,the ,religions of ,ancient ,egypt and ,babylonia ,the ,gifford ,lectures on the ,ancient ,egyptian and ,babylonian ,conception of the ,divine ,delivered in ,aberdeen ,by ,archibald ,henry ,sayce1 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,professor of ,assyriology1 ,oxford ,edinburgh ,t4 ,t4 ,clark1 #ch ,george ,street #aijc ,,contents ,preface4 ,part ,i4 ,the ,religion ,of ,ancient ,egypt4 ,lecture ,i4 ,introduction4 ,lecture ,,ii4 ,egyptian ,religion4 ,lecture ,,iii4 ,the ,imperishable ,part ,of ,man ,and ,the ,other ,world4 ,lecture ,,iv4 ,the ,sun-,god ,and ,the ,ennead4 ,lecture ,v4 ,animal ,worship4 ,lecture ,,vi4 ,the ,gods ,of ,egypt4 ,lecture ,,vii4 ,osiris ,and ,the ,osirian ,faith4 ,lecture ,,viii4 ,the ,sacred ,books4 ,lecture ,,ix4 ,the ,popular ,religion ,of ,egypt4 ,lecture ,x4 ,the ,place ,of ,egyptian ,religion ,in ,the ,history ,of ,theology4 ,part ,,ii4 ,the ,religion ,of ,the ,babylonians4 ,lecture ,i4 ,introductory4 ,lecture ,,ii4 ,primitive ,animism4 ,lecture ,,iii4 ,the ,gods ,of ,babylonia4 ,lecture ,,iv4 ,the ,sun-,god ,and ,istar4 ,lecture ,v4 ,sumerian ,and ,semitic ,conceptions ,of ,the ,divine3 ,assur ,and ,monotheism4 ,lecture ,,vi4 ,cosmologies4 ,lecture ,,vii4 ,the ,sacred ,books4 ,lecture ,,viii4 ,the ,myths ,and ,epics4 ,lecture ,,ix4 ,the ,ritual ,of ,the ,temple4 ,lecture ,x4 ,astro-,theology ,and ,the ,moral ,element ,in ,babylonian ,religion4 ,index4 ,footnotes ,,preface4 ,the subject of the following ,lectures was 8,the ,conception of the ,divine among the ancient ,egyptians and ,babylonians10 and in writing them ,i have kept this aspect of them constantly in view4 ,the time has not yet come for a systematic history of ,babylonian religion1 whatever may be the case as regards ancient ,egypt1 and1 for reasons stated in the text1 we must be content with general principles and fragmentary details4 ,it is on this account that so little advance has been made in grasping the real nature and characteristics of ,babylonian religion1 and that a sort of natural history description of it has been supposed to be all that is needed by the student of religion4 ,while reading over again my ,hibbert ,lectures1 as well as later works on the subject1 ,i have been gratified at finding how largely they have borrowed from me1 even though it be without acknowledgment4 ,but my ,hibbert ,lectures were necessarily a pioneering work1 and we must now attempt to build on the materials which were there brought together4 ,in the present volume1 therefore1 the materials are presupposed2 they will be found for the most part either in my ,hibbert ,lectures or in the cuneiform texts which have since been published4 ,we are better off1 fortunately1 as regards the religion of ancient ,egypt4 ,thanks more especially to ,professor ,maspero's unrivalled combination of learning and genius1 we are beginning to learn what the old ,egyptian faith actually was1 and what were the foundations on which it rested4 ,the development of its dogmas can be traced1 at all events to a certain extent1 and we can even watch the progress of their decay4 ,there are two facts which1 ,i am bound to add1 have been forced upon me by a study of the old religions of civilised humanity4 ,on the one hand1 they testify to the continuity of religious thought4 ,god's light lighteth every man that cometh into the world1 and the religions of ,egypt and ,babylonia illustrate the words of the evangelist4 ,they form1 as it were1 the background and preparation for ,judaism and ,christianity2 ,christianity is the fulfilment1 not of the ,law only1 but of all that was truest and best in the religions of the ancient world4 ,in it the beliefs and aspirations of ,egypt and ,babylonia have found their explanation and fulfilment4 ,but1 on the other hand1 between ,judaism and the coarsely polytheistic religion of ,babylonia1 as also between ,christianity and the old ,egyptian faith1--in spite of its high morality and spiritual insight1--there lies an impassable gulf4 ,and for the existence of this gulf ,i can find only one explanation1 unfashionable and antiquated though it be4 ,in the language of a former generation1 it marks the dividing-line between revelation and unrevealed religion4 ,it is like that 8something10 hard to define1 yet impossible to deny1 which separates man from the ape1 even though on the physiological side the ape may be the ancestor of the man4 ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce4 ,october #aijb4 ,,part ,i4 ,,the ,,religion ,,of ,,ancient ,,egypt4 ,lecture ,i4 ,introduction4 ,it was with a considerable amount of diffidence that ,i accepted the invitation to deliver a course of lectures before this ,university1 in accordance with the terms of ,lord ,gifford's bequest4 ,not only is the subject of them a wide and comprehensive one2 it is one1 moreover1 which is full of difficulties4 ,the materials upon which the lectures must be based are almost entirely monumental3 they consist of sculptures and paintings1 of objects buried with the dead or found among the ruins of temples1 and1 above all1 of texts written in languages and characters which only a century ago were absolutely unknown4 ,how fragmentary and mutilated such materials must be1 ,i need hardly point out4 ,the ,egyptian or ,babylonian texts we possess at present are but a tithe of those which once existed1 or even of those which will yet be discovered4 ,indeed1 so far as the ,babylonian texts are concerned1 a considerable proportion of those which have already been stored in the museums of ,europe and ,america are still undeciphered1 and the work of thoroughly examining them will be the labour of years4 ,and of those which have been copied and translated1 the imperfections are great4 ,not infrequently a text is broken just where it seemed about to throw light on some problem of religion or history1 or where a few more words were needed in order to explain the sense4 ,or again1 only a single document may have survived to us out of a long series1 like a single chapter out of a book1 leading us to form a wholly wrong idea of the author's meaning and the object of the work he had written or compiled4 ,we all know how dangerous it is to explain a passage apart from its context1 and to what erroneous conclusions such a practice is likely to lead4 ,and yet it is with such broken and precarious materials that the student of the religions of the past has to work4 ,classical antiquity can give us but little help4 ,in the literary age of ,greece and ,rome the ancient religions of ,babylonia and ,egypt had passed into their dotage1 and the conceptions on which they were founded had been transformed or forgotten4 ,what was left of them was little more than an empty and unintelligible husk1 or even a mere caricature4 ,the gods1 in whose name the kings of ,assyria had gone forth to conquer1 and in whose honour ,nebuchadrezzar had reared the temples and palaces of ,babylon1 had degenerated into the patrons of a system of magic2 the priests1 who had once made and unmade the lords of the ,east1 had become 8,chaldan0 fortune-tellers1 and the religion and science of ,babylonia were remembered only for their connection with astrology4 ,the old tradition had survived in ,egypt with less apparent alteration1 but even there the continuity of religious belief and teaching was more apparent than real1 external rather than internal2 and though the ,ptolemies and early ,roman emperors rebuilt the temples on the old lines1 and allowed themselves to be depicted in the dress of the ,pharaohs1 making offerings to gods whose very names they could not have pronounced1 it was all felt to be but a sham1 a dressing up1 as it were1 in the clothes of a religion out of which all the spirit and life had fled4 ,both in ,egypt and in ,babylonia1 therefore1 we are thrown back upon the monumental texts which the excavator has recovered from the soil1 and the decipherer has pieced together with infinite labour and patience4 ,at every step we are brought face to face with the imperfections of the record1 and made aware how much we have to read into the story1 how scanty is the evidence1 how disconnected are the facts4 ,the conclusions we form must to a large extent be theoretical and provisional1 liable to be revised and modified with the acquisition of fresh material or a more skilful combination of what is already known4 ,we are compelled to interpret the past in the light of the present1 to judge the men of old by the men of to-day1 and to explain their beliefs in accordance with what seem to us the common and natural opinions of civilised humanity4 ,i need not point out how precarious all such attempts must necessarily be4 ,there is nothing harder than to determine the real character of the religion of a people1 even when the religion is still living4 ,we may describe its outward characteristics1 though even these are not unfrequently a matter of dispute2 but the religious ideas themselves1 which constitute its essence1 are far more difficult to grasp and define4 ,indeed1 it is not always easy for the individual himself to state with philosophical or scientific precision the religious beliefs which he may hold4 ,difficult as it is to know what another man believes1 it is sometimes quite as difficult to know exactly what one believes one's self4 ,our religious ideas and beliefs are a heritage which has come to us from the past1 but which has also been influenced and modified by the experiences we have undergone1 by the education we have received1 and1 above all1 by the knowledge and tendencies of our age4 ,we seldom attempt to reduce them into a harmonious whole1 to reconcile their inconsistencies1 or to fit them into a consistent system4 ,beliefs which go back1 it may be1 to the ages of barbarism1 exist with but little change by the side of others which are derived from the latest revelations of physical science2 and our conceptions of a spiritual world are not unfrequently an ill-assorted mixture of survivals from a time when the universe was but a small tract of the earth's surface1 with an extinguisher-like firmament above it1 and of the ideas which astronomy has given us of illimitable space1 with its millions of worlds4 ,if it is difficult to understand and describe with accuracy the religions which are living in our midst1 how much more difficult must it be to understand and describe the religions that have gone before them1 even when the materials for doing so are at hand6 ,we are constantly told that the past history of the particular forms of religion which we profess1 has been misunderstood and misconceived2 that it is only now1 for example1 that the true history of early ,christianity is being discovered and written1 or that the motives and principles underlying the ,reformation are being rightly understood4 ,the earlier phases in the history of a religion soon become unintelligible to a later generation4 ,if we would understand them1 we must have not only the materials in which the record of them has been1 as it were1 embodied1 but also the seeing eye and the sympathetic mind which will enable us to throw ourselves back into the past1 to see the world as our forefathers saw it1 and to share for a time in their beliefs4 ,then and then only shall we be able to realise what the religion of former generations actually meant1 what was its inner essence as well as its outer form4 ,when1 instead of examining and describing a past phase in the history of a still existing form of faith1 we are called upon to examine and describe a form of faith which has wholly passed away1 our task becomes infinitely greater4 ,we have no longer the principle of continuity and development to help us2 it is a new plant that we have to study1 not the same plant in an earlier period of its growth4 ,the fundamental ideas which form1 as it were1 its environment1 are strange to us2 the polytheism of ,babylonia1 or the animal-worship of ,egypt1 transports us to a world of ideas which stands wholly apart from that wherein we move4 ,it is difficult for us to put ourselves in the place of those who saw no underlying unity in the universe1 no single principle to which it could all be referred1 or who believed that the dumb animals were incarnations of the divine4 ,and yet1 until we can do so1 the religions of the two great cultured nations of the ancient world1 the pioneers of the civilisation we enjoy to-day1 will be for us a hopeless puzzle1 a labyrinth without a clue4 ,before that clue can be found1 we must divest ourselves of our modernism4 ,we must go back in thought and sympathy to the old ,orient1 and forget1 so far as is possible1 the intervening ages of history and development1 and the mental and moral differences between the ,east and the ,west4 ,i say so far as is possible1 for the possibility is relative only4 ,no man can shake off the influences of the age and country of which he is the child2 we cannot undo our training and education1 or root out the inherited instincts with which we were born4 ,we cannot put back the hand of time1 nor can the ,ethiopian change his skin4 ,all we can do is to suppress our own prejudices1 to rid ourselves of baseless assumptions and prepossessions1 and to interpret such evidence as we have honestly and literally4 ,above all1 we must possess that power of sympathy1 that historical imagination1 as it is sometimes called1 which will enable us to realise the past1 and to enter1 in some degree1 into its feelings and experiences4 ,the first fact which the historian of religion has to bear in mind is1 that religion and morality are not necessarily connected together4 ,the recent history of religion in ,western ,europe1 it is true1 has made it increasingly difficult for us to understand this fact1 especially in days when systems of morality have been put forward as religions in themselves4 ,but between religion and morality there is not necessarily any close tie4 ,religion has to do with a power outside ourselves1 morality with our conduct one to another4 ,the civilised nations of the world have doubtless usually regarded the power that governs the universe as a moral power1 and have consequently placed morality under the sanction of religion4 ,but the power may also be conceived of as non-moral1 or even as immoral2 the blind law of destiny1 to which1 according to ,greek belief1 the gods themselves were subject1 was necessarily non-moral2 while certain ,gnostic sects accounted for the existence of evil by the theory that the creator-god was imperfect1 and therefore evil in his nature4 ,indeed1 the cruelties perpetrated by what we term nature have seemed to many so contrary to the very elements of moral law1 as to presuppose that the power which permits and orders them is essentially immoral4 ,zoroastrianism divided the world between a god of good and a god of evil1 and held that1 under the present dispensation at all events1 the god of evil was1 on the whole1 the stronger power4 ,it is strength rather than goodness that primitive man admires1 worships1 and fears4 ,in the struggle for existence1 at any rate in its earlier stages1 physical strength plays the most important part4 ,the old instinctive pride of strength which enabled our first ancestors to battle successfully against the forces of nature and the beasts of the forest1 still survives in the child and the boy4 ,the baby still delights to pull off the wings and legs of the fly that has fallen into its power2 and the hero of the playground is the strongest athlete1 and not the best scholar or the most virtuous of schoolboys4 ,a sudden outbreak of political fury like that which characterised the ,french ,revolution shows how thin is the varnish of conventional morality which covers the passions of civilised man1 and ,christian ,europe still makes the battlefield its court of final appeal4 ,like the lower animals1 man is still governed by the law which dooms the weaker to extinction or decay1 and gives the palm of victory to the strong4 ,in spite of all that moralists may say and preach1 power and not morality still governs the world4 ,we need not wonder1 therefore1 that in the earliest forms of religion we find little or no traces of the moral element4 ,what we term morality was1 in fact1 a slow growth4 ,it was the necessary result of life in a community4 ,as long as men lived apart one from the other1 there was little opportunity for its display or evolution4 ,but with the rise of a community came also the development of a moral law4 ,in its practical details1 doubtless1 that law differed in many respects from the moral law which we profess to obey to-day4 ,it was only by slow degrees that the sacredness of the marriage tie or of family life1 as we understand it1 came to be recognised4 ,among certain tribes of ,esquimaux there is still promiscuous intercourse between the two sexes2 and wherever ,mohammedanism extends1 polygamy1 with its attendant degradation of the woman1 is permitted4 ,on the other hand1 there are still tribes and races in which polyandry is practised1 and the child has consequently no father whom it can rightfully call its own4 ,until the recent conversion of the ,fijians to ,christianity1 it was considered a filial duty for the sons to kill and devour their parents when they had become too old for work2 and in the royal family of ,egypt1 as among the ,ptolemies who entered on its heritage1 the brother was compelled by law and custom to marry his sister4 ,family morality1 in fact1 if ,i may use such an expression1 has been slower in its development than communal morality3 it was in the community and in the social relations of men to one another that the ethical sense was first developed1 and it was from the community that the newly-won code of morals was transferred to the family4 ,man recognised that he was a moral agent in his dealings with the community to which he belonged1 long before he recognised it as an individual4 ,religion1 however1 has an inverse history4 ,it starts from the individual1 it is extended to the community4 ,the individual must have a sense of a power outside himself1 whom he is called upon to worship or propitiate1 before he can rise to the idea of tribal gods4 ,the fetish can be adored1 the ancestor addressed in prayer1 before the family has become the tribe1 or promiscuous intercourse has passed into polygamy4 ,the association of morality and religion1 therefore1 is not only not a necessity1 but it is of comparatively late origin in the history of mankind4 ,indeed1 the union of the two is by no means complete even yet4 ,orthodox ,christianity still maintains that correctness of belief is at least as important as correctness of behaviour1 and it is not so long ago that men were punished and done to death1 not for immoral conduct1 but for refusing to accept some dogma of the ,church4 ,in the eyes of the ,creator1 the correct statement of abstruse metaphysical questions was supposed to be of more importance than the fulfilment of the moral law4 ,the first step in the work of bringing religion and morality together was to place morality under the sanction of religion4 ,the rules of conduct which the experiences of social life had rendered necessary or advantageous were enforced by an appeal to the terrors of religious belief4 ,practices which sinned against the code of social morality were put under the ban of the gods and their ministers1 and those who ventured to adopt them were doomed to destruction in this world and the next4 ,the tapu1 which was originally confined to reserving certain places and objects for the use of the divine powers1 was invoked for the protection of ethical laws1 or to punish violations of them1 and the curse of heaven was called down not only upon the enemy of the tribe1 but upon the enemy of the moral code of the tribe as well4 ,religion thus became tribal as well as personal2 the religious instinct in the individual clothed itself with the forms of social life1 and the religious conceptions which had gathered round the life of the family were modified and transferred to the life of the community4 ,it was no longer only a feeling of fear or reverence on the part of the individual which made him bow down before the terrors of the supernatural and obey its behests2 to this were now added all the ties and associations connected with the life of a tribe4 ,the ethical element was joined to the religious1 and what has been termed the religious instinct or consciousness in the individual man attached itself to the rules and laws of ethical conduct4 ,but the attachment was1 in the first instance1 more or less accidental2 long ages had to pass before the place of the two elements1 the ethical and religious1 was reversed1 and the religious sanction of the ethical code was exchanged for an ethical sanction of religion4 ,it needed centuries of training before a ,christian poet could declare3 8,he can't be wrong whose life is in the right40 ,there is yet another danger against which we must guard when dealing with the religions of the past2 it is that of confusing the thoughts and utterances of individuals with the common religious beliefs of the communities in which they lived4 ,we are for the most part dependent on literary materials for our knowledge of the faiths of the ancient world1 and consequently the danger of which ,i speak is one to which the historian of religion is particularly exposed4 ,but it must be remembered that a literary writer is1 by the very fact of his literary activity1 different from the majority of his contemporaries1 and that this difference in the ages before the invention of printing was greater than it is to-day4 ,he was not only an educated man2 he was also a man of exceptional culture4 ,he was a man whose thoughts and sayings were considered worthy of being remembered1 who could think for himself1 and whose thoughts were listened to by others4 ,his abilities or genius raised him above the ordinary level2 his ideas1 accordingly1 could not be the ideas of the multitude about him1 nor could he1 from the nature of the case1 express them in the same way4 ,the poets or theologians of ,egypt and ,babylonia were necessarily original thinkers1 and we cannot1 therefore1 expect to find in their writings merely a reflection of the beliefs or superstitions of those among whom they lived4 ,to reconstruct the religion of ,egypt from the literary works of which a few fragments have come down to us1 would be like reconstructing the religion of this country in the last century from a few tattered pages of ,hume or ,burns1 of ,dugald ,stewart or ,sir ,walter ,scott4 ,the attempts to show that ancient ,egyptian religion was a sublime monotheism1 or an enlightened pantheism which disguised itself in allegories and metaphors1 have their origin in a confusion between the aspirations of individual thinkers and the actual religion of their time4 ,there are indeed literary monuments rescued from the wreck of ancient ,egyptian culture which embody the highest and most spiritual conceptions of the ,godhead1 and use the language of the purest monotheism4 ,but such monuments represent the beliefs and ideas of the cultured few rather than of the ,egyptians as a whole1 or even of the majority of the educated classes4 ,they set before us the highest point to which the individual ,egyptian could attain in his spiritual conceptions--not the religion of the day as it was generally believed and practised4 ,to regard them as representing the popular faith of ,egypt1 would be as misleading as to suppose that ,socrates or ,plato were faithful exponents of ,athenian religion4 ,that this view of the literary monuments of ancient ,egypt is correct1 can be shown from two concrete instances4 ,on the one side1 there is the curious attempt made by ,amon-hotep ,,iv41 of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty1 to revolutionise ,egyptian religion1 and to replace the old religion of the ,state by a sort of monotheistic pantheism4 ,the hymns addressed to the solar disk--the visible symbol of the new ,god--breathe an exalted spirituality1 and remind us of passages in the ,hebrew ,scriptures4 8,o ,god10 we read in one of them4 8,o ,god1 who in truth art the living one1 who standest before our eyes2 thou created that which was not1 thou formest it all02 8,we also have come into being through the word of thy mouth40 ,but all such language was inspired by a cult which was not ,egyptian1 and which the ,egyptians themselves regarded as an insult to their national deity1 and a declaration of war against the priesthood of ,thebes4 ,hardly was its royal patron consigned to his tomb when the national hatred burst forth against those who still adhered to the new faith2 the temple and city of the solar disk were levelled with the ground1 and the body of the heretic ,pharaoh himself was torn in pieces4 ,had the religious productions of the court of ,amon-hotep ,,iv4 alone survived to us1 we should have formed out of them a wholly false picture of the religion of ancient ,egypt1 and ascribed to it doctrines which were held only by a few individuals at only one short period of its history1--doctrines1 moreover1 which were detested and bitterly resented by the orthodox adherents of the old creeds4 ,my other example is taken from a class of literature which exists wherever there is a cultured society and an ancient civilisation4 ,it is the literature of scepticism1 of those minds who cannot accept the popular notions of divinity1 who are critically contemptuous of time-honoured traditions1 and who find it impossible to reconcile the teaching of the popular cult with the daily experiences of life4 ,it is not so much that they deny or oppose the doctrines of the official creed1 as that they ignore them4 ,their scepticism is that of ,epicurus rather than of the ,french encyclopdists4 ,let the multitude believe in its gods and its priests1 so long as they themselves are not forced to do the same4 ,egypt had its literary sceptics like ,greece or ,rome4 ,listen1 for instance1 to the so-called ,song of the ,harper1 written as long ago as the age of the ,eleventh ,dynasty1 somewhere about #bejj ,b4,c4 ,this is how a part of it runs in ,canon ,rawnsley's metrical translation1 which faithfully preserves the spirit and sense of the original--7#a7 8,what is fortune8 say the wise4 ,vanished are the hearths and homes2 ,what he does or thinks1 who dies1 ,none to tell us comes ,eat and drink in peace to-day1 ,when you go your goods remain2 ,he who fares the last long way1 ,comes not back again40 ,the ,song of the ,harper is not the only fragment of the sceptical literature of ,egypt which we possess4 ,at a far later date1 a treatise was written in which1 under the thinly-veiled form of a fable the dogmas of the national faith were controverted and overthrown4 ,it takes the form of a dialogue between an ,ethiopian cat--the representative of all that was orthodox and respectable in ,egyptian society--and a jackal1 who is made the mouthpiece of heretical unbelief47#b7 ,but it is clear that the sympathies of the author are with the sceptic rather than with the believer2 and it is the cat and not the jackal who is worsted in argument4 ,in this first controversy between authority and reason1 authority thus comes off second best1 and just as ,epicurus has a predecessor in the author of the ,song of the ,harper1 so ,voltaire has a predecessor in the author of the dialogue4 ,here1 again1 it is obvious that if only these two specimens of ,egyptian theological literature had been preserved1 we should have carried away with us a very erroneous idea of ancient ,egyptian belief--or unbelief4 ,who could have imagined that the ,egyptians were a people who had elaborated a minutely-detailed description of the world beyond the grave1 and who believed more intensely perhaps than any other people has done either before or since in a future life8 ,who could have supposed that their religion inculcated a belief not only in the immortality of the soul or spirit1 but in the resurrection of the body as well2 and that they painted the fields of the blessed to which they looked forward after death as a happier and a sunnier ,egypt1 a land of light and gladness1 of feasting and joy8 ,we cannot judge what ,egyptian religion was like merely from the writings of some of its literary men1 or build upon them elaborate theories as to what priest and layman believed4 ,in dealing with the fragments of ,egyptian literature1 we must ever bear in mind that they represent1 not the ideas of the mass of the people1 but the conceptions of the cultured few4 ,but there is still another error into which we may fall4 ,it is that of attaching too literal a meaning to the language of theology4 ,the error is the natural result of the reaction from the older methods of interpretation1 which found allegories in the simplest of texts1 and mystical significations in the plainest words4 ,the application of the scientific method to the records of the past brought with it a recognition that an ancient writer meant what he said quite as much as a writer of to-day1 and that to read into his language the arbitrary ideas of a modern hierophant might be an attractive pastime1 but not a serious occupation4 ,before we can hope to understand the literature of the past1 we must try to discover what is its literal and natural meaning1 unbiassed by prejudices or prepossessions1 or even by the authority of great names4 ,theologians have been too fond of availing themselves of the ambiguities of language1 and of seeing in a text more than its author either knew or dreamt of4 ,unless we have express testimony to the contrary1 it is no more permissible to find parables and metaphorical expressions in an old ,egyptian book than it is in the productions of the modern press4 ,but1 on the other hand1 it is possible to press this literalism too far4 ,language1 it has been said1 is a storehouse of faded metaphors2 and if this is true of language in general1 it is still more true of theological language4 ,we can understand the spiritual and the abstract only through the help of the material2 the words by which we denote them must be drawn1 in the first instance1 from the world of the senses4 ,just as in the world of sense itself the picture that we see or the music that we hear comes to us through the nerves of sight and hearing1 so all that we know or believe of the moral and spiritual world is conveyed to us through sensuous and material channels4 ,thought is impossible without the brain through which it can act1 and we cannot convey to others or even to ourselves our conceptions of right and wrong1 of beauty and goodness1 without having recourse to analogies from the world of phenomena1 to metaphor and imagery1 to parable and allegory4 ,what is 8conception0 itself but a 8grasping with both hands10 or 8parable0 but a 8throwing by the side of08 ,if we would deal with the spiritual and moral1 we must have recourse to metaphorical forms of speech4 ,a religion is necessarily built up on a foundation of metaphor4 ,to interpret such metaphors in their purely natural sense would therefore land us in gross error4 ,unfortunately1 modern students of the religious history of the past have not always been careful to avoid doing so4 ,misled by the fact that language often enshrines old beliefs and customs which have otherwise passed out of memory1 they have forgotten that a metaphor is not necessarily a survival1 or a survival a metaphor4 ,in the hieroglyphic texts discovered in the ,pyramids of the sixth ,egyptian dynasty1 ,sahu or ,orion1 the huntsman of the skies1 is said to eat the great gods in the morning1 the lesser gods at noon and the smaller ones at night1 roasting their flesh in the vast ovens of the heavens2 and it has been hastily concluded that this points to a time when the ancestors of the historical ,egyptians actually did eat human flesh4 ,it would be just as reasonable to conclude from the language of the ,eucharistic ,office that the members of the ,christian ,church were once addicted to cannibalism4 ,eating and drinking are very obvious metaphors1 and there are even languages in which the word 8to eat0 has acquired the meaning 8to exist047#c7 ,i remember hearing of a tribe who believed that we worshipped a lamb because of the literal translation into their language of the phrase1 8,o ,lamb of ,god40 ,theology is full of instances in which the language it uses has been metaphorical from the outset1 and the endeavour to interpret it with bald literality1 and to see in it the fossilised ideas and practices of the past1 would end in nothing but failure4 ,christianity is not the only religion which has consciously employed parable for inculcating the truths it professes to teach4 ,buddhism has done the same1 and the 8,parables of ,buddhagosha0 have had a wider influence than all the other volumes of the ,buddhist ,canon4 ,survivals there undoubtedly are in theological language as in all other forms of language1 and one of the hardest tasks of the student of ancient religion is to determine where they really exist4 ,is the symbolism embodied in a word or an expression of primary or secondary origin8 ,was it from the very beginning a symbol and metaphor intended to be but the sensuous channel through which some perception of divine truth could be conveyed to us1 or does it reflect the manners and thought of an earlier age of society1 which has acquired a symbolical significance with the lapse of centuries8 ,when the primitive ,aryan gave the ,being whom he worshipped the name of ,dyaus1 from a root which signified 8to be bright10 did he actually see in the bright firmament the divinity he adored1 or was the title a metaphorical one expressive only of the fact that the power outside himself was bright and shining like the sun8 ,the ,babylonians pictured their gods in the image of man3 did ,babylonian religion accordingly begin with the worship of deified ancestors1 or were the human figures mere symbols and images denoting that the highest conception man could form of his creator was that of a being like himself8 ,the answer to these questions1 which it has been of late years the fashion to seek in modern savagery1 is inconclusive4 ,it has first to be proved that modern savagery is not due to degeneration rather than to arrested development1 and that the forefathers of the civilised nations of the ancient world were ever on the same level as the savage of to-day4 ,in fact the savage of to-day is not1 and cannot be1 a representative of primitive man4 ,if the ordinary doctrine of development is right1 primitive man would have known nothing of those essentials of human life and progress of which no savage community has hitherto been found to be destitute4 ,he would have known nothing of the art of producing fire1 nothing of language1 without which human society would be impossible4 ,on the other hand1 if the civilised races of mankind possessed from the outset the germs of culture and the power to develop it1 they can in no way be compared with the savages of the modern world1 who have lived1 generation after generation1 stationary and unprogressive1 like the beasts that perish1 even though at times they may have been in contact with a higher civilisation4 ,to explain the religious beliefs and usages of the ,greeks and ,romans from the religious ideas and customs of ,australians or ,hottentots1 is in most cases but labour in vain1 and to seek the origin of ,semitic religion in the habits and superstitions of low-caste ,bedwin1 is like looking to the gipsies for an explanation of ,european ,christianity4 ,such a procedure is the abuse1 not the use1 of the anthropological method4 ,folk-lore gives us a key to the mind of the child1 and of the childlike portion of society2 it sheds no light on the beginnings either of religion or of civilisation1 and to make it do so is to mistake a will-o'-the-wisp for a beacon-light4 ,it is once more to find 8survivals0 where they exist only in the mind of the inquirer4 ,so long as civilised society has lasted1 it has contained the ignorant as well as the learned1 the fool as well as the wise man1 and we are no more justified in arguing from the ignorance of the past than we should be in arguing from the ignorance of the present4 ,so far as folk-tales genuinely reflect the mind of the unlearned and childlike only1 they are of little help to the student of the religions of the ancient civilised world4 ,we must1 then1 beware of discovering allegory and symbol where they do not exist2 we must equally beware of overlooking them where they are actually to be found4 ,and we must remember that1 although the metaphors and symbolism of the earlier civilisations are not likely to be those which seem natural to the modern ,european1 this is no reason why we should deny the existence of them4 ,in fact1 without them religious language and beliefs are impossible2 it is only through the world of the senses that a way lies to a knowledge of the world beyond4 ,the conditions into which we were born necessitate our expressing and realising our mental1 moral1 and religious conceptions through sensuous imagery and similitude4 ,only we must never forget that the imagery is not the same for different races or generations of mankind4 ,before concluding1 ,i must say a few words in explanation of the title ,i have given to the course of lectures ,i have the honour of delivering before you4 ,it is not my intention to give a systematic description or analysis of the ancient religions of ,egypt and ,babylonia4 ,that would hardly be in keeping with the terms of ,lord ,gifford's bequest1 nor would the details be interesting1 except to a small company of specialists4 ,indeed1 in the case of the ancient religion of ,babylonia1 the details are still so imperfect and disputed1 that a discussion of them is fitted rather for the pages of a learned ,society's journal than for a course of lectures4 ,what the lecturer has to do is to take the facts that have been already ascertained1 to see to what conclusions they point1 and to review the theories which they countenance or condemn4 ,the names and number of the gods and goddesses worshipped by the ,egyptians and ,babylonians is of little moment to the scientific student of religion3 what he wants to know is the conception of the deity which underlay these manifold forms1 and the relation in which man was believed to stand to the divine powers around him4 ,what was it that the civilised ,babylonian or ,egyptian meant by the term 8god08 ,what was the idea or belief that lay behind the polytheism of the popular cult1 and in what respects is it marked off from the ideas and beliefs that rule the religions of our modern world8 ,the old ,egyptian1 indeed1 might not have understood what we mean by 8polytheism0 and 8monotheism10 but would he not have already recognised the two tendencies of thought which have found expression among us in these words8 ,was ,st4 ,paul right when he declared that the old civilised nations had sought after the ,god of ,christianity1 8if haply they might feel after ,him and find ,him10 or is there an impassable gulf between the religious conceptions of paganism and those of ,christian ,europe8 ,such are some of the questions to whose solution ,i trust that the facts ,i have to bring before you may contribute1 in however humble a degree4 ,lecture ,,ii4 ,egyptian ,religion4 ,it is through its temples and tombs that ancient ,egypt is mainly known to us4 ,it is true that the warm and rainless climate of ,upper ,egypt has preserved many of the objects of daily life accidentally buried in the ruins of its cities1 and that even fragments of fragile papyrus have come from the mounds that mark the sites of its villages and towns2 but these do not constitute even a tithe of the monuments upon which our present knowledge of ancient ,egyptian life and history has been built4 ,it is from the tombs and temples that we have learned almost all we now know about the ,egypt of the past4 ,the tombs were filled with offerings to the dead and illustrations of the daily life of the living1 while their walls were adorned with representations of the scenes at which their possessor had been present1 with the history of his life1 or with invocations to the gods4 ,the temples were storehouses of religious lore1 which was sculptured or painted on their walls and ceilings4 ,in fact1 we owe most of our knowledge of ancient ,egypt to the gods and to the dead2 and it is natural1 therefore1 that the larger part of it should be concerned with religion and the life to come4 ,we are thus in an exceptionally good position for ascertaining1 at all events in outline1 the religious ideas of the old ,egyptians1 and even for tracing their history through long periods of time4 ,the civilisation of ,egypt goes back to a remote past1 and recent discoveries have carried us almost to its beginnings4 ,the veil which so long covered the origin of ,egyptian culture is at last being drawn aside1 and some of the most puzzling inconsistencies in the religion1 which formed so integral a part of that culture1 are being explained4 ,we have learnt that the religion of the ,egypt which is best known to us was highly composite1 the product of different races and different streams of culture and thought2 and the task of uniting them all into a homogeneous whole was never fully completed4 ,to the last1 ,egyptian religion remained a combination of ill-assorted survivals rather than a system1 a confederation of separate cults rather than a definite theology4 ,like the ,state1 whatever unity it possessed was given to it by the ,pharaoh1 who was not only a son and representative of the sun-god1 but the visible manifestation of the sun-god himself4 ,its unity was thus a purely personal one3 without the ,pharaoh the ,egyptian ,state and ,egyptian religion would alike have been dissolved into their original atoms4 ,the ,pharaonic ,egyptians--the ,egyptians1 that is to say1 who embanked the ,nile1 who transformed the marsh and the desert into cultivated fields1 who built the temples and tombs1 and left behind them the monuments we associate with ,egyptian culture--seem to have come from ,asia2 and it is probable that their first home was in ,babylonia4 ,the race 7or races7 they found in the valley of the ,nile were already possessed of a certain measure of civilisation4 ,they were in an advanced stage of neolithic culture2 their flint tools are among the finest that have ever been made2 and they were skilled in the manufacture of vases of the hardest stone4 ,but they were pastoral rather than agricultural1 and they lived in the desert rather than on the river-bank4 ,they proved no match for the newcomers1 with their weapons of copper2 and1 little by little1 the invading race succeeded in making itself master of the valley of the ,nile1 though tradition remembered the fierce battles which were needed before the 8smiths0 who followed ,horus could subjugate the older population in their progress from south to north4 ,how far the invaders themselves formed a single race is still uncertain4 ,some scholars believe that1 besides the ,asiatics who entered ,egypt from the south1 crossing the ,red ,sea and so marching through the eastern desert to the ,nile1 there were other ,asiatics who came overland from ,mesopotamia1 and made their way into the ,delta across the isthmus of ,suez4 ,of this overland invasion1 however1 ,i can myself see no evidence2 so far as our materials at present allow us to go1 the ,egyptians of history were composed1 at most1 of three elements1 the ,asiatic invaders from the south1 and two older races1 which we may term aboriginal4 ,one of them ,professor ,petrie is probably right in maintaining to be ,libyan47#d7 ,we thus have at least three different types of religious belief and practice at the basis of ,egyptian religion1 corresponding with the three races which together made up the ,egyptian people4 ,two of the types would be ,african2 the third would be ,asiatic1 perhaps ,babylonian4 ,from the very outset1 therefore1 we must be prepared to find divergences of religious conception as well as divergences in rites and ceremonies4 ,and such divergences can be actually pointed out47#e7 ,the practice of embalming1 for instance1 is one which we have been accustomed to think peculiarly characteristic of ancient ,egypt4 ,it is referred to in the ,book of ,genesis1 and described by classical writers4 ,there are many people whose acquaintance with the old ,egyptians is confined to the fact that when they died their bodies were made into mummies4 ,it is from the wrappings of the mummy that most of the small amulets and scarabs have come which fill so large a space in collections of ,egyptian antiquities1 as well as many of the papyri which have given us an insight into the literature of the past4 ,we have been taught to believe that from times immemorial the ,egyptians mummified their dead1 and that the practice was connected with an equally immemorial faith in the resurrection of the dead2 and yet recent excavations have made it clear that such a belief is erroneous4 ,mummification was never universal in ,egypt1 and there was a time when it was not practised at all4 ,it was unknown to the prehistoric populations whom the ,pharaonic ,egyptians found on their arrival in the country2 and among the ,pharaonic ,egyptians themselves it seems to have spread only slowly4 ,few traces of it have been met with before the age of the ,fourth and ,fifth ,dynasties1 if1 indeed1 any have been met with at all4 ,but1 as we shall see hereafter1 the practice of mummification was closely bound up with a belief in the resurrection of the dead4 ,the absence of it accordingly implies that this belief was either non-existent1 or1 at all events1 did not as yet occupy a prominent place in the ,egyptian creed4 ,like embalming1 it must have been introduced by the ,pharaonic ,egyptians2 it was not until the older races of the country had been absorbed by their conquerors that mummification became general1 along with the religious ideas that were connected with it4 ,before the age of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty it seems to have been practically confined to the court and the official priesthood4 ,on the other hand1 one at least of the prehistoric races appears to have practised secondary burial4 ,the skeletons discovered in its graves have been mutilated in an extraordinary manner4 ,the skull1 the legs1 the arms1 the feet1 and the hands have been found dissevered from the trunk2 even the backbone itself is sometimes broken into separate portions2 and there are cases in which the whole skeleton is a mere heap of dismembered bones4 ,but1 in spite of this dismemberment1 the greatest care has been taken to preserve the separate fragments1 which are often placed side by side4 ,an explanation of the dismemberment has been sought in cannibalism1 but cannibals do not take the trouble to collect the bones of their victims and bury them with all the marks of respect2 moreover1 the bones have not been gnawed except in one or two examples1 where wild beasts rather than man must have been at work4 ,it seems evident1 therefore1 that the race whose dismembered remains have thus been found in so many of the prehistoric cemeteries of ,egypt1 allowed the bodies of the dead to remain unburied until the flesh had been stripped from their bones by the birds and beasts of prey1 and that it was only when this had been done that the sun-bleached bones were consigned to the tomb4 ,similar practices still prevail in certain parts of the world2 apart from the ,parsi 8towers of silence10 it is still the custom in ,new ,guinea to leave the corpse among the branches of a tree until the flesh is entirely destroyed47#f7 ,between mummification and secondary burial no reconciliation is possible4 ,the conceptions upon which the two practices rest are contradictory one to the other4 ,in the one case every effort is made to keep the body intact and to preserve the flesh from decay2 in the other case the body is cast forth to the beasts of the desert and the fowls of the air1 and its very skeleton allowed to be broken up4 ,a people who practised secondary burial can hardly have believed in a future existence of the body itself4 ,their belief must rather have been in the existence of that shadowy1 vapour-like form1 comparable to the human breath1 in which so many races of mankind have pictured to themselves the imperishable part of man4 ,it was the misty ghost1 seen in dreams or detected at night amid the shadows of the forest1 that survived the death of the body2 the body itself returned to the earth from whence it had sprung4 ,this prehistoric belief left its traces in the official religion of later ,egypt4 ,the ,ba or 8,soul10 with the figure of a bird and the head of a man1 is its direct descendant4 ,as we shall see1 the conception of the ,ba fits but ill with that of the mummy1 and the harmonistic efforts of a later date were unable altogether to hide the inner contradiction that existed between them4 ,the soul1 which fled on the wings of a bird to the world beyond the sky1 was not easily to be reconciled with the mummified body which was eventually to lead a life in the other world that should be a repetition and reflection of its life in this4 ,how the ,ba and the mummy were to be united1 the official cult never endeavoured to explain2 the task was probably beyond its powers4 ,it was content to leave the two conceptions side by side1 bidding the individual believer reconcile them as best he could4 ,the fact illustrates another which must always be kept in mind in dealing with ,egyptian religion4 ,up to the last it remained without a philosophic system4 ,there were1 it is true1 certain sides of it which were reduced to systems1 certain parts of the official creed which became philosophies4 ,but as a whole it was a loosely-connected agglomeration of beliefs and practices which had come down from the past1 and one after the other had found a place in the religion of the ,state4 ,no attempt was ever made to form them into a coherent and homogeneous whole1 or to find a philosophic basis upon which they all might rest4 ,such an idea1 indeed1 never occurred to the ,egyptian4 ,he was quite content to take his religion as it had been handed down to him1 or as it was prescribed by the ,state2 he had none of that inner retrospection which distinguishes the ,hindu1 none of that desire to know the causes of things which characterised the ,greek4 ,the contradictions which we find in the articles of his creed never troubled him2 he never perceived them1 or if he did they were ignored4 ,he has left to us the task of finding a philosophic basis for his faith1 and of fixing the central ideas round which it revolved2 the task is a hard one1 and it is rendered the harder by the imperfection of our materials4 ,the ,egyptian was no philosopher1 but he had an immense veneration for the past4 ,the past1 indeed1 was ever before him2 he could not escape from it4 ,objects and monuments which would have perished in other countries were preserved almost in their pristine freshness by the climate under which he lived4 ,as to-day1 so too in the age of the ,pharaohs1 the earliest and the latest of things jostled one another1 and it was often difficult to say which of the two looked the older4 ,the past was preserved in a way that it could not be elsewhere2 nothing perished except by the hand of man4 ,and man1 brought up in such an atmosphere of continuity1 became intensely conservative4 ,nature itself only increased the tendency4 ,the ,nile rose and fell with monotonous regularity2 year after year the seasons succeeded each other without change2 and the agriculturist was not dependent on the variable alternations of rain and sunshine1 or even of extreme heat and cold4 ,in ,egypt1 accordingly1 the new grew up and was adopted without displacing the old4 ,it was a land to which the rule did not apply that 8the old order changeth1 giving place to new40 ,the old order might1 indeed1 change1 through foreign invasion or the inventions of human genius1 but all the same it did not give place to the new4 ,the new simply took a place by the side of the old4 ,the ,egyptian system of writing is a striking illustration of the fact4 ,all the various stages through which writing must pass1 in its development out of pictures into alphabetic letters1 exist in it side by side4 ,the hieroglyphs can be used at once ideographically1 syllabically1 and alphabetically4 ,and what is true of ,egyptian writing is true also of ,egyptian religion4 ,the various elements out of which it arose are all still traceable in it2 none of them has been discarded1 however little it might harmonise with the elements with which it has been combined4 ,religious ideas which belong to the lowest and to the highest forms of the religious consciousness1 to races of different origin and different age1 exist in it side by side4 ,it is true that even in organised religions we find similar combinations of heterogeneous elements4 ,survivals from a distant past are linked in them with the conceptions of a later age1 and beliefs of divergent origin have been incorporated by them into the same creed4 ,but it is a definite and coherent creed into which they have been embodied2 the attempt has been made to fuse them into a harmonious whole1 and to explain away their apparent divergencies and contradictions4 ,either the assertion is made that the creed of the present has come down unchanged from the past1 or else it is maintained that the doctrines and rites of the past have developed normally and gradually into those of the present4 ,but the ,egyptian made no such endeavour4 ,he never realised that there was any necessity for making it4 ,it was sufficient that a thing should have descended to him from his ancestors for it to be true1 and he never troubled himself about its consistency with other parts of his belief4 ,he accepted it as he accepted the inconsistencies and inequalities of life1 without any effort to work them into a harmonious theory or form them into a philosophic system4 ,his religion was like his temples1 in which the art and architecture of all the past centuries of his history existed side by side4 ,all that the past had bequeathed to him must be preserved1 if possible2 it might be added to1 but not modified or destroyed4 ,it is curious that the same spirit has prevailed in modern ,egypt4 ,the native never restores4 ,if a building or the furniture within it goes to decay1 no attempt is made to mend or repair it2 it is left to moulder on in the spot where it stands1 while a new building or a new piece of furniture is set up beside it4 ,that the new and the old should not agree together--should1 in fact1 be in glaring contrast--is a matter of no moment4 ,this veneration for the past1 which preserves without repairing or modifying or even adapting to the surroundings of the present1 is a characteristic which is deeply engrained in the mind of the ,egyptian4 ,it had its prior origin in the physical and climatic conditions of the country in which he was born1 and has long since become a leading characteristic of his race4 ,along with the inability to take a general view of the beliefs he held1 and to reduce them to a philosophic system1 went an inability to form abstract ideas4 ,this inability1 again1 may be traced to natural causes4 ,thanks to the perpetual sunshine of the valley of the ,nile1 the ,egyptian leads an open-air life4 ,except for the purpose of sleep1 his house is of little use to him1 and in the summer months even his sleep is usually taken on the roof4 ,he thus lives constantly in the light and warmth of a southern sun1 in a land where the air is so dry and clear that the outlines of the most distant objects are sharp and distinct1 and there is no melting of shadow into light1 such as characterises our northern climes4 ,everything is clear2 nothing is left to the imagination2 and the sense of sight is that which is most frequently brought into play4 ,it is what the ,egyptian sees rather than what he hears or handles that impresses itself upon his memory1 and it is through his eyes that he recognises and remembers4 ,at the same time this open-air life is by no means one of leisure4 ,the peculiar conditions of the valley of the ,nile demand incessant labour on the part of its population4 ,fruitful as the soil is when once it is watered1 without water it remains a barren desert or an unwholesome marsh4 ,and the only source of water is the river ,nile4 ,the ,nile has to be kept within its banks1 to be diverted into canals1 or distributed over the fields by irrigating machines1 before a single blade of wheat can grow or a single crop be gathered in4 ,day after day must the ,egyptian labour1 repairing the dykes and canals1 ploughing the ground1 planting the seed1 and incessantly watering it2 the ,nile is ready to take advantage of any relaxation of vigilance and toil1 to submerge or sweep away the cultivated land1 or to deny to it the water that it needs4 ,of all people the ,egyptian is the most industrious2 the conditions under which he has to till the soil oblige him to be so1 and to spend his existence in constant agricultural work4 ,but1 as ,i have already pointed out1 this work is monotonously regular4 ,there are no unexpected breaks in it2 no moments when a sudden demand is made for exceptional labour4 ,the farmer's year is all mapped out for him beforehand3 what his forefathers have done for unnumbered centuries before him1 he too has to do almost to a day4 ,it is steady toil1 day after day1 from dawn to night1 during the larger portion of the year4 ,this steady toil in the open air gives no opportunity for philosophic meditation or introspective theorising4 ,on the contrary1 life for the ,egyptian fellah is a very real and practical thing3 he knows beforehand what he has to do in order to gain his bread1 and he has no time in which to theorise about it4 ,it is1 moreover1 his sense of sight which is constantly being exercised4 ,the things which he knows and remembers are the things which he sees1 and he sees them clearly in the clear sunshine of his fields4 ,we need not wonder1 therefore1 that the ancient ,egyptian should have shown on the one hand an incapacity for abstract thought1 and on the other hand a love of visible symbols4 ,the two1 in fact1 were but the reverse sides of the same mental tendency4 ,symbolism1 indeed1 is always necessary before we can apprehend the abstract3 it is only through the sensuous symbol that we can express the abstract thought4 ,but the ,egyptian did not care to penetrate beyond the expression4 ,he was satisfied with the symbol which he could see and remember1 and the result was that his religious ideas were material rather than spiritual4 ,the material husk1 as it were1 sufficed for him1 and he did not trouble to inquire too closely about the kernel within4 ,the soul was for him a human-headed bird1 which ascended on its wings to the heavens above2 and the future world itself was but a duplicate of the ,egypt which his eyes gazed upon below4 ,the hieroglyphic writing was at once an illustration and an encouragement of this characteristic of his mind4 ,all abstract ideas were expressed in it by symbols which he could see and understand4 ,the act of eating was denoted by the picture of a man with his hand to his mouth1 the idea of wickedness by the picture of a sparrow4 ,and these symbolic pictures were usually attached to the words they represented1 even when the latter had come to be syllabically and alphabetically spelt4 ,even in reading and writing1 therefore1 the ,egyptian was not required to concern himself overmuch with abstract thought4 ,the concrete symbols were ever before his eyes1 and it was their mental pictures which took the place for him of abstract ideas4 ,it must1 of course1 be remembered that the foregoing generalisations apply to the ,egyptian people as a whole4 ,there were individual exceptions2 there was even a class the lives of whose members were not devoted to agricultural or other labour1 and whose religious conceptions were often spiritual and sublime4 ,this was the class of priests1 whose power and influence increased with the lapse of time1 and who eventually moulded the official theology of ,egypt4 ,priestly colleges arose in the great sanctuaries of the country1 and gradually absorbed a considerable part of its land and revenues4 ,at first the priests do not seem to have been a numerous body1 and up to the last the higher members of the hierarchy were comparatively few4 ,but in their hands the religious beliefs of the people underwent modification1 and even a rudimentary systematisation2 the different independent cults of the kingdom were organised and combined together1 and with this organisation came philosophic speculation and theorising4 ,if ,professor ,maspero is right1 the two chief schools of religious thought and systematising in early ,egypt were at ,heliopolis1 near the apex of the ,delta1 and ,hermopolis1 the modern ,eshmunn1 in ,central ,egypt4 ,in ,hermopolis the conception of creation1 not by voice merely1 but even by the mere sound of the voice1 was first formed and worked out while ,heliopolis was the source of that arrangement of the deities into groups of nine which led to the identification of the gods one with another1 and so prepared the way for monotheism47#g7 ,if ,heliopolis were indeed1 as seems probable1 the first home of this religious theory1 its influence upon the rest of ,egypt was profound4 ,already in the early part of the historical period1 in the age of the ,fifth and ,sixth ,dynasties1 when the religious texts of the ,pyramids were compiled1 the scheme which placed the ,ennead or group of nine at the head of the ,pantheon had been accepted throughout the country4 ,it was the beginning of an inevitable process of thought1 which ended by resolving the deities of the official cult into forms or manifestations one of the other1 and by landing its adherents in pantheism4 ,to a certain extent1 therefore1 the general incapacity for abstract thought which distinguished the ,egyptians did not hold good of the priestly colleges4 ,but even among the priests the abstract was never entirely dissociated from the symbol4 ,symbolism still dominates the profoundest thoughts and expressions of the later inscriptions2 the writer cannot free himself from the sensuous image1 except perhaps in a few individual cases4 ,at the most1 ,egyptian thought cannot rise further than the conception of 8the god who has no form0--a confession in itself of inability to conceive of what is formless4 ,it is true that after the rise of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty the deity is addressed as ,kheper zes-ef1 8that which is self-grown10 8the self-existent02 but when we find the same epithet applied also to plants like the balsam and minerals like saltpetre1 it is clear that it does not possess the abstract significance we should read into it to-day4 ,it simply expresses the conviction that the god to whom the prayer is offered is a god who was never born in human fashion1 but who grew up of himself1 like the mineral which effloresces from the ground1 or the plant which is not grown from seed4 ,similarly1 when it is said of him that he is 8existent from the beginning10--kheper em at1--or1 as it is otherwise expressed1 that he is 8the father of the beginning10 the phrase is less abstract than it seems at first sight to be4 ,the very word kheper or 8existent0 denotes the visible universe1 while at or 8beginning0 is the hinder extremity4 ,the phrase can be pressed just as little as the epithet 8lord of eternity10 applied to deities whose birth and death are nevertheless asserted in the same breath4 ,perhaps the most abstract conception of the divine to which the ,egyptian attained was that of 8the nameless one10 since the name was regarded as something very real and concrete1 as1 in fact1 the essence of that to which it belonged4 ,to say1 therefore1 that a thing was nameless1 was equivalent to either denying its existence or to lifting it out of the world of the concrete altogether4 ,there was a moment in the history of ,egypt when an attempt was made to put a real signification into the apparently abstract terms and phrases addressed to the gods4 ,the ,pharaoh ,khu-n-,aten1 towards the close of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty1 appears suddenly on the scene as a royal reformer1 determined to give life and meaning to the language which had described the supreme deity as 8the sole and only god10 the absolute ruler of the universe1 who was from all eternity1 and whose form was hidden from men4 ,but the impulse to the reform came from ,asia4 ,khu-n-,aten's mother was a foreigner1 and his attempt to engraft ,asiatic ideas upon ,egyptian religion1 or rather to substitute an ,asiatic form of faith for that of his fathers1 proved a failure4 ,the worship of the one supreme deity1 whose visible symbol was the solar disc1 though enforced by persecution and by all the power of the ,pharaoh himself1 hardly survived his death4 ,amon of ,thebes and his priesthood came victorious out of the struggle1 and the pantheistic monotheism of ,khu-n-,aten was never revived4 ,symbolism remained1 while the abstract thought1 to which that symbolism should have been a stepping-stone1 failed to penetrate into ,egyptian religion4 ,the ,egyptian continued to be content with the symbol1 as his father had been before him4 ,but in the priestly colleges and among the higher circles of culture it became less materialistic2 while the mass of the people still saw nothing but the symbol itself1 the priests and scribes looked as it were beyond it1 and saw in the symbol the picture of some divine truth1 the outward garment in which the deity had clothed himself4 ,what constituted1 however1 the peculiarity of the ,egyptian point of view was1 that this outward garment was never separated from that which it covered2 it was regarded as an integral part of the divine essence1 which could no more be dissociated from it than the surface of a statue can be dissociated from the stone of which it is made4 ,the educated ,egyptian came to see in the multitudinous gods of the public worship merely varying manifestations or forms of one divine substance2 but still they were manifestations or forms visible to the senses1 and apart from such forms the divine substance had no existence4 ,it is characteristic that the old belief was never disavowed1 that images were actually animated by the gods or human personalities whose likeness they bore1 and whom they were expressively said to have 8devoured02 indeed1 the king still received the ,sa or principle of immortality from contact with the statue of the god he served2 and wonder-working images1 which inclined the head towards those who asked them questions1 continued to be consulted in the temples47#h7 ,at ,dendera the soul of the goddess ,hathor was believed to descend from heaven in the form of a hawk of lapis-lazuli in order to vivify her statue27#i7 and the belief is a significant commentary on the mental attitude of her worshippers4 ,one result of the ,egyptian's inability or disinclination for abstract thought was the necessity not only of representing the gods under special and definite forms1 but even of always so thinking of them4 ,the system of writing1 with its pictorial characters1 favoured the habit2 and we can well understand how difficult the most educated scribe must have found it to conceive of ,thoth otherwise than as an ibis1 or of ,hathor otherwise than as a cow4 ,whatever may have been the origin of the ,egyptian worship of animals1 or--which is something very different--of the identification of certain individual animals with the principal gods1 its continuance was materially assisted by the sacred writing of the scribes and the pictures that adorned the walls of the temples4 ,to the ordinary ,egyptian1 ,thoth was indeed an ibis1 and the folk-lore of the great sanctuaries accordingly described him as such47#aj7 ,but to the cultured ,egyptian1 also1 the ibis was his symbol2 and in ,egypt1 as we have seen1 the symbol and what is symbolised were apt to be confounded together4 ,the beast-worship of ,egypt excited the astonishment and ridicule of the ,greeks and ,romans1 and the unmeasured scorn of the ,christian apologists4 ,i shall have to deal with it in a later lecture4 ,for the present it is sufficient to point out how largely it owed its continued existence to the need for symbolism which characterised ,egyptian thought1 in spite of the fact that there was another and contradictory conception which held sway within ,egyptian religion4 ,this was the conception of the divinity of man1 which found its supreme expression in the doctrine that the ,pharaoh was the incarnation of the sun-god4 ,it was not in the brute beast1 but in man himself1 that the deity revealed himself on earth4 ,the origin of the conception must be sought in the early history of the country4 ,egypt was not at first the united monarchy it afterwards became4 ,it was divided into a number of small principalities1 each independent of the other and often hostile4 ,it is probable that in some cases the inhabitants of these principalities did not belong to the same race2 that while in one the older population predominated1 in another the ,pharaonic ,egyptians held absolute sway4 ,at all events the manners and customs of their inhabitants were not uniform1 any more than the religious beliefs they held and the rites they practised4 ,the god who was honoured in one place was abhorred in another1 and a rival deity set over against him4 ,true to its conservative principles1 ,egypt never forgot the existence of these early principalities4 ,they continued to survive in a somewhat changed form4 ,they became the nomes of ,pharaonic ,egypt1 separate districts resembling to a certain degree the ,states of the ,american ,republic1 and preserving to the last their independent life and organisation4 ,each nome had its own capital1 its own central sanctuary1 and its own prince2 above all1 it had its own special god or goddess1 with their attendant deities1 their college of priests1 their ceremonies and their festivals4 ,up to the age of the ,hyksos conquest the hereditary princes of the nomes were feudal lords1 owning a qualified obedience to the ,pharaoh1 and furnishing him with tribute and soldiers when called upon to do so4 ,it was not till after the rise of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty that the old feudal nobility was replaced by court officials and a bureaucracy which owed its position to the king2 and even then the descendants of the ancient princes were ever on the watch to take advantage of the weakness of the central authority and recover the power they had lost4 ,up to the last1 too1 the gods of the several nomes preserved a semblance of their independent character4 ,it was only with the rise of the new kingdom and the accession of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty that that process of fusion set in to any real purpose which identified the various deities one with another1 and transformed them into kaleidoscopic forms of ,amon or ,ra4 ,the loss of their separate and independent character went along with the suppression of the feudal families with whom their worship had been associated for unnumbered generations4 ,the feudal god and the feudal prince disappeared together3 the one became absorbed into the supreme god of the ,pharaoh and his priests1 the other into a functionary of the court4 ,it was only in the hearts and minds of the people that ,thoth remained what he had always been1 the lord and master of ,hermopolis1 and of ,hermopolis alone4 ,the principalities of primitive ,egypt gradually became unified into two or three kingdoms1 and eventually into two kingdoms only1 those of ,upper and ,lower ,egypt4 ,recent discoveries have thrown unexpected light on this early period of history4 ,at one time the capital of the southern kingdom was ,nekhen1 called ,hierakonpolis in the ,greek period1 the site of which is now represented by the ruins of ,kom el-,ahmar1 opposite ,el-,kab4 ,here1 among the foundations of the ancient temple1 ,mr4 ,quibell has found remains which probably go back to an age before that of ,menes and the rise of the united ,egyptian monarchy4 ,among them are huge vases of alabaster and granite1 which were dedicated by a certain king ,besh in the year when he conquered the people of ,northern ,egypt4 ,on the other hand1 on a stela now at ,palermo a list is given of kings who seem to have reigned over ,northern ,egypt while the ,pharaohs of ,nekhen were reigning in the south47#aa7 ,for how many centuries the two kingdoms existed side by side1 sometimes in peaceful intercourse1 sometimes in hostile collision1 it is impossible to say4 ,the fact that ,egypt had once been divided into two kingdoms was never forgotten2 down to the last days of the ,egyptian monarchs the ,pharaoh bore the title of 8lord of the two lands10 and on his head was placed the twofold crown of ,upper and ,lower ,egypt4 ,nekhen was under the protection not only of ,horus1 the god of the ,pharaonic ,egyptians1 but also of ,nekheb1 the tutelary goddess of the whole of the southern land4 ,from the ,cataract northward her dominion extended1 but it was at ,el-,kab opposite ,nekhen1 where the road from the ,red ,sea and the mines of the desert reached the ,nile1 that her special sanctuary stood4 ,besh calls himself on his vases 8the son of ,nekheb02 and even as late as the time of the ,sixth ,dynasty the eldest son of the king was entitled 8the royal son of ,nekheb407#ab7 ,nekheb1 the vulture1 was the goddess of the south1 in contradistinction to ,uazit1 the serpent1 the goddess of the north4 ,but in both the south and the north the same dominant race held rule1 the same customs prevailed1 and the same language was spoken4 ,the ,pharaonic ,egyptians1 in their northern advance1 had carried with them a common legacy of ideas and manners4 ,their religious conceptions had been the same1 and consequently the general form assumed by the religious cult was similar4 ,in spite of local differences and the self-centred character of the numerous independent principalities1 there was1 nevertheless1 a family likeness between them all4 ,ideas and customs1 therefore1 which grew up in one place passed readily to another1 and the influence of a particular local sanctuary was easily carried beyond the limits of the district in which it stood4 ,one of the most fundamental of the beliefs which the ,pharaonic ,egyptians brought with them was that in the divine origin of certain individuals4 ,the prince who led them was not only the son of a god or goddess1 he was an incarnation of the god himself4 ,the belief is one of the many facts which link the ,pharaonic civilisation with the culture of primitive ,babylonia4 ,in ,babylonia also the king was divine4 ,one of the early kings of ,ur calls himself the son of a goddess1 just as ,besh does at ,nekhen2 and the great conquerors of primeval ,asia1 ,sargon of ,akkad and his son ,naram-,sin1 give themselves the title of 8god0 in their inscriptions2 while ,naram-,sin is even invoked during his lifetime as 8the god of the city of ,agad0 or ,akkad4 ,for many generations the ,babylonian kings continued to receive divine honours while they were still alive2 and it was not until after the conquest of ,babylonia by a tribe of half-civilised foreigners from the mountains of ,elam that the old tradition was broken1 and the reigning king ceased to be a god4 ,like the doctrine of the divine right of kings in ,england1 which could not survive the fall of the ,stuarts1 the doctrine of the divine nature of the monarch did not survive in ,babylonia the fall of the native dynasties4 ,in ,babylonia also1 as in ,egypt1 the king continued to be invoked as a god after his death4 ,chapels and priests were consecrated to his memory1 and stated sacrifices and offerings made to him4 ,it was not necessary that the deified prince should be the supreme sovereign1 it was sufficient if he were the head of a feudal principality4 ,thus1 while ,dungi1 the supreme sovereign of ,babylonia1 receives in his inscriptions the title of 8god10 his vassal ,gudea1 the high priest and hereditary prince of the city of ,lagas1 is likewise worshipped as a deity1 whose cult lasted for many centuries4 ,gudea was non-,semitic in race1 but most of the ,babylonian kings who were thus deified were ,semites4 ,it is therefore possible that the deification of the ruler was of ,semitic origin1 and only adopted from them by the older ,sumerian population1 as in the case of ,gudea2 it is also possible that it was one of the consequences of that fusion of the two races1 ,sumerian and ,semitic1 which produced the later population and culture of ,babylonia4 ,however this may be1 the apotheosis of the ,babylonian king during his lifetime can be traced back as far as ,sargon and ,naram-,sin1 #chjj ,b4,c4 ,sargon incorporated ,palestine1 8the land of the ,amorites10 as it was then called1 into his empire1 while ,naram-,sin extended his conquests to ,mgan or the ,sinaitic ,peninsula1 thus bringing the arms and civilisation of ,babylonia to the very doors of ,egypt4 ,the precise nature of the connection which existed between the ,babylonian and the ,egyptian belief in the divinity of the ruler must be left to future research4 ,in the ,egyptian mind1 at all events1 it was a belief that was deeply implanted4 ,the ,pharaoh was a god upon earth4 ,like the ,incas of ,peru1 he belonged to the solar race1 and the blood which flowed in his veins was the ichor of the gods4 ,the existence of a similar belief in ,peru shows how easy it was for such a belief to grow up in regard to the leader of a conquering people who brought with them a higher culture and the arts of life4 ,but it presupposes religious conceptions which1 though characteristic of ,babylonia1 are directly contrary to those which seem to underlie the religion of ,egypt4 ,among the ,babylonians the gods assumed human forms2 man had been made in the likeness of the gods1 and the gods therefore were of human shape4 ,the converse1 however1 was the case in ,egypt4 ,here the gods1 with few exceptions1 were conceived of as brute beasts4 ,horus was the hawk1 ,nekheb the vulture1 ,uazit of ,buto the deadly urus snake4 ,there is only one way of explaining the anomaly4 ,the conception of the gods which made them men must have come from outside1 and been imposed upon a people whose gods were the brute beasts4 ,it must have been the ,pharaonic invaders from ,asia to whom the leader they followed was an incarnate god4 ,hence it was just this leader and no other who was clothed with divinity4 ,hence1 too1 it was that the older worship of animals was never really harmonised with the worship of the ,pharaoh4 ,the inner contradiction which existed between the new religious conceptions remained to the end1 in spite of all the efforts of the priestly colleges to make them agree4 ,religious art might represent the god with the head of a beast or bird and the body of a man1 the sacred books might teach that the deity is unconfined by form1 and so could pass at will from the body of a man into that of a beast2 but all such makeshifts could not hide the actual fact4 ,between the deity who is human and the deity who is bestial no true reconciliation is possible4 ,we must therefore trace the deification of the ,pharaoh back to ,asia1 and the ,asiatic element in the ,egyptian population4 ,the ,pharaonic conquerors of the valley of the ,nile were those 8followers of ,horus0 who worshipped their leader as a god4 ,it was a god in human form who had led them to victory1 and ,horus accordingly continued to be represented as a man1 even though the symbolism of the hieroglyphs united with the creed of the prehistoric races of ,egypt in giving him the head of a hawk4 ,at first the ruler of each of the small kingdoms into which prehistoric ,egypt was divided1 was honoured as a god1 like ,gudea in ,babylonia4 ,when the kingdoms became1 first1 vassal principalities under a paramount lord1 and then nomes1 the old tradition was still maintained4 ,divine titles were given to the nomarchs even in the later times of the united monarchy1 and after their death worship continued to be paid to them47#ac7 ,christian writers tell us how at ,anab particular individuals were regarded as gods1 to whom offerings were accordingly brought2 and ,ptah1 the tutelary deity of ,memphis1 was pictured as a man in the wrappings of a mummy1 while to ,anhur of ,this the human figure was assigned4 ,with the coalescence of the smaller principalities into two kingdoms1 the deification of the ruler was confined within narrower bounds4 ,but for that very reason it became more absolute and intense4 ,the supreme sovereign1 the ,pharaoh as we may henceforth call him1 was a veritable god on earth4 ,to his subjects he was the source1 not only of material benefits1 but of spiritual blessings as well4 ,he was 8the good god10 the beneficent dispenser of all good things47#ad7 ,the power of life and death was in his hand1 and rebellion against him was rebellion against the gods4 ,the blood that flowed in his veins was the same as that which flowed in the veins of the gods2 it was even communicated to him from time to time by his divine brethren2 and the bas-reliefs of a later age1 when the traditional belief had become little more than a symbolical allegory1 still depict him with his back towards the statue of the god1 who is transfusing the ichor of heaven through his veins47#ae7 ,menes1 the king of ,upper ,egypt1 first united under one sceptre the two kingdoms of the ,nile4 ,the divinity which had hitherto been shared between the ,pharaohs of ,upper and ,lower ,egypt now passed in all it fulness to him4 ,he became the visible god of ,egypt1 just as ,sargon or ,naram-,sin was the visible god of ,akkad4 ,all the attributes of divinity belonged to him1 as they were conceived of by his subjects1 and from him they passed to his successors4 ,legitimacy of birth was reckoned through the mother1 and through the mother accordingly the divine nature of the ,pharaoh was handed on4 ,only those who had been born of a princess of the royal family could be considered to possess it in all its purity2 and where this title was wanting1 it was necessary to assume the direct intervention of a god4 ,the mother of ,amon-hotep ,,iii4 was of ,asiatic origin2 we read1 therefore1 on the walls of the temple of ,luxor1 that he was born of a virgin and the god of ,thebes4 ,alexander1 the conqueror of ,egypt1 was a ,macedonian2 it was needful1 accordingly1 that he should be acknowledged as a son by the god of the oasis of ,ammon47#af7 ,but such consequences of the old ,egyptian belief in the incarnation of the deity in man are leading us away into a field of investigation which will have to be traversed in a future lecture4 ,for the present1 it is sufficient to keep two facts steadily before the mind3 on the one side1 the old ,egyptian belief in the divinity of the brute beast2 on the other1 the equally old belief in the divinity of man4 ,the two beliefs are not really to be harmonised one with the other2 they were1 in fact1 derived from different elements in the ,egyptian population2 but1 with his usual conservative instinct and avoidance of abstract thought1 the ,egyptian of later days co-ordinated them together1 and closed his eyes to their actual incompatibility4 ,lecture ,,iii4 ,the ,imperishable ,part ,of ,man ,and ,the ,other ,world4 ,it has sometimes been asserted by travellers and ethnologists1 that tribes exist who are absolutely without any idea of ,god4 ,it will usually be found that such assertions mean little more than that they are without any idea of what we mean by ,god3 even the ,zulus1 who saw in a reed the creator of the world17#ag7 nevertheless believed that the world had been created by a power outside themselves4 ,modern research goes to show that no race of man1 so far as is known1 has been without a belief in a power of the kind1 or in a world which is separate from the visible world around us2 statements to the contrary generally rest on ignorance or misconception4 ,the very fact that the savage dreams1 and gives to his dreams the reality of his waking moments1 brings with it a belief in what1 for the want of a better term1 ,i will call 8another world40 ,this other world1 it must be remembered1 is material1 as material as the 8heavenly ,jerusalem0 to which so many good ,christians have looked forward even in our own day4 ,the savage has no experience of anything else than material existence1 and he cannot1 therefore1 rise to the conception of what we mean by the spiritual1 even if he were capable of forming so abstract an idea4 ,his spiritual world is necessarily materialistic1 not only to be interpreted and apprehended through sensuous symbols1 but identical with those sensuous symbols themselves4 ,the ,latin anima meant 8breath0 before it meant 8the soul40 ,this sensuous materialistic conception of the spiritual has lingered long in the human mind2 indeed1 it is questionable whether1 as long as we are human1 we shall ever shake ourselves wholly free from it4 ,the greater is naturally its dominance the further we recede in history4 ,there is 8another world10 but it is a world strangely like our own4 ,closely connected with this conception of 8another world0 is the conception which man forms concerning his own nature4 ,there are few races of mankind among whom we do not find in one shape or another the belief in a second self4 ,sometimes this second self is in all respects a reflection and image of the living self1 like the images of those we see in our dreams2 and it is more than probable that dreams first suggested it4 ,sometimes it is a mere speck of grey vapour1 which may owe its origin to the breath which issues from the mouth and seems to forsake it at death1 or to the misty forms seen after nightfall by the savage in the gloom of the forest and by the edge of the morass4 ,at times it is conceived of as a sort of luminous gas or a phosphorescent flash of light1 such as is emitted by decaying vegetation in a damp soil4 ,or1 again1 it may be likened to the bird that flies to heaven1 to the butterfly which hovers from flower to flower1 or even to insects like the grasshopper which hop along the ground4 ,but however it may be envisaged1 it is at once impalpable and material1 something that can be perceived by the senses and yet eludes the grasp4 ,the ,egyptian theory of the nature of man in the historical age of the nation was very complicated4 ,man was made up of many parts1 each of which was capable of living eternally4 ,the belief in his composite character was due to the composite character of the people as described in the last lecture1 added to that conservative tendency which prevented them from discarding or even altering any part of the heritage of the past4 ,some at least of the elements which went 8to the making of man0 were derived from different elements in the population4 ,they had been absorbed1 or rather co-ordinated1 in the ,state religion1 with little regard to their mutual compatibility and with little effort to reconcile them4 ,hence it is somewhat difficult to distinguish them all one from another2 indeed1 it is a task which no ,egyptian theologian even attempted2 and when we find the list of them given in full1 it is doubtless to secure that no component part of the individual should be omitted1 the name of which had been handed down from the generations of old4 ,there were1 however1 certain component parts which were clearly defined1 and which occupied an important place in the religious ideas of ,egypt4 ,foremost amongst these was the ,ka or 8,double40 ,underneath the conception of the ,ka lay a crude philosophy of the universe4 ,the ,ka corresponded with the shadow in the visible world4 ,like the shadow which cannot be detached from the object1 so1 too1 the ,ka or ,double is the reflection of the object as it is conceived of in the mind4 ,but the ,egyptian did not realise that it was only a product of the mind4 ,for him it was as real and material as the shadow itself2 indeed1 it was much more material1 for it had an independent existence of its own4 ,it could be separated from the object of which it was the facsimile and presentment1 and represent it elsewhere4 ,nay1 more than this1 it was what gave life and form to the object of which it was the image2 it constituted1 in fact1 its essence and personality4 ,hence it was sometimes interchanged with the 8,name0 which1 in the eyes of the ,egyptian1 was the essence of the thing itself1 without which the thing could not exist4 ,in a sense the ,ka was the spiritual reflection of an object1 but it was a spiritual reflection which had a concrete form4 ,the 8ideas0 of ,plato were the last development of the ,egyptian doctrine of the ,ka4 ,they were the archetypes after which all things have been made1 and they are archetypes which are at once abstract and concrete4 ,modern philosophers have transformed them into the thoughts of ,god1 which realise themselves in concrete shape4 ,but to the ancient ,egyptian the concrete side of his conception was alone apparent4 ,that the ,ka was a creation of his own mind never once occurred to him4 ,it had a real and substantial existence in the world of gods and men1 even though it was not visible to the outward senses4 ,everything that he knew or thought of had its double1 and he never suspected that it was his own act of thought which brought it into being4 ,it was symbolism again that was to blame4 ,once more the symbol was confused with that for which it stood1 and the abstract was translated into the concrete4 ,the abstract idea of personality became a substantial thing1 to which all the attributes of substantial objects were attached4 ,like the 8,name10 which was a force with a concrete individuality of its own1 the ,ka was as much an individual entity as the angels of ,christian belief4 ,between it and the object or person to which it belonged1 there was the same relation as exists between the conception and the word4 ,the one presupposed the other4 ,until the person was born1 his ,ka had no existence2 while1 on the other hand1 it was the ,ka to which his existence was owed4 ,but once it had come into being the ,ka was immortal1 like the word which1 once formed1 can exist independently of the thought which gave it birth4 ,as soon as it left the body1 the body ceased to live1 and did not recover life and consciousness until it was reunited with its ,ka4 ,but while the body remained thus lifeless and unconscious1 the ,ka led an independent existence1 conscious and alive4 ,this existence1 however1 was1 in a sense1 quite as material as that of the body had been upon earth4 ,the ,ka needed to be sustained by food and drink4 ,hence came the offerings which were made to the dead as well as to the gods1 each of whom had his ,ka1 which1 like the human ,ka1 was dependent on the food that was supplied to it4 ,but it was the ,ka of the food and the ,ka of the drink upon which the ,ka of man or god was necessarily fed4 ,though at first1 therefore1 the actual food and drink were furnished by the faithful1 the ,egyptians were eventually led by the force of logic to hold that models of the food and drink in stone or terra-cotta or wood were as efficacious as the food and drink themselves4 ,such models were cheaper and more easily procurable1 and had1 moreover1 the advantage of being practically imperishable4 ,gradually1 therefore1 they took the place of the meat and bread1 the beer and wine1 which had once been piled up in the dead man's tomb1 and from the time of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty onwards we find terra-cotta cakes1 inscribed with the name and titles of the deceased1 substituted for the funerary bread4 ,the same idea as that which led to the manufacture of these sham offerings had introduced statues and images into the tomb at an early date4 ,in the tombs of the ,third and ,fourth and following ,dynasties1 statues have been found of a very high order of art4 ,no effort has been spared to make them speaking likenesses of the men and women in whose tombs they were placed2 even the eyes have been made lifelike with inlaid ivory and obsidian4 ,usually1 too1 the statues are carved out of the hardest1 and therefore the most enduring1 of stone1 so that1 when the corpse of the dead was shrivelled beyond recognition1 his counterpart in stone still represented him just as he was in life4 ,but the statue had its ,ka like the man it represented1 and if the likeness were exact1 the ,ka of the statue and the ,ka of the man would be one and the same4 ,hence the ,ka could find a fitting form in which to clothe itself whenever it wished to revisit the tomb and there nourish itself on the offerings made to the dead by the piety of his descendants4 ,and even if the mummy perished1 the statue would remain for the homeless ,ka47#ah7 ,it was probably on this account that we so often find more than one statue of the dead man in the same tomb4 ,the more numerous the statues1 the greater chance there was that one at least of them would survive down to the day when the ,ka should at last be again united to its body and soul4 ,and the priests of ,heliopolis discovered yet a further reason for the practice4 ,from time immemorial ,ra the sun-god had been invoked there under the form of his seven birdlike 8souls0 or spirits1 and double this number of ,kas was now ascribed to him1 each corresponding with a quality or attribute which he could bestow upon his worshippers47#ai7 ,symbols already existed in the hieroglyphics for these various qualities1 so that it was easy to regard each of them as having a separate and concrete existence1 and so being practically a ,ka4 ,the funerary statue and the ideas connected with it seem to have been characteristic of ,memphis and the school of theology which existed there4 ,at all events1 no similar statues have been discovered at ,abydos in the tombs of the first two 7,thinite7 dynasties2 they make their appearance with the rise of ,memphite influence under the ,third ,dynasty4 ,and with the disappearance of the old ,memphite empire1 they too tend to disappear4 ,the disturbed condition of ,egypt after the fall of the ,sixth ,dynasty was not favourable to art1 and it was probably difficult to find artists any longer who could imitate with even approximate accuracy the features of the dead4 ,but under the ,theban dynasties another kind of image becomes prominent4 ,this was the ,ushebti or 8,respondent10 hundreds of which may be seen in most museums4 ,they are usually small figures of blue or green porcelain1 with a mattock painted under each arm1 and a basket on the back4 ,the name and titles of the deceased are generally inscribed upon them1 and not unfrequently the #fth chapter of the ,egyptian funerary ritual or ,book of the ,dead4 ,the chapter reads as follows3 8,o these ushebtis1 whatever be the work it is decreed the ,osirified one must do in the other world1 let all hindrances to it there be smitten down for him1 even as he desires6 ,behold me when ye call6 ,see that ye work diligently every moment there1 sowing the fields1 filling the canals with water1 carrying sand from the ,west to the ,east4 ,behold me when ye call60 ,the chapter explained what the ushebti-figures were intended for4 ,before the dead man1 justified though he had been by faith in ,osiris and his own good deeds1 could be admitted to the full enjoyment of the fields of paradise1 it was necessary that he should show that he was worthy of them by the performance of some work4 ,he was therefore called upon to cultivate that portion of them which had been allotted to him1 to till the ground and water it from the heavenly ,nile4 ,had he been a peasant while on earth1 the task would have been an easy one2 had he1 on the contrary1 belonged to the wealthier classes1 or been unaccustomed to agricultural labour1 it would have been hard and irksome4 ,thanks to the doctrine of the ,ka1 however1 means were found for lightening the obligation4 ,the relatives of the dead buried with him a number of ushebti-figures1 each of which represented a fellah with mattock and basket1 and their ,kas1 it was believed1 would1 with the help of the sacred words of the ,ritual1 assist him in his work4 ,sometimes1 to make assurance doubly sure1 the images were broken2 thus1 as it were1 putting an end to their earthly existence1 and setting their ,kas free4 ,when once the tomb was closed and the mummy hidden away in the recesses1 it was necessary to find a way by which the ,ka could enter the abode of the dead1 and so eat and drink the food that had been deposited there4 ,for it must be remembered that the ,ka from its very nature was subject to the same limitations as the person whom it represented4 ,if there was no door it could not enter4 ,where it differed from the living person was in its existing in a world in which what are shams and pictures to us were so many concrete realities4 ,consequently all that was needed in order to allow the ,ka free entrance into the tomb was to paint a false door on one of its walls2 the ,ka could then pass in and out through the ,ka of the door1 and so rejoin its mummy or its statue when so it wished4 ,this false door1 in front of which the offerings to the dead were originally laid1 must go back to a primitive period in ,egyptian history4 ,professor ,flinders ,petrie has shown that it is presupposed by the so-called ,banner name of the ,egyptian ,pharaohs47#bj7 ,ever since the first days of hieroglyphic decipherment1 it has been known that besides the name or names given to the ,pharaoh at birth1 and commonly borne by him in life1 he had another name not enclosed in a cartouche1 but in something that resembled a banner1 and was surmounted by the hawk of the god ,horus4 ,it actually represented1 however1 not a banner1 but the panel above the false door of a tomb1 and the name written within it was the name of the ,ka of the ,pharaoh rather than of the ,pharaoh himself4 ,it was accordingly the name by which he was known after death1 the name inscribed on the objects buried in his tomb1 and also the name under which he was worshipped whether in this life or in the next4 ,as the ,horus or deified leader who had subjugated the older inhabitants of ,egypt and founded the ,pharaonic dynasties1 it was right and fitting that he should be known by the name of his ,ka4 ,it was not so much the ,pharaoh that was adored by his subjects1 as the ,ka of the ,pharaoh1 and the ,pharaoh was god because the blood of ,horus flowed in his veins4 ,the earliest monuments of the ,pharaohs yet discovered give almost invariably only the ,ka-name of the king4 ,the fact is doubtless due in great measure to their general character4 ,with few exceptions they consist of tombstones and other sepulchral furniture4 ,but the objects found in the foundations of the temple of ,nekhen are also examples of the same fact4 ,the fusion was not yet complete1 at all events in the south1 between the ,pharaoh as man and the ,pharaoh as god2 it was his ,ka that was divine1 rather than the bodily husk in which it sojourned for a time4 ,the ,ka accordingly occupies a prominent place in the names of the ,pharaohs of the ,old ,empire1 while the sacred art of the temples continued the ancient tradition down to the latest times4 ,horus and the ,nile-gods1 for instance1 present the ,ka of ,amon-hotep ,,iii4 along with the infant prince to the god of ,thebes2 and at ,soleb the same ,pharaoh is represented as making offerings to his own double47#ba7 ,indeed1 it is not unfrequent to find the king and his ,ka thus separated from one another and set side by side2 and at times the ,ka becomes a mere symbol1 planted like a standard at the monarch's back4 ,it was the ,ka1 therefore1 which in the early days of ,egyptian religious thought was more especially associated with the divine nature of the king4 ,the association of ideas was assisted by the fact that the gods1 like men1 had each his individual ,ka4 ,and in the older period of ,egyptian history the ,ka of the god and not the god himself was primarily the object of worship4 ,the sacred name of ,memphis was a-ka-,pta1 8the temple of the ,ka of ,pta10 which appears as ,khikuptakh in the ,tel el-,amarna letters1 and from which the ,greeks derived their ,aiguptos1 8,egypt40 ,even in the last centuries of ,egyptian independence the prayers addressed to the bull-god ,apis are still made for the most part to his ,ka4 ,the ,ka1 in fact1 was conceived of as the living principle which inspired both gods and men4 ,its separation from the body meant what we call death1 and life could return only when the two were reunited4 ,that reunion could take place only in the other world1 after long years had passed and strange experiences had been undergone by the disembodied ,ka4 ,the #ajeth chapter of the ,book of the ,dead contains the words with which on the day of resurrection the ,ka was to be greeted4 8,hail10 says the dead man1 8to thee who wast my ,ka during life6 ,behold1 ,i come unto thee1 ,i arise resplendent1 ,i labour1 ,i am strong1 ,i am hale1 ,i bring grains of incense1 ,i am purified thereby1 and ,i thereby purify that which goeth forth from thee40 ,then follow the magical words by which all evil was to be warded off3 8,i am that amulet of green felspar1 the necklace of the god ,ra1 which is given unto them that are on the horizon4 ,they flourish1 ,i flourish1 my ,ka flourishes even as they1 my duration of life flourishes even as they1 my ,ka has abundance of food even as they4 ,the scale of the balance rises1 ,truth rises high unto the nose of the god ,ra on the day on which my ,ka is where ,i am 7874 ,my head and my arm are restored to me where ,i am 7874 ,i am he whose eye seeth1 whose ears hear2 ,i am not a beast of sacrifice4 ,the sacrificial formul for the higher ones of heaven are recited where ,i am40 ,as might be expected1 the ,ka is often represented with the symbol of life in its hands4 ,at the same time1 it is important to remember that1 though under one aspect the ,ka was identical with the principle of life1 in the mind of the ,egyptian it was separate from the latter1 just as it was separate from consciousness and from the divine essence4 ,these were each of them independent entities which were possessed by the ,ka just as they were possessed by its human counterpart4 ,life1 consciousness1 and relationship to the gods were all attributes of the ,ka1 but they were attributes1 each of which had a concrete and independent existence of its own4 ,at the outset1 doubtless1 the ,ka was practically identical with the vital principle4 ,primitive man does not distinguish as we do between the animate and the inanimate4 ,he projects his own personality into the things he sees about him1 and ascribes to them the same motive forces as those which move himself4 ,he knows of only one source of movement and activity1 and that source is life4 ,the stars which travel through the firmament1 the arrow that flies through the air1 are either alive or else are directed and animated by some living power4 ,movement1 in fact1 implies life1 and the moving object1 whatever it may be1 is a living thing4 ,the old belief or instinct is still strong in the child4 ,he revenges himself upon the ball or stone that has struck him as though it too were a living being4 ,in the ,mosaic law it is laid down that 8if an ox gore a man or a woman that they die1 then the ox shall be surely stoned02 and similar penalties were enforced against animals which had injured man1 not only in the ,middle ,ages1 but even in the eighteenth century4 ,thus a pig was burned at ,fontenay-aux-,roses1 in #abff1 for having devoured a child2 and in #achi a horse was brought to trial at ,dijon for the murder of a man1 and condemned to death4 ,in ,brazil1 in #agac1 an action was brought against the ants who had burrowed under the foundations of a monastery1 and1 after counsel had been heard on both sides1 they were solemnly condemned to banishment by the judge2 while1 in #afhe1 the bell of the ,protestant chapel at ,la ,rochelle was