,,what ,,is ,,property8  ,,an ,,inquiry 
,,into ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,right   
,,and ,,of ,,government  ,by ,p4 ,j4    
,proudhon     ,,contents4       ,p4 ,j4 
,,proudhon3  ,,his ,,life ,,and ,,his   
,,works     ,,preface     ,,first       
,,memoir     ,,chapter ,i4     ,,method 
,,pursued ,,in ,,this ,,work4--,,the    
,,idea ,,of ,a ,,revolution             
,,chapter ,,ii4     ,,property          
,,considered ,,as ,a ,,natural          
,,right4--,,occupation ,,and ,,civil    
,,law    ,,as ,,efficient ,,bases ,,of  
,,property4--,,definitions     #a4      
,property as a ,natural ,right4     #b4 
,occupation as the ,title to ,property4 
#c4  ,civil ,law as the ,foundation and 
,sanction of ,property4      ,,chapter  
,,iii4     ,,labor ,,as ,,the           
,,efficient ,,cause ,,of ,,the ,,domain 
,,of ,,property     #a4  ,the ,land     
cannot be appropriated4     #b4         
,universal ,consent no ,justification of
 ,property4     #c4  ,prescription gives
 no ,title to ,property4     #d4        

,labor4--,that ,labor has no ,inherent  
,power to appropriate                   
,natural ,wealth4     #e4  ,that ,labor 
leads to ,equality of ,property4     #f4
  ,that in ,society all ,wages are      
,equal4     #g4  ,that ,inequality of   
,powers is the ,necessary ,condition of 
,equality of ,fortunes4     #h4  ,that1 
from the stand-point of ,justice1 ,labor
 destroys             ,property4        
,,chapter ,,iv4     ,,that ,,property   
,,is ,,impossible     ,,demonstration4  
,,axiom4     ,property is the ,right of 
,increase claimed by the ,proprietor    
over    any thing which he has stamped  
as his own4     ,,first ,,proposition4  
,property is ,impossible1 because it    
demands ,something for ,nothing4        
,,second ,,proposition4    ,property is 
,impossible1 because1 wherever it       
exists1 ,production    costs more than  
it is worth4     ,,third ,,proposition4 
,property is ,impossible1 because1 with 
a given ,capital1 ,production    is     
proportional to ,labor1 not to          

,property4     ,,fourth ,,proposition4  
,property is ,impossible1 because it is 
,homicide4     ,,fifth ,,proposition4   
,property is ,impossible1 because1 if it
 exists1 ,society devours itself4       
,appendix to the ,fifth ,proposition4   
,,sixth ,,proposition4    ,property is  
,impossible1 because it is the ,mother  
of ,tyranny4     ,,seventh              
,,proposition4    ,property is          
,impossible1 because1 in consuming its  
,receipts1 it    loses them2 in hoarding
 them1 it nullifies them2 and1 in       
using them as ,capital1 it turns them   
against ,production4     ,,eighth       
,,proposition4    ,property is          
,impossible1 because its ,power of      
,accumulation is    infinite1 and is    
exercised only over ,finite ,quantities4
     ,,ninth ,,proposition    ,property 
is ,impossible1 because it is powerless 
against ,property4     ,,tenth          
,,proposition4    ,property is          
,impossible1 because it is the ,negation
 of ,equality4      ,,chapter ,v4       

,,psychological ,,exposition ,,of ,,the 
,,idea ,,of ,,justice ,,and ,,in        
,,justice1    ,,and ,a ,,determination  
,,of ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,government
 ,,and ,,of ,,right4     ,,part #a4     
#a4  ,of the ,moral ,sense in ,man and  
the ,animals4     #b4  ,of the ,first   
and ,second ,degrees of ,sociability4   
#c4  ,of the ,third ,degree of          
,sociability4     ,,part ,i #a4     #a4 
,of the ,causes of our ,mistakes4  ,the 
,origin of ,property4     #b4           
,characteristics of ,communism and of   
,property4     #c4  ,determination of   
the ,third ,form of ,society4           
,conclusion4      ,,second ,,memoir     
,,letter ,,to ,m4 ,,blanqui ,,on        
,,property      ,p4 ,j4 ,,proudhon3     
,,his ,,life ,,and ,,his ,,works4  ,the 
correspondence #a of ,p4 ,j4 ,proudhon1 
the first volumes of which we publish   
to-day1 has been collected since his    
death by the faithful and intelligent   
labors of his daughter1 aided by a few  
friends4 ,it was incomplete when        

submitted to ,sainte ,beuve1 but the    
portion with which the illustrious      
academician became acquainted was       
sufficient to allow him to estimate it  
as a whole with that soundness of       
judgment which characterized him as a   
literary critic4  ,he would1 however1   
caution readers against accepting the   
biographer's interpretation of the      
author's views as in any sense          
authoritative2 advising them1 rather1 to
 await the publication of the remainder 
of ,proudhon's writings1 that they may  
form an opinion for                     
themselves4--,translator4   ,in an      
important work1 which his habitual      
readers certainly have not forgotten1   
although death did not allow him to     
finish it1 ,sainte ,beuve thus judges   
the correspondence of the great         
publicist3--  ,the letters of ,proudhon1
 even outside the circle of his         
particular friends1 will always be of   
value2 we can always learn something    
from them1 and here is the proper place 

to determine the general character of   
his correspondence4  ,it has always been
 large1 especially since he became so   
celebrated2 and1 to tell the truth1 ,i  
am persuaded that1 in the future1 the   
correspondence of ,proudhon will be his 
principal1 vital work1 and that most of 
his books will be only accessory to and 
corroborative of this4 ,at any rate1 his
 books can be well understood only by   
the aid of his letters and the continual
 explanations which he makes to those   
who consult him in their doubt1 and     
request him to define more clearly his  
position4  ,there are1 among celebrated 
people1 many methods of correspondence4 
,there are those to whom letter-writing 
is a bore1 and who1 assailed with       
questions and compliments1 reply in the 
greatest haste1 solely that the job may 
be over with1 and who return politeness 
for politeness1 mingling it with more or
 less wit4 ,this kind of correspondence1
 though coming from celebrated people1  
is insignificant and unworthy of        

collection and classification4  ,after  
those who write letters in performance  
of a disagreeable duty1 and almost side 
by side with them in point of           
insignificance1 ,i should put those who 
write in a manner wholly external1      
wholly superficial1 devoted only to     
flattery1 lavishing praise like gold1   
without counting it2 and those also who 
weigh every word1 who reply formally and
 pompously1 with a view to fine phrases 
and effects4 ,they exchange words only1 
and choose them solely for their        
brilliancy and show4 ,you think it is   
you1 individually1 to whom they speak2  
but they are addressing themselves in   
your person to the four corners of      
,europe4 ,such letters are empty1 and   
teach as nothing but theatrical         
execution and the favorite pose of their
 writers4  ,i will not class among the  
latter the more prudent and sagacious   
authors who1 when writing to            
individuals1 keep one eye on posterity4 
,we know that many who pursue this      

method have written long1 finished1     
charming1 flattering1 and tolerably     
natural letters4 ,beranger furnishes us 
with the best example of this class4    
,proudhon1 however1 is a man of entirely
 different nature and habits4 ,in       
writing1 he thinks of nothing but his   
idea and the person whom he addresses3  
ad rem et ad hominem4 ,a man of         
conviction and doctrine1 to write does  
not weary him2 to be questioned does not
 annoy him4 ,when approached1 he cares  
only to know that your motive is not one
 of futile curiosity1 but the love of   
truth2 he assumes you to be serious1 he 
replies1 he examines your objections1   
sometimes verbally1 sometimes in        
writing2 for1 as he remarks1 'if there  
be some points which correspondence can 
never settle1 but which can be made     
clear by conversation in two minutes1 at
 other times just the opposite is the   
case3 an objection clearly stated in    
writing1 a doubt well expressed1 which  
elicits a direct and positive reply1    

helps things along more than ten hours  
of oral intercourse6' ,in writing to you
 he does not hesitate to treat the      
subject anew2 he unfolds to you the     
foundation and superstructure of his    
thought3 rarely does he confess himself 
defeated--it is not his way2 he holds to
 his position1 but admits the breaks1   
the variations1 in short1 the           
,,evolution of his mind4 ,the history of
 his mind is in his letters2 there it   
must be sought4  ,proudhon1 whoever     
addresses him1 is always ready2 he quits
 the page of the book on which he is at 
work to answer you with the same pen1   
and that without losing patience1       
without getting confused1 without       
sparing or complaining of his ink2 he is
 a public man1 devoted to the           
propagation of his idea by all methods1 
and the best method1 with him1 is always
 the present one1 the latest one4 ,his  
very handwriting1 bold1 uniform1        
legible1 even in the most tiresome      
passages1 betrays no haste1 no hurry to 

finish4 ,each line is accurate3 nothing 
is left to chance2 the punctuation1 very
 correct and a little emphatic and      
decided1 indicates with precision and   
delicate distinction all the links in   
the chain of his argument4 ,he is       
devoted entirely to you1 to his business
 and yours1 while writing to you1 and   
never to anything else4 ,all the letters
 of his which ,i have seen are serious3 
not one is commonplace4  ,but at the    
same time he is not at all artistic or  
affected2 he does not ,,construct his   
letters1 he does not revise them1 he    
spends no time in reading them over2 we 
have a first draught1 excellent and     
clear1 a jet from the fountain-head1 but
 that is all4 ,the new arguments1 which 
he discovers in support of his ideas and
 which opposition suggests to him1 are  
an agreeable surprise1 and shed a light 
which we should vainly search for even  
in his works4 ,his correspondence       
differs essentially from his books1 in  
that it gives you no uneasiness2 it     

places you in the very heart of the man1
 explains him to you1 and leaves you    
with an impression of moral esteem and  
almost of intellectual security4 ,we    
feel his sincerity4 ,i know of no one to
 whom he can be more fitly compared in  
this respect than ,george ,sand1 whose  
correspondence is large1 and at the same
 time full of sincerity4 ,his role and  
his nature correspond4 ,if he is writing
 to a young man who unbosoms himself to 
him in sceptical anxiety1 to a young    
woman who asks him to decide delicate   
questions of conduct for her1 his letter
 takes the form of a short moral essay1 
of a father-confessor's advice4 ,has he 
perchance attended the theatre 7a rare  
thing for him7 to witness one of        
,ponsart's comedies1 or a drama of      
,charles ,edmond's1 he feels bound to   
give an account of his impressions to   
the friend to whom he is indebted for   
this pleasure1 and his letter becomes a 
literary and philosophical criticism1   
full of sense1 and like no other4 ,his  

familiarity is suited to his            
correspondent2 he affects no rudeness4  
,the terms of civility or affection     
which he employs towards his            
correspondents are sober1 measured1     
appropriate to each1 and honest in their
 simplicity and cordiality4 ,when he    
speaks of morals and the family1 he     
seems at times like the patriarchs of   
the ,bible4 ,his command of language is 
complete1 and he never fails to avail   
himself of it4 ,now and then a coarse   
word1 a few personalities1 too bitter   
and quite unjust or injurious1 will have
 to be suppressed in printing2 time1    
however1 as it passes away1 permits many
 things and renders them inoffensive4   
,am ,i right in saying that ,proudhon's 
correspondence1 always substantial1 will
 one day be the most accessible and     
attractive portion of his works8        
,almost the whole of ,proudhon's real   
biography is included in his            
correspondence4 ,up to #ahcg1 the date  
of the first letter which we have been  

able to collect1 his life1 narrated by  
,sainte ,beuve1 from whom we make       
numerous extracts1 may be summed up in a
 few pages4  ,pierre ,joseph ,proudhon  
was born on the #aeth of ,january1      
#ahji1 in a suburb of ,besancon1 called 
,mouillere4 ,his father and mother were 
employed in the great brewery belonging 
to ,m4 ,renaud4 ,his father1 though a   
cousin of the jurist ,proudhon1 the     
celebrated professor in the faculty of  
,dijon1 was a journeyman brewer4 ,his   
mother1 a genuine peasant1 was a common 
servant4 ,she was an orderly person of  
great good sense2 and1 as they who knew 
her say1 a superior woman of ,,heroic   
character1--to use the expression of the
 venerable ,m4 ,weiss1 the librarian at 
,besancon4 ,she it was especially that  
,proudhon resembled3 she and his        
grandfather ,tournesi1 the soldier      
peasant of whom his mother told him1 and
 whose courageous deeds he has described
 in his work on ,justice4 ,proudhon1 who
 always felt a great veneration for his 

mother ,catharine1 gave her name to the 
elder of his daughters4 ,in #ahad1 when 
,besancon was blockaded1 ,mouillere1    
which stood in front of the walls of the
 town1 was destroyed in the defence of  
the place2 and ,proudhon's father       
established a cooper's shop in a suburb 
of ,battant1 called ,vignerons4 ,very   
honest1 but simple-minded and           
short-sighted1 this cooper1 the father  
of five children1 of whom ,pierre       
,joseph was the eldest1 passed his life 
in poverty4 ,at eight years of age1     
,proudhon either made himself useful in 
the house1 or tended the cattle out of  
doors4 ,no one should fail to read that 
beautiful and precious page of his work 
on ,justice1 in which he describes the  
rural sports which he enjoyed when a    
neatherd4 ,at the age of twelve1 he was 
a cellar-boy in an inn4 ,this1 however1 
did not prevent him from studying4  ,his
 mother was greatly aided by ,m4        
,renaud1 the former owner of the        
brewery1 who had at that time retired   

from business1 and was engaged in the   
education of his children4  ,proudhon   
entered school as a day-scholar in the  
sixth class4 ,he was necessarily        
irregular in his attendance2 domestic   
cares and restraints sometimes kept him 
from his classes4 ,he succeeded         
nevertheless in his studies2 he showed  
great perseverance4 ,his family were so 
poor that they could not afford to      
furnish him with books2 he was obliged  
to borrow them from his comrades1 and   
copy the text of his lessons4 ,he has   
himself told us that he was obliged to  
leave his wooden shoes outside the door1
 that he might not disturb the classes  
with his noise2 and that1 having no hat1
 he went to school bareheaded4 ,one day1
 towards the close of his studies1 on   
returning from the distribution of the  
prizes1 loaded with crowns1 he found    
nothing to eat in the house4   ,in his  
eagerness for labor and his thirst for  
knowledge1 ,proudhon1 says ,sainte      
,beuve1 was not content with the        

instruction of his teachers4 ,from his  
twelfth to his fourteenth year1 he was a
 constant frequenter of the town        
library4 ,one curiosity led to another1 
and he called for book after book1      
sometimes eight or ten at one sitting4  
,the learned librarian1 the friend and  
almost the brother of ,charles ,nodier1 
,m4 ,weiss1 approached him one day1 and 
said1 smiling1 ',but1 my little friend1 
what do you wish to do with all these   
books8' ,the child raised his head1 eyed
 his questioner1 and replied3 ',what's  
that to you8' ,and the good ,m4 ,weiss  
remembers it to this day4   ,forced to  
earn his living1 ,proudhon could not    
continue his studies4 ,he entered a     
printing-office in ,besancon as a       
proof-reader4 ,becoming1 soon after1 a  
compositor1 he made a tour of ,france in
 this capacity4 ,at ,toulon1 where he   
found himself without money and without 
work1 he had a scene with the mayor1    
which he describes in his work on       
,justice4  ,sainte ,beuve says that1    

after his tour of ,france1 his service  
book being filled with good             
certificates1 ,proudhon was promoted to 
the position of foreman4 ,but he does   
not tell us1 for the reason that he had 
no knowledge of a letter written by     
,fallot1 of which we never heard until  
six months since1 that the printer at   
that time contemplated quitting his     
trade in order to become a teacher4     
,towards #ahbi1 ,fallot1 who was a      
little older than ,proudhon1 and who1   
after having obtained the ,suard pension
 in #ahcb1 died in his twenty-ninth     
year1 while filling the position of     
assistant librarian at the ,institute1  
was charged1 ,protestant though he was1 
with the revisal of a ,life of the      
,saints1 which was published at         
,besancon4 ,the book was in ,latin1 and 
,fallot added some notes which also were
 in ,latin4   ,but1 says ,sainte ,beuve1
 it happened that some errors escaped   
his attention1 which ,proudhon1 then    
proof-reader in the printing office1 did

 not fail to point out to him4          
,surprised at finding so good a ,latin  
scholar in a workshop1 he desired to    
make his acquaintance2 and soon there   
sprung up between them a most earnest   
and intimate friendship3 a friendship of
 the intellect and of the heart4        
,addressed to a printer between         
twenty-two and twenty-three years of    
age1 and predicting in formal terms his 
future fame1 ,fallot's letter seems to  
us so interesting that we do not        
hesitate to reproduce it entire4        
,,paris1 ,december #e1 #ahca4  ,,my     
,,dear ,,proudhon1--,,you have a right  
to be surprised at1 and even            
dissatisfied with1 my long delay in     
replying to your kind letter2 ,i will   
tell you the cause of it4 ,it became    
necessary to forward an account of your 
ideas to ,m4 ,j4 de ,gray2 to hear his  
objections1 to reply to them1 and to    
await his definitive response1 which    
reached me but a short time ago2 for ,m4
 ,j4 is a sort of financial king1 who   

takes no pains to be punctual in dealing
 with poor devils like ourselves4 ,i1   
too1 am careless in matters of business2
 ,i sometimes push my negligence even to
 disorder1 and the metaphysical musings 
which continually occupy my mind1 added 
to the amusements of ,paris1 render me  
the most incapable man in the world for 
conducting a negotiation with despatch4 
,i have ,m4 ,jobard's decision2 here it 
is3 ,in his judgment1 you are too       
learned and clever for his children2 he 
fears that you could not accommodate    
your mind and character to the childish 
notions common to their age and station4
 ,in short1 he is what the world calls a
 good father2 that is1 he wants to spoil
 his children1 and1 in order to do this 
easily1 he thinks fit to retain his     
present instructor1 who is not very     
learned1 but who takes part in their    
games and joyous sports with wonderful  
facility1 who points out the letters of 
the alphabet to the little girl1 who    
takes the little boys to mass1 and who1 

no less obliging than the worthy ,abbe  
,p4 of our acquaintance1 would readily  
dance for ,madame's amusement4 ,such a  
profession would not suit you1 you who  
have a free1 proud1 and manly soul3 you 
are refused2 let us dismiss the matter  
from our minds4 ,perhaps another time my
 solicitude will be less unfortunate4 ,i
 can only ask your pardon for having    
thought of thus disposing of you almost 
without consulting you4 ,i find my      
excuse in the motives which guided me2  
,i had in view your well-being and      
advancement in the ways of this world4  
,i see in your letter1 my comrade1      
through its brilliant witticisms and    
beneath the frank and artless gayety    
with which you have sprinkled it1 a     
tinge of sadness and despondency which  
pains me4 ,you are unhappy1 my friend3  
your present situation does not suit    
you2 you cannot remain in it1 it was not
 made for you1 it is beneath you2 you   
ought1 by all means1 to leave it1 before
 its injurious influence begins to      

affect your faculties1 and before you   
become settled1 as they say1 in the ways
 of your profession1 were it possible   
that such a thing could ever happen1    
which ,i flatly deny4 ,you are unhappy2 
you have not yet entered upon the path  
which ,nature has marked out for you4   
,but1 faint-hearted soul1 is that a     
cause for despondency8 ,ought you to    
feel discouraged8 ,struggle1 morbleu1   
struggle persistently1 and you will     
triumph4 ,j4 ,j4 ,rousseau groped about 
for forty years before his genius was   
revealed to him4 ,you are not ,j4 ,j    
,rousseau2 but listen3 ,i know not      
whether ,i should have divined the      
author of ,emile when he was twenty     
years of age1 supposing that ,i had been
 his contemporary1 and had enjoyed the  
honor of his acquaintance4 ,but ,i have 
known you1 ,i have loved you1 ,i have   
divined your future1 if ,i may venture  
to say so2 for the first time in my     
life1 ,i am going to risk a prophecy4   
,keep this letter1 read it again fifteen

 or twenty years hence1 perhaps         
twenty-five1 and if at that time the    
prediction which ,i am about to make has
 not been fulfilled1 burn it as a piece 
of folly out of charity and respect for 
my memory4 ,this is my prediction3 you  
will be1 ,proudhon1 in spite of         
yourself1 inevitably1 by the fact of    
your destiny1 a writer1 an author2 you  
will be a philosopher2 you will be one  
of the lights of the century1 and your  
name will occupy a place in the annals  
of the nineteenth century1 like those of
 ,gassendi1 ,descartes1 ,malebranche1   
and ,bacon in the seventeenth1 and those
 of ,diderot1 ,montesquieu1 ,helvetius4 
,locke1 ,hume1 and ,holbach in the      
eighteenth4 ,such will be your lot6 ,do 
now what you will1 set type in a        
printing-office1 bring up children1 bury
 yourself in deep seclusion1 seek       
obscure and lonely villages1 it is all  
one to me2 you cannot escape your       
destiny2 you cannot divest yourself of  
your noblest feature1 that active1      

strong1 and inquiring mind1 with which  
you are endowed2 your place in the world
 has been appointed1 and it cannot      
remain empty4 ,go where you please1 ,i  
expect you in ,paris1 talking philosophy
 and the doctrines of ,plato2 you will  
have to come1 whether you want to or    
not4 ,i1 who say this to you1 must feel 
very sure of it in order to be willing  
to put it upon paper1 since1 without    
reward for my prophetic skill1--to      
which1 ,i assure you1 ,i make not the   
slightest claim1--,i run the risk of    
passing for a hare-brained fellow1 in   
case ,i prove to be mistaken3 he plays a
 bold game who risks his good sense upon
 his cards1 in return for the very      
trifling and insignificant merit of     
having divined a young man's future4    
,when ,i say that ,i expect you in      
,paris1 ,i use only a proverbial phrase 
which you must not allow to mislead you 
as to my projects and plans4 ,to reside 
in ,paris is disagreeable to me1 very   
much so2 and when this fine-art fever   

which possesses me has left me1 ,i shall
 abandon the place without regret to    
seek a more peaceful residence in a     
provincial town1 provided always the    
town shall afford me the means of       
living1 bread1 a bed1 books1 rest1 and  
solitude4 ,how ,i miss1 my good         
,proudhon1 that dark1 obscure1 smoky    
chamber in which ,i dwelt in ,besancon1 
and where we spent so many pleasant     
hours in the discussion of philosophy6  
,do you remember it8 ,but that is now   
far away4 ,will that happy time ever    
return8 ,shall we one day meet again8   
,here my life is restless1 uncertain1   
precarious1 and1 what is worse1         
indolent1 illiterate1 and vagrant4 ,i do
 no work1 ,i live in idleness1 ,i ramble
 about2 ,i do not read1 ,i no longer    
study2 my books are forsaken2 now and   
then ,i glance over a few metaphysical  
works1 and after a days walk through    
dirty1 filthy1 crowded streets4 ,i lie  
down with empty head and tired body1 to 
repeat the performance on the following 

day4 ,what is the object of these walks1
 you will ask4 ,i make visits1 my       
friend2 ,i hold interviews with stupid  
people4 ,then a fit of curiosity seizes 
me1 the least inquisitive of beings3    
there are museums1 libraries1           
assemblies1 churches1 palaces1 gardens1 
and theatres to visit4 ,i am fond of    
pictures1 fond of music1 fond of        
sculpture2 all these are beautiful and  
good1 but they cannot appease hunger1   
nor take the place of my pleasant       
readings of ,bailly1 ,hume1 and         
,tennemann1 which ,i used to enjoy by my
 fireside when ,i was able to read4     
,but enough of complaints4 ,do not allow
 this letter to affect you too much1 and
 do not think that ,i give way to       
dejection or despondency2 no1 ,i am a   
fatalist1 and ,i believe in my star4 ,i 
do not know yet what my calling is1 nor 
for what branch of polite literature ,i 
am best fitted2 ,i do not even know     
whether ,i am1 or ever shall be1 fitted 
for any3 but what matters it8 ,i suffer1

 ,i labor1 ,i dream1 ,i enjoy1 ,i think2
 and1 in a word1 when my last hour      
strikes1 ,i shall have lived4           
,proudhon1 ,i love you1 ,i esteem you2  
and1 believe me1 these are not mere     
phrases4 ,what interest could ,i have in
 flattering and praising a poor printer8
 ,are you rich1 that you may pay for    
courtiers8 ,have you a sumptuous table1 
a dashing wife1 and gold to scatter1 in 
order to attract them to your suite8    
,have you the glory1 honors1 credit1    
which would render your acquaintance    
pleasing to their vanity and pride8 ,no2
 you are poor1 obscure1 abandoned2 but1 
poor1 obscure1 and abandoned1 you have a
 friend1 and a friend who knows all the 
obligations which that word imposes upon
 honorable people1 when they venture to 
assume it4 ,that friend is myself3 put  
me to the test4  ,,gustave ,,fallot4    
,it appears from this letter that if1 at
 this period1 ,proudhon had already     
exhibited to the eyes of a clairvoyant  
friend his genius for research and      

investigation1 it was in the direction  
of philosophical1 rather than of        
economical and social1 questions4       
,having become foreman in the house of  
,gauthier  ,co41 who carried on a large 
printing establishment at ,besancon1 he 
corrected the proofs of ecclesiastical  
writers1 the ,fathers of the ,church4   
,as they were printing a ,bible1 a      
,vulgate1 he was led to compare the     
,latin with the original ,hebrew4   ,in 
this way1 says ,sainte ,beuve1 he       
learned ,hebrew by himself1 and1 as     
everything was connected in his mind1 he
 was led to the study of comparative    
philology4 ,as the house of ,gauthier   
published many works on ,church history 
and theology1 he came also to acquire1  
through this desire of his to           
investigate everything1 an extensive    
knowledge of theology1 which afterwards 
caused misinformed persons to think that
 he had been in an ecclesiastical       
seminary4   ,towards #ahcf1 ,proudhon   
left the house of ,gauthier1 and1 in    

company with an associate1 established a
 small printing-office in ,besancon4    
,his contribution to the partnership    
consisted1 not so much in capital1 as in
 his knowledge of the trade4 ,his       
partner committing suicide in #ahch1    
,proudhon was obliged to wind up the    
business1 an operation which he did not 
accomplish as quickly and as easily as  
he hoped4 ,he was then urged by his     
friends to enter the ranks of the       
competitors for the ,suard pension4     
,this pension consisted of an income of 
fifteen hundred francs bequeathed to the
 ,academy of ,besancon by ,madame       
,suard1 the widow of the academician1 to
 be given once in three years to the    
young man residing in the department of 
,doubs1 a bachelor of letters or of     
science1 and not possessing a fortune1  
whom the ,academy of ,besancon ,,should 
,,deem ,,best ,,fitted ,,for ,a         
,,literary ,,or ,,scientific ,,career1  
,,or ,,for ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,law ,,or
 ,,of ,,medicine4 ,the first to win the 

,suard pension was ,gustave ,fallot4    
,mauvais1 who was a distinguished       
astronomer in the ,academy of ,sciences1
 was the second4 ,proudhon aspired to be
 the third4 ,to qualify himself1 he had 
to be received as a bachelor of letters1
 and was obliged to write a letter to   
the ,academy of ,besancon4 ,in a phrase 
of this letter1 the terms of which he   
had to modify1 though he absolutely     
refused to change its spirit1 ,proudhon 
expressed his firm resolve to labor for 
the amelioration of the condition of his
 brothers1 the working-men4  ,the only  
thing which he had then published was an
 ,essay on ,general ,grammar1 which     
appeared without the author's signature4
 ,while reprinting1 at ,besancon1 the   
,primitive ,elements of ,languages1     
,discovered by the ,comparison of       
,hebrew roots with those of the ,latin  
and ,french1 by the ,abbe ,bergier1     
,proudhon had enlarged the edition of   
his ,essay on ,general ,grammar4  ,the  
date of the edition1 #ahcg1 proves that 

he did not at that time think of        
competing for the ,suard pension4 ,in   
this work1 which continued and completed
 that of the ,abbe ,bergier1 ,proudhon  
adopted the same point of view1 that of 
,moses and of ,biblical tradition4 ,two 
years later1 in ,february1 #ahci1 being 
already in possession of the ,suard     
pension1 he addressed to the ,institute1
 as a competitor for the ,volney prize1 
a memoir entitled3 ,studies in          
,grammatical ,classification and the    
,derivation of some ,french words4 ,it  
was his first work1 revised and         
presented in another form4 ,four memoirs
 only were sent to the ,institute1 none 
of which gained the prize4 ,two         
honorable mentions were granted1 one of 
them to memoir ,no4 #d2 that is1 to ,p4 
,j4 ,proudhon1 printer at ,besancon4    
,the judges were ,,mm4 ,amedde ,jaubert1
 ,reinaud1 and ,burnouf4   ,the         
committee1 said the report presented at 
the annual meeting of the five academies
 on ,thursday1 ,may #b1 #ahci1 has paid 

especial attention to manuscripts ,no4  
#a and ,no4 #d4 ,still1 it does not feel
 able to grant the prize to either of   
these works1 because they do not appear 
to be sufficiently elaborated4 ,the     
committee1 which finds in ,no4 #d some  
ingenious analyses1 particularly in     
regard to the mechanism of the ,hebrew  
language1 regrets that the author has   
resorted to hazardous conjectures1 and  
has sometimes forgotten the special     
recommendation of the committee to      
pursue the experimental and comparative 
method4   ,proudhon remembered this4 ,he
 attended the lectures of ,eugene       
,burnouf1 and1 as soon as he became     
acquainted with the labors and          
discoveries of ,bopp and his successors1
 he definitively abandoned an hypothesis
 which had been condemned by the        
,academy of ,inscriptions and           
,belles-lettres4 ,he then sold1 for the 
value of the paper1 the remaining copies
 of the ,essay published by him in      
#ahcg4 ,in #ahej1 they were still lying 

in a grocer's back-shop4  ,a neighboring
 publisher then placed the edition on   
the market1 with the attractive name of 
,proudhon upon it4 ,a lawsuit ensued1 in
 which the author was beaten4 ,his      
enemies1 and at that time there were    
many of them1 would have been glad to   
have proved him a renegade and a        
recanter4 ,proudhon1 in his work on     
,justice1 gives some interesting details
 of this lawsuit4  ,in possession of the
 ,suard pension1 ,proudhon took part in 
the contest proposed by the ,academy of 
,besancon on the question of the utility
 of the celebration of ,sunday4 ,his    
memoir obtained honorable mention1      
together with a medal which was awarded 
him1 in open session1 on the #bdth of   
,august1 #ahci4 ,the reporter of the    
committee1 the ,abbe ,doney1 since made 
,bishop of ,montauban1 called attention 
to the unquestionable superiority of his
 talent4   ,but1 says ,sainte ,beuve1 he
 reproached him with having adopted     
dangerous theories1 and with having     

touched upon questions of practical     
politics and social organization1 where 
upright intentions and zeal for the     
public welfare cannot justify rash      
solutions4   ,was it policy1 we mean    
prudence1 which induced ,proudhon to    
screen his ideas of equality behind the 
,mosaic law8 ,sainte ,beuve1 like many  
others1 seems to think so4 ,but we      
remember perfectly well that1 having    
asked ,proudhon1 in ,august1 #ahdh1 if  
he did not consider himself indebted in 
some respects to his fellow-countryman1 
,charles ,fourier1 we received from him 
the following reply3 ,i have certainly  
read ,fourier1 and have spoken of him   
more than once in my works2 but1 upon   
the whole1 ,i do not think that ,i owe  
anything to him4 ,my real masters1 those
 who have caused fertile ideas to spring
 up in my mind1 are three in number3    
first1 the ,bible2 next1 ,adam ,smith2  
and last1 ,hegel4  ,freely confessed in 
the ,celebration of ,sunday1 the        
influence of the ,bible on ,proudhon is 

no less manifest in his first memoir on 
property4 ,proudhon undoubtedly brought 
to this work many ideas of his own2 but 
is not the very foundation of ancient   
,jewish law to be found in its          
condemnation of usurious interest and   
its denial of the right of personal     
appropriation of land8  ,the first      
memoir on property appeared in #ahdj1   
under the title1 ,what is ,property8 or 
an ,inquiry into the ,principle of      
,right and of ,government4 ,proudhon    
dedicated it1 in a letter which served  
as the preface1 to the ,academy of      
,besancon4 ,the latter1 finding itself  
brought to trial by its pensioner1 took 
the affair to heart1 and evoked it1 says
 ,sainte ,beuve1 with all possible      
haste4  ,the pension narrowly escaped   
being immediately withdrawn from the    
bold defender of the principle of       
equality of conditions4 ,m4 ,vivien1    
then ,minister of ,justice1 who was     
earnestly solicited to prosecute the    
author1 wished first to obtain the      

opinion of the economist1 ,blanqui1 a   
member of the ,academy of ,moral and    
,political ,sciences4 ,proudhon having  
presented to this academy a copy of his 
book1 ,m4 ,blanqui was appointed to     
review it4 ,this review1 though it      
opposed ,proudhon's views1 shielded him4
 ,treated as a savant by ,m4 ,blanqui1  
the author was not prosecuted4 ,he was  
always grateful to ,,mm4 ,blanqui and   
,vivien for their handsome conduct in   
the matter4  ,m4 ,blanqui's review1     
which was partially reproduced by ,le   
,moniteur1 on the #gth of ,september1   
#ahdj1 naturally led ,proudhon to       
address to him1 in the form of a letter1
 his second memoir on property1 which   
appeared in ,april1 #ahda4 ,proudhon had
 endeavored1 in his first memoir1 to    
demonstrate that the pursuit of equality
 of conditions is the true principle of 
right and of government4 ,in the ,letter
 to ,m4 ,blanqui1 he passes in review   
the numerous and varied methods by which
 this principle gradually becomes       

realized in all societies1 especially in
 modern society4  ,in #ahdb1 a third    
memoir appeared1 entitled1 ,a ,notice to
 ,proprietors1 or a ,letter to ,m4      
,victor ,considerant1 ,editor of ',la   
,phalange1' in ,reply to a ,defence of  
,property4 ,here the influence of ,adam 
,smith manifested itself1 and was       
frankly admitted4 ,did not ,adam ,smith 
find1 in the principle of equality1 the 
first of all the laws which govern      
wages8 ,there are other laws1           
undoubtedly2 but ,proudhon considers    
them all as springing from the principle
 of property1 as he defined it in his   
first memoir4 ,thus1 in humanity1 there 
are two principles1--one which leads us 
to equality1 another which separates us 
from it4 ,by the former1 we treat each  
other as associates2 by the latter1 as  
strangers1 not to say enemies4 ,this    
distinction1 which is constantly met    
with throughout the three memoirs1      
contained already1 in germ1 the idea    
which gave birth to the ,system of      

,economical ,contradictions1 which      
appeared in #ahdf1 the idea of antinomy 
or contre-loi4  ,the ,notice to         
,proprietors was seized by the          
magistrates of ,besancon2 and ,proudhon 
was summoned to appear before the       
assizes of ,doubs within a week4 ,he    
read his written defence to the jurors  
in person1 and was acquitted4 ,the jury1
 like ,m4 ,blanqui1 viewed him only as a
 philosopher1 an inquirer1 a savant4    
,in #ahdc1 ,proudhon published the      
,creation of ,order in ,humanity1 a     
large volume1 which does not deal       
exclusively with questions of social    
economy4 ,religion1 philosophy1 method1 
certainty1 logic1 and dialectics are    
treated at considerable length4         
,released from his printing-office on   
the #ast of ,march of the same year1    
,proudhon had to look for a chance to   
earn his living4 ,messrs4 ,gauthier     
,bros41 carriers by water between       
,mulhouse and ,lyons1 the eldest of whom
 was ,proudhon's companion in childhood1

 conceived the happy thought of         
employing him1 of utilizing his ability 
in their business1 and in settling the  
numerous points of difficulty which     
daily arose4 ,besides the large number  
of accounts which his new duties        
required him to make out1 and which     
retarded the publication of the ,system 
of ,economical ,contradictions1 until   
,october1 #ahdf1 we ought to mention a  
work1 which1 before it appeared in      
pamphlet form1 was published in the     
,revue des ,economistes1--,competition  
between ,railroads and ,navigable ,ways4
  ,le ,miserere1 or the ,repentance of a
 ,king1 which he published in ,march1   
#ahde1 in the ,revue ,independante1     
during that ,lenten season when         
,lacordaire was preaching in ,lyons1    
proves that1 though devoting himself    
with ardor to the study of economical   
problems1 ,proudhon had not lost his    
interest in questions of religious      
history4 ,among his writings on these   
questions1 which he was unfortunately   

obliged to leave unfinished1 we may     
mention a nearly completed history of   
the early ,christian heresies1 and of   
the struggle of ,christianity against   
,caesarism4  ,we have said that1 in     
#ahdh1 ,proudhon recognized three       
masters4 ,having no knowledge of the    
,german language1 he could not have read
 the works of ,hegel1 which at that time
 had not been translated into ,french4  
,it was ,charles ,grun1 a ,german1 who  
had come to ,france to study the various
 philosophical and socialistic systems1 
who gave him the substance of the       
,hegelian ideas4 ,during the winter of  
#ahdd-de1 ,charles ,grun had some long  
conversations with ,proudhon1 which     
determined1 very decisively1 not the    
ideas1 which belonged exclusively to the
 bisontin thinker1 but the form of the  
important work on which he labored after
 #ahdc1 and which was published in #ahdf
 by ,guillaumin4  ,hegel's great idea1  
which ,proudhon appropriated1 and which 
he demonstrates with wonderful ability  

in the ,system of ,economical           
,contradictions1 is as follows3         
,antinomy1 that is1 the existence of two
 laws or tendencies which are opposed to
 each other1 is possible1 not only with 
two different things1 but with one and  
the same thing4 ,considered in their    
thesis1 that is1 in the law or tendency 
which created them1 all the economical  
categories are rational1--competition1  
monopoly1 the balance of trade1 and     
property1 as well as the division of    
labor1 machinery1 taxation1 and credit4 
,but1 like communism and population1 all
 these categories are antinomical2 all  
are opposed1 not only to each other1 but
 to themselves4 ,all is opposition1 and 
disorder is born of this system of      
opposition4 ,hence1 the sub-title of the
 work1--,philosophy of ,misery4 ,no     
category can be suppressed2 the         
opposition1 antinomy1 or                
contre-tendance1 which exists in each of
 them1 cannot be suppressed4  ,where1   
then1 lies the solution of the social   

problem8 ,influenced by the ,hegelian   
ideas1 ,proudhon began to look for it in
 a superior synthesis1 which should     
reconcile the thesis and antithesis4    
,afterwards1 while at work upon his book
 on ,justice1 he saw that the           
antinomical terms do not cancel each    
other1 any more than the opposite poles 
of an electric pile destroy each other2 
that they are the procreative cause of  
motion1 life1 and progress2 that the    
problem is to discover1 not their       
fusion1 which would be death1 but their 
equilibrium1--an equilibrium for ever   
unstable1 varying with the development  
of society4  ,on the cover of the       
,system of ,economical ,contradictions1 
,proudhon announced1 as soon to appear1 
his ,solution of the ,social ,problem4  
,this work1 upon which he was engaged   
when the ,revolution of #ahdh broke out1
 had to be cut up into pamphlets and    
newspaper articles4 ,the two pamphlets1 
which he published in ,march1 #ahdh1    
before he became editor of ,le          

,representant du ,peuple1 bear the same 
title1--,solution of the ,social        
,problem4 ,the first1 which is mainly a 
criticism of the early acts of the      
provisional government1 is notable from 
the fact that in it ,proudhon1 in       
advance of all others1 energetically    
opposed the establishment of national   
workshops4 ,the second1 ,organization of
 ,credit and ,circulation1 sums up in a 
few pages his idea of economical        
progress3 a gradual reduction of        
interest1 profit1 rent1 taxes1 and      
wages4 ,all progress hitherto has been  
made in this manner2 in this manner it  
must continue to be made4 ,those        
workingmen who favor a nominal increase 
of wages are1 unconsciously following a 
back-track1 opposed to all their        
interests4  ,after having published in  
,le ,representant du ,peuple1 the       
statutes of the ,bank of ,exchange1--a  
bank which was to make no profits1 since
 it was to have no stockholders1 and    
which1 consequently1 was to discount    

commercial paper with out interest1     
charging only a commission sufficient to
 defray its running expenses1--,proudhon
 endeavored1 in a number of articles1 to
 explain its mechanism and necessity4   
,these articles have been collected in  
one volume1 under the double title1     
,resume of the ,social ,question2 ,bank 
of ,exchange4 ,his other articles1 those
 which up to ,december1 #ahdh1 were     
inspired by the progress of events1 have
 been collected in another              
volume1--,revolutionary ,ideas4  ,almost
 unknown in ,march1 #ahdh1 and struck   
off in ,april from the list of          
candidates for the ,constituent         
,assembly by the delegation of          
workingmen which sat at the ,luxembourg1
 ,proudhon had but a very small number  
of votes at the general elections of    
,april4 ,at the complementary elections1
 which were held in the early days of   
,june1 he was elected in ,paris by      
seventy-seven thousand votes4  ,after   
the fatal days of ,june1 he published an

 article on le terme1 which caused the  
first suspension of ,le ,representant du
 ,peuple4 ,it was at that time that he  
introduced a bill into the ,assembly1   
which1 being referred to the ,committee 
on the ,finances1 drew forth1 first1 the
 report of ,m4 ,thiers1 and then the    
speech which ,proudhon delivered1 on the
 #cast of ,july1 in reply to this       
report4 ,le ,representant du ,peuple1   
reappearing a few days later1 he wrote1 
a propos of the law requiring journals  
to give bonds1 his famous article on    
,the ,malthusians 7,august #aj1 #ahdh74 
,ten days afterwards1 ,le ,representant 
du ,peuple1 again suspended1            
definitively ceased to appear4 ,le      
,peuple1 of which he was the            
editor-in-chief1 and the first number of
 which was issued in the early part of  
,september1 appeared weekly at first1   
for want of sufficient bonds2 it        
afterwards appeared daily1 with a double
 number once a week4 ,before ,le ,peuple
 had obtained its first bond1 ,proudhon 

published a remarkable pamphlet on the  
,right to ,labor1--a right which he     
denied in the form in which it was then 
affirmed4 ,it was during the same period
 that he proposed1 at the ,poissonniere 
banquet1 his ,toast to the ,revolution4 
,proudhon1 who had been asked to preside
 at the banquet1 refused1 and proposed  
in his stead1 first1 ,ledru-,rollin1 and
 then1 in view of the reluctance of the 
organizers of the banquet1 the          
illustrious president of the party of   
the ,mountain1 ,lamennais4 ,it was      
evidently his intention to induce the   
representatives of the ,extreme ,left to
 proclaim at last with him the          
,democratic and ,social ,republic4      
,lamennais being accepted by the        
organizers1 the ,mountain promised to be
 present at the banquet4 ,the night     
before1 all seemed right1 when ,general 
,cavaignac replaced ,minister ,senart by
 ,minister ,dufaure-,vivien4 ,the       
,mountain1 questioning the government1  
proposed a vote of confidence in the old

 minister1 and1 tacitly1 of want of     
confidence in the new4 ,proudhon        
abstained from voting on this           
proposition4 ,the ,mountain declared    
that it would not attend the banquet1 if
 ,proudhon was to be present4 ,five     
,montagnards1 ,mathieu of ,drome at     
their head1 went to the temporary office
 of ,le ,peuple to notify him of this4  
,citizen ,proudhon1 said they to the    
organizers in his presence1 in          
abstaining from voting to-day on the    
proposition of the ,mountain1 has       
betrayed the ,republican cause4         
,proudhon1 vehemently questioned1 began 
his defence by recalling1 on the one    
hand1 the treatment which he had        
received from the dismissed minister2   
and1 on the other1 the impartial conduct
 displayed towards him in #ahdj by ,m4  
,vivien1 the new minister4 ,he then     
attacked the ,mountain by telling its   
delegates that it sought only a pretext1
 and that really1 in spite of its       
professions of ,socialism in private    

conversation1 whether with him or with  
the organizers of the banquet1 it had   
not the courage to publicly declare     
itself ,socialist4  ,on the following   
day1 in his ,toast to the ,revolution1 a
 toast which was filled with allusions  
to the exciting scene of the night      
before1 ,proudhon commenced his struggle
 against the ,mountain4 ,his duel with  
,felix ,pyat was one of the episodes of 
this struggle1 which became less bitter 
on ,proudhon's side after the ,mountain 
finally decided to publicly proclaim the
 ,democratic and ,social ,republic4 ,the
 campaign for the election of a         
,president of the ,republic had just    
begun4 ,proudhon made a very sharp      
attack on the candidacy of ,louis       
,bonaparte in a pamphlet which is       
regarded as one of his literary         
chefs-d'oeuvre3 the ,pamphlet on the    
,presidency4 ,an opponent of this       
institution1 against which he had voted 
in the ,constituent ,assembly1 he at    
first decided to take no part in the    

campaign4 ,but soon seeing that he was  
thus increasing the chances of ,louis   
,bonaparte1 and that if1 as was not at  
all probable1 the latter should not     
obtain an absolute majority of the      
votes1 the ,assembly would not fail to  
elect ,general ,cavaignac1 he espoused1 
for the sake of form1 the candidacy of  
,raspail1 who was supported by his      
friends in the ,socialist ,committee4   
,charles ,delescluze1 the               
editor-in-chief of ,la ,revolution      
,democratique et ,sociale1 who could not
 forgive him for having preferred       
,raspail to ,ledru-,rollin1 the         
candidate of the ,mountain1 attacked him
 on the day after the election with a   
violence which overstepped all bounds4  
,at first1 ,proudhon had the wisdom to  
refrain from answering him4 ,at length1 
driven to an extremity1 he became       
aggressive himself1 and ,delescluze sent
 him his seconds4 ,this time1 ,proudhon 
positively refused to fight2 he would   
not have fought with ,felix ,pyat1 had  

not his courage been called in question4
  ,on the #beth of ,january1 #ahdi1     
,proudhon1 rising from a sick bed1 saw  
that the existence of the ,constituent  
,assembly was endangered by the         
coalition of the monarchical parties    
with ,louis ,bonaparte1 who was already 
planning his coup d',etat4 ,he did not  
hesitate to openly attack the man who   
had just received five millions of      
votes4 ,he wanted to break the idol2 he 
succeeded only in getting prosecuted and
 condemned himself4 ,the prosecution    
demanded against him was authorized by a
 majority of the ,constituent ,assembly1
 in spite of the speech which he        
delivered on that occasion4 ,declared   
guilty by the jury1 he was sentenced1 in
 ,march1 #ahdi1 to three years'         
imprisonment and the payment of a fine  
of ten thousand francs4  ,proudhon had  
not abandoned for a single moment his   
project of a ,bank of ,exchange1 which  
was to operate without capital with a   
sufficient number of merchants and      

manufacturers for adherents4 ,this bank1
 which he then called the ,bank of the  
,people1 and around which he wished to  
gather the numerous working-people's    
associations which had been formed since
 the #bdth of ,february1 #ahdh1 had     
already obtained a certain number of    
subscribers and adherents1 the latter to
 the number of thirty-seven thousand4   
,it was about to commence operations1   
when ,proudhon's sentence forced him to 
choose between imprisonment and exile4  
,he did not hesitate to abandon his     
project and return the money to the     
subscribers4 ,he explained the motives  
which led him to this decision in an    
article in ,le ,peuple4  ,having fled to
 ,belgium1 he remained there but a few  
days1 going thence to ,paris1 under an  
assumed name1 to conceal himself in a   
house in the ,rue de ,chabrol4 ,from his
 hiding-place he sent articles almost   
every day1 signed and unsigned1 to ,le  
,peuple4 ,in the evening1 dressed in a  
blouse1 he went to some secluded spot to

 take the air4 ,soon1 emboldened by     
habit1 he risked an evening promenade   
upon the ,boulevards1 and afterwards    
carried his imprudence so far as to take
 a stroll by daylight in the            
neighborhood of the ,gare du ,nord4 ,it 
was not long before he was recognized by
 the police1 who arrested him on the    
#fth of ,june1 #ahdi1 in the ,rue du    
,faubourg-,poissonniere4  ,taken to the 
office of the prefect of police1 then to
 ,sainte-,pelagie1 he was in the        
,conciergerie on the day of the #acth of
 ,june1 #ahdi1 which ended with the     
violent suppression of ,le ,peuple4 ,he 
then began to write the ,confessions of 
a ,revolutionist1 published towards the 
end of the year4 ,he had been again     
transferred to ,sainte-,pelagie1 when he
 married1 in ,december1 #ahdi1 ,mlle4   
,euphrasie ,piegard1 a young working    
girl whose hand he had requested in     
#ahdg4 ,madame ,proudhon bore him four  
daughters1 of whom but two1 ,catherine  
and ,stephanie1 survived their father4  

,stephanie died in #ahgc4  ,in ,october1
 #ahdi1 ,le ,peuple was replaced by a   
new journal1 ,la ,voix du ,peuple1 which
 ,proudhon edited from his prison cell4 
,in it were published his discussions   
with ,pierre ,leroux and ,bastiat4  ,the
 political articles which he sent to ,la
 ,voix du ,peuple so displeased the     
government finally1 that it transferred 
him to ,doullens1 where he was secretly 
confined for some time4 ,afterwards     
taken back to ,paris1 to appear before  
the assizes of the ,seine in reference  
to an article in ,la ,voix du ,peuple1  
he was defended by ,m4 ,cremieux and    
acquitted4 ,from the ,conciergerie he   
went again to ,sainte-,pelagie1 where he
 ended his three years in prison on the 
#fth of ,june1 #aheb4  ,la ,voix du     
,peuple1 suppressed before the          
promulgation of the law of the #cast of 
,may1 had been replaced by a weekly     
sheet1 ,le ,peuple of #ahej4            
,established by the aid of the principal
 members of the ,mountain1 this journal 

soon met with the fate of its           
predecessors4  ,in #ahea1 several months
 before the coup d',etat1 ,proudhon     
published the ,general ,idea of the     
,revolution of the ,nineteenth ,century1
 in which1 after having shown the       
logical series of unitary               
governments1--from monarchy1 which is   
the first term1 to the direct government
 of the people1 which is the last1--he  
opposes the ideal of an-archy or        
self-government to the communistic or   
governmental ideal4  ,at this period1   
the ,socialist party1 discouraged by the
 elections of #ahdi1 which resulted in a
 greater conservative triumph than those
 of #ahdh1 and justly angry with the    
national representative body which had  
just passed the law of the #cast of     
,may1 #ahej1 demanded direct legislation
 and direct government4 ,proudhon1 who  
did not want1 at any price1 the         
plebiscitary system which he had good   
reason to regard as destructive of      
liberty1 did not hesitate to point out1 

to those of his friends who expected    
every thing from direct legislation1 one
 of the antinomies of universal         
suffrage4 ,in so far as it is an        
institution intended to achieve1 for the
 benefit of the greatest number1 the    
social reforms to which landed suffrage 
is opposed1 universal suffrage is       
powerless2 especially if it pretends to 
legislate or govern directly4 ,for1     
until the social reforms are            
accomplished1 the greatest number is of 
necessity the least enlightened1 and    
consequently the least capable of       
understanding and effecting reforms4 ,in
 regard to the antinomy1 pointed out by 
him1 of liberty and government1--whether
 the latter be monarchic1 aristocratic1 
or democratic in form1--,proudhon1 whose
 chief desire was to preserve liberty1  
naturally sought the solution in the    
free contract4 ,but though the free     
contract may be a practical solution of 
purely economical questions1 it cannot  
be made use of in politics4 ,proudhon   

recognized this ten years later1 when   
his beautiful study on ,war and ,peace  
led him to find in the ,,federative     
,,principle the exact equilibrium of    
liberty and government4  ,the ,social   
,revolution ,demonstrated by the ,coup  
d' ,etat appeared in #aheb1 a few months
 after his release from prison4 ,at that
 time1 terror prevailed to such an      
extent that no one was willing to       
publish his book without express        
permission from the government4 ,he     
succeeded in obtaining this permission  
by writing to ,louis ,bonaparte a letter
 which he published at the same time    
with the work4 ,the latter being offered
 for sale1 ,proudhon was warned that he 
would not be allowed to publish any more
 books of the same character4 ,at that  
time he entertained the idea of writing 
a universal history entitled ,chronos4  
,this project was never fulfilled4      
,already the father of two children1 and
 about to be presented with a third1    
,proudhon was obliged to devise some    

immediate means of gaining a living2 he 
resumed his labors1 and published1 at   
first anonymously1 the ,manual of a     
,speculator in the ,stock-,exchange4    
,later1 in #aheg1 after having completed
 the work1 he did not hesitate to sign  
it1 acknowledging in the preface his    
indebtedness to his collaborator1 ,g4   
,duchene4  ,meantime1 he vainly sought  
permission to establish a journal1 or   
review4 ,this permission was steadily   
refused him4 ,the imperial government   
always suspected him after the          
publication of the ,social ,revolution  
,demonstrated by the ,coup d',etat4     
,towards the end of #ahec1 ,proudhon    
issued in ,belgium a pamphlet entitled  
,the ,philosophy of ,progress4 ,entirely
 inoffensive as it was1 this pamphlet1  
which he endeavored to send into        
,france1 was seized on the frontier4    
,proudhon's complaints were of no avail4
  ,the empire gave grants after grants  
to large companies4 ,a financial        
society1 having asked for the grant of a

 railroad in the east of ,france1       
employed ,proudhon to write several     
memoirs in support of this demand4 ,the 
grant was given to another company4 ,the
 author was offered an indemnity as     
compensation1 to be paid 7as was        
customary in such cases7 by the company 
which received the grant4 ,it is        
needless to say that ,proudhon would    
accept nothing4 ,then1 wishing to       
explain to the public1 as well as to the
 government1 the end which he had in    
view1 he published the work entitled    
,reforms to be ,effected in the         
,management of ,railroads4  ,towards the
 end of #ahed1 ,proudhon had already    
begun his book on ,justice1 when he had 
a violent attack of cholera1 from which 
he recovered with great difficulty4     
,ever afterwards his health was         
delicate4  ,at last1 on the #bb;d of    
,april1 #aheh1 he published1 in three   
large volumes1 the important work upon  
which he had labored since #ahed4 ,this 
work had two titles3 the first1 ,justice

 in the ,revolution and in the ,church2 
the second1 ,new ,principles of         
,practical ,philosophy1 addressed to    
,his ,highness ,monseigneur ,mathieu1   
,cardinal-,archbishop of ,besancon4 ,on 
the #bgth of ,april1 when there had     
scarcely been time to read the work1 an 
order was issued by the magistrate for  
its seizure2 on the #bhth the seizure   
was effected4 ,to this first act of the 
magistracy1 the author of the           
incriminated book replied on the #aath  
of ,may in a strongly-motived petition1 
demanding a revision of the concordat of
 #ahjb2 or1 in other words1 a new       
adjustment of the relations between     
,church and ,state4 ,at bottom1 this    
petition was but the logical consequence
 of the work itself4 ,an edition of a   
thousand copies being published on the  
#agth of ,may1 the ,petition to the     
,senate was regarded by the public      
prosecutor as an aggravation of the     
offence or offences discovered in the   
body of the work to which it was an     

appendix1 and was seized in its turn on 
the #bc;d4 ,on the first of ,june1 the  
author appealed to the ,senate in a     
second ,petition1 which was deposited   
with the first in the office of the     
,secretary of the ,assembly1 the        
guardian and guarantee1 according to the
 constitution of #aheb1 of the          
principles of '#hi4 ,on the #b;d of     
,june1 the two processes being united1  
,proudhon appeared at the bar with his  
publisher1 the printer of the book1 and 
the printer of the petition1 to receive 
the sentence of the police magistrate1  
which condemned him to three years'     
imprisonment1 a fine of four thousand   
francs1 and the suppression of his work4
 ,it is needless to say that the        
publisher and printers were also        
condemned by the sixth chamber4         
,proudhon lodged an appeal2 he wrote a  
memoir which the law of #ahai1 in the   
absence of which he would have been     
liable to a new prosecution1 gave him   
the power to publish previous to the    

hearing4 ,having decided to make use of 
the means which the law permitted1 he   
urged in vain the printers who were     
prosecuted with him to lend him their   
aid4 ,he then demanded of               
,attorney-,general ,chaix d',est ,ange a
 statement to the effect that the       
twenty-third article of the law of the  
#agth of ,may1 #ahai1 allows a written  
defence1 and that a printer runs no risk
 in printing it4 ,the attorney-general  
flatly refused4 ,proudhon then started  
for ,belgium1 where he printed his      
defence1 which could not1 of course1    
cross the ,french frontier4 ,this memoir
 is entitled to rank with the best of   
,beaumarchais's2 it is entitled3        
,justice prosecuted by the ,church2 ,an 
,appeal from the ,sentence passed upon  
,p4 ,j4 ,proudhon by the ,police        
,magistrate of the ,seine1 on the #b;d  
of ,june1 #aheh4 ,a very close          
discussion of the grounds of the        
judgment of the sixth chamber1 it was at
 the same time an excellent resume of   

his great work4  ,once in ,belgium1     
,proudhon did not fail to remain there4 
,in #ahei1 after the general amnesty    
which followed the ,italian war1 he at  
first thought himself included in it4   
,but the imperial government1 consulted 
by his friends1 notified him that1 in   
its opinion1 and in spite of the        
contrary advice of ,m4 ,faustin ,helie1 
his condemnation was not of a political 
character4 ,proudhon1 thus classed by   
the government with the authors of      
immoral works1 thought it beneath his   
dignity to protest1 and waited patiently
 for the advent of #ahfc to allow him to
 return to ,france4  ,in ,belgium1 where
 he was not slow in forming new         
friendships1 he published in #ahei-fj1  
in separate parts1 a new edition of his 
great work on ,justice4 ,each number    
contained1 in addition to the original  
text carefully reviewed and corrected1  
numerous explanatory notes and some     
,tidings of the ,revolution4 ,in these  
tidings1 which form a sort of review of 

the progress of ideas in ,europe1       
,proudhon sorrowfully asserts that1     
after having for a long time marched at 
the head of the progressive nations1    
,france has become1 without appearing to
 suspect it1 the most retrogressive of  
nations2 and he considers her more than 
once as seriously threatened with moral 
death4  ,the ,italian war led him to    
write a new work1 which he published in 
#ahfa1 entitled ,war and ,peace4 ,this  
work1 in which1 running counter to a    
multitude of ideas accepted until then  
without examination1 he pronounced for  
the first time against the restoration  
of an aristocratic and priestly ,poland1
 and against the establishment of a     
unitary government in ,italy1 created   
for him a multitude of enemies4 ,most of
 his friends1 disconcerted by his       
categorical affirmation of a right of   
force1 notified him that they decidedly 
disapproved of his new publication4 ,you
 see1 triumphantly cried those whom he  
had always combated1 this man is only a 

sophist4  ,led by his previous studies  
to test every thing by the question of  
right1 ,proudhon asks1 in his ,war and  
,peace1 whether there is a real right of
 which war is the vindication1 and      
victory the demonstration4 ,this right1 
which he roughly calls the right of the 
strongest or the right of force1 and    
which is1 after all1 only the right of  
the most worthy to the preference in    
certain definite cases1 exists1 says    
,proudhon1 independently of war4 ,it    
cannot be legitimately vindicated except
 where necessity clearly demands the    
subordination of one will to another1   
and within the limits in which it       
exists2 that is1 without ever involving 
the enslavement of one by the other4    
,among nations1 the right of the        
majority1 which is only a corollary of  
the right of force1 is as unacceptable  
as universal monarchy4 ,hence1 until    
equilibrium is established and          
recognized between ,states or national  
forces1 there must be war4 ,war1 says   

,proudhon1 is not always necessary to   
determine which side is the strongest2  
and he has no trouble in proving this by
 examples drawn from the family1 the    
workshop1 and elsewhere4 ,passing then  
to the study of war1 he proves that it  
by no means corresponds in practice to  
that which it ought to be according to  
his theory of the right of force4 ,the  
systematic horrors of war naturally lead
 him to seek a cause for it other than  
the vindication of this right2 and then 
only does the economist take it upon    
himself to denounce this cause to those 
who1 like himself1 want peace4 ,the     
necessity of finding abroad a           
compensation for the misery resulting in
 every nation from the absence of       
economical equilibrium1 is1 according to
 ,proudhon1 the ever real1 though ever  
concealed1 cause of war4 ,the pages     
devoted to this demonstration and to his
 theory of poverty1 which he clearly    
distinguishes from misery and pauperism1
 shed entirely new light upon the       

philosophy of history4 ,as for the      
author's conclusion1 it is a very simple
 one4 ,since the treaty of ,westphalia1 
and especially since the treaties of    
#ahae1 equilibrium has been the         
international law of ,europe4 ,it       
remains now1 not to destroy it1 but1    
while maintaining it1 to labor          
peacefully1 in every nation protected by
 it1 for the equilibrium of economical  
forces4 ,the last line of the book1     
evidently written to check imperial     
ambition1 is3 ,humanity wants no more   
war4  ,in #ahfa1 after ,garibaldi's     
expedition and the battle of            
,castelfidardo1 ,proudhon immediately   
saw that the establishment of ,italian  
unity would be a severe blow to         
,european equilibrium4 ,it was chiefly  
in order to maintain this equilibrium   
that he pronounced so energetically in  
favor of ,italian federation1 even      
though it should be at first only a     
federation of monarchs4 ,in vain was it 
objected that1 in being established by  

,france1 ,italian unity would break     
,european equilibrium in our favor4     
,proudhon1 appealing to history1 showed 
that every ,state which breaks the      
equilibrium in its own favor only causes
 the other ,states to combine against   
it1 and thereby diminishes its influence
 and power4 ,he added that1 nations     
being essentially selfish1 ,italy would 
not fail1 when opportunity offered1 to  
place her interest above her gratitude4 
,to maintain ,european equilibrium by   
diminishing great ,states and           
multiplying small ones2 to unite the    
latter in organized federations1 not for
 attack1 but for defence2 and with these
 federations1 which1 if they were not   
republican already1 would quickly become
 so1 to hold in check the great military
 monarchies1--such1 in the beginning of 
#ahfa1 was the political programme of   
,proudhon4  ,the object of the          
federations1 he said1 will be to        
guarantee1 as far as possible1 the      
beneficent reign of peace2 and they will

 have the further effect of securing in 
every nation the triumph of liberty over
 despotism4 ,where the largest unitary  
,state is1 there liberty is in the      
greatest danger2 further1 if this ,state
 be democratic1 despotism without the   
counterpoise of majorities is to be     
feared4 ,with the federation1 it is not 
so4 ,the universal suffrage of the      
federal ,state is checked by the        
universal suffrage of the federated     
,states2 and the latter is offset in its
 turn by ,,property1 the stronghold of  
liberty1 which it tends1 not to destroy1
 but to balance with the institutions of
 ,,mutualism4  ,all these ideas1 and    
many others which were only hinted at in
 his work on ,war and ,peace1 were      
developed by ,proudhon in his subsequent
 publications1 one of which has for its 
motto1 ,reforms always1 ,utopias never4 
,the thinker had evidently finished his 
evolution4  ,the ,council of ,state of  
the canton of ,vaud having offered      
prizes for essays on the question of    

taxation1 previously discussed at a     
congress held at ,lausanne1 ,proudhon   
entered the ranks and carried off the   
first prize4 ,his memoir was published  
in #ahfa under the title of ,the ,theory
 of ,taxation4  ,about the same time1 he
 wrote at ,brussels1 in ,l',office de   
,publicite1 some remarkable articles on 
the question of literary property1 which
 was discussed at a congress held in    
,belgium1 ,these articles must not be   
confounded with ,literary ,majorats1 a  
more complete work on the same subject1 
which was published in #ahfc1 soon after
 his return to ,france4  ,arbitrarily   
excepted from the amnesty in #ahei1     
,proudhon was pardoned two years later  
by a special act4 ,he did not wish to   
take advantage of this favor1 and seemed
 resolved to remain in ,belgium until   
the #b;d of ,june1 #ahfc1 the time when 
he was to acquire the privilege of      
prescription1 when an absurd and        
ridiculous riot1 excited in ,brussels by
 an article published by him on         

federation and unity in ,italy1 induced 
him to hasten his return to ,france4    
,stones were thrown against the house in
 which he lived1 in the ,faubourg       
d',ixelles4 ,after having placed his    
wife and daughters in safety among his  
friends at ,brussels1 he arrived in     
,paris in ,september1 #ahfb1 and        
published there1 ,federation and        
,italian ,unity1 a pamphlet which       
naturally commences with the article    
which served as a pretext for the       
rioters in ,brussels4  ,among the works 
begun by ,proudhon while in ,belgium1   
which death did not allow him to finish1
 we ought to mention a ,history of      
,poland1 which will be published later2 
and1 ,the ,theory of ,property1 which   
appeared in #ahfe1 before ,the ,gospels 
,annotated1 and after the volume        
entitled ,the ,principle of ,art and its
 ,social ,destiny4  ,the publications of
 ,proudhon1 in #ahfc1 were3 #a4         
,literary ,majorats3 ,an ,examination of
 a ,bill having for its object the      

,creation of a ,perpetual ,monopoly for 
the ,benefit of ,authors1 ,inventors1   
and ,artists2 #b4 ,the ,federative      
,principle and the ,necessity of        
,re-establishing the ,revolutionary     
party2 #c4 ,the ,sworn ,democrats and   
the ,refractories2 #d4 ,whether the     
,treaties of #ahae have ceased to exist8
 ,acts of the ,future ,congress4  ,the  
disease which was destined to kill him  
grew worse and worse2 but ,proudhon     
labored constantly6444 ,a series of     
articles1 published in #ahfd in ,le     
,messager de ,paris1 have been collected
 in a pamphlet under the title of ,new  
,observations on ,italian ,unity4 ,he   
hoped to publish during the same year   
his work on ,the ,political ,capacity of
 the ,working ,classes1 but was unable  
to write the last chapter4444 ,he grew  
weaker continually4 ,his doctor         
prescribed rest4 ,in the month of       
,august he went to ,franche-,comte1     
where he spent a month4 ,having returned
 to ,paris1 he resumed his labor with   

difficulty4444 ,from the month of       
,december onwards1 the heart disease    
made rapid progress2 the oppression     
became insupportable1 his legs were     
swollen1 and he could not sleep4444  ,on
 the #aith of ,january1 #ahfe1 he died1 
towards two o'clock in the morning1 in  
the arms of his wife1 his sister-in-law1
 and the friend who writes these        
lines4444  ,the publication of his      
correspondence1 to which his daughter   
,catherine is faithfully devoted1 will  
tend1 no doubt1 to increase his         
reputation as a thinker1 as a writer1   
and as an honest man4  ,j4 ,a4          
,,langlois4     ,,preface4  ,the        
following letter served as a preface to 
the first edition of this memoir3--     
,to the ,members of the ,academy of     
,besancon  ,,paris1 ,june #cj1 #ahdj4   
,,gentlemen1--,in the course of your    
debate of the #ith of ,may1 #ahcc1 in   
regard to the triennial pension         
established by ,madame ,suard1 you      
expressed the following wish3--  ',the  

,academy requests the titulary to       
present it annually1 during the first   
fortnight in ,july1 with a succinct and 
logical statement of the various studies
 which he has pursued during the year   
which has just expired4'  ,i now        
propose1 gentlemen1 to discharge this   
duty4  ,when ,i solicited your votes1 ,i
 boldly avowed my intention to bend my  
efforts to the discovery of some means  
of ,,ameliorating ,,the ,,physical1     
,,moral1 ,,and ,,intellectual           
,,condition ,,of ,,the ,,mere ,,numerous
 ,,and ,,poorer ,,classes4 ,this idea1  
foreign as it may have seemed to the    
object of my candidacy1 you received    
favorably2 and1 by the precious         
distinction with which it has been your 
pleasure to honor me1 you changed this  
formal offer into an inviolable and     
sacred obligation4 ,thenceforth ,i      
understood with how worthy and honorable
 a society ,i had to deal3 my regard for
 its enlightenment1 my recognition of   
its benefits1 my enthusiasm for its     

glory1 were unbounded4  ,convinced at   
once that1 in order to break loose from 
the beaten paths of opinions and        
systems1 it was necessary to proceed in 
my study of man and society by          
scientific methods1 and in a rigorous   
manner1 ,i devoted one year to philology
 and grammar2 linguistics1 or the       
natural history of speech1 being1 of all
 the sciences1 that which was best      
suited to the character of my mind1     
seemed to bear the closest relation to  
the researches which ,i was about to    
commence4 ,a treatise1 written at this  
period upon one of the most interesting 
questions of comparative grammar1#b if  
it did not reveal the astonishing       
success1 at least bore witness to the   
thoroughness1 of my labors4  ,since that
 time1 metaphysics and moral science    
have been my only studies2 my perception
 of the fact that these sciences1 though
 badly defined as to their object and   
not confined to their sphere1 are1 like 
the natural sciences1 susceptible of    

demonstration and certainty1 has already
 rewarded my efforts4  ,but1 gentlemen1 
of all the masters whom ,i have         
followed1 to none do ,i owe so much as  
to you4 ,your co-operation1 your        
programmes1 your instructions1 in       
agreement with my secret wishes and most
 cherished hopes1 have at no time failed
 to enlighten me and to point out my    
road2 this memoir on property is the    
child of your thought4  ,in #ahch1 the  
,academy of ,besancon proposed the      
following question3 ,,to ,,what ,,causes
 ,,must ,,we ,,attribute ,,the          
,,continually ,,increasing ,,number ,,of
 ,,suicides1 ,,and ,,what ,,are ,,the   
,,proper ,,means ,,for ,,arresting ,,the
 ,,effects ,,of ,,this ,,moral          
,,contagion8  ,thereby it asked1 in less
 general terms1 what was the cause of   
the social evil1 and what was its       
remedy8 ,you admitted that yourselves1  
gentlemen when your committee reported  
that the competitors had enumerated with
 exactness the immediate and particular 

causes of suicide1 as well as the means 
of preventing each of them2 but that    
from this enumeration1 chronicled with  
more or less skill1 no positive         
information had been gained1 either as  
to the primary cause of the evil1 or as 
to its remedy4  ,in #ahci1 your         
programme1 always original and varied in
 its academical expression1 became more 
exact4 ,the investigations of #ahch had 
pointed out1 as the causes or rather as 
the symptoms of the social malady1 the  
neglect of the principles of religion   
and morality1 the desire for wealth1 the
 passion for enjoyment1 and political   
disturbances4 ,all these data were      
embodied by you in a single proposition3
 ,,the ,,utility ,,of ,,the             
,,celebration ,,of ,,sunday ,,as        
,,regards ,,hygiene1 ,,morality1 ,,and  
,,social ,,and ,,political ,,relation4  
,in a ,christian tongue you asked1      
gentlemen1 what was the true system of  
society4 ,a competitor #c dared to      
maintain1 and believed that he had      

proved1 that the institution of a day of
 rest at weekly intervals is inseparably
 bound up with a political system based 
on the equality of conditions2 that     
without equality this institution is an 
anomaly and an impossibility3 that      
equality alone can revive this ancient  
and mysterious keeping of the seventh   
day4 ,this argument did not meet with   
your approbation1 since1 without denying
 the relation pointed out by the        
competitor1 you judged1 and rightly     
gentlemen1 that the principle of        
equality of conditions not being        
demonstrated1 the ideas of the author   
were nothing more than hypotheses4      
,finally1 gentlemen1 this fundamental   
principle of equality you presented for 
competition in the following terms3     
,,the ,,economical ,,and ,,moral        
,,consequences ,,in ,,france ,,up ,,to  
,,the ,,present ,,time1 ,,and ,,those   
,,which ,,seem ,,likely ,,to ,,appear   
,,in ,,future1 ,,of ,,the ,,law         
,,concerning ,,the ,,equal ,,division   

,,of ,,hereditary ,,property ,,between  
,,the ,,children4  ,instead of confining
 one to common places without breadth or
 significance1 it seems to me that your 
question should be developed as         
follows3--  ,if the law has been able to
 render the right of heredity common to 
all the children of one father1 can it  
not render it equal for all his         
grandchildren and great-grandchildren8  
,if the law no longer heeds the age of  
any member of the family1 can it not1 by
 the right of heredity1 cease to heed it
 in the race1 in the tribe1 in the      
nation8  ,can equality1 by the right of 
succession1 be preserved between        
citizens1 as well as between cousins and
 brothers8 ,in a word1 can the principle
 of succession become a principle of    
equality8  ,to sum up all these ideas in
 one inclusive question3 ,what is the   
principle of heredity8 ,what are the    
foundations of inequality8 ,what is     
property8  ,such1 gentlemen1 is the     
object of the memoir that ,i offer you  

to day4  ,if ,i have rightly grasped the
 object of your thought2 if ,i succeed  
in bringing to light a truth which is   
indisputable1 but1 from causes which ,i 
am bold enough to claim to have         
explained1 has always been              
misunderstood2 if by an infallible      
method of investigation1 ,i establish   
the dogma of equality of conditions2 if 
,i determine the principle of civil law1
 the essence of justice1 and the form of
 society2 if ,i annihilate property     
forever1--to you1 gentlemen1 will       
redound all the glory1 for it is to your
 aid and your inspiration that ,i owe   
it4  ,my purpose in this work is the    
application of method to the problems of
 philosophy2 every other intention is   
foreign to and even abusive of it4  ,i  
have spoken lightly of jurisprudence3 ,i
 had the right2 but ,i should be unjust 
did ,i not distinguish between this     
pretended science and the men who       
practise it4 ,devoted to studies both   
laborious and severe1 entitled in all   

respects to the esteem of their         
fellow-citizens by their knowledge and  
eloquence our legists deserve but one   
reproach1 that of an excessive deference
 to arbitrary laws4  ,i have been       
pitiless in my criticism of the         
economists3 for them ,i confess that1 in
 general1 ,i have no liking4 ,the       
arrogance and the emptiness of their    
writings1 their impertinent pride and   
their unwarranted blunders1 have        
disgusted me4 ,whoever1 knowing them1   
pardons them1 may read them4  ,i have   
severely blamed the learned ,christian  
,church3 it was my duty4 ,this blame    
results from the facts which ,i call    
attention to3 why has the ,church       
decreed concerning things which it does 
not understand8 ,the ,church has erred  
in dogma and in morals2 physics and     
mathematics testify against her4 ,it may
 be wrong for me to say it1 but surely  
it is unfortunate for ,christianity that
 it is true4 ,to restore religion1      
gentlemen1 it is necessary to condemn   

the ,church4  ,perhaps you will regret1 
gentlemen1 that1 in giving all my       
attention to method and evidence1 ,i    
have too much neglected form and style3 
in vain should ,i have tried to do      
better4 ,literary hope and faith ,i have
 none4 ,the nineteenth century is1 in my
 eyes1 a genesic era1 in which new      
principles are elaborated1 but in which 
nothing that is written shall endure4   
,that is the reason1 in my opinion1 why1
 among so many men of talent1 ,france   
to-day counts not one great writer4 ,in 
a society like ours1 to seek for        
literary glory seems to me an           
anachronism4 ,of what use is it to      
invoke an ancient sibyl when a muse is  
on the eve of birth8 ,pitiable actors in
 a tragedy nearing its end1 that which  
it behooves us to do is to precipitate  
the catastrophe4 ,the most deserving    
among us is he who plays best this part4
 ,well1 ,i no longer aspire to this sad 
success6  ,why should ,i not confess it1
 gentlemen8 ,i have aspired to your     

suffrages and sought the title of your  
pensioner1 hating all which exists and  
full of projects for its destruction2 ,i
 shall finish this investigation in a   
spirit of calm and philosophical        
resignation4 ,i have derived more peace 
from the knowledge of the truth1 than   
anger from the feeling of oppression2   
and the most precious fruit that ,i     
could wish to gather from this memoir   
would be the inspiration of my readers  
with that tranquillity of soul which    
arises from the clear perception of evil
 and its cause1 and which is much more  
powerful than passion and enthusiasm4   
,my hatred of privilege and human       
authority was unbounded2 perhaps at     
times ,i have been guilty1 in my        
indignation1 of confounding persons and 
things2 at present ,i can only despise  
and complain2 to cease to hate ,i only  
needed to know4  ,it is for you now1    
gentlemen1 whose mission and character  
are the proclamation of the truth1 it is
 for you to instruct the people1 and to 

tell them for what they ought to hope   
and what they ought to fear4 ,the       
people1 incapable as yet of sound       
judgment as to what is best for them1   
applaud indiscriminately the most       
opposite ideas1 provided that in them   
they get a taste of flattery3 to them   
the laws of thought are like the        
confines of the possible2 to-day they   
can no more distinguish between a savant
 and a sophist1 than formerly they could
 tell a physician from a sorcerer4      
',inconsiderately accepting1 gathering  
together1 and accumulating everything   
that is new1 regarding all reports as   
true and indubitable1 at the breath or  
ring of novelty they assemble like bees 
at the sound of a basin4' #d  ,may you1 
gentlemen1 desire equality as ,i myself 
desire it2 may you1 for the eternal     
happiness of our country1 become its    
propagators and its heralds2 may ,i be  
the last of your pensioners6 ,of all the
 wishes that ,i can frame1 that1        
gentlemen1 is the most worthy of you and

 the most honorable for me4  ,i am1 with
 the profoundest respect and the most   
earnest gratitude1  ,your pensioner1    
,p4 ,j4 ,,proudhon4   ,two months after 
the receipt of this letter1 the         
,academy1 in its debate of ,august      
#bdth1 replied to the address of its    
pensioner by a note1 the text of which  
,i give below3--   ,a member calls the  
attention of the ,academy to a pamphlet1
 published last ,june by the titulary of
 the ,suard pension1 entitled1 ,what is 
property8 and dedicated by the author to
 the ,academy4 ,he is of the opinion    
that the society owes it to justice1 to 
example1 and to its own dignity1 to     
publicly disavow all responsibility for 
the anti-social doctrines contained in  
this publication4 ,in consequence he    
demands3  #a4 ,that the ,academy disavow
 and condemn1 in the most formal manner1
 the work of the ,suard pensioner1 as   
having been published without its       
assent1 and as attributing to it        
opinions diametrically opposed to the   

principles of each of its members2  #b4 
,that the pensioner be charged1 in case 
he should publish a second edition of   
his book1 to omit the dedication2  #c4  
,that this judgment of the ,academy be  
placed upon the records4  ,these three  
propositions1 put to vote1 are adopted4 
,after this ludicrous decree1 which its 
authors thought to render powerful by   
giving it the form of a contradiction1  
,i can only beg the reader not to       
measure the intelligence of my          
compatriots by that of our ,academy4    
,while my patrons in the social and     
political sciences were fulminating     
anathemas against my brochure1 a man1   
who was a stranger to ,franche-,comte1  
who did not know me1 who might even have
 regarded himself as personally attacked
 by the too sharp judgment which ,i had 
passed upon the economists1 a publicist 
as learned as he was modest1 loved by   
the people whose sorrows he felt1       
honored by the power which he sought to 
enlighten without flattering or         

disgracing it1 ,m4 ,blanqui--member of  
the ,institute1 professor of political  
economy1 defender of property--took up  
my defence before his associates and    
before the ministry1 and saved me from  
the blows of a justice which is always  
blind1 because it is always ignorant4   
,it seems to me that the reader will    
peruse with pleasure the letter which   
,m4 ,blanqui did me the honor to write  
to me upon the publication of my second 
memoir1 a letter as honorable to its    
author as it is flattering to him to    
whom it is addressed4    ,,paris1 ,may  
#a1 #ahda4  ,,monsieur1--,i hasten to   
thank you for forwarding to me your     
second memoir upon property4 ,i have    
read it with all the interest that an   
acquaintance with the first would       
naturally inspire4 ,i am very glad that 
you have modified somewhat the rudeness 
of form which gave to a work of such    
gravity the manner and appearance of a  
pamphlet2 for you quite frightened me1  
sir1 and your talent was needed to      

reassure me in regard to your           
intentions4 ,one does not expend so much
 real knowledge with the purpose of     
inflaming his country4 ,this            
proposition1 now coming into            
notice--,,property ,,is ,,robbery6--was 
of a nature to repel from your book even
 those serious minds who do not judge by
 appearances1 had you persisted in      
maintaining it in its rude simplicity4  
,but if you have softened the form1 you 
are none the less faithful to the       
ground-work of your doctrines2 and      
although you have done me the honor to  
give me a share in this perilous        
teaching1 ,i cannot accept a partnership
 which1 as far as talent goes1 would    
surely be a credit to me1 but which     
would compromise me in all other        
respects4  ,i agree with you in one     
thing only2 namely1 that all kinds of   
property get too frequently abused in   
this world4 ,but ,i do not reason from  
the abuse to the abolition1--an heroic  
remedy too much like death1 which cures 

all evils4 ,i will go farther3 ,i will  
confess that1 of all abuses1 the most   
hateful to me are those of property2 but
 once more1 there is a remedy for this  
evil without violating it1 all the more 
without destroying it4 ,if the present  
laws allow abuse1 we can reconstruct    
them4 ,our civil code is not the ,koran2
 it is not wrong to examine it4 ,change1
 then1 the laws which govern the use of 
property1 but be sparing of anathemas2  
for1 logically1 where is the honest man 
whose hands are entirely clean8 ,do you 
think that one can be a robber without  
knowing it1 without wishing it1 without 
suspecting it8 ,do you not admit that   
society in its present state1 like every
 man1 has in its constitution all kinds 
of virtues and vices inherited from our 
ancestors8 ,is property1 then1 in your  
eyes a thing so simple and so abstract  
that you can re-knead and equalize it1  
if ,i may so speak1 in your metaphysical
 mill8 ,one who has said as many        
excellent and practical things as occur 

in these two beautiful and paradoxical  
improvisations of yours cannot be a pure
 and unwavering utopist4 ,you are too   
well acquainted with the economical and 
academical phraseology to play with the 
hard words of revolutions4 ,i believe1  
then1 that you have handled property as 
,rousseau1 eighty years ago1 handled    
letters1 with a magnificent and poetical
 display of wit and knowledge4 ,such1 at
 least1 is my opinion4  ,that is what ,i
 said to the ,institute at the time when
 ,i presented my report upon your book4 
,i knew that they wished to proceed     
against you in the courts2 you perhaps  
do not know by how narrow a chance ,i   
succeeded in preventing them4 #e ,what  
chagrin ,i should always have felt1 if  
the king's counsel1 that is to say1 the 
intellectual executioner1 had followed  
in my very tracks to attack your book   
and annoy your person6 ,i actually      
passed two terrible nights1 and ,i      
succeeded in restraining the secular arm
 only by showing that your book was an  

academical dissertation1 and not the    
manifesto of an incendiary4 ,your style 
is too lofty ever to be of service to   
the madmen who in discussing the gravest
 questions of our social order1 use     
paving-stones as their weapons4 ,but see
 to it1 sir1 that ere long they do not  
come1 in spite of you1 to seek for      
ammunition in this formidable arsenal1  
and that your vigorous metaphysics falls
 not into the hands of some sophist of  
the market-place1 who might discuss the 
question in the presence of a starving  
audience3 we should have pillage for    
conclusion and peroration4  ,i feel as  
deeply as you1 sir1 the abuses which you
 point out2 but ,i have so great an     
affection for order1--not that common   
and strait-laced order with which the   
police are satisfied1 but the majestic  
and imposing order of human             
societies1--that ,i sometimes find      
myself embarrassed in attacking certain 
abuses4 ,i like to rebuild with one hand
 when ,i am compelled to destroy with   

the other4 ,in pruning an old tree1 we  
guard against destruction of the buds   
and fruit4 ,you know that as well as any
 one4 ,you are a wise and learned man2  
you have a thoughtful mind4 ,the terms  
by which you characterize the fanatics  
of our day are strong enough to reassure
 the most suspicious imaginations as to 
your intentions2 but you conclude in    
favor of the abolition of property6 ,you
 wish to abolish the most powerful motor
 of the human mind2 you attack the      
paternal sentiment in its sweetest      
illusions2 with one word you arrest the 
formation of capital1 and we build      
henceforth upon the sand instead of on a
 rock4 ,that ,i cannot agree to2 and for
 that reason ,i have criticised your    
book1 so full of beautiful pages1 so    
brilliant with knowledge and fervor6  ,i
 wish1 sir1 that my impaired health     
would permit me to examine with you1    
page by page1 the memoir which you have 
done me the honor to address to me      
publicly and personally2 ,i think ,i    

could offer some important criticisms4  
,for the moment1 ,i must content myself 
with thanking you for the kind words in 
which you have seen fit to speak of me4 
,we each possess the merit of sincerity2
 ,i desire also the merit of prudence4  
,you know how deep-seated is the disease
 under which the working-people are     
suffering2 ,i know how many noble hearts
 beat under those rude garments1 and ,i 
feel an irresistible and fraternal      
sympathy with the thousands of brave    
people who rise early in the morning to 
labor1 to pay their taxes1 and to make  
our country strong4 ,i try to serve and 
enlighten them1 whereas some endeavor to
 mislead them4 ,you have not written    
directly for them4 ,you have issued two 
magnificent manifestoes1 the second more
 guarded than the first2 issue a third  
more guarded than the second1 and you   
will take high rank in science1 whose   
first precept is calmness and           
impartiality4  ,farewell1 sir6 ,no man's
 esteem for another can exceed mine for 

you4  ,,blanqui4   ,i should certainly  
take some exceptions to this noble and  
eloquent letter2 but ,i confess that ,i 
am more inclined to realize the         
prediction with which it terminates than
 to augment needlessly the number of my 
antagonists4 ,so much controversy       
fatigues and wearies me4 ,the           
intelligence expended in the warfare of 
words is like that employed in battle3  
it is intelligence wasted4 ,m4 ,blanqui 
acknowledges that property is abused in 
many harmful ways2 ,i call ,,property   
the sum these abuses exclusively4 ,to   
each of us property seems a polygon     
whose angles need knocking off2 but1 the
 operation performed1 ,m4 ,blanqui      
maintains that the figure will still be 
a polygon 7an hypothesis admitted in    
mathematics1 although not proven71 while
 ,i consider that this figure will be a 
circle4 ,honest people can at least     
understand one another4  ,for the rest1 
,i allow that1 in the present state of  
the question1 the mind may legitimately 

hesitate before deciding in favor of the
 abolition of property4 ,to gain the    
victory for one's cause1 it does not    
suffice simply to overthrow a principle 
generally recognized1 which has the     
indisputable merit of systematically    
recapitulating our political theories2  
it is also necessary to establish the   
opposite principle1 and to formulate the
 system which must proceed from it4     
,still further1 it is necessary to show 
the method by which the new system will 
satisfy all the moral and political     
needs which induced the establishment of
 the first4 ,on the following           
conditions1 then1 of subsequent         
evidence1 depends the correctness of my 
preceding arguments3--  ,the discovery  
of a system of absolute equality in     
which all existing institutions1 save   
property1 or the sum of the abuses of   
property1 not only may find a place1 but
 may themselves serve as instruments of 
equality3 individual liberty1 the       
division of power1 the public ministry1 

the jury system1 administrative and     
judicial organization1 the unity and    
completeness of instruction1 marriage1  
the family1 heredity in direct and      
collateral succession1 the right of sale
 and exchange1 the right to make a will1
 and even birthright1--a system which1  
better than property1 guarantees the    
formation of capital and keeps up the   
courage of all2 which1 from a superior  
point of view1 explains1 corrects1 and  
completes the theories of association   
hitherto proposed1 from ,plato and      
,pythagoras to ,babeuf1 ,saint ,simon1  
and ,fourier2 a system1 finally1 which1 
serving as a means of transition1 is    
immediately applicable4  ,a work so vast
 requires1 ,i am aware1 the united      
efforts of twenty ,montesquieus2        
nevertheless1 if it is not given to a   
single man to finish1 a single one can  
commence1 the enterprise4 ,the road that
 he shall traverse will suffice to show 
the end and assure the result4          
,,what ,,is ,,property8 ,,or1  ,,an     

,,inquiry ,,into ,,the ,,principle ,,of 
,,right ,,and ,,of ,,government4        
,,first ,,memoir4       ,adversus hostem
 aeterna auctertas esto4       ,against 
the enemy1 revendication is eternal4    
,,law ,,of ,,the      ,,twelve ,,tables4
     ,,chapter ,i4 ,,method ,,pursued   
,,in ,,this ,,work4--,,the ,,idea ,,of  
,a ,,revolution4  ,if ,i were asked to  
answer the following question3 ,,what   
,,is ,,slavery8 and ,i should answer in 
one word1 ,,it ,,is ,,murder1 my meaning
 would be understood at once4 ,no       
extended argument would be required to  
show that the power to take from a man  
his thought1 his will1 his personality1 
is a power of life and death2 and that  
to enslave a man is to kill him4 ,why1  
then1 to this other question3 ,,what    
,,is ,,property6 may ,i not likewise    
answer1 ,,it ,,is ,,robbery1 without the
 certainty of being misunderstood2 the  
second proposition being no other than a
 transformation of the first8  ,i       
undertake to discuss the vital principle

 of our government and our institutions1
 property3 ,i am in my right4 ,i may be 
mistaken in the conclusion which shall  
result from my investigations3 ,i am in 
my right4 ,i think best to place the    
last thought of my book first3 still am 
,i in my right4  ,such an author teaches
 that property is a civil right1 born of
 occupation and sanctioned by law2      
another maintains that it is a natural  
right1 originating in labor1--and both  
of these doctrines1 totally opposed as  
they may seem1 are encouraged and       
applauded4 ,i contend that neither      
labor1 nor occupation1 nor law1 can     
create property2 that it is an effect   
without a cause3 am ,i censurable8  ,but
 murmurs arise6  ,,property ,,is        
,,robbery6 ,that is the war-cry of '#ic6
 ,that is the signal of revolutions6    
,reader1 calm yourself3 ,i am no agent  
of discord1 no firebrand of sedition4 ,i
 anticipate history by a few days2 ,i   
disclose a truth whose development we   
may try in vain to arrest2 ,i write the 

preamble of our future constitution4    
,this proposition which seems to you    
blasphemous--,,property ,,is            
,,robbery--would1 if our prejudices     
allowed us to consider it1 be recognized
 as the lightning-rod to shield us from 
the coming thunderbolt2 but too many    
interests stand in the way6444 ,alas6   
philosophy will not change the course of
 events3 destiny will fulfill itself    
regardless of prophecy4 ,besides1 must  
not justice be done and our education be
 finished8  ,,property ,,is             
,,robbery6444 ,what a revolution in     
human ideas6 ,,proprietor and ,,robber  
have been at all times expressions as   
contradictory as the beings whom they   
designate are hostile2 all languages    
have perpetuated this opposition4 ,on   
what authority1 then1 do you venture to 
attack universal consent1 and give the  
lie to the human race8 ,who are you1    
that you should question the judgment of
 the nations and the ages8  ,of what    
consequence to you1 reader1 is my       

obscure individuality8 ,i live1 like    
you1 in a century in which reason       
submits only to fact and to evidence4   
,my name1 like yours1 is                
,,truth-,,seeker4 #f ,my mission is     
written in these words of the law3      
,,speak ,,without ,,hatred ,,and        
,,without ,,fear2 ,,tell ,,that ,,which 
,,thou ,,knowest6 ,the work of our race 
is to build the temple of science1 and  
this science includes man and ,nature4  
,now1 truth reveals itself to all2      
to-day to ,newton and ,pascal1 tomorrow 
to the herdsman in the valley and the   
journeyman in the shop4 ,each one       
contributes his stone to the edifice2   
and1 his task accomplished1 disappears4 
,eternity precedes us1 eternity follows 
us3 between two infinites1 of what      
account is one poor mortal that the     
century should inquire about him8       
,disregard then1 reader1 my title and my
 character1 and attend only to my       
arguments4 ,it is in accordance with    
universal consent that ,i undertake to  

correct universal error2 from the       
,,opinion of the human race ,i appeal to
 its ,,faith4 ,have the courage to      
follow me2 and1 if your will is         
untrammelled1 if your conscience is     
free1 if your mind can unite two        
propositions and deduce a third         
therefrom1 my ideas will inevitably     
become yours4 ,in beginning by giving   
you my last word1 it was my purpose to  
warn you1 not to defy you2 for ,i am    
certain that1 if you read me1 you will  
be compelled to assent4 ,the things of  
which ,i am to speak are so simple and  
clear that you will be astonished at not
 having perceived them before1 and you  
will say3 ,i have neglected to think4   
,others offer you the spectacle of      
genius wresting ,nature's secrets from  
her1 and unfolding before you her       
sublime messages2 you will find here    
only a series of experiments upon       
,,justice and ,,right a sort of         
verification of the weights and measures
 of your conscience4 ,the operations    

shall be conducted under your very eyes2
 and you shall weigh the result4        
,nevertheless1 ,i build no system4 ,i   
ask an end to privilege1 the abolition  
of slavery1 equality of rights1 and the 
reign of law4 ,justice1 nothing else2   
that is the alpha and omega of my       
argument3 to others ,i leave the        
business of governing the world4  ,one  
day ,i asked myself3 ,why is there so   
much sorrow and misery in society8 ,must
 man always be wretched8 ,and not       
satisfied with the explanations given by
 the reformers1--these attributing the  
general distress to governmental        
cowardice and incapacity1 those to      
conspirators and emeutes1 still others  
to ignorance and general                
corruption1--and weary of the           
interminable quarrels of the tribune and
 the press1 ,i sought to fathom the     
matter myself4 ,i have consulted the    
masters of science2 ,i have read a      
hundred volumes of philosophy1 law1     
political economy1 and history3 would to

 ,god that ,i had lived in a century in 
which so much reading had been useless6 
,i have made every effort to obtain     
exact information1 comparing doctrines1 
replying to objections1 continually     
constructing equations and reductions   
from arguments1 and weighing thousands  
of syllogisms in the scales of the most 
rigorous logic4 ,in this laborious work1
 ,i have collected many interesting     
facts which ,i shall share with my      
friends and the public as soon as ,i    
have leisure4 ,but ,i must say that ,i  
recognized at once that we had never    
understood the meaning of these words1  
so common and yet so sacred3 ,,justice1 
,,equity1 ,,liberty2 that concerning    
each of these principles our ideas have 
been utterly obscure2 and1 in fact1 that
 this ignorance was the sole cause1 both
 of the poverty that devours us1 and of 
all the calamities that have ever       
afflicted the human race4  ,my mind was 
frightened by this strange result3 ,i   
doubted my reason4 ,what6 said ,i1 that 

which eye has not seen1 nor ear heard1  
nor insight penetrated1 you have        
discovered6 ,wretch1 mistake not the    
visions of your diseased brain for the  
truths of science6 ,do you not know     
7great philosophers have said so7 that  
in points of practical morality         
universal error is a contradiction8  ,i 
resolved then to test my arguments2 and 
in entering upon this new labor ,i      
sought an answer to the following       
questions3 ,is it possible that humanity
 can have been so long and so           
universally mistaken in the application 
of moral principles8 ,how and why could 
it be mistaken8 ,how can its error1     
being universal1 be capable of          
correction8  ,these questions1 on the   
solution of which depended the certainty
 of my conclusions1 offered no lengthy  
resistance to analysis4 ,it will be     
seen1 in chapter ,v4 of this work1 that 
in morals1 as in all other branches of  
knowledge1 the gravest errors are the   
dogmas of science2 that1 even in works  

of justice1 to be mistaken is a         
privilege which ennobles man2 and that  
whatever philosophical merit may attach 
to me is infinitely small4 ,to name a   
thing is easy3 the difficulty is to     
discern it before its appearance4 ,in   
giving expression to the last stage of  
an idea1--an idea which permeates all   
minds1 which to-morrow will be          
proclaimed by another if ,i fail to     
announce it to-day1--,i can claim no    
merit save that of priority of          
utterance4 ,do we eulogize the man who  
first perceives the dawn8  ,yes3 all men
 believe and repeat that equality of    
conditions is identical with equality of
 rights2 that ,,property and ,,robbery  
are synonymous terms2 that every social 
advantage accorded1 or rather usurped1  
in the name of superior talent or       
service1 is iniquity and extortion4 ,all
 men in their hearts1 ,i say1 bear      
witness to these truths2 they need only 
to be made to understand it4  ,before   
entering directly upon the question     

before me1 ,i must say a word of the    
road that ,i shall traverse4 ,when      
,pascal approached a geometrical        
problem1 he invented a method of        
solution2 to solve a problem in         
philosophy a method is equally          
necessary4 ,well1 by how much do the    
problems of which philosophy treats     
surpass in the gravity of their results 
those discussed by geometry6 ,how much  
more imperatively1 then1 do they demand 
for their solution a profound and       
rigorous analysis6  ,it is a fact placed
 for ever beyond doubt1 say the modern  
psychologists1 that every perception    
received by the mind is determined by   
certain general laws which govern the   
mind2 is moulded1 so to speak1 in       
certain types pre-existing in our       
understanding1 and which constitutes its
 original condition4 ,hence1 say they1  
if the mind has no innate ,,ideas1 it   
has at least innate ,,forms4 ,thus1 for 
example1 every phenomenon is of         
necessity conceived by us as happening  

in ,,time and ,,space1--that compels us 
to infer a ,,cause of its occurrence2   
every thing which exists implies the    
ideas of ,,substance1 ,,mode1           
,,relation1 ,,number1 ,c42 in a word1 we
 form no idea which is not related to   
some one of the general principles of   
reason1 independent of which nothing    
exists4  ,these axioms of the           
understanding1 add the psychologists1   
these fundamental types1 by which all   
our judgments and ideas are inevitably  
shaped1 and which our sensations serve  
only to illuminate1 are known in the    
schools as ,,categories4 ,their         
primordial existence in the mind is     
to-day demonstrated2 they need only to  
be systematized and catalogued4         
,aristotle recognized ten2 ,kant        
increased the number to fifteen2 ,m4    
,cousin has reduced it to three1 to two1
 to one2 and the indisputable glory of  
this professor will be due to the fact  
that1 if he has not discovered the true 
theory of categories1 he has1 at least1 

seen more clearly than any one else the 
vast importance of this question1--the  
greatest and perhaps the only one with  
which metaphysics has to deal4  ,i      
confess that ,i disbelieve in the       
innateness1 not only of ,,ideas1 but    
also of ,,forms or ,,laws of our        
understanding2 and ,i hold the          
metaphysics of ,reid and ,kant to be    
still farther removed from the truth    
than that of ,aristotle4 ,however1 as ,i
 do not wish to enter here into a       
discussion of the mind1 a task which    
would demand much labor and be of no    
interest to the public1 ,i shall admit  
the hypothesis that our most general and
 most necessary ideas--such as time1    
space1 substance1 and cause--exist      
originally in the mind2 or1 at least1   
are derived immediately from its        
constitution4  ,but it is a             
psychological fact none the less true1  
and one to which the philosophers have  
paid too little attention1 that habit1  
like a second nature1 has the power of  

fixing in the mind new categorical forms
 derived from the appearances which     
impress us1 and by them usually stripped
 of objective reality1 but whose        
influence over our judgments is no less 
predetermining than that of the original
 categories4 ,hence we reason by the    
,,eternal and ,,absolute laws of our    
mind1 and at the same time by the       
secondary rules1 ordinarily faulty1     
which are suggested to us by imperfect  
observation4 ,this is the most fecund   
source of false prejudices1 and the     
permanent and often invincible cause of 
a multitude of errors4 ,the bias        
resulting from these prejudices is so   
strong that often1 even when we are     
fighting against a principle which our  
mind thinks false1 which is repugnant to
 our reason1 and which our conscience   
disapproves1 we defend it without       
knowing it1 we reason in accordance with
 it1 and we obey it while attacking it4 
,enclosed within a circle1 our mind     
revolves about itself1 until a new      

observation1 creating within us new     
ideas1 brings to view an external       
principle which delivers us from the    
phantom by which our imagination is     
possessed4  ,thus1 we know to-day that1 
by the laws of a universal magnetism    
whose cause is still unknown1 two bodies
 7no obstacle intervening7 tend to unite
 by an accelerated impelling force which
 we call ,,gravitation4 ,it is          
gravitation which causes unsupported    
bodies to fall to the ground1 which     
gives them weight1 and which fastens us 
to the earth on which we live4          
,ignorance of this cause was the sole   
obstacle which prevented the ancients   
from believing in the antipodes4 ,can   
you not see1 said ,st4 ,augustine after 
,lactantius1 that1 if there were men    
under our feet1 their heads would point 
downward1 and that they would fall into 
the sky8 ,the bishop of ,hippo1 who     
thought the earth flat because it       
appeared so to the eye1 supposed in     
consequence that1 if we should connect  

by straight lines the zenith with the   
nadir in different places1 these lines  
would be parallel with each other2 and  
in the direction of these lines he      
traced every movement from above to     
below4 ,thence he naturally concluded   
that the stars were rolling torches set 
in the vault of the sky2 that1 if left  
to themselves1 they would fall to the   
earth in a shower of fire2 that the     
earth was one vast plain1 forming the   
lower portion of the world1 c4 ,if he   
had been asked by what the world itself 
was sustained1 he would have answered   
that he did not know1 but that to ,god  
nothing is impossible4 ,such were the   
ideas of ,st4 ,augustine in regard to   
space and movement1 ideas fixed within  
him by a prejudice derived from an      
appearance1 and which had become with   
him a general and categorical rule of   
judgment4 ,of the reason why bodies fall
 his mind knew nothing2 he could only   
say that a body falls because it falls4 
,with us the idea of a fall is more     

complex3 to the general ideas of space  
and movement which it implies1 we add   
that of attraction or direction towards 
a centre1 which gives us the higher idea
 of cause4 ,but if physics has fully    
corrected our judgment in this respect1 
we still make use of the prejudice of   
,st4 ,augustine2 and when we say that a 
thing has ,,fallen1 we do not mean      
simply and in general that there has    
been an effect of gravitation1 but      
specially and in particular that it is  
towards the earth1 and ,,from ,,above   
,,to ,,below1 that this movement has    
taken place4 ,our mind is enlightened in
 vain2 the imagination prevails1 and our
 language remains forever incorrigible4 
,to ,,descend ,,from ,,heaven is as     
incorrect an expression as to ,,mount   
,,to ,,heaven2 and yet this expression  
will live as long as men use language4  
,all these phrases--,,from ,,above ,,to 
,,below2 ,,to ,,descend ,,from ,,heaven2
 ,,to ,,fall ,,from ,,the ,,clouds1     
,c4--are henceforth harmless1 because we

 know how to rectify them in practice2  
but let us deign to consider for a      
moment how much they have retarded the  
progress of science4 ,if1 indeed1 it be 
a matter of little importance to        
statistics1 mechanics1 hydrodynamics1   
and ballistics1 that the true cause of  
the fall of bodies should be known1 and 
that our ideas of the general movements 
in space should be exact1 it is quite   
otherwise when we undertake to explain  
the system of the universe1 the cause of
 tides1 the shape of the earth1 and its 
position in the heavens3 to understand  
these things we must leave the circle of
 appearances4 ,in all ages there have   
been ingenious mechanicians1 excellent  
architects1 skilful artillerymen3 any   
error1 into which it was possible for   
them to fall in regard to the rotundity 
of the earth and gravitation1 in no wise
 retarded the development of their art2 
the solidity of their buildings and     
accuracy of their aim was not affected  
by it4 ,but sooner or later they were   

forced to grapple with phenomena1 which 
the supposed parallelism of all         
perpendiculars erected from the earth's 
surface rendered inexplicable3 then also
 commenced a struggle between the       
prejudices1 which for centuries had     
sufficed in daily practice1 and the     
unprecedented opinions which the        
testimony of the eyes seemed to         
contradict4  ,thus1 on the one hand1 the
 falsest judgments1 whether based on    
isolated facts or only on appearances1  
always embrace some truths whose sphere1
 whether large or small1 affords room   
for a certain number of inferences1     
beyond which we fall into absurdity4    
,the ideas of ,st4 ,augustine1 for      
example1 contained the following truths3
 that bodies fall towards the earth1    
that they fall in a straight line1 that 
either the sun or the earth moves1 that 
either the sky or the earth turns1 c4   
,these general facts always have been   
true2 our science has added nothing to  
them4 ,but1 on the other hand1 it being 

necessary to account for every thing1 we
 are obliged to seek for principles more
 and more comprehensive3 that is why we 
have had to abandon successively1 first 
the opinion that the world was flat1    
then the theory which regards it as the 
stationary centre of the universe1 c4   
,if we pass now from physical nature to 
the moral world1 we still find ourselves
 subject to the same deceptions of      
appearance1 to the same influences of   
spontaneity and habit4 ,but the         
distinguishing feature of this second   
division of our knowledge is1 on the one
 hand1 the good or the evil which we    
derive from our opinions2 and1 on the   
other1 the obstinacy with which we      
defend the prejudice which is tormenting
 and killing us4  ,whatever theory we   
embrace in regard to the shape of the   
earth and the cause of its weight1 the  
physics of the globe does not suffer2   
and1 as for us1 our social economy can  
derive therefrom neither profit nor     
damage4 ,but it is in us and through us 

that the laws of our moral nature work2 
now1 these laws cannot be executed      
without our deliberate aid1 and1        
consequently1 unless we know them4 ,if1 
then1 our science of moral laws is      
false1 it is evident that1 while        
desiring our own good1 we are           
accomplishing our own evil2 if it is    
only incomplete1 it may suffice for a   
time for our social progress1 but in the
 long run it will lead us into a wrong  
road1 and will finally precipitate us   
into an abyss of calamities4  ,then it  
is that we need to exercise our highest 
judgments2 and1 be it said to our glory1
 they are never found wanting3 but then 
also commences a furious struggle       
between old prejudices and new ideas4   
,days of conflagration and anguish6 ,we 
are told of the time when1 with the same
 beliefs1 with the same institutions1   
all the world seemed happy3 why complain
 of these beliefs2 why banish these     
institutions8 ,we are slow to admit that
 that happy age served the precise      

purpose of developing the principle of  
evil which lay dormant in society2 we   
accuse men and gods1 the powers of earth
 and the forces of ,nature4 ,instead of 
seeking the cause of the evil in his    
mind and heart1 man blames his masters1 
his rivals1 his neighbors1 and himself2 
nations arm themselves1 and slay and    
exterminate each other1 until           
equilibrium is restored by the vast     
depopulation1 and peace again arises    
from the ashes of the combatants4 ,so   
loath is humanity to touch the customs  
of its ancestors1 and to change the laws
 framed by the founders of communities1 
and confirmed by the faithful observance
 of the ages4  ,nihil motum ex antiquo  
probabile est3 ,distrust all            
innovations1 wrote ,titus ,livius4      
,undoubtedly it would be better were man
 not compelled to change3 but what6     
because he is born ignorant1 because he 
exists only on condition of gradual     
self-instruction1 must he abjure the    
light1 abdicate his reason1 and abandon 

himself to fortune8 ,perfect health is  
better than convalescence3 should the   
sick man1 therefore1 refuse to be cured8
 ,reform1 reform6 cried1 ages since1    
,john the ,baptist and ,jesus ,christ4  
,reform1 reform6 cried our fathers1     
fifty years ago2 and for a long time to 
come we shall shout1 ,reform1 reform6   
,seeing the misery of my age1 ,i said to
 myself3 ,among the principles that     
support society1 there is one which it  
does not understand1 which its ignorance
 has vitiated1 and which causes all the 
evil that exists4 ,this principle is the
 most ancient of all2 for it is a       
characteristic of revolutions to tear   
down the most modern principles1 and to 
respect those of long-standing4 ,now the
 evil by which we suffer is anterior to 
all revolutions4 ,this principle1       
impaired by our ignorance1 is honored   
and cherished2 for if it were not       
cherished it would harm nobody1 it would
 be without influence4  ,but this       
principle1 right in its purpose1 but    

misunderstood3 this principle1 as old as
 humanity1 what is it8 ,can it be       
religion8  ,all men believe in ,god3    
this dogma belongs at once to their     
conscience and their mind4 ,to humanity 
,god is a fact as primitive1 an idea as 
inevitable1 a principle as necessary as 
are the categorical ideas of cause1     
substance1 time1 and space to our       
understanding4 ,god is proven to us by  
the conscience prior to any inference of
 the mind2 just as the sun is proven to 
us by the testimony of the senses prior 
to all the arguments of physics4 ,we    
discover phenomena and laws by          
observation and experience2 only this   
deeper sense reveals to us existence4   
,humanity believes that ,god is2 but1 in
 believing in ,god1 what does it        
believe8 ,in a word1 what is ,god8  ,the
 nature of this notion of               
,divinity1--this primitive1 universal   
notion1 born in the race1--the human    
mind has not yet fathomed4 ,at each step
 that we take in our investigation of   

