99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 ,the original publication has been replicated faithfully except as listed in the ,list ,of ,corrections at the end of the text4 ,words in italics are indicated like this4 99 99 99 99 99 ,appletons' ,world ,series ,,the ,,regions ,,of ,,the ,,world ,,edited ,,by ,h4 ,j4 ,,mackinder1 ,m4,a4 ,reader in ,geography in the ,university of ,oxford ,each complete in ,one ,volume1 ,large #hvo4 ,,britain ,,and ,,the ,,british ,,seas ,by the ,,editor ,,western ,,europe ,,and ,,the ,,mediterranean ,by ,,elisee ,,reclus ,,central ,,europe ,by ,,joseph ,,partsch1 ,ph4,d4 ,,scandinavia ,,and ,,the ,,arctic ,,region ,by ,sir ,,clements ,r4 ,,markham1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,president ,royal ,geog4 ,soc4 ,,the ,,russian ,,empire ,by ,,prince ,,kropotkin ,,the ,,nearer ,,east ,by ,d4 ,g4 ,,hogarth1 ,m4,a4 ,,africa ,by ,j4 ,,scott ,,keltie1 ,,ll4,d41 ,sec4 ,r4 ,g4 ,s4 ,,india ,by ,colonel ,sir ,,thomas ,,holdich1 ,k4,c4,i4,e41 ,c4,b41 ,r4,e4 ,,the ,,farther ,,east ,by ,,archibald ,,little ,,north ,,america ,by ,,israel ,c4 ,,russell1 ,,ll4,d4 ,,south ,,america ,by ,,john ,c4 ,,branner1 ,,ll4,d4 ,,australasia ,,and ,,antarctica ,by ,h4 ,o4 ,,forbes1 ,,ll4,d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,north ,america4 ,from a photograph of a relief map by ,victor and ,cosmos ,mindeleff4 ,scales of original3 ,horizontal1 #abj miles to #a inch2 vertical1 #dj1jjj feet to #a inch3 proportion1 #a3af4 ,,north ,,america ,,by ,,israel ,c4 ,,russell ,,professor ,,of ,,geology ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,michigan ,with ,maps and ,diagrams ,illustration ,,new ,,york ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company #aijd ,,copyright1 #aijd ,,by ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company ,,preface ,the aim of this book is to give a condensed and1 ,i trust1 readable account of the leading facts concerning the ,north ,american continent which1 from the point of view of the geographer1 seem most interesting and instructive4 ,the area of the continent is so vast and the diversity among its various parts so great1 however1 that the completeness of treatment which characterizes the preceding volumes in the series to which it belongs could not be attempted4 ,to obviate in a measure this confessed shortcoming1 there has been appended to each chapter a list of books which will enable the reader to continue the studies outlined in it4 ,a complete review of the geography of a continent should1 as it seems to me1 be divided into two parts3 first1 a discussion of the natural conditions1 or physical geography1 and1 second1 man's dependence on and use of the natural resources1 or economic geography4 ,each of these two leading phases of the subject was embraced in the preliminary outline of the present volume1 but owing to a desire to make each chapter as complete as practicable1 and also on account of limitations as to space1 the treatment of the economic phases of geography has been necessarily brief4 ,but little more can be claimed for the book as finished than that it is an attempt to describe some of the more prominent and attractive aspects of the natural conditions pertaining to ,north ,america4 ,while writing this book ,i have become more and more impressed with the incompleteness and inadequacy of the printed records relating to the geography of the continent of which it treats4 ,extensive tracts1 particularly in the far ,north1 have not been traversed by observant men1 vast areas throughout the continent have not been surveyed and mapped1 and even in the somewhat thickly inhabited portions of the more enlightened countries there are large districts in reference to the geography of which there is but little critical information available4 ,under these conditions it seemed best to select typical examples of various geographical features from the better known portions of the continent to represent the conditions throughout the less thoroughly explored domain in which they are situated1 and at the same time serve to illustrate the highly creditable advances made by ,american geographers in definitely formulating the principles of physiography4 ,the book may1 in a measure1 be considered as an attempt to present in popular form a report of progress concerning the study of the geographical development of ,north ,america at the beginning of the twentieth century4 ,i4 ,c4 ,r4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,the ,,margin ,,of ,,the ,,continent #a ,the continental shelf--,the submarine topography of the ,caribbean region--,movements of the ocean waters--,islands--,topography of the coast--,estuaries and harbours4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,topography ,,of ,,the ,,land #fj ,coastal plains and plateaus--,the ,atlantic mountains--,the continental basin--,the ,pacific mountains--,the ,antillean mountains4 ,,iii4 ,,climate #agc ,the elements of climate--,climatic provinces--,secondary disturbances of the atmosphere--,evaporation4 ,,iv4 ,,plant ,,life #bae ,the forests--,prairies1 treeless plains1 and plateaus--,the treeless mountain tops4 ,v4 ,,animal ,,life #beh ,general principles of geographical distribution--,life-regions and life-zones--,the mammals--,some representative mammals--,the birds4 ,,vi4 ,,geology #bii ,the growth of the continent--,the rocks of which the continent is composed--,the concentration of mineral substances4 ,,vii4 ,,the ,,aborigines #cee ,the ,eskimos--,the ,indians4 ,,viii4 ,,political ,,geography #djh ,classification of boundaries--,political control--,population in #aijj4 ,,index #dbg ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,coloured ,,maps ,,plate ,,page ,i4 ,orographical features #be ,,ii4 ,mean annual rainfall and temperature #agc ,,iii4 ,climate and life provinces #ahe ,,iv4 ,leading geological features #cjf ,v4 ,pleistocene glacial deposits #cae ,,vi4 ,linguistic stocks of ,indians ,north of ,mexico #cgj ,,vii4 ,distribution of governments #daj ,,viii4 ,characteristic vegetation #dah ,,other ,,illustrations ,,fig4 ,,page #a4 ,relief map of ,north ,america ,frontispiece #b4 ,profile of a continental shelf #b #c4 ,map of ,gulf of ,mexico and the ,caribbean region1 showing topography of the sea-floor #ag #d4 ,co-tidal lines #bi #e4 ,profile of sea-cliff and cut-and-built terrace #cc #f4 ,map of a portion of the ,atlantic coast of the ,united ,states #ce #g4 ,map of ,mobile ,bay #cf #h4 ,map of ,cape ,cod #cg #i4 ,map of the coast of ,texas #ci #aj4 ,map of a portion of the coast of ,maine #de #aa4 ,map of the coast of southeastern ,alaska #dg #ab4 ,map of the delta of the ,mississippi #ec #ac4 ,map giving the names of the larger physiographic divisions of ,north ,america #fa #ad4 ,altitude map of ,north ,america #fe #ae4 ,map of the ,appalachian ,mountains #gd #af4 ,section of anticlinal valleys and synclinal mountains #gh #ag4 ,profile showing relation of ancient peneplains in the ,appalachians #ha #ah4 ,section through the ,black ,hills of ,dakota #aag #ai4 ,sketch of the ,grand ,canyon of the ,colorado ,river #acd #bj4 ,map of the ,great ,basin #acg #ba4 ,map of ,crater ,lake1 ,oregon #aec #bb4 ,mount ,rainier1 ,washington #aed #bc4 ,map of ,puget ,sound #afa #bd4 ,map showing isobars for ,january and ,july #age #be4 ,ice-palace1 ,montreal #aii #bf4 ,map showing tracks of ,west ,indian hurricanes #bji #bg4 ,map showing depth of evaporation in the ,united ,states #bab #bh4 ,map showing distribution of forests #bae #bi4 ,douglas firs1 ,vancouver #bda #cj4 ,view in redwood forest of ,california1 from photograph by ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,forestry #bdb #ca4 ,bison at ,silver ,heights1 ,winnipeg #bge #cb4 ,map showing range of bison #bgf #cc4 ,maps showing the growth of the ,north ,american continent #cjc #cd4 ,map showing the distribution of coal-fields #ccf #ce4 ,ideal section through an oil and gas pool beneath an anticlinal #cci #cf4 ,lodge or tepee of ,blackfoot ,indians1 ,manitoba #chg #cg4 ,panorama of ,uxmal1 ,yucatan #cij #ch4 ,pointed arches in ,central ,american ruins #cic #ci4 ,carved stonework1 ,uxmal1 ,yucatan #cid ,,north ,,america ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,margin ,,of ,,the ,,continent--,,the ,,continental ,,shelf ,in beginning the study of the physical geography of ,north ,america1 one of the first facts to claim attention is that the true continental border is in general many miles seaward from the present margin of the land4 ,the boundary of our field of study is defined with considerable accuracy by a line drawn on the bottom of the sea adjacent to the present coast-line of the continent so as to pass through all points where the soundings show a depth of #ajj fathoms of water4 ,this #ajj-;fathom contour in the topography of the sea-floor chances to coincide in a general way with the outline of the submerged border of the continent2 landward from it the bottom rises with a gentle slope1 while seaward the descent is usually steep down to a depth of #b1jjj or more fathoms4 ,a gently sloping shelf-like border surrounds the deep central basin of the ,gulf of ,mexico 7,fig4 #c74 ,to the west and north of ,yucatan and west of ,florida the shelf is from #adj to #afj miles broad1 with a surface slope towards the centre of the ,gulf of less than #f feet to a mile--a slope so gentle that were the surface of the shelf exposed to view1 no eye could distinguish it from a perfect plain4 ,the deepest sounding yet obtained in the central part of the ,gulf1 approximately midway between ,yucatan and ,florida1 shows a depth of #b1aai fathoms4 ,the remarkable fact is that the slope from the #ajj-;fathom line to the bottom of the central basin of the ,gulf is precipitous4 ,in two places on the border of the ,yucatan bank a descent of about #h1ejj feet occurs within a horizontal distance of #ae or #bj miles4 ,on the east side of the southern extremity of ,florida1 and again on the eastern shore of ,yucatan1 the continental shelf is only about #e miles broad2 these are the nearest approaches of the present land to the actual border of the continent to be found on the ,atlantic coast4 ,the explanation of these exceptional conditions is that both ,florida and ,yucatan are portions of the continental shelf which have been raised so as to form low emerged plains4 ,from ,cape ,hatteras northward to the extremity of the ,newfoundland ,banks the shelf increases gradually in breadth from about #ae miles in the region of the ,carolinas to over #ajj miles off the coast of ,maine4 ,the outer border of the shelf is an irregular curving line4 ,opposite the coast of ,massachusetts and ,maine an extension of the ,atlantic basin reaches within #ae or #bj miles of the present margin of the land4 ,the manner in which the low plain fringing the eastern border of the ,united ,states passes beneath the waters of the ,atlantic and becomes a continental shelf is illustrated by ,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,ideal profile through a continental shelf4 ,southeast of ,newfoundland the continental shelf has an irregular surface1 marked by shoals and depressions1 and furnishes the most valuable fishing-banks in the world4 ,the #ajj-;fathom curve is there over #ejj miles from the coast4 ,this is the broadest portion of the continental shelf now known on the ,atlantic border of the continent4 ,northward of ,newfoundland the ,atlantic basin extends far into ,davis ,strait and ,baffin ,bay1 and then its border swings outward about ,greenland1 but its true margin is there but imperfectly known4 ,to the north of the arctic coast of ,north ,america1 as is suggested in part by the soundings made by ,nansen1 the submerged margin of the continent is probably broad and presents a steep escarpment to the arctic basin1 but the outline of the true continent1 as in the case of the present land extension in that direction1 is unknown4 ,soundings to the north of ,cape ,lisburne1 on the northwest coast of ,alaska1 show that the #ajj-;fathom curve is there over #bjj miles from land4 ,the exceptionally shallow sea covering this portion of the shelf continues westward to the coast of ,asia1 and southward through ,bering ,strait1 so as to embrace the eastern portion of ,bering ,sea4 ,the continental mass of ,north ,america is thus directly connected with the continental mass of ,asia4 ,a rise of the bottom of less than #bjj feet in ,bering ,strait would bring about a land connection between the ,old and the ,new ,world4 ,this1 as will appear later1 is a most significant fact to students of geography and geology4 ,on the ,pacific coast of ,north ,america the continental shelf is throughout much narrower than its average breadth on the ,atlantic side of the continent1 and is also more deeply submerged on its seaward border4 ,the broad platform beneath the northern and eastern portions of ,bering ,sea--from which rise the low islands1 ,st4 ,lawrence1 ,st4 ,matthew1 ,nunivak1 and the ,pribilof group1 now separated by water from #be to #ce fathoms deep--extends to the south of the more easterly of the ,aleutian ,islands1 and is prolonged eastward along the south border of ,alaska1 where the #ajj-;fathom curve is from #aj to #bj miles from the coast-line1 and approaches still nearer the land in the neighbourhood of the islands of southeastern ,alaska and ,british ,columbia4 ,the shelf is narrow but well defined along the coasts of ,washington and ,oregon4 ,adjacent to ,california1 ,mexico1 and ,central ,america1 its outer margin is barely #aj miles from land4 ,throughout the entire distance from the ,aleutian ,islands to ,panama the outer border of the shelf is in general well defined1 and its seaward escarpment descends abruptly to the floor of the vast ,pacific basin1 where the sounding-line shows depths of from #b1jjj to #c1jjj fathoms4 ,could the waters of the sea be removed and ,north ,america viewed from a distance1 in the manner we are enabled to examine the surface features of the moon through a powerful telescope1 an observer would behold a great plateau1 having the present well-known triangular shape of the continent1 rising boldly between the ,atlantic and the ,pacific basins4 ,the surface of the plateau would be rough1 in comparison with the generally smooth contours of the adjacent troughs1 but even the highest mountains would be less in elevation above its general surface than the crests of its bordering escarpments above the adjacent depressions4 ,the mountain-peaks when illuminated by the sun would appear as points of light with long1 tapering morning and evening shadows1 and the east and west plateau-borders would be strongly drawn bands of light or shadow1 according to the time of day1 #f1jjj or #h1jjj miles in length4 ,the ,bermuda1 ,hawaiian1 and other islands now rising above the surface of the deep sea would stand on its desiccated floor as isolated1 gigantic mountains--,bermuda mountain with an elevation of #ae1jjj feet1 and the ,hawaiian group of peaks with a culminating point of light #cj1jjj feet above the surrounding plain4 ,the bordering slopes of the ,north ,american plateau and its slightly bevelled margin forming the present continental shelf would be lacking in details1 and appear as a vast1 smooth1 curving belt of light or shadow1 in striking contrast to the roughened surface now above water4 ,the ,north ,american continent is not exceptional in being partially submerged at the present time4 ,similar conditions occur about the margins of other continents which1 as is well known1 are fringed with broad submarine terraces built in part of their own debris4 ,in fact1 every large land mass on the earth under existing climatic conditions and present distribution of life1 if it remained moderately stable for a sufficient length of time1 would have a submarine shelf built about its borders4 ,of what is the ,continental ,shelf ,composed8--,the rocks forming the present land surface of ,north ,america extend seaward from the existing shores and constitute the basal portions of the continental shelf1 thus suggesting that the submerged platform is due1 in part at least1 to shore erosion--the waves having eaten into the land so as to make a terrace4 ,that this is not the true explanation1 however1 may be shown in several ways4 ,the superficial covering which gives the continental shelf its smooth contours is composed largely of sediments such as rivers bring from the land4 ,this material is coarsest and in greatest abundance near shore and decreases both in the size of the particles composing it and in abundance towards the seaward borders of the shelf4 ,the wash from the land is mostly deposited within a few miles of the coast-line and1 as has been shown by dredging1 is seldom carried1 even under the most favourable conditions1 more than about #ajj miles seaward4 ,supplementing the fragmental material derived from the land1 and increasing in thickness towards the seaward margin of the continental shelf--coincident with the increase in depth of the water--is a deposit of light-coloured calcareous mud or ooze1 formed of the hard parts of animals and plants which live in the waters of the sea4 ,the organisms which supply this material are in the main microscopic and live especially in the warmer seas in countless myriads4 ,their dead shells or cases fall to the sea-floor in a constant shower1 much as the snow falls from the air1 but continuously year after year and century after century4 ,this descent of the hard parts of organisms1 both calcareous and siliceous1 from the waters of the sea has led to the accumulation of a sheet of slimy sediment over almost the entire sea-bottom4 ,how thick this layer is we have no means of knowing1 but it is probably many hundreds of feet4 ,the organic debris falling on the continental shelf descends through only a few hundred feet of water and is but little affected by its solvent action4 ,the great number of organisms1 such as the ,foraminifera which secrete calcareous tests or shells causes the slime on the continental shelves to be calcareous and in the condition to form limestone if cemented or subjected to sufficient pressure4 ,in the deep sea1 where the hard parts of dead organisms fall through many thousands of feet of water1 their more soluble portions are removed and the bottom is covered throughout vast areas with a pinkish clay composed of the more insoluble residue of the calcareous shells and the cases of silica-secreting animals and plants4 ,the continental shelves are1 in general1 within the influences of ocean currents1 and fine debris1 as we seem justified in concluding1 is removed from their surfaces1 carried beyond their margins1 and deposited on their seaward slopes4 ,the shelves are thus built outward and are largely constructional topographic forms4 ,their outer slopes1 where best defined1 represent about the angle of repose in water of the fine material of which they are composed4 ,these slopes are in several regions so precipitous that they probably would not retain their present forms1 but descend in landslides1 should the restraining pressure of the sea-water be removed4 ,in certain favoured regions1 as about the southern extremity of ,florida1 over an extensive area in the ,west ,indies1 and on both sides of ,central ,america1 the conditions favour the growth of reef-building coral-polyps1 and portions of the continental shelf in that region are covered with an irregular layer of living coral and dead coral rock4 ,the importance of this resistant superficial layer on the minor features of the relief of the submarine banks1 etc41 needs to be considered in studying the secondary topographic features of many portions of the floor of shallow tropical seas4 ,in addition to the debris from the land and the rain of the hard parts of organisms from the water covering the continental shelf there is in northern regions a third but less important source of material furnished by floating ice4 ,about the northern shores of ,america sea ice forms in winter1 some of which is frozen fast to boulders and stones in shallow water1 and when this ice-foot1 as it is termed1 is adjacent to steep cliffs1 rock debris falls upon it4 ,when the ice becomes broken into cakes in the spring-time or during storms1 it floats away1 under the influence of the winds and currents1 and as it melts drops its freight on the floor of the sea4 ,this shore ice seldom travels far1 and is probably not an important factor in the building of continental shelves4 ,of greater interest are the bergs derived from glaciers1 especially in ,greenland1 many of which contain hundreds of thousands and even millions of cubic feet of ice and travel hundreds of miles before melting4 ,in some instances these bergs carry with them rock masses1 mud1 etc41 derived from the land over which their parent glaciers flowed1 and as they melt1 distribute this material over the sea-floor4 ,the greater portion of this ice-carried freight derived from ,greenland is dropped on the continental shelf1 and not infrequently reaches the latitude of ,halifax1 and even journeys farther south4 ,this berg-carried debris is mainly deposited on the continental shelf1 for the reason that the cold currents which bring the bergs southward follow the coast in a general way1 and are bordered on their seaward margins by warmer currents flowing northward4 ,to the north of ,nova ,scotia the additions of material to the continental shelf through the agency of bergs is considerable in the aggregate1 and as the process has been in operation for thousands of years1 the banks or shoals in the sea off the ,newfoundland coast are due in part to this cause4 ,ice-carried debris forms an important source of material for the building of the continental shelf from ,new ,england northward and westward about the shores of ,north ,america1 including ,greenland1 to ,bering ,sea1 and to a less extent on the south coast of ,alaska1 where many comparatively small bergs are set afloat by glaciers which reach tide-water4 ,supplementing the distribution of debris over the continental shelf by shore ice and bergs1 is the similar work carried on by the ice discharged into the sea by northern rivers1 such as the ,st4 ,lawrence1 ,mackenzie1 and the ,yukon4 ,during the glacial epoch great ice-sheets like those now discharging bergs along the ,greenland coast1 but vastly larger1 entered the ,atlantic all the way from ,new ,york to the ,arctic ,ocean1 and along the ,pacific coast from the ,aleutian ,islands to the ,state of ,washington4 ,during certain periods of this time of intense glaciation great additions of ice-borne debris must have been made to the continental shelf4 ,the banks to the east of ,newfoundland and other similar shoals as far south as ,nantucket are probably due in large part to the debris deposited by the glaciers which formerly entered the sea in that region4 ,it is of interest in this connection to note that the glaciers1 even at the time of their greatest expansion1 could not have extended beyond the seaward margin of the continental shelf1 for the reason that on passing that boundary and entering deep water they must have broken off and given origin to bergs4 ,submerged ,river ,channels4--,one of the most interesting features in connection with the continental shelf bordering ,north ,america is that its generally plane surface is trenched in several places by canyon-like depressions similar to the narrow steep-sided valleys which streams sometimes cut in the surfaces of plateaus4 ,this suggestion that the surface of the continental shelf is crossed by stream-cut channels is supported by the fact that several such depressions1 leading seaward from the present mouths of large rivers1 have been discovered by the sounding-line4 ,the best known example occurs off the mouth of the ,hudson and has been traced from ,new ,york ,bay about #abj miles seaward to the edge of the continental shelf4 ,it is deepest and best defined on the outer portion of the submerged plateau1 where for a distance of #bc miles1 beginning #ig miles from ,sandy ,hook1 it has an average width of #c miles and a maximum depth of about #b1ejj feet below the surface of the bordering submarine plain1 which has #bj fathoms of water over it4 ,this canyon opens out in the seaward face of the plateau and forms a deep notch in the generally uniform crest-line of that escarpment4 ,farther up-stream1 so to speak1 the channel narrows to a mile and a quarter1 with some irregularities in depth1 and near ,sandy ,hook it is not apparent1 owing to the amount of debris1 largely sand1 swept into it by shore currents4 ,this evidence1 strengthened by the fact that the true rock-cut valley of the ,hudson as far as ,troy is filled with clay and sand to a considerable but unknown depth1 is abundant proof that the land was formerly higher than at present by at least #c1jjj feet1 and that the now submerged continental shelf off ,long ,island was then a plain above water1 across which the ancient ,hudson was extended4 ,the river flowed across this plain for a sufficient length of time to excavate a canyon over #b1ejj feet deep and #c miles wide from crest to crest of its walls in its seaward portion4 ,this submerged channel has the characteristics of a young1 stream-cut valley and suggests that the plain across which it flowed to the eastward of ,long ,island was a submerged continental shelf previous to being upraised so as to be trenched by the ,hudson4 ,the evidence as to changes in the elevation of the ,atlantic coast furnished by the submerged valley of the ,hudson does not stand alone4 ,similar but less well-defined channels have been discovered by soundings off the mouths of the ,delaware and the ,susquehanna1 while the most remarkable instance of all is furnished by the submerged valley of the ,st4 ,lawrence1 which has been traced through the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence and out to the brink of the submerged continental escarpment some #bjj miles eastward of ,nova ,scotia4 ,the tide now rises and falls in the ,st4 ,lawrence to within a few miles of ,montreal2 that is1 the ,greater ,st4 ,lawrence has lost about #a1jjj miles of its length owing to a downward movement of the land4 ,evidence of the nature just considered is lacking1 or1 more correctly1 surveys and soundings which would perhaps reveal the presence of submerged river channels have not been made about the shores of the more northerly portion of the continent1 but instructive results in this connection are to be expected when that region is thoroughly studied4 ,on the ,pacific coast several transverse channels in the continental shelf1 similar to the submerged valleys of the ,hudson1 have been discovered by soundings1 some of which are thought to be true stream-cut valleys2 others1 however1 start from the coast where there are no rivers entering1 and may be due to other and as yet unknown causes4 ,an exceptional feature in the geography of the ,pacific coast to the south of the ,united ,states-,canadian boundary is furnished by the islands off the southern portion of ,california4 ,these islands1 of which ,santa ,rosa1 ,santa ,cruz1 ,santa ,catalina1 and ,san ,clemente are the most important1 rise from water that is #cjj or more fathoms deep to a height of from a few hundred to about #b1jjj feet above the present sea-level4 ,these islands are the summit portions of mountains similar to those which give a characteristic relief to southern ,california4 ,one feature concerning the islands referred to which is of interest in connection with the study of the continental shelf is the presence on them of numerous terraces4 ,these occur on a series of level1 step-like areas1 which sweep about the slopes of the islands1 in a general way parallel to the present shore-line1 and are records of an upward movement of the land4 ,the highest well-defined terrace on ,san ,clemente occurs at an elevation of #a1cbj feet1 but there are less distinct beach-lines up to #a1ejj feet above the present sea-level4 ,the evidence of movements of the land along the ,pacific border of the continent might be multiplied1 but enough has been stated to show that the western border of ,north ,america1 like its eastern portion1 is subject to fluctuation in reference to the level of the sea4 ,the line which marks the passage of the solid earth beneath the waters of the sea is ever changing1 owing to movements in the earth's crust4 ,it is ever changing1 also1 owing to the action of waves and currents on the ocean's shores and other causes4 ,life on the ,continental ,shelf4--,no attempt need be made here to give an accurate description of the plants and animals which find a congenial home on the continental shelf4 ,one needs1 however1 to have in mind a general idea of the wonderful abundance and variety of organic forms in the shallow waters adjacent to the continent to fully appreciate the changes in the relief of the ocean-floor1 in which they play a leading part1 and also the vast economic importance of these marine harvest-fields and pastures1 as they may be termed4 ,the continental shelf fringing ,north ,america reaches from within #ejj miles of the equator to probably a less distance of the north pole4 ,its length following its broader curves is in the neighbourhood of #be1jjj miles1 and its average width is not far from #ej miles2 its area is therefore something like #a1jjj1jjj square miles4 ,on account of the vast extent of this submarine plain and its great range in latitude1 the conditions influencing the lives of the plants and animals inhabiting its surface or living in the waters covering it vary from place to place between wide extremes4 ,the waters resting on it have a mean annual surface temperature of from #gj deg4 to #hj deg4 ,f4 at the south1 and about #cb deg4 ,f4 at the north4 ,in places great rivers and the turbid waters from glaciers bring in sediments and form muddy deposits2 at other localities the currents1 as in the path of the ,gulf ,stream off the ,carolina coast1 sweep the bottom clear of all light debris2 and again bare rocks of limited extent are exposed4 ,the depth of the water resting on the shelf varies through all gradations down to #ajj fathoms4 ,at the south the hours of light and darkness are approximately equal each day1 but at the north there are six months of sunlight and six months of darkness each year4 ,still other variations1 as of strength of currents1 salinity1 etc41 exert an influence in this realm and lead to great diversity in its living organisms4 ,throughout its entire extent1 however1 the continental shelf abounds in both plant and animal life4 ,the plant life of the sea1 as has been shown in recent years by the use of the dredge and net1 is most abundant at the surface and is practically absent at the bottom where the water is over #ajj fathoms deep4 ,the animals of the sea1 like those of the land1 are dependent primarily on plants for their food4 ,by far the most abundant supply of food plants in the sea is furnished by minute algae1 which float free in its water4 ,below a depth of about #ajj fathoms algae are absent because of lack of light1 and all the deep-sea animals are believed to be carnivorous4 ,for these reasons the comparatively shallow waters adjacent to the land and mainly covering the continental shelf are the most favourably circumstanced of any portion of the sea for the support of a teeming fauna4 ,on the continental shelf of ,north ,america1 especially to the south of ,cape ,cod on the ,atlantic and south of the ,aleutian ,islands on the ,pacific coast1 there is a warm temperature1 light penetrates to the bottom except in the unfavourable and fortunately restricted areas of muddy water1 and motion of the waters produced by currents and the pulsations of waves is present4 ,these several favourable conditions permit of an exuberance of life such as is unknown to persons who confine their attention to the study of land areas4 ,we may safely say1 in the words of ,alexander ,agassiz1 that the abundance of life in the many favoured localities of the ocean far surpasses that of the richest terrestrial faunal districts4 ,the most thickly populated tropical jungle does not compare in wealth of animal or vegetable life with certain portions of the continental shelf on the western border of the ,gulf ,stream4 ,in this connection we may also cite ,humboldt1 who before the marvellous revelations in reference to the life of the sea made by recent dredging expeditions wrote3 ,upon surfaces less varied than we find on continents1 the sea contains in its bosom an exuberance of life of which no other portion of the globe could give us an idea4 ,the distribution of life in the sea is analogous to the distribution of life on land1 but in a reverse direction with reference to sea-level4 ,a traveller passing from the tropical plains of eastern ,mexico and ascending ,orizaba1 for example1 crosses successive belts of vegetation1 each with its indigenous animals1 but merging one with another so as to make a gradation in the luxuriance of the flora and the abundance of animal life from the wonderfully rich plains adjacent to the ,gulf coast to the snow-capped mountain top4 ,in the sea1 the tropical plains with their tangled vegetation and plentiful animal life are represented by the still more uniform plain forming the submerged continental shelf with its strange forests of flowerless plants1 the seaweeds4 ,these submarine jungles shelter hosts of animal species1 many of which swarm in countless myriads4 ,this life embraces all grades of invertebrates1 such as the microscopic protozoa1 sponges1 radiate animals like the coral-polyps1 starfishes1 sea-urchins1 etc41 and crustaceans in vast variety1 and1 among vertebrates1 includes fishes1 reptiles1 and mammals4 ,even birds might be included in this category1 since many of them are more at home on the sea than on the land4 ,the struggle for food among this multitude is intense4 ,as with many animals on the land1 adaptive coloration is here a means of escape from enemies1 and many of the animals assume the brilliant hues of the surrounding vegetation4 ,the water is less transparent than air1 and in the deep sea it is always night4 ,counteracting to some extent this diminution or absence of sunlight1 many marine animals are luminous and shine with phosphorescent light of many different tints4 ,this property is shared also by the animals of the sunny1 shallow sea as well as by those always living in the cold midnight of the great deep and in the polar oceans4 ,the luxuriant vegetation1 both attached and floating1 and varying from giant kelp1 scores of feet in length1 to microscopic algae which an amoeba might encompass1 clothes the surface of the continental shelf except in unfavourable localities or is carried here and there by the currents moving over it1 but has its lower limit at about the #ajj-;fathom line4 ,this inferior limit of marine vegetation is probably more definitely defined than the superior limit of land plants on snow-capped mountains4 ,all attached seaweeds are confined to the shallow seas1 but floating kelp1 like the well-known ,gulf weed or sargasso1 which collects in the eddies of the sea currents and forms more or less mythical floating islands1 is widely distributed1 as are also many kinds of minute algae which thrive in the upper #ajj fathoms of the open ocean in all latitudes4 ,the primary source of food for the hungry millions of marine animals1 excepting the comparatively small quantity brought by rivers or blown from the land1 is supplied by the marine algae1 and mainly by the minute forms which float in the water4 ,so much space has just been given to the marvellous luxuriance of life on the southern portion of the great shelf surrounding ,north ,america that the reader may perhaps think the cold northern oceans are even more lifeless and desolate than their adjacent shores4 ,this1 however1 is not the case4 ,northward along the continental shelf1 with decrease in the strength of the sunlight1 the plants and animals lose much of the brilliancy which characterizes many of the denizens of southern waters1 and in general assume more subdued colours in harmony with the prevailing gray of their surroundings4 ,the great diversity of animal life to be found in shallow tropical seas decreases as one traces the continental shelf northward1 but even in the ,arctic ,ocean adjacent to the land invertebrate life literally swarms1 although the number of species1 genera1 etc41 is comparatively limited4 ,seaweeds are not absent from the ,arctic ,ocean1 although its shores1 owing to the destructive action of ice1 usually seem exceedingly barren1 and the lower or smaller forms of algae float in the waters in abundance4 ,food sufficient for an extensive fauna is thus supplied1 and where food is plentiful animals are present also1 no matter what the mean annual temperature may be4 ,the life of the ,arctic ,ocean has been but inadequately studied1 but enough is known concerning it to show that a promising field there awaits the naturalist4 ,on the continental shelf off ,point ,barrow1 the most northern portion of the arctic shore of ,alaska 7latitude #ga deg4 #bc'71 #ahj species of marine invertebrates have been collected4 ,of these1 the molluscs numbered #fa species2 the crustaceans1 #dd species2 the worms1 #bj species2 and the echinoderms 7sea-urchins1 starfish1 etc471 #ag species4 ,nearly all of the ,arctic ,ocean adjacent to the coast of ,america is as yet unexplored1 and we have therefore no direct testimony as to its flora and fauna4 ,we may reasonably assume1 however1 that the life is there practically the same as in the waters of similar depth to the north of ,eurasia4 ,nordenskioeld1 in his narrative of the voyage of the ,vega1 speaks of decapods1 worms1 mussels1 crustacea1 and asteroids which crawled in myriads over the beds of clay and sand at the bottom of the ,kara ,sea4 ,a detailed account is given of one unusually successful haul of the trawl when it brought up large asteroids1 sponges1 crinoids1 holothuria1 a gigantic spider1 masses of worms1 crustacea1 etc4 ,this was the most abundant yield of the trawl-net at any one time during the voyage of the ,vega on the north coast of ,asia1 and that1 too1 from the sea off the northern extremity of the continent4 ,the temperature of the water at the surface was from zero to -#a4d deg4 ,c4 7#cb deg4 to #bi4dh deg4 ,f471 and at the bottom from -#a4d deg4 to #a4f deg4 ,c4 7#bi4dh deg4 to #cd4hh deg4 ,f474 ,in this connection the same distinguished naturalist remarks3 ,it is singular that a temperature under the freezing-point of pure water should be advantageous for the development of an animal life so extremely rich as that which is found here1 and that this animal life should not suffer any harm from the complete darkness which during the greater portion of the year prevails at the bottom of the ice-covered sea4 ,to persons who have never visited the far north the statements that travellers in those regions give in reference to the abundance of life in the sea seems scarcely to be credited4 ,the assertion1 however1 that comparing equal areas in the most populous tropical sea and in portions of the ,arctic ,ocean1 the amount of life1 or the tons of living animal matter per square mile in the two regions1 would be in favour of the northern station is probably true4 ,in addition to the direct evidence indicated above as to the prolific invertebrate life of the cold waters of the north1 we have still more impressive testimony from the vast numbers of birds and large-sized mammals which subsist on this abundance1 or feed on fishes1 which in turn obtain their subsistence from the invertebrate realm4 ,every rocky island and headland at the north is a breeding-place for sea-birds4 ,they are to be numbered by millions1 yet their daily food is gathered from the surface of the sea4 ,the seals live in large numbers about all the arctic shore1 and the walruses1 each individual weighing about a ton1 occur in herds2 while whales and narwhals inhabit the same waters4 ,the presence of such numbers of large mammals is proof that the life on which they subsist is abundant4 ,,the ,,submarine ,,topography ,,of ,,the ,,caribbean ,,region ,the studies which have given to the world so much information concerning the continental shelf surrounding the main body of ,north ,america have been continued1 or1 perhaps more properly1 were initiated1 in the ,west ,indian waters4 ,for this important work we are indebted mainly to the ,united ,states ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey and the ,united ,states ,fish ,commission4 ,the work of officers of the ,united ,states ,navy in charge of ,coast ,survey and ,fish ,commission vessels1 in making accurate measurements of depths1 temperatures1 strength and direction of currents1 character of bottom1 etc41 has1 in some instances1 been commemorated on maps of the sea-floor by such names as ,brownson ,deep1 ,sigsbee ,deep1 ,bartlett ,deep1 etc4 ,the routine survey work referred to has been supplemented and extended by the labours of ,louis ,agassiz1 ,l4 ,f4 ,pourtales1 ,alexander ,agassiz1 and others in studying the life in the sea1 the origin and history of the material forming the sea-bottom1 and the nature of the shelves1 banks1 deeps1 etc41 which give diversity to its topography4 ,the continental shelf bordering ,florida on the east is separated from a similar submarine embankment surrounding the ,bahama ,islands by a channel #ef miles wide and from #bjj to #ejj fathoms deep 7,fig4 #c74 ,this channel when followed northward becomes shallower and broader1 and opposite the ,carolina coast is no longer discernible in the relief of the broad continental shelf4 ,the ,gulf ,stream flows northward through this ,florida channel1 as it is termed1 with a current of from #b to #f miles per hour4 ,these conditions are such as to suggest that the channel referred to has in part been excavated by the ,gulf ,stream4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,gulf of ,mexico and the ,caribbean region3 topography of sea-floor4 ,the first contour line from the land indicates a depth of #fjj feet--the outer margin of the continental shelf4 ,contour interval below the #fjj-;foot curve1 #c1jjj feet4 ,after ,r4 ,t4 ,hill4 ,the ,great ,bahama ,bank1 from which rise the low coral-built ,andros ,islands and a large number of crags and rocks1 measures about #cfj geographical miles from southeast to northwest1 and has a width of approximately #bjj geographical miles4 ,throughout its entire submerged portion the water is less than #ajj1 and over much of the area less than #aj fathoms deep4 ,it is invaded and given an irregular shape1 however1 by a tongue of the ocean which curves in from the northward1 in which soundings of from #gjj to #a1jjj fathoms have been obtained4 ,to the north of the ,great ,bahama ,bank1 and separated from it by water nearly #b1jjj fathoms deep1 is the ,little ,bahama ,bank1 measuring #ej by #aej geographical miles1 from which rises the low islands known as ,great ,bahama1 ,great ,abaco1 and a multitude of islets and crags1 while beneath the water1 as is the case also on the greater submarine plateau to the south1 there are numerous shoals4 ,southeast from the ,great ,bahama ,bank1 and in a general view to be classed with it1 are several other shallow areas in the sea1 of similar character1 and with numerous islands and reefs rising from them4 ,the southeastern terminus of this series of plateaus1 the surfaces of which have been built up practically to the level of the surface of the sea1 is the ,navidad ,bank1 situated about #ej miles to the north of the eastern end of the island of ,santo ,domingo 7,haiti7 and forms the west border of ,brownson ,deep4 ,the length of the series of banks to the north of the ,greater ,antilles is about #hjj1 and its average width #abj geographical miles4 ,the unevenness of the surface of the ,bahama ,banks 7and the same is true also of the southern portion of ,florida1 the ,yucatan peninsula1 and of nearly all of the submarine plateaus or banks in ,west ,india waters7 is largely due to the coral reefs and the coral rock formed on them4 ,while the outer portion of the continental shelf1 in most instances1 is formed of soft1 unconsolidated calcareous mud or ooze1 in the tropical seas1 where the depth1 clearness of the water1 etc41 are favourable1 reef-building coral-polyps become attached and form massive corals4 ,the growth of these corals is irregular1 and the surface of the plateaus where they are attached becomes roughened4 ,there is a delicate adjustment between the growth of reef-building corals and strength of current1 freedom of exposure to the waves1 etc41 and they flourish in certain localities1 as on the windward border of islands1 and die at other localities4 ,the growth of coral heads and reefs changes the direction of currents1 and the spaces of soft ooze and dead coral between the localities most favourable for coral growth are liable to be scoured out and the bottom lowered4 ,when coral1 together with the shells of molluscs and other organic refuse of the teeming life of tropical seas1 reaches the surface of the water1 fragments and even large masses are broken off by the force of the waves1 ground into calcareous sand owing to the movements produced by the waves and currents1 and much of it heaped on the borders of the reefs so as to raise them above the fair-weather level of the sea4 ,much of this material1 when it becomes dry1 is moved by the winds and built into dunes1 thus still further increasing the height of the land4 ,many of the islands in the ,bahamas have thus been formed1 but the process has been modified in the greater part of that region by movements in the earth's crust which have produced widely extended elevations and depressions4 ,the larger islands in the ,bahama group are coral platforms which have been moderately elevated1 and bear on their surfaces extensive accumulations of wind-deposited sand4 ,the ,yucatan peninsula is also1 to a great extent1 an upraised coral platform4 ,the surfaces of such exposed areas of easily soluble calcareous rocks are roughened still more by the action of rain and percolating waters1 and if subsequently submerged to a moderate depth would give origin to banks with uneven1 and possibly conspicuously roughened surfaces4 ,different stages in this varied history are illustrated throughout the ,west ,india region4 ,about the ,caribbean coast of ,honduras and ,nicaragua the continental shelf is broad and is termed the ,mosquito ,bank1 in reference to its proximity to the widely known coast of that name4 ,off the northeast cape of ,honduras this submerged shelf has a breadth of about #abe geographical miles1 and is succeeded to the eastward by the much smaller1 isolated1 submarine plateau known as the ,rosalind ,bank4 ,even on a small map1 like that forming ,fig4 #c1 it is readily seen that in general terms there is a series of banks and low islands extending from the ,mosquito ,coast to ,jamaica1 ,santo ,domingo1 ,porto ,rico1 and the ,caribbees4 ,the distance measured along the curved line connecting the several areas of shallow water is about #a1gjj geographical miles4 ,should this region be upraised #fjj feet1 the new lands that would appear would still1 in several instances1 be separated by deep water1 thus showing that although in a generalized view it is convenient to consider the banks and shelves referred to as parts of a single great group1 there are several centres from which they have grown4 ,a third great group of banks and shoals occurs about the borders of ,cuba1 especially along its southern margin4 ,associated with this submerged plain of calcareous mud1 roughened by countless coral crags1 is a narrow east-and-west ridge in the ,caribbean ,sea1 known in part as the ,misteriosa ,bank1 which rises precipitously on its southeast border from a depth of over #c1djj fathoms1 and is indicated at the surface by the ,cayman ,islands4 ,the ,caribbean and ,gulf of ,mexico region has great depressions or deeps as well as broad banks or shoals4 ,the submarine topography is1 in fact1 on a more ,titanic scale than in any other known region4 ,brownson ,deep1 some #ej miles north of ,porto ,rico1 has a depth of #d1efa fathoms 7#bg1cff feet71 and the bordering slopes of the depression in certain places1 and for long distances1 have an inclination of #ce degrees4 ,between #ae and #cj miles south of ,porto ,rico the bottom of the ,caribbean ,sea is #a1ejj fathoms below its surface1 and rapidly descends to over #b1djj fathoms4 ,bartlett ,deep1 a long1 narrow depression in the sea-floor1 intervening in its eastern portion between ,cuba and ,jamaica1 has a depth of #c1dbh fathoms 7#bj1efh feet7 measured from the surface of the sea4 ,sigsbee ,deep1 in the central portion of the ,gulf of ,mexico1 is a third basin of similar nature1 remarkable for the great extent of its nearly level floor1 which is from #b1jce to #b1jga fathoms below sea-level4 7,on ,fig4 #c only the general depths of these great depressions are indicated47 ,coupled with the profound depth of the sea in the ,west ,indian region are the rugged mountains of the ,great ,antilles and the volcanic cones of the ,caribbees4 ,some of the elevations of the land referred to are1 in feet1 as follows3 ,porto ,rico1 #c1fji2 ,jamaica1 #g1cfj2 ,cuba1 #h1fjj2 and ,santo ,domingo1 #aj1cjj4 ,the extreme range in the relief of the surface of the solid earth 7lithosphere7 between the bottom of ,brownson ,deep and the summit of ,santo ,domingo is #cg1fff feet--the horizontal distance between the two is about #bgj geographical miles4 ,no mountain on the earth has such an elevation above sea-level4 ,the islands of the ,west ,indies are thus shown to be the summits of stupendous mountains1 the greater portions of which are submerged4 ,the low-lying islands1 and even the banks which can be discovered only with the aid of the sounding-line1 are in reality the tops of wonderfully steep mountains or plateaus some #bj1jjj feet in height4 ,it is a significant fact that the profiles of the partially or wholly submerged mountains of the ,west ,indies are1 as a rule1 steeper than the slopes of the mountains on the land with which they may reasonably be compared4 ,this is due in part1 perhaps1 to the greater density of the medium in which they stand1 the sea-water affording a greater degree of support than the air1 but the main reason is that beneath a few hundred feet of water there is no erosion except the exceedingly slow removal of matter in solution4 ,could the waters of the sea be withdrawn so as to reveal the ,caribbean ,mountains in all of their stupendous grandeur1 the vast1 smooth1 sweeping surfaces extending from the horizontal lines drawn about the higher summits by the waves and by the deposition of sediment and coral growths1 down to their bases would be unmarked by channels and ridges of the character that give details to the type of mountains with which we are most familiar4 ,an instructive generalization concerning the relief of the ,west ,india region1 suggested by ,alexander ,agassiz and sustained by the later studies of ,r4 ,t4 ,hill1 is that we there find topographic forms produced by movements in the earth's crust which have not been modified by erosion4 ,the great elevations rising from the floors of the deeps are upraised blocks of the earth's crust which have not been beaten by rain1 shattered by frost1 or trenched by rills1 creeks1 or rivers4 ,they illustrate the character of the rough blocks of rock from which many of the mountain forms of the land have been sculptured4 ,this sweeping view1 which it seems safe to accept as a generalized outline of the history of the topography of the region in question1 needs to be qualified1 as there are known to have been extensive up and down movements throughout large areas in that portion of the earth's surface4 ,the mountains on ,jamaica are scored by horizontal lines marking former sea-levels up to a height of #b1jjj feet1 and similar and still higher records are plainly visible on several of the larger ,west ,india islands4 ,this evidence shows that the present land over a wide extent of the ,caribbean region was formerly deeply submerged4 ,more than this1 the rocks forming the higher portions of the ,greater ,antilles are largely composed of more or less consolidated ooze1 such as is now found on the sea-floor in deep water4 ,this line of evidence shows that what in late geological time was the sea-floor has been raised between #bj1jjj and #cj1jjj feet4 ,it is thus known that both upward and downward movements of great vertical and great horizontal extent have occurred in the ,caribbean region4 ,whatever minor changes the topography of the now submerged sea-floor may have suffered owing to emergence1 the general relief1 as suggested above1 seems to have resulted from movements in the earth's crust1 and that these movements1 in certain instances at least1 produced faults--that is1 breaks or fissures--along which the rocks were upraised on one side or depressed on the other1 so as to form great cliffs4 ,the precipitous submarine slope forming the northwest border of ,bartlett ,deep may reasonably be interpreted as a great fault scarp4 ,a portion of this escarpment rises above the sea and forms the remarkably straight and exceedingly rugged south coast of ,cuba in the region of ,santiago4 ,in the main the remarkable submarine topography of the ,west ,india region presents us with an example of what would have been the leading features of several portions of the earth's surface which are now land1 as1 for example1 the ,great ,basin region of ,utah1 ,nevada1 etc41 had deformation gone on without erosion4 ,,movements ,,of ,,the ,,ocean ,,waters ,to the student of the geography of a continent the climatic and other influences of the great ocean currents1 as well as the more tangible results produced by the waves which break on the borders of the land1 demand extended and painstaking investigation4 ,the most that we can hope to do at present in this connection is to state briefly some of the more important influences that the movements of the ocean waters have on the climate of ,north ,america and on the topography of its shores4 ,currents4--,the surface waters of both the north ,atlantic and the north ,pacific1 as is the case with all broad water bodies1 have a drift and in places flow in well-defined currents1 mainly on account of the friction of the wind on the surface of the sea1 aided by variations in the density of the water due to differences in temperature and salinity4 ,in each ocean there is a great swirl or eddy1 for the reason that the surface drift and the flow of the deeper currents carry the waters about in a rudely circular path1 parallel in a general way with the boundaries of the respective basins4 ,the direction of this motion1 to one situated in the central part of either basin1 is from left to right1 or with the movements of the hands of a watch4 ,in the southern portion of each basin there is a westward-flowing equatorial current1 which in each instance is deflected northward on approaching the bordering land1 and as it continues is still more deflected owing to the influence of the earth's rotation1 and acquires a northeast trend2 on reaching the eastern side of the oceanic basins1 the currents are again deflected1 a portion of the one in the ,atlantic and all of the one in the ,pacific being turned southward so as to complete the circuit4 ,in the southern portion of the north ,atlantic the surface drift is westward at a rate of four or five miles a day4 ,the waters1 forced along principally by the trade-winds1 flow through the numerous passes between the ,lesser ,antilles and enter the ,caribbean ,sea1 and from thence are carried through the ,yucatan channel into the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,the waters are piled up1 as it were1 in that great landlocked basin1 at the same time becoming warmer1 and receive additions of fresh water from rain and inflowing streams4 ,each of these causes tends to decrease the density of the water1 while evaporation has a counterbalancing influence4 ,the escape for the waters1 both salt and fresh1 which enter the ,gulf1 is by evaporation and by flowing through the only notch in the rim of the ,gulf basin which is not in the path of the equatorial current1 namely1 the strait separating ,florida from ,cuba and the ,bahama ,islands4 ,these outflowing waters form the justly celebrated ,gulf ,stream4 ,between ,florida and the shoal waters on the ,bahama ,banks the ,gulf ,stream is about #ej miles wide1 approximately #cej fathoms deep1 and flows northward at the rate of from four to five miles an hour4 ,its temperature is about #hj deg4 ,f4 ,it is estimated that this great river in the ocean carries #ij1jjj1jjj1jjj tons of water per hour past a given cross-section4 ,its course is northward along the immediate border of the continental shelf until it arrives opposite the ,carolina coast1 and thence northeastward1 thus giving it a constantly increasing distance from the land4 ,to the north of the ,bahamas it receives as a tributary the portion of the equatorial current1 perhaps even greater in volume than the true ,gulf ,stream1 which is deflected northward by the ,west ,india ,islands and their associated banks4 ,continuing its course1 it is deflected still more towards the northeast owing to the influence of the earth's rotation1 at the same time expanding and losing velocity so as to become a surface drift rather than a well-defined current4 ,under the influence of the prevailing westerly winds of the north ,atlantic1 the waters delivered by the ,gulf ,stream pass the vicinity of the ,british ,islands and in part enter the ,greenland ,sea4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,i4--,orographical features4 ,the transfer of the vast amount of warm water carried by the ,gulf ,stream far to the north is counterbalanced in part by a southward-flowing cold current which emerges from ,davis ,strait1 and being joined by another cold current from the eastward of ,greenland1 continues southward under the name of the ,labrador current1 past ,newfoundland and ,nova ,scotia to the ,massachusetts coast1 and is thought to exert an influence on the temperature of the sea even as far south as ,cape ,hatteras4 ,while the ,gulf ,stream in the northern portion of its course curves eastward and departs from the ,american coast1 the southward-flowing ,labrador current is turned westward and follows close along the border of the land1 and mainly over the continental shelf4 ,the chief effect of the cold current from the north in proximity to the coast of the continent is to bring to the adjacent land a lower mean annual temperature and especially colder and more stormy winters than it would otherwise experience4 ,this tendency is augmented by the icebergs carried southward with the ,labrador current4 ,in a similar way1 the northward-flowing warm current gives ,florida and the ,carolinas a subtropical climate1 admits of the growth of reef-building corals about the ,bermuda ,islands1 and carries so much warmth to northwestern ,europe that its climate is milder and more humid than one would expect from its geographical position4 ,the currents of the north ,pacific are analogous to those of the north ,atlantic1 but simpler1 as there is nothing similar to the true ,gulf ,stream1 and as communication with the ,arctic ,ocean is practically closed1 there is no cold current flowing southward from that ocean2 but the conditions1 so far as they influence the climate of ,north ,america1 are reversed4 ,a warm current flowing northward off the coast of ,japan1 and hence known as the ,japan current1 crosses the ,pacific1 and on approaching the coast of ,alaska and ,british ,columbia is deflected southward4 ,the climate of the northwest coast is thus ameliorated1 the prevailing westerly winds are warm and humid1 and the mean annual precipitation from western ,alaska to ,oregon is in the neighbourhood of #ajj inches4 ,under the influence of a mild equitable temperature and abundant moisture1 the land bordering the ,pacific from southern ,alaska to northern ,california is clothed with the most magnificent forests that the continent affords4 ,the marked contrasts in climate1 vegetation1 and the conditions that influence civilization between the two sides of the ,north ,american continent1 produced by the cold ,labrador current on the east and the warm ,japan current on the west1 is shown in a marked way by the sweep of the lines of equal mean annual temperature 7isotherms7 represented on the map forming ,plate ,,ii1 and again by the distribution of forests1 as will be described later4 ,it is instructive to note that the climate of ,sitka1 in north latitude #eg deg41 is far more temperate and equable than that of ,new ,york city1 latitude #dj deg4 #de'1 although the cool summers on the northwest coast make the mean annual temperature somewhat lower than on the coast of ,new ,york1 or even of ,new ,england4 ,the influence of the opposite conditions in reference to ocean currents experienced by the eastern and western borders of the continent are even more marked in the life of the adjacent waters than in the vegetation and fauna of the land itself4 ,the plant and invertebrate life of the shoal waters of the ,pacific coast1 consisting largely of southern species1 is exceedingly rich and varied1 even to the inlets of the ,alaska coast1 where glaciers come down to the sea2 while on the ,atlantic border1 northern species occur on the ,new ,england coast1 and even farther south4 ,the contrasts in temperature between the waters of the ,atlantic and ,pacific which cover the submerged border of the continent are well shown by the distribution of the cod1 the most valuable of all fishes to man1 which1 as is well known1 belongs to the northern fauna and ranges from the north ,atlantic about the arctic coast of both the ,old and the ,new ,hemispheres1 to the north ,pacific4 ,on the east coast of ,america this circumpolar fish1 of which several species are known1 is found occasionally as far south as ,cape ,hatteras1 but the most southern bank on which it is extensively taken is off ,cape ,cod1 in latitude #db deg42 on the west coast it travels perhaps as far south as the mouth of the ,columbia1 but the most southern locality where it occurs in commercial quantities is off the ,shumagin ,islands1 in latitude #ee deg44 ,the life of the continental shelf1 as well as of the adjacent land1 thus bears testimony to the vast importance to ,north ,america of the great ocean currents washing its shores4 ,tides4--,the waters of the ocean are subject to wave-like undulations1 caused by the attraction of the moon and sun1 termed the tides4 ,every day1 at the average interval of twelve hours and fifty-one minutes1 the tide rises1 and with equal regularity intermediate between these periods it falls4 ,this rise and fall of the waters along the coast1 accompanied frequently by strong currents1 are produced directly by the arrival in the shoal water of a pulsation of the ocean1 which becomes a true onward-moving gravity wave as it nears the land4 ,in the open sea the amplitude of the tidal undulations is but two or three feet1 and their rate of travel in general #gjj to #hjj miles per hour4 ,on reaching shoal water1 however1 the onward movement is decreased by friction on the bottom1 the waves become higher1 and when they meet an outward-flowing bottom current1 their bases are still more retarded and the slope of their fronts increases until the water falls forward and breaks into foam4 ,on the ,atlantic coast1 each tidal wave reaches the land broadside on1 as it were 7,fig4 #d71 and at the outer capes high water occurs at practically the same time from ,florida to ,new ,england1 but its farther landward progression is greatly modified by the shape of the coast and the depth of water in the estuaries and other indentations4 ,when the wave as it rushes landward enters a broad water body through a narrow entrance1 as the ,gulf of ,mexico1 for example1 it spreads1 and as the impulse is transmitted to larger and larger volumes of water1 it decreases in height4 7,in a critical study the tides originating in the ,gulf itself should be considered47 ,at ,galveston1 ,texas1 the mean range between high and low tide is less than one foot4 ,when1 however1 an estuary with a broad mouth receives a tidal wave from the ocean1 the impulse is more and more concentrated and the wave rises higher4 ,at the head of the ,bay of ,fundy the difference between high and low water is from #ej to #fj feet4 ,for the reason just stated1 the tidal wave is generally higher in the ,atlantic coast estuaries than on the ocean capes1 and under favourable conditions may be transmitted for long distances up the rivers emptying into such estuaries1 and may be felt where the mean elevation of the stream is several feet above the mean level of the sea on the neighbouring open coast4 ,tidal waves pass up the ,hudson to ,troy1 a distance of #aej miles from the ,narrows1 where the mean range is #b4c feet4 ,in ,st4 ,john ,river1 ,new ,brunswick1 the tidal impulse is felt at ,frederickton1 #gj miles from the ,bay of ,fundy1 and at an elevation of #ad feet above its surface4 ,in the ,st4 ,lawrence estuary and river the tidal waves ascend #bhc miles to ,three ,rivers1 a few miles below ,montreal1 where the mean elevation is about #aa feet and the mean range of the tide #j4i foot4 ,in the ,columbia the range of the tide is about #f inches at a distance of #adj miles from the ocean4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,co-tidal lines4 ,a diagrammatic representation of the advance of tidal waves in the ,atlantic and ,pacific4 ,figures refer to noon and midnight4 ,after ,r4 ,s4 ,tarr4 ,in the north ,pacific 7,fig4 #d7 the tidal waves come from the south and expand much the same as the corresponding waves do in the north ,atlantic1 but instead of striking the coast broadside on1 sweep along the shore from south to north4 ,there are two localities on the coast of ,north ,america1 one at the head of the ,bay of ,fundy and the other at the head of ,cook's ,inlet1 ,alaska1 where the tides present especially interesting features4 ,in each of these inlets the incoming tidal wave meets an outward-flowing current which tends to hold it back4 ,the incoming waters are thus piled up until sufficient head is established to cause them to advance as a steep-fronted wave termed a bore1 which curls over and breaks in a long line of foam as it rushes along4 ,at the head of the ,bay of ,fundy the bore travels at the rate of #f or #g miles an hour1 and has a height of from #d to #f feet4 ,the great disturbance produced by the strong current and breaking waves causes the mud of the bottom to be disturbed and the waters to be charged with sediment4 ,much of this mud is deposited during the interval of quiet water at high tide1 and as the outflow is not so impetuous as the inflow1 broad mud-flats are formed4 ,at certain localities about the ,bay of ,fundy artificial dikes have been made1 which admit the mud-charged waters at high tide1 and retain them until much of their freight is deposited4 ,in this manner1 large areas of rich lands have been secured4 ,the geographical influences of the tides and of the currents produced by them are of interest in many ways4 ,to navigators they are of special importance4 ,even in this age of steam1 the arrival and departure of vessels from harbours is regulated so as to take advantage of the incoming or outgoing tidal currents4 ,many harbours can be entered by deep-draft vessels only at high water1 for the reason in general that sand-bars are frequently formed at the mouths of tidal estuaries4 ,one of the most marked illustrations of the influence of the rise and fall of the tide on navigation occurs at ,st4 ,john1 ,new ,brunswick1 where the tide flows in and out of ,st4 ,john ,river so as to form a cascade each way1 dependent on the direction of the current4 ,at low water the level of the river is from #aa to #ae feet above the ,bay of ,fundy1 and at high water the level of the bay is from #h to #ab feet above that of the river when not affected by the tide4 ,there are four periods of from ten to fifteen minutes each during each twenty-four hours when vessels can pass in and out of the river's mouth4 ,in the ,arctic ,ocean the tides are small4 ,at ,point ,barrow1 the most northern locality on the coast of ,alaska1 the difference between high and low water is but #f or #g inches4 ,the tide comes from the southward and westward1 and there is a prevailing current setting to the eastward4 ,at ,herschel ,island1 near where the east boundary of ,alaska reaches the ,arctic ,ocean1 the mean range of the tide is but #a4h foot4 ,at ,cape ,sheridan1 the northeast point of ,grinnell ,land1 north latitude #hb deg4 #be'1 there is a range of #b4f feet during two periods each month when the tides are highest1 and but #a4b foot at the lowest or neap tide periods4 ,in addition to the weakness of the tides and tidal currents along the arctic coast1 there is an absence or great diminution of the influence of wave and currents1 owing to the prevalence of ice on the sea4 ,shore erosion is there at a minimum in spite of the abrasion produced by the ice-packs when forced landward by the wind4 ,islands4--,in the classification of islands used by ,a4 ,r4 ,wallace in his ,island ,life two primary divisions are recognised1 namely1 continental and oceanic islands4 ,continental islands are land masses which have been separated from continents and are rarely far removed from their borders1 and1 besides1 are composed of rocks similar to those of the neighbouring mainland and inhabited by terrestrial animals which are related to the fauna of the larger land area4 ,ancient and modern continental islands have also been recognised1 their age being indicated by the degree of similarity between their faunas and the fauna of the continent with which they were formerly connected4 ,those of ancient origin are commonly surrounded by deep water1 while those which are more modern usually rise from continental shelves1 the channels intervening between them and the mainland being less than #ajj fathoms deep4 ,oceanic islands rise from deep water1 are either volcanic or so far as their emerged portions are concerned composed of coral rock1 and are without warm-blooded terrestrial animals4 ,about the borders of ,north ,america there are islands belonging to each of these classes4 ,the numerous examples rising from the continental shelf all about the margin of the land1 but in the ,atlantic most numerous from ,new ,york northward1 and in the ,pacific from the ,strait of ,fuca northward1 are plainly recent continental islands4 ,the larger of the ,west ,indies and the group of small islands off the ,california coast are also continental islands1 but show by the character of their faunas and the depth of the water about them that they have been long separated from the main mass of the continent4 ,typical examples of oceanic islands are furnished by ,bermuda1 in the ,atlantic1 and ,guadalupe1 in the ,pacific4 ,in this same class1 but less remote from the mainland1 and in their faunas and floras showing a nearer relationship to ,south than to ,north ,america1 belong the ,caribbees4 ,,topography ,,of ,,the ,,coast ,the generalized coast-line of ,north ,america measures about #ce1jjj miles in extent1 and presents a great variety of scenery4 ,the range in diversity embraces all classes of coast topography from the low1 sandy mangrove-fringed borders of ,florida and the ,gulf of ,mexico1 to the magnificent sea-cliffs of ,labrador and ,british ,columbia and the marvellous ice-walls of ,greenland and ,alaska where tide-water glaciers enter the ocean4 ,like nearly all the features of the earth's surface1 this narrow intricate belt where the sea and land meet is constantly undergoing changes4 ,the principal processes which lead to alterations in the coast-line may be considered as forming three groups3 ,first1 the wearing away of the land through the action of waves and currents and the deposition of the debris thus produced so as to make additions to the borders of the continent2 second1 the upward and downward movements of the land2 and third1 the changes produced by glaciers1 ice-flows1 and icebergs4 ,with these more active agencies by which the coast-line is being modified may be included chemical solution and deposition1 the influence of plants and animals1 the weathering of the margin of the land1 etc42 but a critical review of all these processes is impracticable in the present treatise4 ,changes in the ,coast-,line due to ,waves and ,currents4--,the waves of the sea beat on the land with never-ceasing activity1 but exert the greatest force during storms4 ,the blow which a great surge strikes when it breaks at the base of a cliff1 amounting in many instances to #c or more tons to the square foot1 tends to disrupt the rocks both directly by its impact and by the compression of air and water in their interstices4 ,the greatest work of the breaking waves is performed1 however1 with the aid of the stones which accumulate on the beaches4 ,these are hurled against the land by the force of the landward-rushing waters and break and abrade the rocks with which they come in contact4 ,the friction produced by the impact of waves charged with sand1 pebbles1 and boulders against the land leads to its removal along a horizontal belt with a narrow vertical range4 ,the waves of the sea1 in fact1 act like a horizontal saw1 the edge of which slowly advances landward4 ,as a result of this process of under-cutting1 highly characteristic and frequently most picturesque forms are given to rocky coasts4 ,whenever the sea is bordered by hard rocks standing well above the surface1 but not rising too precipitously from deep water1 we find cliffs facing seaward4 ,at the base of each of these sea-cliffs there is a shelf or terrace which records1 in part at least1 the advance that the sea has made inland4 ,a cross profile of a wave-cut seashore 7,fig4 #e7 shows two prominent features1 namely1 a sea-cliff with a horizontal base1 and a terrace sloping seaward from the foot of the cliff4 ,of these1 the cliff is by far the more prominent as it stands up boldly to view1 while the terrace is in large part and perhaps wholly submerged4 ,these two leading characteristics in the topography of wave-cut shores are shown in the following diagram3 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,ideal profile of a sea-cliff and current-built terrace4 ,the water carried landward by each wave as it rushes up the sloping surface of a terrace again finds its way seaward1 either wholly or in part1 as an undertow4 ,much of the rock debris ground fine by the ceaseless beating of the surf is separated from the coarser material1 thus leaving the latter free to be moved by succeeding waves1 and is carried seaward by the bottom current or undertow4 ,during storms especially there is usually to be seen a belt of discoloured water seaward from the white breakers which margin the land4 ,the finer debris carried away from the shore by the undertow is sooner or later deposited1 and much of it is laid down on the terrace bordering the land and serves to build out its seaward margin4 ,a normal sea-terrace is thus in part the result of the cutting away of the land1 and in part of the deposition of the material removed4 ,the sea not only cuts away the land1 however1 but at many localities makes important additions to it4 ,where the water is shallow the larger waves break at a distance perhaps of several miles from the coast-line1 and build up long narrow bars1 usually of sand1 which form barriers1 more or less parallel with the shore1 and shelter it from further encroachments of the sea4 ,again1 when the wind from the sea blows obliquely to the coast1 currents are established in the water which sweep along the loose material on the beach and on the submerged portion of the terrace of which the beach is a visible part1 and cause it to travel in the general direction of the prevailing on-shore winds4 ,this action also leads to the building of bars more or less parallel with the coast and at the extremities of capes1 particularly where the shore currents enter deeper water and give origin to spits of various shapes1 which are frequently curved towards the land and at their extremities become hooks and loops4 ,there are thus two important processes1 one destructive and the other constructive1 by which the sea is continually modifying the border of the land4 ,when once the underlying principles on which depend the characteristics of coastal topography are suggested1 any observant person can apply them for himself and thus be able to read the history as well as admire the beauties of seacoast scenery4 ,it is not necessary1 therefore1 to attempt to present a detailed account of the coasts of ,north ,america from a purely geographical point of view2 there are certain results of the processes just referred to1 however1 which are of wide-reaching economic1 and especially of commercial interest4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,a portion of the ,atlantic coast of the ,united ,states4 ,from ,central ,america northward to ,cape ,cod the rocks bordering the sea are soft or easily soluble1 and the adjacent land of low relief4 ,throughout this section the work of the sea is mostly constructive1 and the margin of the land is sheltered by sand-bars from the attack of waves and currents4 ,where the waves of the open ocean do reach the land1 as on the coast of ,new ,jersey1 the sea-cliffs are low and the topography of a mild type4 ,very generally1 as along the coast of ,mexico and ,texas1 and from ,florida to ,long ,island1 there are long narrow bars adjacent to the shore1 with lagoons intervening between them and the mainland4 ,these features are well illustrated on the accompanying map 7,fig4 #f7 of a portion of the ,atlantic coast where long narrow bars1 sometimes forming skeleton capes1 are a characteristic feature4 ,on the middle ,atlantic coast of the ,united ,states the prevailing winds blow southward and there is a general southward flow of the shore currents1 which carry with them the sand on the beaches and bars4 ,an interesting fact in this connection1 pointed out by ,n4 ,s4 ,shaler1 is that although the sands are continually being moved they are not worn out4 ,after the sand-grains have been reduced to a certain size they retain films of water which separate them one from another1 and act as cushions which prevent the grains from coming in contact1 thus greatly retarding further comminution4 ,but for the protection thus afforded the sand-bars would be removed and the border of the land exposed to the attack of the waves and cut away2 whereas under existing conditions lagoons are formed1 which in many instances are utilized as harbours or are filled by wind-blown sand1 the sediment brought by streams1 plant growths1 etc41 and valuable additions are made to the continent4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,mobile ,bay4 ,the sand-bars just referred to frequently cross the mouths of rivers1 and in such instances a struggle ensues between the currents moving along the shore and the outflowing river-waters aided by the currents produced by the tides4 ,this conflict leads to the formation of sand banks and bars1 generally submerged1 across the entrances of bays and inlets and to the building of sand-spits from the seaward capes4 ,a typical instance is furnished at the entrance of ,mobile ,bay 7,fig4 #g71 where a spit from each side has been built by shore currents so as to greatly contract the tideway between4 ,similar features are presented by ,sandy ,hook and ,coney ,island1 each of which has been built of sand deposited by shore currents at the seaward entrance of the lower ,new ,york ,bay4 ,another illustration of this same general character is furnished by the curved extremity of ,cape ,cod 7,fig4 #h71 which is a sand-spit of large size with a hooked extremity4 ,spits of this nature are common on our coasts1 and in many instances themselves form harbours1 as at ,coney ,island and near the extremity of ,cape ,cod4 ,many other similar examples of the importance of lagoons1 sand-bars1 spits1 etc41 to shipping1 which occur1 especially along the ,atlantic coast of the ,united ,states1 may be studied to advantage on the admirable charts of the ,united ,states ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,cape ,cod1 ,massachusetts4 ,the sand-bars1 spits1 and other similar structures along the ,atlantic coast are also of strategic importance1 for the reason that they afford advantageous sites for fortifications1 as is illustrated by the strong forts at ,sandy ,hook which guard the entrance of ,new ,york ,bay4 ,these sea-built foundations are also utilized in a large number of localities for lighthouses4 ,the waterways shut off from the sea by off-shore bars in some instances permit of the passage of vessels from one harbour to another4 ,in this connection it is of interest to note that an important system of canals is under consideration for making a continuous waterway for deep-draft vessels1 some #gjj miles long1 which will connect the estuaries and lagoons from ,new ,york to the ,carolinas4 ,while the islands of sand referred to present many conditions favourable to commerce1 fisheries1 and other industries1 their apparent durability is deceptive1 and in some instances faith in their permanence has led to disastrous results4 ,they owe their existence to the action of waves and currents1 and unless blown sand is heaped upon them are raised but a few feet above mean sea-level1 and are liable to inundation if a high tide is accompanied by an on-shore gale4 ,a sad illustration of this plain conclusion is furnished by the disaster that overwhelmed the city of ,galveston on the night of ,september #h1 #aijj1 during which some #c1jjj people perished and #bj1jjj1jjj to #cj1jjj1jjj worth of property was destroyed4 ,this great loss was in large part due to the fact that the city was inundated by the advance over its site of the storm-driven waters of the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,the island on which ,galveston stands 7,fig4 #i7 was built by the waters of the ,gulf1 and during the hurricane referred to they again claimed their own4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,coast of ,texas4 ,northward of ,cape ,cod1 the rocks adjacent to the ocean are mostly hard and resistant1 consisting largely of schist1 gneiss1 granite1 trap1 etc41 which when undercut by the waves stand as bold cliffs and headlands4 ,this portion of the continental border abounds in picturesque scenery and is abundantly supplied with fine harbours and well-sheltered havens in which boats may take refuge4 ,typical portions of this rugged coast are furnished by the magnificent sea-cliffs of ,mount ,desert and ,grand ,manan islands1 the bold shores of ,newfoundland and ,labrador1 and the precipitous border of ,greenland4 ,the scenery throughout nearly all of this vast extent of wave and storm beaten rocks is in striking contrast to the mild and generally monotonous sand-built shores to the south of ,cape ,cod4 ,between the angular headlands and rugged capes at the north1 with their white girdles of surf1 there are frequently curved beaches and numerous spits and bars of yellow sand which connect the salients of the shore or extend from them so as to furnish safe anchorages4 ,on the arctic coast of ,north ,america the action of the waves and currents on the land is greatly retarded by ice1 and the tides are small1 but to what extent these conditions unfavourable to the work of the sea are counterbalanced by the abrasion performed by ice-floes is unknown4 ,the northern border of ,alaska1 as well as the shore of ,bering ,sea1 is mostly low and the rocks soft1 although certain of the sea-capes are bold and are evidently composed of resistant material4 ,the ,aleutian ,islands present a peculiar exception to the general coast topography of the rest of the continent4 ,although this region has not been studied in detail1 it seems to furnish an example of a rugged mountain range that has been partially submerged at a comparatively recent date4 ,the rocks in many places descend precipitously into deep water1 leaving no room for the formation of beaches1 and hence the waves1 to a great extent1 are without tools with which to cut away the land4 ,at the heads of the many bays and inlets1 however1 one finds beautiful sand-beaches with gracefully curving lines1 in striking contrast to the dark1 rugged cliffs bordering their seaward extensions4 ,the southern and southeastern borders of ,alaska are exceedingly bold1 and present some of the most sublime coast scenery to be found in the world1 but to the geographer the greatest interest of this portion of the continental border1 as is true also of the entire ,pacific coast of ,north ,america1 centres in its relation to up and down movements of the land4 ,changes in the ,coast-,line due to ,oscillation of the ,land4--,land areas are exposed to the erosive action of wind1 rain1 streams1 etc41 and are sculptured by these agencies into valleys1 canyons1 peaks1 ridges1 and other familiar topographic forms4 ,the various processes by which land areas are modified lead in general to a roughening of the surface4 ,as an extreme illustration1 a high plateau becomes dissected by streams so as to form an intricate system of rugged mountain ridges and peaks1 with deep1 steep-sided valleys between4 ,the degree of this roughening depends principally on the elevation of the land1 together with contrasts in the resistance of the rocks due mainly to variation in hardness1 climatic conditions1 etc41 but in general one may say the higher the land is raised above the sea the more rugged will be its topography as the process of wearing away progresses4 ,it is to be remembered in this connection1 however1 that land areas pass through a somewhat definite series of changes1 from topographic youth to topographic old age1 each stage being accompanied by changes in the relief4 ,it is during topographic maturity that the greatest roughness of the surface of a land area is produced4 ,land areas are continually wasting away1 owing especially to the attacks of the streams1 and the material removed is deposited in the sea4 ,the debris brought from the continents by streams is laid down in shallow water--about the shores of ,north ,america almost entirely on the surface of the continental shelf--and in this region of deposition the hollows are filled and a generally smooth surface given to the sea-floor4 ,the topography of the land1 for the reason stated above1 is nearly everywhere uneven2 while the topography of the sea-floor is characterized by uniformity4 ,we can easily predict1 therefore1 the general character of the changes in a coast which would result from either a subsidence of the land1 thus allowing the sea to encroach upon it1 or of an elevation1 which would expose a portion of the sea-bottom1 thereby increasing the area of the land4 ,a subsidence of the land adjacent to the sea permits an extension of the waters landward2 the sea will enter the valleys so as to form estuaries1 bays1 straits1 etc41 while the high land between the partially water-filled depressions will rise above the water-level and appear as peninsulas1 capes1 and islands4 ,a bold1 deeply sculptured coast when depressed will give origin to an intricate1 and what may be termed a ragged shore-line2 while a lower region crossed by large river-valleys would be changed to a system of broad estuaries4 ,an upward movement in the earth's crust along the ocean's shore would expose a portion of the sea-floor and add a strip of generally level country to the previous land area4 ,the boundary between the old and new topography in such an instance would be the upraised coast-line with its sea-cliffs1 wave-cut caves1 terraces1 beaches1 and other characteristic features of coast topography4 ,there are thus two strongly contrasted types of coast scenery1 produced by oscillations of the earth's crust where ocean and continents meet4 ,in each class there is a wide range in details1 which vary in harmony with the amount the land rises or falls in reference to sea-level4 ,when one has these general laws in mind a map of the coast-line of ,north ,america acquires great significance4 ,from about the latitude of ,new ,york southward to ,central ,america many comparatively small oscillations of the land have occurred in recent geological time1 and what was formerly a portion of the continental shelf is now exposed and forms a coastal plain4 ,this plain1 in general from #ej to #ajj miles broad1 slopes gently seaward1 and its continuation under the sea forms the present continental shelf 7,fig4 #b74 ,evidently a slight up or down movement or a gentle tilting of this partially submerged plain in an east and west direction would cause a marked advance or recession of the sea4 ,each time the sea advanced the country submerged would be smoothed over by the action of the waves and currents and a sheet of sediment laid down upon it2 and each time the sea receded the emerged land would be trenched by the rivers flowing across it4 ,the records show that many such changes have occurred4 ,the ,gulf border of ,mexico and ,texas1 composed of soft marine sediments1 forms a gently sloping plain bordered on the west by a roughened upland1 and illustrates the general feature of a recently emerged coastal plain 7,fig4 #i74 ,the same is true also of the entire coast from ,texas to ,new ,york1 but it happens that a recent movement through this region was of such a nature as to allow the sea to encroach on the land1 and the previously excavated stream valleys are now1 in part1 occupied by the sea4 ,this feature is most marked from the ,carolinas to ,new ,york 7,fig4 #f71 where there are several great estuaries and drowned river-valleys which extend far into the land4 ,the best examples are ,albemarle ,sound and ,chesapeake and ,delaware ,bays4 ,the ,james ,river channel is submerged as far as ,richmond1 the ,potomac to ,washington1 the ,susquehanna to ,harrisburg1 the ,delaware to ,trenton1 and the ,hudson to ,troy4 ,these are typical illustrations of what geographers term drowned river-valleys4 ,they are evidence that the land formerly stood higher than now1 was trenched by the rivers that flowed across it1 and was then depressed or tilted so as to allow the sea to encroach upon it4 ,the importance of these events in the settlement of ,north ,america by ,europeans and on the subsequent development of commerce1 manufactures1 the location of cities1 etc41 needs only to be suggested to permit the reader to fill in the details for himself4 ,on the ,gulf coast and about ,florida the later movements of the land have been less than in the region from ,albemarle ,sound to ,new ,york1 and estuaries are there absent1 with the somewhat marked exception of ,mobile ,bay4 ,certain secondary conditions need to be introduced here1 but space will not permit of more than a brief presentation of them4 ,not only have the recent movements of the land been less about the shores of the ,gulf of ,mexico than in the middle ,atlantic region of the ,united ,states1 but the rivers at the south are in general smaller and less swift than those farther north1 and hence are less able to excavate broad valleys4 ,the ,southern rivers1 such as the ,alabama1 ,mississippi1 ,rio ,grande1 etc41 are silt-laden and tend to fill their estuaries1 while the weaker streams are unable to resist the encroachments of sand-bars and spits built by shore currents1 and their mouths have been practically closed4 ,the coast of ,texas gives evidence of slight modern subsidence1 but the small estuaries formed have1 for the most part1 been separated from the ,gulf by sand-bars4 ,northward of the middle ,atlantic region the recent oscillations of the land continued to increase and reached a maximum about the shores of the ,arctic ,ocean2 on the ,pacific coast also there is similar evidence of an increase in the recent earth movements from the south northward4 ,in an outline sketch of the present coastal topography of the continent we can generalize1 and say that the whole continent during the late ,tertiary1 glacial1 and recent times has swayed up and down about a hinge-line situated in the region of the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and the movements1 although not uniform1 have increased in amount from the south northward4 ,let us glance at the evidence on which this broad statement1 involving the up and down surging of a vast continent1 is based4 ,the ,hudson1 as stated above1 is a drowned river as far as ,troy1 a distance from the present land margin of #afj miles4 ,in the next great river to the northward1 the ,st4 ,lawrence1 the tide rises and falls nearly up to ,montreal1 a distance of about #hjj miles from the general shore-line4 ,still farther north are ,hudson ,strait and ,hudson ,bay1 which1 although but imperfectly explored1 seem to be an example not only of the drowning of a river-valley1 but of the largest part of a river-basin4 ,the geography of the arctic archipelago fringing the north shore of the continent also suggests that a strongly stream-cut plateau has there been deeply submerged4 ,in addition to the drowned river-valleys and ragged coasts which record a subsidence of the land1 there are raised terraces and beaches which begin at the south near ,new ,york and increase in elevation above the present sea-level1 when followed northward1 all the way to the arctic region1 and have in the far north an altitude of about #a1bjj feet4 ,these old beaches and terraces show that the land was formerly depressed and has since risen2 but1 as shown above1 has not regained the elevation it had previous to the glacial epoch4 ,the marked differences in the geography of the coast from ,new ,york northward to the ,arctic ,ocean1 and from the same locality southward to ,central ,america1 are due primarily to the fact that the oscillations of the land have been such that at the north the continental shelf is entirely submerged and the sea has encroached on a rough land2 while at the south the recent oscillations have been less and a broad margin of the continental shelf is exposed and forms the coastal plain4 ,at the north1 we find innumerable islands1 bold1 rocky shores with many capes and headlands1 separated by deep inlets1 sounds1 straits1 bays1 etc41 or1 in brief1 a ragged coast such as finds typical illustration on the shores of ,maine 7,fig4 #aj71 while at the south 7,fig4 #f7 the shores are low1 sandy1 remarkably uniform in trend1 and without islands1 excepting such as are built by the waves and currents4 ,the ,west ,india ,islands will1 no doubt1 be recalled by the reader1 but their history is again different4 ,intermediate between the land that has experienced great oscillation at the north and the region of less energetic movements at the south is the series of large estuaries mentioned above1 in the narrower portions of the coastal plain4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,a portion of the coast of ,maine4 ,the northern and western coasts of ,alaska are mostly low1 and correspond in a general way with the coastal plan of the ,carolina region4 ,the last well-marked movement of the land in that region has been in the direction of an elevation1 and we find low shores1 with but few harbours1 similar in many ways to the coast of ,texas4 ,it is probably true1 as already stated1 that the ,aleutian ,islands1 although in part the result of recent volcanic activity1 owe their peculiar and exceptional characteristics to the partial subsidence of a deeply sculptured mountain range4 ,on the south coast of ,alaska1 in the region of ,mount ,st4 ,elias and ,mount ,fairweather1 a recent and extensive elevation has occurred1 which1 however1 did not bring the bottom of the adjacent portion of the ocean above the sea-level4 ,this apparent anomaly seems to be due to an uprising of the rocks along the north side of a break1 or belt of branching fractures1 which closely approximates to the coast-line and has determined the position of the continental border in that region4 ,the facts1 so far as known1 appear to show that we have here what geologists term a fault1 the north or landward side of which has been raised at least #e1jjj feet in very modern times1 but1 so far as we can judge1 without disturbing the seaward border of the break4 ,the coast between ,mount ,fairweather and ,mount ,st4 ,elias is by far the boldest1 and from a scenic point of view the most impressive1 portion of the entire shore-line of ,north ,america4 ,the mountains are young and among the highest on the continent4 ,they rise precipitously from the margin of the sea1 and are sheathed in snow and ice from base to summit throughout the year4 ,the margin of the continent southward from ,mount ,fairweather to the ,columbia ,river1 a distance in a straight line of about #a1bjj miles1 furnishes some of the best illustrations of the changes in coastal geography due to subsidence that our continent affords 7,fig4 #aa74 ,this wonderfully irregular coast is fringed with a belt of mountainous islands from #ej to #ajj or more miles broad4 ,the inlets between the bold capes and the straits separating the numerous islands are deep4 ,the rugged1 forest-clothed slopes with precipitous1 and in many instances nearly vertical walls1 descend into water that is frequently from #ej to over #bjj fathoms deep4 ,in brief1 a deeply dissected mountain range more than #a1jjj miles in length has there been depressed at least #b1jjj feet below its former altitude1 thus allowing the sea to flood its deep1 picturesque valleys4 ,puget ,sound1 with its numerous and frequently narrow arms 7,fig4 #bc71 is the southward extension of the partially inundated country considered above4 ,to the west of this magnificent sound rise the ,olympic ,mountains1 which barely escape being an island at the present stage of the swaying of the land4 ,on the west1 as on the east border of the continent1 there are drowned river-valleys1 such as the ,stikine1 ,frazer1 ,columbia1 and ,sacramento4 ,it is not to be understood1 however1 that the entire ,pacific coast region has been raised or depressed as a unit4 ,there have been differential movements in some of its parts1 but these are not as yet well known4 ,in southern ,california1 for example1 raised beaches and a narrow coastal plain about ,los ,angeles give evidence of a modern rise of the land4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,coast of southeastern ,alaska4 ,in reference to the broad generalization that the continental mass of ,north ,america has undergone up and down movements1 greatest at the north and decreasing southward1 as if moving on a hinge-line running east and west in the region of the ,gulf of ,mexico1 it is of interest to note that the ragged coasts of ,maine1 ,nova ,scotia1 ,newfoundland and ,labrador1 due to the partial submergence of a rugged land1 lie in the same latitudes as the equally ragged coast of ,washington1 ,british ,columbia1 and ,alaska4 ,this is more than a coincidence4 ,the rocks on the two coasts are similar1 being for the most part resistant crystalline schists1 gneisses1 granites1 etc41 and in each instance stood high above the sea for a long period during which they were deeply trenched by streams and by great glaciers1 and then at about the same time1 as nearly as can be judged1 each region was depressed so as to allow the sea to encroach upon it4 ,while a deeply sculptured land when partially submerged gives origin to a ragged coast1 a region of similar elevation1 but not cut by streams or other agencies so as to have deep valleys1 when subsidence occurs produces a bold1 harbourless shore without islands4 ,the striking contrast between the deeply indented border of the continent1 with its broad fringe of islands1 from ,mount ,fairweather southward to ,mount ,olympus1 and the remarkably uniform although bold coast-line from ,mount ,olympus southward to ,mexico1 and indeed nearly to ,cape ,horn1 has much significance in this connection4 ,the mountains bordering the ,pacific coast of the ,united ,states are among the younger on the continent4 ,these coast ranges1 largely on account of their youth1 have not been deeply sculptured1 but rise boldly from the ocean's shore throughout nearly the entire distance from the ,strait of ,fuca to the end of the peninsula of ,lower ,california4 ,the mountains of ,central ,america1 although but little known1 are of comparatively recent date1 but differ from the coast ranges in being more largely built of young volcanic rocks4 ,both the coast ranges and the mountains of ,central ,america are much less deeply sculptured than the mountains bordering the ,pacific to the north of ,puget ,sound1 and a subsidence along this shore would produce but moderate changes in the coast-line4 ,in this great extent of coast1 measuring nearly #e1jjj miles1 there are but few harbours2 in the portion belonging to the ,united ,states the generally bold coast-line is broken but in two places1 one where the ,columbia reaches the sea1 and the other where the ,sacramento finds an outlet through the portions of its drowned valley known as the ,golden ,gate4 ,the ,bay of ,san ,francisco owes its origin to a subsidence of the land which has admitted the sea into the valley of the ,sacramento1 but this valley1 which1 uniting with the one at the south drained by the ,san ,joaquin1 forms the ,great ,valley of ,california1 is not due to stream erosion1 as in the case of the drowned valley of the ,hudson or of the ,st4 ,lawrence1 but to the upraising of the mountains bordering it4 ,during a former time of greater subsidence than at present the ,bay of ,san ,francisco was larger than now1 and has been contracted both by the deposition of sediment and by a partial re-elevation of the land4 ,the exceptional character of the ,bay of ,san ,francisco and its marked excellence as a harbour give to the city on its shore promises of marvellous development4 ,the ,gulf of ,california is due1 in a general view1 to what may be considered as a departure of the ,coast mountains away from the general trend of the continental border4 ,we have but little detailed information concerning this region1 however1 and the studies of modern geographers have likewise been meagre throughout all the coast-line farther south4 ,the ,pacific coast of ,mexico is geographically similar to that of ,california1 but instead of a single great harbour there are four of moderate size and excellence1 the histories of which have not been studied4 ,farther south1 along the ,central ,american coast1 the shores are bold1 but several indentations1 due in part at least to volcanic agencies1 furnish shelter for vessels and offer encouragement to commerce4 ,the bold and not deeply sculptured mountains along the nearly unbroken coast from the ,strait of ,fuca to ,panama1 rise close to the true border of the continent4 ,the continental shelf of this portion of the shore of the ,pacific is narrow4 ,an elevation of #ajj fathoms would add scarcely more than #aj miles to the extent of the land4 ,this narrowness of the continental shelf seems to be due to the recency of the uplifting of the ,coast mountains1 and the lack of time for the debris from the land and the organic refuse of the sea to shoal the water4 ,the ,pacific basin is deep close to the land bordering it1 thus restricting the seaward extension of the continental shelf4 ,changes in the ,coast-,line due to ,ice4--,it is now well known that glacial ice many hundreds of feet thick formerly covered the northern half of ,north ,america and flowed outward across the present position of the coast-line throughout all of the northern border of the continent from ,staten ,island in the east and ,puget ,sound in the west1 with the exception of the ,arctic and ,bering ,sea coasts of ,alaska4 ,the effects of this outward-flowing ice on the topography of the continental border crossed by it were in general in two directions4 ,where the land was rough or moderately so previous to the coming of the ice-sheets the inequalities of surface were increased2 but where the land was smooth or but gently undulating its elevations were planed away by the glaciers and made still more smooth4 ,the reason for these differences is that when the land from which the ice flowed was rugged or had previously been deeply trenched by streams1 the valleys gave direction to the ice currents and the margins of the continental ice-sheets became divided into separate ice-streams1 as is the case in ,greenland at the present day4 ,this localization of the ice currents served to deepen and broaden the pre-existing valleys1 and especially on the bold coast of ,alaska and ,british ,columbia increased in a marked way the inequalities of the surface and favoured the production of a ragged coast-line when the ice melted and was replaced in part by the sea4 ,when1 however1 the topography of the land was not sufficiently accented to cause the ice flowing over it to gather into well-defined currents the general surface was worn down1 thus favouring the production of an even coast-line after the melting of the ice-sheets4 ,where the coast-lands were high and rugged1 the deepening and broadening of the valleys led to the origin of deep1 narrow1 canal-like waterways termed fiords 7fjords71 when the ice withdrew from the partially submerged land or when subsequent depression carried the glaciated troughs below sea-level4 ,on the ,atlantic coast from ,maine to ,labrador1 and thence northward to the ,arctic ,ocean1 there are numerous examples of fiords1 as is also the case on the ,pacific coast from ,mount ,st4 ,elias to ,puget ,sound4 ,at the present time the localized ice-streams from the great central ice-sheet of ,greenland are continuing this process of fiord excavation4 ,the same is true also1 but on a much smaller scale1 of the tide-water glaciers of southern ,alaska4 ,the shores of the northern portion of the continent from ,new ,england to the ,aleutian ,islands are now being modified by the grinding of ice-floes1 which are driven against the land by the wind4 ,this process1 however1 although locally important1 need claim but little attention in a general view of the geography of the continent4 ,changes in the ,coast-,line due to the ,deposits made by ,streams4--,the visible loads of silt and sand in suspension carried to the ocean by streams1 as well as the material the streams roll and push along their bottoms1 is delivered to the waters of the ocean and deposited in various ways4 ,much of this material1 notably the coarser portion1 is dropped near land and the finer portion floated far out from the coast before settling to the bottom4 ,two classes of deposits made in this way may be recognised1 namely1 those laid down by the streams themselves as they drop their loads on entering still water1 or delta deposits2 and those spread over the sea-floor by waves and currents after receiving the debris brought from the land4 ,which of these two modes of deposition will prevail depends on whether the waters of the ocean at the localities where the streams deliver their loads are essentially still or are affected by strong currents4 ,in the former instance all but the finer of the debris derived from the land is quickly dropped and deltas are formed2 and in the second instance the currents bear the material away and deposit it either in the shallow water adjacent to the neighbouring shore1 forming shoals1 bars1 embankments1 spits1 etc41 or spread it in a sheet over the sea-floor4 ,the most notable changes in the coast-line resulting from this general process occur where silt-laden streams enter still water and form deltas4 ,on the coast of ,north ,america many of the streams which enter estuaries deliver their loads to waters which are agitated1 especially by tidal currents1 and ill-defined shoals1 sand-banks1 etc41 are produced4 ,in three conspicuous instances1 however1 large rivers are engaged in building deltas1 and thus producing well-marked changes in the coast-line4 ,at the north1 the ,mackenzie enters the nearly tideless ,arctic ,ocean1 where floating ice almost completely counteracts the tendency of the wind to produce currents1 and a great delta is being extended seaward4 ,the river divides on its delta into many distributaries and enters the sea by several mouths4 ,the sea near the mouths of the river is reported to be shallow1 and obstructed by many sand-banks and islands4 ,no survey of the ,mackenzie delta has as yet been made1 and but little definite information concerning it is available4 ,the ,yukon on entering the shallow eastern portion of ,bering ,sea1 where the influence of the tides is small and floating ice is present throughout about nine months each year1 is also engaged in building a great delta which projects into the sea and gives the coast-line a bold outward curve4 ,the ,yukon begins to divide into separate channels1 several of which enter the sea as independent distributaries at a distance of about #aej miles from the outer border of its delta4 ,the distance between the outer finger-like division of the stream is about #ij miles4 ,the ,yukon is a graded stream--i4 e41 is able to carry material in suspension1 but not to deepen or fill its channel--in the lower portion of its course1 and is making an important addition to the land owing to the dropping of its burden of silt as soon as the still water into which it flows is reached4 ,the stream is thus being extended1 and in order to enable it to continue its task of transportation and the delivery of its load to the sea1 the extended portion of its channel is built up so as to give a slope down which the waters can flow--that is1 the beds of the distributaries are raised1 and they also shift their positions from time to time and make additions to the entire surface of the delta4 ,this extension of the stream and deposition of silt by its distributaries have added about #a1jjj square miles to the land4 ,although the delta of the ,yukon presents an admirable example of the change in a coast-line produced by the sediment dropped by a great river1 the partial surveys of it that have been made are not as yet available for study4 ,fully as characteristic of the modification of coast-lines made by a stream as any in the world is the well-known example of the delta of the ,mississippi4 ,this classical instance illustrates not only the manner in which coast-lines are modified1 but the behaviour of a large silt-laden stream which has reduced its valley to a low gradient1 and throughout hundreds of miles of its lower course is spreading out a wide flood plain4 ,the extension seaward of this flood plain forms the broad delta at the river's mouth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,delta of the ,mississippi4 ,after ,united ,states ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey4 ,during high-water stages the ,mississippi widely over-spreads its banks and during such inundations of its valley drops much of the silt it previously held in suspension4 ,the material deposited is laid down most abundantly on the immediate border of its low-water channel4 ,each side of the channel is thus raised so as to form what is termed a natural levee4 ,during this process also the bed of the stream is raised by the deposition of sediment upon it1 thus tending to cause the stream to flow on a raised ridge and producing an unstable condition which from time to time enables