first scourged for having abetted heresy1 then catechised and made to recant1 and finally baptized47#bb7 ,the early ,egyptians were not more enlightened than the orthodox theologians of ,la ,rochelle4 ,for them1 too1 action must have implied life1 and the distinction between object and subject had not yet been realised4 ,hence the belief that objects as well as persons had each its ,ka1 a belief which was strengthened by the fact that they all alike cast shadows before them1 as well as the further belief that the nature of the ,ka was in either case the same4 ,hence it was1 moreover1 that the ushebti-figures and other sepulchral furniture were broken in order that their ,kas might be released from them1 and so accompany the ,ka of the dead man in his wanderings in the other world4 ,as life and the power of movement deserted the corpse of the dead man as soon as his ,ka was separated from it1 so too the ,ka of the ushebti passed out of it when its form was mutilated by breakage4 ,the life that was in it had departed1 as it were1 into another world4 ,it is even possible that the very word ,ka had originally a connection with a root signifying 8to live40 ,at any rate1 it was identical in spelling with a word which denoted 8food02 and that the pronunciation of the two words was the same1 may be gathered from the fact that the ,egyptian bas-reliefs sometimes represent the offerings of food made to the dead or to the gods inside the arms of the symbol of the ,ka7#bc74 ,when we remember that vivande is nothing more than the ,latin vivenda1 8the things on which we live10 there arises at least the possibility of an etymological connection between the double and the principle of life which it once symbolised47#bd7 ,now1 in my ,hibbert ,lectures on the ,religion of the ,ancient ,babylonians1 ,i pointed out that the early ,sumerian inhabitants of ,babylonia held a belief which is almost precisely the same as that of the ,egyptians in regard to the ,ka4 ,in ,babylonia also1 everything had its ,zi or 8double10 and the nature of this ,zi is in no way distinguishable from that of the ,egyptian ,ka4 ,as in ,egypt1 moreover1 the gods had each his ,zi as well as men and things1 and1 as in ,egypt1 it was the ,zi of the god rather than the god himself which was primarily worshipped4 ,so marked is the resemblance between the two conceptions1 that in working it out on the ,babylonian side1 ,i could not resist the conviction that there must have been some connection between them4 ,that was sixteen years ago4 ,since then discoveries have been made and facts brought to light which indicate that a connection really did exist between the ,babylonia and the ,egypt of the so-called prehistoric age1 and have led me to believe1 with ,hommel1 de ,morgan1 and others1 that ,babylonia was the home and cradle of the ,pharaonic ,egyptians4 ,in ,sumerian the word ,zi signified 8life10 and was denoted by the picture of a flowering reed4 ,it was the life on which was imprinted the form of the body that was for a time its home1 and its separation from the body meant the death of the latter4 ,the ,sumerians never advanced to the further stage of making the vital principle itself a separable quality2 perhaps the original signification of the word which it never lost would have prevented this4 ,but they did go on to transform the ,zi into a spirit or demon1 who1 in place of being the counterpart of some individual person or thing1 could enter at will into any object he chose4 ,even in ,egypt1 traces of the same logical progress in ideas may perhaps be found4 ,if ,professor ,maspero is right in his interpretation of certain passages in the ,pyramid texts and ,ptolemaic papyri1 8,the double did not allow its family to forget it1 but used all the means at its disposal to remind them of its existence4 ,it entered their houses and their bodies1 terrified them1 waking and sleeping1 by its sudden apparitions1 struck them down with disease or madness1 and would even suck their blood like the modern vampire7#be740 ,such a conception of the ,ka1 however1 if ever it existed1 must have soon passed away1 leaving behind it but few vestiges of itself4 ,i have dwelt thus long on the doctrine of the ,ka or double on account both of its importance and of the difficulties it presents to the modern scholar4 ,its discovery by ,professor ,maspero and ,sir ,p4 ,le ,page ,renouf cleared away a host of misconceptions1 and introduced light into one of the darkest corners of ,egyptian religion7#bf74 ,and however strange it may seem to us1 it was in thorough accordance with the simple logic of primitive man4 ,given the premisses1 the conclusion followed4 ,it was only when the ,egyptian came to progress in knowledge and culture1 and new ideas about his own nature were adopted1 that difficulties began to multiply and the theory of the ,ka to become complicated4 ,among these new ideas was that of the ,khu or 8luminous0 part of man4 ,on the recently discovered monuments of the early period1 the ,khu holds a place which it lost after the rise of ,memphite influence with the ,third ,dynasty4 ,we find it depicted on the tombstones of ,abydos embraced by the down-bent arms of the ,ka4 ,the ,khu1 therefore1 was conceived of as comprehended in the human ,ka1 as forming part of it1 though at the same time as a separate entity4 ,it was1 in fact1 the soul of the human ,ka1 and was accordingly symbolised by the crested ibis7#bg74 ,it may be that it was in the beginning nothing more than the phosphorescent light emitted by decaying vegetation which the belated wayfarer took for a ghost2 the ginn 7jinn7 of the modern ,egyptian fellah are similar lights which flash up suddenly from the ground4 ,but the earliest examples of its use on the monuments are against such an ignoble origin1 and suggest rather that it was the glorified spirit which mounted up like a bird in the arms of its ,ka towards the brilliant vault of heaven4 ,it is not until we come to the decadent days of the ,greek and ,roman periods that the ,khu appears in a degraded form as a malignant ghost which enters the bodies of the living in order to torment them4 ,no traces of such a belief are to be found in older days4 ,the ,pyramid texts speak of 8the four ,khu of ,horus10 8who live in ,heliopolis10 and were at once male and female1 and of the ,khu who brandish their arms and form a sort of bodyguard around the god of the dead4 ,they are identified with the fixed stars1 and more especially with those of the ,great ,bear1 and in the euhemeristic chronicles of ,egyptian history they become the 8,manes0 of ,manetho1 the semi-divine dynasty which intervened between the dynasties of the gods and of men47#bh7 ,the ,khu thus forms a link between men and the gods1 and participates in the divine nature4 ,it is the soul regarded as a godlike essence1 as coming down from heaven rather than as mounting up towards it4 ,it is not only disembodied1 but needs the body no longer2 it belongs to the ,ka1 which still lives and moves1 and not to the mummified corpse from which the vital spark has fled4 ,it waits on the god of the dead1 not on the dead themselves4 ,it seems probable1 therefore1 that in the part of ,egypt in which the doctrine of the ,khu grew up1 mummification was not practised2 and the probability is strengthened by the fact that1 before the rise of the ,third ,dynasty1 embalming was apparently not frequent in ,upper ,egypt1 even in the case of the kings4 ,but1 however this may be1 one thing is certain4 ,the conception of the ,khu cannot have originated in the same part of the country1 or perhaps among the same element in the population1 as a parallel but wholly inconsistent conception which eventually gained the predominance4 ,according to this conception1 the imperishable part of man which1 like the ,ka1 passed after death into the other world1 was the ,ba or 8soul40 ,like the ,khu1 the ,ba was pictured as a bird2 but the bird is usually given a human head and sometimes human hands47#bi7 ,but1 while the ,khu was essentially divine1 the ,ba was essentially human4 ,it is true that the ,ba1 as well as the ,khu1 was assigned to the gods--,ra of ,heliopolis was even credited with seven2 but whereas man possessed a ,khu or luminous soul because he was likened to the gods1 the gods possessed a ,ba because they were likened to men4 ,the relation between the two is brought out very clearly in the philosophy of the so-called ,hermetic books1 which endeavoured to translate the theology of ,egypt into ,greek thought4 ,there we are told that the ,khu is the intelligence 771 of which the ,ba or soul 77 is as it were the envelope4 ,as long as the soul is imprisoned in the earthly tabernacle of the body1 the intelligence is deprived of the robe of fire in which it should be clothed1 its brightness is dimmed1 and its purity is sullied4 ,the death of the body releases it from its prison-house2 it once more soars to heaven and becomes a spirit 771 while the soul is carried to the hall of judgment1 there to be awarded punishment or happiness in accordance with its deserts47#cj7 ,the ,khu1 in other words1 is a spark of that divine intelligence which pervades the world and to which it must return2 the ,ba is the individual soul which has to answer after death for the deeds committed in the body4 ,the plover was the bird usually chosen to represent the ,ba1 but at times the place of the plover is taken by the hawk1 the symbol of ,horus and the solar gods4 ,that the soul should have been likened to a bird is natural1 and we meet with the same or similar symbolism among other peoples4 ,like the bird1 it flew between earth and heaven1 untrammelled by the body to which it had once been joined4 ,from time to time it visited its mummy2 at other times it dwelt with the gods above4 ,now and again1 so the inscriptions tell us1 it alighted on the boughs of the garden it had made for itself in life1 cooling itself under the sycamores and eating their fruits4 ,for the ,ba was no more immaterial than the ,ka2 it1 too1 needed meat and drink for its sustenance1 and looked to its relatives and descendants to furnish them4 ,but1 as ,professor ,maspero7#ca7 has pointed out1 there was a very real and fundamental difference between the idea of the ,ka or double1 and that of the ,ba or soul4 ,the ,ka was originally nourished on the actual offerings that were placed in the tomb of the dead man2 it passed into it through the false door and consumed the food that it found there4 ,but the soul had ascended to the gods in heaven2 it lived in the light of day1 not in the darkness of the tomb2 and it is doubtful if it was ever supposed to return there4 ,to the gods accordingly was committed the care of the ,ba1 and of seeing that it was properly provided for4 ,by the power of prayer and magical incantation1 the various articles of food1 or1 more strictly speaking1 their doubles1 were identified with the gods1 and communicated by the gods to the soul4 ,long before the days when the ,pyramid texts had been compiled1 this theory of the nourishment of the soul was applied also to the nourishment of the ,ka1 and the older belief in the material eating and drinking of the ,ka had passed away4 ,all that remained of it was the habitual offering of the food to the dead1 a custom which still lingers among the fellahin of ,egypt1 both ,moslem and ,copt4 ,besides the double and the two souls1 there was yet another immortal element in the human frame4 ,this was the heart1 the seat both of the feelings and of the mind4 ,but it was not the material heart1 but its immaterial double1 which passed after death into the other world4 ,the material heart was carefully removed from the mummy1 and with the rest of the intestines was usually cast into the ,nile4 ,porphyry7#cb7 tells us that in his time1 when the bodies of the wealthier classes were embalmed1 the ,egyptians 8take out the stomach and put it into a coffer1 and1 holding the coffer to the sun1 protest1 one of the embalmers making a speech on behalf of the dead4 ,this speech1 which ,euphantos translated from his native language1 is as follows3 #8,o ,lord the ,sun1 and all ye gods who give life to man1 receive me and make me a companion of the eternal gods4 ,for the gods1 whom my parents made known to me1 as long as ,i have lived in this world ,i have continued to reverence1 and those who gave birth to my body ,i have ever honoured4 ,and as for other men1 ,i have neither slain any1 nor defrauded any of anything entrusted to me1 nor committed any other wicked act2 but if by chance ,i have committed any sin in my life1 by either eating or drinking what was forbidden1 not of myself did ,i sin1 but owing to these members1'--at the same time showing the coffer in which the stomach was4 ,and having said this1 he throws it into the river1 and embalms the rest of the body as being pure4 ,thus they thought that they needed to excuse themselves to ,god for what they had eaten and drunken1 and therefore so reproach the stomach407#cc7 ,now and then1 however1 the heart and intestines were replaced in the mummy1 but under the protection of wax images of the four genii of the dead--the four ,khu of the ,book of the ,dead4 ,more often they were put into four vases of alabaster or some other material1 which were buried with the dead47#cd7 ,though the latter practice was not very common1 probably on account of its expense1 it must go back to the very beginnings of ,egyptian history4 ,the hieroglyphic symbol of the heart is just one of these vases1 and one of the two names applied to the heart was ati1 8that which belongs to the vase40 ,after ages even endeavoured to draw a distinction between ab 8the heart0 proper1 and ati 8the heart-sack407#ce7 ,from the time of the ,twelfth ,dynasty7#cf7 onwards1 the place of the material heart in the mummy was taken by an amulet1 through the influence of which1 it was supposed1 the corpse would be secured against all the dangers and inconveniences attending the loss of its heart until the day of resurrection4 ,the amulet was in the form of a beetle or scarab1 the emblem of 8becoming0 or transformation1 and on the under side of it there was often inscribed the #cjth chapter of the ,book of the ,dead1 to the words of which were ascribed a magical effect4 ,the chapter reads as follows3 8,o heart 7ab7 of my mother1 ,o heart 7ati7 of my transformations6 ,let there be no stoppage to me as regards evidence 7before the judges of the dead71 no hindrance to me on the part of the ,powers1 no repulse of me in the presence of the guardian of the scales6 ,thou art my ,ka in my body1 the god ,khnum who makes strong my limbs4 ,come thou to the good place to which we are going4 ,let not our name be overthrown by the lords of ,hades who cause men to stand upright6 ,good unto us1 yea good is it to hear that the heart is large 7and heavy7 when the words 7of life7 are weighed67#cg7 ,let no lies be uttered against me before ,god4 ,how great art thou60 ,meanwhile the immaterial heart1 the 8,ka0 of it1 which is addressed in the words just quoted1 had made its way through the region of the other world1 until it finally reached the place known as 8the ,abode of ,hearts40 ,here in the judgment-hall of ,osiris it met the dead man to whom it had formerly belonged1 and here1 too1 it accused him of all the evil words and thoughts he had harboured in his lifetime1 or testified to the good thoughts and words of which he had been the author4 ,for the heart1 though the organ through which his thoughts and words had acted1 was not the cause of them2 in its nature it was essentially pure and divine1 and it had been an unwilling witness of the sins it had been forced to know4 ,eventually it was weighed in the balance against the image of ,truth1 and only if the scales turned in favour of the dead man could it rejoin its former body and live with it for ever in the islands of the ,blest4 ,the scales and judgment-hall1 however1 belong to the religious conceptions which gathered round the name of ,osiris1 like the ,paradise which the risen mummy looked forward to enjoy4 ,it was only after the worship of ,osiris had become universal throughout ,egypt1 and the older or local ideas of the future life had been accommodated to them1 that it was possible for an ,egyptian to speak of meeting his disembodied heart1 or of the testimony it could give for or against him before the judges of the dead4 ,the fact that the use of the scarab does not seem to extend further back than the age of the ,memphite or ,theban dynasties1 may imply that it was only then that the ,osirian beliefs were officially fitted on to earlier forms of faith4 ,however this may be1 the worship of ,osiris and the beliefs attaching to it must be left to another lecture1 and for the present we must pass on to the mummy itself1 the last part of man which it was hoped would be immortal4 ,the mummy or ,su has to be carefully distinguished from the ,khat or natural body4 ,the latter was a mere dead shell1 seen by the soul but not affording a resting-place for it4 ,the mummy1 on the other hand1 contained within itself the seeds of growth and resurrection4 ,it could be visited by the soul and inspired by it for a few moments with life1 and the ,egyptian looked forward to a time when it would once more be reunited with both its heart and its soul1 and so rise again from the dead4 ,it is impossible to say how far back in the history of the ,egyptian religion this belief in the immortality of the mummy may go4 ,it can hardly have originated in the same circle of ideas as the doctrine of the ,ka1 though the doctrine of the ,ka could easily be reconciled with it4 ,on the one hand1 it seems connected1 as we shall see1 with the cult of ,osiris2 but1 on the other hand1 there are no traces of mummification in the prehistoric graves1 and it is doubtful whether there are any in the royal tombs of ,negada and ,abydos which belong to the age of the ,first and ,second ,dynasties4 ,at all events1 the scarab1 which accompanied embalmment1 first appears at a much later date1 and perhaps had a ,memphite origin4 ,there are1 however1 indications that the process of embalming first arose among the pre-,menic rulers of ,nekhen1 in the neighbourhood of ,el-,kab4 ,the soil of ,el-,kab literally effloresces with the natron1 which1 it was discovered1 preserved the bodies buried in it2 and even as late as the time of the ,pyramid texts of the ,fifth and ,sixth ,dynasties1 when the northern sources of natron were known1 it was still necessary for ceremonial purposes that the materials used by the embalmer should contain some of the natron of ,el-,kab47#ch7 ,what was difficult to harmonise with the belief in the resurrection of the mummy was the belief which made the risen man an 8,osiris10 identified1 that is to say1 in substance with the god ,osiris1 and not his old material self4 ,in the days1 therefore1 when ,greek philosophy took it in hand to systematise and interpret the theology of ,egypt1 the risen mummy drops out of sight4 ,the ,khu1 as we have seen1 becomes the divine intelligence1 which for a time is enshrouded in the human soul2 and this again needs the envelope of the spirit1 which sends the breath of life through the veins before it can tabernacle in the body of man4 ,the ,hermetic books tell us that while body1 spirit1 and soul are common to man and the beasts1 the divine intelligence is his alone to possess1 stripped1 indeed1 of its native covering of ethereal fire1 but still the veritable spirit of ,god4 ,ever is it seeking to raise the human soul to itself1 and so purify it from the passions and desires with which it is inspired by the body4 ,but the flesh wages continual war against it1 and endeavours to drag the soul down to its own level4 ,if the soul yields1 after death the intelligence returns to its original state1 while the soul is arraigned before the judgment-seat of heaven1 and there being accused by its conscience1 the heart1 is condemned to the punishment of the lost4 ,first it is scourged for its sins1 and then handed over to the buffetings of the tempests1 suspended between earth and sky4 ,at times in the form of an evil demon it seeks alleviation of its torments by entering the body of a man or animal1 whom it drives to murder and madness4 ,but at last1 after ages of suffering1 the end comes2 it dies the second death1 and is annihilated for ever4 ,the good soul1 on the other hand1 which has listened in life to the voice of the divine intelligence1 and struggled to overcome the lusts and passions of the flesh1 obtains after death its reward4 ,guided by the intelligence1 it traverses space1 learning the secrets of the universe1 and coming to understand the things that are dark and mysterious to us here4 ,at length its education in the other world is completed1 and it is permitted to see ,god face to face and to lose itself in ,his ineffable glory4 ,i need not point out to you how deeply this ,hellenised philosophy of ,egypt has affected the religious thought of ,christian ,alexandria1 and through ,alexandria of ,christian ,europe4 ,it may be that traces of it may be detected even in the ,new ,testament4 ,at any rate1 much of the psychology of ,christian theologians is clearly derived from it4 ,we are still under the influence of ideas whose first home was in ,egypt1 and whose development has been the work of long ages of time4 ,true or false1 they are part of the heritage bequeathed to us by the past4 ,lecture ,,iv4 ,the ,sun-,god ,and ,the ,ennead4 ,in my last lecture1 when speaking of the form under which the soul of man was pictured by the ,egyptians1 ,i mentioned that it was often represented by a hawk1 the symbol of the sun-god4 ,why the hawk should have thus symbolised the sun is a question that has often been asked4 ,the ,egyptians did not know themselves2 and ,porphyry1 in the dying days of the old ,egyptian faith1 gravely declares that it was because the hawk was a compound of blood and breath6 ,one explanation has been that it was because the hawk pounces down from the sky like the rays of the sun1 which1 like the eagle1 he can gaze at without blinking2 and a passage in the ,odyssey of ,homer 7xv4 #ebe7 has been invoked in favour of this view1 where the hawk is called 8the swift messenger of ,apollo40 ,but if there is any connection between the ,homeric passage and the ,egyptian symbol1 it would show only that the symbol had been borrowed by the ,greek poet4 ,originally1 moreover1 it was only the sun-god of ,upper ,egypt who was represented even by the ,egyptians under the form of a hawk4 ,this was ,horus1 often called in the later texts 8,horus the elder0 7,hor-ur1 the ,greek ,aroris71 in order to distinguish him from a wholly different god1 ,horus the younger1 the son of ,isis4 ,his symbol1 the hawk1 is found on the early ,pharaonic monuments which recent excavations have brought to light4 ,sometimes the hawk stands on the so-called standard1 which is really a perch1 sometimes on the crenelated circle1 which denoted a city in those primitive days4 ,the standard is borne before the ,pharaoh1 representing at once his own title and the nome or principality over which he held rule2 and its resemblance to the stone birds perched on similar supports1 which ,mr4 ,bent found in the ruins of ,zimbabwe1 suggests a connection between the prehistoric gold miners of ,central ,africa and the early inhabitants of ,southern ,egypt4 ,on one of the early ,egyptian monuments discovered at ,abydos1 two hawks stand above the wall of a city which seems to bear the name of 8the city of the kings107#ci7 and a slate plaque found by ,mr4 ,quibell at ,kom el-,amar shows us on one side the ,pharaoh of ,nekhen inspecting the decapitated bodies of his enemies with two hawks on standards carried before him1 while1 on the other side1 a hawk leads the bridled 8,north0 to him under the guise of a prisoner1 through whose lips a ring has been passed47#dj7 ,in the first case1 the hawks may represent the districts of which the god they symbolised was the protecting deity27#da7 in the second case1 the god and the king must be identified together4 ,it was as ,horus1 the hawk1 that the ,pharaoh had conquered the ,egyptians of the north1 and it was ,horus1 therefore1 who had given them into his hand4 ,if ,dr4 ,naville is right1 ,horus the hawk-god is again represented on the same plaque1 with the symbol of 8follower10 above a boat which is engraved over the bodies of the decapitated slain47#db7 ,countenance is given to this view by a drawing on the rocks near ,el-,kab1 in which the cartouches of two kings of the ,fourth ,dynasty1 ,sharu and ,khufu1 are carried in boats on the prows of which a hawk is perched1 while above each name are two other hawks1 standing on the hieroglyph of 8gold10 and with the crowns of ,upper and ,lower ,egypt on their heads4 ,the title 8follower of ,horus0 would take us back to the earliest traditions of ,egyptian history4 ,the 8followers of ,horus10 according to the later texts1 were the predecessors of ,menes and the ,first ,dynasty of united ,egypt1 the ,pharaohs and princes of the southern kingdom whose very names were forgotten in after days4 ,nevertheless1 it was remembered that they had founded the great sanctuaries of the country2 thus an inscription at ,dendera declares that in the reign of king ,pepi of the ,sixth ,dynasty there was found in the wall of the palace a parchment on which was a plan of the temple drawn upon it in the time of 8the followers of ,horus40 ,the legends of ,edfu told how these followers of ,horus had been smiths1 armed with weapons of iron1 and how they had driven the enemies of their leader before them until they had possessed themselves of the whole of ,egypt47#dc7 ,but many hard-fought battles were needed before this could be accomplished4 ,again and again had the foe been crushed--at ,zadmit near ,thebes1 at ,neter-,khadu near ,dendera1 at ,minia1 at ,behnesa and ,ahnas on the frontier of the ,fayym1 and finally at ,zaru on the ,asiatic borders of the ,delta4 ,even here1 however1 the struggle was not over4 ,horus and his followers had to take ship and pursue the enemy down the ,red ,sea1 inflicting a final blow upon them near ,berenic1 from whence he returned across the desert in triumph to ,edfu4 ,in this legend1 which in its present form is not older than the ,ptolemaic period1 echoes of the gradual conquest of ,egypt by the first followers of the ,pharaohs have probably been preserved1 though they have been combined with a wholly different cycle of myths relating to the eternal struggle between ,horus the son of ,isis and his twin brother ,set4 ,but the confusion between the two ,horuses must have arisen at an early time4 ,already a king of the ,third ,dynasty1 whose remains have been found in the ruins of ,nekhen1 and who bore the title of him 8who is glorified with the two sceptres1 in whom the two ,horus gods are united10 has above his name the crowned emblems of ,horus and ,set47#dd7 ,the titles of the queens of the ,memphite dynasties make it clear that by the two ,horuses are meant the two kingdoms of ,upper and ,lower ,egypt1 and we must therefore see in ,horus and ,set the symbols of the ,south and ,north47#de7 ,in the rock drawing1 south of ,el-,kab1 to which ,i have alluded a few minutes ago1 the two ,horus hawks stand on the symbol of 8gold10 the one wearing the crown of ,southern ,egypt1 the other that of the ,north4 ,the 8,golden ,horus0 was1 in fact1 one of the titles assumed by the ,pharaoh at an early date4 ,whether the epithet applied to the god represented originally the golden colour of the wings of the sparrow-hawk1 or whether1 as is more probable1 it denoted the ,horus-hawk of gold who watched over the destinies of the kings of ,upper ,egypt in their ancient capital of ,nekhen1 it is now impossible to say47#df7 ,later ages explained it as referring to the golden rays of the morning sun4 ,in the time of the ,fourth ,dynasty the title was attached indifferently to the ,ka or death name given to the ,pharaoh after his death1 and to the living name given to him at his birth into this world4 ,the ,horus-hawk1 without the symbol of 8gold10 surmounted1 so far as we know1 only the ,ka name4 ,it was the double of the ,pharaoh1 rather than the ,pharaoh himself1 in whom the god had been incarnated4 ,horus brings the captive northerner to the king1 and presides over his kingdom2 but it is only over the royal ,ka that he actually watches4 ,at ,nekhen1 the ,horus-hawk1 to whom the city was dedicated1 was represented under the form of a mummy4 ,it was here1 perhaps1 that the natron of ,el-,kab was first employed to preserve the dead body from decay1 and that ,horus was supposed to be entombed1 like ,osiris at ,abydos4 ,at any rate1 there is clearly a connection between the dead and mummified ,horus and the ,horus who stands above the name of the ,pharaoh's double4 ,it is probable1 therefore1 that the identification of ,horus with the kings of ,upper ,egypt originated at ,nekhen4 ,the ,horus-hawk was the token under which they fought and ruled2 it was ,horus who had led them to victory1 and in whose name the ,pharaonic ,egyptians1 with their weapons of metal1 overcame the neolithic population of the ,nile4 ,that ,horus1 accordingly1 in one shape or another1 should have become the patron god of so many principalities in ,southern ,egypt1 is in no way astonishing47#dg7 ,he represented the ,pharaonic ,egyptians2 and as they moved northward1 subduing the older inhabitants of the country1 they carried his worship with them4 ,at ,heliopolis he was adored as ,hor-em-,khuti or ,harmakhis1 8,horus issuing from the two horizons10 and identified with ,ra1 the sun-god1 the patron of the city4 ,his image may still be seen in the sphinx of ,giza1 with its human head and lion's body4 ,at ,edfu1 where the ,pharaonic invaders appear to have first established themselves1 he was worshipped as ,hor-beudet under the form of a winged solar disc1 a combination of the orb of the sun with the wings of the hawk47#dh7 ,a legend inscribed on the walls of the temple1 which is a curious mixture of folklore and false etymologising1 worked up after the fashion of ,lemprire by the priests of the ,ptolemaic period1 knows exactly when it was that this emblem of the god came into existence4 ,it was in the three hundred and sixty-third year of the reign of ,ra-,harmakhis on earth1 when he fled from the rebels who had risen against him in ,nubia and had landed at ,edfu4 ,here ,hor-beudet1 the local deity1 paid homage to his suzerain and undertook to destroy his enemies4 ,but first1 he flew up to the sun 8as a great winged disc10 in order that he might discover where they were4 ,then in his new form he returned to the boat of ,harmakhis1 and there ,thoth addressed ,ra1 saying3 8,o lord of the gods1 the god of ,edfu 7,beudet7 came in the shape of a great winged disc3 from henceforth he shall be called ,hor-beudet40 ,it was after this that ,horus of ,edfu and his followers1 8the smiths10 smote the foe from the southern to the northern border of ,egypt4 ,the legend1 or rather the prosaic fiction in which it has been embodied1 has been composed when the original character of ,horus had long been forgotten1 and when the sun-god of ,heliopolis had become the dominant god of ,egypt4 ,it belongs to the age of theological syncretism1 when the gods of ,egypt were resolved one into the other like the colours in a kaleidoscope1 and made intangible and ever-shifting forms of ,ra4 ,but it bears witness to one fact1--the antiquity of the worship of ,horus of ,edfu and of the emblem which was associated with him4 ,the winged solar disc forms part of his earliest history4 ,the fact is difficult to reconcile with the view of ,professor ,maspero1 that ,horus was originally the sky1 and is in favour of the general belief of ,egyptologists1 that he was from the outset the sun-god4 ,such1 at all events1 was the opinion of the ,egyptians themselves in the later period of their history4 ,in the ,pyramid texts ,horus already appears as a solar deity1 and it is only as the sun-god that his identification with the ,pharaohs can be explained4 ,it was not the sky but the sun who watched over the names of their doubles4 ,it is true that the two eyes of ,horus were said to be the sun and the moon1 and that a punning etymology1 which connected his name with the word her or 8face10 caused him to be depicted as the face of the sky1 the four locks of hair of which were the four cardinal points4 ,but the etymology is late1 and there is no more difficulty in understanding how the solar and lunar discs can be called the eyes of the sun-god1 than there is in understanding how the winged disc was distinguished from him1 or how even in modern phrase the 8eye0 may be used as a synonym of the whole man4 ,when we speak of 8the eye of ,god10 we mean ,god ,himself47#di7 ,there is1 however1 one newly-discovered monument which may be claimed in support of ,professor ,maspero's theory4 ,above the ,horus-hawk which surmounts the name of the ,third ,dynasty king found at ,nekhen1 is the hieroglyph of the sky4 ,but the explanation of this is not difficult to find4 ,on the one hand1 the hieroglyph embraces the hawk as the sky does the sun2 on the other hand1 it gives the pronunciation of the name of ,horus1 the sky in ,egyptian being her or hor1 8the high0 and uplifted4 ,and the name of ,hor-em-,khuti or ,harmakhis1 8the ,horus who issues from the two horizons10 must be quite as old as the monument of ,nekhen4 ,what the two horizons were is shown us by the hieroglyph which depicts them4 ,they were the twin mountains between which the sun came forth at dawn1 and between which he again passes at sunset4 ,the hieroglyph belongs to the very beginning of ,pharaonic ,egyptian history4 ,it may have been brought by the ,pharaonic immigrants from their old home in the ,east4 ,it is at least noticeable that in the ,sumerian language of primitive ,babylonia the horizon was called kharra or khurra1 a word which corresponds letter for letter with the name of ,horus4 ,the fact may1 of course1 be accidental1 and the name of the ,egyptian god may really be derived from the same root as that from which the word for 8heaven0 has come1 and which means 8to be high40 ,but the conception of the twin-mountains between which the sun-god comes forth every morning1 and between which he passes again at nightfall1 is of ,babylonian origin4 ,on early ,babylonian seal-cylinders we see him stepping through the door1 the two leaves of which have been flung back by its warders on either side of the mountains1 while rays of glory shoot upward from his shoulders4 ,the mountains were called ,mas1 8the twins10 in ,sumerian2 and the great ,epic of ,chalda narrated how the hero ,gilgames made his way to them across the desert1 to a land of darkness1 where scorpion-men1 whose heads rise to heaven while their breasts descend to hell1 watched over the rising and the setting of the sun4 ,it is difficult to believe that such a conception of the horizon could ever have arisen in ,egypt4 ,there the ,delta is a flat plain with no hills even in sight1 while in the valley of ,upper ,egypt there are neither high mountains nor twin peaks4 ,horus himself is1 ,i believe1 to be found in the ,babylonian inscriptions4 ,mention is occasionally made in them of a god ,khar or ,khur1 and in contracts of the time of ,khammurabi 7,b4,c4 #bbjj7 we find the name of ,abi-,khar1 8my father is ,khar40 ,but the age of ,khammurabi was one of intercourse between ,babylonia and ,egypt1 and the god ,khar or ,horus is therefore probably borrowed from ,egypt1 just as a seal-cylinder informs us was the case with ,anupu or ,anubis47#ej7 ,but though the name of ,khar or ,khur is and must remain ,egyptian1 ,horus has much in common with the ,babylonian sun-god ,nin-ip4 ,they are both warrior-gods2 and just as the followers of ,horus were workers in iron1 so ,nin-ip also was the god of iron4 ,one of his titles1 moreover1 is that of 8the southern sun02 and on a boundary-stone the eagle standing on a perch is stated to be 8the symbol of the southern sun407#ea7 ,the goddess with whom ,horus of ,nekhen was associated was ,nekheb with the vulture's head4 ,her temple stood opposite ,nekhen at ,el-,kab on the eastern bank of the ,nile1 and at the end of the long road which led across the desert from the ,red ,sea4 ,it was at once a sanctuary and a fortress defending ,nekhen on the east4 ,but ,nekheb was the goddess not only of ,nekhen1 but of all ,southern ,egypt4 ,we find her in the earliest inscriptions on the sacred island of ,sehl in the ,cataract1 where she is identified with the local goddess ,sati4 ,we find her again at ,thebes under the name of ,mut1 8the mother40 ,her supremacy1 in fact1 went back to the days when ,nekhen was the capital of the south1 and its goddess accordingly shared with it the privileges of domination4 ,when ,nekhen fell back into the position of a small provincial town1 ,nekheb also participated in its decline4 ,under the ,theban dynasties1 it is true1 the name of ,mut of ,karnak became honoured throughout ,egypt1 but her origin by that time had been forgotten4 ,the ,egyptian who brought his offering to ,mut never realised that behind the mask of ,mut lay the features of ,nekheb of ,nekhen4 ,mut1 however1 continued to wear the vulture form1 and the titles assumed by the king still preserved a recollection of the time when ,nekheb was the presiding goddess of the kingdom of the south4 ,from the days of ,menes onward1 in the title of 8king of ,upper and ,lower ,egypt10 while the serpent of ,uazit symbolised the north1 the vulture of ,nekheb symbolised the south4 ,at times1 indeed1 the urus of ,uazit is transferred to ,nekheb2 but that was at an epoch when it had come to signify 8goddess10 as the ,horus-hawk signified 8god40 ,from the earliest ages1 however1 the plant which denoted the south1 and formed part of the royal title1 was used in writing her name4 ,she was emphatically 8the southerner10 the mistress of the south1 just as her consort1 the mummified ,horus1 was its lord4 ,the euhemerising legends of ,edfu made ,horus the faithful vassal of his liege lord ,ra ,harmakhis of ,heliopolis4 ,but from a historical point of view the relations between the two gods ought to have been reversed1 and the legends themselves contained a reminiscence that such was the case4 ,in describing the victorious march of ,horus and his followers towards the north1 they tell us how he made his way past ,heliopolis into the ,delta1 and even established one of his 8forges0 on its easternmost borders4 ,the ,horus kings of ,upper ,egypt made themselves masters of the northern kingdom1 introducing into it the divine hawk they worshipped and the ,horus title over their names4 ,the sun-god of ,heliopolis was represented1 like the gods of ,babylonia1 as a man and not as a hawk4 ,he was known as ,tum or ,atmu1 who1 in the later days of religious syncretism1 was distinguished from the other forms of the sun-god as representing the setting sun4 ,but ,tum was the personal name of the sun-god2 the sun itself was called ,ra4 ,as time went on1 the attributes of the god were transferred to the sun2 ,ra1 too1 became divine1 and1 after being first a synonym of ,tum1 ended by becoming an independent deity4 ,while ,tum was peculiarly the setting sun1 ,ra denoted the sun-god in all his forms and under all his manifestations4 ,he was thus fitted to be the common god of all ,egypt1 with whom the various local sun-gods could be identified1 and lose in him their individuality4 ,ra was a word which meant 8the sun0 in all the dialects of the country1 and its very want of theological associations made it the starting-point of a new phase of religious thought4 ,it was not until the rise of the ,twelfth ,dynasty that a special temple was built to ,ra in ,heliopolis47#eb7 ,up to that time ,ra had been content to share with ,tum the ancient temple of the city1 or rather had absorbed ,tum into himself and thus become its virtual possessor4 ,but his religious importance goes back to prehistoric times4 ,the temple of ,heliopolis became the centre of a theological school which exercised a great influence on the official religion of ,egypt4 ,it was here that the sun-worship was organised1 and the doctrine of creation by generation or emanation first developed2 it was here1 too1 that the chief gods of the ,state religion were formed into groups of nine47#ec7 ,the doctrine of these ,enneads or groups of nine was destined to play an important part in the official creed4 ,from ,heliopolis it spread to other parts of ,egypt1 and eventually each of the great sanctuaries had its own ,ennead1 formed on the model of that of ,heliopolis4 ,at ,heliopolis the cycle of the nine supreme gods contained ,shu and ,tefnut1 ,seb and ,mut1 ,osiris and ,isis1 ,set and ,nebht1 the four pairs who had descended by successive acts of generation from ,tum1 the original god of the nome4 ,we owe the explanation and analysis of the ,ennead to ,professor ,maspero1 who has for the first time made the origin of it clear47#ed7 ,tum1 who is always represented in human form1 was the ancient sun-god and tutelary deity of ,heliopolis4 ,to him was ascribed the creation of the world1 just as it was ascribed by each of the other nomes to their chief god4 ,but whereas at the ,cataract the creator was a potter who had made things from clay1 or at ,memphis an artist who had carved them out of stone1 so it was as a father and generator that ,tum had called the universe into being4 ,in the ,book of the ,dead it is said of him that he is 8the creator of the heavens1 the maker of 7all7 existences1 who has begotten all that there is1 who gave birth to the gods1 who created himself1 the lord of life who bestows upon the gods the strength of youth40 ,an origin1 however1 was found for him in ,nu1 the primeval abyss of waters1 though it is possible that ,professor ,maspero may be right in thinking that ,nu really owes his existence to the goddess ,nut1 and that he was introduced into the cosmogony of ,heliopolis under the influence of ,asiatic ideas4 ,however this may be1 ,shu and ,tefnut1 who immediately emanated from him1 apparently represented the air4 ,later art pictured them in ,asiatic style as twin lions sitting back to back and supporting between them the rising or setting sun47#ee7 ,but an old legend described ,shu as having raised the heavens above the earth1 where he still keeps them suspended above him like the ,greek ,atlas4 ,a text at ,esna1 which identifies him with ,khnum1 describes him as sustaining 8the floor of the sky upon its four supports0 or cardinal points2 8he raised ,nut1 and put himself under her like a great column of air40 ,tefnut1 his twin sister1 was the north wind1 which gives freshness and vigour to the world4 ,the next pair in the ,ennead of ,heliopolis were ,seb and ,nut1 the earth and the firmament1 who issued from ,shu and ,tefnut4 ,then came ,osiris and ,isis1 the children of the earth and sky1 and lastly ,set and ,nebht1 the one the representative of the desert land in which the ,asiatic nomads pitched their tents1 the other of the civilised ,egyptian family at whose head stood ,neb-ht1 8the lady of the house40 ,upon the model of this ,ennead two other minor ,enneads were afterwards formed4 ,but it was only its first father and generator who was the god of the nome in which the temple of ,heliopolis stood4 ,the deities who were derived from him in the priestly cosmogony were fetched from elsewhere4 ,they were either elementary deities like ,shu and ,seb1 or else deities whose worship had already extended all over ,egypt1 like ,osiris and ,isis4 ,the goddess ,nebht seems to have been invented for the purpose of providing ,set with a sister and a consort2 perhaps ,tefnut1 too1 had originally come into existence for the same reason4 ,the ,ennead1 once created1 was readily adopted by the other nomes of ,egypt4 ,it provided an easy answer to that first question of primitive humanity3 what is the origin of the world into which we are born8 ,the answer was derived from the experience of man himself2 as he had been born into the world1 so1 too1 it was natural to suppose that the world itself had been born4 ,the creator must have been a father1 and1 in a land where the woman held a high place in the family1 a mother as well4 ,though ,tum continued to be pictured as a man1 no wife was assigned him2 father and mother in him were one4 ,it is impossible not to be reminded of similar supreme gods in the ,semitic kingdoms of ,asia4 ,asshur of ,assyria was wifeless27#ef7 so also was ,chemosh of ,moab4 ,nor does the analogy end here4 ,creation by generation was a peculiarly ,semitic or rather ,babylonian doctrine4 ,the ,babylonian ,epic of the ,creation begins by describing the generation of the world out of ,mummu or ,chaos4 ,and the generation is by pairs as in the ,ennead of ,heliopolis4 ,first1 ,mummu1 the one primeval source of all things2 then ,lakhmu and ,lakhamu1 who correspond with ,shu and ,tefnut2 next1 ,ansar and ,kisar1 the firmament and the earth2 and lastly1 the three great gods who rule the present world4 ,of one of these1 ,ea1 the ruler of the deep1 ,bel-,merodach the sun-god was born4 ,between the ,babylonian and the ,egyptian schemes the differences are slight4 ,in the ,ennead of ,heliopolis1 ,tum1 the offspring of ,nu1 takes the place of ,mummu1 the watery chaos2 but this was because he was the god of the ,state1 and had therefore to be made the creator and placed at the head of the gods4 ,it merely interposes another link in the chain of generation1 separating ,nu from the two elemental deities which in the ,babylonian scheme proceeded immediately from it4 ,for ,nu was the exact equivalent of the ,babylonian ,mummu4 ,both denote that watery chaos out of which1 it was believed1 all things have come4 ,and what makes the fact the more remarkable is1 that though the conception of a primeval watery chaos was natural in ,babylonia1 it was not so in ,egypt4 ,babylonia was washed by the waters of the ,persian ,gulf1 out of which ,ea1 the god of the deep1 had arisen1 bringing with him the elements of culture1 and the waves of which at times raged angrily and submerged the shore4 ,but the ,egyptians of history lived on the banks of a river and not by the sea2 it was a river1 too1 whose movements were regular and calculable1 and which bestowed on them all the blessings they enjoyed4 ,so far from being an emblem of chaos and confusion1 the ,nile was to them the author of all good4 ,i do not see how we can avoid the conclusion that between the ,ennead of ,heliopolis with its theory of cosmology1 and the cosmological doctrines of ,babylonia1 a connection of some sort must have existed47#eg7 ,indeed1 the native name of ,heliopolis is suggestive of ,asiatic relations4 ,it is the ,on of the ,old ,testament1 and was called ,on of the north to distinguish it from another ,on1 the modern ,erment1 in the south4 ,it was symbolised by a fluted and painted column of wood17#eh7 in which some have seen an emblem of the sun-god1 like the sun-pillars of ,semitic faith4 ,but the name of ,on was not confined to ,egypt4 ,there was another ,heliopolis in ,syria1 called ,on of the ,beka'a by ,amos 7i4 #e71 where the sun-god was worshipped under the form of a stone4 ,and in ,palestine itself ,beth-el1 8the house of ,god10 was known in earlier ages as ,beth-,on4 ,it is true that the name of ,on may have been carried into ,asia in the days when the ,hyksos dynasties ruled over ,egypt1 but it is more probable that both ,beth-,on and the ,on near ,damascus go back to an older date4 ,in any case they testify to some kind of contact between the sun-worship of ,heliopolis in ,egypt and that of ,syria and ,palestine47#ei7 ,between ,tum1 the sun-god of ,northern ,egypt1 and ,horus1 the sun-god of the ,south1 there was one notable difference4 ,while ,horus was a hawk1 ,tum was a man4 ,in this respect1 again1 he resembled the gods of ,babylonia1 who are always depicted in human form4 ,it is difficult to find any other ,egyptian deity who was similarly fortunate4 ,osiris1 indeed1 was originally a man1 but at an early date he became confounded with his symbol1 the ram1 in his title of 8lord of ,daddu40 ,professor ,maspero thinks that ,khnum at the ,cataract may also have been originally a man2 but if so1 he too became a ram before the beginning of history4 ,pta of ,memphis and ,anher of ,this are the only other gods who appear consistently in human shape1 and ,pta is a mummy1 while ,anher1 like ,tum1 was the sun47#fj7 ,with the adoption of the ,ennead and the cosmological ideas it embodied1 a new element entered into the theology of the ,egyptian temples4 ,this was the identification of one god with another1 or1 to speak more exactly1 the loss of their individuality on the part of the gods4 ,the process was begun when the priests of ,heliopolis took such of the divinities as were recognised throughout ,egypt1 and transmuted them into successive phases in the creative action of their local god4 ,it was completed when other religious centres followed the example of ,heliopolis1 and formed ,enneads of their own4 ,in each case the local god stood of necessity at the head of the ,ennead1 and in each case also he was assimilated to ,tum4 ,whatever may have previously been his attributes1 he thus became a form of the sun-god4 ,a dual personality was created1 which soon melted into one4 ,but it was not as ,tum that the sun-god of ,heliopolis thus made his way victoriously through the land of ,egypt4 ,it was under the more general and undefined name of ,ra that he was accepted in the ,egyptian sanctuaries4 ,tum remained the local god of ,heliopolis1 or else formed part of a solar trinity in which he represented the setting sun4 ,but ,ra became a divine ,pharaoh1 in whom the world of the gods was unified4 ,the kings of the ,fifth ,dynasty called themselves his sons4 ,hitherto the ,pharaohs had been incarnations of the sun-god1 like the earlier monarchs of ,babylonia2 henceforward the title of ,horus was restricted to their doubles in the other world1 while that of 8,son of the ,sun0 was prefixed to the birth-name which they bore on earth4 ,the same change took place also in ,babylonia4 ,there it was due to the invasion of foreign barbarians1 and the establishment of a foreign dynasty at ,babylon1 where the priests refused to acknowledge the legitimacy of a king who had not been adopted as son by the sun-god ,bel-,merodach4 ,perhaps a similar cause was at work in ,egypt4 ,the ,fifth ,dynasty came from ,elephantin1 an island which was not only on the extreme frontier of ,egypt1 but was inhabited then as now by a non-,egyptian race2 it may be that the price of their acknowledgment by the priests and princes of ,memphis was their acceptance of the title of 8,son of ,ra40 ,it narrowed their pretensions to divinity1 and at the same time implied their submission to the god of the great sanctuary which stood in such close relations with ,memphis4 ,as we have seen1 the first monument on which the winged solar disc is found is that of a king of the ,fifth ,dynasty2 it there overshadows his figure and his two names2 but though the hawk of ,horus stands above the name of his double1 his birth-name is without the title of 8,son of ,ra40 ,when once the principle had been adopted that the leading gods of ,egypt were but varying forms of the sun-god1 it was easy to construct ,enneads1 whatever might be the number of the deities it was wished to bring into them4 ,thus at ,heliopolis itself ,horus the son of ,isis was introduced1 his confusion with the sun-god ,horus facilitating the process4 ,at ,this1 ,anher was identified with ,shu2 at ,thebes1 ,amon was made one with ,tum and ,ra1 with ,mentu and ,mut4 ,where a goddess was at the head of the local ,pantheon the process was the same2 she interchanged with the other goddesses of the country1 and even with ,tum himself4 ,at all events1 ,horapollo 7i4 #ab7 states that ,nit of ,sais was at once male and female4 ,one result of all this kaleidoscopic interchange was the growth of trinities in which the same god appears under three separate forms4 ,at ,heliopolis1 for example1 ,harmakhis became identified with ,tum1 and the trinity of ,tum1 ,ra1 and ,harmakhis grew up1 in which ,harmakhis was the sun of the morning and ,tum of the evening1 while ,ra embodied them both4 ,from one point of view1 in fact1 ,harmakhis and ,tum were but different aspects under which ,ra could be envisaged2 from another point1 ,ra1 ,tum1 and ,harmakhis were three persons in one god4 ,i believe that ,professor ,maspero is right in holding that the ,egyptian trinity is of comparatively late origin and of artificial character47#fa7 ,he points out that it presupposes the ,ennead1 and in some cases1 at least1 can be shown to have been formed by the union of foreign elements4 ,thus at ,memphis the triad was created by borrowing ,nefer-,tum from ,heliopolis and ,sekhet from ,latopolis1 and making the one the son of the local god ,pta1 and the other his wife4 ,the famous trinity of ,osiris1 ,isis1 and ,horus1 which became a pattern for the rest of ,egypt1 was formed by transferring ,nebht and ,anubis1 the allies of ,osiris1 to his enemy ,set1 and so throwing the whole of the ,osirian legend into confusion4 ,the trinity of ,thebes is confessedly modern2 it owed its origin to the rise of the ,theban dynasties1 when ,thebes became the capital of ,egypt1 and its god ,amon necessarily followed the fortunes of the local prince4 ,mut1 8the mother10 a mere title of the goddess of ,southern ,egypt1 was associated with him1 and the triad was completed by embodying in it ,pta of ,memphis1 who had been the chief god of ,egypt when ,thebes was still a small provincial town4 ,at a subsequent date1 ,khonsu1 the moon-god1 took the place of ,pta47#fb7 ,we can thus trace the growth of the ,egyptian trinity and the ideas and tendencies which lay behind it4 ,it was the culminating stage in the evolution of the religious system which took its first start among the priests of ,heliopolis4 ,first creation by means of generation1 then the ,ennead1 and lastly the triad and the trinity--such were the stages in the gradual process of development4 ,and the doctrine of the trinity itself reached its highest point of perfection in that worship of ,osiris of which ,i shall speak in a future lecture4 ,but the ,ennead had other results besides the ,egyptian doctrine of the trinity4 ,generation in the case of a god could not be the same as in the case of a man4 ,the very fact that ,tum was wifeless proved this4 ,it was inevitable1 therefore1 that it should come to be conceived of as symbolical like the generation of thought1 all the more since the deities who had proceeded from ,tum were all of them symbols representing the phenomena of the visible world4 ,hence the idea of generation passed naturally into that of emanation1 one divine being emanating from another as thought emanates from thought4 ,and to the ,egyptian1 with his love of symbolism and disinclination for abstract thought1 the expression of an idea meant a concrete form4 ,seb and ,nut were the divine ideas which underlay the earth and the firmament and kept them in existence1 but they were at the same time the earth and the firmament themselves4 ,they represented thought in a concrete form1 if we may borrow a phrase from the ,hegelian philosophy4 ,the principle of emanation was eagerly seized upon by ,greek thinkers in the days when ,alexandria was the meeting-place of the old world and the new4 ,it afforded an explanation not only of creation1 but also of the origin of evil1 and had1 moreover1 behind it the venerable shadow of ,egyptian antiquity4 ,it became the basis and sheet-anchor of most of the ,gnostic systems1 and through them made its way into ,christian thought4 ,from another point of view it may be regarded as an anticipation of the doctrine of evolution4 ,the work of the priestly college of ,heliopolis was accomplished long before the ,pyramid texts were written under the kings of the ,fifth and ,sixth ,dynasties4 ,the ,ennead appears in them as a long established doctrine1 with all its consequences4 ,the solar faith had laid firm hold of ,egyptian religion1 and gained a position from which it was never to be dislodged4 ,henceforward ,egyptian religion was permeated by the ideas and beliefs which flowed from it1 and the gods and goddesses of the land assumed a solar dress4 ,under the ,nineteenth ,dynasty1 if not before1 a new view of the future life obtained official sanction1 which substituted the sun-god for ,osiris and the solar bark for the ,osirian paradise4 ,but ,i must leave an account of it to another occasion1 and confine myself at present to the last and most noteworthy development of solar worship in ,egypt4 ,it is perhaps hardly correct to apply to it the term development4 ,it was rather a break in the religious tradition of ,egypt1 an interruption in the normal evolution of the ,egyptian creed1 which accordingly made but little permanent impression on the religious history of the nation4 ,but in the religious history of mankind it is one of the most interesting of episodes4 ,like ,mosaism in ,israel1 it preached the doctrine of monotheism in ,egypt2 but unlike ,mosaism1 its success was only temporary4 ,unlike ,mosaism1 moreover1 it was a pantheistic monotheism1 and it failed accordingly in its struggle with the nebulous polytheism of ,egypt4 ,one of the last ,pharaohs of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty was ,amon-hotep ,,iv4 ,since the conquest of ,syria by his ancestor ,thothmes ,,iii41 and the establishment of an empire which extended to the banks of the ,euphrates1 ,asiatic manners and customs had poured into ,egypt in an ever-increasing flood1 and with them the ideas and religious beliefs of the ,semitic ,east4 ,amon-hotep ,,iii41 the father of ,amon-hotep ,,iv41 had maintained the older traditions of the ,egyptian court1 so far at least as religion was concerned1 though his mother and wife had alike been foreigners4 ,but his son appears to have been young at the time of his father's death4 ,he was accordingly brought up under the eye and influence of his mother ,teie1 and his temperament seems to have seconded the teaching he received from her4 ,his features are those of a philosophic visionary rather than of a man of action1 of a religious reformer rather than of a king4 ,he flung himself eagerly into a religious movement of which he was the mainspring and centre1 and for the first time in history there was persecution for religion's sake4 ,for numberless centuries the ,egyptian had applied the title of 8the one god0 to the divinity he was adoring at the moment1 or who presided over the fortunes of his city or nome4 ,but he did not mean to exclude by it the existence of other deities4 ,the 8one god0 was unique only to the worshipper1 and to the worshipper only in so far as his worship for the moment was addressed to this 8one god0 alone4 ,when with the growth of the solar theory the deities of ,egypt began to be resolved into one another1 the title came to signify that attribute of divinity which unified all the rest4 ,but to the ,egyptian1 it must be remembered1 the attribute was a concrete thing2 and though in one sense ,amon and ,khnum and ,horus denoted the attributes of ,ra1 in another sense they were distinct personalities with a distinct history behind them4 ,the result was what ,i have called a nebulous polytheism1 in which the individual deities of the ,egyptian ,pantheon had melted like clouds into one another2 they had lost their several individualities1 but had not gained a new individuality in return4 ,the conservative spirit1 which forbade the ,egyptian to break with the traditions of the past and throw aside any part of his heritage1 prevented him from taking the final step1 and passing out of polytheism into monotheism4 ,it was just this step1 however1 that was taken by ,amon-hotep ,,iv4 and his followers1 and which at once stamps the non-,egyptian character of his religious reformation4 ,henceforward there was to be but one ,god in ,egypt1 a ,god who was omnipresent and omniscient1 existing everywhere and in everything1 and who would brook no rival at his side4 ,he was not1 indeed1 a new god1 for he had already revealed himself to the generations of the past under the form of ,ra1 and his visible symbol was the solar disc4 ,but ,ra had been ignorantly worshipped2 unworthy language had been used of him1 and he had been confounded with gods who were no gods at all4 ,the new and purified conception of the supreme divinity needed a new name under which it could be expressed1 and this was found in ,aten1 8the solar disc10 or ,aten-,ra1 8the disc of the sun40 ,it was not probable that ,amon of ,thebes and his worshippers would bow their heads to the new faith without a struggle4 ,it was ,amon who had led the fathers of ,amon-hotep ,,iv4 to victory1 who had given them their empire over the world1 and upon whose city of ,thebes the spoils of ,asia had been lavished4 ,a fierce contest broke out between the ,theban priesthood and the heretical king4 ,the worship of ,amon was proscribed1 his very name was erased from the monuments on which it was engraved1 and a shrine of the rival deity was erected at the very gates of his ancient temple4 ,the ,pharaoh changed his own name to that of ,khu-n-,aten1 8the glory of the solar disc10 and thereby publicly proclaimed his renunciation of the religion of which he was the official head4 ,but in the end the priests of ,amon prevailed4 ,khu-n-,aten was forced to leave the capital of his fathers1 and1 carrying with him the ,state archives and the adherents of the new faith1 he built a new city for himself midway between ,minia and ,sit1 where the mounds of ,tel el-,amarna now mark its site4 ,here1 surrounded by a court which was more than half ,asiatic in blood and belief1 he raised a temple to the new ,god of ,egypt1 and hard by it a palace for himself4 ,the new creed was accompanied by a new style of art2 the old traditions of ,egyptian art were thrown aside1 and a naturalistic realism1 sometimes of an exaggerated character1 took their place4 ,the palace and temple were alike made glorious with brilliant painting and carved stone1 with frescoed floors and walls1 with columns and friezes inlaid with gold and precious stones1 with panels of pictured porcelain1 and with statuary which reminds us of that of later ,greece47#fc7 ,gardens were planted by the edge of the ,nile1 and carriage roads constructed in the desert1 along which the king and his court took their morning drives4 ,then1 returning to his palace1 the ,pharaoh would preach or lecture on the principles and doctrines of the new faith4 ,it was officially called 8the doctrine10 which1 as ,professor ,erman remarks1 shows that it possessed a dogmatically-formulated creed4 ,its teachings are embodied in the hymns inscribed on the walls of the tombs of ,tel el-,amarna4 ,the ,god1 whose visible symbol is the solar disc1 is ,he1 as we learn from them1 who has created all things1 8the far-off heavens1 mankind1 the animals and the birds2 our eyes are strengthened by his beams1 and when he reveals himself all flowers grow and live2 at his rising the pastures bring forth1 they are intoxicated before his face2 all the cattle skip on their feet1 and the birds in the marshes flutter with joy40 ,it is he 8who brings in the years1 creates the months1 makes the days1 reckons the hours2 he is lord of time1 according to whom men reckon407#fd7 ,beside ,him1 8there is no other0 ,god4 8,beautiful is thy setting10 begins another hymn1 8,o living ,aten1 thou lord of lords and king of the two worlds6 ,when thou unitest thyself with the heaven at thy setting1 mortals rejoice before thy countenance1 and give honour to him who has created them1 and pray to him who has formed them in the presence of ,khu-n-,aten1 thy son1 whom thou lovest1 the king of ,egypt who liveth in truth4 ,all ,egypt and all lands within the circle that thou treadest in thy glory1 praise thee at thy rising and at thy setting4 ,o ,god1 who in truth art the living one1 who standest before our eyes1 thou createst that which was not1 thou formest it all2 we also have come into being through the word of thy mouth407#fe7 ,the solar disc was thus1 as it were1 the mask through which the supreme ,creator revealed himself4 ,and this ,creator was the one true living ,god1 living eternally1 brooking the worship of no other god at his side1 and1 in fact1 the only ,god who existed in truth4 ,all other gods were false1 and the followers of ,aten-,ra were accordingly called upon to overthrow their worship and convert their worshippers4 ,at the same time1 ,aten was the father of all things2 he had called all things into existence by the word of his mouth1 men equally with the beasts and birds1 the flowers and the far-off heaven itself4 ,if1 therefore1 men refused to worship him1 it was because they had been led astray by falsehood and ignorance1 or else were wilfully blind4 ,whatever measure of success the reforms of ,khu-n-,aten attained among the natives of ,egypt1 they must have possessed in so far as they represented a reformation1 and not the introduction of a new and foreign cult4 ,there must have been a section of the people1 more especially among the educated classes1 whose religious ideas were already tending in that direction1 and who were therefore prepared to accept the new 8doctrine40 ,the language often used of the gods1 if strictly interpreted1 implied a more or less modified form of monotheism2 the ,egyptian deities1 as we have seen1 had come to be resolved into manifestations of the sun-god1 and the symbol of the new faith enabled it to be connected with the ancient worship of ,ra4 ,the old sun-worship of ,heliopolis formed a bridge which spanned the gulf between ,amon and ,aten4 ,indeed1 the worship of the solar disc itself was not absolutely strange4 ,an ,egyptian1 for instance1 who was buried at ,kom el-,amar1 opposite ,el-,kab1 in the reign of ,thothmes ,,iii41 speaks of being 8beloved by the beams of the solar disc0 7,aten-,ra72 and though no determinative of divinity is attached to the words1 it was but a step forward to make the disc the equivalent of the sun-god4 ,nevertheless1 between the 8doctrine0 of ,khu-n-,aten and the older ,egyptian ideas of the sun-god there was a vast1 if not impassable1 distance4 ,the 8doctrine0 was no result of a normal religious evolution4 ,that is proved not only by the opposition with which it met and the violent measures that were taken to enforce it1 but still more by its rapid and utter disappearance or extermination after the death of its royal patron4 ,it came from ,asia1 and1 like the ,asiatic officials1 was banished from ,egypt in the national reaction which ended in the rise of the ,nineteenth ,dynasty4 ,the god of ,khu-n-,aten1 in fact1 has much in common with the ,semitic ,baal4 ,like ,baal1 he is the 8lord of lords10 whose visible symbol is the solar orb4 ,like ,baal1 too1 he is a jealous god1 and the father of mankind4 ,it is true that ,baal was accompanied by the shadowy ,baalat2 but ,baalat1 after all1 was but his pale reflection1 necessitated by the genders of ,semitic grammar2 and in some parts of the ,semitic world even this pale reflection was wanting4 ,chemosh of ,moab1 for instance1 and ,asshur of ,assyria were alike wifeless4 ,on the other hand1 between ,aten and the ,semitic ,baal there was a wide and essential difference4 ,the monotheism of ,khu-n-,aten was pantheistic1 and as a result of this the god he worshipped was the god of the whole universe4 ,the character and attributes of the ,semitic ,baal were clearly and sharply defined4 ,he stood outside the creatures he had made or the children of whom he was the father4 ,his kingdom was strictly limited1 his power itself was circumscribed4 ,he was the 8lord of heaven10 separate from the world and from the matter of which it was composed4 ,but ,aten was in the things which he had created2 he was the living one in whom all life is contained1 and at whose command they spring into existence4 ,there was no chaos of matter outside and before him2 he had created 8that which was not10 and had formed it all4 ,he was not1 therefore1 a national or tribal god1 whose power and protection did not extend beyond the locality in which he was acknowleged and the territory on which his high places stood2 on the contrary1 he was the ,god of the whole universe2 not only ,egypt1 but 8all lands0 and all peoples are called upon to adore him1 and even the birds and the flowers grow and live through him4 ,for the first time in history1 so far as we know1 the doctrine was proclaimed that the ,supreme ,being was the ,god of all mankind4 ,the fact is remarkable from whatever point of view it may be regarded4 ,the date of ,khu-n-,aten is about #adjj ,b4,c41 a century before the ,exodus and the rise of ,mosaism4 ,more than once it has been suggested that between ,mosaism and the 8doctrine0 of ,aten there may have been a connection4 ,but in ,mosaism we look in vain for any traces of pantheism4 ,the ,yahveh of the ,commandments stands as much outside ,his creation as the man whom ,he had made in ,his own image2 ,his outlines are sharply defined1 and ,he is the ,god of the ,hebrews rather than of the rest of the world4 ,the first ,commandment bears the fact on its forefront3 other nations have their gods whose existence is admitted1 but ,yahveh is the ,god of ,israel1 and therefore ,him only may ,israel serve4 ,lecture ,v4 ,animal ,worship4 ,st4 ,clement of ,alexandria thus describes the religion of his ,egyptian neighbours 7,pdag4 iii4 #b73 8,among 7the ,egyptians7 the temples are surrounded with groves and consecrated pastures2 they are provided with propyla1 and their courts are encircled with an infinite number of columns2 their walls glitter with foreign marbles and paintings of the highest art2 the sanctuary is resplendent with gold and silver and electrum1 and many-coloured stones from ,india and ,ethiopia2 the shrine within it is veiled by a curtain wrought with gold4 ,but if you pass beyond into the remotest part of the enclosure in the expectation of beholding something yet more excellent1 and look for the image which dwells in the temple1 a pastophorus or some other minister1 singing a pan in the ,egyptian language with a pompous air1 draws aside a small portion of the curtain1 as if about to show us the god2 and makes us burst into a loud laugh4 ,for no god is found therein1 but a cat1 or a crocodile1 or a serpent sprung from the soil1 or some such brute animal 444 and the ,egyptian deity is revealed as a beast that rolls itself on a purple coverlet40 ,st4 ,clement was a ,christian philosopher and apologist1 but the animal worship of the ,egyptians was quite as much an object of ridicule to the pagan writers of ,greece and ,rome4 8,who has not heard10 says ,juvenal 7,sat4 xv471--8who has not heard1 where ,egypt's realms are named-- 8,what monster gods her frantic sons have framed8 ,here ,ibis gorged with well-grown serpents1 there ,the crocodile commands religious fear2444 ,and should you leeks or onions eat1 no time ,would expiate the sacrilegious crime2 ,religious nations sure1 and blest abodes1 ,where every orchard is o'errun with gods60 ,a ,roman soldier who had accidentally killed a cat was torn to pieces by the mob before the eyes of ,diodorus1 although the ,romans were at the time masters of the country1 and the reigning ,ptolemy did his utmost to save the offender47#ff7 ,for the majority of the people the cat was an incarnate god4 ,this worship of animals was a grievous puzzle to the philosophers of the classical age4 ,the venerable antiquity of ,egypt1 the high level of its moral code1 and1 above all1 the spiritual and exalted character of so much of its religion1 had deeply impressed the thinking world of the ,roman ,empire4 ,that world had found1 in a blending of ,egyptian religious ideas with ,greek metaphysics1 a key to the mysteries of life and death2 in the so-called ,hermetic books the old beliefs and religious conceptions of ,egypt were reduced to a system and interpreted from a ,greek point of view1 while the ,neo-,platonic philosophy was an avowed attempt to combine the symbolism of ,egypt with the subtleties of ,greek thought4 ,but the animal worship was hard to reconcile with philosophy2 even symbolism failed to explain it away1 or to satisfy the mind of the inquirer4 ,plutarch had boldly denied that the worship of an animal was in any way more absurd than that of an image2 the deity1 if so he chose1 could manifest himself in either equally well4 ,porphyry had recourse to the doctrine of the transmigration of souls4 ,if the soul migrated after death into the body of some lower animal1 he urged1 it would communicate to the latter a portion of the divine essence4 ,but after all this was no explanation of the worship paid to the animal2 the soul had not been worshipped while it was still in the body of its original possessor1 and there was therefore no reason why it should be worshipped when it was embodied in another form4 ,moreover1 metempsychosis in the ,greek sense was never an ,egyptian doctrine4 ,all the ,egyptian held was that the soul1 after it had been justified and admitted to a state of blessedness1 could enter for a time whatever material form it chose2 could fly to heaven1 for instance1 in the body of a swallow1 or return to the mummified body in which it had once dwelt4 ,but such embodiments were merely temporary1 and matters of free choice2 they were like a garment1 which the soul could put on and take off at will4 ,modern writers have found it as difficult to explain the animal worship of ancient ,egypt as the philosophers and theologians of ,greece and ,rome4 ,creuzer declared that it was the result of a poverty of imagination1 and that the beasts were worshipped because they embodied certain natural phenomena4 ,lenormant argued1 on the other hand1 that it was due to a high spiritual conception of religion1 which prevented the ,egyptians from adoring lifeless rocks and stones like the other nations of antiquity4 ,of late the tendency has been to see in it a sort of totemism which prevailed among the aboriginal population of the country1 and was tolerated by the higher religion of the ,pharaonic immigrants4 ,in this case it would represent the religion of the prehistoric race or races1 and its admittance into the official religion would be paralleled by the history of ,bramanism1 which has similarly tolerated the cults and superstitions of the aboriginal tribes of ,india4 ,indeed1 it is possible to discover an analogous procedure in the history of ,christianity itself4 ,the lower beliefs and forms of worship can be explained away wherever needful with the help of symbolism and allegory1 while the mass of the people are left in the undisturbed enjoyment of the religious ideas and rites of their forefathers4 ,recent discoveries1 however1 have cast a new light on the matter4 ,the early monuments of ,egyptian history1 found in the neolithic graves and among the remains of the first dynasties1 have shown that the animal worship of ,egypt was only part of a larger system4 ,slate plaques1 on which are represented the actions of ,pharaohs who preceded ,menes or were his immediate successors1 prove that the prevailing system of religion must have been one closely akin to ,african fetishism4 ,the gods appear frequently1 but they always appear under the form of what in later times were regarded as their symbols4 ,sometimes the symbol is an animal or bird1 but sometimes also it is a lifeless object4 ,the human forms1 to which we are accustomed in later ,egyptian art1 are absent27#fg7 there is nothing to tell us that the religion of the time was in any way distinguished from the fetishism of ,dahomey or the ,congo4 ,thus on a slate plaque from ,kom el-,amar 7opposite ,el-,kab7#fh77 we see the ,pharaoh entering the hall in which lie the bodies of his decapitated foes1 while four standards are borne before him4 ,on the first two are the hawks of ,horus1 on the third the jackal of ,anubis1 on the last an object which may be intended for a lock of hair47#fi7 ,on the reverse of the plaque the god is bringing before him the prisoners of the north4 ,but the god is a hawk1 whose human hand grasps the rope by which the conquered enemy is dragged along4 ,on a plaque of equally early date1 found at ,abydos1 five standards are depicted1 the foot of each of which is shaped like a hand holding a rope4 ,above the first two standards are the jackals of ,anubis1 on the next the ibis of ,thoth1 then the hawk of ,horus1 and1 finally1 the curious object which is the emblem of ,min4 ,on a still older plaque from the same locality the names of the cities ruled 7or conquered7 by the ,pharaoh are inscribed1 each within its battlemented wall1 while above is the animal god by which it is said to be 8beloved0 or perhaps 8destroyed40 ,the last of the cities is 8the royal0 capital1 above which stand the two hawks of ,horus1 who are perched on the standards of the king2 behind it are the names of the other towns under the protection of the scorpion of ,selk1 the lion of ,sekhet1 and the hawk of ,horus47#gj7 ,but we can trace the standards and the symbols upon them still farther back4 ,m4 de ,morgan has pointed out that the rude and primitive boats painted on the pottery of the prehistoric graves have their prows ornamented with standards which are precisely the same in shape as the standards that were borne before the ,pharaoh4 ,on the top of one is perched a hippopotamus1 on another a fish2 on another is a flowering branch1 on another the sail of a ship47#ga7 ,we may conclude1 therefore1 that both standards and symbols were characteristic of the older population of the country whom the ,pharaonic ,egyptians found when they entered it4 ,but the symbols had no connection with any kind of writing2 we look in vain1 either on the pottery or on any other object of prehistoric art1 for hieroglyphic signs4 ,the standard may have been adopted by the invading race from their conquered subjects1 and so introduced into their system of writing2 originally it was nothing but a primeval flagstaff at the prow of a boat4 ,and1 like the flagstaff1 the symbol that served as a flag must have been of aboriginal invention4 ,such1 then1 is the conclusion to which we are led by the newly-found monuments of early ,egypt4 ,on the ,pharaonic monuments of that remote age the gods are not yet human2 they are still represented by animals and other fetishes4 ,and these fetishes have been borrowed from the older population of the valley of the ,nile1 along with the so-called standard on the top of which they were placed4 ,the standard with the emblem upon it denoted a nome in the historical days of ,egypt4 ,the emblem represented the god of the nome1 or rather of the chief sanctuary in the nome4 ,where the god of the nome was ,horus1 the hawk appeared upon the standard2 where two ,horus-gods were worshipped1 there were two hawks4 ,as the prehistoric boat had been placed under the protection of the deity whose fetish or symbol was planted at its prow1 so the nome was under the protection of the god whose emblem was erected on its standard4 ,the standards borne before the ,pharaoh on the plaque of ,kom el-,amar were the standards of the nomes over which he claimed rule4 ,it would seem1 then1 that the god of a nome was in most instances the god of the aboriginal tribe which originally inhabited it1 and that the symbols by which these gods were known were primitively the gods themselves4 ,on the plaque of ,abydos it is not ,selk or ,sekhet who is the protecting deity of the city1 but the scorpion and the lion4 ,and by the side of animals and birds1 as we have seen1 we find also inanimate objects which are on exactly the same footing as the animals and birds4 ,the primitive religion of ,egypt must have been a form of fetishism4 ,but in passing from the older population to the ,asiatic immigrants it underwent a change4 ,the same slate plaques which portray ,horus as a hawk and ,anubis as a jackal1 represent the king under the likeness of a bull4 ,it is a literal pictorial rendering of the phrase so often met with in the inscriptions1 in which the ,pharaoh is described as a bull trampling on his enemies4 ,the animal has ceased to represent the actual reality1 and has become a symbol4 ,and this symbolism1 it will be noticed1 accompanies the introduction of symbolic writing4 ,the figure of the bull which denotes the ,pharaoh1 is as much a symbol as the fish which forms part of his name4 ,it is therefore fair to conclude that the hawk which brings the captured enemy to the king is also a symbol4 ,the fetish has become symbolic2 the hawk is no longer a god in and for itself1 but because it is the embodiment of the divine ,horus4 ,it was but a step further to unite the symbol with the human form4 ,the process involved the disuse of inanimate objects2 only the living could be fitly joined together4 ,horus could be depicted as a man with a hawk's head2 it was less easy to combine the symbol of ,min with a man's limbs4 ,such anthropomorphising followed necessarily from the deification of the ,pharaoh4 ,the race which turned its human leader into a god was bound to represent its gods under human form4 ,in ,egypt1 however1 the older element in the population1 with its religious ideas1 was too strong to be wholly disregarded by the ruling caste4 ,the compromise1 which had transformed the fetish into a symbol1 ended by retaining the animal forms of the gods1 but in subordination to the form of man4 ,henceforth1 for the ,state religion1 ,horus wore merely the mask of a hawk47#gb7 ,that the official figures of the gods were thus a compromise between two antagonistic currents of religious thought1 appears very clearly when we compare ,egypt with ,babylonia4 ,in ,babylonia1 also1 there were symbols attached to the gods1 some of them representing animals and birds1 others inanimate objects4 ,in ,babylonia1 moreover1 the king was a god1 both in his lifetime and after his death4 ,but in ,babylonia the figures of the gods of the ,state religion were all human2 it was only the demons of the popular cult who were allowed to retain the bodies of beasts and birds4 ,the gods themselves were all depicted in human form4 ,the reason of this is simple3 in ,babylonia the ,semitic conception of the deity was predominant2 there was no fetishism to be conciliated1 no animal worship to be reconciled with a higher faith4 ,the emblems of the gods remained emblems1 and the gods of heaven clothed themselves with the same form as the human god on earth4 ,in the retention of the primitive animal worship1 therefore1 we must see an evidence not only of the strength of that portion of the population to whom it originally belonged1 but also of the conservative spirit which characterised the ,egyptians4 ,in this case1 however1 the conservative spirit was the result of the influence of the conquered race2 art continued to represent ,horus with the head of a hawk1 just because those who believed him to be a bird continued to form an important part of the population4 ,the popular cult and the popular superstitions were too widely spread to be disregarded4 ,egyptian orthodoxy found a ready way in which to explain the animal forms of its gods4 ,the soul1 once freed from its earthly body1 could assume whatever shape it chose1 or rather1 could inhabit as long as it would whatever body it chose to enter4 ,and what was true of the human soul was equally true of the gods4 ,they too were like men1 differing indeed from men only in so far as they were already in the other world1 and thus freed from the trammels and limitations of our present existence4 ,the soul of ,ra1 which was practically ,ra himself1 could appear under the form of a bird1 if so he willed4 ,transmigration from one body to another1 indeed1 never presented any difficulty to the ,egyptian mind4 ,it could be effected by the magician by means of his spells2 and there were stories1 like the folk-tales of modern ,europe1 which told how the life and individuality of a man could pass into the bodies of animals1 and even into seeds and trees4 ,the belief is common to most primitive peoples1 and is doubtless due to the dreams in which the sleeper imagines himself possessed of some bodily form that is not his own4 ,we must then regard the animal worship of ,egypt as the survival of an early fetishism4 ,but it is a survival which has had to accommodate itself to the antagonistic conceptions of an anthropomorphic faith4 ,by the side of the deified king the deified animal was allowed to remain1 and man and beast were mixed together in religious art4 ,it was parallel to the juxtaposition of pictorial ideographs and phonetically-spelt words in the writing of a later day4 ,and just as it was only the cultivated classes to whom the written characters were symbols with a meaning other than that which they bore to the eye1 so too it was only these same cultivated classes to whom the sacred animals were symbols and embodiments of the deity1 rather than the deity itself4 ,the masses continued to be fetish-worshippers like the earlier inhabitants of the country from whom most of them drew their descent4 ,to this fact we must ascribe the extraordinary hold which the worship of animals had upon the ,egyptian people as a whole up to the period of their conversion to ,christianity4 ,while the walls of the temple were covered with pictures in which the gods were represented in human or semi-human form1 the inner shrine which they served to surround and protect contained merely the beast or bird in which the deity was believed to be incarnated for the time4 ,when the god revealed himself to his worshipper1 it was as a hawk or a crocodile4 ,the fact would be inexplicable if the priests alone were privileged to see him1 as has often been maintained4 ,such1 however1 was not the case4 ,every ,egyptian1 whatever might be his rank and station1 could follow the processions in the temple1 could enter its inner chambers1 and gaze upon the incarnated deity1 provided only that he had conformed to the preliminary requirements of the ritual and were not unclean47#gc7 ,the temple was not the exclusive property of a privileged caste2 it was only the foreigner and the unbeliever who was forbidden to tread its courts4 ,it was open to the ,egyptian populace1 and to the populace the sacred animals were the gods themselves4 ,we do not know whether the hawk which represented ,horus1 and in which the soul of the god tabernacled for a time1 was distinguished from other hawks by special marks4 ,we know1 however1 that this was the case with some of the sacred animals4 ,according to ,herodotus 7iii4 #bh71 the bull ,apis of ,memphis was required to be black1 with a white triangle on his forehead1 an eagle on his back1 double hairs in his tail1 and a beetle on his tongue2 and though the extant figures of the god do not support the precise description given by the ,greek writer1 they show that certain characteristic marks were really required4 ,in this way the incarnation of the god was separated from other animals of the same species1 upon whom1 however1 some part of his divinity was reflected4 ,since any bull might have become the habitation of the deity1 it was necessary to treat the whole species with respect4 ,the bull ,apis was an incarnation of ,pta1 8the new life of ,pta10 as he is often called on the votive tablets4 ,we must see in him accordingly the local fetish of the pre-dynastic ,egyptians who lived in the district where ,memphis afterwards arose4 ,in fact the bull was sacred throughout the whole of this region4 ,in the neighbouring city of ,heliopolis the place of ,apis was taken by another bull1 ,ur-mer1 or ,mnevis1 as the ,greeks miscalled him4 ,mnevis was the incarnation of the sun-god1 and1 like ,apis1 it was needful that he should be black4 ,nor was the worship of the bull confined to the north4 ,at ,erment also1 near ,thebes1 ,mentu1 the god of the nome1 was incarnated in the bull ,bakis47#gd7 ,the sanctity of the bull is not difficult to understand among an agricultural people in an early stage of development4 ,in ,india the bull is still sacred2 and ,sir ,samuel ,baker tells us that the tribes of the ,upper ,nile still abstain from eating the flesh of the ox4 ,in ,phrygia the slaughter of an ox was punishable with death27#ge7 the first king of the country was supposed to have been a peasant1 and his ox-drawn cart was preserved in the temple of ,kybel4 ,among the ,egyptians themselves1 as we have seen1 the ,pharaoh was symbolised under the form of a bull at the very beginning of history4 ,the bull1 then1 must have been worshipped in the neighbourhood of ,memphis and ,heliopolis before it became the incarnation of ,pta or ,ra4 ,it follows1 moreover1 that as yet it was no one particular bull to whom divine honours were paid2 there was no one particular bull into whom the soul of one of the gods of the ,pharaonic ,egyptians had as yet entered1 thus setting it apart from all others4 ,the bull was still a fetish pure and simple2 it was the whole species that was sacred1 and not a single member of it4 ,that this was indeed the case1 is proved by a custom which lasted down to the latest times4 ,not only was the sacred bull or the sacred hawk mummified after death1 but other bulls and hawks also4 ,there were cemeteries of mummified animals1 just as there were cemeteries of mummified men4 ,vast cemeteries of cats have been found at ,bubastis1 at ,beni-,hassan1 and other places2 so too there were cemeteries of hawks and crocodiles1 of jackals and bulls4 ,we are still ignorant of the exact conditions under which these creatures were embalmed and buried4 ,it is impossible to suppose that a solemn burial was provided for all the individual members of a species which was accounted sacred in a particular nome1 much less for all its individual members throughout ,egypt1 as seems to have been imagined by ,herodotus 7ii4 #da72 there must have been certain limitations within which such a burial was permitted or ordained4 ,and sometimes there was no burial at all2 the mummy of the sacred animal of ,set1 for instance1 has never been found4 ,still the fact remains that not only were the bodies of the ,apis or the ,mnevis mummified and consigned to a special burying-place1 but the bodies of other bulls as well4 ,doubtless the ,egyptian of the ,pharaonic period had an excellent reason to give for the practice4 ,just as the servants of the prince were buried around their master1 or as the ushebti-figures were placed in the tomb of the dead1 so the ordinary bull was interred like the divine incarnations of ,pta and ,ra1 in the hope that its double might accompany the spirit of the god in the other world4 ,the scenes of country life painted on the walls of the tombs contain pictures of sheep and cattle whose kas were1 in some way or other1 believed to exist in the ,egyptian paradise1 and a mummified bull had as much right to the hope of a future existence as a mummified man4 ,the very act of embalming implied the possibility of its union with ,osiris4 ,egyptian logic soon converted the possibility into a fact4 ,with the growth of the ,osirian cult the dead ,apis became1 like the pious ,egyptian1 one with ,osiris1 the lord of the other world4 ,his identity with ,pta paled and disappeared before his newer identity with ,osiris4 ,at first he was ,osiris-,apis1 8the ,osirified bull-god10 as guardian only of the necropolis of ,memphis2 then as god also of both ,memphis and ,egypt in life as well as in death4 ,under the ,ptolemies1 ,greek ideas gathered round the person of a deity who thus united in himself the earlier and later forms of ,egyptian belief1 and out of the combination rose the ,serapis of the classical age1 whose worship exercised so great an influence on the ,roman world4 ,in the features of the human ,serapis1 with his majestic face and flowing beard1 it is difficult to recognise the bull-god of primitive ,egypt4 ,the history of ,serapis is on a large scale what that of the other sacred animals of ,egypt is on a smaller scale4 ,mnevis was a lesser ,apis2 as ,heliopolis waned before ,memphis1 so did its divine bull before the rival deity of the capital4 ,they had both started on an equal footing1 and had followed the fortunes of the cities where they were adored4 ,at ,mendes it was not a bull1 but a ram1 that was the object of worship1 and in which the priests beheld an incarnation of ,ra17#gf7 though the accidental fact that the word ba meant alike 8ram0 and 8soul0 caused later generations to identify it with the 8soul0 of ,osiris4 ,in the ,fayym it was the crocodile which naturally became the god ,sebek or ,sukhos1 and at a later time ,pete-sukhos1 8the gift of ,sukhos40 ,in the latter name we read the signs of a growing disinclination to see in the animal the god himself or even his soul or double2 the ,sukhos becomes 8the gift of ,sukhos10 separate from the god1 and bestowed by him upon man4 ,there were other nomes besides the ,fayym in which the crocodile was worshipped4 ,it was the sacred animal of ,onuphis in the ,delta1 and of ,ombos in the far south of ,egypt4 ,but we must not expect to find a ,sebek and a sacred crocodile always accompanying one another4 ,there could be cases in which the crocodile was identified with other gods than ,sebek1--with ,set1 for example1 as at ,nubti1 near ,dendera4 ,the sacred animal existed before the god whose incarnation he afterwards became4 ,the neolithic races were in the valley of the ,nile before the ,pharaonic ,egyptians1 and the deities they adored were consequently also there before the gods of the intruding race4 ,pta1 with his human figure1 would not have been transformed into the bull ,apis if the bull had not been already in possession4 ,the name of the god ,thoth is itself a proof of this4 ,thoth was the god of ,hermopolis1 the modern ,eshmunn1 and his patronage of writing and books shows that he must have been the deity of the ,pharaonic race4 ,the god to whom the invention of the hieroglyphs was ascribed1 could not have been the god of an illiterate population4 ,now the ,egyptian form of the name ,thoth is ,deuti 7or ,zeuti71 8he who belongs to the ibis407#gg7 ,thoth1 therefore1 was not originally the ibis1 and1 in spite of his bird's head1 the human body which he retained was a traditional evidence of the fact4 ,he was merely 8attached to the ibis10--attached1 that is to say1 to the place where the ibis was the fetish of the aborigines4 ,according to ,manetho1 it was not until the reign of the second king of the ,second ,dynasty that ,apis1 ,mnevis1 and ,mendes 8were adjudged to be gods40 ,this must mean that it was then that the ,state religion admitted for the first time that the official gods of ,memphis1 ,heliopolis1 and ,mendes were incarnated in the sacred animals of the local cults4 ,that the statement is historically correct1 may be gathered from the fact that the temples of ,memphis and ,heliopolis were dedicated to ,pta and ,tum1 and not to ,apis and ,mnevis4 ,when they were built the divinity of the bull had not yet been officially recognised4 ,the gods in whose honour they were founded were gods of human form1 and gods of human form they continued to be4 ,down to the last days of ,egyptian paganism the sun-god of ,heliopolis was not a bull1 but a man2 and though the mummified ,apis watched over the cemeteries of ,memphis1 the god of its great temple remained a mummified man and not a mummified bull4 ,one of the legends elaborately concocted in the temples out of old folk-tales and etymological puns explained the animal forms of the gods as the result of the murder of ,osiris by ,typhon or ,set4 ,the fear of sharing his fate made them hide themselves1 it was related1 in the bodies of the beasts47#gh7 ,but the explanation must belong to an age when the introduction of foreign ideas had thrown discredit on the old worship of animals4 ,in earlier times no explanation was needed4 ,the belief in the power possessed by the soul of migrating from one body into another1 and the symbolism of which the hieroglyphic writing was at once the expression and the cause1 formed an easy bridge by which the fetishism of neolithic ,egypt and the anthropomorphism of historical ,egypt could be joined together4 ,horus is a hawk and the ,pharaoh is a bull on the earliest monuments we possess1 and such visible symbols necessarily reacted on a people1 one half at least of whom already acknowledged the hawk and the bull as their gods4 ,the official recognition of ,apis and ,mnevis and ,mendes was the last step in the process of incorporating the aboriginal superstitions and practices into the ,state religion1 and giving them official sanction4 ,the parallelism with ,bramanism in ,india is complete4 ,but we have still to ask why it was that the bull was worshipped in one district of prehistoric ,egypt1 the hawk in another8 ,why was it that a particular fetish was the protecting deity of a particular sanctuary or nome8 ,to this there can be but one answer4 ,a modified form of totemism must once have been known in the valley of the ,nile4 ,the sacred animal must have been the last representative of the totem of the tribe or clan4 ,the emblems borne on the flagstaffs of the prehistoric boats1 like the emblems on the standards of the several nomes1 must have been the animals or objects in which the clans saw the divine powers which held them together1 and from which1 it may be1 they were derived4 ,the subsequent history of animal worship in ,egypt is a continuous drifting away from this primitive totemism4 ,the inanimate objects first fall into the background2 then1 under the influence of a higher form of religion1 the animals become symbols1 and assume semi-human shapes1 and finally one only out of a species is selected to become the incarnation of a god4 ,but the god of whom he is the incarnation is a very different god from the divinity that was believed to reside in the original fetish4 ,it is a god in the ,asiatic and not in the ,african sense1 a god whose nature is spiritual and free from the limitations of our earthly existence1 so that he can enter at any moment into whatsoever form he desires4 ,the old fetishes survived1 indeed1 but it was as amulets and charms2 and to these the multitude transferred its faith as the ,state religion became more and more unintelligible to it4 ,the magic lock of hair and image of a serpent preserved at ,saft el-,henna1 and said by the priests to have belonged to the sun-god1 had doubtless come down from the days of fetishism4 ,it has often been asserted that besides the bull or the ram or the crocodile1 there were other creatures of a composite or fabulous character which were also accounted sacred by the ,egyptians4 ,it is true that the sacred animal and symbol of ,set seems to be of this nature4 ,his forked tail and ass-like ears make it difficult to believe that any existing beast ever served for his portrait4 ,but the sphinx1 in whom the men of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty saw the image of ,harmakhis1 the rising sun1 or the phnix in whom the sun-god of ,heliopolis was incarnated1 belongs to a different category4 ,they are not sacred animals in the sense in which ,apis and ,mnevis were so4 ,the sphinx1 like the symbol of ,set1 is one of those composite creatures which meet us from time to time in ,egyptian art4 ,it has been said that such composite creatures were as real to the ,egyptian as the cattle and sheep he tended in the fields2 that he was quite as much prepared to meet with them in the desert1 as the ancient ,greek would have been to meet with a satyr in the woods or a ,highlander with a kelpie by the waterside4 ,very possibly that was the case2 it will not1 however1 explain their origin1 or the forms that were assigned to them4 ,why1 for instance1 should the sphinx of ,giza be in the form of a lion with a human head8 ,once more we must look to ,asia for an explanation4 ,the sphinx of ,giza was the guardian of the tombs of the dead2 it protected them from the spiritual foes whose home was in the desert4 8,i protect thy sepulchral chapel10 it is made to say in an inscription1 8,i watch over thy sepulchral chamber1 ,i keep away the stranger who would enter1 ,i overthrow the foe with their weapons1 ,i drive the wicked from thy tomb1 ,i annihilate thy opponents 444 so that they return no more407#gi7 ,the sphinx1 in fact1 performed precisely the same office as the winged bulls that guarded the entrance to an ,assyrian palace1 or the cherubim who stood at the gates of the garden of ,eden4 ,the winged bulls and the cherubim were composite creatures1 and came originally from ,babylonia4 ,babylonia was the primal home1 indeed1 of all such animal combinations4 ,they were painted on the walls of the temple of ,bel at ,babylon1 and their existence formed an essential part of the ,babylonian cosmogony4 ,that cosmogony rested on the doctrine of a contest between the powers of light and darkness1 of order and chaos1 and on the final victory of the gods of light4 ,there was a world of chaos as well as a world of order2 and before the present creation could be evolved with its settled laws and definite boundaries1 there had been of necessity another creation in which all things were confused and chaotic4 ,the brood of ,tiamat1 the dragon of chaos1 corresponded with the creatures of the actual world which the gods of light had called into existence2 they were abortive attempts at creation1 composed of limbs which matched not together1 8men with the body of birds1 or the faces of ravens40 ,this brood of chaos were the demons who were the enemies of ,bel-,merodach and his followers4 ,in order to oppose them successfully1 it was needful that there should be similarly composite creatures1 who1 instead of being on the side of evil1 were under the orders of the gods4 ,by the side of the evil demon1 therefore1 there was the 8good cherub10 who protected the pious ,babylonian1 and barred the way to the spirits of wickedness4 ,the winged bull with his human head defended the approach to a temple or house2 men with the bodies of scorpions guarded the gateways of the sun4 ,this curious similarity in the functions assigned to the images of composite animals both in ,egypt and ,babylonia1 raises the presumption that the composite forms themselves were ultimately derived from a ,babylonian source4 ,that such was the case we now have proof4 ,on the slate plaques and mace-heads of ,nekhen and ,abydos we find composite forms similar to those of ,babylonia4 ,what afterwards became the ,hathor-headed column appears as a human face with a cow's ears and horns4 ,below are two monsters with a dog's body and a lion's head1 whose intertwined necks are snakes4 ,what makes the latter representation the more interesting is1 that ,m4 ,heuzey has pointed out exactly the same figures on an early ,babylonian seal now in the ,louvre47#hj7 ,like the seal-cylinder1 therefore1 which distinguishes the early period of ,egyptian history1 the composite monsters of which the sphinx and the symbol of ,set were surviving examples indicate direct communication with ,chalda4 ,and1 it must be remembered1 it is only in ,chalda that they find their explanation4 ,here they originated in the religious and cosmological ideas associated with the physical features of the country4 ,the sphinx of ,giza still guards the desert of ,giza1 because ages ago the flooding waves of the ,persian ,gulf made the ,babylonians believe that the world had arisen out of a watery chaos peopled by unformed creatures of monstrous shape4 ,the case of the phnix or bennu is somewhat different4 ,here we have to do not with a fabulous monster1 but with an existing bird of which a fabulous story was told4 ,the bird was not an eagle1 as ,herodotos supposed1 but a heron1 which at an early date seems to have been confounded with the crested ibis1 the symbol of the khu or luminous soul4 ,it was1 in fact1 the spirit of the sun-god1 and later legends declared that it stood and sang on the top of a tree at ,heliopolis1 while a flame burst forth beside it1 and the sun rose from the morning sky4 ,with sunset it became an ,osiris1 whose mummy