,nature and of causes1 the idea of ,god 
is extended and exalted2 the farther    
science advances1 the more ,god seems to
 grow and broaden4 ,anthropomorphism and
 idolatry constituted of necessity the  
faith of the mind in its youth1 the     
theology of infancy and poesy4 ,a       
harmless error1 if they had not         
endeavored to make it a rule of conduct1
 and if they had been wise enough to    
respect the liberty of thought4 ,but    
having made ,god in his own image1 man  
wished to appropriate him still farther2
 not satisfied with disfiguring the     
,almighty1 he treated him as his        
patrimony1 his goods1 his possessions4  
,god1 pictured in monstrous forms1      
became throughout the world the property
 of man and of the ,state4 ,such was the
 origin of the corruption of morals by  
religion1 and the source of pious feuds 
and holy wars4 ,thank ,heaven6 we have  
learned to allow every one his own      
beliefs2 we seek for moral laws outside 
the pale of religion4 ,instead of       

legislating as to the nature and        
attributes of ,god1 the dogmas of       
theology1 and the destiny of our souls1 
we wisely wait for science to tell us   
what to reject and what to accept4 ,god1
 soul1 religion1--eternal objects of our
 unwearied thought and our most fatal   
aberrations1 terrible problems whose    
solution1 for ever attempted1 for ever  
remains unaccomplished1--concerning all 
these questions we may still be         
mistaken1 but at least our error is     
harmless4 ,with liberty in religion1 and
 the separation of the spiritual from   
the temporal power1 the influence of    
religious ideas upon the progress of    
society is purely negative2 no law1 no  
political or civil institution being    
founded on religion4 ,neglect of duties 
imposed by religion may increase the    
general corruption1 but it is not the   
primary cause2 it is only an auxiliary  
or result4 ,it is universally admitted1 
and especially in the matter which now  
engages our attention1 that the cause of

 the inequality of conditions among     
men--of pauperism1 of universal misery1 
and of governmental embarrassments--can 
no longer be traced to religion3 we must
 go farther back1 and dig still deeper4 
,but what is there in man older and     
deeper than the religious sentiment8    
,there is man himself2 that is1 volition
 and conscience1 free-will and law1     
eternally antagonistic4 ,man is at war  
with himself3 why8  ,man1 say the       
theologians1 transgressed in the        
beginning2 our race is guilty of an     
ancient offence4 ,for this transgression
 humanity has fallen2 error and         
ignorance have become its sustenance4   
,read history1 you will find universal  
proof of this necessity for evil in the 
permanent misery of nations4 ,man       
suffers and always will suffer2 his     
disease is hereditary and               
constitutional4 ,use palliatives1 employ
 emollients2 there is no remedy4  ,nor  
is this argument peculiar to the        
theologians2 we find it expressed in    

equivalent language in the philosophical
 writings of the materialists1 believers
 in infinite perfectibility4 ,destutt de
 ,tracy teaches formally that poverty1  
crime1 and war are the inevitable       
conditions of our social state2         
necessary evils1 against which it would 
be folly to revolt4 ,so1 call it        
,,necessity ,,of ,,evil or ,,original   
,,depravity1 it is at bottom the same   
philosophy4  ,the first man             
transgressed4 ,if the votaries of the   
,bible interpreted it faithfully1 they  
would say3 ,,man ,,originally           
,,transgressed1 that is1 made a mistake2
 for ,,to ,,transgress1 ,,to ,,fail1    
,,to ,,make ,a ,,mistake1 all mean the  
same thing4  ,the consequences of       
,adam's transgression are inherited by  
the race2 the first is ignorance4       
,truly1 the race1 like the individual1  
is born ignorant2 but1 in regard to a   
multitude of questions1 even in the     
moral and political spheres1 this       
ignorance of the race has been          

dispelled3 who says that it will not    
depart altogether8 ,mankind makes       
continual progress toward truth1 and    
light ever triumphs over darkness4 ,our 
disease is not1 then1 absolutely        
incurable1 and the theory of the        
theologians is worse than inadequate2 it
 is ridiculous1 since it is reducible to
 this tautology3 ,man errs1 because he  
errs4 ,while the true statement is this3
 ,man errs1 because he learns4  ,now1 if
 man arrives at a knowledge of all that 
he needs to know1 it is reasonable to   
believe that1 ceasing to err1 he will   
cease to suffer4  ,but if we question   
the doctors as to this law1 said to be  
engraved upon the heart of man1 we shall
 immediately see that they dispute about
 a matter of which they know nothing2   
that1 concerning the most important     
questions1 there are almost as many     
opinions as authors2 that we find no two
 agreeing as to the best form of        
government1 the principle of authority1 
and the nature of right2 that all sail  

hap-hazard upon a shoreless and         
bottomless sea1 abandoned to the        
guidance of their private opinions which
 they modestly take to be right reason4 
,and1 in view of this medley of         
contradictory opinions1 we say3 ,the    
object of our investigations is the law1
 the determination of the social        
principle4 ,now1 the politicians1 that  
is1 the social scientists1 do not       
understand each other2 then the error   
lies in themselves2 and1 as every error 
has a reality for its object1 we must   
look in their books to find the truth   
which they have unconsciously deposited 
there4  ,now1 of what do the lawyers and
 the publicists treat8 ,of ,,justice1   
,,equity1 ,,liberty1 ,,natural ,,law1   
,,civil ,,laws1 c4 ,but what is justice8
 ,what is its principle1 its character1 
its formula8 ,to this question our      
doctors evidently have no reply2 for    
otherwise their science1 starting with a
 principle clear and well defined1 would
 quit the region of probabilities1 and  

all disputes would end4  ,what is       
justice8 ,the theologians answer3 ,all  
justice comes from ,god4 ,that is true2 
but we know no more than before4  ,the  
philosophers ought to be better         
informed3 they have argued so much about
 justice and injustice6 ,unhappily1 an  
examination proves that their knowledge 
amounts to nothing1 and that with       
them--as with the savages whose every   
prayer to the sun is simply ,o6 ,o6--it 
is a cry of admiration1 love1 and       
enthusiasm2 but who does not know that  
the sun attaches little meaning to the  
interjection ,o6 ,that is exactly our   
position toward the philosophers in     
regard to justice4 ,justice1 they say1  
is a ,,daughter ,,of ,,heaven2 ,a       
,,light ,,which ,,illumines ,,every     
,,man ,,that ,,comes ,,into ,,the       
,,world2 ,,the ,,most ,,beautiful       
,,prerogative ,,of ,,our ,,nature2      
,,that ,,which ,,distinguishes ,,us     
,,from ,,the ,,beasts ,,and ,,likens    
,,us ,,to ,,god--and a thousand other   

similar things4 ,what1 ,i ask1 does this
 pious litany amount to8 ,to the prayer 
of the savages3 ,o6  ,all the most      
reasonable teachings of human wisdom    
concerning justice are summed up in that
 famous adage3 ,,do ,,unto ,,others     
,,that ,,which ,,you ,,would ,,that     
,,others ,,should ,,do ,,unto ,,you2    
,,do ,,not ,,unto ,,others ,,that       
,,which ,,you ,,would ,,not ,,that      
,,others ,,should ,,do ,,unto ,,you4    
,but this rule of moral practice is     
unscientific3 what have ,i a right to   
wish that others should do or not do to 
me8 ,it is of no use to tell me that my 
duty is equal to my right1 unless ,i am 
told at the same time what my right is4 
,let us try to arrive at something more 
precise and positive4  ,justice is the  
central star which governs societies1   
the pole around which the political     
world revolves1 the principle and the   
regulator of all transactions4 ,nothing 
takes place between men save in the name
 of ,,right2 nothing without the        

invocation of justice4 ,justice is not  
the work of the law3 on the contrary1   
the law is only a declaration and       
application of ,,justice in all         
circumstances where men are liable to   
come in contact4 ,if1 then1 the idea    
that we form of justice and right were  
ill-defined1 if it were imperfect or    
even false1 it is clear that all our    
legislative applications would be wrong1
 our institutions vicious1 our politics 
erroneous3 consequently there would be  
disorder and social chaos4  ,this       
hypothesis of the perversion of justice 
in our minds1 and1 as a necessary       
result1 in our acts1 becomes a          
demonstrated fact when it is shown that 
the opinions of men have not borne a    
constant relation to the notion of      
justice and its applications2 that at   
different periods they have undergone   
modifications3 in a word1 that there has
 been progress in ideas4 ,now1 that is  
what history proves by the most         
overwhelming testimony4  ,eighteen      

,hundred years ago1 the world1 under the
 rule of the ,caesars1 exhausted itself 
in slavery1 superstition1 and           
voluptuousness4 ,the people--intoxicated
 and1 as it were1 stupefied by their    
long-continued orgies--had lost the very
 notion of right and duty3 war and      
dissipation by turns swept them away2   
usury and the labor of machines 7that is
 of slaves71 by depriving them of the   
means of subsistence1 hindered them from
 continuing the species4 ,barbarism     
sprang up again1 in a hideous form1 from
 this mass of corruption1 and spread    
like a devouring leprosy over the       
depopulated provinces4 ,the wise foresaw
 the downfall of the empire1 but could  
devise no remedy4 ,what could they think
 indeed8 ,to save this old society it   
would have been necessary to change the 
objects of public esteem and veneration1
 and to abolish the rights affirmed by a
 justice purely secular2 they said3     
,rome has conquered through her politics
 and her gods2 any change in theology   

and public opinion would be folly and   
sacrilege4 ,rome1 merciful toward       
conquered nations1 though binding them  
in chains1 spared their lives2 slaves   
are the most fertile source of her      
wealth2 freedom of the nations would be 
the negation of her rights and the ruin 
of her finances4 ,rome1 in fact1        
enveloped in the pleasures and gorged   
with the spoils of the universe1 is kept
 alive by victory and government2 her   
luxury and her pleasures are the price  
of her conquests3 she can neither       
abdicate nor dispossess herself4 ,thus  
,rome had the facts and the law on her  
side4 ,her pretensions were justified by
 universal custom and the law of        
nations4 ,her institutions were based   
upon idolatry in religion1 slavery in   
the ,state1 and epicurism in private    
life2 to touch those was to shake       
society to its foundations1 and1 to use 
our modern expression1 to open the abyss
 of revolutions4 ,so the idea occurred  
to no one2 and yet humanity was dying in

 blood and luxury4  ,all at once a man  
appeared1 calling himself ,the ,word of 
,god4 ,it is not known to this day who  
he was1 whence he came1 nor what        
suggested to him his ideas4 ,he went    
about proclaiming everywhere that the   
end of the existing society was at hand1
 that the world was about to experience 
a new birth2 that the priests were      
vipers1 the lawyers ignoramuses1 and the
 philosophers hypocrites and liars2 that
 master and slave were equals1 that     
usury and every thing akin to it was    
robbery1 that proprietors and idlers    
would one day burn1 while the poor and  
pure in heart would find a haven of     
peace4  ,this man--,the ,word of        
,god--was denounced and arrested as a   
public enemy by the priests and the     
lawyers1 who well understood how to     
induce the people to demand his death4  
,but this judicial murder1 though it put
 the finishing stroke to their crimes1  
did not destroy the doctrinal seeds     
which ,the ,word of ,god had sown4      

,after his death1 his original disciples
 travelled about in all directions1     
preaching what they called the ,,good   
,,news1 creating in their turn millions 
of missionaries2 and1 when their task   
seemed to be accomplished1 dying by the 
sword of ,roman justice4 ,this          
persistent agitation1 the war of the    
executioners and martyrs1 lasted nearly 
three centuries1 ending in the          
conversion of the world4 ,idolatry was  
destroyed1 slavery abolished1           
dissolution made room for a more austere
 morality1 and the contempt for wealth  
was sometimes pushed almost to          
privation4  ,society was saved by the   
negation of its own principles1 by a    
revolution in its religion1 and by      
violation of its most sacred rights4 ,in
 this revolution1 the idea of justice   
spread to an extent that had not before 
been dreamed of1 never to return to its 
original limits4 ,heretofore justice had
 existed only for the masters2 #g it    
then commenced to exist for the slaves4 

,nevertheless1 the new religion at that 
time had borne by no means all its      
fruits4 ,there was a perceptible        
improvement of the public morals1 and a 
partial release from oppression2 but1   
other than that1 the ,,seeds ,,sown ,,by
 ,,the ,,son ,,of ,,man1 having fallen  
into idolatrous hearts1 had produced    
nothing save innumerable discords and a 
quasi-poetical mythology4 ,instead of   
developing into their practical         
consequences the principles of morality 
and government taught by ,the ,word of  
,god1 his followers busied themselves in
 speculations as to his birth1 his      
origin1 his person1 and his actions2    
they discussed his parables1 and from   
the conflict of the most extravagant    
opinions upon unanswerable questions and
 texts which no one understood1 was born
 ,,theology1--which may be defined as   
the ,,science ,,of ,,the ,,infinitely   
,,absurd4  ,the truth of ,,christianity 
did not survive the age of the apostles2
 the ,,gospel1 commented upon and       

symbolized by the ,greeks and ,latins1  
loaded with pagan fables1 became        
literally a mass of contradictions2 and 
to this day the reign of the            
,,infallible ,,church has been a long   
era of darkness4 ,it is said that the   
,,gates ,,of ,,hell will not always     
prevail1 that ,,the ,,word ,,of ,,god   
will return1 and that one day men will  
know truth and justice2 but that will be
 the death of ,greek and ,roman         
,catholicism1 just as in the light of   
science disappeared the caprices of     
opinion4  ,the monsters which the       
successors of the apostles were bent on 
destroying1 frightened for a moment1    
reappeared gradually1 thanks to the     
crazy fanaticism1 and sometimes the     
deliberate connivance1 of priests and   
theologians4 ,the history of the        
enfranchisement of the ,french communes 
offers constantly the spectacle of the  
ideas of justice and liberty spreading  
among the people1 in spite of the       
combined efforts of kings1 nobles1 and  

clergy4 ,in the year #aghi of the       
,christian era1 the ,french nation1     
divided by caste1 poor and oppressed1   
struggled in the triple net of royal    
absolutism1 the tyranny of nobles and   
parliaments1 and priestly intolerance4  
,there was the right of the king and the
 right of the priest1 the right of the  
patrician and the right of the plebeian2
 there were the privileges of birth1    
province1 communes1 corporations1 and   
trades2 and1 at the bottom of all1      
violence1 immorality1 and misery4 ,for  
some time they talked of reformation2   
those who apparently desired it most    
favoring it only for their own profit1  
and the people who were to be the       
gainers expecting little and saying     
nothing4 ,for a long time these poor    
people1 either from distrust1           
incredulity1 or despair1 hesitated to   
ask for their rights3 it is said that   
the habit of serving had taken the      
courage away from those old communes1   
which in the middle ages were so bold4  

,finally a book appeared1 summing up the
 whole matter in these two propositions3
 ,,what ,,is ,,the ,,third              
,,estate8--,,nothing4 ,,what ,,ought    
,,it ,,to ,,be8--,,every ,,thing4 ,some 
one added by way of comment3 ,,what ,,is
 ,,the ,,king8--,,the ,,servant ,,of    
,,the ,,people4  ,this was a sudden     
revelation3 the veil was torn aside1 a  
thick bandage fell from all eyes4 ,the  
people commenced to reason thus3--  ,if 
the king is our servant1 he ought to    
report to us2  ,if he ought to report to
 us1 he is subject to control2  ,if he  
can be controlled1 he is responsible2   
,if he is responsible1 he is punishable2
  ,if he is punishable1 he ought to be  
punished according to his merits2  ,if  
he ought to be punished according to his
 merits1 he can be punished with death4 
,five years after the publication of the
 brochure of ,sieyes1 the third estate  
was every thing2 the king1 the nobility1
 the clergy1 were no more4 ,in #agic1   
the nation1 without stopping at the     

constitutional fiction of the           
inviolability of the sovereign1         
conducted ,louis ,,xvi4 to the scaffold2
 in #ahcj1 it accompanied ,charles ,x4  
to ,cherbourg4 ,in each case1 it may    
have erred1 in fact1 in its judgment of 
the offence2 but1 in right1 the logic   
which led to its action was             
irreproachable4 ,the people1 in         
punishing their sovereign1 did precisely
 that which the government of ,july was 
so severely censured for failing to do  
when it refused to execute ,louis       
,bonaparte after the affair of          
,strasburg3 they struck the true        
culprit4 ,it was an application of the  
common law1 a solemn decree of justice  
enforcing the penal laws4 #h  ,the      
spirit which gave rise to the movement  
of '#hi was a spirit of negation2 that1 
of itself1 proves that the order of     
things which was substituted for the old
 system was not methodical or           
well-considered2 that1 born of anger and
 hatred1 it could not have the effect of

 a science based on observation and     
study2 that its foundations1 in a word1 
were not derived from a profound        
knowledge of the laws of ,nature and    
society4 ,thus the people found that the
 republic1 among the so-called new      
institutions1 was acting on the very    
principles against which they had       
fought1 and was swayed by all the       
prejudices which they had intended to   
destroy4 ,we congratulate ourselves1    
with inconsiderate enthusiasm1 on the   
glorious ,french ,revolution1 the       
regeneration of #aghi1 the great changes
 that have been effected1 and the       
reversion of institutions3 a delusion1 a
 delusion6  ,when our ideas on any      
subject1 material1 intellectual1 or     
social1 undergo a thorough change in    
consequence of new observations1 ,i call
 that movement of the mind ,,revolution4
 ,if the ideas are simply extended or   
modified1 there is only ,,progress4     
,thus the system of ,ptolemy was a step 
in astronomical progress1 that of       

,copernicus was a revolution4 ,so1 in   
#aghi1 there was struggle and progress2 
revolution there was none4 ,an          
examination of the reforms which were   
attempted proves this4  ,the nation1 so 
long a victim of monarchical            
selfishness1 thought to deliver itself  
for ever by declaring that it alone was 
sovereign4 ,but what was monarchy8 ,the 
sovereignty of one man4 ,what is        
democracy8 ,the sovereignty of the      
nation1 or1 rather1 of the national     
majority4 ,but it is1 in both cases1 the
 sovereignty of man instead of the      
sovereignty of the law1 the sovereignty 
of the will instead of the sovereignty  
of the reason2 in one word1 the passions
 instead of justice4 ,undoubtedly1 when 
a nation passes from the monarchical to 
the democratic state1 there is progress1
 because in multiplying the sovereigns  
we increase the opportunities of the    
reason to substitute itself for the     
will2 but in reality there is no        
revolution in the government1 since the 

principle remains the same4 ,now1 we    
have the proof to-day that1 with the    
most perfect democracy1 we cannot be    
free4 #i  ,nor is that all4 ,the        
nation-king cannot exercise its         
sovereignty itself2 it is obliged to    
delegate it to agents3 this is          
constantly reiterated by those who seek 
to win its favor4 ,be these agents five1
 ten1 one hundred1 or a thousand1 of    
what consequence is the number2 and what
 matters the name8 ,it is always the    
government of man1 the rule of will and 
caprice4 ,i ask what this pretended     
revolution has revolutionized8  ,we     
know1 too1 how this sovereignty was     
exercised2 first by the ,convention1    
then by the ,directory1 afterwards      
confiscated by the ,consul4 ,as for the 
,emperor1 the strong man so much adored 
and mourned by the nation1 he never     
wanted to be dependent on it2 but1 as if
 intending to set its sovereignty at    
defiance1 he dared to demand its        
suffrage3 that is1 its abdication1 the  

abdication of this inalienable          
sovereignty2 and he obtained it4  ,but  
what is sovereignty8 ,it is1 they say1  
the ,,power ,,to ,,make ,,law4 #aj      
,another absurdity1 a relic of          
despotism4 ,the nation had long seen    
kings issuing their commands in this    
form3 ,,for ,,such ,,is ,,our           
,,pleasure2 it wished to taste in its   
turn the pleasure of making laws4 ,for  
fifty years it has brought them forth by
 myriads2 always1 be it understood1     
through the agency of representatives4  
,the play is far from ended4  ,the      
definition of sovereignty was derived   
from the definition of the law4 ,the    
law1 they said1 is ,,the ,,expression   
,,of ,,the ,,will ,,of ,,the            
,,sovereign3 then1 under a monarchy1 the
 law is the expression of the will of   
the king2 in a republic1 the law is the 
expression of the will of the people4   
,aside from the difference in the number
 of wills1 the two systems are exactly  
identical3 both share the same error1   

namely1 that the law is the expression  
of a will2 it ought to be the expression
 of a fact4 ,moreover they followed good
 leaders3 they took the citizen of      
,geneva for their prophet1 and the      
contrat social for their ,koran4  ,bias 
and prejudice are apparent in all the   
phrases of the new legislators4 ,the    
nation had suffered from a multitude of 
exclusions and privileges2 its          
representatives issued the following    
declaration3 ,,all ,,men ,,are ,,equal  
,,by ,,nature ,,and ,,before ,,the      
,,law2 an ambiguous and redundant       
declaration4 ,,men ,,are ,,equal ,,by   
,,nature3 does that mean that they are  
equal in size1 beauty1 talents1 and     
virtue8 ,no2 they meant1 then1 political
 and civil equality4 ,then it would have
 been sufficient to have said3 ,,all    
,,men ,,are ,,equal ,,before ,,the      
,,law4  ,but what is equality before the
 law8 ,neither the constitution of      
#agij1 nor that of '#ic1 nor the granted
 charter1 nor the accepted charter1 have

 defined it accurately4 ,all imply an   
inequality in fortune and station       
incompatible with even a shadow of      
equality in rights4 ,in this respect it 
may be said that all our constitutions  
have been faithful expressions of the   
popular will3 ,i am going1 to prove it4 
,formerly the people were excluded from 
civil and military offices2 it was      
considered a wonder when the following  
high-sounding article was inserted in   
the ,declaration of ,rights3 ,all       
citizens are equally eligible to office2
 free nations know no qualifications in 
their choice of officers save virtues   
and talents4  ,they certainly ought to  
have admired so beautiful an idea3 they 
admired a piece of nonsense4 ,why6 the  
sovereign people1 legislators1 and      
reformers1 see in public offices1 to    
speak plainly1 only opportunities for   
pecuniary advancement4 ,and1 because it 
regards them as a source of profit1 it  
decrees the eligibility of citizens4    
,for of what use would this precaution  

be1 if there were nothing to gain by it8
 ,no one would think of ordaining that  
none but astronomers and geographers    
should be pilots1 nor of prohibiting    
stutterers from acting at the theatre   
and the opera4 ,the nation was still    
aping the kings3 like them it wished to 
award the lucrative positions to its    
friends and flatterers4 ,unfortunately1 
and this last feature completes the     
resemblance1 the nation did not control 
the list of livings2 that was in the    
hands of its agents and representatives4
 ,they1 on the other hand1 took care not
 to thwart the will of their gracious   
sovereign4  ,this edifying article of   
the ,declaration of ,rights1 retained in
 the charters of #ahad and #ahcj1       
implies several kinds of civil          
inequality2 that is1 of inequality      
before the law3 inequality of station1  
since the public functions are sought   
only for the consideration and          
emoluments which they bring2 inequality 
of wealth1 since1 if it had been desired

 to equalize fortunes1 public service   
would have been regarded as a duty1 not 
as a reward2 inequality of privilege1   
the law not stating what it means by    
,,talents and ,,virtues4 ,under the     
empire1 virtue and talent consisted     
simply in military bravery and devotion 
to the emperor2 that was shown when     
,napoleon created his nobility1 and     
attempted to connect it with the        
ancients4 ,to-day1 the man who pays     
taxes to the amount of two hundred      
francs is virtuous2 the talented man is 
the honest pickpocket3 such truths as   
these are accounted trivial4  ,the      
people finally legalized property4 ,god 
forgive them1 for they knew not what    
they did6 ,for fifty years they have    
suffered for their miserable folly4 ,but
 how came the people1 whose voice1 they 
tell us1 is the voice of ,god1 and whose
 conscience is infallible1--how came the
 people to err8 ,how happens it that1   
when seeking liberty and equality1 they 
fell back into privilege and slavery8   

,always through copying the ancient     
regime4  ,formerly1 the nobility and the
 clergy contributed towards the expenses
 of the ,state only by voluntary aid and
 gratuitous gift2 their property could  
not be seized even for debt1--while the 
plebeian1 overwhelmed by taxes and      
statute-labor1 was continually          
tormented1 now by the king's            
tax-gatherers1 now by those of the      
nobles and clergy4 ,he whose possessions
 were subject to mortmain could neither 
bequeath nor inherit property2 he was   
treated like the animals1 whose services
 and offspring belong to their master by
 right of accession4 ,the people wanted 
the conditions of ,,ownership to be     
alike for all2 they thought that every  
one should ,,enjoy ,,and ,,freely       
,,dispose ,,of ,,his ,,possessions ,,his
 ,,income ,,and ,,the ,,fruit ,,of ,,his
 ,,labor ,,and ,,industry4 ,the people  
did not invent property2 but as they had
 not the same privileges in regard to   
it1 which the nobles and clergy         

possessed1 they decreed that the right  
should be exercised by all under the    
same conditions4 ,the more obnoxious    
forms of property--statute-labor1       
mortmain1 maitrise1 and exclusion from  
public office--have disappeared2 the    
conditions of its enjoyment have been   
modified3 the principle still remains   
the same4 ,there has been progress in   
the regulation of the right2 there has  
been no revolution4  ,these1 then1 are  
the three fundamental principles of     
modern society1 established one after   
another by the movements of #aghi and   
#ahcj3 #a4 ,,sovereignty ,,of ,,the     
,,human ,,will2 in short1 ,,despotism4  
#b4 ,,inequality ,,of ,,wealth ,,and    
,,rank4 #c4 ,,property--above ,,justice1
 always invoked as the guardian angel of
 sovereigns1 nobles1 and proprietors2   
,,justice1 the general1 primitive1      
categorical law of all society4  ,we    
must ascertain whether the ideas of     
,,despotism1 ,,civil ,,inequality and   
,,property1 are in harmony with the     

primitive notion of ,,justice1 and      
necessarily follow from it1--assuming   
various forms according to the          
condition1 position1 and relation of    
persons2 or whether they are not rather 
the illegitimate result of a confusion  
of different things1 a fatal association
 of ideas4 ,and since justice deals     
especially with the questions of        
government1 the condition of persons1   
and the possession of things1 we must   
ascertain under what conditions1 judging
 by universal opinion and the progress  
of the human mind1 government is just1  
the condition of citizens is just1 and  
the possession of things is just2 then1 
striking out every thing which fails to 
meet these conditions1 the result will  
at once tell us what legitimate         
government is1 what the legitimate      
condition of citizens is1 and what the  
legitimate possession of things is2 and 
finally1 as the last result of the      
analysis1 what ,,justice is4  ,is the   
authority of man over man just8         

,everybody answers1 ,no2 the authority  
of man is only the authority of the law1
 which ought to be justice and truth4   
,the private will counts for nothing in 
government1 which consists1 first1 in   
discovering truth and justice in order  
to make the law2 and1 second1 in        
superintending the execution of this    
law4 ,i do not now inquire whether our  
constitutional form of government       
satisfies these conditions2 whether1 for
 example1 the will of the ministry never
 influences the declaration and         
interpretation of the law2 or whether   
our deputies1 in their debates1 are more
 intent on conquering by argument than  
by force of numbers3 it is enough for me
 that my definition of a good government
 is allowed to be correct4 ,this idea is
 exact4 ,yet we see that nothing seems  
more just to the ,oriental nations than 
the despotism of their sovereigns2 that1
 with the ancients and in the opinion of
 the philosophers themselves1 slavery   
was just2 that in the middle ages the   

nobles1 the priests1 and the bishops    
felt justified in holding slaves2 that  
,louis ,,xiv4 thought that he was right 
when he said1 ,the ,state6 ,i am the    
,state2 and that ,napoleon deemed it a  
crime for the ,state to oppose his will4
 ,the idea of justice1 then1 applied to 
sovereignty and government1 has not     
always been what it is to-day2 it has   
gone on developing and shaping itself by
 degrees1 until it has arrived at its   
present state4 ,but has it reached its  
last phase8 ,i think not3 only1 as the  
last obstacle to be overcome arises from
 the institution of property which we   
have kept intact1 in order to finish the
 reform in government and consummate the
 revolution1 this very institution we   
must attack4  ,is political and civil   
inequality just8  ,some say yes2 others 
no4 ,to the first ,i would reply that1  
when the people abolished all privileges
 of birth and caste1 they did it1 in all
 probability1 because it was for their  
advantage2 why then do they favor the   

privileges of fortune more than those of
 rank and race8 ,because1 say they1     
political inequality is a result of     
property2 and without property society  
is impossible3 thus the question just   
raised becomes a question of property4  
,to the second ,i content myself with   
this remark3 ,if you wish to enjoy      
political equality1 abolish property2   
otherwise1 why do you complain8  ,is    
property just8  ,everybody answers      
without hesitation1 ,yes1 property is   
just4 ,i say everybody1 for up to the   
present time no one who thoroughly      
understood the meaning of his words has 
answered no4 ,for it is no easy thing to
 reply understandingly to such a        
question2 only time and experience can  
furnish an answer4 ,now1 this answer is 
given2 it is for us to understand it4 ,i
 undertake to prove it4  ,we are to     
proceed with the demonstration in the   
following order3--  ,i4 ,we dispute not 
at all1 we refute nobody1 we deny       
nothing2 we accept as sound all the     

arguments alleged in favor of property1 
and confine ourselves to a search for   
its principle1 in order that we may then
 ascertain whether this principle is    
faithfully expressed by property4 ,in   
fact1 property being defensible on no   
ground save that of justice1 the idea1  
or at least the intention1 of justice   
must of necessity underlie all the      
arguments that have been made in defence
 of property2 and1 as on the other hand 
the right of property is only exercised 
over those things which can be          
appreciated by the senses1 justice1     
secretly objectifying itself1 so to     
speak1 must take the shape of an        
algebraic formula4  ,by this method of  
investigation1 we soon see that every   
argument which has been invented in     
behalf of property1 ,,whatever ,,it     
,,may ,,be1 always and of necessity     
leads to equality2 that is1 to the      
negation of property4  ,the first part  
covers two chapters3 one treating of    
occupation1 the foundation of our right2

 the other1 of labor and talent1        
considered as causes of property and    
social inequality4  ,the first of these 
chapters will prove that the right of   
occupation ,,obstructs property2 the    
second that the right of labor          
,,destroys it4  ,,ii4 ,property1 then1  
being of necessity conceived as existing
 only in connection with equality1 it   
remains to find out why1 in spite of    
this necessity of logic1 equality does  
not exist4 ,this new investigation also 
covers two chapters3 in the first1      
considering the fact of property in     
itself1 we inquire whether this fact is 
real1 whether it exists1 whether it is  
possible2 for it would imply a          
contradiction1 were these two opposite  
forms of society1 equality and          
inequality1 both possible4 ,then we     
discover1 singularly enough1 that       
property may indeed manifest itself     
accidentally2 but that1 as an           
institution and principle1 it is        
mathematically impossible4 ,so that the 

axiom of the school--ab actu ad posse   
valet consecutio3 from the actual to the
 possible the inference is good--is     
given the lie as far as property is     
concerned4  ,finally1 in the last       
chapter1 calling psychology to our aid1 
and probing man's nature to the bottom1 
we shall disclose the principle of      
,,justice--its formula and character2 we
 shall state with precision the organic 
law of society2 we shall explain the    
origin of property1 the causes of its   
establishment1 its long life1 and its   
approaching death2 we shall definitively
 establish its identity with robbery4   
,and1 after having shown that these     
three prejudices--,,the ,,sovereignty   
,,of ,,man1 ,,the ,,inequality ,,of     
,,conditions1 ,,and ,,property--are one 
and the same2 that they may be taken for
 each other1 and are reciprocally       
convertible1--we shall have no trouble  
in inferring therefrom1 by the principle
 of contradiction1 the basis of         
government and right4 ,there our        

investigations will end1 reserving the  
right to continue them in future works4 
,the importance of the subject which    
engages our attention is recognized by  
all minds4   ,property1 says ,m4        
,hennequin1 is the creative and         
conservative principle of civil society4
 ,property is one of those basic        
institutions1 new theories concerning   
which cannot be presented too soon2 for 
it must not be forgotten1 and the       
publicist and statesman must know1 that 
on the answer to the question whether   
property is the principle or the result 
of social order1 whether it is to be    
considered as a cause or an effect1     
depends all morality1 and1 consequently1
 all the authority of human             
institutions4   ,these words are a      
challenge to all men of hope and faith2 
but1 although the cause of equality is a
 noble one1 no one has yet picked up the
 gauntlet thrown down by the advocates  
of property2 no one has been courageous 
enough to enter upon the struggle4 ,the 

spurious learning of haughty            
jurisprudence1 and the absurd aphorisms 
of a political economy controlled by    
property have puzzled the most generous 
minds2 it is a sort of password among   
the most influential friends of liberty 
and the interests of the people that    
,,equality ,,is ,a ,,chimera6 ,so many  
false theories and meaningless analogies
 influence minds otherwise keen1 but    
which are unconsciously controlled by   
popular prejudice4 ,equality advances   
every day--fit aequalitas4 ,soldiers of 
liberty1 shall we desert our flag in the
 hour of triumph8  ,a defender of       
equality1 ,i shall speak without        
bitterness and without anger2 with the  
independence becoming a philosopher1    
with the courage and firmness of a free 
man4 ,may ,i1 in this momentous         
struggle1 carry into all hearts the     
light with which ,i am filled2 and show1
 by the success of my argument1 that    
equality failed to conquer by the sword 
only that it might conquer by the pen6  

,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,property ,,considered 
,,as ,a ,,natural ,,right               
,,property ,,considered ,,as ,a         
,,natural ,,right4--,,occupation ,,and  
,,civil ,,law ,,as ,,efficient ,,bases  
,,of ,,property4 ,,definitions4  ,the   
,roman law defined property as the right
 to use and abuse one's own within the  
limits of the law--jus utendi et        
abutendi re sua1 quatenus juris ratio   
patitur4 ,a justification of the word   
,,abuse has been attempted1 on the      
ground that it signifies1 not senseless 
and immoral abuse1 but only absolute    
domain4 ,vain distinction6 invented as  
an excuse for property1 and powerless   
against the frenzy of possession1 which 
it neither prevents nor represses4 ,the 
proprietor may1 if he chooses1 allow his
 crops to rot under foot2 sow his field 
with salt2 milk his cows on the sand2   
change his vineyard into a desert1 and  
use his vegetable-garden as a park3 do  
these things constitute abuse1 or not8  
,in the matter of property1 use and     

abuse are necessarily indistinguishable4
  ,according to the ,declaration of     
,rights1 published as a preface to the  
,constitution of '#ic1 property is the  
right to enjoy and dispose at will of   
one's goods1 one's income1 and the fruit
 of one's labor and industry4  ,code    
,napoleon1 article #edd3 ,property is   
the right to enjoy and dispose of things
 in the most absolute manner1 provided  
we do not overstep the limits prescribed
 by the laws and regulations4  ,these   
two definitions do not differ from that 
of the ,roman law3 all give the         
proprietor an absolute right over a     
thing2 and as for the restriction       
imposed by the code1--,,provided ,,we   
,,do ,,not ,,overstep ,,the ,,limits    
,,prescribed ,,by ,,the ,,laws ,,and    
,,regulations1--its object is not to    
limit property1 but to prevent the      
domain of one proprietor from           
interfering with that of another4 ,that 
is a confirmation of the principle1 not 
a limitation of it4  ,there are         

different kinds of property3 #a4        
,property pure and simple1 the dominant 
and seigniorial power over a thing2 or1 
as they term it1 ,,naked ,,property4 #b4
 ,,possession4 ,possession1 says        
,duranton1 is a matter of fact1 not of  
right4 ,toullier3 ,property is a right1 
a legal power2 possession is a fact4    
,the tenant1 the farmer1 the commandite1
 the usufructuary1 are possessors2 the  
owner who lets and lends for use1 the   
heir who is to come into possession on  
the death of a usufructuary1 are        
proprietors4 ,if ,i may venture the     
comparison3 a lover is a possessor1 a   
husband is a proprietor4  ,this double  
definition of property--domain and      
possession--is of the highest           
importance2 and it must be clearly      
understood1 in order to comprehend what 
is to follow4  ,from the distinction    
between possession and property arise   
two sorts of rights3 the jus in re1 the 
right in a thing1 the right by which ,i 
may reclaim the property which ,i have  

acquired1 in whatever hands ,i find it2 
and the jus ad rem1 the right ,,to a    
thing1 which gives me a claim to become 
a proprietor4 ,thus the right of the    
partners to a marriage over each other's
 person is the jus in re2 that of two   
who are betrothed is only the jus ad    
rem4 ,in the first1 possession and      
property are united2 the second includes
 only naked property4 ,with me who1 as a
 laborer1 have a right to the possession
 of the products of ,nature and my own  
industry1--and who1 as a proletaire1    
enjoy none of them1--it is by virtue of 
the jus ad rem that ,i demand admittance
 to the jus in re4  ,this distinction   
between the jus in re and the jus ad rem
 is the basis of the famous distinction 
between possessoire and                 
petitoire1--actual categories of        
jurisprudence1 the whole of which is    
included within their vast boundaries4  
,petitoire refers to every thing        
relating to property2 possessoire to    
that relating to possession4 ,in writing

 this memoir against property1 ,i bring 
against universal society an action     
petitoire3 ,i prove that those who do   
not possess to-day are proprietors by   
the same title as those who do possess2 
but1 instead of inferring therefrom that
 property should be shared by all1 ,i   
demand1 in the name of general security1
 its entire abolition4 ,if ,i fail to   
win my case1 there is nothing left for  
us 7the proletarian class and myself7   
but to cut our throats3 we can ask      
nothing more from the justice of        
nations2 for1 as the code of procedure  
7art #bf7 tells us in its energetic     
style1 ,,the ,,plaintiff ,,who ,,has    
,,been ,,non-,,suited ,,in ,,an ,,action
 ,,petitoire1 ,,is ,,debarred ,,thereby 
,,from ,,bringing ,,an ,,action         
,,possessoire4 ,if1 on the contrary1 ,i 
gain the case1 we must then commence an 
action possessoire1 that we may be      
reinstated in the enjoyment of the      
wealth of which we are deprived by      
property4 ,i hope that we shall not be  

forced to that extremity2 but these two 
actions cannot be prosecuted at once1   
such a course being prohibited by the   
same code of procedure4  ,before going  
to the heart of the question1 it will   
not be useless to offer a few           
preliminary remarks4   #a4--,property as
 a ,natural ,right4  ,the ,declaration  
of ,rights has placed property in its   
list of the natural and inalienable     
rights of man1 four in all3 ,,liberty1  
,,equality1 ,,property1 ,,security4     
,what rule did the legislators of '#ic  
follow in compiling this list8 ,none4   
,they laid down principles1 just as they
 discussed sovereignty and the laws2    
from a general point of view1 and       
according to their own opinion4 ,they   
did every thing in their own blind way4 
,if we can believe ,toullier3 ,the      
absolute rights can be reduced to three3
 ,,security1 ,,liberty1 ,,property4     
,equality is eliminated by the ,rennes  
professor2 why8 ,is it because ,,liberty
 implies it1 or because property        

prohibits it8 ,on this point the author 
of ,droit ,civil ,explique is silent3 it
 has not even occurred to him that the  
matter is under discussion4             
,nevertheless1 if we compare these three
 or four rights with each other1 we find
 that property bears no resemblance     
whatever to the others2 that for the    
majority of citizens it exists only     
potentially1 and as a dormant faculty   
without exercise2 that for the others1  
who do enjoy it1 it is susceptible of   
certain transactions and modifications  
which do not harmonize with the idea of 
a natural right2 that1 in practice1     
governments1 tribunals1 and laws do not 
respect it2 and finally that everybody1 
spontaneously and with one voice1       
regards it as chimerical4  ,liberty is  
inviolable4 ,i can neither sell nor     
alienate my liberty2 every contract1    
every condition of a contract1 which has
 in view the alienation or suspension of
 liberty1 is null3 the slave1 when he   
plants his foot upon the soil of        

liberty1 at that moment becomes a free  
man4 ,when society seizes a malefactor  
and deprives him of his liberty1 it is a
 case of legitimate defence3 whoever    
violates the social compact by the      
commission of a crime declares himself a
 public enemy2 in attacking the liberty 
of others1 he compels them to take away 
his own4 ,liberty is the original       
condition of man2 to renounce liberty is
 to renounce the nature of man3 after   
that1 how could we perform the acts of  
man8  ,likewise1 equality before the law
 suffers neither restriction nor        
exception4 ,all ,frenchmen are equally  
eligible to office3 consequently1 in the
 presence of this equality1 condition   
and family have1 in many cases1 no      
influence upon choice4 ,the poorest     
citizen can obtain judgment in the      
courts against one occupying the most   
exalted station4 ,let the millionaire1  
,ahab1 build a chateau upon the vineyard
 of ,naboth3 the court will have the    
power1 according to the circumstances1  

to order the destruction of the chateau1
 though it has cost millions2 and to    
force the trespasser to restore the     
vineyard to its original state1 and pay 
the damages4 ,the law wishes all        
property1 that has been legitimately    
acquired1 to be kept inviolate without  
regard to value1 and without respect for
 persons4  ,the charter demands1 it is  
true1 for the exercise of certain       
political rights1 certain conditions of 
fortune and capacity2 but all publicists
 know that the legislator's intention   
was not to establish a privilege1 but to
 take security4 ,provided the conditions
 fixed by law are complied with1 every  
citizen may be an elector1 and every    
elector eligible4 ,the right1 once      
acquired1 is the same for all2 the law  
compares neither persons nor votes4 ,i  
do not ask now whether this system is   
the best2 it is enough that1 in the     
opinion of the charter and in the eyes  
of every one1 equality before the law is
 absolute1 and1 like liberty1 admits of 

no compromise4  ,it is the same with the
 right of security4 ,society promises   
its members no half-way protection1 no  
sham defence2 it binds itself to them as
 they bind themselves to it4 ,it does   
not say to them1 ,i will shield you1    
provided it costs me nothing2 ,i will   
protect you1 if ,i run no risks thereby4
 ,it says1 ,i will defend you against   
everybody2 ,i will save and avenge you1 
or perish myself4  ,the whole strength  
of the ,state is at the service of each 
citizen2 the obligation which binds them
 together is absolute4  ,how different  
with property6 ,worshipped by all1 it is
 acknowledged by none3 laws1 morals1    
customs1 public and private conscience1 
all plot its death and ruin4  ,to meet  
the expenses of government1 which has   
armies to support1 tasks to perform1 and
 officers to pay1 taxes are needed4 ,let
 all contribute to these expenses3      
nothing more just4 ,but why should the  
rich pay more than the poor8 ,that is   
just1 they say1 because they possess    

more4 ,i confess that such justice is   
beyond my comprehension4  ,why are taxes
 paid8 ,to protect all in the exercise  
of their natural rights--liberty1       
equality1 security1 and property2 to    
maintain order in the ,state2 to furnish
 the public with useful and pleasant    
conveniences4  ,now1 does it cost more  
to defend the rich man's life and       
liberty than the poor man's8 ,who1 in   
time of invasion1 famine1 or plague1    
causes more trouble1--the large         
proprietor who escapes the evil without 
the assistance of the ,state1 or the    
laborer who sits in his cottage         
unprotected from danger8  ,is public    
order endangered more by the worthy     
citizen1 or by the artisan and          
journeyman8 ,why1 the police have more  
to fear from a few hundred laborers1 out
 of work1 than from two hundred thousand
 electors6  ,does the man of large      
income appreciate more keenly than the  
poor man national festivities1 clean    
streets1 and beautiful monuments8  ,why1

 he prefers his country-seat to all the 
popular pleasures2 and when he wants to 
enjoy himself1 he does not wait for the 
greased pole6  ,one of two things is    
true3 either the proportional tax       
affords greater security to the larger  
tax-payers1 or else it is a wrong4      
,because1 if property is a natural      
right1 as the ,declaration of '#ic      
declares1 all that belongs to me by     
virtue of this right is as sacred as my 
person2 it is my blood1 my life1 myself3
 whoever touches it offends the apple of
 my eye4 ,my income of one hundred      
thousand francs is as inviolable as the 
grisette's daily wage of seventy-five   
centimes2 her attic is no more sacred   
than my suite of apartments4 ,the tax is
 not levied in proportion to strength1  
size1 or skill3 no more should it be    
levied in proportion to property4  ,if1 
then1 the ,state takes more from me1 let
 it give me more in return1 or cease to 
talk of equality of rights2 for         
otherwise1 society is established1 not  

to defend property1 but to destroy it4  
,the ,state1 through the proportional   
tax1 becomes the chief of robbers2 the  
,state sets the example of systematic   
pillage3 the ,state should be brought to
 the bar of justice at the head of those
 hideous brigands1 that execrable mob   
which it now kills from motives of      
professional jealousy4  ,but1 they say1 
the courts and the police force are     
established to restrain this mob2       
government is a company1 not exactly for
 insurance1 for it does not insure1 but 
for vengeance and repression4 ,the      
premium which this company exacts1 the  
tax1 is divided in proportion to        
property2 that is1 in proportion to the 
trouble which each piece of property    
occasions the avengers and repressers   
paid by the government4  ,this is any   
thing but the absolute and inalienable  
right of property4 ,under this system   
the poor and the rich distrust1 and make
 war upon1 each other4 ,but what is the 
object of the war8 ,property4 ,so that  

property is necessarily accompanied by  
war upon property4 ,the liberty and     
security of the rich do not suffer from 
the liberty and security of the poor2   
far from that1 they mutually strengthen 
and sustain each other4 ,the rich man's 
right of property1 on the contrary1 has 
to be continually defended against the  
poor man's desire for property4 ,what a 
contradiction6 ,in ,england they have a 
poor-rate3 they wish me to pay this tax4
 ,but what relation exists between my   
natural and inalienable right of        
property and the hunger from which ten  
million wretched people are suffering8  
,when religion commands us to assist our
 fellows1 it speaks in the name of      
charity1 not in the name of law4 ,the   
obligation of benevolence1 imposed upon 
me by ,christian morality1 cannot be    
imposed upon me as a political tax for  
the benefit of any person or poor-house4
 ,i will give alms when ,i see fit to do
 so1 when the sufferings of others      
excite in me that sympathy of which     

philosophers talk1 and in which ,i do   
not believe3 ,i will not be forced to   
bestow them4 ,no one is obliged to do   
more than comply with this injunction3  
,,in ,,the ,,exercise ,,of ,,your ,,own 
,,rights ,,do ,,not ,,encroach ,,upon   
,,the ,,rights ,,of ,,another2 an       
injunction which is the exact definition
 of liberty4 ,now1 my possessions are my
 own2 no one has a claim upon them3 ,i  
object to the placing of the third      
theological virtue in the order of the  
day4  ,everybody1 in ,france1 demands   
the conversion of the five per cent4    
bonds2 they demand thereby the complete 
sacrifice of one species of property4   
,they have the right to do it1 if public
 necessity requires it2 but where is the
 just indemnity promised by the charter8
 ,not only does none exist1 but this    
indemnity is not even possible2 for1 if 
the indemnity were equal to the property
 sacrificed1 the conversion would be    
useless4  ,the ,state occupies the same 
position to-day toward the bondholders  

that the city of ,calais did1 when      
besieged by ,edward ,,iii1 toward its   
notables4 ,the ,english conqueror       
consented to spare its inhabitants1     
provided it would surrender to him its  
most distinguished citizens to do with  
as he pleased4 ,eustache and several    
others offered themselves2 it was noble 
in them1 and our ministers should       
recommend their example to the          
bondholders4 ,but had the city the right
 to surrender them8 ,assuredly not4 ,the
 right to security is absolute2 the     
country can require no one to sacrifice 
himself4 ,the soldier standing guard    
within the enemy's range is no exception
 to this rule4 ,wherever a citizen      
stands guard1 the country stands guard  
with him3 to-day it is the turn of the  
one1 to-morrow of the other4 ,when      
danger and devotion are common1 flight  
is parricide4 ,no one has the right to  
flee from danger2 no one can serve as a 
scapegoat4 ,the maxim of ,caiaphas--,,it
 ,,is ,,right ,,that ,a ,,man ,,should  

,,die ,,for ,,his ,,nation--is that of  
the populace and of tyrants2 the two    
extremes of social degradation4  ,it is 
said that all perpetual annuities are   
essentially redeemable4 ,this maxim of  
civil law1 applied to the ,state1 is    
good for those who wish to return to the
 natural equality of labor and wealth2  
but1 from the point of view of the      
proprietor1 and in the mouth of         
conversionists1 it is the language of   
bankrupts4 ,the ,state is not only a    
borrower1 it is an insurer and guardian 
of property2 granting the best of       
security1 it assures the most inviolable
 possession4 ,how1 then1 can it force   
open the hands of its creditors1 who    
have confidence in it1 and then talk to 
them of public order and security of    
property8 ,the ,state1 in such an       
operation1 is not a debtor who          
discharges his debt2 it is a            
stock-company which allures its         
stockholders into a trap1 and there1    
contrary to its authentic promise1      

exacts from them twenty1 thirty1 or     
forty per cent4 of the interest on their
 capital4  ,that is not all4 ,the ,state
 is a university of citizens joined     
together under a common law by an act of
 society4 ,this act secures all in the  
possession of their property2 guarantees
 to one his field1 to another his       
vineyard1 to a third his rents1 and to  
the bondholder1 who might have bought   
real estate but who preferred to come to
 the assistance of the treasury1 his    
bonds4 ,the ,state cannot demand1       
without offering an equivalent1 the     
sacrifice of an acre of the field or a  
corner of the vineyard2 still less can  
it lower rents3 why should it have the  
right to diminish the interest on bonds8
 ,this right could not justly exist1    
unless the bondholder could invest his  
funds elsewhere to equal advantage2 but 
being confined to the ,state1 where can 
he find a place to invest them1 since   
the cause of conversion1 that is1 the   
power to borrow to better advantage1    

lies in the ,state8 ,that is why a      
government1 based on the principle of   
property1 cannot redeem its annuities   
without the consent of their holders4   
,the money deposited with the republic  
is property which it has no right to    
touch while other kinds of property are 
respected2 to force their redemption is 
to violate the social contract1 and     
outlaw the bondholders4  ,the whole     
controversy as to the conversion of     
bonds finally reduces itself to this3-- 
,,question4 ,is it just to reduce to    
misery forty-five thousand families who 
derive an income from their bonds of one
 hundred francs or less8  ,,answer4 ,is 
it just to compel seven or eight        
millions of tax-payers to pay a tax of  
five francs1 when they should pay only  
three8 ,it is clear1 in the first place1
 that the reply is in reality no reply2 
but1 to make the wrong more apparent1   
let us change it thus3 ,is it just to   
endanger the lives of one hundred       
thousand men1 when we can save them by  

surrendering one hundred heads to the   
enemy8 ,reader1 decide6  ,all this is   
clearly understood by the defenders of  
the present system4 ,yet1 nevertheless1 
sooner or later1 the conversion will be 
effected and property be violated1      
because no other course is possible2    
because property1 regarded as a right1  
and not being a right1 must of right    
perish2 because the force of events1 the
 laws of conscience1 and physical and   
mathematical necessity must1 in the end1
 destroy this illusion of our minds4    
,to sum up3 liberty is an absolute      
right1 because it is to man what        
impenetrability is to matter1--a sine   
qua non of existence2 equality is an    
absolute right1 because without equality
 there is no society2 security is an    
absolute right1 because in the eyes of  
every man his own liberty and life are  
as precious as another's4 ,these three  
rights are absolute2 that is1           
susceptible of neither increase nor     
diminution2 because in society each     

associate receives as much as he        
gives1--liberty for liberty1 equality   
for equality1 security for security1    
body for body1 soul for soul1 in life   
and in death4  ,but property1 in its    
derivative sense1 and by the definitions
 of law1 is a right outside of society2 
for it is clear that1 if the wealth of  
each was social wealth1 the conditions  
would be equal for all1 and it would be 
a contradiction to say3 ,,property ,,is 
,a ,,man',s ,,right ,,to ,,dispose ,,at 
,,will ,,of ,,social ,,property4 ,then  
if we are associated for the sake of    
liberty1 equality1 and security1 we are 
not associated for the sake of property2
 then if property is a ,,natural right1 
this natural right is not ,,social1 but 
,,anti-,,social4 ,property and society  
are utterly irreconcilable institutions4
 ,it is as impossible to associate two  
proprietors as to join two magnets by   
their opposite poles4 ,either society   
must perish1 or it must destroy         
property4  ,if property is a natural1   

absolute1 imprescriptible1 and          
inalienable right1 why1 in all ages1 has
 there been so much speculation as to   
its origin8--for this is one of its     
distinguishing characteristics4 ,the    
origin of a natural right6 ,good ,god6  
who ever inquired into the origin of the
 rights of liberty1 security1 or        
equality8 ,they exist by the same right 
that we exist2 they are born with us1   
they live and die with us4 ,with        
property it is very different1 indeed4  
,by law1 property can exist without a   
proprietor1 like a quality without a    
subject4 ,it exists for the human being 
who as yet is not1 and for the          
octogenarian who is no more4 ,and yet1  
in spite of these wonderful prerogatives
 which savor of the eternal and the     
infinite1 they have never found the     
origin of property2 the doctors still   
disagree4 ,on one point only are they in
 harmony3 namely1 that the validity of  
the right of property depends upon the  
authenticity of its origin4 ,but this   

harmony is their condemnation4 ,why have
 they acknowledged the right before     
settling the question of origin8        
,certain classes do not relish          
investigation into the pretended titles 
to property1 and its fabulous and       
perhaps scandalous history4 ,they wish  
to hold to this proposition3 that       
property is a fact2 that it always has  
been1 and always will be4 ,with that    
proposition the savant ,proudhon #aa    
commenced his ,treatise on the ,right of
 ,usufruct1 regarding the origin of     
property as a useless question4 ,perhaps
 ,i would subscribe to this doctrine1   
believing it inspired by a commendable  
love of peace1 were all my              
fellow-citizens in comfortable          
circumstances2 but1 no6 ,i will not     
subscribe to it4  ,the titles on which  
they pretend to base the right of       
property are two in number3 ,,occupation
 and ,,labor4 ,i shall examine them     
successively1 under all their aspects   
and in detail2 and ,i remind the reader 

that1 to whatever authority we appeal1  
,i shall prove beyond a doubt that      
property1 to be just and possible1 must 
necessarily have equality for its       
condition4    #b4--,occupation1 as the  
,title to ,property4  ,it is remarkable 
that1 at those meetings of the ,state   
,council at which the ,code was         
discussed1 no controversy arose as to   
the origin and principle of property4   
,all the articles of ,vol4 ,,ii41 ,book 
#b1 concerning property and the right of
 accession1 were passed without         
opposition or amendment4 ,bonaparte1 who
 on other questions had given his       
legists so much trouble1 had nothing to 
say about property4 ,be not surprised at
 it3 in the eyes of that man1 the most  
selfish and wilful person that ever     
lived1 property was the first of rights1
 just as submission to authority was the
 most holy of duties4  ,the right of    
,,occupation1 or of the ,,first         
,,occupant1 is that which results from  
the actual1 physical1 real possession of

 a thing4 ,i occupy a piece of land2 the
 presumption is1 that ,i am the         
proprietor1 until the contrary is       
proved4 ,we know that originally such a 
right cannot be legitimate unless it is 
reciprocal2 the jurists say as much4    
,cicero compares the earth to a vast    
theatre3 ,quemadmodum theatrum cum      
commune sit1 recte tamen dici potest    
ejus esse eum locum quem quisque        
occuparit4  ,this passage is all that   
ancient philosophy has to say about the 
origin of property4  ,the theatre1 says 
,cicero1 is common to all2 nevertheless1
 the place that each one occupies is    
called ,,his ,,own2 that is1 it is a    
place ,,possessed1 not a place          
,,appropriated4 ,this comparison        
annihilates property2 moreover1 it      
implies equality4 ,can ,i1 in a theatre1
 occupy at the same time one place in   
the pit1 another in the boxes1 and a    
third in the gallery8 ,not unless ,i    
have three bodies1 like ,geryon1 or can 
exist in different places at the same   

time1 as is related of the magician     
,apollonius4  ,according to ,cicero1 no 
one has a right to more than he needs3  
such is the true interpretation of his  
famous axiom--suum quidque cujusque sit1
 to each one that which belongs to      
him--an axiom that has been strangely   
applied4 ,that which belongs to each is 
not that which each ,,may possess1 but  
that which each ,,has ,a ,,right to     
possess4 ,now1 what have we a right to  
possess8 ,that which is required for our
 labor and consumption2 ,cicero's       
comparison of the earth to a theatre    
proves it4 ,according to that1 each one 
may take what place he will1 may        
beautify and adorn it1 if he can2 it is 
allowable3 but he must never allow      
himself to overstep the limit which     
separates him from another4 ,the        
doctrine of ,cicero leads directly to   
equality2 for1 occupation being pure    
toleration1 if the toleration is mutual 
7and it cannot be otherwise7 the        
possessions are equal4  ,grotius rushes 

into history2 but what kind of reasoning
 is that which seeks the origin of a    
right1 said to be natural1 elsewhere    
than in ,nature8 ,this is the method of 
the ancients3 the fact exists1 then it  
is necessary1 then it is just1 then its 
antecedents are just also4              
,nevertheless1 let us look into it4     
,originally1 all things were common and 
undivided2 they were the property of    
all4 ,let us go no farther4 ,grotius    
tells us how this original communism    
came to an end through ambition and     
cupidity2 how the age of gold was       
followed by the age of iron1 c4 ,so that
 property rested first on war and       
conquest1 then on treaties and          
agreements4 ,but either these treaties  
and agreements distributed wealth       
equally1 as did the original communism  
7the only method of distribution with   
which the barbarians were acquainted1   
and the only form of justice of which   
they could conceive2 and then the       
question of origin assumes this form3   

how did equality afterwards             
disappear87--or else these treaties and 
agreements were forced by the strong    
upon the weak1 and in that case they are
 null2 the tacit consent of posterity   
does not make them valid1 and we live in
 a permanent condition of iniquity and  
fraud4  ,we never can conceive how the  
equality of conditions1 having once     
existed1 could afterwards have passed   
away4 ,what was the cause of such       
degeneration8 ,the instincts of the     
animals are unchangeable1 as well as the
 differences of species2 to suppose     
original equality in human society is to
 admit by implication that the present  
inequality is a degeneration from the   
nature of this society1--a thing which  
the defenders of property cannot        
explain4 ,but ,i infer therefrom that1  
if ,providence placed the first human   
beings in a condition of equality1 it   
was an indication of its desires1 a     
model that it wished them to realize in 
other forms2 just as the religious      

sentiment1 which it planted in their    
hearts1 has developed and manifested    
itself in various ways4 ,man has but one
 nature1 constant and unalterable3 he   
pursues it through instinct1 he wanders 
from it through reflection1 he returns  
to it through judgment2 who shall say   
that we are not returning now8          
,according to ,grotius1 man has         
abandoned equality2 according to me1 he 
will yet return to it4 ,how came he to  
abandon it8 ,why will he return to it8  
,these are questions for future         
consideration4  ,reid writes as         
follows3--  ,the right of property is   
not innate1 but acquired4 ,it is not    
grounded upon the constitution of man1  
but upon his actions4 ,writers on       
jurisprudence have explained its origin 
in a manner that may satisfy every man  
of common understanding4  ,the earth is 
given to men in common for the purposes 
of life1 by the bounty of ,heaven4 ,but 
to divide it1 and appropriate one part  
of its produce to one1 another part to  

another1 must be the work of men who    
have power and understanding given them1
 by which every man may accommodate     
himself1 ,,without ,,hurt ,,to ,,any    
,,other4  ,this common right of every   
man to what the earth produces1 before  
it be occupied and appropriated by      
others1 was1 by ancient moralists1 very 
properly compared to the right which    
every citizen had to the public theatre1
 where every man that came might occupy 
an empty seat1 and thereby acquire a    
right to it while the entertainment     
lasted2 but no man had a right to       
dispossess another4  ,the earth is a    
great theatre1 furnished by the         
,almighty1 with perfect wisdom and      
goodness1 for the entertainment and     
employment of all mankind4 ,here every  
man has a right to accommodate himself  
as a spectator1 and to perform his part 
as an actor2 but without hurt to others4
   ,consequences of ,reid's doctrine4   
#a4 ,that the portion which each one    
appropriates may wrong no one1 it must  

be equal to the quotient of the total   
amount of property to be shared1 divided
 by the number of those who are to share
 it2  #b4 ,the number of places being of
 necessity equal at all times to that of
 the spectators1 no spectator can occupy
 two places1 nor can any actor play     
several parts2  #c4 ,whenever a         
spectator comes in or goes out1 the     
places of all contract or enlarge       
correspondingly3 for1 says ,reid1 ,,the 
,,right ,,of ,,property ,,is ,,not      
,,innate1 ,,but ,,acquired2             
consequently1 it is not absolute2       
consequently1 the occupancy on which it 
is based1 being a conditional fact1     
cannot endow this right with a stability
 which it does not possess itself4 ,this
 seems to have been the thought of the  
,edinburgh professor when he added3--   
,a right to life implies a right to the 
necessary means of life2 and that       
justice1 which forbids the taking away  
the life of an innocent man1 forbids no 
less the taking from him the necessary  

means of life4 ,he has the same right to
 defend the one as the other4 ,to hinder
 another man's innocent labor1 or to    
deprive him of the fruit of it1 is an   
injustice of the same kind1 and has the 
same effect as to put him in fetters or 
in prison1 and is equally a just object 
of resentment4   ,thus the chief of the 
,scotch school1 without considering at  
all the inequality of skill or labor1   
posits a priori the equality of the     
means of labor1 abandoning thereafter to
 each laborer the care of his own       
person1 after the eternal axiom3 ,,whoso
 ,,does ,,well1 ,,shall ,,fare ,,well4  
,the philosopher ,reid is lacking1 not  
in knowledge of the principle1 but in   
courage to pursue it to its ultimate4   
,if the right of life is equal1 the     
right of labor is equal1 and so is the  
right of occupancy4 ,would it not be    
criminal1 were some islanders to        
repulse1 in the name of property1 the   
unfortunate victims of a shipwreck      
struggling to reach the shore8 ,the very

 idea of such cruelty sickens the       
imagination4 ,the proprietor1 like      
,robinson ,crusoe on his island1 wards  
off with pike and musket the proletaire 
washed overboard by the wave of         
civilization1 and seeking to gain a     
foothold upon the rocks of property4    
,give me work6 cries he with all his    
might to the proprietor3 don't drive me 
away1 ,i will work for you at any price4
 ,i do not need your services1 replies  
the proprietor1 showing the end of his  
pike or the barrel of his gun4 ,lower my
 rent at least4 ,i need my income to    
live upon4 ,how can ,i pay you1 when ,i 
can get no work8 ,that is your business4
 ,then the unfortunate proletaire       
abandons himself to the waves2 or1 if he
 attempts to land upon the shore of     
property1 the proprietor takes aim1 and 
kills him4  ,we have just listened to a 
spiritualist2 we will now question a    
materialist1 then an eclectic3 and      
having completed the circle of          
philosophy1 we will turn next to law4   

,according to ,destutt de ,tracy1       
property is a necessity of our nature4  
,that this necessity involves unpleasant
 consequences1 it would be folly to     
deny4 ,but these consequences are       
necessary evils which do not invalidate 
the principle2 so that it is as         
unreasonable to rebel against property  
on account of the abuses which it       
generates1 as to complain of life       
because it is sure to end in death4     
,this brutal and pitiless philosophy    
promises at least frank and close       
reasoning4 ,let us see if it keeps its  
promise4   ,we talk very gravely about  
the conditions of property1444 as if it 
was our province to decide what         
constitutes property4444 ,it would seem1
 to hear certain philosophers and       
legislators1 that at a certain moment1  
spontaneously and without cause1 people 
began to use the words ,,thine and      
,,mine2 and that they might have1 or    
ought to have1 dispensed with them4 ,but
 ,,thine and ,,mine were never invented4

   ,a philosopher yourself1 you are too 
realistic4 ,,thine and ,,mine do not    
necessarily refer to self1 as they do   
when ,i say your philosophy1 and my     
equality2 for your philosophy is you    
philosophizing1 and my equality is ,i   
professing equality4 ,,thine and ,,mine 
oftener indicate a relation1--,,your    
country1 ,,your parish1 ,,your tailor1  
,,your milkmaid2 ,,my chamber1 ,,my seat
 at the theatre1 ,,my company and ,,my  
battalion in the ,national ,guard4 ,in  
the former sense1 we may sometimes say  
,,my labor1 ,,my skill1 ,,my virtue2    
never ,,my grandeur nor ,,my majesty3 in
 the latter sense only1 ,,my field1 ,,my
 house1 ,,my vineyard1 ,,my             
capital1--precisely as the banker's     
clerk says ,,my cash-box4 ,in short1    
,,thine and ,,mine are signs and        
expressions of personal1 but equal1     
rights2 applied to things outside of us1
 they indicate possession1 function1    
use1 not property4  ,it does not seem   
possible1 but1 nevertheless1 ,i shall   

prove1 by quotations1 that the whole    
theory of our author is based upon this 
paltry equivocation4   ,prior to all    
covenants1 men are1 not exactly1 as     
,hobbes says1 in a state of ,,hostility1
 but of ,,estrangement4 ,in this state1 
justice and injustice are unknown2 the  
rights of one bear no relation to the   
rights of another4 ,all have as many    
rights as needs1 and all feel it their  
duty to satisfy those needs by any means
 at their command4   ,grant it2 whether 
true or false1 it matters not4 ,destutt 
de ,tracy cannot escape equality4 ,on   
this theory1 men1 while in a state of   
,,estrangement1 are under no obligations
 to each other2 they all have the right 
to satisfy their needs without regard to
 the needs of others1 and consequently  
the right to exercise their power over  
,nature1 each according to his strength 
and ability4 ,that involves the greatest
 inequality of wealth4 ,inequality of   
conditions1 then1 is the characteristic 
feature of estrangement or barbarism3   

the exact opposite of ,rousseau's idea4 
,but let us look farther3--             
,restrictions of these rights and this  
duty commence at the time when          
covenants1 either implied or expressed1 
are agreed upon4 ,then appears for the  
first time justice and injustice2 that  
is1 the balance between the rights of   
one and the rights of another1 which up 
to that time were necessarily equal4    
,listen3 ,,rights ,,were ,,equal2 that  
means that each individual had the right
 to ,,satisfy ,,his ,,needs ,,without   
,,reference ,,to ,,the ,,needs ,,of     
,,others4 ,in other words1 that all had 
the right to injure each other2 that    
there was no right save force and       
cunning4 ,they injured each other1 not  
only by war and pillage1 but also by    
usurpation and appropriation4 ,now1 in  
order to abolish this equal right to use
 force and stratagem1--this equal right 
to do evil1 the sole source of the      
inequality of benefits and              
injuries1--they commenced to make       

,,covenants ,,either ,,implied ,,or     
,,expressed1 and established a balance4 
,then these agreements and this balance 
were intended to secure to all equal    
comfort2 then1 by the law of            
contradictions1 if isolation is the     
principle of inequality1 society must   
produce equality4 ,the social balance is
 the equalization of the strong and the 
weak2 for1 while they are not equals1   
they are strangers2 they can form no    
associations1--they live as enemies4    
,then1 if inequality of conditions is a 
necessary evil1 so is isolation1 for    
society and inequality are incompatible 
with each other4 ,then1 if society is   
the true condition of man's existence1  
so is equality also4 ,this conclusion   
cannot be avoided4  ,this being so1 how 
is it that1 ever since the establishment
 of this balance1 inequality has been on
 the increase8 ,how is it that justice  
and isolation always accompany each     
other8 ,destutt de ,tracy shall reply3--
   ,,needs and ,,means1 ,,rights and    

,,duties1 are products of the will4 ,if 
man willed nothing1 these would not     
exist4 ,but to have needs and means1    
rights and duties1 is to ,,have1 to     
,,possess1 something4 ,they are so many 
kinds of property1 using the word in its
 most general sense3 they are things    
which belong to us4   ,shameful         
equivocation1 not justified by the      
necessity for generalization6 ,the word 
,,property has two meanings3 #a4 ,it    
designates the quality which makes a    
thing what it is2 the attribute which is
 peculiar to it1 and especially         
distinguishes it4 ,we use it in this    
sense when we say ,,the ,,properties    
,,of ,,the ,,triangle or of ,,numbers2  
,,the ,,property ,,of ,,the ,,magnet1 c4
 #b4 ,it expresses the right of absolute
 control over a thing by a free and     
intelligent being4 ,it is used in this  
sense by writers on jurisprudence4      
,thus1 in the phrase1 ,,iron ,,acquires 
,,the ,,property ,,of ,a ,,magnet1 the  
word ,,property does not convey the same

 idea that it does in this one3 ,i      
,,have ,,acquired ,,this ,,magnet ,,as  
,,my ,,property4 ,to tell a poor man    
that he ,,has property because he ,,has 
arms and legs1--that the hunger from    
which he suffers1 and his power to sleep
 in the open air are his property1--is  
to play upon words1 and to add insult to
 injury4   ,the sole basis of the idea  
of property is the idea of personality4 
,as soon as property is born at all1 it 
is born1 of necessity1 in all its       
fulness4 ,as soon as an individual knows
 ,,himself1--his moral personality1 his 
capacities of enjoyment1 suffering1 and 
action1--he necessarily sees also that  
this ,,self is exclusive proprietor of  
the body in which it dwells1 its organs1
 their powers1 faculties1 c4444         
,inasmuch as artificial and conventional
 property exists1 there must be natural 
property also2 for nothing can exist in 
art without its counterpart in ,nature4 
,we ought to admire the honesty and     
judgment of philosophers6 ,man has      

properties2 that is1 in the first       
acceptation of the term1 faculties4 ,he 
has property2 that is1 in its second    
acceptation1 the right of domain4 ,he   
has1 then1 the property of the property 
of being proprietor4 ,how ashamed ,i    
should be to notice such foolishness1   
were ,i here considering only the       
authority of ,destutt de ,tracy6 ,but   
the entire human race1 since the        
origination of society and language1    
when metaphysics and dialectics were    
first born1 has been guilty of this     
puerile confusion of thought4 ,all which
 man could call his own was identified  
in his mind with his person4 ,he        
considered it as his property1 his      
wealth2 a part of himself1 a member of  
his body1 a faculty of his mind4 ,the   
possession of things was likened to     
property in the powers of the body and  
mind2 and on this false analogy was     
based the right of property1--,,the     
,,imitation ,,of ,,nature ,,by ,,art1 as
 ,destutt de ,tracy so elegantly puts   

it4  ,but why did not this ideologist   
perceive that man is not proprietor even
 of his own faculties8 ,man has powers1 
attributes1 capacities2 they are given  
him by ,nature that he may live1 learn1 
and love3 he does not own them1 but has 
only the use of them2 and he can make no
 use of them that does not harmonize    
with ,nature's laws4 ,if he had absolute
 mastery over his faculties1 he could   
avoid hunger and cold2 he could eat     
unstintedly1 and walk through fire2 he  
could move mountains1 walk a hundred    
leagues in a minute1 cure without       
medicines and by the sole force of his  
will1 and could make himself immortal4  
,he could say1 ,i wish to produce1 and  
his tasks would be finished with the    
words2 he could say4 ,i wish to know1   
and he would know2 ,i love1 and he would
 enjoy4 ,what then8 ,man is not master  
of himself1 but may be of his           
surroundings4 ,let him use the wealth of
 ,nature1 since he can live only by its 
use2 but let him abandon his pretensions

 to the title of proprietor1 and        
remember that he is called so only      
metaphorically4  ,to sum up3 ,destutt de
 ,tracy classes together the external   
,,productions of nature and art1 and the
 ,,powers or ,,faculties of man1 making 
both of them species of property2 and   
upon this equivocation he hopes to      
establish1 so firmly that it can never  
be disturbed1 the right of property4    
,but of these different kinds of        
property some are ,,innate1 as memory1  
imagination1 strength1 and beauty2 while
 others are ,,acquired1 as land1 water1 
and forests4 ,in the state of ,nature or
 isolation1 the strongest and most      
skilful 7that is1 those best provided   
with innate property7 stand the best    
chance of obtaining acquired property4  
,now1 it is to prevent this encroachment
 and the war which results therefrom1   
that a balance 7justice7 has been       
employed1 and covenants 7implied or     
expressed7 agreed upon3 it is to        
correct1 as far as possible1 inequality 

of innate property by equality of       
acquired property4 ,as long as the      
division remains unequal1 so long the   
partners remain enemies2 and it is the  
purpose of the covenants to reform this 
state of things4 ,thus we have1 on the  
one hand1 isolation1 inequality1 enmity1
 war1 robbery1 murder2 on the other1    
society1 equality1 fraternity1 peace1   
and love4 ,choose between them6  ,m4    
,joseph ,dutens--a physician1 engineer1 
and geometrician1 but a very poor       
legist1 and no philosopher at all--is   
the author of a ,philosophy of          
,political ,economy1 in which he felt it
 his duty to break lances in behalf of  
property4 ,his reasoning seems to be    
borrowed from ,destutt de ,tracy4 ,he   
commences with this definition of       
property1 worthy of ,sganarelle3        
,property is the right by which a thing 
is one's own4 ,literally translated3    
,property is the right of property4     
,after getting entangled a few times on 
the subjects of will1 liberty1 and      

personality2 after having distinguished 
between ,,immaterial-,,natural property1
 and ,,material-,,natural property1 a   
distinction similar to ,destutt de      
,tracy's of innate and acquired         
property1--,m4 ,joseph ,dutens concludes
 with these two general propositions3   
#a4 ,property is a natural and          
inalienable right of every man2 #b4     
,inequality of property is a necessary  
result of ,nature1--which propositions  
are convertible into a simpler one3 ,all
 men have an equal right of unequal     
property4  ,he rebukes ,m4 de ,sismondi 
for having taught that landed property  
has no other basis than law and         
conventionality2 and he says himself1   
speaking of the respect which people    
feel for property1 that their good sense
 reveals to them the nature of the      
,,original ,,contract made between      
society and proprietors4  ,he confounds 
property with possession1 communism with
 equality1 the just with the natural1   
and the natural with the possible4 ,now 

he takes these different ideas to be    
equivalents2 now he seems to distinguish
 between them1 so much so that it would 
be infinitely easier to refute him than 
to understand him4 ,attracted first by  
the title of the work1 ,philosophy of   
,political ,economy1 ,i have found1     
among the author's obscurities1 only the
 most ordinary ideas4 ,for that reason  
,i will not speak of him4  ,m4 ,cousin1 
in his ,moral ,philosophy1 page #ae1    
teaches that all morality1 all laws1 all
 rights are given to man with this      
injunction3 ,,free ,,being1 ,,remain    
,,free4 ,bravo6 master2 ,i wish to      
remain free if ,i can4 ,he continues3-- 
,our principle is true2 it is good1 it  
is social4 ,do not fear to push it to   
its ultimate4  #a4 ,if the human person 
is sacred1 its whole nature is sacred2  
and particularly its interior actions1  
its feelings1 its thoughts1 its         
voluntary decisions4 ,this accounts for 
the respect due to philosophy1 religion1
 the arts industry1 commerce1 and to all

 the results of liberty4 ,i say respect1
 not simply toleration2 for we do not   
tolerate a right1 we respect it4  ,i bow
 my head before this philosophy4   #b4  
,my liberty1 which is sacred1 needs for 
its objective action an instrument which
 we call the body3 the body participates
 then in the sacredness of liberty2 it  
is then inviolable4 ,this is the basis  
of the principle of individual liberty4 
#c4 ,my liberty needs1 for its objective
 action1 material to work upon2 in other
 words1 property or a thing4 ,this thing
 or property naturally participates then
 in the inviolability of my person4 ,for
 instance1 ,i take possession of an     
object which has become necessary and   
useful in the outward manifestation of  
my liberty4 ,i say1 ',this object is    
mine since it belongs to no one else2   
consequently1 ,i possess it             
legitimately4' ,so the legitimacy of    
possession rests on two conditions4     
,first1 ,i possess only as a free being4
 ,suppress free activity1 you destroy my

 power to labor4 ,now it is only by     
labor that ,i can use this property or  
thing1 and it is only by using it that  
,i possess it4 ,free activity is then   
the principle of the right of property4 
,but that alone does not legitimate     
possession4 ,all men are free2 all can  
use property by labor4 ,does that mean  
that all men have a right to all        
property8 ,not at all4 ,to possess      
legitimately1 ,i must not only labor and
 produce in my capacity of a free being1
 but ,i must also be the first to occupy
 the property4 ,in short1 if labor and  
production are the principle of the     
right of property1 the fact of first    
occupancy is its indispensable          
condition4  #d4 ,i possess legitimately3
 then ,i have the right to use my       
property as ,i see fit4 ,i have also the
 right to give it away4 ,i have also the
 right to bequeath it2 for if ,i decide 
to make a donation1 my decision is as   
valid after my death as during my life4 
,in fact1 to become a proprietor1 in ,m4

 ,cousin's opinion1 one must take       
possession by occupation and labor4 ,i  
maintain that the element of time must  
be considered also2 for if the first    
occupants have occupied every thing1    
what are the new comers to do8 ,what    
will become of them1 having an          
instrument with which to work1 but no   
material to work upon8 ,must they devour
 each other8 ,a terrible extremity1     
unforeseen by philosophical prudence2   
for the reason that great geniuses      
neglect little things4  ,notice also    
that ,m4 ,cousin says that neither      
occupation nor labor1 taken separately1 
can legitimate the right of property2   
and that it is born only from the union 
of the two4 ,this is one of ,m4         
,cousin's eclectic turns1 which he1 more
 than any one else1 should take pains to
 avoid4 ,instead of proceeding by the   
method of analysis1 comparison1         
elimination1 and reduction 7the only    
means of discovering the truth amid the 
various forms of thought and whimsical  

opinions71 he jumbles all systems       
together1 and then1 declaring each both 
right and wrong1 exclaims3 ,there you   
have the truth4  ,but1 adhering to my   
promise1 ,i will not refute him4 ,i will
 only prove1 by all the arguments with  
which he justifies the right of         
property1 the principle of equality     
which kills it4 ,as ,i have already     
said1 my sole intent is this3 to show at
 the bottom of all these positions that 
inevitable major1 ,,equality2 hoping    
hereafter to show that the principle of 
property vitiates the very elements of  
economical1 moral1 and governmental     
science1 thus leading it in the wrong   
direction4  ,well1 is it not true1 from 
,m4 ,cousin's point of view1 that1 if   
the liberty of man is sacred1 it is     
equally sacred in all individuals2 that1
 if it needs property for its objective 
action1 that is1 for its life1 the      
appropriation of material is equally    
necessary for all2 that1 if ,i wish to  
be respected in my right of             

appropriation1 ,i must respect others in
 theirs2 and1 consequently1 that though1
 in the sphere of the infinite1 a       
person's power of appropriation is      
limited only by himself1 in the sphere  
of the finite this same power is limited
 by the mathematical relation between   
the number of persons and the space     
which they occupy8 ,does it not follow  
that if one individual cannot prevent   
another--his fellow-man--from           
appropriating an amount of material     
equal to his own1 no more can he prevent
 individuals yet to come2 because1 while
 individuality passes away1 universality
 persists1 and eternal laws cannot be   
determined by a partial view of their   
manifestations8 ,must we not conclude1  
therefore1 that whenever a person is    
born1 the others must crowd closer      
together2 and1 by reciprocity of        
obligation1 that if the new comer is    
afterwards to become an heir1 the right 
of succession does not give him the     
right of accumulation1 but only the     

right of choice8  ,i have followed ,m4  
,cousin so far as to imitate his style1 
and ,i am ashamed of it4 ,do we need    
such high-sounding terms1 such sonorous 
phrases1 to say such simple things8 ,man
 needs to labor in order to live2       
consequently1 he needs tools to work    
with and materials to work upon4 ,his   
need to produce constitutes his right to
 produce4 ,now1 this right is guaranteed
 him by his fellows1 with whom he makes 
an agreement to that effect4 ,one       
hundred thousand men settle in a large  
country like ,france with no            
inhabitants3 each man has a right to    
#a_/ajj1jjj of the land4 ,if the number 
of possessors increases1 each one's     
portion diminishes in consequence2 so   
that1 if the number of inhabitants rises
 to thirty-four millions1 each one will 
have a right only to #a_/cd1jjj1jjj4    
,now1 so regulate the police system and 
the government1 labor1 exchange1        
inheritance1 c41 that the means of labor
 shall be shared by all equally1 and    

that each individual shall be free2 and 
then society will be perfect4  ,of all  
the defenders of property1 ,m4 ,cousin  
has gone the farthest4 ,he has          
maintained against the economists that  
labor does not establish the right of   
property unless preceded by occupation1 
and against the jurists that the civil  
law can determine and apply a natural   
right1 but cannot create it4 ,in fact1  
it is not sufficient to say1 ,the right 
of property is demonstrated by the      
existence of property2 the function of  
the civil law is purely declaratory4 ,to
 say that1 is to confess that there is  
no reply to those who question the      
legitimacy of the fact itself4 ,every   
right must be justifiable in itself1 or 
by some antecedent right2 property is no
 exception4 ,for this reason1 ,m4       
,cousin has sought to base it upon the  
,,sanctity of the human personality1 and
 the act by which the will assimilates a
 thing4 ,once touched by man1 says one  
of ,m4 ,cousin's disciples1 things      

receive from him a character which      
transforms and humanizes them4 ,i       
confess1 for my part1 that ,i have no   
faith in this magic1 and that ,i know of
 nothing less holy than the will of man4
 ,but this theory1 fragile as it seems  
to psychology as well as jurisprudence1 
is nevertheless more philosophical and  
profound than those theories which are  
based upon labor or the authority of the
 law4 ,now1 we have just seen to what   
this theory of which we are speaking    
leads1--to the equality implied in the  
terms of its statement4  ,but perhaps   
philosophy views things from too lofty a
 standpoint1 and is not sufficiently    
practical2 perhaps from the exalted     
summit of speculation men seem so small 
to the metaphysician that he cannot     
distinguish between them2 perhaps1      
indeed1 the equality of conditions is   
one of those principles which are very  
true and sublime as generalities1 but   
which it would be ridiculous and even   
dangerous to attempt to rigorously apply

 to the customs of life and to social   
transactions4 ,undoubtedly1 this is a   
case which calls for imitation of the   
wise reserve of moralists and jurists1  
who warn us against carrying things to  
extremes1 and who advise us to suspect  
every definition2 because there is not  
one1 they say1 which cannot be utterly  
destroyed by developing its disastrous  
results--,omnis definitio in jure civili
 periculosa est3 parum est enim ut non  
subverti possit4 ,equality of           
conditions1--a terrible dogma in the    
ears of the proprietor1 a consoling     
truth at the poor-man's sick-bed1 a     
frightful reality under the knife of the
 anatomist1--equality of conditions1    
established in the political1 civil1 and
 industrial spheres1 is only an alluring
 impossibility1 an inviting bait1 a     
satanic delusion4  ,it is never my      
intention to surprise my reader4 ,i     
detest1 as ,i do death1 the man who     
employs subterfuge in his words and     
conduct4 ,from the first page of this   

book1 ,i have expressed myself so       
plainly and decidedly that all can see  
the tendency of my thought and hopes2   
and they will do me the justice to say1 
that it would be difficult to exhibit   
more frankness and more boldness at the 
same time4 ,i do not hesitate to declare
 that the time is not far distant when  
this reserve1 now so much admired in    
philosophers--this happy medium so      
strongly recommended by professors of   
moral and political science--will be    
regarded as the disgraceful feature of a
 science without principle1 and as the  
seal of its reprobation4 ,in legislation
 and morals1 as well as in geometry1    
axioms are absolute1 definitions are    
certain2 and all the results of a       
principle are to be accepted1 provided  
they are logically deduced4 ,deplorable 
pride6 ,we know nothing of our nature1  
and we charge our blunders to it2 and1  
in a fit of unaffected ignorance1 cry   
out1 ,the truth is in doubt1 the best   
definition defines nothing6 ,we shall   

know some time whether this distressing 
uncertainty of jurisprudence arises from
 the nature of its investigations1 or   
from our prejudices2 whether1 to explain
 social phenomena1 it is not enough to  
change our hypothesis1 as did           
,copernicus when he reversed the system 
of ,ptolemy4  ,but what will be said    
when ,i show1 as ,i soon shall1 that    
this same jurisprudence continually     
tries to base property upon equality8   
,what reply can be made8                
#c4--;,civil ,law as the ,foundation and
 ,sanction of ,property4  ,pothier seems
 to think that property1 like royalty1  
exists by divine right4 ,he traces back 
its origin to ,god himself--ab ,jove    
principium4 ,he begins in this way3--   
,god is the absolute ruler of the       
universe and all that it contains3      
,domini est terra et plenitudo ejus1    
orbis et universi qui habitant in eo4   
,for the human race he has created the  
earth and all its creatures1 and has    
given it a control over them subordinate

 only to his own4 ',thou madest him to  
have dominion over the works of thy     
hands2 thou hast put all things under   
his feet1' says the ,psalmist4 ,god     
accompanied this gift with these words1 
addressed to our first parents after the
 creation3 ',be fruitful1 and multiply  
and replenish the earth1' c4   ,after   
this magnificent introduction1 who would
 refuse to believe the human race to be 
an immense family living in brotherly   
union1 and under the protection of a    
venerable father8 ,but1 heavens6 are    
brothers enemies8 ,are fathers          
unnatural1 and children prodigal8  ,,god
 ,,gave ,,the ,,earth ,,to ,,the ,,human
 ,,race3 why then have ,i received none8
 ,,he ,,has ,,put ,,all ,,things ,,under
 ,,my ,,feet1--and ,i have not where to 
lay my head6 ,,multiply1 he tells us    
through his interpreter1 ,pothier4 ,ah1 
learned ,pothier6 that is as easy to do 
as to say2 but you must give moss to the
 bird for its nest4   ,the human race   
having multiplied1 men divided among    

themselves the earth and most of the    
things upon it2 that which fell to each1
 from that time exclusively belonged to 
him4 ,that was the origin of the right  
of property4   ,say1 rather1 the right  
of possession4 ,men lived in a state of 
communism2 whether positive or negative 
it matters little4 ,then there was no   
property1 not even private possession4  
,the genesis and growth of possession   
gradually forcing people to labor for   
their support1 they agreed either       
formally or tacitly1--it makes no       
difference which1--that the laborer     
should be sole proprietor of the fruit  
of his labor2 that is1 they simply      
declared the fact that thereafter none  
could live without working4 ,it         
necessarily followed that1 to obtain    
equality of products1 there must be     
equality of labor2 and that1 to obtain  
equality of labor1 there must be        
equality of facilities for labor4       
,whoever without labor got possession1  
by force or by strategy1 of another's   

means of subsistence1 destroyed         
equality1 and placed himself above or   
outside of the law4 ,whoever monopolized
 the means of production on the ground  
of greater industry1 also destroyed     
equality4 ,equality being then the      
expression of right1 whoever violated it
 was ,,unjust4  ,thus1 labor gives birth
 to private possession2 the right in a  
thing--jus in re4 ,but in what thing8   
,evidently ,,in ,,the ,,product1 not    
,,in ,,the ,,soil4 ,so the ,arabs have  
always understood it2 and so1 according 
to ,caesar and ,tacitus1 the ,germans   
formerly held4 ,the ,arabs1 says ,m4 de 
,sismondi1 who admit a man's property in
 the flocks which he has raised1 do not 
refuse the crop to him who planted the  
seed2 but they do not see why another1  
his equal1 should not have a right to   
plant in his turn4 ,the inequality which
 results from the pretended right of the
 first occupant seems to them to be     
based on no principle of justice2 and   
when all the land falls into the hands  

of a certain number of inhabitants1     
there results a monopoly in their favor 
against the rest of the nation1 to which
 they do not wish to submit4  ,well1    
they have shared the land4 ,i admit that
 therefrom results a more powerful      
organization of labor2 and that this    
method of distribution1 fixed and       
durable1 is advantageous to production3 
but how could this division give to each
 a transferable right of property in a  
thing to which all had an inalienable   
right of possession8 ,in the terms of   
jurisprudence1 this metamorphosis from  
possessor to proprietor is legally      
impossible2 it implies in the           
jurisdiction of the courts the union of 
possessoire and petitoire2 and the      
mutual concessions of those who share   
the land are nothing less than traffic  
in natural rights4 ,the original        
cultivators of the land1 who were also  
the original makers of the law1 were not
 as learned as our legislators1 ,i      
admit2 and had they been1 they could not

 have done worse3 they did not foresee  
the consequences of the transformation  
of the right of private possession into 
the right of absolute property4 ,but why
 have not those1 who in later times have
 established the distinction between jus
 in re and jus ad rem1 applied it to the
 principle of property itself8  ,let me 
call the attention of the writers on    
jurisprudence to their own maxims4  ,the
 right of property1 provided it can have
 a cause1 can have but one--,dominium   
non potest nisi ex una causa contingere4
 ,i can possess by several titles2 ,i   
can become proprietor by only one--,non 
ut ex pluribus causis idem nobis deberi 
potest1 ita ex pluribus causis idem     
potest nostrum esse4 ,the field which ,i
 have cleared1 which ,i cultivate1 on   
which ,i have built my house1 which     
supports myself1 my family1 and my      
livestock1 ,i can possess3 #ast4 ,as the
 original occupant2 #b;d4 ,as a laborer2
 #c;d4 ,by virtue of the social contract
 which assigns it to me as my share4    

,but none of these titles confer upon me
 the right of property4 ,for1 if ,i     
attempt to base it upon occupancy1      
society can reply1 ,i am the original   
occupant4 ,if ,i appeal to my labor1 it 
will say1 ,it is only on that condition 
that you possess4 ,if ,i speak of       
agreements1 it will respond1 ,these     
agreements establish only your right of 
use4 ,such1 however1 are the only titles
 which proprietors advance4 ,they never 
have been able to discover any others4  
,indeed1 every right--it is ,pothier who
 says it--supposes a producing cause in 
the person who enjoys it2 but in man who
 lives and dies1 in this son of earth   
who passes away like a shadow1 there    
exists1 with respect to external things1
 only titles of possession1 not one     
title of property4 ,why1 then1 has      
society recognized a right injurious to 
itself1 where there is no producing     
cause8 ,why1 in according possession1   
has it also conceded property8 ,why has 
the law sanctioned this abuse of power8 

,the ,german ,ancillon replies thus3--  
,some philosophers pretend that man1 in 
employing his forces upon a natural     
object1--say a field or a               
tree1--acquires a right only to the     
improvements which he makes1 to the form
 which he gives to the object1 not to   
the object itself4 ,useless distinction6
 ,if the form could be separated from   
the object1 perhaps there would be room 
for question2 but as this is almost     
always impossible1 the application of   
man's strength to the different parts of
 the visible world is the foundation of 
the right of property1 the primary      
origin of riches4   ,vain pretext6 ,if  
the form cannot be separated from the   
object1 nor property from possession1   
possession must be shared2 in any case1 
society reserves the right to fix the   
conditions of property4 ,let us suppose 
that an appropriated farm yields a gross
 income of ten thousand francs2 and1 as 
very seldom happens1 that this farm     
cannot be divided4 ,let us suppose      

farther that1 by economical calculation1
 the annual expenses of a family are    
three thousand francs3 the possessor of 
this farm should be obliged to guard his
 reputation as a good father of a       
family1 by paying to society ten        
thousand francs1--less the total costs  
of cultivation1 and the three thousand  
francs required for the maintenance of  
his family4 ,this payment is not rent1  
it is an indemnity4  ,what sort of      
justice is it1 then1 which makes such   
laws as this3--   ,whereas1 since labor 
so changes the form of a thing that the 
form and substance cannot be separated  
without destroying the thing itself1    
either society must be disinherited1 or 
the laborer must lose the fruit of his  
labor2 and  ,whereas1 in every other    
case1 property in raw material would    
give a title to added improvements1     
minus their cost2 and whereas1 in this  
instance1 property in improvements ought
 to give a title to the principal2      
,therefore1 the right of appropriation  

by labor shall never be admitted against
 individuals1 but only against society4 
,in such a way do legislators always    
reason in regard to property4  ,the law 
is intended to protect men's mutual     
rights1--that is1 the rights of each    
against each1 and each against all2 and1
 as if a proportion could exist with    
less than four terms1 the law-makers    
always disregard the latter4 ,as long as
 man is opposed to man1 property offsets
 property1 and the two forces balance   
each other2 as soon as man is isolated1 
that is1 opposed to the society which he
 himself represents1 jurisprudence is at
 fault3 ,themis has lost one scale of   
her balance4  ,listen to the professor  
of ,rennes1 the learned ,toullier3--    
,how could this claim1 made valid by    
occupation1 become stable and permanent 
property1 which might continue to stand1
 and which might be reclaimed after the 
first occupant had relinquished         
possession8  ,agriculture was a natural 
consequence of the multiplication of the

 human race1 and agriculture1 in its    
turn1 favors population1 and            
necessitates the establishment of       
permanent property2 for who would take  
the trouble to plough and sow1 if he    
were not certain that he would reap8    
,to satisfy the husbandman1 it was      
sufficient to guarantee him possession  
of his crop2 admit even that he should  
have been protected in his right of     
occupation of land1 as long as he       
remained its cultivator4 ,that was all  
that he had a right to expect2 that was 
all that the advance of civilization    
demanded4 ,but property1 property6 the  
right of escheat over lands which one   
neither occupies nor cultivates1--who   
had authority to grant it8 who pretended
 to have it8   ,agriculture alone was   
not sufficient to establish permanent   
property2 positive laws were needed1 and
 magistrates to execute them2 in a word1
 the civil ,state was needed4  ,the     
multiplication of the human race had    
rendered agriculture necessary2 the need

 of securing to the cultivator the fruit
 of his labor made permanent property   
necessary1 and also laws for its        
protection4 ,so we are indebted to      
property for the creation of the civil  
,state4   ,yes1 of our civil ,state1 as 
you have made it2 a ,state which1 at    
first1 was despotism1 then monarchy1    
then aristocracy1 today democracy1 and  
always tyranny4   ,without the ties of  
property it never would have been       
possible to subordinate men to the      
wholesome yoke of the law2 and without  
permanent property the earth would have 
remained a vast forest4 ,let us admit1  
then1 with the most careful writers1    
that if transient property1 or the right
 of preference resulting from           
occupation1 existed prior to the        
establishment of civil society1         
permanent property1 as we know it       
to-day1 is the work of civil law4 ,it is
 the civil law which holds that1 when   
once acquired1 property can be lost only
 by the action of the proprietor1 and   

that it exists even after the proprietor
 has relinquished possession of the     
thing1 and it has fallen into the hands 
of a third party4  ,thus property and   
possession1 which originally were       
confounded1 became through the civil law
 two distinct and independent things2   
two things which1 in the language of the
 law1 have nothing whatever in common4  
,in this we see what a wonderful change 
has been effected in property1 and to   
what an extent ,nature has been altered 
by the civil laws4  ,thus the law1 in   
establishing property1 has not been the 
expression of a psychological fact1 the 
development of a natural law1 the       
application of a moral principle4 ,it   
has literally ,,created a right outside 
of its own province4 ,it has realized an
 abstraction1 a metaphor1 a fiction2 and
 that without deigning to look at the   
consequences1 without considering the   
disadvantages1 without inquiring whether
 it was right or wrong4  ,it has        
sanctioned selfishness2 it has indorsed 

monstrous pretensions2 it has received  
with favor impious vows1 as if it were  
able to fill up a bottomless pit1 and to
 satiate hell6 ,blind law2 the law of   
the ignorant man2 a law which is not a  
law2 the voice of discord1 deceit1 and  
blood6 ,this it is which1 continually   
revived1 reinstated1 rejuvenated1       
restored1 re-enforced--as the palladium 
of society--has troubled the consciences
 of the people1 has obscured the minds  
of the masters1 and has induced all the 
catastrophes which have befallen        
nations4  ,this it is which             
,christianity has condemned1 but which  
its ignorant ministers deify2 who have  
as little desire to study ,nature and   
man1 as ability to read their           
,scriptures4  ,but1 indeed1 what guide  
did the law follow in creating the      
domain of property8 ,what principle     
directed it8 ,what was its standard8    
,would you believe it8 ,it was equality4
  ,agriculture was the foundation of    
territorial possession1 and the original

 cause of property4 ,it was of no use to
 secure to the farmer the fruit of his  
labor1 unless the means of production   
were at the same time secured to him4   
,to fortify the weak against the        
invasion of the strong1 to suppress     
spoliation and fraud1 the necessity was 
felt of establishing between possessors 
permanent lines of division1 insuperable
 obstacles4 ,every year saw the people  
multiply1 and the cupidity of the       
husbandman increase3 it was thought best
 to put a bridle on ambition by setting 
boundaries which ambition would in vain 
attempt to overstep4 ,thus the soil came
 to be appropriated through need of the 
equality which is essential to public   
security and peaceable possession4      
,undoubtedly the division was never     
geographically equal2 a multitude of    
rights1 some founded in ,nature1 but    
wrongly interpreted and still more      
wrongly applied1 inheritance1 gift1 and 
exchange2 others1 like the privileges of
 birth and position1 the illegitimate   

creations of ignorance and brute        
force1--all operated to prevent absolute
 equality4 ,but1 nevertheless1 the      
principle remained the same3 equality   
had sanctioned possession2 equality     
sanctioned property4  ,the husbandman   
needed each year a field to sow2 what   
more convenient and simple arrangement  
for the barbarians1--instead of         
indulging in annual quarrels and fights1
 instead of continually moving their    
houses1 furniture1 and families from    
spot to spot1--than to assign to each   
individual a fixed and inalienable      
estate8  ,it was not right that the     
soldier1 on returning from an           
expedition1 should find himself         
dispossessed on account of the services 
which he had just rendered to his       
country2 his estate ought to be restored
 to him4 ,it became1 therefore1         
customary to retain property by intent  
alone--nudo animo2 it could be          
sacrificed only with the consent and by 
the action of the proprietor4  ,it was  

necessary that the equality in the      
division should be kept up from one     
generation to another1 without a new    
distribution of the land upon the death 
of each family2 it appeared therefore   
natural and just that children and      
parents1 according to the degree of     
relationship which they bore to the     
deceased1 should be the heirs of their  
ancestors4 ,thence came1 in the first   
place1 the feudal and patriarchal custom
 of recognizing only one heir2 then1 by 
a quite contrary application of the     
principle of equality1 the admission of 
all the children to a share in their    
father's estate1 and1 very recently also
 among us1 the definitive abolition of  
the right of primogeniture4  ,but what  
is there in common between these rude   
outlines of instinctive organization and
 the true social science8 ,how could    
these men1 who never had the faintest   
idea of statistics1 valuation1 or       
political economy1 furnish us with      
principles of legislation8  ,the law1   

says a modern writer on jurisprudence1  
is the expression of a social want1 the 
declaration of a fact3 the legislator   
does not make it1 he declares it4 ',this
 definition is not exact4 ,the law is a 
method by which social wants must be    
satisfied2 the people do not vote it1   
the legislator does not express it3 the 
savant discovers and formulates it4 ,but
 in fact1 the law1 according to ,m4 ,ch4
 ,comte1 who has devoted half a volume  
to its definition1 was in the beginning 
only the ,,expression ,,of ,a ,,want1   
and the indication of the means of      
supplying it2 and up to this time it has
 been nothing else4 ,the legists--with  
mechanical fidelity1 full of obstinacy1 
enemies of philosophy1 buried in        
literalities--have always mistaken for  
the last word of science that which was 
only the inconsiderate aspiration of men
 who1 to be sure1 were well-meaning1 but
 wanting in foresight4  ,they did not   
foresee1 these old founders of the      
domain of property1 that the perpetual  

and absolute right to retain one's      
estate1--a right which seemed to them   
equitable1 because it was               
common1--involves the right to transfer1
 sell1 give1 gain1 and lose it2 that it 
tends1 consequently1 to nothing less    
than the destruction of that equality   
which they established it to maintain4  
,and though they should have foreseen   
it1 they disregarded it2 the present    
want occupied their whole attention1    
and1 as ordinarily happens in such      
cases1 the disadvantages were at first  
scarcely perceptible1 and they passed   
unnoticed4  ,they did not foresee1 these
 ingenuous legislators1 that if property
 is retainable by intent alone--nudo    
animo--it carries with it the right to  
let1 to lease1 to loan at interest1 to  
profit by exchange1 to settle annuities1
 and to levy a tax on a field which     
intent reserves1 while the body is busy 
elsewhere4  ,they did not foresee1 these
 fathers of our jurisprudence1 that1 if 
the right of inheritance is any thing   

other than ,nature's method of          
preserving equality of wealth1 families 
will soon become victims of the most    
disastrous exclusions2 and society1     
pierced to the heart by one of its most 
sacred principles1 will come to its     
death through opulence and misery4 #ab  
,under whatever form of government we   
live1 it can always be said that le mort
 saisit le vif2 that is1 that           
inheritance and succession will last for
 ever1 whoever may be the recognized    
heir4 ,but the ,st4 ,simonians wish the 
heir to be designated by the magistrate2
 others wish him to be chosen by the    
deceased1 or assumed by the law to be so
 chosen3 the essential point is that    
,nature's wish be satisfied1 so far as  
the law of equality allows4  ,to-day the
 real controller of inheritance is      
chance or caprice2 now1 in matters of   
legislation1 chance and caprice cannot  
be accepted as guides4 ,it is for the   
purpose of avoiding the manifold        
disturbances which follow in the wake of

 chance that ,nature1 after having      
created us equal1 suggests to us the    
principle of heredity2 which serves as a
 voice by which society asks us to      
choose1 from among all our brothers1 him
 whom we judge best fitted to complete  
our unfinished work4   ,they did not    
foresee4444 ,but why need ,i go farther8
  ,the consequences are plain enough1   
and this is not the time to criticise   
the whole ,code4  ,the history of       
property among the ancient nations is1  
then1 simply a matter of research and   
curiosity4 ,it is a rule of             
jurisprudence that the fact does not    
substantiate the right4 ,now1 property  
is no exception to this rule3 then the  
universal recognition of the right of   
property does not legitimate the right  
of property4 ,man is mistaken as to the 
constitution of society1 the nature of  
right1 and the application of justice2  
just as he was mistaken regarding the   
cause of meteors and the movement of the
 heavenly bodies4 ,his old opinions     

cannot be taken for articles of faith4  
,of what consequence is it to us that   
the ,indian race was divided into four  
classes2 that1 on the banks of the ,nile
 and the ,ganges1 blood and position    
formerly determined the distribution of 
the land2 that the ,greeks and ,romans  
placed property under the protection of 
the gods2 that they accompanied with    
religious ceremonies the work of        
partitioning the land and appraising    
their goods8 ,the variety of the forms  
of privilege does not sanction          
injustice4 ,the faith of ,jupiter1 the  
proprietor1 #ac proves no more against  
the equality of citizens1 than do the   
mysteries of ,venus1 the wanton1 against
 conjugal chastity4   ,the authority of 
the human race is of no effect as       
evidence in favor of the right of       
property1 because this right1 resting of
 necessity upon equality1 contradicts   
its principle2 the decision of the      
religions which have sanctioned it is of
 no effect1 because in all ages the     

priest has submitted to the prince1 and 
the gods have always spoken as the      
politicians desired2 the social         
advantages1 attributed to property1     
cannot be cited in its behalf1 because  
they all spring from the principle of   
equality of possession4  ,what means1   
then1 this dithyramb upon property8     
,the right of property is the most      
important of human institutions4444     
,yes2 as monarchy is the most glorious4 
,the original cause of man's prosperity 
upon earth4   ,because justice was      
supposed to be its principle4           
,property became the legitimate end of  
his ambition1 the hope of his existence1
 the shelter of his family2 in a word1  
the corner-stone of the domestic        
dwelling1 of communities1 and of the    
political ,state4   ,possession alone   
produced all that4   ,eternal           
principle1--   ,property is eternal1    
like every negation1--   ,of all social 
and civil institutions4   ,for that     
reason1 every institution and every law 

based on property will perish4   ,it is 
a boon as precious as liberty4   ,for   
the rich proprietor4   ,in fact1 the    
cause of the cultivation of the         
habitable earth4  ,if the cultivator    
ceased to be a tenant1 would the land be
 worse cared for8   ,the guarantee and  
the morality of labor4   ,under the     
regime of property1 labor is not a      
condition1 but a privilege4   ,the      
application of justice4   ,what is      
justice without equality of fortunes8 ,a
 balance with false weights4   ,all     
morality1--   ,a famished stomach knows 
no morality1--   ,all public order1--   
,certainly1 the preservation of         
property1--  ,rest on the right of      
property4 #ad   ,corner-stone of all    
which is1 stumbling-block of all which  
ought to be1--such is property4   ,to   
sum up and conclude3--  ,not only does  
occupation lead to equality1 it         
,,prevents property4 ,for1 since every  
man1 from the fact of his existence1 has
 the right of occupation1 and1 in order 

to live1 must have material for         
cultivation on which he may labor2 and  
since1 on the other hand1 the number of 
occupants varies continually with the   
births and deaths1--it follows that the 
quantity of material which each laborer 
may claim varies with the number of     
occupants2 consequently1 that occupation
 is always subordinate to population4   
,finally1 that1 inasmuch as possession1 
in right1 can never remain fixed1 it is 
impossible1 in fact1 that it can ever   
become property4  ,every occupant is1   
then1 necessarily a possessor or        
usufructuary1--a function which excludes
 proprietorship4 ,now1 this is the right
 of the usufructuary3 he is responsible 
for the thing entrusted to him2 he must 
use it in conformity with general       
utility1 with a view to its preservation
 and development2 he has no power to    
transform it1 to diminish it1 or to     
change its nature2 he cannot so divide  
the usufruct that another shall perform 
the labor while he receives the product4

 ,in a word1 the usufructuary is under  
the supervision of society1 submitted to
 the condition of labor and the law of  
equality4  ,thus is annihilated the     
,roman definition of property--,,the    
,,right ,,of ,,use ,,and ,,abuse--an    
immorality born of violence1 the most   
monstrous pretension that the civil laws
 ever sanctioned4 ,man receives his     
usufruct from the hands of society1     
which alone is the permanent possessor4 
,the individual passes away1 society is 
deathless4  ,what a profound disgust    
fills my soul while discussing such     
simple truths6 ,do we doubt these things
 to-day8 ,will it be necessary to again 
take arms for their triumph8 ,and can   
force1 in default of reason1 alone      
introduce them into our laws8  ,,all    
,,have ,,an ,,equal ,,right ,,of        
,,occupancy4  ,,the ,,amount ,,occupied 
,,being ,,measured1 ,,not ,,by ,,the    
,,will1 ,,but ,,by ,,the ,,variable     
,,conditions ,,of ,,space ,,and         
,,number1 ,,property ,,cannot ,,exist4  

,this no code has ever expressed2 this  
no constitution can admit6 ,these are   
axioms which the civil law and the law  
of nations deny644444  ,but ,i hear the 
exclamations of the partisans of another
 system3 ,labor1 labor6 that is the     
basis of property6  ,reader1 do not be  
deceived4 ,this new basis of property is
 worse than the first1 and ,i shall soon
 have to ask your pardon for having     
demonstrated things clearer1 and refuted
 pretensions more unjust1 than any which
 we have yet considered4     ,,chapter  
,,iii4 ,,labor ,,as ,,the ,,efficient   
,,cause ,,of ,,the ,,domain ,,of        
,,property4  ,nearly all the modern     
writers on jurisprudence1 taking their  
cue from the economists1 have abandoned 
the theory of first occupancy as a too  
dangerous one1 and have adopted that    
which regards property as born of labor4
 ,in this they are deluded2 they reason 
in a circle4 ,to labor it is necessary  
to occupy1 says ,m4 ,cousin4            
,consequently1 ,i have added in my turn1

 all having an equal right of occupancy1
 to labor it is necessary to submit to  
equality4 ,the rich1 exclaims ,jean     
,jacques1 have the arrogance to say1 ',i
 built this wall2 ,i earned this land by
 my labor4' ,who set you the tasks8 we  
may reply1 and by what right do you     
demand payment from us for labor which  
we did not impose upon you8 ,all        
sophistry falls to the ground in the    
presence of this argument4  ,but the    
partisans of labor do not see that their
 system is an absolute contradiction of 
the ,code1 all the articles and         
provisions of which suppose property to 
be based upon the fact of first         
occupancy4 ,if labor1 through the       
appropriation which results from it1    
alone gives birth to property1 the      
,civil ,code lies1 the charter is a     
falsehood1 our whole social system is a 
violation of right4 ,to this conclusion 
shall we come1 at the end of the        
discussion which is to occupy our       
attention in this chapter and the       

following one1 both as to the right of  
labor and the fact of property4 ,we     
shall see1 on the one hand1 our         
legislation in opposition to itself2    
and1 on the other hand1 our new         
jurisprudence in opposition both to its 
own principle and to our legislation4   
,i have asserted that the system which  
bases property upon labor implies1 no   
less than that which bases it upon      
occupation1 the equality of fortunes2   
and the reader must be impatient to     
learn how ,i propose to deduce this law 
of equality from the inequality of skill
 and faculties3 directly his curiosity  
shall be satisfied4 ,but it is proper   
that ,i should call his attention for a 
moment to this remarkable feature of the
 process2 to wit1 the substitution of   
labor for occupation as the principle of
 property2 and that ,i should pass      
rapidly in review some of the prejudices
 to which proprietors are accustomed to 
appeal1 which legislation has           
sanctioned1 and which the system of     

labor completely overthrows4  ,reader1  
were you ever present at the examination
 of a criminal8 ,have you watched his   
tricks1 his turns1 his evasions1 his    
distinctions1 his equivocations8        
,beaten1 all his assertions overthrown1 
pursued like a fallow deer by the in    
exorable judge1 tracked from hypothesis 
to hypothesis1--he makes a statement1 he
 corrects it1 retracts it1 contradicts  
it1 he exhausts all the tricks of       
dialectics1 more subtle1 more ingenious 
a thousand times than he who invented   
the seventy-two forms of the syllogism4 
,so acts the proprietor when called upon
 to defend his right4 ,at first he      
refuses to reply1 he exclaims1 he       
threatens1 he defies2 then1 forced to   
accept the discussion1 he arms himself  
with chicanery1 he surrounds himself    
with formidable artillery1--crossing his
 fire1 opposing one by one and all      
together occupation1 possession1        
limitation1 covenants1 immemorial       
custom1 and universal consent4          

