive ideas1
 or z ,/4 ,augu/9e says1 ! et]nally     
subsi/+ reasons ( ?+s4 ,?us1 9 ! ?\ght (
 ! ar*itect is ! primitive idea ( a h\se
 :i* he p]ceives 9 himself2 ?is         
intellectual h\se w\ld n be de/roy$ by  

any ru9 ( h\ses built accord+ to ?is    
int]ior model2 & if ! ar*itect 7 et]nal1
 ! idea & ! reason ( ! h\se w\ld also be
 et]nal4 ,b1 )\t recurr+ to ! mortal    
ar*itect1 !re is an immortal ar*itect1  
or r a primitive et]nally subsi/+ art 9 
! immutable ?\ght ( ,god1 :]e all ord]1 
all measure1 all rule1 all proportion1  
all reason1 9 a ^w1 all tru? are f\nd 9 
_! orig94  ,^! et]nal v]ities :i* our   
ideas repres5t1 are ! true object (     
sci5ce2 & ?is is ! reason :y ,plato1 9  
ord] to r5d] u truly wise1 cont9ually   
rem9ds u ( ^! ideas1 :]e9 is se51 n :at 
is =m$1 b :at is1 n :at is begott5 & is 
corrupt1 :at appe>s & vani%es1 :at is   
made & defective1 b :at et]nally        
subsi/s4 ,x is ?is intellectual _w :i* t
 div9e philosoph] has put 9 ! m9d ( ,god
 be=e ! _w 0 con/ruct$1 :i* is !        
immutable model ( t great "w4 ,^! are ! 
simple1 et]nal1 immutable1 unbegott51   
incorruptible ideas to :i* he ref]s u1 9
 ord] to und]/& tru?4 ,?is is :at has   
made him say t our ideas1 images ( !    

div9e ideas1 7 also imm$iately d]iv$ f !
 div9e ideas1 & did n come by ! s5ses1  
:i* s]ve v well1 said he1 to awak5 !m1 b
 n to =m !m 9 our m9d4 ,= if1 )\t hav+  
ev] se5 any ?+ et]nal1 we h s cle> an   
idea ( et]nity1 t is to say1 ( be+ t is 
always ! same2 if1 )\t hav+ p]ceiv$ a   
p]fect triangle1 we und]/& x di/9ctly1 &
 demon/rate s _m inconte/able tru?s     
conc]n+ x1 x is a m>k t ^! ideas d n    
come f our s5ses4  ,treatise on ! ,k (  
,god & ,self4#fe ,*ap4 iv41 sect4 #e4   
,intellig5ce has = its object et]nal    
tru?s1 :i* are no?+ else ?an ,god       
himself1 9 :om !y are always subsi/+ &  
p]fectly und]/ood4  444 ,we h already   
rem>k$ t ! und]/&+ has et]nal v]ities = 
its object4 ,! /&>ds by :i* we measure  
all ?+s are et]nal & inv>iable4 ,we "k  
cle>ly t e ?+ 9 ! univ]se is made       
accord+ to proportion1 f ! greate/ to ! 
lea/1 f ! /ronge/ to ! weake/1 & we "k x
 well en\gh to und]/& t ^! proportions  
are relat$ to ! pr9ciples ( et]nal tru?4
 ,all t is demon/rat$ 9 ma!matics1 & 9  

any o!r sci5ce :atev]1 is et]nal &      
immutable1 s9ce ! effect ( !            
demon/ration is to %[ t ! ?+ _c be      
o!rwise ?an z x is demon/rat$ to be4 ,s1
 9 ord] to und]/& ! nature & ! prop]ties
 ( ?+s :i* ,i "k1 = example1 a triangle1
 a squ>e1 a circle1 or ! relations ( ^! 
figures1 & all o!r figures1 to ea* o!r1 
x is n necess>y t ,i %\ld f9d su* 9     
nature1 & ,i may be sure t ,i h nev]    
trac$1 nev] se51 any t are p]fect4      
,nei!r is x necess>y t ,i %\ld ?9k t !re
 is motion 9 ! _w 9 ord] to und]/& !    
nature ( motion itself1 or t ( ! l9es   
:i* e motion describes1 & ! hidd5       
proportions accord+ to :i* x is         
develop$4 ,:5 ! idea ( ^! ?+s is once   
awak5$ 9 my m9d1 ,i "k t1 :e!r !y h an  
actual exi/5ce or n1 s !y mu/ be1 t x is
 impossible = !m to be ( ano!r nature1  
or to be made 9 a diff]5t way4 ,to come 
to some?+ t conc]ns u m ne>ly1 ,i mean  
by ^! pr9ciples ( et]nal tru?1 t !y d n 
dep5d on human exi/5ce1 t1 s f> z he is 
capable ( reason+1 x is ! ess5tial duty 

( man to live accord+ to reason1 & to   
se>* = 8 mak]1 ?r\gh fe> ( lack+ !      
recognition ( 8 mak]1 if 9 fault ( se>*+
 = him1 he %\ld be ignorant ( him4 ,all 
^! tru?s1 & all ^? :i* ,i d$uce f !m by 
sure reason+1 subsi/ indep5d5tly ( all  
"t4 ,9 :atev] "t ,i place a human       
und]/&+1 x w "k !m1 b 9 kn[+ !m x w f9d 
!m tru?s1 x w n make !m su*1 = our      
cognitions d n make _! objects1 b       
suppose !m4 ,s ^! tru?s subsi/ be=e all 
"t1 be=e ! exi/5ce ( a human und]/&+3 & 
7 e ?+ t is made accord+ to ! laws (    
proportion1 t is to say1 e ?+ t ,i see 9
 nature1 de/roy$ except myself1 ^! laws 
w\ld be pres]v$ 9 my ?\ght1 & ,i %\ld   
cle>ly see t !y w\ld always be good &   
always true1 7 ,i also de/roy$ ) ! re/4 
,if ,i seek h[1 :]e1 & 9 :at subject !y 
subsi/ et]nal & immutable1 z !y are1 ,i 
am oblig$ to av[ ! exi/5ce ( a be+ 9 :om
 tru? is et]nally subsi/+1 9 :om x is   
always und]/ood2 & ?is be+ mu/ be tru?  
itself1 & mu/ be all tru?1 & f him x is 
t tru? is d]iv$ 9 e ?+ t exi/s & has    

und]/&+ out ( him4  ,x is1 !n1 9 him1 9 
a c]ta9 mann]1 :o is incompreh5sible#ff 
to me1 x is 9 him1 ,i say1 t ,i see ^!  
et]nal tru?s2 & to see !m is to turn to 
him :o is immutably all tru?1 & to      
receive 8 light4  ,?is et]nal object is 
,god et]nally subsi/+1 et]nally true1   
et]nally tru? itself4444 ,x is 9 ?is    
et]nal t ^! et]nal tru?s subsi/4 ,x is  
also by ?is t ,i see !m4 ,all o!r m5 see
 !m z well z myself1 & we see !m always 
! same1 & z hav+ exi/$ be=e u4 ,= we "k 
t we h comm5c$1 & we "k t ^! tru?s h    
always be54 ,?us we see !m 9 a light    
sup]ior to ourselves1 & x is 9 ?is      
sup]ior light t we see :e!r we act well 
or ill1 t is to say1 :e!r we act accord+
 to ^! con/itutive pr9ciples ( our be+  
or n4 ,9 t1 !n1 we see1 ) all o!r tru?s1
 ! inv>iable rules ( our conduct1 & we  
see t !re are ?+s 9 reg>d to :i* duty is
 indisp5sable1 & t 9 ?+s :i* are        
naturally indiff]5t1 ! true duty is to  
accommodate ourselves to ! greate/ good 
( society4 ,a well-dispos$ man con=ms to

 ! civil laws1 z he con=ms to cu/om4 ,b 
he li/5s to an inviolable law 9 himself1
 :i* says to him t he mu/ d wrong to no 
"o1 t x is bett] to be injur$ ?an to    
injure4444 ,! man :o sees ^! tru?s1 by  
^! tru?s judges himself1 & condemns     
himself :5 he errs4 ,or1 r1 ^! tru?s    
judge him1 s9ce !y d n accommodate      
!mselves to human judgm5ts1 b human     
judgm5ts are accommodat$ to !m4 ,& ! man
 judges rightly :51 feel+ ^! judgm5ts to
 be v>iable 9 _! nature1 he gives !m = a
 rule ^! et]nal v]ities4  ,^! et]nal    
v]ities :i* e und]/&+ always p]ceives ! 
same1 by :i* e und]/&+ is gov]n$1 are   
some?+ ( ,god1 or r1 are ,god           
himself4444  ,tru? mu/ some:]e be v     
p]fectly und]/ood1 & man is to himself  
an indubitable pro( ( ?is4 ,=1 :e!r he  
consid]s himself or ext5ds 8 vision to !
 be+s t surr\nd him1 he sees e ?+       
subject$ to c]ta9 laws1 & to immutable  
rules ( tru?4 ,he sees t he und]/&s ^!  
laws1 at lea/ 9 "p1--he :o has nei!r    
made himself1 nor any "p ( ! univ]se1   

h[ev] small1 & he sees t no?+ c\ld h be5
 made _h n ^! laws be5 else:]e p]fectly 
und]/ood2 & he sees t x is necess>y to  
recognize an et]nal wisdom :]e9 all law1
 all ord]1 all proportion1 h _!         
primitive reason4 ,= x is absurd to     
suppose t !re is s mu* sequ5ce 9 tru?s1 
s mu* proportion 9 ?+s1 s mu* economy 9 
_! arrangem5t1 t is to say1 9 ! _w1 & t 
?is sequ5ce1 ?is proportion1 ?is        
economy1 %\ld n[h]e be und]/ood3--& man1
 :o has made no?+1 v]itably kn[+ ^! ?+s1
 al?\gh n fully kn[+ !m1 mu/ judge t !re
 is "s "o :o kn[s !m 9 _! p]fection1 & t
 ?is is he :o has made all ?+s4444      
,sect4 #f is :olly ,c>tesian4 ,bossuet  
!re demon/rates t ! s\l kn[s by !       
imp]fection ( its own intellig5ce t !re 
is else:]e a p]fect intellig5ce4  ,9    
sect4 #i1 ,bossuet elucidates anew !    
relation ( tru? to ,god4  ,:5ce comes to
 my intellig5ce ?is impression1 s pure1 
( tru?8 ,:5ce come to x ^? immutable    
rules t gov]n reason+1 t =m mann]s1 by  
:i* x discov]s ! secret proportions (   

figures & ( movem5ts8 ,:5ce come to x1 9
 a ^w1 ^? et]nal tru?s :i* ,i h consid]$
 s mu*8 ,d ! triangles1 ! squ>es1 !     
circles1 t ,i rudely trace on pap]1     
impress ^u my m9d _! proportions & _!   
relations8 ,or are !re o!rs ^: p]fect   
tru5ess produces ?is effect8 ,:]e h ,i  
se5 ^! circles & ^! triangles s         
true1--,i :o am n sure ( ev] hav+ se5 a 
p]fectly regul> figure1 &1 nev]!less1   
und]/& ?is regul>ity s p]fectly8 ,are   
!re some:]e1 ei!r 9 ! _w or out ( ! _w1 
triangles or circles exi/+ ) ?is p]fect 
regul>ity1 :]eby x c\ld be impress$ ^u  
my m9d8 ,& d ^! rules ( reason+ &       
conduct also exi/ 9 "s place1 :5ce !y   
communicate to me _! immutable tru?8    
,or1 inde$1 is x n r he :o has ev]y:]e  
ext5d$ measure1 proportion1 tru? itself1
 t impresses on my m9d ! c]ta9 idea (   
!m8444 ,x is1 !n1 necess>y to und]/& t !
 s\l1 made 9 ! image ( ,god1 capable (  
und]/&+ tru?1 :i* is ,god himself1      
actually turns t[>ds its orig9al1 t is  
to say1 t[>ds ,god1 :]e ! tru? appe>s to

 x z soon z ,god wills to make ! tru?   
appe> to x4444 ,x is an a/oni%+ ?+ t man
 und]/&s s _m tru?s1 )\t und]/&+ at !   
same "t t all tru? comes f ,god1 t x is 
9 ,god1 t x is ,god himself4444 ,x is   
c]ta9 t ,god is ! primitive reason ( all
 t exi/s & has und]/&+ 9 ! univ]se2 t he
 is ! true orig9al1 & t e ?+ is true by 
relation to 8 et]nal idea1 t seek+ tru? 
is seek+ him1 & t f9d+ tru? is f9d+     
him4444  ,*ap4 v41 sect4 #ad4 ,! s5ses d
 n convey to ! s\l k ( tru?4 ,!y excite 
x1 awak5 x1 & apprize x ( c]ta9 effects3
 x is solicit$ to se>* = causes1 b x    
discov]s !m1 x sees _! connections1 !   
pr9ciples :i* put !m 9 motion1 only 9 a 
sup]ior light t comes f ,god1 or is ,god
 himself4 ,god is1 !n1 tru?1 :i* is     
always ! same to all m9ds1 & ! true     
s\rce ( intellig5ce4 ,= ?is reason      
intellig5ce beholds ! light1 brea!s1 &  
lives4  ,at ! close ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1
 ,leibnitz comes to cr[n ^! great       
te/imonies1 & to complete _! unanimity4 
,"h is a passage f an important treatise

 entitl$1 ,m$itationes de ,cognitione1  
,v]itate et ,idaeis1 9 :i* ,leibnitz    
decl>es t prim>y notions are !          
attributes ( ,god4 ,i "k n1 he says1    
:e!r man c p]fectly acc\nt to himself = 
8 ideas1 except by asc5d+ to prim>y     
ideas = :i* he c no m acc\nt1 t is to   
say1 to ! absolute attributes ( ,god4#fg
  ,! same doctr9e is 9 ! ,pr9cipia      
,philosophiae seu ,!ses 9 ,gratiam      
,pr9cipis ,eug5ii4 ,! intellig5ce ( ,god
 is ! region ( et]nal tru?s1 & ! ideas t
 dep5d ^u !m4#fh  ,!odicea1 "p ii41     
sect4 #ahi4fi ,x mu/ n be said ) !      
,scoti/s t et]nal tru?s w\ld subsi/ if  
!re 7 no und]/&+1 n ev5 t ( ,god4 ,=1 9 
my op9ion1 x is ! div9e und]/&+ t makes 
! reality ( et]nal tru?s4  ,n\veaux     
,essais sur l',ent5dem5t ,huma91 book   
ii41 *ap4 xvii4 ,! idea ( ! absolute is 
9 u int]nally l t ( be+4 ,^! absolutes  
are no?+ else ?an ! attributes ( ,god1 &
 x may be said !y are j z mu* ! s\rce ( 
ideas z ,god is 9 himself ! pr9ciple (  
be+s4  ,ibid41 book iv41 *ap4 xi4 ,b x w

 be dem&$ :]e ^? ideas w\ld be if no m9d
 exi/$1 & :at w\ld !n become ( ! real   
f\ndation ( ?is c]ta9ty ( et]nal tru?s8 
,t br+s u 9 f9e to ! la/ f\ndation (    
tru?s1 to wit1 to t supreme & univ]sal  
m9d :i* _c be de/itute ( exi/5ce1 ^:    
und]/&+1 to speak truly1 is ! region (  
et]nal tru?s1 z ,/4 ,augu/9e saw &      
cle>ly en\gh express$ x4 ,& t x may n be
 ?\ght necess>y to recur to x1 we mu/   
consid] t ^! necess>y tru?s conta9 !    
det]m9at+ reason & ! regulative pr9ciple
 ( exi/5ces !mselves1 &1 9 a ^w1 ! laws 
( ! univ]se4 ,s ^! unnecess>y tru?s1 be+
 ant]ior to ! exi/5ces ( cont+5t be+s1  
mu/ h _! f\ndation 9 ! exi/5ce ( a      
necess>y sub/ance4 ,x is !re t ,i f9d ! 
orig9al ( tru?s :i* are /amp$ ^u our    
s\ls1 n 9 ! =m ( propositions1 b z      
s\rces1 ! application & occasions ( :i* 
w produce actual enunciations4  ,s1 f   
,plato to ,leibnitz1 ! greate/          
metaphysicians h ?\ght t absolute tru?  
is an attribute ( absolute be+4 ,tru? is
 incompreh5sible )\t ,god1 z ,god is    

incompreh5sible )\t tru?4 ,tru? is plac$
 betwe5 human intellig5ce & ! supreme   
intellig5ce1 z a k9d ( m$iator4 ,9 !    
l[e/ degree1 z well z at ! height ( be+1
 ,god is ev]y:]e met1 = tru? is ev]y:]e4
 ,/udy nature1 elevate y\rselves to !   
laws t gov]n x & make ( x z x 7 a liv+  
tru?3--! m pr(\ndly y und]/& its laws1 !
 ne>] y approa* to ,god4 ,/udy1 above   
all1 humanity2 humanity is mu* great]   
?an nature1 = x comes f ,god z well z   
nature1 & kn[s him1 :ile nature is      
ignorant ( him4 ,especially seek & love 
tru?1 & ref] x to ! immortal be+ :o is  
its s\rce4 ,! m y "k ( ! tru?1 ! m y "k 
( ,god4 ,! sci5ces1 s f> f turn+ u away 
f religion1 conduct u to x4 ,physics1 ) 
_! laws1 ma!matics1 ) _! sublime ideas1 
especially philosophy1 :i* _c take a    
s+le /ep )\t enc\nt]+ univ]sal &        
necess>y pr9ciples1 are s _m /ages on ! 
way to ,deity1 &1 ?us to speak1 s _m    
temples 9 :i* homage is p]petually paid 
to him4  ,b 9 ! mid/ ( ^! high          
consid]ations1 let u c>efully gu>d      

ourselves aga9/ two opposite errors1 f  
:i* m5 ( f9e g5ius h n always kn[n h[ to
 pres]ve !mselves1--aga9/ ! error ( mak+
 ! reason ( man purely individual1 &    
aga9/ ! error ( conf\nd+ x ) tru? & !   
div9e reason4#gj ,if ! reason ( man is  
purely individual because x is 9 !      
individual1 x c compreh5d no?+ t is n   
individual1 no?+ t transc5ds ! limits   
:]e9 x is conf9$4 ,n only is x unable to
 elevate itself to any univ]sal &       
necess>y tru?1 n only is x unable to h  
any idea ( x1 ev5 any suspicion ( x1 z  
"o bl9d f 8 bir? c h no suspicion t a   
sun exi/s2 b !re is no p[]1 n ev5 t (   
,god1 t by any means c\ld make p5etrate 
! reason ( man any tru? ( t ord]        
absolutely repugnant to its nature2     
s9ce1 = ?is end1 x w\ld n be suffici5t =
 ,god to light5 our m9d2 x w\ld be      
necess>y to *ange x1 to add to x ano!r  
faculty4 ,nei!r1 on ! o!r h&1 mu/ we1 ) 
,malebran*e1 make ! reason ( man to su* 
a degree imp]sonal t x takes ! place (  
tru? :i* is its object1 & ( ,god :o is  

its pr9ciple4 ,x is tru? t to u is      
absolutely imp]sonal1 & n reason4       
,reason is 9 man1 yet x comes f ,god4   
,h5ce x is individual & f9ite1 :il/ its 
root is 9 ! inf9ite2 x is p]sonal by its
 relation to ! p]son 9 :i* x resides1 & 
mu/ also possess ,i "k n :at "* (       
univ]sality1 ( necessity ev51 9 ord] to 
be capable ( conceiv+ univ]sal &        
necess>y tru?s2 h5ce x seems1 by turns1 
accord+ to ! po9t ( view f :i* x is     
reg>d$1 pitiable & sublime4 ,tru? is 9  
"s sort l5t to human reason1 b x belongs
 to a totally diff]5t reason1 to wit1 t 
supreme1 et]nal1 uncreat$ reason1 :i* is
 ,god himself4 ,! tru? 9 u is no?+ else 
?an our object2 9 ,god1 x is "o ( 8     
attributes1 z well z ju/ice1 hol9ess1   
m]cy1 z we %all subsequ5tly see4 ,god   
exi/s2 & s f> z he exi/s1 he ?9ks1 & 8  
?\ghts are tru?s1 et]nal z himself1 :i* 
are reflect$ 9 ! laws ( ! univ]se1 :i* !
 reason ( man has receiv$ ! p[] to      
atta94 ,tru? is ! (fspr+1 ! utt]ance1 ,i
 0 ab\t to say1 ! et]nal ^w ( ,god1 if x

 is p]mitt$ philosophy to borr[ ?is     
div9e language f t holy religion :i*    
tea*es u to wor%ip ,god 9 _s & 9 tru?4  
,( old1 ! !ory ( ,ideas1 :i* manife/    
,god to m51 & rem9d !m ( him1 _h giv5 to
 ,plato ! surname ( ! precursor2 on     
acc\nt ( t !ory ( ,ideas he 0 de> to ,/4
 ,augu/9e1 & is invok$ by ,bossuet4 ,x  
is by ?is same !ory1 wisely int]pret$1 &
 purifi$ by ! light ( our age1 t ! new  
philosophy is atta*$ to ! tradition (   
great philosophies1 & to t (            
,*ri/ianity4  ,! la/ problem t ! sci5ce 
( ! true pres5t$ is resolv$3--we are 9  
possession ( ! basis ( absolute tru?s4  
,god is sub/ance1 reason1 supreme cause1
 & ! unity ( all ^! tru?s2 ,god1 & ,god 
alone1 is to u ! b\nd>y beyond :i* we h 
no?+ m to seek4  ,,footnotes3  #dd ,see 
our "w entitl$1 ,metaphysics (          
,ari/otle1 #b;d edition1 passim4 ,9     
,ari/otle himself1 see especially       
,metaphysics1 book vii41 *ap4 xii41 &   
book xiii41 *ap4 ix4  #de ,!re are      
d\btless _m o!r ways ( arriv+ at ,god1 z

 we %all successively see2 b ?is is !   
way ( metaphysics4 ,we d n exclude any (
 ! kn[n & accr$it$ pro(s ( ! exi/5ce (  
,god2 b we beg9 ) t :i* gives all !     
o!rs4 ,see fur!r on1 "p ii41 ,god1 !    
,pr9ciple ( ,beauty1 & "p iii41 ,god1 ! 
,pr9ciple ( ! ,good1 & ! la/ lecture1   
:i* sums up ! :ole c\rse4  #df ,we h    
said a ^w on ! ,platonic !ory ( ideas1  
#a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 iv41 p4 #dfa & #ebb4   
,see also1 vol4 ii4 ( ! #b;d ,s]ies1    
lecture #g1 on ,plato & ,ari/otle1      
especially #c;d ,s]ies1 vol4 i41 a few  
words on ! ,language ( ! ,!ory ( ,ideas1
 p4 #aba2 our "w on ! ,metaphysics (    
,ari/otle1 p4 #dh & #adi1 & our         
translation ( ,plato1 passim4  #dg      
,ari/otle fir/ /at$ ?is2 mod]n          
p]ipatetics h repeat$ x2 & aft] !m1 all 
:o h wi%$ to decry ! anci5t philosophy1 
& philosophy 9 g5]al1 by giv+ !         
appe>ance ( absurdity to its mo/        
illu/ri\s repres5tative4  #dh ,see      
p>ticul>ly p4 #aba ( ! ,timaeus1 vol4   
xii4 ( our translation4  #di ,republic1 

book vi41 vol4 x4 ( our translation1 p4 
#eg4  #ej ,republic1 book vii41 p4 #bj4 
#ea ,pha$rus1 vol4 vi41 p4 #ea4  #eb    
,pha$rus1 vol4 vi41 p4 #ee4  #ec ,vol4  
xi41 p4 #bfa4  #ed ,edit4 ,b5$41 vol4   
vi41 p4 #ag3 ,idex sunt =mae qua$am     
pr9cipales et rationes r]um /abiles     
atque incommutabiles1 quae ipsae =matae 
non sunt ac p] hoc aet]nae ac semp]     
eodem modo sese hab5tes1 quae 9 div9a   
intellig5tia cont95tur4444  #ee ,edit4  
,b5$41 vol4 vi41 p4 #ah4 ,s+ula igitur  
propriis creata sunt rationibus4 ,has   
autem rationes ubi arbitr&um e/ esse    
nisi 9 m5te ,creatoris8 non enim extra  
se quidquam intuebatur1 ut secundum id  
con/itu]et quod con/ituebat3 nam hoc    
op9>i sacrilegum e/4  #ef ,ibid4 ,see   
also1 book ( ! ,confessions1 book ii4 ( 
! ,free ,w1 book xii4 ( ! ,tr9ity1 book 
vii4 ( ! ,city ( ,god1 c4  #eg ,summa   
totius !ologiae4 ,primae p>tis quae/4   
xii4 art4 #aa4 ,ad t]tium dic5dum1 quod 
omnia dicimus 9 ,deo vid]e1 et secundum 
ipsum de omnibus judic>e1 9 quantum p]  

p>ticipationem sui lum9is omnia         
cognoscimus et dijudicamus4 ,nam et     
ipsum lum5 naturale rationis p>ticipatio
 qua$am e/ div9i lum9is4  #eh ,on !     
doctr9e ( ,desc>tes1 & on ! pro( ( !    
exi/5ce ( ,god & ! true process t he    
employs1 see #a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 iv41      
lecture #ab1 p4 #fd1 lecture #bb1 p4    
#eji-eah2 vol4 v41 lecture #f1 p4 #bje2 
#b;d ,s]ies1 vol4 xi41 lecture #aa2     
especially ! ?ree articles1 already     
cit$1 ( ! ,j\rnal des ,savants = ! ye>  
#ahej4  #ei ,see on ,malebran*e1 #b;d   
,s]ies1 lecture #b1 & #c;d ,s]ies1 vol4 
iii41 ,mod]n ,philosophy1 z well z !    
,fragm5ts ( ,c>tesian ,philosophy2      
preface ( ! #a/ edition ( our           
,pascal3--,on ?is basis1 s pure1        
,malebran*e is n /eady2 is excessive &  
ra%1 ,i "k2 n>r[ & extreme1 ,i d n fe>  
to say2 b always sublime1 express+ only 
"o side ( ,plato1 b express+ x 9 a :olly
 ,*ri/ian _s & 9 angelic language4      
,malebran*e is a ,desc>tes :o /rays1    
hav+ f\nd div9e w+s1 & lo/ all          

connection ) ! e>?4  #fj ,we use ! only 
good edition ( ! treatise on ! ,exi/5ce 
( ,god1 t :i* ! ,abbe ,gossel9 has giv5 
9 ! collection ( ! ,works ( ,f5elon4    
,v]sailles1 #ahbj4 ,see vol4 i41 p4 #hj4
  #fa ,edit4 de ,v]sailles1 p4 #ade4    
#fb ,x is n necess>y to rem>k h[        
incorrect are ! expressions1            
repres5tation ( ! inf9ite1 image ( !    
inf9ite1 especially inf9ite image ( !   
inf9ite4 ,we _c repres5t to ourselves1  
we _c imag9e to ourselves ! inf9ite4 ,we
 conceive ! inf9ite2 ! inf9ite is n an  
object ( ! imag9ation1 b ( ! und]/&+1 ( 
reason4 ,see #a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 v41       
lecture #f1 p4 #bbc1 #bbd4  #fc ,by a   
trifl+ ana*ronism1 = :i* we %all be     
p>don$1 we h "h jo9$ to ! ,traite de la 
,connaissance de ,dieu et de ,soi-meme1 
s long kn[n1 ! ,logique1 :i* 0 only     
publi%$ 9 #ahbh4  #fd #d? ,s]ies1 vol4  
i41 preface ( ! #a/ edition ( ,pascal3  
,bossuet1 ) m mod]ation1 & support$ by a
 good s5se :i* no?+ c %ake1 is1 9 8 way1
 a disciple ( ! same doctr9e1 only !    

extremes ( :i* accord+ to 8 cu/om1 he   
%unn$4 ,?is great m9d1 :i* may h        
sup]iors 9 inv5tion1 b has no equal =   
=ce 9 common s5se1 0 v c>eful n to place
 revelation & philosophy 9 opposition to
 ea* o!r3 he f\nd x ! saf] & tru] way to
 give to ea* its due1 to borr[ f        
philosophy :atev] natural light x c     
give1 9 ord] to increase x 9 turn ) !   
sup]natural light1 ( :i* ! ,*ur* has be5
 made ! depository4 ,x is 9 ?is sov]eign
 good s5se1 capable ( compreh5d+ e ?+1 &
 unit+ e ?+1 t resides ! supreme        
orig9ality ( ,bossuet4 ,he %unn$        
p>ticul> op9ions z small m9ds seek !m = 
! triumph ( self-love4 ,he did n ?9k (  
himself2 he only se>*$ = tru?1 & :]ev]  
he f\nd x he li/5$ to x1 well assur$ t  
if ! connection betwe5 tru?s ( diff]5t  
ord]s sometimes escapes u1 x is no      
reason = clos+ ! eyes to any tru?4 ,if  
we wi%$ to give a s*ola/ic "n to        
,bossuet1 accord+ to ! cu/om ( ! ,middle
 ,age1 we w\ld h to call him !          
infallible doctor4 ,he is n only "o ( ! 

highe/1 he is also "o ( ! be/ & solide/ 
intellig5ces t ev] exi/$2 & ?is great   
conciliator has easily reconcil$        
religion & philosophy1 ,/4 ,augu/9e &   
,desc>tes1 tradition & reason4  #fe ,!  
be/1 or1 r1 only good edition is t :i* 0
 publi%$ f an au!ntic copy1 9 #ahdf1 by 
,lec(fre4  #ff ,^! words1 d'une c]ta9e  
mani]e qui m'e/ incompreh5sible1 c'e/ en
 lui1 dis-je1 are n 9 ! fir/ edition (  
#agbb4  #fg ,leibnitzii ,op]a1 edit4    
,deut5s1 vol4 ii41 p4 #ag4  #fh ,ibid41 
p4 #bd4  #fi #a/ edition1 ,am/]dam1     
#agaj1 p4 #ced1 edit4 ( ,m4 de ,jauc\rt1
 ,am/]dam1 #agdg1 vol4 ii41 p4 #ic4  #gj
 ,we h _m times designat$ ^! two rocks1 
= example1 #b;d ,s]ies1 vol4 i41 lecture
 #e1 p4 #ib3--,"o _c help smil+ :51 9   
our times1 he he>s individual reason    
spok5 aga9/4 ,9 tru? x is a great wa/e (
 declamation1 = ! reason is n           
individual2 if x 71 we %\ld gov]n x z we
 gov]n our resolutions & our volitions1 
we c\ld at any mom5t *ange its acts1 t  
is to say1 our conceptions4 ,if ^!      

conceptions 7 m]ely individual1 we %\ld 
n ?9k ( impos+ !m ^u ano!r individual1 =
 to impose our own individual & p]sonal 
conceptions on ano!r individual1 on     
ano!r p]son1 w\ld be ! mo/ extravagant  
despotism4444 ,we call ^? mad :o d n    
admit ! relations ( numb]s1 ! diff]5ce  
betwe5 ! beautiful & ! ugly1 ! j & !    
unju/4 ,:y8 ,because we "k t x is n !   
individual t con/itutes ^! conceptions1 
or1 9 o!r t]ms1 we "k t ! reason has    
some?+ univ]sal & absolute1 t ^u ?is    
gr\nd x obligates all individuals2 & an 
individual1 at ! same "t t he kn[s t he 
himself is obligat$ by x1 kn[s t all    
o!rs are obligat$ by x on ! same        
gr\nd4--,ibid41 p4 #ic3 ,tru?           
misconceiv$ is !reby nei!r alt]$ nor    
de/roy$2 x subsi/s indep5d5tly ( !      
reason t p]ceives x or p]ceives x ill4  
,tru? 9 itself is indep5d5t ( our       
reason4 ,its true subject is ! univ]sal 
& absolute reason4     ,,lecture ,v4    
,,on ,,my/icism4      ,di/9ction betwe5 
! philosophy t we pr(ess &     my/icism4

 ,my/icism consi/s 9 pret5d+ to "k ,god 
)\t     an int]m$i>y4--,two sorts (     
my/icism4--,my/icism (     s5tim5t4     
,!ory ( s5sibility4 ,two s5sibilities--!
 "o     ext]nal1 ! o!r int]nal1 &       
correspond+ to ! s\l z     ext]nal      
s5sibility corresponds to               
nature4--,legitimate "p (               
s5tim5t4--,its                          
ab]rations4--,philosophical my/icism4   
,plot9us3     ,god1 or absolute unity1  
p]ceiv$ )\t an int]m$i>y by     pure    
?\ght4--,ec/asy4--,mixture ( sup]/ition 
& ab/raction     9                      
my/icism4--,conclusion ( ! fir/ "p ( !  
c\rse4   ,:e!r we turn our att5tion to !
 =ces & ! laws t animate & gov]n matt]  
)\t belong+ to x1 or z ! ord] ( our     
labors calls u to d1 reflect ^u !       
univ]sal & necess>y tru?s :i* our m9d   
discov]s b does n con/itute1 ! lea/     
sy/ematic use ( reason makes u naturally
 conclude f ! =ces & laws ( ! univ]se t 
!re is a fir/ intellig5t mov]1 & f      
necess>y tru?s t !re is a necess>y be+  

:o alone is _! sub/ance4 ,we d n p]ceive
 ,god1 b we conceive him1 ^u ! fai? (   
?is admirable _w expos$ to our view1 &  
^u t ( ?is o!r _w1 m admirable /ill1 :i*
 we be> 9 ourselves4 ,by ?is d\ble road 
we succe$ 9 go+ to ,god4 ,?is natural   
c\rse is t ( all m53 x mu/ be suffici5t 
= a s\nd philosophy4 ,b !re are feeble &
 presumptu\s m9ds t d n "k h[ to g ?us  
f>1 or d n "k h[ to /op !re4 ,conf9$ to 
exp]i5ce1 !y d n d>e to conclude f :at  
!y see 9 :at !y d n see1 z if at all    
times1 at ! sight ( ! fir/ ph5om5on t   
appe>s to _! eyes1 !y did n admit t ?is 
ph5om5on has a cause1 ev5 :5 ?is cause  
does n come )9 ! rea* ( _! s5ses4 ,!y d 
n p]ceive x1 yet !y believe 9 x1 = !    
simple reason t !y necess>ily conceive  
x4 ,man & ! univ]se are also facts t _c 
b h a cause1 al?\gh ?is cause may nei!r 
be se5 by our eyes nor t\*$ by our h&s4 
,reason has be5 giv5 u = ! v purpose (  
go+1 & )\t any circuit ( reason+1 f !   
visible to ! invisible1 f ! f9ite to !  
inf9ite1 f ! imp]fect to ! p]fect1 &    

also1 f necess>y & univ]sal tru?s1 :i*  
surr\nd u on e side1 to _! et]nal &     
necess>y pr9ciple4 ,su* is ! natural &  
legitimate be>+ ( reason4 ,x possesses  
an evid5ce ( :i* x r5d]s no acc\nt1 & is
 n !reby less irresi/ible to :omsoev]   
does n und]take to conte/ ) ,god !      
v]acity ( ! faculties :i* he has        
receiv$4 ,b "o does n revolt aga9/      
reason ) impunity4 ,x puni%es our false 
wisdom by giv+ u up to extravagance4 ,:5
 "o has conf9$ himself to ! n>r[ limits 
( :at he directly p]ceives1 he is smo!r$
 by ^! limits1 wi%es to g out ( !m at   
any price1 & invokes "s o!r means (     
kn[+2 he did n d>e to admit ! exi/5ce ( 
an invisible ,god1 & n[ behold him      
aspir+ to ent] into imm$iate            
communication ) him1 z ) s5sible        
objects1 & ! objects ( consci\sness4 ,x 
is an extreme feebl5ess = a rational be+
 ?us to d\bt reason1 & x is an incr$ible
 ra%ness1 9 ?is despair ( intellig5ce1  
to dream ( direct communication ) ,god4 
,?is desp]ate & ambiti\s dream is       

my/icism4  ,x behooves u to sep>ate )   
c>e ?is *im]a1 t is n )\t dang]1 f !    
cause t we def5d4 ,x behooves u s mu* ! 
m to op5ly break ) my/icism1 z x seems  
to t\* u m ne>ly1 z x pret5ds to be !   
la/ ^w ( philosophy1 & z by an appe>ance
 ( greatness x is able to s$uce _m a    
noble s\l1 especially at "o ( ^? epo*s (
 lassitude1 :51 aft] ! cruel            
disappo9tm5t ( excessive hopes1 human   
reason1 hav+ lo/ fai? 9 its own p[] )\t 
hav+ lo/ ! ne$ ( ,god1 9 ord] to satisfy
 ?is immortal ne$1 addresses itself to e
 ?+ except itself1 & 9 fault ( kn[+ h[  
to g to ,god by ! way t is op5 to x1    
?r[s itself out ( common s5se1 & tries !
 new1 ! *im]ical1 ev5 ! absurd1 9 ord]  
to atta9 ! impossible4  ,my/icism       
conta9s a pusillanim\s skepticism 9 !   
place ( reason1 &1 at ! same "t1 a fai? 
bl9d & c>ri$ ev5 to ! oblivion ( all !  
conditions impos$ ^u human nature4 ,to  
conceive ,god "u ! transp>5t veil ( !   
univ]se & above ! highe/ tru?s1 is at   
once too mu* & too little = my/icism4 ,x

 does n believe t x kn[s ,god1 if x kn[s
 him only 9 8 manife/ations & by ! signs
 ( 8 exi/5ce3 x wi%es to p]ceive him    
directly1 x wi%es to be unit$ to him1   
sometimes by s5tim5t1 sometimes by "s   
o!r extraord9>y process4  ,s5tim5t plays
 s important a "p 9 my/icism1 t our fir/
 c>e mu/ be to inve/igate ! nature &    
prop] function ( ?is int]e/+ & hi!rto   
ill-/udi$ "p ( human nature4  ,x is     
necess>y to di/+ui% s5tim5t well f      
s5sation4 ,!re are1 9 "s sort1 two      
s5sibilities3 "o is direct$ to ! ext]nal
 _w1 & is *>g$ ) transmitt+ to ! s\l !  
impressions t x sees2 ! o!r is :olly    
int]ior1 & is relat$ to ! s\l z ! o!r is
 to nature1--its function is to receive 
! impression1 &1 z x 71 ! reb\nd ( :at  
passes 9 ! s\l4 ,h we discov]$ any tru?8
 !re is some?+ 9 u :i* feels joy on     
acc\nt ( x4 ,h we p]=m$ a good action8  
we receive our rew>d 9 a feel+ (        
satisfaction less vivid1 b m delicate & 
m durable ?an all ! agreeable s5sations 
t come f ! body4 ,x seems z if          

intellig5ce also _h its intimate organ1 
:i* suff]s or enjoys1 accord+ to ! /ate 
( ! intellig5ce4 ,we be> 9 ourselves a  
pr(\nd s\rce ( emotion1 at once physical
 & moral1 :i* expresses ! union ( our   
two natures4 ,! animal does n g beyond  
s5sation1 & pure ?\ght belongs only to !
 angelic nature4 ,! s5tim5t t p>takes ( 
s5sation & ?\ght is ! portion (         
humanity4 ,s5tim5t is1 x is true1 only  
an e*o ( reason2 b ?is e*o is sometimes 
bett] und]/ood ?an reason itself1       
because x res\nds 9 ! mo/ intimate1 !   
mo/ delicate portions ( ! s\l1 & moves !
 entire man4  ,x is a s+ul>1 b          
inconte/able fact1 t z soon z reason has
 conceiv$ tru?1 ! s\l atta*es itself to 
x1 & loves x4 ,yes1 ! s\l loves tru?4 ,x
 is a wond]ful ?+ t a be+ /ray$ into "o 
corn] ( ! univ]se1 alone *>g$ ) su/a9+  
himself aga9/ s _m ob/acles1 :o1 x w\ld 
seem1 has en\gh to d to ?9k ( himself1  
to pres]ve & some:at embelli% 8 life1 is
 capable ( lov+ :at is n relat$ to him1 
& exi/s only 9 an invisible _w6 ,?is    

dis9t]e/$ love ( tru? gives evid5ce ( ! 
greatness ( him :o feels x4  ,reason    
takes "o /ep m3--x is n cont5t$ ) tru?1 
ev5 absolute tru?1 :5 conv9c$ t x       
possesses x ill1 t x does n possess x z 
x really is2 z long z x has n plac$ x ^u
 its et]nal basis2 hav+ arriv$ !re1 x   
/ops z be=e its impassable b>ri]1 hav+  
no?+ m to seek1 no?+ m to f9d4 ,s5tim5t 
foll[s reason1 to :i* x is atta*$2 x    
/ops1 x re/s1 only 9 ! love ( ! inf9ite 
be+4  ,9 fact1 x is ! inf9ite t we love1
 :ile we believe t we are lov+ f9ite    
?+s1 ev5 :ile lov+ tru?1 beauty1 virtue4
 ,& s surely is x ! inf9ite itself t    
attracts & *>ms u1 t its highe/         
manife/ations d n satisfy u until we h  
ref]r$ !m to _! immortal s\rce4 ,! he>t 
is insatiable1 because x aspires aft] ! 
inf9ite4 ,?is s5tim5t1 ?is ne$ ( !      
inf9ite1 is at ! f\ndation ( ! greate/  
passions1 & ! mo/ trifl+ desires4 ,a    
sigh ( ! s\l 9 ! pres5ce ( ! />ry       
heav5s1 ! melan*oly atta*$ to ! passion 
( glory1 to ambition1 to all ! great    

emotions ( ! s\l1 express x bett] )\t   
d\bt1 b !y d n express x m ?an ! caprice
 & mobility ( ^? vulg> loves1 w&]+ f    
object to object 9 a p]petual circle (  
ard5t desires1 ( poignant disquietudes1 
& m\rnful dis5*antm5ts4  ,let u         
designate ano!r relation betwe5 reason &
 s5tim5t4  ,! m9d at fir/ precipitates  
itself t[>ds its object )\t r5d]+ to    
itself an acc\nt ( :at x does1 ( :at x  
p]ceives1 ( :at x feels4 ,b1 ) ! faculty
 ( ?9k+1 ( feel+1 x has also t ( will+2 
x possesses ! lib]ty ( return+ to       
itself1 ( reflect+ on its own ?\ght &   
s5tim5t1 ( cons5t+ to ?is1 or ( resi/+  
x1 ( ab/a9+ f x1 or ( reproduc+ its     
?\ght & s5tim5t1 :ile /amp+ !m ) a new  
"*4 ,spontaneity1 reflection1--^! are ! 
two great =ms ( intellig5ce4#ga ,"o is n
 ! o!r2 b1 aft] all1 ! latt] does little
 m ?an develop ! =m]2 !y conta9 at      
bottom ! same ?+s3--! po9t ( view alone 
is diff]5t4 ,e ?+ t is spontane\s is    
obscure & confus$2 reflection c>ries ) x
 a cle> & di/9ct view4  ,reason does n  

beg9 by reflection2 x does n at fir/    
p]ceive ! tru? z univ]sal & necess>y2   
consequ5tly1 :5 x passes f idea to be+1 
:5 x ref]s tru? to ! real be+ t is its  
subject1 x has n s\nd$1 x ev5 has no    
suspicion ( ! dep? ( ! *asm x passes2 x 
passes x by means ( ! p[] :i* is 9 x1 b 
x is n a/oni%$ at :at x has done4 ,x is 
subsequ5tly a/oni%$1 & und]takes by !   
aid ( ! lib]ty ) :i* x is end[$1 to d ! 
opposite ( :at x has done1 to d5y :at x 
has affirm$4 ,"h comm5ces ! /rife betwe5
 sophism & common s5se1 betwe5 false    
sci5ce & natural tru?1 betwe5 good & bad
 philosophy1 bo? ( :i* come f free      
reflection4 ,! sad & sublime privilege (
 reflection is error2 b reflection is ! 
rem$y = ! evil x produces4 ,if x c d5y  
natural tru?1 usually x confirms x1     
returns to common s5se by a long] or    
%ort] circuit2 x opposes 9 va9 all !    
t5d5cies ( human nature1 by :i* x is    
almo/ always ov]come1 & br\ght back     
submissive to ! fir/ inspirations (     
reason1 =tifi$ by ?is trial4 ,b !re is  

no?+ m 9 ! end ?an !re 0 at ! beg9n+2   
only 9 primitive inspiration !re 0 a p[]
 :i* 0 ignorant ( itself1 & 9 !         
legitimate results ( reflection !re is a
 p[] :i* kn[s itself3--"o is ! triumph (
 in/9ct1 ! o!r1 t ( true sci5ce4        
,s5tim5t :i* accompanies intellig5ce 9  
all its proce$+s pres5ts ! same ph5om5a4
  ,! he>t1 l reason1 pursues ! inf9ite1 
& ! only diff]5ce !re is 9 ^! pursuits  
is1 t sometimes ! he>t seeks ! inf9ite  
)\t kn[+ t x seeks x1 & sometimes x     
r5d]s to itself an acc\nt ( ! f9al end (
 ! ne$ ( lov+ :at di/urbs x4 ,:5        
reflection is add$ to love1 if x f9ds t 
! object lov$ is 9 fact wor?y ( be+     
lov$1 f> f enfeebl+ love1 x /r5g!ns x2  
f> f clipp+ its div9e w+s1 x develops   
!m1 & n\ri%es !m1 z ,plato#gb says4 ,b  
if ! object ( love is only a symbol ( ! 
true beauty1 only capable ( excit+ !    
desire ( ! s\l )\t satisfy+ x1          
reflection breaks ! *>m :i* held ! he>t1
 dissipates ! *im]a t en*a9$ x4 ,x mu/  
be v sure 9 reg>d to its atta*m5ts1 9   

ord] to d>e to put !m to ! pro( (       
reflection4 ,o ,psy*e6 ,psy*e6 pres]ve  
?y good =tune2 d n s\nd ! my/]y too     
deeply4 ,take c>e n to br+ ! fe>ful     
light ne> ! invisible lov] ) :om ?y s\l 
is enamor$4 ,at ! fir/ ray ( ! fatal    
lamp love is awak5$1 & flies away4 ,*>m+
 image ( :at takes place 9 ! s\l1 :5 to 
! s]5e & unsuspect+ confid5ce ( s5tim5t 
succe$s reflection ) its bitt] tra94    
,?is is p]haps also ! mean+ ( ! biblical
 acc\nt ( ! tree ( k4#gc ,be=e sci5ce & 
reflection are innoc5ce & fai?4 ,sci5ce 
& reflection at fir/ eng5d] d\bt1       
disquietude1 di/a/e = :at "o possesses1 
! di/urb$ pursuit ( :at "o kn[s n1      
tr\bles ( m9d & s\l1 sore travail (     
?\ght1 &1 9 life1 _m faults1 until      
innoc5ce1 =ev] lo/1 is replac$ by       
virtue1 simple fai? by true sci5ce1     
until love1 ?r\gh s _m vani%+ illusions1
 f9ally succe$s 9 rea*+ its true object4
  ,spontane\s love has ! native grace ( 
ignorance & happ9ess4 ,reflective love  
is v diff]5t2 x is s]i\s1 x is great1   

ev5 9 its faults1 ) ! greatness (       
lib]ty4 ,let u n be 9 ha/e to condemn   
reflection3 if x (t5 produces egotism1 x
 also produces devotion4 ,:at1 9 fact1  
is self-devotion8 ,x is giv+ ourselves  
freely1 ) full k ( :at we are do+4 ,!re9
 consi/s ! sublimity ( love1 love wor?y 
( a noble & g5]\s creature1 n an        
ignorant & bl9d love4 ,:5 affection has 
conqu]$ selfi%ness1 in/ead ( lov+ its   
object = its own sake1 ! s\l gives      
itself to its object1 & miracle ( love1 
! m x gives ! m x possesses1 n\ri%+     
itself by its own sacrifices1 & f9d+ its
 /r5g? & its joy 9 its entire           
self-ab&onm5t4 ,b !re is only "o be+ :o 
is wor?y ( be+ ?us lov$1 & :o c be ?us  
lov$ )\t illusions1 & )\t mi/akes1 at   
once )\t limits1 & )\t regret1 to wit1 !
 p]fect be+ :o alone does n fe>         
reflection1 :o alone c fill ! entire    
capacity ( our he>t4  ,my/icism corrupts
 s5tim5t by exagg]at+ its p[]4          
,my/icism beg9s by suppress+ 9 man      
reason1 or1 at lea/1 x subord9ates &    

sacrifices reason to s5tim5t4  ,li/5 to 
my/icism3 x says t by ! he>t alone is   
man 9 relation ) ,god4 ,all t is great1 
beautiful1 inf9ite1 et]nal1 love alone  
reveals to u4 ,reason is only a ly+     
faculty4 ,because x may err1 & does err1
 x is said t x always errs4 ,reason is  
conf\nd$ ) e ?+ t x is n4 ,! errors ( ! 
s5ses1 & ( reason+1 ! illusions ( !     
imag9ation1 ev5 ! extravagances (       
passion1 :i* sometimes give rise to ^? (
 m9d1 e ?+ is laid to ! *>ge ( reason4  
,its imp]fections are triumph$ ov]1 its 
mis]ies are complac5tly exhibit$2 ! mo/ 
audaci\s dogmatical sy/em--s9ce x       
aspires to put man & ,god 9 imm$iate    
communication--borr[s aga9/ reason all !
 arms ( skepticism4  ,my/icism goes     
f>!r3 x attacks lib]ty itself2 x ord]s  
lib]ty to r5\nce itself1 9 ord] to      
id5tify itself by love ) him f :om !    
inf9ite sep>ates u4 ,! ideal ( virtue is
 no long] ! c\rage\s p]sev]ance ( ! good
 man1 :o1 9 /ruggl+ aga9/ temptation &  
suff]+1 makes life holy2 x is no long] !

 free & enlight5$ devotion ( a lov+ s\l2
 x is ! entire & bl9d ab&onm5t (        
ourselves1 ( our w1 ( our be+1 9 a b>r5 
contemplation ( ?\ght1 9 a pray] )\t    
utt]ance1 & almo/ )\t consci\sness4  ,! 
s\rce ( my/icism is 9 t incomplete view 
( human nature1 :i* kn[s n h[ to disc]n 
9 x :at !re9 is mo/ pr(\nd1 :i* betakes 
itself to :at is !re9 mo/ /rik+1 mo/    
seiz+1 &1 consequ5tly1 also mo/         
seizable4 ,we h already said t reason is
 n noisy1 & (t5 is n he>d1 :il/ its e*o 
( s5tim5t l\dly res\nds4 ,9 ?is comp\nd 
ph5om5on1 x is natural t ! mo/ app>5t   
elem5t %\ld cov] & dim ! mo/ obscure4   
,moreov]1 :at relations1 :at deceptive  
resemblances betwe5 ^! two faculties6   
,)\t d\bt1 9 _! developm5t1 !y manife/ly
 diff]2 :5 reason becomes reason+1 "o   
easily di/+ui%es its heavy movem5t f !  
flight ( s5tim5t2 b spontane\s reason is
 almo/ conf\nd$ ) s5tim5t1--!re is !    
same rapidity1 ! same obscurity4 ,add t 
!y pursue ! same object1 & almo/ always 
g toge!r4 ,x is n1 !n1 a/oni%+ t !y %\ld

 be conf\nd$4  ,a wise philosophy       
di/+ui%es#gd !m )\t sep>at+ !m4         
,analysis demon/rates t reason prec$es1 
& t s5tim5t foll[s4 ,h[ c we love :at we
 are ignorant (8 ,9 ord] to enjoy !     
tru?1 is x n necess>y to "k x m or less8
 ,9 ord] to be mov$ by c]ta9 ideas1 is x
 n necess>y to h possess$ !m 9 "s       
degree8 ,to absorb reason 9 s5tim5t is  
to /ifle ! cause 9 ! effect4 ,:5 "o     
speaks ( ! light ( ! he>t1 he           
designates1 )\t kn[+ x1 t light ( !     
spontane\s reason :i* discov]s to u tru?
 by a pure & imm$iate intuition entirely
 opposite to ! sl[ & labori\s processes 
( ! reflective reason & reason+4        
,s5tim5t by itself is a s\rce ( emotion1
 n ( k4 ,! sole faculty ( k is reason4  
,at bottom1 if s5tim5t is diff]5t f     
s5sation1 x nev]!less p]ta9s on all     
sides to g5]al s5sibility1 & x is1 l x1 
v>iable2 x has1 l x1 its int]ruptions1  
its vivacity1 & its lassitude1 its      
exaltation & its %ort-com+s4 ,!         
inspirations ( s5tim5t1 !n1 :i* are     

ess5tially mobile & individual1 _c be   
rais$ to a univ]sal & absolute rule4 ,x 
is n s ) reason2 x is con/antly ! same 9
 ea* "o ( u1 ! same 9 all m54 ,! laws t 
gov]n its ex]cise con/itute ! common    
legislation ( all intellig5t be+s4 ,!re 
is no intellig5ce t does n conceive "s  
univ]sal & necess>y tru?1 &1            
consequ5tly1 ! inf9ite be+ :o is its    
pr9ciple4 ,^! gr& objects be+ once kn[n 
excite 9 ! s\ls ( all m5 ! emotions t we
 h endeavor$ to describe4 ,^! emotions  
p>take ( ! dignity ( reason & ! mobility
 ( imag9ation & s5sibility4 ,s5tim5t is 
! h>moni\s & liv+ relation betwe5 reason
 & s5sibility4 ,suppress "o ( ! two     
t]ms1 & :at becomes ( ! relation8       
,my/icism pret5ds to elevate man        
directly to ,god1 & does n see t 9      
depriv+ reason ( its p[]1 x really      
deprives him ( t :i* makes him "k ,god1 
& puts him 9 a j communication ) ,god by
 ! int]m$i>y ( et]nal & inf9ite tru?4   
,! fundam5tal error ( my/icism is1 t x  
disc>ds ?is int]m$i>y1 z if x 7 a b>ri] 

& n a tie3 x makes ! inf9ite be+ !      
direct object ( love4 ,b su* a love c be
 su/a9$ only by sup]human ef=ts t end 9 
folly4 ,love t5ds to unite itself ) its 
object3 my/icism absorbs love 9 its     
object4 ,h5ce ! extravagances ( t       
my/icism s sev]ely & s ju/ly condemn$ by
 ,bossuet & ! ,*ur* 9 quietism4#ge      
,quietism lulls to sleep ! activity (   
man1 ext+ui%es 8 intellig5ce1 sub/itutes
 indol5t & irregul> contemplation = !   
seek+ ( tru? & ! fulfilm5t ( duty4 ,!   
true union ( ! s\l ) ,god is made by    
tru? & virtue4 ,e o!r union is a *im]a1 
a p]il1 sometimes a crime4 ,x is n      
p]mitt$ man to reject1 "u any pretext1 t
 :i* makes him man1 t :i* r5d]s him     
capable ( compreh5d+ ,god1 & express+ 9 
himself an imp]fect image ( ,god1 t is  
to say1 reason1 lib]ty1 consci5ce4 ,)\t 
d\bt1 virtue has its prud5ce1 & if we   
mu/ nev] yield to passion1 !re are      
div]se ways ( combat+ x 9 ord] to conqu]
 x4 ,"o c let x subside1 & resignation &
 sil5ce may h _! legitimate employm5t4  

,!re is a portion ( tru?1 ( utility ev51
 9 ! ,spiritual ,lett]s1 ev5 9 ! ,maxims
 ( ! ,sa9ts4 ,b1 9 g5]al1 x is unsafe to
 anticipate 9 ?is _w ! pr]ogatives (    
dea?1 & to dream ( sanctity :5 virtue   
alone is requir$ ( u1 :5 virtue is s    
difficult to atta91 ev5 imp]fectly4 ,!  
be/ quietism c1 at mo/1 be only a halt 9
 ! c\rse1 a truce 9 ! /rife1 or r ano!r 
mann] ( combat+4 ,x is n by flight t    
battles are ga9$2 9 ord] to ga9 !m x is 
necess>y to come to an engagem5t1 s mu* 
! m z duty consi/s 9 combat+ /ill m ?an 
9 conqu]+4 ,( ! two opposite            
extremes--/oicism & quietism--! fir/1   
tak5 all 9 all1 is pref]able to !       
second2 = if x does n always elevate man
 to ,god1 x ma9ta9s1 at lea/1 human     
p]sonality1 lib]ty1 consci5ce1 :il/     
quietism1 9 aboli%+ ^!1 aboli%es !      
entire man4 ,oblivion ( life & its      
duties1 in]tness1 slo?1 dea? ( s\l1--su*
 are ! fruits ( t love ( ,god1 :i* is   
lo/ 9 ! /]ile contemplation ( its       
object1 provid$ x does n cause /ill     

sadd] ab]rations6 ,!re comes a mom5t :5 
! s\l t believes itself unit$ ) ,god1   
puff$ up ) ?is imag9>y possession1      
despises bo? ! body & human p]sonality  
to su* an ext5t t all its actions become
 indiff]5t to x1 & good & evil are 9 its
 eyes ! same4 ,?us x is t fanatical     
sects h be5 se5 m+l+ crime & devotion1  
f9d+ 9 "o ! excuse1 (t5 ev5 ! motive1 ( 
! o!r1 & prefac+ infam\s irregul>ities  
or abom9able cruelties ) my/ic          
transports1--deplorable consequ5ces ( ! 
*im]a ( pure love1 ( ! pret5sion (      
s5tim5t to rule ov] reason1 to s]ve     
alone z a guide to ! human s\l1 & to put
 itself 9 direct communication ) ,god1  
)\t ! int]m$i>y ( ! visible _w1 & )\t ! 
/ill sur] int]m$i>y ( intellig5ce &     
tru?4  ,b x is "t to pass to ano!r k9d (
 my/icism1 m s+ul>1 m le>n$1 m ref9$1 & 
q z unreasonable1 al?\gh x pres5ts      
itself 9 ! v "n ( reason4  ,we h se5#gf 
t reason1 if "o ( ! pr9ciples :i* gov]n 
x be de/roy$1 _c lay hold ( tru?1 n ev5 
absolute tru?s ( ! intellectual & moral 

ord]2 x ref]s all univ]sal1 necess>y1   
absolute tru?s1 to ! be+ t alone c      
expla9 !m1 because 9 him alone are      
necess>y & absolute exi/5ce1            
immutability1 & inf9ity4 ,god is !      
sub/ance ( uncreat$ tru?s1 z he is !    
cause ( creat$ exi/5ces4 ,necess>y tru?s
 f9d 9 ,god _! natural subject4 ,if ,god
 has n arbitr>ily made !m1--:i* is n 9  
accordance ) _! ess5ce & 81--he         
con/itutes !m1 inasmu* z !y are himself4
 ,8 intellig5ce possesses !m z !        
manife/ations ( itself4 ,z long z our   
intellig5ce has n ref]r$ !m to ! div9e  
intellig5ce1 !y are to x an effect )\t  
cause1 a ph5om5on )\t sub/ance4 ,x ref]s
 !m1 !n1 to _! cause & _! sub/ance4 ,& 9
 t x obeys an imp]ative ne$1 a fix$     
pr9ciple ( reason4  ,my/icism breaks 9  
"s sort ! ladd] t elevates u to inf9ite 
sub/ance3 x reg>ds ?is sub/ance alone1  
indep5d5tly#gg ( ! tru? t manife/s x1 & 
x imag9es itself to possess also ! pure 
absolute1 pure unity1 be+ 9 itself4 ,!  
advantage :i* my/icism "h seeks1 is to  

give to ?\ght an object :]e9 !re is no  
mixture1 no division1 no multiplicity1  
:]e9 e s5sible & human elem5t has       
entirely disappe>$4 ,b 9 ord] to obta9  
?is advantage1 x mu/ pay ! co/ ( x4 ,x  
is a v simple means ( free+ !odicea f e 
%ade ( an?ropomorphism2 x is r$uc+ ,god 
to an ab/raction1 to ! ab/raction ( be+ 
9 itself4 ,be+ 9 itself1 x is true1 is  
free f all division1 b ^u ! condition t 
x h no attribute1 no quality1 & ev5 t x 
be depriv$ ( k & intellig5ce2 =         
intellig5ce1 if elevat$ z x might be1   
always supposes ! di/9ction betwe5 !    
intellig5t subject & ! intelligible     
object4 ,a ,god f :om absolute unity    
excludes intellig5ce1 is ! ,god ( !     
my/ic philosophy4  ,h[ c\ld ! s*ool (   
,alex&ria1 h[ c\ld ,plot9us1 its        
f\nd]1#gh 9 ! mid/ ( ! lights ( ! ,greek
 & ,lat9 civilization1 h arriv$ at su* a
 /range notion ( ! ,div9ity8 ,by ! abuse
 ( ,platonism1 by ! corruption ( ! be/ &
 sev]e/ me?od1 t ( ,socrates & ,plato4  
,! ,platonic me?od1 ! dialectic process1

 z its au?or calls x1 se>*es 9 p>ticul>1
 v>iable1 cont+5t ?+s1 = :at !y also h  
g5]al1 durable1 "o1 t is to say1 _!     
,idea1 & is ?us elevat$ to ,ideas1 z to 
! only true objects ( intellig5ce1 9    
ord] to be elevat$ /ill f ^! ,ideas1 :i*
 are arrang$ 9 an admirable hi]>*y1 to !
 fir/ ( all1 beyond :i* intellig5ce has 
no?+ m to conceive1 no?+ m to seek4 ,by 
reject+ 9 f9ite ?+s _! limit1 _!        
individuality1 we atta9 g5]a1 ,ideas1 &1
 by !m1 _! sov]eign pr9ciple4 ,b ?is    
pr9ciple is n ! la/ ( g5]a1 nor ! la/ ( 
ab/ractions2 x is a real & sub/antial   
pr9ciple4#gi ,! ,god ( ,plato is n call$
 m]ely unity1 he is call$ ! ,good2 he is
 n ! lifeless sub/ance ( ! ,eleatics2#hj
 he is end[$ ) life & movem5t2#ha /rong 
expressions t %[ h[ mu* ! ,god ( !      
,platonic metaphysics diff]s f t (      
my/icism4 ,?is ,god is ! fa!r ( ! _w4#hb
 ,he is also ! fa!r ( tru?1 t light (   
spirits4#hc ,he dwells 9 ! mid/ ( ,ideas
 :i* make him a true ,god inasmu* z he  
is ) !m4#hd ,he possesses augu/ & holy  

intellig5ce4#he ,he has made ! _w )\t   
any ext]nal necessity1 & = ! sole reason
 t he is good4#hf ,9 f9e1 he is beauty  
)\t mixture1 unalt]able1 immortal1 t    
makes him :o has caught a glimpse ( x   
disda9 all e>?ly beauties4#hg ,!        
beautiful1 ! absolute good1 is too      
dazzl+ to be look$ on directly by ! eye 
( mortal2 x mu/ at fir/ be contemplat$ 9
 ! images t reveal x to u1 9 tru?1 9    
beauty1 9 ju/ice1 z !y are met "h bel[1 
& among m51 z ! eye ( "o :o has be5 a   
*a9$ captive f infancy1 mu/ be gradually
 habituat$ to ! light ( ! sun4#hh ,our  
reason1 enlight5$ by true sci5ce1 c     
p]ceive ?is light ( spirits2 reason     
rightly l$ c g to ,god1 & !re is no ne$1
 9 ord] to rea* him1 ( a p>ticul> &     
my/]i\s faculty4  ,plot9us err$ by pu%+ 
to excess ! ,platonic dialectics1 & by  
ext5d+ !m beyond ! b\nd>y :]e !y %\ld   
/op4 ,9 ,plato !y t]m9ate at ideas1 at !
 idea ( ! good1 & produce an intellig5t 
& good ,god2 ,plot9us applies !m )\t    
limit1 & !y lead him into an abyss (    

my/icism4 ,if all tru? is 9 ! g5]al1 &  
if all individuality is imp]fection1 x  
foll[s1 t z long z we are able to       
g5]alize1 z long z x is possible = u to 
ov]look any diff]5ce1 to exclude any    
det]m9ation1 we %all n be at ! limit (  
dialectics4 ,its la/ object1 !n1 w be a 
pr9ciple )\t any det]m9ation4 ,x w n    
sp>e 9 ,god be+ itself4 ,9 fact1 if we  
say t ,god is a be+1 by ! side ( & above
 be+1 we place unity1 ( :i* be+ p>takes1
 & :i* x _c dis5gage1 9 ord] to consid] 
x alone4 ,be+ is n "h simple1 s9ce x is 
at once be+ & unity2 unity alone is     
simple1 = "o _c g beyond t4 ,& /ill :5  
we say unity1 we det]m9e x4 ,true       
absolute unity mu/1 !n1 be some?+       
absolutely indet]m9ate1 :i* is n1 :i*1  
prop]ly speak+1 _c be nam$1 ! unnamable1
 z ,plot9us says4 ,?is pr9ciple1 :i*    
exi/s n1 = a /ill /rong] reason1 _c ?9k1
 = all ?\ght is /ill a det]m9ation1 a   
mann] ( be+4 ,s be+ & ?\ght are exclud$ 
f absolute unity4 ,if ,alex&rianism     
admits !m1 x is only z a =feiture1 a    

degradation ( unity4 ,consid]$ 9 ?\ght1 
& 9 be+1 ! supreme pr9ciple is inf]ior  
to itself2 only 9 ! pure simplicity (   
its indef9able ess5ce is x ! la/ object 
( sci5ce1 & ! la/ t]m ( p]fection4  ,9  
ord] to ent] into communication ) su* a 
,god1 ! ord9>y faculties are n          
suffici5t1 & ! !odicea ( ! s*ool (      
,alex&ria imposes ^u x a q peculi>      
psy*ology4  ,9 ! tru? ( ?+s1 reason     
conceives absolute unity z an attribute 
( absolute be+1 b n z some?+ 9 itself1  
or1 if x consid]s x ap>t1 x kn[s t x    
consid]s only an ab/raction4 ,does "o   
wi% to make absolute unity some?+ else  
?an an attribute ( an absolute be+1 or  
an ab/raction1 a conception ( human     
intellig5ce8 ,reason c\ld accept no?+ m 
on any condition4 ,w ?is b>r5 unity be !
 object ( love8 ,b love1 mu* m ?an      
reason1 aspires aft] a real object4 ,"o 
does n love sub/ance 9 g5]al1 b a       
sub/ance t possesses su* or su* a "*4 ,9
 human fri5d%ips1 suppress all !        
qualities ( a p]son1 or modify !m1 & y  

modify or suppress ! love4 ,?is does n  
prove t y d n love ?is p]son2 x only    
proves t ! p]son is n = y )\t 8         
qualities4  ,s nei!r reason nor love c  
atta9 ! absolute unity ( my/icism4 ,9   
ord] to correspond to su* an object1 !re
 mu/ be 9 u some?+ analog\s to x1 !re   
mu/ be a mode ( kn[+ t implies !        
abolition ( consci\sness4 ,9 fact1      
consci\sness is ! sign ( ! me1 t is to  
say1 ( t :i* is mo/ det]m9ate3 ! be+ :o 
says1 me1 di/+ui%es himself ess5tially f
 e o!r2 t is = u ! type itself (        
individuality4 ,consci\sness %\ld       
degrade ! ideal ( dialectic k1 or e     
division1 e det]m9ation mu/ be want+1 9 
ord] to respond to ! absolute unity (   
its object4 ,?is mode ( pure & direct   
communication ) ,god1 :i* is n reason1  
:i* is n love1 :i* excludes             
consci\sness1 is ec/asy 7,greek3        
ek/asis74 ,?is ^w1 :i* ,plot9us fir/    
appli$ to ?is s+ul> /ate ( ! s\l1       
expresses ?is sep>ation f ourselves :i* 
my/icism exacts1 & ( :i* x believes man 

capable4 ,man1 9 ord] to communicate )  
absolute be+1 mu/ g out ( himself4 ,x is
 necess>y t ?\ght %\ld reject all       
det]m9ate ?\ght1 &1 9 fall+ back )9 its 
own dep?s1 %\ld arrive at su* an        
oblivion ( itself1 t consci\sness %\ld  
vani% or seem to vani%4 ,b t is only an 
image ( ec/asy2 :at x is 9 itself1 no "o
 kn[s2 z x escapes all consci\sness1 x  
escapes memory1 escapes reflection1 &   
consequ5tly all expression1 all human   
spee*4  ,?is philosophical my/icism re/s
 ^u a radically false notion ( absolute 
be+4 ,by d9t ( wi%+ to free ,god f all !
 conditions ( f9ite exi/5ce1 "o comes to
 deprive him ( all ! conditions (       
exi/5ce itself2 "o has su* a fe> t !    
inf9ite may h some?+ 9 common ) ! f9ite1
 t he does n d>e to recognize t be+ is  
common to bo?1 save diff]5ce ( degree1 z
 if all t is n 7 n no?+ness itself6     
,absolute be+ possesses absolute unity  
)\t any d\bt1 z x possesses absolute    
intellig5ce2 b1 once m1 absolute unity  
)\t a real subject ( inh]5ce is de/itute

 ( all reality4 ,real & det]m9ate are   
synonyms4 ,:at con/itutes a be+ is its  
special nature1 its ess5ce4 ,a be+ is   
itself only on ! condition ( n be+      
ano!r2 x _c b h *>act]i/ic traits4 ,all 
t is1 is su* or su*4 ,diff]5ce is an    
elem5t z ess5tial to be+ z unity itself4
 ,if1 !n1 reality is 9 det]m9ation1 x   
foll[s t ,god is ! mo/ det]m9ate ( be+s4
 ,ari/otle is mu* m ,platonic ?an       
,plot9us1 :5 he says t ,god is ! ?\ght (
 ?\ght1#hi t he is n a simple p[]1 b a  
p[] effectively act+1 mean+ !reby t ,god
 to be p]fect1 ought to h no?+ 9 himself
 t is n complet$4 ,to f9ite nature x    
belongs to be1 9 a c]ta9 s5se1          
indet]m9ate1 s9ce be+ f9ite1 x has      
always 9 itself p[]s t are n realiz$2   
?is indet]m9ation dim9i%es z ^! p[]s are
 realiz$4 ,s true div9e unity is n      
ab/ract unity1 x is ! precise unity (   
p]fect be+ 9 :i* e ?+ is accompli%$4 ,at
 ! summit ( exi/5ce1 /ill m ?an at its  
l[ degree1 e ?+ is det]m9ate1 e ?+ is   
develop$1 e ?+ is di/9ct1 e ?+ is "o4 ,!

 ri*ness ( det]m9ations is a c]ta9 sign 
( ! pl5itude ( be+4 ,reflection         
di/+ui%es ^! det]m9ations f ea* o!r1 b x
 is n necess>y t x %\ld 9 ^! di/9ctions 
see ! limits4 ,9 u1 = example1 does !   
div]sity ( our faculties & _! ri*e/     
developm5t divide ! me & alt] ! id5tity 
& ! unity ( ! p]son8 ,does ea* "o ( u   
believe himself less ?an himself1       
because he possesses s5sibility1 reason1
 & w8 ,no1 surely4 ,x is ! same ) ,god4 
,n hav+ employ$ a suffici5t psy*ology1  
,alex&rian my/icism imag9$ t div]sity ( 
attributes is incompatible ) simplicity 
( ess5ce1 & ?r\gh fe> ( corrupt+ simple 
& pure ess5ce1 x made ( x an ab/raction4
 ,by a s5seless scruple1 x fe>$ t ,god  
w\ld n be suffici5tly p]fect1 if x left 
him all 8 p]fections2 x reg>ds !m z     
imp]fections1 be+ z a degradation1      
creation z a fall2 &1 9 ord] to expla9  
man & ! univ]se1 x is =c$ to put 9 ,god 
:at x calls fail+s1 n hav+ se5 t ^!     
pret5d$ fail+s are ! v signs ( 8 inf9ite
 p]fection4  ,! !ory ( ec/asy is at once

 ! necess>y condition & ! condemnation (
 ! !ory ( absolute unity4 ,)\t absolute 
unity z ! direct object ( k1 ( :at use  
is ec/asy 9 ! subject ( k8 ,ec/asy1 f> f
 elevat+ man to ,god1 abases him bel[   
man2 = x effaces 9 him ?\ght1 by tak+   
away its condition1 :i* is consci\sness4
 ,to suppress consci\sness1 is to r5d]  
all k impossible2 x is n to compreh5d ! 
p]fection ( ?is mode ( kn[+1 :]e9 !     
limitation ( subject & object gives at  
once ! simple/1 mo/ imm$iate1 & mo/     
det]m9ate k4#ij  ,! ,alex&rian my/icism 
is ! mo/ le>n$ & ! pr(\nde/ ( all kn[n  
my/icisms4 ,9 ! heights ( ab/raction :]e
 x loses itself1 x seems v f> f popul>  
sup]/itions2 & yet ! s*ool ( ,alex&ria  
unites ec/atic contemplation & !urgy4   
,^! are two ?+s1 9 appe>ance1           
incompatible1 b !y p]ta9 to ! same      
pr9ciple1 to ! pret5sion ( directly     
p]ceiv+ :at inevitably escapes all our  
ef=ts4 ,on ! "o h&1 a ref9$ my/icism    
aspires to ,god by ec/asy2 on ! o!r1 a  
gross my/icism ?9ks to seize him by !   

s5ses4 ,! processes1 ! faculties        
employ$1 diff]1 b ! f\ndation is ! same1
 & f ?is common f\ndation necess>ily    
spr+ ! mo/ opposite extravagances4      
,apollonius ( ,tyanus is a popul>       
,alex&riani/1 & ,jamblicus is ,plot9us  
become a prie/1 my/agogue1 & hi]ophant4 
,a new wor%ip %one =? by miracles2 !    
anci5t wor%ip w\ld h its own miracles1 &
 philosoph]s boa/$ t !y c\ld make !     
div9ity appe> be=e o!r m54 ,!y _h demons
 = !mselves1 &1 9 "s sort1 = _! own     
ord]s2 ! gods 7 n only invok$1 b evok$4 
,ec/asy = ! initiates1 !urgy = ! cr[d4  
,at all times & 9 all places1 ^! two    
my/icisms h giv5 ea* o!r ! h&4 ,9 ,india
 & 9 ,*9a1 ! s*ools :]e ! mo/ subtile   
idealism is taught1 are n f> f pagodas (
 ! mo/ abject idolatry4 ,"o day !       
,bhagavad-,gita or ,lao-tseu#ia is read1
 an indef9able ,god is taught1 )\t      
ess5tial & det]m9ate attributes2 ! next 
day !re is %[n to ! p su* or su* a =m1  
su* or su* a manife/ation ( ?is ,god1   
:o1 n hav+ a =m t belongs to him1 c     

receive all =ms1 & be+ only sub/ance 9  
itself1 is necess>ily ! sub/ance ( e ?+1
 ( a /one & a drop ( wat]1 ( a dog1 a   
h]o1 & a sage4 ,s1 9 ! anci5t _w "u     
,juli51 = example1 ! same man 0 at once 
pr(essor 9 ! s*ool ( ,a!ns & gu>dian ( !
 temple ( ,m9]va or ,cybele1 by turns   
obscur+ ! ,timaeus & ! ,republic by     
subtile comm5t>ies1 & exhibit+ to ! eyes
 ( ! multitude sometimes ! sacr$        
vale1#ib sometimes ! %r9e ( ! good      
goddess1#ic & 9 ei!r function1 z prie/  
or philosoph]1 impos+ on o!rs & himself1
 "u tak+ to asc5d above ! human m9d &   
fall+ mis]ably bel[ x1 pay+ 9 "s sort ! 
p5alty ( an un9telligible metaphysics1 9
 l5d+ himself to ! mo/ %ameless         
sup]/itions4  ,:5 ! ,*ri/ian religion   
triumph$1 x br\ght humanity "u a        
discipl9e t puts a re9 ^u ?is deplorable
 my/icism4 ,b h[ _m times has x br\ght  
back1 "u ! reign ( spiritual religion1  
all ! extravagances ( ! religions (     
nature6 ,x 0 to appe> especially at !   
r5aissance ( ! s*ools & ( ! g5ius (     

,paganism 9 ! sixte5? c5tury1 :5 ! human
 m9d _h brok5 ) ! philosophy ( ! ,middle
 ,age1 )\t yet hav+ arriv$ at mod]n     
philosophy4#id ,! ,p>acelsuses & ! ,von 
,helmonts r5ew$ ! ,apolloniuses & !     
,jamblicuses1 abus+ "s *emical & m$ical 
k1 z ! =m] _h abus$ ! ,socratic &       
,platonic me?od1 alt]$ 9 its "*1 & turn$
 f its true object4 ,& s1 9 ! mid/ ( !  
eighte5? c5tury1 has n ,sw$5borg unit$ 9
 8 own p]son an exalt$ my/icism & a sort
 ( magic1 op5+ ?us ! way to ^?          
s5seless#ie p]sons :o conte/ ) me 9 !   
morn+ ! solide/ & be/-e/abli%$ pro(s ( !
 exi/5ce ( ! s\l & ,god1 & propose to me
 9 ! ev5+ to make me see o!rwise ?an )  
my eyes1 & to make me he> o!rwise ?an ) 
my e>s1 to make me use all my faculties 
o!rwise ?an by _! natural organs1       
promis+ me a sup]human sci5ce1 on !     
condition ( fir/ los+ consci\sness1     
?\ght1 lib]ty1 memory1 all t con/itutes 
me an intellig5t & moral be+4 ,i %\ld "k
 all1 !n1 b at ! co/ ( kn[+ no?+ t ,i   
%\ld "k4 ,i %\ld elevate myself to a    

m>vell\s _w1 :i*1 awak5$ & 9 a natural  
/ate1 ,i am n ev5 able to suspect1 ( :i*
 no remembrance w rema9 to me3--a       
my/icism at once gross & *im]ical1 :i*  
p]v]ts bo? psy*ology & physiology2 an   
imbecile ec/asy1 r5ew$ )\t g5ius f !    
,alex&r9e ec/asy2 an extravagance :i*   
has n ev5 ! m]it ( a little novelty1 &  
:i* hi/ory has se5 reappe>+ at all epo*s
 ( ambition & impot5ce4  ,?is is :at we 
come to :5 we wi% to g beyond !         
conditions impos$ ^u human nature4      
,*>ron fir/ said1 & aft] him ,pascal    
repeat$ x1 t :oev] w\ld become an angel 
becomes a bea/4 ,! rem$y = all ^!       
follies is a sev]e !ory ( reason1 ( :at 
x c & :at x _c d2 ( reason envelop$ fir/
 9 ! ex]cise ( ! s5ses1 ?an elevat+     
itself to univ]sal & necess>y ideas1    
ref]r+ !m to _! pr9ciple1 to a be+      
inf9ite & at ! same "t real &           
sub/antial1 ^: exi/5ce x conceives1 b ^:
 nature x is always int]dict$ to        
p5etrate & compreh5d4 ,s5tim5t          
accompanies & vivifies ! sublime        

intuitions ( reason1 b we mu/ n conf\nd 
^! two ord]s ( facts1 mu* less smo!r    
reason 9 s5tim5t4 ,betwe5 a f9ite be+ l 
man & ,god1 absolute & inf9ite sub/ance1
 !re is ! d\ble int]m$i>y ( t magnific5t
 univ]se op5 to our gaze1 & ( ^?        
m>vell\s tru?s :i* reason conceives1 b  
has n made m ?an ! eye makes ! beauties 
x p]ceives4 ,! only means t is giv5 u ( 
elevat+ ourselves to ! ,be+ ( be+s1 )\t 
be+ dazzl$ & bewild]$1 is to approa* him
 by ! aid ( a div9e int]m$i>y2 t is to  
say1 to consecrate ourselves to ! /udy &
 ! love ( tru?1 &1 z we %all soon see1  
to ! contemplation & reproduction ( !   
beautiful1 especially to ! practice ( ! 
good4  ,,footnotes3  #ga ,see ! prec$+  
lectures4  #gb ,see ! ,pha$rus & !      
,banquet1 vol4 vii4 ( our translation4  
#gc ,we %all n be accus$ ( p]v]t+ ! holy
 ,scriptures by ^! analogies1 = we give 
!m only z analogies1 & ,/4 ,augu/9e &   
,bossuet are full ( su*4  #gd ,see "p   
ii41 ,! ,beautiful1 lecture #f1 & "p    
iii41 lecture #ac1 on ! ,morals (       

,s5tim5t4 ,see also our ,pascal1 preface
 ( ! la/ edition1 p4 #h1 etc41 vol4 i4 (
 ! #d? ,s]ies4  #ge ,see ! admirable "w 
( ,bossuet1 ,in/ruction sur les etats   
d',oraison4  #gf ,lecture #d4  #gg ,see 
especially 9 our writ+s ! regul> &      
detail$ refutation ( ! d\ble            
extravagance ( consid]+ sub/ance ap>t f 
its det]m9ations & its qualities1 or (  
consid]+ its qualities & its facilities 
ap>t f ! be+ t possesses !m4 #a/ ,s]ies1
 vol4 iii41 lecture #c1 ,on ,condillac1 
& vol4 v41 lectures #e & #f1 ,on ,kant4 
,we say1 ! same ,s]ies1 vol4 iv41 p4    
#ef3 ,!re are philosoph]s beyond !      
,rh9e1 :o1 to appe> v pr(\nd1 are n     
cont5t$ ) qualities & ph5om5a1 & aspire 
to pure sub/ance1 to be+ 9 itself4 ,!   
problem /at$ z foll[s1 is q insoluble3 !
 k ( su* a sub/ance is impossible1 = ?is
 v simple reason1 t su* a sub/ance does 
n exi/4 ,be+ 9 itself1 das ,d+ 9 si*1   
:i* ,kant seeks1 escapes him1 & ?is does
 n humiliate ,kant & philosophy2 = !re  
is no be+ 9 itself4 ,! human m9d may =m 

to itself an ab/ract & g5]al idea ( be+1
 b ?is idea has no real object 9 nature4
 ,all be+ is det]m9ate1 if x is real2 & 
to be det]m9ate is to possess c]ta9     
modes ( be+1 transitory & accid5tal1 or 
con/ant & ess5tial4 ,k ( be+ 9 itself is
 !n n m]ely int]dict$ to ! human m9d2 x 
is contr>y to ! nature ( ?+s4 ,at ! o!r 
extreme ( metaphysics is a p[]less      
psy*ology1 :i*1 by fe> ( a holl[        
ontology1 is condemn$ to volunt>y       
ignorance4 ,we are n able1 say ^!       
philosoph]s1 ,mr4 ,dugald ,/ew>t1 =     
example1 to atta9 be+ 9 itself2 x is    
p]mitt$ u to "k only ph5om5a &          
qualities3 s t1 9 ord] n to w&] 9 se>* (
 ! sub/ance ( ! s\l1 !y d n d>e affirm  
its spirituality1 & devote !mselves to !
 /udy ( its diff]5t faculties4 ,equal   
error1 equal *im]a6 ,!re are no m       
qualities )\t be+1 ?an be+ )\t          
qualities4 ,no be+ is )\t its           
det]m9ations1 & reciprocally its        
det]m9ations are n )\t x4 ,to consid] ! 
det]m9ations ( be+ indep5d5tly ( ! be+  

:i* possesses !m1 is no long] to obs]ve2
 x is to ab/ract1 to make an ab/raction 
q z extravagant z t ( be+ consid]$      
indep5d5tly ( its qualities4  #gh ,on ! 
s*ool ( ,alex&ria1 see #b;d ,s]ies1 vol4
 ii41 ,sket* ( a ,g5]al ,hi/ory (       
,philosophy1 lecture #h1 p4 #baa1 & #c;d
 ,s]ies1 vol4 i41 passim4  #gi ,see !   
previ\s lecture4  #hj #c;d ,s]ies1 vol4 
i41 ,anci5t ,philosophy1 article        
,x5ophanes1 & article ,z5o4  #ha ,!     
,sophi/1 vol4 xi4 ( our translation1 p4 
#bfa4  #hb ,timaeus1 vol4 xii41 p4 #aag4
  #hc ,republic1 book vii41 p4 #gj (    
vol4 x4  #hd ,pha$rus1 vol4 vi41 p4 #ee4
  #he ,! ,sophi/1 p4 #bfa1 #bfb4 ,!     
foll[+ little-kn[n & decisive passage1  
:i* we h translat$ = ! fir/ "t1 mu/ be  
cit$3--,/rang]4 ,b :at1 by ,zeus6 %all  
we be s easily p]suad$ t 9 reality1     
motion1 life1 s\l1 intellig5ce1 d n     
belong to absolute be+8 t ?is be+ nei!r 
lives nor ?9ks1 t ?is be+ rema9s        
immobile1 immutable1 )\t hav+ "p 9 augu/
 & holy intellig5ce8--,!atetus4 ,t w\ld 

be cons5t+1 de> ,eleatus1 to a v /range 
ass]tion4--,/rang]4 ,or1 inde$1 %all we 
accord to ?is be+ intellig5ce :ile we   
refuse him life8--,!atetus4 ,t _c       
be4--,/rang]4 ,or1 aga91 %all we say t  
!re is 9 him intellig5ce & life1 b t x  
is n 9 a s\l t he possesses             
!m8--,!atetus4 ,& h[ c\ld he possess !m 
o!rwise8--,/rang]4 ,9 f9e1 t1 end[$ )   
intellig5ce1 s\l1 & life1 all animat$ z 
he is1 he rema9s incomplete             
immobility4--,!atetus4 ,all t seems to  
me unreasonable4  #hf ,timaeus1 p4 #aai3
 ,let u say t ! cause :i* l$ ! supreme  
orda9] to produce & compose ?is univ]se 
01 t he 0 good4  #hg ,b\quet1 disc\rse (
 ,diotimus1 vol4 vi41 & ! #b;d "p ( ?is 
vol41 ,! ,beautiful1 lecture #g4  #hh   
,republic4 ,ibid4  #hi ,book xii4 ( !   
,metaphysics4 ,de la ,metaphysique      
d',ari/otle1 #b;d edition1 p4 #bjj1 etc4
  #ij ,on ?is fundam5tal po9t1 see      
lecture #c1 9 ?is vol4--#b;d ,s]ies1    
vol4 i41 lecture #e1 p4 #ig4 ,!         
peculi>ity ( intellig5ce is n ! p[] (   

kn[+1 b kn[+ 9 fact4 ,on :at condition  
is !re intellig5ce = u8 ,x is n en\gh t 
!re %\ld be 9 u a pr9ciple (            
intellig5ce2 ?is pr9ciple mu/ be        
develop$ & ex]cis$1 & take itself z !   
object ( its intellig5ce4 ,! necess>y   
condition ( intellig5ce is              
consci\sness--t is to say1 diff]5ce4    
,!re c be consci\sness only :]e !re are 
sev]al t]ms1 "o ( :i* p]ceives ! o!r1 & 
at ! same "t p]ceives itself4 ,t is     
kn[+1 & kn[+ self2 t is intellig5ce4    
,intellig5ce )\t consci\sness is !      
ab/ract possibility ( intellig5ce1 x is 
n real intellig5ce4 ,transf] ?is f human
 intellig5ce to div9e intellig5ce1 t is 
to say1 ref] ideas1 ,i mean ideas 9 !   
s5se ( ,plato1 ( ,/4 ,augu/9e1 (        
,bossuet1 ( ,leibnitz1 to ! only        
intellig5ce to :i* !y c belong1 & y w h1
 if ,i may ?us express myself1 ! life ( 
! div9e intellig5ce 4441 etc4  #ia ,vol4
 ii4 ( ! #b;d ,s]ies1 ,sket* ( a ,g5]al 
,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 lectures #e & #f1
 ,on ! ,indian ,philosophy4  #ib ,see ! 

,eu?yphron1 vol4 i4 ( our translation4  
#ic ,luci51 ,apuleius1 ,lucius (        
,patras4  #id #b;d ,s]ies1 vol4 ii41    
,sket* ( a ,g5]al ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1
 lecture #aj1 ,on ! ,philosophy ( !     
,r5aissance4  #ie ,"o 0 !n ard5tly      
occupi$ ) magnetism1 & m ?an a          
magnetiz]1 half a mat]iali/1 half a     
vision>y1 pret5d$ to conv]t u to a sy/em
 ( p]fect clairvoyance ( s\l1 obta9$ by 
means ( artificial sleep4 ,alas6 ! same 
follies are n[ r5ew$4 ,conjunctions are 
! fa%ion4 ,spirits are int]rogat$1 & !y 
respond6 ,only let !re be consci\sness t
 "o does n int]rogate1 & sup]/ition     
alone c\nt]poises skepticism4     ,,"p  
,,second  ,,! ,,beautiful4     ,,lecture
 ,,vi4  ,,! ,,beautiful ,,9 ,,! ,,m9d   
,,( ,,man4      ,! me?od t mu/ gov]n    
rese>*es on ! beautiful & art     is1 z 
9 ! inve/igation ( ! true1 to comm5ce by
     psy*ology4--,faculties ( ! s\l t   
unite 9 ! p]ception     ( !             
beautiful4--,! s5ses give only !        
agreeable2 reason     alone gives ! idea

 ( ! beautiful4--,refutation (          
empiricism1 t conf\nds ! agreeable & !  
beautiful4--,pre-em95ce (               
reason4--,s5tim5t ( ! beautiful2        
diff]5t f s5sation & desire4--,di/9ction
 betwe5 !     s5tim5t ( ! beautiful & t 
( !                                     
sublime4--,imag9ation4--,influ5ce (     
s5tim5t on     imag9ation4--,influ5ce ( 
imag9ation on s5tim5t4--,!ory (         
ta/e4   ,let u recall 9 a few words !   
results at :i* we h arriv$4  ,two       
exclusive s*ools are oppos$ to ea* o!r 9
 ! eighte5? c5tury2 we h combat$ bo?1 & 
ea* by ! o!r4 ,to empiricism we h oppos$
 ! insuffici5cy ( s5sation1 & its own   
inevitable necessity to idealism4 ,we h 
admitt$1 ) ,locke & ,condillac1 9 reg>d 
to ! orig9 ( k1 p>ticul> & cont+5t      
ideas1 :i* we owe to ! s5ses &          
consci\sness2 & above ! s5ses &         
consci\sness1 ! direct s\rces ( all     
p>ticul> ideas1 we h recogniz$1 ) ,reid 
& ,kant1 a special faculty1 diff]5t f   
s5sation & consci\sness1 b develop$ )   

!m1--reason1 ! l(ty s\rce ( univ]sal &  
necess>y tru?s4 ,we h e/abli%$1 aga9/   
,kant1 ! absolute au?ority ( reason1 & !
 tru?s :i* x discov]s4 ,!n1 ! tru?s t   
reason reveal$ to u h !mselves reveal$  
to u _! et]nal pr9ciple1--,god4 ,f9ally1
 ?is rational spiritualism1 :i* is bo? !
 fai? ( ! human race & ! doctr9e ( !    
greate/ m9ds ( antiquity & mod]n times1 
we h c>efully di/+ui%$ f a *im]ical &   
dang]\s my/icism4 ,?us ! necessity (    
exp]i5ce & ! necessity ( reason1 !      
necessity ( a real & inf9ite be+ :i* is 
! fir/ & la/ f\ndation ( tru?1 a sev]e  
di/9ction betwe5 spiritualism &         
my/icism1 are ! great pr9ciples :i* we h
 be5 able to ga!r f ! fir/ "p ( ?is     
c\rse4  ,! second "p1 ! /udy ( !        
beautiful1 w give u ! same results      
elucidat$ & aggr&iz$ by a new           
application4  ,x 0 ! eighte5? c5tury t  
introduc$1 or r br\ght back into        
philosophy1 inve/igations on ! beautiful
 & art1 s famili> to ,plato & ,ari/otle1
 b :i* s*ola/icism _h n ent]ta9$1 to :i*

 our great philosophy ( ! sev5te5?      
c5tury _h rema9$ almo/ a /rang]4#if ,"o 
compreh5ds t x did n belong to !        
empirical s*ool to revive ?is noble "p (
 philosophic sci5ce4 ,locke & ,condillac
 did n leave a *apt]1 n ev5 a s+le page1
 on ! beautiful4 ,_! foll[]s treat$     
beauty ) ! same disda92 n kn[+ v well h[
 to expla9 x 9 _! sy/em1 !y f\nd x m    
conv5i5t n to p]ceive x at all4 ,did]ot1
 x is true1 _h an en?usiasm = beauty &  
art1 b en?usiasm 0 nev] s ill plac$4    
,did]ot _h g5ius2 b1 z ,voltaire said ( 
him1 8 0 a head 9 :i* e ?+ f]m5t$ )\t   
com+ to maturity4 ,he scatt]$ "h & !re a
 mass ( +5i\s & (t5 contradictory       
p]ceptions2 he has no pr9ciples2 he     
ab&ons himself to ! impression ( !      
mom5t2 he kn[s n :at ! ideal is2 he     
delights 9 a k9d ( nature1 at once      
common & mann]$1 su* z "o might expect f
 ! au?or ( ! ,int]pretation de la       
,nature1 ! ,p]e de ,famille1 ! ,neveu de
 ,rameau1 & ,jacques le ,fatali/e4      
,did]ot is a fatali/ 9 art z well z 9   

philosophy2 he belongs to 8 times & 8   
s*ool1 ) a gra9 ( poetry1 s5sibility1 & 
imag9ation4#ig ,x 0 wor?y ( ! ,scot*#ih 
s*ool & ,kant#ii to give a place to !   
beautiful 9 _! doctr9e4 ,!y consid]$ x 9
 ! s\l & 9 nature2 b !y did n ev5 t\* ! 
difficult "q ( ! reproduction ( !       
beautiful by ! g5ius ( man4 ,we w try to
 embrace ?is great subject 9 its :ole   
ext5t1 & we are ab\t to (f] at lea/ a   
sket* ( a regul> & complete !ory (      
beauty & art4  ,let u beg9 by e/abli%+  
well ! me?od t mu/ preside ov] ^!       
inve/igations4  ,"o c /udy ! beautiful 9
 two ways3--ei!r out ( u1 9 itself & 9 !
 objects1 :atev] !y may be1 t be> its   
impress2 or 9 ! m9d ( man1 9 ! faculties
 t atta9 x1 9 ! ideas or s5tim5ts t x   
excites 9 u4 ,n[1 ! true me?od1 :i* mu/ 
n[ be famili> to y1 makes sett+ out f   
man to arrive at ?+s a law = u4 ,!re=e  
psy*ological analysis w "h aga9 be our  
po9t ( dep>ture1 & ! /udy ( ! /ate ( !  
s\l 9 pres5ce ( ! beautiful w prep>e u =
 t ( ! beautiful consid]$ 9 itself & its

 objects4  ,let u int]rogate ! s\l 9 !  
pres5ce ( beauty4  ,is x n an           
inconte/able fact t be=e c]ta9 objects1 
"u v diff]5t circum/ances1 we pron\nce !
 foll[+ judgm5t3--,?is object is        
beautiful8 ,?is affirmation is n always 
explicit4 ,sometimes x manife/s itself  
only by a cry ( admiration2 sometimes x 
sil5tly rises 9 ! m9d t sc>cely has a   
consci\sness ( x4 ,! =ms ( ?is ph5om5on 
v>y1 b ! ph5om5on is atte/$ by ! mo/    
common & mo/ c]ta9 obs]vation1 & all    
languages be> witness ( x4  ,al?\gh     
s5sible objects1 ) mo/ m51 (t5e/ provoke
 ! judgm5t ( ! beautiful1 !y d n alone  
possess ?is advantage2 ! doma9 ( beauty 
is m ext5sive ?an ! doma9 ( ! physical  
_w expos$ to our view2 x has no b\nds b 
^? ( entire nature1 & ( ! s\l & g5ius ( 
man4 ,be=e an h]oic action1 by !        
remembrance ( a great sacrifice2 ev5 by 
! ?\ght ( ! mo/ ab/ract tru?s firmly    
unit$ ) ea* o!r 9 a sy/em admirable at  
once = its simplicity & its             
productiv5ess2 f9ally1 be=e objects (   

ano!r ord]1 be=e ! works ( art1 ?is same
 ph5om5on is produc$ 9 u4 ,we recognize 
9 all ^! objects1 h[ev] diff]5t1 a      
common quality 9 reg>d to :i* our       
judgm5t is pron\nc$1 & ?is quality we   
call beauty4  ,! philosophy ( s5sation1 
9 fai?fulness to itself1 %\ld h attempt$
 to r$uce ! beautiful to ! agreeable4   
,)\t d\bt1 beauty is almo/ always       
agreeable to ! s5ses1 or at lea/ x mu/ n
 w\nd !m4 ,mo/ ( our ideas ( ! beautiful
 come to u by sight & he>+1 & all !     
arts1 )\t exception1 are address$ to !  
s\l ?r\gh ! body4 ,an object :i* makes u
 suff]1 7 x ! mo/ beautiful 9 ! _w1 v   
r>ely appe>s to u su*4 ,beauty has      
little influ5ce ov] a s\l occupi$ )     
grief4  ,b if an agreeable s5sation (t5 
accompanies ! idea ( ! beautiful1 we mu/
 n conclude t "o is ! o!r4  ,exp]i5ce   
te/ifies t all agreeable ?+s d n appe>  
beautiful1 & t1 among agreeable ?+s1 ^? 
:i* are mo/ s are n ! mo/ beautiful1--a 
sure sign t ! agreeable is n !          
beautiful2 = if "o is id5tical ) ! o!r1 

!y %\ld nev] be sep>at$1 b %\ld always  
be comm5surate ) ea* o!r4  ,f> f ?is1   
:il/ all our s5ses give u agreeable     
s5sations1 only two h ! privilege (     
awak5+ 9 u ! idea ( beauty4 ,does "o ev]
 say3 ,?is is a beautiful ta/e1 ?is is a
 beautiful smell8 ,nev]!less1 "o %\ld   
say x1 if ! beautiful is ! agreeable4   
,on ! o!r h&1 !re are c]ta9 pleasures ( 
odor & ta/e t move s5sibility m ?an !   
greate/ beauties ( nature & art2 & ev5  
among ! p]ceptions ( he>+ & sight1 ^?   
are n always ! mo/ vivid t mo/ excite 9 
u ! idea ( beauty4 ,d n pictures1 ord9>y
 9 color+1 (t5 move u m deeply ?an _m   
dazzl+ productions1 m s$uctive to ! eye1
 less t\*+ to ! s\l8 ,i say f>!r2       
s5sation n only does n produce ! idea ( 
! beautiful1 b sometimes /ifles x4 ,let 
an arti/ occupy himself ) ! reproduction
 ( voluptu\s =ms2 :ile pleas+ ! s5ses1  
he di/urbs1 he repels 9 u ! *a/e & pure 
idea ( beauty4 ,! agreeable is n1 !n1 ! 
measure ( ! beautiful1 s9ce 9 c]ta9     
cases x effaces x & makes u =get x2 x is

 n1 !n1 ! beautiful1 s9ce x is f\nd1 & 9
 ! highe/ degree1 :]e ! beautiful is n4 
,?is conducts u to ! ess5tial f\ndation 
( ! di/9ction betwe5 ! idea ( !         
beautiful & ! s5sation ( ! agreeable1 to
 wit1 ! diff]5ce already expla9$ betwe5 
s5sibility & reason4  ,:5 an object     
makes y exp]i5ce an agreeable s5sation1 
if "o asks y :y ?is object is agreeable 
to y1 y c answ] no?+1 except t su* is   
y\r impression2 & if "o in=ms y t ?is   
same object produces ^u o!rs a diff]5t  
impression & displeases !m1 y are n mu* 
a/oni%$1 because y "k t s5sibility is   
div]se1 & t s5sations mu/ n be disput$4 
,is x ! same :5 an object is n only     
agreeable to y1 b :5 y judge t x is     
beautiful8 ,y pron\nce1 = example1 t ?is
 figure is noble & beautiful1 t ?is     
sunrise or sunset is beautiful1 t       
dis9t]e/$ness & devotion are beautiful1 
t virtue is beautiful2 if "o conte/s ) y
 ! tru? ( ^! judgm5ts1 !n y are n z     
accommodat+ z y 7 j n[2 y d n accept !  
diss5t z an inevitable effect ( diff]5t 

s5sibilities1 y no long] appeal to y\r  
s5sibility :i* naturally t]m9ates 9 y1 y
 appeal to an au?ority :i* is made =    
o!rs z well z y1 t ( reason2 y believe t
 y h ! "r ( accus+ him ) error :o       
contradicts y\r judgm5t1 = "h y\r       
judgm5t re/s no long] on some?+ v>iable 
& individual1 l an agreeable or pa9ful  
s5sation4 ,! agreeable is conf9$ = u )9 
! inclosure ( our own organization1 :]e 
x *anges e mom5t1 accord+ to ! p]petual 
revolutions ( ?is organization1 accord+ 
to heal? & sickness1 ! /ate ( !         
atmosph]e1 t ( our n]ves1 etc4 ,b x is n
 s ) beauty2 beauty1 l tru?1 belongs to 
none ( u2 no "o has ! "r to dispose ( x 
arbitr>ily1 & :5 we say3 ?is is true1   
?is is beautiful1 x is no long] !       
p>ticul> & v>iable impression ( our     
s5sibility t we express1 x is ! absolute
 judgm5t t reason imposes on all m54    
,conf\nd reason & s5sibility1 r$uce !   
idea ( ! beautiful to ! s5sation ( !    
agreeable1 & ta/e no long] has a law4   
,if a p]son says to me1 9 ! pres5ce ( ! 