was interred at ,heliopolis1 to awake again to life with the first rays of the rising sun4 ,it was thus for ,christian writers an emblem of the resurrection1 and as such its story is told by ,st4 ,clement of ,rome37#ha7 8,there is a certain bird which is called the phnix4 ,this is the only one of its kind1 and it lives five hundred years4 ,when the time of its dissolution draws near that it must die1 it builds itself a nest of frankincense and myrrh and other spices1 into which1 when the time is fulfilled1 it enters and dies4 ,but as the flesh decays a certain kind of worm is produced1 which1 being nourished by the juices of the dead bird1 brings forth feathers4 ,then1 when it has acquired strength1 it takes up the nest in which are the bones of its parent1 and1 bearing these1 it passes from the land of ,arabia into ,egypt1 to the city called ,heliopolis4 ,and1 flying in open day in the sight of all men1 it places them on the altar of the sun1 and1 having done this1 it hastens back to its former abode4 ,the priests then inspect the chronological registers1 and find that it has returned exactly when the five hundredth year is completed407#hb7 ,the legend of the phnix has grown up round the belief that the disembodied soul could enter at will into the body of a bird4 ,the phnix was allied to the hawk of ,horus1 and probably was originally identical with that primitive symbol of the soul 7khu71 the name of which means literally 8the luminous40 ,it will be remembered that the ,pyramid texts speak of the 8four khu0 or 8luminous souls of ,horus0 8who live in ,heliopolis10 and the sun-god of that city was usually invoked by his bau or 8souls10 figured as three birds which appear as three ostriches on objects found in the tomb of ,menes47#hc7 ,on an early seal-cylinder of ,babylonian type the bennu or khu is termed 8the double of ,horus407#hd7 ,the story of the phnix illustrates the influence exercised by the pictorial character of ,egyptian writing upon the course of religious thought4 ,the soul was first symbolised by a bird4 ,it passed out of the corpse and into the air like a bird2 it was free to enter whatever body it chose1 and the body of a bird was that which it would naturally choose4 ,even to-day the belief is not extinct in ,europe that the spirits of the dead pass into the forms of swallows or doves4 ,but at first it was immaterial what bird was selected to express pictorially the idea of a soul4 ,it was the ostrich when the latter still existed in ,southern ,egypt2 then it became the plover1 in consequence1 probably1 of a similarity in sound between the name of the plover and that of the soul4 ,at other times the favourite symbol was the crested ibis1 whose name was identical with a word that signified 8light40 ,around the conception of the soul there accordingly gathered associations with the light1 and more especially with the light of the sun4 ,the sun-god1 too1 had a double and a soul2 what could be more fitting1 therefore1 than that they should be represented by the crested ibis8 ,it was but a step farther to see in the bird an incarnation of the sun-god himself4 ,the subsequent development of the myth was due to the fact that the god of ,heliopolis continued to be depicted as a man4 ,his human form was too stereotyped in religious art to be changed1 and the phnix consequently was never actually identified with him4 ,it was his soul1 but it was not ,ra himself4 ,the combination of the man and the beast could be tolerated only when both were co-ordinate survivals from a distant past4 ,the inner contradiction between the human and the bestial god was then obscured or ignored4 ,with the human god was closely connected the ancestor worship1 which was quite as much a characteristic of ,egypt as the worship of animals4 ,it was due in the first instance1 perhaps1 to the belief that the ,ka of the dead man needed food and nourishment1 and that if he did not receive them the hungry double would revenge himself on the living4 ,to this day the ,egyptian fellahin1 both ,moslem and ,copt1 visit the tombs of their forefathers at certain times in the year1 and1 after eating and drinking beside them1 place a few grains of wheat or some similar offering on a shelf in front of a window-like opening into the tomb4 ,but the belief in the material needs of the ,ka would not of itself have sufficed to support the long lines of priests who were attached to the cult of the dead1 or the prayers that were addressed to them4 ,it was the deification of the ,pharaoh which caused 8prophets0 of ,khufu and ,khafra to be still consecrated in the days of the ,twenty-sixth ,dynasty17#he7 and prevented the forms of the sacred animals from being pictured on the temple walls4 ,as long as there was a human god on earth1 there could also be a human god in heaven2 and in the ,pyramid texts of the ,sixth ,dynasty the dead ,pepi or ,teta is as much a god as any deity in the pantheon4 ,when the ,osirian faith had spread throughout ,egypt1 and the pious ,egyptian looked forward after death to becoming himself an 8,osiris10 there was still greater reason for the divine honours that were paid to the ancestor4 ,in paying them to him the worshipper was paying them to the god of the dead4 ,and the god of the dead was himself one of the ancestors of the ,egyptian people4 ,he was a human god who had once ruled on earth1 and he still governed as a ,pharaoh in the world beyond the grave4 ,as the ,pharaoh was a theomorphic man1 so ,osiris was an anthropomorphic god4 ,in him the cult of the ancestor reached its fullest development4 ,it was natural that ,pharaonic ,egypt should have been1 so far as we know1 the birthplace of euhemerism4 ,where the gods had human forms1 and the men were gods1 it was inevitable that it should arise4 ,the deification of the ,pharaoh prevented any line being drawn between the living man and the deity he worshipped4 ,as the man could be a god1 so too could the god be a man4 ,the gods of ,egypt were accordingly transformed into ,pharaohs1 who lived and conquered and died like the ,pharaohs of history4 ,they differed from the men of to-day only in having lived long ago1 and on that account being possessed of powers which are now lost4 ,that they should have died did not make them less divine and immortal4 ,the ,pharaoh also died like the ancestors who were worshipped at the tombs1 but death meant nothing more than passing into another form of existence4 ,it was merely a re-birth under new conditions4 ,the ,ka continued as before2 there was no change in outward shape or in the moral and intellectual powers4 ,in fact1 the death of the god was a necessary accompaniment of an anthropomorphic form of religion4 ,in ,babylonia the temples of the gods were also their tombs1 and even among the ,greeks the sepulchre of ,zeus was pointed out in ,krete4 ,the same cult was paid to the dead ,naram-,sin or the dead ,gudea in ,chalda that was paid to the dead ,khufu in ,egypt4 ,we have no need to seek in any peculiarly ,egyptian beliefs an explanation of the ancestor worship which1 along with the deification of the king1 it shared with ,babylonia4 ,the euhemerism of the ,egyptian priesthood sounded the knell of the old faith4 ,as the centuries passed1 purer and higher ideas of the ,godhead had grown up1 and between the 8formless0 and eternal ,creator of the world and the man who had become a god1 the distance was too great to be spanned4 ,on the one side1 the gods of the national creed had been resolved one into another1 till no distinctive shape or character was left to any one of them2 on the other side1 they had been transformed into mere human kings who had ruled over ,egypt long ago4 ,the pantheistic ,creator and the deified ,egyptians of vulgar and prosaic history could not be harmonised together4 ,the multitude might be content with its sacred animals and its amulets1 but the thinking portion of the nation turned to ,greek metaphysics or a despairing scepticism4 ,already1 in the time of the ,eleventh ,dynasty1 the poet who composed the dirge of king ,antef gives pathetic expression to his doubts7#hf7-- 8,what is fortune8 say the wise4 ,vanished are the hearths and homes1 ,what he does or thinks1 who dies1 ,none to tell us comes4 8,have thy heart's desire1 be glad1 ,use the ointment while you live2 ,be in gold and linen clad1 ,take what gods may give4 8,for the day shall come to each ,when earth's voices sound no more2 ,dead men hear no mourners' speech1 ,tears can not restore4 8,eat and drink in peace to-day1 ,when you go1 your goods remain2 ,he who fares the last long way ,comes not back again40 ,still more hopeless are the words put into the mouth of the wife of the high priest of ,memphis at the close of the first century before our era-- 8,o my brother1 my spouse1 and my friend1 ,high priest of ,memphis6 ,cease not to drink and to eat1 ,to fill thyself with wine1 and to make sweet love2 ,enjoy each festive day and follow thy desire1 ,let not care enter thy heart ,all the years that on earth thou remainest4 ,the underworld is a land of thick darkness1 ,a sorrowful place for the dead4 ,they sleep1 after their guise1 never to awaken ,and behold their comrades4 ,their father and their mother they know not1 ,no yearning for their wives and their children do they feel407#hg7 ,lecture ,,vi4 ,the ,gods ,of ,egypt4 ,in the language of ancient ,egypt the word neter signified 8a god40 ,sir ,p4 le ,page ,renouf endeavoured to show that the word originally meant 8strong10 and that the first ,egyptians accordingly pictured their gods as embodiments of strength47#hh7 ,but it has been pointed out7#hi7 that where neter is used in the sense of 8strong10 it is rather the lustiness of youth that is meant1 and that a better rendering would be 8fresh and vigorous40 ,the verb neter signifies 8to flourish0 and 8grow up40 ,moreover1 it is a question whether between this verb and the word for 8god0 there is any connection at all4 ,it is difficult to understand how the gods could be described as 8growths0 unless they were conceived of as plants2 and of this there is no evidence in ancient ,egypt4 ,we must be content with the fact that as far back as we can trace the history of the word neter1 it meant 8god0 and 8god0 only4 ,but we must also beware of supposing that the ,egyptians attached the same ideas to it that we do1 or that it had the same connotation at all periods of their history or among all classes of the people4 ,the pantheistic deity of ,khu-n-,aten was a very different being from the sun-god of whom the ,pharaohs of the ,fifth ,dynasty had called themselves the sons1 and between the divinity which the multitude saw in the bull ,apis and the formless and ever-living ,creator of the priesthood there was a gulf which could hardly be bridged4 ,but even the conception of the ,creator formed by the priesthood is difficult for us to realise4 ,eighteen centuries of ,christianity have left their impress upon us1 and we start from a different background of ideas from that of the ,egyptian1 to whatever class he may have belonged4 ,it is impossible that we can enter exactly into what the ,egyptian meant by such expressions as 8living for ever0 or 8having no form02 even the words 8life0 and 8form0 would not have had the same connotation for him that they have for us4 ,all that we can do is to approximate to the meaning that he gave to them1 remembering that our translation of them into the language of to-day can be approximative only4 ,the hieroglyphic writing which preserved memories of a time that the ,egyptians themselves had forgotten1 represents the idea of a 8god0 by the picture of an axe4 ,the axe seems originally to have consisted of a sharpened flint or blade of metal hafted in a wooden handle1 which was occasionally wrapped in strips of red1 white1 and black cloth47#ij7 ,it takes us back to an age of fetishism1 when inanimate objects were looked upon as divine1 and perhaps reflects the impression made upon the natives of the country by the ,pharaonic ,egyptians with their weapons of metal4 ,horus of ,edfu1 it will be remembered1 was served by smiths1 and the shrines he founded to commemorate his conquest of ,egypt were known as 8the smithies40 ,the double-headed axe was a divine symbol in ,asia ,minor17#ia7 and both in the old world and in the new the fetish was wrapped in cloths4 ,even at ,delphi a sacred stone was enveloped in wool on days of festival4 ,in the sacred axe1 therefore1 which denoted a god1 we may see a parallel to the standards on the prow of the prehistoric boat or to the symbols of the nomes4 ,it would have represented the gods of those invaders of the valley of the ,nile who brought with them weapons of copper1 and have been the symbol of the conquering race and the deities it worshipped4 ,as the ,pharaonic ,egyptians appropriated the fetishes of the older population in their sculptures and their picture-writing1 so too would they have appropriated what had become to the neolithic people the sign and emblem of superior power4 ,we have already dealt with an important class of gods1 those which had a solar origin4 ,there were other gods of an elemental character1 whose worship does not seem to have been originally confined to one particular locality4 ,such were ,seb1 the earth1 ,nut1 the sky1 and ,nu1 the primeval deep4 ,but they played only a small part in the religion of the country4 ,seb was known in later days chiefly as the father of ,osiris2 at an earlier epoch he had been the rp1 or 8hereditary prince1 of the gods10 a title which takes us back to the feudal period of ,egypt1 when as yet there was no ,pharaoh who ruled over the whole of the land4 ,the animal sacred to him was the goose1 perhaps on account of some similarity in its name2 but he was never identified with it1 and continued to the last to be depicted in human form4 ,his symbol1 however1 gave rise to a cosmological myth4 ,the goose became the mother of the egg out of which the universe was born4 ,nut was the wife of ,seb1 wedded to him as the sky is wedded to the earth4 ,it seems reasonable to see in her the feminine form of ,nu1 the primeval chaos of waters2 and so the ,egyptians of the historical period believed1 since they identified her with the wife of the ,nile1 and represented her as sitting in the sycamore and pouring the water of life on the hands of a soul at the foot of the tree4 ,it has been suggested1 however1 that ,nu was of later origin than ,nut1 who became a ,nile goddess with the head of a snake only when ,nu himself had been changed into the ,nile47#ib7 ,but the idea of a watery chaos is not one which would have grown up on ,egyptian soil4 ,there it was rather the desert which represented the unformed beginning of things2 the ,nile spread itself over the already existing land at regular intervals1 and was no dreary waste of waters1 out of which the earth emerged for the first time4 ,the geographical home of the idea was in ,babylonia1 on the shores of the ever-retreating ,persian ,gulf4 ,and from ,babylonia we find that the belief in a primeval deep spread itself over ,western ,asia4 ,the ,egyptian ,nu is the counterpart of the ,babylonian ,mummu1 the mother of gods1 as ,nu was their father4 ,professor ,hommel may even be right in identifying the name with the ,babylonian ,nun or ,nunu1 the lord of the deep4 ,but ,nu survived only in the theological schools1 more especially in that of ,hermopolis1 the modern ,eshmunn4 ,the god of ,hermopolis was ,thoth1 the ,egyptian ,deuti4 ,thoth seems to have been at the outset the moon1 which was thus1 as in ,babylonia1 of the male sex4 ,a legend1 repeated by ,plutarch17#ic7 relates how he gained the five intercalatory days of the ,egyptian year by playing at dice with the moon2 and he was at times identified with the moon-gods ,aah and ,khonsu4 ,the first month of the year was his1 and he was the measurer of time1 who had invented arithmetic and geometry1 music and astronomy1 architecture and letters4 ,he knew the magic formul which could bind the gods themselves1 and as minister of the ,pharaoh ,thamos had introduced writing and literature into ,egypt4 ,henceforward he remained the patron of books and education1 on which the culture of ,egypt so largely rested4 ,he was1 in fact1 the culture-god of the ,egyptians to whom the elements of civilisation were due4 ,it is curious that we do not know his true name1 for ,deuti means merely the god 8who is attached to the ibis40 ,was it really ,nu8 and is ,thoth really a compound of a moon-god and a sun-god8 ,at all events the culture-god of ,babylonia who corresponded to ,thoth was ,ea1 the deep1 and one of the earliest names of ,ea was 8the god ,nun40 ,moreover1 the son of ,ea was ,asari1 the ,osiris of ,egypt2 and just as ,asari instructed mankind in the wisdom and laws of ,ea1 so ,thoth acted as the minister of ,osiris and adjudged his cause against ,seb4 ,like ,ea1 too1 ,thoth wrote the first books from which men derived their laws47#id7 ,however this may be1 ,thoth was the creator of the world through the word of his mouth4 ,in the cosmogony of ,hermopolis the universe and the gods that direct it are the creation of his word1 which later ages refined into the sound of his voice4 ,from ,hermopolis the doctrine passed to other parts of ,egypt1 and under the ,theban dynasties tended to displace or absorb the older ,heliopolitan doctrine of creation by generation4 ,but the doctrine was known also in ,babylonia1 where the god whose word is creative was ,asari1 the ,merodach of the ,semites4 ,in the ,babylonian ,epic of the ,creation the 8word0 of ,merodach creates and destroys1 like the 8word0 of ,yahweh in the ,old ,testament4 ,i must leave to another lecture the consideration as to how far the ,logos of ,alexandrine philosophy has been influenced by the theology of ,hermopolis4 ,whether ,thoth were originally ,nu or not1 ,nu at all events forms the second member of the ,hermopolitan ,ennead4 ,professor ,maspero has shown that it was modelled on the ,ennead of ,heliopolis47#ie7 ,but in accordance with the more abstract character of the cosmogony of which it was a part1 the divinities of which it is composed are abstractions that look strangely out of place in the ,egyptian ,pantheon4 ,nu is provided with the feminine ,nut1 who is not to be confounded with the old goddess of the sky1 and from them are derived the successive pairs eui and eet1 ,kek and ,keket1 ,nini and ,ninit1 8eternity10 8darkness10 and 8inertia407#if7 ,the whole scheme is ,asiatic rather than ,egyptian1 but the gods composing it are already mentioned in the ,pyramid texts4 ,the four pairs of abstract deities constituted 8the eight0 gods after whom ,hermopolis received one of its names 7,khmunu1 now ,ashmunn71 and who were often addressed as 8the god eight10 like 8the god seven0 in ,babylonia4 ,professor ,maspero sees in them a philosophical development of the four cynocephalous apes who accompanied ,thoth and saluted the first streak of dawn4 ,but the development is difficult to follow1 and the apes who are the companions of the god probably had another origin4 ,they certainly must have come from the ,sudn2 no apes were indigenous in ,egypt in historical times4 ,moreover1 it was only the ,thoth of ,hermopolis in ,upper ,egypt in whose train they were found2 the ,thoth of ,hermopolis ,parva in the ,delta1 properly speaking1 knew them not4 ,but from an early epoch 8the five gods0--,thoth and his four ape-followers1 whose likeness he sometimes adopted--had been worshipped at ,eshmunn4 ,its temple was called 8the ,abode of the ,five10 and its high priest 8the great one of the ,house of the ,five407#ig7 ,how the half-human apes of ,central ,africa came to be associated with ,thoth we do not know4 ,between the baboons who sing hymns to the rising and setting sun and the moon1 or the culture-god1 there is little or no connection4 ,but a curious biography found in a tomb at ,assuan throws light upon it4 ,herkhuf1 the subject of the biography1 was sent by ,hor-em-saf of the ,sixth ,dynasty on an exploring expedition into the ,libyan desert south of the ,first ,cataract1 and he brought back with him a ,danga dwarf 8who danced the dances of the god10 like another ,danga dwarf brought from ,punt in the neighbourhood of ,sukim or ,massawa in the time of the ,fifth ,dynasty4 ,the dwarf was evidently regarded by ,herkhuf as a species of baboon1 if we may judge from the account he gives of the way in which he was treated2 even to-day the ape in the zoological gardens of ,giza is called by the lower classes at ,cairo 8the savage man40 ,travellers have described the dancing and screaming of troops of apes at daybreak when the sun first lights up the earth1 and it was natural for primitive man to suppose that the dancing was in honour of the return of the god of day4 ,dances in honour of the gods have been common all over the world2 indeed1 among barbarous and savage peoples the dance is essentially of a religious character4 ,even ,david danced before the ark1 and boys still dance before the high altar in the cathedral of ,seville4 ,that dances are represented on the prehistoric pottery of ,egypt1 has been pointed out by ,m4 de ,morgan27#ih7 and since the ,danga dwarf came from the half-mythical country in the south which was known to the ,egyptians as 8the land of the gods10 and where1 too1 the apes of ,thoth had their home1 it was reasonable to believe that he knew the dance that would be pleasing to the gods47#ii7 ,i believe1 therefore1 that the apes of ,thoth were at the outset the dwarf-like apes or ape-like dwarfs who danced in his honour in the temple of ,hermopolis4 ,gradually they were taken hold of by that symbolism which was inseparable from a religion so intimately bound up with a pictorial system of writing2 from dancers they became the followers of the god1 who sang to the rising and setting sun the hymns which ,thoth had composed4 ,but this would have been when the worship of the sun-god of ,heliopolis had already spread to ,hermopolis1 and the cult of ,thoth was mingling with that of ,ra4 ,the mutual influence of the theories of creation taught by the priests of the two cities shows at what a comparatively early date this would have happened4 ,it is possible that there was actually a connection between the four baboons and the four elemental gods of ,hermopolitan theology4 ,but it was not in the way of development4 ,it was rather that as the gods were four in number1 the dancers in their temple were four also4 ,to each god1 as it were1 an ape was assigned4 ,the influence of ,hermopolis belongs to the pre-,menic age of ,egypt2 we can hardly any longer call it prehistoric4 ,so1 too1 does the influence of ,nekhen1 once the capital of the kingdom of ,upper ,egypt4 ,in a former lecture ,i have already spoken of its vulture-headed goddess ,nekheb1 the consort of the hawk ,horus1 whose temple at ,el-,kab guarded the outlet of the road from the ,red ,sea1 and who was known as ,mut1 8the mother10 at ,thebes4 ,she was1 in fact1 the goddess of all ,upper ,egypt1 whose worship had spread over it in the days when ,nekhen was its ruling city4 ,the gods of the ,pharaoh followed the extension of his power4 ,in the early inscriptions of the ,first ,cataract the vulture-headed goddess sitting on her basket is identified with the local divinity ,sati 7more correctly ,suti71 8the ,asiatic40 ,from her the island of ,sehl received its name1 and there her sanctuary stood before ,isis of ,phil ousted her from her supremacy4 ,she was symbolised by the arrow1 the name of which was the same as that of the goddess1 and which was1 moreover1 a fitting emblem of the hostile tribes of the desert4 ,it already appears on the prehistoric pottery as a sacred fetish on the 8flagstaff0 or standard at the prow of the boat4 ,the name of ,sati1 or rather ,suti1 is remarkable4 ,it was not only the name of the goddess of the ,first ,cataract1 it was also the name given by the ,egyptians to the nomadic tribes of ,asia4 ,but it was not the ,egyptians only who used it in this sense4 ,from time immemorial the name ,sut had precisely the same meaning among the ,babylonians4 ,the fact cannot be accidental2 and as ,sut is of ,babylonian origin1 we have in it a fresh proof of the relations of the ,pharaonic ,egyptians with primeval ,babylonia4 ,but the goddess ,sati does not stand alone4 ,there was also a god ,set 7or ,sut71 the twin-brother and enemy of ,osiris1 and1 like ,esau in ,hebrew history1 a representative of the desert2 while at the ,cataract another goddess1 nuqet by name1 is her companion4 ,now nuqet is the feminine of nuq1 the naq of the ,old ,testament4 ,the foreign nature of nuqet has long been recognised1 for she wears on her head the non-,egyptian head-dress of a cap fringed with feathers4 ,it is the same head-dress as that worn by the god ,bes1 whom the ,egyptians derived from the land of ,punt on the shores of the ,red ,sea4 ,a similar cap is worn by the ,zakkal on the coast of ,palestine1 in the near neighbourhood of 8the sons of naq10 as well as by the ,babylonian king ,merodach-nadin-akhi1 on a monument now in the ,british ,museum47#ajj7 ,everything1 therefore1 points to its having been an ,asiatic characteristic2 perhaps it was made of the ostrich feathers which are still collected in ,arabia and even on the eastern side of the ,jordan4 ,the ,greeks identified nuqet with ,hestia1 and ,sati with ,hra4 ,this was probably because ,sati was the wife of ,khnum 7or ,kneph71 the god of the ,cataract4 ,as such ,sati was also known as ,heket1 8the frog10 which was supposed to be born from the mud left by the inundation of the ,nile4 ,it thus became a symbol of the resurrection1 and was consequently adopted by the ,christians of ,egypt4 ,hence the frequency with which it is represented on lamps of the late ,roman period4 ,khnum1 like the god of ,thebes1 was a ram1 and is accordingly usually depicted with a ram's head4 ,but he could not originally have been so4 ,once more the old fetish of the district1 the sacred animal of the nome1 must have been fused with the god whom the ,pharaonic invaders brought with them4 ,for ,khnum was a potter1 as his name signifies1 and at ,phil it is said of him that he was 8the moulder 7khnum7 of men1 the modeller of the gods407#aja7 ,hence he is called 8the creator of all this1 the fashioner of that which exists1 the father of fathers1 the mother of mothers10 8the creator of the heaven and the earth1 the lower world1 the water and the mountains10 8who has formed the male and female of fowl and fish1 wild beasts1 cattle1 and creeping things40 ,in ,babylonia1 ,ea1 the culture-god and creator1 was also termed the 8potter10 and it was thus that he moulded the gods as well as men47#ajb7 ,at the same time1 like ,khnum1 he was a god of the waters4 ,while the ,cataract of the ,nile was the home of ,khnum1 the ,persian ,gulf was the dwelling-place of ,ea4 ,the connection between the water and the modeller in clay is obvious4 ,it is only where the water inundates the soil and leaves the moist clay behind it that the art of the potter can flourish47#ajc7 ,but was there also a connection between the ,babylonian god who was worshipped in the ancient seaport of ,chalda and the god of the ,egyptian ,cataract8 ,we have seen that the wife of ,khnum was entitled 8the ,asiatic10 the very form of the name being ,babylonian4 ,we have further seen that her companion nuqet was also from ,asia1 and that her traditional head-dress preserved a memory of the fact4 ,there is a road from the ,red ,sea to ,assuan as well as to ,el-,kab2 it may be that it goes back to those prehistoric times when the ,pharaonic ,egyptians made their way across the desert into the valley of the ,nile1 as their ,semitic kinsfolk did in later days into the tablelands of ,abyssinia4 ,the creator who was worshipped at ,memphis1 at the other end of the ,nile valley1 was a potter also47#ajd7 ,this was ,pta1 whose name is derived from a root which means to 8open40 ,according to ,porphyry1 he had sprung from an egg which had come from the mouth of ,kneph4 ,but the reference in the name is probably to the ceremony of 8opening the mouth0 of a mummy1 or the statue of the dead man with a chisel1 a finger1 or some red pebbles1 in order to confer upon it the capability of receiving the breath of life1 and of harbouring the double or the soul47#aje7 ,pta was represented as a mummy2 he was1 in fact1 one of the gods of the underworld1 who1 like ,osiris or the mummified ,horus of ,nekhen1 had their tombs as well as their temples4 ,he must have been the creative potter1 however1 before he became a mummy4 ,perhaps his transformation dates from the period of his fusion with ,sokaris1 who seems to have been the god of the cemetery of ,memphis47#ajf7 ,at any rate1 ,pta and ,khnum are alike forms of the same primitive deity1 and the names they bear are epithets merely4 ,at ,phil1 ,pta is pictured as about to model man out of a lump of clay1 and the ,khnumu1 or 8creators0 who helped him to fashion the world1 were his children47#ajg7 ,the ,khnumu are the ,patki of ,herodotos 7iii4 #cg71 whose figures1 the ,greek writer tells us1 were carved by the ,phnicians on the prows of their vessels1 probably to ward off the evil eye4 ,they were dwarfs1 like the ,danga dwarf of ,herkhuf or the god ,bes1 with thick heads1 bowed legs1 long arms1 and bushy beards2 and their terra-cotta figures have often been met with in the tombs4 ,from the name ,patki we might infer that they had been borrowed by the ,phnicians from ,egypt4 ,but it is also possible that both ,egypt and ,phnicia derived them from the same source4 ,dr4 ,scheil has pointed out that a similar figure occurs on early ,babylonian seal-cylinders1 where its ,sumerian name is given as 8the god ,nugidda0 or 8the ,dwarf10 and it is sometimes represented as dancing before the goddess ,istar47#ajh7 ,thus far1 however1 no text has been discovered which associates the god ,nugidda with the creator of the world4 ,when ,memphis became the capital of ,egypt and the seat of the ,pharaoh1 its god also became supreme in the ,egyptian pantheon4 ,but he was no longer ,pta the creator simply4 ,he was already amalgamated with ,sokaris1 and probably with ,osiris as well4 ,it was not difficult to identify two mummified gods whose domain was among the dead4 ,with the spread of the sun-worship of ,heliopolis and the spirit of pantheistic syncretism which accompanied it1 the individuality of the old god of ,memphis became still further lost4 ,he was merged into ,tanen or ,tatunen1 a local god of the earth1 as well as into ,ra4 ,he had already been made into the chief of an ,ennead1 and now the ,ennead was resolved into a trinity4 ,nofer-,tum1 8beautified by ,tum10 was brought from ,heliopolis1 and was made into a son of ,pta1 afterwards to be superseded1 however1 by another abstraction1 ,im-hotep1 8he who comes in peace407#aji7 ,im-hotep was reputed the first kher-heb or hierophant2 he it was who recited and interpreted the liturgy of the dead and the magic formul which restored health to the sick and raised the dead to life4 ,the ,greeks consequently identified him with ,asklpios47#aaj7 ,both ,im-hotep and ,nofer-,tum were the sons of ,sekhet1 the lion-headed goddess of ,letopolis1 from whence she must have been borrowed by the ,memphite priests when the ancient potter god had become a generator1 and a wife was needed for him4 ,with the decline of the ,memphite dynasties and the fall of the ,old ,empire1 the commanding part played by ,pta in the ,egyptian pantheon was at an end4 ,the god of the imperial city had been identified with the gods of the provincial nomes2 his temple at ,memphis had taken precedence of all others1 and the local priesthoods were content that their deities should have found a shelter in it as forms of ,pta4 ,he was even identified with pi1 the ,nile1 though perhaps the similarity in sound between the sacred name of the river and that of the bull ,apis 7api7 may have assisted in the identification47#aaa7 ,that the ,nile should have been worshipped throughout the land of ,egypt is natural4 ,the very land itself was his gift1 the crops that grew upon it and the population it supported all depended upon his bounty4 ,when the ,nile failed1 the people starved2 when the ,nile was full1 ,egypt was a land of contentment and plenty4 ,it is only wonderful that the cult of the ,nile should not have been more prominent than it was4 ,the temples built in its honour were neither numerous nor important1 nor were its priests endowed as the priests of other gods4 ,but the cause of this is explained by history4 ,the neolithic population of the country lived in the desert2 the ,nile was for them little more than the creator of pestilential swamps and dangerous jungles1 where wild beasts and venomous serpents lurked for the intruder4 ,the ,pharaonic ,egyptians brought their own gods with them1 and these naturally became the divinities of the nomes4 ,when the river had been embanked and its waters been made a blessing instead of a curse1 the sacred animals and the gods of the nomes were too firmly established to be displaced47#aab7 ,but the backwardness of the ,state religion was made up for by the piety of individuals4 ,hymns to the ,nile1 like those which were engraved on the rocks of ,silsilis by ,meneptah and ,ramses ,,iii41 breathe a spirit of gratitude and devotion which can hardly be exceeded-- 8,hail to thee1 ,o ,nile6 who manifestest thyself over this land1 and comest to give life to ,egypt6 ,mysterious is thy issuing forth from darkness1 on this day whereon it is celebrated6 ,watering the orchards created by ,ra to cause all cattle to drink1 thou givest the earth to drink1 inexhaustible one6444 ,lord of the fish1 during the inundation1 no bird alights on the crops4 ,thou createst the wheat1 thou bringest forth the barley1 assuring perpetuity to the temples4 ,if thou ceasest thy toil and thy work1 then all that exists is in anguish4 ,if the gods suffer in heaven1 then the faces of men waste away4444 ,no dwelling 7is there7 which may contain thee6 ,none penetrates within thy heart6 ,thy young men1 thy children1 applaud thee and render unto thee royal homage4 ,stable are thy decrees for ,egypt before thy servants of the north4 ,he dries the tears from all eyes1 and guards the increase of his good things4444 ,establisher of justice1 mankind desires thee1 supplicating thee to answer their prayers2 thou answerest them by the inundation6 ,men offer thee the first-fruits of corn2 all the gods adore thee6444 ,a festal song is raised for thee on the harp1 with the accompaniment of the hand4 ,thy young men and thy children acclaim thee1 and prepare their exercises4 ,thou art the august ornament of the earth1 letting thy bark advance before men1 lifting up the heart of women in labour1 and loving the multitude of the flocks4 ,when thou shinest in the royal city1 the rich man is sated with good things1 even the poor man disdains the lotus2 all that is produced is of the choicest2 all plants exist for thy children4 ,if thou refusest nourishment1 the dwelling is silent1 devoid of all that is good1 the country falls exhausted 444 ,o ,nile1 come 7and7 prosper6 ,o thou that makest men to live through his flocks1 and his flocks through his orchards607#aac7 ,the supremacy of ,memphis was replaced by that of ,thebes1 and under the ,theban dynasties1 accordingly1 ,amon1 the god of ,thebes1 became paramount in the ,state religion of ,egypt4 ,but before we trace the history of his rise to supremacy1 it is necessary to say a few words regarding the ,egyptian goddesses4 ,the woman occupied an important position in the ,egyptian household2 purity of blood was traced through her1 and she even sat on the throne of the ,pharaohs4 ,the divine family naturally corresponded to the family on earth4 ,the ,egyptian goddess was not always a pale reflection of the god1 like the ,semitic consort of ,baal2 on the contrary1 there were goddesses of nomes as well as gods of nomes1 and the nome-goddess was on precisely the same footing as the nome-god4 ,nit of ,sais or ,hathor of ,dendera differed in no way1 so far as their divine powers were concerned1 from ,pta of ,memphis or ,khnum of the ,cataract4 ,like the gods1 too1 they became the heads of ,enneads1 or were embodied in ,trinities1 when first the doctrine of the ,ennead1 and then that of the ,trinity1 made its way through the theological schools4 ,they are each even called 8the father of fathers0 as well as 8the mother of mothers10 and take the place of ,tum as the creators of heaven and earth47#aad7 ,nit rose to eminence with the ,twenty-sixth ,dynasty4 ,her city of ,sais had previously played no part in history1 but both its goddess and its sanctuary were of old date47#aae7 ,of the nature of the goddess1 however1 we know little4 ,she is represented as a woman with a shuttle as her emblem1 and in her hands she carries a bow and arrow1 like ,istar of ,assyria or ,artemis of ,greece4 ,but the twin arrow was also a symbol of the nome1 which was a border district1 exposed to the attacks of the ,libyan tribes4 ,the ,greeks identified her with their ,athna on account of a slight similarity in the names4 ,sekhet1 or ,bast of ,bubastis1 is better known4 ,sometimes she has the head of a lion1 sometimes of a cat4 ,at ,phil it is said of her that 8she is savage as ,sekhet and mild as ,bast407#aaf7 ,but the lion must have preceded the cat4 ,the earlier inhabitants of the valley of the ,nile were acquainted with the lion2 the cat seems to have been introduced from ,nubia in the age of the ,eleventh ,dynasty4 ,in the time of the ,old ,empire there was no cat-headed deity1 for there were no cats4 ,but the cat1 when once introduced1 was from the outset a sacred animal47#aag7 ,the lion of ,sekhet was transformed into a cat2 and as the centuries passed1 the petted and domesticated animal was the object of a worship that became fanatical4 ,herodotos maintains that when a house took fire the ,egyptians of his time thought only of preserving the cats2 and to this day the cat is honoured above all other animals on the banks of the ,nile4 ,the chief sanctuary of ,bast was at ,bubastis1 where1 however1 the excavations of ,dr4 ,naville have shown that she did not become the chief divinity before the rise of the ,twenty-second ,dynasty47#aah7 ,the goddesses passed one into the other even more readily than the gods4 ,sekhet developed by turns into ,uazit and ,mut1 ,selk the scorpion1 and ,hathor of ,dendera4 ,pepi ,i41 even at ,bubastis1 still calls himself the son of ,hathor4 ,hathor played much the same part among the goddesses that ,ra played among the gods4 ,she gradually absorbed the other female divinities of ,egypt4 ,they were resolved into forms of her1 as the gods were resolved into forms of ,ra4 ,the kings of the ,sixth ,dynasty called themselves her sons1 just as they also called themselves sons of the sun-god4 ,she presided over the underworld2 she presided also over love and pleasure4 ,the seven goddesses1 who1 like fairy godmothers1 bestowed all good things on the newborn child1 were called by her name1 and she was even identified with ,mut1 the starry sky4 ,her chief sanctuary was at ,dendera1 founded in the first days of the ,pharaonic conquest of ,egypt4 ,here she was supreme2 even ,horus the elder and the younger17#aai7 when compelled to form with her a trinity1 remained lay figures and nothing more4 ,she was pictured sometimes as a cow1 sometimes as a woman with the head of a cow bearing the solar disc between her horns3 for from the earliest days she was associated with the sun4 ,sometimes she is addressed as the daughter of ,ra27#abj7 sometimes the sun-god is her son4 ,at ,dendera the solar orb is represented as rising from her lap1 while its rays encircle her head1 which rests upon ,bkhu1 the mountain of the sun4 ,in another chamber of the same temple we see her united with her son ,horus as a hawk with a woman's head in the very middle of the solar disc1 which slowly rises from the eastern hills4 ,when ,isis is figured as a cow1 it is because she is regarded as a form of ,hathor47#aba7 ,the original character of ,hathor has been a matter of dispute4 ,some scholars have made her originally the sky or space generally1 others have called her the goddess of light1 while she has even been identified with the moon4 ,in the legend of the destruction of mankind by ,ra1 she appears as the eye of the sun-god who plies her work at night2 and a text at ,dendera speaks of her as 8resting on her throne in the place for beholding the sun's disc1 when the bright one unites with the bright one40 ,in any case she is closely connected with the rising sun1 whose first rays surround her head4 ,egyptian tradition maintained that she had come from the land of ,punt1 from those shores of ,arabia and the opposite ,african coast from which the ,pharaonic immigrants had made their way to the valley of the ,nile4 ,she was1 moreover1 the goddess of the ,semitic nomads of the ,sinaitic ,peninsula2 in other words1 she was here identified with the ,ashtoreth or ,istar of the ,semitic world47#abb7 ,now the name of ,hathor does not seem to be ,egyptian4 ,it is written with the help of a sort of rebus1 so common in ideographic forms of writing4 ,the pronunciation of the name is given by means of ideographs1 the significations of which have nothing in common with it1 though the sounds of the words they express approximate to its pronunciation4 ,the name of ,hathor1 accordingly1 is denoted by writing the hawk of ,horus inside the picture of a 8house10 the name of which was ,ht4 ,a similar method of representing names is frequent in the ideographic script of ancient ,babylonia2 thus the name of ,asari1 the ,egyptian ,osiris1 is expressed by placing the picture of an eye 7shi7 inside that of a place 7eri74 ,the name of ,hathor1 therefore1 had primitively nothing to do with either ,horus or the house of ,horus1 whatever may have been the speculations which the priests of a later day founded upon the written form of the name4 ,it was only an attempt1 similar to those common in the early script of ,babylonia1 to represent the pronunciation of a name which had no meaning in the ,egyptian language4 ,but it is a name which we meet with in the ancient inscriptions of ,southern ,arabia4 ,there it appears as the name of the god ,atthar4 ,but ,atthar itself was borrowed from ,babylonia4 ,it is the name of the ,babylonian goddess ,istar1 originally the morning and evening stars1 who1 an astronomical text tells us1 was at once male and female4 ,as a male god she was adored in ,south ,arabia and ,moab2 as the goddess of love and war she was the chief goddess of ,babylonia1 the patron of the ,assyrian kings1 and the ,ashtoreth of ,canaan4 ,when1 with the progress of astronomical knowledge1 the morning and evening stars were distinguished from one another1 in one part of ,western ,asia she remained identified with the one1 in another part with the other4 ,hathor is then1 ,i believe1 the ,istar of the ,babylonians4 ,she agrees with ,istar both in name and in attributes4 ,the form of the name can be traced back to that of ,istar through the ,atthar of ,south ,arabia1 that very land of ,punt from which ,hathor was said to have come4 ,in ,egypt as in ,babylonia she was the goddess of love and joy1 and her relation to the sun can be explained naturally if she were at the outset the morning star47#abc7 ,even her animal form connects her with ,chalda4 ,dr4 ,scheil has published a ,babylonian seal of the age of ,abraham1 on which the cow1 giving milk to a calf1 appears as the symbol of ,istar1 and a hymn of the time of ,assur-bani-pal identifies the goddess with a cow47#abd7 ,i have left myself but little time in which to speak of the gods who interpenetrated and transfigured ,egyptian theology in the period of which we know most4 ,these are the gods of ,thebes4 ,for centuries ,thebes was the dominant centre of a powerful and united ,egypt1 and its chief god ,amon followed the fortunes of his city4 ,as the word amon meant 8to conceal10 the priests discovered in the god an embodiment of a mysterious and hidden force which pervades and controls the universe1 and of which the sun is as it were the material organ4 ,but such discoveries were the product of a later day1 when the true meaning of the name had been long since forgotten1 and ,theban theology had become pantheistic4 ,what ,amon really signified the priests did not know1 nor are we any wiser4 ,amon was1 however1 the local god of ,thebes1 or rather of ,karnak1 and he seems from the first to have been a sun-god4 ,but he had a rival in the warrior deity ,mentu of ,hermonthis1 who also probably represented the sun4 ,at any rate1 ,mentu had the head of a hawk1 and therefore must have been a local form of ,horus--of that ,horus1 namely1 of whom the ,pharaonic ,egyptians were the followers47#abe7 ,like ,horus1 too1 he was a fighting god1 and was accordingly identified in the texts of the ,nineteenth ,dynasty with the ,canaanitish ,baal1 8the ,lord of hosts40 ,but he was also incarnated in the sacred bull which was worshipped at ,erment1 and of which ,i have spoken in an earlier lecture4 ,he thus differed from ,amon1 who was identified with the ram1 the sacred animal of the aboriginal population1 not at ,karnak only1 but in the whole of the surrounding district47#abf7 ,but ,amon was usually of human form1 with two lofty feathers rising above his crown4 ,under the ,theban dynasties he became the supreme god1 first of ,egypt1 then of the ,egyptian empire4 ,all other gods had to give way before him1 and to lose their individuality in his4 ,his supremacy began with the rise of the ,eleventh and ,twelfth ,dynasties2 it was checked for a moment by the ,hyksos conquest of ,egypt1 but in the end the check proved only a fresh impulse4 ,it was the princes of ,thebes1 the servants of ,amon1 who raised the standard of revolt against the ,asiatic intruder1 and finally drove him back to ,asia4 ,amon had been their helper in the war of independence1 and it was he who afterwards gained their victories for them in ,syria and ,ethiopia4 ,the glory and wealth of ,egypt were all due to him1 and upon his temple and city accordingly the spoils of ,asia were lavished1 and trains of captives worked under the lash4 ,the ,hyksos invasion1 moreover1 and the long war of independence which followed1 destroyed the power of the old feudal princes1 while it strengthened and developed that of the ,pharaoh4 ,the influence of the provincial gods passed away with the feudal princes whose patrons they had been2 the supremacy of the ,pharaoh implied also the supremacy of the ,pharaoh's god4 ,there was none left in ,egypt to dispute the proud boast of the ,theban1 that ,amon was 8the one god40 ,but he became the one god not by destroying1 but by absorbing the other gods of the country4 ,the doctrines of the ,ennead and the ,trinity had prepared the way4 ,they had taught how easily the gods of the ,state religion could be merged one into the other2 that their attributes were convertible1 and yet1 at the same time1 were all that gave them a distinct personality4 ,the attributes were to the ,egyptian little more than the concrete symbols by which they were expressed in the picture writing2 the personality was little more than a name4 ,and both symbols and name could be changed or interchanged at will4 ,the process of fusion was aided by the identification of ,amon with ,ra4 ,the spread of the solar cult of ,heliopolis had introduced the name and worship of ,ra into all the temples of ,egypt2 the local gods had1 as it were1 been incorporated into him1 and even the goddesses forced to become his wives or his daughters4 ,the ,pharaoh1 even the ,theban ,pharaoh1 was still 8the son of the sun-god02 as ,amon was also his 8father10 it was a necessary conclusion that ,amon and ,ra were one and the same4 ,in the ,theban period1 accordingly1 ,amon is no longer a simple god4 ,he is ,amon-,ra1 to whom all the attributes of ,ra have been transferred4 ,the solar element is predominant in his character2 and1 since the other gods of the country are but subordinate forms of ,amon1 in their characters also4 ,most of the religious literature of ,egypt which we possess belongs to the ,theban period or is derived from it2 it is not astonishing1 therefore1 if ,egyptologists have been inclined to see the sun-god everywhere in ,egyptian theology4 ,the ,theban trinity was modelled on the orthodox lines4 ,mut1 8the mother10 a local epithet of the goddess of ,southern ,egypt1 was made the wife of ,amon1 while ,khonsu1 a local moon-god1 became his son4 ,but in acquiring this relationship ,khonsu lost his original nature47#abg7 ,since the divine son was one with his divine father1 he too became a sun-god1 with the solar disc and the hawk's head4 ,as the designer of architectural plans1 however1 he still preserved a reminiscence of his primal character4 ,but he was eventually superseded by ,mentu1 a result of the decadence of ,thebes and the rise of ,erment to the headship of the nome4 ,it is needless to say that ,mentu had long before become ,mentu-,ra4 ,we can trace the evolution of ,amon1 thanks to the multiplicity of the texts which belong to the period when his city was supreme4 ,we can watch him as he rises slowly from the position of an obscure provincial deity to that of the supreme god of all ,egypt1 and can follow the causes which brought it about4 ,we can see him uniting himself with the sun-god1 and then absorbing the rest of the ,egyptian gods into himself4 ,the theological thought1 of which he was the subject and centre1 gradually but inexorably passes from a narrow form of polytheism into a materialistic pantheism4 ,there1 however1 it ends4 ,it never advances further into a monotheism in which the creator is separate from his creation4 ,with all its spirituality1 the ,egyptian conception of the divine remained concrete2 the theologians of ,egypt never escaped the influence of the symbol or recognised the god behind and apart from matter4 ,it was through matter that they came to know ,god1 and to the last it was by matter that their conception of the ,godhead was bounded4 ,lecture ,,vii4 ,osiris ,and ,the ,osirian ,faith4 ,the legend of ,osiris as it existed at the end of the first century is recorded by ,plutarch4 ,it has been pieced together from the myths and folk-tales of various ages and various localities that were current about the god4 ,the ,egyptian priests had considerable difficulty in fitting them into a consistent story2 had they been ,greek or ,roman historiographers1 they would have solved the problem by declaring that there had been more than one ,osiris2 as it was1 they were contented with setting the different accounts of his death and fortunes side by side1 and harmonising them afterwards as best they might4 ,as to the general outlines of the legend1 there was no dispute4 ,osiris had been an ,egyptian ,pharaoh who had devoted his life to doing good1 to introducing the elements of art and culture among his subjects1 and transforming them from savages into civilised men4 ,he was the son of the sun-god1 born on the first of the intercalatory days1 the brother and husband of ,isis1 and the brother also of ,set or ,sut1 whom the ,greeks called ,typhon4 ,typhon had as wife his sister ,nephthys or ,nebht1 but her son ,anubis1 the jackal1 claimed ,osiris as his father4 ,osiris set forth from his ,egyptian kingdom to subdue the world by the arts of peace1 leaving ,isis to govern in his absence4 ,on his return1 ,set and his seventy-two fellow conspirators imprisoned him by craft in a chest1 which was thrown into the ,nile4 ,in the days when ,canaan had become a province of the ,egyptian empire1 and there were close relations between the ,phnician cities and the ,delta1 it was said that the chest had floated across the sea to ,gebal1 where it became embedded in the core of a tree1 which was afterwards cut down and shaped into one of the columns of the royal palace4 ,isis wandered from place to place seeking her lost husband1 and mourning for him2 at last she arrived at ,gebal1 and succeeded in extracting the chest from its hiding-place1 and in carrying it back to ,egypt4 ,but the older version of the legend knew nothing of the voyage to ,gebal4 ,the chest was indeed found by ,isis1 but it was near the mouths of the ,nile4 ,here it was buried for awhile2 but ,set1 while hunting by night1 discovered it1 and1 tearing open its lid1 cut the body inside into fourteen pieces1 which he scattered to the winds4 ,then ,isis took boat and searched for the pieces1 until she had recovered them all save one4 ,wherever a piece was found1 a tomb of ,osiris arose in later days4 ,carefully were the pieces put together by ,isis and ,nephthys1 and ,anubis then embalmed the whole body4 ,it was the first mummy that was made in the world4 ,meanwhile ,horus the younger had been born to ,isis1 and brought up secretly at ,buto1 in the marshes of the ,delta1 out of reach of ,set4 ,as soon as he was grown to man's estate he gathered his followers around him1 and prepared himself to avenge his father's death4 ,long and fierce was the struggle4 ,once ,set was taken prisoner1 but released by ,isis2 whereupon ,horus1 in a fit of anger1 struck off his mother's head1 which was replaced by ,thoth with the head of a cow4 ,according to one account1 the contest ended with the victory of ,horus4 ,the enemy were driven from one nome to another1 and ,horus sat on the throne of his father4 ,but there were others who said that the struggle went on with alternating success1 until at last ,thoth was appointed arbiter1 and divided ,egypt between the two foes4 ,southern ,egypt was given to ,horus1 ,northern ,egypt to ,set4 ,it is somewhat difficult to disentangle the threads out of which this story has been woven4 ,elements of various sorts are mixed up in it together4 ,horus the younger1 the posthumous son of ,osiris1 has been identified with ,horus the elder1 the ancient sun-god of ,upper ,egypt1 and the legends connected with the latter have been transferred to the son of ,isis4 ,the everlasting war between good and evil has been inextricably confounded with the war between the ,pharaonic ,egyptians and the older population4 ,the solar theology has invaded the myth of ,osiris1 making him the son of ,ra1 and investing him with solar attributes4 ,anubis the jackal1 who watched over the cemeteries of ,upper ,egypt1 has been foisted into it1 and has become the servant and minister of the god of the dead who superseded him4 ,the doctrine of the ,trinity has been applied to it1 and ,anubis and ,nephthys1 who originally were the allies of ,osiris1 have been forced to combine with ,set4 ,here and there old forgotten customs or fragments of folk-lore have been embodied in the legend3 the dismemberment of ,osiris1 for example1 points to the time when the neolithic inhabitants of ,egypt dismembered their dead2 and the preservation of the body of ,osiris in the heart of a tree has its echo in the ,tale of the ,two ,brothers1 in which the individuality of the hero was similarly preserved4 ,the green face with which ,osiris was represented was in the same way a traditional reminiscence of the custom of painting the face of the dead with green paint1 which was practised by the neolithic population of ,egypt4 ,there are three main facts in the personality of ,osiris which stand out clearly amid the myths and theological inventions which gathered round his name4 ,he was a human god2 he was the first mummy2 and he became the god of the dead4 ,and the paradise over which he ruled1 and to which the faithful souls who believed in him were admitted1 was the field of ,alu1 a land of light and happiness4 ,sekhet ,alu1 8the field of ,alu10 seems to have been the cemetery of ,busiris among the marshes of the ,delta47#abh7 ,the name meant 8the field of marsh-mallows10--the 8asphodel meadows0 of the ,odyssey1--and was applied to one of the islands which were so numerous in the north-eastern part of the ,delta4 ,here1 then1 in the nome of which ,osiris was the feudal god1 the paradise of his followers originally lay1 though a time came when it was translated from the earth to the sky4 ,but when ,osiris first became lord of the dead1 the land to which they followed him was still within the confines of ,egypt4 ,it would seem1 therefore1 that ,professor ,maspero is right in holding that ,osiris was primarily the god of ,busiris in the ,delta4 ,it is the only nome of which he was formally the presiding deity1 under the title of nz1 8the king10 and it bordered on ,hermopolis1 which was dedicated to the ibis-god ,thoth1 who is so closely connected with the story of ,osiris47#abi7 ,to the north stood the temple of ,isis-,rennet17#acj7 to the south-west was ,pharbthos 7,horbt71 which worshipped ,set1 while ,horus was the god of many of the neighbouring nomes4 ,the whole cycle of ,osirian deities is thus to be found within the confines of a small tract of the ,delta4 ,the name ,busiris means simply 8the place of ,osiris40 ,primitively it had been called ,daddu1 8the two colonnades107#aca7 and ,osiris became known as its lord4 ,it was under this title that he was incarnated in the ram of the neighbouring town of ,mendes on the eastern boundary of ,hermopolis4 ,the ram became his soul2 all the more easily since the ,egyptian words for 8ram0 and 8soul0 had the same or a similar pronunciation4 ,at ,dendera it is said that in the ram of ,mendes ,osiris grew young again2 and in the later days of solar syncretism the four souls of ,ra and ,osiris1 of ,shu and ,khepera1 were united in its body4 ,how far back this identification of the god and the sacred animal may reach we do not know4 ,but it is significant that it was not at ,daddu itself1 but at a neighbouring city1 that the animal was worshipped1 though a seal-cylinder which belongs to the oldest period of ,egyptian history already declares that ,daddu was 8the city of the ram407#acb7 ,nebht and ,anubis had originally nothing to do with the god of ,busiris4 ,nebht1 in fact1 is merely a title which has been fossilised into the name of a deity4 ,it is merely the ordinary title of the ,egyptian lady as 8the mistress of the house10 who thus stands on the same footing as 8the lord of the house10 her husband4 ,the title could have been given to any goddess who was conceived of in human form1 and was doubtless applied to ,isis the wife of ,osiris4 ,he was 8the lord0 of the city2 she1 8the lady of the house40 ,it reminds us of the way in which the deities of ,babylonia were addressed4 ,there1 too1 the god was 8the lord10 the goddess 8the lady40 ,the old titles of ,osiris and ,isis which have thus survived in the ,osirian myth are essentially ,babylonian4 ,nebht or ,nephthys was individualised in order to complete the trinity of ,set1 of which ,set was the central figure4 ,we can tell1 accordingly1 when she thus developed into a separate goddess4 ,it was when the doctrine of the ,trinity first became dominant in the ,egyptian schools of theology1 and all the chief deities of the country were forced to conform to it4 ,anubis1 the second person in the trinity of ,set1 must have already been attached to the cult of ,osiris4 ,how this came about is not difficult to discover4 ,anubis the jackal was the god of the underworld4 ,like his symbol1 the jackal1 he watched over the tombs1 more especially in 8the mountain0 far away from the cultivated land4 ,his sacred animal already appears mounted on its standard on the early slate plaques of ,nekhen and ,abydos by the side of the ,horus-hawk4 ,he was1 in fact1 worshipped in many of the nomes1 above all at ,sit1 where he was adored as 8the opener of the paths0 to the world below4 ,he was the inventor of the art of embalming2 he must therefore have been the god of the dead when the ,pharaonic ,egyptians first settled themselves in ,upper ,egypt4 ,in one sense1 indeed1 he was younger than ,horus1 since 8the followers of ,horus0 had not brought the art with them from their earlier home2 but he was already god of the dead1 and the discovery of the art was accordingly ascribed to him4 ,the acceptance of ,osiris as the god of the underworld meant the displacement of ,anubis4 ,he had to make way for 8the lord of ,daddu40 ,the fact is a striking illustration of the influence which the ,osirian teaching must have possessed4 ,osiris was the feudal god only of a nome in the north of the ,delta2 ,anubis had been adored from time immemorial throughout the valley of the ,nile4 ,the cities which recognised him as their chief deity were numerous and powerful4 ,nevertheless he had to yield to the rival god and take a subordinate place beside him4 ,he remained1 indeed1 in the pantheon1 for the ,egyptians never broke with their past2 but the part he had played in it was taken by another1 and he was content to become merely the minister of ,osiris and the guardian of the cemeteries of the dead4 ,meanwhile ,osiris1 like the ,greek ,dionysos1 had pursued his victorious march4 ,wherever his worship extended his temple rose by the side of his tomb like the temples attached to the ,pyramids4 ,like ,pta of ,memphis or the mummified ,horus of ,nekhen1 he was a dead god1 and it was to a dead god consequently that the offering was made and the priest dedicated4 ,it was at ,abydos in ,upper ,egypt1 however1 that his fame was greatest4 ,abydos was the sepulchral temple of ,osiris attached to the city of ,this1 and ,this was not only the seat of a powerful kingdom1 which probably succeeded that of ,nekhen1 but the birthplace of ,menes1 the founder of the united monarchy4 ,around the tomb of the ,osiris of ,abydos1 accordingly1 the kings and princes of the ,thinite dynasties were buried1 and where the ,pharaoh was buried his subjects wished to be buried too4 ,from all parts of ,egypt the bodies of the dead were brought to the sacred ground1 that they might be interred as near as possible to the tomb of the god1 and so their mummies might repose beside him on earth as they hoped their souls would do in the paradise of the ,blest4 ,even the rise of the ,memphite dynasties did not deprive ,abydos of its claim to veneration4 ,its sanctity was too firmly established2 hundreds of ,egyptians still continued to be buried there1 rather than in the spacious necropolis of the ,memphite ,pharaohs47#acc7 ,abydos1 with its royal memories1 threw the older city of ,osiris into the shade4 ,he still1 it is true1 retained his ancient title of 8lord of ,daddu10 but it was an archaism rather than a reality1 and it was as 8lord of ,abydos0 that he was now with preference addressed4 ,but other sanctuaries disputed with ,abydos its claim to possess the tomb of the god of the dead4 ,wherever a temple was erected in his honour1 his tomb also was necessarily to be found4 ,an attempt was made to harmonise their conflicting claims by falling back on the old tradition of the custom of dismembering the dead3 the head of the god was at ,abydos1 his heart at ,athribis1 his neck at ,letopolis4 ,but even so the difficulty remained3 the separate limbs would not suffice for the number of the tombs1 and the same member was sometimes claimed by more than one locality4 ,at ,memphis1 for example1 where ,osiris was united with ,apis into the compound ,serapis1 his head was said to have been interred as well as at ,abydos4 ,abydos1 at the outset1 was the cemetery1 or rather one of the cemeteries1 of ,this4 ,and the god of ,this was the sun-god ,anher1 who was depicted in human form4 ,in the age which produced the doctrine of the ,ennead1 ,anher was identified with ,shu1 the atmosphere1 or1 more strictly speaking1 the god of the space between sky and earth was merged into the god of the sun4 ,but it was not only at ,this that ,anher was worshipped4 ,he was also the god of ,sebennytos1 which adjoined the ,busirite nome1 and where1 therefore1 the human sun-god was in immediate contact with the human god of the dead4 ,what the mummy was to the living man1 that ,osiris was to ,anher47#acd7 ,the double relation between ,osiris and ,anher in both ,lower and ,upper ,egypt cannot be an accident4 ,osiris became the god of ,abydos1 because ,abydos was the cemetery of ,this1 whose feudal god was ,anher4 ,the relation that existed in the ,delta1 between ,anher the sun-god of ,sebennytos1 and ,osiris the god of the dead at ,busiris1 was transferred also to ,southern ,egypt4 ,whom or what did ,osiris originally represent8 ,to this many answers have been given4 ,of late ,egyptologists have seen in him sometimes a personification of mankind1 sometimes the river ,nile1 sometimes the cultivated ground4 ,after the rise of the solar school of theology the ,egyptians themselves identified him with the sun when it sinks below the horizon to traverse the dark regions of the underworld4 ,horus the sun-god of morning thus became his son1 born as it were of the sun-god of night1 and differing from his father only in his form of manifestation47#ace7 ,we have1 however1 one or two facts to guide us in determining the primitive character of the god4 ,he was a mummified man like ,pta of ,memphis1 and he was the brother and enemy of ,set4 ,set or ,sut became for the later ,egyptians the impersonation of evil4 ,he was identified with ,apophis1 the serpent of wickedness1 against whom the sun-god wages perpetual war2 and his name was erased from the monuments on which it was engraved4 ,but all this was because ,set was the god and the representative of the ,asiatic invaders who had conquered ,egypt1 and aroused in the ,egyptian mind a feeling of bitter animosity towards themselves4 ,as late as the time of the ,nineteenth ,dynasty1 the ,pharaohs who restored ,tanis1 the ,hyksos capital1 to something of its former glory1 called themselves after the name of the ,hyksos deity4 ,thothmes ,,iii4 of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty built a temple in honour of ,set of ,ombos1 who was worshipped near ,dendera2 and if we go back to the oldest records of the united monarchy1 we find ,set symbolising the north while ,horus symbolises the south4 ,before the days of ,menes1 ,set was the god of ,northern ,egypt1 ,horus of ,southern ,egypt4 ,in the prehistoric wars of the two kingdoms the two gods would be hostile to one another1 and yet brethren4 ,it was the armies of ,set that were driven by ,horus and his metal-bearing followers from one end of ,egypt to the other1 and finally overcome47#acf7 ,set therefore represents in the legend the older population of the valley of the ,nile4 ,the reason of this is not far to seek4 ,set or ,sut1 like ,sati1 denotes the ,semitic or ,african nomad of the desert1 the ,babylonian ,sutu4 ,he is the equivalent of the ,bedwi of to-day1 who still hovers on the ,egyptian borders1 and between whom and the fellah there is perpetual feud4 ,the same cause which made ,horus the brother and yet the enemy of ,set must have been at work to place ,osiris in the same relation to him4 ,osiris too must have typified the ,pharaonic ,egyptian1 and like ,horus have been the first of the ,pharaohs4 ,hence his human body1 and hence also the confusion between himself and ,horus1 which ended in making ,horus his son and in generating a new ,horus--,horus the younger--by the side of the older ,horus of the ,egyptian faith47#acg7 ,the position of ,osiris in respect to ,anher is now clear4 ,he is the sun-god after his setting in the west1 when he has passed to the region of the dead in the underworld4 ,he stands1 therefore1 in exactly the same relation to ,anher that the mummified hawk stands to the ,horus-hawk4 ,the one belongs to the city of the living1 the other to the city of the dead4 ,but they are both the same deity under different forms1 one of which presides over the city1 the other over its burying-ground4 ,like ,horus1 ,osiris must have been a sun-god of the ,pharaonic ,egyptians1 but a sun-god who was connected for some special reason with the dead47#ach7 ,now ,mr4 ,ball has drawn attention to the fact that there was a ,sumerian god who had precisely the same name as ,osiris1 and that this name is expressed in both cases by precisely the same ideographs47#aci7 ,the etymology of the name has been sought in vain in ,egyptian4 ,but the cuneiform texts make it clear4 ,osiris 7,as-ar7 is the ,asari of ancient ,babylonia1 who was called ,merodach by the ,semites1 and whose ordinary title is 8the god who does good to man40 ,the name of ,asari is written with two ideographs1 one of which denotes 8a place0 and the other 8an eye10 and the forms of the two ideographs1 as well as their meanings1 are identical with those of the hieroglyphic characters which represent ,osiris4 ,such a threefold agreement cannot be accidental3 both the name and the mode of writing it must have come from ,babylonia4 ,and what makes the agreement the stronger is the fact that the ideographs have nothing to do with the signification of the name itself2 they express simply its pronunciation4 ,in the ,sumerian of early ,babylonia the name signified 8the mighty one407#adj7 ,asari was the sun-god of ,eridu1 the ancient seaport of ,babylonia on the ,persian ,gulf4 ,he was the son of ,ea1 the chief god of the city1 of whose will and wisdom he was the interpreter4 ,it was he who communicated to men the lessons in culture and the art of healing1 which ,ea was willing they should learn4 ,just as ,osiris spent his life in doing good1 according to the ,egyptian legend1 so ,asari was he 8who does good to man40 ,he was ever on the watch to help his worshippers1 to convey to them the magic formulas which could ward off sickness or evil1 and1 as it is often expressed1 to 8raise the dead to life40 ,in this last expression we have the key to the part played by ,osiris4 ,osiris died1 and was buried1 like ,asari or ,merodach1 whose temple at ,babylon was also his tomb2 but it was that he might rise again in the morning with renewed strength and brilliancy4 ,and through the spells he had received from his father all those who trusted in him1 and shared in his death and entombment1 were also 8raised to life40 ,both in ,egypt and in ,babylonia he was the god of the resurrection1 whether that took place in this visible world or in the heavenly paradise1 which was a purified reflection of the earth4 ,in ,babylonia1 ,asari or ,merodach was the champion of light and order1 who conquered the dragon of chaos and her anarchic forces1 and put the demons of darkness to flight4 ,in ,egypt that part was taken by ,horus4 ,but both ,anher and ,osiris were merely local forms--local names1 if the phrase should be preferred--of ,horus and the mummified hawk4 ,anher is sometimes represented1 like ,horus1 with the spear in his hand1 overthrowing the wicked2 but his figure was eclipsed by that of ,osiris1 who had come to be regarded as the benefactor of mankind1 and to whom men prayed in sickness and death4 ,a god of the dead1 however1 could not be a conqueror2 it was he1 and not his foe1 who had died1 and consequently the victories gained by ,horus could not be ascribed to him4 ,but the difficulty was not insoluble2 ,horus became his son1 who was at the same time his father1 and the old struggle between ,horus and ,set was transferred to the ,osirian cult4 ,it is significant1 however1 that in the recently-recovered monuments of the ,thinite dynasties ,set is still the twin-brother of ,horus4 ,he still represents the north1 until lately the antagonist of the south2 and a king whose remains have been found at ,nekhen and ,abydos1 and who calls himself 8the uniter of the two sceptres0 of ,egypt1 still sets the ,horus-hawk and the animal of ,set above his name4 ,set1 as ,i have already said1 is the ,sutu or ,bedwi4 ,he was adored elsewhere than in ,egypt2 the ,moabites called themselves his children 7,num4 xxiv4 #ag71 and in the cuneiform texts ,sutu-sar 78,sutu the king07 and ,nabu-rab 78,nebo the great07 are described as twins47#ada7 ,but in ,egypt he represented the population which had been conquered by the ,pharaonic ,egyptians or continued to live on the desert frontiers of the country1 and which was stronger in the ,delta than in the south4 ,the old struggle1 therefore1 between light and darkness1 order and confusion1 which formed the background of ,babylonian mythology1 became the struggle which was waged for such long centuries1 first between the ,pharaonic ,egyptians and the neolithic races1 then between the kingdoms of the south and north1 and finally between the united monarchy and the ,bedwin of the desert or assailants from ,asia4 ,where the foreign element prevailed1 ,set was an honoured god2 where the ruling ,egyptian was dominant1 his place was taken by his brother and his antagonist4 ,it has been thought that the struggle between ,horus and ,set typified the struggle that is ever going on between the desert and the cultivated land4 ,but such an idea is far too abstract to have formed the basis of an ,egyptian religious myth4 ,it might have been elaborated subsequently by some theological school out of the contrast between the ,sutu of the desert and the god of the agriculturists2 but it could never have been there originally4 ,the interpretation is as little justifiable as that which sees in ,osiris the seed that is buried in the ground4 ,it is indeed true that the ,egyptians of a later period1 when the ,osirian doctrine of the ,resurrection was fully developed1 found an analogy to it in the seed that is sown in order to grow again4 ,the tomb of ,ma-her-pa-,ra1 the fan-bearer of ,amon-hotep ,,ii4 of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty1 discovered by ,m4 ,loret in the valley of the ,tombs of the ,kings at ,thebes1 contains a proof of this4 ,in it was a rudely-constructed bed with a mattress1 on which the figure of ,osiris had been drawn4 ,on this earth was placed1 and in the earth grains of corn had been sown4 ,the corn had sprouted and grown to the height of a few inches before it had withered away4 ,but such symbolism is1 like the similar symbolism of ,christianity1 the result of the doctrine of the resurrection and not the origin of it4 ,it is not till men believe that the human body can rise again from the sleep of corruption1 that the growth of the seed which has been buried in the ground is invoked to explain and confirm their creed4 ,how came this doctrine of the resurrection to be attached to the cult of ,osiris and to become an integral part of ,egyptian belief8 ,there is only one answer that can be given to this3 the doctrine of the resurrection was a necessary accompaniment of the practice of mummification1 and ,osiris was a mummified god4 ,we have already seen that old ,babylonian hymns describe ,asari or ,merodach as the god 8who raises the dead to life40 ,we have also seen that ,osiris was not the only mummified god known in ,egypt4 ,pta of ,memphis was also a mummy2 so too was the mummified ,horus of ,nekhen1 who was worshipped even in the ,delta in the 8,arabian0 nome of ,goshen on the borders of ,asia4 ,whether or not the practice of embalming first originated at ,nekhen1 where it was discovered that bodies buried in the nitrogenous soil of ,el-,kab were preserved undecayed1 it is certain that1 like the art of writing1 it characterised the ,pharaonic ,egyptians from the earliest times4 ,in no other way can we explain the existence among them of their mummified gods4 ,but its adoption by the older races who still formed the bulk of the people was but gradual4 ,it did not become universal before the age of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty4 ,it was not1 however1 the bulk of the people1 but the ruling classes1 who worshipped ,osiris1 and among whom his cult spread and grew4 ,he became for them ,un-nefer1 8the good being10 ready to heal for them even the pains of death1 and to receive them in his realm beyond the grave1 where life and action would be restored to them4 ,the sun shone there as it did here1 for was not ,osiris himself a sun-god8 the fields of the blessed were like those of ,egypt1 except that no sickness or death came near them1 that no blight ever fell on fruit or corn1 that the ,nile never failed1 and that the heat was always tempered by the northern breeze4 ,the 8field of ,alu10 the ,elysion of the ,greeks1 was at first in the marshes of the ,delta near the mouths of the ,nile1 like the paradise of early ,babylonia1 which too was 8at the mouth of the rivers40 ,but it soon migrated to the north-eastern portion of the sky1 and the ,milky ,way became the heavenly ,nile4 ,here the dead lived in perpetual happiness under the rule of ,osiris1 working1 feasting1 reading1 even fighting1 as they would below1 only without pain and eternally47#adb7 ,but1 in order to share in this state of bliss1 it was necessary for the believer in ,osiris to become like the god himself4 ,he must himself be an ,osiris1 according to the ,egyptian expression4 ,his individuality remained intact2 as he had been on earth1 so would he be in heaven4 ,the ,osiris1 in fact1 was a spiritualised body in which the immortal parts of man were all united together4 ,soul and spirit1 heart and double1 all met together in it as they had done when the individual was on earth4 ,it is clear that the doctrine of the ,osiris in its developed form is inconsistent with the idea of the ka4 ,but it is also clear that without the idea of the ka it would never have been formed4 ,both presuppose an individuality separate from the person to which it belongs1 and yet at the same time material1 an individuality which continues after death and manifests itself under the same shape as that which characterised the person in life4 ,the popular conception of the ghost1 which reproduces not only the features but even the dress of the dead1 is analogous4 ,fundamentally the ,osiris is a ka1 but it is a ka which represents not only the outward shape1 but the inner essence as well4 ,the whole man is there1 spiritually1 morally1 intellectually1 as well as corporeally4 ,the doctrine of the ,osiris thus absorbs1 as it were1 the old idea of the ka1 and spiritualises it1 at the same time confining it to the life after death4 ,but if the conception of a double1 unsubstantial and yet materialised1 underlay the belief in the ,osiris1 the practice of embalming was equally responsible for it4 ,the continued existence of the double was dependent on the continued existence of the body1 for the one presupposed the other1 and it was only the mummified body which could continue to exist4 ,as long as the double was believed to haunt the tomb1 and there receive the food and other offerings which were provided for it1 the connection between it and the mummy presented no difficulties4 ,but when the ,egyptian came to look forward to the heaven of ,osiris1 first on this nether earth and then in the skies1 the case was wholly altered4 ,the mummy lay in the tomb1 the immortal counterpart of the man himself was in another and a spiritual world4 ,the result was inevitable3 the follower of ,osiris soon assured himself that one day the mummified body also would have life and action again breathed into it and rejoin its ,osiris in the fields of paradise4 ,had not the god carried thither his divine body as well as its counterpart8 and what the god had done those who had become even as he was could also do4 ,in this way the doctrine of the resurrection of the body became an integral part of the ,osirian faith4 ,the future happiness to which its disciples looked forward was not in absorption into the divinity1 or contemplation of the divine attributes1 or a monotonous existence of passive idleness4 ,they were to live as they had done in this life1 only without sorrow and suffering1 without sin1 and eternally4 ,but all their bodily powers and interests were to remain and be gratified as they could not be in this lower world4 ,the realm over which ,osiris ruled was the idealised reproduction of that ,egypt which the ,egyptian loved so well1 with its sunshine and light1 its broad and life-bearing river1 its fertile fields1 and its busy towns4 ,those who dwelt in it could indeed feast and play1 could lounge in canoes and fish or hunt1 could read tales and poems or write treatises on morality1 could transform themselves into birds that alighted among the thick foliage of the trees2 but they must also work as they had done here1 must cultivate the soil before it would produce its ears of wheat two cubits high1 must submit to the corve and embank the canals4 ,the ,osirian heaven had no place for the idle and inactive4 ,no sooner1 indeed1 had the dead man been pronounced worthy of admittance to it1 than he was called upon to work4 ,at the very outset of his new existence1 before any of its pleasures might be tasted1 he was required to till the ground and guide the plough4 ,this was no hardship to the poor fellah who had spent his life in agricultural labour4 ,but it was otherwise with the rich man whose lands had been cultivated by others1 while he himself had merely enjoyed their produce4 ,in the early days of ,egyptian history1 accordingly1 it was the fashion for the feudal landowner to surround his tomb with the graves of his servants and retainers1 whose bodies were mummified and buried at his expense4 ,what they had performed for him in this world1 it was believed they would perform for him in the world to come4 ,there1 too1 the ,osiris of the fellah would work for the ,osiris of the wealthy1 whose necessary task would thus be performed vicariously4 ,but as time went on a feeling grew up that in the sight of ,osiris all those who were assimilated to him were equal one to the other4 ,between one ,osiris and another the distinctions of rank and station which prevail here were no longer possible4 ,the old conception of the ka came to the help of the believer4 ,the place of the human servant was taken by the ushebti1 that little figure of clay or wood which represented a peasant1 and whose double1 accordingly1 was sent to assist the dead in his tasks above4 ,the human ,osiris1 whatever his lot in this life had been1 was henceforth free from the toils which had once awaited him in the fields of ,alu2 he could look on while the ka of the ushebti performed his work4 ,the ushebti-figures become especially numerous after the expulsion of the ,hyksos4 ,the domination of the foreigner and the long war of independence which put an end to it1 had destroyed the feudal nobility1 and therewith the feudal ideas which regarded mankind as divided1 now and hereafter1 into two classes4 ,from thenceforth the ,egyptians became the democratic people that they still are4 ,as the ,pharaoh on earth ruled a people who before him were all equal1 so between the subjects of ,osiris1 the ,pharaoh in heaven1 no distinctions of rank were known except such as were conferred by himself4 ,the same belief which had substituted the ushebti for the human peasant had filled the tombs with the objects which1 it was thought1 would best please the dead man4 ,besides the meat and drink which had been provided for the ka from time immemorial1 there was now placed beside the mummy everything which it was imagined he would need or desire in the other world4 ,even the books which the dead man had delighted in during his earthly existence were not forgotten4 ,it was not necessary1 however1 that the actual objects should be there4 ,it was the ka only of the object that was wanted1 and that could be furnished by a representation of the object as well as by the object itself4 ,and so1 besides the actual clothes or tools or weapons that are buried in the tombs1 we find imitation clothes and tools1 like the 8ghost-money0 of the ,greeks1 or even paintings on the wall1 which1 so long as the object was correctly depicted in them1 were considered quite sufficient4 ,one of the most touching results of this thorough-going realism has been noticed by ,professor ,wiedemann47#adc7 8,the soles of the feet 7of the mummy7 which had trodden the mire of earth were removed1 in order that the ,osiris might tread the ,hall of ,judgment with pure feet2 and the gods were prayed to grant milk to the ,osiris that he might bathe his feet in it and so assuage the pain which the removal of the soles must needs have caused him4 ,and1 finally1 the soles0 were then placed within the mummy1 that he might find them at hand on the day of resurrection1 and meantime make use of their ka4 ,the doctrine of the resurrection of the body involved also a doctrine of a judgment of the deeds committed by the body4 ,those only were admitted into the kingdom of ,osiris who1 like their leader1 had done good to men4 ,a knowledge of the ,ritual with its divine lore and incantations was not sufficient to unlock its gates4 ,the ,osiris who entered it had to be morally as well as ceremonially pure4 ,osiris was not only a king2 he was a judge also1 and those who appeared before him had to prove that their conduct in this life had been in conformity with one of the highest of the moral codes of antiquity4 ,this moral test of righteousness is the most remarkable fact connected with the ,osirian system of doctrine4 ,the ,egyptian who accepted it was called on to acknowledge that orthodoxy in belief and practice was not sufficient to ensure his future salvation2 it was needful that he should have avoided sin and been actively benevolent as well4 ,unlike most ancient forms of faith1 morality--and that too of a high order--was made an integral part of religion1 and even set above it4 ,it was not so much what a man believed as what he had done that enabled him to pass the awful tribunal of heaven and be admitted to everlasting bliss4 ,the ,book of the ,dead was the guide of the dead man on his journey to the other world4 ,its chapters were inscribed on the rolls buried with the mummy1 or were painted on the coffin and the walls of the tomb4 ,it was the ,ritual which prescribed the prayers and incantations to be repeated in the course of the journey1 and described the enemies to be met with on the other side of the grave4 ,thanks to its instructions1 the dead passed safely through the limbo which divides this earth from the kingdom of ,osiris1 and arrived at last at the ,judgment ,hall1 the hall of the ,twofold ,truth1 where ,mt1 the goddess of truth and law1 received him4 ,here on his judgment throne sat ,osiris1 surrounded by the forty-two assessors of divine justice from the forty-two nomes of ,egypt1 while ,thoth and the other deities of the ,osirian cycle stood near at hand4 ,then the dead man was called upon to show reason why he should be admitted to the fields of ,alu1 and to prove that during his lifetime he had practised mercy and justice and had abstained from evil-doing4 ,the negative confession put into his mouth is one of the most noteworthy relics of ancient literature4 8,praise be to thee 7,o ,osiris710 he was made to say1 8lord of the ,twofold ,truth6 ,praise to thee1 great god1 lord of the ,twofold ,truth6 ,i come to thee1 my lord1 ,i draw near to see thine excellencies47#add7444 ,i have not acted with deceit or done evil to men4 ,i have not oppressed the poor4 ,i have not judged unjustly4 ,i have not known ought of wicked things4 ,i have not committed sin4 ,i have not exacted more work from the labourer than was just4 ,i have not been anxious4 ,i have not been feeble of purpose4 ,i have not defaulted4 ,i have not been niggardly4 ,i have not done what the gods abhor4 ,i have not caused the slave to be ill-treated by his master4 ,i have made none to hunger4 ,i have made none to weep4 ,i have not committed murder4 ,i have not caused any man to be treacherously murdered4 ,i have not dealt treacherously with any one4 ,i have not diminished the offerings of bread in the temples4 ,i have not spoiled the shewbread of the gods4 ,i have not robbed the dead of their loaves and cerecloths4 ,i have not been unchaste4 ,i have not defiled myself in the sanctuary of the god of my city4 ,i have not stinted and been niggardly of offerings4 ,i have not defrauded in weighing the scales4 ,i have not given false weight4 ,i have not taken the milk from the mouth of the child4 ,i have not hunted the cattle in their meadows4 ,i have not netted the birds of the gods4 ,i have not fished in their preserves4 ,i have not kept the water 7from my neighbour7 in the time of inundation4 ,i have not cut off a water channel4 ,i have not extinguished the flame at a wrong time4 ,i have not defrauded the ,ennead of the gods of the choice parts of the victims4 ,i have not driven away the oxen of the temple4 ,i have not driven back a god when he has left the temple4 ,i am pure6 ,i am pure6 ,i am pure607#ade7 ,the negative confession ended1 the dead man turned to the forty-two assessors and pleaded that he was innocent of the particular sin which they had been severally appointed to judge4 ,then he once more addressed ,osiris with a final plea for justification3 8,hail to you1 ye gods who are in the great hall of the ,twofold ,truth1 who have no falsehood in your bosoms1 but who live on truth in ,on1 and feed your hearts upon it before the lord god who dwelleth in his solar disc4 ,deliver me from the ,typhon who feedeth on entrails1 ,o chiefs6 in this hour of supreme judgment2 grant that the deceased may come unto you1 he who hath not sinned1 who hath neither lied1 nor done evil1 nor committed any crime1 who hath not borne false witness1 who hath done nought against himself1 but who liveth on truth1 who feedeth on truth4 ,he hath spread joy on all sides2 men speak of that which he hath done1 and the gods rejoice in it4 ,he hath reconciled the god to him by his love2 he hath given bread to the hungry1 water to the thirsty1 clothing to the naked2 he hath given a boat to the shipwrecked2 he hath offered sacrifices to the gods1 sepulchral meals to the dead4 ,deliver him from himself1 speak not against him before the lord of the dead1 for his mouth is pure and his hands are pure607#adf7 ,meanwhile the heart of the dead man--his conscience1 as we should call it in our modern phraseology--was being weighed in the balance against the image of truth4 ,something more convincing was needed than his own protestation that he had acted uprightly and done no wrong4 ,the heart was placed in the scale by ,thoth1 who1 knowing the weakness of human nature1 inclined the balance a little in its favour4 ,anubis superintended the weighing1 while ,thoth recorded the result4 ,if the verdict were favourable1 he addressed ,osiris in the following words3 8,behold the deceased in this ,hall of the ,twofold ,truth1 his heart hath been weighed in the balance1 in the presence of the great genii1 the lords of ,hades1 and been found true4 ,no trace of earthly impurity hath been found in his heart4 ,now that he leaveth the tribunal true of voice 7justified71 his heart is restored to him1 as well as his eyes and the material cover of his heart1 to be put back in their places1 each in its own time1 his soul in heaven1 his heart in the other world1 as is the custom of the followers of ,horus4 ,henceforth let his body lie in the hands of ,anubis1 who presideth over the tombs2 let him receive offerings at the cemetery in the presence of 7,osiris7 ,un-nefer 7the ,good ,being72 let him be as one of those favourites who follow thee2 let his soul abide where it will in the necropolis of his city1 he whose voice is true before the great ,ennead407#adg7 ,in the judgment-hall of ,osiris we find the first expression of the doctrine which was echoed so many ages later by the ,hebrew prophets1 that what the gods require is mercy and righteousness rather than orthodoxy of belief4 ,and the righteousness and mercy are far-reaching4 ,the faith that is to save the follower of ,osiris is a faith that has led him to feed the hungry1 to give drink to the thirsty1 to clothe the naked1 to abstain from injuring his neighbour in word or thought1 much less in deed1 and to be truthful in both act and speech4 ,even the slave is not forgotten2 to have done anything which has caused him to be ill-treated by his master1 is sufficient to exclude the offender from the delights of paradise4 ,man's duty towards his fellow-man is put on a higher footing even than his duty towards the gods1 for it comes first in the list of righteous actions required from him4 ,it is not until the dead man has proved that he has acted with justice and mercy towards his fellows1 that he is allowed to pass on to prove that he has performed his duty towards the gods4 ,and the ,osirian confession of faith was not a mere conventional formulary1 without influence on the life and conduct of those who professed it4 ,there are already allusions to it in the ,pyramid texts1 and in the tombs of a later period the deceased rests his claim to be remembered upon the good deeds he had done while on earth4 ,to feed the hungry1 to clothe the naked1 and to deal justly1 are duties which are constantly recognised in them4 8,i loved my father10 says ,baba at ,el-,kab1 8,i honoured my mother4444 ,when a famine arose1 lasting many years1 ,i distributed corn to the needy40 ,the ,egyptian sepulchres contain few records of war and battles2 of deeds of kindness and righteous dealing there is frequent mention47#adh7 ,of the fate of the wicked1 of those whose hearts were overweighed in the balance and who failed to pass the tribunal of ,osiris1 we know but little4 ,typhon1 in the form of a hideous hippopotamus1 stood behind ,thoth in a corner of the hall1 ready to devour their entrails4 ,in the ,book of the ,other ,world1 of which ,i shall have to speak in another lecture1 the tortures of the lost are depicted quite in medieval style4 ,we see them plunged in water or burned in the fire1 enclosed in vaulted chambers filled with burning charcoal1 with their heads struck from their necks or their bodies devoured by serpents4 ,but the ,book of the ,other ,world is the ritual of a religious system which was originally distinct from the ,osirian1 and it is probable that most ,egyptians expected the final annihilation of the wicked rather than their continued existence in an eternal hell4 ,the divine elements in man1 which could not die1 were equally incapable of committing sin1 and consequently would return to the ,god who gave them1 when the human individuality to which they had been joined was punished for its offences in the flesh4 ,the soul could remain united only to that individuality which had been purified from all its earthly stains1 and had become as the god ,osiris himself4 ,the individuality which was condemned in the judgment of ,osiris perished eternally1 and in the mind of the ,egyptian the individuality and the individual were one and the same4 ,lecture ,,viii4 ,the ,sacred ,books4 ,like all other organised religions1 that of ancient ,egypt had its sacred books4 ,according to ,st4 ,clement of ,alexandria1 the whole body of sacred literature was contained in a collection of forty-two books1 the origin of which was ascribed to the god ,thoth4 ,the first ten of these 8,hermetic0 volumes were entitled 8the ,prophet10 and dealt with theology in the strictest sense of the term4 ,then followed the ten books of 8the ,stolist10 in which were to be found all directions as to the festivals and processions1 as well as hymns and prayers4 ,next came the fourteen books of 8the ,sacred ,scribe10 containing all that was known about the hieroglyphic system of writing1 and the sciences of geometry and geography1 astronomy1 astrology1 and the like4 ,these were followed by two books on music and hymnology2 and1 finally1 six books on the science and practice of medicine47#adi7 ,the ,hermetic books were written in ,greek1 and were a compilation of the ,greek age4 ,such a systematic epitome of the learning of ancient ,egypt belonged to the period when ,egyptian religion had ceased to be creative1 or even progressive1 and the antiquarian spirit of ,greek ,alexandria had laid hold of the traditions and institutions of the past4 ,but they were derived from genuine sources1 and represented with more or less exactitude the beliefs and practices of earlier generations4 ,they were1 it is true1 a compilation adapted to ,greek ideas and intended to satisfy the demands of ,greek curiosity1 but it is no less true that the materials out of which they were compiled went back to the remotest antiquity4 ,the temple libraries were filled with rolls of papyri relating not only to the minutest details of the temple service1 but also to all the various branches of sacred lore4 ,among these were the books which have been called the ,bibles of the ancient ,egyptians4 ,foremost amongst the latter is the ,ritual to which ,lepsius gave the name of the ,book of the ,dead4 ,it was first discovered by ,champollion in the early days of ,egyptian decipherment1 and a comparative edition of the text current during the ,theban period has been made by ,dr4 ,naville4 ,papyri containing the whole or portions of it are numberless2 the chapters into which it is divided are inscribed on the coffins1 and even on the wrappings of the dead1 as well as on the scarabs and the ushebtis that were buried with the mummy4 ,it was1 in fact1 a sort of passport and guide-book combined in one1 which would carry the dead man in safety through the dangers that confronted him in the other world1 and bring him at last to the judgment-hall of ,osiris and the paradise of ,alu4 ,it described minutely all that awaited him after death2 it detailed the words and prayers that would deliver him from his spiritual enemies2 and it put into his mouth the confession he would have to make before the tribunal of the dead4 ,without it he would have been lost in the strange world to which he journeyed1 and hence the need of inscribing at least some portions of it on his tomb or sepulchral furniture1 where their ghostly doubles could be read by his ka and soul4 ,the ,book of the ,dead was the ,bible or ,prayer-book of the ,osirian creed4 ,its universal use marks the triumph of the worship of ,osiris and of the beliefs that accompanied it4 ,it was for the follower of ,osiris that it was originally compiled2 the judgment with which it threatened him was that of ,osiris1 the heaven to which it led him was the field of ,alu4 ,the ,pyramid texts of the ,fifth and ,sixth ,dynasties imply that it already existed in some shape or other2 the ,osirian creed is known to them in all its details1 and the 8other world0 depicted in them is that of the ,book of the ,dead47#aej7 ,but the ,book of the ,dead is a composite work4 ,not only are the religious conceptions embodied in it composite and sometimes self-contradictory1 on the literary side it is composite also4 ,it was1 moreover1 a work of slow growth2 glosses have been added to it to explain passages which had become obscure through the lapse of time2 the glosses have then made their way into the text1 and themselves become the subject of fresh commentary and explanation4 ,chapters have been inserted1 paragraphs interpolated1 and the later commentary combined with the original text4 ,the ,book of the ,dead as it appears in the age of the ,theban dynasties had already passed through long centuries of growth and modification47#aea7 ,the ,pyramid texts show the same combination of the doctrines of the ,osirian creed with those of the solar cult as the ,book of the ,dead47#aeb7 ,but the combination is that of two mutually exclusive systems of theology which have been brought forcibly side by side without any attempt being made to fuse them into a harmonious whole4 ,they display the usual tendency of the ,egyptian mind to accept the new without discarding the old1 and without troubling to consider how the new and old can be fitted together4 ,it was enough to place them side by side2 those who did not think the ,osirian creed sufficient to ensure salvation1 had the choice of the solar creed offered them with its prayers and incantations to the sun-god4 ,but it was not an alternative choice2 the heaven of the solar bark in its passage through the world of the night was attached to the heaven of ,alu with its fields lighted by the sun of day4 ,it is evident that the chapters which introduce the doctrines of the solar cult are a later addition to the original ,book of the ,dead4 ,that was the text-book of the ,osirian soul1 with whose beliefs the doctrines of the solar cult were absolutely incompatible4 ,while the one taught that the dead1 without distinction1 passed to the judgment-hall of ,osiris1 where1 after being acquitted1 as much on moral as on religious grounds1 they were admitted to a paradise of light and happiness1 the other maintained that only a chosen few1 who were rich and learned enough to be provided with the necessary theological formul1 were received in the solar bark as it glided along the twelve hours of the night1 thus becoming companions of the sun-god in his passage through a realm of darkness that was peopled by demoniac forms4 ,the ,osirian and solar creeds issued from two wholly different religious systems1 and the introduction of conceptions derived from the latter into the ,book of the ,dead1 however subordinate may be the place which they occupy1 indicates a revision of the original work4 ,it was not until the book had gained a predominant position in ,egyptian religious thought that it would have been needful to incorporate into it the ideas of a rival theology4 ,but the incorporation had taken place long before the ,pyramid texts were compiled1 perhaps before the day when ,menes united the two kingdoms of ,egypt into one4 ,there are yet other evidences of a composite theology in the ,book of the ,dead4 ,in one chapter we have the old doctrine of the ,ka confined to the dark and dismal tomb in which its body lies2 in another we see the soul flying whithersoever it will on the wings of a bird1 sitting on the branches of a tree under the shade of the foliage1 or perched on the margin of flowing water4 ,but such theological inconsistencies probably go back to the age when the book was first composed4 ,the conceptions of the ,ka and of the soul1 however inconsistent they may be1 belong to so early a period1 that they lay together at the foundation of ,egyptian religious thought long before the days when an official form of religion had come into existence1 or the ,book of the ,dead had been compiled4 ,in some instances it is possible to fix approximately the period to which particular portions of the book belong4 ,professor ,maspero has shown that the #fdth chapter1 once considered one of the oldest1 is in reality one of the latest in date4 ,it sums up the different formul which enabled the soul of the dead man to quit his body in safety2 and accordingly its title1 which1 however1 varies in different recensions1 is a repetition of that prefixed to the earlier part of the work1 and declares that it makes 8known in a single chapter the chapters relating to going forth from day40 ,according to certain papyri1 it was 8discovered0 either in the reign of ,usaphaes of the ,first ,dynasty or in that of ,men-kau-,ra of the ,fourth ,dynasty1 under the feet of ,thoth in the temple of ,eshmunn1 written in letters of lapis-lazuli on a tablet of alabaster4 ,the details of the 8discovery0 are not sufficiently uniform to allow us to put much confidence in them2 the tradition proves1 however1 that the ,egyptians considered the chapter to be at least as old as the ,fourth ,dynasty2 and the belief is supported by the fact that on the monuments of the ,eleventh ,dynasty it is already an integral part of the book4 ,if1 then1 a chapter which is relatively modern was nevertheless embodied in the book in the age of the earlier dynasties1 we can gain some idea of the antiquity to which the book itself must reach back1 even in its composite form47#aec7 ,the first fifteen chapters1 as ,champollion perceived1 form a complete whole in themselves4 ,in the ,theban texts they are called the 8,chapter of going before the divine tribunal of ,osiris40 ,in the ,saite period this is replaced by the more general title of 8,beginning of the ,chapter of going forth from day407#aed7 ,they describe how the soul can leave its mummy1 can escape forced labour in the other world through the help of the ushebti1 can pass in safety 8over the back of the serpent ,apophis1 the wicked10 and can acquire that 8correctness of voice0 which will enable it to repeat correctly the words of the ritual1 and so enter or leave at will the world beyond the grave4 ,the #aeth chapter is a hymn to the ,sun4 ,the #agth chapter begins a new section4 ,it sums up in a condensed form all that the soul was required to know about the gods and the world to come4 ,but it has been glossed and reglossed until its first form has become almost unrecognisable4 ,the commentary attached to the original passages became in time itself so obscure as to need explanation1 and the chapter now consists of three strata of religious thought and exposition piled one on the top of the other4 ,as it now stands it unites in a common goal the aspirations of the followers of ,osiris and of those of the solar cult2 the dead man is identified with the gods1 and so wends his way to the divine land in which they dwell1 whether that be the fields of ,alu or the bark of the ,sun4 ,the chapters which follow are intended to restore voice1 memory1 and name to the dead man4 ,with the restoration of his name comes the restoration of his individuality1 for that which has no name has no individuality4 ,then follows 7in chapters xxvi4-xxx47 the restoration of his heart1 which is regarded first as a mere organ of the body1 and then in the ,osirian sense as the equivalent of the conscience4 ,as an organ1 the figure of a heart placed in the tomb was sufficient to ensure its return2 as the living conscience and principle of life1 something of a more mysterious and symbolic nature was needed4 ,this was found in the scarab or beetle1 whose name kheper happened to coincide in sound with the word that signified 8to become407#aee7 ,in a series of chapters the soul is now protected against the poisonous serpents1 including 8the great python who devours the ass10 which it will meet with in its passage through the limbo of the other world4 ,as ,professor ,maspero remarks1 the large place occupied by these serpents among the dangers which await the soul on its first exit from the body1 make it plain that in the days when the ,book of the ,dead was first being compiled1 venomous snakes were far more plentiful than they ever have been in the ,egypt of historical times4 ,indeed1 the python1 whose huge folds are still painted on the walls of the royal tombs of ,thebes1 had retired southward long before the age of the ,fourth ,dynasty4 ,to an equally early period we may refer the forty-second chapter1 in which the soul is taught how to escape the slaughter of the enemies of ,horus1 which took place at ,herakleopolis during the ,osirian wars1--a chapter1 however1 in which1 it may be observed1 the elder ,horus is already confounded with the son of ,osiris47#aef7 ,chapters xliv4 to liii4 are occupied in describing how the dead man is thus preserved from 8the second death40 ,illustrations are drawn both from the punishments undergone by the enemies of the sun-god in the story of his passage through the world of night1 and from the old beliefs connected with the lot of the ,ka4 ,he was neither to be beheaded1 nor cast head downwards into the abyss1 nor was he to feed on filth like the ,ka for which no offerings of food had been provided4 ,the dangers from which he is thus preserved are next contrasted with the joys that await him in the paradise of the ,blest 7chs4 liv4-lxiii474 ,the #fdth chapter1 which sums up the preceding part of the book1 and constitutes a break between it and what follows1 has already been considered4 ,the ten chapters which succeed it are all similarly concerned with 8coming forth from the day40 ,they thus traverse the same ground as the first fifteen chapters of the book1 but they deal with the subject in a different way and from a different point of view4 ,they are a fresh proof of the composite character of the work1 and of the desire of its authors to incorporate in it all that had been written on the future life of the soul up to the time of its composition4 ,professor ,maspero believes that they embody the various formul relating to the severance of soul and body which were current in the priestly schools47#aeg7 ,equally separate in tone and spirit are the next six chapters 7lxxv4-xc471 which have emanated from the school of ,heliopolis4 ,they deal with the destiny of the ,ba or 8soul0 rather than with that of the ,osirian1 and describe the transformations which it can undergo if fortified with the words of the ritual4 ,it may at will transform itself into a hawk of gold1 a lotus flower1 the moon-god or ,pta1 even into a viper1 a crocodile1 or a goose4 ,but first it must fly to ,heliopolis and the solar deities who reside there1 and it is in ,heliopolis that its transformation into the god ,pta is to take place4 ,the next chapter1 the #iast1 transports us into a different atmosphere of religious thought4 ,it deals with the reunion of the soul and the body4 ,but the two which follow forbid the ,egyptian to believe that this meant a sojourn of the soul in the tomb4 ,on the contrary1 the soul1 it is said1 is not to be 8imprisoned02 while the #icrd chapter 8opens the gates of the sepulchre to the soul and the shadow 7khaib71 that they may go forth and employ their limbs40 ,and the land to which they were to go was a land of sunlight4 ,from this point onwards the ,book of the ,dead is purely ,osirian in character4 ,but beliefs derived from the solar cult have been allowed to mingle with the ,osirian elements2 thus the bark of the sun-god has been identified with the bark which carried the ,osirian dead to the fields of ,alu1 and ,osiris is even permitted to assign a place to his faithful servants in the boat of ,ra instead of in the paradise over which he himself rules4 ,and the ,osirian elements themselves belong to two different periods or two different schools of thought4 ,in the earlier chapters the paradise of ,osiris is gained like the paradise of ,ra1 by the magical power of the words of the ritual and the offerings made by the friends of the dead2 from the #abeth chapter onwards the test of righteousness is a moral one2 the dead man has to be acquitted by his conscience and the tribunal of ,osiris before he can enter into everlasting bliss4 ,the bark which carried the followers of ,osiris has been explained by the ,pyramid texts4 ,when the dead man had ascended to heaven1 either by the ladder which rose from the earth at ,hermopolis or in some other way1 he found his path barred by a deep lake or canal4 ,according to one myth1 he was carried across it on the wings of the ibis ,thoth1 but the more general belief provided for him the boat of the ferryman ,nu-,urru17#aeh7 the prototype of the ,greek ,charon4 ,the fusion of the ,osirian creed with the solar cult1 however1 caused the boat of ,nu-,urru and the bark of the sun-god to be confounded together1 and accordingly three chapters 7c4-cii47 have been added to that in which the boat of the ,egyptian ,charon is referred to1 8in order to teach the luminous spirit 7khu7 how to enter the bark among the servants of ,ra40 ,in the next chapter1 ,hathor1 8the lady of the west10 is the object of prayer4 ,two chapters 7cv4 and cvi47 are now interpolated from the ritual of ,pta4 ,they take us back to the age when offerings were made to the ka of the dead and not to the gods1 and declare that abundant food should be given it 8each day in ,memphis40 ,they have little to do with the destinies of the ,osirian in the paradise of ,alu4 ,these are once more resumed in the #ajgth chapter3 the fields of ,alu are described1 and the life led by those who enjoy them4 ,with the #abeth chapter we enter the 8,hall of the ,two ,truths10 where ,osiris sits on his throne of judgment1 and the soul is justified or condemned for the deeds it had done in the flesh4 ,it is no longer ceremonial1 but moral purity that is required3 the follower of ,osiris is to be saved not by the words and prayers of the ritual1 however correctly they may be pronounced1 but by his acts and conduct in this lower world4 ,we are transported into a new atmosphere1 in which religion and morality for the first time are united in one3 the teaching of the prophet has taken the place of the teaching of the priest4 ,all the blessings promised to the disciples of other creeds than the ,osirian are now granted to the soul who has passed unscathed through the hall of judgment4 ,not only the fields of ,alu are his1 but the solar bark as well1 to which the school of ,heliopolis looked forward2 even the old belief which confined the ,ka to the narrow precincts of the tomb was not forgotten1 and the #acbnd chapter instructs the ,osirian how to 8wander at will to see his house40 ,like ,osiris himself1 he can take part in the festival of the dead1 and share in the offerings that are presented at it4 ,free access is allowed him to all parts of the other world3 whatever heaven or hell had been imagined in the local sanctuaries of ,egypt was open to him to visit as he would4 ,the later chapters of the ,book of the ,dead take us back to the earth4 ,they are concerned with the mummy and its resting-place1 with the charms and amulets which preserved the body from decay1 or enabled the soul to inspire it once more with life4 ,they form a sort of appendix1 dealing rather with the beliefs and superstitions of the people1 than with the ideas of the theologians1 about the gods and the future life47#aei7 ,the order in which ,i have referred to the chapters of the book are those of the ,theban texts as edited by ,dr4 ,naville4 ,but it must not be supposed that it constitutes an integral part of the original work4 ,as a matter of fact there are very few copies of the book1 even among those which belong to the ,theban period1 in which anything like all the chapters is to be found4 ,indeed1 it is difficult to say how many chapters a complete edition of it ought to contain4 ,pierret made them one hundred and sixty-five2 the latest editors raise them to over two hundred4 ,the reason of this is easy to explain4 ,the separate chapters are for the most part intended for special purposes or special occasions1 and each1 therefore1 has had a separate origin4 ,they have been collected from all sides1 and thrown together with very little attempt at arrangement or order4 ,they belong to different periods of composition and different schools of religious thought3 some of them mount back to the remotest antiquity1 others are probably even later than the foundation of the united monarchy4 ,hence1 as a rule1 only a selection of them was inscribed on the rolls of papyrus that were buried with the dead1 or on the coffin and sepulchral objects deposited in the tomb2 it was only the most important of them that the ,osirian was likely to need in the other world4 ,indeed1 in some cases only the semblance of a text seems to have been thought necessary4 ,the copies made for the dead usually abound with errors1 and some have actually been found in which the text is represented by a number of unmeaning signs4 ,the ,book of the ,dead1 moreover1 was continually growing4 ,the oldest texts are the shortest and most simple1 the latest are the longest and most crowded with chapters4 ,as fresh prayers and formul for protecting the dead in the other world1 or directing them on their journey1 were discovered in the local sanctuaries1 they were added in the form of chapters2 no precaution1 it was felt1 should be omitted which might secure the safety of those who had passed beyond the grave4 ,the ,book of the ,dead was thus a growth1 and a growth it remained4 ,it never underwent the systematic revision which has been the lot of most other sacred books4 ,we look in it in vain for traces of an individual editor4 ,and on this account its form and even its language were never fixed4 ,the prayers and formul it contained were1 it is true1 stereotyped1 for their success depended on their correct recitation2 but beyond this the utmost latitude was allowed in the way of addition or change4 ,a ,masoretic counting of words and syllables would have been inconceivable to the ,egyptian4 ,in later days1 more especially in the ,greek period1 the ,book of the ,dead served as a basis for other religious compositions which claimed divine authorship1 and the authority due to such an origin4 ,of these the most popular was the ,book of ,respirations 7,sh-n-,sensenu71 which derives its inspiration from chapters liv4 to lxiii4 of the ,book of the ,dead1 and is ascribed to the god ,thoth4 ,in anticipation of the apocalyptic literature of the ,jews1 the writer describes the condition of the soul in the next world1 following closely the indications of the old ritual1 and declaring how the 8,respirations0 it contains were first 8made by ,isis for her brother ,osiris to give life to his soul1 to give life to his body1 to rejuvenate all his members anew40 ,the soul of the ,osirian is said to 8live0 by means of the book that is thus provided for him1 for he 8has received the ,book of ,respirations1 that he may breathe with his soul 444 that he may make any transformation at his will 444 that his soul may go wherever it desireth407#afj7 ,we are reminded in these words of the last chapter of the ,book of ,revelation 7xxii4 #g1 #ah1 #ai74 ,the ,book of the ,dead was the oldest of the sacred books of ,egypt4 ,it was also in universal use4 ,whatever other articles of belief he may have held1 the ,egyptian of the historical age was before all things else a follower of ,osiris4 ,it was as an ,osirian that he hoped to traverse the regions that lay beyond the tomb1 and whose geography and inhabitants were revealed to him in the ,osirian ritual4 ,from this point of view1 accordingly1 the ,book of the ,dead may be termed the ,bible of the ,egyptians4 ,but it was not without rivals4 ,we have seen that even in the ,book of the ,dead the heaven of ,osiris is not the only heaven to which the dead may look forward4 ,osiris has a rival in the sun-god1 and a place in the solar bark seems almost as much coveted as a place in the fields of ,alu4 ,the solar cult of ,heliopolis had indeed to yield to the more popular cult of ,osiris1 but it was on condition that the cult of ,osiris recognised and admitted it4 ,to be a follower of ,osiris did not prevent the believing ,egyptian from being also a follower of the god ,ra4 ,in the latter part of the ,theban period the solar cult received a fresh impulse and developed a new life4 ,the attempt of ,khu-n-,aten to establish a new faith1 the outward symbol of which was the solar disc1 was but an indication of the general trend of religious thought1 and the ,asiatic conquests of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty introduced into ,egypt the worship and creed of the sun-god ,baal4 ,one by one the gods were identified with ,ra2 ,amon himself became ,amon-,ra1 and the local deity of ,thebes passed into a pantheistic sun-god4 ,it was under these conditions that a new ritual was compiled for the educated classes of ,egypt1 or at all events was adopted by the religion of the ,state4 ,this was the ,book ,am ,duat1 the ,book of the ,other ,world4 ,copies of it are written on the walls of the dark chambers in the rock-cut labyrinths wherein the kings of the ,nineteenth and ,twentieth ,dynasties were laid to rest4 ,in the tomb of ,seti ,i4 we find two versions1 one in which the text is given in full1 another in which the usual plan is followed of giving only the last five sections completely1 while extracts alone are taken from the first seven4 ,the text is profusely illustrated by pictures1 in order that the dead might have no difficulty in understanding the words of the ritual1 or in recognising the friends and enemies he would meet in the other world4 ,unlike the ,book of the ,dead1 the ,book ,am ,duat is a systematic treatise1 which bears the stamp of individual authorship4 ,it is an apocalypse resting on an astronomical foundation1 and is1 in fact1 a minute and detailed account of the passage of the sun-god along the heavenly river ,ur-nes during the twelve hours of the night4 ,each hour is represented by a separate locality in the world of darkness1 enclosed within gates1 and guarded by fire-breathing serpents and similar monsters4 ,as the bark of the sun-god glides along1 the gates are successively opened by the magical power of the words he utters1 and their guardians receive him in peace4 ,immediately he has passed the gates close behind him1 and the region he has left is once more enveloped in darkness4 ,but though he is thus able to illuminate for the brief space of an hour the several regions of the other world1 it is not as the living sun-god of day that he voyages along the infernal river1 but as 8the flesh of ,ra0--that is to say1 as that mortal part of his nature which alone could die and enter the realm of the dead4 ,the river is a duplicate of the ,nile1 with its strip of bank on either side1 its fields and cities1 even its nomes1 wherein the god1 like the ,pharaoh1 assigns land and duties to his followers4 ,for the followers of ,ra have a very different lot before them from that which awaited the followers of ,osiris4 ,there was no land of everlasting light and happiness to which they could look forward1 nor was their destiny hereafter dependent on their conduct in this life4 ,their supreme end was to accompany the sun-god in his bark as he passed each night through the twelve regions of the dead1 and this could be attained only by a knowledge of the ritual of ,am ,duat and the mystic formul it contained4 ,few1 however1 of those who started with the sun-god on his nocturnal voyage remained with him to the last2 most of them were stopped in the regions through which he passed1 where fields were granted them whose produce they might enjoy1 and where each night for a single hour they formed as it were a bodyguard around the god and lived once more in the light4 ,even the kings of ,upper and ,lower ,egypt were condemned to dwell for ever in this gloomy ,hades1 along with ,osiris and the ,kh or luminous souls of an earlier faith4 ,those who were happy enough by virtue of their knowledge and spells to emerge with ,ra into the dawn of a new day1 henceforth had their home in the solar bark1 and were absorbed into the person of the god4 ,but it was not only the friends and followers of ,ra who thus accompanied him in his journey through the other world2 his enemies were there also1 and the horrible punishments they had to endure1 as depicted on the walls of the royal tombs1 were worthy of the imagination of a ,dante4 ,the banks of the infernal river were lined with strange and terrible monsters1 some of them the older deities and spirits of the popular creed1 others mere creations of symbolism1 others creatures of composite form to whose invention the older mythology contributed4 ,fire-breathing serpents are prominent among them1 lighting up the darkness for the friends of ,ra1 and burning his foes with their poisonous flames47#afa7 ,the artificial character of this picture of the other world is clear at the first glance4 ,with the pedantic attention to details which characterised the ,egyptian1 every part of it has been carefully elaborated4 ,the names and forms of the personages who stand on the banks of the infernal river or enter the boat of ,ra1 as with each successive hour he passes into a new region1 are all given2 even the exact area of each region is stated1 though the measurements do not agree in all the versions of the book4 ,but the best proof of its artificial nature is to be found in a fact first pointed out by ,professor ,maspero4 ,two of the older conceptions of the other world and the life beyond the grave1 which differed essentially from the solar doctrine1 are embedded in it1 but embedded as it were perforce4 ,in the fourth and fifth hours or regions we have a picture of the future life as it was conceived by the worshippers of ,sokaris in the primitive days of ,memphis2 in the sixth and seventh1 the tribunal and paradise of ,osiris4 ,the kingdom of ,sokaris represented that dreary conception of an after-existence which was associated with the ka4 ,like the mummy1 the ka was condemned to live in the dark chamber of the tomb1 whence it crept forth at night to consume the food that had been offered to it1 and without which it was doomed to perish4 ,long before the age when the ,book of ,am ,duat was written1 this primitive belief had passed away from the minds of men2 but the tradition of it still lingered1 and had secured a permanent place in the theological lore of ,egypt4 ,it has accordingly been annexed as it were by the author of the book1 and transformed into two of the regions of the night through which the solar bark has to pass4 ,but the terms in which the kingdom of ,sokaris had been described were too stereotyped to be ignored or altered1 and the solar bark is accordingly made to pass above the primitive ,hades1 the voices of whose inhabitants are heard rising up in an indistinct murmur though their forms are concealed from view4 ,a memory is preserved even of the sandy desert of ,giza and ,saqqra1 where the inhabitants of ,memphis were buried1 and over which ,sokaris ruled as lord of the dead4 ,the realm of ,sokaris is pictured as an enclosure of sand1 flanked on either side by a half-buried sphinx4 ,the author of the ,book of ,am ,duat has dealt with the heaven of ,osiris as he has done with the ,hades of ,sokaris4 ,osiris and his paradise have been transported bodily to the nocturnal path of the sun-god1 and condemned to receive what little light is henceforth allowed them from the nightly passage of the solar bark4 ,thoth guides the bark to the city which contains the tomb of ,osiris1 that mysterious house wherein are the four human forms of the god4 ,on the way the serpent ,neha-hir has to be overcome2 he is but another form of the serpent ,apophis1 the enemy of ,ra1 who thus takes the place of ,set1 the enemy of ,osiris4 ,when the sixth region is passed1 which is a sort of vestibule to the 8retreat0 of ,osiris in the seventh1 other enemies of ,osiris--of whom1 however1 the ,osirian doctrine knew but little--are being put to death in true solar fashion4 ,perhaps the most noteworthy fact in this description of the kingdom of ,osiris is1 that not only all the gods of the ,osirian cycle are relegated to it1 including the hawk ,horus1 but also the ,kh or luminous manes and the ancient kings of ,upper and ,lower ,egypt4 ,the fact points unmistakably to the great antiquity of the ,osirian creed4 ,it went back to a time when as yet the ,egyptian monarchy was not united1 and when the kh or luminous soul held the same place in ,egyptian thought as had been held at an earlier time by the ka and later by the soul or ba4 ,so undoubted was the fact that the old ,pharaohs of primeval ,egypt had died in the ,osirian faith1 that the author of the ,book of ,am ,duat could not disregard it2 he was forced to place the predecessors of a ,seti or a ,ramses1 for whom the book was copied1 in one of the murky regions of the other world instead of in the solar bark4 ,they had been followers of ,osiris and not of ,ra1 and there was accordingly no place for them in the boat of the sun-god4 ,osiris is thus subordinated to the sun4 ,the god of the dead is not allowed to rule even in his own domains4 ,such light and life as are graciously permitted to him come from the passing of the solar bark once in each twenty-four hours4 ,he has lost the bright and happy fields of ,alu1 he has had to quit even the judgment-hall where he decided the lot of man4 ,osiris and his creed are deposed to make way for another god with another and a lower form of doctrine4 ,the fact was so patent1 that a second solar apocalypse was written in order to smooth it away4 ,this was the ,book of the ,gates or of ,hades1 a copy of which is also inscribed in the tomb of ,seti4 ,it differs only in details from the ,book ,am ,duat2 the main outlines of the latter1 with the passage of the solar bark through the twelve hours or regions of the night1 remain unaltered4 ,but the details vary considerably4 ,the gates which shut the hours off one from the other become fortified pylons1 guarded by serpents breathing fire4 ,the ,hades of ,sokaris is suppressed1 and the judgment-hall of ,osiris is introduced between the fifth and sixth hours4 ,the object of the judgment1 however1 seems merely the punishment of the enemies of the god1 who are tied to stakes and finally burned or otherwise put to death in the eighth hour4 ,among them appears ,set in the form of a swine1 who is driven out of the hall of judgment by a cynocephalous ape4 ,as for the righteous1 they are still allowed to cultivate the fields of the kingdom of ,osiris2 but it is a kingdom which is plunged in darkness except during the brief space of time when the bark of the sun-god floats through it4 ,osiris1 nevertheless1 is acknowledged as lord of the world of the dead1 in contradistinction to the ,book ,am ,duat1 which assigns him only a portion of it2 and when the sun-god emerges into the world of light at the end of the twelfth hour1 it is by passing through the hands of ,nut1 the sky1 who stands on the body of ,osiris1 8which encircles the other world40 ,nor is the serpent ,apophis1 the enemy of ,ra1 confounded with ,set2 his overthrow by ,tum takes place in the first hour1 before the tribunal of ,osiris is reached4 ,the theology of the two books resembles the ,taoism of ,china in its identification of religion with the knowledge of magical formul4 ,the moral element which distinguished the ,osirian faith has disappeared1 and salvation is made to depend on the knowledge of a mystical apocalypse4 ,only the rich and cultivated have henceforth a chance of obtaining it4 ,and even for them the prospect was dreary enough4 ,a few--the innermost circle of disciples--might look forward to absorption into the sun-god1 which practically meant a loss of individuality2 for the rest there was only a world of darkness and inaction1 where all that made life enjoyable to the ,egyptian was absent4 ,the author of the ,book of the ,gates gives expression to the fact when he tells us that as the last gate of the other world closes behind the sun-god1 the souls who are left in darkness groan heavily4 ,to such an end had the learned theology of ,egypt brought both the people and their gods6 ,we need not wonder that under the influence of such teaching the intellectual classes fell more and more into a hopeless scepticism1 which saw in death the loss of all that we most prize here below4 ,on the one side1 we have sceptical treatises like the dialogue between the jackal and the ,ethiopian cat1 where the cat1 who represents the old-fashioned orthodoxy1 has by far the worst of the argument27#afb7 on the other side1 the dirge on the death of the wife of the high priest of ,memphis1 which ,i have quoted in an earlier lecture-- 8,the underworld is a land of thick darkness1 ,a sorrowful place for the dead4 ,they sleep1 after their guise1 never to awaken40 ,it was better1 indeed1 that it should be so than that they should awaken only to lead the existence which the ,book of ,am ,duat describes4 ,how far the doctrines of the solar theology extended beyond the narrow circle in which they originated1 it is difficult to say4 ,in the nature of the case they could not become popular1 as they started from an assumption of esoteric knowledge4 ,we know that the majority of the ,egyptians continued to hold to the ,osirian creed up to the last days of paganism--or at all events they professed to do so--and as long as the ,osirian creed was retained the moral element in religion was recognised4 ,in one respect1 however1 the solar theology triumphed4 ,the gods of ,egypt1 including ,osiris himself1 were identified with the sun-god1 and became forms or manifestations of ,ra4 ,egyptian religion became pantheistic2 the divinity was discovered everywhere1 and the shadowy and impersonal forms of the ancient deities were mingled together in hopeless confusion4 ,it seemed hardly to matter which was invoked1 for each was all and all were each4 ,gnosticism was the natural daughter of the solar theology4 ,the doctrine that knowledge is salvation and that the gods of the popular cult are manifestations of the sun-god1 was applied to explain the origin of evil4 ,evil became the result of imperfection and ignorance1 necessarily inherent in matter1 and arising from the fact that the creation is due to the last of a long series of ons or emanations from the supreme ,god4 ,the ons are the legitimate descendants of the manifold deities whom the ,egyptian priests had resolved into forms of ,ra1 while the identification of evil with the necessary imperfection of matter deprives it of a moral element1 and finds a remedy for it in the gnosis or 8knowledge0 of the real nature of things4 ,even the strange monsters and symbolic figures which play so large a part in the solar revelation are reproduced in ,gnosticism4 ,abraxas and the other curiously composite creatures engraved on ,gnostic gems have all sprung from the ,books of ,am ,duat and the ,gates1 along with the allegorical meanings that were read into them4 ,however much the solar school of theology may have been for the old religion of ,egypt a teaching of death1 in the ,gnosticism of the first ,christian centuries it was born anew4 ,lecture ,,ix4 ,the ,popular ,religion ,of ,egypt4 ,thus far ,i have dealt with the official religion of ancient ,egypt1 with the religion of the priests and princes1 the scribes and educated classes4 ,this is naturally the religion of which we know most4 ,the monuments that have come down to us are for the most part literary and architectural1 and enshrine the ideas and beliefs of the cultivated part of the community4 ,the papyri were written for those who could read and write1 the temples were erected at the expense of the ,state1 and the texts and figures with which they were adorned were engraved or painted on their walls under priestly direction4 ,the sculptured and decorated tomb1 the painted mummy-case1 the costly sarcophagus1 the roll of papyrus that was buried with the dead1 were all alike the privilege of the wealthy and the educated4 ,the grave that contained the body of the poor contained little else than the coarse cere-cloths in which it was wrapped4 ,our knowledge1 therefore1 of the religion of the people1 of the popular religion as distinguished from the religion of official orthodoxy1 is1 and must be1 imperfect4 ,we have to gather it from the traces it has left in the religion of the ,state1 from stray references to it in literature1 from a few rare monuments which have come down to us1 from its survivals in the modern folk-lore and superstitions of ,egypt1 or from its influence on the decaying faith of the classical age4 ,there was1 however1 a popular religion by the side of the official religion1 just as there is in all countries which possess an organised faith4 ,and if it is difficult to understand fully the religion of the uneducated classes in ,western ,europe to-day1 or to realise their point of view1 it must be much more difficult to do so in the case of ancient ,egypt4 ,here our materials are scanty1 and the very fact that we know as much as we do about the religion of the upper class makes it additionally harder to estimate them aright4 ,a considerable portion of the fellahin were descended from the earlier neolithic population of ,egypt1 whom the ,pharaonic ,egyptians found already settled in the country4 ,in a former lecture ,i have endeavoured to show that they were fetish-worshippers1 and that among their fetishes animals were especially prominent4 ,they had no priests1 for fetishism is incompatible with a priesthood in the proper sense of the term4 ,neither did they embalm their dead2 all those beliefs and ideas1 therefore1 which were connected with a priesthood and the practice of embalming must have come to them from without2 the gods and sacerdotal colleges of the ,state religion1 the ,osirian creed1 and the belief in the resurrection1 must have been for them of foreign origin4 ,and of foreign origin they doubtless remained to the bulk of the nation down to the last days of paganism4 ,amon and ,ra and ,osiris were indeed familiar names1 the temple festivals were duly observed1 and the processions in honour of the ,state gods duly attended2 and after the age of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty1 when the fusion between the different elements in the population was completed1 the practice of mummification became general2 but the names of the ,state gods were names only1 to which the peasant attached a very different meaning from that which official orthodoxy demanded4 ,he still worshipped the tree whose shady branches arose on the edge of the desert or at the corner of his field1 or brought his offerings to some animal1 in which he saw not a symbol or an incarnation of ,horus and ,sekhet1 but an actual hawk and cat4 ,how deeply rooted this belief in the divinity of animals was in the minds of the people1 is shown by the fact that the ,state religion had to recognise it just as ,mohammed had perforce to recognise the sanctity of the 8,black ,stone0 of the ,kaaba4 ,as we have seen1 the second king of the ,second ,thinite ,dynasty is said to have legalised the worship of the bull ,apis of ,memphis1 ,mnevis of ,heliopolis1 and the ram of ,mendes2 and though the official explanation was that these animals were but incarnations of ,pta and ,ra to whom the worship was really addressed1 it was an explanation about which the people neither knew nor cared4 ,the divine honours they paid to the bulls and ram were paid to the animals themselves1 and not to the gods of the priestly cult4 ,here and there a few evidences have been preserved to us that such was the fact4 ,in the tomb of ,ra-zeser-ka-seneb1 for instance1 at ,thebes1 the artist has introduced a picture of a peasant making his morning prayer to a sycamore which stands at the end of a corn-field1 while offerings of fruit and bread and water are placed on the ground beside it47#afc7 ,the official religion endeavoured to legalise this old tree worship much in the same way as ,christianity endeavoured to legalise the old worship of springs1 by attaching the tree to the service of a god1 and seeing in it one of the forms in which the deity manifested himself4 ,thus 8the sycamore of the south0 became the body of ,hathor1 whose head was depicted appearing from its branches1 while opposite ,sit it was ,hor-pes who took the goddess's place47#afd7 ,like other beliefs and practices which go back to the neolithic population of ,egypt1 the ancient tree worship is not yet extinct4 ,on either side of the ,nile sacred trees are to be found1 under which the offering of bread and water is still set1 though the god of the official cult of ,pharaonic ,egypt1 to whom the worship was nominally paid1 has been succeeded by a ,mohammedan saint4 ,by the side of the tree often rises the white dome of the tomb of a 8shkh10 to whom the place is dedicated1 reminding us of a picture copied by ,wilkinson in a sepulchre at ,h1 in which a small chapel1 representing the tomb of ,osiris1 stands by the side of a tree on whose branches is perched the bennu or phnix47#afe7 ,the most famous of these trees1 however1 that of ,matarya1 is an object of veneration to the ,christian rather than to the ,mohammedan4 ,the ,holy ,family1 it is said1 once rested under its branches during their flight into ,egypt2 in reality it represents a sycamore in which the soul of ,ra of ,heliopolis must have been believed to dwell4 ,professor ,maspero has drawn attention to certain stel in the museum of ,turin1 which show how1 even in the lower middle class1 it was the animal itself and not the official god incarnated in it that was the object of worship4 ,on one of them1 which belongs to the age of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty1 huge figures of a swallow and a cat are painted1 with a table of offerings standing before them1 as well as two kneeling scribes1 while the accompanying inscriptions tell us that it was to 8the good0 swallow and the 8good0 cat1 and not to any of the ,state gods who may have hidden themselves under these animal forms1 that flowers were being offered and prayers made4 ,on another stela we find two pet cats1 who are sitting on a shrine and facing one another1 and whom their mistresses--two of the women who wailed at funerals--adore in precisely the same language as that which was used of ,osiris or ,amon47#aff7 ,in the quarries north of ,qurna is a similar representation of a cow and a cobra1 which stand face to face with a table of offerings between them1 while a worshipper kneels at the side1 and a half-obliterated inscription contains the usual formul of adoration47#afg7 ,still more curious is a stela1 now in the museum of ,cairo1 on which an ox is represented inside a shrine1 while underneath it is a ,greek inscription declaring that the 8,kretan0 who had dedicated the monument could interpret dreams1 thanks to the commandment of 8the god40 ,the god1 it will be noticed1 is not ,apis1 but an ordinary ox4 ,but of all the animals who thus continued to be the real gods of the people in spite of priestly teaching and ,state endowments1 none were so numerous or were so universally feared and venerated as the snakes4 ,the serpent was adored where ,amon was but a name1 and where ,ra was looked upon as belonging1 like fine horses and clothes1 to the rich and the mighty4 ,the prominence of the serpent in ,egyptian mythology and symbolism indicates how plentiful and dangerous it must have been in the early days of ,egypt1 and what a lasting impression it made upon the native mind4 ,when the banks of the ,nile were an uninhabitable morass1 and the neolithic tribes built their huts in the desert1 the snake must indeed have been a formidable danger4 ,the most deadly still frequent the desert2 it is only in the cultivated land that they are comparatively rare4 ,in ,egypt1 as elsewhere1 the cultivation of the soil and the habits of civilised life have diminished their number1 and driven them into the solitudes of the wilderness4 ,but when the ,pharaonic ,egyptians first arrived in the valley of the ,nile1 when the swamps were being drained1 the jungle cleared away1 and the land sown with the wheat of ,babylonia1 the serpent was still one of the perils of daily life4 ,a folk-tale which has been appropriated and spoilt by the priestly compilers of the legend of ,ra1 tells how the sun-god was bitten by a venomous snake which lay in his path1 and how the poison ran through his veins like fire4 ,the symbol of royalty adopted by the earliest ,pharaohs was the cobra2 it symbolised the irresistible might and deadly power of the conquering chieftain which1 like the dreaded cobra of the desert1 overcame the inhabitants of the country1 and compelled them to regard him with the same awe and terror as the serpent itself4 ,down to the last the embalmers and gravediggers and others who had to attend to the funeral arrangements of the dead1 and consequently lived in the neighbourhood of the necropolis1 were more exposed to the chances of snake-bite than the inhabitants of the cultivated land4 ,the necropolis was invariably in the desert1 and the nature of their occupation obliged them to excavate the sand or visit the dark chambers of the dead where the snake glided unseen4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that the veneration of the snake was especially strong among the population of the cemeteries4 ,those who inhabited the necropolis of ,thebes have left us prayers and dedications to the goddess ,mert-seger1 who is represented as a cobra or some equally deadly serpent1 though at times she is decently veiled under the name of an official deity4 ,once her place is taken by two snakes1 at another time by a dozen of them4 ,she was1 in fact1 the tutelary goddess of the necropolis1 and hence received the title of 8the ,western ,crest0--that is to say1 the crest of the western hills1 where the earliest tombs of ,thebes were situated4 ,professor ,maspero has translated an interesting inscription made in her honour by one of the workmen employed in the cemetery4 8,adoration to the ,western ,crest10 it begins1 8prostrations before her double6 ,i make my adoration1 listen6 ,ever since ,i walked on the earth and was an attendant in the ,place of ,truth 7the cemetery71 a man1 ignorant and foolish1 who knew not good from evil1 ,i committed many sins against the goddess of the ,crest1 and she punished me4 ,i was under her hand night and day2 while ,i cowered on the bed like a woman with child1 ,i cried for breath1 and no breath came to me1 for ,i was pursued by the ,western ,crest1 the mightiest of all the gods1 the goddess of the place2 and behold ,i will declare to all1 great and small1 among the workmen of the necropolis3 ,beware of the ,crest1 for there is a lion in her1 and she strikes like a lion that bewitches1 and she is on the track of all who sin against her6 ,so ,i cried to my mistress1 and she came to me as a soft breeze1 she united herself with me1 causing me to feel her hand2 she returned to me in peace1 and made me forget my troubles by giving me breath4 ,for the ,western ,crest is appeased when the cry is made to her2--so says ,nefer-ab1 the justified4 ,he says3 ,behold1 hear1 all ears who live on earth1 beware of the ,western ,crest607#afh7 ,it is clear that ,nefer-ab suffered from asthma1 that he believed it had been inflicted upon him by the local goddess for some sin he had committed against her1 and that he further believed his penitence and cry for help to have induced her to come to him and cure him4 ,and this goddess was a snake4 ,here1 in the necropolis of ,thebes1 therefore1 the snake played the same part as a healer that it did in the worship of ,asklpios4 ,it will be remembered that the first temple raised to sculapius at ,rome was built after a plague1 from which the city was supposed to have been delivered by a serpent hidden in the marshes of the ,tiber4 ,the serpent that destroys also heals2 by the side of ,kakodmon there is also the good snake ,agathodmon4 ,mert-seger1 the serpent of the necropolis1 did not wholly escape the patronage of the ,state religion4 ,like the local cults of aboriginal ,india over which ,bramanism has thrown its mantle1 the cult of ,mert-seger was not left wholly unnoticed by the organised religion of the ,state4 ,a chapel was erected to her in the orthodox form1 and it is from this chapel that most of the stel have come which have revealed the existence of the old worship4 ,in some of them ,mert-seger is identified with ,mut1 or even with ,isis2 but such an identification was never accepted or understood by her illiterate worshippers4 ,for them she continued to be what she had been to their forefathers1 simply a serpent and nothing more4 ,the old faith has survived centuries of ,christianity and ,mohammedanism in a modified form4 ,professor ,maspero discovered that the local ,mohammedan saint1 whose tomb is not far from the ancient chapel of ,mert-seger1 is still believed to work miracles of healing4 ,he has taken the place of the serpent goddess2 that is all47#afi7 ,the serpent1 however1 was not always venerated because it was feared4 ,it lived underground1 and was thus1 in a special sense1 the oldest inhabitant of the land1 and the guardian of the soil4 ,the ,telmessians told ,krsus that it was 8a child of the earth407#agj7 ,the harmless snakes that frequent the village houses of modern ,egypt are still regarded as the 8protectors0 of the household4 ,the bowl of milk is provided for them as regularly as it once was in ,wales for the fairies1 and many tales are told of the punishment a neglect of the household arrs or 8guardian0 will entail4 ,for its poison continues to exist1 though held in reserve1 and is communicable by other means than the fangs4 ,at ,helwn near ,cairo1 for instance1 ,i was told of one of these guardian snakes which once missed its female mate and supposed it had been killed4 ,thereupon it crept into the zr or jar in which water is kept1 and poisoned the water in it4 ,but the female having soon afterwards made its appearance1 it was observed to glide into a basin of milk1 then to crawl along the ground so that the clotted dust might adhere to its body1 and again to enter the zr4 ,as the dust fouled the water1 the people of the house knew that the latter must have been poisoned1 and accordingly poured it on the ground4 ,in this case the snake provided the remedy for the mischief it had the power to cause47#aga7 ,but the ,agathodmon or serpent guardian of the house not only still survives among the fellahin of ,egypt1 serpent worship still holds undiminished sway in the valley of the ,nile4 ,in a crater-like hollow of the mountain cliff of ,shkh ,herd there are two domed tombs1 dedicated not to a ,christian or a ,mohammedan saint1 but to a snake and his female mate4 ,shkh ,herd1 in fact1 is a serpent1 and the place he inhabits is holy ground4 ,pilgrimages are made annually to it1 and the festival of the 8,shkh10 which takes place in the month that follows ,ramadan1 is attended by crowds of sailors and other devout believers1 who encamp for days together in the neighbourhood of the shrine4 ,they have no doubt about the miraculous powers possessed by the snake4 ,it is as thick as a man's thigh1 and1 if treated irreverently1 breathes flames of fire into the face of the spectator1 who immediately dies4 ,if it is cut in pieces1 the pieces reunite of their own accord1 and the blood flowing from them marks a spot where gold is hidden in the ground4 ,paul ,lucas1 in the early part of the eighteenth century1 tells us that in his time it was called 8the angel10 and that shortly before his visit to the ,nile it had cured a woman of ,ekhmm of paralysis1 from which she had suffered for eight years1 by simply crawling up into her litter when she was brought to its dwelling-place4 ,paul ,lucas himself was a witness of its supernatural gifts4 ,it was brought to him by the keeper of the shrine when he was visiting a ,bey on the opposite side of the river4 ,suddenly it disappeared1 and was nowhere to be found2 but a messenger1 who was sent post haste to the shrine1 returned with the information that 8the angel was already there1 and had advanced more than twenty steps to meet the dervish who takes care of it407#agb7 ,norden1 a few years later1 has a similar tale to relate4 ,he was told that the serpent-saint 8never dies10 and that it 8cures and grants favours to all those who implore its aid and offer sacrifices to it40 ,the cures were effected by the mere presence of the snake1 which came in person to those who desired its help4 ,the ,christians1 he adds1 admit the miraculous powers of the ,shkh equally with the ,mohammedans1 only they explain them as due to a demon who clothes himself in a serpent's form47#agc7 ,saint or demon1 however1 ,shkh ,herd is really the lineal descendant of a serpent which has been worshipped in its neighbourhood since the prehistoric days of ,egypt4 ,a bronze serpent with the head of ,zeus ,serapis has been found in the mounds of ,benwt1 on the western side of the ,nile1 which face the entrance to the shrine of the ,shkh2 and the nome in which the shrine is situated was that of ,du-,hefi1 8the mountain of the snake40 ,the serpent of ,shkh ,herd1 with his miraculous powers of healing1 must thus have been already famous in the days when the nomes of ,upper ,egypt first received their names4 ,the old neolithic population of the desert must have already venerated the snake that dwelt in the cleft of the rock above which now rises the sacred 8tomb0 of ,shkh ,herd47#agd7 ,the faith of the people dies hard4 ,the gods and goddesses1 the theology and speculations of the official religion of ,egypt1 have passed away1 but the old beliefs and superstitions which were already in possession of the land when the ,pharaonic ,egyptians first entered it1 have survived both ,christianity and ,mohammedanism4 ,the theological systems of ,heliopolis or ,thebes are like the sacred trees1 which1 according to ,dr4 ,schweinfurth17#age7 were brought from ,southern ,arabia along with the deities with whose cult they were associated2 when the deities themselves ceased to be worshipped1 the trees also ceased to be cultivated1 and so disappeared from a soil wherein they had been but exotics4 ,but the religion of the great mass of the people remained rooted as it were in the soil1 like the palm or the acacia4 ,it flowed like a strong current under the surface of the theology of the ,state1 contemptuously tolerated by the latter1 and in its turn but little affected by it4 ,the theology of the ,state might incorporate and adapt the beliefs of the multitude2 to the multitude the ,state theology was a 8tale of little meaning1 though the words were strong40 ,if we would know what the bulk of the people thought of those deities whom the higher classes regarded as manifestations of a single ineffable and omnipotent divine power1 we must turn to the folk-tales which were taken up and disfigured by the rationalising priests of a later period1 when they combined together in a connected story all that had been said about the gods of the local sanctuaries4 ,each sanctuary came to possess its euhemerising legend of the chief divinity to whom it was consecrated2 the divinity was transformed into an earthly king1 and his history was concocted partly out of popular tales1 associated for the most part with particular relics and charms1 partly from forced etymologies of proper names4 ,at how early a date these artificial legends first came into existence we do not know1 but we already meet with examples of them in the time of the ,nineteenth and ,twentieth ,dynasties4 ,they belong1 however1 to the age when the rationalistic process of resolving the gods into human princes had already begun1--the counter side of the process that had turned the ,pharaoh into a god1--and their artificial character is betrayed by the attempt to extract history from learned but unscientific explanations of the origin of local and other names4 ,here1 for instance1 is one which was compiled for the temple of the sun-god at ,heliopolis1 and is contained in a ,turin papyrus of the age of the ,twentieth ,dynasty3 8,account of the god who created himself1 the creator of heaven1 of earth1 of the gods1 of men1 of wild beasts1 of cattle1 of reptiles1 of fowls1 and of fish2 the king of men and gods1 to whom centuries are but as years2 who possesses numberless names which no man knoweth1 no1 not even the gods4 8,isis was a woman1 more knowing in her malice than millions of men1 clever among millions of the gods1 equal to millions of spirits1 to whom as unto ,ra nothing was unknown either in heaven or upon earth4 8,the god ,ra came each day to sit upon his throne2 he had grown old1 his mouth trembled1 his slaver trickled down to the earth1 and his saliva dropped upon the ground4 ,isis kneaded it with her hand along with the dust that had adhered to it2 she moulded therefrom a sacred serpent1 to which she gave the form of a spear-shaft4 ,she wound it not about her face1 but flung it on the road along which the great god walked1 as often as he wished1 in his twofold kingdom4 8,the venerable god went forth1 the 7other7 gods accompanied him1 he walked along as on other days4 ,then the sacred serpent bit him4 ,the divine god opened his mouth1 and his cry rang to heaven4 ,his ,ennead of gods called3 #8,what is it8' and the gods cried1 #8,look there6' ,he could make no answer1 his jaws chattered1 his limbs shook1 the venom took hold of his flesh as the ,nile covers its banks 7with water74 8,when the heart of the great god was quieted1 he called to his followers3 #8,come to me1 ye children of my limbs1 ye gods who have emanated from me6 ,something painful hath hurt me2 my heart perceiveth it1 yet my eyes see it not2 my hand hath not wrought it1 nothing that ,i have made knoweth what it is1 yet have ,i never tasted suffering like unto it1 and there is no pain which is worse4444 ,i went forth to see what ,i had created1 ,i was walking in the two lands which ,i have made1 when something stung me which ,i knew not4 ,was it fire1 was it water8 ,my heart is in flames1 my limbs tremble1 all my members shiver4 ,let there be brought unto me the children of the gods of beneficent words1 who have understanding mouths1 and whose power reaches unto heaven4' 8,the children of the gods came1 full of woe2 ,isis came with her magic2 with her mouth full of the breath of life1 whose recipes destroy pain1 whose word gives life to the dead4 ,she said3 #8,what is it1 what is it1 ,o father of the gods8 ,a serpent hath wrought this suffering in thee1 one of thy creatures hath lifted up his head against thee4 ,surely he shall be overthrown by beneficent incantations2 ,i will make him retreat at the sight of thy rays4' 8,the holy god opened his mouth3 #8,i walked along the road1 travelling through the two lands of the earth1 after the desire of my heart1 that ,i might see what ,i had created2 then was ,i bitten by a serpent that ,i saw not4 ,is it fire1 is it water8 ,i am colder than water1 ,i am hotter than fire1 all my limbs sweat1 ,i tremble1 my eye is unsteady1 ,i see not the sky1 drops roll from my face as in the season of summer4' 8,isis replied to ,ra3 #8,o tell me thy name1 father of the gods1 then shall he live who is released 7from pain7 by thy name4' ,but ,ra answers3 #8,i have created heaven and earth1 ,i have set the hills in order1 and made all beings that are thereon4 ,i am he who created the water1 and caused the primeval ocean to issue forth4 ,i created the spouse of his 7divine7 mother4 ,i created the heavens and the secrets of the two horizons1 and have ordered the souls of the gods4 ,i am he who illuminates all things at the opening of his eyes2 if he closes his eyes1 all is dark4 ,the water of the ,nile rises when he bids it2 the gods know not his name4 ,i make the hours and create the days1 ,i send the year and create the inundation1 ,i make the fire that lives1 ,i purify the house4 ,i am ,khepera in the morning1 ,ra at noon1 and ,tum at evening4' 8,the venom departed not1 it advanced further1 the great god became no better4 ,then ,isis said to ,ra3 #8,thy name was not pronounced in the words thou hast repeated4 ,tell it to me and the poison will depart2 then shall he live whose name is 7thus7 named4' 8,the poison glowed like fire2 it was hotter than the flame of fire4 ,the majesty of ,ra said3 #8,i grant thee leave that thou shouldest search within me1 ,o mother ,isis6 and that my name pass from my bosom into thine4' 8,so the god hid himself from the 7other7 gods2 his everlasting bark was empty4 ,when the moment arrived for extracting the heart 7whereon the name was written71 ,isis said to her son ,horus3 #8,he must yield up unto thee his two eyes 7the sun and moon74' 8,so the name of the great god was taken from him1 and ,isis1 the great enchantress1 said3 #8,depart1 ,o poison1 leave ,ra3 let the eye of ,horus go forth from the god and shine out of his mouth4 ,i1 ,i have done it2 ,i throw on the earth the victorious poison1 for the name of the great god is extracted from him4 ,let ,ra live and the poison die6' ,so spake ,isis1 the great one1 the regent of the gods1 who knows ,ra and his true name40 ,the writer of the papyrus adds that the recital of this legend is an excellent charm against the poison of a snake1 especially if it is written and dissolved in water1 which is then drunk by the patient2 or if it is inscribed on a piece of linen1 and hung around his neck47#agf7 ,the contrast is striking between the introduction to the legend and the euhemeristic spirit that elsewhere prevails in it1 and can be explained1 even in the case of such disregarders of consistency as the ,egyptians1 only on the supposition that the ,ra of folk-lore and the ,ra of theology were held to be the same merely in name4 ,not even a pretence is made of regarding ,isis as a goddess2 she is simply a common witch1 who resorts to magic in order to force ,ra to hand over his name and therewith his powers to her son ,horus4 ,the virtue of the name1 and the power conferred by a knowledge of it1 are features common to the folk-lore of most countries4 ,they take us back to that primitive phase of thought which not only identifies the name with the person or thing it represents1 but makes it a separate entity with an existence of its own4 ,the legend of the sun-god of ,edfu is equally instructive1 though in its present form it is not earlier than the ,ptolemaic age4 ,this begins as follows3 8,in the three hundred and sixty-third year of the reign of ,ra-,harmakhis1 the ever-living1 ,ra was in ,nubia with his soldiers4 ,enemies1 however1 conspired 7uu7 against him2 hence the country has ever since borne the name of the land of ,conspirators 7,uaua74 ,then the god ,ra went his way in his bark along with his followers1 and landed in the nome of ,edfu4 ,here the god ,hor-,beudet 7the winged disc7 entered the bark of ,ra and said to his father3 #8,o ,harmakhis1 ,i see how the enemy have conspired against their lord4' ,then said the ,majesty of ,ra-,harmakhis to the person of ,hor-,beudet3 #8,o son of ,ra1 exalted one1 who hast emanated from me1 smite the enemy before thee forthwith4' ,hor-,beudet flew up to the sun in the form of a great winged disc2 on that account he is ever since called the great god1 the lord of heaven4 ,he espied the enemy from the sky1 he followed them in the form of a great winged disc4 ,through the attack which he made upon them in front1 their eyes saw no longer1 their ears heard no longer1 each slew his neighbour forthwith1 there remained not one alive4 ,then ,hor-,beudet came in a many-coloured form as a great winged disc into the bark of ,ra-,harmakhis4 ,and ,thoth said to ,ra3 #8,lord of the gods1 the god of ,beudet 7,edfu7 has come in the form of a great winged disc3 from this day forth he shall be called ,hor-,beudet 7,horus of ,edfu74' ,and he said 7again73 #8,from this day forth the city of ,edfu shall be called the city of ,hor-,beudet4' ,then ,ra embraced the form of ,hor1 and said to ,hor-,beudet3 #8,thou makest the water of ,edfu 7red with blood like7 grapes1 and thy heart is rejoiced thereat4' ,hence this water of ,edfu is called 7the water of grapes74 8,and ,hor-,beudet said3 #8,march on1 ,o ,ra1 and behold thine enemies under thy feet in this land4' ,when the ,majesty of ,ra had turned back1 and the goddess ,astart with him1 he saw the enemy lying on the ground1 each extended like a prisoner4 ,then said ,ra to ,hor-,beudet3 #8,that is a suitable life4' ,hence the seat of ,hor-,beudet has ever since been called the place of the ,suitable ,life4 ,and ,thoth said3 #8,it was a piercing 7deb7 of my enemies4' ,so the nome of ,edfu 7,deb7 has been called ever since by that name4 ,and ,thoth said to ,hor-,beudet3 #8,thou art a great protection' 7mk a74 ,great in ,protection 7a mk7 accordingly has the sacred bark of ,horus been ever since called4 8,then ,ra spake to the gods who were with him3 #8,let us voyage 7khen7 in our bark on the ,nile2 we are rejoiced1 for our enemies lie on the ground4' ,the 7canal7 in which the great god was has ever since been called the ,water of ,voyaging 7,pe-khen74 8,then the enemies of ,ra entered the water3 they changed themselves into crocodiles and hippopotamuses4 ,but ,harmakhis voyaged on the water in his bark4 ,when the crocodiles and hippopotamuses came up to him1 they opened their jaws in order to destroy the ,majesty of ,harmakhis4 ,then came ,hor-,beudet with his followers the blacksmiths 7mesniu72 each held an iron lance and chain in his hand1 wherewith he smote the crocodiles and the hippopotamuses4 ,then three hundred and eighty-one of the enemy were brought to the spot1 who had been killed in sight of the city of ,edfu4 8,and ,harmakhis said to ,hor-,beudet3 #8,let my image be in ,southern ,egypt1 since there it is that the victory was gained' 7nekht 74 ,so the dwelling-place of ,hor-,beudet 7at ,edfu7 has ever since been called the ,victorious 7,nekht-74 ,and ,thoth said1 when he had seen the enemy lying on the ground3 #8,glad are your hearts1 ,o gods of heaven2 glad are your hearts1 ,o gods of earth6 ,horus the younger is come in peace2 he has wrought wonders in his journey which he undertook in accordance with the ,book of the ,slaying of the ,hippopotamus4' ,ever since was there 7at ,edfu7 a forge 7mesen7 of ,horus47#agg7 8,hor-,beudet changed his form into that of a winged solar disc1 which remained there above the prow of the bark of ,ea4 ,he took with him ,nekheb1 the goddess of the south1 and ,uazit1 the goddess of the north1 in the form of two serpents1 in order to annihilate the enemy in their crocodile and hippopotamus bodies in every place to which he came1 both in ,southern and in ,northern ,egypt4 8,then the enemy fled before him1 they turned their faces towards the south1 their hearts sank within them from fear4 ,but ,hor-,beudet was behind them in the bark of ,ra1 with an iron lance and chain in his hand4 ,with him were his followers1 armed with weapons and chains4 ,then beheld he the enemy towards the south-east of ,thebes in a plain two schni in size40 ,here follows an account of the several battles which drove the enemies of ,horus from place to place until eventually all ,egypt passed under his sway4 ,the first battle1 that which took place south-east of ,thebes1 was at ,aa-,zadmi1 so called from the 8wounds0 inflicted on the foe1 which henceforth bore the sacred name of ,ht-,ra1 8the ,house of ,ra40 ,the second was at ,neter-khadu1 8the divine carnage10 to the north-east of ,dendera2 the third at ,hebnu1 near ,minia1 in the nome of the ,gazelle2 and others followed at ,oxyrrhynchus or ,benesa1 and ,herakleopolis or ,anas1 where a twofold ,mesen or 8,forge0 was established4 ,then the foe were driven through the ,delta and defeated at ,zaru on its eastern frontier1 whence they fled in ships down the ,red ,sea1 but were finally overthrown at ,shas-er1 near the later ,berenik1 at the end of the road that led across the desert from the ,nile4 ,meanwhile1 on the #gth of ,tybi1 their leader 8,set had come forward and cried horribly1 uttering curses upon the deed of ,hor-,beudet in slaying the enemy4 ,and ,ra said to ,thoth3 #8,the horrible one cries loudly on account of what ,hor-,beudet has done against him4' ,thoth replied to ,ra3 #8,let the cries be called horrible from this day forward4' ,hor-,beudet fought long with ,set2 he flung his iron at him1 he smote him to the ground in the city which henceforward was called ,pa-,reeui 7the ,house of the ,twins747#agh7 ,when ,hor-,beudet returned1 he brought ,set with him2 his spear stuck in his neck1 his chain was on his hand2 the mace of ,horus had smitten him1 and closed his mouth4 ,he brought him before his father ,ra4 8,then ,ra said to ,thoth3 #8,let the companions of ,set be given to ,isis and ,horus her son1 that they may deal with them as they will4'444 ,so ,horus the son of ,isis cut off the head of ,set and his confederates before his father ,ra and all the great ,ennead4 ,he carried him under his feet through the land1 with the axe on his head and in his back40 ,set1 however1 was not slain4 ,he transformed himself into a serpent1 and the battles succeeded which ended with the victory at ,shas-er in the land of ,uaua4 ,after this 8,harmakhis came in his bark and landed at ,thes-,hor 7the ,throne of ,horus or ,edfu74 ,and ,thoth said3 #8,the dispenser of rays who cometh forth from ,ra has conquered the enemy in his form 7of a winged disc72 let him be named henceforward the dispenser of rays who cometh forth from the horizon4' ,and ,ra said to ,thoth3 #8,bring this sun 7the winged disk7 to every place where ,i am1 to the seats of the gods in ,southern ,egypt1 to the seats of the gods in ,northern ,egypt1 7to the seats of the gods7 in the other world1 that it may drive all evil from its neighbourhood4' ,thoth brought it accordingly to all places1 as many as exist where there are gods and goddesses4 ,it is the winged solar disc which is placed over the sanctuaries of all gods and goddesses in ,egypt1 since these sanctuaries are also that of ,hor-,beudet407#agi7 ,the legend is a curious combination of the traditions relative to the conquest of the neolithic population by the ,pharaonic ,egyptians1 of the myth of ,osiris1 of etymological speculations about the meaning of certain proper names1 and of an attempt to explain the origin of the winged solar disc4 ,we may gather from it that the disc was first used as an ornament at ,edfu1 and that it was believed1 like the winged bulls of ,assyria1 to have the power of preventing the demons of evil from passing the door over which it was placed4 ,whether1 however1 this was one of the superstitions of the older people1 or whether it was brought by the conquerors from their ,babylonian home1 is doubtful2 perhaps the fact that the disc was a symbolic and architectural ornament1 and was confined1 so far as we know1 to the temples of the official gods1 points in the latter direction4 ,it is otherwise with the temple relics mentioned in a legend which has been preserved on a granite shrine of the ,ptolemaic epoch1 that long served as a water-trough by the side of the well at ,el-,arsh4 ,the temple from which it originally came was that of ,at-,nebes1 the sacred name of the city of ,qesem or ,goshen1 now ,saft el-,henna4 ,the legend begins by describing the reign of ,shu1 who fortified ,at-,nebes against 8the children of ,apophis10 the ,semites of 8the red desert10 who came from the ,east 8at nightfall upon the road of ,at-,nebes0 to invade ,egypt4 ,here he dwelt in his palace1 and from hence he 8ascended into heaven10 when he had grown old and the time had come for him to die4 ,he was succeeded by his son ,seb1 who 8discussed the history of the city with the gods who attended him1 7and they told him7 all that happened when the ,majesty of ,ra was in ,at-,nebes1 the conflicts of the king ,tum in this locality1 the valour of the ,majesty of ,shu in this city 444 7and the wonders that7 the serpent-goddess ,ankhet had done for ,ra when he was with her2 the victories of the ,majesty of ,shu1 smiting the evil ones1 when he placed her upon his brow4 ,then said the ,majesty of ,seb3 #8,i also 7will place7 her upon my head1 even as my father ,shu did4' ,seb entered the temple of ,aart 7,lock of ,hair7 together with the gods that were with him2 then he stretched forth his hand to take the casket in which 7,ankhet7 was2 the serpent came forth and breathed its vapour on the ,majesty of ,seb1 confounding him greatly2 those who followed him fell dead1 and his ,majesty himself was burned in that day4 ,when his ,majesty had fled to the north of ,at-,nebes1 with the fire of the cobra upon him1 behold1 when he came to the fields of henna1 the pain of his burn was not yet assuaged1 and the gods who followed him said unto him3 #8,come1 let them take the lock 7aart7 of ,ra which is there1 when thy ,majesty shall go to see it and its mystery1 and his ,majesty shall be healed 7as soon as it is placed7 upon thee4' ,so the ,majesty of ,seb caused the magic lock of hair to be brought to ,pa-,aart 7the ,house of the ,lock71 for which was made that reliquary of hard stone which is hidden in the secret place of ,pa-,aart1 in the district of the divine lock of the god ,ra2 and behold the fire departed from the limbs of the ,majesty of ,seb4 ,and many years afterwards1 when this lock of hair was brought back to ,pa-,aart in ,at-,nebes1 and cast into the great lake of ,pa-,aart1 whose name is the ,dwelling of ,waves1 in order that it might be purified1 behold the lock became a crocodile2 it flew to the water and became ,sebek1 the divine crocodile of ,at-,nebes407#ahj7 ,inside the shrine is a picture of the two relics1 the cobra which adorned the head-dress of the ,pharaoh1 and the aart or lock of hair which was supposed to give its name to the temple4 ,they were doubtless preserved at ,at-,nebes1 and shown to the faithful as the veritable objects which had proved the bane and the antidote of the god ,seb4 ,they introduce us to a side of ,egyptian religion which1 though essentially characteristic of the popular faith1 had also received the sanction of the official creed4 ,the belief in amulets and charms was too deeply engrained in the popular mind to be ignored2 they were consequently taken under the patronage of the gods1 and a theory was invented to explain their efficacy4 ,already the later chapters of the ,book of the ,dead are concerned with the various amulets which were necessary to the preservation or resuscitation of the body2 and even if the latter were regarded as symbolic1 they were concrete symbols--symbols1 that is to say1 which actually possessed the virtues ascribed to them4 ,just as the name was a concrete entity1 expressive of the very essence of the thing to which it was applied1 so too the symbol was an entity with a concrete existence of its own4 ,the materialistic tendency of ,egyptian thought1 added to the fetishism of the earlier stratum of native religion1 produced this result4 ,the doctrine of the ,ka furnished a theory by which the educated classes could explain the efficacy of the amulet and the active virtues of the symbol4 ,it was the ,ka1 the spiritual and yet materialised double1 of the amulet that worked the charm--that made the scarab1 for instance1 a substitute for the living heart1 or the dad--the symbol of stability--a passport to the other world47#aha7 ,the amulets buried with the dead1 the relics preserved in the temples1 had originally been the fetishes of the earlier population of ,egypt4 ,they hardly changed their character when they became symbols endowed with mysterious properties1 or relics of the ,state gods which still possessed miraculous powers4 ,the peasant might be told in the ritual of ,amon3 in 8the sanctuary of the god clamour is an abomination to him3 pray for thyself with a loving heart1 in which the words remain hidden2 that he may supply thy need1 hear thy words and accept thine offering027#ahb7 but it was a teaching that was far above him4 ,when he entered the sanctuary it was to see the processions of the priests and the relics preserved in it1 and it was in these relics that he still put his trust4 ,it was not only in ,ethiopia that there were moving and speaking statues which elected the king by taking him by the hand2 in ,thebes itself1 under the priestly kings of the ,twentieth ,dynasty1 we find wonder-working statues whose reality was guaranteed by the priesthood4 ,one of them1 it was said1 was sent to ,asia1 where it delivered a king's daughter from the demon that possessed her1 and afterwards returned in a moment to ,thebes of its own accord2 while others answered the questions addressed to them by nodding the head1 or even pronounced prophecies regarding the future47#ahc7 ,indeed1 as we have seen1 the old theory of the ka implied that the statue of the dead man could be reanimated in a sense by his spirit2 and a text at ,dendera speaks of the soul of ,hathor descending from heaven as a human-headed hawk of lapis-lazuli1 and uniting itself with her image4 ,the peasant1 therefore1 might be excused if he remained true to the superstitions and traditions of his ancestors1 and left the official religion1 with its one ineffable god1 to those who were cultured enough to understand it4 ,like the peasant of modern ,italy1 he was content with a divinity that he could see and handle1 and about whose wonder-working powers he had no doubt4 ,materialism is the basis of primitive religion2 the horizon of primitive man is limited1 and he has not yet learnt to separate thought from the senses through which alone his narrow world is known to him4 ,the simple faith of a child often wears a very materialistic form4 ,lecture ,x4 ,the ,place ,of ,egyptian ,religion ,in ,the ,history ,of ,theology4 ,in the preceding lectures ,i have endeavoured to bring before you the more salient points in the religion of the ancient ,egyptians1 in so far as they illustrate their conception of the divine4 ,but we must remember that all such descriptions of ancient belief must be approximate only4 ,we cannot put ourselves in the position of those who held it2 our inherited experiences1 our racial tendencies1 our education and religious ideas1 all alike forbid it4 ,if the ,egyptians of the ,theban period found it difficult to understand the ritual of their own earlier history1 and misinterpreted the expressions and allusions in it1 how much more difficult must it be for us to do so4 ,the most ordinary religious terms do not bear for us the same meaning that they bore for the ,egyptians4 ,the name of ,god calls up other associations and ideas2 the very word 8divine0 has a different signification in the ancient and the modern world among ,eastern and ,western peoples4 ,in fact1 the more literal is our translation of an old religious text1 the more likely we are to misunderstand it4 ,and yet in one sense we are the religious heirs of the builders and founders of the ,egyptian temples4 ,many of the theories of ,egyptian religion1 modified and transformed no doubt1 have penetrated into the theology of ,christian ,europe1 and form1 as it were1 part of the woof in the web of modern religious thought4 ,christian theology was largely organised and nurtured in the schools of ,alexandria1 and ,alexandria was not only the meeting-place of ,east and ,west1 it was also the place where the decrepit theology of ,egypt was revivified by contact with the speculative philosophy of ,greece4 ,the ,egyptian1 the ,greek1 and the ,jew met there on equal terms1 and the result was a theological system in which each had his share4 ,in ,philo1 we are told1 we find ,moses ,platonising2 but the atmosphere in which he did so was that of the old ,egyptian faith4 ,and what was true of the philosophy of ,philo was still more true of the philosophy of ,alexandrine ,christianity4 ,you cannot but have been struck by the similarity of the ancient ,egyptian theory of the spiritual part of man to that which underlies so much ,christian speculation on the subject1 and which still pervades the popular theology of to-day4 ,there is the same distinction between soul and spirit1 the same belief in the resurrection of a material body1 and in a heaven which is but a glorified counterpart of our own earth4 ,perhaps1 however1 the indebtedness of ,christian theological theory to ancient ,egyptian dogma is nowhere more striking than in the doctrine of the ,trinity4 ,the very terms used of it by ,christian theologians meet us again in the inscriptions and papyri of ,egypt4 ,professor ,maspero has attempted to show that the ,egyptian doctrine of the ,trinity was posterior to that of the ,ennead47#ahd7 ,whether this were so or not1 it makes its appearance at an early date in ,egyptian theology1 and was already recognised in the ,pyramid texts4 ,originally the trinity was a triad like those we find in ,babylonian mythology4 ,here and there the primitive triads survived into historical times1 like that of ,khnum and the two goddesses of the ,cataract4 ,but more frequently the trinity was an artificial creation1 the formation of which can still be traced4 ,thus at ,thebes the female element in it was found in ,mut1 8the mother0 goddess1 a title of the supreme goddess of ,upper ,egypt2 while ,khonsu1 the moon-god1 or ,mentu1 the old god of the nome1 became the divine son1 and so took a place subordinate to that of the local god ,amon4 ,sometimes recourse was had to grammar1 and the second person in the trinity was obtained by attaching the feminine suffix to the name of the chief god4 ,in this way ,amon-t was grammatically evolved from ,amon1 and even ,ra-t from ,ra4 ,elsewhere an epithet of the god was transformed into his son2 at ,memphis1 for example1 ,imhotep1 8he who comes in peace10 a title of ,pta1 became his son and the second person in the trinity4 ,other members of the trinity were fetched from neighbouring cities and nomes2 ,nit of ,sais had ,osiris as a husband1 and ,sekhet of ,letopolis and ,bast of ,bubastis were successively regarded as the wives of ,pta4 ,the triad consisted of a divine father1 wife1 and son4 ,it was thus a counterpart of the human family1 and belonged to the same order of ideas as that which explained the creation of the world by a process of generation4 ,this was the cosmology of ,heliopolis1 and it is probable that to ,heliopolis also we must ascribe the doctrine of the ,trinity4 ,at any rate the doctrine seems to have been solar in its origin4 ,as ,tum1 the god of sunset1 was identical with ,khepera1 the sun of the morning1 and ,ra1 the sun of the noonday1--all three being but one god under diverse forms1--so the divine father was believed to engender himself in the person of the divine son1 and the divine mother to be one with the divine father and son4 ,the divine essence remained necessarily the same1 whatever might be the forms or names under which it displayed itself2 and the name1 it must be remembered1 had for the ,egyptian a separate and real existence4 ,the father became the son and the son the father through all time1 and of both alike the mother was but another form4 ,it was eternal fatherhood1 eternal motherhood1 and eternal generation4 ,the development of the doctrine was assisted by that identification of the ,egyptian deities with the sun-god which ended in solar pantheism1 as well as by the old theory of the ka1 of a personality distinguishable from that to which it belonged1 identical with that of which it was the double1 and yet at the same time enjoying an independent existence of its own4 ,with the spread of the ,osirian form of faith the doctrine of the ,trinity became universal throughout ,egypt4 ,the organisation of the faith had included the reduction of the cycle of divinities connected with ,osiris into a trinity4 ,thoth and ,anubis1 ,nebht and ,set1 were separated from him1 and henceforth he was made the head of a triad1 in which ,isis was the second person1 and ,horus1 the avenger of his father1 was the third4 ,how completely the father and son were merged together may be seen from a hymn to ,horus which has been translated by ,chabas7#ahe7-- 8,the gods are joyous at the arrival of ,osiris1 the son of ,horus1 the intrepid1 the truth-speaking1 the son of ,isis1 the heir of ,osiris4 ,the divine chiefs join him1 the gods recognise the omnipotent child himself 444 the reign of justice belongs to him4 ,horus has found his justification1 to him is given the title of his father2 he appears with the atef-crown by order of ,seb4 ,he takes the royalty of the two worlds1 the crown of ,upper ,egypt is placed upon his head4 ,he judges the world as he likes1 heaven and earth are beneath his eye1 he commands mankind--the intellectual beings1 the race of the ,egyptians and the northern barbarians4 ,the circuit of the solar disc is under his control2 the winds1 the waters1 the wood of the plants1 and all vegetables4444 ,sanctifying1 beneficent is his name 444 evil flies afar off1 and the earth brings forth abundantly under her lord4 ,justice is confirmed by its lord1 who chases away iniquity4 ,mild is thy heart1 ,o 7,osiris7 ,un-nefer1 son of ,isis2 he has taken the crown of ,upper ,egypt2 for him is acknowleged the authority of his father in the great dwelling of ,seb2 he is ,ra when speaking1 ,thoth when writing2 the divine chiefs are at rest40 ,here ,osiris is identified with ,horus1 and so becomes the son of his own wife4 ,the ,egyptian trinity has thus grown out of the triad under the influence of the solar theology1 and of the old conception of a personality which possessed a concrete form4 ,once introduced into the ,osirian creed1 it spread with it throughout ,egypt1 and became a distinguishing feature of ,egyptian theology4 ,along with the doctrines of the resurrection of the body and of a judgment to come1 it passed into the schools of ,alexandria1 and was there thrown into the crucible of ,greek philosophy4 ,the ,platonic doctrine of ideas was adapted to the ,egyptian doctrine of personality1 and the three persons of the trinity became ,unity1 ,mind1 and ,soul--absolute thought1 absolute reason1 and absolute energy47#ahf7 ,but while1 on the one hand1 there is continuity between the religious thought of ancient ,egypt and the religious thought of the world of to-day1 there is also continuity1 on the other hand1 between the religion of ,egypt and that of primitive ,babylonia4 ,in the course of these lectures ,i have more than once pointed to the fact3 the ,pharaonic ,egyptians were of ,asiatic origin and they necessarily brought with them the religious ideas of their ,eastern home4 ,as we come to know more both of early ,babylonian civilisation and of the beginnings of ,egyptian history1 we shall doubtless discover that the links between them are closer than we at present imagine1 and much that is now obscure will become clear and distinct4 ,meanwhile there is one link which ,i cannot pass over4 ,astro-theology once played a considerable part in the religion of the ,egyptians4 ,in the historical age it has lost its importance2 the stars have been identified with the official deities1 who have accordingly absorbed their individual attributes2 but echoes of the worship formerly paid to them are still heard in the ,pyramid texts4 ,sau or ,orion is still remembered as a mighty hunter1 whose hunting-ground was the plain of heaven1 and whose prey were the gods themselves4 ,when he rises1 it is said in the ,pyramid of ,unas1 8the stars fight together1 and the archers patrol0 the sky which drops with rain2 the smaller stars which form his constellation pursue and lasso the gods as the human hunter lassoes the wild bull2 they slay and disembowel their booty1 and boil the flesh in glowing caldrons4 ,the 8greater gods0 are hunted 8in the morning10 those of less account at mid-day1 the 8lesser gods0 8at evening1 and ,sau refreshes himself with the divine banquet10 feeding on their bodies and absorbing 8their magic virtues40 8,the great ones of the sky0 launch 8the flames against the caldrons wherein are the haunches of the followers0 of the gods2 the pole-star1 8who causes the dwellers in the sky to march in procession round0 ,orion1 8throws into the caldron the legs of their wives407#ahg7 ,we are transported to the cannibal's kitchen of some ,african chieftain1 such as that represented on a curious stela found in ,darfr1 and now in the museum of ,constantinople4 ,the whole description takes us back to a period in the history of ,egypt long anterior to that of the ,pyramids1 when the ,pharaonic invaders were first beginning to mingle with the older population of the land and become acquainted with its practices4 ,in the days of ,unas the real meaning of the expressions handed down by theological conservatism had been forgotten1 or was interpreted metaphorically2 but they remained to prove that the age when ,orion was still an object of worship superior to the gods of heaven was one which went back to the very dawn of ,pharaonic history4 ,the cult of the stars must have been brought by 8the followers of ,horus0 from their ,asiatic home47#ahh7 ,the fame of ,orion was eclipsed in later days by that of ,sopd or ,sirius4 ,but this had its reason in the physio-graphical peculiarities of ,egypt4 ,the heliacal rising of ,sirius1 the ,dog ,star1 that is to say1 its first appearance along with the sun1 corresponded with the rise of the ,nile in ,upper ,egypt1 and accordingly became a mark of time1 and the starting-point of the solar year4 ,its importance therefore was great1 not only for the calendar1 but also for those agricultural operations upon which the very existence of ,egypt depended4 ,we need not wonder1 accordingly1 if with the settlement of the ,pharaonic ,egyptians in the valley of the ,nile the worship and name of ,orion fell more and more into the background1 while that of ,sirius became pre-eminent4 ,how far back the pre-eminence of ,sirius reaches may be gathered from the fact that the twentieth nome of ,northern ,egypt--that of ,goshen--derived its name from a combination of the mummified hawk of ,horus and the cone which1 as ,brugsch first showed17#ahi7 represents the shaft of zodiacal light that accompanies the rising of ,sirius before the dawn of day4 ,sopd or ,sirius is thus identified with the dead ,horus who presided over ,nekhen in ,upper ,egypt1 and preceded ,osiris as the god of the dead47#aij7 ,of the other stars and constellations we do not know much4 ,the ,great ,bear was called 8the haunch of beef10 and was at times identified with ,set1 and made the abode of the souls of the wicked4 ,not far off was the hippopotamus1 which ,brugsch would identify with ,draco2 while among other constellations were to be found the ,lion and the ,horus-hawk1 as well as a warrior armed with a spear4 ,all over the world the more prominent stars and constellations have received names4 ,but it is only the more prominent and brilliant among them of which this is true4 ,so far as we know1 the only people who have ever systematically mapped out the heavens1 dividing the stars into groups1 and giving to each group a name of its own1 were the ,babylonians2 and it was from the ,babylonians that the constellations as known to ,greeks and ,romans1 to ,hindus1 or to ,chinese1 were ultimately derived4 ,the inference1 therefore1 is near at hand1 that the primitive ,egyptians also were indebted for their map of the sky to the same source4 ,and the inference is supported by more than one fact4 ,on the one side1 the names of several of the constellations were the same among both ,babylonians and ,egyptians4 ,of this the ,twins1 ,aquarius1 or the ,family1 are examples1 while it can hardly be an accident that ,orion in both systems of astronomy is a giant and a hunter4 8,the ,bull of heaven0 was a ,babylonian star1 and ,jupiter bore the ,sumerian name of ,gudi-bir1 8the ,bull of light02 in the ,pyramid texts also we have a 8,bull of heaven10 the planet ,saturn according to ,brugsch1 ,jupiter according to ,lepsius4 ,still more striking are the thirty-six ,egyptian decans1 the stars who watched for ten days each over the #cfj days of the ancient ,egyptian year1 and were divided into two classes or hemispheres1 those of the day and those of the night47#aia7 ,not only did the early ,chaldan year similarly consist of #cfj days2 it too was presided over by thirty-six 8councillor0 stars1 half of which were above the earth1 while the other half were below it47#aib7 ,such a coincidence cannot have been accidental2 the ,babylonian and ,egyptian decans must have had the same origin4 ,but there was yet a further parallelism between the stellar theology of ,egypt and that of ,babylonia4 ,in both countries the worship of the stars passed into an astro-theology4 ,the official gods were identified with the planets and fixed stars1 and the stellar cult of the people was thus absorbed into the ,state religion4 ,but whereas this astro-theology was characteristic of ,babylonia1 it has done little more than leave its traces on the historical religion of ,egypt4 ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 and ,mars were identified with ,horus under different forms1 and ,mercury with ,set1 while ,venus became 8the bark 7za77#aic7 of the phnix0 or soul 8of ,osiris40 ,sirius was made the star of ,isis1 ,orion the star of ,osiris4 ,but1 like the cult of the stars itself1 this astro-theology belongs to a far-off age in ,egyptian history4 ,it is the last faint reflection of a phase of religious thought which had passed away when the monumental records first begin4 ,it is the same with a curious echo of ancient ,babylonian cosmology1 to which ,prof4 ,hommel has drawn our attention4 ,the old ,babylonian ,epic of the ,creation begins with the words-- 8,at that time the heaven above was not known by name1 the earth beneath was not named1 in the beginning the deep was their generator1 the chaos of the sea was the mother of them all40 ,the lines are the introduction to a story of the ,creation of which they form an integral part4 ,on the walls of the ,pyramid of ,pepi ,i4 we read again almost the same words4 ,pepi1 it is said1 8was born of his father ,tum4 ,at that time the heaven was not1 the earth was not1 men did not exist1 the gods were not born1 there was no death407#aid7 ,but here the words have been introduced without connection with the context2 they cohere neither with what precedes nor with what follows them1 and are evidently nothing but an old formula torn from the cosmogony to which they once belonged1 and repeated without a clear understanding of what they really meant4 ,the phrases are found again in the later religious literature of ,egypt1 embedded in it like flies in amber or the fossils in an old sea-beach47#aie7 ,to recover their original meaning we must betake ourselves to the clay tablets of ,assyria and ,babylonia1 and the cosmological theories of early ,chalda4 ,they presuppose that story of a creation out of the chaos of the deep which was indigenous in ,babylonia alone4 ,this deep1 which lay at the foundation of ,babylonian cosmology1 was symbolised in the temples by a 8sea0 across which the images of the gods were carried in 8ships0 on their days of festival4 ,in ,babylonia such 8seas0 had a reason for their existence4 ,the ,persian ,gulf1 it was believed1 was the cradle of ,babylonian culture2 it was also the source of that cosmogony which saw in the deep the 8mother0 of all things4 ,that it should have its mimic representatives in the temples of the country was but natural2 it was from the 8deep0 that the gods had come1 and the deep was still the home of the culture-god ,ea47#aif7 ,in ,egypt1 on the other hand1 the sea was out of place nay more1 it was altogether unnatural4 ,if water were needed1 the sacred ,nile flowed at the foot of the temple or else there were canals which conducted the waters of the river through the temple lands4 ,there was no primeval deep to be symbolised1 no ,persian ,gulf out of which the culture-god had risen with the gifts of civilisation4 ,if the gods desired to sail in their barks1 it was reasonable to suppose that they would do so on the ,nile or its tributary canals4 ,and yet the supposition would be wrong4 ,the gods had indeed their sacred 8ships0 as in ,babylonia2 but1 as in ,babylonia1 it was on an artificially-constructed lake that they floated1 and not1 as a rule1 on the river ,nile4 ,could anything indicate more clearly the origin of the religious beliefs and practices of the ,pharaonic ,egyptians8 ,like the brick tombs of the ,old ,empire1 with their recessed panels and pilasters1 it points to ,babylonia and the cosmological theories which had their birth in the ,babylonian plain47#aig7 ,the religion of ancient ,egypt is thus no isolated fact4 ,it links itself1 on the one hand1 with the beliefs and religious conceptions of the present1 and1 on the other hand1 with those of a yet older past4 ,but it is a linking only2 ,egyptian religion is no more the religion of ancient ,babylonia than it is modern ,christianity4 ,in ,egypt it assumed a form peculiar to itself1 adapting itself to the superstitions and habits of the earlier inhabitants of the land1 and developing the ideas which lay latent within it4 ,it was characterised by the inexorable logic with which each of these ideas was followed to its minutest conclusions1 and at the same time by the want of any attempt to harmonise these conclusions one with the other1 however inconsistent they might be4 ,it was also characterised by a spirit of creativeness2 the ,egyptian created new religious conceptions because he was not afraid to follow his premisses to their end4 ,but he was intensely practical4 ,abstractions as such had little attraction for him1 and he translated them into material form4 ,the symbolism of his system of writing favoured the process3 even such an abstract idea as that of 8becoming0 became for him a 8transformation0 or 8change of outward shape40 ,in spite1 therefore1 of the spirituality and profundity of much of his theology1 his religion remained essentially materialistic4 ,the gods might indeed pass one into the other and be but the manifold forms under which the ever-changing divine essence manifested itself1 but this was because it was one with nature and the infinite variety which nature displays4 ,even the supreme god of ,khu-n-,aten incorporated himself at it were in the visible orb of the sun4 ,the incarnation of the deity accordingly presented no difficulty to the ,egyptian mind4 ,it followed necessarily from the fundamental principles of his creed4 ,the divinity which permeated the whole of nature revealed itself more clearly than elsewhere in that which possessed life4 ,egyptian religious thought never quite shook itself free from the influences of the primitive belief that life and motion were the same4 ,whatever moves possesses life1 whatever lives must move2--such was1 and still is1 one of the axioms of primitive man4 ,and since the deity manifested itself in movement1 it could be recognised in whatever was alive4 ,man on the one side became a god in the person of the ,pharaoh1 the gods on the other side became men who had lived and died like ,osiris1 or had ruled over ,egypt in the days of old4 ,even the ordinary man contained within him a particle or effluence of the divine essence which could never die2 and the bodily husk in which it was incarnated could1 under certain conditions1 acquire the properties of that divinity to which it had afforded a home4 ,that the divine essence could thus assume an individual form1 was part of the doctrine which saw1 in the manifold varieties of nature1 the manifestations of a 8single god40 ,the belief in the incarnation of the deity was a necessary consequence of a materialistic pantheism4 ,and it mattered little whether the incarnation took place under a human or under an animal shape2 the human and the animal god had alike been a heritage from elements which1 diverse though they may have been in origin1 combined to form the ,egyptian people1 and both the man and the beast were alike living and therefore divine4 ,the beast was more mysterious than the man1 that was all2 the workings of its mind were more difficult to comprehend1 and the language it spoke was more unintelligible4 ,but on that very account it was better adapted for the symbolism which literature and education encouraged1 and which became an essential part of the texture of ,egyptian thought4 ,if1 then1 we would understand the conception of the divine formed by the educated ,egyptian of the historical age1 we must remember the characteristics of ,egyptian thought which lay behind it4 ,materialism and symbolism constituted the background of ,egyptian religion4 ,the one presupposed the other1 for the symbol presented the abstract idea in a material and visible shape1 while the materialism of the ,egyptian mind demanded something concrete which the senses could apprehend4 ,the conception of the ka1 with which ,egyptian religion begins1 is characteristic of ,egyptian religious thought up to the last4 ,it is like the 8materialised spirits0 of modern spiritualism1 spirits which are merely matter in an etherialised form4 ,the ,egyptian gave not only shape but substance to his mental and spiritual creations2 like the 8ideas0 of ,plato1 they became sensuous realities like the written symbols which expressed them4 ,not only were the name and the thing never dissociated from one another1 the name was looked on as the essence of the thing1 and the name included its expression in both sound and writing4 ,the bird which represented the idea of 8soul0 became in time the soul itself4 ,this very fact assisted in spiritualising ,egyptian religion4 ,ideas and their symbols interchange one with the other2 the ideas1 moreover1 develop and pass out of one form into another4 ,the identification1 therefore1 of the abstract and the concrete1 of ideas and substantial existence1 made a pantheistic conception of the universe easy4 ,the divinity clothed itself in as many forms as there were symbols to express it1 and these forms passed one into the other like phases of thought4 ,the ,egyptian was the first discoverer of the term 8becoming10 and the keynote of his creed was the doctrine of transformation4 ,transformation1 it must be remembered1 is not transmigration4 ,there was no passage of an individual soul from body to body1 from form to form2 the divine essence permeated all bodies and forms alike1 though it manifested itself at a given moment only under certain ones4 ,it was in this power of manifestation that the transformation consisted4 ,had the ,egyptian not been fettered by his materialistic symbolism1 he would doubtless have gone further and concluded that the various manifestations of the divinity were subjective only--existing1 that is to say1 only in the mind of the observer2 as it was1 he held them to be objective1 and to possess the same substantial reality as the symbolic pictures by which they were denoted4 ,with all this1 however1 there was no severe literalism in the interpretation of the symbol4 ,whatever may have been the case at the outset1 the symbol was as much a metaphor in the historical ages of ,egyptian history as are the metaphors of our own language4 ,when the ,egyptian spoke of 8eating0 his god1 he meant no more than we do when we speak of 8absorbing0 a subject47#aih7 ,the ,pyramid texts are full of such faded and forgotten metaphors2 the ,egyptian was conservative above all other men1 and the language of religion is conservative above all others4 ,doubtless1 in some cases1 he was the victim of the symbols and metaphors he used2 but in this respect he does not stand alone4 ,where he has no rival is in the magnitude of the part played in his religion by the symbol and its logical development4 ,it was just this symbolism which enabled him to retain1 on the one hand1 all the old formul with their gross materialism and childlike views of the universe1 and1 on the other hand1 to attain to a conception of the divine being which was at once spiritual and sublime4 ,for ,egyptian religion1 as we find it in the monuments of the educated classes before the decay of the monarchy1 was1 in spite of its outward show of symbols and amulets1 full of high thoughts and deep emotions4 ,i cannot do better than quote the words in which it is described by one of its least prejudiced students1 ,professor ,maspero37#aii7 8,when we put aside the popular superstitions and endeavour solely to ascertain its fundamental doctrines1 we soon recognise that few religions have been so exalted in their principles4 ,the ,egyptians adored a being who was unique1 perfect1 endowed with absolute knowledge and intelligence1 and incomprehensible to such an extent that it passes man's powers to state in what he is incomprehensible4 ,he is #8the one of one1 he who exists essentially1 the only one who lives substantially1 the sole generator in heaven and earth1 who is not himself generated4' ,always the same1 always immutable in his immutable perfection1 always present in the past as in the future1 he fills the universe without any form in the world being able to give even a feeble idea of his immensity2 he is felt everywhere1 he is perceived nowhere4 8,unique in essence1 he is not unique in person4 ,he is father because he exists1 and the force of his nature is such that he is eternally begetting1 without ever growing weak or exhausted4 ,he has no need to go outside himself for this act of generation2 he finds in his own bosom the material of his perpetual fatherhood4 ,alone in the plenitude of his being he conceives his offspring2 and as in him there can be no distinction between conception and birth1 from all eternity #8he produces in himself another self4' ,he is at once the divine father1 mother1 and son4 ,conceived of ,god1 born of ,god1 without separating from ,god1 these three persons are ,god in ,god1 and1 far from dividing the primitive unity of the divine nature1 they all three combine to constitute his infinite perfection4 8,doubtless the mind of the uneducated classes could neither understand nor rise to such lofty heights4 ,human intelligence supports with difficulty so pure an idea of an absolute being4 ,all the attributes of divinity--his immensity1 his eternity1 his independence--place him at an infinite distance from ourselves2 to comprehend and participate in them1 we must make him think as we think1 we must lend him our passions and subject him to our laws4 ,god must take upon him1 with human nature1 all the weaknesses that accompany it1 all the infirmities under which it labours2 in a word1 the ,word must become flesh4 ,the immaterial god must incarnate himself1 must come to the land of ,egypt and people it with the gods1 his children4 ,each of the persons of the primitive trinity thus became independent and formed a new type1 from which1 in their turn1 other lower types emanated4 ,from trinity to trinity1 from personification to personification1 that truly incredible number of divinities was soon reached1 with forms sometimes grotesque and often monstrous1 who descended by almost insensible degrees from the highest to the lowest ranks of nature4 ,the scribes1 the priests1 the officials1 all the educated world1 in fact1 of ,egyptian society1 never professed that gross paganism which caused ,egypt to be called with justice #8the mother of superstitions4' ,the various names and innumerable forms attributed by the multitude to as many distinct and independent divinities1 were for them merely names and forms of one and the same being4 #8,god1 when he comes as a generator1 and brings to light the latent forces of the hidden causes1 is called ,ammon2 when he is the spirit who embodies all that is intelligent1 he is ,imhotep2 when he is he who accomplishes all things with art and verity1 he is ,phthah2 when he is ,god good and beneficent1 he is ,osiris4' ,what the scribe means by these words is the mysterious infinite which animates the universe1 the eternal1 impenetrable to eyes of flesh1 but perceived vaguely by the eyes of the spirit4 ,behind the sensuous appearance1 behind the manifestation of the divine nature wherein the popular imagination fancied it saw that nature itself1 he beheld confusedly a being obscure and sublime1 a full comprehension of whom is denied him1 and the feeling of this incomprehensible presence lends to his prayer a deep and thrilling accent1 a sincerity of thought and emotion1 a thousand times more touching than that medley of amorous puerilities1 of mystic languors and morbid contrition1 which is so often the substitute for religious poetry40 ,there were two deep-rooted conceptions in the ,egyptian mind which had much to do with the purity and sublimity of his religious ideas4 ,one of these was the conception of a divine law which governed the universe1 and to which the gods themselves had to submit4 ,the other was that of a moral ,god1 of a 8good being0 who rewarded--not piety but--uprightness1 and punished iniquity4 ,the world was ordered and controlled1 not by chance or caprice1 but by a fixed law1 which was1 characteristically enough1 impersonated in the goddess ,mt4 ,and this law1 unlike the blind destiny of the ,greek or ,roman1 was at once divine and moral2 it not only represented the order of the universe1 against which there was no appeal1 but it also represented an order which was in accordance with justice and truth4 ,the law which all must obey under penalty of being cast into outer darkness1 was an intelligent and moral law2 it commended itself necessarily and instinctively to all intelligent beings whose thoughts1 words1 and deeds were alike righteous4 ,only those who had conformed to it could be admitted after death into the paradise of ,osiris or into the company of the gods1 and the seal of justification was the pronouncement that the dead man had 8spoken the truth10 and that his confession in the judgment-hall of ,osiris had been in agreement with the truth and with the eternal order of the universe4 ,of the moral character of the ,osirian creed ,i have already spoken4 ,it is the first official recognition by religion that what ,god requires is uprightness of conduct and not ceremonial orthodoxy1 the first identification of religion with morality4 ,and the god who required this uprightness of conduct was not a 8lord of hosts10 who compelled adoration by the