the river to break across its confining levees and divide into two or more separate channels4 ,in the lower portion of the river some of the new channels thus formed reach the sea and furnish independent outlets for its waters4 ,the first of these distributaries now departs from the main channel at a distance of #bjj miles from the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and farther seaward several other divisions occur 7,fig4 #ab74 ,the area of the delta is about #a1bcj square miles4 ,each distributary is engaged in building a pair of embankments1 or natural levees 7although this process in recent years has been modified by the construction of artificial embankments for the sake of improving navigation71 and each subdivision of the river is also building a delta4 ,each of the finger-like extensions of the delta1 shown on the accompanying map1 is due to the prolongation of a pair of embankments into the ,gulf by each distributary and the growth of a secondary delta at its mouth4 ,the river is thus building a highly compound delta1 composed of the secondary deltas formed at the mouth of each of its distributaries4 ,a conspicuous modification of the otherwise generally evenly curved border of the ,gulf of ,mexico is thus produced1 a result that could only be reached in a water body but little disturbed by wind or tidal currents4 ,,estuaries ,,and ,,harbours ,the features of a coast of greatest importance to civilization are its harbours4 ,a coast without harbours is like a ,chinese wall1 and tends to isolate a people inclosed by it4 ,an indented coast with numerous havens for the shelter of vessels fosters the interests of navigation1 including sea fisheries1 invites commerce from other lands1 and stimulates its inhabitants to explore and travel4 ,a diversity of industries is thus favoured and the people adjacent to an indented coast with good harbours tend to become more progressive and more cosmopolitan than if intercourse with other communities is confined to overland routes4 ,the ,atlantic border of ,north ,america is abundantly supplied with fine harbours1 which not only favour communication with distant countries1 but are within easy reach of agricultural and forest lands and important coal and other mineral deposits adjacent to the coast or in the interior1 and are near extensive and valuable fishing grounds4 ,the best of these harbours are at the mouths of rivers which have been depressed so as to form estuaries with wide entrances4 ,these sea-gates1 however1 are frequently contracted1 owing to the presence of sand-bars and spits deposited by shore currents4 ,the great ,st4 ,lawrence estuary reaches to ,montreal1 and beyond lie the ,great ,lakes1 the rich lands of ,ontario and ,new ,york1 and the now highly productive ,states of the ,middle ,west4 ,two geographical features in this basin detract from the conditions otherwise highly favourable to commercial development1 namely3 the rapids in the ,st4 ,lawrence between ,montreal and ,lake ,ontario and the fall in the ,niagara1 and the winter climate of ,canada1 which causes the rivers and estuaries to be ice-bound for a considerable part of each year4 ,to obviate the first of these unfavourable conditions far-reaching plans for a deep waterway between the ,great ,lakes and the ,atlantic are now being matured4 ,the splendid harbours from ,nova ,scotia southward are never seriously obstructed by ice1 and south of ,virginia ice is practically unknown4 ,the estuaries at the mouth of the ,hudson1 ,delaware1 ,susquehanna1 ,potomac1 ,james1 and the ,alabama1 together with the distributaries of the ,mississippi 7which is not a partially drowned river1 but one that is building up and extending its channel71 are the natural outlets of portions of the continent of great fruitfulness4 ,when other1 and especially climatic1 conditions are considered1 it will be seen that to the geographer the ,atlantic sea-border from the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence to the ,gulf of ,mexico seems destined to be the next great commercial centre in the succession from ,greece to ,britain4 ,an important adjunct to the present highly favourable geographical conditions pointing to a great future for civilization on the ,atlantic coast is the construction of a ship-canal across the isthmus uniting ,north and ,south ,america4 ,this step must soon be taken4 ,a glance at a map of ,north ,america must impress one with the belief that the ,pacific coast with its great extent of harbourless water-front is far less favourable to the growth or ideas1 institutions1 and industries than the deeply indented ,atlantic shore-line4 ,from the ,isthmus of ,panama to the ,state of ,washington there is1 as we have seen1 but one harbour of the first class1 the estuary of the ,sacramento1 and one of the second or third class1 the estuary of the ,columbia4 ,from ,puget ,sound northward harbours are numberless4 ,there are two important geographical reasons1 however1 why the general absence of good harbours to the south of ,puget ,sound is not so serious as it perhaps might seem4 ,first1 the mountain ranges run north and south parallel with the coast1 and the natural lines of interior travel lead to the outlets through the ,coast ,ranges traversed by the ,sacramento and the ,columbia4 ,the second and more general reason is that1 owing to the warm currents in the ,pacific1 the portion of the west coast most favourable for a high degree of civilization is situated farther north than the similar belt on the ,atlantic border4 99 99 99 99 99 ,by way of a summary of this chapter1 the reader is asked to bear in mind the fact that the land forming ,north ,america1 as is the case with all continents1 is not at rest1 but is subject to movements which cause elevations and depressions of various portions of its area with reference to sea-level4 ,these movements have been in progress since the birth of the continent1 and still continue4 ,an upward movement of the earth's crust where the land and ocean meet causes a portion of the sea-floor to emerge and an addition usually of the nature of a coastal plain to be made to the border of a continent2 while a reverse movement enables the sea to advance on the land and to flood the low-grade valleys opening to the ocean4 ,in a generalized view of the recent history of the coast-line of ,north ,america the dominant fact is that to the north of the latitude of the north shore of the ,gulf of ,mexico the resultant of the later movements of the continent is downward2 the amount of the depression thus caused increases in a general way with increase in latitude on both the ,atlantic and ,pacific coasts4 ,this downward movement has permitted the sea to encroach on the land and to flood many pre-existing valleys4 ,on the ,atlantic coast it produced such estuaries as ,chesapeake and ,delaware ,bays1 the tide-water portions of such rivers as the ,hudson and the ,st4 ,lawrence1 and farther north1 where the submergence was greater1 permitted the sea to invade the continental basin and form ,hudson ,bay4 ,to this same wide-reaching cause is due also the bold ragged coast-line of the ,atlantic from ,new ,england northward4 ,on the ,pacific border the downward movement is recorded by the tide-water portions of the ,sacramento1 ,columbia1 etc41 and the deep picturesque fiords of the ,canadian and ,alaskan coasts4 ,the most decided influence of these changes in the geography of the continent's margin on the affairs of men resulted from the production of numerous fine harbours and the extension of estuaries far inland1 thus favouring commerce and fisheries in a high degree4 ,as a result of the oscillations just referred to1 the sea has gained important characteristics as well as the land4 ,the broad submerged shelf fringing the continent furnishes conditions highly favourable to both plant and animal life1 and affords some of the most valuable fishing-banks of the world4 ,the ,caribbean region is a marked exception to the broader changes that have affected the coast-line throughout the central and northern portions of the continent1 and stands by itself as a conspicuous illustration of more localized earth movements which produced a remarkable submarine topography4 ,,literature ,in continuation of the studies outlined in this chapter the following books1 most of which contain more special references1 will be found of assistance3 ,,agassiz1 ,a4 ,three ,cruises of the ,blake4 #b vols4 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co41 ,boston1 #ahhh4 ,,gilbert1 ,g4 ,k4 ,the ,topographic ,features of ,lake ,shores4 ,in ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 ,fifth ,annual ,report1 #ahhc-'hd1 pp4 #fi-abc4 ,,gulliver1 ,f4 ,p4 ,shoreline ,topography4 ,in ,proceedings of the ,american ,academy of ,arts and ,sciences1 vol4 xxxiv1 #ahii1 pp4 #aea-beh4 ,contains a valuable bibliography4 ,,hill1 ,r4 ,t4 ,the ,geological ,history of the ,isthmus of ,panama and ,portions of ,costa ,rica4 ,bulletin of the ,museum of ,comparative ,zoology at ,harvard ,college1 vol4 xxviii1 #ahih1 pp4 #aea-bhe4 ,,hill1 ,r4 ,t4 ,cuba and ,porto ,rico with the ,other ,islands of the ,west ,indies4 ,the ,century ,co41 ,new ,york1 #ahii4 ,,shaler1 ,n4 ,s4 ,seacoast ,swamps of the ,eastern ,united ,states4 ,in ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 ,sixth ,annual ,report1 #ahhd-'he1 pp4 #cec-cih4 ,,shaler1 ,n4 ,s4 ,the ,geological ,history of ,harbors4 ,in ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 ,thirteenth ,annual ,report1 ,part ,,ii1 #ahia-'ib1 pp4 #ic-bji4 ,,shaler1 ,n4 ,s4 ,sea and ,land4 ,scribner1 ,new ,york1 #ahid4 ,united ,states ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey4 ,annual ,reports1 ,coast ,pilot1 ,tide ,tables1 etc4 ,,charts ,,and ,,maps ,to the student of the geography of the coast and submerged border of ,north ,america1 the extensive series of charts published by the ,united ,states ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey supply a vast amount of accurate information4 ,a catalogue of these charts1 with prices1 etc41 is issued by the ,survey4 ,many of the charts issued by the ,united ,states ,hydrographic ,office1 and a large number of the topographic maps published by the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 are of value in this same connection4 ,an account of these charts and maps1 with instructions as to methods of obtaining them1 etc41 is given in ,government ,maps for ,use in ,schools1 by ,messrs4 ,davis1 ,king1 and ,collie1 published by ,h4 ,holt ,co41 ,new ,york1 #ahid4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,topography ,,of ,,the ,,land ,taking the better known portions of ,north ,america as a basis on which to classify the leading geographical features of the continent1 it is convenient1 and in the main sufficiently accurate1 to recognise five primary physiographic provinces4 ,these are1 in their general order1 from east to west3 #a4 ,coastal plains and plateaus1 of which the country between the ,atlantic ,ocean and the ,appalachian ,mountains furnishes the most typical examples4 #b4 ,a series of mountain ranges embracing all of the more elevated country on the east side of the continent from ,georgia northward to the arctic archipelago1 and in this book termed the ,atlantic ,mountains4 #c4 ,the great system of plains and plateaus extending from the ,gulf of ,mexico northward to the ,arctic ,ocean and bordered on the east by the ,atlantic ,mountains and on the west by a still greater series of mountains1 which may be designated with sufficient accuracy as the ,continental ,basin4 #d4 ,a group of mountain chains and mountain ranges on the west side of the continent1 including the ,rocky ,mountains1 ,sierra ,nevada1 ,cascades1 etc41 and sometimes termed the ,cordilleras4 ,under the scheme of classification here used1 this highly complex belt of rugged country extending from south-central ,mexico northward to the ,arctic ,ocean is termed the ,pacific ,cordillera1 or1 in less technical language1 the ,pacific ,mountains4#a #a ,the propriety of using the names here employed for the larger physiographic provinces of ,north ,america has been discussed by several writers in the ,bulletin of the ,geographical ,society of ,philadelphia1 vol4 ii1 #ahii1 pp4 #ee-fi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,the larger physiographic divisions of ,north ,america4 ,each of the four physiographic provinces briefly described above is in a conspicuous manner elongated in a north and south direction4 ,the mountains1 valleys1 and plateaus1 as well as the controlling lines of structure in the rocks below the surface1 throughout the main body of the continent coincide in direction more or less nearly with the parallels of longitude4 ,at the south1 however1 and crossing the trend of each of the provinces named above1 is the3 ,fifth1 or ,caribbean province1 which includes the ,west ,indies1 the southern part of ,mexico1 and all of ,central ,america4 ,in this province are the ,antillean ,mountains1 now mostly submerged1 the principal axes of which trend east and west4 ,with this brief outline of the larger physical divisions of ,north ,america in mind1 let us endeavour to become acquainted with the leading characteristics of each of the provinces as they exist to-day1 and at the same time learn something of their long and varied histories4 ,,coastal ,,plains ,,and ,,plateaus ,the ,coastal ,plains4--,from ,new ,york to ,key ,west and thence about the borders of the ,gulf of ,mexico to the neighbourhood of ,vera ,cruz1 the border of the present land area of the continent is formed by a low plain1 from #cj to #ej miles broad in ,new ,jersey1 but increasing in width southward to ,georgia and ,florida1 where its somewhat indefinite inland margin is more than #ajj miles from the sea1 and reaching its greatest development in the delta of the ,mississippi4 ,extending southward about the west coast of the ,gulf1 it forms the low1 featureless eastern border of ,texas1 about #ej miles broad1 and passes into ,mexico1 but gradually narrows as the ,pacific ,mountains approach the coast1 and ends in the vicinity of ,vera ,cruz4 ,the ,atlantic and ,gulf coastal plain everywhere slopes gently seaward1 and on its landward margin has an elevation in general of from #bjj to #cjj feet4 ,the character of the material of which the coastal plain is composed1 the fossils contained in it1 as well as its geographical features1 show that it is a continuation of the continental shelf1 and was formed at a time when the border of the continent was more deeply submerged than at present4 ,minor oscillations of the earth's crust have time and again allowed the sea to extend inland1 only to be forced to recede when the land again rose4 ,each invasion of the sea left a sheet of soft sediment over the portion of the land that was submerged4 ,these oscillations are still in progress1 as is indicated by the fact that along the ,new ,jersey coast a downward movement at the rate of about #b feet per century is taking place4 ,a similar depression of the land is also thought to be in progress along the south ,atlantic coast and in the delta of the ,mississippi4 ,the ,atlantic coastal plain has its most characteristic development in ,south ,carolina1 and is roughly divisible according to its topography and soil into several belts parallel with the shore-line4 ,at the same time it is transversely divided into strips by the several rivers which flow across it and by the many branches of these rivers originating on the plain itself4 ,the junction of the portion of the gently sloping border of the continent now above sea-level1 with the submerged portion1 is characterized by the presence of a belt of swamps1 in part marine marshes where the salt water ebbs and flows1 and in part fresh-water morasses in which the drainage is obstructed largely by decaying vegetation4 ,inland from the coastal swamps the surface becomes higher1 is for the most part well drained1 and when not too sandy furnishes rich agricultural lands4 ,the ,atlantic plain as a whole thus has three principal divisions3 a submerged portion1 a marsh portion1 and a subaerial portion4 ,during past ages the position of each of these belts migrated1 owing to movements in the earth's crust1 but their succession in reference to each other has been the same since the ,tertiary period4 ,one of the most typical portions of the fringe of swamps now bordering the land is situated in eastern ,virginia and ,north ,carolina1 and is known as the ,dismal ,swamp4 ,in the central portion of this marshy region1 embracing some #gjj square miles1 lies ,lake ,drummond1 an example of a large number of small fresh-water lakes which are retained by rims composed of plant growths and decaying vegetable matter4 ,the mound of vegetable debris in the summit of which ,lake ,drummond is situated is from #bj to #cj miles broad and rises some #ab feet above tide-level4 ,the lake is nearly circular1 from #b to #ba_/b miles in diameter1 and from #f to #aj feet deep4 ,the water is amber-coloured on account of the vegetable matter in solution1 but is clear and without sediment in suspension1 and is considered as remarkably wholesome4 ,the lake was without definite outlet previous to the cutting of drainage-canals1 and is entirely encircled by a dense forest1 which has encroached on its border in such a manner as to render its boundaries indefinite4 ,the wall of rank vegetation surrounding the open waters of the lake marks the beginning of the encircling swamp4 ,standing in the lake and supported by their widely expanded roots are several aged cypress-trees4 ,along the coast of the ,carolinas and ,georgia sand-bars thrown up by the sea have formed many lagoons 7,fig4 #f71 which are being filled by the wash of detritus from the land1 by sand blown from their confining ridges1 and by vegetation and the hard parts of molluscs1 crustaceans1 etc41 living in their waters4 ,in part1 these areas have been converted into swamps1 and are gradually being transformed into dry land4 ,farther southward1 about the shores of ,florida1 and thence along the ,gulf border1 the low1 indefinite margin of the coastal plain is fringed in many places by dense thickets of mangrove-trees1 which extend their aerial roots into the salt water1 and by retaining sediment and dead vegetation as well as by furnishing conditions favourable for animal life1 lead to a gradual extension of the land4 ,the west border of the coastal plain from ,new ,york southward to central ,georgia is at the junction of the soft1 unconsolidated sands and clays of the emerged portion of the continental shelf1 with hard and usually crystalline rocks of great geological age forming1 an upland known as the ,piedmont plateau1 which extends westward to the base of the ,appalachian ,mountains4 ,the sharply defined boundary between the plain and the plateau is termed the fall line1 for the reason that it is marked by the lowest falls and rapids in the streams flowing eastward from the ,appalachian ,mountains4 ,throughout the courses of these streams to the west of the fall line they are shallow and swift and broken by many picturesque rapids1 while to the east of the fall line they broaden in the soft sediments of the coastal plain1 and are deep1 placid streams which widen into estuaries4 ,the influence of the tides is felt in these drowned rivers to the fall line4 ,the most important fact in this connection is that the lower courses of the larger rivers1 such as the ,delaware1 ,susquehanna1 ,potomac1 ,james1 etc41 are navigable for ocean-going vessels1 while their upper courses to the west of the fall line are difficult to traverse even in canoes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,relief map of ,north ,america4 ,after ,united ,states ,geological ,survey and ,canadian ,geological ,survey4 ,the fall line is thus the head of navigation in a number of rivers1 and for this reason it has determined the sites of several important cities4 ,its course is marked by ,trenton1 ,philadelphia1 ,baltimore1 ,washington1 ,richmond1 ,weldon1 ,raleigh1 ,augusta1 and ,macon4 ,farther south1 about the landward margin of the portion of the coastal plain bordering the ,gulf of ,mexico1 the fall line is less distinct1 largely for the reason that the rocks bordering it on the north and west are less resistant than those forming the plateau at the east base of the ,appalachians4 ,exceptions to the fact that the coastal plain is composed mostly of soft sediments occur in southern ,florida and in ,yucatan1 where coral rock has been upraised4 ,southeastward from ,yucatan a coastal plain is wanting and rocky bluffs separated by stream-cut valleys come boldly down to the surf line4 ,partially drowned valleys on each side of ,central ,america bear record of a recent but moderate downward movement of the land4 ,from ,new ,york northward along the border of the continent the coastal plain is mostly lacking1 or if recognisable1 is greatly modified by glacial deposits1 and the ,piedmont plateau1 as it is known farther south1 swings eastward and becomes a coastal plateau with a more or less roughened surface1 which extends northward to ,labrador and the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,the geologically recent oscillations of the continent1 as stated in the preceding chapter1 have been greatest in high latitudes1 where the last movement1 as there are reasons for believing1 was upward and is still continuing4 ,this rise1 although it has not fully counteracted the changes produced by a preceding downward movement1 has caused the shore-line to recede and a great area on the arctic border of the continent which was previously submerged has thus become exposed4 ,the coastal plain on the west side of ,hudson ,bay1 as described by ,t4 ,b4 ,tyrrell1 is about #ej miles wide in the vicinity of ,fort ,churchill1 latitude #ee deg41 and broadens rapidly northward of that locality4 ,in latitude #fd deg4 the boundary between these new lands and the older plains of the interior is about #cjj miles from the present shore2 thence northwestward it has not been traced1 but may be expected to cross the ,mackenzie some #bej miles from its mouth and pass westward into ,alaska4 ,this arctic coastal plain is known in part as the ,barren ,grounds1 but in general may be designated as a tundra1 as over extensive areas it is similar to the still greater tundras of ,siberia4 ,this tundra forms the extreme northern and northwestern border of the continent in arctic ,canada and northern and northwestern ,alaska1 and although but imperfectly explored1 has a length of probably #b1jjj miles and a width of from #ej to #fj1 and in places of over #ajj miles4 ,on the west coast of ,hudson ,bay the tundra region slopes gradually from #ejj to #fjj feet above the sea down to the present coast1 and is traversed by sand and gravel terraces and beaches or ridges which mark the former positions of the sea margin4 ,the lower ridges referred to are thickly strewn with shells of molluscs belonging to species still living in the adjacent ocean waters1 thus indicating the recency of the emergence of the land4 ,this arctic coastal plain has the same general geographical features as the coast plain on the southern ,atlantic and ,gulf border of the continent2 but1 owing mainly to different climatic conditions1 differs from its southern representative in nearly every detail4 ,the tundra may be briefly defined as a vast frozen morass4 ,the dense mat-like vegetation consists principally of mosses and lichens 7but not noticeably of ,sphagnum or peat-moss1 as is sometimes stated71 and during the short and not infrequently hot summers is beautified by a multitude of low flowering herbaceous plants4 ,trees are absent1 except along the inland border1 where the tundra merges with the subarctic forest4 ,to the north1 or seaward from the isolated groves of stunted spruce-trees marking the continental timber-line1 the only representative of arboreal vegetation is usually the slim osier-like arctic willow which grows in sheltered localities and attains a height of #c to #e feet4 ,near the streams there are in some localities broad areas covered with dark-green meadow-like growths of rushes 7,equiseta74 ,the luxuriant flowering plants spring into existence as if by magic as soon as the winter's snow melts1 and under the warmth and light of the nightless arctic summer grow with wonderful rapidity4 ,in winter the tundra is snow-covered1 but the snow is less deep than in more humid regions1 and the cold is intense4 ,the bog becomes deeply frozen1 and is not completely thawed during the succeeding summer4 ,even in midsummer1 when the surface is a luxuriant garden of flowers and fresh gray-green moss1 ice exists a foot or two beneath the luxuriant carpet and extends to a great but unknown depth4 ,excavations made in ,alaska have shown that the perennial1 dirt-stained ice beneath the tundra is at least #be feet thick1 but this is by no means its maximum depth4 ,on the shore of ,eschscholtz ,bay and along the ,kowak ,river sections of the tundra exposed in cliffs indicate a thickness of #aej to #cjj feet of ice1 covered by a thin layer of black peaty soil4 ,the similar region in ,siberia1 as shown by borings1 is known to be permanently frozen to a depth of #chj feet deep4 ,the subsoil ice is sheltered by the vegetation and the peaty soil resting on it1 from the heat of the short summers1 and the part softened by the summer's sun is refrozen during the long intensely cold winters4 ,it is probable that under the present climatic conditions a sheet of perennial ice would be formed beneath the tundra1 but the suggestion that the ice now present is in part an inheritance from a former period of greater cold is not without support4 ,the vegetation of the tundra grows each year at the surface1 while the partially decayed material below is frozen and preserved4 ,this increase in depth of the vegetable matter is much the same as the growth of peat in temperate latitudes1 except that the partially decayed material is preserved in cold storage4 ,it was in the tundra of ,siberia that the completely preserved bodies of the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros have been discovered4 ,similar finds are to be looked for in the tundra of ,north ,america1 where the bones of these animals have already been found4 ,on the ,pacific border of the continent the shores are mostly bold1 and coastal plains comparable with those on its eastern and northern margins are absent4 ,in southern ,california1 however1 in the vicinity of ,los ,angeles1 a modern and apparently local elevation of the land has produced a highly fertile plain1 now1 owing to the magic touch of irrigation1 beautified by gardens and orchards4 ,the ,piedmont and ,coastal ,plateaus4--,adjacent to the western margin of the ,atlantic coastal plain1 and extending from ,alabama northward to ,new ,england1 there is a plateau region about #aej miles broad in its central part1 but narrowing towards its extremities so as to be from #dj to #fj miles broad in ,maryland and ,new ,jersey1 and of about the same width at the south1 in ,georgia4 ,the slope of the plateau surface is seaward from an elevation of about #a1jjj feet along its western margin to #bej or #cjj feet at the fall line where it joins the coastal plain4 ,from its position at the foot of the ,appalachian ,mountains this moderately elevated plain is termed the ,piedmont plateau4 ,the same plateau extends northeastward1 however1 where it is known as the ,new ,england plateau1 and is without any definite boundary to separate it from the similar region in the maritime provinces of ,canada4 ,while local divisions of this great extent of moderately elevated plateau country are recognised1 yet in a general view of the continent it is evident that the ,piedmont plateau1 the ,new ,england plateau1 and the similar region1 mostly of crystalline and igneous rocks1 extending from ,maine to ,hudson ,strait and beyond1 in reality forms a single great geographical unit in which the geological structure and geographical features are much the same4 ,the general history of this great ,atlantic plateau1 as it may1 perhaps1 be termed1 shows that it consists mainly of metamorphic rocks1 such as mica schist1 gneiss1 slates1 etc41 together with granite and other igneous rocks1 and1 to a minor extent1 of sandstones1 shales1 and limestones1 mostly of ,jura-,trias and ,carboniferous age4 ,these rocks were upraised probably in part into lofty mountains1 and then worn down by erosion nearly to sea-level1 thus forming what is termed a peneplain1 or a plain of subaerial denudation4 ,it is not intended by this statement to imply that all of the ,atlantic plateau was ever a single great peneplain1 but the same general history seems to apply to the entire region4 ,the upheaval of the plains produced by erosion gave the streams greater energy1 and they have begun the task of again reducing the land to sea-level1 but have not as yet broadened their valleys so as to greatly modify the general plateau character of the region they traverse4 ,the softer or more easily soluble rocks have been eroded away1 leaving broad valleys1 as in the several instances where sandstones and shales of what is known as the ,newark system 7,jura-,trias7 occur in detached areas from ,south ,carolina to ,nova ,scotia4 ,then1 too1 from northern ,new ,jersey northward to ,labrador and beyond1 great glaciers have crossed the plateau or developed upon its broad north portion and have ground down its surface or left widely extended hills and ridges of morainal material upon it4 ,where the process1 just referred to1 of planing down a tract of country nearly to sea-level is incomplete and remnants of former uplands still remain as isolated hills or groups of hills1 such inheritances from the pre-peneplain stage may still exist when the region is elevated into a plateau and give diversity to its surface4 ,an example of such a residual hill is furnished by ,mount ,monadnock1 in southern ,new ,hampshire1 and1 as proposed by ,w4 ,m4 ,davis1 the name of this old landmark is adopted as a technical term by which to designate all similar remnants of old uplands left standing on a peneplain4 ,on the ,atlantic plateau there are many monadnocks4 ,they range in size from well-characterized hills to mountain-like forms1 and may be isolated or occur in groups4 ,when a monadnock stands alone its history may be easily read1 but groups of such eminences1 especially when of large size1 become ranges of hills or even mountains1 and may preserve so much of their former characteristics that they outrank the adjacent peneplain and become the dominant geographic feature of the region to which they give diversity4 ,such a passage from monadnocks to mountains seems to be furnished by the numerous isolated hills on the ,atlantic plateau and the mountains of ,new ,england and of eastern ,canada4 ,the most characteristic portions of what has just been termed provisionally the ,atlantic plateau are the ,piedmont plateau1 which skirts the east base of the ,appalachian ,mountains from ,new ,york to central ,alabama and the ,labrador plateau4 ,the eastern border of the ,piedmont plateau is determined by the fall line described above1 where the hard crystalline rocks of the ,piedmont region meet the softer rocks of the ,atlantic coastal plain4 ,the rivers flowing eastward from the ,appalachian1 such as the ,delaware1 ,susquehanna1 ,potomac1 and the ,james1 cross the ,piedmont plateau in well-defined but narrow channels1 usually from #ajj to #bjj feet deep1 leaving the interstream spaces with generally level surfaces1 although etched as it were by the lateral tributaries of the master streams4 ,these rivers are shallow and rapid in their courses across the plateau1 or in somewhat technical geographical language are not as yet graded1 but on crossing the fall line become sluggish tide-water streams which widen into estuaries1 as already described4 ,owing to the warm humid climate of this region1 the rocks in the interstream spaces are usually deeply decayed and furnish clay soils which have characteristic red and yellow colours4 ,much of the cotton and tobacco of the ,south ,atlantic ,states is grown on these residual soils which were left as the more soluble portions of the rocks were removed in solution4 ,labrador1 although in great part unexplored1 is known to present the characteristic features of an irregular plateau1 with a general elevation of #a1ejj to #b1jjj feet above the sea4 ,the surface is undulating and has hills and hollows1 the latter frequently holding lakes and swamps1 but the inequalities seldom exceed #ejj feet in vertical range4 ,although the western boundary of the ,labrador plateau is indefinite1 its area may be taken at about #ejj1jjj square miles4 ,in its western part1 and apparently rising from the plateau as a group of residual hills left by erosion1 are the so-called ,laurentian or ,laurentide ,mountains4 ,the eastern border of the plateau forms the bold and excessively rugged ,atlantic coast-line of ,labrador1 characterized by steep cliff with a fringe of small rocky islands4 ,the adjacent sea is deep and the continental shelf narrow4 ,on the south the plateau is bordered by a series of terraces which lead down to the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river and on the west it merges indefinitely with the plains of the continental basin4 ,the rocks of ,labrador are largely metamorphic1 but include ancient igneous intrusions1 and are hard and resistant4 ,the present surface is the result of deep erosion which has removed a great but unknown thickness of material and left exposed what was once the deeply buried basal portion of a mountainous region4 ,this is a part of the oldest known land of the continent1 and1 so far as can be learned1 has never been covered by the sea since a very ancient geological period4 ,in addition to the long eras of erosion1 during which the debris removed was deposited in part farther south1 and contributed to the formation of the stratified rocks of the ,appalachian region and interior continental basin1 there was a comparatively recent extension of great glaciers over the plateau which removed the previously disintegrated and decayed rocks and left the present bare1 rounded1 and generally subdued hills with intervening basins4 ,the soils are thin1 for the reason that under the present climatic conditions rock decay is retarded1 and are confined principally to the depression where peaty material has accumulated4 ,owing to the lack of soil on the uplands1 the excess of water in the hollows1 and to the severity of the climate1 the forest is not continuous1 the trees are small1 and the vegetation generally of a subarctic character4 ,this vast region is without agricultural possibilities1 and thus far has been of value to man almost solely on account of its fur-bearing animals and the fisheries of its coast4 ,the northern border of the ,atlantic plateau cannot at present be accurately defined4 ,seemingly it should include the ,arctic archipelago1 which provisionally may be considered as a deeply dissected plateau region1 at present less elevated than formerly1 thus allowing the sea to enter the valleys and to transform old uplands into islands4 ,the bold and highly instructive explorations conducted in recent years by ,robert ,bell1 for the ,canadian ,geological ,survey1 have shown that in the region adjacent to ,hudson ,strait the plateau features characteristic of the greater part of the ,labrador peninsula are absent and mountains occur which rank as the highest on the eastern border of the continent4 ,on the ,pacific coast plateaus corresponding closely with those adjacent to or bordering the ,atlantic are wanting4 ,what geographers recognise as deeply dissected plateaus1 so extremely rough that they pass for mountain ranges1 do occur on the western border of the continent1 however1 and will be described later4 ,,the ,,atlantic ,,mountains ,this title will no doubt appear novel to many persons1 and is1 perhaps1 open to adverse criticism1 but it serves to unite in one group all of the mountains in the eastern half of ,north ,america4 ,a cordillera1 as usually defined1 consists of two or more mountain chains associated geographically1 but not necessarily of the same age4 ,on the ,atlantic border of the continent we have an example of such a family of mountains4 ,the ,atlantic mountains1 although comprising ranges1 systems1 etc41 of widely different ages1 are all geologically old1 and have resulted from upheavals along two generally parallel and slightly overlapping northeast and southwest belts adjacent to the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,the growth of this group of mountains is believed to have been from the north southward1 and several periods of upheaval have been recognised4 ,the two main divisions or chains referred to are separated by the valley of the ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,the mountains at the north are known as the ,laurentides or ,laurentian ,highlands1 and those at the south comprise the mountains of ,new ,brunswick and ,maine1 the ,white ,mountains of ,new ,hampshire1 the ,green ,mountains of ,vermont1 the ,adirondack ,mountains of northeastern ,new ,york1 and the ,appalachians4 ,the most convenient method of reviewing the characteristics and histories of these several uplifts is to begin with the ,appalachians1 which are at the same time the most important and best known1 and consider them in their order from south to north4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,appalachian ,mountains4 ,the ,appalachian ,mountains4--,this beautiful and frequently exceedingly picturesque series of long1 narrow ridges separated one from another by trough-like valleys1 constitutes a mountain system some #ijj miles long and #ej to #acj or more miles wide 7,fig4 #ae74 ,the truly mountainous portion in its widest part1 in western ,north ,carolina and eastern ,tennessee1 is about #gj miles across1 but a portion of the adjacent plateau on the west partakes of the same structural features and is a part of the ,appalachian uplift4 ,the system is considered as extending from the ,hudson southward to central ,alabama and central ,georgia4 ,at the north its terminus is indefinite1 as it merges with the highlands to the east of the ,hudson and with the ,berkshire ,hills of ,massachusetts1 which in turn are not strictly separable from the ,green ,mountains of ,vermont4 ,at the south1 the system ends somewhat abruptly where the crystalline rocks comprising its southern terminus pass beneath the soft sediments of the coastal plain4 ,the eastern border of the system is well defined by its junction with the ,piedmont plateau1 but on the west it merges through a series of lessening folds with the plateaus and plains of the eastern border of the interior continental basin4 ,the ,alleghany plateau1 which skirts the western border of what is usually recognised as the ,appalachian ,mountains1 but which is really its moderately disturbed border1 extends from the ,hudson to ,alabama1 and in its various portions is known by distinct names4 ,its northern extension overlooking the ,hudson forms the ,catskill ,mountains2 farther south it becomes locally the ,alleghany plateau1 and still farther south the ,cumberland plateau4 ,separating the bold eastern escarpment of this series of plateaus from the generally higher mountains to the eastward lies the great ,appalachian ,valley1 which under various names extends from the ,hudson to central ,alabama4 ,this important and highly fruitful valley is underlaid to a great extent by thick bedded limestones and soft shales1 and owes its existence to erosion and largely to the removal of limestone in solution4 ,the ,appalachians are nowhere lofty1 and only approach the characteristics of great mountains in their southern portion4 ,the culminating summit is ,mount ,mitchell1 in western ,north ,carolina1 which has an elevation of #f1gaa feet4 ,roan ,mountain1 #bg miles to the northward of ,mount ,mitchell1 rises #f1bhg feet above the sea4 ,in the neighbouring ,unaka and ,great ,smoky ,mountains1 to the southwest and west of ,mount ,mitchell1 there are many boldly rounded domes ranging in height from #e1jjj to over #f1jjj feet ,northward of the highly picturesque southern ,appalachians1 the system decreases in height and is really a deeply dissected plateau1 as will be shown later1 in which the long1 even-crested ridges have a general elevation of #d1jjj feet in ,virginia and about #b1jjj feet in ,pennsylvania and ,new ,jersey4 ,at its northern extension in ,new ,york it decreases still more in height1 and is surpassed in elevation by the plateau on the west1 there represented by the ,catskill ,mountains1 the highest portion of which is #c1ffj feet above the sea4 ,the characteristic structural feature of the ,appalachians is the presence of a great series of up and down folds1 or anticlinals and synclinals as geologists term them1 which run in a nearly parallel northeast and southwest direction1 but in ,pennsylvania especially exhibit many broad curves in their general course4 ,these folds are similar to the waves that may be produced in a heavy rug or carpet by pressing against one of its margins4 ,the rocks have been thrown into a series of great wrinkles which are not continuous throughout the length of the system1 but as one dies out another takes its place4 ,the folds overlap at the ends or are arranged en echelon4 ,the longer axes of the folds are seldom horizontal1 but have usually a gentle pitch2 for this reason one end of a fold frequently passes beneath the surface1 while the other end is exposed to erosion4 ,another characteristic is that the anticlinals1 as a rule1 are steep on their western margins1 and slope more gently on their eastern flanks1 or are unsymmetrical4 ,the overturning of the folds where most pronounced has led to the breaking of the rocks on the west side of an upward wrinkle where the descending limb of an anticlinal is sharply bent in order to pass into the ascending limb of the adjacent synclinal4 ,these breaks or faults in certain instances form thrust planes along which one portion of a series of beds has been carried westward1 sometimes for several miles1 over another portion of the same series4 ,this highly characteristic system of unsymmetrical folds1 passing at times1 and especially in ,tennessee and ,alabama1 into great thrust planes1 is accounted for on the general theory that there has been lateral pressure or a tangential thrust1 which has forced the strata into a series of elongated arches1 in much the same manner as in the case of a rug1 as above suggested1 one margin of which has been forced by lateral pressure towards its central part4 ,the rocks composing the greater portion of the ,appalachians are stratified marine sediment such as sandstone1 shale1 limestone1 etc41 which were laid down one on another until a great depth was attained1 corresponding1 as we may fancy1 to a pile of rugs1 the original thickness in ,pennsylvania being about #dj1jjj feet4 ,lateral pressure resulting1 as it is believed1 from the cooling and consequent contraction of the earth's highly heated interior1 and the movement of the cool and rigid crust in order to keep in contact with the shrinking mass beneath1 has led to the folding and occasional breaking of the rocks1 which at the same time were elevated above the sea4 ,a crushing together or folding of the rocks similar to that which has taken place along the central part of the ,atlantic border of ,north ,america1 as is well known1 has occurred also in many other regions1 and the ,appalachians may be taken as the type of a class of mountains1 sometimes termed corrugated mountains1 which includes the ,alps and ,pyrenees1 the ,coast ,range of ,california1 etc4 ,for convenience we may speak of such mountains as being of the ,appalachian type4 ,had the folding in the ,appalachian region gone on without erosion1 the surface would to-day be a series of great1 elongated arches or upward folds1 rising in many instances #e1jjj or more feet above the intervening valleys1 and where breaks or faults occur their upraised borders would stand as mighty cliffs1 in some localities a mile or more high4 ,the central part of the region with this strange topography had there been no erosion would1 perhaps1 be fully as prominent as the ,himalayan ,mountains are at present4 ,no sooner1 however1 were the ,appalachian ,mountains upraised above the sea than the destructive agencies of the atmosphere began their attacks upon them4 ,the rocks were shattered by changes of temperature1 and at times at least crumbled by the freezing of absorbed water and also underwent chemical changes which softened and disintegrated them4 ,the rains beat upon them1 and streams flowing to the sea cut channels and carried away the material forming the land4 ,these processes of disintegration and erosion have been in progress since islands and continents first appeared on the earth1 and every mountain range now giving diversity to the surface of the land represents the net result of elevation over denudation4 ,the ,appalachians are not an exception1 but a typical illustration of this general law4 ,the great folds of which they are composed have been truncated by erosion and the surfaces thus produced1 etched1 as it were1 by the action of the air1 rain1 and by streams1 so as to leave the edges of the more resistant layers in relief4 ,one conspicuous result in this general process of erosion is due to the fact that the folded strata consist in many instances of alternating hard1 or insoluble and soft1 or readily soluble layers4 ,where resistant layers underlaid by soft1 or readily soluble strata formed the summits of arches they have in many instances been broken in the process of folding or cut through by streams flowing down their flanks and the weak beds beneath exposed4 ,after this stage was reached the erosion of the upward folds went on more rapidly than the removal of rock from the compressed downward folds1 so that what is structurally a ridge became a valley3 while the bordering troughs or synclinals floored with hard layers were left in relief as ridges or table-lands4 ,the anticlinal ridges have thus been transformed into topographic valleys and the original synclinal troughs left in relief as plateaus and ridges4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,section of anticlinal valleys and synclinal mountains4 ,this reversion of what would have been ridges and troughs had there been no erosion1 is illustrated by the following cross-section through ,lookout ,mountain in ,alabama1 which is an example of what is known as a synclinal mountain4 ,many such synclinal mountains or plateaus1 separated by narrower anticlinal valleys1 occur throughout the ,appalachians4 ,the characteristics in the present topography of the ,appalachians just considered are but a minor portion of the great changes that have resulted from erosion4 ,the history of the system has not been the same in this connection throughout1 but retains evidences of successive upward movements with long periods of erosion intervening which have produced certain striking differences in its northern and southern portions4 ,these differences are so well marked that it is convenient to divide the system into two portions1 termed the northern ,appalachians and southern ,appalachians4 ,the most conspicuous difference between the two is shown by the direction of flow of the larger rivers4 ,at the north1 the principal rivers--the ,delaware1 ,susquehanna1 ,potomac1 and ,james--rise well to the west of the mountains and flow southeast athwart the numerous folds1 and after crossing the ,piedmont plateau and coastal plain discharge into the ,atlantic4 ,at the south1 however1 the rivers1 particularly ,new ,river and the ,tennessee1 rise on the eastern border of the ,appalachians and flow westward1 cutting through the ,alleghany plateau1 and are tributary to the ,mississippi and the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,the somewhat arbitrary dividing line between these two provinces follows the divide to the north of ,new ,river1 or in a general way1 as has been stated by ,c4 ,w4 ,hayes1 is marked by a line drawn from the most easterly point of ,kentucky southeastward to ,cape ,fear1 on the ,atlantic coast4 ,the fact that several large rivers rising to the northwest of the northern ,appalachians flow directly across or through the numerous ridges composing the system in deep1 narrow valleys1 and the similar behaviour of the streams rising on the eastern border of the southern ,appalachians1 but flowing westward1 are among the most interesting features of the entire region4 ,why is it that the mountains have not formed a divide or water-parting so as to force all of the streams having their sources on its west side to take what would seem the easier course1 and to flow to the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and cause the waters falling on its eastern slopes to flow to the ,atlantic8 ,the answer to this apparently puzzling question has been furnished by ,davis1 ,willis1 ,hayes1 ,campbell1 and others1 who have shown that the mountains were not raised all at once1 but experienced upward movements at widely separated intervals1 with intervening periods of rest during which the elevations previously produced were more or less completely planed away by erosion4 ,during one of these intervals the north ,appalachians more especially were worn down to approximately sea-level and a gently sloping plain produced across which the larger rivers flowed to the ,atlantic4 ,this peneplain was later upraised into a plateau and its downward inclination towards the east increased4 ,the streams were thus given greater energy and began again to deepen their channels4 ,they held their right of way acquired on the featureless erosion plain and cut deep trenches through the edges of the hard layers which crossed their courses4 ,at the same time lateral branches were developed which followed the outcrops of the less resistant beds and eroded them away so as to leave the hard beds in bold relief4 ,as the edges of the more resistant beds became more and more prominent the eastward-flowing streams cut deeper and deeper into them4 ,the even summits of the ridges1 one of the most striking features in the beautiful scenery of the ,appalachians1 still mark the position of the elevated erosion plain4 ,in the southern ,appalachian the old erosion plain formed nearly at sea-level was tilted gently westward1 and the streams flowing over its surface given initial courses in that direction1 which were maintained as they deepened their channels1 and on account of increased energy originating from the upraising of the region drained by them1 developed lateral branches1 as is the case of the more northern streams just referred to1 and the process of carving away the land to sea-level was again renewed4 ,portions of the original upland or mountain mass left unconsumed during the long period of planation1 which reduced most of the region nearly to sea-level1 still remain in eastern ,tennessee1 western ,north ,carolina1 and northern ,georgia1 and form the highest and most picturesque portion of the ,appalachians4 ,after the upraised peneplain from which the long1 even-crested ridges of the ,appalachians were produced by the excavation of the bordering valleys had been deeply dissected and the valleys broadened1 another upward movement took place and the streams again deepened their valleys4 ,this is the stage in which we now find the mountains4 ,the crests of the ridges1 characteristically displayed in eastern ,pennsylvania1 are portions of the first peneplain of which a definite record is preserved1 while the broad valleys with sharply cut channels in their bottoms represent the much less complete second stage of planation4 ,the two ancient peneplains referred to above1 the histories of which are recorded in the topography1 have received definite names in order that they may be readily designated4 ,the older and higher one is termed the ,schooley peneplain#b on account of the preservation of a typical portion at ,schooley ,mountain in ,new ,jersey1 while the lower one1 represented by the broad valley through which flows the ,shenandoah ,river1 ,virginia1 is known as the ,shenandoah peneplain4 ,a generalized profile in a northwest and southeast direction through a portion of the ,appalachians is shown in the following diagram1 which will serve to make more definite the description just given4 ,the highest summits in the diagram represent portions of the ,schooley peneplain2 if the depressions could be refilled the surface of the great plateau formed by the elevation of this plain would be restored4 ,the bottoms of the broad depressions represent the ,shenandoah peneplain1 which is sharply trenched by the modern river channels4 #b ,also known as the ,kittatinny peneplain1 but the name used above has priority4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,generalized east-and-west profile showing relation of peneplains4 ,the ,appalachians thus furnish not only a typical example of a mountain system produced by the folding and upheaval of the rocks of the earth's crust1 accompanied in many localities by breaks or faults and overthrusts1 but also preserve the records of two well-characterized peneplains4 ,the long and varied history of the range has been in part interpreted by geologists from the character of the rocks1 the fossils they contain1 and the structure that has been impressed upon them2 but some of the most instructive chapters are recorded in the topography1 and their study has led to a highly creditable advance in methods of geographical research4 ,the ,appalachian ,mountains when first seen by ,europeans were clothed throughout with a varied and beautiful forest consisting largely of hardwood trees4 ,nowhere do they invade the region of perpetual snow1 and glaciers are absent4 ,these statements are true also for all of the mountains on the eastern side of the continent to the south of ,hudson ,strait4 ,the ,appalachians abound in beautiful scenery1 but1 except about a few of the very highest domes and ridges1 have little of the stern ruggedness which is typical of truly great mountains4 ,their countless valleys are now mostly cleared of their primitive forests and under cultivation4 ,to a large extent also even the steep hillsides are tilled4 ,the larger trees which formerly grew on the mountains have nearly all been felled1 and where the land is not suitable for cultivation their place is taken by a dense second growth4 ,under the mild1 humid climate that prevails1 more especially from the vicinity of the ,susquehanna ,river southward1 the rocks are deeply disintegrated and decayed1 and even steep mountainsides are mantled with soil and rock debris4 ,it is the excess of disintegration and decay over erosion which gives to the mountains their usually flowing outlines and pleasingly picturesque rather than rugged scenery4 ,the valleys still retain much of the material washed from the uplands1 and are deeply floored with rich soil4 ,the characteristic colours of this decayed rock-waste are many shades of red and yellow1 which harmonize in a most artistic manner with the prevailing green of the plant-covered uplands and abandoned fields4 ,these red and yellow soils1 particularly about the bases of the higher summits of the southern ,appalachians1 afford abundant crops of cotton1 corn 7maize71 and tobacco4 ,the ,mountains of ,new ,england1 ,new ,york1 ,new ,brunswick1 etc4--,the picturesque ,berkshire ,hills1 in the western portion of ,massachusetts1 have rounded and flowing outlines and a generally subdued relief4 ,the more prominent of these greatly eroded remnants of what was once a mountain range rise but #b1jjj to #c1ejj feet above the sea4 ,no satisfactory boundary between these hills of gneiss1 schist1 and allied metamorphic rocks1 and the others of the same general character in the neighbouring portions of ,new ,york and ,new ,jersey1 has been determined4 ,so far as the relief is concerned1 and so far also as the complex geological history has been deciphered1 there seems no good reason for separating the ,berkshire ,hills from the ,appalachian ,mountains4 ,it is convenient1 however1 to consider the ,appalachians as terminating at the ,hudson4 ,the ,berkshire ,hills when traced northward merge with a region of similar topography which unites them with the ,green ,mountains of ,vermont1 the highest summit of which1 ,mount ,mansfield1 attains an elevation of #d1cfd feet above the sea4 ,to the east of the ,green ,mountains are situated the still higher and more rugged ,white ,mountains of ,new ,hampshire1 which culminate in ,mount ,washington4 ,this widely known and greatly admired peak has an elevation of #f1bic feet1 and1 next to ,mount ,mitchell in the southern ,appalachians1 is the highest mountain on the eastern side of the continent to the south of the newly discovered group of peaks near ,hudson ,strait4 ,associated with ,mount ,washington are at least #ae peaks1 each of which is over #e1jjj feet high1 and a still larger number of lesser summits which exceed #d1jjj feet in elevation above the sea4 ,the remarkable natural beauties of the ,green and ,white ,mountains1 the ease with which they can be reached by means of railroads1 and the numerous summer hotels1 and hospitable farmhouses interspersed among them1 make this1 the most mountainous portion of ,new ,england1 a favourite region for summer rest and recreation4 ,the ,green and ,white ,mountains are nearly parallel north and south ranges1 from #cj to #fj miles apart1 and separated by a tract of lower but hilly country with a generally southern slope1 where many streams unite to form the southward-flowing ,connecticut ,river4 ,the ,adirondack ,mountains1 in northeastern ,new ,york1 are situated some #be miles to the west of the ,green ,mountains1 and separated from them by another tract of hilly country similar to the one dividing the mountains of ,vermont from those of ,new ,hampshire4 ,in this space lies the irregular sheet of water over #ajj miles long known as ,lake ,champlain4 ,this beautiful lake discharges northward through ,richelieu ,river to the ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,in the same tract of hills1 but to the southward of ,lake ,champlain and tributary to it1 lies the smaller but still more charming ,lake ,george4 ,the ,adirondacks are rudely circular in ground plan1 and measure from #fj to #gj miles from east to west1 and about #ajj miles from north to south4 ,the entire area1 known to the early settlers of ,new ,york ,state as the ,north ,woods1 is rugged and most pleasingly diversified4 ,its leading charms are the large number of dark1 densely forested summits1 the many beautiful lakes and clear1 sparkling streams4 ,the highest of the numerous steep-sided peaks is ,mount ,marcy1 #e1cdd feet1 and second in rank is the equally beautiful eminence known as ,whiteface1 which rises #d1hgb feet above the sea and about #c1jjj feet above the adjacent valleys4 ,over #bj neighbouring forest-covered summits have elevations in excess of #d1jjj feet4 ,the rugged region in northeastern ,new ,york and the adjacent portion of ,new ,england is in general without well-marked boundaries4 ,on the north it extends into ,canada1 and is margined by the great valley through which flows the ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,in the province of ,ottawa1 to the south of the ,st4 ,lawrence1 there is a group of bold hills similar in many ways to the ,green ,mountains1 known as the ,notre ,dame ,mountains1 which decreases in height when traced northward and merge with a roughened plateau which extends far to the northeast and embraces the ,gaspe ,peninsula and the table-land and hills of ,new ,brunswick4 ,much of the country adjacent to the ,st4 ,lawrence on the south is rolling and hilly and contains large tracts of rich agricultural land which is highly favourable for dairying and sheep-raising4 ,mount ,sutton1 the highest elevation in the ,notre ,dame ,mountains1 is #d1jjj feet high1 and several other forest-covered mountain-like hills range in elevation from #a1jjj to #c1jjj feet4 ,in the irregular valleys of this region there are a large number of lakes1 situated in general from #gjj to #a1jjj feet above the sea4 ,the ,gaspe ,peninsula to the north of ,new ,brunswick1 bordered on the north by the valley of the ,st4 ,lawrence1 and on the east by the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence1 has a rough relief and dense forests and is still a wilderness4 ,the general elevation of the uplands in this little known region is about #a1ejj feet4 ,the surface is in reality a broad plateau in which numerous valleys have been excavated and from which rises a range of hills termed the ,shikshock ,mountains1 some #fe miles long and #d or #e miles wide1 with peaks ranging from #c1jjj to #d1jjj feet in height4 ,much of ,maine and ,new ,brunswick is similar to the region just referred to1 and1 in a generalized geographical view1 may be considered as a part of the great coastal plateau of the northeastern portion of the continent1 roughened by erosion so as to appear to one travelling through its valleys as an endless succession of rugged hills4 ,the highest of the numerous prominences in ,maine is ,mount ,katahdin1 #e1bjj feet1 and in ,new ,brunswick the culminating summit is ,bald ,mountain1 #b1dgj feet4 ,the rugged region embracing the ,adirondacks1 together with the more elevated portions of ,new ,england and of the adjacent provinces of ,canada1 has many geographical features that are similar to those of the southern ,appalachians1 but at the same time this1 the central portion1 differs in a marked way from the southern extension of the ,atlantic mountains4 ,the higher mountains in each of these picturesque regions are at least in a general way to be considered as the unconsumed remnants of ancient uplands1 the greater part of which have been eroded away4 ,the most marked contrast in the scenery of these two regions of similar elevation is due to the presence of a great number of lakes at the north1 many of them of large size1 and the total absence of such beautifying elements in the landscapes at the south4 ,the streams at the north are frequently impetuous and broken by many cataracts and rapids1 thus furnishing abundant water-power2 while at the south the streams flow through more evenly graded channels and are without cascades except near their sources in the mountains4 ,these contrasts are such as are to be found the world over between regions of young and old topography4 ,the differences in the degree of development reached by the streams of the ,new ,england region as contrasted with those of the southern ,appalachians1 finds an explanation in the fact that ,new ,england1 ,canada1 etc41 was formerly covered with glacial ice1 and on the retreat of the glaciers the surface of the land was left with an essentially new relief1 while the southern ,appalachians were well to the south of the great ice invasion1 and the streams of that region have reached a mature development1 except near the sources of their head-water branches1 which1 like the topmost twigs of a tree1 are always young4 ,the central1 like the southern portion of the ,atlantic mountains1 is forest-clothed4 ,all but a few of the highest summits in the ,adirondack and ,white ,mountains are concealed beneath a dense and varied growth of trees and shrubs4 ,the summits1 which are nearly bare of vegetation1 like the upper #hjj or #a1jjj feet of ,mount ,washington1 owe this condition to lack of soil rather than to elevation4 ,nowhere in the ,atlantic mountains to the south of the but little known peaks near ,hudson ,strait1 is the elevation sufficient to reach above what would be the timber-line under favourable soil conditions4 ,the trees of the ,white and neighbouring mountains are principally various species of conifers1 such as the pine1 spruce1 hemlock1 larch1 etc41 which grow thickly on all but the most precipitous slopes4 ,before man disfigured the beauties of the land the lower hills1 the river-valleys1 and the borders of the numerous lakes and tarns were clothed with a more varied flora than the uplands4 ,in these valley forests the dark foliage of evergreens is in summer mingled with the lighter green of maples1 beeches1 birches1 oaks1 locusts1 and other broad-leaf trees4 ,the forests are thus highly diversified and partake of the characteristics of both the northern and southern floras4 ,it is in these northern woods that the glorious autumnal colouring for which ,north ,america is justly famous is to be seen in its greatest splendour4 ,october is here truly the golden month of the year4 ,at that season the bold hills1 with their sombre robes of coniferous trees1 rise like dark rugged islands above an undulating sea from which the most gorgeous sunset colours seem to be reflected4 ,the brilliant colouring of the ripe foliage beautifies the land as with a cloth of gold4 ,it is at this season also1 during the tranquil days of what is known as ,indian ,summer1 that a purple haze is thrown like a veil over the harlequin landscape1 as if to subdue its glories and bring them within the range of man's appreciation4 ,only a few of the higher summits in the ,new ,england region approach the scenic conditions usually associated with truly lofty mountains4 ,in fact1 the general lack of rugged escarpments as well as of great elevation leads the geographer to rank even the highest of these rounded summits as hills of large size rather than attempt to burden them with the dignity that the term mountain carries with it4 ,they are beautiful hills1 separated one from another by lovely valleys1 which draw the beholder to them and fill his memory with tender longings and vague dreamy fancies such as the sterner grandeurs of great mountains fail to awaken4 ,the ,laurentian ,highlands4--,a vast area in the eastern portion of ,canada1 to the north of the valley of the ,st4 ,lawrence1 including ,labrador1 is underlaid by very ancient crystalline rocks of the same general character as those forming the ,adirondacks4 ,this same geological system1 the ,archean1 has a wide development in the continental basin to the north of ,lake ,superior and about ,hudson ,bay4 ,to the north of ,quebec1 in the region drained by the ,saguenay and ,ottawa ,rivers1 the land has a general elevation of #a1ejj to #a1fjj feet1 and is known as the ,laurentian ,highlands1 although sometimes dignified by the name ,laurentian ,mountains1 or1 more briefly1 as the ,laurentides4 ,in reality1 this broad1 indefinitely defined region from a geographical point of view is a roughened plateau and not a mountain range or group of ranges4 ,when the structure and metamorphosed condition of the rocks are considered1 however1 it is found that they have the characteristics pertaining to the central and more deeply seated portions of true mountains4 ,the rocks are mainly crystalline schist1 gneiss1 granite1 etc41 together with igneous intrusions1 all of which have been intensely folded1 crumpled1 and broken4 ,the general interpretation of the existing conditions is that deep erosion has occurred and1 in fact1 a mountain range or a mountain chain worn down to a generally plane surface4 ,the thickness of the rocks thus removed1 or the depth of erosion1 is unknown1 and owing mainly to the complexity of the geological structure of the terranes remaining1 will perhaps never be ascertained1 but can be safely estimated as not only hundreds1 but several thousands of feet4 ,erosion has laid bare portions of the earth's crust which were once deeply buried1 and reveals the character of the basement complex1 as it has been termed1 which forms the foundation of the continent4 ,owing to the great age of the rocks and the depth to which they were once depressed in the earth's crust1 they have experienced great changes4 ,they are not only intensely folded and crushed1 but in large part have been caused to flow under great pressure1 and have thus acquired a schistose structure4 ,fissures have been filled with molten rock injected from below so as to form dikes1 and possibly still greater or regional intrusions have occurred4 ,over large areas the amount of once molten and intruded rock exceeds the surface exposure of what are usually1 but with some hesitation1 classed as metamorphosed sediments4 ,long exposure to the air in a region of mild relief is usually accompanied by the formation of a deep soil4 ,the soil over the ,laurentian ,highlands1 however1 is generally thin1 and large areas of bare rock are exposed4 ,the explanation of this apparent anomaly is that glaciers during a geologically recent period were formed on this region and flowed away from it1 carrying most of the previously formed rock debris with them4 ,the time since the melting of the glaciers has been too short for a new soil to form1 except in the valleys and depressions among the bare glaciated hills1 which hold a peaty accumulation resulting from the partial decay of vegetation4 ,the scarcity of soil is also due in part to the climatic conditions now prevailing1 which are unfavourable to rapid rock decay4 ,to the north of the ,laurentian ,highlands and in the vicinity of ,hudson ,strait1 the land becomes higher1 and as recently reported by ,robert ,bell1 of the ,canadian ,geological ,survey1 forms true mountains with elevations in the neighbourhood of #h1jjj feet4 ,what revelations are to come from the inhospitable and in large part ice-covered lands still farther north can only be told as exploration and surveys are extended in that direction4 ,this brief review of some of the leading characteristics of the mountains and hills adjacent to the ,atlantic coast will1 ,i think1 serve to show that they bear a family relationship2 like the members of a family1 they are of various ages1 although all of them are past their prime1 and may with propriety be termed the ,atlantic ,cordillera4 ,,the ,,continental ,,basin ,an inspection of the map forming ,fig4 #ad1 on which the larger geographical features of ,north ,america are indicated1 will assist the reader in appreciating the general relations and extent of the plains and plateaus which collectively form the ,continental basin4 ,this medial region of the continent is bordered on the east for some #b1jjj miles by the ,atlantic mountains1 and on the west throughout its entire extent by the ,pacific mountains4 ,it is open to the sea at both the north and the south1 and extends in one continuous series of plains and plateaus from the ,gulf of ,mexico to the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,the southern portion of this interior basin or trough has already been briefly described in discussing the characteristics of the ,gulf plains4 ,the northern portion has also been considered in describing the tundra region adjacent to the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,the leading geographical features of the ,north ,american continental basin are its generally low elevation1 the mildness of its topographic details1 and1 with two exceptions1 the absence within its borders of elevations having a mountainous structure4 ,in general the rocks beneath the surface are horizontally stratified marine sediments4 ,the stream-cut valleys are shallow and usually broad1 except in the bordering plateaus and foot-hills on the east and west sides1 where the streams frequently flow several hundred feet below the surface of the broad1 flat-topped interstream spaces4 ,the drainage of the continental basin serves as a convenient basis for subdividing it into three separate portions4 ,these are the ,gulf slope1 which discharges its surplus waters into the ,gulf of ,mexico and is drained principally by the ,mississippi2 the ,st4 ,lawrence slope1 occupied in part by the ,great ,lakes and drained by the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river2 and the arctic slope1 down which the ,mackenzie1 ,nelson1 and other rivers flow to the ,arctic ,ocean or to ,hudson ,bay4 ,at no place are the ,pacific mountains broken by cross-drainage1 so as to allow the continental basin to send a tribute to the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,the vast extent of the ,continental basin1 embracing1 as it does1 some three-fourths of the entire area of ,north ,america1 makes it necessary1 even in a general review of the large geographical features of the continent1 to recognise smaller subdivisions than the three great drainage slopes referred to above4 ,for this purpose we select the more or less well-defined plains and plateaus into which the region is naturally subdivided4 ,the portion of the ,continental basin embraced within the boundaries of the ,united ,states has been shown by ,j4 ,w4 ,powell to consist of the following physiographic regions1 namely1 the ,gulf plains2 the ,prairie plains2 the ,lake plains1 including the region draining to the ,great ,lakes2 and the ,great plateaus or ,great plains1 as they are more generally termed1 adjacent to the eastern border of the ,pacific mountains4 ,several of these divisions need to be extended and still others recognised in order to include the entire region under review4 ,the portion of the ,continental basin to the north of the ,united ,states-,canadian boundary has been only partially explored1 and the subdivisions of it suggested below are to be considered as provisional4 ,the ,lake plains include in ,canada the country to the north of the ,great ,lakes1 which drains to them1 but excepting the flat lands bordering ,lakes ,erie and ,ontario and once covered by their waters1 the region referred to is rather a roughened plateau than a plain4 ,from a geological point of view the hilly country composed of crystalline rocks to the north of ,lakes ,superior and ,huron and included within their hydrographic basins partakes more of the character of the ,laurentian ,highlands than it does of the features of the portion of the ,lake plains situated in the ,united ,states4 ,the ,prairie plains also extend far to the north of the international boundary1 and on their northern border merge with the forest-covered plains in central ,manitoba and the northern portion of ,saskatchewan1 which are drained by northward-flowing rivers4 ,these plains in the far north differ from the ,prairie plains in the fact that they are forested and acquire greater diversity from the presence of innumerable lakes1 several of which are of large size4 ,for convenience we may designate this vast and but little known northern region as the ,subarctic ,forest plains4 ,still farther north1 where the forest dies away1 lie the ,barren ,grounds1 which merge on their northern border with the frozen morasses or tundra of the arctic coastal plain4 ,to acquire just conceptions of the topographic and other characteristics of the several regions of mild relief which make up the ,continental basin is a difficult task1 as each one is of great extent and possesses many peculiarities of its own1 and besides1 in two separate regions1 each embracing many hundreds of square miles1 movements in the earth's crust have occurred of such a nature as to elevate the rocks and give them the general structure commonly found in mountain ranges4 ,reference is here made to the ,ozark uplift in the southwestern portion of the ,prairie plains and the ,black ,hills of ,dakota which rise from the ,great plateaus4 ,the ,ozark ,uplift4--,there is an area embracing about #ge1jjj square miles in southern ,missouri1 northern ,arkansas1 and the eastern border of the ,indian ,territory1 in which the rocks have been upraised above the surrounding ,gulf and ,prairie plains4 ,the uplift1 if we imagine it uneroded1 would have the general form of an inverted canoe2 that is1 it would form an elongated ridge1 broad and dome-like in the central portion and dying away on all sides into the great surrounding region of undisturbed and essentially horizontal rocks4 ,the major axis of the uplift1 although exhibiting a double curvature1 has a general northeast and southwest trend4 ,it is about #ejj miles long1 and in the widest part is approximately #bjj miles broad4 ,what the height of the dome would be had the rocks composing it not yielded to the destructive influences of the air or been removed by streams cannot be readily estimated1 since the movements of the earth's crust which upraised it occurred at several widely separated intervals with intervening periods of decay and erosion1 and downward movements have also been experienced which submerged the region and permitted the deposit of sheets of sediment over it4 ,if the results of the upbuilding agencies had not in a large measure been counteracted in these several ways1 the dome to-day would have a height of several thousand feet4 ,in the present condition the deeply eroded dome presents the net result of elevation over subsidence and erosion4 ,the dome-like form is lost1 and in its place is a complex series of ridges and valleys4 ,the higher summits now remaining1 situated principally in the ,iron ,mountain district in northeastern ,missouri1 rise from #a1djj to #a1hjj feet above the neighbouring plains1 and from #a1hjj to #b1ajj feet above the sea4 ,the greater intensity with which the rocks in the southwestern portion of the ,ozark uplift have been folded than in the more northern portion and the varying degrees to which the beds have yielded to denudation have resulted in giving to its various parts different types of topography4 ,this diversity has led to the recognition of several distinct divisions1 such as the ,shawnee ,hills1 at the extreme northeastern end of the uplift1 where the rocks have been folded and the ridges cut across by the ,mississippi2 the ,st4 ,francois ,mountains1 in southeastern ,missouri1 composed of a large number of isolated hills and rising from #ejj to #hjj feet above the adjacent valleys2 the ,ozark plateau1 in southwestern ,missouri and northwestern ,arkansas1 the central part of which has a general elevation of #a1ejj feet above the sea1 and to one travelling over it seems a boundless and featureless plain underlaid by apparently horizontal but in reality gently westward dipping sheets of stratified rocks2 the ,boston ,mountains1 in central and western ,arkansas1 consisting of rugged irregular ridges and truncated summits with a general crest-line elevation of #a1jjj feet above the sea2 and the ,ouachita 7pronounced ,wichitaw7 ,mountains1 formed of numerous rudely parallel upward folds of hard rock1 which rise from #ejj to #a1jjj feet above the adjacent valleys and form a belt of unusually picturesque1 forest-crowned hills1 extending from ,little ,rock1 ,arkansas1 westward into ,indian ,territory4 ,the study of the island-like ,ozark region in the broad1 ocean-like expanse of the prairies is far from being complete4 ,although topographically distinct and appearing as one of the minor units in the geology of the continent1 geologists are inclined to the view that the ,ozark uplift as above described should be considered as consisting of two independent but contiguous areas of upheaval1 namely1 the ,ozark ,hills1 situated mainly in ,missouri1 and the ,ouachita ,hills1 lying mainly in ,arkansas and the ,indian ,territory4 ,this ,ozark-,ouachita region--by whatever name finally designated--is one with a long and varied1 nay1 even a poetic history4 ,in writing of the ,archean rocks of the ,iron ,mountain region1 ,missouri1 ,arthur ,winslow states that they are truly ancient elevations1 older than any others in the ,state1 older than the mountains of ,arkansas1 older than the ,appalachians1 older than the ,rocky ,mountains2 if venerable be an attribute of great age1 they certainly merit that appellation4 ,for not only are all other rocks of ,missouri youthful as compared with these1 but there is a genetic relationship1 and the former are in a sense descendants of the latter4 ,for when the limestones and other sedimentary rocks were yet unformed these crystalline rocks must have existed as parts of a continental mass1 and from the degradation of this continent resulted the materials of the later formed sedimentary rocks4 ,the present granite and porphyry hills are but protruding parts of the remnant of this ancient continent which stood as islands above the ocean waters while the beds of limestone and sandstone were being formed about them1 which rose with these beds when they were lifted from the waters1 which now1 rugged and weather-beaten1 yet tempered by age and varied experience1 rear themselves above the surrounding younger rocks and bid fair still to live when the latter have yielded to the forces of degradation4 ,besides its pleasing scenery1 varied and abundant mineral resources1 and health-giving springs1 this oasis of hills amid the unvaried monotony of the grass-covered plains in the southern portion of the continental basin derives an additional attraction from its forest growths in which southern pines are mingled with oaks1 hickories1 walnuts1 and other broad-leaved trees4 ,the soil is generally productive1 and great fields of corn and cotton may be seen side by side4 ,the ,gulf ,plains4--,the ,gulf plains include the western portion of ,florida1 and extend westward and southward about the borders of the ,gulf of ,mexico in a continuous belt from #ej to #fj to perhaps #ajj miles wide1 to where the ,pacific mountains approach the coast in east-central ,mexico4 ,this low1 gently seaward-sloping region1 underlaid by soft horizontal strata1 possesses a generally rich soil well adapted for the cultivation of cotton1 corn1 sugar-cane1 and rice4 ,in the low1 hot country of eastern ,mexico nearly all tropical fruits can be successfully raised4 ,the most characteristic as well as the broadest portion of this productive belt is in the ,states of ,mississippi and ,louisiana1 and extends northward with a gradually decreasing width to the mouth of the ,ohio4 ,this is the lower ,mississippi basin1 which owes its existence mainly to the deposits of silt laid down by the river after which it is named4 ,much of the land is really the delta of the ,father of ,waters1 over which that river spreads out in vast inundations each year4 ,the ,gulf plains skirt the southern end of the ,appalachian ,mountains1 and to the west of the ,mississippi are bordered in part by the ,ozark uplift4 ,there are certain reasons for believing that these two regions of elevation1 characterized by a similar geological structure1 are portions of a single greatly disturbed belt1 but are now separated by a broad area which has been depressed and deeply covered with comparatively recent sediments4 ,but that this general view of the origin of the larger features in the relief of the ,gulf ,states can be accepted with entire confidence is questionable4 ,true it is1 however1 that the delta region of the ,mississippi has undergone many up and down movements1 and that several successive sheets of sediment have been laid down upon it1 but that the folds and crumplings characteristic of the southern ,appalachians and of the ,ozark uplift extend across the intervening space beneath the covering of horizontal rocks has not been demonstrated4 ,the ,gulf plains throughout are less than #ejj feet above the sea1 and much of the ,gulf margin and the similar tract which extends northward to the mouth of the ,ohio has an elevation of less than #ajj feet4 ,the fringe of lowland bordering the ,gulf and extending up the course of the ,mississippi is generally swampy and contains numerous small water bodies which owe their existence to the cutting off of the beds of the river so as to form what are termed ox-bow lakes4 ,previous to the settlement of the ,gulf plains by ,europeans and the clearing of much of the land for plantations it was clothed with such a dense growth of trees and vines as to be almost impenetrable4 ,the southern pine there reaches its greatest perfection and is the basis of a great lumber industry1 and oaks of several species1 the wide-spreading white-trunked sycamore1 the still more stately tulip-tree with its cup-like blossoms of yellow1 the fragrant magnolia1 the seemingly always aged cypress1 the gum-tree1 and many other species of arboreal vegetation also find most congenial conditions for their growth4 ,the dwarf palmetto1 which forms such a characteristic growth in ,florida1 extends northward in the ,mississippi basin to the southern border of the ,ozark uplift4 ,much of the luxuriant moss and lichen draped forest of the ,gulf plains with all its primitive network of shrubs and vines still remains4 ,the ,prairie ,plains4--,a prairie in the current use of the term is a generally level region1 either a plain or a plateau1 without forests but clothed with a carpet of luxuriant grasses and flowering annuals4 ,a rolling prairie is an undulating or hilly1 grass-covered region4 ,the ,great plains of the west-central portion of the ,continental basin meet these requirements1 and are typical prairies4 ,on their eastern and northern border the ,prairie plains merge with the adjacent forested plains1 and on the west from ,mexico northward to the subarctic forest pass by still less tangible gradations into the more elevated and drier ,great plateaus or high plains1 where bunch-grass1 with bare intervals between the scattered tufts1 takes the place of the continuous sod of the true prairies4 ,the reasons for the change from forest to prairie and beyond to the land of the bunch-grass as one travels from east to west across the interior basin1 lie in differences in the humidity of the climate4 ,the ,prairie plains have their beginning at the south in ,mexico a short distance from the ,rio ,grande1 and are prolonged northward through central ,texas1 meeting to the north of ,red ,river the forest-covered ,ouachita ,hills4 ,but to the west of the ,ozark uplift the ,prairie plains extend northward in a belt about #ajj miles wide which expands in ,kansas1 northern ,missouri1 eastern ,nebraska1 ,iowa1 ,illinois1 and western ,ohio to fully #hjj miles4 ,in this highly fertile region1 now the most productive agricultural area of comparable size in ,north ,america1 if not in the world1 one may travel in a straight line for nearly #a1jjj miles through a land without high hills but pleasingly diversified by undulations of the generally level surface and by winding stream-formed valleys bordered by swelling bluffs1 without losing sight of towns1 villages1 or comfortable farmhouses4 ,in spring this entire region is bright green with pastures and sprouting grain-fields1 and in autumn yellow with the harvest4 ,miles on miles of rustling corn-fields form the most characteristic feature of the summer landscapes4 ,the ,prairie plains contract to the north of ,illinois and ,iowa to a width of about #bjj miles1 being encroached upon by the forests of the ,great ,lakes region1 but are prolonged northward through ,minnesota and the ,dakotas far into ,canada4 ,the length of these natural meadows from south to north is nearly #b1jjj miles2 their entire area is not far from #ejj1jjj square miles4 ,on the north they merge with the vast region of similar relief which is darkened by the pines and spruces of the subarctic forest4 ,the northern portion of the original prairie region has been given a new and in some respects a more pleasing aspect by the sowing of millions of acres with wheat4 ,this is the most favourable large area for wheat culture in ,north ,america1 and one of the three great wheat-growing regions in the world4 ,the most productive portion of these northern wheat-lands lies in the valley of the ,red ,river of the ,north1 situated in part in ,minnesota and the eastern portion of the ,dakotas1 but including also the plains of ,manitoba4 ,could we view the broad extent of the ,prairie plains as do the birds in their southward migrations1 we would see them golden with the sheen of ripening wheat at the north1 green and russet in the central portion with corn1 and white with cotton to the south4 ,everywhere from south to north and east to west the vast expanse is dotted with the curling wreaths arising from household fires1 and at hundreds of localities blotted by the smoke of towns1 factories1 smelting-works1 and coal-mines4 ,throughout the entire extent of the ,prairie plains the underlying rocks are essentially horizontal1 and consist largely of limestone4 ,an ancient sea-bottom has been broadly upraised with but slight disturbances of the strata to a general elevation of about #hjj feet in ,minnesota and the ,dakotas4 ,from this low continental divide the land slopes gently both to the north and south4 ,the local variations of surface are due mainly to the unequal weathering of the rocks and the excavation of stream-formed valleys4 ,to the north of the mouth of the ,ohio1 however1 the prairie1 in common with the adjacent regions1 was formerly occupied by glacial ice1 which on melting left widely spread deposits of clay1 stones1 gravel1 etc41 which gave the region a new surface1 and in certain instances turned the streams from their former courses4 ,much of the rolling prairie inherits its billowy surface from the glaciers4 ,in the midst of the young topography of glacial and more recent date there is an area of about #aj1jjj square miles in southwestern ,wisconsin and adjacent portions of ,minnesota and ,iowa which is surrounded by the deposits of the ancient ice-sheets 7glacial drifts71 but not covered by them4 ,this driftless area1 as it is termed1 has an old topography in striking contrast to the relief of the region about it1 in which broad river-valleys bordered by the pinnacled and castellated rocks exposed in the bordering slopes of the adjacent uplands are among the most conspicuous features4 ,the soil of this driftless region is a ferruginous clay1 resulting from the prolonged weathering of the rocks1 principally limestone1 on which it rests1 while the surfaces formerly covered by glacial ice are mantled with soil of a mixed character containing many fragments and large boulders of compact rock4 ,in the prairies to the south of the glacial boundary the soils are mainly of a sedentary origin1 and have resulted from the disintegration and decay of the rocks on which they rest1 but usually rendered black by the humus resulting from the partial decay of numberless generating grasses and other lowly plants4 ,this black soil is wonderfully productive and furnishes the basis of the greater part of the wealth and industries of the region it covers4 ,the minor exceptions to the general fertility occur where the rocks immediately underlying the surface1 as in the zinc and lead region of southwestern ,missouri1 are highly charged with flint-like material1 which remains when the limestone once containing it is dissolved and carried away4 ,the horizontal sheets of rock beneath the broad central portion of the ,prairie plains belong to the ,carboniferous system and contain highly valuable seams of bituminous coal4 ,the area of these coal-producing lands is estimated at #abe1jjj square miles4 ,in this same region also there are extensive tracts in which natural gas and petroleum are obtained in remarkable abundance4 ,in southern ,wisconsin and the adjacent portions of ,illinois valuable deposits of lead occur under conditions similar to those associated with the lead and zinc mines about the northern border of the ,ozark uplift4 ,owing to the demand for transportation facilities and the mild relief of the land1 the entire extent of the ,prairie plains is covered with a double-lined network of steel4 ,the ganglia in this pulsating nerve system of intercommunication are ,chicago 7here included1 as it belongs to the prairie as well as to the ,great ,lakes region71 ,st4 ,louis1 ,kansas ,city1 ,omaha1 ,minneapolis1 ,st4 ,paul1 etc41 cities with from #ajj1jjj to over #a1ejj1jjj inhabitants1 and hundreds of lesser centres of trade1 manufacture1 and education4 ,the ,lake ,plains4--,the region draining to the ,great ,lakes--or the ,laurentian lakes1 as they may1 perhaps1 be more properly designated1 since they form the source of the river of that name--presents many striking contrasts to the more monotonous treeless prairies skirting it on the south and west4 ,the name ,lake plains1 suggested by ,j4 ,w4 ,powell for the portion of the region here referred to within the borders of the ,united ,states1 when extended to the entire area draining to the ,laurentian lakes1 is in part a misnomer1 since much of its surface is rough and irregular4 ,in a certain sense1 however1 the term plain is applicable1 since it includes a plain of water over #ie1jjj square miles in area4 ,the combined areas of the lakes are greater than that of the region draining to them4 ,the land bordering the ,laurentian lakes is underlaid to a large extent by horizontal or but slightly disturbed sedimentary rocks1 but includes on the north a portion of the contorted1 crystalline terranes already referred to as forming the ,laurentian ,highlands1 and in general is characterized by the mildness of its relief4 ,the elevations of the surfaces of the several ,laurentian lakes above the sea are1 in feet1 as follows3 ,superior1 #fjb2 ,michigan and ,huron1 #ehb2 ,erie1 #cgc2 and ,ontario1 #bdg4 ,the land forming the margins of these water bodies rises in general less than #cjj feet above their surfaces4 ,in portions of northern ,michigan and in the region of crystalline rocks to the north of ,lakes ,superior and ,huron1 however1 the relief is more pronounced and there are many bold rounded hills with basins between them4 ,the principal part of the nearly plane land surface about the ,laurentian lakes is in immediate proximity to their borders1 and records the former extent of their waters4 ,these plains1 composed of clay deposited from the lakes when more widely expanded than at present1 form a fringe from #e to #ej or more miles broad all about the present lake margins4 ,across this gently sloping surface the streams from the uplands1 increasing in length as the lakes were lowered1 have excavated narrow1 steep-sided channels4 ,these modern plains furnish typical illustrations of young topography4 ,in its primitive condition nearly the entire ,laurentian lakes region was densely covered with trees4 ,previous to the destruction which followed the advance of the lumbermen its northern portion contained some of the finest and most valuable white-pine forests on the continent4 ,to the south of the ,laurentian ,lakes1 and in a general way adjacent to the ,prairie plains1 there were park-like areas in the forest1 known as oak-openings1 where picturesque bur-oak grew in open groves amid luxuriant natural meadows4 ,these sunlit gardens1 yellow and purple with golden-rods and asters in autumn1 owed their existence to soil conditions determined long previously by the streams issuing from the margin of the retreating ice-sheet1 which formed level areas of sand and gravel4 ,the loose open texture of these deposits renders them less retentive of moisture than the neighbouring morainal hills1 and during the long hot summers all but the most deeply rooted of the trees that spring up upon them perished4 ,the soil throughout the ,great ,lake region is nearly all of glacial origin and presents many local variations1 dependent principally on the fact that the streams flowing from the ice assorted the debris delivered to them4 ,the surface material1 technically speaking1 is of both glacial and fluvio-glacial origin4 ,the former consists principally of stony clay or till1 and the latter of gravel4 ,about the immediate border of the existing lakes lacustral clays form the surface4 ,the leading characteristics of the glacial and fluvio-glacial soils are their varied composition and endurance under cultivation4 ,the glaciers that ploughed the land preparatory to the present harvest gathered together a great variety of rock debris1 much of it broken and unweathered and not leached of its more soluble constituents4 ,the most typical portion of the ,lake plains1 including the southern part of the province of ,ontario and the southern shores of the ,laurentian lakes from ,minnesota to ,new ,york1 is highly favourable for agricultural pursuits1 and produces in abundance a great variety of crops as well as richly flavoured fruits1 luscious berries1 and healthful vegetables4 ,the beneficial influence of the neighbouring water bodies on the climate1 tempering the heat of the summers and moderating the severity of the winters1 is shown especially in the distribution of the fruit belts of ,michigan1 ,ohio1 and ,new ,york1 which are in regions where the prevailing winds blowing over them come from the lakes4 ,the ,subarctic ,forest ,plains4--,the ,prairie plains merge at the north with a great tract of forest-covered lowlands1 which extend from the ,laurentian hills on the east to near the base of the ,rocky ,mountains on the west4 ,the change as one travels northward from the grassy prairies to the country of equally mild relief1 but clothed with trees adapted to a rigorous climate1 is gradual4 ,along the irregular and in part indefinite junction of these two vast plains1 the alignment of the forest is broken in many places1 and its margin fringed by a picket-line of groves and of isolated trees1 which has advanced southward and invaded the grass-lands4 ,between these outposts the prairie with its wealth of summer bloom reaches well into the realm of perennial shadow4 ,the southward extensions of the forest are mainly in the valleys and adjacent to the streams1 while the drier steppes between are open grass-lands4 ,no conspicuous change in the topography of the land or of the rocks or the soil coincides with the change from grass to forest4 ,the differences in vegetation must therefore be sought in climatic conditions1 and mainly in the influence of atmospheric changes on the water contained in the soil4 ,throughout practically the whole of the region occupied by the subarctic forest1 between ,hudson ,bay and the foot-hills of the ,rocky ,mountains1 the land is low and the valleys monotonous4 ,many lakes are present1 several of them of large size1 and the rivers are remarkable for their lengths1 low gradients1 and large volumes4 ,the subdued topography of the region here considered1 and the presence of vast numbers of lakes and swamps1 is due in general to the influence of the ice-sheets which formerly covered it4 ,in a minor way the presence of the innumerable small lakes and swamps is owing to the obstructions formed by growing vegetation1 the damming of streams by driftwood1 the work of beavers1 and possibly the influence of subsoil ice4 ,to the north of the ,subarctic ,forest plain1 as already described1 occur the desolate tracts known in ,canada as the ,barren ,grounds1 which form a part or merge into the tundras bordering the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,the ,great ,plateaus4--,the boundary between the prairie plains of the central portion of the interior ,continental basin and the ,great plateaus 7,great plains7 bordering them on the west is usually indefinite4 ,the prairies pass into the more elevated and drier plateaus by insensible gradations4 ,the plateaus rise gradually from east to west1 and along their western margin1 adjacent to the east base of the ,pacific mountains1 attain a general elevation of from #e1jjj to #f1jjj feet4 ,over vast areas these monotonous plateaus1 with their even sky-lines1 are higher above the sea than the crests of the ,appalachians1 and along their western margin in many localities even surpass in elevation the most prominent peaks in the eastern portion of the ,united ,states4 ,accompanying this increase in elevation from east to west there is a decrease in precipitation1 and in consequence a marked change in the vegetation4 ,the plateaus1 like the prairies1 are treeless in their most characteristic portions1 but the larger rivers winding across them are margined in many instances by giant cottonwoods4 ,the mental picture that a traveller over the broad plateaus retains in after-years is of a vast treeless level tract of country1 boundless as the ocean1 which is bright green and decked with lowly flowers in the early spring1 but becomes yellowish brown as the heat and dryness of summer increase and the grasses lose their freshness4 ,various portions of the plateaus1 however1 have their own individuality and present characteristics which make them conspicuously different from other portions of the same great series of steppes4 ,at the south1 in the region of the ,rio ,grande and of the ,pecos and ,canadian ,rivers1 the plateau is dissected by stream-cut valleys #a1jjj feet or more deep1 and from one to two score miles across1 which divide it into a number of individual table-lands4 ,the plateau margins for many miles on each side of the larger river-valleys have been carved by a complex system of secondary and usually ephemeral streams into a great variety of rock forms with deep trenches between4 ,these conspicuously sculptured areas constitute what are commonly termed ,bad ,lands4 ,in certain regions also the surfaces of the plateaus1 more especially in ,nebraska and ,south ,dakota1 are broadly undulating or reveal a seemingly endless succession of ridges and hills separated by shallow depressions1 due to the presence of large tracts of drifting sand4 ,in spite of these several variations1 however1 the leading characteristics of by far the larger portion of the plateau country are the generally level grass-covered surfaces extending away in all directions far beyond the reach of vision4 ,on the rolling prairie one can frequently see the undulating surface about him for a distance of #ae or #bj miles1 but the curvature of the earth usually draws still narrower limits to the region within the view of the plainsman4 ,in riding over the plains the scene changes but little from day to day and from week to week4 ,monotony is the one word that best describes the lives of those whose lot is cast on these broad featureless surfaces4 ,in journeying westward across the plateau over any one of the transcontinental railways a moment of excitement occurs when the even line of the western horizon is broken by the summit of a cloud-like mountain-peak4 ,land ho6 is no more thrilling to voyagers on the ocean than the shouts which first made known the presence of a mountain-peak to the bands of immigrants who slowly voyaged across this sea of grass with their picturesque prairie schooners previous to the building of the railroads which now bind together the ,east and the ,west4 ,the ,great plateaus begin indefinitely to the south of the ,rio ,grande1 broaden in the ,united ,states to a general width of about #djj miles1 and extend far northward into ,canada4 ,their northern limit has not as yet been determined1 but is to be looked for near the head waters of the ,mackenzie4 ,the length of the plateau country is in the neighbourhood of #b1jjj or #b1ejj miles1 and its average width about #cjj miles4 ,an estimate of the area with a generally plane surface and an elevation of from #a1jjj to #f1jjj feet above the sea places it at about #gjj1jjj square miles4 ,the eastern portion of the ,great plateaus includes western ,texas1 ,oklahoma1 the central and western portions of ,kansas and ,nebraska1 the western half of ,south ,dakota1 western ,north ,dakota1 western ,assiniboia1 and thence extend northward so as to include portions of ,saskatchewan1 ,alberta1 and ,athabasca4 ,on the west the plateau region includes the eastern portions of ,new ,mexico and ,colorado1 extends far into ,wyoming1 and embraces central and eastern ,montana1 and thence reaches northward to ,mackenzie4 ,this region of essentially level plateaus1 extending as it does from the hot lands of eastern ,mexico nearly to the arctic circle1 presents great diversity of climate and also well-marked variations in the secondary features of its relief4 ,of necessity it needs to be subdivided for more detailed study4 ,the rivers flowing eastward from the ,rocky ,mountains have excavated valleys in the plateau region1 and may be used as a basis for its subdivision4 ,this has been done by ,j4 ,w4 ,powell for the portion within the borders of the ,united ,states1 and the terms ,pecos plateau1 ,arkansas plateau1 ,platte plateau1 and ,missouri plateau have been proposed2 this category may be extended especially to the northward1 so as to include the less well-known ,saskatchewan1 ,athabasca1 ,peace1 and ,laird plateaus4 ,each of these divisions is in reality a group of plateaus1 for the reason that the broad areas between the eastward-flowing rivers are trenched by lateral stream channels tributary to the main waterways1 and thus subdivided into smaller units4 ,this subdivision of the plateau region by stream channels leaving flat-topped areas between them makes one instructive geographical process prominent--that is1 the great table-land has been dissected4 ,the depths of the channels cut across it depend mainly on the elevation of the land and the distance the streams have to travel to reach the sea2 but modifying conditions are furnished by the degree of resistance the rocks offer to erosion1 the amount of precipitation1 etc4 ,if the elevation is great1 the stream can cut deeply1 and leave bold secondary plateaus between them2 if the distance to the sea is short1 other conditions being the same1 the streams can cut more deeply than when their courses are long2 if the rocks are resistant1 they are left in bold escarpment bordering the valleys and the margins of the secondary plateaus are well defined1 but if they are soft and crumble easily1 their debris is washed and blown into the rivers1 and a general lowering of the surface without the formation of deep trenches is the result4 ,these and still other conditions have influenced the manner in which the ,great plateaus have been dissected1 and are of necessity to be considered in a critical discussion of the history of the land as recorded in its relief4 ,the main reason for the dissection of the region under consideration is to be found in the fact that it is bordered on the west by high mountains where precipitation is abundant1 and the streams1 supplied largely by the melting of the snow in summer1 flow across a comparatively rainless country4 ,the stream channels in general have been deepened at a more rapid rate than the areas between them have been lowered by erosion4 ,valleys running east and west have thus been excavated1 leaving the intervening spaces as uplands1 which1 however1 in certain instances have been minutely dissected by the streams originating on them and supplied by local winter precipitation4 ,added to these general conditions are differences in rock texture1 which have led to great variations in the details due to erosions1 particularly on the valley borders4 ,one other condition which has modified the history of the plateau region throughout1 but most decidedly at the north1 is the climatic change which culminated in the ,glacial epoch4 ,during the time referred to the northern portion of the ,great plateaus situated in ,canada and the adjacent part of the ,united ,states was invaded by glacial ice which spread an irregular sheet of detritus over the country it occupied4 ,decided changes occurred also in the central and southern portion owing to increased precipitation1 the flooding of the rivers leading from the melting ice-front1 and to movements in the earth's crust of as yet undetermined extent and amplitude4 ,it is apparent to the geographer that much of the history of the climatic changes of glacial and post-glacial times is recorded in the relief of the interior ,continental basin to the south of the limit reached by the ice and in the terraces and alluvial deposits of the valleys1 but as yet for the most part this interesting story remains unread4 ,the most deeply dissected portion of the ,great plateaus occurs in western ,texas1 eastern ,new ,mexico1 and ,oklahoma4 ,in that region the rivers having their sources in the ,rocky ,mountains and flowing to the ,gulf of ,mexico have excavated deep and wide valleys1 leaving broad intervening areas in bold relief4 ,the ,pecos ,river drains a large part of the mountainous region in eastern ,new ,mexico1 and flows through a valley of its own making1 which is some #cj or more miles broad and its bottom about #a1bjj feet below the general surface of the plateau lying to the eastward4 ,the ,canadian ,river has excavated a similar valley1 which is some #dj miles broad throughout much of its course1 and is bordered by bold rocky escarpments from #a1jjj to #a1bjj feet high1 in which the edges of the horizontal strata underlying the adjacent plateaus are exposed4 ,this region of large and strongly defined topographic features illustrates in a remarkable manner the nature of the work performed by streams which rise amid high mountains and flow across a dry plateau standing well above sea-level4 ,el ,llano ,estacado4--,a typical portion of the great plateau region left by deep dissection is furnished by the table-land named by early ,mexican explorers ,el ,llano ,estacado1 or the ,staked ,plains1 in reference to the fact that owing to the monotony of the surface and the scarcity of water the routes of travel were at first marked by stakes4 ,this region1 celebrated in the traditions of the ,southwest frontier1 is described by ,captain ,marcy1 who crossed its eastern portion in #ahdi1 as being much elevated above the surrounding country1 very smooth and level1 and spreading out in every direction as far as the eye can penetrate1 without a tree1 shrub1 or any other herbage to intercept the vision4 ,the traveller in passing over it sees nothing but one dreary and monotonous plain of barren solitude4 ,it is an ocean of desert prairie1 where the voice of man is seldom heard1 and where no living being permanently resides4 ,the almost total absence of water causes all animals to shun it2 even the ,indians do not venture to cross it1 except at two or three points1 where they find a few small pools of water4 ,as will be shown below1 the barrenness and desolation of this arid tract is not so great as it seemed to those who first invaded its primeval solitude4 ,el ,llano ,estacado1 or the ,llano1 as it is frequently termed1 is about #ejj miles across from north to south1 and #bhj miles wide from east to west4 ,it is bordered on nearly all portions of its periphery by descending escarpments which lead down to the adjacent valleys4 ,its surface1 although appearing horizontal1 in reality slopes eastward at the rate of about #bj feet per mile1 and on its highest1 northwest border1 has an elevation of #e1ejj feet above the sea4 ,this great table-land has a smooth floor1 and1 as reported by recent explorers1 is clothed with an abundance of bunch-grass1 which formerly furnished sustenance to herds of antelope and deer4 ,it was in this general region also that some of the immense herds of buffalo which once inhabited the broad plateaus found a winter range4 ,the ,llano1 together with its southward extension1 having the same characteristics and known as the ,edwards plateau1 is bordered on the west by the deep and broad valley of the southward-flowing ,pecos ,river1 and on the north by the equally deep and broad valley carved in the plateau country by the eastward-flowing ,canadian ,river4 ,the eastward slope of the surfaces of the two plateaus is continued throughout the region bordering them on the east all the way to the shore of the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,the streams originating on the eastern border of the eastward