,conquered on this ground1 the          
proprietor1 like a wounded boar1 turns  
on his pursuers4 ,i have done more than 
occupy1 he cries with terrible emotion2 
,i have labored1 produced1 improved1    
transformed1 ,,created4 ,this house1    
these fields1 these trees are the work  
of my hands2 ,i changed these brambles  
into a vineyard1 and this bush into a   
fig-tree2 and to-day ,i reap the harvest
 of my labors4 ,i have enriched the soil
 with my sweat2 ,i have paid those men  
who1 had they not had the work which ,i 
gave them1 would have died of hunger4   
,no one shared with me the trouble and  
expense2 no one shall share with me the 
benefits4  ,you have labored1           
proprietor6 why then do you speak of    
original occupancy8 ,what1 were you not 
sure of your right1 or did you hope to  
deceive men1 and make justice an        
illusion8 ,make haste1 then1 to acquaint
 us with your mode of defence1 for the  
judgment will be final2 and you know it 
to be a question of restitution4  ,you  

have labored6 but what is there in      
common between the labor which duty     
compels you to perform1 and the         
appropriation of things in which there  
is a common interest8 ,do you not know  
that domain over the soil1 like that    
over air and light1 cannot be lost by   
prescription8  ,you have labored6 have  
you never made others labor8 ,why1 then1
 have they lost in laboring for you what
 you have gained in not laboring for    
them8  ,you have labored6 very well2 but
 let us see the results of your labor4  
,we will count1 weigh1 and measure them4
 ,it will be the judgment of ,balthasar2
 for ,i swear by balance1 level1 and    
square1 that if you have appropriated   
another's labor in any way whatsoever1  
you shall restore it every stroke4      
,thus1 the principle of occupation is   
abandoned2 no longer is it said1 ,the   
land belongs to him who first gets      
possession of it4 ,property1 forced into
 its first intrenchment1 repudiates its 
old adage2 justice1 ashamed1 retracts   

her maxims1 and sorrow lowers her       
bandage over her blushing cheeks4 ,and  
it was but yesterday that this progress 
in social philosophy began3 fifty       
centuries required for the extirpation  
of a lie6 ,during this lamentable       
period1 how many usurpations have been  
sanctioned1 how many invasions          
glorified1 how many conquests           
celebrated6 ,the absent dispossessed1   
the poor banished1 the hungry excluded  
by wealth1 which is so ready and bold in
 action6 ,jealousies and wars1          
incendiarism and bloodshed1 among the   
nations6 ,but henceforth1 thanks to the 
age and its spirit1 it is to be admitted
 that the earth is not a prize to be won
 in a race2 in the absence of any other 
obstacle1 there is a place for everybody
 under the sun4 ,each one may harness   
his goat to the bearn1 drive his cattle 
to pasture1 sow a corner of a field1 and
 bake his bread by his own fireside4    
,but1 no2 each one cannot do these      
things4 ,i hear it proclaimed on all    

sides1 ,glory to labor and industry6 to 
each according to his capacity2 to each 
capacity according to its results6 ,and 
,i see three-fourths of the human race  
again despoiled1 the labor of a few     
being a scourge to the labor of the     
rest4   ,the problem is solved1 exclaims
 ,m4 ,hennequin4 ,property1 the daughter
 of labor1 can be enjoyed at present and
 in the future only under the protection
 of the laws4 ,it has its origin in     
natural law2 it derives its power from  
civil law2 and from the union of these  
two ideas1 ,,labor and ,,protection1    
positive legislation results4444   ,ah6 
,,the ,,problem ,,is ,,solved6          
,,property ,,is ,,the ,,daughter ,,of   
,,labor6 ,what1 then1 is the right of   
accession1 and the right of succession1 
and the right of donation1 c41 if not   
the right to become a proprietor by     
simple occupancy8 ,what are your laws   
concerning the age of majority1         
emancipation1 guardianship1 and         
interdiction1 if not the various        

conditions by which he who is already a 
laborer gains or loses the right of     
occupancy2 that is1 property8  ,being   
unable1 at this time1 to enter upon a   
detailed discussion of the ,code1 ,i    
shall content myself with examining the 
three arguments oftenest resorted to in 
support of property4 #a4                
,,appropriation1 or the formation of    
property by possession2 #b4 ,,the       
,,consent ,,of ,,mankind2 #c4           
,,prescription4 ,i shall then inquire   
into the effects of labor upon the      
relative condition of the laborers and  
upon property4     #a4--,the ,land      
cannot be ,appropriated4  ,it would seem
 that lands capable of cultivation ought
 to be regarded as natural wealth1 since
 they are not of human creation1 but    
,nature's gratuitous gift to man2 but   
inasmuch as this wealth is not fugitive1
 like the air and water1--inasmuch as a 
field is a fixed and limited space which
 certain men have been able to          
appropriate1 to the exclusion of all    

others who in their turn have consented 
to this appropriation1--the land1 which 
was a natural and gratuitous gift1 has  
become social wealth1 for the use of    
which we ought to pay4--,,say3          
,,political ,,economy4   ,was ,i wrong  
in saying1 at the beginning of this     
chapter1 that the economists are the    
very worst authorities in matters of    
legislation and philosophy8 ,it is the  
,,father of this class of men who       
clearly states the question1 ,how can   
the supplies of ,nature1 the wealth     
created by ,providence1 become private  
property8 and who replies by so gross an
 equivocation that we scarcely know     
which the author lacks1 sense or        
honesty4 ,what1 ,i ask1 has the fixed   
and solid nature of the earth to do with
 the right of appropriation8 ,i can     
understand that a thing ,,limited and   
,,stationary1 like the land1 offers     
greater chances for appropriation than  
the water or the sunshine2 that it is   
easier to exercise the right of domain  

over the soil than over the atmosphere3 
but we are not dealing with the         
difficulty of the thing1 and ,say       
confounds the right with the            
possibility4 ,we do not ask why the     
earth has been appropriated to a greater
 extent than the sea and the air2 we    
want to know by what right man has      
appropriated wealth ,,which ,,he ,,did  
,,not ,,create1 ,,and ,,which ,,nature  
,,gave ,,to ,,him ,,gratuitously4  ,say1
 then1 did not solve the question which 
he asked4 ,but if he had solved it1 if  
the explanation which he has given us   
were as satisfactory as it is illogical1
 we should know no better than before   
who has a right to exact payment for the
 use of the soil1 of this wealth which  
is not man's handiwork4 ,who is entitled
 to the rent of the land8 ,the producer 
of the land1 without doubt4 ,who made   
the land8 ,god4 ,then1 proprietor1      
retire6  ,but the creator of the land   
does not sell it3 he gives it2 and1 in  
giving it1 he is no respecter of        

persons4 ,why1 then1 are some of his    
children regarded as legitimate1 while  
others are treated as bastards8 ,if the 
equality of shares was an original      
right1 why is the inequality of         
conditions a posthumous right8  ,say    
gives us to understand that if the air  
and the water were not of a ,,fugitive  
nature1 they would have been            
appropriated4 ,let me observe in passing
 that this is more than an hypothesis2  
it is a reality4 ,men have appropriated 
the air and the water1 ,i will not say  
as often as they could1 but as often as 
they have been allowed to4  ,the        
,portuguese1 having discovered the route
 to ,india by the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 
pretended to have the sole right to that
 route2 and ,grotius1 consulted in      
regard to this matter by the ,dutch who 
refused to recognize this right1 wrote  
expressly for this occasion his treatise
 on the ,freedom of the ,seas1 to prove 
that the sea is not liable to           
appropriation4  ,the right to hunt and  

fish used always to be confined to lords
 and proprietors2 to-day it is leased by
 the government and communes to whoever 
can pay the license-fee and the rent4   
,to regulate hunting and fishing is an  
excellent idea1 but to make it a subject
 of sale is to create a monopoly of air 
and water4  ,what is a passport8 ,a     
universal recommendation of the         
traveller's person2 a certificate of    
security for himself and his property4  
,the treasury1 whose nature it is to    
spoil the best things1 has made the     
passport a means of espionage and a tax4
 ,is not this a sale of the right to    
travel8  ,finally1 it is permissible    
neither to draw water from a spring     
situated in another's grounds without   
the permission of the proprietor1       
because by the right of accession the   
spring belongs to the possessor of the  
soil1 if there is no other claim2 nor to
 pass a day on his premises without     
paying a tax2 nor to look at a court1 a 
garden1 or an orchard1 without the      

consent of the proprietor2 nor to stroll
 in a park or an enclosure against the  
owner's will3 every one is allowed to   
shut himself up and to fence himself in4
 ,all these prohibitions are so many    
positive interdictions1 not only of the 
land1 but of the air and water4 ,we who 
belong to the proletaire class3 property
 excommunicates us6 ,terra1 et aqua1 et 
aere1 et igne interdicti sumus4  ,men   
could not appropriate the most fixed of 
all the elements without appropriating  
the three others2 since1 by ,french and 
,roman law1 property in the surface     
carries with it property from zenith to 
nadir--,cujus est solum1 ejus est usque 
ad caelum4 ,now1 if the use of water1   
air1 and fire excludes property1 so does
 the use of the soil4 ,this chain of    
reasoning seems to have been presented  
by ,m4 ,ch4 ,comte1 in his ,treatise on 
,property1 chap4 #e4   ,if a man should 
be deprived of air for a few moments    
only1 he would cease to exist1 and a    
partial deprivation would cause him     

severe suffering2 a partial or complete 
deprivation of food would produce like  
effects upon him though less suddenly2  
it would be the same1 at least in       
certain climates6 were he deprived of   
all clothing and shelter4444 ,to sustain
 life1 then1 man needs continually to   
appropriate many different things4 ,but 
these things do not exist in like       
proportions4 ,some1 such as the light of
 the stars1 the atmosphere of the earth1
 the water composing the seas and       
oceans1 exist in such large quantities  
that men cannot perceive any sensible   
increase or diminution2 each one can    
appropriate as much as his needs require
 without detracting from the enjoyment  
of others1 without causing them the     
least harm4 ,things of this sort are1 so
 to speak1 the common property of the   
human race2 the only duty imposed upon  
each individual in this regard is that  
of infringing not at all upon the rights
 of others4   ,let us complete the      
argument of ,m4 ,ch4 ,comte4 ,a man who 

should be prohibited from walking in the
 highways1 from resting in the fields1  
from taking shelter in caves1 from      
lighting fires1 from picking berries1   
from gathering herbs and boiling them in
 a bit of baked clay1--such a man could 
not live4 ,consequently the earth--like 
water1 air1 and light--is a primary     
object of necessity which each has a    
right to use freely1 without infringing 
another's right4 ,why1 then1 is the     
earth appropriated8 ,m4 ,ch4 ,comte's   
reply is a curious one4 ,say pretends   
that it is because it is not ,,fugitive2
 ,m4 ,ch4 ,comte assures us that it is  
because it is not ,,infinite4 ,the land 
is limited in amount4 ,then1 according  
to ,m4 ,ch4 ,comte1 it ought to be      
appropriated4 ,it would seem1 on the    
contrary1 that he ought to say1 ,then it
 ought not to be appropriated4 ,because1
 no matter how large a quantity of air  
or light any one appropriates1 no one is
 damaged thereby2 there always remains  
enough for all4 ,with the soil1 it is   

very different4 ,lay hold who will1 or  
who can1 of the sun's rays1 the passing 
breeze1 or the sea's billows2 he has my 
consent1 and my pardon for his bad      
intentions4 ,but let any living man dare
 to change his right of territorial     
possession into the right of property1  
and ,i will declare war upon him1 and   
wage it to the death6  ,m4 ,ch4 ,comte's
 argument disproves his position4 ,among
 the things necessary to the            
preservation of life1 he says1 there are
 some which exist in such large         
quantities that they are inexhaustible2 
others which exist in lesser quantities1
 and can satisfy the wants of only a    
certain number of persons4 ,the former  
are called ,,common1 the latter         
,,private4  ,this reasoning is not      
strictly logical4 ,water1 air1 and light
 are ,,common things1 not because they  
are ,,inexhaustible1 but because they   
are ,,indispensable2 and so             
indispensable that for that very reason 
,nature has created them in quantities  

almost infinite1 in order that their    
plentifulness might prevent their       
appropriation4 ,likewise the land is    
indispensable to our                    
existence1--consequently a common thing1
 consequently insusceptible of          
appropriation2 but land is much scarcer 
than the other elements1 therefore its  
use must be regulated1 not for the      
profit of a few1 but in the interest and
 for the security of all4  ,in a word1  
equality of rights is proved by equality
 of needs4 ,now1 equality of rights1 in 
the case of a commodity which is limited
 in amount1 can be realized only by     
equality of possession4 ,an agrarian law
 underlies ,m4 ,ch4 ,comte's arguments4 
,from whatever point we view this       
question of property--provided we go to 
the bottom of it--we reach equality4 ,i 
will not insist farther on the          
distinction between things which can1   
and things which cannot1 be             
appropriated4 ,on this point1 economists
 and legists talk worse than nonsense4  

,the ,civil ,code1 after having defined 
property1 says nothing about            
susceptibility of appropriation2 and if 
it speaks of things which are in ,,the  
,,market1 it always does so without     
enumerating or describing them4         
,however1 light is not wanting4 ,there  
are some few maxims such as these3 ,ad  
reges potestas omnium pertinet1 ad      
singulos proprietas2 ,omnia rex imperio 
possidet1 singula dominio4 ,social      
sovereignty opposed to private          
property6--might not that be called a   
prophecy of equality1 a republican      
oracle8 ,examples crowd upon us3 once   
the possessions of the church1 the      
estates of the crown1 the fiefs of the  
nobility were inalienable and           
imprescriptible4 ,if1 instead of        
abolishing this privilege1 the          
,constituent had extended it to every   
individual2 if it had declared that the 
right of labor1 like liberty1 can never 
be forfeited1--at that moment the       
revolution would have been consummated1 

and we could now devote ourselves to    
improvement in other directions4        
#b4--,universal ,consent no             
,justification of ,property4  ,in the   
extract from ,say1 quoted above1 it is  
not clear whether the author means to   
base the right of property on the       
stationary character of the soil1 or on 
the consent which he thinks all men have
 granted to this appropriation4 ,his    
language is such that it may mean either
 of these things1 or both at once2 which
 entitles us to assume that the author  
intended to say1 ,the right of property 
resulting originally from the exercise  
of the will1 the stability of the soil  
permitted it to be applied to the land1 
and universal consent has since         
sanctioned this application4  ,however  
that may be1 can men legitimate property
 by mutual consent8 ,i say1 no4 ,such a 
contract1 though drafted by ,grotius1   
,montesquieu1 and ,j4 ,j4 ,rousseau1    
though signed by the whole human race1  
would be null in the eyes of justice1   

and an act to enforce it would be       
illegal4 ,man can no more give up labor 
than liberty4 ,now1 to recognize the    
right of territorial property is to give
 up labor1 since it is to relinquish the
 means of labor2 it is to traffic in a  
natural right1 and divest ourselves of  
manhood4  ,but ,i wish that this        
consent1 of which so much is made1 had  
been given1 either tacitly or formally4 
,what would have been the result8       
,evidently1 the surrenders would have   
been reciprocal2 no right would have    
been abandoned without the receipt of an
 equivalent in exchange4 ,we thus come  
back to equality again1--the sine qua   
non of appropriation2 so that1 after    
having justified property by universal  
consent1 that is1 by equality1 we are   
obliged to justify the inequality of    
conditions by property4 ,never shall we 
extricate ourselves from this dilemma4  
,indeed1 if1 in the terms of the social 
compact1 property has equality for its  
condition1 at the moment when equality  

ceases to exist1 the compact is broken  
and all property becomes usurpation4 ,we
 gain nothing1 then1 by this pretended  
consent of mankind4                     
#c4--,prescription ,gives ,no ,title to 
,property4  ,the right of property was  
the origin of evil on the earth1 the    
first link in the long chain of crimes  
and misfortunes which the human race has
 endured since its birth4 ,the delusion 
of prescription is the fatal charm      
thrown over the intellect1 the death    
sentence breathed into the conscience1  
to arrest man's progress towards truth1 
and bolster up the worship of error4    
,the ,code defines prescription thus3   
,the process of gaining and losing      
through the lapse of time4 ,in applying 
this definition to ideas and beliefs1 we
 may use the word ,,prescription to     
denote the everlasting prejudice in     
favor of old superstitions1 whatever be 
their object2 the opposition1 often     
furious and bloody1 with which new light
 has always been received1 and which    

makes the sage a martyr4 ,not a         
principle1 not a discovery1 not a       
generous thought but has met1 at its    
entrance into the world1 with a         
formidable barrier of preconceived      
opinions1 seeming like a conspiracy of  
all old prejudices4 ,prescriptions      
against reason1 prescriptions against   
facts1 prescriptions against every truth
 hitherto unknown1--that is the sum and 
substance of the statu quo philosophy1  
the watchword of conservatives          
throughout the centuries4  ,when the    
evangelical reform was broached to the  
world1 there was prescription in favor  
of violence1 debauchery1 and            
selfishness2 when ,galileo1 ,descartes1 
,pascal1 and their disciples            
reconstructed philosophy and the        
sciences1 there was prescription in     
favor of the ,aristotelian philosophy2  
when our fathers of '#hi demanded       
liberty and equality1 there was         
prescription in favor of tyranny and    
privilege4 ,there always have been      

proprietors and there always will be3 it
 is with this profound utterance1 the   
final effort of selfishness dying in its
 last ditch1 that the friends of social 
inequality hope to repel the attacks of 
their adversaries2 thinking undoubtedly 
that ideas1 like property1 can be lost  
by prescription4  ,enlightened to-day by
 the triumphal march of science1 taught 
by the most glorious successes to       
question our own opinions1 we receive   
with favor and applause the observer of 
,nature1 who1 by a thousand experiments 
based upon the most profound analysis1  
pursues a new principle1 a law hitherto 
undiscovered4 ,we take care to repel no 
idea1 no fact1 under the pretext that   
abler men than ourselves lived in former
 days1 who did not notice the same      
phenomena1 nor grasp the same analogies4
 ,why do we not preserve a like attitude
 towards political and philosophical    
questions8 ,why this ridiculous mania   
for affirming that every thing has been 
said1 which means that we know all about

 mental and moral science8 ,why is the  
proverb1 ,,there ,,is ,,nothing ,,new   
,,under ,,the ,,sun1 applied exclusively
 to metaphysical investigations8        
,because we still study philosophy with 
the imagination1 instead of by          
observation and method2 because fancy   
and will are universally regarded as    
judges1 in the place of arguments and   
facts1--it has been impossible to this  
day to distinguish the charlatan from   
the philosopher1 the savant from the    
impostor4 ,since the days of ,solomon   
and ,pythagoras1 imagination has been   
exhausted in guessing out social and    
psychological laws2 all systems have    
been proposed4 ,looked at in this light1
 it is probably true that ,,every       
,,thing ,,has ,,been ,,said2 but it is  
no less true that ,,every ,,thing       
,,remains ,,to ,,be ,,proved4 ,in       
politics 7to take only this branch of   
philosophy71 in politics every one is   
governed in his choice of party by his  
passion and his interests2 the mind is  

submitted to the impositions of the     
will1--there is no knowledge1 there is  
not even a shadow of certainty4 ,in this
 way1 general ignorance produces general
 tyranny2 and while liberty of thought  
is written in the charter1 slavery of   
thought1 under the name of ,,majority   
,,rule1 is decreed by the charter4  ,in 
order to confine myself to the civil    
prescription of which the ,code speaks1 
,i shall refrain from beginning a       
discussion upon this worn-out objection 
brought forward by proprietors2 it would
 be too tiresome and declamatory4       
,everybody knows that there are rights  
which cannot be prescribed2 and1 as for 
those things which can be gained through
 the lapse of time1 no one is ignorant  
of the fact that prescription requires  
certain conditions1 the omission of one 
of which renders it null4 ,if it is     
true1 for example1 that the proprietor's
 possession has been ,,civil1 ,,public1 
,,peaceable1 and ,,uninterrupted1 it is 
none the less true that it is not based 

on a just title2 since the only titles  
which it can show--occupation and       
labor--prove as much for the proletaire 
who demands1 as for the proprietor who  
defends4 ,further1 this possession is   
,,dishonest1 since it is founded on a   
violation of right1 which prevents      
prescription1 according to the saying of
 ,st4 ,paul--,nunquam in usucapionibus  
juris error possessori prodest4 ,the    
violation of right lies either in the   
fact that the holder possesses as       
proprietor1 while he should possess only
 as usufructuary2 or in the fact that he
 has purchased a thing which no one had 
a right to transfer or sell4  ,another  
reason why prescription cannot be       
adduced in favor of property 7a reason  
borrowed from jurisprudence7 is that the
 right to possess real estate is a part 
of a universal right which has never    
been totally destroyed even at the most 
critical periods2 and the proletaire1 in
 order to regain the power to exercise  
it fully1 has only to prove that he has 

always exercised it in part4  ,he1 for  
example1 who has the universal right to 
possess1 give1 exchange1 loan1 let1     
sell1 transform1 or destroy a thing1    
preserves the integrity of this right by
 the sole act of loaning1 though he has 
never shown his authority in any other  
manner4 ,likewise we shall see that     
,,equality ,,of ,,possessions1          
,,equality ,,of ,,rights1 ,,liberty1    
,,will1 ,,personality1 are so many      
identical expressions of one and the    
same idea1--the ,,right ,,of            
,,preservation and ,,development2 in a  
word1 the right of life1 against which  
there can be no prescription until the  
human race has vanished from the face of
 the earth4  ,finally1 as to the time   
required for prescription1 it would be  
superfluous to show that the right of   
property in general cannot be acquired  
by simple possession for ten1 twenty1 a 
hundred1 a thousand1 or one hundred     
thousand years2 and that1 so long as    
there exists a human head capable of    

understanding and combating the right of
 property1 this right will never be     
prescribed4 ,for principles of          
jurisprudence and axioms of reason are  
different from accidental and contingent
 facts4 ,one man's possession can       
prescribe against another man's         
possession2 but just as the possessor   
cannot prescribe against himself1 so    
reason has always the faculty of change 
and reformation4 ,past error is not     
binding on the future4 ,reason is always
 the same eternal force4 ,the           
institution of property1 the work of    
ignorant reason1 may be abrogated by a  
more enlightened reason4 ,consequently1 
property cannot be established by       
prescription4 ,this is so certain and so
 true1 that on it rests the maxim that  
in the matter of prescription a         
violation of right goes for nothing4    
,but ,i should be recreant to my method1
 and the reader would have the right to 
accuse me of charlatanism and bad faith1
 if ,i had nothing further to advance   

concerning prescription4 ,i showed1 in  
the first place1 that appropriation of  
land is illegal2 and that1 supposing it 
to be legal1 it must be accompanied by  
equality of property4 ,i have shown1 in 
the second place1 that universal consent
 proves nothing in favor of property2   
and that1 if it proves any thing1 it    
proves equality of property4 ,i have yet
 to show that prescription1 if          
admissible at all1 presupposes equality 
of property4  ,this demonstration will  
be neither long nor difficult4 ,i need  
only to call attention to the reasons   
why prescription was introduced4        
,prescription1 says ,dunod1 seems       
repugnant to natural equity1 which      
permits no one either to deprive another
 of his possessions without his         
knowledge and consent1 or to enrich     
himself at another's expense4 ,but as it
 might often happen1 in the absence of  
prescription1 that one who had honestly 
earned would be ousted after long       
possession2 and even that he who had    

received a thing from its rightful      
owner1 or who had been legitimately     
relieved from all obligations1 would1 on
 losing his title1 be liable to be      
dispossessed or subjected again1--the   
public welfare demanded that a term     
should be fixed1 after the expiration of
 which no one should be allowed to      
disturb actual possessors1 or reassert  
rights too long neglected4444 ,the civil
 law1 in regulating prescription1 has   
aimed1 then1 only to perfect natural    
law1 and to supplement the law of       
nations2 and as it is founded on the    
public good1 which should always be     
considered before individual            
welfare1--bono publico usucapio         
introducta est1--it should be regarded  
with favor1 provided the conditions     
required by the law are fulfilled4      
,toullier1 in his ,civil ,law1 says3 ,in
 order that the question of             
proprietorship may not remain too long  
unsettled1 and thereby injure the public
 welfare1 disturbing the peace of       

families and the stability of social    
transactions1 the law has fixed a time  
when all claims shall be cancelled1 and 
possession shall regain its ancient     
prerogative through its transformation  
into property4   ,cassiodorus said of   
property1 that it was the only safe     
harbor in which to seek shelter from the
 tempests of chicanery and the gales of 
avarice--,hic unus inter humanas pro    
cellas portus1 quem si homines fervida  
voluntate praeterierint2 in undosis     
semper jurgiis errabunt4  ,thus1 in the 
opinion of the authors1 prescription is 
a means of preserving public order2 a   
restoration in certain cases of the     
original mode of acquiring property2 a  
fiction of the civil law which derives  
all its force from the necessity of     
settling differences which otherwise    
would never end4 ,for1 as ,grotius says1
 time has no power to produce effects2  
all things happen in time1 but nothing  
is done by time4 ,prescription1 or the  
right of acquisition through the lapse  

of time1 is1 therefore1 a fiction of the
 law1 conventionally adopted4  ,but all 
property necessarily originated in      
prescription1 or1 as the ,latins say1 in
 usucapion2 that is1 in continued       
possession4  ,i ask1 then1 in the first 
place1 how possession can become        
property by the lapse of time8 ,continue
 possession as long as you wish1        
continue it for years and for centuries1
 you never can give duration--which of  
itself creates nothing1 changes nothing1
 modifies nothing--the power to change  
the usufructuary into a proprietor4 ,let
 the civil law secure against           
chance-comers the honest possessor who  
has held his position for many          
years1--that only confirms a right      
already respected2 and prescription1    
applied in this way1 simply means that  
possession which has continued for      
twenty1 thirty1 or a hundred years shall
 be retained by the occupant4 ,but when 
the law declares that the lapse of time 
changes possessor into proprietor1 it   

supposes that a right can be created    
without a producing cause2 it           
unwarrantably alters the character of   
the subject2 it legislates on a matter  
not open to legislation2 it exceeds its 
own powers4 ,public order and private   
security ask only that possession shall 
be protected4 ,why has the law created  
property8 ,prescription was simply      
security for the future2 why has the law
 made it a matter of privilege8  ,thus  
the origin of prescription is identical 
with that of property itself2 and since 
the latter can legitimate itself only   
when accompanied by equality1           
prescription is but another of the      
thousand forms which the necessity of   
maintaining this precious equality has  
taken4 ,and this is no vain induction1  
no far-fetched inference4 ,the proof is 
written in all the codes4  ,and1 indeed1
 if all nations1 through their instinct 
of justice and their conservative       
nature1 have recognized the utility and 
the necessity of prescription2 and if   

their design has been to guard thereby  
the interests of the possessor1--could  
they not do something for the absent    
citizen1 separated from his family and  
his country by commerce1 war1 or        
captivity1 and in no position to        
exercise his right of possession8 ,no4  
,also1 at the same time that            
prescription was introduced into the    
laws1 it was admitted that property is  
preserved by intent alone1--nudo animo4 
,now1 if property is preserved by intent
 alone1 if it can be lost only by the   
action of the proprietor1 what can be   
the use of prescription8 ,how does the  
law dare to presume that the proprietor1
 who preserves by intent alone1 intended
 to abandon that which he has allowed to
 be prescribed8 ,what lapse of time can 
warrant such a conjecture2 and by what  
right does the law punish the absence of
 the proprietor by depriving him of his 
goods8 ,what then6 we found but a moment
 since that prescription and property   
were identical2 and now we find that    

they are mutually destructive6          
,grotius1 who perceived this difficulty1
 replied so singularly that his words   
deserve to be quoted3 ,bene sperandum de
 hominibus1 ac propterea non putandum   
eos hoc esse animo ut1 rei caducae      
causa1 hominem alterum velint in        
perpetuo peccato versari1 quo d evitari 
saepe non poterit sine tali             
derelictione4  ,where is the man1 he    
says1 with so unchristian a soul that1  
for a trifle1 he would perpetuate the   
trespass of a possessor1 which would    
inevitably be the result if he did not  
consent to abandon his right8 ,by the   
,eternal6 ,i am that man4 ,though a     
million proprietors should burn for it  
in hell1 ,i lay the blame on them for   
depriving me of my portion of this      
world's goods4 ,to this powerful        
consideration ,grotius rejoins1 that it 
is better to abandon a disputed right   
than to go to law1 disturb the peace of 
nations1 and stir up the flames of civil
 war4 ,i accept1 if you wish it1 this   

argument1 provided you indemnify me4    
,but if this indemnity is refused me1   
what do ,i1 a proletaire1 care for the  
tranquillity and security of the rich8  
,i care as little for ,,public ,,order  
as for the proprietor's safety4 ,i ask  
to live a laborer2 otherwise ,i will die
 a warrior4  ,whichever way we turn1 we 
shall come to the conclusion that       
prescription is a contradiction of      
property2 or rather that prescription   
and property are two forms of the same  
principle1 but two forms which serve to 
correct each other2 and ancient and     
modern jurisprudence did not make the   
least of its blunders in pretending to  
reconcile them4 ,indeed1 if we see in   
the institution of property only a      
desire to secure to each individual his 
share of the soil and his right to      
labor2 in the distinction between naked 
property and possession only an asylum  
for absentees1 orphans1 and all who do  
not know1 or cannot maintain1 their     
rights2 in prescription only a means1   

either of defence against unjust        
pretensions and encroachments1 or of    
settlement of the differences caused by 
the removal of possessors1--we shall    
recognize in these various forms of     
human justice the spontaneous efforts of
 the mind to come to the aid of the     
social instinct2 we shall see in this   
protection of all rights the sentiment  
of equality1 a constant levelling       
tendency4 ,and1 looking deeper1 we shall
 find in the very exaggeration of these 
principles the confirmation of our      
doctrine2 because1 if equality of       
conditions and universal association are
 not soon realized1 it will be owing to 
the obstacle thrown for the time in the 
way of the common sense of the people by
 the stupidity of legislators and       
judges2 and also to the fact that1 while
 society in its original state was      
illuminated with a flash of truth1 the  
early speculations of its leaders could 
bring forth nothing but darkness4       
,after the first covenants1 after the   

first draughts of laws and              
constitutions1 which were the expression
 of man's primary needs1 the            
legislator's duty was to reform the     
errors of legislation2 to complete that 
which was defective2 to harmonize1 by   
superior definitions1 those things which
 seemed to conflict4 ,instead of that1  
they halted at the literal meaning of   
the laws1 content to play the           
subordinate part of commentators and    
scholiasts4 ,taking the inspirations of 
the human mind1 at that time necessarily
 weak and faulty1 for axioms of eternal 
and unquestionable truth1--influenced by
 public opinion1 enslaved by the popular
 religion1--they have invariably started
 with the principle 7following in this  
respect the example of the theologians7 
that that is infallibly true which has  
been admitted by all persons1 in all    
places1 and at all times--quod ab       
omnibus1 quod ubique1 quod semper2 as if
 a general but spontaneous opinion was  
any thing more than an indication of the

 truth4 ,let us not be deceived3 the    
opinion of all nations may serve to     
authenticate the perception of a fact1  
the vague sentiment of a law2 it can    
teach us nothing about either fact or   
law4 ,the consent of mankind is an      
indication of ,nature2 not1 as ,cicero  
says1 a law of ,nature4 ,under the      
indication is hidden the truth1 which   
faith can believe1 but only thought can 
know4 ,such has been the constant       
progress of the human mind in regard to 
physical phenomena and the creations of 
genius3 how can it be otherwise with the
 facts of conscience and the rules of   
human conduct8     #d4--,labor--,that   
,labor ,has ,no ,inherent ,power to     
,appropriate ,natural ,wealth4   ,we    
shall show by the maxims of political   
economy and law1 that is1 by the        
authorities recognized by property1--   
#a4 ,that labor has no inherent power to
 appropriate natural wealth4  #b4 ,that1
 if we admit that labor has this power1 
we are led directly to equality of      

property1--whatever the kind of labor1  
however scarce the product1 or unequal  
the ability of the laborers4  #c4 ,that1
 in the order of justice1 labor         
,,destroys property4  ,following the    
example of our opponents1 and that we   
may leave no obstacles in the path1 let 
us examine the question in the strongest
 possible light4  ,m4 ,ch4 ,comte says1 
in his ,treatise on ,property3--        
,france1 considered as a nation1 has a  
territory which is her own4   ,france1  
as an individuality1 possesses a        
territory which she cultivates2 it is   
not her property4 ,nations are related  
to each other as individuals are3 they  
are commoners and workers2 it is an     
abuse of language to call them          
proprietors4 ,the right of use and abuse
 belongs no more to nations than to men2
 and the time will come when a war waged
 for the purpose of checking a nation in
 its abuse of the soil will be regarded 
as a holy war4  ,thus1 ,m4 ,ch4         
,comte--who undertakes to explain how   

property comes into existence1 and who  
starts with the supposition that a      
nation is a proprietor--falls into that 
error known as ,,begging ,,the          
,,question2 a mistake which vitiates his
 whole argument4  ,if the reader thinks 
it is pushing logic too far to question 
a nation's right of property in the     
territory which it possesses1 ,i will   
simply remind him of the fact that at   
all ages the results of the fictitious  
right of national property have been    
pretensions to suzerainty1 tributes1    
monarchical privileges1 statute-labor1  
quotas of men and money1 supplies of    
merchandise1 c42 ending finally in      
refusals to pay taxes1 insurrections1   
wars1 and depopulations4   ,scattered   
through this territory are extended     
tracts of land1 which have not been     
converted into individual property4     
,these lands1 which consist mainly of   
forests1 belong to the whole population1
 and the government1 which receives the 
revenues1 uses or ought to use them in  

the interest of all4  ,,ought ,,to ,,use
 is well said3 a lie is avoided thereby4
  ,let them be offered for sale4444     
,why offered for sale8 ,who has a right 
to sell them8 ,even were the nation     
proprietor1 can the generation of to-day
 dispossess the generation of to-morrow8
 ,the nation1 in its function of        
usufructuary1 possesses them2 the       
government rules1 superintends1 and     
protects them4 ,if it also granted      
lands1 it could grant only their use2 it
 has no right to sell them or transfer  
them in any way whatever4 ,not being a  
proprietor1 how can it transmit         
property8   ,suppose some industrious   
man buys a portion1 a large swamp for   
example4 ,this would be no usurpation1  
since the public would receive the exact
 value through the hands of the         
government1 and would be as rich after  
the sale as before4   ,how ridiculous6  
,what6 because a prodigal1 imprudent1   
incompetent official sells the ,state's 
possessions1 while ,i1 a ward of the    

,state1--,i who have neither an advisory
 nor a deliberative voice in the ,state 
councils1--while ,i am allowed to make  
no opposition to the sale1 this sale is 
right and legal6 ,the guardians of the  
nation waste its substance1 and it has  
no redress6 ,i have received1 you tell  
me1 through the hands of the government 
my share of the proceeds of the sale3   
but1 in the first place1 ,i did not wish
 to sell2 and1 had ,i wished to1 ,i     
could not have sold4 ,i had not the     
right4 ,and then ,i do not see that ,i  
am benefited by the sale4 ,my guardians 
have dressed up some soldiers1 repaired 
an old fortress1 erected in their pride 
some costly but worthless               
monument1--then they have exploded some 
fireworks and set up a greased pole6    
,what does all that amount to in        
comparison with my loss8  ,the purchaser
 draws boundaries1 fences himself in1   
and says1 ,this is mine2 each one by    
himself1 each one for himself4 ,here1   
then1 is a piece of land upon which1    

henceforth1 no one has a right to step1 
save the proprietor and his friends2    
which can benefit nobody1 save the      
proprietor and his servants4 ,let these 
sales multiply1 and soon the people--who
 have been neither able nor willing to  
sell1 and who have received none of the 
proceeds of the sale--will have nowhere 
to rest1 no place of shelter1 no ground 
to till4 ,they will die of hunger at the
 proprietor's door1 on the edge of that 
property which was their birthright2 and
 the proprietor1 watching them die1 will
 exclaim1 ,so perish idlers and         
vagrants6  ,to reconcile us to the      
proprietor's usurpation1 ,m4 ,ch4 ,comte
 assumes the lands to be of little value
 at the time of sale4   ,the importance 
of these usurpations should not be      
exaggerated3 they should be measured by 
the number of men which the occupied    
land would support1 and by the means    
which it would furnish them4  ,it is    
evident1 for instance1 that if a piece  
of land which is worth to-day one       

thousand francs was worth only five     
centimes when it was usurped1 we really 
lose only the value of five centimes4 ,a
 square league of earth would be hardly 
sufficient to support a savage in       
distress2 to-day it supplies one        
thousand persons with the means of      
existence4 ,nine hundred and ninety-nine
 parts of this land is the legitimate   
property of the possessors2 only        
one-thousandth of the value has been    
usurped4   ,a peasant admitted one day1 
at confession1 that he had destroyed a  
document which declared him a debtor to 
the amount of three hundred francs4     
,said the father confessor1 ,you must   
return these three hundred francs4 ,no1 
replied the peasant1 ,i will return a   
penny to pay for the paper4  ,m4 ,ch4   
,comte's logic resembles this peasant's 
honesty4 ,the soil has not only an      
integrant and actual value1 it has also 
a potential value1--a value of the      
future1--which depends on our ability to
 make it valuable1 and to employ it in  

our work4 ,destroy a bill of exchange1 a
 promissory note1 an annuity deed1--as a
 paper you destroy almost no value at   
all2 but with this paper you destroy    
your title1 and1 in losing your title1  
you deprive yourself of your goods4     
,destroy the land1 or1 what is the same 
thing1 sell it1--you not only transfer  
one1 two1 or several crops1 but you     
annihilate all the products that you    
could derive from it2 you and your      
children and your children's children4  
,when ,m4 ,ch4 ,comte1 the apostle of   
property and the eulogist of labor1     
supposes an alienation of the soil on   
the part of the government1 we must not 
think that he does so without reason and
 for no purpose2 it is a necessary part 
of his position4 ,as he rejected the    
theory of occupancy1 and as he knew1    
moreover1 that labor could not          
constitute the right in the absence of a
 previous permission to occupy1 he was  
obliged to connect this permission with 
the authority of the government1 which  

means that property is based upon the   
sovereignty of the people2 in other     
words1 upon universal consent4 ,this    
theory we have already considered4  ,to 
say that property is the daughter of    
labor1 and then to give labor material  
on which to exercise itself1 is1 if ,i  
am not mistaken1 to reason in a circle4 
,contradictions will result from it4    
,a piece of land of a certain size      
produces food enough to supply a man for
 one day4 ,if the possessor1 through his
 labor1 discovers some method of making 
it produce enough for two days1 he      
doubles its value4 ,this new value is   
his work1 his creation3 it is taken from
 nobody2 it is his property4   ,i       
maintain that the possessor is paid for 
his trouble and industry in his doubled 
crop1 but that he acquires no right to  
the land4 ,let the laborer have the     
fruits of his labor4 ,very good2 but ,i 
do not understand that property in      
products carries with it property in raw
 material4 ,does the skill of the       

fisherman1 who on the same coast can    
catch more fish than his fellows1 make  
him proprietor of the fishing-grounds8  
,can the expertness of a hunter ever be 
regarded as a property-title to a       
game-forest8 ,the analogy is            
perfect1--the industrious cultivator    
finds the reward of his industry in the 
abundancy and superiority of his crop4  
,if he has made improvements in the     
soil1 he has the possessor's right of   
preference4 ,never1 under any           
circumstances1 can he be allowed to     
claim a property-title to the soil which
 he cultivates1 on the ground of his    
skill as a cultivator4  ,to change      
possession into property1 something is  
needed besides labor1 without which a   
man would cease to be proprietor as soon
 as he ceased to be a laborer4 ,now1 the
 law bases property upon immemorial1    
unquestionable possession2 that is1     
prescription4 ,labor is only the        
sensible sign1 the physical act1 by     
which occupation is manifested4 ,if1    

then1 the cultivator remains proprietor 
after he has ceased to labor and        
produce2 if his possession1 first       
conceded1 then tolerated1 finally       
becomes inalienable1--it happens by     
permission of the civil law1 and by     
virtue of the principle of occupancy4   
,so true is this1 that there is not a   
bill of sale1 not a farm lease1 not an  
annuity1 but implies it4 ,i will quote  
only one example4  ,how do we measure   
the value of land8 ,by its product4 ,if 
a piece of land yields one thousand     
francs1 we say that at five per cent4 it
 is worth twenty thousand francs2 at    
four per cent4 twenty-five thousand     
francs1 c42 which means1 in other words1
 that in twenty or twenty-five years'   
time the purchaser would recover in full
 the amount originally paid for the     
land4 ,if1 then1 after a certain length 
of time1 the price of a piece of land   
has been wholly recovered1 why does the 
purchaser continue to be proprietor8    
,because of the right of occupancy1 in  

the absence of which every sale would be
 a redemption4  ,the theory of          
appropriation by labor is1 then1 a      
contradiction of the ,code2 and when the
 partisans of this theory pretend to    
explain the laws thereby1 they          
contradict themselves4   ,if men succeed
 in fertilizing land hitherto           
unproductive1 or even death-producing1  
like certain swamps1 they create thereby
 property in all its completeness4      
,what good does it do to magnify an     
expression1 and play with equivocations1
 as if we expected to change the reality
 thereby8 ,,they ,,create ,,property    
,,in ,,all ,,its ,,completeness4 ,you   
mean that they create a productive      
capacity which formerly did not exist2  
but this capacity cannot be created     
without material to support it4 ,the    
substance of the soil remains the same2 
only its qualities and modifications are
 changed4 ,man has created every        
thing--every thing save the material    
itself4 ,now1 ,i maintain that this     

material he can only possess and use1 on
 condition of permanent                 
labor1--granting1 for the time being1   
his right of property in things which he
 has produced4  ,this1 then1 is the     
first point settled3 property in        
product1 if we grant so much1 does not  
carry with it property in the means of  
production2 that seems to me to need no 
further demonstration4 ,there is no     
difference between the soldier who      
possesses his arms1 the mason who       
possesses the materials committed to his
 care1 the fisherman who possesses the  
water1 the hunter who possesses the     
fields and forests1 and the cultivator  
who possesses the lands3 all1 if you say
 so1 are proprietors of their           
products--not one is proprietor of the  
means of production4 ,the right to      
product is exclusive--jus in re2 the    
right to means is common--jus ad rem4   
#e4--,that ,labor leads to ,equality of 
,property4  ,admit1 however1 that labor 
gives a right of property in material4  

,why is not this principle universal8   
,why is the benefit of this pretended   
law confined to a few and denied to the 
mass of laborers8 ,a philosopher1       
arguing that all animals sprang up      
formerly out of the earth warmed by the 
rays of the sun1 almost like mushrooms1 
on being asked why the earth no longer  
yielded crops of that nature1 replied3  
,because it is old1 and has lost its    
fertility4 ,has labor1 once so fecund1  
likewise become sterile8 ,why does the  
tenant no longer acquire through his    
labor the land which was formerly       
acquired by the labor of the proprietor8
  ,because1 they say1 it is already     
appropriated4 ,that is no answer4 ,a    
farm yields fifty bushels per hectare2  
the skill and labor of the tenant double
 this product3 the increase is created  
by the tenant4 ,suppose the owner1 in a 
spirit of moderation rarely met with1   
does not go to the extent of absorbing  
this product by raising the rent1 but   
allows the cultivator to enjoy the      

results of his labor2 even then justice 
is not satisfied4 ,the tenant1 by       
improving the land1 has imparted a new  
value to the property2 he1 therefore1   
has a right to a part of the property4  
,if the farm was originally worth one   
hundred thousand francs1 and if by the  
labor of the tenant its value has risen 
to one hundred and fifty thousand       
francs1 the tenant1 who produced this   
extra value1 is the legitimate          
proprietor of one-third of the farm4 ,m4
 ,ch4 ,comte could not have pronounced  
this doctrine false1 for it was he who  
said3--   ,men who increase the         
fertility of the earth are no less      
useful to their fellow-men1 than if they
 should create new land4   ,why1 then1  
is not this rule applicable to the man  
who improves the land1 as well as to him
 who clears it8 ,the labor of the former
 makes the land worth one2 that of the  
latter makes it worth two3 both create  
equal values4 ,why not accord to both   
equal property8 ,i defy any one to      

refute this argument1 without again     
falling back on the right of first      
occupancy4  ,but1 it will be said1 even 
if your wish should be granted1 property
 would not be distributed much more     
evenly than now4 ,land does not go on   
increasing in value for ever2 after two 
or three seasons it attains its maximum 
fertility4 ,that which is added by the  
agricultural art results rather from the
 progress of science and the diffusion  
of knowledge1 than from the skill of the
 cultivator4 ,consequently1 the addition
 of a few laborers to the mass of       
proprietors would be no argument against
 property4  ,this discussion would1     
indeed1 prove a well-nigh useless one1  
if our labors culminated in simply      
extending land-privilege and industrial 
monopoly2 in emancipating only a few    
hundred laborers out of the millions of 
proletaires4 ,but this also is a        
misconception of our real thought1 and  
does but prove the general lack of      
intelligence and logic4  ,if the        

laborer1 who adds to the value of a     
thing1 has a right of property in it1 he
 who maintains this value acquires the  
same right4 ,for what is maintenance8   
,it is incessant addition1--continuous  
creation4 ,what is it to cultivate8 ,it 
is to give the soil its value every     
year2 it is1 by annually renewed        
creation1 to prevent the diminution or  
destruction of the value of a piece of  
land4 ,admitting1 then1 that property is
 rational and legitimate1--admitting    
that rent is equitable and just1--,i say
 that he who cultivates acquires        
property by as good a title as he who   
clears1 or he who improves2 and that    
every time a tenant pays his rent1 he   
obtains a fraction of property in the   
land entrusted to his care1 the         
denominator of which is equal to the    
proportion of rent paid4 ,unless you    
admit this1 you fall into absolutism and
 tyranny2 you recognize class           
privileges2 you sanction slavery4       
,whoever labors becomes a               

proprietor--this is an inevitable       
deduction from the acknowledged         
principles of political economy and     
jurisprudence4 ,and when ,i say         
proprietor1 ,i do not mean simply 7as do
 our hypocritical economists7 proprietor
 of his allowance1 his salary1 his      
wages1--,i mean proprietor of the value 
which he creates1 and by which the      
master alone profits4  ,as all this     
relates to the theory of wages and of   
the distribution of products1--and as   
this matter never has been even         
partially cleared up1--,i ask permission
 to insist on it3 this discussion will  
not be useless to the work in hand4     
,many persons talk of admitting         
working-people to a share in the        
products and profits2 but in their minds
 this participation is pure benevolence3
 they have never shown--perhaps never   
suspected--that it was a natural1       
necessary right1 inherent in labor1 and 
inseparable from the function of        
producer1 even in the lowest forms of   

his work4  ,this is my proposition3     
,,the ,,laborer ,,retains1 ,,even       
,,after ,,he ,,has ,,received ,,his     
,,wages1 ,a ,,natural ,,right ,,of      
,,property ,,in ,,the ,,thing ,,which   
,,he ,,has ,,produced4  ,i again quote  
,m4 ,ch4 ,comte3--  ,some laborers are  
employed in draining marshes1 in cutting
 down trees and brushwood1--in a word1  
in cleaning up the soil4 ,they increase 
the value1 they make the amount of      
property larger2 they are paid for the  
value which they add in the form of food
 and daily wages3 it then becomes the   
property of the capitalist4   ,the price
 is not sufficient3 the labor of the    
workers has created a value2 now this   
value is their property4 ,but they have 
neither sold nor exchanged it2 and you1 
capitalist1 you have not earned it4     
,that you should have a partial right to
 the whole1 in return for the materials 
that you have furnished and the         
provisions that you have supplied1 is   
perfectly just4 ,you contributed to the 

production1 you ought to share in the   
enjoyment4 ,but your right does not     
annihilate that of the laborers1 who1 in
 spite of you1 have been your colleagues
 in the work of production4 ,why do you 
talk of wages8 ,the money with which you
 pay the wages of the laborers          
remunerates them for only a few years of
 the perpetual possession which they    
have abandoned to you4 ,wages is the    
cost of the daily maintenance and       
refreshment of the laborer4 ,you are    
wrong in calling it the price of a sale4
 ,the workingman has sold nothing2 he   
knows neither his right1 nor the extent 
of the concession which he has made to  
you1 nor the meaning of the contract    
which you pretend to have made with him4
 ,on his side1 utter ignorance2 on      
yours1 error and surprise1 not to say   
deceit and fraud4  ,let us make this    
clearer by another and more striking    
example4  ,no one is ignorant of the    
difficulties that are met with in the   
conversion of untilled land into arable 

and productive land4 ,these difficulties
 are so great1 that usually an isolated 
man would perish before he could put the
 soil in a condition to yield him even  
the most meagre living4 ,to that end are
 needed the united and combined efforts 
of society1 and all the resources of    
industry4 ,m4 ,ch4 ,comte quotes on this
 subject numerous and well-authenticated
 facts1 little thinking that he is      
amassing testimony against his own      
system4  ,let us suppose that a colony  
of twenty or thirty families establishes
 itself in a wild district1 covered with
 underbrush and forests2 and from which1
 by agreement1 the natives consent to   
withdraw4 ,each one of these families   
possesses a moderate but sufficient     
amount of capital1 of such a nature as a
 colonist would be apt to               
choose1--animals1 seeds1 tools1 and a   
little money and food4 ,the land having 
been divided1 each one settles himself  
as comfortably as possible1 and begins  
to clear away the portion allotted to   

him4 ,but after a few weeks of fatigue1 
such as they never before have known1 of
 inconceivable suffering1 of ruinous and
 almost useless labor1 our colonists    
begin to complain of their trade2 their 
condition seems hard to them2 they curse
 their sad existence4  ,suddenly1 one of
 the shrewdest among them kills a pig1  
cures a part of the meat2 and1 resolved 
to sacrifice the rest of his provisions1
 goes to find his companions in misery4 
,friends1 he begins in a very benevolent
 tone1 how much trouble it costs you to 
do a little work and live uncomfortably6
 ,a fortnight of labor has reduced you  
to your last extremity6444 ,let us make 
an arrangement by which you shall all   
profit4 ,i offer you provisions and     
wine3 you shall get so much every day2  
we will work together1 and1 zounds6 my  
friends1 we will be happy and contented6
  ,would it be possible for empty       
stomachs to resist such an invitation8  
,the hungriest of them follow the       
treacherous tempter4 ,they go to work2  

the charm of society1 emulation1 joy1   
and mutual assistance double their      
strength2 the work can be seen to       
advance4 ,singing and laughing1 they    
subdue ,nature4 ,in a short time1 the   
soil is thoroughly changed2 the mellowed
 earth waits only for the seed4 ,that   
done1 the proprietor pays his laborers1 
who1 on going away1 return him their    
thanks1 and grieve that the happy days  
which they have spent with him are over4
  ,others follow this example1 always   
with the same success4 ,then1 these     
installed1 the rest disperse1--each one 
returns to his grubbing4 ,but1 while    
grubbing1 it is necessary to live4      
,while they have been clearing away for 
their neighbor1 they have done no       
clearing for themselves4 ,one year's    
seed-time and harvest is already gone4  
,they had calculated that in lending    
their labor they could not but gain1    
since they would save their own         
provisions2 and1 while living better1   
would get still more money4 ,false      

calculation6 they have created for      
another the means wherewith to produce1 
and have created nothing for themselves4
 ,the difficulties of clearing remain   
the same2 their clothing wears out1     
their provisions give out2 soon their   
purse becomes empty for the profit of   
the individual for whom they have       
worked1 and who alone can furnish the   
provisions which they need1 since he    
alone is in a position to produce them4 
,then1 when the poor grubber has        
exhausted his resources1 the man with   
the provisions 7like the wolf in the    
fable1 who scents his victim from afar7 
again comes forward4 ,one he offers to  
employ again by the day2 from another he
 offers to buy at a favorable price a   
piece of his bad land1 which is not1 and
 never can be1 of any use to him3 that  
is1 he uses the labor of one man to     
cultivate the field of another for his  
own benefit4 ,so that at the end of     
twenty years1 of thirty individuals     
originally equal in point of wealth1    

five or six have become proprietors of  
the whole district1 while the rest have 
been philanthropically dispossessed6    
,in this century of bourgeoisie         
morality1 in which ,i have had the honor
 to be born1 the moral sense is so      
debased that ,i should not be at all    
surprised if ,i were asked1 by many a   
worthy proprietor1 what ,i see in this  
that is unjust and illegitimate8        
,debased creature6 galvanized corpse6   
how can ,i expect to convince you1 if   
you cannot tell robbery when ,i show it 
to you8 ,a man1 by soft and insinuating 
words1 discovers the secret of taxing   
others that he may establish himself2   
then1 once enriched by their united     
efforts1 he refuses1 on the very        
conditions which he himself dictated1 to
 advance the well-being of those who    
made his fortune for him3 and you ask   
how such conduct is fraudulent6 ,under  
the pretext that he has paid his        
laborers1 that he owes them nothing     
more1 that he has nothing to gain by    

putting himself at the service of       
others1 while his own occupations claim 
his attention1--he refuses1 ,i say1 to  
aid others in getting a foothold1 as he 
was aided in getting his own2 and when1 
in the impotence of their isolation1    
these poor laborers are compelled to    
sell their birthright1 he--this         
ungrateful proprietor1 this knavish     
upstart--stands ready to put the        
finishing touch to their deprivation and
 their ruin4 ,and you think that just8  
,take care6  ,i read in your startled   
countenance the reproach of a guilty    
conscience1 much more clearly than the  
innocent astonishment of involuntary    
ignorance4  ,the capitalist1 they say1  
has paid the laborers their ,,daily     
,,wages4 ,to be accurate1 it must be    
said that the capitalist has paid as    
many times one day's wage as he has     
employed laborers each day1--which is   
not at all the same thing4 ,for he has  
paid nothing for that immense power     
which results from the union and harmony

 of laborers1 and the convergence and   
simultaneousness of their efforts4 ,two 
hundred grenadiers stood the obelisk of 
,luxor upon its base in a few hours2 do 
you suppose that one man could have     
accomplished the same task in two       
hundred days8 ,nevertheless1 on the     
books of the capitalist1 the amount of  
wages paid would have been the same4    
,well1 a desert to prepare for          
cultivation1 a house to build1 a factory
 to run1--all these are obelisks to     
erect1 mountains to move4 ,the smallest 
fortune1 the most insignificant         
establishment1 the setting in motion of 
the lowest industry1 demand the         
concurrence of so many different kinds  
of labor and skill1 that one man could  
not possibly execute the whole of them4 
,it is astonishing that the economists  
never have called attention to this     
fact4 ,strike a balance1 then1 between  
the capitalist's receipts and his       
payments4  ,the laborer needs a salary  
which will enable him to live while he  

works2 for unless he consumes1 he cannot
 produce4 ,whoever employs a man owes   
him maintenance and support1 or wages   
enough to procure the same4 ,that is the
 first thing to be done in all          
production4 ,i admit1 for the moment1   
that in this respect the capitalist has 
discharged his duty4  ,it is necessary  
that the laborer should find in his     
production1 in addition to his present  
support1 a guarantee of his future      
support2 otherwise the source of        
production would dry up1 and his        
productive capacity would become        
exhausted3 in other words1 the labor    
accomplished must give birth perpetually
 to new labor--such is the universal law
 of reproduction4 ,in this way1 the     
proprietor of a farm finds3 #a4 ,in his 
crops1 means1 not only of supporting    
himself and his family1 but of          
maintaining and improving his capital1  
of feeding his live-stock--in a word1   
means of new labor and continual        
reproduction2 #b4 ,in his ownership of a

 productive agency1 a permanent basis of
 cultivation and labor4  ,but he who    
lends his services1--what is his basis  
of cultivation8  ,the proprietor's      
presumed need of him1 and the           
unwarranted supposition that he wishes  
to employ him4 ,just as the commoner    
once held his land by the munificence   
and condescension of the lord1 so to-day
 the working-man holds his labor by the 
condescension and necessities of the    
master and proprietor3 that is what is  
called possession by a precarious #ae   
title4 ,but this precarious condition is
 an injustice1 for it implies an        
inequality in the bargain4 ,the         
laborer's wages exceed but little his   
running expenses1 and do not assure him 
wages for to-morrow2 while the          
capitalist finds in the instrument      
produced by the laborer a pledge of     
independence and security for the       
future4   ,now1 this reproductive       
leaven--this eternal germ of life1 this 
preparation of the land and manufacture 

of implements for                       
production--constitutes the debt of the 
capitalist to the producer1 which he    
never pays2 and it is this fraudulent   
denial which causes the poverty of the  
laborer1 the luxury of idleness1 and the
 inequality of conditions4 ,this it is1 
above all other things1 which has been  
so fitly named the exploitation of man  
by man4  ,one of three things must be   
done4 ,either the laborer must be given 
a portion of the product in addition to 
his wages2 or the employer must render  
the laborer an equivalent in productive 
service2 or else he must pledge himself 
to employ him for ever4 ,division of the
 product1 reciprocity of service1 or    
guarantee of perpetual labor1--from the 
adoption of one of these courses the    
capitalist cannot escape4 ,but it is    
evident that he cannot satisfy the      
second and third of these conditions--he
 can neither put himself at the service 
of the thousands of working-men1 who1   
directly or indirectly1 have aided him  

in establishing himself1 nor employ them
 all for ever4 ,he has no other course  
left him1 then1 but a division of the   
property4 ,but if the property is       
divided1 all conditions will be         
equal--there will be no more large      
capitalists or large proprietors4       
,consequently1 when ,m4 ,ch4            
,comte--following out his               
hypothesis--shows us his capitalist     
acquiring one after another the products
 of his employees' labor1 he sinks      
deeper and deeper into the mire2 and1 as
 his argument does not change1 our reply
 of course remains the same4   ,other   
laborers are employed in building3 some 
quarry the stone1 others transport it1  
others cut it1 and still others put it  
in place4 ,each of them adds a certain  
value to the material which passes      
through his hands2 and this value1 the  
product of his labor1 is his property4  
,he sells it1 as fast as he creates it1 
to the proprietor of the building1 who  
pays him for it in food and wages4      

,divide et impera--divide1 and you shall
 command2 divide1 and you shall grow    
rich2 divide1 and you shall deceive men1
 you shall daze their minds1 you shall  
mock at justice6 ,separate laborers from
 each other1 perhaps each one's daily   
wage exceeds the value of each          
individual's product2 but that is not   
the question under consideration4 ,a    
force of one thousand men working twenty
 days has been paid the same wages that 
one would be paid for working fifty-five
 years2 but this force of one thousand  
has done in twenty days what a single   
man could not have accomplished1 though 
he had labored for a million centuries4 
,is the exchange an equitable one8 ,once
 more1 no2 when you have paid all the   
individual forces1 the collective force 
still remains to be paid4               
,consequently1 there remains always a   
right of collective property which you  
have not acquired1 and which you enjoy  
unjustly4  ,admit that twenty days'     
wages suffice to feed1 lodge1 and clothe

 this multitude for twenty days3 thrown 
out of employment at the end of that    
time1 what will become of them1 if1 as  
fast as they create1 they abandon their 
creations to the proprietors who will   
soon discharge them8 ,while the         
proprietor1 firm in his position 7thanks
 to the aid of all the laborers71 dwells
 in security1 and fears no lack of labor
 or bread1 the laborer's only dependence
 is upon the benevolence of this same   
proprietor1 to whom he has sold and     
surrendered his liberty4 ,if1 then1 the 
proprietor1 shielding himself behind his
 comfort and his rights1 refuses to     
employ the laborer1 how can the laborer 
live8 ,he has ploughed an excellent     
field1 and cannot sow it2 he has built  
an elegant and commodious house1 and    
cannot live in it2 he has produced all1 
and can enjoy nothing4  ,labor leads us 
to equality4 ,every step that we take   
brings us nearer to it2 and if laborers 
had equal strength1 diligence1 and      
industry1 clearly their fortunes would  

be equal also4 ,indeed1 if1 as is       
pretended1--and as we have              
admitted1--the laborer is proprietor of 
the value which he creates1 it          
follows3--  #a4 ,that the laborer       
acquires at the expense of the idle     
proprietor2  #b4 ,that all production   
being necessarily collective1 the       
laborer is entitled to a share of the   
products and profits commensurate with  
his labor2  #c4 ,that all accumulated   
capital being social property1 no one   
can be its exclusive proprietor4  ,these
 inferences are unavoidable2 these alone
 would suffice to revolutionize our     
whole economical system1 and change our 
institutions and our laws4 ,why do the  
very persons1 who laid down this        
principle1 now refuse to be guided by   
it8 ,why do the ,says1 the ,comtes1 the 
,hennequins1 and others--after having   
said that property is born of           
labor--seek to fix it by occupation and 
prescription8  ,but let us leave these  
sophists to their contradictions and    

blindness4 ,the good sense of the people
 will do justice to their equivocations4
 ,let us make haste to enlighten it1 and
 show it the true path4 ,equality       
approaches2 already between it and us   
but a short distance intervenes3        
to-morrow even this distance will have  
been traversed4     #f4--,that in       
,society all ,wages are ,equal4  ,when  
the ,st4 ,simonians1 the ,fourierists1  
and1 in general1 all who in our day are 
connected with social economy and       
reform1 inscribe upon their banner1--   
,,to ,,each ,,according ,,to ,,his      
,,capacity1 ,,to ,,each ,,capacity      
,,according ,,to ,,its ,,results 7,st4  
,simon72  ,,to ,,each ,,according ,,to  
,,his ,,capital1 ,,his ,,labor1 ,,and   
,,his ,,skill 7,fourier71--  they       
mean--although they do not say so in so 
many words--that the products of ,nature
 procured by labor and industry are a   
reward1 a palm1 a crown offered to all  
kinds of preeminence and superiority4   
,they regard the land as an immense     

arena in which prizes are contended     
for1--no longer1 it is true1 with lances
 and swords1 by force and by treachery2 
but by acquired wealth1 by knowledge1   
talent1 and by virtue itself4 ,in a     
word1 they mean--and everybody agrees   
with them--that the greatest capacity is
 entitled to the greatest reward2 and1  
to use the mercantile                   
phraseology1--which has1 at least1 the  
merit of being straightforward1--that   
salaries must be governed by capacity   
and its results4  ,the disciples of     
these two self-styled reformers cannot  
deny that such is their thought2 for1 in
 doing so1 they would contradict their  
official interpretations1 and would     
destroy the unity of their systems4     
,furthermore1 such a denial on their    
part is not to be feared4 ,the two sects
 glory in laying down as a principle    
inequality of conditions1--reasoning    
from ,nature1 who1 they say1 intended   
the inequality of capacities4 ,they     
boast only of one thing2 namely1 that   

their political system is so perfect1   
that the social inequalities always     
correspond with the natural             
inequalities4 ,they no more trouble     
themselves to inquire whether inequality
 of conditions--,i mean of salaries--is 
possible1 than they do to fix a measure 
of capacity4#a  #a ,in ,st4 ,simon's    
system1 the ,st4-,simonian priest       
determines the capacity of each by      
virtue of his pontifical infallibility1 
in imitation of the ,roman ,church3 in  
,fourier's1 the ranks and merits are    
decided by vote1 in imitation of the    
constitutional regime4  ,clearly1 the   
great man is an object of ridicule to   
the reader2 he did not mean to tell his 
secret4   ,to each according to his     
capacity1 to each capacity according to 
its results4  ,to each according to his 
capital1 his labor1 and his skill4      
,since the death of ,st4 ,simon and     
,fourier1 not one among their numerous  
disciples has attempted to give to the  
public a scientific demonstration of    

this grand maxim2 and ,i would wager a  
hundred to one that no ,fourierist even 
suspects that this biform aphorism is   
susceptible of two interpretations4     
,to each according to his capacity1 to  
each capacity according to its results4 
,to each according to his capital1 his  
labor1 and his skill4   ,this           
proposition1 taken1 as they say1 in     
sensu obvio--in the sense usually       
attributed to it--is false1 absurd1     
unjust1 contradictory1 hostile to       
liberty1 friendly to tyranny1           
anti-social1 and was unluckily framed   
under the express influence of the      
property idea4  ,and1 first1 ,,capital  
must be crossed off the list of elements
 which are entitled to a reward4 ,the   
,fourierists--as far as ,i have been    
able to learn from a few of their       
pamphlets--deny the right of occupancy1 
and recognize no basis of property save 
labor4 ,starting with a like premise1   
they would have seen--had they reasoned 
upon the matter--that capital is a      

source of production to its proprietor  
only by virtue of the right of          
occupancy1 and that this production is  
therefore illegitimate4 ,indeed1 if     
labor is the sole basis of property1 ,i 
cease to be proprietor of my field as   
soon as ,i receive rent for it from     
another4 ,this we have shown beyond all 
cavil4 ,it is the same with all capital2
 so that to put capital in an           
enterprise1 is1 by the law's decision1  
to exchange it for an equivalent sum in 
products4 ,i will not enter again upon  
this now useless discussion1 since ,i   
propose1 in the following chapter1 to   
exhaust the subject of ,,production ,,by
 ,,capital4  ,thus1 capital can be      
exchanged1 but cannot be a source of    
income4  ,,labor and ,,skill remain2 or1
 as ,st4 ,simon puts it1 ,,results and  
,,capacities4 ,i will examine them      
successively4  ,should wages be governed
 by labor8 ,in other words1 is it just  
that he who does the most should get the
 most8 ,i beg the reader to pay the     

closest attention to this point4  ,to   
solve the problem with one stroke1 we   
have only to ask ourselves the following
 question3 ,is labor a ,,condition or a 
,,struggle8 ,the reply seems plain4     
,god said to man1 ,in the sweat of thy  
face shalt thou eat bread1--that is1    
thou shalt produce thy own bread3 with  
more or less ease1 according to thy     
skill in directing and combining thy    
efforts1 thou shalt labor4 ,god did not 
say1 ,thou shalt quarrel with thy       
neighbor for thy bread2 but1 ,thou shalt
 labor by the side of thy neighbor1 and 
ye shall dwell together in harmony4 ,let
 us develop the meaning of this law1 the
 extreme simplicity of which renders it 
liable to misconstruction4  ,in labor1  
two things must be noticed and          
distinguished3 ,,association and        
,,available ,,material4  ,in so far as  
laborers are associated1 they are equal2
 and it involves a contradiction to say 
that one should be paid more than       
another4 ,for1 as the product of one    

laborer can be paid for only in the     
product of another laborer1 if the two  
products are unequal1 the remainder--or 
the difference between the greater and  
the smaller--will not be acquired by    
society2 and1 therefore1 not being      
exchanged1 will not affect the equality 
of wages4 ,there will result1 it is     
true1 in favor of the stronger laborer a
 natural inequality1 but not a social   
inequality2 no one having suffered by   
his strength and productive energy4 ,in 
a word1 society exchanges only equal    
products--that is1 rewards no labor save
 that performed for her benefit2        
consequently1 she pays all laborers     
equally3 with what they produce outside 
of her sphere she has no more to do1    
than with the difference in their voices
 and their hair4  ,i seem to be positing
 the principle of inequality3 the       
reverse of this is the truth4 ,the total
 amount of labor which can be performed 
for society 7that is1 of labor          
susceptible of exchange71 being1 within 

a given space1 as much greater as the   
laborers are more numerous1 and as the  
task assigned to each is less in        
magnitude1--it follows that natural     
inequality neutralizes itself in        
proportion as association extends1 and  
as the quantity of consumable values    
produced thereby increases4 ,so that in 
society the only thing which could bring
 back the inequality of labor would be  
the right of occupancy1--the right of   
property4  ,now1 suppose that this daily
 social task consists in the ploughing1 
hoeing1 or reaping of two square        
decameters1 and that the average time   
required to accomplish it is seven      
hours3 one laborer will finish it in six
 hours1 another will require eight2 the 
majority1 however1 will work seven4 ,but
 provided each one furnishes the        
quantity of labor demanded of him1      
whatever be the time he employs1 they   
are entitled to equal wages4  ,shall the
 laborer who is capable of finishing his
 task in six hours have the right1 on   

the ground of superior strength and     
activity1 to usurp the task of the less 
skilful laborer1 and thus rob him of his
 labor and bread8 ,who dares maintain   
such a proposition8 ,he who finishes    
before the others may rest1 if he       
chooses2 he may devote himself to useful
 exercise and labors for the maintenance
 of his strength1 and the culture of his
 mind1 and the pleasure of his life4    
,this he can do without injury to any   
one3 but let him confine himself to     
services which affect him solely4       
,vigor1 genius1 diligence1 and all the  
personal advantages which result        
therefrom1 are the work of ,nature and1 
to a certain extent1 of the individual2 
society awards them the esteem which    
they merit3 but the wages which it pays 
them is measured1 not by their power1   
but by their production4 ,now1 the      
product of each is limited by the right 
of all4  ,if the soil were infinite in  
extent1 and the amount of available     
material were exhaustless1 even then we 

could not accept this maxim1--,,to      
,,each ,,according ,,to ,,his ,,labor4  
,and why8 ,because society1 ,i repeat1  
whatever be the number of its subjects1 
is forced to pay them all the same      
wages1 since she pays them only in their
 own products4 ,only1 on the hypothesis 
just made1 inasmuch as the strong cannot
 be prevented from using all their      
advantages1 the inconveniences of       
natural inequality would reappear in the
 very bosom of social equality4 ,but the
 land1 considering the productive power 
of its inhabitants and their ability to 
multiply1 is very limited2 further1 by  
the immense variety of products and the 
extreme division of labor1 the social   
task is made easy of accomplishment4    
,now1 through this limitation of things 
producible1 and through the ease of     
producing them1 the law of absolute     
equality takes effect4  ,yes1 life is a 
struggle4 ,but this struggle is not     
between man and man--it is between man  
and ,nature2 and it is each one's duty  

to take his share in it4 ,if1 in the    
struggle1 the strong come to the aid of 
the weak1 their kindness deserves praise
 and love2 but their aid must be        
accepted as a free gift1--not imposed by
 force1 nor offered at a price4 ,all    
have the same career before them1       
neither too long nor too difficult2     
whoever finishes it finds his reward at 
the end3 it is not necessary to get     
there first4  ,in printing-offices1     
where the laborers usually work by the  
job1 the compositor receives so much per
 thousand letters set2 the pressman so  
much per thousand sheets printed4       
,there1 as elsewhere1 inequalities of   
talent and skill are to be found4 ,when 
there is no prospect of dull times 7for 
printing and typesetting1 like all other
 trades1 sometimes come to a            
stand-still71 every one is free to work 
his hardest1 and exert his faculties to 
the utmost3 he who does more gets more2 
he who does less gets less4 ,when       
business slackens1 compositors and      

pressmen divide up their labor2 all     
monopolists are detested as no better   
than robbers or traitors4  ,there is a  
philosophy in the action of these       
printers1 to which neither economists   
nor legists have ever risen4 ,if our    
legislators had introduced into their   
codes the principle of distributive     
justice which governs printing-offices2 
if they had observed the popular        
instincts1--not for the sake of servile 
imitation1 but in order to reform and   
generalize them1--long ere this liberty 
and equality would have been established
 on an immovable basis1 and we should   
not now be disputing about the right of 
property and the necessity of social    
distinctions4  ,it has been calculated  
that if labor were equally shared by the
 whole number of able-bodied            
individuals1 the average working-day of 
each individual1 in ,france1 would not  
exceed five hours4 ,this being so1 how  
can we presume to talk of the inequality
 of laborers8 ,it is the ,,labor of     

,robert ,macaire that causes inequality4
  ,the principle1 ,,to ,,each           
,,according ,,to ,,his ,,labor1         
interpreted to mean1 ,,who ,,works      
,,most ,,should ,,receive ,,most1 is    
based1 therefore1 on two palpable       
errors3 one1 an error in economy1 that  
in the labor of society tasks must      
necessarily be unequal2 the other1 an   
error in physics1 that there is no limit
 to the amount of producible things4    
,but1 it will be said1 suppose there are
 some people who wish to perform only   
half of their task8444 ,is that very    
embarrassing8 ,probably they are        
satisfied with half of their salary4    
,paid according to the labor that they  
had performed1 of what could they       
complain8 and what injury would they do 
to others8 ,in this sense1 it is fair to
 apply the maxim1--,,to ,,each          
,,according ,,to ,,his ,,results4 ,it is
 the law of equality itself4  ,further1 
numerous difficulties1 relative to the  
police system and the organization of   

industry1 might be raised here4 ,i will 
reply to them all with this one         
sentence1--that they must all be solved 
by the principle of equality4 ,thus1    
some one might observe1 ,here is a task 
which cannot be postponed without       
detriment to production4 ,ought society 
to suffer from the negligence of a few8 
and will she not venture--out of respect
 for the right of labor--to assure with 
her own hands the product which they    
refuse her8 ,in such a case1 to whom    
will the salary belong8  ,to society2   
who will be allowed to perform the      
labor1 either herself1 or through her   
representatives1 but always in such a   
way that the general equality shall     
never be violated1 and that only the    
idler shall be punished for his         
idleness4 ,further1 if society may not  
use excessive severity towards her lazy 
members1 she has a right1 in            
self-defence1 to guard against abuses4  
,but every industry needs--they will    
add--leaders1 instructors1              

superintendents1 c4 ,will these be      
engaged in the general task8 ,no2 since 
their task is to lead1 instruct1 and    
superintend4 ,but they must be chosen   
from the laborers by the laborers       
themselves1 and must fulfil the         
conditions of eligibility4 ,it is the   
same with all public functions1 whether 
of administration or instruction4       
,then1 article first of the universal   
constitution will be3--  ,the limited   
quantity of available material proves   
the necessity of dividing the labor     
among the whole number of laborers4 ,the
 capacity1 given to all1 of             
accomplishing a social task1--that is1  
an equal task1--and the impossibility of
 paying one laborer save in the products
 of another1 justify the equality of    
wages4     #g4--,that ,inequality of    
,powers is the ,necessary ,condition of 
,equality of ,fortunes4  ,it is         
objected1--and this objection           
constitutes the second part of the ,st4 
,simonian1 and the third part of the    

,fourierstic1 maxims1--  ,that all kinds
 of labor cannot be executed with equal 
ease4 ,some require great superiority of
 skill and intelligence2 and on this    
superiority is based the price4 ,the    
artist1 the savant1 the poet1 the       
statesman1 are esteemed only because of 
their excellence2 and this excellence   
destroys all similitude between them and
 other men3 in the presence of these    
heights of science and genius the law of
 equality disappears4 ,now1 if equality 
is not absolute1 there is no equality4  
,from the poet we descend to the        
novelist2 from the sculptor to the      
stonecutter2 from the architect to the  
mason2 from the chemist to the cook1 c4 
,capacities are classified and          
subdivided into orders1 genera1 and     
species4 ,the extremes of talent are    
connected by intermediate talents4      
,humanity is a vast hierarchy1 in which 
the individual estimates himself by     
comparison1 and fixes his price by the  
value placed upon his product by the    

public4  ,this objection always has     
seemed a formidable one4 ,it is the     
stumbling-block of the economists1 as   
well as of the defenders of equality4   
,it has led the former into egregious   
blunders1 and has caused the latter to  
utter incredible platitudes4 ,gracchus  
,babeuf wished all superiority to be    
,,stringently ,,repressed1 and even     
,,persecuted ,,as ,a ,,social           
,,calamity4 ,to establish his           
communistic edifice1 he lowered all     
citizens to the stature of the smallest4
 ,ignorant eclectics have been known to 
object to the inequality of knowledge1  
and ,i should not be surprised if some  
one should yet rebel against the        
inequality of virtue4 ,aristotle was    
banished1 ,socrates drank the hemlock1  
,epaminondas was called to account1 for 
having proved superior in intelligence  
and virtue to some dissolute and foolish
 demagogues4 ,such follies will be      
re-enacted1 so long as the inequality of
 fortunes justifies a populace1 blinded 

and oppressed by the wealthy1 in fearing
 the elevation of new tyrants to power4 
,nothing seems more unnatural than that 
which we examine too closely1 and often 
nothing seems less like the truth than  
the truth itself4 ,on the other hand1   
according to ,j4 ,j4 ,rousseau1 it takes
 a great deal of philosophy to enable us
 to observe once what we see every day2 
and1 according to d',alembert1 the      
ordinary truths of life make but little 
impression on men1 unless their         
attention is especially called to them4 
,the father of the school of economists 
7,say71 from whom ,i borrow these two   
quotations1 might have profited by them2
 but he who laughs at the blind should  
wear spectacles1 and he who notices him 
is near-sighted4  ,strange6 that which  
has frightened so many minds is not1    
after all1 an objection to equality--it 
is the very condition on which equality 
exists6444  ,natural inequality the     
condition of equality of fortunes6444   
,what a paradox6444 ,i repeat my        

assertion1 that no one may think ,i have
 blundered--inequality of powers is the 
sine qua non of equality of fortunes4   
,there are two things to be considered  
in society--,,functions and ,,relations4
  ,i4 ,,functions4 ,every laborer is    
supposed to be capable of performing the
 task assigned to him2 or1 to use a     
common expression1 every workman must   
know his trade4 ,the workman equal to   
his work1--there is an equation between 
functionary and function4  ,in society1 
functions are not alike2 there must be1 
then1 different capacities4             
,further1--certain functions demand     
greater intelligence and powers2 then   
there are people of superior mind and   
talent4 ,for the performance of work    
necessarily involves a workman3 from the
 need springs the idea1 and the idea    
makes the producer4 ,we only know what  
our senses long for and our intelligence
 demands2 we have no keen desire for    
things of which we cannot conceive1 and 
the greater our powers of conception1   

the greater our capabilities of         
production4  ,thus1 functions arising   
from needs1 needs from desires1 and     
desires from spontaneous perception and 
imagination1 the same intelligence which
 imagines can also produce2             
consequently1 no labor is superior to   
the laborer4 ,in a word1 if the function
 calls out the functionary1 it is       
because the functionary exists before   
the function4  ,let us admire ,nature's 
economy4 ,with regard to these various  
needs which she has given us1 and which 
the isolated man cannot satisfy unaided1
 ,nature has granted to the race a power
 refused to the individual4 ,this gives 
rise to the principle of the ,,division 
,,of ,,labor1--a principle founded on   
the ,,speciality ,,of ,,vocations4  ,the
 satisfaction of some needs demands of  
man continual creation2 while others    
can1 by the labor of a single           
individual1 be satisfied for millions of
 men through thousands of centuries4    
,for example1 the need of clothing and  

food requires perpetual reproduction2   
while a knowledge of the system of the  
universe may be acquired for ever by two
 or three highly-gifted men4 ,the       
perpetual current of rivers supports our
 commerce1 and runs our machinery2 but  
the sun1 alone in the midst of space1   
gives light to the whole world4 ,nature1
 who might create ,platos and ,virgils1 
,newtons and ,cuviers1 as she creates   
husbandmen and shepherds1 does not see  
fit to do so2 choosing rather to        
proportion the rarity of genius to the  
duration of its products1 and to balance
 the number of capacities by the        
competency of each one of them4  ,i do  
not inquire here whether the distance   
which separates one man from another1 in
 point of talent and intelligence1      
arises from the deplorable condition of 
civilization1 nor whether that which is 
now called the ,,inequality ,,of        
,,powers would be in an ideal society   
any thing more than a ,,diversity ,,of  
,,powers4 ,i take the worst view of the 

matter2 and1 that ,i may not be accused 
of tergiversation and evasion of        
difficulties1 ,i acknowledge all the    
inequalities that any one can desire4   
#af   ,certain philosophers1 in love    
with the levelling idea1 maintain that  
all minds are equal1 and that all       
differences are the result of education4
 ,i am no believer1 ,i confess1 in this 
doctrine2 which1 even if it were true1  
would lead to a result directly opposite
 to that desired4 ,for1 if capacities   
are equal1 whatever be the degree of    
their power 7as no one can be coerced71 
there are functions deemed coarse1 low1 
and degrading1 which deserve higher     
pay1--a result no less repugnant to     
equality than to the principle1 ,,to    
,,each ,,capacity ,,according ,,to ,,its
 ,,results4 ,give me1 on the contrary1 a
 society in which every kind of talent  
bears a proper numerical relation to the
 needs of the society1 and which demands
 from each producer only that which his 
special function requires him to        

produce2 and1 without impairing in the  
least the hierarchy of functions1 ,i    
will deduce the equality of fortunes4   
,this is my second point4  ,,ii4        
,,relations4 ,in considering the element
 of labor1 ,i have shown that in the    
same class of productive services1 the  
capacity to perform a social task being 
possessed by all1 no inequality of      
reward can be based upon an inequality  
of individual powers4 ,however1 it is   
but fair to say that certain capacities 
seem quite incapable of certain         
services2 so that1 if human industry    
were entirely confined to one class of  
products1 numerous incapacities would   
arise1 and1 consequently1 the greatest  
social inequality4 ,but every body sees1
 without any hint from me1 that the     
variety of industries avoids this       
difficulty2 so clear is this that ,i    
shall not stop to discuss it4 ,we have  
only to prove1 then1 that functions are 
equal to each other2 just as laborers1  
who perform the same function1 are equal

 to each other4   ,property makes man a 
eunuch1 and then reproaches him for     
being nothing but dry wood1 a decaying  
tree4  ,are you astonished that ,i      
refuse to genius1 to knowledge1 to      
courage1--in a word1 to all the         
excellences admired by the world1--the  
homage of dignities1 the distinctions of
 power and wealth8 ,it is not ,i who    
refuse it3 it is economy1 it is justice1
 it is liberty4 ,liberty6 for the first 
time in this discussion ,i appeal to    
her4 ,let her rise in her own defence1  
and achieve her victory4  ,every        
transaction ending in an exchange of    
products or services may be designated  
as a ,,commercial ,,operation4  ,whoever
 says commerce1 says exchange of equal  
values2 for1 if the values are not      
equal1 and the injured party perceives  
it1 he will not consent to the exchange1
 and there will be no commerce4         
,commerce exists only among free men4   
,transactions may be effected between   
other people by violence or fraud1 but  

there is no commerce4  ,a free man is   
one who enjoys the use of his reason and
 his faculties2 who is neither blinded  
by passion1 nor hindered or driven by   
oppression1 nor deceived by erroneous   
opinions4  ,so1 in every exchange1 there
 is a moral obligation that neither of  
the contracting parties shall gain at   
the expense of the other2 that is1 that1
 to be legitimate and true1 commerce    
must be exempt from all inequality4     
,this is the first condition of         
commerce4 ,its second condition is1 that
 it be voluntary2 that is1 that the     
parties act freely and openly4  ,i      
define1 then1 commerce or exchange as an
 act of society4  ,the negro who sells  
his wife for a knife1 his children for  
some bits of glass1 and finally himself 
for a bottle of brandy1 is not free4    
,the dealer in human flesh1 with whom he
 negotiates1 is not his associate2 he is
 his enemy4  ,the civilized laborer who 
bakes a loaf that he may eat a slice of 
bread1 who builds a palace that he may  

sleep in a stable1 who weaves rich      
fabrics that he may dress in rags1 who  
produces every thing that he may        
dispense with every thing1--is not free4
 ,his employer1 not becoming his        
associate in the exchange of salaries or
 services which takes place between     
them1 is his enemy4  ,the soldier who   
serves his country through fear instead 
of through love is not free2 his        
comrades and his officers1 the ministers
 or organs of military justice1 are all 
his enemies4  ,the peasant who hires    
land1 the manufacturer who borrows      
capital1 the tax-payer who pays tolls1  
duties1 patent and license fees1        
personal and property taxes1 c41 and the
 deputy who votes for them1--all act    
neither intelligently nor freely4 ,their
 enemies are the proprietors1 the       
capitalists1 the government4  ,give men 
liberty1 enlighten their minds that they
 may know the meaning of their          
contracts1 and you will see the most    
perfect equality in exchanges without   

regard to superiority of talent and     
knowledge2 and you will admit that in   
commercial affairs1 that is1 in the     
sphere of society1 the word superiority 
is void of sense4  ,let ,homer sing his 
verse4 ,i listen to this sublime genius 
in comparison with whom ,i1 a simple    
herdsman1 an humble farmer1 am as       
nothing4 ,what1 indeed1--if product is  
to be compared with product1--are my    
cheeses and my beans in the presence of 
his ,iliad8 ,but1 if ,homer wishes to   
take from me all that ,i possess1 and   
make me his slave in return for his     
inimitable poem1 ,i will give up the    
pleasure of his lays1 and dismiss him4  
,i can do without his ,iliad1 and wait1 
if necessary1 for the ,a,eneid4  ,homer 
cannot live twenty-four hours without my
 products4 ,let him accept1 then1 the   
little that ,i have to offer2 and then  
his muse may instruct1 encourage1 and   
console me4  ,what6 do you say that such
 should be the condition of one who     
sings of gods and men8 ,alms1 with the  

humiliation and suffering which they    
bring with them6--what barbarous        
generosity6444 ,do not get excited1 ,i  
beg of you4 ,property makes of a poet   
either a ,croesus or a beggar2 only     
equality knows how to honor and to      
praise him4 ,what is its duty8 ,to      
regulate the right of the singer and the
 duty of the listener4 ,now1 notice this
 point1 which is a very important one in
 the solution of this question3 both are
 free1 the one to sell1 the other to    
buy4 ,henceforth their respective       
pretensions go for nothing2 and the     
estimate1 whether fair or unfair1 that  
they place1 the one upon his verse1 the 
other upon his liberality1 can have no  
influence upon the conditions of the    
contract4 ,we must no longer1 in making 
our bargains1 weigh talent2 we must     
consider products only4  ,in order that 
the bard of ,achilles may get his due   
reward1 he must first make himself      
wanted3 that done1 the exchange of his  
verse for a fee of any kind1 being a    

free act1 must be at the same time a    
just act2 that is1 the poet's fee must  
be equal to his product4 ,now1 what is  
the value of this product8  ,let us     
suppose1 in the first place1 that this  
,iliad--this chef-d' oeuvre that is to  
be equitably rewarded--is really above  
price1 that we do not know how to       
appraise it4 ,if the public1 who are    
free to purchase it1 refuse to do so1 it
 is clear that1 the poem being          
unexchangeable1 its intrinsic value will
 not be diminished2 but that its        
exchangeable value1 or its productive   
utility1 will be reduced to zero1 will  
be nothing at all4 ,then we must seek   
the amount of wages to be paid between  
infinity on the one hand and nothing on 
the other1 at an equal distance from    
each1 since all rights and liberties are
 entitled to equal respect2 in other    
words1 it is not the intrinsic value1   
but the relative value1 of the thing    
sold that needs to be fixed4 ,the       
question grows simpler3 what is this    

relative value8 ,to what reward does a  
poem like the ,iliad entitle its author8
  ,the first business of political      
economy1 after fixing its definitions1  
was the solution of this problem2 now1  
not only has it not been solved1 but it 
has been declared insoluble4 ,according 
to the economists1 the relative or      
exchangeable value of things cannot be  
absolutely determined2 it necessarily   
varies4   ,the value of a thing1 says   
,say1 is a positive quantity1 but only  
for a given moment4 ,it is its nature to
 perpetually vary1 to change from one   
point to another4 ,nothing can fix it   
absolutely1 because it is based on needs
 and means of production which vary with
 every moment4 ,these variations        
complicate economical phenomena1 and    
often render them very difficult of     
observation and solution4 ,i know no    
remedy for this2 it is not in our power 
to change the nature of things4         
,elsewhere ,say says1 and repeats1 that 
value being based on utility1 and       

utility depending entirely on our needs1
 whims1 customs1 c41 value is as        
variable as opinion4 ,now1 political    
economy being the science of values1 of 
their production1 distribution1         
exchange1 and consumption1--if          
exchangeable value cannot be absolutely 
determined1 how is political economy    
possible8 ,how can it be a science8 ,how
 can two economists look each other in  
the face without laughing8 ,how dare    
they insult metaphysicians and          
psychologists8 ,what6 that fool of a    
,descartes imagined that philosophy     
needed an immovable base--an aliquid    
inconcussum--on which the edifice of    
science might be built1 and he was      
simple enough to search for it6 ,and the
 ,hermes of economy1 ,trismegistus ,say1
 devoting half a volume to the          
amplification of that solemn text1      
political economy is a science1 has the 
courage to affirm immediately afterwards
 that this science cannot determine its 
object1--which is equivalent to saying  

that it is without a principle or       
foundation6 ,he does not know1 then1 the
 illustrious ,say1 the nature of a      
science2 or rather1 he knows nothing of 
the subject which he discusses4  ,say's 
example has borne its fruits4 ,political
 economy1 as it exists at present1      
resembles ontology3 discussing effects  
and causes1 it knows nothing1 explains  
nothing1 decides nothing4 ,the ideas    
honored with the name of economic laws  
are nothing more than a few trifling    
generalities1 to which the economists   
thought to give an appearance of depth  
by clothing them in high-sounding words4
 ,as for the attempts that have been    
made by the economists to solve social  
problems1 all that can be said of them  
is1 that1 if a glimmer of sense         
occasionally appears in their           
lucubrations1 they immediately fall back
 into absurdity4 ,for twenty-five years 
political economy1 like a heavy fog1 has
 weighed upon ,france1 checking the     
efforts of the mind1 and setting limits 

to liberty4  ,has every creation of     
industry a venal1 absolute1             
unchangeable1 and consequently          
legitimate and true value8--,yes4  ,can 
every product of man be exchanged for   
some other product of man8--,yes1 again4
  ,how many nails is a pair of shoes    
worth8  ,if we can solve this appalling 
problem1 we shall have the key of the   
social system for which humanity has    
been searching for six thousand years4  
,in the presence of this problem1 the   
economist recoils confused2 the peasant 
who can neither read nor write replies  
without hesitation3 ,as many as can be  
made in the same time1 and with the same
 expense4  ,the absolute value of a     
thing1 then1 is its cost in time and    
expense4 ,how much is a diamond worth   
which costs only the labor of picking it
 up8--,nothing2 it is not a product of  
man4 ,how much will it be worth when cut
 and mounted8--,the time and expense    
which it has cost the laborer4 ,why1    
then1 is it sold at so high a           

price8--,because men are not free4      
,society must regulate the exchange and 
distribution of the rarest things1 as it
 does that of the most common ones1 in  
such a way that each may share in the   
enjoyment of them4 ,what1 then1 is that 
value which is based upon               
opinion8--,delusion1 injustice1 and     
robbery4  ,by this rule1 it is easy to  
reconcile every body4 ,if the mean term1
 which we are searching for1 between an 
infinite value and no value at all is   
expressed in the case of every product1 
by the amount of time and expense which 
the product cost1 a poem which has cost 
its author thirty years of labor and an 
outlay of ten thousand francs in        
journeys1 books1 c41 must be paid for by
 the ordinary wages received by a       
laborer during thirty years1 ,,plus ten 
thousand francs indemnity for expense   
incurred4 ,suppose the whole amount to  
be fifty thousand francs2 if the society
 which gets the benefit of the          
production include a million of men1 my 

share of the debt is five centimes4     
,this gives rise to a few observations4 
#a4 ,the same product1 at different     
times and in different places1 may cost 
more or less of time and outlay2 in this
 view1 it is true that value is a       
variable quantity4 ,but this variation  
is not that of the economists1 who place
 in their list of the causes of the     
variation of values1 not only the means 
of production1 but taste1 caprice1      
fashion1 and opinion4 ,in short1 the    
true value of a thing is invariable in  
its algebraic expression1 although it   
may vary in its monetary expression4    
#b4 ,the price of every product in      
demand should be its cost in time and   
outlay--neither more nor less3 every    
product not in demand is a loss to the  
producer--a commercial non-value4  #c4  
,the ignorance of the principle of      
evaluation1 and the difficulty under    
many circumstances of applying it1 is   
the source of commercial fraud1 and one 
of the most potent causes of the        

inequality of fortunes4  #d4 ,to reward 
certain industries and pay for certain  
products1 a society is needed which     
corresponds in size with the rarity of  
talents1 the costliness of the products1
 and the variety of the arts and        
sciences4 ,if1 for example1 a society of
 fifty farmers can support a            
schoolmaster1 it requires one hundred   
for a shoemaker1 one hundred and fifty  
for a blacksmith1 two hundred for a     
tailor1 c4 ,if the number of farmers    
rises to one thousand1 ten thousand1 one
 hundred thousand1 c41 as fast as their 
number increases1 that of the           
functionaries which are earliest        
required must increase in the same      
proportion2 so that the highest         
functions become possible only in the   
most powerful societies4 #ag ,that is   
the peculiar feature of capacities2 the 
character of genius1 the seal of its    
glory1 cannot arise and develop itself1 
except in the bosom of a great nation4  
,but this physiological condition1      

necessary to the existence of genius1   
adds nothing to its social rights3 far  
from that1--the delay in its appearance 
proves that1 in economical and civil    
affairs1 the loftiest intelligence must 
submit to the equality of possessions2  
an equality which is anterior to it1 and
 of which it constitutes the crown4     
,this is severe on our pride1 but it is 
an inexorable truth4 ,and here          
psychology comes to the aid of social   
economy1 giving us to understand that   
talent and material recompense have no  
common measure2 that1 in this respect1  
the condition of all producers is equal3
 consequently1 that all comparison      
between them1 and all distinction in    
fortunes1 is impossible4   ,in fact1    
every work coming from the hands of     
man--compared with the raw material of  
which it is composed--is beyond price4  
,in this respect1 the distance is as    
great between a pair of wooden shoes and
 the trunk of a walnut-tree1 as between 
a statue by ,scopas and a block of      

marble4 ,the genius of the simplest     
mechanic exerts as much influence over  
the materials which he uses1 as does the
 mind of a ,newton over the inert       
spheres whose distances1 volumes1 and   
revolutions he calculates4 ,you ask for 
talent and genius a corresponding degree
 of honor and reward4 ,fix for me the   
value of a wood-cutter's talent1 and ,i 
will fix that of ,homer4 ,if any thing  
can reward intelligence1 it is          
intelligence itself4 ,that is what      
happens1 when various classes of        
producers pay to each other a reciprocal
 tribute of admiration and praise4 ,but 
if they contemplate an exchange of      
products with a view to satisfying      
mutual needs1 this exchange must be     
effected in accordance with a system of 
economy which is indifferent to         
considerations of talent and genius1 and
 whose laws are deduced1 not from vague 
and meaningless admiration1 but from a  
just balance between ,,debit and        
,,credit2 in short1 from commercial     

accounts4  ,now1 that no one may imagine
 that the liberty of buying and selling 
is the sole basis of the equality of    
wages1 and that society's sole          
protection against superiority of talent
 lies in a certain force of inertia     
which has nothing in common with right1 
,i shall proceed to explain why all     
capacities are entitled to the same     
reward1 and why a corresponding         
difference in wages would be an         
injustice4 ,i shall prove that the      
obligation to stoop to the social level 
is inherent in talent2 and on this very 
superiority of genius ,i will found the 
equality of fortunes4 ,i have just given
 the negative argument in favor of      
rewarding all capacities alike2 ,i will 
now give the direct and positive        
argument4  ,listen1 first1 to the       
economist3 it is always pleasant to see 
how he reasons1 and how he understands  
justice4 ,without him1 moreover1 without
 his amusing blunders and his wonderful 
arguments1 we should learn nothing4     

,equality1 so odious to the economist1  
owes every thing to political economy4  
,when the parents of a physician the    
text says a lawyer1 which is not so good
 an example have expended on his        
education forty thousand francs1 this   
sum may be regarded as so much capital  
invested in his head4 ,it is therefore  
permissible to consider it as yielding  
an annual income of four thousand       
francs4 ,if the physician earns thirty  
thousand1 there remains an income of    
twenty-six thousand francs due to the   
personal talents given him by ,nature4  
,this natural capital1 then1 if we      
assume ten per cent4 as the rate of     
interest1 amounts to two hundred and    
sixty thousand francs2 and the capital  
given him by his parents1 in defraying  
the expenses of his education1 to forty 
thousand francs4 ,the union of these two
 kinds of capital constitutes his       
fortune4--,say3 ,complete ,course1 c4   
,say divides the fortune of the         
physician into two parts3 one is        

composed of the capital which went to   
pay for his education1 the other        
represents his personal talents4 ,this  
division is just2 it is in conformity   
with the nature of things2 it is        
universally admitted2 it serves as the  
major premise of that grand argument    
which establishes the inequality of     
capacities4 ,i accept this premise      
without qualification2 let us look at   
the consequences4  #a4 ,say ,,credits   
the physician with forty thousand       
francs1--the cost of his education4     
,this amount should be entered upon the 
,,debit side of the account4 ,for1      
although this expense was incurred for  
him1 it was not incurred by him4 ,then1 
instead of appropriating these forty    
thousand francs1 the physician should   
add them to the price of his product1   
and repay them to those who are entitled
 to them4 ,notice1 further1 that ,say   
speaks of ,,income instead of           
,,reimbursement2 reasoning on the false 
principle of the productivity of        

capital4 ,the expense of educating a    
talent is a debt contracted by this     
talent4 ,from the very fact of its      
existence1 it becomes a debtor to an    
amount equal to the cost of its         
production4 ,this is so true and simple 
that1 if the education of some one child
 in a family has cost double or triple  
that of its brothers1 the latter are    
entitled to a proportional amount of the
 property previous to its division4     
,there is no difficulty about this in   
the case of guardianship1 when the      
estate is administered in the name of   
the minors4  #b4 ,that which ,i have    
just said of the obligation incurred by 
talent of repaying the cost of its      
education does not embarrass the        
economist4 ,the man of talent1 he says1 
inheriting from his family1 inherits    
among other things a claim to the forty 
thousand francs which his education     
costs2 and he becomes1 in consequence1  
its proprietor4 ,but this is to abandon 
the right of talent1 and to fall back   

upon the right of occupancy2 which again
 calls up all the questions asked in    
,chapter ,,ii4 ,what is the right of    
occupancy8 what is inheritance8 ,is the 
right of succession a right of          
accumulation or only a right of choice8 
how did the physician's father get his  
fortune8 was he a proprietor1 or only a 
usufructuary8 ,if he was rich1 let him  
account for his wealth2 if he was poor1 
how could he incur so large an expense8 
,if he received aid1 what right had he  
to use that aid to the disadvantage of  
his benefactors1 c48  #c4 ,there remains
 an income of twenty-six thousand francs
 due to the personal talents given him  
by ,nature4 7,say1--as above quoted47   
,reasoning from this premise1 ,say      
concludes that our physician's talent is
 equivalent to a capital of two hundred 
and sixty thousand francs4 ,this skilful
 calculator mistakes a consequence for a
 principle4 ,the talent must not be     
measured by the gain1 but rather the    
gain by the talent2 for it may happen1  

that1 notwithstanding his merit1 the    
physician in question will gain nothing 
at all1 in which case will it be        
necessary to conclude that his talent or
 fortune is equivalent to zero8 ,to such
 a result1 however1 would ,say's        
reasoning lead2 a result which is       
clearly absurd4  ,now1 it is impossible 
to place a money value on any talent    
whatsoever1 since talent and money have 
no common measure4 ,on what plausible   
ground can it be maintained that a      
physician should be paid two1 three1 or 
a hundred times as much as a peasant8   
,an unavoidable difficulty1 which has   
never been solved save by avarice1      
necessity1 and oppression4 ,it is not   
thus that the right of talent should be 
determined4 ,but how is it to be        
determined8  #d4 ,i say1 first1 that the
 physician must be treated with as much 
favor as any other producer1 that he    
must not be placed below the level of   
others4 ,this ,i will not stop to prove4
 ,but ,i add that neither must he be    

lifted above that level2 because his    
talent is collective property for which 
he did not pay1 and for which he is ever
 in debt4  ,just as the creation of     
every instrument of production is the   
result of collective force1 so also are 
a man's talent and knowledge the product
 of universal intelligence and of       
general knowledge slowly accumulated by 
a number of masters1 and through the aid
 of many inferior industries4 ,when the 
physician has paid for his teachers1 his
 books1 his diplomas1 and all the other 
items of his educational expenses1 he   
has no more paid for his talent than the
 capitalist pays for his house and land 
when he gives his employees their wages4
 ,the man of talent has contributed to  
the production in himself of a useful   
instrument4 ,he has1 then1 a share in   
its possession2 he is not its           
proprietor4 ,there exist side by side in
 him a free laborer and an accumulated  
social capital4 ,as a laborer1 he is    
charged with the use of an instrument1  

with the superintendence of a machine2  
namely1 his capacity4 ,as capital1 he is
 not his own master2 he uses himself1   
not for his own benefit1 but for that of
 others4  ,even if talent did not find  
in its own excellence a reward for the  
sacrifices which it costs1 still would  
it be easier to find reasons for        
lowering its reward than for raising it 
above the common level4 ,every producer 
receives an education2 every laborer is 
a talent1 a capacity1--that is1 a piece 
of collective property4 ,but all talents
 are not equally costly4 ,it takes but  
few teachers1 but few years1 and but    
little study1 to make a farmer or a     
mechanic3 the generative effort and--if 
,i may venture to use such language--the
 period of social gestation are         
proportional to the loftiness of the    
capacity4 ,but while the physician1 the 
poet1 the artist1 and the savant produce
 but little1 and that slowly1 the       
productions of the farmer are much less 
uncertain1 and do not require so long a 

time4 ,whatever be then the capacity of 
a man1--when this capacity is once      
created1--it does not belong to him4    
,like the material fashioned by an      
industrious hand1 it had the power of   
,,becoming1 and society has given it    
,,being4 ,shall the vase say to the     
potter1 ,i am that ,i am1 and ,i owe you
 nothing8  ,the artist1 the savant1 and 
the poet find their just recompense in  
the permission that society gives them  
to devote themselves exclusively to     
science and to art3 so that in reality  
they do not labor for themselves1 but   
for society1 which creates them1 and    
requires of them no other duty4 ,society
 can1 if need be1 do without prose and  
verse1 music and painting1 and the      
knowledge of the movements of the moon  
and stars2 but it cannot live a single  
day without food and shelter4           
,undoubtedly1 man does not live by bread
 alone2 he must1 also 7according to the 
,gospel71 ,,live ,,by ,,the ,,word ,,of 
,,god2 that is1 he must love the good   

and do it1 know and admire the          
beautiful1 and study the marvels of     
,nature4 ,but in order to cultivate his 
mind1 he must first take care of his    
body1--the latter duty is as necessary  
as the former is noble4 ,if it is       
glorious to charm and instruct men1 it  
is honorable as well to feed them4      
,when1 then1 society--faithful to the   
principle of the division of            
labor--intrusts a work of art or of     
science to one of its members1 allowing 
him to abandon ordinary labor1 it owes  
him an indemnity for all which it       
prevents him from producing             
industrially2 but it owes him nothing   
more4 ,if he should demand more1 society
 should1 by refusing his services1      
annihilate his pretensions4 ,forced1    
then1 in order to live1 to devote       
himself to labor repugnant to his       
nature1 the man of genius would feel his
 weakness1 and would live the most      
distasteful of lives4  ,they tell of a  
celebrated singer who demanded of the   

,empress of ,russia 7,catherine ,,ii7   
twenty thousand roubles for his         
services3 ,that is more than ,i give my 
field-marshals1 said ,catherine4 ,your  
majesty1 replied the other1 has only to 
make singers of her field-marshals4  ,if
 ,france 7more powerful than ,catherine 
,,ii7 should say to ,mademoiselle       
,rachel1 ,you must act for one hundred  
louis1 or else spin cotton2 to ,m4      
,duprez1 ,you must sing for two thousand
 four hundred francs1 or else work in   
the vineyard1--do you think that the    
actress ,rachel1 and the singer ,duprez1
 would abandon the stage8 ,if they did1 
they would be the first to repent it4   
,mademoiselle ,rachel receives1 they    
say1 sixty thousand francs annually from
 the ,comedie-,francaise4 ,for a talent 
like hers1 it is a slight fee4 ,why not 
one hundred thousand francs1 two hundred
 thousand francs8 ,why6 not a civil     
list8 ,what meanness6 ,are we really    
guilty of chaffering with an artist like
 ,mademoiselle ,rachel8  ,it is said1 in

 reply1 that the managers of the theatre
 cannot give more without incurring a   
loss2 that they admit the superior      
talent of their young associate2 but    
that1 in fixing her salary1 they have   
been compelled to take the account of   
the company's receipts and expenses into
 consideration also4  ,that is just1 but
 it only confirms what ,i have said2    
namely1 that an artist's talent may be  
infinite1 but that its mercenary claims 
are necessarily limited1--on the one    
hand1 by its usefulness to the society  
which rewards it2 on the other1 by the  
resources of this society3 in other     
words1 that the demand of the seller is 
balanced by the right of the buyer4     
,mademoiselle ,rachel1 they say1 brings 
to the treasury of the                  
,theatre-,francais more than sixty      
thousand francs4 ,i admit it2 but then  
,i blame the theatre4 ,from whom does   
the ,theatre-,francais take this money8 
,from some curious people who are       
perfectly free4 ,yes2 but the           

workingmen1 the lessees1 the tenants1   
those who borrow by pawning their       
possessions1 from whom these curious    
people recover all that they pay to the 
theatre1--are they free8 ,and when the  
better part of their products are       
consumed by others at the play1 do you  
assure me that their families are not in
 want8 ,until the ,french people1       
reflecting on the salaries paid to all  
artists1 savants1 and public            
functionaries1 have plainly expressed   
their wish and judgment as to the       
matter1 the salaries of ,mademoiselle   
,rachel and all her fellow-artists will 
be a compulsory tax extorted by         
violence1 to reward pride1 and support  
libertinism4  ,it is because we are     
neither free nor sufficiently           
enlightened1 that we submit to be       
cheated in our bargains2 that the       
laborer pays the duties levied by the   
prestige of power and the selfishness of
 talent upon the curiosity of the idle1 
and that we are perpetually scandalized 

by these monstrous inequalities which   
are encouraged and applauded by public  
opinion4  ,the whole nation1 and the    
nation only1 pays its authors1 its      
savants1 its artists1 its officials1    
whatever be the hands through which     
their salaries pass4 ,on what basis     
should it pay them8 ,on the basis of    
equality4 ,i have proved it by          
estimating the value of talent4 ,i shall
 confirm it in the following chapter1 by
 proving the impossibility of all social
 inequality4  ,what have we shown so    
far8 ,things so simple that really they 
seem silly3--  ,that1 as the traveller  
does not appropriate the route which he 
traverses1 so the farmer does not       
appropriate the field which he sows2    
,that if1 nevertheless1 by reason of his
 industry1 a laborer may appropriate the
 material which he employs1 every       
employer of material becomes1 by the    
same title1 a proprietor2  ,that all    
capital1 whether material or mental1    
being the result of collective labor1   

is1 in consequence1 collective property2
  ,that the strong have no right to     
encroach upon the labor of the weak1 nor
 the shrewd to take advantage of the    
credulity of the simple2  ,finally1 that
 no one can be forced to buy that which 
he does not want1 still less to pay for 
that which he has not bought2 and1      
consequently1 that the exchangeable     
value of a product1 being measured      
neither by the opinion of the buyer nor 
that of the seller1 but by the amount of
 time and outlay which it has cost1 the 
property of each always remains the     
same4  ,are not these very simple       
truths8 ,well1 as simple as they seem to
 you1 reader1 you shall yet see others  
which surpass them in dullness and      
simplicity4 ,for our course is the      
reverse of that of the geometricians3   
with them1 the farther they advance1 the
 more difficult their problems become2  
we1 on the contrary1 after having       
commenced with the most abstruse        
propositions1 shall end with the axioms4

  ,but ,i must close this chapter with  
an exposition of one of those startling 
truths which never have been dreamed of 
by legists or economists4               
#h4--,that1 from the ,stand-point of    
,justice1 ,labor destroys ,property4    
,this proposition is the logical result 
of the two preceding sections1 which we 
have just summed up4  ,the isolated man 
can supply but a very small portion of  
his wants2 all his power lies in        
association1 and in the intelligent     
combination of universal effort4 ,the   
division and co-operation of labor      
multiply the quantity and the variety of
 products2 the individuality of         
functions improves their quality4       
,there is not a man1 then1 but lives    
upon the products of several thousand   
different industries2 not a laborer but 
receives from society at large the      
things which he consumes1 and1 with     
these1 the power to reproduce4 ,who1    
indeed1 would venture the assertion1 ,i 
produce1 by my own effort1 all that ,i  

consume2 ,i need the aid of no one else8
 ,the farmer1 whom the early economists 
regarded as the only real producer--the 
farmer1 housed1 furnished1 clothed1 fed1
 and assisted by the mason1 the         
carpenter1 the tailor1 the miller1 the  
baker1 the butcher1 the grocer1 the     
blacksmith1 c41--the farmer1 ,i say1 can
 he boast that he produces by his own   
unaided effort8  ,the various articles  
of consumption are given to each by all2
 consequently1 the production of each   
involves the production of all4 ,one    
product cannot exist without another2 an
 isolated industry is an impossible     
thing4 ,what would be the harvest of the
 farmer1 if others did not manufacture  
for him barns1 wagons1 ploughs1 clothes1
 c48 ,where would be the savant without 
the publisher2 the printer without the  
typecaster and the machinist2 and these1
 in their turn1 without a multitude of  
other industries8444 ,let us not prolong
 this catalogue--so easy to extend--lest
 we be accused of uttering commonplaces4

 ,all industries are united by mutual   
relations in a single group2 all        
productions do reciprocal service as    
means and end2 all varieties of talent  
are but a series of changes from the    
inferior to the superior4  ,now1 this   
undisputed and indisputable fact of the 
general participation in every species  
of product makes all individual         
productions common2 so that every       
product1 coming from the hands of the   
producer1 is mortgaged in advance by    
society4 ,the producer himself is       
entitled to only that portion of his    
product1 which is expressed by a        
fraction whose denominator is equal to  
the number of individuals of which      
society is composed4 ,it is true that in
 return this same producer has a share  
in all the products of others1 so that  
he has a claim upon all1 just as all    
have a claim upon him2 but is it not    
clear that this reciprocity of          
mortgages1 far from authorizing         
property1 destroys even possession8 ,the

 laborer is not even possessor of his   
product2 scarcely has he finished it1   
when society claims it4  ,but1 it will  
be answered1 even if that is so--even if
 the product does not belong to the     
producer--still society gives each      
laborer an equivalent for his product2  
and this equivalent1 this salary1 this  
reward1 this allowance1 becomes his     
property4 ,do you deny that this        
property is legitimate8 ,and if the     
laborer1 instead of consuming his entire
 wages1 chooses to economize1--who dare 
question his right to do so8  ,the      
laborer is not even proprietor of the   
price of his labor1 and cannot          
absolutely control its disposition4 ,let
 us not be blinded by a spurious        
justice4 ,that which is given the       
laborer in exchange for his product is  
not given him as a reward for past      
labor1 but to provide for and secure    
future labor4 ,we consume before we     
produce4 ,the laborer may say at the end
 of the day1 ,i have paid yesterday's   

expenses2 to-morrow ,i shall pay those  
of today4 ,at every moment of his life1 
the member of society is in debt2 he    
dies with the debt unpaid3--how is it   
possible for him to accumulate8  ,they  
talk of economy--it is the proprietor's 
hobby4 ,under a system of equality1 all 
economy which does not aim at subsequent
 reproduction or enjoyment is           
impossible--why8 ,because the thing     
saved1 since it cannot be converted into
 capital1 has no object1 and is without 
a ,,final ,,cause4 ,this will be        
explained more fully in the next        
chapter4  ,to conclude3--  ,the laborer1
 in his relation to society1 is a debtor
 who of necessity dies insolvent4 ,the  
proprietor is an unfaithful guardian who
 denies the receipt of the deposit      
committed to his care1 and wishes to be 
paid for his guardianship down to the   
last day4  ,lest the principles just set
 forth may appear to certain readers too
 metaphysical1 ,i shall reproduce them  
in a more concrete form1 intelligible to

 the dullest brains1 and pregnant with  
the most important consequences4        
,hitherto1 ,i have considered property  
as a power of ,,exclusion2 hereafter1 ,i
 shall examine it as a power of         
,,invasion4     ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,that  
,,property ,,is ,,impossible4  ,the last
 resort of proprietors1--the            
overwhelming argument whose invincible  
potency reassures them1--is that1 in    
their opinion1 equality of conditions is
 impossible4 ,equality of conditions is 
a chimera1 they cry with a knowing air2 
distribute wealth equally               
to-day--to-morrow this equality will    
have vanished4  ,to this hackneyed      
objection1 which they repeat everywhere 
with the most marvellous assurance1 they
 never fail to add the following        
comment1 as a sort of ,,glory ,,be ,,to 
,,the ,,father3 ,if all men were equal1 
nobody would work4 ,this anthem is sung 
with variations4  ,if all were masters1 
nobody would obey4  ,if nobody were     
rich1 who would employ the poor8  ,and1 