display of his power1 but ,un-nefer1 8the good being10 who existed in order to do good to men4 ,in the conflict with evil he had apparently been worsted2 but though he had died a shameful death1 his disciples believed that it had been endured on their behalf1 and that for those who followed in his footsteps1 and whose lives resembled his1 he had provided a better and a happier ,egypt in another world1 into which sin and pain and death could not enter1 and where he ruled eternally over the cities and fields of the blest4 ,in the ,osirian creed1 writer after writer has discovered 8fore-gleams0 of ,christianity more striking even than the doctrine of the ,trinity1 which belongs to the philosophy of faith4 ,but there is nothing wonderful in the continuity of religious thought4 ,one of the chief lessons impressed upon us by the science of the century which has just passed away1 is that of continuity2 throughout the world of nature there is no break1 no isolated link in the long chain of antecedent and consequent1 and still less is there any in the world of thought4 ,development is but another name for the continuity which binds the past to the present with stronger fetters than those of destiny4 ,it is not only the philosophy of ,christianity1 or the wider and more general doctrines of its creed1 which find an echo in the religion of ancient ,egypt2 in details also ,egypt is linked with the modern world4 ,long before the ,hebrew prophets pictured the kingdom of the ,messiah1 an ,egyptian poet1 in the reign of ,thothmes ,,iii41 had said3 8,a king shall come from the south1 ,ameni1 the truth-declaring1 by name4 ,he shall be the son of a woman of ,nubia1 and will be born in the south4444 ,he shall assume the crown of ,upper ,egypt1 and lift up the red crown of the north4 ,he shall unite the double crown4444 ,the people of the age of the son of man shall rejoice and establish his name for all eternity4 ,they shall be removed far from evil1 and the wicked shall humble their mouths for fear of him4 ,the ,asiatics shall fall before his blows1 and the ,libyans before his flame4 ,the wicked shall wait on his judgments1 the rebels on his power4 ,the royal serpent on his brow shall pacify the revolted4 ,a wall shall be built1 even that of the prince1 that the ,asiatics may no more enter into ,egypt407#bjj7 ,yet more striking is the belief in the virgin-birth of the god ,pharaoh1 which goes back at least to the time of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty4 ,on the western wall of one of the chambers in the southern portion of the temple of ,luxor1 ,champollion first noticed that the birth of ,amon-hotep ,,iii4 is portrayed4 ,the inscriptions and scenes which describe it have since been copied1 and we learn from them that he had no human father2 ,amon himself descended from heaven and became the father of the future king4 ,his mother was still a virgin when the god of ,thebes 8incarnated himself10 so that she might 8behold him in his divine form40 ,and then the hieroglyphic record continues with words that are put into the mouth of the god4 8,amon-hotep10 he is made to say1 8is the name of the son who is in thy womb4 ,he shall grow up according to the words that proceed out of thy mouth4 ,he shall exercise sovereignty and righteousness in this land unto its very end4 ,my soul is in him1 7and7 he shall wear the twofold crown of royalty1 ruling the two worlds like the sun for ever407#bja7 ,but ,amon-hotep ,,iii4 was not the first of whom it had been said that his father was a god4 ,fragments of a similar text have been found by ,dr4 ,naville at ,dr el-,bhar1 from which we may gather that queen ,hatshepsu also claimed to have been born of ,amon4 ,how much further back in ,egyptian history the belief may go we do not know3 the kings of the ,fifth and ,sixth ,dynasties called themselves sons of the sun-god1 and the ,theban monarchs whose virgin-mothers were wedded to ,amon1 incarnate in the flesh1 did but work out the old conception in a more detailed and definite way4 ,it was given to the ,egyptians to be one among the few inventive races of mankind4 ,they were pioneers of civilisation2 above all1 they were the inventors of religious ideas4 ,the ideas1 it is true1 were not self-evolved2 they presupposed beliefs which had been bequeathed by the past2 but their logical development and the forms which they assumed were the work of the ,egyptian people4 ,we owe to them the chief moulds into which religious thought has since been thrown4 ,the doctrines of emanation1 of a trinity wherein one god manifests himself in three persons1 of absolute thought as the underlying and permanent substance of all things1 all go back to the priestly philosophers of ,egypt4 ,gnosticism and ,alexandrianism1 the speculations of ,christian metaphysic and the philosophy of ,hegel1 have their roots in the valley of the ,nile4 ,the ,egyptian thinkers themselves1 indeed1 never enjoyed the full fruition of the ideas they had created2 their eyes were blinded by the symbolism which had guided their first efforts1 their sight was dulled by overmuch reverence for the past1 and the materialism which came of a contentment with this life4 ,they ended in the scepticism of despair or the prosaic superstitions of a decadent age4 ,but the task which dropped from their hands was taken up by others2 the seeds which they had sown were not allowed to wither1 and1 like the elements of our culture and civilisation1 the elements also of our modes of religious thought may be traced back to the 8dwellers on the ,nile40 ,we are heirs of the civilised past1 and a goodly portion of that civilised past was the creation of ancient ,egypt4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,the ,,religion ,,of ,,the ,,babylonians4 ,lecture ,i4 ,introductory4 ,it is now fourteen years ago since ,i delivered a course of lectures for the ,hibbert ,trustees on the religion of the ancient ,babylonians4 ,the subject at that time was almost untouched2 even such materials as were then accessible had been hardly noticed1 and no attempt had been made to analyse or reduce them to order1 much less to draw up a systematic account of ancient ,babylonian religion4 ,it was necessary to lay the very foundations of the study before it could be undertaken1 to fix the characteristic features of the ,babylonian faith and the lines along which it had developed1 and1 above all1 to distinguish the different elements of which it was composed4 ,the published texts did not suffice for such a work2 they needed to be supplemented from that great mass of unpublished cuneiform documents with which the rooms of our museums are filled4 ,my lectures were necessarily provisional and preliminary only1 and ,i had to content myself with erecting a scaffold on which others might build4 ,the time had not yet come for writing a systematic description of ,babylonian religion1 and of the phases through which it passed during the long centuries of its existence4 ,nor has the time come yet4 ,the best proof of this is the unsatisfactory nature of the attempts that have recently been made to accomplish the task4 ,our evidence is still too scanty and imperfect1 the gaps in it are too numerous1 to make anything of the sort possible4 ,our knowledge of the religious beliefs of ,babylonia and ,assyria is at best only piecemeal4 ,now and again we have inscriptions which illustrate the belief of a particular epoch or of a particular class1 or which throw light on a particular side of the official or popular religions2 but such rays of light are intermittent1 and they penetrate the darkness only to be succeeded by a deeper obscurity than before4 ,all we can hope to do is to discover the leading conceptions which underlay the religion of ,babylonia in its various forms1 to determine and distinguish the chief elements that went to create it1 and to picture those aspects of it on which our documentary materials cast the most light4 ,but anything like a systematic description of ,babylonian religion will for many years to come be altogether out of the question2 it must wait until the buried libraries of ,chalda have been excavated1 and all their contents studied4 ,we are but at the beginning of discoveries1 and the belief that our present conclusions are final is the belief of ignorance4 ,as ,i pointed out in my ,hibbert ,lectures1 the first endeavour of the student of ancient ,babylonian religion must be to distinguish between the ,semitic and non-,semitic elements embodied in it4 ,and before we can do this we must also distinguish between the ,semitic and non-,semitic elements in our sources of information4 ,this was the principal task to which ,i applied myself1 and the failure to recognise the necessity of it has been the main cause of the little progress that has been made in the study of the subject4 ,since ,i wrote the means for undertaking the task with success have been multiplied2 thanks to the excavations of the ,french and ,american explorers1 the pre-,semitic world of ,babylonia has been opened out to us in a way of which we could not have dreamed2 and numberless texts have been found which belong to the early days of ,sumerian or non-,semitic culture4 ,we are no longer confined to the editions of ,sumerian texts made in later times by ,semitic scribes2 we now have before us the actual inscriptions which were engraved when ,sumerian princes still ruled the land1 and the ,sumerian language was still spoken by their subjects4 ,we can read in them the names of the gods they worshipped1 and the prayers which they offered to the spirits of heaven4 ,the materials are at last at hand for determining in some measure what is ,sumerian and what is ,semitic1 and what again may be regarded as a mixture or amalgamation of both4 ,but though the materials are at hand1 it will be long before they can all be examined1 much less thoroughly criticised4 ,i cannot emphasise too strongly the provisional and imperfect character of our present knowledge of ,babylonian literature4 ,thousands of tablets are lying in the museums of ,europe and ,america1 which it will take years of hard work on the part of many students to copy and read4 ,at ,tello17#bjb7 ,m4 de ,sarzec found a library of more than #cj1jjj tablets1 which go back to the days of the priest-king ,gudea2 and the great temple of ,bel at ,nippur in ,northern ,babylonia has yielded five times as many more to the ,american excavators4 ,other excavations by natives or ,turkish officials have at the same time brought to light multitudinous tablets from other ancient sites1--from ,jokha1 near the ,shatt el-,hai1 and from the ruins of the temple of ,nebo at ,borsippa4 ,it is true that a large proportion of these tablets are contracts and similar business documents1 but they contain much that is of importance not only for the social history of ,babylonia1 but for its religious history as well4 ,meanwhile the vast number of texts which have come from the mounds of ,nineveh and ,sippara is still but imperfectly known2 it is only within the last three years that the catalogue of the ,kouyunjik collection of tablets1 which have been in the ,british ,museum for almost half a century1 has been at last completed in five portly volumes2 and there still remain the numberless tablets from ,babylonia which line the ,museum shelves4 ,and even of what has been catalogued there is much which has not yet been fully copied or examined4 ,the ,british ,museum1 moreover1 is no longer the sole repository of ,babylonian literature4 ,the ,louvre1 the ,berlin ,museum1 and the ,american ,university of ,pennsylvania1 are equally filled with the clay tablets of the ,babylonian scribes2 while the collection in the ,museum of ,constantinople far exceeds those which have been formed elsewhere4 ,even private individuals have their collections of larger or less extent2 that of ,lord ,amherst of ,hackney1 for example1 would have made the fortune of one of the great museums of the world but a few years ago4 ,it is evident that it will be long before more than a fraction of this vast and ever-accumulating literature can be adequately studied4 ,and what adds to the difficulty is that it is still increasing year by year4 ,at present there are as many as three exploring expeditions in ,babylonia4 ,m4 de ,sarzec's successor on behalf of the ,french ,government is still carrying on work at ,tello1 the ancient ,lagas1 which was begun as far back as #ahgg2 the ,americans are continuing their excavations at ,nippur1 where1 ever since #ahhh1 they have been excavating for the first time on a thoroughly systematic and scientific plan2 and now the ,germans have commenced work at ,babylon itself1 and have already fixed the site of the temple of ,bel-,merodach and of that palace of ,nebuchadrezzar in which ,alexander the ,great died47#bjc7 ,even while ,i am writing1 the news has come of the discovery of a great library at ,nippur1 which seems to have been buried under the ruins of the building in which it was kept as far back as the ,abrahamic age4 ,the mounds in which it has been found lie to the south-west of the great temple of ,bel4 ,already nearly #bj1jjj tablets have been rescued from it1 and it is calculated that at least #acj1jjj are yet to be disinterred4 ,the tablets lie in order upon the clay shelves on which they were arranged in the days of ,khammurabi1 the ,amraphel of ,genesis27#bjd7 and1 so far as they have been examined by ,professor ,hilprecht1 it would appear that they relate to all the various branches of knowledge which were known and studied at the time4 ,history1 chronology1 religion and literature1 philology and law1 are all alike represented in them4 ,when we remember that the catastrophe which overwhelmed them occurred more than two thousand years before the ,christian era1 we may well ask what new and unexpected information the future has in store for us1 and hesitate about coming to conclusions which the discovery of to-morrow may overthrow4 ,we know but a tithe of what the monuments of ,babylonia have yet to reveal to us1 and much that we seem to know to-day will be profoundly modified by the knowledge we shall hereafter possess4 ,the imperfection of his materials places the student of ,babylonian religion at a greater disadvantage than the student of ,babylonian history or social life4 ,the facts once obtained in the field of history or of social life remain permanently secured2 the theories based upon them may have to be changed1 but the facts themselves have been acquired by science once for all4 ,but a religious fact is to a large extent a matter of interpretation1 and the interpretation depends upon the amount of the evidence at our disposal as well as upon the character of the evidence itself4 ,moreover1 the history of religion is a history of spiritual and intellectual development2 it deals with ideas and dogmas which shift and change with the process of the ages1 and take as it were the colour of each succeeding century4 ,the history of religion transports us out of what ,german metaphysicians would call the 8objective0 world into the 8subjective0 world of thought and belief2 it is not sufficient to know the literal meaning of its technical terms1 or the mere order and arrangement of its rites and ceremonies2 we have to discover what were the religious conceptions that were connected with the terms1 and the dogmas that underlay the performance of a particular rite4 ,a mere barren list of divine names and titles1 or even the assurance that theology had identified certain gods with one another1 will not carry us very far2 at most they are but the dry bones of a theological system1 which must be made to live before they can tell us what that system actually was4 ,the study of ancient ,babylonian religion is thus beset with many difficulties4 ,our materials are imperfect1 and yet at the same time are perpetually growing2 the religious system to which they relate is a combination of two widely different forms of faith1 characteristic of two entirely different races2 and before we can understand it properly1 we must separate the elements of which it consists1 and assign to each their chronological position4 ,the very fact1 however1 that religious texts are usually of immemorial antiquity1 and that changes inevitably pass over them as they are handed down in successive editions1 makes such a task peculiarly difficult4 ,nevertheless it is a task which must be undertaken before we have the right to draw a conclusion from the texts with which we deal4 ,we must first know whether they are originally ,sumerian or ,semitic1 or whether they belong to the age when ,sumerian and ,semitic were fused in one2 whether1 again1 they are composite or the products of a single author and epoch2 whether1 lastly1 they have been glossed and interpolated1 and their primitive meaning transformed4 ,we must have a chronology for our documents as well as an ethnology1 and beware of transforming ,sumerian into ,semitic1 or ,semitic into ,sumerian1 or of interpreting the creations of one age as if they were the creations of another4 ,the critical examination of the texts must precede every attempt to write an account of ,babylonian religion1 if the account is to be of permanent value4 ,unfortunately we have nothing in ,babylonia that corresponds with the ,pyramid texts of ,egypt4 ,we have no body of doctrine which1 in its existing form1 is coeval with the early days of the monarchy1 and can accordingly be compared with the religious belief and the religious books of a later time4 ,the ,pyramid texts have enabled us to penetrate behind the classical age of ,egyptian religion1 and so trace the development of many of the dogmas which distinguished the faith of later epochs2 it is possible that similarly early records of the official creed may yet be discovered in ,babylonia2 but up to the present nothing of the sort has been found4 ,we are confined there to the texts which have passed through the hands of countless editors and scribes1 or else to such references to religious beliefs and worship as can be extracted from the inscriptions of kings and priests4 ,the sacred books of ,babylonia are known to us only in the form which they finally assumed4 ,the ,babylonian religion with which we are acquainted is that official theology in which the older ,sumerian and ,semitic elements were combined together and worked into an elaborate system4 ,to distinguish the elements one from the other1 and discover the beliefs and conceptions which underlie them1 is a task of infinite labour and complexity4 ,but it is a task which cannot be shirked if we would even begin to understand the nature of ,babylonian religion1 and the fundamental ideas upon which it rested4 ,we must analyse and reconstruct1 must compare and classify and piece together as best we may1 the fragments of belief and practice that have come down to us4 ,above all1 we must beware of confusing the old with the new1 of confounding ,sumerian with ,semitic1 or of ascribing to an earlier epoch the conceptions of a later time4 ,the picture will be at most but a blurred and mutilated one4 ,but its main outlines can be fixed1 and with the progress of discovery and research they will be more and more filled in4 ,and the importance of the picture lies in the fact that ,babylonian religion exercised a profound influence not only over the lands immediately adjoining the ,babylonian plain1 but over the whole of ,western ,asia as well4 ,long before the days of ,abraham1 ,canaan was a ,babylonian province1 obeying ,babylonian law1 reading ,babylonian books1 and writing in ,babylonian characters4 ,along with ,babylonian culture necessarily came also the religion of ,babylonia and the theological or cosmogonic dogmas which accompanied it4 ,abraham himself was born in a ,babylonian city1 and the religion of his descendants was nurtured in an atmosphere of ,babylonian thought4 ,the ,mosaic ,law shows almost as clear evidences of ,babylonian influence as do the earlier chapters of ,genesis4 ,recent discoveries have gone far towards lifting the veil that has hitherto covered the beginnings of ,babylonian history4 ,we have been carried back to a time when the ,edin or 8plain0 of ,babylonia was still in great measure a marsh1 and the waters of the ,persian ,gulf extended #abj miles farther inland than they do to-day4 ,if we take the rate at which the land has grown since the days of ,alexander the ,great as a basis of measurement1 this would have been from eight to nine thousand years ago4 ,at this time there were already two great sanctuaries in the country1 around each of which a settlement or city had sprung up4 ,one of these was ,nippur in the north1 the modern ,niffer2 the other was ,eridu1 8the good city107#bje7 now marked by the mounds of ,nowwis or ,abu-,shahrain1 which stood on what was then the shore of the ,persian ,gulf4 ,now its site is more than a hundred miles distant from the sea4 ,but it was once the seaport of ,babylonia1 whose inhabitants caught fish in the waters of the ,gulf or traded with the populations of the ,arabian coast4 ,nippur1 on the other hand1 was inland and agricultural4 ,it was the primitive centre of those engineering works which gradually converted the pestiferous marshes of ,babylonia into a fruitful plain1 watered by canals and rivers1 and protected from inundation by lofty dykes4 ,while ,eridu looked seaward1 ,nippur looked landward1 and the influences that emanated from each were accordingly diverse from the very outset4 ,as ,i pointed out in my ,hibbert ,lectures1 ,babylon must have been a colony of ,eridu4 ,its tutelary god was a son of ,ea of ,eridu1 and had been worshipped at ,eridu long before his cult was carried northward to ,babylon4 ,dr4 ,peters has since suggested that ,ur was similarly a colony of ,nippur4 ,the moon-god of ,ur was the son of the god of ,nippur1 and though ,ur lay but a few miles from ,eridu1 it was an inland and not a maritime town4 ,it stood on the desert plateau to the west of the ,euphrates1 overlooking the ,babylonian plain1 which at the time of its foundation had doubtless not as yet been reclaimed4 ,but its situation exposed it to ,arabian influences4 ,unlike the other great cities of ,babylonia1 it was in ,arabia rather than in ,babylonia1 and its population from the outset must have contained a considerable ,arabian element4 ,semitic settlers from ,southern ,arabia and ,canaan occupied it1 and it was known to them as ,uru1 8the city0 par excellence47#bjf7 ,nippur and ,eridu were already old when ,ur first rose to fame4 ,they were both great sanctuaries rather than the capitals of secular kingdoms4 ,the god of ,nippur was ,el-lil1 8the lord of the ghost-world107#bjg7 the ruler of the spirits1 whose abode was beneath the earth1 or in the air by which we are surrounded4 ,he was the master of spells and incantations1 of the magical formul which enabled those who knew them to keep the evil spirits at bay1 or to turn their malice against an enemy4 ,nippur was peculiarly the home of the darker side of ,babylonian religion2 the teaching and influences that emanated from it regarded the spirit-world as a world of night and darkness1 peopled by beings that were1 for the most part1 hostile to man4 ,the lil or ghost belonged to the realm of the dead rather than to that of the living1 and the female liltu was the ancestress of that ,lilith whom the ,jewish ,rabbis made a vampire under the form of a beautiful woman1 who lived on the blood of the children she slew at night4 ,eridu1 on the contrary1 was the seat of the ,chaldan god of culture4 ,ea1 whose home was in the deep1 among the waters of the ,persian ,gulf1 had there his temple1 and it was there that he had taught the first inhabitants of ,babylonia all the elements of civilisation1 writing down for them the laws they should obey1 the moral code they should follow1 and the healing spells that prevented disease and death4 ,he was the author of all the arts of life1 the all-wise god who knew the things that benefited man2 and his son and minister ,asari1 who interpreted his will to his worshippers1 received the title of him 8who does good to mankind40 ,while ,el-lil of ,nippur was the lord and creator of the spirit-world1 ,ea was the lord and creator of men4 ,he had made man1 like a potter1 out of the clay1 and to him1 therefore1 man continued to look for guidance and help4 ,the character of ,ea was doubtless coloured by the position of his city4 ,the myth which spoke of him as rising each morning out of the ,persian ,gulf to bring the elements of culture to his people1 clearly points to that maritime intercourse with the coasts of ,southern ,arabia which seems to have had a good deal to do with the early civilisation of ,babylonia4 ,foreign ideas made their way into the country1 trade brought culture in its train1 and it may be that the ,semites1 who exercised so profound an influence upon ,babylonia1 first entered it through the port of ,eridu4 ,however this may be1 it was at ,eridu that the garden of the ,babylonian ,eden was placed2 here was 8the centre of the earth02 here1 too1 the waters of the ,tigris and ,euphrates were poured out on either side from vases held by the god47#bjh7 ,until ,eridu1 however1 is excavated with the same systematic care as ,nippur1 we must be content to derive our knowledge of it and of its influence upon the primitive culture and religion of ,babylonia from the records which have been found elsewhere4 ,that its sanctuary was at least as old as that of ,nippur1 we may gather from the fact that it was founded before the coast-line had receded from the spot on which it stood4 ,its early relations to ,nippur must be left to the future to disclose4 ,that neither ,nippur nor ,eridu should have been the seat of a secular kingdom1 is not so strange as at first sight it appears to be4 ,the priesthood of each must have been too numerous and powerful to surrender its rights to a single pontiff1 or to allow such a pontiff to wrest from it its authority in civil affairs4 ,it is difficult for a king to establish himself where a theocratic oligarchy holds absolute sway1 and the reverence in which the temples and worship of ,el-lil and ,ea were held would have prevented the success of any attempt of the kind4 ,it was their sanctuaries which made ,babylonia a holy land1 wherein all who could were buried after death4 ,like ,abydos in ,egypt1 ,nippur or ,eridu continued to be a sanctuary1 governed by its own hierarchy and enjoying its own independent existence1 while secular kingdoms grew up at its side47#bji7 ,like ,egypt1 ,babylonia was originally divided into several independent ,states4 ,from time to time one of these became predominant1 and obliged the other ,states to acknowledge its supremacy4 ,but the centre of power shifted frequently1 and it took many centuries before the government became thoroughly centralised4 ,the earlier dynasties which claimed rule over the whole country had at times to defend their claims by force of arms4 ,like ,egypt1 too1 ,babylonia fell naturally into two halves1 ,akkad in the north and ,sumer in the south4 ,the recollection of the fact was preserved in the imperial title of 8king of ,akkad and ,sumer10 which thus corresponds with the ,egyptian title of 8king of ,upper and ,lower ,egypt40 ,but whereas in ,egypt the conquering race moved from south to north1 causing the name of ,upper ,egypt to come first in the royal title1 in ,babylonia it was the ,semites of the northern half who imposed their yoke upon the south4 ,akkad accordingly takes precedence of ,sumer4 ,i have said that the veil which has so long covered the early history of the country is beginning at last to be lifted4 ,rays of light are beginning to struggle through the darkness1 and we can at last form some idea of the process which made ,babylonia what it was in later historical times4 ,when the light first breaks upon it1 the leading kingdom1 at all events in the north1 is ,kis4 ,here a ,semitic dynasty seems to have established itself at an early period1 and we hear of wars carried on by it with its southern neighbours4 ,towards the south1 ,lagas1 the modern ,tello1 became the chief ,state under its high priests1 who made themselves kings4 ,but ,lagas1 like all the other petty kingdoms of the country1 had at length to submit to a ,semitic power which grew up in the north1 and1 after unifying ,babylonia1 created an empire that extended to the shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,this was the empire of ,sargon of ,akkad1 and his son ,naram-,sin1 whose date is fixed by the native annalists at ,b4,c4 #chjj1 and whose importance for the history of religion and culture throughout ,western ,asia can hardly be overestimated4 ,palestine and ,syria--the land of the ,amorites1 as the ,babylonians called them--became a ,babylonian province2 and a portion of a cadastral survey for the purposes of taxation has come down to us1 from which we learn that it had been placed under a governor who bears the ,canaanitish name of ,uru-,malik 7,urimelech747#baj7 ,naram-,sin carried his arms even into ,magan1 the ,sinaitic ,peninsula1 where he wrested from the ,egyptians the coveted mines of copper and malachite4 ,susa had long been a ,babylonian dependency2 and as ,mesopotamia1 including the later ,assyria1 also obeyed ,babylonian rule1 the whole of ,western ,asia became ,babylonian or1 to use the words of ,sargon's ,annals1 8all countries were formed together into one 7empire740 ,intercourse was kept up between one part of the empire and the other by means of high roads1 along which the imperial post travelled frequently4 ,some of the letters carried by it1 with the clay seals which served as stamps1 are now in the museum of the ,louvre47#baa7 ,how long the empire of ,sargon lasted is still uncertain4 ,but from that day onward the kings who claimed supreme authority in ,babylonia itself also claimed authority in ,syria2 and from time to time they succeeded in enforcing their claim4 ,erech and ,ur now appear upon the scene1 and more than one imperial dynasty had its capital at ,ur4 ,when the last of these fell1 ,babylonia passed for a while into a state of decay and anarchy1 a dynasty of ,south ,arabian or ,canaanitish origin established itself at ,babylon2 while ,elamite princes seized ,larsa1 and compelled the southern half of the country to pay them tribute4 ,a deliverer finally arose1 in the person of ,khammurabi or ,ammurapi1 of the ,arabian dynasty2 he drove the ,elamites out of ,babylonia1 defeated ,arioch of ,larsa1 captured his capital1 and once more united ,babylonia under a single head1 with its centre at ,babylon4 ,from henceforth ,babylon remained the capital of the monarchy1 and the sacred city of ,western ,asia4 ,the national revival was accompanied by a literary revival as well4 ,poets and writers arose whose works became classical2 new copies and editions were made of ancient books1 and the theology of ,babylonia was finally systematised4 ,under ,khammurabi and his immediate successors we may place the consummation of that gradual process of development which had reduced the discordant elements of ,babylonian society and religion into a single harmonious system4 ,this theological system1 however1 cannot be understood1 unless we bear in mind that1 as in ,egypt so too in ,babylonia1 there was originally a number of small independent principalities1 each with its tutelary deity and special sanctuary4 ,the head of the ,state was the patesi1 or high priest of the god1 his vicar and representative upon earth1 and the interpreter of the divine commands to men4 ,at the outset1 therefore1 ,babylonian government was essentially theocratic2 and this theocratic character clung to it to the last4 ,it was this which made ,babylon a sacred city1 whose priests had the power of conferring the right to rule upon whom they would1 like the ,pope in the ,middle ,ages4 ,though the high priest became in time a king1 he never divested himself of his sacerdotal mantle1 or forgot that he was the adopted son of his god47#bab7 ,the tutelary gods followed the fortunes of the cities over whose destinies they watched4 ,the rise of a city to power meant the supremacy also of the divinity to whom it was dedicated2 its decay involved his decline4 ,the gods of the subject cities were the vassals of the deity of the dominant ,state2 when the kings of ,ur were supreme in ,babylonia1 the moon-god of ,ur was supreme as well4 ,similarly the rise of ,babylon brought with it the supremacy of ,merodach1 the god of ,babylon1 who henceforward became the ,bel or 8,lord0 of the whole pantheon4 ,a god who had once occupied so exalted a position could not1 however1 be easily deposed4 ,babylonian history preserved the memory of the ruling dynasties whose suzerainty had been acknowledged throughout the country1 and ,babylonian religion equally remembered the gods whose servants and representatives they had been4 ,a god who had once been supreme over ,babylonia could not again occupy a lower seat2 it was necessary to find a place for him by the side of the younger deity1 whose position was merely that of a chief among his peers4 ,when ,babylon became the capital1 the older seats of empire still claimed equality with her1 and the priestly hierarchies of ,ur or ,erech or ,sippara still accounted themselves the equals of her priesthood4 ,the ancient sanctuaries survived1 with their cults unimpaired and their traditions still venerated2 and the reverence paid to the sanctuary and its ministers was reflected back upon the god4 ,hence it was that at the head of the official faith there stood a group of supreme gods1 each with his rank and powers definitely fixed1 and each worshipped in some one of the great cities of the kingdom4 ,but the system of which they formed part was necessarily of artificial origin4 ,it was the work of a theological school1 such as was made possible by the existence of the primeval sanctuaries of ,nippur and ,eridu4 ,without these latter the organisation of ,babylonian religion would have been imperfect or impossible4 ,but from the earliest days of ,babylonian civilisation1 ,nippur and ,eridu had alike exercised a unifying influence on the diverse and discordant elements of which the population was composed2 they were centres1 not only of religion1 but of culture as well1 and this culture was essentially religious4 ,for unnumbered centuries the gods of ,nippur and ,eridu were acknowledged as supreme by all the inhabitants of the country1 whatever might be their race or the particular local divinities they adored1 and the religious teaching of the priests of ,nippur and ,eridu was accepted as the inspired utterances of heaven4 ,when ,babylon became at length the capital of a united monarchy under an ,arabian dynasty1 the ancient gods of ,nippur and ,eridu yielded to its parvenu deity only under protest2 despite the fact that the city of ,merodach had been the leader in the national war of independence1 ,merodach himself had to be identified with the son of ,ea of ,eridu1 and the title of ,bel which he wrested from ,el-lil of ,nippur was never acknowledged at ,nippur itself4 ,there at least the old 8,lord of the ghost-world0 still remained for his worshippers the 8,lord0 of all the gods4 ,the title had been given him by the ,semites1 though the sanctuary in which he was worshipped was of ,sumerian or non-,semitic foundation4 ,the fact introduces us to the last point on which ,i wish to touch in the present lecture4 ,the population of ,babylonia was not homogeneous4 ,the ,chaldan historian ,berossos tells us how1 at the beginning of the world1 races of various origin were gathered together in it2 and the statement has been fully confirmed by the monuments4 ,two main races were represented in the country4 ,one of these1 usually termed ,sumerian1 spoke an agglutinative language1 and came1 perhaps1 from the mountainous regions of ,elam2 the other were the ,semites1 whose first home was1 ,i believe1 in ,arabia4 ,the ,sumerians were the first in the land4 ,to them were due the elements of ,babylonian civilisation2 they were the first to drain the marshes and cultivate the soil1 to build the temples and cities1 and to invent--or at all events to develop--that system of pictorial writing out of which the cuneiform characters gradually arose4 ,they were1 too1 the first to carry the culture they had created among the neighbouring populations of ,western ,asia4 ,the result was that their language and script spread far and wide2 wherever proto-,chaldan civilisation extended1 the proto-,chaldan language went with it4 ,and along with the language and literature there went also the theology of primitive ,babylonia4 ,the names of the ,sumerian divinities made their way into other lands1 and the dialects of the ,semitic tribes were profoundly affected by the forms of ,sumerian speech4 ,the earliest civilisation of ,western ,asia was ,sumerian4 ,but a time came when the ,sumerian was supplanted by the ,semite4 ,it was in ,northern ,babylonia that the ,semite first predominated4 ,here the empire of ,sargon of ,akkad grew up1 and the cuneiform syllabary became an imperfect means for expressing the sounds of a ,semitic language4 ,from ,northern ,babylonia ,semitic influences passed into the south1 a mixed ,semitic and ,sumerian population came into existence1 and the ,babylonians of history were born4 ,the mixed population necessarily had a mixed language1 and a composite culture produced a composite theology4 ,to disentangle the elements of this theology is the first and most pressing task of its historian2 but it is a task full of difficulties1 which the native theologians themselves not unfrequently failed to overcome4 ,the union of ,sumerian and ,semite created the ,babylonian with whom we have to deal1 just as the union of ,kelt and ,teuton has created the ,englishman of to-day4 ,other races1 it is true1 settled in his country in subsequent ages1 but their influence was comparatively slight and transitory4 ,at one time non-,semitic ,elamites from the east overran both ,babylonia and the district of ,susa1 which up to that time had been a ,babylonian province1 and founded a dynasty at ,babylon which lasted for nearly six hundred years4 ,but1 like the ,hyksos dynasties in ,egypt1 it made but little permanent impression upon the people2 in character and religion they remained what they were before4 ,nor did the irruption of ,bedwin tribes and other more pure-blooded representatives of the ,semitic race have a greater effect4 ,they were rather influenced by the ,babylonians than the ,babylonians by them4 ,their own culture was inferior1 and ,babylonia was their teacher in the arts and comforts of life4 ,the wild ,bedwin1 who tended the flocks of their ,babylonian masters1 the ,amorite merchants from ,canaan1 who formed trading settlements in the ,babylonian cities1 even the ,south ,arabian princes who headed the national revolt against ,elamite supremacy and made ,babylon the capital of their kingdom1 were all alike absorbed into the ,babylonian race4 ,they became the children of ,babylonian civilisation1 and1 along with the culture1 they adopted the language of the ,babylonian people4 ,the mixed race which had produced the civilisation of ,babylonia1 was destined to retain its individuality unimpaired down to the day when ,europe took the place of ,asia in the history of the civilised world4 ,but the fact of the mixture must never be lost sight of4 ,without it1 ,babylonian religion1 like the ,babylonian system of writing1 would be a hopeless puzzle4 ,we could1 indeed1 draw up long lists of obscure deities with unmeaning names1 and enumerate the titles which the inscriptions give them1 but any attempt to trace their history or discover the religious ideas of which they are the expression1 would be impossible4 ,we must know what is ,semitic and what is ,sumerian1 or what is due to a combination of the two elements1 before we can penetrate to the heart of the old ,babylonian theology1 and ascertain the principles on which it rests4 ,the native writers themselves were aware of this1 and fully realised the fact that ,sumerian conceptions of the godhead formed the background of the official faith4 ,but their uncritical efforts to solve the problem of the origin of their religion have added only to the complication of it4 ,just as the ,english lexicographers of a past generation found a ,greek or ,latin derivation for the ,teutonic words of our language1 so the scholars of ,babylonia discovered ,sumerian etymologies for ,semitic words and divine names1 or else assimilated them to other words of a different origin4 ,thus the ,semitic word ,sabattu1 8,sabbath10 is derived from the ,sumerian sa1 8heart10 and bat1 8to cease0 or 8rest10 and interpreted as 8a day of rest for the heart02 while pardu1 8paradise10 is explained as the par or 8domain of the god ,eu407#bac7 ,in many cases it is as yet impossible to tell whether a native etymology really rests on a fact of history1 or is the invention of learned pedantry or popular etymologising4 ,marduk or ,merodach1 for instance1 is variously derived from the ,sumerian ,amar-utuki1 8the heifer of the sun-spirit02 and the ,semitic ,mar-,eridugga1 8the son of the city ,eridu407#bad7 ,the first etymology is certainly false2 our present materials do not allow us to speak so positively in regard to the second4 ,all we can say about it is that it is unlikely in the extreme4 ,and yet a good deal turns upon the true origin of the name of the patron god of ,babylon4 ,if it is ,semitic1 the foundation of the city and of the temple around which it was built would presumably belong to ,semitic days1 and the development of the cult of the god would be ,semitic from the first4 ,the identification of ,merodach1 moreover1 with ,asari the son of ,ea of ,eridu1 would receive substantial support2 the 8son of ,eridu0 would naturally be the son of the god of ,eridu1 and we should have to see in ,babylon a colony from the old seaport of the ,babylonian plain4 ,the divergent etymologies1 however1 assigned to the name of ,merodach by the theologians of ,babylonia show that they were quite as much in the dark as we are in regard to its origin and significance4 ,its derivation had been already lost in the night of time2 the worship of the god and the building of his sanctuary went back to ages too remote for the memory of man4 ,and yet ,merodach was one of the youngest gods in the ,babylonian pantheon4 ,by the side of ,ea of ,eridu or ,el-lil of ,nippur he was but a child1 the offspring of a later day2 and even when he became supreme in ,babylonia1 the fact that he was so was still remembered4 ,if it is difficult to trace the earliest lineaments of ,merodach1 how much more difficult must it be to trace those of the older gods6 ,the theology of ,babylonia1 as it is known to us1 is thus an artificial product4 ,it combines two wholly different forms of faith and religious conception4 ,one of these was overlaid by the other at a very early period in the history of the people1 and the theological beliefs of ,sumer received a ,semitic interpretation4 ,this natural process of combination and assimilation was followed by an artificial attempt to weld the whole into a consistent and uniform shape4 ,an artificial system took the place of natural growth1 and the punning etymologies which accompanied it were but an illustration of the principles that underlay its methods4 ,if we would successfully analyse the theology which has come down to us1 we must1 as it were1 get behind it and discover the elements of which it was composed4 ,we must separate and distinguish ,sumerian and ,semitic1 must trace the influences they exerted upon one another1 and1 above all1 must detect and discard the misinterpretations and accretions of the later systematic theology4 ,for such an undertaking1 it is true1 our materials are still miserably scanty1 and1 with imperfect materials1 the results also can be imperfect only4 ,but all pioneering work is necessarily imperfect1 and for many a day to come the history of ,babylonian religion must be left to the pioneer4 ,year by year1 indeed1 the materials are increasing1 and it may be that a discovery will yet be made1 like that of the ,pyramid texts in ,egypt1 which will reveal to us the inner religious thought and belief of ,babylonia in those distant ages1 when ,nippur and ,eridu1 and not as yet ,babylon1 were the theological centres of the land4 ,even now we possess inscriptions of the ,sumerian epoch1 which tell us the names of the gods who were worshipped by the kings of the pre-,semitic age1 and throw light on the religious ideas which animated them1 and the religious ritual which they observed4 ,but such inscriptions are still comparatively few1 their translation is full of difficulties1 and the references contained in them to the theology of the time are scanty and unsatisfactory4 ,and the most important of them--those of the high priests of ,tello--belong to an epoch when the ,semite had been for many centuries in the land1 influencing and being influenced by his ,sumerian neighbours4 ,though ,lagas was still ,sumerian1 its overlord was the ,semitic king of ,ur47#bae7 ,you must not1 therefore1 expect either so complete or so detailed an account of ,babylonian religion as that which it is now possible to give of the religion of ,egypt4 ,there are no pictures from the walls of tombs1 no bas-reliefs from the temples1 to help us2 we have to depend almost wholly on the literature that has come down to us1 mutilated and only half examined as it is4 ,our efforts to interpret it are without the assistance of pictorial representations such as are at the disposal of the ,egyptologist2 they rest upon philology alone1 and the element of uncertainty in them is therefore considerable4 ,the advances made in our knowledge of ,babylonian religion1 since ,i lectured upon it some fifteen years ago1 are consequently not so great as the inexperienced student might be tempted to believe4 ,there are some things to be added1 there is more to be corrected1 but the main facts and principles which ,i then tried to place before the world of scholars remain intact4 ,in some cases confirmation has come of suggestions which seemed only possible or probable2 in other cases others have worked with greater success and better materials upon the foundations which ,i laid4 ,if1 therefore1 the progress made during the past few years may appear disappointing1 there is no reason for surprise2 the fault lies not with the ,assyriologist1 but with the materials with which he has to deal4 ,the labourer is ready1 but the harvest is not yet ripe4 ,lecture ,,ii4 ,primitive ,animism4 ,deep down in the very core of ,babylonian religion lay a belief in what ,professor ,tylor has called animism4 ,it belonged to the ,sumerian element in the faith of the people1 and1 as we shall see1 was never really assimilated by the ,semitic settlers4 ,but in spite of ,semitic influences and official attempts to explain it away1 it was never eradicated from the popular creed1 and it left a permanent impress upon the folk-lore and superstitions of the nation4 ,as in ,egypt1 so too in ,babylonia1 animism was the earliest shape assumed by religion1 and it was through animism that the ,sumerian formed his conception of the divine4 ,in ,egypt it was the ,ka which linked 8the other world0 with that of living men4 ,in ,babylonia the place of the ,ka was taken by the ,zi4 ,we may translate ,zi by 8spirit10 but like the ,ka it was rather a double than a spirit in our sense of the term4 ,literally the word signified 8life10 and was symbolised in the primitive picture-writing of the country by a flowering plant4 ,life1 however1 meant a great deal more to early man than it does to us4 ,it was synonymous with motion1 with force and energy4 ,all that moved was endowed with life2 life was the only force known to man which explained motion1 and1 conversely1 motion was the sign and manifestation of life4 ,the arrow which sped through the air or the rock which fell from the cliff did so in virtue of their possessing life1 or because the motive force of life lay in some way or other behind them4 ,the stars which slowly moved through the sky1 and the sun which rose and set day by day1 were living beings2 it was life which gave them the power of movement1 as it gave the power of movement to man himself and the animals by whom he was surrounded4 ,the power of movement1 in fact1 separated the animate from the inanimate2 all that moved possessed life2 the motionless was lifeless and dead4 ,man's experience was necessarily his measure of the universe2 the only force he knew of was the force we call life1 and his reason seemed to demand that what held true of himself must hold true also of the rest of the world4 ,but1 like the ,egyptian1 the ,sumerian could not conceive of life except under visible and concrete form4 ,the abstract was still embedded1 as it were1 in the concrete2 it could not be divorced from it in thought any more than in those pictorial characters which were used by the scribes4 ,what we mean by 8force0 would have been unintelligible to the primitive ,babylonian2 for him life was something real and material1 which had a shape of its own1 even though this shape was but an unsubstantial shadow1 seen indeed by the eye1 but eluding the grasp4 ,at the same time it was more than a shadow1 for it possessed all the qualities of the object or person to whom it belonged4 ,it was not life in the abstract1 but the counterpart of an individual object1 which endowed that object with the power of motion1 and gave it a place in the animate world4 ,the ,sumerian ,zi1 therefore1 closely resembled the ,egyptian ,ka4 ,the human ,zi was the imperishable part of man2 it made him a living soul while he was in this world1 and after death continued to represent him in the shadowy world below47#baf7 ,unlike the lilla or 8ghost10 it represented the man himself in his personality2 if that personality were destroyed1 it also ceased to exist4 ,while on the one side it was the ,zi which gave man life and the power of movement1 on the other side1 without the individual man there could be no individual ,zi4 ,food and drink were offered to the ,babylonian dead as they were to the ,egyptian1 and the objects the dead man had loved during his lifetime were deposited in his grave4 ,his seal was attached to his wrist1 his spear or staff was laid at his side1 and at times even dates or fish or poultry were buried with him1 lest he might feel hungry in the darkness of the tomb4 ,the child had his favourite toys to play with1 the woman her necklace of beads4 ,the water-jar was there1 filled with 8the pure water0 for which the dead thirsted1 along with the bowl of clay or bronze out of which it might be drunk4 8,a garment to clothe him10 says an old hymn1 8and shoes for his feet1 a girdle for his loins and a water-skin for drinking1 and food for his journey have ,i given him407#bag7 ,like men1 the gods too had each his ,zi4 ,we hear of the ,zi of ,ea1 the god of the deep27#bah7 and the primeval 8mother1 who had begotten heaven and earth10 was ,zi-kum or ,zi-kura1 8the life of heaven0 and 8earth407#bai7 ,in the early magical texts 8the ,zi of heaven0 and the 8,zi of earth0 are invoked to remove the spell that has been cast over the sick or the insane4 ,even when ,ea and his son ,asari had taken the place of the demons of the older faith1 the official religion was still compelled to recognise their existence and power4 ,the formula of exorcism put into the mouth of ,ea himself ends with an appeal to the 8life0 of heaven and earth4 ,it begins1 indeed1 with 8the charm of ,ea10 through the efficacy of which the evil spell is to be dissolved2 but the charm of the god of wisdom is soon forgotten1 and it is to the ,zi of heaven and earth that the exorcist finally has recourse4 8,o life of heaven1 mayest thou conjure it2 ,o life of earth1 mayest thou conjure it60 thus1 and thus only1 could the exorcism end4 ,the old associations were too strong to be overcome1 and the worshippers of ,ea had to allow a place at his side for the 8spirits0 of an earlier age4 ,the ancient conception of the ,zi lingered long among the ,babylonian population4 ,but1 as the ,semitic element became predominant1 it fell more and more into the background1 and survived--so far at least as the official religion was concerned--only in a few old formul and names4 ,one of the fixed stars1 for example1 was called ,sib-zi-,anna1 8the ,shepherd of the ,life of ,heaven10 and a common form of oath was by 8the life of the gods0 or 8king0 7nis ilni1 nis sarri74 ,even ,sennacherib swears by 8the life of ,assur02 but it is questionable whether either he or any of his contemporaries remembered the original meaning and history of the phrase4 ,the ,sumerian ,zi had received a ,semitic translation1 and therewith a ,semitic connotation4 ,the ideas attached to the ,semitic nsu were not those which had once clustered around the ,zi4 ,on the lips of the ,semite even the word ,zi itself meant 8life0 and little more4 ,when ,pur-,sin ,,ii4 of ,ur1 a century or two before ,abraham1 addresses a dedication in ,sumerian to the moon-god1 he calls himself 8the divine ,zi of his country07#bbj7--;in other words1 a 8god who gives life to his land40 ,there is no question here of a vital force which is the counterpart of a man or god2 we have1 on the contrary1 the ,semitic conception of a divine father from whom his people derive their life4 ,the ,semite has transferred his own ideas to the language of his ,sumerian predecessors1 and 8life0 for him is no materialised reflection of an individual thing1 but a principle which is diffused1 as it were1 from a divine centre4 ,the 8,zi of heaven0 has become the abstract life1 which the god can communicate to those about him4 ,it is only in the dim background of history1 therefore1 that we find in ,babylonia a belief analogous to that which created the ,egyptian doctrine of the ,ka4 ,it was foreign to the ,semitic mind1 and with the rise of ,semitic supremacy1 accordingly1 it disappeared from the religion of ,babylonia4 ,we have to look for its fossilised relics in the old magical texts1 which1 like the spells and charms of modern folk-lore1 have preserved so many of the beliefs and superstitions of an otherwise forgotten past1 or else in divine names and epithets which go back to a remote antiquity4 ,the animism of the ,sumerian is difficult to discover and trace1 for it was already buried under ,semitic modes of thought when the first libraries of ,babylonia were being formed4 ,it was another ,sumerian belief which exercised a greater influence upon the ,semitic mind4 ,this was the belief in ghosts4 ,the lil or ghost was distinct from the ,zi2 while the ,zi belonged to the world of the living1 the lil belonged to the world of the dead4 ,the lil consequently was no counterpart or double of either man or god1 but a being with an independent existence of its own4 ,its home was beneath the earth1 where the dead had their dwelling2 but it visited this upper world under the shadow of night1 or in desert places to which nothing living came47#bba7 ,it was essentially a spirit of darkness1 and one of the names by which it was known was that of 8the light-despoiler407#bbb7 ,it came in the raging wind which darkens the heaven with clouds1 or in the cloud of dust which betokens the approach of the storm4 ,the lil1 in fact1 was essentially a demon1 8without husband or wife10 one of those evil spirits who tormented and perplexed mankind4 ,the sexless ,lil was waited on by 8a maid10 who under the cover of night enticed men to their destruction1 or seduced them in their dreams4 ,she was a veritable vampire1 providing the ,lil she served with its human food4 ,when the ,semite succeeded to the heritage of the ,sumerian1 the sexless ,lil disappeared4 ,semitic grammar demanded that there should be a distinction between masculine and feminine1 and ,semitic modes of thought equally demanded that a female ,lilt should take her place by the side of a male ,lilu4 ,the attributes of the 8serving-maid0 of the ,sumerian ,lil were transferred to the new creation of the ,semitic mind1 and the siren who lured men to their destruction ceased to be a serving-maid1 and became the female ,lilt herself4 ,but the origin of the powers she exercised was never forgotten4 ,when the name and character of the ,babylonian ,lilt were borrowed by the ,hebrews under the form of ,lilith1 she was conceived of as a single individual spirit rather than as a class4 ,isaiah 7xxxiv4 #ad7 tells us how ,lilith shall haunt the desolate ruins of ,edom1 and find among them 8a place of rest02 while1 according to the ,rabbis1 ,lilith had been the first wife of man1 in appearance the fairest of women1 but in reality a vampire demon who sucked at night the blood of her victims4 ,the lord and ruler of the ,lils was the god who was worshipped at ,nippur4 ,he bore1 accordingly1 the title of ,en-lil1 8the lord of the ghost-world10 and his temple was one of the oldest sanctuaries of ,sumerian ,babylonia47#bbc7 ,it was a centre of primeval civilisation1 and the source of the magical arts which gathered round the belief in the spirits of the underworld4 ,but the lordship of the underworld implied also a lordship over the earth1 of which it formed a part4 ,en-lil1 8the lord of the ghost-world10 thus became in time the ruler1 not only of the dead1 but also of the living4 ,his empire ceased to be confined to the realms of darkness1 and was extended to this upper world of light and of mankind4 ,up to the last1 however1 his primitive character was never forgotten4 ,in the story of the ,deluge he appears as the destroyer of men2 ,namtar1 the plague-demon1 is his minister2 and like ,kingu1 the demon-god of chaos1 he wore the tablets of destiny1 which determine when men shall die47#bbd7 ,en-lil was accordingly the sovereign of the dead as well as of the spirits of the underworld4 ,the ,sumerian lil must therefore have once included the ghosts of men as well as other ghosts which never had a material existence in the flesh4 ,the lil must once have meant that immaterial part of man which1 after death1 had its home in the underworld1 from whence it issued at night to satisfy its cravings for food with the garbage of the streets4 ,by the side of the ,zi there must also have been the ,lil2 but we must wait till more monuments of ,sumerian antiquity are discovered before we can define the exact relationship between them47#bbe7 ,in the ,epic of ,gilgames it is said that when the shade of ,ea-bani was called up from the dead1 like that of the shade of ,samuel by the ,witch of ,endor1 8it arose from the earth like a cloud of dust407#bbf7 ,it was fitting that the ghost should be likened to a dust-storm4 ,its home was in the ground2 and there1 in the dark underworld1 its food1 we are told1 was dust4 ,but the word used by the poet for the ghost of ,ea-bani is not lil4 ,it is another word1 utukku1 which occurs frequently in the magical texts4 ,here the utukku is a general name for a demon1 and we hear of the utukku 8of the field10 8of the mountain10 8of the sea10 and 8of the grave40 ,the 8utukku of the grave0 must be the restless ghost of some dead man which has become a spirit of darkness1 working evil to mankind4 ,the ordinary utukku1 however1 had no human ancestry2 it was a demon pure and simple1 which sat upon the neck of the sufferer and inflicted upon him pain and death4 ,it corresponded with the vampire of ,european folk-lore2 and just as the ranks of the vampire might be recruited from the dead1 so too might the class of demons whom the ,babylonians termed utukki4 ,it was the same with another species of demon1 the ekimmu1 which hovered around the tomb and attacked the loins of those who fell in its way4 ,but the ekimmu was a being whose origin was known4 ,it was the spirit of an unburied corpse over whose unsanctified remains the funeral rites had never been performed4 ,the mystic ceremonies and magical words which consigned the dead to their last resting-place had been neglected1 and the hapless spirit was left unprovided with the talismans that would enable him to cross the river of death1 or join his comrades in the passive tranquillity of the lower world4 ,restlessly1 therefore1 it wandered about the desert places of the earth1 finding at times a shelter in the bodies of the living1 whom it plagued with sore diseases1 and seeking to satiate its hunger under the cover of night with the refuse it could pick up 8in the street40 ,the food and drink which pious hands laid in the tomb were denied to the tombless ghost1 and it had to search for them where it could4 ,the ,epic of ,gilgames concludes with a description of it1 which paints in vivid colours the old ,babylonian belief-- 8,he whose body lies forsaken in the field1 ,as thou and ,i alike have seen1 ,his ekimmu rests not in the earth4 ,he whose ekimmu has none to care for him1 ,as thou and ,i alike have seen1 ,the garbage of the pot1 the refuse of food1 ,which is thrown into the street1 must he eat40 ,it is no wonder that a ,babylonian king prays that the body of his enemy may be 8cast aside1 and no grave allowed to him107#bbg7 or that ,assur-bani-pal should have torn the bodies of the ,elamite kings from their tombs at ,susa4 ,sennacherib similarly desecrated the burial-places of the ancestors of ,merodach-baladan2 and one of the oldest of ,babylonian monuments1 the so-called ,stela of the ,vultures1 depicts the bodies of the slaughtered enemy exposed to the vultures that feed upon them1 while the slain ,babylonians themselves are buried by their companions under a tumulus of earth4 ,the ekimmu was thus1 properly speaking1 the ghost of the unburied corpse2 whereas the utukku was the ghost of a corpse which had obtained burial1 but through some accident or other had escaped from the realms of the dead4 ,while1 therefore1 the ekimmu necessarily had a human origin1 the utukku was only accidentally a human ghost4 ,the rites with which its body had been laid in the grave1 ought to have confined it to the underground regions of the dead2 and the 8pure water0 and food with which it had been provided were sufficient to sustain it in its existence below4 ,if it returned to the upper world it could only have been through the arts of the necromancer1 and the sufferings it may have inflicted upon men were but the revenge it took for being disturbed4 ,the utukku1 like the lil1 belonged to a class of supernatural beings who manifested their presence in a particular way1 and it was only as it were accidentally that the ghost of a dead man came to be included among them4 ,but it must be noticed that no distinction was drawn in the mind of the ,babylonian between these supernatural beings and the ghosts of the dead1 at all events so far as their nature and to a certain extent their powers were concerned4 ,the ghost might become an ekimmu just as it might become a lil2 all were alike denizens of the underground world1 and in primeval times obeyed the rule of the ,en-lil1 8the lord of ghosts40 ,the same belief must once have prevailed in ,palestine4 ,when the spirit of ,samuel was called up from the dead1 the witch declared she saw ,elohim rising up from the earth in the form of an old man clothed in a mantle4 ,now ,elohim or 8gods0 was the general term under which the ,canaanite included all the beings of the spiritual world in whom he believed2 and in calling the spirit of ,samuel 8,elohim10 the witch was accordingly asserting that the human ghost she had evoked had become thereby one of them4 ,as the ghost of ,ea-bani when summoned from its resting-place became an utukku1 so the ghost of ,samuel for the same reason became one of the ,elohim4 ,the ghost1 like the body to which it had belonged1 was dependent for its existence upon food and drink4 ,the legend of the descent of ,istar into ,hades describes the ghosts of the dead as flitting like winged bats through their gloomy prison-house1 drinking dust and eating clay4 ,the bread and dates and water offered at the tombs of the dead were a welcome substitute for such nauseous food4 ,food1 however1 of some kind it was necessary for the ghost to have1 otherwise it would have suffered from the pangs of hunger1 or died the second death for want of nourishment4 ,like the ,egyptian ,ka1 consequently1 the ,babylonian ghost was conceived of as a semi-material counterpart of the body1 needing1 like the body1 drink and food2 and if recalled to the upper world in the form of an utukku or an ekimmu1 resembling the body in every detail1 even to the clothes it wore4 ,moreover1 as in ,egypt1 the doctrine of the double must be extended to inanimate objects as well as to living things4 ,the offerings deposited with the dead included not only poultry and fish1 but also dates and grain1 wine and water4 ,the objects1 too1 which the dead had loved in his life were laid in his grave--toys for the child1 mirrors and jewellery for the woman1 the staff and the seal for the man4 ,it must have been the doubles of the food and drink upon which the ghost fed in the world below1 and the doubles of the other objects buried with the corpse1 which it enjoyed in its new mode of existence4 ,there must have been ghosts of things as well as ghosts of men4 ,the overlaying of primitive ,sumerian animism by ,semitic conceptions and beliefs naturally introduced new elements into the views held about the imperishable part of man1 and profoundly modified the old theories regarding it4 ,the ,zi1 as we have seen1 became synonymous with the vital principle2 the lil1 the utukku1 and the ekimmu were banished to the domain of the magician and witch4 ,the words survived1 like 8ghost0 in ,english1 but the ideas connected with them insensibly changed4 ,in place of ,en-lil1 8the lord of the ghost-world10 a new conception arose1 that of ,bilu or ,baal1 8the lord0 of mankind and the visible universe1 whose symbol was the flaming sun47#bbh7 ,the ghosts had to make way for living men1 the underground world of darkness for the world of light4 ,en-lil became a ,semitic ,baal1 and man himself became 8the son of his god407#bbi7 ,with the rise of ,semitic influence came also the influence of the culture that emanated from ,eridu4 ,the character of ,ea of ,eridu lent itself more readily to ,semitic conceptions than did the character of ,en-lil4 ,there was no need for violent change2 the old ,sumerian god 7or rather 8spirit07 retained his name and therewith many of his ancient attributes4 ,he remained the god of wisdom and culture1 the father of ,aari1 8who does good to man40 ,when ,asari was identified with ,merodach the sun-god of ,babylon1 ,semitic influence was already in the ascendant4 ,merodach was already a ,semitic ,baal2 the supremacy of his city made him the supreme ,baal of ,babylonia4 ,the older ,baal of ,nippur was absorbed by the younger ,baal of ,babylon1 and the official cult almost ceased to remember what his attributes and character had originally been4 ,even the reciter of the magical texts probably forgot that the god had once been a chief lil or ghost and nothing more4 ,this altered conception of the god of ,nippur was necessarily accompanied by an altered conception of the ghost-world over which he had ruled4 ,it was handed over to other gods in the ,state religion1 or else passed into the possession of the wizard and necromancer4 ,nergal of ,cutha became the lord of ,hades1 which he shared with the goddess ,eris-kigal or ,allat4 ,legend told how at the command of the gods of light1 ,nergal had forced his way into the dark recesses of the underworld1 and there compelled the goddess to become his bride4 ,from henceforward ,hades was a realm under the control of the gods of heaven1 and part of that orderly universe which they governed and directed4 ,the conquest of ,hades by the gods of light implied the conquest by them of death4 ,the dead was no longer a mere ghost1 beyond the reach of the lords of heaven1 and able to play havoc in their own sphere when darkness had swallowed up the light4 ,the lords of heaven now claimed the power of 8raising the dead to life40 ,it is an epithet that is applied more especially to ,merodach1 the minister and interpreter of his father ,ea1 through whose magic words and wise teaching he heals the diseases of mankind1 and even brings them again from the world of the dead4 ,it is evident that we here have a new conception before us of the imperishable part of man4 ,the gods are with man beyond the grave as they are on this side of it4 ,there is no inexorable destiny forbidding them to bring him back to life4 ,in other words1 there is a life in the next world as well as in this4 ,it may be a very inferior and shadowy kind of life1 but it is a life nevertheless1 and not the existence of a bloodless ghost which would perish if it could not satisfy its cravings with food and drink4 ,the religious consciousness has passed beyond the stage when the future world is peopled with the doubles and counterparts of existing things1 and it has attained to the conception of a spiritual life which man can share with the immortal gods4 ,animism has made way for polytheism4 ,how close this connection between the gods and the souls of men became in later days1 may be seen from the fact that when ,assur-bani-pal visited the tombs of his forefathers1 he poured out a libation in their honour and addressed to them his prayers4 ,they had1 in short1 become gods1 like the gods of light to whom temples were erected and offerings made4 ,the change in point of view had doubtless been quickened by that deification of the king of which ,i shall have to speak in a future lecture1 and which seems to have been of ,semitic origin4 ,when the king became a god1 to whom priests and temples were dedicated both in his lifetime and after his death1 it was inevitable that new ideas should arise in regard to the nature of the soul4 ,the spirit who was addressed as a god1 and set on a level with the divine lords of heaven1 was no powerless and starveling ghost in the underworld of ,en-lil1 but a spirit in the more modern sense of the word1 who dwelt in the realms of light1 where he could hear and answer the prayers that were laid before him4 ,the ghost had been transformed into a soul1 whose nature was the same as that of the gods themselves1 and which1 like them accordingly1 could move freely where it would1 listening to the petitions of those on earth1 and interceding for them4 ,this conception of the soul had already been arrived at in the age of ,sargon of ,akkad1 the earliest to which at present anything like full contemporaneous records reach back4 ,but it was an age in which ,semitic influence was already dominant2 ,sargon was the founder of a ,semitic empire which extended to the shores of the ,mediterranean1 and the ,sumerian epoch of ,babylonian civilisation had long since passed away4 ,remote as the age seems to us of to-day1 it was comparatively late in the history of ,chaldan culture4 ,and deification was not confined to the person of the king4 ,the high priests of the ,babylonian cities who owned allegiance to him were similarly deified by their subjects4 ,the daily offering was made1 for instance1 to the deified ,gudea1 the ,sumerian governor of ,lagas2 he who had ruled on earth1 whether ,semite or ,sumerian1 was adjudged worthy of a place among the gods of the official creed4 ,king and noble alike could be raised to the rank of a divinity2 and we even find ,gimil-,sin1 the king of ,ur1 erecting a temple to his own godhead47#bcj7 ,we are reminded of the shrines built by the later ,pharaohs in honour of their own ,kas4 ,the deification of man1 and therewith a belief in the higher destinies of the human soul1 can thus be traced back to an early period of ,semitic supremacy in ,babylonia4 ,unfortunately our evidences for this belief in the higher destinies of the soul are still but scanty4 ,in this respect ,babylonia offers a striking contrast to ,egypt4 ,there the larger part of the monumental records we possess are derived from tombs2 and ,egyptian belief in regard to the future life is abundantly described not only on the tombstones1 but also on the inscribed and pictured walls of the sepulchre itself4 ,we know almost more of what the ,egyptian thought about the imperishable part of man and its lot hereafter1 than we do about any other portion of his creed4 ,in ,babylonia and ,assyria1 on the contrary1 there are no tombstones1 no pictured and inscribed tombs4 ,the literature we possess tells us but little concerning the future life and the beliefs connected with it4 ,the ritual and the hymns to the gods are concerned with this life1 not with the next1 and we have to grope our way1 as it were1 through obscure allusions and ambiguous phrases if we would find in them any references to the world beyond the grave4 ,to fall back on mythological poems and heroic epics is dangerous and misleading4 ,the literary myth will give us as false an idea of the psychology of a people as it will of their theology2 at most it will express the beliefs of the individual writer1 or enshrine old terms and phrases1 the primitive meaning of which has passed away4 ,to extract a psychology from literary legends is as difficult as to extract from them sober history4 ,the poets who depicted ,hades1 with its batlike ghosts that fed upon dust1 were using the language of the past rather than of the age in which they lived4 ,we might as well infer that the ,englishman of the eighteenth century believed in the ,muses whom his poets invoked1 as infer from the language of the poets of ,babylonia that the ,hades they described was the ,hades of popular belief4 ,the cult of the kings and nobles is sufficient of itself to prove that such could not have been the case4 ,and when primitive conceptions become the commonplaces of literature1 their true signification is lost or blurred4 ,still less help can be obtained from the magical texts4 ,and by an unfortunate accident the magical texts constitute a very undue proportion of those which have hitherto been examined4 ,until recently we have been dependent for our knowledge of ,babylonian literature on the relics of the library of ,nineveh1 the greater part of which was collected by ,assur-bani-pal1 and ,assur-bani-pal had a special predilection for charms and exorcisms1 and the pseudo-science of the augur or astrologist4 ,the world of the magical texts was a world that stood apart by itself4 ,magic was only half recognised by the orthodox faith2 its beliefs and practices had come down from an age when that orthodox faith did not as yet exist1 and its professors were looked upon with suspicion by the official priesthood4 ,the creed upon which it rested1 therefore1 was a creed of the remote past rather than of the present4 ,its gods and goddesses were not those of the ,state religion except in name2 the ,istar who patronised the witch and superintended the mixture of the poisonous philtre under the cloak of night1 was a very different ,istar from the goddess of love and war who promised help and comfort to ,esar-haddon in his need1 and was known to be 8the mother0 of mankind4 ,the ,state religion1 indeed1 wisely temporising1 had recognised magic so far as it could be regulated1 and placed1 as it were1 under the supervision of the priesthood2 8the black art0 was never a heresy to be suppressed by force1 as in ancient ,israel2 but for all that it stood outside the official faith1 and embodied principles and conceptions which could be harmonised but imperfectly with the higher and more enlightened ideas of the historical period4 ,we may find in the magical texts survivals from the primeval age of animism1 if only we know how to interpret them rightly1 for the religious conceptions of a later age we shall look in vain4 ,they offer us magic and not religion1 the wizard or witch and not the priest4 ,such1 then1 are the reasons why it is impossible for the present to describe the psychology of the ,babylonians with the same accuracy and fulness as that of the ,egyptians1 or to trace its history with the same detail4 ,the materials are wanting1 and probably we shall never have them in the same abundance as in ,egypt4 ,but one thing is clear4 ,behind the polytheistic view of the human spirit which prevailed in later times1 there lay an animistic view which closely resembled the primitive ,egyptian doctrine of the ,ka4 ,the animistic view passed away with the rise of ,semitic supremacy and the deification of man1 and to discover and define it must be largely a matter of inference4 ,the doctrine of the double was superseded by the doctrine of the soul--that is to say1 of an immortal element which after death was reunited with the gods4 ,the ,zi1 with the ,lil and the ,ekimmu1 had to make way for a higher and purer conception of the spirit of man4 ,the old names1 indeed1 still remained1 but more and more emptied of their earlier meaning1 or banished to the outer darkness of the magician and witch4 ,the water and food that once served to nourish the ghost in the world below1 became offerings to the dead man1 and to the gods under whose protection he continued to be4 8,all the furniture that befitteth the grave10 says an ,assyrian king1 8the due right of his sovereignty1 ,i displayed before the sun-god1 and beside the father who begat me ,i set them in the grave4 ,gifts unto the princes1 even the spirits of earth1 and unto the gods who inhabit the grave1 ,i then presented407#bca7 ,the gifts1 it will be noticed1 are not only set by the side of the dead1 but are also presented to the sun-god1 who is thus associated with the deceased king4 ,they are consecrated to the god of light1 who judged mankind1 before they can be claimed by the gods of the grave4 ,but with all this it must be allowed that a great contrast exists between the ,babylonian and the later ,egyptian view of the imperishable part of man and its lot in the other world4 ,and this difference of view results from a further difference in the view taken of this present life4 ,to the ,egyptian the present life was but a preparation for the next2 not only the spiritual elements of which he was composed1 but1 as he hoped1 his body itself would survive beyond the grave4 ,it was otherwise in ,babylonia4 ,no traces of mummification are to be found there2 at most we hear of the corpse being anointed for death1 as it were1 with oil or honey2 and cremation1 partial or complete1 seems to have been practised4 ,the thoughts of the ,babylonian were fixed rather on this world than on the next2 his horizon1 speaking generally1 was bounded by death4 ,it was in this world that he had relations with the gods and duties towards them1 and it was here that he was punished or rewarded for the deeds committed in the flesh4 ,the practical character of the ,babylonians did not lend itself to dreams and speculations about the future2 the elaborate map of the other world1 which is drawn in the sacred books of ,egypt1 would have been impossible for them4 ,they were too much absorbed in commerce and trade and the practical pursuit of wealth1 to have leisure for theories that concerned themselves with a doubtful future and an invisible world4 ,the shadow of the old religion of ,nippur1 moreover1 with its underground ,hades of darkness and gloom1 rested to the last on the mind of the ,babylonian people4 ,the brighter views which had emanated from ,eridu never succeeded in overcoming it altogether4 ,the gods of light ruled1 indeed1 over a world that had once belonged to the demons of night1 but their victory never extended further4 ,the land of ,hades still continued to be a land of darkness1 even though the waters of life gushed up from below the golden throne of the spirits who dwelt there4 ,we find no conception in ,babylonian literature parallel to the ,egyptian fields of ,alu1 no judgment-hall of ,hades before which the conscience of the dead man is arraigned4 ,the ,babylonian was judged in this life and not in the next1 and the god who judged him was the sun-god of day1 and not the dead sun-god of the other world4 ,it is usually the fashion to ascribe this concentration of religion upon the present world1 with its repellent views of ,hades and limitation of divine rewards and punishments to this life1 to the inherent peculiarities of the ,semitic mind4 ,but for this there is no justification4 ,there is nothing in the ,semitic mind which would necessitate such a theological system4 ,it is true that the sun-god was the central object of the ,semitic ,babylonian faith1 and that to the nomads of ,arabia the satisfaction of their daily wants was the practical end of existence4 ,but it is not among the nomads of ,arabia that we find anything corresponding with the ,babylonian idea of ,hades and the conceptions associated with it4 ,the idea was1 in fact1 of ,babylonian origin4 ,if the ,hebrew ,sheol resembles the ,hades of ,babylonia1 or the ,hebrew conception of rewards and punishments is like that of the ,assyrians and ,babylonians1 it is because the ,hebrew beliefs were derived from the civilisation of the ,euphrates4 ,historically we know that the ,israelites traced their origin from ,ur of the ,chaldees1 and that in days long before ,abraham1 ,canaan formed part of a ,babylonian empire1 and was permeated by ,babylonian culture2 on the theological side the derivation of the ,hebrew doctrines is equally clear4 ,the ,hebrew ,sheol is too exactly a counterpart of the ,babylonian world of the dead not to have been borrowed from it1 like ,lilith and the other spirits whose home it was1 and the theology which taught that the sun-god was the supreme judge of men1 punishing in this life their sins or rewarding their good deeds1 was part of the culture which came from ,babylonia to the ,west4 ,it was no inherent heritage of ,semitic nature1 but the product of a civilisation whose roots went back to a non-,semitic race4 ,the ruling caste in ,egypt were of ,semitic extraction1 but their religion contains little or no trace of the ideas which underlay the ,babylonian doctrines of divine retribution and the future life of the soul4 ,it is to ,babylonia1 therefore1 that we must look for the origin of those views of the future world and of the punishment of sin in this life which have left so deep an impression on the pages of the ,old ,testament4 ,they belonged primarily to ,babylonia1 and were part of the price which the ,semites of the ,west had to pay for the inestimable gift of culture that came to them from the banks of the ,euphrates4 ,they were views from which the ,israelite was long in emancipating himself4 ,the inner history of the ,old ,testament is1 in fact1 in large measure a history of the gradual widening of the religious consciousness of ,israel in regard to them1 and their supersession by a higher and more spiritual form of faith4 ,the old belief1 that misfortune implies sin and prosperity righteousness1 is never1 indeed1 entirely eradicated1 and ,sheol long continues to be a land of shadow and unsubstantiality1 where good and bad share the same fate1 and the things of this life are forgotten2 but little by little newer and purer views make their way into the religion of the people1 and the higher message which ,israel was destined to receive takes the place of the teaching of the old culture of ,babylonia4 ,babylonia had done its part2 new forces were needed for the education of mankind4 ,lecture ,,iii4 ,the ,gods ,of ,babylonia4 ,i have already had occasion to refer to one of the gods of ,babylonia1 ,en-lil or ,el-lil of ,nippur47#bcb7 ,his worship goes back to the earliest period of ,babylonian history2 his sanctuary at ,nippur was one of the oldest in the land4 ,he belongs to the period when the ,sumerian was still supreme1 and the name he bore was the ,sumerian title of ,en-lil1 8the lord of the ghost-world40 ,but it was a title only2 the 8lord of the ghosts0 was himself a ghost1 albeit the chief among them4 ,the fact must be kept carefully in mind4 ,as yet there was no god in the proper sense of the term4 ,the superhuman powers that were dreaded and propitiated were ghosts only1 like the ghosts of dead men2 and1 like the latter1 they were denizens of the grave and the underground world4 ,it was only at night that they emerged from their retreat1 and terrified the passer-by4 ,primitive man fears the dark as much as does the child2 it is then that the powers of evil are active1 and spiritual or supernatural foes lurk behind every corner ready to injure or destroy him4 ,the ghosts of the night are accordingly objects of terror1 harmful beings from whom all forms of sickness and insanity are derived4 ,but even these ghosts can be controlled by those who know the magic words or the mystic rites which they are compelled to obey4 ,between the ghost and his victim the sorcerer or medicine-man can interpose1 and by means of his spells force the spirit to quit the body of the sufferer or enter the body of an enemy4 ,by the side of the ghost1 therefore1 stands the sorcerer1 who is at once the master and the minister of the spirit-world4 ,with the progress of civilisation an organised body of sorcerers necessarily grows up4 ,but an organised body of sorcerers also implies an organised body of spirits1 and an organised system of controlling them4 ,the spells and charms which have been handed down from the past are formed into a system1 and the spirits themselves are classified and defined1 while special functions are assigned to them4 ,the old unorganised animism passes into an organised shamanism1 such as still prevails among certain ,siberian tribes4 ,the sorcerer is on the high road to becoming a priest4 ,between the sorcerer and the priest1 however1 there is a gulf too wide to be spanned4 ,the religious conceptions presupposed by them differ in kind as well as in degree4 ,the nature of the superhuman beings by whom man is surrounded1 and the relations which he bears to them1 are essentially different in the two cases4 ,the priest may also be a sorcerer1 but the sorcerer cannot be a priest4 ,can shamanism develop naturally into theism1 and the sorcerer into the priest8 ,or is there need of foreign influences and of contact with other ideas and religious beliefs8 ,i should myself be inclined to adopt the second alternative4 ,theism may absorb shamanism1 and the priest throw the gis of his authority over the sorcerer1 but the natural development of the one into the other is contrary to the facts of psychology as well as to those of history4 ,the evolution of a god out of the shaman's ghost may be conceivable1 but no evidence for it exists4 ,the superstitions and beliefs of shamanism linger1 indeed1 under a theistic religion1 and the polytheism of ,babylonia was no exception to the rule4 ,up to the last the magician flourished there1 and the spells he worked were recognised by the religion of the ,state4 ,but for all that they stood outside the religion of the ,state1 harmonising with it just as little as the superstitions of popular folk-lore harmonise with the religion we profess4 ,no one would assert that the ,christianity of to-day has grown out of beliefs like that in the vampire which still holds such sway in some of the ,christian countries of ,europe2 and there is just as little reason for asserting that the vampire of the primitive ,sumerian developed into a ,babylonian deity4 ,they represent two diverse currents of belief1 which may for a time run side by side1 but never actually coalesce4 ,babylonian tradition itself bore witness to the fact4 ,the ,chaldan historian ,berossos tells us that the elements of culture1 and therewith of the organised religion of a later day1 were brought to ,babylonia from abroad4 ,oannes or ,ea1 the culture-god1 had risen morning by morning out of the waters of the ,persian ,gulf1 and instructed the savage races of the shore in the arts of life4 ,it was not from ,nippur and the worshippers of ,en-lil1 but from that mysterious deep which connected ,babylonia with other lands1 that its civilisation had come4 ,it was ,ea who had taught men 8to found the temple0 in which the gods of aftertimes were to be adored4 ,the culture-god of ,babylonia was ,ea1 and the home of ,ea was not in ,babylonia1 but in the deep4 ,there is no mistaking the significance of the legend4 ,the culture of ,babylonia originated on the seacoast1 and was brought to it across the sea4 ,the elements of civilisation were due to intercourse with other lands4 ,and this civilisation was associated with a god--with a god1 too1 who represented all the higher aspects of ,babylonian religion1 and was regarded as the author of its sacred books4 ,the impulse which transformed the 8lord of the ghost-world0 into a god1 and replaced the sorcerer by a priest1 came not from within1 but from without4 ,the impulse went back to that primitive age when ,sumerian supremacy was still unquestioned in the land4 ,other races1 so the legend averred1 were already settled there1 but they were all alike rude and savage 8as the beasts of the field40 ,how far distant it may have been in the night of time we can but dimly conjecture4 ,at the rate at which the northern coast of the ,persian ,gulf is being slowly silted up1 it would be at least eight thousand years ago when the old seaport of ,eridu and the sanctuary of its god ,ea stood on the shores of the sea4 ,but the influence of the ,semite was already beginning to be felt1 though indirectly1 through maritime trade4 ,new ideas came from the south4 ,ea was a god1 and like the gods of the ,semitic race he had a wife and son4 ,while he himself was lord of the deep1 ,dam-kina1 his wife1 was the mistress of the land4 ,his son was ,aari1 8the prince who does good to man107#bcc7 and who1 in contradistinction to the night-demons of ,nippur1 brought knowledge and healing to the men whom ,ea had created4 ,the ,sumerian might indeed speak of the 8,zi0--8the spirit0--of ,ea1 or rather of the deep1 but to the ,semite he was a veritable god4 ,at the same time it was the conception only of ,ea and his family which we need trace to a foreign source4 ,their names are purely ,sumerian1 and their origin consequently must be ,sumerian too4 ,doubtless they had once been mere lils or ghosts1 belonging to the ghost-world of the god of ,nippur1 and the spells taught by ,ea to mankind were survivals from the day when the sorcerer was still his priest47#bcd7 ,but under ,semitic influence the lil had been transformed into a god2 the sacred book took the place of the charm1 and the priest of the magician4 ,the charm and the magician were still recognised1 but it was on the condition that they adapted themselves to the new ideas4 ,sumerian shamanism was overlaid by ,semitic polytheism1 and in process of time was absorbed into it4 ,the culture of ,eridu spread northward1 along with the religious ideas which formed so integral a part of it4 ,the worship of ,ea was adopted in other cities of ,babylonia1 and the god of ,babylon was identified with his son4 ,the lil which had been pictured under animal shape put on human form1 and the ,sumerian accepted the conviction of the ,semite1 that man was made in the likeness of his god4 ,en-lil of ,nippur had to yield to the influence of the stranger4 ,the antiquity of his worship1 the sanctity of his temple1 could not save him from his fate4 ,he too became a ,semitic god2 his old name became an unmeaning title1 which survived in literature but not in the mouths of the people1 and he was henceforth addressed as a ,semitic ,bilu or ,baal4 ,he ceased to be the chief of the ghosts of night1 and was transformed into the divine 8,lord0 of ,semitic worship1 who1 like the sun1 watched over this nether earth4 ,it was a transformation and not a development4 ,as the ,semitic ,bel1 the god of ,nippur continued for long centuries to retain the ancient veneration of the people4 ,unlike the ,greek ,kronos1 he was not as yet dethroned by the younger gods4 ,the position occupied by the great sanctuary of ,nippur and its priesthood long prevented this4 ,but the destiny of ,kronos at last overtook him4 ,babylon became the capital of the kingdom1 and its god accordingly claimed precedence over all others4 ,merodach of ,babylon assumed the title of ,bel1 and little by little the old god of ,nippur was robbed of his ancient rank4 ,for the ,babylonia of later history ,merodach and not ,en-lil was the supreme ,baal1 and even the legends that had been told of the god of ,nippur were transferred to his younger rival4 ,the memories that still gathered round ,nippur were too deeply tinged with the colours of a religion that had passed away1 and the beliefs of a darker and less civilised form of faith4 ,merodach was the champion of the gods of light1 ,en-lil had been the lord of the demons of darkness4 ,theologically as well as politically it was needful that ,merodach should supplant ,en-lil4 ,the spread of the worship of ,ea1 or rather of the religious conceptions with which it was associated1 brought with it the effacement of ,dam-kina4 ,dam-kina had once been the earth2 just as ,en-lil at ,nippur was 8the lord of ghosts10 of whom he was himself one1 so at ,eridu ,dam-kina was the 8lady of the earth10 with which1 as its ,zi or 8spirit10 she was herself identified4 ,sumerian grammar knew no distinction of gender1 and in the ,sumerian family the woman held a foremost place by the side of the man4 ,it was otherwise among the ,semites4 ,the distinction between the masculine and the feminine is engrained in the ,semitic languages1 but the distinction is attained by forming the feminine out of the masculine4 ,while a considerable part of ,semitic flexion is the result of vowel changes within the word itself1 the feminine is created by attaching an affix to the masculine form4 ,the masculine presupposes the feminine1 but the feminine is dependent on the masculine4 ,semitic grammar merely reflects the fundamental ideas of the ,semitic mind4 ,for the ,semite the woman is the lesser man1 formed out of him and dependent upon him4 ,like the feminine of the noun1 she is the colourless reflection of her husband1 though without the reflection there can be no husband4 ,wherever the ,semitic spirit has prevailed1 the woman has been simply the helpmeet and shadow of the man2 for the orthodox ,mohammedan she hardly possesses a soul4 ,it is only where the ,semitic spirit has been met and checked by the influence of another race that this is not the case2 the high place retained by the woman in ,babylonian society would of itself have been a proof that ,semitic culture had here been engrafted on that of an older people1 even if the monuments had not revealed to us that such was indeed the fact4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that the goddesses or female spirits of ,sumerian faith faded away as the ,semitic element in ,babylonian religion became stronger4 ,at first ,semitic influence had done no more than transform the 8handmaid of the lil0 into a goddess2 then the goddesses themselves became like the woman in ,semitic thought1 pale and colourless1 existing merely for the sake of the god4 ,dam-kina1 the lady of the earth1 was remembered only by the antiquarian or by the compiler of a cosmological system4 ,when she became the wife of ,ea her fate was sealed4 ,her attributes and office1 in fact1 were transferred to him4 ,at ,eridu he had necessarily been more than the lord of the deep2 he was lord of the city as well4 ,he had as it were migrated from the deep2 he had left his palace of the sea and come to dwell in a sanctuary on land4 ,the ground on which ,eridu stood was the gift of the sea1 the soft silt which the retreating waves of the ,persian ,gulf had left behind them4 ,it had once been part of the domain of ,ea1 if not ,ea himself4 ,ea accordingly came to be addressed as the 8lord of the earth0 as well as of the sea1 and ,eridu1 his city1 was the 8city of the lord of the land40 ,the men who inhabited it were his creation3 he had formed them like a potter out of the clay1 and as the divine 8potter0 he was therefore known unto them47#bce7 ,like the ,egyptian ,khnum at the ,cataract1 he was the first artist in clay1 and the models that he made were the first men4 ,the god of culture was thus also the creator of mankind4 ,he brought civilisation to them from his home beneath the waves1 but it was because he had already created them4 ,they were not indeed his children1 but the creation of his hands1 for the culture-god was necessarily an artist1 and the men he moulded were the highest products of his skill4 ,water and earth had alike gone to their formation2 ,ea was master not only of the sea1 but of the land of ,eridu as well4 ,the heritage of ,dam-kina was thus usurped by the god whom ,semitic influence had given to her as husband4 ,and therewith the heritage of another goddess of the ,sumerian cult was usurped as well4 ,this was ,bau1 whose native home was probably farther to the north1 though she had been as it were domesticated at ,eridu in early days4 ,as ,dam-kina was made the wife of ,ea1 so ,bau was made his mother4 ,for this there was a special reason4 ,bau was known as 8the great mother10 from whom mankind had received the herd and the flock as well as the crops of the field4 ,she it was who gave fertility to the soil1 and protected those who tilled it4 ,the heifer was her symbol1 and she may have been originally the local spirit of some field in the neighbourhood of ,eridu47#bcf7 ,but in the days when she is first known to us by contemporaneous inscriptions1 she is already a goddess1 and the ,semitic conception of a divine mother is already attached to her47#bcg7 ,she thus resembles another goddess1 ,aruru by name1 whom an old cosmological poem associates with ,merodach 7or rather ,ea7 in creating 8the seed of man10 which springs forth from her bosom like the reed from the marsh or 8the wild cow with its young40 ,in their origin ,bau and ,aruru are alike but ,dam-kina under other names1--the earth-spirits of the old ,sumerian religion1 who beget or create all living things4 ,the underground world over which ,en-lil held rule was not only the home of the dead1 it was also the place where the seed must be buried before it can spring up into the green herb4 ,that same ghost-world1 consequently1 to which the dead must journey1 is also the source of life4 ,the lil 7or rather the ,zi7 who inhabits it is the mother of mankind1 even though it is also the home of the demon who plagues them with disease4 ,hence it was that when ,bau assumed the dress of a ,semitic goddess1 she became first the creatress-mother1 and then the mother of the creator4 ,as such1 however1 she entered into rivalry with another deity who was similarly in process of development out of an earlier form4 ,this was ,zi-,kum or ,zi-,garum1 8the spirit of the sky10 who is called 8the mother that has begotten heaven and earth10 and 8the seeress of the spirit of the earth0 7-kur71 that is to say1 of ,en-lil47#bch7 ,to the primitive seafarer of ,babylonia the waters of the ,persian ,gulf seemed to descend from the vault of heaven which rested upon them2 the streams which intersected the ground were fed by the rains1 and it was therefore natural to suppose that the sea which blended with the sky was similarly derived from it4 ,the deep was embosomed in the heavens1 and the spirit of the deep accordingly must have been begotten by the spirit of the sky4 ,but this spirit of the sky necessarily owned obedience to the 8lord of the ghost-world10 and the mother of ,ea of ,eridu was thus at the same time a ministering handmaid of ,en-lil47#bci7 ,the ,zi who was worshipped at ,eridu was also a ,lil in the theology of ,nippur1 and the home of the ,lil was beneath the earth4 ,in this way we must explain how it is that ,zi-,kum1 8the heaven10 is also1 under another aspect1 ,zi-,kura1 8the earth10 and as such identical with ,dam-kina and ,bau47#bdj7 ,that she should have coalesced with ,bau rather than with ,dam-kina1 was due to the fact that the one was made the mother of ,ea1 while the other became his wife4 ,but the lineaments of the old 8spirit of the sky0 were soon obliterated4 ,as the religion of ,babylonia moved further and further away from the animism of the past1 the spirit's existence faded into the background and ,bau stepped into its place4 ,zi-,kum1 8the spirit of the sky10 ended by becoming a symbol of that primordial deep from which ,ea had derived his wisdom1 and whose waters were above the visible firmament as well as below it47#bda7 ,ea1 the god of the mixed ,babylonian race1 had absorbed the spirits and ghosts of the ,sumerian faith4 ,their attributes had been taken from them1 and they had been transformed into goddesses whose sole end was to complete the family of the culture-god4 ,the old faith was avenged1 however1 when ,babylon became the political head of ,babylonia4 ,ea was supplanted by his son1 and the honours he had received were transferred to the younger god4 ,it was his son1 too1 under a new and foreign name4 ,merodach was son of ,ea only because he had been identified with ,aari1 who was son of ,ea in the theology of ,eridu4 ,henceforward ,ea shines merely by reflected light4 ,his wisdom is handed on to ,merodach2 even the creation of mankind is denied to him4 ,it is not ,ea1 but ,merodach1 who conquers the dragon of chaos and introduces law and order into the world1 and it is equally not ,ea but ,merodach who is the creator of all visible things4 ,ea is not robbed1 like ,bel of ,nippur1 of his name and prerogatives1 he is simply effaced47#bdb7 ,midway between ,nippur and ,eridu stood the city of ,erech4 ,doubtless it was of ,sumerian foundation1 like the other great cities of ,babylonia1 but as far back as we can trace its history it is already a seat of ,semitic power and religious cult4 ,its god was ,anu1 the sky4 ,it may be that ,anu had been brought from elsewhere1 for a ,babylonian inscription of the twelfth century ,b4,c4 calls ,dr rather than ,erech his city2 but if so1 the ,semitic inhabitants of ,erech knew nothing of it4 ,for them ,anu was the protecting god of their city1 the father of ,istar1 whose habitation it was4 ,from the days when ,erech first became a ,semitic possession1 ,anu and ,istar had been worshipped in it side by side4 ,indeed1 it would seem from the inscription of ,lugal-zaggi-i1 discovered at ,nippur1 that at the remote period to which it belongs ,istar had not yet been associated with ,anu in the divine government of ,erech4 ,lugal-zaggi-i was king of ,erech1 and as a consequence 8priest of ,ana10 but not of ,istar4 ,so far as the evidence goes at present1 it points to the fact that the divine patron of ,erech was ,anu1 and that ,istar was introduced by the ,semites1 perhaps from the town of ,dilbat 7now ,dillem74 ,the god and his name were alike borrowed by the ,semite from his ,sumerian predecessor4 ,ana was the ,sumerian word for 8sky10 and it was doubtless a spirit of the sky which had been worshipped by the primitive population of the country4 ,but when the hieroglyphic pictures were first invented1 out of which the cuneiform characters afterwards developed1 the spirit was already on the way to becoming a god4 ,the eight-rayed star which denotes ,ana in the historical days of ,babylonia also denotes a god4 ,he thus became a type of the god as distinguished from the spirit1 and bears witness to the evolution that was already taking place in the religion of ,babylonia4 ,that there had been spirits of the sky1 however1 as well as spirits of the earth1 was never forgotten4 ,by the side of the ,anunna-ki or 8spirits of the earth0 the later theology continued to retain a memory of the ,igigi or spirits of heaven47#bdc7 ,as ,en-lil was the chief among the spirits of the earth1 so it is probable that ,ana was chief among the spirits of the sky4 ,but there was not the same difficulty in accommodating his name and personality to the new conception of a god that there was in the case of ,en-lil4 ,his old ,sumerian title brought with it no associations with animism2 there was no need to change it1 and it could therefore1 like the name of ,ea1 be retained even when the spirit of the sky had become the god of heaven4 ,from the outset ,ana had stood outside the sphere and dominion of ,en-lil2 he was no ghost of the underworld to be degraded or renamed4 ,while1 therefore1 