sloping plateaus and flowing to the ,gulf of ,mexico1 represented at the present time by the ,colorado 7of ,texas71 the ,brazos1 ,trinity1 and ,red ,rivers1 extended their trunks by head-water corrasion and developed numerous branches so long as the rainfall was sufficient to maintain a surface drainage4 ,but as the streams were lengthened they cut farther and farther westward and into a region that became drier and drier1 until finally they reached a land in which all of the scanty rain that fell was absorbed by the thirsty soil4 ,the drainage from this higher and drier region is subterranean1 and reaches the head waters of the streams to the eastward to a considerable extent as springs4 ,the streams which lowered the country to the eastward of the ,llano developed many branches1 some of which were extended westward into the drier plateau country in such a manner as to give the eastern margin of the remaining upland a scalloped and irregular border4 ,in travelling westward up the courses of the rivers of eastern ,texas1 one passes from a low region of old topography to one where the head branches of the streams flow in canyons1 and the relief has the ruggedness of youth2 on gaining the western border of the belt of country having surface streams one ascends to the smooth surface of the high plateau1 which is young as regards stream development1 although in years older than the country with a deeply eroded surface to the eastward4 ,the ,llano and ,edwards plateau present us with examples of perpetuated topographic youthfulness4 ,the ,llano1 although dreaded by early explorers and shunned so far as possible even by experienced plainsmen1 on account of a lack of water1 has in recent years become more favourably known4 ,it is crossed at present by two railroads4 ,water has been found beneath the surface in numerous localities1 and the desert-like region now bids fair to become a favourable cattle-raising country4 ,it is not to be expected1 however1 that all the glowing predictions which have been published concerning this and neighbouring table-lands will be more than partially fulfilled through the use of the subsurface waters4 ,the ,arkansas ,plateau4--,to the north of the ,canadian ,river the region termed above the ,great plateaus is less deeply dissected than in the portion of which the ,llano is typical1 and the streams from the mountains flow through shallow valleys with less rugged and less picturesque borders than those of the deep wide valleys of western ,texas and eastern ,new ,mexico4 ,the broad plateau surfaces adjacent to the valleys of the ,arkansas and ,platte ,rivers probably come nearer to the popular idea of the essential characteristics of the ,great plains than any other of the larger divisions of the region under review4 ,the most conspicuous geographic features of the ,arkansas plateau have been described by ,w4 ,d4 ,johnson as consisting of an assemblage of low and broad table-lands separated by shallow erosion valleys4 ,the plateaus are immense unsculptured remnants in light relief of an older and originally perfect plain4 ,the few long and feeble streams1 wide apart and flowing eastward from the distant mountains in parallel courses and without tributaries1 have blocked out by dissection the larger features of the broad landscape which in future ages will be slowly etched into a multitude of details4 ,the scenery of these featureless plains is ordinarily depressing when once the novelty of being adrift on a sea of grass has passed away4 ,there is nothing that can be termed scenery except that which once a year for a brief period the sky affords when clouds of extraordinary grandeur darken the air4 ,throughout nearly the entire annual course there is no material for landscape effect except the straight line of the horizon with a featureless breadth of sun-faded brown below it and above a merely broader space of faded blue4 ,there is nowhere a curved line1 and though as a scientific fact there is vast expanse of flat plain1 there is little to suggest it when the sky is empty of clouds4 ,in ,june the clouds come with a gradual maturing at some point along the even sky-line1 and increase rapidly until the heavens are filled with magnificent vapour banks2 but the display is simply spectacular1 and passes away in a few hours as quickly as it came1 with only local showers to refresh the land4 ,the one industry that can thrive on the ,arkansas plateau1 which was formerly at certain seasons blackened by herds of bison1 is stock-raising4 ,wells from which water is pumped by windmills furnish sufficient water for herds of cattle and horses1 but not for irrigation4 ,bad ,lands4--,in the northern portion of the ,great plateaus within the ,united ,states the surface rocks over great areas are soft or but irregularly hardened sediments of ancient lakes and streams and have been sculptured by rain1 wind1 and ephemeral rills into a most marvellous array of monumental and castellated forms4 ,localities where this minute dissection of the soft horizontal strata is especially well marked over hundreds of square miles occur in ,south ,dakota and ,montana1 and especially on the borders of the valleys carved by the ,loup ,fork1 ,niobrara1 ,white1 ,yellowstone1 and ,missouri ,rivers4 ,in this region the rainfall is light1 the mean annual precipitation being in the neighbourhood of #ae inches1 and occurs mostly during the winter months4 ,in the summer season the lands far out on the plateaus are dry and hot1 and all but the larger streams disappear4 ,the rocks1 consisting mostly of unconsolidated clays and soft sandstones1 with occasional hard layers and irregular concretions1 have been cut into innumerable channels1 leaving steep-sided remnants of the former plain between4 ,the maze of trench-like valleys1 the similarity of the sculptured land-forms one to another1 and the absence of water1 make these desert regions excessively difficult to traverse4 ,the ,canadian-,french who explored the north-central portion of the ,great plateaus in early days of ,american settlement termed these tracts of country1 so difficult to cross1 ,mauvaises ,terres1 a name now seldom used1 but replaced by the ,english name ,bad ,lands4 ,although bad to the hunter and the plainsman1 these desert regions are of fascinating interest to men of scientific training4 ,the intense heat1 the choking alkaline dust1 the absence of water1 and the danger of being lost and of perishing of thirst in these wild silent regions1 have not checked the ardour of explorers4 ,not only do the ,bad ,lands present a most attractive field to the student of erosion and of the origin of earth forms1 but their deathlike solitudes have been made to yield the most wonderful procession of strange extinct animals yet unearthed by geologists4 ,they are vast cemeteries in which are interred the skeletons of many genera and hundreds of species of animals which lived in the ancient lakes or wandered through the almost tropical forest that in distant ages clothed the adjacent country4 ,the great lesson to be learned by the geographer in these uninviting regions as they seem to most people relates to the way in which the rocks have been eroded4 ,the prevailing softness of the beds with occasional hard layers1 the scarcity of vegetation1 the occasional heavy rains1 and the considerable height of the country above the master streams combine to favour rapid and deep sculpturing4 ,the precipitous slopes of the small mesas and castle-like rock forms destitute of all vegetation excepting succulent cacti and scattered clumps of bunch-grass1 reveal a multitude of sunken lines and raised edges1 produced by the ephemeral streams1 and a less complex series of horizontal ledges due to the prominent edges of hard layers4 ,the steep slopes are worn into alcoves and irregular recesses by the transient rills1 and smoothed or etched by the wind-driven sands4 ,the result is an assemblage of architectural forms such as only the most fantastic dream pictures or the strange tricks of the mirage on northern ice-fields can simulate4 ,nor are the wonderfully intricate topographical forms the sole attraction4 ,the rocks are variously coloured1 and present endless combinations of yellow1 red1 green1 purple1 etc41 in many tints and shades1 rendered seemingly brilliant by contrast with the gray of shales and the blackness of occasional coal-seams4 ,owing to the burning of coal-beds1 the rocks are sometimes altered over broad areas and given unusually striking colours1 among which various shades of red predominate4 ,standing on some commanding crag in the ,bad ,lands in the early morning or when the purple shadows of evening fill the gorges and ravines1 the most unimaginative traveller sees in the silence about him the ruins of a vast city1 with cathedrals1 temples1 and palaces of varied colours and weird designs such as no mortal hand ever fashioned4 ,it is at such times that the picturesque and gorgeous1 although desolate1 landscape kindles the fancy and suggests day dreams which distract one's attention from the more prosaic study of these earth ruins4 ,the best developed portions of the strange region here referred to occur on the borders of the uplands overlooking the larger valleys1 excavated by the rivers flowing eastward from the mountains1 and are simply larger examples of erosion1 such as may be seen in many bluffs and valley-sides in nearly every country1 but rendered conspicuous by their size1 extent1 endless variety1 and unusual colours4 ,sand-,hills4--,the sands winnowed by the winds from the bare plains and steep bluffs are in certain places on the ,great plateaus gathered into dunes which cover great areas with a succession of low dome-shaped hills4 ,on the borders of the ,niobrara ,river there is a detached area of about #bj1jjj square miles1 which has been covered in this manner with loose sands4 ,this region1 as described by ,f4 ,v4 ,hayden1 presents a succession of round-topped hills1 some of them scooped out by the swirling winds so as to resemble volcanic craters4 ,these sand-hills were formerly a favourite resort of the bison1 which fed upon the scanty but very nutritious grasses in the little valleys and intervals among the mounds and ridges4 ,there is1 for the most part1 an abundant supply of water in the lakelets scattered through the region1 and fed by the seepage from the porous sands1 which drink in all the water that falls upon them and allow it to percolate slowly into the adjacent depressions4 ,some of the lakelets and ponds are highly alkaline1 while others are fresh2 the former can be easily distinguished from the latter by the absence of vegetation about their borders4 ,the hills1 although seemingly utterly desolate1 on a nearer view sometimes reveal considerable vegetation1 including yuccas or ,spanish needles1 which shelter the sands from the winds4 ,many other regions on the western border of the ,great plateaus1 in the valleys of the ,rocky ,mountains and on the desert plains of ,utah1 ,nevada1 and ,california1 are buried beneath drifting sands1 which have the characteristic features of a dune-covered seacoast4 ,the sources of the sands in these interior plains are usually to be found in the disintegration of the rocks under the action of the dry air with its many and sudden changes of temperature1 but occasionally they come from desiccated lake beds not yet clothed with vegetation4 ,central ,portion of the ,great ,plateaus4--,the ,state of ,nebraska1 about #djj miles in length from east to west1 and extending across the ,great plateaus to within some #fj miles of the mountains bordering them on the west1 furnishes a typical example of the west-central portion of the interior ,continental basin4 ,as described by ,hayden1 this ,state may be divided into two portions1 one agricultural and the other pastoral4 ,the eastern part1 included in the ,prairie plains1 contains some of the most beautiful1 gently rolling1 and fertile agricultural lands in ,america4 ,but the western part is a treeless1 almost waterless plain2 yet thick1 low1 sweet1 nutritious grasses cover the entire surface1 and render it well adapted for the raising of large numbers of horses1 cattle1 and sheep4 ,over western ,nebraska not more than #ae or #bj inches of moisture fall annually2 the snows of winter are very light and soon pass away1 the winds rapidly gathering them into the valleys and gorges1 leaving vast areas entirely bare4 ,the grasses1 instead of decaying1 as in all temperate countries with a humid climate1 slowly wither1 retaining all their nutritious qualities1 and thus continue until ,april or ,may1 when the fresh shoots spring up1 so that all kinds of stock thrive throughout the winter on the open plains without artificial shelter4 ,in this account1 however1 the author cited fails to note that the winters are frequently marked by exceedingly severe storms termed blizzards1 during which gales blow while the temperature is far below freezing1 and that at such times cattle have been known to perish by thousands4 ,in late summer and autumn the streams in this portion of the plateau region for the most part become dry1 although water may usually be discovered at long intervals in pools in their beds4 ,in ascending the valleys the water appears and disappears as if by magic4 ,here one finds a swift-running stream several yards broad1 and then for a considerable distance nothing is to be seen but a dry and dusty creek bed1 resembling a sunken roadway4 ,even the broad ,platte has so far forgotten itself for several seasons as to cease to be a running stream4 ,it is not uncommon for a river originating in the mountains on the west to be considerably larger towards its source than near its mouth4 ,many of the important streams that flow from the ,black ,hills towards the ,missouri are lost on their way through the plains4 ,the ,yellowstone and the ,missouri1 the two most important rivers crossing the ,great plateaus in the northern portion of the ,united ,states1 retain their existence throughout the year1 although becoming greatly shrunken in autumn1 and send eastward a never-ceasing tribute to the ,mississippi4 ,northern ,extension of the ,great ,plateaus4--,the ,great plateaus cross the ,united ,states-,canadian boundary and extend northwestward through the western portion of ,assiniboia and ,saskatchewan1 and embrace nearly the whole of ,alberta and western ,athabasca4 ,at the international boundary the plateau region is about #dgj miles broad1 and extends from longitude #ajc deg4 #cj' westward to the foot-hills of the ,rocky ,mountains1 and in this region embraces what is frequently termed the third prairie steppe1 known in part as the ,missouri ,coteau4 ,the east border of this high plateau throughout much of its extent is well marked by an escarpment which descends some #cjj or #djj feet to the second prairie steppe1 which together with the first or most easterly of the series1 embracing the ,red ,river ,valley1 is usually considered as belonging to the ,prairie plains4 ,the third steppe in the series1 or the one extending from the ,red ,river to the ,rocky ,mountains1 has an elevation along its eastern border of about #b1jjj feet1 rises gradually to the westward1 and attains a general elevation of over #d1jjj feet on its western border4 ,all of the region of the ,great plateaus north of the international boundary1 with the exception of about #bj1jjj square miles tributary to the ,missouri1 is drained by rivers flowing eastward to ,hudson ,bay or northward to the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,it is thus a portion of the northern or arctic slope of the ,continental basin4 ,the eastern border of the plateau country trends northwestward1 and finally reaches the ,rocky ,mountains in the vicinity of the head waters of the ,mackenzie1 but as this region is but imperfectly explored1 our knowledge of the boundaries of the natural division of the continent we have been endeavouring to trace there becomes indefinite4 ,the ,great plateaus in ,canada merge into the ,prairie plains bordering them on the east1 and in large part the position of the dividing line between the two is arbitrary4 ,the portion of the ,great plateaus in ,canada1 like the similar region to the south1 is covered with bunch-grass1 which dries as it stands and forms highly nutritious self-cured hay4 ,formerly this region was the winter feeding-ground for vast herds of bison4 ,the winters1 although cold1 are not characterized by a heavy snowfall1 and even in midwinter the warm dry chinook winds1 as they are termed1 similar to the foehn winds of ,switzerland1 frequently cause the snow to disappear and leave the brown plateau surfaces free for grazing4 ,now that the bison has disappeared1 this immense region is favourable in many ways for stock-raising1 but1 unlike the lower prairies to the east with their rich black soil and long hot summers1 is not suitable for agriculture4 ,the main difficulties in the way of successful farming lie in the dryness of the summers1 and the scarcity of water available for irrigation4 ,the rivers flow in valleys several hundred feet below the general plateau surfaces1 and hence cannot be made available for irrigating the uplands without too great an expense4 ,in the bottoms of the valleys1 however1 adjacent to the stream1 limited areas are now under cultivation1 and it is to be expected that the wheat-fields of the prairie region will be gradually extended into the valley to the westward1 and perhaps even to the eastern margin of the plateaus4 ,a greater extension of the wheat-belt to the north and west than is now thought practicable has been predicted1 but what the ultimate limit will be cannot be told4 ,the ,black ,hills of ,dakota4--,as stated in the brief account already given of the ,prairie plains1 their monotony of surface and of geological structure is broken by a single area of disturbance termed the ,ozark uplift4 ,similarly1 the vast generally level expanse of the ,great plateaus is broken by a single rudely circular region of elevation1 the ,black ,hills of ,dakota1 which has been sculptured by atmospheric agencies and given a diversified topography1 in striking contrast with the even monotony of the country surrounding it4 ,this protuberance on the surface of the ,great plateaus is situated in the southwest portion of ,south ,dakota1 and embraces also a part of ,wyoming1 and about #adj miles east of the nearest range--the ,big ,horn ,mountains--of the ,rocky ,mountain chain4 ,it rises from the surrounding plateau to a height on an average of about #b1jjj to #b1ejj feet2 the highest summit1 ,harney ,peak1 is #c1jjj feet above the plain1 and #g1baf feet above the sea4 ,the uplift is elliptical in ground plan1 with a northwest and southeast axis measuring about #abj miles1 and a transverse diameter of #dj to #ej miles4 ,its area is in the neighbourhood of #f1jjj square miles4 ,while the generally level plateau surface about the ,black ,hills is treeless1 except for the scattered groves of wide-spreading cottonwoods along the immediate banks of the larger streams1 the central and higher portions of the elevation itself is clothed with an open but abundant forest1 consisting principally of pines4 ,the evergreen forests give to the hills a nearly black colour when seen from a distance1 and have gained for them the name they bear4 ,the rocks which have been forced upward so as to form the ,black ,hills dome were previously like those in the surrounding plain1 quite horizontal1 and had a vertical thickness of at least #e1jjj feet4 ,the uplift1 if uneroded1 would rise from the surrounding plain as a flat-topped dome about #f1fjj feet high1 as is suggested by the highest dotted line in the following diagram4 ,in reality such a dome never existed1 for the reason that its growth was slow1 and perhaps is not completed even at the present day1 and as soon as the rocks began to rise1 the rain1 wind1 streams1 etc41 commenced their task of destruction4 ,the higher the rocks were elevated the more powerfully those agencies acted4 ,the top of the dome was soon broken and its internal structure revealed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,ideal east-and-west section through the ,black ,hills4 ,the vertical scale is about six times the horizontal4 ,the dotted lines indicate the portion of the uplift removed by erosion4 ,after ,henry ,newton4 #a4 ,archean slates and schists4 #b4 ,granite4 #c4 ,potsdam1 sandstone1 resting unconformably on #a and #b4 #d4 ,carboniferous1 mostly limestone4 #e4 ,red ,beds 7,trias71 sandstone with included limestone4 #f4 ,jura1 shales4 #g4 ,cretaceous1 shales4 #h4 ,white ,river ,tertiary1 shales1 resting unconformably on #g4 ,by reference to the accompanying generalized section through the ,black ,hills1 which as the uplift is rudely circular would be essentially the same if taken in any direction through the elevated region1 it will be seen that there is a central core of slate1 schists1 and granite which has been forced upward so as to stand in its present eroded condition2 it rises well above the surface of the adjacent plateau4 ,about this central core the upturned edges of the sedimentary rocks form concentric zones1 the oldest in the series being next the schists1 and the youngest #aj to #dj or #ej miles distant4 ,it is the presence in the central part of the hills of an area of resistant crystalline rocks which have weathered into rugged forms1 and the series of encircling and concentric belts of rock of varying degrees of hardness and solubility1 that has given to the uplift its present peculiar relief and its generally beautiful scenery4 ,the edges of the harder belts form bold hills and ridges1 while the softer belts have been eroded into valleys4 ,this series of sharp-crested ridges and intervening valleys forms concentric circles completely surrounding the central group of rugged mountains4 ,the largest and most interesting of the ring-like valleys is underlaid by red sandstone1 and is remarkable for its flaming colour as well as for its exceptional form4 ,in this ,red ,valley one may ride entirely around the rugged central mass of the hills1 on a generally level surface1 which is inclosed on its outer border by a precipitous wall of yellowish sandstone and shale #cjj or #djj feet high4 ,the distance about this race-course1 as it is sometimes termed1 is about #bjj miles4 ,this series of concentric ridges and intervening valleys1 surrounding a high and rugged region of more resistant rock1 furnish an admirable illustration of the influence of rock texture1 hardness1 etc41 on topography4 ,another instructive geographical lesson afforded by the ,black ,hills is the manner in which the portion of the dome rising above the level of the rivers which flow across the surrounding plain has been dissected by stream erosion4 ,the streams originating in the central portion of the uplift flowed outward in all directions1 and have cut deep narrow gorges through the ridges of hard rock in the base of the truncated dome4 ,some #bj streams originating in the central portion of the uplift cross ,red ,valley and escape through notches in its outer wall1 about #af of which are well-defined gateways leading to the encircling plateau4 ,this is one of the most beautiful and most instructive examples of consequent drainage--that is1 of streams whose direction has been determined by the inclination of the surface over which they flow--thus far discovered4 ,still another feature of much geographical interest is furnished by the rivers on the adjacent plain1 two of which1 branches of the ,cheyenne ,river1 cross the north and south extensions1 respectively1 of the ,black ,hills dome4 ,these streams flow directly across the arched strata1 in canyons of their own making1 and1 as explained by ,g4 ,k4 ,gilbert1 are illustrations of superimposed drainage--that is1 the portions of the dome crossed by the branches of the ,cheyenne after the rocks were upheaved were covered by soft horizontal lake beds1 over which the water flowed as consequent streams4 ,the rivers deepened their channels and cut through the soft cover of horizontal rock and into the arched beds beneath4 ,the course of the streams initiated on the covering of soft beds were maintained1 as the flowing water charged with sand cut downward into the harder1 upturned beds beneath1 and now1 the covering of soft beds having been eroded away1 the rivers flow directly across 7or through7 the flanks of the great arch1 but are not deflected by it4 ,in the neighbourhood of the ,black ,hills1 and especially about their northern and northwestern border1 there are secondary hills formed by the upward protrusion of molten rocks into the generally horizontally stratified rocks underlying the plateau4 ,these intrusions did not reach the surface in such a way as to form volcanoes1 but were forced upward1 raising domes above them1 in which the structure is similar to that in the great ,black ,hills dome4 ,these secondary domes have been eaten away by erosive agencies in varying degrees4 ,in some of them1 as the ,little ,sundance ,hill1 near the town of ,sundance1 ,wyoming1 the dome of stratified rock is unbroken1 and no igneous rock is to be seen2 other neighbouring domes in which the plutonic magmas rose higher have been eroded so as to expose the summit portion of the inner core2 and in one instance1 known as ,mato ,tepee1 the uncovering of the plug of plutonic rock which caused the uplift is so complete that it now forms a prominent fluted column over #fjj feet high above its immediate base4 ,volcanic ,mountains and ,table-,lands4--,in the south-central portion of the ,great plateaus in southwestern ,colorado and eastern ,new ,mexico1 there are several typical cinder cones with lava-flows associated with them1 which impart novel topographic forms to the general monotony of the broad plateau surfaces4 ,the highest of the extinct volcanoes in this region is ,mount ,capulin1 situated in northeastern ,new ,mexico1 about #bjj miles east of the ,rocky ,mountains1 which rises #b1gej feet above the surrounding plain1 and has an elevation of about #i1jjj feet above the sea4 ,at the summit of this conical mass there is a well-defined crater a mile in diameter4 ,in the same region there are several other similar volcanic cones1 from which lava streams have descended4 ,as has been pointed out by ,r4 ,t4 ,hill1 these are the most easterly volcanoes of recent geological age in ,north ,america4 ,they were formed after the ,tertiary rocks of the ,llano were laid down4 ,the ,raton ,mesa1 situated between ,mount ,capulin and the front range of the ,rockies1 is capped by a lava flow of more ancient date than the volcanoes just referred to1 which has protected the softer rocks beneath from erosion1 and now stands as a prominent table-land with precipitous borders4 ,,the ,,pacific ,,mountains ,to the west of the ,continental basin is a vast cordillera composed of numerous mountain chains which extends from south-central ,mexico northward to the ,arctic ,ocean1 and in its broadest part is about #a1jjj miles wide4 ,as already explained1 we speak of this region in its entirety as the ,pacific cordillera1 or less technically as the ,pacific mountains4 ,it is a highly complex group of mountain chains1 each of which contains two or more distinct mountain systems2 each system1 again1 is usually composed of many ranges1 and each range is frequently made up of a multitude of ridges1 peaks1 buttes1 mesas1 etc42 there are also many plateaus more or less completely dissected by erosion1 and broad valleys1 as well as numerous canyons1 gulches1 ravines1 arroyas1 and other secondary topographic forms4 ,this vast cordillera not only contains mountains produced by the folding of the rocks of the earth's crust1 in a general way similar to the ,appalachians in structure1 but also upturned blocks many miles in extent1 bounded by breaks or faults1 and volcanic mountains1 vast lava-flows1 and elevations due to the injection of molten rock into the earth's crusts so as to elevate domes4 ,in fact1 scarcely any topographic form and no important geological structure that is known is lacking in this great family of mountains which dominates the western portion of the continent4 ,the ,pacific mountains begin abruptly at the south1 along a generally east and west line passing some #ge miles south of the ,city of ,mexico1 where the precipitous border of the table-land of central ,mexico overlooks a lower region to the south which is diversified by many volcanic mountains4 ,but little accurate information is available concerning the geology and geography of ,mexico1 but in general1 as is well known1 there are three main mountain belts which traverse that republic4 ,one of these mountain belts is adjacent to the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and another is situated near the ,pacific coast of the main portion of the republic1 while the third forms the rugged and irregular axis of the peninsula of ,lower ,california4 ,between the leading mountain belts of the mainland there are numerous short ranges and many nearly level-floored valleys4 ,the general level of this inland region is in the neighbourhood of #f1jjj feet1 while the more prominent peaks and crests attain elevations of from #aj1jjj to #ab1jjj feet4 ,the general trend of the main mountain belts1 and of the numerous subordinate ranges1 is about northwest and southeast4 ,for this reason1 and also because the valleys have become deeply filled with debris from the mountains1 travelling in directions leading north and south is facilitated by the topography1 while in passing from one coast of the republic to the other the rugged bordering mountain belts have to be crossed and detours made in order to pass around the central mountain ranges4 ,the more elevated portion of central and northern ,mexico1 together with the peninsula of ,lower ,california1 has an arid climate1 to which many of the conspicuous features in the geography of the land are due4 ,the precipitation over large areas is insufficient to maintain permanent streams1 the vegetation is nearly all of a desert-like character1 and several basins exist which do not drain to the sea4 ,in the interior basins there are saline and alkaline lakes1 and numerous dry lake beds or playas1 which are whitened by saline efflorescences4 ,the rocks exposed in the mountains are largely of sedimentary origin1 but a characteristic feature is the geology1 especially to the west1 in the presence of extensive volcanic areas and lofty mountains of igneous rocks4 ,the ,pacific cordillera begins in southern ,mexico with a width of some #cjj miles and broadens when traced northward4 ,at the boundary between ,mexico and the ,united ,states it has a width of fully #gjj miles1 but reaches its greatest breadth in the latitude of ,san ,francisco and ,denver1 where it is about #a1jjj miles across4 ,in its better known1 but as yet incompletely studied portion embraced within the boundaries of the ,united ,states there are several important subdivisions1 such as the ,rocky ,mountain belt on the east2 a less lofty1 but yet rugged central region1 termed the ,great ,basin1 characterized by having a dry climate and by the fact that the streams do not reach the ocean2 and a western mountain chain which includes the ,sierra ,nevada and ,cascade ,ranges4 ,to the west of the mountains just named lies the great valley of ,california1 and similar regions in ,oregon and ,washington occupied in part by ,puget ,sound4 ,to the west1 again1 are the several ranges bordering the ,pacific coast from ,lower ,california to ,vancouver ,island1 and termed in a general way the coast mountains4 ,each of the great divisions of the ,pacific mountain region has its indefinitely known southern terminus in ,mexico1 and extends northward to beyond the ,canadian boundary4 ,as this central portion of the most westerly of the larger geographical divisions of the continent is well developed in the ,united ,states1 and has there been more carefully explored than elsewhere1 a review of its leading features will serve to give as good an idea of the entire ,pacific mountain region as is now practicable4 ,the ,rocky ,mountains4--,the limitations to the north and south of the region to which this name is more or less specifically applied are not well defined4 ,perhaps the most accurate statement at present permissible is that the ,rocky ,mountains begin at the south1 in northern ,mexico1 and extend northward across the ,united ,states and ,canada to near the shore of the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,on the east it is sharply defined by its junction with the ,great plateaus4 ,its western border1 although less definite than the eastern1 is easily traced1 at least across the greater portion of the ,united ,states1 by the marked contrast it presents to the geographical conditions characteristic of the ,great ,basin region1 but owing to the many difficulties met with in attempting to adjust and make use of the current nomenclature in classifying geographical regions more or less artificial boundaries have to be accepted4 ,the ,great ,basin is so designated because it is a region of interior drainage--that is1 it does not send any tribute to the sea4 ,its boundaries are therefore the crest-lines of the surrounding divides or water-partings4 ,the ,rocky ,mountains1 on the other hand1 are defined as an elevated region1 the boundaries of which are determined by relief and not by drainage4 ,the basis of classification in these two instances is not the same1 and one province overlaps the other4 ,the streams flowing westward from the ,rocky ,mountains into the ,great ,basin--such1 for example1 as ,bear1 ,provo1 and ,sevier ,rivers in ,utah--have their sources well within the ,rocky ,mountain province as defined by uplift1 but yet lie wholly within the ,great ,basin province as defined by drainage4 ,in spite of this inconsistency1 geographers recognise as the western border of the ,rocky ,mountains the irregular and in part indefinite line where the elevated region breaks down and meets the broad level-floored valleys characteristic of the ,great ,basin4 ,this line1 or more properly belt of country1 although indefinite at the south1 may for convenience be taken as beginning at the head of the ,gulf of ,california1 and extending up the ,colorado ,river for about #cjj miles1 to where that river makes an abrupt bend1 turning southward after a westerly course through the ,grand ,canyon4 ,from the locality indicated1 the boundary passes through central ,utah1 and is sharply defined for most of the way by the bold western escarpment of the ,wasatch ,range4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,great ,salt ,lake the border of the mountain belt trends more and more to the northwest1 crosses ,idaho diagonally1 and in northern ,washington merges with or closely approaches the ,cascade ,mountains4 ,in this northern region the border of the ,rocky ,mountains is again indefinite1 and until the geological structure of western ,canada is more thoroughly studied can only be located provisionally4 ,the unsatisfactory condition of the nomenclature at present applied to the larger topographic features of ,north ,america is illustrated by the fact that to the north of the ,united ,states-,canadian boundary the term ,rocky ,mountains is much more restricted than is the custom in the ,united ,states4 ,in ,canada this name is applied to the most easterly of the ranges or chains of the ,pacific cordillera4 ,this difference in the significance of the name referred to on the opposite sides of the international boundary is unfortunate1 but is due in large part to our ignorance of the geography and geology not only immediately along the boundary line1 but generally throughout the rugged region of the northwest portion of the continent4 ,one of the most important geographic features in the central part of the ,united ,states is the presence in ,wyoming of a broad1 generally flat1 region known as the ,laramie plateau 7plains7 and its extension westward across nearly the entire width of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,the general elevation of these plains is about #g1jjj feet1 or approximately #a1jjj feet greater than that of the western border of the ,great plateaus4 ,the ,laramie plateau and country to the west having a similar topography1 furnished a convenient pass for the ,union ,pacific1 the oldest of the transcontinental railroads1 and divides the ,rocky ,mountain belt into two portions1 which may be termed in a general way the northern and southern ,rocky ,mountains respectively4 ,to the north of the ,union ,pacific ,railroad there are several important mountain groups1 termed collectively the ,stony ,mountains by ,lewis and ,clark in the report of their bold explorations across the continent in #ahjd1 but not generally used since that time4 ,this name has recently been revived by ,j4 ,w4 ,powell as a convenient term by which to designate this large division of the ,rocky ,mountain belt1 but unfortunately is not recognised and has no significance to the north of the international boundary4 ,what the natural limitations of the ,stony ,mountains may be in ,canada remains to be determined4 ,the ,stony ,mountain system includes the ,big ,horn ,mountains in north-central ,wyoming1 the sharp and lofty ,teton ,range to the south of the ,yellowstone ,national ,park1 and several other rugged uplifts of great extent in ,montana and ,idaho1 and should the name be extended to the north of the international boundary until a natural limit is reached1 it will include the ,rocky ,mountains of ,canadian geographers 7the most eastern of the great uplifts constituting the ,rocky ,mountain belt71 together with the several ranges of the ,gold ,mountains4 ,these several mountain ranges and groups of ranges appear to have diverse geological structure1 but their histories are by no means thoroughly understood4 ,some of them1 as stated by ,powell1 are carved out of broad folds1 and involve both originally deeply seated igneous and metamorphic rocks and upturned and folded sedimentary beds2 while others are due to movements along lines of fracture and in part of overthrust4 ,the ,stony ,mountains form a portion of the continental divide which parts the waters flowing to the ,pacific from those that find their way to the ,atlantic4 ,the thousands of streams tributary to the ,missouri head against the equally numerous fountains supplying the westward-flowing ,columbia4 ,the broad valleys between the several ranges have a general elevation of between #g1jjj and #h1jjj feet1 and the bold1 massive mountains rise from #aj1jjj to over #ac1jjj feet above the sea4 ,owing to the considerable elevation even of the valleys1 and the northern position of the region here considered1 as well as its distance from the equalizing influence of the sea1 the extremes of climate are strongly marked4 ,the summer season is comparatively short1 and in the valleys the heat is intense 7ranging from #ij deg4 to #aab deg4 ,f47 and the rainfall small or none at all1 while the winter season is cold 7temperatures of from -#ae deg4 to -#cj deg4 ,f4 being frequent7 and accompanied by an abundant snowfall1 especially on the mountains4 ,agriculture1 although carried on in the valleys1 is of comparatively small importance1 and is usually dependent on irrigation4 ,the mountains are snow-covered through much of the year1 and small glaciers occur about the lofty summits of the ,teton ,range and on the mountains near the international boundary and in ,canada4 ,the valleys are generally destitute of trees except along the streams1 where white-trunked cottonwoods spread their green leaves in summer and become a tracery of golden yellow in the autumn1 marking the courses of the life-giving waters4 ,the lower mountain slopes are covered with dark forests of pine1 spruce1 and juniper1 which increase in density and extent as one follows the ranges northward until the influence of the high northern latitude is felt1 and in northern ,canada the zone of the subarctic forest is reached4 ,in the central part of the ,stony ,mountains is situated the justly famed ,yellowstone ,national ,park1 which is truly remarkable for its fine scenery1 its deeply carved and gorgeously colored canyons1 and most of all for its numerous hot springs and spouting geysers4 ,this is the only geyser region on the continent1 and the most extensive of the three now existing in the world4 ,the finest scenery of the northern division of the ,rocky ,mountain belt lies to the north of the international boundary1 and within recent years has been rendered accessible by the building of the ,canadian ,pacific ,railroad4 ,it is in this region that the mountains are highest1 most rugged1 and clothed most completely with the dark1 sombre1 evergreen northern forests4 ,here1 too1 high up among the bare serrate mountain tops1 and mostly above the timber-line1 are found the largest of the glaciers in the ,rocky ,mountain belt4 ,this wonderful region of rugged mountains1 deep and formerly glacier-filled valleys1 impetuous rivers1 and dense forests has only recently become known to the world at large4 ,vast areas1 no doubt as attractive as those about ,banff1 ,lake ,louise1 ,glacier ,house1 etc41 already famous1 remain to be discovered and described4 ,in the fastnesses of these wild northern ,rockies moose1 elk1 deer1 bear1 mountain-sheep1 and mountain-goat still abound4 ,the buffalo 7bison7 is protected in the ,yellowstone ,national ,park1 and will probably be preserved from extinction4 ,a small herd also survives in ,canada4 ,the streams1 except those flowing from glaciers1 are bright1 clear1 and swift1 and are well stocked with fish4 ,the trout1 represented by several species1 there finds the cool retreats so essential to its life4 ,to the sportsman and skilled angler the northern ,rockies are a paradise4 ,among the lofty mountains and in the larger valleys there are many lakes1 more especially in northern ,idaho and ,montana and in ,canada4 ,many of these1 and particularly those near the heads of the valleys and about the more lofty peaks1 are true rock-basin lakes1 worn out by the grinding of sand-charged glacial ice when the glaciers were far more extensive than now4 ,the large lakes situated in the trunk portions of the broad-bottomed valleys are in many instances retained by dams of glacially deposited detritus and record the changes in the aspect of the land inherited from the ,glacial epoch4 ,these numerous lakes present a vast variety of scenery1 and in many instances reflect from their placid mirror-like surfaces as beautiful and inspiring pictures of rugged grandeur as can be found in the world4 ,the natural beauties of the classical lakes of ,switzerland and ,italy are rivalled by many of the charming water bodies of the northern ,rockies1 which but few men appreciative of the beauties of nature have ever seen4 ,to the south of the ,laramie plateau the mountains of the ,rocky ,mountain system are more irregular and more lofty than those to the north of that break4 ,the many rugged ranges in southern ,wyoming1 ,colorado1 and northern ,new ,mexico form a great group1 to which the name ,park ,mountains has been applied by ,j4 ,w4 ,powell4 ,the several ranges composing this group have a general north and south trend1 to which1 however1 an exception is furnished by the ,uintah ,mountains in southwestern ,wyoming and eastern ,utah1 which consists of a deeply dissected east and west fold or broadly uplifted plateau4 ,intervening between several of the adjacent ranges there are wide1 nearly flat-bottomed valleys1 which owe their leading characteristics to the deep filling of depressions by debris carried from the bordering mountains by the wind and streams4 ,these broad valleys surrounded by rugged peaks are known as parks1 and the numerous ranges among which they are situated are hence designated the ,park ,mountains4 ,the term by which the valleys are known is in some respects misleading1 as the word park usually carries the idea of a diversified and in part forested region1 with mild1 picturesque scenery4 ,perhaps a city park or the beautiful rural estates of ,england are most usually brought to mind when the term referred to is mentioned4 ,but in the great mountains of the central portion of the continent one's idea must expand to keep in harmony with his surroundings4 ,the natural parks of that region are broad1 generally treeless1 valleys with winding streams1 the uplands are grass-covered and rolling1 and in distant views the courses of the streams are marked by narrow belts of verdure4 ,the picture is framed by a succession of mountain domes and embattled cliffs4 ,over all arches the dark blue1 cloudless sky of a nearly rainless region4 ,in the clear air distances are deceptive1 and what appear to be miles to the novice must be extended to leagues in order to acquire adequate conceptions of the magnitude of the scene4 ,the most famous of the great tracts of generally level land surrounded by the high ranges of the ,park ,mountains is ,san ,luis ,park1 situated in southeastern ,colorado and extending southward into ,new ,mexico1 which has a length from north to south of about #acj miles1 and is from #bj to nearly #dj miles wide4 ,its general elevation is between #g1jjj and #h1jjj feet4 ,this great valley1 level-floored with soft deposits swept in from the bordering highlands1 and almost completely surrounded by rugged mountains1 although more desolate than the majority of the numerous similar valleys in the same region1 is typical of its class4 ,the ,rio ,grande winds through its entire length and many streams rising in the bordering mountains flow to the valley during the winter season1 but in summer1 owing to the high temperature1 active evaporation1 and small rainfall1 only a few of the larger of these mountain-born torrents reach the main1 southward-flowing river4 ,in the southern portions of the valley large areas are covered with drifting sand1 which is fashioned by the winds into ever-changing dunes of a creamy whiteness4 ,some of the streams from the mountains expand on the plain and form the ,san ,luis lakes1 from which the water escapes by evaporation1 thus causing them to become alkaline4 ,the land bordering the lakes is whitened as with snow by saline incrustations4 ,on the lower portion of the rim of this mountain-inclosed basin there are scattered groves of pines and junipers1 and at higher elevations the mountains are dark with forests4 ,the more lofty peaks1 however1 rise far above the upper limit of the forests and are rugged and magnificent even under the glare of a cloudless sky4 ,to the east of the ,san ,luis ,park1 and rising about #g1jjj feet over it1 and over #ad1jjj feet above the sea1 stands ,sierra ,blanca1 one of the finest of the many majestic mountains of ,colorado4 ,in summer immense cloud banks frequently gather about this cold1 isolated peak1 and local storms1 accompanied by fierce lightning and echoing thunder1 beat upon its shrouded sides4 ,these tempests raging on the mountain top1 while the adjacent valleys are flooded with sunlight1 recall the scriptural accounts of the storms of ,mount ,sinai4 ,in fact1 the southwestern portion of the ,united ,states and the adjacent region in ,mexico1 so far as scenery and climatic peculiarities are concerned1 have much in common with ,palestine4 ,the other great parks in ,colorado1 which have suggested a name for the group of mountains in the midst of which they are sheltered1 are less arid and less desert-like than the one just described2 but like it1 derive their magnificence and fascination from their vast extent1 the sublimity of the bordering mountains1 and the wonderful transparency of the air above them1 rather than from the topography of their nearly level floors or the vegetation that strives ineffectually to clothe their nakedness4 ,the individual summits as well as the separate ranges composing the ,park ,mountains are remarkable for their massiveness and the great height of their bare rounded summits rather than for picturesque details4 ,several of the peaks are among the highest in the ,united ,states4 ,one conspicuous feature is the considerable elevation of the valleys1 usually over #g1jjj feet1 and the large number of lofty summits4 ,of the peaks that have been measured1 over #cj exceed #ad1jjj feet in height4 ,the portion of the ,park ,mountains above an elevation of #aj1jjj feet1 as is indicated on the map reproduced on page #fe1 is far greater in area than any other region of similar altitude on the continent4 ,in the ,park ,mountains1 and generally throughout the southern ,rockies1 even to central ,mexico1 the forms that meet the eye are the remnants of vast upheaved folds and domes of the earth's crust sculptured and degraded by erosion4 ,the nearly horizontal rocks of the ,great plateaus on meeting the eastern border of the mountains are bent abruptly upward1 and in many places stand on edge or have been overturned so as to dip westward4 ,this abrupt upward bending and the presence of remnants of the same beds on the summits of some of the higher mountains shows that the strata have not been simply folded into anticlinals and synclinals1 but that there has been a thickening and upswelling of the rocks beneath4 ,in the northern ,rockies1 except in western ,idaho and adjacent portions of ,washington and ,oregon1 evidences of recent volcanic activity are rare1 although igneous rocks cover great areas1 and in the ,yellowstone ,park numerous geysers and hot springs bear evidence to the presence of abnormal heat in the earth's crust4 ,in the southern ,rockies1 however1 volcanic mountains which still preserve their forms are numerous in certain regions1 and in ,mexico there are mighty volcanic piles and many lesser elevations built up by extrusion of molten material1 some of which are still active4 ,examples are furnished of volcanic mountains ranging from perfect cones with curved slopes typical of the forms produced by the piling up of various sized fragments about the vents from which they were extruded1 to irregular serrate peaks which reveal the anatomy of the dissected volcanic masses1 and even the dikes which remain after the surface elevation of a volcano has been removed4 ,the most modern volcanoes in this great group of mountains are situated in central ,mexico1 but others nearly as perfect in form occur in ,new ,mexico and ,arizona1 and in the plateaus to the east of the ,park ,mountains4 ,the ,spanish peaks in southeastern ,colorado are instructive illustrations of the topographic forms produced when a volcanic mountain has been deeply dissected4 ,in the formation of volcanic mountains there is an extrusion of molten and fragmentary material accompanied by an escape of great volumes of steam at the surface4 ,closely related to this phase of vulcanism is the injection of molten material into the earth's crust from below1 so as to force its way between stratified beds and produce intruded sheets4 ,in this latter process the sheets of injected material may be thin in comparison to their lateral extent or thick lens-shaped masses4 ,in the production of either of these forms of intrusion the cover above the injected material is lifted and a change is made in the topography of the surface4 ,the intrusions1 which are thick in comparison to their lateral extent1 are known as laccoliths4 ,at times intrusions of this nature are of such thickness that they produce true mountain forms4 ,if unmodified1 these elevations would be domes1 but when their surfaces are broken by erosion and their dissection and removal progresses they frequently assume rugged1 serrate forms4 ,the type of laccolithic mountains made known some years since by the studies of ,g4 ,k4 ,gilbert is furnished by the ,henry ,mountains1 in southern ,utah4 ,more recently it has been found that this interesting phase of mountain building is illustrated by many other examples in the ,rocky ,mountain region and elsewhere4 ,the rocks exposed at the surface in the southern ,rockies1 as in the northern division of that great chain1 embrace almost every variety which enters into the composition of the earth's crust4 ,the central cores of many of the now deeply eroded ranges consist of granite and other similar rocks1 and are surrounded by sedimentary beds which range in age from the oldest stratified rocks now known to the youngest4 ,igneous rocks in great variety and in all forms incident to an extruded or volcanic and intruded or plutonic origin are present4 ,the many disturbances that have occurred have led to the formation of mineral veins and the impregnation of rock masses with ores of various kinds--such as gold1 silver1 lead1 copper1 etc4--which have been mined with great success at many localities4 ,the ,high ,plateaus4--,to the west and south of the ,park ,mountains1 and situated in the western portions of ,colorado and ,new ,mexico1 eastern and southern ,utah1 and northern ,arizona1 there is an extensive region having a general surface level of #f1jjj to #g1jjj feet above the sea1 known as the ,high plateaus4 ,this region has suffered great erosion and is deeply trenched by stream-carved canyons4 ,although not mountainous in the ordinary acceptance of the term1 its surface is rugged and difficult to traverse1 particularly on account of the deep canyons that intersect it in every direction4 ,the ,high plateaus are a part of the ,rocky ,mountain region and bear a somewhat similar relation to the ,park ,mountains that the ,alleghany plateau does to the ,appalachian ,mountains4 ,streams flowing westward from the ,park ,mountains and from the southwestern portion of the ,stony ,mountains unite to form the ,colorado ,river--the one great drainage channel of the region4 ,the importance of this remarkable river in the history of the land has led to the adoption of the name ,colorado plateau by ,powell and others for the region under consideration4 ,as with so many of the grander geographical units of the continent1 the precise limits of the one here considered are difficult to define2 but in spite of this uncertainty as to meets and bounds1 the now classical writings of ,newberry1 ,powell1 and ,dutton especially have shown that a strange and wonderful land exists in the southwest part of the ,united ,states1 which is of unusual interest to geologists and geographers4 ,the ,high plateaus are underlaid by nearly horizontal rocks4 ,the larger elements in the structure are great blocks of the earth's crust measuring some #fj to #ajj miles on their various borders1 which are bounded by breaks 7faults71 or by what are termed monoclinal folds or a change from one plateau to another by a single bend in the strata4 ,the rocks in each of the separate plateaus are usually gently tilted4 ,their eroded edges stand as lines of massive1 gorgeously coloured1 and frequently fantastically sculptured cliffs4 ,these cliffs1 when seen from below1 appear as rugged mountain ranges1 but to an observer standing on their deeply sculptured crests are easily recognised as the upturned edges of large gently tilted blocks of the earth's crust4 ,the basement rocks beneath the ,high plateaus are very ancient granites1 schists1 etc41 which formed a land surface and were greatly eroded before the first of the superimposed stratified beds were deposited upon them4 ,the first of the sheets of sediment laid down by the primeval ocean belong to the oldest rocks containing records of life that have as yet been recognised--the ,algonkian 7pre-,cambrian7 terranes of modern geology4 ,above these come other deposits of sandstone1 shales1 limestone1 etc41 representing a wide range of geological history1 and including as the upper member of the series the sediments of large ,tertiary lakes4 ,this vast succession of stratified rocks1 some #ac1jjj feet in thickness1 has been upraised in a broad way1 without the crumpling and folding1 but broken1 as stated above1 into great blocks which are now variously inclined1 but still preserve a plateau-like character4 ,besides the movements in the earth's crust which raised the plateaus and caused fractures and simple or monoclinal folds in the rocks of which they are composed1 there occurred volcanic eruptions which produced numerous cinder cones1 extensive lava-flows1 and widely spread sheets of comminuted material known as lapilli1 dust1 and so-called ashes4 ,although the history recorded in the rocks forming the ,high plateaus is one of fascinating geological interest1 the easier and more obvious lesson that the region has to offer1 more especially to the geographer1 has been engraved and etched on its surface by streams and wind-blown sand4 ,on the ,high plateaus the rainfall is comparatively small1 and the streams originating there mostly ephemeral4 ,but on the mountains to the east and north the precipitation is more abundant and rivers are formed which flow across the plateau region4 ,the ,green and ,grand ,rivers1 fed by many tributaries1 unite to form the ,colorado1 which flows southwestward for some #gjj miles and discharges its muddy waters into the ,gulf of ,lower ,california4 ,this great river year by year and century after century has deepened its channel through the plateau region where the rainfall is small1 more rapidly than the general surface has been lowered by erosion4 ,the main conditions are a broad area of nearly horizontal rocks1 raised high above the sea or above the base level of erosion1 and an arid climate2 crossing this region is the ever-flowing river1 which1 acting like an endless saw1 cuts deeper and deeper into the blocks of the earth's crust which have been raised athwart its course4 ,resulting from these conditions is a mighty trench or canyon1 which is by far the most magnificent of its kind in ,north ,america1 if not in the world4 ,not only has the main river sunken its channel into the earth to a depth of more than a mile throughout a large portion of its course1 but each tributary stream has been engaged for a long period of time in a similar task4 ,although most of the streams originating on the surface of the plateaus are ephemeral1 they work rapidly when the occasional heavy rains flood their channels4 ,this deepening of the stream channels1 while their borders and the intervening portions of the plateau surface suffered but comparatively slight erosion1 has produced a wonderful system of deep steep-sided trenches in the borders of which the edges of the dissected rocks are exposed in nearly vertical precipices4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,grand ,canyon of the ,colorado ,river4 ,after ,w4 ,h4 ,holmes4 ,aside from the lessons of interest to the geologist and geographer so plainly engraved on the surfaces of the plateaus crossed by the ,colorado1 the region has a wonderful fascination for the purely aesthetic feelings more or less latent in every human breast4 ,to one traversing the open pine forests1 in places clothing the plateaus and inclosing many grassy glades and flower-decked parks1 in which timid deer may frequently be seen feeding in the early morning1 and emerging on the brink of the ,grand ,canyon1 the scene that meets the eye is marvellous beyond all description4 ,c4 ,e4 ,dutton1 to whom we owe some of the most graphic and inspiring descriptions of natural scenery ever written1 states that those who have long and carefully studied the ,grand ,canyon of the ,colorado do not hesitate for a moment in pronouncing it the most sublime of all earthly spectacles4 ,if its sublimity1 writes ,dutton1 consisted only in its dimensions1 it could be sufficiently set forth in a single sentence4 ,it is more than #bjj miles long1 from #e to #ab miles wide1 and from #e1jjj to #f1jjj feet deep4 ,but it is not magnitude alone that gives this marvellous canyon its prominence2 it is the gorgeous and varied colouring of its mighty walls1 the endless details in the sculpturing of its battlements and towers1 the ever-changing atmospheric effects of its profound depths1 and the wonderful stimulus to the imagination with which it feeds the mind4 ,standing on the brink of the ,grand ,canyon1 the prosaic search for causes and effects for a time at least must be laid aside1 and give place to the emotions4 ,wonderfully grand as are the scenes beheld in traversing this region of high plateaus1 with its magnificent cliffs and profound canyons1 one is constantly reminded that it is an arid land4 ,the higher portions of the plateau1 it is true1 are in places forested1 but over vast areas the rocks are bare4 ,water is everywhere scarce except in the bottom of the larger excavations4 ,thirsty1 and perhaps perishing1 the traveller1 ,tantalus like1 looks down on the shining silvery threads of water in the canyons1 hundreds and even thousands of feet below1 but separated from them by impassable barriers4 ,to the south the plateaus descend to the desolate valleys of southern ,arizona1 where strange gigantic cactus-plants and scattered clumps of thorny shrubs alone break the dreary monotony of the hot gravelly deserts4 ,agriculture is there impossible without irrigation1 but where the life-giving waters can be utilized1 as in the ,gila ,valley1 marvellous productiveness follows4 ,,the ,,great ,,basin ,to the west of the ,rocky ,mountain belt in the ,united ,states there exists a region embracing about #baj1jjj square miles1 which sends no stream to the ocean4 ,this vast and in large part desert tract is known as the ,great ,basin4 ,the climate is characterized by its aridity4 ,the annual precipitation is small and evaporation active4 ,all the water reaching the land is returned to the air by evaporation1 either directly or from the streams and lakes4 ,many of the lakes do not overflow and are more or less alkaline and saline1 while some of them1 as ,great ,salt ,lake1 ,utah1 and ,mono and ,owens ,lakes1 ,california1 are dense with mineral matter in solution4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,the ,great ,basin4 ,the ,great ,basin is not a single level-floored depression1 as one might infer from its name1 but is traversed by rugged mountain ranges1 which divide it into a large number of minor valleys4 ,some of these secondary basins have lakes and streams which escape from them into lower depressions1 but in many instances under present climatic conditions they have no surface water1 all the moisture that reaches them being absorbed by the thirsty soil or evaporated without forming lakes4 ,the ,great ,basin proper1 as it may be termed1 embraces nearly the whole of ,utah and ,nevada1 together with small portions of the southern parts of ,idaho and ,oregon and a large area in southeastern ,california4 ,while the drainage conditions limit the application of the name to this group of associated basins which send no tribute to the sea1 the climatic and to a less extent the topographic and geological conditions that characterize it have much wider1 although indefinite boundaries4 ,this wider region which resembles the ,great ,basin proper1 extends from ,british ,columbia southward to beyond the city of ,mexico1 and includes the eastern half of ,washington and ,oregon1 a large part of ,idaho1 and much of ,arizona1 ,new ,mexico1 and western ,texas4 ,in this outer region both to the north and south of the ,great ,basin proper there are drainless valleys1 as those of central ,mexico1 in which the conditions characteristic of the desert valleys of ,utah and ,nevada are repeated4 ,the greater region of arid valleys and desolate mountains surrounding the ,great ,basin proper is crossed at the north by the ,columbia and in the central part by the ,colorado4 ,each of these large rivers has its source in the ,rocky ,mountains and flows to the ,pacific4 ,the most obvious features of the ,great ,basin and of the northward and southward extensions of the belt of country having much in common with it1 depend on climatic conditions4 ,the rainfall is small throughout the entire belt from the ,canadian boundary to south-central ,mexico4 ,the average mean annual precipitation1 judging from such observations as are available1 is probably less than #ae inches1 but this broad statement does not truly represent the diverse conditions4 ,the rainfall is confined almost entirely to the winter season1 and frequently comes in short heavy downpours4 ,during the summer season1 the valleys especially1 become so parched that only such plants can grow as are adapted to long-continued droughts4 ,the topography is rough and diversified by many mountain ranges1 and the precipitation is more abundant on the uplands than in the valleys4 ,over large areas in ,nevada and southeastern ,california the mean annual rainfall is less than #e inches4 ,the author1 while carrying on geological work in this region1 was informed by some of the older settlers that at times for fully eighteen consecutive months no rain whatever fell in certain of the valleys4 ,from the accounts of travellers in central ,mexico1 it seems as if some of the interior basins in that region must be fully as arid as those just referred to4 ,one conspicuous result of the lack of moisture is the absence of forests4 ,except on the mountains mainly at the north the ,great ,basin and its extensions1 as defined above1 is nearly destitute of trees4 ,the valleys are in many instances thickly covered with desert shrubs1 notably the sage-brush1 but the floors of the driest basins are in many instances almost absolutely without vegetation1 and are frequently white with saline incrustations4 ,many of the depressions in the ,great ,basin1 as well as some of the outlying valleys referred to1 have rivers and lakes which exhibit certain interesting features that are unfamiliar to people dwelling in humid lands4 ,the streams are fed in part by the small precipitation on the desert valleys1 and by springs1 frequently of heated water1 but mainly by the rain and melting snow on the mountains4 ,many rills and rivulets are born on the valley sides of a single storm1 but are absorbed by the thirsty soil or evaporated during the succeeding hours of sunshine4 ,other streams have a greater lease of life and flow down to valleys and basins1 suffering evaporation and absorption as they progress1 which cause them to diminish in volume1 and finally to vanish4 ,the stronger streams1 such as ,sevier and ,bear ,rivers in ,utah1 the ,humboldt ,river in ,nevada1 and the ,truckee ,river in ,california1 maintain their existence throughout the year1 and expand into lakes in which the inflow is balanced by evaporation4 ,the lakes of the ,great ,basin present even greater diversity than the streams4 ,some of those situated principally in the mountains are of pure1 limpid1 wholesome water1 supplied by cool1 sweet brooks and rills or by the melting of the winter's snows1 and overflow throughout the year4 ,these lakes1 usually of small size1 are similar in all respects to the ordinary lakes of humid lands4 ,in eastern ,utah1 adjacent to the west base of the ,wasatch ,mountains1 the ,provo ,river and other streams supply ,utah ,lake1 the outlet of which1 the ,jordan ,river1 empties into ,great ,salt ,lake4 ,utah ,lake is well within the ,great ,basin1 and situated at a low elevation for the region1 namely1 #d1ejj feet1 or about #bhj feet 7in #ahgc7 above the level of lake of brine into which it discharges4 ,this is the largest of the fresh lakes in the valleys of the ,great ,basin1 and owes its existence to the fact that a depression there occurs which is filled to overflowing by the streams from the mountains4 ,bear ,lake1 in northeastern ,utah1 is another exceptional example of a fresh lake of considerable size at a comparatively low altitude1 in the same region4 ,on the western rim of the ,great ,basin1 at an elevation of #f1bdg feet1 and surrounded by the forested peaks of the ,sierra ,nevada1 lies ,lake ,tahoe1 the gem of the ,sierra1 a water body of remarkable purity1 which discharges through ,truckee ,river into ,pyramid and ,winnemucca ,lakes4 ,these lower lakes1 situated in desert valleys at an elevation of #c1ghj feet above the sea1 are without outlets and alkaline and bitter4 ,the most characteristic lakes of the ,great ,basin1 however1 are those that do not overflow1 and on account of concentration by evaporation are more or less highly charged with mineral matter in solution4 ,these saline and alkaline lakes may be divided into two classes1 in reference to their duration1 but the line of separation is indefinite4 ,certain of them have maintained their existence for many years1 and probably have not been evaporated to dryness for several centuries1 and may be classed as perennial lakes2 others are evaporated to dryness each year1 or during certain exceptionally dry and hot seasons1 and may be termed ephemeral lakes4 ,in many instances the beds of the ephemeral lakes are normally in a state of desiccation1 and appear as broad1 level1 mud plains1 usually with a white fringe of saline matter4 ,frequently these mud plains1 or playas1 as they are termed1 are transformed into shallow lakes during a single storm1 but the waters are absorbed by the clays beneath or evaporated within a few days or perhaps a few hours after the rain ceases4 ,the largest and most characteristic of the perennial saline water bodies is ,great ,salt ,lake1 the counterpart in many ways of the ,dead ,sea4 ,the streams discharging into this salt sea have the usual purity of river-waters1 and carry but a small fraction of one per cent of saline matter in solution4 ,the lake is supplied also in part1 but to an unimportant extent1 by springs1 the most of which are of essentially fresh water4 ,the source of the salts which make the waters of the lake a brine is evidently1 therefore1 the small percentage of mineral material brought in by the tributary streams4 ,after reaching the lake these fresh waters1 in the ordinary meaning of the term1 are concentrated by evaporation4 ,this is the explanation of the leading facts in the chemistry of all of the saline and alkaline lakes of the ,great ,basin region1 such as ,pyramid1 ,winnemucca1 and ,walker ,lakes in ,nevada1 ,mono and ,owens ,lakes in ,california1 and the saline lakes of ,mexico4 ,the volume of a lake without an outlet1 or an inclosed lake1 is determined mainly by the ratio of the inflow 7including the rain falling directly on its surface and the tribute from springs7 and evaporation4 ,its volume1 and consequently its area1 fluctuates from season to season1 and frequently varies also during periods embracing several years4 ,with variations in volume there are fluctuations in the percentage of saline matter in solution1 even if precipitation of one or more of the contained salts does not take place during the periods of more than usual concentration4 ,in most instances inclosed lakes are concentrated by evaporation in summer seasons1 and perhaps become nearly saturated solutions1 but are diluted during the rainy winter seasons4 ,fluctuations in volume1 area1 depth1 salinity1 etc41 are thus characteristic of inclosed water bodies4 ,they are sensitive to climatic changes which ordinary weather records fail to detect1 and are modified in a conspicuous manner when the country about them becomes inhabited and irrigation is practised4 ,some of the lakes of the ,great ,basin are dense brines from which various substances are being precipitated4 ,the economic importance of these natural reservoirs of brine and of various soda salts is great1 and will become more and more important as transportation facilities increase4 ,great ,salt ,lake1 it has been estimated1 contains #djj1jjj1jjj tons of common salt and #cj1jjj1jjj tons of sodium sulphate in solution4 ,during the past ten years about #dj1jjj tons of common salt have been harvested from it annually4 ,mono ,lake contains some #bde1jjj1jjj tons of saline matter in solution1 of which about #ib1jjj1jjj tons are sodium carbonate and bicarbonate4 ,owens ,lake is similar to ,mono ,lake in composition1 and is now the basis of a large soda industry4 ,a marked difference between a region which drains to the ocean and one where the streams enter inclosed basins where their waters are evaporated is that in the former the waste from the land carried by the streams as an invisible load in solution or as a visible load consisting mainly of silt and sand in suspension is contributed to the ocean and widely distributed before being deposited--much of the material in solution1 in fact1 may be said to be a permanent contribution to the salinity of sea-water2 but in most instances where streams enter inclosed basins all of the material contributed both in solution and suspension is sooner or later precipitated4 ,the area within an inclosed basin1 on which the inflowing streams lay down their loads1 is as a rule less extensive than the area that is being denuded to supply the material4 ,the receiving basins are thus filled in or aggraded1 and there is a concentration both of the mechanical wash from the land and of the substances taken in solution by the waters of streams and springs4 ,a marked result of this process of concentration1 particularly of the fine waste of the uplands and mountains1 is seen in the approximately level floors of inclosed valleys4 ,throughout the ,great ,basin the valleys have been filled to a depth in many instances of hundreds of feet4 ,some of the lower mountain ranges in ,utah have been so nearly buried beneath these valley deposits that only their summits1 termed lost mountains1 appear above the even surface of the desert plains4 ,this debris1 deeply filling the valleys referred to1 is usually a fine yellowish dust-like material1 similar in many ways1 and probably in mode of origin1 to the loess of ,china in which geologists have taken much interest4 ,with the concentration and deposition of the fine mechanical wash of the uplands there has also been a concentration of the more soluble saline constituents of rocks1 which causes the soils of arid regions to differ in an important way from those of humid lands4 ,the leached and characteristically red-tinted soils of warm humid countries1 consisting of the oxidized residue of deeply weathered rocks1 are absent from arid regions2 in their place we find minutely disintegrated1 usually light-coloured1 and not chemically impoverished soils4 ,in warm humid regions chemical decay of the rocks is the conspicuous feature2 in equally warm arid lands mechanical disintegration is carried to an extreme1 without the removal of the more soluble constituents4 ,in fact1 concentration of saline matter1 notably common salt1 sodium sulphate1 gypsum1 etc41 is one of the functions1 so to speak1 of arid climates1 when the requisite evaporation basins are present4 ,among the important industries of the ,great ,basin region is the gathering and purifying of the various salts contained in the existing water bodies and in the basins of desiccated lakes4 ,in addition to the characteristics of the region referred to above1 which are mainly the result of climatic conditions1 the ,great ,basin has certain geological features1 in the main1 so far as ,north ,america is concerned1 peculiar to itself4 ,the leading structural features of the rocks1 so far as they find expression in the surface relief1 is the presence of a large number of extensive faults trending in general about northeast and southwest4 ,these faults are breaks or cracks along which the rocks have been moved up and down4 ,one side of a fault sometimes stands higher than the opposite side1 and forms a narrow and frequently high and rugged mountain range4 ,the number of these faults within the ,great ,basin is as yet unknown1 but they certainly number many hundreds4 ,in a cross profile of the region between the ,wasatch ,mountains on the east and the ,sierra ,nevada on the west the number of mountain ridges due to faulting is at least a score4 ,the precipitous western border of the ,wasatch ,mountains is itself a great fault scarp1 as is also the eastern border of the ,sierra ,nevada4 ,the faults that determine the steeper sides of these mountain ranges are not to be considered as single clean-cut gashes1 but as irregular and intersecting fractures traversing a narrow belt of country4 ,the faults referred to divide rocks of all ages1 and are evidently due to the most recent disturbances that have affected the region4 ,it is not probable that the break in any given instance was formed all at once4 ,such vast convulsions would be out of harmony with the rules of nature4 ,but rather many small movements and adjustments of pressure have occurred along the same belt of fracture4 ,this conclusion is sustained by the fact that many of the faults have experienced movements in very recent times4 ,in places fault scarps a score or more feet in height cross the alluvial cones at the mouths of the small high-grade valleys in the mountains4 ,these scarps in loose unconsolidated gravel and similar material1 even under an arid climate1 could not be expected to preserve their freshness for many years4 ,at times the breaks cross the courses of streams and cascades1 and rapids are formed by the waters flowing down escarpments thus produced in loose material4 ,one characteristic fault scarp in ,inyo ,valley1 ,california1 is known to have been formed during an earthquake that shook that portion of the country in #ahgb4 ,the many small earthquakes that have been felt in the ,great ,basin region are believed to have been caused by slight movements along the breaks that traverse the region4 ,this and other evidence indicates that the faults to which so much of the characteristic scenery of the ,great ,basin is due have grown by repeated minor displacements1 and that such movements are a common cause of earthquakes4 ,the most conspicuous topographic features of the better known portion of the ,great ,basin are long1 narrow1 and frequently sharp-crested ridges1 with a gentle slope on one side and a steep escarpment on the other4 ,the steeper side in a large number of instances is known to be the upraised side of a fault4 ,each of these basin ranges1 as they are termed1 may be considered as the upturned edge of a block of the earth's crust1 in general from #fj to #ajj or more miles long1 and #aj to perhaps #bj miles wide4 ,the crest-lines of the tilted blocks are frequently serrate1 on account of differences in the hardness and texture of the rocks and the effects of weathering4 ,there is frequently1 however1 an older structure revealed in them1 showing that the region was folded and otherwise disturbed previous to the later movements which produced the leading features in the present topography4 ,it is probable that this older structure in some instances has had an important bearing on the forms of some of the ranges1 but our knowledge in this direction is too limited to warrant presentation in a popular treatise4 ,many of the basin ranges are imposing on account of their height and ruggedness1 when seen from the adjacent1 deeply filled valleys1 although scarcely more than half of their actual elevation above the sea is revealed from such points of view4 ,exceptions to this general statement occur1 however1 in southeastern ,california1 where1 in ,death ,valley1 the land is #dhj feet below sea-level4 ,this is the only region in ,north ,america which1 like the basin of the ,dead ,sea1 is below the level of the ocean's surface4 ,on the border of ,death ,valley the mountain ranges rise from #f1jjj to #aj1jjj feet1 and the highest summit1 known as ,telescope ,peak1 is reported to have an elevation of nearly #aa1jjj feet above the sea4 ,in the central and northern portions of the ,great ,basin the valley floors have a general elevation of from #e1jjj to #f1jjj feet4 ,the mountains rise from these valleys to a height of from a few hundred to #d1jjj or #e1jjj feet4 ,among the highest1 if not actually the culminating peaks well within the ,great ,basin are ,white ,mountain1 on the ,california-,nevada boundary1 about #cj miles southeast of ,mono ,lake1 which has a summit elevation of #ac1jjj feet1 and ,jeff ,davis ,peak1 in eastern ,nevada1 which rises #ac1ajj feet above the sea and #h1jjj feet above the adjacent valleys4 ,the numerous sharp-crested ranges of the region under review are frequently remarkable for the richness of the colours of the naked rocks4 ,the mountain slopes and towering angular summits when outlined against the morning or evening sky are frequently as brilliantly dyed as are the ,new ,england hills when clothed in the harlequin foliage of autumn4 ,before sunrise and after sunset each serrate crest-line is the sharply cut border of a silhouette of the deepest and richest purple4 ,the diversity of scenery in the ,great ,basin is increased by mountains of volcanic origin1 including several modern craters1 some of which hold lakes1 and by lava-flows of recent date1 and by great alluvial fans or detritus cones which stream out into the valleys from the mouths of gorges in the bordering mountains4 ,the ,great ,basin proper1 with its rugged topography and arid climate1 is not an agricultural region4 ,small portions of it1 however1 when water can be had for irrigation1 have been transformed into fruitful farms and gardens which yield bountiful returns4 ,but even a century hence1 when all has been accomplished in the way of reclaiming the arid valleys that can be done by utilizing the available water for irrigation1 only a small per cent of the whole will be under cultivation4 ,,sierra ,,nevada ,,and ,,cascade ,,mountains ,to the west of the ,great ,basin1 and extending from southern ,california northward to beyond the ,united ,states-,canadian boundary1 there is a lofty and extremely rugged belt of mountains consisting of two ranges--the ,sierra ,nevada at the south and the ,cascade ,mountains at the north4 ,topographically1 these two ranges form a single elevated belt of country1 but custom1 and as is now generally understood the geological structure and history1 draws a dividing line between them in northern ,california4 ,the ,sierra ,nevada-,cascade range extends far into ,canada1 and is there known as the ,coast ,range4 ,no adjustment of the nomenclature in use on the two sides of the international boundary has been made1 and in order to conform with current usage1 it is necessary to consider separately the two portions of the range on opposite sides of the forty-ninth parallel4 ,the ,sierra ,nevada has its southern terminus at ,tejon ,pass1 in southern ,california1 and extending from there northward to ,lassen ,peak1 in the northern part of the same ,state4 ,with the exception of a small area to the east and north of ,lake ,tahoe1 the entire range is included within the boundaries of ,california4 ,this is geographically one of the best defined of the larger mountain ranges in the ,united ,states4 ,its eastern border especially is easy to trace1 as for the most part it is determined by a great escarpment1 corresponding to the fault scarp which borders one side of so many of the basin ranges4 ,the ,sierra ,nevada1 in fact1 may be considered as one of the basin ranges of great size and forming the western wall of the region of interior drainage lying to the eastward4 ,this abrupt eastward-facing mountain slope is in reality a great fault scarp1 formed mainly by the upheaval of the west side of an intersecting system of fractures4 ,it is not known1 however1 how much of the escarpment is due to the upheaval of the west side of the belt of fracture1 or how much to the sinking of the eastern side4 ,there have no doubt been many up and down movements along this belt1 of which the present mountain wall is the algebraic sum4 ,the escarpment rises in general from #e1jjj to #f1jjj feet above the desert valleys to the eastward1 and reaches a maximum of about #ad1jjj feet in the vicinity of ,death ,valley4 ,it is exceedingly precipitous and rises to an irregular serrate crest-line1 from which the general slope westward to the ,great ,valley of ,california is gentle4 ,the best idea of the generalized topographic form as well as of the origin of the ,sierra ,nevada1 which the reader may be asked to hold in mind1 is that the range consists of a block of the earth's crust about #ejj miles long and from #gj to #ajj miles broad1 which has been upraised along its eastern edge so as to give its surface a westward inclination4 ,from this vast monolith the profound canyons and multitude of sharp tapering spires which give to the range its magnificent scenery have been sculptured4 ,like most generalized pictures of great geographical features1 however1 this outline of the form and structure of the great mountain range of ,california has to be modified when studied in detail4 ,from extensive and most painstaking studies by ,h4 ,w4 ,turner1 of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 the conclusion is reached that the ,sierra ,nevada may be described as a monogenetic range1 composed of highly compressed schists and slates with large areas of associated igneous rocks1 chiefly granite and diabase1 upon which lie uncomfortably a series of later ,cretaceous and ,tertiary sediments and volcanic rocks4 ,could the profound valleys carved in the long western slope of the ,sierra ,nevada be filled so as to restore the conditions as they existed when the mountain block was first upraised and tilted1 we would have an inclined plane in which the edges of previously folded rocks would be exposed4 ,in other words1 the western slope is a tilted peneplain1 bearing on its surface remnants of older uplands4 ,high up on the range there are detached areas of well-worn gravel1 which were deposited when the slopes were less inclined than at present1 and before the existing peaks and canyons came into existence4 ,certain of the valleys carved during a portion of the earlier stage of erosion were subsequently filled by lava-floods1 which buried gold-bearing gravel beneath thick layers of basaltic rock4 ,erosion has since cut away the softer beds bordering these ancient lava-sheets1 and left them in bold relief as table mountains1 underneath which miners have excavated tunnels in order to reach the stream-deposited gravels of the ancient canyons4 ,in these instances valleys have been changed to uplands1 owing to the resistance to erosion afforded by the volcanic rocks discharged into them4 ,the long gentle slope on the west side of the ,sierra ,nevada has been dissected by westward-flowing rivers1 which have sunk their channels #b1jjj or #c1jjj feet or more into the rocks4 ,other streams having much shorter courses flow down the steep eastern slope of the range and have also excavated canyons4 ,these two systems of drainage1 one leading westward to the ,great ,valley of ,california and the other eastward to the valleys of the ,great ,basin1 extended their head branches until they came into rivalry with each other1 and cut deep notches in the crest of the range4 ,during a late stage in its history the higher portions of the mountains were covered with a great field of perennial snow1 from which glaciers flowed both eastward and westward4 ,these ice-streams1 by deepening and broadening the previously water-cut channels1 still further increased the diversity of the topography and impressed upon it characteristics such as only glaciers can produce4 ,the highest and most typical part of the ,sierra ,nevada is in its south-central portion1 and is known as the ,high ,sierra4 ,this region1 although at present not accurately defined1 is well worthy of recognition4 ,throughout its entire extent1 from the neighbourhood of ,lake ,tahoe on the north to ,tehichipe ,pass at the south1 a distance of about #bdj miles1 it is diversified by rugged serrate peaks and narrow stream-cut valleys of great depth4 ,many of the mountains attain elevations of from #ab1jjj to over #ac1ejj feet4 ,the highest summit is ,mount ,whitney1 in the southern part of the range and near its eastern border1 which rises #ad1ebb feet above the sea and has the added distinction of being the highest mountain in the ,united ,states1 exclusive of ,alaska4 ,it is a notable fact that this great mountain-peak should be situated only about #ajj miles from ,death ,valley1 the lowest depression on the continent4 ,another of the remarkable features of the ,sierra ,nevada is the great depth and the wonderfully precipitous walls of some of the valleys carved by the westward-flowing rivers4 ,the most famous of these is the sublime ,yosemite ,valley1 now world-renowned4 ,this cleft as it appears in solid light-coloured granite1 over a mile deep1 is believed by ,turner1 the last of several geologists to discuss its origin1 to be due to stream erosion4 ,the fact seems well established1 however1 that glacial ice has assisted in the great task4 ,the ,yosemite is not such an unique feature as was at one time supposed1 but is approached if not equalled in depth and magnificence by ,hetch ,hetchy ,valley1 through which flows the ,tuolumne ,river1 and is duplicated1 in part at least1 by other similar stream-cut gulfs4 ,among the chief elements in the glorious scenery of the ,sierra ,nevada is the multitude of lakes left as a rich inheritance by the departed glaciers4 ,these occur not only high up amid the bare peaks where their basins were excavated by the flowing ice1 but also in the lower valleys where the ancient ice-streams built morainal dams4 ,the ,high ,sierra was swept nearly clean of soil and debris by the ancient glaciers1 and the hard rocks thus exposed were rounded and burnished by the ice that flowed over them4 ,but little disintegration or decay of the rocks has taken place since an amelioration of climate changed the drainage from a solid to a liquid form4 ,on account mainly of the general absence of soil the forests are less dense than might be expected from the height of the regions where they occur and its general climatic conditions4 ,the more lofty peaks reach far above the forests and are riven and shattered by frost4 ,the crests and cliffs at somewhat lower altitudes are also bare1 but in the canyons and on the meadow-like valley bottoms smoothed by the glaciers1 open park-like groves of pine and spruce grow in picturesque disorder4 ,on the ledges of the great precipices1 and on many of the secondary summits1 gardens of alpine flowers blossom in late summer1 and at times impart a rich warm glow to the heights that support them4 ,the views of nature1 unmarred by the hand of man1 which reward the persistent mountaineer in this silent wonderland of the upper world1 are not only grand beyond all description1 but beautified by a delicacy of decoration where snow-fields and alpine gardens meet1 that is undreamed of by the dwellers in the denser air of the plains and seaside4 ,lovers of nature who are unable to climb the towering summits of the ,high ,sierra and see for themselves the marvellous beauty there so lavishly displayed can at least find a glowing pen picture of it in ,john ,muir's fascinating book ,the ,mountains of ,california4 ,on the lower western slope of the ,sierra ,nevada the forests become continuous and luxuriant1 the trees are of large size1 and the lovely flowers carpeting the valleys and hillsides take on a more familiar appearance than the gorgeous blossoms of the alpine meadows4 ,it is in this region that the gigantic ,sequoia still lingers as a remnant of a nearly extinct flora4 ,statements of heights and depths1 of geological structures1 and of topographic forms are perhaps necessary to enable one to form a mental picture of a snow-crowned mountain range which will bear some faint resemblance to the mighty original2 but when one threads his way through the resinous forests on the lower slopes of the ,sierra ,nevada1 ascends some one of the profound water-cut rifts in its side1 scales the steep cliffs1 traverses the crystal surfaces of the small glaciers1 and finally stands on a spire-like summit covered only by the dark blue of the dome above1 all thoughts of the arches and walls that support the mighty cathedral are lost in wrapt wonder and admiration of the magnificent scene about him4 ,it is this intense feeling for the sublime and beautiful in nature that the student of geography should strive to cultivate1 as well as to acquire skill in reading the prosaic history written everywhere on the mountains4 ,this important lesson can seldom be studied to greater advantage than amid the silent awe-inspiring peaks of ,california4 ,the ,cascade ,mountains1 as previously stated1 are a direct continuation1 so far as the relief is concerned1 of the ,sierra ,nevada4 ,the geological structure of the region in northern ,california1 where the two ranges approach each other1 has been studied by ,j4 ,s4 ,diller1 of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 who concludes that they present characteristic differences4 ,in the ,cascade ,mountains in northern ,california1 ,oregon1 and southern ,washington the rocks exposed at the surface are mainly1 if not entirely1 of volcanic origin1 and were poured out in a molten condition as lava-flows1 or as fragmental ejections from volcanoes1 and in part rose through fissures and formed what are termed fissure eruptions4 ,the rocks thus extruded are mainly composed of dark1 heavy basic material1 such as basalt and andesite4 ,these outpourings of molten rocks were on a grand scale1 and a large number of volcanic mountains were formed which still remain as the dominant peaks of the rugged and densely forested ,cascade ,range4 ,although the evidence now available seems to show that there is a striking difference between the ,sierra ,nevada and the ,cascade ,mountains1 another significant change occurs when one follows the ,cascade ,mountains into northern ,washington4 ,where the ,northern ,pacific ,railroad crosses the range the volcanic rocks are succeeded northward by granites1 schists1 serpentine1 etc41 and ,cretaceous and ,tertiary sedimentary beds of much the same character as those in the ,sierra ,nevada4 ,the study of the ,sierra ,nevada-,cascade region has not progressed far enough to warrant a decision1 but the fact referred to above strongly suggests that the two ranges1 as we now term them1 are essentially a single uplift1 a large portion of which1 extending from ,lassen ,peak1 in ,california1 northward across ,oregon and into ,washington as far as the ,northern ,pacific ,railroad1 is buried beneath a great blanket1 so to speak1 of lava-flows4 ,the tract of elevated and rugged country in northern ,washington embraced in the ,cascade ,mountains1 as has been observed by the writer1 passes into ,canada without a marked change in either its geology or geography1 and there is no occasion for a change of name when the international boundary is crossed4 ,the ,cascade ,mountains in ,oregon and southern ,washington1 where the surface rocks are mainly and perhaps wholly of volcanic origin1 are rugged for two principal reasons3 ,first1 volcanic energy has built up great individual peaks2 and second1 erosion has carved deep valleys and numerous ravines and gorges4 ,the volcanoes are now extinct1 or have long been dormant1 and their cold summits are in several instances crowned with perennial snow and small glaciers4 ,the forms given to the more prominent elevations by the eruptions which built them have to a great extent been defaced by erosion4 ,as they stand to-day they furnish an instructive series of more or less deeply dissected volcanic mountains4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,crater ,lake in the summit of ,mount ,mazama1 ,oregon4 ,not only has erosion changed the characteristic slopes of the peaks built of lava-flows and ejected fragments1 but in at least one remarkable instance the volcanic energy itself greatly altered the structure it had previously raised4 ,mount ,mazama1 situated in southern ,oregon in the summit region of the ,cascades1 is a truncated volcanic cone in the top of which there is an immense depression now partially filled by the waters of ,crater ,lake 7,fig4 #ba74 ,the main features in the history of this unique mountain with a lake in its summit1 as interpreted by ,messrs4 ,dutton and ,diller1 of the ,united ,states ,geographical ,survey1 are as follows3 ,it once stood as a conical peak1 similar to several other mountains of volcanic origin in the same region1 some #ae1jjj feet in height2 it was then an active volcano with a summit crater filled with lava1 but subsequently1 for a time at least1 became dormant and was occupied by glacial ice4 ,at a later period an escape for the lava was furnished by a fissure or other opening which admitted of a surface discharge at a more or less distant locality1 in a manner similar to the escape of the molten rocks from the great volcanoes of the ,hawaiian ,islands within historic times4 ,this drawing off of the lava from the crater removed the support afforded its walls from within1 and the summit portion of the mountain1 embracing about three-fourths of its height above the adjacent valleys1 fell in and was engulfed4 ,the mountain was thus truncated1 and presents the general appearance of similar cones the upper portions of which are known to have been blown away by explosions4 ,but in the case of ,mount ,mazama1 the hypothesis of truncation by explosion seems to be disproved by the absence of the fragments of the portion removed on the slopes remaining or on the surrounding region4 ,after the falling in of the summit of the mountain comparatively mild volcanic explosions followed which built a cone within the great pit or caldera in the summit of the truncated mountain1 but without filling it4 ,the space left vacant is now occupied by water1 and thus transformed into a lake4 ,the cone built after the catastrophe referred to now forms ,wizard ,island1 near the southwest border of ,crater ,lake4 ,some idea of the magnitude of the changes wrought in ,mount ,mazama by the events recorded in its geology and topography may be obtained from the following facts3 ,crater ,lake has a surface elevation of #f1bci feet above the sea1 and is nearly #b1jjj feet deep in its deepest part2 the precipices surrounding it are from #ebj to #a1ihg feet high4 ,the whole depth of the depression is therefore #d1jjj feet4 ,this caldera1 as such basins of volcanic origin are termed1 is nearly circular1 with an east and west diameter measuring #f miles1 and a north and south diameter of #e miles4 ,the volume of the pit is nearly #ab cubic miles4 ,not only is ,mount ,mazama with its wonderful lake one of the most unique natural features of ,north ,america1 but it has its full share of the artistic details of lake and mountain scenery which appeal so forcibly to the finer instincts within us4 ,the outer slopes of the mountain are clothed with the all-embracing coniferous forests which cover the ,cascades as with a mantle throughout their entire extent1 while the precipitous inner slopes are for the most part bare precipices of angular and extremely rugged rock4 ,the lake itself is of the most marvellous blue1 in which the encircling cliffs1 the crater-island1 and the sky above are reflected4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,mount ,rainier1 ,washington4 ,other peaks along the crest-line of the ,cascades to be numbered by the score1 although with less romantic histories than ,mount ,mazama1 have instructive answers to give when properly questioned4 ,among the remarkably picturesque summits rising above the dark coniferous forests of western ,oregon are the following1 with their respective heights above the sea expressed in feet3 ,mount ,pitt1 #i1gfj2 ,mount ,mazama1 #h1bbh2 ,mount ,union1 #g1hha2 ,mount ,scott1 #g1abc2 ,three ,sisters1 ,mount ,jefferson1 #aj1bjj2 and ,mount ,hood1 #aa1bbe4 ,of these peaks1 the best known1 on account of its proximity to the city of ,portland1 and at the same time one of the most picturesque and beautiful1 is ,mount ,hood1 situated about #be miles south of the ,columbia ,river4 ,the concave slopes so characteristic of volcanic cones are no longer conspicuous on the sides of this once symmetrical mountain1 and only remnants of its crater remain4 ,the part it played as a safety-valve for the pent-up energy beneath was long since finished1 although heated vapours still escape from an opening near the summit4 ,similar manifestations of heat have also been observed about several other ancient craters in the ,cascades1 but these occurrences are not considered as indicating that actual connections still exist with reservoirs or bodies of molten rocks below the surface3 they are evidently due to the residual heat of the once molten rock in the conduits of the now extinct or dormant volcanoes4 ,the lava-flows and volcanic mountains typically displayed in the ,cascades throughout the breadth of ,oregon continue northward and form at least the surface portion of the same range in ,washington as far as the ,northern ,pacific ,railroad1 or about #ajj miles north of the ,columbia4 ,the more important volcanic mountains in western ,washington are1 in their order from south to north2 as follows1 the height of each being given in feet3 ,mount ,adams1 #i1egj2 ,mount ,st4 ,helens1 #i1gej2 ,mount ,rainier1 #ad1ebe2 ,glacier ,peak1 #aj1dcf2 and ,mount ,baker1 #aj1hgg4 ,only two of these ancient volcanoes1 namely1 ,mount ,adams and ,glacier ,peak1 are situated on the crest-line of the ,cascade ,mountains2 the others are to the westward and more or less completely detached from the main range4 ,the ,cascade ,mountains are in general parallel with the shore of the ,pacific1 and rise as a prominent barrier athwart the path of the prevailing westerly winds4 ,precipitation on their seaward slopes is copious1 but their landward sides overlooking the arid plains of central ,washington are far less humid4 ,the westward1 or rainy slope1 is clothed with a magnificent forest of giant trees1 while the eastward1 or sunny side1 is largely without forests1 but abounds in natural meadows and pastures4 ,large portions of the mountains are still almost entirely unknown1 and retain their primitive wildness1 except that forest fires1 particularly near the international boundary1 have in places made desolate the once beautiful valleys and precipitous slopes4 ,elk1 deer1 bear1 the mountain-goat1 and mountain-sheep still roam the forests4 ,the large streams abound in salmon1 and each cool1 clear brook and rushing creek is a favourite haunt of the trout4 ,no more delightful camping-ground for lovers of nature and searchers for recreation can be found than the grassy1 park-like valleys on the sunny side of these magnificent mountains4 ,many of the details in the scenery of the ,cascades are due to the work of ancient glaciers4 ,numerous lakes1 held in rock-basins in the higher portions of the mountains1 and many still larger sheets of water retained by morainal dams in the lower valleys1 give a superlative charm to many a wild and rugged landscape4 ,the largest and most interesting lake in the entire ,cascade region is ,lake ,chelan1 situated in a deep valley on the eastern side of the mountains in north-central ,washington4 ,this beautiful sheet of water1 a mile or two wide1 extending like a placid river for some #gj miles into the mountains1 resembles in many of its features the far-famed lakes of northern ,italy4 ,the mountains inclosing this hidden gem of the ,cascades rise abruptly from the water's edge to great heights1 and with one exception are unbroken by deep side-valleys4 ,for fully #ej miles the blue plain of water is overshadowed on each side by crags and precipices from #e1jjj to #f1jjj or more feet in height4 ,the lower slopes are dark with forests of pine and fir1 and the bare serrate spires above are white with snow long after the spring flowers have faded in the lower vales4 ,the water of the lake is clear and sparkling1 and has the deep-blue colour of the open ocean4 ,the sounding-line has shown a depth of #a1djj feet1 and the bottom is about #cjj feet below sea-level4 ,this wonderful lake1 clasped in the embrace of the eastward extended arms of the ,cascades1 is but #b or #c miles from the ,columbia ,river1 into which it discharges its surplus waters through ,chelan ,river1 and may be easily reached from ,wenachee1 on the ,great ,northern ,railroad1 by steamers on the ,columbia4 ,although at present scarcely known to the world of tourists1 ,lake ,chelan is destined to take as an important place in the lives of those who seek rest and recreation as does ,lake ,george in northern ,new ,york at the present day4 ,before attempting to trace the ,pacific mountains northward through ,canada and ,alaska1 let us glance at the leading geographical features to the west of the ,sierra ,nevada-,cascade uplift4 ,,the ,,great ,,valley ,,of ,,california ,,and ,,the ,,puget ,,sound ,,basin ,to the west of the ,sierra ,nevada-,cascade ,mountains1 and bordered on the west by another and very nearly parallel series of elevations1 known in a general way as the ,coast ,mountains1 there is a succession of long1 relatively narrow basins1 situated end to end1 and constituting what may be termed a valley-chain4 ,this series of basins extends from southern ,california northward far into ,canada1 and includes1 in their order from south to north1 the great ,valley of ,california1 the ,willamette and ,cowlitz ,valleys in ,oregon and ,washington1 and the ,puget ,sound basin1 together with its great but indefinitely defined northward extension4 ,the ,great ,valley of ,california has a length of about #ejj miles and an average width of approximately #dj miles1 and is greater in area than either ,belgium1 ,denmark1 or ,switzerland4 ,it is divided in reference to drainage into two portions1 the ,san ,joaquin ,valley at the south and the ,sacramento ,valley at the north1 named respectively after the rivers that drain them4 ,these two streams unite and discharge into ,san ,francisco ,bay1 the outlet of which is through the ,golden ,gate to the ,pacific4 ,this central basin of ,california has a generally flat bottom composed of a great depth of unconsolidated gravel1 sand1 and clay1 which are believed to owe their deposition mainly to the streams flowing from the bordering mountains1 although in part they may have been deposited when the land was more depressed than now and the basin was a great sound1 connected with the ocean by a single narrow opening4 ,the rock-waste swept into the valley served not only to add to the accumulations forming its floor1 but to give the bottom some irregularities4 ,a portion of its southern end1 shut off by alluvial deposits brought down from the ,sierra ,nevada1 is occupied by the shallow alkaline waters of ,tulare ,lake4 ,when the great valley was first visited by white men it was without trees1 except along the immediate borders of some of the streams1 and for the most part was a luxuriant meadow of wild grasses and flowers4 ,on the uplands oak-trees grew in scattered park-like groves with gorgeously flower-decked hills and vales between4 ,this favoured land1 clothed in its natural beauties1 came as near being an ,eden as perhaps any portion of the continent4 ,the changes that have followed the settlement and cultivation of this great mountain-inclosed basin are simply marvellous4 ,cities and villages have been built1 orchards and vineyards planted which yield most bountiful harvests1 and the once grass-covered plains are now seemingly boundless wheat-fields4 ,the unkept natural garden of half a century ago has become a granary not only for the people of ,america1 but for those of ,asia as well4 ,to the north of the ,klamath ,mountains1 which shut in the central ,valley of ,california at the north1 lies the beautiful ,willamette ,valley1 about #aej miles long1 drained by the northward-flowing river of the same name1 which joins the ,columbia where the thriving city of ,portland now stands4 ,the depression between the mountains of which the ,valley of the ,willamette forms a part1 extends north of the ,columbia1 and is there drained by the southward-flowing ,cowlitz ,river4 ,the relation of these two valleys is much the same1 although on a smaller scale1 as that existing between the ,san ,joaquin and ,sacramento ,valleys1 except that the ,columbia1 after passing through the ,cascade ,mountains1 receives the ,willamette and ,cowlitz rivers as tributaries1 one from each side of its course4 ,this ,willamette-,cowlitz depression is surrounded by densely forested hills and the snow-capped summits of ancient volcanoes4 ,the soil was originally highly fertile1 and although now somewhat impoverished1 still furnishes a substantial basis for agriculture1 and renders the region one of the most productive as well as most beautiful in the ,united ,states4 ,to the geographer the ,willamette-,cowlitz ,valley seems scarcely distinct from the great depression farther north in the same valley-chain1 which now holds the waters of ,puget ,sound1 except that there is a low water-parting between4 ,this divide1 as previously suggested1 is thought to be due largely to stream and glacial deposits1 which have been laid down in the previously nearly level-floored intermontane trough4 ,the ,puget ,sound basin has a length from south to north of about #aej miles1 and extends from the ,olympic ,mountains on the west to the ,cascade ,mountains on the east1 a distance of some #fj miles4 ,the sound terminates at the north at the ,strait of ,fuca 7at ,port ,townsend1 in ,fig4 #bc71 but the depression in which it lies continues northward1 with similar geographical and geological characteristics4 ,in a general way the same depression may be said to extend northward to southeastern ,alaska1 but is there deeply water-filled1 and its western border is discontinuous and broken into many islands4 ,there are several features in the ,puget ,sound basin which especially impress the traveller3 ,next to the magnificence of the lofty volcanic cones that stand like ,titan watch-towers along the western slope of the ,cascades and the dense forest of gigantic firs and cedars1 the most conspicuous feature of the region is the extreme irregularity of the sound itself4 ,even such general maps of ,puget ,sound as are usually available indicate that it is exceptional and different from all other water bodies on the continent1 not including the extension of the same series of basins northward4 ,not only is ,puget ,sound extremely irregular1 and inconsistent with any theory that would ascribe its origin to the subsistence and drowning of stream-eroded valleys1 but its waters are deep and the channels narrow4 ,the uplands between the waterways are low plateaus composed of clay1 gravel1 and glacial moraines4 ,the explanation of these unique conditions is that glacial ice formerly occupied the basin and deposited moraines and gravel-plains and clay-plains about its margins2 when the branching and irregular sheet of stagnant ice melted its place was taken by the waters of the sea4 ,this simplified outline of the later history of ,puget ,sound has many modifications1 the most important being that there were at least two periods of ice occupation1 with an intervening stage of mild climate between1 during which the previously formed glacial deposits were forest covered and thick beds of peat formed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,puget ,sound4 ,the ice which occupied ,puget ,sound was the extreme southern portion of a great but irregular ,piedmont glacier which fringed the rough and ragged coast of the continent all the way to southern ,alaska4 ,a remnant of this former ice body still exists near ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 and constitutes the very instructive ,malaspina glacier4 ,,the ,,mountains ,,bordering ,,the ,,pacific ,in a preceding chapter the rugged topography of the western margin of the continent has