,apollo ,belvid]e1 t he feels no?+ m    
agreeable ?an 9 pres5ce ( any o!r /atue1
 t x does n please him at all1 t he does
 n feel its beauty1 ,i _c dispute 8     
impression2 b if ?is p]son !nce         
concludes t ! ,apollo is n beautiful1 ,i
 pr\dly contradict him1 & decl>e t he is
 deceiv$4 ,good ta/e is di/+ui%$ f bad  
ta/e2 b :at does ?is di/9ction signify1 
if ! judgm5t ( ! beautiful is resolv$   
into a s5sation8 ,y say to me t ,i h no 
ta/e4 ,:at does t mean8 ,h ,i n s5ses l 
y8 ,does n ! object :i* y admire act ^u 
me z well z ^u y8 ,is n ! impression :i*
 ,i feel z real z t :i* y feel8 ,:5ce   
comes x1 !n1 t y are "r1--y :o only give
 expression to ! impression :i* y feel1 
& t ,i am wrong1--,i :o d precisely !   
same ?+8 ,is x because ^? :o feel l y   
are m num]\s ?an ^? :o feel l me8 ,b "h 
! numb] ( voices means no?+8 ,!         
beautiful be+ def9$ z t :i* produces on 
! s5ses an agreeable impression1 a ?+ t 
pleases a s+le man1 ?\gh x 7 frightfully
 ugly 9 ! eyes ( all ! re/ ( ! human    

race1 mu/1 nev]!less1 & v legitimately1 
be call$ beautiful by him :o receives f 
x an agreeable impression1 =1 s f> z he 
is conc]n$1 x satisfies ! def9ition4    
,!re is1 !n1 no true beauty2 !re are    
only relative & *ang+ beauties1 beauties
 ( circum/ance1 cu/om1 fa%ion1 & all ^! 
beauties1 h[ev] diff]5t1 w h a "r to !  
same respect1 provid$ !y meet           
s5sibilities to :i* !y are agreeable4 ,&
 z !re is no?+ 9 ?is _w1 9 ! inf9ite    
div]sity ( our dispositions1 :i* may n  
please "s "o1 !re w be no?+ t is n      
beautiful2 or1 to speak m truly1 !re w  
be no?+ ei!r beautiful or ugly1 & !     
,hott5tot ,v5us w equal ! ,v5us de      
,m$ici4 ,! absurdity ( ! consequ5ces    
demon/rates ! absurdity ( ! pr9ciple4 ,b
 !re is only "o means ( escap+ ^!       
consequ5ces1 :i* is to repudiate !      
pr9ciple1 & recognize ! judgm5t ( !     
beautiful z an absolute judgm5t1 &1 z   
su*1 entirely diff]5t f s5sation4       
,f9ally1 & ?is is ! la/ rock (          
empiricism1 is !re 9 u only ! idea ( an 

imp]fect & f9ite beauty1 & :ile we are  
admir+ ! real beauties t nature         
furni%es1 are we n elevat+ ourselves to 
! idea ( a sup]ior beauty1 :i* ,plato1 )
 great excell5ce ( expression1 calls !  
,idea ( ! beautiful1 :i*1 aft] him1 all 
m5 ( delicate ta/e1 all true arti/s call
 ! ,ideal8 ,if we e/abli% decrees 9 !   
beauty ( ?+s1 is x n because we comp>e  
!m1 (t5 )\t notic+ x1 ) ?is ideal1 :i*  
is to u ! measure & rule ( all our      
judgm5ts 9 reg>d to p>ticul> beauties8  
,h[ c\ld ?is idea ( absolute beauty     
envelop$ 9 all our judgm5ts on !        
beautiful1--h[ c\ld ?is ideal beauty1   
:i* x is impossible = u n to conceive1  
be reveal$ to u by s5sation1 by a       
faculty v>iable & relative l ! objects t
 x p]ceives8  ,! philosophy :i* d$uces  
all our ideas f ! s5ses falls to !      
gr\nd1 !n1 be=e ! idea ( ! beautiful4 ,x
 rema9s to see :e!r ?is idea c be bett] 
expla9$ by means ( s5tim5t1 :i* is      
diff]5t f s5sation1 :i* s ne>ly         
resembles reason t good judges h (t5    

tak5 x = reason1 & h made x ! pr9ciple (
 ! idea ( ! beautiful z well z t ( !    
good4 ,x is already a progress1 )\t     
d\bt1 to g f s5sation to s5tim5t1 &     
,hut*eson & ,smi?#ajj are 9 our eyes v  
diff]5t philosoph]s f ,condillac &      
,helvetius2#aja b we believe t we h     
suffici5tly e/abli%$#ajb t1 9 conf\nd+  
s5tim5t ) reason1 we deprive x ( its    
f\ndation & rule1 t s5tim5t1 p>ticul> & 
v>iable 9 its nature1 diff]5t to diff]5t
 m51 & 9 ea* man cont9ually *ang+1 _c be
 suffici5t = itself4 ,nev]!less1 if     
s5tim5t is n a pr9ciple1 x is a true &  
important fact1 &1 aft] hav+ di/+ui%$ x 
well f reason1 we ourselves proce$ to   
elevate x f> above s5sation1 & elucidate
 ! important "p x plays 9 ! p]ception ( 
beauty4  ,place y\rself be=e an object (
 nature1 :]e9 m5 recognize beauty1 &    
obs]ve :at takes place )9 y at ! sight (
 ?is object4 ,is x n c]ta9 t1 at ! same 
"t t y judge t x is beautiful1 y also   
feel its beauty1 t is to say1 t y       
exp]i5ce at ! sight ( x a delightful    

emotion1 & t y are attract$ t[>ds ?is   
object by a s5tim5t ( sympa?y & love8 ,9
 o!r cases y judge o!rwise1 & feel an   
opposite s5tim5t4 ,av]sion accompanies !
 judgm5t ( ! ugly1 z love accompanies ! 
judgm5t ( ! beautiful4 ,& ?is s5tim5t is
 awak5$ n only 9 pres5ce ( ! objects (  
nature3 all objects1 :atev] !y may be1 t
 we judge to be ugly or beautiful1 h !  
p[] to excite 9 u ?is s5tim5t4 ,v>y !   
circum/ances z mu* z y please1 place me 
be=e an admirable edifice or be=e a     
beautiful l&scape2 repres5t to my m9d ! 
great discov]ies ( ,desc>tes & ,newton1 
! exploits ( ! great ,conde1 ! virtue ( 
,/4 ,v9c5t de ,paul2 elevate me /ill    
high]2 awak5 9 me ! obscure & too mu*   
=gott5 idea ( ! inf9ite be+2 :atev] y d1
 z (t5 z y give bir? )9 me to ! idea ( !
 beautiful1 y give me an int]nal &      
exquisite joy1 always foll[$ by a       
s5tim5t ( love = ! object t caus$ x4  ,!
 m beautiful ! object is1 ! m lively is 
! joy :i* x gives ! s\l1 & ! m pr(\nd is
 ! love )\t be+ passionate4 ,9          

admiration judgm5t rules1 b animat$ by  
s5tim5t4 ,is admiration increas$ to !   
degree ( impress+ ^u ! s\l an emotion1  
an ardor t seems to exce$ ! limits (    
human nature8 ?is /ate ( ! s\l is call$ 
en?usiasm3      ,e/ ,deus 9 nobis1      
agitante calescimus illo4  ,! philosophy
 ( s5sation expla9s s5tim5t1 z well z ! 
idea ( ! beautiful1 only by *ang+ its   
nature4 ,x conf\nds x ) agreeable       
s5sation1 &1 consequ5tly1 = x ! love (  
beauty c be no?+ b desire4 ,!re is no   
!ory m contradict$ by facts4  ,:at is   
desire8 ,x is an emotion ( ! s\l :i*    
has1 = its av[$ or secret end1          
possession4 ,admiration is 9 its nature 
respectful1 :il/ desire t5ds to pr(ane  
its object4  ,desire is ! (fspr+ ( ne$4 
,x supposes1 !n1 9 him :o exp]i5ces x1 a
 want1 a defect1 &1 to a c]ta9 po9t1    
suff]+4 ,! s5tim5t ( ! beautiful is to  
itself its own satisfaction4  ,desire is
 burn+1 impetu\s1 sad4 ,! s5tim5t ( !   
beautiful1 free f all desire1 & always  
)\t fe>1 elevates & w>ms ! s\l1 & may   

transport x ev5 to en?usiasm1 )\t mak+ x
 "k ! tr\bles ( passion4 ,! arti/ sees  
only ! beautiful :]e ! s5sual man sees  
only ! allur+ & ! frightful4 ,on a      
vessel toss$ by a tempe/1 :ile !        
pass5g]s tremble at ! sight ( ! ?reat5+ 
waves1 & at ! s\nd ( ! ?und] t breaks   
ov] _! heads1 ! arti/ rema9s absorb$ 9 !
 contemplation ( ! sublime spectacle4   
,v]net has himself la%$ to ! ma/ 9 ord] 
to contemplate = a long] "t ! /orm 9 its
 maje/ic & t]rible beauty4 ,:5 he kn[s  
fe>1 :5 he p>ticipates 9 ! common feel+1
 ! arti/ vani%es1 !re no m rema9s any ?+
 b ! man4  ,! s5tim5t ( ! beautiful is s
 f> f be+ desire1 t ea* excludes ! o!r4 
,let me take a common example4 ,be=e a  
table load$ ) meats & delici\s w9es1 !  
desire ( enjoym5t is awak5$1 b n !      
s5tim5t ( ! beautiful4 ,suppose t if1   
in/ead ( ?9k+ ( ! pleasures :i* all ^!  
?+s spread be=e my eyes promise me1 ,i  
only take notice ( ! mann] 9 :i* !y are 
arrang$ & set ^u ! table1 & ! ord] ( !  
fea/1 ! s5tim5t ( ! beautiful might 9 "s

 degree be produc$2 b surely ?is w be   
nei!r ! ne$ nor ! desire ( appropriat+  
?is symmetry1 ?is ord]4  ,x is ! prop]ty
 ( beauty n to irritate & inflame       
desire1 b to purify & ennoble x4 ,! m   
beautiful a woman is1--,i d n mean t    
common & gross beauty :i* ,reub5s 9 va9 
animates ) 8 brilliant color+1 b t ideal
 beauty :i* antiquity & ,raphael        
und]/ood s well1--! m1 at ! sight ( ?is 
noble creature is desire temp]$ by an   
exquisite & delicate s5tim5t1 & is      
sometimes ev5 replac$ by a dis9t]e/$    
wor%ip4 ,if ! ,v5us ( ! ,capitol1 or !  
,sa9t ,cecilia1 excites 9 y s5sual      
desires1 y are n made to feel !         
beautiful4 ,s ! true arti/ addresses    
himself less to ! s5ses ?an to ! s\l2 9 
pa9t+ beauty he only seeks to awak5 9 u 
s5tim5t2 & :5 he has c>ri$ ?is s5tim5t z
 f> z en?usiasm1 he has obta9$ ! la/    
triumph ( art4  ,! s5tim5t ( ! beautiful
 is1 !re=e1 a special s5tim5t1 z ! idea 
( ! beautiful is a simple idea4 ,b is   
?is s5tim5t1 "o 9 itself1 manife/$ only 

9 a s+le way1 & appli$ only to a s+le   
k9d ( beauty8 ,"h aga9--"h1 z           
always--let u int]rogate exp]i5ce4  ,:5 
we h be=e our eyes an object ^: =ms are 
p]fectly det]m9$1 & ! :ole easy to      
embrace1--a beautiful fl[]1 a beautiful 
/atue1 an antique temple ( mod]ate      
size1--ea* ( our faculties atta*es      
itself to ?is object1 & re/s ^u x ) an  
unalloy$ satisfaction4 ,our s5ses easily
 p]ceive its details2 our reason seizes 
! happy h>mony ( all its p>ts4 ,%\ld ?is
 object disappe>1 we c di/9ctly repres5t
 x to ourselves1 s precise & fix$ are   
its =ms4 ,! s\l 9 ?is contemplation     
feels aga9 a sweet & tranquil joy1 a    
sort ( effloresc5ce4  ,let u consid]1 on
 ! o!r h&1 an object ) vague & indef9ite
 =ms1 :i* may nev]!less be v beautiful3 
! impression :i* we exp]i5ce is )\t d\bt
 a pleasure /ill1 b x is a pleasure ( a 
diff]5t ord]4 ,?is object does n call =?
 all our p[]s l ! fir/4 ,reason         
conceives x1 b ! s5ses d n p]ceive !    
:ole ( x1 & imag9ation does n di/9ctly  

repres5t x to itself4 ,! s5ses & !      
imag9ation try 9 va9 to atta9 its la/   
limits2 our faculties are enl>g$1 are   
inflat$1 ?us to speak1 9 ord] to embrace
 x1 b x escapes & surpasses !m4 ,!      
pleasure t we feel comes f ! v magnitude
 ( ! object2 b1 at ! same "t1 ?is       
magnitude produces 9 u ,i "k n :at      
melan*oly s5tim5t1 because x is         
disproportionate to u4 ,at ! sight ( !  
/>ry heav5s1 ( ! va/ sea1 ( gigantic    
m\nta9s1 admiration is m+l$ ) sadness4  
,^! objects1 9 reality f9ite1 l ! _w    
itself1 seem to u inf9ite1 9 our want ( 
p[] to compreh5d _! imm5sity1 &1        
resembl+ :at is truly )\t b\nds1 !y     
awak5 9 u ! idea ( ! inf9ite1 t idea :i*
 at once elevates & conf\nds our        
intellig5ce4 ,! correspond+ s5tim5t :i* 
! s\l exp]i5ces is an au/]e pleasure4   
,9 ord] to r5d] ! diff]5ce :i* we wi% to
 m>k m p]ceptible1 examples may be      
multipli$4 ,are y affect$ 9 ! same way  
at ! sight ( a mead[1 v>iegat$ 9 its r  
limit$ dim5sions1 ^: ext5t ! eye c      

easily take 91 & at ! aspect ( an       
inaccessible m\nta91 at ! foot ( :i* !  
ocean breaks8 ,d ! sweet light ( day & a
 melodi\s voice produce ^u y ! same     
effect z d>kness & sil5ce8 ,9 !         
intellectual & moral ord]1 are y mov$ 9 
! same way :5 a ri* & good man op5s 8   
purse to ! indig5t1 & :5 a magnanim\s   
man gives hospitality to 8 enemy1 &     
saves him at ! p]il ( 8 own life8 ,take 
"s light poetry 9 :i* measure1 _s1 &    
grace1 ev]y:]e pr$om9ate2 take an ode1 &
 especially an epi/le ( ,horace1 or "s  
small v]ses ( ,voltaire1 & comp>e !m ) !
 ,iliad1 or ^? imm5se ,indian poems t   
are fill$ ) m>vell\s ev5ts1 :]e9 !      
highe/ metaphysics are unit$ to recitals
 by turns graceful or pa!tic1 ^? poems t
 h m ?an two hundr$ ?\s& v]ses1 ^:      
p]sonages are gods or symbolic be+s2 &  
see :e!r ! impressions t y exp]i5ce w be
 ! same4 ,z a la/ example1 suppose1 on !
 "o h&1 a writ] :o1 ) two or ?ree /rokes
 ( ! p51 sket*es an analysis (          
intellig5ce1 agreeable & simple1 b )\t  

dep?1 &1 on ! o!r1 a philosoph] :o      
engages 9 a long labor 9 ord] to arrive 
at ! mo/ rigor\s decomposition ( !      
faculty ( kn[+1 & unfolds to y a long   
*a9 ( pr9ciples & consequ5ces1--read !  
,traite des ,s5sations & ! ,critique (  
,pure ,reason1 &1 ev5 leav+ out ( !     
acc\nt ! tru? & ! falsehood !y may      
conta91 ) ref]5ce solely to ! beautiful1
 comp>e y\r impressions4  ,^! are1 !n1  
two v diff]5t s5tim5ts2 diff]5t names h 
also be5 giv5 !m3 "o has be5 m          
p>ticul>ly call$ ! s5tim5t ( !          
beautiful1 ! o!r t ( ! sublime4  ,9 ord]
 to complete ! /udy ( ! diff]5t         
faculties t ent] into ! p]ception (     
beauty1 aft] reason & s5tim5t1 x rema9s 
to u to speak ( a faculty n less        
necess>y1 :i* animates !m & vivifies    
!m1--imag9ation4  ,:5 s5sation1 judgm5t1
 & s5tim5t h be5 produc$ by ! occasion (
 an ext]nal object1 !y are reproduc$ ev5
 9 ! abs5ce ( ?is object2 ?is is memory4
  ,memory is d\ble3--n only d ,i rememb]
 t ,i h be5 9 ! pres5ce ( a c]ta9       

object1 b ,i repres5t to myself ?is     
abs5t object z x 01 z ,i h se51 felt1 & 
judg$ x3--! remembrance is !n an image4 
,9 ?is la/ case1 memory has be5 call$ by
 "s philosoph]s imag9ative memory4 ,su* 
is ! f\ndation ( imag9ation2 b          
imag9ation is some?+ m /ill4  ,! m9d1   
apply+ itself to ! images furni%$ by    
memory1 decomposes !m1 *ooses betwe5 _! 
diff]5t traits1 & =ms ( !m new images4  
,)\t ?is new p[]1 imag9ation w\ld be    
captive 9 ! circle ( memory4  ,! gift ( 
be+ /rongly affect$ by objects &        
reproduc+ _! abs5t or vani%$ images1 & !
 p[] ( modify+ ^! images s z to compose 
( !m new ones1--d !y fully con/itute :at
 m5 call imag9ation8 ,no1 or at lea/1 if
 ^! are inde$ ! prop] elem5ts (         
imag9ation1 !re mu/ be some?+ else add$1
 to wit1 ! s5tim5t ( ! beautiful 9 all  
its degrees4 ,by ?is means is a great   
imag9ation pres]v$ & k9dl$4 ,did !      
c>eful read+ ( ,titus ,livius enable !  
au?or ( ! ,horaces to vividly repres5t  
to himself "s ( ! sc5es describ$1 to    

seize _! pr9cipal traits & comb9e !m    
happily8 ,f ! outset1 s5tim5t1 love ( ! 
beautiful1 especially ( ! morally       
beautiful1 7 requisite2 !re 0 requir$ t 
great he>t :5ce sprang ! ^w ( ! anci5t  
,horace4  ,let u be well und]/ood4 ,we d
 n say t s5tim5t is imag9ation1 we say t
 x is ! s\rce :5ce imag9ation d]ives its
 inspirations & becomes productive4 ,if 
m5 are s diff]5t 9 reg>d to imag9ation1 
x is because "s are cold 9 pres5ce (    
objects1 cold 9 ! repres5tations :i* !y 
pres]ve ( !m1 cold also 9 ! comb9ations 
:i* !y =m ( !m1 :il/ o!rs1 end[$ ) a    
p>ticul> s5sibility1 are vividly mov$ by
 ! fir/ impressions ( objects1 pres]ve  
/rong recollections ( !m1 & c>ry into ! 
ex]cise ( all _! faculties ?is same =ce 
( emotion4 ,take away s5tim5t & all else
 is inanimate2 let x manife/ itself1 & e
 ?+ receives w>m?1 color1 & life4  ,x is
 !n impossible to limit imag9ation1 z ! 
^w seems to dem&1 to images prop]ly s   
call$1 & to ideas t are relat$ to       
physical objects4 ,to rememb] s\nds1 to 

*oose betwe5 !m1 to comb9e !m 9 ord] to 
draw f !m new effects1--does n ?is      
belong to imag9ation1 al?\gh s\nd is n  
an image8 ,! true musician does n       
possess less imag9ation ?an ! pa9t]4    
,imag9ation is conc$$ to ! poet :5 he   
retraces ! images ( nature2 w ?is same  
faculty be refus$ him :5 he retraces    
s5tim5ts8 ,b1 besides images & s5tim5ts1
 does n ! poet employ ! high ?\ghts (   
ju/ice1 lib]ty1 virtue1 9 a ^w1 moral   
ideas8 ,w x be said t 9 moral pa9t+s1 9 
pictures ( ! intimate life ( ! s\l1 ei!r
 graceful or en]getic1 !re is no        
imag9ation8  ,y see :at is ! ext5t (    
imag9ation3 x has no limits1 x is appli$
 to all ?+s4 ,its di/9ctive "* is t (   
deeply mov+ ! s\l 9 ! pres5ce ( a       
beautiful object1 or by its remembrance 
alone1 or ev5 by ! idea alone ( an      
imag9>y object4 ,x is recogniz$ by !    
sign t x produces1 by ! aid ( its       
repres5tations1 ! same impression z1 &  
ev5 an impression m vivid ?an1 nature by
 ! aid ( real objects4 ,if beauty1 abs5t

 & dream$ (1 does n affect y z mu* z1 & 
m ?an1 pres5t beauty1 y may h a ?\s& o!r
 gifts1--t ( imag9ation has be5 refus$  
y4  ,9 ! eyes ( imag9ation1 ! real _w   
langui%es 9 comp>ison ) its own         
fictions4 ,"o may feel t imag9ation is 8
 ma/] by ! ennui t real & pres5t ?+s    
give him4 ,! phantoms ( imag9ation h a  
vagu5ess1 an indef9it5ess ( =m1 :i*     
moves a ?\s& times m ?an ! cle>ness &   
di/9ctness ( actual p]ceptions4 ,& !n1  
unless we are :olly mad1--& passion does
 n always r5d] ?is s]vice1--x is v      
difficult to see reality o!rwise ?an z x
 is n1 t is to say1 v imp]fectly4 ,on ! 
o!r h&1 "o makes ( an image :at he      
wi%es1 unconsci\sly metamorphoses x1    
embelli%es x to 8 own lik+4 ,!re is at !
 bottom ( ! human s\l an inf9ite p[] (  
feel+ & lov+ to :i* ! entire _w does n  
answ]1 /ill less a s+le "o ( its        
creatures1 h[ev] *>m+4 ,all mortal      
beauty1 view$ ne> by1 does n suffice =  
?is insatiable p[] :i* x excites & _c   
satisfy4 ,b f af>1 its effects disappe> 

or are dim9i%$1 %ades are m+l$ &        
conf\nd$ 9 ! cle>-obscure ( memory &    
dream1 & ! objects please m because !y  
are less det]m9ate4 ,! peculi>ity ( m5 (
 imag9ation is1 t !y repres5t m5 & ?+s  
o!rwise ?an z !y are1 & t !y h a passion
 = su* fanta/ic images4 ,^? t are call$ 
positive m51 are m5 )\t imag9ation1 :o  
p]ceive only :at !y see1 & deal )       
reality z x is in/ead ( trans=m+ x4 ,!y 
h1 9 g5]al1 m reason ?an s5tim5t2 !y may
 be s]i\sly1 pr(\ndly hone/2 !y w nev]  
be ei!r poets or arti/s4 ,:at makes !   
poet or arti/ is1 ) a f\ndation ( good  
s5se & reason--)\t :i* all ! re/ is     
useless--a s5sitive1 ev5 a passionate   
he>t2 above all1 a vivid1 a p[]ful      
imag9ation4  ,if s5tim5t acts ^u        
imag9ation1 we see t imag9ation returns 
) usury to s5tim5t :at x gives4  ,?is   
pure & ard5t passion1 ?is wor%ip (      
beauty t makes ! great arti/1 c be f\nd 
only 9 a man ( imag9ation4 ,9 fact1 !   
s5tim5t ( ! beautiful may be awak5$ 9   
ea* "o ( u be=e any beautiful object2 b1

 :5 ?is object has disappe>$1 if its    
image does n subsi/ vivaci\sly retrac$1 
! s5tim5t :i* x = a mom5t excit$ is     
little by little effac$2 x may be reviv$
 at ! sight ( ano!r object1 b only to be
 ext+ui%$ aga91--always dy+ to be born  
aga9 at haz>d2 n be+ n\ri%$1 increas$1  
exalt$ by ! vivaci\s & cont9u\s         
reproduction ( its object 9 !           
imag9ation1 x wants t inspir+ p[]1 )\t  
:i* !re is no arti/1 no poet4  ,a ^w m  
on ano!r faculty1 :i* is n a simple     
faculty1 b a happy comb9ation ( ^? :i* h
 j be5 m5tion$1--ta/e1 s ill treat$1 s  
arbitr>ily limit$ 9 all !ories4  ,if1   
aft] hav+ he>d a beautiful poetical or  
musical "w1 admir$ a /atue or a picture1
 y are able to recall :at y\r s5ses h   
p]ceiv$1 to see aga9 ! abs5t picture1 to
 he> aga9 ! s\nds t no long] exi/2 9 a  
^w1 if y h imag9ation1 y possess "o ( ! 
conditions )\t :i* !re is no true ta/e4 
,9 fact1 9 ord] to reli% ! works (      
imag9ation1 is x n necess>y to h ta/e8  
,d we n ne$1 9 ord] to feel an au?or1 n 

to equal him1 )\t d\bt1 b to resemble   
him 9 "s degree8 ,w n a man ( s5sible1 b
 dry & au/]e m9d1 l ,le ,batteux or     
,condillac1 be ins5sible to ! happy d>+s
 ( g5ius1 & w he n c>ry into criticism a
 n>r[ sev]ity1 a reason v little        
reasonable--s9ce he does n compreh5d all
 ! p>ts ( human nature1--an intol]ance t
 mutilates & blemi%es art :ile ?9k+ to  
purify x8  ,on ! o!r h&1 imag9ation does
 n suffice = ! appreciation ( beauty4   
,moreov]1 t vivacity ( imag9ation s     
preci\s to ta/e1 :5 x is some:at        
re/ra9$1 produces1 :5 x rules1 only a v 
imp]fect ta/e1 :i*1 n hav+ reason = a   
basis1 c>elessly judges1 runs ! risk (  
misund]/&+ ! greate/ beauty1--beauty t  
is regulat$4 ,unity 9 composition1      
h>mony ( all ! p>ts1 j proportion (     
details1 skilful comb9ation ( effects1  
discrim9ation1 sobriety1 measure1 are s 
_m m]its x w little feel1 & w n put 9 _!
 place4 ,imag9ation has d\btless mu* to 
d ) works ( art2 b1 9 f9e1 x is n e ?+4 
,is x only imag9ation t makes !         

,polyeucte & ! ,misan?rope1 two         
incomp>able m>vels8 ,is !re n1 also1 9 !
 pr(\nd simplicity ( plan1 9 ! measur$  
developm5t ( action1 9 ! su/a9$ tru? (  
*>act]s1 a sup]ior reason1 diff]5t f    
imag9ation :i* furni%es ! sup]ior       
colors1 & f s5sibility t gives !        
passion8  ,besides imag9ation & reason1 
! man ( ta/e ought to possess an        
enlight5$ b ard5t love ( beauty2 he mu/ 
take delight 9 meet+ x1 mu/ se>* = x1   
mu/ summon x4 ,to compreh5d & demon/rate
 t a ?+ is n beautiful1 is an ord9>y    
pleasure1 an ungrateful task2 b to      
disc]n a beautiful ?+1 to be p5etrat$ ) 
its beauty1 to make x evid5t1 & make    
o!rs p>ticipate 9 our s5tim5t1 is an    
exquisite joy1 a g5]\s task4 ,admiration
 is1 = him :o feels x1 at once a        
happ9ess & an honor4 ,x is a happ9ess to
 feel deeply :at is beautiful2 x is an  
honor to "k h[ to recognize x4          
,admiration is ! sign ( an elevat$      
reason s]v$ by a noble he>t4 ,x is above
 a small criticism1 t is skeptical &    

p[]less2 b x is ! s\l ( a l>ge          
criticism1 a criticism t is productive3 
x is1 ?us to speak1 ! div9e "p ( ta/e4  
,aft] hav+ spok5 ( ta/e :i* appreciates 
beauty1 %all we say no?+ ( g5ius :i*    
makes x live aga98 ,g5ius is no?+ else  
?an ta/e 9 action1 t is to say1 ! ?ree  
p[]s ( ta/e c>ri$ to _! culm9ation1 &   
arm$ ) a new & my/]i\s p[]1 ! p[] (     
execution4 ,b we are already ent]+ ^u ! 
doma9 ( art4 ,let u wait1 we %all soon  
f9d art aga9 & ! g5ius t accompanies x4 
,,footnotes3  #if ,except ! e/imable    
,essay on ! ,beautiful1 by ,p4 ,&re1 a  
disciple ( ,malebran*e1 ^: life 0       
consid]ably prolong$ into ! eighte5?    
c5tury4 ,on ,p4 ,&re1 see #c;d ,s]ies1  
vol4 iii41 ,mod]n ,philosophy1 p4 #bjg1 
#eaf4  #ig ,see 9 ! works ( ,did]ot1    
,p5sees sur la ,sculpture1 les ,salons1 
etc4  #ih ,see #a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 iv41    
expla9$ & e/imat$1 ! !ories ( ,hut*eson 
& ,reid4  #ii ,! !ory ( ,kant is f\nd 9 
! ,critique ( ,judgm5t1 & 9 !           
,obs]vations on ! ,s5tim5t ( !          

,beautiful & ! ,sublime4 ,see ! excell5t
 translation made by ,m4 ,b>ny1 #b      
vols41 #ahdf4  #ajj ,on ,hut*eson &     
,smi?1 _! m]its & defects1 ! "p ( tru? &
 ! "p ( error1 :i* _! philosophy        
conta9s1 see ! detail$ lectures :i* we h
 devot$ to !m1 #a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 iv4     
#aja ,see ! exposition & refutation ( ! 
doctr9e ( ,condillac & ,helvetius1      
,ibid41 vol4 iii4  #ajb ,see lecture #e1
 9 ?is vol4     ,,lecture ,,vii4  ,,!   
,,beautiful ,,9 ,,objects4              
,refutation ( diff]5t !ories on ! nature
 ( ! beautiful3     ! beautiful _c be   
r$uc$ to :at is useful4--,nor to        
conv5i5ce4--,nor to                     
proportion4--,ess5tial *>act]s ( !      
beautiful4--,diff]5t k9ds ( beauties4 ,!
 beautiful & !     sublime4 ,physical   
beauty4 ,intellectual beauty4 ,moral    
beauty4--,ideal beauty3 x is especially 
moral beauty4--,god1 !     fir/ pr9ciple
 ( ! beautiful4--,!ory ( ,plato4   ,we h
 made kn[n ! beautiful 9 ourselves1 9 ! 
faculties t p]ceive x & appreciate x1 9 

reason1 s5tim5t1 imag9ation1 ta/e2 we   
come1 accord+ to ! ord] det]m9$ by !    
me?od1 to o!r que/ions3 ,:at is !       
beautiful 9 objects8 ,:at is ! beautiful
 tak5 9 itself8 ,:at are its *>act]s &  
diff]5t species8 ,:at1 9 f9e1 is its    
fir/ & la/ pr9ciple8 ,all ^! que/ions   
mu/ be treat$1 &1 if possible1 solv$4   
,philosophy has its po9t ( dep>ture 9   
psy*ology2 b1 9 ord] to atta9 also its  
legitimate t]m9ation1 x mu/ set out f   
man1 & rea* ?+s !mselves4  ,! hi/ory (  
philosophy (f]s _m !ories on ! nature ( 
! beautiful3 we d n wi% to enum]ate nor 
discuss !m all2 we w designate ! mo/    
important4#ajc  ,!re is "o v gross1 :i* 
def9es ! beautiful z t :i* pleases !    
s5ses1 t :i* procures an agreeable      
impression4 ,we w n /op at ?is op9ion4  
,we h suffici5tly refut$ x 9 %[+ t x is 
impossible to r$uce ! beautiful to !    
agreeable4  ,a s5sualism a little m wise
 puts ! useful 9 ! place ( ! agreeable1 
t is to say1 *anges ! =m ( ! same       
pr9ciple4 ,nei!r is ! beautiful ! object

 :i* procures = u 9 ! pres5t mom5t an   
agreeable b fugitive s5sation1 x is !   
object :i* c (t5 procure = u ?is same   
s5sation or o!rs simil>4 ,no great ef=t 
( obs]vation or reason+ is necess>y to  
conv9ce u t utility has no?+ to d )     
beauty4 ,:at is useful is n always      
beautiful4 ,:at is beautiful is n always
 useful1 & :at is at once useful &      
beautiful is beautiful = "s o!r reason  
?an its utility4 ,obs]ve a lev] or a    
pulley3 surely no?+ is m useful4        
,nev]!less1 y are n tempt$ to say t ?is 
is beautiful4 ,h y discov]$ an antique  
vase admirably work$8 ,y exclaim t ?is  
vase is beautiful1 )\t ?9k+ to seek (   
:at use x may be to y4 ,f9ally1 symmetry
 & ord] are beautiful ?+s1 & at ! same  
"t1 are useful ?+s1 because !y economize
 space1 because objects symmetrically   
dispos$ are easi] to f9d :5 "o wants !m2
 b t is n :at makes = u ! beauty (      
symmetry1 = we imm$iately seize ?is k9d 
( beauty1 & x is (t5 late en\gh be=e we 
recognize ! utility t is f\nd 9 x4 ,x   

ev5 sometimes happ5s1 t aft] hav+ admir$
 ! beauty ( an object1 we are n able to 
div9e its use1 al?\gh x may h "o4 ,!    
useful is1 !n1 entirely diff]5t f !     
beautiful1 f> f be+ its f\ndation4  ,a  
celebrat$ & v anci5t#ajd !ory makes !   
beautiful consi/ 9 ! p]fect suitabl5ess 
( means to _! end4 ,"h ! beautiful is no
 long] ! useful1 x is ! suitable2 ^! two
 ideas mu/ be di/+ui%$4 ,a ma*9e        
produces excell5t effects1 economy ( "t1
 "w1 etc42 x is !re=e useful4 ,if1      
moreov]1 exam9+ its con/ruction1 ,i f9d 
t ea* piece is 9 its place1 & t all are 
skilfully dispos$ = ! result :i* !y %\ld
 produce2 ev5 )\t reg>d+ ! utility ( ?is
 result1 z ! means are well adapt$ to _!
 end1 ,i judge t !re is suitabl5ess 9 x4
 ,we are already approa*+ ! idea ( !    
beautiful2 = we are no long] consid]+   
:at is useful1 b :at is prop]4 ,n[1 we h
 n yet atta9$ ! true "* ( beauty2 !re   
are1 9 fact1 objects v well adapt$ to _!
 end1 :i* we d n call beautiful4 ,a b5* 
)\t ornam5t & )\t elegance1 provid$ x be

 solid1 provid$ all ! p>ts are firmly   
connect$1 provid$ "o may sit d[n on x ) 
safety1 provid$ x may be = ?is purpose  
suitable1 agreeable ev51 may give an    
example ( ! mo/ p]fect adaptation (     
means to an end2 x w n1 !re=e1 be said t
 ?is b5* is beautiful4 ,!re is "h always
 ?is diff]5ce betwe5 suitabl5ess &      
utility1 t an object to be beautiful has
 no ne$ ( be+ useful1 b t x is n        
beautiful if x does n possess           
suitabl5ess1 if !re is 9 x a disagreem5t
 betwe5 ! end & ! means4  ,"s h ?\ght to
 f9d ! beautiful 9 proportion1 & ?is is1
 9 fact1 "o ( ! conditions ( beauty1 b x
 is n ! only "o4 ,x is v c]ta91 t an    
object ill-proportion$ _c be beautiful4 
,!re is 9 all beautiful objects1 h[ev]  
f> !y may be f geometric =m1 a sort (   
liv+ geometry4 ,b1 ,i ask1 is x         
proportion t is dom9ant 9 ?is sl5d]     
tree1 ) flexible & graceful bran*es1 )  
ri* & %ady foliage8 ,:at makes ! t]rible
 beauty ( a /orm1 :at makes t ( a great 
picture1 ( an isolat$ v]se1 or a sublime

 ode8 ,x is n1 ,i "k1 want+ 9 law &     
rule1 nei!r is x law & rule3 (t51 ev5   
:at at fir/ /rikes u is an app>5t       
irregul>ity4 ,x is absurd to pret5d t   
:at makes u admire all ^! ?+s & _m m1 is
 ! same quality t makes u admire a      
geometric figure1 t is to say1 ! exact  
correspond5ce ( p>ts4  ,:at we say (    
proportion may be said ( ord]1 :i* is   
some?+ less ma!matical ?an proportion1 b
 sc>cely expla9s bett] :at is free1     
v>i$1 & neglig5t 9 c]ta9 beauties4  ,all
 ^! !ories :i* ref] beauty to ord]1     
h>mony1 & proportion1 are at f\ndation  
only "o & ! same !ory :i* 9 ! beautiful 
sees unity be=e all4 ,& surely unity is 
beautiful2 x is an important "p (       
beauty1 b x is n ! :ole ( beauty4  ,!   
mo/ probable !ory ( ! beautiful is t :i*
 composes x ( two contr>y & equally     
necess>y elem5ts1 unity & v>iety4       
,behold a beautiful fl[]4 ,)\t d\bt1    
unity1 ord]1 proportion1 symmetry ev51  
are 9 x2 =1 )\t ^! qualities1 reason    
w\ld be abs5t f x1 & all ?+s are made ) 

a m>vell\s reason4 ,b1 at ! same "t1 :at
 a div]sity6 ,h[ _m %ades 9 ! color1 :at
 ri*ness 9 ! lea/ details6 ,ev5 9       
ma!matics1 :at is beautiful is n an     
ab/ract pr9ciple1 x is a pr9ciple c>ry+ 
) itself a long *a9 ( consequ5ces4 ,!re 
is no beauty )\t life1 & life is        
movem5t1 is div]sity4  ,unity & v>iety  
are appli$ to all ord]s ( beauty4 ,let u
 rapidly run ov] ^! diff]5t ord]s4  ,9 !
 fir/ place1 !re are beautiful objects1 
to speak prop]ly1 & sublime objects4 ,a 
beautiful object1 we h se51 is some?+   
complet$1 circumscrib$1 limit$1 :i* all 
our faculties easily embrace1 because ! 
diff]5t p>ts are on a some:at n>r[      
scale4 ,a sublime object is t :i*1 by   
=ms n 9 !mselves disproportionate1 b    
less def9ite & m difficult to seize1    
awak5s 9 u ! s5tim5t ( ! inf9ite4  ,!re 
are two v di/9ct species ( beauty4 ,b   
reality is inexhau/ible1 & 9 all !      
degrees ( reality !re is beauty4  ,among
 s5sible objects1 colors1 s\nds1        
figures1 movem5ts1 are capable ( produc+

 ! idea & ! s5tim5t ( ! beautiful4 ,all 
^! beauties are arrang$ "u t species (  
beauty :i*1 "r or wrong1 is call$       
physical beauty4  ,if f ! _w ( s5se we  
elevate ourselves to t ( m9d1 tru?1 &   
sci5ce1 we %all f9d !re beauties m      
sev]e1 b n less real4 ,! univ]sal laws t
 gov]n bodies1 ^? t gov]n intellig5ces1 
! great pr9ciples t conta9 & produce    
long d$uctions1 ! g5ius t creates1 9 !  
arti/1 poet1 or philosoph]1--all ^! are 
beautiful1 z well z nature h]self3 ?is  
is :at is call$ intellectual beauty4    
,f9ally1 if we consid] ! moral _w & its 
laws1 ! idea ( lib]ty1 virtue1 &        
devot$ness1 "h ! au/]e ju/ice ( an      
,ari/ides1 !re ! h]oism ( a ,leonidas1 !
 prodigies ( *>ity or patriotism1 we    
%all c]ta9ly f9d a ?ird ord] ( beauty t 
/ill surpasses ! o!r two1 to wit1 moral 
beauty4  ,nei!r let u =get to apply to  
all ^! beauties ! di/9ction betwe5 !    
beautiful & ! sublime4 ,!re are1 !n1 !  
beautiful & ! sublime at once 9 nature1 
9 ideas1 9 s5tim5ts1 9 actions4 ,:at an 

almo/ inf9ite v>iety 9 beauty6  ,aft]   
hav+ enum]at$ all ^! diff]5ces1 c\ld we 
n r$uce !m8 ,!y are inconte/able2 b1 9  
?is div]sity is !re n unity8 ,is !re n a
 s+le beauty ( :i* all p>ticul> beauties
 are only reflections1 %ades1 degrees1  
or degradations8  ,plot9us1 9 8 treatise
 ,on ! ,beautiful1#aje propos$ to       
himself ?is "q4 ,he asks--,:at is !     
beautiful 9 itself8 ,i see cle>ly t su* 
or su* a =m is beautiful1 t su* or su*  
an action is also beautiful2 b :y & h[  
are ^! two objects1 s dissimil>1        
beautiful8 ,:at is ! common quality :i*1
 be+ f\nd 9 ^! two objects1 ranges !m "u
 ! g5]al idea ( ! beautiful8  ,x is     
necess>y to answ] ?is "q1 or ! !ory (   
beauty is a maze )\t issue2 "o applies !
 same "n to ! mo/ div]se ?+s1 )\t       
und]/&+ ! real unity t au?orizes ?is    
unity ( "n4  ,ei!r ! div]sities :i* we h
 designat$ 9 beauty are su* t x is      
impossible to discov] _! relation1 or ^!
 div]sities are especially app>5t1 & h  
_! h>mony1 _! conceal$ unity4  ,is x    

pret5d$ t ?is unity is a *im]a8 ,!n     
physical beauty1 moral beauty1 &        
intellectual beauty1 are /rang]s to ea* 
o!r4 ,:at1 !n1 w ! arti/ d8 ,he is      
surr\nd$ by diff]5t beauties1 & he mu/  
make a "w2 = su* is ! recogniz$ law (   
art4 ,b if ?is unity t is impos$ ^u him 
is a factiti\s unity1 if !re are 9      
nature only ess5tially dissimil>        
beauties1 art deceives & lies to u4 ,let
 x be expla9$1 !n1 h[ falsehood is ! law
 ( art4 ,t _c be2 ! unity t art         
expresses1 x mu/ h some:]e caught a     
glimpse (1 9 ord] to transport x into   
its works4  ,we nei!r retract !         
di/9ction betwe5 ! beautiful & !        
sublime1 nor ! o!r di/9ctions j n[      
indicat$2 b x is necess>y to re-unite   
aft] hav+ di/+ui%$ !m4 ,^! di/9ctions & 
^! re-unions are n contradictory3 !     
great law ( beauty1 l t ( tru?1 is unity
 z well z v>iety4 ,all is "o1 & all is  
div]se4 ,we h divid$ beauty into ?ree   
great classes--physical beauty1         
intellectual beauty1 & moral beauty4 ,we

 mu/ n[ seek ! unity ( ^! ?ree sorts (  
beauty4 ,n[1 we ?9k t !y resolve        
!mselves into "o & ! same beauty1 moral 
beauty1 mean+ by t1 ) moral beauty      
prop]ly s call$1 all spiritual beauty4  
,let u put ?is op9ion to ! pro( ( facts4
  ,place y\rself be=e t /atue ( ,apollo 
:i* is call$ ,apollo ,belvid]e1 & obs]ve
 att5tively :at /rikes y 9 t ma/]-piece4
 ,w9kelmann1 :o 0 n a metaphysician1 b a
 le>n$ antiqu>ian1 a man ( ta/e )\t     
sy/em1 made a celebrat$ analysis ( !    
,apollo4#ajf ,x is curi\s to /udy x4    
,:at ,w9kelmann extols be=e all1 is ! "*
 ( div9ity /amp$ ^u ! immortal y\? t    
inve/s t beautiful body1 ^u ! height1 a 
little above t ( man1 ^u ! maje/ic      
altitude1 ^u ! imp]i\s movem5t1 ^u !    
ensemble1 & all ! details ( ! p]son4 ,! 
=ehead is inde$ t ( a god1--an          
unalt]able placidity dwells ^u x4 ,l[]  
d[n1 humanity reappe>s some:at2 & t is v
 necess>y1 9 ord] to int]e/ humanity 9 !
 works ( art4 ,9 t satisfi$ look1 9 !   
di/5sion ( ! no/rils1 9 ! elevation ( ! 

"u lip1 are at once felt ang] m+l$ )    
disda91 pride ( victory1 & ! little     
fatigue :i* x has co/4 ,weigh well ea*  
^w ( ,w9kelmann3 y w f9d !re a moral    
impression4 ,! tone ( ! le>n$ antiqu>y  
is elevat$1 little by little1 to        
en?usiasm1 & 8 analysis becomes a hymn  
to spiritual beauty4  ,in/ead ( a /atue1
 obs]ve a real & liv+ man4 ,reg>d t man 
:o1 solicit$ by ! /ronge/ motives to    
sacrifice duty to =tune1 triumphs ov]   
int]e/1 aft] an h]oic /ruggle1 &        
sacrifices =tune to virtue4 ,reg>d him  
at ! mom5t :5 he is ab\t to take ?is    
magnanim\s resolution2 8 face w appe> to
 y beautiful1 because x expresses !     
beauty ( 8 s\l4 ,p]haps1 "u all o!r     
circum/ances1 ! face ( ! man is common1 
ev5 trivial2 "h1 illum9at$ by ! s\l :i* 
x manife/s1 x is ennobl$1 & takes an    
impos+ "* ( beauty4 ,s1 ! natural face (
 ,socrates#ajg contra/s /rongly ) ! type
 ( ,grecian beauty2 b look at him on 8  
dea?-b$1 at ! mom5t ( dr9k+ ! hemlock1  
conv5+ ) 8 disciples on ! immortality ( 

! s\l1 & 8 face w appe> to y            
sublime4#ajh  ,at ! highe/ po9t ( moral 
gr&eur1 ,socrates expires3--y h be=e y\r
 eyes no long] any ?+ b 8 dead body2 !  
dead face pres]ves its beauty1 z long z 
x pres]ves traces ( ! m9d t animat$ x2 b
 little by little ! expression is       
ext+ui%$ or disappe>s2 ! face !n becomes
 vulg> & ugly4 ,! expression ( dea? is  
hide\s or sublime1--hide\s at ! aspect (
 ! decomposition ( ! matt] t no long]   
reta9s ! _s1--sublime :5 x awak5s 9 u ! 
idea ( et]nity4  ,consid] ! figure ( man
 9 repose3 x is m beautiful ?an t ( an  
animal1 ! figure ( an animal is m       
beautiful ?an ! =m ( any inanimate      
object4 ,x is because ! human figure1   
ev5 9 ! abs5ce ( virtue & g5ius1 always 
reflects an intellig5t & moral nature1 x
 is because ! figure ( an animal        
reflects s5tim5t at lea/1 & some?+ (    
s\l1 if n ! s\l entire4 ,if f man & !   
animal we desc5d to purely physical     
nature1 we %all /ill f9d beauty !re1 z  
long z we f9d !re "s %ade ( intellig5ce1

 ,i "k n :at1 t awak5s 9 u "s ?\ght1 "s 
s5tim5t4 ,d we arrive at "s piece (     
matt] t expresses no?+1 t signifies     
no?+1 nei!r is ! idea ( beauty appli$ to
 x4 ,b e ?+ t exi/s is animat$4 ,matt]  
is %ap$ & p5etrat$ by =ces t are n      
mat]ial1 & x obeys laws t atte/ an      
intellig5ce ev]y:]e pres5t4 ,! mo/      
subtile *emical analysis does n rea* a  
dead & in]t nature1 b a nature t is     
organiz$ 9 its own way1 t is nei!r      
depriv$ ( =ces nor laws4 ,9 ! dep?s ( ! 
e>?1 z 9 ! heights ( ! heav5s1 9 a gra9 
( s& z 9 a gigantic m\nta91 an immortal 
_s %9es ?r\gh ! ?icke/ cov]+s4 ,let u   
contemplate nature ) ! eye ( ! s\l z    
well z ) ! eye ( ! body3--ev]y:]e a     
moral expression w /rike u1 & ! =ms (   
?+s w impress u z symbols ( ?\ght4 ,we h
 said t ) man1 & ) ! animal ev51 !      
figure is beautiful on acc\nt ( !       
expression4 ,b1 :5 y are on ! summit ( !
 ,alps1 or be=e ! imm5se ,ocean1 :5 y   
behold ! ris+ or sett+ ( ! sun1 at !    
beg9n+ or ! close ( ! day1 d n ^! impos+

 pictures produce on y a moral effect8  
,d all ^! gr& spectacles appe> only = ! 
sake ( appe>+8 ,d we n reg>d !m z       
manife/ations ( an admirable p[]1       
intellig5ce1 & wisdom8 ,&1 ?us to speak1
 is n ! face ( nature expressive l t (  
man8  ,=m _c be simply a =m1 x mu/ be ! 
=m ( some?+4 ,physical beauty is1 !n1 ! 
sign ( an int]nal beauty1 :i* is        
spiritual & moral beauty2 & ?is is !    
f\ndation1 ! pr9ciple1 ! unity ( !      
beautiful4#aji  ,all ! beauties t we h j
 enum]at$ & r$uc$ compose :at is call$ !
 really beautiful4 ,b1 above real       
beauty1 is a beauty ( ano!r ord]--ideal 
beauty4 ,! ideal resides nei!r 9 an     
individual1 nor 9 a collection (        
individuals4 ,nature or exp]i5ce        
furni%es u ! occasion ( conceiv+ x1 b x 
is ess5tially di/9ct4 ,let x once be    
conceiv$1 & all natural figures1 ?\gh   
nev] s beautiful1 are only images ( a   
sup]ior beauty :i* !y d n realize4 ,give
 me a beautiful action1 & ,i w imag9e "o
 /ill m beautiful4 ,! ,apollo itself is 

op5 to criticism 9 m ?an "o respect4 ,! 
ideal cont9ually rec$es z we approa* x4 
,its la/ t]m9ation is 9 ! inf9ite1 t is 
to say1 9 ,god2 or1 to speak m          
correctly1 ! true & absolute ideal is   
no?+ else ?an ,god himself4  ,god1 be+ !
 pr9ciple ( all ?+s1 mu/ = ?is reason be
 t ( p]fect beauty1 &1 consequ5tly1 (   
all natural beauties t express x m or   
less imp]fectly2 he is ! pr9ciple (     
beauty1 bo? z au?or ( ! physical _w & z 
fa!r ( ! intellectual & moral _w4  ,is x
 n necess>y to be a slave ( ! s5ses & ( 
appe>ances 9 ord] to /op at movem5ts1 at
 =ms1 at s\nds1 at colors1 ^: h>moni\s  
comb9ations produce ! beauty ( ?is      
visible _w1 & n to conceive beh9d ?is   
sc5e s magnific5t & well regulat$1 !    
ord]]1 ! geomet]1 ! supreme arti/8      
,physical beauty s]ves z an envelope to 
intellectual & moral beauty4  ,:at c be 
! pr9ciple ( intellectual beauty1 t     
spl5dor ( ! true1 except ! pr9ciple (   
all tru?8  ,moral beauty comprises1 z we
 %all subsequ5tly see1#aaj two di/9ct   

elem5ts1 equally b div]sely beautiful1  
ju/ice & *>ity1 respect & love ( m54 ,he
 :o expresses 9 8 conduct ju/ice &      
*>ity1 accompli%es ! mo/ beautiful ( all
 works2 ! good man is1 9 8 way1 !       
greate/ ( all arti/s4 ,b :at %all we say
 ( him :o is ! v sub/ance ( ju/ice & !  
exhau/less s\rce ( love8 ,if our moral  
nature is beautiful1 :at mu/ be ! beauty
 ( its au?or6 ,8 ju/ice & goodness are  
ev]y:]e1 bo? 9 u & out ( u4 ,8 ju/ice is
 ! moral ord] t no human law makes1 t   
all human laws are =c$ to express1 t is 
pres]v$ & p]petuat$ 9 ! _w by its own   
=ce4 ,let u desc5d into ourselves1 &    
consci\sness w atte/ ! div9e ju/ice 9 ! 
peace & cont5tm5t t accompany virtue1 9 
! tr\bles & tortures t are ! inv>iable  
puni%m5ts ( vice & crime4 ,h[ _m times1 
& ) :at eloqu5ce1 h m5 celebrat$ !      
indefatigable solicitude ( ,provid5ce1  
its b5efits ev]y:]e manife/ 9 ! smalle/ 
z well z 9 ! greate/ ph5om5a ( nature1  
:i* we =get s easily because !y h become
 s famili> to u1 b :i*1 on reflection1  

call =? our m+l$ admiration & gratitude1
 & proclaim a good ,god1 full ( love = 8
 creatures6  ,?us1 ,god is ! pr9ciple ( 
! ?ree ord]s ( beauty t we h di/+ui%$1  
physical beauty1 intellectual beauty1   
moral beauty4  ,9 him also are reunit$ !
 two great =ms ( ! beautiful di/ribut$ 9
 ea* ( ^! ?ree ord]s1 to wit1 !         
beautiful & ! sublime4 ,god is1 p>      
excell5ce1 ! beautiful--= :at object    
satisfies m all our faculties1 our      
reason1 our imag9ation1 our he>t6 ,he   
(f]s to reason ! highe/ idea1 beyond :i*
 x has no?+ m to seek2 to imag9ation !  
mo/ ravi%+ contemplation2 to ! he>t a   
sov]eign object ( love4 ,he is1 !n1     
p]fectly beautiful2 b is he n sublime   
also 9 o!r ways8 ,if he ext5ds ! horizon
 ( ?\ght1 x is to conf\nd x 9 ! abyss ( 
8 greatness4 ,if ! s\l blooms at !      
spectacle ( 8 goodness1 has x n also    
reason to be affright$ at ! idea ( 8    
ju/ice1 :i* is n less pres5t to x8 ,god 
is at once mild & t]rible4 ,at ! same "t
 t he is ! life1 ! light1 ! movem5t1 !  

ineffable grace ( visible & f9ite       
nature1 he is also call$ ! ,et]nal1 !   
,invisible1 ! ,inf9ite1 ! ,absolute     
,unity1 & ! ,be+ ( be+s4 ,d n ^! awful  
attributes1 z c]ta9 z ! fir/1 produce 9 
! highe/ degree 9 ! imag9ation & ! s\l t
 melan*oly emotion excit$ by ! sublime8 
,yes1 ,god is = u ! type & s\rce ( ! two
 great =ms ( beauty1 because he is to u 
at once an imp5etrable enigma & /ill !  
cle>e/ ^w t we are able to f9d = all    
enigmas4 ,limit$ be+s z we are1 we      
compreh5d no?+ 9 comp>ison ) t :i* is   
)\t limits1 & we are able to expla9 no?+
 )\t t same ?+ :i* is )\t limits4 ,by ! 
be+ t we possess1 we h "s idea ( !      
inf9ite be+ ( ,god2 by ! no?+ness t is 9
 u1 we lose ourselves 9 ! be+ ( ,god2 & 
?us always =c$ to recur to him 9 ord] to
 expla9 any ?+1 & always ?r[n back )9   
ourselves "u ! weight ( 8 inf9itude1 we 
exp]i5ce by turns1 or r at ! same "t1 = 
?is ,god :o raises & ca/s u d[n1 a      
s5tim5t ( irresi/ible attraction &      
a/oni%m5t1 n to say insurm\ntable t]ror1

 :i* he alone c cause & allay1 because  
he alone is ! unity ( ! sublime & !     
beautiful4  ,?us absolute be+1 :i* is   
bo? absolute unity & inf9ite            
v>iety1--,god1 is necess>ily ! la/      
reason1 ! ultimate f\ndation1 ! complet$
 ideal ( all beauty4 ,?is is ! m>vell\s 
beauty t ,diotimus _h caught a glimpse  
(1 & ?us pa9ts to ,socrates 9 !         
,banquet3  ,et]nal beauty1 unbegott5 &  
imp]i%able1 exempt f decay z well z     
increase1 :i* is n beautiful 9 su* a "p 
& ugly 9 su* ano!r1 beautiful only1 at  
su* a "t1 9 su* a place1 9 su* a        
relation1 beautiful = "s1 ugly = o!rs1  
beauty t has no s5sible =m1 no visage1  
no h&s1 no?+ corporeal1 :i* is n su* a  
?\ght or su* a p>ticul> sci5ce1 :i*     
resides n 9 any be+ diff]5t f itself1 z 
an animal1 ! e>?1 or ! heav5s1 or any   
o!r ?+1 :i* is absolutely id5tical &    
inv>iable by itself1 9 :i* all o!r      
beauties p>ticipate1 9 su* a way1       
nev]!less1 t _! bir? or _! de/ruction   
nei!r dim9i%es nor increases1 nor 9 !   

lea/ *anges x6444 ,9 ord] to arrive at  
?is p]fect beauty1 x is necess>y to     
comm5ce ) ! beauties ( ?is l[] _w1 &1 ! 
eyes be+ fix$ ^u ! supreme beauty1 to   
elevate ourselves unceas+ly t[>ds x1 by 
pass+1 ?us to speak1 ?r\gh all ! degrees
 ( ! scale1 f a s+le beautiful body to  
two1 f two to all o!rs1 f beautiful     
bodies to beautiful s5tim5ts1 f         
beautiful s5tim5ts to beautiful ?\ghts1 
until f ?\ght to ?\ght we arrive at !   
highe/ ?\ght1 :i* has no o!r object ?an 
! beautiful itself1 until we end by kn[+
 x z x is 9 itself4  ,o my de>          
,socrates1 cont9u$ ! /rang] ( ,mant9ea1 
t :i* c give value to ?is life is !     
spectacle ( ! et]nal beauty4444 ,:at    
w\ld be ! de/9y ( a mortal to :om x %\ld
 be grant$ to contemplate ! beautiful   
)\t alloy1 9 its purity & simplicity1 no
 long] clo!d ) ! fle% & hues ( humanity1
 & ) all ^? va9 *>ms t are condemn$ to  
p]i%1 to :om x %\ld be giv5 to see face 
to face1 "u its sole =m1 ! div9e        
beauty6#aaa   ,,footnotes3  #ajc ,if "o 

w\ld make himself acqua9t$ ) a simple & 
piquant refutation1 writt5 two ?\s& ye>s
 ago1 ( false !ories ( beauty1 he may   
read ! ,hippias ( ,plato1 vol4 iv4 ( our
 translation4 ,! ,pha$rus1 vol4 vi41    
conta9s ! veil$ exposition ( ,plato's   
own !ory2 b x is 9 ! ,banquet 7,ibid471 
& p>ticul>ly 9 ! disc\rse ( ,diotimus1 t
 we mu/ look = ! ?\ght ( ,plato c>ri$ to
 its highe/ degree ( developm5t1 & clo!d
 ) all ! beauty ( human language4  #ajd 
,see ! ,hippias4  #aje ,fir/ ,ennead1   
book vi41 9 ! "w ( ,m4 ,b4              
,sa9t-,hillaire1 on ! ,s*ool (          
,alex&ria1 ! translation ( ?is morsel ( 
,plot9us1 p4 #aig4  #ajf ,w9kelmann has 
twice describ$ ! ,apollo1 ,hi/ory ( ,art
 among ! ,anci5ts1 ,p>is1 #ahjb1 #c     
vols41 9 #dto4 ,vol4 i41 book iv41 *ap4 
iii41 ,art among ! ,greeks3--,! ,apollo 
( ! ,vatican (f]s u t ,god 9 a movem5t (
 indignation aga9/ ! s]p5t ,py?on1 :i*  
he has j kill$ ) arr[-%ots1 & 9 a       
s5tim5t ( contempt = a victory s little 
wor?y ( a div9ity4 ,! wise arti/1 :o    

propos$ to repres5t ! mo/ beautiful ( ! 
gods1 plac$ ! ang] 9 ! nose1 :i*1       
accord+ to ! anci5ts1 0 its seat2 & !   
disda9 on ! lips4 ,he express$ ! ang] by
 ! inflation ( ! no/rils1 & ! disda9 by 
! elevation ( ! "u lip1 :i* causes !    
same movem5t 9 ! *94--,ibid41 vol4 ii41 
book iv41 *ap4 vi41 ,art "u !           
,emp]ors3--,( all ! antique /atues t h  
escap$ ! fury ( b>b>ians & ! de/ructive 
h& ( "t1 ! /atue ( ,apollo is1 )\t      
contradiction1 ! mo/ sublime4 ,"o w\ld  
say t ! arti/ compos$ a figure purely   
ideal1 & employ$ matt] only because x 0 
necess>y = him to execute & repres5t 8  
idea4 ,z mu* z ,hom]'s description (    
,apollo surpasses ! descriptions :i* o!r
 poets h und]tak5 aft] him1 s mu* ?is   
/atue excels all ! figures ( ?is god4   
,its height is above t ( man1 & its     
attitude proclaims ! div9e gr&eur ) :i* 
x is fill$4 ,a p]5nial spr+-"t1 l t :i* 
reigns 9 ! happy fields ( ,elysium1     
clo!s ) lovable y\? ! beautiful body1 & 
%9es ) sweetness ov] ! noble /ructure ( 

! limbs4 ,9 ord] to feel ! m]it ( ?is   
*ef-d'oeuvre ( art1 we mu/ be p5etrat$ )
 intellectual beauty1 & become1 if      
possible1 ! creatures ( a cele/ial      
nature2 = !re is no?+ mortal 9 x1 no?+  
subject to ! wants ( humanity4 ,t body1 
^: =ms are n int]rupt$ by a ve91 :i* is 
n agitat$ by a n]ve1 seems animat$ ) a  
cele/ial _s1 :i* circulates l a sweet   
vapor 9 all ! p>ts ( t admirable figure4
 ,! god has j be5 pursu+ ,py?on1 aga9/  
:i* he has b5t1 = ! fir/ "t1 8 =midable 
b[2 9 8 rapid c\rse1 he has ov]tak5 him1
 & giv5 him a mortal w\nd4 ,p5etrat$ ) !
 conviction ( 8 p[]1 & lo/ 9 a          
conc5trat$ joy1 8 augu/ look p5etrates  
f> into ! inf9ite1 & is ext5d$ f> beyond
 8 victory4 ,disda9 sits ^u 8 lips2 !   
indignation t he brea!s di/5ds 8        
no/rils1 & asc5ds to 8 eyebr[s2 b an    
un*angeable s]5ity is pa9t$ on 8 br[1 & 
8 eye is full ( sweetness1 z ?\gh !     
,muses 7 c>ess+ him4 ,among all !       
figures t rema9 to u ( ,jupit]1 !re is  
none 9 :i* ! fa!r ( ! gods approa*es !  

gr&eur ) :i* he manife/$ himself to !   
intellig5ce ( ,hom]2 b 9 ! traits ( !   
,apollo ,belvid]e1 we f9d ! individual  
beauties ( all ! o!r div9ities unit$1 z 
9 t ( ,p&ora4 ,! =ehead is ! =ehead (   
,jupit]1 inclos+ ! goddess ( wisdom2 !  
eyebr[s1 by _! movem5t1 ann\nce 8       
supreme w2 ! l>ge eyes are ^? ( ! que5 (
 ! gods1 orb$ ) dignity1 & ! m\? is an  
image ( t ( ,bac*us1 :]e brea!d         
voluptu\sness4 ,l ! t5d] bran*es ( !    
v9e1 8 beautiful locks fl[ ar\nd 8 head1
 z if !y 7 lightly agitat$ by ! zephyr's
 brea?4 ,!y seem p]fum$ ) ! ess5ce ( !  
gods1 & are *>m+ly arrang$ ov] 8 head by
 ! h& ( ! ,graces4 ,at ! sight ( ?is    
m>vel ( art1 ,i =get e ?+ else1 & my m9d
 takes a sup]natural disposition1 fitt$ 
to judge ( x ) dignity2 f admiration ,i 
pass to ec/asy2 ,i feel my brea/ dilat+ 
& ris+1 l ^? :o are fill$ ) ! _s (      
prophecy2 ,i am transport$ to ,delos1 & 
! sacr$ groves ( ,syria1--places :i*    
,apollo honor$ ) 8 pres5ce3--! /atue    
seems to be animat$ z x 7 ) ! beauty t  

sprung ( old f ! h&s ( ,pygmalion4 ,h[ c
 ,i describe !e1 ,o inimitable          
ma/]-piece8 ,= ?is x w\ld be necess>y t 
art itself %\ld deign to inspire my p54 
,! traits t ,i h j sket*$1 ,i lay be=e  
!e1 z ^? :o came to cr[n ! gods1 put _! 
cr[ns at _! feet1 n be+ able to rea* _! 
heads4  #ajg ,see ! la/ "p ( ! ,banquet1
 ! disc\rse ( ,alcibiades1 p4 #cbf (    
vol4 vi4 ( our translation4  #ajh ,we "h
 h 9 m9d1 & we av[ x1 ! ,socrates (     
,david1 :i* appe>s to u1 ! !atrical "*  
be+ admitt$1 above its reputation4      
,besides ,socrates1 x is impossible n to
 admire ,plato li/5+ to 8 ma/]1 z x 7 f 
! bottom ( 8 s\l1 )\t look+ at him1 ) 8 
back turn$ ^u ! sc5e t is pass+1 & lo/ 9
 ! contemplation ( ! intelligible _w4   
#aji ,we are =tunate 9 f9d+ ?is !ory1   
:i* is s de> to u1 confirm$ by !        
au?ority ( "o ( ! sev]e/ & mo/          
circumspect m9ds3--x may be se5 9 ,reid1
 #a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 iv41 lecture #bc4 ,!  
,scot* philosoph] t]m9ates 8 ,essay on  
,ta/e ) ^! words1 :i* happily rem9d u ( 

! ?\ght & mann] ( ,plato himself3--,:e!r
 ! reasons t ,i h giv5 to prove t       
s5sible beauty is only ! image ( moral  
beauty appe> suffici5t or n1 ,i hope t  
my doctr9e1 9 attempt+ to unite !       
t]re/rial ,v5us m closely to ! cele/ial 
,v5us1 w n seem to h = its object to    
abase ! fir/1 & r5d] h] less wor?y ( !  
homage t mank9d has always paid h]4     
#aaj ,"p iii41 lecture #ae4  #aaa ,vol4 
vi4 ( our translation1 p4 #haf-hah      
,,lecture ,,viii  ,,on ,,art4           
,g5ius3--its attribute is creative      
p[]4--,refutation ( !     op9ion t art  
is ! imitation ( nature4--,m4 ,em]ic    
,david1     & ,m4 ,quatrem]e de         
,qu9cy4--,refutation ( ! !ory (         
illusion4 ,t dramatic art has n solely =
 its end to excite     ! passions (     
t]ror & pity4--,nor ev5 directly ! moral
     & religi\s s5tim5t4--,! prop] &    
direct object ( art is     to produce ! 
idea & ! s5tim5t ( ! beautiful2 ?is     
idea & ?is s5tim5t purify & elevate !   
s\l by !     aff9ity betwe5 ! beautiful 

& ! good1 & by ! relation     ( ideal   
beauty to its pr9ciple1 :i* is          
,god4--,true mission (     art4   ,man  
is n made only to "k & love ! beautiful 
9 ! works ( nature1 he is end[$ ) ! p[] 
( reproduc+ x4 ,at ! sight ( a natural  
beauty1 :atev] x may be1 physical or    
moral1 8 fir/ ne$ is to feel & admire4  
,he is p5etrat$1 ravi%$1 z x 7 ov]:elm$ 
) ! s5tim5t ( beauty4 ,b :5 ! s5tim5t is
 en]getic1 he is n a long "t /]ile4 ,we 
wi% to see aga91 we wi% to feel aga9 :at
 caus$ u s vivid a pleasure1 & = t end  
we attempt to revive ! beauty t *>m$ u1 
n z x 01 b z our imag9ation repres5ts x 
to u4 ,h5ce a "w orig9al & peculi> to   
man1 a "w ( art4 ,art is ! free         
reproduction ( beauty1 & ! p[] 9 u      
capable ( reproduc+ x is call$ g5ius4   
,:at faculties are us$ 9 ?is free       
reproduction ( ! beautiful8 ,! same t   
s]ve to recognize & feel x4 ,ta/e c>ri$ 
to ! highe/ degree1 if y always jo9 to x
 an additional elem5t1 is g5ius4 ,:at is
 ?is elem5t8  ,?ree faculties ent] into 

t complex faculty t is call$            
ta/e1--imag9ation1 s5tim5t1 reason4  ,^!
 ?ree faculties are c]ta9ly necess>y =  
g5ius1 b !y are n suffici5t = x4 ,:at   
ess5tially di/+ui%es g5ius f ta/e is !  
attribute ( creative p[]4 ,ta/e feels1  
judges1 discusses1 analyzes1 b does n   
inv5t4 ,g5ius is1 be=e all1 inv5tive &  
creative4 ,! man ( g5ius is n ! ma/] ( !
 p[] t is 9 him2 x is by ! ard5t1       
irresi/ible ne$ ( express+ :at he feels1
 t he is a man ( g5ius4 ,he suff]s by   
)hold+ ! s5tim5ts1 or images1 or ?\ghts1
 t agitate 8 brea/4 ,x has be5 said t   
!re is no sup]ior man )\t "s gra9 (     
folly2 b ?is folly1 l t ( ! cross1 is ! 
div9e "p ( reason4 ,?is my/]i\s p[]     
,socrates call$ 8 demon4 ,voltaire call$
 x ! devil 9 ! body2 he dem&$ x ev5 9 a 
com$ian 9 ord] to be a com$ian ( g5ius4 
,give to x :at "n y please1 x is c]ta9 t
 !re is a ,i-"k-n-:at t inspires g5ius1 
t also torm5ts x until x has deliv]$    
itself ( :at consumes x2 until1 by      
express+ !m1 x has solac$ its pa9s & its

 joys1 its emotions1 its ideas2 until   
its rev]ies h become liv+ works4 ,?us   
two ?+s *>act]ize g5ius2 at fir/1 !     
vivacity ( ! ne$ x has ( produc+1 !n !  
p[] ( produc+2 = ! ne$ )\t ! p[] is only
 a malady t resembles g5ius1 b is n x4  
,g5ius is above all1 is ess5tially1 !   
p[] ( do+1 ( inv5t+1 ( creat+4 ,ta/e is 
cont5t$ ) obs]v+1 ) admir+4 ,false      
g5ius1 ard5t & impot5t imag9ation1      
consumes itself 9 /]ile dreams &        
produces no?+1 at lea/ no?+ great4      
,g5ius alone has ! p[] to conv]t        
conceptions into creations4  ,if g5ius  
creates x does n imitate4  ,b g5ius1 x  
is said1 is !n sup]ior to nature1 s9ce x
 does n imitate x4 ,nature is ! "w (    
,god2 man is !n ! rival ( ,god4  ,!     
answ] is v simple4 ,no1 g5ius is n !    
rival ( ,god2 b x is ! int]pret] ( him4 
,nature expresses him 9 its way1 human  
g5ius expresses him 9 its own way4  ,let
 u /op a mom5t at t "q s mu*            
discuss$1--:e!r art is any ?+ else ?an !
 imitation ( nature4  ,d\btless1 9 "o   

s5se1 art is an imitation2 = absolute   
creation belongs only to ,god4 ,:]e c   
g5ius f9d ! elem5ts ^u :i* x works1     
except 9 nature1 ( :i* x =ms a "p8 ,b   
does x limit itself to ! reproduction ( 
!m z nature furni%es !m to x1 )\t add+  
any ?+ to !m :i* belongs to itself8 ,is 
x only a copi] ( reality8 ,its sole     
m]it1 !n1 is t ( ! fidelity ( ! copy4 ,&
 :at labor is m /]ile ?an t ( copy+     
works ess5tially inimitable on acc\nt ( 
! life ) :i* !y are end[$1 9 ord] to    
obta9 an indiff]5t image ( !m8 ,if art  
is a s]vile pupil1 x is condemn$ nev] to
 be any ?+ b an impot5t pupil4  ,! true 
arti/ feels & pr(\ndly admires nature2 b
 e ?+ 9 nature is n equally admirable4  
,z we h j said1 x has some?+ by :i* x   
inf9itely surpasses art--its life4      
,besides t1 art c1 9 its turn1 surpass  
nature1 on ! condition ( n wi%+ to      
imitate x too closely4 ,e natural       
object1 h[ev] beautiful1 is defective on
 "s side4 ,e ?+ t is real is imp]fect4  
,"h1 ! horrible & ! hide\s are unit$ to 

! sublime2 !re1 elegance & grace are    
sep>at$ f gr&eur & =ce4 ,! traits (     
beauty are scatt]$ & div]se4 ,to reunite
 !m arbitr>ily1 to borr[ f su* a face a 
m\?1 eyes f su* ano!r1 )\t any rule t   
gov]ns ?is *oice & directs ^! borr[+s1  
is to compose mon/]s2 to admit a rule1  
is already to admit an ideal diff]5t f  
all individuals4 ,x is ?is ideal t !    
true arti/ =ms to himself 9 /udy+       
nature4 ,)\t nature1 he nev] w\ld h     
conceiv$ ?is ideal2 b ) ?is ideal1 he   
judges nature h]self1 rectifies h]1 &   
d>es und]take to measure himself ) h]4  
,! ideal is ! arti/'s object (          
passionate contemplation4 ,assidu\sly & 
sil5tly m$itat$1 unceas+ly purifi$ by   
reflection & vivifi$ by s5tim5t1 x w>ms 
g5ius & inspires x ) ! irresi/ible ne$ (
 see+ x realiz$ & liv+4 ,= ?is end1     
g5ius takes 9 nature all ! mat]ials t c 
s]ve x1 & apply+ to !m its p[]ful h&1 z 
,mi*ael ,angelo impress$ 8 *isel ^u !   
docile m>ble1 makes ( !m works t h no   
model 9 nature1 t imitate no?+ else ?an 

! ideal dream$ ( or conceiv$1 t are 9 "s
 sort a second creation inf]ior to !    
fir/ 9 individuality & life1 b mu*      
sup]ior to x1 we d n fe> to say1 on     
acc\nt ( ! intellectual & moral beauty )
 :i* x is impress$4  ,moral beauty is ! 
f\ndation ( all true beauty4 ,?is       
f\ndation is some:at cov]$ & veil$ 9    
nature4 ,art dis5gages x1 & gives to x  
=ms m transp>5t4 ,on ?is acc\nt1 art1 :5
 x kn[s well its p[] & its res\rces1    
in/itutes ) nature a conte/ 9 :i* x may 
h ! advantage4  ,let u e/abli% well !   
end ( art3 x is precisely :]e its p[]   
lies4 ,! end ( art is ! expression (    
moral beauty1 by ! aid ( physical       
beauty4 ,! latt] is only a symbol ( !   
=m]4 ,9 nature1 ?is symbol is (t5       
obscure3 art 9 br++ x to light atta9s   
effects t nature does n always produce4 
,nature may please m1 =1 once m1 x      
possesses 9 an incomp>able degree :at   
makes ! great *>m ( imag9ation &        
sight--life2 art t\*es m1 because 9     
express+1 above all1 moral beauty1 x    

addresses itself m directly to ! s\rce (
 pr(\nd emotions4 ,art c be m pa!tic ?an
 nature1 & ! pa!tic is ! sign & measure 
( great beauty4  ,two extremes are      
equally dang]\s--a lifeless ideal1 or ! 
abs5ce ( ! ideal4 ,ei!r we copy ! model1
 & are want+ 9 true beauty1 or we "w de 
tete1 & fall into an ideality )\t "*4   
,g5ius is a ready & sure p]ception ( !  
"r proportion 9 :i* ! ideal & ! natural1
 =m & ?\ght1 ought to be unit$4 ,?is    
union is ! p]fection ( art3             
*efs-d'oeuvre are produc$ by obs]v+ x4  
,x is important1 9 my op9ion1 to foll[  
?is rule 9 tea*+ art4 ,x is ask$ :e!r   
pupils %\ld beg9 ) ! /udy ( ! ideal or !
 real4 ,i d n hesitate to answ]1--by    
bo?4 ,nature h]self nev] (f]s ! g5]al   
)\t ! individual1 nor ! individual )\t !
 g5]al4 ,e figure is compos$ (          
individual traits :i* di/+ui% x f all   
o!rs1 & make its own looks1 &1 at ! same
 "t1 x has g5]al traits :i* con/itute   
:at is call$ ! human figure4 ,^! g5]al  
traits are ! con/itutive l9eam5ts1 & ?is

 figure is ! type1 t are giv5 to ! pupil
 t is beg9n+ 9 ! art ( design to trace4 
,x w\ld also be good1 ,i believe1 9 ord]
 to pres]ve him f ! dry & ab/ract1 to   
ex]cise him e>ly 9 copy+ "s natural     
object1 especially a liv+ figure4 ,?is  
w\ld be putt+ pupils to ! true s*ool (  
nature4 ,!y w\ld ?us become accu/om$    
nev] to sacrifice ei!r ( ! two ess5tial 
elem5ts ( ! beautiful1 ei!r ( ! two     
imp]ative conditions ( art4  ,b1 9 unit+
 ^! two elem5ts1 ^! two conditions1 x is
 necess>y to di/+ui% !m1 & to "k h[ to  
put !m 9 _! place4 ,!re is no true ideal
 )\t det]m9ate =m1 !re is no unity )\t  
v>iety1 no g5us )\t individuals1 b1 9   
f9e1 ! f\ndation ( ! beautiful is !     
idea2 :at makes art is be=e all1 !      
realization ( ! idea1 & n ! imitation ( 
su* or su* a p>ticul> =m4  ,at !        
comm5cem5t ( our c5tury1 ! ,in/itute (  
,france (f]$ a prize = ! be/ answ] to ! 
foll[+ "q3 ,:at 7 ! causes ( ! p]fection
 ( ! antique sculpture1 & :at w\ld be ! 
be/ means ( atta9+ x8 ,! successful     

competitor1 ,m4 ,em]ic ,david1#aab      
ma9ta9$ ! op9ion !n dom9ant1 t !        
assidu\s /udy ( natural beauty _h alone 
conduct$ ! antique art to p]fection1 & t
 ?us ! imitation ( nature 0 ! only r\te 
to rea* ! same p]fection4 ,a man :om ,i 
d n fe> to comp>e ) ,w9kelmann1 ! future
 au?or ( ! ,olympic ,jupit]1#aac ,m4    
,quatrem]e de ,qu9cy1 9 "s +5i\s &      
pr(\nd disquisitions1#aad combat$ !     
doctr9e ( ! laureate1 & def5d$ ! cause (
 ideal beauty4 ,x is impossible to      
demon/rate m decid$ly1 by ! entire      
hi/ory ( ,greek sculpture1 & by au!ntic 
texts f ! greate/ critiques ( antiquity1
 t ! process ( art among ! ,greeks 0 n !
 imitation ( nature1 ei!r by a p>ticul> 
model1 or by sev]al1 ! mo/ beautiful    
model be+ always v imp]fect1 & sev]al   
models n be+ able to compose a s+le     
beauty4 ,! true process ( ! ,greek art 0
 ! repres5tation ( an ideal beauty :i*  
nature sc>cely possess$ m 9 ,greece ?an 
among u1 :i* x c\ld n !n (f] to ! arti/4
 ,we regret t ! honorable laureate1 s9ce

 become a memb] ( ! ,in/itute1 pret5d$ t
 ?is expression ( ideal beauty1 if x _h 
be5 kn[n by ! ,greeks1 w\ld h meant     
visible beauty1 because ideal comes f   
,greek3 eidos1 :i* signifies only1      
accord+ to ,m4 ,em]ic ,david1 a =m se5  
by ! eye4 ,plato w\ld h be5 mu* surpris$
 at ?is exclusive int]pretation ( ! ^w  
,greek3 eidos4 ,m4 ,quatrem]e de ,qu9cy 
conf\nds 8 unequal adv]s>y by two       
admirable texts1 "o f ! ,timaeus1 :]e   
,plato m>ks ) precision 9 :at ! true    
arti/ is sup]ior to ! ord9>y arti/1 !   
o!r at ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,orator1 :]e    
,cic]o expla9s ! mann] 9 :i* great      
arti/s "w1 9 ref]r+ to ! mann] (        
,phidias1 t is to say1 ! mo/ p]fect ma/]
 ( ! mo/ p]fect epo* ( art4  ,!         
arti/1#aae :o1 ) eye fix$ ^u ! immutable
 be+1 & us+ su* a model1 reproduces its 
idea & its excell5ce1 _c fail to produce
 a :ole ^: beauty is complete1 :il/ he  
:o fixes 8 eye ^u :at is transitory1 )  
?is p]i%able model w make no?+          
beautiful4  ,phidias1#aaf t great arti/1

 :5 he made ! =m ( ,jupit] or ,m9]va1   
did n contemplate a model a resemblance 
( :i* he w\ld express2 b 9 ! dep? ( 8   
s\l resid$ a p]fect type ( beauty1 ^u   
:i* he fix$ 8 look1 :i* guid$ 8 h& & 8  
art4  ,is n ?is process ( ,phidias      
precisely t :i* ,raphael describes 9 !  
fam\s lett] to ,ca/iglione1 :i* he      
decl>es t he foll[$ himself = !         
,galatea8#aag ,z1 he says1 ,i am        
de/itute ( beautiful models1 ,i use a   
c]ta9 ideal :i* ,i =m = myself4  ,!re is
 ano!r !ory :i* comes back1 by a        
circuit1 to imitation3 x is t :i* makes 
illusion ! end ( art4 ,if ?is !ory be   
true1 ! ideal beauty ( pa9t+ is a       
tromp-l'oeil1#aah & its ma/]-piece is ! 
grapes ( ,zeuxis t ! birds came & peck$ 
at4 ,! height ( art 9 a !atrical piece  
w\ld be to p]suade y t y are 9 ! pres5ce
 ( reality4 ,:at is true 9 ?is op9ion   
is1 t a "w ( art is beautiful only on ! 
condition ( be+ life-l1 &1 = example1 ! 
law ( dramatic art is n to put on ! /age
 pale phantoms ( ! pa/1 b p]sonages     

borr[$ f imag9ation or hi/ory1 z y l1 b 
animat$1 end[$ ) passion1 speak+ & act+ 
l m5 & n l %ades4 ,x is human nature t  
is to be repres5t$ to itself "u a magic 
light t does n disfigure x1 b ennobles  
x4 ,?is magic is ! v g5ius ( art4 ,x    
lifts u above ! mis]ies t besiege u1 &  
transports u to regions :]e we /ill f9d 
ourselves1 = we nev] wi% to lose sight (
 ourselves1 b :]e we f9d ourselves      
trans=m$ to our advantage1 :]e all !    
imp]fections ( reality h giv5 place to a
 c]ta9 p]fection1 :]e ! language t we   
speak is m equal & elevat$1 :]e p]sons  
are m beautiful1 :]e ! ugly is n        
admitt$1 & all ?is :ile duly respect+   
hi/ory1 especially )\t ev] go+ beyond ! 
imp]ative conditions ( human nature4    
,has art =gott5 human nature8 x has     
pass$ beyond its end1 x has n atta9$ x2 
x has br\ght =? no?+ b *im]as )\t int]e/
 = our s\l4 ,has x be5 too human1 too   
real1 too nude8 x has fall5 %ort ( its  
end2 x has !n atta9$ x no bett]4        
,illusion is s little ! end ( art1 t x  

may be complete & h no *>m4 ,?us1 9 !   
int]e/ ( illusion1 !atrical m5 h tak5   
great pa9s 9 ^! latt] times to secure   
hi/orical accuracy ( co/ume4 ,?is is all
 v well2 b x is n ! mo/ important ?+4   
,_h y f\nd1 & l5t to ! actor :o plays ! 
"p ( ,brutus1 ! v co/ume t ( old !      
,roman h]o wore1 x w\ld t\* true        
connoisseurs v little4 ,?is is n all2 :5
 ! illusion goes too f>1 ! s5tim5t ( art
 disappe>s 9 ord] to give place to a    
s5tim5t purely natural1 sometimes       
insupportable4 ,if ,i believ$ t         
,ipheg5ia 7 9 fact on ! po9t ( be+      
immolat$ by h] fa!r at a di/ance ( tw5ty
 paces f me1 ,i %\ld leave ! !atre      
trembl+ ) horror4 ,if ! ,ariadne t ,i   
see & he>1 7 ! true ,ariadne :o is ab\t 
to be betray$ by h] si/]1 9 t pa!tic    
sc5e :]e ! poor woman1 :o already feels 
h]self less lov$1 asks :o !n robs h] ( !
 he>t1 once s t5d]1 ( ,!seus1 ,i w\ld d 
z ! "y ,engli%man did1 :o cri$ out1     
sobb+ & try+ to spr+ ^u ! /age1 ,x is   
,ph$re1 x is ,ph$re6 z if he w\ld w>n & 

save ,ariadne4  ,b1 x is said1 is x n ! 
aim ( ! poet to excite pity & t]ror8    
,yes2 b at fir/ 9 a c]ta9 measure2 !n he
 mu/ mix ) !m "s o!r s5tim5t t temp]s   
!m1 or makes !m s]ve ano!r end4 ,if !   
aim ( dramatic art 7 only to excite 9 ! 
highe/ degree pity & t]ror1 art w\ld be 
! p[]less rival ( nature4 ,all !        
mis=tunes repres5t$ on ! /age are v     
feeble 9 comp>ison ) ^? sad spectacles  
:i* we may see e day4 ,! fir/ hospital  
is full] ( pity & t]ror ?an all ! !atres
 9 ! _w4 ,:at %\ld ! poet d 9 ! !ory t  
we combat8 ,he %\ld transf] to ! /age ! 
greate/ possible reality1 & move u      
p[]fully by %ock+ our s5ses ) ! sight ( 
frightful pa9s4 ,! great resort ( !     
pa!tic w\ld !n be ! repres5tation (     
dea?1 especially t ( ! greate/ torture4 
,q on ! contr>y1 !re is an end ( art :5 
s5sibility is too mu* excit$4 ,to take1 
aga91 an example t we h already employ$1
 :at con/itutes ! beauty ( a tempe/1 ( a
 %ipwreck8 ,:at attracts u to ^? great  
sc5es ( nature8 ,x is c]ta9ly n pity &  

t]ror1--^! poignant & lac]at+ s5tim5ts  
w\ld mu* soon] keep u away4 ,an emotion 
v diff]5t f ^! is necess>y1 :i* triumphs
 ov] u1 9 ord] to reta9 u by ! %ore2 ?is
 emotion is ! pure s5tim5t ( ! beautiful
 & ! sublime1 excit$ & kept alive by !  
gr&eur ( ! spectacle1 by ! va/ ext5t ( !
 sea1 ! roll+ ( ! foam+ waves1 & !      
impos+ s\nd ( ! ?und]4 ,b d we ?9k = a  
s+le in/ant t !re are 9 ! mid/ ( ! sea !
 un=tunate :o are suff]+1 & are1 p]haps1
 ab\t to p]i%8 ,f t mom5t ! spectacle   
becomes to u insupportable4 ,x is s 9   
art4 ,:atev] s5tim5t x proposes to      
excite 9 u1 mu/ always be temp]$ &      
gov]n$ by t ( ! beautiful4 ,if x only   
produces pity or t]ror beyond a c]ta9   
limit1 especially physical pity or      
t]ror1 x revolts1 & no long] *>ms2 x    
loses ! effect t belongs to x 9 ex*ange 
= a =eign & vulg> effect4  ,= ?is same  
reason1 ,i _c accept ano!r !ory1 :i*1   
conf\nd+ ! s5tim5t ( ! beautiful ) !    
moral & religi\s s5tim5t1 puts art 9 !  
s]vice ( religion & morals1 & gives x = 

its end to make u bett] & elevate u to  
,god4 ,!re is "h an ess5tial di/9ction  
to be made4 ,if all beauty cov]s a moral
 beauty1 if ! ideal m\nts unceas+ly     
t[>ds ! inf9ite1 art1 :i* expresses     
ideal beauty1 purifies ! s\l 9 elevat+ x
 t[>ds ! inf9ite1 t is to say1 t[>ds    
,god4 ,art1 !n1 produces ! p]fection ( !
 s\l1 b x produces x indirectly4 ,!     
philosoph] :o inve/igates effects &     
causes1 kn[s :at is ! ultimate pr9ciple 
( ! beautiful & its c]ta91 al?\gh       
remote1 effects4 ,b ! arti/ is be=e all 
?+s an arti/2 :at animates him is !     
s5tim5t ( ! beautiful2 :at he wi%es to  
make pass into ! s\l ( ! spectator is ! 
same s5tim5t t fills 8 own4 ,he confides
 himself to ! virtue ( beauty2 he       
=tifies x ) all ! p[]1 all ! *>m ( !    
ideal2 x mu/ !n d its own "w2 ! arti/   
has done 8 :5 he has procur$ = "s noble 
s\ls ! exquisite s5tim5t ( beauty4 ,?is 
pure & dis9t]e/$ s5tim5t is a noble ally
 ( ! moral & religi\s s5tim5ts2 x       
awak5s1 pres]ves1 & develops !m1 b x is 

a di/9ct & special s5tim5t4 ,s art1 :i* 
is f\nd$ on ?is s5tim5t1 :i* is inspir$ 
by x1 :i* exp&s x1 is 9 its turn an     
indep5d5t p[]4 ,x is naturally associat$
 ) all t ennobles ! s\l1 ) morals &     
religion2 b x spr+s only f itself4  ,let
 u conf9e our ?\ght /rictly )9 its prop]
 limits4 ,9 v9dicat+ ! indep5d5ce1 !    
prop] dignity1 & ! p>ticul> end ( art1  
we d n int5d to sep>ate x f religion1 f 
morals1 f c\ntry4 ,art draws its        
inspirations f ^! pr(\nd s\rces1 z well 
z f ! ev] op5 s\rce ( nature4 ,b x is n 
less true t art1 ! /ate1 religion1 are  
p[]s :i* h ea* _! _w ap>t & _! own      
effects2 !y mutually help ea* o!r2 !y   
%\ld n s]ve ea* o!r4 ,z soon z "o ( !m  
w&]s f its end1 x errs1 & is degrad$4   
,does art bl9dly give itself up to !    
ord]s ( religion & ! /ate8 ,9 los+ its  
lib]ty1 x loses its *>m & its empire4   
,anci5t ,greece & mod]n ,italy are      
cont9ually cit$ z triumphant examples ( 
:at ! alliance ( art1 religion1 & ! /ate
 c d4 ,no?+ is m true1 if ! "q is       

conc]n+ _! union2 no?+ is m false1 if ! 
"q is conc]n+ ! s]vitude ( art4 ,art 9  
,greece 0 s little ! slave ( religion1 t
 x little by little modifi$ ! symbols1  
&1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 ! _s itself1 by its
 free repres5tations4 ,!re is a long    
di/ance betwe5 ! div9ities t ,greece    
receiv$ f ,egypt & ^? ( :i* x has left  
immortal exempl>s4 ,are ^? primitive    
arti/s & poets1 z ,hom] & ,d$alus are   
call$1 /rang]s to ?is *ange8 ,& 9 ! mo/ 
beautiful epo* ( art1 did n ,a,eschylus 
& ,phidias c>ry a great lib]ty into !   
religi\s sc5es :i* !y expos$ to ! gaze (
 ! p1 9 ! !atre1 or 9 front ( ! temples8
 ,9 ,italy z 9 ,greece1 z ev]y:]e1 art  
is at fir/ 9 ! h&s ( prie/hoods &       
gov]nm5ts2 b1 z x increases its         
importance & is develop$1 x m & m       
conqu]s its lib]ty4 ,m5 speak ( ! fai? t
 animat$ ! arti/s & vivifi$ _! works2 t 
is true ( ! "t ( ,giotto & ,ciambue2 b  
aft] ,angelico de ,fiesole1 at ! end ( !
 fifte5? c5tury1 9 ,italy1 ,i p]ceive   
especially ! fai? ( art 9 itself & !    

wor%ip ( beauty4 ,raphael 0 ab\t to     
become a c>d9al2#aai yes1 b always pa9t+
 ,galatea1 & )\t quitt+ ,=n>9e4 ,once m1
 let u exagg]ate no?+2 let u di/+ui%1 n 
sep>ate2 let u unite art1 religion1 &   
c\ntry1 b let n _! union injure ! lib]ty
 ( ea*4 ,let u be ?or\ghly p5etrat$ ) ! 
?\ght1 t art is also to itself a k9d (  
religion4 ,god manife/s himself to u by 
! idea ( ! true1 by ! idea ( ! good1 by 
! idea ( ! beautiful4 ,ea* "o ( !m leads
 to ,god1 because x comes f him4 ,true  
beauty is ideal beauty1 & ideal beauty  
is a reflection ( ! inf9ite4 ,s1        
indep5d5tly ( all (ficial alliance )    
religion & morals1 art is by itself     
ess5tially religi\s & moral2 =1 f> f    
want+ its own law1 its own g5ius1 x     
ev]y:]e expresses 9 its works et]nal    
beauty4 ,b\nd on all sides to matt] by  
inflexible laws1 work+ ^u inanimate     
/one1 ^u unc]ta9 & fugitive s\nds1 ^u   
words ( limit$ & f9ite signification1   
art communicates to !m1 ) ! precise =m t
 is address$ to su* or su* a s5se1 a    

my/]i\s "* t is address$ to ! imag9ation
 & ! s\l1 takes !m away f reality1 &    
be>s !m sweetly or viol5tly into unkn[n 
regions4 ,e "w ( art1 :atev] may be its 
=m1 small or great1 figur$1 sung1 or    
utt]$1--e "w ( art1 truly beautiful or  
sublime1 ?r[s ! s\l into a g5tle or     
sev]e rev]ie t elevates x t[>ds !       
inf9ite4 ,! inf9ite is ! common limit   
aft] :i* ! s\l aspires ^u ! w+s (       
imag9ation z well z reason1 by ! r\te ( 
! sublime & ! beautiful1 z well z by t (
 ! true & ! good4 ,! emotion t !        
beautiful produces turns ! s\l f ?is _w2
 x is ! b5efic5t emotion t art produces 
= humanity4  ,,footnotes3  #aab ,re*]*es
 sur l',art ,/atuaire4 ,p>is1 #ahje4    
#aac ,p>is1 #ahae1 9 folio1 an em95t "w 
t w subsi/ ev5 :5 "t %all h de/roy$ "s (
 its details4  #aad ,s9ce repr9t$ "u !  
title ( ,essais sur l',ideal dans ses   
,applications ,pratiques4 ,p>is1 #ahcg4 
#aae ,translation ( ,plato1 vol4 xii41  
,timaeus1 p4 #aaf4  #aaf ,orator3 ,neque
 enim ille artifex 7,phidias7 cum fac]et

 ,jovis =mam aut ,m9]vae1 contemplabatur
 aliquem a quo similitud9em duc]et2 s$  
ipsius 9 m5te insidebat species         
pul*ritud9is eximia qua$am1 quam intu5s1
 9 eaque defixus1 ad illius similitud9em
 artem et manum dirigebat4  #aag        
,raccolta di lett4 ,sulla pitt41 i41 p4 
#hc4 ,ess5do c>e/ia e de' buoni giudici 
e di belle donne1 io mi s]vo di c]ta    
idea *e mi vi5e alla m5te4  #aah ,a     
picture repres5t+ a brok5 glass ov]     
sev]al subjects pa9t$ on ! canvas1 by   
:i* ! eye is deceiv$4  #aai ,vass>i1    
,vie de ,raphael4     ,,lecture ,,ix4   
,,! ,,diff]5t ,,arts4      ,expression  
is ! g5]al law ( art4--,division (      
arts4--,di/9ction betwe5 lib]al arts &  
trades4--,eloqu5ce     itself1          
philosophy1 & hi/ory d n make a "p ( !  
f9e     arts4--,t ! arts ga9 no?+ by    
encroa*+ ^u ea*     o!r1 & usurp+ ea*   
o!r's means &                           
processes4--,classification ( !         
arts3--its true pr9ciple is             
expression4--,comp>ison ( arts ) ea*    

o!r4--,poetry !     fir/ ( arts4   ,a   
resume ( ! la/ lecture w\ld be a        
def9ition ( art1 ( its end & law4 ,art  
is ! free reproduction ( ! beautiful1 n 
( a s+le natural beauty1 b ( ideal      
beauty1 z ! human imag9ation conceives x
 by ! aid ( data :i* nature furni%es x4 
,! ideal beauty envelops ! inf9ite3--!  
end ( art is1 !n1 to produce works t1 l 
^? ( nature1 or ev5 9 a /ill high]      
degree1 may h ! *>m ( ! inf9ite4 ,b h[ &
 by :at illusion c we draw ! inf9ite f !
 f9ite8 ,?is is ! difficulty ( art1 &   
its glory also4 ,:at be>s u t[>ds !     
inf9ite 9 natural beauty8 ,! ideal side 
( ?is beauty4 ,! ideal is ! my/]i\s     
ladd] t enables ! s\l to asc5d f ! f9ite
 to ! inf9ite4 ,! arti/1 !n1 mu/ devote 
himself to ! repres5tation ( ! ideal4 ,e
 ?+ has its ideal4 ,! fir/ c>e ( ! arti/
 w be1 !n1 :atev] he does1 to p5etrate  
at fir/ to ! conceal$ ideal ( 8 subject1
 = 8 subject has an ideal1--9 ord] to   
r5d] x1 9 ! next place1 m or less /rik+ 
to ! s5ses & ! s\l1 accord+ to !        

conditions :i* ! v mat]ials t he        
employs--! /one1 ! color1 ! s\nd1 !     
language--impose on him4  ,s1 to express
 ! ideal ( ! inf9ite 9 "o way or ano!r1 
is ! law ( art2 & all ! arts are su*    
only by _! relation to ! s5tim5t ( !    
beautiful & ! inf9ite :i* !y awak5 9 !  
s\l1 by ! aid ( t high quality ( e "w ( 
art t is call$ expression4  ,expression 
is ess5tially ideal3 :at expression     
tries to make felt1 is n :at ! eye c see
 & ! h& t\*1 evid5tly x is some?+       
invisible & impalpable4  ,! problem (   
art is to rea* ! s\l ?r\gh ! body4 ,art 
(f]s to ! s5ses =ms1 colors1 s\nds1     
words1 s arrang$ t !y excite 9 ! s\l1   
conceal$ beh9d ! s5ses1 ! inexpressible 
emotion ( beauty4  ,expression is       
address$ to ! s\l z =m is address$ to ! 
s5ses4 ,=m is ! ob/acle ( expression1 &1
 at ! same "t1 is its imp]ative1        
necess>y1 only means4 ,by work+ ^u =m1  
by b5d+ x to its s]vice1 by d9t ( c>e1  
pati5ce1 & g5ius1 art succe$s 9 conv]t+ 
an ob/acle into a means4  ,by _! object1

 all arts are equal2 all are arts only  
because !y express ! invisible4 ,x _c be
 too (t5 repeat$1 t expression is !     
supreme law ( art4 ,! ?+ to express is  
always ! same1--x is ! idea1 ! _s1 !    
s\l1 ! invisible1 ! inf9ite4 ,b1 z ! "q 
is conc]n+ ! expression ( ?is "o & !    
same ?+1 by address+ ourselves to !     
s5ses :i* are div]se1 ! diff]5ce ( !    
s5ses divides art into diff]5t arts4    
,we h se51 t1 ( ! five s5ses :i* h be5  
giv5 to man1#abj ?ree--ta/e1 smell1 &   
t\*--are incapable ( produc+ 9 u !      
s5tim5t ( beauty4 ,jo9$ to ! o!r two1 !y
 may contribute to ! und]/&+ ( ?is      
s5tim5t2 b alone & by !mselves !y _c    
produce x4 ,ta/e judges ( ! agreeable1 n
 ( ! beautiful4 ,no s5se is less alli$  
to ! s\l & m 9 ! s]vice ( ! body2 x     
flatt]s1 x s]ves ! grosse/ ( all ma/]s1 
! /oma*4 ,if smell sometimes seems to   
p>ticipate 9 ! s5tim5t ( ! beautiful1 x 
is because ! odor is exhal$ f an object 
t is already beautiful1 t is beautiful =
 "s o!r reason4 ,?us ! rose is beautiful

 = its graceful =m1 = ! v>i$ spl5dor (  
its colors2 its odor is agreeable1 x is 
n beautiful4 ,f9ally1 x is n t\* alone t
 judges ( ! regul>ity ( =ms1 b t\*      
enlight5$ by sight4  ,!re rema9 two     
s5ses to :i* all ! _w conc$es !         
privilege ( excit+ 9 u ! idea & !       
s5tim5t ( ! beautiful4 ,!y seem to be m 
p>ticul>ly 9 ! s]vice ( ! s\l4 ,!       
s5sations :i* !y give h some?+ pur]1 m  
intellectual4 ,!y are less indisp5sable 
= ! mat]ial pres]vation ( ! individual4 
,!y contribute to ! embelli%m5t r ?an to
 ! su/a9+ ( life4 ,!y procure u         
pleasures 9 :i* our p]sonality seems    
less int]e/$ & m self-=getful4 ,to ^!   
two s5ses1 !n1 art %\ld be address$1 is 
address$1 9 fact1 9 ord] to rea* ! s\l4 
,h5ce ! division ( arts into two great  
classes1--arts address$ to he>+1 arts   
address$ to sight2 on ! "o h&1 music &  
poetry2 on ! o!r1 pa9t+1 ) engrav+1     
sculpture1 ar*itecture1 g>d5+4  ,x w1   
p]haps1 seem /range t we rank among !   
arts nei!r eloqu5ce1 nor hi/ory1 nor    

philosophy4  ,! arts are call$ ! f9e    
arts1 because _! sole object is to      
produce ! dis9t]e/$ emotion ( beauty1   
)\t reg>d to ! utility ei!r ( !         
spectator or ! arti/4 ,!y are also call$
 ! lib]al arts1 because !y are ! arts ( 
free m5 & n ( slaves1 :i* affran*ise !  
s\l1 *>m & ennoble exi/5ce2 h5ce ! s5se 
& orig9 ( ^? expressions ( antiquity1   
artes lib]ales1 artes +5uae4 ,!re are   
arts )\t nobility1 ^: end is practical &
 mat]ial utility2 !y are call$ trades1  
su* z t ( ! /ove-mak] & ! mason4 ,true  
art may be jo9$ to !m1 may ev5 %9e 9 !m1
 b only 9 ! accessories & ! details4    
,eloqu5ce1 hi/ory1 philosophy1 are      
c]ta9ly high employm5ts ( intellig5ce2  
!y h _! dignity1 _! em95ce1 :i* no?+    
surpasses1 b rigor\sly speak+1 !y are n 
arts4  ,eloqu5ce does n propose to      
itself to produce 9 ! s\l ( ! auditors !
 dis9t]e/$ s5tim5t ( beauty4 ,x may also
 produce ?is effect1 b )\t hav+ s\ght x4
 ,its direct end1 :i* x c subord9ate to 
no o!r1 is to conv9ce1 to p]suade4      

,eloqu5ce has a cli5t :i* be=e all x mu/
 save or make triumph4 ,x matt]s little1
 :e!r ?is cli5t be a man1 a p1 or an    
idea4 ,=tunate is ! orator if he elicits
 ! expression3 ,t is beautiful6 = x is a
 noble homage r5d]$ to 8 tal5t2         
un=tunate is he if he does n elicit ?is1
 = he has miss$ 8 end4 ,! two great     
types ( political & religi\s eloqu5ce1  
,demo/h5es 9 antiquity1 ,bossuet among !
 mod]ns1 ?9k only ( ! int]e/ ( ! cause  
confid$ to _! g5ius1 ! sacr$ cause (    
c\ntry & t ( religion2 :il/ at bottom   
,phidias & ,raphael "w to make beautiful
 ?+s4 ,let u ha/5 to say1 :at ! names ( 
,demo/h5es & ,bossuet comm& u to say1 t 
true eloqu5ce1 v diff]5t f t ( rhetoric1
 disda9s c]ta9 means ( success2 x asks  
no m ?an to please1 b )\t any sacrifice 
unwor?y ( x2 e =eign ornam5t degrades x4
 ,its prop] "* is simplicity1           
e>ne/ness--,i d n mean affect$          
e>ne/ness1 a design$ & artful gravity1 !
 wor/ ( all deceptions--,i mean true    
e>ne/ness1 t spr+s f s9c]e & pr(\nd     

conviction4 ,?is is :at ,socrates       
und]/ood by true eloqu5ce4#aba  ,z mu*  
mu/ be said ( hi/ory & philosophy4 ,!   
philosoph] speaks & writes4 ,c he1 !n1 l
 ! orator1 f9d acc5ts :i* make tru? ent]
 ! s\l1 colors & =ms t make x %9e =?    
evid5t & manife/ to ! eyes (            
intellig5ce8 ,x w\ld be betray+ 8 cause 
to neglect ! means t c s]ve x2 b !      
pr(\nde/ art is "h only a means1 ! aim (
 philosophy is else:]e2 :5ce x foll[s t 
philosophy is n an art4 ,)\t d\bt1      
,plato is a great arti/2 he is ! pe] (  
,sophocles & ,phidias1 z ,pascal is     
sometimes ! rival ( ,demo/h5es &        
,bossuet2#abb b bo? w\ld h blu%$ if !y  
_h discov]$ at ! bottom ( _! s\l ano!r  
design1 ano!r aim ?an ! s]vice ( tru? & 
virtue4  ,hi/ory does n relate = ! sake 
( relat+2 x does n pa9t = ! sake (      
pa9t+2 x relates & pa9ts ! pa/ t x may  
be ! liv+ lesson ( ! future4 ,x proposes
 to in/ruct new g5]ations by ! exp]i5ce 
( ^? :o h gone be=e !m1 by exhibit+ to  
!m a fai?ful picture ( great & important

 ev5ts1 ) _! causes & _! effects1 )     
g5]al designs & p>ticul> passions1 ) !  
faults1 virtues1 & crimes t are f\nd    
m+l$ toge!r 9 human ?+s4 ,x tea*es !    
excell5ce ( prud5ce1 c\rage1 & great    
?\ghts pr(\ndly m$itat$1 con/antly      
pursu$1 & execut$ ) mod]ation & =ce4 ,x 
%[s ! vanity ( immod]ate pret5sions1 !  
p[] ( wisdom & virtue1 ! impot5ce (     
folly & crime4 ,?ucydides1 ,polybius1 & 
,tacitus und]take any ?+ else ?an       
procur+ new emotions = an idle curiosity
 or a worn-out imag9ation2 !y d\btless  
desire to int]e/ & attract1 b m to      
in/ruct2 !y are ! av[$ ma/]s ( /atesm5 &
 ! preceptors ( mank9d4  ,! sole object 
( art is ! beautiful4 ,art ab&ons itself
 z soon z x %uns ?is4 ,x is (t5 con/ra9$
 to make concessions to circum/ances1 to
 ext]nal conditions t are impos$ ^u x2 b
 x mu/ always reta9 a j lib]ty4         
,ar*itecture & ! art ( g>d5+ are ! lea/ 
free ( arts2 !y are subject$ to         
unavoidable ob/acles2 x belongs to !    
g5ius ( ! arti/ to gov]n ^! ob/acles1 & 

ev5 to draw f !m happy effects1 z ! poet
 turns ! slav]y ( metre & rhyme into a  
s\rce ( unexpect$ beauties4 ,extreme    
lib]ty may c>ry art to a caprice :i*    
degrades x1 z *a9s too heavy cru% x4 ,x 
is ! dea? ( ar*itecture to subject x to 
conv5i5ce1 to com=t4 ,is ! ar*itect     
oblig$ to subord9ate g5]al effect & !   
proportions ( ! edifice to su* or su* a 
p>ticul> end t is prescrib$ to him8 ,he 
takes refuge 9 details1 9 p$im5ts1 9    
friezes1 9 all ! p>ts t h n utility = a 
special object1 & 9 !m he becomes a true
 arti/4 ,sculpture & pa9t+1 especially  
music & poetry1 are fre] ?an ar*itecture
 & ! art ( g>d5+4 ,"o c also %ackle !m1 
b !y dis5gage !mselves m easily4        
,simil> by _! common end1 all ! arts    
diff] by ! p>ticul> effects :i* !y      
produce1 & by ! processes :i* !y employ4
 ,!y ga9 no?+ by ex*ang+ _! means &     
conf\nd+ ! limits t sep>ate !m4 ,i b[   
be=e ! au?ority ( antiquity2 b1 p]haps1 
?r\gh habit & a remnant ( prejudice1 ,i 
h "s difficulty 9 repres5t+ to myself ) 

pleasure /atues compos$ ( sev]al metals1
 especially pa9t$ /atues4#abc ,)\t      
pret5d+ t sculpture has n to a c]ta9    
po9t its color1 t ( p]fectly pure matt]1
 t especially :i* ! h& ( "t impresses ^u
 x1 9 spite ( all ! s$uctions ( a       
contemporane\s#abd arti/ ( great tal5t1 
,i h little ta/e1 ,i confess1 = t       
artifice t is =c$ to give to m>ble !    
morbidezza ( pa9t+4 ,sculpture is an    
au/]e muse2 x has its graces1 b !y are  
^? ( no o!r art4 ,fle%-color mu/ rema9 a
 /rang] to x3 !re w\ld no?+ m rema9 to  
communicate to x b ! movem5t ( poetry & 
! indef9it5ess ( music6 ,& :at w music  
ga9 by aim+ at ! picturesque1 :5 its    
prop] doma9 is ! pa!tic8 ,give to ! mo/ 
le>n$ symphoni/ a /orm to r5d]4 ,no?+ is
 easi] to imitate ?an ! :i/l+ ( ! w9ds &
 ! noise ( ?und]4 ,b by :at comb9ations 
( h>mony w he exhibit to ! eyes ! gl>e (
 ! lightn+ r5d+ all ( a sudd5 ! veil ( !
 night1 & :at is mo/ fe>ful 9 ! tempe/1 
! movem5t ( ! waves t n[ asc5d l a      
m\nta91 n[ desc5d & seem to precipitate 

!mselves into bottomless abysses8 ,if ! 
auditor is n in=m$ ( ! subject1 he w    
nev] suspect x1 & ,i defy him to di/+ui%
 a tempe/ f a battle4 ,9 spite ( sci5ce 
& g5ius1 s\nds _c pa9t =ms4 ,music1 :5  
well guid$1 w gu>d itself f cont5d+     
aga9/ ! impossible2 x w n und]take to   
express ! tumult & /rife ( ! waves & o!r
 simil> ph5om5a2 x w d m3 ) s\nds x w   
fill ! s\l ) ! s5tim5ts t succe$ ea* o!r
 9 u dur+ ! diff]5t sc5es ( ! tempe/4   
,haydn w ?us become#abe ! rival1 ev5 !  
vanqui%] ( ! pa9t]1 because x has be5   
giv5 to music to move & agitate ! s\l m 
pr(\ndly ?an pa9t+4  ,s9ce ! ,laocoon ( 
,less+1 x is no long] p]mitt$ to repeat1
 )\t great res]ve1 ! fam\s axiom1--,ut  
pictura poesis2 or1 at lea/1 x is v     
c]ta9 t pa9t+ _c d e ?+ t poetry c d4   
,ev]ybody admires ! picture ( ,rumor1   
drawn by ,virgil2 b let a pa9t] try to  
realize ?is symbolic figure2 let him    
repres5t to u a huge mon/] ) a hundr$   
eyes1 a hundr$ m\?s1 & a hundr$ e>s1 ^: 
feet t\* ! e>?1 ^: head is lo/ 9 !      

cl\ds1 & su* a figure w become v        
ridicul\s4  ,s ! arts h a common end1 & 
entirely diff]5t means4 ,h5ce ! g5]al   
rules common to all1 & p>ticul> rules = 
ea*4 ,i h nei!r "t nor space to ent]    
into details on ?is po9t4 ,i limit      
myself to repeat+1 t ! great law :i*    
gov]ns all o!rs1 is expression4 ,e "w ( 
art t does n express an idea signifies  
no?+2 9 address+ itself to su* or su* a 
s5se1 x mu/ p5etrate to ! m9d1 to ! s\l1
 & be> ?i!r a ?\ght1 a s5tim5t capable (
 t\*+ or elevat+ x4 ,f ?is fundam5tal   
rule all ! o!rs are d]iv$2 = example1 t 
:i* is cont9ually & ju/ly               
recomm5d$1--composition4 ,to ?is is     
p>ticul>ly appli$ ! precept ( unity &   
v>iety4 ,b1 9 say+ ?is1 we h said no?+ s
 long z we h n det]m9$ ! nature ( !     
unity ( :i* we w\ld speak4 ,true unity1 
is unity ( expression1 & v>iety is made 
only to spread ov] ! entire "w ! idea or
 ! s+le s5tim5t t x %\ld express4 ,x is 
useless to rem>k1 t betwe5 composition  
?us def9$1 & :at is (t5 call$           

composition1 z ! symmetry & arrangem5t (
 p>ts accord+ to artificial rules1 !re  
is an abyss4 ,true composition is no?+  
else ?an ! mo/ p[]ful means (           
expression4  ,expression n only furni%es
 ! g5]al rules ( art1 x also gives !    
pr9ciple t all[s ( _! classification4   
,9 fact1 e classification1 supposes a   
pr9ciple t s]ves z a common measure4    
,su* a pr9ciple has be5 s\ght 9         
pleasure1 & ! fir/ ( arts has seem$ t   
:i* gives ! mo/ vivid joys4 ,b we h     
prov$ t ! object ( art is n pleasure3--!
 m or less ( pleasure t an art procures 
_c1 !n1 be ! true measure ( its value4  
,?is measure is no?+ else ?an           
expression4 ,expression be+ ! supreme   
end1 ! art t mo/ ne>ly approa*es x is ! 
fir/ ( all4  ,all true arts are         
expressive1 b !y are div]sely s4 ,take  
music2 x is )\t contradiction ! mo/     
p5etrat+1 ! pr(\nde/1 ! mo/ intimate    
art4 ,!re is physically & morally betwe5
 a s\nd & ! s\l a m>vell\s relation4 ,x 
seems z ?\gh ! s\l 7 an e*o 9 :i* ! s\nd

 takes a new p[]4 ,extraord9>y ?+s are  
rec\nt$ ( ! anci5t music4 ,& x mu/ n be 
believ$ t ! greatness ( effect supposes 
"h v complicat$ means4 ,no1 ! less noise
 music makes1 ! m x t\*es4 ,give "s     
notes to ,p]golese1 give him especially 
"s pure & sweet voices1 & he returns a  
cele/ial *>m1 be>s y away into inf9ite  
spaces1 plunges y into ineffable        
rev]ies4 ,! peculi> p[] ( music is to   
op5 to ! imag9ation a limitless c>e]1 to
 l5d itself ) a/oni%+ facility to all ! 
moods ( ea* "o1 to ar\se or calm1 ) !   
s\nds ( ! simple/ melody1 our accu/om$  
s5tim5ts1 our favorite affections4 ,9   
?is respect music is an art )\t a       
rival3--h[ev]1 x is n ! fir/ ( arts4    
,music pays = ! imm5se p[] t has be5    
giv5 x2 x awak5s m ?an any o!r art !    
s5tim5t ( ! inf9ite1 because x is vague1
 obscure1 indet]m9ate 9 its effects4 ,x 
is j ! opposite art to sculpture1 :i*   
be>s less t[>ds ! inf9ite1 because e ?+ 
9 x is fix$ ) ! la/ degree ( precision4 
,su* is ! =ce & at ! same "t ! feebl5ess

 ( music1 t x expresses e ?+ & expresses
 no?+ 9 p>ticul>4 ,sculpture1 on !      
contr>y1 sc>cely gives rise to any      
rev]ie1 = x cle>ly repres5ts su* a ?+ & 
n su* ano!r4 ,music does n pa9t1 x      
t\*es2 x puts 9 motion imag9ation1 n !  
imag9ation t reproduces images1 b t :i* 
makes ! he>t beat1 = x is absurd to     
limit imag9ation to ! doma9 (           
images4#abf ,! he>t1 once t\*$1 moves   
all ! re/ ( our be+2 ?us music1         
indirectly1 & to a c]ta9 po9t1 c recall 
images & ideas2 b its direct & natural  
p[] is nei!r on ! repres5tative         
imag9ation nor intellig5ce1 x is on !   
he>t1 & t is an advantage suffici5tly   
beautiful4  ,! doma9 ( music is s5tim5t1
 b ev5 !re its p[] is m pr(\nd ?an      
ext5sive1 & if x expresses c]ta9        
s5tim5ts ) an incomp>able =ce1 x        
expresses b a v small numb] ( !m4 ,by   
way ( association1 x c awak5 !m all1 b  
directly x produces v few ( !m1 & !     
simple/ & ! mo/ elem5t>y1 too1--sadness 
& joy ) _! ?\s& %ades4 ,ask music to    

express magnanimity1 virtu\s resolution1
 & o!r s5tim5ts ( ?is k9d1 & x w be j z 
incapable ( do+ x1 z ( pa9t+ a lake or a
 m\nta94 ,x goes ab\t x z x c2 x employs
 ! sl[1 ! rapid1 ! l\d1 ! s(t1 etc41 b  
imag9ation has to d ! re/1 & imag9ation 
does only :at x pleases4 ,! same measure
 rem9ds "o ( a m\nta91 ano!r ( ! ocean2 
! w>rior f9ds 9 x h]oic inspirations1 ! 
recluse religi\s inspirations4          
,d\btless1 words det]m9e musical        
expression1 b ! m]it !n is 9 ! ^w1 n 9 !
 music2 & sometimes ! ^w /amps ! music )
 a precision t de/roys x1 & deprives x (
 its prop] effects--vagu5ess1 obscurity1
 monotony1 b also fulness & pr(undity1  
,i 0 ab\t to say inf9itude4 ,i d n 9 !  
lea/ admit t fam\s def9ition ( song3--a 
not$ declamation4 ,a simple declamation 
rightly acc5t$ is c]ta9ly pref]able to  
/unn+ accompanim5ts2 b to music mu/ be  
left its "*1 & its defects & advantages 
mu/ n be tak5 away f x4 ,especially x   
mu/ n be turn$ aside f its object1 & !re
 mu/ n be dem&$ f x :at x c\ld n give4  

,x is n made to express complicat$ &    
factiti\s s5tim5t1 nor t]re/rial & vulg>
 s5tim5ts4 ,its peculi> *>m is to       
elevate ! s\l t[>ds ! inf9ite4 ,x is    
!re=e naturally alli$ to religion1      
especially to t religion ( ! inf9ite1   
:i* is at ! same "t ! religion ( ! he>t2
 x excels 9 transport+ to ! feet (      
et]nal m]cy ! s\l trembl+ on ! w+s (    
rep5tance1 hope1 & love4 ,happy are ^?1 
:o1 at ,rome1 9 ! ,vatican1#abg dur+ !  
solemnities ( ! ,ca?olic wor%ip1 h he>d 
! melodies ( ,leo1 ,durante1 &          
,p]golese1 on ! old consecrat$ text6 ,!y
 h ent]$ heav5 = a mom5t1 & _! s\ls h   
be5 able to asc5d ?i!r )\t di/9ction (  
rank1 c\ntry1 ev5 belief1 by ^?         
invisible & my/]i\s /eps1 compos$1 ?us  
to speak1 ( all ! simple1 natural1      
univ]sal s5tim5ts1 t ev]y:]e on e>? draw
 f ! bosom ( ! human creature a sigh    
t[>ds ano!r _w6  ,betwe5 sculpture &    
music1 ^? two opposite extremes1 is     
pa9t+1 ne>ly z precise z ! "o1 ne>ly z  
t\*+ z ! o!r4 ,l sculpture1 x m>ks !    

visible =ms ( objects1 b adds to !m     
life2 l music1 x expresses ! pr(\nde/   
s5tim5ts ( ! s\l1 & expresses !m all4   
,tell me :at s5tim5t does n come )9 !   
prov9ce ( ! pa9t]8 ,he has entire nature
 at 8 disposal1 ! physical _w1 & ! moral
 _w1 a *ur*y>d1 a l&scape1 a sunset1 !  
ocean1 ! great sc5es ( civil & religi\s 
life1 all ! be+s ( creation1 above all1 
! figure ( man1 & its expression1 t liv+
 mirror ( :at passes 9 ! s\l4 ,m pa!tic 
?an sculpture1 cle>] ?an music1 pa9t+ is
 elevat$1 9 my op9ion1 above bo?1       
because x expresses beauty m "u all its 
=ms1 & ! human s\l 9 all ! ri*ness &    
v>iety ( its s5tim5ts4  ,b ! art p>     
excell5ce1 t :i* surpasses all o!rs1    
because x is incomp>ably ! mo/          
expressive1 is poetry4  ,spee* is !     
in/rum5t ( poetry2 poetry fa%ions x to  
its use1 & idealizes x1 9 ord] to make x
 express ideal beauty4 ,poetry gives to 
x ! *>m & p[] ( measure2 x makes ( x    
some?+ int]m$i>y betwe5 ! ord9>y voice &
 music1 some?+ at once mat]ial &        

immat]ial1 f9ite1 cle>1 & precise1 l    
cont\rs & =ms ! mo/ def9ite1 liv+ &     
animat$ l color1 pa!tic & inf9ite l     
s\nd4 ,a ^w 9 itself1 especially a ^w   
*os5 & transfigur$ by poetry1 is ! mo/  
en]getic & univ]sal symbol4 ,arm$ ) ?is 
talisman1 poetry reflects all ! images (
 ! s5sible _w1 l sculpture & pa9t+2 x   
reflects s5tim5t l pa9t+ & music1 ) all 
its v>ieties1 :i* music does n atta91 & 
9 _! rapid succession t pa9t+ _c foll[1 
z precise & immobile z sculpture2 & x n 
only expresses all t1 x expresses :at is
 inaccessible to e o!r art1 ,i mean     
?\ght1 entirely di/9ct f ! s5ses & ev5 f
 s5tim5t1--?\ght t has no =ms1--?\ght t 
has no color1 t lets no s\nd escape1 t  
does n manife/ itself 9 any way1--?\ght 
9 its highe/ flight1 9 its mo/ ref9$    
ab/raction4  ,?9k ( x4 ,:at a _w (      
images1 ( s5tim5ts1 ( ?\ghts at once    
di/9ct & confus$1 are excit$ )9 u by ?is
 "o ^w--c\ntry6 & by ?is o!r ^w1 brief &
 imm5se1--,god6 ,:at is m cle> &        
altoge!r m pr(\nd & va/6  ,tell !       

ar*itect1 ! sculptor1 ! pa9t]1 ev5 !    
musician1 to call =? also by a s+le     
/roke all ! p[]s ( nature & ! s\l6 ,!y  
_c1 & by t !y ackn[l$ge ! sup]iority (  
spee* & poetry4  ,!y proclaim x         
!mselves1 = !y take poetry = _! own     
measure2 !y e/eem _! own works1 & dem& t
 !y %\ld be e/eem$1 9 proportion z !y   
approa* ! poetic ideal4 ,& ! human race 
does z arti/s d3 a beautiful picture1 a 
noble melody1 a liv+ & expressive /atue1
 gives rise to ! exclamation--,h[       
poetical6 ,?is is n an arbitr>y         
comp>ison2 x is a natural judgm5t :i*   
makes poetry ! type ( ! p]fection ( all 
! arts1--! art p> excell5ce1 :i*        
comprises all o!rs1 to :i* !y aspire1   
:i* none c rea*4  ,:5 ! o!r arts w\ld   
imitate ! works ( poetry1 !y usually    
err1 los+ _! own g5ius1 )\t robb+ poetry
 ( its g5ius4 ,b poetry con/ructs       
accord+ to its own ta/e palaces &       
temples1 l ar*itecture2 x makes !m      
simple or magnific5t2 all ord]s1 z well 
z all sy/ems1 obey x2 ! diff]5t ages (  

art are ! same to x2 x reproduces1 if x 
pleases1 ! classic or ! ,go?ic1 !       
beautiful or ! sublime1 ! measur$ or !  
inf9ite4 ,less+ has be5 able1 ) !       
exacte/ ju/ice1 to comp>e ,hom] to ! mo/
 p]fect sculptor2 ) su* precision are ! 
=ms :i* t m>vell\s *isel gives to all   
be+s det]m9$6 ,& :at a pa9t]1 too1 is   
,hom]6 &1 ( a diff]5t k9d1 ,dante6      
,music alone has some?+ m p5etrat+ ?an  
poetry1 b x is vague1 limit$1 &         
fugitive4 ,besides its cle>ness1 its    
v>iety1 its durability1 poetry has also 
! mo/ pa!tic acc5ts4 ,call to m9d !     
words t ,priam utt]s at ! feet (        
,a*illes :ile ask+ him = ! dead body ( 8
 son1 m ?an "o v]se ( ,virgil1 entire   
sc5es ( ! ,cid & ! ,polyeucte1 ! pray] (
 ,e/h] kneel+ be=e ! ,"l1 ! *oruses (   
,e/h] & ,a?alie4 ,9 ! celebrat$ song (  
,p]golese1 ,/abat ,mat] ,dolorosa1 we   
may ask :i* moves mo/1 ! music or !     
words4 ,! ,dies irae1 ,dies illa1 recit$
 only1 produces ! mo/ t]rible effect4 ,9
 ^? fe>ful words1 e bl[ tells1 s to     

speak2 ea* ^w conta9s a di/9ct s5tim5t1 
an idea at once pr(\nd & det]m9ate4 ,!  
intellect advances at ea* /ep1 & ! he>t 
ru%es on 9 its turn4 ,human spee*       
idealiz$ by poetry has ! dep? &         
brilliancy ( musical notes2 x is lum9\s 
z well z pa!tic2 x speaks to ! m9d z    
well z to ! he>t2 x is 9 t inimitable1  
unique1 & embraces all extremes & all   
contr>ies 9 a h>mony t r$\bles _!       
reciprocal effect1 9 :i*1 by turns1     
appe> & are develop$1 all images1 all   
s5tim5ts1 all ideas1 all ! human        
faculties1 all ! inmo/ recesses ( ! s\l1
 all ! =ms ( ?+s1 all real & all        
intelligible worlds6  ,,footnotes3  #abj
 ,lecture #f4  #aba ,see ! ,gorgias1 ) !
 ,argum5t1 vol4 iii4 ( our translation (
 ,plato4  #abb ,!re is a ,prov9cial t = 
vehem5ce c be comp>$ only to !          
,philipics1 & its fragm5t on ! inf9ite  
has ! gr&eur & magnific5ce ( ,bossuet4  
,see our "w on ! ,?\ghts ( ,pascal1 #d? 
,s]ies1 ,lit]ature1 vol4 i4  #abc ,see !
 ,jupit] ,olympi5 ( ,m4 ,quatrem]e de   

,qu9cy4  #abd ,allusion to ! ,magdele9e 
( ,canova1 :i* 0 !n to be se5 9 ! gall]y
 ( ,m4 de ,somm>iva4  #abe ,see !       
,tempe/ ( ,haydn1 among ! pian(orte     
works ( ?is ma/]4  #abf ,see lecture #f4
  #abg ,i h n myself _h ! good =tune to 
he> ! religi\s music ( ! ,vatican4      
,!re=e1 ,i %all let a compet5t judge1   
,m4 ,quatrem]e de ,qu9cy1 speak1        
,consid]ations ,morales sur les         
,de/9ation des ,ouvrages de l',art1     
,p>is1 #ahae1 p4 #ih3 ,let "o call to   
m9d ^? *ants s simple & s t\*+1 t       
t]m9ate at ,rome ! fun]al solemnities ( 
^? ?ree days :i* ! ,*ur* p>ticul>ly     
devotes to ! expression ( its grief1 9 !
 la/ week ( ,l5t4 ,9 t nave :]e ! g5ius 
( ,mi*ael ,angelo has embrac$ ! duration
 ( ages1 f ! wond]s ( creation to ! la/ 
judgm5t t mu/ de/roy its works1 are     
celebrat$1 9 ! pres5ce ( ! ,roman       
pontiff1 ^? nocturnal c]emonies ^:      
rites1 symbols1 & pla9tive liturgies    
seem to be s _m figures ( ! my/]y (     
grief to :i* !y are consecrat$4 ,! light

 decreas+ by degrees1 at ! t]m9ation (  
ea* psalm1 y w\ld say t a fun]al veil is
 ext5d$ little by little ov] ^? religi\s
 vaults4 ,soon ! d\btful light ( ! la/  
lamp all[s y to p]ceive no?+ b ,*ri/ 9 !
 di/ance1 9 ! mid/ ( cl\ds1 pron\nc+ 8  
judgm5ts1 & "s angel executors ( 8      
behe/s4 ,!n1 at ! bottom ( a tribune    
int]dict$ to ! reg>d ( ! pr(ane1 is he>d
 ! psalm ( ! p5it5t k+1 to :i* ?ree ( ! 
greate/ ma/]s ( ! art h add$ !          
modulations ( a simple & pa!tic *ant4   
,no in/rum5t is m+l$ ) ^? acc5ts4       
,simple h>monies ( voice execute t      
music2 b ^! voices seem to be ^? (      
angels1 & _! effect p5etrates ! dep?s ( 
! s\l4  ,we h cit$ ?is beautiful        
passage--& we c\ld h cit$ _m o!rs1 ev5  
sup]ior to x--( a man n[ =gott51 & almo/
 always misund]/ood1 b :om po/]ity w put
 9 8 place4 ,let u indicate1 at lea/1 ! 
la/ pages ( ! same production1 on !     
necessity ( leav+ ! works ( art 9 !     
place = :i* !y 7 made1 = example1 !     
portrait ( ,mlle4 de ,valli]e 9 !       