in ,en-lil of ,nippur1 even under his new ,semitic form of ,bel1 the dominant element remained ,sumerian1 and in ,ea of ,eridu the ,semitic and ,sumerian elements were mingled together1 ,ana of ,erech was distinctively a ,semitic god4 ,it was only by main force1 as it were1 that ,en-lil could be transformed into the semblance of a ,semitic ,baal2 up to the last he continued to be lord of the earth rather than of the sky1 whose dwelling-place was below rather than above47#bdd7 ,it was this1 perhaps1 which facilitated his effacement by ,merodach2 the lineaments of a ,baal were more easily traceable in the sun-god of ,babylon than in the god of ,nippur4 ,but the sky-god was already a ,baal4 ,between him and the ,semitic ,baal-shamain1 8the lord of heaven10 the distance was but slight1 and it was not difficult to clothe him with the attributes which the ,semite ascribed to his supreme deity4 ,a consciousness of the fact may possibly be detected in the readiness with which the name and worship of ,anu were accepted in the ,semitic ,west2 when ,babylonian culture made its way to ,canaan1 it was primarily ,anu and the divinities most closely associated with him--,istar1 ,anat1 and ,dagon--who found there a home4 ,ana1 the sky1 thus became ,anu1 the god of a ,semitised ,babylonia4 ,but a ,semitised ,babylonia could not conceive of a god without a goddess who stood to him in the relation of the feminine to the masculine gender4 ,out of ,anu was formed ,anat1 the feminine counterpart of the god4 ,the same process at ,nippur had created a ,belit or ,beltis out of the masculine ,bel4 ,the goddesses owed their existence to a grammatical necessity1 and their unsubstantial and colourless character justified their origin4 ,they fitly represented the relation in which1 according to ,semitic ideas1 the woman stood to the man4 ,she was formed out of him in nature as the feminine was out of the masculine in language1 and her very existence thus depended on her 8lord40 ,there was1 indeed1 a goddess1 even in ,erech1 the centre of ,semitic influence1 who possessed a very strongly-marked and independent character of her own4 ,this was ,istar1 of whom ,i shall have to speak at a future time4 ,but it was just because ,istar possessed this independent character that she could not be the wife of the god of the sky4 ,the ,semitic ,baal brooked the presence of no independent goddess in the divine family2 the wife of the god could not claim rights of her own any more than the wife of the man4 ,anu1 like ,bel and ,ea1 stood alone4 ,erech had been made the capital of a temporarily united ,babylonia at an early age in its ,semitic history4 ,before the days of ,sargon of ,akkad1 ,lugal-zaggi-i--we know him only by his ,sumerian name--had made himself supreme over the smaller ,states of the country1 and even carried his arms to the distant ,west4 ,in an inscription he has left us he boasts that his empire extended 8from the lower sea of the ,tigris and ,euphrates to the upper sea10 presumably the ,mediterranean1 as he further defines his power as stretching 8from the rising to the setting of the sun40 ,erech became the capital of the kingdom1 and it was perhaps at this time that it acquired the name which it bore ever afterwards of 8the city0 par excellence4 ,future ages were never allowed to forget that it had once been the premier city of ,babylonia4 ,lugal-zaggi-i calls himself 8the priest of ,anu10 the god of the city which he had made the seat of his power4 ,anu for awhile was the god of the supreme ,state in ,babylonia1 and therefore supreme god of the whole country4 ,the king1 it is true1 had come from the north1 and his authority had been given him by ,bel of ,nippur2 the old sanctuary of ,nippur still claimed the first place in the religion of ,northern ,babylonia1 and the cult of its god retained its ancient hold on the veneration of the people4 ,but from henceforward he had to share his divine honours with another2 ,bel of ,nippur1 indeed1 conferred the sovereignty1 but the sovereign was priest and vicegerent of ,anu4 ,bel and ,anu were associated together at the head of the pantheon of ,northern ,babylonia1 and the position they occupied in it became more and more unique4 ,so firmly established was it before the reign of ,sargon of ,akkad1 that even his victories and the empire he founded failed to give them a colleague in the god of the new capital city4 ,bel and ,anu remained supreme2 the sun-god of ,akkad or ,sippar had to content himself with a subordinate rank4 ,the theological system which put ,bel and ,anu at its head was already formed1 and the position assigned to them by the veneration and traditions of antiquity was too firmly fixed to be shaken4 ,northern ,babylonia worshipped a dyad in the shape of two supreme gods4 ,but ,babylonia itself was a dual ,state4 ,it was probably on this account that ,lugal-zaggi-i had fixed his capital at ,erech in the centre of the country1 midway between north and south4 ,and the gods of ,northern ,babylonia were not necessarily those of the south4 ,here ,ea was at the head of the divine host2 for the south his city of ,eridu was what ,nippur was for the north1 and the same causes which made ,bel the dispenser of power to the northern princes1 made ,ea the guardian and guide of the monarchy in the south4 ,for their worshippers ,bel and ,ea stood on the same level2 the cult of each alike had descended from a remote antiquity1 and their priests exercised a similar influence and power4 ,as the ,babylonians of the north were called the people of ,bel whom ,bel could grant to whom he would1 so too the mixed races of the south were the creation of ,ea to whom the god of ,eridu had taught the arts of life4 ,the union of north and south consequently brought with it the formation of a divine triad4 ,ea joined himself to ,bel and ,anu1 and the supreme triad of ,anu1 ,bel1 and ,ea thus came into existence4 ,the process of formation was facilitated by the fact that the three gods were already distinguished from one another in their main features4 ,anu was the god of the sky2 the earlier history of ,bel had given him naturally the dominion of the earth2 and though1 in becoming a ,semitic ,baal1 he had acquired the attributes of a god of the upper sphere1 these were allowed to fall into the background4 ,ea was even easier to deal with2 his home was in the deep1 and his rule was accordingly confined to the waters and the sea4 ,that he had once been a god of the land as well as of the sea1 was dropped out of sight1 and in the later centuries of ,babylonia it even began to be forgotten that he had created man out of the dust of the ground4 ,he ceased to be the divine potter1 and became instead the god of the waters1 who pours out the ,tigris and ,euphrates from the vases in his hands4 ,as god of the earth and the living things upon it1 his place was taken by his son4 ,aari1 transformed into the ,semitic sun-god ,merodach1 became the inheritor of his father's wisdom1 and therewith of his father's power4 ,the formation of the ,babylonian triad1 and the differentiation of the divine persons who composed it1 must have been the work of a theological school4 ,it is an artificial scheme elaborated after the union of the northern and southern parts of the country4 ,the universe is divided between the three divine representatives of ,northern1 ,central1 and ,southern ,chalda1 whose sanctuaries were the oldest in the land1 and whose cult had been handed down from time immemorial4 ,the triad once formed became a model after which others could be created4 ,the other great gods followed the example that had been set them1 and were similarly resolved into triads4 ,as the orthodox theological system of ,egypt rested on the ,ennead1 the corresponding ,babylonian system rested on the triad4 ,the principle in each case was much the same4 ,the ,ennead was but a multiple of the triad1 and presupposed the sacred number4 ,perhaps we may see in it the result of a contact between ,sumerian modes of thought and the ,semitic conception of the divine family4 ,where the god had a wife and a son1 the godhead would naturally be regarded as a trinity47#bde7 ,under the first and supreme triad came the second triad of ,sin1 ,samas1 and ,hadad4 ,sin1 the moon-god1 was adored under many names and in many forms4 ,but his two chiefest temples were at ,ur and at ,harran4 ,ur1 the modern ,muqayyar1 on the western bank of the ,euphrates1 had been dedicated to his service from the earliest times4 ,the ruins of his temple still rise in huge mounds from the ground4 ,the city stood outside the limits of the ,babylonian plain1 in the ,semitic territory of the ,arabian desert1 and its ,semitic population was therefore probably large4 ,harran1 the other seat of the moon-god1 was equally beyond the limits of ,babylonia1 and guarded the high road of commerce and war that led from the ,east to the ,west4 ,but the name ,harran1 8the road10 is ,babylonian1 and1 like its temple and god1 the city doubtless owed its origin to ,babylonian colonists4 ,they probably came from ,ur4 ,the moon-god of ,ur is called the son of ,en-lil of ,nippur1 and it may be therefore that ,nippur was the mother-city of ,ur4 ,but it must be remembered that whereas ,ur was built on the desert plateau of ,arabia1 ,nippur stood among the marshes of the ,babylonian plain4 ,its sanctuary could not have been founded before the marshes had been1 at all events1 partially drained1 and the inundating rivers been regulated by dykes and canals4 ,a settlement on the higher and drier ground would seem more naturally to precede one in the pestiferous swamps below it1 and the fact that ,ur was the neighbour of ,eridu seems to point to its early foundation and connection with the old seaport of the country4 ,at the same time the worship of the moon-god is associated with the ,semites of ,arabia and the west rather than with ,eridu1 whose god revealed himself to mankind by day and not in the shades of night47#bdf7 ,it was right and fitting1 however1 that the moon-god should be 8the firstborn0 of the god of ,nippur4 ,the realm of ,en-lil was in the underground world of darkness1 and the spirits over whom he had ruled plied their work at night4 ,naturally1 therefore1 it was from him and the dark world which originally belonged to him that the moon-god proceeded4 ,it may be that ,sin had once been one of the spirits in the domain of ,en-lil1 a mere ghost whom the sorcerer could charm4 ,but with his elevation to the rank of a god his attributes and character grew fixed and defined4 ,in the ancient hymns addressed to him he is far more than a mere god of the moon4 ,his worshipper at ,ur1 where he was known under the name of ,nannar1 addressed him as not only 8lord of the moon10 but also 8prince of the gods10 8the begetter of gods and men40 ,it is thus that we read in an old bilingual hymn-- 8,father1 long-suffering and full of forgiveness1 whose hand upholds the life of all mankind1 ,lord1 thy divinity1 like the far-off heaven1 fills the wide sea with fear 444 ,firstborn1 omnipotent1 whose heart is immensity1 and there is none who shall discern it 444 ,lord1 the ordainer of the laws of heaven and earth1 whose command may not be broken 444 ,in heaven1 who is supreme8 ,thou alone1 thou art supreme6 ,on earth1 who is supreme8 ,thou alone1 thou art supreme6 ,as for thee1 thy will is made known in heaven1 and the angels bow their faces4 ,as for thee1 thy will is made known on earth1 and the spirits below kiss the ground4 ,as for thee1 thy will is blown on high like the wind2 the stall and the fold are quickened4 ,as for thee1 thy will is done on the earth1 and the herb grows green40 ,such language is fitter for a supreme ,baal than for a local moon-god2 and1 in fact1 it was as a supreme ,baal rather than as a local moon-god that ,nannar was adored at ,ur4 ,his connection with the moon was1 as it were1 an accident2 the essential point about him was that he was the guardian god of the city4 ,its temple had been dedicated to him in prehistoric days1 and with the rise of ,semitic influence all the attributes associated with a ,semitic ,baal gathered round his person4 ,he remained1 it is true1 a moon-god1 but he was also more than a moon-god4 ,he was the chief deity of a city whose kings had ruled throughout ,babylonia1 and carried their arms to the distant ,west4 ,his transformation into a supreme ,baal was doubtless assisted by the important place filled by the moon in early ,babylonian culture4 ,the moon was the measurer of time2 the first calendar was a lunar one1 and time was marked by the movements of the moon and not by those of the sun4 ,it was on this account that the moon-god was called ,en-zu1 8the lord of knowledge10 by the ,sumerians2 through him they learned how to regulate the year and the festivals of the gods4 ,astronomy had been cultivated in ,babylonia from the beginning of its history1 and for a nation of astronomers the moon was naturally an object of veneration and regard4 ,it was the symbol of law and order as well as of the light that illuminated the darkness of the night4 ,but we must notice that it was only at ,ur and ,harran that ,sin or ,nannar was thus elevated to the rank of a supreme ,baal4 ,the official theology refused to include him among the three chief gods of the land4 ,he was1 in fact1 as ,professor ,hommel has shown1 rather the ,baal of the ,semitics of ,arabia and the ,west than of the ,babylonians themselves1 and the place occupied by his cult at ,ur proves how completely this city lay outside the limits of the true ,babylonia1 and was peopled by an ,arabian population4 ,the sun-god was born of the moon4 ,the lunar year preceded the solar1 and to the primitive ,babylonian the moon was a more important agent of culture even than the sun4 ,moreover1 the sun seemed to rise from that world of night over which the moon held sway2 the day was begotten by the night1 and was accordingly reckoned from evening to evening4 ,it is not until we come to the later age of ,babylonian history that we find the old system making way for a new one1 in which the day begins at midnight2 and the #ast chapter of ,genesis1 with its 8evening and morning10 perpetuates the ancient system of ,babylonian astronomy4 ,the sun-god was known under many names1 and1 like the moon-god1 was worshipped in many of the ,babylonian cities4 ,but just as in historical times there were two chief seats of the worship of the moon-god1--at ,ur in the south1 and at ,harran in the north1--so too there were two chief seats of the worship of the sun-god1 one in ,southern and the other in ,northern ,babylonia4 ,the southern seat was ,larsa1 the northern ,zimbir or ,sippara on the borders of ,mesopotamia4 ,and as the moon-god of ,ur was older than the moon-god of ,harran1 so there are reasons for thinking that the sun-god of ,larsa was older than his rival at ,sippara4 ,babylonian culture moved from south to north4 ,both at ,larsa and at ,sippara the temple of the sun-god was called -,babbara1--,bit-,uri in ,semitic1--8the house of light40 ,at ,sippara it had been founded or restored by ,naram-,sin1 the son of ,sargon of ,akkad1 in the early days of ,semitic supremacy4 ,the ,sumerian ,utu had already become the ,semitic ,samas1 and clothed himself in the attributes of a ,semitic ,bel4 ,and therewith he had necessarily taken to himself a wife4 ,this was 1 who1 in becoming the consort of a ,semitic ,baal1 was compelled to change her sex4 ,for the ,sumerian was a male god1 a local sun-god1 in fact1 whom ,professor ,jastrow suggests may originally have been the sun-god of one of the separate villages out of the amalgamation of which the city of ,sippara arose47#bdg7 ,sumerian grammar1 however1 did not recognise gender2 so far as outward form was concerned1 the same word1 as in ,english1 might be indifferently masculine or feminine1 and there was therefore nothing in the name of itself which would forbid the foreigner from dealing with it as he would4 ,samas of ,sippara needed a wife1 and 1 despite her male origin1 was accordingly given to him4 ,but the gift was fatal to herself4 ,she lost her individuality1 and became the mere double of her husband4 ,samas absorbed her attributes and worship1 and gradually she sinks out of sight1 or survives only in the works of theological antiquarians or in the literature of the past47#bdh7 ,hadad1 the third in the second triad of the ,babylonian ,state religion1 had no city which he could peculiarly call his own4 ,he had developed out of the ,sumerian spirits of the storm1 who revealed themselves in the raging wind or the tempest of rain4 ,more than one elemental spirit or demon had gone to his making and there was consequently no single sanctuary in which his cult had been handed down from the beginning of time4 ,wherever the storm raged or the deluge descended1 ,hadad was to be found1 like the spirits from whom he had descended4 ,under the influence of ,semitic ideas he gradually became the god of the air4 ,his old character1 indeed never deserted him2 up to the last he remained the divine power1 who not only gave the fertilising rain in the thunder1 and he carried the forked lightning in his hand4 ,god of the air though he was1 he continued to be the storm-god as well4 ,the god of the storm was naturally the god of the mountains4 ,when the armies of ,babylonia first made their way to the ,west1 they found themselves in a land of mountains1 where the storm burst suddenly upon them1 and the streams flowed swollen with rain into the sea4 ,here1 therefore1 in the land of the ,amorites the ,babylonian seemed to have discovered the true home of the god he worshipped4 ,hadad was an ,amorite rather than a ,babylonian1 and the title1 accordingly1 by which he was most frequently addressed in early days was that of 8the ,amorite god40 ,the title is ,sumerian in origin1 and must therefore have been given while as yet the ,sumerian was dominant4 ,this raises the question whether the name by which the god was subsequently known in ,semitic ,babylonia was not rather of ,amorite than of ,babylonian derivation4 ,and there is much in favour of the view4 ,hadad1 or ,rimmon as he was also termed1 was in a special way the god of ,syria4 ,his worship was spread along the whole length of the ,syrian seaboard1 and we find him holding there the rank of a supreme ,baal4 ,it is not as the god of storms1 but as the sun-god himself1 that he was adored in ,syria1 and his very name there became synonymous with deity4 ,that the ,semitised ,sumerian of ,babylonia should have identified the supreme god of a land of mountains and storms with his own storm-god1 we can understand2 that the ,syrian should have transferred the name of a ,babylonian god of storms to his own chief ,baal1 would be difficult to explain4 ,however this may be1 the person of ,hadad is peculiarly ,semitic4 ,the features which he inherited from his ,sumerian ancestry were obscured or dropped1 and he became in all respects a ,semitic god4 ,we need not be surprised1 therefore1 at finding that he was a special favourite in ,assyria4 ,assur-nazir-pal calls him 8the mightiest of the gods10 and the ,assyrian troops in their onset are likened to him47#bdi7 ,the doctrine of the triad was not confined to the more prominent gods4 ,it was extended to others also who occupied a lower rank in the divine hierarchy or in the public cult4 ,thus ,samas helps to form the subordinate triad of ,samas1 ,malik1 and ,bunn1 in which the local sun-gods1 ,malik and ,bunn1 are distinguished from ,samas of ,sippara1 and ,bunn is transformed into a female divinity1 the consort of ,malik4 ,but in all cases the principle is the same4 ,the ,semitic conception of the divine family1 husband1 wife1 and son1 is combined with the older ideas of genderless ,sumerian1 which placed the goddess on the same level as the god1 and the result is a triad in which the ,sumerian element has so far prevailed as to exclude the mother and son1 and leave three gods of equal power and rank47#bej7 ,the ,babylonian triad is thus in no way a trinity4 ,the divine persons who compose it are coequal and independent one of the other1 the sphere of each being limited by that of the other4 ,but they divide the whole universe between them1 or at all events that part of the universe over which their attributes and authority extend4 ,they are partners with carefully defined powers1 arranged in groups of three4 ,none of them is a supreme ,baal dominant over the other two4 ,nor1 indeed1 are they ,baalim at all in the strict sense of the word4 ,for the ,semitic ,baalim admitted of no such grouping2 each was supreme god in his own locality1 where his powers were neither shared nor limited by another god4 ,a triad like that of ,anu1 ,bel1 and ,ea could not exist where each local ,baal claimed all the attributes that were divided between the three ,babylonian deities1 and its existence in ,babylonia is one of many proofs that1 though ,babylonian religion in its later form was moulded by ,semitic hands1 the elements that composed it had come in large measure from an older faith4 ,lecture ,,iv4 ,the ,sun-,god ,and ,istar4 ,it is thus that ,nebuchadrezzar addresses his god in the plenitude of his glory and power-- 8,to ,merodach1 my lord1 ,i prayed2 ,i began to him my petition2 the word of my heart sought him1 and ,i said3 #8,o prince that art from everlasting1 lord of all that exists1 for the king whom thou lovest1 whom thou callest by name1 as it seems good unto thee thou guidest his name aright1 thou watchest over him in the path of righteousness6 ,i1 the prince who obeys thee1 am the work of thy hands2 thou hast created me1 and hast intrusted to me the sovereignty over multitudes of men1 according to thy goodness1 ,o lord1 which thou hast made to pass over them all4 ,let me love thy supreme lordship1 let the fear of thy divinity exist in my heart1 and give what seemeth good unto thee1 since thou maintainest my life4' ,then he1 the firstborn1 the glorious1 the leader of the gods1 ,merodach the prince1 heard my prayer and accepted my petition407#bea7 8,to ,merodach1 my lord1 ,i prayed1 and lifted up my hand3 #8,o ,merodach1 7my7 lord1 the wise one of the gods1 the mighty prince1 thou didst create me and hast intrusted to me the dominion over multitudes of men2 as my own dear life do ,i love the height of thy court2 among all mankind have ,i not built a city of the earth fairer than thy city of ,babylon4 ,as ,i have loved the fear of thy divinity and have sought after thy lordship1 accept the lifting up of my hands1 hearken to my petition1 for ,i the king am the adorner 7of the shrine7 who rejoices thy heart1 an instructed ruler1 the adorner of all thy fortresses4' 07#beb7 ,the god before whom the great ,babylonian conqueror thus humbles himself in passionate devotion1 was the divine guardian and lord of his capital city4 ,ever since the days when ,babylon had been but one of the many villages of ,babylonia1 ,merodach had been its presiding god4 ,it was to him that -,saggil1 its sanctuary1 was dedicated1 and from him and his priesthood the kings of ,babylon derived their right to rule4 ,merodach had given them their supremacy1 first in ,babylonia and then throughout ,western ,asia1 and the supremacy he bestowed upon them was reflected upon himself4 ,the god followed the fortunes of his city1 because through him his city had risen to power2 and he became ,bel1 8the lord10 not for the inhabitant of ,babylon only1 but for all the civilised world4 ,like ,amon of ,thebes1 ,bel-,merodach of ,babylon supplanted the older gods of the country because the city wherein he was worshipped supplanted the earlier seats of ,babylonian power4 ,like ,amon of ,thebes1 moreover1 ,merodach of ,babylon owed much to his solar character4 ,youngest of the gods though he might be1 he was yet a form of the sun-god17#bec7 and as such a representative and impersonation of the supreme ,baal4 ,however much his solar features were overshadowed by other attributes in later days1 they were never wholly obscured1 and his solar origin was remembered to the last4 ,it was never forgotten that before he became the supreme ,bel or 8lord0 of ,babylonian theology he had been merely a local sun-god1 like ,utu of ,larsa or ,samas of ,sippara4 ,we can even trace his cult to ,sumerian days4 ,a punning etymology1 proposed for his name in an age when the true origin of it had been lost1 made him the amar-utuki or 8heifer of the goblin02 and the fact that the sun-god was known to have once been an utuk or 8goblin0 seemed to lend countenance to it4 ,but when we first catch glimpses of his worship1 he has already ceased to belong to the goblins of the night4 ,he has been identified with ,asari the son of ,ea of ,eridu1 and has thus became the messenger and interpreter of the culture-god4 ,in the language of ,sumer1 ,asari signified 8the strong one0 or 8prince407#bed7 ,his name was expressed by two ideographs which denoted 8place0 and 8eye10 and had precisely the same meaning and form as the two which expressed the name of the ,egyptian ,osiris47#bee7 ,between the ,sumerian ,asari and the ,egyptian ,osiris1 therefore1 it seems probable that there was a connection4 ,and to my mind the probability is raised to practical certainty by the fact that the character and attributes of both ,asari and ,osiris were the same4 ,osiris was ,un-nefer1 8the good being10 whose life was spent in benefiting and civilising mankind2 ,asari also was 8the good heifer0 7amar-dugga71 and his common title was that of 8the prince who does good to men0 7,aari-galu-dugga74 ,he it was who conveyed to men the teaching of ,ea1 who healed their diseases by means of his father's spells1 and who 8raised the dead to life40 ,asari and ,osiris are not only the same in name and pictorial representation1 they play the same part in the history of religion and culture4 ,but there was one important difference between them4 ,osiris was a dead god1 whose kingdom was in the other world2 ,asari brought help to the living1 whom he restored from sickness and delivered from death4 ,even in ,egypt1 however1 it was remembered that ,osiris had been a god of the living before he was god of the dead4 ,tradition told how he had instructed men in the arts of life1 and done for primeval ,egypt what ,ea and ,asari had done for ,chalda4 ,the difference between him and ,asari is a difference that runs through the whole of ,egyptian and ,babylonian theology4 ,the ,egyptian of the historical period fixed his eyes on the future life1 and the god he worshipped accordingly was the god who judged and saved him in the other world2 the religion of the ,babylonian was confined to this world1 and it was in this world only that he was judged by the sun-god1 and received his sentence of reward or punishment4 ,the mummified sun-god did not exist for the ,babylonians1 for the practice of mummification was unknown among them4 ,it is possible that ,aari1 8the prince who does good to men10 had been originally a title of ,ea4 ,if so1 the title and the god had been separated from one another at an early epoch1 and the title had become itself a god who owned ,ea as his father4 ,this relationship between ,ea and his son betrays ,semitic--or at all events foreign--influence4 ,the ghosts and spirits of primitive ,sumerian belief were not bound together by any such family ties2 the demons of the night had little in common with the men they terrified and plagued4 ,asari had once been conceived of as a ram1 ,ea as an antelope2 and between the ram and the antelope no genetic relationship was possible4 ,they might be united together like the composite creatures which had come down to the ,babylonians from the old ,sumerian days1 but there could be no birth of one from the other4 ,birth characterises the present creation in which like springs from like2 it was only in the time of chaos that unlike forms could be mingled together in disorderly confusion4 ,that ,asari was a sun-god follows from his identification with ,merodach4 ,here and here only could have been the link which bound the two deities together47#bef7 ,but in passing into ,merodach he lost his own personality4 ,henceforth the son of ,ea and the god of ,babylon are one and the same4 ,it was but gradually that he attained his high position in the ,babylonian pantheon4 ,ea and ,asari were gods of the south2 ,babylon lay in the northern half of the country4 ,there must therefore have been some special reason for the close connection that grew up between them4 ,i know of no other that would account for it except the one ,i gave many years ago--that ,babylon was a colony from ,eridu4 ,in this case we could understand why its local deity should have been a son of ,ea1 and how accordingly it became possible to identify him with that particular son of the god of ,eridu whose attributes resembled his own4 ,it is difficult at present to trace the history of ,merodach beyond the age of the dynasty of ,khammurabi4 ,it was then that ,babylon became an imperial city1 and the power of its god grew with the power of its rulers4 ,the dynasty was ,semitic1 though of foreign origin2 and we may gather from the names of the first two kings that the ancestral god of the family had been amu7#beg7 or ,shem4 ,but with the possession of ,babylon the manners and religion of ,babylonia were adopted2 the fourth king of the dynasty bears a ,babylonian name17#beh7 and his grandson ascribes his victories to the god of ,babylon4 ,merodach is invested by ,khammurabi with all the attributes of a supreme ,semitic ,baal4 ,his solar character falls into the background2 he becomes the lord of gods and men1 who delivers the weak and punishes the proud4 ,the office of judge1 which belonged to him as the sun-god1 is amplified2 the wisdom he had derived from ,ea is made part of his original nature2 his quality of mercy is insisted on again and again4 ,like the ,semitic ,baal1 he is the father of his people1 the mighty king who rules the world and occupies the foremost place in the council of the gods4 ,already the son of ,khammurabi declares that the older ,bel of ,nippur had transferred to ,merodach the sovereignty of the civilised world2 the power of ,nippur and its priesthood had passed to ,babylon1 and its god had to make way for a younger rival4 ,as long as ,babylon remained the capital of the kingdom1 the ,bel or 8lord0 of ,babylonia was ,merodach4 ,the god followed the fortunes of his ,state4 ,the sanctity that had lingered for so many centuries around the temple of ,nippur now passed to -,saggil1 the temple of ,merodach4 ,the priests of ,merodach inherited the rights and functions of the priests of ,en-lil4 ,from henceforth it was ,merodach and his priests who could make and unmake kings2 it was only the prince who had 8taken the hand of ,bel0 of ,babylon1 and thereby been adopted as his son1 that could claim legitimate rule4 ,the descendants of the conquerors who had carried ,babylonian culture to the lands of the ,west1 derived their title to dominion not from ,nippur1 but from ,babylon1 and it was forgotten that the title had ever had any other source4 ,the lordship of the world had indeed been transferred to a new god and a new city2 ,zeus had supplanted his father ,kronos4 ,a sort of pan in praise of ,merodach1 which is supposed to form part of the ,epic of the ,creation1 describes how the god of ,babylon received the names1 and therewith the attributes and powers1 of the older deities4 ,in the great assembly of the gods he was greeted as their ,zi or 8,life107#bei7 then as ,ea under his name of 8god of divine life10 then as ,hadad or the god of 8the good wind107#bfj7 and finally as ,sin with 8the divine crown10 in whose name he became 8the merciful one who brings back the dead to life40 ,the ceremony was not concluded until he had received all 8the fifty names of the great gods10 whose virtues and essence had thus1 as it were1 passed into himself4 ,not only was he their heir1 he also absorbed their whole being1 and so became one with his father1 who is made to say3 8,he is become even as myself1 for ,ea is 7now7 his name40 ,in these words we are brought very near to the ,egyptian doctrine which transmuted one god into another1 and saw in them only so many forms of the same divinity4 ,but the stage of pantheism was never reached in ,babylonia4 ,the ,semitic element in ,babylonian religion was too strong to admit of it2 the attributes and character of each deity were too clearly cut and defined1 and the ,semitic mind was incapable of transforming the human figures of the gods into nebulous abstractions4 ,the god was too much of a man1 moving in too well marked a sphere1 to be resolved into a mere form or manifestation4 ,merodach might receive from the other gods their attributes and the power to exercise them1 but it was delegation and not absorption4 ,the other gods still retained the attributes that belonged to them1 and the right to use them if they would4 ,merodach was their vicegerent and successor rather than themselves under another form4 ,hence it is that the human element in the ,babylonian god predominated over the abstract and divine4 ,his solar attributes fell into the background1 and he became more and more the representative of a human king who rules his people justly1 and whose orders all are bound to obey4 ,he became1 in fact1 a ,semitic ,baal1 made in human form1 and consequently conceived of as an exaggerated or superhuman man4 ,the other gods are his subjects1 not forms under which he can reveal himself2 they retain their individualities1 and constitute his court4 ,there is no nebulosity1 no pantheism1 in the religion of ,semitic ,babylonia2 the formless divinity and the animal worship of ,egypt are alike unknown to it4 ,as is the man1 so is the god1 for the one has been made in the likeness of the other4 ,nevertheless the solar origin of ,merodach left its impress upon the theology of the ,state4 ,it had much to do with that process of identifying one god with another1 which1 as we have seen1 tended to approximate the doctrines of ,babylonia to those of ,egypt4 ,though the individual gods were distinguished and marked off from one another like individual men1 it was yet possible to get as it were behind the individual traits1 and find in certain of them a common element in which their individual peculiarities were lost4 ,the name1 so the ,babylonian believed1 was the essence of the person or thing to which it was attached2 that which had no name did not exist1 and its existence commenced only when it received its name4 ,a nameless god could not exist any more than a nameless man1 and a knowledge of his name brought with it a knowledge of his real nature and powers4 ,but a name was transferable2 it could be taken from one object and given to another1 and therewith the essential characteristics which had belonged to the first would become the property of the other4 ,when the name was changed1 the person or thing was changed along with it4 ,to give ,merodach another name1 therefore1 was equivalent to changing his essential characteristics1 and endowing him with the nature and properties of another god4 ,the solar character which belonged to him primitively gave the first impulse to this transference and change of name4 ,there were other solar deities in ,babylonia1 with distinct personalities of their own1 for they were each called by an individual name4 ,but the sun which they typified and represented was the same everywhere1 and the attributes of the solar divinity differed but little in the various ,states of ,semitic ,babylonia4 ,it was easy1 therefore1 to assign to the one the name of another1 and the assignment brought with it a change of personality4 ,with the name came the personality of the god to whom it originally belonged1 and who now1 as it were1 lost his individual existence4 ,it passed into the person of the other deity2 the two gods were identified together2 but it was not by the absorption of the one into the other but by the loss of individual existence on the part of one of them4 ,it was no resolution of two independent beings into a common form1 but rather the substitution of one individual for another4 ,this process of assimilation was assisted by the ,babylonian conception of the goddess4 ,by the side of the god1 the goddess was little more than a colourless abstraction which owed its origin to the necessities of grammar4 ,the individual element was absent2 all that gave form and substance to the goddess was the particular name she happened to bear4 ,without the name she had no existence1 and the name itself was but an epithet which could be interchanged with another epithet at the will of the worshipper4 ,the goddesses of ,babylonia were thus like the colours of a kaleidoscope1 constantly shifting and passing one into another4 ,as long as the name existed1 indeed1 there was an individuality attached to it2 but with the change of name the individuality changed too4 ,the individuality depended more on the name in the case of the goddess than in the case of the god2 for the goddess possessed nothing but the name which she could call her own1 while the god was conceived of as a human lord and master with definite powers and attributes4 ,there was1 it is true1 one goddess1 ,istar1 who resembled the god in this respect2 but it was just the goddess ,istar who retained her independent personality with as much tenacity as the gods4 ,when once the various sun-gods of ,babylonia had been assimilated1 or identified1 one with the other1 it was not difficult to extend the process yet further4 ,as the city of ,merodach increased in power1 lording it over the other ,states of the country1 and giving to their inhabitants its own name1 so ,merodach himself took precedence over the older gods of ,babylonia1 and claimed the authority and the attributes which had belonged to them4 ,their names1 and therewith their powers1 were transferred to him2 the supremacy of ,en-lil1 the wisdom of ,ea1 the glory of ,anu1 alike became his4 ,the 8tablets of destiny10 which conferred on their possessor the government of the visible world1 were taken from the older ,bel and given to his younger rival2 the wisdom of which ,merodach had once been the interpreter now became his own2 and1 like ,anu1 his rule extended to the farthest regions of the sky4 ,but in thus taking the place of the great gods of earth and heaven1 ,merodach was at the same time the inheritor and owner of their names4 ,if the tablets of destiny had passed into his possession1 it was because he had assumed along with them the name of ,bel2 if ,ea and ,anu had yielded to him their ancient prerogatives1 it was because he had himself been transformed into the ,ea and ,anu of the new official theology4 ,the ,babylonian hymn in honour of ,merodach1 when it declares that the fifty names of the great gods had been conferred upon him1 only expresses in another form the conviction that he had entered into the heritage of the older gods4 ,as time went on1 and ,babylon continued to be the sovereign city of the kingdom1 the position of its god became at once more exalted and more secure4 ,the solar features in his character passed out of sight2 he was not only the giver of the empire of the world to his adopted son and vicegerent1 the king of ,babylon1 he was also the divine counterpart and representative of the king in heaven4 ,the god had made man in his own image1 and he was now transformed into the likeness of men4 ,two ideas1 consequently1 struggled for the mastery in ,babylonian religion--the anthropomorphic conception of the deity1 and the belief in his identification with other gods2 and the result was an amalgamation of the two4 ,merodach was the divine man1 freed from the limitations of our mortal existence1 and therefore able not only to rule over the other gods1 but also1 like the magician1 to make their natures his own4 ,the other gods continued to exist indeed1 but it was as his subjects who had yielded up to him their powers1 and of whom1 accordingly1 he could dispose as seemed to him good4 ,originally the first among his peers1 he ended--at least in the belief of the native of ,babylon--in becoming supreme over them1 and absorbing into himself all the attributes and prerogatives of divinity4 ,it was not1 however1 till the closing days of ,babylonian independence that an attempt was made to give outward and visible expression to the fact4 ,nabonidos1 the last king of ,babylon and the nominee of its priesthood1 took the images of the gods from their ancient shrines and carried them to ,babylon4 ,there1 in the temple of ,merodach1 they formed as it were his court1 bowing in reverence before him1 when1 on the festival of the ,new ,year1 he announced the destinies of the future4 ,it was an effort to centralise the religion of the country1 and give public proof of the supremacy of the god of ,babylon4 ,like the parallel endeavour of ,hezekiah in ,judah1 the attempt of ,nabonidos naturally aroused the hostility of the local priesthoods2 and1 when ,cyrus invaded the country1 there was already a party in it ready to welcome him as a deliverer1 and to maintain that ,merodach himself had been angered by the sacrilegious king4 ,the attempt1 indeed1 came too late1 and ,nabonidos was too superstitious and full of respect for the older sanctuaries and gods of ,babylonia to carry it out in other than a half-hearted way4 ,but it indicated the tendency of religious thought1 and the direction in which the official worship of ,merodach was irresistibly bearing its adherents4 ,merodach1 like his city1 was supreme1 and the older gods were surely passing away4 ,the tendency was checked1 however1 by the long continuity of ,babylonian history4 ,babylonian records went back far beyond the days when ,babylon had become the capital of the kingdom4 ,it was remembered that there had been other centres of power1 in ages when as yet ,babylon was but an obscure village4 ,it was never forgotten that the god of ,nippur had once made and unmade kings1 that ,akkad had been the seat of an empire1 or that ,ur had preceded ,babylon as the capital of the ruling dynasty4 ,babylonian history did not begin with the rise of ,babylon to power1 much as the priests of ,babylon wished to make it do so2 and the chronological schemes which made a native of ,babylon the first ruler of mankind1 or traced to ,babylon the first observations of astronomy1 were but fictions which a little acquaintance with history could easily refute4 ,the earlier cities of the land were proud of their traditions and their temples1 and were not inclined to give them up in favour of the parvenu city of ,merodach2 their religious corporations were still wealthy1 and their sanctuaries still commanded the reverence of the people4 ,wholly to displace and efface them was impossible1 as long as history continued to be written and the past to be remembered4 ,the sun-god of ,sippara1 the moon-god of ,ur or ,harran1 even ,en-lil of ,nippur1 all remained the rivals of ,merodach down to the latest days of ,babylonian existence4 ,nabonidos himself was forced to conform to the prevailing sentiment2 he bestowed almost as much care on the temple of the moon-god at ,harran1 and the temple of the sun-god at ,sippara1 as upon that of ,merodach at ,babylon1 though1 it is true1 he tells us that it was ,merodach who bade him restore the sanctuary of ,sin1 while the sun-god of ,sippara might be considered to be ,merodach himself under another name47#bfa7 ,it was thus history which prevented the rise of anything like monotheism in ,babylonia4 ,it was impossible to break with the past1 and the past was bound up with polytheism and with the existence of great cities1 each with its separate god and sanctuary and the minor divinities who revolved around them4 ,at the same time the tendency to monotheism existed2 and could the ,babylonian have blotted out the past1 it might have ended in the worship of but one god4 ,as it was1 the language of the later inscriptions sometimes approaches very nearly that of the monotheist4 ,when ,nebuchadrezzar prays to ,merodach1 his words might often have been those of a ,jew2 and even at an earlier date the moon-god is called by his worshipper 8supreme0 in earth and heaven1 omnipotent and creator of all things2 while an old religious poem refers1 in the abstract1 to 8the god0 who confers lordship on men4 ,as was long ago pointed out by ,sir ,h4 ,rawlinson1 ,anu1 whose written name became synonymous with 8god10 is identified with various cosmic deities1 both male and female1 in a theological list27#bfb7 and ,dr4 ,pinches has published a tablet in which the chief divinities of the ,babylonian pantheon are resolved into forms of ,merodach47#bfc7 ,en-lil becomes 8the ,merodach of sovereignty10 ,nebo 8the ,merodach of earthly possessions10 ,nergal 8the ,merodach of war40 ,this is but another way of expressing that identification of the god of ,babylon with the other deities of ,babylonian belief which1 as we have seen1 placed him at the head of the divine hierarchy1 and1 by depriving them of their attributes and powers1 tended to reduce them into mere angel-ministers of a supreme god4 ,there was yet another cause which prevented the religion of ,babylonia from assuming a monotheistic form4 ,as we have seen1 the majority of the ,babylonian goddesses followed the usual ,semitic type1 and were little else than reflections of the male divinity4 ,but there was one goddess who retained her independence1 and claimed equal rank with the gods4 ,against her power and prerogatives the influence of ,semitic theology contended in vain4 ,the ,sumerian element continued to exist in the mixed ,babylonian nation1 and1 like the woman who held a position in it which was denied her where the ,semite was alone dominant1 the goddess ,istar remained the equal of the gods4 ,even her name never assumed the feminine termination which denoted the ,semitic goddess2 ,semitised though she might be1 she continued to be essentially a ,sumerian deity4 ,many years ago1 in my ,hibbert ,lectures1 ,i first drew attention to the fact that ,istar belonged to the non-,semitic part of the ,babylonian population1 and in both name and attributes was foreign to ,semitic modes of thought4 ,the best proof of this is to be found in the transformations she underwent when her worship was carried by ,babylonian culture to the more purely ,semitic peoples of the ,west4 ,in ,arabia and ,moab she became a male deity2 the ideas and functions connected with her were incompatible in the ,semitic mind with the conception of a female divinity4 ,even in ,babylonia itself there were those who believed in a male ,istar27#bfd7 and the official theology itself spoke of an androgynous deity1 of an ,istar who was at once a goddess and a god47#bfe7 ,in ,canaan1 where her female nature was accepted1 she was changed into a ,semitic goddess2 the feminine suffix was attached to her name1 and her attributes were assimilated to those of the native goddess ,ashrah4 ,in ,assyria1 too1 we can see the same process going on4 ,the name of ,istar with the feminine termination of ,semitic grammar becomes a mere synonym of 8goddess10 and1 as in ,canaan1 the ,istars1 or rather the ,ashtoreths1 mean merely the goddesses of the popular cult1 the female counterparts of the ,baalim or 8,baals40 ,it was only the ,state religion1 which had its roots in ,babylonia1 that prevented ,istar of ,nineveh or ,istar of ,arbela from becoming a ,canaanitish ,ashtoreth4 ,this was the fate that had actually befallen some of the old ,sumerian deities4 ,in the ,sippara of ,semitic days1 for example1 the wife of the sun-god was the goddess 4 ,but had once been the sun-god himself1 and texts exist in which he is still regarded as a god4 ,sumerian grammar was genderless2 there was no distinction in it between masculine and feminine1 and the divine names of the ,sumerian pantheon could consequently be classified by the ,semite as he would4 ,he had only to apply a feminine epithet to one of them1 and it forthwith became the name of a goddess4 ,sippara already had its sun-god ,samas3 there was no room for another1 and accordingly became his wife4 ,but in becoming his wife she lost her individuality2 her attributes and powers were absorbed by ,samas1 and in the later ,semitic theology she serves only to complete the divine family or triad4 ,istar succeeded in escaping any such effacement or degradation4 ,her worship was too deeply rooted in ,babylonia1 and too intimately associated with the religious traditions of the past4 ,the same historical reasons which prevented monotheism from developing out of ,babylonian polytheism prevented ,istar from degenerating into an ,ashtoreth4 ,at times she came perilously near to such a fate3 in the penitential psalms we find the beginnings of it2 and1 when ,babylon became the head of the kingdom1 the supremacy of ,merodach threatened the independence and authority of ,istar even more than it threatened those of the other 8great gods40 ,but the cult of ,istar had been fixed and established long before ,merodach was more than a petty provincial god2 she was the goddess and patroness of ,erech1 and ,erech had once been the capital of a ,babylonian empire4 ,it was needful that that fact should be forgotten before ,istar could be dethroned from the position she held in the religion of ,babylonia1 whether official or popular4 ,all attempts to find a ,semitic etymology for the name of ,istar have been a failure4 ,we must be content to leave it unexplained1 and to recognise the foreign character both of the name and of the goddess whom it represented4 ,in ,babylonia the name was never ,semitised2 the character of the goddess1 on the other hand1 was adapted1 though imperfectly1 to ,semitic modes of thought4 ,she took upon her the attributes of a ,baal1 and presided over war as well as over love4 ,one result of this mingling of ,semitic and ,sumerian ideas was the difficulty of fitting her into the family system of ,semitic theology4 ,she could not have a wife1 for she was a goddess2 it was equally difficult to assign to her her shadow and counterpart1 which was contrary to all the preconceptions of the ,semitic mind4 ,generally1 therefore1 if not officially1 she was conceived of as a virgin1 or at all events as a goddess who might indulge in amours so long as they did not lead to regular marriage4 ,even ,tammuz was the bridegroom rather than the husband of her youth1 and he too had been banished to the darkness of the underground world long before ,istar herself had interfered with the affairs of men4 ,she has been described as the female principle corresponding with the male principle in the world3 but the description is incorrect2 she was rather the male principle in female form4 ,istar at the outset was the spirit of the evening star4 ,in days1 however1 when astronomy was as yet in its infancy1 the evening and the morning stars were believed to be the same4 ,it was only in aftertimes that an endeavour was made to distinguish between the ,istar of the evening and the ,istar of the morning4 ,originally they were one and the same1 the herald at once of night and day4 ,it was on this account that ,istar was associated with ,ana1 the sky4 ,the sky was her father1 for she was born from it at sunset and dawn2 and if other traditions or myths made her the daughter of the moon-god1 they were not accepted at ,erech1 the centre and source of her cult4 ,in virtue of her origin she formed a triad with ,samas and ,sin4 ,the sun1 the moon1 and the evening star divided1 as it were1 the heavens between them1 and presided over its destinies4 ,they were the luminaries that regulated the seasons of the year and determined the orderly course of the present creation4 ,istar represents 8the stars 0 of ,genesis that were made with the sun and moon4 ,but in the ,babylonian system the triad of ,istar1 ,sin1 and ,samas was not made1 they were deities that were born4 ,before them was the older and higher triad of ,anu1 ,bel1 and ,ea1--the sky1 the earth1 and the water1--the three elements of which the whole universe was formed4 ,how the spirit of the evening star came in time to be the goddess of love1 is not difficult to understand4 ,even modern poets have sung of the evening as the season of lovers1 when the work and business of the day are over1 and words of love can be whispered under the pale light of the evening star4 ,but this alone will not explain the licentious worship that was carried on at ,erech in the name of ,istar4 ,it was essentially ,semitic in its character1 and illustrates that intensity of belief which made the ,semite sacrifice all he possessed to the deity whom he adored4 ,the prostitution that was practised in the name of ,istar had the same origin as the sacrifice of the firstborn1 or the orgies that were celebrated in the temples of the sun-god4 ,at ,erech1 ,istar was served by organised bands of unmarried maidens who prostituted themselves in honour of the goddess4 ,the prostitution was strictly religious1 as much so as the ceremonial cannibalism formerly prevalent among the ,south ,sea ,islanders4 ,in return for the lives they led1 the 8handmaids of ,istar0 were independent and free from the control of men4 ,they formed a religious community1 the distinguishing feature of which was the power of indulging the passions of womanhood without the disabilities which amongst a ,semitic population these would otherwise have brought4 ,the 8handmaid of ,istar0 owned allegiance only to the goddess she served4 ,her freedom was dependent on her priesthood1 but in return for this freedom she had to give up all the pleasures of family life4 ,it was a self-surrender which placed the priestess outside the restrictions of the family code1 and was yet for the sake of a principle which made that family code possible4 ,baal1 the lord of the ,semitic family1 claimed the firstborn as his right1 and ,istar or ,ashtoreth similarly demanded the service of its daughters4 ,it was the same in ,canaan as at ,erech4 ,did the rites1 and the beliefs on which the rites were based1 migrate from ,babylonia to the ,west along with ,babylonian culture1 or were they a common ,semitic heritage in which ,erech and ,phnicia shared alike8 ,it is difficult to give a precise answer to the question4 ,on the one hand1 we know that the ,ashtoreth of ,canaan was of ,babylonian birth1 and that in days far remote the theology of the ,canaanite was profoundly influenced by that of ,babylonia2 on the other hand1 the rites with which ,istar was worshipped were confined in ,babylonia to ,erech2 it was there only that her 8handmaids0 and eunuch-priests were organised into communities1 and that unspeakable abominations were practised in her name4 ,the ,istar who was adored elsewhere was a chaste and passionless goddess1 the mother of her people whom she had begotten1 or their stern leader in war4 ,it does not seem likely that a cult which was unable to spread in ,babylonia or ,assyria should nevertheless have taken deep root in ,phnicia1 had there not already been there a soil prepared to receive it4 ,erech was essentially a ,semitic city2 its supreme god ,anu had all the features of the ,semitic ,baal1 8the lord of heaven02 and its goddess ,istar1 ,sumerian though she may have been in origin1 like ,anu himself1 had clothed herself in a ,semitic dress4 ,moreover1 there was another side to the worship of ,istar which bears indirect testimony to the ,semitic origin of her cult at ,erech4 ,by the side of the ,istar of the official faith there was another ,istar1 who presided over magic and witchcraft4 ,her priestesses were the witches who plied their unholy calling under the shadow of night1 and mixed the poisonous philtres which drained away the strength of their hapless victims4 ,the black ,istar1 as we may call her1 was a parody of the goddess of love2 and the rites with which she was adored1 and the ministers by whom she was served1 were equally parodies of the cult that was carried on at ,erech4 ,but the black ,istar was not only a parody of the goddess of the ,state religion1 she was also the ,istar of the popular creed1 of the creed of that part of the population1 in fact1 which was least intermixed with ,semitic elements and least influenced by ,semitic beliefs4 ,it was amongst this portion of the nation that the old ,sumerian animism lingered longest and resisted the purer teaching of the educated class4 ,the ,semitic conceptions which underlay the worship of ,istar at ,erech were never thoroughly assimilated by it2 all that it could do was to create a parody and caricature of the official cult1 adapting it to those older beliefs and ideas which bad found their centre in the temple of ,en-lil4 ,the black ,istar was a ,sumerian ghost masquerading in ,semitic garb4 ,as ,bel attracted to himself the other gods1 appropriating their names and therewith their essence and attributes1 so ,istar attracted the unsubstantial goddesses of the ,babylonian pantheon4 ,they became mere epithets of the one female divinity who maintained her independent existence by the side of the male gods4 ,one by one they were identified with her person1 and passed into the ,istart1 or ,istars1 of the later creed4 ,like the ,baalim1 the ,istart owed what separate individuality they possessed to geography4 ,on the theological side the ,istar of ,nineveh was identical with the ,istar of ,arbela2 what distinguished them was the local sphere over which they held jurisdiction4 ,the difference between them was purely geographical3 the one was attached to a particular area over which her power extended1 and where she was adored1 while the other was the goddess of another city--that was all4 ,it was the same goddess1 but a different local cult4 ,the deity remained the same1 but her relations1 both to her worshippers and to the other gods1 were changed4 ,there is no transmutation of form as in ,egypt1 but a change of relations1 which have their origin in geographical variety4 ,in ,babylonia1 however1 ,istar was not so completely without a rival as she was in ,assyria4 ,there was another city of ancient fame which1 like ,erech1 was under the protection of a goddess rather than of a god4 ,this was one of the two ,sipparas on the banks of the ,euphrates1 which is distinguished in the inscriptions from the ,sippara of ,samas as the ,sippara of ,anunit4 ,the feminine termination of the name of ,anunit indicates that here again we have a goddess who1 in the form in which we know her1 is essentially ,semitic4 ,but it is only in the form in which we know her that such is the case4 ,the origin of ,anunit goes back to ,sumerian times4 ,she was in the beginning merely an ,anunna or 8spirit0 of the earth1 as sexless as the other spirits of ,sumerian belief1 and lacking all the characteristics of a ,semitic divinity47#bff7 ,it was not till ,sippara became the seat of a ,semitic empire that the ,anunna or ,sumerian 8spirit0 was transformed into ,anunit the goddess4 ,the transformation here was accompanied by the same outward change as that which turned the ,babylonian ,istar into the ,ashtoreth of ,canaan4 ,for a time it seemed as though ,anunit rather than ,istar would become the supreme goddess of ,semitic cult2 but the political predominance of ,sippara passed away with the fall of the empire of ,sargon of ,akkad1 and historical conservatism alone preserved the name and influence of its goddess4 ,as time went on1 ,anunit tended more and more to sink into the common herd of ,babylonian goddesses1 or to be identified with ,istar4 ,as long as the ,sumerian element continued to be strong in the ,babylonian people and their religion1 ,anunit retained the position which the mixture of the ,semite and ,sumerian had created for her2 with the growing dominance of the ,semitic spirit1 her independence and individuality departed1 and she became1 like ,beltis or ,gula1 merely the female complement of the god4 ,perhaps the process was hastened by the grammatical termination that had been added to her name4 ,wherever1 in fact1 ,semitic influence prevailed1 the goddess1 as opposed to the god1 tended to disappear4 ,it was but a step from the conception of a god with a colourless counterpart1 whose very existence seemed to be due to the necessities of grammar1 to that of a deity who absorbed within himself the female as well as the male principles of the universe1 and who stood alone and unmated4 ,a goddess who depended for her existence on a grammatical accident could have no profound or permanent hold on the belief of the people2 she necessarily fell into the background1 and the prerogatives which had belonged to her were transferred to the god4 ,istar herself1 thanks to the masculine form of her name1 became a god in ,southern ,arabia1 and was identified with ,chemosh in ,moab1 while even in ,babylonia and ,assyria she assumed the attributes of a male divinity1 and was adored as the goddess of war as well as of love47#bfg7 ,in ,assyria1 indeed1 her warlike character predominated3 she took the place of the war-gods of ,babylonia1 and armed herself with the falchion and bow4 ,i shall have hereafter to point out how this tendency on the part of the goddess to vanish1 as it were1 out of sight1 leaving the god alone in possession1 resulted in ,assyria in raising its supreme god ,assur to something of the position occupied by ,yahveh in ,israel4 ,assur is wifeless2 now and again1 it is true1 a wife is assigned to him by the pedantry of the scribes1 but who it should be was never settled2 and that he needed a wife at all1 was never acknowledged generally4 ,like ,chemosh in ,moab1 ,assur reigns alone2 and though the immemorial influence of ,babylonia kept alive the worship of ,istar by the side of him1 it was ,assur and ,assur only who led the ,assyrian armies to victory1 and in whose name they subdued the disobedient4 ,it was not until the kings of ,assyria became kings also of ,babylon that ,istar encroached on the rights of ,assur1 or that an ,assyrian monarch betook himself to her rather than to the god of his fathers in the hour of his necessity4 ,as long as the capital remained at the old city of ,assur1 none but the god ,assur might direct the counsels and campaigns of its princes1 or confer upon them the crown of sovereignty4 ,when ,tiglath-pileser ,,iii4 acknowledged himself the son of ,bel-,merodach1 and received from his hands the right to rule1 it was a sign that the older ,assyrian dynasty had passed away1 that the kingdom had become a cosmopolitan empire1 and that the venerable traditions of ,babylon had subjugated its conquerors from the north4 ,the mixed races of ,babylonia had overcome the purer ,semites of ,assyria1 ,istar had prevailed against ,assur1 and ,semitic monotheism sought a home in the further ,west4 ,lecture ,v4 ,sumerian ,and ,semitic ,conceptions ,of ,the ,divine3 ,assur ,and ,monotheism4 ,in the preceding lectures ,i have assumed that the conception of the deity which we find in the later historical monuments of ,babylonia and ,assyria was of ,semitic origin1 differing radically from that formed of the godhead by the earlier ,sumerian population4 ,but it will doubtless be asked what basis there is for such an assumption2 why may we not suppose that the later conception has developed naturally and without any violent break from older beliefs which were equally ,semitic8 ,why1 in short1 must we regard the animism which underlay the religion of ,babylonia as ,sumerian1 and not rather as the earliest form of ,semitic faith8 ,the first and most obvious answer to the question would be1 the fact that the older names of the superhuman beings who became the gods of the later creed are not ,semitic1 but ,sumerian4 ,en-lil of ,nippur is the ,sumerian ,en-lila1 8lord of the ghost7s702 when he becomes a ,semitic god he receives the ,semitic title of ,bilu1 ,baal1 8the lord40 ,and the further fact that in many cases the ,sumerian name continued to be used in ,semitic times1 sometimes slightly changed1 sometimes adapted to the needs of ,semitic grammar1 proves not only that the ,sumerian preceded the ,semitic1 but also that the ,sumerian cult on its literary and philological side was assimilated by the ,semitic settlers in ,babylonia4 ,the gods and goddesses of ,babylonia were ,sumerian before they were ,semitic2 though they wear a ,semitic dress1 we have to seek their ancestry outside the ,semitic world of ideas4 ,as we know them1 they are clothed in human form4 ,the deities whose figures are found on the seal-cylinders of ,babylonia or engraved on the walls of the ,assyrian palaces are all alike in 8the likeness of man40 ,bel-,merodach is as much a man as the king whom he adopted as his son2 the sun-god who rises between the twin mountains of the dawn steps forth as a human giant to run his course2 and ,istar is a woman in mind and thought as well as in outward form4 ,there are no animal gods in ,babylonia1 no monstrous combinations of man and beast such as meet us in the theology of ,egypt4 ,not but that such combinations were known to the ,babylonians4 ,but they belonged to the primeval world of chaos2 they were the brood of ,tiamt1 the dragon of lawlessness and night1 the demons who had been banished into outer darkness beyond the world of light and of god-fearing men4 ,like the devils of medieval belief1 they were the divine beings of an alien faith which the gods of the new-comers had exiled to the limbo of a dead past4 ,even the subterranean ,hades of ,semitic ,babylonia recognised them not4 ,the gods worshipped by the ,semite were ,baalim or 8,lords10 like the men whom they protected1 and whose creators they were believed to be4 ,wherever the pure ,semite is found1 this belief in the anthropomorphic character of the deity is found also4 ,perhaps it is connected with that distinguishing characteristic of his grammar which divides the world into the masculine and the feminine1 the male and the female4 ,at any rate the ,semite made his god in the likeness of men1 and taught1 conversely1 that men had been made in the likeness of the gods4 ,the two beliefs are but the counter sides of the same shield2 the theomorphic man implies an anthropomorphic god4 ,the god1 in fact1 was but an amplified man with amplified human powers2 his shape was human1 so too were his passions and his thoughts4 ,even the life that was in man was itself the breath of the god4 ,that man was not immortal like the gods1 was but an accident2 he had failed to eat of the food of immortality or to drink of the waters of life1 and death therefore reigned in this lower world4 ,the gods themselves might die2 ,tammuz1 the spouse of ,istar1 had been slain by the boar's tusk of angry summer1 and carried into the realm of ,hades17#bfh7 and the temple of ,merodach at ,babylon was also known as his tomb4 ,as the gods were born1 so could they die2 they could marry also and beget children1 and they needed meat and drink like the sons of men4 ,indeed1 the world of the gods was a duplicate and counterpart of the world of mankind4 ,on 8the mountain of the world10 the ,babylonian ,olympos1 the supreme god held his court2 around him were ranged his subjects and servants1 for there were servants in heaven as there were on earth2 celestial armies went forth at his bidding1 and there were wars among the gods as among men4 ,even theft was not unknown among them2 a legend tells us1 for instance1 how the god ,zu stole the tablets of destiny which were hung like the ,urim and ,thummim on the breast of 8father ,bel10 and therewith acquired for awhile the right and power to control the fate of the universe4 ,as far back as we can trace the history of ,semitic religion1 whether in ,babylonia1 in ,canaan1 or in ,arabia1 its fundamental conception is always the same2 the gods are human1 and men are divine4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that as soon as the ,semitic element becomes paramount in ,babylonia1 the king becomes a god4 ,at ,babylon he was made the adopted son of ,bel-,merodach by taking the hand of the deity1 and thereby became himself a ,bel1 a ruler of 8the people of ,bel0 over whom he was henceforth to exercise undisputed lordship4 ,in earlier days1 ,sargon of ,akkad1 the founder of the first ,semitic empire in ,western ,asia1 and his son ,naram-,sin1 were explicitly deified4 ,naram-,sin is even addressed as 8the god of ,akkad027#bfi7 and a seal-cylinder found by ,gen4 di ,cesnola in ,cyprus describes its owner as 8the servant of the god ,naram-,sin407#bgj7 ,the title of 8god0 is assumed by the ,semitic successors of ,sargon1 to whatever city or dynasty they belonged2 even the ,sumerian princes in ,southern ,babylonia followed the example of their ,semitic suzerains1 and ,gudea1 the high priest of ,lagas1 built temples to his own godhead1 where for long centuries his cult continued to be observed1 and sacrifices and offerings to be made to him47#bga7 ,the occupation of ,babylonia by the ,arab or ,canaanite dynasty to which ,amraphel belonged1 made no difference in the divine honours paid to the king2 he still assumed the title of 8god10 and his subjects adored him by the side of ,bel4 ,but a change came with the conquest of ,babylonia by ,kassite hordes from the mountains of ,elam2 the foreign kings ceased to be divine1 and the title of 8god0 is given to them no more4 ,as the doctrine of the divine right of kings passed away in ,england with the ,stuarts1 so too the belief in the divinity of the king disappeared in ,babylonia with the fall of the ,semitic dynasties4 ,nothing could show more plainly its essentially ,semitic origin1 and the little hold it possessed upon the non-,semitic part of the population4 ,the king was a god only so long as he was a ,semite1 or subject to ,semitic influence and supremacy4 ,the apotheosis of the king is thus coeval with the rise of ,semitic domination in ,babylonia4 ,in the older ,sumerian epoch we look in vain for any traces of it4 ,man was not yet divine1 for the gods were not yet human4 ,there was as yet no ,semitic ,bel1 and ,en-lil of ,nippur was but a 8lord of ghost7s740 ,but we have better testimony to the fact than the ghosts of ,nippur4 ,behind the human figures of the ,semitic gods the primitively pictorial character of the cuneiform signs enables us to discern the lineaments of figures that belong to a wholly different sphere of religious thought4 ,they are the figures not of men1 but of brute beasts4 ,the name of ,en-lil was denoted by a composite sign which represented the word elim1 8a ram027#bgb7 that of ,ea by the ideograph which stood for dara1 8the antelope407#bgc7 ,en-lil1 accordingly1 was once a ram2 ,ea1 an antelope4 ,there are other deities which reveal their first shapes in similar fashion4 ,the wife of ,hadad1 for example1 was ,azaga-uga1 8the milch-goat0 of ,en-lil1 from whom the primitive ,sumerian shepherd derived his milk47#bgd7 ,merodach himself1 or rather his ,sumerian prototype at ,eridu1 was once ,asari-elim1 8the princely ram027#bge7 a striking title when we remember that ,osiris1 too1 was addressed in ,egypt as ,ati1 8the prince10 and identified with the ram of ,mendes4 ,even ,zu1 the divine thief who stole the tablets of destiny1 was the storm-bird1 the forefather alike of the roc of the ,arabian ,nights and of the ,chinese storm-bird1 8which1 in flying1 obscures the sun1 and of whose quills the water-tuns are made40 ,in many cases1 however1 the original forms of the ,babylonian divinities survived only in the animals upon whose backs they were depicted as standing1 or with whom the gem-cutter associated them on seals47#bgf7 ,now and again an attempt was made to combine them with the human figure4 ,thus ,ea is at times represented as clothed in the skin of a fish1 a fitting symbol of the relation between the newer and older religions of ,babylonia and the antagonistic views of the godhead entertained by the races that dwelt there4 ,at other times the animal form is relegated to that great company of demons and inferior spirits amongst whom room was found for the multitudinous ghosts of ,sumerian belief4 ,where it is not altogether excluded from the world of gods and men1 it exists only as the humble retainer of one of the human gods4 ,as ,merodach was accompanied by his four divine dogs1 so ,ea was attended by sacred bulls4 ,they guarded the approach to the 8field0 and 8house of ,eden10 like the colossal figures1 with bull-like bodies and the heads of men1 that guarded the gates of the palace or temple4 ,they were1 in fact1 the cherubim who forbade approach to the tree of life 7or knowledge71--that sacred palm which an old ,babylonian hymn tells us was planted beside the pathway of ,ea in ,eridu1 where the god had his house in the centre of the earth1 pouring from his hands the waters of fertility that flowed down in the twofold streams of the ,tigris and ,euphrates47#bgg7 ,in later art1 however1 the bull-like form disappeared1 and the guardians of the sacred tree were represented in human shape1 but with the heads of eagles4 ,the change of form was due to the same striving to humanise the superhuman beings of ,sumerian belief as that which had given a man's head to the colossal bulls2 where the divine being had become a god in the ,semitic sense of the word1 all traces of his bestial origin were swept away2 where he remained as it were only on the margin of the divine world1 the bestial element was thrust as far as possible out of sight1 and combined with the features of a man4 ,the cherub was allowed to retain his bull's body or his eagle's head1 but it was on condition that he never rose to the rank of a god1 and that human members were combined with his animal form4 ,the secondary creatures of the divine world of the ,babylonians thus resembled1 in outward form1 the gods of ,egypt4 ,but whereas in ,egypt it was the gods themselves who joined the head of the beast to the body of the man1 in ,babylonia it was only the semi-divine spirits and monsters of the popular creed who were thus partly bestial and partly human4 ,the official theology could not banish them altogether2 they became accordingly the servants and followers of the gods1 or else the rabble-host of ,tiamt1 the impersonation of chaos and sin4 ,like the devils and angels of medieval belief1 they were included among the three hundred spirits of heaven and the six hundred spirits of earth47#bgh7 ,the spirits of heaven formed 8the hosts0 of which the supreme deity was lord1 and whom he led into battle against his foes2 ,nebo was the minister and lieutenant of ,merodach and 8the hosts of the heaven and earth10 therefore it was his duty to muster and drill47#bgi7 ,the ,anunna-ki or 8spirits of earth0 had their habitation in the subterranean world of ,hades1 where they sat on a throne of gold guarding the waters of life1 while the ,igigi or angels dwelt rather with the gods in the heaven of light and blissfulness4 ,it was on this account that ,assur-nazir-pal calls ,nin-ip 8the champion of the ,igigi10 and that elsewhere the god receives the title of 8chief of the angels40 ,but it was only in the later ages of ,babylonian religion1 when the ,semitic conception of divinity had become predominant1 that a distinction was made between the spirits of the earth and the air4 ,it was only for the ,semites that there were spirits of the underworld and angels of heaven2 the ,sumerian had known no difference between them2 they were all alike ,anunnas or spirits1 and ,nin-ip had been lord1 not of the ,igigi alone1 but of the ,anunna-ki as well47#bhj7 ,he had1 in fact1 been one of them himself2 he was the minister and attendant of ,en-lil1 and it was never forgotten that1 like the ,anunna-ki1 he was the 8offspring of -kur10 the name at once of the temple of ,nippur and of the underground world of ,hades4 ,sometimes he is said to have sprung from -sarra1 8the house of the 7spirit7-hosts40 ,he had been a ghost in ,nippur before he was transformed into a ,semitic god4 ,but he had been a ghost who was associated with the dawn1 and he thus became identified in the early ,semitic age with the rising sun4 ,his solar character raised him to the rank of a ,baal1 and1 consequently1 of a god4 ,his older attributes1 however1 still clung to him4 ,he was a sun-god who had risen out of the earth and of the darkness of night1 and in him1 therefore1 the darker and more violent side of the sun-god was reflected47#bha7 ,he became essentially a god of war1 and as such a special favourite of the ,assyrian kings4 ,he it was who carried destruction over the earth at the time of the ,deluge1 while the ,anunna-ki followed him with their blazing torches2 and he is the brother of ,en-nugi1 the god from whose hands there is no escape4 ,with the spread of solar worship1 the solar features of ,nin-ip naturally grew more marked4 ,at times he was the god of the noonday as well as of the dawn1 for it was at noon that the rays of the sun were fiercest and most deadly to man2 at times he was assimilated to his fellow sun-god ,merodach1 and made a son of ,ea4 ,the syncretic epoch of ,babylonian religion had truly arrived when ,ea and ,en-lil were thus interchanged1 and the teaching of ,nippur and ,eridu united in the solar cult6 ,but we have glimpses of a time when ,nin-ip was not yet a god in human form1 much less a solar ,baal4 ,his name is a title merely1 and originally denoted the sexless spirit1 who was indifferently 8lord0 and 8lady of the veil407#bhb7 ,the veil was worn in sign of mourning1 for the head was covered in sleep and death4 ,like the cloak which enfolded the shade of ,samuel1 it symbolised the denizen of the underworld4 ,at first it would seem to have been merely a veil that covered the head and face1 like the keffya of the modern ,arab2 in course of time it was extended to the cloak in which the sleeper or the dead man could be wrapped4 ,but in either case it was a symbol of the world below1 and as such became in the ,semitic age the garment of the mourner4 ,the god who was 8lord of the veil0 must once have dwelt beneath the earth1 and been himself one of those spirits of darkness whose faces were veiled from the sight of the living4 ,nin-ip1 then1 must have been one of the ,anunna-ki1 a spirit of the earth and the land of ,hades1 before he assumed the form of a ,semitic ,baal1 and clothed himself with the attributes of the sun-god4 ,and the shape in which he appeared to his worshippers was that of a swine4 ,we are told that ,nin-ip was one with ,nin-sakh1 8the lord of the swine07#bhc7 and the servant of ,el-lil1 who was adored at ,lagas in ,sumerian days1 and to whom a temple was erected even at ,erech4 ,that the swine should be connected with the underground world of the dead1 is not surprising4 ,we find the same connection in ,keltic mythology4 ,there1 too1 the swine are the cattle of ,hades1 and it was from the subterranean fields of ,hades that they were transported by ,pryderi to the earth above47#bhd7 ,the swine turns up the ground in his search for food2 even to-day he is used to hunt for truffles1 and primitive man saw in his action an attempt to communicate with the spirits of the underworld47#bhe7 ,from the earth-spirit with the veiled face1 who incarnated himself in the swine1 the distance is great to the solar hero and warrior god of the ,semitic age4 ,in fact1 the distance is too great to be spanned by any natural process of evolution4 ,it is a distance in kind and not in degree4 ,it presupposes fundamentally different conceptions of religion1 animism on the one side and anthropomorphic gods on the other4 ,if we are to listen to fashionable theories of the origin of religion1 we start in the one case with the fetish1 in the other case with the worship of ancestors4 ,the difference is racial3 wherever we find the ,semite1 in all periods of his history1 his gods are human and not made in the form of the beast4 ,but the ,semite1 though he moulded the later religion of ,babylonia1 could not transform it altogether4 ,the ,sumerian element in the population was never extirpated1 and it is probable that if we knew more of the religion of the people as opposed to the official theology1 we should find that it remained comparatively little affected by ,semitic influence4 ,the witchcraft and necromancy that flourished is a proof of this2 even the ,state religion was compelled to recognise it1 and1 like ,brahmanism in the presence of the native cults of ,india1 to lend it its sanction and control4 ,it is instructive to observe what a contrast there was in this respect between the official religion of ,babylonia and that of the more purely ,semitic ,israelites4 ,witchcraft and necromancy were practised also in ,israel1 but there they were forbidden by the law and suppressed by the head of the ,state4 ,in ,babylonia1 however1 the local deities were for the most part of ,sumerian origin1 and in spite of their ,semitic colouring and dress not unfrequently retained their old ,sumerian names4 ,babylonian religion could not wholly repudiate its origin and parentage2 the superstructure might be ,semitic1 but its basis was ,sumerian4 ,like the ,sumerian words which had been adopted into the language1 the names of the gods remained to testify to the fact that the people and their religion were alike mixed4 ,and with the names went early beliefs and legends1 fragments of folk-lore and ritual which had descended from a non-,semitic past4 ,the official creed found a niche for each of them as best it could1 but the assimilation was never more than partial1 and from time to time we meet with practices and conceptions which are alien to the official faith4 ,there were many expedients for getting rid of the multitudinous spirits of the ancient creed who had not been transmuted into ,semitic deities4 ,they might1 as we have seen1 be herded together in the indistinguishable crowd of spirits of heaven and earth that formed the angel-hosts of the gods of light1 or else be transformed into demons in the train of ,tiamt1 the impersonation of chaos4 ,some of them might be set apart as the special servants and messengers of the gods1 and occupy the place of archangels in the celestial hierarchy4 ,but it was also possible to call in the aid of cosmology1 and turn them into elemental powers representing successive stages in the history of creation4 ,they thus continued to belong to that inchoate period of ,babylonian religion when as yet the ,semitic gods had not come into existence1 and at the same time they could be identified with those gods in the exercise of their creative power4 ,in the language of later metaphysic1 they thus became the successive thoughts of the creator realising themselves in the successive acts of the creation1 like the ons of ,gnosticism which emanate one from the other as the realised thoughts of ,god4 ,the idea is doubtless a late one1 and belongs to an age of philosophy2 but it represents an attempt to grapple with the difficulties presented by the opposing ,sumerian and ,semitic elements in ,babylonian religion1 and to reconcile them together4 ,it presupposes that identification of one god with another which the solar cult and the ,semitic conception of the goddess had made possible1 and so takes us one step further in the direction of monotheism4 ,the divine or superhuman beings of the ,sumerian creed are not merely identified with a particular god1 but are even transformed into the male and female principles which his government of the world or the act of creation compels him to exhibit in concrete form47#bhf7 ,before ,babylonian theosophy could arrive thus far1 two things were necessary4 ,the gods had to be arranged in a divine hierarchy1 and the identification of one with the other had to become possible4 ,the hierarchical arrangement followed from the ,semitic conception of divinity4 ,if ,baal were a counterpart of the human father1 there would be a divine family and a divine court modelled on the pattern of those of his worshippers4 ,the god would have not only his wife and children1 but his slaves and ministers as well4 ,the deities of heaven would thus fall into orderly groups of higher and lower rank2 the higher gods would tend to separate themselves more and more from those of subordinate degree1 and the latter to sink into the position of second-rate intelligences1 who stood midway between the gods and men1 and depended on 8the great gods0 for their offices and existence4 ,the conception of a divine messenger or angel who carried the orders of the higher god from heaven to earth and interpreted his will to men1 goes back to an early period in the history of ,babylonian religion4 ,we can trace it to the time when the ,sumerian first began to be affected by ,semitic influence4 ,the sukkal or 8angel0-minister plays a prominent part in primitive ,babylonian theology1 but it is noticeable that he is usually a son of the god whose messages he conveys to gods and men4 ,asari or ,merodach is at once the son and the minister of ,ea2 ,nin-ip1 of ,en-lil4 ,the fact points to an age when ,sumerian animism had already been succeeded by ,semitic ,baalism2 the spirit or ghost had become a god in human shape1 who begat children and required an envoy4 ,when ,merodach became the god of ,babylon1 and with the rise of his city to political power entered the circle of the supreme gods1 he in his turn needed a messenger4 ,the latter was found in the god of the neighbouring city of ,borsippa4 ,the growth of ,babylon was accompanied by the decay of ,borsippa1 which in time was reduced to a mere suburb of the rival town4 ,the god of the suburb was necessarily annexed by the god of the city which had absorbed it1 and as necessarily became his follower and servant4 ,khammurabi1 to whom ,babylon owed its position and influence1 even transferred the ancient temple of the god of ,borsippa to the god of ,babylon1 and included him among the inferior deities to whom chapels were erected in the great sanctuary of ,merodach47#bhg7 ,but the god of ,borsippa had once been as independent and supreme in his own city as ,merodach was at ,babylon4 ,he had been addressed as 8the maker0 of the universe and the irrigator of the fields1 and the origin of the cuneiform system of writing was ascribed to him4 ,the ,semites called him the ,nabium or 8,prophet10 and it was under this title of ,nabium or ,nebo that he became the minister of ,merodach4 ,the name was appropriate in his twofold character of interpreter of the will of ,bel and patron of literature1 and was carried by ,babylonian conquest into the distant ,west4 ,there ,moses died in ,moab on the summit of ,mount ,nebo1 and cities bearing the name stood within the borders of ,reuben and ,judah4 ,it was doubtless the association of ,nebo with ,merodach that caused him1 like ,thoth in ,egypt1 to become the patron of literature and the god of the scribes4 ,the culture-god was as it were divided into two2 while ,merodach retained the functions peculiar to a ,semitic ,baal1 ,nebo watched over the library and school1 and encouraged the study of the script which had been invented by him4 ,the older claims of ,ea fell into the background and were forgotten2 it was no longer the god of ,eridu1 but ,nebo1 who had written the first book1 and instructed mankind in the elements of culture4 ,the marshal's staff1 which ,nebo had wielded as organiser of 8the hosts of heaven and earth10 now became the rod of the scribe1 and a consort was created for him in the person of ,tasmit or 8,hearing40 ,in ,assyria1 where the worship of ,assur prevented any development of that of his rival ,merodach1 ,nebo became a special favourite of the literary class1 who derived their knowledge and inspiration from ,babylon4 ,assur-bani-pal never wearies of telling us how ,nebo and ,tasmit had 8made broad his ears and enlightened his eyes10 so that he had collected and republished the books and tablets of the kings who had gone before him4 ,as minister of ,merodach1 ,nebo passed into the solar circle4 ,in ,egypt he would have been absorbed by the more influential god1 but in ,babylonia the ,semitic conception of ,merodach as a ,baal who required his minister and envoy like an earthly king1 stood in the way of any such identification4 ,he consequently retained his personality1 and it was another god who was identified with him4 ,this was ,nusku1 once the fire which blazed up into flame and purified the sacrifice4 ,with the spread of the solar cult ,nusku became a local sun-god1 and was regarded as the god of the burning sun of noon4 ,in ,sumerian days1 however1 while he was still the spirit of the fire1 he had been necessarily the servant and associate of ,en-lil2 and when ,en-lil became the ,semitic ,bel of ,nippur1 ,nusku followed his fortunes and was made his messenger4 ,after this his identification with ,nebo was easy4 ,nebo1 too1 was the messenger and interpreter of ,bel1 though it was the younger ,bel of ,babylon who had supplanted the older ,bel of ,nippur4 ,as ,bel-,merodach took the place of ,en-lil1 so too did ,nebo take the place of ,nusku4 ,the priests of ,babylon knew of one ,bel only1 and the minister of ,bel must be one and the same whether his name were ,nusku or ,nebo4 ,that ,nusku had originally been an independent deity was1 however1 never forgotten4 ,the past history and religion of the country could not be ignored1 and the priesthood were forced to erect a separate shrine to ,nusku within the precincts of the temple of ,nebo itself4 ,only thus could they be certain that the god would not avenge himself for being defrauded of his dues4 ,the history of ,nebo is an instructive illustration of the successive changes that passed over the religion of ,babylonia4 ,we first have the ghost of ,sumerian times1 who becomes the god of a special city in the days when ,semitic influence began to make itself felt4 ,then the god is transformed into a ,semitic ,baal1 and with the political rise of the neighbouring city of ,babylon is degraded into an attendant and retainer of the mightier god4 ,as interpreter of the will of the culture-god he deprives ,ea of his ancient prerogatives1 and his title of 8,prophet0 becomes his name4 ,henceforth he is a purely ,semitic divinity1 and a wife is found for him in the shadowy abstraction 8,hearing40 ,under the influences of the solar cult1 he is identified with the ancient ,sumerian fire-spirit who had himself become a sun-god1 and eventually he is adopted in ,assyria as the patron of the learned class1 and the divine representative of ,babylonian learning4 ,but the history of ,nebo also illustrates one of the directions in which the striving after a monotheistic faith displayed itself4 ,not only was a separate god1 ,nusku1 amalgamated with ,nebo1 ,nebo himself1 while still keeping his independent personality1 sank into a subordinate position which may be compared with that of an archangel in ,christian belief4 ,babylonian religion came to distinguish between a limited number of 8great gods0 and the inferior deities who formed their court4 ,indeed1 it went even further than this4 ,from the days of ,khammurabi onward there was a tendency to exalt ,bel-,merodach at the expense of all his brother gods4 ,the development of ,babylonian religion1 in fact1 went hand in hand with that of the ,babylonian ,state4 ,the foundation of an empire had made the ,babylonian familiar with the conception of a supreme sovereign1 under whom there were vassal kings1 and under them again a dependent nobility4 ,the same conception was extended to the celestial hierarchy4 ,here1 too1 ,bel-,merodach sat supreme1 while the other gods 8bowed reverently before him10 retaining1 indeed1 their ancestral rights and power within the limits of their respective sanctuaries1 but acknowledging the supremacy of the one sovereign ,bel4 ,it was no longer in honour of ,en-lil that the inhabitants of ,babylonia were called 8the people of ,bel10 but because they were all alike the children and adorers of ,bel of ,babylon4 ,but ,babylonian religion never advanced further4 ,it is true that the tablet published by ,dr4 ,pinches1 to which ,i have already alluded in the last lecture1 identifies the chief gods of the pantheon with ,merodach in his various phases and functions2 it is also true that ,nabonidos1 the last ,babylonian king1 shocked the consciences and violated the rights of the local priesthoods by bringing the images of their gods into the central sanctuary2 but such speculations and efforts remained isolated and without effect4 ,it was otherwise1 however1 in ,assyria4 ,there the deities for the most part1 like the culture and language1 had been imported from the south2 there were no time-honoured temples and venerable traditions to contend against2 and1 above all1 there was a national god who represented the ,state rather than a ,semitic ,baal1 and was therefore a symbol of the unity which bound the ,state together4 ,the supreme god of ,assyria was ,assur2 the other gods were of ,babylonian origin4 ,and in the name of ,assur we have the name of the country itself and its primitive capital4 ,assur1 in short1 was the deified city of ,assur1 the divine ,state which from the days of its successful revolt from ,babylonia was predominantly military1 with all the union and discipline of a military organisation4 ,such at least was the view taken of the god in the historical age of ,assyria1 though some modern scholars have doubted whether1 like ,nineveh1 which derived its name from the goddess ,nin1 it was not originally rather the city that took its name from the god than the god from the city4 ,such doubts1 however1 are set at rest by an examination of the proper names found in the ,babylonian contracts of the early ,semitic period1 more especially in those of the age of ,khammurabi4 ,many of them are compounded with the names of cities which are treated as deities1 and are preceded by the prefix of divinity4 ,thus we have ,sumu-,upi 7,bu4 #ia-e-i4 #bahb4 #af71 like umu-,rakh or ,sumu-,r and ,samuel1 as well as ,upi-rabi 7,bu4 #ia-e-i4 #cgg4 #be71 where the deified ,upi or ,opis plays exactly the same part as the deified rivers ,euphrates and ,tigris in other similarly compounded names4 ,between the deified city and the deified river no distinction was drawn4 ,both alike were impersonations of the god4 ,so too in the second tablet of the ,surpu series 7,,wai4 iv4 #ei4 #ce1 #ch71 ,eridu and ,babylon are invoked to deliver the sick man by the side of ,ea and ,merodach and various other gods1 as well as certain of the stars4 ,between the ordinary gods of ,babylonia and the deified city no distinction is made47#bhh7 ,had the city taken its name from the god1 it would be difficult to find a satisfactory etymology for it4 ,the spelling of the name is against our connecting it with the word asiru1 8he who blesses0 or 8consecrates10 from which the ,assyrian asirtu1 8sanctuary10 is derived1 like the name of the ,canaanitish goddess ,ashrah47#bhi7 ,on the other hand1 the native ,assyrian etymology is as inadmissible as the endeavours of our eighteenth century lexicographers to find ,greek or ,latin derivations for ,anglo-,saxon words4 ,the ,assyrian scribes saw in ,assur merely the old elemental deity ,ansar1 8the firmament10 who was himself nothing more than the ,sumerian spirit of the 8heavenly host40 ,it is wisest not to imitate them1 but1 as in the case of ,merodach and ,istar1 to leave the origin of the name ,assur unexplained4 ,the kings of ,assyria were originally high priests of ,assur4 ,in other parts of the ,semitic world the high priest similarly preceded the king4 ,the father-in-law of ,moses was high priest of ,midian1 and the high priests of ,saba in ,southern ,arabia developed into kings47#bij7 ,there were high priests also in ,babylonia1 who took their titles not only from the gods they served1 but also from the cities over which they ruled4 ,the peculiarity in the case of ,assyria1 however1 was that there the god and the city were one and the same4 ,when1 therefore1 the high priest of ,assur assumed the title of king1 he still retained his priestly functions under another title4 ,he was priest1 but no longer high priest4 ,assyria was a monarchy1 not a theocracy2 it was founded on military force1 not on priestly influence4 ,the king accordingly was not a representative and vicegerent of the god1 like a ,babylonian prince2 he represented the god ,assur only because he represented the city of ,assur4 ,it was through the city of ,assur that the god manifested himself as it were to men4 ,one of the consequences of this fact was that ,assur was a national as opposed to a merely local god4 ,wherever the power of the city extended1 there the power of the god necessarily extended as well4 ,when ,assur became the capital of a kingdom1 the whole land which owned its authority received its name and accepted the supremacy of its god4 ,the local cults made way for the national cults2 it was not only in ,assur itself that the god had his temple2 wherever a city called itself ,assyrian1 the worship of ,assur held the first place4 ,there were no old sanctuaries and cults to displace1 as in ,babylonia2 the deities who were adored in the cities of ,assyria were of ,babylonian origin1 like ,nin and ,istar2 and when once ,assyria had achieved its independence1 and realised that it had a national life of its own1 they were unable to maintain themselves against the national god4 ,this national god had given his people their freedom and right to rule4 ,he it was who had led their armies to victory1 and had vanquished the hostile deities of ,babylonia4 ,he was thus identified with the army to which ,assyria owed its existence1 and with the king who was its leader in war4 ,wherever the army went or the king established himself1 ,assur went also4 ,he lost1 therefore1 the last relics of his association with a particular locality1 and became the god of the whole people4 ,from every point of view he was national and not local4 ,freed from the limitations of locality1 he was consequently freed from the limitations of form4 ,bel-,merodach was necessarily human in form1 with all the limitations of humanity2 it was only where his image was that he could be present in visible shape4 ,but ,assur was not confined to the human image that represented him4 ,he could also be represented by a symbol1 and where the symbol was he was too4 ,the symbol was a standard1 on which an archer was depicted rising from a winged sun4 ,it was carried with the armies of ,assyria from place to place1 like the ark in which the ,israelites of the age of ,samuel saw a symbol of the presence of their national ,god4 ,the winged sun refers us to ,egypt2 so too does the standard on which the emblem of ,assur was borne4 ,the ,asiatic conquests of the ,eighteenth ,dynasty had brought ,egypt and ,assyria into contact2 the ,assyrian king paid tribute to the ,pharaoh1 and doubtless depended on him for support against ,babylonia4 ,it was the period when ,assyria was first feeling itself an independent nation2 the authority of ,babylonia had been shaken off1 and the god of ,babylon had been supplanted by ,assur4 ,we need not be surprised1 therefore1 if ,assur consented to borrow from ,egypt the symbol which henceforth distinguished him from the ,babylonian gods1 and with the symbol went the theological ideas of which it was the expression4 ,these theological ideas were already deeply tinctured by the theories of the solar cult4 ,the winged solar disc is evidence that ,assur was assimilated to ,amon-,ra of ,egypt4 ,but the assimilation stopped there4 ,the ,assyrians were too purely ,semitic even to comprehend the nebulous pantheism of the ,egyptian solar school2 ,assur remained an anthropomorphic god1 with very definite attributes and sharply-cut features4 ,the archer who rises above the disc of the sun significantly indicates the contrast between the theology of ,egypt and ,assyria4 ,above the sun-god is the human warrior1 the lord of hosts1 the god of battles1 the divine leader of the armies of ,assur4 ,there was no room in the practical ,assyrian mind for a formless divinity1 with its infinite transformations and elusive shape4 ,the ,assyrian needed a soldier's god1 at once human and clearly defined4 ,nevertheless this human god was recognised as one with the sun-god4 ,or rather1 perhaps1 the sun was regarded as his visible manifestation1 the mark or symbol under which he displayed himself4 ,assur was thus essentially a ,semitic ,baal1 but a warlike ,baal1 who was the god of a nation and not of a particular place4 ,where the nation and its army were1 accordingly1 their god was as well4 ,and when ,assyria claimed to rule the whole civilised world1 the power and authority of its god became world-wide4 ,it was in his name that the ,assyrian troops went forth to fight1 and it was 8through trust in0 him that they gained their victories4 ,those who resisted them were his enemies1 those who submitted were incorporated into his empire1 and became his subjects and worshippers4 ,all other gods had to yield to him2 he was not only paramount over them1 but to worship them instead of him was an act of impiety4 ,the sacrifice might continue to be made to them and the prayer offered1 but it was on condition that the first-fruits of both sacrifice and prayer were given to ,assur4 ,this1 however1 was not all4 ,assur was not only jealous of other gods1 there was no goddess who could share with him his power4 ,in the eyes of the ,assyrian people he was wifeless1 like ,yahveh of ,israel or ,chemosh of ,moab4 ,it is true that some ,assyriologists1 with more zeal than knowledge1 have found for him a wife1 but they are not agreed as to who she was4 ,sometimes we have been told it was ,serua1 sometimes ,istar1 sometimes ,belit4 ,the very fact that such a difference of opinion exists is sufficient to condemn the whole supposition4 ,it is based on the pedantry of certain of the ,assyrian scribes1 who1 educated in the literature and religion of ,babylonia1 were naturally anxious to fit their national god into the ,babylonian system of theology4 ,the gods of ,babylonia had each his wife2 they were each the head of a divine family1 and consequently the chief god of ,assyria must be the same4 ,but it was difficult to find for him a female consort4 ,once or twice the help of the grammar is invoked1 and the feminine ,assurit is made to take her place by the side of ,assur4 ,but she was too evidently an artificial creation1 and accordingly ,belit was borrowed from ,bel-,merodach1 or ,nin-lil from ,bel of ,nippur1 and boldly claimed as the wife of ,assur4 ,but this too was acceptable neither to ,babylonians nor to ,assyrians1 and1 as a last resource1 ,istar1 the virgin goddess1 was transformed into a married wife4 ,it might have been thought that the idea1 once started1 would have met with ready acceptance2 for ,istar was the goddess of ,nineveh1 as ,assur was of the older capital which was superseded by ,nineveh in the later days of the ,assyrian empire4 ,that it did not do so is a proof how firmly rooted was the wifelessness of ,assur in the ,assyrian mind2 he was no ,babylonian ,bel who needed a helpmeet1 but a warrior's god1 who entered the battle wifeless and alone4 ,i can but repeat again of him what ,i said years ago in my ,hibbert ,lectures3 8,assur consequently differs from the ,babylonian gods1 not only in the less narrowly local character that belongs to him1 but also in his solitary nature4 ,he is #8king of all the gods' in a sense in which none of the deities of ,babylonia were4 ,he is like the king of ,assyria himself1 brooking no rival1 allowing neither wife nor son to share in the honours which he claims for himself alone4 ,he is essentially a jealous god1 and as such sends forth his ,assyrian adorers to destroy his unbelieving foes4 ,wifeless1 childless1 he is mightier than the ,babylonian ,baalim2 less kindly1 perhaps1 less near to his worshippers than they were1 but more awe-inspiring and more powerful4 ,we can1 in fact1 trace in him all the lineaments upon which1 under other conditions1 there might have been built up as pure a faith as that of the ,god of ,israel40 ,that none such was ever built1 may be accepted as a sign and token that between the ,semites of ,assyria and those of ,israel there lay a difference which no theories of evolution are able to explain4 ,lecture ,,vi4 ,cosmologies4 ,man was made in the likeness of the gods1 and1 conversely1 the gods