been briefly described1 and a general explanation given of the contrasts which it presents to the coastal plains and plateaus on the ,atlantic border4 ,the long1 narrow peninsula known as ,lower ,california1 as yet unstudied in the light of modern geography1 is known to be mountainous throughout4 ,although nearly surrounded by the waters of the ocean1 the climate of the peninsula is hot and arid and its surface desert-like4 ,the ,gulf of ,california1 which separates such a large portion of the ,pacific border of ,mexico from the main body of the republic1 has the characteristics of a drowned intermontane or orogenic valley4 ,but whether the great depression was ever dry land or not is unknown4 ,the waters of the gulf are shallow1 however1 and a moderate upward movement of the earth's crust in that region would transform it into a great valley similar in its general features to the central basin of the ,state of ,california4 ,what are frequently designated collectively as the ,coast ,mountains begin at the south and adjacent to the shore of the ,pacific1 in the vicinity of ,santa ,barbara1 ,cal41 and extend northward along the immediate seaboard far into ,british ,columbia4 ,a continuation or branch of this series of elevations follows the south coast of ,alaska1 and is prolonged so as to form the ,aleutian ,islands4 ,the length of the mountain system or succession of ranges referred to is between #c1ejj and #d1jjj miles4 ,the detailed study of this long1 narrow1 and in many parts excessively rugged region is as yet in its infancy1 and only a brief account of its salient features can be attempted at present4 ,in southern ,california the structure of the mountains and the deep stream-deposited gravel1 etc41 in the intervening valleys1 as well as the aridity of the climate and character of the vegetation1 correspond closely with the similar conditions in the ,great ,basin4 ,in fact1 the ,great ,basin region1 as the term has been used on a previous page1 there meets the ,pacific1 and the islands rising from the adjacent portion of the ocean seem to be the summits of mountains of the ,basin ,range type4 ,owing to the dryness of the climate in southern ,california and adjacent portions of ,mexico1 the deeply alluvial-filled valleys are treeless1 and agriculture is only possible with the aid of irrigation4 ,where water can be had1 however1 there are wonderfully productive orchards1 vineyards1 and gardens1 in which the fruits and flowers of both the temperate and torrid zones flourish side by side with marvellous luxuriance4 ,the palm there casts its shadow on fragrant bowers of the most superb roses4 ,the grass-clothed mountain slopes are either bare of trees or but scantily forested1 while the upland valleys produce a dense jungle of native trees and shrubs4 ,to the north of the irregular and diversified portion of southern ,california1 where the ,great ,basin region extends southwestward to the ,pacific1 rises the southern ,coast ,range of ,california4 ,the indefinite beginning of this range is in the neighbourhood of ,point ,conception1 to the north of ,santa ,barbara1 and its northern terminus is at the ,golden ,gate4 ,the same belt of mountains extends northward1 however1 and forms the northern ,coast ,range1 which extends to the ,klamath ,mountains in northern ,california4 ,the coast ranges of ,california as a whole are about #ejj miles long and from #cj to #dj miles broad1 and comprise several seemingly distinct uplifts1 some of which have culminating peaks from #d1jjj to about #g1jjj feet high4 ,in general this elevated region is conspicuously sculptured1 and in part at least has the characteristics of an eroded plateau4 ,the suggestion has been offered that the northern portion of the ,coast ,range is a dissected peneplain4 ,the ,coast ,ranges1 although generally bare of trees to the south of the ,golden ,gate1 become more and more densely forested when followed northward4 ,it is in this northern division that the great forests of redwood occur1 now so largely used for lumber4 ,reference is here made not to the big trees1 which grow in certain restricted areas on the west slope of the ,sierra ,nevada1 but to the far more extensive forests of a related species4 ,considering mountain forms simply1 it is difficult if not impossible to determine where the ,coast ,mountains of ,california terminate at the north1 but1 as has been shown especially by ,j4 ,s4 ,diller1 there are reasons based on geological structure for separating them from the irregular group of ranges and peaks in northern ,california and southern ,oregon recently named the ,klamath ,mountains4 ,the coast system is continued north of the ,klamath ,mountains by the ,coast ,mountains of ,oregon1 which extend to the ,columbia ,river1 and consist of irregular ridges or series of ridges1 with bold lateral spurs1 especially on the ocean side4 ,it varies conspicuously in height from place to place1 yet nowhere attains a great altitude4 ,the elevations of the bolder summits1 although not accurately measured1 seldom exceed #c1jjj feet4 ,the ,coast ,mountains of ,oregon are considered as terminating at the northern boundary of the ,state1 there defined by the ,columbia ,river1 but no reason is apparent1 however1 for not including in the same group the elevated land lying in southwestern ,washington and adjacent to the ,pacific coast4 ,between the ,columbia and ,chehalis ,river in ,washington there is a rugged region which attains an elevation of over #d1jjj feet1 and is separated from the ,olympic ,mountains to the northward by ,chehalis ,valley4 ,although the geology of this group of ridges and peaks is entirely unknown1 its position and general appearance1 when seen from a distance1 suggest that it might properly be considered as a direct extension of the ,coast ,mountains of ,oregon4 ,following the general belt of the ,coast ,ranges still farther northward1 we come to the splendid group of forest-clothed mountains1 with usually snow-covered summits1 situated to the west of ,puget ,sound1 and known as the ,olympic ,mountains4 ,this magnificent range is in full view from ,victoria1 ,seattle1 and ,tacoma1 and would be far-famed for its grandeur were it not for its near rival1 the still more lofty ,cascade ,range4 ,there are several fine1 sharp peaks in the ,olympics that have never been scaled1 the highest of which1 ,mount ,olympus1 rises #h1aej feet above the sea4 ,owing to the excessive humidity and other favourable climatic conditions1 these mountains are clothed with magnificent forests up to an elevation of about #g1jjj feet4 ,on account of the ruggedness of the country1 the extreme density of the tangled undergrowth1 and the obstructions formed by the fallen moss- and lichen-covered trees1 this region is extremely difficult to traverse1 and to-day is the least known of the continental portion of the ,united ,states4 ,on the north the excessively rugged ,olympic peninsula is bordered by a deep1 broad fiord known as the ,strait of ,fuca4 ,to the north of this formerly ice-filled channel lies ,vancouver ,island1 the central and northern portion of which is mountainous4 ,the highest summit on the island rises about #g1ejj feet above the sea1 and a considerable area in its central part has an elevation of over #b1jjj feet4 ,the ,olympics1 together with the mountains of ,vancouver and ,queen ,charlotte ,islands1 and the northern extension of the same belt1 embraced in part within the mainland of ,british ,columbia and southeastern ,alaska1 have been termed the ,vancouver ,mountains by ,canadian geographers4 ,the northern boundary of this mountain system1 justly named in honour of the celebrated ,english explorer who mapped large portions of the northwest coast about a century since1 remains indefinite1 and cannot be determined until geologists have made more thorough explorations of the land it occupies4 ,the leading geographical features of this region1 as remarked in a preceding chapter1 are due to the deep dissection1 by streams and glaciers1 of an elevated table-land4 ,when the ice-streams melted1 the sea was permitted to enter the valleys1 so as to form numerous deep1 narrow1 steep-walled fiords 7,fig4 #aa74 ,the coast is1 in fact1 the most ragged of any portion of the border of the continent4 ,all but the higher summits are clothed with a dense mantle of vegetation1 the upper limit of which decreases in elevation when followed northward1 from about #g1jjj feet in the ,olympics to approximately #b1ejj feet in southern ,alaska4 ,perennial snow exists in the higher valleys and amphitheatres of the ,olympics1 but the presence of true glaciers in that group of peaks has not been demonstrated4 ,when followed northward the snow-line becomes lower and lower1 and well-defined alpine glaciers are known to exist in many of the valleys1 more especially on the mainland of ,british ,columbia and southeastern ,alaska4 ,there streams of ice descend lower and lower with increase in latitude1 and to the north of ,stickeen ,river1 in a number of instances1 enter the fiords which connect with the ocean and become tide-water glaciers4 ,to the west of ,lynn ,canal1 and extending to beyond ,copper ,river1 is the most rugged portion of ,north ,america1 and contains also some of the highest mountain-peaks on the continent thus far measured4 ,the region of high mountains in ,alaska and the adjacent portion of ,canada begins on the east in the group of magnificent peaks which cluster about ,mount ,fairweather as a centre and extend westward1 with a breadth of some #hj miles1 to beyond ,mount ,st4 ,elias4 ,farther westward1 beyond ,copper ,river1 other great mountains are known to exist4 ,one of these1 ,mount ,mc,kinley1 has an elevation of #bj1djj feet1 and so far as now known is the highest peak in ,north ,america4 ,the highest summit to the east of ,copper ,river is ,mount ,logan1 #ai1ejj feet4 ,this superb ice-sheathed peak is situated in ,canada about #dj miles from the coast and #ab miles east of the one hundred and forty-first meridian4 ,second in rank is ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 #ah1jgj feet1 situated close to the one hundred and forty-first meridian1 and within the territory belonging to the ,united ,states4 ,these two summits are the highest in a land of lofty snow-covered mountains1 and for this reason have claimed a large share of attention4 ,there are many neighbouring peaks1 however1 that are wonderfully magnificent1 but only a few of them have been measured and many of them are still unnamed4 ,only one of the high mountains of ,alaska1 namely1 ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 has been climbed4 ,this splendid feat of mountaineering was accomplished by ,prince ,luigi1 of ,savoy1 in #ahii4 ,in southern ,alaska the snow-line is only about #b1ejj feet above tide1 and a large number of magnificent glaciers descend to sea-level1 and many of them actually enter the ocean4 ,all of the valleys and basins among the higher summits are occupied by snow-fields and glaciers4 ,the general covering of ice and snow as well as the ruggedness of the land makes this the most difficult of all the mountainous portions of ,north ,america to traverse4 ,in the ,st4 ,elias region the mountains have been produced by upheaval1 and are not volcanic in their origin4 ,the frequently repeated statement that ,mount ,st4 ,elias is a volcano is incorrect4 ,although igneous rocks occur near its summit1 they are of the nature of dikes or intrusions1 probably of ancient date1 and not lava-flows4 ,the principal volcanic mountains of ,alaska are farther west in the region of the ,alaskan peninsula and the ,aleutian ,islands4 ,this western extension of the continent is excessively rugged1 but the mountains rise directly from the ocean and in part form a chain of precipitous islands with irregular topographic forms4 ,there are mountain ranges also in the central and northern portions of ,alaska and the adjacent part of ,canada1 but this region awaits exploration1 and but little accurate information concerning its topography is on record4 ,the ,mountains of ,western ,canada4--,reference has already been made to the differences in the nomenclature applied to the portions of the ,pacific mountains on opposite sides of the ,united ,states-,canadian boundary1 and at present this lack of harmony cannot be adjusted4 ,as is well known1 the great ,pacific cordillera crosses the boundary nearly at right angles1 and there is no abrupt change in the topography of the land4 ,from the western border of the ,great plateaus to the ,pacific1 between the forty-fifth and fifty-sixth parallels1 as stated by the ,geological ,survey of ,canada1 the cordillera has an average breadth of about #djj miles1 and is composed of four great mountain chains1 named in their order from east to west1 the ,rocky1 ,gold1 ,coast1 and ,vancouver ,mountains4 ,these four great chains are nearly parallel and have irregular northwest and southeast trends4 ,the ,canadian ,rockies rise abruptly from ,great plateaus in which the rocks are nearly horizontal1 and have a complex structure1 due to the folding and other disturbances that have affected the strata4 ,deep dissection by stream erosion has occurred1 as is the case generally throughout the ,pacific cordillera1 and the peaks and ridges remaining are remarkable for their grandeur4 ,although less elevated than the higher portions of the same great belt in the ,united ,states1 many of the summits are from #h1jjj to #aj1jjj1 and1 as reported1 in a few instances reach #ac1jjj feet in height1 while the passes range is elevated from about #d1jjj to #g1jjj feet4 ,the western border of the ,rocky ,mountain range is well defined for a distance of some #gjj miles to the northward of the international boundary by a remarkably straight1 wide valley1 which is occupied by the head waters of several large rivers1 namely1 the ,kootenay1 ,columbia1 ,fraser1 ,parsnip1 and ,findley4 ,to the west of the great valley just referred to rises the ,gold system1 composed principally of the ,selkirk1 ,purcell1 ,columbia1 and ,caribou ,ranges4 ,it is in this rugged region that some of the most remarkable of the splendid scenery of western ,canada occurs4 ,to the west of the ,gold system is a broad region of valleys and lesser mountains1 known as the interior plateau of ,british ,columbia1 which is a northward extension of the ,great ,basin region of the ,united ,states4 ,the breadth of this belt of comparatively low country is about #ajj miles4 ,like the similar region in ,washington and ,oregon1 it is without forests1 but favourable as a grazing country4 ,in part it is occupied by extensive lava-flows1 similar to the ,columbia ,river lava of the northwestern part of the ,united ,states4 ,the ,coast ,mountains of ,canada1 although stated by geologists to be distinct from the ,cascade ,mountains1 are in part at least1 as determined by the present writer1 a direct northward extension of that range4 ,the average elevation of the higher peaks in the ,canadian ,coast ,range1 as it is termed1 is between #f1jjj and #g1jjj feet1 while the culminating points reach an elevation of about #i1jjj feet4 ,how far northward the nomenclature applied to the ,pacific mountains in southwestern ,canada will be found applicable can not be stated1 as the region to the north of the fifty-sixth parallel is almost wholly unknown4 ,,the ,,antillean ,,mountains ,as has been clearly pointed out by ,r4 ,t4 ,hill1 the ,pacific cordillera ends at the south in south-central ,mexico1 while the ,andean cordillera at its northern end terminates in the rugged mountains of ,venezuela to the south of the ,caribbean ,sea4 ,these two great cordilleras do not overlap1 but there is a difference of about #aj degrees of latitude between them1 and if extended they would pass each other at a distance of nearly #a1jjj miles4 ,in the space thus indicated1 measuring some #fjj1jjj square miles1 is included the southern portion of ,mexico1 ,central ,america1 and the ,west ,indies4 ,the rocks in these countries present a great series of folds which trend in an easterly and westerly direction1 and thus present a conspicuous exception to the major structural features of both ,north and ,south ,america4 ,to this newly recognised division of the larger geological and geographical characteristics of the ,new ,world the name ,antillean mountains has been given4 ,the folds or corrugations in the rocks of the ,central ,american and ,caribbean region extend in an east and west direction along the seaward margin of ,venezuela and ,colombia from the ,orinoco westward to the ,isthmus of ,panama1 and thence continue westward through ,costa ,rica1 the eastern portions of ,nicaragua1 ,guatemala1 and ,honduras1 and reach southern ,oaxaca in ,mexico4 ,the same system of plications is revealed also on the larger ,west ,india islands4 ,the rocks of this great region include granite and allied metamorphosed terranes1 old lavas1 and sedimentary beds4 ,one of the most conspicuous features of this region with a structure and relief commonly found in mountains is that to a great extent it is depressed beneath the sea1 and only the higher summits are in view4 ,some of the larger inequalities of the rock surface have been discovered by means of the sounding-line4 ,by referring to ,fig4 #c1 it will be seen that two submarine ridges extend in an east and west direction beneath the ,caribbean ,sea1 from the ,west ,indies to the ,central ,american coast1 and are separated by ,bartlett ,deep4 ,these ridges correspond in trend with the longer axes of the folds in the ,antillean mountains1 and suggest a common origin for the leading geographical features of the land and of the still more remarkable topography of the sea-floor4 ,in addition to mountains produced by corrugation and upheaval1 there are also in the middle ,american region numerous volcanic mountains4 ,of these there are two well-defined belts1 each trending in general north and south1 or directly across the longer axes of the folds of the ,antillean mountains4 ,one of these belts of volcanic cones and craters is situated on the ,pacific coast of ,central ,america and ,mexico1 and includes some #be active volcanoes1 and the other is defined by the numerous volcanic islands of the ,lesser ,antilles4 ,the association of these belts of fracture through which molten rock has been extruded and where earthquakes are of common occurrence1 with the junction of the east and west belt of plication to which the ,antillean mountains are due1 with the north and south belts of mountains forming the ,pacific and ,andean cordilleras1 is significant in connection with the study of the origin of the larger features of the relief of the solid earth4 99 99 99 99 99 ,varied as is the relief of ,north ,america when studied in detail1 an outline sketch of its major features may be readily retained in mind4 ,on the east side of the main continental area are the ,atlantic mountains1 extending from near the ,gulf coast northward to beyond ,hudson ,strait2 in the central part is the broad continental basin1 a vast region of low relief reaching from the ,gulf of ,mexico to the ,arctic ,ocean2 west of the continental basin are the ,pacific mountains1 the greatest of all the elevations on the continent1 which begin abruptly in south-central ,mexico and extend northward1 expanding to a width of about #a1jjj miles in the ,united ,states and reach the ,arctic ,ocean and ,bering ,sea4 ,the movements in the earth's crust1 which blocked out these major physiographic features1 were produced by forces acting in east and west directions1 and gave origin to folds and faults with their longer axes trending north and south4 ,to the south of the main body of the continent1 in middle ,america1 are situated the ,antillean mountains1 also a cordillera comparable with the ,atlantic and ,pacific cordilleras1 in which the longer axes of the folds and faults trend east and west1 and are due to forces acting in north and south directions4 ,the ,antillean mountains in a general way connect or intervene between the ,pacific and the ,andean cordilleras4 ,where the ,antillean mountains cross the axes of the ,pacific and ,andean cordilleras are situated the volcanoes of southern ,mexico and ,central ,america1 and those of the ,lesser ,antilles4 ,geographers will recognise that this outline is drawn boldly1 but although it will no doubt have to be modified as detailed studies progress1 it should serve to emphasize the leading geographic divisions of the ,north ,american continent when viewed as a whole4 ,,literature ,the following list of publications relating to the physiography of ,north ,america is here presented largely because the books mentioned contain bibliographies or references which indicate sources of more special information3 ,american ,geographical ,society1 ,bulletin4 ,published annually4 ,canadian ,geological ,survey1 ,ottawa1 ,canada4 ,index to reports from #ahfc to #ahhd1 published in #aijj4 ,,darton1 ,n4 ,h4 ,catalogue and ,index of ,contributions to ,north ,american ,geology1 #agcb to #ahia4 ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 ,bulletin ,no4 #abg1 ,washington1 #ahif4 ,,davis1 ,w4 ,m4 ,physical ,geography4 ,ginn ,co41 ,boston1 #ahih4 ,contains a valuable bibliography4 ,,dryer1 ,c4 ,r4 ,lessons in ,physical ,geography4 ,american ,book ,company1 ,new ,york1 #aija4 ,contains a valuable bibliography4 ,geological ,society of ,america1 ,bulletin4 ,published annually since #ahij at ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,index to vols4 i-x1 published in #aijj4 ,international ,geography4 ,edited by ,h4 ,r4 ,mill4 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company1 ,new ,york1 #aijj4 ,contains several chapters on ,north ,america by various authors4 ,journal of ,geology4 ,edited by ,t4 ,c4 ,chamberlin and published at the ,university of ,chicago1 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,,merrill1 ,g4 ,p4 ,rocks1 ,rock-,weathering1 and ,soils4 ,the ,macmillan ,company1 ,new ,york1 #ahig4 ,national ,geographic ,magazine4 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,national ,geographic ,monographs4 ,american ,book ,company1 ,new ,york1 #ahie4 ,one volume published4 ,,powell1 ,j4 ,w4 ,exploration of the ,colorado ,river of the ,west4 ,published by the ,smithsonian ,institution1 ,washington1 #ahge4 ,,powell1 ,j4 ,w4 ,canyons of the ,colorado4 ,flood ,vincent1 ,meadeville1 ,pa41 #ahie4 ,,russell1 ,i4 ,c4 ,lakes of ,north ,america1 ,ginn ,co41 ,boston1 #ahie2 ,glaciers of ,north ,america1 ,ginn ,co41 ,boston1 #ahig2 ,volcanoes of ,north ,america1 ,the ,macmillan ,company1 ,new ,york1 #ahig2 ,rivers of ,north ,america1 ,putnam's ,sons1 ,new ,york1 #ahih2 ,the ,names of the ,larger ,geographical ,features of ,north ,america1 in ,bulletin of the ,geographical ,society of ,philadelphia1 vol4 ii1 #ahii1 pp4 #ee-fh4 ,,shaler1 ,n4 ,s4 ,nature and ,man in ,america4 ,scribner's ,sons1 ,new ,york1 #ahia4 ,stanford's ,compendium of ,geography and ,travel4 ,north ,america3 ,canada and ,newfoundland1 by ,s4 ,e4 ,dawson2 ,united ,states1 by ,h4 ,gannett2 ,central ,america and ,west ,indies1 by ,a4 ,h4 ,keane4 ,published by ,edward ,stanford1 ,london4 ,,tarr1 ,r4 ,s4 ,elementary ,physical ,geography4 ,macmillan ,co41 #ahie4 ,united ,states ,geological ,survey4 ,bibliography and ,index1 contained in ,bulletins ,no4 #ajj1 #abg1 #agg1 #ahh1 and #ahi1 issued by the ,survey4 ,the reader is referred especially to the ,geological ,atlas and the ,topographic ,atlas1 published by the ,survey4 ,,warman1 ,p4 ,c4 ,bibliography and ,index to the ,publications of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey4 ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 ,bulletin ,no4 #ajj1 ,washington1 #ahic4 7,relates to publications of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey issued previous to #ahib2 continued in ,bulletin ,no4 #agg by the same author47 ,,warman1 ,p4 ,c4 ,catalogue and ,index of the ,publications of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 #ahhj to #aija4 ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 ,bulletin ,no4 #agg1 ,washington1 #aija4 ,,weeks1 ,f4 ,b4 ,bibliography of ,north ,american ,geology1 ,paleontology1 ,petrology1 and ,mineralogy for the ,years #ahib-aijj1 inclusive4 ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 ,bulletins ,no4 #ahh and #ahi1 ,washington1 #aijb4 ,,whitney1 ,j4 ,d4 ,the ,united ,states4 #b vols4 ,little1 ,brown ,co41 ,boston1 #ahhi and #ahid4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,climate ,the ,elements of ,climate ,north ,america1 embracing as it does essentially a quadrant of the earth's surface1 presents a variety of climatic conditions ranging from those characteristic of the equatorial belt to those normal to polar regions1 as well as every gradation due to variations in elevation from sea-level and even below that horizon in ,death ,valley1 ,california1 to the summits of high plateaus and lofty mountains4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii4--,mean ,annual ,rainfall ,temperature4 ,the principal elements of the weather which go to make up the conditions of the atmosphere embraced in the broader term climate are temperature1 precipitation1 and the winds4 ,on the accompanying map1 ,plate ,,ii1 the mean annual temperature of the continent is represented by isotherms1 or lines drawn through localities having the same average temperature for the year4 ,on the same map is also shown in blue the average depth of precipitation1 including both rains and melted snow4 ,on ,fig4 #bd lines are drawn through points having the same average barometrical pressure 7isobars7 for the months of ,january and ,july1 together with arrows indicating the general direction of the surface winds during each of these months1 which may be considered as representative of the summer and winter seasons4 ,the data shown on these maps have been compiled mainly from the reports of the weather bureaus of ,canada1 the ,united ,states1 and ,mexico1 and indicate1 at least in a general way1 a summary of what is known concerning the main meteorological elements which determine the climatic conditions in ,north ,america4 ,an examination of these maps will suggest certain general conclusions in reference to the leading characteristics of the climate in various portions of the continent and the changes they undergo from season to season4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--;,average barometric pressure and direction of wind for ,january and ,july4 ,distribution of ,heat and ,light4--,the distribution over the earth's surface of the heat and light received from the sun is not only of fundamental importance as respects climate1 but furnishes a part of the essential conditions on which depend the presence and distribution of living organisms4 ,the heat and light1 or more accurately1 the radiant energy of the sun1 the full significance of which is probably not thoroughly understood1 we term1 for convenience1 insolation4 ,the intensity and seasonal distribution of insolation are prime factors on which many important results hinge4 ,owing to the inclination of the axis about which the earth rotates 7#bc deg4 #bg'7 to the plane in which the earth travels about the sun1 or the plane of the ecliptic1 the northern end of the axis is turned towards the sun in summer and away from it in winter--that is1 the axis of rotation of the earth at all times is parallel to the same imaginary straight line4 ,as a result1 the sun appears to migrate northward in the heavens during the spring-time of each year1 being vertical over the equator on ,march #bast1 and to an observer in north latitude #bc deg4 #bg' rises higher and higher each moon1 until on ,june #bast it is vertically overhead2 and then returns southward4 ,the latitude in which the sun is in the zenith at the time of its greatest northward migration determines the position of an imaginary line on the earth's surface1 named the ,tropic of ,cancer4 ,this line1 as shown on the accompanying maps1 crosses the ,bahama ,islands1 passes about #dj miles to the northward of ,havana1 divides ,mexico into two approximately equal parts1 and cuts the peninsula of ,lower ,california near its southern end4 ,the portion of the continent to the south of the ,tropic of ,cancer lies within the torrid zone4 ,when the sun is vertical over the equator1 as it is about ,march #bast and ,september #bc;d each year1 its rays1 not allowing for refraction1 are tangent to the earth's surface at the poles1 and the hours of light and darkness are equal the world over4 ,during the winter season the sun appears to migrate southward of the equator until ,december #bast1 when it is vertical at noon at all points situated in south latitude #bc deg4 #bg'1 which is termed the ,tropic of ,capricorn4 ,its rays are then tangent to the earth's surface in the northern hemisphere in latitude #ff deg4 #cc'1 which defines the position of the arctic circle4 ,this imaginary line on the earth's surface1 as is indicated on the accompanying maps1 crosses ,canada to the north of ,hudson ,bay1 and passes through ,alaska near where the ,porcupine ,river joins the ,yukon4 ,to the north of the arctic circle lies the frigid zone4 ,between the torrid and frigid zones is situated the temperate zone1 within which is included about seven-eighths of ,north ,america1 exclusive of ,greenland4 ,the relation of the continent to the three great zones of climate into which the northern hemisphere is divided is thus most fortunate so far as man's activities are concerned4 ,the climatic zones just referred to1 while based on precise astronomical data and representing important facts1 are not separated one from another by tangible lines1 and might easily pass undiscovered by one who studied only the surface characteristics of the earth4 ,each summer a wave of heat and light sweeps northward over the continent and reaches beyond the pole2 and each winter a counteracting wave of cold and darkness moves southward1 the influence of which is marked even well within the torrid zone4 ,a comparison of the isothermal lines drawn on the map forming ,plate ,,ii with the parallels of latitude shows at a glance that there is only a general relationship between the two4 ,in order to understand this discrepancy between what might be expected from astronomical considerations in reference to the distribution of solar energy and the actual conditions as learned by observation1 it is necessary to take a more critical view of the manner in which insolation is received by the continent1 and also to consider secondary conditions which exert far-reaching influences on its distribution4 ,the amount of heat1 or to avoid objections1 the distribution of insolation over ,north ,america1 depends on three primary conditions3 ,first1 the angle at which the sun's rays strike the earth1 the range being from zero to #ij deg42 second1 the length of time a particular locality is exposed to sunlight2 and third1 variations in the distance of the earth from the sun4 ,each of these conditions varies from day to day for every locality throughout the continent4 ,the sun is highest in the heavens in the torrid zone1 being twice vertically overhead each year at every locality1 and the hours of light and darkness each day are approximately equal throughout the year4 ,north of the torrid zone1 however1 the rays of the sun become more and more oblique to the earth's surface1 and hence insolation becomes weaker and weaker for a given period of sunshine as one travels from south to north4 ,but the hours of sunlight each day undergo marked variations1 lengthening from ,december #bast to ,june #bast1 and shortening as the sun makes its southward migration4 ,at the north pole1 as all know1 there are six months of light and six months of darkness each year4 ,the amount of insolation reaching the northern portion of the continent each day increases with the lengthening of the hours of light1 and during midsummer is greater for a given area in a single day 7twenty-four hours7 than the amount received by a similar area in the torrid zone4 ,the almost magical springing into life and bloom of the vegetation over the northern portion of the continent with the lengthening of the hours of sunshine each summer is thus explained4 ,in the portion of the continent within the temperate zone1 more especially within the continental basin1 the large number of hours of sunshine during a summer's day is frequently accompanied by a temperature as great as is usually experienced in the torrid zone4 ,it is the high summer temperature of this region1 together with the lengthened duration of sunshine in the growing season1 that makes the ,mississippi basin and the adjacent region on the east and north so favourable for agriculture when the requisite amount of moisture is present4 ,the distribution of heat over the earth's surface depends not only on the direct influence of insolation1 but on its transfer from one locality to another through the agency of the winds and ocean currents4 ,the movements of the waters of the ocean1 it will be remembered1 are largely under the control of the winds1 so that the essential factor in the transfer of heat from place to place is atmospheric circulation4 ,the primary causes of movements in the air1 as is a matter of current knowledge1 are the differences that arise in temperature at various localities4 ,in regions where the air becomes more highly heated than over adjacent areas it expands1 and in consequence becomes lighter1 volume for volume1 than the air over neighbouring areas1 and is forced upward and overflows aloft4 ,the overflow or dispersion of the warmer and lighter air above gives origin to a reduction in barometric pressure1 the column of mercury in a barometer being counterbalanced by the pressure of the air above it4 ,briefly stated1 the air near the earth's surface flows towards regions of low1 and away from regions of high barometric pressure1 and winds are established4 ,the directions taken by the winds are influenced or controlled in various ways4 ,the ,planetary ,winds4--,the great movements in the atmosphere originate from differences in temperature between the warm equatorial and cold polar regions4 ,this alone would cause the cold air from either pole to flow towards the equator as surface winds1 and the warm air in the equatorial belt to ascend and overflow aloft towards either pole4 ,the earth's rotation1 however1 influences the direction of these winds and causes them to be deflected from the lines of longitude which they would otherwise follow4 ,in the northern hemisphere the air-currents are deflected to the right and in the southern hemisphere to the left of their initial directions4 ,the best known examples of these planetary winds1 as they are termed1 are the trade-winds1 which blow from the northeast in the northern and from the southeast in the southern hemisphere4 ,between these two belts of converging winds lies the equatorial belt of calm1 some #cjj miles wide1 which also encircles the earth and is termed the doldrums4 ,in the quadrant of the earth's surface occupied by ,north ,america the climatic conditions are controlled in a large measure by the planetary winds4 ,in the equatorial belt of calms the barometric pressure is lower than on either side1 the temperature is uniformly high1 the air is heavily charged with moisture1 and torrential rains are frequent4 ,in the belt of the northeast trades the weight of the air for a given area is greater than in the doldrums1 the wind blows with remarkable uniformity both of direction and force1 the sky is normally clear1 and rain infrequent except when the warm moist air is forced upward either by local storms or on coming in contact with high land4 ,the trade-winds blow across the ,west ,indies1 ,mexico1 and much of ,central ,america4 ,to the north of the trade-wind belt is a belt of prevailingly high barometrical pressure1 light variable winds1 narrower and less well defined than the doldrums1 which encircles the earth in the region of the ,tropic of ,cancer4 ,this belt of calms1 although familiar to sailors1 to whom it is known as the horse latitudes1 is ill-defined on the land1 where its presence is masked by changes due to local conditions4 ,to the north of the tropical calm belt the prevailing surface winds are from the westward1 and owe their direction to the constant flow of the upper air-currents in their poleward journey1 under the influence of the earth's rotation4 ,this great belt of winds from the westward crosses the portion of ,north ,america including the ,united ,states and southern ,canada1 but it is subject to many disturbances4 ,the northern portion of the continent extends into the little known polar region of prevailingly low barometrical pressure1 where midsummer and midwinter calms normally prevail4 ,the great world-encircling currents of the atmosphere1 namely1 the trade-winds1 blowing towards the southwest or west across the ,caribbean and ,mexican region1 and the prevailing westerlies1 or winds blowing in an easterly direction1 over the broad temperate portion of ,north ,america1 exert the main control on the climate of the continent4 ,the ,seasons4--,of primary importance to the inhabitants of ,north ,america is the fact that the climatic belts determined by the inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of the ecliptic are subject to annual migration towards the north and south4 ,in the torrid zone the equatorial belt of calms1 with its humid and oppressively hot atmosphere1 prevailing cloudiness1 and heavy rains1 and the belt of the northeast trades1 with its prevailingly clear skies and refreshing breezes1 do not occupy the same positions throughout the year1 but migrate with the sun4 ,the migration of these two strongly contrasted climatic belts brings to the otherwise remarkably uniform conditions of the atmosphere over the ,west ,indies1 ,central ,america1 and ,mexico1 two1 in general well-defined1 periods each year1 namely1 a wet and a dry season1 the former occurring in the summer and the latter in the winter4 ,it is to be borne in mind that between the tropics there are1 with certain local exceptions1 but two seasons each year1 the leading contrasts of which are determined by differences in rainfall4 ,to the north of the ,tropic of ,cancer the seasonal changes are more varied than in the torrid zone1 and contrasts in temperature become the most marked climatic feature2 while precipitation1 although in general somewhat evenly distributed throughout the year1 is more abundant in winter than in summer4 ,on account1 however1 of the greater diversity in the climatic changes experienced each year within the temperate zone1 four seasons are recognised1 the most distinctive features of which depend on changes in both temperature and humidity4 ,in the northern portion of the temperate zone1 and extending over the arctic zone1 the seasons are again reduced to two1 summer and winter1 the contrasted conditions pertaining mainly to temperature and light4 ,a marked variation1 which has an important bearing not only on climate1 but on the distribution of life encountered in passing from equatorial to polar regions1 is found in the distribution of light4 ,between the tropics the number of hours of light and darkness each day is approximately equal2 in the temperate zone there is considerable diversity from season to season1 which increases with increase in latitude2 and uniformity1 of a different character than at the far south1 again becomes prominent in the frigid zone1 where the number of hours of light each day is greatly prolonged during the summer and correspondingly decreased during the winter4 ,the extreme contrast occurs in the neighbourhood of the pole1 where during the summer season the sun is continuously above1 and in winter continuously below the horizon1 or in familiar language1 there is a six-months day 7light7 and a six-months night 7darkness74 ,in going from the equatorial to north polar regions there is a general decrease in mean annual temperature1 and in general a decrease also in precipitation1 but great variations in these gradual changes1 with increase in latitude1 occur which are both continental and local in character4 ,in winter the interior portions of the continent1 and especially the plateaus and mountains1 are colder than the lands in corresponding latitudes near the oceans2 while in summer the reverse is true1 the margin of the continent being cooler than the broad interior4 ,in this general view of the climatic zones and the normal changes they undergo we may note that the torrid zone is characterized by its simplicity and monotony of climatic conditions1 although disturbed at times1 especially in the ,west ,indies1 by occasional great cyclonic storms1 termed hurricanes1 which occur1 however1 at quite definite seasons4 ,the temperate belt is equally well marked by its complex and frequently changing atmospheric conditions1 the winds being subject to numerous and great variations1 and storms of diverse character being frequent4 ,the frigid zone1 again1 is without conspicuous variations except during the change from its monotonous summer to its still more uniform winter weather1 and the reverse change six months later4 ,the disturbances in the balance of atmospheric conditions at the far north1 or the storms1 are of a much less varied character than in the fickle temperate zone--thunder-storms and tornadoes1 for example1 being unknown4 ,it is the summer migration of a heated belt from the south northward across the temperate zone1 and the equally conspicuous winter advances of cold from the north southward across the same broad region1 which gives to the ,united ,states and the southern portion of ,canada a conspicuously changeable climate4 ,the temperate zone1 so far at least as ,north ,america is concerned1 deserves its name only when the mean of the yearly changes in temperature is considered1 as much of it is hotter in summer than equal areas between the tropics1 and in winter over all of its northern half the cold is1 at times1 nearly or quite as intense as during the same season in the far north4 ,as a whole1 the portion of the continent embraced in the temperate zone is characterized by its pronounced seasonal changes1 including wide extremes of heat and cold over large areas1 and by its frequently sudden and strongly marked weather changes during short periods of time4 ,it is a highly suggestive fact that of all the great climatic zones the one having the most changeable climate1 the greatest extremes of heat and cold1 and the most frequent storms should be the one in which man has reached the highest development both of body and mind4 ,evidently it is the struggle for existence1 when not too severe1 which insures advancement4 ,the part of ,north ,america most densely inhabited by descendants of ,europeans1 and the portion of the continent where intellectual development has made the greatest advance1 is the east-central portion1 where not only the variation of climate from season to season1 but the weather changes from week to week and day to day are the most conspicuous4 ,secondary ,conditions influencing ,climate4--,while the primary conditions controlling the climate of ,north ,america in common with all other portions of the earth's surface depend on the relation of the earth to the sun1 there are many secondary conditions to be considered4 ,first in importance among these1 so far as the broader features of the climate of the continent are concerned1 is the unequal heating of land and water areas4 ,during summer1 more especially in the temperate zone1 the land becomes more highly heated than the adjacent oceans1 and an inflow of the cooler and moister air from the sea over the land occurs4 ,in winter the land cools more quickly and to a greater degree than the adjacent waters1 and the tendency of the heavier air over the land is to flow outward as surface winds4 ,continental winds are thus generated1 similar in their origin to the familiar land and sea breezes of the ocean shore in summer1 but on a large scale1 which have an important bearing on the seasonal changes4 ,the influence of the continental winds is sufficiently well marked to give ,north ,america two general classes of climate4 ,one pertains to inland regions1 is characterized by great contrasts in temperature and humidity between summer and winter1 and is termed continental4 ,the other pertains to the border of the land where1 on account of the equalizing influence of large water borders1 the contrast between the climate of summer and winter is less pronounced1 and has received the general title of oceanic climate4 ,the climate of the ,dakotas1 for example1 is of the continental type1 while that of ,new ,jersey is of the oceanic type4 ,the unequal heating and cooling of adjacent portions of land areas also produces important atmospheric movements1 as1 for instance1 when broad1 treeless plains become more highly heated in summer than adjacent forested areas2 or on account of rapid radiation become excessively cold in winter and lower the temperature of the air above them4 ,in the first instance an inflow of cooler and heavier air from adjacent regions would be established2 and in the second example the chilled air would tend to flow outward1 thus1 in each instance1 establishing winds which usually acquire a more or less well-pronounced circular motion4 ,the ,prairie plains and the ,great plateaus to the east of the ,rocky ,mountains become highly heated in summer1 and together with several other similar regions in ,north ,america1 meet the first of the conditions just considered2 while the higher portions of the ,great plateau1 especially at the north1 and the still more elevated mountains of ,montana1 ,colorado1 etc41 become excessively cold in winter and illustrate the other extreme4 ,mountains serve to deflect the winds blowing against them either to one side or upward1 the former frequently producing important changes in direction of the surface air-currents1 and the latter1 by causing the air to rise1 permits of its expansion and consequent cooling1 thus favouring precipitation4 ,for this and other reasons precipitation increases with elevation1 at least until an altitude of many thousands of feet is reached1 and the mountains are cooler and more humid than the adjacent valleys4 ,the air-currents on passing over a mountain range and descending are warmed by compression1 and having lost a part and in many observed instances a large percentage of the moisture they previously contained1 become warm1 drying winds4 ,the chinook winds1 as they are termed in ,america1 are marked examples of the influence exerted by mountains on climatic conditions4 ,what are termed above the secondary conditions1 tending to modify climate1 produce such great changes in the distribution of rainfall1 temperature1 etc41 and in the influence of the planetary winds1 that the subdivision of the northern hemisphere into torrid1 temperate1 and frigid zones1 while based on astronomical data1 does not serve to represent actual conditions1 except in a general way1 in reference even to the single element of temperature expressed in these names4 ,a comparison of the isotherms and of the distribution of precipitation as indicated on the preceding maps1 with the parallels of latitude1 shows at once that these two most important elements of climate are conspicuously independent of distance from the equator4 ,a logical basis for subdividing the continent into climatic provinces must therefore be sought in other directions4 ,,climatic ,,provinces ,in order to obtain a comprehensive idea of the climate of a continent1 it is obviously desirable to subdivide it into areas having more or less similar and distinct atmospheric conditions4 ,the leading difficulty in making such subdivisions is the well-known fact that the climate of any region which may be chosen passes by insensible gradations into that of adjacent regions1 and any boundaries that may be drawn are to a considerable extent artificial and arbitrary4 ,while the true basis on which to establish climatic areas or provinces is the resultant of all the weather elements which go to make up the atmospheric conditions recognised under the broader term climate1 so many factors have to be considered that it is extremely difficult to arrive at a general acceptable conclusion4 ,the principal elements of the weather to be considered are1 approximately1 in the order of their importance1 beginning with the one which exerts almost universal control--temperature1 precipitation1 the winds1 absolute and relative humidity of the air1 and evaporation4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii4--,climate ,life ,provinces4 ,in ,north ,america there are voluminous records in reference to each of these elements of the weather1 embracing considerable lengths of time1 and relating mainly to the ,united ,states and southeastern ,canada1 but not sufficient to enable one to subdivide the entire continent into climatic provinces4 ,the lack of weather records embracing the entire continent may be supplied in part by what may be termed the natural records of atmospheric conditions as expressed by the flora and fauna1 as well as by soil conditions and topography4 ,in recognition of this principle1 the climatic provinces of ,north ,america here adopted have been made to conform to its life-zones4 ,the major climatic divisions of ,north ,america here provisionally adopted are1 in their general order from south to north1 the ,tropical1 ,lower ,austral1 ,upper ,austral1 ,transition1 ,boreal1 and ,arctic 7,plate ,,iii74 ,these several divisions are termed climatic provinces1 and are assumed to coincide with those of the life-regions as mapped by ,c4 ,hart ,merriam4 ,the basis for classification is mainly temperature4 ,in the main1 the northern boundaries of the provinces and their higher limits in mountainous regions are determined by the temperature of the season of growth and reproduction among plants and animals2 while their southern boundaries or lower limits on the mountains are determined by the temperature of a brief period during the hottest portion of the year4 ,a more definite account of the reasons for choosing these limitations will be given later in discussing life areas4 ,while the principal basis for establishing climatic provinces is temperature1 many other conditions are also recognised1 chief among which is precipitation4 ,several of the climatic provinces have two divisions1 namely1 a humid and an arid1 the dividing line being approximately the one hundredth meridian4 ,these are well defined and important in the tropical1 austral1 and transitional1 but less definite and less well known in the boreal and arctic provinces4 ,the regions embraced in the several climatic provinces named above1 as well as their humid and arid divisions1 so far as now understood1 are shown on the accompanying map4 ,the ,tropical ,province 7,plate ,,iii74--,this is the most southern of the climatic provinces which it is convenient to recognise in ,north ,america1 and includes the ,west ,indies1 ,central ,america1 and southern ,mexico1 together with a narrow strip on each coast of northern ,mexico and the extreme southern ends of the peninsulas of ,florida and of ,lower ,california4 ,while the land areas in this widely extended province present conspicuous differences1 their climate in general is characterized by a high mean annual temperature with but moderate seasonal or daily variations1 and by the occurrence in general of a wet and a dry season each year4 ,the prevailing winds are the northeast trades4 ,while the average yearly temperature is high1 being in general about #hj deg4 ,f41 the heat in summer is less intense than in many portions of the austral provinces4 ,in winter the temperature does not fall sufficiently to produce frost1 except on the higher mountains1 which1 in fact1 belong to one or more of the other provinces named above4 ,on ascending the mountains a rapid change to cooler and even to frigid zones is experienced4 ,snow occurs on the higher portions of the mountains of ,central ,america and ,mexico1 and in a few instances1 as on the great volcanic cones in sight from the ,city of ,mexico1 is perennial4 ,on the mountains just referred to all of the several climatic provinces are represented by well-characterized zones1 arranged one above another1 and presenting in epitome the general changes one would experience in travelling from the ,gulf of ,mexico to the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,in marked contrast to the prevailing uniformity of temperature at corresponding elevations throughout the tropical provinces is the inequality in rainfall in reference to both seasonal periods and differences in geographical position4 ,of the annual changes1 the most pronounced and characteristic is the alternation of wet and dry periods4 ,during the summer season1 or in general from ,may to ,october1 the air is usually clouded for at least a portion of each day1 and heavy downpours of rain occur4 ,throughout the remainder of the year the clear skies and refreshing breezes1 such as on the ocean are normally characteristic of the trade-wind belt1 prevail4 ,the remarkable regularity with which these changes occur each year suggests at once that they are due to the migrations northward and southward with the sun of the great climatic belts encircling the equatorial region of the earth4 ,in summer the equatorial belt of calms and heavy rainfall not only migrates northward and occupies a portion of ,central ,america1 bringing to ,costa ,rica and ,nicaragua cloudy skies and abundant precipitation1 but seems to be carried bodily still farther northward1 so that the influence of the southeast trades of the southern hemisphere makes itself felt1 and four somewhat well-marked annual changes occur1 namely1 two wet and two dry seasons4 ,what is known of the climate of this extreme southern portion of the province under review indicates that the seasonal changes1 especially on the ,caribbean slope1 are less well marked than in its central portion1 and rain is frequently copious in nearly every month of the year4 ,in the region just mentioned the mean annual precipitation1 as at ,greytown1 for example1 at the eastern extremity of the proposed ,nicaragua ,canal1 is about #bej inches1 and in exceptionally wet years reaches nearly or quite #cjj inches4 ,this is1 so far as known1 the heaviest annual precipitation in any portion of ,north ,america4 ,in the ,west ,indies the rainy season begins1 in general1 in ,may and lasts until ,october4 ,on the lowlands of eastern and south-central ,mexico the wet season commences in ,june1 and the rains increase until the end of ,july and end in ,november4 ,this region lies to the north of the northern limit reached by the equatorial belt of calm1 but the rains in the summer season are due to the same general influence1 namely1 the lowering of temperature in the northward-moving upper air-currents1 and their effect on the trade-winds4 ,in ,cuba and along the northern coast of the ,gulf of ,mexico when the trade-wind belt migrates southward in winter the influences of the southward-moving storm from the ,mississippi ,valley and ,atlantic ,states produces what are termed northers1 which bring a chill and at times frost1 more especially in ,florida and on the higher portions of ,cuba4 ,while the wide-reaching seasonal changes within the tropical province depend on the migrations of the planetary winds northward and southward with the sun1 and are due primarily to astronomical conditions1 there are equally well-marked variations in rainfall dependent on or regulated by geographical conditions4 ,these are of two principal classes3 ,first1 elevation of the land2 and second1 the relation of broad land areas to the direction of the prevailing winds1 each of which is abundantly illustrated in the tropical province4 ,the mountainous islands in the ,west ,indies receive a heavy rainfall1 especially on their windward or easterly slopes1 while the low islands1 and less markedly the southwestern border of the higher islands1 are much less humid4 ,the eastern side of ,porto ,rico1 for example1 has an abundant rainfall1 and was originally clothed with a luxuriant native flora1 including large forest-trees1 while the lowlands on its southern and southwestern border are subject to drought1 and irrigation is desirable to insure the growth of crops4 ,again1 while the mountainous islands of the ,lesser ,antilles1 with their luxuriantly forested slopes1 present ideal pictures of tropical loveliness1 low-lying ,sombrero1 ,barbuda1 ,st4 ,martin1 and other similar islands are so arid that guano has accumulated on them to such an extent as to be of commercial importance4 ,the reason for these striking contrasts within narrow geographical limits is readily seen in the influence of the highlands on the trade-winds4 ,these air-currents blowing from the ,atlantic are warm and contain a high percentage of moisture4 ,as they advance1 however1 they invade regions that are progressively warmer and warmer1 and the capacity of the air for moisture is correspondingly increased4 ,for this reason the trade-winds in crossing low land become drying winds4 ,when the warm humid air-currents are forced upward1 however1 they are cooled in part by contact with the land1 but to a greater extent on account of expansion due to decreased pressure2 the dew-point is thus lowered1 and when saturation is reached precipitation follows4 ,this explanation applies also to the low peninsula of ,yucatan1 which is within the trade-wind belt1 and is exceptional among the lands of ,central ,america1 on account of its dearth of forests1 but in this instance1 and also in reference to the similar barren condition of the ,bahama ,islands1 in addition to the lowness of the land1 the influence of the underlying porous1 limestone rocks on the vegetable growths should be considered4 ,in the instances just mentioned the rain that falls is quickly absorbed by the cavernous rocks1 and surface streams are rare4 ,in ,central ,america the influence of mountains on the climate is much the same as in the ,west ,india islands2 in fact1 the narrow rugged belt of land connecting the two ,americas may1 from our present point of view1 be considered as a great island situated mainly within the trade-wind belt1 and similar to ,jamaica1 for example1 in its influences on the winds blowing across it4 ,the eastern slopes of the ,central ,american mountains1 together with the adjacent lowlands1 with the exception1 principally1 of ,yucatan1 are well watered and clothed with dense vegetation1 while on the western slopes1 and especially over the narrow fringe of lowland adjacent to the ,pacific1 the rainfall is less than on the ,caribbean coast1 and the forests are open with many grass-covered areas which are favourable for agriculture4 ,in the mountainous portions of the ,west ,indies and of ,central ,america1 on account of the more healthy conditions on the leeward or drier sides1 as compared with the windward or humid slopes of the mountains1 the towns and the principal portion of the white inhabitants are located on their western borders4 ,owing to the great humidity and the long-continued high temperature during the hotter portion of the year throughout the tropical province1 much of the lowland to the eastward of the high mountains is swampy and unhealthy4 ,this low region in ,mexico and ,central ,america is known as the tierra caliente1 or hot country2 on the mountains and plateaus1 or in general where the elevation is between #e1jjj and #g1jjj feet1 is the cooler and remarkably salubrious tierra templada2 and at still higher elevations occur the tierra frie4 ,owing to the decrease in temperature with elevation1 and the fact that the moist warm air is forced to rise1 and in consequence expands on passing over the highland1 the rainfall probably increases with elevation through the three zones just referred to4 ,while the tropical province is characterized by the uniformity with which its atmospheric changes occur1 it is nevertheless in part subject to occasional and exceedingly violent cyclonic storms termed hurricanes1 which begin in the torrid zone1 travel northward 7,fig4 #bf1 page #baj71 and make their influence felt in more than one of the climatic provinces into which ,north ,america is here divided4 ,thunder-storms1 frequently of great violence1 also occur1 especially in the ,central ,american region in summer1 when the doldrums migrate northward4 ,the trade-wind belt broadens in crossing the southern portion of the ,north ,american continent1 and on the west coast and during its greatest northward migration reaches to southern ,california4 ,as we have seen1 the lowlands not adjacent to mountains in the ,caribbean region receive little or no rain from the trade-winds1 for the reason that the prevailing air-currents are moving from cooler to warmer regions1 and therefore have their capacity for moisture increased as they advance more rapidly than their thirst can be satiated4 ,the trade-winds are thus normally drying winds4 ,the same principle holds true for continents as well as islands4 ,the trade-winds on reaching the eastern border of the ,mexican plateau are forced upward and part with much of their moisture in the form of rain and snow1 and on descending to the lower lands bordering the ,pacific are desiccating winds4 ,the conditions are thus much the same as on the lowlands situated to the leeward of the mountains of the ,west ,indies4 ,the narrow fringe of low-lying country on the west border of the main body of ,mexico1 together with the peninsula of ,lower ,california and a portion of the southern extremity of ,california1 are arid1 although in immediate proximity to the ocean4 ,the leading characteristics of the climate of this1 the arid portion of the tropical province1 are its small rainfall1 clear atmosphere1 high mean annual temperature1 moderate seasonal changes1 and active evaporation4 ,the most typical portion of the arid region bordering the ,pacific from ,california southward lies in northwestern ,mexico1 where the mean annual precipitation on the western slope of the central table-land is from #ae to #bj inches1 but gradually diminishes as one descends to the lower lands to the westward to #aj inches1 and even to #e inches or less4 ,a great portion of the lowlands is practically a desert1 although1 as is common on the desert-like tracts of this continent1 it is sparingly covered with detached clumps of cacti1 yuccas1 and other similar plants which live with the minimum of water4 ,the hot1 arid lands of the southwest just referred to are similar in position1 in reference to the relation of land areas to the trade-wind belts1 as other trade-wind deserts1 as they are termed1 such as the ,sahara1 which occur on the leeward side of continents where they are crossed by these drying winds4 ,the ,lower ,austral ,province 7,plate ,,iii74--,this province embraces the ,atlantic and ,gulf coasts of the ,united ,states from ,connecticut southward1 with the exception of the tropical portion of southern ,florida2 the ,mississippi basin south of the mouth of the ,ohio2 and includes also many of the valleys amid the ,pacific mountains from the northern boundary of ,california to central ,mexico4 ,the larger geographical conditions on which the boundaries of the province depend are the warm currents in the ,atlantic1 which ameliorate the temperature of the adjacent land as well as supply it with abundant moisture2 the low elevation of the central continental basin1 which permits of great extension northward of the climatic conditions originating about the ,gulf of ,mexico2 and the mountainous character of the western portion of the province1 where the valleys have a markedly different temperature and rainfall from the highlands4 ,the most southern portions of the lower austral province within the border of the ,united ,states has a semitropical climate and is characterized by its high mean annual temperature1 abundant rainfall1 and uniformity of weather conditions throughout the year4 ,the summers are hot1 but tempered by winds from the ,gulf of ,mexico and the ,atlantic1 and the winters1 although normally mild and without snow1 are varied at intervals by periods of cold which bring occasional frosts4 ,this semitropical division of the lower austral province embraces a narrow strip of coast-land extending from ,south ,carolina to southeastern ,texas1 with the exception of the extreme southern end of ,florida1 and forms a transition between the hotter and more humid tropical province to the southward and the cooler and less humid region to the northward4 ,as the saying is1 a tree is judged by its fruit2 in a similar way we may judge of the climate of a region by its products4 ,the ,gulf strip of the lower austral province is the home of a number of plants and animals not found farther north1 as1 for example1 the cabbage palmetto and ,cuban pine1 and several species of birds and small mammals4 ,among the agricultural products of this narrow coastal belt which are suggestive of its climate are rice1 sugar-cane1 and sea-island cotton2 of fruits it produces1 especially in ,florida1 oranges1 mandarins1 lemons1 limes1 shaddocks1 and pineapples4 ,the humid portion of the lower austral province extends northward from the ,gulf strip1 and presents a transition in climatic conditions between the semitropical ,gulf coast and the more markedly temperate climate of the upper austral4 ,this eastern division of the lower austral1 characterized by its mild winters1 general absence of snow1 long hot summers with abundant rain1 extends from eastern ,virginia southward about the southern end of the ,appalachian ,mountains1 and in the ,mississippi ,valley broadens so as to reach the mouth of the ,ohio ,river4 ,its western limit is in central ,texas1 where the mean annual rainfall decreases to less than #bj inches1 and forests give place to treeless1 grass-covered plains and plateaus4 ,through this eastern portion of the lower austral the mean annual precipitation is in general between #ej and #fj inches1 and is so distributed throughout the year that each month receives approximately an equal share4 ,in general1 however1 the rainfall is greater in winter than in summer4 ,the mean annual temperature of the humid portion of the lower austral is from #fj deg4 to #fh deg4 ,f41 the mean winter temperature #dj deg4 to #eb deg41 and the mean summer temperature from #ge deg4 to #hj deg4 ,f4 ,from these records it may be inferred that the conditions are favourable for the growth of trees4 ,in its natural condition this entire region was clothed with a varied and beautiful forest1 consisting largely of broad-leaved trees1 but is also the home of the southern pine and the cypress4 ,the characteristic crops are cotton and corn 7maize74 ,the western or arid portion of the lower austral province embraces western ,texas1 a large area in northeastern ,mexico1 and circling about the southern extremity of the ,pacific mountains in central ,mexico1 extends northward adjacent to the tropical border of the ,pacific and the ,gulf of ,lower ,california1 into ,arizona and southern ,california4 ,a detached area of this same province occupies the great ,valley of ,california4 ,the leading feature in the climate of the extensive and irregular region just outlined is its aridity4 ,the rainfall is too small to insure forest growths2 the land is treeless1 except along the streams1 and irrigation is necessary for successful agriculture4 ,with a sufficient amount of water for irrigation1 a great variety of fruits1 etc41 may be raised1 including many products usually considered as indicating tropical conditions1 such as mangoes1 dates1 figs1 citrus fruits1 olives1 pineapples1 etc4 ,not only are the agricultural products numerous and varied1 but the yield per acre under the most favourable conditions is far in excess of the best results reached in most regions where rain is relied on to furnish the requisite moisture4 ,under the prevailingly cloudless skies of the hot arid lands of the southwestern portion of the continent insolation is intense and the growth of vegetation phenomenal when the necessary amount of water is supplied4 ,the land in its present condition presents great contrasts1 ranging from desolate1 sun-burned tracts which are almost absolute deserts1 to the vivid green of irrigated fields and the deep shade of heavily fruit-laden orchards4 ,the ,upper ,austral ,province 7,plate ,,iii74--,the portion of ,north ,america embraced in this climatic province lies principally in the central part of the ,united ,states1 but includes also a narrow strip in southern ,ontario1 adjacent to the north shore of ,lake ,erie1 and a large irregular area in the central plateau of ,mexico4 ,a marked feature of its geography is its extreme irregularity in the portion occupied by the ,pacific mountains in the ,united ,states and ,mexico4 ,the reasons for this lie mainly in the influence of the relief of the land on climate1 the direction of the prevailing winds1 and varying distances from the ocean4 ,it is a familiar fact that boreal and even arctic climatic conditions are met with on high mountains4 ,the attention that is given to changes in climate with increase in altitude is no doubt largely due to the fact that the mountains present conditions which are exceptional and more or less novel as seen from our accustomed point of view4 ,a person living in an elevated region1 on descending into a deep valley1 would be impressed with the reverse order in which the climatic zones occur4 ,in making such a descent he would pass in succession from a boreal or perhaps arctic climate1 through a transitional or cold temperate1 to the warm temperate or upper austral province1 and might even reach the semitropical division of the lower austral4 ,in the ,pacific mountains within the border of the ,united ,states the valleys are sufficiently deep to have the climatic conditions here ascribed to the upper austral1 and in the southwestern portion of the ,united ,states descents may be made--as in the ,great ,valley of ,california and in the arid basins of southern ,nevada1 ,arizona1 etc4--sufficiently great to reach the lower austral4 ,the valleys amid the ,pacific mountains1 which fall in the upper austral province1 are in general low at the north in reference to sea-level1 and become higher and higher at the south4 ,for example1 the upper austral region in central ,washington is but #djj or #ejj feet above the sea1 while in ,mexico it lies in general at an altitude of between #d1jjj and #f1jjj feet4 ,the upper austral province may be termed warm temperate1 with a marked contrast between the heat of summer and the cold of winter4 ,the summers are long1 with an average temperature of #gj deg4 or #ge deg41 while the winters are variable1 with frequent cold periods when ice forms and snow-storms are not rare4 ,the snow seldom remains on the ground for more than a few days at a time1 however1 except in the northeast1 where the warm temperate climatic conditions of the province under review merge with those of the colder region to the northward embraced in the transition province4 ,the upper1 like the lower austral1 presents two well-marked divisions in reference to humidity--an eastern or humid and a western or semihumid portion2 the dividing line is in the neighbourhood of the one hundredth meridian4 ,in the eastern division the mean annual precipitation in the ,piedmont region to the east of the ,appalachians and on the coastal plain adjacent to the ,atlantic in ,maryland and ,new ,jersey is from #dj to #hj inches1 but decreases westward1 and on the border of the ,great plateaus in ,kansas and ,nebraska is about #bj inches4 ,in the western division the annual precipitation is less than #bj inches1 and agriculture without irrigation is uncertain and usually impossible4 ,to the east of the one hundredth meridian the rain is somewhat evenly distributed throughout the year1 although an increasing dryness of the summer is easily detected as one travels from east to west1 but in the various upper austral valleys of the ,pacific mountain region the precipitation is mostly during the winter1 and the summers are practically rainless4 ,the marked difference in precipitation between the humid and semihumid division of the upper austral province is recorded on the surface of the land by the vegetation4 ,in the eastern division the entire region1 with the exception of the prairies in the central part of the ,mississippi basin1 was originally clothed with a varied and beautiful forest1 consisting mainly of broad-leaved trees1 such as the hickory1 maple1 oak1 etc41 while the semihumid western division is treeless1 except in immediate proximity to streams4 ,in the southern portion of the humid division of the upper austral province cotton is one of the staple products1 but the northern limit of the region in which it can be successfully cultivated is soon reached as one travels northward4 ,tobacco is grown extensively in the southeastern and eastern portions of the province4 ,the principal crop of the great central area in the ,mississippi ,valley is corn 7maize74 ,successful wheat culture begins in the northern portion of the province1 but the conditions favouring its cultivation increase to the northward and it becomes the characteristic and most valuable crop of the transition province4 ,in the western or semihumid division of the upper austral the variety of agricultural products that can be successfully cultivated with the aid of irrigation is greater than in its eastern portion1 where irrigation is not generally practised4 ,the northern limit at which tobacco1 fruits1 the vine1 etc41 may be advantageously cultivated in the west is greater than in the east4 ,for example1 in the east the northern limit at which tobacco is raised on a commercial scale is in ,connecticut1 while in the west it reaches a large size and excellent quality in central ,washington4 ,various fruits1 such as the peach1 pear1 plum1 grape1 etc41 have their northern limit of successful cultivation in the east in western ,new ,york1 southern ,ontario1 and southern ,michigan1 a region favourably influenced in this connection by the proximity of the ,great ,lakes2 in the west these same fruits reach a high degree of perfection1 and are produced in great abundance1 with the aid of irrigation1 in north-central ,washington1 fully #e degrees of latitude farther northward4 ,on the whole1 the upper austral province may be said to have a warm temperate climate1 in which the summer season is longer and more pronounced in its characteristics than the winter season4 ,it presents sufficient seasonal variations1 however1 to favour in a high degree both the physical and intellectual development of man4 ,the ,transition ,province 7,plate ,,iii74--,this1 the transition region between the austral and boreal provinces1 includes the cool temperate portions of ,north ,america4 ,like the austral provinces1 its outlines are irregular1 and in places it occupies detached or island-like areas1 on account of the influence of mountains on climatic conditions4 ,its largest continuous area is situated along the northern border of the ,united ,states1 but includes the southern portions of ,assiniboia1 ,ontario1 and ,quebec1 and extends from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,from this main belt there is a marked extension southward along the ,appalachian ,mountains1 which carries a cool temperate climate into northern ,georgia1 and another and much greater southward extension along the ,pacific mountains1 which reaches central ,mexico4 ,in the northern portion of the ,united ,states and adjacent parts of ,canada1 the region under consideration has1 in general1 an elevation of #a1jjj feet or even less above the sea1 but it rises when followed southward along the mountains1 and in the southwestern portion of the ,united ,states and on the table-land of central ,mexico attains an elevation of some #h1jjj or #i1jjj feet4 ,on the higher portions of the mountains of ,central ,america and the ,west ,indies the climatic conditions are similar to those of the regions farther north here included in the transition climatic province1 but these isolated areas are not sufficiently well known to be indicated on the accompanying map4 ,the mean annual temperature of the transition province is lower than that of the upper austral1 and1 although a precise average is not at present attainable1 may be taken at about #de deg4 ,f4 ,the winters are long and cold1 especially in the northern part of the ,united ,states and adjacent portions of ,canada1 the mean temperature being approximately #bj deg4 or #be deg41 but sudden and great variations are not uncommon4 ,at times1 and frequently for continuous periods of several days1 the temperature falls to #bj deg4 or more below zero of the ,fahrenheit scale1 then again rises above freezing1 and the frozen soil thaws and possibly becomes entirely freed from ice4 ,in common with the austral provinces1 the one under consideration is divided into two portions1 an eastern and a western1 in reference to precipitation1 the dividing line being a little to the eastward of the one hundredth meridian4 ,while the western portion of the province is characterized by its small rainfall1 precipitation is greater1 mainly on account of greater elevation1 than in the adjacent portions of the austral provinces1 and in ,oregon and ,washington there is a markedly humid area4 ,snow falls throughout the entire transition province1 at least during exceptional winters1 and in general during every winter4 ,there is great variation in the depth of the snow from winter to winter1 and also with geographical position4 ,it is greatest in the northeast--that is1 from the ,atlantic coast westward to ,wisconsin and ,minnesota--and least on the ,pacific coast and the southern portion of the ,pacific mountains4 ,over the northeastern portion of the province the snow frequently whitens the ground for weeks1 and even for two or three months continuously4 ,a deep accumulation which remains for a long time unmelted is welcome1 as it protects the roots of plants from sudden changes of temperature and prevents alternate freezing and thawing of their sap1 which is injurious to their tissues in numerous instances4 ,great variation in the amount of snow that falls annually in a given locality is of common occurrence4 ,a large proportion of the yearly accumulation frequently occurs during one or two great storms4 ,for example1 in ,january and ,february1 #ahih1 there were two severe storms1 accompanied by an unusual depth of snow1 the first being most pronounced over ,new ,england1 and the second in the region of the ,great ,lakes4 ,other storms increased the amount of snow so that at the beginning of ,march the average depth in ,maine was #dj to #gj inches1 in ,new ,hampshire and ,vermont #aj to #dj inches1 and in ,massachusetts #aj to #bj inches1 while in ,michigan and ,wisconsin the general depth on level ground was #a to #b feet1 with many drifts #aj to #ae feet deep4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--;,ice-palace erected in ,montreal1 ,canada1 during the winter of #ahhi4 ,the winter in the northeastern portion of the transition province may be said to be the most characteristic feature of the climate1 as it is the one that is most pronounced and exceptional1 when a comparison is made with other thickly peopled portions of the continent4 ,the period of cold and snow each year is long1 extending in general from ,november to ,march1 and the coming of the flowers and birds in spring is frequently much delayed4 ,the long cold winters have a decided influence on plant and animal life1 and in a marked way modify the lives of men4 ,in the northeastern portion of the ,united ,states and adjacent provinces of ,canada various forms of sleighs are extensively used during the winters1 and skating on the frozen lakes and streams and excursions on snow-shoes over the fields and through the forests are a popular and healthful exercise1 while coasting and tobogganing--or to explain these terms to people living in regions where snow does not fall1 the sliding down steep snow- or ice-covered slopes on sleds or flat-bottomed toboggans--are highly enjoyable sports indulged in by children and grown people alike4 ,in certain cities1 notably ,montreal and ,quebec1 what are termed ice-palaces 7,fig4 #be7 are built of blocks of ice and are utilized for winter carnivals4 ,the summers throughout the transition province are hot1 with little rain in the western portion1 but refreshing showers and occasional destructive storms in the humid eastern portion4 ,owing to the latitude of the main transcontinental belt of the province1 the number of hours of sunlight each day in summer is increased beyond what it is in the main portions of the austral provinces1 thus favouring the growth of vegetation4 ,there is also a lengthening of the morning and evening duration of twilight1 and magnificent sunrises and sunsets are frequent4 ,the mean summer temperature is in the neighbourhood of #gj deg4 ,f41 but hot spells1 lasting for days1 and even weeks1 are of common occurrence4 ,during these trying and frequently unhealthy intervals the temperature in the shade reaches or even exceeds #ajj deg4 ,f41 and sunstrokes or prostrations by reason of the heat1 particularly in the cities1 are numerous4 ,the four seasons of the year are better marked and have more pronounced characteristics in this division of the continent than in any other1 and it is the region of greatest seasonal climatic changes as well as of marked weekly and even daily variations in weather conditions4 ,the most delightful months to most people are ,may1 when the returning migratory birds are nesting1 the trees unfolding their many tinted leaves1 and the air laden with the perfume of multitudes of blossoms1 and ,october1 when the rich colours of ripened leaves give to the forests a marvellous variety and brilliancy of colour and the tranquil1 hazy atmosphere is undisturbed by storms for days and even weeks together4 ,this annual period of tranquil weather1 extending frequently far into ,november1 is known as ,indian summer4 ,in the northern portion of the transition province the broad-leaved1 deciduous trees of the central and eastern portions of the ,united ,states reach their northern limit1 and become mingled with a southward extension of the conifers which form the major portion of the forest of ,canada4 ,a similar but less marked change occurs among the ,pacific mountains1 where the scattered growths of oaks1 pinyon pines1 sycamores1 etc41 of the lower mountain slopes and stream sides mingle with the spruces and yellow and white pines of the more elevated region1 where the climate is similar to that of central ,canada4 ,as remarked by ,merriam1 the province as a whole is characterized by comparatively few distinctive animals or plants1 but rather by the occurrence together of southern species which there find their northern limit and northern species which there reach their southern limit4 ,it embraces the northern portion of the truly agricultural lands of the continent4 ,the plants of economic importance which there reach their highest stage of perfection are wheat1 oats1 and other cereals1 the sugar-beet1 numerous vegetables1 the white potato1 apples in great variety and abundance1 cherries1 plums1 grapes1 etc4 ,it is the northern limit of corn1 and includes nearly the entire area in which maple-sugar is produced4 ,in the eastern portion of the province several varieties of native nuts1 such as the beechnut1 butternut1 chestnut1 hazelnut1 hickory-nut1 walnut1 etc41 grow wild and in great abundance2 but nut-bearing hardwood trees are also a characteristic feature of the forests of the humid portion of the austral provinces4 ,in the western division of the province a humid area--embracing western ,washington and ,oregon1 part of northern ,california1 including the ,coast ,range of the same ,states--presents a marked contrast to the more widely extended and excessively irregular arid portion which surrounds the higher mountains and is for the most part remote from the ocean4 ,both the humid and arid divisions of the western part of the province are alike favourable for agriculture1 as is shown by the vast and highly productive wheat-fields of the semihumid eastern portion of the ,states just named and the productive hop lands1 orchards1 and vineyards of their humid western portions4 ,the climate of a great land area not only finds expression in its fauna and flora1 but in the industries and the intellectual development of its people4 ,while it is difficult to translate man's physical and intellectual development into terms of climate1 it is evident that the transition province favours both bodily and mental activity more than any of the other climatic provinces into which ,north ,america is here divided4 ,although the boundary between the upper austral and the transition provinces is indefinite1 it is easily to be seen1 from the geographical distribution of cities1 agricultural population1 manufactories1 colleges1 and other institutions of learning1 etc41 that the climate of the province under review is on the whole the one in which the greatest intellectual advance has been made and the one which holds out the greatest promise for the future4 ,the ,boreal ,province 7,plate ,,iii74--,this climatic division of ,north ,america extends in a broad belt diagonally across the continent from the eastern portion of ,labrador nearly to the shore of ,bering ,sea1 and is represented by detached areas in both the ,atlantic and ,pacific mountains far beyond its general southern limit4 ,its northern border1 in the ,continental basin1 is marked by the cessation of forests1 and on the mountains to the southward its upper limit coincides with the timber-line4 ,its leading climatic features are its low mean annual temperature--in general from #cb deg4 to #dj deg4 ,f4--its long1 cold winters1 and short1 hot summers4 ,the differences in mean annual precipitation in various parts of the province are less marked than in the several provinces previously noticed1 but in the far north a cold arid division should be recognised4 ,although but few direct measures of precipitation are available for comparison1 our general knowledge of the great boreal province and the character of its vegetation indicate that there is a decrease in precipitation from both the eastern and western borders of the continent towards the interior1 and also from its central portion both northward and southward4 ,the heaviest precipitation is on the ,pacific coast1 from ,california northward to southern ,alaska1 and the lightest precipitation is probably in the central ,continental basin1 near the northern limit of the province4 ,precipitation on the ,pacific coast at low elevations is almost entirely in the form of rain1 but on the mountains there is in winter deep snow which remains for a number of months unmelted4 ,throughout the portion of the province included in ,canada and ,alaska the snowfall is abundant1 but heaviest towards the ,atlantic coast4 ,along the northern margin of the province1 as indicated by observations at a small number of stations1 not only is the mean annual precipitation light1 probably under #bj inches1 but the winter snow is not deep1 although it remains on the ground continuously for five or six months4 ,in the main or northern portion of the boreal province1 owing to the comparatively high latitude1 the variation in the number of hours of light and darkness each day during a year becomes conspicuous4 ,in summer the sun is above the horizon from eighteen to twenty-four hours each day1 and in winter the hours of darkness are correspondingly increased4 ,the year is divided into but two seasons1 summer and winter1 the distinctive features of spring and fall1 so well marked in the upper austral and transition provinces1 disappearing4 ,on account of the low mean annual temperature1 and especially because of the shortness of the growing season1 agriculture is of small importance4 ,along its southern border1 more especially in southeastern ,canada and ,newfoundland1 such small fruits as currants1 huckleberries1 raspberries1 blackberries1 cranberries1 etc41 grow wild and yield abundant returns when cultivated4 ,in favoured localities white potatoes1 turnips1 beets1 and certain varieties of the apple1 as well as the more hardy cereals1 are cultivated with moderate success4 ,the ,arctic ,province 7,plate ,,iii7 comprises the cold1 treeless plains sloping to the ,arctic ,ocean and the summits of the higher mountains at the south which rise above the transition province4 ,the one controlling climatic feature is the low temperature1 the mean for each year being #cb deg4 ,f4 or lower4 ,the winters are longer and more severe than in the boreal province1 and the summers short and hot4 ,insolation1 on account of the length of the days in summer of the main area of the province and the free exposure on the mountain summits to the southward1 is intense1 but its beneficial effect on vegetation is largely counterbalanced by the influence of the lingering snow and ice4 ,in the mountainous regions of ,north ,america the arctic province is the birthplace of numerous glaciers4 ,although destitute of trees1 the arctic1 or arctic-alpine province1 as it may be termed1 is rendered glorious in numberless localities by the profusion and brilliancy of its flowering annuals4 ,,secondary ,,disturbances ,,of ,,the ,,atmosphere ,in the broad1 general movements of the atmosphere over ,north ,america embraced in what are termed the planetary and continental winds there are many disturbances due to more or less local changes in conditions1 the most conspicuous of which are whirlwinds1 chinook winds1 thunder-storms1 tornadoes1 cyclones1 and hurricanes4 ,while some of these disturbances are local1 as the whirlwind and tornadoes1 and may not extend beyond the boundaries of the particular climatic provinces where they originate1 others1 as the cyclones and hurricanes1 may affect the climate of several provinces4 ,whirlwind4--,a conspicuous1 although minor feature in the atmospheric phenomena of the hot1 dry plains and valleys1 especially of the ,mexican plateau and the ,great ,basin1 and less markedly of the ,great plateau to the east of the ,rocky ,mountains1 is the occurrence of small whirlwinds which carry dust and light objects into the air in spiral columns that are not infrequently #b1jjj or #c1jjj feet high1 and have a diameter of perhaps #ej to #ajj feet4 ,these small whirls of the air1 in which some of the characteristic features of the intensely active tornadoes and widely destructive tropical hurricanes can be studied on a small scale1 occur most commonly during hot summer afternoons1 when from a commanding station half a dozen or more swaying columns may be seen moving in various directions over the parched valleys and sun-scorched plains4 ,these columns not only move in various directions1 showing that they are not due to the same immediate cause1 but have different internal motions1 some whirling from right to left1 and others in the opposite direction4 ,the generally accepted explanation of these small whirlwinds is that the air over the surface of the deserts1 which are frequently almost bare of vegetation and perhaps white with saline incrustations1 becomes locally highly heated1 especially when there is little or no wind1 and is forced upward by the inflow of the surrounding cooler and heavier air4 ,the inflowing currents have different velocities1 and on meeting the strongest one gives a rotary or spiral motion to the ascending column1 which acts like a chimney in allowing the escape upward of the hot air from below4 ,a central vertical line frequently seen in the dust columns shows that a core of comparatively still air is present1 about which the dust-charged air rises in a spiral course4 ,if the conditions just outlined should be greatly increased in magnitude some of the leading features of tornadoes and even of hurricanes would be produced4 ,in short1 all of the winds cited above1 except the chinook1 are concentric1 swirling movements in ascending air1 due primarily to a local increase in temperature at the lower portion of the atmosphere4 ,chinook ,winds4--,on the ,great plateaus adjacent to the ,rocky ,mountains1 and in similar situations to the eastward of the ,sierra ,nevada and ,cascade ,mountains1 warm1 drying winds frequently occur1 especially in winter1 when they bring a balminess as of spring4 ,the remarkable feature of these interesting winds is that they come from the snow-clad mountains1 but are warm and dry in contrast with the preceding condition of the air on the plains4 ,the capacity of the air brought by these winds for moisture is so great that evaporation is active1 and the snow in the valleys and over the broad plains disappears without visible melting4 ,the change in the previously winter aspect of a region within the influence of these chinook winds1 as they are termed1 is truly surprising1 and to their influence is due to a marked extent the value of the ,great plateaus as stock-ranges1 for the reason that the snow is removed from them so as to allow cattle to feed on the naturally dried grasses4 ,the chinook winds are the counterpart of the foehn winds of ,switzerland1 and are explained on the principle that descending air is made more dense by the increased pressure to which it is subjected1 and its temperature correspondingly raised1 its capacity for moisture being at the same time increased on account of its rise in temperature4 ,the apparent anomaly of a warm1 dry wind blowing from a snow-clad mountain range is no longer a mystery1 if we consider that the air is drawn over the mountains towards a centre of low barometrical pressure owing to the wide-reaching influence of a cyclonic storm or other large atmospheric movement4 ,the air as it rises in order to cross a mountain is cooled1 largely on account of relief of pressure1 and parts with a portion1 possibly a large portion1 of its moisture1 which condenses on the mountain commonly as snow2 on passing the mountain the air descends and is warmed by compression1 and having less moisture than before1 becomes a drying wind1 which produces the sudden and surprising changes on the plains and valleys to the leeward4 ,the chinook winds of the western portion of ,canada and the ,united ,states occur principally to the eastward of high mountains1 for the reason that the prevailing air-currents of that region are from the west4 ,thunder-,storms4--,in the eastern portion of the ,united ,states and adjacent parts of ,canada during the summer season the heating of the lower portion of the atmosphere1 especially on still1 sultry afternoons1 causes ascending currents of warm1 moist air1 which become cooled as they rise1 and give origin to vast masses of cumulus clouds4 ,these magnificent thunder-heads1 as they are sometimes termed1 illuminated by the full sunlight are most magnificent1 and usually herald the coming of heavy showers1 accompanied by frequently destructive lightning and heavy thunder4 ,the bases of the clouds when seen from a distance are usually horizontal and may have curtain-like festoons beneath1 due to falling rain2 while aloft the white vapour boils upward in fleece-like masses1 revealing a strong convectional ascent of moist air4 ,the immediate cause of a thunder-storm is the rapid ascent of a column of warm moist air1 which becomes cooled as it rises and the moisture contained in it condensed4 ,the cause of the ascent of the air column1 at least over plains and plateaus1 is the heating of the air in contact with the earth4 ,a layer of warm1 and consequently light1 air beneath a layer of cooler and heavier air furnishes unstable conditions which favour an overturning and an escape upward of the lighter air1 which is forced to ascend much as the hot air in a chimney is made to flow upward by the pressure of cooler and heavier air around4 ,the conditions preceding a thunder-storm are a stagnant atmosphere over a broad region where the lower layer of hot air is also charged with moisture4 ,these conditions are frequently fulfilled on the plains of the ,atlantic slope and southeastern portion of the continental basin in summer when warm moist air is drawn in from the ,gulf region towards the centre of an area of low atmospheric pressure1 and thunder-storms are there a characteristic feature4 ,the storms usually advance northeastward1 the direction being determined by the flow of upper air-currents1 and move over the country with a breadth of from #aj to perhaps #ajj miles1 and send down copious supplies of refreshing rain4 ,over the ,great plateaus the air near the earth's surface is highly heated during the summer season1 but it is deficient in moisture1 and thunder-storms are rare1 except for a brief period in late summer or fall when the normal conditions are disturbed4 ,thunder-storms are almost unknown in the great ,canadian-,alaska province and along the cool and humid northwest coast4 ,they are also of rare occurrence in the hot and dry atmosphere of the ,great ,basin and ,mexican plateau1 but when they do come are of marked intensity1 and pass under the name of cloudbursts4 ,at the far south1 in the region brought under the influence of the equatorial belt of calm1 thunder-storms are frequent and of great intensity4 ,an upward ascent of warm moist air1 in much the same manner as described above1 occurs about isolated mountains1 particularly in the southern portion of the ,rocky ,mountain chain1 and summer thunder-storms are there of frequent occurrence1 especially in the afternoon1 about the higher mountain-peaks1 while the adjacent valleys are flooded with sunlight4 ,reference to this most striking phenomenon has already been made in describing the ,park ,mountain4 ,tornadoes4--,the fierce circular whirls in the air producing pendent1 spirally twisting clouds1 which when they touch the earth are of such intensity as to sweep away houses1 trees1 and nearly everything in their paths1 are known to meteorologists as tornadoes1 although popularly1 but erroneously1 termed cyclones4 ,storms of this character are of frequent occurrence in the ,united ,states to the east of the ,great plateau1 and are most numerous in the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,their path of destruction is seldom over half a mile wide1 and as a rule they progress towards the northeast1 in obedience to the movement of the upper air-currents1 at a rate of from #bj to #dj miles an hour1 and may cut a swath from a few miles to #bj or more miles long through forests1 farms1 villages1 and towns4 ,they occur usually in the afternoon1 and sometimes in the earlier hours of the night1 of warm1 sultry days1 especially in spring and early summer1 but are not strictly confined to that portion of the year4 ,the conditions which precede the coming of a tornado are1 in general1 the same as those in advance of a thunder-storm--that is1 an indraft of hot1 moist air beneath a cooler layer1 thus establishing unstable conditions4 ,an upward draft is started1 the intensity of which becomes so great that the inflowing winds are given a rapid spiral motion about a calm centre4 ,the tornado may be considered as a fully developed or exceptionally energetic thunder-storm1 in which a spiral movement is established as in desert whirlwinds4 ,the conditions for the origin of this class of dreaded and locally most destructive storms are best fulfilled in the central portion of the ,mississippi basin1 where they are somewhat frequent4 ,they occur less commonly over the country to the eastward1 and are unknown in the more northern and western climatic provinces1 and1 so far as the writer is aware1 they have not been reported from the region to the north of the ,united ,states4 ,cyclones4--,this name is applied to the great atmospheric disturbances marked by an inflowing of air towards a centre of low barometric pressure from adjacent regions1 commonly several hundred miles across1 and an escape and overflow aloft4 ,as in whirlwinds and tornadoes1 there is a spiral movement established in the inflowing currents1 but owing to the large size of the area of low pressure1 this seldom reaches destructive violence4 ,cyclonic storms are of common occurrence1 especially in the temperate zone1 and bring to that region its characteristic diversity of weather4 ,most of the rain and snow-storms of the continent are due to the vast swirls of the atmosphere about areas of low atmospheric pressure1 which cause air-currents from different directions and with different components of heat and moisture to move over the land4 ,the cyclonic storm of the ,mississippi ,valley1 the ,atlantic coast ,states1 and southeastern ,canada frequently originate in the ,great plateau province1 and are carried towards the ,atlantic owing to the influence of the eastward-blowing winds of the upper atmosphere4 ,at times these storms are of such magnitude and intensity that they cross the ,atlantic and are observed in ,england and ,scandinavia4 ,the courses they follow may be traced from day to day on the weather-maps issued by the ,united ,states ,weather ,bureau1 and from the directions they are likely to follow and the atmospheric conditions pertaining to their various parts predictions of surprising accuracy as to the changes which the weather in a given locality will experience can be made one or two days before the changes occur4 ,hurricanes4--,cyclonic storms of the general nature of the tornadoes1 but of vastly greater extent and intensity1 originate occasionally during the latter portion of the summer season over the tropical portion of the north ,atlantic1 move slowly westward to the vicinity of the ,lesser ,antilles1 where normally their courses bend northward1 and then skirt the ,atlantic coast of the ,united ,states and drift eastward under the influence of the eastward-flowing upper air-currents1 and not infrequently make their influence felt in the western portion of ,europe4 ,occasionally1 on account of the presence of an area of high barometric pressure to the north of ,cuba1 the course of one of these tropical hurricanes1 as they are termed1 is rendered irregular1 and it passes over the ,atlantic ,states or is deflected still more and crosses the ,gulf of ,mexico before reaching the border of the continent1 as was the case in ,september1 #aijj1 when a large part of ,galveston was destroyed4 ,the normal paths of the tropical hurricanes as they approach the coast of the ,united ,states and the exceptional course of the one which passed over ,galveston1 are indicated on the map forming ,fig4 #bf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,tracks of ,west ,indian hurricanes4 ,the circles on the tracks indicate the position of the storm centres at ,greenwich mean noon on successive days4 ,the date of the several storms is as follows3 #a4 ,aug4 #bg-,sept4 #a1 #ahij4 #b4 ,aug4 #ai-;,aug4 #be1 #ahij4 #c4 ,aug4 #ai-;,aug4 #ca1 #ahia4 #d4 ,sept4 #d-,sept4 #i1 #ahia4 #e4 ,sept4 #af-,sept4 #be1 #ahia4 #f4 ,sept4 #bh-,oct4 #g1 #ahia4 #g4 ,aug4 #ag-;,aug4 #bb1 #ahib4 #h4 ,aug4 #ae-;,aug4 #bb1 #ahic4 #i4 ,aug4 #bc-;,aug4 #bh1 #ahic4 #aj4 ,sept4 #f-,sept4 #i1 #ahid4 #aa4 ,sept4 #bj-,oct4 #d1 #ahid4 #ab4 ,oct4 #e-,oct4 #aj1 #ahid4 #ac4 ,oct4 #ab-,oct4 #ah1 #ahid4 #ad4 ,oct4 #bd-,oct4 #bg1 #ahid4 #ae4 ,oct4 #ah-,oct4 #be1 #ahie4 #af4 ,sept4 #e-,sept4 #aj1 #ahif4 #ag4 ,sept4 #i-,sept4 #be1 #ahif4 #ah4 ,sept4 #bf-,sept4 #bi1 #ahif4 #ai4 ,oct4 #i-,oct4 #ad1 #ahif4 #bj4 ,oct4 #bc-,oct4 #bf1 #ahig4 #ba4 ,oct4 #bj-,oct4 #bc1 #ahig4 #bb4 ,sept4 #aa-,sept4 #bj1 #ahih4 #bc4 ,aug4 #c-;,aug4 #be1 #ahii4 #bd4 ,aug4 #cj-,sept4 #g1 #ahii4 #be4 ,sept4 #h-,sept4 #ad1 #ahii4 #bf4 ,sept4 #a-,sept4 #aa1 #aijj4 ,the analogy of a tropical hurricane to a tornado has already been referred to1 but while a tornado may lay waste a tract of country perhaps half a mile wide1 and in exceptional cases #bj to #cj miles in length1 a hurricane is from #bjj to #cjj miles in diameter1 and may continue to be destructive1 on account of the rapid inflow of air from the periphery towards the centre1 for #b1jjj or #c1jjj miles4 ,the velocity of the spirally blowing winds which are the characteristic feature of these great storms is frequently #ajj miles or more per hour4 ,in spite of their magnitude1 however1 the conditions leading to their origin and growth are essentially the same as in the case of tornadoes1 and even of the much smaller whirlwinds4 ,they have their birth where the moist1 still air above the ocean in the region of the doldrums at the season when the equatorial belt of calms is farthest north1 becomes highly heated and rises on account of the pressing in of cooler and heavier air from adjacent regions4 ,the ascending column is at first carried slowly westward1 in obedience to the general flow of the atmosphere in the intertropical belt1 and at the same time the currents coming in from opposite directions give the ascending air a rotary motion4 ,as the currents from the northeast are stronger than those from other directions1 this whirling motion is from right to left1 or opposite to the movement of the hands of a watch4 ,the whirling air column extends into the upper atmosphere1 and as it moves along past the ,west ,indies becomes influenced by the prevalent flow of the upper air-currents1 and is carried northwestward1 and later eastward in a path which approximates to a parabolic curve4 ,the inward-rushing spiral winds leave a calm centre1 the eye of the storm1 which corresponds to the hollow core of a whirlwind and the calm centre sometimes noted in tornadoes4 ,the upward ascent of warm1 humid air is accompanied by a decrease of pressure and consequent expansion and cooling which leads to rapid condensation and a heavy downpour of rain2 the change of the moisture from a vaporous to a liquid form liberates heat1 which serves to perpetuate the upward flow of air1 and thus prolongs the life of the storm4 ,during the passage of the central area of low barometric pressure over a given locality the clouds frequently part and portions of the clear sky may be seen4 ,accompanying the rain are frequent lightning flashes1 as during ordinary thunder-storms4 ,the tropical hurricanes are the most violent and most dreaded of all the storms that sweep over any portion of our continent1 but fortunately for dwellers on the land1 are confined for the most part to the sea1 since the atmospheric conditions over the land lead to their loss of energy1 although in rare instances they may be re-enforced by uniting with a cyclonic storm1 as happened in the case of the ,galveston hurricane1 and thus continued after reaching the land4 ,the destructiveness of the hurricanes at sea has been greatly lessened in recent years1 not only on account of the general use of steam as a motive power for vessels instead of the wind1 but because meteorologists can designate the time when they are likely to occur and the best method of sailing away from them if encountered4 ,since the establishment of the ,united ,states stations for observing and reporting the atmospheric conditions on the ,west ,india islands1 the approach of a hurricane can be foretold and warning given to navigators and others of the coming danger4 ,,evaporation ,an important element in climate is the amount of moisture the air contains4 ,the absolute amount of water vapour in a given volume of air is of interest in this connection1 but what is of still greater importance is the ratio of the amount of water vapour present to that which the air might contain1 or what is termed the relative humidity4 ,the relative humidity1 providing the actual amount of vapour present remains unchanged1 depends upon the temperature of the atmosphere4 ,for this reason1 the warming of an air-current1 as the trade-winds1 for example1 in which the water vapour present may1 previous to the warming1 have approached saturation1 causes it to have a still greater capacity1 and hence decreases the relative humidity4 ,the winds in passing over the land may be either cooled or warmed1 and hence their influence on evaporation is continually changing2 but the mean rate of evaporation from an open water body can be determined for a definite time1 say a year1 for various localities1 and thus afford a means of comparison between one region and another4 ,observation of the mean annual evaporation for various stations1 mostly within the ,united ,states1 have been made1 and the result shown by lines drawn through places where the rate is the same4 ,a map showing this data1 on which the figures indicate the depth of evaporation in inches1 is here presented4 ,the systematic study of evaporation1 and especially the part played in it by plants1 has scarcely more than been begun on this continent1 and important results concerning its influence on atmospheric conditions are to be expected4 ,the subject is also of great importance in reference to agriculture1 the prevention of frost1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--;,depth of evaporation4 ,after ,t4 ,russell4 ,,literature ,the great storehouse of information pertaining to the weather and climate of the ,united ,states is the numerous publications of the ,united ,states ,weather ,bureau1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,similar bureaus exist at the capitals of ,canada and ,mexico1 which have issued valuable reports4 ,of the many elementary and popular books on meteorology1 the following will be found helpful in continuing the study of the subjects outlined in this chapter3 ,,davis1 ,w4 ,m4 ,whirlwinds1 ,cyclones1 and ,tornadoes1 ,lee ,shepard1 ,boston1 #ahhd2 ,elementary ,meteorology1 ,ginn ,co41 ,boston1 #ahid4 ,,ferril1 ,w4 ,a ,popular ,treatise on the ,winds4 ,wiley ,sons1 ,new ,york1 #ahhi4 ,,greely1 ,a4 ,w4 ,american ,weather4 ,dodd1 ,mead ,co41 ,new ,york1 #ahhh4 ,maryland ,weather ,service1 vol4 i1 ,baltimore1 #ahii4 ,contains a valuable bibliography4 ,,russell1 ,t4 ,meteorology4 ,macmillan ,co41 ,new ,york1 #ahie4 ,,shaler1 ,n4 ,s4 ,aspects of the ,earth4 ,scribner's ,sons1 ,new ,york1 #ahhi4 ,,waldo1 ,f4 ,modern ,meteorology1 ,scribner's ,sons1 ,new ,york1 #ahic2 ,elementary ,meteorology1 ,american ,book ,company1 ,new ,york1 #ahif4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,plant ,,life ,if we take the trees as representatives of the flora of ,north ,america1 and this seems to be the only practicable method in a general treatise1 we find them growing most densely and presenting at the same time the greatest variety where the temperature is uniformly high throughout the year and the rainfall heavy and long-continued4 ,from the torrid lowlands the forests in general decrease in the variety and number of trees on a given area1 both towards the north1 where temperature becomes the controlling factor1 and towards regions of small rainfall1 where the leading adverse condition is deficiency of moisture4 ,in the most highly favoured localities the struggle for existence between species and species and individual with individual is intense1 exposure to the life-giving sunlight being the dominant aim of every one of the contending hosts4 ,as drier or colder regions are approached1 but few species can survive and the forests are characterized by their monotony4 ,where the conditions of heat and moisture are such that the existence of a species is precarious1 the balance of power1 so to speak1 passes to the secondary conditions2 and the texture and composition