,madele9e aux ,c>melites1 in/ead (      
transf]r+ x to1 & expos+ x 9 ! ap>tm5ts 
( ,v]sailles1 ! only place 9 ! _w1      
eloqu5tly says ,m4 ,quatrem]e1 :i* nev] 
%\ld h se5 x4     ,,lecture ,x4  ,,fr5* 
,,art ,,9 ,,! ,,sev5te5? ,,c5tury4      
,expression n only s]ves to appreciate !
 diff]5t arts1 b     ! diff]5t s*ools ( 
art4 ,example3--,fr5* art 9 !           
sev5te5? c5tury4 ,fr5*                  
poetry3--,corneille4 ,rac9e4 ,moli]e4   
,la ,fonta9e4                           
,boileau4--,pa9t+3--,lesueur4 ,p\ss94   
,le ,lorra94                            
,*ampagne4--,engrav+4--,sculpture3--,s>r
az94 ,! ,angui]s4     ,gir>don4         
,pujet4--,le ,notre4--,ar*itecture4     
,we believe t we h firmly e/abli%$ t all
 k9ds ( beauty1 al?\gh mo/ dissimil> 9  
appe>ance1 may1 :5 subject$ to a s]i\s  
exam9ation1 be r$uc$ to spiritual &     
moral beauty2 t expression1 !re=e1 is at
 once ! true object & ! fir/ law ( art2 
t all arts are su* only s f> z !y       
express ! idea conceal$ "u ! =m1 & are  

address$ to ! s\l ?r\gh ! s5ses2 f9ally1
 t 9 expression ! diff]5t arts f9d !    
true measure ( _! relative value1 & !   
mo/ expressive art mu/ be plac$ 9 ! fir/
 rank4  ,if expression judges ! diff]5t 
arts1 does x n naturally foll[1 t by !  
same title x c also judge ! diff]5t     
s*ools :i*1 9 ea* art1 dispute ) ea* o!r
 ! empire ( ta/e8  ,!re is n "o ( ^!    
s*ools t does n repres5t 9 its own way  
"s side ( ! beautiful1 & we are dispos$ 
to embrace all 9 an imp>tial & k9dly    
/udy4 ,we are eclectics 9 ! arts z well 
z 9 metaphysics4 ,b1 z 9 metaphysics1 ! 
k ( all sy/ems1 & ! portion ( tru? t is 
9 ea*1 enlight5s )\t enfeebl+ our       
convictions2 s1 9 ! hi/ory ( arts1 :ile 
hold+ ! op9ion t no s*ool mu/ be        
disda9$1 t ev5 9 ,*9a "s %ade ( beauty c
 be f\nd1 our eclecticism does n make u 
wav] 9 reg>d to ! s5tim5t ( true beauty 
& ! supreme rule ( art4 ,:at we dem& ( !
 diff]5t s*ools1 )\t di/9ction ( "t or  
place1 :at we see 9 ! s\? z well z 9 !  
nor?1 at ,flor5ce1 ,rome1 ,v5ice1 &     

,seville1 z well z at ,antw]p1 ,am/]dam1
 & ,p>is1--:]ev] !re are m51 is some?+  
human1 is ! expression ( a s5tim5t or an
 idea4  ,a criticism t %\ld be f\nd$ on 
! pr9ciple ( expression1 w\ld some:at   
d]ange1 x mu/ be confess$1 receiv$      
judgm5ts1 & w\ld c>ry "s disord] into ! 
hi]>*y ( ! r5[n$4 ,we d n und]take su* a
 revolution2 we only propose to confirm1
 or at lea/ elucidate our pr9ciple by an
 example1 & by an example t is at our   
h&4  ,!re is 9 ! _w a s*ool =m]ly       
illu/ri\s1 n[ v lightly treat$3--?is    
s*ool is ! ,fr5* s*ool ( ! sev5te5?     
c5tury4 ,we w\ld replace x 9 honor1 by  
recall+ att5tion to ! qualities t make  
its glory4  ,we h work$ ) con/ancy to   
re9/ate among u ! philosophy (          
,desc>tes1 unwor?ily sacrific$ to !     
philosophy ( ,locke1 because ) its      
defects x possesses 9 our view !        
incomp>able m]it ( subord9at+ ! s5ses to
 ! m9d1 ( elevat+ & ennobl+ man4 ,s we  
pr(ess a s]i\s & reflective admiration =
 our national art ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1  

because1 )\t disguis+ :at is want+ to x1
 we f9d 9 x :at we pref] to e ?+ else1  
gr&eur unit$ to good s5se & reason1     
simplicity & =ce1 g5ius ( composition1  
especially t ( expression4  ,france1    
c>eless ( h] glory1 does n appe> to h ! 
lea/ notion t %e reckons 9 h] annals    
p]haps ! greate/ c5tury ( humanity1 t   
:i* embraces ! greate/ numb] (          
extraord9>y m5 ( e k9d4 ,:51 ,i pray y1 
h politicians l ,h5ry ,,iv41 ,ri*elieu1 
,maz>91 ,colb]t1 ,l\is ,,xiv4 be5 se5   
giv+ ea* o!r ! h&8 ,i d n pret5d t ea* (
 !m has no rival1 ev5 sup]iors4 ,alex&]1
 ,caes>1 ,*>lemagne1 p]haps excel !m4 ,b
 ,alex&] has b a s+le contempor>y t c be
 comp>$ ) him1 8 fa!r ,philip2 ,caes> _c
 ev5 h suspect$ t ,octavius w\ld "o day 
be wor?y ( him2 ,*>lemagne is a colossus
 9 a des]t2 :il/ among u ^! five m5     
succe$ ea* o!r )\t an int]val1 press ^u 
ea* o!r1 & h1 ?us to speak1 a s+le s\l4 
,& by :at (fic]s 7 !y s]v$6 ,is ,conde  
really inf]ior to ,alex&]1 ,hannibal1 & 
,caes>2 = among 8 pr$ecessors we mu/ n  

look = o!r rivals8 ,:o among !m         
surpasses him 9 ! ext5t & ju/ness ( 8   
conceptions1 9 quickness ( sight1 9     
rapidity ( manoeuvres1 9 ! union (      
impetuosity & firmness1 9 ! d\ble glory 
( tak] ( cities & ga9] ( battles8 ,add t
 he dealt ) g5]als l ,m]ci & ,william1 t
 he _h "u him ,tur5ne & ,luxemburg1 )\t 
speak+ ( s _m o!r soldi]s :o 7 re>$ 9 t 
admirable s*ool1 & at ! h\r ( rev]se    
/ill suffic$ to save ,france4  ,:at o!r 
"t1 at lea/ among ! mod]ns1 has se5     
fl\ri%+ toge!r s _m poets ( ! fir/ ord]8
 ,we h1 x is true1 nei!r ,hom]1 nor     
,dante1 nor ,milton1 nor ev5 ,tasso4 ,! 
epic1 ) its primitive simplicity1 is    
int]dict$ u4 ,b 9 ! drama we sc>cely h  
equals4 ,x is because dramatic poetry is
 ! poetry t is adapt$ to u1 moral poetry
 p> excell5ce1 :i* repres5ts man ) 8    
diff]5t passions arm$ aga9/ ea* o!r1 !  
viol5t cont5tions betwe5 virtue & crime1
 ! freaks ( =tune1 ! lessons (          
provid5ce1 & 9 a n>r[ compass1 too1 9   
:i* ! ev5ts press ^u ea* o!r )\t        

confusion1 9 :i* ! action rapidly       
progresses t[>ds ! crisis t mu/ reveal  
:at is mo/ intimate to ! he>t ( !       
p]sonages4  ,let u d>e to say :at we    
?9k1 t1 9 our op9ion1 ,a,eschylus1      
,sophocles1 & ,euripides1 toge!r1 d n   
equal ,corneille2 = none ( !m has kn[n &
 express$ l him :at is ( all ?+s mo/    
truly t\*+1 a great s\l at w> ) itself1 
betwe5 a g5]\s passion & duty4          
,corneille is ! creator ( a new pa!tic  
unkn[n to antiquity & to all ! mod]ns   
be=e him4 ,he disda9s to address common 
& subalt]n passions2 he does n seek to  
r\se t]ror & pity1 z dem&s ,ari/otle1 :o
 limits himself to erect+ into maxims ! 
practice ( ! ,greeks4 ,corneille seems  
to h read ,plato1 & foll[$ 8            
precepts3--he addresses a mo/ elevat$ "p
 ( human nature1 ! noble/ passion1 ! "o 
ne>e/ virtue1--admiration2 & f          
admiration c>ri$ to its culm9ation he   
draws ! mo/ p[]ful effects4 ,%akspe>e1  
we admit1 is sup]ior to ,corneille 9    
ext5t & ri*ness ( dramatic g5ius4       

,entire human nature seems at 8         
disposal1 & he reproduces ! diff]5t     
sc5es ( life 9 _! beauty & de=mity1 9 _!
 gr&eur & bas5ess4 ,he excels 9 pa9t+ ! 
t]rible or ! g5tle passions4 ,o!llo is  
jeal\sy1 ,lady ,macbe? is ambition1 z   
,juliet & ,desdemona are ! immortal     
names ( y\?ful & un=tunate love4 ,b if  
,corneille has less imag9ation1 he has m
 s\l4 ,less v>i$1 he is m pr(\nd4 ,if he
 does n put ^u ! /age s _m diff]5t      
*>act]s1 ^? t he does put on x are !    
greate/ t c be (f]$ to humanity4 ,!     
sc5es t he gives are less he>t-r5d+1 b  
at once m delicate & m sublime4 ,:at is 
! melan*oly ( ,hamlet1 ! grief ( ,k+    
,le>1 ev5 ! disda9ful intrepidity (     
,caes>1 9 comp>ison ) ! magnanimity (   
,augu/us /riv+ to be ma/] ( himself z   
well z ! univ]se1 9 comp>ison ) ,*im5e  
sacrific+ love to honor1 especially 9   
comp>ison ) ,paul9e1 n suff]+ ev5 at !  
bottom ( h] he>t an involunt>y sigh = ! 
"o t %e mu/ n love8 ,corneille always   
conf9es himself to ! highe/ regions4 ,he

 is by turns ,roman & ,*ri/ian4 ,he is !
 int]pret] ( h]oes1 ! *ant] ( virtue1 ! 
poet ( w>riors & politicians4#abh ,& x  
mu/ n be =gott5 t ,%akspe>e is almo/    
alone 9 8 times1 :il/ aft] ,corneille   
comes ,rac9e1 :o w\ld suffice = !       
poetical glory ( a nation4  ,rac9e      
assur$ly _c be comp>$ ) ,corneille =    
dramatic g5ius2 he is m ! man ( lett]s2 
he has n ! tragic s\l2 he nei!r loves   
nor und]/&s politics & w>4 ,:5 he       
imitates ,corneille1 = example1 9       
,alex&]1 & ev5 9 ,mi?ridates1 he        
imitates him badly en\gh4 ,! sc5e1 s    
vaunt$1 ( ,mi?ridates expos+ 8 plan (   
campaign to 8 sons is a morsel ( ! f9e/ 
rhetoric1 :i* _c be comp>$ ) ! political
 & milit>y sc5es ( ,c9na & ,s]torius1   
especially ) t fir/ sc5e ( ! ,dea? (    
,pompey1 9 :i* y witness a c\nsel z     
true1 z gr&1 z pr(\nd z ev] c\ld h be5  
"o ( ! c\nsels ( ,ri*elieu or ,maz>94   
,rac9e 0 n born to pa9t h]oes1 b he     
pa9ts admirably man ) 8 natural         
passions1 & ! mo/ natural z well z ! mo/

 t\*+ ( all1 love4 ,s he p>ticul>ly     
excels 9 fem99e *>act]s4 ,= m5 he has   
ne$ ( be+ su/a9$ by ,tacitus or holy    
,scripture4#abi ,) woman he is at 8     
ease1 & he makes !m ?9k & speak ) p]fect
 tru?1 set (f by exquisite art4 ,dem& ( 
him nei!r ,emilie1 ,cornelie1 nor       
,paul9e2 b li/5 to ,&romaque1 ,monime1  
,b]5ice1 & ,ph$re6 ,!re1 ev5 9 imitat+1 
he is orig9al1 & leaves ! anci5ts v f>  
beh9d him4 ,:o has taught him t *>m+    
deliv]y1 ^? graceful tr\bles1 t purity  
ev5 9 feebl5ess1 t melan*oly1 sometimes 
ev5 t dep?1 ) t m>vell\s language :i*   
seems ! natural acc5t ( woman's he>t8 ,x
 is cont9ually repeat$ t ,rac9e wrote   
bett] ?an ,corneille3--say only t ! two 
wrote v diff]5tly1 & l m5 9 v diff]5t   
epo*s4 ,"o has two sov]eign qualities1  
:i* belong to 8 own nature & 8 times1 a 
naivete & gr&eur1 ! o!r is n naive1 b he
 has too mu* ta/e n to be always simple1
 & he supplies ! place ( gr&eur1 =ev]   
lo/1 ) consummate elegance4 ,corneille  
speaks ! language ( /atesm51 soldi]s1   

!ologians1 philosoph]s1 & clev] wom52 ( 
,ri*elieu1 ,rohan1 ,sa9t-,cyran1        
,desc>tes1 & ,pascal2 ( "m ,angelique   
,arnaud & "m ,madele9e de ,sa9t-,joseph2
 ! language :i* ,moli]e /ill spoke1 :i* 
,bossuet pres]v$ to 8 la/ brea?4 ,rac9e 
speaks t ( ,l\is ,,xiv4 & ! wom5 :o 7 ! 
ornam5t ( 8 c\rt4 ,i suppose t ?us spoke
 ,madame1 ! amiable1 sprightly1 &       
un=tunate ,h5riette2 ?us wrote ! au?or (
 ! ,pr9cesse de ,cleves & ! au?or (     
,telemaque4 ,or1 r1 ?is language is t ( 
,rac9e himself1 ( t feeble & t5d] s\l1  
:i* pass$ quickly f love to devotion1   
:i* utt]$ its compla9ts 9 lyric poetry1 
:i* 0 :olly p\r$ out 9 ! *oruses ( ,e/h]
 & ,a?alie1 & 9 ! ,cantiques            
,spirituels2 t s\l1 s easy to be mov$1 t
 a religi\s c]emony or a repres5tation (
 ,e/h] at ,sa9t-,cyr t\*$ to te>s1 t    
piti$ ! mis=tunes ( ! p1 t f\nd 9 its   
pity & its *>ity ! c\rage to speak "o   
day ! tru? to ,l\is ,,xiv41 & 0 ext+ui%$
 by ! fir/ brea? ( disgrace4  ,moli]e   
is1 9 comp>ison ) ,ari/ophanes1 :at     

,corneille is1 9 comp>ison ) ,%akspe>e4 
,! au?or ( ,plutus1 ! ,wasps1 & !       
,cl\ds1 has d\btless an imag9ation1 an  
explosive buffoon]y1 a creative p[]1    
above all comp>ison4 ,moli]e has n z    
great poetical conceptions3 he has m1   
p]haps2 he has *>act]s4 ,8 color+ is    
less brilliant1 8 grav] is m p5etrat+4  
,he has engrav$ 9 ! memory ( m5 a c]ta9 
numb] ( irregul>ities & vices :i* w ev] 
be call$ l',av>e 7! ,mis]71 le ,malade  
,imag9aire 7! ,hypo*ondriac71 les       
,femmes ,savantes 7! ,le>n$ ,wom571 le  
,t>tufe 7! ,hypocrite71 & ,don ,juan1 n 
to speak ( ! ,misan?rope1 a piece ap>t1 
t\*+ z pleasant1 :i* is n address$ to ! 
cr[d1 & _c be popul>1 because x         
expresses a ridicule r>e en\gh1 excess 9
 ! passion ( tru? & honor4  ,( all      
fabuli/s1 anci5t & mod]n1 does any "o1  
ev5 ! +5i\s1 ! pure1 ! elegant ,pha$rus1
 approa* our ,la ,fonta9e8 ,he composes 
8 p]sonages1 & puts !m 9 action ) !     
skill ( ,moli]e2 he kn[s h[ to take on  
occasion ! tone ( ,horace1 & m+le an ode

 ) a fable2 he is at once ! mo/ naive1 &
 ! mo/ ref9$ ( writ]s1 & 8 art disappe>s
 9 its v p]fection4 ,we d n speak ( !   
tales1 fir/1 because we condemn ! k9d1  
!n1 because ,la ,fonta9e displays 9 !m  
qualities m ,italian ?an ,fr5*1 a       
n>rative full ( nature1 malice1 & grace1
 b )\t any ( ^? pr(\nd1 t5d]1 melan*oly 
traits1 t place among ! greate/ poets ( 
all "t ! au?or ( ! ,two ,pigeons 7,deux 
,pigeons71 ! ,old ,man 7,vieill>d71 & ! 
,?ree ,"y ,p]sons 7,g5s74  ,we d n      
hesitate to put ,boileau among ^! great 
m54 ,he comes aft] !m1 x is true1 b he  
belongs to _! company3 he compreh5ds !m1
 loves !m1 su/a9s !m4 ,x 0 he1 :o1 9    
#affc1 aft] ! ,s*ool ( ,wom5 7l',ecole  
des ,femmes7 & long be=e ! ,hypocrite   
7le ,t>tufe71 & ! ,misan?rope1 proclaim$
 ,moli]e ! ma/] 9 ! art ( v]se4 ,x 0 he 
:o1 9 #afgg1 aft] ! failure ( ,ph$re1   
def5d$ ! vanqui%] ( ,euripides aga9/ !  
successes ( ,pradon4 ,x 0 he :o1 9      
advance ( po/]ity1 fir/ put 9 light :at 
is new & entirely orig9al 9 ! plays (   

,corneille4#acj ,he sav$ ! p5sion ( !   
old trag$ian by (f]+ ! sacrifice ( 8    
own4 ,l\is ,,xiv4 ask+ him :at writ] mo/
 honor$ 8 reign1 ,boileau answ]$1 t x 0 
,moli]e2 & :5 ! great k+ 9 8 decl9e     
p]secut$ ,port-,royal1 & wi%$ to lay h&s
 on ,arnaud1 he enc\nt]$ a man ( lett]s1
 :o said to ! face ( ! imp]i\s          
mon>*1--,y\r ,maje/y 9 va9 seeks ,m4    
,arnaud1 y are too =tunate to f9d him4  
,boileau is some:at want+ 9 imag9ation &
 inv5tion2 b he is great 9 ! en]getic   
s5tim5t ( tru? & ju/ice2 he c>ries to ! 
ext5t ( passion ta/e = ! beautiful & !  
hone/2 he is a poet by =ce ( s\l & good 
s5se4 ,m ?an once 8 he>t dictat$ to him 
! mo/ pa!tic v]ses3      ,9 va9 aga9/ ! 
,cid a m9i/] is leagu$1#aca     ,all    
,p>is = ,*im5e ! eyes ( ,rodrique1 etc4 
99       99       99       99       99  
,aft] a little spot ( e>?1 obta9$ by    
pray]1     ,=ev] 9 ! tomb _h inclos$    
,moli]e1 etc4  ,& ?is epitaph ( ,arnaud1
 s simple & s gr&3#acb      ,at ! feet (
 ?is alt> ( /ructure gross1     ,lies   

)\t pomp1 inclos$ 9 a c(f9 vile1     ,! 
mo/ le>n$ mortal t ev] wrote2           
,arnaud1 :o 9 grace in/ruct$ by ,jesus  
,*ri/1     ,combat+ = ! ,*ur*1 has1 9 ! 
,*ur* itself1     ,suff]$ m ?an "o      
outrage & m ?an "o ana!ma1 etc4         
99       99       99       99       99  
,w&]+1 poor1 bani%$1 proscrib$1         
p]secut$2     ,& ev5 by 8 dea? _!       
ill-ext+ui%$ rage     ,_h nev] left 8   
a%es 9 repose1     ,if ,god himself "h  
by 8 holy flock     ,f ^! dev\r+ wolves 
_h n conceal$ 8 bones4#acc  ,^! are1 ,i 
?9k1 poets suffici5tly great1 & we h m (
 !m /ill3 ,i mean ^? *>m+ or sublime    
m9ds :o h elevat$ prose to poetry4      
,greece alone1 9 h] mo/ beautiful days1 
(f]s1 p]haps1 su* a v>iety ( admirable  
prose writ]s4 ,:o c enum]ate !m8 ,at    
fir/1 ,rabelais & ,montaigne2 lat]1     
,desc>tes1 ,pascal1 & ,malebran*e2 ,la  
,ro*ef\cauld & ,la ,bruy]e2 ,retz &     
,sa9t-,simon2 ,b\rdal\e1 ,fle*i]1       
,f5elon1 & ,bossuet2 add to ^! s _m     
em95t wom51 at _! head ,madame de       

,sevigne2 :ile ,montesquieu1 ,voltaire1 
,r\sseau1 & ,buffon are /ill to         
come4#acd  ,by :at /range div]sity c\ld 
a c\ntry1 9 :i* ! m5tal arts 7 c>ri$ to 
su* p]fection1 rema9 ord9>y 9 ! o!r     
arts8 ,0 ! s5tim5t ( ! beautiful want+1 
!n1 to t society s poli%$1 to t         
magnific5t c\rt1 to ^? great lords & ^? 
great ladies passionately lov+ luxury & 
elegance1 to t public ( ! elite1 enamor$
 ( e k9d ( glory1 ^: en?usiasm def5d$ ! 
,cid aga9/ ,ri*elieu8 ,no2 ,france 9 !  
sev5te5? c5tury 0 a :ole1 & produc$     
arti/s t %e c place by ! side ( h]      
poets1 h] philosoph]s1 h] orators4  ,b1 
9 ord] to admire our arti/s1 x is       
necess>y to compreh5d !m4  ,we d n      
believe t imag9ation has be5 less freely
 imp>t$ to ,france ?an to any o!r nation
 ( ,europe4 ,x has ev5 _h its reign     
among u4 ,x is fancy t rules 9 ! sixte5?
 c5tury1 & inspires ! lit]ature & ! arts
 ( ! ,r5aissance4 ,b a great revolution 
int]v5$ at ! comm5cem5t ( ! sev5te5?    
c5tury4 ,france at t mom5t seems to pass

 f y\? to virility4 ,in/ead ( ab&on+    
imag9ation to itself1 we apply ourselves
 f t mom5t to re/ra9 x )\t de/roy+ x1 to
 mod]ate x1 z ! ,greeks did by ! aid (  
ta/e2 z 9 ! progress ( life & society we
 le>n to repress or conceal :at is too  
individual 9 "*4 ,an end is made ( !    
lit]ature ( ! prec$+ age4 ,a new poetry1
 a new prose1 beg9 to appe>1 :i*1 dur+  
an entire c5tury1 be> fruits suffici5tly
 beautiful4 ,art foll[s ! g5]al movem5t2
 aft] hav+ be5 elegant & graceful1 x    
becomes 9 its turn s]i\s2 x no long]    
aims at orig9ality & extraord9>y        
effects2 x nei!r fla%es nor dazzles2 x  
speaks1 above all1 to ! m9d & ! s\l4    
,h5ce its good qualities & also its     
defects4 ,9 g5]al1 x is some:at want+ 9 
brilliancy & color+1 b x is 9 ! highe/  
degree expressive4  ,"s "t s9ce we h    
*ang$ all t4 ,we h discov]$1 some:at    
late1 t we h n suffici5t imag9ation2 we 
are 9 tra9+ to acquire x1 x is true1 at 
! exp5se ( reason1 alas6 also at !      
exp5se ( s\l1 :i* is =gott51 repudiat$1 

proscrib$4 ,at ?is mom5t1 color & =m are
 ! ord] ( ! day1 9 poetry1 9 pa9t+1 9 e 
?+4 ,we are beg9n+ to run mad ) ,spani% 
pa9t+4 ,! ,flemi% & ,v5etian s*ools are 
ga9+ gr\nd on ! s*ools ( ,flor5ce &     
,rome4 ,ross9i equals ,moz>t1 & ,gluck w
 soon seem to u insipid4  ,"y arti/s1   
:o1 rightly disgu/$ ) ! dry & inanimate 
mann] ( ,david1 und]take to r5ovate     
,fr5* pa9t+1 :o w\ld rob ! sun ( its    
heat & spl5dor1 rememb] t ( all be+s 9 !
 _w1 ! greate/ is /ill man1 & t :at is  
greate/ 9 man is 8 intellig5ce1 & above 
all1 8 he>t2 t x is ?is he>t1 !n1 :i* y 
mu/ put & develop on y\r canvas4 ,?is is
 ! mo/ elevat$ object ( art4 ,9 ord] to 
rea* x1 d n make y\rselves disciples (  
,flem+s1 ,v5etians1 & ,spani>ds2 return1
 return to ! ma/]s ( our great national 
s*ool ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4  ,we b[ )    
respectful admiration be=e ! s*ools (   
,rome & ,flor5ce1 at once ideal & liv+2 
b1 ^? except$1 we ma9ta9 t ! ,fr5* s*ool
 equals or surpasses all o!rs4 ,we pref]
 nei!r ,murillo1 ,rub5s1 ,corregio1 nor 

,titian himself to ,lesueur & ,p\ss91   
because1 if ! =m] h an incomp>able h& & 
color1 our two c\ntrym5 are mu* great] 9
 ?\ght & expression4  ,:at a de/9y 0 t (
 ,eu/a*e ,lesueur6#ace ,he 0 born at    
,p>is ab\t #afag1 & he nev] w5t out ( x4
 ,poor & humble1 he pass$ 8 life 9 !    
*ur*es & conv5ts :]e he work$4 ,! only  
sweetness ( 8 sad days1 8 only          
consolation 0 8 wife3 he loses h]1 &    
goes to die1 at ?irty-eight1 9 t cloi/] 
( ,*>treux1 :i* 8 p5cil has immortaliz$4
 ,:at resemblance at once1 & :at        
diff]5ce betwe5 8 life & t ( ,raphael1  
:o also di$ "y1 b 9 ! mid/ ( pleasures1 
9 honors1 & already almo/ 9 purple6 ,our
 ,raphael 0 n ! lov] ( ,=n>9a & !       
favorite ( a pope3 he 0 ,*ri/ian2 he is 
,*ri/ianity 9 art4  ,lesueur is a g5ius 
:olly ,fr5*4 ,sc>cely hav+ escap$ f !   
h&s ( ,simon ,v\et1 he =m$ himself      
accord+ to ! model :i* he _h 9 ! s\l4   
,he nev] saw ! sky ( ,italy4 ,he knew "s
 fragm5ts ( ! antique1 "s pictures (    
,raphael1 & ! designs t ,p\ss9 s5t him4 

,) ^! feeble res\rces1 & guid$ by a     
happy in/9ct1 9 less ?an t5 ye>s he     
m\nt$ by a cont9ual progress to !       
p]fection ( 8 tal5t1 & expir$ at ! mom5t
 :51 f9ally sure ( himself1 he 0 ab\t to
 produce new & m admirable ma/]-pieces4 
,foll[ him f ! ,/4 ,bruno complet$ 9    
#afdh1 ?r\gh ! ,/4 ,paul ( #afdi1 to !  
,vision ( ,/4 ,b5$ict 9 #afea1 & to !   
,muses1 sc>cely f9i%$ be=e 8 dea?4      
,lesueur w5t on add+ to 8 ess5tial      
qualities :i* he ow$ to 8 own g5ius1 &  
to ! national g5ius1 ,i mean composition
 & expression1 qualities :i* he _h      
dream$ (1 or _h caught glimpses (4 ,8   
design f day to day became m pure1 )\t  
ev] be+ t ( ! ,flor5t9e s*ool1 & ! same 
is true ( 8 color+4  ,9 ,lesueur e ?+ is
 direct$ t[>ds expression1 e ?+ is 9 !  
s]vice ( ! m9d1 e ?+ is idea & s5tim5t4 
,!re is no affectation1 no mann]ism2 !re
 is a p]fect naivete2 8 figures         
sometimes w\ld seem ev5 a little common1
 s natural are !y1 if a ,div9e brea? did
 n animate !m4 ,x mu/ n be =gott5 t 8   

favorite subjects d n exact a brilliant 
color+3 he (t5e/ retraces sc5es m\rnful 
or au/]e4 ,b z 9 ,*ri/ianity by ! side (
 suff]+ & resignation is fai? ) hope1 s 
,lesueur jo9s to ! pa!tic sweetness &   
grace2 & ?is man *>ms me at ! same "t t 
he moves me4  ,! works ( ,lesueur are   
almo/ always great :oles t dem&$ pr(\nd 
m$itation1 & ! mo/ flexible tal5t1 9    
ord] to pres]ve 9 !m unity ( subject1 & 
to give !m v>iety & h>mony4 ,! ,hi/ory (
 ,/4 ,bruno1 ! f\nd] ( ! ord] des       
,*>treux1 is a va/ melan*oly poem1 9 :i*
 are repres5t$ ! diff]5t sc5es ( mona/ic
 life4 ,! ,hi/ory ( ,/4 ,m>t9 & ,/4     
,b5$ict has n come d[n to u entire2 b ! 
two fragm5ts ( x t we possess1 ! ,mass (
 ,/4 ,m>t91 & ! ,vision ( ,/4 ,b5$ict1  
all[ u to comp>e t great "w ) e bett] ?+
 ( ! k9d t has be5 done 9 ,italy1 z1 to 
speak s9c]ely1 ! ,muses & ! ,hi/ory (   
,love1 appe> to u to equal at lea/ !    
,f>nes9a4  ,9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,/4 ,bruno1 x 
is p>ticul>ly necess>y to rem>k ,/4     
,bruno1 pro/rat$ be=e a crucifix1 ! sa9t

 read+ a lett] ( ! pope1 8 dea?1 8      
apo!osis4 ,is x possible to c>ry        
m$itation1 humiliation1 rapture f>!r8   
,/4 ,paul prea*+ at ,ephesus rem9ds "o (
 ! ,s*ool ( ,a!ns1 by ! ext5t ( ! sc5e1 
! employm5t ( ar*itecture1 & ! skilful  
di/ribution ( gr\ps4 ,9 spite ( ! numb] 
( p]sonages1 & ! div]sity ( episodes1 ! 
picture :olly c5tres 9 ,/4 ,paul4 ,he   
prea*es1 & ^u 8 words hang ^? :o are    
li/5+1 ( e sex1 ( e age1 9 ! mo/ v>i$   
attitudes4 ,9 t we behold ! gr& l9es ( !
 ,roman s*ool1 its design full (        
nobl5ess & tru? at ! same "t4 ,:at *>m+ 
& grave heads6 ,:at graceful1 bold1 &   
always natural movem5ts6 ,"h1 t *ild )  
r+lets1 full ( naive en?usiasm2 !re1 t  
old man ) b5d$ knees1 & h&s jo9$4 ,are n
 all ^? beautiful heads1 & ^? drap]ies1 
too1 wor?y ( ,raphael8 ,b ! m>vel ( !   
picture is ! figure ( ,/4 ,paul1#acf--;x
 is t ( ! ,olympic ,jupit]1 animat$ by a
 new _s4 ,! ,mass ( ,/4 ,m>t9 c>ries    
into ! s\l an impression ( peace &      
sil5ce4 ,! ,vision ( ,/4 ,b5$ict has !  

"* ( simplicity full ( gr&eur4 ,a des]t1
 ! sa9t on 8 knees1 contemplat+ 8 si/]1 
,/4 ,s*ola/ique1 :o is asc5d+ to heav51 
borne up by angels1 accompani$ by two "y
 girls1 cr[n$ ) fl[]s1 & be>+ ! palm1 ! 
symbol ( virg9ity4 ,/4 ,pet] & ,/4 ,paul
 %[ ,/4 ,b5$ict ! abode :i!r 8 si/] is  
go+ to enjoy et]nal peace4 ,a slight ray
 ( ! sun pi]ces ! cl\d4 ,/4 ,b5$ict is z
 x 7 lift$ up f ! e>? by ?is ec/atic    
vision4 ,"o sc>cely desires a m lively  
color1 & ! expression is div9e4 ,^? two 
virg9s1 a little too tall1 p]haps1 h[   
beautiful & pure !y are6 ,h[ sweet are  
^? =ms6 ,h[ grave & g5tle are ^? faces6 
,! p]son ( ! holy monk1 ) all ! mat]ial 
accessories1 is p]fectly natural1 = x   
rema9s on ! e>?2 :il/ 8 face1 :]e 8 s\l 
%9es =?1 is :olly ideal1 & already 9    
heav54  ,b ! *ef-d'oeuvre ( ,lesueur is1
 9 our op9ion1 ! ,desc5t f ! ,cross1 or 
r ! en%r\d+ ( ,jesus ,*ri/1 already     
desc5d$ f ! cross1 :om ,joseph (        
,arima!a1 ,nicodemus1 & ,/4 ,john are   
plac+ 9 ! %r\d4 ,on ! left1 ,magdal51 9 

te>s1 kisses ! feet ( ,jesus2 on ! "r1  
are ! holy wom5 & ! ,virg94 ,x is       
impossible to c>ry ! pa!tic f>!r &      
pres]ve beauty4 ,! holy wom51 plac$ 9   
front1 h ea* _! p>ticul> grief4 ,:ile "o
 ( !m ab&ons h]self to despair1 an      
imm5se b int]nal & ?\ghtful sadness is  
^u ! face ( ! "m ( ! crucifi$4 ,%e has  
compreh5d$ ! div9e b5efit ( ! r$emption 
( ! human race1 & h] grief1 su/a9$ by   
?is ?\ght1 is calm & resign$4 ,& !n :at 
dignity 9 t head6 ,x1 9 "s sort1 sums up
 ! :ole picture1 & gives to x its "*1 t 
( a pr(\nd & subdu$ emotion4 ,i h se5 _m
 ,desc5ts f ! ,cross2 ,i h se5 t (      
,rub5s at ,antw]p1 9 :i* ! sanctity ( ! 
subject has1 z x 71 con/ra9$ ! great    
,flemi% pa9t] to jo9 s5sibility &       
s5tim5t to color2 none ( ^? pictures h  
t\*$ me l t ( ,lesueur4 ,all ! p>ts (   
art are !re 9 ! s]vice ( expression4 ,! 
draw+ is sev]e & /rong2 ev5 ! color1 )\t
 be+ brilliant1 surpasses t ( ! ,/4     
,bruno1 ! ,mass ( ,/4 ,m>t91 ! ,/4      
,paul1 & ev5 t ( ! ,vision ( ,/4        

,b5$ict2 z if ,lesueur _h wi%$ to br+   
toge!r 9 x all ! p[]s ( 8 s\l1 all !    
res\rces ( 8 tal5t6#acg  ,n[1 reg>d !   
,muses1--o!r sc5es1 o!r beauties1 ! same
 g5ius4 ,^? are ,pagan pictures1 b      
,*ri/ianity is 9 !m also1 by reason ( ! 
adorable *a/ity ) :i* ,lesueur has clo!d
 !m4 ,all critics h emul\sly %[n !      
my?ological errors into :i* poor        
,lesueur fell1 & !y h n want$ occasion  
to deplore t he _h n made ! j\rney to   
,italy & /udi$ antiquity m4 ,b :o c h ! 
/range idea ( se>*+ 9 ,lesueur = an     
ar*eology8 ,i seek & f9d 9 him ! v g5ius
 ( pa9t+4 ,is n t ,t]psi*ore1 well or   
ill nam$1 ) a h>p a little too /rong1 x 
is said1 z if ! ,muse _h no p>ticul>    
gift1 9 h] mode/ attitude ! symbol (    
becom+ grace8 ,9 t gr\p ( ?ree ,muses1  
to :i* "o may give :at "n he pleases1 is
 n ! "o t holds ^u h] knees a book (    
music1 :o s+s or is ab\t to s+1 ! mo/   
ravi%+ creature1 a ,/4 ,cecilia t       
preludes j be=e ab&on+ h]self to !      
intoxication ( inspiration8 ,& 9 ^?     

pictures !re is brilliancy & color+2 !  
l&scape is beautifully light$1 z if     
,p\ss9 _h guid$ ! h& ( 8 fri5d4  ,p\ss96
 ,:at a "n ,i pron\nce4 ,if ,lesueur is 
! pa9t] ( s5tim5t1 ,p\ss9 is ! pa9t] (  
?\ght4 ,he is 9 "s sort ! philosoph] (  
pa9t+4 ,8 pictures are religi\s or moral
 lectures t te/ify a great m9d z well z 
a great he>t4 ,x is suffici5t to recall 
! ,sev5 ,sacram5ts1 ! ,deluge1 !        
,arcadia1 ! ,tru? t ,"t frees f ! ,ta9ts
 ( ,envy1 ! ,w ( ,eudamidas1 & ! ,dance 
( ,human ,life4 ,& ! /yle is equal to ! 
conception4 ,p\ss9 draws l a ,flor5t9e1 
composes l a ,fr5*man1 & (t5 equals     
,lesueur 9 expression2 color+ alone is  
sometimes want+ to him4 ,z well z       
,rac9e1 he is smitt5 ) ! antique beauty1
 & imitates x2 b1 l ,rac9e1 he always   
rema9s orig9al4 ,9 place ( ! naivete &  
unique *>m ( ,lesueur1 he has a sev]e   
simplicity1 ) a correctness t nev]      
ab&ons him4 ,rememb]1 too1 t he         
cultivat$ e k9d ( pa9t+4 ,he is at once 
a great hi/orical pa9t] & a great       

l&scape pa9t]1--he treats religi\s      
subjects z well z pr(ane subjects1 & by 
turns is inspir$ by antiquity & !       
,bible4 ,he liv$ mu* at ,rome1 x is     
true1 & di$ !re2 b he also work$ 9      
,france1 & almo/ always = ,france4      
,sc>cely _h he become kn[n1 :5 ,ri*elieu
 attract$ him to ,p>is & reta9$ him !re1
 load+ him ) honors1 & giv+ him !       
commission ( fir/ pa9t] 9 ord9>y to !   
k+1 ) ! g5]al direction ( all ! works ( 
pa9t+1 & all ! ornam5ts ( ! royal h\ses4
 ,dur+ t soj\rn ( two ye>s 9 ,p>is1 he  
made ! ,la/ ,supp] 7,c5e71 ! ,/4        
,francois ,xavi]1 ! ,tru? t ,"t frees f 
! ,ta9ts ( ,envy4 ,x 0 also to ,france1 
to 8 fri5d ,m4 de ,*antel\1 t f ,rome he
 address$ ! ,inspiration ( ,/4 ,paul1 z 
well z ! second s]ies ( ! ,sev5         
,sacram5ts1 an imm5se composition t1 =  
gr&eur ( ?\ght1 c vie ) ! ,/anze (      
,raphael4 ,i speak ( x f ! engrav+s2 = !
 ,sev5 ,sacram5ts are no long] 9        
,france4 ,et]nal %ame ( ! eighte5?      
c5tury6 ,x 0 at lea/ necess>y to wre/ f 

! ,greeks ! p$im5ts ( ! ,p>!non1--we1 we
 deliv]$ up to /rang]s1 we sold all ^?  
monum5ts ( ,fr5* g5ius :i* ,ri*elieu &  
,maz>91 ) religi\s c>e1 _h collect$4    
,public indignation did n av]t ! act6 ,&
 !re has n s9ce be5 f\nd 9 ,france a k+1
 a /atesman1 to int]dict lett+ !        
ma/]-pieces ( art t honor ! nation dep>t
 )\t au?orization f ! national          
t]ritory6#ach ,!re has n be5 f\nd a     
gov]nm5t :i* has und]tak5 at lea/ to    
repur*ase ^? t we h lo/1 to get back    
aga9 ! great works ( ,p\ss91 ,lesueur1 &
 s _m o!rs1 scatt]$ 9 ,europe1 in/ead ( 
squ&]+ millions to acquire ! baboons (  
,holl&1 z ,l\is ,,xiv4 said1 or ,spani% 
canvasses1 9 tru? ( an admirable color1 
b )\t nobl5ess & moral expression4#aci  
,i "k & ,i love ! ,dut* pa/orals & ! c[s
 ( ,pott]2 ,i am n ins5sible to ! sombre
 & ard5t color+ ( ,zurb>an1 to !        
brilliant ,italian imitations ( ,murillo
 & ,velasquez2 b 9 f9e1 :at is all t 9  
comp>ison ) s]i\s & p[]ful compositions 
l ! ,sev5 ,sacram5ts1 = example1 t      

pr(\nd repres5tation ( ,*ri/ian rites1 a
 "w ( ! highe/ faculties ( ! intellect &
 ! s\l1 9 :i* ! intellect & ! s\l w ev] 
f9d an exhau/less subject ( /udy &      
m$itation6 ,?ank ,god1 ! grav] ( ,pesne 
has sav$ !m f our +ratitude & b>b>ity4  
,:il/ ! orig9als decorate ! gall]y ( a  
great ,engli% "l1#adj ! love & ! tal5t (
 a ,pesne1 ( a ,/ella1 h pres]v$ = u    
fai?ful copies 9 ^? expressive engrav+s 
t "o nev] gr[s tir$ ( contemplat+1 t e  
"t we exam9e !m1 reveal to u "s new side
 ( ! g5ius ( our great c\ntryman4 ,reg>d
 especially ! ,extreme ,unction6 ,:at a 
sublime & at ! same "t almo/ graceful   
sc5e6 ,"o w\ld call x an antique        
bas-relief1 s _m gr\ps are prop]ly      
di/ribut$ 9 x1 ) natural & v>i$         
attitudes4 ,! drap]ies are z admirable z
 ^? ( a fragm5t ( ! ,pana!naea1 :i* is 9
 ! ,l\vre4 ,! figures are all beautiful4
 ,beauty ( figures belongs to sculpture1
 "o is ab\t to say3--yes1 b x also      
belongs to pa9t+1 if y h y\rself ! eye (
 ! pa9t]1 if y h be5 /ruck ) !          

expression ( ^? po/ures1 ^? heads1 ^?   
ge/ures1 & almo/ ^? looks2 = e ?+ lives1
 e ?+ brea!s1 ev5 9 ^? engrav+s1 & if x 
7 ! place1 we w\ld endeavor to make !   
read] p5etrate ) u into ^? secrets (    
,*ri/ian s5tim5t :i* are also ! secrets 
( art4  ,we endeavor to console         
ourselves = hav+ lo/ ! ,sev5 ,sacram5ts1
 & = n hav+ kn[n h[ to keep f ,engl& &  
,g]many s _m productions ( ,p\ss91 n[   
buri$ 9 =eign collections1#ada by go+ to
 see at ! ,l\vre :at rema9s to u ( !    
great ,fr5* arti/1--?irty pictures      
produc$ at diff]5t epo*s ( 8 life1 :i*1 
= ! mo/ "p1 wor?ily su/a9 8 r5[n1--!    
portrait ( ,p\ss91 "o ( ! ,bac*anals    
made = ,ri*elieu1 ,m>s & ,v5us1 ! ,dea? 
( ,adonis1 ! ,rape ( ! ,sab9es1#adb     
,eliez] & ,rebecca1 ,moses sav$ f !     
,wat]s1 ! ,infant ,jesus on ! ,knees ( !
 ,virg9 & ,/4 ,joseph /&+ by1#adc       
especially ! ,manna 9 ! ,des]t1 !       
,judgm5t ( ,solomon1 ! ,bl9d ,m5 (      
,j]i*o1 ! ,woman tak5 9 ,adult]y1 !     
,inspiration ( ,/4 ,paul1 ! ,diog5es1 ! 

,deluge1 ! ,arcadia4 ,"t has turn$ !    
color1 :i* 0 nev] v brilliant2 b x has n
 be5 able to di/urb :at w make !m live  
=ev]1--! design1 ! composition1 & !     
expression4 ,! ,deluge has rema9$1 & 9  
fact w always be1 ! mo/ /rik+4 ,aft] s  
_m ma/]s :o h treat$ ! same subject1    
,p\ss9 has f\nd ! secret ( be+ orig9al1 
& m pa!tic ?an 8 pr$ecessors1 9         
repres5t+ ! solemn mom5t :5 ! race is   
ab\t to disappe>4 ,!re are few details2 
"s dead bodies are float+ ^u ! abyss2 a 
s9i/]-look+ moon has sc>cely ris52 a few
 mom5ts & mank9d w be no m2 ! la/ "m    
uselessly ext5ds h] la/ *ild to ! la/   
fa!r1 :o _c take x1 & ! s]p5t t has     
de/roy$ mank9d d>ts =? triumphant4 ,we  
try 9 va9 to f9d 9 ! ,deluge "s signs ( 
a trembl+ h&3 ! s\l t su/a9$ & conduct$ 
t h& makes itself felt by our s\l1 &    
pr(\ndly moves x4 ,/op at t sc5e (      
m\rn+1 & almo/ by its side let y\r eyes 
re/ ^u t fre% l&scape & ^u ^? %eph]ds t 
surr\nd a tomb4 ,! mo/ ag$1 ) a knee on 
! gr\nd1 reads ^! words grav5 ^u ! /one3

 ,et 9 ,arcadia ego1 & ,i also liv$ 9   
,arcadia4 ,at ! left a %eph]d li/5s )   
s]i\s att5tion4 ,at ! "r is a *>m+ gr\p1
 compos$ ( a %eph]d 9 ! spr+-"t ( life1 
& a "y girl ( ravi%+ beauty4 ,an artless
 admiration is pa9t$ on ! face ( ! "y   
peasant1 :o looks ) happ9ess on 8       
beautiful companion4 ,z = h]1 h]        
adorable face is n ev5 veil$ ) !        
slighte/ %ade2 %e smiles1 h] h& re/+    
c>elessly ^u ! %\ld] ( ! "y man1 & %e   
has no appe>ance ( compreh5d+ t lecture 
giv5 to beauty1 y\?1 & love4 ,i confess 
t1 = ?is picture alone1 ( s t\*+ a      
philosophy1 ,i w\ld give _m ma/]-pieces 
( color+1 all ! pa/orals ( ,pott]1 all !
 bad9ages ( ,o/ade1 all ! buffoon]ies ( 
,t5i]s4  ,lesueur & ,p\ss91 by v diff]5t
 b ne>ly equal titles1 are at ! head (  
our great pa9t+ ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4    
,aft] !m1 :at arti/s aga9 are ,claude   
,lorra9 & ,philippe de ,*ampagne8  ,d y 
"k 9 ,italy or ,holl& a great] l&scape  
pa9t] ?an ,claude8 ,& seize well 8 true 
"*4 ,look at ^? va/ & beautiful         

solitudes1 light$ by ! fir/ or la/ rays 
( ! sun1 & tell me :e!r ^? solitudes1 ^?
 trees1 ^? wat]s1 ^? m\nta9s1 t light1 t
 sil5ce1--:e!r all t nature has a s\l1 &
 :e!r ^? lum9\s & pure horizons d n lift
 y involunt>ily1 9 ineffable rev]ies1 to
 ! invisible s\rce ( beauty & grace6    
,lorra9 is1 above all1 ! pa9t] ( light1 
& 8 works might be call$ ! hi/ory (     
light & all its comb9ations1 9 small &  
great1 :5 x is p\r$ out ov] l>ge pla9s  
or breaks 9 ! mo/ v>i$ accid5ts1 on l&1 
on wat]s1 9 ! heav5s1 9 its et]nal      
s\rce4 ,! human sc5es ?r[n into "o corn]
 h no o!r object ?an to relieve & make  
appe> to advantage ! sc5es ( nature by  
h>mony or contra/4 ,9 ! ,village ,fete1 
life1 noise1 movem5t are 9 front1--peace
 & gr&eur are at ! f\ndation ( !        
l&scape1 & t is truly ! picture4 ,! same
 effect is 9 ! ,cattle ,cross+ a ,riv]4 
,! l&scape plac$ imm$iately "u y\r eyes 
has no?+ 9 x v r>e1 we c f9d su* a "o   
any:]e2 b foll[ ! p]spective1--x leads y
 across fl[]+ fields1 a beautiful riv]1 

ru9s1 m\nta9s t ov]look ^! ru9s1 & y    
lose y\rself 9 inf9ite di/ances4 ,t     
,l&scape cross$ by a riv]1 :]e a peasant
 wat]s 8 h]d1 means no?+ great at fir/  
sight4 ,contemplate x "s "t1 & peace1 a 
sort ( m$itativ5ess 9 nature1 a         
well-graduat$ p]spective1 w1 little by  
little1 ga9 y\r he>t1 & give y 9 t small
 picture a p5etrat+ *>m4 ,! picture     
call$ a ,l&scape repres5ts a va/        
*ampagne fill$ ) trees1 & light$ by !   
ris+ sun1--9 x !re is fre%ness          
&--already--w>m?1 my/]y1 & spl5dor1 )   
skies ( ! sweete/ h>mony4 ,a ,dance at  
,sunset expresses ! close ( a beautiful 
day4 ,"o sees 9 x1 "o feels 9 x ! decl9e
 ( ! heat ( ! day2 9 ! =egr\nd are "s   
%eph]ds & %eph]desses danc+ by ! side ( 
_! flocks4#add  ,is x n /range1 t       
,*ampagne has be5 put 9 ! ,flemi%       
s*ool8#ade ,he 0 born at ,brussels1 x is
 true1 b he came v e>ly to ,p>is1 & 8   
true ma/] 0 ,p\ss91 :o c\nsell$ him4 ,he
 devot$ 8 tal5t to ,france1 liv$ !re1   
di$ !re1 & :at is decisive1 8 mann] is  

:olly ,fr5*4 ,w x be said t he owes to  
,fl&]s 8 color8 ,we respond t ?is       
quality is balanc$ by a grave defect t  
he also owes to ,fl&]s1 ! want (        
ideality 9 ! figures2 & x 0 f ,france t 
he le>n$ h[ to repair ?is defect by     
beauty ( moral expression4 ,*ampagne is 
inf]ior to ,lesueur & ,p\ss91 b he is ( 
_! family4 ,he 01 also1 ( ^? arti/s     
contemporane\s ) ,corneille1 simple1    
poor1 virtu\s1 ,*ri/ian4#adf ,*ampagne  
work$ bo? = ! conv5t ( ! ,c>melites 9 ! 
,rue ,/4 ,jacques1 t v5]able abode (    
ard5t & sublime piety1 & ,port-,royal1 t
 place ( all o!rs t conta9$ 9 ! smalle/ 
space ! mo/ virtue & g5ius1 s _m        
admirable m5 & wom5 wor?y ( !m4 ,:at has
 become ( t fam\s crucifix t he pa9t$ = 
! ,*ur* ( ! ,c>melites1 a ma/]-piece (  
p]spective t ^u a horizontal plane      
appe>$ p]p5dicul>8 ,x p]i%$ ) ! holy    
h\se4 ,! ,la/ ,supp] 7,c5e7 is a liv+   
picture1 on acc\nt ( ! tru? ( all !     
figures1 movem5ts1 & po/ures1 b to my   
eyes x is blemi%$ by ! abs5ce ( ! ideal4

 ,i am oblig$ to say z mu* ( ! ,repa/ ) 
,simon ! ,ph>isee4 ,! *ef-d'oeuvre (    
,*ampagne is ! ,app>ition ( ,/4 ,g]vais 
& ,/4 ,protais to ,/4 ,ambrose 9 a      
,basilica ( ,milan4 ,all ! qualities (  
,fr5* art are se5 9 x1--simplicity &    
gr&eur 9 composition1 ) a pr(\nd        
expression4 ,on t canvas are only f\r   
p]sonages1 ! two m>tyrs & ,/4 ,paul1 :o 
pres5ts !m to ,/4 ,ambrose4 ,^? f\r     
figures fill ! temple1 light$ above all 
9 ! obscurity ( ! night1 by ! lum9\s    
app>ition4 ,! two m>tyrs are full (     
maje/y4 ,/4 ,ambrose1 kneel+ & 9 pray]1 
is1 z x 71 seiz$ ) t]ror4#adg  ,i       
c]ta9ly admire ,*ampagne z an hi/orical 
pa9t]1 & ev5 z a l&scape pa9t]2 b he is 
p]haps greate/ z a portrait pa9t]4 ,9   
portraits tru? & nature are p>ticul>ly 9
 _! place1 reliev$ by color+1 & idealiz$
 9 prop] measure by expression4 ,!      
portraits ( ,*ampagne are s _m monum5ts 
9 :i* 8 mo/ illu/ri\s contempor>ies w   
live =ev]4 ,e ?+ ab\t !m is /rik+ly     
real1 grave1 & sev]e1 ) a p5etrat+      

sweetness4 ,%\ld ! records (            
,port-,royal be lo/1 all ,port-,royal   
might be f\nd 9 ,*ampagne4 ,among ^?    
portraits we see ! inflexible           
,sa9t-,cyran1#adh z well z 8 p]secutor1 
! imp]i\s ,ri*elieu4#adi ,we see1 too1 !
 le>n$1 ! intrepid ,anto9e ,arnaud1 to  
:om ! contempor>ies ( ,bossuet decre$ ! 
"n ( ,great2#aej & ,mme4 ,angelique     
,arnaud1 ) h] naive & /rong figure4#aea 
,among !m is "m ,agnes & ! humble       
daught] ( ,*ampagne himself1 si/] ,/4   
,suzanne4#aeb ,%e has j be5 miracul\sly 
cur$1 & h] :ole pro/rat$ p]son be>s /ill
 ! impress ( a relic ( suff]+4 ,"m      
,agnes1 kneel+ be=e h]1 reg>ds h] ) a   
look ( grateful joy4 ,! place ( ! sc5e  
is a poor cell2 a wood5 cross hang+ on !
 wall1 & "s /raw *airs1 are all !       
ornam5ts4 ,on ! picture is !            
inscription1--,*ri/o uni m$ico anim>um  
et corporum1 etc4 ,!re is possess$ !    
,*ri/ian /oicism ( ,port-,royal 9 its   
impos+ au/]ity4 ,add to all ^! portraits
 t ( ,*ampagne2#aec = ! pa9t] may be put

 by ! side ( 8 p]sonages4  ,_h ,france  
produc$ 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury only ^! f\r 
great arti/s1 x w\ld be necess>y to give
 an important place to ! ,fr5* s*ool2 b 
%e c\nts _m o!r pa9t]s ( ! greate/ m]it4
 ,among ^! we may di/+ui% ,p4 ,mign>d1 s
 mu* admir$ 9 8 times1 s little kn[n n[1
 & s wor?y ( be+ kn[n4 ,h[ h we be5 able
 to let fall into oblivion ! au?or ( !  
imm5se fresco ( ,val-de-grace1 s        
celebrat$ by ,moli]e1 :i* is p]haps !   
greate/ page ( pa9t+ 9 ! _w6#aed ,:at   
/rikes at fir/1 9 ?is gigantic "w1 is ! 
ord] & h>mony4 ,!n come a ?\s& *>m+     
details & innum]able episodes :i* =m    
!mselves important compositions4 ,rem>k 
also ! brilliant & sweet color+ :i* %\ld
 at lea/ obta9 favor = s _m o!r beauties
 ( ! fir/ ord]4 ,aga91 x is to ! p5cil (
 ,mign>d t we owe t ravi%+ ceil+ ( a    
small ap>tm5t ( ! ,k+ at ,v]sailles1 a  
ma/]-piece n[ de/roy$1 b ( :i* !re      
rema9s to u a magnific5t translation 9 !
 beautiful engrav+ ( ,g]>d ,audran4 ,:at
 pr(\nd expression 9 ! ,plague (        

,a,eacus1#aee & 9 ! ,/4 ,*>les giv+ !   
,communion to ! ,plague-infect$ (       
,milan6 ,mign>d is recogniz$ z "o ( our 
be/ portrait pa9t]s3 grace1 sometimes a 
little too ref9$1 is jo9$ 9 him to      
s5tim5t4 ,! ,fr5* s*ool c also pres5t ) 
pride ,val5t91 :o di$ "y & 0 s full (   
promise2 ,/ella1 ! wor?y fri5d ( ,p\ss91
 ! uncle ( ,claud9e1 ,anto9ette1 &      
,francoise ,/ella2 ,lahyre1 :o has s mu*
 _s & ta/e2#aef ,seba/i5 ,b\rdon1 s     
animat$ & elevat$2#aeg ! ,l5a9s1 :o     
sometimes h ! naivete ( ,lesueur & !    
color ( ,*ampagne2 ,b\rguignon1 full (  
fire & en?usiasm2 ,j\v5et1 ^:           
composition is s good2#aeh f9ally1      
besides s _m o!rs1 ,lebrun1 :om x is n[ 
! fa%ion to treat cavali]ly1 :o receiv$ 
f nature1 ) p]haps an immod]ate passion 
= fame1 passion = ! beautiful ( e k9d1 &
 a tal5t ( admirable flexibility1--!    
true pa9t] ( a great k+ by ! ri*ness &  
dignity ( 8 mann]1 :o1 l ,l\is ,,xiv41  
wor?ily closes ! sev5te5? c5tury4#aei   
,s9ce we h spok5 some:at ext5sively (   

pa9t+1 w\ld x n be unju/ to pass 9      
sil5ce ov] engrav+1 its daught]1 or its 
si/]8 ,c]ta9ly x is n an art ( ord9>y   
importance2 we h excell$ 9 x2 we h above
 all c>ri$ x to its p]fection 9         
portraits4 ,let u be equitable to       
ourselves4 ,:at s*ool--& we are n       
unm9dful ( ^? ( ,m>c' ,antonio1 ,alb]t  
,dur]1 & ,rembr&t--c pres5t su* a       
succession ( arti/s ( ?is k9d8 ,?omas de
 ,leu & ,leon>d ,gauti] make 9 "s sort !
 passage f ! sixte5? to ! sev5te5?      
c5tury4 ,!n come a cr[d ( m5 ( ! mo/    
div]se tal5ts1--,mellan1 ,mi*el ,lasne1 
,mor91 ,d>et1 ,huret1 ,masson1          
,nanteuil1 ,drevet1 ,van ,s*up51 !      
,poillys1 ! ,edel9cks1 & ! ,audrans4    
,g]>d ,edel9ck & ,nanteuil alone h a    
popul> r5[n1 & !y m]it x by ! delicacy1 
spl5dor1 & *>m ( _! grav]4 ,b !         
connoisseurs ( elevat$ ta/e f9d at lea/ 
_! rivals 9 engrav]s n[ less admir$1    
because !y d n flatt] ! eye s mu*1 b h1 
p]haps1 m tru? & vigor4 ,x mu/ also be  
said1 t ! portraits ( ^! two ma/]s h n !

 hi/oric importance ( ^? ( _!           
pr$ecessors4 ,! ,conde ( ,nanteuil is   
ju/ly admir$2 b if we wi% to "k ! great 
,conde1 ! conqu]or ( ,rocroy & ,l5s1 we 
mu/ n dem& him f ,nanteuil1 b f ,huret1 
,mi*el ,lasne1 & ,d>et1#afj :o design$ &
 engrav$ him 9 all 8 =ce & h]oic beauty4
 ,edel9ck & ,nanteuil himself sc>cely   
knew & retrac$ ! sev5te5? c5tury1 except
 at ! approa* ( its decl9e4#afa ,mor9 & 
,mellan 7 able to see x1 & transmit x 9 
its glori\s y\?4 ,mor9 is ! ,*ampagne ( 
engrav+3 he does n engrave1 he pa9ts4 ,x
 is he :o repres5ts & transmits to      
po/]ity ! illu/ri\s m5 ( ! fir/ half ( !
 great c5tury--,h5ry ,,iv41 ,l\is       
,,xiii41 ! de ,?\s1 ,b]ulle1 ,jans5ius1 
,sa9t-,cyran1 ,m>illac1 ,b5tivoglio1    
,ri*elieu1 ,maz>91 /ill "y1 & ,retz1 :5 
he 0 only a coadjutor4#afb ,mellan _h ! 
same advantage4 ,he is ! fir/ 9 date (  
all ! engrav]s ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 &   
p]haps is also ! mo/ expressive4 ,) a   
s+le l9e1 x seems t f 8 h&s only %ades c
 spr+2 he does n /rike at fir/ sight2 b 

! m we reg>d him1 ! m he seizes1        
p5etrates1 & t\*es1 l ,lesueur4#afc     
,*ri/ianity1 t is to say1 ! reign ( !   
_s1 is favorable to pa9t+1 is p>ticul>ly
 expressive4 ,sculpture seems to be a   
pagan art2 =1 if x mu/ also conta9 moral
 expression1 x is always "u ! imp]ative 
condition ( beauty ( =m4 ,?is is !      
reason :y sculpture is z x 7 natural to 
antiquity1 & appe>$ !re ) an incomp>able
 spl5dor1 be=e :i* pa9t+ some:at        
pal$1#afd :il/ among ! mod]ns x has be5 
eclips$ by pa9t+1 & has rema9$ v inf]ior
 to x1 by reason ( ! extreme difficulty 
( br++ /one & m>ble to express ,*ri/ian 
s5tim5t1 )\t :i*1 mat]ial beauty suff]s2
 s t our sculpture is too insignificant 
to be beautiful1 too mann]$ to be       
expressive4 ,s9ce antiquity1 !re h      
sc>cely be5 two s*ools (                
sculpture3#afe--"o at ,flor5ce1 be=e    
,mi*ael ,angelo1 & especially ) ,mi*ael 
,angelo2 ! o!r 9 ,france1 at !          
,r5aissance1 ) ,jean ,c\s91 ,g\jon1     
,g]ma9 ,pilon4 ,we may say t ^! ?ree    

arti/s h1 z x 71 %>$ among !mselves     
gr&eur & grace3 to ! fir/ belong        
nobility & =ce1 ) pr(\nd k2#aff to ! o!r
 two1 an elegance full ( *>m4 ,sculpture
 *anges its "* 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury z    
well z e ?+ else3 x no long] has ! same 
attraction1 b x f9ds moral & religi\s   
inspiration1 :i* ! skilful ma/]s ( !    
,r5aissance too mu* lack$4 ,jean ,c\s9  
except$1 is !re "o ( !m t is sup]ior to 
,jacques ,s>az98 ,t great arti/1 n[     
almo/ =gott51 is at once a disciple ( ! 
,fr5* s*ool & ! ,italian s*ool1 & to !  
qualities t he borr[s f 8 pr$ecessors1  
he adds a moral expression1 t\*+ &      
elevat$1 :i* he owes to ! _s ( ! new    
s*ool4 ,he is1 9 sculpture1 ! wor?y     
contempor>y ( ,lesueur & ,p\ss91 (      
,corneille1 ,desc>tes1 & ,pascal4 ,he   
belongs entirely to ! reign ( ,l\is     
,,xiii41 ,ri*elieu1 & ,maz>92 he did n  
ev5 see t ( ,l\is ,,xiv4#afg ,call$ into
 ,france by ,ri*elieu1 :o _h also call$ 
!re ,p\ss9 & ,*ampagne1 ,jacques ,s>az9 
9 a few ye>s produc$ a multitude ( works

 ( r>e elegance & great "*4 ,:at has    
become ( !m8 ,! eighte5? c5tury pass$   
ov] !m )\t reg>d+ !m4 ,! b>b>ians t     
de/roy$ or scatt]$ !m1 7 arre/$ be=e !  
pa9t+s ( ,lesueur & ,p\ss91 protect$ by 
a remnant ( admiration3 :ile break+ !   
ma/]-pieces ( ! ,fr5* *isel1 !y _h no   
suspicion ( ! sacrilege !y 7 committ+   
aga9/ art z well z _! c\ntry4 ,i 0 at   
lea/ able to see1 "s ye>s ago1 at !     
,museum ( ,fr5* ,monum5ts1 collect$ by !
 piety ( a fri5d ( ! arts1 beautiful    
p>ts ( a sup]b mausoleum erect$ to !    
memory ( ,h5ri de ,b\rbon1 second ( !   
"n1 ,pr9ce ( ,conde1 fa!r ( ! great     
,conde1 ! wor?y support1 ! skilful      
fell[-labor] ( ,ri*elieu & ,maz>94 ,?is 
monum5t 0 support$ by f\r figures (     
natural gr&eur1--,fai?1 ,prud5ce1       
,ju/ice1 ,*>ity4 ,!re 7 f\r bas-reliefs 
9 bronze1 repres5t+ ! ,triumphs ( ,r5[n1
 ,"t1 ,dea?1 & ,et]nity4 ,9 ! ,triumph (
 ,dea?1 ! arti/ _h repres5t$ a c]ta9    
numb] ( illu/ri\s mod]ns1 among :om he  
_h plac$ himself by ! side ( ,mi*ael    

,angelo4#afh ,we c /ill contemplate 9 ! 
c\rt ( ! ,l\vre1 9 ! pavilion ( !       
,horloge1 ^? c>yatides ( ,s>az9 at once 
s maje/ic & s graceful1 :i* are deta*$ )
 admirable relief & lightness4 ,h ,jean 
,g\jon & ,g]ma9 ,pilon done any ?+ m    
elegant & lifelike8 ,^? females brea!1 &
 are ab\t to move4 ,take ! pa9s to g a  
%ort di/ance#afi to visit ! humble *apel
 t n[ occupies ! place ( t magnific5t   
*ur* ( ! ,c>melites1 once fill$ ) !     
pa9t+s ( ,*ampagne1 ,/ella1 ,lahire1 &  
,lebrun2 :]e ! voice ( ,bossuet 0 he>d1 
:]e ,mlle4 de ,lavalli]e & ,mme4 de     
,longueville 7 s (t5 se5 pro/rat$1 _!   
long hair %orn1 & _! faces ba!d 9 te>s4 
,among ! relics t are pres]v$ ( ! pa/   
spl5dor ( ! holy mona/]y1 consid] !     
noble /atue ( ! kneel+ ,c>d9al de       
,b]ulle4 ,on ^? m$itative & p5etrat+    
features1 9 ^? eyes rais$ to heav51     
brea!s ! s\l ( t great s]vant ( ,god1 :o
 di$ at ! alt> l a w>rior on ! field (  
honor4 ,he prays ,god = 8 de>           
,c>melites4 ,t head is p]fectly natural1

 z ,*ampagne might h pa9t$ x1 & has a   
sev]e grace t rem9ds "o ( ,lesueur &    
,p\ss94#agj  ,bel[ ,s>az91 ! ,angui]s   
are /ill arti/s t ,italy w\ld admire1 & 
to :om !re is want+1 s9ce ! great       
c5tury1 no?+ b judges wor?y ( !m4 ,^!   
two bro!rs cov]$ ,p>is & ,france ) ! mo/
 preci\s monum5ts4 ,look at ! tomb (    
,jacques-,augu/e de ,?\1 by ,francois   
,angui]3 ! face ( ! great hi/orian is   
reflective & melan*oly1 l t ( a man we>y
 ( ! spectacle ( human ?+s2 & no?+ is m 
amiable ?an ! /atues ( 8 two wives1     
,m>ie ,b>bancon de ,cany1 & ,gasp>de de 
la ,*atre4#aga ,! mausoleum ( ,h5ri de  
,montmor5cy1 behead$ at ,t\l\se 9 #afcb1
 :i* is /ill se5 at ,m\l9s1 9 ! *ur* ( !
 anci5t conv5t ( ! daught]s (           
,sa9te-,m>ie1 is an important "w ( !    
same arti/1 9 :i* =ce is manife/1 ) a   
little heav9ess4#agb ,to ,mi*el ,angui] 
are attribut$ ! /atues ( ! duke & du*ess
 ( ,tresmes1 & t ( _! illu/ri\s son1    
,poti]1 ,m>quis ( ,gevres4#agc ,behold 9
 him ! intrepid companion ( ,conde1     

arre/$ 9 8 c\rse at ?irty-two ye>s ( age
 be=e ,?ionville1 aft] ! battle (       
,rocroy1 already lieut5ant-g5]al1 & :5  
,conde 0 dem&+ = him ! baton ( a m>%al (
 ,france1 deposit$ on 8 tomb2 behold him
 "y1 beautiful1 brave1 l 8 comrades cut 
d[n also 9 ! fl[] ( life1 ,laval1       
,*atillon1 ,la ,m\ssaye4 ,"o ( ! be/    
works ( ,mi*el ,angui] is ! monum5t (   
,h5ri de ,*abot1 t o!r companion1 t     
fai?ful fri5d ( ,conde1 :o by ! spl5dor 
( 8 valor1 especially by ! graces ( 8   
p]son1 knew h[ to ga9 ! he>t1 ! =tune1 &
 ! "n ( ! beautiful ,m>gu]ite1 ! daught]
 ( ! great ,duke ( ,rohan4 ,! new duke  
di$1 /ill "y1 9 #afee1 at ?irty-n9e ye>s
 ( age4 ,he is repres5t$ ly+ d[n1 ! head
 incl9$ & support$ by an angel2 ano!r   
angel is at 8 feet4 ,! :ole is /rik+1 & 
! details are exquisite4 ,! face (      
,*abot has e beauty1 z if to answ] to   
its reputation1 b ! beauty is t ( "o    
dy+4 ,! body has already ! languor (    
dea?1 longuescit mori5s1 ) ,i "k n :at  
antique grace4 ,?is morsel1 if ! draw+ 7

 m sev]e1 w\ld rival ! ,dy+ ,gladiator1 
( :i* x rem9ds "o1 :i* x p]haps ev5     
imitates4#agd  ,9 tru?1 ,i wond] t m5 n[
 d>e speak s lightly ( ,puget &         
,gir>don4 ,to ,puget qualities ( ! fir/ 
ord] _c be refus$4 ,he has ! fire1 !    
en?usiasm1 ! fecundity ( g5ius4 ,!      
c>yatides ( ! ,hotel de ,ville ( ,t\lon1
 :i* h be5 br\ght to ! ,museum ( ,p>is1 
atte/ a p[]ful *isel4 ,! ,milon rem9ds  
"o ( ! mann] ( ,mi*ael ,angelo2 x is a  
little ov]/ra9$1 b x _c be d5i$ t !     
effect is /rik+4 ,d y want a tal5t m    
natural1 & /ill hav+ =ce & elevation8   
,take ! tr\ble to se>* 9 ! ,tuil]ies1 9 
! g>d5s ( ,v]sailles1 9 sev]al *ur*es ( 
,p>is1 = ! scatt]$ works ( ,gir>don1 "h 
= ! mausoleum ( ! ,gondis1#age !re = t (
 ! ,ca/ellans1#agf t ( ,l\vois1#agg     
etc42 especially g to see 9 ! *ur* ( !  
,sorbonne ! mausoleum ( ,ri*elieu4 ,!   
=midable m9i/] is !re repres5t$ 9 8 la/ 
mom5ts1 su/a9$ by religion & wept by 8  
c\ntry4 ,! :ole p]son is ( a p]fect     
nobility1 & ! figure has ! f95ess1 !    

sev]ity1 ! sup]ior di/9ction giv5 to x  
by ! p5cil ( ,*ampagne1 & ! grav]s (    
,mor91 ,mi*el ,lasne1 & ,mellan4        
,f9ally1 ,i d n reg>d z a vulg> sculptor
 ,coysevox1 :o1 "u ! influ5ce ( ,lebrun1
 un=tunately beg9s ! !atrical /yle1 :o  
/ill has ! facility1 movem5t1 & elegance
 ( ,lebrun himself4 ,he re>$ wor?y      
monum5ts to ,maz>91 ,colb]t1 &          
,lebrun1#agh & ?us to speak1 s[$ bu/s ( 
! illu/ri\s m5 ( 8 "t4 ,=1 rem>k x well1
 arti/s !n took sc>cely any arbitr>y &  
fanciful subjects4 ,!y work$ ^u         
contemporane\s subjects1 :i*1 :ile giv+ 
!m prop] lib]ty1 inspir$ & guid$ !m1 &  
communicat$ a public int]e/ to _! works4
 ,! ,fr5* sculpture ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1
 l t ( antiquity1 is pr(\ndly natural4  
,! *ur*es & ! mona/]ies 7 fill$ ) !     
/atues ( ^? :o lov$ !m dur+ life1 & wi%$
 to re/ 9 !m aft] dea?4 ,ea* *ur* (     
,p>is 0 a popul> museum4 ,! sumptu\s    
resid5ces ( ! ari/ocracy--= at t p]iod1 
!re 0 "o 9 ,france1 l t ( ,engl& at !   
pres5t "t--possess$ _! secul> tombs1    

/atues1 bu/s1 & portraits ( em95t m5 ^: 
glory belong$ to ! c\ntry z well z _!   
own family4 ,on its side1 ! /ate did n  
enc\rage ! arts 9 detail1 &1 ?us to     
speak1 9 a small way2 x gave !m a p[]ful
 impulse by dem&+ ( !m important works1 
by confid+ to !m va/ ent]prises4 ,all   
great ?+s 7 ?us m+l$ toge!r1            
reciprocally inspir$ & su/a9$ ea* o!r4  
,"o man alone 9 ,europe has left a "n 9 
! beautiful art t surr\nds a *ateau or a
 palace ) graceful g>d5s or magnific5t  
p>ks1--t man is a ,fr5*man ( ! sev5te5? 
c5tury1 is ,le ,notre4 ,le ,notre may be
 reproa*$ ) a regul>ity t is p]haps     
excessive1 & a little mann]ism 9        
details2 b he has two qualities t       
comp5sate = _m defects1 gr&eur &        
s5tim5t4 ,he :o design$ ! p>k (         
,v]sailles1 :o to ! prop] arrangem5t (  
p>t]res1 to ! movem5t ( f\nta9s1 to !   
h>moni\s s\nd ( wat]falls1 to ! my/]i\s 
%ades ( groves1 has kn[n h[ to add !    
magic ( inf9ite p]spective by means ( t 
spaci\s walk :]e ! view is ext5d$ ov] an

 imm5se %eet ( wat] to be lo/ 9 !       
limitless di/ances1--he is a            
l&scape-pa9t] wor?y ( hav+ a place by ! 
side ( ,p\ss9 & ,lorra94  ,we _h 9 !    
middle age our ,go?ic ar*itecture1 l all
 ! nations ( nor!rn ,europe4 ,9 !       
sixte5? c5tury :at ar*itects 7 ,pi]re   
,lescot1 ,jean ,bullant1 & ,philib]t    
,delorme6 ,:at *>m+ palaces1 :at        
graceful edifices1 ! ,tuil]ies1 ! ,hotel
 de ,ville ( ,p>is1 ,*ambord1 & ,ec\56  
,! sev5te5? c5tury also _h its orig9al  
ar*itecture1 diff]5t f t ( ! middle age 
& t ( ! ,r5aissance1 simple1 au/]e1     
noble1 l ! poetry ( ,corneille & ! prose
 ( ,desc>tes4 ,/udy )\t s*ola/ic        
prejudice ! ,luxemb\rg ( de             
,brosses1#agi ! portal ( ,sa9t-,g]vais1 
& ! great hall ( ! ,palais de ,ju/ice1  
by ! same ar*itect2 ! ,palais ,c>d9al & 
! ,sorbonne ( ,lem]ci]2#ahj ! cupola (  
,val-de-,grace by ,lemuet2#aha !        
triumphal ar* ( ! ,porte ,sa9t-,d5is by 
,francois ,blondel2 ,v]sailles1 &       
especially ! ,invalides1 ( ,mans>t4#ahb 

,consid] ) att5tion ! la/ edifice1 let x
 make its impression on y\r m9d & s\l1 &
 y w easily succe$ 9 recogniz+ 9 x a    
p>ticul> beauty4 ,x is n a ,go?ic       
monum5t1 nei!r is x an almo/ ,pagan     
monum5t ( ! sixte5? c5tury1--x is mod]n1
 & also ,*ri/ian2 x is va/ ) measure1   
elegant ) gravity4 ,contemplate at      
sunset t cupola reflect+ ! la/ rays (   
day1 elevat+ itself g5tly t[>ds ! heav5s
 9 a slight & graceful curve2 cross t   
impos+ esplanade1 ent] t c\rt admirably 
light$ 9 spite ( its cov]$ gall]ies1 b[ 
b5ea? ! dome ( t *ur* :]e ,vauban &     
,tur5ne sleep1--y w n be able to gu>d   
y\rself f an emotion at once religi\s & 
milit>y2 y w say to y\rself t ?is is    
inde$ ! asylum ( w>riors :o h rea*$ !   
ev5+ ( life & are prep>$ = et]nity6     
,s9ce !n1 :at has ,fr5* ar*itecture     
become8 ,once hav+ left tradition &     
national "*1 x w&]s f imitation to      
imitation1 & )\t compreh5d+ ! g5ius (   
antiquity1 x unskilfully reproduces its 
=ms4 ,?is ba/>d ar*itecture1 at once    

heavy & mann]$1 is1 little by little1   
sub/itut$ = ! beautiful ar*itecture ( ! 
prec$+ c5tury1 & ev]y:]e effaces !      
ve/iges ( ! ,fr5* _s4 ,d y wi% a /rik+  
example ( x8 ,9 ,p>is1 ne> ! ,luxemb\rg1
 ! ,condes _h _! hotel1#ahc magnific5t &
 sev]e1 ) a milit>y aspect1 z x 0 fitt+ 
= ! dwell+-place ( a family ( w>riors1 &
 )9 ( almo/ royal spl5dor4 ,b5ea? ^?    
l(ty ceil+s _h be5 "s "t susp5d$ !      
,spani% flags tak5 at ,rocroy4 ,9 ^? va/
 saloons _h be5 assembl$ ! elite ( !    
gr&e/ society t ev] exi/$4 ,9 ^?        
beautiful g>d5s _h be5 se5 prom5ad+     
,corneille & ,madame de ,sevigne1       
,moli]e1 ,bossuet1 ,boileau1 ,rac9e1 9 !
 company ( ! great ,conde4 ,! oratory _h
 be5 pa9t$ by ! h& ( ,lesueur4#ahd ,x _h
 be5 easy to repair & pres]ve ! noble   
habitation4 ,at ! end ( ! eighte5?      
c5tury1 a desc5dant ( ! ,condes sold x  
to a dismal company to build t palace   
)\t "* & ta/e :i* is call$ !            
,palais-,b\rbon4 ,almo/ at ! same epo*  
!re 0 a movem5t made to con/ruct a *ur* 

to ! patroness ( ,p>is1 to t ,g5evieve1 
^: leg5d is s t\*+ & s popul>4 ,0 !re   
ev] a bett] *ance = a national &        
,*ri/ian monum5t8 ,x 0 possible to      
return to ! ,go?ic /yle & ev5 to !      
,byzant9e /yle4 ,in/ead ( t !re 0 made =
 u an imm5se ,roman basilica ( !        
,decl9e4 ,:at a dwell+ = ! mode/ & holy 
virg91 s de> to ! fields t bord]$ ^u    
,lutece1 ^: "n is /ill v5]at$ by ! poor 
p :o inhabit ^! qu>t]s6 ,behold ! *ur*  
:i* has be5 plac$ by ! side ( t (       
,sa9t-,eti5ne du ,mont1 z if to make    
felt all ! diff]5ces betwe5 ,*ri/ianity 
& ,paganism6 ,= "h1 9 spite ( a mixture 
( ! mo/ diff]5t /yles1 x is evid5t t !  
,pagan /yle pr$om9ates4 ,*ri/ian wor%ip 
_c be naturaliz$ 9 ?is pr(ane edifice1  
:i* has s _m times *ang$ its de/9ation4 
,x is 9 va9 to call x anew              
,sa9t-,g5evieve1--! revolution>y "n (   
,pan!on w /ick to x4#ahe ,! eighte5?    
c5tury treat$ ! ,madele9e no bett] ?an  
,sa9t-,g5evieve4 ,9 va9 ! beautiful s9n]
 wi%$ to r5\nce ! joys ( ! _w & atta*   

h]self to ! pov]ty ( ,jesus ,*ri/4 ,%e  
has be5 br\ght back to ! pomp & luxury t
 %e repudiat$2 %e has be5 put 9 a ri*   
palace1 all %9+ ) gold1 :i* might v well
 be a temple ( ,v5us1 = c]ta9ly x has n 
! sev]e grace ( ! ,pan!on1 ( :i* x is ! 
mo/ vulg> copy4 ,h[ f> we are f !       
,invalides1 f ,val-de-,grace1 & !       
,sorbonne1 s admirably appropriat$ to _!
 object1 :]e9 appe>s s well ! h& ( !    
c5tury & ! c\ntry :i* re>$ !m6  ,:ile   
ar*itecture ?us /rays1 x is natural t   
pa9t+ %\ld seek above e ?+ color &      
brilliancy1 t sculpture %\ld apply      
itself to become ,pagan aga91 t poetry  
itself1 rec$+ = two c5turies1 %\ld      
abjure ! wor%ip ( ?\ght = t ( fancy1 t x
 %\ld ev]y:]e g borr[+ images f ,spa91  
,italy1 & ,g]many1 t x %\ld run aft]    
subalt]n & =eign qualities :i* x w n    
atta91 & ab&on ! gr& qualities ( ! ,fr5*
 g5ius4  ,x w be said t ! ,*ri/ian      
s5tim5t :i* animat$ ,lesueur & ! arti/s 
( ! sev5te5? c5tury is want+ to ^? (    
ours2 x is ext+ui%$1 & _c be rek9dl$4 ,9

 ! fir/ place1 is t v c]ta98 ,native    
fai? is dead1 b _c reflective fai? take 
its place8 ,*ri/ianity is exhau/less2 x 
has inf9ite res\rces1 & admirable       
flexibility2 !re are a ?\s& ways (      
arriv+ at x & return+ to x1 because x   
has itself a ?\s& phases t answ] to !   
mo/ diff]5t dispositions1 to all !      
wants1 to all ! mobility ( ! he>t4 ,:at 
x loses on "o side1 x ga9s on ano!r2 & z
 x has produc$ our civilization1 x is   
call$ to foll[ x 9 all its vicissitudes4
 ,ei!r e religion w p]i% 9 ?is _w1 or   
,*ri/ianity w endure1 = x is n 9 ! p[] (
 ?\ght to conceive a m p]fect religion4 
,arti/s ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 d n despair 
( ,god & y\rselves4 ,a sup]ficial       
philosophy has ?r[n y f> f ,*ri/ianity  
consid]$ 9 a /rict s5se2 ano!r          
philosophy c br+ y ne> x aga9 by mak+ y 
see x ) ano!r eye4 ,& !n1 if ! religi\s 
s5tim5t is weak5$1 are !re n o!r        
s5tim5ts t c make ! he>t ( man beat1 &  
fecundate g5ius8 ,plato has said1 t     
beauty is always old & always new4 ,x is

 sup]ior to all its =ms1 x belongs to   
all c\ntries & all times2 x belongs to  
all beliefs1 provid$ ^! beliefs be s]i\s
 & pr(\nd1 & ! ne$ be felt ( express+ & 
spread+ !m4 ,if1 !n1 we h n arriv$ at ! 
b\nd>y assign$ to ! gr&eur ( ,france1 if
 we are n beg9n+ to desc5d into ! %ade (
 dea?1 if we /ill truly live1 if !re    
rema9 to u convictions1 ( :atev] k9d !y 
may be1 !reby ev5 rema9s to u1 or at    
lea/ may rema9 to u1 :at made ! glory ( 
our fa!rs1 :at !y did n c>ry ) !m to !  
tomb1 :at _h already surviv$ all        
revolutions1 ,greece1 ,rome1 ! ,middle  
,age1 :at does n belong to any tempor>y 
or ephem]al accid5t1 :at subsi/s & is   
cont9ually f\nd 9 ! focus (             
consci\sness--,i mean moral inspiration1
 immortal z ! s\l4  ,let u t]m9ate "h1 &
 sum up ?is def5ce ( ! national art4    
,!re are 9 arts1 z well z 9 lett]s &    
philosophy1 two contr>y s*ools4 ,"o t5ds
 to ! ideal 9 all ?+s1--x seeks1 x tries
 to make appe> ! _s conceal$ "u ! =m1 at
 once manife/$ & veil$ by nature2 x does

 n s mu* wi% to please ! s5ses & flatt] 
! imag9ation z to enl>ge ! intellect &  
move ! s\l4 ,! o!r1 enamor$ ( nature1   
/ops !re & devotes itself to            
imitation1--its pr9cipal object is to   
reproduce reality1 movem5t1 life1 :i*   
are = x ! supreme beauty4 ,! ,france ( !
 sev5te5? c5tury1 ! ,france ( ,desc>tes1
 ,corneille1 & ,bossuet1 highly         
spiritual 9 philosophy1 poetry1 &       
eloqu5ce1 0 also highly spiritual 9 !   
arts4 ,! arti/s ( t great epo*          
p>ticipate 9 its g5]al "*1 & repres5t x 
9 _! way4 ,x is n true t !y lack$       
imag9ation1 m ?an ,pascal & ,bossuet    
lack$ x4 ,b inasmu* z !y d n suff]      
imag9ation to usurp ! dom9ion t does n  
belong to x1 inasmu* z !y subject its   
ord]1 ev5 its impetuosity1 to ! reign ( 
reason & ! inspirations ( ! he>t1 x     
seems t x is n s /rong :5 x is only     
discipl9$ & regulat$4 ,z we h said1 !y  
excel 9 composition1 especially 9       
expression4 ,!y always h a ?\ght1 & a   
moral & elevat$ ?\ght4 ,= ?is reason !y 

are de> to u1 _! cause int]e/s u1 is 9  
"s sort our own cause1 & s ?is homage   
r5d]$ to _! misund]/ood glory naturally 
cr[ns ^! lectures devot$ to true beauty1
 t is to say1 moral beauty4  ,may ^!    
lectures be able to make x kn[n1 &1     
above all1 lov$6 ,may !y be able also to
 inspire "s "o ( y ) ! idea ( devot+    
himself to /udies s beautiful1 ( devot+ 
to !m 8 life1 & atta*+ to !m 8 "n6 ,!   
sweete/ recomp5se ( a pr(essor :o is n  
too unwor?y ( t title1 is to see rapidly
 foll[+ 9 8 foot/eps "y & noble spirits 
:o easily pass him & leave him f> beh9d 
!m4#ahf  ,,footnotes3  #abh ,"o is      
rem9d$ ( ! expression ( ! great ,conde3 
,:]e !n has ,corneille le>n$ politics & 
w>8  #abi ,x w\ld be a curi\s & useful  
/udy1 to comp>e ) ! orig9al all !       
passages ( ,britannicus imitat$ f       
,tacitus2 9 !m ,rac9e w\ld almo/ always 
be f\nd bel[ 8 model4 ,i w give a s+le  
example4 ,9 ! acc\nt ( ! dea? (         
,britannicus1 ,rac9e ?us expresses !    
diff]5t effects ( ! crime on !          

spectators3      ,juez combi5 ce c\p    
frappe t\s les esprits2     ,la moitie  
s'ep\vante et sort avec des cris2       
,mais ceux qui de la c\r ont un plus    
long usage     ,sur les yeux de ,ces>   
compos5t leur visage4  ,c]ta9ly ! /yle  
is excell5t2 b x pales & seems no?+ m   
?an a v feeble sket* 9 comp>ison ) !    
rapid & sombre p5cil-/rokes ( ! great   
,roman pa9t]3 ,trepidatur a             
circums$5tibus1 diffugiunt imprud5tes2  
at1 quibus altior intellectus1 resi/unt 
defixi et ,n]onem intu5tes4  #acj ,see !
 lett] to ,p]rault4  #aca      ,en va9  
contre le ,cid m9i/re se ligue1     ,t\t
 ,p>is p\r ,*im5e a les yeux de         
,rodrique1 etc4             99       99 
99       99       99      ,apres qu'un  
peu de t]re1 obt5u p> pri]e1     ,p\r   
jamais dans la tombe eut enf]me ,moli]e1
 etc4             99       99       99  
99       99    #acb      ,aux pi$s de   
cet autel de /ructure grossi]e1     ,git
 sans pompe1 enf]me dans une vile bi]e1 
,le plus savant mortel qui jamais ait   

ecrit2     ,arnaud1 qui sur la grace    
in/ruit p> ,jesus-,*ri/1     ,combattant
 p\r l',eglise1 a1 dans l',eglise meme1 
,s\ff]t plus d'un outrage et plus d'un  
ana!me1 etc4             99       99    
99       99       99      ,errant1      
pauvre1 banni1 proscrit1 p]secute2      
,et meme p> sa mort leur fureur mal     
ete9te     ,n'aurait jamais laisse ses  
c5dres en repos1     ,si ,dieu lui-meme 
ici de son ouaille sa9te     ,a ces l\ps
 devorants n'avait ca*e les os4    #acc 
,^! v]ses did n appe> till aft] ! dea? (
 ,boileau1 & !y are n well kn[n4        
,jean-,bapti/e ,r\sseau1 9 a lett] to   
,brossette1 rightly said t ^! are ! mo/ 
beautiful v]ses t ,m4 ,despreaux ev]    
made4  #acd #d? ,s]ies ( our works1     
,,lit]ature1 book i41 ,preface1 p4 #c3  
,x is 9 prose1 p]haps1 t our lit]>y     
glory is mo/ c]ta94444 ,:at mod]n nation
 reckons prose writ]s t approa* ^? ( our
 nation8 ,! c\ntry ( ,%akspe>e & ,milton
 does n possess1 s9ce ,bacon1 a s+le    
prose writ] ( ! fir/ ord] 82 t ( ,dante1

 ,petr>*1 ,ario/o1 & ,tasso1 is 9 va9   
pr\d ( ,ma*iavel1 ^: s\nd & manly       
diction1 l ! ?\ght t x expresses1 is    
de/itute ( gr&eur4 ,spa91 x is true1 has
 produc$ ,c]vantes1 an admirable writ]1 
b he is alone4444 ,france c easily %[ a 
li/ ( m ?an tw5ty prose writ]s ( g5ius3 
,froiss>d1 ,rabelais1 ,montaigne1       
,desc>tes1 ,pascal1 ,la ,ro*ef\cauld1   
,moli]e1 ,retz1 ,la ,bruy]e1            
,malebran*e1 ,bossuet1 ,f5elon1 ,fle*i]1
 ,b\rdal\e1 ,massillon1 ,mme4 de        
,sevigne1 ,sa9t-,simon1 ,montesquieu1   
,voltaire1 ,buffon1 ,j4 ,j4 ,r\sseau2   
)\t speak+ ( s _m m t w\ld be 9 ! fir/  
rank ev]y:]e else1--,amiot1 ,calv91     
,pasqui]1 ,d',aubigne1 ,*>ron1 ,balzac1 
,vaugelas1 ,pelisson1 ,nicole1 ,fleury1 
,bussi1 ,sa9t-,evremont1 ,mme4 de       
,lafayette1 ,mme4 de ,ma9t5on1          
,font5elle1 ,vauv5>gues1 ,hamilton1 ,le 
,sage1 ,prevo/1 ,beaum>*ais1 etc4 ,x may
 be said ) ! exacte/ tru?1 t ,fr5* prose
 is )\t a rival 9 mod]n ,europe2 &1 ev5 
9 antiquity1 sup]ior to ! ,lat9 prose1  

at lea/ 9 ! quantity & v>iety ( models1 
x has no equal b ! ,greek prose1 9 its  
palmie/ days1 9 ! days ( ,h]odotus &    
,demo/h5es4 ,i d n pref] ,demo/h5es to  
,pascal1 & x w\ld be difficult = me to  
put ,plato himself above ,bossuet4      
,plato & ,bossuet1 9 my op9ion1 are !   
two greate/ ma/]s ( human language1 )   
manife/ diff]5ces1 z well z m ?an "o    
trait ( resemblance2 bo? ord9>ily speak 
l ! p1 ) ! la/ degree ( simplicity1 & at
 mom5ts asc5d+ )\t ef=t to a poetry z   
magnific5t z t ( ,hom]1 +5i\s & poli%$  
to ! mo/ *>m+ delicacy1 & by in/9ct     
maje/ic & sublime4 ,plato1 )\t d\bt1 has
 incomp>able graces1 ! supreme s]5ity1  
&1 z x 71 ! demi-smile ( ! div9e sage4  
,bossuet1 on 8 side1 has ! pa!tic1 9 :i*
 he has no rival b ! great ,corneille4  
,:5 su* writ]s are possess$1 is x n a   
religion to r5d] !m ! honor t is _! due1
 t ( a regul> & pr(\nd /udy8  #ace ,see 
! ,,app5dix1 at ! end ( ! volume4  #acf 
,see ! ,,app5dix4  #acg ,?is picture _h 
be5 made = a *apel ( ! *ur* ( ,/4       

,g]vais4 ,x =m$ ! alt>-piece1 & 9 !     
=egr\nd !re 0 ! admirable ,be>+ ( !     
,cross1 :i* is /ill se5 9 ! ,museum4    
#ach ,su* a law 0 ! fir/ act ( ! fir/   
assembly ( affran*is$ ,greece1 & all !  
fri5ds ( art h applaud$ x f end to end (
 civiliz$ ,europe4  #aci ,see !         
,,app5dix4  #adj ,! ,sev5 ,sacram5ts (  
,p\ss9 are n[ 9 ! ,bridgewat] ,gall]y4  
,see ! ,,app5dix4  #ada ,see !          
,,app5dix4  #adb ,9 ! mid/ ( ?is sc5e ( 
brutal viol5ce1 ev]ybody has rem>k$ ?is 
delicate trait--a ,roman q "y1 almo/    
juv5ile1 :ile possess+ himself by =ce ( 
a "y girl tak+ refuge 9 ! arms ( h] "m1 
asks h] f h] "m ) an air at once        
passionate & re/ra9$4 ,9 ord] to        
appreciate ?is picture1 comp>e x ) t (  
,david 9 ! ensemble & 9 ! details4  #adc
 ,9 fact1 ! ,/4 ,joseph is "h !         
important p]sonage4 ,he gov]ns ! :ole   
sc5e2 he prays1 he is z x 7 9 ec/asy4   
#add ,! pictures ( ,claude ,lorra91 (   
:i* we h j spok51 are 9 ! ,museum (     
,p>is4 ,9 all !re are ?irte51 :il/ !    