are in the likeness of man4 ,this belief lies at the root of the theology of ,semitic ,babylonia1 and characterises its conception of divinity4 ,it follows from it that the world which we see has come into existence like the successive generations of mankind or the products of human art4 ,it has either been begotten by the creator1 or it has been formed out of pre-existing materials4 ,it did not come into being of itself2 it is no fortuitous concurrence of atoms2 no self-evolved product out of nothing1 or the result of continuous development and evolution4 ,the doctrines of spontaneous generation and of development are alike foreign to ,babylonian religious thought4 ,that demanded a creator who was human in his attributes and mode of work1 who could even make mistakes and experiments1 and so call into existence imperfect or monstrous forms which further experience was needed to rectify4 ,there was an earlier as well as a later creation1 the unshapely brood of chaos as well as the more perfect creations of the gods of light4 ,as we have seen1 the culture of primitive ,babylonia radiated from two main centres1 the sanctuary of ,nippur in the north1 and the seaport of ,eridu in the south4 ,the one was inland1 the other maritime2 and what ,i may term the geographical setting of the two streams of culture varied accordingly4 ,the great temple of ,nippur was known as -kur1 8the house of the mountain-land02 it was a model of the earth1 which those who built it believed to be similarly shaped1 and to have the form of a mountain whose peak penetrated the clouds4 ,its supreme god was the lord of the nether earth1 his subjects were the demons of the underworld1 and the theology of his priests was associated with sorcery and witchcraft1 and with invocations to the spirits who ruled over the world of the dead4 ,eridu1 on the contrary1 was the dwelling-place of the god of the deep4 ,its temple1 -,saggila1 8the house of the high head10 was1 we are told1 8in the midst0 of the encircling ocean on which the whole earth rested1 and in it was the home of ,ea1 8the lord of the holy mound407#bia7 ,its god was the author of ,babylonian writing and civilisation1 and his son and interpreter was ,aari1 8the benefactor of man40 ,while the theology of ,nippur concerned itself with the dead1 that of ,eridu was pre-eminently occupied with the living4 ,asari is invoked as the god who raised the dead to life1 and the arts which make life pleasant were the gifts of ,ea himself4 ,it is perhaps not without reason that1 while ,en-lil of ,nippur appears as the destroyer of mankind1 ,ea is their creator and instructor4 ,he not only created them1 but he taught them how to live1 and provided for them the spells and remedies which could heal the sick and ward off death4 ,like ,khnum of ,egypt1 he was called 8the potter10 for he had moulded mankind from the clay which his waters formed on the shores of the ,persian ,gulf47#bib7 ,nor was it mankind only that was thus made4 ,the whole world of created things had been similarly moulded2 the earth and all that dwelt upon it had risen out of the sea4 ,the cosmology of ,eridu thus made water the origin of all things2 the world we inhabit has sprung from the deep1 which still encircles it like a serpent with its coils4 ,but the deep over which the creator-god presided was a deep which formed part of that orderly framework of nature wherein the gods of light bear rule1 and which obeys laws that may not be broken4 ,it is not the deep where the spirit of chaos held sway1 and of which she was an impersonation2 that was a deep without limits or law1 whose only progeny was a brood of monsters4 ,between the deep of ,ea and the chaos of ,tiamt the cosmology of historical ,babylonia drew a sharp line of distinction2 the one excluded the other1 and it was not until the deep of ,tiamt had been1 as it were1 overcome and placed within bounds1 that the deep wherein ,ea dwelt was able to take its place4 ,the two conceptions are antagonistic one to the other1 and can hardly be explained1 except on the supposition that they belong to two different schools of thought4 ,the brood of ,tiamt1 it must be remembered1 were once the subjects of ,en-lil of ,nippur1 and the ,anunna-ki1 or 8spirits of the earth10 though they became the orderly ministers of the gods of light1 nevertheless continued to have their dwelling-place in the underground world1 and to serve its mistress ,allat4 ,the motley host that followed ,tiamt in her contest with ,bel-,merodach were essentially the ghosts and goblins of the theology of ,nippur2 and it is with the latter1 therefore1 that we must associate the theory of the divine world with which they are connected4 ,the world of ,nippur was a world from which the sea was excluded2 it was a world of plain and mountain1 and of the hollow depths which lay beneath the surface of the earth4 ,the cosmology of ,nippur would naturally concern itself with the land rather than with the sea2 the earth and not the water would have been the first in order of existence1 and habitation of the gods would be sought on the summit of a ,mount ,olympus rather than in the depths of an encircling ocean47#bic7 ,in the chaos of ,tiamt1 accordingly1 ,i see the last relics of a cosmology which emanated from ,nippur1 and was accepted wherever the influence of ,nippur prevailed4 ,it has been modified by the cosmological ideas of ,eridu2 and in the story of the struggle between ,tiamt and ,merodach an attempt has been made to harmonise the two conflicting conceptions of the universe1 and to weld them into a compact whole4 ,the world of ,tiamt has first been transformed into a watery abyss like that which the theologians of ,eridu believed to be the origin of the universe1 and then has been absorbed by the deep over which ,ea held sway4 ,the creator ,ea has taken the place of the spirit of destruction1 the culture-god of the dragon of darkness4 ,but a curious legend1 which has been much misunderstood1 still preserves traces of the old cosmology of the great sanctuary of ,northern ,babylonia4 ,it describes the war made against a king of ,babylonia by the powers of darkness1 the gnome-like beings who dwelt 8in the ground10 where ,tiamt had suckled them1 and where they had multiplied in the cavernous depths of a mountain land4 ,they were1 we are told1 composite monsters1 8warriors with the bodies of birds1 men with the faces of ravens10 over whom ruled a king and his wife and their seven sons47#bid7 ,year after year the war continued1 and1 in spite of charms and incantations1 host after host sent forth from ,akkad was annihilated by the unclean and superhuman enemy4 ,the ,babylonian king was in despair2 in vain he appealed to the gods1 and declared how 8terror and night1 death and plague1 earthquake1 fear and horror1 hunger1 famine1 and destruction10 had come upon his unfortunate people4 8,the plain of ,akkad0 seemed about to become the prey of the demons of the night4 ,how it was rescued from the danger that threatened it we do not know2 the story is unfortunately broken1 and the end of it has not been found4 ,but the origin and character of the superhuman enemy is not difficult to discover2 their dwelling-place is in the tomb-like recesses of the mountains1 their mother was ,tiamt herself1 and they have the monstrous shapes of the ghosts and spirits of the ancient animism of ,nippur47#bie7 ,the legend was fitly preserved in the sanctuary of ,nergal1 the god of the dead1 at ,kutha4 ,it too has undergone the harmonising process of later times3 the cosmologies of ,nippur and ,eridu are again set in antagonism1 one against the other1 and there is a first creation as well as a second engaged in the same struggle as that which under a different form is described in the legends of ,eridu and ,babylon4 ,but the antagonists in it are alike the inhabitants of the dry land2 there is no watery abyss from which they have sprung1 whether it be the chaotic deep of ,tiamt or the ocean home of the god of culture4 ,the conceptions on which it rests belong to the inland plain of ,babylonia rather than to the shores of the sea4 ,influenced though it has been by the cosmology of ,eridu1 the elements of which it is composed go back to an inland and not to a maritime ,state4 ,it will be seen that our knowledge of the cosmology of ,nippur is still scanty and uncertain4 ,the world which it presupposed had the form of a mountain1 on the peak of which the gods lived among the clouds of heaven1 while the cavernous depths below it were peopled with hosts of spirits and demons1 the shades of the dead and the ghosts of a primitive animism4 ,there was no encircling ocean1 no abysmal deep on which it floated1 and from which it had been produced4 ,what its origin1 however1 was believed to be we do not yet know1 or to what creative ,zi or ,lil it was held to owe its existence4 ,for an answer to these questions we must wait until the ancient libraries of ,nippur have been thoroughly excavated and explored47#bif7 ,it is otherwise with the cosmology of ,eridu4 ,we know a good deal about it1 thanks to the theologians of ,babylon1 whose god ,merodach was the successor and representative of the god of ,eridu4 ,it is true that its form has been changed and modified in part for the greater glory of ,merodach and his city1 that ,merodach has even taken the place of ,ea as the creator1 and that the cosmology of ,nippur--or at all events of a similar school of thought--has been combined with that of ,eridu1 with the result that there are two creations1 the first chaotic1 and the second that of the present world4 ,but it is still easy to disentangle the earlier from the later elements in the story1 and to separate what is purely ,babylonian from what belongs to ,eridu4 ,one of the versions of the story that have come down to us has been preserved in a spell1 of which1 like verses of the ,bible in modern times1 it has been used to form a part4 ,its antiquity is shown by the fact that it is written in the ancient language of ,sumer4 ,it is thus that it begins-- 8,no holy house1 no house of the gods in a holy place had as yet been built1 no reed had grown1 no tree been planted1 no bricks had been made1 no structure formed1 no house had been built1 no city founded1 no city built where living things could dwell4 ,nippur was unbuilt1 its temple of -kur was unerected2 ,erech was unbuilt1 its temple of -ana was unerected27#big7 the deep sea was uncreated1 ,eridu unbuilt4 ,the site of 7its7 holy house1 the house of the gods1 existed not1 all the earth was sea1 while in the midst of the sea was a water-course4 ,in those days was ,eridu built and the temple of -,saggil founded1 -,saggil wherein dwells the divine king of the holy mound in the midst of the deep2-- ,babylon was built1 -,saggil completed2-- the spirits of the earth were created together1 they called it by the mighty name of the holy city1 the seat of their well-being47#bih7 ,merodach7#bii7 tied 7reeds7 together to form a weir in the water1 he made dust and mixed it with the reeds of the weir1 that the gods might dwell in the seat of 7their7 well-being47#cjj7 ,mankind he created1-- the goddess ,aruru created the seed of mankind with him17#cja7-- the cattle of the field1 the living creatures in the field1 he created2 the ,tigris and ,euphrates he made1 and set them in their place1 giving them good names4 ,moss and seed-plant of the marsh1 reed and rush he created1 he created the green herb of the field1 the earth1 the marsh1 the jungle1 the cow and its young1 the calf1 the sheep and its young1 the lamb of the fold1 the grove and the forest1 the goat1 7and7 the gazelle multiplied 787 for him4 ,bel-,merodach7#cjb7 filled a space at the edge of the sea1 there he made an enclosure of reeds1 he constructed a site81 he created the reeds1 he created the trees1 he laid a platform in the place1 he moulded bricks1 the structure he formed2 he built houses1 he founded cities1 cities he founded and filled them with living things2 ,nippur he built1 -kur he erected1 ,erech he built1 -ana he erected17#cjc7 the deep he created1 ,eridu he built40 ,it is evident that the poem was written by one who lived on the marshy shores of the ,persian ,gulf1 and had watched how land could be formed by tying the reeds in bundles and building with them a weir4 ,it was in this way that the first cultivators of ,eridu protected their fields from the tide1 or reclaimed the land from the sea4 ,none but those who had actually seen the process could have devised a cosmology which thus applied it to the creation of the world4 ,to the question--8,how did this world come into existence80 the primitive inhabitant of ,eridu seemed to have a ready answer3 he too was able to create new land1 out of which the rush and the herb could grow1 where the cattle could be pastured1 and the house built4 ,what he could do1 the gods had doubtless done at the beginning of time2 all things must have come from the primeval deep1 and the earth itself was but an islet rescued from the tides and created by obstructing their ebb and flow4 ,but it is also evident that the old poem has been revised and re-edited by the priesthood of ,babylon4 -,saggil1 the temple of ,bel-,merodach of ,babylon1 has been confounded with the earlier -,saggil of ,eridu1 and the creator-god ,ea has been supplanted by ,merodach4 ,the supplanter1 however1 cannot conceal his foreign origin4 ,the 8enclosure0 or 8dwelling-place10 8at the edge of the sea10 must have been made in the first instance by the god of the deep1 not by the sun-god of ,babylon4 ,merodach had nothing to do with the sea and marshland1 with cities that stood on the margin of the ocean1 or reeds that grew by its shores4 ,he was the god of an inland city1 and he symbolised the sun and not the sea4 ,it is possible that even before its alteration at the hands of the theologians of ,babylon1 the old cosmological poem of ,eridu had been modified in accordance with the requirements of a theology which resulted from a fusion of ,sumerian and ,semitic ideas4 ,the doctrine of the triad is already presupposed by it2 ,nippur1 ,erech1 and ,eridu1 with their sanctuaries of ,bel1 ,anu1 and ,ea1 already represent ,babylonia1 and the temples of ,bel and ,anu even take precedence of that of ,ea4 ,at the same time the parallelism between ,nippur and ,erech on the one side1 and ,eridu on the other1 is imperfect4 ,the uncreated 8deep10 on the margin of which ,eridu stood1 has nothing corresponding with it in the two preceding lines1 while the place of the temples of ,nippur and ,erech is occupied by the name of the city of ,eridu4 ,it seems clear1 that the reference to the two great sanctuary-cities of ,northern and ,central ,babylonia is an interpolation1 which breaks and injures the sense4 ,originally1 we may conclude1 the poem named ,eridu only2 its author knew nothing of the other shrines of ,babylonia2 for him the temple of ,ea at ,eridu was the house of all 8the gods40 ,ea1 under the mask of ,merodach1 is the creator of mankind1 as of all things else4 ,in this act of creation the goddess ,aruru is coupled with him2 we have no materials at present for explaining why she should have been introduced1 or whether the introduction formed part of the original legend4 ,it is not the only passage1 however1 in which she appears as a creatress4 ,according to the ,epic of ,gilgames1 she had created the great hero of ,babylonia1 and it was she also who moulded ,ea-bani1 the companion of ,gilgames1 out of clay which she had kneaded with her hands4 ,like ,ea1 therefore1 she was a modeller in clay1 and there was good reason for associating her with the divine potter who had made man4 ,had she been a god she would doubtless have been identified with him2 as it was1 she had to remain his companion and associate1 whose name could not be forgotten even by a worshipper of ,ea4 ,probably she was the goddess of some ,babylonian city where she played the part that ,ea played at ,eridu2 it may be that her sanctuary was at ,marad1 which claimed1 as it would seem1 to be the birthplace of ,gilgames4 ,the name of the first man was ,adapa1 8the son of ,eridu40 ,ea had created him without a helpmeet2 he had endowed him with wisdom and knowledge1 but had denied to him the gift of immortality4 ,each day he baked the bread and poured pure water into the bowl2 at night he drew the bolts of the gates of ,eridu1 and at dawn he sailed forth in his bark to fish in the waters of the ,persian ,gulf4 ,once1 so the story ran1 the south wind upset his skiff1 and in revenge he broke its wings4 ,but the south wind was a servant of ,anu1 and the god of the sky demanded the punishment of the daring mortal4 ,ea1 however1 intervened to save the man he had created4 ,he clad ,adapa in a mourner's robe1 and showed him the road to heaven1 telling him what he was to do in the realm of ,anu1 but forbidding him to eat or drink there4 ,the gate of heaven was guarded by the gods ,tammuz and ,nin-gis-zida1 who asked him the meaning of the mourner's garment which he wore47#cjd7 ,when he answered that it was for their own selves1 because they had vanished from the earth1 their hearts were softened1 and they became his intercessors with ,anu4 ,anu listened1 and forgave2 but that a mortal man should behold the secrets of heaven and earth was so contrary to right1 that he ordered the food and water of life to be offered him4 ,adapa1 however1 remembered the commands of ,ea1 and1 unlike the biblical ,adam1 refused the food of immortality4 ,man remained mortal1 and it was never again in his power to eat of the tree of life4 ,but in return1 sovereignty and dominion were bestowed upon him1 and ,adapa became the father of mankind4 ,the legend is a ,babylonian attempt to explain the existence of death4 ,it is like1 and yet unlike1 the story in ,genesis4 ,the biblical ,adam lost the gift of immortality because his desire to become as ,god1 knowing good and evil1 had caused him to be driven from the ,paradise in which grew the tree of life4 ,adapa1 on the other hand1 was already endowed with knowledge by his creator ,ea1 and his loss of immortality was due1 not to his disobedience1 but to his obedience to the commands of the god4 ,adam was banished from the ,garden of ,eden1 8lest he should put forth his hand and take of the tree of life1 and eat1 and live for ever02 while in the ,babylonian legend it was ,anu himself who was reluctant that one who had entered the gate of heaven should remain a mere mortal man4 ,babylonian polytheism allowed the existence of divided counsels among the gods2 the monotheism of ,israel made this impossible4 ,there was no second ,yahveh to act in contradiction to the first2 ,yahveh was at once the creator of man and the ,god of heaven1 and there was none to dispute ,his will4 ,there is no room for ,anu in the ,book of ,genesis2 and as ,ea1 the creator of ,adapa1 was unwilling that the man he had created should become an immortal god1 so ,yahveh1 the creator of ,adam1 similarly denied to him the food of immortal life4 ,that there is a connection between the ,biblical story and the ,babylonian legend is1 however1 rendered certain by the geography of the ,biblical ,paradise4 ,it was a garden in the land of ,eden1 and ,edin was the ,sumerian name of the 8plain0 of ,babylonia in which ,eridu stood4 ,two of the rivers which watered it were the ,tigris and ,euphrates1 the two streams1 in fact1 which we are specially told had been created and named by ,ea at the beginning of time4 ,indeed1 the name that is given to the ,tigris in the ,book of ,genesis is its old ,sumerian title1 which survived in later days only in the religious literature4 ,even the strange statement that 8a river went out of ,eden10 which 8was parted and became into four heads10 is explained by the cuneiform texts4 ,the ,persian ,gulf was called 8the ,salt ,river10 and1 thanks to its tides1 was regarded as the source of the four streams which flowed into it from their 8heads0 or springs in the north4 ,on early ,babylonian seals1 ,ea1 the god of the sea1 is depicted as pouring sometimes the four rivers1 sometimes only the ,tigris and ,euphrates1 from a vase that he holds in his hands4 ,years ago ,i drew attention to a ,sumerian hymn in which reference is made to the garden and sacred tree of ,eridu1 the ,babylonian ,paradise in the plain of ,eden4 ,dr4 ,pinches has since discovered the last line of the hymn1 in which the picture is completed by a mention of the rivers which watered the garden on either side4 ,it is thus that the text reads-- 8,in ,eridu a vine7#cje7 grew over-shadowing2 in a holy place was it brought forth2 its root was of bright lapis1 set in the world beneath4 ,the path of ,ea was in ,eridu17#cjf7 teeming with fertility4 ,his seat 7there7 is the centre of the earth2 his couch is the bed of the primeval mother47#cjg7 ,into the heart of its holy house1 which spreads its shade like a forest1 hath no man entered4 ,in its midst is ,tammuz1 between the mouths of the rivers on both sides407#cjh7 ,the sacred tree of the garden of ,eridu was1 however1 not the tree of life4 ,it was rather the tree of knowledge4 ,this is shown by an inscription of ,eri-,aku or ,arioch1 in which he describes himself as 8the executor of the oracle of the sacred tree of ,eridu40 ,perhaps it is to the same tree that reference is made in a magical text1 in which a man possessed of 8the seven evil spirits0 is healed with the help of 8the tree which shatters the power of the incubus1 and upon whose core the name of ,ea is recorded407#cji7 ,but ,ea was not only the god of wisdom1 he was also the god of 8life10 and the trees of both wisdom and life might therefore be fitly placed under his protection4 ,when ,babylon became the supreme head of ,babylonia under ,khammurabi and his successors1 the creative functions of ,ea were usurped by ,merodach4 ,a long poem celebrating the glories and power of ,merodach1 his struggle with chaos and creation of the world1 and1 finally1 his formal investiture with the names and prerogatives of ,ea1 has been preserved to us in part4 ,ever since its discovery by ,mr4 ,george ,smith it has been known as the ,epic of the ,creation1 and the parallelism between the first tablet composing it and the first chapter of ,genesis has long attracted attention4 ,but the poem is of late date4 ,it belongs to an age of religious syncretism and materialistic philosophy2 the mythological beings of popular belief are resolved into cosmological principles1 and the mythological dress in which they appear has a theatrical effect4 ,the whole poem reminds us of the stilted and soulless productions of the eighteenth century1 in which commonplace ideas and a prosaic philosophy masquerade as ,greek nymphs or ,roman gods4 ,it is only here and there1 as in the description of the contest with ,tiamt1 or in the concluding lines1--if1 indeed1 they belong to the poem at all1--that it rises above the level of dull mediocrity4 ,but mediocre as it may be from a literary point of view1 it is of considerable value to the student of ,babylonian cosmology4 ,the author is fortunately not original1 and his materials1 therefore1 have been drawn from the folk-lore or the theology of the past4 ,a welcome commentary on the first tablet has been preserved1 moreover1 in the ,problems and ,solutions of ,first ,principles1 written by the philosopher ,damascius1 the contemporary of ,justinian1 whose accuracy and acquaintance with ,babylonian sources it proves4 ,unfortunately the tablet is broken1 and the final lines of it are consequently lost-- 8,when above unnamed was the heaven1 the earth below by a name was uncalled1 the primeval deep was their begetter1 the chaos of ,tiamt was the mother of them all4 ,their waters were embosomed in one place1 the corn-stalk was ungathered1 the marsh-plant ungrown4 ,at that time the gods had not appeared1 any one of them1 by no name were they called1 no destiny had they fixed4 ,then were the primeval gods created1 ,lakhmu and ,lakhamu came forth the first4 ,until they grew up 444 ,ansar and ,kisar were created 444 ,long were the days 444 ,anu ,bel and ,ea were made40 ,to the ,babylonian1 name and existence were one and the same4 ,nothing could exist unless it had a name1 and whatever had a name necessarily existed4 ,that the heaven and earth were unnamed1 therefore1 was equivalent to saying that they were not yet in being4 ,the words with which the ,book of ,genesis begins are a curious contradiction of the statement of the ,babylonian cosmologist4 ,but the contradiction illustrates the difference between the ,hebrew and the ,babylonian points of view4 ,the ,hebrew was not only a monotheist2 he believed also that everything1 even from the beginning1 had been made by the one supreme ,god2 the ,babylonian1 on the contrary1 started with a materialistic philosophy4 ,there are no gods at the outset2 the gods themselves have been created like other things2 all that existed at first was a chaos of waters4 ,the ,babylonian cosmology is that of ,genesis without the first verse4 ,the word ,i have rendered 8chaos0 is mummu4 ,damascius explains it as 1 8the world of thought0 or 8ideas40 ,it is a world which has as yet no outward form or content1 a world without matter1 or perhaps more probably a world in which matter is inseparable from thought4 ,and for this reason it is formless2 matter as yet had assumed no shape1 there is no single part of it which is so defined and separated from the rest as to receive a name and thereby to exist4 ,there is nothing but a dark and formless deep1 which can be imagined but not pictured or described4 ,the chaos1 however1 is a chaos of waters4 ,once more1 therefore1 we are taken back to ,eridu and the shores of the ,persian ,gulf1 and to the cosmology which saw in the water the origin of all things4 ,but the cosmology itself has been strangely changed4 ,there is no longer a creator god1 no longer an ,ea1 who1 like ,yahveh1 existed before creation1 and to whom the earth and its inhabitants owe their existence4 ,he has been swept aside1 and an atheistic philosophy has taken his place4 ,the mythological garb of the larger part of the poem cannot disguise the materialism of its preface2 in the later tablets of it ,tiamt may once more be the dragon of popular imagination1 but the first tablet is careful to explain that this is but an adaptation to folk-lore and legend1 and that ,tiamt is really what her name signifies1 the chaos of waters4 ,the process of creation is conceived of under the ,semitic form of generation4 ,the ,deep and the chaos of waters become male and female principles1 from whom other pairs are generated4 ,the process of generation easily passed into the emanation of the ,gnostic systems of theosophy under the influence of ,greek metaphysics4 ,but the poet of ,babylon remained true to his ,semitic point of view2 for him creation is a process of generation rather than of emanation2 and though the divine or superhuman beings of the old mythology have become mere primordial elements1 they are still male and female1 begetting children like men and gods4 ,to find the elemental deities or principles that could thus form links in the chain of evolution1 it was necessary to fall back on the spirits or ghosts of the early ,sumerian cult who were essentially material in their nature1 and had nothing in common with the ,semitic ,baal4 ,lakhmu and his consort were part of the monstrous brood of ,tiamt2 they represented the first attempts to give form and substance to the universe4 ,but the form was still chaotic and immature1 suitably symbolised by beings1 half human and half bestial1 which had descended to ,semitic ,babylonia from ,sumerian animism1 and whose memory was kept alive by religious art4 ,lakhmu and ,lakhamu were followed by ,an-sar and ,ki-sar1 the upper and lower firmament4 ,the one originally denoted the spirit-world of the sky1 the other the spirit-world of the earth47#caj7 ,they were not gods in the ,semitic sense of the term4 ,but the ,babylonian theologians transformed them into abstractions1 or rather into ,platonic archetypes of the heaven and earth4 ,their appearance meant that the world had at last taken form and substance2 the reign of chaos was over1 and limits had been set which should never again be overpassed4 ,the earth and the sky bounded and defined one another2 the age of formlessness was ended1 and an orderly universe was being prepared fit to receive the present creation4 ,but the work of preparation was a long one1 and not until it was finished could the gods of ,semitic ,babylonia be born4 ,but even they have ceased to be gods for the philosophic cosmologist4 ,they are replaced and represented by the triad of ,anu1 ,bel1 and ,ea1 who thus become mere symbols of the sky1 the earth1 and the water1 the elements which ,babylonian philosophy regarded as constituting the present world4 ,doubtless1 did we possess the rest of the tablet1 we should read how the other 8great gods0 were sprung from them4 ,the later tablets of the ,epic1 which are devoted to the glorification of ,merodach1 are for the most part of little interest for the cosmologist4 ,they describe at wearisome length and with tedious reiteration the challenge of ,tiamt to the gods1 the arming of ,merodach1 and his victory over the dragon4 ,religions and mythological conceptions of all kinds have been laid under contribution1 and confusedly mingled together4 ,it was necessary that ,merodach1 the supreme god of ,babylon1 should have been the creator of the world2 and it was therefore also necessary that the creative acts of the other creator gods of ,babylonia should be transferred to him1 however diverse they may have been4 ,hence1 in the course of the poem1 ,merodach is described as destroying and creating by his word alone1--a cosmological conception which reminds us of that of the ,egyptian school of ,hermopolis1 while after the destruction of ,tiamt he is said to have cut her in half like a flat fish1 forming the canopy of heaven with one half1 above which the 8fountains of the great deep0 were kept firmly barred4 ,this is in flagrant contradiction with the cosmogony of the ,introduction1 but it is probable that it was derived from ,nippur1 where ,en-lil was perhaps described as creating the heavens and earth in a similar fashion4 ,when the creative functions of ,en-lil were usurped by ,merodach1 the old myth was transferred to the god of ,babylon2 and accordingly1 in the pan which seems to form the end of the ,epic1 ,bel of ,nippur is declared to have bestowed upon ,merodach his name of 8lord of the earth10 and therewith the powers and functions which accompanied it4 ,the struggle between ,tiamt1 the dragon of darkness1 and ,merodach1 the god of light1 must originally have symbolised the dispersion of the black rain-cloud and raging tempest by the rays of the sun4 ,but the author of the poem evidently regards it from a cosmological point of view4 ,for him it is the victory of order over chaos1 of the present creation over the formless world of the past1 and of fixed law over anarchy and confusion4 ,the conception of a law1 governing the universe and unable to be broken1 lay deep in the ,babylonian mind4 ,even the gods could not escape it2 they too had to submit to that inexorable destiny which distinguished the world in which we live from the world of chaos4 ,all they could do was to interpret and reveal the decrees of fate2 the decrees themselves were unalterable4 ,it was not ,bel who issued them2 they were contained in the tablets of destiny which he wore on his breast as the symbol of his supremacy1 and which enabled him to predict the future4 ,these were1 indeed1 the ,urim and ,thummim which1 like the high priest of ,israel1 he was privileged to consult47#caa7 ,what they did was not to make him the arbiter of fortune1 but its interpreter and seer4 ,he learned from them how the laws of the universe were going to work1 what destiny had in store for it1 and how1 therefore1 it was needful to act4 ,it does not even seem that his prevision extended beyond a year2 at all events1 when ,bel of ,nippur had yielded up his rights to ,bel of ,babylon1 we are told that the latter had to sit each ,new ,year's day in the mystic 8chamber of the fates10 determining the destiny of mankind during the ensuing year4 ,the victory over ,tiamt was followed by the assignment of particular posts in the sky to ,anu1 ,bel1 and ,ea4 ,this again harmonises but ill with the cosmology of the preface to the poem2 but the astronomers had long since divided the heaven between the gods of the ,babylonian triad1 and the honour of first doing so is accordingly assigned to ,merodach4 ,then comes an account of the creation of the heavenly bodies-- 8,he prepared the stations of the great gods2 the stars corresponding to them he established as constellations2 he made known the year1 and marked out the signs of the zodiac4 ,three stars he assigned to each of the #ab months1 from the beginning of the year till 7its7 close4 ,he established the station of ,jupiter that they might know their bounds1 that they should not sin1 should not go astray1 any one of them4 ,the stations of ,bel and ,ea he fixed along with it4 ,he opened gates on both sides1 he strengthened 7their7 bolts on the left hand and the right2 in the middle he set a staircase47#cab7 ,he made the moon appear illuminating the night2 he established it as the luminary of night that the days might be known40 ,here it will be noticed that1 as in ,genesis1 the heavenly bodies are regarded as already in existence4 ,what the creator did was to establish them in their stations1 and appoint them to mark and register time4 ,in fact1 as soon as ,ansar--the upper firmament--appeared1 they appeared also1 though in an embryonic form4 ,merodach is thus an arranger rather than a creator1 the founder of astronomy and the calendar rather than the maker of the stars4 ,it is significant1 however1 that there is no reference to the sun2 the sun-god could hardly fix for himself the laws he had to obey4 ,it has usually been supposed that the account of the orderly arrangement of the stars was followed by that of the creation of animals4 ,but the tablet on which the latter is found is a mere fragment1 and ,professor ,zimmern may be right in thinking that it belongs to a different story of the creation4 ,at any rate1 the creation in it is assigned to 8the gods0 generally 8in their assembly0 rather than to ,merodach alone4 ,on the other hand1 as we have seen1 the author of the ,epic did not hesitate to introduce into it cosmological myths and ideas which agreed but badly together1 and it is not likely that he would have omitted to notice the creation of animate things4 ,but a description of the creation of the world1 or even of the great struggle between the gods of light and the dragon of darkness1 was not the main purpose of the ,babylonian poem4 ,this was the glorification of the god of ,babylon4 ,the story of the creation was introduced into it because it was necessary that the supreme god of the universe should also be its creator1 and it was for the same reason that the overthrow of the powers of darkness and anarchy was assigned to ,merodach alone4 ,he usurped and absorbed the prerogatives and attributes of the older gods2 their virtues1 as it were1 passed to him along with their sovereignty and kingdom4 ,the fact is very plainly expressed in what appears to be the concluding tablet of the ,epic4 ,here the names1 and therewith the essential natures1 of the other deities are formally handed over to ,bel-,merodach of ,babylon4 ,henceforward he is acknowledged in heaven as well as in earth1 the supreme ,bel or ,baal of ,semitic faith1 the father of gods and men4 ,ea1 the lord of the deep1 and ,bel of ,nippur1 8the lord of the earth10 alike yield up to him their powers2 he assumes their names and titles2 and1 thanks to the centralising influence of ,babylon1 ,babylonian religion approaches monotheism as nearly as its local character ever allowed it to do4 ,the creator alone could rightfully claim the worship of the creatures he had made4 ,but it was an approach merely2 the final step was never taken1 even by the more speculative theologians of ,babylonia1 which swept away the polytheism of the local cults1 and left ,merodach without a rival4 ,herein lies the great contrast between the ,babylonian and the ,hebrew conceptions of the creation4 ,the ,hebrew cosmology starts from the belief in one ,god1 beside whom there is none else1 whether in the orderly world of to-day or in the world of chaos that preceded it4 ,on its forefront stand the words1 8,in the beginning ,god created the heavens and the earth40 ,there was chaos1 it was true1 but it was a chaos which had no existence apart from ,god1 who was its absolute master to carve and fashion as ,he would4 ,the deep1 too1 was there2 but the deep was neither the impersonation of ,tiamt nor the realm of ,ea2 the breath of the one ,god brooded over it1 awaiting the time when the creative word should be uttered1 and the breath of ,god should become the life of the world4 ,the elements1 indeed1 of the ,hebrew cosmology are all ,babylonian2 even the creative word itself was a ,babylonian conception1 as the story of ,merodach has shown us2 but the spirit that inspires the cosmology is the antithesis of that which inspires the cosmologies of ,babylonia4 ,between the polytheism of ,babylonia and the monotheism of ,israel a gulf is fixed which cannot be spanned4 ,the ,babylonian ,epic of the ,creation1 as we may continue to call it1 sums up and incorporates the various cosmological systems and fancies that had been current in the country4 ,they are thrown into a mythological form with a philosophical introduction4 ,we may therefore regard it as embodying the latest and most fully elaborated attempt of the ,babylonian mind to explain the origin of things4 ,it is probably not much older than the age of the ,second ,assyrian empire1 though the materials out of which it has been composed go back to the earliest days of ,babylonian antiquity4 ,but it exemplifies the three principles or fundamental ideas upon which ,babylonian cosmology rested--the belief that water is the primal element1 the belief in a lawless chaos from which the present world has1 as it were1 been rescued after a long and fierce struggle between the powers of darkness and light1 and a belief in generation as the primary creative force4 ,the doctrine that in water we must see the source of all things--a doctrine that made its way through the cosmologies of ,phnicia and ,israel into that of the ,greek philosopher ,thales--can be traced back to the days when ,eridu was the seaport of ,babylonia1 and its inhabitants reclaimed the marshlands from the sea1 and speculated on the origin of the soil on which they dwelt4 ,the belief in the two creations of darkness and light1 of confusion and law1 may have arisen from the first contact between the teaching of ,nippur and that of ,eridu1 and the endeavour to reconcile the antagonistic conceptions that underlay them1 and the contrary systems of creation which they presupposed4 ,the belief1 finally1 in generation as a motive force was part of the religious heritage that was common to the ,semitic race4 ,semitic religion centred in a divine family which corresponded to the family of the worshipper on earth2 the gods were fathers and mothers1 and begat children like the human parents1 after whom they were modelled4 ,in so far1 therefore1 as the universe was divine1 it too must have been evolved in the same fashion2 it was only when it ceased to partake of the divine nature1 and to assume its present form1 that the god could deal with the materials of which it consisted1 as the potter dealt with his clay2 or could even create by the simple word of his mouth1 like the man who similarly created the names of things1 and therewith the things themselves which the names denoted4 ,with the rise of philosophic speculation the process of divine generation became a process of emanation4 ,the gods passed into mere symbols1 or rather cosmic principles and elements2 they retained1 indeed1 their double nature as male and female2 but that was all4 ,the human element that once was in them disappeared1 the concrete became the abstract4 ,mummu ,tiamt was explained as the world of immature ideas1--the simple 8apprehension10 we might almost say1 of the ,hegelian philosophy1--and the first of the 8ons0 of the later ,gnosticism was thus started on its way4 ,babylonian religion had been narrowly local and anthropomorphic2 under the guidance of a cosmological philosophy it tended to become an atheistic materialism4 ,the poet who wrote the introduction to the ,epic of the ,creation could have had but little faith in the gods and goddesses he paraded on the scene2 in the self-evolved universe of the schools there was hardly room even for the creator ,merodach himself4 ,lecture ,,vii4 ,the ,sacred ,books4 ,every organised religion has had its sacred books4 ,they have been as indispensable to it as an organised priesthood2 indeed1 ,mohammedanism is a proof that the sacred book is more necessary to its existence than even a priesthood4 ,the sacred book binds a religion to its past2 it is the ultimate authority to which1 in matters of controversy1 appeal can be made1 for it enshrines those teachings of the past upon which the faith of the present professes to rest4 ,it remains fixed and permanent amid the perpetual flow and ebb of human things2 the generations of men pass quickly away1 rites and ceremonies change1 the meaning of symbols is forgotten1 and the human memory is weak and deceitful2 but the written word endures1 and the changes that pass over it are comparatively few and slight4 ,babylonia possessed an organised religion1 a religion that was official1 and to a large extent the result of an artificial combination of heterogeneous elements2 and it too1 therefore1 necessarily possessed its sacred books4 ,but they differed essentially from the sacred books of ancient ,egypt4 ,the ,egyptian lived for the future life rather than for the present1 and his sacred books were ,books of the ,dead1 intended for the guidance of the disembodied soul in its journey through the other world4 ,the interest and cares of the ,babylonian1 on the contrary1 were centred in the present life4 ,the other world was for him a land of shadow and forgetfulness2 a dreary world of darkness and semi-conscious existence to which he willingly closed his eyes4 ,it was in this world that he was rewarded or punished for his deeds1 that he had intercourse with the gods of light1 and that he was1 as is often said in the hymns1 8the son of his god40 ,what he needed1 accordingly1 from his sacred books was guidance in this world1 not in the world beyond the grave4 ,the sacred books of ,babylonia thus fall into three classes4 ,we have1 first1 the so-called magical texts or incantations1 the object of which was to preserve the faithful from disease and mischief1 to ward off death1 and to defeat the evil arts of the witch and the sorcerer4 ,secondly1 there are the hymns to the gods2 and1 lastly1 the penitential psalms1 which resemble in many respects the psalms of the ,old ,testament1 and were employed not only by the individual1 but also in seasons of public calamity or dismay4 ,we owe the first discovery of this sacred literature to the genius of ,franois ,lenormant2 he it was who first drew attention to it and characterised its several divisions4 ,it was ,franois ,lenormant1 moreover1 who pointed out that its nearest analogue was the ,hindu ,veda1 a brilliant intuition which has been verified by subsequent research4 ,unfortunately our knowledge of it is still exceedingly imperfect4 ,we are dependent on the fragmentary copies of it which have come from the library of ,nineveh1 and which resemble the torn leaves1 mixed pell-mell together1 that alone remain in some ,oriental library from vanished manuscripts of the ,bible and the ,christian ,fathers4 ,until the great libraries of ,babylonia itself are thoroughly explored1 our analysis and explanation of the sacred literature of the country must be provisional only2 the evidence is defective1 and the conclusions we draw from it must needs be defective as well4 ,moreover1 the purely ritual texts1 which stand to the hymns in the same relation that the ,atharva-,veda stands to the ig-,veda1 have as yet been but little examined4 ,their translation is difficult and obscure1 and the ceremonies described in them are but half understood4 ,the ritual1 nevertheless1 constituted an important part of the sacred literature1 and its rubrics were regarded with at least as much reverence as the rubrics of the ,anglican ,prayer-book4 ,doubtless the actual words of which they consisted did not possess the same magical or divine power as those of the incantations and hymns1 they were not--in modern language--verbally inspired1 but they prescribed rites and actions which had quite as divine and authoritative an origin as the hymns themselves4 ,they were1 furthermore1 the framework in which the hymns and spells were set2 and they all formed together a single act of divine worship1 the several parts of which could not be separated without endangering the efficacy of the whole4 ,that the incantations were the older portion of the sacred literature of ,chalda1 was perceived by ,lenormant4 ,they go back to the age of animism1 to the days when1 as yet1 the multitudinous spirits and demons of ,sumerian belief had not made way for the gods of ,semitic ,babylonia1 or the sorcerer and medicine-man for a hierarchy of priests4 ,their language as well as their spirit is ,sumerian1 and the zi or 8spirit0 of heaven and earth is invoked to repel the attack of the evil ghost1 or to shower blessings on the head of the worshipper4 ,they transport us into a world that harmonises but badly with the decorous and orderly realm of the gods of light2 it is a world in which the lil and the utuk1 the galla and the ekimmu1 reign supreme1 and little room seems to be left for the deities of the ,semitic faith4 ,the gods themselves1 when they are introduced into it1 wear a new aspect4 ,ea is no longer the creator and culture god1 but a master of magic spells2 and his son ,asari displays his goodness towards mankind by instructing them how to remove the sorceries in which they have been involved1 and the witcheries with which they are tormented4 ,but it must be borne in mind that the incantations do not all belong to the same age4 ,the description ,i have just given holds good only of the oldest part of them4 ,the ,sumerian population continued to exist in ,babylonia after the ,semitic occupation of the country1 and ,sumerian animism continued to exist as well4 ,by the side of the higher ,semitic faith1 with its gods and goddesses1 its priesthood and its cult1 the ancient belief in sorcery and witchcraft1 in spells and incantations1 and in the ghost-world of ,en-lil1 flourished among the people4 ,and as in ,india1 where ,brahmanism has thrown its protection over the older cults and beliefs of the native tribes1 assimilating them as far as possible1 or explaining them in accordance with the orthodox creed2 so too in ancient ,babylonia1 the primeval animism of the people was tacitly recognised by the religion of the ,state1 and given an official sanction4 ,there was no declaration of hostility towards it such as was made by the religion of ,israel2 on the contrary1 the old incantations were preserved and modernised1 and the sanctity with which they had been invested allowed to remain unimpaired4 ,at the same time1 they were harmonised1 so far as could be1 with the official creed4 ,the gods of the ,state religion were introduced into them1 and to these gods appeal was made rather than to 8the spirit of heaven0 and 8the spirit of earth40 ,the spirits and ghosts of the night existed1 indeed1 but from henceforth they had to be subservient to the deities of the official faith4 ,it was no longer the medicine-man1 but the priest of the ,semitic deity1 who recited the incantation for the suppliant and the sufferer4 ,we can almost trace the growth of what ,i will term the ,book of ,incantations down to the time when it assumed its final form4 ,it was no ,book1 however1 in the proper sense of the term1 and it is doubtful whether all the collections which might have been comprised in it were ever combined together4 ,but it is convenient to speak of it in the singular1 so long as we remember that this is merely a mode of speech4 ,as a matter of fact1 each great sanctuary seems to have had its own collection4 ,these were added to from time to time2 some of them were amalgamated together1 or parts belonging to one collection were incorporated into another4 ,spells which had been found effective in warding off disease or preventing evil1 were introduced into a collection which related to the same subject1 whatever may have been their source1 and the list of gods invoked was continually being enlarged1 in the hope that some one at least among them might give the sufferer relief4 ,the older collections were modified in accordance with the requirements of the ,state religion1 and the animism that inspired them accommodated to the orthodox belief2 while new collections came into existence which breathed the later ,semitic spirit1 and were drawn up under the supervision of the ,babylonian priesthood4 ,hymns and even penitential psalms were embodied in them1 like the verses of the ,bible or the ,quran1 which are still used as charms in ,christian and ,mohammedan countries2 and it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between the hymn that served merely as an incantation and the hymn that was chanted in the service of the gods4 ,indeed1 incantatory formul are not unfrequently intermixed with the words of the hymn or psalm1 producing that grotesque and embarrassing medley of exalted spiritual thought and stupid superstition which so often meets us in the religious literature of ,babylonia4 ,how late some of the collections are in the history of ,babylonian religion1 may be judged from the fact that a time came when the old ,sumerian language was no longer considered necessary to ensure the efficacy of the charm1 and collections of incantations were made in the ,semitic language of later ,babylonia4 ,criticism will hereafter have to sift and distinguish these collections one from the other1 and1 above all1 determine the earlier and later elements contained in each4 ,at present such a task is impossible4 ,few1 if any1 of the collections have come down to us in a perfect state2 there are many more1 doubtless1 which future research will hereafter bring to light2 and as long as we are dependent solely on the copies made for the library of ,nineveh1 without being able to compare them with the older texts of the ,babylonian libraries1 the primary condition of scientific investigation is wanting4 ,nevertheless there are certain collections which stand out markedly from among the rest4 ,they display features of greater antiquity1 and the animism presupposed by them is but thinly disguised4 ,it is comparatively easy to separate in them the newer and older elements1 which have little in common with each other4 ,most of them point to ,eridu as the source from which they have been derived1 though there are others the origin of which is probably to be sought at ,nippur4 ,in these older incantations the gods of the official cult are absent1 except where their names have been violently foisted in at a later date1 and their place is taken by the spirits or ghosts of early ,sumerian belief4 ,the ,zi or 8spirit of the sky10 8the spirit of the earth10 8the spirit of ,ansar and ,kisar10 such are the superhuman powers that are invoked1 and to whom the worshipper turns in his extremity4 ,even when we come across a name that is borne by one of the deities of the later ,babylonian religion1 we find that it is the name not of a god1 but of a denizen of the ghost-world4 8,o spirit of ,zikum1 mother of ,ea10 we read in one place2 8,o spirit of ,nina1 daughter of ,ea02 8,o spirit1 divine lord of the mother-father of ,en-lil2 ,o spirit1 divine lady of the mother-father of ,nin-lil02 8,o spirit of the moon1 ,o spirit of the sun1 ,o spirit of the evening star60 ,there is as yet neither ,bel of ,nippur1 nor ,sin and ,samas and ,istar2 the sorcerer knows only of the spirits that animate the universe1 and bring good and evil upon mankind4 ,nothing can be more striking than the enumeration of the divine powers to whom the prayer is directed1 in an incantation of which ,i have given the translation in my ,hibbert ,lectures 7p4 #dej sqq47-- 8,whether it be the spirit of the divine lord of the earths2 or the spirit of the divine lady of the earths2 or the spirit of the divine lord of the stars2 or the spirit of the divine lady of the stars2 or the spirit of the divine lord of progenies2 or the spirit of the divine lady of progenies2 or the spirit of the divine lord of 4442 or the spirit of the divine lady of 4442 or the spirit of the divine lord of the holy mound 7,ea72 or the spirit of the divine lady of the holy mound 7,damkina72 or the spirit of the divine lord of the dayspring of life2 or the spirit of the divine lady of the dayspring of life2 or the spirit of the divine chanter of the spirit-hosts 7,en-me-sarra72 or the spirit of the divine chantress of the spirit-hosts407#cac7 ,even the word 8divine10 which ,i have used here in default of anything better1 imports theological ideas into the texts which were really foreign to them4 ,the original means nothing more than 8superhuman0 or perhaps 8non-human02 the ,sumerian term is dimmer1 of which dimme1 8a ghost10 and dimmea1 8a spectre10 are but other forms2 and the ideograph by which it is symbolised is an eight-rayed star47#cad7 8,the divine lord0 and 8divine lady0 of the incantation are but the lil and its handmaid under another guise2 they are merely the ghost-like spirits who display themselves at night in the points of light that twinkle and move through the sky4 ,the theologians of a later day amused themselves by cataloguing the ,sumerian names of the spirits invoked in the ancient incantations1 and transforming them into titles of the deities of the official pantheon4 ,the same process had been followed in the ,semitic translations which were added to the incantatory texts4 ,the spirit of the sun became ,samas1 the spirit of the evening star became ,istar4 ,en-lil of ,nippur was transmuted into ,bel1 and ,nin-lil1 the lady of the ghost-world1 into ,bilat or ,beltis4 ,the process was facilitated by the changes undergone at ,eridu by the magical texts themselves1 even before the days of ,semitic influence4 ,maritime intercourse with other lands had already deeply affected the theology of ,eridu2 the crude animism of an earlier epoch had made way for the conception of a culture-god who taught men the elements of civilisation1 and wrote books for their instruction4 ,he was still a 8spirit0 rather than a god in the ,semitic sense of the word1 but he was a spirit who had emerged above the rest1 who had acquired those family ties which formed the very foundation of civilised life1 and to whom the creation of the world was due4 ,ea was not indeed a ,baal1 but he was already on the way to become a god in human form4 ,at the same time1 both ,ea and his son ,asari still appear in animal shape4 ,asari is1 it is true1 8the benefactor of man10 but he is also 8the mighty one of the princely gazelle10 and even 8the gazelle0 himself2 while ,ea is 8the antelope of the deep10 or more simply 8the antelope407#cae7 ,at other times he is the 8lord of the earth0 which he has created1 or the 8king0 of that 8holy mound0 of waters which rose up against the sky like a mountain1 and behind which the sun appeared at dawn4 ,the titles that he bears point unmistakably to ,eridu4 ,here alone ,ea was the creator of the earth1 and here too1 in the temple of the god1 was a likeness of that 8holy mound0 whereon the future destinies of mankind were declared4 ,the oldest incantations which have come down to us must have been composed at ,eridu in the days of its ,sumerian animism4 ,there are other divine or semi-divine names in them which tell the same tale4 ,the pure waters which heal the sick and destroy the power of witchcraft are brought by the water-spirit ,nin-akha-kudda1 8the mistress of spells10 whom the theologians of a later time transformed into a daughter of ,ea4 ,bau1 too1 the heifer of the city of ,isin17#caf7 appears along with the water-spirit4 ,like ,zikum1 she was the mother of ,ea and 8the generatress of mankind10 and she shared with ,asari the honours of the ,new ,year's festival4 ,but ,bau1 it would seem1 was not originally from ,eridu4 ,she had come there from a neighbouring city1 and her presence in the incantations is a proof that even in these oldest monuments of a sacred literature we are still far from the beginnings of ,babylonian religion4 ,at ,nippur it was the ghosts and vampires1 who had their habitation beneath the ground1 that were objects of terror to the men who lived upon it4 ,at ,eridu the demons were rather the raging winds and storm-clouds which lashed the waters of ,ea into fury1 and seemed for a time to transform his kingdom into a chaos of lawless destruction4 ,the fisherman perished in his bark1 while the salt waves inundated the land and ravaged the fields of the husbandman4 ,it was here1 on the shores of the ,persian ,gulf1 that the story of the great flood was perhaps first thrown into literary form1 and that conception of the universe grew up which found its last expression in the legend of the struggle between ,merodach and the forces of anarchy4 ,at any rate it was here that the spirits of evil were pictured as the seven evil demons in whom the tempest was1 as it were1 incarnated-- 8,seven are they1 seven are they1 in the hollow of the deep seven are they6 ,gleams 787 of the sky are those seven4 ,in the hollow of the deep1 in a palace1 they grew up4 ,male they are not1 female they are not4 ,destructive whirlwinds are they4 ,wife they have not1 child they beget not2 compassion and mercy they do not know4 ,prayer and supplication hear they not4 ,horses bred in the mountains are they4 ,unto ,ea are they hostile4 ,the throne-bearers of the gods are they4 ,to work mischief in the street they settle in the highway4 ,evil are they1 evil are they6 ,seven are they1 seven are they1 seven twice again are they60 ,the seven evil spirits played an important part in the demonology of ancient ,eridu1 and echoes of it survive in the later literature4 ,they were even transmuted into a god1 and unified in his person under the name of 8the divine seven027#cag7 while the last month of the year1 the stormy ,adar1 was dedicated to them4 ,but in earlier days it needed all the wisdom of ,ea to counteract their wicked devices4 ,the fire-god himself was sent to drive them from their victims1 and to disclose their nature and origin-- 8,in the mountain of the sunset1 it is said1 8those seven were born20 in the mountain of the sunrise those seven grew up2 in the hollows of the earth they have their dwelling2 on the high-places of the earth their names are proclaimed4 ,as for them1 in heaven and earth they have no dwelling1 hidden is their name4 ,among the sentient gods they are not known4 ,their name in heaven and earth exists not4 ,those seven from the mountain of the sunset gallop forth1 those seven in the mountain of the sunrise are bound to rest4 ,in the hollows of the earth they set the foot2 on the high-places of the earth they lift the neck4 ,they by nought are known2 in heaven and earth there is no knowledge of them40 ,the hymn or incantation which thus describes them belongs to a late period in the history of ,babylonian religion4 ,the animism of primitive times has been replaced by the gods and goddesses of the later official faith4 ,but the belief in the seven evil spirits still lingered1 not only in the popular mind1 but also in the ranks of the official hierarchy2 and it was still remembered that they had been at the outset the spirits of the tempest1 born in the clefts of the ravine or on the stormy mountain-top1 from whence they issued like wild horses4 ,the flame of sacrifice could alone avert their onset1 and incantations were still composed under official sanction1 with the help of which they might be driven away4 ,the fact shows to how late an epoch the composition of spells and incantatory hymns may come down1 even when the atmosphere they breathe is still that of ,eridu1 and the language in which they are written is still the sacred ,sumerian4 ,but there are collections of magical hymns and formul which are even yet later in date4 ,the eight books of the so-called ,maql or 8,burning0 collection are written throughout in ,semitic ,babylonian27#cah7 and though two out of the nine books of another collection--that of the ,surpu or 8,consuming ,fever0--are bilingual1 they have been clearly translated from the more original ,babylonian into ,sumerian1 like the ,latin exercises of to-day47#cai7 ,the official canon of the magical texts1 in fact1 was long in formation1 and did not assume its final shape until the age of ,khammurabi or later1 even though its roots go back to the earliest period of ,babylonia1 to the age of animism and the medicine-man1 when the ,sumerian was still dominant in the land1 and the ,semitic nomad or trader was content to learn from him the elements of civilisation4 ,the official canon had been collected together from all sides4 ,most of the great sanctuaries of the country had probably contributed to it2 in most1 if not in all1 of them there must have been magical rituals which had grown up under the care and supervision of the priesthood1 and in which the old beliefs of the people were disciplined and harmonised with the dogmas of the ,state creed4 ,up to the last1 one of the classes into which the priesthood was divided was known as the ni or 8,chanters10 whose name was derived from the ,sumerian n1 8an incantation40 ,it is this word which is prefixed to the charms and incantatory hymns that constitute so integral a part of the magical texts2 and though in course of time it came to denote little more than 8recitation10 it was a recitation which possessed magical powers1 and for which1 therefore1 a special training was necessary4 ,a single mistake in pronunciation or intonation1 a single substitution of one word for another1 was sufficient to destroy the charm and necessitate the repetition of the ceremony4 ,some of the incantations had even to be recited in a whisper1 like certain parts of the ,roman missal2 and a whole series or collection is accordingly termed the ritual of 8the whispered charm10 reminding us of the passage in the ,book of ,isaiah where the prophet refers to 8the wizards that peep and that mutter407#cbj7 ,by the side of the 8,book of ,incantations0--whether it ever existed or not--there was another sacred book containing hymns to the gods4 ,here1 again1 it is more than doubtful whether the various collections of hymns compiled for use in the great sanctuaries of the country were ever combined together and incorporated into a single volume4 ,the tendency to religious centralisation and unification in ,babylonia was arrested before it could produce in religion what the seventy-two books of the 8,illumination of ,bel0 were for astronomy and astrology1 a compilation in which the observations of the past were collected and brought together47#cba7 ,babylon1 despite its political predominance1 never succeeded in absorbing the religious cults of the more venerable sanctuaries of the country2 the historical conservatism of the people was too strong1 and even ,nabonidos was forced to lavish gifts on the shrine of the sun-god at ,sippara as well as upon that of ,merodach at ,babylon4 ,the priesthood of ,babylon were content to be chief among their peers2 there was no monotheistic zeal to sweep away the rival temples1 and the intensely localised character of ,babylonian religion prevented the rise of monotheism4 ,and without religious centralisation a common service-book and canon are not very probable4 ,perhaps1 moreover1 the hymns to the gods were too long in detaching themselves from the magical ritual1 and too late in acquiring a sacred character of their own1 to attain the same degree of divine authority as the incantations4 ,many of them are not only in ,semitic ,assyrian1 but were composed as late as the reigns of the last ,assyrian kings1 while even those which are bilingual seem to have been in many cases the work of ,semitic poets1 the ,sumerian text being a translation from the ,semitic into the sacred language of theology4 ,at the same time1 ,lenormant was not far wrong in comparing the religious hymns of ,chalda with those of the ,rig-,veda4 ,like the latter1 they belong to different periods of time1 and comprise poems as unlike one another as war-songs and incantations and philosophic addresses to the gods4 ,moreover1 as in the case of the incantations1 there were collections of hymns addressed to the god or gods of the sanctuary in whose service they were used4 ,thus many of them belong to a collection that must have been made for the temple of the sun-god at ,sippara or ,larsa2 all alike are addressed to the sun-god1 the supreme judge of mankind2 and the language that is used of him is the same in each4 ,other hymns celebrate the moon-god of ,ur1 while others belong to ,nippur or to the sanctuary of ,merodach at ,babylon4 ,the hymn to the god was as much a necessary portion of divine service as the incantation or the ceremonial rite4 ,the ritual texts tell us how and when it was employed4 ,thus on the festival of the ,new ,year the service in the temple of ,bel-,merodach was opened by a hymn in honour of his ark2 and on the second of ,nisan the priest was ordered to go down to the ,euphrates at the beginning of the first hour of the night1 and then1 after putting on the prescribed vestment1 and taking the waters of the river in his hand1 to 8enter into the presence of ,bel10 and there recite a long hymn in praise of the god4 ,the hymn closed with a prayer-- 8,show mercy to thy city of ,babylon2 to -,saggil thy temple incline thy face2 grant the prayers of thy people the sons of ,babylon60 ,but there is yet another proof of the sacred character that attached itself to the hymns4 ,many of them were employed as incantations4 ,not only were they introduced into the magical texts1 like the verses of the ,bible when used as charms1 but the magical element was inserted in the hymn itself4 ,the address to the deity was combined with spells and incantations1 producing a confused medley of spiritual expressions and grovelling superstition that is at once repellent and grotesque to our modern notions4 ,the hymn1 moreover1 is prefaced by the word n or 8incantation10 which makes its words as authoritative and unalterable as the rest of the magical ritual4 ,the same sacredness that invests the latter invests also the hymn4 ,the hymn1 in short1 is as much verbally inspired as the incantation or spell2 indeed1 between the hymn and the incantation no clear line of demarcation was drawn by the ,babylonian1 and it is questionable whether he would have recognised that there was any such line at all4 ,it was in the use that was made of them1 and not in their essential nature1 that the hymn to the god and the incantation differed from one another4 ,and as animism preceded the official religion of ,babylonia1 and the belief in spirits preceded the worship of the gods1 so too did the incantation precede the hymn4 ,the sacredness that was acquired by the hymn was originally reflected from the incantation2 it was not the contents of the hymn1 but the actual words of which it was composed1 that gave it its sacred and authoritative character1 and consecrated its employment by the priestly caste4 ,it is accordingly with good reason that ,i have described the hymns1 like the incantations proper1 as verbally inspired4 ,the inspiration lay in the words more than in the sense they conveyed2 an error of pronunciation was more fatal than a misunderstanding of their meaning4 ,as long as the words were recited correctly1 it mattered little whether either priest or people understood precisely what they meant4 ,i have already in an earlier lecture quoted some lines from the hymn to the moon-god which was probably composed for the services in the great temple of ,ur4 ,the hymns in honour of the sun-god are much more numerous1 and formed part of a collection which seems to have been made by the priests of ,bit-,uri1 the temple of the sun-god at ,sippara4 ,the sun-god they celebrate is the incorruptible 8judge of mankind10 the rewarder of the innocent and the punisher of the guilty1 who sees all that is done on earth1 and acts towards those who call upon him with justice and mercy4 8,o lord1 we read in one of them17#cbb7 8illuminator of the darkness1 opener of the sickly face10 merciful god1 who setteth up the fallen1 who helpeth the weak1 unto thy light look the great gods1 the spirits of earth all gaze upon thy face4 ,tongues in unison like a single word thou directest1 smiting their heads they look to the light of the mid-day sun4 ,like a wife thou standest1 glad and gladdening4 ,thou art their light in the vault of the far-off heaven4 ,thou art the object of their gaze in the broad earth4 ,men far and near behold thee and rejoice60 ,the language of another hymn is in a similar strain-- 8,direct the law of the multitudes of mankind6 ,thou art eternal righteousness in the heavens6 ,thou art of faithful judgment towards all the world6 ,thou knowest what is right1 thou knowest what is wrong4 ,o sun-god1 righteousness hath lifted up its foot6 ,o sun-god1 wickedness hath been cut down as with a knife6 ,o sun-god1 the minister of ,anu and ,bel art thou6 ,o sun-god1 the judge supreme of heaven and earth art thou6 ,o lord of the living creation1 the pitiful one 7who directest7 the world6 ,o sun-god1 on this day purify and illumine the king the son of his god6 ,whatever worketh evil in his body let it be taken away6 ,cleanse him like the goblet of the ,zoganes6 ,illumine him like a cup of ghee2 like the copper of a polished tablet let him be made bright6 ,release him from the ban607#cbc7 ,the last words illustrate that strange mixture of spiritual thought and the arts of the sorcerer to which ,i have more than once alluded4 ,the hymns to the sun-god were not yet emancipated from the magical beliefs and ceremonies in which they had had their origin2 they were still incantations rather than hymns in the modern sense of the word4 ,the collection to which they belonged must have been used by the class of priests known as 8,chanters0 or 8,enchanters10 who had succeeded to the sorcerers and medicine-men of the pre-,semitic past2 and the fact explains how it is that in many of them we have an alternating antiphonal service1 portions of them being recited by the priest and other portions by the worshipper4 ,in some instances1 indeed1 the verses seem to have been alternately intoned by the priest and the assistant ministers1 like the canticles or psalms in the ,christian worship of to-day4 ,the practice had its origin in the magical ritual1 where the sorcerer first recited the incantation1 and then called upon the individual to repeat it once or oftener after him4 ,it is another proof of the intimate connection that existed between the hymns and the incantations out of which they had sprung2 like the ,veda or the ,zend-,avesta1 the sacred books of ancient ,chalda mixed magic and the spiritual worship of the gods together in a confusion which seems to us difficult to understand4 ,it was the same with the penitential psalms which constitute the third division of the sacred literature of ,babylonia4 ,in many respects they resemble the psalms of the ,old ,testament4 ,like them they are intended for public use1 in spite of their individualistic form2 the individual represents the community1 and at times it is the national calamity and the national sin to which reference is made4 ,after the revolt and reconquest of ,babylon by ,assur-bani-pal1 when the city was still polluted by the corpses of those who had perished by famine or the sword1 the prophets7#cbd7 ordered that its shrines and temple-roads should be purified1 that its 8wrathful gods and angry goddesses0 should be 8appeased by prayers and penitential psalms10 and that then1 and only then1 the daily sacrifices in the temples should be offered once more47#cbe7 ,doubtless the penitential psalms were in the first instance the spontaneous outpouring of the heart of the individual2 it was his sufferings that they depicted1 and his sins that they deplored2 but as soon as they had been introduced into the worship of the temple1 and become part of the public cult1 the individual element in them fell into the background1 and in the sins and sufferings of the individual both priest and laity saw those of the whole community4 ,like the ,hebrew psalms1 again1 they express the belief that sin is the cause of suffering and calamity1 and that it can be removed by penitence and prayer to the offended deity4 ,but whereas the ,hebrew monotheist knew of one ,god only who could inflict punishment and listen to the repentant words of the sinner1 the ,babylonian polytheist was distracted by the uncertainty as to what particular divinity he had offended1 and to whom1 therefore1 his penitent appeal should be addressed4 ,in the penitential psalms1 accordingly1 it is the vague and general 8god0 and 8goddess0 that are invoked1 rather than a particular deity4 ,it is only occasionally that the names of special gods are introduced1 and then a long list of them is sometimes given1 in the hope that among them might be the divinity whose anger had been excited1 and whose wrath the sufferer was eager to appease4 ,sin1 it must be remembered1 in the eyes of the ,babylonian included a good deal more than moral wrong-doing4 ,there were ritual sins as well as moral sins1 offences against the ceremonial law as well as against the moral or spiritual code4 ,the sin was not unfrequently involuntary1 and the sufferer did not even know in what particular respect he had offended against the divine laws4 ,it may have been the eating of forbidden food1 such as that which drove ,adam and ,eve from the sinless garden of ,paradise4 ,or1 again1 it may have been a real sin1 a sin of thought and word committed in the secrecy of the heart4 8,was he frank in speaking10 it is asked in a confession which is put into the mouth of a suppliant1 8but false in heart8 ,was it #8yes' with his mouth1 but #8no' in his heart80 ,so far as the punishment was concerned1 little distinction was made between moral and ceremonial sin2 both were visited alike1 and the sin of ignorance was punished as severely as the sin that was committed with deliberate intent4 ,the recitation of the penitential psalms was accompanied by fasting4 8,food ,i have not eaten10 the penitent is made to say1 8pure water ,i have not drunk40 ,and1 as in the case of the incantations and hymns1 the recitation was antiphonal4 ,portions of the psalms were recited by the priest1 who acted as the mediator between the penitent and the offended deity2 other portions by the penitent himself1 or a choir of attendant ministers4 ,the ideas which had been associated with the use of the incantations still dominated the public cult4 ,indeed1 the penitential psalm sometimes very nearly approaches the incantation in character4 ,on the one side1 it is difficult to distinguish from the psalm a confession like that from which ,i quoted just now1 and which nevertheless forms part of a magical ritual2 on the other side1 the psalm itself at times degenerates into the language of magic4 ,babylonia never shook off the influence of those collections of incantations which constituted its first sacred book1 and gave it its first conception of a divinely-inspired literature2 up to the last the descendants of the old medicine-man occupied a recognised place in the priestly hierarchy1 and the 8,chanter0 and 8,augur0 stood on the same footing as the 8prophet0 and the 8priest40 ,perhaps it was the same influence which demanded that the language of the penitential psalm should be the extinct ,sumerian4 ,that some of the psalms went back to ,sumerian times and were composed by ,sumerians in their own tongue1 ,i have little doubt2 but it seems also unquestionable that many of the psalms which have come down to us were of ,semitic origin1 the ,sumerian version attached to them being really a translation of the original ,semitic text4 ,at all events1 penitential psalms were written in later times in ,assyria1 whose authors either did not care or did not know how to provide them with a ,sumerian text4 ,it may be that they did not possess the same sacred authority as the older psalms1 but1 like the latter1 they were used in the public services of the northern kingdom with the authorisation of the king4 ,the king in ,assyria1 it must be remembered1 exercised the influence that was wielded by the priesthood in the southern kingdom4 ,the ,assyrian psalms1 in fact1 were like our modern hymns2 the sanctity that surrounded the older penitential psalms of ,babylonia was indeed denied them1 but they better suited the newer age and the character of the ,assyrian people1 and there was no omnipotent priesthood to forbid their introduction into the public cult4 ,they stood1 it is true1 outside the sacred canon of ,babylonia1 in the sense that no dogmas of religion could be built on them1 and it is probable that they never received the sanction of the ,babylonian priests2 but for all that the spirit they breathe is that of the older psalms2 and had the ,assyrian empire lasted longer1 it is possible that they too might have become a sacred book4 ,i will conclude my lecture with one of the penitential psalms1 which1 we are told1 might be addressed 8to any god0-- 8,the heart of my lord is wroth2 may it be appeased6 ,may the god that ,i know not be pacified6 ,may the goddess whom ,i know not be pacified6 ,may the god ,i know and 7the god7 ,i know not be pacified6 ,may the goddess ,i know and 7the goddess7 ,i know not be pacified6 ,may the heart of my god be appeased6 ,may the heart of my goddess be appeased6 ,may the god and the goddess ,i know and ,i know not be pacified6 ,may the god 7who has smitten me be pacified76 ,may the goddess 7who has smitten me be pacified76 ,the sin that 7,i sinned7 ,i knew not2 the sin 7that ,i committed ,i knew not74 ,the word of blessing 7may my god pronounce upon me72 a name of blessing 7may the god ,i know and ,i know not7 record for me6 ,the word of blessing 7may the goddess pronounce upon me76 ,food ,i have not eaten1 pure water ,i have not drunk4 ,an offence against my god unknowingly have ,i committed2 an offence against my goddess unknowingly ,i have wrought4 ,o lord1 my sins are many1 my transgressions are great6 ,o my god1 my sins are many1 my transgressions are great6 ,o my goddess1 my sins are many1 my transgressions are great6 ,o god whom ,i know and whom ,i know not1 my sins are many1 my transgressions are great6 ,o goddess whom ,i know and whom ,i know not1 my sins are many1 my transgressions are great6 ,the sin that ,i sinned ,i knew not1 the transgression ,i committed ,i knew not4 ,the offence ,i committed ,i knew not1 the offence that ,i wrought ,i knew not4 ,the lord in the wrath of his heart has regarded me2 god has visited me in the anger of his heart2 the goddess has been violent against me1 and has put me to grief4 ,the god whom ,i know and whom ,i know not has oppressed me1 the goddess whom ,i know and whom ,i know not has brought sorrow upon me4 ,i sought for help1 and none took my hand2 ,i wept1 and none stood at my side2 ,i cried aloud1 and there was none that heard me4 ,i am in trouble and hiding1 and dare not look up4 ,to my god1 the merciful one1 ,i turn myself1 ,i utter my prayer1 the feet of my goddess ,i kiss and water with tears4 ,to the god whom ,i know and whom ,i know not ,i utter my prayer4 ,o lord1 look upon 7me2 receive my prayer76 ,o goddess1 look upon 7me2 receive my prayer76 ,o goddess whom ,i know 7and whom ,i know not1 receive my prayer76 ,how long1 ,o god1 7must ,i suffer78 ,how long1 ,o goddess1 7shall thy face be turned from me78 ,how long1 ,o god whom ,i know and whom ,i know not1 shall the anger 7of thy heart continue78 ,how long1 ,o goddess whom ,i know and whom ,i know not1 shall the wrath of thy heart be unappeased8 ,mankind is made to wander1 and there is none that knoweth4 ,mankind1 as many as have a name1 what do they know8 ,whether he shall have good or ill1 there is none that knoweth4 ,o lord1 cast not away thy servant6 ,overflowing with tears1 take him by the hand6 ,the sins ,i have sinned1 turn to a blessing2 the transgressions ,i have committed may the wind carry away6 ,strip off my manifold transgressions as a garment4 ,o my god1 seven times seven are my transgressions2 forgive my sins6 ,o my goddess1 seven times seven are my transgressions2 forgive my sins6 ,o god whom ,i know and whom ,i know not1 seven times seven are my transgressions2 forgive my sins6 ,o goddess whom ,i know and whom ,i know not1 seven times seven are my transgressions2 forgive my sins6 ,forgive my sins1 and let me humble myself before thee4 ,may thy heart be appeased as the heart of a mother who has borne children6 ,may it be appeased as that of a mother who has borne children1 as that of a father who has begotten them60 ,lecture ,,viii4 ,the ,myths ,and ,epics4 ,a lecture on the myths of ,babylonia may perhaps seem out of place in a course1 the subject of which is ,babylonian religion4 ,but religion has its mythology as well as its theology1 and sometimes the mythology has had a good deal to do with moulding or even creating its theology4 ,moreover1 the myths of ,babylonia were intimately connected with its worship of the gods4 ,they all related1 so far as we know1 to the gods and spirits1 or else1 to what ,greek theology would have called heroes and demi-gods4 ,they embody religious beliefs and practices2 they contain allusions to local cults2 above all1 they not unfrequently reflect the popular conception of the divine4 ,only we must beware of basing theological conclusions on their unsupported evidence4 ,they have come to us in a literary form1 and students of folk-lore know how little trustworthy1 even for the purposes of the folk-lorist1 a tale is which has undergone literary remodelling4 ,it is difficult to distinguish in it what is peculiar to the individual author or the literary circle in which he moves1 and what is really the belief of the people or the traditional heritage of the past4 ,in fact1 all mythology1 whether literary or otherwise1 suffers from the mixture within it of old and modern ideas4 ,the old ideas may be preserved in it like the fossils in a geological formation1 or they may have been coloured and explained away in accordance with the conceptions of a later age2 but in either case they are mingled with the beliefs and notions of after generations1 which our ignorance necessarily prevents us from separating with the requisite care4 ,in dealing with the history of religion1 therefore1 we ought to treat the language of a literary myth with extreme caution1 and refrain from drawing any far-reaching inferences from the statements we find in it4 ,this is more especially true of the literary epics of ancient ,babylonia4 ,they seem to have been numerous2 at all events fragments of a good many have been saved for us out of the wreckage of the past4 ,but they belong for the most part to the same period1 the age of national revival which began with the reign of ,khammurabi1 and continued for several centuries after his death4 ,it is possible that ,sin-liqi-unnini1 the author of the great ,epic of ,gilgames1 was a contemporary of ,abraham2 the story of ,adapa1 the first man1 was already in existence1 and had become a standard classic1 when the ,tel el-,amarna letters were written in the fifteenth century ,b4,c4 ,behind all these poems lay a long-preceding period in which the myths and legends they embody had taken shape and formed the subject of numberless literary works4 ,the ,epic of ,gilgames is1 for instance1 but the final stage in the literary development of the tales and myths of which it is composed2 older poems1 or parts of poems1 have been incorporated into it1 and the elements of which it consists are multiform and of various origin4 ,the story of the ,deluge1 which constitutes the eleventh book1 has been foisted into it by an almost violent artifice1 and represents a combination of more than one of its many versions which were in circulation in ,babylonia4 ,when the early libraries of the country have been explored1 we shall know better than we do now how far the story in the form we have of it in the ,epic is original1 and how far the author has freely borrowed from his predecessors1 using their language or combining their work4 ,as a rule1 the subject of a ,babylonian poem is either some single god or some single hero4 ,when the god or hero is merely a central figure around whose adventures those of other gods or heroes are made to revolve1 the poem becomes an ,epic4 ,it still retains its mythological shape1 and the world in which it moves is a world of supernatural powers1 a divine fairyland in which the gods play the part of men4 ,but there is none of the dull and crass euhemerism which distinguishes the ,egyptian tales of the gods4 ,the gods do not become mere men with enlarged human powers2 they remain divine1 even though their actions are human and the stage on which they move is human also4 ,it was the pantheism of the ,egyptian1 in conjunction with the deification of the ,pharaoh1 that made him rationalise the stories of his gods2 in ,babylonia there was no such temptation2 each deity retained his individual character1 and from the outset he had worn the likeness of a man4 ,but it was a likeness only1 behind which the divinity revealed itself1 though the likeness necessarily caused the revelation to be made through individual features1 clearly cut and sharply defined4 ,bel was no human king possessed of magical powers1 who had once sat on the throne of ,babylon2 he remained the god who could1 it is true1 display himself at times to his faithful worshippers1 but whose habitation was in the far-off heavens1 from which he surveyed and regulated the actions of mankind4 ,the gods of ,babylonian mythology still belonged to heaven and not to earth1 and its heroes are men and not humanised gods4 ,i have already referred to the story of the first man1 ,adapa1 and his refusal of the gift of immortality4 ,the story1 as we have it1 has received a theological colouring2 like the narrative of the ,fall in the ,book of ,genesis1 it serves to explain why death has entered the world4 ,man was made in the likeness of the gods1 and the question therefore naturally arose why1 like them1 he should not be immortal4 ,the answer was given1 at any rate by the priests of ,eridu1 in the legend of ,adapa and his journey to the sky4 ,there was yet another story which illustrated the punishment of human presumption1--the attempt of man to be as a god1--and is thus a parallel to the story of the tower of ,babel4 ,it is the legend of ,etana and the eagle1 who tempts the hero to ascend with him to the highest heavens and there visit the abodes of the gods4 ,borne accordingly on the breast of the bird1 ,etana mounts upwards4 ,at the end of two hours the earth looks to them like a mere mountain1 the sea like a pool4 ,another four hours and 8the sea has become like a gardener's ditch40 ,at last they reach 8the heaven of ,anu02 but even there they refuse to stay4 ,higher still they ascend to the heaven of ,istar1 so that the sea appears to them 8like a small bread-basket40 ,but before they can reach their destination the destined penalty overtakes the presumptuous pair4 ,the eagle's wings fail him1 and he falls through space1 and both he and his burden are dashed to the ground4 ,with this story of ,etana there has been coupled a legend1 or rather fable1 of the eagle itself1 which the mutilated state of our copies of it renders extremely obscure4 ,the eagle had devoured the young of the serpent1 who accordingly appealed to the sun-god1 the judge of all things1 for justice4 ,by the sun-god's advice the serpent creeps into the carcase of a dead ox1 and there1 when the eagle comes to feed upon the putrifying flesh1 seizes his enemy1 strips him of his feathers1 and leaves him to die of hunger and thirst4 ,this must have happened after the fall of the eagle from heaven2 and we may therefore conjecture that1 while his human companion was killed1 like ,icarus1 by the fall1 the punishment of the eagle was deferred4 ,but it came finally2 not even the most powerful of the winged creation could venture with impunity into the heaven of the gods4 ,while the celestial seat of ,istar was beyond the reach of man1 ,istar herself sought ,tammuz1 the bridegroom of her youth1 in the underground realm of ,hades1 in the hope that she might give him to drink of the waters of life which gushed up under the throne of the spirits of the earth1 and so bring him back once more to life and light4 ,the poem which told of her descent into ,hades was sung at the yearly festival of ,tammuz by the women1 who wept for his untimely death4 ,like ,baldyr1 the youngest and most beautiful of the gods1 he was cut off in the flower of his youth1 and taken from the earth to another world4 ,but while the myth embodied in the poem1 and illustrated by numberless engraved seals1 makes him descend into ,hades1 the older belief of ,eridu1 where he had once been a water-spirit1--8the son of the spirit of the deep10--transferred him to the heaven above1 where1 along with ,nin-gis-zida1 8the lord of the upright post10 he served as warder of the celestial gate4 ,in my ,hibbert ,lectures ,i have dealt so fully with the story of ,tammuz in the various forms it assumed1 as well as with the myth of ,istar's pursuit of him in the world below1 that ,i need not dwell upon it now4 ,all ,i need do is to insist upon the caution with which we should build upon it theories about the ,babylonian's conception of the other world1 and the existence he expected to lead after death4 ,the description of ,hades with which the poem begins was borrowed from some older work4 ,we meet with it again almost word for word in what is probably one of the books of the ,epic of ,gilgames4 ,the fact illustrates the way in which the poets and epic-writers of ,babylonia freely borrowed from older sources1 and how the classical works of ,chalda were built up out of earlier materials4 ,perhaps if reproached with plagiarism1 their authors would have made the same answer as ,vergil1 that they had but picked out the pearls from the dunghill of their predecessors4 ,at all events the description of ,hades is striking1 though it must be remembered that it represents only one of the many ideas that were entertained of it in ,babylonia-- 8,to the land from which there is no return1 the home of darkness1 ,istar1 the daughter of ,sin1 turned her mind1 yea1 the daughter of ,sin set her mind to go2 to the house of gloom1 the dwelling of ,irkalla1 to the house from which those who enter depart not1 the road from whose path there is no return2 to the house where they who enter are deprived of light2 a place where dust is their nourishment1 clay their food2 the light they behold not1 in thick darkness they dwell2 they are clad like bats in a garb of wings2 on door and bolt the dust is laid40 ,through the seven gates of the infernal regions did ,istar descend1 leaving at each some one of her adornments1 until at last1 stripped and helpless1 she stood before the goddess of the underworld4 ,there no mercy was shown her2 the plague-demon was bidden to smite her with manifold diseases1 and she was kept imprisoned in ,hades like the ordinary dead4 ,but while the goddess of love thus lay bound and buried1 things in this upper world fell into confusion4 ,neither men nor cattle produced offspring1 and the gods in heaven took counsel what should be done4 ,ea accordingly created an androgyne1 to whom the name was given 8,bright is his light40 ,before him the gates of ,hades opened1 and the darkness within them was lighted up4 ,the infernal goddess was forced to obey the orders of heaven2 and though she cursed the messenger with deadly imprecations1 the spirits of the earth were seated on their golden throne while ,istar was sprinkled with the water of life1 and she then returned once more to the world of light4 ,ereskigal1 the goddess of ,hades1 forms the subject of yet another poem1 fragments of which were found at ,tel el-,amarna in ,egypt1 where the poem had been used as a text-book for the students of the ,babylonian language and script4 ,the poem recounts how she refused to come to a feast which the gods had prepared in heaven1 and how ,nergal invaded her dominions1 broke through the gates that shut them in1 and1 seizing ,ereskigal by the hair1 dragged her from her throne4 ,but she begged for mercy1 and ,nergal consented to be her husband1 and to rule with her over the realm of the dead4 ,the 8tablet of wisdom0 was transferred to him1 and she became a ,semitic ,baalat1 the mere reflection of her 8lord40 ,the ,sumerian 8queen of ,hades0 gave place to a ,semitic ,bel4 ,the 8tablet of wisdom0 was distinct from the 8tablets of destiny10 which gave their possessor a foreknowledge of the future course of events4 ,the possession of the latter implied supreme rule over gods and men2 it brought with it the right to be 8,bel0 in the fullest sense of the word4 ,like the ,urim and ,thummim1 they were hung upon the breast2 and in the ,epic of the ,creation1 ,tiamt is described as delivering them to her demon husband ,kingu1 who thereby became the acknowledged ruler of the world4 ,the victory of ,merodach over the powers of darkness transferred to him the mystic tablets2 from henceforth he was the ,bel who had made1 and who directed1 the existing universe2 and once each year1 at the ,new ,year's festival1 he sat enthroned above the mercy-seat in his temple at ,babylon1 declaring the destinies of the coming year4 ,but before the tablets were given to ,bel-,merodach of ,babylon1 they had belonged to the older ,bel of ,nippur and ,dur-ili2 and a myth told how ,zu1 the storm-bird1 had stolen them while ,bel was 8pouring forth the pure water and mounting his throne0 at the beginning of day4 8,i will take10 he had said1 8the divine tablets of destiny1 even ,i2 the laws7#cbf7 of all the gods will ,i decree2 my throne will ,i establish and issue my commands1 and direct all the angels 7of heaven740 ,the thief flew with his spoil to ,mount ,sbu2 and ,anu called in vain upon his brother gods to pursue and smite him1 and recover the stolen treasure4 ,it was only at last by the help of stratagem that the nest of ,zu was found1 and the tablets restored to ,bel4 ,a myth of more transparent meaning is that which told of the ravages wrought in land after land by ,urra1 the ,pestilence4 ,the description of the plague-god reminds us of that angel of pestilence whom ,david saw with his hand stretched forth over ,jerusalem4 ,no moral considerations moved him2 just and unjust1 the sinner and the innocent1 were alike involved in a common destruction4 ,babylon was the first to be smitten1 then ,erech2 and ,merodach and ,istar mourned vainly over the ruin of their people4 ,then ,isum1 the angel-messenger of ,urra1 was sent on a longer mission4 ,the pestilence spread over the whole civilised world2 ,syria and ,assyria1 ,elamite and ,bedwin1 ,kurd and ,akkadian equally suffered4 ,the vineyards of ,amanus and the ,lebanon were rooted up1 and those who cultivated them perished from the earth4 ,for 8unnumbered years0 the scourge lasted1 for ,urra had 8planned evil because of former wickedness10 and it was long before his rage was appeased1 and the world returned to its normal state4 ,similarly transparent is the story of the assault of the seven evil spirits upon the moon1 resulting in its eclipse and threatened extinction4 ,en-lil in despair sends his messenger1 the fire-god1 to ,ea for advice and help1 which are accordingly given1 and the moon-god is saved4 ,the poem1 however1 is of a much older date than those we have hitherto been considering4 ,it goes back to the time when magic still held a foremost place in the official religion of ,babylonia2 when ,aari1 the son of ,ea1 had not as yet become ,bel-,merodach of ,babylon2 and when the cult of ,ea had not been obscured by those of younger deities4 ,in fact1 it forms part of one of the incantation texts1 and is described as the sixteenth book of the series on evil spirits4 ,but the divine triads already make their appearance in it2 ,ea does not stand alone1 but shares his powers with ,en-lil and ,anu1 while below them is the triad of ,sin1 ,samas1 and ,istar4 ,we may look upon the story as belonging to the age which saw the transformation of ,sumerian animism into the syncretic ,state religion of later days2 the ,semitic gods are there1 but they still retain in part the functions which distinguished them when they were 8spirits0 and nothing more4 ,between the legend of the assault upon the moon-god and the ,epic of ,gilgames the distance is great4 ,centuries of thought and development intervene between them1 and there is a difference not only in degree1 but also in kind4 ,while one reminds us of the legends of ,lapps or ,samoyeds1 the other finds its parallel in the heroic tales of ,greece4 ,gilgames is a hero in the ,greek sense of the term2 he is not a god1 at least for the poet of the ,epic1 even though he lived like ,achilles and ,odysseus in days when the gods took part in visible form in the affairs of men4 ,so far as we know1 it is the masterpiece of ,babylonian epical literature1--a proof that however deficient the pure-blooded ,semite may have been in epical and mythological genius1 the mixed race of ,babylonia was in this respect the rival of the ,greek4 ,like the story of the ,trojan ,war1 the story of ,gilgames attracted to it epical and mythological elements from all sides1 and became a veritable treasure-house of ,babylonian mythology4 ,its author divided it into twelve books4 ,long ago it was noticed that the arrangement has an astronomical basis1 and that the adventures of the hero described in some at least of the books are made to correspond with the current names of the months of the year4 ,thus the love and revenge of ,istar are the subject of the sixth book1 answering to the name of the sixth month1 that of 8the mission of ,istar02 while the episode of the ,deluge is introduced into the eleventh book1 where it fitly corresponds with the eleventh month ,adar1 8the month of the curse of rain40 ,it is true that the correspondence between the subject of the book and the name of the month cannot be traced in all cases1 but it must be remembered that each month had many names1 especially in the age of ,khammurabi1 and that the poet would have more especially in his mind the religious festivals which distinguished the months of the year4 ,as was pointed out by ,sir ,h4 ,c4 ,rawlinson1 he must have regarded ,gilgames1 if not as a solar hero1 at all events as a representative of the sun-god4 ,not only is the ,epic divided into twelve books1 but in the seventh1 when the summer solstice is passed and the year begins to wane1 the hero is smitten with a sore disease4 ,it is not until the twelfth and last book is reached1 that1 after bathing in the waters of the ocean which encircles the world1 he is healed of his sickness1 and restored once more to health and strength4 ,but the solar character of ,gilgames did not originally belong to him4 ,his name1 like those of most of the ,babylonian heroes1 had come down from ,sumerian times1 when as yet the gods did not exist1 and the world of living things was divided between 8spirits0 and men47#cbg7 ,and ,gilgames was a man1 the creation of the goddess ,aruru1 whose original birthplace seems to have been ,marad1 and of whom a tale was told which may be the prototype of that of ,akrisios and ,perseus47#cbh7 ,he was the ,hrakls of ,babylonia1 the embodiment of human strength1 who saves his country from its foes1 and destroys the monstrous beasts that infest it1--a mighty prince1 though not an actual king4 ,there is no reason why he should not have been like ,cyrus1 a historical personage round whose name and deeds myths afterwards gathered2 an early inscription recording the restoration of the wall of ,erech states that it had been originally built by the deified ,gilgames47#cbi7 ,the ,epic begins with a description of his rule at ,erech1 8the seat0 of his power4 ,between him and the inhabitants of the city there seems to have been little goodwill4 ,he had not left1 they complained1 the son to his father or the wife to her husband4 ,it may be that the legend contains a germ of historical truth1 and goes back to the days when ,erech was still a battleground between ,sumerian and ,semite47#ccj7 ,at any rate the gods1 we are told1 heard the cry of the people1 and ,aruru was instructed to create a rival to ,gilgames1 who might overcome him in the contest of strength4 ,the goddess accordingly kneaded clay with her hands1 and made it in the form of ,ea-bani1 half-man and half-beast4 ,his body was covered with hair2 8he knew neither kin nor country02 8with the gazelles he ate the grass0 of the field1 and 8satisfied his thirst with the cattle40 ,on the seals he is represented as a satyr with a goat's legs and human head4 ,vainly 8the ,huntsman0 endeavoured to capture him4 ,ea-bani broke through the nets that were laid for him2 and it was only when one of the courtesans of ,istar was sent to entice him that he yielded to the temptation1 and left his gazelles and cattle to lie with her seven nights4 ,when once more he turned back to them1 they fled from him in terror2 he had become a man1 knowing good and evil1 and between him and the brute beasts there was nothing more in common4 ,he listened accordingly to the courtesan1 and went with her to ,erech1 8the seat of ,gilgames1 the giant in strength1 who like a wild ox is stronger than the strongest men40 ,there ,gilgames had dreamed three dreams relating to him2 and ,ea-bani1 on hearing the interpretation of them1 gave up his design of wrestling with the hero1 and became instead his fast friend and ally4 ,the third book of the ,epic describes the expedition of the two heroes against the tyrant ,khumbaba1 whose home was in the cedar-forest of ,elam4 ,they found a way into its magical depths1 gazing in wonder at the height of the trees1 and beholding the mountain of the cedars1 8the mystic0 seat of the gods1 the shrine of ,irnini2 8before the mountain the cedars lifted up their luxuriant foliage2 deep was their shadow and full of pleasaunce40 ,khumbaba was overcome and slain2 but ,gilgames once more dreamed a dream1 wherein the heavens thundered1 the lightning flashed1 and the earth shook1 and which portended disaster to ,ea-bani and his friend4 ,the sixth and following books describe how the dream was fulfilled4 ,istar saw and loved ,gilgames in the strength of his manhood1 and asked him to be her bridegroom4 8,if thou wilt be my husband10 she declared-- 8,i will let thee ride in a chariot of lapis-lazuli and gold1 thou shalt harness each day great mules 7to thy yoke72 the odours of cedar shall enter our house 444 ,kings1 lords1 and princes shall bow at thy feet2 the increase of mountain and plain shall they bring thee in tribute40 ,gilgames1 however1 rejected the offer of the goddess in scorn1 and taunted her with her fickleness and cruelty and the miserable end of all who had loved her in the past-- 8,tammuz1 the spouse of thy youth1 thou ordainest weeping for him year by year4 ,the bright-coloured wood-pigeon didst thou love2 thou didst smite him and break his wings2 in the woods he sits and cries1 #8,o my wings6' ,thou didst love a lion perfect in might2 seven times seven didst thou dig for him a pit4 ,thou didst love a horse1 glorious in battle2 whip and spur and bridle didst thou decree for him4 ,fourteen hours didst thou make him gallop2 weariness and