of the soil1 slight differences in the relief of the land1 and consequently in drainage or in the degree of exposure to light1 prevalence of fires1 etc41 make themselves prominent and limit distribution4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,map showing the distribution of forests in ,north ,america4 ,from a geographical point of view1 the broadest features in the flora of ,north ,america are the forested and unforested areas4 ,the distribution of the forests1 prairies1 and treeless plains as they existed previous to the coming of ,europeans is shown on the accompanying map4 ,for the portion of the continent to the northward of ,mexico the data on which this map is based are much more abundant than for the southern portion4 ,,the ,,forests ,as is indicated on the map just referred to1 the forests of ,north ,america in a general way form a broad belt1 for the most part within the influence of winds from the ocean1 which surrounds a large area of treeless plains and plateaus in the west-central portion of the interior continental basin1 but is broken and rendered irregular in its southwestern part of the treeless valley of the ,great ,basin region4 ,the irregular circular belt of tree-covered land is closed at the south by the forest on the lowlands of ,mexico and ,central ,america4 ,this vast forest belt1 extending from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific1 and from ,panama to northern ,canada1 presents great variations even in its larger features1 and1 for convenience1 and also with the aim of expressing in a rough way natural relationships1 needs to be subdivided for purpose of study4 ,the basis for such a subdivision has already been suggested1 as the forests1 like all other divisions of the life of the continent1 are an expression of climatic conditions--that is1 the boundaries of the botanical and zoological provinces should agree with those of the climatic provinces4 ,on this basis we have the tropical forest1 which covers the more humid portions of the east and west margins as well as all of the southern portion of ,mexico1 together with nearly all of ,central ,america and the ,west ,indies1 and includes the southern extremity of ,florida4 ,within the tropical forest1 however1 there are high mountains on which trees with the general characteristic of those more northern floras find a congenial habitat4 ,the two austral and the transition provinces are to a great extent clothed with diversified forests1 which are naturally divided into two portions3 an eastern division1 embracing the ,atlantic and ,gulf border of the ,united ,states1 together with the eastern part of the ,mississippi ,valley and the ,great ,lakes region2 and a western division1 in which is included the lands bordering the ,pacific from near ,mount ,st4 ,elias southward to the vicinity of ,san ,francisco1 and also several irregular branches or detached island-like areas on the ,pacific mountains1 in the ,united ,states and ,mexico4 ,the former of these divisions may1 in a general way1 be termed the ,atlantic1 and the latter the ,pacific forest4 ,separating them is the treeless west-central portion of the ,continental basin4 ,both the ,atlantic and ,pacific forests merge at the north with the boreal forest1 which extends diagonally across the continent from ,newfoundland to ,alaska4 ,peninsula-like and island-like areas occupied by the boreal forest occur in the sea-like expanse of the transition and austral provinces1 on both the ,atlantic and ,pacific mountains4 ,the tropical and boreal forests have their greatest extension from east to west or with the parallels of latitude1 and are remarkable for their uniformity in general characteristics1 the reason being that climatic conditions1 and especially the temperature in summer1 change less rapidly along east and west than along north and south lines4 ,the ,atlantic and ,pacific forests1 on the other hand1 have their greatest extension across the parallels of latitude1 and hence experience marked changes from locality to locality in both temperature and precipitation1 and are characterized by conspicuous changes from one locality to another in the genera and species of trees of which they are composed4 ,in each of the areas occupied by the major divisions of the encircling continental forest belt there are marked variations in elevation1 which are accompanied by corresponding climatic changes1 and hence by modifications in the forest growths4 ,of all portions of the continental forest belt1 variation in elevation is least marked in the forests of ,canada1 and for this reason1 in part1 we there find the most uniform and most monotonous of all the forests of the continent4 ,the influence of elevation1 however1 on climate and on both plant and animal life is greater for a given measure1 as for #a1jjj feet1 in the torrid than in the cool or cold zone1 for the reason that the possible range in climatic conditions is much greater at the south than at the north4 ,the ,tropical ,forest4--,there are great areas in southern ,mexico which are clothed with a typical tropical forest2 while other similar forests cover nearly all of the lower portions of ,central ,america1 the larger or more rugged ,west ,india islands1 and the southern extremity of ,florida4 ,throughout this vast region1 within the influence of the trade-winds and of the equatorial rains1 the forests are luxuriant and beautiful1 except on lowlands not adjacent to the windward side of mountains4 ,the characteristic trees of the hot1 humid lowlands extend up the mountain to an elevation of some #d1jjj or #e1jjj feet1 where a change to the aspects familiar in the lowlands of the temperate zone begins1 and palms give place to oaks and pines4 ,of the many features of the tropical forests which impress a traveller from colder regions1 none excite greater wonder than the large number of vegetable species growing in close proximity4 ,it has been said1 and apparently the statement cannot be successfully challenged1 that a greater variety of plants may be collected on #ajj square yards of surface in the humid1 tropical lowlands than can be found on #ajj square miles in the forest of central ,canada4 ,it is probably safe to extend this striking contrast by saying that of the trees on a typical area in the tropical forest of the size mentioned1 there are in many localities more species than in the whole of the subarctic forest4 ,among the characteristics of tropical forests is the presence of many kinds of plants on a limited area1 hundreds of species struggling upward to the light where there seems room but for one2 the variety of mosses and lichens2 the profusion of flowering parasites2 the luxuriance of the vines1 many of which are armed with spines2 and the abundance of the remarkable aerial roots termed lianas4 ,of the last there is a great variety1 some of them of large size and surprising length2 they frequently descend from plants entwined among the topmost branches of great trees1 looking not unlike the cordage of a forest of masts in some crowded port1 and on reaching the ground send out rootlets in the humid soil4 ,in the depths of a tropical forest it is always twilight4 ,even at noontide no shafts of yellow sunlight reach the ground to glorify mossy banks and flower-gemmed dells1 as in the open woods of temperate climes1 but a diffused greenish light1 producing weird effects1 alone penetrates the dense leafy canopy far overhead4 ,the roots of even the larger trees in these hot1 humid forests do not have to descend deeply in order to find the necessary moisture or to receive protection from frost and sudden changes of temperature1 but are usually widely expanded and thickly interwoven over the surface4 ,the earth from which the dense vegetation derives nourishment is surprisingly deficient in vegetable mould1 which is a characteristic feature in the moist forests of temperate and even subarctic regions1 where the complete decay of dead vegetation is long delayed4 ,in the tropical forests the annual supply of dead vegetable matter suitable to be transformed into humus is far greater than on a corresponding area in the woods of more northern regions1 but decay is so rapid1 owing to the uniformly high temperature and the conditions favouring the multiplication of bacteria1 that even great trees on falling quickly disappear2 in many instances1 the forms of prostrate tree trunks are preserved and overgrown with luxuriant mosses or gorgeously festooned with ferns and orchids1 but soon become fragile shells from which nearly all the woody tissues have been removed by decay or by swarming colonies of insects4 ,where life is so exuberant and the wants of growing plants so great it seems as if the food supply was insufficient1 and that none could be spared to accumulate on the ground and form a soil4 ,the two most characteristic and distinctive classes of plants in the tropical forests are the palms and the ferns1 each of which is represented by many genera1 a large number of species1 and multitudes of individuals1 and in each class there is a gradation in size from low herbaceous growths to arboreal forms4 ,in every way worthy of first mention among the plants of the ,caribbean forests are the palms4 ,a characteristic portion of the forest referred to occurs in ,cuba1 where1 as is stated by ,r4 ,t4 ,hill in his recently published and attractive book descriptive of the ,west ,indies1 there are some #bf species of palms1 which give variety and beauty to the scenery of the ,pearl of the ,antilles1 as well as shade and food to its inhabitants4 ,at the head of these for height and grace of form stands the royal palm1 which might well be chosen for the emblem of the fair island it adorns4 ,the wide-spreading crown of glossy pinnate leaves of this species is borne on a spindle-shaped stem of tough fibrous wood--so strong and pliant that it defies even the hurricane--in many instances #aej feet above the ground4 ,the tree is a marvel of beauty and elasticity1 and1 fortunately for ,cuba1 is one of the most abundant of the larger trees on the island4 ,it is met with almost everywhere2 in the centre of broad pasture-lands it often stands alone1 tall and straight1 while bordering the cultivated fields of the rich planter it forms a shady avenue to his dwelling4 ,this well-named royal palm has also been called the blessed tree1 for every part of it has its usefulness to mankind4 ,certain medicinal qualities are claimed for its roots2 the outer portion of its trunk is easily split into boards for use in making houses and furniture for the poorer people2 in the centre of the cluster of young leaves at the summit is a tender substance which is eaten raw1 or cooked as a vegetable1 or preserved with sugar as a table delicacy4 ,the broadened leaf-stalks where they leave the main stem form a sheath-like expansion resembling a thin board1 often four to six feet long1 which is made to serve a variety of purposes1 such as plates1 and when soaked in water becomes pliable and may be fashioned into baskets and dishes for cooking1 and at the same time furnishes salt for the seasoning of the boiling vegetables or meat4 ,the world-encircling cocoanut-palm is found about the shore of tropical ,north ,america1 and there1 as elsewhere1 serves a great variety of uses1 being a greater blessing1 especially to the natives and the poorer descendants of ,european and ,african immigrants1 than even the royal palm4 ,the economic importance of its wood-fibres1 leaves1 and fruit are too well known to require re-enumeration4 ,while the wealth of palms is confined to the hot1 moist regions of ,mexico1 ,central ,america1 and the ,west ,indies1 several members of the same great family are found in the ,united ,states4 ,the royal palm is native to southern ,florida1 while the low fan-palms cover much of the northern portion of the same ,state1 and occur even about the ,ozark ,hills in ,arkansas1 and the palmetto1 growing to be a stately tree1 is found near the coast in the ,carolinas and is the emblem of ,south ,carolina1 the ,palmetto ,state4 ,the ferns1 although abundant1 especially in moist woods from ,alaska southward1 throughout the continent1 reach their greatest variety and richest luxuriance in the ,west ,indies and ,central ,america1 where the graceful and most artistically beautiful tree-ferns add an indescribable charm to the always varied foliage4 ,the tree-ferns grow farther up the mountains of the torrid zone than do the larger palms 7in the same manner that the smaller ferns extend much farther north than the most hardy palmettoes71 and form a conspicuous feature in the foreground of nearly every wide-reaching prospect in the more elevated portions of the ,west ,indies1 ,central ,america1 and south-central ,mexico4 ,in addition to the palms and ferns1 the tropical forests of ,north ,america contain a large number of trees of great economic importance4 ,chief among these are the mahogany1 which is native to the lands bordering the ,caribbean ,sea and ,gulf of ,mexico1 and reaches the largest size and produces the most beautiful and most highly prized wood on ,cuba1 ,haiti1 the ,bahamas1 and ,jamaica4 ,as is well known1 this hard1 dark1 heavy1 fine-grained1 and exceedingly durable wood has been used for the best grades of cabinet-work for about two centuries1 and is still unsurpassed for the beauty of its grain1 susceptibility of a high polish1 and the several ways in which it is adapted for the carver's tool4 ,on account of the great and long-continued demand for its wood it has become scarce in all but the most inaccessible localities4 ,when allowed to reach full maturity it is a large1 wide-spreading tree with numerous branches1 looking not unlike a giant oak1 but has pinnate leaves and small1 although somewhat conspicuous1 white flowers4 ,another gift of the tropical forest is the lignum-vitae1 which furnishes the exceedingly tough1 hard1 resinous wood preferred above all others for the making of pulleys1 mallets1 etc4 ,many other highly prized woods1 not known1 however1 by familiar names1 are also found in the varied forests of tropical ,america1 as well as numerous vegetable dyes1 such as logwood1 brazil-wood1 indigo1 etc4 ,the lands of the ,caribbean-,gulf region are credited with having introduced to civilized man the potato1 ,indian corn 7maize71 and tobacco1 although the home of the former is probably in the ,andean portion of ,south ,america4 ,indian corn grows luxuriantly not only in the hot lowlands of ,mexico1 but on the border of the central table-land of that republic1 where it is supposed to be indigenous1 and has now become one of the leading crops of temperate ,north ,america1 and is cultivated in many other portions of the world4 ,tobacco was found under cultivation in ,mexico at the time of the first coming of ,europeans1 and retains for its familiar name the appellation of the district where it was first seen4 ,from ,mexico also come the dahlia and the giant sunflower1 as well as the various species of aloes and cacti now so common in gardens and conservatories the world over4 ,of all the plants1 excepting ,indian corn and the potato1 which are native to the region under review1 none has proved such an unalloyed blessing to civilized man as the cacao-tree4 ,as this tree is unfamiliar to most residents of temperate lands1 it may not be unprofitable to transcribe in part a description of it from ,rhind's ,vegetable ,kingdom4 ,the tree is very handsome1 from #ab to #af feet high1 with an upright trunk some #e feet high2 the leaves are lanceolate1 with entire margins1 and of a bright-green colour2 the flowers are inconspicuous1 reddish1 with yellowish sepals2 the fruit1 attached by short stems to both trunk and branches1 has a yellowish and reddish colour1 oblong1 about #c inches in length1 and consists of a fleshy rind1 half an inch thick1 containing a white pulp in which are imbedded about #be seeds4 ,the seeds1 when roasted1 freed from their husks1 and ground1 furnish the chocolate so extensively used1 especially in ,france and ,spain and in the former ,spanish colonies1 and is increasing in favour among ,english-speaking people4 ,vanilla1 which is used in flavouring chocolate as well as many other dishes1 was also found in use among the ,aztecs at the time of the ,spanish conquest4 ,the vanilla-plant is a climbing vine1 with lanceolate leaves #ah inches or more in length1 and produces a pod containing bean-like seeds4 ,the pods and seeds when properly dried furnish the flavouring extract of commerce4 ,although the trees which yield rubber in ,america1 as well as the cinchona1 from the bark of which quinine is obtained1 are justly to be accredited to ,south ,america1 yet certain varieties of these useful plants occur in ,central ,america and are under cultivation as far northward as central ,mexico4 ,a more detailed account of the plants of great utility in one direction or another native to the tropical forests1 should include plantains1 bananas1 and yams1 the wide distribution of which1 largely by human agency1 throughout the torrid zone is well known4 ,the delicious pineapple is native to the ,caribbean region1 and was found in the markets of the ,aztecs by the early ,spanish invaders1 although perhaps indigenous to other lands as well4 ,in ,mexico especially1 but on the borders of the tropical forest and in the drier interior1 grows the agave1 from which the national beverage1 pulque1 is obtained1 and another species of the same peculiarly ,american family of plants supplies great quantities of the tough fibre known as sisal or henequen hemp1 particularly on the stony1 arid portions of the peninsula of ,yucatan4 ,of interest to children especially is the fact that ,mexico exports some #c1jjj1jjj pounds of chewing-gum each year1 which is obtained from a plant there growing wild4 ,to this list of indigenous products may be added ginger1 arrowroot1 etc41 as well as many fruits scarcely known outside the tropics1 such as the mango1 alligator-pear1 breadfruit1 and numerous others4 ,this hasty enumeration might be greatly extended or presented in more detail1 but probably enough has been said to indicate the great and probably as yet but partially determined economic importance of the vegetable products of the torrid portion of ,north ,america4 ,associated with the tropical forest1 but thriving best in an advanced skirmish-line about its drier inland borders1 is a group of plants indigenous to the two ,americas--the strangely shaped and spinous cacti4 ,one of these1 the prickly-pear1 as it is termed on account of its pear-like edible fruit1 is the emblem of ,mexico4 ,a fit legend to place about this unique heraldic design would be the motto inscribed on the rattlesnake flag of colonial days in ,america1 ,don't tread on me1 as every one will appreciate who has travelled in the southwestern portion of the ,united ,states or in the upland regions of ,mexico4 ,the cacti extend from ,south ,america northward through the lands bordering the ,caribbean ,sea and ,gulf of ,mexico1 and east of the ,mississippi are represented by a single genus1 ,opuntia--the prickly-pear1 or ,indian fig1 as it is often termed--which grows in dry situations as far north as ,massachusetts and ,michigan4 ,in the ,great ,basin several genera of cacti are plentiful1 especially on dry1 stony uplands1 and two species reach as far northward as the ,canadian boundary4 ,although the cacti tribe is widely distributed1 the region where it presents the greatest variety and the largest individuals is in the dry1 semi-desert portions of ,arizona and the table-lands of central ,mexico4 ,it is most at home on sterile1 rocky ridges and amid bare cliffs where there appears to be but little soil1 but the strong roots strike deep into the earth in search of moisture4 ,the cacti present great diversity of form and an indefinite differentiation of stem and leaf4 ,in fact1 there are no easily recognised leaves in the ordinary sense of the term1 but the fluted and jointed stems perform the function of foliage4 ,the plants are economical of moisture1 and not only present a minimum of surface for evaporation or transpiration1 but their epidermal tissues are for the most part without pores1 thus retarding the escape of the moisture drawn from the seemingly dry soil4 ,in size and shape the cacti present great variety1 ranging through all gradations from the thick1 strongly jointed1 pad-like expansions of the prickly-pear1 a few inches high1 growing in widely extended clusters and massive globular forms1 looking not unlike spiny melons1 #b or #c feet or more in diameter1 to jointed and fluted columns1 bristling with sharp spines1 the largest of which1 known as the candelabrum cactus1 attains a height of from #dj to #fj feet4 ,in this the largest of all the cacti1 which is not uncommon in ,arizona and adjacent portions of ,mexico1 the central upright stem1 frequently #bj inches or more in diameter1 sends out from #a to perhaps #g or #h club-shaped branches1 which leave the parent stem nearly at right angles1 but soon bend upward and become parallel with the central stalk1 which they frequently surpass in height1 their form thus suggesting a branching candlestick or candelabrum4 ,in spite of the bizarre and frequently repellent appearance of the cacti as seen under cultivation1 in their barren homes they are in harmony with their surroundings1 and add a characteristic1 and even beautiful element to the scenery of the parched and generally desolate valleys and rocky slopes where they thrive best4 ,their blossoms are large1 usually either white or brilliantly coloured1 and expand in the hot1 dry air1 fully exposed to the intense sunlight1 and present a freshness and vigour which tell of the abundant store of moisture within the thick rind inclosing their stems4 ,the showy flowers are borne close to the body of the plant or at the ends or edges of the inflated pad-like leaves1 and are scentless1 except in the case of a few night-blooming species1 and attract insects from afar by reason of the conspicuousness of their widely expanded corollas4 ,the fruits also are usually conspicuous1 and present many rich tints of red and yellow1 which at a little distance give them the appearance of flowers4 ,the fruit of several species are edible1 and even delicious1 especially when gathered fresh from the thorny stems and eaten on the desert1 perhaps many miles from the nearest spring or stream4 ,one species of cactus growing abundantly in ,mexico and known as the cochineal-fig1 is inhabited by the cochineal-insect1 from which the highly prized dye of that name is obtained4 ,a companion of the cacti in the arid region where they flourish best is the yucca1 or ,spanish bayonet1 which sometimes attains the size of small trees and throws out several branches4 ,its leaves are stiff1 thick-stemmed1 and each one terminated by a sharp spine1 as is well known from the many examples to be seen under cultivation in ,europe and ,america4 ,the flowers are white and borne in luxuriant showy spikes a foot or two in length1 and sometimes give to dry1 rocky slopes the appearance of a luxuriant garden4 ,the cacti1 yuccas1 and associated plants of the most arid portions of the continent stand far apart1 without mutual support or shelter1 and find protection in their spines1 thick rinds1 and frequently acrid juices4 ,their colours are usually neutral1 grayish green1 rendered still more inconspicuous by the dust that settles on them1 but their flowers are as a rule conspicuous1 thus serving to attract pollen-bearing insects1 and their fruits are in many instances brightly coloured1 and furnish food for birds and other animals1 which assist in the distribution of their seeds4 ,the ,atlantic ,forest4--,the originally forest-covered eastern portion of ,north ,america1 referred to under the term ,atlantic forest1 embraces the region from the eastern coast of the continent inland across the ,appalachian ,mountains and interior ,continental basin to the eastern border of the prairies or plains2 its southern limit1 in a general way1 is the coast-line of the ,gulf of ,mexico1 but the arbitrary boundary1 dividing it from the tropical forest1 crosses the southern portion of ,florida1 and at the extreme southwest is drawn at the ,rio ,grande4 ,the northern boundary of the ,atlantic forest is also an arbitrary line1 and follows the fiftieth parallel of latitude from the mouth of the ,st4 ,lawrence westward to the region about the ,lake of the ,woods2 along this boundary the varied ,atlantic forest merges with the monotonous and mostly coniferous subarctic forest4 ,the region thus roughly outlined comprises over #b1jjj1jjj square miles1 and was at the time of the first coming of white men to ,america almost completely forest-covered1 but the natural conditions are now profoundly modified1 and to a great extent the trees have been cut or burned1 and the land they shaded converted into cultivated fields4 ,the ,atlantic forest as a whole has two leading characteristics1 the first being the great variety and frequently large size of the deciduous trees--that is1 of broad-leaved trees1 such as the oak1 hickory1 elm1 maple1 chestnut1 etc41 which drop their ripe leaves each fall and renew them the following spring--and the second1 the intermingling of the trees of the class just mentioned with the coniferous trees1 such as the pine1 spruce1 tamarack1 etc41 which have narrow1 needle-shaped leaves and are usually designated as evergreens4 ,while these general statements are sufficiently accurate for our present purpose1 it is to be remembered that some of the broad-leaved trees 7,angiosperms7 are evergreen1 especially in the southern portion of the ,atlantic forest1 as1 for example1 some of the oaks1 the magnolias1 the holly1 etc42 while at the north1 certain of the conifers 7,gymnosperms7 shed their leaves each fall1 as is conspicuously illustrated by the yellow of the tamarack or larch forests of the northeastern portion of the ,united ,states and eastern ,canada1 in ,november1 and the bright green of the same trees in ,may of each year4 ,it is in the intermediate temperate region1 between the mostly evergreen coniferous subarctic forests and the mostly evergreen broad-leaved trees of the ,caribbean forest1 that the wonderful transformation in the colours of the mountains and plains each autumn becomes the most conspicuous feature in the annual round of seasonal changes as expressed by the vegetation4 ,of the two classes of forest-trees1 represented by the oak and the pine1 which are intermingled and struggle with each other for supremacy in the ,atlantic forest1 it is difficult to say which is the more beautiful or which is of the greater service to man4 ,the broad-leaved trees give us our hardwoods1 used extensively for furniture1 the interior finish of buildings1 and for the manufacture of tools1 farming implements1 wagons1 carriages1 sleighs1 etc4 ,to a great extent it was the availability of these strong1 tough1 hard1 and durable woods which has made ,american tools and implements of such a high grade of excellence that they are in demand in every civilized country4 ,for example1 the ,american ax-helve1 made of hickory1 is almost a work of art1 as well as of utility1 and it is prized above all others by foresters the world over4 ,the same tree has aided no less efficiently in the popularity and excellence of ,american carriages and sleighs1 the equal of which for lightness1 strength1 and durability has not been reached in other countries4 ,the pines and their near relatives furnish what unfortunately has been considered an unlimited supply of easily workable lumber1 suitable for building houses1 vessels1 bridges1 and many other purposes4 ,of the pine lumber supplied by the ,atlantic forest1 there are two principal varieties1 the far-famed white pine1 furnished by ,new ,england1 the ,great ,lake region1 and southeastern ,canada1 and the yellow pine1 which comes from the ,south ,atlantic and ,gulf ,states4 ,of the ,angiosperms which reach the dignity of trees1 the ,atlantic forest possesses a variety and abundance not exceeded elsewhere in the world4 ,the most characteristic examples are the maples1 elms1 oaks1 hickories1 walnuts1 chestnuts1 ashes1 basswoods1 birches1 tulip-trees1 magnolias1 liquidambar1 tupelos1 sycamores1 etc41 nearly all of which are represented by a number of species or varieties and vast numbers of individuals4 ,while this diversity is found throughout the forests of the east-central part of the continent1 certain regions are characterized by the abundance and large size of the trees belonging to one or to a few genera1 so that a striking change is met with as one travels in any direction4 ,the maples and elms reach their greatest size and abundance at the north1 especially in ,new ,england1 and thence westward to the ,mississippi ,valley1 where they are the favourite shade-trees of villages and farms4 ,in regions where the forests have been removed choice specimens of these trees have frequently been saved or subsequently planted1 and standing alone1 without competition and fully exposed to the light1 reach great perfection of form and a high degree of beauty4 ,the oaks are represented by a large number of species and varieties throughout the entire ,atlantic forest1 but reach their largest size and greatest abundance1 both of species and individuals1 in central and southern portions of the eastern ,united ,states4 ,the same may be said also of the hickories1 except that the maximum in reference to size1 number of species1 and abundance is attained in the region of the ,ozark ,hills4 ,the tulip-tree1 so named from the profusion of showy yellow blossoms it bears1 is large and wide-spreading1 with broad1 dark-green leaves1 and has the centre of its habitat in ,kentucky1 where many magnificent examples occur along the fences separating the broad meadows and rich pastures of the region of the blue grass1 but thrives also from the ,atlantic coast westward to beyond the ,mississippi1 and from ,ontario on the north nearly to the ,gulf of ,mexico on the south4 ,not only is the tulip-tree an ornament and a blessing on account of its flower-laden branches and dense shade1 but its white1 even-grained wood is of great value4 ,to give even a list of the deciduous trees which flourish and reach a high degree of perfection in the ,atlantic forest would require far more space than is at present available4 ,there is one other genus1 however1 which cannot be passed by even by a casual observer1 and that is the magnolia1 one species of which1 the grandiflora1 is the most magnificent of all the splendid broad-leaved trees of ,america4 ,this1 the largest and finest of the several species of its genus found in the eastern portion of the ,united ,states1 attains a great size in the southern ,appalachian region1 but is best developed in the lower portion of the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,it is frequently from #ej to #hj feet or more in height1 wide-spreading1 and in many instances upward of #c feet in diameter1 with dark-green leaves which do not fall in the autumn4 ,in spring the dark foliage is beautified by cup-shaped blossoms of creamy whiteness and remarkable fragrance1 which measure #c or #d inches in diameter4 ,when the magnolia is in blossom it becomes a centre of delicious perfume and a colony of insect life4 ,its wood1 although creamy white and excellent for cabinet-work and interior finish of houses1 has not as yet found favour for these or other purposes4 ,with the exception of a few species of broad-leaved forest-trees found in greatest perfection in the northern portion of the ,atlantic forest1 they reach their greatest development in size1 number of species1 and density of growth in the southern portion of the broad ,mississippi basin1 where1 in addition to magnolias1 the tulip-tree1 etc41 chestnuts1 hickories1 oaks1 and many other genera grow side by side and attain great height and dignity4 ,this is also the centre of dispersion of the ,american hawthorns1 which reach a size and beauty unrivalled elsewhere4 ,the ,osage orange is peculiar to this region1 and the red cedar 7juniper71 the most widely distributed of all the ,american conifers1 and also the yellow or southern pine are there at their best4 ,much of this region still retains its primitive wildness4 ,the great extent of the ,atlantic forest in latitude1 the topographic diversity of the region it occupies1 and its exposure on the east to maritime and on the west to continental climatic conditions1 have led to great variations within itself4 ,from the coast of ,new ,england westward and including the entire drainage basin of the ,st4 ,lawrence1 together with an extension southward along the ,appalachians1 the forests are composed largely and over extensive areas almost wholly of coniferous trees4 ,this region of northern evergreens contains in its southern portion sturdy growths of broad-leaved deciduous trees4 ,the spruces1 the most characteristic of the trees of the subarctic region1 are present in abundance on the mountains of ,new ,england1 and still form a dark mantle over the ,adirondack hills2 but on the less elevated lands adjacent the white pine dominated and outnumbered all its rivals in the primeval forest4 ,the white or ,weymouth pine1 which up to the present time has proved to be of greater commercial value than any other tree on the continent1 extends westward from southern ,newfoundland and the coasts of the maritime provinces of ,canada to ,minnesota1 and occupies nearly the entire drainage area of the ,st4 ,lawrence1 together with an extension southward along the ,appalachians nearly to their southern limit4 ,the white pine is a large tree for the region in which it grows4 ,its height is from #gj to #aej feet1 with a diameter at the base of from #c to #i feet4 ,it thrives best on sandy soil and hills of glacial drift1 and endures a severe winter climate1 as well as the frequently long-continued droughts of the hot summers4 ,its wood is soft1 compact1 with an even1 straight grain1 and is not conspicuously resinous4 ,the sap-wood is nearly white and the heart of a light brown1 slightly tinged with red2 it is easily worked and susceptible of a good polish2 it is more extensively used for boards1 shingles1 etc41 than any other wood in the eastern portion of the continent1 and is in demand also for cabinet-work1 the interior finish of buildings1 ship-building1 and many other purposes4 ,the southern pine--known also as the long-leaved pine2 ,georgia pine1 for the reason that the lumber derived from it was first extensively shipped from that ,state2 yellow pine1 in reference to the golden colour of its wood2 and hard pine1 in distinction from the softer white pine--is another valuable species4 ,the tree with these several synonyms1 of which the term southern pine will here be used1 forms open forests with but scanty undergrowth1 over a region extending from near the ,atlantic coast in the ,carolinas and ,florida1 westward to the delta region of the ,mississippi1 and reappears again to the southward of the ,ozark ,hills4 ,although not so large1 and to many admirers of beautiful trees not so picturesque or pleasing as its relative in the more rigorous climate of the ,st4 ,lawrence basin1 the southern pine1 growing within the reach of the moist1 warm winds from the ,atlantic and ,gulf of ,mexico1 is still an attractive tree1 especially when young and when freedom is afforded to expand its boughs4 ,it is seldom over #ajj feet high1 and as cut for lumber has on an average a diameter of about #b feet at the base1 although individuals measuring #c or #d feet in diameter are not rare in certain favoured areas4 ,it grows best on dry1 sandy soil1 outside the flood-plains of streams1 where it forms monotonous forests1 with but few intergrowths of other trees4 ,the wood is heavy1 hard1 strong1 durable1 coarse-grained1 very resinous1 and of many shades of brown and yellow4 ,when sawed into lumber1 it serves a wide range of uses1 more especially for the frames of buildings and ships1 and for the floors and interior finish of houses4 ,next to the southern pine1 the most characteristic tree of the ,atlantic coastal plain southward from ,virginia and westward through the ,gulf ,states1 is the cypress1 also a conifer1 but1 like the tamarack1 sheds its leaves in the autumn4 ,the cypress grows especially in swampy localities1 and has a widely expanded base1 suitable for support on marshy soil1 and reaches a large girth1 although seldom over #ge feet high4 ,aged and most picturesque examples are growing in isolated positions in ,lake ,drummond1 the central water body of the ,dismal ,swamp1 and in many other similar situations in the belt of low country fringing the borders of the ,atlantic and ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,its wood is used for most of the purposes for which the southern pine is employed1 and now that the white pine is approaching extinction1 is to a considerable extent supplying the demand for cabinet-wood4 ,in glancing at the larger and most numerous trees of the ,atlantic forest1 and those of greatest utility1 we should not neglect the humbler plants1 usually of little1 if any1 purely commercial value1 but priceless on account of their beauty and the fragrance of their flowers1 which grow beneath the shade of their larger and more stately associates or are content to possess the local areas1 perhaps high on the mountains1 where the conditions of climate or soil are unfavourable for the growth of large trees4 ,throughout the eastern portion of the ,united ,states1 but more especially on the slopes and summit portions of the ,appalachians1 there are many species of azalea1 laurel1 rhododendron1 etc41 which grow luxuriantly and in spring and early summer furnish a wealth of bloom that is scarcely rivalled elsewhere on the continent4 ,in this same region also1 but extending westward to ,michigan and ,minnesota1 and even to eastern ,nebraska1 grows the redbud or ,judas-tree1 which each ,may becomes as thickly set throughout all its branches with small crimson blossoms as are the tree-like coral in tropical seas with expanded polyps4 ,this beautiful tree of low growth many times gives to the mountains of ,virginia1 when seen from a distance1 a delicate blush like that which the osiers earlier in the spring impart to the marshy vales and river-banks4 ,a companion of the redbud1 but far more widely distributed1 is the dogwood or cornel1 of several species1 the most conspicuous of which1 and in the ,appalachian region the most common1 is the flowering dogwood4 ,in ,may and ,june this species puts out a profusion of clusters of small greenish flowers1 each of which is surrounded by a broadly expanded and very showy corolla-like involucre1 composed of four white or pinkish inversely heart-shaped leaves4 ,when the cornel is at the height of its spring-time glory it stands forth amid the tender greens1 russets1 and pinks of the unfolding leaves of the various trees and shrubs among which it grows as if the orchards and forests had been commingled by some fairy gardener4 ,in autumn the cornel again becomes conspicuous in the woodlands by reason of its clusters of coral-red fruit4 ,in the splendid ,atlantic forests1 with their marvellous intermingling of shining pine-needles1 broad1 swaying leaves1 and many-coloured trunks1 there are also vines and creepers sometimes forming impenetrable tangles1 as where the broad leaves of the wild grape grow in pendent sheets of green from supporting trees1 or the jessamine fills the air with fragrance4 ,of the many vines which entwine the trunks of trees1 mantle the rocks1 and quickly claim abandoned fields1 especially in ,virginia and neighbouring ,states to the southward1 none is more beautiful or more highly prized for the charm it adds alike to fields1 fences1 and forests than the familiar ,virginia creeper4 ,the glory of this widely distributed vine comes in the autumn when its leaves change from green to the most brilliant scarlet4 ,during the season of harvest also1 when the trees are arrayed in their greatest splendour1 the ground is yellow with golden-rods or purple with asters4 ,this annual carnival of colour embraces the entire ,atlantic forest1 but is most resplendent in the region of the ,hudson and ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,a charming little denizen of the ,atlantic forest is the lowly and humble arbutus1 or ,mayflower1 which springs up through the dead leaves carpeting the ground in early spring1 and fills the air with its delicious perfume4 ,the ,mayflower is a trailing plant1 but a few inches high1 with rounded or oval leaves1 which remain green all winter and furnish a pleasing setting for the small pink or rose-coloured blossoms1 which appear in early spring even before the snow has melted4 ,it reaches great perfection beneath the pines of ,new ,england and about the ,laurentian lakes1 but extends far southward along the ,appalachians1 where elevation gives conditions similar to those of the lower region at the north4 ,the ,atlantic forest reaches its western limit in the ,mississippi basin 7,fig4 #bh71 and is succeeded westward by treeless prairies1 which merge along their western margins with the drier and less completely grass-covered high plains adjacent to the east base of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,the forest does not terminate abruptly1 as on the border of a cleared field1 but by gradual transitions4 ,as its western limit is approached1 a change in the species is noted1 trees which thrive on uplands and can sustain long-continued summer drought replacing the species best adapted for more humid conditions4 ,the forest is most extended1 however1 along the streams where white-trunked cottonwoods1 frequently of great size1 with widely spreading branches1 extend even into the region of the great plateaus4 ,much of the prairie region in ,illinois1 ,iowa1 etc41 was originally nearly surrounded by forest growths4 ,the natural condition of the prairies and higher plains adjacent to them on the west and the reason for the limits set to the western extension of the ,atlantic forest will be considered later under the heading ,prairies and ,plateaus4 ,the ,boreal ,forest4--,from ,nova ,scotia1 ,newfoundland1 and ,labrador a forest composed mainly of a few species of coniferous trees extends westward1 and after passing the southern extremity of ,hudson ,bay1 is prolonged northwestward across the continent and in the region of the mouth of the ,mackenzie nearly to the shore of the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,it extends also through central ,alaska to within about #ajj miles of the border of ,bering ,sea4 ,this vast transverse forest belt which unites the northern extremity of the ,atlantic forest with the northern portion of the ,pacific forest is over #c1jjj miles long from southeast to northwest1 and on an average fully #fjj miles wide4 ,on the north1 more especially in arctic ,canada and as it approaches the shore of ,bering ,sea1 it thins out1 owing to the severity of the winter climate1 the trees become dwarfed and stunted in much the same way as the trees adjacent to the timber-line on high mountains1 and is succeeded by the broad treeless plains of the ,barren ,grounds and tundra4 ,along its south-central border its extension is again limited by climatic conditions1 principally the dryness of the hot summers4 ,the trees are there scattered or form isolated groves to the south of the general forest boundary1 and are finally succeeded by the treeless prairies and interior plains and plateaus4 ,on the east the great northern forest merges with the pine of the northern portion of the ,atlantic forest1 and in a similar way at the northwest passes by insensible gradations into the north extension of the coniferous forest growing on the ,pacific mountains4 ,in each of the instances there is no well-defined boundary between the east and west belt of northern forests and the north and south forest belts adjacent to the ,atlantic and ,pacific4 ,the boreal forest presents a striking contrast to the forests of the torrid zone and to the greater portion of the forests of temperate regions in the fact that it is composed of but a few species of trees4 ,monotony which becomes oppressive to one who lingers long in its sombre shade is its most conspicuous characteristic4 ,in the main it is composed of but eight species of trees1 namely1 white and black spruce1 larch or tamarack1 canoe-birch1 balsam-poplar1 aspen1 balsam-fir1 and the gray pine4 ,of these the spruces are the most abundant and most characteristic as well as the most northern trees of the continent4 ,they frequently reach sufficient size to make them available for building log houses and for lumber4 ,four of the species mentioned above1 namely1 the white spruce1 canoe-birch1 balsam-poplar1 and aspen1 cross the entire breadth of the continent from ,labrador to ,alaska1 but the pines and firs in the east and the west are of different species4 ,the larch or tamarack1 which forms such an important feature of the forest in eastern ,canada and about the ,laurentian lakes1 extends westward to beyond ,hudson ,bay1 but is represented by other species in the ,mackenzie and ,yukon basins1 and in the northern portion of the ,pacific mountains4 ,the region occupied by the great northern forest is interspersed with lakes1 some of them of large size1 and by innumerable swamps4 ,the spruces and the gray pine grow on the uplands between the lakes and swamps1 while the cold1 wet bottom-lands are occupied by poplars1 dwarf birches1 willows1 and alders4 ,in the north1 near where the forest breaks into outstanding groves and finally gives place to grassy hills1 as along the ,porcupine ,river in ,alaska1 the foliage in the lowlands becomes golden in autumn and forms irregular1 far-reaching avenues of brilliant colour separating the hills1 which are black with spruce-trees or shimmer with the soft gray tints of ripened grasses4 ,there is much that is beautiful and even lovely along the poleward border of the great forest1 but within its deeper recesses the ground is covered with mosses and lichens1 and the stiff1 sombre trees have a monotonous similarity and unbending rigidity4 ,in spite of the great area covered by the boreal forest1 it being one of the greatest1 if not the most widely extended continuous growth of arboreal vegetation in the world1 it is of comparatively small economic importance4 ,even if the trees were within the reach of a market1 their wood is of inferior quality and not generally suitable for lumber4 ,a modern industry has been developed1 however1 which may bring it into demand1 namely1 the manufacture of wood-pulp1 so largely employed in the making of paper and for other purposes4 ,the ,pacific ,forest4--,in the northern portion of the ,rocky ,mountain region in ,canada and ,alaska the boreal forest1 as already stated1 merges by insensible gradations with the forests occupying the ,pacific mountains from ,alaska southward to ,mexico4 ,the junction line between the two is irregular1 and what are essentially outliers of the more northern forest occupy the higher portions of the mountains in the western portion of the ,united ,states4 ,the ,pacific forest begins at the north near ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 and at first occurs on isolated areas separated by ice-fields and inland reaches of the ocean1 but in southeastern ,alaska and on the numerous islands adjacent becomes more continuous and extends eastward far into ,british ,columbia4 ,as the timber-line in that region has an elevation of but #b1ejj feet at the extreme western extension of the forest1 although gradually rising southward1 large portions of the mountains are treeless and barren4 ,in the ,united ,states1 on account of increasing dryness of the valleys from north to south1 the forest becomes broken into many detached portions1 which occupy the mountains and higher plateaus and in general are restricted to higher and higher locations with decrease in latitude4 ,this distribution illustrates in a striking manner the dependence of trees on humidity4 ,the forest is densest and the trees in general of greatest size and occur at the lowest elevations on the northwest portion of the ,pacific coastal region1 where the rainfall is excessive and distributed practically throughout the entire year4 ,the ,coast ,ranges from ,alaska southward to central ,california1 as well as the ,cascade ,mountains and ,sierra ,nevada1 are tree-clothed4 ,in the interior1 and especially in the central and southern portion of the ,pacific cordillera1 where the valleys are hot and dry in summer1 trees are absent1 and even the borders of the rivers in many instances without shade4 ,in ,canada the trees frequently extend across the lowlands1 but in ,montana and ,idaho the valleys resemble the treeless plains to the east of the ,rocky ,mountains1 while the uplands and the lower mountain slopes are dark with firs and pines4 ,above the forest rise the barren and frequently perpetually snow-covered summit-peaks and ridges4 ,in the ,great ,basin region1 and from there southward1 many of the mountains are practically destitute of trees from base to summit4 ,so vast is the region occupied by the ,pacific forest and so varied the conditions dependent upon climate1 soil1 and elevation which influence its growth1 that great variations in the genera and species of trees composing it are to be expected4 ,this prediction is soon verified when one travels through the forest4 ,the extremes may be indicated briefly by referring to the fact that at the north the trees are mainly spruces1 firs1 and cedars1 and at the south include the giant cactus1 arboreal yucca1 and the fan-leafed palm4 ,in its medial division are the great forests of western ,washington and ,oregon1 composed mainly of firs and cedars1 and the no less magnificent forests of redwood-trees on the ,coast ,ranges of northern ,california and the west slope of the ,sierra ,nevada4 ,like the boreal forest1 the one under consideration is largely composed of coniferous trees1 although in the valley1 and especially along the borders of streams in southern ,canada1 ,washington1 etc41 a few species of broad-leaved trees1 such as the maple1 cottonwood1 ash1 and alder1 thrive in close association with dark conifers2 while in similar situations farther south oaks growing in scattered groves give a park-like character to the land1 as in the southern portion of ,california4 ,in contrast with the ,atlantic region1 the western portion of the continental forest belt is singularly lacking in broad-leaved trees1 and such as are found are usually of small size and but little economic importance4 ,this lack1 however1 is perhaps more than counterbalanced by the number both of individuals and of species and the great size and magnificence of the conifers4 ,one of the densest and in many ways most thoroughly representative portions of the ,pacific forest where it occupies an excessively humid region occurs on the west side of the ,cascade ,mountains in ,washington1 inclusive of the ,puget ,sound basin and the region to the westward from which rise the ,olympic ,mountains4 ,in western ,washington the forest is composed mainly1 and1 in fact1 over large areas1 almost entirely of two species of trees1 namely1 the red fir and the red cedar1 each of which attains gigantic dimensions4 ,of these two species1 the first is the more common1 the larger1 and by far the more important from a commercial point of view4 ,it frequently1 and1 in fact1 commonly1 attains a height of from #bjj to #cjj feet1 with a diameter at the base of from #h to #aj or more feet4 ,not only do these magnificent trees reach such great dimensions1 but they are thickly set over hundreds of square miles of territory4 ,in thousands of instances the great trunks sheathed in rough thick bark rise straight and massive1 with but a slight decrease in diameter1 to a height of upward of #hj feet before the first branch is given off4 ,the cedars1 the intimate companions of the great firs1 are of equally gigantic girth at the base1 but taper rapidly to spire-like summits1 usually from #ajj to #aej feet above the ground1 and are thickly set with small branches throughout4 ,they flourish best in excessively moist situations and reach far up the mountains1 particularly along the numerous watercourses2 while the firs1 although perhaps most at home on the less thoroughly water-soaked uplands1 thrive on the banks of streams1 the sides and summits of hills1 and on steep mountainsides alike4 ,mere enumeration of the number and size of the trees1 however1 fails to give an adequate impression of the astonishing magnificence of the wonderful forest of the ,puget ,sound region4 ,its grandeur is beyond description1 and can only be fully appreciated by one who abides for weeks or months in its perpetual twilight4 ,the great trees1 shaggy with mosses and lichens of innumerable tints of brown1 green1 and yellow1 do not form detached groves1 as is so frequently the case in less humid lands1 but are thickly set for mile after mile and league after league1 as one threads his difficult way beneath them4 ,so vast is the forest that a person travelling through it soon becomes impressed with the idea that it is interminable4 ,beneath the deep shade of the lofty boughs there is a rank undergrowth of young firs1 cedars1 and hemlocks1 while in the valleys especially1 and on the frequently inundated flood-plains of the streams1 there is usually a tangled growth of vine-like maples1 alders1 elders1 yews1 etc4 ,in this lower forest the most conspicuous and frequently too abundant plant is the broad-leaved and excessively spiny devil's-club1 the foliage of which changes to brilliant yellow in the early autumn1 and forms a most artistic setting for the spikes of crimson fruit borne at the extremities of the upward-bending ends of the usually prostrate stems4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--;,douglas ,firs1 ,vancouver1 ,b4 ,c4 ,of still more lowly habits are the ferns1 mosses1 and lichens which form a thick1 luxuriant1 and ever-varied carpet over the black humus soil beneath4 ,the ground throughout the forest is encumbered with fallen trunks1 sometimes piled one on another to the depth of #bj or #cj feet1 which1 owing to the continuous moisture1 remain undecayed for centuries4 ,not infrequently a massive cedar or fir1 in size and shape not unlike a prostrate column of some great temple1 supports three or more trees1 each large enough to be cut for lumber1 whose gnarled and twisted roots clasp the sides of their host and descend to the earth beneath4 ,the beauty of these fallen giants when overgrown with thick layers of variegated moss and exquisitely decorated with hundreds of small hemlocks and a multitude of gracefully bending fern-fronds1 always fresh in colour and usually beaded with moisture1 is beyond the power of the most skilful artist to adequately portray4 ,the fascination of the great forest is such that the explorer1 although perhaps weary with forcing a passage through the dense undergrowths and climbing over prostrate trunks1 is lured by its charms into more and more inaccessible retreats probably never before invaded by man1 but at last finding that the wonderland has no attainable limits1 is content to rest on some inviting couch of golden-tinted lichens and study the varied charms and endless details of the dream-like picture surrounding him4 ,from a commercial point of view the forest of the ,puget ,sound region is of immense importance4 ,lumber industries have been established there1 with the most improved appliances for cutting trees1 transporting the logs to mills1 and sawing them into lumber1 much of which is loaded on ships and widely distributed4 ,so vast is the forest1 however1 that as yet the natural conditions are but slightly changed1 except in the immediate vicinity of tide-water1 but the destruction from axe and fire has only been begun2 the waste that1 no doubt1 is to continue is most disheartening4 ,another centre in the vast and locally differentiated ,pacific forest1 as typical in its way as are the dense growths of fir and cedar just referred to1 occurs on the ,coast ,range of north ,california1 where the redwood 7,sequoia sempervirens7 is the all-important and characteristic tree4 ,this redwood forest begins at the south in the vicinity of ,san ,francisco1 and extends northward1 mainly on the moist seaward slopes of the ,coast ,ranges1 to southwestern ,oregon1 but seldom reaches more than #cj miles inland4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,redwood ,forest1 ,california4 ,the redwood resembles the cedar in habit1 general appearance1 character of its wood1 and colour of bark and leaves4 ,it flourishes best in moist localities1 and attains a great size1 surpassing in height and diameter of stem even the giant firs of ,washington1 and is only exceeded on this continent by its cousin1 the great sequoia 7,sequoia gigantea7 of the western slope of the ,sierra ,nevada1 in south-central ,california4 ,it frequently attains a height of #cjj or more feet1 with a diameter at the base of #ae or #af1 and in certain exceptional instances of over #bj feet4 ,it rarely branches low1 but almost invariably has a straight1 fluted stem1 perfectly symmetrical1 rising with a slight taper for about #bjj feet to the first limb4 ,the foliage is dull green in colour1 fine1 and drooping4 ,it is a most beautiful tree both in form and colour1 and is markedly gregarious in habit4 ,as stated by ,henry ,gannett1 it forms the densest forest known if the comparison is made on the basis of the amount of merchantable lumber growing on a given unit of area4 ,for example1 the yellow-pine forests of the ,southern ,atlantic and ,gulf ,states contain on an average about #e1jjj feet1 board measure 7square feet of boards an inch thick71 of timber per acre1 and in the moderately dense portion of the white-pine forests of the ,great ,lakes region the average is about the same4 ,in each of these regions1 famed for their lumber1 a tract containing #aj1jjj feet of lumber per acre would be considered as heavily forested4 ,in the redwood forests of ,california1 however1 #ej1jjj feet of lumber per acre is not rare over extensive areas1 while for special tracts containing many square miles this estimate may safely be doubled4 ,upon #if1ddc acres in ,humboldt ,county1 ,california1 the average amount of lumber contained in the trees still standing is #hd1jjj feet per acre4 ,the returns of lumber companies during a continuous period of ten years from tracts which have been cleared show a return of #ge1jjj to #ajj1jjj feet per acre1 but even this is not the maximum4 ,a certain tract of several square miles actually yielded #aej1jjj feet per acre2 and there is on record a yield of #a1dca1ecj feet from a single acre4 ,one tree is said to have furnished #ff1ejj feet of lumber1 and another1 #ae feet in diameter at the base1 contained #ajj1jjj feet4 ,another tree1 still standing1 measures #bb feet in diameter1 and it is estimated will yield #bjj1jjj square feet of boards an inch thick4 ,the wood of the redwood-tree is of a clear red colour with the exception of a thin layer just under the bark1 which is almost pure white1 and is light1 soft1 coarse-grained1 and susceptible of a high polish4 ,it is the most common and most valuable of all the forest products of the ,pacific coast of ,north ,america1 and is serviceable for a great variety of purposes4 ,the celebrated big trees of ,california are not to be confounded with the redwood described above1 but belong to a different species of the same genus4 ,the big trees are worthy of their name1 as they are by far the largest in ,north ,america4 ,when full-grown they average about #bge feet in height1 with a diameter near the ground of about #bj feet4 ,one of the tallest as yet measured has a height of #cbe feet1 and the largest a diameter of #ce feet #h inches inside the bark and #d feet above the ground4 ,the age of one of these giants1 as shown by the number of rings of growth in its trunk1 is about thirteen hundred years2 another1 #bd feet in diameter1 is twenty-two hundred years old2 and a third showed over four thousand rings of growth1 and must have been in its prime at the time of the birth of ,christ4 ,the trees occur in detached groves on the western slope of the ,sierra ,nevada in south-central ,california1 but become more common southward1 where they form a genuine forest belt4 ,their range from north to south is about #bfj miles1 and their elevation above the sea from #f1jjj to #h1jjj feet4 ,so exquisitely harmonious1 says ,john ,muir1 in his charming book ,the ,mountains of ,california1 and finely balanced are even the very mightiest of these monarchs of the woods in all their proportions and circumstances1 that there is never anything overgrown or monstrous about them4 ,on coming in sight of them for the first time1 you are likely to say1 ',oh1 see what beautiful1 noble-looking trees are towering there among the firs and pines6' their grandeur being in the meantime in great part invisible1 but to the living eye it will be manifest sooner or later1 stealing slowly on the senses like the grandeur of ,niagara or the lofty ,yosemite domes4 ,their great size is hidden from the inexperienced observer as long as they are seen at a distance in one harmonious view4 ,when1 however1 you approach them and walk around them1 you begin to wonder at their colossal size and seek a measuring-rod4 ,these giants bulge considerably at the base1 but not more than is required for beauty and safety2 and the only reason that this bulging seems in some cases excessive is that only a comparatively small section of the shaft is seen at once in near views4 ,one that ,i measured in the ,king's ,river forest was #be feet in diameter at the ground and #aj feet in diameter #bjj feet above the ground1 showing that the taper of the trunk as a whole is charmingly fine4 ,and when you stand back far enough to see the massive columns from the swelling instep to the lofty summit dissolving in a dome of verdure1 you rejoice in the unrivalled display of combined grandeur and beauty4 ,about #ajj feet or more of the trunk is usually branchless1 but its massive simplicity is relieved by the bark furrows1 which1 instead of making an irregular network1 run evenly parallel1 like the fluting of an architectural column1 and to some extent by tufts of slender sprays that wave lightly in the winds and cast flecks of shade1 seeming to have been pinned on here and there for the sake of beauty only4 ,the young trees have slender simple branches down to the ground1 put on with strict regularity1 sharply aspiring at the top1 horizontal about half-way down1 and drooping in handsome curves at the base4 ,by the time the sapling is five or six hundred years old this spiry1 feathery1 juvenile habit merges into a firm1 rounded dome form of middle age1 which in turn takes on the eccentric picturesqueness of old age4 ,no other tree in the ,sierra forest has foliage so densely massed or presents outlines so firmly drawn and so steadily subordinate to a special type4444 ,the foliage of the saplings is dark bluish green in colour1 while the older trees ripen to a warm brownish-yellow tint1 like ,libocedrus4 ,the bark is rich crimson brown1 purplish in young trees and in shady portions of the old1 while the ground is covered with brown leaves and burrs forming colour masses of extraordinary richness1 not to mention the flowers and underbrush that rejoice about them in their season4 ,walk in the sequoia woods at any time of year1 and you will say they are the most beautiful and majestic on earth4 ,beautiful and impressive contrasts meet you everywhere2 the colours of tree and flowers1 rock and sky1 light and shade1 strength and frailty1 endurance and evanescence1 tangles of supple hazel-bushes1 tree pillars about as rigid as granite domes1 roses and violets the smallest of their kind1 blooming around the feet of the giants4 ,then in winter the trees themselves break forth in bloom1 myriads of small four-sided staminate cones crowd the ends of the slender sprays1 colouring the whole tree1 and when ripe dusting the air and ground with golden pollen4 ,owing to the remoteness of the big trees from commercial centres1 they have escaped to a great extent the destruction which everywhere attends the advent of the white man1 and some of the finest groves are now under state protection4 ,the sequoias are not only of interest on account of their great size and grandeur1 but from the fact that they are the lingering survivors of an ancient and once widely distributed genus4 ,during the ,cretaceous and ,tertiary divisions of geological history the genus numbered at least #ej species1 as has been shown by leaf impressions1 fossil wood1 and cones buried in the rocks of ,new ,zealand and ,chile on the south1 ,spitzbergen and ,greenland on the north4 ,over ,north ,america they extend from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific4 ,at present the only two species known1 both of which1 as already stated1 are confined to the ,pacific coast1 and with the exception of a slight extension of the less gigantic of the two into southwestern ,oregon1 are found only in ,california4 ,while the firs1 cedars1 and redwoods form the major portion of the forests in the more humid regions on the western side of the continent1 there are two species of pines growing in drier situations which in a general view are even more characteristic of the ,pacific forest than are the sequoias4 ,these two pines1 well worthy to stand side by side with the giant firs and still more gigantic redwoods1 are known as the sugar-pine and the yellow pine4 ,the sugar-pine grows amid the mountains from southwestern ,british ,columbia1 southward through western ,washington1 ,oregon1 and on the ,sierra ,nevada and ,coast ,ranges of ,california1 at elevations ranging from #d1jjj to #h1jjj feet4 ,it frequently clothes steep declivities or bids defiance to the storms on the crests of sharp ridges4 ,in size it is scarcely exceeded by any of its companions excepting the firs and sequoias4 ,it frequently attains a height of from #bjj to #bge feet1 with a diameter at the base of from #h to #ad1 and in some instances of over #bj feet4 ,individual trees are known which have a height of #bde feet and are #ah feet in diameter4 ,the branches are usually high above the ground and widely spreading4 ,in the case of well-grown individuals they leave the main trunk with a sweeping1 downward curve1 which midway out changes to an upward curve1 and at the extreme distal end droops once more4 ,at the extremity of many of the far-reaching boughs there are suspended one or two cones1 each #ab or #ad inches long and sometimes over #h inches in diameter4 ,the peculiar and frequently remarkably regular curvature of the great branches1 giving them the form of half a ,cupid's bow1 imparts to these mighty pines a grace and symmetry possessed by few other trees4 ,the familiar name of this great pine refers to the fact that from wounds or incisions in its trunk there exudes a sweet sap which is considered by many persons to exceed even the sap of the maple in agreeableness of flavour4 ,lovers of beautiful trees will agree in considering the sugar-pine as the noblest of its family growing in the woods of ,america1 if not the most majestic of its kindred in the world4 ,its only rival1 but of a different type of beauty1 is the ,norfolk ,island pine1 of the south sea islands4 ,of the many pleasant memories of camp life in the forests of ,america which are a source of delight to the writer none are recalled with greater pleasure than those associated with the sugar-pine of the ,sierra ,nevada1 where the ground is carpeted with the long brown needles that fall in showers at certain seasons from the boughs far overhead4 ,with the faded leaves are strewed also the great cones which always excite wonder and admiration4 ,in the clear air and brilliant sunlight of the ,californian mountains the luxuriant plume-like leaves far aloft appear to be formed of burnished silver or have the yellow of gold1 according as the light strikes them1 and at night the lofty boughs swayed by the winds make music such as no other forest can produce4 ,nothing in the vegetable world1 not even the great sequoias1 convey such an abiding impression of strength and majesty as these pines which have withstood the storms of centuries without losing their vigour or their symmetry and beauty of form4 ,unfortunately as it would seem1 however1 these magnificent trees are useful1 as the term is commonly employed1 and are fast falling a prey to lumbermen1 who measure their value in dollars4 ,the yellow pine of the ,pacific mountains1 not to be confounded1 however1 with the yellow pine of the southern ,appalachian region1 fortunately has another common name1 the silver pine1 which is more appropriate and distinctive4 ,this is the most widely spread1 perhaps1 of all the pines of ,north ,america1 and is familiar to every one who has travelled through the ,pacific mountains from ,british ,columbia to ,mexico1 and from the ,black ,hills of ,dakota or the mountains of ,colorado and ,new ,mexico westward to within hearing of the surf of the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,it ranks second in size to the sugar-pine1 but is a near rival in strength and nobleness of form4 ,as might be inferred from its wide distribution1 the silver pine had adapted itself to a great range of conditions1 not only of climate1 but of soil and height above the sea4 ,it is found from an elevation of about #b1jjj feet above the sea up the mountainsides nearly to timber-line1 and flourishes alike in the hot1 arid valleys and in regions bordering on perpetual snow and ice4 ,one beautiful feature of the silver-pine forests is their open1 park-like character4 ,the trees stand far apart1 and thus have room to reach not only a great size1 but a remarkable degree of perfection of form4 ,between the islands of shade on the sunlit ground there is usually but little undergrowth1 and the far-extending natural pastures permit one to ride in any direction without inconvenience4 ,one other pine of the widely extended ,pacific forest demands attention even from the passing traveller1 not on account of its size1 for it is a dwarf in a land of giants1 but for its wide distribution and the food its large1 oily seeds furnish for birds1 squirrels1 and even for man4 ,i refer to the pinyon pine1 of which there are several species4 ,they are seldom over #ce or #dj feet high1 and are not remarkable for beauty1 although they furnish an agreeable feature in the sparsely forest-clothed and semiarid region where they thrive best1 but they bear a profusion of small cones1 each of which contains perhaps a dozen edible and nutritious seeds4 ,these seeds were formerly used by the ,indians for food on an extensive scale1 and are still gathered in large quantities1 and may be found in the markets of our cities4 ,the ,indian encampments in the pinyon forests in the fall of the year are among the most picturesque features of these degenerate days of the aborigines4 ,in the southwest portions of the ,united ,states the forests are confined to the mountains and the higher table-lands1 the hot1 arid valleys being without trees other than the larger growths of cacti and yucca4 ,similar conditions are present in northern ,mexico1 but on the western side of that republic and throughout practically the whole of the peninsula of ,lower ,california the mountains and valleys alike are treeless and desolate4 ,as stated by ,c4 ,s4 ,sargent1 the forests of ,north ,america1 exclusive of ,mexico1 ,central ,america1 and the ,west ,indies1 contain arboreal representatives of #aeh genera of plants1 of which #id genera occur in the ,atlantic and #ei in the ,pacific side of the continent1 and #dh genera in the tropical portion of southern ,florida4 ,of the number of genera of trees in the ,caribbean forest we have no reliable census4 ,,prairies1 ,,treeless ,,plains1 ,,and ,,plateaus ,to the west of the ,atlantic forest lie the broad natural meadows termed prairies1 and still farther west the yet more extensive pasture-lands of the great plateaus which reach the eastern base of the ,rocky ,mountains 7,fig4 #bh74 ,the transition from the luxuriant and varied forest on the east to the treeless1 thinly grass-covered plateaus on the west side of the interior ,continental basin is gradual4 ,the change occurs in the prairie region1 where a struggle has been in progress for thousands of years between the conditions favouring and those adverse to tree growth4 ,the balance of power1 so to speak1 is the amount of rain or of soil-stored moisture during the summer season4 ,the gradual decrease in the mean annual precipitation from east to west on the inland border of the ,atlantic forest continues westward1 and on the plateaus adjacent to the ,rocky ,mountains the aridity is such that no trees can grow except along the immediate border of the stream1 unless artificially irrigated4 ,the explanation of the absence of trees in the central and western portions of the interior ,continental basin is found in the mean annual rainfall and the manner in which it is distributed throughout the year1 together with variations in the texture and composition of the soil1 and the disturbances in the natural conditions brought about by fires4 ,the question1 ,why are the prairies treeless8 has been variously answered by different observers4 ,the outcome of a long discussion in this connection seems to be that the main cause of the absence of trees lies in the climatic conditions and principally in the lack of sufficient rain during the long1 hot summers4 ,arid regions the world over are without forests1 but the ,prairie plains cannot be said to be arid2 in fact1 the mean annual rainfall over the greater portion of this region is equal to or exceeds that of many well-forested countries1 averaging as it does in general about #cj inches4 ,but the prairies lie between the more humid forest-covered regions on the east and the less humid or subarid plateaus on the west1 and during the summer season droughts and hot1 scorching winds are of common occurrence4 ,it is the long dry summer that establishes the critical conditions1 particularly about the eastern and northern borders of the prairies4 ,of secondary importance is the character of the soil4 ,an exceedingly fine soil1 like that of the prairies1 as has been pointed out by ,j4 ,d4 ,whitney1 by excluding the air from the roots of trees is detrimental to their growth4 ,where the dryness of the summers make the lives of trees precarious the nature of the soil1 whether coarse or fine1 becomes the controlling factor4 ,in the prairie region where the soil is more open and porous than usual1 although other conditions remain the same1 as in the ,cross ,timbers of ,texas1 trees flourish2 while intervening areas where the soil is fine are typical prairies4 ,again1 where the climatic conditions become critical1 as during long1 dry summers1 the grass and other vegetation burns readily1 fire spreads rapidly and widely1 and young trees are destroyed4 ,in the prairie region1 as pointed out by ,j4 ,w4 ,powell1 the ,indians were formerly in the habit of burning the grass each summer in order to insure more favorable pasturage for game during the succeeding spring4 ,this annual burning kept back the forest and led to the eastward extension of the prairie4 ,during the past decade many groves have been planted on the prairies1 and have flourished1 especially when the adjacent fields are cultivated so as to allow the earth to store a larger share of the winter rain2 the success of this tree planting1 it has been claimed1 is evidence that the nature of the soil is not a determining factor in the problem1 because trees will grow if protected from fire4 ,the success of arboriculture on the formerly treeless plains and plateaus1 however1 decreases as one travels westward4 ,on the western border of the prairies and on the great plateaus1 remote from streams1 trees can be made to grow only by the aid of irrigation4 ,if this region had never been swept by fire it is safe to say it would still be treeless4 ,each of the explanations referred to above to account for the treeless condition of the prairies--one referring it to soil conditions1 and the other to the former prevalence of fires--certainly has much in its favour1 and for certain localities seems satisfactory1 but each point of view should include a broader range and recognise the fact that the requisite critical conditions have been furnished by wide-reaching climatic causes4 ,the ,prairie plains furnish but one phase of the gradual change that occurs in the natural mantle of vegetation when traced from the dense1 well-watered forests of the ,appalachians and the ,alleghany plateau westward to the semiarid and truly arid lands of the great plateaus and ,rocky ,mountain region1 where only such plants as are able to withstand long-continued drought can grow4 ,this same broad conclusion is sustained also at the north1 where the prairie dovetails1 as it were1 with the subarctic forest4 ,the general or underlying reason for the treeless condition of the vast central portion of the continent is doubtless a lack of sufficient rain4 ,the precipitation that does occur comes mainly during the winter season1 when the land is colder than the ocean2 in summer the land becomes highly heated and imparts its temperature to the air1 which thus has its capacity for moisture increased1 and prolonged droughts occur4 ,at the south1 in ,mexico and the adjacent portion of the ,united ,states1 the trade-winds blow over a region which is more highly heated than the ocean from which they come1 and are hence drying winds4 ,to the west of the ,great plateaus rise the ,rocky ,mountains1 where climatic conditions are different on account of elevation1 and1 as we have seen1 forests occur at considerable elevations1 but not in the broader valleys4 ,the conditions unfavourable for tree growth are continued and even intensified in the valleys of the central portion of the ,pacific mountain region1 and culminate in the deserts of the ,great ,basin and western ,mexico4 ,throughout all of this vast treeless region the controlling condition is deficiency of moisture1 particularly during the summer or growing season4 ,the nearest approach to desert conditions to be found in ,north ,america occur in the valley of ,utah and ,nevada and the southern portion of the ,great ,basin region in ,arizona and ,mexico4 ,the bottoms of these valleys are1 in some instances1 occupied by shallow lakes in winter1 when scanty rains occur1 but during the long1 hot summers they become completely desiccated1 and are then broad expanses of hard mud1 cracked by drying so as to resemble a tessellated pavement of cream-coloured marble4 ,these mud-flats or playas are frequently absolutely without plant life4 ,excepting the playas1 however1 and1 in numerous instances1 a narrow belt of ground encircling them1 which is white with efflorescent salts1 the valleys of even the most arid portion of the ,great ,basin region are generally plant-covered4 ,the most common and most widely spread of the shrubs on these shadeless plains is the sage-brush4 ,so characteristic is this plant of countless valleys from ,canada to ,mexico within the general region of the ,pacific mountains that to one familiar with the country the term sage-brush land brings to mind the leading features of the region designated4 ,the sage-brush lands are far from being desert areas1 however1 for in early spring a profusion of low1 sweet-scented flowers bloom beneath the gray-green ,artemisia1 and sufficient bunch-grass to sustain considerable herds may be expected in the same localities4 ,the vast1 irregular belt of forest encircling the central treeless portion of the continent also dies out on its northern border1 where the subarctic forest is succeeded northward by the ,barren ,grounds and tundra plains4 ,clearly the explanation of the absence of trees in the prairie region and the adjacent plateaus cannot be applied to scarcely less extensive treeless plains at the far north1 where rain falls in summer and the soil is always abundantly charged with moisture4 ,it needs no argument to show that the control among the conditions governing tree growth at the north passes to the temperate element of climate1 and that the timber-line is there determined1 as it is on high mountains1 by the severity of the winters' storms and frosts and the shortness of the summers4 ,,the ,,treeless ,,mountain ,,tops ,on the higher mountains of ,north ,america above the upper limit at which trees are able to grow there are picturesque regions carpeted and garlanded in late spring and summer with lovely flowers1 the indescribable charms of which are only known to those who rejoice in climbing rugged peaks and in following the trails of the mountain-goat along sharp-crested ridges4 ,the gorgeous blossoms of these roof-gardens of the world are much the same on all high mountains in temperate latitudes1 but from having become first widely known to civilized man on the mountains of ,switzerland1 are generally termed alpine flowers4 ,the most attractive features of an alpine flora1 which springs into bloom as soon as the snow melts and forms a rapidly widening belt of colour as the margins of the snow-fields recede higher and higher1 is the great profusion of brilliantly coloured blossoms4 ,no sooner does the snow of winter melt than the moist ground becomes enamelled in brilliant colours on account of the springing up and quick blossoming of millions of hardy plants4 ,the growing season on mountain heights is short1 but the sun's energy is there more intense and the hours of light each day longer than in the valleys below1 and the plants adapted to such conditions pass through their annual circle of changes from sprouting seed to mature fruit with remarkable rapidity4 ,in many instances the mountain-climber finds beautiful lilies unfolding their sun-dyed blossoms at the bottom of well-like depressions in lingering snow-banks4 ,the gleaming mountain-peaks when seen from afar are said to be crowned with snow1 but the mountaineer rejoices in the knowledge that their cold diadems are wreathed and festooned about their lower margins with lovely blossoms4 ,many mountains less ambitious than their neighbours have the garlands without the crown4 ,an alpine flora is present on the ,pacific mountains from ,mexico northward to ,alaska4 ,like the timber-line and the snow-line1 the intermediate belt of profusely flowering herbaceous plants descends lower and lower with decrease in latitude2 on the great volcanic cones of ,mexico it has an elevation of over #ae1jjj feet2 on the ,sierra ,nevada the greatest wealth of flowers occurs at about #ab1jjj feet2 on ,mount ,rainier widely extended gardens resplendent with rainbow tints occur at #g1jjj to #h1jjj feet2 and about the foot-hills near ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 at an elevation of #b1ejj feet or less above the sea1 every knoll and island-like area in the vast ice-fields is so densely overgrown with brilliantly flowered plants that one has to part the rank growths with his hands and press them aside with his alpenstick in order to force a way through the fields of bloom4 ,admirers of nature's loveliness who have not climbed to aspiring heights will find a new and beautiful world in the public alpine garden on the summit and about the snow-fields of the higher portions of the ,pacific mountains1 where no sign-boards forbid entry and no fences obstruct the way4 ,in these regions nearest the sun and stars there are few1 if any1 plants of utility to man1 but marvellous beauty and lavish profusion fill the foreground in every view4 ,these glorious mountain heights have their use1 however1 although as yet known to but few2 rest and recreation amid scenes at the same time novel and most inspiring may there be found by the toilers in our crowded cities4 ,among the ,atlantic mountains only a few summits attain a sufficient elevation to claim a wreath of alpine flowers4 ,something of the nature of the gorgeous fields of bloom about the great peaks of the ,pacific mountains is suggested on the treeless summits of the ,white ,mountains1 but although classed by botanists among alpine floras1 the plants growing there fail to give a true idea of the display characteristic of the mountains which make a nearer approach to the lower limit of perennial snow4 ,in the southern ,appalachians the absence of a luxuriant alpine flora is perhaps more than counterbalanced by the profusion of rhododendrons1 azaleas1 and laurels4 99 99 99 99 99 ,one instructive lesson suggested by this hasty glance at the plant life of ,north ,america is furnished by the quick response that vegetation gives to conditions of environment4 ,throughout the greater divisions of the forest1 prairies1 grass-covered plains and valleys1 and flower-decked mountain heights there are constant variations from locality to locality in the plant life to meet seemingly obscure or but slight changes in the conditions of temperature1 humidity1 exposure to sunlight1 soil composition1 soil texture1 etc42 and besides there is a never-ceasing struggle for existence among the plants themselves which leads to important modifications of a flora4 ,these changes occur from locality to locality1 frequently within a short radius1 but more than this1 the resultant of the various modifying conditions on which plant life depends are not constant even for a given locality4 ,the study of extinct floras has shown that during the preceding ages in the earth's history marvellous changes in the plants of many regions1 and1 in fact1 of the entire earth's surface1 have taken place4 ,the distinct impressions of palm-leaves1 for example1 are commonly found in the rocks of the ,cascade ,mountains1 where spruces1 firs1 and cedars now dominate the landscape4 ,still more striking is the fact that even treeless ,greenland and the largely ice-covered islands of the arctic archipelago were formerly clothed with forests as luxuriant and varied as those now growing in the southern ,appalachian region4 ,although the migrations of existing forests during the few centuries of which we have historic records have been too slow to be appreciated by man1 yet it is safe to conclude that changes similar to1 and in fact a continuation of1 those known by geologists to have taken place in the distribution of the vegetation of the continent since the ,tertiary period are still in progress4 ,with far-reaching and exceedingly slow changes in climatic conditions and in elevation above the sea due to upheaval and denudation1 the plants of our forests1 prairies1 and mountainsides1 are being moved here and there1 in ever-changing combinations4 ,nature thus secures a rotation in the vegetation of a region1 as the careful husbandman varies his crops from year to year4 ,the suggestion in this connection furnished by geologists is that we are living in a spring-time following the great winter1 known as the ,glacial epoch1 and that the tropical1 temperate1 and subarctic forests are migrating northward in an orderly march1 and each in turn ascending higher and higher on the more lofty mountains4 ,,literature ,,muir1 ,,john4 ,the ,mountains of ,california4 ,t4 ,fisher ,unwin1 ,london1 #ahid4 ,,pinchot1 ,,gifford4 ,a ,primer of ,forestry4 ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bulletin ,no4 #bd1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 #ahii4 ,,sargent1 ,c4 ,s4 ,report on the ,forests of ,north ,america4 ,tenth ,census of the ,united ,states1 vol4 ix1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 #ahhd4 ,united ,states ,geological ,survey4 ,reports on ,forestry4 ,,chapter ,v ,,animal ,,life ,a common ground to zoologists and geographers in the exploration of which they derive mutual pleasure from assisting each other1 is the geographical distribution of animals4 ,in this connection the fauna of ,north ,america presents perhaps even more interesting problems than does its flora4 ,,general ,,principles ,,of ,,geographical ,,distribution ,in the study of the distribution of animals over a continent1 the discovery of the laws determining the intangible boundaries which the members of a species may not pass is even more difficult than the similar task in the case of plants4 ,plant species for the most part advance and retreat slowly as conditions change1 and1 with minor exceptions1 there is no freedom of movement for the individual2 but animals1 and especially the higher forms1 are sensitive to even slight changes in their environment1 and there is more or less individual freedom to travel over the land1 to fly through the air1 or to swim through the water4 ,why the members of a given species which have apparently unlimited power to travel should be confined to a certain and frequently a narrowly circumscribed area has excited the curiosity of man for many centuries4 ,a point is gained in reference to the distribution of animal species when it is remembered that animals are either directly or indirectly dependent on plants for food1 and it follows that if plants1 as we have seen1 are so largely controlled in their distribution by climate1 the secret of the distribution of animals is to be sought in the same direction4 ,when a thoroughly satisfactory classification of climatic provinces is arrived at1 it will no doubt be found to agree with the larger features of plant distribution1 and should coincide1 although perhaps less definitely1 with the major divisions into which the zoologist partitions the earth's surface4 ,this principle has been recognised by ,c4 ,hart ,merriam in subdividing the ,united ,states into life-zones and crop-zones1 and in the following pages his view will be discernible1 although losing much of their clearness by reflection4 ,the ,place of ,north ,america in the ,life ,realms of the ,earth4--,the geological distribution of animals has been critically studied by ,p4 ,l4 ,sclater1 ,a4 ,r4 ,wallace1 ,t4 ,h4 ,huxley1 and others1 and the entire land area of the earth subdivided into realms1 regions1 etc41 in such a manner as to indicate the present grouping of animals4 ,one of the latest of these broad views of the life of the earth is presented by ,richard ,lydekker1 who1 from the evidence furnished by both living and extinct mammals1 has divided the world into three great realms1 two of which are again subdivided into regions1 as follows3 #a4 ,australian region4 ,notogaeic realm #b4 ,polynesian region4 #c4 ,hawaiian region4 #d4 ,austro-,malayan region4 ,neogaeic realm ,neotropical region4 #a4 ,malagasy region4 #b4 ,ethiopian region4 ,arctogaeic realm #c4 ,oriental region4 #d4 ,holarctic region4 #e4 ,sonoran region4 ,in this classification1 ,north ,america falls in part in two realms1 the ,arctogaeic and ,neogaeic1 the former embracing the table-land of north-central ,mexico and all of that portion of the continent lying to the northward1 while the lowland of ,mexico1 together with ,central ,america and the ,west ,indies1 falls in the latter realm4 ,the ,arctogaeic includes also nearly the whole of the eastern hemisphere4 ,the relationship expressed in this classification of both the living and extinct mammalia of ,north ,america to that of ,eurasia1 is supposed to be due to a former land connection between the ,old and the ,new ,world at ,bering ,strait1 and is most clearly marked by northern species1 the intercontinental bridge being too far north to be available for southern forms4 ,the mammals and many of the other animals of the low1 hot borders of ,mexico and of ,central ,america are a northward extension of the fauna of ,south ,america--that continent constituting nearly the entire ,neogaeic realm4 ,the mammals of the ,west ,indies are few in species1 and have their nearest relationship with the fauna of the continent to the southward4 ,,life-,,regions ,,and ,,life-,,zones ,the detailed study of the zoology of ,north ,america is far from complete1 but the voluminous results reached have led to several attempts at broad generalization in reference to geographical distribution4 ,important and highly instructive memoirs have been presented in this connection by ,j4 ,a4 ,allen1 ,angelo ,heilprin1 ,e4 ,d4 ,cope1 and others1 who have in the main attempted to correlate the distribution of animal species1 but principally the mammals1 with variations in mean annual temperature4 ,among the latest of these contributions1 and marking the advance made at the close of the nineteenth century1 is the classification proposed by ,c4 ,hart ,merriam1 already referred to in the sketches that have been given of the climate and of the flora of the continent4 ,the basis for this classification is the seemingly well-determined law that the northward distribution of terrestrial animals and plants is controlled by the sum of the positive temperatures for the entire season of growth and reproduction1 and that the southward distribution is governed by the mean temperature of a brief period during the hotter portion of the year4 ,by positive temperatures is meant the sum of the mean daily temperature above that which determines the period of physiological activity in plants and of reproductive activity in animals1 assumed to be #f deg4 ,c4 or #dc deg4 ,f4 ,the exact length of the period to be taken as the hottest portion of the year has not been definitely determined1 but must be short enough to fall within the hottest part of the summer in high northern latitudes1 and probably increases in length from north to south2 the time assumed is the six hottest consecutive weeks of the year4 ,on the basis just stated1 ,merriam has divided ,north ,america into the following life-regions and life-zones3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,governing ,temperatures -------------------------------- ,,northern ,,limit ,,southern ,,limit -------------------------------- ,realms ,regions ,zones ,sum of normal ,normal mean of mean daily temperature of ,ly- temperatures the six hottest dekker above #f deg4 ,c4 consecutive or #dc deg4 ,f4 weeks ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,deg4 ,c4 ,deg4 ,f4,deg4 ,c4,deg ,f4 ,arctic #ajc #ejc ,boreal ,hudsonian #adc #eg4bc ,arcto- ,canadian #ah #fd4d gaeic ,transition #e1ejj #aj1jjj #bb #ga4f ,austral ,upper austral #f1djj #aa1ejj #bf #gh4h ,lower austral #aj1jjj #ah1jjj ,neogaeic ,tropical 7,at present unclassified7 #ad1ejj #bf1jjj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #c ,estimated from insufficient data4 ,the boundaries of the regions and zones given in the above table are shown on the map facing page #agc1 but for detailed information concerning the basis of the classification the reader is referred to the monographs by ,merriam mentioned at the end of this chapter4 ,in the publications referred to lists are presented of the resident mammals and birds characteristic of each region and of its subdivisions to the north of ,mexico4 ,while the boundaries shown on the accompanying map can be recognised in nature by the naturalist and serve a useful purpose1 to the unskilled observer each region would appear to blend with its neighbours by intangible gradations4 ,in fact1 in this1 as in the case of so many other similar instances in nature1 there is an absence of definite1 or what may be termed hard and fast lines4 ,the significance of the boundaries referred to1 to the unskilled observer1 is still more obscure by the fact that the migratory birds1 and to some extent the mammals1 annually pass from one zone to another1 and besides1 several conspicuous mammals and birds are permanent residents in more than one zone4 ,,the ,,mammals ,the relation of the mammals of ,north ,america to the similar animals now inhabiting other portions of the earth may be briefly shown by indicating the distribution of the orders into which the mammalia are divided4 ,it will be remembered that in general each order is subdivided into families1 these again into genera1 the genera into species1 and a species may contain several varieties4 ,the classification here adopted is the one used by ,lydekker in his ,manual of ,palaeontology4 ,an order when represented in the fauna of a continent is indicated in the following table by a plus1 and when absent by a minus sign4 ,,class--,,mammalia ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,distribution ,sub- ---------------------- ,classes ,orders ,examples ,n4 ,s4,eur- ,aus- ,am4,am4asia,africatralia ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #a4 ,primates ,man1 lemurs1 7,man7 apes1 monkeys4 #b4 ,chiroptera,bats4 #c4 ,insecti- ,moles1 shrews1 - vora hedgehogs4 #d4 ,carnivora ,lions1 tigers1 cats1 - dogs1 seals1 etc4 #e4 ,rodentia ,beavers1 rats1 mice1 squirrels1 rabbits4 ,eu- #f4 ,ungulata ,ox1 horse1 elephant1 - theria tapir1 etc4 #g4 ,sirenia ,dugong and manatee4 #h4 ,cetacea ,whales1 dolphins1 narwhals4 #i4 ,edentata ,sloths1 armadillos1 - ant-eaters4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,meta- #aj4 ,marsu- ,kangaroos1 opossums1 - - theria pialia etc4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,proto- #aa4 ,monotre- ,ornithorhynchus1 - - - - theria mata echidna ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #a4 ,of the primates1 exclusive of man1 the monkeys are the only representatives in ,north ,america4 ,several species are common in ,central ,america1 but they are absent from the ,west ,indies1 and do not occur north of the terra caliente of ,mexico4 #b4 ,the bats are world-wide in their distribution1 and several genera and species occur on this continent1 their northern limit being in central ,canada2 during the winter in the ,united ,states and ,canada they hibernate largely in caverns4 ,one family of the ,chiroptera1 the leaf-nosed bats 7,phyllostomatidae71 are strictly ,american1 having their principal habitat in the southern continent1 but ranging as far north as the ,west ,indies1 ,mexico1 and southern ,california4 ,these are the vampires of which many harrowing tales are told4 ,the ,central ,american species are small1 not larger than an ,english sparrow1 but do not hesitate to attack cattle1 and even men4 #c4 ,the insect-eating mammals are represented by a large number of genera and species1 of moles and shrews1 but hedgehogs are absent4 #d4 ,the flesh-eating animals are well represented by the cats 7jaguars1 panthers1 and lynxes71 wolves1 bears1 racoons1 martens1 etc4 ,many species of the seal family occur about the entire coast-line from ,panama to the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,the lion1 tiger1 leopard1 hyena1 are absent4 #e4 ,the rodents are present in great numbers not only of individuals1 but of species and genera2 as rats1 mice1 jumping-mice1 squirrels1 porcupines1 beavers1 rabbits1 etc4 #f4 ,the hoofed animals1 ungulates1 are represented by the bison1 musk-ox1 several deer1 antelope1 mountain-sheep and mountain-goat1 tapir1 and swine 7peccary74 ,abundant remains of extinct species of the horse family have been found1 ranging far back in geological time1 but native horses are not known to have existed since the coming of ,europeans4 ,the most notable vacancies in this order in the living fauna are the rhinoceros1 hippopotamus1 camel1 giraffe1 and elephant1 although these are abundantly represented by fossil forms4 #g4 ,the ,sirenia1 which includes certain large herbivorous marine mammals of wide distribution1 are represented on the borders of the ,gulf of ,mexico and the ,caribbean ,sea by the manatee4 #h4 ,the ,cetacea are present in the marine waters adjacent to the coast1 more especially in the north1 where whales of several species1 dolphins1 the narwhal1 etc41 are found4 #i4 ,of the ,edentata1 which are so characteristic of the fauna of ,south ,america1 and with one exception 7the scaly ant-eater1 not found in ,america7 do not occur in the ,old ,world1 only the armadillo can be credited to ,north ,america2 of this1 two species occur from ,texas southward4 #aj4 ,the marsupials1 found nowhere else in the world to-day except in ,australia and ,america1 are represented by the opossum1 of which two species are common in the ,united ,states4 #aa4 ,the lowest known order of the mammalia1 the ,monotremata1 represented in ,australia by the duck-billed platypus 7,ornithorhynchus7 and the ,echidna1 is unknown in ,america4 ,considered in reference to their abundance1 large size of individuals1 and number of species1 in comparison with the other orders present1 ,north ,america may be said to be the home of herbivores4 ,the only continent in rivalry with it in this respect is ,africa4 ,more abundant in individuals and species than the herbivorous mammals1 however1 but smaller in size and frequently diminutive1 are the rodents4 ,the carnivores are fortunately limited in number of species1 although the individuals of certain species are at times numerous1 but not in general dangerous to man4 ,,some ,,representative ,,mammals ,to the general reader the animals of greatest interest are no doubt the mammals1 and particularly those which attract the sportsman1 are of value for food1 or furnish fur and skins for clothing4 ,of such animals the northern portion of ,north ,america and the mountains extending southward into the austral region furnish a large number4 ,the ,musk-,ox4--,in the far north1 mostly beyond the arctic circle1 lives the musk-ox1 the hardiest of herbivores1 in which1 as expressed in its generic name1 ,ovibos1 there is a curious mingling of the characteristics of the sheep and the ox4 ,the teeth are similar to those of the sheep1 the female has but two mammae1 and beneath the long yellowish-brown hair of the outer coat there is a thick wool-like growth4 ,its gentle1 inoffensive nature is also similar to that of the sheep4 ,the large feet and the horns1 however1 are like those of the ox tribe4 ,the horns resemble those of the ,cape buffalo1 being broad at the base and covering nearly the entire forehead4 ,they slope downward at the sides1 and then curve forward and outward1 at the same time tapering to a sharp point1 which renders them efficient weapons4 ,these characteristics1 although intermediate between those of the sheep and the ox1 are more strongly inclined to the former4 ,in reality1 however1 the musk-ox is more goat-like than sheep-like1 as is indicated by its covering of hair1 its short sturdy legs1 the cannon-bone being remarkably short1 and its ability as a climber4 ,a full-grown musk-ox measures about #h feet in length1 inclusive of the short tail1 and is #c feet1 #h or #i inches in height at the shoulders4 ,the thick-set1 shaggy body is supported on short stout legs1 and the feet are broad1 to serve both as scrapers in clearing away the snow from the moss and herbage on which it lives and in climbing ice-covered slopes4 ,its range is over the ,barren ,grounds of ,canada1 the islands of the arctic archipelago1 and the border of ,greenland4 ,peary found it grazing in herds in the far north of ,greenland beyond the inland ice1 and was saved from starvation by the food it furnished4 ,although hardy and well adapted by nature to withstand the most severe cold1 it moves southward over the ,barren ,grounds in winter and to some extent at least seeks shelter in the subarctic forest1 but apparently does not pass to the southward of latitude #ei deg44 ,like certain other animals of the northern portion of the continent1 its habitat is to the northeastward and it is unknown in ,alaska4 ,bones of the musk-ox found in the frozen soil of ,siberia indicate that it formerly had a circumpolar distribution4 ,a skull obtained near ,salt ,lake ,city1 ,utah1 in #ahga1 and the presence of its bones in the superficial deposit of ,europe as far south as the ,pyrenees1 show that it formerly lived far to the southward of its present southern limit4 ,this was during the ,pleistocene division of geological history1 when glacial ice covered all of ,canada and the arctic animals were crowded southward4 ,as the ice melted and its southern margin receded1 the musk-ox moved northward4 ,the absence of this species in northern ,europe and ,asia1 where the climatic conditions1 nature of the vegetation1 etc41 are similar to those of its present home1 is perhaps due to the influence of man4 ,the successful introduction of the domesticated reindeer into ,alaska suggests that beneficial results would follow the transplanting of the musk-ox to northern ,siberia4 ,the ,polar ,bear4--,about all of the northern coast-line of ,america1 including the shore of ,bering ,sea and ,baffin ,bay1 lives the well-known polar bear1 which is circumpolar in its distribution4 ,the wide range of this the most northern of the bear tribe is due not only to its strength and ability to make long journeys over rough ice-floes and the wide distribution of the animals it feeds upon1 principally the hair-seal1 but is aided by the fact that it takes to the water readily and is a good swimmer4 ,it has also been known to make long journeys on floating ice4 ,the ,eskimo ,dog4--,another animal of circumpolar distribution1 the original home of which is unknown1 is the ,eskimo dog1 the range of which has no doubt been extended while the distribution of many other animals has been curtailed1 owing to human influences4 ,the ,caribou4--,the neighbour of the musk-ox in the desolate solitudes of the far north1 and in part ranging over the same ground1 is the caribou1 the ,american representative of the reindeer4 ,indeed the caribou and the reindeer have been considered as belonging to the same species by some naturalists1 but recently the ,american division of the genus has been shown to consist of at least five species1 each of which differs from the one found in ,europe and ,asia4 ,among hunters and sportsmen1 two divisions have long been known1 namely1 the woodland caribou and the ,barren ,ground caribou4 ,the former includes the larger species1 or the caribou proper1 as it may be termed1 and the recently described species from ,newfoundland and ,alaska2 while the latter is represented by a single species1 the ,rangifer articus4 ,the woodland caribou is in general about twice the size of the species inhabiting the ,barren ,grounds1 has a height of #da_/b feet at the shoulder1 and weighs some #bej pounds1 although the males sometimes reach a weight of #djj pounds4 ,its range is from ,nova ,scotia and ,newfoundland northwestward through the subarctic forest to ,british ,columbia and northeastern ,alaska4 ,as its popular name signifies1 its home is in the forest1 and although meeting the smaller form during the latter's southward migrations1 it does not extend its range to the ,barren ,grounds4 ,on the south1 it was formerly found in northern ,michigan and in southern ,new ,york1 and thence eastward through ,vermont1 ,new ,hampshire1 and ,maine4 ,owing to the activity with which it has been hunted1 it has for the most part been crowded to the north of the ,st4 ,lawrence1 and is reported to be greatly diminished in numbers even in the wilds of ,labrador4 ,it still wanders into the woods of ,new ,hampshire and ,maine1 and occurs somewhat abundantly in ,nova ,scotia and ,newfoundland4 ,it is the caribou of ,newfoundland1 etc41 which comes nearest the reindeer in size and in the shape of its magnificent antlers1 but none of the ,american species has been domesticated4 ,the ,barren-,ground caribou still occurs in large herds in northern ,labrador1 on the treeless region to the west of ,hudson ,bay1 and in winter migrates southward into the shelter of the subarctic forest4 ,in its northern range it reaches the shore of the ,arctic ,ocean and the islands adjacent1 and on the west follows the tundra to the ,bering ,sea coast4 ,in ,alaska it formerly occurred in immense herds1 especially in winter1 when it made long inland journeys through the forest and across the frozen rivers1 but the invasion of the region by miners and the supplying of the natives with firearms has led to a great reduction in its numbers4 ,in the barren and but seldom traversed region to the west and north of ,hudson ,bay the caribou is still in its primitive condition and moves in bands numbering several thousand4 ,in this connection an extract from the journal of ,j4 ,b4 ,tyrrell1 of the ,canadian ,geological ,survey1 is of interest3 ,all day ,july #cj1 #ahic the caribou have been around us in vast numbers1 many thousands being assembled in a single herd4 ,one herd collected on the hill behind our camp1 and another remained for hours in the wet bog on the point in front of us4 ,the little fawns were running about everywhere1 often coming up to within a yard or two of us1 uttering their sharp grunts as they stood and looked at us or as they turned and ran back to the does4 ,about noon a large herd had collected on the sides and summit of the hill behind us4 ,taking a small hand-camera with which we were supplied1 we walked quietly among them4 ,as we approached to within a few yards of the dense herd1 it opened to let us in and then formed a circle around us1 so that we were able to stand for a couple of hours and watch the deer as they stood in the light breeze or rubbed slowly past each other to keep off the black flies4 ,the bucks1 with their beautiful branching antlers1 kept well to the background4 ,later in the afternoon a herd of bucks trotted up to us and stood at about #dj yards distant4 ,this was a most beautiful sight1 for their horns were fully grown1 though still soft at the tips1 but unfortunately we had no camera with us4 ,we did no shooting to-day4 ,the herd of caribou just described was estimated to contain between #ajj1jjj and #bjj1jjj animals4 ,the destruction of the woodland caribou in the eastern portion of ,canada has been so great that it is in danger of being exterminated1 and great suffering1 and even starvation has overtaken the ,indians of that region in consequence4 ,similar1 but even more alarming results have followed the thoughtless slaughter of the ,barren-,ground caribou in ,alaska1 and to prevent the suffering and even threatened extermination of the natives1 reindeer from ,siberia and northern ,europe have been introduced by the ,united ,states ,government#d and are thriving under the care of herders from ,lapland4 ,the moss on which the reindeer feed is abundant in ,alaska1 and there seems no good reason why they should not become as numerous and useful in their new home as they were in the boreal portion of the ,old ,world4 ,the first reindeer were introduced in ,alaska in #ahha1 and the several herds1 collectively1 now number #c1cbc4 #d ,the introduction of domesticated reindeer into ,north ,america is a very important matter1 and one which if properly conducted will add vastly to the food supply and resources for clothing for both native and white people4 ,the civilization of the natives in the northern portion of the continent and the securing for them of a source of subsistence which will depend on their own care and industry hinges on the success of this undertaking4 ,much information in this connection may be found in the reports of ,sheldon ,jackson1 published by the ,bureau of ,education at ,washington between #ahic and #aijj4 ,the ,moose4--,this1 the largest living representative of the deer tribe1 and with the exception of the bison the largest existing land mammal of ,north ,america1 formerly inhabited the continent throughout its entire breadth from the forty-third to the seventieth degree of latitude1 or from the mouth of the ,ohio to the mouth of the ,mackenzie4 ,although crowded