,museum ( ,madrid alone possesses almo/ 
z _m1 :ile !re are 9 ,engl& m ?an fifty1
 & ^? ! mo/ admirable4 ,see ! ,,app5dix4
  #ade ,! la/ ,notice ( ! ,pictures     
exhibit$ 9 ! ,gall]y ( ! ,national      
,museum ( ! ,l\vre1 #aheb1 al?\gh its   
au?or1 ,m4 ,villot1 is surely a man (   
inconte/able k & ta/e1 p]si/s 9 plac+   
,*ampagne 9 ! ,flemi% s*ool4 ,en        
revan*e1 a le>n$ =eign]1 ,m4 ,waag51    
claims him = ! ,fr5* s*ool4 ,kun/w]ke & 
,ku5/l] 9 ,p>is1 ,b]l91 #ahci1 p4 #fea4 
#adf ,well appreciat$ by ,ri*elieu1 he  
pref]r$ 8 e/eem to 8 b5efits4 ,"o day :5
 an envoy ( ,ri*elieu said to him t he  
_h only to ask freely :at he wi%$ = !   
advancem5t ( 8 =tune1 ,*ampagne respond$
 t if ,m4 ! ,c>d9al c\ld make him a m   
skilful pa9t] ?an he 01 x 0 ! only ?+ t 
he ask$ ( 8 ,em95ce2 b t be+ impossible1
 he only desir$ ! honor ( 8 good graces4
 ,felibi51 ,entreti5s1 #a/ edition1     
#dto41 "p v41 p4 #aga2 & de ,piles1     
,abrege de la ,vie des ,pe9tres1 #b;d   
edition1 p4 #ejj4--;,z he _h mu* love = 

ju/ice & tru?1 provid$ he satisfi$ :at  
!y bo? dem&$1 he easily pass$ ov] all ! 
re/4--,necrologe de ,port-,royal1 p4    
#ccf4  #adg ,see ! ,,app5dix4  #adh ,!  
orig9al is 9 ! ,museum ( ,gr5oble2 b see
 ! engrav+ ( ,mor92 see also t ( ,d>et1 
aft] ! beautiful design ( ,demon/i]4    
#adi ,9 ! ,museum ( ! ,l\vre2 see also !
 engrav+ ( ,mor94  #aej ,! orig9al is n[
 9 ! ,*ateau ( ,sable1 belong+ to !     
,m>quis ( ,r\ge2 see ! engrav+ (        
,simonneau 9 ,p]rault4 ,! beautiful     
engrav+ ( ,edel9ck 0 made aft] a diff]5t
 orig9al1 attribut$ to a nephew (       
,*ampagne4  #aea ,! orig9al is also 9 ! 
possession ( ! ,m>quis ( ,r\ge2 !       
admirable engrav+ ( ,van ,s*up5 may take
 its place4  #aeb ,9 ! ,museum4  #aec ,9
 ! ,museum1 & engrav$ by ,g]>d ,edel9ck4
  #aed ,la ,gloire du ,val-de-,grace1 9 
#dto1 #affi1 ) a frontispiece &         
vignettes4 ,moli]e !re ent]s into       
inf9ite details on all ! p>ts ( ! art ( 
pa9t+ & ! g5ius ( ,mign>d4 ,he pu%es    
eulogy p]haps to ! ext5t ( hyp]bole2    

aft]w>ds1 hyp]bole gave place to ! mo/  
%ameful indiff]5ce4 ,! fresco ( ! dome (
 ,val-de-grace is compos$ ( f\r r[s (   
figures1 :i* rise 9 a circle f ! base to
 ! v]tex ( ! ar*4 ,9 ! upp] "p is !     
,tr9ity1 above :i* is rais$ a respl5d5t 
sky4 ,bel[ ! ,tr9ity are ! cele/ial     
p[]s4 ,desc5d+ a degree1 we see ! ,virg9
 & ! holy p]sonages ( ! ,old & ,new     
,te/am5t4 ,f9ally1 at ! l[] extremity is
 ,anne ( ,au/ria1 introduc$ into p>adise
 by ,/4 ,anne & ,/4 ,l\is1 & ^! ?ree    
figures are accompani$ by a multitude ( 
p]sonages p]ta9+ to ! hi/ory ( ,france1 
among :om are di/+ui%$ ,joan ( ,arc1    
,*>lemagne1 etc4  #aee ,engrav$ by ,g]>d
 ,audran "u ! "n ( ! ,plague ( ,david   
7la ,pe/e de ,david74 ,:at has become ( 
! orig9al8  #aef ,see 8 ,l&scape at     
,sunset1 & ! ,ba!rs 7les ,baigneuses71  
an agreeable sc5e some:at blemi%$ by    
c>eless draw+4  #aeg ,x w\ld be necess>y
 to cite all 8 compositions4 ,9 8 ,holy 
,family ! figure ( ! ,virg91 )\t be+    
cele/ial1 admirably expresses m$itation 

& reflection4 ,we lo/ "s "t ago ! mo/   
important "w ( ,s4 ,b\rdon1 ! ,sept     
,oeuvres de ,mis]icorde4 ,see !         
,,app5dix4  #aeh ,see especially 8      
,extreme ,unction4  #aei ,! picture t is
 call$ le ,sil5ce1 :i* repres5ts ! sleep
 ( ! infant ,jesus1 is n unwor?y (      
,p\ss94 ,! head ( ! infant is (         
sup]human p[]4 ,! ,battles ( ,alex&]1 ) 
_! defects1 are pages ( hi/ory ( !      
highe/ ord]2 & 9 ! ,alex&] visit+ )     
,ephe/ion ! ,"m & ! ,wife ( ,d>ius1 "o  
kn[s n :i* to admire mo/1 ! noble ord]+ 
( ! :ole or ! j expression ( ! figures4 
#afj ,x seems t ,lesueur sometimes      
furni%$ ,d>et ) designs4 ,x is inde$ to 
,lesueur t ,d>et owes ! idea & ! design 
( 8 *ef-d'oeuvre1 ! portrait ( ,arm& de 
,b\rbon1 pr9ce de ,conti1 repres5t$ 9 8 
e>lie/ y\?1 & 9 an abbe1 su/a9$ &       
surr\nd$ by angels ( diff]5t size1 =m+ a
 *>m+ composition4 ,! draw+ is          
completely pure1 except "s imp]fect     
=e-%ort5+s4 ,! little angels t sport ) !
 emblems ( ! future c>d9al are full (   

_s1 &1 at ! same "t1 sweetness4  #afa   
,edel9ck saw only ! reign ( ,l\is ,,xiv4
 ,nanteuil 0 able to engrave v few ( !  
great m5 ( ! "t ( ,l\is ,,xiii41 & !    
reg5cy1 & 9 ! latt] "p ( _! life2       
,maz>91 9 8 la/ five or six ye>s2       
,conde1 gr[+ old2 ,tur5ne1 old2 ,f\quet 
& ,mat?ieu ,mole1 "s ye>s be=e ! fall ( 
! "o & ! dea? ( ! o!r2 & he 0 too (t5   
oblig$ to wa/e 8 tal5t ^u a cr[d (      
p>liam5t>ians1 ecclesia/ics1 & obscure  
f9anci]s4  #afb ,if ,i wi%$ to make any 
"o acqua9t$ ) ! greate/ & mo/ neglect$  
portion ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 t :i*      
,voltaire almo/ :olly omitt$1 ,i w\ld   
set him to collect+ ! works ( ,mor94    
#afc ,mellan n only made portraits aft] 
! celebrat$ pa9t]s ( 8 "t1 he is himself
 ! au?or ( great & *>m+ compositions1 _m
 ( :i* s]ve z frontispieces to books4 ,i
 will+ly call att5tion to t "o :i* is at
 ! head ( a folio edition ( !           
,introduction a la ,vie ,devote1 & to ! 
beautiful frontispieces ( ! writ+s (    
,ri*elieu1 f ! press ( ! ,l\vre4  #afd  

,?is 0 ! op9ion ( ,w9kelmann at ! end ( 
! eighte5? c5tury2 x is our op9ion n[1  
ev5 aft] all ! discov]ies t h be5 made  
dur+ fifty ye>s1 t may be se5 9 great "p
 retrac$ & describ$ 9 ! ,musio real     
,b>bonico4  #afe ,!re 0 d\btless        
sculpture 9 ! middle age3 ! innum]able  
figures at ! portals ( our ca!drals1 & !
 /atues t are discov]$ e day suffici5tly
 te/ify x4 ,! imag]s ( t "t c]ta9ly _h  
mu* _s & imag9ation2 b1 at lea/ 9 ev]y?+
 t we h se51 beauty is abs5t1 & ta/e    
want+4  #aff ,g & see at ! ,museum (    
,v]sailles ! /atue ( ,francis ,i41 & say
 :e!r any ,italian1 except ! au?or ( !  
,laur5t de ,m$icis1 has made any ?+ l x4
 ,see also 9 ! ,museum ( ! ,l\vre1 !    
/atue ( ,admiral ,*abot4  #afg ,s>az9   
di$ 9 #affj1 ,lesueur 9 #afee1 ,p\ss9 9 
#affe1 ,desc>tes 9 #afej1 ,pascal 9     
#affb1 & ! g5ius ( ,corneille did n     
ext5d beyond t epo*4  #afh ,l5oir1      
,musee des ,monum5ts ,francais1 vol4 v41
 p4 #hg-ia1 & ! ,musee ,royale des      
,monum5ts ,francais ( #ahae1 p4 #ih1    

#ii1 #ajh1 #abb1 & #adj4 ,?is wond]ful  
monum5t1 erect$ to ,h5ri de ,b\rbon1 at 
! exp5se ( 8 old int5dant ,p]rault1     
presid5t ( ! ,*ambre des ,comptes1 0    
plac$ 9 ! ,*ur* ( ! ,jesuits1 & 0 :olly 
9 bronze4 ,x mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) ! o!r  
monum5t t ! ,condes erect$ to ! same    
pr9ce 9 _! family burial-gr\nd at       
,vall]y1 ne> ,mont]eau1 9 ,yonne4 ,?is  
monum5t is 9 m>ble1 & by ! h& ( ,mi*el  
,angui]2 see ! description 9 ,l5oir1    
vol4 v41 p4 #bc-be1 & especially 9 !    
,annuaire de l',yonne p\r #ahdb1 p4     
#agc1 etc4  #afi ,rue d',enf]1 ,no4 #fg4
  #agj ,! ,museum ( ! ,l\vre possesses  
only a v small numb] ( ,s>az9's works1 &
 ^? ( v little importance3--a bu/ (     
,pi]re ,segui]1 /rik+ly true1 two       
/atuettes full ( grace1 & ! small fun]al
 monum5t ( ,h5nequ91 ,abbe ( ,b]nay1    
memb] ( ,p>liam5t1 :o di$ 9 #afea1 :i*  
is a *ef-d'oeuvre ( elegance4  #aga ,^! 
?ree /atues 7 unit$ 9 ! ,museum des     
,petits-,augu/9s1 ,l5oir1 ,musee-royal1 
etc41 p4 #id2 we "k n :y !y h be5       

sep>at$2 ,jacques-,augu/e de ,?\ has be5
 plac$ 9 ! ,l\vre1 & 8 two wives at     
,v]sailles4  #agb ,francois ,angui] _h  
made a m>ble tomb ( ,c>d9al de ,b]ulle1 
:i* 0 9 ! oratory ( ,rue ,/4 ,honore4 ,x
 w\ld h be5 int]e/+ to comp>e ?is /atue 
) t ( ,s>az91 :i* is /ill at !          
,c>melites4 ,francois is also ! au?or ( 
! monum5t ( ! ,longuevilles1 :i*1 be=e !
 ,revolution1 0 at ! ,cele/9s1 & 0 se5 9
 #ahae at ! museum des ,petits-,augu/9s1
 ,l5oir1 ibid41 p4 #ajc2 x is n[ 9 !    
,l\vre4 ,x is an obelisk1 ! f\r sides ( 
:i* are cov]$ ) allegorical bas-reliefs4
 ,! p$e/al1 also ornam5t$ ) bas-reliefs1
 has f\r female figures 9 m>ble1        
repres5t+ ! c>d9al virtues4  #agc ,n[ at
 ,v]sailles4 ,l5oir1 p4 #ig & #ajj4 ,see
 8 portrait1 pa9t$ by ,*ampagne1 &      
engrav$ by ,mor94  #agd ,gr\p 9 :ite    
m>ble :i* 0 at ! ,cele/9s1 a *ur* ne> ! 
hotel ( ,rohan-,*abot 9 ! ,place        
,royale2 re-collect$ 9 ! ,museum des    
,petits-,augu/9s1 ,l5oir1 ibid41 p4 #ig2
 x is n[ at ,v]sailles4 ,we mu/ n pass  

ov] t beautiful production1 ! mausoleum 
( ,jacques de ,s\vre1 ,gr& ,prior (     
,france1 ! bro!r ( ! beautiful          
,m>*ioness de ,sable2 a mausoleum t came
 f ,sa9t-,jean de ,latran1 pass$ ?r\gh !
 ,museum des ,petits-,augu/9s1 & is n[  
f\nd 9 ! ,l\vre4 ,! sculptures ( ! porte
 ,sa9t-,d5is are also ow$ to ,mi*el     
,angui]1 z well z ! admirable bu/ (     
,colb]t1 :i* is 9 ! museum4  #age ,at   
fir/ at ,notre-,dame1 ! natural place = 
! tombs ( ! ,gondis1 !n at ! ,augu/9s1  
n[ at ,v]sailles4  #agf ,9 ! ,*ur* ,/4  
,g]ma9 des ,pres4  #agg ,at ! ,capu*9s1 
!n at ! ,augu/9s1 !n at ,v]sailles4     
#agh ,see1 on ^! monum5ts1 ,l5oir1 p4   
#ih1 #aja1 #ajb4 ,t ( ,maz>9 is n[ at ! 
,l\vre2 t ( ,colb]t has be5 re/or$ to ! 
,*ur* ( ,/4 ,eu/a*e1 & t ( ,lebrun to ! 
,*ur* ,/4 ,ni*olas du ,*>donnet1 z well 
z ! mausoleum1 s expressive b a little  
ov]/ra9$1 ( ! "m ( ,lebrun1 by ,tuby1 & 
! mausoleum ( ,j]ome ,bignon1 !         
celebrat$ ,c\ncillor ( ,/ate1 :o di$ 9  
#afef4  #agi ,quatrem]e de ,qu9cy1      

,hi/oire de la ,vie et des ,ouvrages de 
plus ,celebres ,ar*itectes1 vol4 ii41 p4
 #ade3--,!re c\ld sc>cely be f\nd 9 any 
c\ntry an ensemble s gr&1 :i* (f]s ) s  
mu* unity & regul>ity an aspect at once 
m v>i$ & picturesque1 especially 9 !    
facade ( ! entrance4 ,un=tunately ?is   
unity has disappe>$1 ?anks to !         
con/ructions t h s9ce be5 add$ to !     
primitive "w4  #ahj ,9 ord] to          
appreciate ! beauty ( ! ,sorbonne1 "o   
mu/ /& 9 ! l[] "p ( ! great c\rt1 & f t 
po9t consid] ! effect ( ! successive    
elevation1 at fir/ ( ! o!r "p ( ! c\rt1 
!n ( ! diff]5t /ories ( ! portico1 !n ( 
! portico itself1 ( ! *ur*1 &1 f9ally1 (
 ! dome4  #aha ,quatrem]e de ,qu9cy1    
,ibid41 p4 #beg3--,! cupola ( ?is       
edifice is "o ( ! f9e/ 9 ,europe4  #ahb 
,we d n speak ( ! colonnade ( ! ,l\vre  
by ,p]rault1 because 9 spite ( its gr&  
qualities1 x beg9s ! decl9e & m>ks !    
passage f ! s]i\s to ! academic /yle1 f 
orig9ality to imitation1 f ! sev5te5?   
c5tury to ! eighte5?4  #ahc ,see !      

engrav+ ( ,p]elle4 ,sauval1 vol4 ii41 p4
 #ff & p4 #aca1 says t ! hotel ( ,conde 
0 magnific5tly built1 t x 0 ! mo/       
magnific5t ( ! "t4  #ahd ,notice (      
,guillet de ,/4 ,georges1 rec5tly       
publi%$ 7see ! ,,app5dix73--,ne>ly at ! 
same "t ! ,pr9cess-d[ag] de ,conde1     
,*>lotte-,m>gu]ite de ,montmor5cy1 "m ( 
! late pr9ce1 _h an oratory pa9t$ by    
,lesueur 9 ! hotel ( ,conde4 ,!         
alt>-piece repres5ts a ,nativity1 t ( ! 
ceil+ a ,cele/ial ,glory4 ,! wa9scot is 
enri*$ ) sev]al figures & ) a quantity (
 ornam5ts work$ ) great c>e4  #ahe ,!   
,pan!on is an imitation ( ! ,/4 ,paul's 
( ,london1 :i* is itself a v sad        
imitation ( ,/4 ,pet]'s ( ,rome4 ,! only
 m]it ( ! ,pan!on is its situation on ! 
summit ( ! hill ( ,/4 ,g5evieve1 f :i* x
 ov]looks t "p ( ! t[n1 & is se5 on     
diff]5t sides to a consid]able di/ance4 
,put 9 its place ! ,val-de-,grace (     
,lem]ci] ) ! dome ( ,lemuet1 & judge :at
 w\ld be ! effect ( su* an edifice6     
#ahf ,9 ! fir/ rank ( ! intellig5t      

auditors ( ?is c\rse 0 ,m4 ,j\ffroy1 :o 
already "u our auspices1 _h pres5t$ to !
 faculte des lettres1 9 ord] to obta9 ! 
degree ( doctor1 a !sis on ! beautiful4 
,m4 ,j\ffroy _h cultivat$1 ) c>e &      
p>ticul> ta/e1 ! se$s t our tea*+ might 
h plant$ 9 8 m9d4 ,b ( all ^? :o at t   
epo* or lat] frequ5t$ our lectures1 no  
"o 0 bett] fitt$ to embrace ! entire    
doma9 ( beauty or art ?an ! au?or ( !   
beautiful articles on ,eu/a*e ,lesueur1 
! ,ca!dral ( ,noyon1 & ! ,l\vre4 ,m4    
,vitet possesses all ! k1 &1 :at is m1  
all ! qualities requisite = a judge ( e 
k9d ( beauty1 = a wor?y hi/orian ( art4 
,i yield to ! necessity ( address+ to   
him ! public petition t he may n be     
want+ to a vocation s m>k$ & s elevat$4 
,,"p ,,?ird  ,,! ,,good4     ,,lecture  
,,xi4  ,,prim>y ,,notions ,,( ,,common  
,,s5se4      ,ext5t ( ! "q ( !          
good4--,position ( ! "q     accord+ to !
 psy*ological me?od3 ,:at is1 9 reg>d to
 !     good1 ! natural belief (         
mank9d8--,! natural beliefs (           

humanity mu/ n be s\ght 9 a pret5d$ /ate
 (     nature4--,/udy ( ! s5tim5ts &    
ideas ( m5 9 languages1     9 life1 9   
consci\sness4--,dis9t]e/$ness &         
devot$ness4--,lib]ty4--,e/eem &         
contempt4--,respect4--,admiration &     
indignation4--,dignity4--,empire (      
op9ion4--,ridicule4--,regret     &      
rep5tance4--,natural & necess>y         
f\ndations ( all     ju/ice4--,di/9ction
 betwe5 fact & "r4--,common s5se1       
true & false philosophy4   ,! idea ( !  
true 9 its developm5ts1 comprises       
psy*ology1 logic1 & metaphysics4 ,! idea
 ( ! beautiful begets :at is call$      
ae/hetics4 ,! idea ( ! good is ! :ole ( 
e?ics4  ,x w\ld be =m+ a false & n>r[   
idea ( e?ics to conf9e !m )9 ! inclosure
 ( individual consci\sness4 ,!re are    
public e?ics1 z well z private e?ics1 & 
public e?ics embrace1 ) ! relations ( m5
 among !mselves1 s f> z m51 _! relations
 z citiz5s & z memb]s ( a /ate4 ,e?ics  
ext5d :]ev] is f\nd 9 any decree ! idea 
( ! good4 ,n[1 :]e does ?is idea manife/

 itself m1 & :]e d ju/ice & inju/ice1   
virtue & crime1 h]oism & weakness appe> 
m op5ly1 ?an on ! !atre ( civil life8   
,moreov]1 is !re any ?+ t has a m       
decisive influ5ce ov] mann]s1 ev5 (     
individuals1 ?an ! in/itutions ( peoples
 & ! con/itutions ( /ates8 ,if ! idea ( 
! good goes ?us f>1 x mu/ be foll[$     
?i!r1 z rec5tly ! idea ( ! beautiful has
 introduc$ u into ! doma9 ( art4        
,philosophy usurps no =eign p[]2 b x is 
n dispos$ to rel9qui% its "r (          
exam9ation ov] all ! great manife/ations
 ( human nature4 ,all philosophy t does 
n t]m9ate 9 e?ics1 is h>dly wor?y ( !   
"n1 & all e?ics t d n t]m9ate at lea/ 9 
g5]al views on society & gov]nm5t1 are  
p[]less e?ics1 t h nei!r c\nsels nor    
rules to give humanity 9 its mo/        
difficult trials4  ,x seems t at ! po9t 
:]e we h arriv$1 ! metaphysics &        
ae/hetics t we h taught evid5tly involve
 su* a doctr9e ( morality & n su* ano!r1
 t1 accord+ly1 ! "q ( ! good1 t "q s    
f]tile & s va/1 is = u :olly solv$1 & t 

we c d$uce1 by way ( reason+1 ! moral   
!ory t is d]iv$ f our !ory ( ! beautiful
 & our !ory ( ! true4 ,we might d ?is1  
p]haps1 b we w n4 ,?is w\ld be ab&on+ ! 
me?od t we h hi!rto foll[$1 t me?od t   
proce$s by obs]vation1 & n by d$uction1 
& makes consult+ exp]i5ce a law to      
itself4 ,we d n gr[ we>y ( exp]i5ce4    
,let u atta* ourselves fai?fully to !   
psy*ological me?od2 x has its delays2 x 
condemns u to m ?an "o repetition1 b x  
places u 9 ! beg9n+1 & a long "t reta9s 
u at ! s\rce ( all reality1 & all light4
  ,! fir/ maxim ( ! psy*ological me?od  
is ?is3 ,true philosophy inv5ts no?+1 x 
e/abli%es & describes :at is4 ,n[ "h1   
:at is1 is ! natural & p]man5t belief ( 
! be+ t we are /udy+1 to wit1 man4 ,:at 
is1 !n1 9 relation to ! good1 ! natural 
& p]man5t belief ( ! human race8 ,su*   
is1 9 our eyes1 ! fir/ "q4  ,) u1 9     
fact1 ! human race does n take "o side1 
& philosophy ! o!r4 ,philosophy is !    
int]pret] ( ! human race4 ,:at ! human  
race ?9ks & believes1 (t5 unconsci\sly1 

philosophy re-collects1 expla9s1        
e/abli%es4 ,x is ! fai?ful & complete   
expression ( human nature1 & human      
nature is entire 9 ea* ( u philosoph]s1 
& 9 e o!r man4 ,among u1 x is atta9$ by 
consci\sness2 among o!r m51 x manife/s  
itself 9 _! words & actions4 ,let u1 !n1
 int]rogate ! latt] & ! =m]2 let u      
especially int]rogate our own           
consci\sness2 let u cle>ly recognize :at
 ! human race ?9ks2 we %all !n see :at  
%\ld be ! (fice ( philosophy4  ,is !re a
 human language kn[n to u t has n       
diff]5t expressions = good & evil1 = j &
 unju/8 ,is !re any language1 9 :i*1 by 
! side ( ! words pleasure1 int]e/1      
utility1 happ9ess1 are n also f\nd !    
words sacrifice1 dis9t]e/$ness1         
devot$ness1 virtue8 ,d n all languages1 
z well z all nations1 speak ( lib]ty1   
duty1 & "r8  ,"h1 p]haps1 "s disciple ( 
,condillac & ,helvetius w ask u :e!r1 9 
?is reg>d1 we possess au!ntic           
diction>ies ( ! language ( savage tribes
 f\nd by voyag]s 9 ! isles ( ! ocean8   

,no2 b we h n made our philosophic      
religion out ( ! sup]/itions &          
prejudices ( a c]ta9 s*ool4 ,we         
absolutely d5y t x is necess>y to /udy  
human nature 9 ! fam\s savage (         
,aveyron1 or 9 ! l ( him ( ! isles ( !  
ocean1 or ! ,am]ican cont95t4 ,! savage 
/ate (f]s u humanity 9 swaddl+-clo!s1   
?us to speak1 ! g]m ( humanity1 b n     
humanity entire4 ,! true man is ! p]fect
 man ( 8 k9d2 true human nature is human
 nature arriv$ at its developm5t1 z true
 society is also p]fect$ society4 ,we d 
n ?9k x wor? ! :ile to ask a savage 8   
op9ion on ! ,apollo ,belvid]e1 nei!r w  
we ask him = ! pr9ciples t con/itute !  
moral nature ( man1 because 9 him ?is   
moral nature is only sket*$ & n         
complet$4 ,our great philosophy ( !     
sev5te5? c5tury 0 sometimes a little too
 mu* pleas$ ) hypo!ses 9 :i* ,god plays 
! pr9cipal "p1 & cru%es human           
lib]ty4#ahg ,! philosophy ( ! eighte5?  
c5tury ?rew itself into ! opposite      
extreme2 x _h rec\rse to hypo!ses ( a   

totally diff]5t "*1 among o!rs1 to a    
pret5d$ natural /ate1 :5ce x und]took1 )
 inf9ite pa9s1 to draw society & man z  
we n[ see !m4 ,r\sseau plung$ into !    
=e/s1 9 ord] to f9d !re ! model ( lib]ty
 & equality4 ,t is ! comm5cem5t ( 8     
politics4 ,b wait a little1 & soon y w  
see ! apo/le ( ! natural /ate1 driv51 by
 a necess>y inconsequ5ce1 f "o excess to
 an opposite excess1 in/ead ( ! sweets (
 savage lib]ty1 propos+ to u ! ,contrat 
,social & ,lac$emone4 ,condillac#ahh    
/udies ! human m9d 9 a /atue ^: s5ses   
ent] into ex]cise "u ! magic w& ( a     
sy/ematic analysis1 & are develop$ 9 !  
measure & progress t are conv5i5t to    
him4 ,! /atue successively acquires our 
five s5ses1 b !re is "o ?+ t x does n   
acquire1 t is1 a m9d l ! human m9d1 & a 
s\l l ours4 ,& ?is 0 :at 0 !n call$ !   
exp]im5tal me?od6 ,let u leave !re all  
^? hypo!ses4 ,9 ord] to und]/& reality1 
let u /udy x1 & n imag9e x4 ,let u take 
humanity z x is inconte/ably %[n to u 9 
its actual *>act]s1 & n z x may h be5 9 

a primitive1 purely hypo!tical /ate1 9  
^? un=m$ l9eam5ts or t degradation :i*  
is call$ ! savage /ate4 ,9 t1 )\t d\bt1 
may be f\nd signs or s\v5irs ( humanity1
 &1 if ?is 7 ! plea1 we might1 9 our    
turn1 exam9e ! recitals ( voyages1 &    
f9d1 ev5 9 t d>kness ( infancy or       
decrepitude1 admirable fla%es ( light1  
noble in/9cts1 :i* already appe>1 or    
/ill subsi/1 presag+ or recall+         
humanity4 ,b1 = ! sake ( exactness (    
me?od & true analysis1 we turn our eyes 
f infancy & ! savage /ate1 9 ord] to    
direct !m t[>ds ! be+ :o is ! sole      
object ( our /udies1 ! actual man1 !    
real & complet$ man4  ,d y "k a         
language1 a p1 :i* does n possess ! ^w  
dis9t]e/$ virtue8 ,:o is especially     
call$ an hone/ man8 ,is x ! skilful     
calculator1 devot+ himself to mak+ 8 own
 affairs ! be/ possible1 or he :o1 "u   
all circum/ances1 is dispos$ to obs]ve  
ju/ice aga9/ 8 app>5t or real int]e/8   
,take away ! idea t an hone/ man is     
capable1 to a c]ta9 degree1 ( resi/+ !  

attractions ( p]sonal int]e/1 & ( mak+  
"s sacrifices = op9ion1 = propriety1 = t
 :i* is or appe>s hone/1 & y take away !
 f\ndation ( t title ( hone/ man1 ev5 9 
! mo/ ord9>y s5se4 ,t disposition to    
pref] :at is good to our pleasure1 to   
our p]sonal utility1 9 a ^w1 to         
int]e/--t disposition m or less /rong1 m
 or less con/ant1 m or less te/$1       
measures ! diff]5t degrees ( virtue4 ,a 
man :o c>ries dis9t]e/$ness z f> z      
devotion1 is call$ a h]o1 let him be    
conceal$ 9 ! humble/ condition1 or plac$
 on a public /age4 ,!re is devot$ness 9 
obscure z well z 9 exalt$ /ations4 ,!re 
are h]oes ( probity1 ( honor1 ( loyalty1
 9 ! relations ( ord9>y life1 z well z  
h]oes ( c\rage & patriotism 9 ! c\nsels 
( peoples & at ! head ( armies4 ,all ^! 
names1 ) _! mean+ well recogniz$1 are 9 
all languages1 & con/itute a c]ta9 &    
univ]sal fact4 ,we may expla9 ?is fact1 
b on "o imp]ative condition1 t 9 expla9+
 we d n de/roy x4 ,n[1 is ! idea & ! ^w 
dis9t]e/$ness expla9$ to u by r$uc+     

dis9t]e/$ness to int]e/8 ,?is is :at    
common s5se inv9cibly repels4  ,poets h 
no sy/em1--!y address !mselves to m5 z  
!y really are1 9 ord] to produce 9 !m   
c]ta9 effects4 ,is x skilful selfi%ness 
or dis9t]e/$ virtue t poets celebrate8  
,d !y dem& our applause = ! success (   
=tunate address1 or = ! volunt>y        
sacrifices ( virtue8 ,! poet kn[s t !re 
is at ! f\ndation ( ! human s\l ,i "k n 
:at m>vell\s p[] ( dis9t]e/$ness &      
devot$ness4 ,9 address+ himself to ?is  
in/9ct ( ! he>t1 he is sure ( awak5+ a  
sublime e*o1 ( op5+ e s\rce ( ! pa!tic4 
,consult ! annals ( ! human race1 & y w 
f9d 9 !m man ev]y:]e1 & m & m1 claim+ 8 
lib]ty4 ,?is ^w lib]ty is z old z man   
himself4 ,:at !n6 ,m5 wi% to be free1 & 
man himself %\ld n be free6 ,! ^w       
nev]!less exi/s ) ! mo/ det]m9$         
signification4 ,x signifies t man       
believes himself a free be+1 n only     
animat$ & s5sible1 b end[$ ) w1 a w t   
belongs to him1 t consequ5tly _c admit  
ov] itself ! tyranny ( ano!r w :i* w\ld 

make1 9 reg>d to him1 ! (fice (         
fatality1 ev5 7 x t ( ! mo/ b5efic5t    
fatality4 ,d y suppose t ! ^w lib]ty    
c\ld ev] h be5 =m$1 if ! ?+ itself did n
 exi/8 ,none b a free be+ c\ld possess !
 idea ( lib]ty4 ,w x be said t ! lib]ty 
( man is only an illusion8 ,! wi%es ( ! 
human race are !n ! mo/ inexplicable    
extravagance4 ,9 d5y+ ! ess5tial        
di/9ction betwe5 lib]ty & fatality1 we  
contradict all languages & all receiv$  
notions2 we h1 x is true1 ! advantage ( 
absolv+ tyrants1 b we degrade h]oes4 ,!y
 h1 !n1 f\ght & di$ = a *im]a6  ,all    
languages conta9 ! words e/eem &        
contempt4 ,to e/eem1 to despise1--^! are
 univ]sal expressions1 c]ta9 ph5om5a1 f 
:i* an imp>tial analysis c draw ! highe/
 notions4 ,c we despise a be+ :o1 9 8   
acts1 %\ld n be free1 a be+ :o %\ld n "k
 ! good1 & %\ld n feel himself obligat$ 
to fulfil x8 ,suppose t ! good is n     
ess5tially diff]5t f ! evil1 suppose t  
!re is 9 ! _w only int]e/ m or less well
 und]/ood1 t !re is no real duty1 & t   

man is n ess5tially a free be+1--x is   
impossible to expla9 rationally ! ^w    
contempt4 ,x is ! same ) ! ^w e/eem4    
,e/eem is a fact :i*1 fai?fully         
express$1 conta9s a complete philosophy 
z solid z g5]\s4 ,e/eem has two c]ta9   
*>act]s3 #a/1 ,x is a dis9t]e/$ s5tim5t 
9 ! s\l ( him :o feels x2 #b;d1 ,x is   
appli$ only to dis9t]e/$ acts4 ,we d n  
e/eem at w1 & because x is our int]e/ to
 e/eem4 ,nei!r d we e/eem an action or a
 p]son because !y h be5 successful4     
,success1 =tunate calculation1 may make 
u envi$2 x does n br+ e/eem1 :i* has    
ano!r price4  ,e/eem 9 a c]ta9 degree1 &
 "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 is              
respect1--respect1 a holy & sacr$ ^w :i*
 ! mo/ subtile or ! loose/ analysis w   
nev] degrade to express+ a s5tim5t t is 
relat$ to ourselves1 & is appli$ to     
actions cr[n$ by =tune4  ,take aga9 ^!  
two words1 ^! two facts analog\s to !   
fir/ two1 admiration & indignation4     
,e/eem & contempt are r judgm5ts2       
indignation & admiration are s5tim5ts1 b

 s5tim5ts t p]ta9 to intellig5ce &      
envelop a judgm5t4#ahi  ,admiration is  
an ess5tially dis9t]e/$ s5tim5t4 ,see   
:e!r !re is any int]e/ 9 ! _w t has !   
p[] to give y admiration = any ?+ or any
 p]son4 ,if y 7 int]e/$1 y might feign  
admiration1 b y w\ld n feel x4 ,a tyrant
 ) dea? 9 8 h&1 may con/ra9 y to appe>  
to admire1 b n to admire 9 reality4 ,ev5
 affection does n det]m9e admiration2   
:il/ a h]oic trait1 ev5 9 an enemy1     
compels y to admire4  ,! ph5om5on oppos$
 to admiration is indignation4          
,indignation is no m ang] ?an admiration
 is desire4 ,ang] is :olly p]sonal4     
,indignation is nev] directly relat$ to 
u2 x may h bir? 9 ! mid/ ( circum/ances 
:]e9 we are engag$1 b ! f\ndation & !   
dom9ant "* ( ! ph5om5on 9 itself is to  
be dis9t]e/$4 ,indignation is 9 its     
nature g5]\s4 ,if ,i am a victim ( an   
inju/ice1 ,i may feel at once ang] &    
indignation1 ang] aga9/ him t injures   
me1 indignation t[>ds him :o is unju/ to
 "o ( 8 fell[-m54 ,we may be indignant  

t[>ds ourselves2 we are indignant t[>ds 
e ?+ t w\nds ! s5tim5t ( ju/ice4        
,indignation cov]s a judgm5t1 ! judgm5t 
t he :o commits su* or su* an action1   
:e!r aga9/ u1 or ev5 = u1 does an action
 unwor?y1 contr>y to our dignity1 to 8  
own dignity1 to human dignity4 ,! injury
 su/a9$ is n ! measure ( indignation1 z 
! advantage receiv$ is n t ( admiration4
 ,we felicitate ourselves on possess+ or
 hav+ acquir$ a useful ?+2 b we nev]    
admire1 on t acc\nt1 ei!r ourselves or !
 ?+ t we h j acquir$4 ,s we repel ! /one
 t w\nds u1 we d n feel indignant t[>ds 
x4  ,admiration elevates & ennobles !   
s\l4 ,! g5]\s p>ts ( human nature are   
dis5gag$ & exalt$ 9 pres5ce (1 & z x 7 9
 contact )1 ! image ( ! good4 ,?is is ! 
reason :y admiration is already by      
itself s b5efic5t1 ev5 %\ld x be deceiv$
 9 its object4 ,indignation is ! result 
( ^! same g5]\s p>ts ( ! s\l1 :i*1 w\nd$
 by inju/ice1 are highly r\s$ & prote/ 9
 ! "n ( (f5d$ human dignity4  ,look at  
m5 9 action1 & y w see !m impos+ ^u     

!mselves great sacrifices 9 ord] to     
conqu] ! suffrages ( _! fell[s4 ,!      
empire ( op9ion is imm5se1--vanity alone
 does n expla9 x2 x d\btless also p]ta9s
 to vanity1 b x has deep] & bett] roots4
 ,we judge t o!r m5 are1 l u1 s5sible to
 good & evil1 t !y di/+ui% betwe5 virtue
 & vice1 t !y are capable ( be+         
indignant & admir+1 ( e/eem+ & respect+1
 z well z despis+4 ,?is p[] is 9 u1 we h
 consci\sness ( x1 we "k t o!r m5       
possess x z well z we1 & x is ?is p[] t 
fright5s u4 ,op9ion is our own          
consci\sness transf]r$ to ! public1 &   
!re dis5gag$ f all complaisance & arm$ )
 an inflexible sev]ity4 ,to ! remorse 9 
our own he>ts1 responds ! %ame 9 t      
second s\l :i* we h made ourselves1 & is
 call$ public op9ion4 ,we mu/ n be      
a/oni%$ at ! sweets ( popul>ity4 ,we are
 m sure ( hav+ done well1 :5 to !       
te/imony ( our consci\sness we are able 
to jo9 t ( ! consci\sness ( our         
fell[-m54 ,!re is only "o ?+ t c su/a9 u
 aga9/ op9ion1 & ev5 place u above x3 x 

is ! firm & sure te/imony ( our         
consci\sness1 because1 9 f9e1 ! public &
 ! :ole human race are compell$ to judge
 u accord+ to appe>ance1 :il/ we judge  
ourselves infallibly & by ! mo/ c]ta9 ( 
all k4  ,ridicule is ! fe> ( op9ion 9   
small ?+s4 ,! =ce ( ridicule is :olly 9 
! supposition t !re is a common ta/e1 a 
common type ( :at is prop]1 t directs m5
 9 _! judgm5ts1 & ev5 9 _! pleasantries1
 :i* 9 _! way are also judgm5ts4 ,)\t   
?is supposition1 ridicule falls (       
itself1 & pleasantry loses its /+4 ,b x 
is immortal1 z well z ! di/9ction betwe5
 good & evil1 betwe5 ! beautiful & !    
ugly1 betwe5 :at is prop] & :at is      
improp]4  ,:5 we h n succe$$ 9 any      
measure und]tak5 = our int]e/ &         
prosp]ity1 we exp]i5ce a s5tim5t ( pa9 t
 is call$ regret4 ,b we d n conf\nd     
regret ) t o!r s5tim5t t rises 9 ! s\l  
:5 we are consci\s ( hav+ done some?+   
morally bad4 ,?is s5tim5t is also a pa91
 b ( q a diff]5t nature1--x is remorse1 
rep5tance4 ,t we h lo/ 9 play1 =        

example1 is disagreeable to u2 b if1 9  
ga9+1 we h ! consci\sness ( hav+ deceiv$
 our adv]s>y1 we exp]i5ce a v diff]5t   
s5tim5t4  ,we might prolong & v>y ^!    
examples4 ,we h said en\gh to be entitl$
 to conclude t human language & !       
s5tim5ts t x expresses are inexplicable1
 if we d n admit ! ess5tial di/9ction   
betwe5 good & evil1 betwe5 virtue &     
crime1 crime f\nd$ on int]e/1 virtue    
f\nd$ on dis9t]e/$ness4  ,di/urb ?is    
di/9ction1 & y di/urb human life &      
entire society4 ,p]mit me to take an    
extreme1 tragic1 & t]rible example4 ,"h 
is a man t has j be5 judg$4 ,he has be5 
condemn$ to dea?1 & is ab\t to be       
execut$--to be depriv$ ( life4 ,& :y8   
,place y\rself 9 ! sy/em t does n admit 
! ess5tial di/9ction betwe5 good & evil1
 & pond] on :at is /upidly atroci\s 9   
?is act ( human ju/ice4 ,:at has !      
condemn$ done8 ,evid5tly a ?+ indiff]5t 
9 itself4 ,= if !re is no o!r outw>d    
di/9ction ?an t ( pleasure & pa91 ,i    
defy any "o to qualify any human action1

 :atev] x may be1 z crim9al1 )\t ! mo/  
absurd inconsequ5ce4 ,b ?is ?+1         
indiff]5t 9 itself1 a c]ta9 numb] ( m51 
call$ legislators1 h decl>$ to be a     
crime4 ,?is purely arbitr>y decl>ation  
has f\nd no e*o 9 ! he>t ( ?is man4 ,he 
has n be5 able to feel ! ju/ice ( x1    
s9ce !re is no?+ 9 itself j4 ,he has    
!re=e done1 )\t remorse1 :at ?is        
decl>ation arbitr>ily int]dict$4 ,! c\rt
 proce$s to prove to him t he has n     
succe$$1 b n t he has done contr>y to   
ju/ice1 = !re is no ju/ice4 ,i ma9ta9 t 
e condemnation1 be x to dea?1 or to any 
puni%m5t :atev]1 imp]atively supposes1 9
 ord] to be any ?+ else ?an a repression
 ( viol5ce by viol5ce1 ! f\r foll[+     
po9ts3--#a/1 ,t !re is an ess5tial      
di/9ction betwe5 good & evil1 ju/ice &  
inju/ice1 & t to ?is di/9ction is       
atta*$1 = e intellig5t & free be+1 !    
obligation ( con=m+ to good & ju/ice2   
#b;d1 ,t man is an intellig5t & free    
be+1 capable ( compreh5d+ ?is di/9ction1
 & ! obligation t accompanies x1 & (    

adh]+ to x naturally1 indep5d5tly ( all 
conv5tion1 & e positive law2 capable    
also ( resi/+ ! temptations t be> him   
t[>ds evil & inju/ice1 & ( fulfill+ !   
sacr$ law ( natural ju/ice2 #c;d1 ,t e  
act contr>y to ju/ice des]ves to be     
repress$ by =ce1 & ev5 puni%$ 9         
rep>ation ( ! fault committ$1 &         
indep5d5tly too ( all law & all         
conv5tion2 #d?1 ,t man naturally        
recognizes ! di/9ction betwe5 ! m]it &  
dem]it ( actions1 z he recognizes !     
di/9ction betwe5 ! j & ! unju/1 & kn[s t
 e p5alty appli$ to an unju/ act is     
itself mo/ /rictly j4  ,su* are !       
f\ndations ( t p[] ( judg+ & puni%+ :i* 
is entire society4 ,society has n made  
^? pr9ciples = its own use2 !y are mu*  
ant]ior to x1 !y are contemporane\s )   
?\ght & ! s\l1 & ^u ^! re/s society1 )  
its laws & its in/itutions4 ,laws are   
legitimate by _! relation to ^! et]nal  
laws4 ,! sure/ p[] ( in/itutions resides
 9 ! respect t ^! pr9ciples be> ) !m &  
ext5d to e ?+ t p>ticipates 9 !m4       

,education develops !m1 x does n create 
!m4 ,!y direct ! legislator :o makes !  
law1 & ! judge :o applies x4 ,!y are    
pres5t to ! accus$ br\ght be=e !        
tribunal1 !y inspire e j s5t5ce1 !y give
 x au?ority 9 ! s\l ( ! condemn$1 & 9 t 
( ! spectator1 & !y consecrate !        
employm5t ( =ce necess>y = 8 execution4 
,take away a s+le "o ( ^! pr9ciples1 &  
all human ju/ice is ov]?r[n1 no long] is
 !re any ?+ b a mass ( arbitr>y         
conv5tions :i* no "o 9 consci5ce is b\nd
 to respect1 :i* may be violat$ )\t     
remorse1 :i* are su/a9$ only by !       
display ( extreme puni%m5ts4 ,!         
decisions ( su* a ju/ice are n true     
judgm5ts1 b acts ( =ce1 & civil society 
is only an ar5a :]e m5 cont5d ) ea* o!r 
)\t duties & rights1 )\t any o!r object 
?an t ( procur+ = !mselves ! greate/    
possible am\nt ( enjoym5t1 ( procur+ x  
by conque/ & pres]v+ x by =ce or cunn+1 
save ?r[+ ov] all t ! cloak (           
hypocritical laws4  ,x is true1 su* is !
 aspect "u :i* skepticism makes u       

consid] society & human ju/ice1 driv+ u 
?r\gh despair to revolt & disord]1 &    
br++ u back ?r\gh despair aga9 to q     
ano!r yoke ?an t ( reason & virtue1 to t
 regulat$ disord] :i* is call$          
despotism4 ,! spectacle ( human ?+s1    
view$ coolly1 & )\t ! _s ( sy/em1 is1   
?ank ,god1 less sombre4 ,)\t d\bt1      
society & human ju/ice h /ill _m        
imp]fections :i* "t discov]s & corrects2
 b x may be said1 t 9 g5]al !y re/ on   
tru? & natural equity4 ,! pro( ( x is1 t
 society ev]y:]e subsi/s1 & is ev5      
develop$4 ,moreov]1 facts1 7 !y su* z ! 
melan*oly p5 ( a ,pascal or a ,r\sseau  
repres5t !m to be1 facts are n          
all1--be=e facts is "r2 & ?is idea ( "r 
alone1 if x is real1 suffices to ov]turn
 an abas+ sy/em1 & save human dignity4  
,n[1 is ! idea ( "r a *im]a8 ,i aga9    
appeal to languages1 to individual      
consci\sness1 to ! human race1--is x n  
true t fact is ev]y:]e di/+ui%$ f "r1   
fact :i* too (t51 p]haps1 b n always1 z 
x is said1 is oppos$ to "r2 & "r t      

subdues & rules fact1 or prote/s aga9/  
x8 ,:at ^w is x t re/ra9s mo/ 9 human   
societies8 ,is x n t ( "r8 ,look = a    
language t does n conta9 x4 ,on all     
sides1 society is bri/l+ ) rights4 ,!re 
is ev5 a di/9ction made betwe5 natural  
"r & positive "r1 betwe5 :at is legal & 
:at is equitable4 ,x is proclaim$ t =ce 
%\ld be 9 ! s]vice ( "r1 & n "r at !    
m]cy ( =ce4 ,! triumphs ( =ce1 :]ev] we 
p]ceive !m1 ei!r "u our eyes1 or by !   
aid ( hi/ory 9 bygone c5turies1 or by   
favor ( univ]sal publicity beyond !     
ocean1 & 9 =eign cont95ts1 r\se         
indignation 9 ! dis9t]e/$ spectator or  
read]4 ,on ! contr>y1 he :o inscribes on
 8 bann] ! "n ( "r1 by t alone int]e/s  
u2 ! cause ( "r1 or :at we suppose to be
 ! cause ( "r1 is = u ! cause (         
humanity4 ,x is also a fact1 & an       
inconte/able fact1 t 9 ! eyes ( man fact
 is n e ?+1 & t ! idea ( "r is a        
univ]sal idea1 grav5 9 %9+ &            
ineffaceable *>act]s1 if n 9 ! visible  
_w1 at lea/ 9 t ( ?\ght & ! s\l2 conc]n+

 t is ! "q2 x is also t :i* 9 ! long run
 re=ms & gov]ns ! o!r4  ,individual     
consci\sness1 conceiv$ & transf]r$ to ! 
entire species1 is call$ common s5se4 ,x
 is common s5se t has made1 t su/a9s1 t 
develops languages1 natural & p]man5t   
beliefs1 society & its fundam5tal       
in/itutions4 ,gramm>ians h n inv5t$     
languages1 nor legislators societies1   
nor philosoph]s g5]al beliefs4 ,all ^!  
?+s h n be5 p]sonally done1 b by ! :ole 
_w1--by ! g5ius ( humanity4  ,common    
s5se is deposit$ 9 its works4 ,all      
languages1 & all human in/itutions      
conta9 ! ideas & ! s5tim5ts t we h j    
call$ to m9d & describ$1 & especially ! 
di/9ction betwe5 good & evil1 betwe5    
ju/ice & inju/ice1 betwe5 free w &      
desire1 betwe5 duty & int]e/1 betwe5    
virtue & happ9ess1 ) ! pr(\ndly root$   
belief t happ9ess is a recomp5se due to 
virtue1 & t crime 9 itself des]ves to be
 puni%$1 & calls = ! rep>ation ( a j    
suff]+4  ,^! ?+s are atte/$ by ! words &
 actions ( m54 ,su* are ! s9c]e &       

imp>tial1 b some:at confus$1 some:at    
gross notions ( common s5se4  ,"h beg9s 
! "p ( philosophy4 ,x has be=e x two    
diff]5t r\tes2 x c d "o ( two ?+s3 ei!r 
accept ! notions ( common s5se1         
elucidate !m1 !reby develop & increase  
!m1 &1 by fai?fully express+ !m1 =tify !
 natural beliefs ( humanity2 or1        
preoccupi$ ) su* or su* a pr9ciple1     
impose x ^u ! natural data ( common     
s5se1 admit ^? t agree ) ?is pr9ciple1  
artificially b5d ! o!rs to ^!1 or op5ly 
d5y !m2 ?is is :at is call$ mak+ a      
sy/em4  ,philosophic sy/ems are n       
philosophy2 !y try to realize ! idea (  
x1 z civil in/itutions try to realize t 
( ju/ice1 z ! arts express 9 _! way     
inf9ite beauty1 z ! sci5ces pursue      
univ]sal sci5ce4 ,philosophic sy/ems are
 necess>ily v imp]fect1 o!rwise !re nev]
 w\ld h be5 two sy/ems 9 ! _w4 ,=tunate 
are ^? t g on do+ good1 t exp& 9 ! m9ds 
& s\ls ( m51 ) "s innoc5t errors1 !     
sacr$ love ( ! true1 ! beautiful1 & !   
good6 ,b philosophic sy/ems foll[ _!    

times mu* m ?an !y direct !m2 !y receive
 _! _s f ! h&s ( _! age4 ,transf]r$ to  
,france t[>ds ! close ( ! reg5cy & "u ! 
reign ( ,l\is ,,xv41 ! philosophy (     
,locke gave bir? !re to a celebrat$     
s*ool1 :i* = a long "t gov]n$ & /ill    
subsi/s among u1 protect$ by anci5t     
habits1 b 9 radical opposition to our   
new in/itutions & our new wants4 ,sprung
 f ! bosom ( tempe/s1 n\ri%$ 9 ! cradle 
( a revolution1 br\ght up "u ! bad      
discipl9e ( ! g5ius ( w>1 ! n9ete5?     
c5tury _c recognize its image & f9d its 
in/9cts 9 a philosophy born "u !        
influ5ce ( ! voluptu\s ref9em5ts (      
,v]sailles1 admirably fitt$ = !         
decrepitude ( an arbitr>y mon>*y1 b n = 
! labori\s life ( a "y lib]ty surr\nd$ )
 p]ils4 ,z = u1 aft] hav+ combat$ !     
philosophy ( s5sation 9 ! metaphysics   
:i* x sub/itut$ = ,c>tesianism1 & 9 !   
deplorable ae/hetics1 n[ too accr$it$1  
"u :i* succumb$ our great national art (
 ! sev5te5? c5tury1 we d n hesitate to  
combat x aga9 9 ! e?ics t 7 its necess>y

 product1 ! e?ics ( int]e/4  ,!         
exposition & refutation ( ^! pret5d$    
e?ics w be ! subject ( ! next lecture4  
,,footnotes3  #ahg ,see #b;d ,s]ies1    
vol4 ii41 lect4 #aa & #ab2 #d? ,s]ies1  
vol4 ii41 la/ pages ( ,jacquel9e        
,pascal1 & ! ,fragm5ts ( ! ,c>tesian    
,philosophy1 p4 #dfi4  #ahh #a/ ,s]ies1 
vol4 iii41 lectures #b & #c1 ,condillac4
  #ahi ,see ! ,!ory ( ,s5tim5t1 "p i41  
lecture #e4     ,,lecture ,,xii4  ,,!   
,,e?ics ,,( ,,int]e/4#aij               
,exposition ( ! doctr9e ( int]e/4--,:at 
!re is ( tru?     9 ?is doctr9e4--,its  
defects4 #a/4 ,x conf\nds lib]ty &      
desire1 & !reby aboli%es lib]ty4 #b;d4  
,x _c expla9 !     fundam5tal di/9ction 
betwe5 good & evil4 #c;d4 ,x _c         
expla9 obligation & duty4 #d?4 ,nor "r4 
#e?4 ,nor !     pr9ciple ( m]it &       
dem]it4--,consequ5ces ( ! e?ics (       
int]e/3 t !y _c admit a provid5ce1 &    
lead to     despotism4   ,! philosophy (
 s5sation1 sett+ out f a s+le fact1     
agreeable or pa9ful s5sation1 necess>ily

 arrives 9 e?ics at a s+le              
pr9ciple1--int]e/4 ,! :ole ( ! sy/em may
 be expla9$ z foll[s3  ,man is s5sible  
to pleasure & pa93 he %uns ! "o & seeks 
! o!r4 ,t is 8 fir/ in/9ct1 & ?is in/9ct
 w nev] ab&on him4 ,pleasure may *ange s
 f> z its object is conc]n$1 & be       
div]sifi$ 9 a ?\s& ways3 b :atev] =m x  
takes1--physical pleasure1 intellectual 
pleasure1 moral pleasure1 x is always   
pleasure t man pursues4  ,! agreeable   
g5]aliz$ is ! useful2 & ! greate/       
possible sum ( pleasure1 :atev] x may   
be1 no long] conc5trat$ )9 su* or su* an
 in/ant1 b di/ribut$ ov] a c]ta9 ext5t (
 duration1 is happ9ess4#aia  ,happ9ess1 
l pleasure1 is relative to him :o       
exp]i5ces x2 x is ess5tially p]sonal4   
,ourselves1 & ourselves alone we love1 9
 lov+ pleasure & happ9ess4  ,int]e/ is t
 :i* prompts u to seek 9 e ?+ our       
pleasure & our happ9ess4  ,if happ9ess  
is ! sole end ( life1 int]e/ is ! sole  
motive ( all our actions4  ,man is only 
s5sible to 8 int]e/1 b he und]/&s x well

 or ill4 ,mu* art is necess>y 9 ord] to 
be happy4 ,we are n ready to give       
ourselves up to all ! pleasures t are   
(f]$ on ! highway ( life1 )\t exam9+    
:e!r ^! pleasures d n conceal _m a pa94 
,pres5t pleasure is n e ?+1--x is       
necess>y to take ?\ght = ! future2 x is 
necess>y to "k h[ to r5\nce joys t may  
br+ regret1 & sacrifice pleasure to     
happ9ess1 t is to say1 to pleasure /ill1
 b pleasure m endur+ & less intoxicat+4 
,! pleasures ( ! body are n ! only      
ones1--!re are o!r pleasures1 ^? ( m9d1 
ev5 ^? ( op9ion3 ! sage temp]s !m by ea*
 o!r4  ,! e?ics ( int]e/ are no?+ else  
?an ! e?ics ( p]fect$ pleasure1         
sub/itut+ happ9ess = pleasure1 ! useful 
= ! agreeable1 prud5ce = passion4 ,x    
admits1 l ! human race1 ! words good &  
evil1 virtue & vice1 m]it & dem]it1     
puni%m5t & rew>d1 b x expla9s !m 9 its  
own way4 ,! good is t :i* 9 ! eyes (    
reason is con=m$ to our true int]e/2    
evil is t :i* is contr>y to our true    
int]e/4 ,virtue is t wisdom :i* kn[s h[ 

to resi/ ! enticem5t ( passions1 disc]ns
 :at is truly useful1 & surely proce$s  
to happ9ess4 ,vice is t ab]ration ( m9d 
& "* t sacrifices happ9ess to pleasures 
)\t duration or full ( dang]s4 ,m]it &  
dem]it1 puni%m5t & rew>d1 are !         
consequ5ces ( virtue & vice3--= n kn[+  
h[ to seek happ9ess by ! road ( wisdom1 
we are puni%$ by n atta9+ x4 ,! e?ics ( 
int]e/ d n pret5d to de/roy any ( !     
duties consecrat$ by public op9ion2 x   
e/abli%es t all are con=m$ to our       
p]sonal int]e/1 & x is !reby t !y are   
duties4 ,to d good to m5 is ! sure/     
means ( mak+ !m d good to u2 & x is also
 ! means ( acquir+ _! e/eem1 _! good w1 
& _! sympa?y1--always agreeable1 & (t5  
useful4 ,dis9t]e/$ness itself has its   
explanation4 ,d\btless !re is no        
dis9t]e/$ness 9 ! vulg> s5se ( ! ^w1 t  
is to say1 a real sacrifice ( self1 :i* 
is absurd1 b !re is ! sacrifice ( pres5t
 int]e/ to future int]e/1 ( gross &     
s5sual passion to a nobl] & m delicate  
pleasure4 ,sometimes "o r5d]s to himself

 a bad acc\nt ( ! pleasure t he pursues1
 & 9 fault ( see+ cle>ly into 8 own     
he>t1 inv5ts t *im]a ( dis9t]e/$ness (  
:i* human nature is incapable1 :i* x _c 
ev5 compreh5d4  ,x w be conc$$ t ?is    
explanation ( ! e?ics ( int]e/ is n     
ov]*>g$1 t x is fai?ful4  ,we g         
fur!r1--we ackn[l$ge t ^! e?ics are an  
extreme1 b1 up to a c]ta9 po9t1 a       
legitimate reaction aga9/ ! excessive   
rigor ( /oical e?ics1 especially ascetic
 e?ics t smo!r s5sibility in/ead (      
regulat+ x1 &1 9 ord] to save ! s\l f   
passions1 dem&s ( x a sacrifice ( all ! 
passions ( nature t resembles a suicide4
  ,man 0 n made to be a sublime slave1 l
 ,epictetus1 employ$ 9 support+ bad     
=tune well )\t try+ to surm\nt x1 nor1 l
 ! au?or ( ! ,imitation1 ! angelic      
inhabitant ( a cloi/]1 call+ = dea? z a 
=tunate deliv]ance1 & anticipat+ x1 z f>
 z 9 him lies1 by cont9ual p5it5ce & 9  
mute adoration4 ,! love ( pleasure1 ev5 
! passions1 h a place among ! ne$s (    
humanity4 ,suppress ! passions1 & x is  

true !re is no m excess2 nei!r is !re   
any ma9spr+ ( action1--)\t w9ds ! vessel
 no long] proce$s1 & soon s9ks 9 ! deep4
 ,suppose a be+ t lacks love ( self1 !  
in/9ct ( pres]vation1 ! horror ( suff]+1
 especially ! horror ( dea?1 :o has     
nei!r ! love ( pleasure nor ! love (    
happ9ess1 9 a ^w1 de/itute ( all p]sonal
 int]e/1--su* a be+ w n long resi/ !    
innum]able causes ( de/ruction t surr\nd
 & besiege him2 he w n rema9 a day4     
,nev] c a s+le family1 nor ! lea/       
society be =m$ or ma9ta9$4 ,he :o has   
made man has n confid$ ! c>e ( 8 "w to  
virtue alone1 to devot$ness & sublime   
*>ity1--he has will$ t ! duration &     
developm5t ( ! race & human society %\ld
 be plac$ ^u simpl] & sur] f\ndations2 &
 ?is is ! reason :y he has giv5 to man !
 love ( self1 ! in/9ct ( pres]vation1 ! 
ta/e ( pleasure & happ9ess1 ! passions t
 animate life1 hope & fe>1 love1        
ambition1 p]sonal int]e/1 9 f9e1 a      
p[]ful1 p]man5t1 univ]sal motive t urges
 u on to cont9ually ameliorate our      

condition ^u ! e>?4  ,s we d n conte/ ) 
! e?ics ( int]e/ ! reality ( _!         
pr9ciple1--we are conv9c$ t ?is pr9ciple
 exi/s1 t x has a "r to be4 ,! only "q t
 we raise is ! foll[+3--,! pr9ciple (   
int]e/ is true 9 itself1 b are !re n o!r
 pr9ciples q z true1 q z real8 ,man     
seeks pleasure & happ9ess1 b are !re n 9
 him o!r ne$s1 o!r s5tim5ts z p[]ful1 z 
vital8 ,! fir/ & univ]sal pr9ciple (    
human life is ! ne$ ( ! individual to   
pres]ve himself2 b w\ld ?is pr9ciple    
suffice to support human life & society 
entire & z we behold x8  ,j z ! exi/5ce 
( ! body does n h9d] t ( ! s\l1 &       
reciprocally1 s 9 ! ample bosom (       
humanity & ! pr(\nd designs ( div9e     
,provid5ce1 ! pr9ciples t diff] mo/ d n 
exclude ea* o!r4  ,! philosophy (       
s5sation cont9ually appeals to exp]i5ce4
 ,we also invoke exp]i5ce2 & x is       
exp]i5ce t has giv5 u c]ta9 facts       
m5tion$ 9 ! prec$+ lecture1 :i*         
con/itute ! prim>y notions ( common     
s5se4 ,we admit ! facts t s]ve z a      

f\ndation = ! sy/em ( int]e/1 & reject !
 sy/em4 ,! facts are true 9 _! prop]    
be>+1--! sy/em is false 9 attribut+ to  
!m an excessive1 limitless be>+2 & x is 
false aga9 9 d5y+ o!r facts q z         
inconte/able4 ,a s\nd philosophy holds =
 its prim>y law to collect all real     
facts & respect ! real diff]5ces t also 
di/+ui% !m4 ,:at x pursues be=e all1 is 
n unity1 b tru?4#aib ,n[ ! e?ics (      
int]e/ mutilate tru?1--!y *oose among   
facts ^? t agree ) !m1 & reject all !   
o!rs1 :i* are precisely ! v facts (     
morality4 ,exclusive & intol]ant1 !y d5y
 :at !y d n expla91--!y =m a :ole well  
unit$1 :i*1 z an artificial "w1 may h   
its m]it1 b is brok5 to pieces z soon z 
x comes to enc\nt] human nature ) its   
gr& p>ts4  ,we are ab\t to %[ t ! e?ics 
( int]e/1 an (fspr+ ( ! philosophy (    
s5sation1 are 9 contradiction ) a c]ta9 
numb] ( ph5om5a1 :i* human nature       
pres5ts to :omsoev] int]rogates x )\t ! 
_s ( sy/em4  #a/4 ,we h e/abli%$1 n 9 ! 
"n ( a sy/em1 b 9 ! "n ( ! mo/ common   

exp]i5ce1 t entire humanity believes 9 !
 exi/5ce1 9 ea* ( its memb]s1 ( a c]ta9 
=ce1 a c]ta9 p[] t is call$ lib]ty4     
,because x believes 9 lib]ty 9 !        
individual1 x desires t ?is lib]ty %\ld 
be respect$ & protect$ 9 society4       
,lib]ty is a fact t ! consci\sness ( ea*
 ( u atte/s to him1 :i*1 moreov]1 is    
envelop$ 9 all ! moral ph5om5a t we h   
signaliz$1 9 moral approbation &        
disapprobation1 9 e/eem & contempt1 9   
admiration & indignation1 9 m]it &      
dem]it1 9 puni%m5t & rew>d4 ,we ask !   
philosophy ( s5sation & ! e?ics ( int]e/
 :at !y d ) ?is univ]sal ph5om5a :i* all
 ! beliefs ( humanity suppose1 on :i*   
entire life1 private & public1 turns4   
,e sy/em ( e?ics1 :atev] x may be1 :i*  
conta9s1 ,i d n say a rule1 b a simple  
advice1 implicitly admits lib]ty4 ,:5 ! 
e?ics ( int]e/ advise a man to sacrifice
 ! agreeable to ! useful1 x app>5tly    
admits t man is free to foll[ or n to   
foll[ ?is advice4 ,b 9 philosophy x does
 n suffice to admit a fact1 !re mu/ be !

 "r to admit x4 ,n[1 mo/ morali/s (     
int]e/ d5y ! lib]ty ( man1 & no "o has !
 "r to admit x 9 a sy/em t d]ives !     
entire human s\l1 all its faculties z   
well z all its ideas1 f s5sation alone &
 its developm5ts4  ,:5 an agreeable     
s5sation1 aft] hav+ *>m$ our s\l1 quits 
x & vani%es1 ! s\l exp]i5ces a sort (   
suff]+1 a want1 a ne$1--x is agitat$1   
disquiet$4 ,?is disquietude1 at fir/    
vague & indecisive1 is soon det]m9$2 x  
is borne t[>ds ! object t has pleas$ u1 
^: abs5ce makes u suff]4 ,?is movem5t ( 
! s\l1 m or less vivid1 is desire4  ,is 
!re 9 desire any ( ! *>act]s ( lib]ty8  
,:at is x call$ to be free8 ,ea* "o kn[s
 t he is free1 :5 he kn[s t he is ma/] (
 8 action1 t he c beg9 x1 arre/ x1 or   
cont9ue x z he pleases4 ,we are free1 :5
 be=e act+ we h tak5 ! resolution to    
act1 kn[+ well t we are able to take !  
opposite resolution4 ,a free act is t ( 
:i*1 by ! infallible te/imony ( my      
consci\sness1 ,i "k t ,i am ! cause1 =  
:i*1 !re=e1 ,i reg>d myself z           

responsible4 ,god1 ! _w1 ! body1 c      
produce 9 me a ?\s& movem5ts2 ^!        
movem5ts may seem to ! eyes ( an ext]nal
 obs]v] to be volunt>y acts2 b any error
 is impossible to consci\sness1--x      
di/+ui%es e movem5t n volunt>y1 :atev] x
 may be1 f a volunt>y act4  ,true       
activity is volunt>y & free activity4   
,desire is j ! opposite4 ,desire1 c>ri$ 
to its culm9ation1 is passion2 b        
language1 z well z consci\sness1 says t 
man is passive 9 passion2 & ! m vivid   
passion is1 ! m imp]ative are its       
movem5ts1 ! f>!r is x f ! type ( true   
activity 9 :i* ! s\l possesses & gov]ns 
itself4  ,i am no m free 9 desire ?an 9 
! s5sation t prec$es & det]m9es x4 ,if  
an agreeable object is pres5t$ to me1 am
 ,i able n to be agreeably mov$8 ,if x  
is a pa9ful object1 am ,i able n to be  
pa9fully mov$8 ,& s1 :5 ?is agreeable   
s5sation has disappe>$1 if memory &     
imag9ation rem9d me ( x1 is x 9 my p[] n
 to suff] f no long] exp]i5c+ x1 is x 9 
my p[] n to feel ! ne$ ( exp]i5c+ x     

aga91 & to desire m or less ard5tly !   
object t alone c appease ! disquietude &
 suff]+ ( my s\l8  ,obs]ve well :at     
takes place )9 y 9 desire2 y recognize 9
 x a bl9d emotion1 t1 )\t any           
delib]ation on y\r "p1 & )\t !          
int]v5tion ( y\r w1 rises or falls1     
increases or dim9i%es4 ,"o does n       
desire1 & cease to desire1 accord+ to 8 
w4  ,w (t5 combats desire1 z x (t5 also 
yields to x2 x is n1 !re=e1 desire4 ,we 
d n reproa* ! s5sations t objects       
produce1 nor ev5 ! desires t ^!         
s5sations eng5d]2 we d reproa* ourselves
 = ! cons5t ( ! w to ^! desires1 & !    
acts t foll[1 = ^! acts are 9 our p[]4  
,desire is s little w1 t x (t5 aboli%es 
x1 & leads man into acts t he does n    
impute to himself1 = !y are n volunt>y4 
,x is ev5 ! refuge ( _m ( ! accus$2 !y  
lay _! faults to ! viol5ce ( desire &   
passion1 :i* h n left !m ma/]s (        
!mselves4  ,if desire 7 ! basis ( w1 !  
/rong] ! desire ! fre] we %\ld be4      
,evid5tly ! contr>y is true4 ,z !       

viol5ce ( desire increases1 ! dom9ion ( 
man ov] himself decreases2 & z desire is
 weak5$ & passion ext+ui%$1 man         
repossesses himself4  ,i d n say t we h 
no influ5ce ov] our desires4 ,t two     
facts diff]1 x does n foll[ t !y mu/ be 
)\t relation to ea* o!r4 ,by remov+     
c]ta9 objects1 or ev5 by m]ely div]t+   
our ?\ghts away f ! pleasure t !y c give
 u1 we are able1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 to   
turn aside & elude ! s5sible effects (  
^! objects1 & escape ! desire :i* !y    
might excite 9 u4 ,"o may also1 by      
surr\nd+ himself ) c]ta9 objects1 9 "s  
sort manage himself1 & produce 9 himself
 s5sations & desires :i* = t are n m    
volunt>y ?an w\ld be ! impression made  
^u u by a /one ) :i* we %\ld /rike      
ourselves4 ,by yield+ to ^! desires1 we 
l5d !m a new =ce1 & we mod]ate !m by a  
skilful resi/ance4 ,"o ev5 has "s p[]   
ov] ! organs ( ! body1 &1 by apply+ to  
!m an appropriate regim51 he goes s f> z
 to modify _! functions4 ,all ?is proves
 t !re is 9 u a p[] diff]5t f ! s5ses & 

desire1 :i*1 )\t dispos+ ( !m1 sometimes
 ex]cises ov] !m an indirect au?ority4  
,w also directs intellig5ce1 al?\gh x is
 n intellig5ce4 ,to w & to "k are two   
?+s ess5tially diff]5t4 ,we d n judge z 
we w1 b accord+ to ! necess>y laws ( !  
judgm5t & ! und]/&+4 ,! k ( tru? is n a 
resolution ( ! w4 ,x is n ! w t decl>es1
 = example1 t body is ext5d$1 t x is 9  
space1 t e ph5om5on has a cause1 etc4   
,yet ! w has mu* p[] ov] intellig5ce4 ,x
 is freely & volunt>ily t we "w1 t we   
give att5tion1 = a long] or a %ort] "t1 
m or less int5se1 to c]ta9 ?+s2         
consequ5tly1 x is ! w t develops &      
increases intellig5ce1 z x might let x  
langui% & become ext+ui%$4 ,x mu/1 !n1  
be av[$ t !re is 9 u a supreme p[] t    
presides ov] all our faculties1 ov]     
intellig5ce z well z s5sibility1 :i* is 
di/+ui%$ f !m1 & is m+l$ ) !m1 gov]ns   
!m1 or leaves !m to _! natural          
developm5t1 mak+ appe>1 ev5 9 its       
abs5ce1 ! "* t belongs to x1 s9ce ! man 
t is depriv$ ( x av[s t he is no long]  

ma/] ( himself1 t he is n himself1 s    
true is x t human p]sonality resides    
p>ticul>ly 9 t prom95t p[] t is call$ ! 
w4#aic  ,s+ul> de/9y ( t p[]1 s (t5     
misconceiv$1 & yet s manife/6 ,/range   
conf\nd+ ( w & desire1 :]e9 ! mo/       
opposite s*ools meet ea* o!r1 ,sp9oza1  
,malebran*e1 & ,condillac1 ! philosophy 
( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 & t ( ! eighte5?6  
,"o1 a despis] ( humanity1 by an extreme
 & ill-und]/ood piety1 /rips man ( 8 own
 activity1 9 ord] to conc5trate x 9     
,god2 ! o!r transf]s x to nature4 ,9 bo?
 man is a m]e in/rum5t1 no?+ else ?an a 
mode ( ,god or a product ( nature4 ,:5  
desire is once tak5 z ! type ( human    
activity1 !re is an end ( all lib]ty &  
p]sonality4 ,a philosophy1 less         
sy/ematic1 by con=m+ itself to facts1   
c>ries ?r\gh common s5se to bett]       
results4 ,by di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! passive  
ph5om5on ( desire & ! p[] ( freely      
det]m9+ self1 x re/ores ! true activity 
t *>act]izes human p]sonality4 ,! w is !
 infallible sign & ! peculi> p[] ( a    

real & effective be+2 = h[ c\ld he :o   
%\ld be only a mode ( ano!r be+ f9d 9 8 
own borr[$ be+ a p[] capable ( will+ &  
produc+ acts ( :i* he %\ld feel himself 
! cause1 & ! responsible cause8  ,if !  
philosophy ( s5sation1 by sett+ out f   
passive ph5om5a1 _c expla9 true         
activity1 volunt>y & free activity1 we  
might reg>d x z demon/rat$ t ?is same   
philosophy _c give a true doctr9e (     
morality1 = all e?ics suppose lib]ty4 ,9
 ord] to impose rules ( action on a be+1
 x is necess>y t ?is be+ %\ld be capable
 ( fulfill+ or violat+ !m4 ,:at makes ! 
good & evil ( an action is n ! action   
itself1 b ! int5tion t has det]m9$ x4   
,be=e e equitable tribunal1 ! crime is 9
 ! int5tion1 & to ! int5tion ! puni%m5t 
is atta*$4 ,:]e1 !n1 lib]ty is want+1   
:]e !re is no?+ b desire & passion1 n   
ev5 a %ade ( morality subsi/s4 ,b we d n
 wi% to reject1 by ! previ\s "q1 ! e?ics
 ( s5sation4 ,we proce$ to exam9e 9     
itself ! pr9ciple t !y lay d[n1 & to %[ 
t f ?is pr9ciple c be d$uc$ nei!r ! idea

 ( good & evil1 nor any ( ! moral ideas 
t are atta*$ to x4  #b;d4 ,accord+ to ! 
philosophy ( s5sation1 ! good is no?+   
else ?an ! useful4 ,by sub/itut+ !      
useful = ! agreeable1 )\t *ang+ !       
pr9ciple1 !re has be5 contriv$ a        
conv5i5t refuge aga9/ _m difficulties2 =
 x w always be possible to di/+ui%      
int]e/ well und]/ood f app>5t & vulg>   
int]e/4 ,b ev5 "u ?is some:at ref9$ =m1 
! doctr9e t we are exam9+ none ! less   
de/roys ! di/9ction betwe5 good & evil4 
,if utility is ! sole measure ( !       
goodness ( actions1 ,i mu/ consid] only 
"o ?+ :5 an action is propos$ to me to  
d1--:at advantages c result f x to me8  
,s ,i make ! supposition t a fri5d1 ^:  
innoc5ce is kn[n to me1 falls into      
disfavor ) a k+1 or op9ion--a mi/ress m 
jeal\s & imp]i\s ?an all k+s1--& t !re  
is dang] 9 rema9+ fai?ful to him &      
advantage 9 sep>at+ myself f him2 if1 on
 "o side1 ! dang] is c]ta91 & on ! o!r !
 advantage is infallible1 x is cle> t ,i
 mu/ ei!r ab&on my un=tunate fri5d1 or  

r5\nce ! pr9ciple ( int]e/--( int]e/    
well und]/ood4  ,b x w be said to       
me3--?9k on ! unc]ta9ty ( human ?+s2    
rememb] t mis=tune may also ov]take y1 &
 d n ab&on y\r fri5d1 ?r\gh fe> t y may 
"o day be ab&on$4  ,i respond t1 at     
fir/1 x is ! future t is unc]ta91 b !   
pres5t is c]ta92 if ,i c reap great &   
unmi/akable advantages f an action1 x   
w\ld be absurd to sacrifice !m to !     
*ance ( a possible mis=tune4 ,besides1  
accord+ to my supposition1 all ! *ances 
( ! future are 9 my favor1--?is is !    
hypo!sis t we h made4  ,d n speak to me 
( public op9ion4 ,if p]sonal int]e/ is !
 only rational pr9ciple1 ! public reason
 mu/ be ) me4 ,if x 7 aga9/ me1 x w\ld  
be an objection aga9/ ! tru? ( !        
pr9ciple4 ,= h[ c\ld a true pr9ciple1   
rationally appli$1 be revolt+ to !      
public consci5ce8  ,nei!r oppose to me  
remorse4 ,:at remorse c ,i feel = hav+  
foll[$ ! tru?1 if ! pr9ciple ( int]e/ is
 9 fact moral tru?8 ,on ! contr>y1 ,i   
%\ld feel satisfaction on acc\nt ( x4   

,! rew>ds & puni%m5ts ( ano!r life      
rema94 ,b h[ are we to believe 9 ano!r  
life1 9 a sy/em t conf9es human         
consci\sness )9 ! limits ( trans=m$     
s5sation8  ,i h1 !n1 no motive to       
pres]ve fidelity to a fri5d4 ,& mank9d  
nev]!less imposes on me ?is fidelity2 &1
 if ,i am want+ 9 x1 ,i am di%onor$4    
,if happ9ess is ! highe/ aim1 good &    
evil are n 9 ! act itself1 b 9 its happy
 or unhappy results4  ,font5elle see+ a 
man l$ to puni%m5t1 said1 ,!re is a man 
:o has calculat$ badly4 ,:5ce x foll[s  
t1 if ?is man1 9 do+ :at he did1 c\ld h 
escap$ puni%m5t1 he w\ld h calculat$    
well1 & 8 conduct w\ld h be5 laudable4  
,! action !n becomes good or ill accord+
 to ! issue4 ,e act is ( itself         
indiff]5t1 & x is lot t qualifies x4    
,if ! hone/ is only ! useful1 ! g5ius ( 
calculation is ! highe/ wisdom2 x is ev5
 virtue6  ,b ?is g5ius is n )9 ! rea* ( 
ev]ybody4 ,x supposes1 ) long exp]i5ce (
 life1 a sure insight1 capable ( disc]n+
 all ! consequ5ces ( actions1 a head    

/rong & l>ge en\gh to embrace & weigh _!
 diff]5t *ances4 ,! "y man1 ! ignorant1 
! poor 9 m9d1 are n able to di/+ui%     
betwe5 ! good & ! evil1 ! hone/ & !     
di%one/4 ,& ev5 9 suppos+ ! mo/         
consummate prud5ce1 :at place rema9s1 9 
! pr(\nd obscurity ( human ?+s1 = *ance 
& ! un=ese56 ,9 tru?1 9 ! sy/em ( int]e/
 well und]/ood1 !re mu/ be great k 9    
ord] to be an hone/ man4 ,mu* less is   
requisite = ord9>y virtue1 ^: motto has 
always be53 ,d :at y ought1 let come :at
 may4#aid ,b ?is pr9ciple is precisely !
 opposite ( ! pr9ciple ( int]e/4 ,x is  
necess>y to *oose betwe5 !m4 ,if int]e/ 
is ! only pr9ciple av[$ by reason1      
dis9t]e/$ness is a lie & madness1 &     
lit]ally an incompreh5sible mon/] 9     
well-ord]$ human nature4  ,nev]!less    
humanity speaks ( dis9t]e/$ness1 & !reby
 x does n simply mean t wise selfi%ness 
t deprives itself ( a pleasure = a sur]1
 m delicate1 or m durable pleasure4 ,no 
"o has ev] believ$ t x 0 ! nature or !  
degree ( ! pleasure s\ght t con/itut$   

dis9t]e/$ness4 ,?is "n is aw>d$ only to 
! sacrifice ( an int]e/1 :atev] x may   
be1 to a motive free f all int]e/4 ,& ! 
human race1 n only ?us und]/&s          
dis9t]e/$ness1 b x believes t su* a     
dis9t]e/$ness exi/s2 x believes ! human 
s\l capable ( x4 ,x admires ! devot$ness
 ( ,regulus1 because x does n see :at   
int]e/ c\ld h impell$ t great man to g  
f> f 8 c\ntry to seek1 among cruel      
enemies1 a frightful dea?1 :5 he might h
 liv$ tranquil & ev5 honor$ 9 ! mid/ ( 8
 family & 8 fell[-citiz5s4  ,b glory1 x 
w be said1 ! passion ( glory inspir$    
,regulus2 x is1 !n1 int]e/ /ill t       
expla9s ! app>5t h]oism ( ! old ,roman4 
,admit1 !n1 t ?is mann] ( und]/&+ 8     
int]e/ is ev5 ridicul\sly absurd1 & t   
h]oes are v unskilful & inconsi/5t      
egoi/s4 ,in/ead ( erect+ /atues1 ) !    
deceiv$ human race1 to ,regulus1        
d',assas1 & ,/4 ,v9c5t de ,paul1 true   
philosophy mu/ s5d !m to !              
,petites-,maisons1 t a good regime may  
cure !m ( g5]osity1 *>ity1 & greatness (

 s\l1 & re/ore !m to ! sane /ate1 !     
normal /ate1 ! /ate 9 :i* man only ?9ks 
( himself1 & kn[s no o!r law1 no o!r    
pr9ciple ( action ?an 8 int]e/4  #c;d4  
,if !re is no lib]ty1 if !re is no      
ess5tial di/9ction betwe5 good & evil1  
if !re is only int]e/ well or ill       
und]/ood1 !re c be no obligation4  ,x is
 at fir/ v evid5t t obligation supposes 
a be+ capable ( fulfill+ x1 t duty is   
appli$ only to a free be+4 ,!n ! nature 
( obligation is su*1 t if we are        
del9qu5t 9 fulfill+ x1 we feel ourselves
 culpable1 :il/ if1 in/ead ( und]/&+ our
 int]e/ well1 we h und]/ood x ill1 !re  
foll[s only a s+le ?+1 t we are         
un=tunate4 ,are1 !n1 be+ culpable & be+ 
un=tunate ! same ?+8 ,^! are two ideas  
radically diff]5t4 ,y may advise me to  
und]/& my int]e/ well1 "u p5alty ( fall+
 into mis=tune2 y _c comm& me to see    
cle>ly 9 reg>d to my int]e/ "u p5alty ( 
crime4  ,imprud5ce has nev] be5 consid]$
 a crime4 ,:5 x is morally accus$1 x is 
mu* less z be+ wrong ?an z atte/+ vices 

( ! s\l1 lightness1 presumption1        
feebl5ess4  ,z we h said1 our true      
int]e/ is (t5 mo/ difficult ( disc]nm5t4
 ,obligation is always imm$iate &       
manife/4 ,9 va9 passion & desire combat 
x2 9 va9 ! reason+ t passion tra9s = its
 att5dance1 l a docile slave1 tries to  
smo!r x "u a mass ( sophisms3 ! in/9ct (
 consci5ce1 a cry ( ! s\l1 an intuition 
( reason1 diff]5t f reason+1 is         
suffici5t to repel all sophisms1 & make 
obligation appe>4  ,h[ev] press+ may be 
! solicitations ( int]e/1 we may always 
ent] into conte/ & arrangem5t ) x4 ,!re 
are a ?\s& ways ( be+ happy4 ,y assure  
me t1 by conduct+ myself 9 su* a mann]1 
,i %all arrive at =tune4 ,yes1 b ,i love
 repose m ?an =tune1 & ) happ9ess alone 
9 view1 activity is n bett] ?an slo?4   
,no?+ is m difficult ?an to advise any  
"o 9 reg>d to 8 int]e/1 no?+ is easi]   
?an to advise him 9 reg>d to honor4     
,aft] all1 9 practice1 ! useful is      
resolv$ into ! agreeable1 t is to say1  
into pleasure4 ,n[1 9 reg>d to pleasure1

 e ?+ dep5ds on humor & temp]am5t4 ,:5  
!re is nei!r good nor evil 9 itself1 !re
 are no pleasures m or less noble1 m or 
less elevat$2 !re are only pleasures t  
are m or less agreeable to u4 ,e ?+     
dep5ds on ! nature ( ea* "o4 ,?is is !  
reason :y int]e/ is s caprici\s4 ,ea* "o
 und]/&s x z x pleases him1 because ea* 
"o is ! judge ( :at pleases him4 ,"o is 
m mov$ by pleasures ( ! s5ses2 ano!r by 
pleasures ( m9d & he>t4 ,to ! latt]1 !  
passion ( glory takes ! place (         
pleasures ( ! s5ses2 to ! =m]1 !        
pleasure ( dom9ion appe>s mu* sup]ior to
 t ( glory4 ,ea* man has 8 own passions1
 ea* man1 !n1 has 8 own way ( und]/&+ 8 
int]e/2 & ev5 my int]e/ ( to-day is n my
 int]e/ ( to-morr[4 ,! revolutions (    
heal?1 age1 & ev5ts greatly modify our  
ta/es1 our humors4 ,we are ourselves    
p]petually *ang+1 & ) u *ange our       
desires & our int]e/s4  ,x is n s )     
obligation4 ,x exi/s n1 or x is         
absolute4 ,! idea ( obligation implies t
 ( some?+ inflexible4 ,t alone is a duty

 f :i* "o _c be loos$ "u any pretext1 & 
is1 by ! same title1 a duty = all4 ,!re 
is "o ?+ be=e :i* all ! caprices ( my   
m9d1 ( my imag9ation1 ( my s5sibility   
mu/ disappe>1--! idea ( ! good ) !      
obligation :i* x involves4 ,to ?is      
supreme comm& ,i c oppose nei!r my      
humor1 nor circum/ances1 nor ev5        
difficulties4 ,?is law admits ( no      
delay1 no accommodation1 no excuse4 ,:5 
x speaks1 be x to y or me1 9 :atev]     
place1 "u :atev] circum/ance1 9 :atev]  
disposition we may be1 x only rema9s = u
 to obey4 ,we are able n to obey1 = we  
are free2 b e disob$i5ce to ! law appe>s
 to ourselves a fault m or less grave1 a
 bad use ( our lib]ty4 ,& ! violat$ law 
has its imm$iate p5al sanction 9 !      
remorse t x inflicts ^u u4  ,! only     
p5alty t is br\ght ^u u by ! c\nsels (  
prud5ce1 compreh5d$ m or less well1     
foll[$ m or less well1 is1 9 ! f9al     
acc\nt1 m or less happ9ess or           
unhapp9ess4 ,n[ ,i pray y1 am ,i        
obligat$ to be happy8 ,c obligation     

dep5d ^u happ9ess1 t is to say1 on a ?+ 
t x is equally impossible = me to always
 seek & obta9 at w8 ,if ,i am obligat$1 
x mu/ be 9 my p[] to fulfil ! obligation
 impos$4 ,b my lib]ty has b little p[]  
ov] my happ9ess1 :i* dep5ds ^u a ?\s&   
circum/ances indep5d5t ( me1 :il/ x is  
all 9 all 9 reg>d to virtue1 = virtue is
 only an employm5t ( lib]ty4 ,moreov]1  
happ9ess is 9 itself1 morally1 nei!r    
bett] nor worse ?an unhapp9ess4 ,if ,i  
und]/& my int]e/ badly1 ,i am puni%$ = x
 by regret1 n by remorse4 ,unhapp9ess c 
ov]:elm me2 x does n disgrace me1 if x  
is n ! consequ5ce ( "s vice ( ! s\l4  ,n
 t ,i w\ld r5ew /oicism & say to suff]+1
 ,?\ art no evil4 ,no1 ,i e>ne/ly advise
 man to escape suff]+ z mu* z he c1 to  
und]/& well 8 int]e/1 to %un unhapp9ess 
& seek happ9ess4 ,i only wi% to e/abli% 
t happ9ess is "o ?+ & virtue ano!r1 t   
man necess>ily aspires aft] happ9ess1 b 
t he is only obligat$ to virtue1 & t    
consequ5tly1 by ! side ( & above int]e/ 
well und]/ood is a moral law1 t is to   

say1 z consci\sness atte/s1 & ! :ole    
human race av[s1 an imp]ative           
prescription ( :i* "o _c volunt>ily     
dive/ himself )\t crime & %ame4  #d?4   
,if int]e/ does n acc\nt = ! idea (     
duty1 by a necess>y consequ5ce1 x does n
 m acc\nt = t ( "r2 = duty & "r         
reciprocally suppose ea* o!r4  ,might & 
"r mu/ n be conf\nd$4 ,a be+ might h    
imm5se p[]1 t ( ! :irlw9d1 ( !          
?und]bolt1 t ( "o ( ! =ces ( nature2 if 
lib]ty is n jo9$ to x1 x is only a      
fe>ful & t]rible ?+1 x is n a p]son1--x 
may inspire1 9 ! highe/ degree1 fe> &   
hope1--x has no "r to respect2 "o has no
 duties t[>ds x4  ,duty & "r are bro!rs4
 ,_! common "m is lib]ty4  ,!y are born 
at ! same "t1 are develop$ & p]i%       
toge!r4 ,x might ev5 be said t duty & "r
 make "o1 & are ! same be+1 hav+ a face 
on two diff]5t sides4 ,:at1 9 fact1 is  
my "r to y\r respect1 except ! duty y h 
to respect me1 because ,i am a free be+8
 ,b y are y\rself a free be+1 & !       
f\ndation ( my "r & y\r duty becomes = y

 ! f\ndation ( an equal "r1 & 9 me ( an 
equal duty4#aie  ,i say equal ) !       
exacte/ equality1 = lib]ty1 & lib]ty    
alone1 is equal to itself4 ,all ! re/ is
 div]se2 by all ! re/ m5 diff]2 =       
resemblance implies diff]5ce4 ,z !re are
 no two leaves t are ! same1 !re are no 
two m5 absolutely ! same 9 body1 s5ses1 
m9d1 he>t4 ,b x is impossible to        
conceive ( diff]5ce betwe5 ! free w ( "o
 man & ! free w ( ano!r4 ,i am free or  
,i am n free4 ,if ,i am free1 ,i am free
 z mu* z y1 & y are z mu* z ,i4 ,!re is 
n 9 ?is m or less4 ,"o is a moral p]son 
z mu* z1 & by ! same title z ano!r moral
 p]son4 ,volition1 :i* is ! seat (      
lib]ty1 is ! same 9 all m54 ,x may h 9  
its s]vice diff]5t in/rum5ts1 p[]s      
diff]5t1 & consequ5tly unequal1 :e!r    
mat]ial or spiritual4 ,b ! p[]s ( :i* w 
disposes are n x1#aif = x does n dispose
 ( !m 9 an absolute mann]4 ,! only free 
p[] is t ( w1 b t is ess5tially s4 ,if w
 recognizes laws1 ^! laws are n motives1
 spr+s t move x1--!y are ideal laws1 t (

 ju/ice1 = example2 w recognizes ?is    
law1 & at ! same "t x has ! consci\sness
 ( ! ability to fulfil x or to break x1 
do+ ! "o only ) ! consci\sness ( !      
ability to d ! o!r1 & reciprocally4     
,!re9 is ! type ( lib]ty1 & at ! same "t
 ( true equality2 e ?+ else is false4 ,x
 is n true t m5 h ! "r to be equally    
ri*1 beautiful1 robu/1 to enjoy equally1
 9 a ^w1 to be equally =tunate2 = !y    
orig9ally & necess>ily diff] 9 all ^?   
po9ts ( _! nature t correspond to       
pleasure1 to ri*es1 to good =tune4 ,god 
has made u ) p[]s unequal 9 reg>d to all
 ^! ?+s4 ,"h equality is aga9/ nature & 
et]nal ord]2 = div]sity & diff]5ce1 z   
well z h>mony1 are ! law ( creation4 ,to
 dream ( su* an equality is a /range    
mi/ake1 a deplorable error4 ,false      
equality is ! idol ( ill-=m$ m9ds &     
he>ts1 ( disquiet & ambiti\s egoism4    
,true equality accepts )\t %ame all !   
ext]ior inequalities t ,god has made1 & 
t x is n 9 ! p[] ( man n only to efface1
 b ev5 to modify4 ,noble lib]ty has no?+

 to settle ) ! furies ( pride & envy4 ,z
 x does n aspire to dom9ation1 s1 & by  
virtue ( ! same pr9ciple1 x does n m    
aspire to a *im]ical equality ( m9d1 (  
beauty1 ( =tune1 ( enjoym5ts4 ,moreov]1 
su* an equality1 7 x possible1 w\ld be (
 little value 9 its own eyes2 x asks    
some?+ mu* great] ?an pleasure1 =tune1  
rank1 to wit1 respect4 ,respect1 an     
equal respect ( ! sacr$ "r ( be+ free 9 
e ?+ t con/itutes ! p]son1 t p]son :i*  
is truly man2 ?is is :at lib]ty & ) x   
true equality claim1 or r imp]atively   
dem&4 ,respect mu/ n be conf\nd$ )      
homage4 ,i r5d] homage to g5ius &       
beauty4 ,i respect humanity alone1 & by 
t ,i mean all free natures1 = e ?+ t is 
n free 9 man is =eign to him4 ,man is   
!re=e ! equal ( man precisely 9 e ?+ t  
makes him man1 & ! reign ( true equality
 exacts on ! "p ( all only ! same       
respect = :at ea* "o possesses equally 9
 himself1 bo? "y & old1 bo? ugly &      
beautiful1 bo? ri* & poor1 bo? ! man (  
g5ius & ! m$iocre man1 bo? woman & man1 

:atev] has consci\sness ( be+ a p]son & 
n a ?+4 ,! equal respect ( common lib]ty
 is ! pr9ciple at once ( duty & "r2 x is
 ! virtue ( ea* & ! security ( all2 by  
an admirable agreem5t1 x is dignity     
among m51 & accord+ly peace on e>?4 ,su*
 is ! great & holy image ( lib]ty &     
equality1 :i* has made ! he>ts ( our    
fa!rs beat1 & ! he>ts ( all virtu\s &   
enlight5$ m51 ( all true fri5ds (       
humanity4 ,su* is ! ideal t true        
philosophy pursues across ! ages1 f !   
g5]\s dreams ( ,plato to ! solid        
conceptions ( ,montesquieu1 f ! fir/    
free legislation ( ! smalle/ city (     
,greece to our decl>ation ( rights1 & ! 
immortal works ( ! con/itu5t ,assembly4 
,! philosophy ( s5sation />ts ) a       
pr9ciple t condemns x to consequ5ces z  
disa/r\s z ^? ( ! pr9ciple ( lib]ty are 
b5efic5t4 ,by conf\nd+ w ) desire1 x    
ju/ifies passion1 :i* is desire 9 all   
its =ce--passion1 :i* is precisely !    
opposite ( lib]ty4 ,x accord+ly un*a9s  
all ! desires & all ! passions1 x gives 

full re9 to imag9ation & ! he>t2 x r5d]s
 ea* man mu* less happy on acc\nt ( :at 
he possesses1 ?an mis]able on acc\nt (  
:at he lacks2 x makes him reg>d 8       
neighbors ) an eye ( envy & contempt1 & 
cont9ually pu%es society t[>ds an>*y or 
tyranny4 ,:i!r1 9 fact1 w\ld y h int]e/ 
lead 9 ! tra9 ( desire8 ,my desire is   
c]ta9ly to be ! mo/ =tunate possible4   
,my int]e/ is to seek to be s by all    
means1 :atev] !y may be1 "u ! s+le      
res]ve t !y be n contr>y to _! end4 ,if 
,i am born ! fir/ ( m51 ! ri*e/1 ! mo/  
beautiful1 ! mo/ p[]ful1 etc41 ,i %all d
 e ?+ to pres]ve ! advantages ,i h      
receiv$4 ,if fate has giv5 me bir? 9 a  
rank little elevat$1 ) a mod]ate =tune1 
limit$ tal5ts1 & imm5se desires--= x _c 
too (t5 be repeat$1 desire ( e k9d      
aspires aft] ! inf9ite--,i %all d e ?+  
to rise above ! cr[d1 9 ord] to increase
 my p[]1 my =tune1 my joys4 ,un=tunate  
on acc\nt ( my position 9 ?is _w1 9 ord]
 to *ange x1 ,i dream (1 & call =       
revolutions1 x is true1 )\t en?usiasm & 

political fanaticism1 = int]e/ alone    
does n produce ^! noble follies1 b "u ! 
%>p goad ( vanity & ambition4 ,!reby1   
!n1 ,i arrive at =tune & p[]2 int]e/1   
!n1 claims security1 z be=e x invok$    
agitation4 ,! ne$ ( security br+s me    
back f an>*y to ! ne$ ( ord]1 provid$   
ord] be to my pr(it2 & ,i become a      
tyrant1 if ,i c1 or ! gilt s]vant ( a   
tyrant4 ,aga9/ an>*y & tyranny1 ^? two  
sc\rges ( lib]ty1 ! only ramp>t is !    
univ]sal s5tim5t ( "r1 f\nd$ on ! firm  
di/9ction betwe5 good & evil1 ! j & !   
useful1 ! hone/ & ! agreeable1 virtue & 
int]e/1 w & desire1 s5sation &          
consci5ce4  #e4 ,let u aga9 signalize "o
 ( ! necess>y consequ5ces ( ! doctr9e ( 
int]e/4  ,a free be+1 9 possession ( !  
sacr$ rule ( ju/ice1 _c violate x1 kn[+ 
t he %\ld & may foll[ x1 )\t imm$iately 
recogniz+ t he m]its puni%m5t4 ,! idea (
 puni%m5t is n an artificial idea1      
borr[$ f ! pr(\nd calculations (        
legislators2 legislations re/ ^u !      
natural idea ( puni%m5t4 ,?is idea1     

correspond+ to t ( lib]ty & ju/ice1 is  
necess>ily want+ :]e ! =m] two d n exi/4
 ,does he :o obeys1 & fatally obeys 8   
desires1 by ! attraction ( pleasure &   
happ9ess1 suppos+ t1 )\t any o!r motive 
?an t ( int]e/1 he does an act con=m$1  
ext]nally at lea/1 to ! rule ( ju/ice1  
m]it any ?+ by do+ su* an action8 ,n !  
lea/ 9 ! _w4 ,consci5ce attributes to   
him no m]it1 & no "o owes him ?anks or  
recomp5se1 = he only ?9ks ( himself4 ,on
 ! o!r h&1 if he injures o!rs 9 wi%+ to 
s]ve himself1 he does n feel culpable1 &
 no "o c say to him t he has m]it$      
puni%m5t4 ,a free be+ :o wills :at he   
does1 :o has a law1 & c con=m to x1 or  
break x1 is alone responsible = 8 acts4 
,b :at responsibility c !re be 9 !      
abs5ce ( lib]ty & a recogniz$ & accept$ 
rule ( ju/ice8 ,! man ( s5sation &      
desire t5ds to 8 own good "u ! law (    
int]e/1 z ! /one is drawn t[>ds ! c5tre 
( ! e>? "u ! law ( gravitation1 z !     
ne$le po9ts to ! pole4 ,man may err 9 ! 
pursuit ( 8 int]e/4 ,9 ?is case1 :at is 

to be done6 ,z x seems1 to put him aga9 
9 ! "r way4 ,in/ead ( t1 he is puni%$4  
,& = :at1 ,i pray y8 ,= be+ deceiv$4 ,b 
error m]its advice1 n puni%m5t4         
,puni%m5t has1 9 ! sy/em ( int]e/1 no m 
! sanction ( moral s5se ?an recomp5se4  
,puni%m5t is only an act ( p]sonal      
def5ce on ! "p ( society2 x is an       
example :i* x gives1 9 ord] to inspire a
 salut>y t]ror4 ,^! motives are         
excell5t1 if x be add$ t ?is puni%m5t is
 j 9 itself1 t x is m]it$1 & t x is     
legitimately appli$ to ! action         
committ$4 ,omit t1 & ! o!r motives lose 
_! au?ority1 & !re rema9s only an       
ex]cise ( =ce1 de/itute ( all morality4 
,!n ! culprit is n puni%$2 he is smitt51
 or ev5 put to dea?1 z ! animal t       
injures in/ead ( s]v+ is put to dea? )\t
 scruple4 ,! condemn$ does n b[ 8 head  
to ! :olesome rep>ation due to ju/ice1 b
 to ! weight ( irons or ! /roke ( ! axe4
 ,! *a/isem5t is n a legitimate         
satisfaction1 an expiation :i*1         
compreh5d$ by ! culprit1 reconciles him 

9 8 own eyes ) ! ord] t he has violat$4 
,x is a /orm t he c\ld n escape2 x is ! 
?und]-bolt t falls ^u him2 x is a =ce m 
p[]ful ?an 8 own1 :i* compasses &       
ov]?r[s him4 ,! appe>ance ( public      
*a/isem5ts acts1 )\t d\bt1 ^u !         
imag9ation ( peoples2 b x does n        
enlight5 _! reason & speak to _!        
consci5ce2 x intimidates !m1 p]haps2 x  
does n s(t5 !m4 ,s recomp5se is only an 
additional attraction1 add$ to all !    
o!rs4 ,z1 prop]ly speak+1 !re is no     
m]it1 recomp5se is simply an advantage t
 "o desires1 t is /riv5 = & obta9$ )\t  
atta*+ to x any moral idea4 ,?us is     
degrad$ & effac$ ! great in/itution1    
natural & div9e1 ( ! recomp5se ( virtue 
by happ9ess1 & ( rep>ation = a fault by 
proportionate suff]+4#aig  ,we may !n   
draw ! conclusion1 )\t fe> ( its be+    
contradict$ ei!r by analysis or         
dialectics1 t ! doctr9e ( int]e/ is     
incompatible ) ! mo/ c]ta9 facts1 ) !   
/ronge/ convictions ( humanity4 ,let u  
add1 t ?is doctr9e is n less            

incompatible ) ! hope ( ano!r _w1 :]e ! 
pr9ciple ( ju/ice w be bett] realiz$ ?an
 9 ?is4  ,i w n seek :e!r ! s5suali/ic  
metaphysics c arrive at an inf9ite be+1 
au?or ( ! univ]se & man4 ,i am well     
p]suad$ t x _c4 ,= e pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( 
,god supposes 9 ! human m9d pr9ciples ( 
:i* s5sation r5d]s no acc\nt1--=        
example1 ! univ]sal & necess>y pr9ciple 
( causality1 )\t :i* ,i %\ld h no ne$ ( 
seek+1 no p[] ( f9d+ ! cause ( :atev]   
exi/s4#aih ,all t ,i wi% to e/abli% "h  
is1 t 9 ! sy/em ( int]e/1 man1 n        
possess+ any truly moral attribute1 has 
no "r to put 9 ,god t ( :i* he f9ds no  
trace ei!r 9 ! _w or 9 himself4 ,! ,god 
( ! e?ics ( int]e/ mu/ be analog\s to ! 
man ( ^! same e?ics4 ,h[ c\ld !y        
attribute to him ! ju/ice & ! love--,i  
mean dis9t]e/$ love--( :i* !y _c h !    
lea/ idea8 ,! ,god t !y c admit loves   
himself1 & loves only himself4 ,&       
reciprocally1 n consid]+ him z ! supreme
 pr9ciple ( *>ity & ju/ice1 we c nei!r  
love nor honor him1 & ! only wor%ip t we

 c r5d] him1 is t ( ! fe> ) :i* 8       
omnipot5ce inspires u4  ,:at holy hope  
c\ld we !n f\nd ^u su* a ,god8 ,& we :o 
h "s "t grovell$ ^u ?is e>?1 ?9k+ only (
 ourselves1 seek+ only pleasure & a     
pitiable happ9ess1 :at suff]+s nobly    
borne = ju/ice1 :at g5]\s ef=ts to      
ma9ta9 & develop ! dignity ( our s\l1   
:at virtu\s affections = o!r s\ls1 c we 
(f] to ! ,fa!r ( humanity z titles to 8 
m]ciful ju/ice8 ,! pr9ciple t mo/       
p]suades ! human race ( ! immortality ( 
! s\l is /ill ! necess>y pr9ciple ( m]it
 & dem]it1 :i*1 n f9d+ "h bel[ its exact
 satisfaction1 & yet "u ! necessity (   
f9d+ x1 inspires u to call ^u ,god = its
 satisfaction1 :o has n put 9 our he>ts 
! law ( ju/ice to violate x himself 9   
reg>d to u4#aii ,n[1 we h j se5 t !     
e?ics ( int]e/ de/roy ! pr9ciple ( m]it 
& dem]it1 bo? 9 ?is _w1 & above all1 9 !
 _w to come4 ,accord+ly1 !re is no reg>d
 beyond ?is _w1--no rec\rse to an       
all-p[]ful judge1 :olly j & :olly good1 
aga9/ ! sports ( =tune & ! imp]fections 

( human ju/ice4 ,e ?+ is complet$ = man 
betwe5 bir? & dea?1 9 spite ( ! in/9cts 
& pres5tim5ts ( 8 he>t1 & ev5 !         
pr9ciples ( 8 reason4  ,! disciples (   
,helvetius w1 p]haps1 claim ! glory (   
hav+ fre$ humanity f ! fe>s & hopes t   
turn x aside f its true int]e/s4 ,x is a
 s]vice :i* mank9d w appreciate4 ,b s9ce
 !y conf9e our :ole de/9y to ?is _w1 let
 u dem& ( !m :at lot s wor?y ( envy !y h
 9 res]ve = u "h1 :at social ord] !y    
*>ge ) our good =tune1 :at politics1 9  
f9e1 are d]iv$ f _! e?ics4#bjj  ,y      
already "k4 ,we h demon/rat$ t !        
philosophy ( s5sation kn[s nei!r true   
lib]ty nor true "r4 ,:at1 9 fact1 is w =
 ?is philosophy8 ,x is desire4 ,:at1 !n1
 is "r8 ,! p[] ( satisfy+ desires4 ,on  
?is score1 man is n free1 & "r is might4
  ,once m1 no?+ p]ta9s less to man ?an  
desire4 ,desire comes ( ne$ :i* man does
 n make1 :i* he submits to4 ,he submits 
9 ! same way to desire4 ,to r$uce w to  
desire is to annihilate lib]ty2 x is    
worse /ill1 x is to put x :]e x is n2 x 

is to create a m5daci\s lib]ty t becomes
 an in/rum5t ( crime & mis]y4 ,to call  
man to su* a lib]ty is to op5 8 s\l to  
inf9ite desires1 :i* x is impossible =  
him to satisfy4 ,desire is 9 its nature 
)\t limits1 & our p[] is v limit$4 ,if  
we 7 alone 9 ?is _w1 we %\ld ev5 !n be  
mu* tr\bl$ to satisfy our desires4 ,b we
 press aga9/ ea* o!r ) imm5se desires1 &
 limit$1 div]se1 & unequal p[]s4 ,:5 "r 
is ! =ce t is 9 ea* ( u1 equality (     
rights is a *im]a1--all rights are      
unequal1 s9ce all =ces are unequal & c  
nev] cease to be s4 ,x is1 !re=e1       
necess>y to r5\nce equality z well z    
lib]ty2 or if "o inv5ts a false equality
 z well z a false lib]ty1 he puts       
humanity 9 pursuit ( a phantom4  ,su*   
are ! social elem5ts t ! e?ics ( int]e/ 
give to politics4 ,f su* elem5ts ,i defy
 all ! politics ( ! s*ool ( s5sation &  
int]e/ to produce a s+le day ( lib]ty & 
happ9ess = ! human race4  ,:5 "r is     
might1 ! natural /ate ( m5 among        
!mselves1 is w>4 ,all desir+ ! same ?+s1