,if nobody were poor1 who would labor   
for the rich8  ,but let us have done    
with invective--we have better arguments
 at our command4  ,if ,i show that      
property itself is impossible--that it  
is property which is a contradiction1 a 
chimera1 a utopia2 and if ,i show it no 
longer by metaphysics and jurisprudence1
 but by figures1 equations1 and         
calculations1--imagine the fright of the
 astounded proprietor6 ,and you1 reader2
 what do you think of the retort8       
,numbers govern the world--mundum regunt
 numeri4 ,this proverb applies as aptly 
to the moral and political1 as to the   
sidereal and molecular1 world4 ,the     
elements of justice are identical with  
those of algebra2 legislation and       
government are simply the arts of       
classifying and balancing powers2 all   
jurisprudence falls within the rules of 
arithmetic4 ,this chapter and the next  
will serve to lay the foundations of    
this extraordinary doctrine4 ,then will 
be unfolded to the reader's vision an   

immense and novel career2 then shall we 
commence to see in numerical relations  
the synthetic unity of philosophy and   
the sciences2 and1 filled with          
admiration and enthusiasm for this      
profound and majestic simplicity of     
,nature1 we shall shout with the        
apostle3 ,yes1 the ,eternal has made all
 things by number1 weight1 and measure6 
,we shall understand not only that      
equality of conditions is possible1 but 
that all else is impossible2 that this  
seeming impossibility which we charge   
upon it arises from the fact that we    
always think of it in connection either 
with the proprietary or the communistic 
regime1--political systems equally      
irreconcilable with human nature4 ,we   
shall see finally that equality is      
constantly being realized without our   
knowledge1 even at the very moment when 
we are pronouncing it incapable of      
realization2 that the time draws near   
when1 without any effort or even wish of
 ours1 we shall have it universally     

established2 that with it1 in it1 and by
 it1 the natural and true political     
order must make itself manifest4  ,it   
has been said1 in speaking of the       
blindness and obstinacy of the passions1
 that1 if man had any thing to gain by  
denying the truths of arithmetic1 he    
would find some means of unsettling     
their certainty3 here is an opportunity 
to try this curious experiment4 ,i      
attack property1 no longer with its own 
maxims1 but with arithmetic4 ,let the   
proprietors prepare to verify my        
figures2 for1 if unfortunately for them 
the figures prove accurate1 the         
proprietors are lost4  ,in proving the  
impossibility of property1 ,i complete  
the proof of its injustice4 ,in fact1-- 
,that which is ,,just must be ,,useful2 
,that which is useful must be ,,true2   
,that which is true must be ,,possible2 
,therefore1 every thing which is        
impossible is untrue1 useless1 unjust4  
,then1--a priori1--we may judge of the  
justice of any thing by its possibility2

 so that if the thing were absolutely   
impossible1 it would be absolutely      
unjust4    ,,property ,,is ,,physically 
,,and ,,mathematically ,,impossible4    
,,demonstration4  ,,axiom4--,property is
 the ,right of ,increase claimed by the 
,proprietor over any thing which he has 
stamped as his own4   ,this proposition 
is purely an axiom1 because1--  #a4 ,it 
is not a definition1 since it does not  
express all that is included in the     
right of property--the right of sale1 of
 exchange1 of gift2 the right to        
transform1 to alter1 to consume1 to     
destroy1 to use and abuse1 c4 ,all these
 rights are so many different powers of 
property1 which we may consider         
separately2 but which we disregard here1
 that we may devote all our attention to
 this single one1--the right of         
increase4  #b4 ,it is universally       
admitted4 ,no one can deny it without   
denying the facts1 without being        
instantly belied by universal custom4   
#c4 ,it is self-evident1 since property 

is always accompanied 7either actually  
or potentially7 by the fact which this  
axiom expresses2 and through this fact1 
mainly1 property manifests1 establishes1
 and asserts itself4  #d4 ,finally1 its 
negation involves a contradiction4 ,the 
right of increase is really an inherent 
right1 so essential a part of property1 
that1 in its absence1 property is null  
and void4  ,,observations4--,increase   
receives different names according to   
the thing by which it is yielded3 if by 
land1 ,,farm-,,rent2 if by houses and   
furniture1 ,,rent2 if by                
life-investments1 ,,revenue2 if by      
money1 ,,interest2 if by exchange1      
,,advantage1 ,,gain1 ,,profit 7three    
things which must not be confounded with
 the wages or legitimate price of       
labor74  ,increase--a sort of royal     
prerogative1 of tangible and consumable 
homage--is due to the proprietor on     
account of his nominal and metaphysical 
occupancy4 ,his seal is set upon the    
thing2 that is enough to prevent any one

 else from occupying it without ,,his   
permission4  ,this permission to use his
 things the proprietor may1 if he       
chooses1 freely grant4 ,commonly he     
sells it4 ,this sale is really a        
stellionate and an extortion2 but by the
 legal fiction of the right of property1
 this same sale1 severely punished1 we  
know not why1 in other cases1 is a      
source of profit and value to the       
proprietor4  ,the amount demanded by the
 proprietor1 in payment for this        
permission1 is expressed in monetary    
terms by the dividend which the supposed
 product yields in nature4 ,so that1 by 
the right of increase1 the proprietor   
reaps and does not plough2 gleans and   
does not till2 consumes and does not    
produce2 enjoys and does not labor4     
,very different from the idols of the   
,psalmist are the gods of property3 the 
former had hands and felt not2 the      
latter1 on the contrary1 manus habent et
 palpabunt4  ,the right of increase is  
conferred in a very mysterious and      

supernatural manner4 ,the inauguration  
of a proprietor is accompanied by the   
awful ceremonies of an ancient          
initiation4 ,first1 comes the           
,,consecration of the article2 a        
consecration which makes known to all   
that they must offer up a suitable      
sacrifice to the proprietor1 whenever   
they wish1 by his permission obtained   
and signed1 to use his article4         
,second1 comes the ,,anathema1 which    
prohibits--except on the conditions     
aforesaid--all persons from touching the
 article1 even in the proprietor's      
absence2 and pronounces every violator  
of property sacrilegious1 infamous1     
amenable to the secular power1 and      
deserving of being handed over to it4   
,finally1 the ,,dedication1 which       
enables the proprietor or patron        
saint--the god chosen to watch over the 
article--to inhabit it mentally1 like a 
divinity in his sanctuary4 ,by means of 
this dedication1 the substance of the   
article--so to speak--becomes converted 

into the person of the proprietor1 who  
is regarded as ever present in its form4
  ,this is exactly the doctrine of the  
writers on jurisprudence4 ,property1    
says ,toullier1 is a ,,moral ,,quality  
inherent in a thing2 ,,an ,,actual      
,,bond which fastens it to the          
proprietor1 and which cannot be broken  
save by his act4 ,locke humbly doubted  
whether ,god could make matter          
,,intelligent4 ,toullier asserts that   
the proprietor renders it ,,moral4 ,how 
much does he lack of being a ,god8      
,these are by no means exaggerations4   
,,property ,,is ,,the ,,right ,,of      
,,increase2 that is1 the power to       
produce without labor4 ,now1 to produce 
without labor is to make something from 
nothing2 in short1 to create4 ,surely it
 is no more difficult to do this than to
 moralize matter4 ,the jurists are      
right1 then1 in applying to proprietors 
this passage from the ,scriptures1--,ego
 dixi3 ,dii estis et filii ,excelsi     
omnes1--,i have said1 ,ye are gods2 and 

all of you are children of the ,most    
,high4  ,,property ,,is ,,the ,,right   
,,of ,,increase4 ,to us this axiom shall
 be like the name of the beast in the   
,apocalypse1--a name in which is hidden 
the complete explanation of the whole   
mystery of this beast4 ,it was known    
that he who should solve the mystery of 
this name would obtain a knowledge of   
the whole prophecy1 and would succeed in
 mastering the beast4 ,well6 by the most
 careful interpretation of our axiom we 
shall kill the sphinx of property4      
,starting from this eminently           
characteristic fact--the ,,right ,,of   
,,increase--we shall pursue the old     
serpent through his coils2 we shall     
count the murderous entwinings of this  
frightful taenia1 whose head1 with its  
thousand suckers1 is always hidden from 
the sword of its most violent enemies1  
though abandoning to them immense       
fragments of its body4 ,it requires     
something more than courage to subdue   
this monster4 ,it was written that it   

should not die until a proletaire1 armed
 with a magic wand1 had fought with it4 
,,corollaries4--#a4 ,,the ,,amount ,,of 
,,increase ,,is ,,proportional ,,to     
,,the ,,thing ,,increased4 ,whatever be 
the rate of interest1--whether it rise  
to three1 five1 or ten per cent41 or    
fall to one-half1 one-fourth1           
one-tenth1--it does not matter2 the law 
of increase remains the same4 ,the law  
is as follows3--  ,all capital--the cash
 value of which can be estimated--may be
 considered as a term in an arithmetical
 series which progresses in the ratio of
 one hundred1 and the revenue yielded by
 this capital as the corresponding term 
of another arithmetical series which    
progresses in a ratio equal to the rate 
of interest4 ,thus1 a capital of five   
hundred francs being the fifth term of  
the arithmetical progression whose ratio
 is one hundred1 its revenue at three   
per cent4 will be indicated by the fifth
 term of the arithmetical progression   
whose ratio is three3--            #ajj 

4  #bjj 4  #cjj 4  #djj 4  #ejj4        
#c  4   #f  4   #i  4   #ab 4   #ae4    
,an acquaintance with this sort of      
,,logarithms--tables of which1          
calculated to a very high degree1 are   
possessed by proprietors--will give us  
the key to the most puzzling problems1  
and cause us to experience a series of  
surprises4  ,by this ,,logarithmic      
theory of the right of increase1 a piece
 of property1 together with its income1 
may be defined as ,a ,,number ,,whose   
,,logarithm ,,is ,,equal ,,to ,,the     
,,sum ,,of ,,its ,,units ,,divided ,,by 
,,one ,,hundred1 ,,and ,,multiplied ,,by
 ,,the ,,rate ,,of ,,interest4 ,for     
instance2 a house valued at one hundred 
thousand francs1 and leased at five per 
cent41 yields a revenue of five thousand
 francs1 according to the formula       
#ajj1jjj x #e _/ #ajj  five thousand4   
,vice versa1 a piece of land which      
yields1 at two and a half per cent41 a  
revenue of three thousand francs is     
worth one hundred and twenty thousand   

francs1 according to this other formula2
 #c1jjj x #ajj_/ #b #a_/b  one hundred  
and twenty thousand4  ,in the first     
case1 the ratio of the progression which
 marks the increase of interest is five2
 in the second1 it is two and a half4   
,,observation4--,the forms of increase  
known as farm-rent1 income1 and interest
 are paid annually2 rent is paid by the 
week1 the month1 or the year2 profits   
and gains are paid at the time of       
exchange4 ,thus1 the amount of increase 
is proportional both to the thing       
increased1 and the time during which it 
increases2 in other words1 usury grows  
like a cancer--foenus serpit sicut      
cancer4  #b4 ,,the ,,increase ,,paid    
,,to ,,the ,,proprietor ,,by ,,the      
,,occupant ,,is ,a ,,dead ,,loss ,,to   
,,the ,,latter4 ,for if the proprietor  
owed1 in exchange for the increase which
 he receives1 some thing more than the  
permission which he grants1 his right of
 property would not be perfect--he would
 not possess jure optimo1 jure perfecto2

 that is1 he would not be in reality a  
proprietor4 ,then1 all which passes from
 the hands of the occupant into those of
 the proprietor in the name of increase1
 and as the price of the permission to  
occupy1 is a permanent gain for the     
latter1 and a dead loss and annihilation
 for the former2 to whom none of it will
 return1 save in the forms of gift1     
alms1 wages paid for his services1 or   
the price of merchandise which he has   
delivered4 ,in a word1 increase perishes
 so far as the borrower is concerned2 or
 to use the more energetic ,latin       
phrase1--res perit solventi4  #c4 ,,the 
,,right ,,of ,,increase ,,oppresses     
,,the ,,proprietor ,,as ,,well ,,as     
,,the ,,stranger4 ,the master of a      
thing1 as its proprietor1 levies a tax  
for the use of his property upon himself
 as its possessor1 equal to that which  
he would receive from a third party2 so 
that capital bears interest in the hands
 of the capitalist1 as well as in those 
of the borrower and the commandite4 ,if1

 indeed1 rather than accept a rent of   
five hundred francs for my apartment1 ,i
 prefer to occupy and enjoy it1 it is   
clear that ,i shall become my own debtor
 for a rent equal to that which ,i deny 
myself4 ,this principle is universally  
practised in business1 and is regarded  
as an axiom by the economists4          
,manufacturers1 also1 who have the      
advantage of being proprietors of their 
floating capital1 although they owe no  
interest to any one1 in calculating     
their profits subtract from them1 not   
only their running expenses and the     
wages of their employees1 but also the  
interest on their capital4 ,for the same
 reason1 money-lenders retain in their  
own possession as little money as       
possible2 for1 since all capital        
necessarily bears interest1 if this     
interest is supplied by no one1 it comes
 out of the capital1 which is to that   
extent diminished4 ,thus1 by the right  
of increase1 capital eats itself up4    
,this is1 doubtless1 the idea that      

,papinius intended to convey in the     
phrase1 as elegant as it is             
forcible--,foenus mordet solidam4 ,i beg
 pardon for using ,latin so frequently  
in discussing this subject2 it is an    
homage which ,i pay to the most usurious
 nation that ever existed4    ,,first   
,,proposition4  ,property is impossible1
 because it demands ,something for      
,nothing4   ,the discussion of this     
proposition covers the same ground as   
that of the origin of farm-rent1 which  
is so much debated by the economists4   
,when ,i read the writings of the       
greater part of these men1 ,i cannot    
avoid a feeling of contempt mingled with
 anger1 in view of this mass of         
nonsense1 in which the detestable vies  
with the absurd4 ,it would be a         
repetition of the story of the elephant 
in the moon1 were it not for the        
atrocity of the consequences4 ,to seek a
 rational and legitimate origin of that 
which is1 and ever must be1 only        
robbery1 extortion1 and plunder--that   

must be the height of the proprietor's  
folly2 the last degree of bedevilment   
into which minds1 otherwise judicious1  
can be thrown by the perversity of      
selfishness4   ,a farmer1 says ,say1 is 
a wheat manufacturer who1 among other   
tools which serve him in modifying the  
material from which he makes the wheat1 
employs one large tool1 which we call a 
field4 ,if he is not the proprietor of  
the field1 if he is only a tenant1 he   
pays the proprietor for the productive  
service of this tool4 ,the tenant is    
reimbursed by the purchaser1 the latter 
by another1 until the product reaches   
the consumer2 who redeems the first     
payment1 ,,plus all the others1 by means
 of which the product has at last come  
into his hands4   ,let us lay aside the 
subsequent payments by which the product
 reaches the consumer1 and1 for the     
present1 pay attention only to the first
 one of all1--the rent paid to the      
proprietor by the tenant4 ,on what      
ground1 we ask1 is the proprietor       

entitled to this rent8  ,according to   
,ricardo1 ,mac,culloch1 and ,mill1      
farm-rent1 properly speaking1 is simply 
the ,,excess ,,of ,,the ,,product ,,of  
,,the ,,most ,,fertile ,,land ,,over    
,,that ,,of ,,lands ,,of ,,an ,,inferior
 ,,quality2 so that farm-rent is not    
demanded for the former until the       
increase of population renders necessary
 the cultivation of the latter4  ,it is 
difficult to see any sense in this4 ,how
 can a right to the land be based upon a
 difference in the quality of the land8 
,how can varieties of soil engender a   
principle of legislation and politics8  
,this reasoning is either so subtle1 or 
so stupid1 that the more ,i think of it1
 the more bewildered ,i become4 ,suppose
 two pieces of land of equal area2 the  
one1 ,a1 capable of supporting ten      
thousand inhabitants2 the other1 ,b1    
capable of supporting nine thousand     
only3 when1 owing to an increase in     
their number1 the inhabitants of ,a     
shall be forced to cultivate ,b1 the    

landed proprietors of ,a will exact from
 their tenants in ,a a rent proportional
 to the difference between ten and nine4
 ,so say1 ,i think1 ,ricardo1           
,mac,culloch1 and ,mill4 ,but if ,a     
supports as many inhabitants as it can  
contain1--that is1 if the inhabitants of
 ,a1 by our hypothesis1 have only just  
enough land to keep them alive1--how can
 they pay farm-rent8  ,if they had gone 
no farther than to say that the         
difference in land has ,,occasioned     
farm-rent1 instead of ,,caused it1 this 
observation would have taught us a      
valuable lesson2 namely1 that farm-rent 
grew out of a desire for equality4      
,indeed1 if all men have an equal right 
to the possession of good land1 no one  
can be forced to cultivate bad land     
without indemnification4                
,farm-rent--according to ,ricardo1      
,mac,culloch1 and ,mill--would then have
 been a compensation for loss and       
hardship4 ,this system of practical     
equality is a bad one1 no doubt2 but it 

sprang from good intentions4 ,what      
argument can ,ricardo1 ,mac,culloch1 and
 ,mill develop therefrom in favor of    
property8 ,their theory turns against   
themselves1 and strangles them4         
,malthus thinks that farm-rent has its  
source in the power possessed by land of
 producing more than is necessary to    
supply the wants of the men who         
cultivate it4 ,i would ask ,malthus why 
successful labor should entitle the idle
 to a portion of the products8  ,but the
 worthy ,malthus is mistaken in regard  
to the fact4 ,yes2 land has the power of
 producing more than is needed by those 
who cultivate it1 if by ,,cultivators is
 meant tenants only4 ,the tailor also   
makes more clothes than he wears1 and   
the cabinet-maker more furniture than he
 uses4 ,but1 since the various          
professions imply and sustain one       
another1 not only the farmer1 but the   
followers of all arts and trades--even  
to the doctor and the                   
school-teacher--are1 and ought to be1   

regarded as ,,cultivators ,,of ,,the    
,,land4 ,malthus bases farm-rent upon   
the principle of commerce4 ,now1 the    
fundamental law of commerce being       
equivalence of the products exchanged1  
any thing which destroys this           
equivalence violates the law4 ,there is 
an error in the estimate which needs to 
be corrected4  ,buchanan--a commentator 
on ,smith--regarded farm-rent as the    
result of a monopoly1 and maintained    
that labor alone is productive4         
,consequently1 he thought that1 without 
this monopoly1 products would rise in   
price2 and he found no basis for        
farm-rent save in the civil law4 ,this  
opinion is a corollary of that which    
makes the civil law the basis of        
property4 ,but why has the civil        
law--which ought to be the written      
expression of justice--authorized this  
monopoly8 ,whoever says monopoly1       
necessarily excludes justice4 ,now1 to  
say that farm-rent is a monopoly        
sanctioned by the law1 is to say that   

injustice is based on justice1--a       
contradiction in terms4  ,say answers   
,buchanan1 that the proprietor is not a 
monopolist1 because a monopolist is one 
who does not increase the utility of the
 merchandise which passes through his   
hands4  ,how much does the proprietor   
increase the utility of his tenant's    
products8 ,has he ploughed1 sowed1      
reaped1 mowed1 winnowed1 weeded8 ,these 
are the processes by which the tenant   
and his employees increase the utility  
of the material which they consume for  
the purpose of reproduction4   ,the     
landed proprietor increases the utility 
of products by means of his implement1  
the land4 ,this implement receives in   
one state1 and returns in another the   
materials of which wheat is composed4   
,the action of the land is a chemical   
process1 which so modifies the material 
that it multiplies it by destroying it4 
,the soil is then a producer of utility2
 and when it the soil8 asks its pay in  
the form of profit1 or farm rent1 for   

its proprietor1 it at the same time     
gives something to the consumer in      
exchange for the amount which the       
consumer pays it4 ,it gives him a       
produced utility2 and it is the         
production of this utility which        
warrants us in calling land productive1 
as well as labor4   ,let us clear up    
this matter4  ,the blacksmith who       
manufactures for the farmer implements  
of husbandry1 the wheelwright who makes 
him a cart1 the mason who builds his    
barn1 the carpenter1 the basket-maker1  
c41--all of whom contribute to          
agricultural production by the tools    
which they provide1--are producers of   
utility2 consequently1 they are entitled
 to a part of the products4             
,undoubtedly1 says ,say2 but the land   
also is an implement whose service must 
be paid for1 then4444   ,i admit that   
the land is an implement2 but who made  
it8 ,did the proprietor8 ,did he--by the
 efficacious virtue of the right of     
property1 by this ,,moral ,,quality     

infused into the soil--endow it with    
vigor and fertility8 ,exactly there lies
 the monopoly of the proprietor2 in the 
fact that1 though he did not make the   
implement1 he asks pay for its use4     
,when the ,creator shall present himself
 and claim farm-rent1 we will consider  
the matter with him2 or even when the   
proprietor--his pretended               
representative--shall exhibit his       
power-of-attorney4   ,the proprietor's  
service1 adds ,say1 is easy1 ,i admit4  
,it is a frank confession4   ,but we    
cannot disregard it4 ,without property1 
one farmer would contend with another   
for the possession of a field without a 
proprietor1 and the field would remain  
uncultivated4444   ,then the            
proprietor's business is to reconcile   
farmers by robbing them4 ,o logic6 ,o   
justice6 ,o the marvellous wisdom of    
economists6 ,the proprietor1 if they are
 right1 is like ,perrin-,dandin who1    
when summoned by two travellers to      
settle a dispute about an oyster1 opened

 it1 gobbled it1 and said to them3--    
,the ,court awards you each a shell4    
,could any thing worse be said of       
property8  ,will ,say tell us why the   
same farmers1 who1 if there were no     
proprietors1 would contend with each    
other for possession of the soil1 do not
 contend to-day with the proprietors for
 this possession8 ,obviously1 because   
they think them legitimate possessors1  
and because their respect for even an   
imaginary right exceeds their avarice4  
,i proved1 in ,chapter ,,ii41 that      
possession is sufficient1 without       
property1 to maintain social order4     
,would it be more difficult1 then1 to   
reconcile possessors without masters    
than tenants controlled by proprietors8 
,would laboring men1 who respect--much  
to their own detriment--the pretended   
rights of the idler1 violate the natural
 rights of the producer and the         
manufacturer8 ,what6 if the husbandman  
forfeited his right to the land as soon 
as he ceased to occupy it1 would he     

become more covetous8 ,and would the    
impossibility of demanding increase1 of 
taxing another's labor1 be a source of  
quarrels and law-suits8 ,the economists 
use singular logic4 ,but we are not yet 
through4 ,admit that the proprietor is  
the legitimate master of the land4  ,the
 land is an instrument of production1   
they say4 ,that is true4 ,but when1     
changing the noun into an adjective1    
they alter the phrase1 thus1 ,the land  
is a productive instrument1 they make a 
wicked blunder4  ,according to ,quesnay 
and the early economists1 all production
 comes from the land4 ,smith1 ,ricardo1 
and de ,tracy1 on the contrary1 say that
 labor is the sole agent of production4 
,say1 and most of his successors1 teach 
that ,,both land ,,and labor ,,and      
capital are productive4 ,the latter     
constitute the eclectic school of       
political economy4 ,the truth is1 that  
,,neither land ,,nor labor ,,nor capital
 is productive4 ,production results from
 the co-operation of these three equally

 necessary elements1 which1 taken       
separately1 are equally sterile4        
,political economy1 indeed1 treats of   
the production1 distribution1 and       
consumption of wealth or values4 ,but of
 what values8 ,of the values produced by
 human industry2 that is1 of the changes
 made in matter by man1 that he may     
appropriate it to his own use1 and not  
at all of ,nature's spontaneous         
productions4 ,man's labor consists in a 
simple laying on of hands4 ,when he has 
taken that trouble1 he has produced a   
value4 ,until then1 the salt of the sea1
 the water of the springs1 the grass of 
the fields1 and the trees of the forests
 are to him as if they were not4 ,the   
sea1 without the fisherman and his line1
 supplies no fish4 ,the forest1 without 
the wood-cutter and his axe1 furnishes  
neither fuel nor timber4 ,the meadow1   
without the mower1 yields neither hay   
nor aftermath4 ,nature is a vast mass of
 material to be cultivated and converted
 into products2 but ,nature produces    

nothing for herself3 in the economical  
sense1 her products1 in their relation  
to man1 are not yet products4  ,capital1
 tools1 and machinery are likewise      
unproductive4 ,the hammer and the anvil1
 without the blacksmith and the iron1 do
 not forge4 ,the mill1 without the      
miller and the grain1 does not grind1 c4
 ,bring tools and raw material together2
 place a plough and some seed on fertile
 soil2 enter a smithy1 light the fire1  
and shut up the shop1--you will produce 
nothing4 ,the following remark was made 
by an economist who possessed more good 
sense than most of his fellows3 ,say    
credits capital with an active part     
unwarranted by its nature2 left to      
itself1 it is an idle tool4 7,j4 ,droz3 
,political ,economy47  ,finally1 labor  
and capital together1 when unfortunately
 combined1 produce nothing4 ,plough a   
sandy desert1 beat the water of the     
rivers1 pass type through a sieve1--you 
will get neither wheat1 nor fish1 nor   
books4 ,your trouble will be as         

fruitless as was the immense labor of   
the army of ,xerxes2 who1 as ,herodotus 
says1 with his three million soldiers1  
scourged the ,hellespont for twenty-four
 hours1 as a punishment for having      
broken and scattered the pontoon bridge 
which the great king had thrown across  
it4  ,tools and capital1 land and labor1
 considered individually and abstractly1
 are not1 literally speaking1           
productive4 ,the proprietor who asks to 
be rewarded for the use of a tool1 or   
the productive power of his land1 takes 
for granted1 then1 that which is        
radically false2 namely1 that capital   
produces by its own effort1--and1 in    
taking pay for this imaginary product1  
he literally receives something for     
nothing4  ,,objection4--,but if the     
blacksmith1 the wheelwright1 all        
manufacturers in short1 have a right to 
the products in return for the          
implements which they furnish2 and if   
land is an implement of production1--why
 does not this implement entitle its    

proprietor1 be his claim real or        
imaginary1 to a portion of the products2
 as in the case of the manufacturers of 
ploughs and wagons8  ,,reply4--,here we 
touch the heart of the question1 the    
mystery of property2 which we must clear
 up1 if we would understand any thing of
 the strange effects of the right of    
increase4  ,he who manufactures or      
repairs the farmer's tools receives the 
price ,,once1 either at the time of     
delivery1 or in several payments2 and   
when this price is once paid to the     
manufacturer1 the tools which he has    
delivered belong to him no more4 ,never 
does he claim double payment for the    
same tool1 or the same job of repairs4  
,if he annually shares in the products  
of the farmer1 it is owing to the fact  
that he annually makes something for the
 farmer4  ,the proprietor1 on the       
contrary1 does not yield his implement2 
eternally he is paid for it1 eternally  
he keeps it4  ,in fact1 the rent        
received by the proprietor is not       

intended to defray the expense of       
maintaining and repairing the implement2
 this expense is charged to the         
borrower1 and does not concern the      
proprietor except as he is interested in
 the preservation of the article4 ,if he
 takes it upon himself to attend to the 
repairs1 he takes care that the money   
which he expends for this purpose is    
repaid4  ,this rent does not represent  
the product of the implement1 since of  
itself the implement produces nothing2  
we have just proved this1 and we shall  
prove it more clearly still by its      
consequences4  ,finally1 this rent does 
not represent the participation of the  
proprietor in the production2 since this
 participation could consist1 like that 
of the blacksmith and the wheelwright1  
only in the surrender of the whole or a 
part of his implement1 in which case he 
would cease to be its proprietor1 which 
would involve a contradiction of the    
idea of property4  ,then1 between the   
proprietor and his tenant there is no   

exchange either of values or services2  
then1 as our axiom says1 farm-rent is   
real increase1--an extortion based      
solely upon fraud and violence on the   
one hand1 and weakness and ignorance    
upon the other4 ,,products say the      
economists1 ,,are ,,bought ,,only ,,by  
,,products4 ,this maxim is property's   
condemnation4 ,the proprietor1 producing
 neither by his own labor nor by his    
implement1 and receiving products in    
exchange for nothing1 is either a       
parasite or a thief4 ,then1 if property 
can exist only as a right1 property is  
impossible4  ,,corollaries4--#a4 ,the   
republican constitution of #agic1 which 
defined property as the right to enjoy  
the fruit of one's labor1 was grossly   
mistaken4 ,it should have said1         
,property is the right to enjoy and     
dispose at will of another's goods1--the
 fruit of another's industry and labor4 
#b4 ,every possessor of lands1 houses1  
furniture1 machinery1 tools1 money1 c41 
who lends a thing for a price exceeding 

the cost of repairs 7the repairs being  
charged to the lender1 and representing 
products which he exchanges for other   
products71 is guilty of swindling and   
extortion4 ,in short1 all rent received 
7nominally as damages1 but really as    
payment for a loan7 is an act of        
property1--a robbery4  ,,historical     
,,comment4--,the tax which a victorious 
nation levies upon a conquered nation is
 genuine farm-rent4 ,the seigniorial    
rights abolished by the ,revolution of  
#aghi1--tithes1 mortmain1 statute-labor1
 c41--were different forms of the rights
 of property2 and they who under the    
titles of nobles1 seigneurs1            
prebendaries1 c4 enjoyed these rights1  
were neither more nor less than         
proprietors4 ,to defend property to-day 
is to condemn the ,revolution4          
,,second ,,proposition4  ,property is   
impossible because wherever it exists   
,production costs more than it is worth4
   ,the preceding proposition was       
legislative in its nature2 this one is  

economical4 ,it serves to prove that    
property1 which originates in violence1 
results in waste4   ,production1 says   
,say1 is exchange on a large scale4 ,to 
render the exchange productive the value
 of the whole amount of service must be 
balanced by the value of the product4   
,if this condition is not complied with1
 the exchange is unequal2 the producer  
gives more than he receives4   ,now1    
value being necessarily based upon      
utility1 it follows that every useless  
product is necessarily valueless1--that 
it cannot be exchanged2 and1            
consequently1 that it cannot be given in
 payment for productive services4       
,then1 though production may equal      
consumption1 it never can exceed it2 for
 there is no real production save where 
there is a production of utility1 and   
there is no utility save where there is 
a possibility of consumption4 ,thus1 so 
much of every product as is rendered by 
excessive abundance inconsumable1       
becomes useless1 valueless1             

unexchangeable1--consequently1 unfit to 
be given in payment for any thing       
whatever1 and is no longer a product4   
,consumption1 on the other hand1 to be  
legitimate1--to be true                 
consumption1--must be reproductive of   
utility2 for1 if it is unproductive1 the
 products which it destroys are         
cancelled values--things produced at a  
pure loss2 a state of things which      
causes products to depreciate in value4 
,man has the power to destroy1 but he   
consumes only that which he reproduces4 
,under a right system of economy1 there 
is then an equation between production  
and consumption4  ,these points         
established1 let us suppose a community 
of one thousand families1 enclosed in a 
territory of a given circumference1 and 
deprived of foreign intercourse4 ,let   
this community represent the human race1
 which1 scattered over the face of the  
earth1 is really isolated4 ,in fact1 the
 difference between a community and the 
human race being only a numerical one1  

the economical results will be          
absolutely the same in each case4       
,suppose1 then1 that these thousand     
families1 devoting themselves           
exclusively to wheat-culture1 are       
obliged to pay to one hundred           
individuals1 chosen from the mass1 an   
annual revenue of ten per cent4 on their
 product4 ,it is clear that1 in such a  
case1 the right of increase is          
equivalent to a tax levied in advance   
upon social production4 ,of what use is 
this tax8  ,it cannot be levied to      
supply the community with provisions1   
for between that and farm-rent there is 
nothing in common2 nor to pay for       
services and products1--for the         
proprietors1 laboring like the others1  
have labored only for themselves4       
,finally1 this tax is of no use to its  
recipients who1 having harvested wheat  
enough for their own consumption1 and   
not being able in a society without     
commerce and manufactures to procure any
 thing else in exchange for it1 thereby 

lose the advantage of their income4  ,in
 such a society1 one-tenth of the       
product being inconsumable1 one-tenth of
 the labor goes unpaid--production costs
 more than it is worth4  ,now1 change   
three hundred of our wheat-producers    
into artisans of all kinds3 one hundred 
gardeners and wine-growers1 sixty       
shoemakers and tailors1 fifty carpenters
 and blacksmiths1 eighty of various     
professions1 and1 that nothing may be   
lacking1 seven school-masters1 one      
mayor1 one judge1 and one priest2 each  
industry furnishes the whole community  
with its special product4 ,now1 the     
total production being one thousand1    
each laborer's consumption is one2      
namely1 wheat1 meat1 and grain1 #j4g2   
wine and vegetables1 #j4a2 shoes and    
clothing1 #j4jf2 iron-work and          
furniture1 #j4je2 sundries1 #j4jh2      
instruction1 #j4jjg2 administration1    
#j4jjb2 mass1 #j4jja1 ,total #a4  ,but  
the community owes a revenue of ten per 
cent42 and it matters little whether the

 farmers alone pay it1 or all the       
laborers are responsible for it1--the   
result is the same4 ,the farmer raises  
the price of his products in proportion 
to his share of the debt2 the other     
laborers follow his example4 ,then1     
after some fluctuations1 equilibrium is 
established1 and all pay nearly the same
 amount of the revenue4 ,it would be a  
grave error to assume that in a nation  
none but farmers pay farm-rent--the     
whole nation pays it4  ,i say1 then1    
that by this tax of ten per cent4 each  
laborer's consumption is reduced as     
follows3 wheat1 #j4fc2 wine and         
vegetables1 #j4ji2 clothing and shoes1  
#j4jed2 furniture and iron-work1 #j4jde2
 other products1 #j4jgb2 schooling1     
#j4jjfc2 administration1 #j4jjah2 mass1 
#j4jjji4 ,total #j4i4  ,the laborer has 
produced #a2 he consumes only #j4i4 ,he 
loses1 then1 one-tenth of the price of  
his labor2 his production still costs   
more than it is worth4 ,on the other    
hand1 the tenth received by the         

proprietors is no less a waste2 for1    
being laborers themselves1 they1 like   
the others1 possess in the nine-tenths  
of their product the wherewithal to     
live3 they want for nothing4 ,why should
 they wish their proportion of bread1   
wine1 meat1 clothes1 shelter1 c41 to be 
doubled1 if they can neither consume nor
 exchange them8 ,then farm-rent1 with   
them as with the rest of the laborers1  
is a waste1 and perishes in their hands4
 ,extend the hypothesis1 increase the   
number and variety of the products1 you 
still have the same result4  ,hitherto1 
we have considered the proprietor as    
taking part in the production1 not only 
7as ,say says7 by the use of his        
instrument1 but in an effective manner  
and by the labor of his hands4 ,now1 it 
is easy to see that1 under such         
circumstances1 property will never      
exist4 ,what happens8  ,the             
proprietor--an essentially libidinous   
animal1 without virtue or shame--is not 
satisfied with an orderly and           

disciplined life4 ,he loves property1   
because it enables him to do at leisure 
what he pleases and when he pleases4    
,having obtained the means of life1 he  
gives himself up to trivialities and    
indolence2 he enjoys1 he fritters away  
his time1 he goes in quest of           
curiosities and novel sensations4       
,property--to enjoy itself--has to      
abandon ordinary life1 and busy itself  
in luxurious occupations and unclean    
enjoyments4  ,instead of giving up a    
farm-rent1 which is perishing in their  
hands1 and thus lightening the labor of 
the community1 our hundred proprietors  
prefer to rest4 ,in consequence of this 
withdrawal1--the absolute production    
being diminished by one hundred1 while  
the consumption remains the             
same1--production and consumption seem  
to balance4 ,but1 in the first place1   
since the proprietors no longer labor1  
their consumption is1 according to      
economical principles1 unproductive2    
consequently1 the previous condition of 

the community--when the labor of one    
hundred was rewarded by no products--is 
superseded by one in which the products 
of one hundred are consumed without     
labor4 ,the deficit is always the same1 
whichever the column of the account in  
which it is expressed4 ,either the      
maxims of political economy are false1  
or else property1 which contradicts     
them1 is impossible4  ,the              
economists--regarding all unproductive  
consumption as an evil1 as a robbery of 
the human race--never fail to exhort    
proprietors to moderation1 labor1 and   
economy2 they preach to them the        
necessity of making themselves useful1  
of remunerating production for that     
which they receive from it2 they launch 
the most terrible curses against luxury 
and laziness4 ,very beautiful morality1 
surely2 it is a pity that it lacks      
common sense4 ,the proprietor who       
labors1 or1 as the economists say1 ,,who
 ,,makes ,,himself ,,useful1 is paid for
 this labor and utility2 is he1         

therefore1 any the less idle as concerns
 the property which he does not use1 and
 from which he receives an income8 ,his 
condition1 whatever he may do1 is an    
unproductive and ,,felonious one2 he    
cannot cease to waste and destroy       
without ceasing to be a proprietor4     
,but this is only the least of the evils
 which property engenders4  ,society has
 to maintain some idle people1 whether  
or no4 ,it will always have the blind1  
the maimed1 the insane1 and the idiotic4
 ,it can easily support a few sluggards4
 ,at this point1 the impossibilities    
thicken and become complicated4         
,,third ,,proposition4  ,property is    
impossible1 because1 with a given       
capital1 ,production is proportional to 
labor1 not to property4   ,to pay a     
farm-rent of one hundred at the rate of 
ten per cent4 of the product1 the       
product must be one thousand2 that the  
product may be one thousand1 a force of 
one thousand laborers is needed4 ,it    
follows1 that in granting a furlough1 as

 we have just done1 to our one hundred  
laborer-proprietors1 all of whom had an 
equal right to lead the life of men of  
income1--we have placed ourselves in a  
position where we are unable to pay     
their revenues4 ,in fact1 the productive
 power1 which at first was one thousand1
 being now but nine hundred1 the        
production is also reduced to nine      
hundred1 one-tenth of which is ninety4  
,either1 then1 ten proprietors out of   
the one hundred cannot be               
paid1--provided the remaining ninety are
 to get the whole amount of their       
farm-rent1--or else all must consent to 
a decrease of ten per cent4 ,for it is  
not for the laborer1 who has been       
wanting in no particular1 who has       
produced as in the past1 to suffer by   
the withdrawal of the proprietor4 ,the  
latter must take the consequences of his
 own idleness4 ,but1 then1 the          
proprietor becomes poorer for the very  
reason that he wishes to enjoy2 by      
exercising his right1 he loses it2 so   

that property seems to decrease and     
vanish in proportion as we try to lay   
hold of it1--the more we pursue it1 the 
more it eludes our grasp4 ,what sort of 
a right is that which is governed by    
numerical relations1 and which an       
arithmetical calculation can destroy8   
,the laborer-proprietor received1 first1
 as laborer1 #j4i in wages2 second1 as  
proprietor1 #a in farm-rent4 ,he said to
 himself1 ,my farm-rent is sufficient2  
,i have enough and to spare without my  
labor4 ,and thus it is that the income  
upon which he calculated gets diminished
 by one-tenth1--he at the same time not 
even suspecting the cause of this       
diminution4 ,by taking part in the      
production1 he was himself the creator  
of this tenth which has vanished2 and   
while he thought to labor only for      
himself1 he unwittingly suffered a loss 
in exchanging his products1 by which he 
was made to pay to himself one-tenth of 
his own farm-rent4 ,like every one else1
 he produced #a1 and received but #j4i  

,if1 instead of nine hundred laborers1  
there had been but five hundred1 the    
whole amount of farm-rent would have    
been reduced to fifty2 if there had been
 but one hundred1 it would have fallen  
to ten4 ,we may posit1 then1 the        
following axiom as a law of proprietary 
economy3 ,,increase ,,must ,,diminish   
,,as ,,the ,,number ,,of ,,idlers       
,,augments4   ,this first result will   
lead us to another more surprising      
still4 ,its effect is to deliver us at  
one blow from all the evils of property1
 without abolishing it1 without wronging
 proprietors1 and by a highly           
conservative process4  ,we have just    
proved that1 if the farm-rent in a      
community of one thousand laborers is   
one hundred1 that of nine hundred would 
be ninety1 that of eight hundred1       
eighty1 that of one hundred1 ten1 c4 ,so
 that1 in a community where there was   
but one laborer1 the farm-rent would be 
but #j4a2 no matter how great the extent
 and value of the land appropriated4    

,therefore1 ,,with ,a ,,given ,,landed  
,,capital1 ,,production ,,is            
,,proportional ,,to ,,labor1 ,,not ,,to 
,,property4  ,guided by this principle1 
let us try to ascertain the maximum     
increase of all property whatever4      
,what is1 essentially1 a farm-lease8 ,it
 is a contract by which the proprietor  
yields to a tenant possession of his    
land1 in consideration of a portion of  
that which it yields him1 the           
proprietor4 ,if1 in consequence of an   
increase in his household1 the tenant   
becomes ten times as strong as the      
proprietor1 he will produce ten times as
 much4 ,would the proprietor in such a  
case be justified in raising the        
farm-rent tenfold8 ,his right is not1   
,the more you produce1 the more ,i      
demand4 ,it is1 ,the more ,i sacrifice1 
the more ,i demand4 ,the increase in the
 tenant's household1 the number of hands
 at his disposal1 the resources of his  
industry1--all these serve to increase  
production1 but bear no relation to the 

proprietor4 ,his claims are to be       
measured by his own productive capacity1
 not that of others4 ,property is the   
right of increase1 not a poll-tax4 ,how 
could a man1 hardly capable of          
cultivating even a few acres by himself1
 demand of a community1 on the ground of
 its use of ten thousand acres of his   
property1 ten thousand times as much as 
he is incapable of producing from one   
acre8 ,why should the price of a loan be
 governed by the skill and strength of  
the borrower1 rather than by the utility
 sacrificed by the proprietor8 ,we must 
recognize1 then1 this second economical 
law3 ,,increase ,,is ,,measured ,,by ,a 
,,fraction ,,of ,,the ,,proprietors     
,,production4  ,now1 this production1   
what is it8 ,in other words1 ,what can  
the lord and master of a piece of land  
justly claim to have sacrificed in      
lending it to a tenant8  ,the productive
 capacity of a proprietor1 like that of 
any laborer1 being one1 the product     
which he sacrifices in surrendering his 

land is also one4 ,if1 then1 the rate of
 increase is ten per cent41 the maximum 
increase is #j4a4  ,but we have seen    
that1 whenever a proprietor withdraws   
from production1 the amount of products 
is lessened by #a4 ,then the increase   
which accrues to him1 being equal to    
#j4a while he remains among the         
laborers1 will be equal after his       
withdrawal1 by the law of the decrease  
of farm-rent1 to #j4ji4 ,thus we are led
 to this final formula3 ,,the ,,maximum 
,,income ,,of ,a ,,proprietor ,,is      
,,equal ,,to ,,the ,,square ,,root ,,of 
,,the ,,product ,,of ,,one ,,laborer    
7some number being agreed upon to       
express this product74 ,,the            
,,diminution ,,which ,,this ,,income    
,,suffers1 ,,if ,,the ,,proprietor ,,is 
,,idle1 ,,is ,,equal ,,to ,a ,,fraction 
,,whose ,,numerator ,,is #a1 ,,and      
,,whose ,,denominator ,,is ,,the        
,,number ,,which ,,expresses ,,the      
,,product4  ,thus the maximum income of 
an idle proprietor1 or of one who labors

 in his own behalf outside of the       
community1 figured at ten per cent4 on  
an average production of one thousand   
francs per laborer1 would be ninety     
francs4 ,if1 then1 there are in ,france 
one million proprietors with an income  
of one thousand francs each1 which they 
consume unproductively1 instead of the  
one thousand millions which are paid    
them annually1 they are entitled in     
strict justice1 and by the most accurate
 calculation1 to ninety millions only4  
,it is something of a reduction1 to take
 nine hundred and ten millions from the 
burdens which weigh so heavily upon the 
laboring class6 ,nevertheless1 the      
account is not finished1 and the laborer
 is still ignorant of the full extent of
 his rights4  ,what is the right of     
increase when confined within just      
limits8 ,a recognition of the right of  
occupancy4 ,but since all have an equal 
right of occupancy1 every man is by the 
same title a proprietor4 ,every man has 
a right to an income equal to a fraction

 of his product4 ,if1 then1 the laborer 
is obliged by the right of property to  
pay a rent to the proprietor1 the       
proprietor is obliged by the same right 
to pay the same amount of rent to the   
laborer2 and1 since their rights balance
 each other1 the difference between them
 is zero4  ,scholium4--,if farm-rent is 
only a fraction of the supposed product 
of the proprietor1 whatever the amount  
and value of the property1 the same is  
true in the case of a large number of   
small and distinct proprietors4 ,for1   
although one man may use the property of
 each separately1 he cannot use the     
property of all at the same time4  ,to  
sum up4 ,the right of increase1 which   
can exist only within very narrow       
limits1 defined by the laws of          
production1 is annihilated by the right 
of occupancy4 ,now1 without the right of
 increase1 there is no property4 ,then  
property is impossible4    ,,fourth     
,,proposition4  ,property is impossible1
 because it is ,homicide4   ,if the     

right of increase could be subjected to 
the laws of reason and justice1 it would
 be reduced to an indemnity or reward   
whose ,,maximum never could exceed1 for 
a single laborer1 a certain fraction of 
that which he is capable of producing4  
,this we have just shown4 ,but why      
should the right of increase--let us not
 fear to call it by its right name1 the 
right of robbery--be governed by reason1
 with which it has nothing in common8   
,the proprietor is not content with the 
increase allotted him by good sense and 
the nature of things3 he demands ten    
times1 a hundred times1 a thousand      
times1 a million times as much4 ,by his 
own labor1 his property would yield him 
a product equal only to one2 and he     
demands of society1 no longer a right   
proportional to his productive capacity1
 but a per capita tax4 ,he taxes his    
fellows in proportion to their strength1
 their number1 and their industry4 ,a   
son is born to a farmer4 ,good6 says the
 proprietor2 one more chance for        

increase6 ,by what process has farm-rent
 been thus changed into a poll-tax8 ,why
 have our jurists and our theologians   
failed1 with all their shrewdness1 to   
check the extension of the right of     
increase8  ,the proprietor1 having      
estimated from his own productive       
capacity the number of laborers which   
his property will accommodate1 divides  
it into as many portions1 and says3     
,each one shall yield me revenue4 ,to   
increase his income1 he has only to     
divide his property4 ,instead of        
reckoning the interest due him on his   
labor1 he reckons it on his capital2    
and1 by this substitution1 the same     
property1 which in the hands of its     
owner is capable of yielding only one1  
is worth to him ten1 a hundred1 a       
thousand1 a million4 ,consequently1 he  
has only to hold himself in readiness to
 register the names of the laborers who 
apply to him--his task consists in      
drafting leases and receipts4  ,not     
satisfied with the lightness of his     

duties1 the proprietor does not intend  
to bear even the deficit resulting from 
his idleness2 he throws it upon the     
shoulders of the producer1 of whom he   
always demands the same reward4 ,when   
the farm-rent of a piece of land is once
 raised to its highest point1 the       
proprietor never lowers it2 high prices1
 the scarcity of labor1 the             
disadvantages of the season1 even       
pestilence itself1 have no effect upon  
him--why should he suffer from hard     
times when he does not labor8  ,here    
commences a new series of phenomena4    
,say--who reasons with marvellous       
clearness whenever he assails taxation1 
but who is blind to the fact that the   
proprietor1 as well as the tax-gatherer1
 steals from the tenant1 and in the same
 manner--says in his second letter to   
,malthus3--   ,if the collector of taxes
 and those who employ him consume       
one-sixth of the products1 they thereby 
compel the producers to feed1 clothe1   
and support themselves on five-sixths of

 what they produce4 ,they admit this1   
but say at the same time that it is     
possible for each one to live on        
five-sixths of what he produces4  ,i    
admit that1 if they insist upon it2 but 
,i ask if they believe that the producer
 would live as well1 in case they       
demanded of him1 instead of one-sixth1  
two-sixths1 or one-third1 of their      
products8 ,no2 but he would still live4 
,then ,i ask whether he would still     
live1 in case they should rob him of    
two-thirds1444 then three-quarters8 ,but
 ,i hear no reply4   ,if the master of  
the ,french economists had been less    
blinded by his proprietary prejudices1  
he would have seen that farm-rent has   
precisely the same effect4  ,take a     
family of peasants composed of six      
persons1--father1 mother1 and four      
children1--living in the country1 and   
cultivating a small piece of ground4    
,let us suppose that by hard labor they 
manage1 as the saying is1 to make both  
ends meet2 that1 having lodged1 warmed1 

clothed1 and fed themselves1 they are   
clear of debt1 but have laid up nothing4
 ,taking the years together1 they       
contrive to live4 ,if the year is       
prosperous1 the father drinks a little  
more wine1 the daughters buy themselves 
a dress1 the sons a hat2 they eat a     
little cheese1 and1 occasionally1 some  
meat4 ,i say that these people are on   
the road to wreck and ruin4  ,for1 by   
the third corollary of our axiom1 they  
owe to themselves the interest on their 
own capital4 ,estimating this capital at
 only eight thousand francs at two and a
 half per cent41 there is an annual     
interest of two hundred francs to be    
paid4 ,if1 then1 these two hundred      
francs1 instead of being subtracted from
 the gross product to be saved and      
capitalized1 are consumed1 there is an  
annual deficit of two hundred francs in 
the family assets2 so that at the end of
 forty years these good people1 without 
suspecting it1 will have eaten up their 
property and become bankrupt6  ,this    

result seems ridiculous--it is a sad    
reality4  ,the conscription comes4 ,what
 is the conscription8 ,an act of        
property exercised over families by the 
government without warning--a robbery of
 men and money4 ,the peasants do not    
like to part with their sons1--in that  
,i do not think them wrong4 ,it is hard 
for a young man of twenty to gain any   
thing by life in the barracks2 unless he
 is depraved1 he detests it4 ,you can   
generally judge of a soldier's morality 
by his hatred of his uniform4           
,unfortunate wretches or worthless      
scamps1--such is the make-up of the     
,french army4 ,this ought not to be the 
case1--but so it is4 ,question a hundred
 thousand men1 and not one will         
contradict my assertion4  ,our peasant1 
in redeeming his two conscripted sons1  
expends four thousand francs1 which he  
borrows for that purpose2 the interest  
on this1 at five per cent41 is two      
hundred francs2--a sum equal to that    
referred to above4 ,if1 up to this time1

 the production of the family1          
constantly balanced by its consumption1 
has been one thousand two hundred       
francs1 or two hundred francs per       
persons--in order to pay this interest1 
either the six laborers must produce as 
much as seven1 or must consume as little
 as five4  ,curtail consumption they    
cannot--how can they curtail necessity8 
,to produce more is impossible2 they can
 work neither harder nor longer4 ,shall 
they take a middle course1 and consume  
five and a half while producing six and 
a half8 ,they would soon find that with 
the stomach there is no compromise--that
 beyond a certain degree of abstinence  
it is impossible to go--that strict     
necessity can be curtailed but little   
without injury to the health2 and1 as   
for increasing the product1--there comes
 a storm1 a drought1 an epizootic1 and  
all the hopes of the farmer are dashed4 
,in short1 the rent will not be paid1   
the interest will accumulate1 the farm  
will be seized1 and the possessor       

ejected4  ,thus a family1 which lived in
 prosperity while it abstained from     
exercising the right of property1 falls 
into misery as soon as the exercise of  
this right becomes a necessity4         
,property requires of the husbandman the
 double power of enlarging his land1 and
 fertilizing it by a simple command4    
,while a man is simply possessor of the 
land1 he finds in it means of           
subsistence2 as soon as he pretends to  
proprietorship1 it suffices him no      
longer4 ,being able to produce only that
 which he consumes1 the fruit of his    
labor is his recompense for his         
trouble--nothing is left for the        
instrument4  ,required to pay what he   
cannot produce1--such is the condition  
of the tenant after the proprietor has  
retired from social production in order 
to speculate upon the labor of others by
 new methods4  ,let us now return to our
 first hypothesis4  ,the nine hundred   
laborers1 sure that their future        
production will equal that of the past1 

are quite surprised1 after paying their 
farm-rent1 to find themselves poorer by 
one-tenth than they were the previous   
year4 ,in fact1 this tenth--which was   
formerly produced and paid by the       
proprietor-laborer who then took part in
 the production1 and paid part of       
the--public expenses--now has not been  
produced1 and has been paid4 ,it must   
then have been taken from the producer's
 consumption4 ,to choke this            
inexplicable deficit1 the laborer       
borrows1 confident of his intention and 
ability to return1--a confidence which  
is shaken the following year by a new   
loan1 ,,plus the interest on the first4 
,from whom does he borrow8 ,from the    
proprietor4 ,the proprietor lends his   
surplus to the laborer2 and this        
surplus1 which he ought to return1      
becomes--being lent at interest--a new  
source of profit to him4 ,then debts    
increase indefinitely2 the proprietor   
makes advances to the producer who never
 returns them2 and the latter1          

constantly robbed and constantly        
borrowing from the robbers1 ends in     
bankruptcy1 defrauded of all that he    
had4  ,suppose that the proprietor--who 
needs his tenant to furnish him with an 
income--then releases him from his      
debts4 ,he will thus do a very          
benevolent deed1 which will procure for 
him a recommendation in the curate's    
prayers2 while the poor tenant1         
overwhelmed by this unstinted charity1  
and taught by his catechism to pray for 
his benefactors1 will promise to        
redouble his energy1 and suffer new     
hardships that he may discharge his debt
 to so kind a master4  ,this time he    
takes precautionary measures2 he raises 
the price of grains4 ,the manufacturer  
does the same with his products4 ,the   
reaction comes1 and1 after some         
fluctuation1 the farm-rent--which the   
tenant thought to put upon the          
manufacturer's shoulders--becomes nearly
 balanced4 ,so that1 while he is        
congratulating himself upon his success1

 he finds himself again impoverished1   
but to an extent somewhat smaller than  
before4 ,for the rise having been       
general1 the proprietor suffers with the
 rest2 so that the laborers1 instead of 
being poorer by one-tenth1 lose only    
nine-hundredths4 ,but always it is a    
debt which necessitates a loan1 the     
payment of interest1 economy1 and       
fasting4 ,fasting for the               
nine-hundredths which ought not to be   
paid1 and are paid2 fasting for the     
redemption of debts2 fasting to pay the 
interest on them4 ,let the crop fail1   
and the fasting becomes starvation4     
,they say1 ,,it ,,is ,,necessary ,,to   
,,work ,,more4 ,that means1 obviously1  
that ,,it ,,is ,,necessary ,,to         
,,produce ,,more4 ,by what conditions is
 production effected8 ,by the combined  
action of labor1 capital1 and land4 ,as 
for the labor1 the tenant undertakes to 
furnish it2 but capital is formed only  
by economy4 ,now1 if the tenant could   
accumulate any thing1 he would pay his  

debts4 ,but granting that he has plenty 
of capital1 of what use would it be to  
him if the extent of the land which he  
cultivates always remained the same8 ,he
 needs to enlarge his farm4  ,will it be
 said1 finally1 that he must work harder
 and to better advantage8 ,but1 in our  
estimation of farm-rent1 we have assumed
 the highest possible average of        
production4 ,were it not the highest1   
the proprietor would increase the       
farm-rent4 ,is not this the way in which
 the large landed proprietors have      
gradually raised their rents1 as fast as
 they have ascertained by the increase  
in population and the development of    
industry how much society can produce   
from their property8 ,the proprietor is 
a foreigner to society2 but1 like the   
vulture1 his eyes fixed upon his prey1  
he holds himself ready to pounce upon   
and devour it4  ,the facts to which we  
have called attention1 in a community of
 one thousand persons1 are reproduced on
 a large scale in every nation and      

wherever human beings live1 but with    
infinite variations and in innumerable  
forms1 which it is no part of my        
intention to describe4  ,in fine1       
property--after having robbed the       
laborer by usury--murders him slowly by 
starvation4 ,now1 without robbery and   
murder1 property cannot exist2 with     
robbery and murder1 it soon dies for    
want of support4 ,therefore it is       
impossible4    ,,fifth ,,proposition4   
,property is impossible1 because1 if it 
exists1 ,society devours itself4   ,when
 the ass is too heavily loaded1 he lies 
down2 man always moves on4 ,upon this   
indomitable courage1 the                
proprietor--well knowing that it        
exists--bases his hopes of speculation4 
,the free laborer produces ten2 for me1 
thinks the proprietor1 he will produce  
twelve4  ,indeed1--before consenting to 
the confiscation of his fields1 before  
bidding farewell to the paternal        
roof1--the peasant1 whose story we have 
just told1 makes a desperate effort2 he 

leases new land2 he will sow one-third  
more2 and1 taking half of this new      
product for himself1 he will harvest an 
additional sixth1 and thereby pay his   
rent4 ,what an evil6 ,to add one-sixth  
to his production1 the farmer must add1 
not one-sixth1 but two-sixths to his    
labor4 ,at such a price1 he pays a      
farm-rent which in ,god's eyes he does  
not owe4  ,the tenant's example is      
followed by the manufacturer4 ,the      
former tills more land1 and dispossesses
 his neighbors2 the latter lowers the   
price of his merchandise1 and endeavors 
to monopolize its manufacture and sale1 
and to crush out his competitors4 ,to   
satisfy property1 the laborer must first
 produce beyond his needs4 ,then1 he    
must produce beyond his strength2 for1  
by the withdrawal of laborers who become
 proprietors1 the one always follows    
from the other4 ,but to produce beyond  
his strength and needs1 he must invade  
the production of another1 and          
consequently diminish the number of     

producers4 ,thus the proprietor--after  
having lessened production by stepping  
outside--lessens it still further by    
encouraging the monopoly of labor4 ,let 
us calculate it4  ,the laborer's        
deficit1 after paying his rent1 being1  
as we have seen1 one-tenth1 he tries to 
increase his production by this amount4 
,he sees no way of accomplishing this   
save by increasing his labor3 this also 
he does4 ,the discontent of the         
proprietors who have not received the   
full amount of their rent2 the          
advantageous offers and promises made   
them by other farmers1 whom they suppose
 more diligent1 more industrious1 and   
more reliable2 the secret plots and     
intrigues1--all these give rise to a    
movement for the re-division of labor1  
and the elimination of a certain number 
of producers4 ,out of nine hundred1     
ninety will be ejected1 that the        
production of the others may be         
increased one-tenth4 ,but will the total
 product be increased8 ,not in the      

least3 there will be eight hundred and  
ten laborers producing as nine hundred1 
while1 to accomplish their purpose1 they
 would have to produce as one thousand4 
,now1 it having been proved that        
farm-rent is proportional to the landed 
capital instead of to labor1 and that it
 never diminishes1 the debts must       
continue as in the past1 while the labor
 has increased4 ,here1 then1 we have a  
society which is continually decimating 
itself1 and which would destroy itself1 
did not the periodical occurrence of    
failures1 bankruptcies1 and political   
and economical catastrophes re-establish
 equilibrium1 and distract attention    
from the real causes of the universal   
distress4  ,the monopoly of land and    
capital is followed by economical       
processes which also result in throwing 
laborers out of employment4 ,interest   
being a constant burden upon the        
shoulders of the farmer and the         
manufacturer1 they exclaim1 each        
speaking for himself1 ,i should have the

 means wherewith to pay my rent and     
interest1 had ,i not to pay so many     
hands4 ,then those admirable inventions1
 intended to assure the easy and speedy 
performance of labor1 become so many    
infernal machines which kill laborers by
 thousands4   ,a few years ago1 the     
,countess of ,strafford ejected fifteen 
thousand persons from her estate1 who1  
as tenants1 added to its value4 ,this   
act of private administration was       
repeated in #ahbj1 by another large     
,scotch proprietor1 towards six hundred 
tenants and their families4--,tissot3 on
 ,suicide and ,revolt4   ,the author    
whom ,i quote1 and who has written      
eloquent words concerning the           
revolutionary spirit which prevails in  
modern society1 does not say whether he 
would have disapproved of a revolt on   
the part of these exiles4 ,for myself1  
,i avow boldly that in my eyes it would 
have been the first of rights1 and the  
holiest of duties2 and all that ,i      
desire to-day is that my profession of  

faith be understood4  ,society devours  
itself1--#a4 ,by the violent and        
periodical sacrifice of laborers3 this  
we have just seen1 and shall see again2 
#b4 ,by the stoppage of the producer's  
consumption caused by property4 ,these  
two modes of suicide are at first       
simultaneous2 but soon the first is     
given additional force by the second1   
famine uniting with usury to render     
labor at once more necessary and more   
scarce4  ,by the principles of commerce 
and political economy1 that an          
industrial enterprise may be successful1
 its product must furnish1--#a4 ,the    
interest on the capital employed2 #b4   
,means for the preservation of this     
capital2 #c4 ,the wages of all the      
employees and contractors4 ,further1 as 
large a profit as possible must be      
realized4  ,the financial shrewdness and
 rapacity of property is worthy of      
admiration4 ,each different name which  
increase takes affords the proprietor an
 opportunity to receive it1--#a4 ,in the

 form of interest2 #b4 ,in the form of  
profit4 ,for1 it says1 a part of the    
income derived from manufactures        
consists of interest on the capital     
employed4 ,if one hundred thousand      
francs have been invested in a          
manufacturing enterprise1 and in a      
year's time five thousand francs have   
been received therefrom in addition to  
the expenses1 there has been no profit1 
but only interest on the capital4 ,now1 
the proprietor is not a man to labor for
 nothing4 ,like the lion in the fable1  
he gets paid in each of his capacities2 
so that1 after he has been served1      
nothing is left for his associates4     
,ego primam tollo1 nominor quia leo4    
,secundam quia sum fortis tribuctis     
mihi4           ,tum quia plus valeo1 me
 sequetur tertia4           ,malo       
adficietur1 si quis quartam tetigerit4  
,i know nothing prettier than this      
fable4            ,i am the contractor4 
,i take the first share4            ,i  
am the laborer1 ,i take the second4     

,i am the capitalist1 ,i take the third4
            ,i am the proprietor1 ,i    
take the whole4   ,in four lines1       
,phaedrus has summed up all the forms of
 property4  ,i say that this interest1  
all the more then this profit1 is       
impossible4  ,what are laborers in      
relation to each other8 ,so many members
 of a large industrial society1 to each 
of whom is assigned a certain portion of
 the general production1 by the         
principle of the division of labor and  
functions4 ,suppose1 first1 that this   
society is composed of but three        
individuals1--a cattle-raiser1 a tanner1
 and a shoemaker4 ,the social industry1 
then1 is that of shoemaking4 ,if ,i     
should ask what ought to be each        
producer's share of the social product1 
the first schoolboy whom ,i should meet 
would answer1 by a rule of commerce and 
association1 that it should be          
one-third4 ,but it is not our duty here 
to balance the rights of laborers       
conventionally associated3 we have to   

prove that1 whether associated or not1  
our three workers are obliged to act as 
if they were2 that1 whether they will or
 no1 they are associated by the force of
 things1 by mathematical necessity4     
,three processes are required in the    
manufacture of shoes1--the rearing of   
cattle1 the preparation of their hides1 
and the cutting and sewing4 ,if the     
hide1 on leaving the farmer's stable1 is
 worth one1 it is worth two on leaving  
the tanner's pit1 and three on leaving  
the shoemaker's shop4 ,each laborer has 
produced a portion of the utility2 so   
that1 by adding all these portions      
together1 we get the value of the       
article4 ,to obtain any quantity        
whatever of this article1 each producer 
must pay1 then1 first for his own labor1
 and second for the labor of the other  
producers4 ,thus1 to obtain as many     
shoes as can be made from ten hides1 the
 farmer will give thirty raw hides1 and 
the tanner twenty tanned hides4 ,for1   
the shoes that are made from ten hides  

are worth thirty raw hides1 in          
consequence of the extra labor bestowed 
upon them2 just as twenty tanned hides  
are worth thirty raw hides1 on account  
of the tanner's labor4 ,but if the      
shoemaker demands thirty-three in the   
farmer's product1 or twenty-two in the  
tanner's1 for ten in his own1 there will
 be no exchange2 for1 if there were1 the
 farmer and the tanner1 after having    
paid the shoemaker ten for his labor1   
would have to pay eleven for that which 
they had themselves sold for            
ten1--which1 of course1 would be        
impossible4 #ah   ,well1 this is        
precisely what happens whenever an      
emolument of any kind is received2 be it
 called revenue1 farm-rent1 interest1 or
 profit4 ,in the little community of    
which we are speaking1 if the           
shoemaker--in order to procure tools1   
buy a stock of leather1 and support     
himself until he receives something from
 his investment--borrows money at       
interest1 it is clear that to pay this  

interest he will have to make a profit  
off the tanner and the farmer4 ,but as  
this profit is impossible unless fraud  
is used1 the interest will fall back    
upon the shoulders of the unfortunate   
shoemaker1 and ruin him4  ,i have       
imagined a case of unnatural simplicity4
 ,there is no human society but sustains
 more than three vocations4 ,the most   
uncivilized society supports numerous   
industries2 to-day1 the number of       
industrial functions 7,i mean by        
industrial functions all useful         
functions7 exceeds1 perhaps1 a thousand4
 ,however numerous the occupations1 the 
economic law remains the same1--,,that  
,,the ,,producer ,,may ,,live1 ,,his    
,,wages ,,must ,,repurchase ,,his       
,,product4   ,the economists cannot be  
ignorant of this rudimentary principle  
of their pretended science3 why1 then1  
do they so obstinately defend property1 
and inequality of wages1 and the        
legitimacy of usury1 and the honesty of 
profit1--all of which contradict the    

economic law1 and make exchange         
impossible8 ,a contractor pays one      
hundred thousand francs for raw         
material1 fifty thousand francs in      
wages1 and then expects to receive a    
product of two hundred thousand         
francs1--that is1 expects to make a     
profit on the material and on the labor 
of his employees2 but if the laborers   
and the purveyor of the material cannot1
 with their combined wages1 repurchase  
that which they have produced for the   
contractor1 how can they live8 ,i will  
develop my question4 ,here details      
become necessary4  ,if the workingman   
receives for his labor an average of    
three francs per day1 his employer 7in  
order to gain any thing beyond his own  
salary1 if only interest on his capital7
 must sell the day's labor of his       
employee1 in the form of merchandise1   
for more than three francs4 ,the        
workingman cannot1 then1 repurchase that
 which he has produced for his master4  
,it is thus with all trades whatsoever4 

,the tailor1 the hatter1 the            
cabinet-maker1 the blacksmith1 the      
tanner1 the mason1 the jeweller1 the    
printer1 the clerk1 c41 even to the     
farmer and wine-grower1 cannot          
repurchase their products2 since1       
producing for a master who in one form  
or another makes a profit1 they are     
obliged to pay more for their own labor 
than they get for it4  ,in ,france1     
twenty millions of laborers1 engaged in 
all the branches of science1 art1 and   
industry1 produce every thing which is  
useful to man4 ,their annual wages      
amount1 it is estimated to twenty       
thousand millions2 but1 in consequence  
of the right of property1 and the       
multifarious forms of increase1         
premiums1 tithes1 interests1 fines1     
profits1 farm-rents1 house-rents1       
revenues1 emoluments of every nature and
 description1 their products are        
estimated by the proprietors and        
employers at twenty-five thousand       
millions4 ,what does that signify8 ,that

 the laborers1 who are obliged to       
repurchase these products in order to   
live1 must either pay five for that     
which they produced for four1 or fast   
one day in five4  ,if there is an       
economist in ,france able to show that  
this calculation is false1 ,i summon him
 to appear2 and ,i promise to retract   
all that ,i have wrongfully and wickedly
 uttered in my attacks upon property4   
,let us now look at the results of this 
profit4  ,if the wages of the workingmen
 were the same in all pursuits1 the     
deficit caused by the proprietor's tax  
would be felt equally everywhere2 but   
also the cause of the evil would be so  
apparent1 that it would soon be         
discovered and suppressed4 ,but1 as     
there is the same inequality of wages   
7from that of the scavenger up to that  
of the minister of state7 as of         
property1 robbery continually rebounds  
from the stronger to the weaker2 so     
that1 since the laborer finds his       
hardships increase as he descends in the

 social scale1 the lowest class of      
people are literally stripped naked and 
eaten alive by the others4  ,the        
laboring people can buy neither the     
cloth which they weave1 nor the         
furniture which they manufacture1 nor   
the metal which they forge1 nor the     
jewels which they cut1 nor the prints   
which they engrave4 ,they can procure   
neither the wheat which they plant1 nor 
the wine which they grow1 nor the flesh 
of the animals which they raise4 ,they  
are allowed neither to dwell in the     
houses which they build1 nor to attend  
the plays which their labor supports1   
nor to enjoy the rest which their body  
requires4 ,and why8 ,because the right  
of increase does not permit these things
 to be sold at the cost-price1 which is 
all that laborers can afford to pay4 ,on
 the signs of those magnificent         
warehouses which he in his poverty      
admires1 the laborer reads in large     
letters3 ,this is thy work1 and thou    
shalt not have it4 ,sic vos non vobis6  

,every manufacturer who employs one     
thousand laborers1 and gains from them  
daily one sou each1 is slowly pushing   
them into a state of misery4 ,every man 
who makes a profit has entered into a   
conspiracy with famine4 ,but the whole  
nation has not even this labor1 by means
 of which property starves it4 ,and why8
 ,because the workers are forced by the 
insufficiency of their wages to         
monopolize labor2 and because1 before   
being destroyed by dearth1 they destroy 
each other by competition4 ,let us      
pursue this truth no further4  ,if the  
laborer's wages will not purchase his   
product1 it follows that the product is 
not made for the producer4 ,for whom1   
then1 is it intended8 ,for the richer   
consumer2 that is1 for only a fraction  
of society4 ,but when the whole society 
labors1 it produces for the whole       
society4 ,if1 then1 only a part of      
society consumes1 sooner or later a part
 of society will be idle4 ,now1 idleness
 is death1 as well for the laborer as   

for the proprietor4  ,this conclusion is
 inevitable4  ,the most distressing     
spectacle imaginable is the sight of    
producers resisting and struggling      
against this mathematical necessity1    
this power of figures to which their    
prejudices blind them4  ,if one hundred 
thousand printers can furnish           
reading-matter enough for thirty-four   
millions of men1 and if the price of    
books is so high that only one-third of 
that number can afford to buy them1 it  
is clear that these one hundred thousand
 printers will produce three times as   
much as the booksellers can sell4 ,that 
the products of the laborers may never  
exceed the demands of the consumers1 the
 laborers must either rest two days out 
of three1 or1 separating into three     
groups1 relieve each other three times a
 week1 month1 or quarter2 that is1      
during two-thirds of their life they    
must not live4 ,but industry1 under the 
influence of property1 does not proceed 
with such regularity4 ,it endeavors to  

produce a great deal in a short time1   
because the greater the amount of       
products1 and the shorter the time of   
production1 the less each product costs4
 ,as soon as a demand begins to be felt1
 the factories fill up1 and everybody   
goes to work4 ,then business is lively1 
and both governors and governed rejoice4
 ,but the more they work to-day1 the    
more idle will they be hereafter2 the   
more they laugh1 the more they shall    
weep4 ,under the rule of property1 the  
flowers of industry are woven into none 
but funeral wreaths4 ,the laborer digs  
his own grave4  ,if the factory stops   
running1 the manufacturer has to pay    
interest on his capital the same as     
before4 ,he naturally tries1 then1 to   
continue production by lessening        
expenses4 ,then comes the lowering of   
wages2 the introduction of machinery2   
the employment of women and children to 
do the work of men2 bad workmen1 and    
wretched work4 ,they still produce1     
because the decreased cost creates a    

larger market2 but they do not produce  
long1 because1 the cheapness being due  
to the quantity and rapidity of         
production1 the productive power tends  
more than ever to outstrip consumption4 
,it is when laborers1 whose wages are   
scarcely sufficient to support them from
 one day to another1 are thrown out of  
work1 that the consequences of the      
principle of property become most       
frightful4 ,they have not been able to  
economize1 they have made no savings1   
they have accumulated no capital        
whatever to support them even one day   
more4 ,today the factory is closed4     
,to-morrow the people starve in the     
streets4 ,day after tomorrow they will  
either die in the hospital1 or eat in   
the jail4  ,and still new misfortunes   
come to complicate this terrible        
situation4 ,in consequence of the       
cessation of business1 and the extreme  
cheapness of merchandise1 the           
manufacturer finds it impossible to pay 
the interest on his borrowed capital2   

whereupon his frightened creditors      
hasten to withdraw their funds4         
,production is suspended1 and labor     
comes to a standstill4 ,then people are 
astonished to see capital desert        
commerce1 and throw itself upon the     
,stock ,exchange2 and ,i once heard ,m4 
,blanqui bitterly lamenting the blind   
ignorance of capitalists4 ,the cause of 
this movement of capital is very simple2
 but for that very reason an economist  
could not understand it1 or rather must 
not explain it4 ,the cause lies solely  
in ,,competition4  ,i mean by           
competition1 not only the rivalry       
between two parties engaged in the same 
business1 but the general and           
simultaneous effort of all kinds of     
business to get ahead of each other4    
,this effort is to-day so strong1 that  
the price of merchandise scarcely covers
 the cost of production and             
distribution2 so that1 the wages of all 
laborers being lessened1 nothing        
remains1 not even interest for the      

capitalists4  ,the primary cause of     
commercial and industrial stagnations   
is1 then1 interest on capital1--that    
interest which the ancients with one    
accord branded with the name of usury1  
whenever it was paid for the use of     
money1 but which they did not dare to   
condemn in the forms of house-rent1     
farm-rent1 or profit3 as if the nature  
of the thing lent could ever warrant a  
charge for the lending2 that is1        
robbery4  ,in proportion to the increase
 received by the capitalist will be the 
frequency and intensity of commercial   
crises1--the first being given1 we      
always can determine the two others2 and
 vice versa4 ,do you wish to know the   
regulator of a society8 ,ascertain the  
amount of active capital2 that is1 the  
capital bearing interest1 and the legal 
rate of this interest4 ,the course of   
events will be a series of overturns1   
whose number and violence will be       
proportional to the activity of capital4
  ,in #ahci1 the number of failures in  

,paris alone was one thousand and       
sixty-four4 ,this proportion was kept up
 in the early months of #ahdj2 and1 as  
,i write these lines1 the crisis is not 
yet ended4 ,it is said1 further1 that   
the number of houses which have wound up
 their business is greater than the     
number of declared failures4 ,by this   
flood1 we may judge of the waterspout's 
power of suction4  ,the decimation of   
society is now imperceptible and        
permanent1 now periodical and violent2  
it depends upon the course which        
property takes4 ,in a country where the 
property is pretty evenly distributed1  
and where little business is done1--the 
rights and claims of each being balanced
 by those of others1--the power of      
invasion is destroyed4 ,there--it may be
 truly said--property does not exist1   
since the right of increase is scarcely 
exercised at all4 ,the condition of the 
laborers--as regards security of        
life--is almost the same as if absolute 
equality prevailed among them4 ,they are

 deprived of all the advantages of full 
and free association1 but their         
existence is not endangered in the      
least4 ,with the exception of a few     
isolated victims of the right of        
property--of this misfortune whose      
primary cause no one perceives--the     
society appears to rest calmly in the   
bosom of this sort of equality4 ,but    
have a care2 it is balanced on the edge 
of a sword3 at the slightest shock1 it  
will fall and meet with death6          
,ordinarily1 the whirlpool of property  
localizes itself4 ,on the one hand1     
farm-rent stops at a certain point2 on  
the other1 in consequence of competition
 and over-production1 the price of      
manufactured goods does not rise1--so   
that the condition of the peasant varies
 but little1 and depends mainly on the  
seasons4 ,the devouring action of       
property bears1 then1 principally upon  
business4 ,we commonly say ,,commercial 
,,crises1 not ,,agricultural ,,crises2  
because1 while the farmer is eaten up   

slowly by the right of increase1 the    
manufacturer is swallowed at a single   
mouthful4 ,this leads to the cessation  
of business1 the destruction of         
fortunes1 and the inactivity of the     
working people2 who die one after       
another on the highways1 and in the     
hospitals1 prisons1 and galleys4  ,to   
sum up this proposition3--  ,property   
sells products to the laborer for more  
than it pays him for them2 therefore it 
is impossible4    ,,appendix ,,to ,,the 
,,fifth ,,proposition4   ,i4 ,certain   
reformers1 and even the most of the     
publicists--who1 though belonging to no 
particular school1 busy themselves in   
devising means for the amelioration of  
the lot of the poorer and more numerous 
class--lay much stress now-a-days on a  
better organization of labor4 ,the      
disciples of ,fourier1 especially1 never
 stop shouting1 ,,on ,,to ,,the         
,,phalanx6 declaiming in the same breath
 against the foolishness and absurdity  
of other sects4  ,they consist of       

half-a-dozen incomparable geniuses who  
have discovered that ,,five ,,and ,,four
 ,,make ,,nine2 ,,take ,,two ,,away1    
,,and ,,nine ,,remain1--and who weep    
over the blindness of ,france1 who      
refuses to believe in this astonishing  
arithmetic4#a  #a ,fourier1 having to   
multiply a whole number by a fraction1  
never failed1 they say1 to obtain a     
product much greater than the           
multiplicand4 ,he affirmed that under   
his system of harmony the mercury would 
solidify when the temperature was above 
zero4 ,he might as well have said that  
the ,harmonians would make burning ice4 
,i once asked an intelligent            
phalansterian what he thought of such   
physics4 ,i do not know1 he answered2   
but ,i believe4 ,and yet the same man   
disbelieved in the doctrine of the ,real
 ,presence4   ,in fact1 the ,fourierists
 proclaim themselves1 on the one hand1  
defenders of property1 of the right of  
increase1 which they have thus          
formulated3 ,,to ,,each ,,according ,,to

 ,,his ,,capital1 ,,his ,,labor1 ,,and  
,,his ,,skill4 ,on the other hand1 they 
wish the workingman to come into the    
enjoyment of all the wealth of society2 
that is1--abridging the                 
expression1--into the undivided         
enjoyment of his own product4 ,is not   
this like saying to the workingman1     
,labor1 you shall have three francs per 
day2 you shall live on fifty-five sous2 
you shall give the rest to the          
proprietor1 and thus you will consume   
three francs8  ,if the above speech is  
not an exact epitome of ,charles        
,fourier's system1 ,i will subscribe to 
the whole phalansterian folly with a pen
 dipped in my own blood4  ,of what use  
is it to reform industry and            
agriculture1--of what use1 indeed1 to   
labor at all1--if property is           
maintained1 and labor can never meet its
 expenses8 ,without the abolition of    
property1 the organization of labor is  
neither more nor less than a delusion4  
,if production should be quadrupled1--a 

thing which does not seem to me at all  
impossible1--it would be labor lost3 if 
the additional product was not consumed1
 it would be of no value1 and the       
proprietor would decline to receive it  
as interest2 if it was consumed1 all the
 disadvantages of property would        
reappear4 ,it must be confessed that the
 theory of passional attraction is      
gravely at fault in this particular1 and
 that ,fourier1 when he tried to        
harmonize the ,,passion for property1--a
 bad passion1 whatever he may say to the
 contrary1--blocked his own             
chariot-wheels4  ,the absurdity of the  
phalansterian economy is so gross1 that 
many people suspect ,fourier1 in spite  
of all the homage paid by him to        
proprietors1 of having been a secret    
enemy of property4 ,this opinion might  
be supported by plausible arguments2    
still it is not mine4 ,charlatanism was 
too important a part for such a man to  
play1 and sincerity too insignificant a 
one4 ,i would rather think ,fourier     

ignorant 7which is generally admitted7  
than disingenuous4 ,as for his          
disciples1 before they can formulate any
 opinion of their own1 they must declare
 once for all1 unequivocally and with no
 mental reservation1 whether they mean  
to maintain property or not1 and what   
they mean by their famous motto1--,to   
each according to his capital1 his      
labor1 and his skill4  ,,ii4 ,but1 some 
half-converted proprietor will observe1 
,would it not be possible1 by           
suppressing the bank1 incomes1          
farm-rent1 house-rent1 usury of all     
kinds1 and finally property itself1 to  
proportion products to capacities8 ,that
 was ,st4 ,simon's idea2 it was also    
,fourier's2 it is the desire of the     
human conscience2 and no decent person  
would dare maintain that a minister of  
state should live no better than a      
peasant4  ,o ,midas6 your ears are long6
 ,what6 will you never understand that  
disparity of wages and the right of     
increase are one and the same8          

,certainly1 ,st4 ,simon1 ,fourier1 and  
their respective flocks committed a     
serious blunder in attempting to unite1 
the one1 inequality and communism2 the  
other1 inequality and property3 but you1
 a man of figures1 a man of             
economy1--you1 who know by heart your   
,,logarithmic tables1--how can you make 
so stupid a mistake8  ,does not         
political economy itself teach you that 
the product of a man1 whatever be his   
individual capacity1 is never worth more
 than his labor1 and that a man's labor 
is worth no more than his consumption8  
,you remind me of that great            
constitution-framer1 poor               
,pinheiro-,ferreira1 the ,sieyes of the 
nineteenth century1 who1 dividing the   
citizens of a nation into twelve        
classes1--or1 if you prefer1 into twelve
 grades1--assigned to some a salary of  
one hundred thousand francs each2 to    
others1 eighty thousand2 then           
twenty-five thousand1 fifteen thousand1 
ten thousand1 c41 down to one thousand  

five hundred1 and one thousand francs1  
the minimum allowance of a citizen4     
,pinheiro loved distinctions1 and could 
no more conceive of a ,state without    
great dignitaries than of an army       
without drum-majors2 and as he also     
loved1 or thought he loved1 liberty1    
equality1 and fraternity1 he combined   
the good and the evil of our old society
 in an eclectic philosophy which he     
embodied in a constitution4 ,excellent  
,pinheiro6 ,liberty even to passive     
submission1 fraternity even to identity 
of language1 equality even in the       
jury-box and at the guillotine1--such   
was his ideal republic4 ,unappreciated  
genius1 of whom the present century was 
unworthy1 but whom the future will      
avenge6  ,listen1 proprietor4           
,inequality of talent exists in fact2 in
 right it is not admissible1 it goes for
 nothing1 it is not thought of4 ,one    
,newton in a century is equal to thirty 
millions of men2 the psychologist       
admires the rarity of so fine a genius1 

the legislator sees only the rarity of  
the function4 ,now1 rarity of function  
bestows no privilege upon the           
functionary2 and that for several       
reasons1 all equally forcible4  #a4     
,rarity of genius was not1 in the       
,creator's design1 a motive to compel   
society to go down on its knees before  
the man of superior talents1 but a      
providential means for the performance  
of all functions to the greatest        
advantage of all4  #b4 ,talent is a     
creation of society rather than a gift  
of ,nature2 it is an accumulated        
capital1 of which the receiver is only  
the guardian4 ,without society1--without
 the education and powerful assistance  
which it furnishes1--the finest nature  
would be inferior to the most ordinary  
capacities in the very respect in which 
it ought to shine4 ,the more extensive a
 man's knowledge1 the more luxuriant his
 imagination1 the more versatile his    
talent1--the more costly has his        
education been1 the more remarkable and 

numerous were his teachers and his      
models1 and the greater is his debt4    
,the farmer produces from the time that 
he leaves his cradle until he enters his
 grave3 the fruits of art and science   
are late and scarce2 frequently the tree
 dies before the fruit ripens4 ,society1
 in cultivating talent1 makes a         
sacrifice to hope4  #c4 ,capacities have
 no common standard of comparison3 the  
conditions of development being equal1  
inequality of talent is simply          
speciality of talent4  #d4 ,inequality  
of wages1 like the right of increase1 is
 economically impossible4 ,take the most
 favorable case1--that where each       
laborer has furnished his maximum       
production2 that there may be an        
equitable distribution of products1 the 
share of each must be equal to the      
quotient of the total production divided
 by the number of laborers4 ,this done1 
what remains wherewith to pay the higher
 wages8 ,nothing whatever4  ,will it be 
said that all laborers should be taxed8 

,but1 then1 their consumption will not  
be equal to their production1 their     
wages will not pay for their productive 
service1 they will not be able to       
repurchase their product1 and we shall  
once more be afflicted with all the     
calamities of property4 ,i do not speak 
of the injustice done to the defrauded  
laborer1 of rivalry1 of excited         
ambition1 and burning hatred1--these may
 all be important considerations1 but   
they do not hit the point4  ,on the one 
hand1 each laborer's task being short   
and easy1 and the means for its         
successful accomplishment being equal in
 all cases1 how could there be large and
 small producers8 ,on the other hand1   
all functions being equal1 either on    
account of the actual equivalence of    
talents and capacities1 or on account of
 social co-operation1 how could a       
functionary claim a salary proportional 
to the worth of his genius8  ,but1 what 
do ,i say8 ,in equality wages are always
 proportional to talents4 ,what is the  

economical meaning of wages8 ,the       
reproductive consumption of the laborer4
 ,the very act by which the laborer     
produces constitutes1 then1 this        
consumption1 exactly equal to his       
production1 of which we are speaking4   
,when the astronomer produces           
observations1 the poet verses1 or the   
savant experiments1 they consume        
instruments1 books1 travels1 c41 c42    
now1 if society supplies this           
consumption1 what more can the          
astronomer1 the savant1 or the poet     
demand8 ,we must conclude1 then1 that in
 equality1 and only in equality1 ,st4   
,simon's adage--,,to ,,each ,,according 
,,to ,,his ,,capacity ,,to ,,each       
,,capacity ,,according ,,to ,,its       
,,results--finds its full and complete  
application4  ,,iii4 ,the great         
evil--the horrible and ever-present     
evil--arising from property1 is that1   
while property exists1 population1      
however reduced1 is1 and always must be1
 over-abundant4 ,complaints have been   

made in all ages of the excess of       
population2 in all ages property has    
been embarrassed by the presence of     
pauperism1 not perceiving that it caused
 it4 ,further1--nothing is more curious 
than the diversity of the plans proposed
 for its extermination4 ,their atrocity 
is equalled only by their absurdity4    
,the ancients made a practice of        
abandoning their children4 ,the         
wholesale and retail slaughter of       
slaves1 civil and foreign wars1 also    
lent their aid4 ,in ,rome 7where        
property held full sway71 these three   
means were employed so effectively1 and 
for so long a time1 that finally the    
empire found itself without inhabitants4
 ,when the barbarians arrived1 nobody   
was to be found2 the fields were no     
longer cultivated2 grass grew in the    
streets of the ,italian cities4  ,in    
,china1 from time immemorial1 upon      
famine alone has devolved the task of   
sweeping away the poor4 ,the people     
living almost exclusively upon rice1 if 

an accident causes the crop to fail1 in 
a few days hunger kills the inhabitants 
by myriads2 and the ,chinese historian  
records in the annals of the empire1    
that in such a year of such an emperor  
twenty1 thirty1 fifty1 one hundred      
thousand inhabitants died of starvation4
 ,then they bury the dead1 and          
recommence the production of children   
until another famine leads to the same  
result4 ,such appears to have been1 in  
all ages1 the ,confucian economy4  ,i   
borrow the following facts from a modern
 economist3--   ,since the fourteenth   
and fifteenth centuries1 ,england has   
been preyed upon by pauperism4 ,at that 
time beggars were punished by law4      
,nevertheless1 she had not one-fourth as
 large a population as she has to-day4  
,edward prohibits alms-giving1 on pain  
of imprisonment4444 ,the laws of #aedg  
and #afef prescribe a like punishment1  
in case of a second offence4 ,elizabeth 
orders that each parish shall support   
its own paupers4 ,but what is a pauper8 

,charles ,,ii4 decides that an          
,,undisputed residence of forty days    
constitutes a settlement in a parish2   
but1 if disputed1 the new-comer is      
forced to pack off4 ,james ,,ii4        
modifies this decision1 which is again  
modified by ,william4 ,in the midst of  
trials1 reports1 and modifications1     
pauperism increases1 and the workingman 
languishes and dies4  ,the poor-tax in  
#aggd exceeded forty millions of francs2
 in #aghc-d-e1 it averaged fifty-three  
millions2 #ahac1 more than a hundred and
 eighty-seven millions five hundred     
thousand francs2 #ahaf1 two hundred and 
fifty millions2 in #ahag1 it is         
estimated at three hundred and seventeen
 millions4  ,in #ahba1 the number of    
paupers enrolled upon the parish lists  
was estimated at four millions1 nearly  
one-third of the population4  ,,france4 
,in #aedd1 ,francis ,i4 establishes a   
compulsory tax in behalf of the poor4   
,in #aeff and #aehf1 the same principle 
is applied to the whole kingdom4  ,under

 ,louis ,,xiv41 forty thousand paupers  
infested the capital as many in         
proportion as to-day4 ,mendicity was    
punished severely4 ,in #agdj1 the       
,parliament of ,paris re-establishes    
within its own jurisdiction the         
compulsory assessment4  ,the            
,constituent ,assembly1 frightened at   
the extent of the evil and the          
difficulty of curing it1 ordains the    
statu quo4  ,the ,convention proclaims  
assistance of the poor to be a          
,,national ,,debt4 ,its law remains     
unexecuted4  ,napoleon also wishes to   
remedy the evil3 his idea is            
imprisonment4 ',in that way1' said he1  
',i shall protect the rich from the     
importunity of beggars1 and shall       
relieve them of the disgusting sight of 
abject poverty4' ,o wonderful man6      
,from these facts1 which ,i might       
multiply still farther1 two things are  
to be inferred1--the one1 that pauperism
 is independent of population2 the      
other1 that all attempts hitherto made  

at its extermination have proved        
abortive4  ,catholicism founds hospitals
 and convents1 and commands charity2    
that is1 she encourages mendicity4 ,that
 is the extent of her insight as voiced 
by her priests4  ,the secular power of  
,christian nations now orders taxes on  
the rich1 now banishment and            
imprisonment for the poor2 that is1 on  
the one hand1 violation of the right of 
property1 and1 on the other1 civil death
 and murder4  ,the modern               
economists--thinking that pauperism is  
caused by the excess of population1     
exclusively--have devoted themselves to 
devising checks4 ,some wish to prohibit 
the poor from marrying2 thus1--having   
denounced religious celibacy1--they     
propose compulsory celibacy1 which will 
inevitably become licentious celibacy4  
,others do not approve this method1     
which they deem too violent2 and which1 
they say1 deprives the poor man of ,,the
 ,,only ,,pleasure ,,which ,,he ,,knows 
,,in ,,this ,,world4 ,they would simply 

recommend him to be ,,prudent4 ,this    
opinion is held by ,malthus1 ,sismondi1 
,say1 ,droz1 ,duchatel1 c4 ,but if the  
poor are to be ,,prudent1 the rich must 
set the example4 ,why should the        
marriageable age of the latter be fixed 
at eighteen years1 while that of the    
former is postponed until thirty8       
,again1 they would do well to explain   
clearly what they mean by this          
matrimonial prudence which they so      
urgently recommend to the laborer2 for  
here equivocation is especially         
dangerous1 and ,i suspect that the      
economists are not thoroughly           
understood4 ,some half-enlightened      
ecclesiastics are alarmed when they hear
 prudence in marriage advised2 they fear
 that the divine injunction--,,increase 
,,and ,,multiply--is to be set aside4   
,to be logical1 they must anathematize  
bachelors4 7,j4 ,droz3 ,political       
,economy47  ,m4 ,droz is too honest a   
man1 and too little of a theologian1 to 
see why these casuists are so alarmed2  

and this chaste ignorance is the very   
best evidence of the purity of his      
heart4 ,religion never has encouraged   
early marriages2 and the kind of        
,,prudence which it condemns is that    
described in this ,latin sentence from  
,sanchez1--,an licet ob metum liberorum 
semen extra vas ejicere8  ,destutt de   
,tracy seems to dislike prudence in     
either form4 ,he says3 ,i confess that  
,i no more share the desire of the      
moralists to diminish and restrain our  
pleasures1 than that of the politicians 
to increase our procreative powers1 and 
accelerate reproduction4 ,he believes1  
then1 that we should love and marry when
 and as we please4 ,widespread misery   
results from love and marriage1 but this
 our philosopher does not heed4 ,true to
 the dogma of the necessity of evil1 to 
evil he looks for the solution of all   
problems4 ,he adds3 ,the multiplication 
of men continuing in all classes of     
society1 the surplus members of the     
upper classes are supported by the lower

 classes1 and those of the latter are   
destroyed by poverty4 ,this philosophy  
has few avowed partisans2 but it has    
over every other the indisputable       
advantage of demonstration in practice4 
,not long since ,france heard it        
advocated in the ,chamber of ,deputies1 
in the course of the discussion on the  
electoral reform1--,,poverty ,,will     
,,always ,,exist4 ,that is the political
 aphorism with which the minister of    
state ground to powder the arguments of 
,m4 ,arago4 ,,poverty ,,will ,,always   
,,exist6 ,yes1 so long as property does4
  ,the ,fourierists--,,inventors of so  
many marvellous contrivances--could not1
 in this field1 belie their character4  
,they invented four methods of checking 
increase of population at will4  #a4    
,,the ,,vigor ,,of ,,women4 ,on this    
point they are contradicted by          
experience2 for1 although vigorous women
 may be less likely to conceive1        
nevertheless they give birth to the     
healthiest children2 so that the        

advantage of maternity is on their side4
  #b4 ,,integral ,,exercise1 or the     
equal development of all the physical   
powers4 ,if this development is equal1  
how is the power of reproduction        
lessened8  #c4 ,,the ,,gastronomic      
,,regime2 or1 in plain ,english1 the    
philosophy of the belly4 ,the           
,fourierists say1 that abundance of rich
 food renders women sterile2 just as too
 much sap--while enhancing the beauty of
 flowers--destroys their reproductive   
capacity4 ,but the analogy is a false   
one4 ,flowers become sterile when the   
stamens--or male organs--are changed    
into petals1 as may be seen by          
inspecting a rose2 and when through     
excessive dampness the pollen loses its 
fertilizing power4 ,then1--in order that
 the gastronomic regime may produce the 
results claimed for it1--not only must  
the females be fattened1 but the males  
must be rendered impotent4  #d4         
,,phanerogamic ,,morality1 or public    
concubinage4 ,i know not why the        

phalansterians use ,greek words to      
convey ideas which can be expressed so  
clearly in ,french4 ,this method--like  
the preceding one--is copied from       
civilized customs4 ,fourier1 himself1   
cites the example of prostitutes as a   
proof4 ,now we have no certain knowledge
 yet of the facts which he quotes4 ,so  
states ,parent ,duchatelet in his work  
on ,prostitution4  ,from all the        
information which ,i have been able to  
gather1 ,i find that all the remedies   
for pauperism and fecundity--sanctioned 
by universal practice1 philosophy1      
political economy1 and the latest       
reformers--may be summed up in the      
following list3 masturbation1 onanism1  
#ai sodomy1 tribadie1 polyandry1 #bj    
prostitution1 castration1 continence1   
abortion1 and infanticide4 #ba   ,all   
these methods being proved inadequate1  
there remains proscription4             
,unfortunately1 proscription1 while     
decreasing the number of the poor1      
increases their proportion4 ,if the     

interest charged by the proprietor upon 
the product is equal only to            
one-twentieth of the product 7by law it 
is equal to one-twentieth of the        
capital71 it follows that twenty        
laborers produce for nineteen only2     
because there is one among them1 called 
proprietor1 who eats the share of two4  
,suppose that the twentieth laborer--the
 poor one--is killed3 the production of 
the following year will be diminished   
one-twentieth2 consequently the         
nineteenth will have to yield his       
portion1 and perish4 ,for1 since it is  
not one-twentieth of the product of     
nineteen which must be paid to the      
proprietor1 but one-twentieth of the    
product of twenty 7see third            
proposition71 each surviving laborer    
must sacrifice one-twentieth ,,plus one 
four-hundredth of his product2 in other 
words1 one man out of nineteen must be  
killed4 ,therefore1 while property      
exists1 the more poor people we kill1   
the more there are born in proportion4  

,malthus1 who proved so clearly that    
population increases in geometrical     
progression1 while production increases 
only in arithmetical progression1 did   
not notice this ,,pauperizing power of  
property4 ,had he observed this1 he     
would have understood that1 before      
trying to check reproduction1 the right 
of increase should be abolished2        
because1 wherever that right is         
tolerated1 there are always too many    
inhabitants1 whatever the extent or     
fertility of the soil4  ,it will be     
asked1 perhaps1 how ,i would maintain a 
balance between population and          
production2 for sooner or later this    
problem must be solved4 ,the reader will
 pardon me1 if ,i do not give my method 
here4 ,for1 in my opinion1 it is useless
 to say a thing unless we prove it4     
,now1 to explain my method fully would  
require no less than a formal treatise4 
,it is a thing so simple and so vast1 so
 common and so extraordinary1 so true   
and so misunderstood1 so sacred and so  

profane1 that to name it without        
developing and proving it would serve   
only to excite contempt and incredulity4
 ,one thing at a time4 ,let us establish
 equality1 and this remedy will soon    
appear2 for truths follow each other1   
just as crimes and errors do4    ,,sixth
 ,,proposition4  ,property is           
impossible1 because it is the ,mother of
 ,tyranny4   ,what is government8       
,government is public economy1 the      
supreme administrative power over public
 works and national possessions4  ,now1 
the nation is like a vast society in    
which all the citizens are stockholders4
 ,each one has a deliberative voice in  
the assembly2 and1 if the shares are    
equal1 has one vote at his disposal4    
,but1 under the regime of property1     
there is great inequality between the   
shares of the stockholders2 therefore1  
one may have several hundred votes1     
while another has only one4 ,if1 for    
example1 ,i enjoy an income of one      
million2 that is1 if ,i am the          

proprietor of a fortune of thirty or    
forty millions well invested1 and if    
this fortune constitutes #a_/cjjjj of   
the national capital1--it is clear that 
the public administration of my property
 would form #a_/cjjjj of the duties of  
the government2 and1 if the nation had a
 population of thirty-four millions1    
that ,i should have as many votes as one
 thousand one hundred and thirty-three  
simple stockholders4  ,thus1 when ,m4   
,arago demands the right of suffrage for
 all members of the ,national ,guard1 he
 is perfectly right2 since every citizen
 is enrolled for at least one national  
share1 which entitles him to one vote4  
,but the illustrious orator ought at the
 same time to demand that each elector  
shall have as many votes as he has      
shares2 as is the case in commercial    
associations4 ,for to do otherwise is to
 pretend that the nation has a right to 
dispose of the property of individuals  
without consulting them2 which is       
contrary to the right of property4 ,in a

 country where property exists1 equality
 of electoral rights is a violation of  
property4  ,now1 if each citizen's      
sovereignty must and ought to be        
proportional to his property1 it follows
 that the small stock holders are at the
 mercy of the larger ones2 who will1 as 
soon as they choose1 make slaves of the 
former1 marry them at pleasure1 take    
from them their wives1 castrate their   
sons1 prostitute their daughters1 throw 
the aged to the sharks1--and finally    
will be forced to serve themselves in   
the same way1 unless they prefer to tax 
themselves for the support of their     
servants4 ,in such a condition is ,great
 ,britain to-day4 ,john ,bull--caring   
little for liberty1 equality1 or        
dignity--prefers to serve and beg4 ,but 
you1 bonhomme ,jacques8  ,property is   
incompatible with political and civil   
equality2 then property is impossible4  
,,historical ,,comments4--#a4 ,when the 
vote of the third estate was doubled by 
the ,states-,general of #aghi1 property 

was grossly violated4 ,the nobility and 
the clergy possessed three-fourths of   
the soil of ,france2 they should have   
controlled three-fourths of the votes in
 the national representation4 ,to double
 the vote of the third estate was just1 
it is said1 since the people paid nearly
 all the taxes4 ,this argument would be 
sound1 if there were nothing to be voted
 upon but taxes4 ,but it was a question 
at that time of reforming the government
 and the constitution2 consequently1 the
 doubling of the vote of the third      
estate was a usurpation1 and an attack  
on property4  #b4 ,if the present       
representatives of the radical          
opposition should come into power1 they 
would work a reform by which every      
,national ,guard should be an elector1  
and every elector eligible for          
office1--an attack on property4  ,they  
would lower the rate of interest on     
public funds1--an attack on property4   
,they would1 in the interest of the     
public1 pass laws to regulate the       

exportation of cattle and wheat1--an    
attack on property4  ,they would alter  
the assessment of taxes1--an attack on  
property4  ,they would educate the      
people gratuitously1--a conspiracy      
against property4  ,they would organize 
labor2 that is1 they would guarantee    
labor to the workingman1 and give him a 
share in the profits1--the abolition of 
property4  ,now1 these same radicals are
 zealous defenders of property1--a      
radical proof that they know not what   
they do1 nor what they wish4  #c4 ,since
 property is the grand cause of         
privilege and despotism1 the form of the
 republican oath should be changed4     
,instead of1 ,i swear hatred to royalty1
 henceforth the new member of a secret  
society should say1 ,i swear hatred to  
property4    ,,seventh ,,proposition4   
,property is impossible1 because1 in    
consuming its ,receipts1 it loses them2 
in hoarding them1 it nullifies them2 and
 in using them as ,capital1 it turns    
them against ,production4  ,i4 ,if1 with

 the economists1 we consider the laborer
 as a living machine1 we must regard the
 wages paid to him as the amount        
necessary to support this machine1 and  
keep it in repair4 ,the head of a       
manufacturing establishment--who employs
 laborers at three1 five1 ten1 and      
fifteen francs per day1 and who charges 
twenty francs for his                   
superintendence--does not regard his    
disbursements as losses1 because he     
knows they will return to him in the    
form of products4 ,consequently1 ,,labor
 and ,,reproductive ,,consumption are   
identical4  ,what is the proprietor8 ,he
 is a machine which does not work2 or1  
which working for its own pleasure1 and 
only when it sees fit1 produces nothing4
  ,what is it to consume as a           
proprietor8 ,it is to consume without   
working1 to consume without reproducing4
 ,for1 once more1 that which the        
proprietor consumes as a laborer comes  
back to him2 he does not give his labor 
in exchange for his property1 since1 if 

he did1 he would thereby cease to be a  
proprietor4 ,in consuming as a laborer1 
the proprietor gains1 or at least does  
not lose1 since he recovers that which  
he consumes2 in consuming as a          
proprietor1 he impoverishes himself4 ,to
 enjoy property1 then1 it is necessary  
to destroy it2 to be a real proprietor1 
one must cease to be a proprietor4  ,the
 laborer who consumes his wages is a    
machine which destroys and reproduces2  
the proprietor who consumes his income  
is a bottomless gulf1--sand which we    
water1 a stone which we sow4 ,so true is
 this1 that the proprietor--neither     
wishing nor knowing how to produce1 and 
perceiving that as fast as he uses his  
property he destroys it for ever--has   
taken the precaution to make some one   
produce in his place4 ,that is what     
political economy1 speaking in the name 
of eternal justice1 calls ,,producing   
,,by ,,his ,,capital1--,,producing ,,by 
,,his ,,tools4 ,and that is what ought  
to be called ,,producing ,,by ,a        

,,slave--,,producing ,,as ,a ,,thief    
,,and ,,as ,a ,,tyrant4 ,he1 the        
proprietor1 produce6444 ,the robber     
might say1 as well3 ,i produce4  ,the   
consumption of the proprietor has been  
styled luxury1 in opposition to ,,useful
 consumption4 ,from what has just been  
said1 we see that great luxury can      
prevail in a nation which is not        
rich1--that poverty even increases with 
luxury1 and vice versa4 ,the economists 
7so much credit must be given them1 at  
least7 have caused such a horror of     
luxury1 that to-day a very large number 
of proprietors--not to say almost       
all--ashamed of their idleness--labor1  
economize1 and capitalize4 ,they have   
jumped from the frying-pan into the     
fire4  ,i cannot repeat it too often3   
the proprietor who thinks to deserve his
 income by working1 and who receives    
wages for his labor1 is a functionary   
who gets paid twice2 that is the only   
difference between an idle proprietor   
and a laboring proprietor4 ,by his      

labor1 the proprietor produces his wages
 only--not his income4 ,and since his   
condition enables him to engage in the  
most lucrative pursuits1 it may be said 
that the proprietor's labor harms       
society more than it helps it4 ,whatever
 the proprietor does1 the consumption of
 his income is an actual loss1 which his
 salaried functions neither repair nor  
justify2 and which would annihilate     
property1 were it not continually       
replenished by outside production4      
,,ii4 ,then1 the proprietor who consumes
 annihilates the product3 he does much  
worse if he lays it up4 ,the things     
which he lays by pass into another      
world2 nothing more is seen of them1 not
 even the caput mortuum1--the smoke4 ,if
 we had some means of transportation by 
which to travel to the moon1 and if the 
proprietors should be seized with a     
sudden fancy to carry their savings     
thither1 at the end of a certain time   
our terraqueous planet would be         
transported by them to its satellite6   

,the proprietor who lays up products    
will neither allow others to enjoy them1
 nor enjoy them himself2 for him there  
is neither possession nor property4     
,like the miser1 he broods over his     
treasures3 he does not use them4 ,he may
 feast his eyes upon them2 he may lie   
down with them2 he may sleep with them  
in his arms3 all very fine1 but coins do
 not breed coins4 ,no real property     
without enjoyment2 no enjoyment without 
consumption2 no consumption without loss
 of property1--such is the inflexible   
necessity to which ,god's judgment      
compels the proprietor to bend4 ,a curse
 upon property6  ,,iii4 ,the proprietor 
who1 instead of consuming his income1   
uses it as capital1 turns it against    
production1 and thereby makes it        
impossible for him to exercise his      
right4 ,for the more he increases the   
amount of interest to be paid upon it1  
the more he is compelled to diminish    
wages4 ,now1 the more he diminishes     
wages1--that is1 the less he devotes to 

the maintenance and repair of the       
machines1--the more he diminishes the   
quantity of labor2 and with the quantity
 of labor the quantity of product1 and  
with the quantity of product the very   
source of his income4 ,this is clearly  
shown by the following example3--  ,take
 an estate consisting of arable land1   
meadows1 and vineyards1 containing the  
dwellings of the owner and the tenant2  
and worth1 together with the farming    
implements1 one hundred thousand francs1
 the rate of increase being three per   
cent4 ,if1 instead of consuming his     
revenue1 the proprietor uses it1 not in 
enlarging but in beautifying his estate1
 can he annually demand of his tenant an
 additional ninety francs on account of 
the three thousand francs which he has  
thus added to his capital8 ,certainly   
not2 for on such conditions the tenant1 
though producing no more than before1   
would soon be obliged to labor for      
nothing1--what do ,i say8 to actually   
suffer loss in order to hold his lease4 