northward and now found only sparingly in the ,united ,states1 as1 for example1 in the extensive forests of ,maine and in the still larger forests clothing the mountains of ,montana and ,idaho1 it has held its own in the wildest and most remote portions of the ,pacific mountains in ,canada and ,alaska1 where its numbers are perhaps nearly as great as they were a century ago4 ,its preservation is due not only to its shyness1 remarkably quick hearing1 and keen sense of smell1 but to its solitary habits and the fact that it does not gather in herds during the breeding season1 like most other deer4 ,a full-grown male moose is from #g to #h feet high at the shoulder1 and from #aj to #ab feet high at the tip of the magnificent antlers when standing erect1 and is from #hjj to #a1bjj pounds in weight4 ,the broad palmate antlers with numerous sharp points sometimes measure #ha_/b feet or more from tip to tip4 ,the does are without antlers1 and are still more ungainly than the long-legged and apparently awkward males4 ,stringent laws are now enforced for the protection of the moose in all of the inhabited portions of its range1 and it is likely to survive and to continue to tempt the sportsman to traverse the wild regions it inhabits for several generations to come4 ,the ,wapiti4--,next in size to the moose1 and in many ways the grandest of the deer tribe not only of ,america1 but of the world1 is the wapiti or ,american elk4 ,in language not pedantic1 ,w4 ,a4 ,perry speaks as follows of this noble animal3 ,monarch of the wilderness1 lord of the mountain1 king of the plain1 what hunter who has sought thee in thy pine-embowered home whose heart-beat does not quicken and whose eye does not brighten at the mention of thy name6 ,for with it comes the recollection of boundless prairies1 grass-robed and flower-decked2 of pine-clad1 snow-capped mountains2 of sweet breezes1 gentle melodies1 and grand trophies4 ,i once heard an ,indian speak his last words1 and they were these3 ',to-morrow1 in the ,spirit ,land1 again shall ,i chase the wapiti4' ,although the wapiti is one of the typical animals of the boreal region1 in its primitive freedom it overstepped the boundaries of the life-zones which science seeks to define1 and marched southward far into the austral region4 ,it was found at the coming of the white man in nearly all parts of what is now the ,united ,states1 and extended from the table-land of north-central ,mexico northward to the fifty-sixth or fifty-seventh degree of latitude1 or about the position of ,lake ,athabasca4 ,its northern range thus overlapped the region inhabited by the moose and caribou1 while at the south it was exposed to the attacks of the jaguar4 ,as civilization advanced across the continent1 the wapiti slowly retreated1 and in diminished numbers it now lives in the wildest portion of the ,pacific mountains to the north of ,snake ,river and the ,columbia4 ,it is still abundant in the ,olympic ,mountains of ,washington1 the ,bitter ,root ,mountains of ,idaho1 and in ,montana4 ,a large herd finds protection in the ,yellowstone ,national ,park1 but in winter1 when migrating southward1 is exposed to most destructive attacks from both white and ,indian hunters4 ,among the mountains of the mainland in ,british ,columbia and the central and more rugged portion of ,vancouver ,island it is still the king of the wilderness4 ,the male wapiti at maturity is some #g or #h feet high at the shoulders1 and lifts its wide-spreading antlers fully #aa feet from the ground4 ,its weight is from #hjj to possibly #a1ajj pounds4 ,the colour is1 in general1 dark brown1 with lighter shades on the thighs1 and changing to black beneath the body2 there are stripes of light brown on either side of the tail which join an area of similar colour beneath the hind legs2 the colour varies1 however1 at different seasons and in different individuals4 ,the head is small1 well formed1 and beautiful4 ,the carriage of the animal and its bold1 undaunted mien1 when roaming its native mountains and glens1 is all and more than poets ascribe to the stag of the ,old ,world4 ,stringent laws are now on the statute-books for the protection of the wapiti1 both in the ,united ,states and ,canada1 but the difficulties in the way of enforcing them in regions remote from civilization are great4 ,the wapiti does not extend into the most forbidding wilds of the far north1 where its safety as a species1 as in the case of the moose1 would be insured1 and besides1 congregates in bands1 which facilitates its slaughter4 ,its range has been steadily decreasing since the coming of the white man1 and particularly since the introduction of firearms among the ,indians1 and its extinction1 outside of reservations and parks1 is to be expected in the near future4 ,the ,smaller ,deer4--,besides the caribou1 moose1 and wapiti1 there are half a dozen or more members of the deer family 7,cervidae7 represented in the fauna of ,north ,america4 ,of these the ,virginia deer is best known1 as its range embraces the most thickly settled portion of the continent between ,maine and the ,gulf ,states1 and from the ,atlantic coast to the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,in spite of indiscriminate slaughter and poorly enforced game laws1 this species has not only held its own1 but in recent years has greatly increased in number in certain localities4 ,to the west of the range of the ,virginia deer and merging with it in part1 in the ,pacific mountain region occur the white-tailed1 black-tailed mule1 and sonora deer1 and perhaps other species4 ,the combined ranges of these several species embrace the larger part of the continent and extend from eastern ,canada to the ,pacific coast1 and from southern ,alaska to ,panama4 ,next to the deer comes the antelope1 formerly so common on the ,great plateaus4 ,this1 the pronghorn antelope1 as it is usually termed1 is about the size of the domestic sheep1 but with long slim legs1 and is a most active and exceedingly graceful animal4 ,its true home is on the treeless plateaus east of the ,rocky ,mountains1 but its range extends from ,saskatchewan to northern ,mexico1 and from the ,prairie plains to the ,cascade ,mountains in ,oregon4 ,it has steadily decreased in number1 especially during the last quarter of a century1 and is now no longer seen in the large bands that were formerly an attractive feature of the sea-like plains over which it travels seemingly with the freedom of a bird4 ,the animals thus far referred to have their range determined mainly by the broader features of climate1 but not in a conspicuous way by the relief of surface4 ,they inhabit mountains1 plateaus1 and plains alike1 as is shown most conspicuously in the case of the wapiti1 which formerly grazed in large herds on the prairies of the ,mississippi ,valley1 and has been killed at an elevation of over #aj1jjj feet in the ,pacific mountains4 ,not so1 however1 with the mountain-climbers whose names follow1 which have their chosen station on the mountains at timber-line and ascend as far above that horizon as vegetation grows4 ,the ,bighorn or ,mountain-,sheep4--,the bighorn1 of which three species are now recognised1 has its home in the ,pacific mountains from northern ,mexico to central and northern ,alaska4 ,its vertical range is also great1 as it has been seen on the precipitous walls of the ,grand ,canyon of the ,colorado1 but a few hundred feet above sea-level1 and about the summits of the peaks of ,colorado and in the ,sierra ,nevada and ,cascade ,mountains at elevations of from #aj1jjj to #ac1jjj feet4 ,an exception to the fact that the bighorn is usually found on rugged mountains and is most at home on seemingly inaccessible cliffs is furnished by bands which live and appear to thrive amid the ,bad ,lands along the ,missouri ,river1 some #djj miles to the eastward of the ,stony ,mountains4 ,the bighorn resembles the wapiti in colour1 although it is of a lighter brown1 especially in winter4 ,it is clothed with wool beneath the stiff outer coat of hair1 and is a true sheep1 but larger than any domesticated variety of ,ovis4 ,the rams attain a height of at least #c feet #f inches at the shoulder1 and weigh some #cjj or #djj pounds4 ,both sexes are provided with horns1 but those of the male are much the larger1 and in the finest examples attain a length of #cj inches1 measured along the outer curve1 and a circumference at the base of #ae or #af inches4 ,the most magnificent head ever obtained1 so far as the writer has been able to learn1 is that of a ram shot in the ,selkirk ,mountains1 the horns of which are #eba_/b inches in length1 measured along the outer curve1 and #aha_/b inches in circumference at the base4 ,these immense horns are used1 as in the case of the domestic ram1 in fighting1 but the widely current statement in reference to the animals alighting on them when jumping from precipices is entirely mythical4 ,the bighorn is a fearless and skilful mountaineer1 and will climb or descend precipices by bounding from ledge to ledge where the most reckless hunter dares not follow4 ,its ability to find a sure footing on even smoothly glaciated rocks is due to the peculiar structure of the feet1 which have a rubber-like pad beneath the sharp-pointed and sharp-edged hoofs4 ,the ,mazama or ,mountain-,goat4--,the companion of the bighorn on the lofty mountains1 but even more thoroughly a mountaineer1 is the so-called mountain-goat1 ,aplocerus montanus1 which1 in spite of its long hair1 short curved horns1 sturdy legs1 bearded chin1 and general goat-like appearance1 and more than the goat's ability to climb1 is in reality more nearly related to the antelope than it is to the sheep4 ,this alpine antelope1 unlike its cousin of the plains1 is only at home on dizzy heights1 and summer and winter alike lives at timber-line on the mountains or in the alpine gardens adjacent to perpetual snow4 ,one of the earliest generic names under which it is assumed this alpine antelope was included1 namely1 ,mazama1 although rejected by naturalists1 has recently been revived and adopted by an enthusiastic mountaineering club in ,portland1 ,oregon1 as their name1 and is likely to become widely known4 ,among the hunters and the inhabitants generally of the region where the animal under consideration lives it is termed the mountain-goat1 and no protest from naturalists1 however well founded1 is likely to bring about a change in this connection4 ,the mazama is entirely white1 excepting its hoofs1 horns1 and narrow lines about the eyes and nostrils1 which are black4 ,in general1 it is smaller than the bighorn1 but bucks have been reported to attain a length of nearly #f feet and a weight of some #cjj or #djj pounds4 ,its habitat is not only higher on the mountains but more restricted in geographical extent than that of the bighorn4 ,it is said to live about ,mount ,whitney1 the highest summit in the ,sierra ,nevada1 but is unknown farther south2 in ,colorado it is reported to have been seen on a few of the higher peaks1 but its main range begins well to the north of these outlying localities1 in the mountains of ,montana and ,idaho and in the ,cascades4 ,to the north of the ,united ,states it occurs throughout the higher ranges of ,british ,columbia and in the mountains of southern ,alaska as far west at least as ,cook ,inlet4 ,it is plentiful and as yet undisturbed by hunters on the foot-hills about ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 where the alpine conditions congenial to it occur at an elevation of from #b1jjj to #c1jjj feet above the sea4 ,like all of the larger animals1 and especially the herbivores1 the bighorn and the mazama are sought by sportsmen1 but on account of the ruggedness of the regions they inhabit and their wariness they are likely to survive when most other examples of big game shall have been exterminated4 ,both the bighorn and the mazama are sought by ,indians for food and for their pelts1 and their horns are frequently used1 especially in ,alaska1 in the manufacture of spoons4 ,they are practically of no economic importance to white men1 although their flesh when young is excellent food1 and their fleeces would be of value to the weaver if they could be obtained in sufficient quantity4 ,they serve1 however1 to entice the sportsman1 who is usually an ardent lover of nature1 into some of the wildest and grandest regions the continent affords4 ,their value in this connection is not to be measured in dollars1 and strenuous efforts should be made to insure their continuance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--;,bison at ,silver ,heights1 ,winnipeg4 7,photograph by ,william ,notman ,son47 ,the ,bison4--,of all the larger mammals of ,north ,america1 none was more numerous at the time ,europeans advanced over the continent than the bison or buffalo 7,bos americanus71 and none more important alike to the ,indian and the white man4 ,the part played by this relative of the domestic ox in the history of the country is not only instructive1 but one of the best illustrations that can be furnished of the practical extermination of a species through the greed and lack of forethought of so-called civilized man4 ,the bison is a shaggy1 brown animal1 about the size of the well-known ,durham breed of cattle1 but with a larger head and a prominent hump on the shoulders 7,fig4 #ca74 ,the hind quarters are small in comparison with the massive head and shoulders1 and appear weak4 ,the head1 neck1 shoulders1 and fore legs are covered with thick matted hair1 at times #af inches long and of a dark-brown colour merging into black4 ,the straight black hair beneath the chin of the bull is usually some #aj inches in length1 and as the animal carries its head low1 frequently sweeps the ground4 ,back of the medial portion of the body the hair is short and of a yellowish-brown colour1 or between dark umber and a living-liver brown1 as ,audubon says4 ,there is much variation in colour1 however1 and distinct varieties have been stated to exist4 ,the horns1 hoofs1 and a bare space about the nostrils and mouth are black4 ,the weight of a fully grown bull is about #b1jjj pounds1 and of a cow #a1bjj pounds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,range of the ,bison4 ,the boundaries of the region in which the bison has been seen by white men1 together with the dates of its extermination in various sections of the country1 etc41 are shown in ,fig4 #cb4 ,in about #ahgj the vast herd which ranged over the treeless plateaus and ,prairie plains between the ,rio ,grande and ,great ,slave ,lake was divided1 owing to the great slaughter that occurred in the vicinity of the ,central ,pacific ,railroad1 into two herds1 one of which had its summer range in ,montana and neighbouring territory1 but moved northward in summer into ,canada1 while the other fed on the plains of the west ,texas region in winter and moved northward in summer as far as southern ,nebraska4 ,in each case a southward movement was begun as winter approached1 but these seasonal changes scarcely warrant the name of migrations4 ,the number of these large animals living between the ,mississippi and ,rocky ,mountains previous to #ahgb1 even after being hunted for centuries by the ,indians and killed in constantly increasing numbers each year by white men for half a century1 can only be reckoned in millions4 ,many trustworthy observations are on record1 however1 from which the vastness of the herds can be approximately judged4 ,for example1 ,r4 ,i4 ,dodge thus refers to a herd which he passed through in the ,arkansas ,valley in ,may1 #ahga1 when it was moving northward3 ,the great herd could not have averaged1 at rest1 over #ae or #bj individuals to the acre1 but was not less than #be miles wide1 and from reports of hunters and others it was about five days in passing a given point1 or not less than #ej miles deep4 ,from the top of ,pawnee ,rock ,i could see from #f to #aj miles in almost every direction4 ,this whole vast space was covered with buffalo1 looking at a distance like one compact mass1 the visual angle not permitting the ground to be seen4 ,from this and other observations1 ,w4 ,t4 ,hornaday has estimated that the herd referred to numbered not less than #d1jjj1jjj individuals4 ,from the records kept by railroad companies of the number of skins shipped over their lines and other evidences1 it has been computed that of the southern herd mentioned above over #c1ejj1jjj individuals were killed during the years #ahgb1 #ahgc1 and #ahgd4 ,the northern herd seems to have been at least as large as the southern one1 so that the entire number on the ,great plateaus in any one year for the decade preceding #ahgj was not less than #h1jjj1jjj1 and even this vast number seems to be an underestimate4 ,the great slaughter of the southern herd occurred from #ahgb to #ahgd1 and of the northern herd ten years later4 ,in #ahhi1 as stated by ,hornaday1 the bisons running at large in ,north ,america numbered but #fce4 ,in #aijb the number of bison in the ,united ,states was reported to be #hjj1 the increase being due to protection extended to the herds1 and perhaps also to a more accurate count4 ,fur-,bearing ,animals4--,of the animals of ,north ,america which are taken for their fur1 the seal and sea-otter have already been referred to in connection with the brief review presented of the life of the continental shelf4 ,as is well known1 the colder regions of the earth are the ones which yield the most valuable furs1 and in the fur trade of the world this continent1 on account of its wide expansion at the north1 has taken the leading place as a producer4 ,in fact1 the fur trade is a prominent feature in the history of ,america1 and one whose followers experienced great vicissitudes and countless adventures4 ,the animals that tempted the tireless and fearless sons particularly of ,france1 ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,russia to build their fortified trading-posts throughout the subarctic forest from the ,st4 ,lawrence to the ,mackenzie and ,yukon1 were principally the beaver1 sable1 ermine1 fox1 mink1 wolverene1 bear1 otter1 wolf1 lynx1 musk-rat1 skunk1 marmot1 etc4 ,nearly all of these animals are forest dwellers1 and several of them1 as the beaver1 otter1 mink1 and musk-rat1 haunt the shores of streams and lakes4 ,of the sable1 there are two species1 known as the marten and the fisher4 ,the bears are represented by at least four species4 ,the foxes number at least a dozen species1 of which four are especially prized for the beauty of their fur1 namely1 the arctic1 red1 cross1 and silver4 ,while the fur-bearing animals named above are characteristic of the life of the boreal region of ,north ,america1 a number of the species1 and1 in fact1 nearly all of them1 range southward into the austral region1 especially in the more humid and generally forest-covered portions of both the ,pacific and ,atlantic mountains1 while one of the most important as regards the beauty of its fur--the otter 7,lutra canadensis71 frequently termed the land-otter1 in order not to confound it with its larger and far more valuable cousin1 the sea-otter 7,enhydra marina7--reaches the torrid region and is still living in ,florida1 and has been reported as occurring in ,central ,america4 ,of all the fur-bearing animals referred to above1 the most valuable when the total number of skins that have been taken is considered1 and in many ways the most interesting1 is the beaver1 of which but one living species 7,castor canadensis71 closely allied to the beaver of northern ,europe1 is known in ,america4 ,fully grown individuals are about #c feet in length1 one-third of which is to be credited to the broad1 flat1 scale-covered tail1 and weighs some #ej or #fj pounds4 ,the outer coat of its pelage consists of rather coarse brown hair1 beneath which there is a fine1 soft1 dark fur1 which makes its skin of commercial value4 ,in dressing the skins the hair is plucked1 the fine fur beneath being clipped to a uniform length and usually dyed4 ,the formerly well-known beaver hat was made from this fur1 but in recent years silk has taken its place4 ,the importance of the ,american beaver is illustrated by the fact that some #g1jjj1jjj skins have been sold in ,london by the ,hudson's ,bay ,company since the year #ageb4 ,not only is the fur of the beaver in demand1 but its flesh1 and especially the muscles of the tail1 are prized for food by hunters and others who live the free1 open-air life of the frontier1 although it is seldom exposed for sale in the markets of cities4 ,the beaver is of interest to the geographer not only on account of its wide distribution1 which embraced the entire continent wherever the willow1 birch1 alder1 etc41 on which it subsisted1 could grow1 from northern ,mexico to the ,arctic ,ocean1 but for the reason that it made more conspicuous and lasting changes in the minor features of the surface of the land than any other mammal4 ,one of its peculiar habits is that it gnaws down trees frequently #f or #h inches in diameter1 and after cutting them into sticks a few feet in length1 uses them in making dams across small streams4 ,these dams were built in thousands and tens of thousands all through the forested regions1 and being plastered with mud1 and still further enlarged and strengthened by the accumulation of driftwood and leaves1 held the waters of the streams in check and caused them to expand so as to form small lakes1 ponds1 and swamps4 ,these beaver-dam lakes are common even at the present day1 and many of them which have been filled with sediment or drained furnish rich lands1 now utilized for gardens and cultivated fields4 ,in ,michigan these beaver-dam lakes furnish the rich black soil so favourable for the raising of celery and other vegetables4 ,the beaver has disappeared from all but the wilder and more inaccessible portions of the continent1 but the influence of the changes it made in the drainage of the land will endure for many generations to come4 ,of the fur-bearing animals mentioned above1 none are more definitely ,american than the skunks1 or1 to use a more felicitous name1 ,mephitis1 which ranges from central ,canada to central ,mexico1 and is represented by four or five species4 ,as stated by ,elliott ,coues in his instructive monograph on the ,north ,america ,mustelidae1 the skunks are closely related to the badgers1 being heavy-bodied1 short-legged1 stout in build1 with hairy tails and generally loose pelage4 ,they neither climb trees nor swim in water2 their gait is slow1 and they do not allow themselves to be hurried1 even in the face of danger2 their retreats are burrows in the ground or dens in rocks and hollow logs1 and sometimes in the nooks and corners of dwellings and outhouses4 ,their most common representative1 ,mephitis mephitica1 is a beautiful animal some #ae or #bj inches in length1 exclusive of its bushy tail1 which is usually #ab to #ae inches long4 ,the head is small1 the ears low and short1 and the hair of a glossy black1 relieved by conspicuous white markings which are not only irregular in shape1 but vary with individuals4 ,the most marked characteristic of the skunks is their ability to emit at will a fluid which has the most disagreeable and sickening odour known4 ,this fluid is secreted in two glands1 each about one inch in diameter1 situated at the base of the tail and opening into the rectum1 but has no connection with the secretions of the kidneys1 and is probably seldom discharged except when the animal is annoyed4 ,it is a unique and most efficient means of defence4 ,in this connection it is to be remembered1 however1 that the skunks belong to the family ,mustelidae1 which is characterized in part by the odoriferous secretions present in its various species1 but1 above all others1 the odours emitted by the genera under consideration are the most dreadful4 ,the stench produced by these animals when startled or enraged is not only horrible beyond description1 but endures for months and even a year or more4 ,the yellow liquid which is ejected is squirted in a fine spray for a distance of some #f or #h feet1 but its odour may sometimes be perceived1 even when the wind is still1 for a distance of a quarter of a mile4 ,the skunk having this one unconquerable means of defence from all its enemies except man1 exhibits evidence of degeneration in other respects4 ,when discharging its odoriferous fluid it faces its enemy1 who is held at bay or retreats1 and hence1 not being compelled to run1 has acquired a slow1 wavering gait and deliberate movements2 having no occasion to ascend trees for safety1 it has lost or failed to develop the ability to climb2 and its lack of other powers which are highly developed in its near of kin may be used in illustration in a similar way4 ,it is practically removed from the attacks of enemies excepting dogs and other canines and some birds of prey1 but has to adapt itself to conditions of climate and food supply4 ,in winter in the northern portion of its habitat it becomes more or less torpid1 and during the coldest weather usually hibernates1 thus lessening the exertion required to procure sustenance4 ,when the temperature is not excessively low it seeks its food1 which consists of insects1 birds' eggs1 small reptiles1 mice1 etc41 and in settled regions visits the poultry-yards1 and thus increases the enmity extended to it by all mankind1 who have ever been disgusted by its odours4 ,another objectionable fact in reference to this despised yet1 we may perhaps say1 respectfully treated animal1 is that its bite sometimes produces hydrophobia4 ,the skunks are not only widely distributed in ,north ,america1 occupying perhaps a larger area in the austral than they do in the boreal region1 but are influenced to a less extent by climatic and topographic conditions than probably any other genera among our mammals4 ,it lives among mountains and on plateaus and plains1 and in forests as well as on the open prairies1 and extends from humid regions like eastern ,canada and ,new ,england to the dry1 semi-desert valley of ,new ,mexico1 and from the cold shores of the ,great ,lakes and central ,canada to the warm ,gulf ,states4 ,although offensive1 and everywhere declared a nuisance1 and persecuted as such1 as well as trapped and hunted for its pelt1 its range has been decreased but little since the settlement of the country by ,europeans1 although its numbers are greatly reduced4 ,its beautiful fur when deodorized and dyed of a uniform black is sold under the name ,alaskan sable1 black marten1 ,american sable1 etc41 and is extensively worn even by the most fashionably attired dames of every land4 ,the ,bears4--,of the bears native to ,north ,america1 as was stated by ,s4 ,f4 ,baird in #aheg1 the number of species is somewhat indefinite1 but four are commonly recognised and mention is sometimes made of two others4 ,this uncertainty as to the number of species of the genus ,ursus1 ,i believe1 still exists1 and in itself is significant4 ,if the bears have not been satisfactorily classified1 as is apparently the case1 it suggests that they exhibit great variations and that the drawing of hard and fast specific boundaries among them is difficult1 and perhaps impossible4 ,the species which are usually recognised are the polar bear1 the grizzly1 the cinnamon1 and the black4 ,of the black and brown or cinnamon bears there seems to be several varieties1 some of which are perhaps worthy of being considered species4 ,on the other hand1 it must be remembered that ,baird and others makes the cinnamon a variety of the black bear4 ,again the grizzly and cinnamon intergrade in such a manner that an experienced naturalist has considered them to be but extremes of a single species4 ,the polar bear is distinguished from its kindred1 at least in a general way1 by its large size and white or yellowish-white colour4 ,these and other differences from its relatives have led naturalists to place it in a distinct genus1 of which it is the only species4 ,it is circumpolar in its distribution1 and in ,america occurs along the coast1 seldom travelling inland except during the breeding season1 when it is sometimes met with #be miles from the ocean4 ,its southern range on the ,atlantic coast is in northern ,labrador1 but it is occasionally carried on floating ice as far south as ,newfoundland4 ,it inhabits the shores of ,hudson ,bay and the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,on the west coast it reaches ,bering ,strait1 and is carried on floating ice to the islands in the northern part of ,bering ,sea1 and at rare intervals reaches the ,pribilof ,islands4 ,it is probably strictly carnivorous1 and lives principally on the seal4 ,it is supposed to be the largest of the bear tribe1 but is certainly approached if not rivalled in size by the brown bear of southern ,alaska4 ,as many arctic explorers testify1 it is dangerous to man and will lead in an attack4 ,the famous grizzly or silver tip inhabits the ,pacific mountains1 but is best known in the ,rocky ,mountains and ,sierra ,nevada4 ,although like all kindred species presenting conspicuous individual variations1 it is usually dark in colour1 with white tips to some of the hairs4 ,the pelage is long1 almost shaggy1 and gives the animal even a more formidable appearance than its great size and strength justifies4 ,it is not only one of the largest of the ,american bears1 ranking in this respect with the polar bear and the largest of the huge brown bears1 but is also probably the fiercest1 and not infrequently has been known to attack man1 although it will usually retreat from the presence of human beings if an opportunity is available4 ,full-grown individuals are about #h feet in length and weigh in the neighbourhood of #a1jjj to #a1bjj pounds4 ,the brown bear1 of which there are perhaps three species1 including the ,barren-,ground bear of the north-central part of ,canada1 are1 as their name signifies1 of a brown or cinnamon colour1 but present great variation in this respect4 ,some are of a decided yellow1 while others become dark and are scarcely distinguishable from the true grizzly4 ,they reach a great size1 particularly in southern ,alaska1 and possibly in certain instances even exceed the polar bear in dimensions and weight4 ,the tracks of one which ,i measured near ,mount ,st4 ,elias were #af inches long by #h inches wide1 and the stride was #fd inches4 ,the range of the brown bear is confined principally to the ,pacific mountains1 but is of greater extent than that of the true grizzlies and includes central ,canada4 ,the black bears are of almost continental distribution and occurred in all or nearly all wooded districts before the balance of natural conditions was disturbed by the coming of the white man4 ,they are the smallest of the bear tribe on this continent and are usually harmless1 but at times when attacked or approached suddenly1 especially if accompanied by their young1 become formidable enemies4 ,their colour is usually a glossy black1 but much variation occurs1 especially about the head1 and this and other differences are thought by some to indicate specific distinctions4 ,a seemingly well-marked variety occurring in southern ,alaska1 which has a thick bluish-black under-fur1 has recently been described as a distinct species4 ,near relatives of the bear are the racoons1 of which several species are present1 one being abundant in the eastern portion of the ,united ,states and the other in the ,pacific mountains4 ,the ,cats4--,the ,felidae are represented by two genera1 ,felis and ,lynx1 each of which contains several species4 ,of the true cats1 the largest is the beautiful jaguar1 or ,american tiger1 ,felis onza1 which is nearly as large1 and by some said to be equal in size to its ,asiatic relative4 ,it more nearly approaches the leopard1 however1 in the character of its spots as well as in its arboreal habit1 but exceeds it in size4 ,the jaguar is some #d feet or more in length to the base of the tail1 and the tail is about #c feet long4 ,its general colour is a soft-yellowish passing into dark brown and black1 with large rosette- or somewhat lozenge-shaped spots1 which take the form of indefinite rings of dark fur with lighter centres1 within which there are one or two dark dots or eyes4 ,the skins are fully as beautiful as those of the tiger or leopard1 and are highly prized for rugs1 and in some cases have been used for clothing4 ,a dark1 nearly black variety 7or perhaps more properly1 examples of melanism7 has been described as a distinct species1 and is sometimes spoken of as the black tiger4 ,the centre of distribution of the jaguar is probably in the great ,amazonian forest1 but it ranges over nearly all of ,south ,america1 throughout ,central ,america1 and extends northward to ,texas and perhaps ,louisiana4 ,next to the jaguar in importance is the widely known panther4 ,unlike most of its relatives1 this species has an essentially uniform colour4 ,the fur on the back1 head1 and tail is of a tawny brownish-yellow1 but varies somewhat with changes in seasons4 ,the under parts are of a dirty white4 ,the animal when full-grown is of a formidable size1 the larger examples being nearly #e feet long from the tip of the nose to the base of the tail4 ,the stout cylindrical tail is from #bj to over #cj inches long4 ,in spite of its size and great strength the panther is not to be feared so long as room for its escape is open1 as it is a great coward4 ,one of the most interesting facts concerning this species is its unusually great range4 ,before being disturbed by white men it inhabited practically the entire width of both ,north and ,south ,america1 from ,hudson ,bay to ,patagonia1 an extreme range of some #aaj degrees of latitude4 ,it is most at home in the mountains and is seldom seen on open plains4 ,it is still common in the ,pacific mountains of the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,of the smaller cats1 several of which are beautifully marked1 mention may be made of the ocelot of the ,texas region and the lynx or ,american wildcat4 ,the latter1 of which there are at least three varieties1 is yet common1 and maintains approximately its original range1 which embraces the entire width of the continent from the subarctic forest at least as far south as northern ,mexico4 ,the ,wolves4--,in the history of the establishment of ,english colonies in this country1 and throughout the spread of civilization across the continent1 many accounts are given of encounters with wolves4 ,these stories as they have been handed down have probably in many instances been magnified1 but there is no doubt but that the larger wolves1 such as the gray timber-wolf1 once common in the northern portion of the ,united ,states1 when assembled in packs and pressed by hunger1 were formidable antagonists4 ,of the wolves1 four species are usually recognised1 but their great variation1 in each instance1 has led to the description of numerous varieties1 some of which have by certain writers been given the dignity of distinct species4 ,the largest is the gray wolf1 which is white or grizzly gray in colour1 and frequently #e feet or more in length and weighs #ej to #fj pounds4 ,individuals have been killed1 however1 which exceed these measures4 ,the range of this species1 or group of species as the case may be1 was originally continental1 but more particularly in the forested regions4 ,its hair1 which is frequently #d inches or more in length1 and the fine thick under-fur make the skins valuable for robes1 but they are seldom used for clothing1 except by the ,indians and ,eskimos4 ,the hood of the outer garment worn by ,eskimos1 termed a parkie1 is frequently fringed about the face-opening with the long warm hair of the wolf4 ,a smaller species1 the coyote1 is still common on the western plains1 and is termed the prairie-wolf4 ,it is a comparatively small animal1 although frequently #c feet in length of body with a bushy tail two-thirds as long1 and is of a skulking1 cowardly nature4 ,its colour is usually a yellowish gray1 and its skin1 although used for robes1 is much inferior to that of the gray wolf4 ,its range is from northern ,mexico northward throughout the great plateaus1 and in the valleys of the ,pacific mountains into ,canada4 ,it is usually the first of the larger mammals the traveller in that region learns the existence of1 even at the present day4 ,several individuals frequently gather together just after sunset and make their presence known by barking and howling in concert4 ,these serenades last but a short time1 however1 and are likely to be repeated in the morning just before sunrise4 ,during the night the animals composing these bands seem to scatter and hunt for food singly1 but reunite in the early morning1 after which they again separate and seek secluded individual retreats4 ,brief ,mention of ,other ,mammals4--,in order to convey an adequate idea of the large variety and richness of the ,north ,american mammalian fauna far more space would be required than is at present available4 ,indeed1 of the smaller mammals much more research is evidently needed before even the number of genera and species can be enumerated1 much less their life histories and economic importance made known1 as is indicated by the fact that a large number of species previously recognised has been described during the past two or three years4 ,of the abundant smaller mammals1 none are more attractive or beautiful than the arboreal squirrels1 of which several species are widely known4 ,one of these1 the common red squirrel1 is remarkable for its wide range and adaptability to a great variety of conditions4 ,it is abundant in the valley of the ,yukon and even north of the arctic circle1 throughout the forest-covered portions of ,canada1 and as far south as the ,south ,atlantic ,states4 ,of less extensive range is the gray squirrel and the black squirrel1 common in ,new ,england1 and the somewhat larger and yet more beautiful fox squirrel of the central part of the continental basin4 ,there are also a large number of species of ground squirrels1 and several species of flying-squirrels4 ,the rodents are also represented by the marmots1 certain species of which are exceedingly numerous near timber-line in many of the ranges of the ,pacific mountains as far north at least as ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 and by gophers1 chipmunks1 lemmings1 the musk-rat1 porcupines1 rabbits1 hares1 rats1 mice1 etc4 ,the list might also be extended by enumerating the bats1 shrews1 and moles1 but we are compelled to cut short this most interesting portion of our review4 ,mammalian ,families ,peculiar to ,america4--,while there are many genera and species of mammals found only on this continent1 the number of families that are peculiar to it is small4 ,among the characteristic families1 most of which1 however1 extend into ,south ,america1 none are of greater interest in the study of geographical distribution than the opossums1 of which there are #c genera and some #bb species1 all of them confined to the ,new ,world4 ,of these1 two species are common in ,north ,america3 one1 the ,virginia opossum1 abundant throughout the eastern portion of the ,united ,states to the south of ,new ,york1 and the other and smaller species1 which inhabits ,mexico and extends northward into southern ,california and ,texas4 ,many representatives of this same family occur in ,central and ,south ,america1 some of which are notable on account of their diminutive size4 ,the opossums are of peculiar interest owing to the fact that they are the only representatives of the marsupials now living outside of ,australia4 ,fossil species occur1 however1 in the ,tertiary rock of ,europe1 so that the ,american forms cannot be considered as indicating a recent land connection between this continent and ,australia4 ,the porcupines are also representative of the ,new ,world fauna1 although not strictly confined to it1 and belong mostly in the northern continent4 ,the ,canadian porcupine is found throughout nearly the entire forested portion of the boreal region and extends as far south as the ,middle ,atlantic ,states1 and an allied species1 but of larger size1 inhabits a portion of the same region and extends to the ,pacific mountains and occurs in ,alaska4 ,the racoons are strictly ,american and inhabit both continents4 ,they are common in the forests of ,central ,america and ,mexico1 and extend as far north as central ,canada4 ,of the several families of smaller and less well-known mammals peculiar to this continent1 mention may be made of the pouched rats of ,california4 ,all of the animals to which attention has thus far been directed are now living2 should one attempt to describe the great number of fossil forms whose bones have been discovered in the rocks1 the menagerie would be vastly enlarged1 and many exceedingly strange species1 genera1 families1 and even larger divisions of the animal kingdom1 added to the extended procession4 ,,the ,,birds ,when one attempts to write an account of the birds of ,north ,america1 the heavens seem darkened with such a multitude of varied and beautiful forms and the air filled with such a discordant clamour mingled with the sweetest of music that failure to convey an adequate idea of the countless numbers and diversity of the feathered throng within the compass of a few pages must be recognised from the start4 ,the important place held by the birds of ,north ,america in the avifauna of the world1 may perhaps be best indicated by noting first of all what orders and families are without representatives among them4 ,the orders under which the birds of the world are arranged in the scheme of classification adopted by ,wallace in his great work on the geographical distribution of animals are as follows3 ,,class--,,aves ,,orders4 ,,examples4 #a4 ,passeres ,includes the greater number of the smaller birds1 such as kingbirds1 flycatchers1 larks1 jays1 crows1 blackbirds1 finches1 sparrows1 warblers1 chickadees1 swallows1 thrushes1 etc41 numbering in ,north ,america some #cbh species and many subspecies4 #b4 ,picariae ,woodpeckers1 cuckoos1 toucans1 kingfishers1 swifts1 goat-suckers1 humming-birds1 etc4 #c4 ,psittaci ,parrots only4 #d4 ,columbae ,pigeons and the dodo4 #e4 ,gallinae ,grouse1 pheasants1 quail1 jungle-fowl1 turkeys1 guinea-fowl1 etc4 #f4 ,opisthocomi ,the hoazin of ,guiana and ,brazil only4 #g4 ,accipitres ,eagles1 owls1 vultures1 hawks1 buzzards1 falcons1 etc4 #h4 ,grallae ,rails1 snipes1 plovers1 cranes1 herons1 storks1 flamingoes1 etc4 #i4 ,anseres ,ducks1 geese1 gulls1 petrels1 pelicans1 penguins1 loons1 auks1 etc4 #aj4 ,struthiones ,ostrich1 rhea1 cassowaries1 emeus1 apteryx4 ,of these ten orders1 all but two are abundantly represented in ,north ,america4 ,the missing orders include the ostrich-like birds1 of which the only species in the ,new ,world is the rhea1 of the southern portion of ,south ,america1 and the peculiar hoazin1 represented by a single species found in ,guiana and ,brazil4 ,the eight orders under which the birds of ,north ,america have been arranged 7other classifications1 however1 have been adopted by various naturalists7 have again been subdivided into families1 genera1 species1 etc4 ,according to ,wallace's summary1 the #h orders referred to contain #abd families1 of which #ge are not represented in ,north ,america to the north of the lowlands of ,mexico1 while #dg families are present4 ,of these #dg families1 #be are essentially of world-wide distribution1 and only #a1 containing a single species1 a small wren-like bird of the genus ,chamaea1 found in ,california1 is peculiar to the fauna of the continent4 ,as the ,north ,american continent under the arrangement adopted for the series of books of which the one in hand forms a part1 is considered as including the ,west ,indies1 ,mexico1 and ,central ,america1 the above summary does not represent its entire bird fauna1 but presents1 perhaps1 the best general idea of it that is at present attainable4 ,to include the birds of the tropical portion of the continent would add greatly to the number of species1 but ,i believe not materially to the number of families and orders1 as given above4 ,in reviewing the distribution of the land birds of ,north ,america to the north of ,mexico1 but including lower ,california1 ,j4 ,a4 ,allen places the total number of genera1 as given in the check-list of the ,american ,ornithologists' ,union1 at #aha4 ,of these1 #ee1 or #cj per cent1 are circumpolar or otherwise wide-ranging ,old ,world forms2 #abf genera1 or #gj per cent1 are ,american1 of which #ce1 or #bh per cent1 are essentially tropical1 leaving #ia genera1 or about #ej per cent1 as distinctly ,north ,american4 ,the number of species in the avifauna of the continent1 according to the latest check-list published by the ,american ,ornithologists' ,union 7#ahie71 is #gfh1 together with a large number of subspecies4 ,if the tropical portion of the continent were included1 this number would be greatly increased and possibly doubled4 ,a further generalization has been advanced by ,allen1 who states that in the arctic portion of the continent the number of genera of birds present during the breeding season is #fe1 of which only #e are exclusively ,american4 ,in the cold temperate belt #abj genera are represented1 of which #ih are circumpolar and #bb ,american4 ,in the warm temperate belt #ie genera occur which do not range into the cold temperate belt1 and of these only #ab are ,old ,world forms1 while #hc are exclusively ,american1 and in addition #fj genera are common to both the cold and the warm temperate zone1 of which #df are represented in the fauna of the ,old ,world1 while #ad are ,american4 ,this gives #aee genera for the warm temperate zone1 of which #eh are ,old ,world and #ig exclusively ,american4 ,there are besides #ej essentially tropical genera which extend into the warm temperate zone1 of which #dc are ,american and #g tropicopolitan4 ,the avifauna of the warm temperate zone thus contains a total of #bje genera4 ,the above enumeration indicates the rapid increase in the variety of bird life met with as one travels from the arctic to the ,gulf coast of the continent1 and in this connection it is to be remembered that the land contracts in breadth towards the south4 ,in number of individuals1 however1 it is doubtful if there are less per square mile at the north than at the south during the breeding season4 ,there is a decrease in the number of ,old ,world forms inhabiting ,north ,america from north to south4 ,a similar decrease in mammalian species common to ,america and ,eurasia has previously been referred to1 and the same explanation applies in each case1 namely1 the near approach of the land areas of the ,old and the ,new ,world at the north1 and the actual union of the two continents in late geological time4 ,as has been shown by ,allen1 the species of birds of the temperate and boreal zones of ,north ,america were derived in part from the ,old ,world1 in part from types almost universally distributed throughout the warmer latitudes1 and in part from tropical ,america1 but to a marked extent the species present developed where they are now found4 ,this generalization is in harmony with the geographical relations of the continent to other land areas1 and with the fundamental principles of evolution4 ,migrations4--,among the many facts of interest to the geographer in connection with the bird life1 none present a more fascinating field for study than the annual migrations in which a very large number of the species participate4 ,as one travels northward from ,mexico or the ,gulf ,states1 the number of species of birds which remain in essentially the same area throughout the year1 or the residents as they are termed1 becomes less and less4 ,in ,new ,england and about the southern shores of the ,great ,lakes there are about #cj species which remain all winter and may justly claim to be citizens4 ,besides these1 there are several visitors that come from the north and belong to the vast army of migrants1 but which are contented with a comparatively small change of position during the periods of greatest cold or heaviest snow4 ,in the far north the number of residents is still more restricted4 ,on the tundras fringing the arctic coast even the snow-owls1 snow-buntings1 and the ptarmigans1 the hardiest of birds1 move southward during the winter to the shelter of the subarctic forest1 and bird life on the vast frozen morasses is practically1 if not absolutely1 wanting4 ,the millions of birds that journey southward each fall begin their return migrations at the first promise of spring4 ,even during unusually mild spells of weather in winter1 temporary northward movements occur4 ,the migratory birds are actuated by such a strong desire to regain their nesting places and summer homes that they embrace every opportunity to journey towards them1 and not infrequently suffer severely for the risks they take4 ,in some instances species which have begun their northward flight too soon are killed by thousands owing to a return of severely cold weather or die for lack of food4 ,the first definite northward migration in the southern portion of the ,mississippi ,valley begins during exceptionally favourable years as early as the end of ,january1 but the great movement of the feathered hosts is not usually at its height before the middle of ,march or the first of ,april4 ,in ,new ,england the current of migration begins between the middle of ,february and the first of ,march1 and increases in strength until the middle of ,may1 when it is at its height1 and then rapidly declines and is practically over by the beginning of ,june4 ,in the far north1 the first arrival from the southward1 and that a species which does not make a long annual journey1 usually appears early in ,april4 ,at ,point ,barrow1 the most northern portion of ,alaska1 as was observed by ,john ,murdock in #ahhb and #ahhc1 the first harbinger of spring was a snow-bunting1 which arrived the first year on ,april #ith4 ,the northward-flowing tide of bird life ends early in ,july in the region of the ,yukon1 and by the middle of that month the vast flocks have been separated and the many mates have found their nesting places4 ,the time taken for the general movement is thus in the neighbourhood of four months4 ,the northward flight of the birds is seldom1 if ever1 one continuous journey1 but like many other movements in nature1 progresses by pulsations4 ,well-defined bird-waves have been recognised especially in the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,the direct or immediate cause of the starting of these waves of life is the coming of a wave of heat4 ,secondary or modifying conditions are furnished by strength and direction of the wind1 cloudiness1 rain1 etc4 ,as the weather in spring-time is fickle1 and its variations not the same for any two consecutive years1 so the gathering of the birds into flocks and their northward flights vary1 although for a term of years the arrival of a given species at a particular station does not depart far from a mean date4 ,with the northward sweep of the waves of bird life over the temperate and boreal portions of the continent comes the awakening of plant life1 but the birds1 to a marked extent1 precede the unfolding of the flowers4 ,this marvellous renewal of the life of the land after the long cold winter makes the budding and nesting spring-time the most joyous portion of the year1 and one which exerts a marked effect on human thought and activities4 ,the spring-time awakening in all nature is like a resurrection1 and has apparently exerted an influence on the religions of the world4 ,the bird-waves referred to above are characterized at the start by the presence of great numbers of a single species1 but as they progress1 scattering occurs1 and at the time of the greatest movements in the northern portion of the ,united ,states a large number of species frequently arrive at a given locality in a single night4 ,at sunset the groves may be nearly tenantless and silent1 while at sunrise they are alive with the flitting of wings of many colours1 and the air pulsates with many different songs4 ,judging from extended observations on migrations made in the ,mississippi ,valley1 the definite waves of bird life which sweep northward with the spring-tide of temperature are in some instances #ajj or #bjj miles long and have a breadth of perhaps a score of miles4 ,the distance between the waves varies with variations in the weather and perhaps other causes1 and as they progress they apparently become less definite and at the north have yet to be recognised4 ,the migrations of the birds are performed principally at night4 ,in the northern part of the ,united ,states during the hours of darkness in early spring1 even when cloudiness prevails or the land is veiled in mist1 the voices of geese may frequently be heard overhead1 proving that unseen flocks are then winging their way northward4 ,about the lighthouses along the coast and on the shores of the ,great ,lakes1 when migration is in progress1 dead birds are frequently found in considerable numbers and of various species4 ,in these cases the birds are evidently attracted by the lights and killed on striking the windows that protect them4 ,this occurs particularly on stormy or cloudy nights1 when the birds fly low4 ,several of the larger species of birds1 as the geese1 ducks1 cranes1 etc41 which are strong of wing1 make long flights without resting4 ,in many instances a single stage in a journey may include #ejj or #fjj miles4 ,most of the smaller birds1 however1 fly comparatively short distances between the pauses made for rest and food4 ,a species on reaching the northern portion of the route over which it usually migrates scatters1 and the individuals mate1 nests are built1 and young reared4 ,at the approach of cold weather reassemblage occurs1 frequently great flocks being formed1 and the southern movement begins4 ,the southward migration is less conspicuous in most instances than the movement en masse of the birds in the spring1 and so far as now seems to be recognised is not divided into definite waves4 ,while the winter habitat of most birds in the temperate and boreal portions of the continent is to the south of their summer homes1 the annual migration is not in all cases great in amount4 ,some species move only a few hundred1 or possibly a few score1 miles4 ,even the winter residents make short migrations1 dependent on weather conditions4 ,the greater part of the migratory birds1 however1 pass the winter in the ,gulf ,states1 ,mexico1 the ,west ,indies1 and ,central and ,south ,america4 ,in some cases they go well to the south of the equator4 ,the annual flight going and coming measured in a straight line1 between the nesting place and the winter home1 cannot be less in many instances than from #h1jjj to #aj1jjj or #ab1jjj miles4 ,an interesting fact in this connection is that certain species follow definite routes4 ,the region moved over annually1 if marked on a map1 would resemble two open or partially opened fans1 with their handles pointing towards each other and connected by a narrow band4 ,the causes of the annual migrations of birds have received much study and been the subject of much speculation4 ,the general consensus of opinion in this connection seems to be that the birds are controlled largely by what we in our ignorance term instinct4 ,the true beginning of the migration seems to be in the fall1 when the birds are driven from their homes by cold or1 perhaps more accurately in most cases1 by scarcity of food4 ,this1 however1 is not the whole story1 since many species start southward before cold weather approaches and while food is yet abundant4 ,then1 too1 crippled individuals have been known to survive the winter in regions from which their summer companions have departed4 ,instinct1 therefore1 plays a part in even the fall migration1 where at first glance sufficient physical reasons may seemingly be claimed for it4 ,during the spring migration the birds are moved by a strong impulse to regain their breeding-grounds4 ,each species seems to have adapted itself to certain conditions of temperature1 food1 etc41 through long ages of development1 and acquired a subtle faculty of regaining the environment to which it is best adapted1 as soon as the adverse conditions that caused it to leave its home are ameliorated4 ,how a particular bird is enabled to return to the nest it built the year previous is not known4 ,the study of the homing instinct of pigeons assists in this direction1 however1 and suggests that birds are endowed with something answering to a sixth sense--that is1 a sense of direction or of orientation4 ,spring-time ,music4--,the northward-flowing tide of life each spring brings to the temperate zone of ,north ,america a marvellous change not only in colour and movements1 but in sound4 ,this is the season of bird courtship and more than usual happiness among the feathered millions4 ,from shore to shore of the continent a chorus more seductive than sirens' songs pulsates on the breezes4 ,the winter is characteristically a season of silence4 ,the sounds heard at a distance from human habitations are mainly those produced by inanimate nature4 ,the wind causes varied discords amid the bare branches of the deciduous trees or sings weird melodies in the pines4 ,strange muffled roars come from the frozen lakes1 as the ice contracts and breaks during periods of excessive cold4 ,the frost in tree trunks causes sharp explosions4 ,the ice-covered streams are still except where cataracts interrupt their even flow4 ,in the profound silence of a calm winter night the distant dismal howl of a wolf1 the cry of an owl1 or the bark of a fox alone reminds one that life still continues1 but these animate sounds are far more frequently absent than present4 ,with the coming of the spring there is a marvellous awakening and unfolding4 ,the brooks1 swollen to overflowing by the melting of the snow1 make music as they run4 ,the northward flight of the birds brings to every grove a chorus of song4 ,a host of batrachians and reptiles bestir themselves after a long winter sleep and vociferously proclaim their presence4 ,the insect world1 with its unnumbered legions1 takes wing4 ,the air vibrates with millions of voices4 ,the trees put forth their leaves1 each a harp-string which responds to the touch of the fingers of the wind4 ,the organ-notes of the thunder again startle the hibernating echoes4 ,as the winter is the silent season1 so the spring is the time of music4 ,one of the most charming of the many phases of nature's concert season is the matin songs of the birds4 ,ere the eastern sky along the ,new ,england coast becomes roseate with the first blush of morn1 the twitter of birds may be heard amid the shadowy branches of the trees4 ,soon a thrush or a warbler awakens in full song1 and is followed by a host of other voices1 until the air pulsates with music4 ,as the sun rises and his first level rays reveal the varied tints of the tree tops1 the many-voiced chorus passes the height of its ecstasy and the music gradually subsides4 ,but the glad tidings of the coming of the day are passed westward from grove to grove and from meadow to meadow1 and a wave of song sweeps on ahead of the wave of light1 induced by its coming4 ,the song-wave spreads to the north and south and flows steadily westward over the forest-covered mountains1 across the great central basin of the continent1 breaking on the treeless plateaus into many streams which follow the grove-fringed rivers1 passes through the depressions in the ,rocky ,mountains1 and although weakened in the arid valleys beyond1 is not checked4 ,the larks there listen for its coming and pass the joyful message westward4 ,the timid dwellers in the great forests of ,oregon awaken at the magic sound and the lofty tree tops are made to thrill with the voices of unseen choirs while it is yet night in the silent aisles below4 ,the onward rush of sound is not reflected or turned back by the lofty ,cascades1 but flows through their passes and only ceases when the sea-birds of the ,pacific renew a note that was dropped on the distant ,atlantic coast4 ,one of the most fascinating incidents in the life of the explorer in his lonely camps in the great forests or amid the solemn mountains is the coming of the wave of song in the spring and early summer-time which precedes and accompanies the rising of the sun4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the fascination of the field of study touched upon in this chapter invites an attempt to present an account of some of the more characteristic birds of ,north ,america1 and to endeavour to convey to the reader some idea of the varied reptilian1 fish1 and invertebrate life of the continent1 but the limitations of space prohibit such a review4 ,even the great problems dealing with the intimate relation that exists between geographical conditions and the distribution of animals cannot be given more attention than the suggestions already offered4 ,,literature ,,allen1 ,j4 ,a4 ,the ,geographical ,distribution of ,animals1 in ,bulletin of the ,united ,states ,geological and ,geographical ,survey of the ,territories1 vol4 iv1 ,washington1 #ahgh1 pp4 #cac-cgg2 ,the ,geographical ,distribution of ,north ,american ,mammals1 in ,bulletin of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 vol4 iv1 ,new ,york1 #ahib1 pp4 #aii-bdc4 ,,heilprin1 ,,angelo4 ,the ,geographical and ,geological ,distribution of ,animals4 ,international ,scientific ,series1 ,london and ,new ,york1 #ahig4 ,,osborn1 ,h4 ,f4 ,the ,rise of the ,mammalia in ,north ,america4 ,new ,york1 #ahic4 ,,cope1 ,e4 ,d4 ,geographical ,distribution4 ,in the ,annual ,report of the ,smithsonian ,institution for the year ending ,june #cj1 #ahih1 ,washington1 #aijj1 pp4 #aaii-abcd4 ,,merriam1 ,c4 ,,hart4 ,life-,zones and ,crop-,zones of the ,united ,states1 ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 ,division of ,biological ,survey1 ,bulletin ,no4 #aj1 ,washington1 #ahih2 ,results of a ,biological ,survey of the ,san ,francisco ,mountain ,region and ,desert of the ,little ,colorado1 ,arizona1 ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 ,division of ,ornithology and ,mammalogy ,bulletin ,no4 #c1 ,washington1 #ahij2 ,the ,geographical ,distribution of ,life in ,north ,america1 in ,proceedings of the ,biological ,society of ,washington1 vol4 vii1 #ahib1 pp4 #a-fd4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,geology ,introduction ,in the preceding chapters an attempt has been made to present outline sketches of the geography1 fauna1 and flora of ,north ,america as they exist now4 ,yesterday1 we may say for the sake of emphasis1 there were differences from what exists to-day in each of these great groups of facts4 ,that is1 changes are everywhere in progress4 ,with the recognition of this idea comes logically the conclusion that similar changes must have taken place in the past1 and that the geography of the earth's surface1 and its flora and fauna1 at no very distant time must have been markedly different from what they are to-day4 ,to test this hypothesis the geologist studies the records preserved in the rocks in much the same manner that the historian searches the papyri or the monuments of ,egypt to discover what changes in the affairs of men have occurred since the days of the ,pharaohs4 ,the changes referred to are not essentially different from those now in progress1 but in reality the two are parts of a single series4 ,for a very long time there have been continents and oceans1 lakes and rivers1 and the land has been diversified by mountains and hills1 plains and valleys1 in the same general way as at the present time4 ,when once the idea is grasped that we are living in a geological age1 and that there is no break between the present and the past1 it is evident that the history of the past can be interpreted by means of the results produced by known causes4 ,familiar formulas which express this idea are3 ,the present is the key to the past2 ,geography is the geology of to-day1 etc4 ,the forces or agencies which are now modifying the earth's surface1 such as the rending of rocks by changes of temperature and the action of frost1 erosion and deposition by streams1 the dash of ocean waves against the land1 volcanic eruption1 the chemical action of organic acids1 movements producing upheaval and subsidence1 etc41 have been in action for geological eras1 but their intensity has varied from time to time and from place to place4 ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,continent ,the geological history of ,north ,america is1 in general1 the same as that of other continents1 but claims attention in certain particulars1 largely for the reason that with the exception of ,europe it has been studied more thoroughly than any other comparable land area4 ,in ,europe1 throughout much of geological time1 there have been numerous islands1 and as a large portion of the records of past changes which have been presented were formed in the ocean1 the results are complex4 ,but in ,north ,america there has been a comparatively steady growth from one main continental centre or nucleus1 and the records of the principal changes that have occurred are1 to a greater degree1 simple4 ,not only in the major features of the relief of the continent1 as already described1 but in its growth and geological history1 it is1 so far as can be judged from the present state of our knowledge of the various land areas1 the most typical of all the continents4 ,changes in the outlines and area of a continent are brought about principally by movements of elevation or depression in the earth's crust4 ,of less importance is the erosion of the margin of the land by waves and currents and the deposition of material brought from the land by streams1 together with the spits1 bars1 and embankments made by waves and currents4 ,by these and other and less conspicuous processes the shape of ,north ,america has undergone numerous changes in outline and is still being modified4 ,general maps have been prepared by ,j4 ,d4 ,dana and others1 showing the outlines of ,north ,america at various stages in the course of its development1 and from a series of such maps recently compiled by ,d4 ,c4 ,schaffner those here reproduced 7,fig4 #cc7 have been selected to illustrate the growth of the continent4 ,as has been shown by various geologists1 the outlines of the present continents and ocean-basins had their major features determined at a very early stage in the history of the earth1 and at a time preceding the existence of the oldest known sedimentary rocks4 ,at the close of the ,archean1 the earliest geological era now recognised1 and1 so far as has been determined1 before life existed on the earth1 the principal nucleus of ,north ,america was a land mass some #b1jjj1jjj square miles in area1 situated mainly in what is now the eastern half of ,canada1 from which there was a southward prolongation represented by the ,adirondack hills of ,new ,york 7,fig4 #cc1 ,a74 ,the rocks forming this earliest known land in the ,western ,hemisphere consist of crystalline schists1 gneisses1 and granite1 which are considered by some geologists at least as having resulted from the metamorphism of sedimentary beds4 ,penetrating and intimately intermingled with these greatly altered rocks1 some of them perhaps metamorphosed lavas and allied terranes1 are many rocks that were forced upward from deep in the earth into fissures in a molten condition and have since cooled and crystallized4 ,more than one epoch of metamorphism has perhaps occurred1 and the entire record now accessible is exceedingly complicated4 ,the physical conditions at the earth's surface at the close of the ,archean period1 as may reasonably be inferred1 were not essentially different from what they are now4 ,the land areas were eroded by streams1 and the debris carried to the sea and deposited1 the coarser near shore and the finer farther seaward4 ,upward movements in the earth's crust in various places subsequently laid bare a portion of the sea-floor adjacent to the former land1 and the continent was enlarged4 ,the outline of the land as it existed previous to the upheaval which exposed this portion of the ocean's bottom would be defined by the landward margin of the material deposited4 ,the exposed sediments would be coarsest near the former coast-line and become finer and finer seaward from it1 and the fossils contained in the consolidated sands and clays would also supply evidence bearing on the origin of the rocks4 ,it is by such interpretation of the ancient records in the light of what is now taking place that the geologist is enabled to map approximately the outline of ,north ,america at several stages in its growth in the manner shown on the series of maps here presented4 ,information in this connection1 however1 concerning both the northern and southern portions of the continent is too meagre at present to be largely utilized in these outline sketches4#e #e ,the relations of the eras referred to on these maps and the positions they occupy on the geological time-scale are shown a few pages later on a chart of the geological history of ,north ,america4 ,the next system thus far recognised1 following the ,archean1 is the ,algonkian1 at the close of whose deposition some additions had been made to the ,archean or pre-,algonkian land4 ,succeeding the ,algonkian system come1 in succession1 the ,cambrian1 ,ordovician1 and ,silurian systems4 ,at the close of the ,silurian there was a decided increase in the size of the main nucleus of the continent4 ,owing principally to an excess of elevation over subsidence in the portion of the earth's crust beneath the northeastern part of the region now occupied by the ,united ,states1 portions of the sediments deposited previous to the close of the ,silurian were upraised and important additions made to the extent of the land southward from the ,archean area of ,canada4 ,this ,appalachian peninsula would be conspicuous in a map representing the outline of the continent at the close of the ,silurian4 ,the eastern margin of the growing continent was then well to the eastward of its present position1 but how far beyond the present coast we have no means of determining4 ,although at the close of the ,silurian the continent had greatly increased in area over that of the nucleus at the close of the ,archean1 it bore but little resemblance to its present form4 ,it is worthy of note1 however1 that with the exception of the eastward extension of the land at the time referred to1 the growth had been within the present continental outline4 ,a later stage in the growth of the continent is shown in ,fig4 #cc1 ,b1 when its eastern margin had much of its present general outline and the ,appalachian ,mountains were in their prime4 ,the time indicated is at the close of the ,paleozoic era1 and after the great coal-fields extending from ,pennsylvania southward to ,alabama and westward to beyond the ,mississippi were formed4 ,the eastern half of the continent was approximately completed at the time just referred to1 and is older than the western half4 ,during the ,cretaceous period great changes took place in the geography of the still growing continent1 as may be seen by the map illustrating that period4 ,the conspicuous features in the geography are the submerged ,atlantic and ,gulf borders1 and the presence of a broad belt of ocean water in the continental basin which reached from the then much expanded ,gulf of ,mexico to the ,arctic ,ocean1 and divided the land into an eastern and a western continental island4 ,following the ,cretaceous period came the ,tertiary period1 during which the continent assumed very nearly its present outline4 ,during this period1 however1 as is indicated in ,fig4 #cc1 ,d1 the ,atlantic border of the ,united ,states from ,new ,england southward and a wide area about the ,gulf of ,mexico1 were submerged and had deep layers of sediment deposited on them4 ,during the ,tertiary1 bodies of fresh water became for the first time a conspicuous feature on the land1 and large lakes and broad silt-depositing rivers existed particularly in the ,pacific mountain region of the ,united ,states1 and at its close the continent was practically completed as we now know it1 but several important oscillations1 particularly at the north1 have since occurred4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,maps showing the growth of the ,north ,american continent4 ,with the growth of the continent1 briefly outlined above1 came greater and greater diversity in its relief1 due principally to the upraising of various mountains in a somewhat orderly succession from east to west4 ,the oldest mountains on the continent are the ,laurentian ,highlands of eastern ,canada4 ,although the region referred to--the one mentioned above as being composed of ,archean crystalline rocks--is not now of sufficient elevation or ruggedness to be termed mountainous1 it shows in the nature and structure of its rocks that deep erosion has taken place4 ,the inference is that truly great mountains have been removed1 but the evidence may also sustain the interpretation that slow upheaval has been accompanied by erosion1 and that at no time was the land conspicuously elevated4 ,next in age after the ,laurentian ,highlands come the mountains of ,new ,england and the maritime province of ,canada1 which were upraised at the close of the ,silurian period4 ,the next great step was the crumpling into folds and upheaval of the rocks in the ,appalachian region at the close of the ,paleozoic era4 ,the ,park and ,stony ,mountains were upraised at the close of the ,mesozoic era1 and later came the ,sierra ,nevada and ,cascades1 followed by the ,coast ,ranges4 ,youngest of all1 and in part for that reason the boldest and most lofty1 are the magnificent mountains of southern ,alaska1 with a host of sublime peaks1 like ,mounts ,fairweather1 ,logan1 ,st4 ,elias1 and perhaps ,mc,kinley4 ,the last-named and highest peak of all1 however1 may be of volcanic origin4 ,in the above list showing the progressive westward movement of the birth of mountain systems1 account is taken only of the elevations produced by upheaval4 ,the mountains due to volcanic eruptions1 which are still conspicuous1 are all young1 in comparison with the mountains situated to the eastward of the ,sierra ,nevada4 ,the majestic cones of the northwestern portion of the ,united ,states1 of which ,mounts ,shasta1 ,hood1 ,adams1 ,rainier1 ,baker1 etc41 are the most glorious1 are of ,tertiary or later age4 ,the same is true1 so far as known1 of the still more lofty volcanoes in ,mexico4 ,the pine-tree forms of steam rising from the volcanoes of the ,caribbees1 ,central ,america1 southern ,mexico1 and southwestern ,alaska1 proclaim the recency of the birth of the frequently magnificent craters built of rocks that were once molten1 from which they emerge4 ,,the ,,rocks ,,of ,,which ,,the ,,continent ,,is ,,composed ,the rocks of which ,north ,america is built belong to three classes1 which are world-wide in their distribution4 ,these are3 ,first1 rocks produced by the cooling and crystallizing of formerly molten magmas2 second1 those deposited by water2 and third1 those which previously belonged to either of the two classes just referred to1 but have been recrystallized and so greatly changed that their preceding condition is no longer clearly recognisable4 ,these three classes or subkingdoms1 as perhaps they might be termed from analogy with systems of biological classifications1 are in technical language3 #a4 ,igneous rocks1 such as the lava of ,vesuvius4 #b4 ,sedimentary rocks1 such as sandstone1 shale1 limestone1 coal1 etc4 #c4 ,metamorphic rocks1 such as gneiss1 schist1 some granites1 etc4 ,these major divisions are based principally on mode of origin1 but do not indicate relative age4 ,while theoretically at least1 and in a general way1 the rocks of these three great classes came into existence on the earth in the order named1 it is convenient to consider first those of sedimentary origin4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iv4--,leading geological features4 ,the ,sedimentary ,rocks 7,plate ,,iv74--,whenever land exists or the waves and currents of the ocean come in contact with the rocks denudation occurs4 ,that is1 the rocks are broken through the action of mechanical or chemical agencies1 such as the friction of the gravel and sand swept along by streams1 the solvent power of water1 etc41 and the fragments thus produced are removed principally through the action of flowing water and deposited4 ,resulting from this general process of rock decay and disintegration1 combined with transportation and deposition1 there result mechanically formed sedimentary beds1 such as shale1 sandstone1 conglomerate1 etc42 chemically formed sedimentary beds1 such as the deposits of springs1 the saline precipitates from inclosed lakes1 etc42 and organically formed sedimentary beds1 as1 for example1 peat1 coal1 and limestone4 ,since the first appearance of land in the region now occupied by ,north ,america1 sedimentary rocks have been in process of formation1 and in this way the growth of the continent1 with the aid of movements in the earth's crust1 has been produced4 ,the superficial extent of the sedimentary beds in ,north ,america is very great1 as is indicated on the map referred to above4 ,by far the larger portion of the surface of the continent is underlain by them4 ,their thickness varies from place to place1 but probably reaches a maximum in the ,appalachian region1 where a depth of some #dj1jjj feet has been measured4 ,throughout the continental basin their depth is in general from #c1jjj to #d1jjj feet4 ,in the ,pacific mountains their thickness embraces tens of thousands of feet1 and the same is true in ,mexico1 ,cuba1 and ,jamaica4 ,these sedimentary rocks contain fossils which1 with comparatively few exceptions1 show that they were deposited in the ocean2 thus sustaining in an important manner the conclusion already presented in reference to the growth of the continent4 ,great as is the area of the sedimentary beds at the present time1 it does not show the entire extent to which what is now land has at some time been submerged beneath the sea4 ,in certain broad regions1 sedimentary beds which formerly existed have been removed by erosion2 in other extensive areas they are covered by volcanic rocks1 and in still other portions of the continent1 embracing thousands of square miles1 they have been metamorphosed and their original characteristics obliterated4 ,the system of classification of the sedimentary beds that has been adopted1 as is well known1 is based on the relative age of the formations1 determined primarily by the occurrence of one formation above another1 in regions where but moderate disturbances in position have occurred4 ,many of the stratified rocks contain fossils--that is1 records of the life of the time they were deposited1 and after the order of succession of a large number of formations has been ascertained1 the life records they contain may be used as a means of determining the age of a newly discovered terrane4 ,by grouping the information obtained from the study of the vertical sequence of the formations in many regions1 and also the records of life contained in them1 a composite geological column has been constructed which shows the relative age of all known formations4 ,the larger divisions of such a scheme of classification are world-wide in their application1 but the smaller divisions are usually of restricted geographical extent4 ,the scheme of classification of general application in ,north ,america is shown in the chart on page #cjh4 ,the arrangement is in order of age1 the oldest formation being at the bottom4 ,there is some lack of uniformity among ,american geologists as to certain of the terms used1 more especially in the lower portion of the column1 and in part the scheme is provisional1 but in general it may be taken as expressing the progress made in the study of the geology of ,north ,america up to the present time4 ,the names of the larger divisions in this scheme of classification1 or those designating the groups and systems and the eras and periods1 have for the most part been adopted from ,european geologists4 ,two important ones1 however--namely1 ,archean and ,algonkian--are of ,american birth4 ,while this scheme of classification is based on the succession of sedimentary beds1 igneous and metamorphic rocks have a place in it1 providing their age can be determined4 ,the ,archean period includes the time previous to the deposition of the oldest known sedimentary beds1 and its lower limit is as yet undefined4 ,the ,archean system1 or the rocks formed during the ,archean period1 are without known fossils1 and consist largely of gneisses and foliated schists1 which are metamorphosed sedimentary or igneous terranes1 together with various eruptives4 ,the typical area where these rocks are exposed at the surface is in the ,laurentian ,highlands of eastern ,canada1 the main ,archean nucleus of the continent1 but rocks of the same age and same general character occur in several of the mountain systems of both the ,atlantic and ,pacific cordilleras1 and underlie the sedimentary beds throughout a large part of the ,continental basin4 ,the ,archean system was named by ,j4 ,d4 ,dana1 and divided into two portions1 namely1 the ,laurentian below and the ,huronian above4 ,more recent studies1 especially by ,c4 ,r4 ,van ,hise1 have shown the necessity of removing from the system many of the terranes formerly referred to it1 and of placing them in the ,algonkian4 ,the ,archean as it remains after this adjustment is termed by ,van ,hise the ,basement ,complex4 ,this term1 although thus far not generally adopted1 has much to commend it1 since the terranes designated by it are highly complex1 and may perhaps be ultimately subdivided into two or more systems1 and besides occupy a basal position lower than any known sedimentary formation that has escaped metamorphism4 ,outline ,chart of the ,geological ,history of ,north ,america ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,rock-,scale4 -- ,group4 ,system4 ,time-,scale4 -- ,era4 ,period4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,zoic time3 ,time of ,time of ,psychozoic4,human4 embracing ,mammals4 ,palms and ---------------------------- the history ------------ ,angiosperms4 ,pleistocene4 of the --------------,cenozoic4 ----------------- earth since ,tertiary4 the ,time of ---------------------------- appearance ,reptiles4 ,time of ,cretaceous4 of life4 ,cycads4 ,mesozoic4 ----------------- -------------------------- ,jura-,trias4 ,time of ---------------------------- ,amphibians4 ,time of ,carboniferous4 ,acrogens ----------------- ------------7,ferns1 club- ,devonian4 ,time of mosses1 etc474 ----------------- ,fishes4 ,paleozoic4 ,silurian4 ------------ ----------------- -------------- ,ordovician4 ,time of ----------------- ,molluscs and ,cambrian4 ,crustaceans4 ---------------------------- ,time of ,algonkian4 ------------ ,algae4 ----------------- ,eozoic4 7,as yet unknown ,time of pre-,algonkian ,protozoa8 sediments47 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,azoic time3 preceding the dawn of life4 ,azoic4 ,archean or ,basement ,complex4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,solid ,earth4 ,prehistoric ,molten ,earth4 ,gaseous ,earth4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,the ,algonkian series embraces a great thickness of sedimentary beds1 in part metamorphosed1 which in certain localities rest unconformably on the eroded surface of the ,basement ,complex and in places are overlain unconformably by ,cambrian rocks4 ,both the upper and lower contacts1 however1 in certain localities1 have been rendered obscure by metamorphism4 ,the system derives its name from a tribe of ,indians that inhabited the region about the shores of ,lake ,superior1 where it is well developed4 ,the ,algonkian terranes are exposed in the ,grand ,canyon of the ,colorado1 in the ,wasatch and ,uintah ,mountains1 the ,black ,hills of ,dakota1 about the southern shore of ,lake ,superior1 and in many parts of eastern ,canada1 as well as in several other localities4 ,the oldest known fossils occur in these rocks1 and consist of a small number of brachiopods1 molluscs1 crustaceans1 etc4 ,these scanty records are suggestive1 and at least stimulate the hope that an extensive pre-,cambrian fauna will ultimately be discovered4 ,the few forms found seem to be not far different from the similar life records of the ,cambrian4 ,the ,cambrian system1 although first studied in ,europe1 has an important development in ,north ,america1 and occurs at the surface at a large number of localities ranging from ,newfoundland to ,california4 ,the known distribution of the system and the nature of the rocks composing it indicate that it occurs widely in the ,continental basin beneath subsequent deposits4 ,the most interesting results derived from the study of the ,cambrian1 carried on especially by ,c4 ,d4 ,walcott1 pertain to its life records4 ,with the exception of a few obscure algae1 all the fossils thus far discovered are marine invertebrates4 ,as regards rank in the zoological scale1 certain molluscan remains are the highest1 but outclassing them in size1 abundance1 and degree of specialization are the trilobites1 the nearest living representatives of which are certain crustaceans4 ,of the trilobites about #ajj species have been discovered in the ,cambrian rocks of ,north ,america1 the largest individual being about #bj inches in length4 ,the picture of the continent which the facts just referred to enables one to sketch in fancy includes land areas destitute of animal life1 and probably without vegetation1 except perhaps the lichens1 the lowest of the cryptogams4 ,the sea1 especially in its shallower portions near land and over its surface1 contains algae1 mostly1 we presume1 of small size1 in fact microscopic1 and soft tissued4 ,the animal life subsisting primarily on the algae are all invertebrates1 and nearly all of them1 excepting the crustaceans1 simple in organization4 ,none of the animals the remains of which have thus far been discovered had strong shells or other well-developed protective or supporting tissues1 thus indicating that they were not subject to the attacks of formidable enemies4 ,as compared with later faunas1 the animals of the ,cambrian were primitive1 but their diversity--every subkingdom of invertebrates being represented--is positive evidence that they were not the first inhabitants of the waters4 ,considered from the point of view of development1 this fauna stands at least half-way1 and some students of the ancient history of the earth place it as far as nine-tenths of the way1 up the life column--that is1 the time from the first appearance of life on the earth to the beginning of the ,cambrian was at least as long and possibly nine times as long as the time that has since elapsed4 ,this is a sufficient promise that many records of life1 and it seems safe to predict as varied an assemblage of organisms as the at present known ,cambrian fauna1 will ultimately be discovered in the ,algonkian or lower rocks4 ,the ,paleozoic era witnessed the first appearance of vertebrate life4 ,the earliest known forms were fish-like in character and were succeeded in sequence by batrachians and reptiles4 ,in this connection the most important contribution to the world's knowledge1 from the study of the ,american records1 include the discovery of a large number of fishes1 or fish-like forms1 some of them of gigantic size1 in the ,devonian and ,carboniferous rocks of the ,ohio region1 by ,j4 ,s4 ,newberry2 numerous batrachians in the ,coal ,measures of ,ohio1 by ,e4 ,d4 ,cope2 of batrachians and probably reptiles in rocks of similar age in ,nova ,scotia1 by ,j4 ,w4 ,dawson and ,o4 ,c4 ,marsh4 ,during the ,paleozoic era land plants appeared1 and before its close the continent was densely clothed with forests consisting of flowerless plants such as ferns and club-mosses1 together with a less abundance of trees related to the existing conifers4 ,great additions to the world's knowledge of the varied and beautiful floras of the swamps in which the coal-beds of ,pennsylvania1 ,ohio1 ,nova ,scotia1 etc41 were accumulated have been made by ,h4 ,d4 ,rogers1 ,j4 ,s4 ,newberry1 ,leo ,lesquereux1 ,j4 ,w4 ,dawson1 ,i4 ,c4 ,white1 ,david ,white1 and others4 ,the ,mesozoic era is characterized among other events by the first appearance and rapid development of flowering plants1 the cycads being especially numerous1 and of our ordinary broad-leaved trees1 such as the oak1 willow1 sassafras1 etc41 and by the coming in of palms2 and in the animal kingdom by the culmination of reptilian life and the advent of birds and mammals4 ,the ,american ,mesozoic rocks have yielded a rich store of fossil plants1 as is well known from the painstaking studies of ,j4 ,s4 ,newberry1 ,leo ,lesquereux1 ,w4 ,m4 ,fontaine1 ,l4 ,f4 ,ward1 ,f4 ,h4 ,knowlton1 and others4 ,these same students of the progress of plant life on the continent have also made extensive and critical studies of the ,cenozoic floras4 ,the relics of reptilian life brought to light from the ,mesozoic rocks of ,new ,jersey1 ,kansas1 ,wyoming1 etc41 by ,joseph ,leidy1 ,o4 ,c4 ,marsh1 ,e4 ,d4 ,cope1 and others1 have astonished the world1 even though marvellous results in a similar direction had previously been made known in ,europe4 ,the reptilian age was marked in ,america by the presence of such huge reptiles1 and by the strange development and adaptations in various directions that they surpass the wildest dreams of fable4 ,lizard-like reptiles walked the earth that were #dj to #fj feet in length and stood #aj to #ad feet high where the massive hind limbs joined the body4 ,their thigh-bones in certain instances measured over #f feet in length4 ,some of these monsters1 it is estimated1 weighed at least #aj tons4 ,these1 the hugest of all land animals1 were vegetable feeders4 ,others1 of less size1 although still gigantic and more active1 were carnivorous4 ,some of the old lizard-like forms which left their footprints in great abundance in the sands now hardened into sandstone in the ,connecticut ,valley and ,new ,jersey walked on their hind feet1 after the manner of birds1 and left three-toed footmarks1 some of them #bj inches in length1 which are strikingly bird-like in appearance4 ,other great reptiles1 whale-like in appearance1 inhabited the ocean4 ,yet more marvellous forms were provided with wings1 resembling those of bats1 and in the case of the great ,pteranodons found in the rocks of ,kansas had a stretch of wing of fully #bj feet4 ,but the strange menagerie that has been resurrected contains such a marvellous array of grotesque shapes that not even a catalogue of the genera can be presented here4 ,while the ,mesozoic era was emphatically the age of reptiles1 the coming of a more highly developed fauna was foreshadowed4 ,bird life was represented1 and the skeletons of reptilian birds1 or birds with teeth like those of reptiles1 have been discovered in the ,mesozoic rocks of ,kansas4 ,important additions to our knowledge of these strange creatures1 which furnish much instructive data in reference to the development of the higher from the lower forms of life1 have been made by ,o4 ,c4 ,marsh4 ,the humble beginning of mammalian life is shown by insectivorous marsupials1 the jaws of which were discovered in the ,newark system 7,lower ,mesozoic7 of ,north ,carolina4 ,the ,cenozoic era is the age of mammals1 so called because during that time brute mammals succeeded reptiles as the rulers of the earth4 ,from the rocks deposited in ,north ,america during this era1 principally the sediments of fresh-water lakes and the gravel-beds laid down by streams in the ,pacific mountain region1 a great number of skeletons of truly remarkable mammals1 differing widely from anything now living1 have been discovered by ,joseph ,leidy1 ,o4 ,c4 ,marsh1 ,e4 ,d4 ,cope1 ,h4 ,f4 ,osborn1 and others4 ,the profound interest attached to this fauna1 and the bearings it has on the study of the geographical distribution of animals1 climatic changes1 etc41 is indicated by the fact that it includes forms related to the rhinoceros1 elephant1 camel1 etc41 which are not represented among the animals now living on the continent1 although having relatives in other and principally tropical countries4 ,during the ,psychozoic era mind gained ascendency over brute force1 and man became the leader4 ,the mammals continued to dominate the earth throughout the ,pleistocene period and were then probably more numerous and of even larger size than during the preceding ,tertiary period4 ,during the ,pleistocene great climatic changes occurred1 and large glaciers existed in several regions which now enjoy a temperate climate and are densely populated4 ,the presence of man in ,north ,america during the ,pleistocene has not been proved1 but important contributions to knowledge concerning the brute mammals1 and in reference also to the climatic and physiographic changes1 have been made4 ,in stream-deposited gravels1 caverns1 peat swamps1 etc41 over the surface of practically the entire continent1 the bones of many species of large mammals have been obtained4 ,these include the mastodon and elephant1 megatherium1 megalonyx1 mylodon1 a large horse1 a great bison1 an elk much exceeding the living species in size1 a giant beaver1 and many others remarkable for their large dimensions as compared with their living representatives4 ,several of these large animals survived the vicissitudes of climate characteristic of the ,glacial epoch1 but have since become extinct4 ,the chief contributions to ,pleistocene history1 however1 made by ,american geologists1 are in connection with the records of climatic changes4 ,during the earlier portion of the period1 and beginning perhaps in late ,tertiary time1 the continent in large part at least was more elevated than now and the energetic streams of the mountainous portions eroded deep canyons4 ,to this ,sierran epoch1 as it is termed1 is referred the excavation of the larger valleys of the ,sierra ,nevada1 the world-renowned canyons of the ,colorado and ,snake ,rivers1 and probably the deep ,valley of the ,st4 ,lawrence and the ,hudson4 ,a climatic change perhaps initiated by the greater elevation of the land1 but not as yet wholly explained1 caused glaciers to form about the higher portions of a number of the ranges in the ,pacific mountains1 and continental glaciers of the type of the ice-sheet now covering ,greenland to expand from at least three centres1 termed the ,labradorean1 ,keewatin1 and ,cordilleran1 in what is now ,canada4 ,during this time of great ice accumulation and of glacial advance and retreat1 or the ,glacial epoch1 as it is termed1 fully one-half of ,north ,america was buried beneath ice-sheets of the continental type4 ,a composite map showing the portions of the continent which were covered with ice at one time or another during the ,glacial epoch is reproduced in ,plate ,v4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,v4--,pleistocene glacial deposits4 ,,note3 ,this map presents what may be termed a composite picture of the extent of glacial ice during ,pleistocene and ,recent time2 ,greenland1 much of the ,arctic archipelago1 and many areas in the ,pacific mountains are still occupied by ice4 ,the broken blue lines on the ,atlantic and ,pacific coasts show approximately the seaward extension of the ,pleistocene ice-sheets4 ,the detached areas of glaciation in the western portion of the ,united ,states are here assigned to the ,wisconsin stage1 but in the ,rocky ,mountains and ,sierra ,nevada there are records of two ice advances4 ,the drift in western ,canada here colored as ,wisconsin is perhaps in part of later date4 ,during the maximum advance of the ice from the ,labradorean centre into the ,continental basin it nearly reached the mouth of the ,ohio ,river 7near ,cincinnati74 ,an earlier advance from the ,keewatin centre extended to the ,missouri ,river in ,missouri4 ,there is evidence of a succession of advances and retreats of the ice forming a very complex history4 ,with its final retreat the ,great ,lakes came into existence and the continent reached the stage in its development when man became prominent4 ,the study of glacial geology in ,north ,america was initiated1 or at least given a fresh start and in the proper direction1 by ,louis ,agassiz1 and within recent years energetically carried forward by a large number of earnest workers4 ,the stage of advance reached in this branch of geology which serves so admirably to link the present with the past is well presented in the numerous publications of ,t4 ,c4 ,chamberlin and his associates4 ,the instructive history of the growth of ,north ,america and the successive appearance of higher and higher forms of life1 the records of which have been discovered in the sedimentary rocks1 has been made known by the combined studies of a large number of investigators1 but the great task has been carried on mainly under the auspices of various national and ,state surveys4 ,chief among these is the present ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 which has published what may be justly termed a library of valuable literature and of topographic and geologic maps4 ,the ,igneous ,rocks 7,plate ,,iv74--,under the at present popular explanation of the origin of the earth1 namely1 the nebular hypothesis1 and also the modification of it termed the meteoric hypothesis1 the planet itself is considered to have been at one time in a molten condition4 ,the starting-point of the study of the rocks composing the earth should be1 therefore1 the primitive crust cooled from fusion4 ,in addition to this there have been throughout history geologic migrations of molten matter from deep within the earth towards the surface1 and a part of the material thus forced outward1 principally through fissures1 has cooled in the rocks it penetrated1 forming intrusions of various kinds1 and a part has reached the surface and been extruded1 as during volcanic eruptions4 ,probably every known phase of vulcanism is illustrated by the igneous rocks of ,north ,america1 and in certain branches of the subject1 as the nature of intrusions and the changes which occur in the cooling of igneous magmas1 marked advances in the world's knowledge have been made by ,american geologists4 ,examples of volcanic phenomena on a grand scale are furnished by the still active volcanoes of the ,caribbees1 ,central ,america1 ,mexico1 and ,alaska4 ,between southern ,alaska and south-central ,mexico there are no active craters1 but a large number of volcanic mountains in various stages of erosion which form an instructive series illustrating the internal structure of the mode of accumulation of ejected fragment material and of lava-flows4 ,in this series of mountains built by igneous agencies belongs the great volcanic piles of the ,cascade region1 of which ,mounts ,baker1 ,rainier1 ,adams1 ,hood1 ,jefferson1 ,mazama1 ,shasta1 etc41 are among the leading examples4 ,many other illustrations in the same connection1 some of them in an advanced stage of erosion and now revealing only the dikes and necks of resistant rock that cooled and hardened well below the surface1 occur widely throughout the southwest portion of the ,united ,states4 ,the still recognisable volcanic mountains of the continent1 with the exception of those of the ,caribbees1 are confined to its western half1 and with the exception of certain almost perfect craters in eastern ,new ,mexico are all within the ,pacific mountains4 ,a great belt of volcanoes1 including a large number of both active and extinct examples1 extends from ,panama to the ,aleutian ,islands1 a distance of some #g1jjj miles1 and is a part of the so-called circle of fire surrounding the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,this belt is about #a1jjj miles broad in its central part1 where only extinct volcanoes exist1 and narrows towards both its northern and southern extremities1 which are defined by still steaming craters4 ,the narrow northern portion1 inclusive of the active volcanoes of the ,alaskan ,peninsula and the ,aleutian ,islands1 is prolonged westward1 and forms a curve concave to the southward1 while the equally narrow southern portion marked by the energetic craters of ,central ,america forms a curve concave to the northward4 ,the entire belt has something the shape of a sigmoid curve1 with a wide central portion4 ,in the preceding sketch of the growth of the continent it was shown that the ,pacific mountain region is younger than the ,atlantic mountain region4 ,in this same connection certain interesting general conclusions have been reached in reference to igneous activity4 ,in each of the great cordilleras referred to there have been extensive breaks in the earth's crust through which molten rocks have been forced upward4 ,volcanoes and various intrusions have been formed in each region1 but in the eastern half of the continent the time since the last eruptions has been so great that all evidence in the relief of the land of the former presence of volcanic mountains has been obliterated4 ,erosion has cut deeply into the rocks on which the ancient volcanoes stood1 and revealed in some instances the dikes occupying the fissures which supplied them4 ,a large number of dikes of igneous rock occur in the ,atlantic coast region from ,prince ,edward ,island southward to ,alabama and ,georgia1 and vast lava-flows of ancient date are still preserved about the south shore of ,lake ,superior4 ,volcanic eruptions in the older half of the continent have long since ceased and the breaks which gave them existence have been healed4 ,the later movements in the western half of the continent have caused fresh fractures to form1 through which molten matter has been forced to the surface4 ,many facts have been observed in each region which show an intimate connection between movements in the earth's crust which have produced fractures and the distribution of volcanoes4 ,the lavas poured out by the more recent volcanoes of ,north ,america are mainly dark basic rocks1 among which basalt predominates4 ,an exception occurs in the case of the ,mono craters near ,mono ,lake1 ,california1 which in recent time extruded a thick1 viscous1 highly siliceous1 rhyolitic lava1 much of which cooled quickly and formed volcanic glass or obsidian4 ,in addition to streams and sheets of lava1 many volcanoes1 and especially those in a state of explosive eruption1 blew into the air quantities of fragmental material1 such as scoria1 bombs1 volcanic gravel 7lapilli71 dust1 etc41 which was scattered far and wide over the land4 ,more or less extensive sheets of this material1 in many instances interstratified with sedimentary beds1 and especially with the strata laid down in ,tertiary lakes1 or separating lava-flows1 occur widely throughout the ,pacific mountains4 ,dust showers of the nature just referred to have occurred at a recent date1 and the fine white material that fell is now found at the surface in a large number of localities1 ranging from ,central ,america to the ,yukon ,valley and from ,kansas and ,nebraska to ,oregon and ,washington4 ,the most remarkable instance of the addition of volcanic rocks to the surface of ,north ,america is in the case of the ,columbia ,river lava1 which covers some #bjj1jjj or more square miles of country in ,washington1 ,oregon1 and neighbouring ,states4 ,in that region outwellings of highly liquid rock came from fissures and spread widely over the surface as veritable inundations1 which on cooling became black1 basaltic rock1 but without forming mountains or craters4 ,where the ,snake ,river has excavated its magnificent canyon in these still horizontal layers of basalt1 a thickness of #d1jjj feet is revealed1 although the stream has not as yet cut through the formation1 and in ,stein ,mountain1 ,oregon1 a similar series of lava-sheets over #e1jjj feet thick has been measured4 ,the ,columbia ,river lava was spread over the surface of a deeply eroded land in a series of vast overflows of molten material4 ,the liquid rock covered the broad plains and extended into the valleys in the adjacent mountains1 giving them level floors of basalt4 ,mountain spurs became capes and headlands and outstanding buttes were transformed into islands in the molten sea4 ,the lava since cooled and crystallized has in places been folded and tilted2 streams like the ,columbia1 ,snake1 ,spokane ,rivers1 etc41 have carved great canyons in it1 and the surface1 especially where it is still nearly horizontal1 has decayed and yielded a wonderfully rich soil4 ,it is the fine1 rich residual material of these lava plains1 redistributed in part by the wind1 which furnishes the basis for the immense wheat industry of the northwestern portion of the ,united ,states4 ,the extrusion of molten rock from deep within the earth so as to form volcanoes or fissure eruptions at the surface is only a part of a widely extended and highly varied process4 ,as geologists have discovered1 particularly in deeply eroded regions1 by no means all of the fissures which permit of the forcing upward of molten material in them reach the surface4 ,many of them died out before coming to the light and favoured the production of various forms of intrusion4 ,a fissure originating deep in the earth's crust and extending upward1 perhaps with many branches and irregularities1 if injected with molten rock from below gives origin to dikes4 ,that is1 a dike is a more or less vertical sheet of igneous rock which has cooled and crystallized in a fissure4 ,such sheets of intruded material cutting across the bedding of stratified rocks1 or traversing older igneous or metamorphic terranes1 are of common occurrence and are frequently abundant in deeply eroded regions4 ,they occur particularly in mountains of upheaval1 thus demonstrating the fact that to a large extent the fissure which became injected with molten magmas and perhaps gave origin to volcanoes1 are due to movements in the rocks composing the earth's crust4 ,the force which causes molten rock to rise in such fissures also tends to prolong and enlarge them4 ,the heat of an intruded magma affects the rocks it traverses and produces what is termed contact metamorphism4 ,examples of dikes in the ,newark system have already been referred to1 and others are common throughout the ,pacific mountains4 ,where the ,columbia ,river lava in central ,washington has been removed by erosion1 hundreds1 and in fact thousands1 of dikes are exposed in the terranes on which it formerly rested4 ,when a dike ends above in horizontally bedded rocks it sometimes happens that the injected magma1 especially if highly fluid1 is forced in between the strata and spreads widely between the layers1 forming an intruded sheet1 which lifts a broad cover to a height equal to its own thickness4 ,an example of an intrusion of this nature is furnished by the palisade trap-sheet in ,new ,jersey and ,new ,york1 which has a maximum thickness of about #a1jjj feet1 and is fully #ajj miles in length from north to south4 ,the portion which remains is but a remnant and is seldom over #b or #c miles wide4 ,this sheet in common with its associated sandstones and shales has been tilted so as to dip westward at an angle of about #ae degrees1 and its eastern border eroded so as to form the picturesque ,palisades on the west bank of the ,hudson opposite ,new ,york city4 ,many other similar intruded sheets are known in ,nova ,scotia1 the ,connecticut ,valley1 among the ,pacific mountains1 etc4 ,a marked variation in the process just outlined occurs when1 as the controlling condition1 the intruded magma is highly viscous instead of highly fluid1 and the friction of contact and of flow is greatly increased4 ,under such circumstances the intruded magma expands less widely than is the case when an intruded sheet is formed1 and a thick intrusion results1 which lifts a small cover perhaps to a great height4 ,intrusions of this nature are sometimes expanded in their upper portions into a more or less mushroom shape1 and from their fancied resemblance to cisterns of once molten rock within older terranes have been termed laccoliths4 ,the typical examples are furnished by the ,henry ,mountains in southern ,utah1 described by ,g4 ,k4 ,gilbert4 ,other similar intrusions in ,colorado have been studied by ,whitman ,cross1 and yet other examples have been discovered in various parts of the ,pacific mountains4 ,in the case of certain of the laccoliths in the ,henry ,mountains1 now laid bare by erosion1 the cistern-like mass of intruded material is #ab1jjj feet or more in diameter1 some #e1jjj feet thick in the central part1 and lifted a cover of stratified rocks fully #g1jjj feet thick4 ,where a dike ends above in older rocks1 and particularly in horizontally stratified sedimentary beds1 in a pipe-like form1 similar to the conduit of a volcano1 but without reaching the surface1 the unexpanded or but slightly enlarged summit portion lifts a comparatively small cover into a dome1 and what has been termed a plutonic plug results4 ,all the various phases of intrusions thus far referred to1 it will be readily seen1 are variations of one process4 ,the wide range in the results produced are dependent on local conditions1 either in respect to terranes invaded1 as1 for example1 whether or not they are undisturbed sedimentary beds1 and on the physical condition of the intruded material1 in reference especially to its degree of viscosity4 ,there is an intimate and even a genetic connection between intrusions on the one hand and volcanic and fissure eruptions on the other4 ,if fissures lead from portions of the earth's crust sufficiently deep to permit the rocks to become plastic or fused on account of the relief of pressure due to the opening of the fissure1 the magma may be forced to the surface1 becoming more and more plastic or more perfectly fluid as the weight upon it decreased1 and volcanic phenomena result2 or if the fissure fails to reach the surface intrusions of various forms may be produced4 ,the simplest form of intrusion1 the dike1 results under whatever condition the summit portion of the magma comes to rest4 ,a magma forced upward in fissures in the earth's crust may meet moist rocks or even reservoirs of water1 and in such instances steam or gases are produced and a new force is added1 which may produce explosions4 ,in addition to the intrusions of the various classes just referred to there are others on a far larger scale1 examples of which occur in ,north ,america1 but as yet their mode of origin has been but little studied4 ,i refer to vast upwellings of molten or plastic material beneath the more rigid portions of the earth's crust1 which elevate domes1 perhaps #bjj or #cjj miles or more in their various horizontal diameters4 ,the great areas occupied by intrusive granite1 as the one from which the ,bitter ,root ,mountains in ,idaho have been sculptured1 are of this nature4 ,these regional intrusions1 as they may be termed1 elevate mountains in the same general manner as in the case of laccoliths1 but of far greater size4 ,to the elevations produced in this manner ,i have ventured to apply the name subtuberant mountains1 in expression of the idea that they have resulted from vertical uplifts1 due to the upswelling of molten material beneath4 ,the ,metamorphic ,rocks 7,plate ,,iv74--,at the contact of