 !y are all necess>ily enemies2 & 9 ?is 
w>1 woe to ! feeble1 to ! feeble 9 body 
& ! feeble 9 m9d6 ,! /rong] are ! ma/]s 
by p]fect "r4 ,s9ce "r is might1 !      
feeble may compla9 ( nature t has n made
 !m /rong1 & n compla9 ( ! /rong man :o 
uses 8 "r 9 oppress+ !m4 ,! feeble !n   
call deception to _! aid2 & x is 9 ?is  
/rife betwe5 cunn+ & =ce t humanity     
combats ) itself4  ,yes1 if !re are only
 ne$s1 desires1 passions1 int]e/s1 )    
diff]5t =ces pitt$ aga9/ ea* o!r1 w>1 a 
w> sometimes decl>$ & bloody1 sometimes 
sil5t & full ( meannesses1 is 9 ! nature
 ( ?+s4 ,no social art c *ange ?is      
nature1--x may be m or less cov]$2 x    
always reappe>s1 ov]comes & r5ds ! veil 
) :i* a m5daci\s legislation envelops x4
 ,dream1 !n1 ( lib]ty = be+s t are n    
free1 ( equality betwe5 be+s t are      
ess5tially diff]5t1 ( respect = rights  
:]e !re is no "r1 & ( ! e/abli%m5t (    
ju/ice on an inde/ructible f\ndation (  
inimical passions6 ,f su* a f\ndation c 
spr+ only endless tr\bles or oppression1

 or r all ^! evils toge!r 9 a necess>y  
circle4  ,?is fatal circle c be brok5   
only by ! aid ( pr9ciples :i* all !     
metamorphoses ( s5sation d n eng5d]1 & =
 :i* int]e/ _c acc\nt1 :i* none ! less  
subsi/ to ! honor & = ! safety (        
humanity4 ,^! pr9ciples are ^? t "t has 
little by little drawn f ,*ri/ianity 9  
ord] to give !m = ! guidance ( mod]n    
societies4 ,y w f9d !m writt5 9 !       
glori\s decl>ation ( rights t =ev] broke
 ! mon>*y ( ,l\is ,,xv41 & prep>$ !     
con/itutional mon>*y4 ,!y are 9 ! *>t] t
 gov]ns u1 9 our laws1 9 our            
in/itutions1 9 our mann]s1 9 ! air t we 
brea!4 ,!y s]ve at once z f\ndations =  
our society & ! new philosophy necess>y 
to a new ord]4#bja  ,p]haps y w ask me  
h[1 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 s _m di/+ui%$1 
s _m hone/ s\ls c\ld let !mselves be    
s$uc$ by a sy/em t mu/ h be5 revolt+ to 
all _! s5tim5ts4 ,i w answ] by rem9d+ y 
t ! eighte5? c5tury 0 an immod]ate      
reaction aga9/ ! faults into :i* _h     
sadly fall5 ! old age ( a great c5tury &

 a great k+1 t is to say1 ! revocation (
 ! edict ( ,nantes1 ! p]secution ( all  
free & elevat$ philosophy1 a n>r[ &     
suspici\s devotion1 & intol]ance1 ) its 
usual companion1 hypocrisy4 ,^! excesses
 mu/ h produc$ opposite excesses4 ,mme4 
de ,ma9t5on op5$ ! r\te to ,mme4 de     
,pompad\r4 ,aft] ! mode ( devotion comes
 t ( lic5se2 x takes e ?+ by /orm4 ,x   
desc5ds f ! c\rt to ! nobility1 to !    
cl]gy ev51 & accord+ly to ! p4 ,x c>ri$ 
away ! be/ spirits1 ev5 g5ius itself4 ,x
 put a =eign philosophy 9 ! place ( !   
national philosophy1 culpable1 p]secut$ 
z x _h be51 = n be+ irreconcilable )    
,*ri/ianity4 ,a disciple ( ,locke1 :om  
,locke _h disc>d$1 ,condillac1 took !   
place ( ,desc>tes1 z ! au?or ( ,c&ide & 
la ,pucelle _h tak5 ! place ( ,corneille
 & ,bossuet1 z ,b\*] & ,vanloo _h tak5 !
 place ( ,lesueur & ,p\ss94 ,! e?ics (  
pleasure & int]e/ 7 ! necess>y e?ics ( t
 epo*4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$ f ?is t all  
s\ls 7 corrupt4 ,m51 says ,m4           
,roy]-,coll>d1 are nei!r z good nor z   

bad z _! pr9ciples#bjb4 ,no /oic has be5
 z au/]e z /oicism1 no epicurean z      
en]vat$ z epicureanism4 ,human weakness 
practically baffles virtu\s !ories2 9   
return1 ?ank ,god1 ! in/9ct ( ! he>t    
condemns to inconsi/5cy ! hone/ man :o  
errs 9 bad !ories4 ,accord+ly1 9 !      
eighte5? c5tury1 ! mo/ g5]\s & mo/      
dis9t]e/$ s5tim5ts (t5 %one =? "u !     
reign ( ! philosophy ( s5sation & !     
e?ics ( int]e/4 ,b x is none ! less     
true1 t ! philosophy ( s5sation is      
false1 & ! e?ics ( int]e/ de/ructive (  
all morality4  ,i %\ld p]haps make an   
apology = s long a lecture2 b x 0       
necess>y to combat s]i\sly a doctr9e (  
morality radically incompatible ) t :i* 
,i w\ld make p5etrate y\r m9ds & y\r    
s\ls4 ,x 0 especially necess>y = me to  
/rip ! e?ics ( int]e/ ( t false         
appe>ance ( lib]ty :i* !y usurp 9 va94  
,i ma9ta91 on ! contr>y1 t !y are !     
e?ics ( slaves1 & s5d !m back to ! "t :5
 !y rul$4 ,n[1 ! pr9ciple ( int]e/ be+  
de/roy$1 ,i propose to exam9e o!r       

pr9ciples also1 less false )\t d\bt1 b  
/ill defective1 exclusive1 & incomplete1
 ^u :i* celebrat$ sy/ems h pret5d$ to   
f\nd e?ics4 ,i w successively combat ^! 
pr9ciples tak5 9 !mselves1 & w !n br+ !m
 toge!r1 r$uc$ to _! j value1 9 a !ory  
l>ge en\gh to conta9 all ! true elem5ts 
( morality1 9 ord] to express fai?fully 
common s5se & entire human consci\sness4
  ,,footnotes3  #aij ,on ! e?ics (      
int]e/1 to ?is lecture may be jo9$ ^? ( 
vol4 iii4 ( ! #a/ ,s]ies1 on ! doctr9e (
 ,helvetius & ,/4 ,lamb]t4  #aia ,! ^w  
bonheur1 :i* has no exact ,engli%       
equival5t1 :i* ,m4 ,c\s9 uses 9 8 e?ical
 discussions 9 ! precise s5se ( !       
def9ition giv5 above1 we h sometimes    
translat$ happ9ess1 sometimes good      
=tune1 sometimes prosp]ity1 sometimes   
=tune4 ,:5 "o has 9 m9d ! ?+1 he w n be 
tr\bl$ by ! m or less exact ^w t        
indicates x3--all language1 at be/1 is  
only symbolic2 x be>s ! same relation to
 ?\ght z ! =ms ( nature d to ! laws t   
produce & gov]n !m4 ,! true read] nev]  

mi/akes ! symbol = ! ?+ symboliz$1 !    
%ad[ = ! reality4  #aib ,on ! dang] (   
seek+ unity be=e all1 see 9 ! #c;d      
,s]ies1 ,fragm5ts ,philosophiques1 vol4 
iv41 our ,exam9ation ( ! ,lectures ( ,m4
 ,l>omegui]e4  #aic ,on ! diff]5ce      
betwe5 desire1 intellig5ce1 & w1 see !  
,exam9ation1 already cit$1 ( ! ,lectures
 ( ,m4 ,l>omegui]e4  #aid #a/ ,s]ies1   
vol4 iii41 p4 #aic3 ,9 ! doctr9e (      
int]e/1 e man seeks ! useful1 b he is n 
sure ( atta9+ x4 ,he may1 by d9t (      
prud5ce & pr(\nd comb9ations1 increase 9
 8 favor ! *ances ( success2 x is       
impossible t !re %\ld n rema9 "s *ances 
aga9/ him2 he nev] pursues1 !n1 any ?+ b
 a probable result4 ,on ! contr>y1 9 !  
doctr9e ( duty1 ,i am always sure (     
obta9+ ! la/ end t ,i propose to myself1
 moral good4 ,i risk my life to save my 
fell[2 if1 ?r\gh mis*ance1 ,i miss ?is  
end1 !re is ano!r :i* does n1 :i* _c1   
escape me1--,i h aim$ at ! good1 ,i h   
be5 successful4 ,moral good1 be+        
especially 9 ! virtu\s int5tion1 is     

always 9 my p[] & )9 my rea*2 z to !    
mat]ial good t c result f ! action      
itself1 ,provid5ce alone disposes ( x4  
,let u felicitate ourselves t ,provid5ce
 has plac$ our moral de/9y 9 our own    
h&s1 by mak+ x dep5d ^u ! good & n ^u ! 
useful4 ,! w1 9 ord] to act 9 ! sad     
trials ( life1 has ne$ ( be+ su/a9$ by  
c]ta9ty4 ,:o w\ld be dispos$ to give 8  
blood = an unc]ta9 end8 ,success is a   
complicat$ problem1 t1 9 ord] to be     
solv$1 exacts all ! p[] ( ! calculus (  
probabilities4 ,:at labor & :at         
unc]ta9ties does su* a calculus involve6
 ,d\bt is a v sad prep>ation = action4  
,b :5 "o proposes be=e all to d 8 duty1 
he acts )\t any p]plexity4 ,d :at y     
ought1 let come :at may1 is a motto t   
does n deceive4 ,) su* an end1 we are   
sure ( nev] pursu+ x 9 va94  #aie ,see !
 developm5t ( ! idea ( "r1 lectures #ad 
& #ae4  #aif ,see lecture #ad1 ,!ory (  
lib]ty4  #aig ,see ! prec$+ lecture1 &  
lectures #ad & #ae4  #aih #a/ "p1       
lecture #a4  #aii ,see lecture #af4     

#bjj ,on ! politics t are d]iv$ f !     
philosophy ( s5sation1 see ! f\r        
lectures t we devot$ to ! exposition &  
refutation ( ! doctr9e ( ,hobbes1 vol4  
iii4 ( ! #a/ ,s]ies4  #bja ,^! words    
suffici5tly m>k ! g5]\s epo* 9 :i* we   
pron\nce !m1 )\t w\nd+ ! au?ority & !   
applauses ( a noble y\?1 :5 ,m4 de      
,*ateaubri& cov]$ ! ,re/oration ) 8 own 
glory1 :5 ,m4 ,roy]-,coll>d presid$ ov] 
public in/ruction1 ,m4 ,pasqui]1 ,m4    
,la9e1 ,m4 de ,s]re ov] ju/ice & !      
int]ior1 ,m>%al ,/4 ,cyr ov] w>1 & !    
,duke de ,ri*elieu ov] =eign affairs1 :5
 ! ,duke de ,broglie prep>$ ! true      
legislation ( ! press1 & ,m4 ,decazes1 !
 au?or ( ! wise & c\rage\s ord9ance (   
,septemb] #e1 #ahaf1 0 at ! head ( !    
c\ncils ( ! cr[n2 :5 f9ally1 ,l\is      
,,xviii4 sep>at$ himself1 l ,h5ry ,,iv41
 f 8 olde/ s]vants 9 ord] to be ! k+ ( !
 :ole nation4  #bjb ,oeuvres de ,reid1  
vol4 iv41 p4 #big3 ,m5 are nei!r z good 
nor z bad z _! pr9ciples2 &1 z !re is no
 skeptic 9 ! /reet1 s ,i am sure !re is 

no dis9t]e/$ spectator ( human actions  
:o is n compell$ to disc]n !m z j &     
unju/4 ,skepticism has no light t does n
 pale be=e ! spl5dor ( t vivid int]nal  
light t light5s ! objects ( moral       
p]ception1 z ! light ( day light5s !    
objects ( s5sible p]ception4            
,,lecture ,,xiii4  ,,o!r ,,defective    
,,pr9ciples4      ,! e?ics (            
s5tim5t4--,! e?ics f\nd$ on ! pr9ciple (
     ! int]e/ ( ! greate/ numb]4--,!    
e?ics f\nd$ on !     w ( ,god alone4--,!
 e?ics f\nd$ on ! puni%m5ts &     rew>ds
 ( ano!r life4   ,aga9/ ! e?ics (       
int]e/1 all g5]\s s\ls take refuge 9 !  
e?ics ( s5tim5t4 ,! foll[+ are "s ( !   
facts on :i* ^! e?ics are support$1 & by
 :i* !y seem to be au?oriz$4  ,:5 we h  
done a good action1 is x n c]ta9 t we   
exp]i5ce a pleasure ( a c]ta9 nature1   
:i* is to u ! rew>d ( ?is action8 ,?is  
pleasure does n come f ! s5ses--x has   
nei!r its pr9ciple nor its measure 9 an 
impression made ^u our organs4 ,nei!r is
 x conf\nd$ ) ! joy ( satisfi$ p]sonal  

int]e/1--we are n mov$ 9 ! same mann]1 9
 ?9k+ t we h succe$$1 & 9 ?9k+ t we h   
be5 hone/4 ,! pleasure atta*$ to !      
te/imony ( a good consci5ce is pure2 o!r
 pleasures are mu* alloy$4 ,x is        
durable1 :il/ ! o!rs quickly pass away4 
,f9ally1 x is always )9 our rea*4 ,ev5 9
 ! mid/ ( mis=tune1 man be>s 9 himself a
 p]man5t s\rce ( exquisite joys1 = he   
always has ! p[] ( do+ "r1 :il/ success1
 dep5d5t ^u a ?\s& circum/ances ( :i* we
 are n ! ma/]s1 c give only an          
occasional & prec>i\s pleasure4  ,z     
virtue has its joys1 s crime has its    
pa9s4 ,! suff]+ t foll[s a fault is ! j 
recomp5se = ! pleasure t we h f\nd 9 x1 
& is (t5 born ) x4 ,x poisons culpable  
joys & ! successes t are n legitimate4  
,x w\nds1 r5ds1 bites1 ?us to speak1 &  
!reby receives its "n4#bjc ,to be man1  
is suffici5t to und]/& ?is suff]+1--x is
 remorse4  ,"h are o!r facts equally    
inconte/able3  ,i p]ceive a man ^: face 
be>s ! m>ks ( di/ress & mis]y4 ,!re is  
no?+ 9 ?is t rea*es & injures me2       

nev]!less1 )\t reflection or            
calculation1 ! sight alone ( ?is suff]+ 
man makes me suff]4 ,?is s5tim5t is     
pity1 compassion1 ^: g5]al pr9ciple is  
sympa?y4  ,! sadness ( "o ( my fell[-m5 
inspires me ) sadness1 & a glad face    
disposes me to joy3      ,ut rid5tibus  
arrid5t1 ita fl5tibus adfl5t     ,humani
 vultus4  ,! joy ( o!rs has an e*o 9 our
 s\ls1 & _! suff]+s1 ev5 _! physical    
suff]+s1 communicate !mselves to u almo/
 physically4 ,n z exagg]at$ z x has be5 
suppos$ 0 t expression ( ,mme4 de       
,sevigne to h] sick daught]3 ,i h a pa9 
9 y\r brea/4  ,our s\l feels ! ne$ (    
putt+ itself 9 unison1 &1 z x 71 9      
equilibrium ) t ( o!rs4 ,h5ce ^?        
electric movem5ts1 ?us to speak1 t run  
?r\gh l>ge assemblies4 ,"o receives !   
c\nt]-/roke ( ! s5tim5ts ( 8            
neighbors1--admiration & en?usiasm are  
contagi\s1 z well z pleasantry &        
ridicule4 ,h5ce aga9 ! s5tim5t ) :i* !  
au?or ( a virtu\s action inspires u4 ,we
 feel a pleasure analog\s to t :i* he   

feels himself4 ,b are we witnesses ( a  
bad action8 our s\ls refuse to          
p>ticipate 9 ! s5tim5ts t animate !     
culpable man1--!y h = him a true        
av]sion1 :at is call$ antipa?y4  ,we d n
 =get a ?ird ord] ( facts t p]ta9 to !  
prec$+1 b diff] f !m4  ,we n only       
sympa?ize ) ! au?or ( a virtu\s action1 
we wi% him well1 we volunt>ily d good to
 him1 9 a c]ta9 degree we love him4 ,?is
 love goes z f> z en?usiasm :5 x has =  
its object a sublime act & a h]o4 ,?is  
is ! pr9ciple ( ! homages1 ( ! honors t 
humanity r5d]s to great m54 ,& ?is      
s5tim5t does n p]ta9 solely to o!rs1--we
 apply x to ourselves by a sort ( return
 t is n egoism4 ,yes1 x may be said t we
 love ourselves :5 we h done well4 ,!   
s5tim5t t o!rs owe u1 if !y are j1 we   
accord to ourselves1--t s5tim5t is      
b5evol5ce4  ,on ! contr>y1 d we witness 
a bad action8 ,we exp]i5ce = ! au?or (  
?is action antipa?y2 moreov] we wi% him 
evil1--we desire t he %\ld suff] = !    
fault t he has committ$1 & 9 proportion 

to ! gravity ( ! fault4 ,= ?is reason   
great culprits are odi\s to u1 if !y d n
 comp5sate = _! crimes by deep remorse1 
or by great virtues m+l$ ) _! crimes4   
,?is s5tim5t is n malevol5ce4           
,malevol5ce is a p]sonal & int]e/$      
s5tim5t1 :i* makes u wi% evil to o!rs1  
because !y are an ob/acle to u4 ,hatr$  
does n ask :e!r su* a man is virtu\s or 
vici\s1 b :e!r he ob/ructs u1 surpasses 
u1 or injures u4 ,! s5tim5t ( :i* we are
 speak+ is a sort ( hatr$1 b a g5]\s    
hatr$ t nei!r spr+s f int]e/ nor envy1 b
 f a %ock$ consci5ce4 ,x is turn$ aga9/ 
u :5 we d evil1 z well z aga9/ o!rs4    
,moral satisfaction is n sympa?y1 nei!r 
is sympa?y1 to speak rigor\sly1         
b5evol5ce4 ,b ^! ?ree ph5om5a h ! common
 "* ( all be+ s5tim5ts4 ,!y give bir? to
 ?ree diff]5t & analog\s sy/ems ( e?ics4
  ,accord+ to c]ta9 philosoph]s1 a good 
action is t :i* is foll[$ by moral      
satisfaction1 a bad action is t :i* is  
foll[$ by remorse4 ,! good or bad "* (  
an action is at fir/ atte/$ to u by !   

s5tim5t t accompanies x4 ,!n1 ?is       
s5tim5t1 ) its moral signification1 we  
attribute to o!r m52 = we judge t !y d z
 we d1 t 9 pres5ce ( ! same actions !y  
feel ! same s5tim5ts4  ,o!r philosoph]s 
h assign$ ! same "p to sympa?y or       
b5evol5ce4  ,= ^! ! sign & measure ( !  
good is 9 ! s5tim5ts ( affection &      
b5evol5ce :i* we feel = a moral ag5t4   
,does a man excite 9 u by su* or su* an 
action a m or less vivid disposition to 
wi% him well1 a desire to see & ev5 make
 him happy8 we may say t ?is action is  
good4 ,if1 by a s]ies ( actions ( ! same
 k9d1 he makes ?is disposition & ?is    
desire p]man5t 9 u1 we judge t he is a  
virtu\s man4 ,does he excite an opposite
 desire1 an opposite disposition8 he    
appe>s to u a di%one/ man4  ,= ! =m]1 ! 
good is t ) :i* we naturally sympa?ize4 
,has a man devot$ himself to dea? ?r\gh 
love = 8 c\ntry8 ?is h]oic action awak5s
 9 u1 9 a c]ta9 degree1 ! same s5tim5ts 
t inspir$ him4 ,bad passions are n ?us  
e*o$ 9 our he>ts1 unless !y f9d u       

already v corrupt1 & h int]e/ = _!      
accomplice2 b ev5 !n !re is some?+ 9 u t
 revolts aga9/ ^! passions1 & 9 ! mo/   
deprav$ s\l subsi/s a conceal$ s5tim5t (
 sympa?y = ! good1 & antipa?y = ! evil4 
,^! diff]5t sy/ems may be r$uc$ to a    
s+le "o1 :i* is call$ ! e?ics ( s5tim5t4
  ,x is n difficult to %[ ! diff]5ce :i*
 sep>ates ^! e?ics f ^? ( egoism4       
,egoism is ! exclusive love ( self1 is !
 ?\ghtful & p]man5t se>* = our own      
pleasure & our own well-be+4  ,:at is   
!re m oppos$ to int]e/ ?an b5evol5ce8 ,9
 b5evol5ce1 f> f wi%+ o!rs well by      
reason ( our int]e/1 we w volunt>ily    
risk some?+1 we w make "s sacrifice 9   
ord] to s]ve an hone/ man :o has co9$   
our he>t4 ,if ev5 9 ?is sacrifice ! s\l 
feels a pleasure1 ?is pleasure is only !
 involunt>y accompanim5t ( s5tim5t1 x is
 n ! end propos$1--we feel x )\t hav+   
s\ght x4 ,x is1 inde$1 p]mitt$ ! s\l to 
ta/e ?is pleasure1 = x is nature h]self 
t atta*es x to b5evol5ce4  ,sympa?y1 l  
b5evol5ce1 is relat$ to ano!r ?an       

ourselves1--our int]e/ is n its         
/>t+-po9t4 ,! s\l is s con/itut$ t x is 
capable ( suff]+ on acc\nt ( ! suff]+s (
 an enemy4 ,t a man does a noble action1
 al?\gh x opposes our int]e/s1 awak5s 9 
u a c]ta9 sympa?y = t action & its      
au?or4  ,! attempt has be5 made to      
expla9 ! compassion ) :i* ! suff]+ ( "o 
( our fell[-m5 inspires u by ! fe> t we 
h ( feel+ x 9 our turn4 ,b ! unhapp9ess 
= :i* we feel compassion1 is (t5 s f> f 
u & ?reat5s u s little1 t x w\ld be     
absurd to fe> x4 ,d\btless1 t sympa?y   
may h exi/5ce x is necess>y to exp]i5ce 
suff]+1--non ign>a mali4 ,= h[ d y      
suppose t ,i c be s5sible to evils ( :i*
 ,i =m to myself no idea8 ,b t is only !
 condition ( sympa?y4 ,x is n at all    
necess>y to conclude t x is only a      
remembrance ( our own ills or ! fe> (   
ills to come4  ,no recurr5ce to         
ourselves c acc\nt = sympa?y4 ,9 ! fir/ 
place1 x is involunt>y1 l antipa?y4 ,!n 
x _c be suppos$ t we sympa?ize ) any "o 
9 ord] to w9 8 b5evol5ce2 = he :o is its

 object (t5 kn[s n :at we feel4 ,:at    
b5evol5ce are we seek+1 :5 we sympa?ize 
) m5 t we h nev] se51 t we nev] %all    
see1 ) m5 t are no m8  ,egoism admits   
all pleasures2 x repels none2 x may1 if 
x is enlight5$1 if x has become delicate
 & ref9$1 recomm5d1 z m durable & less  
alloy$1 ! pleasures ( s5tim5t4 ,! e?ics 
( s5tim5t w\ld !n be conf\nd$ ) ^? (    
egoism1 if !y %\ld prescribe ob$i5ce to 
s5tim5t = ! pleasure t we f9d 9 x4 ,!re 
w\ld1 !n1 be no dis9t]e/$ness 9 x1--!   
individual w\ld be ! c5tre & sole end ( 
all 8 actions4 ,b su* is n ! case4 ,!   
*>m ( ! pleasures ( consci5ce comes f ! 
v fact t we are =getful ( self 9 !      
action t has produc$ !m4 ,s if nature   
has jo9$ to sympa?y & b5evol5ce a true  
enjoym5t1 x is on condition t ^!        
s5tim5ts rema9 z !y are1 pure &         
dis9t]e/$2 y mu/ only ?9k ( ! object (  
y\r sympa?y & b5evol5ce 9 ord] t        
b5evol5ce & sympa?y may receive _!      
recomp5se 9 ! pleasure :i* !y give4     
,o!rwise1 ?is pleasure no long] has its 

reason = exi/5ce1 & x is want+ z soon z 
x s\ght = itself4 ,no metamorphose (    
int]e/ c produce a pleasure atta*$ to   
dis9t]e/$ness alone4  ,! e?ics ( egoism 
are only a p]petual falsehood1--!y      
pres]ve ! names consecrat$ by e?ics1 b  
!y aboli% e?ics !mselves2 !y deceive    
humanity by speak+ to humanity its own  
language1 conceal+ "u ?is borr[$        
language a radical opposition to all !  
in/9cts1 to all ! ideas t =m ! treasure 
( mank9d4 ,on ! contr>y1 if s5tim5t is n
 ! good itself1 x is its fai?ful        
companion & useful auxili>y4 ,x is z x 7
 ! sign ( ! pres5ce ( ! good1 & r5d]s ! 
accompli%m5t ( x m easy4 ,we always h   
sophisms at our disposal1 9 ord] to     
p]suade ourselves t our true int]e/ is  
to satisfy pres5t passion2 b sophism has
 less influ5ce ov] ! m9d :5 ! m9d is 9  
"s sort def5d$ by ! he>t4 ,no?+ is1     
!re=e1 m salut>y ?an to excite & pres]ve
 9 ! s\l ^? noble s5tim5ts t lift u     
above ! slav]y ( p]sonal int]e/4 ,!     
habit ( p>ticipat+ 9 ! s5tim5ts (       

virtu\s m5 disposes u to act l !m4 ,to  
cultivate 9 ourselves b5evol5ce &       
sympa?y is to f]tilize ! s\rce ( *>ity &
 love1 is to n\ri% & develop ! g]m (    
g5]osity & devotion4  ,x is se5 t we    
r5d] s9c]e homage to ! e?ics ( s5tim5t4 
,^! e?ics are true1--only !y are n      
suffici5t = !mselves2 !y ne$ a pr9ciple 
:i* au?orizes !m4  ,i act well1 & ,i    
feel on acc\nt ( x an int]nal           
satisfaction3 ,i d evil1 & feel remorse 
on acc\nt ( x4 ,^! two s5tim5ts d n     
qualify ! act t ,i h j done1 s9ce !y    
foll[ x4 ,w\ld x be possible = u to feel
 any int]nal satisfaction = hav+ act$   
well if we did n judge t we _h act$     
well8--any remorse = hav+ done evil1 if 
we did n judge t we _h done evil8 ,at ! 
same "t t we d su* or su* an act1 a     
natural & in/9ctive judgm5t *>act]izes  
x1 & x is 9 consequ5ce ( ?is judgm5t t  
our s5sibility is mov$4 ,s5tim5t is n   
?is primitive & imm$iate judgm5t2 f> f  
=m+ ! basis ( ! idea ( ! good1 x        
supposes x4 ,x is manife/ly a vici\s    

circle to d]ive ! k ( ! good f t :i*    
w\ld n exi/ )\t ?is k4#bjd  ,s is x n   
because we f9d a good action t we       
sympa?ize ) x8 ,is x n because !        
dispositions ( a man appe> to u con=m$  
to ! idea ( ju/ice1 t we are incl9$ to  
p>ticipate 9 !m ) him8 ,moreov]1 if     
sympa?y 7 ! true crit]ion ( ! good1 e ?+
 = :i* we feel sympa?y w\ld be good4 ,b 
sympa?y is n only relat$ to ?+s 9 _!    
nature moral1 we also sympa?ize ) !     
grief & ! joy t h no?+ to d ) virtue &  
crime4 ,we ev5 sympa?ize ) physical     
suff]+s4 ,moral sympa?y is only a case (
 g5]al sympa?y4 ,x mu/ ev5 be ackn[l$g$ 
t sympa?y is n always 9 accordance ) "r4
 ,we sometimes sympa?ize ) c]ta9        
s5tim5ts t we condemn1 because1 )\t be+ 
9 !mselves bad--:i* w\ld prev5t all     
sympa?y--!y give an incl9ation to !     
greate/ faults2 = example1 love1 :i*    
comes s ne> to irregul>ity1 & emulation1
 t s quickly leads to ambition4         
,b5evol5ce also is n always det]m9$ by !
 good alone4 ,&1 aga91 :5 x is appli$ to

 a virtu\s man1 x supposes a judgm5t by 
:i* we pron\nce t ?is man is virtu\s4 ,x
 is n because we wi% ! au?or ( an action
 well t we judge t ?is action is good2 x
 is because we judge t ?is action is    
good t we wi% its au?or well4 ,?is is n 
all4 ,9 ! s5tim5t ( b5evol5ce is        
envelop$ a new judgm5t :i* is n 9       
sympa?y4 ,?is judgm5t is ! foll[+3 !    
au?or ( a good action des]ves to be     
happy1 z ! au?or ( a bad action des]ves 
to suff] 9 ord] to expiate x4 ,?is is ! 
reason :y we desire happ9ess = ! "o &   
rep>atory suff]+ = ! o!r4 ,b5evol5ce is 
little else ?an ! s5sible =m ( ?is      
judgm5t4  ,all ^! s5tim5ts1 !re=e1      
suppose an ant]ior & sup]ior judgm5t4   
,ev]y:]e & always ! same vici\s circle4 
,f ! fact t ! s5tim5ts :i* we h j       
describ$ h a moral "*1 x is conclud$ t  
!y con/itute ! idea ( ! good1 :il/ x is 
! idea ( ! good t communicates to !m !  
"* t we p]ceive 9 !m4  ,ano!r difficulty
 is1 t s5tim5ts p]ta9 to s5sibility1 &  
borr[ f x some?+ ( its relative & *ang+ 

nature4 ,x is1 !n1 v necess>y t all m5  
%\ld be made to enjoy ) ! same delicacy 
! pleasures ( ! he>t4 ,!re are gross    
natures & natures ref9$4 ,if y\r desires
 are impetu\s & viol5t1 w n ! idea ( !  
pleasures ( virtue be 9 y mu* m easily  
ov]come by ! =ce ( passion ?an if nature
 _h giv5 y a tranquil temp]am5t8 ,! /ate
 ( ! atmosph]e1 heal?1 sickness1 calm or
 r\se our moral s5sibility4 ,solitude1  
by deliv]+ man up to himself1 leaves to 
remorse all its en]gy1 ! pres5ce ( dea? 
r$\bles x2 b ! _w1 noise1 =ce ( example1
 habit1 )\t p[] to smo!r x1 9 "s sort   
/un x4 ,! _s has a little season ( re/4 
,we are n always 9 ! ve9 ( en?usiasm4   
,c\rage itself has its int]missions4 ,we
 "k ! celebrat$ expression3 ,he 0 "o day
 brave4 ,humor has its vicissitudes t   
influ5ce our mo/ intimate s5tim5ts4 ,!  
pure/1 ! mo/ ideal s5tim5t /ill p]ta9s  
on "s side to organization4 ,!          
inspiration ( ! poet1 ! passion ( !     
lov]1 ! en?usiasm ( ! m>tyr1 h _!       
languors & %ortcom+s t (t5 dep5d on v   

pitiable mat]ial causes4 ,on ^? p]petual
 fluctuations ( s5tim5t1 is x possible  
to gr\nd a legislation equal = all8     
,sympa?y & b5evol5ce d n escape !       
conditions ( all ! ph5om5a ( s5sibility4
 ,we d n all possess 9 ! same degree !  
p[] ( feel+ :at o!rs exp]i5ce4 ,^? :o h 
suff]$ mo/ be/ compreh5d suff]+1 &      
consequ5tly feel = x ! mo/ lively       
compassion4 ,) m]e imag9ation "o also   
repres5ts to himself bett] & feels m :at
 passes 9 ! s\ls ( 8 fell[-man4 ,"o     
feels m sympa?y = physical pleasures &  
pa9s1 ano!r = pleasures & pa9s ( s\l2 & 
ea* ( ^! sympa?ies has 9 ea* ( u its    
degrees & v>iations4 ,!y n only diff]1  
!y (t5 oppose ea* o!r4 ,sympa?y = tal5t 
weak5s ! indignation t outrag$ virtue   
produces4 ,we ov]look _m ?+s 9          
,voltaire1 9 ,r\sseau1 9 ,mirabeau1 & we
 excuse !m on acc\nt ( ! corruption ( _!
 c5tury4 ,! sympa?y caus$ by ! pa9 ( a  
condemn$ p]son r5d]s less lively ! j    
antipa?y excit$ by 8 crime4 ,?us turns &
 wav]s at ea* /ep t sympa?y :i* "s w\ld 

set up z ! supreme arbit] ( ! good4     
,b5evol5ce does n v>y less4 ,we h s\ls  
naturally m or less affectionate1 m or  
less animat$4 ,&1 !n1 l sympa?y1        
b5evol5ce receives ! c\nt]-/roke (      
diff]5t passions t are m+l$ ) x4        
,fri5d%ip1 = example1 (t5 r5d]s u1 9    
spite ( ourselves1 m b5evol5t ?an ju/ice
 w\ld wi%4  ,is x n a rule ( prud5ce n  
to li/5 to1 )\t always disda9+ !m1 !    
inspirations--(t5 caprici\s--( ! he>t8  
,gov]n$ by reason1 s5tim5t becomes to x 
an admirable support4 ,b1 deliv]$ up to 
itself1 9 a little :ile x deg5]ates into
 passion1 & passion is fanta/ic1        
excessive1 unju/2 x gives to ! s\l spr+ 
& en]gy1 b g5]ally tr\bles & p]v]ts x4  
,x is ev5 n v f> f egoism1 & x usually  
t]m9ates 9 t1 :olly g5]\s z x is or     
seems to be 9 ! beg9n+4 ,unless we      
always keep 9 sight ! good & !          
inflexible obligation t is atta*$ to x1 
unless we always keep 9 sight ?is fix$ &
 immutable po9t1 ! s\l kn[s n :]e to    
betake itself on t mov+ gr\nd t is call$

 s5sibility2 x floats f s5tim5t to      
passion1 f g5]osity to selfi%ness1      
asc5d+ "o day to ! pit* ( en?usiasm1 & !
 next day desc5d+ to all ! mis]ies (    
p]sonality4  ,?us ! e?ics ( s5tim5t1    
al?\gh sup]ior to ^? ( int]e/1 are n    
less insuffici5t3 #a/4 ,!y give z !     
f\ndation ( ! idea ( ! good :at is f\nd$
 on ?is same idea2 #b;d4 ,! rule t !y   
propose is too mobile to be univ]sally  
obligatory4#bje  ,!re is ano!r sy/em (  
:i* ,i w also say1 z ( ! prec$+1 t x is 
n false1 b incomplete & insuffici5t4  ,!
 p>tisans ( ! e?ics ( utility & happ9ess
 h tri$ to save _! pr9ciple by g5]aliz+ 
x4 ,accord+ to !m1 ! good c be no?+ b   
happ9ess2 b egoism is wrong 9 und]/&+ by
 t ! happ9ess ( ! individual2 we mu/    
und]/& by x ! g5]al happ9ess4  ,let u   
e/abli%1 9 ! fir/ place1 t ! new        
pr9ciple is entirely oppos$ to t (      
p]sonal int]e/1 =1 accord+ to           
circum/ances1 x may dem&1 n only a pass+
 sacrifice1 b an irrep>able sacrifice1 t
 ( life4 ,n[1 ! wise/ calculations (    

p]sonal int]e/ _c g ?us f>4  ,&1        
not)/&+1 ?is pr9ciple is f> f conta9+   
true e?ics & ! :ole ( e?ics4  ,!        
pr9ciple ( g5]al int]e/ leans t[>ds     
dis9t]e/$ness1 & ?is is c]ta9ly mu*2 b  
dis9t]e/$ness is ! condition ( virtue1 n
 virtue itself4 ,we may commit an       
inju/ice ) ! mo/ entire dis9t]e/$ness4  
,f ! fact t an action does n pr(it him  
:o does x1 x does n foll[ t x may n be 9
 itself v unju/1 9 seek+ g5]al int]e/   
be=e all1 we escape1 x is true1 t vice (
 s\l :i* is call$ selfi%ness1 b we may  
fall into a ?\s& iniquities4 ,or1 inde$1
 x mu/ be felt1 t g5]al int]e/ is always
 con=m$ to ju/ice4 ,b ^! two ideas are n
 adequate to ea* o!r4 ,if !y v (t5 g    
toge!r1 !y are sometimes also sep>at$4  
,!mi/ocles propos$ to ! ,a!nians to burn
 ! fleet ( ! allies t 0 9 ! port (      
,a!ns1 & ?us to secure to !mselves !    
supremacy4 ,! project is useful1 says   
,ari/ides1 b x is unju/1 & on acc\nt (  
?is simple spee*1 ! ,a!nians r5\nce an  
advantage t mu/ be pur*as$ by an        

inju/ice4 ,obs]ve t ,!mi/ocles _h no    
p>ticul> int]e/ 9 t2 he ?\ght only ( !  
int]e/ ( 8 c\ntry4 ,b1 _h he haz>d$ or  
giv5 8 life 9 ord] to engage ! ,a!nians 
9 su* an act1 he w\ld only h be5        
consecrat+--:at has (t5 be5 se5--an     
admirable devotion to a c\rse 9 itself  
immoral4  ,to ?is x is repli$1 t if1 9 !
 example cit$1 ju/ice & int]e/ exclude  
ea* o!r1 x is because ! int]e/ 0 n      
suffici5tly g5]al2 & ! celebrat$ maxim  
is arriv$ at1 t "o mu/ sacrifice himself
 to 8 family1 8 family to ! city1 ! city
 to c\ntry1 c\ntry to humanity1 t1 9    
f9e1 ! good is ! int]e/ ( ! greate/     
numb]4#bjf  ,:5 y h gone ?us f>1 y h n  
yet atta9$ ev5 ! idea ( ju/ice4 ,!      
int]e/ ( humanity1 l t ( ! individual1  
may accord 9 fact ) ju/ice1 = 9 t !re is
 c]ta9ly no incompatibility1 b ! two ?+s
 are none ! m id5tical1 s t we _c say ) 
exactness t ! int]e/ ( humanity is !    
f\ndation ( ju/ice4 ,a s+le case1 ev5 a 
s+le hypo!sis1 9 :i* ! int]e/ ( humanity
 %\ld n accord ) ! good1 is suffici5t to

 enable u to conclude t "o is n         
ess5tially ! o!r4  ,we g f>!r3 if x is !
 int]e/ ( humanity t con/itutes &       
measures ju/ice1 t only is unju/ :i* ?is
 int]e/ decl>es to be s4 ,b y are n able
 to affirm absolutely1 t1 9 any         
circum/ance1 ! int]e/ ( humanity w n    
dem& su* or su* an action2 & if x dem&s 
x1 by virtue ( y\r pr9ciple1 x w be     
necess>y to d x1 :atev] x may be1 & to d
 x inasmu* z x is j4  ,y ord] me to     
sacrifice p>ticul> int]e/ to g5]al      
int]e/4 ,b 9 ! "n ( :at d y ord] me to d
 ?is8 ,is x 9 ! "n ( int]e/8 ,if int]e/1
 z su*1 mu/ t\* me1 evid5tly my int]e/  
mu/ also t\* me1 & ,i d n see :y ,i %\ld
 sacrifice x to t ( o!rs4  ,! supreme   
end ( human life1 y say1 is happ9ess4 ,i
 h5ce conclude v reasonably1 t ! supreme
 end ( my life is my happ9ess4  ,9 ord] 
to ask ( me ! sacrifice ( my happ9ess1 x
 mu/ be call$ = by "s o!r pr9ciple ?an  
happ9ess itself4  ,consid] to :at       
p]plexity ?is fam\s pr9ciple ( ! greate/
 good ( ! greate/ numb] condemns me4 ,i 

h already mu* difficulty 9 disc]n+ my   
true int]e/ 9 ! obscurity ( ! future2 by
 sub/itut+ = ! infallible voice ( ju/ice
 ! unc]ta9 calculations ( p]sonal       
int]e/1 y h n r5d]$ action easy =       
me2#bjg b x becomes impossible1 if x is 
necess>y to seek1 be=e act+1 :at is !   
int]e/ n only ( myself1 b ( my family1 n
 only ( my family1 b ( my c\ntry1 n only
 ( my c\ntry1 b ( humanity4 ,:at6 mu/ ,i
 embrace ! entire _w 9 my =esight8 ,:at6
 is su* ! price ( virtue8 ,y impose ^u  
me a k t ,god alone possesses4 ,am ,i 9 
8 c\nsels s z to adju/ my actions       
accord+ to 8 decrees8 ,! philosophy (   
hi/ory & ! wise/ diplomacy are n1 !n1   
suffici5t = conduct+ ourselves well4    
,imag9e1 !re=e1 t !re is no ma!matical  
sci5ce ( human life4 ,*ance & lib]ty    
conf\nd ! pr(\nde/ calculations1 ov]turn
 ! be/-e/abli%$ =tunes1 relieve ! mo/   
desp]ate mis]ies1 m+le good =tune & bad1
 conf\nd all =esight4  ,& w\ld y e/abli%
 e?ics on a f\ndation s mobile8 ,h[ mu* 
place y leave = sophism 9 t complaisant 

& enigmatical law ( g5]al int]e/6#bjh ,x
 w n be v difficult always to f9d "s    
remote reason ( g5]al int]e/1 :i* w     
excuse u f be+ fai?ful 9 ! pres5t mom5t 
to our fri5ds1 :5 !y %all be 9 mis=tune4
 ,a man 9 adv]sity addresses himself to 
my g5]osity4 ,b c\ld ,i n employ my     
money 9 a way m useful to humanity8 ,w n
 ! c\ntry h ne$ ( x to-morr[8 ,let u    
virtu\sly keep x = ! c\ntry !n4         
,moreov]1 ev5 :]e ! int]e/ ( all seems  
evid5t1 !re /ill rema9s "s *ance (      
error2 x is1 !re=e1 bett] to )hold4 ,x w
 always be wisdom to )hold4 ,yes1 :5 x  
is necess>y1 9 ord] to d well1 to be    
sure ( s]v+ ! greate/ int]e/ ( ! greate/
 numb]1 none b ! ra% & s5seless w d>e to
 act4 ,! pr9ciple ( g5]al int]e/ w      
produce1 ,i admit1 great devot$ness1 b x
 w also produce great crimes4 ,is x n 9 
! "n ( ?is pr9ciple t fanatics ( e k9d1 
fanatics 9 religion1 fanatics 9 lib]ty1 
fanatics 9 philosophy1 tak+ x ^u        
!mselves to und]/& ! et]nal int]e/ (    
humanity1 h engag$ 9 abom9able acts1    

m+l$ (t5 ) a sublime dis9t]e/$ness8     
,ano!r error ( ?is sy/em is t x conf\nds
 ! good itself ) "o ( its applications4 
,if ! good is ! greate/ int]e/ ( !      
greate/ numb]1 ! consequ5ce is cle>1 t  
!re are only public & social e?ics1 & no
 private e?ics2 !re is only a s+le class
 ( duties1 duties t[>ds o!rs1 & !re are 
no duties t[>ds ourselves4 ,b ?is is    
retr5*+ precisely ^? ( our duties t mo/ 
surely gu>antee ! ex]cise ( all !       
re/4#bji ,! mo/ con/ant relations t ,i  
su/a9 are ) t be+ :i* is myself4 ,i am  
my own mo/ habitual society4 ,i be> 9   
myself1 z ,plato#baj has well said1 a   
:ole _w ( ideas1 s5tim5ts1 desires1     
passions1 emotions1 :i* claim a         
legislation4 ,?is necess>y legislation  
is suppress$4  ,let u also say a ^w on a
 sy/em t1 "u sublime appe>ances1        
conceals a vici\s pr9ciple4  ,!re are   
p]sons :o believe t !y are magnify+     
,god1 by plac+ 9 8 w alone ! f\ndation (
 ! moral law1 & ! sov]eign motive (     
humanity 9 ! puni%m5ts & rew>ds t x has 

pleas$ him to atta* to ! respect &      
violation ( 8 w4  ,let u und]/& :at we  
are ab\t 9 a matt] ( su* delicacy4  ,x  
is c]ta91 & we %all e/abli% x = !       
good1#baa z we h done = ! true & !      
beautiful1#bab x is c]ta9 t1 f          
explanations to explanations1 we come to
 be conv9c$ t ,god is def9itively !     
supreme pr9ciple ( e?ics1 s t x may be v
 truly said1 t ! good is ! expression ( 
8 w1 s9ce 8 w is itself ! expression ( !
 et]nal & absolute ju/ice t resides 9   
him4 ,god wills1 )\t d\bt1 t we %\ld act
 accord+ to ! law ( ju/ice t he has put 
9 our und]/&+ & our he>t2 b x is n at   
all necess>y to conclude t he has       
arbitr>ily in/itut$ ?is law4 ,f> f t1   
ju/ice is 9 ! w ( ,god only because x   
has its roots 9 8 intellig5ce & wisdom1 
t is to say1 9 8 mo/ intimate nature &  
ess5ce4  ,:ile mak+1 !n1 e res]vation 9 
reg>d to :at is true 9 ! sy/em t f\nds  
e?ics on ! w ( ,god1 we mu/ %[ :at !re  
is 9 ?is sy/em1 z x is pres5t$ to u1    
false1 arbitr>y1 & incompatible ) e?ics 

!mselves4#bac  ,9 ! fir/ place1 x does n
 p]ta9 to ! w1 :atev] x may be1 to      
in/itute ! good1 any m ?an x belongs to 
x to in/itute ! true & ! beautiful4 ,i h
 no idea ( ! w ( ,god except by my own1 
to be sure ) ! diff]5ces t sep>ate :at  
is f9ite f :at is inf9ite4 ,n[1 ,i _c by
 my w f\nd ! lea/ tru?4 ,is x because my
 w is limit$8 ,no2 7 x arm$ ) inf9ite   
p[]1 x w\ld1 9 ?is respect1 be equally  
impot5t4 ,su* is ! nature ( my w t1 9   
do+ a ?+1 x is consci\s ( ! p[] to d !  
opposite2 & t is n an accid5tal "* ( !  
w1 x is its fundam5tal "*2 if1 !n1 x is 
suppos$ t tru?1 or t fir/ "p ( x :i* is 
call$ ju/ice1 has be5 e/abli%$ z x is by
 an act ( volition1 human or ,div9e1 x  
mu/ be ackn[l$g$ t ano!r act might h    
e/abli%$ x o!rwise1 & made :at is n[ j  
unju/1 & :at is unju/ j4 ,b su* mobility
 is contr>y to ! nature ( ju/ice & tru?4
 ,9 fact1 moral tru?s are z absolute z  
metaphysical tru?s4 ,god _c make effects
 exi/ )\t a cause1 ph5om5a )\t a        
sub/ance2 nei!r c he make x evil to     

respect 8 ^w1 to love tru?1 to repress  
"o's passions4 ,! pr9ciples ( e?ics are 
immutable axioms l ^? ( geometry4 ,(    
moral laws especially mu/ be said :at   
,montesquieu said ( all laws 9          
g5]al1--!y are necess>y relations t are 
d]iv$ f ! nature ( ?+s4  ,let u suppose 
t ! good & ! j are d]iv$ f ! div9e w2 on
 ! div9e w obligation w also re/4 ,b c  
any w :atev] be ! f\ndation (           
obligation8 ,! div9e w is ! w ( an      
omnipot5t be+1 & ,i am a feeble be+4    
,?is relation ( a feeble be+ to an      
omnipot5t be+1 does n conta9 9 itself   
any moral idea4 ,"o may be =c$ to obey !
 /rong]1 b he is n obligat$ to d x4 ,!  
sov]eign ord]s ( ! w ( ,god1 if 8 w c\ld
 = a mom5t be sep>at$ f 8 o!r           
attributes1 w\ld n conta9 ! lea/ ray (  
ju/ice2 &1 consequ5tly1 !re w\ld n      
desc5d into my s\l ! lea/ %ade (        
obligation4  ,"o w exclaim1--,x is n !  
arbitr>y w ( ,god t makes ! f\ndation ( 
obligation & ju/ice2 x is 8 j w4 ,v     
well4 ,e ?+ *anges !n4 ,x is n ! pure w 

( ,god t obligates u1 x is ! motive     
itself t det]m9es 8 w1 t is to say1 !   
ju/ice pass$ into 8 w4 ,! di/9ction     
betwe5 ! j & ! unju/ is n !n ! "w ( 8 w4
  ,"o ( two ?+s4 ,ei!r we f\nd e?ics on 
! w ( ,god alone1 & !n ! di/9ction      
betwe5 good & evil1 j & unju/1 is       
gratuit\s1 & moral obligation does n    
exi/2 or y give au?ority to ! w ( ,god  
by ju/ice1 :i*1 9 y\r hypo!sis1 mu/ h   
receiv$ f ! w ( ,god its au?ority1 :i*  
is a petitio pr9cipii4  ,ano!r petitio  
pr9cipii /ill m evid5t4 ,9 ! fir/ place1
 y are compell$1 9 ord] legitimately to 
draw ju/ice f ! w ( ,god1 to suppose t  
?is w is j1 or ,i defy any "o to %[ t   
?is w alone c ev] =m ! basis ( ju/ice4  
,moreov]1 evid5tly y _c compreh5d :at a 
j w ( ,god is1 if y d n already possess 
! idea ( ju/ice4 ,?is idea1 !n1 does n  
come f t ( ! w ( ,god4  ,on ! "o h&1 y  
may h1 & y d h1 ! idea ( ju/ice1 )\t    
und]/&+ ! w ( ,god2 on ! o!r1 y _c      
conceive ! ju/ice ( ! div9e w1 )\t hav+ 
conceiv$ ju/ice else:]e4  ,are n ^!     

reasons suffici5t1 ,i pray y1 to        
conclude t ! sole w ( ,god is n = u !   
pr9ciple ( ! idea ( ! good8  ,& n[1     
behold ! natural consummation ( ! e?ical
 sy/em t we are exam9+3--! j & ! unju/  
are :at x has pleas$ ,god to decl>e su*1
 by atta*+ to !m ! rew>ds & puni%m5ts ( 
ano!r life4 ,! div9e w manife/s itself  
"h only by an arbitr>y ord]2 x adds to  
?is ord] promises & ?reats4  ,b to :at  
human faculty are address$ ! promise &  
?reat ( ! *a/isem5ts & ! rew>ds ( ano!r 
life8 ,to ! same "o t 9 ?is life fe>s   
pa9 & seeks pleasure1 %uns unhapp9ess & 
desires happ9ess1 t is to say1 to       
s5sibility animat$ by imag9ation1 t is  
to say1 aga91 to :at is mo/ *ang+ 9 ea* 
( u & mo/ diff]5t 9 ! human species4 ,! 
joys & suff]+s ( ano!r life excite 9 u !
 two mo/ vivid b mo/ mobile passions1   
hope & fe>4 ,e ?+ influ5ces our fe>s &  
hopes1--aye1 heal?1 ! pass+ cl\d1 a ray 
( ! sun1 a cup ( c(fee1 a ?\s& causes ( 
?is k9d4 ,i h kn[n m51 ev5 philosoph]s1 
:o on c]ta9 days hop$ m1 & o!r days     

less4 ,& su* a basis "s w\ld give to    
e?ics6 ,!n x is do+ no?+ else ?an       
propos+ = human conduct an int]e/$      
motive4 ,! calculation :i* ,i obey is   
pur]1 if y w2 ! happ9ess t "o makes me  
hope = is great]2 b ,i see 9 t no ju/ice
 t obligates me1 no virtue & no vice 9  
me1 :o "k or d n "k h[ to make ?is      
calculation1 n hav+ a head z /rong z t (
 ,pascal1#bad :o yield to or resi/ ^?   
fe>s & hopes accord+ to ! deposition (  
my s5sibility & my imag9ation1 ov] :i*  
,i h no p[]4 ,f9ally1 ! pa9s & pleasures
 ( ! future life are in/itut$ on ! gr\nd
 ( puni%m5ts & rew>ds4 ,n[1 none b      
actions 9 !mselves good or bad c be     
rew>d$ & puni%$4 ,if already !re is 9   
itself no good1 no law t 9 consci5ce we 
are obligat$ to foll[1 !re is nei!r m]it
 nor dem]it2 recomp5se is n !n          
recomp5se1 nor p5alty p5alty1 s9ce !y   
are su* only on ! condition ( be+ !     
complem5t & ! sanction ( ! idea ( !     
good4 ,:]e ?is idea does n pre-exi/1 !re
 rema91 in/ead ( recomp5se & p5alty1    

only ! attraction ( pleasure & ! fe> (  
suff]+1 add$ to a prescription depriv$ 9
 itself ( morality4 ,9 t we come back to
 ! puni%m5ts ( e>? inv5t$ = ! purpose ( 
fright5+ popul> imag9ation1 & support$  
solely on ! decrees ( legislators1 on an
 ab/raction ( good & evil1 ( ju/ice &   
inju/ice1 ( m]it & dem]it4 ,x is ! wor/ 
human ju/ice t is f\nd ?us transport$   
into heav54 ,we %all see t ! human s\l  
has f\ndation some:at solid]4#bae  ,^!  
diff]5t sy/ems1 false or incomplete1    
hav+ be5 reject$1 we arrive at ! doctr9e
 t is to our eyes p]fect tru?1 because x
 admits only c]ta9 facts1 neglects none1
 & ma9ta9s = all ( !m _! "* & rank4     
,,footnotes3  #bjc ,mordre--to bite1 is 
! ma9 root ( remords--remorse4  #bjd    
,see #a/ "p1 lecture #e1 ,on ,my/icism1 
& #b;d "p1 lecture #f1 ,on ! ,s5tim5t ( 
! ,beautiful4 ,see1 also1 #a/ ,s]ies1   
vol4 iv41 detail$ refutation ( ! ,!ories
 ( ,hut*eson & ,smi?4  #bje ,we d n gr[ 
we>y ( cit+ ,m4 ,roy]-,coll>d4 ,he has  
m>k$ ! defects ( ! e?ics ( s5tim5t 9 a  

lively & p[]ful passage1 f :i* we borr[ 
"s traits4 ,oeuvres de ,reid1 vol4 iii41
 p4 #daj1 #daa3 ,! p]ception ( ! moral  
qualities ( human actions is accompani$ 
by an emotion ( ! s\l t is call$        
s5tim5t4 ,s5tim5t is a support ( nature 
t invites u to good by ! attraction ( ! 
noble/ joys ( :i* man is capable1 &     
turns u f evil by ! contempt1 ! av]sion1
 ! horror ) :i* x inspires u4 ,x is a   
fact t by ! contemplation ( a beautiful 
action or a noble "*1 at ! same "t t we 
p]ceive ^! qualities ( ! action & ! "*  
7p]ception1 :i* is a judgm5t71 we feel =
 ! p]son a love m+l$ ) respect1 &       
sometimes an admiration t is full (     
t5d]ness4 ,a bad action1 a loose &      
p]fidi\s "*1 excite a contr>y p]ception 
& s5tim5t4 ,! int]nal approbation (     
consci5ce & remorse are s5tim5ts atta*$ 
to ! p]ception ( ! moral qualities ( our
 own actions4444 ,i d n weak5 ! "p (    
s5tim5t2 yet x is n true t e?ics are    
:olly 9 s5tim5t2 if we ma9ta9 ?is1 we   
annihilate moral di/9ctions4444 ,let    

e?ics be :olly 9 s5tim5t1 & no?+ is 9   
itself good1 no?+ is 9 itself evil2 good
 & evil are relative2 ! qualities (     
human actions are precisely su* z ea* "o
 feels !m to be4 ,*ange s5tim5t1 & y    
*ange e ?+2 ! same action is at once    
good1 indiff]5t1 & bad1 accord+ to !    
affection ( ! spectator4 ,sil5ce        
s5tim5t1 & actions are only physical    
ph5om5a2 obligation is resolv$ into     
incl9ations1 virtue into pleasure1      
hone/y into utility4 ,su* are ! e?ics ( 
,epicurus3 ,dii meliora piis6  #bjf ,9  
?is =mula is recogniz$ ! sy/em ( ,b5?am1
 :o1 = "s "t1 _h num]\s p>tisans 9      
,engl&1 & ev5 9 ,france4  #bjg ,see     
lecture #ab4  #bjh #a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 iv41
 p4 #agd3 ,if ! good is t alone :i* mu/ 
be ! mo/ useful to ! greate/ numb]1 :]e 
c ! good be f\nd1 & :o c disc]n x8 ,9   
ord] to "k :e!r su* an action1 :i* ,i   
propose to myself to d1 is good or bad1 
,i mu/ be sure1 9 spite ( its visible & 
direct utility 9 ! pres5t mom5t1 t x w n
 become injuri\s 9 a future t ,i d n yet

 "k4 ,i mu/ seek :e!r1 useful to m9e &  
^? t surr\nd me1 x w n h c\nt]-/rokes   
disa/r\s to ! human race1 ( :i* ,i mu/  
?9k be=e all4 ,x is important t ,i %\ld 
"k :e!r ! money t ,i am tempt$ to give  
?is un=tunate :o ne$s x1 c\ld n be      
o!rwise m usefully employ$1 9 fact1 !   
rule is "h ! greate/ good ( ! greate/   
numb]4 ,9 ord] to foll[ x1 :at          
calculations are impos$ on me8 ,9 !     
obscurity ( ! future1 9 ! unc]ta9ty ( ! 
some:at remote consequ5ces ( e action1 !
 sure/ way is to d no?+ t is n relat$ to
 myself1 & ! la/ result ( a prud5ce s   
ref9$ is indiff]5ce & egoism4 ,suppos+ y
 h receiv$ a deposit f an opul5t        
neighbor1 :o is old & sick1 a sum ( :i* 
he has no ne$1 & )\t :i* y\r num]\s     
family runs ! risk ( dy+ ) fam9e4 ,he   
calls on y = ?is sum1--:at w y d8 ,!    
greate/ numb] is on y\r side1 & !       
greate/ utility also2 = ?is sum is      
insignificant = y\r ri* neighbor1 :il/ x
 w save y\r family f mis]y1 & p]haps f  
dea?4 ,fa!r ( a family1 ,i %\ld l mu* to

 "k 9 ! "n ( :at pr9ciple y w\ld        
hesitate to reta9 ! sum :i* is necess>y 
to y8 ,intrepid reason]1 plac$ 9 !      
alt]native ( kill+ ?is sick old man1 or 
( lett+ y\r wife & *ildr5 die ( hung]1 9
 all hone/y ( consci5ce y ought to kill 
him4 ,y h ! "r1 x is ev5 y\r duty to    
sacrifice ! less advantage ( a s+le     
p]son to mu* ! great] advantage ( a     
great] numb]2 & s9ce ?is pr9ciple is !  
expression ( true ju/ice1 y are only its
 m9i/] 9 do+ :at y d4 ,a vanqui%+ enemy 
or a furi\s p ?reat5 de/ruction to a    
:ole city1 if !re be n deliv]$ up to !m 
! head ( su* a man1 :o is1 nev]!less1   
innoc5t4 ,9 ! "n ( ! greate/ good ( !   
greate/ numb]1 ?is man w be immolat$ )\t
 scruple4 ,x might ev5 be ma9ta9$ t     
innoc5t to ! la/1 he has ceas$ to be s1 
s9ce he is an ob/acle to ! public good4 
,x hav+ once be5 decl>$ t ju/ice is !   
int]e/ ( ! greate/ numb]1 ! only "q is  
to "k :]e ?is int]e/ is4 ,n[1 "h1 d\bt  
is impossible1 !re=e1 x is p]fectly j to
 (f] innoc5ce z a holocau/ to public    

safety4 ,?is consequ5ce mu/ be accept$1 
or ! pr9ciple reject$4  #bji ,see       
lecture #ae1 ,private & ,public ,e?ics4 
#baj ,plato1 ,republic1 vol4 ix4 & x4 ( 
our translation4  #baa ,lecture #af4    
#bab ,lectures #d & #g4  #bac ,?is      
polemic is n new4 ,! s*ool ( ,/4 ,?omas 
engag$ 9 x e>ly aga9/ ! !ory ( ,occam1  
:i* 0 q simil> to t :i* we combat4 ,see 
our ,sket* ( a ,g5]al ,hi/ory (         
,philosophy1 #b;d ,s]ies1 vol4 ii41     
lect4 #i1 ,on ,s*ola/icism4 ,"h are two 
decisive passages f ,/4 ,?omas1 #a/ book
 ( ! ,summation aga9/ ! ,g5tiles1 *ap4  
lxxxvii3 ,p] pra$icta autem excluditur  
error dic5tiam omnia proc$]e a ,deo     
secundum simplicem voluntatem1 ut de    
nullo oporteat rationem r$d]e1 nisi quia
 ,deus vult4 ,quod etiam div9ae         
,scripturae contr>iatur1 quae ,deum     
p]hibet secundum ord9em sapi5tiae suae  
omnia fecisse1 secundum illud ,psalm    
ciii43 omnia 9 sapi5tia feci/i4 ,ibid41 
book ii41 *ap4 xxiv43 ,p] hoc autem     
excluditur quorundam error qui dicebant 

omnia ex simplica div9a voluntate       
dep5d]e aliqua ratione4  #bad ,see !    
fam\s calculus appli$ to ! immortality (
 ! s\l1 ,des ,p5sees de ,pascal1 vol4 i4
 ( ! #d? ,s]ies1 p4 #bbi-bce & p4       
#bhi-bif4  #bae ,lecture #af4           
,,lecture ,,xiv4  ,,true ,,pr9ciples ,,(
 ,,e?ics4      ,description ( ! diff]5t 
facts t compose ! moral                 
ph5om5a4--,analysis ( ea* ( ^!          
facts3--#a/1 ,judgm5t &     idea ( !    
good4 ,t ?is judgm5t is absolute4       
,relation     betwe5 ! true & !         
good4--#b;d1 ,obligation4 ,refutation ( 
! doctr9e ( ,kant t draws ! idea ( !    
good f     obligation in/ead ( f\nd+    
obligation on ! idea ( !                
good4--#c;d1 ,lib]ty1 & ! moral notions 
atta*$ to ! notion     ( lib]ty4--#d?1  
,pr9ciple ( m]it & dem]it4 ,puni%m5ts   
& rew>ds4--#e?1 ,moral                  
s5tim5ts4--,h>mony ( all ^! facts     9 
nature & sci5ce4   ,philosophic         
criticism is n conf9$ to disc]n+ !      
errors ( sy/ems2 x especially consi/s 9 

recogniz+ & dis5gag+ ! tru?s mix$ ) ^!  
errors4 ,! tru?s scatt]$ 9 diff]5t      
sy/ems compose ! :ole tru? :i* ea* ( ^! 
almo/ always expresses on a s+le side4  
,s1 ! sy/ems t we h j run ov] & refut$  
deliv] up to u1 9 "s sort1 divid$ &     
oppos$ to ea* o!r1 all ! ess5tial       
elem5ts ( human morality4 ,! only "q is 
to collect !m1 9 ord] to re/ore ! entire
 moral ph5om5on4 ,! hi/ory ( philosophy1
 ?us und]/ood1 prep>es ! way = or       
confirms psy*ological analysis1 z       
psy*ological analysis receives f !      
hi/ory ( philosophy its light4 ,let u1  
!n1 int]rogate ourselves 9 pres5ce (    
human actions1 & fai?fully collect1 )\t 
alt]+ !m by any preconceiv$ sy/em1 !    
ideas & ! s5tim5ts ( e k9d t ! spectacle
 ( ^! actions produce 9 u4  ,!re are    
actions t are agreeable or disagreeable 
to u1 t procure u advantages or injure  
u1 9 a ^w1 t are1 9 "o way or ano!r1    
directly or indirectly1 address$ to our 
int]e/4 ,we are rejoic$ ) actions t are 
useful to u1 & %un ^? t may injure u4   

,we seek e>ne/ly & ) ! greate/ ef=t :at 
seems to u our int]e/4  ,?is is an      
inconte/able fact4 ,"h is ano!r fact t  
is n less inconte/able4  ,!re are       
actions t h no relation to u1 t1        
consequ5tly1 we _c e/imate & judge on ! 
gr\nd ( our int]e/1 t we nev]!less      
qualify z good or bad4  ,suppose t be=e 
y\r eyes a man1 /rong & arm$1 falls ^u  
ano!r man1 feeble & dis>m$1 :om he      
maltreats & kills1 9 ord] to take away 8
 purse4 ,su* an action does n rea* y 9  
any way1 &1 not)/&+1 x fills y )        
indignation4#baf ,y d e ?+ 9 y\r p[] t  
?is murd]] may be arre/$ & deliv]$ up to
 ju/ice2 y dem& t he %all be puni%$1 &  
if he is puni%$ 9 "o way or ano!r1 y ?9k
 t x is j2 y\r indignation is appeas$   
only aft] a *a/isem5t proportion$ to !  
crime committ$ has be5 inflict$ on !    
culprit4 ,i repeat t 9 ?is y nei!r hope 
nor fe> any ?+ = y\rself4 ,7 y plac$ 9  
an inaccessible =tress1 f ! top ( :i* y 
might witness ?is sc5e ( murd]1 y w\ld  
feel ^! s5tim5ts none ! less4  ,?is is  

only a rude picture ( :at takes place 9 
y at ! sight ( a crime4 ,apply n[ a     
little reflection & analysis to !       
diff]5t traits ( :i* ?is picture is     
compos$1 )\t de/roy+ _! nature1 & y w h 
a complete philosophic !ory4  ,:at is x 
t fir/ /rikes y 9 :at y h exp]i5c$8 ,x  
is d\btless ! indignation1 ! in/9ctive  
horror t y h felt4 ,!re is1 !n1 9 ! s\l 
a p[] ( rais+ indignation t is =eign to 
all p]sonal int]e/s6 ,!re are1 !n1 9 u  
s5tim5ts ( :i* we are n ! end6 ,!re is  
an antipa?y1 an av]sion1 a horror1 t are
 n relat$ to :at injures u1 b to acts ^:
 remote/ influ5ce _c rea* u1 t we dete/ 
= ! sole reason t we judge !m to be bad6
  ,yes1 we judge !m to be bad4 ,a       
judgm5t is envelop$ "u ! s5tim5ts t we h
 j m5tion$4 ,9 fact1 9 ! mid/ ( !       
indignation t transports y1 let "o tell 
y t all ?is g5]\s ang] p]ta9s to y\r    
p>ticul> organization1 & t1 aft] all1 ! 
action t takes place is indiff]5t1--y   
revolt aga9/ su* an explanation1 y      
exclaim t ! action is bad 9 itself2 y n 

only express a s5tim5t1 y pron\nce a    
judgm5t4 ,! next day aft] ! action1 :5 !
 feel+s t agitat$ y\r s\l h be5 quiet$1 
y none ! less /ill judge t ! action 0   
bad2 y judge ?us six mon?s aft]1 y judge
 ?us always & ev]y:]e2 & x is because y 
judge t ?is action is 9 itself bad1 t y 
be> ?is o!r judgm5t1 t x %\ld n h be5   
done4  ,?is d\ble judgm5t is at !       
f\ndation ( s5tim5t2 o!rwise s5tim5t    
w\ld be )\t reason4 ,if ! action is n   
bad 9 itself1 if he :o has done x 0 n   
obligat$ n to d x1 ! indignation t we   
exp]i5ce is only a physical emotion1 an 
excitem5t ( ! s5ses1 ( ! imag9ation1 ( !
 he>t1--a ph5om5on de/itute ( e moral   
"*1 l ! tr\ble t visits u be=e "s       
frightful sc5e ( nature4 ,y _c          
rationally feel indignation = ! au?or ( 
an indiff]5t action4 ,e s5tim5t (       
dis9t]e/$ ang] aga9/ ! au?or ( an action
 supposes 9 him :o feels x1 ?is d\ble   
conviction3--#a/1 ,t ! action is 9      
itself bad2 #b;d1 ,t x %\ld n h be5     
done4  ,?is s5tim5t also supposes t !   

au?or ( ?is action has himself a        
consci\sness ( ! evil t he has done1 & (
 ! obligation t he has violat$2 = )\t   
?is he w\ld h act$ l a brutal & bl9d    
=ce1 n l an intellig5t & moral =ce1 & we
 %\ld h felt t[>ds him no m indignation 
?an t[>ds a rock t falls on our head1   
t[>ds a torr5t t sweeps u away into an  
abyss4  ,indignation equally supposes 9 
him :o is ! object ( x an o!r "* /ill1  
to wit1 t he is free1--t he c\ld d or n 
d :at he has done4 ,x is evid5t t ! ag5t
 mu/ be free 9 ord] to be responsible4  
,y desire t ! murd]] may be arre/$ &    
deliv]$ up to ju/ice1 y desire t he may 
be puni%$2 :5 he has be5 arre/$1 deliv]$
 up to ju/ice1 & puni%$1 y are satisfi$4
 ,:at does t mean8 ,is x a caprici\s    
movem5t ( ! imag9ation & he>t8 ,no4     
,calm or indignant1 at ! mom5t ( ! crime
 or a long "t aft]1 )\t any _s ( p]sonal
 v5geance1 s9ce y are n ! lea/ int]e/$ 9
 ?is affair1 y none ! less decl>e t !   
murd]] ought to be puni%$4 ,if1 in/ead (
 receiv+ a puni%m5t1 ! culpable man     

makes 8 crime a /epp+-/one to =tune1 y  
/ill decl>e t1 f> f des]v+ prosp]ity1 he
 des]ves to suff] 9 rep>ation ( 8 fault2
 y prote/ aga9/ lot1 & appeal to a      
sup]ior ju/ice4 ,?is judgm5t philosoph]s
 h call$ ! judgm5t ( m]it & dem]it4 ,i  
suppose1 9 ! m9d ( man1 ! idea ( a      
supreme law t atta*es happ9ess to       
virtue1 unhapp9ess to crime4 ,omit !    
idea ( ?is law1 & ! judgm5t ( m]it &    
dem]it is )\t f\ndation4 ,omit ?is      
judgm5t1 & indignation aga9/ prosp]\s   
crime & ! neglect ( virtue is an        
un9telligible1 ev5 an impossible        
s5tim5t1 & nev]1 at ! sight ( crime1    
w\ld y ?9k ( dem&+ ! *a/isem5t ( a      
crim9al4  ,all ! p>ts ( ! moral ph5om5on
 are connect$ toge!r2 all are equally   
c]ta9 p>ts1--de/roy "o1 & y completely  
ov]turn ! :ole ph5om5on4 ,! mo/ common  
obs]vation be>s witness to all ^! facts1
 & ! lea/ subtle logic easily discov]s  
_! connection4 ,x is necess>y to r5\nce 
ev5 s5tim5t1 or x mu/ be av[$ t s5tim5t 
cov]s a judgm5t1 ! judgm5t ( ! ess5tial 

di/9ction betwe5 good & evil1 t ?is     
di/9ction involves an obligation1 t ?is 
obligation is appli$ to an intellig5t & 
free ag5t2 9 f9e1 x mu/ be obs]v$ t !   
di/9ction betwe5 m]it & dem]it1 t       
corresponds to ! di/9ction betwe5 good &
 evil1 conta9s ! pr9ciple ( ! natural   
h>mony betwe5 virtue & happ9ess4  ,:at h
 we done ?us f>8 ,we h done z ! physici/
 or *emi/ does1 :o submits a composite  
body to analysis & r$uces x to its      
simple elem5ts4 ,! only diff]5ce "h is t
 ! ph5om5on to :i* our analysis is      
appli$ is 9 u1 in/ead ( be+ out ( u4    
,besides1 ! processes employ$ are       
exactly ! same2 !re is 9 !m nei!r sy/em 
nor hypo!sis2 !re are only exp]i5ce & ! 
mo/ imm$iate induction4  ,9 ord] to r5d]
 exp]i5ce m c]ta91 we may v>y x4 ,in/ead
 ( exam9+ :at takes place 9 u :5 we are 
spectators ( bad or good actions 9      
ano!r1 let u int]rogate our own         
consci\sness :5 we are do+ well or ill4 
,9 ?is case1 ! diff]5t elem5ts ( ! moral
 ph5om5on are /ill m /rik+1 & _! ord]   

appe>s m di/9ctly4  ,suppose t a dy+    
fri5d has confid$ to me a m or less     
important deposit1 *>g+ me to remit x   
aft] 8 dea? to a p]son :om he has       
designat$ to me alone1 & :o himself kn[s
 n :at has be5 done 9 8 favor4 ,he :o   
confid$ to me ! deposit dies1 & c>ries )
 him 8 secret2 he = :om ! deposit has   
be5 made to me has no k ( x2 if1 !n1 ,i 
wi% to appropriate ?is deposit to       
myself1 no "o w ev] be able to suspect  
me4 ,9 ?is case :at %\ld ,i d8 ,x is    
difficult to imag9e circum/ances m      
favorable = crime4 ,if ,i consult only  
int]e/1 ,i ought n to hesitate to return
 ! deposit4 ,if ,i hesitate1 9 ! sy/em (
 int]e/1 ,i am s5seless1 & ,i revolt    
aga9/ ! law ( my nature4 ,d\bt alone1 9 
! impunity t is assur$ me1 w\ld betray 9
 me a pr9ciple diff]5t f int]e/4  ,b    
naturally ,i d n d\bt1 ,i believe ) !   
mo/ entire c]ta9ty1 t ! deposit confid$ 
to me does n belong to me1 t x has be5  
confid$ to me to be remitt$ to ano!r1 & 
t to ?is o!r x belongs4 ,take away      

int]e/1 & ,i %\ld n ev5 ?9k ( return+   
?is deposit1--x is int]e/ alone t tempts
 me4 ,x tempts me1 x does n be> me away 
)\t resi/ance4 ,h5ce ! /ruggle betwe5   
int]e/ & duty1--a /ruggle fill$ )       
tr\bles1 opposite resolutions1 by turns 
tak5 & ab&on$2 x en]getically atte/s !  
pres5ce ( a pr9ciple ( action diff]5t f 
int]e/ & q z p[]ful4  ,duty succumbs1   
int]e/ triumphs ov] x4 ,i reta9 !       
deposit t has be5 confid$ to me1 & apply
 x to my own wants1 & to ! wants ( my   
family2 x makes me ri*1 & 9 appe>ance   
happy2 b ,i int]nally suff] ) t bitt] & 
secret suff]+ t is call$ remorse4#bag ,!
 fact is c]ta92 x has be5 a ?\s& times  
describ$2 all languages conta9 ! ^w1 &  
!re is no "o :o1 9 "s degree1 has n     
exp]i5c$ ! ?+1 t %>p gnaw+ at ! he>t :i*
 is caus$ by e fault1 great or small1 z 
long z x has n be5 expiat$4 ,?is pa9ful 
recollection foll[s me 9 ! mid/ (       
pleasures & prosp]ity4 ,! applauses ( ! 
cr[d are n able to sil5ce ?is inexorable
 witness4 ,only a long habit ( s9 &     

crime1 an accumulation ( (t-repeat$     
faults1 c compass ?is s5tim5t1 at once  
av5g+ & expiatory4 ,:5 x is /ifl$1 e    
res\rce is lo/1 & an end is made ( !    
s\l's life2 z long z x endures1 ! sacr$ 
fire is n :olly ext+ui%$4  ,remorse is a
 suff]+ ( a p>ticul> "*4 ,9 remorse ,i d
 n suff] on acc\nt ( su* an impression  
made ^u my s5ses1 nor on acc\nt ( !     
?w>t+ ( my natural passions1 nor on     
acc\nt ( ! injury done or ?reat5$ to my 
int]e/1 nor by ! disquietude ( my hopes 
& ! agony ( my fe>s3 no1 ,i suff] )\t   
any ext]nal cause1 yet ,i suff] 9 ! mo/ 
cruel mann]4 ,i suff] = ! sole reason t 
,i h a consci\sness ( hav+ committ$ a   
bad action :i* ,i knew ,i 0 obligat$ n  
to commit1 :i* ,i 0 able n to commit1   
:i* leaves beh9d x a *a/isem5t t ,i "k  
to be des]v$4 ,no exact analysis c take 
away f remorse1 )\t de/roy+ x1 a s+le "o
 ( ^! elem5ts4 ,remorse conta9s ! idea (
 good & evil1 ( an obligatory law1 (    
lib]ty1 ( m]it & dem]it4 ,all ^! ideas 7
 already 9 ! /ruggle betwe5 good & evil2

 !y reappe> 9 remorse4 ,9 va9 int]e/    
c\nsell$ me to appropriate ! deposit t  
_h be5 confid$ to me2 some?+ said to me1
 & /ill says to me1 t to appropriate x  
is to d evil1 is to commit an inju/ice2 
,i judg$1 & judge1 ?us1 n su* a day1 b  
always1 n "u su* a circum/ance1 b "u all
 circum/ances4 ,9 va9 ,i say to myself t
 ! p]son to :om ,i ought to remit ?is   
deposit has no ne$ ( x1 & t x is        
necess>y to me2 ,i judge t a deposit mu/
 be respect$ )\t reg>d to p]sons1 & !   
obligation t is impos$ on me appe>s     
inviolable & absolute4 ,hav+ tak5 ^u    
myself ?is obligation1 ,i believe by ?is
 fact alone t ,i h ! p[] to fulfil x3   
?is is n all2 ,i am directly consci\s ( 
?is p[]1 ,i "k ) ! mo/ c]ta9 k t ,i am  
able to keep ?is deposit or to remit x  
to ! lawful own]2 & x is precisely      
because ,i am consci\s ( ?is p[] t ,i   
judge t ,i h des]v$ puni%m5t = n hav+   
made ! use ( x = :i* x 0 giv5 me4 ,x is1
 9 f9e1 because ,i h a lively           
consci\sness ( all t1 t ,i exp]i5ce ?is 

s5tim5t ( indignation aga9/ myself1 ?is 
suff]+ ( remorse :i* expresses 9 itself 
! moral ph5om5on entire4  ,accord+ to ! 
rules ( ! exp]im5tal me?od1 let u take  
an opposite c\rse2 let u suppose t1 9   
spite ( ! sugge/ions ( int]e/1 9 spite (
 ! press+ goad ( mis]y1 9 ord] to be    
fai?ful to pl$g$ fai?1 ,i s5d ! deposit 
to ! p]son t _h be5 designat$ to me2    
in/ead ( ! pa9ful sc5e t j n[ pass$ 9   
consci\sness1 !re passes ano!r q z real1
 b v diff]5t4 ,i "k t ,i h done well2 ,i
 "k t ,i h n obey$ a *im]a1 an          
artificial & m5daci\s law1 b a law true1
 univ]sal1 obligatory ^u all intellig5t 
& free be+s4 ,i "k t ,i h made a good   
use ( my lib]ty2 ,i h ( ?is lib]ty1 by !
 v use t ,i h made ( x1 a s5tim5t m     
di/9ct1 m en]getic1 &1 9 "s sort1       
triumphant4 ,e op9ion w\ld accuse me 9  
va91 ,i appeal f x to a bett] ju/ice1 & 
?is ju/ice is already decl>$ 9 me by    
s5tim5ts t press ^u ea* o!r 9 my s\l4 ,i
 respect myself1 e/eem myself1 & believe
 t ,i h a "r to ! e/eem ( o!rs2 ,i h !  

s5tim5t ( my dignity2 ,i feel = myself  
only s5tim5ts ( affection oppos$ to t   
species ( horror = myself ) :i* ,i 0 j  
n[ inspir$4 ,in/ead ( remorse1 ,i feel  
an incomp>able joy t no "o c deprive me 
(1 t1 7 e ?+ else want+ to me1 w\ld     
console & support me4 ,?is s5tim5t (    
pleasure is z p5etrat+1 z pr(\nd z 0 !  
remorse4 ,x expresses ! satisfaction (  
all ! g5]\s pr9ciples ( human nature1 z 
remorse repres5t$ _! revolt4 ,x te/ifies
 by ! int]nal happ9ess t x gives me to !
 sublime accord betwe5 happ9ess &       
virtue1 :il/ remorse is ! fir/ l9k 9 t  
fatal *a91 t *a9 ( iron & adamant1 :i*1 
accord+ to ,plato1#bah b9ds pa9 to      
transgression1 tr\ble to passion1 mis]y 
to fai?lessness1 vice1 & crime4  ,moral 
s5tim5t is ! e*o ( all ! moral judgm5ts 
& entire moral life4 ,x is s /rik+ t x  
has be5 reg>d$ by a some:at sup]ficial  
philosophy z suffici5t to f\nd entire   
e?ics2 &1 nev]!less1 we h j se5 t ?is   
admirable s5tim5t w\ld n exi/ )\t !     
diff]5t judgm5ts t we h j enum]at$2 x is

 _! consequ5ce1 b n _! pr9ciple2 x      
supplies1 b does n con/itute !m2 x does 
n take _! place1 b sums !m up4  ,n[ t we
 are 9 possession ( all ! elem5ts (     
human morality1 we proce$ to take ^!    
elem5ts "o by "o1 & submit !m to a      
detail$ analysis4  ,t :i* is mo/ app>5t 
9 ! complex ph5om5on t we are /udy+ is  
s5tim5t2 b its f\ndation is judgm5t4  ,!
 judgm5t ( good & evil is ! pr9ciple (  
all t foll[s x2 b ?is judgm5t re/s only 
on ! con/itution itself ( human nature1 
l ! judgm5t ( ! true & ! judgm5t ( !    
beautiful4 ,z well z ^! two             
judgm5ts1#bai t ( ! good is a simple1   
primitive1 indecomposable judgm5t4  ,l  
!m1 aga91 x is n arbitr>y4 ,we _c b fe> 
?is judgm5t 9 pres5ce ( c]ta9 acts2 &1 9
 fe>+ x1 we "k t x does n make good or  
evil1 b decl>es x4 ,! reality ( moral   
di/9ctions is reveal$ by ?is judgm5t1 b 
x is indep5d5t ( x1 z beauty is         
indep5d5t ( ! eye t p]ceives x1 z       
univ]sal & necess>y tru?s are indep5d5t 
( ! reason t discov]s !m4#bbj  ,good &  

evil are real *>act]s ( human actions1  
al?\gh ^! *>act]s might n be se5 ) our  
eyes nor t\*$ ) our h&s4 ,! moral       
qualities ( an action are none ! less   
real = n be+ conf\nd$ ) ! mat]ial       
qualities ( ?is action4 ,?is is ! reason
 :y actions mat]ially id5tical may be   
morally v diff]5t4 ,a homicide is always
 a homicide2 nev]!less1 x is (t5 a      
crime1 x is also (t5 a legitimate       
action1 = example1 :5 x is n done = !   
sake ( v5geance1 nor = ! sake ( int]e/1 
9 a /rict case ( self-def5ce4  ,x is n !
 spill+ ( blood t makes ! crime1 x is ! 
spill+ ( innoc5t blood4 ,innoc5ce &     
crime1 good & evil1 d n reside 9 su* or 
su* an ext]nal circum/ance det]m9$ "o = 
all4 ,reason recognizes !m ) c]ta9ty "u 
! mo/ diff]5t appe>ances1 9 circum/ances
 sometimes ! same & sometimes dissimil>4
  ,good & evil almo/ always appe> to u  
connect$ ) p>ticul> actions2 b x is n on
 acc\nt ( :at is p>ticul> 9 !m t ^!     
actions are good or bad4 ,s :5 ,i decl>e
 t ! dea? ( ,socrates is unju/1 & t !   

devotion ( ,leonidas is admirable1 x is 
! unju/ dea? ( a wise man t ,i condemn1 
& ! devotion ( a h]o t ,i admire4 ,x is 
n important :e!r ?is h]o be call$       
,leonidas or d',assas1 :e!r ! immolat$  
sage be call$ ,socrates or ,bailly4  ,! 
judgm5t ( ! good is at fir/ appli$ to   
p>ticul> actions1 & x gives bir? to     
g5]al pr9ciples :i* 9 c\rse s]ve u z    
rules = judg+ all actions ( ! same k9d4 
,z aft] hav+ judg$ t su* a p>ticul>     
ph5om5on has su* a p>ticul> cause1 we   
elevate ourselves to ! g5]al pr9ciple t 
e ph5om5on has its cause2#bba s we erect
 into a g5]al rule ! moral judgm5t t we 
h borne 9 reg>d to a p>ticul> fact4     
,?us1 at fir/ we admire ! dea? (        
,leonidas1 !nce we elevate ourselves to 
! pr9ciple t x is good to die = "o's    
c\ntry4 ,we already possess ! pr9ciple 9
 its fir/ application to ,leonidas2     
o!rwise1 ?is p>ticul> application w\ld n
 h be5 legitimate1 x w\ld n h be5 ev5   
possible2 b we possess x implicitly2 z  
soon z x is dis5gag$1 x appe>s to u "u  

its univ]sal & pure =m1 & we apply x to 
all analog\s cases4  ,e?ics h _! axioms 
l o!r sci5ces2 & ^! axioms are rightly  
call$ 9 all languages moral tru?s4  ,x  
is good n to violate "o's oa?1 & 9 ?is  
is also involv$ a tru?4 ,9 fact1 an oa? 
is f\nd$ 9 ! tru? ( ?+s1--its good is   
only d]iv$4 ,moral tru?s consid]$ 9     
!mselves h no less c]ta9ty ?an          
ma!matical tru?s4 ,! idea ( a deposit   
be+ giv51 ,i ask :e!r ! idea ( fai?fully
 keep+ x is n necess>ily atta*$ to x1 z 
to ! idea ( a triangle is atta*$ ! idea 
t its ?ree angles are equal to two "r   
angles4 ,y may )hold a deposit2 b1 9    
)hold+ x1 d n believe t y *ange ! nature
 ( ?+s1 nor t y make x possible = a     
deposit ev] to become prop]ty4 ,^! two  
ideas exclude ea* o!r4 ,y h only a false
 semblance ( prop]ty2 & all ! ef=ts (   
passion1 all ! sophisms ( int]e/ w n    
rev]se ! ess5tial diff]5ces4 ,?is is !  
reason :y moral tru? is s tr\blesome1--x
 is because1 l all tru?1 x is :at x is1 
& does n b5d to any caprice4 ,always !  

same & always pres5t1 9 spite ( all our 
ef=ts1 x inexorably condemns1 ) a voice 
always he>d1 b n always li/5$ to1 !     
s5sible & ! culpable w :i* ?9ks to h9d] 
x f be+ by d5y+ x1 or r by pret5d+ to   
d5y x4  ,moral tru?s are di/+ui%$ f o!r 
tru?s by ! s+ul> "* t1 z soon z we      
p]ceive !m1 !y appe> to u z ! rule ( our
 conduct4 ,if x is true t a deposit is  
made to be remitt$ to its legitimate    
possessor1 x is necess>y to remit x to  
him4 ,to ! necessity ( believ+ is "h    
add$ ! necessity ( practis+4  ,!        
necessity ( practis+ is obligation4     
,moral tru?s1 9 ! eyes ( reason         
necess>y1 are to ! w obligatory4  ,moral
 obligation1 l ! moral tru? t is its    
f\ndation1 is absolute4 ,z necess>y     
tru?s are n m or less necess>y1#bbb s   
obligation is n m or less obligatory4   
,!re are degrees ( importance betwe5    
diff]5t obligations2 b !re are no       
degrees 9 ! same obligation4 ,we are n  
some:at obligat$1 almo/ obligat$2 we are
 ei!r :olly obligat$1 or n at all4  ,if 

obligation is absolute1 x is immutable &
 univ]sal4 ,=1 if ! obligation ( to-day 
7 n ! obligation ( to-morr[1 if :at is  
obligatory = me 7 n s = y1 obligation   
w\ld diff] f itself1 w\ld be relative & 
cont+5t4  ,?is fact ( absolute1         
immutable1 univ]sal obligation is s     
c]ta9 & s manife/1 9 spite ( all ! ef=ts
 ( ! doctr9e ( int]e/ to obscure x1 t "o
 ( ! pr(\nde/ morali/s ( mod]n          
philosophy1 p>ticul>ly /ruck ) ?is fact1
 has reg>d$ x z ! pr9ciple ( ! :ole (   
e?ics4 ,by sep>at+ duty f int]e/ :i*    
ru9s x1 & f s5tim5t :i* en]vates x1     
,kant re/or$ to e?ics _! true "*4 ,he   
elevat$ himself v high 9 ! c5tury (     
,helvetius1 9 elevat+ himself to ! holy 
law ( duty2 b he /ill did n asc5d high  
en\gh1 he did n rea* ! reason itself (  
duty4  ,! good = ,kant is :at is        
obligatory4 ,b logically1 :5ce comes !  
obligation ( p]=m+ an action1 if n f !  
intr9sic goodness ( ?is act8 ,is x n    
because t1 9 ! ord] ( reason1 x is      
absolutely impossible to reg>d a deposit

 z a prop]ty1 t we _c appropriate x to  
ourselves )\t a crime8 ,if "o action mu/
 be p]=m$1 & ano!r action mu/ n1 x is   
because !re is app>5tly an ess5tial     
diff]5ce betwe5 ^! two acts4 ,to f\nd ! 
good on obligation1 in/ead ( f\nd+      
obligation on ! good1 is1 !re=e1 to take
 ! effect = ! cause1 is to draw !       
pr9ciple f ! consequ5ce4  ,if ,i ask an 
hone/ man :o1 9 spite ( ! sugge/ions (  
mis]y1 has respect$ ! deposit t 0       
intru/$ to him1 :y he respect$ x1 he w  
answ] me1--because x 0 my duty4 ,if ,i  
p]si/1 & ask :y x 0 8 duty1 he w v      
rightly answ]1--because x 0 j1 because x
 0 good4 ,t po9t hav+ be5 rea*$1 all    
answ]s are /opp$2 b que/ions also are   
/opp$4 ,no "o all[s a duty to be impos$ 
^u him )\t r5d]+ to himself a reason =  
x2 b z soon z x is recogniz$ t ?is duty 
is impos$ ^u u because x is j1 ! m9d is 
satisfi$2 = x rea*es a pr9ciple beyond  
:i* x has no?+ m to seek1 ju/ice be+ its
 own pr9ciple4 ,fir/ tru?s c>ry ) !m _! 
reason = be+4 ,n[1 ju/ice1 ! ess5tial   

di/9ction betwe5 good & evil 9 !        
relations ( m5 among !mselves1 is !     
prim>y tru? ( e?ics4  ,ju/ice is n a    
consequ5ce1 s9ce we _c asc5d to ano!r m 
elevat$ pr9ciple2 & duty is n1 rigor\sly
 speak+1 a pr9ciple1 s9ce x supposes a  
pr9ciple above x1 t expla9s & au?orizes 
x1 to wit1 ju/ice4  ,moral tru? no m    
becomes relative & subjective1 to take =
 a mom5t ! language ( ,kant1 9 appe>+ to
 u obligatory1 ?an tru? becomes relative
 & subjective 9 appe>+ to u necess>y2 = 
9 ! v nature ( tru? & ! good mu/ be     
s\ght ! reason ( necessity & obligation4
 ,b if we /op at obligation & necessity1
 z ,kant did1 9 e?ics z well z 9        
metaphysics1 )\t kn[+ x1 & ev5 aga9/ our
 int5tion1 we de/roy1 or at lea/ weak5  
tru? & ! good4#bbc  ,obligation has its 
f\ndation 9 ! necess>y di/9ction betwe5 
good & evil2 & is itself ! f\ndation (  
lib]ty4 ,if man has duties1 he mu/      
possess ! faculty ( fulfill+ !m1 (      
resi/+ desire1 passion1 & int]e/1 9 ord]
 to obey law4 ,he ought to be free1     

!re=e he is free1 or human nature is 9  
contradiction ) itself4 ,! direct       
c]ta9ty ( obligation implies !          
correspond+ c]ta9ty ( lib]ty4  ,?is pro(
 ( lib]ty is d\btless good2 b ,kant is  
deceiv$ 9 suppos+ x ! only legitimate   
pro(4 ,x is v /range t he %\ld h pref]r$
 ! au?ority ( reason+ to t (            
consci\sness1 z if ! =m] _h no ne$ ( be+
 confirm$ by ! latt]2 z if1 aft] all1 my
 lib]ty ought n to be a fact = me4#bbd  
,empiricism mu/ be greatly fe>$ to      
di/ru/ ! te/imony ( consci\sness2 &1    
aft] su* a di/ru/1 "o mu/ be v cr$ul\s  
to h a b\ndless fai? 9 reason+4 ,we d n 
believe 9 our lib]ty z we believe 9 !   
movem5t ( ! e>?4 ,! pr(\nde/ p]suasion t
 we h ( x comes f ! cont9ual exp]i5ce t 
we c>ry ) ourselves4  ,is x true t 9    
pres5ce ( an act to be done ,i am able  
to w or n to w to d x8 ,9 t lies ! :ole 
"q ( lib]ty4  ,let u cle>ly di/+ui%     
betwe5 ! p[] ( do+ & ! p[] ( will+4 ,! w
 has1 )\t d\bt1 9 its s]vice & "u its   
empire1 ! mo/ ( our faculties2 b t      

empire1 :i* is real1 is v limit$4 ,i w  
to move my arm1 & ,i am (t5 able to d   
x1--9 t resides1 z x 71 ! physical p[] (
 w2 b ,i am n always able to move my    
arm1 if ! muscles are p>alyz$1 if !     
ob/acle to be ov]come is too /rong1 c42 
! execution does n always dep5d on me2 b
 :at always dep5ds on me is ! resolution
 itself4 ,! ext]nal effects may be      
h9d]$1 my resolution itself c nev] be   
h9d]$4 ,9 its own doma91 w is sov]eign4 
,& ,i am consci\s ( ?is sov]eign p[] ( !
 w4 ,i feel 9 myself1 be=e its          
det]m9ation1 ! =ce t c det]m9e itself 9 
su* a mann] or 9 su* ano!r4 ,at ! same  
"t t ,i w ?is or t1 ,i am equally       
consci\s ( ! p[] to w ! opposite2 ,i am 
consci\s ( be+ ma/] ( my resolution1 ( !
 ability to arre/ x1 cont9ue x1 repress 
x4 ,:5 ! volunt>y act ceases1 !         
consci\sness ( ! p[] does n cease1--x   
rema9s ) ! p[] itself1 :i* is sup]ior to
 all its manife/ations4 ,lib]ty is !re=e
 ! ess5tial & always-subsi/+ attribute (
 w4#bbe  ,! w1 we h se51#bbf is nei!r   

desire nor passion1--x is exactly !     
opposite4 ,lib]ty ( w is n1 !n1 ! lic5se
 ( desires & passions4 ,man is a slave 9
 desire & passion1 he is free only 9 w4 
,t !y may n else:]e be conf\nd$1 lib]ty 
& an>*y mu/ n be conf\nd$ 9 psy*ology4  
,passions ab&on+ !mselves to _!         
caprices1 is an>*y4 ,passions conc5trat$
 ^u a dom9ant passion1 is tyranny4      
,lib]ty consi/s 9 ! /ruggle ( w aga9/   
?is tyranny & ?is an>*y4 ,b ?is combat  
mu/ h an aim1 & ?is aim is ! duty (     
obey+ reason1 :i* is our true sov]eign1 
& ju/ice1 :i* reason reveals to u &     
prescribes = u4 ,! duty ( obey+ reason  
is ! law ( w1 & w is nev] m itself ?an  
:5 x submits to its law4 ,we d n possess
 ourselves1 z long z to ! dom9ation (   
desire1 ( passion1 ( int]e/1 reason does
 n oppose ! c\nt]poise ( ju/ice4 ,reason
 & ju/ice free u f ! yoke ( passions1   
)\t impos+ ^u u ano!r yoke4 ,=1 once m1 
to obey !m1 is n to abdicate lib]ty1 b  
to save x1 to apply x to its legitimate 
use4  ,x is 9 lib]ty1 & 9 ! agreem5t (  

lib]ty ) reason & ju/ice1 t man belongs 
to himself1 to speak prop]ly4 ,he is a  
p]son only because he is a free be+     
enlight5$ by reason4  ,:at di/+ui%es a  
p]son f a simple ?+1 is especially !    
diff]5ce betwe5 lib]ty & its opposite4  
,a ?+ is t :i* is n free1 consequ5tly t 
:i* does n belong to itself1 t :i* has  
no self1 :i* has only a num]ical        
individuality1 a p]fect effigy ( true   
individuality1 :i* is t ( p]son4  ,a ?+1
 n belong+ to itself1 belongs to ! fir/ 
p]son t takes possession ( x & puts 8   
m>k on x4  ,a ?+ is n responsible = !   
movem5ts :i* x has n will$1 ( :i* x is  
ev5 ignorant4 ,p]son alone is           
responsible1 = x is intellig5t & free2 &
 x is responsible = ! use ( its         
intellig5ce & fre$om4  ,a ?+ has no     
dignity2 dignity is only atta*$ to      
p]son4  ,a ?+ has no value by itself2 x 
has only t :i* p]son conf]s on x4 ,x is 
purely an in/rum5t ^: :ole value consi/s
 9 ! use t ! p]son us+ x d]ives f x4#bbg
  ,obligation implies lib]ty2 :]e lib]ty

 is n1 duty is want+1 & ) duty "r is    
want+ also4  ,x is because !re is 9 me a
 be+ wor?y ( respect1 t ,i h ! duty (   
respect+ x1 & ! "r to make x respect$ by
 y4 ,my duty is ! exact measure ( my "r4
 ,! "o is 9 direct ratio ) ! o!r4 ,if ,i
 _h no sacr$ duty to respect :at makes  
my p]son1 t is to say1 my intellig5ce & 
my lib]ty1 ,i %\ld n h ! "r to def5d x  
aga9/ y\r injuries4 ,b z my p]son is    
inviolable & sacr$ 9 itself1 x foll[s t1
 consid]$ 9 relation to me1 x imposes on
 me a duty1 &1 consid]$ 9 relation to y1
 x conf]s on me a "r4  ,i am n myself   
p]mitt$ to degrade ! p]son t ,i am by   
ab&on+ myself to passion1 to vice &     
crime1 & ,i am n p]mitt$ to let x be    
degrad$ by y4  ,! p]son is inviolable2 &
 x alone is inviolable4  ,x is          
inviolable n only 9 ! intimate sanctu>y 
( consci\sness1 b 9 all its legitimate  
manife/ations1 9 its acts1 9 ! product (
 its acts1 ev5 9 ! in/rum5ts t x makes  
its own by us+ !m4  ,!re9 is ! f\ndation
 ( ! sanctity ( prop]ty4 ,! fir/ prop]ty

 is ! p]son4 ,all o!r prop]ties are     
d]iv$ f t4 ,?9k ( x well4 ,x is n       
prop]ty 9 itself t has rights1 x is !   
proprietor1 x is ! p]son t /amps ^u x1 )
 its own "*1 its "r & its title4  ,!    
p]son _c cease to belong to itself1 )\t 
degrad+ itself1--x is to itself         
inali5able4 ,! p]son has no "r ov]      
itself2 x _c treat itself z a ?+1 _c    
sell itself1 _c de/roy itself1 _c 9 any 
way aboli% its free w & its lib]ty1 :i* 
are its con/itu5t elem5ts4  ,:y has !   
*ild already "s rights8 ,because x w be 
a free be+4 ,:y h ! old man1 return$ to 
infancy1 & ! insane man /ill "s rights8 
,because !y h be5 free be+s4 ,we ev5    
respect lib]ty 9 its fir/ glimm]+s or   
its la/ ve/iges4 ,:y1 on ! o!r h&1 h !  
insane man & ! imbecile old man no long]
 all _! rights8 ,because !y h lo/       
lib]ty4 ,:y d we en*a9 ! furi\s madman8 
,because he has lo/ k & lib]ty4 ,:y is  
slav]y an abom9able in/itution8 ,because
 x is an outrage ^u :at con/itutes      
humanity4 ,?is is ! reason :y1 9 f9e1   

c]ta9 extreme devotions are sometimes   
sublime faults1 & no "o is p]mitt$ to   
(f] !m1 mu* less to dem& !m4 ,!re is no 
legitimate devotion aga9/ ! v ess5ce (  
"r1 aga9/ lib]ty1 aga9/ ju/ice1 aga9/ ! 
dignity ( ! human p]son4  ,we h n be5   
able to speak ( lib]ty1 )\t indicat+ a  
c]ta9 numb] ( moral notions ( ! highe/  
importance :i* x conta9s & expla9s2 b we
 c\ld n pursue ?is developm5t )\t       
encroa*+ ^u ! doma9 ( private & public  
e?ics & anticipat+ ! foll[+ lecture4    
,we arrive1 !n1 at ! la/ elem5t ( !     
moral ph5om5on1 ! judgm5t ( m]it &      
dem]it4  ,at ! same "t t we judge t a   
man has done a good or bad action1 we   
be> ?is o!r judgm5t q z necess>y z !    
=m]1 to wit1 t if ?is man has act$ well 
he has m]it$ a rew>d1 & if he has act$  
ill1 he has m]it$ a puni%m5t4 ,x is     
exactly ! same ) ?is judgm5t z ) t ( !  
good4 ,x may be outw>dly express$ 9 a m 
or less lively mann]1 accord+ z x is    
m+l$ ) m or less en]getic feel+s4       
,sometimes x w be only a b5evol5t       

disposition t[>ds ! virtu\s ag5t1 & an  
unfavorable disposition t[>ds ! culpable
 ag5t2 sometimes x w be en?usiasm or    
indignation4 ,9 "s cases "o w make      
himself ! executor ( ! judgm5t t he     
be>s1 he w cr[n ! h]o & load ! crim9al )
 *a9s4 ,b :5 all y\r feel+s are calm$1  
:5 en?usiasm has cool$ z well z         
indignation1 :5 "t & sep>ation h r5d]$  
an action almo/ indiff]5t to y1 y none !
 less p]si/ 9 judg+ t ! au?or ( ?is     
action m]its a rew>d or a puni%m5t1     
accord+ to ! quality ( ! action4 ,y     
decide t y 7 "r 9 ! s5tim5ts t y felt1  
&1 al?\gh !y are ext+ui%$1 y decl>e !m  
legitimate4  ,! judgm5t ( m]it & dem]it 
is ess5tially ti$ to ! judgm5t ( good & 
evil4 ,9 fact1 he :o does an action )\t 
kn[+ :e!r x is good or bad1 has nei!r   
m]it nor dem]it 9 do+ x4 ,x is ) him !  
same z ) ^? physical ag5ts t accompli% !
 mo/ b5efic5t or ! mo/ de/ructive works1
 to :i* we nev] ?9k ( attribut+ k & w1  
consequ5tly acc\ntability4 ,:y are !re  
no p5alties atta*$ to involunt>y crimes8

 ,because = t v reason !y are n reg>d$ z
 crimes4 ,h5ce x comes t ! "q (         
prem$itation is s grave 9 all crim9al   
processes4 ,:y is ! *ild1 up to a c]ta9 
age1 subject to none b light puni%m5ts8 
,because :]e ! idea ( ! good & lib]ty   
are want+1 m]it & dem]it are also want+1
 :i* alone au?orize rew>d & puni%m5t4 ,!
 au?or ( an injuri\s b involunt>y action
 is condemn$ to an indemnity correspond+
 to ! damage done2 he is n condemn$ to a
 puni%m5t prop]ly s call$4  ,su* are !  
conditions ( m]it & dem]it4 ,:5 ^!      
conditions are fulfill$1 m]it & dem]it  
manife/ !mselves1 & involve rew>d &     
puni%m5t4  ,m]it is ! natural "r we h to
 be rew>d$2 dem]it ! natural "r t o!rs h
 to puni% u1 &1 if we may ?us speak1 !  
"r t we h to be puni%$4 ,?is expression 
may seem p>adoxical1 nev]!less x is     
true4 ,a culpable man1 :o1 op5+ 8 eyes  
to ! light ( ! good1 %\ld compreh5d !   
necessity ( expiation1 n only by int]nal
 rep5tance1 )\t :i* all ! re/ is 9 va91 
b also by a real & effective suff]+1 su*

 a culpable man w\ld h ! "r to claim !  
puni%m5t t alone c reconcile him ) ord]4
 ,& su* reclamations are n s r>e4 ,d we 
n e day see crim9als d5\nc+ !mselves &  
(f]+ !mselves up to av5ge ! public8     
,o!rs pref] to satisfy ju/ice1 & d n h  
rec\rse to ! p>don t law places 9 ! h&s 
( ! mon>* 9 ord] to repres5t 9 ! /ate   
*>ity & m]cy1 z tribunals repres5t 9 x  
ju/ice4 ,?is is a manife/ pro( ( !      
natural & pr(\nd roots ( ! idea (       
puni%m5t & rew>d4  ,m]it & dem]it       
imp]atively claim1 l a lawful debt1     
puni%m5t & rew>d2 b rew>d mu/ n be      
conf\nd$ ) m]it1 nor puni%m5t ) dem]it2 
?is w\ld be conf\nd+ cause & effect1    
pr9ciple & consequ5ce4 ,ev5 7 rew>d &   
puni%m5t n to take place1 m]it & dem]it 
w\ld subsi/4 ,puni%m5t & rew>d satisfy  
m]it & dem]it1 b d n con/itute !m4      
,suppress all rew>d & all puni%m5t & y d
 n !reby suppress m]it & dem]it2 on !   
contr>y1 suppress m]it & dem]it1 & !re  
are no long] true puni%m5ts & true      
rew>ds4 ,unm]it$ goods & honors are only

 mat]ial advantages2 rew>d is ess5tially
 moral1 & its value is indep5d5t ( its  
=m4 ,"o ( ^? cr[ns ( oak t ! e>ly       
,romans decre$ to h]oism is wor? m ?an  
all ! ri*es 9 ! _w1 :5 x is ! sign ( !  
recognition & ! admiration ( a p4 ,to   
rew>d is to give 9 return4 ,he :o is    
rew>d$ mu/ h fir/ giv5 some?+ 9 ord] to 
des]ve to be rew>d$4 ,rew>d accord$ to  
m]it is a debt2 rew>d )\t m]it is a     
*>ity or a !ft4 ,x is ! same ) puni%m5t4
 ,x is ! relation ( pa9 to a fault1--9  
?is relation1 & n 9 ! pa9 alone1 is !   
tru? z well z ! %ame ( *a/isem5t4       
',tis crime & n ! scaffold makes !      
%ame4#bbh  ,!re are two ?+s t mu/ be    
unceas+ly repeat$1 because !y are       
equally true1--! fir/ is1 t ! good is   
good 9 itself1 & ought to be pursu$     
:atev] may be ! consequ5ces2 ! second   
is1 t ! consequ5ces ( ! good _c fail to 
be =tunate4 ,happ9ess1 sep>at$ f ! good1
 is only a fact to :i* is atta*$ no     
moral idea2 b1 z an effect ( ! good1 x  
ent]s into ! moral ord] & completes x4  

,virtue )\t happ9ess1 & crime )\t       
unhapp9ess1 are a contradiction1 a      
disord]4 ,if virtue supposes sacrifice1 
t is to say1 suff]+1 x is ( et]nal      
ju/ice t ! sacrifice1 g5]\sly accept$ & 
c\rage\sly borne1 h = a rew>d ! v       
happ9ess t has be5 sacrific$4 ,s1 x is (
 et]nal ju/ice t crime be puni%$ by !   
unhapp9ess ( ! culpable happ9ess :i* x  
has tri$ to obta9 by /eal?4  ,n[1 :5 &  
h[ is ! law fulfill$ t atta*es pleasure 
& pa9 to good & evil8 ,mo/ ( ! "t ev5 "h
 bel[4 ,= ord] rules 9 ?is _w1 s9ce ! _w
 endures4 ,if ord] is sometimes di/urb$1
 & happ9ess & unhapp9ess are n always   
di/ribut$ 9 "r proportion to crime &    
virtue1 /ill ! absolute judgm5t ( !     
good1 ! absolute judgm5t ( obligation1 !
 absolute judgm5t ( m]it & dem]it1      
subsi/ inviolable & imprescriptible1--we
 rema9 conv9c$ t he :o has put 9 u !    
s5tim5t & ! idea ( ord] _c 9 t fail     
himself1 & t soon] or lat] he w         
re-e/abli% ! sacr$ h>mony betwe5 virtue 
& happ9ess by ! means t to him belong4  