,in fact1 revenue can increase only as  
productive soil increases3 it is useless
 to build walls of marble1 and work with
 plows of gold4 ,but1 since it is       
impossible to go on acquiring for ever1 
to add estate to estate1 to ,,continue  
,,one',s ,,possessions1 as the ,latins  
said2 and since1 moreover1 the          
proprietor always has means wherewith to
 capitalize1--it follows that the       
exercise of his right finally becomes   
impossible4  ,well1 in spite of this    
impossibility1 property capitalizes1 and
 in capitalizing increases its revenue2 
and1 without stopping to look at the    
particular cases which occur in         
commerce1 manufacturing operations1 and 
banking1 ,i will cite a graver          
fact1--one which directly affects all   
citizens4 ,i mean the indefinite        
increase of the budget4  ,the taxes     
increase every year4 ,it would be       
difficult to tell in which department of
 the government the expenses increase2  
for who can boast of any knowledge as to

 the budget8 ,on this point1 the ablest 
financiers continually disagree4 ,what  
is to be thought1 ,i ask1 of the science
 of government1 when its professors     
cannot understand one another's figures8
 ,whatever be the immediate causes of   
this growth of the budget1 it is certain
 that taxation increases at a rate which
 causes everybody to despair4 ,everybody
 sees it1 everybody acknowledges it2 but
 nobody seems to understand the primary 
cause4#a ,now1 ,i say that it cannot be 
otherwise1--that it is necessary and    
inevitable4  #a ,the financial situation
 of the ,english government was shown up
 in the ,house of ,lords during the     
session of ,january #bc4 ,it is not an  
encouraging one4 ,for several years the 
expenses have exceeded the receipts1 and
 the ,minister has been able to         
re-establish the balance only by loans  
renewed annually4 ,the combined deficits
 of the years #ahch and #ahci amount to 
forty-seven million five hundred        
thousand francs4 ,in #ahdj1 the excess  

of expenses over receipts is expected to
 be twenty-two million five hundred     
thousand francs4 ,attention was called  
to these figures by ,lord ,ripon4 ,lord 
,melbourne replied3 ',the noble earl    
unhappily was right in declaring that   
the public expenses continually         
increase1 and with him ,i must say that 
there is no room for hope that they can 
be diminished or met in any             
way4'--,national3 ,january #bf1 #ahdj4  
,a nation is the tenant of a rich       
proprietor called the ,,government1 to  
whom it pays1 for the use of the soil1 a
 farm-rent called a tax4 ,whenever the  
government makes war1 loses or gains a  
battle1 changes the outfit of its army1 
erects a monu-ment1 digs a canal1 opens 
a road1 or builds a railway1 it borrows 
money1 on which the tax-payers pay      
interest2 that is1 the government1      
without adding to its productive        
capacity1 increases its active          
capital1--in a word1 capitalizes after  
the manner of the proprietor of whom ,i 

have just spoken4  ,now1 when a         
governmental loan is once contracted1   
and the interest is once stipulated1 the
 budget cannot be reduced4 ,for1 to     
accomplish that1 either the capitalists 
must relinquish their interest1 which   
would involve an abandonment of         
property2 or the government must go into
 bankruptcy1 which would be a fraudulent
 denial of the political principle2 or  
it must pay the debt1 which would       
require another loan2 or it must reduce 
expenses1 which is impossible1 since the
 loan was contracted for the sole reason
 that the ordinary receipts were        
insufficient2 or the money expended by  
the government must be reproductive1    
which requires an increase of productive
 capacity1--a condition excluded by our 
hypothesis2 or1 finally1 the tax-payers 
must submit to a new tax in order to pay
 the debt1--an impossible thing4 ,for1  
if this new tax were levied upon all    
citizens alike1 half1 or even more1 of  
the citizens would be unable to pay it2 

if the rich had to bear the whole1 it   
would be a forced contribution1--an     
invasion of property4 ,long financial   
experience has shown that the method of 
loans1 though exceedingly dangerous1 is 
much surer1 more convenient1 and less   
costly than any other method2           
consequently the government             
borrows1--that is1 goes on              
capitalizing1--and increases the budget4
  ,then1 a budget1 instead of ever      
diminishing1 must necessarily and       
continually increase4 ,it is astonishing
 that the economists1 with all their    
learning1 have failed to perceive a fact
 so simple and so evident4 ,if they have
 perceived it1 why have they neglected  
to condemn it8   ,,historical           
,,comment4--,much interest is felt at   
present in a financial operation which  
is expected to result in a reduction of 
the budget4 ,it is proposed to change   
the present rate of increase1 five per  
cent4 ,laying aside the politico-legal  
question to deal only with the financial

 question1--is it not true that1 when   
five per cent4 is changed to four per   
cent41 it will then be necessary1 for   
the same reasons1 to change four to     
three2 then three to two1 then two to   
one1 and finally to sweep away increase 
altogether8 ,but that would be the      
advent of equality of conditions and the
 abolition of property4 ,now it seems to
 me1 that an intelligent nation should  
voluntarily meet an inevitable          
revolution half way1 instead of         
suffering itself to be dragged after the
 car of inflexible necessity4           
,,eighth ,,proposition4  ,property is   
impossible1 because its power of        
,accumulation is infinite1 and is       
exercised only over finite quantities4  
,if men1 living in equality1 should     
grant to one of their number the        
exclusive right of property2 and this   
sole proprietor should lend one hundred 
francs to the human race at compound    
interest1 payable to his descendants    
twenty-four generations hence1--at the  

end of six hundred years this sum of one
 hundred francs1 at five per cent41     
would amount to #ajg1hed1jaj1ggg1fjj    
francs2 two thousand six hundred and    
ninety-six and one-third times the      
capital of ,france 7supposing her       
capital to be #dj1jjj1jjj1jjj71 or more 
than twenty times the value of the      
terrestrial globe6  ,suppose that a man1
 in the reign of ,st4 ,louis1 had       
borrowed one hundred francs1 and had    
refused1--he and his heirs after        
him1--to return it4 ,even though it were
 known that the said heirs were not the 
rightful possessors1 and that           
prescription had been interrupted always
 at the right moment1--nevertheless1 by 
our laws1 the last heir would be obliged
 to return the one hundred francs with  
interest1 and interest on the interest2 
which in all would amount1 as we have   
seen1 to nearly one hundred and eight   
thousand billions4  ,every day1 fortunes
 are growing in our midst much more     
rapidly than this4 ,the preceding       

example supposed the interest equal to  
one-twentieth of the capital1--it often 
equals one-tenth1 one-fifth1 one-half of
 the capital2 and sometimes the capital 
itself4  ,the                           
,fourierists--irreconcilable enemies of 
equality1 whose partisans they regard as
 ,,sharks--intend1 by quadrupling       
production1 to satisfy all the demands  
of capital1 labor1 and skill4 ,but1     
should production be multiplied by four1
 ten1 or even one hundred1 property     
would soon absorb1 by its power of      
accumulation and the effects of its     
capitalization1 both products and       
capital1 and the land1 and even the     
laborers4 ,is the phalanstery to be     
prohibited from capitalizing and lending
 at interest8 ,let it explain1 then1    
what it means by property4  ,i will     
carry these calculations no farther4    
,they are capable of infinite variation1
 upon which it would be puerile for me  
to insist4 ,i only ask by what standard 
judges1 called upon to decide a suit for

 possession1 fix the interest8 ,and1    
developing the question1 ,i ask1--  ,did
 the legislator1 in introducing into the
 ,republic the principle of property1   
weigh all the consequences8 ,did he know
 the law of the possible8 ,if he knew   
it1 why is it not in the ,code8 ,why is 
so much latitude allowed to the         
proprietor in accumulating property and 
charging interest1--to the judge in     
recognizing and fixing the domain of    
property1--to the ,state in its power to
 levy new taxes continually8 ,at what   
point is the nation justified in        
repudiating the budget1 the tenant his  
farm-rent1 and the manufacturer the     
interest on his capital8 ,how far may   
the idler take advantage of the laborer8
 ,where does the right of spoliation    
begin1 and where does it end8 ,when may 
the producer say to the proprietor1 ,i  
owe you nothing more8 ,when is property 
satisfied8 ,when must it cease to steal8
  ,if the legislator did know the law of
 the possible1 and disregarded it1 what 

must be thought of his justice8 ,if he  
did not know it1 what must be thought of
 his wisdom8 ,either wicked or foolish1 
how can we recognize his authority8  ,if
 our charters and our codes are based   
upon an absurd hypothesis1 what is      
taught in the law-schools8 ,what does a 
judgment of the ,court of ,appeal amount
 to8 ,about what do our ,chambers       
deliberate8 ,what is ,,politics8 ,what  
is our definition of a ,,statesman8     
,what is the meaning of ,,jurisprudence8
 ,should we not rather say              
,,jurisignorance8  ,if all our          
institutions are based upon an error in 
calculation1 does it not follow that    
these institutions are so many shams8   
,and if the entire social structure is  
built upon this absolute impossibility  
of property1 is it not true that the    
government under which we live is a     
chimera1 and our present society a      
utopia8    ,,ninth ,,proposition4       
,property is impossible1 because it is  
powerless against ,property4   ,i4 ,by  

the third corollary of our axiom1       
interest tells against the proprietor as
 well as the stranger4 ,this economical 
principle is universally admitted4      
,nothing simpler at first blush2 yet1   
nothing more absurd1 more contradictory 
in terms1 or more absolutely impossible4
  ,the manufacturer1 it is said1 pays   
himself the rent on his house and       
capital4 ,,he ,,pays ,,himself2 that is1
 he gets paid by the public who buy his 
products4 ,for1 suppose the             
manufacturer1 who seems to make this    
profit on his property1 wishes also to  
make it on his merchandise1 can he then 
pay himself one franc for that which    
cost him ninety centimes1 and make money
 by the operation8 ,no3 such a          
transaction would transfer the          
merchant's money from his right hand to 
his left1 but without any profit        
whatever4  ,now1 that which is true of a
 single individual trading with himself 
is true also of the whole business      
world4 ,form a chain of ten1 fifteen1   

twenty producers2 as many as you wish4  
,if the producer ,a makes a profit out  
of the producer ,b4 ,b's loss must1     
according to economical principles1 be  
made up by ,c1 ,c's by ,d2 and so on    
through to ,z4  ,but by whom will ,z be 
paid for the loss caused him by the     
profit charged by ,a in the beginning8  
,,by ,,the ,,consumer1 replies ,say4    
,contemptible equivocation6 ,is this    
consumer any other1 then1 than ,a1 ,b4  
,c1 ,d1 c41 or ,z8 ,by whom will ,z be  
paid8 ,if he is paid by ,a1 no one makes
 a profit2 consequently1 there is no    
property4 ,if1 on the contrary1 ,z bears
 the burden himself1 he ceases to be a  
member of society2 since it refuses him 
the right of property and profit1 which 
it grants to the other associates4      
,since1 then1 a nation1 like universal  
humanity1 is a vast industrial          
association which cannot act outside of 
itself1 it is clear that no man can     
enrich himself without impoverishing    
another4 ,for1 in order that the right  

of property1 the right of increase1 may 
be respected in the case of ,a1 it must 
be denied to ,z2 thus we see how        
equality of rights1 separated from      
equality of conditions1 may be a truth4 
,the iniquity of political economy in   
this respect is flagrant4 ,when ,i1 a   
manufacturer1 purchase the labor of a   
workingman1 ,i do not include his wages 
in the net product of my business2 on   
the contrary1 ,i deduct them4 ,but the  
workingman includes them in his net     
product4444 7,say3 ,political ,economy47
  ,that means that all which the        
workingman gains is ,,net ,,product2 but
 that only that part of the             
manufacturer's gains is ,,net ,,product1
 which remains after deducting his      
wages4 ,but why is the right of profit  
confined to the manufacturer8 ,why is   
this right1 which is at bottom the right
 of property itself1 denied to the      
workingman8 ,in the terms of economical 
science1 the workingman is capital4     
,now1 all capital1 beyond the cost of   

its maintenance and repair1 must bear   
interest4 ,this the proprietor takes    
care to get1 both for his capital and   
for himself4 ,why is the workingman     
prohibited from charging a like interest
 for his capital1 which is himself8     
,property1 then1 is inequality of       
rights2 for1 if it were not inequality  
of rights1 it would be equality of      
goods1--in other words1 it would not    
exist4 ,now1 the charter guarantees to  
all equality of rights4 ,then1 by the   
charter1 property is impossible4  ,,ii4 
,is ,a1 the proprietor of an estate1    
entitled by the fact of his             
proprietorship to take possession of the
 field belonging to ,b4 his neighbor8   
,no1 reply the proprietors2 but what has
 that to do with the right of property8 
,that ,i shall show you by a series of  
similar propositions4  ,has ,c1 a       
hatter1 the right to force ,d1 his      
neighbor and also a hatter1 to close his
 shop1 and cease his business8 ,not the 
least in the world4  ,but ,c wishes to  

make a profit of one franc on every hat1
 while ,d is content with fifty         
centimes4 ,it is evident that ,d's      
moderation is injurious to ,c's         
extravagant claims4 ,has the latter a   
right to prevent ,d from selling8       
,certainly not4  ,since ,d is at liberty
 to sell his hats fifty centimes cheaper
 than ,c if he chooses1 ,c in his turn  
is free to reduce his price one franc4  
,now1 ,d is poor1 while ,c is rich2 so  
that at the end of two or three years ,d
 is ruined by this intolerable          
competition1 and ,c has complete control
 of the market4 ,can the proprietor ,d  
get any redress from the proprietor ,c8 
,can he bring a suit against him to     
recover his business and property8 ,no2 
for ,d could have done the same thing1  
had he been the richer of the two4  ,on 
the same ground1 the large proprietor ,a
 may say to the small proprietor ,b3    
,sell me your field1 otherwise you shall
 not sell your wheat1--and that without 
doing him the least wrong1 or giving him

 ground for complaint4 ,so that ,a can  
devour ,b if he likes1 for the very     
reason that ,a is stronger than ,b4     
,consequently1 it is not the right of   
property which enables ,a and ,c to rob 
,b and ,d1 but the right of might4 ,by  
the right of property1 neither the two  
neighbors ,a and ,b1 nor the two        
merchants ,c and ,d1 could harm each    
other4 ,they could neither dispossess   
nor destroy one another1 nor gain at one
 another's expense4 ,the power of       
invasion lies in superior strength4     
,but it is superior strength also which 
enables the manufacturer to reduce the  
wages of his employees1 and the rich    
merchant and well-stocked proprietor to 
sell their products for what they       
please4 ,the manufacturer says to the   
laborer1 ,you are as free to go         
elsewhere with your services as ,i am to
 receive them4 ,i offer you so much4    
,the merchant says to the customer1     
,take it or leave it2 you are master of 
your money1 as ,i am of my goods4 ,i    

want so much4 ,who will yield8 ,the     
weaker4  ,therefore1 without force1     
property is powerless against property1 
since without force it has no power to  
increase2 therefore1 without force1     
property is null and void4  ,,historical
 ,,comment4--,the struggle between      
colonial and native sugars furnishes us 
a striking example of this impossibility
 of property4 ,leave these two          
industries to themselves1 and the native
 manufacturer will be ruined by the     
colonist4 ,to maintain the beet-root1   
the cane must be taxed3 to protect the  
property of the one1 it is necessary to 
injure the property of the other4 ,the  
most remarkable feature of this business
 is precisely that to which the least   
attention is paid2 namely1 that1 in one 
way or another1 property has to be      
violated4 ,impose on each industry a    
proportional tax1 so as to preserve a   
balance in the market1 and you create a 
,,maximum ,,price1--you attack property 
in two ways4 ,on the one hand1 your tax 

interferes with the liberty of trade2 on
 the other1 it does not recognize       
equality of proprietors4 ,indemnify the 
beet-root1 you violate the property of  
the tax-payer4 ,cultivate the two       
varieties of sugar at the nation's      
expense1 just as different varieties of 
tobacco are cultivated1--you abolish one
 species of property4 ,this last course 
would be the simpler and better one2    
but1 to induce the nations to adopt it1 
requires such a co-operation of able    
minds and generous hearts as is at      
present out of the question4            
,competition1 sometimes called liberty  
of trade1--in a word1 property in       
exchange1--will be for a long time the  
basis of our commercial legislation2    
which1 from the economical point of     
view1 embraces all civil laws and all   
government4 ,now1 what is competition8  
,a duel in a closed field1 where arms   
are the test of right4  ,who is the     
liar1--the accused or the accuser8 said 
our barbarous ancestors4 ,let them fight

 it out1 replied the still more         
barbarous judge2 the stronger is right4 
,which of us two shall sell spices to   
our neighbor8 ,let each offer them for  
sale1 cries the economist2 the sharper1 
or the more cunning1 is the more honest 
man1 and the better merchant4  ,such is 
the exact spirit of the ,code ,napoleon4
    ,,tenth ,,proposition4  ,property is
 impossible1 because it is the ,negation
 of equality4   ,the development of this
 proposition will be the resume of the  
preceding ones4  #a4 ,it is a principle 
of economical justice1 that ,,products  
,,are ,,bought ,,only ,,by ,,products4  
,property1 being capable of defence only
 on the ground that it produces utility1
 is1 since it produces nothing1 for ever
 condemned4  #b4 ,it is an economical   
law1 that ,,labor ,,must ,,be ,,balanced
 ,,by ,,product4 ,it is a fact that1    
with property1 production costs more    
than it is worth4  #c4 ,another         
economical law3 ,,the ,,capital ,,being 
,,given1 ,,production ,,is ,,measured1  

,,not ,,by ,,the ,,amount ,,of          
,,capital1 ,,but ,,by ,,productive      
,,capacity4 ,property1 requiring income 
to be always proportional to capital    
without regard to labor1 does not       
recognize this relation of equality     
between effect and cause4  #d and #e4   
,like the insect which spins its silk1  
the laborer never produces for himself  
alone4 ,property1 demanding a double    
product and unable to obtain it1 robs   
the laborer1 and kills him4  #f4 ,nature
 has given to every man but one mind1   
one heart1 one will4 ,property1 granting
 to one individual a plurality of votes1
 supposes him to have a plurality of    
minds4  #g4 ,all consumption which is   
not reproductive of utility is          
destruction4 ,property1 whether it      
consumes or hoards or capitalizes1 is   
productive of ,,inutility1--the cause of
 sterility and death4  #h4 ,the         
satisfaction of a natural right always  
gives rise to an equation2 in other     
words1 the right to a thing is          

necessarily balanced by the possession  
of the thing4 ,thus1 between the right  
to liberty and the condition of a free  
man there is a balance1 an equation2    
between the right to be a father and    
paternity1 an equation2 between the     
right to security and the social        
guarantee1 an equation4 ,but between the
 right of increase and the receipt of   
this increase there is never an         
equation2 for every new increase carries
 with it the right to another1 the      
latter to a third1 and so on for ever4  
,property1 never being able to          
accomplish its object1 is a right       
against ,nature and against reason4  #i4
 ,finally1 property is not              
self-existent4 ,an extraneous           
cause--either ,,force or ,,fraud--is    
necessary to its life and action4 ,in   
other words1 property is not equal to   
property3 it is a negation--a           
delusion--,,nothing4     ,,chapter ,v4  
,,psychological ,,exposition ,,of ,,the 
,,idea ,,of ,,justice                   

,,psychological ,,exposition ,,of ,,the 
,,idea ,,of ,,justice ,,and             
,,injustice1 ,,and ,a ,,determination   
,,of ,,the ,,principle ,,of             
,,government ,,and ,,of ,,right4        
,property is impossible2 equality does  
not exist4 ,we hate the former1 and yet 
wish to possess it2 the latter rules all
 our thoughts1 yet we know not how to   
reach it4 ,who will explain this        
profound antagonism between our         
conscience and our will8 ,who will point
 out the causes of this pernicious      
error1 which has become the most sacred 
principle of justice and society8  ,i am
 bold enough to undertake the task1 and 
,i hope to succeed4  ,but before        
explaining why man has violated justice1
 it is necessary to determine what      
justice is4    ,,part ,,first4          
#a4--,of the ,moral ,sense in ,man and  
the ,animals4   ,the philosophers have  
endeavored often to locate the line     
which separates man's intelligence from 
that of the brutes2 and1 according to   

their general custom1 they gave         
utterance to much foolishness before    
resolving upon the only course possible 
for them to take1--observation4 ,it was 
reserved for an unpretending savant--who
 perhaps did not pride himself on his   
philosophy--to put an end to the        
interminable controversy by a simple    
distinction2 but one of those luminous  
distinctions which are worth more than  
systems4 ,frederic ,cuvier separated    
,,instinct from ,,intelligence4  ,but1  
as yet1 no one has proposed this        
question3--  ,,is ,,the ,,difference    
,,between ,,man',s ,,moral ,,sense ,,and
 ,,that ,,of ,,the ,,brute ,a           
,,difference ,,in ,,kind ,,or ,,only    
,,in ,,degree8  ,if1 hitherto1 any one  
had dared to maintain the latter        
alternative1 his arguments would have   
seemed scandalous1 blasphemous1 and     
offensive to morality and religion4 ,the
 ecclesiastical and secular tribunals   
would have condemned him with one voice4
 ,and1 mark the style in which they     

would have branded the immoral paradox6 
,conscience1--they would have           
cried1--conscience1 man's chief glory1  
was given to him exclusively2 the notion
 of justice and injustice1 of merit and 
demerit1 is his noble privilege2 to man1
 alone1--the lord of creation1--belongs 
the sublime power to resist his worldly 
propensities1 to choose between good and
 evil1 and to bring himself more and    
more into the resemblance of ,god       
through liberty and justice4444 ,no2 the
 holy image of virtue was never graven  
save on the heart of man4 ,words full of
 feeling1 but void of sense4  ,man is a 
rational and social animal--,,greek ' c 
g--said ,aristotle4 ,this definition is 
worth more than all which have been     
given since4 ,i do not except even ,m4  
de ,bonald's celebrated                 
definition1--,,man ,,is ,,an ,,intellect
 ,,served ,,by ,,organs--a definition   
which has the double fault of explaining
 the known by the unknown2 that is1 the 
living being by the intellect2 and of   

neglecting man's essential              
quality1--animality4  ,man1 then1 is an 
animal living in society4 ,society means
 the sum total of relationships2 in     
short1 system4 ,now1 all systems exist  
only on certain conditions4 ,what1 then1
 are the conditions1 the ,,laws1 of     
human society8  ,what are the ,,rights  
of men with respect to each other2 what 
is ,,justice8  ,it amounts to nothing to
 say1--with the philosophers of various 
schools1--,it is a divine instinct1 an  
immortal and heavenly voice1 a guide    
given us by ,nature1 a light revealed   
unto every man on coming into the world1
 a law engraved upon our hearts2 it is  
the voice of conscience1 the dictum of  
reason1 the inspiration of sentiment1   
the penchant of feeling2 it is the love 
of self in others2 it is enlightened    
self-interest2 or else it is an innate  
idea1 the imperative command of applied 
reason1 which has its source in the     
concepts of pure reason2 it is a        
passional attraction1 c41 c4 ,this may  

be as true as it seems beautiful2 but it
 is utterly meaningless4 ,though we     
should prolong this litany through ten  
pages 7it has been filtered through a   
thousand volumes71 we should be no      
nearer to the solution of the question4 
,justice is public utility1 says        
,aristotle4 ,that is true1 but it is a  
tautology4 ,the principle that the      
public welfare ought to be the object of
 the legislator--says ,m4 ,ch4 ,comte in
 his ,treatise on ,legislation--cannot  
be overthrown4 ,but legislation is      
advanced no farther by its announcement 
and demonstration1 than is medicine when
 it is said that it is the business of  
physicians to cure the sick4  ,let us   
take another course4 ,,rught is the sum 
total of the principles which govern    
society4 ,justice1 in man1 is the       
respect and observation of those        
principles4 ,to practise justice is to  
obey the social instinct2 to do an act  
of justice is to do a social act4 ,if1  
then1 we watch the conduct of men       

towards each other under different      
circumstances1 it will be easy for us to
 distinguish between the presence and   
absence of society2 from the result we  
may inductively infer the law4  ,let us 
commence with the simplest and least    
doubtful cases4  ,the mother1 who       
protects her son at the peril of her    
life1 and sacrifices every thing to his 
support1 is in society with him--she is 
a good mother4 ,she1 on the contrary1   
who abandons her child1 is unfaithful to
 the social instinct1--maternal love    
being one of its many features2 she is  
an unnatural mother4  ,if ,i plunge into
 the water to rescue a drowning man1 ,i 
am his brother1 his associate2 if1      
instead of aiding him1 ,i sink him1 ,i  
am his enemy1 his murderer4  ,whoever   
bestows alms treats the poor man as his 
associate2 not thoroughly1 it is true1  
but only in respect to the amount which 
he shares with him4 ,whoever takes by   
force or stratagem that which is not the
 product of his labor1 destroys his     

social character--he is a brigand4  ,the
 ,samaritan who relieves the traveller  
lying by the wayside1 dresses his       
wounds1 comforts him1 and supplies him  
with money1 thereby declares himself his
 associate--his neighbor2 the priest1   
who passes by on the other side1 remains
 unassociated1 and is his enemy4  ,in   
all these cases1 man is moved by an     
internal attraction towards his fellow1 
by a secret sympathy which causes him to
 love1 congratulate1 and condole2 so    
that1 to resist this attraction1 his    
will must struggle against his nature4  
,but in these respects there is no      
decided difference between man and the  
animals4 ,with them1 as long as the     
weakness of their young endears them to 
their mothers1--in a word1 associates   
them with their mothers1--the latter    
protect the former1 at the peril of     
their lives1 with a courage which       
reminds us of our heroes dying for their
 country4 ,certain species unite for    
hunting purposes1 seek each other1 call 

each other 7a poet would say invite each
 other71 to share their prey2 in danger 
they aid1 protect1 and warn each other4 
,the elephant knows how to help his     
companion out of the ditch into which   
the latter has fallen4 ,cows form a     
circle1 with their horns outward and    
their calves in the centre1 in order to 
repel the attacks of wolves4 ,horses and
 pigs1 on hearing a cry of distress from
 one of their number1 rush to the spot  
whence it comes4 ,what descriptions ,i  
might give of their marriages1 the      
tenderness of the males towards the     
females1 and the fidelity of their      
loves6 ,let us add1 however1--to be     
entirely just--that these touching      
demonstrations of society1 fraternity1  
and love of neighbor1 do not prevent the
 animals from quarrelling1 fighting1 and
 outrageously abusing one another while 
gaining their livelihood and showing    
their gallantry2 the resemblance between
 them and ourselves is perfect4  ,the   
social instinct1 in man and beast1      

exists to a greater or less degree--its 
nature is the same4 ,man has the greater
 need of association1 and employs it    
more2 the animal seems better able to   
endure isolation4 ,in man1 social needs 
are more imperative and complex2 in the 
beast1 they seem less intense1 less     
diversified1 less regretted4 ,society1  
in a word1 aims1 in the case of man1 at 
the preservation of the race and the    
individual2 with the animals1 its object
 is more exclusively the preservation of
 the race4  ,as yet1 we have met with no
 claim which man can make for himself   
alone4 ,the social instinct and the     
moral sense he shares with the brutes2  
and when he thinks to become god-like by
 a few acts of charity1 justice1 and    
devotion1 he does not perceive that in  
so acting he simply obeys an instinct   
wholly animal in its nature4 ,as we are 
good1 loving1 tender1 just1 so we are   
passionate1 greedy1 lewd1 and           
vindictive2 that is1 we are like the    
beasts4 ,our highest virtues appear1 in 

the last analysis1 as blind1 impulsive  
instincts4 ,what subjects for           
canonization and apotheosis6  ,there is1
 however1 a difference between us       
two-handed bipeds and other living      
creatures--what is it8  ,a student of   
philosophy would hasten to reply3 ,this 
difference lies in the fact that we are 
conscious of our social faculty1 while  
the animals are unconscious of          
theirs--in the fact that while we       
reflect and reason upon the operation of
 our social instinct1 the animals do    
nothing of the kind4  ,i will go        
farther4 ,it is by our reflective and   
reasoning powers1 with which we seem to 
be exclusively endowed1 that we know    
that it is injurious1 first to others   
and then to ourselves1 to resist the    
social instinct which governs us1 and   
which we call ,,justice4 ,it is our     
reason which teaches us that the selfish
 man1 the robber1 the murderer--in a    
word1 the traitor to society--sins      
against ,nature1 and is guilty with     

respect to others and himself1 when he  
does wrong wilfully4 ,finally1 it is our
 social sentiment on the one hand1 and  
our reason on the other1 which cause us 
to think that beings such as we should  
take the responsibility of their acts4  
,such is the principle of remorse1      
revenge1 and penal justice4  ,but this  
proves only an intellectual diversity   
between the animals and man1 not at all 
an affectional one2 for1 although we    
reason upon our relations with our      
fellows1 we likewise reason upon our    
most trivial actions1--such as drinking1
 eating1 choosing a wife1 or selecting a
 dwelling-place4 ,we reason upon things 
earthly and things heavenly2 there is   
nothing to which our reasoning powers   
are not applicable4 ,now1 just as the   
knowledge of external phenomena1 which  
we acquire1 has no influence upon their 
causes and laws1 so reflection1 by      
illuminating our instinct1 enlightens us
 as to our sentient nature1 but does not
 alter its character2 it tells us what  

our morality is1 but neither changes nor
 modifies it4 ,our dissatisfaction with 
ourselves after doing wrong1 the        
indignation which we feel at the sight  
of injustice1 the idea of deserved      
punishment and due remuneration1 are    
effects of reflection1 and not immediate
 effects of instinct and emotion4 ,our  
appreciation 7,i do not say exclusive   
appreciation1 for the animals also      
realize that they have done wrong1 and  
are indignant when one of their number  
is attacked1 but71 our infinitely       
superior appreciation of our social     
duties1 our knowledge of good and evil1 
does not establish1 as regards morality1
 any vital difference between man and   
the beasts4     #b4--,of the first and  
second degrees of ,sociability4   ,i    
insist upon the fact1 which ,i have just
 pointed out1 as one of the most        
important facts of anthropology4  ,the  
sympathetic attraction1 which causes us 
to associate1 is1 by reason of its      
blind1 unruly nature1 always governed by

 temporary impulse1 without regard to   
higher rights1 and without distinction  
of merit or priority4 ,the bastard dog  
follows indifferently all who call it2  
the suckling child regards every man as 
its father and every woman as its nurse2
 every living creature1 when deprived of
 the society of animals of its species1 
seeks companionship in its solitude4    
,this fundamental characteristic of the 
social instinct renders intolerable and 
even hateful the friendship of frivolous
 persons1 liable to be infatuated with  
every new face1 accommodating to all    
whether good or bad1 and ready to       
sacrifice1 for a passing liaison1 the   
oldest and most honorable affections4   
,the fault of such beings is not in the 
heart--it is in the judgment4           
,sociability1 in this degree1 is a sort 
of magnetism awakened in us by the      
contemplation of a being similar to     
ourselves1 but which never goes beyond  
the person who feels it2 it may be      
reciprocated1 but not communicated4     

,love1 benevolence1 pity1 sympathy1 call
 it what you will1 there is nothing in  
it which deserves esteem1--nothing which
 lifts man above the beast4  ,the second
 degree of sociability is justice1 which
 may be defined as the ,,recognition    
,,of ,,the ,,equality ,,between         
,,another',s ,,personality ,,and ,,our  
,,own4 ,the sentiment of justice we     
share with the animals2 we alone can    
form an exact idea of it2 but our idea1 
as has been said already1 does not      
change its nature4 ,we shall soon see   
how man rises to a third degree of      
sociability which the animals are       
incapable of reaching4 ,but ,i must     
first prove by metaphysics that         
,,society1 ,,justice1 and ,,equality1   
are three equivalent terms1--three      
expressions meaning the same            
thing1--whose mutual conversion is      
always allowable4  ,if1 amid the        
confusion of a shipwreck1 having escaped
 in a boat with some provisions1 ,i see 
a man struggling with the waves1 am ,i  

bound to go to his assistance8 ,yes1 ,i 
am bound under penalty of being adjudged
 guilty of murder and treason against   
society4  ,but am ,i also bound to share
 with him my provisions8  ,to settle    
this question1 we must change the       
phraseology4 ,if society is binding on  
the boat1 is it also binding on the     
provisions8 ,undoubtedly4 ,the duty of  
an associate is absolute4 ,man's        
occupancy succeeds his social nature1   
and is subordinate to it2 possession can
 become exclusive only when permission  
to occupy is granted to all alike4 ,that
 which in this instance obscures our    
duty is our power of foresight1 which1  
causing us to fear an eventual danger1  
impels us to usurpation1 and makes us   
robbers and murderers4 ,animals do not  
calculate the duty of instinct any more 
than the disadvantages resulting to     
those who exercise it2 it would be      
strange if the intellect of man--the    
most sociable of animals--should lead   
him to disobey the law4  ,he betrays    

society who attempts to use it only for 
his own advantage2 better that ,god     
should deprive us of prudence1 if it is 
to serve as the tool of our selfishness4
  ,what6 you will say1 must ,i share my 
bread1 the bread which ,i have earned   
and which belongs to me1 with the       
stranger whom ,i do not know2 whom ,i   
may never see again1 and who1 perhaps1  
will reward me with ingratitude8 ,if we 
had earned this bread together1 if this 
man had done something to obtain it1 he 
might demand his share1 since his       
co-operation would entitle him to it2   
but as it is1 what claim has he on me8  
,we have not produced together--we shall
 not eat together4  ,the fallacy in this
 argument lies in the false supposition1
 that each producer is not necessarily  
associated with every other producer4   
,when two or more individuals have      
regularly organized a society1--when the
 contracts have been agreed upon1       
drafted1 and signed1--there is no       
difficulty about the future4 ,everybody 

knows that when two men associate--for  
instance--in order to fish1 if one of   
them catches no fish1 he is none the    
less entitled to those caught by his    
associate4 ,if two merchants form a     
partnership1 while the partnership      
lasts1 the profits and losses are       
divided between them2 since each        
produces1 not for himself1 but for the  
society3 when the time of distribution  
arrives1 it is not the producer who is  
considered1 but the associate4 ,that is 
why the slave1 to whom the planter gives
 straw and rice2 and the civilized      
laborer1 to whom the capitalist pays a  
salary which is always too small1--not  
being associated with their employers1  
although producing with them1--are      
disregarded when the product is divided4
 ,thus1 the horse who draws our coaches1
 and the ox who draws our carts produce 
with us1 but are not associated with us2
 we take their product1 but do not share
 it with them4 ,the animals and laborers
 whom we employ hold the same relation  

to us4 ,whatever we do for them1 we do1 
not from a sense of justice1 but out of 
pure benevolence4 #bb   ,but is it      
possible that we are not all associated8
 ,let us call to mind what was said in  
the last two chapters1 ,that even though
 we do not want to be associated1 the   
force of things1 the necessity of       
consumption1 the laws of production1 and
 the mathematical principle of exchange 
combine to associate us4 ,there is but a
 single exception to this rule1--that of
 the proprietor1 who1 producing by his  
right of increase1 is not associated    
with any one1 and consequently is not   
obliged to share his product with any   
one2 just as no one else is bound to    
share with him4 ,with the exception of  
the proprietor1 we labor for each other2
 we can do nothing by ourselves unaided 
by others1 and we continually exchange  
products and services with each other4  
,if these are not social acts1 what are 
they8  ,now1 neither a commercial1 nor  
an industrial1 nor an agricultural      

association can be conceived of in the  
absence of equality2 equality is its    
sine qua non4 ,so that1 in all matters  
which concern this association1 to      
violate society is to violate justice   
and equality4 ,apply this principle to  
humanity at large4  ,after what has been
 said1 ,i assume that the reader has    
sufficient insight to enable him to     
dispense with any aid of mine4  ,by this
 principle1 the man who takes possession
 of a field1 and says1 ,this field is   
mine1 will not be unjust so long as     
every one else has an equal right of    
possession2 nor will he be unjust1 if1  
wishing to change his location1 he      
exchanges this field for an equivalent4 
,but if1 putting another in his place1  
he says to him1 ,work for me while ,i   
rest1 he then becomes unjust1           
unassociated1 ,,unequal4 ,he is a       
proprietor4  ,reciprocally1 the         
sluggard1 or the rake1 who1 without     
performing any social task1 enjoys like 
others--and often more than others--the 

products of society1 should be proceeded
 against as a thief and a parasite4 ,we 
owe it to ourselves to give him nothing2
 but1 since he must live1 to put him    
under supervision1 and compel him to    
labor4  ,sociability is the attraction  
felt by sentient beings for each other4 
,justice is this same attraction1       
accompanied by thought and knowledge4   
,but under what general concept1 in what
 category of the understanding1 is      
justice placed8 ,in the category of     
equal quantities4 ,hence1 the ancient   
definition of justice--,justum aequale  
est1 injustum inaequale4 ,what is it1   
then1 to practise justice8 ,it is to    
give equal wealth to each1 on condition 
of equal labor4 ,it is to act socially4 
,our selfishness may complain2 there is 
no escape from evidence and necessity4  
,what is the right of occupancy8 ,it is 
a natural method of dividing the earth1 
by reducing each laborer's share as fast
 as new laborers present themselves4    
,this right disappears if the public    

interest requires it2 which1 being the  
social interest1 is also that of the    
occupant4  ,what is the right of labor8 
,it is the right to obtain one's share  
of wealth by fulfilling the required    
conditions4 ,it is the right of society1
 the right of equality4  ,justice1 which
 is the product of the combination of an
 idea and an instinct1 manifests itself 
in man as soon as he is capable of      
feeling1 and of forming ideas4          
,consequently1 it has been regarded as  
an innate and original sentiment2 but   
this opinion is logically and           
chronologically false4 ,but justice1 by 
its composition hybrid--if ,i may use   
the term1--justice1 born of emotion and 
intellect combined1 seems to me one of  
the strongest proofs of the unity and   
simplicity of the ego2 the organism     
being no more capable of producing such 
a mixture by itself1 than are the       
combined senses of hearing and sight of 
forming a binary sense1 half auditory   
and half visual4  ,this double nature of

 justice gives us the definitive basis  
of all the demonstrations in ,chapters  
,,ii41 ,,iii41 and ,,iv4 ,on the one    
hand1 the idea of ,,justice being       
identical with that of society1 and     
society necessarily implying equality1  
equality must underlie all the sophisms 
invented in defence of property2 for1   
since property can be defended only as a
 just and social institution1 and       
property being inequality1 in order to  
prove that property is in harmony with  
society1 it must be shown that injustice
 is justice1 and that inequality is     
equality1--a contradiction in terms4 ,on
 the other hand1 since the idea of      
equality--the second element of         
justice--has its source in the          
mathematical proportions of things2 and 
since property1 or the unequal          
distribution of wealth among laborers1  
destroys the necessary balance between  
labor1 production1 and                  
consumption1--property must be          
impossible4  ,all men1 then1 are        

associated2 all are entitled to the same
 justice2 all are equal4 ,does it follow
 that the preferences of love and       
friendship are unjust8  ,this requires  
explanation4 ,i have already supposed   
the case of a man in peril1 ,i being in 
a position to help him4 ,now1 ,i suppose
 myself appealed to at the same time by 
two men exposed to danger4  ,am ,i not  
allowed--am ,i not commanded even--to   
rush first to the aid of him who is     
endeared to me by ties of blood1        
friendship1 acquaintance1 or esteem1 at 
the risk of leaving the other to perish8
 ,yes4 ,and why8 ,because within        
universal society there exist for each  
of us as many special societies as there
 are individuals2 and we are bound1 by  
the principle of sociability itself1 to 
fulfil the obligations which these      
impose upon us1 according to the        
intimacy of our relations with them4    
,therefore we must give our father1     
mother1 children1 friends1 relatives1   
c41 the preference over all others4 ,but

 in what consists this preference8  ,a  
judge has a case to decide1 in which one
 of the parties is his friend1 and the  
other his enemy4 ,should he1 in this    
instance1 prefer his ,,intimate         
,,associate to his ,,distant            
,,associate2 and decide the case in     
favor of his friend1 in spite of        
evidence to the contrary8 ,no3 for1 if  
he should favor his friend's injustice1 
he would become his accomplice in his   
violation of the social compact2 he     
would form with him a sort of conspiracy
 against the social body4 ,preference   
should be shown only in personal        
matters1 such as love1 esteem1          
confidence1 or intimacy1 when all cannot
 be considered at once4 ,thus1 in case  
of fire1 a father would save his own    
child before thinking of his neighbor's2
 but the recognition of a right not     
being an optional matter with a judge1  
he is not at liberty to favor one person
 to the detriment of another4  ,the     
theory of these special societies--which

 are formed concentrically1 so to speak1
 by each of us inside of the main       
body--gives the key to all the problems 
which arise from the opposition and     
conflict of the different varieties of  
social duty1--problems upon which the   
ancient tragedies are based4  ,the      
justice practised among animals is1 in a
 certain degree1 negative4 ,with the    
exception of protecting their young1    
hunting and plundering in troops1       
uniting for common defence and sometimes
 for individual assistance1 it consists 
more in prevention than in action4 ,a   
sick animal who cannot arise from the   
ground1 or an imprudent one who has     
fallen over a precipice1 receives       
neither medicine nor nourishment4 ,if he
 cannot cure himself1 nor relieve       
himself of his trouble1 his life is in  
danger3 he will neither be cared for in 
bed1 nor fed in a prison4  ,their       
neglect of their fellows arises as much 
from the weakness of their intellect as 
from their lack of resources4 ,still1   

the degrees of intimacy common among men
 are not unknown to the animals4 ,they  
have friendships of habit and of choice2
 friendships neighborly1 and friendships
 parental4 ,in comparison with us1 they 
have feeble memories1 sluggish feelings1
 and are almost destitute of            
intelligence2 but the identity of these 
faculties is preserved to some extent1  
and our superiority in this respect     
arises entirely from our understanding4 
,it is our strength of memory and       
penetration of judgment which enable us 
to multiply and combine the acts which  
our social instinct impels us to        
perform1 and which teaches us how to    
render them more effective1 and how to  
distribute them justly4 ,the beasts who 
live in society practise justice1 but   
are ignorant of its nature1 and do not  
reason upon it2 they obey their instinct
 without thought or philosophy4 ,they   
know not how to unite the social        
sentiment with the idea of equality1    
which they do not possess2 this idea    

being an abstract one4 ,we1 on the      
contrary1 starting with the principle   
that society implies equality1 can1 by  
our reasoning faculty1 understand and   
agree with each other in settling our   
rights2 we have even used our judgment  
to a great extent4 ,but in all this our 
conscience plays a small part1 as is    
proved by the fact that the idea of     
,,right--of which we catch a glimpse in 
certain animals who approach nearer than
 any others to our standard of          
intelligence--seems to grow1 from the   
low level at which it stands in savages1
 to the lofty height which it reaches in
 a ,plato or a ,franklin4 ,if we trace  
the development of the moral sense in   
individuals1 and the progress of laws in
 nations1 we shall be convinced that the
 ideas of justice and legislative       
perfection are always proportional to   
intelligence4 ,the notion of            
justice--which has been regarded by some
 philosophers as simple--is then1 in    
reality1 complex4 ,it springs from the  

social instinct on the one hand1 and the
 idea of equality on the other2 just as 
the notion of guilt arises from the     
feeling that justice has been violated1 
and from the idea of free-will4  ,in    
conclusion1 instinct is not modified by 
acquaintance with its nature2 and the   
facts of society1 which we have thus far
 observed1 occur among beasts as well as
 men4 ,we know the meaning of justice2  
in other words1 of sociability viewed   
from the standpoint of equality4 ,we    
have met with nothing which separates us
 from the animals4     #c4--,of the     
third degree of ,sociability4   ,the    
reader1 perhaps1 has not forgotten what 
was said in the third chapter concerning
 the division of labor and the          
speciality of talents4 ,the sum total of
 the talents and capacities of the race 
is always the same1 and their nature is 
always similar4 ,we are all born poets1 
mathematicians1 philosophers1 artists1  
artisans1 or farmers1 but we are not    
born equally endowed2 and between one   

man and another in society1 or between  
one faculty and another in the same     
individual1 there is an infinite        
difference4 ,this difference of degree  
in the same faculties1 this predominance
 of talent in certain directions1 is1 we
 have said1 the very foundation of our  
society4 ,intelligence and natural      
genius have been distributed by ,nature 
so economically1 and yet so liberally1  
that in society there is no danger of   
either a surplus or a scarcity of       
special talents2 and that each laborer1 
by devoting himself to his function1 may
 always attain to the degree of         
proficiency necessary to enable him to  
benefit by the labors and discoveries of
 his fellows4 ,owing to this simple and 
wise precaution of ,nature1 the laborer 
is not isolated by his task4 ,he        
communicates with his fellows through   
the mind1 before he is united with them 
in heart2 so that with him love is born 
of intelligence4  ,it is not so with    
societies of animals4 ,in every species1

 the aptitudes of all the               
individuals--though very limited--are   
equal in number and 7when they are not  
the result of instinct7 in intensity4   
,each one does as well as all the others
 what all the others do2 provides his   
food1 avoids the enemy1 burrows in the  
earth1 builds a nest1 c4 ,no animal1    
when free and healthy1 expects or       
requires the aid of his neighbor2 who1  
in his turn1 is equally independent4    
,associated animals live side by side   
without any intellectual intercourse or 
intimate communication1--all doing the  
same things1 having nothing to learn or 
to remember2 they see1 feel1 and come in
 contact with each other1 but never     
penetrate each other4 ,man continually  
exchanges with man ideas and feelings1  
products and services4 ,every discovery 
and act in society is necessary to him4 
,but of this immense quantity of        
products and ideas1 that which each one 
has to produce and acquire for himself  
is but an atom in the sun4 ,man would   

not be man were it not for society1 and 
society is supported by the balance and 
harmony of the powers which compose it4 
,society1 among the animals1 is         
,,simple2 with man it is ,,complex4 ,man
 is associated with man by the same     
instinct which associates animal with   
animal2 but man is associated           
differently from the animal1 and it is  
this difference in association which    
constitutes the difference in morality4 
,i have proved1--at too great length1   
perhaps1--both by the spirit of the laws
 which regard property as the basis of  
society1 and by political economy1 that 
inequality of conditions is justified   
neither by priority of occupation nor   
superiority of talent1 service1         
industry1 and capacity4 ,but1 although  
equality of conditions is a necessary   
consequence of natural right1 of        
liberty1 of the laws of production1 of  
the capacity of physical nature1 and of 
the principle of society itself1--it    
does not prevent the social sentiment   

from stepping over the boundaries of    
,,debt and ,,credit4 ,the fields of     
benevolence and love extend far beyond2 
and when economy has adjusted its       
balance1 the mind begins to benefit by  
its own justice1 and the heart expands  
in the boundlessness of its affection4  
,the social sentiment then takes on a   
new character1 which varies with        
different persons4 ,in the strong1 it   
becomes the pleasure of generosity2     
among equals1 frank and cordial         
friendship2 in the weak1 the pleasure of
 admiration and gratitude4  ,the man who
 is superior in strength1 skill1 or     
courage1 knows that he owes all that he 
is to society1 without which he could   
not exist4 ,he knows that1 in treating  
him precisely as it does the lowest of  
its members1 society discharges its     
whole duty towards him4 ,but he does not
 underrate his faculties2 he is no less 
conscious of his power and greatness2   
and it is this voluntary reverence which
 he pays to humanity1 this avowal that  

he is but an instrument of ,nature1--who
 is alone worthy of glory and           
worship1--it is1 ,i say1 this           
simultaneous confession of the heart and
 the mind1 this genuine adoration of the
 ,great ,being1 that distinguishes and  
elevates man1 and lifts him to a degree 
of social morality to which the beast is
 powerless to attain4 ,hercules         
destroying the monsters and punishing   
brigands for the safety of ,greece1     
,orpheus teaching the rough and wild    
,pelasgians1--neither of them putting a 
price upon their services1--there we see
 the noblest creations of poetry1 the   
loftiest expression of justice and      
virtue4  ,the joys of self-sacrifice are
 ineffable4  ,if ,i were to compare     
human society to the old ,greek         
tragedies1 ,i should say that the       
phalanx of noble minds and lofty souls  
dances the strophe1 and the humble      
multitude the antistrophe4 ,burdened    
with painful and disagreeable tasks1 but
 rendered omnipotent by their number and

 the harmonic arrangement of their      
functions1 the latter execute what the  
others plan4 ,guided by them1 they owe  
them nothing2 they honor them1 however1 
and lavish upon them praise and         
approbation4  ,gratitude fills people   
with adoration and enthusiasm4  ,but    
equality delights my heart4 ,benevolence
 degenerates into tyranny1 and          
admiration into servility4 ,friendship  
is the daughter of equality4 ,o my      
friends6 may ,i live in your midst      
without emulation1 and without glory2   
let equality bring us together1 and fate
 assign us our places4 ,may ,i die      
without knowing to whom among you ,i owe
 the most esteem6  ,friendship is       
precious to the hearts of the children  
of men4  ,generosity1 gratitude 7,i mean
 here only that gratitude which is born 
of admiration of a superior power71 and 
friendship are three distinct shades of 
a single sentiment which ,i will call   
equite1 or ,,social ,,proportionality4  
#bc ,equite does not change justice3    

but1 always taking equite for the base1 
it superadds esteem1 and thereby forms  
in man a third degree of sociability4   
,equite makes it at once our duty and   
our pleasure to aid the weak who have   
need of us1 and to make them our equals2
 to pay to the strong a just tribute of 
gratitude and honor1 without enslaving  
ourselves to them2 to cherish our       
neighbors1 friends1 and equals1 for that
 which we receive from them1 even by    
right of exchange4 ,equite is           
sociability raised to its ideal by      
reason and justice2 its commonest       
manifestation is ,,urbanity or          
,,politeness1 which1 among certain      
nations1 sums up in a single word nearly
 all the social duties4  ,it is the just
 distribution of social sympathy and    
universal love4  ,now1 this feeling is  
unknown among the beasts1 who love and  
cling to each other1 and show their     
preferences1 but who cannot conceive of 
esteem1 and who are incapable of        
generosity1 admiration1 or politeness4  

,this feeling does not spring from      
intelligence1 which calculates1         
computes1 and balances1 but does not    
love2 which sees1 but does not feel4 ,as
 justice is the product of social       
instinct and reflection combined1 so    
equite is a product of justice and taste
 combined--that is1 of our powers of    
judging and of idealizing4  ,this       
product--the third and last degree of   
human sociability--is determined by our 
complex mode of association2 in which   
inequality1 or rather the divergence of 
faculties1 and the speciality of        
functions--tending of themselves to     
isolate laborers--demand a more active  
sociability4  ,that is why the force    
which oppresses while protecting is     
execrable2 why the silly ignorance which
 views with the same eye the marvels of 
art1 and the products of the rudest     
industry1 excites unutterable contempt2 
why proud mediocrity1 which glories in  
saying1 ,i have paid you--,i owe you    
nothing1 is especially odious4          

,,sociability1 ,,justice1               
,,equite--such1 in its triplicity1 is   
the exact definition of the instinctive 
faculty which leads us into             
communication with our fellows1 and     
whose physical manifestation is         
expressed by the formula3 ,,equality    
,,in ,,natural ,,wealth1 ,,and ,,the    
,,products ,,of ,,labor4  ,these three  
degrees of sociability support and imply
 each other4  ,equite cannot exist      
without justice2 society without justice
 is a solecism4 ,if1 in order to reward 
talent1 ,i take from one to give to     
another1 in unjustly stripping the      
first1 ,i do not esteem his talent as ,i
 ought2 if1 in society1 ,i award more to
 myself than to my associate1 we are not
 really associated4 ,justice is         
sociability as manifested in the        
division of material things1 susceptible
 of weight and measure2 equite is       
justice accompanied by admiration and   
esteem1--things which cannot be         
measured4  ,from this several inferences

 may be drawn4  #a4 ,though we are free 
to grant our esteem to one more than to 
another1 and in all possible degrees1   
yet we should give no one more than his 
proportion of the common wealth2 because
 the duty of justice1 being imposed upon
 us before that of equite1 must always  
take precedence of it4 ,the woman       
honored by the ancients1 who1 when      
forced by a tyrant to choose between the
 death of her brother and that of her   
husband1 sacrificed the latter on the   
ground that she could find another      
husband but not another brother1--that  
woman1 ,i say1 in obeying her sense of  
equite1 failed in point of justice1 and 
did a bad deed1 because conjugal        
association is a closer relation than   
fraternal association1 and because the  
life of our neighbor is not our         
property4  ,by the same principle1      
inequality of wages cannot be admitted  
by law on the ground of inequality of   
talents2 because the just distribution  
of wealth is the function of            

economy1--not of enthusiasm4  ,finally1 
as regards donations1 wills1 and        
inheritance1 society1 careful both of   
the personal affections and its own     
rights1 must never permit love and      
partiality to destroy justice4 ,and1    
though it is pleasant to think that the 
son1 who has been long associated with  
his father in business1 is more capable 
than any one else of carrying it on2 and
 that the citizen1 who is surprised in  
the midst of his task by death1 is best 
fitted1 in consequence of his natural   
taste for his occupation1 to designate  
his successor2 and though the heir      
should be allowed the right of choice in
 case of more than one                  
inheritance1--nevertheless1 society can 
tolerate no concentration of capital and
 industry for the benefit of a single   
man1 no monopoly of labor1 no           
encroachment4 #bd  ,suppose that some   
spoils1 taken from the enemy1 and equal 
to twelve1 are to be divided between    
,achilles and ,ajax4 ,if the two persons

 were equal1 their respective shares    
would be arithmetically equal3 ,achilles
 would have six1 ,ajax six4 ,and if we  
should carry out this arithmetical      
equality1 ,thersites would be entitled  
to as much as ,achilles1 which would be 
unjust in the extreme4 ,to avoid this   
injustice1 the worth of the persons     
should be estimated1 and the spoils     
divided accordingly4 ,suppose that the  
worth of ,achilles is double that of    
,ajax3 the former's share is eight1 the 
latter four4 ,there is no arithmetical  
equality1 but a proportional equality4  
,it is this comparison of merits1       
rationum1 that ,aristotle calls         
distributive justice4 ,it is a          
geometrical proportion4--,toullier3     
,french ,law according to the ,code4    
,are ,achilles and ,ajax associated1 or 
are they not8 ,settle that1 and you     
settle the whole question4 ,if ,achilles
 and ,ajax1 instead of being associated1
 are themselves in the service of       
,agamemnon who pays them1 there is no   

objection to ,aristotle's method4 ,the  
slave-owner1 who controls his slaves1   
may give a double allowance of brandy to
 him who does double work4 ,that is the 
law of despotism2 the right of slavery4 
,but if ,achilles and ,ajax are         
associated1 they are equals4 ,what      
matters it that ,achilles has a strength
 of four1 while that of ,ajax is only   
two8 ,the latter may always answer that 
he is free2 that if ,achilles has a     
strength of four1 five could kill him2  
finally1 that in doing personal service 
he incurs as great a risk as ,achilles4 
,the same argument applies to           
,thersites4 ,if he is unable to fight1  
let him be cook1 purveyor1 or butler4   
,if he is good for nothing1 put him in  
the hospital4 ,in no case wrong him1 or 
impose upon him laws4  ,man must live in
 one of two states3 either in society1  
or out of it4 ,in society1 conditions   
are necessarily equal1 except in the    
degree of esteem and consideration which
 each one may receive4 ,out of society1 

man is so much raw material1 a          
capitalized tool1 and often an          
incommodious and useless piece of       
furniture4   #b4 ,equite1 justice1 and  
society1 can exist only between         
individuals of the same species4 ,they  
form no part of the relations of        
different races to each other1--for     
instance1 of the wolf to the goat1 of   
the goat to man1 of man to ,god1 much   
less of ,god to man4 ,the attribution of
 justice1 equity1 and love to the       
,supreme ,being is pure                 
anthropomorphism2 and the adjectives    
just1 merciful1 pitiful1 and the like1  
should be stricken from our litanies4   
,god can be regarded as just1 equitable1
 and good1 only to another ,god4 ,now1  
,god has no associate2 consequently1 he 
cannot experience social                
affections1--such as goodness1 equite1  
and justice4 ,is the shepherd said to be
 just to his sheep and his dogs8 ,no3   
and if he saw fit to shear as much wool 
from a lamb six months old1 as from a   

ram of two years2 or1 if he required as 
much work from a young dog as from an   
old one1--they would say1 not that he   
was unjust1 but that he was foolish4    
,between man and beast there is no      
society1 though there may be affection4 
,man loves the animals as ,,things1--as 
,,sentient ,,things1 if you will1--but  
not as ,,persons4 ,philosophy1 after    
having eliminated from the idea of ,god 
the passions ascribed to him by         
superstition1 will then be obliged to   
eliminate also the virtues which our    
liberal piety awards to him4 #be  ,the  
rights of woman and her relations with  
man are yet to be determined            
,matrimonial legislation1 like civil    
legislation1 is a matter for the future 
to settle4  ,if ,god should come down to
 earth1 and dwell among us1 we could not
 love him unless he became like us2 nor 
give him any thing unless he produced   
something2 nor listen to him unless he  
proved us mistaken2 nor worship him     
unless he manifested his power4 ,all the

 laws of our nature1 affectional1       
economical1 and intellectual1 would     
prevent us from treating him as we treat
 our fellow-men1--that is1 according to 
reason1 justice1 and equite4  ,i infer  
from this that1 if ,god should wish ever
 to put himself into immediate          
communication with man1 he would have to
 become a man4  ,now1 if kings are      
images of ,god1 and executors of his    
will1 they cannot receive love1 wealth1 
obedience1 and glory from us1 unless    
they consent to labor and associate with
 us--produce as much as they consume1   
reason with their subjects1 and do      
wonderful things4 ,still more2 if1 as   
some pretend1 kings are public          
functionaries1 the love which is due    
them is measured by their personal      
amiability2 our obligation to obey them1
 by the wisdom of their commands2 and   
their civil list1 by the total social   
production divided by the number of     
citizens4  ,thus1 jurisprudence1        
political economy1 and psychology agree 

in admitting the law of equality4 ,right
 and duty--the due reward of talent and 
labor--the outbursts of love and        
enthusiasm1--all are regulated in       
advance by an invariable standard2 all  
depend upon number and balance4         
,equality of conditions is the law of   
society1 and universal solidarity is the
 ratification of this law4  ,equality of
 conditions has never been realized1    
thanks to our passions and our          
ignorance2 but our opposition to this   
law has made it all the more a          
necessity4 ,to that fact history bears  
perpetual testimony1 and the course of  
events reveals it to us4 ,society       
advances from equation to equation4 ,to 
the eyes of the economist1 the          
revolutions of empires seem now like the
 reduction of algebraical quantities1   
which are inter-deducible2 now like the 
discovery of unknown quantities1 induced
 by the inevitable influence of time4   
,figures are the providence of history4 
,undoubtedly there are other elements in

 human progress2 but in the multitude of
 hidden causes which agitate nations1   
there is none more powerful or constant1
 none less obscure1 than the periodical 
explosions of the proletariat against   
property4 ,property1 acting by exclusion
 and encroachment1 while population was 
increasing1 has been the life-principle 
and definitive cause of all revolutions4
 ,religious wars1 and wars of conquest1 
when they have stopped short of the     
extermination of races1 have been only  
accidental disturbances1 soon repaired  
by the mathematical progression of the  
life of nations4 ,the downfall and death
 of societies are due to the power of   
accumulation possessed by property4  ,in
 the middle ages1 take ,florence1--a    
republic of merchants and brokers1      
always rent by its well-known factions1 
the ,guelphs and ,ghibellines1 who were1
 after all1 only the people and the     
proprietors fighting against each       
other1--,florence1 ruled by bankers1 and
 borne down at last by the weight of her

 debts2 #bf in ancient times1 take      
,rome1 preyed upon from its birth by    
usury1 flourishing1 nevertheless1 as    
long as the known world furnished its   
terrible proletaires with ,,labor       
stained with blood by civil war at every
 interval of rest1 and dying of         
exhaustion when the people lost1        
together with their former energy1 their
 last spark of moral sense2 ,carthage1 a
 commercial and financial city1         
continually divided by internal         
competition2 ,tyre1 ,sidon1 ,jerusalem1 
,nineveh1 ,babylon1 ruined1 in turn1 by 
commercial rivalry and1 as we now       
express it1 by panics in the market1--do
 not these famous examples show clearly 
enough the fate which awaits modern     
nations1 unless the people1 unless      
,france1 with a sudden burst of her     
powerful voice1 proclaims in            
thunder-tones the abolition of the      
regime of property8   ,here my task     
should end4 ,i have proved the right of 
the poor2 ,i have shown the usurpation  

of the rich4 ,i demand justice2 it is   
not my business to execute the sentence4
 ,if it should be argued--in order to   
prolong for a few years an illegitimate 
privilege--that it is not enough to     
demonstrate equality1 that it is        
necessary also to organize it1 and above
 all to establish it peacefully1 ,i     
might reply3 ,the welfare of the        
oppressed is of more importance than    
official composure4 ,equality of        
conditions is a natural law upon which  
public economy and jurisprudence are    
based4 ,the right to labor1 and the     
principle of equal distribution of      
wealth1 cannot give way to the anxieties
 of power4 ,it is not for the proletaire
 to reconcile the contradictions of the 
codes1 still less to suffer for the     
errors of the government4 ,on the       
contrary1 it is the duty of the civil   
and administrative power to reconstruct 
itself on the basis of political        
equality4 ,an evil1 when known1 should  
be condemned and destroyed4 ,the        

legislator cannot plead ignorance as an 
excuse for upholding a glaring iniquity4
 ,restitution should not be delayed4    
,justice1 justice6 recognition of right6
 reinstatement of the proletaire6--when 
these results are accomplished1 then1   
judges and consuls1 you may attend to   
your police1 and provide a government   
for the ,republic6  ,for the rest1 ,i do
 not think that a single one of my      
readers accuses me of knowing how to    
destroy1 but of not knowing how to      
construct4 ,in demonstrating the        
principle of equality1 ,i have laid the 
foundation of the social structure ,i   
have done more4 ,i have given an example
 of the true method of solving political
 and legislative problems4 ,of the      
science itself1 ,i confess that ,i know 
nothing more than its principle2 and ,i 
know of no one at present who can boast 
of having penetrated deeper4 ,many      
people cry1 ,come to me1 and ,i will    
teach you the truth6 ,these people      
mistake for the truth their cherished   

opinion and ardent conviction1 which is 
usually any thing but the truth4 ,the   
science of society--like all human      
sciences--will be for ever incomplete4  
,the depth and variety of the questions 
which it embraces are infinite4 ,we     
hardly know the ,a ,b ,c of this        
science1 as is proved by the fact that  
we have not yet emerged from the period 
of systems1 and have not ceased to put  
the authority of the majority in the    
place of facts4 ,a certain philological 
society decided linguistic questions by 
a plurality of votes4 ,our parliamentary
 debates--were their results less       
pernicious--would be even more          
ridiculous4 ,the task of the true       
publicist1 in the age in which we live1 
is to close the mouths of quacks and    
charlatans1 and to teach the public to  
demand demonstrations1 instead of being 
contented with symbols and programmes4  
,before talking of the science itself1  
it is necessary to ascertain its object1
 and discover its method and principle4 

,the ground must be cleared of the      
prejudices which encumber it4 ,such is  
the mission of the nineteenth century4  
,for my part1 ,i have sworn fidelity to 
my work of demolition1 and ,i will not  
cease to pursue the truth through the   
ruins and rubbish4 ,i hate to see a     
thing half done2 and it will be believed
 without any assurance of mine1 that1   
having dared to raise my hand against   
the ,holy ,ark1 ,i shall not rest       
contented with the removal of the cover4
 ,the mysteries of the sanctuary of     
iniquity must be unveiled1 the tables of
 the old alliance broken1 and all the   
objects of the ancient faith thrown in a
 heap to the swine4 ,a charter has been 
given to us1--a resume of political     
science1 the monument of twenty         
legislatures4 ,a code has been          
written1--the pride of a conqueror1 and 
the summary of ancient wisdom4 ,well6 of
 this charter and this code not one     
article shall be left standing upon     
another6 ,the time has come for the wise

 to choose their course1 and prepare for
 reconstruction4  ,but1 since a         
destroyed error necessarily implies a   
counter-truth1 ,i will not finish this  
treatise without solving the first      
problem of political science1--that     
which receives the attention of all     
minds4    ,,when ,,property ,,is        
,,abolished1 ,,what ,,will ,,be ,,the   
,,form ,,of ,,society6 ,,will ,,it ,,be 
,,communism8    ,,part ,,second4        
#a4--,of the ,causes of our ,mistakes4  
,the ,origin of ,property4   ,the true  
form of human society cannot be         
determined until the following question 
has been solved3--  ,property not being 
our natural condition1 how did it gain a
 foothold8 ,why has the social instinct1
 so trustworthy among the animals1 erred
 in the case of man8 ,why is man1 who   
was born for society1 not yet           
associated8  ,i have said that human    
society is ,,complex in its nature4     
,though this expression is inaccurate1  
the fact to which it refers is none the 

less true2 namely1 the classification of
 talents and capacities4 ,but who does  
not see that these talents and          
capacities1 owing to their infinite     
variety1 give rise to an infinite       
variety of wills1 and that the          
character1 the inclinations1 and--if ,i 
may venture to use the expression--the  
form of the ego1 are necessarily        
changed2 so that in the order of        
liberty1 as in the order of             
intelligence1 there are as many types as
 individuals1 as many characters as     
heads1 whose tastes1 fancies1 and       
propensities1 being modified by         
dissimilar ideas1 must necessarily      
conflict8 ,man1 by his nature and his   
instinct1 is predestined to society2 but
 his personality1 ever varying1 is      
adverse to it4  ,in societies of        
animals1 all the members do exactly the 
same things4 ,the same genius directs   
them2 the same will animates them4 ,a   
society of beasts is a collection of    
atoms1 round1 hooked1 cubical1 or       

triangular1 but always perfectly        
identical4 ,these personalities do not  
vary1 and we might say that a single ego
 governs them all4 ,the labors which    
animals perform1 whether alone or in    
society1 are exact reproductions of     
their character4 ,just as the swarm of  
bees is composed of individual bees1    
alike in nature and equal in value1 so  
the honeycomb is formed of individual   
cells1 constantly and invariably        
repeated4  ,but man's intelligence1     
fitted for his social destiny and his   
personal needs1 is of a very different  
composition1 and therefore gives rise to
 a wonderful variety of human wills4 ,in
 the bee1 the will is constant and      
uniform1 because the instinct which     
guides it is invariable1 and constitutes
 the animal's whole life and nature4 ,in
 man1 talent varies1 and the mind       
wavers2 consequently1 his will is       
multiform and vague4 ,he seeks society1 
but dislikes constraint and monotony2 he
 is an imitator1 but fond of his own    

ideas1 and passionately in love with his
 works4  ,if1 like the bees1 every man  
were born possessed of talent1 perfect  
knowledge of certain kinds1 and1 in a   
word1 an innate acquaintance with the   
functions he has to perform1 but        
destitute of reflective and reasoning   
faculties1 society would organize       
itself4 ,we should see one man plowing a
 field1 another building houses2 this   
one forging metals1 that one cutting    
clothes2 and still others storing the   
products1 and superintending their      
distribution4 ,each one1 without        
inquiring as to the object of his labor1
 and without troubling himself about the
 extent of his task1 would obey orders1 
bring his product1 receive his salary1  
and would then rest for a time2 keeping 
meanwhile no accounts1 envious of       
nobody1 and satisfied with the          
distributor1 who never would be unjust  
to any one4 ,kings would govern1 but    
would not reign2 for to reign is to be a
 proprietor a l'engrais1 as ,bonaparte  

said3 and having no commands to give1   
since all would be at their posts1 they 
would serve rather as rallying centres  
than as authorities or counsellors4 ,it 
would be a state of ordered communism1  
but not a society entered into          
deliberately and freely4  ,but man      
acquires skill only by observation and  
experiment4 ,he reflects1 then1 since to
 observe and experiment is to reflect2  
he reasons1 since he cannot help        
reasoning4 ,in reflecting1 he becomes   
deluded2 in reasoning1 he makes         
mistakes1 and1 thinking himself right1  
persists in them4 ,he is wedded to his  
opinions2 he esteems himself1 and       
despises others4 ,consequently1 he      
isolates himself2 for he could not      
submit to the majority without          
renouncing his will and his             
reason1--that is1 without disowning     
himself1 which is impossible4 ,and this 
isolation1 this intellectual egotism1   
this individuality of opinion1 lasts    
until the truth is demonstrated to him  

by observation and experience4 ,a final 
illustration will make these facts still
 clearer4  ,if to the blind but         
convergent and harmonious instincts of a
 swarm of bees should be suddenly added 
reflection and judgment1 the little     
society could not long exist4 ,in the   
first place1 the bees would not fail to 
try some new industrial process2 for    
instance1 that of making their cells    
round or square4 ,all sorts of systems  
and inventions would be tried1 until    
long experience1 aided by geometry1     
should show them that the hexagonal     
shape is the best4 ,then insurrections  
would occur4 ,the drones would be told  
to provide for themselves1 and the      
queens to labor2 jealousy would spread  
among the laborers2 discords would burst
 forth2 soon each one would want to     
produce on his own account2 and finally 
the hive would be abandoned1 and the    
bees would perish4 ,evil would be       
introduced into the honey-producing     
republic by the power of                

reflection1--the very faculty which     
ought to constitute its glory4  ,thus1  
moral evil1 or1 in this case1 disorder  
in society1 is naturally explained by   
our power of reflection4 ,the mother of 
poverty1 crime1 insurrection1 and war   
was inequality of conditions2 which was 
the daughter of property1 which was born
 of selfishness1 which was engendered by
 private opinion1 which descended in a  
direct line from the autocracy of       
reason4 ,man1 in his infancy1 is neither
 criminal nor barbarous1 but ignorant   
and inexperienced4 ,endowed with        
imperious instincts which are under the 
control of his reasoning faculty1 at    
first he reflects but little1 and       
reasons inaccurately2 then1 benefiting  
by his mistakes1 he rectifies his ideas1
 and perfects his reason4 ,in the first 
place1 it is the savage sacrificing all 
his possessions for a trinket1 and then 
repenting and weeping2 it is ,esau      
selling his birthright for a mess of    
pottage1 and afterwards wishing to      

cancel the bargain2 it is the civilized 
workman laboring in insecurity1 and     
continually demanding that his wages be 
increased1 neither he nor his employer  
understanding that1 in the absence of   
equality1 any salary1 however large1 is 
always insufficient4 ,then it is ,naboth
 dying to defend his inheritance2 ,cato 
tearing out his entrails that he might  
not be enslaved2 ,socrates drinking the 
fatal cup in defence of liberty of      
thought2 it is the third estate of '#hi 
reclaiming its liberty3 soon it will be 
the people demanding equality of wages  
and an equal division of the means of   
production4  ,man is born a social      
being1--that is1 he seeks equality and  
justice in all his relations1 but he    
loves independence and praise4 ,the     
difficulty of satisfying these various  
desires at the same time is the primary 
cause of the despotism of the will1 and 
the appropriation which results from it4
 ,on the other hand1 man always needs a 
market for his products2 unable to      

compare values of different kinds1 he is
 satisfied to judge approximately1      
according to his passion and caprice2   
and he engages in dishonest commerce1   
which always results in wealth and      
poverty4 ,thus1 the greatest evils which
 man suffers arise from the misuse of   
his social nature1 of this same justice 
of which he is so proud1 and which he   
applies with such deplorable ignorance4 
,the practice of justice is a science   
which1 when once discovered and         
diffused1 will sooner or later put an   
end to social disorder1 by teaching us  
our rights and duties4  ,this           
progressive and painful education of our
 instinct1 this slow and imperceptible  
transformation of our spontaneous       
perceptions into deliberate knowledge1  
does not take place among the animals1  
whose instincts remain fixed1 and never 
become enlightened4   ,according to     
,frederic ,cuvier1 who has so clearly   
distinguished between instinct and      
intelligence in animals1 'instinct is a 

natural and inherent faculty1 like      
feeling1 irritability1 or intelligence4 
,the wolf and the fox who recognize the 
traps in which they have been caught1   
and who avoid them2 the dog and the     
horse1 who understand the meaning of    
several of our words1 and who obey      
us1--thereby show intelligence4 ,the dog
 who hides the remains of his dinner1   
the bee who constructs his cell1 the    
bird who builds his nest1 act only from 
instinct4 ,even man has instincts3 it is
 a special instinct which leads the     
new-born child to suck4 ,but1 in man1   
almost every thing is accomplished by   
intelligence2 and intelligence          
supplements instinct4 ,the opposite is  
true of animals3 their instinct is given
 them as a supplement to their          
intelligence4'--,flourens3 ,analytical  
,summary of the ,observations of ,f4    
,cuvier4  ,we can form a clear idea of  
instinct only by admitting that animals 
have in their sensorium1 images or      
innate and constant sensations1 which   

influence their actions in the same     
manner that ordinary and accidental     
sensations commonly do4 ,it is a sort of
 dream1 or vision1 which always follows 
them and in all which relates to        
instinct they may be regarded as        
somnambulists4--,f4 ,cuvier3            
,introduction to the ,animal ,kingdom4  
,intelligence and instinct being common1
 then1 though in different degrees1 to  
animals and man1 what is the            
distinguishing characteristic of the    
latter8 ,according to ,f4 ,cuvier1 it is
 ,,reflection ,,or ,,the ,,power ,,of   
,,intellectually ,,considering ,,our    
,,own ,,modifications ,,by ,a ,,survey  
,,of ,,ourselves4 ,this lacks clearness1
 and requires an explanation4  ,if we   
grant intelligence to animals1 we must  
also grant them1 in some degree1        
reflection2 for1 the first cannot exist 
without the second1 as ,f4 ,cuvier      
himself has proved by numerous examples4
 ,but notice that the learned observer  
defines the kind of reflection which    

distinguishes us from the animals as the
 ,,power ,,of ,,considering ,,our ,,own 
,,modifications4 ,this ,i shall         
endeavour to interpret1 by developing to
 the best of my ability the laconism of 
the philosophical naturalist4  ,the     
intelligence acquired by animals never  
modifies the operations which they      
perform by instinct3 it is given them   
only as a provision against unexpected  
accidents which might disturb these     
operations4 ,in man1 on the contrary1   
instinctive action is constantly        
changing into deliberate action4 ,thus1 
man is social by instinct1 and is every 
day becoming social by reflection and   
choice4 ,at first1 he formed his words  
by instinct2#a he was a poet by         
inspiration3 to-day1 he makes grammar a 
science1 and poetry an art4 ,his        
conception of ,god and a future life is 
spontaneous and instinctive1 and his    
expressions of this conception have     
been1 by turns1 monstrous1 eccentric1   
beautiful1 comforting1 and terrible4    

,all these different creeds1 at which   
the frivolous irreligion of the         
eighteenth century mocked1 are modes of 
expression of the religious sentiment4  
,some day1 man will explain to himself  
the character of the ,god whom he       
believes in1 and the nature of that     
other world to which his soul aspires4  
#a ,the problem of the origin of        
language is solved by the distinction   
made by ,frederic ,cuvier between       
instinct and intelligence4 ,language is 
not a premeditated1 arbitrary1 or       
conventional device2 nor is it          
communicated or revealed to us by ,god4 
,language is an instinctive and         
unpremeditated creation of man1 as the  
hive is of the bee4 ,in this sense1 it  
may be said that language is not the    
work of man1 since it is not the work of
 his mind4 ,further1 the mechanism of   
language seems more wonderful and       
ingenious when it is not regarded as the
 result of reflection4 ,this fact is one
 of the most curious and indisputable   

which philology has observed4 ,see1     
among other works1 a ,latin essay by ,f4
 ,g4 ,bergmann 7,strasbourg1 #ahci71 in 
which the learned author explains how   
the phonetic germ is born of sensation2 
how language passes through three       
successive stages of development2 why   
man1 endowed at birth with the          
instinctive faculty of creating a       
language1 loses this faculty as fast as 
his mind develops2 and that the study of
 languages is real natural history1--in 
fact1 a science4 ,france possesses      
to-day several philologists of the first
 rank1 endowed with rare talents and    
deep philosophic insight1--modest       
savants developing a science almost     
without the knowledge of the public2    
devoting themselves to studies which are
 scornfully looked down upon1 and       
seeming to shun applause as much as     
others seek it4   ,all that he does from
 instinct man despises2 or1 if he       
admires it1 it is as ,nature's work1 not
 as his own4 ,this explains the         

obscurity which surrounds the names of  
early inventors2 it explains also our   
indifference to religious matters1 and  
the ridicule heaped upon religious      
customs4 ,man esteems only the products 
of reflection and of reason4 ,the most  
wonderful works of instinct are1 in his 
eyes1 only lucky ,,god-,,sends2 he      
reserves the name ,,discovery--,i had   
almost said creation--for the works of  
intelligence4 ,instinct is the source of
 passion and enthusiasm2 it is          
intelligence which causes crime and     
virtue4  ,in developing his             
intelligence1 man makes use of not only 
his own observations1 but also those of 
others4 ,he keeps an account of his     
experience1 and preserves the record2 so
 that the race1 as well as the          
individual1 becomes more and more       
intelligent4 ,the animals do not        
transmit their knowledge2 that which    
each individual accumulates dies with   
him4  ,it is not enough1 then1 to say   
that we are distinguished from the      

animals by reflection1 unless we mean   
thereby the ,,constant ,,tendency ,,of  
,,our ,,instinct ,,to ,,become          
,,intelligence4 ,while man is governed  
by instinct1 he is unconscious of his   
acts4 ,he never would deceive himself1  
and never would be troubled by errors1  
evils1 and disorder1 if1 like the       
animals1 instinct were his only guide4  
,but the ,creator has endowed us with   
reflection1 to the end that our instinct
 might become intelligence2 and since   
this reflection and resulting knowledge 
pass through various stages1 it happens 
that in the beginning our instinct is   
opposed1 rather than guided1 by         
reflection2 consequently1 that our power
 of thought leads us to act in          
opposition to our nature and our end2   
that1 deceiving ourselves1 we do and    
suffer evil1 until instinct which points
 us towards good1 and reflection which  
makes us stumble into evil1 are replaced
 by the science of good and evil1 which 
invariably causes us to seek the one and

 avoid the other4  ,thus1 evil--or error
 and its consequences--is the firstborn 
son of the union of two opposing        
faculties1 instinct and reflection2     
good1 or truth1 must inevitably be the  
second child4 ,or1 to again employ the  
figure1 evil is the product of incest   
between adverse powers2 good will sooner
 or later be the legitimate child of    
their holy and mysterious union4        
,property1 born of the reasoning        
faculty1 intrenches itself behind       
comparisons4 ,but1 just as reflection   
and reason are subsequent to            
spontaneity1 observation to sensation1  
and experience to instinct1 so property 
is subsequent to communism4             
,communism--or association in a simple  
form--is the necessary object and       
original aspiration of the social       
nature1 the spontaneous movement by     
which it manifests and establishes      
itself4 ,it is the first phase of human 
civilization4 ,in this state of         
society1--which the jurists have called 

,,negative ,,communism--man draws near  
to man1 and shares with him the fruits  
of the field and the milk and flesh of  
animals4 ,little by little this         
communism--negative as long as man does 
not produce--tends to become positive   
and organic through the development of  
labor and industry4 ,but it is then that
 the sovereignty of thought1 and the    
terrible faculty of reasoning logically 
or illogically1 teach man that1 if      
equality is the sine qua non of society1
 communism is the first species of      
slavery4 ,to express this idea by an    
,hegelian formula1 ,i will say3         
,communism--the first expression of the 
social nature--is the first term of     
social development1--the ,,thesis2      
property1 the reverse of communism1 is  
the second term1--the ,,antithesis4     
,when we have discovered the third term1
 the ,,synthesis1 we shall have the     
required solution4 ,now1 this synthesis 
necessarily results from the correction 
of the thesis by the antithesis4        

,therefore it is necessary1 by a final  
examination of their characteristics1 to
 eliminate those features which are     
hostile to sociability4 ,the union of   
the two remainders will give us the true
 form of human association4             
#b4--;,characteristics of ,communism and
 of ,property4   ,i4 ,i ought not to    
conceal the fact that property and      
communism have been considered always   
the only possible forms of society4     
,this deplorable error has been the life
 of property4 ,the disadvantages of     
communism are so obvious that its       
critics never have needed to employ much
 eloquence to thoroughly disgust men    
with it4 ,the irreparability of the     
injustice which it causes1 the violence 
which it does to attractions and        
repulsions1 the yoke of iron which it   
fastens upon the will1 the moral torture
 to which it subjects the conscience1   
the debilitating effect which it has    
upon society2 and1 to sum it all up1 the
 pious and stupid uniformity which it   

enforces upon the free1 active1         
reasoning1 unsubmissive personality of  
man1 have shocked common sense1 and     
condemned communism by an irrevocable   
decree4  ,the authorities and examples  
cited in its favor disprove it4 ,the    
communistic republic of ,plato involved 
slavery2 that of ,lycurgus employed     
,helots1 whose duty it was to produce   
for their masters1 thus enabling the    
latter to devote themselves exclusively 
to athletic sports and to war4 ,even ,j4
 ,j4 ,rousseau--confounding communism   
and equality--has said somewhere that1  
without slavery1 he did not think       
equality of conditions possible4 ,the   
communities of the early ,church did not
 last the first century out1 and soon   
degenerated into monasteries4 ,in those 
of the ,jesuits of ,paraguay1 the       
condition of the blacks is said by all  
travellers to be as miserable as that of
 slaves2 and it is a fact that the good 
,fathers were obliged to surround       
themselves with ditches and walls to    

prevent their new converts from         
escaping4 ,the followers of             
,baboeuf--guided by a lofty horror of   
property rather than by any definite    
belief--were ruined by exaggeration of  
their principles2 the ,st4 ,simonians1  
lumping communism and inequality1 passed
 away like a masquerade4 ,the greatest  
danger to which society is exposed      
to-day is that of another shipwreck on  
this rock4  ,singularly enough1         
systematic communism--the deliberate    
negation of property--is conceived under
 the direct influence of the proprietary
 prejudice2 and property is the basis of
 all communistic theories4  ,the members
 of a community1 it is true1 have no    
private property2 but the community is  
proprietor1 and proprietor not only of  
the goods1 but of the persons and wills4
 ,in consequence of this principle of   
absolute property1 labor1 which should  
be only a condition imposed upon man by 
,nature1 becomes in all communities a   
human commandment1 and therefore odious4

 ,passive obedience1 irreconcilable with
 a reflecting will1 is strictly         
enforced4 ,fidelity to regulations1     
which are always defective1 however wise
 they may be thought1 allows of no      
complaint4 ,life1 talent1 and all the   
human faculties are the property of the 
,state1 which has the right to use them 
as it pleases for the common good4      
,private associations are sternly       
prohibited1 in spite of the likes and   
dislikes of different natures1 because  
to tolerate them would be to introduce  
small communities within the large one1 
and consequently private property2 the  
strong work for the weak1 although this 
ought to be left to benevolence1 and not
 enforced1 advised1 or enjoined2 the    
industrious work for the lazy1 although 
this is unjust2 the clever work for the 
foolish1 although this is absurd2 and1  
finally1 man--casting aside his         
personality1 his spontaneity1 his       
genius1 and his affections--humbly      
annihilates himself at the feet of the  

majestic and inflexible ,commune6       
,communism is inequality1 but not as    
property is4 ,property is the           
exploitation of the weak by the strong4 
,communism is the exploitation of the   
strong by the weak4 ,in property1       
inequality of conditions is the result  
of force1 under whatever name it be     
disguised3 physical and mental force2   
force of events1 chance1 ,,fortune2     
force of accumulated property1 c4 ,in   
communism1 inequality springs from      
placing mediocrity on a level with      
excellence4 ,this damaging equation is  
repellent to the conscience1 and causes 
merit to complain2 for1 although it may 
be the duty of the strong to aid the    
weak1 they prefer to do it out of       
generosity1--they never will endure a   
comparison4 ,give them equal            
opportunities of labor1 and equal wages1
 but never allow their jealousy to be   
awakened by mutual suspicion of         
unfaithfulness in the performance of the
 common task4  ,communism is oppression 

and slavery4 ,man is very willing to    
obey the law of duty1 serve his country1
 and oblige his friends2 but he wishes  
to labor when he pleases1 where he      
pleases1 and as much as he pleases4 ,he 
wishes to dispose of his own time1 to be
 governed only by necessity1 to choose  
his friendships1 his recreation1 and his
 discipline2 to act from judgment1 not  
by command2 to sacrifice himself through
 selfishness1 not through servile       
obligation4 ,communism is essentially   
opposed to the free exercise of our     
faculties1 to our noblest desires1 to   
our deepest feelings4 ,any plan which   
could be devised for reconciling it with
 the demands of the individual reason   
and will would end only in changing the 
thing while preserving the name4 ,now1  
if we are honest truth-seekers1 we shall
 avoid disputes about words4  ,thus1    
communism violates the sovereignty of   
the conscience1 and equality3 the first1
 by restricting spontaneity of mind and 
heart1 and freedom of thought and       

action2 the second1 by placing labor and
 laziness1 skill and stupidity1 and even
 vice and virtue on an equality in point
 of comfort4 ,for the rest1 if property 
is impossible on account of the desire  
to accumulate1 communism would soon     
become so through the desire to shirk4  
,,ii4 ,property1 in its turn1 violates  
equality by the rights of exclusion and 
increase1 and freedom by despotism4 ,the
 former effect of property having been  
sufficiently developed in the last three
 chapters1 ,i will content myself here  
with establishing by a final comparison1
 its perfect identity with robbery4     
,the ,latin words for robber are fur and
 latro2 the former taken from the ,greek
 ,,greek m 1 from ,,greek m 1 ,latin    
fero1 ,i carry away2 the latter from    
,,greek 'i 1 ,i play the part of a      
brigand1 which is derived from ,,greek i
 1 ,latin lateo1 ,i conceal myself4 ,the
 ,greeks have also ,,greek ncg 1 from   
,,greek ncg 1 ,i filch1 whose radical   
consonants are the same as those of     

,,greek ' cg 1 ,i cover1 ,i conceal4    
,thus1 in these languages1 the idea of a
 robber is that of a man who conceals1  
carries away1 or diverts1 in any manner 
whatever1 a thing which does not belong 
to him4  ,the ,hebrews expressed the    
same idea by the word                   
gannab1--robber1--from the verb ganab1  
which means to put away1 to turn aside3 
lo thi-gnob 7,decalogue3 ,eighth        
,commandment71 thou shalt not           
steal1--that is1 thou shalt not hold    
back1 thou shalt not put away any thing 
for thyself4 ,that is the act of a man  
who1 on entering into a society into    
which he agrees to bring all that he    
has1 secretly reserves a portion1 as did
 the celebrated disciple ,ananias4  ,the
 etymology of the ,french verb voler is 
still more significant4 ,voler1 or faire
 la vole 7from the ,latin vola1 palm of 
the hand71 means to take all the tricks 
in a game of ombre2 so that le voleur1  
the robber1 is the capitalist who takes 
all1 who gets the lion's share4         

,probably this verb voler had its origin
 in the professional slang of thieves1  
whence it has passed into common use1   
and1 consequently into the phraseology  
of the law4  ,robbery is committed in a 
variety of ways1 which have been very   
cleverly distinguished and classified by
 legislators according to their         
heinousness or merit1 to the end that   
some robbers may be honored1 while      
others are punished4  ,we rob1--#a4 ,by 
murder on the highway2 #b4 ,alone1 or in
 a band2 #c4 ,by breaking into          
buildings1 or scaling walls2 #d4 ,by    
abstraction2 #e4 ,by fraudulent         
bankruptcy2 #f4 ,by forgery of the      
handwriting of public officials or      
private individuals2 #g4 ,by manufacture
 of counterfeit money4  ,this species   
includes all robbers who practise their 
profession with no other aid than force 
and open fraud4 ,bandits1 brigands1     
pirates1 rovers by land and sea1--these 
names were gloried in by the ancient    
heroes1 who thought their profession as 

noble as it was lucrative4 ,nimrod1     
,theseus1 ,jason and his ,argonauts2    
,jephthah1 ,david1 ,cacus1 ,romulus1    
,clovis and all his ,merovingian        
descendants2 ,robert ,guiscard1 ,tancred
 de ,hauteville1 ,bohemond1 and most of 
the ,norman heroes1--were brigands and  
robbers4 ,the heroic character of the   
robber is expressed in this line from   
,horace1 in reference to ,achilles1--   
,jura neget sibi nata1 nihil non arroget
 armis1 #bg and by this sentence from   
the dying words of ,jacob 7,gen4        
xlviii471 which the ,jews apply to      
,david1 and the ,christians to their    
,christ3 ,manus ejus contra omnes4 ,in  
our day1 the robber--the warrior of the 
ancients--is pursued with the utmost    
vigor4 ,his profession1 in the language 
of the code1 entails ignominious and    
corporal penalties1 from imprisonment to
 the scaffold4 ,a sad change in opinions
 here below6  ,we rob1--#h4 ,by         
cheating2 #i4 ,by swindling2 #aj4 ,by   
abuse of trust2 #aa4 ,by games and      

lotteries4  ,this second species was    
encouraged by the laws of ,lycurgus1 in 
order to sharpen the wits of the young4 
,it is the kind practised by ,ulysses1  
,solon1 and ,sinon2 by the ancient and  
modern ,jews1 from ,jacob down to       
,deutz2 and by the ,bohemians1 the      
,arabs1 and all savage tribes4 ,under   
,louis ,,xiii4 and ,louis ,,xiv41 it was
 not considered dishonorable to cheat at
 play4 ,to do so was a part of the game2
 and many worthy people did not scruple 
to correct the caprice of ,fortune by   
dexterous jugglery4 ,to-day even1 and in
 all countries1 it is thought a mark of 
merit among peasants1 merchants1 and    
shopkeepers to ,,know ,,how ,,to ,,make 
,a ,,bargain1--that is1 to deceive one's
 man4 ,this is so universally accepted1 
that the cheated party takes no offence4
 ,it is known with what reluctance our  
government resolved upon the abolition  
of lotteries4 ,it felt that it was      
dealing a stab thereby at property4 ,the
 pickpocket1 the blackleg1 and the      

charlatan make especial use of their    
dexterity of hand1 their subtlety of    
mind1 the magic power of their          
eloquence1 and their great fertility of 
invention4 ,sometimes they offer bait to
 cupidity4 ,therefore the penal         
code--which much prefers intelligence to
 muscular vigor--has made1 of the four  
varieties mentioned above1 a second     
category1 liable only to correctional1  
not to ,ignominious1 punishments4  ,let 
them now accuse the law of being        
materialistic and atheistic4  ,we       
rob1--#ab4 ,by usury4  ,this species of 
robbery1 so odious and so severely      
punished since the publication of the   
,gospel1 is the connecting link between 
forbidden and authorized robbery4 ,owing
 to its ambiguous nature1 it has given  
rise to a multitude of contradictions in
 the laws and in morals1--contradictions
 which have been very cleverly turned to
 account by lawyers1 financiers1 and    
merchants4 ,thus the usurer1 who lends  
on mortgage at ten1 twelve1 and fifteen 

per cent41 is heavily fined when        
detected2 while the banker1 who receives
 the same interest 7not1 it is true1    
upon a loan1 but in the way of exchange 
or discount1--that is1 of sale71 is     
protected by royal privilege4 ,but the  
distinction between the banker and the  
usurer is a purely nominal one4 ,like   
the usurer1 who lends on property1 real 
or personal1 the banker lends on        
business paper2 like the usurer1 he     
takes his interest in advance2 like the 
usurer1 he can recover from the borrower
 if the property is destroyed 7that is1 
if the note is not redeemed71--a        
circumstance which makes him a          
money-lender1 not a money-seller4 ,but  
the banker lends for a short time only1 
while the usurer's loan may be for one1 
two1 three1 or more years4 ,now1 a      
difference in the duration of the loan1 
or the form of the act1 does not alter  
the nature of the transaction4 ,as for  
the capitalists who invest their money1 
either with the ,state or in commercial 

operations1 at three1 four1 and five per
 cent41--that is1 who lend on usury at a
 little lower rate than the bankers and 
usurers1--they are the flower of        
society1 the cream of honesty6          
,moderation in robbery is the height of 
virtue6 #bh  ,but what1 then1 is usury8 
,nothing is more amusing than to see    
these ,,instructors ,,of ,,nations      
hesitate between the authority of the   
,gospel1 which1 they say1 ,,never ,,can 
,,have ,,spoken ,,in ,,vain1 and the    
authority of economical demonstrations4 
,nothing1 to my mind1 is more creditable
 to the ,gospel than this old infidelity
 of its pretended teachers4 ,salmasius1 
having assimilated interest to rent1 was
 ,,refuted by ,grotius1 ,pufendorf1     
,burlamaqui1 ,wolf1 and ,heineccius2    
and1 what is more curious still1        
,salmasius ,,admitted ,,his ,,error4    
,instead of inferring from this doctrine
 of ,salmasius that all increase is     
illegitimate1 and proceeding straight on
 to the demonstration of ,gospel        

equality1 they arrived at just the      
opposite conclusion2 namely1 that since 
everybody acknowledges that rent is     
permissible1 if we allow that interest  
does not differ from rent1 there is     
nothing left which can be called usury1 
and1 consequently1 that the commandment 
of ,jesus ,christ is an ,,illusion1 and 
amounts to ,,nothing1 which is an       
impious conclusion4  ,if this memoir had
 appeared in the time of ,bossuet1 that 
great theologian would have ,,proved by 
scripture1 the fathers1 traditions1     
councils1 and popes1 that property      
exists by ,divine right1 while usury is 
an invention of the devil2 and the      
heretical work would have been burned1  
and the author imprisoned4   ,we        
rob1--#ac4 ,by farm-rent1 house-rent1   
and leases of all kinds4  ,the author of
 the ,provincial ,letters entertained   
the honest ,christians of the           
seventeenth century at the expense of   
,escobar1 the ,jesuit1 and the contract 
,mohatra4 ,the contract ,mohatra1 said  

,escobar1 is a contract by which goods  
are bought1 at a high price and on      
credit1 to be again sold at the same    
moment to the same person1 cash down1   
and at a lower price4 ,escobar found a  
way to justify this kind of usury4      
,pascal and all the ,jansenists laughed 
at him4 ,but what would the satirical   
,pascal1 the learned ,nicole1 and the   
invincible ,arnaud have said1 if ,father
 ,antoine ,escobar de ,valladolid had   
answered them thus3 ,a lease is a       
contract by which real estate is bought1
 at a high price and on credit1 to be   
again sold1 at the expiration of a      
certain time1 to the same person1 at a  
lower price2 only1 to simplify the      
transaction1 the buyer is content to pay
 the difference between the first sale  
and the second4 ,either deny the        
identity of the lease and the contract  
,mohatra1 and then ,i will annihilate   
you in a moment2 or1 if you admit the   
similarity1 admit also the soundness of 
my doctrine3 otherwise you proscribe    

both interest and rent at one blow8  ,in
 reply to this overwhelming argument of 
the ,jesuit1 the sire of ,montalte would
 have sounded the tocsin1 and would have
 shouted that society was in            
peril1--that the ,jesuits were sapping  
its very foundations4  ,we rob1--#ad4   
,by commerce1 when the profit of the    
merchant exceeds his legitimate salary4 
,everybody knows the definition of      
commerce--,,the ,,art ,,of ,,buying     
,,for ,,three ,,francs ,,that ,,which   
,,is ,,worth ,,six1 ,,and ,,of ,,selling
 ,,for ,,six ,,that ,,which ,,is ,,worth
 ,,three4 ,between commerce thus defined
 and vol a l'americaine1 the only       
difference is in the relative proportion
 of the values exchanged1--in short1 in 
the amount of the profit4  ,we          
rob1--#ae4 ,by making profit on our     
product1 by accepting sinecures1 and by 
exacting exorbitant wages4  ,the farmer1
 who sells a certain amount of corn to  
the consumer1 and who during the        
measurement thrusts his hand into the   

bushel and takes out a handful of       
grains1 robs2 the professor1 whose      
lectures are paid for by the ,state1 and
 who through the intervention of a      
bookseller sells them to the public a   
second time1 robs2 the sinecurist1 who  
receives an enormous product in exchange
 for his vanity1 robs2 the functionary1 
the laborer1 whatever he may be1 who    
produces only one and gets paid four1   
one hundred1 or one thousand1 robs2 the 
publisher of this book1 and ,i1 its     
author1--we rob1 by charging for it     
twice as much as it is worth4  ,in      
recapitulation3--  ,justice1 after      
passing through the state of negative   
communism1 called by the ancient poets  
the ,,age ,,of ,,gold1 commences as the 
right of the strongest4 ,in a society   
which is trying to organize itself1     
inequality of faculties calls up the    
idea of merit2 equite suggests the plan 
of proportioning not only esteem1 but   
also material comforts1 to personal     
merit2 and since the highest and almost 

the only merit then recognized is       
physical strength1 the strongest1       
,,greek ' eg 1 and consequently the     
best1 ,,greek ' eg 1 is entitled to the 
largest share2 and if it is refused him1
 he very naturally takes it by force4   
,from this to the assumption of the     
right of property in all things1 it is  
but one step4  ,such was justice in the 
heroic age1 preserved1 at least by      
tradition1 among the ,greeks and ,romans
 down to the last days of their         
republics4 ,plato1 in the ,gorgias1     
introduces a character named ,callicles1
 who spiritedly defends the right of the
 strongest1 which ,socrates1 the        
advocate of equality1 ,,greek g e  1    
seriously refutes4  ,it is related of   
the great ,pompey1 that he blushed      
easily1 and1 nevertheless1 these words  
once escaped his lips3 ,why should ,i   
respect the laws1 when ,i have arms in  
my hand8 ,this shows him to have been a 
man in whom the moral sense and ambition
 were struggling for the mastery1 and   

who sought to justify his violence by   
the motto of the hero and the brigand4  
,from the right of the strongest springs
 the exploitation of man by man1 or     
bondage2 usury1 or the tribute levied   
upon the conquered by the conqueror2 and
 the whole numerous family of taxes1    
duties1 monarchical prerogatives1       
house-rents1 farm-rents1 c42 in one     
word1--property4  ,force was followed by
 artifice1 the second manifestation of  
justice1 which was detested by the      
ancient heroes1 who1 not excelling in   
that direction1 were heavy losers by it4
 ,force was still employed1 but mental  
force instead of physical4 ,skill in    
deceiving an enemy by treacherous       
propositions seemed deserving of reward2
 nevertheless1 the strong always prided 
themselves upon their honesty4 ,in those
 days1 oaths were observed and promises 
kept according to the letter rather than
 the spirit3 ,uti lingua nuncupassit1   
ita jus esto1--,as the tongue has       
spoken1 so must the right be1 says the  

law of the ,twelve ,tables4 ,artifice1  
or rather perfidy1 was the main element 
in the politics of ancient ,rome4 ,among
 other examples1 ,vico cites the        
following1 also quoted by ,montesquieu3 
,the ,romans had guaranteed to the      
,carthaginians the preservation of their
 goods and their ,,city1--intentionally 
using the word civitas1 that is1 the    
society1 the ,state2 the ,carthaginians1
 on the contrary1 understood them to    
mean the material city1 urbs1 and       
accordingly began to rebuild their      
walls4 ,they were immediately attacked  
on account of their violation of the    
treaty1 by the ,romans1 who1 acting upon
 the old heroic idea of right1 did not  
imagine that1 in taking advantage of an 
equivocation to surprise their enemies1 
they were waging unjust war4  ,from     
artifice sprang the profits of          
manufactures1 commerce1 and banking1    
mercantile frauds1 and pretensions which
 are honored with the beautiful names of
 ,,talent and ,,genius1 but which ought 

to be regarded as the last degree of    
knavery and deception2 and1 finally1 all
 sorts of social inequalities4  ,in     
those forms of robbery which are        
prohibited by law1 force and artifice   
are employed alone and undisguised2 in  
the authorized forms1 they conceal      
themselves within a useful product1     
which they use as a tool to plunder     
their victim4  ,the direct use of       
violence and stratagem was early and    
universally condemned2 but no nation has
 yet got rid of that kind of robbery    
which acts through talent1 labor1 and   
possession1 and which is the source of  
all the dilemmas of casuistry and the   
innumerable contradictions of           
jurisprudence4  ,the right of force and 
the right of artifice--glorified by the 
rhapsodists in the poems of the ,iliad  
and the ,odyssey--inspired the          
legislation of the ,greeks and ,romans1 
from which they passed into our morals  
and codes4 ,christianity has not changed
 at all4 ,the ,gospel should not be     

blamed1 because the priests1 as stupid  
as the legists1 have been unable either 
to expound or to understand it4 ,the    
ignorance of councils and popes upon all
 questions of morality is equal to that 
of the market-place and the             
money-changers2 and it is this utter    
ignorance of right1 justice1 and        
society1 which is killing the ,church1  
and discrediting its teachings for ever4
 ,the infidelity of the ,roman church   
and other ,christian churches is        
flagrant2 all have disregarded the      
precept of ,jesus2 all have erred in    
moral and doctrinal points2 all are     
guilty of teaching false and absurd     
dogmas1 which lead straight to          
wickedness and murder4 ,let it ask      
pardon of ,god and men1--this church    
which called itself infallible1 and     
which has grown so corrupt in morals2   
let its reformed sisters humble         
themselves1444 and the people1          
undeceived1 but still religious and     
merciful1 will begin to think4 #bi  ,one

 of the main causes of ,ireland's       
poverty to-day is the immense revenues  
of the ,english clergy4 ,so heretics and
 orthodox--,protestants and             
,papists--cannot reproach each other4   
,all have strayed from the path of      
justice2 all have disobeyed the eighth  
commandment of the ,decalogue3 ,thou    
shalt not steal4   ,the development of  
right has followed the same order1 in   
its various expressions1 that property  
has in its forms4 ,every where we see   
justice driving robbery before it and   
confining it within narrower and        
narrower limits4 ,hitherto the victories
 of justice over injustice1 and of      
equality over inequality1 have been won 
by instinct and the simple force of     
things2 but the final triumph of our    
social nature will be due to our reason1
 or else we shall fall back into feudal 
chaos4 ,either this glorious height is  
reserved for our intelligence1 or this  
miserable depth for our baseness4  ,the 
second effect of property is despotism4 

,now1 since despotism is inseparably    
connected with the idea of legitimate   
authority1 in explaining the natural    
causes of the first1 the principle of   
the second will appear4  ,what is to be 
the form of government in the future8   
hear some of my younger readers reply3  
,why1 how can you ask such a question8  
,you are a republican4 ,a republican6   
,yes2 but that word specifies nothing4  
,res publica2 that is1 the public thing4
 ,now1 whoever is interested in public  
affairs--no matter under what form of   
government--may call himself a          
republican4 ,even kings are             
republicans4--   ,well6 you are a       
democrat8--,no4--,what6 you would have a
 monarchy4--,no4--,a                    
constitutionalist8--,god forbid6--,you  
are then an aristocrat8--,not at        
all4--,you want a mixed                 
government8--,still less4--,what are    
you1 then8--,i am an anarchist4  ,oh6 ,i
 understand you2 you speak satirically4 
,this is a hit at the government4--,by  

no means4 ,i have just given you my     
serious and well-considered profession  
of faith4 ,although a firm friend of    
order1 ,i am 7in the full force of the  
term7 an anarchist4 ,listen to me4   ,in
 all species of sociable animals1 the   
weakness of the young is the principle  
of their obedience to the old1 who are  
strong2 and from habit1 which is a kind 
of conscience with them1 the power      
remains with the oldest1 although he    
finally becomes the weakest4  ,whenever 
the society is under the control of a   
chief1 this chief is almost always the  
oldest of the troop4 ,i say almost      
always1 because the established order   
may be disturbed by violent outbreaks4  
,then the authority passes to another2  
and1 having been re-established by      
force1 it is again maintained by habit4 
,wild horses go in herds3 they have a   
chief who marches at their head1 whom   
they confidently follow1 and who gives  
the signal for flight or battle4  ,the  
sheep which we have raised follows us1  

but it follows in company with the flock
 in the midst of which it was born4 ,it 
regards man ,,as ,,the ,,chief ,,of     
,,its ,,flock4444 ,man is regarded by   
domestic animals as a member of their   
society4 ,all that he has to do is to   
get himself accepted by them as an      
associate3 he soon becomes their chief1 
in consequence of his superior          
intelligence4 ,he does not1 then1 change
 the ,,natural ,,condition of these     
animals1 as ,buffon has said4 ,on the   
contrary1 he uses this natural condition
 to his own advantage2 in other words1  
he finds ,,sociable animals1 and renders
 them ,,domestic by becoming their      
associate and chief4 ,thus1 the         
,,domesticity of animals is only a      
special condition1 a simple             
modification1 a definitive consequence  
of their ,,sociability4 ,all domestic   
animals are by nature sociable          
animals4444--,flourens3 ,summary of the 
,observations of ,f4 ,cuvier4           
,sociable animals follow their chief by 

,,instinct2 but take notice of the fact 
7which ,f4 ,cuvier omitted to state71   
that the function of the chief is       
altogether one of ,,intelligence4 ,the  
chief does not teach the others to      
associate1 to unite under his lead1 to  
reproduce their kind1 to take to flight1
 or to defend themselves4 ,concerning   
each of these particulars1 his          
subordinates are as well informed as he4
 ,but it is the chief who1 by his       
accumulated experience1 provides against
 accidents2 he it is whose private      
intelligence supplements1 in difficult  
situations1 the general instinct2 he it 
is who deliberates1 decides1 and leads2 
he it is1 in short1 whose enlightened   
prudence regulates the public routine   
for the greatest good of all4  ,man     
7naturally a sociable being7 naturally  
follows a chief4 ,originally1 the chief 
is the father1 the patriarch1 the elder2
 in other words1 the good and wise man1 
whose functions1 consequently1 are      
exclusively of a reflective and         

intellectual nature4 ,the human         
race--like all other races of sociable  
animals--has its instincts1 its innate  
faculties1 its general ideas1 and its   
categories of sentiment and reason4 ,its
 chiefs1 legislators1 or kings have     
devised nothing1 supposed nothing1      
imagined nothing4 ,they have only guided
 society by their accumulated           
experience1 always however in conformity
 with opinions and beliefs4  ,those     
philosophers who 7carrying into morals  
and into history their gloomy and       
factious whims7 affirm that the human   
race had originally neither chiefs nor  
kings1 know nothing of the nature of    
man4 ,royalty1 and absolute royalty1    
is--as truly and more truly than        
democracy--a primitive form of          
government4 ,perceiving that1 in the    
remotest ages1 crowns and kingships were
 worn by heroes1 brigands1 and          
knight-errants1 they confound the two   
things1--royalty and despotism4 ,but    
royalty dates from the creation of man2 

it existed in the age of negative       
communism4 ,ancient heroism 7and the    
despotism which it engendered7 commenced
 only with the first manifestation of   
the idea of justice2 that is1 with the  
reign of force4 ,as soon as the         
strongest1 in the comparison of merits1 
was decided to be the best1 the oldest  
had to abandon his position1 and royalty
 became despotic4  ,the spontaneous1    
instinctive1 and--so to                 
speak--physiological origin of royalty  
gives it1 in the beginning1 a superhuman
 character4 ,the nations connected it   
with the gods1 from whom they said the  
first kings descended4 ,this notion was 
the origin of the divine genealogies of 
royal families1 the incarnations of     
gods1 and the messianic fables4 ,from it
 sprang the doctrine of divine right1   
which is still championed by a few      
singular characters4  ,royalty was at   
first elective1 because--at a time when 
man produced but little and possessed   
nothing--property was too weak to       

establish the principle of heredity1 and
 secure to the son the throne of his    
father2 but as soon as fields were      
cleared1 and cities built1 each function
 was1 like every thing else1            
appropriated1 and hereditary kingships  
and priesthoods were the result4 ,the   
principle of heredity was carried into  
even the most ordinary professions1--a  
circumstance which led to class         
distinctions1 pride of station1 and     
abjection of the common people1 and     
which confirms my assertion1 concerning 
the principle of patrimonial succession1
 that it is a method suggested by       
,nature of filling vacancies in         
business1 and completing unfinished     
tasks4  ,from time to time1 ambition    
caused usurpers1 or ,,supplanters of    
kings1 to start up2 and1 in consequence1
 some were called kings by right1 or    
legitimate kings1 and others ,,tyrants4 
,but we must not let these names deceive
 us4 ,there have been execrable kings1  
and very tolerable tyrants4 ,royalty may

 always be good1 when it is the only    
possible form of government2 legitimate 
it is never4 ,neither heredity1 nor     
election1 nor universal suffrage1 nor   
the excellence of the sovereign1 nor the
 consecration of religion and of time1  
can make royalty legitimate4 ,whatever  
form it takes1--monarchic1 oligarchic1  
or democratic1--royalty1 or the         
government of man by man1 is            
illegitimate and absurd4  ,man1 in order
 to procure as speedily as possible the 
most thorough satisfaction of his wants1
 seeks ,,rule4 ,in the beginning1 this  
rule is to him living1 visible1 and     
tangible4 ,it is his father1 his master1
 his king4 ,the more ignorant man is1   
the more obedient he is1 and the more   
absolute is his confidence in his guide4
 ,but1 it being a law of man's nature to
 conform to rule1--that is1 to discover 
it by his powers of reflection and      
reason1--man reasons upon the commands  
of his chiefs4 ,now1 such reasoning as  
that is a protest against authority1--a 

beginning of disobedience4 ,at the      
moment that man inquires into the       
motives which govern the will of his    
sovereign1--at that moment man revolts4 
,if he obeys no longer because the king 
commands1 but because the king          
demonstrates the wisdom of his commands1
 it may be said that henceforth he will 
recognize no authority1 and that he has 
become his own king4 ,unhappy he who    
shall dare to command him1 and shall    
offer1 as his authority1 only the vote  
of the majority2 for1 sooner or later1  
the minority will become the majority1  
and this imprudent despot will be       
overthrown1 and all his laws            
annihilated4  ,in proportion as society 
becomes enlightened1 royal authority    
diminishes4 ,that is a fact to which all
 history bears witness4 ,at the birth of
 nations1 men reflect and reason in     
vain4 ,without methods1 without         
principles1 not knowing how to use their
 reason1 they cannot judge of the       
justice of their conclusions4 ,then the 

authority of kings is immense1 no       
knowledge having been acquired with     
which to contradict it4 ,but1 little by 
little1 experience produces habits1     
which develop into customs2 then the    
customs are formulated in maxims1 laid  
down as principles1--in short1          
transformed into laws1 to which the     
king1 the living law1 has to bow4 ,there
 comes a time when customs and laws are 
so numerous that the will of the prince 
is1 so to speak1 entwined by the public 
will2 and that1 on taking the crown1 he 
is obliged to swear that he will govern 
in conformity with established customs  
and usages2 and that he is but the      
executive power of a society whose laws 
are made independently of him4  ,up to  
this point1 all is done instinctively1  
and1 as it were1 unconsciously2 but see 
where this movement must end4  ,by means
 of self-instruction and the acquisition
 of ideas1 man finally acquires the idea
 of ,,science1--that is1 of a system of 
knowledge in harmony with the reality of

 things1 and inferred from observation4 
,he searches for the science1 or the    
system1 of inanimate bodies1--the system
 of organic bodies1 the system of the   
human mind1 and the system of the       
universe3 why should he not also search 
for the system of society8 ,but1 having 
reached this height1 he comprehends that
 political truth1 or the science of     
politics1 exists quite independently of 
the will of sovereigns1 the opinion of  
majorities1 and popular beliefs1--that  
kings1 ministers1 magistrates1 and      
nations1 as wills1 have no connection   
with the science1 and are worthy of no  
consideration4 ,he comprehends1 at the  
same time1 that1 if man is born a       
sociable being1 the authority of his    
father over him ceases on the day when1 
his mind being formed and his education 
finished1 he becomes the associate of   
his father2 that his true chief and his 
king is the demonstrated truth2 that    
politics is a science1 not a stratagem2 
and that the function of the legislator 

is reduced1 in the last analysis1 to the
 methodical search for truth4  ,thus1 in
 a given society1 the authority of man  
over man is inversely proportional to   
the stage of intellectual development   
which that society has reached2 and the 
probable duration of that authority can 
be calculated from the more or less     
general desire for a true               
government1--that is1 for a scientific  
government4 ,and just as the right of   
force and the right of artifice retreat 
before the steady advance of justice1   
and must finally be extinguished in     
equality1 so the sovereignty of the will
 yields to the sovereignty of the       
reason1 and must at last be lost in     
scientific socialism4 ,property and     
royalty have been crumbling to pieces   
ever since the world began4 ,as man     
seeks justice in equality1 so society   
seeks order in anarchy4  ,,anarchy1--the
 absence of a master1 of a sovereign1   
#cj--such is the form of government to  
which we are every day approximating1   

and which our accustomed habit of taking
 man for our rule1 and his will for law1
 leads us to regard as the height of    
disorder and the expression of chaos4   
,the story is told1 that a citizen of   
,paris in the seventeenth century having
 heard it said that in ,venice there was
 no king1 the good man could not recover
 from his astonishment1 and nearly died 
from laughter at the mere mention of so 
ridiculous a thing4 ,so strong is our   
prejudice4 ,as long as we live1 we want 
a chief or chiefs2 and at this very     
moment ,i hold in my hand a brochure1   
whose author--a zealous                 
communist--dreams1 like a second ,marat1
 of the dictatorship4 ,the most advanced
 among us are those who wish the        
greatest possible number of             
sovereigns1--their most ardent wish is  
for the royalty of the ,national ,guard4
 ,soon1 undoubtedly1 some one1 jealous  
of the citizen militia1 will say1       
,everybody is king4 ,but1 when he has   
spoken1 ,i will say1 in my turn1 ,nobody

 is king2 we are1 whether we will or no1
 associated4 ,every question of domestic
 politics must be decided by            
departmental statistics2 every question 
of foreign politics is an affair of     
international statistics4 ,the science  
of government rightly belongs to one of 
the sections of the ,academy of         
,sciences1 whose permanent secretary is 
necessarily prime minister2 and1 since  
every citizen may address a memoir to   
the ,academy1 every citizen is a        
legislator4 ,but1 as the opinion of no  
one is of any value until its truth has 
been proven1 no one can substitute his  
will for reason1--nobody is king4   ,all
 questions of legislation and politics  
are matters of science1 not of opinion4 
,the legislative power belongs only to  
the reason1 methodically recognized and 
demonstrated4 ,to attribute to any power
 whatever the right of veto or of       
sanction1 is the last degree of tyranny4
 ,justice and legality are two things as
 independent of our approval as is      

mathematical truth4 ,to compel1 they    
need only to be known2 to be known1 they
 need only to be considered and studied4
 ,what1 then1 is the nation1 if it is   
not the sovereign1--if it is not the    
source of the legislative power8  ,the  
nation is the guardian of the law--the  
nation is the ,,executive ,,power4      
,every citizen may assert3 ,this is     
true2 that is just2 but his opinion     
controls no one but himself4 ,that the  
truth which he proclaims may become a   
law1 it must be recognized4 ,now1 what  
is it to recognize a law8 ,it is to     
verify a mathematical or a metaphysical 
calculation2 it is to repeat an         
experiment1 to observe a phenomenon1 to 
establish a fact4 ,only the nation has  
the right to say1 ,be it known and      
decreed4  ,i confess that this is an    
overturning of received ideas1 and that 
,i seem to be attempting to             
revolutionize our political system2 but 
,i beg the reader to consider that1     
having begun with a paradox1 ,i must1 if

 ,i reason correctly1 meet with         
paradoxes at every step1 and must end   
with paradoxes4 ,for the rest1 ,i do not
 see how the liberty of citizens would  
be endangered by entrusting to their    
hands1 instead of the pen of the        
legislator1 the sword of the law4 ,the  
executive power1 belonging properly to  
the will1 cannot be confided to too many
 proxies4 ,that is the true sovereignty 
of the nation4 #ca   ,the proprietor1   
the robber1 the hero1 the sovereign--for
 all these titles are                   
synonymous--imposes his will as law1 and
 suffers neither contradiction nor      
control2 that is1 he pretends to be the 
legislative and the executive power at  
once4 ,accordingly1 the substitution of 
the scientific and true law for the     
royal will is accomplished only by a    
terrible struggle2 and this constant    
substitution is1 after property1 the    
most potent element in history1 the most
 prolific source of political           
disturbances4 ,examples are too numerous

 and too striking to require            
enumeration4  ,now1 property necessarily
 engenders despotism1--the government of
 caprice1 the reign of libidinous       
pleasure4 ,that is so clearly the       
essence of property that1 to be         
convinced of it1 one need but remember  
what it is1 and observe what happens    
around him4 ,property is the right to   
,,use and ,,abuse4 ,if1 then1 government
 is economy1--if its object is          
production and consumption1 and the     
distribution of labor and products1--how
 is government possible while property  
exists8 ,and if goods are property1 why 
should not the proprietors be kings1 and
 despotic kings--kings in proportion to 
their facultes bonitaires8 ,and if each 
proprietor is sovereign lord within the 
sphere of his property1 absolute king   
throughout his own domain1 how could a  
government of proprietors be any thing  
but chaos and confusion8                
#c4--;,determination of the third form  
of ,society4 ,conclusion4   ,then1 no   

government1 no public economy1 no       
administration1 is possible1 which is   
based upon property4  ,communism seeks  
,,equality and ,,law4 ,property1 born of
 the sovereignty of the reason1 and the 
sense of personal merit1 wishes above   
all things ,,independence and           
,,proportionality4  ,but communism1     
mistaking uniformity for law1 and       
levelism for equality1 becomes          
tyrannical and unjust4 ,property1 by its
 despotism and encroachments1 soon      
proves itself oppressive and            
anti-social4  ,the objects of communism 
and property are good--their results are
 bad4 ,and why8 ,because both are       
exclusive1 and each disregards two      
elements of society4 ,communism rejects 
independence and proportionality2       
property does not satisfy equality and  
law4  ,now1 if we imagine a society     
based upon these four                   
principles1--equality1 law1             
independence1 and proportionality1--we  
find3--  #a4 ,that ,,equality1          

consisting only in ,,equality ,,of      
,,conditions1 that is1 ,,of ,,means1 and
 not in ,,equality ,,of                 
,,comfort1--which it is the business of 
the laborers to achieve for themselves1 
when provided with equal means1--in no  
way violates justice and equite4  #b4   
,that ,,law1 resulting from the         
knowledge of facts1 and consequently    
based upon necessity itself1 never      
clashes with independence4  #c4 ,that   
individual ,,independence1 or the       
autonomy of the private reason1         
originating in the difference in talents
 and capacities1 can exist without      
danger within the limits of the law4    
#d4 ,that ,,proportionality1 being      
admitted only in the sphere of          
intelligence and sentiment1 and not as  
regards material objects1 may be        
observed without violating justice or   
social equality4  ,this third form of   
society1 the synthesis of communism and 
property1 we will call ,,liberty4 #cb   
,in determining the nature of liberty1  

we do not unite communism and property  
indiscriminately2 such a process would  
be absurd eclecticism4 ,we search by    
analysis for those elements in each     
which are true1 and in harmony with the 
laws of ,nature and society1            
disregarding the rest altogether2 and   
the result gives us an adequate         
expression of the natural form of human 
society1--in one word1 liberty4         
,liberty is equality1 because liberty   
exists only in society2 and in the      
absence of equality there is no society4
  ,liberty is anarchy1 because it does  
not admit the government of the will1   
but only the authority of the law2 that 
is1 of necessity4  ,liberty is infinite 
variety1 because it respects all wills  
within the limits of the law4  ,liberty 
is proportionality1 because it allows   
the utmost latitude to the ambition for 
merit1 and the emulation of glory4  ,we 
can now say1 in the words of ,m4        
,cousin3 ,our principle is true2 it is  
good1 it is social2 let us not fear to  

push it to its ultimate4  ,man's social 
nature becoming ,,justice through       
reflection1 ,,equite through the        
classification of capacities1 and having
 ,,liberty for its formula1 is the true 
basis of morality1--the principle and   
regulator of all our actions4 ,this is  
the universal motor1 which philosophy is
 searching for1 which religion          
strengthens1 which egotism supplants1   
and whose place pure reason never can   
fill4 ,,duty and ,,right are born of    
,,need1 which1 when considered in       
connection with others1 is a ,,right1   
and when considered in connection with  
ourselves1 a ,,duty4  ,we need to eat   
and sleep4 ,it is our right to procure  
those things which are necessary to rest
 and nourishment4 ,it is our duty to use
 them when ,nature requires it4  ,we    
need to labor in order to live4 ,to do  
so is both our right and our duty4  ,we 
need to love our wives and children4 ,it
 is our duty to protect and support     
them4 ,it is our right to be loved in   

preference to all others4 ,conjugal     
fidelity is justice4 ,adultery is high  
treason against society4  ,we need to   
exchange our products for other         
products4 ,it is our right that this    
exchange should be one of equivalents2  
and since we consume before we produce1 
it would be our duty1 if we could       
control the matter1 to see to it that   
our last product shall follow our last  
consumption4 ,suicide is fraudulent     
bankruptcy4  ,we need to live our lives 
according to the dictates of our reason4
 ,it is our right to maintain our       
freedom4 ,it is our duty to respect that
 of others4  ,we need to be appreciated 
by our fellows4 ,it is our duty to      
deserve their praise4 ,it is our right  
to be judged by our works4  ,liberty is 
not opposed to the rights of succession 
and bequest4 ,it contents itself with   
preventing violations of equality4      
,choose1 it tells us1 between two       
legacies1 but do not take them both4    
,all our legislation concerning         

transmissions1 entailments1 adoptions1  
and1 if ,i may venture to use such a    
word1 ,,coadjutoreries1 requires        
remodelling4  ,liberty favors emulation1
 instead of destroying it4 ,in social   
equality1 emulation consists in         
accomplishing under like conditions2 it 
is its own reward4 ,no one suffers by   
the victory4  ,liberty applauds         
self-sacrifice1 and honors it with its  
votes1 but it can dispense with it4     
,justice alone suffices to maintain the 
social equilibrium4 ,self-sacrifice is  
an act of supererogation4 ,happy1       
however1 the man who can say1 ,i        
sacrifice myself4 #cc   ,liberty is     
essentially an organizing force4 ,to    
insure equality between men and peace   
among nations1 agriculture and industry1
 and the centres of education1 business1
 and storage1 must be distributed       
according to the climate and the        
geographical position of the country1   
the nature of the products1 the         
character and natural talents of the    

inhabitants1 c41 in proportions so just1
 so wise1 so harmonious1 that in no     
place shall there ever be either an     
excess or a lack of population1         
consumption1 and products4 ,there       
commences the science of public and     
private right1 the true political       
economy4 ,it is for the writers on      
jurisprudence1 henceforth unembarrassed 
by the false principle of property1 to  
describe the new laws1 and bring peace  
upon earth4 ,knowledge and genius they  
do not lack2 the foundation is now laid 
for them4 #cd   ,i have accomplished my 
task2 property is conquered1 never again
 to arise4 ,wherever this work is read  
and discussed1 there will be deposited  
the germ of death to property2 there1   
sooner or later1 privilege and servitude
 will disappear1 and the despotism of   
will will give place to the reign of    
reason4 ,what sophisms1 indeed1 what    
prejudices 7however obstinate7 can stand
 before the simplicity of the following 
propositions3--  ,i4 ,individual        