either sedimentary or igneous rocks with intrusive rocks of whatever form1 such as dikes1 sheets1 laccoliths1 etc41 there has been in many well-known instances an alteration of the terranes penetrated or uplifted which is most intense along the contact and diminishes at a distance4 ,this change or metamorphism1 as it is termed1 consists of an alteration in the colour1 texture1 hardness1 mineral and chemical composition1 etc41 of the rocks affected1 and may be manifest throughout a thickness of but a few feet1 or perhaps only a few inches1 but near large intrusions is apt to be traceable for scores or hundreds of feet4 ,in the case of intense contact metamorphism1 the altered rock assumes a new form1 and may exhibit a crystalline and foliated or schistose structure4 ,the changes referred to are most marked when water is present1 and are thought to be due largely to the influence of heated water percolating through the rocks and producing changes by solution and deposition4 ,the principal agencies which take part in contact metamorphism are heat1 heated waters1 pressure1 and perhaps movements within the rocks4 ,there are extensive regions throughout which the rocks have been changed in a manner similar to the alterations commonly found adjacent to igneous intrusions which1 in general1 have been brought about in some other way4 ,this regional metamorphism1 as it is termed1 has affected the rocks in certain instances throughout districts measuring many hundreds of square miles in surface extent1 and with a vertical range of many thousands of feet4 ,the rocks referred to have been changed without fusion from a previous condition1 during which they were either sedimentary beds or cooled and crystallized igneous magma4 ,this conclusion has been verified in numerous instances by tracing the thoroughly altered rocks to regions where the change has been less intense and finally to where they pass by insensible gradations into easily recognisable sedimentary or igneous terranes4 ,common examples of metamorphic rocks are mica1 schist1 gneiss1 statuary marble1 certain granites1 etc4 ,these rocks frequently have a foliated or fissile structure1 such as it is presumed would result from a flowing movement within the mass while under great pressure4 ,characteristically also the rocks are composed of interlocking crystals or portions of crystals1 which are not contained in a glassy base1 as is the case with most rocks that have crystallized from fusion4 ,that is1 the metamorphic rocks are characteristically holocrystalline1 while igneous rocks are porphyritic1 or cryptocrystalline4 ,the analogy between rocks altered by contact metamorphism and those affected by regional metamorphism had led to the conclusion that the latter1 like the former1 have been changed by heat and the passage through them of heated water bearing mineral matter1 and especially silica1 in solution4 ,more than this1 the foliation frequently so characteristic of metamorphic rocks is considered as evidence of a flowing movement or shearing of the material while under pressure4 ,in short1 rocks are altered by heat1 especially if water is present in them1 by motion1 and by chemical changes produced by percolating waters1 and perhaps in still other ways4 ,the degree of heat required is not definitely known1 and probably varies according to the nature of the rocks1 the presence or absence of water1 etc41 but is certainly less than that necessary to produce fusion1 and is thought1 in general1 to be in the neighbourhood of #gej deg4 ,f4 ,while heat alone is considered as sufficient to produce metamorphism1 it is probable that in most instances two or more of the agencies just referred to have been in operation at the same time4 ,in the case of the foliated rocks motion within the mass seems to have been the predominating factor1 and dynamical metamorphism is considered as important as heat metamorphism4 ,in ,north ,america1 as is indicated roughly on the map forming ,plate ,,iv1 metamorphic rocks occur at the surface over a great region in eastern and northeastern ,canada1 in ,labrador and ,newfoundland1 in the ,new ,england ,states1 and thence southward along the eastern side of the ,appalachians4 ,other extensive regions occupied by similar rocks occur in many of the ranges of the ,pacific mountains1 from ,alaska to ,panama1 and are known in the ,west ,indies4 ,not only do the metamorphosed rocks outcrop at the surface over large areas1 but1 as may be inferred from such outcrops1 as well as from the records of numerous borings1 underlies nearly the entire extent of the sedimentary formations4 ,the basal portion of the continent1 with the exception of certain areas where igneous rocks occur1 is formed of metamorphosed terranes4 ,so generally is this true1 that it is safe to say that if a boring is begun at any locality on the continent where sedimentary beds occur1 and is continued downward until the sedimentary rocks are passed through1 metamorphic terranes will be found beneath4 ,the same is true also where the surface is composed of lava-sheets4 ,the exceptions1 where metamorphosed rocks do not occur beneath sedimentary or volcanic beds1 are when igneous intrusions or ancient lava-flows are present at a depth4 ,in the brief description given of the ,archean system on a preceding page1 it was stated that the rocks composing it are largely metamorphic4 ,but rocks of practically any age may be altered in the several ways mentioned above1 and the resulting gneisses1 schists1 etc41 be indistinguishable from those of the ,archean4 ,in fact1 some of the metamorphosed rocks of ,north ,america1 as certain gneisses1 schists1 etc41 of the ,sierra ,nevada and ,cascade ,mountains1 are known to be of ,mesozoic and even ,cenozoic age4 ,in speaking of the growth of ,north ,america1 and again in connection with the distribution of volcanic mountains1 it was shown that there has been a progressive migration of the field of action of the forces which upheave the rocks so as to form land areas1 and also of the movements in the rocks which produce fractures and lead to the origin of volcanoes4 ,in a similar way the sphere of influence of metamorphism as indicated by the age of the transformed rocks in various regions has in a general way migrated from east to west across the continent4 ,in the ,laurentian ,highlands the metamorphosed rocks are of pre-,cambrian age2 in ,new ,england and the ,appalachian region they are1 in part at least1 of ,paleozoic age2 and in the ,sierra ,nevada and ,cascade ,mountains metamorphosed ,mesozoic and ,cenozoic rocks occur4 ,as movements in the outer portion of the earth's crust may produce fractures in any class of rocks1 and as such fractures favour the intrusion of igneous material1 the metamorphic rocks may contain igneous intrusions similar to those noted above in connection with sedimentary rocks4 ,as the stratification so marked in sedimentary beds is lacking in metamorphosed rocks1 it is not to be expected that intrusions will take the form of sheets1 laccoliths1 etc41 but rather appear as dikes with perhaps irregular branches4 ,as the same region may experience two or more periods of metamorphism1 it is evident that great complexities may arise1 as1 for example1 when a metamorphosed terrane is penetrated by dikes and irregular intrusions and again subjected to metamorphosing conditions4 ,these considerations lead to the suggestion that rocks metamorphosed in pre-,cambrian time1 for example1 would be apt to be more complex than those of ,mesozoic date4 ,in general1 this has been found to be true1 as is suggested by the fact that to the pre-,cambrian metamorphosed terranes1 as previously stated1 the name ,basement ,complex has been applied4 ,summary4--,the relation of the three great divisions into which the rocks composing ,north ,america1 in common with all other portions of the known lithosphere1 are divided1 may perhaps be better understood when it is remembered that the igneous rocks came from below in a molten condition2 that the sedimentary rocks have been formed at the surface from the debris of either igneous1 metamorphic1 or previously formed sedimentary beds2 and that metamorphic rocks have been produced within the earth's outer crust by the alteration of either igneous or sedimentary rocks4 ,when the heat which produced certain phases of metamorphism is sufficiently increased1 greater freedom of molecular and chemical changes occur and the material acted on passes to the condition of an igneous magma4 ,the three great classes of rocks considered above are thus seen to be but stages in a cycle which the material of the lithosphere passes through4 ,the conditions which bring about these changes are still in action and are intimately associated with movements in the rocks of the earth's crust4 ,when elevation raises a portion of the earth's crust above sea-level1 erosion and redeposition ensue and sedimentary rocks are formed2 the greater the elevation the more energetically the forces act which bring about denudation1 transportation1 and sedimentation4 ,when depression occurs of sufficient amount to carry rocks previously at or near the surface into the zone of metamorphism1 alterations follow1 and in general the deeper the depression the greater the changes until metamorphism culminates in fusion1 providing pressure does not counteract the influence of heat4 ,dynamical and chemical metamorphism may occur at less depth than purely heat metamorphism1 and it may be presumed takes place in the axes of mountain ranges1 even above sea-level4 ,such a broad view of the relations and genesis of the three great lithologic divisions of the material forming the earth's outer crust is necessary to the understanding of the conditions observed in the basal portion of the geological column1 as it is termed1 in which the age and order of succession of the sedimentary rocks is indicated4 ,in certain localities1 for example1 the ,cambrian rocks rest unconformably on a surface of metamorphic and igneous rocks--that is1 the ,basement ,complex was raised above sea-level1 eroded and subsequently depressed before the ,cambrian sediments were laid upon it4 ,in other localities the ,cambrian rocks pass indefinitely into metamorphosed terranes beneath1 which means that metamorphism invaded the series after the deposition of the ,cambrian1 and the characteristics of its junction with older rocks was obliterated4 ,similar relations may evidently be discovered at any horizon in the geological column4 ,obviously the chances of a system of stratified rocks becoming metamorphosed or of being removed by erosion1 are greater the nearer their position to the base of the sedimentary series2 in a similar way the chances of a sedimentary terrane becoming invaded by igneous intrusions is greater the greater its age2 again1 the older a sedimentary terrane the greater the chances of its becoming buried by subsequent deposition and the less the likelihood of its being exposed for study4 ,the only position in which a sedimentary formation can maintain its integrity and be safe from destruction by erosion or transformation by metamorphism is below sea-level and above the zone of heat metamorphism2 but even in this position it may have its distinctive features1 including its fossils1 obliterated by dynamical and chemical alterations4 ,these suggestions are offered for the sake of indicating1 as stated on a previous page1 that the ,cambrian and ,algonkian rocks should not be considered as the first formed sediments1 and that there is hope of the discovery of a rich fauna of older date than any at present known4 ,in the search for the earliest evidence of animal life on the earth1 ,north ,america holds out favourable conditions4 ,,the ,,concentration ,,of ,,mineral ,,substances ,the most important branch of geology treats of the substances in the earth's crust that are of direct service to man1 as1 for example1 building stones1 coal1 iron1 petroleum1 gold1 etc4 ,only a glance can here be given at the conditions which have led to the origin of the materials of commercial value and to their geographical distribution4 ,from the mode of origin of the principal classes of rocks it may be reasonably inferred that certain minerals and ores will be developed or concentrated in one class of rocks and not in the others4 ,to a great extent the facts observed during the development of mines1 etc41 sustain this prediction4 ,in the cooling and crystallizing of igneous rocks from a state of fusion many minerals are formed1 the most common being silicates of the alkaline earths1 which are usually inclosed in a glassy or cryptocrystalline base4 ,the igneous rocks have characteristically a highly complex chemical composition1 and although frequently containing the metallic element1 etc41 which are of economic importance1 these are widely disseminated1 and in nearly all cases in chemical combinations1 as the minor ingredients of siliceous minerals4 ,although the igneous rocks sometimes contain valuable ores1 they are in many1 if not all instances1 due to secondary enrichment and are not a result of primary crystallization from fusion4 ,as all the material of the earth's crust was at one stage in the series of changes it has experienced consolidated from fusion1 it follows that the ores and minerals now of economic value did not then exist1 or were widely diffused and have since been formed or concentrated4 ,the processes of concentration referred to are carried on in various ways through the agency of mechanical1 chemical1 vital1 molecular1 and electrical forces1 acting singly or in association4 ,for example1 concentration through the action of mechanical agencies is illustrated by the manner in which rocks are reduced to fragments in the every-day process of denudation and the resulting debris removed by streams and redeposited4 ,in this process an assorting in reference to size1 specific gravity1 etc41 takes place1 and certain substances1 as sand1 for instance1 is accumulated in one locality1 and certain other substances1 as clay1 deposited in another locality4 ,during this process gold1 platinum1 etc41 owing to their high specific gravity1 may be concentrated in stream channels4 ,the accumulation of mineral matter through the action mainly of chemical agencies1 occurs when the waters percolating through rocks dissolves certain substances1 as calcium carbonate1 for instance1 and on coming to the surface as springs1 or dripping from the roofs of caverns1 deposit calcareous tufa1 stalactites1 etc4 ,silica1 iron1 manganese1 and other substances are frequently concentrated in a similar manner4 ,concentration of previously widely disseminated substances principally through the agency of vital forces1 is illustrated by the manner in which molluscs and polyps obtain calcium carbonate from water and deposit it in their shells or skeletons4 ,the part played by plants in this same connection is shown by the way in which they eliminate carbon dioxide from the air or from water1 and concentrate the carbon in their tissues4 ,from the carbon accumulated in this manner1 under certain conditions1 deposits of peat1 lignite1 coal1 graphite1 etc41 have resulted4 ,what may provisionally at least be termed molecular concentration occurs when similar molecules are brought together largely by water and crystallized to form mineral species4 ,in order to simplify this brief discussion as much as practicable1 this phase of concentration will be included under the chemical processes referred to above4 ,the three principal methods by which mineral substances are concentrated1 namely1 the mechanical1 chemical1 and vital1 have in the main different fields of action4 ,the mechanical and vital agencies operate at the surface of the lithosphere1 although organic products1 principally certain acids1 descend into the earth in solution in water and play an important part in deep-seated chemical changes1 as in the formation of mineral veins4 ,the chemical agencies bring about the concentration of mineral substances both at or near the surface and at a depth4 ,the intensity with which the several agencies just referred to operate varies according to conditions4 ,the mechanical agencies1 for example1 acting mainly through the aid of flowing water1 are in general most potent in humid regions and where the land is high above sea-level4 ,vital agencies depend largely on climate and are most active in warm humid regions4 ,the chemical agencies are influenced largely by heat1 the presence of water1 and by pressure4 ,it is interesting to note that a high degree of heat leads to the dissipation and wide distribution of substances previously concentrated2 fusion1 for example1 permitting of the intimate mingling or recombination of substances1 previously segregated1 although during the dying stages of volcanic activity minerals like sulphur1 cinnabar1 etc41 may be directly condensed and thus concentrated from a vaporous condition4 ,during the formation of the three main classes of rocks composing the earth's crust1 the agencies leading to the concentration of various substances now of economic importance have to a great extent been different1 and hence in a marked way the stones1 ores1 fuels1 gems1 etc41 to be expected in each of the three classes of rocks1 respectively1 are distinct4 ,certain exceptions to this broad conclusion1 however1 arise from the fact that rocks belonging to each of the classes referred to may have been brought within the influence of the same or similar concentrating agencies and like results produced in each class4 ,economic ,importance of the ,igneous ,terranes4--,the igneous rocks1 as previously noted1 are such as have cooled from fusion4 ,on the cooling of magmas various minerals are formed1 most commonly silicates1 and except in a minor way in connection with the weaker stages of volcanic activity and the slow cooling of the rocks1 there does not seem to be any marked tendency towards the concentration or segregation of metallic minerals or ores4 ,although igneous rocks do contain gold1 silver1 copper1 etc41 and a large variety of the rarer metals1 they are widely disseminated4 ,as is well known1 however1 igneous rocks are in some instances of value for the metallic mineral1 gems1 and ores associated with them1 but in the great majority of instances at least1 and as a rule1 these minerals and ores are the result of subsequent changes and owe their origin mainly to deposition from heated1 percolating water4 ,rich ore bodies frequently occur on the borders of igneous dikes1 and in fissures and cavities in igneous rocks1 but the process by which they have been formed is similar to that leading to the concentration of mineral matter in metamorphic rocks1 and will be referred to later4 ,the igneous rocks themselves furnish desirable building stones1 such as granite1 diorite1 porphyry1 diabase1 etc4 ,with the exception of granite and the nearly related diorite1 these have not as yet been extensively utilized in ,north ,america4 ,certain of the igneous rocks have been altered to serpentine1 which on account of its pleasing green colour and the ease with which it can be cut and polished furnishes a stone valuable for interior uses4 ,it is also employed1 usually with a rough surface1 in the construction of exterior walls of dwellings1 gateways1 etc4 ,large bodies of serpentine occur at a number of localities in the ,atlantic mountains from ,pennsylvania and ,maryland northward1 including eastern ,canada1 and also over extensive areas in the ,pacific mountains1 particularly in ,california1 ,washington1 and ,alaska4 ,the principal ores and minerals of commercial importance in the igneous rocks are native copper1 as in northern ,michigan2 copper pyrites1 as at ,butte1 ,montana2 gold1 at many localities1 including the ,treadwell mine1 ,alaska2 opal1 which is mined on a small scale in ,idaho and ,washington4 ,in practically all these instances1 and numerous others that might be enumerated1 the substances referred to have been deposited from solution in cavities in the rocks or have replaced other substances1 and are due to what is termed above chemical concentration4 ,economic ,importance of the ,sedimentary ,terranes4--,the sedimentary rocks are composed principally of fragmental material derived from the disintegration of older rocks transported and deposited mechanically1 and resulting in the formation of sandstone1 shale1 etc41 and of organically concentrated material1 such as shells and corals1 which form limestones4 ,the deposits originating in these ways furnish excellent building stones1 the principal classes being sandstones and limestones4 ,these occur widely throughout ,north ,america1 and in formations of all ages subsequent to the ,archean4 ,the sandstones were deposited near the shores of the seas1 or in lakes1 and the limestones principally in moderately deep oceans4 ,sandstones occur largely in the ,cambrian formation on the south shore of ,lake ,superior and about the borders of the ,adirondack hills of ,new ,york4 ,they are usually red or reddish-brown rocks1 and their pleasing colours1 durability1 even grain1 and the readiness with which they may be broken in any direction make them desirable building stones4 ,the ,newark system1 extending in detached areas from ,nova ,scotia to ,south ,carolina1 contains immense quantities of brown and gray sandstone1 which have been extensively quarried1 particularly in the ,connecticut ,valley1 ,new ,jersey1 ,pennsylvania1 and ,maryland1 and largely used in ,atlantic coast cities4 ,the ,carboniferous and ,devonian sandstones1 usually of a gray colour1 of ,pennsylvania1 ,ohio1 and neighbouring ,states1 are largely used in the cities of the interior portions of the ,united ,states4 ,extensive deposits of ,mesozoic and ,cenozoic sandstones occur throughout the ,pacific mountains1 and afford a practically unlimited supply of good building material1 which as yet has been but little utilized4 ,the colours of sandstones vary from bright red through brown-yellow to gray1 and in some cases are nearly white1 depending largely on the condition of the iron present4 ,the red rocks are dyed with ferric oxide2 the brownstones contain iron1 frequently in the cementing material that unites the grains1 in various stages of oxidation and hydration2 the gray stones may also contain iron1 but if present it is in union with organic matter1 as the ferric carbonate1 for example4 ,the ,cambrian and ,newark sandstones are prevailingly of some shade of red1 for the reason that not enough organic matter is present to change the iron to a carbonate4 ,the sandstones when of an even fine grain and not too hard1 are suitable for sharpening tools1 and large quantities of grindstones1 whetstones1 etc41 are made from them1 as on the ,lake ,huron shore of ,michigan1 in ,ohio1 etc4 ,other sandstones1 practically free from iron1 are used in the manufacture of glass4 ,the best example of glass sand is the ,sylvania sandstone of southeastern ,michigan4 ,unconsolidated sand is largely used in mixing mortars and cements1 for smoothing stones used for architectural and monumental purposes1 as foundry sand in making moulds for casting1 and many other ways4 ,seaward from where sand is being deposited we find in the present oceans that as a rule fine bluish or greenish mud occurs1 and still farther seaward1 except where coral-polyps thrive1 usually at a distance of #ajj miles or more from land1 the bottom is composed of calcareous mud or ooze4 ,the sand and mud are derived from the land1 and if consolidated form sandstone and shale4 ,the calcareous ooze is derived from the life of the sea1 largely minute lime-secreting foraminifera1 together with shells of molluscs1 and in the vicinity of coral islands or reefs the hard parts of coral growth are added4 ,that is1 the calcareous oozes are formed by the concentration of calcium carbonate through the vital action of animals and to a less extent of plants4 ,such material1 if consolidated1 would form ordinary limestone4 ,in ,north ,america there are terranes scores of hundreds of miles across in various directions and hundreds and even thousands of feet thick that have been formed in the manner just indicated4 ,from this mode of origin it may be truthfully inferred that limestone may have been formed during any age since organisms having the power of secreting calcium carbonate existed on the earth4 ,the limestones of ,north ,america range in age from the ,algonkian period to the present time1 and are still being formed in the ocean and in a minor way in lakes4 ,impure limestones1 frequently coloured or clouded with red1 due to ferric oxide1 are quarried on an extensive scale in eastern ,tennessee1 and are used for decorative purposes4 ,the ,tennessee limestones referred to are of ,paleozoic age2 in ,florida porous rocks1 known as coquina1 composed of imperfectly consolidated shells of living species of molluscs1 are used in the construction of buildings4 ,gray limestones susceptible of a good polish occur in ,ohio and neighbouring ,states and are utilized to some extent for columns and interior finish of buildings1 but in the main the stones of this nature when employed for architectural purposes are rough-faced4 ,vast amounts of limestone suitable for masonry occur widely throughout the ,mississippi ,valley in many of the ranges of the ,pacific mountains1 especially in the ,united ,states and ,mexico1 and are also of immense thickness in the ,west ,indies4 ,in many instances limestone has been metamorphosed1 as will be described below1 and converted into crystalline marble4 ,commercially1 however1 all limestone1 whether crystalline or not1 which is susceptible of a polish1 is termed marble4 ,under certain conditions calcium carbonate is concentrated at or near the earth's surface by chemical agencies1 as about springs where calcareous tufa1 travertine1 etc41 are precipitated1 and in caverns where stalactites and stalagmites are formed4 ,stalagmite sheets are sometimes composed of variegated1 laminated layers1 and when polished produce a beautiful decorative stone which passes under the name of onyx marble4 ,deposits of this character of commercial importance occur in ,arizona and ,mexico4 ,calcium carbonate concentrated in lakes through the combined action of chemical and vital agencies produces the so-called marl1 now extensively utilized in the manufacture of ,portland cement4 ,in this mode of accumulation the calcium carbonate is dissolved by percolating waters from the rocks and soils and carried to lakes in solution2 it is there precipitated largely through the vital action of certain algae and deposited as a fine white ooze4 ,thousands of deposits of this nature1 varying in extent up to several hundred acres1 and having a depth of from a few feet to #dj and even #fj or more feet1 occur in the portion of the continent covered with glacial drift1 and especially in the ,states from ,new ,england to ,minnesota4 ,the reasons for the greater abundance of marl in this region than elsewhere are that the glacial drift is there highly calcareous1 numerous lakes are present1 and the climatic conditions are such as to favour the growth of certain aquatic plants1 and especially the ,characeae or stoneworts1 which have the property of eliminating calcium carbonate from ordinary lake waters4 ,the importance of the vital agencies in concentrating substances of economic value is illustrated by the manner in which coal1 petroleum1 and natural or rock-gas1 etc41 have been formed4 ,land plants have the power1 under the influence of light1 of decomposing the carbon dioxide 7carbonic-acid gas7 of the air and fixing the carbon in their tissues1 the oxygen being liberated and rendered available for animal respiration4 ,carbon is thus concentrated1 and when plant remains accumulate and are preserved beneath water in swamps1 a slow change takes place and peat is formed4 ,the essential conditions for the accumulation of vegetable matter have been present on the earth ever since a land flora existed1 and coal-beds occur at many different horizons4 ,the earliest date at which land plants seem to have been sufficiently abundant to furnish material for coal-beds was the ,carboniferous period4 ,although a similar flora existed during the preceding period1 the ,devonian1 no coal-beds of workable thickness are known in the rocks of that age4 ,since the ,carboniferous period coal has been found at many horizons in the sedimentary rocks1 and peat is being accumulated at the present day4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,map showing the distribution of coal in ,north ,america4 ,the coal-fields of ,north ,america are more extensive than those of any other continent1 excepting1 perhaps1 the at present but little known coal-bearing formations of ,asia1 and are distributed in temperate latitudes1 from tide-water on the ,atlantic to tide-water on the ,pacific coasts1 where the greatest commercial and intellectual development has been reached4 ,coal of ,carboniferous age occurs in large and valuable deposits in ,nova ,scotia and ,new ,brunswick2 there is a small area of graphitic anthracite1 not now utilized1 in ,rhode ,island2 but the great fields are in ,pennsylvania and the ,states southward to central ,alabama1 and westward to beyond the ,mississippi4 ,a detached coal-basin containing some #f1gjj square miles1 but a small part of which is productive1 however1 occurs in the central part of southern ,michigan4 ,small coal-fields in ,virginia and ,north ,carolina1 the first to be worked in ,america1 are of ,jura-,trias age and form part of the ,newark system4 ,extensive fields of valuable coal of ,mesozoic age1 principally in the ,laramie system1 occur in ,new ,mexico1 ,colorado1 ,wyoming1 ,montana1 and still farther north along the same great belt in ,canada4 ,another highly valuable field of ,mesozoic coal is now being extensively worked on ,vancouver ,island4 ,the coals of the west side of the ,pacific mountains1 largely lignites1 but in many instances of high grade and serviceable for steam coal1 are mostly of ,cenozoic age 7,tertiary7 and occur in ,california1 ,oregon1 ,washington1 and ,alaska4 ,the distribution of the various coal-fields is indicated on the above map1 and space will not be taken in describing their geographical relations4 ,peat is present in innumerable swamps throughout the humid1 temperate portion of the continent1 especially from ,louisiana and ,florida northward1 to the region about the ,great ,lakes and widely throughout ,canada1 but is at present of small commercial importance1 although steps are being taken for its extensive utilization4 ,the most valuable of the coal deposits are of ,carboniferous age1 and lie to the east of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,the most of the coal is bituminous1 or soft coal1 used principally in generating steam and for manufacturing gas and coke4 ,the exceptions occur in eastern ,pennsylvania and in ,rhode ,island4 ,these are considered as metamorphosed coals1 although in the ,pennsylvania region there is no evidence of the action of a high degree of heat4 ,in the ,rhode ,island field the rocks associated with the coal are plainly metamorphic in character1 and the coal has1 in large part1 been changed to graphitic anthracite4 ,that anthracite may be of any age1 however1 is indicated by the local changes that have occurred in ,mesozoic and ,cenozoic coals1 where they have been penetrated by dikes and other varieties of intrusions1 or have been altered by surface lava-flows4 ,in such situations the coal has lost nearly all its volatile matter1 and in composition and in certain instances1 as in western ,colorado1 in physical character as well1 is essentially an anthracite4 ,in addition to the various coal deposits referred to above there is a second series of organic compounds found stored in sedimentary rocks which consists of hydrocarbon4 ,this series of substances includes natural or rock-gas1 petroleum1 maltha or semifluid hydrocarbon1 and solid hydrocarbons1 such as asphaltum1 albertite1 grahamite1 ozokerite1 etc4 ,these substances are usually considered as being of organic origin and to have resulted from changes which take place in vegetable and animal tissues when buried and in most cases subjected to heavy pressure4 ,a large part of the hydrocarbons referred to is thought to have been derived from animal organisms1 an opinion which is sustained in an important manner by the fact that large stores of both petroleum and rock-gas have been discovered in rocks which were laid down before land vegetation is known to have existed4 ,marine algae were present1 however1 so that it cannot be affirmed that the hydrocarbon of the earlier ,paleozoic rocks came entirely from animal organisms4 ,it is highly probable1 however1 that a large portion of the hydrocarbons stored in ,paleozoic and later strata was derived from the animals whose hard parts occur so abundantly as fossils in the same or adjacent beds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--;,ideal section showing favourable conditions for the storage of petroleum and gas4 ,besides the concentration of carbon in plant and animal tissues and its change to hydrocarbons1 there is a still further concentration necessary in order that stores of petroleum1 gas1 etc41 shall be accumulated so as to be of economic value4 ,this accumulation is dependent largely on physical conditions4 ,the production of hydrocarbons from organic matter contained in sedimentary rocks1 and particularly in shale1 is going on in many regions1 and probably nearly everywhere1 especially when the soft parts of animals are buried in the rocks1 but the petroleum1 gas1 etc41 generated escape at the surface and pass into the air and are again widely disseminated1 unless conditions are present which lead to their accumulation4 ,the conditions favouring the natural storage of the substances referred to are cavities1 or more usually porous beds1 such as sandstone1 beneath impervious beds1 such as clay or shale4 ,the conditions are still more favourable when lateral as well as vertical escape is cut off1 as1 for example1 when arches or domes occur4 ,the most favourable conditions result when a bed of shale or other rock1 as a1 ,fig4 #ce1 from which hydrocarbons are being evolved occur beneath a sheet of porous sandstone or fissured rock of any kind1 b1 above which there is a close-textured1 unfractured stratum1 such as shale1 c1 and the series is bent along certain axes into upward folds or anticlinals4 ,under these conditions1 as extended experience has shown1 a well drilled at d should yield in succession gas1 petroleum1 and water4 ,the conditions for the production of petroleum1 gas1 etc41 have been present on the earth since the first appearance of life1 and reservoirs may have originated at any subsequent time4 ,the oldest known reservoirs still charged with these substances that have been discovered occur in the earlier ,paleozoic rocks1 just above the formations containing the oldest known fauna4 ,important petroleum and gas fields in rocks of the ,trenton period occur in ,new ,york1 ,ontario1 ,ohio1 and ,indiana4 ,the ,devonian rocks of ,pennsylvania1 ,new ,york1 ,ontario1 etc41 also yield large supplies of both oil and gas4 ,mesozoic rocks of ,colorado1 ,wyoming1 etc41 are also rich in the concentrated hydrocarbon referred to1 and on the ,pacific coast1 particularly in ,california1 rocks of ,cenozoic age are highly productive4 ,petroleum and gas may occur also in rocks more recent than the ,cenozoic1 but owing to the absence of reservoirs1 and possibly the lack of sufficient time1 no important accumulations are known in beds more recent than the ,tertiary1 unless they come from a deeper source in older rocks4 ,the vast quantity of petroleum stored in the rocks of various ages in ,north ,america is indicated by the fact that in #aijj the yield from the wells of the ,united ,states was #fc1cfb1gjd barrels1 and from ,canadian wells about #bhj1jjj barrels1 making a total of nearly #fd1jjj1jjj barrels4 ,the stores of rock-gas are also enormous1 as is indicated by the fact that a single well at ,bairdstown1 ,ohio1 yielded over #ag1jjj1jjj cubic feet per day4 ,in #ahij the average daily flow of the ,indiana gas-wells was #ggi1ebe1jjj cubic feet4 ,the value of the natural gas consumed in the ,united ,states in #aijj was #bc1fjf1dfc4 ,in the sedimentary rocks of ,north ,america there occur also extensive and valuable deposits of semifluid and solid hydrocarbons1 such as maltha1 asphaltum1 albertite1 grahamite1 uintahite1 etc41 which have arisen1 under the most plausible explanation thus far offered1 from the concentration by evaporation of fluid hydrocarbons such as petroleum4 ,the evaporation1 particularly of heavy petroleum1 leads to the formation of a solid residue1 similar to asphaltum4 ,in fact1 there is no definite boundary between the lightest naphtha and the most coal-like asphaltum4 ,they form a connected hydrocarbon series1 analogous to the coal series4 ,albertite1 a bright1 coal-like substance1 exceedingly rich in volatile hydrocarbon1 occupies fissures in ,carboniferous rocks in ,nova ,scotia1 and a similar but less lustrous mineral1 termed grahamite1 occurs in fissures in rock of the same age1 near a rich oil-pool in ,west ,virginia4 ,other similar deposits1 but usually wax-like and dull1 are found in ,utah and neighbouring ,states4 ,asphaltum occurs in vast quantities in southern ,california1 and also in ,cuba2 these deposits resemble the celebrated asphaltum of ,trinidad and give promise of being fully as extensive and valuable4 ,in brief1 gaseous1 fluid1 semifluid1 and solid hydrocarbons in great variety are widely distributed throughout the portions of ,north ,america where the surface is composed of sedimentary beds1 and in a few instances occur in cavities in igneous rocks as well4 ,the influence of life in leading to the concentration of substances of commercial value is still further illustrated by the beds of diatomaceous earth which are found in various portions of ,north ,america and elsewhere1 particularly in ,cenozoic and more recent terranes4 ,beds of diatomaceous earth reported to be #dj feet thick and of wide extent have been found near ,richmond1 ,virginia1 and similar deposits occur at several localities in ,oregon1 ,california1 etc4 ,the uses of this fine1 white1 flour-like powder1 each minute grain of which is a beautiful siliceous organism1 are for polishing powder1 as an ingredient in friction soap1 as an absorbent for nitroglycerine in the manufacture of high explosives1 etc4 ,a class of substances of economic importance which owe their accumulation to chemical agencies acting at the surface of the earth is well illustrated by deposits of rock salt and gypsum4 ,in the ,silurian system in ,new ,york1 ,ontario1 ,michigan1 etc41 several beds of rock salt and gypsum occur1 indicating that there were formerly a number of separate evaporating basins in that region4 ,the beds of salt vary in thickness from a few inches to over #cjj feet1 as at ,tulley1 ,new ,york4 ,at ,goodrich1 ,ontario1 #f beds of salt from #f to #ce feet thick have been penetrated in a single well4 ,with the salt in this the ,salina formation there are many beds of gypsum4 ,in rocks of ,carboniferous age in ,michigan1 other extensive beds of salt and gypsum have been discovered4 ,in ,louisiana1 ,texas1 ,utah1 and other ,states1 salt and gypsum occur in ,mesozoic and ,cenozoic rocks4 ,one of the most remarkable of these deposits is beneath small islands in the ,gulf of ,mexico off the ,louisiana coast4 ,on ,jefferson ,island1 for example1 rock salt was reached recently at a depth of #bfj feet beneath ,cenozoic rock1 and was penetrated for over #a1hjj feet without reaching the base of the deposit4 ,the supply of salt stored in the rocks1 and the natural brines of the arid region1 such as the waters of ,great ,salt ,lake1 afford an inexhaustible supply upon which comparatively small demands have thus far been made4 ,in addition to salt and gypsum there are other substances that have been accumulated in a similar manner1 such1 for example1 as sodium sulphate1 of which large beds occur in the desiccated lake basins of the arid region1 sodium bromide1 which is obtained from some of the ancient brines pumped from deep wells in ,michigan4 ,next to the fossil fuels1 the most important products of the rocks in ,north ,america are the iron ores4 ,although certain igneous rocks are rich in iron1 and in some instances contain it even in a pure or metallic state1 none of the rocks that have cooled from fusion carry iron in any form in sufficient quantities to be of commercial importance4 ,most of the iron in igneous rocks is contained in mineral1 usually silicates1 and would be difficult to separate4 ,when exposed to the air and to percolating water1 the iron-bearing minerals of the igneous or other rocks decay and the iron enters into various new combinations4 ,when organic acids are present1 and especially carbon dioxide1 ferrous carbonate is formed1 which is quite soluble1 and is taken into solution by percolating water1 some of which emerges as springs1 and joins the surface run-off1 which may also take up ferrous carbonate in solution4 ,one of the most common methods by which iron ore is accumulated is when water carrying ferrous carbonate in solution forms swamps and lakes1 and in many instances as the water is exposed to the air and aided by evaporation it parts with a portion of its carbon dioxide1 and the hydrated sesquioxide of iron or limonite results4 ,when1 under similar conditions1 an excess of organic matter is present1 beds of ferrous carbonate are formed4 ,in other instances iron oxide is precipitated in swamps and lakes through the action of low forms of plant life4 ,the ores of iron concentrated in these ways are in many instances in well-defined layers1 or lenticular bodies1 which are thickest in the central portion and thin out in all directions4 ,their forms are determined mainly by the shapes of the depressions they occupy4 ,both ferrous carbonate and limonite1 however1 occur in irregular surface deposits4 ,in ,north ,america1 bog-iron ores occur at the surface in many regions1 in existing swamps and about springs1 but are seldom of economic importance1 owing in part to the great abundance of better ores4 ,limonite occurs at the surface also1 having been deposited in cavities and as a cement for loose fragments1 particularly on the weathered outcrops of formations rich in iron4 ,when rocks contain but a fraction of #a per cent of iron1 the soil on their weathered outcrops1 owing to the removal of the more soluble ingredients and the leaving of the less soluble oxidized iron1 have a yellow1 brown1 or red colour1 and in some instances this process of concentration has produced workable iron ore4 ,limonite and earthy hematites occur widely throughout the ,appalachian region1 in central ,new ,york1 and westward to the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,one of the most productive formations is the ,clinton1 a division of the ,silurian1 the outcrop of which extends in a nearly continuous band from ,alabama1 where at ,birmingham1 etc41 it is extensively worked1 northward along the west side of the ,appalachians to central ,new ,york1 and thence westward to ,ohio1 and appears again in ,wisconsin4 ,at many localities throughout this belt1 some #a1cjj miles in length1 iron furnaces have been built1 although now mostly abandoned1 the ore supply being the weathered outcrop of the ,clinton limestone4 ,in the ,carboniferous rocks of ,pennsylvania and neighbouring ,states to the south and west1 layers of ferrous carbonate1 formed when there was an excess of organic matter present1 termed black-band ore and kidney ore1 occur4 ,the former is present as regular strata and the latter in oval concretionary masses4 ,these ores1 although not as rich in iron and less pure than certain other and more abundant and more accessible deposits1 have been extensively utilized1 largely for the reason that they occur in the same formation which furnishes coal available for their reduction4 ,deposits of iron ore accumulated in the several ways referred to above may be metamorphosed and changed to hematite and magnetite4 ,the richest iron ores of ,north ,america are of this nature1 and will be referred to below in connection with other substances of economic importance contained in the metamorphic rocks4 ,there are various other substances in the stratified rocks of ,north ,america of economic importance which owe their value to some process of concentration4 ,certain rocks1 as the so-called greensands or marls of eastern ,new ,jersey1 contain from #c to #aj per cent of potash1 which makes them valuable fertilizers4 ,in this instance the concentration took place on the floor of the sea1 through the action of decomposing organic matter1 and the potash-bearing mineral of the greensand1 namely1 glauconite1 was deposited in the interiors of the minute tests of foraminifera4 ,the importance of this material is indicated by the fact that the greensands of ,new ,jersey have been actively worked for more than half a century1 the annual products during many years being upward of #ajj1jjj tons4 ,extensive areas in the ,carolinas1 ,florida1 etc41 underlaid by rocks of ,cenozoic age1 are rich in phosphatic nodules1 which have been derived from organic matter4 ,the guano deposits of the low arid islands in the ,west ,indies illustrate another mode of accumulation of organic material useful as a fertilizer4 ,the assorting of surface debris by streams and currents has led to the formation of extensive deposits of clay which occur widely throughout the portions of ,north ,america where the surface is composed of stratified rock1 which is extensively used in the manufacture of earthenware1 bricks1 tiles1 terra-cotta1 ,portland cement1 etc4 ,when rocks containing gold in nuggets1 grains1 scales1 etc41 are disintegrated1 and the resulting debris removed by streams1 mechanical separation of the heavier from the lighter material takes place and all but the very finest of the gold is concentrated on the stream beds4 ,in this manner the rich placers of the ,pacific mountain region from ,california to ,alaska have originated4 ,the general nature of the ore bodies formed through the action of chemical agencies in sedimentary rocks1 by solution and redeposition1 is illustrated by the lead and zinc ores of ,wisconsin1 ,missouri1 the silver-bearing lodes of the ,pacific mountains1 etc4 ,in the case of the lead and zinc deposits the ores occupy the interspaces between broken sedimentary beds or line caverns4 ,under the best explanation of the origin of these deposits that has been offered1 although certain modifications of the general hypothesis have been suggested which it is not necessary to consider at length at this time1 the lead and zinc are considered to have been at one time widely distributed in the adjacent sedimentary rocks1 mainly limestone1 and to have been taken in solution by percolating waters and carried to cavities where they were precipitated1 together with various other mineral substances1 such as calcium carbonate or calcite1 barium sulphate or barite1 carbonate of calcium and magnesium or dolomite1 etc4 ,the minerals containing lead are principally galenite or lead sulphate1 cerussite or lead carbonate2 while the zinc is contained in the minerals1 sphalerite or zinc sulphide1 calamine or zinc silicate1 smithsonite or zinc carbonate1 etc4 ,these minerals1 including both those containing lead and zinc1 and those intimately associated with them which are at present of no commercial value1 are such as are known to crystallize from solution without the aid of high temperatures4 ,in the ,missouri lead and zinc districts the ore deposits occur near the surface1 the depth of the present working seldom exceeding #aej or #bjj feet1 and1 as nearly as can be judged1 have been formed by the downward transfer of mineral matter through the process of solution and recrystallization1 as the surface of the land has been lowered by chemical and mechanical denudation4 ,many of the rich silver-mines of the ,pacific mountains occur in fissures and cavities in sedimentary rocks1 mainly limestone4 ,instances of this nature are furnished by certain mines in northeastern ,mexico1 where the ore is found in cavities in ,cretaceous limestone2 at ,leadville and ,aspen1 ,colorado2 ,big and ,little ,cottonwood canyons1 and the ,horn silver-mine1 ,utah1 where the principal country rock is ,carboniferous limestone2 the ,eureka district1 ,nevada1 where the ore occurs in cavities in ,cambrian limestone4 ,in the case of several of these mines1 igneous rock is near at hand1 and the ores are believed to owe their concentration largely to the action of heated waters4 ,in other regions deep fissures1 occupied in part by dikes of igneous rock1 have permitted of the ascent of water charged with mineral matter from far below the surface2 such waters are heated1 in part by the general heat of the earth's interior1 or1 if in association with dikes1 by the heat of the once molten intruded rock4 ,the ascending hot water is an active solvent1 and as it rises becomes cooled1 and for this and other reasons precipitates many mineral substances4 ,veins are thus formed1 which are many times banded--that is1 result from the filling of fissures by the successive deposition of minerals of various kinds on their walls1 each different layer of minerals indicating a change in conditions4 ,fissures filled in this manner from below1 as denudation progresses1 become exposed at the surface and reconcentration through the influence of disintegration and decay1 and of solution and redeposition by descending water takes place4 ,ore bodies of this character carrying gold1 silver1 mercury1 etc41 are of wide occurrence1 especially in the ,pacific mountains1 but the process of concentration is independent of the nature of the country rock4 ,segregated and fissure veins occur in either igneous1 sedimentary1 or metamorphic terranes1 but are more commonly of economic importance in the metamorphic rocks than elsewhere1 and will be referred to again in that connection4 ,economic ,importance of the ,metamorphic ,terranes4--,the great laboratory in which rocks undergo important changes in their physical condition and in mineralogical and chemical composition1 is what has been termed on a previous page the zone of metamorphism4 ,the depth of the upper limit of this zone is variable1 dependent in part on the nature of the rocks and on movements within them1 as is the case of mountain building4 ,in fact1 there is probably no well-defined limit to the zone either above or below1 as in the former direction metamorphism merges by gradations into alteration produced by the descent of surface water1 and in the latter direction as heat increases passes again1 as we imagine1 by insensible and irregular gradations into a region where the rocks are so highly heated that diffusion rather than concentration results4 ,whether the rocks below the zone of metamorphism are fused or not depends on pressure4 ,they are probably solid1 but in a potentially plastic condition1 and become fused and may be forced upward through fissures in the condition of igneous magmas when pressure is relieved4 ,the zone of metamorphism lies between a superior zone where alteration by descending water is dominant1 and a lower region where alteration due mainly to heat is in control4 ,in the zone of metamorphism the influence of heated percolating waters1 combined with movements in the rocks1 are the principal factors which lead to the concentration of mineral substances4 ,under the influence of percolating1 heated waters1 new minerals are formed in sedimentary or igneous rocks1 and rocks once metamorphosed may undergo additional changes4 ,mineral matter previously widely disseminated through rocks is1 under the action of percolating1 heated water1 brought together and the regeneration and crystallization of a large variety of ores and minerals result4 ,the birthplace of a large variety of ores and minerals is in the zone of metamorphism4 ,it is in metamorphic rocks that the geologist looks for gems1 the precious metals1 crystalline marble1 magnetic iron1 etc4 ,for the most part1 however1 the native metals and ores of the precious and many of the common metals are too widely disseminated in the metamorphic rocks to be of commercial importance1 and a still further concentration1 principally in fissures and other cavities1 is necessary before they can be of value to man4 ,this secondary concentration is much the same as in the case of the deposition of lead and zinc ores in cavities in sedimentary rocks1 and results largely from the solution and redeposition1 sometimes by replacement1 of mineral matter by heated waters4 ,certain ores and rocks contained in metamorphic terranes owe their concentration to previously acting processes of concentration1 but have undergone chemical changes in place4 ,illustrations of this class of ores1 etc41 are furnished by the magnetite and hematite contained in the metamorphic rocks on the eastern border of the ,appalachians1 in ,new ,england1 eastern ,canada1 and the ,lake ,superior region4 ,these ore bodies1 frequently of great size1 in some instances furnish evidence of having been originally lenticular masses of bog-iron ore1 or ferric carbonate1 associated with sedimentary beds1 and originally concentrated1 as already mentioned1 at the surface through the action of water charged with carbon dioxide1 but principally on account of the influence of heat have been changed to a higher degree of oxidation and now appear as hematite1 as1 for example1 in the iron districts of the northern portions of ,michigan1 ,minnesota1 ,wisconsin1 and the ,ozark ,hills1 or still further altered as in the richest of all iron ores1 magnetite1 so abundant in the metamorphic rocks of the ,appalachian region1 about the ,adirondack hills1 widely and in extensive bodies in eastern ,canada1 about the south shore of ,lake ,superior1 in ,texas1 etc4 ,in certain instances1 as has been shown by ,c4 ,r4 ,van ,hise and others1 hematite ore1 like that of the ,lake ,superior region1 has resulted from the alteration of ferrous carbonate which had replaced limestone by a chemical process of solution and double decomposition4 ,as bodies of iron ore in the form of the carbonate1 or limonite1 may occur in rocks of any age1 and as rocks of any age may be metamorphosed1 it follows that hematite and magnetite may be present in any formation which has been subjected to metamorphosing conditions4 ,limestone when metamorphosed is changed to a crystalline marble1 frequently white in colour owing to the dissipation of its previously contained organic matter4 ,the white marbles so extensively utilized in ,georgia1 ,vermont1 etc41 are of this nature4 ,other similar metamorphosed layers occur in several of the ranges of the ,pacific mountains from ,mexico to ,alaska4 ,the influence of metamorphism on deposits of coal when the heat has been of moderate intensity serves to drive off a large part of the volatile matter present and converts the coal into a substance resembling coke1 as has happened adjacent to dikes or intruded sheets of igneous rock in the ,richmond coal-field1 ,virginia1 in ,new ,mexico1 ,washington1 etc4 ,when the heat is somewhat more intense1 the coal is changed to what is termed graphitic anthracite1 as in the ,rhode ,island coal-fields1 and when still greater or long-continued1 results in the production of graphite1 as in the ,algonkian rocks about the ,adirondack hills and over a wide region in eastern ,canada4 ,an important result of metamorphism is the production of new minerals in the rocks acted on4 ,many of the metamorphic terranes consist essentially of quartz1 feldspar1 and mica1 which have been formed by the rearrangement of the mineral matter contained in the rocks during their previous state4 ,besides these constituent minerals there are frequently others present1 such as the garnets1 tourmaline1 emerald1 sapphire1 corundum1 etc41 which are of economic importance4 ,in a large number of instances the minerals of metamorphic rocks are contained in veins of one class or another1 in part resulting from segregation in the rocks themselves while yet in a heated condition1 and in part deposited in fissures or other openings as a result of secondary concentration through the action of heated waters4 ,the principal difference between the minerals concentrated in the metamorphic rocks and those deposited in cavities in unaltered sedimentary beds seems to be that in the former instance the percolating water which carried the material in solution had a higher temperature than in the latter case4 ,among the numerous mineral substances of value in the arts1 occurring in the metamorphic terranes of ,north ,america1 other than building stones and the previously concentrated deposits1 such as iron ore1 graphite1 etc41 mention can only be made at present of the following3 ,mica1 which is used in thin sheets for the windows of stoves and furnaces1 and when ground and mingled with other substances furnishes a good insulating material for electric wires1 fireproofing1 and also used as a lubricant1 etc41 occurs in large quantities in the metamorphic rocks of ,new ,hampshire and ,ottawa1 and less abundantly in ,north ,carolina1 ,south ,dakota1 ,wyoming1 ,idaho1 etc4 ,it is widely distributed1 but to find transparent colourless sheets of large size is difficult4 ,talc and soapstone1 consisting of the hydrated silicate of magnesia1 and useful for hearths1 mantels1 fire-brick1 linings for stoves1 laundry-1 bath-1 and acid-tubs1 etc41 and when ground1 employed as an adulterant of soap1 paper1 rubber1 and as a lubricant1 etc41 occurs widely in the metamorphic terranes on the eastern side of the ,appalachians1 in ,canada1 and at numerous localities in the ,pacific mountains4 ,the chief centres of production at present are in ,pennsylvania1 ,new ,jersey1 ,new ,hampshire1 and ,vermont4 ,asbestos1 valuable on account of its fibrous structure and non-conductivity of heat1 which make it an excellent insulator1 and largely used in the manufacture of fireproof paper1 cloth1 etc41 occurs in connection with serpentine1 in metamorphic terranes1 and is extensively mined in the ,thetford district1 ,quebec4 ,corundum1 consisting of aluminum oxide1 and having essentially the same composition as the sapphire and ruby1 and a less pure variety of similar composition termed emery1 is largely used as an abrasive in polishing metal1 sharpening tools1 etc41 and also as sand-paper in working wood1 occurs in commercial quantities1 largely in crystalline limestone1 at ,chester1 ,mass41 in ,georgia1 ,north ,carolina1 and several other localities4 ,although corundum is next to the diamond in hardness1 and therefore highly favourable1 when reduced to a powder1 for polishing various substances1 the demand for it has in recent years been diminished owing to the manufacture of an equally if not superior material termed commercially carborundum4 ,among the crystals used as gems1 which occur in the metamorphic rocks of ,north ,america but thus far in minor quantities1 and as a rule of inferior quality1 may be enumerated sapphires1 rubies1 tourmalines1 garnets1 quartz1 etc4 ,apatite1 a mineral rich in phosphoric acid1 and largely used in the manufacture of fertilizers1 occurs associated with limestone in the metamorphic rocks of ,quebec and ,ontario in the form of veins1 beds1 and irregular pockets1 and a few years since was extensively mined1 but now1 owing to foreign competition1 is held in reserve4 ,by far the most valuable of the minerals and native metals that occur in the metamorphosed terranes is gold4 ,although this metal has been found in paying quantities in association with nearly every kind of country rocks and in terranes of all ages1 the place of its original concentration from a previously widely disseminated condition is to a great extent in the zone of metamorphism4 ,it occurs principally as native gold1 although usually alloyed with silver1 but is frequently contained in iron pyrites4 ,in the crystalline rocks1 such as gneiss1 schist1 slates1 granite1 etc41 it occurs in flakes and grains1 but so far as its occurrence in commercial quantities is concerned its deposition has for the most part been secondary1 and the metal1 usually in association with quartz1 is found in veins1 lodes1 contact deposits1 etc41 and owes its concentration to chemical agencies not well understood1 acting in connection with percolating water4 ,that this general statement is correct is clearly shown by the fact that gold occurs in crystals1 flakes1 grains1 etc41 most frequently in quartz and iron pyrites1 which1 as can be shown in a number of ways1 have crystallized from solution4 ,the gold and its commonly associated mineral in countless instances occupy fissures and must have been carried to such localities after the surrounding rock had been fractured4 ,so intimate is the association of gold with metamorphic rocks that this is one of the main guides in searching for it1 although1 as already stated1 it is frequently present in other rocks as well4 ,with the disintegration of the metamorphic terranes the gold is set free1 and may be still further concentrated by streams so as to form the well-known placers4 ,a very large proportion of both the quartz and placer mining of ,north ,america is in regions occupied by metamorphic rock4 ,this is true of all gold-mines1 previously quite largely exploited1 of the ,atlantic mountain region from ,georgia to eastern ,canada4 ,the mines of ,california are also largely in schistose rocks1 as are also those to the northward1 throughout the ,pacific mountains1 to ,british ,columbia and ,alaska1 including the recently established mining district at ,cape ,nome4 ,with placer gold1 and probably derived largely1 if not entirely1 from metamorphic rocks1 there are frequently found grains of platinum4 ,the annual production of this metal in the ,united ,states and ,canada has a value of about #e1jjj4 ,the study of the distribution of native metals and ores in the metamorphic rocks of ,north ,america indicates that in general the older rocks1 as the ,archean1 for example1 are less rich than the younger terranes1 such as the schist1 etc41 of the ,sierra ,nevada and ,cascade ,mountains4 ,this seems to indicate that the older rocks were once deeply buried and their more soluble substances removed by ascending waters1 and in part redeposited in higher terranes4 ,erosion has since carried off the rocks which were mineral-charged and laid bare the depleted terranes beneath4 ,this hypothetical explanation of the general poverty of the ,archean rocks is coupled with another consideration1 namely1 that the younger metamorphic terranes1 where they have been elevated1 as in the ,pacific mountains1 are more broken than the ,archean rocks1 and afford more cavities in which minerals may be deposited4 ,whether this is a complete explanation or not remains to be demonstrated1 but observation shows that the ,archean terranes--all of which as yet discovered are composed of either metamorphosed or igneous rocks--are1 in comparison with younger metamorphosed rocks1 relatively poor in minerals and ores of commercial importance4 ,among the economic products of the rocks are included mineral waters4 ,the direct commercial value of such waters1 not including their use for baths1 etc41 in the ,united ,states1 is about #g1jjj1jjj annually4 ,the demand for these waters depends largely on the mineral substances they hold in solution1 and which in many instances is in process of transference from one locality to another4 ,much might be written in this connection in illustration of the fact that the processes by which minerals1 ores1 etc41 have been concentrated are still in progress4 ,,literature ,an extensive literature is available concerning the geology1 minerals1 ores1 etc41 of ,north ,america1 but only a few of the more important publications can here be referred to4 ,the numerous publications of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 the ,geological ,survey of ,canada1 and the ,geological ,survey of ,mexico contain vast amounts of valuable information4 ,several of the ,states of the ,united ,states have independent surveys and have published numerous reports4 ,of journals containing articles of ,american geology1 the more important are3 ,the ,journal of ,geology1 published at the ,university of ,chicago2 ,the ,american ,geologist1 published at ,minneapolis1 ,minn42 ,the ,american ,journal of ,science1 published at ,new ,haven1 ,conn4 ,the publications of a large number of learned societies in ,canada and the ,united ,states should also be consulted4 ,the most useful bibliographies of ,north ,american geology are3 ,,darton1 ,n4 ,h4 ,catalogue and ,index of ,contributions to ,north ,american ,geology1 #agcb-ahia4 ,published as ,bulletin ,no4 #abg of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 #ahif4 ,,dowling1 ,d4 ,b4 ,general ,index to the ,reports of ,progress of the ,geological ,survey of ,canada1 #ahfc-ahhd4 ,published by the ,canadian ,geological ,survey1 ,ottawa1 ,canada1 #aijj4 ,,warman1 ,p4 ,c4 ,catalogue and ,index of the ,publications of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 #ahhj to #aija4 ,published as ,bulletin ,no4 #agg of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 #aija4 ,,weeks1 ,f4 ,b4 ,bibliography of ,north ,american ,geology1 ,paleontology1 ,petrology1 and ,mineralogy for the ,years #ahib-aijj1 ,inclusive4 ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 ,bulletins ,no4 #ahh and #ahi1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 #aijb4 ,of the numerous general treatises on the geology1 the following will be found especially helpful to the student3 ,,dana1 ,j4 ,d4 ,manual of ,geology4 ,fourth edition4 ,american ,book ,company1 ,new ,york1 #ahie4 ,,kemp1 ,j4 ,f4 ,the ,ore ,deposits of the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,scientific ,publishing ,company1 ,new ,york1 #aijj4 ,,le ,,conte1 ,j4 ,elements of ,geology4 ,fifth edition1 revised and partly rewritten by ,prof4 ,h4 ,l4 ,fairchild4 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company1 ,new ,york1 #aijc4 ,,merrill1 ,g4 ,p4 ,a ,treatise on ,rocks1 ,rock-,weathering1 and ,soils4 ,the ,macmillan ,company1 ,new ,york1 #ahig4 ,,shaler1 ,n4 ,s4 ,outlines of the ,earth's ,history4 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company1 ,new ,york1 #ahih4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,aborigines ,at the time the ,western ,hemisphere became known to ,europeans1 as has been shown by subsequent explorations1 it was inhabited by native tribes from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific and from the extreme north to ,patagonia4 ,the aborigines were distributed principally along the coast1 about the borders of lakes1 and on the margins of streams1 but much of the interior was also inhabited or roamed over by hunting and war parties1 or crossed by various tribes during their migrations4 ,large areas1 it is true1 more especially among the rugged mountains1 in the great subarctic forest1 and on the trackless tundras1 had no permanent residents1 but in general terms the entire land was inhabited4 ,in spite of the reports as to the density of the aboriginal population made by several early explorers1 who for the most part followed the waterways1 visited the most thickly inhabited regions1 and saw the natives when brought together by motives of curiosity or defence1 it is now known that ,north ,america1 considering its vast extent1 was but sparsely peopled4 ,as to the number of the inhabitants1 there is no even approximately accurate knowledge4 ,the greatest density of population1 so far as can be judged1 was in the tropical region1 and decreased northward in a general way in conformity with change in latitude1 but varied also in a conspicuous manner in accord with local climatic and topographic influences4 ,in the same manner as the exploration of the ,new ,world led to the discovery of many species1 genera1 etc41 of plants and animals1 it also added two types of man to those previously known to ,europeans4 ,the propriety of separating the ,american aborigines into two groups of tribes is based on the contrasts the members of these divisions present not only in colour and other physiological characteristics1 but on well-marked differences in language1 customs1 arts1 etc4 ,on this basis two varieties of the human species have been recognised1 namely1 the ,eskimo and the ,indian4 ,the term ,eskimo1 formerly spelled ,esquimau1 is of obscure origin1 but is thought to have been adopted by ,europeans from the ,indians of ,labrador1 who thus designated a northern people living on the coast1 and is said to mean raw-flesh eaters4 ,the word in use among the ,eskimos to designate themselves is ,innuit1 meaning people1 or the people1 in the sense that in their own estimation they are of more importance than all other peoples4 ,the term ,indian1 as is well known1 arose from an error of the early ,spanish voyagers1 who1 on arriving in ,america1 believed they had reached ,india1 and hence termed the natives of the new land ,indians4 ,this mistake has led to many attempts to substitute some other word by which to designate the people referred to1 but thus far none of the terms proposed has been generally accepted4 ,in the present book the word ,indian is used to designate the aborigines of the ,new ,world1 exclusive of the ,eskimos4 ,the geographical distribution of the ,eskimos and ,indians is sharply defined even at the present day1 and is indicated on the map forming ,plate ,,vi4 ,origin of the ,aborigines4--,the generally accepted conclusion in reference to the origin of the ,american aborigines seems to be that man reached this continent while the peoples of the ,old ,world were yet in a primitive condition1 and at a time when the highest stage of culture was expressed by the knife and spear-point of chipped stone1 and developed independently in accord with the natural conditions with which he was surrounded4 ,more than this1 once planted1 the original stock received but slight if any accessions by subsequent immigration4 ,this last statement is not in strict accord with the conclusions reached by certain ethnologists1 who claim that the use of masks1 the art of carving on wood1 stone1 ivory1 etc41 the practise of tattooing1 the preservation of human heads1 and other customs practised by the ,indians of the ,pacific coast of the two ,americas--and in ,north ,america1 extending eastward along lines of easiest communication--suggest an influence coming from ,polynesia at a time when the peoples dwelling on the west borders of the ,pacific had made a well-marked advance in culture4 ,some influences on the aborigines of ,america coming both from ,polynesia and eastern ,asia must seemingly be admitted1 the importations having been by means of storm- and current-swept boats and junks1 but the evidence does not point to trade relations4 ,the most that can be claimed seems to be slight modifications of the arts and customs of the ,american aborigines1 but not enough to make what may be termed an indelible impression upon them4 ,the low state of culture of the original stock from which the ,american aborigines were derived1 implied in their distinct subsequent development in language1 arts1 etc41 indicates that man appeared in ,america previous to the invention of boats capable of crossing broad oceans4 ,the necessary inference from this--if the hypothesis of one place of origin for the human race is accepted--is that migration to ,america was by land1 or at most across narrow straits4 ,the geography of the continents must have been markedly different from what it is at present to admit of this1 providing the proof that access was not gained where ,asia and ,america make a near approach to each other at ,bering ,strait is conclusive1 and at present that evidence seems unquestionable4 ,the present state of opinion in reference to the origin of the ,american aborigines is thus expressed by one well qualified to speak with authority4 ,at the close of a review of several lines of evidence ,j4 ,w4 ,powell says3 ,thus we are forced to conclude that the occupancy of ,america by mankind was anterior to the development of arts1 industries1 institutions1 languages1 and opinions2 that the primordial occupancy of the continent antedates present geographical conditions1 and points to a remote time which can be discovered only on geological and biological investigation4 ,antiquity of the ,aborigines4--,the conclusions to be drawn from the studies of ethnologists in reference to the length of time man has made his home in ,america are qualitative1 not quantitative4 ,the time is certainly long1 probably embracing tens of centuries2 but how long no one can state in years4 ,this claim for a great although indefinite antiquity is based on several lines of evidence1 some few of which the reader may find it profitable to briefly consider4 ,a comparison of physiological characteristics shows that the ,american aborigines have well-marked differences from all other varieties of the human race4 ,this conclusion is not based on any one special feature1 although colour and character of the hair are the most conspicuous1 but on the resultant1 so to speak1 of many attributes4 ,it is1 in a measure1 a comparison of ideal type-examples of each variety4 ,while each characteristic that may be chosen has individual and tribal variations1 and but few of them are perhaps conspicuously different from those pertaining to the peoples of the ,old ,world1 yet taken together they clearly differentiate the ,american aborigines from all other varieties of the human species4 ,applying the same principles to man that are used in the study of the geographical distribution of the lower animals1 the only legitimate conclusion the naturalist can deduce from the evidence just referred to is that the branch of the human family indigenous to ,north ,america has been isolated for a sufficient length of time to develop into a new variety4 ,the ,american aborigines are different from all other varieties of the human species because each more or less isolated community or group of communities the world over has varied in its own way in accord with climatic and other conditions1 and the connecting links have been lost4 ,the differences that have arisen in this manner are so great that the nature of the parent stock is no longer determinable from its living representatives4 ,this process of development among the lower animals is understood to involve a great length of time2 and the inference is that man's development is no exception to the rule4 ,the evidence favouring a great antiquity for the ,american aborigines is strengthened by the fact that when first known to ,europeans both ,north and ,south ,america were inhabited by tribes having more or less well-defined territorial limits4 ,if this population spread from one or even from several centres it is evident that a great length of time would be required for it to reach all parts of the ,new ,world and to become adjusted to a wide range in climatic and other conditions1 as is known to be the case4 ,students of languages have shown that the most enduring characteristics of man are to be found in his speech4 ,the fundamental principles of a language outlive not only political and social changes1 but even physiological distinctions1 and are inherited from a primitive stock by all its branches4 ,we might reasonably expect1 therefore1 that a study of the languages spoken in ,america in pre-,columbian days would be a sure index as to the primitive stock from which the various tribes came1 and show to which of the many other branches of the linguistic tree they are most closely related4 ,turning with this question to those who have made a critical study of the languages of the ,american aborigines1 and no one is better qualified to bear testimony in this connection than ,j4 ,w4 ,powell1 the honoured director of the ,american ,bureau of ,ethnology1 we find a definite answer4 ,he says3 ,the ,north ,american ,indian tribes1 instead of speaking related dialects1 originating in a single parent language1 in reality speak many languages1 belonging to distinct families1 which have no apparent unity of origin4 ,to the north of ,mexico 7,plate ,,vi7 the aborigines are divided into #eh linguistic families4 ,in a large portion of these languages there are tribal dialects not understood by members of other tribes of the same family4 ,thus the ,algonquin linguistic family contains some #cj or #dj distinct languages4 ,in the ,athapascan the diversity is nearly as great4 ,the smaller families present similar conditions in proportionate degree1 although there are stocks which speak but one language4 ,four of the linguistic families referred to extend into ,mexico1 but to the south of the territory occupied by them other languages and dialects are spoken4 ,ethnologists who have studied the tribes of ,mexico report #ai linguistic stocks1 containing #ajh distinct languages1 among which there are upward of #fj dialects4 ,in ,central ,america a similar diversity in the native tongues exists4 ,reclus1 in his great work ,the ,earth and its ,inhabitants1 states that in the ,new ,world #dej native languages are spoken--a number greater than that of all the languages in use in the rest of the earth4 ,not only are the ,american linguistic stocks different from each other1 and fail to furnish evidence of having been derived from a single parent tongue1 but1 as philologists assure us1 no one of them is analogous to any language spoken in other lands4 ,as is well known1 a language is not created de novo1 but by a slow process of development4 ,since the first acquirement of articulate speech by man a succession of languages has appeared owing to the growth1 differentiation1 etc41 of pre-existing forms of speech4 ,it is a warrantable inference1 therefore1 that the marvellous diversity in speech present in ,america could only have arisen by a process of evolution involving a very long period of time4 ,as the ,american languages have no affinity with the ,teutonic or ,semitic stocks1 it is evident that the source or sources from which they came far antedate the birth of the oldest people of which history takes cognizance4 ,man must therefore have set foot on ,american soil before the sprouting of the linguistic twig which1 after millenniums1 produced the cuneiform inscriptions of ancient ,persia and ,assyria4 ,the diversity of arts1 customs1 myths1 religions1 etc41 among the ,american aborigines1 and their difference in nearly all instances from the analogous attributes of the peoples of other lands1 also point to a long period of isolated development in much the same manner as has been referred to in the case of a comparative study of their languages4 ,the skin boats used by the ,eskimos are widely different from the birch-bark canoes of the ,algonquins1 and these again differ conspicuously from the dug-out canoes of southeastern ,alaska and ,british ,columbia2 still other varieties of boats are peculiar to the more southern ,indian tribes1 and all alike differ from the boats used in other lands4 ,like individuality pertains also to the houses of the ,american aborigines1 their clothing1 arms1 utensils1 basket-work1 picture-writings1 etc4 ,one is forced to recognise in each of these arts or industries not only development in many diverging lines among the various tribes1 but the birth of ideas analogous to those which arose in other lands1 and their independent growth under special conditions4 ,all of this1 and much more in the same general direction that might be discussed did space permit1 points to a great antiquity for the indigenous ,american peoples4 ,among the nations of the ,old ,world certain plants have been under domestication for so long a time1 and have varied so greatly1 that the wild species from which they came are no longer known4 ,this is true of nearly all our common fruits and vegetables and many of our flowers that were derived from the ,old ,world4 ,at the time of the ,spanish conquest the aborigines of ,america were cultivating tobacco1 potatoes1 beans1 tomatoes1 squashes1 maize1 cotton1 etc41 and in the case of most of these plants the wild species from which they were derived has not been ascertained4 ,the argument that points to a great antiquity in the case of wheat and the peach applies equally well to tobacco and maize1 and indicates that horticulture began in ,america in remote antiquity4 ,at the time of ,columbus1 the ox1 sheep1 goat1 pigeons1 fowls1 cat1 etc41 long domesticated in the ,old1 were absent in the ,new ,world1 and the llama1 turkey1 etc41 indigenous in ,america1 were unknown in ,europe4 ,these striking differences1 among which there is not even a single exception1 amount to positive evidence that contact between the peoples of the ,old and the ,new ,world did not occur after the inhabitants of the former emerged from savagery1 or1 what is the same thing1 never existed in the sense that trade relations were entered into4 ,this same line of argument seemingly casts grave doubts on the deductions already referred to concerning the importation into ,america from ,polynesia of the practise of tattooing1 the wearing of masks1 the use of labrets1 etc42 and indicates also that but slight changes were produced in the ,american aborigines owing to the wrecking of ,asiatic junks on the northwest coast4 ,another factor bearing on the antiquity of the indigenous ,americans is the stage of development reached in spite of their long and nearly complete isolation4 ,stimuli from without1 and particularly contact with more advanced peoples1 having been lacking or of small importance1 incentive to bodily and mental activity arose mainly from the desire for food1 clothing1 and shelter1 and from intertribal rivalry1 jealousy1 and war4 ,this process of indigenous development was certainly slow4 ,with man1 as with the lower animals1 the rate of advance and of specialization increases as higher and higher grades of development are reached4 ,for the ,american aborigines to have attained the higher stages of barbarism at the time of the arrival of civilized ,europeans1 solely by self-growth and self-education1 is perhaps even a stronger argument for their antiquity than their differentiation in culture1 languages1 etc4 ,these several lines of evidence point to the coming of man to ,america as an event of the far distant past--a time so remote1 in fact1 that it pertains to geology rather than to ethnology4 ,turning to the geological records1 we find no authentic and well-attested evidence of the presence of man in ,america either previous or during the ,glacial period4 ,from time to time so-called finds of stone implements in gravel and other deposits more or less definitely determined to be of ,glacial age have been made1 but in all of these instances convincing proof as to the age of the deposits1 or of the relation of the implements in question1 to them1 has not been presented4 ,certain discoveries of the bones of men and of articles of human manufacture found in ,california have been claimed to be of ,tertiary age--that is1 much older than the ,glacial epoch--but more critical studies1 especially by ,w4 ,h4 ,holmes1 have shown that they are decidedly modern and pertain to the ,indians still living in the region where they were found4 ,in brief1 all the geological evidence thus far gathered bearing on the antiquity of man in ,america points to the conclusion that he came after the ,glacial epoch4 ,judgment in this respect1 however1 should be held in abeyance1 as the search for evidence is as yet incomplete4 ,as the problem now stands1 the origin of the ,american aborigines is not only unknown1 but no generally accepted or fairly promising hypothesis as to the land from which they came1 the route followed1 or the date of their arrival is to be found among the large number suggested4 ,a continuation of the critical1 ethnological1 and geological studies now in progress1 it is hoped1 will do much to clear away this mystery1 but at present only small progress can be truthfully reported4 ,culture of the ,aborigines4--,in the classification of peoples in terms of culture three main divisions are commonly recognised1 namely1 savagery1 barbarism1 and civilization2 but the boundaries between these divisions are not sharply defined and a wide range of intermediate gradations is easily discernible4 ,by savagery is understood the lowest grade of culture and of ethics1 in which social customs are lax or wanting and tribal organization not attempted4 ,in the condition of savagery people are without permanent homes1 do not attempt agriculture or even horticulture1 have no domesticated animals except perhaps the dog1 and subsist on fish and game1 including molluscs1 small mammals1 and reptiles1 and such seeds1 fruits1 nuts1 etc41 as wild plants supply4 ,the art of kindling fire is probably known to all existing savages1 but much of their food is eaten uncooked4 ,in the state of barbarism tribal organization may exist2 some form of religion is usually recognised2 definite marriage relations are entered into1 although polygamy is commonly practised2 permanent houses1 perhaps for winter use only1 are built2 clothes are made from woven cloth as well as from skins2 the plaiting of baskets and the art of making coarse pottery1 frequently highly decorated1 are understood2 essentially all utensils1 arms1 etc41 are of stone1 wood1 bone1 or ivory1 the metals other than those occurring in a native state being unknown2 and writing is unknown1 although pictographs may be employed4 ,civilization implies a well-marked development in ethics1 laws1 social organization1 institutions1 arts1 writing1 etc4 ,under this scheme of classification various divisions of the aborigines of ,north ,america at the time of the coming of ,columbus occupied each of the planes of development designated2 but those frequently classed as civilized had not arrived at an advanced stage of culture1 and can perhaps with greater propriety be designated as semicivilized1 or1 better still1 be referred to the highest stage of barbarism4 ,some of the native tribes1 as those of southern ,california and certain of the peoples of ,mexico and ,central ,america1 were in a state of savagery1 and1 in fact1 have not advanced beyond that state at the present day4 ,a large majority of the aborigines1 as1 for example1 the ,algonquins1 ,shoshoneans1 etc41 or1 in general1 all of the ,indians to the northward of ,arizona and ,new ,mexico1 together with certain of the tribes to the south of that boundary1 had definite tribal organization1 permanent homes at least for winter use1 in part practised horticulture1 and for these and other reasons are to be classed as in the barbarous stage of development4 ,the ,aztecs1 ,mayas1 etc41 of ,mexico and ,central ,america had well-established governments1 built permanent and frequently large and elaborately decorated houses1 some of which were of hewn stone1 practised horticulture with the aid of irrigation1 had developed a system of picture-writing1 and were skilled in working native metals4 ,these and other advances towards civilization were great and promising1 but the use of iron was unknown1 and their practice of human sacrifice and the absence of phonetic writing denies them a place among truly civilized peoples4 ,another scheme for the classification of peoples in terms of the highest grade of implements used by them is current under which they are placed in certain ages on the assumption that man in all regions has passed through an orderly sequence in his development1 and that the successive changes are expressed by the nature of the material used in the manufacture of implements4 ,under this plan of classification we have an age of stone1 an age of bronze1 and an age of iron4 ,the stone age is commonly divided into two parts3 an earlier or paleolithic1 during which the highest type of implement used is fashioned of stone by chipping2 and a later1 or neolithic1 when implements of stone are shaped by grinding and polishing4 ,following the stone age came one of bronze1 when a mixture of copper and tin was used for implements2 and later the age of iron1 beginning when the art of reducing metals from their ores was discovered4 ,in this scheme a copper age is sometimes included1 with doubtful propriety1 however1 if1 as in ,america1 the metal referred to is obtained in its native condition4 ,under the somewhat indefinite scheme of classification just referred to the ,north ,american aborigines1 inclusive of the ,aztecs1 etc41 previous to the coming of ,european civilization were in the stone age of development1 although bronze was in use among the ,incas of ,peru1 and to some extent had found its way northward as far as ,mexico4 ,certain of the tribes still used implements of chipped stone1 but in the great majority of instances implements of polished stone were the highest type known4 ,native copper was widely used for axes1 knives1 ornaments1 etc41 but iron1 except such as occurs in meteors1 was unknown4 ,the difficulty met with in selecting any one article or any one material used by primitive peoples as a basis for their classification is illustrated by the facts just cited1 as it places the lowest savage of ,america in the same group as the ,aztec and the ,maya4 ,obviously1 in the classification of peoples as with the lower animals all characteristics should be included4 ,,the ,,eskimos ,the extreme northern part of ,north ,america is included in the circumpolar lands described in another volume of the series of which the present book forms a part1 and the ,eskimos as a people will therefore receive but passing attention at this time4 ,one of the most interesting facts to the geographer concerning the ,eskimos is their peculiar distribution4 ,from choice or necessity they make their homes on the bleak1 inhospitable northern border of the continent1 and do not extend inland except where the coast is indented or large rivers enter the sea4 ,in all localities their dwellings are near the water4 ,they are the most northern people on the earth1 and their still greater northward extension is checked only by the absence of land on which to build their winter homes4 ,their present inland limit on the continent is no doubt determined in part by long-established custom and by the distribution of the animals on which they have become dependent for food1 clothing1 fuel1 etc41 but the chief control formerly1 no doubt1 more potent than at present1 is to be sought in the aggressiveness of the ,indians4 ,in ,greenland1 the arctic archipelago1 and throughout the immense extent of coast-lands from ,labrador to ,alaska they have been isolated and withdrawn from contact with other peoples for a long period of time1 and their slow development unmodified by extraneous influences4 ,in ,newfoundland and ,alaska1 however1 they have been in contact with the ,indians1 trade relations established1 and to a limited extent an interchange of ideas as well as some intermarriage has taken place4 ,throughout the vast extent of arctic coast between ,newfoundland and ,alaska1 as well as in ,greenland and on the islands of the arctic archipelago1 the ,eskimo was the sole inhabitant before the coming of ,europeans1 and one language current from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific4 ,no other primitive people has such an extent in longitude4 ,the reason for this peculiarity is that between the sea margin1 where the ,eskimo makes his home1 and the southern border of the subarctic forest and adjacent prairies1 where the ,indians have their hunting-grounds1 there intervenes the tundra--a neutral ground attractive neither to the ,eskimo nor the ,indian4 ,the one thing which more than all else has enabled the ,eskimo to maintain an existence and to thrive in the frozen north is his discovery of a means of obtaining heat and light where wood is scarce--that is1 the invention of the lamp4 ,this invention1 as has been shown by ,walter ,hugh and others1 was favoured by the occurrence in the far north of animals like the seal and walrus1 which yield oil with a high heat-giving property4 ,in ,alaska the ,eskimo stock is broken into several tribes speaking diverse dialects4 ,of these1 two main subgroups are distinguished1 namely1 ,innuits and ,aleuts or ,aleutians4 ,the former includes several tribes living on the margin of the mainland1 from near ,mount ,st4 ,elias northward to the ,arctic ,ocean1 and the latter consists of but two tribes1 now intermingled1 which at the time of the discovery of the ,alaskan region by the ,russians inhabited the western portion of the ,alaskan peninsula and the ,aleutian ,islands4 ,a detailed account of these peoples should have united with it a study of the so-called ,tuski of northeastern ,siberia1 who are of the same stock1 and1 as seems probable1 are the descendants of ,eskimos who migrated from ,america to ,asia4 ,the ,innuits4--,this name1 as is stated by ,w4 ,h4 ,dall1 is applied to themselves by all the tribes of the ,eskimo stock1 except the ,aleuts and the eastern ,siberian natives4 ,it is in use at the present time from ,greenland to ,bering ,strait1 and thence southward to the vicinity of ,mount ,st4 ,elias4 ,in ,alaska the ,innuits are divided into at least fourteen tribes1 speaking as many different dialects1 and distinguished by such names as ,ugalakmuts1 ,kaniagmuts1 etc4 ,the termination mut1 in a substantive sense1 means a village at the place or on the river to the name of which it is added 7,dall74 ,in common with all other ,eskimo tribes the ,innuits are a sturdy1 well-built people1 having lighter-coloured skins than the ,indians1 and more nearly approaching the yellow of the ,asiatics1 but distinct from it1 and in many instances having a decided reddish tinge to the cheeks4 ,the prevalent idea that the ,eskimo is of decidedly short stature is not borne out by the various tribes in ,alaska1 who are not much1 if any1 below the average height of ,europeans4 ,their rotund bodies and full1 round faces1 in which the organ answering to a nose is depressed until between the eyes it is scarcely distinguishable1 suggest that the severity of the climate has led to a development of fat for protection against cold in the same manner as among the seals and walruses4 ,such a generalization is perhaps misleading1 as great individual variations occur as among all peoples1 but the typical ,innuit whose figure remains in one's memory when the bony hags1 the cadaverous individuals1 and the aged are forgotten or but dimly recalled1 favours the conventional pictures of ,santa ,claus1 with a face resembling the full moon1 small black eyes with a suggestion of obliquity in their alignment1 and nearly complete absence of a beard on the ruddy cheeks4 ,the food of the ,eskimos of ,alaska1 as is the case with all other divisions of that people1 is derived mainly from the sea4 ,their diet is almost exclusively fish1 the blubber and flesh of the seal1 walrus1 and whales1 especially the white whale or beluga1 which ascends the larger streams4 ,to these sources of supply are added the arctic hare1 caribou 7reindeer71 and in fact any flesh that can be obtained4 ,vegetable diet is almost unknown1 except so far as it is supplied by the berries that grow in profusion on the tundras4 ,the necessity for salt1 so marked in the case of most peoples1 is absent in the far north4 ,the coast of ,alaska1 where dwells the ,innuit1 is treeless4 ,inland from the margin of the sea extends the permanently frozen tundra4 ,wood for fires1 sleds1 frames for skin boats1 spears1 bows1 arrows1 etc41 and in prehistoric time for producing fire by friction1 is derived entirely from driftwood cast on the beach by the waves4 ,this wood1 consisting in many instances of great tree trunks from which planks two or more feet wide can be hewn1 is brought to the sea by rivers heading far inland1 as1 for example1 the ,yukon and the ,kuskokwim1 and distributed by the wind and currents all about the coast and islands of ,bering ,sea4 ,driftwood is also carried to the ,arctic ,ocean by the ,mackenzie1 but in general is not plentiful on the borders of the ice-bound northern ocean4 ,the houses of the ,alaskan ,innuit previous to the coming of the ,russians1 and still to a great extent1 consist of a single room1 usually measuring about #aj by #ad feet1 situated in part below the surface of the ground and entered by means of a tunnel-like passageway4 ,they are made of driftwood1 and floored1 lined1 and roofed with planks hewn from the same material4 ,on a roof of poles sods and earth are placed and rendered compact by stamping1 thus forming a cover which serves to exclude water produced by the melting of the naturally added layer of snow4 ,when spring-time approaches these partially subterranean winter dwellings are liable to be inundated1 and are abandoned and tents used during summer seasons4 ,formerly these tents were made of skins of caribou or seal1 but in these degenerate days cotton drilling bought of white traders has been substituted4 ,during winter journeys temporary snow huts are built1 of the oval1 bake-oven shape1 well known to most ,europeans from the many pictures that have been published of similar structures made by the more northern ,eskimos4 ,on the coast of ,alaska1 however1 when driftwood is available1 the roofs of the snow houses are frequently made of poles on which snow is piled4 ,in addition to the ordinary winter dwellings1 which are usually occupied by two or more families1 each village is commonly supplied with an assembly house or casine 7a word of ,russian origin71 which serves also as a bath-house1 and in them winter dances1 the chief amusement of the people1 are held4 ,the casine1 built by the united efforts of the various members of a community1 consist of a single room1 in part underground and entered by a tunnel1 which frequently measures some #be by #cj feet on the sides1 and is approximately #ae feet high4 ,they are substantially made of logs or of thick planks hewn with much labour from stranded tree trunks4 ,the roof is of logs covered with moss and earth1 and has an opening in the centre for the escape of smoke from the fire kindled on a hearth in the centre of the floor4 ,when the fire is not burning1 the opening in the roof is closed with a membrane obtained from the intestines of the seal4 ,about the sides of the room there is a raised platform for spectators during dances and for the use of bathers when the customary steam-baths are indulged in4 ,an interesting fact in connection with both the ordinary winter homes and the casines1 which indicates their ,american origin1 is that they are communal4 ,a tenement used by several families in common is characteristic of the ,american aborigines from the arctic to ,panama4 ,the architecture of the ,innuits has been modified but little during recent years1 except that in localities most visited by white men and where trading stations have been established1 as at ,st4 ,michael1 log-houses built after the manner of those used by the ,russian residents have to a considerable extent replaced the native huts1 with favourable results so far as sanitary conditions are concerned4 ,the ,russian log-house is not unlike the many similar structures still to be seen in portions of ,canada and the ,united ,states1 except that the upper side of each log is hewn so as to have a sharp edge1 which fits into a deep groove1 cut in the log which rests on it4 ,moss is placed between the logs1 and is also used to fill all holes and crevices4 ,air is usually admitted through a pipe situated beneath the floor and opening in front of the stove1 if one is used1 and a small pipe for ventilation passes out through the roof4 ,in the ,russian houses the stove is usually a huge affair1 made of large flat stones1 which retain heat for a long time4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vi4--,linguistic stocks of indians north of ,mexico4 ,the dress of the ,innuits in former days1 in common with all the ,eskimo tribes1 consisted of skins1 and in special cases of the intestines of seals4 ,the characteristic garment is the parkie or overshirt1 not open in front1 however1 provided with a hood and made of caribou skin tanned with the hair on4 ,those worn by men have a different cut than those intended for women4 ,in recent years1 and perhaps before the coming of white men1 the skins for the manufacture of parkies were derived largely by trade from the people owning domesticated reindeer in ,asia4 ,the margin of the hood is commonly made of wolf skins1 the long hair of which1 blowing across the face1 affords much protection4 ,trousers and boots made of the skin of the hair-seal or moccasins shaped from the skin of the leg of a caribou completed the dress4 ,mats of grass are worn in the boots or moccasins during cold weather4 ,at the present time the summer clothing of the natives throughout ,alaska is generally of cloth obtained from white traders1 but nothing brought from more civilized countries can replace the parkies1 fur trousers1 skin boots1 and waterproof shirts or kamlaykas4 ,these articles1 except the last mentioned1 are largely used by white men1 especially if making winter journeys4 ,the boats in use among the ,innuits are still the kayak and the oomiak1 for which civilized man can offer no adequate substitute4 ,the well-known kayak1 made of a light framework of wood1 tied with thongs1 over which is tightly stretched a dressed sealskin covering1 leaving only one or two circular openings for the occupant1 is in use from ,greenland all about the arctic coast of ,america to ,asia4 ,different shapes pertain to different tribes4 ,in recent years1 as a result of outside influence1 openings for three occupants are sometimes made1 the size of the boat also being increased4 ,to one familiar with boat and canoe travel these light skin craft1 with their water-tight decks1 seem the perfection of boat construction4 ,the occupant lashes the skirt of his kamlayka about the raised rim of the opening in which he sits and the boat is thus rendered impervious to water from whatever direction4 ,the greatest danger is that the parchment-like covering may be ruptured1 as by the cutting edge of thin ice4 ,to ordinary storms1 however1 they are more safe than even the deservedly celebrated whale-boat of the white man4 ,the oomiak1 or woman's boat1 also made of dressed skin stretched over a frame1 is much larger than the kayak1 has a flat bottom1 is without deck covering1 and designed for the use of many occupants4 ,as is well known1 boats of each of these types are propelled by means of paddles4 ,both the kayak and oomiak are still in every-day use1 and it is to be hoped the boats of the white man will never wholly replace them4 ,the changes in house-building and dress referred to1 which have come from contact with white men1 are outward signs of a great modification in the lives of the ,innuits1 which began in the early days of ,russian occupation and has continued with increasing importance to the present time4 ,the natives are quick to imitate the customs of the strangers who have visited them1 and but for the restraint that the climatic conditions have put upon them and the high price in furs demanded by traders for imported goods the changes thus produced would be far more marked than is now the case4 ,to some extent the food of the natives has been modified1 flour being in demand1 but1 with minor exceptions1 the principal articles consumed are still such as are obtained by hunting and fishing4 ,the greatest change that has taken place in the condition of the ,alaskan ,innuits1 and one which1 perhaps1 culminated at the time of the recent gold excitement on the ,yukon and at ,cape ,nome1 is in relation to the introduction of intoxicating liquors and of certain contagious diseases4 ,these scourges1 coming from the south1 have been almost as great a blight among the native peoples as would be the sweeping southward of a wave of arctic temperature to the vegetation of tropical lands4 ,the curse of contact1 resulting when a civilized race invades a land inhabited by childlike aborigines1 as has been seen in many parts of the world1 has overtaken the ,innuits in common with nearly all other tribes in ,alaska1 and decadence and the prolongation of a miserable existence1 unless cut short by extermination through starvation1 is all that seemingly can be hoped for4 ,the fur-bearing animals of ,alaska have been greatly reduced in numbers during the last twenty-five years3 the caribou and the moose have1 to a marked degree1 been killed or driven to remote regions2 the larger whales1 on account of overcapture by ,american whalers1 have become scarce2 the sea-lion and the walrus are nearly extinct2 the fur-seal1 of more importance to the ,aleutians than the ,innuits1 is rapidly approaching extinction4 ,thus in many ways the food supply is greatly decreased4 ,recourse to agriculture is impossible4 ,the one redeeming feature of the white man's aggression is the introduction of the domesticated reindeer from ,asia and ,lapland4 ,with reindeer1 the salmon1 not as yet depleted in the streams emptying into ,bering ,sea1 the white whale1 the hair-seal1 not as yet of commercial value1 the countless birds of summer1 the berries of the tundra1 etc41 the ,innuits can survive1 maintain their manhood1 and become useful to civilization in certain ways if the curse of drink and the spread of imported diseases could be stopped4 ,such a change1 however1 for various reasons1 is not to be hoped for4 ,it may perhaps be said that the influence of missionaries1 and1 what is vastly more important1 the work of the school-teacher1 has opened to these children of the cold northern land a way to civilization1 but the results up to the present time are not reassuring4 ,the census of #ahij showed that the ,innuits of ,alaska numbered #ac1jde4 ,in the census of #aijj a separate enumeration of ,eskimos and ,indians was not made4 ,the dismal picture ,i have been compelled to sketch of the present condition and future prospects of the ,innuits of ,alaska1 in order to indicate their status at the opening of the twentieth century1 applies also with variations in detail and some hopeful signs to a large majority of the other aboriginal tribes of ,north ,america4 ,the ,aleutians4--,the aboriginal inhabitants of the ,aleutian ,islands are termed ,aleuts or ,aleutians1 a word of obscure and perhaps foreign derivation4 ,as stated above1 they belong to the ,eskimo family1 but are more widely separated from the parent stock than any other of its constituent tribes4 ,evidence advanced by ,w4 ,h4 ,dall tends to show that they are of ,american continental origin4 ,at the time of the first coming of the ,russians1 about #agej1 they were at war with the ,kaniagmuts1 who inhabited the greater part of the ,alaskan peninsula and were the nearest tribe of the ,innuits4 ,when discovered by the ,russians the ,aleuts were an active1 sprightly people1 fond of the dance and of festivities4 ,they are of lighter colour1 but not perhaps in general more nearly white than the full-blooded ,innuits4 ,at present it is difficult to find even a single representative of unmixed descent1 ,russian occupation having stamped out or greatly modified nearly every native characteristic both of body and mind4 ,they were originally a robust people1 of about the average height found in civilized countries1 with coarse black hair and scanty beards4 ,their island life1 where no large game invited inland journeys1 made them emphatically canoe people4 ,the habit of sitting in their kayaks and using the muscles of the upper portion of the body in paddling1 throwing the spear1 etc41 while the lower portion of the body received but little exercise1 led to a fine chest development and to undersized and comparatively weak legs4 ,the women1 to whom the use of the kayak was not intrusted1 were better proportioned than the men1 and many of them are pleasing in appearance4 ,as stated by ,dall1 they were less determined than their neighbours on the mainland1 the ,kaniagmuts1 but were by no means devoid of courage4 ,their mode of worship partook more of the character of a religion than that of any other of the ,eskimo tribes in their native condition4 ,from what can be learned of the ,aleuts in their uncontaminated native state1 they seem to have been the most intelligent of all the ,eskimo tribes and the one which gave the greatest promise1 if treated humanely1 of advancement when civilization was introduced4 ,less than a century of contact with ,russian invaders1 however1 led to a depth of degradation that is only paralleled and possibly not exceeded by the shameful results of the ,spanish invasion among the aborigines of the ,west ,indies4 ,one of the darkest chapters in ,american history1 fortunately for the credit of ,europeans now largely lost1 is that containing an account of the brutal treatment the ,aleuts received at the hands of the ,russians4 ,the childlike natives became worse than slaves4 ,the debauchery of their oppressors was shameful4 ,as stated by ,dall1 the ,aleuts were subjected to the most horrible outrages4 ,the names of ,glottoff and ,solovioff 7two ,russian explorers1 #agfd-'fe7 make them shudder to this day4 ,thousands perished under sword and fire4 ,long after those enormities were checked the ,russians considered the ,aleuts as beasts rather than men1 etc4 ,their numbers1 estimated at #aj1jjj in #agii1 were1 according to a ,russian census1 reduced to #e1bch in #ahjh1 and1 as stated by ,dall1 numbered not more than #a1ejj in #ahgj4 ,the census of #ahij gives it as #ifg4 ,the incentive to ,russian oppression was the greed for furs and the lust of rude men at a distance from all centres of control4 ,the ,aleutian ,islands and neighbouring waters is the home of the sea-otter1 which is clothed with the most beautiful of all furs4 ,near at hand are the ,pribilof ,islands1 to which the fur-seal formerly resorted each summer in countless numbers1 and during its migrations traversed the passes separating the islands of the ,aleutian chain1 where they were easily taken2 the commercial value of their skins previous to about #ahfg1 however1 was small4 ,in addition1 the land-otter and several species of foxes also inhabited the same region4 ,these allurements tempted the ,russians1 and besides the ,aleutian ,islands1 with their sheltered harbours1 furnished favourable stations from which to extend the fur trade into the still greater region to the eastward1 and at an early date in the foreign occupation of ,alaska became a basis for supplies4 ,the entire fur trade in ,russian ,america was placed by charter in the hands of the ,russian-,american ,fur ,company in #agii1 which1 like the ,hudson's ,bay ,company1 had territorial jurisdiction as well as trade monopoly4 ,this powerful company maintained its existence under various renewals of its charter until the purchase of ,alaska by the ,united ,states in #ahfg4 ,the authority conferred on the ,russian company gave it exclusive right to purchase furs from the natives1 and thus to dictate prices4 ,this system was fraught with evil to the natives1 and their extinction would no doubt have resulted had it not been for the influence of missionaries of the ,russian-,greek ,church1 among whom the name of ,veniaminoff will ever be held in blessed memory4 ,in a measure the gross oppression of the ,russians brought its own punishment to the offenders4 ,the decrease in the number