,b ! "t has n come to s\nd ^! my/]i\s   
prospects4#bbi ,x is suffici5t = u1 b x 
0 necess>y to m>k !m1 9 ord] to %[ !    
nature & ! end ( moral tru?4  ,we       
t]m9ate ?is analysis ( ! diff]5t p>ts ( 
! complex ph5om5on ( morality by recall+
 t "o :i* is ! mo/ app>5t ( all1 :i*1   
h[ev]1 is only ! accompanim5t1 &1 ?us to
 speak1 ! e*o ( all ! o!rs--s5tim5t4    
,s5tim5t has = its object to r5d]       
s5sible to ! s\l ! tie betwe5 virtue &  
happ9ess4 ,x is ! direct & vital        
application ( ! law ( m]it & dem]it4 ,x 
prec$es & au?orizes ! puni%m5ts & rew>ds
 t society in/itutes4 ,x is ! int]nal   
model accord+ to :i* ! imag9ation1 guid$
 by fai?1 repres5ts to itself !         
puni%m5ts & rew>ds ( ! div9e city4 ,! _w
 t we place beyond ?is is1 9 great "p1  
our own he>t transport$ into heav54     
,s9ce x comes !nce1 x is j t x %\ld     
return ?i!r4  ,we w n dwell ^u ! diff]5t
 ph5om5a ( s5tim5t2 we h suffici5tly    
expla9$ !m 9 ! la/ lecture4 ,a few words
 w replace !m "u y\r eyes4  ,we _c      

witness a good action1 :oev] may be its 
au?or1 ano!r or ourselves1 )\t exp]i5c+ 
a p>ticul> pleasure1 analog\s to t :i*  
is atta*$ to ! p]ception ( ! beautiful2 
& we _c witness a bad action )\t feel+ a
 contr>y s5tim5t1 also analog\s to t :i*
 ! sight ( an ugly & de=m$ object       
excites 9 u4 ,?is s5tim5t is pr(\ndly   
diff]5t f agreeable or disagreeable     
s5sation4  ,are we ! au?ors ( ! good    
action8 ,we feel a satisfaction t we d n
 conf\nd ) any o!r4 ,x is n ! triumph ( 
int]e/ nor t ( pride1--x is ! pleasure (
 mode/ hone/y or dignifi$ virtue t r5d]s
 ju/ice to itself4 ,are we ! au?ors ( ! 
bad action8 ,we feel (f5d$ consci5ce    
groan+ )9 u4 ,sometimes x is only an    
importunate reclamation1 sometimes x is 
a bitt] agony4 ,remorse is a suff]+ ! m 
poignant on acc\nt ( our feel+ t x is   
des]v$4  ,! spectacle ( a good action   
done by ano!r also has some?+ delici\s  
to ! s\l4 ,sympa?y is an e*o 9 u t      
responds to :atev] is noble & good 9    
o!rs4 ,:5 int]e/ does n lead u a/ray1 we

 naturally put ourselves 9 ! place ( him
 :o has done well4 ,we feel 9 a c]ta9   
measure ! s5tim5ts t animate him4 ,we   
elevate ourselves to ! mood ( 8 _s4 ,is 
x n already = ! good man an exquisite   
rew>d to make ! noble s5tim5ts t animate
 him ?us pass into ! he>ts ( 8 fell[-m58
 ,! spectacle ( a bad action1 in/ead (  
sympa?y1 excites an involunt>y antipa?y1
 a pa9ful & sad s5tim5t4 ,)\t d\bt1 ?is 
s5tim5t is nev] acute l remorse4 ,!re is
 9 innoc5ce some?+ s]5e & placid t      
temp]s ev5 ! s5tim5t ( inju/ice1 ev5 :5 
?is inju/ice falls on u4 ,we !n exp]i5ce
 a sort ( %ame = humanity1 we m\rn ov]  
human weakness1 &1 by a melan*oly return
 ^u ourselves1 we are less mov$ to ang] 
?an to pity4 ,sometimes also pity is    
ov]come by a g5]\s ang]1 by a dis9t]e/$ 
indignation4 ,if1 z we h said1 x is a   
sweet rew>d to excite a noble sympa?y1  
an en?usiasm almo/ always f]tile 9 good 
actions1 x is a cruel puni%m5t to /ir up
 ar\nd u pity1 indignation1 av]sion1 &  
contempt4  ,sympa?y = a good action is  

accompani$ by b5evol5ce = its au?or4 ,he
 inspires u ) an affectionate           
disposition4 ,ev5 )\t kn[+ x1 we w\ld   
love to d good to him2 we desire t he   
may be happy1 because we judge t he     
des]ves to be4 ,antipa?y also passes f !
 action to ! p]son1 & eng5d]s aga9/ him 
a sort ( bad w1 = :i* we d n blame      
ourselves1 because we feel x to be      
dis9t]e/$ & f9d x legitimate4  ,moral   
satisfaction & remorse1 sympa?y1        
b5evol5ce1 & _! opposites are s5tim5ts &
 n judgm5ts2 b !y are s5tim5ts t        
accompany judgm5ts1 ! judgm5t ( ! good1 
especially t ( m]it & dem]it4 ,^!       
s5tim5ts h be5 giv5 u by ! sov]eign     
,au?or ( our moral con/itution to aid u 
9 do+ good4 ,9 _! div]sity & mobility1  
!y _c be ! f\ndations ( absolute        
obligation :i* mu/ be equal = all1 b !y 
are to x happy auxili>ies1 sure &       
b5efic5t witnesses ( ! h>mony betwe5    
virtue & happ9ess4  ,^! are ! facts z   
pres5t$ by a fai?ful description1 z     
br\ght to light by a detail$ analysis4  

,)\t facts all is *im]a2 )\t a sev]e    
di/9ction ( facts1 all is confusion2 b1 
also1 )\t ! k ( _! relations1 in/ead ( a
 s+le va/ doctr9e1 l ! total ph5om5on t 
we h und]tak5 to embrace1 !re c be only 
diff]5t sy/ems l ! diff]5t p>ts ( ?is   
ph5om5on1 consequ5tly imp]fect sy/ems1  
sy/ems always at w> ) ea* o!r4  ,we set 
out f common s5se2 = ! object ( true    
sci5ce is n to contradict common s5se1 b
 to expla9 x1 & = ?is end we mu/ comm5ce
 by recogniz+ x4 ,we h at fir/ pa9t$ 9  
its simplicity1 ev5 9 ! gross1 !        
ph5om5on ( morality4 ,!n we h sep>at$   
its elem5ts1 & c>efully m>k$ !          
*>act]i/ic traits ( ea* ( !m4 ,x only   
rema9s = u to re-collect !m all1 to     
seize _! relations1 & ?us to f9d aga91 b
 m precise & m cle>1 ! primitive unity t
 s]v$ u z a po9t ( dep>ture4  ,b5ea? all
 facts analysis has %[n u a primitive   
fact1 :i* ve/s only on itself1--!       
judgm5t ( ! good4 ,we d n sacrifice o!r 
facts to t1 b we mu/ e/abli% t x is !   
fir/ bo? 9 date & 9 importance4  ,by its

 close resemblance to ! judgm5t ( ! true
 & ! beautiful1 ! judgm5t ( ! good has  
%[n u ! aff9ities ( e?ics1 metaphysics1 
& ae/hetics4  ,! good1 s ess5tially     
unit$ to ! true1 is di/+ui%$ f x 9 t x  
is practical tru?4 ,! good is           
obligatory4 ,^! two ideas are           
insep>able1 b n id5tical4 ,= obligation 
re/s on ! good1--9 ?is intimate         
alliance1 f ! good obligation borr[s its
 univ]sal & absolute "*4  ,! obligatory 
good is ! moral law4 ,!re9 is = u !     
f\ndation ( all e?ics4 ,!reby x is t we 
sep>ate ourselves f ! e?ics ( int]e/ & !
 e?ics ( s5tim5t4 ,we admit all ! facts1
 b we d n admit !m 9 ! same rank4  ,to !
 moral law 9 ! reason ( man corresponds 
lib]ty 9 action4 ,lib]ty is d$uc$ f     
obligation1 & moreov] x is a fact ( an  
irresi/ible evid5ce4  ,man z a be+ free 
& subject to obligation1 is a moral     
p]son4 ,! idea ( p]son conta9s sev]al   
moral notions1 among o!rs t ( "r4 ,p]son
 alone c h rights4  ,to all ^! ideas is 
add$ t ( m]it & dem]it1 :i* s]ves z _!  

sanction4  ,m]it & dem]it suppose !     
di/9ction betwe5 good & evil1 obligation
 & lib]ty1 & give bir? to ! idea ( rew>d
 & puni%m5t4  ,x is on ! condition t !  
good may be an object ( reason1 t e?ics 
c h an immovable basis4 ,we h !re=e     
insi/$ on ! rational "* ( ! idea ( !    
good1 b )\t misconceiv+ ! "p ( s5tim5t4 
,we h di/+ui%$ t p>ticul> s5sibility1   
:i* is /irr$ 9 u 9 ! tra9 ( reason      
itself1 f physical s5sibility1 :i* ne$s 
an impression made ^u ! organs 9 ord] to
 ent] into ex]cise4  ,all our moral     
judgm5ts are accompani$ by s5tim5ts t   
respond to !m4 ,! sight ( an action :i* 
we judge to be good gives u pleasure1--!
 consci\sness ( hav+ p]=m$ an obligatory
 act1 & ( hav+ p]=m$ x freely1 is also a
 pleasure2 ! judgm5t ( m]it & dem]it    
makes our he>ts beat by tak+ ! =m (     
sympa?y & b5evol5ce4  ,x mu/ be av[$ t !
 law ( duty1 al?\gh x ought to be       
fulfill$ = its own sake1 w\ld be an     
ideal almo/ inaccessible to human       
weakness1 if to its au/]e prescriptions 

7 n add$ "s inspiration ( ! he>t4       
,s5tim5t is 9 "s sort a natural grace t 
has be5 giv5 u1 ei!r to supply ! light (
 reason t is sometimes unc]ta91 or to   
succor ! w wav]+ 9 ! pres5ce ( an       
obscure or pa9ful duty4 ,9 ord] to resi/
 ! viol5ce ( culpable passions1 ! aid ( 
g5]\s passions is ne$$2 & :5 ! moral law
 exacts ! sacrifice ( natural s5tim5ts1 
( ! sweete/ & mo/ lively in/9cts1 x is  
=tunate t x c support itself on o!r     
s5tim5ts1 or o!r in/9cts :i* also h _!  
*>m & _! =ce4 ,tru? enlight5s ! m9d2    
s5tim5t w>ms ! s\l & leads to action4 ,x
 is n cold reason t det]m9es a ,codrus  
to devote himself = 8 c\ntrym51 a       
d',assas to utt]1 b5ea? ! /eel ( !      
enemy1 ! g5]\s cry t br+s him dea? &    
saves ! army4 ,let u gu>d ourselves1 !n1
 f weak5+ ! au?ority ( s5tim5t2 let u   
honor & su/a9 en?usiasm2 x is ! s\rce   
:5ce spr+ great & h]oic actions4  ,&    
%all int]e/ be entirely bani%$ f our    
sy/em8 ,no2 we recognize 9 ! human s\l a
 desire = happ9ess :i* is ! "w ( ,god   

himself4 ,?is desire is a fact1--x mu/  
!n h its place 9 a sy/em f\nd$ ^u       
exp]i5ce4 ,happ9ess is "o ( ! ends (    
human nature2 only x is nei!r its sole  
end nor its pr9cipal end4  ,admirable   
economy ( ! moral con/itution ( man6    
,its supreme end is ! good1 its law is  
virtue1 :i* (t5 imposes on x suff]+1 &  
!reby x is ! mo/ excell5t ( all ?+s t we
 "k4 ,b ?is law is v h>d & 9            
contradiction ) ! in/9ct ( happ9ess4    
,fe> no?+1--! b5efic5t au?or ( our be+  
has plac$ 9 our s\ls1 by ! side ( !     
sev]e law ( duty1 ! sweet & amiable =ce 
( s5tim5t1--he has1 9 g5]al1 atta*$     
happ9ess to virtue2 &1 = ! exceptions1 =
 !re are exceptions1 at ! end ( ! c\rse 
he has plac$ hope4#bcj  ,our doctr9e is 
n[ kn[n4 ,its only pret5sion is to      
express fai?fully ea* fact1 to express  
!m all1 & to make appe> at once _!      
diff]5ces & _! h>mony4  ,beyond t !re is
 no?+ new to attempt 9 e?ics4 ,to admit 
only a s+le fact & to sacrifice to t all
 ! re/1--su* is ! beat5 way4 ,( all !   

facts t we h j analyz$1 !re is n "o t   
has n 9 its turn play$ ! "p ( sole      
pr9ciple4 ,all ! great s*ools ( moral   
philosophy h ea* se5 only "o side (     
tru?1--=tunate :5 !y h n *os5 among !   
diff]5t phases ( ! moral ph5om5on1 9    
ord] to f\nd ^u !m _! entire sy/em1     
precisely ^? t are lea/ adapt$ to t end6
  ,:o c\ld n[ return to ,epicurus1 &1   
aga9/ ! mo/ manife/ facts1 aga9/ common 
s5se1 aga9/ ! v idea ( all e?ics1 f\nd  
duty1 virtue1 ! good1 on ! desire (     
happ9ess alone8 ,x w\ld be pro( ( great 
bl9dness & great b>r5ness4 ,on ! o!r h&1
 %all we immolate ! ne$ ( happ9ess1 !   
hope ( all rew>d1 human or div9e1 to !  
ab/ract idea ( ! good8 ,! ,/oics h done 
x1--we "k ) :at app>5t gr&eur1 ) :at    
real impot5ce4 ,%all we conf9e ) ,kant !
 :ole ( e?ics to obligation8 ,t is      
/rait5+ /ill m a sy/em t is already v   
n>r[4 ,moreov]1 "o may hope to surpass  
,kant 9 ext5t ( views1 by a complet] k &
 m fai?ful repres5tation ( facts2 "o _c 
hope to be m pr(\nd 9 ! po9t ( view t he

 has *os54 ,or1 9 ano!r ord] ( ideas1   
%all we ref] to ! w ( ,god alone !      
obligation ( virtue1 & f\nd e?ics on    
religion1 in/ead ( giv+ religion to     
e?ics z _! necess>y p]fection8 ,we /ill 
inv5t no?+ new1 we only r5ew ! e?ics ( !
 !ologians ( ! ,middle ,age1 or r ( a   
p>ticul> s*ool :i* has _h = its         
adv]s>ies ! mo/ illu/ri\s doctors4      
,f9ally1 %all we r$uce all morality to  
s5tim5t1 to sympa?y1 to b5evol5ce8 ,x   
only rema9s to foll[ ! foot/eps (       
,hut*eson & ,smi?1 ab&on$ by ,reid      
himself1 or ! foot/eps ( a celebrat$    
adv]s>y ( ,kant1 ,jacobi4#bca  ,! "t (  
exclusive !ories has gone by2 to r5ew !m
 is to p]petuate w> 9 philosophy4 ,ea* (
 !m1 be+ f\nd$ ^u a real fact1 rightly  
refuses ! sacrifice ( ?is fact2 & x     
meets 9 ho/ile !ories an equal "r & an  
equal resi/ance4 ,h5ce ! p]petual return
 ( ! same sy/ems1 always at w> ) ea*    
o!r1 & by turns vanqui%$ & victori\s4   
,?is /rife c cease only by means ( a    
doctr9e t conciliates all sy/ems by     

compris+ all ! facts t give !m au?ority4
  ,x is n ! preconceiv$ design (        
conciliat+ sy/ems 9 hi/ory t sugge/s to 
u ! idea ( conciliat+ facts 9 reality4  
,x is1 on ! contr>y1 ! full possession (
 all ! facts1 analog\s & diff]5t1 t =ces
 u to absolve & condemn all sy/ems on   
acc\nt ( ! tru? t is 9 ea* ( !m1 & on   
acc\nt ( ! errors t are mix$ ) ! tru?4  
,x is important to repeat cont9ually1 t 
no?+ is s easy z to arrange a sy/em1 by 
suppress+ or alt]+ ! facts t emb>rass x4
 ,b is x1 !n1 ! object ( philosophy to  
produce at any co/ a sy/em1 in/ead (    
seek+ to und]/& ! tru? & express x z x  
is8  ,x is object$ t su* a doctr9e has n
 suffici5t "*4 ,b is x n sport+ )       
philosophy to dem& ( x any o!r "* ?an t 
( tru?8 ,d m5 compla9 t mod]n *emi/ry   
has n suffici5t "*1 because x limits    
itself to /udy+ facts 9 _! relations1 & 
also 9 _! diff]5ces1 & because x does n 
end at a s+le sub/ance8 ,! only true    
philosophy t is prop] = a c5tury return$
 f all exagg]ations1 is a picture (     

human nature ^: fir/ m]it is fidelity1  
:i* mu/ (f] all ! traits ( ! orig9al 9  
_! "r proportion & real h>mony4 ,! unity
 ( ! doctr9e t we pr(ess is 9 t ( !     
human s\l1 :5ce we h drawn x4 ,is x n "o
 & ! same be+ t p]ceives ! good1 t kn[s 
t he is obligat$ to fulfil x1 t kn[s t  
he is free 9 fulfill+ x1 t loves ! good1
 & judges t ! fulfilm5t or violation ( !
 good ju/ly br+s aft] x rew>d or        
puni%m5t1 happ9ess or mis]y8 ,we draw1  
!n1 a true unity f ! intimate relation  
betwe5 all ! facts t1 z we h se51 imply 
& su/a9 ea* o!r4 ,b by :at "r is ! unity
 ( a doctr9e plac$ 9 all[+ 9 x only a   
s+le pr9ciple8 ,su* a unity is possible 
only 9 ^? regions ( ma!matical          
ab/raction1 :]e "o is n di/urb$ by :at  
is1 :]e "o retr5*es at w f ! object t he
 is /udy+1 9 ord] to simplify x         
cont9ually1 :]e e ?+ is r$uc$ to pure   
notions4 ,9 ! reality all is det]m9$1 & 
consequ5tly1 all is complex4 ,a sci5ce (
 facts is n a s]ies ( equations4 ,9 x   
mu/ be f\nd aga9 ! life t is 9 ?+s1 life

 ) its h>mony d\btless1 b also ) its    
ri*ness & div]sity4#bcb  ,,footnotes3   
#baf ,on indignation1 see lecture #aa4  
#bag ,on remorse1 see lecture #aa4  #bah
 ,see ! ,gorgias1 ) ! ,argum5t1 vol4    
iii4 ( our translation4  #bai ,lectures 
#a & #f4  #bbj ,lectures #b1 #c1 & #f4  
#bba #a/ "p1 lecture #b4  #bbb ,lecture 
#b4  #bbc #a/ "p1 lecture #c4 ,see also 
vol4 v4 ( ! #a/ ,s]ies1 lecture #h4     
#bbd #a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 v41 lecture #g4   
#bbe ,see1 = ! entire developm5t ( !    
!ory ( lib]ty1 #a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 iii41   
lecture #a1 ,locke1 p4 #ga2 lecture #c1 
,condillac1 p4 #aaf1 #adi1 etc42 vol4   
iv41 lecture #bc1 ,reid1 p4 #eda-egd2   
#b;d ,s]ies1 vol4 iii41 ,exam9ation ( ! 
,sy/em ( ,locke1 lecture #be4  #bbf     
,lecture #ab4  #bbg ,see #a/ ,s]ies1    
vol4 iv41 ,lecture on ,smi? & on ! true 
pr9ciple ( political economy1 p4        
#bgh-cjb4  #bbh ,le crime fait la honte 
et non pas l'e*afaud4  #bbi ,see lecture
 #af1 ,god1 ! ,pr9ciple ( ! ,idea ( !   
,good4  #bcj ,see lecture #af4  #bca ,on

 ,jacobi1 see ,t5nemann's ,manual ( !   
,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 vol4 iii41 p4    
#cah1 etc4  #bcb ,on ?is important "q ( 
me?od1 see lecture #ab4     ,,lecture   
,,xv4  ,,private ,,& ,,public ,,e?ics4  
,application ( ! prec$+                 
pr9ciples4--,g5]al =mula (              
int]e/1--to obey reason4--,rule = judg+ 
:e!r an action     is or is n con=m$ to 
reason1--to elevate ! motive ( ?is      
action into a maxim ( univ]sal          
legislation4--,individual     e?ics4 ,x 
is n t[>ds ! individual1 b t[>ds ! moral
     p]son t "o is obligat$4 ,pr9ciple (
 all individual     duties1--to respect 
& develop ! moral p]son4--,social       
e?ics1--duties ( ju/ice & duties (      
*>ity4--,civil     society4 ,gov]nm5t4  
,law4 ,! "r to puni%4   ,we "k t !re is 
moral good & t !re is moral evil3 we "k 
t ?is di/9ction betwe5 good & evil      
eng5d]s an obligation1 a law1 duty2 b we
 d n yet "k :at our duties are4 ,! g5]al
 pr9ciple ( e?ics is laid d[n2 x mu/ be 
foll[$ at lea/ into its mo/ important   

applications4  ,if duty is only tru?    
become obligatory1 & if tru? is kn[n    
only by reason1 to obey ! law ( duty1 is
 to obey reason4  ,b to obey reason is a
 precept v vague & v ab/ract3--h[ c we  
be sure t our action is con=m$ or is n  
con=m$ to reason8  ,! "* ( reason be+1 z
 we h said1 its univ]sality1 action1 9  
ord] to be con=m$ to reason1 mu/ possess
 some?+ univ]sal2 & z x is ! motive     
itself ( ! action t gives x its         
morality1 x is also ! motive t mu/1 if !
 action is good1 reflect ! "* ( reason4 
,by :at sign1 !n1 d y recognize t an    
action is con=m$ to reason1 t x is good8
 ,by ! sign t ! motive ( ?is action be+ 
g5]aliz$1 appe>s to y a maxim ( univ]sal
 legislation1 :i* reason imposes ^u all 
intellig5t & free be+s4 ,if y are n able
 ?us to g5]alize ! motive ( an action1 &
 if x is ! opposite motive t appe>s to y
 a univ]sal maxim1 y\r action1 be+      
oppos$ to ?is maxim1 is !reby prov$ to  
be contr>y to reason & duty1--x is bad4 
,if nei!r ! motive ( y\r action nor !   

motive ( ! opposite action c be erect$  
into a univ]sal law1 ! action is nei!r  
good nor bad1 x is indiff]5t4 ,su* is ! 
+5i\s measure t ,kant has appli$ to !   
morality ( actions4 ,x makes kn[n ) !   
la/ degree ( cle>ness :]e duty is & :]e 
x is n1 z ! sev]e & nak$ =m ( syllogism1
 be+ appli$ to reason+1 br+s out 9 !    
precise/ mann] its error or its tru?4   
,to obey reason1--su* is duty 9 itself1 
! duty sup]ior to all o!r duties1 giv+  
to all o!rs _! f\ndation1 & be+ itself  
f\nd$ only on ! ess5tial relation betwe5
 lib]ty & reason4  ,x may be said t !re 
is only a s+le duty1 t ( obey+ reason4  
,b man hav+ diff]5t relations1 ?is s+le 
& g5]al duty is det]m9$ by ^! diff]5t   
relations1 & divid$ into a correspond+  
numb] ( p>ticul> duties4  ,( all ! be+s 
t we "k1 !re is n "o ) :om we are m     
con/antly 9 relation ?an ) ourselves4 ,!
 actions ( :i* man is at once ! au?or & 
! object1 h rules z well z o!r actions4 
,h5ce t fir/ class ( duties :i* are     
call$ ! duties ( man t[>ds himself4  ,at

 fir/ sight1 x is /range t man %\ld h   
duties t[>ds himself4 ,man1 be+ free1   
belongs to himself4 ,:at is mo/ to me is
 myself3--?is is ! fir/ prop]ty & !     
f\ndation ( all o!r prop]ties4 ,n[1 is x
 n ! ess5ce ( prop]ty to be at ! free   
disposition ( ! proprietor1 &           
consequ5tly1 am ,i n able to d ) myself 
:at ,i please8  ,no2 f ! fact t man is  
free1 f ! fact t he belongs only to     
himself1 x mu/ n be conclud$ t he has   
ov] himself all p[]4 ,on ! contr>y1     
inde$1 f ! fact alone t he is end[$ )   
lib]ty1 z well z intellig5ce1 ,i        
conclude t he c no m degrade 8 lib]ty   
?an 8 intellig5ce1 )\t transgress+4 ,x  
is a culpable use ( lib]ty to abdicate  
x4 ,we h said t lib]ty is n only sacr$  
to o!rs1 b is s to itself4 ,to subject x
 to ! yoke ( passion1 in/ead ( increas+ 
x "u ! lib]al discipl9e ( duty1 is to   
abase 9 u :at des]ves our respect z mu* 
z ! respect ( o!rs4 ,man is n a ?+2 x   
has n1 !n1 be5 p]mitt$ him to treat     
himself z a ?+4  ,if ,i h duties t[>ds  

myself1 x is n t[>ds myself z an        
individual1 x is t[>ds ! lib]ty &       
intellig5ce t make me a free moral      
p]son4 ,x is necess>y to di/+ui% closely
 9 u :at is peculi> to u f :at p]ta9s to
 humanity4 ,ea* "o ( u conta9s 9 himself
 human nature ) all its ess5tial        
elem5ts2 &1 9 addition1 all ^! elem5ts  
are 9 him 9 a c]ta9 mann] t is n ! same 
9 two diff]5t m54 ,^! p>ticul>ities make
 ! individual1 b n ! p]son2 & ! p]son   
alone 9 u is to be respect$ & held z    
sacr$1 because x alone repres5ts        
humanity4 ,e ?+ t does n conc]n ! moral 
p]son is indiff]5t4 ,9 ^! limits ,i may 
consult my ta/es1 ev5 my fancies to a   
c]ta9 ext5t1 because 9 !m !re is no?+   
absolute1 because 9 !m good & evil are 9
 no way involv$4 ,b z soon z an act     
t\*es ! moral p]son1 my lib]ty is       
subject$ to its law1 to reason1 :i* does
 n all[ lib]ty to be turn$ aga9/ itself4
 ,= example1 if ?r\gh caprice1 or       
melan*oly1 or any o!r motive1 ,i condemn
 myself to an ab/95ce too prolong$1 if  

,i impose on myself vigils protract$ &  
beyond my /r5g?2 if ,i absolutely r5\nce
 all pleasure1 &1 by ^! excessive       
privations1 endang] my heal?1 my life1  
my reason1 ^! are no long] indiff]5t    
actions4 ,sickness1 dea?1 madness1 may  
become crimes1 if we volunt>ily br+ !m  
^u ourselves4  ,i h n e/abli%$ ?is      
obligation ( self-respect impos$ on !   
moral p]son1 !re=e ,i _c de/roy x4 ,is  
self-respect f\nd$ on "o ( ^? arbitr>y  
conv5tions t cease to exi/ :5 ! two     
contract+ p>ties freely r5\nce !m8 ,are 
! two contract+ p>ties "h me & myself8  
,by no means2 "o ( ! contract+ p>ties is
 n me1 to wit1 humanity1 ! moral p]son4 
,& !re is "h nei!r conv5tion nor        
contract4 ,by ! fact alone t ! moral    
p]son is 9 u1 we are obligat$ t[>ds x1  
)\t conv5tion ( any sort1 )\t contract t
 c be cancell$1 & by ! v nature ( ?+s4  
,h5ce x comes t obligation is absolute4 
,respect ( ! moral p]son 9 u is ! g5]al 
pr9ciple :5ce are d]iv$ all individual  
duties4 ,we w cite "s ( !m4  ,! mo/     

important1 t :i* gov]ns all o!rs1 is !  
duty ( rema9+ ma/] ( "o's self4 ,"o may 
lose possession ( himself 9 two ways1   
ei!r by all[+ himself to be c>ri$ away1 
or by all[+ himself to be ov]come1 by   
yield+ to en]vat+ passions or to        
ov]:elm+ passions1 to ang] or to        
melan*oly4 ,on ei!r h& !re is equal     
weakness4 ,& ,i d n speak ( !           
consequ5ces ( ^? vices = society &      
ourselves1--c]ta9ly !y are v injuri\s2 b
 !y are mu* worse ?an t1 !y are already 
bad 9 !mselves1 because 9 !mselves !y   
give a bl[ to moral dignity1 because !y 
dim9i% lib]ty & di/urb intellig5ce4     
,prud5ce is an em95t virtue4 ,i speak ( 
t noble prud5ce t is ! mod]ation 9 all  
?+s1 ! =esight1 ! fitness1 t pres]ve at 
once f neglig5ce & t ra%ness :i* adorns 
itself ) ! "n ( h]oism1 z c[>dice &     
selfi%ness sometimes usurp ! "n (       
prud5ce4 ,h]oism1 )\t be+ prem$itat$1   
ought always to be rational4 ,"o may be 
a h]o at int]vals2 b1 9 e-day life1 x is
 suffici5t to be a wise man4 ,we mu/    

ourselves hold ! re9s ( our life1 & n   
prep>e difficulties = ourselves by      
c>elessness or bravado1 nor create =    
ourselves useless p]ils4 ,d\btless we   
mu/ "k h[ to d>e1 b /ill prud5ce is1 if 
n ! pr9ciple1 at lea/ ! rule ( c\rage2 =
 true c\rage is n a bl9d transport1 x is
 be=e all coolness & self possession 9  
dang]4 ,prud5ce also tea*es temp]ance2 x
 keeps ! s\l 9 t /ate ( mod]ation )\t   
:i* man is incapable ( recogniz+ &      
practis+ ju/ice4 ,?is is ! reason :y !  
anci5ts said t prud5ce is ! "m & gu>dian
 ( all ! virtues4 ,prud5ce is ! gov]nm5t
 ( lib]ty by reason1 z imprud5ce is     
lib]ty escap$ f reason3--on ! "o side1  
ord]1 ! legitimate subord9ation ( our   
faculties to ea* o!r2 on ! o!r1 an>*y & 
revolt4#bcc  ,v]acity is also a great   
virtue4 ,falsehood1 by break+ ! natural 
alliance betwe5 man & tru?1 deprives him
 ( t :i* makes 8 dignity4 ,?is is !     
reason :y !re is no grav] insult ?an    
giv+ ! lie1 & :y ! mo/ honor$ virtues   
are s9c]ity & frankness4  ,"o may       

degrade ! moral p]son by w\nd+ x 9 its  
in/rum5ts4 ,= ?is reason ! body is to   
man ! object ( imp]ative duties4 ,! body
 may become an ob/acle or a means4 ,if y
 refuse x :at su/a9s & /r5g!ns x1 or if 
y dem& too mu* f x by excit+ x beyond   
measure1 y exhau/ x1 & by abus+ x1      
deprive y\rself ( x4 ,x is worse /ill if
 y pamp] x1 if y grant e ?+ to its      
unbridl$ desires1 if y make y\rself its 
slave4 ,x is be+ unfai?ful to ! s\l to  
enfeeble its s]vant2 x is be+ mu* m     
unfai?ful to x /ill1 to enslave x to its
 s]vant4  ,b x is n en\gh to respect !  
moral p]son1 x is necess>y to p]fect x2 
x is necess>y to labor to return ! s\l  
to ,god bett] ?an we receiv$ x2 & x c   
become s only by a con/ant & c\rage\s   
ex]cise4 ,ev]y:]e 9 nature1 all ?+s are 
spontane\sly develop$1 )\t will+ x1 &   
)\t kn[+ x4 ,) man1 if ! w slumb]s1 !   
o!r faculties deg5]ate into languor &   
in]tion2 or1 c>ri$ away by ! bl9d       
impulse ( passion1 !y are precipitat$ & 
g a/ray4 ,x is by ! gov]nm5t & education

 ( himself t man is great4  ,man mu/1   
be=e e ?+ else1 occupy himself ) 8      
intellig5ce4 ,x is 9 fact our           
intellig5ce t alone c give u a cle>     
sight ( ! true & ! good1 t guides lib]ty
 by %[+ x ! legitimate object ( its     
ef=ts4 ,no "o c give himself ano!r m9d  
?an ! "o t he has receiv$1 b he may tra9
 & /r5g!n x z well z ! body1 by putt+ x 
to a task ( "s k9d1 by r\s+ x :5 x is   
dr[sy1 by re/ra9+ x :5 x is c>ri$ away1 
by cont9ually propos+ to x new          
objects1--= x is only by cont9ually     
enri*+ x t x does n gr[ poor4 ,slo?     
b5umbs & en]vates ! m9d2 regul> "w      
excites & /r5g!ns x1 & "w is always 9   
our p[]4  ,!re is an education ( lib]ty 
z well z our o!r faculties4 ,x is       
sometimes 9 subdu+ ! body1 sometimes 9  
gov]n+ our intellig5ce1 especially 9    
resi/+ our passions1 t we le>n to be    
free4 ,we enc\nt] opposition at ea*     
/ep1--! only "q is n to %un x4 ,9 ?is   
con/ant /ruggle lib]ty is =m$ & augm5t$1
 until x becomes a habit4  ,f9ally1 !re 

is a culture ( s5sibility itself4       
,=tunate are ^? :o h receiv$ f nature ! 
sacr$ fire ( en?usiasm6 ,!y ought       
religi\sly to pres]ve x4 ,b !re is no   
s\l t does n conceal "s =tunate ve9 ( x4
 ,x is necess>y to wat* x & pursue1 to  
avoid :at re/ra9s x1 to seek :at favors 
x1 &1 by an assidu\s culture1 draw f x1 
little by little1 "s treasures4 ,if we  
_c give ourselves s5sibility1 we c at   
lea/ develop :at we h4 ,we c d ?is by   
giv+ ourselves up to x1 by seiz+ all !  
occasions ( giv+ ourselves up to x1 by  
call+ to its aid intellig5ce itself2 =1 
! m we "k ( ! beautiful & ! good1 ! m we
 love x4 ,s5tim5t !reby only borr[s f   
intellig5ce :at x returns ) usury4      
,intellig5ce 9 its turn f9ds1 9 ! he>t1 
a ramp>t aga9/ sophism4 ,noble1         
s5tim5ts1 n\ri%$ & develop$1 pres]ve f  
^? sad sy/ems t please c]ta9 spirits s  
mu* only because _! he>ts are s small4  
,man w\ld /ill h duties1 %\ld he cease  
to be 9 relation ) o!r m54#bcd ,z long z
 he pres]ves any intellig5ce & any      

lib]ty1 ! idea ( ! good dwells 9 him1 & 
) x duty4 ,7 we ca/ ^u a des]t isl&1    
duty w\ld foll[ u ?i!r4 ,x w\ld be      
beyond belief /range t x %\ld be 9 ! p[]
 ( c]ta9 ext]nal circum/ances to        
affran*ise an intellig5t & free be+ f   
all obligation t[>ds 8 lib]ty & 8       
intellig5ce4 ,9 ! deepe/ solitude he is 
always & consci\sly "u ! empire ( a law 
atta*$ to ! p]son itself1 :i*1 by       
obligat+ him to keep cont9ual wat* ov]  
himself1 makes at once 8 torm5t & 8     
gr&eur4  ,if ! moral p]son is sacr$ to  
me1 x is n because x is 9 me1 x is      
because x is ! moral p]son2 x is 9      
itself respectable2 x w be s1 !n1 :]ev] 
we meet x4  ,x is 9 y z 9 me1 & = ! same
 reason4 ,9 relation to me x imposes on 
me a duty2 9 y x becomes ! f\ndation ( a
 "r1 & !reby imposes on me a new duty 9 
relation to y4  ,i owe to y tru? z ,i   
owe x to myself2 = tru? is ! law ( y\r  
reason z ( m9e4 ,)\t d\bt !re ought to  
be measure 9 ! communication (          
tru?1--all are n capable ( x at ! same  

mom5t & 9 ! same degree2 x is necess>y  
to portion x out to !m 9 ord] t !y may  
be able to receive x2 b1 9 f9e1 ! tru?  
is ! prop] good ( ! intellig5ce2 & x is 
= me a /rict duty to respect !          
developm5t ( y\r m9d1 n to arre/1 & ev5 
to favor its progress t[>ds tru?4  ,i   
ought also to respect y\r lib]ty4 ,i h n
 ev5 always ! "r to h9d] y f committ+ a 
fault4 ,lib]ty is s sacr$ t1 ev5 :5 x   
goes a/ray1 x /ill des]ves1 up to a     
c]ta9 po9t1 to be manag$4 ,we are (t5   
wrong 9 wi%+ to prev5t too mu* ! evil t 
,god himself p]mits4 ,s\ls may be       
corrupt$ by an attempt to purify !m4  ,i
 ought to respect y 9 y\r affections1   
:i* make "p ( y\rself2 & ( all !        
affections !re are none m holy ?an ^? ( 
! family4 ,!re is 9 u a ne$ ( exp&+     
ourselves beyond ourselves1 yet )\t     
dispell+ ourselves1 ( e/abli%+ ourselves
 9 "s s\ls by a regul> & consecrat$     
affection1--to ?is ne$ ! family         
responds4 ,! love ( m5 is some?+ ( !    
g5]al good4 ,! family is /ill almo/ !   

individual1 & n m]ely ! individual1--x  
only requires u to love z mu* z         
ourselves :at is almo/ ourselves4 ,x    
atta*es "o to ! o!r1 by ! sweete/ &     
/ronge/ ( all ties--fa!r1 "m1 *ild2 x   
gives to ?is sure succor 9 ! love ( its 
p>5ts--to ^! hope1 joy1 new life1 9 _!  
*ild4 ,to violate ! conjugal or pat]nal 
"r1 is to violate ! p]son 9 :at is      
p]haps its mo/ sacr$ possession4  ,i    
ought to respect y\r body1 inasmu* z x  
belongs to y1 inasmu* z x is ! necess>y 
in/rum5t ( y\r p]son4 ,i h nei!r ! "r to
 kill y1 nor to w\nd y1 unless ,i am    
attack$ & ?reat5$2 !n my violat$ lib]ty 
is arm$ ) a new "r1 ! "r ( def5ce & ev5 
con/ra9t4  ,i owe respect to y\r goods1 
= !y are ! product ( y\r labor2 ,i owe  
respect to y\r labor1 :i* is y\r lib]ty 
itself 9 ex]cise2 &1 if y\r goods come f
 an inh]itance1 ,i /ill owe respect to !
 free w t has transmitt$ !m to y4#bce   
,respect = ! rights ( o!rs is call$     
ju/ice2 e violation ( a "r is an        
inju/ice4  ,e inju/ice is an encroa*m5t 

^u our p]son1--to retr5* ! lea/ ( our   
rights1 is to dim9i% our moral p]son1   
is1 at lea/1 s f> z t retr5*m5t goes1 to
 abase u to ! condition ( a ?+4  ,!     
greate/ ( all inju/ices1 because x      
comprises all o!rs1 is slav]y4 ,slav]y  
is ! subject+ ( all ! faculties ( "o man
 to ! pr(it ( ano!r man4 ,! slave       
develops 8 intellig5ce a little only 9 !
 int]e/ ( ano!r1--x is n = ! purpose (  
enlight5+ him1 b to r5d] him m useful1 t
 "s ex]cise ( m9d is all[$ him4 ,! slave
 has n ! lib]ty ( 8 movem5ts2 he is     
atta*$ to ! soil1 is sold ) x1 or he is 
*a9$ to ! p]son ( a ma/]4 ,! slave %\ld 
h no affection1 he has no family1 no    
wife1 no *ildr51--he has a female &     
little ones4 ,8 activity does n belong  
to him1 = ! product ( 8 labor is        
ano!r's4 ,b1 t no?+ may be want+ to     
slav]y1 x is necess>y to g f>!r1--9 !   
slave mu/ be de/roy$ ! inborn s5tim5t ( 
lib]ty1 9 him mu/ be ext+ui%$ all idea (
 "r2 =1 z long z ?is idea subsi/s1      
slav]y is unc]ta91 & to an odi\s p[] may

 respond ! t]rible "r ( insurrection1 t 
la/ resort ( ! oppress$ aga9/ ! abuse ( 
=ce4#bcf  ,ju/ice1 respect = ! p]son 9 e
 ?+ t con/itutes ! p]son1 is ! fir/ duty
 ( man t[>ds 8 fell[-man4 ,is ?is duty !
 only "o8  ,:5 we h respect$ ! p]son (  
o!rs1 :5 we h nei!r re/ra9$ _! lib]ty1  
nor smo!r$ _! intellig5ce1 nor maltreat$
 _! body1 nor outrag$ _! family1 nor    
injur$ _! goods1 are we able to say t we
 h fulfill$ ! :ole law 9 reg>d to !m8   
,"o :o is un=tunate is suff]+ be=e u4   
,is our consci5ce satisfi$1 if we are   
able to be> witness to ourselves t we h 
n contribut$ to 8 suff]+s8 ,no2 some?+  
tells t x is /ill good to give him      
bread1 succor1 consolation4  ,!re is "h 
an important di/9ction to be made4 ,if y
 h rema9$ h>d & ins5sible at ! sight (  
ano!r's mis]y1 consci5ce cries out aga9/
 y2 & yet ?is man :o is suff]+1 :o1     
p]haps1 is ready to die1 has n ! lea/ "r
 ov] ! lea/ "p ( y\r =tune1 7 x imm5se2 
&1 if he us$ viol5ce = ! purpose ( wre/+
 f y a s+le p5ny1 he w\ld commit a      

crime4 ,we "h meet a new ord] ( duties t
 d n correspond to rights4 ,man may     
resort to =ce 9 ord] to make 8 rights   
respect$2 he _c impose on ano!r any     
sacrifice :atev]4 ,ju/ice respects or   
re/ores2 *>ity gives1 & gives freely4   
,*>ity takes f u some?+ 9 ord] to give x
 to our fell[-m54 ,if x goes s f> z to  
inspire u to r5\nce our de>e/ int]e/s1 x
 is call$ devot$ness4  ,x c]ta9ly _c be 
said t to be *>itable is n obligatory4  
,b ?is obligation mu/ n be reg>d$ z     
precise1 z inflexible z ! obligation to 
be j4 ,*>ity is a sacrifice2 & :o c f9d 
! rule ( sacrifice1 ! =mula (           
self-r5unciation8 ,= ju/ice1 ! =mula is 
cle>1--to respect ! rights ( ano!r4 ,b  
*>ity kn[s nei!r rule nor limit4 ,x     
transc5ds all obligation4 ,its beauty is
 precisely 9 its lib]ty4  ,b x mu/ be   
ackn[l$g$ t *>ity also has its dang]s4  
,x t5ds to sub/itute its own action = ! 
action ( him :om x wi%es to help2 x     
some:at effaces 8 p]sonality1 & makes   
itself 9 "s sort 8 provid5ce1--a        

=midable "p = a mortal6 ,9 ord] to be   
useful to o!rs1 "o imposes himself on   
!m1 & runs ! risk ( violat+ _! natural  
rights4 ,love1 9 giv+ itself1 enslaves4 
,d\btless x is n int]dict$ u to act ^u  
ano!r4 ,we c always d x ?r\gh petition &
 exhortation4 ,we c also d x by ?reat5+1
 :5 we see "o ( our fell[s engag$ 9 a   
crim9al or s5seless action4 ,we h ev5 ! 
"r to employ =ce :5 passion c>ries away 
lib]ty & makes ! p]son disappe>4 ,s we  
may1 we ev5 ought to prev5t by =ce !    
suicide ( "o ( our fell[-m54 ,!         
legitimate p[] ( *>ity is measur$ by ! m
 or less lib]ty & reason possess$ by him
 to :om x is appli$4 ,:at delicacy1 !n1 
is necess>y 9 ! ex]cise ( ?is p]il\s    
virtue6 ,h[ c we e/imate ) suffici5t    
c]ta9ty ! degree ( lib]ty /ill possess$ 
by "o ( our fell[-m5 to "k h[ f> we may 
sub/itute ourselves = him 9 ! guid+ ( 8 
de/9y8 ,& :51 9 ord] to assi/ a feeble  
s\l1 we take possession ( x1 :o is      
suffici5tly sure ( himself n to g f>!r1 
n to pass f ! p]son gov]n$ to ! love (  

dom9ation itself8 ,*>ity is (t5 !       
comm5cem5t & ! excuse1 & always !       
pretext ( usurpation4 ,9 ord] to h ! "r 
( ab&on+ "o's self to ! emotions (      
*>ity1 x is necess>y to be =tifi$ aga9/ 
"o's self by a long ex]cise ( ju/ice4   
,to respect ! rights ( o!rs & d good to 
m51 to be at once j & *>itable1--su* are
 social e?ics 9 ! two elem5ts t         
con/itute !m4  ,we speak ( social e?ics1
 & we d n yet "k :at society is4 ,let u 
look ar\nd u3--ev]y:]e society exi/s1 & 
:]e x is n1 man is n man4 ,society is a 
univ]sal fact :i* mu/ h univ]sal        
f\ndations4  ,let u avoid at fir/ ! "q (
 ! orig9 ( society4#bcg ,! philosophy ( 
! la/ c5tury delight$ 9 su* que/ions too
 mu*4 ,h[ c we dem& light f ! regions ( 
d>kness1 & ! explanation ( reality f an 
hypo!sis8 ,:y g back to a pret5d$       
primitive /ate 9 ord] to acc\nt = a     
pres5t /ate :i* may be /udi$ 9 itself 9 
its unque/ionable *>act]s8 ,:y seek :at 
may h be5 9 ! g]m t :i* may be p]ceiv$1 
t :i* x is ! "q to und]/&1 complet$ &   

p]fect8 ,moreov]1 !re is great p]il 9   
/>t+ ) ! "q ( ! orig9 ( society4 ,has   
su* or su* an orig9 be5 f\nd8 ,actual   
society is arrang$ accord+ to ! type ( !
 primitive society t has be5 dream$ (1 &
 political society is deliv]$ up to !   
m]cy ( hi/orical romances4 ,?is "o      
imag9es t ! primitive /ate is viol5ce1 &
 he sets out f t 9 ord] to au?orize ! "r
 ( ! /ronge/1 & to consecrate despotism4
 ,t "o ?9ks t he has f\nd 9 ! family !  
fir/ =m ( society1 & he comp>es gov]nm5t
 to ! fa!r ( a family1 & subjects to    
*ildr52 society 9 8 eyes is a m9or t mu/
 be held 9 tutelage 9 ! h&s ( ! pat]nal 
p[]1 :i* 9 ! orig9 is absolute1 &       
consequ5tly1 mu/ rema9 s4 ,or has "o    
?r[n himself to ! extreme ( ! opposite  
op9ion1 & into ! hypo!sis ( an agreem5t1
 ( a contract t expresses ! w ( all or (
 ! greate/ numb]8 ,he deliv]s up to !   
mobile w ( ! cr[d ! et]nal laws ( ju/ice
 & ! inali5able rights ( ! p]son4       
,f9ally1 are p[]ful religi\s in/itutions
 f\nd 9 ! cradle ( society8 ,x is h5ce  

conclud$1 t p[] belongs ( "r to         
prie/hoods1 :i* h ! secret ( ! designs (
 ,god1 & repres5t 8 sov]eign au?ority4  
,?us a vici\s me?od 9 philosophy leads  
to a deplorable political sy/em1--!     
comm5cem5t is made 9 hypo!sis1 & !      
t]m9ation is 9 an>*y or tyranny4  ,true 
politics d n dep5d on m or less well    
direct$ hi/orical rese>*es into ! pr(\nd
 night ( a pa/ =ev] vani%$1 & ( :i* no  
ve/ige subsi/s3 !y re/ on ! k ( human   
nature4  ,:]ev] society is1 :]ev] x 01 x
 has = its f\ndations3--#a/1 ,! ne$ t we
 h ( our fell[-creatures1 & ! social    
in/9cts t man be>s 9 himself2 #b;d1 ,!  
p]man5t & inde/ructible idea & s5tim5t (
 ju/ice & "r4  ,man1 feeble & p[]less :5
 he is alone1 pr(\ndly feels ! ne$ t he 
has ( ! succor ( 8 fell[-creatures 9    
ord] to develop 8 faculties1 to embelli%
 8 life1 & ev5 to pres]ve x4#bch ,)\t   
reflection1 )\t conv5tion1 he claims !  
h&1 ! exp]i5ce1 ! love ( ^? :om he sees 
made l himself4 ,! in/9ct ( society is 9
 ! fir/ cry ( ! *ild t calls = ! "m's   

help )\t kn[+ t x has a "m1 & 9 !       
eag]ness ( ! "m to respond to ! cries ( 
! *ild4 ,x is 9 ! feel+s = o!rs t nature
 has put 9 u--pity1 sympa?y1 b5evol5ce4 
,x is 9 ! attraction ( ! sexes1 9 _!    
union1 9 ! love ( p>5ts = _! *ildr51 & 9
 ! ties ( e k9d t ^! fir/ ties eng5d]4  
,if ,provid5ce has atta*$ s mu* sadness 
to solitude1 s mu* *>m to society1 x is 
because society is indisp5sable = !     
pres]vation ( man & = 8 happ9ess1 = 8   
intellect & moral developm5t4  ,b if ne$
 & in/9ct beg9 society1 x is ju/ice t   
completes x4  ,9 ! pres5ce ( ano!r man1 
)\t any ext]nal law1 )\t any            
compact1#bci x is suffici5t t ,i "k t he
 is a man1 t is to say1 t he is         
intellig5t & free1 9 ord] to "k t he has
 rights1 & to "k t ,i ought to respect 8
 rights z he ought to respect m9e4 ,z he
 is no fre] ?an ,i am1 nor ,i ?an he1 we
 recognize t[>ds ea* o!r equal rights & 
equal duties4 ,if he abuses 8 =ce to    
violate ! equality ( our rights1 ,i "k t
 ,i h ! "r to def5d myself & make myself

 respect$2 & if a ?ird p>ty is f\nd     
betwe5 u1 )\t any p]sonal int]e/ 9 !    
qu>rel1 he kn[s t x is 8 "r & 8 duty to 
use =ce 9 ord] to protect ! feeble1 &   
ev5 to make ! oppressor expiate 8       
inju/ice by a *a/isem5t4 ,!re9 is       
already se5 entire society ) its        
ess5tial pr9ciples1--ju/ice1 lib]ty1    
equality1 gov]nm5t1 & puni%m5t4  ,ju/ice
 is ! gu>anty ( lib]ty4 ,true lib]ty    
does n consi/ 9 do+ :at we w1 b 9 do+   
:at we h a "r to d4 ,lib]ty ( passion & 
caprice w\ld h = its consequ5ce !       
enslavem5t ( ! weake/ to ! /ronge/1 & ! 
enslavem5t ( ! /ronge/ !mselves to _!   
unbridl$ desires4 ,man is truly free 9 !
 int]ior ( 8 consci\sness only 9 resi/+ 
passion & obey+ ju/ice2 !re9 also is !  
type ( true social lib]ty4 ,no?+ is     
fals] ?an ! op9ion t society dim9i%es   
our mutual lib]ty2 f> f t1 x secures x1 
develops x3 :at x suppresses is n       
lib]ty2 x is its opposite1 passion4     
,society no m injures lib]ty ?an ju/ice1
 = society is no?+ else ?an ! v idea (  

ju/ice realiz$4  ,9 secur+ lib]ty1      
ju/ice secures equality also4 ,if m5 are
 unequal 9 physical =ce & intellig5ce1  
!y are equal 9 s f> z !y are free be+s1 
& consequ5tly equally wor?y ( respect4  
,all m51 :5 !y be> ! sacr$ "* ( ! moral 
p]son1 are to be respect$1 by ! same    
title1 & 9 ! same degree4#bdj  ,! limit 
( lib]ty is 9 lib]ty itself2 ! limit (  
"r is 9 duty4 ,lib]ty is to be respect$1
 b provid$ x injure n ! lib]ty ( an o!r4
 ,i ought to let y d :at y please1 b on 
! condition t no?+ :i* y d w injure my  
lib]ty4 ,= !n1 9 virtue ( my "r (       
lib]ty1 ,i %\ld reg>d myself z obligat$ 
to repress ! ab]rations ( y\r w1 9 ord] 
to protect my own & t ( o!rs4 ,society  
gu>anties ! lib]ty ( ea* "o1 & if "o    
citiz5 attacks t ( ano!r1 he is arre/$ 9
 ! "n ( lib]ty4 ,= example1 religi\s    
lib]ty is sacr$2 y may1 9 ! secret (    
consci\sness1 inv5t = y\rself ! mo/     
extravagant sup]/ition2 b if y wi%      
publicly to inculcate an immoral wor%ip1
 y ?reat5 ! lib]ty & reason ( y\r       

citiz5s3 su* prea*+ is int]dict$4  ,f ! 
necessity ( repress+ spr+s ! necessity (
 a con/itut$ repressive =ce4            
,rigor\sly1 ?is =ce is 9 u2 = if ,i am  
unju/ly attack$1 ,i h ! "r to def5d     
myself4 ,b1 9 ! fir/ place1 ,i may n be 
! /ronge/2 9 ! second place1 no "o is an
 imp>tial judge 9 8 own cause1 & :at ,i 
reg>d or give out z an act ( legitimate 
def5ce may be an act ( viol5ce &        
oppression4  ,s ! protection ( ! rights 
( ea* "o dem&s an imp>tial & dis9t]e/$  
=ce1 t may be sup]ior to all p>ticul>   
=ces4  ,?is dis9t]e/$ p>ty1 arm$ ) ! p[]
 necess>y to secure & def5d ! lib]ty (  
all1 is call$ gov]nm5t4  ,! "r (        
gov]nm5t expresses ! rights ( all & ea*4
 ,x is ! "r ( p]sonal def5ce transf]r$  
to a public =ce1 to ! pr(it ( common    
lib]ty4  ,gov]nm5t is n1 !n1 a p[]      
di/9ct f & indep5d5t ( society2 x draws 
f society its :ole =ce4 ,x is n :at x   
has seem$ to two opposite s*ools (      
publici/s1--to ^? :o sacrifice society  
to gov]nm5t1--to ^? :o consid] gov]nm5t 

z ! enemy ( society4 ,if gov]nm5t did n 
repres5t society1 x w\ld be only a      
mat]ial1 illegitimate1 & soon p[]less   
=ce2 & )\t gov]nm5t1 society w\ld be a  
w> ( all aga9/ all4 ,society makes !    
moral p[] ( gov]nm5t1 z gov]nm5t makes !
 security ( society4 ,pascal is         
wrong#bda :5 he says1 t n be+ able to   
make :at is j p[]ful1 m5 h made :at is  
p[]ful j4 ,gov]nm5t1 9 pr9ciple at lea/1
 is precisely :at ,pascal               
desir$1--ju/ice arm$ ) =ce4  ,x is a sad
 & false political sy/em t places       
society & gov]nm5t1 au?ority & lib]ty1 9
 opposition to ea* o!r1 by mak+ !m come 
f two diff]5t s\rces1 by pres5t+ !m z   
two contr>y pr9ciples4 ,i (t5 he> !     
pr9ciple ( au?ority spok5 ( z a pr9ciple
 ap>t1 indep5d5t1 d]iv+ f itself its =ce
 & legitimacy1 & consequ5tly made to    
rule4 ,no error is deep] & m dang]\s4   
,!reby x is ?\ght to confirm ! pr9ciple 
( au?ority2 f> f t1 f x is tak5 away its
 solide/ f\ndation4 ,au?ority--t is to  
say1 legitimate & moral au?ority--is    

no?+ else ?an ju/ice1 & ju/ice is no?+  
else ?an ! respect ( lib]ty2 s t !re is 
n !re9 two diff]5t & contr>y op9ions1 b 
"o & ! same pr9ciple1 ( equal c]ta9ty & 
equal gr&eur1 "u all its =ms & 9 all its
 applications4  ,au?ority1 x is said1   
comes f ,god3 d\btless2 b :5ce comes    
lib]ty1 :5ce comes humanity8 ,to ,god   
mu/ be ref]r$ e ?+ t is excell5t on !   
e>?2 & no?+ is m excell5t ?an lib]ty4   
,reason1 :i* 9 man comm&s lib]ty1 comm&s
 x accord+ to its nature2 & ! fir/ law t
 reason imposes on lib]ty is t (        
self-respect4  ,au?ority is s mu* !     
/rong] z its true title is bett]        
und]/ood2 & ob$i5ce is ! easie/ :51     
in/ead ( degrad+1 x honors2 :51 in/ead (
 resembl+ s]vitude1 x is at once !      
condition & gu>anty ( lib]ty4  ,!       
mission1 ! end ( gov]nm5t1 is to make   
ju/ice1 ! protector ( ! common lib]ty1  
reign4 ,:5ce x foll[s1 t z long z !     
lib]ty ( "o citiz5 does n injure !      
lib]ty ( ano!r1 x escapes all           
repression4 ,s gov]nm5t _c be sev]e     

aga9/ falsehood1 intemp]ance1 imprud5ce1
 levity1 av>ice1 egoism1 except :5 ^!   
vices become prejudicial to o!rs4       
,moreov]1 x is n necess>y to conf9e     
gov]nm5t )9 too n>r[ limits4 ,gov]nm5t1 
:i* repres5ts society1 is also a moral  
p]son2 x has a he>t l ! individual2 x   
has g5]osity1 goodness1 *>ity4 ,!re are 
legitimate1 & ev5 univ]sally admir$     
facts1 t are n expla9$1 if ! function ( 
gov]nm5t is r$uc$ to ! protection (     
rights alone4#bdb ,gov]nm5t owes to !   
citiz5s1 9 a c]ta9 measure1 to gu>d _!  
well-be+1 to develop _! intellig5ce1 to 
=tify _! morality1 = ! int]e/ ( society1
 & ev5 = ! int]e/ ( humanity4 ,h5ce     
sometimes = gov]nm5t ! =midable "r ( us+
 =ce 9 ord] to d good to m54 ,b we are  
"h t\*+ ^u t delicate po9t :]e *>ity    
incl9es to despotism4 ,too mu*          
intellig5ce & wisdom1 !re=e1 _c be dem&$
 9 ! employm5t ( a p[] p]haps necess>y1 
b dang]\s4  ,n[1 on :at condition is    
gov]nm5t ex]cis$8 ,is an act ( its own w
 suffici5t = x 9 ord] to employ to its  

own lik+ "u all circum/ances1 z x %all  
und]/& !m1 ! p[] t has be5 confid$ to x8
 ,gov]nm5t mu/ h be5 ?us ex]cis$ 9 e>ly 
society1 & 9 ! infancy ( ! art ( gov]n+4
 ,b ! p[]1 ex]cis$ by m51 may g a/ray 9 
diff]5t ways1 ei!r ?r\gh weakness or    
?r\gh excess ( =ce4 ,x mu/1 !n1 h a rule
 sup]ior to itself1 a public & kn[n     
rule1 t may be a lesson = ! citiz5s1 & =
 ! gov]nm5t a re9 & support3 t rule is  
call$ law4  ,univ]sal & absolute law is 
natural ju/ice1 :i* _c be writt51 b     
speaks to ! reason & he>t ( all4 ,writt5
 laws are ! =mulas :]e9 x is s\ght to   
express1 ) ! lea/ possible imp]fection1 
:at natural ju/ice requires 9 su* or su*
 det]m9$ circum/ances4  ,if laws propose
 to express 9 ea* ?+ natural ju/ice1 :i*
 is univ]sal & absolute ju/ice1 "o ( !  
necess>y conditions ( a good law is !   
univ]sality ( its "*4 ,x is necess>y to 
exam9e 9 an ab/ract & g5]al mann] :at is
 requir$ by ju/ice 9 su* or su* a case1 
to ! end t ?is case be+ pres5t$ may be  
judg$ accord+ to ! rule laid d[n1 )\t   

reg>d to circum/ances1 place1 "t1 or    
p]son4  ,! collection ( ^? rules or laws
 t gov]n ! social relations (           
individuals is call$ positive "r4       
,positive "r re/s :olly on natural "r1  
:i* at once s]ves z its f\ndation1      
measure1 & limit4 ,! supreme law ( e    
positive law is t x be n oppos$ to      
natural law3 no law c impose on u a     
false duty1 nor deprive u ( a true "r4  
,! sanction ( law is puni%m5t4 ,we h    
already se5 t ! "r to puni% spr+s f !   
idea ( dem]it4#bdc ,9 ! univ]sal ord]1  
to ,god alone x belongs to apply a      
puni%m5t to all faults1 :atev] !y may   
be4 ,9 ! social ord]1 gov]nm5t is inve/$
 ) ! "r to puni% only = ! purpose (     
protect+ lib]ty by impos+ a j rep>ation 
on ^? :o violate x4 ,e fault t is n     
contr>y to ju/ice1 & does n /rike at    
lib]ty1 escapes1 !n1 social retribution4
 ,nei!r is ! "r to puni% ! "r ( av5g+   
"o's self4 ,to r5d] evil = evil1 to dem&
 an eye = an eye1 a too? = a too?1 is ! 
b>b>\s =m ( a ju/ice )\t light2 = ! evil

 t ,i d y w n take away ! evil t y h    
done me4 ,x is n ! pa9 felt by ! victim 
t dem&s a correspond+ pa92 x is violat$ 
ju/ice t imposes on ! culpable man !    
expiation ( suff]+4 ,su* is ! morality (
 p5alty4 ,! pr9ciple ( p5alty is n !    
rep>ation ( damage caus$4 ,if ,i h caus$
 y damage )\t int5d+ x1 ,i pay y an     
indemnity2 t is n a p5alty1 = ,i am n   
culpable2 :il/ if ,i h committ$ a crime1
 9 spite ( ! mat]ial indemnity = ! evil 
t ,i h done1 ,i owe a rep>ation to      
ju/ice by a prop] suff]+1 & 9 t truly   
consi/s ! p5alty4  ,:at is ! exact      
proportion ( *a/isem5ts & crimes8 ,?is  
"q _c receive an absolute solution4 ,:at
 is "h immutable1 is t ! act oppos$ to  
ju/ice m]its a puni%m5t1 & t ! m unju/ !
 act is1 ! sev]] ought to be ! puni%m5t4
 ,b by ! side ( ! "r to puni% is ! duty 
( correct+4 ,to ! culprit mu/ be left ! 
possibility ( repair+ 8 crime4 ,!       
culpable man is /ill a man2 he is n a ?+
 ( :i* we ought to rid ourselves z soon 
z x becomes injuri\s1 a /one t falls on 

our heads1 t we ?r[ into a gulf t x may 
w\nd no m4 ,man is a rational be+1      
capable ( compreh5d+ good & evil1 (     
rep5t+1 & ( be+ "o day reconcil$ ) ord]4
 ,^! tru?s h giv5 bir? to works t honor 
! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury & ! beg9n+ (
 ! n9ete5?4 ,! conception ( h\ses (     
correction rem9ds "o ( ^? e>ly times (  
,*ri/ianity :5 puni%m5t consi/$ 9 an    
expiation t p]mitt$ ! culprit to return 
?r\gh rep5tance to ! ranks ( ! j4 ,"h   
int]v5es1 z we h j indicat$1 ! pr9ciple 
( *>ity1 :i* is v diff]5t f ! pr9ciple (
 ju/ice4 ,to puni% is j1 to ameliorate  
is *>itable4 ,9 :at measure ought ^? two
 pr9ciples to be unit$8 ,no?+ is m      
delicate1 m difficult to det]m9e4 ,x is 
c]ta9 t ju/ice ought to gov]n4 ,9       
und]tak+ ! am5dm5t ( ! culprit1 gov]nm5t
 usurps1 ) a v g5]\s usurpation1 !      
rights ( religion2 b x ought n to g s f>
 z to =get its prop] function & its     
rigor\s duty4  ,let u pause on ! ?re%old
 ( politics1 prop]ly s call$4 ,no?+ 9 !m
 b ^! pr9ciples is fix$ & inv>iable2 all

 else is relative4 ,! con/itutions (    
/ates h some?+ absolute by _! relation  
to ! inviolable rights :i* !y ought to  
gu>antee2 b !y also h a relative side by
 ! v>iable =ms ) :i* !y are clo!d1      
accord+ to times1 places1 mann]s1       
hi/ory4 ,! supreme rule ( :i* philosophy
 rem9ds politics1 is t politics ought1 9
 consult+ all circum/ances1 to seek     
always ^? social =ms & in/itutions t be/
 realize ^? et]nal pr9ciples4 ,yes1 !y  
are et]nal2 because !y are drawn f no   
arbitr>y hypo!sis1 because !y re/ on !  
immutable nature ( man1 on ! all-p[]ful 
in/9cts ( ! he>t1 on ! inde/ructible    
notion ( ju/ice1 & ! sublime idea (     
*>ity1 on ! consci\sness ( p]son1       
lib]ty1 & equality1 on duty & "r1 on    
m]it & dem]it4 ,su* are ! f\ndations (  
all true society1 wor?y ( ! beautiful "n
 ( human society1 t is to say1 =m$ (    
free & rational be+s2 & su* are ! maxims
 t ought to direct e gov]nm5t wor?y (   
its mission1 :i* kn[s t x is n deal+ )  
bea/s b ) m51 :i* respects !m & loves   

!m4  ,?ank ,god1 ,fr5* society has      
always m>*$ by ! light ( ?is immortal   
idea1 & ! dyna/y t has be5 at its head =
 "s c5turies has always guid$ x 9 ^!    
g5]\s ways4 ,x 0 ,l\is le ,gros1 :o1 9 !
 ,middle ,age1 emancipat$ ! communes2 x 
0 ,philippe le ,bel :o in/itut$         
p>liam5ts--an indep5d5t & gratuit\s     
ju/ice2 x 0 ,h5ri ,,iv4 :o began        
religi\s lib]ty2 x 0 ,l\is ,,xiii4 &    
,l\is ,,xiv4 :o1 :ile !y und]took to    
give to ,france h] natural fronti]s1 &  
almo/ succe$$ 9 x1 labor$ to unite m & m
 all p>ts ( ! nation1 to put a regul>   
adm9i/ration 9 ! place ( feudal an>*y1 &
 to r$uce ! great vassals to a simple   
ari/ocracy1 f day to day depriv$ ( e    
privilege b t ( s]v+ ! common c\ntry 9 !
 fir/ rank4 ,x 0 a k+ ( ,france :o1     
compreh5d+ ! new wants1 & associat+     
himself ) ! progress ( ! times1 attempt$
 to sub/itute = t v real1 b confus$ &   
=mless repres5tative gov]nm5t1 t 0 call$
 ! assemblies ( ! nobility1 ! cl]gy1 & !
 ti]s etat1 ! true repres5tative        

gov]nm5t t is prop] = great civiliz$    
nations1--a glori\s & un=tunate attempt 
t1 if royalty _h !n be5 s]v$ by a       
,ri*elieu1 a ,maz>91 or a ,colb]t1 might
 h t]m9at$ 9 a necess>y re=m1 t1 ?r\gh !
 fault ( e "o1 end$ 9 a revolution full 
( excess1 viol5ce1 & crime1 r$eem$ &    
cov]$ by an incomp>able c\rage1 a s9c]e 
patriotism1 & ! mo/ brilliant triumphs4 
,f9ally1 x 0 ! bro!r ( ,l\is ,,xvi4 :o1 
enlight5$ & n disc\rag$ by ! mis=tunes (
 8 family1 spontane\sly gave to ,france 
t lib]al & wise con/itution ( :i* our   
fa!rs _h dream$1 ab\t :i* ,montesquieu  
_h writt51 :i*1 loyally adh]$ to1 &     
necess>ily develop$1 is admirably fitt$ 
= ! pres5t "t1 & suffici5t = a long     
future4 ,we are =tunate 9 f9d+ 9 ! ,*>t]
 ! pr9ciples t we h j expla9$1 t conta9 
our views & our hopes = ,france &       
humanity4#bdd  ,,footnotes3  #bcc ,see !
 ,republic1 book iv41 vol4 ix41 ( our   
translation4  #bcd ,on our pr9cipal     
duties t[>ds ourselves1 & on t error1   
too mu* accr$it$ 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 ( 

r$uc+ e?ics to our duties t[>ds o!rs1   
see #a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 iii41 lectures on !
 e?ics ( ,helvetius & ,sa9t-,lamb]t1    
lecture vi41 p4 #bce3 ,to def9e virtue  
an habitual disposition to contribute to
 ! happ9ess ( o!rs1 is to conc5trate    
virtue into a s+le "o ( its             
applications1 is to suppress its g5]al &
 ess5tial "*4 ,!re9 is ! fundam5tal vice
 ( ! e?ics ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,^?     
e?ics are an exagg]at$ reaction aga9/ ! 
some:at my/ical e?ics ( ! prec$+ age1   
:i*1 rightly occupi$ ) p]fect+ ! int]nal
 man1 (t5 fell into asceticism1 :i* is n
 only useless to o!rs1 b is contr>y to  
well-ord]$ human life4 ,?r\gh fe> (     
asceticism1 ! philosophy ( ! eighte5?   
c5tury =got ! c>e ( int]nal p]fection1 &
 only consid]$ ! virtues useful to      
society4 ,t 0 retr5*+ _m virtues1 & !   
be/ ones4 ,i take1 = example1 dom9ion   
ov] self4 ,h[ make a virtue ( x1 :5     
virtue is def9$ a disposition to        
contribute to ! happ9ess ( o!rs8 ,w x be
 said t dom9ion ov] self is useful to   

o!rs8 ,b t is n always true2 (t5 ?is    
dom9ion is ex]cis$ 9 ! solitude ( ! s\l 
ov] int]nal & :olly p]sonal movem5ts2 & 
!re x is mo/ pa9ful & mo/ sublime4 ,7 we
 9 a des]t1 x w\ld /ill be = u a duty to
 resi/ our passions1 to comm& ourselves1
 & to gov]n our life z x becomes a      
rational & free be+4 ,b5efic5ce is an   
adorable virtue1 b x is nei!r ! :ole (  
virtue1 nor its mo/ difficult employm5t4
 ,:at auxili>ies we h :5 ! "q is to d   
good to our fell[-creatures1--pity1     
sympa?y1 natural b5evol5ce6 ,b to resi/ 
pride & envy1 to combat 9 ! dep?s ( !   
s\l a natural desire legitimate 9       
itself1 (t5 culpable 9 its excesses1 to 
suff] & /ruggle 9 sil5ce1 is ! h>de/    
task ( a virtu\s man4 ,i add t ! virtues
 useful to o!rs h _! sure/ gu>anty 9 ^? 
p]sonal virtues t ! eighte5? c5tury     
misconceiv$4 ,:at are goodness1         
g5]osity1 & b5efic5ce )\t dom9ion ov]   
self1 )\t ! =m ( s\l atta*$ to !        
religi\s obs]vance ( duty8 ,!y are1     
p]haps1 only ! emotions ( a beautiful   

nature plac$ 9 =tunate circum/ances4    
,take away ^! circum/ances1 &1 p]haps1 !
 effects w disappe> or be dim9i%$4 ,b :5
 a man1 :o kn[s himself to be a rational
 & free be+1 compreh5ds t x is 8 duty to
 rema9 fai?ful to lib]ty & reason1 :5 he
 applies himself to gov]n himself1 &    
pursue1 )\t cessation1 ! p]fection ( 8  
nature ?r\gh all circum/ances1 y may    
rely ^u t man2 he w "k h[1 9 case ( ne$1
 to be useful to o!rs1 because !re is no
 true p]fection = him )\t ju/ice &      
*>ity4 ,f ! c>e ( int]nal p]fection y   
may draw all ! useful virtues1 b !      
reciprocal is n always true4 ,"o may be 
b5efic5t )\t be+ virtu\s2 "o is n       
virtu\s )\t be+ b5efic5t4  #bce ,on !   
true f\ndation ( prop]ty see ! prec$+   
lecture4  #bcf ,volunt>y s]vitude is    
little bett] ?an s]vitude impos$ by =ce4
 ,see #a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 iii41 lecture #d1
 p4 #bdj3 ,_h ano!r ! desire to s]ve u z
 a slave1 )\t conditions & )\t limits1  
to be = u a ?+ = our use1 a pure        
in/rum5t1 a /aff1 a vase1 & _h we also !

 desire to make use ( him 9 ?is mann]1 &
 to let him s]ve u 9 ! same way1 ?is    
reciprocity ( desires w\ld au?orize =   
nei!r ( u ?is absolute sacrifice1       
because desire c nev] be ! title ( a "r1
 because !re is some?+ 9 u t is above   
all desires1 p>ticipat$ or n p>ticipat$1
 to wit1 duty & "r1--ju/ice4 ,to ju/ice 
x belongs to be ! rule ( our desires1 & 
n to our desires to be ! rule ( ju/ice4 
,%\ld entire humanity =get its dignity1 
%\ld x cons5t to its own degradation1   
%\ld x ext5d ! h& to slav]y1 tyranny    
w\ld be none ! m legitimate2 et]nal     
ju/ice w\ld prote/ aga9/ a contract1    
:i*1 7 x support$ by desires1 reciprocal
 desires mo/ au!ntically express$ &     
conv]t$ into solemn laws1 is none ! less
 void ( all "r1 because1 z ,bossuet v   
truly said1 !re is no "r aga9/ "r1 no   
contracts1 no conv5tions1 no human laws 
aga9/ ! law ( laws1 aga9/ natural law4  
#bcg ,on ! dang] ( seek+ at fir/ ! orig9
 ( human k1 see #a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 iii41  
lecture on ,hobbes1 p4 #bfa3 ,hobbes is 

n ! only "o :o took ! "q ( ! orig9 (    
societies z ! />t+-po9t ( political     
sci5ce4 ,ne>ly all ! publici/s ( !      
eighte5? c5tury1 ,montesquieu except$1  
proce$ 9 ! same mann]4 ,r\sseau imag9es 
at fir/ a primitive /ate 9 :i* man be+  
no long] savage )\t be+ yet civiliz$1   
liv$ happy & free "u ! dom9ion ( ! laws 
( nature4 ,?is gold5 age ( humanity     
disappe>+ c>ries ) x all ! rights ( !   
individual1 :o ent]s nak$ & dis>m$ into 
:at we call ! social /ate4 ,b ord] _c   
reign 9 a /ate )\t laws1 & s9ce natural 
laws p]i%$ 9 ! %ipwreck ( primitive     
mann]s1 new ones mu/ be creat$4 ,society
 is =m$ by aid ( a contract ^: pr9ciple 
is ! ab&onm5t by ea* & all ( _!         
individual =ce & rights to ! pr(it ( !  
community1 ( ! /ate1 ! in/rum5t ( all   
=ces1 ! depository ( all rights4 ,!     
/ate1 = ,hobbes1 w be a man1 a mon>*1 a 
k+2 = ,r\sseau1 ! /ate is ! collection  
itself ( citiz5s1 :o by turns are       
consid]$ z subjects & gov]nors1 s t     
in/ead ( ! despotism ( "o ov] all1 we h 

! despotism ( all ov] ea*4 ,law is n ! m
 or less happy1 m or less fai?ful       
expression ( natural ju/ice2 x is !     
expression ( ! g5]al w4 ,?is g5]al w is 
alone free2 p>ticul> wills are n free4  
,! g5]al w has all rights1 & p>ticul>   
wills h only ! rights t x conf]s on !m1 
or r l5ds !m4 ,=ce1 9 ,! ,citiz5 is !   
f\ndation ( society1 ( ord]1 ( laws1 ( !
 rights & duties :i* laws alone         
in/itute4 ,9 ! ,contrat ,social1 ! g5]al
 w plays ! same "p1 fulfils ! same      
function4 ,moreov]1 ! g5]al w sc>cely   
diff]s 9 itself f =ce4 ,9 fact1 ! g5]al 
w is numb]1 t is to say1 =ce /ill4 ,?us1
 on bo? sides1 tyranny "u diff]5t =ms4  
,"o may "h obs]ve ! p[] ( me?od4 ,if    
,hobbes1 if ,r\sseau especially _h at   
fir/ /udi$ ! idea ( "r 9 itself1 ) !    
c]ta9 *>act]s )\t :i* we are n able to  
conceive x1 !y w\ld h infallibly        
recogniz$ t if !re are rights d]iv$ f   
positive laws1 & p>ticul>ly f conv5tions
 & contracts1 !re are rights d]iv$ f no 
contract1 s9ce contracts take !m =      

pr9ciples & rules2 f no conv5tion1 s9ce 
!y s]ve z ! f\ndation to all conv5tions 
9 ord] t ^! conv5tions may be reput$    
j2--rights t society consecrates &      
develops1 b does n make1--rights n      
subject to ! caprices ( g5]al or        
p>ticul> w1 belong+ ess5tially to human 
nature1 & l x1 inviolable & sacr$4  #bch
 #a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 iii41 p4 #bfe3 ,:at6  
some:]e says ,montesquieu1 man is       
ev]y:]e 9 society1 & x is ask$ :e!r man 
0 born = society6 ,:at is ?is fact t is 
reproduc$ 9 all ! vicissitudes ( ! life 
( humanity1 except a law ( humanity8 ,! 
univ]sal & p]man5t fact ( society atte/s
 ! pr9ciple ( sociability4 ,?is pr9ciple
 %9es =? 9 all our incl9ations1 9 our   
s5tim5ts1 9 our beliefs4 ,x is true t we
 love society = ! advantages t x br+s2 b
 x is none ! less true1 t we also love x
 = its own sake1 t we seek x indep5d5tly
 ( all calculation4 ,solitude sadd5s u2 
x is n less deadly to ! life ( ! moral  
be+1 ?an a p]fect vacuum is to ! life ( 
! physical be+4 ,)\t society :at w\ld   

become ( sympa?y1 :i* is "o ( ! mo/     
p[]ful pr9ciples ( our s\l1 :i*         
e/abli%es betwe5 m5 a community (       
s5tim5ts1 by :i* ea* lives 9 all & all  
live 9 ea*8 ,:o w\ld be bl9d en\gh n to 
see 9 t an en]getic call ( human nature 
= society8 ,& ! attraction ( ! sexes1 _!
 union1 ! love ( p>5ts = *ildr51--d !y n
 f\nd a sort ( natural society1 t is    
increas$ & develop$ by ! p[] ( ! same   
causes :i* produc$ x8 ,divid$ by int]e/1
 unit$ by s5tim5t1 m5 respect ea* o!r 9 
! "n ( ju/ice4 ,let u add t !y love ea* 
o!r 9 virtue ( natural *>ity4 ,9 ! sight
 ( ju/ice1 equal 9 "r1 *>ity inspires u 
to consid] ourselves z bre?r51 & to give
 ea* o!r succor & consolation4 ,wond]ful
 ?+6 ,god has n left to our wisdom1 nor 
ev5 to exp]i5ce1 ! c>e ( =m+ & pres]v+  
society1--he has will$ t sociability    
%\ld be a law ( our nature1 & a law s   
imp]ative t no t5d5cy to isolation1 no  
egoism1 no di/a/e ev51 c prevail aga9/  
x4 ,all ! p[] ( ! _s ( sy/em 0 necess>y 
9 ord] to make ,hobbes say t society is 

an accid5t1 z an incr$ible degree (     
melan*oly to wr+ f ,r\sseau !           
extravagant expression t society is an  
evil4  #bci #a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 iii41 p4   
#bhc3 ,we d n hold f a compact our      
quality z man1 & ! dignity & rights     
atta*$ to x2 or1 r1 !re is an immortal  
compact :i* is n[h]e writt51 :i* makes  
itself felt by e uncorrupt$ consci5ce1 t
 compact :i* b9ds toge!r all be+s       
intellig5t1 free1 & subject to mis=tune1
 by ! sacr$ ties ( a common respect & a 
common *>ity4444 ,laws promulgate       
duties1 b d n give bir? to !m2 !y c\ld n
 violate duties )\t be+ unju/1 & ceas+  
to m]it ! beautiful "n ( laws--t is to  
say1 decisions ( ! public au?ority wor?y
 ( appe>+ obligatory to ! consci5ce (   
all4 ,nev]!less1 al?\gh laws h no o!r   
virtue ?an t ( decl>+ :at exi/s be=e !m1
 we (t5 f\nd on !m "r & ju/ice1 to !    
great detrim5t ( ju/ice itself1 & !     
s5tim5t ( "r4 ,"t & habit despoil reason
 ( its natural rights 9 ord] to transf] 
x to law4 ,:at !n happ5s8 ,we ei!r obey 

x1 ev5 :5 x is unju/1 :i* is n a v great
 evil1 b we d n ?9k ( re=m+ x little by 
little1 hav+ no sup]ior pr9ciple t      
enables u to judge x1--or we cont9ually 
*ange x1 9 an inv9cible impot5ce ( f\nd+
 any ?+1 by n kn[+ ! immutable basis on 
:i* writt5 law mu/ re/4 ,9 ei!r case1   
all progress is impossible1 because !   
laws are n relat$ to _! true pr9ciple1  
:i* is reason1 consci5ce1 sov]eign &    
absolute ju/ice4  #bdj ,lecture #ab4    
#bda ,see #d? ,s]ies1 vol4 i41 p4 #dj4  
#bdb ,see our pamphlet entitl$ ,ju/ice &
 ,*>ity1 compos$ 9 #ahdh1 9 ! mid/ ( !  
excesses ( socialism1 9 ord] to rem9d ( 
! dignity ( lib]ty1 ! "*1 be>+1 & !     
impassable limits ( true *>ity1 private 
& civil4  #bdc ,see on ! !ory ( p5alty1 
! ,gorgias1 vol4 iii4 ( ! translation ( 
,plato1 & our argum5t1 p4 #cfg3 ,! fir/ 
law ( ord] is to be fai?ful to virtue1 &
 to t "p ( virtue :i* is relat$ to      
society1 to wit1 ju/ice2 b if "o is     
want+ 9 t1 ! second law ( ord] is to    
expiate "o's fault1 & x is expiat$ by   

puni%m5t4 ,publici/s are /ill seek+ !   
f\ndation ( p5alty4 ,"s1 :o ?9k !mselves
 great politicians1 f9d x 9 ! utility ( 
! puni%m5t = ^? :o witness x1 & are     
turn$ aside f crime by fe> ( its m5ace1 
by its prev5tive virtue4 ,& t x is true1
 is "o ( ! effects ( p5alty1 b x is n   
its f\ndation2 = puni%m5t fall+ ^u !    
innoc5t1 w\ld produce z mu*1 & /ill m   
t]ror1 & w\ld be q z prev5tive4 ,o!rs1 9
 _! pret5sions to humanity1 d n wi% to  
see ! legitimacy ( puni%m5t except 9 its
 utility = him :o und]goes x1 9 its     
corrective virtue1--& t1 too1 is "o ( ! 
possible effects ( puni%m5t1 b n its    
f\ndation2 = t puni%m5t may be          
corrective1 x mu/ be accept$ z j4 ,x is1
 !n1 always necess>y to recur to ju/ice4
 ,ju/ice is ! true f\ndation (          
puni%m5t1--p]sonal & social utility are 
only consequ5ces4 ,x is an inconte/able 
fact1 t aft] e unju/ act1 man ?9ks1 & _c
 b ?9k t he has incurr$ dem]it1 t is to 
say1 has m]it$ a puni%m5t4 ,9           
intellig5ce1 to ! idea ( inju/ice       

corresponds t ( p5alty2 & :5 inju/ice   
has tak5 place 9 ! social sph]e1 m]it$  
puni%m5t ought to be inflict$ by        
society4 ,society c inflict x only      
because x ought4 ,"r "h has no o!r s\rce
 ?an duty1 ! /ricte/1 mo/ evid5t1 & mo/ 
sacr$ duty1 )\t :i* ?is pret5d$ "r w\ld 
be only t ( =ce1 t is to say1 an        
atroci\s inju/ice1 %\ld x ev5 result 9 !
 moral pr(it ( him :o und]goes x1 & 9 a 
salut>y spectacle = ! p1--:at x w\ld n  
!n be2 = !n ! puni%m5t w\ld f9d no      
sympa?y1 no e*o1 ei!r 9 ! public        
consci5ce or 9 t ( ! condemn$4 ,!       
puni%m5t is n j1 because x is           
prev5tively or correctively useful2 b x 
is 9 bo? ways useful1 because x is j4   
,?is !ory ( p5alty1 9 demon/rat+ !      
falsity1 ! incomplete & exclusive "* (  
two !ories t divide publici/s1 completes
 & expla9s !m1 & gives !m bo? a         
legitimate c5tre & base4 ,x is d\btless 
only indicat$ 9 ,plato1 b is met 9      
sev]al passages1 briefly b positively   
express$1 & on x re/s ! sublime !ory (  

expiation4  #bdd ,z x is p]ceiv$1 we h  
conf9$ ourselves to ! mo/ g5]al         
pr9ciples4 ,! foll[+ ye>1 9 #ahai1 9 our
 lectures on ,hobbes1 #a/ ,s]ies1 vol4  
iii41 we gave a m ext5d$ !ory ( rights1 
& ! civil & political gu>anties :i* !y  
dem&2 we ev5 t\*$ ! "q ( ! diff]5t =ms (
 gov]nm5t1 & e/abli%$ ! tru? & beauty ( 
! con/itutional mon>*y4 ,9 #ahbh1 #b;d  
,s]ies1 vol4 i41 lecture #ac1 we expla9$
 & def5d$ ! ,*>t] 9 its fundam5tal p>ts4
 ,"u ! gov]nm5t ( ,july1 ! "p ( def5d] (
 bo? lib]ty & royalty 0 easy4 ,we       
cont9u$ x 9 #ahdh2 & :51 at ! unexpect$ 
inundation ( democracy1 soon foll[$ by a
 passionate reaction 9 favor ( an       
absolute au?ority1 _m m9ds1 & ! be/1    
ask$ !mselves :e!r ! "y ,am]ican        
republic 0 n call$ to s]ve z a model =  
old ,europe1 we did n hesitate to ma9ta9
 ! pr9ciple ( ! mon>*y 9 ! int]e/ (     
lib]ty2 we believe t we demon/rat$ t !  
developm5t ( ! pr9ciples ( #aghi1 & 9   
p>ticul> ! progress ( ! l[] classes1 s  
necess>y1 c be obta9$ only by ! aid ( ! 

con/itutional mon>*y1--#f? ,s]ies1      
,,political ,,disc\rses1 ) an           
introduction on ! pr9ciples ( ! ,fr5*   
,revolution & repres5tative gov]nm5t4   
,,lecture ,,xvi4  ,,god ,,! ,,pr9ciple  
,,( ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,! ,,good4          
,pr9ciple on :i* true !odicea re/s4 ,god
 ! la/ f\ndation     ( moral tru?1 ( !  
good1 & ( ! moral p]son4--,lib]ty     ( 
,god4--,! div9e ju/ice & *>ity4--,god ! 
sanction (     ! moral law4 ,immortality
 ( ! s\l2 argum5t f m]it &     dem]it2  
argum5t f ! simplicity ( ! s\l2 argum5t 
f     f9al causes4--,religi\s           
s5tim5t4--,adoration4--,wor%ip4--,moral 
beauty ( ,*ri/ianity4   ,! moral ord]   
has be5 confirm$1--we are 9 possession (
 moral tru?1 ( ! idea ( ! good1 & !     
obligation t is atta*$ to x4 ,n[1 ! same
 pr9ciple t has n p]mitt$ u to /op at   
absolute tru?1#bde & has =c$ u to seek  
its supreme reason 9 a real & sub/antial
 be+1 =ces u "h aga9 to ref] ! idea ( ! 
good to ! be+ :o is its fir/ & la/      
f\ndation4  ,moral tru?1 l e o!r        

univ]sal & necess>y tru?1 _c rema9 9 a  
/ate ( ab/raction4 ,9 u x is only       
conceiv$4 ,!re mu/ some:]e be a be+ :o n
 only conceives x1 b con/itut$ x4  ,z   
all beautiful ?+s & all true ?+s are    
relat$--^! to a unity t is absolute     
tru?1 & ^? to ano!r unity t is absolute 
beauty1 s all moral pr9ciples p>ticipate
 9 ! same pr9ciple1 :i* is ! good4 ,we  
?us elevate ourselves to ! conception ( 
! good 9 itself1 ( absolute good1       
sup]ior to all p>ticul> duties1 &       
det]m9$ 9 ^! duties4 ,n[1 c ! absolute  
good be any ?+ else ?an an attribute (  
him :o1 prop]ly speak+1 is alone        
absolute be+8  ,w\ld x be possible t !re
 might be sev]al absolute be+s1 & t !   
be+ 9 :om are realiz$ absolute tru? &   
absolute beauty might n also be ! "o :o 
is ! pr9ciple ( absolute good8 ,! v idea
 ( ! absolute implies absolute unity4 ,!
 true1 ! beautiful1 & ! good1 are n ?ree
 di/9ct ess5ces2 !y are "o & ! same     
ess5ce consid]$ 9 its fundam5tal        
attributes4 ,our m9d di/+ui%es !m1      

because x c compreh5d !m only by        
division2 b1 9 ! be+ 9 :om !y reside1 !y
 are indivisibly unit$2 & ?is be+ at    
once triple & "o1 :o sums up 9 himself  
p]fect beauty1 p]fect tru?1 & ! supreme 
good1 is no?+ else ?an ,god4  ,s ,god is
 necess>ily ! pr9ciple ( moral tru? & ! 
good4 ,he is also ! type ( ! moral p]son
 t we c>ry 9 u4  ,man is a moral p]son1 
t is to say1 he is end[$ ) reason &     
lib]ty4 ,he is capable ( virtue1 &      
virtue has 9 him two pr9cipal =ms1      
respect ( o!rs1 & love ( o!rs1 ju/ice & 
*>ity4  ,c !re be among ! attributes    
possess$ by ! creature some?+ ess5tial n
 possess$ by ! ,creator8 ,:5ce does !   
effect draw its reality & its be+1      
except f its cause8 ,:at x possesses1 x 
borr[s & receives4 ,! cause at lea/     
conta9s all t is ess5tial 9 ! effect4   
,:at p>ticul>ly belongs to ! effect1 is 
inf]iority1 is a lack1 is imp]fection3 f
 ! fact alone t x is dep5d5t & d]iv$1 x 
be>s 9 itself ! signs & ! conditions (  
dep5d5ce4 ,if1 !n1 we _c legitimately   

conclude f ! imp]fection ( ! effect 9 t 
( ! cause1 we c & mu/ conclude f !      
excell5ce ( ! effect 9 ! p]fection ( !  
cause1 o!rwise !re w\ld be some?+       
prom95t 9 ! effect :i* w\ld be )\t      
cause4  ,su* is ! pr9ciple ( our        
!odicea4 ,x is nei!r new nor subtle2 b x
 has n yet be5 ?or\ghly dis5gag$ &      
elucidat$1 & x is1 to our eyes1 firm    
aga9/ e te/4 ,x is by ! aid ( ?is       
pr9ciple t we c1 up to a c]ta9 po9t1    
p5etrate into ! true nature ( ,god4     
,god is n a be+ ( logic1 ^: nature c be 
expla9$ by way ( d$uction1 & by means ( 
algebraic equations4 ,:51 sett+ out f a 
fir/ attribute1 we h d$uc$ ! attributes 
( ,god f ea* o!r1 aft] ! mann] (        
geometricians & ! s*oolm51 :at d we     
possess1#bdf ,i pray y1 b ab/ractions8  
,x is necess>y to leave ^! va9          
dialectics 9 ord] to arrive at a real & 
liv+ ,god4  ,! fir/ notion t we h (     
,god1 to wit1 ! notion ( an inf9ite be+1
 is itself giv5 to u indep5d5tly ( all  
exp]i5ce4 ,x is ! consci\sness (        

ourselves1 z be+ at once1 & z be+       
limit$1 t elevates u directly to !      
conception ( a be+ :o is ! pr9ciple (   
our be+1 & is himself )\t b\nds4 ,?is   
solid & s+le argum5t1 :i* is at bottom t
 ( ,desc>tes1#bdg op5s to u a way t mu/ 
be foll[$1 9 :i* ,desc>tes too quickly  
/opp$4 ,if ! be+ t we possess =ces u to 
recur to a cause :i* possesses be+ 9 an 
inf9ite degree1 all t we h ( be+1 t is  
to say1 ( sub/antial attributes1 equally
 requires an inf9ite cause4 ,!n1 ,god w 
no long] be m]ely ! inf9ite1 ab/ract1 or
 at lea/ indet]m9ate be+ 9 :i* reason & 
! he>t "k n :]e to betake !mselves1#bdh 
he w be a real & det]m9$ be+1 a moral   
p]son l ours & psy*ology conducts u )\t 
hypo!sis to a !odicea at once sublime & 
relat$ to u4#bdi  ,be=e all1 if man is  
free1 c x be t ,god is n free8 ,no "o   
cont5ds t he :o is cause ( all causes1  
:o has no cause b himself1 c be dep5d5t 
on any ?+ :atev]4 ,b 9 free+ ,god f all 
ext]nal con/ra9t1 ,sp9oza subjects him  
to an int]nal & ma!matical necessity1   

:]e9 he f9ds ! p]fection ( be+4 ,yes1 ( 
be+ :i* is n a p]son2 b ! ess5tial "* ( 
p]sonal be+ is precisely lib]ty4 ,if1   
!n1 ,god 7 n free1 ,god w\ld be b5ea?   
man4 ,w\ld x n be /range t ! creature   
%\ld h ! m>vell\s p[] ( dispos+ (       
himself1 & ( freely will+1 & t ! be+ :o 
has made him %\ld be subject$ to a      
necess>y developm5t1 ^: cause is only 9 
himself1 )\t d\bt1 b1 9 f9e1 is a sort (
 ab/ract p[]1 me*anical or metaphysical1
 b v inf]ior to ! p]sonal & volunt>y    
cause t we are1 & ( :i* we h ! cle>e/   
consci\sness8 ,god is !re=e free1 s9ce  
we are free4 ,b he is n free z we are   
free2 = ,god is at once all t we are1 & 
no?+ t we are4 ,he possesses ! same     
attributes t we possess1 b elevat$ to   
inf9ity4 ,he possesses an inf9ite       
lib]ty1 jo9$ to an inf9ite intellig5ce2 
&1 z 8 intellig5ce is infallible1       
except$ f ! unc]ta9ties ( delib]ation1 &
 p]ceiv+ at a glance :]e ! good is1 s 8 
lib]ty spontane\sly1 & )\t ef=t1 fulfils
 x4#bej  ,9 ! same mann] z we transf] to

 ,god ! lib]ty t is ! f\ndation ( our   
be+1 we also transf] to him ju/ice &    
*>ity4 ,9 man1 ju/ice & *>ity are       
virtues2 9 ,god1 !y are attributes4 ,:at
 is 9 u ! labori\s conque/ ( lib]ty1 is 
9 him 8 v nature4 ,if respect ( rights  
is 9 u ! v ess5ce ( ju/ice & ! sign ( ! 
dignity ( our be+1 x is impossible t !  
p]fect be+ %\ld n "k & respect ! rights 
( ! l[e/ be+s1 s9ce x is he1 moreov]1 :o
 has imp>t$ to !m ^? rights4 ,9 ,god    
resides a sov]eign ju/ice1 :i* r5d]s to 
ea* "o 8 due1 n accord+ to deceptive    
appe>ances1 b accord+ to ! tru? ( ?+s4  
,f9ally1 if man1 t limit$ be+1 has ! p[]
 ( go+ out ( himself1 ( =gett+ 8 p]son1 
( lov+ ano!r ?an himself1 ( devot+      
himself to ano!r's happ9ess1 or1 :at is 
bett]1 to ! p]fect+ ( ano!r1 %\ld n !   
p]fect be+ h1 9 an inf9ite degree1 ?is  
dis9t]e/$ t5d]ness1 ?is *>ity1 ! supreme
 virtue ( ! human p]son8 ,yes1 !re is 9 
,god an inf9ite t5d]ness = 8 creatures3 
he at fir/ manife/$ x 9 giv+ u ! be+ t  
he might h )held1 & at all times x      

appe>s 9 ! innum]able signs ( 8 div9e   
provid5ce4 ,plato knew ?is love ( ,god  
well1 & express$ x 9 ^? great words1    
,let u say t ! cause :i* l$ ! supreme   
orda9] to produce & compose ?is univ]se 
is1 t he 0 good2 & he :o is good has no 
species ( envy4 ,exempt f envy1 he will$
 t all ?+s %\ld be1 z mu* z possible1 l 
himself4#bea ,*ri/ianity w5t f>!r3      
accord+ to ! div9e doctr9e1 ,god s lov$ 
m5 t he gave !m 8 only ,son4 ,god is    
inexhau/ible 9 8 *>ity1 z he is         
inexhau/ible 9 8 ess5ce4 ,x is          
impossible to give m to ! creature2 he  
gives him e ?+ t he c receive )\t ceas+ 
to be a creature2 he gives him e ?+1 ev5
 himself1 s f> z ! creature is 9 him &  
he 9 ! creature4 ,at ! same "t no?+ c be
 lo/2 = be+ absolute be+1 he et]nally   
exp&s & gives himself )\t be+ dim9i%$4  
,inf9ite 9 p[]1 inf9ite 9 *>ity1 he     
be/[s 8 love 9 exhau/less abundance ^u !
 _w1 to tea* u t ! m we give ! m we     
possess4 ,x is egoism1 ^: root is at !  
bottom ( e he>t1 ev5 by ! side ( !      

s9c]e/ *>ity1 t inculcates 9 u ! error t
 we lose by self-devotion3 x is egoism t
 makes u call devotion a sacrifice4  ,if
 ,god is :olly j & :olly good1 he c w   
no?+ b :at is good & j2 &1 z he is      
all-p[]ful1 e ?+ t he wills he c d1 &   
consequ5tly does d4 ,! _w is ! "w (     
,god2 x is !re=e p]fectly made1 p]fectly
 adapt$ to its end4  ,& nev]!less1 !re  
is 9 ! _w a disord] t seems to accuse ! 
ju/ice & goodness ( ,god4  ,a pr9ciple t
 is atta*$ to ! v idea ( ! good1 says to
 u t e moral ag5t des]ves a rew>d :5 he 
does good1 & a puni%m5t :5 he does evil4
 ,?is pr9ciple is univ]sal & necess>y3 x
 is absolute4 ,if ?is pr9ciple has n its
 application 9 ?is _w1 x mu/ ei!r be a  
lie1 or ?is _w is ord]$ ill4  ,n[1 x is 
a fact t ! good is n always foll[$ by   
happ9ess1 nor evil always by unhapp9ess4
  ,let u1 9 ! fir/ place1 rem>k t if !  
fact exi/s1 x is r>e en\gh1 & seems to  
pres5t ! "* ( an exception4  ,virtue is 
a /ruggle aga9/ passion2 ?is /ruggle1   
full ( dignity1 is also full ( pa92 b1  

on "o side1 crime is condemn$ to mu*    
h>d] pa9s2 on ! o!r1 ^? ( virtue are (  
%ort duration2 !y are a necess>y & almo/
 always b5efic5t trial4  ,virtue has its
 pa9s1 b ! greate/ happ9ess is /ill ) x1
 z ! greate/ unhapp9ess is ) crime2 &   
su* is ! case 9 small & great1 9 !      
secret ( ! s\l1 & on ! !atre ( life1 9 !
 obscure/ conditions & 9 ! mo/          
conspicu\s situations4  ,good & bad     
heal? are1 aft] all1 ! greate/ "p (     
happ9ess or unhapp9ess4 ,9 ?is reg>d1   
comp>e temp]ance & its opposite1 ord] & 
disord]1 virtue & vice2 ,i mean a       
temp]ance truly temp]ate1 & n an        
atrabil>i\s asceticism1 a rational      
virtue1 & n a fi]ce virtue4  ,! great   
physician ,hufel&#beb rem>ks t !        
b5evol5t s5tim5ts are favorable to      
heal?1 & t ! malevol5t s5tim5ts are     
oppos$ to x4 ,viol5t & s9ful passions   
irritate1 inflame1 & c>ry tr\ble into ! 
organization z well z ! s\l2 ! b5evol5t 
affections pres]ve ! measur$ & h>moni\s 
play ( all ! functions4  ,hufel& aga9   

rem>ks t ! greate/ longevities p]ta9 to 
wise & well-regulat$ lives4  ,?us1 =    
heal?1 /r5g?1 & life1 virtue is bett]   
?an vice3 x is already mu*1 x seems to  
me4  ,i surely mean to speak ( consci5ce
 only aft] heal?2 b1 9 f9e1 ) ! body1   
our mo/ con/ant ho/ is consci5ce4 ,peace
 or tr\ble ( consci5ce decides int]nal  
happ9ess or unhapp9ess4 ,at ?is po9t (  
view1 comp>e aga9 ord] & disord]1 virtue
 & vice4  ,& )\t u1 9 society1 to :om   
come e/eem & contempt1 consid]ation &   
infamy8 ,c]ta9ly op9ion has its mi/akes1
 b !y are n long4 ,9 g5]al1 if *>latans1
 intrigu]s1 impo/ors ( e k9d1 = "s "t   
surreptiti\sly get suffrages1 x mu/ be t
 a su/a9$ hone/y is ! sure/ & ! almo/   
infallible means ( rea*+ a good r5[n4   
,i regret t ^u ?is po9t "t does n all[ (
 any developm5t4 ,x w\ld h af=d$ me     
delight1 aft] hav+ di/+ui%$ virtue f    
happ9ess1 to %[ !m to y almo/ always    
unit$ by ! admirable law ( m]it &       
dem]it4 ,i %\ld h be5 pleas$ to %[ y ?is
 b5efic5t law already gov]n+ human      

de/9y1 & call$ to preside ov] x m       
exactly f day to day by ! ev]-increas+  
progress ( lights 9 gov]nm5ts & peoples1
 by ! p]fect+ ( civil & judicial        
in/itutions4 ,x w\ld h be5 my wi% to    
make pass into y\r m9ds & he>ts !       
consol+ conviction t1 aft] all1 ju/ice  
is already 9 ?is _w1 & t ! sure/ road to
 happ9ess is /ill t ( virtue4  ,?is 0 ! 
op9ion ( ,socrates & ,plato2 & x is also
 t ( ,frankl91 & ,i ga!r x f my p]sonal 
exp]i5ce & an att5tive exam9ation (     
human life4 ,b ,i admit t !re are       
exceptions2 & 7 !re b "o exception1 x   
w\ld be necess>y to expla9 x4  ,suppose 
a man1 "y1 beautiful1 ri*1 amiable1 &   
lov$1 :o1 plac$ betwe5 ! scaffold & !   
betrayal ( a sacr$ cause1 volunt>ily    
m\nts ! scaffold at tw5ty ye>s ( age4   
,:at d y make ( ?is noble victim8 ,! law
 ( m]it & dem]it seems "h susp5d$4 ,d y 
d>e blame virtue1 or h[ 9 ?is _w d y    
accord to x ! recomp5se t x has n s\ght1
 b is its due8  ,by c>eful se>* y w f9d 
m ?an "o case analog\s to t4  ,! laws ( 

?is _w are g5]al2 !y turn aside to suit 
no "o3 !y pursue _! c\rse )\t reg>d to !
 m]it or dem]it ( any4 ,if a man is born
 ) a bad temp]am5t1 x is 9 virtue (     
c]ta9 obscure b undeviat+ physical laws1
 to :i* he is subject1 l ! animal & !   
plant1 & he suff]s dur+ 8 :ole life1    
al?\gh p]sonally innoc5t4 ,he is br\ght 
up 9 ! mid/ ( flames1 epidemics1        
calamities t /rike at haz>d ! good z    
well z ! bad4  ,human ju/ice condemns _m
 t are innoc5t1 x is true1 b x absolves1
 9 fault ( pro(1 m ?an "o :o is         
culpable4 ,besides1 x kn[s only c]ta9   
d]elictions4 ,:at faults1 :at bas5esses 
occur 9 ! d>k1 :i* d n receive m]it$    
*a/isem5t6 ,9 l mann]1 :at obscure      
devotions ( :i* ,god is ! sole witness &
 judge6 ,)\t d\bt no?+ escapes ! eye (  
consci5ce1 & ! culpable s\l _c escape   
remorse4 ,b remorse is n always 9 exact 
relation ) ! fault committ$2 its        
vivacity may dep5d on a nature m or less
 delicate1 on education & habit4 ,9 a   
^w1 if x is 9 g5]al v true t ! law (    

m]it & dem]it is fulfill$ 9 ?is _w1 x is
 n fulfill$ ) ma!matical rigor4  ,:at   
mu/ we conclude f ?is8 ,t ! _w is       
ill-made8 ,no4 ,t _c be1 & is n4 ,t _c  
be1 = inconte/ably ! _w has a j & good  
au?or2 t is n1 =1 9 fact1 we see ord]   
reign+ 9 ! _w2 & x w\ld be absurd to    
misconceive ! manife/ ord] t almo/      
ev]y:]e %9es =? on acc\nt ( a few       
ph5om5a t we _c ref] to ord]4 ,! univ]se
 endures1 !re=e x is well made4 ,!      
pessimism ( ,voltaire is /ill m oppos$  
to ! aggregate ( facts ?an an absolute  
optimism4 ,betwe5 ^! two sy/ematic      
extremes :i* facts d5y1 ! human race    
places ! hope ( ano!r life4 ,x has f\nd 
x v irrational to reject a necess>y law 
on acc\nt ( "s infractions2 x has1      
!re=e1 ma9ta9$ ! law2 & f infractions x 
has only conclud$ t !y ought to be      
ref]r$ to ! law1 t !re w be a rep>ation4
 ,ei!r ?is conclusion mu/ be admitt$1 or
 ! two great pr9ciples previ\sly        
admitt$1 t ,god is j1 & t ! law ( m]it &
 dem]it is an absolute law1 mu/ be      

reject$4  ,n[1 to reject ^! two         
pr9ciples is to totally ov]?r[ all human
 belief4  ,to ma9ta9 !m1 is implicitly  
to admit t actual life mu/ be1 else:]e  
t]m9at$ or cont9u$4  ,b is ?is          
cont9uation ( ! p]son possible8 ,aft] ! 
dissolution ( ! body1 c any ?+ ( u      
rema98  ,9 tru?1 ! moral p]son1 :i* acts
 well or ill1 :i* awaits ! rew>d or     
puni%m5t ( its good or bad actions1 is  
unit$ to a body1--x lives ) ! body1     
makes use ( x1 &1 9 a c]ta9 measure1    
dep5ds on x1 b is n x4#bec ,! body is   
compos$ ( p>ts1 may decrease or         
increase2 is divisible1 ess5tially      
divisible1 & ev5 inf9itely divisible4 ,b
 t some?+ t has consci\sness ( itself1 t
 says1 ,i1 me1 t feels itself to be free
 & responsible1 does x n also feel t !re
 is 9 x no division1 ev5 no possible    
division1 t x is a be+ "o & simple8 ,is 
! me m or less me8 ,is !re a half ( me1 
a qu>t] ( me8 ,i _c divide my p]son4 ,x 
rema9s id5tical to itself "u ! div]sity 
( ! ph5om5a t manife/ x4 ,?is id5tity1  

?is indivisibility ( ! p]son1 is its    
spirituality4 ,spirituality is1 !re=e1 !
 v ess5ce ( ! p]son4 ,belief 9 !        
spirituality ( ! s\l is involv$ 9 !     
belief ( ?is id5tity ( ! me1 :i* no     
rational be+ has ev] call$ 9 "q4        
,accord+ly1 !re is n ! lea/ hypo!sis =  
affirm+ t ! s\l does n ess5tially diff] 
f ! body4 ,add t :5 we say ! s\l1 we    
mean to say1 & d say ! p]son1 :i* is n  
sep>at$ f ! consci\sness ( ! attributes 
t con/itute x1 ?\ght & w4 ,! be+ )\t    
consci\sness is n a p]son4 ,x is ! p]son
 t is id5tical1 "o1 simple4 ,its        
attributes1 9 develop+ x1 d n divide x4 
,indivisible1 x is indissoluble1 & may  
be immortal4 ,if1 !n1 div9e ju/ice1 9   
ord] to be ex]cis$ 9 reg>d to u1 dem&s  
an immortal s\l1 x does n dem& an       
impossible ?+4 ,! spirituality ( ! s\l  
is ! necess>y f\ndation ( immortality4  
,! law ( m]it & dem]it is ! direct      
demon/ration ( ?is4 ,! fir/ pro( is     
call$ ! metaphysical pro(1 ! second1 !  
moral pro(1 :i* is ! mo/ celebrat$1 mo/ 

popul>1 at once ! mo/ conv9c+ & ! mo/   
p]suasive4  ,:at p[]ful motives are add$
 to ^! two pro(s to =tify !m 9 ! he>t6  
,! foll[+1 = example1 is a presumption (
 great value = any "o t believes 9 !    
virtue ( s5tim5t & in/9ct4  ,e ?+ has   
its end4 ,?is pr9ciple is z absolute z t
 :i* ref]s e ev5t to a cause4#bed ,man  
has1 !re=e1 an end4 ,?is end is reveal$ 
9 all 8 ?\ghts1 9 all 8 ways1 9 all 8   
s5tim5ts1 9 all 8 life4 ,:atev] he does1
 :atev] he feels1 :atev] he ?9ks1 he    
?9ks ^u ! inf9ite1 loves ! inf9ite1 t5ds
 to ! inf9ite4#bee ,?is ne$ ( ! inf9ite 
is ! ma9spr+ ( sci5tific curiosity1 !   
pr9ciple ( all discov]ies4 ,love also   
/ops & re/s only !re4 ,on ! r\te x may  
exp]i5ce lively joys2 b a secret        
bitt]ness t is m+l$ ) !m soon makes x   
feel _! insuffici5cy & empt9ess4 ,(t51  
:ile ignorant ( its true object1 x asks 
:5ce comes t fatal dis5*antm5t by :i*   
all its successes1 all its pleasures are
 successively ext+ui%$4 ,if x knew h[ to
 read itself1 x w\ld recognize t if no?+