,,possession #ce is the condition of    
social life2 five thousand years of     
property demonstrate it4 ,,property is  
the suicide of society4 ,possession is a
 right2 property is against right4      
,suppress property while maintaining    
possession1 and1 by this simple         
modification of the principle1 you will 
revolutionize law1 government1 economy1 
and institutions2 you will drive evil   
from the face of the earth4  ,,ii4 ,all 
having an equal right of occupancy1     
possession varies with the number of    
possessors2 property cannot establish   
itself4  ,,iii4 ,the effect of labor    
being the same for all1 property is lost
 in the common prosperity4  ,,iv4 ,all  
human labor being the result of         
collective force1 all property becomes1 
in consequence1 collective and unitary4 
,to speak more exactly1 labor destroys  
property4  ,v4 ,every capacity for labor
 being1 like every instrument of labor1 
an accumulated capital1 and a collective
 property1 inequality of wages and      

fortunes 7on the ground of inequality of
 capacities7 is1 therefore1 injustice   
and robbery4  ,,vi4 ,the necessary      
conditions of commerce are the liberty  
of the contracting parties and the      
equivalence of the products exchanged4  
,now1 value being expressed by the      
amount of time and outlay which each    
product costs1 and liberty being        
inviolable1 the wages of laborers 7like 
their rights and duties7 should be      
equal4  ,,vii4 ,products are bought only
 by products4 ,now1 the condition of all
 exchange being equivalence of products1
 profit is impossible and unjust4       
,observe this elementary principle of   
economy1 and pauperism1 luxury1         
oppression1 vice1 crime1 and hunger will
 disappear from our midst4  ,,viii4 ,men
 are associated by the physical and     
mathematical law of production1 before  
they are voluntarily associated by      
choice4 ,therefore1 equality of         
conditions is demanded by justice2 that 
is1 by strict social law3 esteem1       

friendship1 gratitude1 admiration1 all  
fall within the domain of ,,equitable or
 ,,proportional law only4  ,,ix4 ,free  
association1 liberty--whose sole        
function is to maintain equality in the 
means of production and equivalence in  
exchanges--is the only possible1 the    
only just1 the only true form of        
society4  ,x4 ,politics is the science  
of liberty4 ,the government of man by   
man 7under whatever name it be          
disguised7 is oppression4 ,society finds
 its highest perfection in the union of 
order with anarchy4  ,the old           
civilization has run its race2 a new sun
 is rising1 and will soon renew the face
 of the earth4 ,let the present         
generation perish1 let the old          
prevaricators die in the desert6 the    
holy earth shall not cover their bones4 
,young man1 exasperated by the          
corruption of the age1 and absorbed in  
your zeal for justice6--if your country 
is dear to you1 and if you have the     
interests of humanity at heart1 have the

 courage to espouse the cause of        
liberty6 ,cast off your old selfishness1
 and plunge into the rising flood of    
popular equality6 ,there your regenerate
 soul will acquire new life and vigor2  
your enervated genius will recover      
unconquerable energy2 and your heart1   
perhaps already withered1 will be       
rejuvenated6 ,every thing will wear a   
different look to your illuminated      
vision2 new sentiments will engender new
 ideas within you2 religion1 morality1  
poetry1 art1 language will appear before
 you in nobler and fairer forms2 and    
thenceforth1 sure of your faith1 and    
thoughtfully enthusiastic1 you will hail
 the dawn of universal regeneration6    
,and you1 sad victims of an odious      
law6--you1 whom a jesting world despoils
 and outrages6--you1 whose labor has    
always been fruitless1 and whose rest   
has been without hope1--take courage6   
your tears are numbered6 ,the fathers   
have sown in affliction1 the children   
shall reap in rejoicings6  ,o ,god of   

liberty6 ,god of equality6 ,thou who    
didst place in my heart the sentiment of
 justice1 before my reason could        
comprehend it1 hear my ardent prayer6   
,thou hast dictated all that ,i have    
written2 ,thou hast shaped my thought2  
,thou hast directed my studies2 ,thou   
hast weaned my mind from curiosity and  
my heart from attachment1 that ,i might 
publish ,thy truth to the master and the
 slave4 ,i have spoken with what force  
and talent ,thou hast given me3 it is   
,thine to finish the work4 ,thou knowest
 whether ,i seek my welfare or ,thy     
glory1 ,o ,god of liberty6 ,ah6 perish  
my memory1 and let humanity be free6    
,let me see from my obscurity the people
 at last instructed2 let noble teachers 
enlighten them2 let generous spirits    
guide them6 ,abridge1 if possible1 the  
time of our trial2 stifle pride and     
avarice in equality2 annihilate this    
love of glory which enslaves us2 teach  
these poor children that in the bosom of
 liberty there are neither heroes nor   

great men6 ,inspire the powerful man1   
the rich man1 him whose name my lips    
shall never pronounce in ,thy presence1 
with a horror of his crimes2 let him be 
the first to apply for admission to the 
redeemed society2 let the promptness of 
his repentance be the ground of his     
forgiveness6 ,then1 great and small1    
wise and foolish1 rich and poor1 will   
unite in an ineffable fraternity2 and1  
singing in unison a new hymn1 will      
rebuild ,thy altar1 ,o ,god of liberty  
and equality6  ,,end ,,of ,,first       
,,memoir4      ,,what ,,is ,,property8  
,,second ,,memoir  ,a ,,letter ,,to ,m4 
,,blanqui4     ,,second ,,memoir4       
,,paris1 ,april #a1 #ahda4              
,,monsieur1--  ,before resuming my      
,inquiries into ,government and         
,property1 it is fitting1 for the       
satisfaction of some worthy people1 and 
also in the interest of order1 that ,i  
should make to you a plain1             
straightforward explanation4 ,in a      
much-governed ,state1 no one would be   

allowed to attack the external form of  
the society1 and the groundwork of its  
institutions1 until he had established  
his right to do so1--first1 by his      
morality2 second1 by his capacity2 and1 
third1 by the purity of his intentions4 
,any one who1 wishing to publish a      
treatise upon the constitution of the   
country1 could not satisfy this         
threefold condition1 would be obliged to
 procure the endorsement of a           
responsible patron possessing the       
requisite qualifications4  ,but we      
,frenchmen have the liberty of the      
press4 ,this grand right--the sword of  
thought1 which elevates the virtuous    
citizen to the rank of legislator1 and  
makes the malicious citizen an agent of 
discord--frees us from all preliminary  
responsibility to the law2 but it does  
not release us from our internal        
obligation to render a public account of
 our sentiments and thoughts4 ,i have   
used1 in all its fulness1 and concerning
 an important question1 the right which 

the charter grants us4 ,i come to-day1  
sir1 to submit my conscience to your    
judgment1 and my feeble insight to your 
discriminating reason4 ,you have        
criticised in a kindly spirit--,i had   
almost said with partiality for the     
writer--a work which teaches a doctrine 
that you thought it your duty to        
condemn4 ,the ,academy of ,moral and    
,political ,sciences1 said you in your  
report1 can accept the conclusions of   
the author only as far as it likes4 ,i  
venture to hope1 sir1 that1 after you   
have read this letter1 if your prudence 
still restrains you1 your fairness will 
induce you to do me justice4  ,,men1    
,,equal ,,in ,,the ,,dignity ,,of       
,,their ,,persons ,,and ,,equal ,,before
 ,,the ,,law1 ,,should ,,be ,,equal ,,in
 ,,their ,,conditions1--such is the     
thesis which ,i maintained and developed
 in a memoir bearing the title1 ,what is
 ,property8 or1 ,an ,inquiry into the   
,principle of ,right and of ,government4
  ,the idea of social equality1 even in 

individual fortunes1 has in all ages    
besieged1 like a vague presentiment1 the
 human imagination4 ,poets have sung of 
it in their hymns2 philosophers have    
dreamed of it in their ,utopias2 priests
 teach it1 but only for the spiritual   
world4 ,the people1 governed by it1     
never have had faith in it2 and the     
civil power is never more disturbed than
 by the fables of the age of gold and   
the reign of ,astrea4 ,a year ago1      
however1 this idea received a scientific
 demonstration1 which has not yet been  
satisfactorily answered1 and1 permit me 
to add1 never will be4 ,this            
demonstration1 owing to its slightly    
impassioned style1 its method of        
reasoning1--which was so at variance    
with that employed by the generally     
recognized authorities1--and the        
importance and novelty of its           
conclusions1 was of a nature to cause   
some alarm2 and might have been         
dangerous1 had it not been--as you1 sir1
 so well said--a sealed letter1 so far  

as the general public was concerned1    
addressed only to men of intelligence4  
,i was glad to see that through its     
metaphysical dress you recognized the   
wise foresight of the author2 and ,i    
thank you for it4 ,may ,god grant that  
my intentions1 which are wholly         
peaceful1 may never be charged upon me  
as treasonable6  ,like a stone thrown   
into a mass of serpents1 the ,first     
,memoir on ,property excited intense    
animosity1 and aroused the passions of  
many4 ,but1 while some wished the author
 and his work to be publicly denounced1 
others found in them simply the solution
 of the fundamental problems of society2
 a few even basing evil speculations    
upon the new light which they had       
obtained4 ,it was not to be expected    
that a system of inductions abstractly  
gathered together1 and still more       
abstractly expressed1 would be          
understood with equal accuracy in its   
ensemble and in each of its parts4  ,to 
find the law of equality1 no longer in  

charity and self-sacrifice 7which are   
not binding in their nature71 but in    
justice2 to base equality of functions  
upon equality of persons2 to determine  
the absolute principle of exchange2 to  
neutralize the inequality of individual 
faculties by collective force2 to       
establish an equation between property  
and robbery2 to change the law of       
succession without destroying the       
principle2 to maintain the human        
personality in a system of absolute     
association1 and to save liberty from   
the chains of communism2 to synthetize  
the monarchical and democratic forms of 
government2 to reverse the division of  
powers2 to give the executive power to  
the nation1 and to make legislation a   
positive1 fixed1 and absolute           
science1--what a series of paradoxes6   
what a string of delusions6 if ,i may   
not say1 what a chain of truths6 ,but it
 is not my purpose here to pass upon the
 theory of the right of possession4 ,i  
discuss no dogmas4 ,my only object is to

 justify my views1 and to show that1 in 
writing as ,i did1 ,i not only exercised
 a right1 but performed a duty4  ,yes1  
,i have attacked property1 and shall    
attack it again2 but1 sir1 before       
demanding that ,i shall make the amende 
honorable for having obeyed my          
conscience and spoken the exact truth1  
condescend1 ,i beg of you1 to cast a    
glance at the events which are happening
 around us2 look at our deputies1 our   
magistrates1 our philosophers1 our      
ministers1 our professors1 and our      
publicists2 examine their methods of    
dealing with the matter of property2    
count up with me the restrictions placed
 upon it every day in the name of the   
public welfare2 measure the breaches    
already made2 estimate those which      
society thinks of making hereafter2 add 
the ideas concerning property held by   
all theories in common2 interrogate     
history1 and then tell me what will be  
left1 half a century hence1 of this old 
right of property2 and1 thus perceiving 

that ,i have so many accomplices1 you   
will immediately declare me innocent4   
,what is the law of expropriation on the
 ground of public utility1 which        
everybody favors1 and which is even     
thought too lenient8 #cf   ,a flagrant  
violation of the right of property4     
,society indemnifies1 it is said1 the   
dispossessed proprietor2 but does it    
return to him the traditional           
associations1 the poetic charm1 and the 
family pride which accompany property8  
,naboth1 and the miller of ,sans-,souci1
 would have protested against ,french   
law1 as they protested against the      
caprice of their kings4 ,it is the field
 of our fathers1 they would have cried1 
and we will not sell it6 ,among the     
ancients1 the refusal of the individual 
limited the powers of the ,state4 ,the  
,roman law bowed to the will of the     
citizen1 and an emperor--,commodus1 if  
,i remember rightly--abandoned the      
project of enlarging the forum out of   
respect for the rights of the occupants 

who refused to abdicate4 ,property is a 
real right1 jus in re1--a right inherent
 in the thing1 and whose principle lies 
in the external manifestation of man's  
will4 ,man leaves his imprint1 stamps   
his character1 upon the objects of his  
handiwork4 ,this plastic force of man1  
as the modern jurists say1 is the seal  
which1 set upon matter1 makes it holy4  
,whoever lays hands upon it1 against the
 proprietor's will1 does violence to the
 latter's personality4 ,and yet1 when an
 administrative committee saw fit to    
declare that public utility required it1
 property had to give way to the general
 will4 ,soon1 in the name of public     
utility1 methods of cultivation and     
conditions of enjoyment will be         
prescribed2 inspectors of agriculture   
and manufactures will be appointed2     
property will be taken away from        
unskilful hands1 and entrusted to       
laborers who are more deserving of it2  
and a general superintendence of        
production will be established4 ,it is  

not two years since ,i saw a proprietor 
destroy a forest more than five hundred 
acres in extent4 ,if public utility had 
interfered1 that forest--the only one   
for miles around--would still be        
standing4  ,but1 it is said1            
expropriation on the ground of public   
utility is only an exception which      
confirms the principle1 and bears       
testimony in favor of the right4 ,very  
well2 but from this exception we will   
pass to another1 from that to a third1  
and so on from exceptions to exceptions1
 until we have reduced the rule to a    
pure abstraction4  ,how many supporters 
do you think1 sir1 can be claimed for   
the project of the conversion of the    
public funds8 ,i venture to say that    
everybody favors it1 except the         
fund-holders4 ,now1 this so-called      
conversion is an extensive              
expropriation1 and in this case with no 
indemnity whatever4 ,the public funds   
are so much real estate1 the income from
 which the proprietor counts upon with  

perfect safety1 and which owes its value
 to the tacit promise of the government 
to pay interest upon it at the          
established rate1 until the fund-holder 
applies for redemption4 ,for1 if the    
income is liable to diminution1 it is   
less profitable than house-rent or      
farm-rent1 whose rates may rise or fall 
according to the fluctuations in the    
market2 and in that case1 what          
inducement has the capitalist to invest 
his money in the ,state8 ,when1 then1   
you force the fund-holder to submit to a
 diminution of interest1 you make him   
bankrupt to the extent of the           
diminution2 and since1 in consequence of
 the conversion1 an equally profitable  
investment becomes impossible1 you      
depreciate his property4  ,that such a  
measure may be justly executed1 it must 
be generalized2 that is1 the law which  
provides for it must decree also that   
interest on sums lent on deposit or on  
mortgage throughout the realm1 as well  
as house and farm-rents1 shall be       

reduced to three per cent4 ,this        
simultaneous reduction of all kinds of  
income would be not a whit more         
difficult to accomplish than the        
proposed conversion2 and1 further1 it   
would offer the advantage of            
forestalling at one blow all objections 
to it1 at the same time that it would   
insure a just assessment of the         
land-tax4 ,see6 ,if at the moment of    
conversion a piece of real estate yields
 an income of one thousand francs1 after
 the new law takes effect it will yield 
only six hundred francs4 ,now1 allowing 
the tax to be an aliquot                
part--one-fourth for example--of the    
income derived from each piece of       
property1 it is clear on the one hand   
that the proprietor would not1 in order 
to lighten his share of the tax1        
underestimate the value of his property2
 since1 house and farm-rents being fixed
 by the value of the capital1 and the   
latter being measured by the tax1 to    
depreciate his real estate would be to  

reduce his revenue4 ,on the other hand1 
it is equally evident that the same     
proprietors could not overestimate the  
value of their property1 in order to    
increase their incomes beyond the limits
 of the law1 since the tenants and      
farmers1 with their old leases in their 
hands1 would enter a protest4  ,such1   
sir1 must be the result sooner or later 
of the conversion which has been so long
 demanded2 otherwise1 the financial     
operation of which we are speaking would
 be a crying injustice1 unless intended 
as a stepping-stone4 ,this last motive  
seems the most plausible one2 for in    
spite of the clamors of interested      
parties1 and the flagrant violation of  
certain rights1 the public conscience is
 bound to fulfil its desire1 and is no  
more affected when charged with         
attacking property1 than when listening 
to the complaints of the bondholders4   
,in this case1 instinctive justice      
belies legal justice4  ,who has not     
heard of the inextricable confusion into

 which the ,chamber of ,deputies was    
thrown last year1 while discussing the  
question of colonial and native sugars8 
,did they leave these two industries to 
themselves8 ,the native manufacturer was
 ruined by the colonist4 ,to maintain   
the beet-root1 the cane had to be taxed4
 ,to protect the property of the one1 it
 became necessary to violate the        
property of the other4 ,the most        
remarkable feature of this business was 
precisely that to which the least       
attention was paid2 namely1 that1 in one
 way or another1 property had to be     
violated4 ,did they impose on each      
industry a proportional tax1 so as to   
preserve a balance in the market8 ,they 
created a maximum ,,price for each      
variety of sugar2 and1 as this maximum  
,,price was not the same1 they attacked 
property in two ways1--on the one hand1 
interfering with the liberty of trade2  
on the other1 disregarding the equality 
of proprietors4 ,did they suppress the  
beet-root by granting an indemnity to   

the manufacturer8 ,they sacrificed the  
property of the tax-payer4 ,finally1 did
 they prefer to cultivate the two       
varieties of sugar at the nation's      
expense1 just as different varieties of 
tobacco are cultivated8 ,they abolished1
 so far as the sugar industry was       
concerned1 the right of property4 ,this 
last course1 being the most social1     
would have been certainly the best2 but1
 if property is the necessary basis of  
civilization1 how is this deep-seated   
antagonism to be explained8 #cg   ,not  
satisfied with the power of             
dispossessing a citizen on the ground of
 public utility1 they want also to      
dispossess him on the ground of         
,,private ,,utility4 ,for a long time1 a
 revision of the law concerning         
mortgages was clamored for2 a process   
was demanded1 in behalf of all kinds of 
credit and in the interest of even the  
debtors themselves1 which would render  
the expropriation of real estate as     
prompt1 as easy1 and as effective as    

that which follows a commercial protest4
 ,the ,chamber of ,deputies1 in the     
early part of this year1 #ahda1         
discussed this project1 and the law was 
passed almost unanimously4 ,there is    
nothing more just1 nothing more         
reasonable1 nothing more philosophical  
apparently1 than the motives which gave 
rise to this reform4  ,i4 ,formerly1 the
 small proprietor whose obligation had  
arrived at maturity1 and who found      
himself unable to meet it1 had to employ
 all that he had left1 after being      
released from his debt1 in defraying the
 legal costs4 ,henceforth1 the          
promptness of expropriation will save   
him from total ruin4 #b4 ,the           
difficulties in the way of payment      
arrested credit1 and prevented the      
employment of capital in agricultural   
enterprises4 ,this cause of distrust no 
longer existing1 capitalists will find  
new markets1 agriculture will rapidly   
develop1 and farmers will be the first  
to enjoy the benefit of the new law4 #c4

 ,finally1 it was iniquitous and absurd1
 that1 on account of a protested note1 a
 poor manufacturer should see in        
twenty-four hours his business arrested1
 his labor suspended1 his merchandise   
seized1 his machinery sold at auction1  
and finally himself led off to prison1  
while two years were sometimes necessary
 to expropriate the most miserable piece
 of real estate4  ,these arguments1 and 
others besides1 you clearly stated1 sir1
 in your first lectures of this academic
 year4  ,but1 when stating these        
excellent arguments1 did you ask        
yourself1 sir1 whither would tend such a
 transformation of our system of        
mortgages8444 ,to monetize1 if ,i may   
say so1 landed property2 to accumulate  
it within portfolios2 to separate the   
laborer from the soil1 man from ,nature2
 to make him a wanderer over the face of
 the earth2 to eradicate from his heart 
every trace of family feeling1 national 
pride1 and love of country2 to isolate  
him more and more2 to render him        

indifferent to all around him2 to       
concentrate his love upon one           
object1--money2 and1 finally1 by the    
dishonest practices of usury1 to        
monopolize the land to the profit of a  
financial aristocracy1--a worthy        
auxiliary of that industrial feudality  
whose pernicious influence we begin to  
feel so bitterly4 ,thus1 little by      
little1 the subordination of the laborer
 to the idler1 the restoration of       
abolished castes1 and the distinction   
between patrician and plebeian1 would be
 effected2 thus1 thanks to the new      
privileges granted to the property of   
the capitalists1 that of the small and  
intermediate proprietors would gradually
 disappear1 and with it the whole class 
of free and honest laborers4 ,this      
certainly is not my plan for the        
abolition of property4 ,far from        
mobilizing the soil1 ,i would1 if       
possible1 immobilize even the functions 
of pure intelligence1 so that society   
might be the fulfilment of the          

intentions of ,nature1 who gave us our  
first possession1 the land4 ,for1 if the
 instrument or capital of production is 
the mark of the laborer1 it is also his 
pedestal1 his support1 his country1 and1
 as the ,psalmist says1 ,,the ,,place   
,,of ,,his ,,activity ,,and ,,his       
,,rest4 #ch   ,let us examine more      
closely still the inevitable and        
approaching result of the last law      
concerning judicial sales and mortgages4
 ,under the system of competition which 
is killing us1 and whose necessary      
expression is a plundering and          
tyrannical government1 the farmer will  
need always capital in order to repair  
his losses1 and will be forced to       
contract loans4 ,always depending upon  
the future for the payment of his debts1
 he will be deceived in his hope1 and   
surprised by maturity4 ,for what is     
there more prompt1 more unexpected1 more
 abbreviatory of space and time1 than   
the maturity of an obligation8 ,i       
address this question to all whom this  

pitiless ,nemesis pursues1 and even     
troubles in their dreams4 ,now1 under   
the new law1 the expropriation of a     
debtor will be effected a hundred times 
more rapidly2 then1 also1 spoliation    
will be a hundred times surer1 and the  
free laborer will pass a hundred times  
sooner from his present condition to    
that of a serf attached to the soil4    
,formerly1 the length of time required  
to effect the seizure curbed the        
usurer's avidity1 gave the borrower an  
opportunity to recover himself1 and gave
 rise to a transaction between him and  
his creditor which might result finally 
in a complete release4 ,now1 the        
debtor's sentence is irrevocable3 he has
 but a few days of grace4  ,and what    
advantages are promised by this law as  
an offset to this sword of ,damocles1   
suspended by a single hair over the head
 of the unfortunate husbandman8 ,the    
expenses of seizure will be much less1  
it is said2 but will the interest on the
 borrowed capital be less exorbitant8   

,for1 after all1 it is interest which   
impoverishes the peasant and leads to   
his expropriation4 ,that the law may be 
in harmony with its principle1 that it  
may be truly inspired by that spirit of 
justice for which it is commended1 it   
must--while facilitating                
expropriation--lower the legal price of 
money4 ,otherwise1 the reform concerning
 mortgages is but a trap set for small  
proprietors1--a legislative trick4      
,lower interest on money6 ,but1 as we   
have just seen1 that is to limit        
property4 ,here1 sir1 you shall make    
your own defence4 ,more than once1 in   
your learned lectures1 ,i have heard you
 deplore the precipitancy of the        
,chambers1 who1 without previous study  
and without profound knowledge of the   
subject1 voted almost unanimously to    
maintain the statutes and privileges of 
the ,bank4 ,now these privileges1 these 
statutes1 this vote of the ,chambers1   
mean simply this1--that the market price
 of specie1 at five or six per cent41 is

 not too high1 and that the conditions  
of exchange1 discount1 and circulation1 
which generally double this interest1   
are none too severe4 ,so the government 
thinks4 ,m4 ,blanqui--a professor of    
political economy1 paid by the          
,state--maintains the contrary1 and     
pretends to demonstrate1 by decisive    
arguments1 the necessity of a reform4   
,who1 then1 best understands the        
interests of property1--the ,state1 or  
,m4 ,blanqui8  ,if specie could be      
borrowed at half the present rate1 the  
revenues from all sorts of property     
would soon be reduced one-half also4    
,for example3 when it costs less to     
build a house than to hire one1 when it 
is cheaper to clear a field than to     
procure one already cleared1 competition
 inevitably leads to a reduction of     
house and farm-rents1 since the surest  
way to depreciate active capital is to  
increase its amount4 ,but it is a law of
 political economy that an increase of  
production augments the mass of         

available capital1 consequently tends to
 raise wages1 and finally to annihilate 
interest4 ,then1 proprietors are        
interested in maintaining the statutes  
and privileges of the ,bank2 then1 a    
reform in this matter would compromise  
the right of increase2 then1 the peers  
and deputies are better informed than   
,professor ,blanqui4  ,but these same   
deputies1--so jealous of their          
privileges whenever the equalizing      
effects of a reform are within their    
intellectual horizon1--what did they do 
a few days before they passed the law   
concerning judicial sales8 ,they formed 
a conspiracy against property6 ,their   
law to regulate the labor of children in
 factories will1 without doubt1 prevent 
the manufacturer from compelling a child
 to labor more than so many hours a day2
 but it will not force him to increase  
the pay of the child1 nor that of its   
father4 ,to-day1 in the interest of     
health1 we diminish the subsistence of  
the poor2 to-morrow it will be necessary

 to protect them by fixing their        
,,minimum wages4 ,but to fix their      
minimum wages is to compel the          
proprietor1 is to force the master to   
accept his workman as an associate1     
which interferes with freedom and makes 
mutual insurance obligatory4 ,once      
entered upon this path1 we never shall  
stop4 ,little by little the government  
will become manufacturer1               
commission-merchant1 and retail dealer4 
,it will be the sole proprietor4 ,why1  
at all epochs1 have the ministers of    
,state been so reluctant to meddle with 
the question of wages8 ,why have they   
always refused to interfere between the 
master and the workman8 ,because they   
knew the touchy and jealous nature of   
property1 and1 regarding it as the      
principle of all civilization1 felt that
 to meddle with it would be to unsettle 
the very foundations of society4 ,sad   
condition of the proprietary            
regime1--one of inability to exercise   
charity without violating justice6 #ci  

,and1 sir1 this fatal consequence which 
necessity forces upon the ,state is no  
mere imagination4 ,even now the         
legislative power is asked1 no longer   
simply to regulate the government of    
factories1 but to create factories      
itself4 ,listen to the millions of      
voices shouting on all hands for ,,the  
,,organisation ,,of ,,labor1 ,,the      
,,creation ,,of ,,national ,,workshops6 
,the whole laboring class is agitated3  
it has its journals1 organs1 and        
representatives4 ,to guarantee labor to 
the workingman1 to balance production   
with sale1 to harmonize industrial      
proprietors1 it advocates to-day--as a  
sovereign remedy--one sole head1 one    
national wardenship1 one huge           
manufacturing company4 ,for1 sir1 all   
this is included in the idea of national
 workshops4 ,on this subject ,i wish to 
quote1 as proof1 the views of an        
illustrious economist1 a brilliant mind1
 a progressive intellect1 an            
enthusiastic soul1 a true patriot1 and  

yet an official defender of the right of
 property4 #dj   ,the honorable         
professor of the ,conservatory proposes 
then1--  #a4 ,,to ,,check ,,the         
,,continual ,,emigration ,,of ,,laborers
 ,,from ,,the ,,country ,,into ,,the    
,,cities4  ,but1 to keep the peasant in 
his village1 his residence there must be
 made endurable3 to be just to all1 the 
proletaire of the country must be       
treated as well as the proletaire of the
 city4 ,reform is needed1 then1 on farms
 as well as in factories2 and1 when the 
government enters the workshop1 the     
government must seize the plough6 ,what 
becomes1 during this progressive        
invasion1 of independent cultivation1   
exclusive domain1 property8  #b4 ,,to   
,,fix ,,for ,,each ,,profession ,a      
,,moderate ,,salary1 ,,varying ,,with   
,,time ,,and ,,place ,,and ,,based      
,,upon ,,certain ,,data4  ,the object of
 this measure would be to secure to     
laborers their subsistence1 and to      
proprietors their profits1 while        

obliging the latter to sacrifice from   
motives of prudence1 if for no other    
reason1 a portion of their income4 ,now1
 ,i say1 that this portion1 in the long 
run1 would swell until at last there    
would be an equality of enjoyment       
between the proletaire and the          
proprietor4 ,for1 as we have had        
occasion to remark several times        
already1 the interest of the            
capitalist--in other words the increase 
of the idler--tends1 on account of the  
power of labor1 the multiplication of   
products and exchanges1 to continually  
diminish1 and1 by constant reduction1 to
 disappear4 ,so that1 in the society    
proposed by ,m4 ,blanqui1 equality would
 not be realized at first1 but would    
exist potentially2 since property1      
though outwardly seeming to be          
industrial feudality1 being no longer a 
principle of exclusion and encroachment1
 but only a privilege of division1 would
 not be slow1 thanks to the intellectual
 and political emancipation of the      

proletariat1 in passing into absolute   
equality1--as absolute at least as any  
thing can be on this earth4  ,i omit1   
for the sake of brevity1 the numerous   
considerations which the professor      
adduces in support of what he calls1 too
 modestly in my opinion1 his ,utopia4   
,they would serve only to prove beyond  
all question that1 of all the charlatans
 of radicalism who fatigue the public   
ear1 no one approaches1 for depth and   
clearness of thought1 the audacious ,m4 
,blanqui4   #c4 ,,national ,,workshops  
,,should ,,be ,,in ,,operation ,,only   
,,during ,,periods ,,of ,,stagnation    
,,in ,,ordinary ,,industries2 ,,at      
,,such ,,times ,,they ,,should ,,be     
,,opened ,,as ,,vast ,,outlets ,,to     
,,the ,,flood ,,of ,,the ,,laboring     
,,population4  ,but1 sir1 the stoppage  
of private industry is the result of    
over-production1 and insufficient       
markets4 ,if1 then1 production continues
 in the national workshops1 how will the
 crisis be terminated8 ,undoubtedly1 by 

the general depreciation of merchandise1
 and1 in the last analysis1 by the      
conversion of private workshops into    
national workshops4 ,on the other hand1 
the government will need capital with   
which to pay its workmen2 now1 how will 
this capital be obtained8 ,by taxation4 
,and upon what will the tax be levied8  
,upon property4 ,then you will have     
proprietary industry sustaining against 
itself1 and at its own expense1 another 
industry with which it cannot compete4  
,what1 think you1 will become1 in this  
fatal circle1 of the possibility of     
profit1--in a word1 of property8  ,thank
 ,heaven6 equality of conditions is     
taught in the public schools2 let us    
fear revolutions no longer4 ,the most   
implacable enemy of property could not1 
if he wished to destroy it1 go to work  
in a wiser and more effective way4      
,courage1 then1 ministers1 deputies1    
economists6 make haste to seize this    
glorious initiative2 let the watchwords 
of equality1 uttered from the heights of

 science and power1 be repeated in the  
midst of the people2 let them thrill the
 breasts of the proletaires1 and carry  
dismay into the ranks of the last       
representatives of privilege6  ,the     
tendency of society in favor of         
compelling proprietors to support       
national workshops and public           
manufactories is so strong that for     
several years1 under the name of        
,,electoral ,,reform1 it has been       
exclusively the question of the day4    
,what is1 after all1 this electoral     
reform which the people grasp at1 as if 
it were a bait1 and which so many       
ambitious persons either call for or    
denounce8 ,it is the acknowledgment of  
the right of the masses to a voice in   
the assessment of taxes1 and the making 
of the laws2 which laws1 aiming always  
at the protection of material interests1
 affect1 in a greater or less degree1   
all questions of taxation or wages4 ,now
 the people1 instructed long since by   
their journals1 their dramas1 #da and   

their songs1 #db know to-day that       
taxation1 to be equitably divided1 must 
be graduated1 and must be borne mainly  
by the rich1--that it must be levied    
upon luxuries1 c4 ,and be sure that the 
people1 once in the majority in the     
,chamber1 will not fail to apply these  
lessons4 ,already we have a minister of 
public works4 ,national workshops will  
follow2 and soon1 as a consequence1 the 
excess of the proprietor's revenue over 
the workingman's wages will be swallowed
 up in the coffers of the laborers of   
the ,state4 ,do you not see that in this
 way property is gradually reduced1 as  
nobility was formerly1 to a nominal     
title1 to a distinction purely honorary 
in its nature8   ,either the electoral  
reform will fail to accomplish that     
which is hoped from it1 and will        
disappoint its innumerable partisans1 or
 else it will inevitably result in a    
transformation of the absolute right    
under which we live into a right of     
possession2 that is1 that while1 at     

present1 property makes the elector1    
after this reform is accomplished1 the  
citizen1 the producer will be the       
possessor4 #dc ,consequently1 the       
radicals are right in saying that the   
electoral reform is in their eyes only a
 means2 but1 when they are silent as to 
the end1 they show either profound      
ignorance1 or useless dissimulation4    
,there should be no secrets or          
reservations from peoples and powers4   
,he disgraces himself and fails in      
respect for his fellows1 who1 in        
publishing his opinions1 employs evasion
 and cunning4 ,before the people act1   
they need to know the whole truth4      
,unhappy he who shall dare to trifle    
with them6 ,for the people are          
credulous1 but they are strong4 ,let us 
tell them1 then1 that this reform which 
is proposed is only a means1--a means   
often tried1 and hitherto without       
effect1--but that the logical object of 
the electoral reform is equality of     
fortunes2 and that this equality itself 

is only a new means having in view the  
superior and definitive object of the   
salvation of society1 the restoration of
 morals and religion1 and the revival of
 poetry and art4   ,this assertion of   
,m4 ,rossi is not borne out by history4 
,property is the cause of the electoral 
right1 not as a ,,presumption ,,of      
,,capacity1--an idea which never        
prevailed until lately1 and which is    
extremely absurd1--but as a ,,guarantee 
,,of ,,devotion ,,to ,,the ,,established
 ,,order4 ,the electoral body is a      
league of those interested in the       
maintenance of property1 against those  
not interested4 ,there are thousands of 
documents1 even official documents1 to  
prove this1 if necessary4 ,for the rest1
 the present system is only a           
continuation of the municipal system1   
which1 in the middle ages1 sprang up in 
connection with feudalism1--an          
oppressive1 mischief-making system1 full
 of petty passions and base intrigues4  
,it would be an abuse of the reader's   

patience to insist further upon the     
tendency of our time towards equality4  
,there are1 moreover1 so many people who
 denounce the present age1 that nothing 
is gained by exposing to their view the 
popular1 scientific1 and representative 
tendencies of the nation4  ,prompt to   
recognize the accuracy of the inferences
 drawn from observation1 they confine   
themselves to a general censure of the  
facts1 and an absolute denial of their  
legitimacy4 ,what wonder1 they say1 that
 this atmosphere of equality intoxicates
 us1 considering all that has been said 
and done during the past ten years6444  
,do you not see that society is         
dissolving1 that a spirit of infatuation
 is carrying us away8 ,all these hopes  
of regeneration are but forebodings of  
death2 your songs of triumph are like   
the prayers of the departing1 your      
trumpet peals announce the baptism of a 
dying man4 ,civilization is falling in  
ruin3 ,imus1 imus1 praecipites6  ,such  
people deny ,god4 ,i might content      

myself with the reply that the spirit of
 #ahcj was the result of the maintenance
 of the violated charter2 that this     
charter arose from the ,revolution of   
'#hi2 that '#hi implies the             
,states-,general's right of             
remonstrance1 and the enfranchisement of
 the communes2 that the communes suppose
 feudalism1 which in its turn supposes  
invasion1 ,roman law1 ,christianity1 c4 
,but it is necessary to look further4   
,we must penetrate to the very heart of 
ancient institutions1 plunge into the   
social depths1 and uncover this         
indestructible leaven of equality which 
the ,god of justice breathed into our   
souls1 and which manifests itself in all
 our works4  ,labor is man's            
contemporary2 it is a duty1 since it is 
a condition of existence3 ,in the sweat 
of thy face shalt thou eat bread4 ,it is
 more than a duty1 it is a mission3 ,god
 put the man into the garden to dress   
it4 ,i add that labor is the cause and  
means of equality4  ,cast away upon a   

desert island two men3 one large1       
strong1 and active2 the other weak1     
timid1 and domestic4 ,the latter will   
die of hunger2 while the other1 a       
skilful hunter1 an expert fisherman1 and
 an indefatigable husbandman1 will      
overstock himself with provisions4 ,what
 greater inequality1 in this state of   
,nature so dear to the heart of ,jean   
,jacques1 could be imagined6 ,but let   
these two men meet and associate        
themselves3 the second immediately      
attends to the cooking1 takes charge of 
the household affairs1 and sees to the  
provisions1 beds1 and clothes2 provided 
the stronger does not abuse his         
superiority by enslaving and            
ill-treating his companion1 their social
 condition will be perfectly equal4     
,thus1 through exchange of services1 the
 inequalities of ,nature neutralize each
 other1 talents associate1 and forces   
balance4 ,violence and inertia are found
 only among the poor and the            
aristocratic4 ,and in that lies the     

philosophy of political economy1 the    
mystery of human brotherhood4 ,hic est  
sapientia4 ,let us pass from the        
hypothetical state of pure ,nature into 
civilization4  ,the proprietor of the   
soil1 who produces1 ,i will suppose with
 the economists1 by lending his         
instrument1 receives at the foundation  
of a society so many bushels of grain   
for each acre of arable land4 ,as long  
as labor is weak1 and the variety of its
 products small1 the proprietor is      
powerful in comparison with the         
laborers2 he has ten times1 one hundred 
times1 the portion of an honest man4    
,but let labor1 by multiplying its      
inventions1 multiply its enjoyments and 
wants1 and the proprietor1 if he wishes 
to enjoy the new products1 will be      
obliged to reduce his income every day2 
and since the first products tend rather
 to depreciate than to rise in          
value1--in consequence of the continual 
addition of the new ones1 which may be  
regarded as supplements of the first    

ones1--it follows that the idle         
proprietor grows poor as fast as public 
prosperity increases4 ,incomes 7,i like 
to quote you1 sir1 because it is        
impossible to give too good an authority
 for these elementary principles of     
economy1 and because ,i cannot express  
them better myself71 incomes1 you have  
said1 tend to disappear as capital      
increases4 ,he who possesses to-day an  
income of twenty thousand pounds is not 
nearly as rich as he who possessed the  
same amount fifty years ago4 ,the time  
is coming when all property will be a   
burden to the idle1 and will necessarily
 pass into the hands of the able and    
industrious4 #dd444   ,in order to live 
as a proprietor1 or to consume without  
producing1 it is necessary1 then1 to    
live upon the labor of another2 in other
 words1 it is necessary to kill the     
laborer4 ,it is upon this principle that
 proprietors of those varieties of      
capital which are of primary necessity  
increase their farm-rents as fast as    

industry develops1 much more careful of 
their privileges in that respect1 than  
those economists who1 in order to       
strengthen property1 advocate a         
reduction of interest4 ,but the crime is
 unavailing3 labor and production       
increase2 soon the proprietor will be   
forced to labor1 and then property is   
lost4  ,the proprietor is a man who1    
having absolute control of an instrument
 of production1 claims the right to     
enjoy the product of the instrument     
without using it himself4 ,to this end  
he lends it2 and we have just seen that 
from this loan the laborer derives a    
power of exchange1 which sooner or later
 will destroy the right of increase4 ,in
 the first place1 the proprietor is     
obliged to allow the laborer a portion  
of the product1 for without it the      
laborer could not live4 ,soon the       
latter1 through the development of his  
industry1 finds a means of regaining the
 greater portion of that which he gives 
to the proprietor2 so that at last1 the 

objects of enjoyment increasing         
continually1 while the income of the    
idler remains the same1 the proprietor1 
having exhausted his resources1 begins  
to think of going to work himself4 ,then
 the victory of the producer is certain4
 ,labor commences to tip the balance    
towards its own side1 and commerce leads
 to equilibrium4  ,man's instinct cannot
 err2 as1 in liberty1 exchange of       
functions leads inevitably to equality  
among men1 so commerce--or exchange of  
products1 which is identical with       
exchange of functions--is a new cause of
 equality4 ,as long as the proprietor   
does not labor1 however small his       
income1 he enjoys a privilege2 the      
laborer's welfare may be equal to his1  
but equality of conditions does not     
exist4 ,but as soon as the proprietor   
becomes a producer1--since he can       
exchange his special product only with  
his tenant or his commandite1--sooner or
 later this tenant1 this exploited man1 
if violence is not done him1 will make a

 profit out of the proprietor1 and will 
oblige him to restore--in the exchange  
of their respective products--the       
interest on his capital4 ,so that1      
balancing one injustice by another1 the 
contracting parties will be equal4      
,labor and exchange1 when liberty       
prevails1 lead1 then1 to equality of    
fortunes2 mutuality of services         
neutralizes privilege4 ,that is why     
despots in all ages and countries have  
assumed control of commerce2 they wished
 to prevent the labor of their subjects 
from becoming an obstacle to the        
rapacity of tyrants4  ,up to this point1
 all takes place in the natural order2  
there is no premeditation1 no artifice4 
,the whole proceeding is governed by the
 laws of necessity alone4 ,proprietors  
and laborers act only in obedience to   
their wants4 ,thus1 the exercise of the 
right of increase1 the art of robbing   
the producer1 depends--during this first
 period of civilization--upon physical  
violence1 murder1 and war4  ,but at this

 point a gigantic and complicated       
conspiracy is hatched against the       
capitalists4 ,the weapon of the         
,,exploiters is met by the ,,exploited  
with the instrument of commerce1--a     
marvellous invention1 denounced at its  
origin by the moralists who favored     
property1 but inspired without doubt by 
the genius of labor1 by the ,minerva of 
the proletaires4  ,the principal cause  
of the evil lay in the accumulation and 
immobility of capital of all sorts1--an 
immobility which prevented labor1       
enslaved and subalternized by haughty   
idleness1 from ever acquiring it4 ,the  
necessity was felt of dividing and      
mobilizing wealth1 of rendering it      
portable1 of making it pass from the    
hands of the possessor into those of the
 worker4 ,labor invented ,,money4       
,afterwards1 this invention was revived 
and developed by the ,,bill ,,of        
,,exchange and the ,,bank4 ,for all     
these things are substantially the same1
 and proceed from the same mind4 ,the   

first man who conceived the idea of     
representing a value by a shell1 a      
precious stone1 or a certain weight of  
metal1 was the real inventor of the     
,bank4 ,what is a piece of money1 in    
fact8 ,it is a bill of exchange written 
upon solid and durable material1 and    
carrying with it its own redemption4 ,by
 this means1 oppressed equality was     
enabled to laugh at the efforts of the  
proprietors1 and the balance of justice 
was adjusted for the first time in the  
tradesman's shop4 ,the trap was         
cunningly set1 and accomplished its     
purpose so thoroughly that in idle hands
 money became only dissolving wealth1 a 
false symbol1 a shadow of riches4 ,an   
excellent economist and profound        
philosopher was that miser who took as  
his motto1 ,,when ,a ,,guinea ,,is      
,,exchanged1 ,,it ,,evaporates4 ,so it  
may be said1 ,when real estate is       
converted into money1 it is lost4 ,this 
explains the constant fact of history1  
that the nobles--the unproductive       

proprietors of the soil--have every     
where been dispossessed by industrial   
and commercial plebeians4 ,such was     
especially the case in the formation of 
the ,italian republics1 born1 during the
 middle ages1 of the impoverishment of  
the seigniors4 ,i will not pursue the   
interesting considerations which this   
matter suggests2 ,i could only repeat   
the testimony of historians1 and present
 economical demonstrations in an altered
 form4  ,the greatest enemy of the      
landed and industrial aristocracy       
to-day1 the incessant promoter of       
equality of fortunes1 is the ,,banker4  
,through him immense plains are divided1
 mountains change their positions1      
forests are grown upon the public       
squares1 one hemisphere produces for    
another1 and every corner of the globe  
has its usufructuaries4 ,by means of the
 ,bank new wealth is continually        
created1 the use of which 7soon becoming
 indispensable to selfishness7 wrests   
the dormant capital from the hands of   

the jealous proprietor4 ,the banker is  
at once the most potent creator of      
wealth1 and the main distributor of the 
products of art and ,nature4 ,and yet1  
by the strangest antinomy1 this same    
banker is the most relentless collector 
of profits1 increase1 and usury ever    
inspired by the demon of property4 ,the 
importance of the services which he     
renders leads us to endure1 though not  
without complaint1 the taxes which he   
imposes4 ,nevertheless1 since nothing   
can avoid its providential mission1     
since nothing which exists can escape   
the end for which it exists the banker  
7the modern ,croesus7 must some day     
become the restorer of equality4 ,and   
following in your footsteps1 sir1 ,i    
have already given the reason2 namely1  
that profit decreases as capital        
multiplies1 since an increase of        
capital--calling for more laborers1     
without whom it remains                 
unproductive--always causes an increase 
of wages4 ,whence it follows that the   

,bank1 to-day the suction-pump of       
wealth1 is destined to become the       
steward of the human race4  ,the phrase 
,,equality ,,of ,,fortunes chafes       
people1 as if it referred to a condition
 of the other world1 unknown here below4
 ,there are some persons1 radicals as   
well as moderates1 whom the very mention
 of this idea fills with indignation4   
,let1 then1 these silly aristocrats     
abolish mercantile societies and        
insurance companies1 which are founded  
by prudence for mutual assistance4 ,for 
all these social facts1 so spontaneous  
and free from all levelling intentions1 
are the legitimate fruits of the        
instinct of equality4  ,when the        
legislator makes a law1 properly        
speaking he does not ,,make it1--he does
 not ,,create it3 he ,,describes it4 ,in
 legislating upon the moral1 civil1 and 
political relations of citizens1 he does
 not express an arbitrary notion3 he    
states the general idea1--the higher    
principle which governs the matter which

 he is considering2 in a word1 he is the
 proclaimer1 not the inventor1 of the   
law4 ,so1 when two or more men form     
among themselves1 by synallagmatic      
contract1 an industrial or an insurance 
association1 they recognize that their  
interests1 formerly isolated by a false 
spirit of selfishness and independence1 
are firmly connected by their inner     
natures1 and by the mutuality of their  
relations4 ,they do not really bind     
themselves by an act of their private   
will3 they swear to conform henceforth  
to a previously existing social law     
hitherto disregarded by them4 ,and this 
is proved by the fact that these same   
men1 could they avoid association1 would
 not associate4 ,before they can be     
induced to unite their interests1 they  
must acquire full knowledge of the      
dangers of competition and isolation2   
hence the experience of evil is the only
 thing which leads them into society4   
,now ,i say that1 to establish equality 
among men1 it is only necessary to      

generalize the principle upon which     
insurance1 agricultural1 and commercial 
associations are based4 ,i say that     
competition1 isolation of interests1    
monopoly1 privilege1 accumulation of    
capital1 exclusive enjoyment1           
subordination of functions1 individual  
production1 the right of profit or      
increase1 the exploitation of man by    
man1 and1 to sum up all these species   
under one head1 that ,,property is the  
principal cause of misery and crime4    
,and1 for having arrived at this        
offensive and anti-proprietary          
conclusion1 ,i am an abhorred monster2  
radicals and conservatives alike point  
me out as a fit subject for prosecution2
 the academies shower their censures    
upon me2 the most worthy people regard  
me as mad2 and those are excessively    
tolerant who content themselves with the
 assertion that ,i am a fool4 ,oh1      
unhappy the writer who publishes the    
truth otherwise than as a performance of
 a duty6 ,if he has counted upon the    

applause of the crowd2 if he has        
supposed that avarice and self-interest 
would forget themselves in admiration of
 him2 if he has neglected to encase     
himself within three thicknesses of     
brass1--he will fail1 as he ought1 in   
his selfish undertaking4 ,the unjust    
criticisms1 the sad disappointments1 the
 despair of his mistaken ambition1 will 
kill him4  ,but1 if ,i am no longer     
permitted to express my own personal    
opinion concerning this interesting     
question of social equilibrium1 let me1 
at least1 make known the thought of my  
masters1 and develop the doctrines      
advocated in the name of the government4
  ,it never has been my intention1 sir1 
in spite of the vigorous censure which  
you1 in behalf of your academy1 have    
pronounced upon the doctrine of equality
 of fortunes1 to contradict and cope    
with you4 ,in listening to you1 ,i have 
felt my inferiority too keenly to permit
 me to enter upon such a discussion4    
,and then1--if it must be said1--however

 different your language is from mine1  
we believe in the same principles2 you  
share all my opinions4 ,i do not mean to
 insinuate thereby1 sir1 that you have  
7to use the phraseology of the schools7 
an ,,esoteric and an ,,exoteric         
doctrine1--that1 secretly believing in  
equality1 you defend property only from 
motives of prudence and by command4 ,i  
am not rash enough to regard you as my  
colleague in my revolutionary projects2 
and ,i esteem you too highly1 moreover1 
to suspect you of dissimulation4 ,i only
 mean that the truths which methodical  
investigation and laborious metaphysical
 speculation have painfully demonstrated
 to me1 a profound acquaintance with    
political economy and a long experience 
reveal to you4 ,while ,i have reached my
 belief in equality by long reflection1 
and almost in spite of my desires1 you  
hold yours1 sir1 with all the zeal of   
faith1--with all the spontaneity of     
genius4 ,that is why your course of     
lectures at the ,conservatory is a      

perpetual war upon property and         
inequality of fortunes2 that is why your
 most learned investigations1 your most 
ingenious analyses1 and your innumerable
 observations always conclude in a      
formula of progress and equality2 that  
is why1 finally1 you are never more     
admired and applauded than at those     
moments of inspiration when1 borne upon 
the wings of science1 you ascend to     
those lofty truths which cause plebeian 
hearts to beat with enthusiasm1 and     
which chill with horror men whose       
intentions are evil4 ,how many times1   
from the place where ,i eagerly drank in
 your eloquent words1 have ,i inwardly  
thanked ,heaven for exempting you from  
the judgment passed by ,st4 ,paul upon  
the philosophers of his time1--,they    
have known the truth1 and have not made 
it known6 ,how many times have ,i       
rejoiced at finding my own justification
 in each of your discourses6 ,no1 no2 ,i
 neither wish nor ask for any thing     
which you do not teach yourself4 ,i     

appeal to your numerous audience2 let it
 belie me if1 in commenting upon you1 ,i
 pervert your meaning4  ,a disciple of  
,say1 what in your eyes is more         
anti-social than the custom-houses2 or1 
as you correctly call them1 the barriers
 erected by monopoly between nations8   
,what is more annoying1 more unjust1 or 
more absurd1 than this prohibitory      
system which compels us to pay forty    
sous in ,france for that which in       
,england or ,belgium would bring us but 
fifteen8 ,it is the custom-house1 you   
once said1 #de which arrests the        
development of civilization by          
preventing the specialization of        
industries2 it is the custom-house which
 enriches a hundred monopolists by      
impoverishing millions of citizens2 it  
is the custom-house which produces      
famine in the midst of abundance1 which 
makes labor sterile by prohibiting      
exchange1 and which stifles production  
in a mortal embrace4 ,it is the         
custom-house which renders nations      

jealous of1 and hostile to1 each other2 
four-fifths of the wars of all ages were
 caused originally by the custom-house4 
,and then1 at the highest pitch of your 
enthusiasm1 you shouted3 ,yes1 if to put
 an end to this hateful system1 it      
should become necessary for me to shed  
the last drop of my blood1 ,i would     
joyfully spring into the gap1 asking    
only time enough to give thanks to ,god 
for having judged me worthy of          
martyrdom6   ,and1 at that solemn       
moment1 ,i said to myself3 ,place in    
every department of ,france such a      
professor as that1 and the revolution is
 avoided4  ,but1 sir1 by this           
magnificent theory of liberty of        
commerce you render military glory      
impossible1--you leave nothing for      
diplomacy to do2 you even take away the 
desire for conquest1 while abolishing   
profit altogether4 ,what matters it1    
indeed1 who restores ,constantinople1   
,alexandria1 and ,saint ,jean d',acre1  
if the ,syrians1 ,egyptians1 and ,turks 

are free to choose their masters2 free  
to exchange their products with whom    
they please8 ,why should ,europe get    
into such a turmoil over this petty     
,sultan and his old ,pasha1 if it is    
only a question whether we or the       
,english shall civilize the             
,orient1--shall instruct ,egypt and     
,syria in the ,european arts1 and shall 
teach them to construct machines1 dig   
canals1 and build railroads8 ,for1 if to
 national independence free trade is    
added1 the foreign influence of these   
two countries is thereafter exerted only
 through a voluntary relationship of    
producer to producer1 or apprentice to  
journeyman4  ,alone among ,european     
powers1 ,france cheerfully accepted the 
task of civilizing the ,orient1 and     
began an invasion which was quite       
apostolic in its character1--so joyful  
and high-minded do noble thoughts render
 our nation6 ,but diplomatic rivalry1   
national selfishness1 ,english avarice1 
and ,russian ambition stood in her way4 

,to consummate a long-meditated         
usurpation1 it was necessary to crush a 
too generous ally3 the robbers of the   
,holy ,alliance formed a league against 
dauntless and blameless ,france4        
,consequently1 at the news of this      
famous treaty1 there arose among us a   
chorus of curses upon the principle of  
property1 which at that time was acting 
under the hypocritical formulas of the  
old political system4 ,the last hour of 
property seemed to have struck by the   
side of ,syria2 from the ,alps to the   
ocean1 from the ,rhine to the ,pyrenees1
 the popular conscience was aroused4    
,all ,france sang songs of war1 and the 
coalition turned pale at the sound of   
these shuddering cries3 ,war upon the   
autocrat1 who wishes to be proprietor of
 the old world6 ,war upon the ,english  
perjurer1 the devourer of ,india1 the   
poisoner of ,china1 the tyrant of       
,ireland1 and the eternal enemy of      
,france6 ,war upon the allies who have  
conspired against liberty and equality6 

,war6 war6 war upon property6  ,by the  
counsel of ,providence the emancipation 
of the nations is postponed4 ,france is 
to conquer1 not by arms1 but by example4
 ,universal reason does not yet         
understand this grand equation1 which1  
commencing with the abolition of        
slavery1 and advancing over the ruins of
 aristocracies and thrones1 must end in 
equality of rights and fortunes2 but the
 day is not far off when the knowledge  
of this truth will be as common as that 
of equality of origin4 ,already it seems
 to be understood that the ,oriental    
question is only a question of          
custom-houses4 ,is it1 then1 so         
difficult for public opinion to         
generalize this idea1 and to comprehend1
 finally1 that if the suppression of    
custom-houses involves the abolition of 
national property1 it involves also1 as 
a consequence1 the abolition of         
individual property8  ,in fact1 if we   
suppress the custom-houses1 the alliance
 of the nations is declared by that very

 act2 their solidarity is recognized1   
and their equality proclaimed4 ,if we   
suppress the custom-houses1 the         
principle of association will not be    
slow in reaching from the ,state to the 
province1 from the province to the city1
 and from the city to the workshop4     
,but1 then1 what becomes of the         
privileges of authors and artists8 ,of  
what use are the patents for invention1 
imagination1 amelioration1 and          
improvement8 ,when our deputies write a 
law of literary property by the side of 
a law which opens a large breach in the 
custom-house they contradict themselves1
 indeed1 and pull down with one hand    
what they build up with the other4      
,without the custom-house1 literary     
property does not exist1 and the hopes  
of our starving authors are frustrated4 
,for1 certainly you do not expect1 with 
the good man ,fourier1 that literary    
property will exercise itself in ,china 
to the profit of a ,french writer2 and  
that an ode of ,lamartine1 sold by      

privilege all over the world1 will bring
 in millions to its author6 ,the poet's 
work is peculiar to the climate in which
 he lives2 every where else the         
reproduction of his works1 having no    
market value1 should be frank and free4 
,but what6 will it be necessary for     
nations to put themselves under mutual  
surveillance for the sake of verses1    
statues1 and elixirs8 ,we shall always  
have1 then1 an excise1 a city-toll1     
rights of entrance and transit1         
custom-houses finally2 and then1 as a   
reaction against privilege1 smuggling4  
,smuggling6 ,that word reminds me of one
 of the most horrible forms of property4
 ,smuggling1 you have said1 sir1 #df is 
an offence of political creation2 it is 
the exercise of natural liberty1 defined
 as a crime in certain cases by the will
 of the sovereign4 ,the smuggler is a   
gallant man1--a man of spirit1 who gaily
 busies himself in procuring for his    
neighbor1 at a very low price1 a jewel1 
a shawl1 or any other object of         

necessity or luxury1 which domestic     
monopoly renders excessively dear4      
,then1 to a very poetical monograph of  
the smuggler1 you add this dismal       
conclusion1--that the smuggler belongs  
to the family of ,mandrin1 and that the 
galleys should be his home6   ,but1 sir1
 you have not called attention to the   
horrible exploitation which is carried  
on in this way in the name of property4 
,it is said1--and ,i give this report   
only as an hypothesis and an            
illustration1 for ,i do not believe     
it1--it is said that the present        
minister of finances owes his fortune to
 smuggling4 ,m4 ,humann1 of ,strasbourg1
 sent out of ,france1 it is said1       
enormous quantities of sugar1 for which 
he received the bounty on exportation   
promised by the ,state2 then1 smuggling 
this sugar back again1 he exported it   
anew1 receiving the bounty on           
exportation a second time1 and so on4   
,notice1 sir1 that ,i do not state this 
as a fact2 ,i give it only as it is     

told1 not endorsing or even believing   
it4 ,my sole design is to fix the idea  
in the mind by an example4 ,if ,i       
believed that a minister had committed  
such a crime1 that is1 if ,i had        
personal and authentic knowledge that he
 had1 ,i would denounce ,m4 ,humann1 the
 minister of finances1 to the ,chamber  
of ,deputies1 and would loudly demand   
his expulsion from the ministry4  ,but  
that which is undoubtedly false of ,m4  
,humann is true of many others1 as rich 
and no less honorable than he4          
,smuggling1 organized on a large scale  
by the eaters of human flesh1 is carried
 on to the profit of a few pashas at the
 risk and peril of their imprudent      
victims4 ,the inactive proprietor offers
 his merchandise for sale2 the actual   
smuggler risks his liberty1 his honor1  
and his life4 ,if success crowns the    
enterprise1 the courageous servant gets 
paid for his journey2 the profit goes to
 the coward4 ,if fortune or treachery   
delivers the instrument of this         

execrable traffic into the hands of the 
custom-house officer1 the               
master-smuggler suffers a loss which a  
more fortunate voyage will soon repair4 
,the agent1 pronounced a scoundrel1 is  
thrown into prison in company with      
robbers2 while his glorious patron1 a   
juror1 elector1 deputy1 or minister1    
makes laws concerning expropriation1    
monopoly1 and custom-houses6  ,i        
promised1 at the beginning of this      
letter1 that no attack on property      
should escape my pen1 my only object    
being to justify myself before the      
public by a general recrimination4 ,but 
,i could not refrain from branding so   
odious a mode of exploitation1 and ,i   
trust that this short digression will be
 pardoned4 ,property does not avenge1 ,i
 hope1 the injuries which smuggling     
suffers4  ,the conspiracy against       
property is general2 it is flagrant2 it 
takes possession of all minds1 and      
inspires all our laws2 it lies at the   
bottom of all theories4 ,here the       

proletaire pursues property in the      
street1 there the legislator lays an    
interdict upon it2 now1 a professor of  
political economy or of industrial      
legislation1 #dg paid to defend it1     
undermines it with redoubled blows2 at  
another--time1 an academy calls it in   
question1 #dh or inquires as to the     
progress of its demolition4 #di ,to-day 
there is not an idea1 not an opinion1   
not a sect1 which does not dream of     
muzzling property4 ,none confess it1    
because none are yet conscious of it2   
there are too few minds capable of      
grasping spontaneously this ensemble of 
causes and effects1 of principles and   
consequences1 by which ,i try to        
demonstrate the approaching             
disappearance of property2 on the other 
hand1 the ideas that are generally      
formed of this right are too divergent  
and too loosely determined to allow an  
admission1 so soon1 of the contrary     
theory4 ,thus1 in the middle and lower  
ranks of literature and philosophy1 no  

less than among the common people1 it is
 thought that1 when property is         
abolished1 no one will be able to enjoy 
the fruit of his labor2 that no one will
 have any thing peculiar to himself1 and
 that tyrannical communism will be      
established on the ruins of family and  
liberty6--chimeras1 which are to support
 for a little while longer the cause of 
privilege4   ,but1 before determining   
precisely the idea of property1 before  
seeking amid the contradictions of      
systems for the common element which    
must form the basis of the new right1   
let us cast a rapid glance at the       
changes which1 at the various periods of
 history1 property has undergone4 ,the  
political forms of nations are the      
expression of their beliefs4 ,the       
mobility of these forms1 their          
modification and their destruction1 are 
solemn experiences which show us the    
value of ideas1 and gradually eliminate 
from the infinite variety of customs the
 absolute1 eternal1 and immutable truth4

 ,now1 we shall see that every political
 institution tends1 necessarily1 and on 
pain of death1 to equalize conditions2  
that every where and always equality of 
fortunes 7like equality of rights7 has  
been the social aim1 whether the        
plebeian classes have endeavored to rise
 to political power by means of         
property1 or whether--rulers            
already--they have used political power 
to overthrow property4 ,we shall see1 in
 short1 by the progress of society1 that
 the consummation of justice lies in the
 extinction of individual domain4  ,for 
the sake of brevity1 ,i will disregard  
the testimony of ecclesiastical history 
and ,christian theology3 this subject   
deserves a separate treatise1 and ,i    
propose hereafter to return to it4      
,moses and ,jesus ,christ proscribed1   
under the names of usury and inequality1
 #ej all sorts of profit and increase4  
,the church itself1 in its purest       
teachings1 has always condemned         
property2 and when ,i attacked1 not only

 the authority of the church1 but also  
its infidelity to justice1 ,i did it to 
the glory of religion4 ,i wanted to     
provoke a peremptory reply1 and to pave 
the way for ,christianity's triumph1 in 
spite of the innumerable attacks of     
which it is at present the object4 ,i   
hoped that an apologist would arise     
forthwith1 and1 taking his stand upon   
the ,scriptures1 the ,fathers1 the      
canons1 and the councils and            
constitutions of the ,popes1 would      
demonstrate that the church always has  
maintained the doctrine of equality1 and
 would attribute to temporary necessity 
the contradictions of its discipline4   
,such a labor would serve the cause of  
religion as well as that of equality4   
,we must know1 sooner or later1 whether 
,christianity is to be regenerated in   
the church or out of it1 and whether    
this church accepts the reproaches cast 
upon it of hatred to liberty and        
antipathy to progress4 ,until then we   
will suspend judgment1 and content      

ourselves with placing before the clergy
 the teachings of history4   ,when      
,lycurgus undertook to make laws for    
,sparta1 in what condition did he find  
this republic8 ,on this point all       
historians agree4 ,the people and the   
nobles were at war4 ,the city was in a  
confused state1 and divided by two      
parties1--the party of the poor1 and the
 party of the rich4 ,hardly escaped from
 the barbarism of the heroic ages1      
society was rapidly declining4 ,the     
proletariat made war upon property1     
which1 in its turn1 oppressed the       
proletariat4 ,what did ,lycurgus do8    
,his first measure was one of general   
security1 at the very idea of which our 
legislators would tremble4 ,he abolished
 all debts2 then1 employing by turns    
persuasion and force1 he induced the    
nobles to renounce their privileges1 and
 re-established equality4  ,lycurgus1 in
 a word1 hunted property out of         
,lacedaemon1 seeing no other way to     
harmonize liberty1 equality1 and law4 ,i

 certainly should not wish ,france to   
follow the example of ,sparta2 but it is
 remarkable that the most ancient of    
,greek legislators1 thoroughly          
acquainted with the nature and needs of 
the people1 more capable than any one   
else of appreciating the legitimacy of  
the obligations which he1 in the        
exercise of his absolute authority1     
cancelled2 who had compared the         
legislative systems of his time1 and    
whose wisdom an oracle had              
proclaimed1--it is remarkable1 ,i say1  
that ,lycurgus should have judged the   
right of property incompatible with free
 institutions1 and should have thought  
it his duty to preface his legislation  
by a coup d'etat which destroyed all    
distinctions of fortune4  ,lycurgus     
understood perfectly that the luxury1   
the love of enjoyments1 and the         
inequality of fortunes1 which property  
engenders1 are the bane of society2     
unfortunately the means which he        
employed to preserve his republic were  

suggested to him by false notions of    
political economy1 and by a superficial 
knowledge of the human heart4           
,accordingly1 property1 which this      
legislator wrongly confounded with      
wealth1 reentered the city together with
 the swarm of evils which he was        
endeavoring to banish2 and this time    
,sparta was hopelessly corrupted4   ,the
 introduction of wealth1 says ,m4       
,pastoret1 was one of the principal     
causes of the misfortunes which they    
experienced4 ,against these1 however1   
the laws had taken extraordinary        
precautions1 the best among which was   
the inculcation of morals which tended  
to suppress desire4   ,the best of all  
precautions would have been the         
anticipation of desire by satisfaction4 
,possession is the sovereign remedy for 
cupidity1 a remedy which would have been
 the less perilous to ,sparta because   
fortunes there were almost equal1 and   
conditions were nearly alike4 ,as a     
general thing1 fasting and abstinence   

are bad teachers of moderation4  ,there 
was a law1 says ,m4 ,pastoret again1 to 
prohibit the rich from wearing better   
clothing than the poor1 from eating more
 delicate food1 and from owning elegant 
furniture1 vases1 carpets1 fine houses1 
c4 ,lycurgus hoped1 then1 to maintain   
equality by rendering wealth useless4   
,how much wiser he would have been if1  
in accordance with his military         
discipline1 he had organized industry   
and taught the people to procure by     
their own labor the things which he     
tried in vain to deprive them of4 ,in   
that case1 enjoying happy thoughts and  
pleasant feelings1 the citizen would    
have known no other desire than that    
with which the legislator endeavored to 
inspire him1--love of honor and glory1  
the triumphs of talent and virtue4      
,gold and all kinds of ornaments were   
forbidden the women4 ,absurd4 ,after the
 death of ,lycurgus1 his institutions   
became corrupted2 and four centuries    
before the ,christian era not a vestige 

remained of the former simplicity4      
,luxury and the thirst for gold were    
early developed among the ,spartans in a
 degree as intense as might have been   
expected from their enforced poverty and
 their inexperience in the arts4        
,historians have accused ,pausanias1    
,lysander1 ,agesilaus1 and others of    
having corrupted the morals of their    
country by the introduction of wealth   
obtained in war4 ,it is a slander4 ,the 
morals of the ,spartans necessarily grew
 corrupt as soon as the ,lacedaemonian  
poverty came in contact with ,persian   
luxury and ,athenian elegance4          
,lycurgus1 then1 made a fatal mistake in
 attempting to inspire generosity and   
modesty by enforcing vain and proud     
simplicity4   ,lycurgus was not         
frightened at idleness6 ,a              
,lacedemonian1 happening to be in       
,athens 7where idleness was forbidden7  
during the punishment of a citizen who  
had been found guilty1 asked to see the 
,athenian thus condemned for having     

exercised the rights of a free man4444  
,it was one of the principles of        
,lycurguss1 acted upon for several      
centuries1 that free men should not     
follow lucrative professions4444 ,the   
women disdained domestic labor2 they did
 not spin their wool themselves1 as did 
the other ,greeks they did not1 then1   
read ,homer62 they left their slaves to 
make their clothing for                 
them4--,pastoret3 ,history of           
,legislation4   ,could any thing be more
 contradictory8 ,lycurgus proscribed    
property among the citizens1 and founded
 the means of subsistence on the worst  
form of property1--on property obtained 
by force4 ,what wonder1 after that1 that
 a lazy city1 where no industry was     
carried on1 became a den of avarice8    
,the ,spartans succumbed the more easily
 to the allurements of luxury and       
,asiatic voluptuousness1 being placed   
entirely at their mercy by their own    
coarseness4 ,the same thing happened to 
the ,romans1 when military success took 

them out of ,italy1--a thing which the  
author of the prosopopoeia of ,fabricius
 could not explain4 ,it is not the      
cultivation of the arts which corrupts  
morals1 but their degradation1 induced  
by inactive and luxurious opulence4 ,the
 instinct of property is to make the    
industry of ,daedalus1 as well as the   
talent of ,phidias1 subservient to its  
own fantastic whims and disgraceful     
pleasures4 ,property1 not wealth1 ruined
 the ,spartans4  ,when ,solon appeared1 
the anarchy caused by property was at   
its height in the ,athenian republic4   
,the inhabitants of ,attica were divided
 among themselves as to the form of     
government4 ,those who lived on the     
mountains 7the poor7 preferred the      
popular form2 those of the plain 7the   
middle class71 the oligarchs2 those by  
the sea coast1 a mixture of oligarchy   
and democracy4 ,other dissensions were  
arising from the inequality of fortunes4
 ,the mutual antagonism of the rich and 
poor had become so violent1 that the    

one-man power seemed the only safe-guard
 against the revolution with which the  
republic was threatened4 7,pastoret3    
,history of ,legislation47  ,quarrels   
between the rich and the poor1 which    
seldom occur in monarchies1 because a   
well established power suppresses       
dissensions1 seem to be the life of     
popular governments4 ,aristotle had     
noticed this4 ,the oppression of wealth 
submitted to agrarian laws1 or to       
excessive taxation2 the hatred of the   
lower classes for the upper class1 which
 is exposed always to libellous charges 
made in hopes of confiscation1--these   
were the features of the ,athenian      
government which were especially        
revolting to ,aristotle1 and which      
caused him to favor a limited monarchy4 
,aristotle1 if he had lived in our day1 
would have supported the constitutional 
government4 ,but1 with all deference to 
the ,stagirite1 a government which      
sacrifices the life of the proletaire to
 that of the proprietor is quite as     

irrational as one which supports the    
former by robbing the latter2 neither of
 them deserve the support of a free man1
 much less of a philosopher4  ,solon    
followed the example of ,lycurgus4 ,he  
celebrated his legislative inauguration 
by the abolition of debts1--that is1 by 
bankruptcy4 ,in other words1 ,solon     
wound up the governmental machine for a 
longer or shorter time depending upon   
the rate of interest4 ,consequently1    
when the spring relaxed and the chain   
became unwound1 the republic had either 
to perish1 or to recover itself by a    
second bankruptcy4 ,this singular policy
 was pursued by all the ancients4 ,after
 the captivity of ,babylon1 ,nehemiah1  
the chief of the ,jewish nation1        
abolished debts2 ,lycurgus abolished    
debts2 ,solon abolished debts2 the      
,roman people1 after the expulsion of   
the kings until the accession of the    
,caesars1 struggled with the ,senate for
 the abolition of debts4 ,afterwards1   
towards the end of the republic1 and    

long after the establishment of the     
empire1 agriculture being abandoned1 and
 the provinces becoming depopulated in  
consequence of the excessive rates of   
interest1 the emperors freely granted   
the lands to whoever would cultivate    
them1--that is1 they abolished debts4   
,no one1 except ,lycurgus1 who went to  
the other extreme1 ever perceived that  
the great point was1 not to release     
debtors by a coup d'etat1 but to prevent
 the contraction of debts in future4    
,on the contrary1 the most democratic   
governments were always exclusively     
based upon individual property2 so that 
the social element of all these         
republics was war between the citizens4 
,solon decreed that a census should be  
taken of all fortunes1 regulated        
political rights by the result1 granted 
to the larger proprietors more          
influence1 established the balance of   
powers1--in a word1 inserted in the     
constitution the most active leaven of  
discord2 as if1 instead of a legislator 

chosen by the people1 he had been their 
greatest enemy4 ,is it not1 indeed1 the 
height of imprudence to grant equality  
of political rights to men of unequal   
conditions8 ,if a manufacturer1 uniting 
all his workmen in a joint-stock        
company1 should give to each of them a  
consultative and deliberative           
voice1--that is1 should make all of them
 masters1--would this equality of       
mastership secure continued inequality  
of wages8 ,that is the whole political  
system of ,solon1 reduced to its        
simplest expression4   ,in giving       
property a just preponderance1 says ,m4 
,pastoret1 ,solon repaired1 as far as he
 was able1 his first official act1--the 
abolition of debts4444 ,he thought he   
owed it to public peace to make this    
great sacrifice of acquired rights and  
natural equity4 ,but the violation of   
individual property and written         
contracts is a bad preface to a public  
code4   ,in fact1 such violations are   
always cruelly punished4 ,in '#hi and   

'#ic1 the possessions of the nobility   
and the clergy were confiscated1 the    
clever proletaires were enriched2 and   
to-day the latter1 having become        
aristocrats1 are making us pay dearly   
for our fathers' robbery4 ,what1        
therefore1 is to be done now8 ,it is not
 for us to violate right1 but to restore
 it4 ,now1 it would be a violation of   
justice to dispossess some and endow    
others1 and then stop there4 ,we must   
gradually lower the rate of interest1   
organize industry1 associate laborers   
and their functions1 and take a census  
of the large fortunes1 not for the      
purpose of granting privileges1 but that
 we may effect their redemption by      
settling a life-annuity upon their      
proprietors4 ,we must apply on a large  
scale the principle of collective       
production1 give the ,state eminent     
domain over all capital6 make each      
producer responsible1 abolish the       
custom-house1 and transform every       
profession and trade into a public      

function4 ,thereby large fortunes will  
vanish without confiscation or violence2
 individual possession will establish   
itself1 without communism1 under the    
inspection of the republic2 and equality
 of conditions will no longer depend    
simply on the will of citizens4  ,of the
 authors who have written upon the      
,romans1 ,bossuet and ,montesquieu      
occupy prominent positions in the first 
rank2 the first being generally regarded
 as the father of the philosophy of     
history1 and the second as the most     
profound writer upon law and politics4  
,nevertheless1 it could be shown that   
these two great writers1 each of them   
imbued with the prejudices of their     
century and their cloth1 have left the  
question of the causes of the rise and  
fall of the ,romans precisely where they
 found it4  ,bossuet is admirable as    
long as he confines himself to          
description3 witness1 among other       
passages1 the picture which he has given
 us of ,greece before the ,persian ,war1

 and which seems to have inspired       
,telemachus2 the parallel between       
,athens and ,sparta1 drawn twenty times 
since ,bossuet2 the description of the  
character and morals of the ancient     
,romans2 and1 finally1 the sublime      
peroration which ends the ,discourse on 
,universal ,history4 ,but when the      
famous historian deals with causes1 his 
philosophy is at fault4   ,the tribunes 
always favored the division of captured 
lands1 or the proceeds of their sale1   
among the citizens4 ,the ,senate        
steadfastly opposed those laws which    
were damaging to the ,state1 and wanted 
the price of lands to be awarded to the 
public treasury4   ,thus1 according to  
,bossuet1 the first and greatest wrong  
of civil wars was inflicted upon the    
people1 who1 dying of hunger1 demanded  
that the lands1 which they had shed     
their blood to conquer1 should be given 
to them for cultivation4 ,the           
patricians1 who bought them to deliver  
to their slaves1 had more regard for    

justice and the public interests4 ,how  
little affects the opinions of men6 ,if 
the roles of ,cicero and the ,gracchi   
had been inverted1 ,bossuet1 whose      
sympathies were aroused by the eloquence
 of the great orator more than by the   
clamors of the tribunes1 would have     
viewed the agrarian laws in quite a     
different light4 ,he then would have    
understood that the interest of the     
treasury was only a pretext2 that1 when 
the captured lands were put up at       
auction1 the patricians hastened to buy 
them1 in order to profit by the revenues
 from them1--certain1 moreover1 that the
 price paid would come back to them     
sooner or later1 in exchange either for 
supplies furnished by them to the       
republic1 or for the subsistence of the 
multitude1 who could buy only of them1  
and whose services at one time1 and     
poverty at another1 were rewarded by the
 ,state4 ,for a ,state does not hoard2  
on the contrary1 the public funds always
 return to the people4 ,if1 then1 a     

certain number of men are the sole      
dealers in articles of primary          
necessity1 it follows that the public   
treasury1 in passing and repassing      
through their hands1 deposits and       
accumulates real property there4  ,when 
,menenius related to the people his     
fable of the limbs and the stomach1 if  
any one had remarked to this            
story-teller that the stomach freely    
gives to the limbs the nourishment which
 it freely receives1 but that the       
patricians gave to the plebeians only   
for cash1 and lent to them only at      
usury1 he undoubtedly would have        
silenced the wily senator1 and saved the
 people from a great imposition4 ,the   
,conscript ,fathers were fathers only of
 their own line4 ,as for the common     
people1 they were regarded as an impure 
race1 exploitable1 taxable1 and workable
 at the discretion and mercy of their   
masters4  ,as a general thing1 ,bossuet 
shows little regard for the people4 ,his
 monarchical and theological instincts  

know nothing but authority1 obedience1  
and alms-giving1 under the name of      
charity4  ,this unfortunate disposition 
constantly leads him to mistake symptoms
 for causes2 and his depth1 which is so 
much admired1 is borrowed from his      
authors1 and amounts to very little1    
after all4  ,when he says1 for instance1
 that the dissensions in the republic1  
and finally its fall1 were caused by the
 jealousies of its citizens1 and their  
love of liberty carried to an extreme   
and intolerable extent1 are we not      
tempted to ask him what caused those    
,,jealousies8--what inspired the people 
with that ,,love ,,of ,,liberty1        
,,extreme ,,and ,,intolerable8 ,it would
 be useless to reply1 ,the corruption of
 morals2 the disregard for the ancient  
poverty2 the debaucheries1 luxury1 and  
class jealousies2 the seditious         
character of the ,gracchi1 c4 ,why did  
the morals become corrupt1 and whence   
arose those eternal dissensions between 
the patricians and the plebeians8  ,in  

,rome1 as in all other places1 the      
dissension between the rich and the poor
 was not caused directly by the desire  
for wealth 7people1 as a general thing1 
do not covet that which they deem it    
illegitimate to acquire71 but by a      
natural instinct of the plebeians1 which
 led them to seek the cause of their    
adversity in the constitution of the    
republic4 ,so we are doing to-day2      
instead of altering our public economy1 
we demand an electoral reform4 ,the     
,roman people wished to return to the   
social compact2 they asked for reforms1 
and demanded a revision of the laws1 and
 a creation of new magistracies4 ,the   
patricians1 who had nothing to complain 
of1 opposed every innovation4 ,wealth   
always has been conservative4           
,nevertheless1 the people overcame the  
resistance of the ,senate2 the electoral
 right was greatly extended2 the        
privileges of the plebeians were        
increased1--they had their              
representatives1 their tribunes1 and    

their consuls2 but1 notwithstanding     
these reforms1 the republic could not be
 saved4 ,when all political expedients  
had been exhausted1 when civil war had  
depleted the population1 when the       
,caesars had thrown their bloody mantle 
over the cancer which was consuming the 
empire1--inasmuch as accumulated        
property always was respected1 and since
 the fire never stopped1 the nation had 
to perish in the flames4 ,the imperial  
power was a compromise which protected  
the property of the rich1 and nourished 
the proletaires with wheat from ,africa 
and ,sicily3 a double error1 which      
destroyed the aristocrats by plethora   
and the commoners by famine4 ,at last   
there was but one real proprietor       
left1--the emperor1--whose dependent1   
flatterer1 parasite1 or slave1 each     
citizen became2 and when this proprietor
 was ruined1 those who gathered the     
crumbs from under his table1 and laughed
 when he cracked his jokes1 perished    
also4  ,montesquieu succeeded no better 

than ,bossuet in fathoming the causes of
 the ,roman decline2 indeed1 it may be  
said that the president has only        
developed the ideas of the bishop4 ,if  
the ,romans had been more moderate in   
their conquests1 more just to their     
allies1 more humane to the vanquished2  
if the nobles had been less covetous1   
the emperors less lawless1 the people   
less violent1 and all classes less      
corrupt2 if444 c41--perhaps the dignity 
of the empire might have been preserved1
 and ,rome might have retained the      
sceptre of the world6 ,that is all that 
can be gathered from the teachings of   
,montesquieu4 ,but the truth of history 
does not lie there2 the destinies of the
 world are not dependent upon such      
trivial causes4 ,the passions of men1   
like the contingencies of time and the  
varieties of climate1 serve to maintain 
the forces which move humanity and      
produce all historical changes2 but they
 do not explain them4 ,the grain of sand
 of which ,pascal speaks would have     

caused the death of one man only1 had   
not prior action ordered the events of  
which this death was the precursor4     
,montesquieu has read extensively2 he   
knows ,roman history thoroughly1 is     
perfectly well acquainted with the      
people of whom he speaks1 and sees very 
clearly why they were able to conquer   
their rivals and govern the world4      
,while reading him we admire the        
,romans1 but we do not like them2 we    
witness their triumphs without pleasure1
 and we watch their fall without sorrow4
 ,montesquieu's work1 like the works of 
all ,french writers1 is skilfully       
composed1--spirited1 witty1 and filled  
with wise observations4 ,he pleases1    
interests1 instructs1 but leads to      
little reflection2 he does not conquer  
by depth of thought2 he does not exalt  
the mind by elevated reason or earnest  
feeling4 ,in vain should we search his  
writings for knowledge of antiquity1 the
 character of primitive society1 or a   
description of the heroic ages1 whose   

morals and prejudices lived until the   
last days of the republic4 ,vico1       
painting the ,romans with their horrible
 traits1 represents them as excusable1  
because he shows that all their conduct 
was governed by preexisting ideas and   
customs1 and that they were informed1 so
 to speak1 by a superior genius of which
 they were unconscious2 in ,montesquieu1
 the ,roman atrocity revolts1 but is not
 explained4 ,therefore1 as a writer1    
,montesquieu brings greater credit upon 
,french literature2 as a philosopher1   
,vico bears away the palm4  ,originally1
 property in ,rome was national1 not    
private4 ,numa was the first to         
establish individual property by        
distributing the lands captured by      
,romulus4 ,what was the dividend of this
 distribution effected by ,numa8 ,what  
conditions were imposed upon            
individuals1 what powers reserved to the
 ,state8 ,none whatever4 ,inequality of 
fortunes1 absolute abdication by the    
republic of its right of eminent domain 

over the property of citizens1--such    
were the first results of the division  
of ,numa1 who justly may be regarded as 
the originator of ,roman revolutions4   
,he it was who instituted the worship of
 the god ,terminus1--the guardian of    
private possession1 and one of the most 
ancient gods of ,italy4 ,it was ,numa   
who placed property under the protection
 of ,jupiter2 who1 in imitation of the  
,etrurians1 wished to make priests of   
the land-surveyors2 who invented a      
liturgy for cadastral operations1 and   
ceremonies of consecration for the      
marking of boundaries1--who1 in short1  
made a religion of property4 #ea ,all   
these fancies would have been more      
beneficial than dangerous1 if the holy  
king had not forgotten one essential    
thing2 namely1 to fix the amount that   
each citizen could possess1 and on what 
conditions he could possess it4 ,for1   
since it is the essence of property to  
continually increase by accession and   
profit1 and since the lender will take  

advantage of every opportunity to apply 
this principle inherent in property1 it 
follows that properties tend1 by means  
of their natural energy and the         
religious respect which protects them1  
to absorb each other1 and fortunes to   
increase or diminish to an indefinite   
extent1--a process which necessarily    
results in the ruin of the people1 and  
the fall of the republic4 ,roman history
 is but the development of this law4    
,scarcely had the ,tarquins been        
banished from ,rome and the monarchy    
abolished1 when quarrels commenced      
between the orders4 ,in the year #did   
,b4,c41 the secession of the commonalty 
to the ,mons ,sacer led to the          
establishment of the tribunate4 ,of what
 did the plebeians complain8 ,that they 
were poor1 exhausted by the interest    
which they paid to the                  
proprietors1--foeneratoribus2 that the  
republic1 administered for the benefit  
of the nobles1 did nothing for the      
people2 that1 delivered over to the     

mercy of their creditors1 who could sell
 them and their children1 and having    
neither hearth nor home1 they were      
refused the means of subsistence1 while 
the rate of interest was kept at its    
highest point1 c4 ,for five centuries1  
the sole policy of the ,senate was to   
evade these just complaints2 and1       
notwithstanding the energy of the       
tribunes1 notwithstanding the eloquence 
of the ,gracchi1 the violence of        
,marius1 and the triumph of ,caesar1    
this execrable policy succeeded only too
 well4 ,the ,senate always temporized2  
the measures proposed by the tribunes   
might be good1 but they were            
inopportune4 ,it admitted that something
 should be done2 but first it was       
necessary that the people should resume 
the performance of their duties1 because
 the ,senate could not yield to         
violence1 and force must be employed    
only by the law4 ,if the people--out of 
respect for legality--took this         
beautiful advice1 the ,senate conjured  

up a difficulty2 the reform was         
postponed1 and that was the end of it4  
,on the contrary1 if the demands of the 
proletaires became too pressing1 it     
declared a foreign war1 and neighboring 
nations were deprived of their liberty1 
to maintain the ,roman aristocracy4     
,but the toils of war were only a halt  
for the plebeians in their onward march 
towards pauperism4 ,the lands           
confiscated from the conquered nations  
were immediately added to the domain of 
the ,state1 to the ager publicus2 and1  
as such1 cultivated for the benefit of  
the treasury2 or1 as was more often the 
case1 they were sold at auction4 ,none  
of them were granted to the proletaires1
 who1 unlike the patricians and knights1
 were not supplied by the victory with  
the means of buying them4 ,war never    
enriched the soldier2 the extensive     
plundering has been done always by the  
generals4 ,the vans of ,augereau1 and of
 twenty others1 are famous in our       
armies2 but no one ever heard of a      

private getting rich4 ,nothing was more 
common in ,rome than charges of         
peculation1 extortion1 embezzlement1 and
 brigandage1 carried on in the provinces
 at the head of armies1 and in other    
public capacities4 ,all these charges   
were quieted by intrigue1 bribery of the
 judges1 or desistance of the accuser4  
,the culprit was allowed always in the  
end to enjoy his spoils in peace2 his   
son was only the more respected on      
account of his father's crimes4 ,and1 in
 fact1 it could not be otherwise4 ,what 
would become of us1 if every deputy1    
peer1 or public functionary should be   
called upon to show his title to his    
fortune6   ,the patricians arrogated the
 exclusive enjoyment of the ager        
publicus2 and1 like the feudal          
seigniors1 granted some portions of     
their lands to their dependants1--a     
wholly precarious concession1 revocable 
at the will of the grantor4 ,the        
plebeians1 on the contrary1 were        
entitled to the enjoyment of only a     

little pasture-land left to them in     
common3 an utterly unjust state of      
things1 since1 in consequence of it1    
taxation--census--weighed more heavily  
upon the poor than upon the rich4 ,the  
patrician1 in fact1 always exempted     
himself from the tithe which he owed as 
the price and as the acknowledgment of  
the concession of domain2 and1 on the   
other hand1 paid no taxes on his        
,,possessions1 if1 as there is good     
reason to believe1 only citizens'       
property was taxed4--,laboulaye3        
,history of ,property4   ,in order      
thoroughly to understand the preceding  
quotation1 we must know that the estates
 of ,,citizens--that is1 estates        
independent of the public domain1       
whether they were obtained in the       
division of ,numa1 or had since been    
sold by the questors--were alone        
regarded as ,,property2 upon these a    
tax1 or cense1 was imposed4 ,on the     
contrary1 the estates obtained by       
concessions of the public domain1 of the

 ager publicus 7for which a light rent  
was paid71 were called ,,possessions4   
,thus1 among the ,romans1 there was a   
,,right ,,of ,,property and a ,,right   
,,of ,,possession regulating the        
administration of all estates4 ,now1    
what did the proletaires wish8 ,that the
 jus possessionis--the simple right of  
possession--should be extended to them  
at the expense1 as is evident1 not of   
private property1 but of the public     
domain1--agri publici4 ,the proletaires1
 in short1 demanded that they should be 
tenants of the land which they had      
conquered4 ,this demand1 the patricians 
in their avarice never would accede to4 
,buying as much of this land as they    
could1 they afterwards found means of   
obtaining the rest as ,,possessions4    
,upon this land they employed their     
slaves4 ,the people1 who could not buy1 
on account of the competition of the    
rich1 nor hire1 because--cultivating    
with their own hands--they could not    
promise a rent equal to the revenue     

which the land would yield when         
cultivated by slaves1 were always       
deprived of possession and property4    
,civil wars relieved1 to some extent1   
the sufferings of the multitude4 ,the   
people enrolled themselves under the    
banners of the ambitious1 in order to   
obtain by force that which the law      
refused them1--property4 ,a colony was  
the reward of a victorious legion4 ,but 
it was no longer the ager publicus only2
 it was all ,italy that lay at the mercy
 of the legions4 ,the ager publicus     
disappeared almost entirely1444 but the 
cause of the evil--accumulated          
property--became more potent than ever4 
7,laboulaye3 ,history of ,property47    
,the author whom ,i quote does not tell 
us why this division of territory which 
followed civil wars did not arrest the  
encroachments of accumulated property2  
the omission is easily supplied4 ,land  
is not the only requisite for           
cultivation2 a working-stock is also    
necessary1--animals1 tools1 harnesses1 a

 house1 an advance1 c4 ,where did the   
colonists1 discharged by the dictator   
who rewarded them1 obtain these things8 
,from the purse of the usurers2 that is1
 of the patricians1 to whom all these   
lands finally returned1 in consequence  
of the rapid increase of usury1 and the 
seizure of estates4 ,sallust1 in his    
account of the conspiracy of ,catiline1 
tells us of this fact4 ,the conspirators
 were old soldiers of ,sylla1 who1 as a 
reward for their services1 had received 
from him lands in ,cisalpine ,gaul1     
,tuscany1 and other parts of the        
peninsula ,less than twenty years had   
elapsed since these colonists1 free of  
debt1 had left the service and commenced
 farming2 and already they were crippled
 by usury1 and almost ruined4 ,the      
poverty caused by the exactions of      
creditors was the life of this          
conspiracy which well-nigh inflamed all 
,italy1 and which1 with a worthier chief
 and fairer means1 possibly would have  
succeeded4 ,in ,rome1 the mass of the   

people were favorable to the            
conspirators--cuncta plebes ,catilinae  
incepta probabat2 the allies were weary 
of the patricians' robberies2 deputies  
from the ,allobroges 7the ,savoyards7   
had come to ,rome to appeal to the      
,senate in behalf of their              
fellow-citizens involved in debt2 in    
short1 the complaint against the large  
proprietors was universal4 ,we call men 
and gods to witness1 said the soldiers  
of ,catiline1 who were ,roman citizens  
with not a slave among them1 that we    
have taken arms neither against the     
country1 nor to attack any one1 but in  
defence of our lives and liberties4     
,wretched1 poor1 most of us deprived of 
country1 all of us of fame and fortune1 
by the violence and cruelty of usurers1 
we have no rights1 no property1 no      
liberty4 #eb   ,the bad reputation of   
,catiline1 and his atrocious designs1   
the imprudence of his accomplices1 the  
treason of several1 the strategy of     
,cicero1 the angry outbursts of ,cato1  

and the terror of the ,senate1 baffled  
this enterprise1 which1 in furnishing a 
precedent for expeditions against the   
rich1 would perhaps have saved the      
republic1 and given peace to the world4 
,but ,rome could not evade her destiny2 
the end of her expiations had not come4 
,a nation never was known to anticipate 
its punishment by a sudden and          
unexpected conversion4 ,now1 the        
long-continued crimes of the ,eternal   
,city could not be atoned for by the    
massacre of a few hundred patricians4   
,catiline came to stay divine vengeance2
 therefore his conspiracy failed4  ,the 
encroachment of large proprietors upon  
small proprietors1 by the aid of usury1 
farm-rent1 and profits of all sorts1 was
 common throughout the empire4 ,the most
 honest citizens invested their money at
 high rates of interest4 #ec ,cato1     
,cicero1 ,brutus1 all the stoics so     
noted for their frugality1 viri         
frugi1--,seneca1 the teacher of         
virtue1--levied enormous taxes in the   

provinces1 under the name of usury2 and 
it is something remarkable1 that the    
last defenders of the republic1 the     
proud ,pompeys1 were all usurious       
aristocrats1 and oppressors of the poor4
 ,but the battle of ,pharsalus1 having  
killed men only1 without touching       
institutions1 the encroachments of the  
large domains became every day more     
active4 ,ever since the birth of        
,christianity1 the ,fathers have opposed
 this invasion with all their might4    
,their writings are filled with burning 
curses upon this crime of usury1 of     
which ,christians are not always        
innocent4   ,st4 ,cyprian complains of  
certain bishops of his time1 who1       
absorbed in disgraceful stock-jobbing   
operations1 abandoned their churches1   
and went about the provinces            
appropriating lands by artifice and     
fraud1 while lending money and piling up
 interests upon interests4 #ed ,why1 in 
the midst of this passion for           
accumulation1 did not the possession of 

the public land1 like private property1 
become concentrated in a few hands8     
,by law1 the domain of the ,state was   
inalienable1 and consequently possession
 was always revocable2 but the edict of 
the praetor continued it indefinitely1  
so that finally the possessions of the  
patricians were transformed into        
absolute property1 though the name1     
possessions1 was still applied to them4 
,this conversion1 instigated by         
senatorial avarice2 owed its            
accomplishment to the most deplorable   
and indiscreet policy4 ,if1 in the time 
of ,tiberius ,gracchus1 who wished to   
limit each citizen's possession of the  
ager publicus to five hundred acres1 the
 amount of this possession had been     
fixed at as much as one family could    
cultivate1 and granted on the express   
condition that the possessor should     
cultivate it himself1 and should lease  
it to no one1 the empire never would    
have been desolated by large estates2   
and possession1 instead of increasing   

property1 would have absorbed it4 ,on   
what1 then1 depended the establishment  
and maintenance of equality in          
conditions and fortunes8 ,on a more     
equitable division of the ager publicus1
 a wiser distribution of the right of   
possession4  ,i insist upon this point1 
which is of the utmost importance1      
because it gives us an opportunity to   
examine the history of this individual  
possession1 of which ,i said so much in 
my first memoir1 and which so few of my 
readers seem to have understood4 ,the   
,roman republic--having1 as it did1 the 
power to dispose absolutely of its      
territory1 and to impose conditions upon
 possessors--was nearer to liberty and  
equality than any nation has been since4
 ,if the ,senate had been intelligent   
and just1--if1 at the time of the       
retreat to the ,mons ,sacer1 instead of 
the ridiculous farce enacted by         
,menenius ,agrippa1 a solemn            
renunciation of the right to acquire had
 been made by each citizen on attaining 

his share of possessions1--the republic1
 based upon equality of possessions and 
the duty of labor1 would not1 in        
attaining its wealth1 have degenerated  
in morals2 ,fabricius would have enjoyed
 the arts without controlling artists2  
and the conquests of the ancient ,romans
 would have been the means of spreading 
civilization1 instead of the series of  
murders and robberies that they were4   
,but property1 having unlimited power to
 amass and to lease1 was daily increased
 by the addition of new possessions4    
,from the time of ,nero1 six individuals
 were the sole proprietors of one-half  
of ,roman ,africa4 ,in the fifth        
century1 the wealthy families had       
incomes of no less than two millions3   
some possessed as many as twenty        
thousand slaves4 ,all the authors who   
have written upon the causes of the fall
 of the ,roman republic concur4  ,m4    
,giraud of ,aix #ee quotes the testimony
 of ,cicero1 ,seneca1 ,plutarch1        
,olympiodorus1 and ,photius4 ,under     

,vespasian and ,titus1 ,pliny1 the      
naturalist1 exclaimed3 ,large estates   
have ruined ,italy1 and are ruining the 
provinces4   ,but it never has been     
understood that the extension of        
property was effected then1 as it is    
to-day1 under the aegis of the law1 and 
by virtue of the constitution4 ,when the
 ,senate sold captured lands at auction1
 it was in the interest of the treasury 
and of public welfare4 ,when the        
patricians bought up possessions and    
property1 they realized the purpose of  
the ,senate's decrees2 when they lent at
 high rates of interest1 they took      
advantage of a legal privilege4         
,property1 said the lender1 is the right
 to enjoy even to the extent of abuse1  
jus utendi et abutendi2 that is1 the    
right to lend at interest1--to lease1 to
 acquire1 and then to lease and lend    
again4 ,but property is also the right  
to exchange1 to transfer1 and to sell4  
,if1 then1 the social condition is such 
that the proprietor1 ruined by usury1   

may be compelled to sell his possession1
 the means of his subsistence1 he will  
sell it2 and1 thanks to the law1        
accumulated property--devouring and     
anthropophagous property--will be       
established4#ef   ,the immediate and    
secondary cause of the decline of the   
,romans was1 then1 the internal         
dissensions between the two orders of   
the republic1--the patricians and the   
plebeians1--dissensions which gave rise 
to civil wars1 proscriptions1 and loss  
of liberty1 and finally led to the      
empire2 but the primary and mediate     
cause of their decline was the          
establishment by ,numa of the           
institution of property4  ,i end with an
 extract from a work which ,i have      
quoted several times already1 and which 
has recently received a prize from the  
,academy of ,moral and ,political       
,sciences3--   ,the concentration of    
property1 says ,m4 ,laboulaye1 while    
causing extreme poverty1 forced the     
emperors to feed and amuse the people1  

that they might forget their misery4    
,panem et circenses3 that was the ,roman
 law in regard to the poor2 a dire and  
perhaps a necessary evil wherever a     
landed aristocracy exists4  ,to feed    
these hungry mouths1 grain was brought  
from ,africa and the provinces1 and     
distributed gratuitously among the      
needy4 ,in the time of ,caesar1 three   
hundred and twenty thousand people were 
thus fed4 ,augustus saw that such a     
measure led directly to the destruction 
of husbandry2 but to abolish these      
distributions was to put a weapon within
 the reach of the first aspirant for    
power4  ,the emperor shrank at the      
thought4  ,while grain was gratuitous1  
agriculture was impossible4 ,tillage    
gave way to pasturage1 another cause of 
depopulation1 even among slaves4        
,finally1 luxury1 carried further and   
further every day1 covered the soil of  
,italy with elegant villas1 which       
occupied whole cantons4 ,gardens and    
groves replaced the fields1 and the free

 population fled to the towns4          
,husbandry disappeared almost entirely1 
and with husbandry the husbandman4      
,africa furnished the wheat1 and ,greece
 the wine4 ,tiberius complained bitterly
 of this evil1 which placed the lives of
 the ,roman people at the mercy of the  
winds and waves3 that was his anxiety4  
,one day later1 and three hundred       
thousand starving men walked the streets
 of ,rome3 that was a revolution4  ,this
 decline of ,italy and the provinces did
 not stop4 ,after the reign of ,nero1   
depopulation commenced in towns as noted
 as ,antium and ,tarentum4 ,under the   
reign of ,pertinax1 there was so much   
desert land that the emperor abandoned  
it1 even that which belonged to the     
treasury1 to whoever would cultivate it1
 besides exempting the farmers from     
taxation for a period of ten years4     
,senators were compelled to invest      
one-third of their fortunes in real     
estate in ,italy2 but this measure      
served only to increase the evil which  

they wished to cure4 ,to force the rich 
to possess in ,italy was to increase the
 large estates which had ruined the     
country4 ,and must ,i say1 finally1 that
 ,aurelian wished to send the captives  
into the desert lands of ,etruria1 and  
that ,valentinian was forced to settle  
the ,alamanni on the fertile banks of   
the ,po8   ,if the reader1 in running   
through this book1 should complain of   
meeting with nothing but quotations from
 other works1 extracts from journals and
 public lectures1 comments upon laws1   
and interpretations of them1 ,i would   
remind him that the very object of this 
memoir is to establish the conformity of
 my opinion concerning property with    
that universally held2 that1 far from   
aiming at a paradox1 it has been my main
 study to follow the advice of the      
world2 and1 finally1 that my sole       
pretension is to clearly formulate the  
general belief4 ,i cannot repeat it too 
often1--and ,i confess it with          
pride1--,i teach absolutely nothing that

 is new2 and ,i should regard the       
doctrine which ,i advocate as radically 
erroneous1 if a single witness should   
testify against it4  ,let us now trace  
the revolutions in property among the   
,barbarians4  ,as long as the ,german   
tribes dwelt in their forests1 it did   
not occur to them to divide and         
appropriate the soil4 ,the land was held
 in common3 each individual could plow1 
sow1 and reap4 ,but1 when the empire was
 once invaded1 they bethought themselves
 of sharing the land1 just as they      
shared spoils after a victory4 ,hence1  
says ,m4 ,laboulaye1 the expressions    
sortes ,burgundiorum ,gothorum and      
,,greek1 ' k 2 hence the ,german words  
allod1 allodium1 and loos1 lot1 which   
are used in all modern languages to     
designate the gifts of chance4          
,allodial property1 at least with the   
mass of coparceners1 was originally     
held1 then1 in equal shares2 for all of 
the prizes were equal1 or1 at least1    
equivalent4 ,this property1 like that of

 the ,romans1 was wholly individual1    
independent1 exclusive1 transferable1   
and consequently susceptible of         
accumulation and invasion4 ,but1 instead
 of its being1 as was the case among the
 ,romans1 the large estate which1       
through increase and usury1 subordinated
 and absorbed the small one1 among the  
,barbarians--fonder of war than of      
wealth1 more eager to dispose of persons
 than to appropriate things--it was the 
warrior who1 through superiority of     
arms1 enslaved his adversary4 ,the      
,roman wanted matter2 the ,barbarian    
wanted man4 ,consequently1 in the feudal
 ages1 rents were almost                
nothing1--simply a hare1 a partridge1 a 
pie1 a few pints of wine brought by a   
little girl1 or a ,maypole set up within
 the suzerain's reach4 ,in return1 the  
vassal or incumbent had to follow the   
seignior to battle 7a thing which       
happened almost every day71 and equip   
and feed himself at his own expense4    
,this spirit of the ,german tribes--this

 spirit of companionship and            
association--governed the territory as  
it governed individuals4 ,the lands1    
like the men1 were secured to a chief or
 seignior by a bond of mutual protection
 and fidelity4 ,this subjection was the 
labor of the ,german epoch which gave   
birth to feudalism4 ,by fair means or   
foul1 every proprietor who could not be 
a chief was forced to be a vassal4      
7,laboulaye3 ,history of ,property47    
,by fair means or foul1 every mechanic  
who cannot be a master has to be a      
journeyman2 every proprietor who is not 
an invader will be invaded2 every       
producer who cannot1 by the exploitation
 of other men1 furnish products at less 
than their proper value1 will lose his  
labor4 ,corporations and masterships1   
which are hated so bitterly1 but which  
will reappear if we are not careful1 are
 the necessary results of the principle 
of competition which is inherent in     
property2 their organization was        
patterned formerly after that of the    

feudal hierarchy1 which was the result  
of the subordination of men and         
possessions4  ,the times which paved the
 way for the advent of feudalism and the
 reappearance of large proprietors were 
times of carnage and the most frightful 
anarchy4 ,never before had murder and   
violence made such havoc with the human 
race4 ,the tenth century1 among others1 
if my memory serves me rightly1 was     
called the ,,century ,,of ,,iron4 ,his  
property1 his life1 and the honor of his
 wife and children always in danger the 
small proprietor made haste to do homage
 to his seignior1 and to bestow         
something on the church of his freehold1
 that he might receive protection and   
security4   ,both facts and laws bear   
witness that from the sixth to the tenth
 century the proprietors of small       
freeholds were gradually plundered1 or  
reduced by the encroachments of large   
proprietors and counts to the condition 
of either vassals or tributaries4 ,the  
,capitularies are full of repressive    

provisions2 but the incessant           
reiteration of these threats only shows 
the perseverance of the evil and the    
impotency of the government4            
,oppression1 moreover1 varies but little
 in its methods4 ,the complaints of the 
free proprietors1 and the groans of the 
plebeians at the time of the ,gracchi1  
were one and the same4 ,it is said that1
 whenever a poor man refused to give his
 estate to the bishop1 the curate1 the  
count1 the judge1 or the centurion1     
these immediately sought an opportunity 
to ruin him4 ,they made him serve in the
 army until1 completely ruined1 he was  
induced1 by fair means or foul1 to give 
up his freehold4--,laboulaye3 ,history  
of ,property4  ,how many small          
proprietors and manufacturers have not  
been ruined by large ones through       
chicanery1 law-suits1 and competition8  
,strategy1 violence1 and usury1--such   
are the proprietor's methods of         
plundering the laborer4  ,thus we see   
property1 at all ages and in all its    

forms1 oscillating by virtue of its     
principle between two opposite          
terms1--extreme division and extreme    
accumulation4  ,property1 at its first  
term1 is almost null4 ,reduced to       
personal exploitation1 it is property   
only potentially4 ,at its second term1  
it exists in its perfection2 then it is 
truly property4  ,when property is      
widely distributed1 society thrives1    
progresses1 grows1 and rises quickly to 
the zenith of its power4 ,thus1 the     
,jews1 after leaving ,babylon with      
,esdras and ,nehemiah1 soon became      
richer and more powerful than they had  
been under their kings4 ,sparta was in a
 strong and prosperous condition during 
the two or three centuries which        
followed the death of ,lycurgus4 ,the   
best days of ,athens were those of the  
,persian war2 ,rome1 whose inhabitants  
were divided from the beginning into two
 classes1--the exploiters and the       
exploited1--knew no such thing as peace4
  ,when property is concentrated1       

society1 abusing itself1 polluted1 so to
 speak1 grows corrupt1 wears itself     
out--how shall ,i express this horrible 
idea8--plunges into long-continued and  
fatal luxury4  ,when feudalism was      
established1 society had to die of the  
same disease which killed it under the  
,caesars1--,i mean accumulated property4
 ,but humanity1 created for an immortal 
destiny1 is deathless2 the revolutions  
which disturb it are purifying crises1  
invariably followed by more vigorous    
health4 ,in the fifth century1 the      
invasion of the ,barbarians partially   
restored the world to a state of natural
 equality4 ,in the twelfth century1 a   
new spirit pervading all society gave   
the slave his rights1 and through       
justice breathed new life into the heart
 of nations4 ,it has been said1 and     
often repeated1 that ,christianity      
regenerated the world4 ,that is true2   
but it seems to me that there is a      
mistake in the date4 ,christianity had  
no influence upon ,roman society2 when  

the ,barbarians came1 that society had  
disappeared4 ,for such is ,god's curse  
upon property2 every political          
organization based upon the exploitation
 of man1 shall perish3 slave-labor is   
death to the race of tyrants4 ,the      
patrician families became extinct1 as   
the feudal families did1 and as all     
aristocracies must4  ,it was in the     
middle ages1 when a reactionary movement
 was beginning to secretly undermine    
accumulated property1 that the influence
 of ,christianity was first exercised to
 its full extent4  ,the destruction of  
feudalism1 the conversion of the serf   
into the commoner1 the emancipation of  
the communes1 and the admission of the  
,third ,estate to political power1 were 
deeds accomplished by ,christianity     
exclusively4 ,i say ,christianity1 not  
ecclesiasticism2 for the priests and    
bishops were themselves large           
proprietors1 and as such often          
persecuted the villeins4 ,without the   
,christianity of the middle ages1 the   

existence of modern society could not be
 explained1 and would not be possible4  
,the truth of this assertion is shown by
 the very facts which ,m4 ,laboulaye    
quotes1 although this author inclines to
 the opposite opinion4 #eg  ,now1 we did
 not commence to love ,god and to think 
of our salvation until after the        
promulgation of the ,gospel4   #a4      
,slavery among the ,romans4--,the ,roman
 slave was1 in the eyes of the law1 only
 a thing1--no more than an ox or a      
horse4 ,he had neither property1 family1
 nor personality2 he was defenceless    
against his master's cruelty1 folly1 or 
cupidity4 ',sell your oxen that are past
 use1' said ,cato1 'sell your calves1   
your lambs1 your wool1 your hides1 your 
old ploughs1 your old iron1 your old    
slave1 and your sick slave1 and all that
 is of no use to you4' ,when no market  
could be found for the slaves that were 
worn out by sickness or old age1 they   
were abandoned to starvation4 ,claudius 
was the first defender of this shameful 

practice4   ,discharge your old workman1
 says the economist of the proprietary  
school2 turn off that sick domestic1    
that toothless and worn-out servant4    
,put away the unserviceable beauty2 to  
the hospital with the useless mouths6   
,the condition of these wretched beings 
improved but little under the emperors2 
and the best that can be said of the    
goodness of ,antoninus is that he       
prohibited intolerable cruelty1 as an   
,,abuse ,,of ,,property4 ,expedit enim  
reipublicae ne quis re re sua male      
utatur1 says ,gaius4  ,as soon as the   
,church met in council1 it launched an  
anathema against the masters who had    
exercised over their slaves this        
terrible right of life and death4 ,were 
not the slaves1 thanks to the right of  
sanctuary and to their poverty1 the     
dearest proteges of religion8           
,constantine1 who embodied in the laws  
the grand ideas of ,christianity1 valued
 the life of a slave as highly as that  
of a freeman1 and declared the master1  

who had intentionally brought death upon
 his slave1 guilty of murder4 ,between  
this law and that of ,antoninus there is
 a complete revolution in moral ideas3  
the slave was a thing2 religion has made
 him a man4  ,note the last words3      
,between the law of the ,gospel and that
 of ,antoninus there is a complete      
revolution in moral ideas3 the slave was
 a thing2 religion has made him a man4  
,the moral revolution which transformed 
the slave into a citizen was effected1  
then1 by ,christianity before the       
,barbarians set foot upon the soil of   
the empire4 ,we have only to trace the  
progress of this ,,moral revolution in  
the ,,personnel of society4 ,but1 ,m4   
,laboulaye rightly says1 it did not     
change the condition of men in a moment1
 any more than that of things2 between  
slavery and liberty there was an abyss  
which could not be filled in a day2 the 
transitional step was servitude4  ,now1 
what was servitude8 ,in what did it     
differ from ,roman slavery1 and whence  

came this difference8 ,let the same     
author answer4   #b4 ,of servitude4--,i 
see1 in the lord's manor1 slaves charged
 with domestic duties4 ,some are        
employed in the personal service of the 
master2 others are charged with         
household cares4 ,the women spin the    
wool2 the men grind the grain1 make the 
bread1 or practise1 in the interest of  
the seignior1 what little they know of  
the industrial arts4 ,the master        
punishes them when he chooses1 kills    
them with impunity1 and sells them and  
theirs like so many cattle4 ,the slave  
has no personality1 and consequently no 
wehrgeld #ei peculiar to himself3 he is 
a thing4 ,the wehrgeld belongs to the   
master as a compensation for the loss of
 his property4 ,whether the slave is    
killed or stolen1 the indemnity does not
 change1 for the injury is the same2 but
 the indemnity increases or diminishes  
according to the value of the serf4 ,in 
all these particulars ,germanic slavery 
and ,roman servitude are alike4  ,this  

similarity is worthy of notice4 ,slavery
 is always the same1 whether in a ,roman
 villa or on a ,barbarian farm4 ,the    
man1 like the ox and the ass1 is a part 
of the live-stock2 a price is set upon  
his head2 he is a tool without a        
conscience1 a chattel without           
personality1 an impeccable1             
irresponsible being1 who has neither    
rights nor duties4   ,why did his       
condition improve8   ,in good season444 
when8 the serf began to be regarded as a
 man2 and1 as such1 the law of the      
,visigoths1 under the influence of      
,christian ideas1 punished with fine or 
banishment any one who maimed or killed 
him4   ,always ,christianity1 always    
religion1 though we should like to speak
 of the laws only4 ,did the philanthropy
 of the ,visigoths make its first       
appearance before or after the preaching
 of the ,gospel8 ,this point must be    
cleared up4   ,after the conquest1 the  
serfs were scattered over the large     
estates of the ,barbarians1 each having 

his house1 his lot1 and his peculium1 in
 return for which he paid rent and      
performed service4 ,they were rarely    
separated from their homes when their   
land was sold2 they and all that they   
had became the property of the          
purchaser4 ,the law favored this        
realization of the serf1 in not allowing
 him to be sold out of the country4     
,what inspired this law1 destructive not
 only of slavery1 but of property       
itself8 ,for1 if the master cannot drive
 from his domain the slave whom he has  
once established there1 it follows that 
the slave is proprietor1 as well as the 
master4   ,the ,barbarians1 again says  
,m4 ,laboulaye1 were the first to       
recognize the slave's rights of family  
and property1--two rights which are     
incompatible with slavery4   ,but was   
this recognition the necessary result of
 the mode of servitude in vogue among   
the ,germanic nations previous to their 
conversion to ,christianity1 or was it  
the immediate effect of that spirit of  

justice infused with religion1 by which 
the seignior was forced to respect in   
the serf a soul equal to his own1 a     
brother in ,jesus ,christ1 purified by  
the same baptism1 and redeemed by the   
same sacrifice of the ,son of ,god in   
the form of man8 ,for we must not close 
our eyes to the fact that1 though the   
,barbarian morals and the ignorance and 
carelessness of the seigniors1 who      
busied themselves mainly with wars and  
battles1 paying little or no attention  
to agriculture1 may have been great aids
 in the emancipation of the serfs1 still
 the vital principle of this            
emancipation was essentially ,christian4
 ,suppose that the ,barbarians had      
remained ,pagans in the midst of a      
,pagan world4 ,as they did not change   
the ,gospel1 so they would not have     
changed the polytheistic customs2       
slavery would have remained what it was2
 they would have continued to kill the  
slaves who were desirous of liberty1    
family1 and property2 whole nations     

would have been reduced to the condition
 of ,helots2 nothing would have changed 
upon the terrestrial stage1 except the  
actors4 ,the ,barbarians were less      
selfish1 less imperious1 less dissolute1
 and less cruel than the ,romans4 ,such 
was the nature upon which1 after the    
fall of the empire and the renovation of
 society1 ,christianity was to act4 ,but
 this nature1 grounded as in former     
times upon slavery and war1 would1 by   
its own energy1 have produced nothing   
but war and slavery4   ,,gradually the  
serfs obtained the privilege of being   
judged by the same standard as their    
masters4444  ,when1 how1 and by what    
title did they obtain this privilege8   
,,gradually their duties were regulated4
   ,whence came the regulations8 ,who   
had the authority to introduce them8    
,the master took a part of the labor of 
the serf1--three days1 for              
instance1--and left the rest to him4 ,as
 for ,sunday1 that belonged to ,god4    
,and what established ,sunday1 if not   

religion8 ,whence ,i infer1 that the    
same power which took it upon itself to 
suspend hostilities and to lighten the  
duties of the serf was also that which  
regulated the judiciary and created a   
sort of law for the slave4  ,but this   
law itself1 on what did it bear8--what  
was its principle8--what was the        
philosophy of the councils and popes    
with reference to this matter8 ,the     
reply to all these questions1 coming    
from me alone1 would be distrusted4 ,the
 authority of ,m4 ,laboulaye shall give 
credence to my words4 ,this holy        
philosophy1 to which the slaves were    
indebted for every thing1 this          
invocation of the ,gospel1 was an       
anathema against property4  ,the        
proprietors of small freeholds1 that is1
 the freemen of the middle class1 had   
fallen1 in consequence of the tyranny of
 the nobles1 into a worse condition than
 that of the tenants and serfs4 ,the    
expenses of war weighed less heavily    
upon the serf than upon the freeman2    

and1 as for legal protection1 the       
seigniorial court1 where the serf was   
judged by his peers1 was far preferable 
to the cantonal assembly4 ,it was better
 to have a noble for a seignior than for
 a judge4  ,so it is better to-day to   
have a man of large capital for an      
associate than for a rival4 ,the honest 
tenant--the laborer who earns weekly a  
moderate but constant salary--is more to
 be envied than the independent but     
small farmer1 or the poor licensed      
mechanic4  ,at that time1 all were      
either seigniors or serfs1 oppressors or
 oppressed4 ,then1 under the protection 
of convents1 or of the seigniorial      
turret1 new societies were formed1 which
 silently spread over the soil made     
fertile by their hands1 and which       
derived their power from the            
annihilation of the free classes whom   
they enlisted in their behalf4 ,as      
tenants1 these men acquired1 from       
generation to generation1 sacred rights 
over the soil which they cultivated in  

the interest of lazy and pillaging      
masters4 ,as fast as the social tempest 
abated1 it became necessary to respect  
the union and heritage of these         
villeins1 who by their labor had truly  
prescribed the soil for their own       
profit4  ,i ask how prescription could  
take effect where a contrary title and  
possession already existed8 ,m4         
,laboulaye is a lawyer4 ,where1 then1   
did he ever see the labor of the slave  
and the cultivation by the tenant       
prescribe the soil for their own profit1
 to the detriment of a recognized master
 daily acting as a proprietor8 ,let us  
not disguise matters4 ,as fast as the   
tenants and the serfs grew rich1 they   
wished to be independent and free2 they 
commenced to associate1 unfurl their    
municipal banners1 raise belfries1      
fortify their towns1 and refuse to pay  
their seigniorial dues4 ,in doing these 
things they were perfectly right2 for1  
in fact1 their condition was            
intolerable4 ,but in law--,i mean in    