of the ,aleutians meant a decline in the number of pelts secured4 ,to insure the gathering of the highly prized furs the native hunters must be maintained4 ,the later days of ,russian occupation were characterized by more humane treatment of the natives1 schools were established among them1 liquors withheld1 and their rapid decline checked4 ,when ,alaska was purchased by the ,united ,states the ,russian-,american ,fur ,company was supplanted by the ,alaskan ,commercial ,company1 to whom a lease of the ,pribilof ,islands was granted4 ,in this lease provision was made for the support and education of the ,aleutians on the ,pribilof ,islands4 ,as the chief and almost the sole employment open to the ,aleutians during the past thirty years has been the taking of sealskins on these islands1 this wise provision had a beneficent influence on the entire tribe4 ,how faithfully the ,alaskan ,commercial ,company carried out its contract has been seriously questioned1 but it is1 nevertheless1 a fact that the ,aleutians have fared better under ,american than under ,russian rule4 ,a gradual adverse change in their condition has come about1 however1 owing to the decrease and threatened extinction of the sea-otter1 and the great decline in the number of the fur-seals owing to the attacks made on them during their annual migrations1 which amounts to commercial extinction4 ,the lucrative industries of the natives have thus practically disappeared1 and there is nothing to take their place4 ,the surviving members are objects of charity1 but as yet the ,united ,states ,government has made no adequate provision for their support4 ,one method of ameliorating the existing adverse conditions that is practicable is the introduction of domesticated reindeer2 another1 not so easy to accomplish1 is the suppression of the liquor traffic4 ,,the ,,indians ,the aborigines of the ,new ,world to the southward of the narrow strip of arctic coast-land inhabited by the ,eskimo are designated by the term ,indian1 as already explained4 ,there is no sharp line of demarcation between the ,indians of ,north and ,south ,america1 one shading into the other1 but only those of the northern continent are here considered4 ,in many scientific treatises1 as well as in books of travel and general literature1 the ,indians are frequently referred to as red men1 and the term copper coloured commonly applied to them4 ,to the writer each of these expressions seems infelicitous4 ,it is true that throughout ,america the ,indians have a reddish undertone in their colour1 but in numerous tribes it is not pronounced4 ,as to copper colour1 the meaning of the term is vague4 ,what is copper colour8 ,presumably the colour of the pure metal when unoxidized4 ,no such colour is more than suggested even by the aborigines having the lightest skins in the members of the many tribes that have come under the writer's notice4 ,a more correct term--but this is a matter of opinion1 in which differences are permissible--would be brown1 of which many shades occur1 ranging from light cinnamon colour to dark chocolate1 and even nearly black4 ,there is no recognisable connection between variations in colour and climatic conditions4 ,the faces1 hands1 and other freely exposed portions of their bodies are darker than the parts usually covered with clothing1 and frequently suggest the appearance of bronze statutes not fully darkened by exposure to the weather4 ,in colour they more nearly approach that of the ,polynesians than any other peoples1 but in general are of a darker hue4 ,the members of the various ,indian tribes1 although presenting a wide range of differences1 have many physiological and mental resemblances1 which1 like their languages1 serve to set them apart from all other peoples4 ,a composite picture of their persons would show a man sinewy rather than heavy in build1 but there are many exceptions2 of average stature1 #e feet #h or #aj inches1 but there are tribes whose average is more1 and others in which it is less2 dark brown1 with a reddish undertone1 in colour2 deep-set1 black1 and in general small eyes1 their alignment straight2 the nose prominent and frequently well shaped2 mouth large1 with strong1 frequently perfect teeth2 lower jaw massive2 and face beardless or nearly so1 and the hair of the scalp long1 coarse1 and black4 ,in order to make such a sketch realistic1 the bronze-like athletic figure must be clothed in a blanket worn with the grace of a ,roman toga or wrapped in a robe of bison-skin2 the feet encased in moccasins of tanned deerskin1 and usually decorated with beads or variously coloured porcupine-quills2 the face striped1 dotted1 or blotched with various colours2 the coarse hair falling like a thatch to the shoulder1 or braided1 and in certain tribes shaved or plucked1 except only the traditional scalp-lock1 and decorated with feathers1 most frequently of the eagle2 necklaces1 rings in the ears1 amulets1 etc41 made of the claws of the bear1 shells1 beads1 quills1 etc41 bespeak various tribes2 the primitive weapons were the hatchet-like tomahawk1 the bow and arrow1 and the spear4 ,the ,indian has been idealized in the writings of poets and novelists1 but occasionally1 even at the present day1 one meets with an approach to the ideal4 ,judged by the standards of civilization1 as he is seen to-day on numerous reservations and about the streets of towns1 he is a lazy1 dirty vagabond4 ,a far more favourable and agreeable picture is presented1 especially in the eastern portion of ,canada and adjacent ,states to the south and in the ,indian ,territory1 where the blessings of civilization have been accepted and the once roaming savage has become a tiller of the soil1 an owner of cattle and sheep1 and lives in a comfortable house supplied with furniture such as white men use4 ,while a racial likeness impossible to conceal unites all of the various tribes1 no single picture or generalized description1 however carefully prepared1 can convey to one unfamiliar with the ,indian an accurate idea of his personal appearance4 ,a typical example from one tribe when critically studied is found to differ widely from an equally representative example of another tribe1 not only in speech1 dress1 methods of wearing the hair1 ornaments1 etc41 but also in physique and in mental traits4 ,in temperament the ,indian is usually described as being moody1 reserved1 wary1 grave1 and his face expressionless1 the current of his thoughts being unrevealed in his proud1 indifferent bearing4 ,in his own mind he seems to consider himself superior to all other beings1 and to regard them with contemptuous indifference4 ,all this is true enough as seen by a stranger1 but in his home life1 and not infrequently when in the presence of trusted white men1 the mask of indifference is laid aside and the laugh and jest indulged in4 ,the extreme of assumed indifference is exhibited1 as has been well attested by many witnesses1 when death by torture is inflicted on a captive1 as1 for example1 burning alive1 when no outward sign is permitted to reveal his intense suffering4 ,the ,indian is a hunter and fisherman both from inheritance and necessity4 ,from his mode of life his sense of sight and of hearing have become wonderfully acute4 ,his skill in following a trail is proverbial4 ,when living near the sea or by the side of streams and lakes he is as much at home in a canoe as his relative of the plains in post-,columbian days when seated on his hardy pony4 ,in current literature1 however1 all of these traits1 as in the case of the personality of the ,indian1 have been fused into one ideal4 ,it is true that the ,indian hunter is more skilled in following a trail1 in interpreting the signs and sounds in the forest1 in shooting the foaming rapids in his frail canoe1 etc41 than the average white man to whom such pursuits are incidental or newly acquired2 but many white men1 and particularly those who have in a measure degenerated and assumed the ,indian mode of life1 are his equal1 if not his superior1 in all that pertains to woodcraft4 ,in mental qualities the ,indian is the inferior of the ,caucasian and the ,asiatic1 but is the superior of the negro4 ,the ability to advance is not absent1 and capacity to reach a certain grade in civilization is general1 but beyond the acquirement of indifferent skill in the arts1 literature1 etc41 but few have passed4 ,the mental quality of perseverance under adverse conditions and of continuous application has not been granted him4 ,these children of the forests and plains1 easily pleased and as easily angered2 kind to their children and friends1 but cruelly revengeful when enraged2 treasuring a kindness1 but never forgetting an injury2 without rigid self-control1 as is sadly illustrated by their inordinate passion for liquor when once a taste for it is acquired1 are plastic organisms1 which reflect the conditions under which they have developed4 ,these untutored barbarians1 descendants from ancestors who brought little with them save the stone axe and the stone spear1 but of necessity originated all their arts and institutions without contact with other peoples1 and were exposed to a wide range of climatic and other physical conditions for many centuries1 present a most instructive subject for the study of the geographer and others who are interested in the relation of man to his environment4 ,resources4--,to the ,indian in pre-,columbian days no ships from overseas brought supplies1 and as the various tribes were frequently at war with their neighbours1 trade relations were greatly restricted4 ,intertribal barter was carried on1 however1 and the capture of supplies and utensils of various sorts by one tribe from another favoured their dispersion4 ,although such articles as the native copper of the ,lake ,superior region1 the red pipe-stone 7catlinite7 of ,minnesota1 and obsidian from various places found its way to remote localities1 each tribe had essentially to supply its wants from the natural resources of its own domain4 ,the range in raw materials1 to borrow a modern commercial term1 that the ,indian's intellectual development permitted him to utilize is indicated in the following table3 ,animal3 ,mammals1 birds1 reptiles1 fishes1 crustaceans1 insects1 and at times human flesh4 ,wild--roots1 bulbs1 seeds1 fruits1 nuts1 bark1 berries1 sap4 ,used for food4 ,vegetable ,cultivated--maize1 cacao1 melons1 squashes1 tomatoes1 sweet potatoes1 potatoes1 pineapple1 7tobacco74 ,mineral3 ,salt1 7earth in certain instances74 ,animal3 ,skins1 sinews1 tendons1 hair1 wool1 feathers1 and cochineal for dyes4 ,used for clothing4 ,vegetable ,wild--bark1 fibres1 roots1 dyes1 gums4 ,cultivated--cotton1 aloe 787 ,mineral3 ,dyes1 such as ochres and cinnabar1 charcoal4 ,animal3 ,skins1 sinew1 etc4 ,used in the construction of ,vegetable3 ,logs1 bark1 seeds2 grass1 roots1 etc41 houses4 for mats4 ,mineral3 ,stone1 adobe1 sods1 earth1 selenite 7caves74 ,animal3 ,skins1 sinew2 oil in paint2 quills1 shells1 etc41 for decoration4 ,used in making boats4 ,vegetable3 ,tree trunks1 bark1 seeds1 pitch4 ,mineral3 ,asphaltum2 metallic oxides1 etc41 for paint4 ,animal3 ,bones1 horns1 skins1 scales1 teeth1 shells4 ,vegetable3 ,wood1 bark1 nuts1 leaves1 fibre1 dyes1 pitch4 ,used in making utensils and ,mineral3 ,soapstone for pots1 pipes1 etc42 obsidian1 weapons4 flint1 etc41 for spear and arrow points1 knives1 scrapers1 etc42 various hard stones and pebbles for axes1 mortars1 pestles1 etc42 copper for axes1 knives1 etc42 mineral dyes2 gold and silver4 ,animal3 ,skins1 hair1 fur1 bones1 hoofs1 claws1 teeth1 ivory1 oil in paints2 shells1 coral1 pearls1 feathers1 quills1 scales1 etc4 ,used as personal ornaments and in ,vegetable3 ,seeds2 fibres for mats1 basket-work1 etc4 the decoration of houses1 ,mineral3 ,stone 7turquoise1 emerald1 jasper1 mica1 boats1 etc4 catlinite1 etc471 clay1 gold1 silver1 meteoric iron2 and various metallic oxides1 cinnabar1 etc41 for paints4 ,in these several ways1 and yet others1 as in their games1 medical practice1 elaborate religious ceremonials1 mortuary customs1 modes of travel1 etc41 the aborigines utilized a wide range of materials supplied by nature1 and supplemented them by horticulture1 and to an exceedingly limited extent by domesticating animals4 ,the degree to which they utilized the natural supplies was much less in certain directions than became possible to civilized people1 but several sources of raw materials prized by them have not been called upon by white men1 and are now in greater or less measure abandoned by the natives themselves4 ,the vast mineral wealth of the continent was almost entirely unavailing to the aborigines1 except so far as native metals were discovered2 while several articles1 such as the camass1 the seeds of grasses1 insects1 etc41 for food and material1 used for implements1 as obsidian for arrow points1 spears1 and knives1 catlinite and other stones for pipes1 porcupine-quills for decoration1 etc41 are of small value to ,europeans4 ,while civilized man has become more and more independent of climatic and other natural conditions1 largely through the aid of commerce1 the aborigines were much less resistant and were forced to adjust themselves to their environment1 and like other plastic organisms1 were modified by it4 ,the ,natural ,food ,supply4--,the food of the ,indians was mainly the flesh of mammals1 birds1 and fishes4 ,the smaller deer of various species inhabited the entire continent from the subarctic forest to ,panama4 ,the range of the bears was equally extensive1 but in certain instances1 on account of superstitious fear1 were not customarily used for food4 ,the almost universal source of food supply furnished by the smaller deer was supplemented at the far north by the ,barren ,ground caribou1 succeeded southward by the woodland caribou2 overlapping the range of the latter and extending farther south was the moose2 this1 in turn1 was supplemented and exceeded in southern range by the ,wapiti 7elk72 more restricted was the range of the mountain-sheep and mountain-goat1 each inhabiting the ,pacific mountains2 on the ,great plains roamed the bison and the antelope1 the former extending from the central ,atlantic seaboard to the ,snake ,river plains1 and the latter from the subarctic forest to ,mexico4 ,the mammalian food supply was most abundant in the temperate belt1 and while decreasing northward1 declined more rapidly towards the south4 ,the food supply furnished by fishes was plentiful wherever water was present1 and in superabundance in tidal rivers and estuaries both on the ,atlantic and ,pacific coasts2 but these resources fluctuated in a conspicuous way with seasonal changes1 owing especially to the annual migrations of the shad and salmon4 ,supplementing the highly desirable fish-food on the ocean shores were the molluscs1 and especially the oyster and the clam4 ,the rivers1 particularly of the ,mississippi ,basin1 supplied fresh-water clams 7,unios71 and the saline and alkaline lakes of the arid region1 inclusive of ,mexico1 teemed with the larvae of insects1 which were utilized for food4 ,in the ,atlantic and ,mississippi region1 south of the ,great ,lakes and extending to ,central ,america1 lived the wild turkey2 the forests of the ,atlantic and ,pacific coasts1 the vast prairies1 and the no less extensive sage-brush plains to the westward were inhabited by various species of grouse2 the land east of the ,pacific mountains1 from the ,gulf of ,mexico far northward1 was darkened by immense flights of pigeons2 the water from the far south to the far north1 throughout the breadth of the continent1 were visited by large numbers of swans1 geese1 ducks1 and other water birds4 ,in a conspicuous way the feathered hosts1 valuable for food1 were migratory1 thus again introducing a variable quantity into the lives of the aborigines4 ,the vegetable food of the ,indian tribes that did not practise horticulture varied from locality to locality1 and in the temperate and more northern regions fluctuated through a wide range with seasonal changes4 ,berries were abundant in certain regions and at certain seasons4 ,the raspberry1 blackberry1 huckleberry1 strawberry1 etc41 of many varieties1 grew wild in the eastern ,mississippi and ,atlantic coast regions4 ,the huckleberry extended from the northern ,atlantic coast regions westward across the continent on the southern border of the subarctic forest1 and reached central ,alaska4 ,on the coast of ,british ,columbia and ,alaska to ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 salmon-berries1 wild currants1 huckleberries1 and strawberries flourished with marvellous luxuriance and of large size4 ,wild cherries were abundant on the ,atlantic coast and extended to the ,pacific mountains4 ,certain small plums of value for food occurred widely in what is now the ,united ,states4 ,the papaw and persimmon thrived in the southern portion of the ,atlantic coast region4 ,the fruits of the cacti yielded refreshment in the southwestern ,states and in ,mexico4 ,throughout all the hardwood forests of the ,mississippi ,valley and the region south of the ,st4 ,lawrence a large variety of nut-bearing trees1 such as the walnut1 hickory1 chestnut1 beechnut1 oak1 etc41 were in great abundance and furnished a large annual food supply4 ,in the northern portion of this region grew the maple1 the saccharine sap of which was utilized by the ,indians for making sugar4 ,in the ,pacific mountains south of ,canada grew the pinyon1 perhaps of all the trees of the continent the species that yielded the greatest food supply to the ,indians4 ,in this same region1 particularly to the northward1 grew the small lily-like plant having a blue flower1 known as the camass1 the bulbs of which are highly nutritious4 ,both the pinyon and the camass are largely utilized even at the present day for food by the ,indians4 ,in ,mexico1 ,central ,america1 and the ,west ,indies a large number of tropical fruits1 bulbs1 nuts1 etc41 abound1 which are suitable for food1 and1 as we have more or less direct evidence1 were utilized by the ,indians of that region in prehistoric times4 ,the period of harvest at the south is less sharply defined than in temperate latitudes and the natural food supply subject to less seasonal fluctuations4 ,the ,indians so long as they did not engage in agriculture--there being an absence of anything that could be termed commerce1 and even the transfer of food and other supplies by barter being restricted--were obliged to move from place to place1 in order to avail themselves of the abundance furnished in certain localities and at certain seasons4 ,this is well illustrated at the present day4 ,with the coming of the salmon in the rivers of the northwest ,pacific coast region the ,indian feasts by the river-side2 when the berries ripen in the valleys of the ,cascade ,mountains he is there1 together with the bears1 to profit by the bounties of nature2 in ,nevada he still makes journeys to the pinyon groves in ,october2 and in the subarctic forest he accompanies the migration of the caribou4 ,in former days he followed the movements of the herds of bison on the ,great plateaus4 ,in these and many other ways the food supply of the ,indian tended to establish nomadic customs1 and as each source of fuel and other supplies demanded different methods of capturing animals or different utensils for gathering seeds1 etc41 variations in culture development was a necessary result4 ,the duty of replenishing the general stores was shared by all1 but there was no definite organization for this purpose1 and certainly nothing worth the name of business management4 ,as the adage is1 ,what is every one's business is no one's business1 and for this reason the ,indian1 as a rule1 failed to lay aside a sufficient supply of food for winter use1 and in consequence frequently went hungry and not infrequently died of starvation4 ,the scarcity of the spontaneous food supply at certain seasons or during exceptional years1 and the recurrence of cold or rainy seasons1 necessitating shelter1 would naturally lead the ,indian to develop in two important directions1 namely1 agriculture and architecture4 ,as is well known1 promising advances had been made in each of these arts1 when indigenous development was checked and to a great extent killed by the appearance on the scene and subsequent encroachments of peoples from over the sea4 ,horticulture4--,concerning the art of cultivating plants for food1 clothing1 utensils1 etc41 practised by the ,indians before the coming of ,europeans1 it is difficult to obtain accurate information4 ,the writings of ,spanish and other explorers who first visited various tribes have been diligently searched in this connection by students of ,american history1 and although much that is instructive has been discovered1 many questions remain unanswered4 ,the principal regions where cultivation of the soil was practised in pre-,columbian times are situated in the ,united ,states south of the ,st4 ,lawrence and east of the ,mississippi ,valley1 and inclusive of the lands bordering the ,great ,lakes on the south2 also much of ,new ,mexico1 ,arizona1 ,mexico1 ,central ,america1 and the ,west ,indies4 ,in the eastern portion of what is now the ,united ,states localities naturally devoid of trees were cultivated by the ,indians1 and partial clearings were made in the vast forest by deadening the trees1 probably by girdling or cutting the bark entirely around their trunks with stone axes1 and leaving them standing4 ,a similar process was employed by white settlers in later years1 and is practised even at the present day4 ,in these partial clearings1 from which the underbrush was no doubt burned1 gardens of maize1 melons1 pumpkins1 beans1 gourds1 sunflowers1 potatoes1 tobacco1 and perhaps other plants were grown without irrigation4 ,garden-beds1 as they are termed1 are still to be seen in the forests of ,michigan1 which1 as indicated by the trees growing on them1 are older than the time white men began the cultivation of the soil of that region4 ,in the arid southwestern portion of the continent and in ,central ,america gardens were cultivated with the aid of irrigation1 and what has been described as a high degree of skill in horticulture attained4 ,the chief products of these gardens were maize1 cotton1 tobacco1 beans1 melons1 cacao1 bananas1 and the red pepper4 ,possibly vanilla1 tomatoes1 and pumpkins were also grown4 ,the aloe was extensively utilized in the south1 but whether definitely cultivated or not seems uncertain4 ,the cultivation of fruit-trees other than the cacao1 which furnishes the seeds from which chocolate is made1 does not seem to have been carried on1 although certain writers imply that native trees were tended and given greater facility for growth by removing adjacent plants4 ,it is stated by some authors that in the region to the eastward of the ,mississippi the ,chickasaw plum is now found growing in clearings that were abandoned by the ,indians and not elsewhere1 and the inference is that it was formerly cultivated4 ,asa ,gray mentions1 however1 that this species is probably not indigenous4 ,of domesticated mammals none are known to have been possessed by the ,indians except the dog1 which it is presumed was derived from one or more species of the native wolf1 and was used to carry or draw burdens1 served also for food1 and furnished skins for clothing and hair for weaving cloth4 ,the turkey was domesticated by the ,aztecs and the village ,indians of the ,new ,mexico region2 among the latter1 even at the present day1 eagles are confined in cages and plucked for feathers4 ,there is seemingly no doubt but that in pre-,columbian1 as in recent years1 the young of wild animals were captured by the ,indians and reared as pets1 which in times of necessity probably served for food2 but there are no records of definite attempts to domesticate the bison1 mountain-sheep1 mountain-goat1 or the peccary of the ,gulf coast and ,central ,america4 ,in the attractive accounts that have appeared in recent years concerning the grandeur of the ,aztecs mention is made of extensive menageries1 but even the most poetic of historians has not assigned to the tribes of that confederation flocks and herds4 ,the llama and the paco or alpaca1 although reared extensively by the ,incas of ,peru1 are not certainly known to have been introduced into ,north ,america4 ,to the eastward of the ,mississippi1 where numerous earthworks bear testimony of an early settlement by aborigines1 heavy forests1 the severity of the winter climate1 and wide variations in summer rains combined to make the natural conditions to a marked degree adverse to aboriginal development4 ,in ,central ,america1 and the ,west ,indies generally1 the exuberance of vegetable growth is such as almost to defy the clearing of land by people provided only with stone or copper utensils4 ,between these two regions1 in the southwestern portion of the continent1 are the arid lands1 where1 when once the idea of irrigation was embraced1 the conditions favouring a sedentary life1 with agriculture as a basis1 are far more auspicious than elsewhere4 ,the land is there treeless1 the indigenous plants are easily killed by fire and by irrigation1 the soil is rich1 intense sunshine favours plant growth1 and the gathering of harvests is not delayed or the efforts of industry rendered abortive by rain4 ,of all portions of the continent1 this is the one where resistance to human development is least1 providing man's ideas are sufficiently advanced to permit him to grasp and put in practise the art of irrigation4 ,it is reasonable to suppose that the ,indian there first began to build permanent homes and to cultivate the soil4 ,this hypothesis is sustained in part by historical evidence1 and in part by the ruins of ancient villages or communal houses1 irrigation1 ditches1 etc4 ,from this centre it may be presumed1 in the absence of definite proof1 that the art of horticulture spread to ,central ,america and the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,in spite of the glowing accounts given by certain historians concerning the high degree of skill in agriculture attained by the aborigines of ,mexico and ,central ,america1 and the extent of their plantations1 a conservative balancing of the evidence indicates that they never advanced beyond the stage of gardening1 and that field agriculture1 the cultivation of orchards1 and the domestication of mammals was practically unknown to them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,lodge or ,tepee1 ,blackfoot ,indians1 ,manitoba4 ,photograph by ,william ,notman ,son4 ,houses4--,the houses of the primitive ,indians1 owing to the various stages in culture attained by different tribes and differences in climatic conditions1 showed a wide range in material used and in the results obtained4 ,the shelters of the wandering tribes and of the village ,indians during their journeys were usually some form of tent1 either composed wholly of boughs or of a framework of sticks over which skins were spread and secured by thongs4 ,the typical wigwam consisted of a number of poles from #ae to #ah feet long1 lashed together at the top and arranged in a circle some #aj feet in diameter at the base1 on which a covering of skins1 bark1 or mats was spread1 leaving an opening at the top for the escape of smoke from a small fire placed on the ground within4 ,at the top a wing-like extension of the covering was frequently provided which could be adjusted to the direction of the wind4 ,an opening on one side1 protected by a curtain of skin1 or closed by drawing the covering together1 served as a door4 ,a modification of this genuine ,indian lodge1 or tepee1 in which cotton cloth is substituted for the primitive covering1 may be seen over a wide extent of the country to the west of the ,mississippi at the present day 7,fig4 #cf74 ,a step higher than the usually circular lodge of boughs1 etc41 in use principally among the ,indians to the west of the ,mississippi1 was furnished by the bark houses of the northeastern tribes1 as those of ,new ,york1 in which a rectangular frame of poles with an arched or triangular roof was covered with bark1 usually of the elm1 tied to the inner frame and held also by an external frame of poles1 the two frames being lashed firmly together4 ,this1 the celebrated long house of the ,iroquois1 like most ,indian houses1 was designed to accommodate a number of families1 and may be said to have consisted of several houses placed end to end with a common passageway running through them4 ,fires were lighted in this passageway1 one for each family1 and the smoke allowed to escape through openings in the roof4 ,one of these bark houses is described by an early traveller as being #hj feet long1 #ag feet wide1 and with a common passageway #f feet wide running through its length1 on each side of which were apartments #e feet square4 ,smaller houses1 usually for the use of a few families1 were also built4 ,the larger ones1 as was common in many ,indian villages1 were occupied both as dwellings and for general assemblies4 ,these houses were grouped in villages1 about which palisades1 consisting of poles planted in the ground1 were frequently built1 and in at least one instance a ditch filled with water was used on the outside of the palisade to increase their security against attack4 ,the feature of special interest concerning the houses of the ,american aborigines1 inclusive of the ,eskimos1 is that they were usually occupied by a number of families4 ,this communal idea runs through all the indigenous ,american architecture4 ,as remarked by ,lewis ,h4 ,morgan1 one of the most judicious students of ,american ethnology1 the house for a single family was exceptional throughout aboriginal ,america1 while the house large enough to accommodate several families was the rule4 ,moreover1 they were occupied as joint tenement-houses4 ,there was also a tendency to form these households on the principle of gentile kin1 the mothers with their children being of the same gens or clan4 ,the idea of the joint tenement-house1 as has been clearly shown by ,morgan1 illustrated by the bark cabins of the ,iroquois1 finds its most striking expression in the communal houses1 or pueblos1 of the village ,indians of ,new ,mexico and ,arizona1 and in the abandoned stone houses of ,central ,america4 ,in the arid southwestern portion of the continent certain tribes1 termed the ,pueblo ,indians1 are still living in the villages they occupied when first visited by ,spanish explorers 7#afdj74 ,on account of their exclusiveness and the isolation of their villages in an immense desert region they have been but slightly modified1 so far as their home life is concerned1 even at the present day1 by contact with white men4 ,the hot desert has shielded these people in much the same manner that the frozen tundra has served to preserve the purity of the ,eskimo4 ,the homes of ,pueblo ,indians1 as described by ,morgan1 are immense tenement-houses1 built of stone and adobe1 frequently occupying several acres of ground1 and from #a to #f or #g stories high4 ,the number of inhabitants at ,zuni1 one of the most typical of these pueblo towns1 is stated to have been #a1ejj in #ahea1 but to have previously included some #e1jjj souls4 ,the adobe1 of which the houses are largely constructed1 is the soil of the region1 which when mixed with water and allowed to dry becomes sufficiently hard to retain indefinitely in an arid climate the form given to it4 ,the soil is formed into bricks1 and also used as a mortar to unite rough stones4 ,although much stone was used in the construction of the pueblos1 it was roughly dressed by hammering1 or not changed at all from its natural condition1 and regularly cut and carved stones do not occur in the buildings4 ,the pueblos were built in successive terraces1 usually either in a semicircle or on three sides of a rectangle1 the open side being protected by a wall4 ,irregular forms are also known1 the general plan being adapted to the natural condition of the site chosen4 ,in certain instances the structures were placed on elevations where a high degree of safety was insured1 but others are on the open plain and even at the base of a commanding eminence1 and near enough to be reached by arrows shot from a bow4 ,protection against enemies was increased by an absence of openings in the exterior walls1 except at a considerable height above the ground2 ingress and communication from terrace to terrace being by means of ladders1 which were drawn up or their steps removed in times of danger4 ,the roofs of the pueblos1 as may be seen at ,zuni at the present day1 are flat and consist of poles covered with adobe4 ,the controlling ideas in the construction of the pueblos seems to have been communal residence and defence4 ,the houses are at the same time tenements and fortresses4 ,a characteristic feature of these1 as of practically all ,indian villages1 is the presence of one or more assembly rooms1 and of open courts or plazas1 where the people gathered for council1 worship1 amusement1 etc4 ,when white men first visited the ,pueblo ,indians they cultivated gardens with the aid of irrigation in which maize1 mostly of a blue colour1 was the principal crop1 and had domesticated the turkey2 earthen vessels of large size1 frequently elaborately and pleasingly decorated1 were manufactured2 cotton fabrics were woven of spun threads1 and the men were armed with bows and arrows and shields2 clothing was made of dressed deerskins1 buffalo-robes1 and cotton cloth usually dyed dark blue4 ,the descriptions of the ,pueblo ,indians given by the first visitors from civilized peoples would1 to a great extent1 apply to them at the present day1 although in reality their lives have been profoundly modified and their indigenous development checked4 ,throughout a wide extent of the arid southwest the ruins of ancient pueblos1 irrigation canals1 remnants of pottery1 the latter frequently marking village sites on isolated eminences1 bear witness of a formerly widely spread people4 ,this evidence shows also that the ancestors of the present tribes have inhabited the same territory for a great length of time4 ,in this same general region are found the houses of the cliff-dwellers1 who excavated rooms in the faces of precipices1 frequently high above their bases and only accessible by means of holes1 serving as steps1 cut in the rock1 or with the aid of ladders4 ,in many instances these ancient cliff-dwellers1 of which no certain descendants remain1 took advantage of natural caverns1 or of overhanging ledges1 which were closed by means of walls of rough stone and adobe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--,panorama of ,uxmal1 ,yucatan4 ,in the foreground at the left is the ,pyramid-temple of the ,magician1 ,a1 with its small court at the right-hand base4 ,connecting immediately with this is the ,nunnery quadrangle1 ,b1 occupying the greater part of the foreground4 ,behind the latter1 on the ground level1 are two massive ruined walls usually referred to as the ,gymnasium1 ,c1 and rising behind this is a great triple terrace1 on the second level of which1 at the right1 is the ,house of the ,turtles1 ,d1 and crowning the summit is the ,governor's ,palace1 ,e4 ,to the right and beyond is the serrated crest of the ,house of the ,pigeons1 ,f1 overshadowed on the left by the massive pyramid1 ,g1 and backed up by a temple-crowned pyramidal pile of inferior dimensions1 ,h4 ,to the left of the ,house of the ,governor and beyond is a group consisting of two pyramids1 ,i1 and on the right of the ,nunnery quadrangle1 and some distance farther away1 are other ruined masses1 one only coming fully within the limits of the picture4--,w4 ,h4 ,holmes4 ,the pueblo dwellings1 built largely of adobe1 are stated by ethnologists to have extended southward into ,mexico1 and illustrate the nature of the houses in which the ,aztecs lived1 but the highest type of aboriginal architecture in ,america is furnished by the dwellings and so-called temples1 palaces1 etc41 still standing in ,yucatan and other portions of ,central ,america4 ,in these ruins we have abundant example of buildings made of cut stone1 laid in regular and even courses1 united with mortar composed of burned lime and sand1 and elaborately sculptured in bas-relief and in the round1 or covered with designs moulded in stucco4 ,in size and proportions these unique structures are impressive4 ,the so-called ,governor's ,palace at ,uxmal1 ,yucatan1 is #cbj feet long1 #dj feet wide1 and #be to #bf feet high1 and surmounts an artificially constructed platform of earth #ce feet high and approximately #eej feet square4 ,this platform is terraced and provided with broad flights of stone steps 7,fig4 #cg74 ,these dimensions will serve to render more instructive the accompanying sketch of the principal ruins at ,uxmal by ,w4 ,h4 ,holmes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,examples of ,maya ,arches4 ,after ,w4 ,h4 ,holmes4 a4 ,section of cuneiform arch with acute apex1 ,chichen-,itza4 b4 ,section of ordinary arch with flat capstone4 c4 ,section of ordinary arch with dressed surfaces4 d4 ,section of ordinary arch with dressed surfaces and curved soffit slopes4 e4 ,portal arch with long slopes1 showing masonry of exterior facing4 f4 ,section of trefoil1 portal arch of ,palenque4 ,mere size and their great number are not the significant features of these ruins4 ,they are well built1 of cut stone1 and most elaborately decorated1 as may be seen by the accompanying reproduction of a photograph of a typical example4 ,in reference to the skill displayed by the unknown architects and builders1 ,holmes1 one of the most recent as well as the most critical of ,central ,american travellers1 remarks as follows3 ,the stone used is the pale-yellowish and reddish-gray1 obscurely marbled limestone of the locality4444 ,the facings and ornaments are all cut and sculptured with a masterly handling not surpassed where chisels1 picks1 and hammers of iron and steel are used1 and the faces and contact margins are hewn with perfect precision4 ,though the finish of the surfaces was often secured by means of abrasion or grinding1 picking or pecking were the main agents employed1 and the indents of the tools are often apparent and wonderfully fresh-looking4 ,the stones were set in mortar1 although in many cases the joints are so perfect that the mortar does not appear on the surface4 ,the extensive ruins of ,uxmal1 although only a part of the treasures concealed in the forests of ,central ,america1 express with an eloquence not as yet fully appreciated the advanced stage of culture and refinement attained in ,america from the growth of indigenous ideas4 ,some of the special features illustrated by them from which the degree of mental development of their builders can be judged is the presence of the wedge-shaped but not of the true arch4 ,the character of the simplest and perhaps the first style of arch constructed by the awakening peoples in many lands are shown in the accompanying sketches1 borrowed from ,holmes's most instructive report4 ,columns1 both square and round1 were used1 and statues both in bas-relief and in the round are common4 ,the designs1 whether of animals1 grotesque monsters1 feathers1 or plants1 are in strong relief1 either cut in stone or moulded in stucco4 ,these designs are not confined to single stones1 but embrace several blocks1 and together with the diaper fretwork extend the entire length of even the larger structures4 ,accompanying the well-wrought figures of men1 and at times forming separate inscriptions1 are many hieroglyphics1 the meanings of which are still unknown4 ,all or nearly all of the structures stand on artificial platforms1 which are terraced4 ,a terraced pyramid1 with a broad flight of steps on one or more sides1 surmounted by a well-proportioned rectangular building1 faced with cut stone1 highly decorated1 and with a flat roof1 are the larger features of the ,maya ruins4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,sculptured ,facade of ,governor's ,palace1 ,uxmal1 ,yucatan4 ,this very handsome and elaborate piece of work is a section of the embellished entablature zone of the palace4 ,the height from the lower or medial moulding below to the coping course above is about #aj feet4 ,the entire length1 covering the four walls of the building1 is some #gbe feet4 ,if we allow that the stones employed average #f by #ab inches in surface dimensions1 this deeply coffered and relieved mosaic would comprise upward of #bj1jjj pieces1 all specially cut and a large percentage elaborately sculptured4 ,two plain coping courses are seen at the top1 followed by a twined fillet moulding1 while under this is a line of very ornate snouted masks4 ,the broad space below is filled with bold fretwork1 set on a lattice ground and interrupted by the wonderful overdoor trophy1 the central feature of which is a human figure1 fully life size1 sculptured in the round and seated in a niche with festooned base4 ,the head now displaced was surrounded by an elaborate and colossal head-dress1 most of which remains4 ,the horizontal bars terminating in serpent heads at both ends are separated by lines of hieroglyphs4--,w4 ,h4 ,holmes4 ,all of this and more1 as can be read in the elaborately illustrated books of ,stephens1 ,holmes1 and others1 shows that the ,maya people1 at the time they were crushed by the more than cruel ,spanish invasion1 had reached a stage in their development but little short of true civilization4 ,ethnological ,studies4--,the native dress of the ,indians1 their boats1 ornaments1 and still more their customs1 systems of government1 religions1 myths1 traditions1 etc41 offer attractive subjects for study1 which are being earnestly pursued by many students at the present time4 ,the closing decade of the nineteenth century witnessed a true awakening of the white people of ,america to an interest in the many relics of ancient earthworks1 buildings1 utensils1 etc41 found throughout the continent1 and a healthy growth of an earnest desire to record all that can be learned concerning the representatives still remaining of the vanished peoples to whom they pertain4 ,in the van of this important work is the ,bureau of ,ethnology of the ,smithsonian ,institution4 ,important work has also been carried on by the ,peabody ,museum of ,archaeology1 situated at ,cambridge1 and more recently has been taken up in an energetic manner by the ,american ,museum in ,new ,york and the ,field ,columbian ,museum at ,chicago4 ,the ,national ,museum of ,mexico has assembled rich stores of archaeological and ethnological material pertaining to the native races of ,mexico1 and the ,mexican ,government is doing much to preserve the priceless prehistoric monuments of the republic from vandalism4 ,there are also many private antiquarian collections and many individual students who are doing good work along their chosen historic1 linguistic1 and other branches of research4 ,one phase of this work1 particularly in reference to ancient earthworks1 buildings1 and also the observations of early travellers1 missionaries1 explorers1 etc41 is the removal of the incrustation of romance1 and in part of fable1 that has been formed about them4 ,as shown by ,w4 ,h4 ,holmes1 in reference to many reputed finds of the relics of men in various glacial and other deposits2 by ,w4 ,h4 ,henshaw1 in respect to certain animal carvings2 by ,cyrus ,thomas1 in the case of the earthwork of the eastern part of the ,united ,states2 by ,l4 ,h4 ,morgan1 in connection with the history of the ,mexican and ,central ,american aborigines and other similar examples1 imagination has only too frequently taken the place of critical study and hasty generalizations have been given publicity4 ,it is perhaps not too strong a statement to say that the fascinating histories pertaining to ,mexico and ,central ,america1 written by ,irving1 ,prescott1 and ,bancroft1 need to be thoroughly revised and rewritten from the standpoint of the scientific ethnologist4 ,this clearing of the field of an underbrush of fancy is as necessary as the work of the axe or machete in removing the vegetable growths that conceal many of the records of ,america's history4 ,the ,contact of the ,aborigines with ,foreign ,peoples4--,the chief interest of the ethnologist concerning the ,american aborigines relates to their condition before the introduction of ,european ideas and customs4 ,this external influence has been far-reaching and cumulative in its effects1 and to-day there is not a tribe in ,north ,america that stands where it would have stood but for its coming4 ,among some of the ,eskimo tribes1 and in the case also of certain ,indian communities in central ,alaska and northern ,canada1 there have been but slight modifications even in dress1 utensils1 etc41 by reason of contact with the white man4 ,the ,pueblo ,indians have been resistant to change1 but although still grinding their blue corn in primitive stone hand-mills1 and dressed nearly as the first ,spanish visitors found their ancestors in the same villages1 there has been a slowly progressing revolution in the undercurrent of their thought1 ideas1 religion1 customs1 etc4 ,whether this change is for the better or the worse depends on the point of view4 ,in attempting to judge of it from the ,indian's side1 the only possible conclusion seems to be that the coming of the white man has been a curse4 ,the reception of ,europeans by the ,indian1 although in many instances kindly1 has1 in the main1 been but an outward show of friendship1 concealing suspicion1 fear1 and jealousy4 ,that this distrust was well founded is abundantly proved by history4 ,since the slaughter and enslavement of the aborigines of the ,west ,indies and of the southern portion of the continent by ,spaniards1 through all the bloody conflicts of the ,english and ,french with the ,indians of the ,atlantic and ,mississippi regions1 to near the close of the nineteenth century1 almost constant war1 marauding1 murder1 rapine1 and jealousy have accompanied the contact of the aborigines and the whites4 ,although the ,indians succeeded in retarding the spread of civilization1 they were not strong enough to permanently check it4 ,in the ,united ,states and ,canada they have been1 to a great extent1 dispossessed of their hunting-grounds by so-called treaties1 or by formal purchase1 and placed on reservations4 ,in ,mexico the struggle is still in active progress1 but there and in ,central ,america and the ,west ,indies the contact of the two races has in part assumed a different phase1 and one less visibly detrimental to the ,indian4 ,in the countries now held by people of ,spanish descent1 and in fact throughout ,latin ,america1 as it is termed1 amalgamation has1 to a great extent1 caused the disappearance of the ,indian race in its purity4 ,north of the indefinite boundary where the ,spanish language is largely spoken much less admixture of the two races has occurred than farther south1 and the half-breed is classed as an ,indian4 ,while to the north of ,mexico it is possible to trace the post-,columbian histories of the ,indian tribes with an approach to completeness and to state their present census1 and note the results of the attempts that have been made to civilize them1 to the south of the ,mexican boundary such a task is seemingly hopeless4 ,in ,alaska the ,indians still roam at large with no other restraint than that arising from the adjustment reached through intertribal relations1 with slight modifications due to the widely scattered settlements of white men4 ,no attempt has been made by the ,united ,states ,government to place them on reservations1 and this will probably not occur1 as the white man does not wish their lands for agricultural purposes4 ,displacement by contact seems to express the change now in progress4 ,in ,canada the present condition of the ,indians varies with locality4 ,in the southeastern part1 including the maritime provinces1 they have been greatly changed from their native condition1 and to a large extent gathered on reservations or have settled on land of their own and become self-sustaining4 ,in the ,labrador region and throughout the ,rocky ,mountains they still roam at will1 and depend mainly on hunting and fishing for a livelihood4 ,on the ,pacific coast1 the ,haidas1 etc41 of ,british ,columbia--and the same is true of their neighbours1 the ,tlingits of southeastern ,alaska--have become interested as labourers in the commercial fisheries1 principally the salmon industry4 ,the ,canadian ,government has purchased extensive tracts of land from the ,indians1 and the purchase money1 together with the returns from the sale of relinquished lands1 etc41 amounting in #aijj to #c1hic1fbc1 is held in trust for their benefit4 ,the interest on this sum1 together with appropriations made by the ,government for the support1 education1 etc41 of the ,indians1 amounted during the year #aijj to #a1cji1abg4 ,the total--in part estimated--,indian population of ,canada is about #ii1jjj1 and those classed as resident ,indians number #gg1dej4 ,the last-named during the year #aijj cultivated #ajh1hej acres of land2 owned #hc1jai head of cattle1 horses1 sheep1 etc42 cut #fh1cie tons of hay2 gathered #dga1eif bushels of potatoes and other root crops1 besides an output of #a1fci1cih worth of fish1 furs1 etc4 ,during the same year #i1fcd ,indian children attended industrial schools4 ,this is certainly a creditable report and one encouraging to the hope that all the ,indians in ,canada will in the course of a few generations become civilized1 in spite of the fact that the ,indians outside of the reservations and beyond the limits of the treaty lands still roam at large and to a great extent are in a deplorable condition4 ,in the treatment of the aborigines within her borders ,canada has to a marked degree been both humane and just4 ,her policy in this connection is largely an inheritance from that of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company1 whose success in trade depended on maintaining friendly relations with the native peoples4 ,the work of the factors of the ,great ,company scattered throughout ,canada and carried on continuously for more than two centuries did much to prepare the aborigines for civil government4 ,owing largely1 also1 to the efficiency of the mounted police of ,canada much less trouble has been experienced in the management of the ,indians of that country than has been the case in the adjacent portion of the ,united ,states4 ,in any comparison1 however1 of the relation of the ,canadian and ,united ,states governments to the aborigines within their respective borders account needs to be taken of the widely different conditions on the opposite sides of the boundary line between them4 ,not only are the ,indians of ,canada about one-third as numerous as in the ,united ,states1 while the area of each country is about the same1 but owing to a less dense white population to the north of the international boundary1 far less demand has there arisen for their lands for agricultural1 mining1 and other purposes than in the ,united ,states4 ,the ,indian problem within the ,united ,states has been a most serious one1 and is still a severe tax on the nation4 ,the union of the colonies and the final separation from the mother country left the ,united ,states with an immense western frontier1 extending in an irregular way from north to south through the trackless forests of the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,as the nation grew in strength this frontier was pressed farther and farther westward1 while settlements established on the ,pacific coast presented a frontier to the eastward4 ,these two inundations of civilization1 crude1 but virile and aggressive1 approached each other and entered the passes in the mountains separating them4 ,between the two were the hunting-grounds of the ,indians1 but the advance of the whites was irregular and the outposts of civilization were in the ,indian country4 ,in #ahfg the buildings of the first of the transcontinental railroads divided the region roamed over by savage tribes4 ,railroads continued to be built1 and presently there was no frontier4 ,in a later stage in this process of subduing a continent it became imperative that the more hostile and treacherous ,indian tribes should be either exterminated or segregated and confined to definite regions1 where they could be under military surveillance4 ,many treaties were made between the ,united ,states and the ,indians1 and by this means and by force the original occupants of the land were placed on reservations4 ,the aim of the ,government1 it must be conceded1 has during the past fifty years or more been humane1 but in many instances treaties have been unfulfilled1 and individuals in authority have proved incompetent1 unfaithful1 and dishonest4 ,in judging of the dealings of the white man with the ,indian1 it must be remembered that the problem was highly complex and in certain ways of such a nature that no result just to each party was practicable4 ,on one hand1 the rights of the ,indian to the land they inherited from their ancestors was to be recognised1 but a larger interest1 the march of civilization1 had also to be encouraged4 ,the good of humanity demanded that the barbarian1 roaming over broad lands of which he made no use except for hunting1 should give place to more enlightened people1 who wished to cultivate the soil and make it support thousands of individuals1 where before only a few hundred could find sustenance4 ,the history pertaining to so many countries1 where civilized peoples have displaced races in the lower stages of culture1 was here repeated4 ,the main issue was the same1 only the details differ4 ,in the struggle between the white and the red man it became evident that the latter must yield1 assume habits of industry1 and earn his bread by the sweat of his brow or be exterminated4 ,it may be said that neither of these seemingly inevitable results has occurred2 the ,indian has not been exterminated1 and possibly not seriously reduced in numbers1 and to a great extent is not self-supporting4 ,it is believed1 however1 that this is but a transient stage1 resulting from the reservation system4 ,in a large number of instances the lands formerly occupied by the ,indians have been purchased from them by the ,government and thrown open to settlement by white people4 ,the money due for these purchases has in several instances been paid to the ,indians1 either as tribes or individually1 while in other cases it is still held in trust by the ,government1 and the interest on it used for the benefit of the original occupants of the land4 ,the ,united ,states ,government by treaty with certain of the tribes1 as the ,sioux1 for example1 has agreed to pay definite annuities and issue to each individual a certain amount of clothing and food each year4 ,other tribes placed on reservations were also granted clothing and food sufficient to keep them from want1 although no agreement to that effect was entered into1 the theory of the ,government being that the ,indians deprived of their hunting-grounds should receive aid until they could adopt the ways of civilized men sufficiently to be self-supporting4 ,the number of ,indians assisted in this way each year during the past decade has been about #he1jjj4 ,the food issued1 usually twice a month1 consists of meat1 either beef or its equivalent in bacon1 flour1 coffee1 and sugar4 ,the ration supplied each individual is sufficient to maintain a person1 or at least keep him from starving1 but is not intended to meet all his wants4 ,the desire on the part of the ,government that want should compel the ,indian to work1 has been still further pressed by a gradual decrease in the ration issued in certain instances where definite agreement has not been made and where a tendency to self-support is manifest4 ,in general1 however1 this assistance1 instead of stimulating industry1 and1 as would seem natural1 gradually leading the recipient to desire and obtain more and more of the comforts and luxuries that may be had as a reward of exertion1 served but to enhance his inherited aversion to all forms of labour4 ,the issuing of rations even to the extent of insuring the ,indian against starvation has to a great extent removed the incentive to industry1 and the ,indian1 being an ,indian1 has remained thriftless and indifferent4 ,the reservation system1 so far as attaining the main aim in view1 namely1 the civilizing of the ,indian and encouraging him to work1 has1 to a great extent1 been a failure4 ,in addition to the issuing of food and clothing1 the ,government1 with the view of extending still further encouragement1 has in a large number of instances provided the ,indians with tools1 horses1 agricultural implements1 etc41 and aided in irrigation and other schemes tending to the improvement of the lands comprised in reservations4 ,besides the direct material aid just referred to1 schools have been established1 and an earnest and widely extended effort made to educate the ,indians and make them worthy of citizenship4 ,the result of this effort1 while highly encouraging in many individual instances1 has on the whole fallen far short of what was expected in view of the large expenditures incurred4 ,the sum thus employed during the past thirty-three years is about #bdj1jjj1jjj4 ,the total appropriation made by the ,government for the care and education of the ,indians1 inclusive of the aborigines of ,alaska1 for the fiscal year ending ,june #cj1 #aija1 was over #i1jjj1jjj4 ,of this sum1 over one-third was expended in the maintenance of schools4 ,in addition to this provision there are a number of mission and other schools1 supported mainly by religious or benevolent organizations1 and certain public schools not receiving aid from the ,general ,government which were wholly or in part for the benefit of ,indian pupils4 ,in the case of the larger of the ,government ,indian schools the ,indian children are removed from their homes and placed in institutions where they live for a period of four years under military discipline4 ,in these schools literary is subordinate to industrial training4 ,the majority of the schools are equipped with shops for shoe- and harness-making1 carpentry1 blacksmithing1 wagon-making1 etc41 and in several instances the girls are taught cooking and house-work4 ,the largest of these schools is situated at ,carlisle1 ,pennsylvania1 at which the average attendance during the year #aijj was #ifa4 ,the extent to which education is spreading through the ,indian tribes and its rate of increase are indicated by the fact that the attendance on the ,government schools has increased from #c1eih in #ahgg to #ba1eff in #aijj4 ,while the benefits received by the ,indians through the issuing of clothing1 rations1 and by education has been great and the seed for future progress sown broadcast1 the results1 so far as lifting the recipients into an atmosphere of refinement and civilization and making them self-supporting are concerned1 are far from encouraging4 ,the ,indians in general are still wards of the ,government and not worthy of citizenship4 ,the aim of the ,government is not only to educate the ,indians1 but to induce them to adopt the ways of industrious and progressive white men1 build homes on land ceded to them and which they may hold as individuals1 thus breaking up their long-established practise of communal or tribe ownership1 and finally become citizens of the republic4 ,to this end land has been divided among the heads of families of several tribes and titles in severalty granted1 with restrictions in most1 if not all instances1 in reference to the sale of the land within a certain period4 ,in many instances this plan has been productive of good results1 and the ,indians have become industrious and to a large extent citizens4 ,the numerous successes that have followed the allotment of land in severalty1 accompanied as it is with responsibilities and the necessity of self-support1 is encouraging and leads to the hope that in the course of a few generations all the ,indians will have passed from the condition of barbarism to one of civilization4 ,in ,mexico since #ahbd the ,indians have been on the same political basis as the whites1 although to a great extent they have failed to profit by their advantages1 and so far as legal restrictions are concerned are eligible to any office of the republic4 ,the brightest example of the wisdom of this policy is furnished by the fact that in at least one instance a man of pure ,aztec blood has occupied the highest office in the gift of the people4 ,in general1 and in fact almost universally1 the position of the ,indian in ,mexico is that of a farm labourer1 but although nominally free1 owing to a prevalent system of debt1 he is really held in vassalage by the owners of the large plantations or haciendas4 ,in many ways his condition is but little better than that of a slave4 ,unlike the roaming tribes of the more northern portion of the continent1 where the food supply fluctuates greatly with the seasons1 the natives of ,mexico early became sedentary1 and1 owing no doubt in part to the density of the population1 became horticulturists1 and have continued to cultivate the soil to the present day4 ,they are now essentially agriculturists1 wedded to their place of birth1 and not only do not desire change1 but repel by passive resistance the invasion of civilization and the use of new and improved tools and machinery4 ,they are non-progressive1 and on account of their great numbers1 constituting about #ch per cent of the entire population1 serve to retard advancement in a manner that is highly detrimental to the enlightened and progressive members of the ruling class4 ,education in nearly all parts of the republic is compulsory and the schools free4 ,with both political and educational advantages1 however1 but indifferent progress towards civilization has been made4 ,the present condition of the ,indians throughout ,central ,america is similar to that of the descendants of the ,aztecs and other tribes in ,mexico both politically and socially4 ,they are a disheartened race1 living in a region where exuberant nature supplies their small wants with but little exertion on their part1 and incentives to activity either of body or mind are1 to a great extent1 lacking4 ,in the ,west ,indies the native ,caribs were nearly exterminated by the ,spaniards early in their occupation of the islands1 their places as labourers being supplied by the importation of negro slaves1 and at the present time but few1 if any1 ,indians of pure blood are to be found4 ,throughout ,mexico1 ,central ,america1 and the ,west ,indies amalgamation of the ,indian with both ,europeans and negroes has taken place1 and a mixed race1 consisting of a large percentage of the total population1 has resulted4 ,in ,mexico these mestizos1 as they are termed1 number about #e1jjj1jjj1 or about two-fifths of the entire population4 ,in the ,central ,american republics the supplanting of the aboriginal race by the same process is thought to have progressed at about the same rate as in ,mexico4 ,to the student of geography a comparison of the state of the aborigines of ,north ,america before peoples from other lands came among them1 with reference to the influence of environment1 is full of significance4 ,the highest degree of culture and the greatest advance towards refinement was in ,mexico and ,central ,america1 where a uniform climate prevails and bodily wants are few and easily supplied4 ,it was there that skill in architecture reached its highest development1 and what is worthy the name of art1 and we may almost say letters1 but in truth picture-writing1 reached a high degree of advancement4 ,this marked progress in a tropical country beyond what was attained by the ,indian tribes in the temperate and cold portions of the continent seems to be an exception to the general rule that intellectual progress is stimulated by changeable climatic conditions1 and reaches the highest development in cold1 temperate climates4 ,apparently the degree of stimulation needed for the ,caucasian and the ,indian differs1 and the latter thrives best where the obstacles to be overcome are least4 ,this is in harmony with the oft-repeated statement that the ,indian is but a child4 ,the struggle which would discourage the boy is but zest to the man4 ,among the ,indians themselves1 however1 we find an exception to the rule suggested in the fact that the ,iroquois or the ,six ,nations of ,new ,york1 in their tribal organization and alliances of offence and defence probably surpassed even the ,aztecs and ,mayas4 ,in physical strength and endurance1 and in mental powers1 so far as government and oratory are concerned1 the ,iroquois probably surpassed all other ,indians2 but in architecture1 art1 picture-writing1 etc41 they were far the inferiors of the ,mexican and ,central ,american ,indians4 ,thus1 intellectual strength and vigour seem to have been most markedly a product of the colder and more changeable climate1 while the highest attainment in architecture1 etc41 was reached at the south4 ,it is in the temperate region also that the best results have been reached in attempting to civilize the ,indians4 ,this1 however1 cannot be claimed as a result of climate simply1 since the aid that has been extended to them in ,canada and the ,united ,states is far different from the influence exerted on their relatives at the south by men of ,spanish blood4 ,the results of the efforts of ,canada and the ,united ,states to civilize the ,indian and make him worthy of citizenship1 although costly and slow in reaching the desired end1 are full of promise4 ,by the methods referred to in the last few pages a strong effort is being made to counteract the harsh treatment the ,indians received during the earlier years of ,french and ,english aggression1 and to give them a fair chance to advance4 ,one important result of the present firm control is the total cessation of intertribal warfare4 ,seemingly the aborigines throughout ,north ,america1 with the exception--and it is hoped this is but temporary--of the ,alaskan ,eskimos and the still uncared-for ,indian tribes of ,alaska and ,canada1 should increase in numbers as well as in enlightenment4 ,in reference to numbers1 the enumerations that have been made in recent years1 although not exact1 seem to indicate a diminution in the rate of decrease1 if not a positive advance4 ,in the case of most of the ,indian tribes north of ,mexico the change from a free life1 passed to a large extent in tents or temporary homes1 to an inactive1 sedentary existence1 mostly on reservations1 and the influences of house-life without a knowledge of sanitary conditions was a most severe one4 ,the adverse results of this change1 it is probable1 are not yet past1 but the rate of decrease in numbers resulting from it appears to be diminishing4 ,aside from the comparative suddenness with which the ,indian has been forced to change his ways of thinking and living1 it must be confessed that there is something inherent in his mental qualities that makes him unduly resistant to progress4 ,as a race it is not to be hoped that he can ever be placed on really equal terms with the white man4 ,the total aboriginal population of ,north ,america in #aijj1 as nearly as it is now practicable to ascertain1 is shown in the following table3 ,canada1 ,arctic coast #a1jjj ,eskimos4 ,newfoundland 7,labrador coast7 #hjj ,united ,states1 ,alaska 7#ahij7 #ad1jjj ---------- ,total ,eskimo population1 about #ae1hjj ,canada #ii1jaj ,united ,states1 exclusive of ,alaska #bgj1edd ,indians4 ,alaska #ae1ejj ,mexico 7#ahie7 #e1jjj1jjj ,central ,america 7largely estimated7 #a1fjj1jjj --------- ,total ,indian population1 about #f1ihe1jed --------- ,total aboriginal population1 about #g1jjj1hjj ,in this enumeration no account is taken of the ,indians of the ,west ,indies1 for the reason1 so far as can be learned1 that there are few1 if any1 of pure blood remaining4 ,,literature ,vast stores of information concerning the aborigines of ,america have been published by the ,bureau of ,american ,ethnology1 ,smithsonian ,institution1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c42 the ,peabody ,museum of ,archaeology1 ,cambridge1 ,mass42 the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y42 the ,field ,columbian ,museum1 ,chicago1 ,ill42 and in the ,american ,archaeologist1 a monthly magazine now printed by ,putnam's ,sons1 ,new ,york4 ,readily accessible books relating to the ,eskimos of ,alaska are3 ,,dall1 ,w4 ,h4 ,alaska and its ,resources4 ,lee ,shepard1 ,boston1 #ahgj4 ,,petroff1 ,,ivan4 ,reports on the ,population1 ,resources1 etc41 of ,alaska4 ,in the reports of the tenth and eleventh censuses of the ,united ,states4 ,the condition of the ,indians in the ,united ,states during the past half century is recorded in the annual reports on ,indian affairs published by the ,department of the ,interior1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,similar information concerning the natives of ,canada may be found in the reports on ,indian affairs issued by the ,canadian ,government at ,ottawa4 ,of the numerous books on ethnology in which the relation of the aborigines of ,america to other peoples is discussed1 perhaps the most useful to the general reader is ,a4 ,h4 ,keane's ,man ,past and ,present1 printed at the ,university ,press1 ,cambridge1 ,england4 ,of the many attractive books of travel in which the ,indians of ,mexico and ,central ,america and the ruins1 etc41 of the same region are described1 the most readily accessible are3 ,john ,l4 ,stephens's ,incidents of ,travel in ,yucatan1 #b vols41 and his ,incidents of ,travel in ,central ,america1 ,chiapas1 and ,yucatan1 #b vols41 published by ,harper ,brothers1 ,new ,york1 #ahfg-'fh2 and ,w4 ,h4 ,holmes's ,archaeological ,studies among the ,ancient ,cities of ,mexico1 published by the ,field ,columbian ,museum1 ,chicago1 #ahig4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,political ,,geography#f #f ,as stated in the preface1 several chapters have been omitted from this book on account of limitations of space4 ,the portions of the original manuscript referred to relate to the geography of fisheries1 forestry1 mining1 commerce1 agriculture1 etc4 ,in discussing each of these themes1 the control exerted by natural conditions or environment on human affairs made itself prominent because of the immediate influence of corrective failures when nature's laws are disregarded4 ,a less attractive phase of the study of the relation of man to nature is furnished by political geography1 in which the influence of something opposed to environment becomes prominent1 and as history shows has in the main exerted a major control over the geography of nations4 ,that something1 as is well known1 is the greed of peoples4 ,space is here claimed for a part of my original manuscript for the reason that it presents a view of political adjustments not usually taken and in a way perhaps pessimistical1 which may awaken opposition1 and also because it contains a summary of the results of a long series of struggles among various nations for the possession of the ,north ,american continent4 ,of greater moment than the rivalries of nations for territory1 as is also outlined1 is the conflict between two radically different principles of government--the monarchical and the republican--in which this continent has furnished the chief battle-grounds4 ,did space permit1 the influence of geographical conditions on the growth and development of the fundamental ideas of government could be illustrated by ,american history1 and the probability that environment will in the end gain ascendency over local self-interests in the establishing of national boundaries made prominent4 ,among the prominent facts dealt with in the study of political geography and of history are the territorial limits of nations4 ,for this reason the characteristics of boundaries are of fundamental importance1 and a classification of them is convenient1 if not essential4 ,,classification ,,of ,,boundaries ,the boundaries between nations1 states1 provinces1 etc41 established in various ways1 may be classified1 at least provisionally1 in six groups4 ,we may term these groups coast boundaries1 astronomical boundaries1 water boundaries1 mountain boundaries1 divide boundaries1 and arbitrary boundaries4 ,coast ,boundaries4--,the junction of the sea and land on the borders of continents and islands furnishes natural and sharply defined lines1 which are clearly the most desirable of any of the various classes of boundaries for defining political limits4 ,by international consent the jurisdiction of a country bordering on the high seas is a line one marine league seaward from the margin of the land1 and following its meanders4 ,as an international dividing line the one-league limit seldom1 if ever1 becomes important1 since the nice adjustment of the width of an arm of the sea necessary for such a purpose rarely occurs4 ,when an extension of the ocean's waters intervening between two nations is less than two marine leagues wide the boundary between them commonly follows its medial line1 and has all the essential features of a water boundary1 described below4 ,astronomical ,boundaries4--,the shape of the earth and its motions in reference to the sun are such that certain imaginary lines on its surface may be located with precision by astronomers1 and if the monuments or other marks employed to show the positions of such lines are removed they can be accurately relocated4 ,the lines referred to are principally parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude1 and boundaries1 so far as they coincide with these lines1 may for convenience be classed as astronomical boundaries4 ,examples of the class of boundaries here indicated are furnished by the one defining the east border of the main body of ,alaska1 which1 as defined in a treaty made in #ahbe between ,great ,britain and ,russia1 is the one hundred and forty-first meridian west of ,greenwich2 and by the boundary between ,canada and the continental portion of the ,united ,states from near the ,lake of the ,woods westward to the coast of the continent1 which1 as finally decided in a treaty between ,great ,britain and the ,united ,states in #ahdf1 is the forty-ninth parallel of north latitude4 ,the boundaries of a number of the ,states of the ,united ,states and of several of the provinces of ,canada are either wholly or in part parallels of latitude or meridians of longitude1 and furnish good examples of what are here termed astronomical boundaries4 ,the most conspicuous advantages of astronomical boundaries are that they may be accurately described without a knowledge of the country through which they pass4 ,they can be located with precision and their courses accurately marked by monuments4 ,for these reasons astronomical boundaries1 when clearly defined in treaties between nations or in laws concerning the territorial limits of states or provinces1 leave no room for contention as to their positions4 ,the leading objections to the use of astronomical boundaries1 particularly as international dividing lines1 are3 ,the temptation they offer to diplomats and others1 who may be interested in the speedy conclusion of a treaty1 to make hasty divisions of territory without knowing its resources or commercial and other possibilities4 ,then1 too1 such boundaries cross the land without reference to its topography1 and have no essential relations to the courses of streams or the directions of coast-lines1 etc4 ,they may divide a fruitful valley in a most arbitrary and inconvenient manner between two nations with widely different laws and customs1 or cross a navigable river at several localities1 and intersect a coast or lake shore so as to initiate complex conditions in respect to harbours1 navigation1 customs duties1 etc4 ,in these and still other ways boundaries coinciding with lines of latitude and longitude are apt to bring about detrimental commercial and other relations between adjacent nations1 states1 and provinces4 ,a region which is an industrial unit--as the gold fields of the ,klondike district1 the iron-bearing tracts to the west of ,lake ,superior1 the wheat-lands of the ,red ,river ,valley1 the forested lands of the northwest coast1 etc4--when divided between two or more countries with different laws is deprived of the advantages that should follow from the natural course of industrial development1 and one part or the other suffers in consequence4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vii4--,distribution of governments in ,north ,america4 ,again1 until an astronomical boundary is surveyed and marked on the ground by skilled geodesists1 it cannot be located even approximately by miners1 trappers1 foresters1 and others1 and many difficulties are apt to arise in this connection4 ,although an astronomical boundary once decided on and formally recorded in a treaty leaves no excuse for national quarrels as to its position1 it is evident that its far-reaching and perhaps highly complex influences on the development of neighbouring peoples are likely to be such that the natural resources1 conditions affecting transportation1 etc41 of the region through which it passes should be thoroughly understood before a final decision is reached4 ,water ,boundaries4--,in numerous instances the medial line or one shore of a stream1 lake1 estuary1 strait1 or other water body not recognised as a part of the high seas has been selected to serve as a fence between nations and states2 collectively1 such boundaries1 typically represented by a river without islands1 flowing between well-defined and permanent banks1 may conveniently be termed water boundaries4 ,in general1 when a stream1 lake1 etc41 is a national or state boundary1 its medial line1 or the centre of the deepest channel when there is more than one1 is defined as the precise line of demarcation4 ,the leading features of water boundaries are illustrated by a portion of the line separating the ,united ,states from ,canada1 which traverses the middle of the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river1 and divides medially several of the ,great ,lakes and their connecting streams4 ,the south boundary of the ,united ,states is also in part a water boundary1 and is defined by treaty as the middle line of the ,rio ,grande1 or its deepest channel where there is more than one4 ,in certain instances1 when a river1 lake1 bay1 etc41 separates two political organizations1 one shore or the other may be defined by treaty or by law as the actual line of separation1 and even complex relations may exist1 in reference to jurisdiction over the dividing waters4 ,the water boundary between ,new ,york and ,new ,jersey1 for example1 is1 in part1 the middle line of the ,hudson and of ,new ,york ,bay1 etc41 with several qualifications1 including exclusive jurisdiction by ,new ,york over all the waters of the ,hudson to the west of ,manhattan ,island to the low-water line on the ,new ,jersey shore1 subject1 however1 to certain rights of property and of jurisdiction of the ,state of ,new ,jersey1 etc4 ,the waters of ,delaware ,river are1 by agreement between ,new ,jersey and ,pennsylvania1 a common highway1 over which each ,state shall enjoy and exercise a concurrent jurisdiction within and upon the water1 and not upon the dry land between the shores of said river2 the islands in the river being specifically assigned to the one or the other ,state4 ,the advantages of a water boundary are suggested by the fact that in most instances they may be easily located1 even by persons inexperienced in the method of surveying4 ,coinciding1 as they generally do1 with definite geographical divisions1 they do not lead in a conspicuous manner to complications in the industrial development of the countries or ,states separated by them4 ,the difficulties to which water boundaries may give rise are indicated by the fact that streams1 more particularly than the other water bodies in question1 frequently divide so as to inclose islands1 and in certain instances on nearing the sea send off1 perhaps1 several distributaries1 which discharge through independent mouths4 ,when a stream divides so as to inclose an island1 even if the main or the deepest channel is specified by treaty or by law as the one chosen as a boundary1 the question as to which of two channels is really the larger or the deeper may not permit of definite answer4 ,streams are subject to many changes1 and what is the main channel one year may become of secondary rank the next year1 or a river1 as not infrequently happens1 may shift its course bodily1 and thus furnish grounds for contention as to the ownership of the territory transferred from one of its banks to the other4 ,the distributaries of streams1 or the separate channels into which they divide on deltas1 etc41 are also subject to conspicuous and sometimes sudden changes4 ,who could decide1 for instance1 which is the main channel of such rivers as the ,mississippi1 the ,nile1 or the ,ganges1 in the delta portions of their courses2 or if a choice seemed practicable1 is there any assurance that the distributary largest to-day will maintain its supremacy for a decade to come1 or even be in existence a century hence8 ,the controversies that may arise in reference to which of two channels in a designated water body is the main one1 are illustrated by the well-known ,san ,juan episode1 which came near bringing on hostilities between ,great ,britain and the ,united ,states in reference to the ownership of certain islands in the ,strait of ,georgia2 the immediate subject of contention being whether the channel which separates the continent from ,vancouvers ,island1 as the statement reads in the ,webster-,ashburton treaty1 #ahdf1 passes to the east or to the west of the ,san ,juan ,islands4 ,the ,emperor of ,germany1 as is well known1 acting as arbitrator1 decided that the islands belong to the ,united ,states4 ,thus1 in #ahgb1 a series of disputes as to the ,canadian-,united-,states boundary1 which had been carried on for ninety years1 was closed4 ,while water boundaries1 and especially rivers1 in certain instances1 have furnished almost ideal dividing lines between nations1 in other instances they have proved to be objectionable4 ,the difference lies in the nature of the streams themselves1 and illustrates the fact that1 with water boundaries as with other classes of dividing lines between nations1 a critical knowledge of the geography of the region through which they pass is a prerequisite of treaty making1 if subsequent boundary disputes are to be avoided4 ,mountain ,boundaries4--,the crests of mountain ranges1 or mountain chains1 are sometimes specified in treaties as defining territorial limits4 ,the ideal mountain range is one having a generally straight alignment and a continuous and sharply defined crest1 but in nature this ideal is seldom attained4 ,modern geographical studies have shown that many so-called mountains1 which from a distance appear to be well-defined uplifts with sharp crest-lines1 are in reality broad plateaus or great domes1 deeply dissected by stream erosion4 ,in such instances it is frequently difficult to decide where the crest of the range is located4 ,indeed1 as is not infrequently the case1 there is no definite and tangible crest-line4 ,although it is sometimes assumed that the crest-line coincides with the water-parting1 or the divide1 between the head branches of streams flowing in opposite directions from a mountain-like uplift1 it is well known that a mountain range1 even when bold and sharply defined1 may not be a divide for the principal streams of the region where it is situated4 ,an illustration in point is furnished by the ,appalachian ,mountains1 through which the ,susquehanna1 ,delaware1 and other important rivers rising in the plateau to the west flow transversely in deep valleys and empty into the ,atlantic4 ,the recent controversy between ,argentina and ,chile was due to an assumption in a treaty between them that the crest-line of the southern ,andes coincides with the water-parting between the streams flowing to the ,atlantic and those discharging into the ,pacific4 ,post-treaty surveys1 as they may suggestively be termed1 have shown that in the portion of the ,andes in question streams rising well to the east of the mountains flow westward through them in deep transverse canyons1 and that there is a wide discrepancy between the continental water-parting and the topographic crest-line of the continent4 ,a mountain boundary1 if defined as the line along which the upward slopes on the opposite sides of a prominent uplift meet in its summit portion1 would in most instances be irregular and perhaps conspicuously intricate1 for the reason that mountain crests are modified and shaped by erosion and migrate in one direction or another according to the strength and other qualifying conditions of the opposite-flowing streams4 ,then1 too1 an uplift which seems to a casual observer to be a single mountain range1 may in reality be highly complex1 and no continuous crest-line be discoverable4 ,in short1 the sweeping statements sometimes embodied in treaties1 to the effect that the line of demarcation between contiguous countries shall be the crest-line of a certain indicated mountain range are fraught with uncertainties and difficulties1 which are likely to prove a source of discontent and costly arbitration1 or even lead to war4 ,divide ,boundaries4--,a boundary which is defined as following a specified water-parting or divide1 from which streams flow in opposite directions1 would in most instances be easily traceable on the ground even by persons unskilled in the art of surveying1 and for this and other reasons has much to commend it2 yet1 without an accurate knowledge1 and most of all an accurate topographic map of the region through which such a boundary is to pass1 its selection on general principles1 however nicely worded1 is open to dangers of the same nature as those pertaining to a similar choice of a mountain boundary4 ,in arid regions broad plateaus may form divides1 and even an approximate location of the line of water-parting1 if one exists1 be a matter of difficulty and uncertainty4 ,then1 too1 the process of head-water corrasion pertaining to essentially all streams1 and of stream capture1 or the acquiring by one stream1 through the process of stream development1 of the territory formerly drained by its neighbour1 leads to a migration and sometimes a sudden and perhaps extensive shifting of a water-parting4 ,examples of divide boundaries are furnished by the one separating ,idaho and ,montana1 which in part coincides with the continental divide1 and serves its purpose well2 but the satisfaction it has given is to be qualified by the fact that1 for the most part1 it is situated in a rugged region1 where there is but slight probability of the property interests of the communities parted by it coming into direct contact4 ,boundaries which are made to coincide with the courses of rivers1 with the crest-lines of mountains1 or with water-partings1 have certain commendable features in common2 they are easily located1 readily defined by natural features of the earth's surface1 and in general do not require to be accurately surveyed and marked by monuments before they serve their purpose as international or interstate fences4 ,arbitrary ,boundaries4--,a class of boundaries not otherwise readily definable may be conveniently designated as arbitrary boundaries1 since1 as a rule1 they are not described in terms such as pertain to astronomical boundaries1 and bear no necessary relation to topographic or other features of the regions they traverse4 ,like astronomical boundaries1 the ones here considered are imaginary lines1 and1 in part1 might with propriety be included in that class1 since they are capable of being located by astronomical methods2 but they serve our purpose better if considered in a group by themselves4 ,the class of boundaries here referred to includes straight lines connecting two points2 lines defined as running in a given direction 7azimuth7 and for certain distances2 arcs of circles2 tangents to circles1 etc4 ,in brief1 arbitrary boundaries may be defined as straight or curved lines or combinations of such lines1 and are similar to the lines employed by surveyors in marking the boundaries of a farm1 locating a railroad1 etc4 ,an example of what is meant by an arbitrary boundary is furnished by the line separating ,delaware from ,pennsylvania1 which is an arc of a circle #ab miles in radius1 with the steeple of the old court-house in ,newcastle1 ,delaware1 as a centre4 ,again1 in the establishment of the ,district of ,columbia1 a rectangle #aj miles square was chosen and marked on the ground by means of monuments as the site of the capital of the ,united ,states4 ,another illustration is furnished by the eastern boundary of ,california1 as defined in its constitution4 ,this boundary runs from the intersection of #abj degrees of west longitude with the thirty-ninth degree of north latitude in a straight line in a southeasterly direction to the ,river ,colorado1 at a point where it intersects the thirty-fifth degree of north latitude4 ,boundaries of the nature just cited can only be recognised when actually marked on the ground1 and except in the case of straight lines1 not of great length1 or small geometrical figures1 are difficult of precise location1 even by skilled surveyors4 ,should the monuments used to define their positions be destroyed1 their replacement is an arduous task4 ,an interesting example of a change from an astronomical to an arbitrary boundary is furnished by the line of demarcation between ,texas and ,new ,mexico1 which in part1 as originally defined by law1 was the one hundred and third meridian of west longitude1 but owing to errors in the first survey was wrongly marked on the ground by monuments4 ,the monuments1 however1 having been accepted as indicating the position of the true line of division1 became points in an arbitrary boundary4 ,other similar examples of the acceptance of an arbitrary in place of an astronomical boundary are not uncommon4 ,impracticable ,boundaries4--,there are certain dividing lines which are defined in treaties1 decrees1 etc41 as running parallel to some natural feature1 as a coast or a river1 and at a given distance from it1 that might with propriety be classed as arbitrary boundaries1 since no effort is made to adjust them to the natural conditions of the immediate territory they traverse2 but1 for the purpose of expressing a still greater weakness inherent in them1 they are here specially designated as impracticable boundaries4 ,this1 as is to be hoped1 temporary class of boundaries includes the proposed lines of demarcation sometimes inserted in treaties1 etc41 which it is impossible1 or at least impracticable1 without great and for the most part useless expense of time and money1 to mark on the ground1 and thus seek to make serviceable4 ,in this connection reference may be made to the boundary between southeastern ,alaska and ,canada1 which1 as stated in the treaty between ,great ,britain and ,russia previously referred to1 in the absence of a mountain range parallel with the coast and not over #aj marine leagues inland--and as subsequent explorations and surveys have shown such is the case--shall be formed by a line parallel to the windings of the coast1 and which shall never exceed the distance of #aj marine leagues therefrom4 ,the region through which the line described would pass1 if surveyed1 was almost entirely unknown at the time the treaty referred to was made1 but1 as has since been discovered1 it is exceedingly rugged1 and contains many mountains ranging from #aj1jjj to #ah1jjj feet high1 besides a multitude of glaciers and many extensive fields of perpetual snow4 ,to survey and mark on the ground the boundary indicated in the treaty would be what may be justly termed an impossible task2 and1 besides1 if the line as defined by treaty should be established1 it would be intricate1 and much less serviceable as a national fence than any one of several possible boundaries that could have been chosen1 with essentially the same end in view1 at the time the original treaty was entered into1 had a geographer been employed to make even a hasty reconnaissance of the region in question4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,viii4--,characteristic vegetation4 ,another example of a boundary being defined as running parallel to and at a specified distance from an irregular geographical feature is furnished by a part of the boundary between ,massachusetts and ,new ,hampshire1 which is a line parallel to the ,merrimac ,river1 and distant from it #c miles on the north4 ,in this case1 although the distance of the line designated from the one to which it is to be drawn parallel is but #c miles1 and the country between only mildly undulating or hilly1 the boundary as now marked on the ground and accepted as an interstate boundary is but a rude approximation to the one originally defined4 ,these examples1 and others that might with propriety be classified as impracticable boundaries1 illustrate again the desirability of accurate geographical knowledge1 and still more of an adequate appreciation of the difficulties and limitations met with by the surveyor1 on the part of those who attend to the real-estate business of nations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the line of separation between ,canada and the ,united ,states1 as defined by the ,treaty of ,ghent1 #ahad1 and after several subsequent adjustments1 was determined as indicated roughly on the accompanying map4 ,throughout the greater part of its eastern half it is a river boundary1 and in its western half an astronomical boundary4 ,in #ahgf the ,english ,government granted ,newfoundland jurisdiction over ,labrador1 and in letters patent defined that dependency as all the coast of ,labrador1 from the entrance of ,hudson ,straits to a line to be drawn due north and south from ,ause ,sableu on the said coast to the fifty-second degree of north latitude1 and all the islands adjacent to that part of the said coast of ,labrador4 ,this line is still unsurveyed4 ,from the fifty-second parallel to the ,strait of ,belle ,isle1 a distance of about #dj miles1 the boundary is a north-and-south line situated about #g miles west of the fifty-seventh meridian1 as is indicated on the best maps available4 ,the southern boundary of the ,united ,states1 as finally determined in #ahec by treaty with ,mexico1 is1 beginning at the east1 a river boundary for some #ijj miles1 namely1 the middle of the ,rio ,grande1 or its deepest channel1 when there is more than one1 to where the river crosses the parallel of latitude #ca deg4 #dg'2 continuing westward1 the line is in part an astronomical and in part an arbitrary boundary to the ,pacific4 ,the nature of the boundaries separating the several provinces of ,canada1 the various ,states of the ,united ,states and of ,mexico1 the republics of ,central ,america1 etc41 are indicated approximately on the accompanying map4 ,these lines when studied on larger-scale maps on which the drainage and relief are also shown reveal many features of interest4 ,,political ,,control ,the political subdivisions of ,north ,america in #aijj are too well known to require specific description at this time4 ,the long-continued struggles and rivalries that have led to the present subdivision of territory pertain to history1 and although full of interest from the point of view of the geographer1 cannot be discussed in the present treatise4 ,among the conspicuous events that might be shown by a series of political maps is the contraction and final disappearance of ,spanish and ,french dominion from the continental mainland4 ,the broad1 indefinite territory once belonging to ,spain1 which in the sixteenth century seemed destined to expand still more and possibly embrace the whole of the two ,americas1 has been diminished from time to time1 until as a result of the recent ,spanish-,american ,war her flag no longer waves over any portion of the ,new ,world4 ,the ,french territory1 once embracing a large portion of what is now ,canada and the ,united ,states1 is at present represented by the islands ,martinique and ,guadeloupe with its dependencies1 in the ,west ,indies1 and the islands ,miquelon and ,st4 ,pierre1 adjacent to the south coast of ,newfoundland2 in all1 comprising about #a1afa square miles4 ,the ,french have1 in addition1 certain treaty rights pertaining to fisheries on the northern and western shores of ,newfoundland4 ,between the two forms of government1 monarchical and republican1 ,north ,america is somewhat equally divided1 so far as extent of territory is concerned 7,plate ,,vii71 but not as respects population4 ,the people under republican organization far outnumber those still acknowledging allegiance to hereditary rulers4 ,the countries self-governed1 or forming parts of ,american republics1 embraced in #aijj all of the continental mainland south of the ,united-,states-,canadian boundary1 together with ,alaska1 ,cuba1 ,san ,domingo and ,haiti1 and ,porto ,rico4 ,the provinces1 islands1 etc41 still controlled by ,european powers are ,canada1 ,newfoundland1 ,bermuda1 and all of the ,west ,indies except the islands just referred to1 which are more definitely designated in the table on page #dbd4 ,the population of the ,american republics is in the neighbourhood of #ig1jjj1jjj1 and of the ,european dependencies somewhat less than #g1jjj1jjj4 ,a republican form of government1 more or less definitely foreshadowed by the tribal confederations of the aborigines1 the most conspicuous example of which is furnished by the ,iroquois or ,six ,nations1 has thus become the characteristic feature of the political organizations of ,north ,america2 the same is true also of ,south ,america4 ,the ,new ,world is thus conspicuously republican1 in distinction from the ,old ,world1 which is characteristically monarchical4 ,the immigration to ,north ,america since its discovery by ,columbus has been from all the nations of the ,old ,world1 but most largely from ,europe4 ,negroes were brought as slaves1 and their descendants1 now free1 form a large percentage of the population1 especially in the southeastern part of the ,united ,states and the ,west ,indies4 ,chinese1 since about #ahgj1 have arrived in large numbers1 but their immigration to the ,united ,states is now restricted4 ,of the nations of ,europe1 the strongest influx has come from ,great ,britain1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,spain1 and ,italy4 ,to a marked degree this westward migration has been along parallels of latitude1 but the migratory streams on reaching ,north ,america subdivided into many distributaries1 and a mingling of nationalities on a vast scale has resulted4 ,this amalgamation has been so great and so long-continued that several new and somewhat strongly individualized nationalities have arisen1 the most instructive being in the temperate portion of the continent4 ,the dominant language1 as in the case of political control1 has been inherited from ,great ,britain4 ,english is the universal language to the northward of ,mexico and on certain of the ,west ,indian islands4 ,to the south of the ,united-,states-,mexican boundary1 but beginning in the southwestern portion of the ,united ,states1 and including also the greater part of the population of the ,west ,indies1 ,spanish is the current language1 except among the uncivilized aborigines4 ,french is commonly spoken by many thousands of people in the province of ,quebec1 ,canada1 and in certain of the ,west ,indies4 ,the ideal nation1 from the point of view of the geographer1 is one so situated that it is self-sustaining--that is1 contains within its own domain all the conditions necessary for its life and growth4 ,it should have favourable climatic conditions1 agricultural land1 forests1 mines1 fisheries1 etc4 ,more than this1 even if all material wants are supplied from within its own border1 intellectual desires demand outside stimuli4 ,the ideal nation should therefore touch the ocean1 in order to have avenues for travel open to its people4 ,i am well aware that a more commanding1 or1 perhaps better1 a more modern view1 would show that improved methods of transportation have made the whole world commercially one2 but invisible tariff walls still separate peoples and wars break lines of communication4 ,it might be expected that in the ,new ,world1 conditions being also new and room for development abundant1 civilized nations would have adjusted their boundaries so as to make an ideal subdivision of territory in accord with natural conditions4 ,a study of the boundaries separating the nations of ,north ,america1 however1 fails to furnish evidence of such an adjustment4 ,on the contrary1 even between the most highly civilized countries1 in which the people speak the same language1 the dividing lines are entirely arbitrary1 so far as relation to soil1 climate1 mineral and timber resources1 fisheries1 etc41 are concerned4 ,the line separating ,alaska and ,canada is mainly a meridian of longitude1 which passes through a rich mining district4 ,the southern boundary of ,canada is for the most part a parallel of latitude dividing agricultural1 mining1 and timber lands4 ,the material advancement of the inhabitants on the opposite sides of these unnatural dividing lines is retarded by them and the progress of civilization delayed4 ,the same is true of the invisible wall separating the ,united ,states from ,mexico1 and the various partitions intersecting ,central ,america4 ,there has evidently been but little1 if any1 tendency to draw the boundaries referred to in conformity with natural conditions4 ,what1 then1 is the force which sets nature at naught8 ,the reply is not obscure4 ,in one word1 it is greed4 ,to have and to hold is the unwritten motto of republics as well as of monarchies4 ,the absurdity of disregarding geographical relations1 and in consequence checking national development1 and leading to stagnation and to material and intellectual decline1 is sadly illustrated by the subdivision of the ,west ,indies4 ,in an admirable account of the ,caribbean region by ,r4 ,t4 ,hill1 in which its present commercial depression is described and the reasons for it judiciously analyzed1 occurs the following passage relative to the case in point3 ,a greater drawback to the ,west ,indies than the one-sided agriculture--the raising of sugar-cane--is their political condition4 ,their distribution among too many nationalities necessitates the support of expensive and useless administrations1 and prevents federation of interests and the development of trade among themselves and with the ,united ,states1 the nearest and largest natural consumer of their products4 ,very ridiculous some of these political conditions seem4 ,the island of ,st4 ,martin1 not as large as an average county in the ,united ,states1 is divided into two principalities1 the ,french and the ,dutch1 each of which maintains an administrative force as large as that of the ,state of ,texas4 ,then1 as we sail down the eastern islands1 hardly a score in number1 and within sight of one another1 aggregating in area less than our little ,state of ,delaware1 about #b1jjj square miles1 we find five foreign and no less than a dozen distinct colonial governments1 each responsible to ,europe1 with no shadow of federation between them1 or even cooperation of any kind--a condition not only pitiable1 but absurd4 ,why should ,dominica1 whose people are ,french in language and institutions1 be sandwiched in between ,martinique and ,guadeloupe1 and within easy sight of both1 yet so cut off from them by quarantine and tariff laws that it is commercially nearer ,england1 some #c1jjj miles distant1 than to its neighbours8 ,the conditions necessary for an ideal1 self-contained government were briefly referred to above4 ,in ,north ,america1 perhaps1 several such eligible sites for a definite number of people might be chosen1 but in no case without the drawing of unnatural boundaries4 ,the continent1 as is shown by its geology and geography1 is a unit1 and the most typical of comparable size of any on the earth4 ,these same conditions point to a single political unit4 ,arguing from geographical relations simply1 and not considering the racial differences and local self-interests1 the one boundary in ,north ,america should be the shore boundary1 except at the #cj-mile-wide ,isthmus of ,panama4 ,to the geographer ,north ,america presents an example of a region containing within itself essentially all of the elements necessary to a high industrial1 social1 educational1 and ethical development of its inhabitants4 ,the industrial needs are met by a range of products1 whether of soils1 mines1 forests1 or fisheries1 as varied or nearly so as is presented by the entire earth4 ,although the continent is broadest at the far north1 where climatic extremes prohibit a dense population1 yet in the temperate region1 or between the mean annual isotherms of #de and #ge1 a space of some #a1bjj miles in latitude1 it is from #b1ejj to #d1jjj miles wide4 ,in this temperate region there is at present greater commercial and mental activity than elsewhere on the continent1 and it is here that the dominant power of the future will be located4 ,supplementing the agriculture1 manufactures1 etc41 of the temperate belt are the vast forested and fur-bearing regions on the north and the exuberant tropical countries on the south4 ,each of these three great regions are parts of a whole and mutually supplement each other4 ,the distribution of the population of ,north ,america1 in respect to political subdivisions during the year #aijj1 is indicated1 as nearly as it has been found practicable to ascertain it1 in the following table3 ,,population ,,of ,,north ,,america ,,in #aijj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,government4 ,area in square,population4 miles4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,american ,governments ,united ,states 7inclusive of ,alaska #c1fbf1ecc #gf1bfe1dfi and ,porto ,rico7#g ,mexico #gfg1jje #ac1egj1ede ,guatemala#h #fc1djj #a1egd1cch ,salvador#i #g1bbe #hjc1ecd ,nicaragua #di1bjj #dbj1jjj ,honduras#aj #de1bej #djg1jjj ,costa ,rica#aa #bc1jjj #caj1jjj ,panama 7,department of ,colombia7 #cb1chj #bij1jjj ,san ,domingo#ac #bj1eif #a1bdd1fej ,haiti#ac #i1bdb #ejj1jjj ,cuba #dd1jjj #a1egb1gig ------------------------- ,total for ,american governments #d1fhg1hca #if1ieh1ccc ,possessions still held by ,european ,governments ,united ,kingdom of ,great ,britain and ,ireland3#ab ,canada #c1fec1idf #d1hdf1cgg ,newfoundland and ,labrador #di1gcd #bja1icd ,bermuda #ai #ae1jac ,west ,indies 7,bahamas1 ,jamaica1 etc47 #ab1jei #a1ceg1bed ,british ,honduras #g1efb #ca1dga ------------------------- ,total for the ,united ,kingdom #c1gbc1cbj #f1deb1jdi ,france3 ,miquelon and ,st4 ,pierre #ic #f1bej ,west ,indies 7,guadeloupe1 ,martinique1 etc47 #a1jfh #ced1gij ------------------------- ,total for ,france #a1afa #cfa1jdj ,denmark3 ,west ,indies 7,st4 ,thomas1 ,st4 ,john1 and ,st4 ,croix7 #adi #ce1ijj ,holland3 ,west ,indies 7,st4 ,martin in part1 ,st4 ,eustace1 and ,saba7 #bi #g1bcf ------------------------- ,total for ,european governments #c1gbd1fei #f1hef1bbe ------------------------- ,total for ,north ,america #h1dab1dij #ajc1had1eeh ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- #g ,the area of ,alaska is #eij1hhd square miles2 its population1 #fc1eib4 ,the area of ,porto ,rico is #c1fjj square miles2 its population 7#ahii71 #iec1bdc4 ,hawaii1 not included above1 has an area of #f1ddi square miles and a population of #aed1jjj4 #h ,in #ahid4 #i ,in #ahif4 #aj ,in #ahii4 #aa ,in #ahia4 #ab ,in #ahih4 #ac ,together occupying the island ,santo ,domingo or ,haiti4 ,,literature ,twelfth ,census of the ,united ,states4 ,british ,america4 ,by several authors4 ,published by ,kegan ,paul1 ,trench1 ,trubner ,co41 ,london1 #aijj4 ,stanford's ,compendium of ,geography and ,travel4 ,north ,america4 ,vol4 i1 ,canada and ,newfoundland1 by ,s4 ,e4 ,dawson4 ,vol4 ii1 ,the ,united ,states1 by ,henry ,gannett2 ,central ,america and the ,west ,indies1 by ,a4 ,h4 ,keane4 ,,hill1 ,r4 ,t4 ,cuba1 ,porto ,rico1 and the other ,west ,india ,islands4 ,the ,century ,company1 ,new ,york1 #ahii4 ,,gannett1 ,h4 ,boundaries of the ,united ,states4 ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 ,bulletin ,no4 #aga1 second edition1 ,washington1 #aijj4 ,,index ,aborigines1 #cee-djg4 ,adams1 ,mt41 ,wash41 height of1 #aef4 ,adirondack ,mountains1 brief account of1 #hc-hd4 ,adobe used for bricks1 #chi4 ,agassiz1 ,a41 cited1 #ab1 #ba4 ,work of1 in ,caribbean region1 #af4 ,alaska1 area and population of1 #dbd4 ,boundary of1 #daf4 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#abj-aba4 ,volcanoes1 #cag-cah4 ,wallace1 ,a4 ,r41 cited1 #cj1 #bei4 ,wapiti1 brief account of1 #bgj-bga4 ,ward1 ,l4 ,f41 cited1 #cab4 ,washington1 ,mt41 ,n4 ,h41 height of1 #hc4 ,water boundaries1 #daa-dac4 ,mineral1 #cec4 ,west ,indian hurricanes1 #baj4 ,west ,indies1 ,danish1 area and population of1 #dbd4 ,french1 area and population of1 #dbd4 ,indians of1 #djd4 ,political division of1 #dbb-dbc4 ,whirlwinds1 #bjc4 ,white1 ,d41 cited1 #cab4 ,white1 ,i4 ,c41 cited1 #cab4 ,white1 ,mt41 ,nev41 height of1 #adf4 ,white ,mountains1 ,n4 ,h41 forests of1 #hf4 ,whiteface1 ,mt41 ,n4 ,y41 height of1 #hd4 ,whitney1 ,j4 ,d41 cited1 #bea4 ,whitney1 ,mt41 ,cal41 height of1 #adi4 ,willis1 ,bailey1 cited1 #gi4 ,winds1 planetary1 #agh-agi4 ,winnemucca ,lake1 ,nev41 #adj4 ,wolves1 brief account of1 #bhe-bhg4 ,yellow pine1 #bdh4 ,yosemite ,valley1 ,cal41 #aej4 ,yucatan1 continental shelf bordering1 #b4 ,topography of1 #ai4 ,yukon ,river1 delta of1 #eb4 ,zuni1 #chi4 ,,the ,,end 99 99 99 99 99 ,list ,of ,corrections ,transcriber's ,note3 ,blank pages have been deleted4 ,some illustrations have been moved4 ,we have rendered consistent on a per-word-pair basis the hyphenation or spacing of such pairs when repeated in the same grammatical context4 ,detected publisher's errors were corrected as listed below3 ,page ,correction #e both calcareous and silicioussiliceous #ab ,carribbean,caribbean #ah ,gulf of ,mexico and the ,carribean,caribbean region3 #fj ,taking the better-knownbetter known portions of ,north ,america #gb and are hard and resistentresistant #ajc ,land ohho6 is no more thrilling #aje where preciptationprecipitation is abundant #abf ,bamf,banff1 ,lake ,louise1 ,glacier ,house1 #aca related to this phase of volcanismvulcanism is the #aci in ,nevada and southesternsoutheastern ,california #aej hard rocks thus exposed were rounded #agf to take a more criticialcritical view #agi wind blows with remarkable unformityuniformity #bjc are cultivated with moderate successssuccess4 #bfc the terra calentecaliente of ,mexico #bga from civilization isare great #bha skunks belong to the family ,mustalidae,mustelidae #bij and the pecularpeculiar hoazin1 represented #cfc the platingplaiting of baskets and the art #dcj ,sub-soil,subsoil1 in ,alaska1 #fh4 #dca ,mephities,mephitis mephitica1 #bhj4 #dca ,micquelon,miquelon1 retained by ,france1 #dai4 #dcc ,st4 ,francois,francois ,mountains1 ,mo41 height of1 #dcc ,solovieff,solovioff1 ,i4 ,m41 reference to1 #cgd #dcc ,st4 ,helena,helens1 ,mt41 ,wash41 height of1 #aef4 #dcd ,wapati,wapiti1 brief account of1 #bgj-bga4 99 99 99 99 99