 "h bel[ satisfies x1 x is because its  
object is m elevat$1 because ! true     
b\rne aft] :i* x aspires is inf9ite     
p]fection4 ,f9ally1 l ?\ght & love1     
human activity is )\t limits4 ,:o c say 
:]e x %all /op8 ,behold ?is e>? almo/   
kn[n4 ,soon ano!r _w w be necess>y = u4 
,man is j\rney+ t[>ds ! inf9ite1 :i* is 
always rec$+ be=e him1 :i* he always    
pursues4 ,he conceives x1 he feels x1 he
 be>s x1 ?us to speak1 9 himself1--h[   
%\ld 8 end be else:]e8 ,h5ce t          
unconqu]able in/9ct ( immortality1 t    
univ]sal hope ( ano!r life to :i* all   
wor%ips1 all poesies1 all traditions be>
 witness4 ,we t5d to ! inf9ite ) all our
 p[]s2 dea? comes to int]rupt ! de/9y t 
seeks its goal1 & ov]takes x unf9i%$4 ,x
 is1 !re=e1 likely t !re is some?+ aft] 
dea?1 s9ce at dea? no?+ 9 u is t]m9at$4 
,look at ! fl[] t to-morr[ w n be4      
,to-day1 at lea/1 x is entirely         
develop$3 we c conceive no?+ m beautiful
 ( its k9d2 x has atta9$ its p]fection4 
,my p]fection1 my moral p]fection1 t (  

:i* ,i h ! cle>e/ idea & ! mo/ inv9cible
 ne$1 = :i* ,i feel t ,i am born1--9 va9
 ,i call = x1 9 va9 ,i labor = x2 x     
escapes me1 & leaves me only hope4 ,%all
 ?is hope be deceiv$8 ,all be+s atta9 _!
 end2 %\ld man alone n atta9 88 ,%\ld ! 
greate/ ( creatures be ! mo/ ill-treat$8
 ,b a be+ t %\ld rema9 incomplete &     
unf9i%$1 t %\ld n atta9 ! end :i* all 8 
in/9cts proclaim = him1 w\ld be a mon/] 
9 ! et]nal ord]1--a problem mu* m       
difficult to solve ?an ! difficulties t 
h be5 rais$ aga9/ ! immortality ( ! s\l4
 ,9 our op9ion1 ?is t5d5cy ( all !      
desires & all ! p[]s ( ! s\l t[>ds !    
inf9ite1 elucidat$ by ! pr9ciple ( f9al 
causes1 is a s]i\s & important          
confirmation ( ! moral pro( & !         
metaphysical pro( ( ano!r life4  ,:5 we 
h collect$ all ! argum5ts t au?orize    
belief 9 ano!r life1 & :5 we h ?us      
arriv$ at a satisfy+ demon/ration1 !re  
rema9s an ob/acle to be ov]come4        
,imag9ation _c contemplate )\t fright t 
unkn[n :i* is call$ dea?4 ,! greate/    

philosoph] 9 ! _w1 says ,pascal1 on a   
plank wid] ?an x is necess>y 9 ord] to g
 )\t dang] f "o side ( an abyss to !    
o!r1 _c ?9k )\t trembl+ on ! abyss t is 
b5ea? him4 ,x is n reason1 x is         
imag9ation t fright5s him2 x is also    
imag9ation t 9 great "p causes t remnant
 ( d\bt1 t tr\ble1 t secret anxiety :i* 
! firme/ fai? _c always succe$ 9 ov]com+
 9 ! pres5ce ( dea?4 ,! religi\s man    
exp]i5ces ?is t]ror1 b he kn[s :5ce x   
comes1 & he surm\nts x by atta*+ himself
 to ! solid hopes furni%$ him by reason 
& ! he>t4 ,imag9ation is a *ild t mu/ be
 educat$1 by putt+ x "u ! discipl9e &   
gov]nm5t ( bett] faculties2 x mu/ be    
accu/om$ to g to intellig5ce = aid      
in/ead ( tr\bl+ intellig5ce ) its       
phantoms4 ,let u ackn[l$ge t !re is a   
t]rible /ep to be tak5 :5 we meet dea?4 
,nature trembles :5 face to face ) !    
unkn[n et]nity4 ,x is wise to pres5t    
ourselves !re ) all our =ces            
unit$1--reason & ! he>t l5d+ ea* o!r    
mutual support1 ! imag9ation be+ subdu$ 

or *>m$4 ,let u cont9ually repeat t1 9  
dea? z 9 life1 ! s\l is sure to f9d     
,god1 & t ) ,god all is j1 all is       
good4#bef  ,we n[ "k :at ,god truly is4 
,we h already se5 two ( 8 adorable      
attributes1--tru? & beauty4 ,! mo/ augu/
 attribute is reveal$ to u1--hol9ess4   
,god is ! holy ( holies1 z ! au?or ( !  
moral law & ! good1 z ! pr9ciple (      
lib]ty1 ju/ice1 & *>ity1 z ! disp5s] (  
p5alty & rew>d4 ,su* a ,god is n an     
ab/ract ,god1 b an intellig5t & free    
p]son1 :o has made u 9 8 own image1 f   
:om we hold ! law itself t presides ov] 
our de/9y1 ^: judgm5ts we await4 ,x is 8
 love t inspires u 9 our acts ( *>ity2 x
 is 8 ju/ice t gov]ns our ju/ice1 t (   
our societies & our laws4 ,if we d n    
cont9ually rem9d ourselves t he is      
inf9ite1 we degrade 8 nature2 b he w\ld 
be = u z if he 7 n1 if 8 inf9ite ess5ce 
_h no =ms t p]ta9 to u1 ! prop] =ms (   
our reason & our s\l4  ,by ?9k+ ^u su* a
 be+1 man feels a s5tim5t t is p>       
excell5ce ! religi\s s5tim5t4 ,all !    

be+s ) :om we are 9 relation awak5 9 u  
diff]5t s5tim5ts1 accord+ to ! qualities
 t we p]ceive 9 !m2 & %\ld he :o        
possesses all p]fections excite 9 u no  
p>ticul> s5tim5t8 ,:5 we ?9k ^u !       
inf9ite ess5ce ( ,god1 :5 we are        
p5etrat$ ) 8 omnipot5ce1 :5 we are      
rem9d$ t ! moral law expresses 8 w1 t he
 atta*es to ! fulfilm5t & ! violation ( 
?is law recomp5ses & p5alties :i* he    
disp5ses ) an inflexible ju/ice1 we _c  
gu>d ourselves aga9/ an emotion (       
respect & fe> at ! idea ( su* a gr&eur4 
,!n1 if we come to consid] t ?is        
all-p[]ful be+ has inde$ wi%$ to create 
u1 u ( :om he has no ne$1 t 9 creat+ u  
he has load$ u ) b5efits1 t he has giv5 
u ?is admirable univ]se = enjoy+ its    
ev]-new beauties1 society = ennobl+ our 
life 9 t ( our fell[-m51 reason = ?9k+1 
! he>t = lov+1 lib]ty = act+2 )\t       
disappe>+1 respect & fe> are t+$ ) a    
sweet] s5tim5t1 t ( love4 ,love1 :5 x is
 appli$ to feeble & limit$ be+s1        
inspires u ) a desire to d good to !m2 b

 9 itself x proposes to itself no       
advantage f ! p]son lov$2 we love a     
beautiful or good object1 because x is  
beautiful or good1 )\t at fir/ reg>d+   
:e!r ?is love may be useful to its      
object & ourselves4 ,= a /ill /rong]    
reason1 love1 :5 x asc5ds to ,god1 is a 
pure homage r5d]$ to 8 p]fections2 x is 
! natural ov]fl[ ( ! s\l t[>ds a be+    
inf9itely lovable4  ,respect & love     
compose adoration4 ,true adoration does 
n exi/ )\t possess+ bo? ( ^! s5tim5ts4  
,if y consid] only ! all-p[]ful ,god1   
ma/] ( heav5 & e>?1 au?or & av5g] (     
ju/ice1 y cru% man b5ea? ! weight ( !   
gr&eur ( ,god & 8 own feebl5ess1 y      
condemn him to a cont9ual trembl+ 9 !   
unc]ta9ty ( ,god's judgm5ts1 y make him 
hate ! _w1 life1 & himself1 = e ?+ is   
full ( mis]y4 ,t[>ds ?is extreme1       
,port-,royal incl9es4 ,read ! ,p5sees de
 ,pascal4#beg ,9 8 great humility1      
,pascal =gets two ?+s1--! dignity ( man 
& ! love ( ,god4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if y see 
only ! good ,god & ! indulg5t fa!r1 y   

incl9e to a *im]ical my/icism4 ,by      
sub/itut+ love = fe>1 little by little )
 fe>1 we run ! risk ( los+ respect4 ,god
 is no m a ma/]1 he is no m ev5 a fa!r2 
= ! idea ( a fa!r /ill to a c]ta9 po9t  
involves t ( a respectful fe>2 he is no 
m any ?+ b a fri5d1 sometimes ev5 a     
lov]4 ,true adoration does n sep>ate    
love & respect2 x is respect animat$ by 
love4  ,adoration is a univ]sal s5tim5t4
 ,x diff]s 9 degrees accord+ to diff]5t 
natures2 x takes ! mo/ diff]5t =ms2 x is
 (t5 ev5 ignorant ( itself2 sometimes x 
is reveal$ by an exclamation spr++ f !  
he>t1 9 ! mid/ ( ! great sc5es ( nature 
& life1 sometimes x sil5tly rises 9 !   
mute & p5etrat$ s\l2 x may err 9 its    
expressions1 ev5 9 its object2 b at     
bottom x is always ! same4 ,x is a      
spontane\s1 irresi/ible emotion ( ! s\l2
 & :5 reason is appli$ to x1 x is decl>$
 j & legitimate4 ,:at1 9 fact1 is m j   
?an to fe> ! judgm5ts ( him :o is       
hol9ess itself1 :o kn[s our actions &   
our int5tions1 & w judge !m accord+ to !

 highe/ ju/ice8 ,:at1 too1 is m j ?an to
 love p]fect goodness & ! s\rce ( all   
love8 ,adoration is at fir/ a natural   
s5tim5t2 reason makes x a duty4         
,adoration conf9$ to ! sanctu>y ( ! s\l 
is :at is call$ int]nal wor%ip--!       
necess>y pr9ciple ( all public wor%ips4 
,public wor%ip is no m an arbitr>y      
in/itution ?an society & gov]nm5t1      
language & arts4 ,all ^! ?+s h _! roots 
9 human nature4 ,adoration ab&on$ to    
itself1 w\ld easily deg5]ate into dreams
 & ec/asy1 or w\ld be dissipat$ 9 ! ru% 
( affairs & ! necessities ( e day4 ,! m 
en]getic x is1 ! m x t5ds to express    
itself outw>dly 9 acts t realize x1 to  
take a s5sible1 precise1 & regul> =m1   
:i*1 by a prop] reaction on ! s5tim5t t 
produc$ x1 awak5s x :5 x slumb]s1 su/a9s
 x :5 x langui%es1 & also protects x    
aga9/ extravagances ( e k9d to :i* x    
might give bir? 9 s _m feeble or        
unbridl$ imag9ations4 ,philosophy1 !n1  
lays ! natural f\ndation ( public wor%ip
 9 ! int]nal wor%ip ( adoration4 ,hav+  

arriv$ at t po9t1 x /ops1 equally c>eful
 n to betray its rights & n to g beyond 
!m1 to run ov]1 9 its :ole ext5t & to   
its f>!/ limit1 ! doma9 ( natural       
reason1 z well z n to usurp a =eign     
doma94  ,b philosophy does n ?9k (      
trespass+ on ! gr\nd ( !ology2 x wi%es  
to rema9 fai?ful to itself1 & also to   
foll[ its true mission1 :i* is to love &
 favor e ?+ t t5ds to elevate man1 s9ce 
x he>tily applauds ! awak5+ ( religi\s &
 ,*ri/ian s5tim5t 9 all noble s\ls1 aft]
 ! ravages t h be5 made on e h&1 = m ?an
 a c5tury1 by a false & sad philosophy4 
,:at1 9 fact1 w\ld n h be5 ! joy ( a    
,socrates & a ,plato if !y _h f\nd !    
human race 9 ! arms ( ,*ri/ianity6 ,h[  
happy w\ld ,plato--:o 0 s evid5tly      
emb>rass$ betwe5 8 beautiful doctr9es & 
! religion ( 8 times1 :o manag$ s       
c>efully ) t religion ev5 :5 he avoid$  
x1 :o 0 =c$ to take f x ! be/ possible  
"p1 9 ord] to aid a favorable           
int]pretation ( 8 doctr9e--h be51 if he 
_h _h to d ) a religion :i* pres5ts to  

man1 z at once its au?or & its model1 ! 
sublime & mild ,crucifi$1 ( :om he _h an
 extraord9>y pres5tim5t1 :om he almo/   
describ$ 9 ! p]son ( a j man dy+ on !   
cross2#beh a religion :i* came to       
ann\nce1 or at lea/ to consecrate & exp&
 ! idea ( ! unity ( ,god & t ( ! unity (
 ! human race2 :i* proclaims ! equality 
( all s\ls be=e ! div9e law1 :i* !reby  
has prep>$ & ma9ta9s civil equality2 :i*
 prescribes *>ity /ill m ?an ju/ice1 :i*
 tea*es man t he does n live by bread   
alone1 t he is n :olly conta9$ 9 8 s5ses
 & 8 body1 t he has a s\l1 a free s\l1  
^: value is inf9ite1 above ! value ( all
 worlds1 t life is a trial1 t its true  
object is n pleasure1 =tune1 rank1 none 
( ^? ?+s t d n p]ta9 to our real de/9y1 
& are (t5 m dang]\s ?an useful1 b is t  
alone :i* is always 9 our p[]1 9 all    
situations & all conditions1 f end to   
end ( ! e>?1 to wit1 ! improvem5t ( !   
s\l by itself1 9 ! holy hope ( becom+ f 
day to day less unwor?y ( ! reg>d ( !   
,fa!r ( m51 ( ! examples giv5 by him1 & 

( 8 promises4 ,if ! greate/ morali/ t   
ev] liv$ c\ld h se5 ^! admirable tea*+s1
 :i* 9 g]m 7 already at ! f\ndation ( 8 
_s1 ( :i* m ?an "o trait c be f\nd 9 8  
works1 if he _h se5 !m consecrat$1      
ma9ta9$1 cont9ually recall$ to ! he>t & 
imag9ation ( man by sublime & t\*+      
in/itutions1 :at w\ld h be5 8 t5d] &    
grateful sympa?y = su* a religion6 ,if  
he _h come 9 our own times1 9 t age giv5
 up to revolutions1 9 :i* ! be/ s\ls 7  
e>ly infect$ by ! brea? ( skepticism1 9 
default ( ! fai? ( an ,augu/9e1 ( an    
,anselm1 ( a ,?omas1 ( a ,bossuet1 he   
w\ld h _h1 we d\bt n1 ! s5tim5ts at lea/
 ( a ,montesquieu1#bei ( a ,turgot1#bfj 
( a ,frankl91#bfa & v f> f putt+ !      
,*ri/ian religion & a good philosophy at
 w> ) ea* o!r1 he w\ld h be5 =c$ to     
unite !m1 to elucidate & =tify !m by ea*
 o!r4 ,t great m9d & t great he>t1 :i*  
dictat$ to him ! ,ph$on1 ! ,gorgias1 !  
,republic1 w\ld also h taught him t su* 
books are made = a few sages1 t !re is  
ne$$ = ! human race a philosophy at once

 simil> & diff]5t1 t ?is philosophy is a
 religion1 & t ?is desirable & necess>y 
religion is ! ,gospel4 ,we d n hesitate 
to say t1 )\t religion1 philosophy1     
r$uc$ to :at x c labori\sly draw f      
p]fect$ natural reason1 addresses itself
 to a v small numb]1 & runs ! risk (    
rema9+ )\t mu* influ5ce on mann]s &     
life2 & t1 )\t philosophy1 ! pure/      
religion is no security aga9/ _m        
sup]/itions1 :i* little by little br+   
all ! re/1 & = t reason x may see ! be/ 
m9ds escap+ its influ5ce1 z 0 ! case 9 !
 eighte5? c5tury4 ,! alliance betwe5    
true religion & true philosophy is1 !n1 
at once natural & necess>y2 natural by !
 common basis ( ! tru?s :i* !y          
ackn[l$ge2 necess>y = ! bett] s]vice (  
humanity4 ,philosophy & religion diff]  
only 9 ! =ms t di/+ui%1 )\t sep>at+ !m4 
,ano!r auditory1 o!r =ms1 & ano!r       
language4 ,:5 ,/4 ,augu/9e speaks to all
 ! fai?ful 9 ! *ur* ( ,hippone1 d n seek
 9 him ! subtile & pr(\nd metaphysician 
:o combat$ ! ,academicians ) _! own     

arms1 :o supports himself on ! ,platonic
 !ory ( ideas1 9 ord] to expla9 !       
creation4 ,bossuet1 9 ! treatise ,de la 
,connaissance de ,dieu et ,soi-meme1 is 
no long]1 & at ! same "t he is always1 !
 au?or ( ! ,s]mons1 ( ! ,elevations1 & !
 incomp>able ,cate*isme de ,meaux4 ,to  
sep>ate religion & philosophy has always
 be51 on "o side or ! o!r1 ! pret5sion (
 small1 exclusive1 & fanatical m9ds2 !  
duty1 m imp]ative n[ ?an ev]1 ( :omsoev]
 has = ei!r a s]i\s & enlight5$ love1 is
 to br+ toge!r & unite1 in/ead ( divid+ 
& wa/+ ! p[]s ( ! m9d & ! s\l1 9 !      
int]e/ ( ! common cause & ! great object
 :i* ! ,*ri/ian religion & philosophy   
pursue1 ea* 9 its own way1--,i mean !   
moral gr&eur ( humanity4#bfb            
,,footnotes3  #bde ,lectures #d & #g4   
#bdf ,su* is ! common vice ( ne>ly all  
!odiceas1 )\t except+ ! be/--t (        
,leibnitz1 t ( ,cl>ke2 ev5 ! mo/ popul> 
( all1 ! ,pr(ession de ,foi du ,vicaire 
,savoy>d4 ,see our small "w entitl$     
,philosophie ,populaire1 #c;d edition1  

p4 #hb4  #bdg ,on ! ,c>tesian argum5t1  
see above1 "p #a/1 lecture #d2 see also 
#a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 iv41 lecture #ab1 &    
especially vol4 v41 lecture #f4  #bdh   
,fragm5ts de ,philosophie ,c>tesi5ne1 p4
 #bd3 ,! inf9ite be+1 inasmu* z inf9ite1
 is n a mov]1 a cause2 nei!r is he1     
inasmu* z inf9ite1 an intellig5ce2 nei!r
 is he a w2 nei!r is he a pr9ciple (    
ju/ice1 nor mu* less a pr9ciple ( love4 
,we h no "r to impute to him all ^!     
attributes 9 virtue ( ! s+le argum5t t e
 cont+5t be+ supposes a be+ t is n s1 t 
e f9ite supposes an inf9ite4 ,! ,god    
giv5 by ?is argum5t is ! ,god ( ,sp9oza1
 is rigor\sly s2 b he is almo/ z ?\gh he
 7 n1 at lea/ = u :o ) difficulty       
p]ceive him 9 ! inaccessible heights (  
an et]nity & exi/5ce t are absolute1    
void ( ?\ght1 ( lib]ty1 ( love1 simil>  
to non5tity itself1 & a ?\s& times      
inf]ior1 9 8 inf9ity & et]nity1 to an   
h\r ( our f9ite & p]i%able exi/5ce1 if  
dur+ ?is fleet+ h\r we "k :at we are1 if
 we ?9k1 if we love some?+ else ?an     

ourselves1 if we feel capable ( freely  
sacrific+ to an idea ! few m9utes t h   
be5 accord$ to u4  #bdi ,?is !odicea is 
"h 9 resume1 & 9 ! #d? & #e? lectures ( 
"p fir/1 z well z 9 ! lecture t foll[s4 
,! mo/ important ( our diff]5t writ+s1  
on ?is po9t1 w be f\nd collect$ &       
elucidat$ by ea* o!r1 9 ! ,app5dix to ! 
#e? lecture ( ! fir/ volume ( ! #a/     
,s]ies4--,see our translation ( ?is     
entire ,s]ies ( ,m4 ,c\s9's works1 "u ! 
title ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,mod]n ,philosophy4 
#bej #c;d ,s]ies1 vol4 iv41 adv]tisem5t 
to ! #c;d edition3 ,)\t va9 subtilty1   
!re is a real di/9ction betwe5 free w & 
spontane\s lib]ty4 ,arbitr>y fre$om is  
volition ) ! appe>ance ( delib]ation    
betwe5 diff]5t objects1 & "u ?is supreme
 condition1 t :51 z a consequ5ce (      
delib]ation1 we resolve to d ?is or t1  
we h ! imm$iate consci\sness ( hav+ be5 
able1 & ( be+ able /ill1 to w ! contr>y4
 ,x is 9 volition1 & 9 ! ret9ue (       
ph5om5a :i* surr\nd x1 t lib]ty m       
en]getically appe>s1 b x is n !reby     

exhau/$4 ,x is at r>e & sublime mom5ts 9
 :i* lib]ty is z mu* great] z x appe>s  
less to ! eyes ( a sup]ficial           
obs]vation4 ,i h (t5 cit$ ! example (   
d',assas4 ,d',assas did n delib]ate2 & =
 all t1 0 d',assas less free1 did he n  
act ) entire lib]ty8 ,has ! sa9t :o1    
aft] a long & pa9ful ex]cise ( virtue1  
has come to practise1 z x 7 by nature1 !
 acts ( self-r5unciation :i* are        
repugnant to human weakness2 has ! sa9t1
 9 ord] to h gone out f ! contradictions
 & ! angui% ( ?is =m ( lib]ty :i* we    
call$ volition1 fall5 bel[ x in/ead (   
be+ elevat$ above x2 & is he no?+ m ?an 
a bl9d & passive in/rum5t ( grace1 z    
,lu!r & ,calv9 h inappropriately wi%$ to
 call x1 by an excessive int]pretation (
 ! ,augu/9ian doctr9e8 ,no1 fre$om /ill 
rema9s2 & f> f be+ annihilat$1 its      
lib]ty1 9 be+ purifi$1 is elevat$ &     
ennobl$2 f ! human =m ( volition x has  
pass$ to ! almo/ div9e =m ( spontaneity4
 ,spontaneity is ess5tially free1 al?\gh
 x may be accompani$ ) no delib]ation1 &

 al?\gh (t51 9 ! rapid motion ( its     
inspir$ action1 x escapes its own       
obs]vation1 & leaves sc>cely a trace 9 !
 dep?s ( consci\sness4 ,let u transf]   
?is exact psy*ology to !odicea1 & we may
 recognize )\t hypo!sis1 t spontaneity  
is also especially ! =m ( ,god's lib]ty4
 ,yes1 c]ta9ly1 ,god is free2 =1 among  
o!r pro(s1 x w\ld be absurd t !re %\ld  
be less fre$om 9 ! fir/ cause ?an 9 "o (
 its effects1 humanity2 ,god is free1 b 
n ) t lib]ty :i* is relat$ to our d\ble 
nature1 & made to cont5d aga9/ passion &
 error1 & pa9fully to eng5d] virtue &   
our imp]fect k2 he is free1 ) a lib]ty t
 is relat$ to 8 own div9e nature1 t is a
 lib]ty unlimit$1 inf9ite1 recogniz+ no 
ob/acle4 ,betwe5 ju/ice & inju/ice1     
betwe5 good & evil1 betwe5 reason & its 
contr>y1 ,god _c delib]ate1 &1          
consequ5tly1 _c w aft] our mann]4 ,c "o 
conceive1 9 fact1 t he c\ld take :at we 
call ! bad "p8 ,?is v supposition is    
impi\s4 ,x is necess>y to admit t :5 he 
has tak5 ! contr>y "p1 he has act$      

freely )\t d\bt1 b n arbitr>ily1 & ) !  
consci\sness ( hav+ be5 able to *oose ! 
o!r "p4 ,8 nature1 all-p[]ful1 all-j1   
all-wise1 is develop$ ) t spontaneity   
:i* conta9s entire lib]ty1 & excludes at
 once ! ef=ts & ! mis]ies ( volition1 & 
! me*anical op]ation ( necessity4 ,su*  
is ! pr9ciple & ! true "* ( ! div9e     
action4  #bea ,timaeus1 p4 #aai1 vol4   
xii4 ( our translation4  #beb ,de l',art
 de prolong] sa ,vie1 etc4  #bec ,on !  
spirituality ( ! s\l1 see all our       
writ+s4 ,we w limit ourselves to two    
citations4 #b;d ,s]ies1 vol4 iii41      
lecture #be1 p4 #hei3 ,x is impossible  
to "k any ph5om5on ( consci\sness1 !    
ph5om5a ( s5sation1 or volition1 or (   
intellig5ce1 )\t in/antly ref]r+ !m to a
 subject "o & id5tical1 :i* is ! me2 s  
we _c "k ! ext]nal ph5om5a ( resi/ance1 
( solidity1 ( imp5etrability1 ( figure1 
( color1 ( smell1 ( ta/e1 etc41 )\t     
judg+ t ^! are n ph5om5a 9 appe>ance1 b 
ph5om5a :i* belong to some?+ real1 :i*  
is solid1 imp5etrable1 figur$1 color$1  

odor\s1 savory1 etc4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if y 
did n "k any ( ! ph5om5a ( consci\sness1
 y w\ld nev] h ! lea/ idea ( ! subject (
 ^! ph5om5a2 if y did n "k any ( !      
ext]nal ph5om5a ( resi/ance1 ( solidity1
 ( imp5etrability1 ( figure1 ( color1   
etc41 y w\ld n h any idea ( ! subject ( 
^! ph5om5a3 !re=e ! *>act]s1 :e!r ( !   
ph5om5a ( consci\sness1 or ( ext]ior    
ph5om5a1 are = y ! only signs ( ! nature
 ( ! subjects ( ^! ph5om5a4 ,9 exam9+ ! 
ph5om5a :i* fall "u ! s5ses1 we f9d     
betwe5 !m grave diff]5ces ^u :i* x is   
useless "h to insi/1 & :i* e/abli% !    
di/9ction ( prim>y qualities & (        
second>y qualities4 ,9 ! fir/ rank among
 ! prim>y qualities is solidity1 :i* is 
giv5 to y 9 ! s5sation ( resi/ance1 &   
inevitably accompani$ by =m1 etc4 ,on ! 
contr>y1 :5 y exam9e ! ph5om5a (        
consci\sness1 y d n !re9 f9d ?is "* (   
resi/ance1 ( solidity1 ( =m1 etc42 y d n
 f9d t ! ph5om5a ( y\r consci\sness h a 
figure1 solidity1 imp5etrability1       
resi/ance2 )\t speak+ ( second>y        

qualities :i* are equally =eign to !m1  
color1 savor1 s\nd1 smell1 etc4 ,n[1 z !
 subject is = u only ! collection ( !   
ph5om5a :i* reveal x to u1 toge!r ) its 
own exi/5ce 9 s f> z ! subject ( !      
inh]5ce ( ^! ph5om5a1 x foll[s t1 "u    
ph5om5a m>k$ ) dissimil> *>act]s &      
entirely =eign to ea* o!r1 ! human m9d  
conceives dissimil> & =eign subjects4   
,?us z solidity & figure h no?+ 9 common
 ) s5sation1 w1 & ?\ght1 z e solid is   
ext5d$ = u1 & z we place x necess>ily 9 
space1 :ile our ?\ghts1 our volitions1  
our s5sations1 are = u unext5d$1 & :ile 
we _c conceive !m & place !m 9 space1 b 
only 9 "t1 ! human m9d concludes )      
p]fect /rictness t ! subject ( ! ext]ior
 ph5om5a has ! "* ( ! latt]1 & t !      
subject ( ! ph5om5a ( consci\sness has !
 "* ( ! =m]2 t ! "o is solid & ext5d$1 &
 t ! o!r is nei!r solid nor ext5d$4     
,f9ally1 z t :i* is solid & ext5d$ is   
divisible1 & z t :i* is nei!r solid nor 
ext5d$ is indivisible1 h5ce divisibility
 is attribut$ to ! solid & ext5d$       

subject1 & indivisibility attribut$ to !
 subject :i* is nei!r ext5d$ nor solid4 
,:o ( u1 9 fact1 does n believe himself 
an indivisible be+1 "o & id5tical1 !    
same ye/]day1 to-day1 & to-morr[8 ,well1
 ! ^w body1 ! ^w matt]1 signifies no?+  
else ?an ! subject ( ext]nal ph5om5a1 ! 
mo/ em95t ( :i* are =m1 imp5etrability1 
solidity1 ext5sion1 divisibility4 ,! ^w 
m9d1 ! ^w s\l1 signifies no?+ else ?an !
 subject ( ! ph5om5a ( consci\sness1    
?\ght1 w1 s5sation1 ph5om5a simple1     
unext5d$1 n solid1 etc4 ,behold ! :ole  
idea ( _s1 & ! :ole idea ( matt]6 ,see1 
!re=e1 all t mu/ be done 9 ord] to br+  
back matt] to _s1 & _s to matt]3 x is   
necess>y to pret5d t s5sation1 volition1
 ?\ght1 are r$ucible 9 ! la/ analysis to
 solidity1 ext5sion1 figure1            
divisibility1 etc41 or t solidity1      
ext5sion1 figure1 etc41 are r$ucible to 
?\ght1 volition1 s5sation4 #a/ ,s]ies1  
vol4 iii41 lecture ,i1 ,locke4 ,locke   
pret5ds t we _c be c]ta9 by !           
contemplation ( our own ideas1 t matt]  

_c ?9k2 on ! contr>y1 x is 9 !          
contemplation itself ( our ideas t we   
cle>ly p]ceive t matt] & ?\ght are      
incompatible4 ,:at is ?9k+8 ,is x n     
unit+ a c]ta9 numb] ( ideas "u a c]ta9  
unity8 ,! simple/ judgm5t supposes      
sev]al t]ms unit$ 9 a subject1 "o &     
id5tical1 :i* is me4 ,?is id5tical me is
 impli$ 9 e real act ( k4 ,x has be5    
demon/rat$ to satiety t comp>ison exacts
 an indivisible c5tre t comprises !     
diff]5t t]ms ( ! comp>ison4 ,d y take   
memory8 ,!re is no memory possible )\t !
 cont9uation ( ! same subject t ref]s to
 self ! diff]5t modifications by :i* x  
has be5 successively affect$4 ,f9ally1  
consci\sness1 t indisp5sable condition (
 intellig5ce1--is x n ! s5tim5t ( a s+le
 be+8 ,?is is ! reason :y ea* man _c ?9k
 )\t say+ me1 )\t affirm+ t he is       
himself ! id5tical & "o subject ( 8     
?\ghts4 ,i am me & always me1 z y are   
always y\rself 9 ! mo/ diff]5t acts (   
y\r life4 ,y are n m y\rself to-day ?an 
y 7 ye/]day1 & y are n less y\rself     

to-day ?an y 7 ye/]day4 ,?is id5tity &  
?is indivisible unity ( ! me insep>able 
f ! lea/ ?\ght1 is :at is call$ its     
spirituality1 9 opposition to ! evid5t &
 necess>y *>act]s ( matt]4 ,by :at1 9   
fact1 d y "k matt]8 ,x is especially by 
=m1 by ext5sion1 by some?+ solid t /ops 
y1 t resi/s y 9 diff]5t po9ts ( space4  
,b is n a solid ess5tially divisible8   
,take ! mo/ subtile fluids1--c y help   
conceiv+ !m z m or less susceptible (   
division8 ,all ?\ght has its diff]5t    
elem5ts l matt]1 b 9 addition x has its 
unity 9 ! ?9k+ subject1 & ! subject be+ 
tak5 away1 :i* is "o1 ! total ph5om5on  
no long] exi/s4 ,f> f t1 ! unkn[n       
subject to :i* we atta* mat]ial ph5om5a 
is divisible1 & divisible ad inf9itum2 x
 _c cease to be divisible )\t ceas+ to  
exi/4 ,su* are ! ideas t we h1 on ! "o  
side1 ( m9d1 on ! o!r1 ( matt]4 ,?\ght  
supposes a subject ess5tially "o2 matt] 
is inf9itely divisible4 ,:at is ! ne$ ( 
go+ f>!r8 ,if any conclusion is         
legitimate1 x is t :i* di/+ui%es ?\ght f

 matt]4 ,god c inde$ make !m exi/       
toge!r1 & _! co-exi/5ce is a c]ta9 fact1
 b he _c conf\nd !m4 ,god c unite ?\ght 
& matt]1 he _c make matt] ?\ght1 nor :at
 is ext5d$ simple4  #bed ,see #a/ "p1   
lecture #a4  #bee ,see lecture #e1      
,my/icism4  #bef #d? ,s]ies1 vol4 iii41 
,santa-,rosa3 ,aft] all1 ! exi/5ce ( a  
div9e ,provid5ce is1 to my eyes1 a tru? 
cle>] ?an all lights1 m c]ta9 ?an all   
ma!matics4 ,yes1 !re is a ,god1 a ,god  
:o is a true intellig5ce1 :o consequ5tly
 has a consci\sness ( himself1 :o has   
made & ord]$ e ?+ ) weight & measure1 ^:
 works are excell5t1 ^: ends are        
adorable1 ev5 :5 !y are veil$ f our     
feeble eyes4 ,?is _w has a p]fect au?or1
 p]fectly wise & good4 ,man is n an     
orphan2 he has a fa!r 9 heav54 ,:at w   
?is fa!r d ) 8 *ild :5 he returns to    
him8 ,no?+ b :at is good4 ,:atev]       
happ5s1 all w be well4 ,e ?+ t he has   
done has be5 done well2 e ?+ t he %all  
d1 ,i accept be=eh&1 & bless4 ,yes1 su* 
is my unalt]able fai?1 & ?is fai? is my 

support1 my refuge1 my consolation1 my  
solace 9 ?is fe>ful mom5t4  #beg ,see   
our discussion on ! ,p5sees de ,pascal1 
vol4 i4 ( ! #d? ,s]ies4  #beh ,see ! end
 ( ! fir/ book ( ! ,republic1 vol4 ix4 (
 our translation4  #bei ,esprit des     
,lois1 passim4  #bfj ,works ( ,turgot1  
vol4 ii41 ,disc\rs en ,sorbonne sur les 
,avantages que l'etablissem5t du        
,*ri/ianism a procures au ,g5re ,huma91 
etc4  #bfa ,9 ! ,correspond5ce1 ! lett] 
to ,dr4 ,/iles1 ,m>* #i1 #agij1 writt5  
by ,frankl9 a few mon?s be=e 8 dea?3 ,i 
am conv9c$ t ! moral & religi\s sy/em   
:i* ,jesus ,*ri/ has transmitt$ to u is 
! be/ t ! _w has se5 or c see4--,we "h  
re-translate1 n hav+ ! works ( ,frankl9 
imm$iately at h&4  #bfb ,we h n ceas$ to
 claim1 to e>ne/ly call =1 ! alliance   
betwe5 ,*ri/ianity & philosophy1 z well 
z ! alliance betwe5 ! mon>*y & lib]ty4  
,see p>ticul>ly #c;d ,s]ies1 vol4 iv41  
,philosophie ,contempora9e1 preface ( ! 
second edition2 #d? ,s]ies1 vol4 i41    
,pascal1 #a/ & #b;d preface1 passim2 #e?

 ,s]ies1 vol4 ii41 ,disc\rs a la ,*ambre
 des ,p>is p\r le ,def5ce de            
l',univ]site et de la ,philosophie4 ,we 
ev]y:]e pr(ess ! mo/ t5d] v5]ation =    
,*ri/ianity1--we h only repell$ !       
s]vitude ( philosophy1 ) ,desc>tes1 & ! 
mo/ illu/ri\s doctors ( anci5t & mod]n  
times1 f ,/4 ,augu/9e & ,/4 ,?omas1 to !
 ,c>d9al de la ,luc]ne & ! ,bi%op (     
,h]mopolis4 ,moreov]1 we love to ?9k t  
^? qu>rels1 orig9at+ 9 o!r times f !    
deplorable /rife betwe5 ! cl]gy & !     
,univ]sity1 h n surviv$ x1 & t n[ all   
s9c]e fri5ds ( religion & philosophy w  
give ea* o!r ! h&1 & w "w 9 conc]t to   
enc\rage despond+ s\ls & lift up burd5$ 
*>act]s4     ,,lecture ,,xvii4  ,,resume
 ,,( ,,doctr9e4      ,review ( ! doctr9e
 conta9$ 9 ^! lectures1 & !     ?ree    
ord]s ( facts on :i* ?is doctr9e re/s1 )
 !     relation ( ea* "o ( !m to ! mod]n
 s*ool t has     recogniz$ & develop$ x1
 b almo/ always exagg]at$               
x4--,exp]i5ce & empiricism4--,reason &  
idealism4--,s5tim5t     &               

my/icism4--,!odicea4 ,defects ( diff]5t 
kn[n     sy/ems4--,! process t conducts 
to true !odicea1 & !     "* ( c]ta9ty & 
reality t ?is process gives to     x4   
,hav+ arriv$ at ! limit ( ?is c\rse1 we 
h a f9al task to p]=m1--x is necess>y to
 recall its g5]al _s & mo/ important    
results4  ,f ! fir/ lecture1 ,i h       
signaliz$ to y ! _s t %\ld animate ?is  
in/ruction1--a _s ( free inquiry1       
recogniz+ ) joy ! tru? :]ev] f\nd1      
pr(it+ by all ! sy/ems t ! eighte5?     
c5tury has bequea!d to our times1 b     
conf9+ itself to none ( !m4  ,! eighte5?
 c5tury has left to u z an inh]itance   
?ree great s*ools :i* /ill endure--!    
,engli% & ,fr5* s*ool1 ^: *ief is       
,locke1 among ^: mo/ accr$it$           
repres5tatives are ,condillac1          
,helvetius1 & ,sa9t-,lamb]t2 ! ,scot*   
s*ool1 ) s _m celebrat$ names1          
,hut*eson1 ,smi?1 ,reid1 ,beattie1      
,f]guson1 & ,dugald ,/ew>t2#bfc ! ,g]man
 s*ool1 or r s*ool ( ,kant1 =1 ( all !  
philosoph]s beyond ! ,rh9e1 ! philosoph]

 ( ,ko5igsb]g is almo/ ! only "o :o     
belongs to hi/ory4 ,kant di$ at ! beg9n+
 ( ! n9ete5? c5tury2#bfd ! a%es ( 8 mo/ 
illu/ri\s disciple1 ,fi*te1#bfe are     
sc>cely cold4 ,! o!r r5[n$ philosoph]s (
 ,g]many /ill live1#bff & escape our    
valuation4  ,b ?is is only an           
e?nographical enum]ation ( ! s*ools ( ! 
eighte5? c5tury4 ,x is above all        
necess>y to consid] !m 9 _! *>act]s1    
analog\s or opposite4 ,! ,anglo-,fr5*   
s*ool p>ticul>ly repres5ts empiricism & 
s5sualism1 t is to say1 an almo/        
exclusive importance attribut$ 9 all    
p>ts ( human k to exp]i5ce 9 g5]al1 &   
especially to s5sible exp]i5ce4 ,!      
,scot* s*ool & ! ,g]man s*ool repres5t a
 m or less develop$ spiritualism4       
,f9ally1 !re are philosoph]s1 = example1
 ,hut*eson1 ,smi?1 & o!rs1 :o1 mi/ru/+ !
 s5ses & reason1 give ! supremacy to    
s5tim5t4  ,su* are ! philosophic s*ools 
9 ! pres5ce ( :i* ! n9ete5? c5tury is   
plac$4  ,we are compell$ to av[1 t none 
( ^!1 to our eyes1 conta9s ! entire     

tru?4 ,x has be5 demon/rat$ t a         
consid]able "p ( k escapes s5sation1 &  
we ?9k t s5tim5t is a basis nei!r       
suffici5tly firm1 nor suffici5tly broad1
 to support all human sci5ce4 ,we are1  
!re=e1 r ! adv]s>y ?an ! p>tisan ( !    
s*ool ( ,locke & ,condillac1 & ( t (    
,hut*eson & ,smi?4 ,are we on t acc\nt !
 disciple ( ,reid & ,kant8 ,yes1        
c]ta9ly1 we decl>e our pref]5ce = !     
direction impress$ ^u philosophy by ^!  
two great m54 ,we reg>d ,reid z common  
s5se itself1 & we believe t we ?us      
eulogize him 9 a mann] t w\ld t\* him   
mo/4 ,common s5se is to u ! only        
legitimate po9t ( dep>ture1 & ! con/ant 
& inviolable rule ( sci5ce4 ,reid nev]  
errs2 8 me?od is true1 8 g5]al pr9ciples
 are inconte/able1 b we w will+ly say to
 ?is irreproa*able g5ius1--,sap]e aude4 
,kant is f> f be+ z sure a guide z      
,reid4 ,bo? excel 9 analysis2 b ,reid   
/ops !re1 & ,kant builds ^u analysis a  
sy/em irreconcilable ) x4 ,he elevates  
reason above s5sation & s5tim5t2 he %[s 

) great skill h[ reason produces by     
itself1 & by ! laws atta*$ to its       
ex]cise1 ne>ly all human k2 !re is only 
"o mis=tune1 :i* is t all ?is f9e       
edifice is de/itute ( reality4          
,dogmatical 9 analysis1 ,kant is        
skeptical 9 8 conclusions4 ,8 skepticism
 is ! mo/ le>n$1 mo/ moral1 t ev] exi/$2
 b1 9 f9e1 x is always skepticism4 ,?is 
is say+ pla9ly en\gh t we are f> f      
belong+ to ! s*ool ( ! philosoph] (     
,ko5igsb]g4  ,9 g5]al1 9 ! hi/ory (     
philosophy1 we are 9 favor ( sy/ems t   
are !mselves 9 favor ( reason4          
,accord+ly1 9 antiquity1 we side )      
,plato aga9/ 8 adv]s>ies2 among !       
mod]ns1 ) ,desc>tes aga9/ ,locke1 )     
,reid aga9/ ,hume1 ) ,kant aga9/ bo?    
,condillac & ,smi?4 ,b :ile we ackn[l$ge
 reason z a p[] sup]ior to s5sation &   
s5tim5t1 z be+1 p> excell5ce1 ! faculty 
( e k9d ( k1 ! faculty ( ! true1 !      
faculty ( ! beautiful1 ! faculty ( !    
good1 we are p]suad$ t reason _c be     
develop$ )\t conditions t are =eign to  

x1 _c suffice = ! gov]nm5t ( man )\t !  
aid ( ano!r p[]3 t p[] :i* is n reason1 
:i* reason _c d )\t1 is s5tim5t2 ^?     
conditions1 )\t :i* reason _c be        
develop$1 are ! s5ses4 ,x is se5 :at = u
 is ! importance ( s5sation & s5tim5t3  
h[1 consequ5tly1 x is impossible = u    
absolutely to condemn ei!r ! philosophy 
( s5sation1 or1 mu* m1 t ( s5tim5t4     
,su* are ! v simple f\ndations ( our    
eclecticism4 ,x is n 9 u ! fruit ( a    
desire = innovation1 & = mak+ ourself a 
place ap>t among ! hi/orians (          
philosophy2 no1 x is philosophy itself t
 imposes on u our hi/orical views4 ,x is
 n our fault if ,god has made ! human   
s\l l>g] ?an all sy/ems1 & we also av] t
 we are also mu* rejoic$ t all sy/ems   
are n absurd4 ,)\t giv+ ! lie to ! mo/  
c]ta9 facts signaliz$ & e/abli%$ by     
ourself1 x 0 inde$ necess>y1 on f9d+ !m 
scatt]$ 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 to     
recognize & respect !m1 & if ! hi/ory ( 
philosophy1 ?us consid]$1 no long]      
appe>$ a mass ( s5seless sy/ems1 a *aos1

 )\t light1 & )\t issue2 if1 on !       
contr>y1 x became1 9 "s sort1 a liv+    
philosophy1 t 01 x %\ld seem1 a progress
 on :i* "o might felicitate himself1 "o 
( ! mo/ =tunate conque/s ( ! n9ete5?    
c5tury1 ! v triumph+ ( ! philosophic _s4
  ,we h1 !re=e1 no d\bt 9 reg>d to !    
excell5ce ( ! ent]prise2 ! :ole "q = u  
is 9 ! execution4 ,let u see1 let u     
comp>e :at we h done ) :at we h wi%$ to 
d4  ,let u ask1 9 ! fir/ place1 :e!r we 
h be5 j t[>ds t great philosophy        
repres5t$ 9 antiquity by ,ari/otle1 ^:  
be/ model among ! mod]ns is ! wise au?or
 ( ! ,essay on ! ,human ,und]/&+4  ,!re 
is 9 ! philosophy ( s5sation :at is true
 & :at is false4 ,! false is ! pret5sion
 ( expla9+ all human k by ! acquisitions
 ( ! s5ses2 ?is pret5sion is ! sy/em    
itself2 we reject x1 & ! sy/em ) x4 ,!  
true is t s5sibility1 consid]$ 9 its    
ext]nal & visible organs1 & 9 its       
int]nal organs1 ! invisible seats ( !   
vital functions1 is ! indisp5sable      
condition ( ! developm5t ( all our      

faculties1 n only ( ! faculties t       
evid5tly p]ta9 to s5sibility1 b ( ^? t  
seem to be mo/ remote f x4 ,?is true    
side ( s5sualism we h ev]y:]e recogniz$ 
& elucidat$ 9 metaphysics1 ae/hetics1   
e?ics1 & !odicea4  ,= u1 !odicea1 e?ics1
 ae/hetics1 metaphysics1 re/ on         
psy*ology1 & ! fir/ pr9ciple ( our      
psy*ology is t ! condition ( all ex]cise
 ( m9d & s\l is an impression made on   
our organs1 & a movem5t ( ! vital       
functions4  ,man is n a pure _s2 he has 
a body :i* is = ! _s sometimes an       
ob/acle1 sometimes a means1 always an   
insep>able companion4 ,! s5ses are n1 z 
,plato & ,malebran*e h too (t5 said1 a  
prison = ! s\l1 b mu* r w9d[s look+ out 
^u nature1 ?r\gh :i* ! s\l communicates 
) ! univ]se4 ,!re is an entire "p (     
,locke's polemic aga9/ ! !ories ( innate
 ideas t is to our eyes p]fectly true4  
,we are ! fir/ to invoke exp]i5ce 9     
philosophy4 ,exp]i5ce saves philosophy f
 hypo!sis1 f ab/raction1 f ! exclusively
 d$uctive me?od1 t is to say1 f !       

geometrical me?od4 ,x is on acc\nt (    
hav+ ab&on$ ! solid gr\nd ( exp]i5ce1 t 
,sp9oza1 atta*+ himself to c]ta9 sides (
 ,c>tesianism1#bfg & clos+ 8 eyes to all
 ! o!rs1 =gett+ its me?od1 its ess5tial 
"*1 & its mo/ c]ta9 pr9ciples1 re>$ a   
hypo!tical sy/em1 or made f an arbitr>y 
def9ition spr+ ) ! la/ degree ( rigor a 
:ole s]ies ( d$uctions1 :i* h no?+ to d 
) reality4 ,x is also on acc\nt ( hav+  
ex*ang$ exp]i5ce = a sy/ematic analysis1
 t ,condillac1 an unfai?ful disciple (  
,locke1 und]took to draw f a s+le fact1 
& f an ill-obs]v$ fact1 all k1 by ! aid 
( a s]ies ( v]bal trans=mations1 ^: la/ 
result is a nom9alism1 l t ( ! lat]     
s*ola/ics4 ,exp]i5ce does n conta9 all  
sci5ce1 b x furni%es ! conditions ( all 
sci5ce4 ,space is no?+ = u )\t visible &
 tangible bodies t occupy x1 "t is no?+ 
)\t ! succession ( ev5ts1 cause )\t its 
effects1 sub/ance )\t its modes1 law )\t
 ! ph5om5a t x rules4#bfh ,reason w\ld  
reveal to u no univ]sal & necess>y tru?1
 if consci\sness & ! s5ses did n sugge/ 

to u p>ticul> & cont+5t notions4 ,9     
ae/hetics1 :ile sev]ely di/+ui%+ betwe5 
! beautiful & ! agreeable1 we h %[n t ! 
agreeable is ! con/ant accompanim5t ( ! 
beautiful1#bfi & t if art has = its     
supreme law ! expression ( ! ideal1 x   
mu/ express x "u an animat$ & liv+ =m   
:i* puts x 9 relation ) our s5ses1 ) our
 imag9ation1 above all1 ) our he>t4 ,9  
e?ics1 if we h plac$ ,kant & /oicism f> 
above epicureanism & ,helvetius1 we h   
gu>d$ ourselves aga9/ an ins5sibility & 
an asceticism :i* are contr>y to human  
nature4 ,we h giv5 to reason nei!r !    
duty nor ! "r to smo!r ! natural        
passions1 b to rule !m2 we h n wi%$ to  
wre/ f ! s\l ! in/9ct ( happ9ess1 )\t   
:i* life w\ld n be supportable = a day1 
nor society = an h\r2 we h propos$ to   
enlight5 ?is in/9ct1 to %[ x ! conceal$ 
b real h>mony :i* x su/a9s ) virtue1 &  
to op5 to x inf9ite prospects4#bgj  ,)  
^! empirical elem5ts1 idealism is gu>d$ 
f t my/ical infatuation :i*1 little by  
little1 ga9s & seizes x :5 x is :olly   

alone1 & br+s x into discr$it ) s\nd &  
sev]e m9ds4 ,9 our works--& :y %\ld we n
 say x8--we h (t5 pres5t$ ! ?\ght (     
,locke1 :om we reg>d z "o ( ! be/ & mo/ 
s5sible m5 t ev] liv$4 ,he is among ^?  
secret & illu/ri\s advis]s ) :om we     
support our weakness4 ,m ?an "o happy   
?\ght we owe to him2 & we (t5 ask       
ourself :e!r inve/igations direct$ ) !  
circumspect me?od :i* we try to c>ry    
into ours1 w\ld n h be5 accept$ by 8    
s9c]ity & wisdom4 ,locke is = u ! true  
repres5tative1 ! mo/ orig9al1 & altoge!r
 ! mo/ temp]ate ( ! empirical s*ool4    
,ti$ to a sy/em1 he /ill pres]ves a r>e 
_s ( lib]ty1--"u ! "n ( reflection he   
admits ano!r s\rce ( k ?an s5sation2 &  
?is concession to common s5se is v      
important4 ,condillac1 by reject+ ?is   
concession1 c>ri$ to extremes & spoil$ !
 doctr9e ( ,locke1 & made ( x a n>r[1   
exclusive1 entirely false               
sy/em1--s5sualism1 to speak prop]ly4    
,condillac works ^u *im]as r$uc$ to     
signs1 ) :i* he sports at 8 ease4 ,we   

seek 9 va9 9 8 writ+s1 especially 9 !   
la/1 "s trace ( human nature4 ,"o truly 
believes himself to be 9 ! realm (      
%ades1 p] inania regna4#bga ,! ,essay on
 ! ,human ,und]/&+ produces ! opposite  
impression4 ,locke is a disciple (      
,desc>tes1 :om ! excesses ( ,malebran*e 
h ?r[n to an opposite excess3 he is "o (
 ! f\nd]s ( psy*ology1 he is "o ( ! f9e/
 & mo/ pr(\nd connoisseurs ( human      
nature1 & 8 doctr9e1 some:at un/eady b  
always mod]ate1 is wor?y ( hav+ a place 
9 a true eclecticism4#bgb  ,by ! side ( 
! philosophy ( ,locke1 !re is "o mu*    
great]1 :i* x is important to pres]ve f 
all exagg]ation1 9 ord] to ma9ta9 x 9   
all its height4 ,f\nd$ 9 antiquity by   
,socrates1 con/itut$ by ,plato1 r5ew$ by
 ,desc>tes1 idealism embraces1 among !  
mod]ns1 m5 ( ! highe/ r5[n4 ,x speaks to
 man 9 ! "n ( :at is noble/ 9 man4 ,x   
dem&s ! rights ( reason2 x e/abli%es 9  
sci5ce1 9 art1 & 9 e?ics fix$ &         
inv>iable pr9ciples1 & f ?is imp]fect   
exi/5ce x elevates u t[>ds ano!r _w1 !  

_w ( ! et]nal1 ( ! inf9ite1 ( !         
absolute4  ,?is great philosophy has all
 our pref]5ces1 & we %all n be accus$ ( 
hav+ giv5 x too little place 9 ^!       
lectures4 ,9 ! eighte5? c5tury x 0      
especially repres5t$ 9 diff]5t degrees  
by ,reid & ,kant4 ,we :olly accept      
,reid1 ) ! exception ( 8 hi/orical      
views1 :i* are too insuffici5t1 & (t5   
mix$ ) error4#bgc ,!re are two p>ts 9   
,kant1--! analytical "p1 & ! dialectical
 "p1 z he calls !m4#bgd ,we admit ! "o &
 reject ! o!r4 ,9 ?is :ole c\rse we h   
borr[$ mu* f ! ,critique ( ,speculative 
,reason1 ! ,critique ( ,judgm5t1 & !    
,critique ( ,practical ,reason4 ,^! ?ree
 works are1 9 our eyes1 admirable       
monum5ts ( philosophic g5ius1--!y are   
fill$ ) treasures ( obs]vation &        
analysis4#bge  ,) ,reid & ,kant1 we     
recognize reason z ! faculty ( ! true1 !
 beautiful1 & ! good4 ,x is to its prop]
 virtue t we directly ref] k 9 its      
humble/ & 9 its mo/ elevat$ "p4 ,all !  
sy/ematic pret5sions ( s5sualism are    

brok5 aga9/ ! manife/ reality ( univ]sal
 & necess>y tru?s :i* are inconte/ably 9
 our m9d4 ,at ea* in/ant1 :e!r we "k x  
or n1 we be> univ]sal & necess>y        
judgm5ts4 ,9 ! simple/ propositions is  
envelop$ ! pr9ciple ( sub/ance & be+4   
,we _c take a /ep 9 life )\t conclud+ f 
an ev5t 9 ! exi/5ce ( its cause4 ,^!    
pr9ciples are absolutely true1 !y are   
true ev]y:]e & always4 ,n[1 exp]i5ce    
apprises u ( :at happ5s "h & !re1 to-day
 or ye/]day2 b ( :at happ5s ev]y:]e &   
always1 especially ( :at _c b happ51 h[ 
c x apprise u1 s9ce x is itself always  
limit$ to "t & space8 ,!re are1 !n1 9   
man pr9ciples sup]ior to exp]i5ce4  ,su*
 pr9ciples c alone give a firm basis to 
sci5ce4 ,ph5om5a are ! objects ( sci5ce 
only s f> z !y reveal some?+ sup]ior to 
!mselves1 t is to say1 laws4 ,natural   
hi/ory does n /udy su* or su* an        
individual1 b ! g5]ic type t e          
individual be>s 9 itself1 t alone rema9s
 un*angeable1 :5 ! individuals pass away
 & vani%4 ,if !re is 9 u no o!r faculty 

( kn[+ ?an s5sation1 we nev] "k aught b 
:at is pass+ 9 ?+s1 & t1 too1 we "k only
 ) ! mo/ unc]ta9 k1 s9ce s5sibility w be
 its only measure1 :i* is s v>iable 9   
itself & s diff]5t 9 diff]5t            
individuals4 ,ea* ( u w h 8 own sci5ce1 
a sci5ce contradictory & fragile1 :i* "o
 mom5t produces & ano!r de/roys1 false z
 well z true1 s9ce :at is true = me is  
false = y1 & w ev5 be false = me 9 a    
little :ile4 ,su* are sci5ce & tru? 9 ! 
doctr9e ( s5sation4 ,on ! contr>y1      
necess>y & immutable pr9ciples f\nd a   
sci5ce necess>y & immutable z           
!mselves1--! tru? :i* !y gave z is nei!r
 m9e nor y\rs1 nei!r ! tru? ( to-day1   
nor t ( to-morr[1 b tru? 9 itself4  ,!  
same _s transf]r$ to ae/hetics has      
enabl$ u to seize ! beautiful by ! side 
( ! agreeable1 &1 above diff]5t &       
imp]fect beauties :i* nature (f]s to u1 
to seize an ideal beauty1 "o & p]fect1  
)\t a model 9 nature1 & ! only model    
wor?y ( g5ius4  ,9 e?ics we h %[n t !re 
is an ess5tial di/9ction betwe5 good &  

evil2 t ! idea ( ! good is an idea j z  
absolute z ! idea ( ! beautiful & t ( ! 
true2 t ! good is a univ]sal & necess>y 
tru?1 m>k$ ) ! p>ticul> "* t x ought to 
be practis$4 ,by ! side ( int]e/1 :i* is
 ! law ( s5sibility1 reason has made u  
recognize ! law ( duty1 :i* a free be+ c
 alone fulfil4 ,f ^! e?ics has sprung a 
g5]\s political doctr9e1 giv+ to "r a   
sure f\ndation 9 ! respect due to !     
p]son1 e/abli%+ true lib]ty1 & true     
equality1 & call+ = in/itutions1        
protective ( bo?1 :i* d n re/ on !      
mobile & arbitr>y w ( ! legislator1 :e!r
 p or mon>*1 b on ! nature ( ?+s1 on    
tru? & ju/ice4  ,f empiricism we h      
reta9$ ! maxim :i* gives empiricism its 
:ole =ce--t ! conditions ( sci5ce1 (    
art1 ( e?ics1 are 9 exp]i5ce1 & (t5 9   
s5sible exp]i5ce4 ,b we pr(ess at ! same
 "t ?is o!r maxim1 t ! f\ndation (      
sci5ce is absolute tru?1 t ! direct     
f\ndation ( art is absolute beauty1 t ! 
direct f\ndation ( e?ics & politics is !
 good1 is duty1 is "r1 & t :at reveals  

to u ^! absolute ideas ( ! true1 !      
beautiful1 & ! good1 is reason4 ,!      
f\ndation ( our doctr9e is1 !re=e1      
idealism rightly temp]$ by empiricism4  
,b :at w\ld be ! use ( hav+ re/or$ to   
reason ! p[] ( elevat+ itself to        
absolute pr9ciples1 plac$ above         
exp]i5ce1 al?\gh exp]i5ce furni%es _!   
ext]nal conditions1 if1 to adopt !      
language ( ,kant1#bgf ^! pr9ciples h no 
objective value8 ,:at good c\ld result f
 hav+ det]m9$ ) a precision until !n    
unkn[n ! respective doma9s ( exp]i5ce & 
reason1 if1 :olly sup]ior z x is to !   
s5ses & exp]i5ce1 reason is captive 9 _!
 inclosure1 & we "k no?+ beyond )       
c]ta9ty8 ,!reby1 !n1 we return by a     
det\r to skepticism to :i* s5sualism    
conducts u directly1 & at less exp5se4  
,to say t !re is no pr9ciple (          
causality1 or to say t ?is pr9ciple has 
no =ce out ( ! subject t possesses      
x1--is x n say+ ! same ?+8 ,kant av[s t 
man has no "r to affirm t !re are out ( 
him real causes1 "t1 or space1 or t he  

himself has a spiritual & free s\l4 ,?is
 ackn[l$gm5t w\ld p]fectly satisfy      
,hume2 x w\ld be ( v little importance  
to him t ! reason ( man1 accord+ to     
,kant1 might conceive1 & ev5 c\ld n b   
conceive1 ! ideas ( cause1 "t1 space1   
lib]ty1 _s1 provid$ ^! ideas are appli$ 
to no?+ real4 ,i see !re91 at mo/1 only 
a torm5t = human reason1 at once s poor 
& s ri*1 s full & s void4  ,a ?ird      
doctr9e1 f9d+ s5sation insuffici5t1 &   
also discont5t$ ) reason1 :i* x conf\nds
 ) reason+1 ?9ks to approa* common s5se 
by mak+ sci5ce1 art1 & e?ics re/ on     
s5tim5t4 ,x w\ld h u confide ourselves  
to ! in/9ct ( ! he>t1 to t in/9ct1 nobl]
 ?an s5sation1 & m subtle ?an reason+4  
,is x n ! he>t1 9 fact1 t feels !       
beautiful & ! good8 ,is x n ! he>t t1 9 
all ! great circum/ances ( life1 :5     
passion & sophism obscure to our eyes ! 
holy idea ( duty & virtue1 makes x %9e  
=? ) an irresi/ible light1 &1 at ! same 
"t1 w>ms u1 animates u1 & gives u !     
c\rage to practise x8  ,we also h       

recogniz$ t admirable ph5om5on :i* is   
call$ s5tim5t2 we ev5 believe t "h w be 
f\nd a m precise & m complete analysis (
 x ?an 9 ! writ+s :]e s5tim5t reigns    
alone4 ,yes1 !re is an exquisite        
pleasure atta*$ to ! contemplation ( !  
tru?1 to ! reproduction ( ! beautiful1  
to ! practice ( ! good2 !re is 9 u an   
innate love = all ^! ?+s2 & :5 great    
rigor is n aim$ at1 x may v well be said
 t x is ! he>t :i* disc]ns tru?1 t !    
he>t is & ought to be ! light & guide ( 
our life4  ,to ! eyes ( an unpractis$   
analysis1 reason 9 its natural &        
spontane\s ex]cise is conf\nd$ ) s5tim5t
 by a multitude ( resemblances4#bgg     
,s5tim5t is intimately atta*$ to reason2
 x is its s5sible =m4 ,at ! f\ndation ( 
s5tim5t is reason1 :i* communicates to x
 its au?ority1 :il/ s5tim5t l5ds to     
reason its *>m & p[]4 ,is n ! wide/     
spread & ! mo/ t\*+ pro( ( ! exi/5ce (  
,god t spontane\s impulse ( ! he>t :i*1 
9 ! consci\sness ( our mis]ies1 & at !  
sight ( ! imp]fections ( our race :i*   

press ^u our att5tion1 irresi/ibly      
sugge/s to u ! confus$ idea ( an inf9ite
 & p]fect be+1 fills u1 at ?is idea1 )  
an inexpressible emotion1 moi/5s our    
eyes ) te>s1 or ev5 pro/rates u on our  
knees be=e him :om ! he>t reveals to u1 
ev5 :5 ! reason refuses to believe 9    
him8 ,b look m closely1 & y w see t ?is 
incr$ul\s reason is reason+ support$ by 
pr9ciples ^: be>+ is insuffici5t2 y w   
see t :at reveals ! inf9ite & p]fect be+
 is precisely reason itself2#bgh & t1 9 
turn1 x is ?is revelation ( ! inf9ite by
 reason1 :i*1 pass+ into s5tim5t1       
produces ! emotion & ! inspiration t we 
h m5tion$4 ,may heav5 grant t we %all   
nev] reject ! aid ( s5tim5t6 ,on !      
contr>y1 we invoke x bo? = o!rs &       
ourself4 ,"h we are ) ! p1 or r we are !
 p4 ,x is to ! light ( ! he>t1 :i* is   
borr[$ f t ( reason1 b reflects x m     
vividly 9 ! dep?s ( ! s\l1 t we confide 
ourselves1 9 ord] to pres]ve all great  
tru?s 9 ! s\l ( ! ignorant1 & ev5 to    
save !m 9 ! m9d ( ! philosoph] f !      

ab]rations or ref9em5ts ( an ambiti\s   
philosophy4  ,we ?9k1 ) ,qu9tilian &    
,vauv5>gues1 t ! nobility ( s5tim5t     
makes ! nobility ( ?\ght4 ,en?usiasm is 
! pr9ciple ( great works z well z (     
great actions4 ,)\t ! love ( !          
beautiful1 ! arti/ w produce only works 
t are p]haps regul> b frigid1 t w       
possibly please ! geometrician1 b n !   
man ( ta/e4 ,9 ord] to communicate life 
to ! canvas1 to ! m>ble1 to spee*1 x mu/
 be born 9 "o's self4 ,x is ! he>t m+l$ 
) logic t makes true eloqu5ce2 x is !   
he>t m+l$ ) imag9ation t makes great    
poetry4 ,?9k ( ,hom]1 ( ,corneille1 (   
,bossuet1--_! mo/ *>act]i/ic trait is   
pa?os1 & pa?os is a cry ( ! s\l4 ,b x is
 especially 9 e?ics t s5tim5t %9es =?4  
,s5tim5t1 z we h already said1 is z x 7 
a div9e grace t aids u 9 ! fulfilm5t ( !
 s]i\s & au/]e law ( duty4 ,h[ (t5 does 
x happ5 t 9 delicate1 complicat$1       
difficult situations1 we "k n h[ to     
asc]ta9 :]e9 is ! true1 :]e9 is ! good6 
,s5tim5t comes to ! aid ( reason+ :i*   

wav]s2 x speaks1 & all unc]ta9ties are  
dissipat$4 ,9 li/5+ to its inspirations1
 we may act imprud5tly1 b we r>ely act  
ill3 ! voice ( ! he>t is ! voice ( ,god4
  ,we1 !re=e1 give a prom95t place to   
?is noble elem5t ( human nature4 ,we    
believe t man is q z great by he>t z by 
reason4 ,we h a high reg>d = ! g5]\s    
writ]s :o1 9 ! loos5ess ( pr9ciples &   
mann]s 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 oppos$ !    
bas5ess ( calculation & int]e/ ) !      
beauty ( s5tim5t4 ,we are ) ,hut*eson   
aga9/ ,hobbes1 ) ,r\sseau aga9/         
,helvetius1 ) ! au?or ( ,woldem>#bgi    
aga9/ ! e?ics ( egoism or ^? ( ! s*ools4
 ,we borr[ f !m :at tru? !y h1 we leave 
_! useless or dang]\s exagg]ations4     
,s5tim5t mu/ be jo9$ to reason2 b reason
 mu/ n be replac$ by s5tim5t4 ,9 ! fir/ 
place1 x is contr>y to facts to take    
reason = reason+1 & to envelop !m 9 !   
same criticism4 ,& !n1 aft] all1 reason+
 is ! legitimate in/rum5t ( reason2 its 
value is det]m9$ by t ( ! pr9ciples on  
:i* x re/s4 ,9 ! next place1 reason1 &  

especially spontane\s reason1 is1 l     
s5tim5t1 imm$iate & direct2 x goes      
/raight to its object1 )\t pass+ ?r\gh  
analysis1 ab/raction1 & d$uction1       
excell5t op]ations )\t d\bt1 b !y       
suppose a prim>y op]ation1 ! pure &     
simple app]ception ( ! tru?4#bhj ,x is  
wrong to attribute ?is app]ception to   
s5tim5t4 ,s5tim5t is an emotion1 n a    
judgm5t2 x enjoys or suff]s1 x loves or 
hates1 x does n "k4 ,x is n univ]sal l  
reason2 & z x /ill p]ta9s on "s side to 
organization1 x ev5 borr[s f !          
organization some?+ ( its incon/ancy4 ,9
 f9e1 s5tim5t foll[s reason1 & does n   
prec$e x4 ,!re=e1 9 suppress+ reason1 we
 suppress ! s5tim5t :i* emanates f x1 & 
sci5ce1 art1 & e?ics lack firm & solid  
bases4  ,psy*ology1 ae/hetics1 & e?ics1 
h conduct$ u to an ord] ( inve/igations 
m difficult & m elevat$1 :i* are m+l$ ) 
all ! o!rs1 & cr[n !m--!odicea4  ,we "k 
t !odicea is ! rock ( philosophy4 ,we   
might %un x1 & /op 9 ! regions--already 
v high--( ! univ]sal & necess>y         

pr9ciples ( ! true1 ! beautiful1 & !    
good1 )\t go+ f>!r1 )\t asc5d+ to !     
pr9ciples ( ^! pr9ciples1 to ! reason ( 
reason1 to ! s\rce ( tru?4 ,b su* a     
prud5ce is1 at bottom1 only a disguis$  
skepticism4 ,ei!r philosophy is n1 or x 
is ! la/ explanation ( all ?+s4 ,is x1  
!n1 true t ,god is to u an inexplicable 
enigma1--he )\t :om ! mo/ c]ta9 ( all   
?+s t ?us f> we h discov]$ w\ld be = u  
an insupportable enigma8 ,if philosophy 
is incapable ( arriv+ at ! k ( ,god1 x  
is p[]less2 = if x does n possess ,god1 
x possesses no?+4 ,b we are conv9c$ t ! 
ne$ ( kn[+ has n be5 giv5 u 9 va91 & t !
 desire ( kn[+ ! pr9ciple ( our be+ be>s
 witness to ! "r & p[] ( kn[+ :i* we h4 
,accord+ly1 aft] hav+ disc\rs$ to y ab\t
 ! true1 ! beautiful1 & ! good1 we h n  
fe>$ to speak to y ( ,god4  ,m ?an "o   
road may lead u to ,god4 ,we d n pret5d 
to close any ( !m2 b x 0 necess>y = u to
 foll[ ! "o t 0 op5 to u1 t :i* ! nature
 & subject ( our in/ruction op5$ to u4  
,univ]sal & necess>y tru?s are n g5]al  

ideas :i* our m9d draws by way ( reason+
 f p>ticul> ?+s2 = p>ticul> ?+s are     
relative & cont+5t1 & _c conta9 !       
univ]sal & necess>y4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ^!   
tru?s d n subsi/ by !mselves2 !y w\ld   
?us be only pure ab/ractions1 susp5d$ 9 
vacuity & )\t relation to any ?+4 ,tru?1
 beauty1 & goodness are attributes & n  
entities4 ,n[ !re are no attributes )\t 
a subject4 ,& z "h ! "q is conc]n+      
absolute tru?1 beauty & goodness1 _!    
sub/ance c be no?+ else ?an absolute    
be+4 ,x is ?us t we arrive at ,god4     
,once m1 !re are _m o!r means ( arriv+  
at him2 b we hold fa/ to ?is legitimate 
& sure way4  ,= u1 z = ,plato1 :om we h 
def5d$ aga9/ a too n>r[                 
int]pretation1#bha absolute tru? is 9   
,god1--x is ,god himself "u "o ( 8      
phases4 ,s9ce ,plato1 ! greate/ m9ds1   
,sa9t ,augu/9e1 ,desc>tes1 ,bossuet1    
,leibnitz1 agree 9 putt+ 9 ,god1 z 9 _! 
s\rce1 ! pr9ciples ( k z well z exi/5ce4
 ,f him ?+s d]ive at once _!            
intelligibility & _! be+4 ,x is by !    

p>ticipation ( ! div9e reason t our     
reason possesses some?+ absolute4 ,e    
judgm5t ( reason envelops a necess>y    
tru?1 & e necess>y tru? supposes        
necess>y be+4  ,if all p]fection belongs
 to ! p]fect be+1 ,god w possess beauty 
9 its pl5itude4 ,! fa!r ( ! _w1 ( its   
laws1 ( its ravi%+ h>monies1 ! au?or (  
=ms1 colors1 & s\nds1 he is ! pr9ciple (
 beauty 9 nature4 ,x is he :om we adore1
 )\t kn[+ x1 "u ! "n ( ! ideal1 :5 our  
imag9ation1 borne on f beauties to      
beauties1 calls = a f9al beauty 9 :i* x 
may f9d repose4 ,x is to him t ! arti/1 
discont5t$ ) ! imp]fect beauties (      
nature & ^? t he creates himself1 comes 
to ask = high] inspirations4 ,x is 9 him
 t are summ$ up ! ma9 =ms ( e k9d (     
beauty1 ! beautiful & ! sublime1 s9ce he
 satisfies all our faculties by 8       
p]fections1 & ov]:elms !m ) 8 inf9itude4
  ,god is ! pr9ciple ( moral tru?s1 z   
well z ( all o!r tru?s4 ,all our duties 
are compris$ 9 ju/ice & *>ity4 ,^! two  
great precepts h n be5 made by u2 !y h  

be5 impos$ on u2 f :om1 !n1 c !y come1  
except f a legislator ess5tially j &    
good8 ,!re91 9 our op9ion1 is an        
inv9cible demon/ration ( ! div9e ju/ice 
& *>ity3--?is demon/ration elucidates & 
su/a9s all o!rs4 ,9 ?is imm5se univ]se1 
( :i* we cat* a glimpse ( a comp>atively
 insignificant portion1 e ?+1 9 spite ( 
m ?an "o obscurity1 seems ord]$ 9 view (
 g5]al good1 & ?is plan atte/s a        
,provid5ce4 ,to ! physical ord] :i* "o 9
 good fai? c sc>cely d5y1 add ! c]ta9ty1
 ! evid5ce ( ! moral ord] t we be> 9    
ourselves4 ,?is ord] supposes ! h>mony (
 virtue & goodness2 x !re=e requires x4 
,)\t d\bt ?is h>mony already appe>s 9 ! 
visible _w1 9 ! natural consequ5ces (   
good & bad actions1 9 society :i*       
puni%es & rew>ds1 9 public e/eem &      
contempt1 especially 9 ! tr\bles & joys 
( consci5ce4 ,al?\gh ?is necess>y law ( 
ord] is n always exactly fulfill$1 x    
nev]!less ought to be1 or ! moral ord]  
is n satisfi$1 & ! intimate nature (    
?+s1 _! moral nature1 rema9s violat$1   

tr\bl$1 p]v]t$4 ,!re mu/1 !n1 be a be+  
:o takes x ^u himself to fulfil1 9 a "t 
t he has res]v$ to himself1 & 9 a mann] 
t w be prop]1 ! ord] ( :i* he has put 9 
u ! inviolable ne$2 & ?is be+ is aga91  
,god4  ,?us1 on all sides1 on t (       
metaphysics1 on t ( ae/hetics1          
especially on t ( e?ics1 we elevate     
ourselves to ! same pr9ciple1 ! common  
c5tre1 ! la/ f\ndation1 ( all tru?1 all 
beauty1 all goodness4 ,! true1 !        
beautiful1 & ! good1 are only diff]5t   
revelations ( ! same be+4 ,human        
intellig5ce1 int]rogat$ 9 reg>d to all  
^! ideas :i* are inconte/ably 9 x1      
always makes u ! same response2 x s5ds u
 back to ! same explanation1--at !      
f\ndation ( all1 above all1 ,god1 always
 ,god4  ,we h arriv$1 !n1 f degree to   
degree1 at religion4 ,we are 9 fell[%ip 
) ! great philosophies :i* all proclaim 
a ,god1 &1 at ! same "t1 ) ! religions t
 cov] ! e>?1 ) ! ,*ri/ian religion1     
incomp>ably ! mo/ p]fect & ! mo/ holy4  
,z long z philosophy has n rea*$ natural

 religion1--& by ?is we mean1 n !       
religion at :i* man arrives 9 t         
hypo!tical /ate t is call$ ! /ate (     
nature1 b ! religion :i* is reveal$ to u
 by ! natural light accord$ to all      
m51--x rema9s b5ea? all wor%ip1 ev5 !   
mo/ imp]fect1 :i* at lea/ gives to man a
 fa!r1 a witness1 a consol]1 a judge4 ,a
 true !odicea borr[s 9 "s sort f all    
religi\s beliefs _! common pr9ciple1 &  
returns x to !m surr\nd$ ) light1       
elevat$ above all unc]ta9ty1 gu>d$ aga9/
 all attack4 ,philosophy may pres5t     
itself 9 its turn to mank9d2 x also has 
a "r to man's confid5ce1 = x speaks to  
him ( ,god 9 ! "n ( all 8 ne$s & all 8  
faculties1 9 ! "n ( reason & s5tim5t4   
,obs]ve t we h arriv$ at ^! high        
conclusions )\t any hypo!sis1 by ! aid (
 processes at once v simple & p]fectly  
rigor\s4 ,tru?s ( diff]5t ord]s be+     
giv51 tru?s :i* h n be5 made by u1 & are
 n suffici5t = !mselves1 we h asc5d$ f  
^! tru?s to _! au?or1 z "o goes f !     
effect to ! cause1 f ! sign to ! ?+     

signifi$1 f ph5om5on to be+1 f quality  
to subject4 ,^! two pr9ciples--t e      
effect supposes a cause1 & e quality a  
subject--are univ]sal & necess>y        
pr9ciples4 ,!y h be5 put by u 9 _! full 
light1 & demon/rat$ 9 ! mann] 9 :i*     
pr9ciples undemon/rable1 because !y are 
primitive1 c be demon/rat$4 ,moreov]1 to
 :at are ^! necess>y pr9ciples appli$8  
,to metaphysical & moral tru?s1 :i* are 
also necess>y4 ,x 0 !re=e necess>y to   
conclude 9 ! exi/5ce ( a cause & a      
necess>y be+1 or1 inde$1 x 0 necess>y to
 d5y ei!r ! necessity ( ! pr9ciple (    
cause & ! pr9ciple ( sub/ance1 or !     
necessity ( ! tru?s to :i* we appli$ !m1
 t is to say1 to r5\nce all notions (   
common s5se2 = ^! v pr9ciples & ^!      
tru?s1 ) _! "* ( univ]sality &          
necessity1 compose common s5se4  ,n only
 is x c]ta9 t e effect supposes a cause1
 & e quality a be+1 b x is equally c]ta9
 t an effect ( su* a nature supposes a  
cause ( ! same nature1 & t a quality or 
an attribute m>k$ ) su* or su* ess5tial 

*>act]s supposes a be+ 9 :i* ^! same    
*>act]s are aga9 f\nd 9 an em95t degree4
 ,:5ce x foll[s1 t we h v legitimately  
conclud$ f tru? 9 an intellig5t cause & 
sub/ance1 f beauty 9 a be+ supremely    
beautiful1 & f a moral law compos$ at   
once ( ju/ice & *>ity 9 a legislator    
supremely j & supremely good4  ,& we h n
 made a geometrical & algebraical       
!odicea1 aft] ! example ( _m            
philosoph]s1 & ! mo/ illu/ri\s4 ,we h n 
d$uc$ ! attributes ( ,god f ea* o!r1 z !
 diff]5t t]ms ( an equation are conv]t$1
 or z f "o prop]ty ( a triangle ! o!r   
prop]ties are d$uc$1 ?us end+ at a ,god 
:olly ab/ract1 good p]haps = ! s*ools1 b
 n suffici5t = ! human race4 ,we h giv5 
to !odicea a sur] f\ndation--psy*ology4 
,our ,god is d\btless also ! au?or ( !  
_w1 b he is especially ! fa!r (         
humanity2 8 intellig5ce is ours1 ) !    
necessity ( ess5ce & inf9ite p[] add$4  
,s our ju/ice & our *>ity1 relat$ to _! 
immortal exempl>1 give u an idea ( !    
div9e ju/ice & *>ity4 ,!re9 we see a    

real ,god1 ) :om we c su/a9 a relation  
also real1 :om we c compreh5d & feel1 & 
:o 9 8 turn c compreh5d & feel our      
ef=ts1 our suff]+s1 our virtues1 our    
mis]ies4 ,made 9 8 image1 conduct$ to   
him by a ray ( 8 own be+1 !re is betwe5 
him & u a liv+ & sacr$ tie4  ,our       
!odicea is !re=e free at once f hypo!sis
 & ab/raction4 ,by pres]v+ ourselves f !
 "o1 we h pres]v$ ourselves f ! o!r4    
,cons5t+ to recognize ,god only 9 8     
signs visible to ! eyes & intelligible  
to ! m9d1 x is on infallible evid5ce t  
we h elevat$ ourselves to ,god4 ,by a   
necess>y consequ5ce1 sett+ out f real   
effects & real attributes1 we h arriv$  
at a real cause & a real sub/ance1 at a 
cause hav+ 9 p[] all its ess5tial       
effects1 at a sub/ance ri* 9 attributes4
 ,i wond] at ! folly ( ^? :o1 9 ord] to 
"k ,god bett]1 consid] him1 !y say1 9 8 
pure & absolute ess5ce1 dis5gag$ f all  
limitative det]m9ation4 ,i believe t ,i 
h =ev] remov$ ! root ( su* an           
extravagance4#bhb ,no2 x is n true t !  

div]sity ( det]m9ations1 &1 consequ5tly1
 ( qualities & attributes1 de/roys !    
absolute unity ( a be+2 ! infallible    
pro( ( x is t my unity is n ! lea/ 9 !  
_w alt]$ by ! div]sity ( my faculties4  
,x is n true t unity excludes           
multiplicity1 & multiplicity unity2 =   
unity & multiplicity are unit$ 9 me4 ,:y
 !n %\ld !y n be 9 ,god8 ,moreov]1 f> f 
alt]+ unity 9 me1 multiplicity develops 
x & makes its productiv5ess appe>4 ,s ! 
ri*ness ( ! det]m9ations & ! attributes 
( ,god is exactly ! sign ( ! pl5itude ( 
8 be+4 ,to neglect 8 attributes1 is     
!re=e to impov]i% him2 we d n say en\gh1
 x is to annihilate him1--= a be+ )\t   
attributes exi/s n2 & ! ab/raction (    
be+1 human or div9e1 f9ite or inf9ite1  
relative or absolute1 is non5tity4      
,!odicea has two rocks1--"o1 :i* we h j 
signaliz$ to y1 is ab/raction1 ! abuse (
 dialectics2 x is ! vice ( ! s*ools &   
metaphysics4 ,if we are =c$ to %un ?is  
rock1 we run ! risk ( be+ da%$ aga9/ !  
opposite rock1 ,i mean t fe> ( reason+ t

 ext5ds to reason1 t excessive          
pr$om9ance ( s5tim5t1 :i* develop+ 9 u !
 lov+ & affectionate faculties at !     
exp5se ( all ! o!rs1 ?r[s u into        
an?ropomorphism )\t criticism1 & makes u
 in/itute ) ,god an intimate & famili>  
int]c\rse 9 :i* we are some:at too      
=getful ( ! augu/ & fe>ful maje/y ( !   
div9e be+4 ,! t5d] & contemplative s\l c
 nei!r love nor contemplate 9 ,god !    
necessity1 ! et]nity1 ! inf9ity1 t d n  
come )9 ! sph]e ( imag9ation & ! he>t1 t
 are only conceiv$4 ,x !re=e neglects   
!m4 ,nei!r does x /udy ,god 9 tru? ( e  
k9d1 9 physics1 metaphysics1 & e?ics1   
:i* manife/ him2 x consid]s 9 him       
p>ticul>ly ! *>act]s to :i* affection is
 atta*$4 ,9 adoration1 ,f5elon retr5*es 
all fe> t no?+ b love may subsi/1 &     
,mme4 ,guyon ends by lov+ ,god z a lov]4
  ,we escape ^! opposite excesses ( a   
ref9$ s5tim5tality & a *im]ical         
ab/raction1 by always keep+ 9 m9d bo? ! 
nature ( ,god1 by :i* he escapes all    
relation ) u1--necessity1 et]nity1      

inf9ity1 & at ! same "t ^? ( 8          
attributes :i* are our own attributes   
transf]r$ to him1 = ! v simple reason t 
!y came f him4  ,i am able to conceive  
,god only 9 8 manife/ations & by ! signs
 :i* he gives ( 8 exi/5ce1 z ,i am able 
to conceive any be+ only by ! attributes
 ( t be+1 a cause only by its effects1 z
 ,i am able to conceive myself only by !
 ex]cise ( my faculties4 ,take away my  
faculties & ! consci\sness t atte/s !m  
to me1 & ,i am n = myself4 ,x is ! same 
) ,god1--take away nature & ! s\l1 & e  
sign ( ,god disappe>s4 ,x is !re=e 9    
nature & ! s\l t he mu/ be s\ght & f\nd4
  ,! univ]se1 :i* comprises nature &    
man1 manife/s ,god4 ,is ?is say+ t x    
exhau/s ,god8 ,by no means4 ,let u      
always consult psy*ology4 ,i "k myself  
only by my acts2 t is c]ta92 & :at is n 
less c]ta9 is1 t all my acts d n exhau/1
 d n equal my p[] & my sub/ance2 = my   
p[]1 at lea/ t ( my w1 c always add an  
act to all ^? :i* x has already produc$1
 & x has ! consci\sness1 at ! same "t t 

x is ex]cis$1 ( conta9+ 9 itself some?+ 
to be ex]cis$ /ill4 ,( ,god & ! _w mu/  
be said two ?+s 9 appe>ance contr>y1--we
 "k ,god only by ! _w1 & ,god is        
ess5tially di/9ct & diff]5t f ! _w4 ,!  
fir/ cause1 l all second>y causes1      
manife/s itself only by its effects2 x c
 ev5 be conceiv$ only by !m1 & x        
surpasses !m by all ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 
! ,creator & ! creat$1 ! p]fect & !     
imp]fect4 ,! _w is indef9ite2 x is n    
inf9ite2 =1 :atev] may be its quantity1 
?\ght c always add to x4 ,to ! myriads (
 worlds t compose ! totality ( ! _w1 may
 be add$ new worlds4 ,b ,god is inf9ite1
 absolutely inf9ite 9 8 ess5ce1 & an    
indef9ite s]ies _c equal ! inf9ite2 = ! 
indef9ite is no?+ else ?an ! f9ite m or 
less multipli$ & capable ( cont9u\s     
multiplication4 ,! _w is a :ole :i* has 
its h>mony2 = a ,god c\ld make only a   
complete & h>moni\s "w4 ,! h>mony ( ! _w
 corresponds to ! unity ( ,god1 z       
indef9ite quantity is a defective sign (
 ! inf9ity ( ,god4 ,to say t ! _w is    

,god1 is to admit only ! _w & d5y ,god4 
,give to ?is :atev] "n y please1 x is at
 bottom a!ism4 ,on ! "o h&1 to suppose t
 ! _w is void ( ,god1 & t ,god is       
sep>ate f ! _w1 is an insupportable &   
almo/ impossible ab/raction4 ,to di/+ui%
 is n to sep>ate4 ,i di/+ui% myself1 b d
 n sep>ate myself f my qualities & my   
acts4 ,s ,god is n ! _w1 al?\gh he is 9 
x ev]y:]e pres5t 9 _s & 9 tru?4#bhc     
,su* is our !odicea3 x rejects !        
excesses ( all sy/ems1 & conta9s1 we    
believe at lea/1 all t is good 9 !m4 ,f 
s5tim5t x borr[s a p]sonal ,god z we    
ourselves are a p]son1 & f reason a     
necess>y1 et]nal1 inf9ite ,god4 ,9 !    
pres5ce ( two opposite sy/ems1--"o (    
:i*1 9 ord] to see & feel ,god 9 ! _w1  
absorbs him 9 x2 ! o!r ( :i*1 9 ord] n  
to conf\nd ,god ) ! _w1 sep>ates him f x
 & relegates him to an inaccessible     
solitude1--x gives to bo? j satisfaction
 by (f]+ to !m a ,god :o is 9 fact 9 !  
_w1 s9ce ! _w is 8 "w1 b )\t 8 ess5ce   
be+ exhau/$ 9 x1 a ,god :o is bo?       

absolute unity & unity multipli$1       
inf9ite & liv+1 immutable & ! pr9ciple (
 movem5t1 supreme intellig5ce & supreme 
tru?1 sov]eign ju/ice & sov]eign        
goodness1 be=e :om ! _w & man are l     
non5tity1 :o1 nev]!less1 is pleas$ ) !  
_w & man1 sub/ance et]nal1 & cause      
inexhau/ible1 imp5etrable1 & ev]y:]e    
p]ceptible1 :o mu/ by turns be s\ght 9  
tru?1 admir$ 9 beauty1 imitat$1 ev5 at  
an inf9ite di/ance1 9 goodness & ju/ice1
 v5]at$ & lov$1 cont9ually /udi$ ) an   
indefatigable zeal1 & 9 sil5ce ador$4   
,let u sum up ?is resume4 ,sett+ out f !
 obs]vation ( ourselves 9 ord] to       
pres]ve ourselves f hypo!sis1 we h f\nd 
9 consci\sness ?ree ord]s ( facts4 ,we h
 left to ea* ( !m its "*1 its rank1 its 
be>+1 & its limits4 ,s5sation has appe>$
 to u ! indisp5sable condition1 b n !   
f\ndation ( k4 ,reason is ! faculty     
itself ( kn[+2 x has furni%$ u )        
absolute pr9ciples1 & ^! absolute       
pr9ciples h conduct$ u to absolute      
tru?s4 ,s5tim5t1 :i* p]ta9s at once to  

s5sation & reason1 has f\nd a place     
betwe5 bo?4 ,sett+ out f consci\sness1 b
 always guid$ by x1 we h p5etrat$ into !
 region ( be+2 we h gone q naturally f k
 to its objects by ! road t ! human race
 pursues1 t ,kant s\ght 9 va91 or r     
misconceiv$ at pleasure1 to wit1 t      
reason :i* mu/ be admitt$ entire or     
reject$ entire1 :i* reveals to u        
exi/5ces z well z tru?s4 ,!re=e1 aft]   
hav+ recall$ all ! great metaphysical1  
ae/hetical1 & moral tru?s1 we h ref]r$  
!m to _! pr9ciple2 ) ! human race we h  
pron\nc$ ! "n ( ,god1 :o expla9s all    
?+s1 because he has made all ?+s1 :om   
all our faculties require1--reason1 !   
he>t1 ! s5ses1 s9ce he is ! au?or ( all 
our faculties4  ,?is doctr9e is s       
simple1 is to su* an ext5t 9 all our    
p[]s1 is s con=m$ to all our in/9cts1 t 
x sc>cely appe>s a philosophic doctr9e1 
&1 at ! same "t1 if y exam9e x m        
closely1 if y comp>e x ) all celebrat$  
doctr9es1 y w f9d t x is relat$ to !m & 
diff]s f !m1 t x is none ( !m & embraces

 !m all1 t x expresses precisely ! side 
( !m t has made !m live & su/a9s !m 9   
hi/ory4 ,b t is only ! sci5tific "* ( ! 
doctr9e :i* we pres5t to y2 x has /ill  
ano!r "* :i* di/+ui%es x & recomm5ds x  
to y mu* m4 ,! _s t animates x is t :i* 
( old inspir$ ,socrates1 ,plato1 &      
,m>cus ,aurelius1 :i* makes y\r he>ts   
beat :5 y are read+ ,corneille &        
,bossuet1 :i* dictat$ to ,vauv5>gues !  
few pages t h immortaliz$ 8 "n1 :i* y   
feel especially 9 ,reid1 su/a9$ by an   
admirable good s5se1 & ev5 9 ,kant1 9 ! 
mid/ (1 & sup]ior to ! emb>rassm5ts ( 8 
metaphysics1 to wit1 ! ta/e ( !         
beautiful & ! good 9 all ?+s1 !         
passionate love ( hone/y1 ! ard5t desire
 ( ! moral gr&eur ( humanity4 ,yes1 we d
 n fe> to repeat t we t5d ?i!r by all   
our views2 x is ! end to :i* are relat$ 
all ! p>ts ( our in/ruction2 x is !     
?\ght :i* s]ves z _! connection1 & is1  
?us to speak1 _! s\l4 ,may ?is ?\ght be 
always pres5t to y1 & accompany y z a   
fai?ful & g5]\s fri5d1 :]ev] =tune %all 

lead y1 "u ! t5t ( ! soldi]1 9 ! (fice (
 ! lawy]1 ( ! physician1 ( ! savant1 9 !
 /udy ( ! lit]>y man1 z well z 9 ! /udio
 ( ! arti/6 ,f9ally1 may x sometimes    
rem9d y ( him :o has be5 to y its v     
s9c]e b too feeble int]pret]6           
,,footnotes3  #bfc ,/ill liv+ 9 #ahah1  
di$ 9 #ahbh4  #bfd ,9 #ahjd4  #bfe ,di$1
 #ahad4  #bff ,?is 0 said 9 #ahah4 ,s9ce
 !n1 ,jacobi1 ,hegel1 & ,s*lei]ma*]1 ) s
 _m o!rs1 h disappe>$4 ,s*ell+ alone    
survives ! ru9s ( ! ,g]man philosophy4  
#bfg ,,fragm5ts ,,de ,,philosophie      
,,c>tesi5ne1 p4 #dbi3 ,des ,rapports du 
,c>tesi5isme et du ,sp9ozisme4  #bfh ,"p
 #a/1 lectures #a & #b4  #bfi ,"p #b;d4 
#bgj ,"p #c;d4  #bga ,on ,condillac1 #a/
 ,s]ies1 vol4 i41 passim1 & p>ticul>ly  
vol4 iii41 lectures #b & #c4  #bgb ,we h
 nev] spok5 ( ,locke except ) s9c]e     
respect1 ev5 :ile combat+ him4 ,see #a/ 
,s]ies1 vol4 i41 c\rse ( #ahag1 ,disc\rs
 d',ouv]ture1 vol4 ii41 lecture #a1 &   
especially #b;d ,s]ies1 vol4 iii41      
passim4  #bgc ,see #a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 iv41

 lectures on ,reid4  #bgd ,ibid41 vol4  
v4  #bge ,= m ?an tw5ty ye>s we h ?\ght 
( translat+ & publi%+ ! ?ree ,critiques1
 jo9+ to !m a selection f ! small]      
productions ( ,kant4 ,"t has be5 want+  
to u = ! completion ( our design2 b a "y
 & skilful pr(essor ( philosophy1 a     
graduate ( ! ,normal ,s*ool1 has be5    
will+ to supply our place1 & to und]take
 to give to ! ,fr5* public a fai?ful &  
intellig5t v]sion ( ! greate/ ?9k] ( !  
eighte5? c5tury4 ,m4 ,b>ni has wor?ily  
comm5c$ ! useful & difficult ent]prise  
:i* we h remitt$ to 8 zeal1 & pursues x 
) c\rage & tal5t4  #bgf ,"p #a/1        
,lecture #c4  #bgg ,lecture #e1         
,my/icism4  #bgh ,?is pret5d$ pro( (    
s5tim5t is 9 fact1 ! ,c>tesian pro(     
itself4 ,see lectures #d & #af4  #bgi   
,m4 ,jacobi4 ,see ! ,manual ( ! ,hi/ory 
( ,philosophy1 by ,t5nemann1 vol4 ii41  
p4 #cah4  #bhj ,on spontane\s reason &  
reflective reason1 see #a/ "p1 lect4 #b 
& #c4  #bha ,lectures #d & #e4  #bhb    
,see p>ticul>ly lecture #e4  #bhc ,we   

place "h ?is analog\s passage on ! true 
measure 9 :i* x may be said t ,god is at
 once compreh5sible & incompreh5sible1  
#a/ ,s]ies1 vol4 iv41 lecture #ab1 p4   
#ab3 ,we say 9 ! fir/ place t ,god is n 
absolutely incompreh5sible1 = ?is       
manife/ reason1 t1 be+ ! cause ( ?is    
univ]se1 he passes into x1 & is reflect$
 9 x1 z ! cause 9 ! effect2 !re=e we    
recognize him4 ',! heav5s decl>e 8      
glory4' & '! invisible ?+s ( him f !    
creation ( ! _w are cle>ly se51 be+     
und]/ood by ! ?+s t are made2' 8 p[]1 9 
! ?\s&s ( worlds s[n 9 ! b\ndless       
regions ( space2 8 intellig5ce 9 _!     
h>moni\s laws2 f9ally1 t :i* !re is 9   
him mo/ augu/1 9 ! s5tim5ts ( virtue1 ( 
hol9ess1 & ( love1 :i* ! he>t ( man     
conta9s4 ,x mu/ be t ,god is n          
incompreh5sible to u1 = all nations h   
petition$ him1 s9ce ! fir/ day ( !      
intellectual life ( humanity4 ,god1 !n1 
z ! cause ( ! univ]se1 reveals himself  
to u2 b ,god is n only ! cause ( !      
univ]se1 he is also ! p]fect & inf9ite  

cause1 possess+ 9 himself1 n a relative 
p]fection1 :i* is only a degree (       
imp]fection1 b an absolute p]fection1 an
 inf9ity :i* is n only ! f9ite multipli$
 by itself 9 ^? proportions :i* ! human 
m9d is able always to enum]ate1 b a true
 inf9ity1 t is1 ! absolute negation (   
all limits1 9 all ! p[]s ( 8 be+4       
,moreov]1 x is n true t an indef9ite    
effect adequately expresses an inf9ite  
cause2 h5ce x is n true t we are able   
absolutely to compreh5d ,god by ! _w &  
by man1 = all ( ,god is n 9 !m4 ,9 ord] 
absolutely to compreh5d ! inf9ite1 x is 
necess>y to h an inf9ite p[] (          
compreh5sion1 & t is n grant$ to u4     
,god1 9 manife/+ himself1 reta9s some?+ 
9 himself :i* no?+ f9ite c absolutely   
manife/2 consequ5tly1 x is n p]mitt$ u  
to compreh5d absolutely4 ,!re rema9s1   
!n1 9 ,god1 beyond ! univ]se & man1     
some?+ unkn[n1 imp5etrable1             
incompreh5sible4 ,h5ce 9 ! immeasurable 
spaces ( ! univ]se1 & b5ea? all !       
pr(undities ( ! human s\l1 ,god escapes 

u 9 t inexhau/ible inf9itude1 :5ce he is
 able to draw )\t limit new worlds1 new 
be+s1 new manife/ations4 ,god is to u1  
!re=e1 incompreh5sible2 b ev5 ( ?is     
incompreh5sibility we h a cle> & precise
 idea2 = we h ! mo/ precise idea (      
inf9ity4 ,& ?is idea is n 9 u a         
metaphysical ref9em5t1 x is a simple &  
primitive conception :i* enlight5s u f  
our entrance into ?is _w1 bo? lum9\s &  
obscure1 expla9+ ev]y?+1 & be+ expla9$  
by no?+1 because x c>ries u at fir/1 to 
! summit & ! limit ( all explanation4   
,!re is some?+ inexplicable =           
?\ght1--behold !n :i!r ?\ght t5ds2 !re  
is inf9ite be+1--behold !n ! necess>y   
pr9ciple ( all relative & f9ite be+s4   
,reason expla9s n ! inexplicable1 x     
conceives x4 ,x is n able to compreh5d  
inf9ity 9 an absolute mann]1 b x        
compreh5ds x 9 "s degree 9 its indef9ite
 manife/ations1 :i* reveal x1 & :i* veil
 x2 &1 fur!r1 z x has be5 said1 x       
compreh5d x s f> z incompreh5sible4 ,x  
is1 !re=e1 an equal error to call ,god  

absolutely compreh5sible1 & absolutely  
incompreh5sible4 ,he is bo? invisible & 
pres5t1 reveal$ & )drawn 9 himself1 9 ! 
_w & out ( ! _w1 s famili> & intimate ) 
8 creatures1 t we see him by op5+ our   
eyes1 t we feel him 9 feel+ our he>ts   
beat1 & at ! same "t inaccessible 9 8   
imp5etrable maje/y1 m+l$ ) e ?+1 &      
sep>at$ f e ?+1 manife/+ himself 9      
univ]sal life1 & caus+ sc>cely an       
ephem]al %ad[ ( 8 et]nal ess5ce to appe>
 !re1 communicat+ himself )\t cessation1
 & rema9+ incommunicable1 at once ! liv+
 ,god1 & ! ,god conceal$1 ',deus vivus  
et ,deus absconditus4'     ,,app5dix4   
,page #ahh3 ,:at a de/9y 0 t ( ,eu/a*e  
,lesueur6  ,x is p]ceiv$ t we h foll[$1 
z reg>ds 8 dea?1 ! tradition1 or r !    
prejudices curr5t at ! pres5t day1 & :i*
 h misl$ ! be/ judges be=e u4 ,b !re h  
appe>$ 9 a rec5t & int]e/+ publication1 
call$ ,ar*ives de l',art francais1 vol4 
iii41 c]ta9 incontrov]tible docum5ts1   
nev] be=e publi%$1 on ! life & works ( !
 pa9t] ( ,/4 ,bruno1 :i* compel u to    

)draw c]ta9 ass]tions agreeable to g5]al
 op9ion1 b contr>y to tru?4 ,! notice ( 
,lesueur's dea?1 extract$ = ! fir/ "t f 
! ,regi/] ( ,dea?s ( ! p>i% *ur* (      
,sa9t-,l\is 9 ! isle ( ,notre-,dame1    
pres]v$ among/ ! ar*ives ( ! ,hotel de  
,ville at ,p>is1 cle>ly prove t he did n
 die at ! ,*>treux1 b 9 ! isle (        
,notre-,dame1 :]e he dwelt1 9 ! p>i% (  
,/4 ,l\is1 & t he 0 buri$ 9 ! *ur* (    
,sa9t-,eti5ne du ,mont1 ! re/+-place (  
,pascal & ,rac9e4 ,x appe>s also t      
,lesueur di$ be=e 8 wife1 ,g5evieve     
,g\sse1 s9ce ! ,regi/] ( ,bir?s ( ! p>i%
 ( ,sa9t-,l\is1 conta9s "u ! date #ah?  
,febru>y1 #afee1 a notice ( ! baptism ( 
a f\r? *ild ( ,lesueur4 ,n[1 ,g5evieve  
,g\sse mu/ h deceas$ almo/ imm$iately   
aft] h] conf9em5t1 suppos+ h] to h di$  
be=e h] husb&'s decease1 :i* occurr$ on 
! #a/ ( ! foll[+ ,may4 ,if ?is 7 ! case1
 we %\ld h f\nd a notice ( h] dea? 9 !  
,regi/] ( ,dea?s = ! ye> #afee1 z we d t
 ( h] husb&4 ,su* a notice1 h[ev]1 :i*  
c\ld alone disprove ! probability1 &    

au!nticate ! vulg> op9ion1 is n[h]e to  
be f\nd among/ ! ar*ives ( ! ,hotel de  
,ville1 at lea/ ! au?or ( ! ,n\velles   
,re*]*es has n[h]e be5 able to meet ) x4
  ,9 ! o!r p>ticul>s our rapid sket* (  
,lesueur's hi/ory rema9s unt\*$4 ,he    
nev] 0 9 ,italy2 & accord+ to ! acc\nt (
 ,guillet de ,sa9t-,georges1 :i* has s  
long rema9$ 9 manuscript1 he nev] desir$
 to g !re4 ,he 0 poor1 discreet1 & pi\s1
 t5d]ly lov$ 8 wife1 & liv$ 9 ! close/  
union ) 8 ?ree bro!rs & bro!r-9-law1 :o 
7 all pupils & fell[-labor]s ( 84 ,x    
appe>s to be a ref9em5t ( criticism :i* 
d5ies ! curr5t belief ( an acqua9tance  
betwe5 ,lesueur & ,p\ss94 ,if no docum5t
 au!nticates x1 at all ev5ts x is n     
contradict$ by any1 & appe>s to u to be 
highly probable4  ,e "o admits t        
,lesueur /udi$ & admir$ ,p\ss94 ,x w\ld 
c]ta9ly be /range if he did n seek 8    
acqua9tance1 :i* he c\ld h obta9$ )\t   
difficulty1 s9ce ,p\ss9 0 /ay+ at ,p>is 
f #afdj to #afdb4 ,x w\ld be difficult =
 !m n to h met4 ,aft] ,v\et's dea? 9    

#afda1 ,lesueur acquir$ m & m a peculi> 
/yle2 & 9 #afdb1 at ! age ( tw5ty-five1 
entirely un%ackl$1 & ) a ta/e ripe = !  
antique & ,raphael1 he mu/ frequ5tly h  
be5 at ! ,l\vre1 :]e ,p\ss9 resid$4 ,?us
 x is natural to suppose t !y frequ5tly 
saw ea* o!r & became acqua9t$1 & ) _!   
sympa?ies ( "* & tal5t1 acqua9tance mu/ 
h result$ 9 e/eem & love4 ,if ,p\ss9's  
lett]s d n m5tion ,lesueur1 we w\ld     
rem>k t nei!r d !y m5tion ,*ampagne1 ^: 
connection ) ,p\ss9 is n disput$4 ,!    
argum5t built on ! sil5ce ( ,guillet de 
,sa9t-,georges' acc\nt is f> f conv9c+2 
inasmu* z be+ int5d$ to be read be=e a  
,sitt+ ( ! ,academy1 x c\ld only conta9 
a notice ( ! great arti/'s c>e]1 )\t ^? 
biographical details 9 :i* 8 fri5d%ips  
w\ld be m5tion$4 ,la/ly1 x is impossible
 to d5y ,p\ss9's influ5ce ^u ,lesueur1  
:i* x seems to u at lea/ probable 0 z   
mu* due to 8 c\nsels z to 8 example4    
,page #aij3 ,b ! m>vel ( ! picture is ! 
figure ( ,/4 ,paul4  ,we h rec5tly se51 
at ,hampton ,c\rt1 ! sev5 c>toons (     

,raphael1 :i* %\ld n be look$ at1 /ill  
less criticis$1 b on b5d$ knee4 ,behold 
,raphael arriv$ at ! summit ( 8 art1 & 9
 ! la/ ye>s ( life6 ,& ^! 7 b draw+s =  
tape/ry6 ,^! draw+s alone w\ld rew>d !  
j\rney to ,engl&1 ev5 7 ! figures f !   
friezes ( ! ,p>!non n at ! ,briti%      
,museum4 ,"o nev] tires ( contemplat+ ^!
 gr& p]=mances ev5 9 ! obscurity ( t    
ill-light$ room4 ,no?+ c\ld be m noble1 
m magnific5t1 m impos+1 m maje/ic4 ,:at 
drap]ies1 :at attitudes1 :at =ms6       
,not)/&+ ! abs5ce ( color1 ! effect is  
imm5se2 ! m9d is /ruck1 at once *>m$ &  
transport$2 b ! s\l1 we c speak =       
ourselves1 rema9s well-nigh ins5sible4  
,we reque/ any "o to comp>e c>efully !  
six? c>toon1 cle>ly "o ( ! f9e/1        
repres5t+ ! ,prea*+ ( ,/4 ,paul at      
,ephesus1 ) ! pa9t+ we h describ$ (     
,lesueur's4 ,"o1 imm$iately & at ! fir/ 
sight1 transports y into ! regions ( !  
ideal2 ! o!r is less /rik+ at fir/1 b   
/ay1 consid] x well1 /udy x 9 detail1 !n
 take 9 ! :ole3 by degrees y are ov]come

 by an ev]-increas+ emotion4 ,above all1
 exam9e 9 bo? ! pr9cipal "*1 ,/4 ,paul4 
,"h1 y behold ! f9e long folds ( a sup]b
 robe :i* at once envelops & sets (f 8  
height1 :il/ ! figure is 9 %ade1 & !    
little y see ( x has no?+ /rik+4 ,!re he
 confronts y1 inspir$1 t]rible1 maje/ic4
 ,n[ say :i* side lays claim to moral   
effect4  ,page #aic3 ,! great works (   
,lesueur1 ,p\ss91 & s _m o!rs scatt]$   
ov] ,europe4  ,( all ! pa9t+s ( ,lesueur
 :i* are 9 ,engl&1 t :i* we regret mo/ n
 hav+ se5 is ,alex&] & 8 ,physician1    
pa9t$ = ,m4 de ,n\veau1 director-g5]al (
 ! ,po/es1 :i* pass$ f ! ,hotel ,n\veau 
to ! ,place ,royale 9 ! ,orleans        
,gall]y1 f !nce into ,engl&1 :]e x 0    
b\ght by ,lady ,lucas at ! great ,london
 sale 9 #ahjj4 ,! sale catalogue1 ) !   
prices & names ( ! pur*as]s1 w be f\nd  
at ! end ( vol4 i4 ( ,m4 ,waag5's       
excell5t "w1 ,oeuvres d',art et ,arti/es
 en ,anglet]re1 #b vols41 ,b]l91 #ahcg &
 #ahch4  ,we 7 bo? consol$ & agreeably  
surpris$ on our return1 to meet1 9 !    