,roman and ,napoleonic law--their       
refusal to obey and pay tribute to their
 masters was illegitimate4  ,now1 this  
imperceptible usurpation of property by 
the commonalty was inspired by religion4
  ,the seignior had attached the serf to
 the soil2 religion granted the serf    
rights over the soil4 ,the seignior     
imposed duties upon the serf2 religion  
fixed their limits4 ,the seignior could 
kill the serf with impunity1 could      
deprive him of his wife1 violate his    
daughter1 pillage his house1 and rob him
 of his savings2 religion checked his   
invasions3 it excommunicated the        
seignior4 ,religion was the real cause  
of the ruin of feudal property4 ,why    
should it not be bold enough to-day to  
resolutely condemn capitalistic         
property8 ,since the middle ages1 there 
has been no change in social economy    
except in its forms2 its relations      
remain unaltered4  ,the only result of  
the emancipation of the serfs was that  
property changed hands2 or1 rather1 that

 new proprietors were created4 ,sooner  
or later the extension of privilege1 far
 from curing the evil1 was to operate to
 the disadvantage of the plebeians4     
,nevertheless1 the new social           
organization did not meet with the same 
end in all places4 ,in ,lombardy1 for   
example1 where the people rapidly       
growing rich through commerce and       
industry soon conquered the authorities1
 even to the exclusion of the           
nobles1--first1 the nobility became poor
 and degraded1 and were forced1 in order
 to live and maintain their credit1 to  
gain admission to the guilds2 then1 the 
ordinary subalternization of property   
leading to inequality of fortunes1 to   
wealth and poverty1 to jealousies and   
hatreds1 the cities passed rapidly from 
the rankest democracy under the yoke of 
a few ambitious leaders4 ,such was the  
fate of most of the ,lombardic          
cities1--,genoa1 ,florence1 ,bologna1   
,milan1 ,pisa1 c14--which afterwards    
changed rulers frequently1 but which    

have never since risen in favor of      
liberty4 ,the people can easily escape  
from the tyranny of despots1 but they do
 not know how to throw off the effects  
of their own despotism2 just as we avoid
 the assassin's steel1 while we succumb 
to a constitutional malady4 ,as soon as 
a nation becomes proprietor1 either it  
must perish1 or a foreign invasion must 
force it again to begin its evolutionary
 round4 #ei  ,the communes once         
organized1 the kings treated them as    
superior vassals4 ,now1 just as the     
under vassal had no communication with  
the king except through the direct      
vassal1 so also the commoners could     
enter no complaints except through the  
commune4  ,like causes produce like     
effects4 ,each commune became a small   
and separate ,state1 governed by a few  
citizens1 who sought to extend their    
authority over the others2 who1 in their
 turn1 revenged themselves upon the     
unfortunate inhabitants who had not the 
right of citizenship4 ,feudalism in     

unemancipated countries1 and oligarchy  
in the communes1 made nearly the same   
ravages4 ,there were sub-associations1  
fraternities1 tradesmen's associations  
in the communes1 and colleges in the    
universities4 ,the oppression was so    
great1 that it was no rare thing to see 
the inhabitants of a commune demanding  
its suppression4444--,meyer3 ,judicial  
,institutions of ,europe4   ,in ,france1
 the ,revolution was much more gradual4 
,the communes1 in taking refuge under   
the protection of the kings1 had found  
them masters rather than protectors4    
,their liberty had long since been lost1
 or1 rather1 their emancipation had been
 suspended1 when feudalism received its 
death-blow at the hand of ,richelieu4   
,then liberty halted2 the prince of the 
feudatories held sole and undivided     
sway4 ,the nobles1 the clergy1 the      
commoners1 the parliaments1 every thing 
in short except a few seeming           
privileges1 were controlled by the king2
 who1 like his early predecessors1      

consumed regularly1 and nearly always in
 advance1 the revenues of his           
domain1--and that domain was ,france4   
,finally1 '#hi arrived2 liberty resumed 
its march2 a century and a half had been
 required to wear out the last form of  
feudal property1--monarchy4  ,the       
,french ,revolution may be defined as   
the substitution of real right for      
personal right2 that is to say1 in the  
days of feudalism1 the value of property
 depended upon the standing of the      
proprietor1 while1 after the            
,revolution1 the regard for the man was 
proportional to his property4 ,now1 we  
have seen from what has been said in the
 preceding pages1 that this recognition 
of the right of laborers had been the   
constant aim of the serfs and communes1 
the secret motive of their efforts4 ,the
 movement of '#hi was only the last     
stage of that long insurrection4 ,but it
 seems to me that we have not paid      
sufficient attention to the fact that   
the ,revolution of #aghi1 instigated by 

the same causes1 animated by the same   
spirit1 triumphing by the same          
struggles1 was consummated in ,italy    
four centuries ago4 ,italy was the first
 to sound the signal of war against     
feudalism2 ,france has followed2 ,spain 
and ,england are beginning to move2 the 
rest still sleep4 ,if a grand example   
should be given to the world1 the day of
 trial would be much abridged4  ,note   
the following summary of the revolutions
 of property1 from the days of the      
,roman ,empire down to the present      
time3--  #a4 ,fifth century4--,barbarian
 invasions2 division of the lands of the
 empire into independent portions or    
freeholds4  #b4 ,from the fifth to the  
eighth century4--,gradual concentration 
of freeholds1 or transformation of the  
small freeholds into fiefs1 feuds1      
tenures1 c4 ,large properties1 small    
possessions4 ,charlemagne 7#gga-had7    
decrees that all freeholds are dependent
 upon the king of ,france4  #c4 ,from   
the eighth to the tenth century4--,the  

relation between the crown and the      
superior dependents is broken2 the      
latter becoming freeholders1 while the  
smaller dependents cease to recognize   
the king1 and adhere to the nearest     
suzerain4 ,feudal system4  #d4 ,twelfth 
century4--,movement of the serfs towards
 liberty2 emancipation of the communes4 
#e4 ,thirteenth century4--,abolition of 
personal right1 and of the feudal system
 in ,italy4 ,italian ,republics4  #f4   
,seventeenth century4--,abolition of    
feudalism in ,france during ,richelieu's
 ministry4 ,despotism4  #g4             
#aghi4--;,abolition of all privileges of
 birth1 caste1 provinces1 and           
corporations2 equality of persons and of
 rights4 ,french democracy4  #h4        
#ahcj4--,the principle of concentration 
inherent in individual property is      
,,remarked4 ,development of the idea of 
association4   ,the more we reflect upon
 this series of transformations and     
changes1 the more clearly we see that   
they were necessary in their principle1 

in their manifestations1 and in their   
result4  ,it was necessary that         
inexperienced conquerors1 eager for     
liberty1 should divide the ,roman       
,empire into a multitude of estates1 as 
free and independent as themselves4  ,it
 was necessary that these men1 who liked
 war even better than liberty1 should   
submit to their leaders2 and1 as the    
freehold represented the man1 that      
property should violate property4  ,it  
was necessary that1 under the rule of a 
nobility always idle when not fighting1 
there should grow up a body of laborers1
 who1 by the power of production1 and by
 the division and circulation of wealth1
 would gradually gain control over      
commerce1 industry1 and a portion of the
 land1 and who1 having become rich1     
would aspire to power and authority     
also4  ,it was necessary1 finally1 that 
liberty and equality of rights having   
been achieved1 and individual property  
still existing1 attended by robbery1    
poverty1 social inequality1 and         

oppression1 there should be an inquiry  
into the cause of this evil1 and an idea
 of universal association formed1       
whereby1 on condition of labor1 all     
interests should be protected and       
consolidated4  ,evil1 when carried too  
far1 says a learned jurist1 cures       
itself2 and the political innovation    
which aims to increase the power of the 
,state1 finally succumbs to the effects 
of its own work4 ,the ,germans1 to      
secure their independence1 chose chiefs2
 and soon they were oppressed by their  
kings and noblemen4 ,the monarchs       
surrounded themselves with volunteers1  
in order to control the freemen2 and    
they found themselves dependent upon    
their proud vassals4 ,the missi dominici
 were sent into the provinces to        
maintain the power of the emperors1 and 
to protect the people from the          
oppressions of the noblemen2 and not    
only did they usurp the imperial power  
to a great extent1 but they dealt more  
severely with the inhabitants4 ,the     

freemen became vassals1 in order to get 
rid of military service and court duty2 
and they were immediately involved in   
all the personal quarrels of their      
seigniors1 and compelled to do jury duty
 in their courts4444 ,the kings         
protected the cities and the communes1  
in the hope of freeing them from the    
yoke of the grand vassals1 and of       
rendering their own power more absolute2
 and those same communes have1 in       
several ,european countries1 procured   
the establishment of a constitutional   
power1 are now holding royalty in check1
 and are giving rise to a universal     
desire for political reform4--,meyer3   
,judicial ,institutions of ,europe4     
,in recapitulation4  ,what was          
feudalism8 ,a confederation of the grand
 seign iors against the villeins1 and   
against the king4 #fj ,what is          
constitutional government8 ,a           
confederation of the bourgeoisie against
 the laborers1 and against the king4 #fa
   ,how did feudalism end8 ,in the union

 of the communes and the royal          
authority4 ,how will the bourgeoisie    
aristocracy end8 ,in the union of the   
proletariat and the sovereign power4    
,what was the immediate result of the   
struggle of the communes and the king   
against the seigniors8 ,the monarchical 
unity of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,what will be the
 result of the struggle of the          
proletariat and the sovereign power     
combined against the bourgeoisie8 ,the  
absolute unity of the nation and the    
government4  ,it remains to be seen     
whether the nation1 one and supreme1    
will be represented in its executive and
 central power by ,,one1 by ,,five1 by  
,,one ,,hundred1 or ,,one ,,thousand2   
that is1 it remains to be seen1 whether 
the royalty of the barricades intends to
 maintain itself by the people1 or      
without the people1 and whether ,louis  
,philippe wishes his reign to be the    
most famous in all history4  ,i have    
made this statement as brief1 but at the
 same time as accurate as ,i could1     

neglecting facts and details1 that ,i   
might give the more attention to the    
economical relations of society4 ,for   
the study of history is like the study  
of the human organism2 just as the      
latter has its system1 its organs1 and  
its functions1 which can be treated     
separately1 so the former has its       
ensemble1 its instruments1 and its      
causes4 ,of course ,i do not pretend    
that the principle of property is a     
complete resume of all the social       
forces2 but1 as in that wonderful       
machine which we call our body1 the     
harmony of the whole allows us to draw a
 general conclusion from the            
consideration of a single function or   
organ1 so1 in discussing historical     
causes1 ,i have been able to reason with
 absolute accuracy from a single order  
of facts1 certain as ,i was of the      
perfect correlation which exists between
 this special order and universal       
history4 ,as is the property of a       
nation1 so is its family1 its marriage1 

its religion1 its civil and military    
organization1 and its legislative and   
judicial institutions4 ,history1 viewed 
from this standpoint1 is a grand and    
sublime psychological study4  ,well1    
sir1 in writing against property1 have  
,i done more than quote the language of 
history8 ,i have said to modern         
society1--the daughter and heiress of   
all preceding societies1--,age guod     
agis3 complete the task which for six   
thousand years you have been executing  
under the inspiration and by the command
 of ,god2 hasten to finish your journey2
 turn neither to the right nor the left1
 but follow the road which lies before  
you4 ,you seek reason1 law1 unity1 and  
discipline2 but hereafter you can find  
them only by stripping off the veils of 
your infancy1 and ceasing to follow     
instinct as a guide4 ,awaken your       
sleeping conscience2 open your eyes to  
the pure light of reflection and        
science2 behold the phantom which       
troubled your dreams1 and so long kept  

you in a state of unutterable anguish4  
,know thyself1 ,o long-deluded society#a
 know thy enemy6444 ,and ,i have        
denounced property4  ,we often hear the 
defenders of the right of domain quote  
in defence of their views the testimony 
of nations and ages4 ,we can judge1 from
 what has just been said1 how far this  
historical argument conforms to the real
 facts and the conclusions of science4  
,to complete this apology1 ,i must      
examine the various theories4  ,neither 
politics1 nor legislation1 nor history1 
can be explained and understood1 without
 a positive theory which defines their  
elements1 and discovers their laws2 in  
short1 without a philosophy4 ,now1 the  
two principal schools1 which to this day
 divide the attention of the world1 do  
not satisfy this condition4  ,the first1
 essentially ,,practical in its         
character1 confined to a statement of   
facts1 and buried in learning1 cares    
very little by what laws humanity       
develops itself4 ,to it these laws are  

the secret of the ,almighty1 which no   
one can fathom without a commission from
 on high4 ,in applying the facts of     
history to government1 this school does 
not reason2 it does not anticipate2 it  
makes no comparison of the past with the
 present1 in order to predict the       
future4 ,in its opinion1 the lessons of 
experience teach us only to repeat old  
errors1 and its whole philosophy        
consists in perpetually retracing the   
tracks of antiquity1 instead of going   
straight ahead forever in the direction 
in which they point4  ,the second school
 may be called either ,,fatalistic or   
,,pantheistic4 ,to it the movements of  
empires and the revolutions of humanity 
are the manifestations1 the             
incarnations1 of the ,almighty4 ,the    
human race1 identified with the divine  
essence1 wheels in a circle of          
appearances1 informations1 and          
destructions1 which necessarily excludes
 the idea of absolute truth1 and        
destroys providence and liberty4        

,corresponding to these two schools of  
history1 there are two schools of       
jurisprudence1 similarly opposed1 and   
possessed of the same peculiarities4    
#a4 ,the practical and conventional     
school1 to which the law is always a    
creation of the legislator1 an          
expression of his will1 a privilege     
which he condescends to grant1--in      
short1 a gratuitous affirmation to be   
regarded as judicious and legitimate1 no
 matter what it declares4  #b4 ,the     
fatalistic and pantheistic school1      
sometimes called the historical school1 
which opposes the despotism of the      
first1 and maintains that law1 like     
literature and religion1 is always the  
expression of society1--its             
manifestation1 its form1 the external   
realization of its mobile spirit and its
 ever-changing inspirations4  ,each of  
these schools1 denying the absolute1    
rejects thereby all positive and a      
priori philosophy4  ,now1 it is evident 
that the theories of these two schools1 

whatever view we take of them1 are      
utterly unsatisfactory3 for1 opposed1   
they form no dilemma1--that is1 if one  
is false1 it does not follow that the   
other is true2 and1 united1 they do not 
constitute the truth1 since they        
disregard the absolute1 without which   
there is no truth4 ,they are            
respectively a ,,thesis and an          
,,antithesis4 ,there remains to be      
found1 then1 a ,,synthesis1 which1      
predicating the absolute1 justifies the 
will of the legislator1 explains the    
variations of the law1 annihilates the  
theory of the circular movement of      
humanity1 and demonstrates its progress4
  ,the legists1 by the very nature of   
their studies and in spite of their     
obstinate prejudices1 have been led     
irresistibly to suspect that the        
absolute in the science of law is not as
 chimerical as is commonly supposed2 and
 this suspicion arose from their        
comparison of the various relations     
which legislators have been called upon 

to regulate4  ,m4 ,laboulaye1 the       
laureate of the ,institute1 begins his  
,history of ,property with these        
words3--   ,while the law of contract1  
which regulates only the mutual         
interests of men1 has not varied for    
centuries 7except in certain forms which
 relate more to the proof than to the   
character of the obligation71 the civil 
law of property1 which regulates the    
mutual relations of citizens1 has       
undergone several radical changes1 and  
has kept pace in its variations with all
 the vicissitudes of society4 ,the law  
of contract1 which holds essentially to 
those principles of eternal justice     
which are engraven upon the depths of   
the human heart1 is the immutable       
element of jurisprudence1 and1 in a     
certain sense1 its philosophy4          
,property1 on the contrary1 is the      
variable element of jurisprudence1 its  
history1 its policy4   ,marvellous6     
,there is in law1 and consequently in   
politics1 something variable and        

something invariable4 ,the invariable   
element is obligation1 the bond of      
justice1 duty2 the variable element is  
property1--that is1 the external form of
 law1 the subject-matter of the         
contract4 ,whence it follows that the   
law can modify1 change1 reform1 and     
judge property4 ,reconcile that1 if you 
can1 with the idea of an eternal1       
absolute1 permanent1 and indefectible   
right4  ,however1 ,m4 ,laboulaye is in  
perfect accord with himself when he     
adds1 ,possession of the soil rests     
solely upon force until society takes it
 in hand1 and espouses the cause of the 
possessor2 #fb and1 a little farther1   
,the right of property is not natural1  
but social4 ,the laws not only protect  
property3 they give it birth1 c4 ,now1  
that which the law has made the law can 
unmake2 especially since1 according to  
,m4 ,laboulaye1--an avowed partisan of  
the historical or pantheistic           
school1--the law is not absolute1 is not
 an idea1 but a form4   ,but why is it  

that property is variable1 and1 unlike  
obligation1 incapable of definition and 
settlement8 ,before affirming1 somewhat 
boldly without doubt1 that in right     
there are no absolute principles 7the   
most dangerous1 most immoral1 most      
tyrannical--in a word1 most             
anti-social--assertion imaginable71 it  
was proper that the right of property   
should be subjected to a thorough       
examination1 in order to put in evidence
 its variable1 arbitrary1 and contingent
 elements1 and those which are eternal1 
legitimate1 and absolute2 then1 this    
operation performed1 it became easy to  
account for the laws1 and to correct all
 the codes4  ,now1 this examination of  
property ,i claim to have made1 and in  
the fullest detail2 but1 either from the
 public's lack of interest in an        
unrecommended and unattractive pamphlet1
 or--which is more probable--from the   
weakness of exposition and want of      
genius which characterize the work1 the 
,first ,memoir on ,property passed      

unnoticed2 scarcely would a few         
communists1 having turned its leaves1   
deign to brand it with their            
disapprobation4 ,you alone1 sir1 in     
spite of the disfavor which ,i showed   
for your economical predecessors in too 
severe a criticism of them1--you alone  
have judged me justly2 and although ,i  
cannot accept1 at least literally1 your 
first judgment1 yet it is to you alone  
that ,i appeal from a decision too      
equivocal to be regarded as final4  ,it 
not being my intention to enter at      
present into a discussion of principles1
 ,i shall content myself with           
estimating1 from the point of view of   
this simple and intelligible absolute1  
the theories of property which our      
generation has produced4  ,the most     
exact idea of property is given us by   
the ,roman law1 faithfully followed in  
this particular by the ancient legists4 
,it is the absolute1 exclusive1         
autocratic domain of a man over a       
thing1--a domain which begins by        

,,usucaption1 is maintained by          
,,possession1 and finally1 by the aid of
 ,,prescription1 finds its sanction in  
the civil law2 a domain which so        
identifies the man with the thing1 that 
the proprietor can say1 ,he who uses my 
field1 virtually compels me to labor for
 him2 therefore he owes me compensation4
  ,i pass in silence the secondary modes
 by which property can be               
acquired1--tradition1 sale1 exchange1   
inheritance1 c41--which have nothing in 
common with the origin of property4     
,accordingly1 ,pothier said ,,the       
,,domain ,,of ,,property1 and not simply
 ,,property4 ,and the most learned      
writers on jurisprudence--in imitation  
of the ,roman praetor who recognized a  
,,right ,,of ,,property and a ,,right   
,,of ,,possession--have carefully       
distinguished between the ,,domain and  
the right of ,,usufruct1 ,,use1 and     
,,habitation1 which1 reduced to its     
natural limits1 is the very expression  
of justice2 and which is1 in my opinion1

 to supplant domanial property1 and     
finally form the basis of all           
jurisprudence4  ,but1 sir1 admire the   
clumsiness of systems1 or rather the    
fatality of logic6 ,while the ,roman law
 and all the savants inspired by it     
teach that property in its origin is the
 right of first occupancy sanctioned by 
law1 the modern legists1 dissatisfied   
with this brutal definition1 claim that 
property is based upon ,,labor4         
,immediately they infer that he who no  
longer labors1 but makes another labor  
in his stead1 loses his right to the    
earnings of the latter4 ,it is by virtue
 of this principle that the serfs of the
 middle ages claimed a legal right to   
property1 and consequently to the       
enjoyment of political rights2 that the 
clergy were despoiled in '#hi of their  
immense estates1 and were granted a     
pension in exchange2 that at the        
restoration the liberal deputies opposed
 the indemnity of one billion francs4   
,the nation1 said they1 has acquired by 

twenty-five years of labor and          
possession the property which the       
emigrants forfeited by abandonment and  
long idleness3 why should the nobles be 
treated with more favor than the        
priests8 #fc   ,this position is quite  
in harmony with my principles1 and ,i   
heartily applaud the indignation of ,m4 
,lerminier2 but ,i do not know that a   
proprietor was ever deprived of his     
property because ,,unworthy2 and as     
reasonable1 social1 and even useful as  
the thing may seem1 it is quite contrary
 to the uses and customs of property4   
,all usurpations1 not born of war1 have 
been caused and supported by labor4 ,all
 modern history proves this1 from the   
end of the ,roman empire down to the    
present day4 ,and as if to give a sort  
of legal sanction to these usurpations1 
the doctrine of labor1 subversive of    
property1 is professed at great length  
in the ,roman law under the name of     
,,prescription4  ,the man who           
cultivates1 it has been said1 makes the 

land his own2 consequently1 no more     
property4 ,this was clearly seen by the 
old jurists1 who have not failed to     
denounce this novelty2 while on the     
other hand the young school hoots at the
 absurdity of the first-occupant theory4
 ,others have presented themselves1     
pretending to reconcile the two opinions
 by uniting them4 ,they have failed1    
like all the juste-milieux of the world1
 and are laughed at for their           
eclecticism4 ,at present1 the alarm is  
in the camp of the old doctrine2 from   
all sides pour ,,in ,,defences ,,of     
,,property1 ,,studies ,,regarding       
,,property1 ,,theories ,,of ,,property1 
each one of which1 giving the lie to the
 rest1 inflicts a fresh wound upon      
property4  ,consider1 indeed1 the       
inextricable embarrassments1 the        
contradictions1 the absurdities1 the    
incredible nonsense1 in which the bold  
defenders of property so lightly involve
 themselves4 ,i choose the eclectics1   
because1 those killed1 the others cannot

 survive4  ,m4 ,troplong1 jurist1 passes
 for a philosopher in the eyes of the   
editors of ,le ,droit4 ,i tell the      
gentlemen of ,le ,droit that1 in the    
judgment of philosophers1 ,m4 ,troplong 
is only an advocate2 and ,i prove my    
assertion4  ,m4 ,troplong is a defender 
of progress4 ,the words of the code1    
says he1 are fruitful sap with which the
 classic works of the eighteenth century
 overflow4 ,to wish to suppress them444 
is to violate the law of progress1 and  
to forget that a science which moves is 
a science which grows4 #fd   ,now1 the  
only mutable and progressive portion of 
law1 as we have already seen1 is that   
which concerns property4 ,if1 then1 you 
ask what reforms are to be introduced   
into the right of property8 ,m4         
,troplong makes no reply2 what progress 
is to be hoped for8 no reply2 what is to
 be the destiny of property in case of  
universal association8 no reply2 what is
 the absolute and what the contingent1  
what the true and what the false1 in    

property8 no reply4 ,m4 ,troplong favors
 quiescence and in statu quo in regard  
to property4 ,what could be more        
unphilosophical in a progressive        
philosopher8  ,nevertheless1 ,m4        
,troplong has thought about these       
things4 ,there are1 he says1 many weak  
points and antiquated ideas in the      
doctrines of modern authors concerning  
property3 witness the works of ,,mm4    
,toullier and ,duranton4 ,the doctrine  
of ,m4 ,troplong promises1 then1 strong 
points1 advanced and progressive ideas4 
,let us see2 let us examine3--   ,man1  
placed in the presence of matter1 is    
conscious of a power over it1 which has 
been given to him to satisfy the needs  
of his being4 ,king of inanimate or     
unintelligent nature1 he feels that he  
has a right to modify it1 govern it1 and
 fit it for his use4 ,there it is1 the  
subject of property1 which is legitimate
 only when exercised over things1 never 
when over persons4   ,m4 ,troplong is so
 little of a philosopher1 that he does  

not even know the import of the         
philosophical terms which he makes a    
show of using4 ,he says of matter that  
it is the ,,subject of property2 he     
should have said the ,,object4 ,m4      
,troplong uses the language of the      
anatomists1 who apply the term ,,subject
 to the human matter used in their      
experiments4  ,this error of our author 
is repeated farther on3 ,liberty1 which 
overcomes matter1 the subject of        
property1 c4 ,the ,,subject of property 
is man2 its ,,object is matter4 ,but    
even this is but a slight mortification2
 directly we shall have some            
crucifixions4  ,thus1 according to the  
passage just quoted1 it is in the       
conscience and personality of man that  
the principle of property must be       
sought4 ,is there any thing new in this 
doctrine8 ,apparently it never has      
occurred to those who1 since the days of
 ,cicero and ,aristotle1 and earlier1   
have maintained that ,,things ,,belong  
,,to ,,the ,,first ,,occupant1 that     

occupation may be exercised by beings   
devoid of conscience and personality4   
,the human personality1 though it may be
 the principle or the subject of        
property1 as matter is the object1 is   
not the ,,condition4 ,now1 it is this   
condition which we most need to know4   
,so far1 ,m4 ,troplong tells us no more 
than his masters1 and the figures with  
which he adorns his style add nothing to
 the old idea4  ,property1 then1 implies
 three terms3 ,the subject1 the object1 
and the condition4 ,there is no         
difficulty in regard to the first two   
terms4 ,as to the third1 the condition  
of property down to this day1 for the   
,greek as for the ,barbarian1 has been  
that of first occupancy4 ,what now would
 you have it1 progressive doctor8       
,when man lays hands for the first time 
upon an object without a master1 he     
performs an act which1 among            
individuals1 is of the greatest         
importance4 ,the thing thus seized and  
occupied participates1 so to speak1 in  

the personality of him who holds it4 ,it
 becomes sacred1 like himself4 ,it is   
impossible to take it without doing     
violence to his liberty1 or to remove it
 without rashly invading his person4    
,diogenes did but express this truth of 
intuition1 when he said3 ',stand out of 
my light6'   ,very good6 but would the  
prince of cynics1 the very personal and 
very haughty ,diogenes1 have had the    
right to charge another cynic1 as rent  
for this same place in the sunshine1 a  
bone for twenty-four hours of           
possession8 ,it is that which           
constitutes the proprietor2 it is that  
which you fail to justify4 ,in reasoning
 from the human personality and         
individuality to the right of property1 
you unconsciously construct a syllogism 
in which the conclusion includes more   
than the premises1 contrary to the rules
 laid down by ,aristotle4 ,the          
individuality of the human person proves
 ,,individual ,,possession1 originally  
called proprietas1 in opposition to     

collective possession1 communio4  ,it   
gives birth to the distinction between  
,,thine and ,,mine1 true signs of       
equality1 not1 by any means1 of         
subordination4 ,from equivocation to    
equivocation1 says ,m4 ,michelet1 #fe   
property would crawl to the end of the  
world2 man could not limit it1 were not 
he himself its limit4 ,where they clash1
 there will be its frontier4 ,in short1 
individuality of being destroys the     
hypothesis of communism1 but it does not
 for that reason give birth to          
domain1--that domain by virtue of which 
the holder of a thing exercises over the
 person who takes his place a right of  
prestation and suzerainty1 that has     
always been identified with property    
itself4    ,further1 that he whose      
legitimately acquired possession injures
 nobody cannot be nonsuited without     
flagrant injustice1 is a truth1 not of  
,,intuition1 as ,m4 ,troplong says1 but 
of ,,inward ,,sensation1 #ff which has  
nothing to do with property4   ,m4      

,troplong admits1 then1 occupancy as a  
condition of property4 ,in that1 he is  
in accord with the ,roman law1 in accord
 with ,,mm4 ,toullier and ,duranton2 but
 in his opinion this condition is not   
the only one1 and it is in this         
particular that his doctrine goes beyond
 theirs4   ,but1 however exclusive the  
right arising from sole occupancy1 does 
it not become still more so1 when man   
has moulded matter by his labor2 when he
 has deposited in it a portion of       
himself1 re-creating it by his industry1
 and setting upon it the seal of his    
intelligence and activity8 ,of all      
conquests1 that is the most legitimate1 
for it is the price of labor4  ,he who  
should deprive a man of the thing thus  
remodelled1 thus humanized1 would invade
 the man himself1 and would inflict the 
deepest wounds upon his liberty4   ,i   
pass over the very beautiful            
explanations in which ,m4 ,troplong1    
discussing labor and industry1 displays 
the whole wealth of his eloquence4 ,m4  

,troplong is not only a philosopher1 he 
is an orator1 an artist4 ,,he ,,abounds 
,,with ,,appeals ,,to ,,the ,,conscience
 ,,and ,,the ,,passions4 ,i might make  
sad work of his rhetoric1 should ,i     
undertake to dissect it2 but ,i confine 
myself for the present to his           
philosophy4  ,if ,m4 ,troplong had only 
known how to think and reflect1 before  
abandoning the original fact of         
occupancy and plunging into the theory  
of labor1 he would have asked himself3  
,what is it to occupy8 ,and he would    
have discovered that ,,occupancy is only
 a generic term by which all modes of   
possession are expressed1--seizure1     
station1 immanence1 habitation1         
cultivation1 use1 consumption1 c42 that 
labor1 consequently1 is but one of a    
thousand forms of occupancy4 ,he would  
have understood1 finally1 that the right
 of possession which is born of labor is
 governed by the same general laws as   
that which results from the simple      
seizure of things4 ,what kind of a      

legist is he who declaims when he ought 
to reason1 who continually mistakes his 
metaphors for legal axioms1 and who does
 not so much as know how to obtain a    
universal by induction1 and form a      
category8  ,if labor is identical with  
occupancy1 the only benefit which it    
secures to the laborer is the right of  
individual possession of the object of  
his labor2 if it differs from occupancy1
 it gives birth to a right equal only to
 itself1--that is1 a right which begins1
 continues1 and ends1 with the labor of 
the occupant4 ,it is for this reason1 in
 the words of the law1 that one cannot  
acquire a just title to a thing by labor
 alone4 ,he must also hold it for a year
 and a day1 in order to be regarded as  
its possessor2 and possess it twenty or 
thirty years1 in order to become its    
proprietor4  ,these preliminaries       
established1 ,m4 ,troplong's whole      
structure falls of its own weight1 and  
the inferences1 which he attempts to    
draw1 vanish4  ,property once acquired  

by occupation and labor1 it naturally   
preserves itself1 not only by the same  
means1 but also by the refusal of the   
holder to abdicate2 for from the very   
fact that it has risen to the height of 
a right1 it is its nature to perpetuate 
itself and to last for an indefinite    
period4444 ,rights1 considered from an  
ideal point of view1 are imperishable   
and eternal2 and time1 which affects    
only the contingent1 can no more disturb
 them than it can injure ,god himself4  
,it is astonishing that our author1 in  
speaking of the ,,ideal1 ,,time1 and    
,,eternity1 did not work into his       
sentence the ,,divine ,,wings of        
,plato1--so fashionable to-day in       
philosophical works4  ,with the         
exception of falsehood1 ,i hate nonsense
 more than any thing else in the world4 
,,property ,,once ,,acquired6 ,good1 if 
it is acquired2 but1 as it is not       
acquired1 it cannot be preserved4       
,,rights ,,are ,,eternal6 ,yes1 in the  
sight of ,god1 like the archetypal ideas

 of the ,platonists4 ,but1 on the earth1
 rights exist only in the presence of a 
subject1 an object1 and a condition4    
,take away one of these three things1   
and rights no longer exist4 ,thus1      
individual possession ceases at the     
death of the subject1 upon the          
destruction of the object1 or in case of
 exchange or abandonment4  ,let us      
admit1 however1 with ,m4 ,troplong1 that
 property is an absolute and eternal    
right1 which cannot be destroyed save by
 the deed and at the will of the        
proprietor4 ,what are the consequences  
which immediately follow from this      
position8  ,to show the justice and     
utility of prescription1 ,m4 ,troplong  
supposes the case of a bona fide        
possessor whom a proprietor1 long since 
forgotten or even unknown1 is attempting
 to eject from his possession4 ,at the  
start1 the error of the possessor was   
excusable but not irreparable4 ,pursuing
 its course and growing old by degrees1 
it has so completely clothed itself in  

the colors of truth1 it has spoken so   
loudly the language of right1 it has    
involved so many confiding interests1   
that it fairly may be asked whether it  
would not cause greater confusion to go 
back to the reality than to sanction the
 fictions which it 7an error1 without   
doubt7 has sown on its way8 ,well1 yes2 
it must be confessed1 without           
hesitation1 that the remedy would prove 
worse than the disease1 and that its    
application would lead to the most      
outrageous injustice4  ,how long since  
utility became a principle of law8 ,when
 the ,athenians1 by the advice of       
,aristides1 rejected a proposition      
eminently advantageous to their         
republic1 but also utterly unjust1 they 
showed finer moral perception and       
greater clearness of intellect than ,m4 
,troplong4 ,property is an eternal      
right1 independent of time1             
indestructible except by the act and at 
the will of the proprietor2 and here    
this right is taken from the proprietor1

 and on what ground8 ,good ,god6 on the 
ground of ,,absence6 ,is it not true    
that legists are governed by caprice in 
giving and taking away rights8 ,when it 
pleases these gentlemen1 idleness1      
unworthiness1 or absence can invalidate 
a right which1 under quite similar      
circumstances1 labor1 residence1 and    
virtue are inadequate to obtain4 ,do not
 be astonished that legists reject the  
absolute4 ,their good pleasure is law1  
and their disordered imaginations are   
the real cause of the ,,evolutions in   
jurisprudence4  ,if the nominal         
proprietor should plead ignorance1 his  
claim would be none the more valid4     
,indeed1 his ignorance might arise from 
inexcusable carelessness1 etc4   ,what6 
in order to legitimate dispossession    
through prescription1 you suppose faults
 in the proprietor6 ,you blame his      
absence1--which may have been           
involuntary2 his neglect1--not knowing  
what caused it2 his carelessness1--a    
gratuitous supposition of your own6 ,it 

is absurd4 ,one very simple observation 
suffices to annihilate this theory4     
,society1 which1 they tell us1 makes an 
exception in the interest of order in   
favor of the possessor as against the   
old proprietor1 owes the latter an      
indemnity2 since the privilege of       
prescription is nothing but             
expropriation for the sake of public    
utility4  ,but here is something        
stronger3--   ,in society a place cannot
 remain vacant with impunity4 ,a new man
 arises in place of the old one who     
disappears or goes away2 he brings here 
his existence1 becomes entirely         
absorbed1 and devotes himself to this   
post which he finds abandoned4 ,shall   
the deserter1 then1 dispute the honor of
 the victory with the soldier who fights
 with the sweat standing on his brow1   
and bears the burden of the day1 in     
behalf of a cause which he deems just8  
,when the tongue of an advocate once    
gets in motion1 who can tell where it   
will stop8 ,m4 ,troplong admits and     

justifies usurpation in case of the     
,,absence of the proprietor1 and on a   
mere presumption of his ,,carelessness4 
,but when the neglect is authenticated2 
when the abandonment is solemnly and    
voluntarily set forth in a contract in  
the presence of a magistrate2 when the  
proprietor dares to say1 ,i cease to    
labor1 but ,i still claim a share of the
 product1--then the absentee's right of 
property is protected2 the usurpation of
 the possessor would be criminal2       
farm-rent is the reward of idleness4    
,where is1 ,i do not say the            
consistency1 but1 the honesty of this   
law8  ,prescription is a result of the  
civil law1 a creation of the legislator4
 ,why has not the legislator fixed the  
conditions differently8--why1 instead of
 twenty and thirty years1 is not a      
single year sufficient to               
prescribe8--why are not voluntary       
absence and confessed idleness as good  
grounds for dispossession as involuntary
 absence1 ignorance1 or apathy8  ,but in

 vain should we ask ,m4 ,troplong1 the  
philosopher1 to tell us the ground of   
prescription4 ,concerning the code1 ,m4 
,troplong does not reason4 ,the         
interpreter1 he says1 must take things  
as they are1 society as it exists1 laws 
as they are made3 that is the only      
sensible starting-point4 ,well1 then1   
write no more books2 cease to reproach  
your predecessors--who1 like you1 have  
aimed only at interpretation of the     
law--for having remained in the rear2   
talk no more of philosophy and progress1
 for the lie sticks in your throat4  ,m4
 ,troplong denies the reality of the    
right of possession2 he denies that     
possession has ever existed as a        
principle of society2 and he quotes ,m4 
de ,savigny1 who holds precisely the    
opposite position1 and whom he is       
content to leave unanswered4 ,at one    
time1 ,m4 ,troplong asserts that        
possession and property are             
,,contemporaneous1 and that they exist  
,,at ,,the ,,same ,,time1 which implies 

that the ,,right of property is based on
 the ,,fact of possession1--a conclusion
 which is evidently absurd2 at another1 
he denies that possession ,,had ,,any   
,,historical ,,existence ,,prior ,,to   
,,property1--an assertion which is      
contradicted by the customs of many     
nations which cultivate the land without
 appropriating it2 by the ,roman law1   
which distinguished so clearly between  
,,possession and ,,property2 and by our 
code itself1 which makes possession for 
twenty or thirty years the condition of 
property4 ,finally1 ,m4 ,troplong goes  
so far as to maintain that the ,roman   
maxim1 ,nihil comune habet proprietas   
cum possessione--which contains so      
striking an allusion to the possession  
of the ager publicus1 and which1 sooner 
or later1 will be again accepted without
 qualification--expresses in ,french law
 only a judicial axiom1 a simple rule   
forbidding the union of an action       
possessoire with an action              
petitoire1--an opinion as retrogressive 

as it is unphilosophical4  ,in treating 
of actions possessoires1 ,m4 ,troplong  
is so unfortunate or awkward that he    
mutilates economy through failure to    
grasp its meaning ,just as property1 he 
writes1 gave rise to the action for     
revendication1 so possession--the jus   
possessionis--was the cause of          
possessory interdicts4444 ,there were   
two kinds of interdicts1--the interdict 
recuperandae possessionis1 and the      
interdict retinendae                    
possessionis1--which correspond to our  
complainte en cas de saisine et         
nouvelete4 ,there is also a             
third1--adipiscendae possessionis1--of  
which the ,roman law-books speak in     
connection with the two others4 ,but1 in
 reality1 this interdict is not         
possessory3 for he who wishes to acquire
 possession by this means does not      
possess1 and has not possessed2 and yet 
acquired possession is the condition of 
possessory interdicts4 ,why is not an   
action to acquire possession equally    

conceivable with an action to be        
reinstated in possession8 ,when the     
,roman plebeians demanded a division of 
the conquered territory2 when the       
proletaires of ,lyons took for their    
motto1 ,vivre en travaillant1 ou mourir 
en combattant 7to live working1 or die  
fighting72 when the most enlightened of 
the modern economists claim for every   
man the right to labor and to           
live1--they only propose this interdict1
 adipiscendae possessionis1 which       
embarrasses ,m4 ,troplong so seriously4 
,and what is my object in pleading      
against property1 if not to obtain      
possession8 ,how is it that ,m4         
,troplong--the legist1 the orator1 the  
philosopher--does not see that logically
 this interdict must be admitted1 since 
it is the necessary complement of the   
two others1 and the three united form an
 indivisible trinity1--to ,,recover1 to 
,,maintain1 to ,,acquire8 ,to break this
 series is to create a blank1 destroy   
the natural synthesis of things1 and    

follow the example of the geometrician  
who tried to conceive of a solid with   
only two dimensions4 ,but it is not     
astonishing that ,m4 ,troplong rejects  
the third class of actions possessoires1
 when we consider that he rejects       
possession itself4 ,he is so completely 
controlled by his prejudices in this    
respect1 that he is unconsciously led1  
not to unite 7that would be horrible in 
his eyes71 but to identify the action   
possessoire with the action petitoire4  
,this could be easily proved1 were it   
not too tedious to plunge into these    
metaphysical obscurities4  ,as an       
interpreter of the law1 ,m4 ,troplong is
 no more successful than as a           
philosopher4 ,one specimen of his skill 
in this direction1 and ,i am done with  
him3--   ,code of ,civil ,procedure1    
,art4 #bc3 ,actions possessoires are    
only when commenced within the year of  
trouble by those who have held          
possession for at least a year by an    
irrevocable title4   ,m4 ,troplong's    

comments3--   ,ought we to maintain--as 
,duparc1 ,poullain1 and ,lanjuinais     
would have us--the rule spoliatus ante  
omnia restituendus1 when an individual1 
who is neither proprietor nor annual    
possessor1 is expelled by a third party1
 who has no right to the estate8 ,i     
think not4 ,art4 #bc of the ,code is    
general3 it absolutely requires that the
 plaintiff in actions possessoires shall
 have been in peaceable possession for a
 year at least4 ,that is the invariable 
principle3 it can in no case be         
modified4 ,and why should it be set     
aside8 ,the plaintiff had no seisin2 he 
had no privileged possession2 he had    
only a temporary occupancy1 insufficient
 to warrant in his favor the presumption
 of property1 which renders the annual  
possession so valuable4 ,well6 this ae  
facto occupancy he has lost2 another is 
invested with it3 possession is in the  
hands of this new-comer4 ,now1 is not   
this a case for the application of the  
principle1 ,in pari causa possesser     

potior habetur8 ,should not the actual  
possessor be preferred to the evicted   
possessor8 ,can he not meet the         
complaint of his adversary by saying to 
him3 ',prove that you were an annual    
possessor before me1 for you are the    
plaintiff4 ,as far as ,i am concerned1  
it is not for me to tell you how ,i     
possess1 nor how long ,i have possessed4
 ,possideo quia possideo4 ,i have no    
other reply1 no other defence4 ,when you
 have shown that your action is         
admissible1 then we will see whether you
 are entitled to lift the veil which    
hides the origin of my possession4'     
,and this is what is honored with the   
name of jurisprudence and               
philosophy1--the restoration of force4  
,what6 when ,i have moulded matter by my
 labor ,i quote ,m4 ,troplong2 when ,i  
have deposited in it a portion of myself
 ,m4 ,troplong2 when ,i have re-created 
it by my industry1 and set upon it the  
seal of my intelligence ,m4             
,troplong1--on the ground that ,i have  

not possessed it for a year1 a stranger 
may dispossess me1 and the law offers me
 no protection6 ,and if ,m4 ,troplong is
 my judge1 ,m4 ,troplong will condemn   
me6 ,and if ,i resist my adversary1--if1
 for this bit of mud which ,i may call  
,,my ,,field1 and of which they wish to 
rob me1 a war breaks out between the two
 competitors1--the legislator will      
gravely wait until the stronger1 having 
killed the other1 has had possession for
 a year6 ,no1 no1 ,monsieur ,troplong6  
you do not understand the words of the  
law2 for ,i prefer to call in question  
your intelligence rather than the       
justice of the legislator4 ,you are     
mistaken in your application of the     
principle1 ,in pari causa possessor     
potior habetur3 the actuality of        
possession here refers to him who       
possessed at the time when the          
difficulty arose1 not to him who        
possesses at the time of the complaint4 
,and when the code prohibits the        
reception of actions possessoires1 in   

cases where the possession is not of a  
year's duration1 it simply means that   
if1 before a year has elapsed1 the      
holder relinquishes possession1 and     
ceases actually to occupy in propria    
persona1 he cannot avail himself of an  
action possessoire against his          
successor4 ,in a word1 the code treats  
possession of less than a year as it    
ought to treat all possession1 however  
long it has existed1--that is1 the      
condition of property ought to be1 not  
merely seisin for a year1 but perpetual 
seisin4  ,i will not pursue this        
analysis farther4 ,when an author bases 
two volumes of quibbles on foundations  
so uncertain1 it may be boldly declared 
that his work1 whatever the amount of   
learning displayed in it1 is a mess of  
nonsense unworthy a critic's attention4 
,at this point1 sir1 ,i seem to hear you
 reproaching me for this conceited      
dogmatism1 this lawless arrogance1 which
 respects nothing1 claims a monopoly of 
justice and good sense1 and assumes to  

put in the pillory any one who dares to 
maintain an opinion contrary to its own4
 ,this fault1 they tell me1 more odious 
than any other in an author1 was too    
prominent a characteristic of my ,first 
,memoir1 and ,i should do well to       
correct it4  ,it is important to the    
success of my defence1 that ,i should   
vindicate myself from this reproach2 and
 since1 while perceiving in myself other
 faults of a different character1 ,i    
still adhere in this particular to my   
disputatious style1 it is right that ,i 
should give my reasons for my conduct4  
,i act1 not from inclination1 but from  
necessity4  ,i say1 then1 that ,i treat 
my authors as ,i do for two reasons3 a  
,,reason ,,of ,,right1 and a ,,reason   
,,of ,,intention2 both peremptory4  #a4 
,reason of right4 ,when ,i preach       
equality of fortunes1 ,i do not advance 
an opinion more or less probable1 a     
utopia more or less ingenious1 an idea  
conceived within my brain by means of   
imagination only4 ,i lay down an        

absolute truth1 concerning which        
hesitation is impossible1 modesty       
superfluous1 and doubt ridiculous4      
,but1 do you ask1 what assures me that  
that which ,i utter is true8  ,what     
assures me1 sir8 ,the logical and       
metaphysical processes which ,i use1 the
 correctness of which ,i have           
demonstrated by a priori reasoning2 the 
fact that ,i possess an infallible      
method of investigation and verification
 with which my authors are unacquainted2
 and finally1 the fact that for all     
matters relating to property and justice
 ,i have found a formula which explains 
all legislative variations1 and         
furnishes a key for all problems4 ,now1 
is there so much as a shadow of method  
in ,m4 ,toullier1 ,m4 ,troplong1 and    
this swarm of insipid commentators1     
almost as devoid of reason and moral    
sense as the code itself8 ,do you give  
the name of method to an alphabetical1  
chronological1 analogical1 or merely    
nominal classification of subjects8 ,do 

you give the name of method to these    
lists of paragraphs gathered under an   
arbitrary head1 these sophistical       
vagaries1 this mass of contradictory    
quotations and opinions1 this nauseous  
style1 this spasmodic rhetoric1 models  
of which are so common at the bar1      
though seldom found elsewhere8 ,do you  
take for philosophy this twaddle1 this  
intolerable pettifoggery adorned with a 
few scholastic trimmings8 ,no1 no6 a    
writer who respects himself1 never will 
consent to enter the balance with these 
manipulators of law1 misnamed ,,jurists2
 and for my part ,i object to a         
comparison4  #b4 ,reason of intention4  
,as far as ,i am permitted to divulge   
this secret1 ,i am a conspirator in an  
immense revolution1 terrible to         
charlatans and despots1 to all          
exploiters of the poor and credulous1 to
 all salaried idlers1 dealers in        
political panaceas and parables1 tyrants
 in a word of thought and of opinion4 ,i
 labor to stir up the reason of         

individuals to insurrection against the 
reason of authorities4   ,according to  
the laws of the society of which ,i am a
 member1 all the evils which afflict    
humanity arise from faith in external   
teachings and submission to authority4  
,and not to go outside of our own       
century1 is it not true1 for instance1  
that ,france is plundered1 scoffed at1  
and tyrannized over1 because she speaks 
in masses1 and not by heads8 ,the       
,french people are penned up in three or
 four flocks1 receiving their signal    
from a chief1 responding to the voice of
 a leader1 and thinking just as he says4
 ,a certain journal1 it is said1 has    
fifty thousand subscribers2 assuming six
 readers to every subscriber1 we have   
three hundred thousand sheep browsing   
and bleating at the same cratch4 ,apply 
this calculation to the whole periodical
 press1 and you find that1 in our free  
and intelligent ,france1 there are two  
millions of creatures receiving every   
morning from the journals spiritual     

pasturage4 ,two millions6 ,in other     
words1 the entire nation allows a score 
of little fellows to lead it by the     
nose4  ,by no means1 sir1 do ,i deny to 
journalists talent1 science1 love of    
truth1 patriotism1 and what you please4 
,they are very worthy and intelligent   
people1 whom ,i undoubtedly should wish 
to resemble1 had ,i the honor to know   
them4 ,that of which ,i complain1 and   
that which has made me a conspirator1 is
 that1 instead of enlightening us1 these
 gentlemen command us1 impose upon us   
articles of faith1 and that without     
demonstration or verification4 ,when1   
for example1 ,i ask why these           
fortifications of ,paris1 which1 in     
former times1 under the influence of    
certain prejudices1 and by means of a   
concurrence of extraordinary            
circumstances supposed for the sake of  
the argument to have existed1 may       
perhaps have served to protect us1 but  
which it is doubtful whether our        
descendants will ever use1--when ,i ask1

 ,i say1 on what grounds they assimilate
 the future to a hypothetical past1 they
 reply that ,m4 ,thiers1 who has a great
 mind1 has written upon this subject a  
report of admirable elegance and        
marvellous clearness4 ,at this ,i become
 angry1 and reply that ,m4 ,thiers does 
not know what he is talking about4 ,why1
 having wanted no detached forts seven  
years ago1 do we want them to-day8  ,oh6
 damn it1 they say1 the difference is   
great2 the first forts were too near to 
us2 with these we cannot be bombarded4  
,you cannot be bombarded2 but you can be
 blockaded1 and will be1 if you stir4   
,what6 to obtain blockade forts from the
 ,parisians1 it has sufficed to         
prejudice them against bombardment      
forts6 ,and they thought to outwit the  
government6 ,oh1 the sovereignty of the 
people6444   ,damn it6 ,m4 ,thiers1 who 
is wiser than you1 says that it would be
 absurd to suppose a government making  
war upon citizens1 and maintaining      
itself by force and in spite of the will

 of the people4 ,that would be absurd6  
,perhaps so3 such a thing has happened  
more than once1 and may happen again4   
,besides1 when despotism is strong1 it  
appears almost legitimate4 ,however that
 may be1 they lied in #ahcc1 and they   
lie again in #ahda1--those who threaten 
us with the bomb-shell4 ,and then1 if   
,m4 ,thiers is so well assured of the   
intentions of the government1 why does  
he not wish the forts to be built before
 the circuit is extended8 ,why this air 
of suspicion of the government1 unless  
an intrigue has been planned between the
 government and ,m4 ,thiers8  ,damn it6 
we do not wish to be again invaded4 ,if 
,paris had been fortified in #ahae1     
,napoleon would not have been conquered6
 ,but ,i tell you that ,napoleon was not
 conquered1 but sold2 and that if1 in   
#ahae1 ,paris had had fortifications1 it
 would have been with them as with the  
thirty thousand men of ,grouchy1 who    
were misled during the battle4 ,it is   
still easier to surrender forts than to 

lead soldiers4 ,would the selfish and   
the cowardly ever lack reasons for      
yielding to the enemy8  ,but do you not 
see that the absolutist courts are      
provoked at our fortifications8--a proof
 that they do not think as you do4 ,you 
believe that2 and1 for my part1 ,i      
believe that in reality they are quite  
at ease about the matter2 and1 if they  
appear to tease our ministers1 they do  
so only to give the latter an           
opportunity to decline4 ,the absolutist 
courts are always on better terms with  
our constitutional monarchy1 than our   
monarchy with us4 ,does not ,m4 ,guizot 
say that ,france needs to be defended   
within as well as without8 ,within6     
against whom8 ,against ,france4 ,o      
,parisians6 it is but six months since  
you demanded war1 and now you want only 
barricades4 ,why should the allies fear 
your doctrines1 when you cannot even    
control yourselves8444 ,how could you   
sustain a siege1 when you weep over the 
absence of an actress8  ,but1 finally1  

do you not understand that1 by the rules
 of modern warfare1 the capital of a    
country is always the objective point of
 its assailants8 ,suppose our army      
defeated on the ,rhine1 ,france invaded1
 and defenceless ,paris falling into the
 hands of the enemy4 ,it would be the   
death of the administrative power2      
without a head it could not live4 ,the  
capital taken1 the nation must submit4  
,what do you say to that8  ,the reply is
 very simple4 ,why is society           
constituted in such a way that the      
destiny of the country depends upon the 
safety of the capital8 ,why1 in case our
 territory be invaded and ,paris        
besieged1 cannot the legislative1       
executive1 and military powers act      
outside of ,paris8 ,why this            
localization of all the vital forces of 
,france8444 ,do not cry out upon        
decentralization4 ,this hackneyed       
reproach would discredit only your own  
intelligence and sincerity4 ,it is not a
 question of decentralization2 it is    

your political fetichism which ,i       
attack4 ,why should the national unity  
be attached to a certain place1 to      
certain functionaries1 to certain       
bayonets8 ,why should the ,place        
,maubert and the ,palace of the         
,tuileries be the palladium of ,france8 
,now let me make an hypothesis4         
,suppose it were written in the charter1
 ,in case the country be again invaded1 
and ,paris forced to surrender1 the     
government being annihilated and the    
national assembly dissolved1 the        
electoral colleges shall reassemble     
spontaneously and without other official
 notice1 for the purpose of appointing  
new deputies1 who shall organize a      
provisional government at ,orleans4  ,if
 ,orleans succumbs1 the government shall
 reconstruct itself in the same way at  
,lyons2 then at ,bordeaux1 then at      
,bayonne1 until all ,france be captured 
or the enemy driven from the land4 ,for 
the government may perish1 but the      
nation never dies4 ,the king1 the peers1

 and the deputies massacred1 ,,vive ,,la
 ,,france6  ,do you not think that such 
an addition to the charter would be a   
better safeguard for the liberty and    
integrity of the country than walls and 
bastions around ,paris8 ,well1 then6 do 
henceforth for administration1 industry1
 science1 literature1 and art that which
 the charter ought to prescribe for the 
central government and common defence4  
,instead of endeavoring to render ,paris
 impregnable1 try rather to render the  
loss of ,paris an insignificant matter4 
,instead of accumulating about one point
 academies1 faculties1 schools1 and     
political1 administrative1 and judicial 
centres2 instead of arresting           
intellectual development and weakening  
public spirit in the provinces by this  
fatal agglomeration1--can you not1      
without destroying unity1 distribute    
social functions among places as well as
 among persons8 ,such a system--in      
allowing each province to participate in
 political power and action1 and in     

balancing industry1 intelligence1 and   
strength in all parts of the            
country--would equally secure1 against  
enemies at home and enemies abroad1 the 
liberty of the people and the stability 
of the government4  ,discriminate1 then1
 between the centralization of functions
 and the concentration of organs2       
between political unity and its material
 symbol4  ,oh6 that is plausible2 but it
 is impossible6--which means that the   
city of ,paris does not intend to       
surrender its privileges1 and that there
 it is still a question of property4    
,idle talk6 ,the country1 in a state of 
panic which has been cleverly worked    
upon1 has asked for fortifications4 ,i  
dare to affirm that it has abdicated its
 sovereignty4 ,all parties are to blame 
for this suicide1--the conservatives1 by
 their acquiescence in the plans of the 
government2 the friends of the dynasty1 
because they wish no opposition to that 
which pleases them1 and because a       
popular revolution would annihilate     

them2 the democrats1 because they hope  
to rule in their turn4 #fg ,that which  
all rejoice at having obtained is a     
means of future repression4 ,as for the 
defence of the country1 they are not    
troubled about that4 ,the idea of       
tyranny dwells in the minds of all1 and 
brings together into one conspiracy all 
forms of selfishness4 ,we wish the      
regeneration of society1 but we         
subordinate this desire to our ideas and
 convenience4 ,that our approaching     
marriage may take place1 that our       
business may succeed1 that our opinions 
may triumph1 we postpone reform4        
,intolerance and selfishness lead us to 
put fetters upon liberty2 and1 because  
we cannot wish all that ,god wishes1 we 
would1 if it rested with us1 stay the   
course of destiny rather than sacrifice 
our own interests and self-love4 ,is not
 this an instance where the words of    
,solomon apply1--,l'iniquite a menti a  
elle-meme8   ,it is said that on this   
question of the fortification of ,paris 

the staff of ,le ,national are not      
agreed4 ,this would prove1 if proof were
 needed1 that a journal may blunder and 
falsify1 without entitling any one to   
accuse its editors4 ,a journal is a     
metaphysical being1 for which no one is 
really responsible1 and which owes its  
existence solely to mutual concessions4 
,this idea ought to frighten those      
worthy citizens who1 because they borrow
 their opinions from a journal1 imagine 
that they belong to a political party1  
and who have not the faintest suspicion 
that they are really without a head4    
,for this reason1 sir1 ,i have enlisted 
in a desperate war against every form of
 authority over the multitude4 ,advance 
sentinel of the proletariat1 ,i cross   
bayonets with the celebrities of the    
day1 as well as with spies and          
charlatans4 ,well1 when ,i am fighting  
with an illustrious adversary1 must ,i  
stop at the end of every phrase1 like an
 orator in the tribune1 to say the      
learned author1 the eloquent writer1 the

 profound publicist1 and a hundred other
 platitudes with which it is fashionable
 to mock people8 ,these civilities seem 
to me no less insulting to the man      
attacked than dishonorable to the       
aggressor4 ,but when1 rebuking an       
author1 ,i say to him1 ,citizen1 your   
doctrine is absurd1 and1 if to prove my 
assertion is an offence against you1 ,i 
am guilty of it1 immediately the        
listener opens his ears2 he is all      
attention2 and1 if ,i do not succeed in 
convincing him1 at least ,i give his    
thought an impulse1 and set him the     
wholesome example of doubt and free     
examination4  ,then do not think1 sir1  
that1 in tripping up the philosophy of  
your very learned and very estimable    
confrere1 ,m4 ,troplong1 ,i fail to     
appreciate his talent as a writer 7in my
 opinion1 he has too much for a jurist72
 nor his knowledge1 though it is too    
closely confined to the letter of the   
law1 and the reading of old books4 ,in  
these particulars1 ,m4 ,troplong offends

 on the side of excess rather than      
deficiency4 ,further1 do not believe    
that ,i am actuated by any personal     
animosity towards him1 or that ,i have  
the slightest desire to wound his       
self-love4 ,i know ,m4 ,troplong only by
 his ,treatise on ,prescription1 which  
,i wish he had not written2 and as for  
my critics1 neither ,m4 ,troplong1 nor  
any of those whose opinion ,i value1    
will ever read me4 ,once more1 my only  
object is to prove1 as far as ,i am     
able1 to this unhappy ,french nation1   
that those who make the laws1 as well as
 those who interpret them1 are not      
infallible organs of general1           
impersonal1 and absolute reason4  ,i had
 resolved to submit to a systematic     
criticism the semi-official defence of  
the right of property recently put forth
 by ,m4 ,wolowski1 your colleague at the
 ,conservatory4 ,with this view1 ,i had 
commenced to collect the documents      
necessary for each of his lectures1 but1
 soon perceiving that the ideas of the  

professor were incoherent1 that his     
arguments contradicted each other1 that 
one affirmation was sure to be          
overthrown by another1 and that in ,m4  
,wolowski's lucubrations the good was   
always mingled with the bad1 and being  
by nature a little suspicious1 it       
suddenly occurred to me that ,m4        
,wolowski was an advocate of equality in
 disguise1 thrown in spite of himself   
into the position in which the patriarch
 ,jacob pictures one of his sons1--inter
 duas clitellas1 between two stools1 as 
the proverb says4 ,in more parliamentary
 language1 ,i saw clearly that ,m4      
,wolowski was placed between his        
profound convictions on the one hand and
 his official duties on the other1 and  
that1 in order to maintain his position1
 he had to assume a certain slant4 ,then
 ,i experienced great pain at seeing the
 reserve1 the circumlocution1 the       
figures1 and the irony to which a       
professor of legislation1 whose duty it 
is to teach dogmas with clearness and   

precision1 was forced to resort2 and ,i 
fell to cursing the society in which an 
honest man is not allowed to say frankly
 what he thinks4 ,never1 sir1 have you  
conceived of such torture3 ,i seemed to 
be witnessing the martyrdom of a mind4  
,i am going to give you an idea of these
 astonishing meetings1 or rather of     
these scenes of sorrow4  ,monday1 ,nov4 
#bj1 #ahdj4--,the professor declares1 in
 brief1--#a4 ,that the right of property
 is not founded upon occupation1 but    
upon the impress of man2 #b4 ,that every
 man has a natural and inalienable right
 to the use of matter4  ,now1 if matter 
can be appropriated1 and if1            
notwithstanding1 all men retain an      
inalienable right to the use of this    
matter1 what is property8--and if matter
 can be appropriated only by labor1 how 
long is this appropriation to           
continue8--questions that will confuse  
and confound all jurists whatsoever4    
,then ,m4 ,wolowski cites his           
authorities4 ,great ,god6 what witnesses

 he brings forward6 ,first1 ,m4         
,troplong1 the great metaphysician1 whom
 we have discussed2 then1 ,m4 ,louis    
,blanc1 editor of the ,revue du         
,progres1 who came near being tried by  
jury for publishing his ,organization of
 ,labor1 and who escaped from the       
clutches of the public prosecutor only  
by a juggler's trick2 #fh ,corinne1--,i 
mean ,madame de ,stael1--who1 in an ode1
 making a poetical comparison of the    
land with the waves1 of the furrow of a 
plough with the wake of a vessel1 says  
that property exists only where man has 
left his trace1 which makes property    
dependent upon the solidity of the      
elements2 ,rousseau1 the apostle of     
liberty and equality1 but who1 according
 to ,m4 ,wolowski1 attacked property    
only ,,as ,a ,,joke1 and in order to    
point a paradox2 ,robespierre1 who      
prohibited a division of the land1      
because he regarded such a measure as a 
rejuvenescence of property1 and who1    
while awaiting the definitive           

organization of the republic1 placed all
 property in the care88 of the          
people1--that is1 transferred the right 
of eminent domain from the individual to
 society2 ,babeuf1 who wanted property  
for the nation1 and communism for the   
citizens2 ,m4 ,considerant1 who favors a
 division of landed property into       
shares1--that is1 who wishes to render  
property nominal and fictitious3 the    
whole being intermingled with jokes and 
witticisms 7intended undoubtedly to lead
 people away from the ,,hornets'        
,,nests7 at the expense of the          
adversaries of the right of property6   
,november #bf4--,m4 ,wolowski supposes  
this objection3 ,land1 like water1 air1 
and light1 is necessary to life1        
therefore it cannot be appropriated2 and
 he replies3 ,the importance of landed  
property diminishes as the power of     
industry increases4  ,good6 this        
importance ,,diminishes1 but it does not
 ,,disappear2 and this1 of itself1 shows
 landed property to be illegitimate4    

,here ,m4 ,wolowski pretends to think   
that the opponents of property refer    
only to property in land1 while they    
merely take it as a term of comparison2 
and1 in showing with wonderful clearness
 the absurdity of the position in which 
he places them1 he finds a way of       
drawing the attention of his hearers to 
another subject without being false to  
the truth which it is his office to     
contradict4  ,property1 says ,m4        
,wolowski1 is that which distinguishes  
man from the animals4 ,that may be2 but 
are we to regard this as a compliment or
 a satire8  ,mahomet1 says ,m4          
,wolowski1 decreed property4 ,and so did
 ,genghis ,khan1 and ,tamerlane1 and all
 the ravagers of nations4 ,what sort of 
legislators were they8  ,property has   
been in existence ever since the origin 
of the human race4 ,yes1 and so has     
slavery1 and despotism also2 and        
likewise polygamy and idolatry4 ,but    
what does this antiquity show8  ,the    
members of the ,council of the          

,state--,m4 ,portalis at their head--did
 not raise1 in their discussion of the  
,code1 the question of the legitimacy of
 property4 ,their silence1 says ,m4     
,wolowski1 is a precedent in favor of   
this right4 ,i may regard this reply as 
personally addressed to me1 since the   
observation belongs to me4 ,i reply1 ,as
 long as an opinion is universally      
admitted1 the universality of belief    
serves of itself as argument and proof4 
,when this same opinion is attacked1 the
 former faith proves nothing2 we must   
resort to reason4 ,ignorance1 however   
old and pardonable it may be1 never     
outweighs reason4  ,property has its    
abuses1 ,m4 ,wolowski confesses4 ,but1  
he says1 these abuses gradually         
disappear4 ,to-day their cause is known4
 ,they all arise from a false theory of 
property4 ,in principle1 property is    
inviolable1 but it can and must be      
checked and disciplined4 ,such are the  
conclusions of the professor4  ,when one
 thus remains in the clouds1 he need not

 fear to equivocate4 ,nevertheless1 ,i  
would like him to define these ,,abuses 
of property1 to show their cause1 to    
explain this true theory from which no  
abuse is to spring2 in short1 to tell me
 how1 without destroying property1 it   
can be governed for the greatest good of
 all4 ,our civil code1 says ,m4         
,wolowski1 in speaking of this subject1 
leaves much to be desired4 ,i think it  
leaves every thing undone4  ,finally1   
,m4 ,wolowski opposes1 on the one hand1 
the concentration of capital1 and the   
absorption which results therefrom2 and1
 on the other1 he objects to the extreme
 division of the land4 ,now ,i think    
that ,i have demonstrated in my ,first  
,memoir1 that large accumulation and    
minute division are the first two terms 
of an economical trinity1--a ,,thesis   
and an ,,antithesis4 ,but1 while ,m4    
,wolowski says nothing of the third     
term1 the ,,synthesis1 and thus leaves  
the inference in suspense1 ,i have shown
 that this third term is ,,association1 

which is the annihilation of property4  
,november #cj4--,,literary ,,property4  
,m4 ,wolowski grants that it is just to 
recognize the rights of talent 7which is
 not in the least hostile to equality72 
but he seriously objects to perpetual   
and absolute property in the works of   
genius1 to the profit of the authors'   
heirs4 ,his main argument is1 that      
society has a right of collective       
production over every creation of the   
mind4 ,now1 it is precisely this        
principle of collective power that ,i   
developed in my ,inquiries into         
,property and ,government1 and on which 
,i have established the complete edifice
 of a new social organization4 ,m4      
,wolowski is1 as far as ,i know1 the    
first jurist who has made a legislative 
application of this economical law4     
,only1 while ,i have extended the       
principle of collective power to every  
sort of product1 ,m4 ,wolowski1 more    
prudent than it is my nature to be1     
confines it to neutral ground4 ,so1 that

 that which ,i am bold enough to say of 
the whole1 he is contented to affirm of 
a part1 leaving the intelligent hearer  
to fill up the void for himself4        
,however1 his arguments are keen and    
close4 ,one feels that the professor1   
finding himself more at ease with one   
aspect of property1 has given the rein  
to his intellect1 and is rushing on     
towards liberty4  #a4 ,absolute literary
 property would hinder the activity of  
other men1 and obstruct the development 
of humanity4 ,it would be the death of  
progress2 it would be suicide4 ,what    
would have happened if the first        
inventions1--the plough1 the level1 the 
saw1 c41--had been appropriated8  ,such 
is the first proposition of ,m4         
,wolowski4  ,i reply3 ,absolute property
 in land and tools hinders human        
activity1 and obstructs progress and the
 free development of man4  ,what        
happened in ,rome1 and in all the       
ancient nations8 ,what occurred in the  
middle ages8 ,what do we see to-day in  

,england1 in consequence of absolute    
property in the sources of production8  
,the suicide of humanity4  #b4 ,real and
 personal property is in harmony with   
the social interest4 ,in consequence of 
literary property1 social and individual
 interests are perpetually in conflict4 
,the statement of this proposition      
contains a rhetorical figure1 common    
with those who do not enjoy full and    
complete liberty of speech4 ,this figure
 is the anti-phrasis or contre-verite4  
,it consists1 according to ,dumarsais   
and the best humanists1 in saying one   
thing while meaning another4 ,m4        
,wolowski's proposition1 naturally      
expressed1 would read as follows3 ,just 
as real and personal property is        
essentially hostile to society1 so1 in  
consequence of literary property1 social
 and individual interests are           
perpetually in conflict4  #c4 ,m4 de    
,montalembert1 in the ,chamber of       
,peers1 vehemently protested against the
 assimilation of authors to inventors of

 machinery2 an assimilation which he    
claimed to be injurious to the former4  
,m4 ,wolowski replies1 that the rights  
of authors1 without machinery1 would be 
nil2 that1 without paper-mills1 type    
foundries1 and printing-offices1 there  
could be no sale of verse and prose2    
that many a mechanical invention1--the  
compass1 for instance1 the telescope1 or
 the steam-engine1--is quite as valuable
 as a book4  ,prior to ,m4              
,montalembert1 ,m4 ,charles ,comte had  
laughed at the inference in favor of    
mechanical inventions1 which logical    
minds never fail to draw from the       
privileges granted to authors4 ,he1 says
 ,m4 ,comte1 who first conceived and    
executed the idea of transforming a     
piece of wood into a pair of sabots1 or 
an animal's hide into a pair of sandals1
 would thereby have acquired an         
exclusive right to make shoes for the   
human race6 ,undoubtedly1 under the     
system of property4 ,for1 in fact1 this 
pair of sabots1 over which you make so  

merry1 is the creation of the shoemaker1
 the work of his genius1 the expression 
of his thought2 to him it is his poem1  
quite as much as ,le ,roi s'amuse1 is   
,m4 ,victor ,hugo's drama4 ,justice for 
all alike4 ,if you refuse a patent to a 
perfecter of boots1 refuse also a       
privilege to a maker of rhymes4  #d4    
,that which gives importance to a book  
is a fact external to the author and his
 work4 ,without the intelligence of     
society1 without its development1 and a 
certain community of ideas1 passions1   
and interests between it and the        
authors1 the works of the latter would  
be worth nothing4 ,the exchangeable     
value of a book is due even more to the 
,,social ,,condition than to the talent 
displayed in it4  ,indeed1 it seems as  
if ,i were copying my own words4 ,this  
proposition of ,m4 ,wolowski contains a 
special expression of a general and     
absolute idea1 one of the strongest and 
most conclusive against the right of    
property4 ,why do artists1 like         

mechanics1 find the means to live8      
,because society has made the fine arts1
 like the rudest industries1 objects of 
consumption and exchange1 governed      
consequently by all the laws of commerce
 and political economy4 ,now1 the first 
of these laws is the equipoise of       
functions2 that is1 the equality of     
associates4  #e4 ,m4 ,wolowski indulges 
in sarcasm against the petitioners for  
literary property4 ,there are authors1  
he says1 who crave the privileges of    
authors1 and who for that purpose point 
out the power of the melodrama4 ,they   
speak of the niece of ,corneille1       
begging at the door of a theatre which  
the works of her uncle had enriched4444 
,to satisfy the avarice of literary     
people1 it would be necessary to create 
literary majorats1 and make a whole code
 of exceptions4  ,i like this virtuous  
irony4 ,but ,m4 ,wolowski has by no     
means exhausted the difficulties which  
the question involves4 ,and first1 is it
 just that ,,mm4 ,cousin1 ,guizot1      

,villemain1 ,damiron1 and company1 paid 
by the ,state for delivering lectures1  
should be paid a second time through the
 booksellers8--that ,i1 who have the    
right to report their lectures1 should  
not have the right to print them8 ,is it
 just that ,,mm4 ,noel and ,chapsal1    
overseers of the ,university1 should use
 their influence in selling their       
selections from literature to the youth 
whose studies they are instructed to    
superintend in consideration of a       
salary8 ,and1 if that is not just1 is it
 not proper to refuse literary property 
to every author holding public offices1 
and receiving pensions or sinecures8    
,again1 shall the privilege of the      
author extend to irreligious and immoral
 works1 calculated only to corrupt the  
heart1 and obscure the understanding8   
,to grant this privilege is to sanction 
immorality by law2 to refuse it is to   
censure the author4 ,and since it is    
impossible1 in the present imperfect    
state of society1 to prevent all        

violations of the moral law1 it will be 
necessary to open a license-office for  
books as well as morals4 ,but1 then1    
three-fourths of our literary people    
will be obliged to register2 and1       
recognized thenceforth on their own     
declaration as ,,prostitutes1 they will 
necessarily belong to the public4 ,we   
pay toll to the prostitute2 we do not   
endow her4  ,finally1 shall plagiarism  
be classed with forgery8 ,if you reply  
,yes1 you appropriate in advance all the
 subjects of which books treat2 if you  
say ,no1 you leave the whole matter to  
the decision of the judge4 ,except in   
the case of a clandestine reprint1 how  
will he distinguish forgery from        
quotation1 imitation1 plagiarism1 or    
even coincidence8 ,a savant spends two  
years in calculating a table of         
logarithms to nine or ten decimals4 ,he 
prints it4 ,a fortnight after his book  
is selling at half-price2 it is         
impossible to tell whether this result  
is due to forgery or competition4 ,what 

shall the court do8 ,in case of doubt1  
shall it award the property to the first
 occupant8 ,as well decide the question 
by lot4  ,these1 however1 are trifling  
considerations2 but do we see that1 in  
granting a perpetual privilege to       
authors and their heirs1 we really      
strike a fatal blow at their interests8 
,we think to make booksellers dependent 
upon authors1--a delusion4 ,the         
booksellers will unite against works1   
and their proprietors4 ,against works1  
by refusing to push their sale1 by      
replacing them with poor imitations1 by 
reproducing them in a hundred indirect  
ways2 and no one knows how far the      
science of plagiarism1 and skilful      
imitation may be carried4 ,against      
proprietors4 ,are we ignorant of the    
fact1 that a demand for a dozen copies  
enables a bookseller to sell a thousand2
 that with an edition of five hundred he
 can supply a kingdom for thirty years8 
,what will the poor authors do in the   
presence of this omnipotent union of    

booksellers8 ,i will tell them what they
 will do4 ,they will enter the employ of
 those whom they now treat as pirates2  
and1 to secure an advantage1 they will  
become wage laborers4 ,a fit reward for 
ignoble avarice1 and insatiable pride4  
#fi  ,contradictions of contradictions6 
,genius is the great leveller of the    
world1 cries ,m4 de ,lamartine2 then    
genius should be a proprietor4 ,literary
 property is the fortune of democracy4  
,this unfortunate poet thinks himself   
profound when he is only puffed up4 ,his
 eloquence consists solely in coupling  
ideas which clash with each other3      
,,round ,,square1 ,,dark ,,sun1 ,,fallen
 ,,angel1 ,,priest and ,,love1 ,,thought
 and ,,poetry1 ,,gunius 8881 and        
,,fortune1 ,,leveling and ,,property4   
,let us tell him1 in reply1 that his    
mind is a dark luminary2 that each of   
his discourses is a disordered harmony2 
and that all his successes1 whether in  
verse or prose1 are due to the use of   
the extraordinary in the treatment of   

the most ordinary subjects4  ,le        
,national1 in reply to the report of ,m4
 ,lamartine1 endeavors to prove that    
literary property is of quite a         
different nature from landed property2  
as if the nature of the right of        
property depended on the object to which
 it is applied1 and not on the mode of  
its exercise and the condition of its   
existence4 ,but the main object of ,le  
,national is to please a class of       
proprietors whom an extension of the    
right of property vexes3 that is why ,le
 ,national opposes literary property4   
,will it tell us1 once for all1 whether 
it is for equality or against it8   #f4 
,,objection4--,property in occupied land
 passes to the heirs of the occupant4   
,why1 say the authors1 should not the   
work of genius pass in like manner to   
the heirs of the man of genius8 ,m4     
,wolowski's reply3 ,because the labor of
 the first occupant is continued by his 
heirs1 while the heirs of an author     
neither change nor add to his works4 ,in

 landed property1 the continuance of    
labor explains the continuance of the   
right4  ,yes1 when the labor is         
continued2 but if the labor is not      
continued1 the right ceases4 ,thus is   
the right of possession1 founded on     
personal labor1 recognized by ,m4       
,wolowski4  ,m4 ,wolowski decides in    
favor of granting to authors property in
 their works for a certain number of    
years1 dating from the day of their     
first publication4  ,the succeeding     
lectures on patents on inventions were  
no less instructive1 although           
intermingled with shocking              
contradictions inserted with a view to  
make the useful truths more palatable4  
,the necessity for brevity compels me to
 terminate this examination here1 not   
without regret4  ,thus1 of two eclectic 
jurists1 who attempt a defence of       
property1 one is entangled in a set of  
dogmas without principle or method1 and 
is constantly talking nonsense2 and the 
other designedly abandons the cause of  

property1 in order to present under the 
same name the theory of individual      
possession4 ,was ,i wrong in claiming   
that confusion reigned among legists1   
and ought ,i to be legally prosecuted   
for having said that their science      
henceforth stood convicted of falsehood1
 its glory eclipsed8  ,the ordinary     
resources of the law no longer          
sufficing1 philosophy1 political        
economy1 and the framers of systems have
 been consulted4 ,all the oracles       
appealed to have been discouraging4     
,the philosophers are no clearer to-day 
than at the time of the eclectic        
efflorescence2 nevertheless1 through    
their mystical apothegms1 we can        
distinguish the words ,,progress1       
,,unity1 ,,association1 ,,solidarity1   
,,fraternity1 which are certainly not   
reassuring to proprietors4 ,one of these
 philosophers1 ,m4 ,pierre ,leroux1 has 
written two large books1 in which he    
claims to show by all religious1        
legislative1 and philosophical systems  

that1 since men are responsible to each 
other1 equality of conditions is the    
final law of society4 ,it is true that  
this philosopher admits a kind of       
property2 but as he leaves us to imagine
 what property would become in presence 
of equality1 we may boldly class him    
with the opponents of the right of      
increase4  ,i must here declare         
freely--in order that ,i may not be     
suspected of secret connivance1 which is
 foreign to my nature--that ,m4 ,leroux 
has my full sympathy4 ,not that ,i am a 
believer in his quasi-,pythagorean      
philosophy 7upon this subject ,i should 
have more than one observation to submit
 to him1 provided a veteran covered with
 stripes would not despise the remarks  
of a conscript72 not that ,i feel bound 
to this author by any special           
consideration for his opposition to     
property4 ,in my opinion1 ,m4 ,leroux   
could1 and even ought to1 state his     
position more explicitly and logically4 
,but ,i like1 ,i admire1 in ,m4 ,leroux1

 the antagonist of our philosophical    
demigods1 the demolisher of usurped     
reputations1 the pitiless critic of     
every thing that is respected because of
 its antiquity4 ,such is the reason for 
my high esteem of ,m4 ,leroux2 such     
would be the principle of the only      
literary association which1 in this     
century of coteries1 ,i should care to  
form4 ,we need men who1 like ,m4        
,leroux1 call in question social        
principles1--not to diffuse doubt       
concerning them1 but to make them doubly
 sure2 men who excite the mind by bold  
negations1 and make the conscience      
tremble by doctrines of annihilation4   
,where is the man who does not shudder  
on hearing ,m4 ,leroux exclaim1 ,there  
is neither a paradise nor a hell2 the   
wicked will not be punished1 nor the    
good rewarded4 ,mortals6 cease to hope  
and fear2 you revolve in a circle of    
appearances2 humanity is an immortal    
tree1 whose branches1 withering one     
after another1 feed with their debris   

the root which is always young6 ,where  
is the man who1 on hearing this desolate
 confession of faith1 does not demand   
with terror1 ,is it then true that ,i am
 only an aggregate of elements organized
 by an unknown force1 an idea realized  
for a few moments1 a form which passes  
and disappears8 ,is it true that my mind
 is only a harmony1 and my soul a       
vortex8 ,what is the ego8 what is ,god8 
what is the sanction of society8  ,in   
former times1 ,m4 ,leroux would have    
been regarded as a great culprit1 worthy
 only 7like ,vanini7 of death and       
universal execration4 ,to-day1 ,m4      
,leroux is fulfilling a mission of      
salvation1 for which1 whatever he may   
say1 he will be rewarded4 ,like those   
gloomy invalids who are always talking  
of their approaching death1 and who     
faint when the doctor's opinion confirms
 their pretence1 our materialistic      
society is agitated and loses           
countenance while listening to this     
startling decree of the philosopher1    

,thou shalt die6 ,honor then to ,m4     
,leroux1 who has revealed to us the     
cowardice of the ,epicureans2 to ,m4    
,leroux1 who renders new philosophical  
solutions necessary6 ,honor to the      
anti-eclectic1 to the apostle of        
equality6  ,in his work on ,humanity1   
,m4 ,leroux commences by positing the   
necessity of property3 ,you wish to     
abolish property2 but do you not see    
that thereby you would annihilate man   
and even the name of man8444 ,you wish  
to abolish property2 but could you live 
without a body8 ,i will not tell you    
that it is necessary to support this    
body2444 ,i will tell you that this body
 is itself a species of property4  ,in  
order clearly to understand the doctrine
 of ,m4 ,leroux1 it must be borne in    
mind that there are three necessary and 
primitive forms of society1--communism1 
property1 and that which to-day we      
properly call association4 ,m4 ,leroux  
rejects in the first place communism1   
and combats it with all his might4 ,man 

is a personal and free being1 and       
therefore needs a sphere of independence
 and individual activity4 ,m4 ,leroux   
emphasizes this in adding3 ,you wish    
neither family1 nor country1 nor        
property2 therefore no more fathers1 no 
more sons1 no more brothers4 ,here you  
are1 related to no being in time1 and   
therefore without a name2 here you are1 
alone in the midst of a billion of men  
who to-day inhabit the earth4 ,how do   
you expect me to distinguish you in     
space in the midst of this multitude8   
,if man is indistinguishable1 he is     
nothing4 ,now1 he can be distinguished1 
individualized1 only through a devotion 
of certain things to his use1--such as  
his body1 his faculties1 and the tools  
which he uses4 ,hence1 says ,m4 ,leroux1
 the necessity of appropriation2 in     
short1 property4  ,but property on what 
condition8 ,here ,m4 ,leroux1 after     
having condemned communism1 denounces in
 its turn the right of domain4 ,his     
whole doctrine can be summed up in this 

single proposition1--,man may be made by
 property a slave or a despot by turns4 
,that posited1 if we ask ,m4 ,leroux to 
tell us under what system of property   
man will be neither a slave nor a       
despot1 but free1 just1 and a citizen1  
,m4 ,leroux replies in the third volume 
of his work on ,humanity3--   ,there are
 three ways of destroying man's         
communion with his fellows and with the 
universe3444 #a4 ,by separating man in  
time2 #b4 by separating him in space2   
#c4 by dividing the land1 or1 in general
 terms1 the instruments of production2  
by attaching men to things1 by          
subordinating man to property1 by making
 man a proprietor4   ,this language1 it 
must be confessed1 savors a little too  
strongly of the metaphysical heights    
which the author frequents1 and of the  
school of ,m4 ,cousin4 ,nevertheless1 it
 can be seen1 clearly enough it seems to
 me1 that ,m4 ,leroux opposes the       
exclusive appropriation of the          
instruments of production2 only he calls

 this non-appropriation of the          
instruments of production a ,,new       
,,method of establishing property1 while
 ,i1 in accordance with all precedent1  
call it a destruction of property4 ,in  
fact1 without the appropriation of      
instruments1 property is nothing4       
,hitherto1 we have confined ourselves to
 pointing out and combating the despotic
 features of property1 by considering   
property alone4 ,we have failed to see  
that the despotism of property is a     
correlative of the division of the human
 race2444 that property1 instead of     
being organized in such a way as to     
facilitate the unlimited communion of   
man with his fellows and with the       
universe1 has been1 on the contrary1    
turned against this communion4  ,let us 
translate this into commercial          
phraseology4 ,in order to destroy       
despotism and the inequality of         
conditions1 men must cease from         
competition and must associate their    
interests4 ,let employer and employed   

7now enemies and rivals7 become         
associates4  ,now1 ask any manufacturer1
 merchant1 or capitalist1 whether he    
would consider himself a proprietor if  
he were to share his revenue and profits
 with this mass of wage-laborers whom it
 is proposed to make his associates4    
,family1 property1 and country are      
finite things1 which ought to be        
organized with a view to the infinite4  
,for man is a finite being1 who aspires 
to the infinite4 ,to him1 absolute      
finiteness is evil4 ,the infinite is his
 aim1 the indefinite his right4   ,few  
of my readers would understand these    
hierophantic words1 were ,i to leave    
them unexplained4 ,m4 ,leroux means1 by 
this magnificent formula1 that humanity 
is a single immense society1 which1 in  
its collective unity1 represents the    
infinite2 that every nation1 every      
tribe1 every commune1 and every citizen 
are1 in different degrees1 fragments or 
finite members of the infinite society1 
the evil in which results solely from   

individualism and privilege1--in other  
words1 from the subordination of the    
infinite to the finite2 finally1 that1  
to attain humanity's end and aim1 each  
part has a right to an indefinitely     
progressive development4   ,all the     
evils which afflict the human race arise
 from caste4 ,the family is a blessing2 
the family caste 7the nobility7 is an   
evil4 ,country is a blessing2 the       
country caste 7supreme1 domineering1    
conquering7 is an evil2 property        
7individual possession7 is a blessing2  
the property caste 7the domain of       
property of ,pothier1 ,toullier1        
,troplong1 c47 is an evil4   ,thus1     
according to ,m4 ,leroux1 there is      
property and property1--the one good1   
the other bad4 ,now1 as it is proper to 
call different things by different      
names1 if we keep the name property for 
the former1 we must call the latter     
robbery1 rapine1 brigandage4 ,if1 on the
 contrary1 we reserve the name property 
for the latter1 we must designate the   

former by the term ,,possession1 or some
 other equivalent2 otherwise we should  
be troubled with an unpleasant synonymy4
  ,what a blessing it would be if       
philosophers1 daring for once to say all
 that they think1 would speak the       
language of ordinary mortals6 ,nations  
and rulers would derive much greater    
profit from their lectures1 and1        
applying the same names to the same     
ideas1 would come1 perhaps1 to          
understand each other4 ,i boldly declare
 that1 in regard to property1 ,i hold no
 other opinion than that of ,m4 ,leroux2
 but1 if ,i should adopt the style of   
the philosopher1 and repeat after him1  
,property is a blessing1 but the        
property caste--the statu quo of        
property--is an evil1 ,i should be      
extolled as a genius by all the         
bachelors who write for the reviews4 #gj
 ,if1 on the contrary1 ,i prefer the    
classic language of ,rome and the civil 
code1 and say accordingly1 ,possession  
is a blessing1 but property is robbery1 

immediately the aforesaid bachelors     
raise a hue and cry against the monster1
 and the judge threatens me4 ,oh1 the   
power of language6  ,le ,national1 on   
the other hand1 has laughed at ,m4      
,leroux and his ideas on property1      
charging him with ,,tautology and       
,,childishness4 ,le ,national does not  
wish to understand4 ,is it necessary to 
remind this journal that it has no right
 to deride a dogmatic philosopher1      
because it is without a doctrine itself8
 ,from its foundation1 ,le ,national has
 been a nursery of intriguers and       
renegades4 ,from time to time it takes  
care to warn its readers4 ,instead of   
lamenting over all its defections1 the  
democratic sheet would do better to lay 
the blame on itself1 and confess the    
shallowness of its theories4 ,when will 
this organ of popular interests and the 
electoral reform cease to hire sceptics 
and spread doubt8 ,i will wager1 without
 going further1 that ,m4 ,leon          
,durocher1 the critic of ,m4 ,leroux1 is

 an anonymous or pseudonymous editor of 
some bourgeois1 or even aristocratic1   
journal4   ,the economists1 questioned  
in their turn1 propose to associate     
capital and labor4 ,you know1 sir1 what 
that means4 ,if we follow out the       
doctrine1 we soon find that it ends in  
an absorption of property1 not by the   
community1 but by a general and         
indissoluble commandite1 so that the    
condition of the proprietor would differ
 from that of the workingman only in    
receiving larger wages4 ,this system1   
with some peculiar additions and        
embellishments1 is the idea of the      
phalanstery4 ,but it is clear that1 if  
inequality of conditions is one of the  
attributes of property1 it is not the   
whole of property4 ,that which makes    
property a ,,delightful ,,thing1 as some
 philosopher 7,i know not who7 has said1
 is the power to dispose at will1 not   
only of one's own goods1 but of their   
specific nature2 to use them at         
pleasure2 to confine and enclose them2  

to excommunicate mankind1 as ,m4 ,pierre
 ,leroux says2 in short1 to make such   
use of them as passion1 interest1 or    
even caprice1 may suggest4 ,what is the 
possession of money1 a share in an      
agricultural or industrial enterprise1  
or a government-bond coupon1 in         
comparison with the infinite charm of   
being master of one's house and grounds1
 under one's vine and fig-tree8 ,beati  
possidentes6 says an author quoted by   
,m4 ,troplong4 ,seriously1 can that be  
applied to a man of income1 who has no  
other possession under the sun than the 
market1 and in his pocket his money8 ,as
 well maintain that a trough is a       
coward4 ,a nice method of reform6 ,they 
never cease to condemn the thirst for   
gold1 and the growing individualism of  
the century2 and yet1 most inconceivable
 of contradictions1 they prepare to turn
 all kinds of property into             
one1--property in coin4  ,i must say    
something further of a theory of        
property lately put forth with some ado3

 ,i mean the theory of ,m4 ,considerant4
  ,the ,fourierists are not men who     
examine a doctrine in order to ascertain
 whether it conflicts with their system4
 ,on the contrary1 it is their custom to
 exult and sing songs of triumph        
whenever an adversary passes without    
perceiving or noticing them4  ,these    
gentlemen want direct refutations1 in   
order that1 if they are beaten1 they may
 have1 at least1 the selfish consolation
 of having been spoken of4 ,well1 let   
their wish be gratified4  ,m4           
,considerant makes the most lofty       
pretensions to logic4 ,his method of    
procedure is always that of ,,major1    
,,minor1 ,,and ,,conclusion4 ,he would  
willingly write upon his hat1           
,argumentator in barbara4 ,but ,m4      
,considerant is too intelligent and     
quick-witted to be a good logician1 as  
is proved by the fact that he appears to
 have taken the syllogism for logic4    
,the syllogism1 as everybody knows who  
is interested in philosophical          

curiosities1 is the first and perpetual 
sophism of the human mind1--the favorite
 tool of falsehood1 the stumbling-block 
of science1 the advocate of crime4 ,the 
syllogism has produced all the evils    
which the fabulist so eloquently        
condemned1 and has done nothing good or 
useful3 it is as devoid of truth as of  
justice4 ,we might apply to it these    
words of ,scripture3 ,celui qui met en  
lui sa confiance1 perira4 ,consequently1
 the best philosophers long since       
condemned it2 so that now none but the  
enemies of reason wish to make the      
syllogism its weapon4  ,m4 ,considerant1
 then1 has built his theory of property 
upon a syllogism4 ,would he be disposed 
to stake the system of ,fourier upon his
 arguments1 as ,i am ready to risk the  
whole doctrine of equality upon my      
refutation of that system8 ,such a duel 
would be quite in keeping with the      
warlike and chivalric tastes of ,m4     
,considerant1 and the public would      
profit by it2 for1 one of the two       

adversaries falling1 no more would be   
said about him1 and there would be one  
grumbler less in the world4  ,the theory
 of ,m4 ,considerant has this remarkable
 feature1 that1 in attempting to satisfy
 at the same time the claims of both    
laborers and proprietors1 it infringes  
alike upon the rights of the former and 
the privileges of the latter4 ,in the   
first place1 the author lays it down as 
a principle3 #a4 ,that the use of the   
land belongs to each member of the race2
 that it is a natural and               
imprescriptible right1 similar in all   
respects to the right to the air and the
 sunshine4 #b4 ,that the right to labor 
is equally fundamental1 natural1 and    
imprescriptible4 ,i have shown that the 
recognition of this double right would  
be the death of property4 ,i denounce   
,m4 ,considerant to the proprietors6    
,but ,m4 ,considerant maintains that the
 right to labor creates the right of    
property1 and this is the way he        
reasons3--   ,major ,premise4--,every   

man legitimately possesses the thing    
which his labor1 his skill1--or1 in more
 general terms1 his action1--has        
created4   ,to which ,m4 ,considerant   
adds1 by way of comment3 ,indeed1 the   
land not having been created by man1 it 
follows from the fundamental principle  
of property1 that the land1 being given 
to the race in common1 can in no wise be
 the exclusive and legitimate property  
of such and such individuals1 who were  
not the creators of this value4  ,if ,i 
am not mistaken1 there is no one to whom
 this proposition1 at first sight and in
 its entirety1 does not seem utterly    
irrefutable4 ,reader1 distrust the      
syllogism4  ,first1 ,i observe that the 
words ,,legitimately ,,possesses signify
 to the author's mind is ,,legitimate   
,,proprietor2 otherwise the argument1   
being intended to prove the legitimacy  
of property1 would have no meaning4 ,i  
might here raise the question of the    
difference between property and         
possession1 and call upon ,m4           

,considerant1 before going further1 to  
define the one and the other2 but ,i    
pass on4  ,this first proposition is    
doubly false4 #a4 ,in that it asserts   
the act of ,,creation to be the only    
basis of property4 #b4 ,in that it      
regards this act as sufficient in all   
cases to authorize the right of         
property4  ,and1 in the first place1 if 
man may be proprietor of the game which 
he does not create1 but which he        
,,kills2 of the fruits which he does not
 create1 but which he ,,gathers2 of the 
vegetables which he does not create1 but
 which he ,,plants2 of the animals which
 he does not create1 but which he       
,,rears1--it is conceivable that men may
 in like manner become proprietors of   
the land which they do not create1 but  
which they clear and fertilize4 ,the act
 of creation1 then1 is not ,,necessary  
to the acquisition of the right of      
property4 ,i say further1 that this act 
alone is not always sufficient1 and ,i  
prove it by the second premise of ,m4   

,considerant3--   ,minor                
,premise4--,suppose that on an isolated 
island1 on the soil of a nation1 or over
 the whole face of the earth 7the extent
 of the scene of action does not affect 
our judgment of the facts71 a generation
 of human beings devotes itself for the 
first time to industry1 agriculture1    
manufactures1 c4 ,this generation1 by   
its labor1 intelligence1 and activity1  
creates products1 develops values which 
did not exist on the uncultivated land4 
,is it not perfectly clear that the     
property of this industrious generation 
will stand on a basis of right1 if the  
value or wealth produced by the activity
 of all be distributed among the        
producers1 according to each one's      
assistance in the creation of the       
general wealth8 ,that is unquestionable4
   ,that is quite questionable4 ,for    
this value or wealth1 ,,produced ,,by   
,,the ,,activity ,,of ,,all1 is by the  
very fact of its creation ,,collective  
wealth1 the use of which1 like that of  

the land1 may be divided1 but which as  
property remains ,,undivided4 ,and why  
this undivided ownership8 ,because the  
society which creates is itself         
indivisible1--a permanent unit1         
incapable of reduction to fractions4    
,and it is this unity of society which  
makes the land common property1 and     
which1 as ,m4 ,considerant says1 renders
 its use imprescriptible in the case of 
every individual4 ,suppose1 indeed1 that
 at a given time the soil should be     
equally divided2 the very next moment   
this division1 if it allowed the right  
of property1 would become illegitimate4 
,should there be the slightest          
irregularity in the method of transfer1 
men1 members of society1 imprescriptible
 possessors of the land1 might be       
deprived at one blow of property1       
possession1 and the means of production4
 ,in short1 property in capital is      
indivisible1 and consequently           
inalienable1 not necessarily when the   
capital is ,,uncreated1 but when it is  

,,common or ,,collective4  ,i confirm   
this theory against ,m4 ,considerant1 by
 the third term of his syllogism3--     
,conclusion4--,the results of the labor 
performed by this generation are        
divisible into two classes1 between     
which it is important clearly to        
distinguish4 ,the first class includes  
the products of the soil which belong to
 this first generation in its           
usufructuary capacity1 augmented1       
improved and refined by its labor and   
industry4 ,these products consist either
 of objects of consumption or           
instruments of labor4 ,it is clear that 
these products are the legitimate       
property of those who have created them 
by their activity4444 ,second           
class4--,not only has this generation   
created the products just mentioned     
7objects of consumption and instruments 
of labor71 but it has also added to the 
original value of the soil by           
cultivation1 by the erection of         
buildings1 by all the labor producing   

permanent results1 which it has         
performed4 ,this additional value       
evidently constitutes a product--a value
 created by the activity of the first   
generation2 and if1 ,,by ,,any ,,means  
,,whatever1 the ownership of this value 
be distributed among the members of     
society equitably1--that is1 in         
proportion to the labor which each has  
performed1--each will legitimately      
possess the portion which he receives4  
,he may then dispose of this legitimate 
and private property as he sees         
fit1--exchange it1 give it away1 or     
transfer it2 and no other individual1 or
 collection of other individuals1--that 
is1 society1--can lay any claim to these
 values4   ,thus1 by the distribution of
 collective capital1 to the use of which
 each associate1 either in his own right
 or in right of his authors1 has an     
imprescriptible and undivided title1    
there will be in the phalanstery1 as in 
the ,france of #ahda1 the poor and the  
rich2 some men who1 to live in luxury1  

have only1 as ,figaro says1 to take the 
trouble to be born1 and others for whom 
the fortune of life is but an           
opportunity for long-continued poverty2 
idlers with large incomes1 and workers  
whose fortune is always in the future2  
some privileged by birth and caste1 and 
others pariahs whose sole civil and     
political rights are ,,the ,,right ,,to 
,,labor1 ,,and ,,the ,,right ,,to       
,,land4 ,for we must not be deceived2 in
 the phalanstery every thing will be as 
it is to-day1 an object of              
property1--machines1 inventions1        
thought1 books1 the products of art1 of 
agriculture1 and of industry2 animals1  
houses1 fences1 vineyards1 pastures1    
forests1 fields1--every thing1 in short1
 except the ,,uncultivated ,,land4 ,now1
 would you like to know what            
uncultivated land is worth1 according to
 the advocates of property8 ,a square   
league hardly suffices for the support  
of a savage1 says ,m4 ,charles ,comte4  
,estimating the wretched subsistence of 

this savage at three hundred francs per 
year1 we find that the square league    
necessary to his life is1 relatively to 
him1 faithfully represented by a rent of
 fifteen francs4 ,in ,france there are  
twenty-eight thousand square leagues1   
the total rent of which1 by this        
estimate1 would be four hundred and     
twenty thousand francs1 which1 when     
divided among nearly thirty-four        
millions of people1 would give each an  
,,income ,,of ,a ,,centime ,,and ,a     
,,quarter4 ,that is the new right which 
the great genius of ,fourier has        
invented ,,in ,,behalf ,,of ,,the       
,,french ,,people1 and with which his   
first disciple hopes to reform the      
world4 ,i denounce ,m4 ,considerant to  
the proletariat6  ,if the theory of ,m4 
,considerant would at least really      
guarantee this property which he        
cherishes so jealously1 ,i might pardon 
him the flaws in his syllogism1         
certainly the best one he ever made in  
his life4 ,but1 no3 that which ,m4      

,considerant takes for property is only 
a privilege of extra pay4 ,in ,fourier's
 system1 neither the created capital nor
 the increased value of the soil are    
divided and appropriated in any         
effective manner3 the instruments of    
labor1 whether created or not1 remain in
 the hands of the phalanx2 the pretended
 proprietor can touch only the income4  
,he is permitted neither to realize his 
share of the stock1 nor to possess it   
exclusively1 nor to administer it1      
whatever it be4 ,the cashier throws him 
his dividend2 and then1 proprietor1 eat 
the whole if you can6  ,the system of   
,fourier would not suit the proprietors1
 since it takes away the most delightful
 feature of property1--the free         
disposition of one's goods4 ,it would   
please the communists no better1 since  
it involves unequal conditions4 ,it is  
repugnant to the friends of free        
association and equality1 in consequence
 of its tendency to wipe out human      
character and individuality by          

suppressing possession1 family1 and     
country1--the threefold expression of   
the human personality4  ,of all our     
active publicists1 none seem to me more 
fertile in resources1 richer in         
imagination1 more luxuriant and varied  
in style1 than ,m4 ,considerant4        
,nevertheless1 ,i doubt if he will      
undertake to reestablish his theory of  
property4 ,if he has this courage1 this 
is what ,i would say to him3 ,before    
writing your reply1 consider well your  
plan of action2 do not scour the        
country2 have recourse to none of your  
ordinary expedients2 no complaints of   
civilization2 no sarcasms upon equality2
 no glorification of the phalanstery4   
,leave ,fourier and the departed in     
peace1 and endeavor only to re-adjust   
the pieces of your syllogism4 ,to this  
end1 you ought1 first1 to analyze       
closely each proposition of your        
adversary2 second1 to show the error1   
either by a direct refutation1 or by    
proving the converse2 third1 to oppose  

argument to argument1 so that1 objection
 and reply meeting face to face1 the    
stronger may break down the weaker1 and 
shiver it to atoms4 ,by that method only
 can you boast of having conquered1 and 
compel me to regard you as an honest    
reasoner1 and a good artillery-man4  ,i 
should have no excuse for tarrying      
longer with these phalansterian         
crotchets1 if the obligation which ,i   
have imposed upon myself of making a    
clean sweep1 and the necessity of       
vindicating my dignity as a writer1 did 
not prevent me from passing in silence  
the reproach uttered against me by a    
correspondent of ,la ,phalange4 ,we have
 seen but lately1 says this journalist1 
#ga that ,m4 ,proudhon1 enthusiast as he
 has been for the science created by    
,fourier1 is1 or will be1 an enthusiast 
for any thing else whatsoever4   ,if    
ever sectarians had the right to        
reproach another for changes in his     
beliefs1 this right certainly does not  
belong to the disciples of ,fourier1 who

 are always so eager to administer the  
phalansterian baptism to the deserters  
of all parties4 ,but why regard it as a 
crime1 if they are sincere8 ,of what    
consequence is the constancy or         
inconstancy of an individual to the     
truth which is always the same8 ,it is  
better to enlighten men's minds than to 
teach them to be obstinate in their     
prejudices4 ,do we not know that man is 
frail and fickle1 that his heart is full
 of delusions1 and that his lips are a  
distillery of falsehood8 ,omnis homo    
meudax4 ,whether we will or no1 we all  
serve for a time as instruments of this 
truth1 whose kingdom comes every day4   
,god alone is immutable1 because he is  
eternal4  ,that is the reply which1 as a
 general rule1 an honest man is entitled
 always to make1 and which ,i ought     
perhaps to be content to offer as an    
excuse2 for ,i am no better than my     
fathers4 ,but1 in a century of doubt and
 apostasy like ours1 when it is of      
importance to set the small and the weak

 an example of strength and honesty of  
utterance1 ,i must not suffer my        
character as a public assailant of      
property to be dishonored4 ,i must      
render an account of my old opinions4   
,examining myself1 therefore1 upon this 
charge of ,fourierism1 and endeavoring  
to refresh my memory1 ,i find that1     
having been connected with the          
,fourierists in my studies and my       
friendships1 it is possible that1       
without knowing it1 ,i have been one of 
,fourier's partisans4 ,jerome ,lalande  
placed ,napoleon and ,jesus ,christ in  
his catalogue of atheists4 ,the         
,fourierists resemble this astronomer3  
if a man happens to find fault with the 
existing civilization1 and to admit the 
truth of a few of their criticisms1 they
 straightway enlist him1 willy-nilly1 in
 their school4 ,nevertheless1 ,i do not 
deny that ,i have been a ,fourierist2   
for1 since they say it1 of course it may
 be so4 ,but1 sir1 that of which my     
ex-associates are ignorant1 and which   

doubtless will astonish you1 is that ,i 
have been many other things1--in        
religion1 by turns a ,protestant1 a     
,papist1 an ,arian and ,semi-,arian1 a  
,manichean1 a ,gnostic1 an ,adamite even
 and a ,pre-,adamite1 a ,sceptic1 a     
,pelagian1 a ,socinian1 an              
,anti-,trinitarian1 and a               
,neo-,christian2 #gb in philosophy and  
politics1 an ,idealist1 a ,pantheist1 a 
,platonist1 a ,cartesian1 an ,eclectic  
7that is1 a sort of juste-milieu71 a    
,monarchist1 an ,aristocrat1 a          
,constitutionalist1 a follower of       
,babeuf1 and a ,communist4 ,i have      
wandered through a whole encyclopaedia  
of systems4 ,do you think it surprising1
 sir1 that1 among them all1 ,i was for a
 short time a ,fourierist8   ,for my    
part1 ,i am not at all surprised1       
although at present ,i have no          
recollection of it4 ,one thing is       
sure1--that my superstition and         
credulity reached their height at the   
very period of my life which my critics 

reproachfully assign as the date of my  
,fourieristic beliefs4 ,now ,i hold     
quite other views4 ,my mind no longer   
admits that which is demonstrated by    
syllogisms1 analogies1 or metaphors1    
which are the methods of the            
phalanstery1 but demands a process of   
generalization and induction which      
excludes error4 ,of my past ,,opinionss 
,i retain absolutely none4 ,i have      
acquired some ,,knowledge4 ,i no longer 
,,believe4 ,i either ,,know1 or am      
,,ignorant4 ,in a word1 in seeking for  
the reason of things1 ,i saw that ,i was
 a ,,rationalist4  ,undoubtedly1 it     
would have been simpler to begin where  
,i have ended4 ,but then1 if such is the
 law of the human mind2 if all society1 
for six thousand years1 has done nothing
 but fall into error2 if all mankind are
 still buried in the darkness of faith1 
deceived by their prejudices and        
passions1 guided only by the instinct of
 their leaders2 if my accusers1         
themselves1 are not free from           

sectarianism 7for they call themselves  
,,fourierists71--am ,i alone inexcusable
 for having1 in my inner self1 at the   
secret tribunal of my conscience1 begun 
anew the journey of our poor humanity8  
,i would by no means1 then1 deny my     
errors2 but1 sir1 that which            
distinguishes me from those who rush    
into print is the fact that1 though my  
thoughts have varied much1 my writings  
do not vary4 ,to-day1 even1 and on a    
multitude of questions1 ,i am beset by a
 thousand extravagant and contradictory 
opinions2 but my opinions ,i do not     
print1 for the public has nothing to do 
with them4 ,before addressing my        
fellow-men1 ,i wait until light breaks  
in upon the chaos of my ideas1 in order 
that what ,i may say may be1 not the    
whole truth 7no man can know that71 but 
nothing but the truth4  ,this singular  
disposition of my mind to first identify
 itself with a system in order to better
 understand it1 and then to reflect upon
 it in order to test its legitimacy1 is 

the very thing which disgusted me with  
,fourier1 and ruined in my esteem the   
societary school4 ,to be a faithful     
,fourierist1 in fact1 one must abandon  
his reason and accept every thing from a
 master1--doctrine1 interpretation1 and 
application4 ,m4 ,considerant1 whose    
excessive intolerance anathematizes all 
who do not abide by his sovereign       
decisions1 has no other conception of   
,fourierism4 ,has he not been appointed 
,fourier's vicar on earth and pope of a 
,church which1 unfortunately for its    
apostles1 will never be of this world8  
,passive belief is the theological      
virtue of all sectarians1 especially of 
the ,fourierists4  ,now1 this is what   
happened to me4 ,while trying to        
demonstrate by argument the religion of 
which ,i had become a follower in       
studying ,fourier1 ,i suddenly perceived
 that by reasoning ,i was becoming      
incredulous2 that on each article of the
 creed my reason and my faith were at   
variance1 and that my six weeks' labor  

was wholly lost4 ,i saw that the        
,fourierists--in spite of their         
inexhaustible gabble1 and their         
extravagant pretension to decide in all 
things--were neither savants1 nor       
logicians1 nor even believers2 that they
 were ,,scientific ,,quacks1 who were   
led more by their self-love than their  
conscience to labor for the triumph of  
their sect1 and to whom all means were  
good that would reach that end4 ,i then 
understood why to the ,epicureans they  
promised women1 wine1 music1 and a sea  
of luxury2 to the rigorists1 maintenance
 of marriage1 purity of morals1 and     
temperance2 to laborers1 high wages2 to 
proprietors1 large incomes2 to          
philosophers1 solutions the secret of   
which ,fourier alone possessed2 to      
priests1 a costly religion and          
magnificent festivals2 to savants1      
knowledge of an unimaginable nature2 to 
each1 indeed1 that which he most        
desired4 ,in the beginning1 this seemed 
to me droll2 in the end1 ,i regarded it 

as the height of impudence4 ,no1 sir2 no
 one yet knows of the foolishness and   
infamy which the phalansterian system   
contains4 ,that is a subject which ,i   
mean to treat as soon as ,i have        
balanced my accounts with property4 #gc 
,it is rumored that the ,fourierists    
think of leaving ,france and going to   
the new world to found a phalanstery4   
,when a house threatens to fall1 the    
rats scamper away2 that is because they 
are rats4 ,men do better2 they rebuild  
it4 ,not long since1 the ,st4           
,simonians1 despairing of their country 
which paid no heed to them1 proudly     
shook the dust from their feet1 and     
started for the ,orient to fight the    
battle of free woman4 ,pride1           
wilfulness1 mad selfishness6 ,true      
charity1 like true faith1 does not      
worry1 never despairs2 it seeks neither 
its own glory1 nor its interest1 nor    
empire2 it does every thing for all1    
speaks with indulgence to the reason and
 the will1 and desires to conquer only  

by persuasion and sacrifice4 ,remain in 
,france1 ,fourierists1 if the progress  
of humanity is the only thing which you 
have at heart6 ,there is more to do here
 than in the new world4 ,otherwise1 go6 
you are nothing but liars and           
hypocrites6  ,the foregoing statement by
 no means embraces all the political    
elements1 all the opinions and          
tendencies1 which threaten the future of
 property2 but it ought to satisfy any  
one who knows how to classify facts1 and
 to deduce their law or the idea which  
governs them4 ,existing society seems   
abandoned to the demon of falsehood and 
discord2 and it is this sad sight which 
grieves so deeply many distinguished    
minds who lived too long in a former age
 to be able to understand ours4 ,now1   
while the short-sighted spectator begins
 to despair of humanity1 and1 distracted
 and cursing that of which he is        
ignorant1 plunges into scepticism and   
fatalism1 the true observer1 certain of 
the spirit which governs the world1     

seeks to comprehend and fathom          
,providence4 ,the memoir on ,property1  
published last year by the pensioner of 
the ,academy of ,besancon1 is simply a  
study of this nature4  ,the time has    
come for me to relate the history of    
this unlucky treatise1 which has already
 caused me so much chagrin1 and made me 
so unpopular2 but which was on my part  
so involuntary and unpremeditated1 that 
,i would dare to affirm that there is   
not an economist1 not a philosopher1 not
 a jurist1 who is not a hundred times   
guiltier than ,i4 ,there is something so
 singular in the way in which ,i was led
 to attack property1 that if1 on hearing
 my sad story1 you persist1 sir1 in your
 blame1 ,i hope at least you will be    
forced to pity me4  ,i never have       
pretended to be a great politician2 far 
from that1 ,i always have felt for      
controversies of a political nature the 
greatest aversion2 and if1 in my ,essay 
on ,property1 ,i have sometimes         
ridiculed our politicians1 believe1 sir1

 that ,i was governed much less by my   
pride in the little that ,i know1 than  
by my vivid consciousness of their      
ignorance and excessive vanity4 ,relying
 more on ,providence than on men2 not   
suspecting at first that politics1 like 
every other science1 contained an       
absolute truth2 agreeing equally well   
with ,bossuet and ,jean ,jacques1--,i   
accepted with resignation my share of   
human misery1 and contented myself with 
praying to ,god for good deputies1      
upright ministers1 and an honest king4  
,by taste as well as by discretion and  
lack of confidence in my powers1 ,i was 
slowly pursuing some commonplace studies
 in philology1 mingled with a little    
metaphysics1 when ,i suddenly fell upon 
the greatest problem that ever has      
occupied philosophical minds3 ,i mean   
the criterion of certainty4  ,those of  
my readers who are unacquainted with the
 philosophical terminology will be glad 
to be told in a few words what this     
criterion is1 which plays so great a    

part in my work4  ,the criterion of     
certainty1 according to the             
philosophers1 will be1 when discovered1 
an infallible method of establishing the
 truth of an opinion1 a judgment1 a     
theory1 or a system1 in nearly the same 
way as gold is recognized by the        
touchstone1 as iron approaches the      
magnet1 or1 better still1 as we verify a
 mathematical operation by applying the 
,,proof4 ,,time has hitherto served as a
 sort of criterion for society4 ,thus1  
the primitive men--having observed that 
they were not all equal in strength1    
beauty1 and labor--judged1 and rightly1 
that certain ones among them were called
 by nature to the performance of simple 
and common functions2 but they          
concluded1 and this is where their error
 lay1 that these same individuals of    
duller intellect1 more restricted       
genius1 and weaker personality1 were    
predestined to ,,serve the others2 that 
is1 to labor while the latter rested1   
and to have no other will than theirs3  

and from this idea of a natural         
subordination among men sprang          
domesticity1 which1 voluntarily accepted
 at first1 was imperceptibly converted  
into horrible slavery4 ,time1 making    
this error more palpable1 has brought   
about justice4 ,nations have learned at 
their own cost that the subjection of   
man to man is a false idea1 an erroneous
 theory1 pernicious alike to master and 
to slave4 ,and yet such a social system 
has stood several thousand years1 and   
has been defended by celebrated         
philosophers2 even to-day1 under        
somewhat mitigated forms1 sophists of   
every description uphold and extol it4  
,but experience is bringing it to an    
end4  ,time1 then1 is the criterion of  
societies2 thus looked at1 history is   
the demonstration of the errors of      
humanity by the argument reductio ad    
absurdum4  ,now1 the criterion sought   
for by metaphysicians would have the    
advantage of discriminating at once     
between the true and the false in every 

opinion2 so that in politics1 religion1 
and morals1 for example1 the true and   
the useful being immediately recognized1
 we should no longer need to await the  
sorrowful experience of time4 ,evidently
 such a secret would be death to the    
sophists1--that cursed brood1 who1 under
 different names1 excite the curiosity  
of nations1 and1 owing to the difficulty
 of separating the truth from the error 
in their artistically woven theories1   
lead them into fatal ventures1 disturb  
their peace1 and fill them with such    
extraordinary prejudice4  ,up to this   
day1 the criterion of certainty remains 
a mystery2 this is owing to the         
multitude of criteria that have been    
successively proposed4 ,some have taken 
for an absolute and definite criterion  
the testimony of the senses2 others     
intuition2 these evidence2 those        
argument4 ,m4 ,lamennais affirms that   
there is no other criterion than        
universal reason4 ,before him1 ,m4 de   
,bonald thought he had discovered it in 

language4 ,quite recently1 ,m4 ,buchez  
has proposed morality2 and1 to harmonize
 them all1 the eclectics have said that 
it was absurd to seek for an absolute   
criterion1 since there were as many     
criteria as special orders of knowledge4
  ,of all these hypotheses it may be    
observed1 ,that the testimony of the    
senses is not a criterion1 because the  
senses1 relating us only to phenomena1  
furnish us with no ideas2 that intuition
 needs external confirmation or         
objective certainty2 that evidence      
requires proof1 and argument            
verification2 that universal reason has 
been wrong many a time2 that language   
serves equally well to express the true 
or the false2 that morality1 like all   
the rest1 needs demonstration and rule2 
and finally1 that the eclectic idea is  
the least reasonable of all1 since it is
 of no use to say that there are several
 criteria if we cannot point out one4 ,i
 very much fear that it will be with the
 criterion as with the philosopher's    

stone2 that it will finally be          
abandoned1 not only as insolvable1 but  
as chimerical4 ,consequently1 ,i        
entertain no hopes of having found it2  
nevertheless1 ,i am not sure that some  
one more skilful will not discover it4  
,be it as it may with regard to a       
criterion or criteria1 there are methods
 of demonstration which1 when applied to
 certain subjects1 may lead to the      
discovery of unknown truths1 bring to   
light relations hitherto unsuspected1   
and lift a paradox to the highest degree
 of certainty4 ,in such a case1 it is   
not by its novelty1 nor even by its     
content1 that a system should be judged1
 but by its method4 ,the critic1 then1  
should follow the example of the        
,supreme ,court1 which1 in the cases    
which come before it1 never examines the
 facts1 but only the form of procedure4 
,now1 what is the form of procedure8 ,a 
method4  ,i then looked to see what     
philosophy1 in the absence of a         
criterion1 had accomplished by the aid  

of special methods1 and ,i must say that
 ,i could not discover--in spite of the 
loudly-proclaimed pretensions of        
some--that it had produced any thing of 
real value2 and1 at last1 wearied with  
the philosophical twaddle1 ,i resolved  
to make a new search for the criterion4 
,i confess it1 to my shame1 this folly  
lasted for two years1 and ,i am not yet 
entirely rid of it4 ,it was like seeking
 a needle in a haystack4 ,i might have  
learned ,chinese or ,arabic in the time 
that ,i have lost in considering and    
reconsidering syllogisms1 in rising to  
the summit of an induction as to the top
 of a ladder1 in inserting a proposition
 between the horns of a dilemma1 in     
decomposing1 distinguishing1 separating1
 denying1 affirming1 admitting1 as if ,i
 could pass abstractions through a      
sieve4  ,i selected justice as the      
subject-matter of my experiments4       
,finally1 after a thousand              
decompositions1 recompositions1 and     
double compositions1 ,i found at the    

bottom of my analytical crucible1 not   
the criterion of certainty1 but a       
metaphysico-economico-political         
treatise1 whose conclusions were such   
that ,i did not care to present them in 
a more artistic or1 if you will1 more   
intelligible form4 ,the effect which    
this work produced upon all classes of  
minds gave me an idea of the spirit of  
our age1 and did not cause me to regret 
the prudent and scientific obscurity of 
my style4 ,how happens it that to-day ,i
 am obliged to defend my intentions1    
when my conduct bears the evident       
impress of such lofty morality8  ,you   
have read my work1 sir1 and you know the
 gist of my tedious and scholastic      
lucubrations4 ,considering the          
revolutions of humanity1 the            
vicissitudes of empires1 the            
transformations of property1 and the    
innumerable forms of justice and of     
right1 ,i asked1 ,are the evils which   
afflict us inherent in our condition as 
men1 or do they arise only from an      

error8 ,this inequality of fortunes     
which all admit to be the cause of      
society's embarrassments1 is it1 as some
 assert1 the effect of ,nature2 or1 in  
the division of the products of labor   
and the soil1 may there not have been   
some error in calculation8 ,does each   
laborer receive all that is due him1 and
 only that which is due him8 ,in short1 
in the present conditions of labor1     
wages1 and exchange1 is no one          
wronged8--are the accounts well         
kept8--is the social balance accurate8  
,then ,i commenced a most laborious     
investigation4 ,it was necessary to     
arrange informal notes1 to discuss      
contradictory titles1 to reply to       
captious allegations1 to refute absurd  
pretensions1 and to describe fictitious 
debts1 dishonest transactions1 and      
fraudulent accounts4 ,in order to       
triumph over quibblers1 ,i had to deny  
the authority of custom1 to examine the 
arguments of legislators1 and to oppose 
science with science itself4 ,finally1  

all these operations completed1 ,i had  
to give a judicial decision4  ,i        
therefore declared1 my hand upon my     
heart1 before ,god and men1 that the    
causes of social inequality are three in
 number3 #a4 ,,gratuitous               
,,appropriation ,,of ,,collective       
,,wealth2 #b4 ,,inequality ,,in         
,,exchange2 #c4 ,,the ,,right ,,of      
,,profit ,,or ,,increase4  ,and since   
this threefold method of extortion is   
the very essence of the domain of       
property1 ,i denied the legitimacy of   
property1 and proclaimed its identity   
with robbery4  ,that is my only offence4
 ,i have reasoned upon property2 ,i have
 searched for the criterion of justice2 
,i have demonstrated1 not the           
possibility1 but the necessity1 of      
equality of fortunes2 ,i have allowed   
myself no attack upon persons1 no       
assault upon the government1 of which   
,i1 more than any one else1 am a        
provisional adherent4 ,if ,i have       
sometimes used the word ,,proprietor1 ,i

 have used it as the abstract name of a 
metaphysical being1 whose reality       
breathes in every individual1--not alone
 in a privileged few4  ,nevertheless1 ,i
 acknowledge--for ,i wish my confession 
to be sincere--that the general tone of 
my book has been bitterly censured4     
,they complain of an atmosphere of      
passion and invective unworthy of an    
honest man1 and quite out of place in   
the treatment of so grave a subject4    
,if this reproach is well founded 7which
 it is impossible for me either to deny 
or admit1 because in my own cause ,i    
cannot be judge71--if1 ,i say1 ,i       
deserve this charge1 ,i can only humble 
myself and acknowledge myself guilty of 
an involuntary wrong2 the only excuse   
that ,i could offer being of such a     
nature that it ought not to be          
communicated to the public4 ,all that ,i
 can say is1 that ,i understand better  
than any one how the anger which        
injustice causes may render an author   
harsh and violent in his criticisms4    

,when1 after twenty years of labor1 a   
man still finds himself on the brink of 
starvation1 and then suddenly discovers 
in an equivocation1 an error in         
calculation1 the cause of the evil which
 torments him in common with so many    
millions of his fellows1 he can scarcely
 restrain a cry of sorrow and dismay4   
,but1 sir1 though pride be offended by  
my rudeness1 it is not to pride that ,i 
apologize1 but to the proletaires1 to   
the simple-minded1 whom ,i perhaps have 
scandalized4 ,my angry dialectics may   
have produced a bad effect on some      
peaceable minds4 ,some poor             
workingman--more affected by my sarcasm 
than by the strength of my              
arguments--may1 perhaps1 have concluded 
that property is the result of a        
perpetual ,machiavelianism on the part  
of the governors against the            
governed1--a deplorable error of which  
my book itself is the best refutation4  
,i devoted two chapters to showing how  
property springs from human personality 

and the comparison of individuals4 ,then
 ,i explained its perpetual limitation2 
and1 following out the same idea1 ,i    
predicted its approaching disappearance4
 ,how1 then1 could the editors of the   
,revue ,democratique1 after having      
borrowed from me nearly the whole       
substance of their economical articles1 
dare to say3 ,the holders of the soil1  
and other productive capital1 are more  
or less wilful accomplices in a vast    
robbery1 they being the exclusive       
receivers and sharers of the stolen     
goods8  ,the proprietors ,,wilfully     
guilty of the crime of robbery6 ,never  
did that homicidal phrase escape my pen2
 never did my heart conceive the        
frightful thought4 ,thank ,heaven6 ,i   
know not how to calumniate my kind2 and 
,i have too strong a desire to seek for 
the reason of things to be willing to   
believe in criminal conspiracies4 ,the  
millionnaire is no more tainted by      
property than the journeyman who works  
for thirty sous per day4 ,on both sides 

the error is equal1 as well as the      
intention4 ,the effect is also the same1
 though positive in the former1 and     
negative in the latter4 ,i accused      
property2 ,i did not denounce the       
proprietors1 which would have been      
absurd3 and ,i am sorry that there are  
among us wills so perverse and minds so 
shattered that they care for only so    
much of the truth as will aid them in   
their evil designs4 ,such is the only   
regret which ,i feel on account of my   
indignation1 which1 though expressed    
perhaps too bitterly1 was at least      
honest1 and legitimate in its source4   
,however1 what did ,i do in this essay  
which ,i voluntarily submitted to the   
,academy of ,moral ,sciences8 ,seeking a
 fixed axiom amid social uncertainties1 
,i traced back to one fundamental       
question all the secondary questions    
over which1 at present1 so keen and     
diversified a conflict is raging ,this  
question was the right of property4     
,then1 comparing all existing theories  

with each other1 and extracting from    
them that which is common to them all1  
,i endeavored to discover that element  
in the idea of property which is        
necessary1 immutable1 and absolute2 and 
asserted1 after authentic verification1 
that this idea is reducible to that of  
,,individual ,,and ,,transmissible      
,,possession2 ,,susceptible ,,of        
,,exchange1 ,,but ,,not ,,of            
,,alienation2 ,,founded ,,on ,,labor1   
,,and ,,not ,,on ,,fictitious           
,,occupancy1 ,,or ,,idle ,,caprice4 ,i  
said1 further1 that this idea was the   
result of our revolutionary             
movements1--the culminating point       
towards which all opinions1 gradually   
divesting themselves of their           
contradictory elements1 converge4 ,and  
,i tried to demonstrate this by the     
spirit of the laws1 by political        
economy1 by psychology and history4  ,a 
,father of the ,church1 finishing a     
learned exposition of the ,catholic     
doctrine1 cried1 in the enthusiasm of   

his faith1 ,domine1 si error est1 a te  
decepti sumus 7if my religion is false1 
,god is to blame74 ,i1 as well as this  
theologian1 can say1 ,if equality is a  
fable1 ,god1 through whom we act and    
think and are2 ,god1 who governs society
 by eternal laws1 who rewards just      
nations1 and punishes proprietors1--,god
 alone is the author of evil2 ,god has  
lied4 ,the fault lies not with me4      
,but1 if ,i am mistaken in my           
inferences1 ,i should be shown my error1
 and led out of it4 ,it is surely worth 
the trouble1 and ,i think ,i deserve    
this honor4 ,there is no ground for     
proscription4  ,for1 in the words of    
that member of the ,convention who did  
not like the guillotine1 to kill is not 
to reply4 ,until then1 ,i persist in    
regarding my work as useful1 social1    
full of instruction for public          
officials1--worthy1 in short1 of reward 
and encouragement4  ,for there is one   
truth of which ,i am profoundly         
convinced1--nations live by absolute    

ideas1 not by approximate and partial   
conceptions2 therefore1 men are needed  
who define principles1 or at least test 
them in the fire of controversy4 ,such  
is the law1--the idea first1 the pure   
idea1 the understanding of the laws of  
,god1 the theory3 practice follows with 
slow steps1 cautious1 attentive to the  
succession of events2 sure to seize1    
towards this eternal meridian1 the      
indications of supreme reason4  ,the    
co-operation of theory and practice     
produces in humanity the realization of 
order1--the absolute truth4 #gd   ,all  
of us1 as long as we live1 are called1  
each in proportion to his strength1 to  
this sublime work4 ,the only duty which 
it imposes upon us is to refrain from   
appropriating the truth to ourselves1   
either by concealing it1 or by          
accommodating it to the temper of the   
century1 or by using it for our own     
interests4 ,this principle of           
conscience1 so grand and so simple1 has 
always been present in my thought4      

,consider1 in fact1 sir1 that which ,i  
might have done1 but did not wish to do4
 ,i reason on the most honorable        
hypothesis4 ,what hindered me from      
concealing1 for some years to come1 the 
abstract theory of the equality of      
fortunes1 and1 at the same time1 from   
criticising constitutions and codes2    
from showing the absolute and the       
contingent1 the immutable and the       
ephemeral1 the eternal and the          
transitory1 in laws present and past2   
from constructing a new system of       
legislation1 and establishing on a solid
 foundation this social edifice1 ever   
destroyed and as often rebuilt8 ,might  
,i not1 taking up the definitions of    
casuists1 have clearly shown the cause  
of their contradictions and             
uncertainties1 and supplied1 at the same
 time1 the inadequacies of their        
conclusions8 ,might ,i not have         
confirmed this labor by a vast          
historical exposition1 in which the     
principle of exclusion1 and of the      

accumulation of property1 the           
appropriation of collective wealth1 and 
the radical vice in exchanges1 would    
have figured as the constant causes of  
tyranny1 war1 and revolution8  ,it      
should have been done1 you say4 ,do not 
doubt1 sir1 that such a task would have 
required more patience than genius4     
,with the principles of social economy  
which ,i have analyzed1 ,i would have   
had only to break the ground1 and follow
 the furrow4 ,the critic of laws finds  
nothing more difficult than to determine
 justice3 the labor alone would have    
been longer4 ,oh1 if ,i had pursued this
 glittering prospect1 and1 like the man 
of the burning bush1 with inspired      
countenance and deep and solemn voice1  
had presented myself some day with new  
tables1 there would have been found     
fools to admire1 boobies to applaud1 and
 cowards to offer me the dictatorship2  
for1 in the way of popular infatuations1
 nothing is impossible4  ,but1 sir1     
after this monument of insolence and    

pride1 what should ,i have deserved in  
your opinion1 at the tribunal of ,god1  
and in the judgment of free men8 ,death1
 sir1 and eternal reprobation6  ,i      
therefore spoke the truth as soon as ,i 
saw it1 waiting only long enough to give
 it proper expression4 ,i pointed out   
error in order that each might reform   
himself1 and render his labors more     
useful4 ,i announced the existence of a 
new political element1 in order that my 
associates in reform1 developing it in  
concert1 might arrive more promptly at  
that unity of principles which alone can
 assure to society a better day4 ,i     
expected to receive1 if not for my book1
 at least for my commendable conduct1 a 
small republican ovation4 ,and1 behold6 
journalists denounce me1 academicians   
curse me1 political adventurers 7great  
,god67 think to make themselves         
tolerable by protesting that they are   
not like me6 ,i give the formula by     
which the whole social edifice may be   
scientifically reconstructed1 and the   

strongest minds reproach me for being   
able only to destroy4 ,the rest despise 
me1 because ,i am unknown4 ,when the    
,essay on ,property fell into the       
reformatory camp1 some asked3 ,who has  
spoken8 ,is it ,arago8 ,is it           
,lamennais8 ,michel de ,bourges or      
,garnier-,pages8  ,and when they heard  
the name of a new man3 ,we do not know  
him1 they would reply4 ,thus1 the       
monopoly of thought1 property in reason1
 oppresses the proletariat as well as   
the bourgeoisie4 ,the worship of the    
infamous prevails even on the steps of  
the tabernacle4  ,but what am ,i saying8
 ,may evil befall me1 if ,i blame the   
poor creatures6 ,oh6 let us not despise 
those generous souls1 who in the        
excitement of their patriotism are      
always prompt to identify the voice of  
their chiefs with the truth4 ,let us    
encourage rather their simple credulity1
 enlighten complacently and tenderly    
their precious sincerity1 and reserve   
our shafts for those vain-glorious      

spirits who are always admiring their   
genius1 and1 in different tongues1      
caressing the people in order to govern 
them4  ,these considerations alone      
oblige me to reply to the strange and   
superficial conclusions of the ,journal 
du ,peuple 7issue of ,oct4 #aa1 #ahdj71 
on the question of property4 ,i leave1  
therefore1 the journalist to address    
myself only to his readers4 ,i hope that
 the self-love of the writer will not be
 offended1 if1 in the presence of the   
masses1 ,i ignore an individual4  ,you  
say1 proletaires of the ,peuple1 ,for   
the very reason that men and things     
exist1 there always will be men who will
 possess things2 nothing1 therefore1 can
 destroy property4  ,in speaking thus1  
you unconsciously argue exactly after   
the manner of ,m4 ,cousin1 who always   
reasons from possession to ,,property4  
,this coincidence1 however1 does not    
surprise me4 ,m4 ,cousin is a           
philosopher of much mind1 and you1      
proletaires1 have still more4 ,certainly

 it is honorable1 even for a            
philosopher1 to be your companion in    
error4  ,originally1 the word ,,property
 was synonymous with ,,proper or        
,,individual ,,possession4 ,it          
designated each individual's special    
right to the use of a thing4 ,but when  
this right of use1 inert 7if ,i may say 
so7 as it was with regard to the other  
usufructuaries1 became active and       
paramount1--that is1 when the           
usufructuary converted his right to     
personally use the thing into the right 
to use it by his neighbor's labor1--then
 property changed its nature1 and its   
idea became complex4 ,the legists knew  
this very well1 but instead of opposing1
 as they ought1 this accumulation of    
profits1 they accepted and sanctioned   
the whole4 ,and as the right of         
farm-rent necessarily implies the right 
of use1--in other words1 as the right to
 cultivate land by the labor of a slave 
supposes one's power to cultivate it    
himself1 according to the principle that

 the greater includes the less1--the    
name property was reserved to designate 
this double right1 and that of          
possession was adopted to designate the 
right of use4  ,whence property came to 
be called the perfect right1 the right  
of domain1 the eminent right1 the heroic
 or quiritaire right1--in ,latin1 jus   
perfectum1 jus optimum1 jus quiritarium1
 jus dominii1--while possession became  
assimilated to farm-rent4  ,now1 that   
individual possession exists of right1  
or1 better1 from natural necessity1 all 
philosophers admit1 and can easily e    
demonstrated2 but when1 in imitation of 
,m4 ,cousin1 we assume it to be the     
basis of the domain of property1 we fall
 into the sophism called sophisma       
amphiboliae vel ambiguitatis1 which     
consists in changing the meaning by a   
verbal equivocation4  ,people often     
think themselves very profound1 because1
 by the aid of expressions of extreme   
generality1 they appear to rise to the  
height of absolute ideas1 and thus      

deceive inexperienced minds2 and1 what  
is worse1 this is commonly called       
,,examining ,,abstractions4 ,but the    
abstraction formed by the comparison of 
identical facts is one thing1 while that
 which is deduced from different        
acceptations of the same term is quite  
another4 ,the first gives the universal 
idea1 the axiom1 the law2 the second    
indicates the order of generation of    
ideas4 ,all our errors arise from the   
constant confusion of these two kinds of
 abstractions4 ,in this particular1     
languages and philosophies are alike    
deficient4 ,the less common an idiom is1
 and the more obscure its terms1 the    
more prolific is it as a source of      
error3 a philosopher is sophistical in  
proportion to his ignorance of any      
method of neutralizing this imperfection
 in language4 ,if the art of correcting 
the errors of speech by scientific      
methods is ever discovered1 then        
philosophy will have found its criterion
 of certainty4  ,now1 then1 the         

difference between property and         
possession being well established1 and  
it being settled that the former1 for   
the reasons which ,i have just given1   
must necessarily disappear1 is it best1 
for the slight advantage of restoring an
 etymology1 to retain the word          
,,property8 ,my opinion is that it would
 be very unwise to do so1 and ,i will   
tell why4 ,i quote from the ,journal du 
,peuple3--   ,to the legislative power  
belongs the right to regulate property1 
to prescribe the conditions of          
acquiring1 possessing1 and transmitting 
it444 ,it cannot be denied that         
inheritance1 assessment1 commerce1      
industry1 labor1 and wages require the  
most important modifications4   ,you    
wish1 proletaires1 to ,,regulate        
,,property2 that is1 you wish to destroy
 it and reduce it to the right of       
possession4 ,for to regulate property   
without the consent of the proprietors  
is to deny the right ,,of ,,domain2 to  
associate employees with proprietors is 

to destroy the ,,eminent right2 to      
suppress or even reduce farm-rent1      
house-rent1 revenue1 and increase       
generally1 is to annihilate ,,perfect   
property4 ,why1 then1 while laboring    
with such laudable enthusiasm for the   
establishment of equality1 should you   
retain an expression whose equivocal    
meaning will always be an obstacle in   
the way of your success8  ,there you    
have the first reason--a wholly         
philosophical one--for rejecting not    
only the thing1 but the name1 property4 
,here now is the political1 the highest 
reason4  ,every social revolution--,m4  
,cousin will tell you--is effected only 
by the realization of an idea1 either   
political1 moral1 or religious4 ,when   
,alexander conquered ,asia1 his idea was
 to avenge ,greek liberty against the   
insults of ,oriental despotism2 when    
,marius and ,caesar overthrew the ,roman
 patricians1 their idea was to give     
bread to the people2 when ,christianity 
revolutionized the world1 its idea was  

to emancipate mankind1 and to substitute
 the worship of one ,god for the deities
 of ,epicurus and ,homer2 when ,france  
rose in '#hi1 her idea was liberty and  
equality before the law4 ,there has been
 no true revolution1 says ,m4 ,cousin1  
with out its idea2 so that where an idea
 does not exist1 or even fails of a     
formal expression1 revolution is        
impossible4 ,there are mobs1            
conspirators1 rioters1 regicides4 ,there
 are no revolutionists4 ,society1 devoid
 of ideas1 twists and tosses about1 and 
dies in the midst of its fruitless      
labor4  ,nevertheless1 you all feel that
 a revolution is to come1 and that you  
alone can accomplish it4 ,what1 then1 is
 the idea which governs you1 proletaires
 of the nineteenth century8--for really 
,i cannot call you revolutionists4 ,what
 do you think8--what do you             
believe8--what do you want8 ,be guarded 
in your reply4 ,i have read faithfully  
your favorite journals1 your most       
esteemed authors4 ,i find everywhere    

only vain and puerile entites2 nowhere  
do ,i discover an idea4  ,i will explain
 the meaning of this word entite1--new1 
without doubt1 to most of you4  ,by     
entite is generally understood a        
substance which the imagination grasps1 
but which is incognizable by the senses 
and the reason4 ,thus the ,,soporific   
,,power of opium1 of which ,sganarelle  
speaks1 and the ,,peccant ,,humors of   
ancient medicine1 are entites4 ,the     
entite is the support of those who do   
not wish to confess their ignorance4 ,it
 is incomprehensible2 or1 as ,st4 ,paul 
says1 the argumentum non apparentium4   
,in philosophy1 the entite is often only
 a repetition of words which add nothing
 to the thought4  ,for example1 when ,m4
 ,pierre ,leroux--who says so many      
excellent things1 but who is too fond1  
in my opinion1 of his ,platonic         
formulas--assures us that the evils of  
humanity are due to our ,,ignorance ,,of
 ,,life1 ,m4 ,pierre ,leroux utters an  
entite2 for it is evident that if we are

 evil it is because we do not know how  
to live2 but the knowledge of this fact 
is of no value to us4  ,when ,m4 ,edgar 
,quinet declares that ,france suffers   
and declines because there is an        
,,antagonism of men and of interests1 he
 declares an entite2 for the problem is 
to discover the cause of this           
antagonism4  ,when ,m4 ,lamennais1 in   
thunder tones1 preaches self-sacrifice  
and love1 he proclaims two entites2 for 
we need to know on what conditions      
self-sacrifice and love can spring up   
and exist4  ,so also1 proletaires1 when 
you talk of ,,liberty1 ,,progress1 and  
,,the ,,sovereignty ,,of ,,the ,,people1
 you make of these naturally            
intelligible things so many entites in  
space3 for1 on the one hand1 we need a  
new definition of liberty1 since that of
 '#hi no longer suffices2 and1 on the   
other1 we must know in what direction   
society should proceed in order to be in
 progress4 ,as for the sovereignty of   
the people1 that is a grosser entite    

than the sovereignty of reason2 it is   
the entite of entites4 ,in fact1 since  
sovereignty can no more be conceived of 
outside of the people than outside of   
reason1 it remains to be ascertained    
who1 among the people1 shall exercise   
the sovereignty2 and1 among so many     
minds1 which shall be the sovereigns4   
,to say that the people should elect    
their representatives is to say that the
 people should recognize their          
sovereigns1 which does not remove the   
difficulty at all4  ,but suppose that1  
equal by birth1 equal before the law1   
equal in personality1 equal in social   
functions1 you wish also to be equal in 
conditions4  ,suppose that1 perceiving  
all the mutual relations of men1 whether
 they produce or exchange or consume1 to
 be relations of commutative            
justice1--in a word1 social relations2  
suppose1 ,i say1 that1 perceiving this1 
you wish to give this natural society a 
legal existence1 and to establish the   
fact by law1--  ,i say that then you    

need a clear1 positive1 and exact       
expression of your whole idea1--that is1
 an expression which states at once the 
principle1 the means1 and the end2 and  
,i add that that expression is          
,,association4  ,and since the          
association of the human race dates1 at 
least rightfully1 from the beginning of 
the world1 and has gradually established
 and perfected itself by successively   
divesting itself of its negative        
elements1 slavery1 nobility1 despotism1 
aristocracy1 and feudalism1--,i say     
that1 to eliminate the last negation of 
society1 to formulate the last          
revolutionary idea1 you must change your
 old rallying-cries1 ,,no ,,more        
,,absolutism1 ,,no ,,more ,,nobility1   
,,no ,,more ,,slaves6 into that of ,,no 
,,more ,,property6444  ,but ,i know what
 astonishes you1 poor souls1 blasted by 
the wind of poverty1 and crushed by your
 patrons' pride3 it is ,,equality1 whose
 consequences frighten you4 ,how1 you   
have said in your journal1--how can we  

dream of a level which1 being unnatural1
 is therefore unjust8 ,how shall we pay 
the day's labor of a ,cormenin or a     
,lamennais8  ,plebeians1 listen6 ,when1 
after the battle of ,salamis1 the       
,athenians assembled to award the prizes
 for courage1 after the ballots had been
 collected1 it was found that each      
combatant had one vote for the first    
prize1 and ,themistocles all the votes  
for the second4 ,the people of ,minerva 
were crowned by their own hands4 ,truly 
heroic souls6 all were worthy of the    
olive-branch1 since all had ventured to 
claim it for themselves4 ,antiquity     
praised this sublime spirit4 ,learn1    
proletaires1 to esteem yourselves1 and  
to respect your dignity4 ,you wish to be
 free1 and you know not how to be       
citizens4 ,now1 whoever says citizens   
necessarily says equals4  ,if ,i should 
call myself ,lamennais or ,cormenin1 and
 some journal1 speaking of me1 should   
burst forth with these hyperboles1      
,,incomparable ,,genius1 ,,superior     

,,mind1 ,,consummate ,,virtue1 ,,noble  
,,character1 ,i should not like it1 and 
should complain1--first1 because such   
eulogies are never deserved2 and1       
second1 because they furnish a bad      
example4 ,but ,i wish1 in order to      
reconcile you to equality1 to measure   
for you the greatest literary personage 
of our century4 ,do not accuse me of    
envy1 proletaires1 if ,i1 a defender of 
equality1 estimate at their proper value
 talents which are universally admired1 
and which ,i1 better than any one1 know 
how to recognize4 ,a dwarf can always   
measure a giant3 all that he needs is a 
yardstick4  ,you have seen the          
pretentious announcements of            
,l',esquisse d'une ,philosophie1 and you
 have admired the work on trust2 for    
either you have not read it1 or1 if you 
have1 you are incapable of judging it4  
,acquaint yourselves1 then1 with this   
speculation more brilliant than sound2  
and1 while admiring the enthusiasm of   
the author1 cease to pity those useful  

labors which only habit and the great   
number of the persons engaged in them   
render contemptible4 ,i shall be brief2 
for1 notwithstanding the importance of  
the subject and the genius of the       
author1 what ,i have to say is of but   
little moment4  ,m4 ,lamennais starts   
with the existence of ,god4 ,how does he
 demonstrate it8 ,by ,cicero's          
argument1--that is1 by the consent of   
the human race4 ,there is nothing new in
 that4 ,we have still to find out       
whether the belief of the human race is 
legitimate2 or1 as ,kant says1 whether  
our subjective certainty of the         
existence of ,god corresponds with the  
objective truth4 ,this1 however1 does   
not trouble ,m4 ,lamennais4 ,he says    
that1 if the human race believes1 it is 
because it has a reason for believing4  
,then1 having pronounced the name of    
,god1 ,m4 ,lamennais sings a hymn2 and  
that is his demonstration6  ,this first 
hypothesis admitted1 ,m4 ,lamennais     
follows it with a second2 namely1 that  

there are three persons in ,god4 ,but1  
while ,christianity teaches the dogma of
 the ,trinity only on the authority of  
revelation1 ,m4 ,lamennais pretends to  
arrive at it by the sole force of       
argument2 and he does not perceive that 
his pretended demonstration is1 from    
beginning to end1                       
anthropomorphism1--that is1 an          
ascription of the faculties of the human
 mind and the powers of nature to the   
,divine substance4 ,new songs1 new      
hymns6  ,god and the ,trinity thus      
,,demonstrated1 the philosopher passes  
to the creation1--a third hypothesis1 in
 which ,m4 ,lamennais1 always eloquent1 
varied1 and sublime1 ,,demonstrates that
 ,god made the world neither of nothing1
 nor of something1 nor of himself2 that 
he was free in creating1 but that       
nevertheless he could not but create2   
that there is in matter a matter which  
is not matter2 that the archetypal ideas
 of the world are separated from each   
other1 in the ,divine mind1 by a        

division which is obscure and           
unintelligible1 and yet substantial and 
real1 which involves intelligibility1 c4
 ,we meet with like contradictions      
concerning the origin of evil4 ,to      
explain this problem1--one of the       
profoundest in philosophy1--,m4         
,lamennais at one time denies evil1 at  
another makes ,god the author of evil1  
and at still another seeks outside of   
,god a first cause which is not         
,god1--an amalgam of entites more or    
less incoherent1 borrowed from ,plato1  
,proclus1 ,spinoza1 ,i might say even   
from all philosophers4  ,having thus    
established his trinity of hypotheses1  
,m4 ,lamennais deduces therefrom1 by a  
badly connected chain of analogies1 his 
whole philosophy4 ,and it is here       
especially that we notice the syncretism
 which is peculiar to him4 ,the theory  
of ,m4 ,lamennais embraces all systems1 
and supports all opinions4 ,are you a   
materialist8 ,suppress1 as useless      
entites1 the three persons in ,god2     

then1 starting directly from heat1      
light1 and electro-magnetism1--which1   
according to the author1 are the three  
original fluids1 the three primary      
external manifestations of ,will1       
,intelligence1 and ,love1--you have a   
materialistic and atheistic cosmogony4  
,on the contrary1 are you wedded to     
spiritualism8 ,with the theory of the   
immateriality of the body1 you are able 
to see everywhere nothing but spirits4  
,finally1 if you incline to pantheism1  
you will be satisfied by ,m4 ,lamennais1
 who formally teaches that the world is 
not an ,,emanation from                 
,divinity1--which is pure               
pantheism1--but a ,,flow of ,divinity4  
,i do not pretend1 however1 to deny that
 ,l',esquisse contains some excellent   
things2 but1 by the author's            
declaration1 these things are not       
original with him2 it is the system     
which is his4 ,that is undoubtedly the  
reason why ,m4 ,lamennais speaks so     
contemptuously of his predecessors in   

philosophy1 and disdains to quote his   
originals4 ,he thinks that1 since       
,l',esquisse contains all true          
philosophy1 the world will lose nothing 
when the names and works of the old     
philosophers perish4 ,m4 ,lamennais1 who
 renders glory to ,god in beautiful     
songs1 does not know how as well to     
render justice to his fellows4 ,his     
fatal fault is this appropriation of    
knowledge1 which the theologians call   
the ,,philosophical ,,sin1 or the ,,sin 
,,against ,,the ,,holy ,,ghost--a sin   
which will not damn you1 proletaires1   
nor me either4  ,in short1 ,l',esquisse1
 judged as a system1 and divested of all
 which its author borrows from previous 
systems1 is a commonplace work1 whose   
method consists in constantly explaining
 the known by the unknown1 and in giving
 entites for abstractions1 and          
tautologies for proofs4 ,its whole      
theodicy is a work not of genius but of 
imagination1 a patching up of           
neo-,platonic ideas4 ,the psychological 

portion amounts to nothing1 ,m4         
,lamennais openly ridiculing labors of  
this character1 without which1 however1 
metaphysics is impossible4 ,the book1   
which treats of logic and its methods1  
is weak1 vague1 and shallow4 ,finally1  
we find in the physical and             
physiological speculations which ,m4    
,lamennais deduces from his trinitarian 
cosmogony grave errors1 the preconceived
 design of accommodating facts to       
theory1 and the substitution in almost  
every case of hypothesis for reality4   
,the third volume on industry and art is
 the most interesting to read1 and the  
best4 ,it is true that ,m4 ,lamennais   
can boast of nothing but his style4 ,as 
a philosopher1 he has added not a single
 idea to those which existed before him4
  ,why1 then1 this excessive mediocrity 
of ,m4 ,lamennais considered as a       
thinker1 a mediocrity which disclosed   
itself at the time of the publication of
 the ,essai sur l',indifference68 ,it is
 because 7remember this well1           

proletaires67 ,nature makes no man truly
 complete1 and because the development  
of certain faculties almost always      
excludes an equal development of the    
opposite faculties2 it is because ,m4   
,lamennais is preeminently a poet1 a man
 of feeling and sentiment4 ,look at his 
style1--exuberant1 sonorous1            
picturesque1 vehement1 full of          
exaggeration and invective1--and hold it
 for certain that no man possessed of   
such a style was ever a true            
metaphysician4 ,this wealth of          
expression and illustration1 which      
everybody admires1 becomes in ,m        
,lamennais the incurable cause of his   
philosophical impotence4 ,his flow of   
language1 and his sensitive nature      
misleading his imagination1 he thinks   
that he is reasoning when he is only    
repeating himself1 and readily takes a  
description for a logical deduction4    
,hence his horror of positive ideas1 his
 feeble powers of analysis1 his         
pronounced taste for indefinite         

analogies1 verbal abstractions1         
hypothetical generalities1 in short1 all
 sorts of entites4  ,further1 the entire
 life of ,m4 ,lamennais is conclusive   
proof of his anti-philosophical genius4 
,devout even to mysticism1 an ardent    
ultramontane1 an intolerant theocrat1 he
 at first feels the double influence of 
the religious reaction and the literary 
theories which marked the beginning of  
this century1 and falls back to the     
middle ages and ,gregory ,,vii42 then1  
suddenly becoming a progressive         
,christian and a democrat1 he gradually 
leans towards rationalism1 and finally  
falls into deism4 ,at present1 everybody
 waits at the trap-door4 ,as for me1    
though ,i would not swear to it1 ,i am  
inclined to think that ,m4 ,lamennais1  
already taken with scepticism1 will die 
in a state of indifference4 ,he owes to 
individual reason and methodical doubt  
this expiation of his early essays4  ,it
 has been pretended that ,m4 ,lamennais1
 preaching now a theocracy1 now         

universal democracy1 has been always    
consistent2 that1 under different names1
 he has sought invariably one and the   
same thing1--unity4 ,pitiful excuse for 
an author surprised in the very act of  
contradiction6 ,what would be thought of
 a man who1 by turns a servant of       
despotism under ,louis ,,xvi1 a         
demagogue with ,robespierre1 a courtier 
of the ,emperor1 a bigot during fifteen 
years of the ,restoration1 a            
conservative since #ahcj1 should dare to
 say that he ever had wished for but one
 thing1--public order8 ,would he be     
regarded as any the less a renegade from
 all parties8 ,public order1 unity1 the 
world's welfare1 social harmony1 the    
union of the nations1--concerning each  
of these things there is no possible    
difference of opinion4 ,everybody wishes
 them2 the character of the publicist   
depends only upon the means by which he 
proposes to arrive at them4 ,but why    
look to ,m4 ,lamennais for a            
steadfastness of opinion1 which he      

himself repudiates8 ,has he not said1   
,the mind has no law2 that which ,i     
believe to-day1 ,i did not believe      
yesterday2 ,i do not know that ,i shall 
believe it to-morrow8  ,no2 there is no 
real superiority among men1 since all   
talents and capacities are combined     
never in one individual4 ,this man has  
the power of thought1 that one          
imagination and style1 still another    
industrial and commercial capacity4 ,by 
our very nature and education1 we       
possess only special aptitudes which are
 limited and confined1 and which become 
consequently more necessary as they gain
 in depth and strength4 ,capacities are 
to each other as functions and persons2 
who would dare to classify them in      
ranks8 ,the finest genius is1 by the    
laws of his existence and development1  
the most dependent upon the society     
which creates him4 ,who would dare to   
make a god of the glorious child8  ,it  
is not strength which makes the man1    
said a ,hercules of the market-place to 

the admiring crowd2 it is character4    
,that man1 who had only his muscles1    
held force in contempt4 ,the lesson is a
 good one1 proletaires2 we should profit
 by it4 ,it is not talent 7which is also
 a force71 it is not knowledge1 it is   
not beauty which makes the man4 ,it is  
heart1 courage1 will1 virtue4 ,now1 if  
we are equal in that which makes us men1
 how can the accidental distribution of 
secondary faculties detract from our    
manhood8  ,remember that privilege is   
naturally and inevitably the lot of the 
weak2 and do not be misled by the fame  
which accompanies certain talents whose 
greatest merit consists in their rarity1
 and a long and toilsome apprenticeship4
 ,it is easier for ,m4 ,lamennais to    
recite a philippic1 or sing a           
humanitarian ode after the ,platonic    
fashion1 than to discover a single      
useful truth2 it is easier for an       
economist to apply the laws of          
production and distribution than to     
write ten lines in the style of ,m4     

,lamennais2 it is easier for both to    
speak than to act4 ,you1 then1 who put  
your hands to the work1 who alone truly 
create1 why do you wish me to admit your
 inferiority8 ,but1 what am ,i saying8  
,yes1 you are inferior1 for you lack    
virtue and will6 ,ready for labor and   
for battle1 you have1 when liberty and  
equality are in question1 neither       
courage nor character6  ,in the preface 
to his pamphlet on ,le ,pays et le      
,gouvernement1 as well as in his defence
 before the jury1 ,m4 ,lamennais frankly
 declared himself an advocate of        
property4 ,out of regard for the author 
and his misfortune1 ,i shall abstain    
from characterizing this declaration1   
and from examining these two sorrowful  
performances4 ,m4 ,lamennais seems to be
 only the tool of a quasi-radical party1
 which flatters him in order to use him1
 without respect for a glorious1 but    
hence forth powerless1 old age4 ,what   
means this profession of faith8 ,from   
the first number of ,l',avenir to       

,l',esquisse d'une ,philosophie1 ,m4    
,lamennais always favors equality1      
association1 and even a sort of vague   
and indefinite communism4 ,m4           
,lamennais1 in recognizing the right of 
property1 gives the lie to his past     
career1 and renounces his most generous 
tendencies4 ,can it1 then1 be true that 
in this man1 who has been too roughly   
treated1 but who is also too easily     
flattered1 strength of talent has       
already outlived strength of will8  ,it 
is said that ,m4 ,lamennais has rejected
 the offers of several of his friends to
 try to procure for him a commutation of
 his sentence4 ,m4 ,lamennais prefers to
 serve out his time4 ,may not this      
affectation of a false stoicism come    
from the same source as his recognition 
of the right of property8 ,the ,huron1  
when taken prisoner1 hurls insults and  
threats at his conqueror1--that is the  
heroism of the savage2 the martyr prays 
for his executioners1 and is willing to 
receive from them his life1--that is the

 heroism of the ,christian4 ,why has the
 apostle of love become an apostle of   
anger and revenge8 ,has1 then1 the      
translator of ,l',imitation forgotten   
that he who offends charity cannot honor
 virtue8 ,galileo1 retracting on his    
knees before the tribunal of the        
inquisition his heresy in regard to the 
movement of the earth1 and recovering at
 that price his liberty1 seems to me a  
hundred times grander than ,m4          
,lamennais4 ,what6 if we suffer for     
truth and justice1 must we1 in          
retaliation1 thrust our persecutors     
outside the pale of human society2 and1 
when sentenced to an unjust punishment1 
must we decline exemption if it is      
offered to us1 because it pleases a few 
base satellites to call it a pardon8    
,such is not the wisdom of              
,christianity4 ,but ,i forgot that in   
the presence of ,m4 ,lamennais this name
 is no longer pronounced4 ,may the      
prophet of ,l',avenir be soon restored  
to liberty and his friends2 but1 above  

all1 may he henceforth derive his       
inspiration only from his genius and his
 heart6  ,o proletaires1 proletaires6   
how long are you to be victimized by    
this spirit of revenge and implacable   
hatred which your false friends kindle1 
and which1 perhaps1 has done more harm  
to the development of reformatory ideas 
than the corruption1 ignorance1 and     
malice of the government8 ,believe me1  
at the present time everybody is to     
blame4 ,in fact1 in intention1 or in    
example1 all are found wanting2 and you 
have no right to accuse any one4 ,the   
king himself 7,god forgive me6 ,i do not
 like to justify a king71--the king     
himself is1 like his predecessors1 only 
the personification of an idea1 and an  
idea1 proletaires1 which possesses you  
yet4 ,his greatest wrong consists in    
wishing for its complete realization1   
while you wish it realized only         
partially1--consequently1 in being      
logical in his government2 while you1 in
 your complaints1 are not at all so4    

,you clamor for a second regicide4 ,he  
that is without sin among you1--let him 
cast at the prince of property the first
 stone6  ,how successful you would have 
been if1 in order to influence men1 you 
had appealed to the self-love of        
men1--if1 in order to alter the         
constitution and the law1 you had placed
 yourselves within the constitution and 
the law6 ,fifty thousand laws1 they say1
 make up our political and civil codes4 
,of these fifty thousand laws1          
twenty-five thousand are for you1       
twenty-five thousand against you4 ,is it
 not clear that your duty is to oppose  
the former to the latter1 and thus1 by  
the argument of contradiction1 drive    
privilege into its last ditch8 ,this    
method of action is henceforth the only 
useful one1 being the only moral and    
rational one4  ,for my part1 if ,i had  
the ear of this nation1 to which ,i am  
attached by birth and predilection1 with
 no intention of playing the leading    
part in the future republic1 ,i would   

instruct the laboring masses to conquer 
property through institutions and       
judicial pleadings2 to seek auxiliaries 
and accomplices in the highest ranks of 
society1 and to ruin all privileged     
classes by taking advantage of their    
common desire for power and popularity4 
,the petition for the electoral reform  
has already received two hundred        
thousand signatures1 and the illustrious
 ,arago threatens us with a million4    
,surely1 that will be well done2 but    
from this million of citizens1 who are  
as willing to vote for an emperor as for
 equality1 could we not select ten      
thousand signatures--,i mean bona fide  
signatures--whose authors can read1     
write1 cipher1 and even think a little1 
and whom we could invite1 after due     
perusal and verbal explanation1 to sign 
such a petition as the following3--     
,,to ,,his ,,excellency ,,the ,,minister
 ,,of ,,the ,,interior3--  ,,monsieur   
,,le ,,ministre1--,on the day when a    
royal ordinance1 decreeing the          

establishment of model national         
workshops1 shall appear in the          
',moniteur1' the undersigned1 to the    
number of ,,ten ,,thousand1 will repair 
to the ,palace of the ,tuileries1 and   
there1 with all the power of their      
lungs1 will shout1 ',long live ,louis   
,philippe6'  ,on the day when the       
',moniteur' shall inform the public that
 this petition is refused1 the          
undersigned1 to the number of ,,ten     
,,thousand1 will say secretly in their  
hearts1 ',down with ,louis ,philippe6'  
,if ,i am not mistaken1 such a petition 
would have some effect4 #ge ,the        
pleasure of a popular ovation would be  
well worth the sacrifice of a few       
millions4 ,they sow so much to reap     
unpopularity6 ,then1 if the nation1 its 
hopes of #ahcj restored1 should feel it 
its duty to keep its promise1--and it   
would keep it1 for the word of the      
nation is1 like that of ,god1           
sacred1--if1 ,i say1 the nation1        
reconciled by this act with the         

public-spirited monarchy1 should bear to
 the foot of the throne its cheers and  
its vows1 and should at that solemn     
moment choose me to speak in its name1  
the following would be the substance of 
my speech3--   ,,sire1--,this is what   
the nation wishes to say to your        
,majesty3--  ,o ,king6 you see what it  
costs to gain the applause of the       
citizens4 ,would you like us henceforth 
to take for our motto3 ',let us help the
 ,king1 the ,king will help us'8 ,do you
 wish the people to cry3 ',,the ,,king  
,,and ,,the ,,french ,,nation'8 ,then   
abandon these grasping bankers1 these   
quarrelsome lawyers1 these miserable    
bourgeois1 these infamous writers1 these
 dishonored men4 ,all these1 ,sire1 hate
 you1 and continue to support you only  
because they fear us4 ,finish the work  
of our kings2 wipe out aristocracy and  
privilege2 consult with these faithful  
proletaires1 with the nation1 which     
alone can honor a sovereign and         
sincerely shout1 ',long live the king6' 

,the rest of what ,i have to say1 sir1  
is for you alone2 others would not      
understand me4 ,you are1 ,i perceive1 a 
republican as well as an economist1 and 
your patriotism revolts at the very idea
 of addressing to the authorities a     
petition in which the government of     
,louis ,philippe should be tacitly      
recognized4 ,national workshops6 it were
 well to have such institutions         
established1 you think2 but patriotic   
hearts never will accept them from an   
aristocratic ministry1 nor by the       
courtesy of a king4 ,already1           
undoubtedly1 your old prejudices have   
returned1 and you now regard me only as 
a sophist1 as ready to flatter the      
powers that be as to dishonor1 by       
pushing them to an extreme1 the         
principles of equality and universal    
fraternity4  ,what shall ,i say to      
you8444 ,that ,i should so lightly      
compromise the future of my theories1   
either this clever sophistry which is   
attributed to me must be at bottom a    

very trifling affair1 or else my        
convictions must be so firm that they   
deprive me of free-will4  ,but1 not to  
insist further on the necessity of a    
compromise between the executive power  
and the people1 it seems to me1 sir1    
that1 in doubting my patriotism1 you    
reason very capriciously1 and that your 
judgments are exceedingly rash4 ,you1   
sir1 ostensibly defending government and
 property1 are allowed to be a          
republican1 reformer1 phalansterian1 any
 thing you wish2 ,i1 on the contrary1   
demanding distinctly enough a slight    
reform in public economy1 am            
foreordained a conservative1 and        
likewise a friend of the dynasty4 ,i    
cannot explain myself more clearly4 ,so 
firm a believer am ,i in the philosophy 
of accomplished facts and the statu quo 
of governmental forms that1 instead of  
destroying that which exists and        
beginning over again the past1 ,i prefer
 to render every thing legitimate by    
correcting it4 ,it is true that the     

corrections which ,i propose1 though    
respecting the form1 tend to finally    
change the nature of the things         
corrected4 ,who denies it8 ,but it is   
precisely that which constitutes my     
system of statu quo4 ,i make no war upon
 symbols1 figures1 or phantoms4 ,i      
respect scarecrows1 and bow before      
bugbears4 ,i ask1 on the one hand1 that 
property be left as it is1 but that     
interest on all kinds of capital be     
gradually lowered and finally abolished2
 on the other hand1 that the charter be 
maintained in its present shape1 but    
that method be introduced into          
administration and politics4 ,that is   
all4 ,nevertheless1 submitting to all   
that is1 though not satisfied with it1  
,i endeavor to conform to the           
established order1 and to render unto   
,caesar the things that are ,caesar's4  
,is it thought1 for instance1 that ,i   
love property8444 ,very well2 ,i am     
myself a proprietor and do homage to the
 right of increase1 as is proved by the 

fact that ,i have creditors to whom ,i  
faithfully pay1 every year1 a large     
amount of interest4 ,the same with      
politics4 ,since we are a monarchy1 ,i  
would cry1 ,,long ,,live ,,the ,,king1  
rather than suffer death2 which does not
 prevent me1 however1 from demanding    
that the irremovable1 inviolable1 and   
hereditary representative of the nation 
shall act with the proletaires against  
the privileged classes2 in a word1 that 
the king shall become the leader of the 
radical party4 ,thereby we proletaires  
would gain every thing2 and ,i am sure  
that1 at this price1 ,louis ,philippe   
might secure to his family the perpetual
 presidency of the republic4 ,and this  
is why ,i think so4  ,if there existed  
in ,france but one great functional     
inequality1 the duty of the functionary 
being1 from one end of the year to the  
other1 to hold full court of savants1   
artists1 soldiers1 deputies1 inspectors1
 c41 it is evident that the expenses of 
the presidency then would be the        

national expenses2 and that1 through the
 reversion of the civil list to the mass
 of consumers1 the great inequality of  
which ,i speak would form an exact      
equation with the whole nation4 ,of this
 no economist needs a demonstration4    
,consequently1 there would be no more   
fear of cliques1 courtiers1 and         
appanages1 since no new inequality could
 be established4 ,the king1 as king1    
would have friends 7unheard-of thing71  
but no family4 ,his relatives or        
kinsmen1--agnats et cognats1--if they   
were fools1 would be nothing to him2 and
 in no case1 with the exception of the  
heir apparent1 would they have1 even in 
court1 more privileges than others4 ,no 
more nepotism1 no more favor1 no more   
baseness4 ,no one would go to court save
 when duty required1 or when called by  
an honorable distinction2 and as all    
conditions would be equal and all       
functions equally honored1 there would  
be no other emulation than that of merit
 and virtue4 ,i wish the king of the    

,french could say without shame1 ,my    
brother the gardener1 my sister-in-law  
the milk-maid1 my son the prince-royal1 
and my son the blacksmith4 ,his daughter
 might well be an artist4 ,that would be
 beautiful1 sir2 that would be royal2 no
 one but a buffoon could fail to        
understand it4  ,in this way1 ,i have   
come to think that the forms of royalty 
may be made to harmonize with the       
requirements of equality1 and have given
 a monarchical form to my republican    
spirit4 ,i have seen that ,france       
contains by no means as many democrats  
as is generally supposed1 and ,i have   
compromised with the monarchy4 ,i do not
 say1 however1 that1 if ,france wanted a
 republic1 ,i could not accommodate     
myself equally well1 and perhaps better4
 ,by nature1 ,i hate all signs of       
distinction1 crosses of honor1 gold     
lace1 liveries1 costumes1 honorary      
titles1 c41 and1 above all1 parades4 ,if
 ,i had my way1 no general should be    
distinguished from a soldier1 nor a peer

 of ,france from a peasant4 ,why have ,i
 never taken part in a review8 for ,i am
 happy to say1 sir1 that ,i am a        
national guard2 ,i have nothing else in 
the world but that4 ,because the review 
is always held at a place which ,i do   
not like1 and because they have fools   
for officers whom ,i am compelled to    
obey4 ,you see1--and this is not the    
best of my history1--that1 in spite of  
my conservative opinions1 my life is a  
perpetual sacrifice to the republic4    
,nevertheless1 ,i doubt if such         
simplicity would be agreeable to ,french
 vanity1 to that inordinate love of     
distinction and flattery which makes our
 nation the most frivolous in the world4
 ,m4 ,lamartine1 in his grand           
,meditation on ,bonaparte1 calls the    
,french ,a ,,nation ,,of ,,brutuses4 ,we
 are merely a nation of ,narcissuses4   
,previous to '#hi1 we had the           
aristocracy of blood2 then every        
bourgeois looked down upon the          
commonalty1 and wished to be a nobleman4

 ,afterwards1 distinction was based on  
wealth1 and the bourgeoisie jealous of  
the nobility1 and proud of their money1 
used #ahcj to promote1 not liberty by   
any means1 but the aristocracy of       
wealth4 ,when1 through the force of     
events1 and the natural laws of society1
 for the development of which ,france   
offers such free play1 equality shall be
 established in functions and fortunes1 
then the beaux and the belles1 the      
savants and the artists1 will form new  
classes4 ,there is a universal and      
innate desire in this ,gallic country   
for fame and glory4 ,we must have       
distinctions1 be they what they         
may1--nobility1 wealth1 talent1 beauty1 
or dress4 ,i suspect ,,mm4 ,arage and   
,garnier-,pages of having aristocratic  
manners1 and ,i picture to myself our   
great journalists1 in their columns so  
friendly to the people1 administering   
rough kicks to the compositors in their 
printing offices4  ,this man1 once said 
,le ,national in speaking of ,carrel1   

whom we had proclaimed ,,first          
,,consul6444 ,is it not true that the   
monarchical principle still lives in the
 hearts of our democrats1 and that they 
want universal suffrage in order to make
 themselves kings8 ,since ,le ,national 
prides itself on holding more fixed     
opinions than ,le ,journal des ,debats1 
,i presume that1 ,armand ,carrel being  
dead1 ,m4 ,armand ,marrast is now first 
consul1 and ,m4 ,garnier-,pages second  
consul4 ,in every thing the deputy must 
give way to the journalist4 ,i do not   
speak of ,m4 ,arago1 whom ,i believe to 
be1 in spite of calumny1 too learned for
 the consulship4 ,be it so4 ,though we  
have consuls1 our position is not much  
altered4 ,i am ready to yield my share  
of sovereignty to ,,mm4 ,armand ,marrast
 and ,garnier-,pages1 the appointed     
consuls1 provided they will swear on    
entering upon the duties of their       
office1 to abolish property and not be  
haughty4  ,forever promises6 ,forever   
oaths6 ,why should the people trust in  

tribunes1 when kings perjure themselves8
 ,alas6 truth and honesty are no longer1
 as in the days of ,king ,john1 in the  
mouth of princes4 ,a whole senate has   
been convicted of felony1 and1 the      
interest of the governors always being1 
for some mysterious reason1 opposed to  
the interest of the governed1           
parliaments follow each other while the 
nation dies of hunger4 ,no1 no6 ,no more
 protectors1 no more emperors1 no more  
consuls4 ,better manage our affairs     
ourselves than through agents4 ,better  
associate our industries than beg from  
monopolies2 and1 since the republic     
cannot dispense with virtues1 we should 
labor for our reform4  ,this1 therefore1
 is my line of conduct4 ,i preach       
emancipation to the proletaires2        
association to the laborers2 equality to
 the wealthy4 ,i push forward the       
revolution by all means in my           
power1--the tongue1 the pen1 the press1 
by action1 and example4 ,my life is a   
continual apostleship4  ,yes1 ,i am a   

reformer2 ,i say it as ,i think it1 in  
good faith1 and that ,i may be no longer
 reproached for my vanity4 ,i wish to   
convert the world4 ,very likely this    
fancy springs from an enthusiastic pride
 which may have turned to delirium2 but 
it will be admitted at least that ,i    
have plenty of company1 and that my     
madness is not monomania4 ,at the       
present day1 everybody wishes to be     
reckoned among the lunatics of          
,beranger4 ,to say nothing of the       
,babeufs1 the ,marats1 and the          
,robespierres1 who swarm in our streets 
and workshops1 all the great reformers  
of antiquity live again in the most     
illustrious personages of our time4 ,one
 is ,jesus ,christ1 another ,moses1 a   
third ,mahomet2 this is ,orpheus1 that  
,plato1 or ,pythagoras4 ,gregory ,,vii41
 himself1 has risen from the grave      
together with the evangelists and the   
apostles2 and it may turn out that even 
,i am that slave who1 having escaped    
from his master's house1 was forthwith  

made a bishop and a reformer by ,st4    
,paul4 ,as for the virgins and holy     
women1 they are expected daily2 at      
present1 we have only ,aspasias and     
courtesans4  ,now1 as in all diseases1  
the diagnostic varies according to the  
temperament1 so my madness has its      
peculiar aspects and distinguishing     
characteristic4  ,reformers1 as a       
general thing1 are jealous of their     
role2 they suffer no rivals1 they want  
no partners2 they have disciples1 but no
 co-laborers4 ,it is my desire1 on the  
contrary1 to communicate my enthusiasm1 
and to make it1 as far as ,i can1       
epidemic4 ,i wish that all were1 like   
myself1 reformers1 in order that there  
might be no more sects2 and that        
,christs1 ,anti-,christs1 and false     
,christs might be forced to understand  
and agree with each other4  ,again1     
every reformer is a magician1 or at     
least desires to become one4 ,thus      
,moses1 ,jesus ,christ1 and the         
apostles1 proved their mission by       

miracles4 ,mahomet ridiculed miracles   
after having endeavored to perform them4
 ,fourier1 more cunning1 promises us    
wonders when the globe shall be covered 
with phalansteries4 ,for myself1 ,i have
 as great a horror of miracles as of    
authorities1 and aim only at logic4     
,that is why ,i continually search after
 the criterion of certainty4 ,i work for
 the reformation of ideas4 ,little      
matters it that they find me dry and    
austere4 ,i mean to conquer by a bold   
struggle1 or die in the attempt2 and    
whoever shall come to the defence of    
property1 ,i swear that ,i will force   
him to argue like ,m4 ,considerant1 or  
philosophize like ,m4 ,troplong4        
,finally1--and it is here that ,i differ
 most from my compeers1--,i do not      
believe it necessary1 in order to reach 
equality1 to turn every thing           
topsy-turvy4 ,to maintain that nothing  
but an overturn can lead to reform is1  
in my judgment1 to construct a          
syllogism1 and to look for the truth in 

the regions of the unknown4 ,now1 ,i am 
for generalization1 induction1 and      
progress4 ,i regard general             
disappropriation as impossible3 attacked
 from that point1 the problem of        
universal association seems to me       
insolvable4 ,property is like the dragon
 which ,hercules killed3 to destroy it1 
it must be taken1 not by the head1 but  
by the tail1--that is1 by profit and    
interest4  ,i stop4 ,i have said enough 
to satisfy any one who can read and     
understand4 ,the surest way by which the
 government can baffle intrigues and    
break up parties is to take possession  
of science1 and point out to the nation1
 at an already appreciable distance1 the
 rising oriflamme of equality2 to say to
 those politicians of the tribune and   
the press1 for whose fruitless quarrels 
we pay so dearly1 ,you are rushing      
forward1 blind as you are1 to the       
abolition of property2 but the          
government marches with its eyes open4  
,you hasten the future by unprincipled  

and insincere controversy2 but the      
government1 which knows this future1    
leads you thither by a happy and        
peaceful transition4 ,the present       
generation will not pass away before    
,france1 the guide and model of         
civilized nations1 has regained her rank
 and legitimate influence4  ,but1 alas6 
the government itself1--who shall       
enlighten it8 ,who can induce it to     
accept this doctrine of equality1 whose 
terrible but decisive formula the most  
generous minds hardly dare to           
acknowledge8444 ,i feel my whole being  
tremble when ,i think that the testimony
 of three men--yes1 of three men who    
make it their business to teach and     
define--would suffice to give full play 
to public opinion1 to change beliefs1   
and to fix destinies4 ,will not the     
three men be found8444  ,may we hope1 or
 not8 ,what must we think of those who  
govern us8 ,in the world of sorrow in   
which the proletaire moves1 and where   
nothing is known of the intentions of   

power1 it must be said that despair     
prevails4 ,but you1 sir1--you1 who by   
function belong to the official world2  
you1 in whom the people recognize one of
 their noblest friends1 and property its
 most prudent adversary1--what say you  
of our deputies1 our ministers1 our     
king8 ,do you believe that the          
authorities are friendly to us8 ,then   
let the government declare its position2
 let it print its profession of faith in
 equality1 and ,i am dumb4 ,otherwise1  
,i shall continue the war2 and the more 
obstinacy and malice is shown1 the      
oftener will ,i redouble my energy and  
audacity4 ,i have said before1 and ,i   
repeat it1--,i have sworn1 not on the   
dagger and the death's-head1 amid the   
horrors of a catacomb1 and in the       
presence of men besmeared with blood2   
but ,i have sworn on my conscience to   
pursue property1 to grant it neither    
peace nor truce1 until ,i see it        
everywhere execrated4 ,i have not yet   
published half the things that ,i have  

to say concerning the right of domain1  
nor the best things4 ,let the knights of
 property1 if there are any who fight   
otherwise than by retreating1 be        
prepared every day for a new            
demonstration and accusation2 let them  
enter the arena armed with reason and   
knowledge1 not wrapped up in sophisms1  
for justice will be done4   ,to become  
enlightened1 we must have liberty4 ,that
 alone suffices2 but it must be the     
liberty to use the reason in regard to  
all public matters4  ,and yet we hear on
 every hand authorities of all kinds and
 degrees crying3 ',do not reason6'  ,if 
a distinction is wanted1 here is one3-- 
,the ,,public use of the reason always  
should be free1 but the ,,private use   
ought always to be rigidly restricted4  
,by public use1 ,i mean the scientific1 
literary use2 by private1 that which may
 be taken advantage of by civil         
officials and public functionaries4     
,since the governmental machinery must  
be kept in motion1 in order to preserve 

unity and attain our object1 we must not
 reason2 we must obey4 ,but the same    
individual who is bound1 from this point
 of view1 to passive obedience1 has the 
right to speak in his capacity of       
citizen and scholar4 ,he can make an    
appeal to the public1 submit to it his  
observations on events which occur      
around him and in the ranks above him1  
taking care1 however1 to avoid offences 
which are punishable4  ,reason1 then1 as
 much as you like2 only1 obey4--,kant3  
,fragment on the ,liberty of ,thought   
and of the ,press4 ,tissot's            
,translation4   ,these words of the     
great philosopher outline for me my     
duty4 ,i have delayed the reprint of the
 work entitled ,what is ,property8 in   
order that ,i might lift the discussion 
to the philosophical height from which  
ridiculous clamor has dragged it down2  
and that1 by a new presentation of the  
question1 ,i might dissipate the fears  
of good citizens4 ,i now reenter upon   
the public use of my reason1 and give   

truth full swing4 ,the second edition of
 the ,first ,memoir on ,property will   
immediately follow the publication of   
this letter4 ,before issuing any thing  
further1 ,i shall await the observations
 of my critics1 and the co-operation of 
the friends of the people and of        
equality4  ,hitherto1 ,i have spoken in 
my own name1 and on my own personal     
responsibility4 ,it was my duty4 ,i was 
endeavoring to call attention to        
principles which antiquity could not    
discover1 because it knew nothing of the
 science which reveals them1--political 
economy4 ,i have1 then1 testified as to 
,,facts2 in short1 ,i have been a       
,,witness4 ,now my role changes4 ,it    
remains for me to deduce the practical  
consequences of the facts proclaimed4   
,the position of ,,public ,,prosecutor  
is the only one which ,i am henceforth  
fitted to fill1 and ,i shall sum up the 
case in the name of the ,,people4  ,i   
am1 sir1 with all the consideration that
 ,i owe to your talent and your         

character1  ,your very humble and most  
obedient servant1  ,p4 ,j4 ,,proudhon1  
,pensioner of the ,academy of ,besancon4
   ,p4,s4 ,during the session of ,april 
#b1 the ,chamber of ,deputies rejected1 
by a very large majority1 the           
literary-property bill1 ,,because ,,it  
,,did ,,not ,,understand ,,it4          
,nevertheless1 literary property is only
 a special form of the right of         
property1 which everybody claims to     
understand4 ,let us hope that this      
legislative precedent will not be       
fruitless for the cause of equality4    
,the consequence of the vote of the     
,chamber is the abolition of            
capitalistic property1--property        
incomprehensible1 contradictory1        
impossible1 and absurd4                 
,,footnotes3      ,footnote #a3 ,in the 
,french edition of ,proudhon's works1   
the above sketch of his life is prefixed
 to the first volume of his             
correspondence1 but the translator      
prefers to insert it here as the best   

method of introducing the author to the 
,american public4  ,footnote #b3 ,an    
,inquiry into ,grammatical              
,classifications4 ,by ,p4 ,j4 ,proudhon4
 ,a treatise which received honorable   
mention from the ,academy of            
,inscriptions1 ,may #d1 #ahci4 ,out of  
print4  ,footnote #c3 ,the ,utility of  
the ,celebration of ,sunday1 c4 ,by ,p4 
,j4 ,proudhon4 ,besancon1 #ahci1 #abmo2 
#b;d edition1 ,paris1 #ahda1 #ahmo4     
,footnote #d3 ,charron1 on ,wisdom1     
,chapter xviii4  ,footnote #e3 ,m4      
,vivien1 ,minister of ,justice1 before  
commencing proceedings against the      
,memoir upon ,property1 asked the       
opinion of ,m4 ,blanqui2 and it was on  
the strength of the observations of this
 honorable academician that he spared a 
book which had already excited the      
indignation of the magistrates4 ,m4     
,vivien is not the only official to whom
 ,i have been indebted1 since my first  
publication1 for assistance and         
protection2 but such generosity in the  

political arena is so rare that one may 
acknowledge it graciously and freely4 ,i
 have always thought1 for my part1 that 
bad institutions made bad magistrates2  
just as the cowardice and hypocrisy of  
certain bodies results solely from the  
spirit which governs them4 ,why1 for    
instance1 in spite of the virtues and   
talents for which they are so noted1 are
 the academies generally centres of     
intellectual repression1 stupidity1 and 
base intrigue8 ,that question ought to  
be proposed by an academy3 there would  
be no lack of competitors4  ,footnote   
#f3 ,in ,greek1 ,,greek e ncg  examiner2
 a philosopher whose business is to seek
 the truth4  ,footnote #g3 ,religion1   
laws1 marriage1 were the privileges of  
freemen1 and1 in the beginning1 of      
nobles only4 ,dii majorum gentium--gods 
of the patrician families2 jus          
gentium--right of nations2 that is1 of  
families or nobles4 ,the slave and the  
plebeian had no families2 their children
 were treated as the offspring of       

animals4 ,,beasts they were born1       
,,beasts they must live4  ,footnote #h3 
,if the chief of the executive power is 
responsible1 so must the deputies be    
also4 ,it is astonishing that this idea 
has never occurred to any one2 it might 
be made the subject of an interesting   
essay4 ,but ,i declare that ,i would    
not1 for all the world1 maintain it2 the
 people are yet much too logical for me 
to furnish them with arguments4         
,footnote #i3 ,see ,de ,tocqueville1    
,democracy in the ,united ,states2 and  
,michel ,chevalier1 ,letters on ,north  
,america4 ,plutarch tells us1 ,life of  
,pericles1 that in ,athens honest people
 were obliged to conceal themselves     
while studying1 fearing they would be   
regarded as aspirants for office4       
,footnote #aj3 ,sovereignty1 according  
to ,toullier1 is human omnipotence4 ,a  
materialistic definition3 if sovereignty
 is any thing1 it is a ,,right not a    
,,force or a faculty4 ,and what is human
 omnipotence8  ,footnote #aa3 ,the      

,proudhon here referred to is ,j4 ,b4   
,v4 ,proudhon2 a distinguished ,french  
jurist1 and distant relative of the     
,translator4  ,footnote #ab3 ,here1     
especially1 the simplicity of our       
ancestors appears in all its rudeness4  
,after having made first cousins heirs1 
where there were no legitimate children1
 they could not so divide the property  
between two different branches as to    
prevent the simultaneous existence of   
extreme wealth and extreme poverty in   
the same family4 ,for example3-- ,james1
 dying1 leaves two sons1 ,peter and     
,john1 heirs of his fortune3 ,james's   
property is divided equally between     
them4 ,but ,peter has only one daughter1
 while ,john1 his brother1 leaves six   
sons4 ,it is clear that1 to be true to  
the principle of equality1 and at the   
same time to that of heredity1 the two  
estates must be divided in seven equal  
portions among the children of ,peter   
and ,john2 for otherwise a stranger     
might marry ,peter's daughter1 and by   

this alliance half of the property of   
,james1 the grandfather1 would be       
transferred to another family1 which is 
contrary to the principle of heredity4  
,furthermore1 ,john's children would be 
poor on account of their number1 while  
their cousin1 being an only child1 would
 be rich1 which is contrary to the      
principle of equality4 ,if we extend    
this combined application of two        
principles apparently opposed to each   
other1 we shall become convinced that   
the right of succession1 which is       
assailed with so little wisdom in our   
day1 is no obstacle to the maintenance  
of equality4  ,footnote #ac3 ,zeus      
klesios4  ,footnote #ad3 ,giraud1       
,investigations into the ,right of      
,property among the ,romans4  ,footnote 
#ae3 ,precarious1 from precor1 ,i pray2 
because the act of concession expressly 
signified that the lord1 in answer to   
the prayers of his men or slaves1 had   
granted them permission to labor4       
,footnote #af3 ,i cannot conceive how   

any one dares to justify the inequality 
of conditions1 by pointing to the base  
inclinations and propensities of certain
 men4 ,whence comes this shameful       
degradation of heart and mind to which  
so many fall victims1 if not from the   
misery and abjection into which property
 plunges them8  ,footnote #ag3 ,how many
 citizens are needed to support a       
professor of philosophy8--,thirty-five  
millions4 ,how many for an              
economist8--,two billions4 ,and for a   
literary man1 who is neither a savant1  
nor an artist1 nor a philosopher1 nor an
 economist1 and who writes newspaper    
novels8--,none4  ,footnote #ah3 ,there  
is an error in the author's calculation 
here2 but the translator1 feeling sure  
that the reader will understand         
,proudhon's meaning1 prefers not to     
alter his figures4--,translator4        
,footnote #ai3 ,hoc inter se differunt  
onanismus et manuspratio1 nempe quod    
haec a solitario exercetur1 ille autem a
 duobus reciprocatur1 masculo scilicet  

et faemina4 ,porro foedam hanc onanismi 
venerem ludentes uxoria mariti habent   
nunc omnigm suavissimam  ,footnote #bj3 
,polyandry1--plurality of husbands4     
,footnote #ba3 ,infanticide has just    
been publicly advocated in ,england1 in 
a pamphlet written by a disciple of     
,malthus4 ,he proposes an ,,annual      
,,massacre ,,of ,,the ,,innocents in all
 families containing more children than 
the law allows2 and he asks that a      
magnificent cemetery1 adorned with      
statues1 groves1 fountains1 and flowers1
 be set apart as a special burying-place
 for the superfluous children4 ,mothers 
would resort to this delightful spot to 
dream of the happiness of these little  
angels1 and would return1 quite         
comforted1 to give birth to others1 to  
be buried in their turn4  ,footnote #bb3
 ,to perform an act of benevolence      
towards one's neighbor is called1 in    
,hebrew1 to do justice2 in ,greek1 to   
take compassion or pity 7,,greek n n f e
 1from which is derived the ,french     

aumone72 in ,latin1 to perform an act of
 love or charity2 in ,french1 give alms4
 ,we can trace the degradation of this  
principle through these various         
expressions3 the first signifies duty2  
the second only sympathy2 the third1    
affection1 a matter of choice1 not an   
obligation2 the fourth1 caprice4        
,footnote #bc3 ,i mean here by equite   
what the ,latins called humanitas1--    
that is1 the kind of sociability which  
is peculiar to man4 ,humanity1 gentle   
and courteous to all1 knows how to      
distinguish ranks1 virtues1 and         
capacities without injury to any4       
,footnote #bd3 ,justice and equite never
 have been understood4  ,footnote #be3  
,between woman and man there may exist  
love1 passion1 ties of custom1 and the  
like2 but there is no real society4 ,man
 and woman are not companions4 ,the     
difference of the sexes places a barrier
 between them1 like that placed between 
animals by a difference of race4        
,consequently1 far from advocating what 

is now called the emancipation of woman1
 ,i should incline1 rather1 if there    
were no other alternative1 to exclude   
her from society4  ,footnote #bf3 ,the  
strong-box of ,cosmo de ,medici was the 
grave of ,florentine liberty1 said ,m4  
,michelet to the ,college of ,france4   
,footnote #bg3 ,my right is my lance and
 my buckler4 ,general de ,brossard said1
 like ,achilles3 ,i get wine1 gold1 and 
women with my lance and my buckler4     
,footnote #bh3 ,it would be interesting 
and profitable to review the authors who
 have written on usury1 or1 to use the  
gentler expression which some prefer1   
lendingat interest4 ,the theologians    
always have opposed usury2 but1 since   
they have admitted always the legitimacy
 of rent1 and since rent is evidently   
identical with interest1 they have lost 
themselves in a labyrinth of subtle     
distinctions1 and have finally reached a
 pass where they do not know what to    
think of usury4 ,the ,church--the       
teacher of morality1 so jealous and so  

proud of the purity of her doctrine--has
 always been ignorant of the real nature
 of property and usury4 ,she even has   
proclaimed through her pontiffs the most
 deplorable errors4 ,non potest mutuum1 
said ,benedict ,,xiv41 locationi ullo   
pacto comparari4 ,rent1 says ,bossuet1  
is as far from usury as heaven is from  
the earth4 ,how1 onsic such a doctrine1 
condemn lending at interest8 how justify
 the ,gospel1 which expressly forbids   
usury8 ,the difficulty of theologians is
 a very serious one4 ,unable to refute  
the economical demonstrations1 which    
rightly assimilate interest to rent1    
they no longer dare to condemn interest1
 and they can say only that there must  
be such a thing as usury1 since the     
,gospel forbids it4  ,footnote #bi3 ,i  
preach the ,gospel1 ,i live by the      
,gospel1 said the ,apostle2 meaning     
thereby that he lived by his labor4 ,the
 ,catholic clergy prefer to live by     
property4 ,the struggles in the communes
 of the middle ages between the priests 

and bishops and the large proprietors   
and seigneurs are famous4 ,the papal    
excommunications fulminated in defence  
of ecclesiastical revenues are no less  
so4 ,even to-day1 the official organs of
 the ,gallican clergy still maintain    
that the pay received by the clergy is  
not a salary1 but an indemnity for goods
 of which they were once proprietors1   
and which were taken from them in '#hi  
by the ,third ,estate4 ,the clergy      
prefer to live by the right of increase 
rather than by labor4  ,footnote #cj3   
,the meaning ordinarily attached to the 
word anarchy is absence of principle1   
absence of rule2 consequently1 it has   
been regarded as synonymous with        
disorder4  ,footnote #ca3 ,if such ideas
 are ever forced into the minds of the  
people1 it will be by representative    
government and the tyranny of talkers4  
,once science1 thought1 and speech were 
characterized by the same expression4   
,to designate a thoughtful and a learned
 man1 they said1 a man quick to speak   

and powerful in discourse4 ,for a long  
time1 speech has been abstractly        
distinguished from science and reason4  
,gradually1 this abstraction is becoming
 realized1 as the logicians say1 in     
society2 so that we have to-day savants 
of many kinds who talk but little1 and  
,,talkers who are not even savants in   
the science of speech4 ,thus a          
philosopher is no longer a savant3 he is
 a talker4 ,legislators and poets were  
once profound and sublime characters3   
now they are talkers4 ,a talker is a    
sonorous bell1 whom the least shock     
suffices to set in perpetual motion4    
,with the talker1 the flow of speech is 
always directly proportional to the     
poverty of thought4 ,talkers govern the 
world2 they stun us1 they bore us1 they 
worry us1 they suck our blood1 and laugh
 at us4 ,as for the savants1 they keep  
silence3 if they wish to say a word1    
they are cut short4 ,let them write4    
,footnote #cb3 libertas1 librare1       
libratio1 libra1--liberty1 to liberate1 

libration1 balance 7pound71--words which
 have a common derivation4 ,liberty is  
the balance of rights and duties4 ,to   
make a man free is to balance him with  
others1--that is1 to put him or their   
level4  ,footnote #cc3 ,in a monthly    
publication1 the first number of which  
has just appeared under the name of     
,l',egalitaire1 self-sacrifice is laid  
down as a principle of equality4 ,this  
is a confusion of ideas4 ,self-         
sacrifice1 taken alone1 is the last     
degree of inequality4 ,to seek equality 
in self-sacrifice is to confess that    
equality is against nature4 ,equality   
must be based upon justice1 upon strict 
right1 upon the principles invoked by   
the proprietor himself2 otherwise it    
will never exist4 ,self-sacrifice is    
superior to justice2 but it cannot be   
imposed as law1 because it is of such a 
nature as to admit of no reward4 ,it is1
 indeed1 desirable that everybody shall 
recognize the necessity of self-        
sacrifice1 and the idea of              

,l',egalitaire is an excellent example4 
,unfortunately1 it can have no effect4  
,what would you reply1 indeed1 to a man 
who should say to you1 ,i do not want to
 sacrifice myself8 ,is he to be         
compelled to do so8 ,when self-sacrifice
 is forced1 it becomes oppression1      
slavery1 the exploitation of man by man4
 ,thus have the proletaires sacrificed  
themselves to property4  ,footnote #cd3 
,the disciples of ,fourier have long    
seemed to me the most advanced of all   
modern socialists1 and almost the only  
ones worthy of the name4 ,if they had   
understood the nature of their task1    
spoken to the people1 awakened their    
sympathies1 and kept silence when they  
did not understand2 if they had made    
less extravagant pretensions1 and had   
shown more respect for public           
intelligence1--perhaps the reform would 
now1 thanks to them1 be in progress4    
,but why are these earnest reformers    
continually bowing to power and         
wealth1--that is1 to all that is anti-  

reformatory8 ,how1 in a thinking age1   
can they fail to see that the world must
 be converted by ,,demonstration1 not by
 myths and allegories8 ,why do they1 the
 deadly enemies of civilization1 borrow 
from it1 nevertheless1 its most         
pernicious fruits1--property1 inequality
 of fortune and rank1 gluttony1         
concubinage1 prostitution1 what do ,i   
know8 theurgy1 magic1 and sorcery8 ,why 
these endless denunciations of morality1
 metaphysics1 and psychology1 when the  
abuse of these sciences1 which they do  
not understand1 constitutes their whole 
system8 ,why this mania for deifying a  
man whose principal merit consisted in  
talking nonsense about things whose     
names1 even1 he did not know1 in the    
strongest language ever put upon paper8 
,whoever admits the infallibility of a  
man becomes thereby incapable of        
instructing others4 ,whoever denies his 
own reason will soon proscribe free     
thought4 ,the phalansterians would not  
fail to do it if they had the power4    

,let them condescend to reason1 let them
 proceed systematically1 let them give  
us demonstrations instead of            
revelations1 and we will listen         
willingly4 ,then let them organize      
manufactures1 agriculture1 and commerce2
 let them make labor attractive1 and the
 most humble functions honorable1 and   
our praise shall be theirs4 ,above all1 
let them throw off that ,illuminism     
which gives them the appearance of      
impostors or dupes1 rather than         
believers and apostles4  ,footnote #ce3 
,individual possession is no obstacle to
 extensive cultivation and unity of     
exploitation4 ,if ,i have not spoken of 
the drawbacks arising from small        
estates1 it is because ,i thought it    
useless to repeat what so many others   
have said1 and what by this time all the
 world must know4 ,but ,i am surprised  
that the economists1 who have so clearly
 shown the disadvantages of             
spade-husbandry1 have failed to see that
 it is caused entirely by property2     

above all1 that they have not perceived 
that their plan for mobilizing the soil 
is a first step towards the abolition of
 property4   ,footnote #cf3 ,in the     
,chamber of ,deputies1 during the       
session of the fifth of ,january1 #ahda1
 ,m4 ,dufaure moved to renew the        
expropriation bill1 on the ground of    
public utility4  ,footnote #cg3 ,what is
 ,property8 ,chap4 ,,iv41 ,ninth        
,proposition4  ,footnote #ch3 ,tu       
cognovisti sessionem meam et            
resurrectionem meam4 ,psalm #aci4       
,footnote #ci3 ,the emperor ,nicholas   
has just compelled all the manufacturers
 in his empire to maintain1 at their own
 expense1 within their establishments1  
small hospitals for the reception of    
sick workmen1--the number of beds in    
each being proportional to the number of
 laborers in the factory4 ,you profit by
 man's labor1 the ,czar could have said 
to his proprietors2 you shall be        
responsible for man's life4 ,m4 ,blanqui
 has said that such a measure could not 

succeed in ,france4 ,it would be an     
attack upon property1--a thing hardly   
conceivable even in ,russia1 ,scythia1  
or among the ,cossacks2 but among us1   
the oldest sons of civilization6444 ,i  
fear very much that this quality of age 
may prove in the end a mark of          
decrepitude4  ,footnote #dj3 ,course of 
,m4 ,blanqui4 ,lecture of ,nov4         
#bg1ahdj4  ,footnote #da3 ,in           
,mazaniello1 the ,neapolitan fisherman  
demands1 amid the applause of the       
galleries1 that a tax be levied upon    
luxuries4  ,footnote #db3               
,seme le champ1 proletaire2 ,c'est l    
l'oisif qui recoltera4  ,footnote #dc3  
,in some countries1 the enjoyment of    
certain political rights depends upon   
the amount of property4 ,but1 in these  
same countries1 property is expressive1 
rather than attributive1 of the         
qualifications necessary to the exercise
 of these rights4 ,it is rather a       
conjectural proof than the cause of     
these qualifications4--,rossi3 ,treatise

 on ,penal ,law4  ,footnote #dd3        
,lecture of ,december #bb4  ,footnote   
#de3 ,lecture of ,jan4 #ae1 #ahda4      
,footnote #df3 ,lecture of ,jan4 #ae1   
#ahda4  ,footnote #dg3 ,,mm4 ,blanqui   
and ,wolowski4  ,footnote #dh3 ,subject 
proposed by the ,fourth ,class of the   
,institute1 the ,academy of ,moral and  
,political ,sciences3 ,what would be the
 effect upon the working-class of the   
organization of labor1 according to the 
modern ideas of association8  ,footnote 
#di3 ,subject proposed by the ,academy  
of ,besancon3 ,the economical and moral 
consequences in ,france1 up to the      
present time1 and those which seem      
likely to appear in future1 of the law  
concerning the equal division of        
hereditary property between the         
children4  ,footnote #ej3 ,,greek1 8n n 
'1--greater property4 ,the ,vulgate     
translates it avaritia4  ,footnote #ea3 
,similar or analogous customs have      
existed among all nations4 ,consult1    
among other works1 ,origin of ,french   

,law1 by ,m4 ,michelet2 and ,antiquities
 of ,german ,law1 by ,grimm4  ,footnote 
#eb3 ,dees hominesque testamur1 nos arma
 neque contra patriam cepisse neque quo 
periculum aliis faceremus1 sed uti      
corpora nostra ab injuria tuta forent1  
qui miseri1 egentes1 violentia atque    
crudelitate foeneraterum1 plerique      
patriae1 sed omncsfarna atque fortunis  
expertes sumus2 neque cuiquam nostrum   
licuit1 more majorum1 lege uti1 neque1  
amisso patrimonio1 libferum corpus      
habere4--,sallus3 ,bellum ,catilinarium4
   ,footnote #ec3 ,fifty1 sixty1 and    
eighty per cent4--,course of ,m4        
,blanqui4  ,footnote #ed3 ,episcopi     
plurimi1 quos et hortamento esse oportet
 caeteris et exemplo1 divina prouratione
 contempta1 procuratores rerum          
saeularium fieri1 derelicta cathedra1   
plebe leserta1 per alienas provincias   
oberrantes1 negotiationis quaestuosae   
nundinas au uucu-1 pari1 esurientibus in
 ecclesia fratribus habere argentum     
largitur velle1 fundos insidi4sis       

fraudibus rapere1 usuris                
multiplicantibus faenus                 
augere4--,cyprian3 ,de ,lapsis4         
--,,note3 what does this refer to8 ,this
 is at bottom of pg #cda in ,,ms ,in    
this passage1 ,st4 ,cyprian alludes to  
lending on mortgages and to compound    
interest4  ,footnote #ee3 ,inquiries    
concerning ,property among the ,romans4 
,footnote #ef3 ,its acquisitive nature  
works rapidly in the sleep of the law4  
,it is ready1 at the word1 to absorb    
every thing4 ,witness the famous        
equivocation about the ox-hide which1   
when cut up into thongs1 was large      
enough to enclose the site of           
,carthage4444 ,the legend has reappeared
 several times since ,dido4444 ,such is 
the love of man for the land4 ,limited  
by tombs1 measured by the members of the
 human body1 by the thumb1 the foot1 and
 the arm1 it harmonizes1 as far as      
possible1 with the very proportions of  
man4 ,nor is he satisfied yet3 he calls 
,heaven to witness that it is his2 he   

tries to or his land1 to give it the    
form of heaven4444 ,in his titanic      
intoxication1 he describes property in  
the very terms which he employs in      
describing the ,almighty--fundus optimus
 maximus4444 ,he shall make it his      
couch1 and they shall be separated no   
more1--,,greek1 ' nf g h g              
g4--,michelet3,origin of ,french ,law4  
,footnote #eg3 ,m4 ,guizot denies that  
,christianity alone is entitled to the  
glory of the abolition of slavery4 ,to  
this end1 he says1 many causes were     
necessary1--the evolution of other ideas
 and other principles of civilization4  
,so general an assertion cannot be      
refuted4 ,some of these ideas and causes
 should have been pointed out1 that we  
might judge whether their source was not
 wholly ,christian1 or whether at least 
the ,christian spirit had not penetrated
 and thus fructified them4 ,most of the 
emancipation charters begin with these  
words3 ,for the love of ,god and the    
salvation of my soul4  ,footnote #eh3   

,weregild1--the fine paid for the murder
 of a man4 ,so much for a count1 so much
 for a baron1 so much for a freeman1 so 
much for a priest2 for a slave1 nothing4
 ,his value was restored to the         
proprietor4  ,footnote #ei3 ,the spirit 
of despotism and monopoly which animated
 the communes has not escaped the       
attention of historians4 ,the formation 
of the commoners' associations1 says    
,meyer1 did not spring from the true    
spirit of liberty1 but from the desire  
for exemption from the charges of the   
seigniors1 from individual interests1   
and jealousy of the welfare of          
others4444 ,each commune or corporation 
opposed the creation of every other2 and
 this spirit increased to such an extent
 that the ,king of ,england1 ,henry ,v41
 having established a university at     
,caen1 in #adcb1 the city and university
 of ,paris opposed the registration of  
the edict4  ,footnote #fj3 ,feudalism   
was1 in spirit and in its providential  
destiny1 a long protest of the human    

personality against the monkish         
communism with which ,europe1 in the    
middle ages1 was overrun4 ,after the    
orgies of ,pagan selfishness1           
society--carried to the opposite extreme
 by the ,christian religion--risked its 
life by unlimited self-denial and       
absolute indifference to the pleasures  
of the world4 ,feudalism was the        
balance-weight which saved ,europe from 
the combined influence of the religious 
communities and the ,manlchean sects    
which had sprung up since the fourth    
century under different names and in    
different countries4 ,modern            
civilization is indebted to feudalism   
for the definitive establishment of the 
person1 of marriage1 of the family1 and 
of country4 7,see1 on this subject1     
,guizot1 ,history of ,civilization in   
,europe47  ,footnote #fa3 ,this was made
 evident in ,july1 #ahcj1 and the years 
which followed it1 when the electoral   
bourgeoisie effected a revolution in    
order to get control over the king1 and 

suppressed the emeutes in order to      
restrain the people4 ,the bourgeoisie1  
through the jury1 the magistracy1 its   
position in the army1 and its municipal 
despotism1 governs both royalty and the 
people4 ,it is the bourgeoisie which1   
more than any other class1 is           
conservative and retrogressive4 ,it is  
the bourgeoisie which makes and unmakes 
ministries4 ,it is the bourgeoisie which
 has destroyed the influence of the     
,upper ,chamber1 and which will dethrone
 the ,king whenever he shall become     
unsatisfactory to it4 ,it is to please  
the bourgeoisie that royalty makes      
itself unpopular4 ,it is the bourgeoisie
 which is troubled at the hopes of the  
people1 and which hinders reform4 ,the  
journals of the bourgeoisie are the ones
 which preach morality and religion to  
us1 while reserving scepticism and      
indifference for themselves2 which      
attack personal government1 and favor   
the denial of the electoral privilege to
 those who have no property4 ,the       

bourgeoisie will accept any thing rather
 than the emancipation of the           
proletariat4 ,as soon as it thinks its  
privileges threatened1 it will unite    
with royalty2 and who does not know that
 at this very moment these two          
antagonists have suspended their        
quarrels8444 ,it has been a question of 
property4  ,footnote #fb3 ,the same     
opinion was recently expressed from the 
tribune by one of our most honorable    
,deputies1 ,m4 ,gauguier4 ,nature1 said 
he1 has not endowed man with landed     
property4 ,changing the adjective       
,,landed1 which designates only a       
species into ,,capitalistic1 which      
denotes the genus1--,m4 ,gauguier made  
an egalitaire profession of faith4      
,footnote #fc3 ,a professor of          
comparative legislation1 ,m4 ,lerminier1
 has gone still farther4 ,he has dared  
to say that the nation took from the    
clergy all their possessions1 not       
because of ,,idleness1 but because of   
,,unworthiness4 ,you have civilized the 

world1 cries this apostle of equality1  
speaking to the priests2 and for that   
reason your possessions were given you4 
,in your hands they were at once an     
instrument and a reward4 ,but you do not
 now deserve them1 for you long since   
ceased to civilize any thing            
whatever4444  ,footnote #fd3 ,treatise  
on ,prescription4  ,footnote #fe3       
,origin of ,french ,law4  ,footnote #ff3
 ,to honor one's parents1 to be grateful
 to one's benefactors1 to neither kill  
nor steal1--truths of inward sensation4 
,to obey ,god rather than men1 to render
 to each that which is his2 the whole is
 greater than a part1 a straight line is
 the shortest road from one point to    
another1--truths of intuition4 ,all are 
a priori but the first are felt by the  
conscience1 and imply only a simple act 
of the soul2 the second are perceived by
 the reason1 and imply comparison and   
relation4 ,in short1 the former are     
sentiments1 the latter are ideas4       
,footnote #fg3 ,armand ,carrel would    

have favored the fortification of the   
capital4 ,le ,national has said1 again  
and again1 placing the name of its old  
editor by the side of the names of      
,napoleon and ,vauban4 ,what signifies  
this exhumation of an anti-popular      
politician8 ,it signifies that ,armand  
,carrel wished to make government an    
individual and irremovable1 but         
elective1 property1 and that he wished  
this property to be elected1 not by the 
people1 but by the army4 ,the political 
system of ,carrel was simply a          
reorganization of the pretorian guards4 
,carrel also hated the pequins4 ,that   
which he deplored in the revolution of  
,july was not1 they say1 the            
insurrection of the people1 but the     
victory of the people over the soldiers4
 ,that is the reason why ,carrel1 after 
#ahcj1 would never support the patriots4
 ,do you answer me with a few regiments8
 he asked4 ,armand ,carrel regarded the 
army--the military power--as the basis  
of law and government4 ,this man        

undoubtedly had a moral sense within    
him1 but he surely had no sense of      
justice4 ,were he still in this world1  
,i declare it boldly1 liberty would have
 no greater enemy than ,carrel4         
,footnote #fh3 ,in a very short article1
 which was read by ,m4 ,wolowski1 ,m4   
,louis ,blanc declares1 in substance1   
that he is not a communist 7which ,i    
easily believe72 that one must be a fool
 to attack property 7but he does not say
 why72 and that it is very necessary to 
guard against confounding property with 
its abuses4 ,when ,voltaire overthrew   
,christianity1 he repeatedly avowed that
 he had no spite against religion1 but  
only against its abuses4  ,footnote #fi3
 ,the property fever is at its height   
among writers and artists1 and it is    
curious to see the complacency with     
which our legislators and men of letters
 cherish this devouring passion4 ,an    
artist sells a picture1 and then1 the   
merchandise delivered1 assumes to       
prevent the purchaser from selling      

engravings1 under the pretext that he1  
the painter1 in selling the original1   
has not sold his ,,design4 ,a dispute   
arises between the amateur and the      
artist in regard to both the fact and   
the law4 ,m4 ,villemain1 the ,minister  
of ,public ,instruction1 being consulted
 as to this particular case1 finds that 
the painter is right2 only the property 
in the design should have been specially
 reserved in the contract3 so that1 in  
reality1 ,m4 ,villemain recognizes in   
the artist a power to surrender his work
 and prevent its communication2 thus    
contradicting the legal axiom1 ,one     
,,cannot ,,give ,,and ,,keep ,,at ,,the 
,,same ,,time4 ,a strange reasoner is   
,m4 ,villemain6 ,an ambiguous principle 
leads to a false conclusion4 ,instead of
 rejecting the principle1 ,m4 ,villemain
 hastens to admit the conclusion4 ,with 
him the reductio ad absurdum is a       
convincing argument4 ,thus he is made   
official defender of literary property1 
sure of being understood and sustained  

by a set of loafers1 the disgrace of    
literature and the plague of public     
morals4 ,why1 then1 does ,m4 ,villemain 
feel so strong an interest in setting   
himself up as the chief of the literary 
classes1 in playing for their benefit   
the role of ,trissotin in the councils  
of the ,state1 and in becoming the      
accomplice and associate of a band of   
profligates1--soi-disant men of         
letters1--who for more than ten years   
have labored with such deplorable       
success to ruin public spirit1 and      
corrupt the heart by warping the mind8  
,footnote #gj3 ,m4 ,leroux has been     
highly praised in a review for having   
defended property4 ,i do not know       
whether the industrious encyclopedist is
 pleased with the praise1 but ,i know   
very well that in his place ,i should   
mourn for reason and for truth4         
,footnote #ga3 ,impartial1 of ,besancon4
  ,footnote #gb3 ,the ,arians deny the  
divinity of ,christ4 ,the ,semi-,arians 
differ from the ,arians only by a few   

subtle distinctions4 ,m4 ,pierre        
,leroux1 who regards ,jesus as a man1   
but claims that the ,spirit of ,god was 
infused into him1 is a true             
,semi-,arian4  ,the ,manicheans admit   
two co-existent and eternal             
principles1--,god and matter1 spirit and
 flesh1 light and darkness1 good and    
evil2 but1 unlike the ,phalansterians1  
who pretend to reconcile the two1 the   
,manicheans make war upon matter1 and   
labor with all their might for the      
destruction of the flesh1 by condemning 
marriage and forbidding                 
reproduction1--which does not prevent   
them1 however1 from indulging in all the
 carnal pleasures which the intensest   
lust can conceive of4 ,in this last     
particular1 the tendency of the         
,fourieristic morality is quite         
,manichean4  ,the ,gnostics do not      
differ from the early ,christians4 ,as  
their name indicates1 they regarded     
themselves as inspired4 ,fourier1 who   
held peculiar ideas concerning the      

visions of somnambulists1 and who       
believed in the possibility of          
developing the magnetic power to such an
 extent as to enable us to commune with 
invisible beings1 might1 if he were     
living1 pass also for a ,gnostic4  ,the 
,adamites attend mass entirely naked1   
from motives of chastity4 ,jean ,jacques
 ,rousseau1 who took the sleep of the   
senses for chastity1 and who saw in     
modesty only a refinement of pleasure1  
inclined towards ,adamism4 ,i know such 
a sect1 whose members usually celebrate 
their mysteries in the costume of ,venus
 coming from the bath4  ,the            
,pre-,adamites believe that men existed 
before the first man4 ,i once met a     
,pre-,adamite4 ,true1 he was deaf and a 
,fourierist4  ,the ,pelagians deny      
grace1 and attribute all the merit of   
good works to liberty4 ,the             
,fourierists1 who teach that man's      
nature and passions are good1 are       
reversed ,pelagians2 they give all to   
grace1 and nothing to liberty4  ,the    

,socinians1 deists in all other         
respects1 admit an original revelation4 
,many people are ,socinians to-day1 who 
do not suspect it1 and who regard their 
opinions as new4  ,the ,neo-,christians 
are those simpletons who admire         
,christianity because it has produced   
bells and cathedrals4 ,base in soul1    
corrupt in heart1 dissolute in mind and 
senses1 the ,neo-,christians seek       
especially after the external form1 and 
admire religion1 as they love women1 for
 its physical beauty4 ,they believe in a
 coming revelation1 as well as a        
transfiguration of ,catholicism4 ,they  
will sing masses at the grand spectacle 
in the phalanstery4  ,footnote #gc3 ,it 
should be understood that the above     
refers only to the moral and political  
doctrines of ,fourier1--doctrines which1
 like all philosophical and religious   
systems1 have their root and raison     
d'existence in society itself1 and for  
this reason deserve to be examined4 ,the
 peculiar speculations of ,fourier and  

his sect concerning cosmogony1 geology1 
natural history1 physiology1 and        
psychology1 ,i leave to the attention of
 those who would think it their duty to 
seriously refute the fables of ,blue    
,beard and the ,ass's ,skin4  ,footnote 
#gd3 ,a writer for the radical press1   
,m4 ,louis ,raybaud1 said1 in the       
preface to his ,studies of ,contemporary
 ,reformers3 ,who does not know that    
morality is relative8 ,aside from a few 
grand sentiments which are strikingly   
instinctive1 the measure of human acts  
varies with nations and climates1 and   
only civilization--the progressive      
education of the race--can lead to a    
universal morality4444 ,the absolute    
escapes our contingent and finite       
nature2 the absolute is the secret of   
,god4 ,god keep from evil ,m4 ,louis    
,raybaud6 ,but ,i cannot help remarking 
that all political apostates begin by   
the negation of the absolute1 which is  
really the negation of truth4 ,what can 
a writer1 who professes scepticism1 have

 in common with radical views8 ,what has
 he to say to his readers8 ,what        
judgment is he entitled to pass upon    
contemporary reformers8 ,m4 ,raybaud    
thought it would seem wise to repeat an 
old impertinence of the legist1 and that
 may serve him for an excuse4 ,we all   
have these weaknesses4 ,but ,i am       
surprised that a man of so much         
intelligence as ,m4 ,raybaud1 who       
,,studies ,,systems1 fails to see the   
very thing he ought first to            
recognize1--namely1 that systems are the
 progress of the mind towards the       
absolute4  ,footnote #ge3 ,the electoral
 reform1 it is continually asserted1 is 
not an ,,end1 but a ,,means4            
,undoubtedly2 but what1 then1 is the    
end8 ,why not furnish an unequivocal    
explanation of its object8 ,how can the 
people choose their representatives1    
unless they know in advance the purpose 
for which they choose them1 and the     
object of the commission which they     
entrust to them8 ,but1 it is said1 the  

very business of those chosen by the    
people is to find out the object of the 
reform4 ,that is a quibble4 ,what is to 
hinder these persons1 who are to be     
elected in future1 from first seeking   
for this object1 and then1 when they    
have found it1 from communicating it to 
the people8 ,the reformers have well    
said1 that1 while the object of the     
electoral reform remains in the least   
indefinite1 it will be only a means of  
transferring power from the hands of    
petty tyrants to the hands of other     
tyrants4 ,we know already how a nation  
may be oppressed by being led to believe
 that it is obeying only its own laws4  
,the history of universal suffrage1     
among all nations1 is the history of the
 restrictions of liberty by and in the  
name of the multitude4 ,still1 if the   
electoral reform1 in its present shape1 
were rational1 practical1 acceptable to 
clean consciences and upright minds1    
perhaps one might be excused1 though    
ignorant of its object1 for supporting  

it4 ,but1 no2 the text of the petition  
determines nothing1 makes no            
distinctions1 requires no conditions1 no
 guarantee2 it establishes the right    
without the duty4 ,every ,frenchman is a
 voter1 and eligible to office4 ,as well
 say3 ,every bayonet is intelligent1    
every savage is civilized1 every slave  
is free4 ,in its vague generality1 the  
reformatory petition is the weakest of  
abstractions1 or the highest form of    
political treason4 ,consequently1 the   
enlightened patriots distrust and       
despise each other4 ,the most radical   
writer of the time1--he whose economical
 and social theories are1 without       
comparison1 the most advanced1--,m4     
,leroux1 has taken a bold stand against 
universal suffrage and democratic       
government1 and has written an          
exceedingly keen criticism of ,j4 ,j4   
,rousseau4 ,that is undoubtedly the     
reason why ,m4 ,leroux is no longer the 
philosopher of ,le ,national4 ,that     
journal1 like ,napoleon1 does not like  

men of ideas4 ,nevertheless1 ,le        
,national ought to know that he who     
fights against ideas will perish by     
ideas4