valuable gall]y ( ,m4 le ,comte         
d',h\detot1 an anci5t pe] ( ,france1 &  
free memb] ( ! ,academy ( ,f9e ,arts1 ) 
ano!r ,alex&] & 8 physician ,philip1 9  
:i* ! h& ( ,lesueur _c be mi/ak54 ,!    
composition ( ! entire piece is p]fect4 
,! draw+ is exquisite4 ,! amplitude &   
nobl5ess ( ! drap]ies recall ^? (       
,raphael4 ,! =m ( ,alex&] f9e & languid2
 ! p]son ( ,philip ! physician grave &  
impos+4 ,! color+1 ?\gh n p[]ful1 is    
f9ely bl5d$ 9 tone4 ,n[1 :]e is ! true  
orig9al1 is x ) ,m4 ,h\detot or 9       
,engl&8 ,! pa9t+ sold 9 ,london 9 #ahjj 
c]ta9ly came f ! ,orleans' gall]y1 :i*  
w\ld seem mo/ likely to h possess$ !    
orig9al4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is impossible  
,m4 ,h\detot's picture is a copy4 ,!y   
mu/1 !re=e1 bo? be equally ! "w (       
,lesueur1 :o has 9 ?is in/ance treat$ ! 
same subject twice ov]1 z he has        
likewise done ! ,prea*+ ( ,/4 ,paul2 (  
:i* !re is ano!r1 small] ?an t at !     
,l\vre1 b equally admirable1 at ! ,place
 ,royale1 belong+ to ,m4 ,gir\ de       

,buz>i5gues1 correspond+ memb] ( !      
,academy ( ,sci5ces4#bhd  ,we borr[ ,m4 
,waag5's description ( ! works (        
,lesueur1 f\nd by t em95t critic 9 !    
,engli% collections3 ,! ,que5 ( ,%eba   
be=e ,solomon1 ! prop]ty ( ! ,duke (    
,devon%ire1 vol4 i41 p4 #bde4 ,*ri/ at !
 foot ( ! ,cross support$ by 8 ,family1 
belong+ to ! ,e>l ( ,%rewsbury1 vol4    
ii41 p4 #dfc1 ! s5tim5t deep & tru?ful1 
rem>ks ,m4 ,waag54 ,! ,magdal5 p\r+ !   
o9tm5t on ! feet ( ,jesus1 ! prop]ty (  
,"l ,exet]1 vol4 ii41 p4 #dhe1 a picture
 full ( ! pure/ s5tim5t2 la/ly1 9 !     
possession ( ,m4 ,miles1 a ,dea? (      
,g]manicus1 a ri* & noble composition1  
completely 9 ,p\ss9's /yle1 rem>ks ,m4  
,waag51 vol4 ii41 p4 #cef4 ,let u add t 
?is la/ "w is n met ) 9 any catalogue1  
anci5t or mod]n4 ,we ask ourselves :e!r 
?is may n be a copy ( ! ,g]manicus (    
,p\ss9 attribut$ to ,lesueur4  ,! au?or 
( ,musees d',allemagne et du ,russie    
7,p>is1 #ahdd7 m5tions at ,b]l9 a ,sa9t 
,bruno ador+ ! ,cross 9 8 ,cell1 op5+ ^u

 a l&scape1 & pret5ds t ?is picture is z
 pa!tic z ! be/ ,sa9t ,brunos 9 !       
,museum at ,p>is4 ,x is probably a      
sket*1 l ! "o we h1 or "o ( ! want+     
panels2 = z = ! pictures !mselves1 !re 7
 nev] m ?an tw5ty-two at ! ,*>treux1 &  
^! are at ! ,l\vre4 ,p]haps1 h[ev]1 x   
may be ! picture :i* ,lesueur made = ,m4
 ,b]n>d de ,roze1 see ,flor5t ,lecomte1 
vol4 iii41 p4 #ih1 :i* repres5t$ a      
,c>?usian 9 a cell4 ,at ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 
! catalogue ( ! ,h]mitage m5tions sev5  
pictures ( ,lesueur1 "o ( :i*1 ,! infant
 ,moses expos$ on ! ,nile1 is admitt$ by
 ! au?or cit$ to be au!ntic4 ,c ?is be  
"o ( two ,moses :i* 7 pa9t$ by ,lesueur 
= ,m4 de ,n\veau1 z we le>n f ,guillet  
de ,sa9t-,georges8 ,unless ,m4 ,vi>dot  
is deceiv$1 & mi/akes a copy = an       
orig9al1 we mu/ regret t a real ,lesueur
 %\ld ,lave be5 suff]$ to /ray to ,/4   
,pet]sburg1 ) _m ( ,p\ss9's mo/         
beautiful ,claudes 7see p4 #dgd71       
,mign>ds1 ,seba/ian ,b\rdons1 ,gasp>s1  
,/ellas1 & ,val5t9s4  ,"s ye>s ago1 at !

 sale ( ,c>d9al ,fes*'s gall]y1 we might
 h acquir$ "o ( ,lesueur's f9e/ pieces1 
execut$ = ! *ur* (                      
,sa9t-,g]ma9-l',aux]rois1 :i* _h got1 by
 "s *ance1 into ! possession (          
,*ancellor ,pont*>tra91 aft]w>ds into t 
( ! ,emp]or's uncle4 ,?is celebrat$     
picture1 ,*ri/ ) ,m>?a & ,m>y1 =m$ at   
,sa9t-,g]ma9-l',aux]rois1 a p5d5t to !  
,m>tyrdom ( ,/4 ,lawr5ce4 ,w x be       
believ$ t ! ,fr5* ,gov]nm5t lo/ !       
opportunity1 & p]mitt$ ?is little       
*ef-d'oeuvre to pass into ! h&s ( ! ,k+ 
( ,bav>ia8 ,a good copy at ,m>seilles 0 
?\ght1 d\btless1 suffici5t1 & ! orig9al 
0 left to f9d its way to ! gall]y at    
,muni*1 & meet aga9 ! ,/4 ,l\is on 8    
knees at ,mass1 :i* ! catalogue ( t     
gall]y attributes to ,lesueur1 on :at   
gr\nd we are n aw>e4 ,9 conclusion1 we  
may m5tion t !re is 9 ! ,museum at      
,brussels1 a *>m+ little ,lesueur1 ,!   
,savi\r giv+ 8 ,bless+1 & 9 ! ,museums (
 ,gr5oble & ,montpeli] sev]al fragm5ts (
 ! ,hi/ory ( ,tobias1 pa9t$ = ,m4 de    

,fieubet4  ,page #aic3 ,^? ma/]-pieces (
 art t honor ! nation dep>t )\t         
au?orization f ! national t]ritory6 ,!re
 has n be5 f\nd a gov]nm5t :i* has      
und]tak5 at lea/ to repur*ase ^? t we h 
lo/1 to get back aga9 ! great works (   
,p\ss91 ,lesueur1 & s _m o!rs1 scatt]$ 9
 ,europe1 in/ead ( squ&]+ millions to   
acquire ! baboons ( ,holl&1 z ,l\is     
,,xiv4 said1 or ,spani% canvases1 9 tru?
 ( an admirable color1 b )\t nobl5ess & 
moral expression4  ,%all we give a rec5t
 in/ance ( ! small value we appe> to set
 on ,p\ss98 ,we blu% to ?9k t 9 #ahdh we
 %\ld h p]mitt$ ! noble collection ( ,m4
 de ,montcalm to pass into ,engl&4 ,"o  
picture escap$3 x 0 put up to sale 9    
,p>is on ! #e? ( ,m>*1 #ahej4 ,x 0 a    
*>m+ ,p\ss91 und\bt$ly au!ntic1 f !     
,orleans gall]y1 & describ$ at l5g? 9 ! 
catalogue ( ,dubois de ,sa9t-,gelais4 ,x
 repres5t$ ! ,bir? ( ,bac*us1 & by its  
v>iety ( sc5es & multitude ( ideas1 %[$ 
x belong$ to ,p\ss9's be/ p]iod4 ,we mu/
 d ,norm&y1 r ! city ( ,r\51 ! ju/ice to

 say1 t x made an ef=t to acquire x1 b x
 0 unsupport$ by ,gov]nm5t2 & ?is       
composition1 :olly ,fr5*1 0 sold at     
,p>is = ! sum ( #ag1jjj francs1 to a    
=eign]1 ,mr4 ,hope4  ,mis]able contra/6 
:ile five or six hundr$ ?\s& francs h   
be5 giv5 = a ,virg9 by ,murillo1 :i* is 
n[ turn+ ! heads ( all :o behold x4 ,i  
confess t m9e has entirely resi/$4 ,i   
admire ! fre%ness1 ! sweetness1 ! h>mony
 ( color2 b e o!r sup]ior quality :i* "o
 looks to f9d 9 su* a subject is want+1 
or at lea/ escap$ me4 ,ec/asy nev]      
transfigur$ t face1 :i* is nei!r noble  
nor great4 ,! lovely infant be=e me does
 n seem s5sible ( ! pr(\nd my/]y        
accompli%$ 9 h]4 ,:at1 !n1 c !re be 9   
?is vaunt$ ,virg9 :i* s cat*es !        
multitude8 ,%e is support$ by beautiful 
angels1 9 a f9e dress1 ( a *>m+ color1 !
 effect ( all :i* is d\btless highly    
pleasant4  ,page #aie3 ,we endeavor to  
console ourselves = hav+ lo/ ! ,sev5    
,sacram5ts1 & = n hav+ kn[n h[ to keep f
 ,engl& & ,g]many s _m productions (    

,p\ss91 n[ buri$ 9 =eign collections1   
etc4  ,aft] hav+ express$ our regret t  
we 7 unacqua9t$ ) ! ,sev5 ,sacram5ts    
save f ! engrav+s ( ,pesne1 we made a   
j\rney to ,london1 to see ) our own     
eyes1 & judge = ourselves ^! fam\s      
pictures1 ) _m o!rs ( our great         
c\ntryman1 n[ fall5 into ! possession ( 
,engl&1 ?r\gh our culpable indiff]5ce1 &
 :i* h be5 br\ght "u our notice by ,m   
,waag54  ,9 ! few days we 7 able to     
d$icate to ?is little j\rney1 we _h to  
exam9e f\r gall]ies3 ! ,national        
,gall]y1 answ]+ to our ,museum1 ^? ( ,"l
 ,ellesm]e & ! ,m>quis ( ,we/m9/]1 &1 at
 "s miles f ,london1 ! collection at    
,dulwi* ,college1 celebrat$ 9 ,engl&1   
?\gh b little kn[n on ! cont95t4  ,we   
likewise visit$ ano!r collection1       
result+ f an in/itution :i* might easily
 be introduc$ into ,france1 to ! decid$ 
advantage ( art & ta/e4 ,a society has  
be5 =m$ 9 ,engl&1 call$ ! ,briti%       
,in/itution = promot+ ! ,f9e ,arts 9 !  
,unit$ ,k+dom4 ,e ye> x has1 9 ,london1 

an exhibition ( anci5t pa9t+s1 to :i*   
individual gall]ies s5d _! *oice pieces1
 s t 9 a c]ta9 numb] ( ye>s all ! mo/   
rem>kable pictures 9 ,engl& pass "u !   
public eye4 ,b = ?is exhibition1 :at    
ri*es w\ld rema9 buri$ 9 ! mansions ( ! 
ari/ocracy or unkn[n cab9ets ( prov9cial
 amateurs6 ,! society1 hav+ at its head 
! greate/ names ( ,engl&1 enjoys a c]ta9
 au?ority1 & all ranks respond eag]ly to
 its appeal4  ,we ourselves saw ! li/ ( 
p]sons :o ?is ye> contribut$ to !       
exhibition2 !re 7 h] ,maje/y ! ,que51 ! 
,dukes ( ,b$=d1 ,devon%ire1 ,newca/le1  
,nor?umb]l&1 ,su!rl&1 ! ,e>ls ( ,d]by & 
,suffolk1 & num]\s o!r great m51 besides
 bank]s1 m]*ants1 savants1 & arti/s4 ,! 
exhibition is public1 b n free1 z y mu/ 
pay bo? = admission & ! pr9t$ catalogue4
 ,! money ?us acquir$ is appropriat$ to 
defray ! exp5ses ( ! exhibition2 :atev] 
rema9s is employ$ 9 ! pur*ase (         
pictures1 :i* are !n pres5t$ to !       
,national ,gall]y4  ,at ?is ye>'s       
exhibition we saw ?ree ( ,claude        

,lorra9's1 :i* well su/a9$ ! "n ( t     
ma/]4 ,apollo wat*+ ! h]ds ( ,admetus2 a
 ,sea-port1 bo? belong+ to ! ,e>l (     
,leice/]1 & ,psy*e & ,amor1 ! prop]ty ( 
,mr4 ,p]k9s2 a pret5d$ ,lesueur1 ! ,dea?
 ( ! ,virg91 f ! ,e>l ( ,suffolk2 sev5  
,seba/ian ,b\rdons1 ! ,sev5 ,works (    
,m]cy1#bhe l5t by ! ,e>l ( ,y>bor\gh2 a 
l&scape by ,gasp> ,p\ss91 b n "o morceau
 ( 8 illu/ri\s bro!r-9-law's4  ,we 7 m  
=tunate 9 ! ,national ,gall]y4  ,!re1 to
 beg91 :at admirable ,claudes6 ,we c\nt$
 z _m z t51 "s ( !m ( ! highe/ value4   
,we w conf9e ourselves to !             
recapitulation ( ?ree1 ! ,emb>kation (  
,/4 ,ursula1 a l>ge l&scape1 & !        
,emb>kation ( ! ,que5 ( ,%eba4  #a/4 ,! 
,emb>kation ( ,/4 ,ursula1 :i* 0 pa9t$ =
 ! ,b>b]9i1 & adorn$ _! palace at ,rome 
until ! ye> #agfj1 :5 an ,engli% amateur
 pur*as$ x f ! ,pr9cess ,b>b]9i1 ) o!r  
works ( ! fir/ class4 ,?is picture is #c
 feet #h in*es high1 #d feet #aa in*es  
wide4  #b;d4 ,! l>ge l&scape is #d feet 
#aa in*es high1 #f feet #g in*es wide4  

,rebecca is se51 ) h] relatives &       
s]vants1 wait+ ! arrival ( ,isaac1 :o   
comes f af> to celebrate _! m>riage4    
#c;d4 ,! ,emb>kation ( ! ,que5 ( ,%eba1 
go+ to visit ,solomon1 =m$ a p5d5t to ! 
prec$+ figure1 :i* x resembles 9 its    
dim5sions4 ,x is bo? a sea & l&scape    
draw+1 ,m4 ,waag5 decl>es x to be ! mo/ 
beautiful morceau ( ! k9d he is acqua9t$
 )1 & ass]ts t ,lorra9 has "h atta9$    
p]fection1 vol4 i41 p4 #baa4 ,?is       
ma/]piece 0 execut$ by ,claude = 8      
protector1 ! ,duke de ,b\illon4 ,x is   
sign$ ,claude ,,ge4 ,i4 ,v41 faict p\r  
son ,altesse le ,duc de ,b\illon1 anno  
#afdh4 ,d\btless ! great ,duke de       
,b\illon1 elde/ bro!r ( ,tur5ne4 ,?is   
,fr5* "w1 de/9$1 too1 = ,france1 %e has 
n[ =ev] lo/1 z well z ! fam\s ,book (   
,tru?1 ,libro di ,v]ita1 9 :i* ,claude  
collect$ ! draw+s ( all 8 pa9t+s1 draw+s
 :i* may be !mselves reg>d$ z f9i%$     
pictures4 ,?is invaluable treasure 01 l 
! ,emb>kation ( ! ,que5 ( ,%eba1 = a    
long "t 9 ! h&s ( a ,fr5* brok]1 :o w\ld

 will+ly h rel9qui%$ x to ! ,gov]nm5t1 b
 fail+ to f9d pur*as]s 9 ,p>is 9 ! la/  
c5tury1 ultimately sold x = a m]e no?+  
into ,holl&1 :5ce x has pass$ into      
,engl&4#bhf ,! au?or ( ! ,musees        
d',allemagne et de ,russie1 m5tions t 9 
! gall]y ( ! ,h]mitage at ,/4           
,pet]sburg1 among/ a l>ge numb] (       
,claudes1 ^: au!nticity he appe>s to    
admit1 !re are f\r morceaux1 :i* he does
 n hesitate to decl>e equal to ! mo/    
celebrat$ *efs-d'oeuvre ( t ma/]1 9     
,p>is or ,london1 call$ ! ,morn+1 !     
,noon1 ! ,ev5+1 & ! ,night4 ,!y are f   
,malmaison4 ,?us ! sale ( ! gall]y ( an 
empress has 9 our own "t enri*$ ,russia1
 z1 tw5ty-five ye>s be=e1 ! sale ( !    
,orleans gall]y enri*$ ,engl&4  ,9 !    
,national ,gall]y1 along ) ! s]5e &     
quiet l&scapes ( ,lorra91 are five (    
,casp>'s1 depict+ nature "u an opposite 
aspect--rugg$ & wild localities1 &      
tempe/s4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable repres5ts
 ,eneas & ,dido seek+ %elt] 9 a grotto f
 ! viol5ce ( a /orm4 ,! figures are f ! 

p5cil ( ,albano1 & = a l5g? ( "t rema9$ 
9 ! palace ,falconi]i4 ,two o!r l&scapes
 are f ! palace ,cors9i1 & two f !      
palace ,colonna4  ,b to return to our   
real subject1 :i* is ,p\ss94 ,!re are   
eight pa9t+s by 8 h& 9 ! ,national      
,gall]y1 all wor?y ( m5tion4 ,m4 ,waag5 
has m]ely spok5 ( !m 9 g5]al t]ms1 b we 
%all proce$ to give a description 9     
detail4  ,( ^! eight pa9t+s1 only "o1   
repres5t+ ! plague ( ,a%dod1 is tak5 f  
sacr$ hi/ory4 ,?is is describ$ 9 ! pr9t$
 catalogue z ,no4 #aje4 ,! ,israelites  
hav+ be5 vanqui%$ by ! ,phili/9es1 ! ark
 0 tak5 by ! victors & plac$ 9 ! temple 
( ,dagon at ,a%dod4 ,! idol falls be=e !
 ark1 & ! ,phili/9es are smitt5 ) !     
pe/il5ce4 ,?is canvas is #d feet #c     
in*es high1 & #f feet #h in*es1 wide4 ,a
 sket* or copy ( ! ,plague ( !          
,phili/9es is 9 ! ,museum ( ! ,l\vre1 & 
has be5 engrav$ by ,pic>d4 ,p\ss9 01 9  
fact1 fond ( repeat+ a subject2 !re are 
two sets ( ! ,sev5 ,sacram5ts1 two      
,arcadias1#bhg two or ?ree ,moses /rik+ 

! ,rock1 c4 ,! sci5ce ( pa9t+ is "h     
employ$ to portray ! sc5e 9 all its     
t]rors1 & display e horror ( ! pe/il5ce1
 & x w\ld seem t ,p\ss9 _h "h endeavor$ 
to cont5d ) ,mi*ael ,angelo1 ev5 at !   
exp5se ( beauty4 ,x is said ! commission
 = ?is "w 0 giv5 by ,c>d9al ,b>b]9i4 ,x 
comes f ! palace ( ,colonna4 ,! subjects
 ( ! rema9+ sev5 pictures 9 ! ,national 
,gall]y are my?ological1 & may be ne>ly 
all ref]r$ to ! e>ly epo* ( ,p\ss9's    
c>e]1 :5 he paid tribute to ! g5ius ( ! 
#af? c5tury1 & yield$ to ! influ5ce (   
,m>9i4  ,no4 #ci4 ,! ,education (       
,bac*us1 a subject *os5 by ,p\ss9 m ?an 
once4 ,on a small canvas #b feet #c     
in*es high1 & #c feet #a in* wide4  ,no4
 #dj4 ,ano!r small picture #a foot #f   
in*es high1 & #c feet #d in*es broad3   
,phocion wa%+ 8 ,feet at a ,public      
,f\nta91 a t\*+ emblem ( ! purity &     
simplicity ( 8 life4 ,to height5 ?is    
ru/ic sc5e1 & imp>t its mean+1 ! pa9t]  
%[s u ! trophies ( ! noble w>rior hung  
on ! trunk ( a tree at a little di/ance4

 ,! :ole composition is /rik+ & full (  
animation4 ,we believe t x has nev] be5 
engrav$4 ,x =ms a happy addition to !   
two o!r compositions consecrat$ by      
,p\ss9 to ,phocion1 & :i* h be5 s       
admirably engrav$ by ,baudet1 ,phocion  
c>ri$ out ( ! ,city ( ,a!ns1 & ! ,tomb (
 ,phocion4  ,no4 #db4 ,"h is "o ( ! ?ree
 bac*anals pa9t$ by ,p\ss9 = ! ,duke de 
,montmor5cy4 ,! two o!rs are said to be 
9 ! collection ( ,"l ,a%burnham4 ,?is   
bac*anal is #d feet #h in*es high1 & #c 
feet #a in* wide4 ,9 a w>m l&scape      
,bac*us is sleep+ surr\nd$ by nymphs1   
satyrs1 & c5taurs1 :il/ ,sil5us appe>s  
"u an arbor att5d$ by sylvan figures4   
,no4 #fb4 ,ano!r bac*anal1 :i* may be   
consid]$ "o ( ,p\ss9's ma/]pieces4      
,accord+ to ,m4 ,waag51 x belong$ to !  
,colonna collection1 b ! catalogue1     
publi%$ by au?ority1 /ates t x 0        
orig9ally ! prop]ty ( ! ,comte de       
,vaudreueili1 t x aft]w>ds came into !  
h&s ( ,m4 de ,calonne1 :5ce x pass$ into
 ,engl&1 & ultimately f\nd its way into 

! h&s ( ,mr4 ,hamlet1 f :om x 0 pur*as$ 
by ,p>liam5t1 & plac$ 9 ! ,national     
,gall]y4 ,x is #c feet #h in*es high1 & 
#d feet #h in*es wide4 ,its subject is a
 dance ( fauns & bac*antes1 :i* is      
int]rupt$ by a satyr1 :o attempts to    
take lib]ties ) a nymph4 ,besides ! ma9 
subject1 !re are num]\s spirit$ &       
graceful episodes1 p>ticul>ly two       
infants endeavor+ to cat* 9 a cup !     
juice ( a bun* ( grapes support$ 9 air1 
& press$ by a bac*ante ( slim & f9e =m4 
,! composition is full ( fire1 en]gy1 & 
_s4 ,!re is n a s+le gr\p1 n a figure1  
:i* w n repay an att5tive /udy4 ,m4     
,waag5 does n hesitate to pron\nce x "o 
( ,p\ss9's f9e/4 ,he admires ! tru? &   
v>iety ( heads1 ! fre%ness ( color1 & ! 
transp>5t tone 7die ,fa]bung von selt5/]
 ,fris*e1 ,helle und ,kl>heit 9 all5    
,!il574 ,x has be5 engrav$ by ,hu>t1 &  
accurately copi$ by ,l&on1 "u ! title ( 
,danse de ,fauns et de ,bac*antes4  ,no4
 #fe4 ,cephalus & ,aurora4 ,aurora1     
captivat$ by ! beauty ( ,cephalus1      

endeavors to sep>ate him f 8 wife       
,procris4 ,be+ unsuccessful1 9 a fit (  
jeal\sy %e gives to ,cephalus ! d>t :i* 
causes ! dea? ( 8 ador$ sp\se4 #c feet  
#b in*es high1 #d feet #b in*es wide4   
,no4 #hc4 ,a l>ge pa9t+1 #e feet #f     
in*es high1 & #h feet wide1 repres5t+   
,ph9eas & 8 ,companions *ang$ into      
,/ones by look+ on ! ,gorgon4 ,p]seus1  
hav+ rescu$ ,&rom$a f ! sea mon/]1      
obta9s h] h& f h] fa!r ,cepheus1 :o     
celebrates _! nuptials ) a magnific5t   
fea/4 ,ph9eas1 to :om ,&rom$a _h be5    
betro!d1 ru%es 9 ^u ! fe/ivity at ! head
 ( a troop ( arm$ m54 ,a combat ensues1 
9 :i* ,p]seus1 be+ ne>ly ov]come1       
opposes to 8 enemies ! head ( ,m$usa1 by
 :i* !y are in/antly *ang$ to /one4 ,?is
 composition is full ( vigor1 )         
brilliant color+1 al?\gh some:at crude4 
,x is n[h]e m5tion$1 & we are n aw>e (  
its hav+ be5 engrav$4  ,no4 #ia4 ,a *>m+
 little draw+1 #b feet #b in*es high1 #a
 foot #h in*es wide3 ,a sleep+ ,nymph1  
surpris$ by ,lore & ,satyrs1 engrav$ by 

,daulle1 also 9 ,l&on's "w4  ,pass+ f ! 
,national ,gall]y to t ( ,bridgewat]1 we
 come ^u ano!r phase ( ,p\ss9's g5ius1 &
 enc\nt] n ! disciple ( ,m>iai b !      
disciple ( ! gospel1 ! graces ( my?ology
 giv+ way to ! au/]ity & sublimity (    
,*ri/ianity4 ,su* is ! acc\nt ( :at we  
came to see2 we look$ = mu*1 & f\nd m   
?an we expect$4  ,! ,bridgewat] ,gall]y 
is s nam$ aft] its f\nd]1 ! ,duke (     
,bridgewat]1 by :om x 0 =m$ ab\t !      
middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,he bequea!d
 x to 8 bro!r1 ! ,m>quis ( ,/af=d1 on ! 
condition ( 8 leav+ x to 8 second son1  
,"l ,francis ,eg]ton1 n[ ,"l ,ellesm]e4 
,! be/ "p ( ?is collection 0 engrav$    
dur+ ! life ( ! ,m>quis ( ,/af=d1 by    
,ottley1 "u ! title ( ! ,/af=d ,gall]y1 
9 #d vols4 folio4  ,x occupies ! fir/   
place 9 ,engl& among/ private           
collections1 on acc\nt ( ! numb] (      
ma/]pieces ( ! ,italian1 & ,dut*1 &     
,fr5* s*ools4 ,a l>ge numb] ( pa9t+s 7  
add$ to x f ! ,orleans ,gall]y1 & we    
c\ld n repress a feel+ ( regret to meet 

at ,clevel& ,squ>e ) s _m ma/]pieces    
=m]ly belong+ to ,france1 & :i* h be5   
engrav$ 9 ! two celebrat$ works3 #a4 ,la
 ,gal]ie du duc d',orleans au           
,palais-,royal1 #b volumes 9 folio2 #b4 
,recueil d'e/ampes d'apres les plus     
beaux tableaux et dess9s qui sont en    
,france dans le cab9et du roi et celui  
de ,monseigneur le duc d',orleans1      
#agbi1 #b volumes 9 folio2 a mo/        
valuable collection kn[n also "u ! "n ( 
! ,cab9et ( ,crozat4 ,?is admirable     
collection is deposit$ 9 a build+ wor?y 
( x1 9 a v]itable palace1 & consi/s (   
ne>ly #cjj pa9t+s4 ,! ,fr5* s*ool is "h 
well repres5t$4 ,! ,musical ,p>ty1 f !  
,orleans ,gall]y1 & engrav$ 9 ! ,gal]ie 
du ,palais-,royal1 ?ree ,b\rguignons1   
f\r ,gasp>s1 f\r f9e ,claudes1 describ$ 
by ,m4 ,waag51 vol4 i41 p4 #cca1 ! two  
=m] describ$ 9 ! catalogue z ,nos4 #aa &
 #da 7 pa9t$ 9 #affd = ,m4 de           
,b\rlemont1 a g5tleman ( ,lorra9e2 !    
=m]1 ,demo/h5es by ! ,sea-side1 (f]s a  
f9e contra/ betwe5 maje/ic ru9s & nature

 et]nally "y & fre%2 ! second1 ,moses at
 ! ,burn+ ,bu%1 a ?ird1 ,no4 #ajc1 ( !  
ye> #afeg1 0 likewise pa9t$ = a         
,fr5*man1 ,m4 de ,lag>de1 & repres5ts ! 
,metamorphosis ( ,apuleius into a       
,%eph]d2 la/ly1 !re is a f\r?1 ,no4 #ig1
 ! fre%e/ idyll t ev] 01 a ,view ( !    
,cascatelles ( ,tivoli4  ,! memory ( ^! 
*>m+ compositions1 h[ev]1 soon fades    
be=e ! view ( ! eight gr& pictures (    
,p\ss91 m>k$ 9 ! catalogue ,nos4 #fb-fi1
 ! ,sev5 ,sacram5ts1 & ,moses /rik+ !   
,rock ) 8 ,rod4  ,x w\ld be difficult to
 describe ! religi\s s5sations :i* took 
possession ( u :il/ contemplat+ ! ,sev5 
,sacram5ts4 ,:atev] ,m4 ,waag5 may      
please to ass]t1 !re is c]ta9ly no?+    
!atrical ab\t !m4 ,! beauty ( anci5t    
/atu>y is "h animat$ & enliv5$ by ! _s (
 ,*ri/ianity1 & ! g5ius ( ! pa9t]4 ,!   
moral expression is ( ! mo/ exalt$ "*1 &
 is left to be notic$ less 9 ! details  
?an 9 ! g5]al composition4 ,9 fact1 x is
 9 composition t ,p\ss9 excels1 &1 9 ?is
 respect1 we d n ?9k he has any sup]ior1

 n ev5 ( ! ,flor5t9e & ,roman s*ool4 ,z 
ea* ,sacram5t is a va/ sc5e 9 :i* !     
smalle/ details g to enhance ! effect ( 
! :ole1 s ! ,sev5 ,sacram5ts =m a       
h>moni\s entirety1 a s+le "w1 repres5t+ 
! developm5t ( ! ,*ri/ian life by means 
( its mo/ augu/ c]emonies1 9 ! same way 
z ! tw5ty-two ,/4 ,brunos ( ,lesueur    
express ! :ole mona/ic life1 ! int5tion 
( ! v>iety be+ to give a tru] conception
 ( its unity4 ,c any "o1 9 s9c]ity1 say 
z mu* z ?is = ! ,/anze ( ! ,vatican8 ,h 
!y a common s5tim5t8 ,is ! s5tim5t      
pr(\nd1 &1 inde$1 ,*ri/ian8 ,no d\bt    
,raphael elevates ! s\l1 :atev] is      
beautiful _c fail to d t2 b he t\*es    
only ! surface1 circum praecordia ludit2
 he p5etrates n deep2 moves n ! inn]    
fibres ( our be+3 = :y8 he himself 0 n s
 mov$4 ,he snat*es u f e>?1 & transports
 u into ! s]5e atmosph]e ( et]nal       
beauty2 b ! m\rnful side ( life1 !      
sublime emotions ( ! he>t1 magnanimity1 
h]oism1 9 a ^w1 moral gr&eur1 ?is he    
does n express2 & :y 0 ?is8 because he  

did n possess x 9 himself1 because x 0 n
 to be met ) ar\nd him 9 ! ,italy ( !   
#af? c5tury1 9 a society semi-pagan1    
sup]/iti\s1 & impi\s1 giv5 up to e vice 
& disord]1 :i* ,lu!r c\ld n ev5 cat* a  
glimpse ( )\t rag+ ) horror1 & m$itat+ a
 revolution4 ,f ?is corrupt basis1 ?9ly 
hidd5 by a fictiti\s polit5ess1 two     
great figures1 ,mi*ael ,angelo &        
,vittoria ,colonna1 %[ !mselves4 ,b !   
noble wid[ ( ! ,m>quis ( ,pesc>ia 0 n ( 
! company ( ! ,=n>9a2 & :at common gr\nd
 c\ld ! *a/e lov] ( ! second ,beatrice1 
! ,dante ( pa9t+ & ( sculpture1 !       
intrepid eng9e] :o def5d$ ,flor5ce1 !   
melan*oly au?or ( ! ,la/ ,judgm5t & (   
,lor5zo di ,m$ici1 h ) su* m5 z ,p]ug9o 
boldly pr(ess+ a!ism1 at ! same "t t he 
pa9t$1 at ! highe/ price possible1 ! mo/
 delicate ,madonnas2 & 8 wor?y fri5d    
,aret9o1 a!i/1 & moreov] hypocrite1     
writ+ ) ! same h& 8 infam\s sonnets & ! 
life ( ! ,holy ,virg92 & ,giulio        
,romano1 :o l5t 8 p5cil to ! wilde/     
debau*]ies1 & ,m>c' ,antonio1 :o engrav$

 !m8 ,su* is ! _w 9 :i* ,raphael liv$1 &
 :i* e>ly taught him to wor%ip mat]ial  
beauty1 ! pure/ ta/e 9 design1 if n !   
/ronge/1 f9e draw+1 sweet cont\rs1 (    
light1 ( color1 b :i* always hides f him
 ! highe/ beauty1 t is1 moral beauty4   
,p\ss9 belongs to a v diff]5t _w4 ,?anks
 to ,god1 he _h le>n$ to "k 9 ,france   
o!rs besides arti/s )\t fai? or morals1 
elegant amateurs1 ri* prelates1 &       
compliant beauties4 ,he _h se5 ) 8 eyes 
h]oes1 sa9ts1 & /atesm54 ,he mu/ h met1 
at ! c\rt ( ,l\is ,,xiii41 betwe5 #afdj 
& #afdb1 ! "y ,conde & ! vot+ ,tur5ne1  
,/4 ,v9c5t de ,paul1 ,mademoiselle de   
,vigean1 & ,mademoiselle de ,lafayette2 
_h %ak5 h&s ) ,ri*elieu1 ) ,lesueur1 )  
,*ampagne1 & no d\bt also ) ,corneille4 
,l ! la/1 he is grave & mascul9e2 he has
 ! s5tim5t ( ! great1 & /rives to rea*  
x4 ,if1 above e ?+1 he is an arti/1 if 8
 long c>e] is an assidu\s &             
indefatigable /udy ( beauty1 x is       
pre-em95tly moral beauty t /rikes him3 &
 :5 he repres5ts hi/oric or ,*ri/ian    

sc5es1 "o feels he is !re1 l ! au?or ( !
 ,cid1 ( ,c9na1 & ( ,polyeuete1 9 8     
natural elem5t4 ,he %[s1 assur$ly1 mu*  
_s & grace 9 8 my?ologies1 & l          
,corneille 9 sev]al ( 8 elegies & 9 !   
,decl>ation ( ,love to ,psy*e3 b also l 
him1 x is 9 ! ?\ghtful & noble /yle t   
,p\ss9 excels3 x is on ! moral gr\nd t  
he has a place exalt$ & ap>t 9 ! hi/ory 
( art4  ,x is n our int5tion to describe
 ! ,sev5 ,sacram5ts1 :i* has be5 done by
 o!rs m compet5t to ! task ?an          
ourselves4 ,we w only inquire :e!r      
,bossuet himself1 9 speak+ ( ! sacram5t 
( ! ,ord9ation1 c\ld h employ$ m gravity
 & maje/y ?an ,p\ss9 has done 9 ! noble 
pa9t+1 s well pres]v$1 9 ! gall]y ( ,"l 
,ellesm]e4 ,x is wor?y ( rem>k1 9 ?is z 
9 ! o!r pa9t+s ( ,p\ss9's be/ p]iod1 h[ 
admirably ! l&scape accords ) ! hi/oric 
portion4 ,:il/ ! =egr\nd is occupi$ ) ! 
great sc5e 9 :i* ,*ri/ transmits 8 p[]  
to ,/4 ,pet] be=e ! assembl$            
apo/les1#bhh 9 ! di/ance1 & above !     
heights1 are descri$ edifices ris+ & 9  

decay4 ,d\btless1 ! ,extreme ,unction is
 ! mo/ pa!tic2 affects & attracts u mo/ 
by its v>i\s qualities1 p>ticul>ly by a 
c]ta9 au/]e grace %$ ar\nd ! images (   
dea?2#bhi b1 unhappily1 ?is /rik+       
composition has almo/ totally disappe>$ 
"u ! black t9t1 :i* has little by little
 ga9$ on ! o!r colors1 & obscur$ ! :ole 
pa9t+1 s t we are well-nigh r$uc$ to !  
engrav+ ( ,pesne1 & ! beautiful draw+   
pres]v$ 9 ! museum ( ! ,l\vre4#bij  ,mo/
 unhappily a te*nical error1 into :i*   
ev5 ! mo/ inconsid]able pa9t] w\ld n n[ 
fall1 has depriv$ po/]ity ( "o half (   
,p\ss9's labors4 ,he 0 9 ! habit ( cov]+
 8 canvas ) a prep>ation ( r$1 :i* has  
be5 *ang$ by ! effect ( "t into black1 &
 ?us absorb$ ! o!r colors1 de/roy+ !    
effect ( ! e!rial p]spective4 ,z e "o   
kn[s1 ?is does n occur ) a :ite         
prep>ation1 :i*1 in/ead ( de/roy+ !     
colors1 pres]ves !m = a l5g? ( "t 9 _!  
orig9al /ate4 ,?is la/ process ,p\ss9   
appe>s to h adopt$ 9 ! ,moses /rik+ !   
,rock ) 8 ,/aff1 incomp>ably ! f9e/ (   

all ! ,/rik+s ( ! ,rock :i* proce$$ f 8 
p5cil4 ,?is ma/]piece is well kn[n1 f ! 
engrav+ by ,baudet1 & has pass$1 ) !    
,sev5 ,sacram5ts1 f ! ,orleans gall]y   
into ! collection at ,bridgewat]4 ,:at  
unity is 9 ?is va/ composition1 & yet   
:at v>iety 9 ! action1 ! pose1 !        
features ( ! figures6 ,x consi/s ( tw5ty
 diff]5t pictures1 & yet is b "o2 & n   
ev5 "o ( ! episodes c\ld be tak5 away   
)\t consid]able injury to ! ensemble ( !
 piece4 ,at ! same "t1 :at f9e color+6  
,! impa/ation is bo? solid & light1 & ! 
colors are comb9$ 9 ! happie/ mann]4 ,no
 d\bt !y might possess great]           
brilliancy2 b ! sev]ity ( ! subject     
agrees well ) a mod]ate tone4 ,x is     
important to rememb] ?is4 ,9 ! fir/     
place1 e subject dem&s its prop] color3 
9 ! second1 grave subjects require a    
c]ta9 am\nt ( color+1 :i*1 h[ev]1 mu/ n 
be exce$$4 ,al?\gh ! highe/ art does n  
consi/ 9 color+1 x w\ld nev]!less be    
folly to reg>d x z ( small importance3  
=1 9 t case1 draw+ w\ld be e ?+1 & color

 might be altoge!r disp5s$ )4 ,9        
attempt+ too f> to please ! eye1 ! risk 
is incurr$ ( n go+ beyond & p5etrat+ to 
! s\l4 ,on ! o!r h&1 want ( color1 or   
:at is p]haps /ill worse1 a             
disagreeable1 crude1 & improp] color+1  
:ile x (f5ds ! eye1 likewise impairs !  
moral effect1 & deprives ev5 beauty (   
its *>m4 ,color is to pa9t+ :at h>mony  
is to poetry & prose4 ,!re is equal     
defect :e!r 9 ! case ( too mu* or too   
little h>mony1 :ile "o same h>mony      
cont9u$ mu/ be look$ ^u z a s]i\s fault4
 ,is ,corneille happily inspir$8 ,8     
h>mony1 l 8 words1 are true1 beautiful1 
admirable 9 _! v>iety4 ,! tones diff] ) 
8 diff]5t *>act]s1 b are always consi/5t
 ) ! conditions ( h>mony impos$ by      
poesy4 ,is he neglig5t8 8 /yle !n       
becomes rude1 unpoli%$1 at times        
intol]able4 ,! h>mony ( ,rac9e is       
slightly monoton\s1 8 m5 talk l wom51 & 
8 lyre 0 b "o tone1 t ( a natural &     
ref9$ elegance4 ,!re is b "o man among/ 
u :o speaks 9 e tone & 9 all languages1 

:o has colors & acc5ts = e subject1     
naive & sublime1 vividly correct yet    
unaffect$ly simple4 ,sweet z ,rac9e 9 8 
lam5t ( ,madame1 mascul9e & vigor\s z   
,corneille or ,tacitus :5 he comes to   
describe ,retz or ,cromwell1 cle> z !   
battle trumpet :5 8 /ra9 is ,ro]oy or   
,conde1 sugge/ive ( ! equal & v>i$ fl[ (
 a mighty riv] 9 ! maje/ic h>mony ( 8   
,disc\rse on ,univ]sal ,hi/ory1 a       
,hi/ory :i*1 9 ! gr&eur & ext5t ( its   
composition1 9 its vanqui%$             
difficulties1 its dep? ( art1 :]e art   
ev5 ceases to appe> z su*1 9 its p]fect 
unity1 &1 at ! same "t1 almo/ inf9ite   
v>iety ( tone & /yle1 is p]haps ! mo/   
f9i%$ "w :i* has ev] come f ! h& ( man4 
,to return to ,p\ss94 ,at ,hampton      
,c\rt1 :]e1 by ! side ( ! sev5 c>toons (
 ,raphael1 ! n9e magnific5t ,montegnas  
repres5t+ ! triumph ( ,caes>1 & ! f9e   
portraits ( ,alb]t ,dur] & ,holbe91     
,fr5* art makes s small a figure1 !re is
 a ,p\ss9#bia ( p>ticul>ly f9e color1   
,satyrs f9d+ a ,nymph4 ,! transp>5t &   

lu/r\s body ( ! nymph =ms ! entire      
picture4 ,x is a /udy ( design & color1 
evid5tly ( ! p]iod :5 ,p\ss91 to p]fect 
himself 9 e bran* ( 8 art1 made copies f
 ,titian4  ,"t fails u to give ! lea/   
idea ( ! ri* gall]y ( ! ,m>quess (      
,we/m9/]1 9 ,grosv5or-/reet4 ,we ref] = 
?is to :at ,m4 ,waag5 has said1 vol4    
ii41 p4 #aac-acj4 ,! ,flemi% & ,dut*    
s*ools prepond]ate 9 ?is gall]y4 ,"o    
sees !re 9 all _! glory ! ?ree great    
ma/]s ( t s*ool1 ,rub5s1 ,van ,dyck1 &  
,rembr&t1 accompani$ by a num]\s suite (
 inf]ior ma/]s1 at pres5t mu* 9 vogue1  
,hobbema1 ,cuyp1 ,bo?1 ,pott]1 & o!rs1  
:o1 to our idea1 fade completely be=e "s
 half-doz5 by ,claude ( all sizes1 ( e  
v>iety ( subject1 & ne>ly all ( ! be/ "t
 ( ! great l&scape-pa9t]1 betwe5 #afea &
 #affa4 ,( ^! pa9t+s1 ! greate/ & mo/   
important is p]haps ! ,s]mon on ! ,m\nt4
 ,p\ss9 appe>s wor?ily by ! side (      
,lorra9 9 ! gall]y at ,grosv5or-/reet4  
,m4 ,waag5 admires p>ticul>ly ,cali/o   
*ang$ into a ,be>1 & plac$ by ,jupit]   

among ! ,con/ellations1 & /ill m a      
,virg9 ) ! infant ,jesus surr\nd$ by    
,angels4 ,he extols 9 ?is morceau !     
surpass+ cle>ness ( color+1 ! noble &   
melan*oly s5tim5t ( nature1 toge!r ) a  
w>m & p[]ful tone4 ,m4 ,waag5 places ?is
 pa9t+ among/ ! ma/]pieces ( ! ,fr5*    
pa9t] 7geho]t zu dem vortreffli*/5 0 i* 
von ihm k5ne74 ,:il/ fully concurr+ 9   
?is judgm5t1 we beg leave to po9t out 9 
! same gall]y two o!r canvases ( ,p\ss91
 two delici\s pieces f ! easel1 fir/ a  
t\*+ episode 9 ,moses /rik+ ! ,rock1 9 !
 gall]y ( ,"l ,ellesm]e1 ( a "m :o1     
he$less ( h]self1 ha/5s to give h]      
*ildr5 dr9k1 :il/ _! fa!r b5ds 9        
?anksgiv+ to ,god2 ! o!r1 ,*ildr5 at    
play4 ,nev] did a m delightful sc5e come
 f ! p5cil ( ,albano4 ,two *ildr5 look1 
laugh+1 at ea* o!r2 ano!r to ! "r holds 
a butt]fly on 8 f+]2 a f\r? endeavors to
 cat* a butt]fly :i* is fly+ f him2 a   
fif?1 /oop+1 takes fruit f a basket4  ,b
 we mu/ quit ! ,london gall]ies to      
betake ourselves to t :i* =ms ! ornam5t 

( ! college situat$ 9 ! *>m+ village (  
,dulwi*4  ,/anislas1 k+ ( ,pol&1 *>g$ a 
,london amateur1 ,m4 ,noel ,des5fans1 to
 =m him a collection ( pictures4 ,!     
mis=tunes ( ,/anislas1 & ! dismemb]m5t (
 ,pol& left on ,m4 ,des5fans' h&s all he
 _h collect$2 ^! he made a pres5t ( to a
 fri5d ( 81 ,m4 ,b\rgeois1 a pa9t]1 :o  
/ill fur!r enri*$ ?is f9e collection1 & 
bequea!d x1 at 8 dea?1 to ,dulwi*       
,college1 :]e x n[ is 9 a v commodi\s & 
well-light$ build+4 ,x consi/s ( ne>ly  
#cej pa9t+s4 ,m4 ,waag51 :o visit$ x1   
pron\nces judgm5t ) "s sev]ity4 ,!      
catalogue is ill-compil$1 x is true1 b 9
 ?is x does n diff] f num]\s o!r        
catalogues4 ,m$iocrity is frequ5tly     
plac$ side by side ) excell5ce1 & copies
 giv5 z orig9als2 ?is is ! case ) m ?an 
"o gall]y4 ,?is "o1 h[ev]1 has to u !   
m]it ( conta9+ a consid]able numb] (    
,fr5* pa9t+s1 to "s ( :i* ev5 ,m4 ,waag5
 _c refuse 8 admiration4  ,we w1 fir/ ( 
all1 m5tion )\t describ+ !m1 a ,l5a91   
two ,b\rguignons1 ?ree portraits by     

,rigaud1 or aft] ,rigaud1 a ,l\is       
,,xiv41 a ,boileau1 & ano!r p]sonage    
unkn[n to u1 two ,lebruns1 ! ,massacre (
 ! ,innoc5ts1 & ,horatius ,cocles def5d+
 ! ,bridge1 9 :i* ,m4 ,waag5 discov]s   
happy imitations ( ,p\ss91 ?ree or f\r  
,gasp>s & sev5 ,claude ,lorra9s1 !      
beauty ( mo/ ( :i* is a suffici5t       
gu>antee ( _! au!nticity2 toge!r ) a v  
f9e ,fete *ampetre by ,watteau1 & a     
,view ne> ,rome1 by ,joseph ,v]net4 ,(  
,p\ss91 ! catalogue po9ts out eighte51 (
 :i* ! foll[+ is a li/3  ,no4 #aae4 ,!  
,education ( ,bac*us2 #adb1 a ,l&scape2 
#bdi1 a ,holy ,family2 #bec1 !          
,app>ition ( ! ,angels to ,abraham2     
#bfj1 a ,l&scape2 #bfi1 ! ,de/ruction ( 
,niobe2 #bgi1 a ,l&scape2 #bia1 !       
,adoration ( ! ,magi2 #bib1 a ,l&scape2 
#bie1 ! ,inspiration ( ! ,poet2 #cjj1 ! 
,education ( ,jupit]2 #cje1 ! ,triumph (
 ,david2 #caj1 ! ,flight into ,egypt2   
#cae1 ,r5ald & ,armida2 #caf1 ,v5us &   
,m]cury2 #cbe1 ,jupit] & ,antiope2 #ccf1
 ! ,assumption ( ! ,virg92 #ceb1        

,*ildr54  ,( ^! eighte5 pictures1 ,m4   
,waag5 s+les out five1 :i* he ?us       
*>act]izes3  ,! ,assumption ( ! ,virg91 
,no4 #ccf4 ,9 a l&scape ( p[]ful poesy1 
! ,virg9 is c>ri$ (f to heav5 9 cl\ds ( 
gold3 a small picture1 ( :i* ! s5tim5t  
is noble & pure1 ! color+ /rong &       
transp>5t 79 d] ,f>be kraftiges und     
kla>es ,bild74 ,*ildr51 ,no4 #ceb4      
,replete ) lovel9ess & *>m4 ,! ,triumph 
( ,david1 ,no4 #cje4 ,a ri* picture1 b  
!atrical4  ,jupit] suckl$ by ! goat     
,amal!a1 ,no4 #cjj4 ,a *>m+ composition1
 transp>5t tone4 ,a ,l&scape1 ,no4 #bfj4
 ,a well-drawn l&scape1 brea?+ a pr(\nd 
s5tim5t ( nature2 b :i* has become r    
black5$4  ,we are unable to recognize 9 
! ,triumph ( ,david ! !atrical "* :i*   
%ock$ ,m4 ,waag54 ,on ! contr>y1 we     
p]ceive a bold & almo/ wild expression1 
a great deal ( passion f9ely subdu$4  ,a
 triumph mu/ always conta9 "s =mality2  
"h1 h[ev]1 !re is ! lea/ possible1 & t )
 :i* we are /ruck is its vigor & tru? to
 nature4 ,! giant's head /uck on ! pike 

has ! gr&e/ effect3 & we believe t !    
able ,g]man critic has1 9 ?is in/ance1  
likewise yield$ to ! prejudices ( 8     
c\ntry1 :i*1 9 its passion = :at x /yles
 reality1 fancies x p]ceives ! !atrical 
9 :atev] is noble4 ,we admit t at !     
close ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 "u ,l\is     
,,xiv4 & ,lebrun1 ! noble 0 m]g$ 9 !    
!atrical & academic2 b "u ,l\is ,,xiii4 
& ! ,reg5cy1 9 ! "t ( ,corneille &      
,p\ss91 ! academic & !atrical /yle 0    
:olly unkn[n4 ,we entreat ! sagaci\s    
critic n to =get ?is di/9ction betwe5 ! 
divisions ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 nor to   
conf\nd ! ma/] ) 8 disciples1 :o1 al?\gh
 !y 7 /ill great1 _h slightly deg5]at$1 
& :o 7 oppress$ by ! ta/e ( ! age (     
,l\is ,,xiv4  ,b our grave/ reproa*     
aga9/ ,m4 ,waag5 is1 t he did n notice  
at ,dulwi* num]\s morceaux ( ,p\ss91 :i*
 well m]it$ 8 att5tion2 among/ o!rs1 !  
,adoration ( ! ,magi1 f> sup]ior1 = its 
color+1 to t 9 ! ,museum at ,p>is2 &1   
above all1 a picture :i* seems to u a   
ma/]piece 9 ! difficult art ( convey+ a 

philosophic idea "u ! liv+ =m ( a my? & 
an allegory4  ,9 ?is art1 ,p\ss9        
excell$3 he is pre-em95tly a            
philosophical arti/1 a ?9k] assi/$ by   
all ! res\rces ( ! sci5ce ( design4 ,he 
has ev] an idea :i* guides 8 h&1 & :i*  
is 8 ma9 object4 ,let u n tire to       
reit]ate ?is3 x is moral beauty :i* he  
ev]y:]e seeks1 bo? 9 nature & humanity4 
,z we h /at$ 9 relation to ! sacram5t ( 
,ord9ation1 ! l&scapes ( ,p\ss9 are     
almo/ always design$ to set (f & height5
 human life1 :il/ ,claude is ess5tially 
a l&scape pa9t]1 ) :om bo? hi/ory &     
humanity are made subs]vi5t to nature4  
,subjects d]iv$ f ,*ri/ianity 7 exactly 
suit$ to ,p\ss91 inasmu* z !y af=d$ !   
sublime/ types ( t moral gr&eur 9 :i* he
 delight$1 al?\gh we d n see 9 him !    
exquisite piety ( ,lesueur & ,*ampagne2 
& if ,*ri/ian greatness speaks to 8 s\l1
 x appe>s to d s ) no au?ority beyond t 
( ,phocion1 ( ,scipio1 or ( ,g]manicus4 
,sometimes nei!r sacr$ nor pr(ane hi/ory
 suffices him3 he inv5ts1 he imag9es1 he

 has rec\rse to moral & philosophic     
allegory4 ,x is "h1 p]haps1 t he is mo/ 
orig9al1 & t 8 imag9ation displays      
itself 9 its greate/ fre$om & elevation4
 ,arcadia is a lesson ( high philosophy 
"u ! =m ( an idyll4 ,! ,te/am5t (       
,eudamidas portrays ! sublime confid5ce 
( fri5d%ip4 ,"t ,rescu+ ,tru? f !       
assaults ( ,envy & ,discord1 ! ,ballet (
 ,human ,life1 are celebrat$ models (   
?is /yle4 ,we h _h ! good =tune to meet 
at ,dulwi* ) a "w ( ,p\ss9's almo/      
unkn[n1 & ( ^: exi/5ce we _h n ev5 an   
idea1 sp>kl+ at ! same "t ) ! /yle we h 
be5 describ+1 & ) ! mo/ em95t qualities 
( ! *ief ( ! ,fr5* s*ool4  ,?is "w1     
entirely new to u1 is a picture ( v     
small size1 m>k$ ,no4 #bie1 & describ$ 9
 ! catalogue z ,! ,inspiration ( !      
,poet1 a delightful subject1 & treat$ 9 
! mo/ delightful mann]4 ,fancy ! fre%e/ 
l&scape1 9 ! =egr\nd a h>moni\s gr\p (  
?ree p]sonages4 ,! poet1 on b5d$ knee1  
c>ries to 8 lips ! sacr$ cup :i*        
,apollo1 ! god ( poesy1 has pres5t$ to  

him4 ,:il/ he quaffs1 inspiration seizes
 him1 8 face is transfigur$1 & ! sacr$  
intoxication becomes app>5t 9 ! motion (
 8 h&s & 8 :ole body4 ,beside ,apollo1 !
 ,muse prep>es to collect ! songs ( !   
poet4 ,above ?is gr\p1 a g5ius1 frolick+
 9 air1 weaves a *aplet1 :il/ o!r g5ii  
scatt] fl[]s4 ,9 ! backgr\nd1 ! cle>e/  
horizon4 ,grace1 _s1 dep?--?is en*ant+  
composition unites ! :ole4 ,add$ to ?is1
 ! color is well-gr\nd$ & ( great       
brilliancy4  ,x is v s+ul> t nei!r      
,bellori nor ,felibi51 :o bo? liv$ on   
t]ms ( intimacy ) ,p\ss91 & are /ill 8  
be/ hi/orians1 say n a ^w ( ?is "w4 ,x  
is n ref]r$ to 9 ! catalogues ( ,flor5t 
,lecomte1 ( ,gault de ,/4 ,g]ma91 or (  
,ca/ellan2 nor does ,m4 ,waag5 himself1 
:o1 hav+ be5 at ,dulwi*1 mu/ h se5 x    
!re1 make ! lea/ m5tion ( x4 ,we are1   
!re=e1 ignorant 9 :at ye>1 on :at       
occasion1 & = :om ?is delici\s little   
pa9t+ 0 execut$3 b ! h& ( ,p\ss9 is se5 
?r\gh\t1 9 ! draw+1 9 ! composition1 9 !
 expression4 ,no?+ !atrical or vulg>3   

tru? comb9$ ) beauty4 ,! :ole sc5e      
conveys unmix$ delight1 & its impression
 is at once s]5e & pr(\nd4 ,9 our idea1 
,! ,inspiration ( ! ,poet may be rank$ z
 almo/ equal ) ,! ,arcadia4  ,not)/&+   
?is1 ,! ,inspiration has nev] be5       
engrav$1 at lea/ we h n met ) x 9 any ( 
! ri* collections ( engrav+s f ,p\ss9 we
 h be5 enabl$ to consult1 ^? ( ,m4 de   
,baudic\r1 ( ,m4 ,gatteaux1 memb] ( !   
,academy ( ,f9e ,arts1 & la/ly1 ! cab9et
 ( pr9ts 9 ! ,biblio!que ,nationale4 ,we
 hope t ^! few words may sugge/ to "s   
,fr5* engrav] ! idea ( und]tak+ ! v easy
 pilgrimage to ,dulwi*1 & mak+ kn[n to !
 lov]s ( national art an +5i\s & t\*+   
production ( ,p\ss91 /ray$ & lo/1 z x1  
71 9 a =eign collection4   ,,f9is4      
,,footnotes3  #bhd ,?is is ! sket* :i*  
,felibi5 s ju/ly praises1 "p v41 p4 #cg1
 ( ! #a/ edition1 9 #dto4  #bhe ,?is    
great "w has be5 long 9 ,engl&1 z rem>k$
 by ,m>iette1 see ! ,abec$>io1 j        
publi%$1 article ,s4 ,b\rdon1 vol4 i41  
p4 #aga4 ,x appe>s to h be5 a favorite  

"w ( ,b\rdon1 he hav+ himself engrav$ x1
 see de ,piles1 ,abrege de la ,vie des  
,pe9tres1 #b;d edition1 p4 #did1 & !    
,pe9tre graveur francais1 ( ,m4 ,rob]t  
,dumesnil1 vol4 i41 p4 #aca1 etc4 ,!    
copp]plates ( ! ,sev5 ,works ( ,m]cy are
 at ! ,l\vre4  #bhf ,! ,libro di ,v]ita 
is n[ ! prop]ty ( ! ,duke ( ,devon%ire4 
,m4 ,leon de ,laborde has giv5 a detail$
 acc\nt ( x 9 ! ,ar*ives de l',art      
francais1 tom4 i41 p4 #dce1 et seq4     
#bhg ,! fir/ composition ( ,arcadia1    
truly preci\s c\ld x h be5 plac$ 9 !    
,l\vre beside ! second & bett]          
production1 is 9 ,engl&1 ! prop]ty ( !  
,duke ( ,devon%ire4  #bhh ,9 ! fir/ set 
( ! ,sev5 ,sacram5ts1 execut$ = !       
,*evali] del ,pozzo1 n[ 9 ,engl&1 !     
prop]ty ( ! ,duke ( ,rutl&1 & ) :i* we  
are acqua9t$ only ?r\gh engrav+s1 ,*ri/ 
is plac$ on ! left h&2 x is less ma/]ly 
& impos+1 & ! c5tre has a vacant        
appe>ance4 ,9 ! second set1 pa9t$ five  
or six ye>s aft] ! =m] = ,m4 de         
,*antel\p1 ,*ri/ is plac$ 9 ! c5tre3 ?is

 new disposition *anges ! entire effect 
( ! piece4 ,p\ss9 nev] repeat$ himself 9
 treat+ ! same subject a second "t1 b   
improv$ on x1 aim+ ev] at p]fection4 ,& 
! memorable answ] :i* he once made to "o
 :o inquir$ ( him by :at means he _h    
atta9$ to s great p]fection1 ,i nev]    
neglect$ any ?+1 %\ld be always pres5t  
to ! m9d ( e arti/1 pa9t]1 sculptor1    
poet1 or compos]4  #bhi ,p\ss9 writes to
 ,m4 de ,*antel\p1 ,april #be1 #afdd    
7,lettres de ,p\ss91 ,p>is1 #ahbd71 ,i  
am work+ briskly at ! ,extreme ,unction1
 :i* is inde$ a subject wor?y (         
,apelles1 :o 0 v fond ( repres5t+ ! dy+4
 ,he adds1 ) a vivacity :i* seems to    
indicate t he took a p>ticul> fancy to  
?is pa9t+1 ,i d n int5d to quit x :il/  
,i feel ?us well-dispos$1 until ,i h put
 x 9 fair tra9 = a sket*4 ,x is to      
conta9 sev5te5 figures ( m51 wom51 &    
*ildr51 "y & old1 "o "p ( :om are dr[n$ 
9 te>s1 :il/ ! o!rs pray = ! dy+4 ,i w n
 describe x to y m 9 detail4 ,9 ?is1 my 
clumsy p5 is q unfit1 x requires a gild$

 & well-set p5cil4 ,! pr9cipal figures  
are two feet high2 ! pa9t+ w be ab\t !  
size ( y\r ,manne1 b ( bett] proportion4
 ,felibi51 a fri5d & confidant ( ,p\ss91
 likewise rem>ks 7,entreti5s1 etc41 "p  
iv41 p4 #bic71 t ! ,extreme ,unction 0  
"o ( ! pa9t+s :i* pleas$ him mo/4 ,we   
le>n at l5g?1 f ,p\ss9's lett]s1 t he   
f9i%$ x & s5t x into ,france 9 ?is same 
ye>1 #afdd4 ,f5oi5 in=ms u t 9 #afdf he 
complet$ ! ,confirmation1 9 #afdg !     
,baptism1 ! ,p5ance1 ! ,ord9ation & !   
,eu*>i/1 & t he s5t ! la/ sacram5t1 t ( 
,m>riage1 at ! comm5cem5t ( ! ye> #afdh4
 ,bellori 7le ,vite de ,pittori1 etc41  
,rome1 #afgb7 gives a full & detail$    
description ( ! ,extreme ,unction2 &1 z 
he liv$ ) ,p\ss91 x seems cr$ible t 8   
explanations are = ! mo/ "p ^? he _h    
himself receiv$ f ! great arti/4  #bij  
,! draw+ ( ! ,extreme ,unction is at !  
,l\vre2 ! draw+s ( ! five o!r sacram5ts 
are 9 ! ri* cab9et ( ,m4 de la ,salle1 t
 ( ! sev5? is ! prop]ty ( ! well-kn[n   
pr9t sell]1 ,m4 ,det]4  #bia ,!re is "h 

likewise a *>m+ ,francis ,,ii41 :olly f 
! h& ( ,cl\et1 & ! portrait ( ,f5elon by
 ,rigaud1 :i* may be ! orig9al or at all
 ev5ts is n inf]ior to ! pa9t+ 9 !      
gall]y at ,v]sailles4         99        
99       99       99       99  ,d4      
,,appleton  ,,co4',s ,,publications4    
,a ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy3  ,an ,epitome4
 ,by ,dr4 ,,alb]t ,,s*wegl]4 ,translat$ 
f ! orig9al ,g]man1 by ,,julius ,h4     
,,seelye4 #abmo1 #cfe pages4  ,?is      
translation is design$ to supply a want 
long felt by bo? tea*]s & /ud5ts 9 our  
,am]ican colleges4 ,we h valuable       
hi/ories ( ,philosophy 9 ,engli%1 b no  
manual on ?is subject s cle>1 concise1 &
 compreh5sive z ! "o n[ pres5t$4        
,s*wegl]'s "w be>s ! m>ks ( great le>n+1
 & is evid5tly writt5 by "o :o has n    
only /udi$ ! orig9al s\rces = su* a     
hi/ory1 b has ?\ght out = himself !     
sy/ems ( :i* he treats4 ,he has ?us     
seiz$ ^u ! real g]m ( ea* sy/em1 & trac$
 its process ( developm5t ) great       
cle>ness & accuracy4 ,! :ole hi/ory (   

speculation1 f ,?ales to ! pres5t "t1 is
 pres5t$ 9 its consecutive ord]4 ,?is   
ri* & important field ( /udy1 hi!rto s  
greatly neglect$1 w1 x is hop$1 receive 
a new impulse among ,am]ican /ud5ts     
?r\gh ,mr4 ,seelye's translation4 ,x is 
a book1 moreov]1 invaluable = ref]5ce1 &
 %\ld be 9 ! possession ( e public &    
private libr>y4      ,f ,l4 ,p4         
,,hickok1 ,vice-,presid5t ( ,union      
,college4      ,i h _h opportunity to   
he> a l>ge "p ( ,mr4 ,seelye's          
translation ( ,s*wegl]'s ,hi/ory (      
,philosophy read f     manuscript1 & ,i 
d n hesitate to say t x is a fai?ful1   
cle>1 & rem>kably precise ,engli% r5d]+ 
( ?is     invaluable ,epitome ( !       
,hi/ory ( ,philosophy4 ,x is            
exce$+ly desirable t x %\ld be giv5 to  
,am]ican     /ud5ts ( philosophy 9 !    
,engli% language1 & ,i h no             
expectation ( its m favorable &         
successful accompli%m5t     ?an 9 ?is   
pres5t attempt4 ,i %\ld imm$iately      
introduce x     z a text-book 9 !       

graduate's dep>tm5t "u my own           
in/ruction1 if x be favorably publi%$1 &
 _c d\bt t     o!r tea*]s w rejoice to  
avail !mselves ( ! l     assi/ance f x4 
,f ,,h5ry ,b4 ,,smi?1 ,pr(essor (       
,*ri/ian ,!ology1 ,union     ,!ological 
,sem9>y1 ,n4 ,y4      ,x w well rew>d   
dilig5t /udy1 & is "o ( ! be/     works 
= a text-book 9 our colleges ^u ?is     
neglect$ bran*     ( sci5tific          
inve/igation4      ,f ,n4 ,,port]1      
,pr(essor ( ,intellectual ,philosophy 9 
,yale     ,college4      ,x is ! only   
book translat$ f ! ,g]man :i* pr(esses  
to give an acc\nt ( ! rec5t ,g]man      
sy/ems :i* seems     adapt$ to give any 
intelligible in=mation on ! subject to a
     novice4      ,f ,,geo4 ,p4 ,,fi%]1 
,pr(essor ( ,div9ity 9 ,yale ,college4  
,x is really ! be/ ,epitome ( ! ,hi/ory 
( ,philosophy n[     accessible to !    
,engli% /ud5t4      ,f ,,joseph ,,hav51 
,pr(essor ( ,m5tal ,philosophy 9 ,amh]/ 
,college4      ,z a manual & brief      
summ>y ( ! :ole range ( speculative     

inquiry1 ,i "k ( no "w :i* /rikes me m  
favorably4   ,,annual ,,cyclopa$ia  ,,= 
#ahgj4  ,9 addition to its usual        
in=mation on all ! ,civil1 ,political1  
,indu/rial ,affairs ( ea* ,/ate1 & ( !  
:ole c\ntry1 x conta9s v complete       
details ( ! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,c5sus4 ,a 
complete acc\nt ( ! orig9 & progress ( !
 ,,g]man-,,fr5* ,,w>1 & a v full        
exhibition ( ! pres5t /ate ( ,europe1   
,population1 ,nationalities1 ,weal?1    
,debts1 ,milit>y ,=ce ( ! diff]5t       
,c\ntries & an ,,explanation ,,( ,,all  
,,! ,,exi/+ ,,european ,,que/ions1 are  
pres5t$4  ,! ,discov]ies1 ,ev5ts1 &     
,developm5ts ( ! ye> are fully br\ght   
up1 toge!r ) ! ,hi/ory & ,progress ( all
 ,c\ntries ( ! ,_w dur+ ! ye>2 & !      
volume is ,illu/rat$ ) ,maps1 & f9e     
,/eel ,portraits ( ,g5]al ,,rob]t ,e4   
,,lee1 ,g5]al ,,von ,,moltke1 & ,k+     
,,victor ,,emmanuel4  ,?is "w is ! ,t5? 
( a ,s]ies comm5c$ 9 #ahfa1 & publi%$1  
"o volume annually s9ce1 9 ! same /yle z
 ! ,new ,am]ican ,cyclopa$ia1 & is1 9   

fact1 an add5dum to t invaluable "w4    
,ea* volume1 h[ev]1 is complete 9       
itself1 & is conf9$ to ! results ( its  
ye>4  ,,?is ,,volume ,,also ,,conta9s ,a
 ,,complete ,,index ,,to ,,all ,,!      
,,annuals ,,h]et(ore ,,publi%$4         
,,comm5ts ,,( ,,! ,,press4      ,! ,new 
,york ,_w1 speak+ ( ?is "w1 says3 ,! pa/
     volumes ( ! annual s]ies h all be5 
good2 b t :i*     has be5 rec5tly add$  
is excell5t1 9 fact1 x might be said    
to h approa*$ p]fection4 ,no f9al ,^w is
 ne$$ to     express ! g5u9e admiration 
:i* ?is "w1 9 its     conception1       
execution1 & publication1 des]ves4 ,no  
private     libr>y 9 ! c\ntry %\ld be   
)\t x or its     pr$ecessors4      ,its 
value is n easily e/imat$4--,london     
,saturday ,review4      ,ea* succe$+ ye>
 w add to its value4--,london ,daily    
,news4      ,no individual or family (  
ord9>y intellig5ce %\ld be     )\t      
x4--,n4 ,y4 ,times4      ,supplies a    
great public want4--,detroit ,tribune4  
,ought to be 9 e libr>y4--,albany ,atlas

 & ,argus4      ,we c confid5tly &      
consci5ti\sly recomm5d x4--,ev5+        
,travell]4      ,?or\gh & reliable1 & j 
su* a "w z is greatly                   
ne$$4--,clevel& ,daily ,pla9 ,deal]4    
,_c be too highly comm5d$4--,ohio ,/ate 
,j\rnal4   ,,prices ,,& ,,/yles ,,(     
,,b9d+4  ,9 ,extra ,clo?1 p] vol41      
#e4jj ,9 ,libr>y ,lea!r1 p] vol41       
#f4jj ,9 ,half ,turkey ,morocco1 p]     
vol41                    #f4ej ,9 ,half 
,russia1 extra gilt1 p] vol41           
#g4ej ,9 ,full ,morocco1 antique1 gilt  
edges1 p] vol41      #i4jj ,9 ,full     
,russia1                                
#i4jj  ,,sold ,,by ,,subscription       
,,only4  ,d4 ,,appleton  ,,co41         
,publi%]s1 #edi  #eea ,,broadway1 ,,new 
,,york4   ,a ,,text-,,book ,,(          
,,practical ,,m$ic9e1 ) ,p>ticul>       
,ref]5ce to ,physiology & ,pa?ological  
,anatomy4 ,by ,dr4 ,,felix ,,von        
,,niemey]4 ,translat$ f ! eigh? ,g]man  
edition1 by special p]mission ( !       
,au?or1 by ,,george ,h4 ,,humphreys1 ,m4

 ,d41 & ,,*>les ,e4 ,,hackley1 ,m4 ,d4  
#b vols41 #hvo1 #a1ebh pages4 ,clo?4    
,price1 #i4jj4      ,! translators are  
pleas$ to f9d t ! m$ical public         
su/a9 _! own op9ion ( ! practical value 
( ,pr(essor     ,niemey]'s ,text-,book1 
& take pleasure 9 pres5t+ !     pres5t  
edition1 :i* is alt]$ to correspond ) ! 
eigh?     & la/ ,g]man edition4      ,! 
translators also take great pleasure 9  
notic+ !     favorable reception ( ?is  
"w 9 ,engl&1 %[+ !     int]e/ felt !re z
 well z h]e9 ! ideas ( ! mod]n          
,g]man ,s*ool ( ,m$ic9e4   ,,v]a2 ,,or  
,,! ,,engli% ,,e>l ,,& ,,! ,,russian    
,,pr9cess4 ,by ! ,au?or ( ,! ,hotel du  
,petit ,/4 ,jean4 #a vol41 #hvo1 =m+    
,no4 #be ( ,libr>y ( ,*oice ,novels4    
,price1 #dj c5ts4      ,v]a has be5     
prais$ by ! ,engli% press 9 ! highe/    
t]ms4 ,!re is a fre%ness ( /yle1 ( me?od
 & mat]ial1     & ! _w ( ,engli%        
novel-read]s h f\nd 9 !m a new          
s5sation4 ,! ,london ,saturday ,review1 
speak+ ( ,v]a1     says t x he>tily     

recomm5ds to ! public a book :i*     _c 
fail to please e "o :o reads x4         
,,light ,,sci5ce ,,= ,,leisure ,,h\rs4  
,a ,s]ies ( ,famili> ,essays on         
,sci5tific ,subjects1 ,natural ,ph5om5a1
 etc4 ,by ,r4 ,a4 ,,proctor1 ,b4 ,a41   
,f4 ,r4 ,a4 ,s41 au?or ( ,saturn & its  
,sy/em1 ,o!r ,worlds ?an ,ours1 ,! ,sun1
 etc4 #a vol4 ,clo?4 #abmo4 ,price1     
#b4jj4      ,,cont5ts4--,/range         
,discov]ies respect+ ! ,aurora2 ,!      
,e>?'s ,magnetism2 ,our ,*ief ,timepiece
 los+ ,"t2 ,encke1 !     ,a/ronom]2     
,v5us on ! ,sun's ,face2 ,rec5t ,sol>   
,rese>*es2     ,gov]nm5t ,aid to        
,sci5ce2 ,am]ican ,alms = ,briti%       
,sci5ce2     ,! ,secret ( ! ,nor? ,pole2
 ,is ! ,gulf ,/ream a ,my?8 ,floods     
9 ,switz]l&2 ,a ,great ,tidal ,wave2    
,deep-,sea ,dr$g+s2 ,!     ,tunnel ?r\gh
 ,mont ,c5is2 ,tornadoes2 ,vesuvius2 ,! 
,e>?quake     9 ,p]u2 ,! ,greate/ ,sea  
,wave ev] kn[n2 ,! ,usefulness (        
,e>?quakes2 ,! ,=c+ ,p[] ( ,ra92 ,a ,%[]
 ( ,sn[     ,cry/als2 ,long ,%ots2      

,influ5ce ( ,m>riage on ! ,dea?-,rate2  
,! ,topographical ,survey ( ,india2 ,a  
,%ip attack$ by a     ,swordfi%2 ,!     
,safety-,lamp2 ,! ,du/ we h to ,brea!2  
,photographic ,gho/s2 ,! ,ox=d &        
,cambridge ,r[+ ,/yles2     ,bett+ on   
,horse-,races1 or ! ,/ate ( ! ,odds2    
,squ>+ !     ,circle2 ,a ,new ,!ory (   
,a*illes's ,%ield4   ,,h]$it>y ,,g5ius2 
an ,inquiry into its ,laws &            
,consequ5ces4 ,by ,,francis ,,galton1   
,f4 ,r4 ,s4 #a vol41 #hvo4 ,clo?4 #cij  
pages4 ,price1 #b4jj4      ,! au?or (   
?is book endeavors to %[ t man's natural
     abilities are d]iv$ f inh]itance1  
"u exactly ! same     limitations z are 
! =m & physical features ( ! :ole       
organic _w4 ,consequ5tly1 z x is easy1  
not)/&+ !     limitations1 to obta9 by  
c>eful selection a p]man5t bre$ (       
dogs or horses1 gift$ ) peculi> p[]s (  
reason+1 or (     do+ any ?+ else1 s x  
w\ld be q practicable to     produce a  
highly-gift$ race ( m5 by judici\s      
m>riages     dur+ sev]al consecutive    

g5]ations4   ,,appletons' ,,european    
,,guide-,,book1 ,illu/rat$1 includ+     
,engl&1 ,scotl&1 & ,irel&1 ,france1     
,belgium1 ,holl&1 ,nor!rn & ,s\!rn      
,g]many1 ,switz]l&1 ,italy1 ,spa9 &     
,portugal1 ,russia1 ,d5m>k1 ,norway1 &  
,sw$52 conta9+ a ,map ( ,europe1 & ,n9e 
o!r ,maps1 ) ,plans ( ,tw5ty ( !        
,pr9cipal ,cities1 & #abj ,engrav+s4 #a 
vol41 #abmo4 ,second ,edition1 br\ght   
d[n to ,may1 #ahga4 #gbj pages4 ,r$     
,fr5* morocco1 ) a tuck4 ,price1 #f4jj4 
,9 ! prep>ation ( ?is ,guide-book1 !    
au?or has s\ght to     give1 )9 ! limits
 ( a s+le volume1 all ! in=mation       
necess>y to enable ! t\ri/ to f9d 8 way1
 )\t     difficulty1 f place to place1 &
 to see ! objects be/     wor? see+1    
?r\gh\t su* p>ts ( ,europe z are g5]ally
     visit$ by ,am]ican & ,engli%       
travell]s4--,extract f     ,preface4    
,,! ,,art ,,( ,,beautify+ ,,suburban    
,,home ,,gr\nds ,,( ,,small ,,ext5t1 & !
 be/ ,modes ( ,lay+ out1 ,plant+1 &     
,keep+ ,decorat$ ,gr\nds4 ,illu/rat$ by 

upw>d ( ,two ,hundr$ ,plates & ,engrav+s
 ( ,plans = ,resid5ces & _! ,gr\nds1 (  
,trees1 & ,%rubs1 & ,g>d5 ,embelli%m5ts4
 ,) ,descriptions ( ! ,beautiful & ,h>dy
 ,trees & ,%rubs gr[n 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4
 ,by ,,frank ,j4 ,,scott4 ,complete 9 "o
 ,elegant ,qu>to ,volume ( #fah pages4  
,is pr9t$ on t9t$ pap]1 b\nd 9 gre5     
morocco clo?1 bevell$ bo>ds1 ) uncut    
edges1 gilt top4 ,price1 #h4jj4         
,?is elegant "w is ! only book publi%$  
on ! especial     subject indicat$ by ! 
title4 ,its aim & object are to aid     
p]sons ( mod]ate incomes1 :o are n fully
 po/$ on !     arts ( decorative g>d5+1 
to beautify _! homes1 to     sugge/ &   
illu/rate ! simple means ) :i* beautiful
     home-surr\nd+s may be realiz$ on   
small gr\nd1 & )     little co/2 also to
 assi/ 9 giv+ an intellig5t direction   
to ! desires & a satisfactory result = !
 labors ( ^?     :o are engag$ 9        
embelli%+ h\ses1 z well z ^? ^:         
imag9ations are w>m ) ! hopes ( homes t 
are yet to     be4   ,,life ,,( ,,major 

,,john ,,&re4 ,by ,,w9?orp ,,s>g5t4 ,a  
new & revis$ edition4 #a vol41 #abmo1 ) 
,portraits ( ! ,au?or & ,editor4 ,price1
 #b4ej4      ,?is "w is an important    
contribution to our hi/orical           
lit]ature--a volume1 says ,rob]t ,c4    
,w9?rop1 full (     attractive &        
valuable matt]1 & display+ ! fruit ( ri*
     culture & r>e accompli%m5ts4 ,!    
,life ( ,&re has be5     =tunate 9      
receiv+ ! comm5dation1 at home & abroad1
 (     c>eful critics & di/+ui%$        
hi/orians4   ,,! ,,two ,,gu>dians2 ,,or 
,,home ,,9 ,,?is ,,_w4 ,by ! au?or ( ,! 
,heir ( ,r$clyffe4 #a vol41 #abmo4      
,clo?4 ,price1 #a4jj4 ,=m+ "o ( !       
volumes ( ! new illu/rat$ edition (     
,miss ,yonge's popul> novels4 ,volumes  
already publi%$3 ,! ,heir ( ,r$clyffe1  
#b vols42 ,he>tsease1 #b vols42 ,daisy  
,*a91 #b vols42 ,bee*cr(t1 #a vol4   ,,!
 ,,recov]y ,,( ,,j]usalem4 ,an ,acc\nt (
 ! ,rec5t ,excavations & ,discov]ies 9 !
 ,holy ,city4 ,by ,,capta9 ,,wilson1 ,r4
 ,e41 & ,,capta9 ,,w>r51 ,r4 ,e4 ,) an  

,introductory ,*apt] by ,dean ,/anley4  
,clo?1 #hvo4 ,) fifty ,illu/rations4    
,price1 #c4ej4      ,t ?is volume may   
br+ home to ! ,engli% public a m        
def9ite k ( :at ! ,pale/9e ,exploration 
,fund has     be5 do+1 & hopes to d1 ?an
 c be ga!r$ f p>tial     & isolat$      
reports1 or f popul> lectures1 mu/ be ! 
desire ( e "o :o judges ! ,bible to be !
 mo/     preci\s1 z x is ! mo/ pr(\nd1  
book 9 ! _w1 & :o     deems no?+ small  
or unimportant t %all t5d to ?r[        
light ^u its mean+1 & to remove !       
obscurities :i* "t     & di/ance h caus$
 to re/ ^u "s ( its     pages4--,globe4 
,,! ,,physical ,,cause ,,( ,,! ,,dea?   
,,( ,,*ri/1 & its ,relations to !       
,pr9ciples & ,practice ( ,*ri/ianity4   
,by ,,wm4 ,,/r\d1 ,m4 ,d4 ,) a ,lett] on
 ! ,subject by ,,sir ,,james ,y4        
,,simpson1 ,b>t41 ,m4 ,d4 #a vol41      
#abmo4 ,clo?4 ,price1 #b4jj4      ,dr4  
,william ,/r\d's treatise on ,!         
,physical ,cause ( !     ,dea? ( ,*ri/1 
& its ,relation to ! ,pr9ciples &       

,practice     ( ,*ri/ianity1 al?\gh n[  
fir/ repr9t$ 9 ?is c\ntry1     has      
ma9ta9$1 = ! la/ qu>t] ( a c5tury1 a    
great     reputation 9 ,engl&4 ,x is1 9 
its own place1 a ma/]piece4     ,x c\ld 
h be5 compos$1 says ,dr4 ,/r\d's        
biograph]1     only by a man *>act]iz$  
by a comb9ation ( sup]ior     end[m5ts4 
,x requir$1 on ! "o h&1 a pr(\nd        
acqua9tance ) m$ical subjects & m$ical  
lit]ature4 ,x     requir$1 on ! o!r1 an 
equally pr(\nd acqua9tance )     !      
,bible1 & ) !ology 9 g5]al4 ,! object ( 
!     treatise is to demon/rate an      
important physical fact connect$     ) !
 dea? ( ,*ri/--namely1 t x 0 caus$ by   
rupture     ( ! he>t--& to po9t out its 
relation to ! pr9ciples     & practice (
 ,*ri/ianity4   ,,we/w>d ,,by ,,rail3   
,,! ,,new ,,r\te ,,to ,,! ,,ea/4 ,by ,w4
 ,f4 ,,rae4 #a vol41 #abmo4 ,clo?4 #cij 
pages4 ,price1 #b4jj4      ,! au?or (   
?is "w1 "o ( ! editors ( ! ,london      
,daily     ,news1 0 a /an* def5d] ( !   
,union1 & 8 "w is "o     ( ! mo/ j &    

appreciative books on ,am]ica yet       
publi%$     by an ,engli%man4      ,!re 
is a quiet & subtle *>m1 z well z a deep
 & true     romantic int]e/1 9 ! /ory ( 
! railway     j\rney4--,we/m9/] ,review4
      ,he has giv5 u a v pleasant &     
in/ructive book1 :i* we     he>tily     
comm5d to ! att5tion ( all ?\ghtful &   
inquir+ read]s4--,glasg[ ,mail4      ,he
 has writt5 a mo/ readable1 int]e/+1 &  
attractive     acc\nt ( a j\rney :i* is 
long en\gh to be wor? !     complete    
description he has giv5 x4--,obs]v]4    
,,! ,,revelation ,,( ,,john1 ) ,notes1  
,critical1 ,explanatory1 & ,practical4  
,design$ = bo? ,pa/ors & ,p4 ,by ,rev4  
,,h5ry ,,c[les1 ,d4 ,d4 #a vol41 #abmo1 
clo?4 ,price1 #a4ej4  ,d4 ,appleton     
,co4 also publi% by ! same ,au?or3 ,m9or
 ,prophets4 #abmo1 clo?4 ,price1 #b4jj2 
,ezekiel & ,daniel4 #abmo1 clo?4 #b4be2 
,isaiah4 ,) ,notes1 #b4be2 ,j]emiah4 #a 
vol41 #abmo4 #b4jj2 ,prov]bs1           
,ecclesia/es1 & ,songs ( ,solomon4      
#b4jj4   ,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,diseases  

,,( ,,! ,,n]v\s ,,sy/em4 ,by ,,william  
,a4 ,,hammond1 ,m4 ,d41 ,pr(essor (     
,diseases ( ! ,m9d & ,n]v\s ,sy/em1 & ( 
,cl9ical ,m$ic9e1 9 ! ,bellevue         
,hospital ,m$ical ,college2             
,physician-9-*ief to ! ,new-,york ,/ate 
,hospital = ,diseases ( ! ,n]v\s ,sy/em1
 etc4 ,) ,=ty-five ,illu/rations4 #a    
vol41 #hvo1 #gej pages4 ,price1 #e4jj4  
,9 ! foll[+ "w ,i h endeavor$ to pres5t 
a ',treatise     on ,diseases ( ! ,n]v\s
 ,sy/em' :i*1 )\t be+     sup]ficial1   
w\ld be concise & explicit1 & :i*1 :ile 
mak+ no claim to be+ exhau/ive1 w\ld    
nev]!less be     suffici5tly complete = 
! in/ruction & guidance ( ^?     :o     
might be dispos$ to seek in=mation f its
 pages4 ,h[     f> ,i h be5 successful w
 soon be det]m9$ by !     judgm5t ( ^? m
 compet5t ?an myself to =m an unbias$   
op9ion4      ,"o feature ,i may1 h[ev]1 
) ju/ice claim = ?is "w1     & t is1 t x
 re/s1 to a great ext5t1 on my own      
obs]vation & exp]i5ce1 & is1 !re=e1 no  
m]e     compilation4 ,! read] w readily 

p]ceive t ,i h views     ( my own on e  
disease consid]$1 & t ,i h n            
hesitat$ to express !m4--,extract f !   
,preface4      ,ov] fifty diseases ( !  
n]v\s sy/em1 includ+ insanity1     are  
consid]$ 9 ?is treatise4   ,,on ,,!     
,,physiological ,,effects ,,( ,,sev]e   
,,& ,,protract$ ,,muscul> ,,ex]cise1 )  
,special ,ref]5ce to its ,influ5ce ^u ! 
,excretion ( ,nitrog54 ,by ,,au/9       
,,fl9t1 ,jr41 ,m4 ,d41 ,pr(essor (      
,physiology 9 ! ,bellevue ,hospital     
,m$ical ,college1 ,new ,york4 #a vol41  
#hvo4 ,clo?4 ,price1 #a4be4             
,,appletons' ,,h&-,,book ,,( ,,am]ican  
,,travel4 ,nor!rn & ,ea/]n ,t\r4 ,new   
edition1 revis$ = ! ,summ] ( #ahga4     
,includ+ ,new ,york1 ,new ,j]sey1       
,p5nsylvania1 ,connecticut1 ,rhode      
,isl&1 ,massa*usetts1 ,ma9e1 ,new       
,hamp%ire1 ,v]mont1 & ! ,briti%         
,dom9ion1 be+ a ,guide to ,niag>a1 !    
,:ite ,m\nta9s1 ! ,alleghanies1 !       
,catskills1 ! ,adirondacks1 ! ,b]k%ire  
,hills1 ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 ,lake ,*ampla91 

,lake ,george1 ,lake ,memphremagog1     
,s>atoga1 ,newport1 ,cape ,may1 !       
,hudson1 & o!r ,fam\s ,localities2 )    
full ,descriptive ,sket*es ( ! ,cities1 
,t[ns1 ,riv]s1 ,lakes1 ,wat]falls1      
,m\nta9s1 ,hunt+ & ,fi%+ ,gr\nds1       
,wat]+-places1 ,sea-side ,resorts1 & all
 sc5es & objects ( importance & int]e/  
)9 ! di/rict nam$4 ,) ,maps & v>i\s     
,skeleton ,t\rs1 arrang$ z sugge/ions & 
guides to ! ,travell]4 ,"o vol41 #abmo4 
,flexible clo?4 ,price1 #b4jj4   ,,james
 ,,gordon',s ,,wife4 ,a ,novel4 #hvo4   
,pap]4 ,price1 #ej c5ts4      ,an       
int]e/+ novel1 pleasantly writt51 ref9$ 
9 tone1 &     easy 9 /yle4--,london     
,globe4      ,?is novel is conceiv$ &   
execut$ 9 ! pure/ _s4 ,!                
illu/rations ( society 9 its v>i\s      
phases are clev]ly &     spirit$ly      
done4--,london ,po/4   ,,! ,,pr9ciples  
,,( ,,psy*ology4 ,by ,,h]b]t ,,sp5c]4 #a
 vol41 #hvo4 ,clo?4 ,price1 #b4ej4      
,?is "w is ?\ght by _m able judges to be
 ! mo/ orig9al     & valuable           

contribution to ! sci5ce ( m9d t has    
appe>$ 9 ! pres5t c5tury4 ,john ,/u>t   
,mill says x is     "o ( ! f9e/ examples
 we possess ( ! psy*ological     me?od 9
 its full p[]4 ,dr4 ,mc,cosh says 8 bold
     g5]alizations are always sugge/ive1
 & "s may 9 ! end     be e/abli%$ 9 !   
pr(\nde/ laws ( ! kn[able     univ]se4  
,george ,ripley says ,sp5c] is z ke5 an 
analy/ z     is kn[n 9 ! hi/ory (       
,philosophy4 ,i d n except ei!r         
,ari/otle or ,kant1 :om he greatly      
resembles4   ,,nigel ,,b>tram',s        
,,ideal4 ,a ,novel4 ,by ,,flor5ce       
,,wil=d4 #a vol41 #hvo4 ,pap] cov]s4    
,price1 #ej c5ts4      ,?is is a novel (
 m>k$ orig9ality & high lit]>y m]it4    
,! h]o9e is "o ( ! lovelie/ & pure/     
*>act]s (     rec5t fiction1 & ! detail 
( h] adv5tures 9 ! ardu\s     task (    
ov]com+ h] husb&'s prejudices &         
jeal\sies =ms     an exce$+ly int]e/+   
plot4 ,! book is high 9 tone &          
excell5t 9 /yle4   ,,good ,,= ,,no?+4 ,a
 ,novel4 ,by ,,:yte ,,melville4 ,au?or (

 ,digby ,gr&1 ,! ,int]pret]1 etc4 #a    
vol41 #hvo1 #baj pages4 ,price1 #fj     
c5ts4      ,! int]e/ ( ! read] 9 ! /ory1
 :i* = ! mo/     "p is laid 9 ,engl&1 is
 en?rall+ f ! beg9n+ to     ! end4 ,!   
moral tone is altoge!r                  
unexceptionable4--,!     ,*ronicle4   ,a
 ,,h&-,,book ,,( ,,law1 = ,bus9ess ,m52 
conta9+ an ,epitome ( ! ,law (          
,contracts1 ,bills & ,notes1 int]e/1    
,gu>anty & ,surety%ip1 ,assignm5ts =    
,cr$itors1 ,ag5ts1 ,factors1 & ,brok]s1 
,sales1 ,mortgages1 & ,li5s1 ,pat5ts &  
,copyrights1 ,trade-,m>ks1 ! ,good-,w ( 
a ,bus9ess1 ,c>ri]s1 ,insurance1 ,%ipp+1
 ,arbitrations1 ,/atutes ( ,limitation1 
,p>tn]%ip1 ) an ,app5dix1 conta9+ ,=ms (
 ,in/rum5ts us$ 9 ! ,transaction (      
,bus9ess4 ,by ,,william ,,tracy1 ,,ll4  
,d4 #a vol41 #hvo1 #fgi pages4 ,half    
basil1 #e4ej2 libr>y lea!r1 #f4ej4      
,?is "w is an epitome ( ^? bran*es ( law
 :i* affect     ! ord9>y transactions ( 
,,bus9ess ,,m54 ,x is n propos$     by x
 to make e man a lawy]1 b to give a man 

( bus9ess     a conv5i5t & reliable book
 ( ref]5ce1 to assi/ him 9     !        
solution ( que/ions relat+ to 8 rights &
 duties1     :i* are con/antly aris+1 & 
to guide him 9 conduct+ 8               
negotiations4      ,9 prep>+ x1 ! aim   
has be5 to set =?1 ,,9 ,,pla9           
,,language1 ! rules :i* con/itute !     
doctr9es ( law :i*     are exam9$1 & to 
illu/rate ! same by decisions ( !       
,c\rts 9 :i* !y are recogniz$1 ,,)      
,,m>g9al ,,ref]5ces     ,,to ,,!        
,,volumes ,,:]e ,,! ,,cases ,,may ,,be  
,,f\nd4   ,,new ,,york ,,illu/rat$2 )   
,fifty-n9e ,illu/rations4 ,a            
,descriptive ,text & a ,map ( ! ,city4  
,an entirely new edition1 br\ght d[n to 
date1 ) new ,illu/rations4 ,price1 #ej  
c5ts4      ,!re has nev] be5 publi%$ s  
beautiful a guide-book to ,new     ,york
 z ?is is4 ,a suitable lett]-press      
accompanies !     woodcuts1 ! :ole =m+ a
 picture ( ,new ,york su* z no     o!r  
book af=ds4--,new ,york ,_w4   ,,!      
,,novels ,,& ,,noveli/s ,,( ,,!         

,,eighte5? ,,c5tury4 ,9 ,illu/ration ( !
 ,mann]s & ,morals ( ! ,age4 ,by        
,,william ,,=sy?1 ,m4 ,a41 ,q4 ,c4 #a   
vol41 #abmo4 ,clo?4 ,price1 #a4ej4      
,mr4 ,=sy?1 9 8 in/ructive & ent]ta9+   
volume1 has     succe$$ 9 %[+ t mu* real
 in=mation conc]n+ !     morals z well z
 ! mann]s ( our ance/ors may be ga!r$   
f ! noveli/s ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,) judicial
     imp>tiality he exam9es &           
cross-exam9es ! witnesses1     lay+ all 
! evid5ce be=e ! read]4 ,essayi/s z well
 z     noveli/s are call$ up4 ,!        
,spectator1 ,! ,tatl]1 ,! ,_w1     ,!   
,connoisseur1 add confirmation /rong to 
! te/imony (     ,p>son ,adams1         
,trullib]1 ,trunnion1 ,squire ,we/]n1 ! 
,fool (     ,quality1 ,betsey           
,?\ghtless1 & ! l4 ,a *apt] on dress    
is sugge/ive ( comp>ison4 ,co/ume is a  
subject on :i*     noveli/s1 l c>eful   
arti/s1 are /udi\sly precise4           
,,rem9isc5ces ,,( ,,fifty ,,ye>s4 ,by   
,,m>k ,,boyd4 #a vol41 #abmo1 #cij pp4  
,price1 #a4ge4      ,mr4 ,boyd has se5  

mu* ( life at home & abroad4 ,he has    
enjoy$ ! acqua9tance or fri5d%ip ( _m   
illu/ri\s m51     & he has ! additional 
advantage ( rememb]+ a numb] (          
anecdotes told by 8 fa!r1 :o possess$ a 
ret5tive memory     & a wide circle (   
di/+ui%$ fri5ds4 ,! book1 z !     writ] 
ackn[l$ges1 is a p]fect olla podrida4   
,!re is     consid]able v>iety 9 !      
anecdotes4 ,"s relate to great          
g5]als1 l ! ,duke ( ,well+ton & ,"l     
,clyde2 "s to     arti/s & m5 ( lett]s1 
& ^! include ! names (     ,campbell1   
,rog]s1 ,?ack]ay1 & ,david ,rob]ts2 "s  
to     /atesm51 & among o!rs1 to ,pitt1 
:o 0 a fri5d ( ,mr4     ,boyd's fa!r1 to
 ,lords ,palm]/on1 ,br\gham1 & ,d]by2 "s
 to     discov]]s1 l ,sir ,john ,frankl9
 & ,sir ,john ,ross3 &     o!rs--among  
:i* may be reckon$1 p]haps1 ! mo/ amus+ 
9 ! volume--to p]sons :olly unkn[n to   
fame1 or to mann]s     & cu/oms n[      
happily obsolete4   ,,fragm5ts ,,(      
,,sci5ce ,,= ,,unsci5tific ,,p4 ,a      
,s]ies ( ,deta*$ ,essays1 ,lectures1 &  

,reviews4 ,by ,,john ,,tyndall1 ,,ll4   
,d41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 #a vol41 #abmo4 ,clo?4 
#dbb pages4 ,price1 #b4jj4  ,,pr(4      
,,tyndall ,,is ,,! ,,poet ,,( ,,mod]n   
,,sci5ce4      ,?is is a book (         
g5ius--"o ( ^? r>e productions t        
come b once 9 a g5]ation4 ,pr(4 ,tyndall
 is n only a bold1     broad1 & orig9al 
?9k]1 b "o ( ! mo/ eloqu5t &            
attractive ( writ]s4 ,9 ?is volume he   
goes ov] a l>ge range     ( sci5tific   
que/ions1 giv+ u ! late/ views 9 ! mo/  
lucid & graphic language1 s t ! subtle/ 
ord] (     invisible *anges /& out ) all
 ! vividness (     /]eoscopic           
p]spective4 ,?\gh a discipl9$ sci5tific 
?9k]1 ,pr(4 ,tyndall is also a poet1    
alive to all beauty1 &     k9dles into a
 gl[ ( en?usiasm at ! h>monies & wond] (
     ,nature :i* he sees on e side4 ,to 
him sci5ce is no m]e     dry inv5tory ( 
prosaic facts1 b a disclosure ( ! ,div9e
     ord] ( ! _w1 & fitt$ to /ir !      
highe/ feel+s (     our nature4         
,,gabrielle ,,&re4 ,an ,hi/orical       

,novel4 ,by ,s4 ,,b>+-,,g\ld1 au?or (   
,my?s ( ! ,middle ,ages4 #a vol41 #hvo4 
,pap] cov]s4 ,price1 #fj c5ts4      ,^? 
:o take an int]e/ 9 comp>+ ! effects ( !
     pres5t ,fr5* ,revolution on ! ,*ur*
 ) t ( #aghi w     f9d 9 ?is "w a great 
deal ( in=mation illu/rat+ !     feel+ 9
 ! ,/ate & ,*ur* ( ,france at t p]iod4  
,!     ,lit]>y ,*ur*man says3 ,! book is
 a rem>kably able "o1     full ( vigor\s
 & (t5 exce$+ly beautiful writ+ &       
description4   ,,mus+s ,,ov] ,,!        
,,*ri/ian ,,ye> ,,& ,,lyra ,,innoc5tium4
 ,by ,,*>lotte ,,m>y ,,yonge1 toge!r ) a
 few ,glean+s ( ,recollection1 ga!r$ by 
,sev]al ,fri5ds4 #a vol4 ,?ick #abmo1   
#dca pages4 ,price1 #b4jj4      ,miss   
,yonge has "h produc$ a volume :i* w    
possess great     int]e/ 9 ! eyes (     
,*ur*m51 :o h = s _m ye>s     enjoy$ !  
privilege ( read+ ! exquisite poetry ( !
     ,*ri/ian ,ye> by ,rev4 ,john       
,keble4 ,miss ,yonge gives h] own       
exp]i5ce ( ! un9t]rupt$ int]c\rse (     
?irty ye>s3     !n !re are !            

,recollections1 by ,francis ,m4         
,wilbraham3 a     few words ( ,p]sonal  
,description1 by ,rev4 ,t4 ,simpson     
,evans2     !n foll[ ! ,mus+s1 "o ea* ( 
! poems illu/rative (     ! ,*ri/ian    
,ye> & ,lyra ,innoc5tium4   ,,! ,,heir  
,,( ,,r$clyffe4 ,by ,,*>lotte ,m4       
,,yonge4 ,a ,new ,illu/rat$ ,edition4 #b
 vols41 #abmo4 ,clo?4 ,price1 #b4jj4    
,to be foll[$ by ,,he>tsease4      ,!   
fir/ ( h] writ+s :i* made a s5sation "h 
0 !     ',heir1' & :at a s5sation x 06  
,ref]r+ to ! rema9s (     ! te>-wa%$    
cov]s ( ! copy a=esaid1 we f9d x        
belong$ to ! 'eigh? ?\s&4' ,h[ _m ?\s&s 
h be5     issu$ s9ce by ! publi%]s1 to  
supply ! dem& = new1     & ! places (   
dr[n$1 dissolv$1 or swept away old      
copies1     we d n attempt to           
conjecture4 ,n individuals m]ely1 b     
h\seholds--consi/+ 9 great "p (         
t5d]-he>t$ "y     damsels--7 plung$ into
 m\rn+4 ,) a tol]able     acqua9tance ) 
fictiti\s h]oes 7n to speak ( real      
ones71     f ,sir ,*>les ,gr&ison d[n to

 ! nurs]y idol1 ,c>lton1 we     h little
 hesitation 9 pron\nc+ ,sir ,guy        
,morville1 or     ,r$clyffe1 ,b>onet1 ! 
mo/ admirable "o we ev] met )1 9        
/ory or out4 ,! glori\s1 joy\s boy1 !   
brilliant1 ard5t     *ild ( g5ius & (   
=tune1 cr[n$ ) ! beauty ( 8     e>ly    
hol9ess1 & ov]%ad[$ ) ! d>kness ( 8     
h]$it>y gloom1 & ! s(t & t\*+ sadness ( 
8 e>ly     dea?--:at a caution is !re6  
,:at a vision6--,extract f a     review 
( ,! ,heir ( ,r$clyffe1 & ,he>tsease1 9 
!     ,nor? ,am]ican ,review = ,april4  
,a ,,compreh5sive ,,diction>y ,,( ,,!   
,,bible2 ma9ly abridg$ f ,dr4 ,william  
,smi?'s ,diction>y ( ! ,bible1 b        
compris+ important ,additions &         
,improvem5ts f ! ,works ( ,rob9son1     
,ges5ius1 ,fur/1 ,pape1 ,pott1 ,w9]1    
,keil1 ,lange1 ,kitto1 ,fairbairn1      
,alex&]1 ,b>nes1 ,bu%1 ,?omson1 ,/anley1
 ,port]1 ,tri/ram1 ,k+1 ,ayre1 & _m o!r 
em95t s*ol>s1 comm5tators1 travell]s1 & 
au?ors 9 v>i\s dep>tm5ts4 ,design$ to be
 a ,complete ,guide 9 reg>d to !        

,pronunciation & ,signification (       
,scriptural ,names2 ! ,solution (       
,difficulties respect+ ! ,int]pretation1
 ,au?ority1 & ,h>mony ( ! ,old & ,new   
,te/am5ts2 ! ,hi/ory & ,description (   
,biblical ,cu/oms1 ,ev5ts1 ,places1     
,p]sons1 ,animals1 ,plants1 ,m9]als1 &  
o!r ?+s conc]n+ :i* in=mation is ne$$ = 
an intellig5t & ?or\gh /udy ( ! ,holy   
,scriptures1 & ( ! ,books ( !           
,apocrypha4 ,illu/rat$ ) ,five ,hundr$  
,maps & ,engrav+s4 ,edit$ by ,rev4      
,,samuel ,w4 ,,b>num4 ,complete 9 "o    
l>ge royal octavo volume ( #a1bcd pages4
 ,price1 9 clo? b9d+1 #e4jj2 9 libr>y   
%eep1 #f4jj2 9 half morocco1 #g4ej4     
,,light ,,& ,,electricity4 ,notes ( ,two
 ,c\rses ( ,lectures be=e ! ,royal      
,in/itution ( ,great ,brita94 ,by ,,john
 ,,tyndall1 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 #a   
vol41 #abmo4 ,clo?4 ,price1 #a4be4      
,= ! b5efit ( ^? :o att5d$ 8 ,lectures  
on ,light &     ,electricity at ! ,royal
 ,in/itution4 ,pr(4 ,tyndall prep>$     
) mu* c>e a s]ies ( notes1 summ+ up     

briefly & cle>ly     ! lead+ facts &    
pr9ciples ( ^! sci5ces4 ,! notes        
prov$ s s]viceable to ^? = :om !y 7     
design$ t     !y 7 widely s\ght by      
/ud5ts & tea*]s1 & ,pr(4     ,tyndall _h
 !m repr9t$ 9 two small books4 ,"u !    
conviction t !y w be equally appreciat$ 
by in/ructors     & le>n]s 9 ?is c\ntry1
 !y are "h comb9$ &     republi%$ 9 a   
s+le volume4--,extract f ,preface4   ,,!
 ,,desc5t ,,( ,,man ,,& ,,selection ,,9 
,,relation ,,to ,,sex4 ,by ,,*>les      
,,d>w91 ,m4 ,a4 ,) ,illu/rations4 #b    
vols41 #abmo4 ,clo?4 ,price1 #d4jj4     
,we c f9d no fault ) ,mr4 ,d>w9's facts1
 or !     application ( !m4--,utica     
,h]ald4      ,! !ory is n[ indors$ by _m
 em95t sci5ti/s1 :o at     fir/ combat$ 
x1 includ+ ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 probably 
!     mo/ le>n$ ( liv+ geologi/s4--,ev5+
 ,bullet94   ,,on ,,! ,,g5esis ,,(      
,,species4 ,by ,,/4 ,,george ,,miv>t1   
,f4 ,r4 ,s4 #a vol41 #abmo4 ,clo?1 )    
,illu/rations4 ,price1 #a4ge4      ,mr4 
,miv>t has succe$$ 9 produc+ a "w :i* w 

cle>     ! ideas ( biologi/s &          
!ologians1 & :i* treats !     mo/       
delicate que/ions 9 a mann] :i* ?r[s    
light ^u mo/     ( !m1 & te>s away !    
b>ri]s ( intol]ance on ea*              
side4--,briti% ,m$ical ,j\rnal4         
,,m>quis ,,& ,,m]*ant4 ,a ,novel4 ,by   
,,mortim] ,,coll9s4 #a vol41 #hvo4 ,pap]
 cov]s4 ,price1 #ej c5ts4      ,we w n  
comp>e ,mr4 ,coll9s1 z a noveli/1 ) ,mr4
     ,disraeli1 b1 nev]!less1 !         
qualities :i* h made ,mr4               
,disraeli's fictions s widely popul> are
 to be f\nd 9 no     small degree 9 !   
pages ( ! au?or ( ',m>quis &            
,m]*ant4'--,times4   ,,he>tsease4 ,a    
,novel4 ,by ! au?or ( ! ,heir (         
,r$clyffe4 ,an ,illu/rat$ ,edition4 #b  
vols41 #abmo4 ,price1 #b4jj4      ,?is  
is ! second ( ! s]ies ( ,miss ,yonge's  
novels1 n[     be+ issu$ 9 a new &      
beautiful /yle ) illu/rations4     ,s9ce
 ?is novel 0 fir/ publi%$ a new g5]ation
 ( read]s     h appe>$4 ,no?+ 9 !       
,engli% language c equal !              

del9eation ( "* :i* %e s beautifully    
portrays4   ,,:at ,,to ,,read1 ,,& ,,h[ 
,,to ,,read1 be+ ,classifi$ ,li/s (     
,*oice ,read+1 ) appropriate h9ts &     
rem>ks1 adapt$ to ! g5]al read]1 to     
subscrib]s1 to libr>ies1 & to p]sons    
int5d+ to =m collections ( books4       
,br\ght d[n to ,septemb]1 #ahgj4 ,by    
,,*>les ,h4 ,,moore1 ,m4 ,d4 #a vol41   
#abmo4 ,pap] ,cov]s1 #ej c5ts4 ,clo?4   
,price1 #ge c5ts4         99       99   
99       99       99  ,transcrib]'s     
,note4  ,! foll[+ errors 9 ! orig9al    
text h be5 correct$ 9 ?is v]sion3  ,page
 #bj3 ,m9d on ,man *ang$ to ,m9d ( ,man 
,page #ba3 ,le ,notre *ang$ to ,le      
,notre  ,page #dd3 empiri/ *ang$ to     
empirici/  ,page #ge3 ,f5elon2 *ang$ to 
,f5elon2  ,page #ii3 metaphysicans *ang$
 to metaphysicians  ,page #aag3 ,greek3 
ektasis *ang$ to ,greek3 ek/asis  ,page 
#acf3 add$ miss+ comma aft] receives    
w>m?  ,page #afe3 resume *ang$ to resume
  ,page #ahb3 exqui/e *ang$ to exquisite
  ,page #ahd3 mon>h *ang$ to mon>*      

,page #bde3 miss+ semi-colon add$ aft]  
duty & "r  ,page #bfh3 de/rnction *ang$ 
to de/ruction  ,page #bgj3 depeud]e     
*ang$ to dep5d]e  ,page #cba3 miss+     
quotation m>k add$ aft] because x is j4 
,page #cbg3 inaccesible *ang$ to        
inaccessible  ,page #cef3 iuf9ite *ang$ 
to inf9ite  ,page #cfj3 s9ee *ang$ to   
s9ce  ,page #cfc3 extravagauce *ang$ to 
extravagance  ,page #cff3 obsconditus   
*ang$ to absconditus  ,page #cgd3       
,nonveau *ang$ to ,n\veau               
,allemange *ang$ to ,allemagne  ,page   
#cii3 analysi/ *ang$ to analy/