thirst didst thou lay upon him2 for his mother1 the goddess ,silili1 thou ordainest weeping4 ,thou didst love the shepherd ,tabulu1 who poured out the salt continually for thee2 day by day did he slay for thee the sucklings4 ,thou didst smite him1 and change him into a wolf4 ,his own shepherd-boys drove him away1 and his own dogs bit his flesh4 ,thou didst love ,isullanu1 the gardener of thy father1 who was ever bringing thee fruit2 day by day he made bright thy dish2 thou didst lift thine eyes to him1 and speak softly to him3 #8,isullanu mine1 let us eat the gourds together2 put forth thine hand and touch one 444' ,isullanu answered her3 #8,of me what requirest thou8 ,has my mother not baked1 have ,i not eaten1 that ,i should eat such food8 ,thorns and thistles are hidden therein' 7874 ,when thou didst hear these his words1 thou didst smite him1 and change him into a column 7871 and didst plant him in the midst of the garden840 ,istar flew to her father ,anu in heaven1 and demanded from him vengeance upon ,gilgames for the slight he had put upon her4 ,accordingly a monstrous bull was created1 which ravaged the country1 and threatened the life of ,gilgames himself4 ,but ,gilgames was more than a match for the monster4 ,with the help of ,ea-bani the bull was slain1 and its huge horns carried in triumph through the streets of ,erech2 while ,istar stood in impotent rage on the walls of the city1 lamenting the death of the bull1 and calling on her harlot priestesses to weep over it with her4 ,but the death of 8the divine bull0 had evil consequences for the two heroes4 ,the curse of ,istar falls upon them2 ,gilgames himself is smitten with a grievous sickness1 and ,ea-bani dies after lingering in pain for full twelve days4 ,gilgames is inconsolable2 vainly he protests against the law of death which carries away the strong equally with the weak1 the hero equally with the common man4 ,the ninth book thus begins-- 8,gilgames for his friend ,ea-bani weeps bitterly and lies outstretched upon the ground4 8',shall ,i not die like ,ea-bani8 ,grief has entered my body2 ,i fear death1 and lie outstretched upon the ground4' 0 ,accordingly he determines to visit ,xisuthros17#cca7 the hero of the ,deluge1 who dwelt beyond the river of death1 whither he had been translated without dying1 and learn from him the secret of immortality4 ,the road was long and difficult2 mortal man had never trodden it before4 ,but there was divine blood in ,gilgames2 and as the ,greek ,hrakls forced his way to ,hades1 so he too forced his way beyond the limits of our human world4 ,first he had to pass the twin mountains of ,mas1 in the northern desert of ,arabia1 which guard the daily rising and setting of the sun1 whose summit touches the 8zenith of heaven10 while 8their breast reaches downwards to ,hades40 ,men with the bodies of scorpions guarded the gateway of the sun1 the horror of whose aspect was 8awesome10 and whose look 8was death40 ,but 8the scorpion-man0 and his 8wife0 recognised that the stranger was partly divine1 and he was allowed to pass in safety through the open doors4 ,once beyond them he entered a region of thick darkness4 ,for the space of twelve double hours he groped his way through this land without light1 when suddenly he emerged from it into the bright light of day4 ,here grew a marvellous tree1 whose fruit was the precious turquoise7#ccb7 and lapis-lazuli1 which hung from it like clusters of grapes4 ,at last ,gilgames reached the shore of the ocean1 which1 like a serpent1 encircles the earth4 ,here iduri1 or abitum 8the lady of ,saba107#ccc7 sat upon 8the throne of the sea40 ,but she locked the gate of her palace1 and forbade him to cross the ocean2 none had ever passed over it except the sun-god in his nightly voyage from west to east4 ,once more1 however1 the element of divinity that was in ,gilgames prevailed2 abitum acknowledged that he was more than a mere man1 and allowed his right to seek his ancestor beyond the river of death4 ,arad-,ea1 the pilot of ,xisuthros1 was summoned2 trees were cut and fashioned into a boat1 and for a month and fifteen days ,gilgames and his pilot pursued their voyage over the sea4 ,then 8on the third day0 they entered 8the waters of death40 ,the hero was bidden to cling to the rudder and to see that the deadly water did not touch his hand4 ,twelve strokes of the oar were needed before the rapids were safely passed1 and the boat reached the shore that lay beyond the realm of death4 ,here ,gilgames beheld ,xisuthros 8afar off0 8at the mouth of the rivers40 ,at once he communicated to him the object of his journey3 how and why had ,xisuthros escaped the universal law of death8 ,the answer is contained in the eleventh book of the ,epic1 which recounts the story of the great ,deluge4 ,ever since its discovery by ,george ,smith in #ahgb1 the ,babylonian story of the ,deluge1 which has thus been introduced into the ,epic of ,gilgames1 has attracted the special attention of both scholars and the public4 ,on the one side it agrees with the story of the ,deluge handed down to us by the copyists of the ,chaldan historian ,berossos1 and so is a witness to his trustworthiness2 on the other side1 its parallelism with the account of the ,deluge in the ,book of ,genesis is at once striking and startling4 ,but the version of the story embodied by ,sin-liqi-unnini in his ,epic was but one out of many that were current in ,babylonia4 ,we have a fragment of another which so closely resembles that of the ,epic1 as to have been long believed to form part of it2 indeed1 it is possible that it comes from a variant copy of the ,epic itself4 ,fragments of another version have lately been found by ,dr4 ,scheil in a ,babylonian tablet which goes back to the reign of ,ammi-zadok1 the fourth successor of ,khammurabi47#ccd7 ,even the version contained in the ,epic seems to be a combination of two earlier ones1 or rather to be based upon at least two different versions of the legend4 ,the story1 in fact1 must have been of immemorial antiquity in ,babylonia2 ,xisuthros and his ship are depicted upon some of the earliest seals1 and ,babylonian chronology drew a sharp line of division between the kings who had reigned before and after the ,flood4 ,in the ,epic ,xisuthros is a native of ,surippak on the ,euphrates1 but the story must originally have grown up at ,eridu on the shores of the ,persian ,gulf4 ,like the story of the struggle with ,tiamt1 it typifies the contest between the anarchic elements of storm and flood and that peaceful expanse of water in which the fishermen of ,eridu plied their trade1 and out of which the culture-god had ascended4 ,it is significant that up to the last it was ,en-lil of ,nippur who was represented as sending the ,flood that destroyed mankind1 while ,xisuthros was saved by ,ea4 ,the ,babylonian story of the ,deluge has been so often translated and is so well known1 that there is no need for me to repeat it here4 ,it is sufficient to note that ,xisuthros1 like ,noah1 owed his preservation to his piety4 ,in the final scene1 when ,bel 7,en-lil7 is enraged that any one should have escaped from the destruction he had brought upon mankind1 ,ea pacifies him with the words3 8,punish the sinner for his sins1 punish the transgressor for his transgressions2 be merciful that he be not utterly cut off1 be long-suffering that he be not rooted out40 ,the ,deluge was a punishment for sin1 and it was only just1 therefore1 that the righteous man should be saved4 ,the translation of ,xisuthros with his wife to the paradise beyond the grave is evidently regarded by the author of the ,epic as a further reward for his piety4 ,but we may suspect that this was not its original cause4 ,in the myth of ,adapa1 the first man1 we find ,anu laying down that the mortal who has penetrated into the secrets of the gods must receive the gift of immortality and become as one of the gods himself1 and it would seem that the same idea inspired the belief in the translation of the second father of mankind4 ,xisuthros too had learned the secret counsels of the gods2 with the help of ,ea he had outwitted ,bel1 and it was therefore needful that the gift of immortality should be conferred on him1 and that he should dwell like them in the land which death cannot reach4 ,true to his primeval character1 ,en-lil of ,nippur was the author of the ,deluge4 ,his ministers1 ,nin-ip1 ,nusku1 and ,en-nugi1 carry out his commands1 while 8the spirits of the earth lift up their torches40 ,but the poet of the ,epic has spoilt the primitive symmetry of the picture by introducing the triad into it along with the storm-god ,hadad of later times1 and so making the destruction of mankind not the work of ,en-lil alone1 but of the gods generally in common council4 ,the result has been a want of coherence in the elements of the story2 ,istar7#cce7 consents to the death of the children she has borne1 only to repent of it subsequently when she sees them filling the sea 8like fish10 and to weep with the rest of the gods over the havoc that has been wrought4 ,perhaps ,professor ,jastrow is right in his suggestion that two separate versions of the story have been united together1 in one of which it was the single city of ,surippak and its inhabitants that were destroyed1 while in the other the ,deluge was universal4 ,however that may be1 ,ea disclosed the determination of ,en-lil to his faithful servant1 8the son of ,ubara-,tutu40 ,according to one part of the story1 the disclosure was made through a dream2 according to another part1 by a device similar to that which gave the ,phrygian ,midas his ass's ears4 ,the god whispered the meditated deed of ,bel and the means of escaping it to one of those reed-huts which stood by the shore of the ,persian ,gulf1 and in which ,xisuthros--despite the fact that he is called 8a man of ,surippak0--was born4 ,the rustling reeds communicated to him the secret1 and he in turn told his 8lord ,ea0 that he had understood the message4 ,the ship was built1 and by the advice of ,ea the too-inquisitive inquirers were informed that the builder was transferring his allegiance from ,bel1 the lord of the land1 to ,ea1 the god of the sea47#ccf7 ,all sorts of provisions were stored in it1 together with 8the seed of life10 each after its kind--8cattle of the field1 wild beasts of the field1 and the sons of the craftsmen40 ,then the helm was placed in the hands of ,buzur-,sadi-rabi1 the steersman1 the door of the ark was closed1 and the storm broke upon the earth4 ,for seven days and nights it raged2 man and his works were swept away1 and the ark alone survived with its living freight4 ,when at last ,xisuthros opened his window and looked out1 a desolate waste of waters was all that could be seen4 ,above it the lofty peak of the mountain of ,nizir7#ccg7 in the north-east finally appeared2 here the ship grounded1 and seven days afterwards ,xisuthros sent forth a dove to see if the earth were dry4 ,but the dove 8went to and fro1 and returned40 ,next he sent forth a swallow1 which returned also to the ark2 and lastly a raven1 which 8ate1 waded and croaked1 and did not return40 ,so the ,chaldan ,noah knew that the waters of the ,flood had subsided3 and accordingly he opened the door of the ark and let the animals within it depart towards 8the four quarters of heaven40 ,then he offered sacrifice on the summit of the mountain1 setting beside it vases of smoking incense ranged 8seven by seven40 ,the gods smelt the sweet savour of the offering1 and rejoiced that there were men still left to prepare it for them4 ,they gathered1 we are told1 8like flies above the offerer10 while ,beltis lifted up 8the bow that ,anu had made40 ,en-lil alone refused to be reconciled4 ,he vented his wrath at the escape of ,xisuthros and his family upon the ,igigi or angels1 who1 as spirits1 were more under his control than the gods4 ,but ,ea took the blame upon himself1 and1 after declaring that the righteous must not suffer with the guilty1 persuaded ,bel to promise that though he might send the wild beast1 the famine1 and the pestilence upon mankind1 the earth should never again be visited by the waters of a flood4 ,then ,bel entered the ship1 blessed ,xisuthros and his wife1 and translated them to the other world4 ,after hearing the story1 ,gilgames fell into a deep sleep1 which lasted six days and seven nights1 while the wife of ,xisuthros prepared magic food1 which she placed at the head of the sleeper4 ,when he awoke he ate it1 and his sickness departed from him4 ,but his skin was still covered with sores1 and it was therefore necessary that he should bathe in the purifying waters of the ocean before the full strength and beauty of his youth came back to him4 ,xisuthros now tells him of the plant of immortality which grows1 covered with thorns1 at the bottom of the ocean4 ,the hero accordingly ties heavy stones to his feet1 and dives for it2 and though the thorns pierce his hands1 he brings a branch of it to the surface1 and prepares to carry it to the world of men4 ,but the gift of immortality was not for men to possess4 ,on his voyage home ,gilgames stops awhile at a fountain of cool water1 and while he bathes in it a serpent perceives the odour of the plant1 and steals it away4 ,vainly the hero laments its loss1 the plant that 8changes age into youth 0 could never be brought to a world the law of which is death4 ,man must die1 but what is the lot of the dead8 ,this is the question which forms the burden of the twelfth and last book of the ,epic4 ,gilgames wanders from temple to temple1 asking the god of each if the earth has seized hold of ,ea-bani1 and if so1 what is his fate below4 ,but the gods are silent2 they give neither answer nor sign4 ,at last1 however1 he reaches the shrine of ,nergal1 the god of the dead1 and ,nergal causes the earth to open and the spirit of ,ea-bani to ascend out of it like a cloud of dust4 ,and then the answer is given4 ,he who has friends to care for him will 8lie on a couch and drink pure water02 the hero too-- 8who is slain in battle1 as you and ,i have seen1 his father and his mother support his head1 and his wife weeps over him4 ,but he whose body lies forsaken in the field1 as thou and ,i have seen1 his ghost rests not in the earth4 ,he whose ghost has none to care for him1 as thou and ,i have seen1 the garbage of the pot1 the refuse of food1 which is thrown into the street1 must he devour40 ,with this dreary and materialistic picture of the other world the ,epic comes to an end4 ,it is a curious contrast to the life in the fields of ,alu to which the ,egyptian worshipper of ,osiris looked forward2 and there is little need to wonder that the mind and religious cult of the ,babylonian should have been centred in the present life4 ,the ,hades in which he was called upon to believe was more dreary even than the ,hades of the ,homeric ,greeks4 ,the ,epic of ,gilgames forces two questions upon our attention1 both of which have been often discussed4 ,the one is the relation of the story of the ,deluge contained in it to the ,biblical narrative of the ,flood1 the other is the relation of ,gilgames himself to the ,greek ,hrakls4 ,from the outset it has been perceived that the connection between the ,babylonian and ,hebrew stories is very close1 and that the ,babylonian is the older of the two4 ,the birds1 for instance1 sent out by ,xisuthros are three instead of two1 as in the ,biblical narrative1 though the number of times they were despatched is the same in both cases2 and the ship of the ,babylonian version has been replaced by an ark in the ,old ,testament account4 ,in fact the ,babylonian story has been modified in ,palestine and under ,western influences4 ,in an inland country an ark was naturally substituted for a ship1 more especially as the latter contained a house with window and door2 even in ,babylonia itself1 in the processions of the gods1 an ark came to take the place of the ship of primitive ,eridu4 ,the olive branch1 again1 with which the dove returned1 according to the ,book of ,genesis1 points to ,palestine1 where the olive grew2 while the period of the rainfall has been transferred from ,sebet or ,january and ,february1 when the winter rains fall in ,babylonia1 to the 8second month0 of the ,hebrew civil year1 our ,october and ,november1 when the 8former rains0 began in ,canaan4 ,similarly1 the subsidence of the waters is extended in the ,hebrew narrative to the middle of the 8seventh month10 when the 8latter rains0 of the ,canaanitish spring are over4 ,but the most remarkable fact brought to light by a comparison of the ,babylonian story with that of ,genesis is1 that the resemblances between them are not confined to one only of the two documents into which modern criticism has separated the ,biblical narrative4 ,it is not with the so-called ,elohistic1 or the so-called ,yahvistic1 account only that the agreement exists1 but with both together as they are found at present combined1 or supposed to be combined1 in the ,hebrew text47#cch7 ,the fact throws grave doubt on the reality of the critical analysis4 ,as ,i have said elsewhere37#cci7 8,either the ,babylonian poet had before him the present #8redacted' text of ,genesis1 or else the ,elohist and ,yahvist must have copied the ,babylonian story upon the mutual understanding standing that the one should insert what the other omitted4 ,there is no third alternative40 ,the ,palestinian colouring of the ,biblical version of itself excludes the supposition that the story was borrowed by the ,jews in the age of the ,babylonian exile4 ,such a supposition1 indeed1 would be little in accordance with the feelings of hatred felt by the captives towards their ,babylonian conquerors and the religious beliefs and traditions of the latter4 ,but the discovery of the ,tel el-,amarna tablets has shown that the culture and literature of ,babylonia had made its way to ,palestine and even to ,egypt long before the ,mosaic age4 ,the great literary works of ,chalda were already known and used as text-books in the ,west1 and1 like the story of the first man ,adapa1 a portion of which was found in ,egypt1 the story of the ,deluge and the second founder of the human race must also have been known there4 ,gunkel has made it clear7#cdj7 that the conceptions and beliefs which underlie the history of the ,flood1 and find their expression in the statement that 8the fountains of the great deep0 were broken up1 are not only of ,babylonian origin1 but are also met with in the earliest fragments of ,old ,testament literature4 ,before the ,israelites entered ,canaan1 the cosmological ideas of ,babylonia had already made their way to it1 and been adapted to the geographical conditions of 8the land of the ,amorites40 ,the story of a deluge was known to ,greece as well as to ,palestine4 ,there1 too1 it had been sent by ,zeus as a punishment for the impiety of mankind2 and ,deukalion1 the ,greek ,noah1 saved himself and his family in a ship47#cda7 ,the peak of ,parnassos played the same part in the ,greek legend that the mountain of ,nizir played in the ,babylonian2 and the stones thrown on the ground by ,deukalion which became men1 remind us of the images of clay moulded by the goddess ,mami in the mutilated ,babylonian myth of ,atarpi1 which similarly become men and women4 ,but it is not so much with the episode of the ,deluge as with the whole story of ,gilgames and his adventures that ,greek mythology claims connection4 ,the desire of finding the biblical ,nimrod in the cuneiform tablets long seduced ,assyriologists into the impossible attempt to identify him with ,gilgames2 it is not1 however1 to the ,biblical ,nimrod1 but to the ,greek ,hrakls1 that the ,babylonian hero is related4 ,the curious parallelism between the twelve labours of ,hrakls and the twelve adventures of ,gilgames may be an accident2 but it is no accident that ,gilgames and ,hrakls should alike be heroes who are not kings1 and that both alike should be tormented with a deadly distemper which destroyed the flesh4 ,khumbaba is the tyrant ,geryon1 the bull slain by ,gilgames is the ,kretan bull slain by ,hrakls1 and the ,neman lion reappears in the lion which ,gilgames is so often represented on the seals as strangling to death4 ,as ,hra persecuted ,hrakls1 so ,istar persecuted ,gilgames2 the journey of the ,greek hero into ,hades is paralleled by the journey of ,gilgames beyond the waters of death2 and the tree which he found on the shores of the sea with its fruit of precious stones is the magical tree of the ,hesperides with its golden apples which grew in the midst of the western ocean4 ,it is true that there are many elements in the legend of ,hrakls which are not derived from ,babylonia4 ,but it is also true that1 like the cosmogonies of ,hesiod or the cosmological philosophy of ,thales1 there are also elements in it for which we must claim a ,babylonian origin4 ,probably they made their way to ,greek lands at the same time as the ,cyprian cult of ,aphrodit or the myth of ,adnis1 whose name indicates the road along which the culture of ,babylonia had travelled4 ,recent archological discoveries have revealed the fact that in the days when ,canaan was a ,babylonian province1 a civilisation already existed in the gean1 and that an active intercourse was carried on between ,egypt and ,asia on the one hand1 and the islands and shores of the ,mediterranean on the other1 in which ,krete took a leading share4 ,light is only just dawning on what until lately was the 8prehistoric0 past of the ,european peoples2 before long a new world will doubtless be disclosed to us1 such as that which the decipherment of the cuneiform texts has brought to light4 ,it is not only in the mythology of primitive ,greece that we can trace the influence of the legends embodied in the ,epic of ,gilgames4 ,the adventures of ,gilgames in search of immortality form part of the story of that mythical ,alexander who grew up in literature by the side of the ,alexander of history4 ,he too had to make his way through a land of thick darkness1 and he too finally failed in his endeavour to secure the 8waters of life407#cdb7 ,man is and must remain mortal2 this is alike the teaching of the old poet of ,chalda and of the romance which the contact of ,eastern and ,western thought called into existence in classical days4 ,lecture ,,ix4 ,the ,ritual ,of ,the ,temple4 ,the temple of the god was the centre and glory of every great ,babylonian city4 ,the ,babylonian ,states had been at the outset essentially theocratic2 their ruler had been a high priest before he became a king1 and up to the last he remained the vicegerent and adopted son of the god4 ,it was round the temple that the city had grown and its population clustered4 ,the artisans worked for it1 and the agricultural labourers tilled its fields4 ,the art of ,babylonia originated within the temple precincts2 it was for its adornment that the enamelled tiles were first made1 and wood or stone or metal carved into artistic shapes1 while the endowments which thus fostered the craftsman's art were derived from landed property or from the tithes paid to the priests upon the produce of the soil4 ,the culture of ,babylonia was with good reason traced back to the god ,ea4 ,the place occupied in ,assyria by the army was filled in ,babylonia by the priesthood4 ,the priests could make and unmake their kings4 ,the last monarch of ,babylonia1 ,nabonidos1 was a nominee of the priests of ,babylon2 it was from them1 and not from the rights of heritage1 that he had derived his title to the throne4 ,the great sanctuaries of the country influenced its destinies to the last4 ,the influence of ,nippur and ,eridu1 in fact1 was wholly religious2 we know of no royal dynasties that sprang from them4 ,even ,nabonidos1 with all his centralising zeal on behalf of ,merodach of ,babylon1 was constrained to lavish gifts and honours on the sun-god of ,sippara1 at all events in the early part of his reign4 ,we must therefore look upon the temple as the oldest unit in the civilisation of ,babylonia4 ,babylonian culture begins with the temple1 with the worship of a deity or a spirit1 and with the ministers attached to the cult4 ,centuries before ,en-lil of ,nippur had developed into a ,semitic ,bel1 an earthly dwelling-house had been provided for him which became in time the temple of a god4 ,its first name1 -kur1 8the house of the earth0 or 8mountain10 continued always to cling to it1 even though the original meaning of the name was forgotten1 and it had come to signify a temple in the later sense of the word4 ,the temple was the sign and token of the reclamation of the primitive ,babylonian swamp4 ,before it could be erected1 it was needful to construct a platform of solid earth and brickwork1 which should rise above the pestiferous marsh1 and serve as a foundation for the building4 ,the ,sumerians called the platform the ki-gal or 8great place02 it was the first place of human or divine habitation wrested from the waters of the swamp1 and it marked the triumph of civilised man over nature4 ,emphatically1 therefore1 it was a 8great place10 a solid resting-place in a world of water and slime4 ,on the platform the temple buildings were piled4 ,there was no stone in ,babylonia2 it was a land of mud1 and of mud bricks1 accordingly1 baked in the sun1 the temple of the god was constructed4 ,what was lost in beauty or design was gained in solidity4 ,the ,babylonian temples were huge masses of brick1 square for the most part1 and with the four corners facing the four cardinal points4 ,it was only exceptionally that the four sides1 instead of the four corners1 were made to front the four 8winds40 ,these masses of brick were continually growing in height4 ,the crude bricks soon disintegrated1 and the heavy rains of a ,babylonian winter quickly reduced them to their primeval mud4 ,constant restorations were therefore needed1 and the history of a ,babylonian temple is that of perpetual repairs4 ,efforts were made to keep the walls from crumbling away by building buttresses against them1 and the bricks were cemented together with bitumen4 ,but all precautions were in vain4 ,a period of national decay inevitably brought with it the decay also of the temples1 and a return of prosperity meant their restoration on the disintegrated ruins of the older edifice4 ,the artificial platform became a tel or mound4 ,but the growth in height was not displeasing to the priestly builders4 ,the higher the temple rose above the level of the plain1 the better they were pleased4 ,a characteristic of the ,babylonian temple1 in fact1 was the ziggurat or 8tower0 attached to each1 whose head it was designed should 8reach to heaven40 ,the word ziggurat means a 8lofty peak10 and the royal builders of ,babylonia vied with one another in making the temple towers they erected as high as possible4 ,there was more than one reason for this characteristic feature of religious ,babylonian architecture4 ,the first settlers in the plain of ,babylonia must soon have discovered that the higher they could be above the surface of the ground the better it was for them4 ,the nearer they ascended to the clouds of heaven1 the freer they were from the miasmata and insects of the swamp4 ,the same cause which led them to provide a platform for their temples1 would have also led them to raise the temple as high as they could above the level of the plain4 ,this1 however1 will not explain the origin of the tower itself4 ,it would have been a reason for building the temple as high as possible1 not for attaching to it a tower4 ,nor was the tower suitable for defence against an enemy1 like the pylons of an ,egyptian temple4 ,at most it was a convenient watch-tower from which the movements of a hostile band could be observed4 ,there must have been some other reason1 more directly connected with religious beliefs or practices1 which found its outward expression in the sacred tower4 ,the sanctuary of ,nippur1 it will be remembered1 was the oldest in ,northern ,babylonia4 ,and from time immemorial it had been known as -kur1 8the house of the mountain-land40 ,it represented that underground world which was the home of ,en-lil and his ghosts2 and this underground world1 we must observe1 was conceived of as a mountain4 ,in fact1 the cuneiform character which signifies 8country0 also signifies 8mountain10 and the hieroglyphic picture out of which it developed is the picture of a mountain-range4 ,the land in which it was first drawn and stereotyped in writing must1 it would seem1 have been a mountainous one1 like the land in which the subterranean realm of ,en-lil was regarded as a lofty hill4 ,in other words1 the ,sumerians must have been the inhabitants of a mountainous country before they settled in the plain of ,babylonia and laid the foundations of the temple of ,nippur4 ,and this mountainous country lay to the north or east1 where the mountains of ,elam and ,kurdistan border the ,babylonian plain4 ,in the story of the ,deluge the ark is made to rest on the summit of the mountain of ,nizir1 which is probably the modern ,rowandiz1 to the north-east of ,assyria2 and the gods were believed to have been born in 8the mountain of the world10 in the land of ,arallu47#cdc7 ,here1 too1 they held their court2 8,i will ascend into heaven10 the ,babylonian monarch is made to say in the #adth chapter of ,isaiah1 8,i will exalt my throne above the stars of ,el2 ,i will sit also upon the mount of the assembly 7of the gods71 in the extremities of the north27#cdd7 ,i will ascend above the heights of the clouds2 ,i will be like the ,most ,high40 ,more than one temple in both ,babylonia and ,assyria took its name from this 8mountain of the world02 the ziggurat at ,kis was known as 8the house of the mountain of mankind10 while a temple at ,ur was entitled 8the house of the mountain10 and the shrine of ,gula at ,babylon was 8the house of the holy hill407#cde7 ,all over ,babylonia1 accordingly1 the mountain is brought into close connection with the religious cult4 ,not at ,nippur only1 but in other cities as well1 the home of the gods is on the summit of an ,olympos1 within whose subterranean recesses they were born when as yet the primitive ghost or spirit had not become a god4 ,sumerian religion must have grown up rather among the mountains than in the plain1 and the memory of its birthplace was preserved by religious conservatism4 ,the ziggurat of the temple goes back to the days when the gods were still gods of the mountain1 and the builders of the temple sought to force a way into the heavenly ,olympos by raising artificially an imitation of the mountain on the alluvial plain4 ,the tower was a mimic representation of the -kur1 or mountain of the earth itself1 where ,en-lil1 8the god of the great mountain0 7sadu rabu71 had his seat4 ,and the earth could have been figured as a mountain only by the inhabitants of a mountainous land4 ,but this conception of the world of gods and men stands in glaring contrast to the cosmology of ,eridu4 ,there the primeval earth was not a mountain peak1 but the flat lands reclaimed from the sea4 ,the gods and spirits had their home in the abysses of the ocean1 not in the dark recesses of a mountain of the north2 the centre of the world was the palace of ,ea beneath the waves1 not 8the mountain-house0 of ,en-lil1 or the dark caverns of 8the mountain of ,arallu40 ,once more we are confronted by a twofold element in ,babylonian thought and religion1 and a proof of its compound nature4 ,like the contradictory elements in ,egyptian religion1 which can best be explained by the composite character of the people1 the contradictory elements in ,babylonian religion imply that mixture of races which is described in the fragments of ,berossos4 ,in the tower or ziggurat1 accordingly1 we must see a reflection of the belief that this nether earth is a mountain whose highest peak supports the vault of the sky4 ,around it float the stars and clouds1 concealing the heaven of the gods from the eyes of man4 ,but this ,olympian heaven was really an afterthought4 ,it was not until the ghosts of the lower world had developed into gods1 and been transferred from the heart of the mountain to its summit1 that it had any existence at all4 ,it belongs to the age of astro-theology1 to the time when the moon and sun and host of heaven became divine1 and received the homage of mankind4 ,this is an age to which ,i shall have to refer again in my next and concluding lecture4 ,it was the time when the ziggurat began to consist of seven storeys1 dedicated to the seven planets1 when the ziggurat of ,erech was called 8the house of the seven black stones10 and that of ,borsippa1 8of the seven zones of heaven and earth407#cdf7 ,the ziggurat occupied but a small part of the temple area4 ,what the temple was like we know to a certain extent1 not only from the ,american excavations at ,nippur1 but more especially from the accounts given us by ,herodotos and by a cuneiform tablet which describes the great temple of ,bel-,merodach at ,babylon4 ,the latter was called -,saggila1 8the house of the exalted head02 and though the account of ,herodotos is probably quoted from an earlier author1 while the cuneiform tablet1 which was seen and translated by ,mr4 ,george ,smith at ,constantinople1 has unfortunately been lost1 there is nevertheless no ground in either case for mistrust4 ,the description given by ,herodotos fully agrees with that of the tablet4 ,the visitor to the temple first entered the 8,great0 or ,outer ,court4 ,it was #ijj feet in breadth1 and more than #aaej in length4 ,if we may judge from the analogy of ,nippur and ,lagas1 an arcade ran round its interior1 supported on columns1 and two larger1 but detached1 columns of brick or stone stood on either side of the entrance4 ,at ,babylon a second court opened out of the first1 devoted to the worship of the goddesses ,istar and ,zamm4 ,six gates pierced the walls--the ,grand ,gate1 the ,gate of the ,rising ,sun1 the ,great ,gate1 the ,gate of the ,colossi1 the ,gate of the ,canal1 and the ,gate of the ,tower-view47#cdg7 ,then came the kigallu1 or platform1 of the original temple1 the sides1 and not the corners of which faced the four cardinal points1 and which possessed four gates1 each in the centre of a side4 ,in it was the ziggurat1 8the house of the foundation of heaven and earth10 as it was termed1 with its seven stages1 which rose one above the other in gradually diminishing proportions to a height of #cjj feet47#cdh7 ,a winding ramp led upwards on the outside1 connecting the stages with each other1 and allowing a chariot to be driven along it to the top4 ,here in the last of the seven stages was the chamber of the god4 ,it contained no image of the deity1 only a couch of gold and a golden table for the shewbread47#cdi7 ,none but a woman into whom the god had breathed the spirit of prophecy was allowed to enter it1 and it was to her that ,bel revealed himself at night on his golden couch and delivered his oracles4 ,as in ,greece1 so too in ,babylonia and ,assyria1 women were inspired prophetesses of the gods4 ,it was from the priestesses and serving-women of ,istar of ,arbela that ,esar-haddon received the oracles of the goddess2 and we are reminded that in ,israel also it was the prophetess ,deborah who roused her countrymen to battle1 and ,huldah1 rather than ,jeremiah1 to whom the high priest betook himself that he might hear 8the word of the ,lord40 ,it is significant that the place of the oracle was the topmost chamber of the tower4 ,the god is conceived as coming down from heaven27#cej7 it is there that he lives1 not in the underground recesses of the mountain of the world or fathomless abysses of the sea4 ,when the ziggurat took its final shape1 the deities of ,babylonia had already been transported to the sky4 ,it is also significant that there was no image of the god4 ,the spiritual had been finally separated from the material1 and where the god himself came in spiritual form no material image of him was needed4 ,though none might be able to see him with mortal eye save only his inspired priestess1 he was nevertheless as actually present as if he had embodied himself in some statue of metal or stone4 ,the denizen of heaven required no body or form of earthly make2 the divine spirits who were worshipped in the sun or stars were seen only by the eye of faith4 ,but it was in the ziggurat only that the deity thus came down from heaven in spiritual guise4 ,in the chapels and shrines that stood at its foot images were numerous2 here the multitude1 whether of priests or laymen1 served and worshipped1 and the older traditions of religion remained intact4 ,on the eastern side of the tower was the sanctuary of ,nebo1 the 8angel0 or interpreter of the will of ,merodach1 with ,tasmit1 his wife4 ,to the north were the chapels of ,ea and ,nusku1 and to the south those of ,anu and ,en-lil1 while westward was the temple of ,merodach himself4 ,it consisted of a double building1 with a court between the two wings4 ,in the recesses of the inner sanctuary was the papakhu1 or 8,holy of ,holies10 with its golden image of the god4 ,here too was the golden table of shewbread and the parakku1 or mercy-seat1 which at times gave its name to the whole shrine4 ,the innermost sanctuary was known as the ,du-azagga1 or 8,holy ,hill10 after which the month ,tisri received one of its names47#cea7 ,but the name had really come from ,eridu4 ,it was the dwelling-place of ,ea on the eastern horizon of the sea1 where the sun rises from the deep17#ceb7 and ,asari accordingly was entitled its 8son40 ,when ,asari became ,merodach of ,babylon1 the ,holy ,mound or ,hill migrated with him1 and the seat of the oracular wisdom of ,ea was transformed into the shrine of ,merodach1 where he in his turn delivered his oracles on the festival of the ,new ,year47#cec7 ,lehmann7#ced7 has shown that originally it represented the mercy-seat1 the 8golden throne0 of the description of ,herodotos1 above which the deity seated himself when he descended to announce the future destinies of man4 ,it was only subsequently that it was extended to the 8,holy of ,holies0 in which the mercy-seat stood4 ,a golden altar seems to have been raised close to the mercy-seat of the god4 ,if ,herodotos may be trusted1 lambs only were allowed to be sacrificed upon it4 ,but there was another and larger altar in the outer court4 ,on this whole sheep were offered1 as well as frankincense4 ,the architectural arrangement of a ,babylonian temple1 however1 was not always the same4 ,the orientation of the temple of ,merodach1 as we have seen1 differed from that of the majority of the ,babylonian sanctuaries4 ,the number of chapels included within the sacred precincts varied greatly1 and even the position of the great tower was not uniform4 ,but the general plan was alike everywhere4 ,there was first the great court1 open to the sky1 and surrounded by cloisters and colonnades4 ,here were the houses of the priests and other ministers of the temple1 the library and school1 shops for the manufacture and sale of votive objects1 even the stalls wherein the animals were kept that were intended for sacrifice4 ,in the centre of the court stood an altar of sacrifice1 with large vases for the purposes of ablution by the side of it1 as well as a 8sea10 or basin of water1 which derived its name from the fact that it was a symbol of the primeval 8deep40 ,the basin was of bronze or stone1 and was at times supported on the backs of twelve oxen1 as we learn from an old hymn which describes the construction of one of them47#cee7 ,at other times1 as at ,lagas1 the basin was decorated with a frieze of female figures1 who pour water from the vases in their outstretched hands47#cef7 ,the purifying effects of the water of the 8deep0 were transferred to that of the mimic 8sea10 and the worshipper who entered the temple after washing in it became ceremonially pure4 ,the great court1 with its two isolated columns in front of the entrance1 led into a second1 from the floor of which rose the ziggurat or tower4 ,the second court formed the approach to the temple proper1 which again consisted of an outer sanctuary and an inner shrine4 ,whether the laity were admitted into its inner recesses is doubtful4 ,no one1 indeed1 could appear before the god except through the mediation of a priest2 and on the seal-cylinders a frequent representation is that of a worshipper whom the priest is leading by the hand and presenting to the image of a deity4 ,but it is not certain that the image represented on them was that which stood in the ,holy of ,holies1 or innermost shrine2 it may have been a second image1 erected in another part of the temple4 ,on the other hand1 the numerous chapels of the secondary gods who formed the court of the chief deity of a city1 can hardly have been furnished with more than one statue1 and it is even questionable whether they consisted of more than one chamber4 ,perhaps it was only from the topmost room of the tower that the layman was absolutely excluded4 ,the ,babylonian temple1 it will be seen1 thus closely resembled the temple of ,solomon4 ,that1 too1 had its two courts1 its chambers for the priests1 its sanctuary1 and its ,holy of ,holies4 ,both alike were externally mere rectangular boxes1 without architectural beauty or variety of design4 ,it was only in the possession of a tower that the ,babylonian temple differed from the ,israelite4 ,they agreed even in the details of their furniture4 ,the two altars of the ,babylonian sanctuary are found again in the temple of ,jerusalem2 so too are the mercy-seat and the table of shewbread4 ,even the bronze 8sea0 of ,solomon1 with its twelve oxen1 is at last accounted for2 it was modelled after a ,babylonian original1 and goes back to the cosmological ideas which had their source in ,eridu4 ,yet more striking are the twin pillars that flanked the gateway of the court1 remains of which have been found both at ,nippur and at ,tello4 ,they are exactly parallel to the twin pillars which ,solomon set up 8in the porch of the temple10 and which he named ,yakin and ,boaz4 ,in these1 again1 we may find vestiges of a belief which had its roots in the theology of ,eridu4 ,when ,adapa1 the first man1 was sent by ,ea to the heaven of ,anu1 he found on either side of the gate two gods clothed in mourning1 and weeping for their untimely removal from the earth4 ,like the two cherubim who guarded the tree of life1 they guarded the gate of heaven4 ,one of them was ,tammuz1 the other ,nin-gis-zida1 8the lord of the firmly planted stake40 ,each had perished1 it would seem1 in the prime of life1 and hence were fitly set to guard the gates of heaven and prevent mortal man from forcing his way into the realm of immortality4 ,yakin1 it should be noticed1 is a very passable translation of the ,sumerian ,nin-gis-zida2 perhaps ,boaz preserves1 under a corrupted form1 a reminiscence of ,tammuz4 ,there was yet another parallelism between the temples of ,babylonia and ,jerusalem4 ,the ,hebrew ark was replaced in ,babylonia by a ship4 ,the ship was dedicated to the god or goddess whose image it contained1 and was often of considerable size4 ,its sides were frequently inlaid with gems and gold1 and it always bore a special name4 ,one at least of the names indicates that the ship goes back to the days when as yet the gods had not assumed human forms2 the ship of ,bau is still that of 8the holy cow40 ,in early times the ship was provided with captain and crew2 later1 it was reduced in size so that it could be carried like an ark on the shoulders of men4 ,but its original object is clear4 ,on days of festival the god was rowed in it on the sacred river1 where he could enjoy the cool breeze1 and return1 as it were1 to the 8pure0 waters of the primeval deep4 ,gradually it became merely his travelling home when he left his usual dwelling-place4 ,in ,assyria its place was even taken by a throne or platform borne upon the shoulders in the religious processions4 ,the ship1 in fact1 passed into an ark1 the curtained palanquin or shrine wherein the deity could conceal himself from the eyes of the profane when he left his own sanctuary4 ,a discovery made by ,mr4 ,hormuzd ,rassam in the mounds of ,balawt1 some fifteen miles from ,mossul1 shows that in ,assyria the development of the ship into the ark was as complete as it was in ,israel4 ,here he found a small chapel dedicated to the god of dreams4 ,at the entrance of the sanctuary was a stone coffer1 which contained two small alabaster slabs thickly covered with cuneiform writing4 ,they proved to be records of the conquests of ,assur-nazir-pal1 the builder of the chapel1 and each tablet contained the same text4 ,it was not surprising that the native workmen when they opened the coffer believed that they had discovered the veritable tables of the ,mosaic ,law6 ,we are told in the ,old ,testament that the latter were kept in the ark4 ,not far from the coffer in the north-west corner of the shrine was a stone altar the ascent to which was by a flight of five steps4 ,the temples were served by an army of priests4 ,at the head came the patesi or 8high priest10 who in the early days of ,babylonian history performed the functions of a king4 ,but the patesi was essentially the vicegerent of the god4 ,the god delegated his powers to him1 and allowed him to exercise them on earth4 ,it was the doctrine of priestly mediation carried to its logical conclusion4 ,only through the priest could the deity be approached1 and in the absence of the deity the high priest took his place4 ,at ,babylon1 as we have seen1 the divine rights were conferred by an act of adoption2 the vicegerent of ,bel1 by 8taking the hand0 and becoming the son of the god1 acquired the right to exercise his sovereignty over men4 ,an early king of ,erech calls himself the son of the goddess ,nin-un4 ,from the outset the ,babylonian monarchy was essentially theocratic2 the king was simply the high priest in a new form4 ,but with the rise of ,semitic supremacy the king himself became a god4 ,the vicegerent had taken to himself all the attributes of the deity1 the adopted son succeeded to the rights and powers of his divine father4 ,the patesi ceased to be the king himself1 and became instead his viceroy and lieutenant4 ,wherever the supreme monarch had a governor who acted in his name1 he had also a representative of his divine authority4 ,there were high priests of the god on earth as well as of the gods in heaven4 ,a new term was wanted to take the place of patesi1 which had thus come to have a secular as well as a religious signification4 ,it was found in sangu1 which1 more especially in the ,assyrian period1 meant a chief priest4 ,every great sanctuary had its chief priests who corresponded to the ,hebrew 8sons of ,aaron10 with a 8high priest0 or sangam-makhu at their head47#ceg7 ,under them were a large number of subordinate priests and temple ministers--the kali or 8gallos-priests107#ceh7 the niakki or 8sacrificers10 the ramki or 8pourers of libations10 and the pasisi or 8anointers with oil40 ,there was even a special class of bakers who made the sacred cakes that were used in the temple service1 as well as 8chanters0 and 8wailers10 8carriers of the axe0 and 8of the spear40 ,above all1 there were the prophets and augurs1 the soothsayers 7makhkhi7 and necromancers 7musli71 and those who 8inquired0 of the dead 7saili74 ,the asipi or 8prophets0 constituted a class apart4 ,in some respects they resembled the prophets of ,israel4 ,it was 8by order of the college of prophets0 that ,assur-bani-pal purified the shrines of ,babylon after the capture of the city1 and the prophet accompanied even an army in the field4 ,at times they predicted the future2 more often it was rather an announcement of the will of ,heaven which they delivered to mankind47#cei7 ,as they prophesied they poured out libations2 hence it is that the purification of the shrines of the ,babylonian temples was their special care1 and that an old ritual text commands the prophet to pour out libations 8for three days at dawn and night during the middle watch407#cfj7 ,the word was borrowed by the writer of the ,book of ,daniel 7ii4 #aj7 under the form of ashshph1 which the ,authorised ,version renders 8astrologers40 ,but the ,babylonian asip or 8prophet0 was not an astrologer2 he left to others the interpretation of the stars1 and contented himself with counselling or foretelling the destinies of men4 ,like his master ,bel-,merodach1 he was the interpreter of the wisdom of ,ea1 and the revealer of his counsels4 ,the ,holy of ,holies in the great temple of ,babylon1 where ,bel uttered his oracles1 was known as the 8house of prophecy10 like the ship also in which the image of the god was ferried across the stream47#cfa7 ,the prophet may have been part of the heritage bequeathed by ,eridu to the ,babylonian people4 ,by the side of the prophet stood the seer 7sabr747#cfb7 ,the seer and the prophet were distinct from one another2 there was no confusion between their offices1 as seems to have been at one time the case in ,israel4 ,the seer was not the 8speaker0 who declared the will of the gods or the fate that was decreed for man2 it was1 on the contrary1 through visions and trances that the future was made known to him4 ,assur-bani-pal tells us how1 on the eve of the ,elamite war1 after he had invoked the aid and protection of ,istar1 8a seer slept and dreamed a prophetic dream2 a vision of the night did ,istar reveal unto him2 he repeated it to me1 saying3 #8,istar1 who dwelleth in ,arbela1 came down1 and on the right hand and on the left hung 7her7 quivers2 in her hand she held the bow2 she drew the sharp war-sword and held it before her4 ,like a mother she speaketh with thee1 she calleth thee2 ,istar1 the queen of the gods1 appointeth for thee a doom3 444 8,eat food1 drink wine1 make music1 exalt my divinity1 until ,i march and this work of mine be accomplished4 ,i will give thee thy heart's desire2 thy face shall not grow pale1 thy feet shall not totter40 ' 0 ,here the message of the seer passes into a prophecy1 and his office is distinguished from that of the prophet only through the difference in the mode of revelation4 ,the seer went back to the earliest ages of ,semitic ,babylonia4 ,the 8seer0 of the palace of ,sargon of ,akkad is already mentioned on a contemporaneous tablet by the side of 8the king0 and 8the queen407#cfc7 ,like the other priests among whom he was reckoned1 it was necessary that he should be without bodily blemish4 ,the leper1 the blind1 and the maimed were excluded from the service of the gods47#cfd7 ,how far the ,babylonian prophet resembled the ,hebrew prophet it is at present impossible to say4 ,but there were certainly two important points in which they differed4 ,the ,babylonian prophet was1 on the one side1 a member of the priestly body2 the mere peasant could not become an 8utterer0 of the will of heaven without previous training and consecration4 ,there was1 consequently1 no such distinction between the prophet and the priest as prevailed in ,israel2 ,babylonia was a theocratic1 not a democratic ,state4 ,on the other side1 the prophet was closely linked with the magician and necromancer4 ,magic had been taken under the protection of the ,state religion1 not repudiated and persecuted as among the ,israelites4 ,hence1 while the prophet was a priest to whom the rites of purification were specially entrusted1 he was at the same time classed with the sailu who 8inquired0 of the dead1 the muslu or necromancer1 and the makhkhu or 8soothsayer40 ,on the other hand1 there were prophetesses as well as prophets in both ,babylonia and ,israel4 ,the employment of women in the temple services peculiarly characterised ,babylonia4 ,as we have seen1 it was a woman only who was privileged to enter the secret shrine of ,bel-,merodach at ,babylon2 while unmarried women were consecrated1 not only to ,istar1 but also to the sun-god1 and1 like the priests1 formed a corporate community4 ,we are told that in the lower world of ,hades there were female as well as male soothsayers2 it was the home of the black art1 and so reflected the constitution of the professors of sorcery in the upper world4 ,along with the seer and the soothsayer1 the prophet was thus annexed by the temple4 ,a definite duty was assigned to him there2 he was 8the pourer out0 of libations4 ,the libations were doubtless originally of 8pure0 water1 to which was subsequently added wine1 whether made from the palm or the vine4 ,along with the libations all the first-fruits of the cultivated land were offered to the gods4 ,milk and butter and oil1 dates and vegetables1 were given in abundance4 ,so too were the spices and incense that were brought from the southern coast of ,arabia1 the corn that was grown in the fields1 garlic and other herbs from the garden1 and honey from the hive4 ,but animal sacrifices were not forgotten4 ,oxen and calves1 sheep and lambs1 goats and kids1 fish and certain kinds of birds1 were slain upon the altar1 and so presented to the gods4 ,it is noticeable that it was only the cultivated plant and the domesticated beast that were thus offered to the deity4 ,the dog and swine1 or rather wild boar1 are never mentioned in the sacrificial lists4 ,what man gave to heaven was what he ate himself1 and reared or grew with the sweat of his brow4 ,the gazelle1 indeed1 is named1 but it is a scape-goat which is driven into the desert like the ,hebrew ,azazel1 carrying away with it the sins and sickness of those who let it loose47#cfe7 ,the gods of ,semitic ,babylonia were essentially human1 and what man lived upon they too required4 ,they had1 moreover1 given their worshippers all they most needed and prized--fruitful fields1 fat cattle1 rain in its season1 and the blessings of the sunshine4 ,in return they demanded the first-fruits of what was in reality their own2 they could1 if they so chose1 deprive man of the whole1 but they were generously satisfied with a part4 ,the ,semitic ,baal was indeed like a divine king2 lord and master though he was of the cultivated soil and of all that it produced1 he was content only with a share4 ,was the firstborn of man included among the sacrifices that were deemed acceptable to heaven8 ,years ago ,i published an early text which seemed to show that such was the case4 ,my interpretation of the text has been disputed1 but it still appears to me to be the sole legitimate one4 ,the text is bilingual in both ,sumerian and ,semitic1 and therefore probably goes back to ,sumerian times4 ,literally rendered1 it is as follows3 8,let the algal proclaim3 the offspring who raises his head among men1 the offspring for his life he must give2 the head of the offspring for the head of the man he must give1 the neck of the offspring for the neck of the man he must give1 the breast of the offspring for the breast of the man he must give407#cff7 ,it is difficult to attach any other meaning to this than that which makes it refer to the sacrifice of children4 ,the question1 however1 is really settled by the evidence of archology4 ,on the famous stela of the ,vultures1 now in the ,louvre1 a sort of wicker-work cage is represented1 filled with captives who are waiting to be put to death by the mace of the king47#cfg7 ,on a certain class of seal-cylinders1 moreover1 a scene is engraved which ,mnant seems to me to have rightly explained as depicting a human sacrifice4 ,in later times1 it is true1 human sacrifice ceased to be practised2 there are few1 if any1 references to it in the inscriptions1 and the human victim is replaced by an ox or sheep4 ,it was to the offended majesty of the ,assyrian king rather than of the god ,assur that the ,assyrian conqueror impaled or burnt the beaten foe2 and among the lists of offerings that were made to the deified rulers of ,babylonia1 we look in vain for any mention of man or child4 ,as in ,israel1 so too in the kingdoms of the ,euphrates and ,tigris1 human sacrifice seems to have disappeared at an early date4 ,so1 moreover1 does another custom which has been revealed to us by the archaic sculptures of ,tello4 ,that was the custom of approaching the deity stripped of clothing27#cfh7 and ,professor ,jastrow aptly compares with it not only the scanty dress of the ,mohammedan pilgrims on ,mount ,arafat1 but also ,saul's conduct when the spirit of prophecy fell upon him4 ,a similar custom prevailed in ,keltic ,ireland1 and the ,hindu still strips himself when he sits down to eat4 ,the growth of culture1 and it may be also the mixture of races1 thus deprived the gods of two of the prerogatives they had once enjoyed4 ,they could no longer claim the firstborn of men1 nor require that the worshipper should enter their presence naked and defenceless4 ,but they retained all their other kingly rights4 ,a tithe of all that the land produced was theirs1 and it was rigorously exacted1 for the support of the temples and priests4 ,babylonia1 in short1 was the inventor of tithe4 ,why it should have been a tenth we cannot say4 ,the numerical system of the ,babylonians was sexagesimal and duodecimal1 not decimal1 and the year consisted of twelve months1 not of ten4 ,perhaps the institution went back to a period when the year of twelve months had not yet been fixed1 and1 like the lunar year of the modern ,mohammedan1 it still possessed but ten months4 ,however this may be1 the tithe became a marked characteristic of ,babylonian religious life4 ,it was paid by all classes2 even the king and his heir were not exempt from it4 ,one of the last acts of the crown prince ,belshazzar was to pay the tithe1 forty-seven shekels in amount1 due from his sister to the temple of the sun-god at ,sippara1 at the very moment when ,cyrus was knocking at the gates of ,babylon47#cfi7 ,it is probable that the daily sacrifices were provided for in great measure out of the tithe2 at all events1 ,assur-bani-pal tells us that after the suppression of the ,babylonian revolt1 he levied upon the people the provision needed for the sacrifices made to ,assur and ,beltis and the gods of ,assyria4 ,they were1 however1 often endowed specially2 thus ,nebuchadrezzar made special provision for the daily sacrifice of eight lambs in the temple of ,nergal at ,cuthah2 and an earlier king of ,babylonia describes how he had increased the endowment of the stated offerings at ,sippara4 ,the daily sacrifice was called the atttku1 a term which goes back to the age when the ,semite was first mingling with the older ,sumerian47#cgj7 ,there were other terms in use to denote the various kinds of offering that were presented to the gods4 ,the animal sacrifice had the name of zbu1 the meal-offering being known as manitu47#cga7 ,the free-will offering was nidbu2 the 8gift0 or 8benevolence0 demanded by the god upon the produce of the field being qurbannu1 the ,hebrew qorbn4 ,other terms also were employed1 the exact sense of which is still uncertain2 among them is one which probably means 8trespass-offering40 ,it is impossible not to be struck by the many points of similarity between the ,babylonian ritual and arrangement of the temples and that which existed among the ,israelites4 ,the temple of ,solomon1 in fact1 was little more than a reproduction of a ,babylonian sanctuary4 ,and just as the palace of the ,hebrew king adjoined the temple in which he claimed the right of offering sacrifice1 so too at ,babylon the palace of ,nebuchadrezzar--who1 it must be remembered1 was a pontiff as well as a king--stood close to the temple of ,merodach4 ,even the bronze serpent which ,hezekiah destroyed finds its parallel in the bronze serpents erected in the gates of the ,babylonian temples47#cgb7 ,the internal decoration of the sanctuary1 moreover1 was similar in both countries4 ,the walls were made gorgeous with enamelled bricks1 or with plaques of gold and bronze and inlaid stones4 ,sometimes they were painted with vermilion1 the monsters of the ,epic of the ,creation being pictured on the walls4 ,but more often the painted or sculptured figures were1 as at ,jerusalem1 those of cherubim and the sacred tree or other vegetable devices4 ,at ,erech1 bull-headed colossi guarded the doors4 ,but the resemblance between the ,babylonian and ,hebrew rituals extends beyond the ceremonial of the temple of ,solomon into the ,levitical ,law4 ,in fact1 the very term for law1 the torh1 as the ,israelites called it1 was borrowed from the ,babylonian tertu1 as was first pointed out by ,professor ,haupt4 ,it is even a question whether the word is not a derivative from the verb ahru1 8to send0 or 8direct10 from which the name of ,aaron was also formed4 ,however this may be1 even the technical words of the ,mosaic ,law recur in the ritual texts of early ,babylonia4 ,the biblical kipper1 8atonement10 is the ,assyrian kuppuru2 and the qorbn1 as we have seen1 is the ,assyrian qurbannu4 ,a distinction was made between the offerings of the rich and of the poor 7musknu717#cgc7 and the sacrificial animal was required to be 8without blemish0 7salmu74 ,the 8right0 thigh or shoulder of the victim was given to the priest1 along with the loins and hide1 the rump and tendons1 and part of the stomach47#cgd7 ,still more interesting is it to find in the ritual of the prophets instructions for the sacrifice of a lamb at the gate of the house1 the blood of which is to be smeared on the lintels and doorposts1 as well as on the colossal images that guarded the entrance47#cge7 ,to this day in ,egypt the same rite is practised1 and when my dahabiah was launched ,i had to conform to it4 ,on this occasion the blood of the lamb was allowed to fall over the sides of the lower deck4 ,there are other parallels between ,babylonia and ,mosaic ,israel which have been brought forward by ,professor ,zimmern4 ,in the 8,tabernacle of the ,congregation10 or 8,tent of meeting10 he sees the place where 8the proper time0 7mod1 ,assyr4 adannu7 for an undertaking was determined by the bar or seer2 at any rate1 8to determine the proper time0 7saknu sa adanni7 was one of the functions of the ,babylonian seer47#cgf7 ,by the side of the rituals for the seers and prophets1 moreover1 there was another for the zammri or 8singers40 ,the hierarchy of a ,babylonian temple was1 in short1 the same as that of ,israel4 ,but in addition to the architecture of the temple and the regulations of the ritual1 there were yet other resemblances between the religious law of ,babylonia and that of the ,israelites4 ,they may be traced in the numerous festivals of the calendar1 and the time of year at which they were held4 ,foremost among them was the festival of the ,new ,year4 ,babylonia was primarily an agricultural community1 and the festivals of its gods1 like the names of the months1 were determined by the necessities of agriculture4 ,spring and autumn were marked by the sowing of the seed and the garnering of the harvest4 ,but neither the one nor the other took place in all parts of the country at the same time of the year4 ,in the south the harvest might be gathered in when the corn was sown in the north1 or the seed sown when in colder regions the harvest was gathered in4 ,hence it was that the same festival might commemorate either the beginning or the end of the agricultural year4 ,but in either case it was a period of rejoicing and rest from labour1 of thanking the gods for their benefits1 and offering them the first-fruits of the field4 ,in the old days of ,gudea of ,lagas the year commenced with the festival of the goddess ,bau in the middle of ,october2 in the later ,babylon of ,khammurabi the feast was transferred to the spring1 and the first month of the year began in ,march4 ,but the older calendar of ,babylonia had been already carried to the ,west1 and there preserved in a country to whose climatic and agricultural conditions it was really inapplicable4 ,the ancient ,canaanitish year began in the autumn in what the later calendar reckoned the seventh month4 ,it was not1 however1 till after the final unification of the country under ,khammurabi that a fixed and uniform calendar was imposed upon all the sanctuaries of ,babylonia4 ,at an earlier epoch the great sanctuaries had each its own calendar2 the months were variously named1 and the deities to whom the festivals were dedicated were not always the same47#cgg7 ,at ,lagas it was ,bau to whom the festival of the ,new ,year was sacred2 at ,babylon it was ,merodach4 ,besides the festivals of the spring and autumn1 there was yet a third festival belonging to the agricultural year4 ,this was the feast of the summer solstice1 which fell in the month of ,june4 ,it marked the drying up of the soil and the disappearance of the crops and vegetation of the spring4 ,in some of the early ,states of ,babylonia it was consecrated to a god ,bil-'si27#cgh7 in the calendar of ,assyria1 ,tammuz took the place of the older god4 ,tammuz had perished by an untimely death1 and it was fitting that the death of the god should be celebrated when nature also seemed to die4 ,there was a time1 however1 when the festival of ,tammuz had been observed1 at all events in some parts of ,babylonia1 in ,october rather than in ,june4 ,the same month that had witnessed the feast of the ,new ,year witnessed also that of ,tammuz risen again from the dead4 ,the three great feasts of the ,babylonian agriculturist are found again in ,canaan4 ,but it is noticeable that the third of them--the feast of ,weeks1 as it was called by the ,hebrews--was there the correspondent of the spring festival in ,babylonia4 ,it was1 in fact1 a repetition of the festival of spring4 ,and the latter accordingly becomes a prelude and anticipation of it4 ,on the #afth of ,nisan the ,levitical ,law ordered a sheaf of the first-fruits of the harvest to be presented 7,lev4 xxiii4 #aj-ad71 and the unleavened bread eaten at the festival itself symbolised the ingathering of the corn which was thus dedicated to ,god in the form of consecrated cakes4 ,the three great agricultural festivals were supplemented by others4 ,many of these occurred at fixed times of the year1 and commemorated the divinities worshipped in one or other of the sanctuaries of ,babylonia4 ,some of them were observed throughout the country2 others only in a particular city and district4 ,with the deification of a new king came a new festival in his honour2 and if his cult lasted1 the festival continued also by the side of the established festivals of the older gods4 ,but new festivals might further be instituted for other reasons4 ,the building or restoration of a sanctuary1 or even the dedication of a statue1 was a quite sufficient pretext4 ,when ,gudea consecrated the temple of ,inguria at ,lagas1 he tells us how he had 8remitted penalties and given presents4 ,during seven days no service was exacted4 ,the female slave was made the equal of her mistress2 the male slave was made the equal of his master2 the chief and his subject have been made equal in my city4 ,all that is evil ,i removed from this temple407#cgi7 ,the temporary freedom thus granted to the slave seems to have been a characteristic of the ,babylonian festival4 ,berossos stated that in the month of ,los or ,july1 the feast of ,saka was celebrated at ,babylon for five days1 when it was 8the custom that the masters should obey their domestics1 one of whom is led round the house clothed in a royal garment407#chj7 ,the custom has often been compared with that which prevailed at the ,roman ,saturnalia1 and a baseless theory has recently been put forward connecting with it the ,hebrew feast of ,purim47#cha7 ,but the custom was really the exaggeration in the ,greek age of ,babylonian history of the old doctrine which underlay the ,babylonian conception of a holy day4 ,a holy day was essentially a holiday1 a day when the whole people rested from work1 and when1 accordingly1 even the slave recovered for awhile his freedom4 ,the summer feast of ,saka1 at least in its original form1 or the festival ordained by ,gudea at the consecration of the temple of -,ninnu1 was thus a parallel to the ,hebrew year of ,jubilee4 ,in the year of ,jubilee we have the western reflection of beliefs and usages that were familiar to the ancestors of ,abraham4 ,the ,sabbath-rest was essentially of ,babylonian origin4 ,the word ,sabbath itself was borrowed from ,babylonia1 where it had the form ,sabattu1 and was derived by the native lexicographers from the ,sumerian sa1 8heart10 and 8bat1 to cease10 and so explained as 8a day of rest for the heart407#chb7 ,the derivation is1 of course1 absurd1 but it indicates the antiquity of the term4 ,there was yet another name1 sulum1 or 8quiet day10 which was more especially used as a translation of the ,sumerian udu khul-gal1 8dies nefastus10 on which it was unlawful or unlucky to perform certain kinds of work47#chc7 ,thus1 in a list of what we should call the ,saints' days in the month of the ,second ,elul1 we read that the #gth1 #adth1 #aith1 #bast1 and #bhth days of the month were all alike days of quiet and rest4 8,the #gth day10 we are told1 8is a day dedicated to ,merodach and ,zarpanit4 ,it is a lucky day and a quiet day4 ,the shepherd of mighty nations 7i4e4 the king7 must not eat flesh cooked at the fire or in the smoke4 ,his clothes he must not change4 ,white garments he must not put on4 ,he must not offer sacrifice4 ,the king must not drive a chariot4 ,he must not issue royal decrees4 ,in a secret place the seer must not prophesy4 ,medicine for the sickness of his body he must not apply4 ,for making a spell it is not fitting407#chd7 ,here the ,sabbath recurs1 as among the ,hebrews1 every seven days2 and ,professor ,jensen has pointed out that the #aith of the month1 on which there was also a ,sabbath1 was forty-nine days or seven weeks from the beginning of the previous month4 ,there was therefore not only a week of seven days1 but a week of seven-day weeks as well4 ,in fact1 the chief difference between the ,babylonian and the ,hebrew institution lay in the subordination of the ,sabbath to the festival of the 8new moon0 among the ,babylonians4 ,there was no ,sabbath on the first day of the month2 its place was taken by freewill offerings to the moon4 ,the ,sabbath1 it will be noticed1 was not a fast-day4 ,fasts1 however1 were not infrequent in ,babylonia and ,assyria1 and in times of danger and distress might be specially ordained4 ,when ,esar-haddon was hard pressed by his northern enemies1 he ordered prayers to be made and ceremonies to be performed to the sun-god1 lasting for one hundred days and nights4 ,it was a long period of public humiliation1 and the god was asked to grant favourable visions to the 8seers0 who implored his help4 ,in the penitential psalms1 fasting is alluded to more than once4 8,instead of food10 says the penitent1 8,i eat bitter tears2 instead of palm-wine1 ,i drink the waters of misery40 ,or1 again3 8,food ,i have not eaten1 weeping is my nourishment2 water ,i have not drunk1 tears are my drink407#che7 ,the fast and the feast alternated as they did in ,israel4 ,as we come to know more of the ritual of ,babylonia1 the resemblance it bears to that of the ,hebrews becomes at once more striking and extensive4 ,they both start from the same principles1 and agree in many of their details4 ,between them1 indeed1 lies that deep gulf of difference which separates the religions of ,israel and ,babylonia as a whole2 the one is monotheistic1 the other polytheistic4 ,but1 apart from this profound distinction1 the cult and ritual have more than a family relationship4 ,customs and rites which have lost their primitive meaning in the ,levitical ,law1 find their explanation in ,babylonia2 even the ecclesiastical calendar of the ,pentateuch looks back to the ,babylonia of the age of ,khammurabi4 ,it cannot be an accident that the ,khammurabi or ,ammurapi of the cuneiform inscriptions is the ,amraphel of ,genesis1 the contemporary of ,abram the ,hebrew1 who was born in 8,ur of the ,chaldees40 ,the ,mosaic ,law must have drawn its first inspiration from the ,abrahamic age1 modified and developed though it may have been in the later centuries of ,israelitish history4 ,lecture ,x4 ,astro-,theology ,and ,the ,moral ,element ,in ,babylonian ,religion4 ,a hundred years ago1 writers on the history or philosophy of religion had much to say about what they called ,sabaism4 ,the earliest form of idolatry was supposed to have been a worship of the heavenly bodies4 ,a passage in the ,book of ,job was invoked in support of the fact1 and beautifully executed drawings of ,babylonian seal-cylinders were made for the sake of the pictures of the sun and moon and stars that were upon them4 ,sir ,william ,drummond resolved the sons of ,jacob into the signs of the ,zodiac27#chf7 ,dupuis derived ,christianity itself from a sort of allegorical astronomy4 8,sabaism0 has long since fallen into disrepute4 ,anthropology has long since taught us that primitive religion is not confined to a worship of the stars4 ,the cult of the heavenly bodies was not the source of polytheism2 indeed1 there are systems of polytheism in which it has never existed at all4 ,of late the tendency has been to discount it altogether as a factor in the history of religion4 ,but the tendency has gone too far4 ,there was one religion1 at all events1 in which it played an important part4 ,this was the religion of ancient ,babylonia and of those other countries which were influenced by ,babylonian culture4 ,but even here the decipherment of the inscriptions seemed to show that it belonged to a late age1 and was an artificial product which never affected the people as a whole4 ,when ,i delivered my ,hibbert ,lectures1 ,i believed that ,i could dismiss it in a few words as merely a kind of subsidiary chapter added to the religion of the ,state by pedants and scholars4 ,certain it is that the elaborate system of astro-theology which characterised ,babylonian religion was an artificial creation4 ,it was the result of a combination of religion with astronomy which was elaborated in the schools4 ,astronomy1 like all other sciences1 was under the control of the priests1 the observatory rose by the side of the school within the precincts of the temple1 and the dependence of the calendar on the observations of the astronomer gave them a religious character4 ,moreover1 the astro-theology of ,babylonia did not go back to primeval times4 ,the identification of the official gods with the heavenly bodies belongs to an age when the official religion had already been crystallised into shape1 and a map of the heavens had been made4 ,we can almost watch its rise and trace its growth4 ,nevertheless the rise and growth are of far earlier date than was formerly imagined4 ,astro-theology was not a mere learned scheme of allegorised science1 the plaything of a school of pedants2 it exercised a considerable influence upon the religion of ,babylonia and upon the history of its development4 ,it had1 moreover1 a background in the faith of the people4 ,like the rivers and streams1 the stars also were really worshipped17#chg7 and the symbols drawn on the seal-cylinders show that this worship must go back to the oldest period of ,babylonia4 ,even the ideograph that denotes 8a god0 represents an eight-rayed star4 ,the fact is significant4 ,at the time when the pictorial hieroglyphics were first being formed out of which the cuneiform characters were to grow1 the star was already the symbol and representative of the divine4 ,it was not as yet the more general and abstract 8sky10 it was the particular star that was adored as a god4 ,babylonian religion1 as far back as its written history leads us1 really begins with ,sabaism4 ,how is this fact to be reconciled with the further fact that the gods of ,babylonia were once spirits and ghosts1 the zi's of ,eridu and the lil's of ,nippur8 ,to this question no answer at present is possible2 at most we can only suggest that the zi1 or spirit1 was localised in the star4 ,a spirit of the sun was as conceivable as a spirit of ,ea1 and the son of ,ea1 it must be remembered1 became a sun-god4 8,the zi of the god0 meant originally in the primitive picture-writing 8the spirit of the star10 and the literal rendering of the invocation in the early spells would be 8the spirit of the star who is lord of ,du-azagga10 8the spirit of the star who is mistress of the holy hill40 ,in the ,book of ,isaiah the ,babylonian king is made to say that he would enthrone himself among the gods on the summit of the ,chaldan ,olympos 8above the stars of ,el02 and ,nin-ip1 the interpreter of ,en-lil1 was at once the sun-god and the moon4 ,istar1 it must not be forgotten1 was primarily the evening star2 and ,istar was not only supreme among the goddesses of ,babylonia1 she was the type and representative of them all4 ,the signs of the ,zodiac had once been the monster allies of the dragon of chaos4 ,with all this1 it may hereafter prove that the conception of the divine as a star was introduced by a different race from that which saw in it a spirit or a ghost4 ,at all events1 it was a conception which the inscriptions of ,southern ,arabia have shown to have prevailed among the ,western ,semites4 ,professor ,hommel has made it clear7#chh7 that the ,semitic tribes to which the ,arabs of the south1 the ,aramans1 and the ,hebrews alike belonged1 worshipped four supreme deities--,athtar1 the evening and morning star2 the moon-god and its messenger or 8,prophet02 and the goddess of the sun4 ,athtar is the ,babylonian ,istar1 who has become a male god in her passage to the ,semites2 and1 while the people of ,hadhramaut borrowed the name of ,sin from ,babylonia1 those of ,qatabn borrowed the name of ,nebo 7,anby74 ,samas1 the sun1 has become a goddess2 the moon-god has taken the foremost place in the pantheon1 and the sun has accordingly been transformed into his colourless reflection4 ,as in the case of ,istar1 so too in that of the sun-god1 the genderless grammar of ,sumerian facilitated the change4 1 the sun-god of ,sippara1 had become his wife under ,semitic influence17#chi7 and from ,sippara the conception of a solar goddess passed to the ,semites on the western side of the ,euphrates4 ,the supreme ,baalim of the ,south ,arabian inscriptions must thus have been of ,babylonian origin4 ,name and character alike were derived from ,sumerian ,babylonia4 ,and from this the further inference is obvious3 ,arabian and ,west ,semitic 8,sabaism10 with its worship of the heavenly bodies1 was not indigenous4 ,it must have been the result of contact with ,babylonian civilisation1 a contact which gave ,ur and ,harran a mixed population1 and caused them to be the seats and centres of the worship of the moon-god4 ,the primitive ,semitic ,baal--the 8lord0 of a specific plot of earth or tribal territory--became a moon-good or an evening star1 while his wife was embodied in the sun4 ,this conclusion is confirmed by a study of the religion of ,canaan4 ,here the place occupied by the moon-god among ,arabians and ,hebrews is taken by the sun4 ,the supreme ,baal is the sun-god1 and the female ,ashtoreth is identified with the moon4 ,as ,i endeavoured to show in an earlier lecture1 there was a period in the history of ,babylonian religion when here also the sun-god was supreme4 ,the gods were resolved into solar deities1 or rather were identified with the sun4 ,the solar element in ,merodach threatened to absorb his human kingship2 it was only his likeness to man that saved him from the fate of the ,egyptian gods4 ,it is just this phase in the history of ,babylonian theology that we find reflected in the theology of ,canaan4 ,baal has passed into the sun-god1 and his characteristics are those of the sun-gods of ,babylonia4 ,the historical monuments have told us how long and deep was the influence of ,babylonia upon the culture of ,canaan1 and it was exercised just at the time when the solar faith had triumphed in the ,babylonian plain4 ,it is not without significance that ,sargon of ,akkad1 who first brought the civilisation and arts of ,babylonia to the shores of the ,mediterranean1 should have had his capital in a city which adjoined ,sippara1 the special seat of solar worship4 ,while ,arabia drew its inspiration from ,ur1 the religion of ,canaan was modified by contact with a culture and theology that were more purely ,babylonian4 ,phnician tradition stoutly maintained that the ancestors of the ,canaanitish people had come from the ,persian ,gulf4 8,sabaism10 therefore1 to use the old term1 must really have been an early form of ,babylonian belief4 ,it was communicated to the ,semites west of the ,euphrates at different times and in different ways4 ,to the ,western ,semites of ,arabia and ,mesopotamia it came through ,ur1 and consequently set the moon-god at the head of the divine hierarchy4 ,to the ,canaanite it was carried more directly1 but at a later period1 when the solar worship had become dominant in ,babylonia4 ,the influence of ,nippur had waned before that of ,eridu1 and out of ,eridu had risen a culture-god whose son and vicegerent was the sun4 ,the moon-god was addressed in ,southern ,arabia by different titles1 one of which was that ',ammi or ',ammu which forms part of the name of ,khammurabi4 ,professor ,hommel hints that even the ,hebrew ,yahveh may once have been a title of the moon-god among the ,western ,semites of ,babylonia4 ,as ,i was the first to point out1 the name of ,yahveh actually occurs in a document of the age of ,abraham1 where it enters into the composition of the name ,yahum-ilu1 the ,joel of the ,old ,testament4 ,professor ,hommel has since found other examples of it in tablets of the same period1 thus overthrowing the modern theory which derives it from the ,kenites47#cij7 ,it was already known to 8,abram the ,hebrew0 in ,ur of the ,chaldees4 ,the hymn to the moon-god of ,ur1 to which ,i have referred in an earlier lecture17#cia7 is almost monotheistic in tone4 ,to the writer he 8alone is supreme in heaven and earth40 ,he is the creator of the universe2 he is also the universal 8,father10 8long-suffering and full of forgiveness1 whose hand upholds the life of all mankind40 ,more than that1 he is 8the omnipotent one1 whose heart is immensity1 and there is none that may fathom it40 ,among the other gods he has no rival2 he causes the herb to grow1 and the cattle and flock to bring forth2 and he established law and justice among mankind4 ,the angels of heaven and the spirits of the earth alike do homage to him2 there is no goddess even who appears at his side4 ,the hymn formed part of the ritual of the great temple at ,ur before the birth of ,abraham1 and the ,hebrew patriarch may well have listened to its teaching4 ,from ,ur and its mixed population we can trace the worship of the ,babylonian moon-god along the coasts of ,southern ,arabia as far as ,egypt4 ,in ,hadhramaut1 as ,i have already said1 the very name of ,sin was retained1 and even in ,north-western ,arabia the name of the sacred mountain of ,sinai bears witness to the cult of the ,babylonian deity4 ,early seal-cylinders associate with the moon-god both an ape and a dwarf-like figure1 called ,nu-gidda1 8the dwarf10 in ,sumerian1 who dances in honour of the god1 like the ,danga dwarf in ,egypt1 or the cynocephalous apes of ,thoth4 ,in ,egypt1 however1 the dwarf assumes the shape of ,bes1 who is often represented with an ape on either side2 and ,bes with his crown of feathers1 along with the apes 7or monkeys7 that accompany him1 came from the south of ,arabia to the valley of the ,nile4 ,the monotheistic tendency of the hymn to the moon-god stands in marked contrast to the polytheism of the solar hymns4 ,the solar ritual1 in fact1 was essentially polytheistic4 ,but ,nannar or ,sin1 the moon-god1 was 8the prince of the gods10 the ruler of the starry hosts of heaven4 ,by the side of him the stars were but as the sheep of a flock in the presence of their shepherd1 or as the people of a ,state in the presence of their deified king4 ,hence he was lord over his brother gods in a way that the sun-god could never be2 they became the hosts that he marshalled in fight against the enemies of light and order1 the multitude that obeyed his voice as the sheep follow their shepherd4 ,the moon-god was emphatically 8the lord of hosts06 ,the title was applied to other gods in later days4 ,nebuchadrezzar calls ,nebo 8the marshaller of the hosts of heaven and earth107#cib7 and ,tiglath-pileser ,i4 makes ,assur 8the director of the hosts of the gods40 ,the kings transferred the title to themselves1 changing only 8gods0 into 8men10 and so becoming 8kings of the hosts of mankind40 ,but the first signification of the term was 8the host of heaven10 the stars of ,el above whom the king of ,babylon sought to erect his throne4 ,one of the primeval divinities of the pantheon--a divinity1 indeed1 who scarcely emerged from his primitive condition of a primordial spirit--was ,en-me-sarra17#cic7 8the enchanter of the 7heavenly and earthly7 hosts10 to whom in some of the old ,babylonian cities a feast of mourning was celebrated at the time of the winter solstice in the month ,tebet4 ,a hymn entitles him 8the lord of the earth1 the prince of ,arallu1 lord of the place and the land whence none return1 even the mountain of the spirits of earth 444 without whom ,inguria cannot produce prosperity in field or canal1 cannot create the crop 444 he who gives sceptre and reign to ,anu and ,el-lil407#cid7 ,he is invoked1 like the moon-god1 to establish firmly the foundation-stone that it may last for ever4 ,but it is not only over the spirits of the underground world that he holds sway2 he reigns also in heaven1 in the close vicinity of the ecliptic1 and 8the seven great gods0 who were his sons were stars in the sky4 ,his attributes1 therefore1 closely resemble those of the moon-god of ,ur3 like the moon-god1 he is at once lord of the sky and of the underworld1 a father of the stars of night who makes the green herb grow in the earth below4 ,in ,en-me-sarra1 8the enchanter of the 7spirit7-hosts10 the realm of the moon-god was united with that of ,en-lil2 as lord of the night he ruled in ,hades1 and was supreme even in that 8mountain0 of the ghost-world from which ,en-lil derived one of his names47#cie7 ,but ,i must leave to others the task of further pursuing the path of exploration which ,i have thus sketched in outline4 ,that ,yahveh was once identified with the moon-god of ,babylonia in those distant days1 when as yet ,abraham had not been born in ,ur of ,chaldees1 explains his title of 8,lord of hosts0 better than the far-fetched theories which have been invented to account for it4 ,the explanation has at least the merit of being supported by the ancient texts of ,babylonia4 ,adventurous spirits may even be inclined to see in ,sinai1 the mountain of ,sin1 a fitting place for the promulgation of the ,law of the ,lord of hosts2 but such speculations lie beyond the reach of the present lecturer1 and the lectures he has undertaken to give4 ,the name of ,en-me-sarra1 8the enchanter of the 7spirit7-hosts10 brings us back to that dark background of magic and sorcery which distinguished and disfigured the religion of ,babylonia up to the last4 ,the ,sumerian element continued to survive in the ,babylonian people1 and the magic which was its primitive religion survived also4 ,it was never eliminated2 behind the priest lurked the sorcerer2 the spell and the incantation were but partially hidden beneath the prayer and the penitential psalm4 ,one result of this was the exaggerated importance attached to rites and ceremonies1 and the small space occupied by the moral element in the official ,babylonian faith4 ,there was doubtless a certain amount of spirituality1 more especially of an individualistic sort2 the sinner bewails his transgressions1 and appeals for help to his deity1 but of morality as an integral part of religion there is little evidence4 ,we look in vain for anything analogous to the judgment-hall of ,osiris and the negative confession of the ,egyptian dead2 the ,babylonian gods1 it is true1 preferred that a man should walk uprightly1 but his future salvation did not depend on his conduct in this life4 ,he was punished in this world for his sins and shortcomings1 but the sins were not confined to sins against morality2 they equally included ceremonial transgressions4 ,at the same time1 a sort of catechism which forms part of the ritual of the seers shows that a recognition of the moral element in religion was not altogether wanting4 ,the following is ,professor ,zimmern's translation of it3 8,has he estranged the father from his son8 ,has he estranged the son from his father8 ,has he estranged the mother from her daughter8 ,has he estranged the daughter from her mother8 ,has he estranged the mother-in-law from her daughter-in-law8 ,has he estranged the brother from his brother8 ,has he estranged the friend from his friend8 ,has he estranged the companion from his companion8 ,has he refused to set a captive free1 or has he refused to loose one who was bound8 ,has he excluded the prisoner from the light8 ,has he said of a captive1 #8,hold him fast1' or of one who was bound1 #8,strengthen his bonds'8 ,has he committed sin against a god1 or has he committed sin against a goddess8 ,has he offended a god1 or has he held a goddess in light esteem8 ,is his sin against his own god1 or is his sin against his own goddess8 ,has he done violence to one older than himself1 or has he conceived hatred against an elder brother8 ,has he held his father and mother in contempt1 or has he insulted his elder sister8 ,has he been generous in small things1 but avaricious in great matters8 ,has he said #8yea' for #8nay1' and #8nay' for #8yea'8 ,has he spoken of unclean things or counselled disobedience8 ,has he spoken wicked words8444 ,has he used false scales8444 ,has he accepted a wrong account1 or has he refused a rightful sum8 ,has he disinherited a legitimate son1 or has he recognised an illegitimate son8 ,has he set up a false landmark1 or has he refused to set up a true landmark8 ,has he removed bound1 border1 or landmark8 ,has he broken into his neighbour's house8 ,has he drawn near his neighbour's wife8 ,has he shed his neighbour's blood8 ,has he stolen his neighbour's garment807#cif7 ,the list of questions reminds us of the negative confession of the ,osirian creed1 but the end and purpose of it is different4 ,they are the questions put to the penitent in order that the priest may discover why the wrath of the gods has fallen upon him4 ,they relate to this life only1 not to the next2 conformity to the moral code they imply brings with it no assurance of eternal happiness1 it is a guarantee only against suffering and misfortune in the present world4 ,the point of view of the ,babylonian was that of the friends of ,job4 ,morality1 in fact1 was left in large measure to the legislator4 ,an old code1 which seems to have been ascribed to the god ,ea1 asserts explicitly the responsibility of the ruler1 and his amenability to divine punishment for unrighteous dealing4 8,if the king does not give heed to justice10 it begins1 8his people will perish and his land be enfeebled47#cig7 8,if he gives no heed to the law of the land1 ,ea1 the king of destinies1 will change his destiny1 and visit him with misfortune4 8,if he gives no heed to his nobles1 his days shall not be long4 8,if he gives no heed to the wise1 his land will revolt against him4 8,if he gives heed to the 7law-7book1 the king will behold the strengthening of his land4 8,if he gives heed to the writing 7sipir7 of ,ea1 the great gods will establish him in counsel and knowledge of justice4 8,if he smites a man of ,sippara and gives a wrong decision1 the sun-god1 who judges heaven and earth1 will appoint another judge in his land1 and a just prince and a just judge instead of unjust ones4 8,if the sons of ,nippur come to him for judgment1 and he accepts bribes and treats them harshly1 ,bel1 the lord of the world1 will bring a foreign enemy against him and destroy his army2 the prince and his general will be hunted like outcasts through the streets4 8,if the sons of ,babylon bring silver and offer bribes1 and he favours the ,babylonians and turns himself to their entreaty1 ,merodach1 the lord of heaven and earth1 will set his foes over him1 and give his goods and his treasure to his enemy4 ,the sons of ,nippur1 or ,sippar1 or ,babylon who act thus shall be cast into prison407#cih7 ,the dissociation of ethics and religion in ,babylonia was due to a considerable extent to the practical character of ,babylonian theology and the limitation of the doctrine of rewards and punishments to this life4 ,in contrast to the ,egyptian1 who may be said to have lived for the next world1 the ,babylonian lived for this4 ,it was here that he was rewarded for his piety or punished for his sins4 ,the world beyond the grave was a place of unspeakable dreariness4 ,i have already described it in a previous lecture4 ,it was a prison-house of darkness and unsubstantiality2 a land where all things were forgotten1 and those who inhabited it were themselves forgotten of men4 ,it resembled the ,hebrew ,sheol2 indeed1 it is probable that the name of ,sheol is borrowed from ,babylonia17#cii7 and borrowed names are apt to indicate that the ideas connected with them were borrowed too4 ,in the gloom of that underworld1 where the ghosts of the dead fed on dust and refuse1 the hideous monsters of chaos still moved and dimly showed themselves1 while 8the kings of the nations0 sat on their shadowy thrones1 welcoming the slaughtered king of ,babylon with the words3 8,art thou also become weak as we8 ,art thou become like unto us80 ,the dead man never again saw the light of the sun4 ,there was no ,osirian paradise to receive him1 with its sunshine and happy meadows2 even the brief period of light which the solar creed of ,egypt allowed the bark of the sun-god to bring to the denizens of the other world1 was denied to the dead ,babylonian4 ,over the gates of the world beyond the grave the words were written3 8,abandon hope1 all ye that enter here40 ,there was no return2 none1 even with the help of ,merodach1 could come back to the home he had left on earth2 the sevenfold gates of ,hades opened only to admit those that entered it4 ,death meant the extinction of light and hope1 even of the capacity for feeling either pleasure or pain4 ,it was on this life1 therefore1 that the religious thoughts of the ,babylonian were centred4 ,and his view of his relation to the gods was a curious mixture of spirituality and the commercial instinct4 ,on the one hand1 it was a question of barter2 if the man was generous in his gifts to the gods1 if he did what they approved and abstained from what they condemned1 above all1 if the rites and ceremonies of religion were correctly fulfilled1 the gods were bound to grant him all that his heart desired4 ,on the other hand1 if misfortune fell upon him1 it was a proof that he had sinned against them4 ,and as the centuries passed the consciousness of sin sank more and more deeply into the heart of the ,babylonian4 ,at first1 indeed1 the sins were offences against the ritual rather than against the moral and spiritual code4 ,the ghosts and spirits of the old ,sumerian faith were non-moral2 if some of them inflicted pain and disease upon man1 it was because it was their nature to do so1 and the only defence against them was in the charms of the sorcerer4 ,but with the arrival of the ,semite1 and the consequent transformation of the goblin into a god and of the sorcerer into a priest1 a new conception was introduced of the divine nature4 ,the gods became human1 and the humanity they put on was that of civilised man4 ,they became moral agents1 hating iniquity and loving righteousness1 ready to help the creatures they had made1 but chastising them for their offences as the father would his son4 8,father10 in fact1 is one of the commonest titles given to the god in the new age of ,babylonian religion4 ,it was only in the conception of ,hades that the old ideas still maintained their influence1 that the powers who ruled there still continued to be the malignant or non-moral monsters of an earlier belief1 and that a common lot was believed to await in it all mankind1 whatever might have been their conduct on this side of the grave4 ,in this world1 on the contrary1 the conviction that sin brought punishment with it became more and more pronounced4 ,and with the conviction came an increasing belief in the efficacy of prayer and repentance1 and the necessity for purity of heart4 ,the words supposed to have been put into the mouth of ,merodach after his creation of man1 late in date though they may be1 testify clearly to the fact4 ,i give them in ,mr4 ,king's translation7#djj7-- 8,towards thy god shalt thou be pure of heart1 for that is the glory of the godhead2 ,prayer and supplication and bowing low to the earth1 early in the morning shalt thou offer unto him4444 ,the fear of god begets mercy1 offerings increase life1 and prayer absolves from sin4 ,he that fears the gods shall not cry aloud in grief1 he that fears the spirits of earth shall have a long life4 ,against friend and neighbour thou shalt not speak evil4 ,speak not of things that are hidden1 practise mercy1 ,when thou makest a promise 7to give71 give and hold not back40 ,already1 in the age of ,khammurabi1 the author of the story of the ,deluge makes it the punishment inflicted on mankind for their misdeeds1 and the ,chaldan ,noah is rescued from it by ,ea on account of his piety4 ,the penitential psalms and ritual texts are full of illustrations of the same fact4 ,it is true that the misdeeds are often merely involuntary violations of the ceremonial law or offences against the ritual1 but the sense of guilt attaching to them is already profound4 ,it required centuries before the ,babylonian was able to distinguish between moral and ceremonial sin1--if1 indeed1 he ever succeeded in doing so1--but at an early period a consciousness of the heinousness of sin already lay heavily upon him1 as well as of the need of repentance4 ,a profound sense of his transgressions1 and of the punishment they deserved1 had grown up within him long before he had learnt to confine it to moral guilt4 ,in this respect1 again1 he differed from the ,egyptian3 penitence and the consciousness of sin belonged to ,babylonia2 we look in vain for them in the valley of the ,nile4 ,the light-hearted ,egyptian was too contented to feel them2 the gods he worshipped were1 like himself1 kindly and easy-going1 and the pantheism of the upper classes offered no place to a reproachful conscience4 ,but the gods of ,babylonia1 in the days when the ,sumerian and the ,semite had become one people1 were stern judges4 ,the theology of ,eridu was coloured and darkened by that of ,nippur2 ,ea might save ,xisuthros from the waters of the ,flood1 but ,en-lil had doomed all men to destruction4 ,and whether it was the sun-god who was worshipped1 or the moon-god of ,ur1 it was still a judge who beheld and visited all the deeds of living men4 ,in the sun-god the judge predominated1 in the moon-god the father1 but that was all4 ,the father was also a judge1 the judge was also a father1 and the same word might be used to denote both4 ,but it must be remembered that the judgeship of the son-god and the fatherhood of the moon-god were confined to the present world4 ,they were not dead gods like ,osiris1 whose tribunal was in another world4 ,there was no postponing the evil day1 therefore2 a man's sins were visited upon him in this life1 just as it was also in this life that his righteousness was rewarded4 ,a death-bed repentance was useless2 penitence1 to be effective1 must be manifested on this side of the grave4 ,hence came the penitential ritual which forms so striking a feature in the service-books of ,babylonia4 ,it was reduced to a system1 like the confessional in later days4 ,the penitent was instructed by the priest what to say1 and the priest pronounced his absolution4 ,for the exercise of priestly absolution was another essential feature of ,babylonian religion4 ,besides the consciousness of sin and the conception of repentance1 the idea of mediation must also be traced to ,babylonia4 ,on the earliest seals the priest is represented as acting as a mediator between the worshipper and his god4 ,it is only through the priest that the layman can approach the deity and be led into the presence of the god4 ,this idea of mediation has a twofold origin4 ,on the one side1 it goes back to the beliefs which saw in the magician--the predecessor of the priest--the possessor of knowledge and powers that were hidden from the rest of mankind2 on the other side1 it has grown out of the doctrine that the priest was the vicegerent of the god4 ,it was thus the result of the union of two conceptions which ,i believe to have been respectively ,sumerian and ,semitic4 ,the deified king or pontiff necessarily took the place of the god on earth2 ,gudea1 for instance1 at ,lagas was the representative of the god ,inguria1 and therefore himself divine4 ,the fact that the gods were represented in human forms facilitated this conversion of the minister of the deity into his adopted son and representative2 the powers and functions of the god were transferred to him1 and1 like the vassal-prince in the absence of the supreme king1 he acted in the god's place4 ,the ,semitic ,baal was a lord or king of human shape and passions4 ,he thus stood in marked contrast to the ,sumerian ghost or spirit2 and1 as we have seen1 the gulf between them is too deep and broad to be spanned by the doctrine of evolution4 ,for the ,sumerian the world outside man was peopled with spirits and demons2 for the ,semite it was a human world1 since man was made in the image of the gods4 ,the triumph of the gods of light and order over the monsters of chaos symbolised not only the birth of the present creation1 but also the theological victory of the ,semite over the ,sumerian4 ,and with the victory came a conception of the divine which was modelled on that of the organised ,state4 ,as the human head of the ,state was himself a god1 delegating his authority from time to time to his human ministers1 so too in the world of gods there was a supreme ,baal or lord who was surrounded by his court and ministers4 ,foremost among these were the sukkalli or 8angels10 the messengers who conveyed the will of their lord to the dwellers upon earth4 ,some of them were more than messengers2 they were the interpreters and vicegerents of the supreme deity1 like ,nebo 8the prophet0 of ,borsippa4 ,and as vicegerents they naturally became the sons by adoption of ,bel2 ,asari of ,eridu first takes the place of ,ea1 whose double he originally was1 and then in the person of ,merodach becomes his son2 ,nin-ip of ,nippur1 the messenger of ,en-lil1 is finally transformed into his son1 and addressed1 like ,horus in ,egypt1 as 8the avenger of his father407#dja7 ,the hierarchy of the gods is modelled upon that of ,babylonia1 and the ideas of mediation and vicegerency are transferred to heaven4 ,repentance1 the consciousness of sin1 and mediation are thus conceptions all of which may be traced back to ,babylonia4 ,and each of them leads naturally1 if not inevitably1 to other and cognate conceptions4 ,mediation1 as ,i have pointed out1 is partly dependent on a belief in a doctrine of vicegerency1 which1 in combination with a profound sense of sin1 leads in turn to the doctrine of absolution4 ,and mediation itself is given a wide meaning4 ,the priest mediates between the layman and his deity2 the lesser gods between mankind and the supreme ,baalim4 ,m4 ,martin aptly compares the intercession of ,abraham for the doomed cities of the plain1 and the doctrine of the intercession of the ,saints in the ,christian ,church47#djb7 ,the consciousness of sin1 again1 is similarly far-reaching4 ,it extends to sins of ignorance and omission as well as to sins of commission4 ,time after time the penitential psalms ask forgiveness for sins the very nature of which was unknown to the penitent4 8,the sin that ,i have done ,i know not10 he is made to say1 8,the transgression that ,i have committed ,i know not40 8,an offence ,i have committed unwillingly against my god4 ,a sin against my goddess unwillingly have ,i wrought3 ,o lord1 my transgressions are many1 manifold are my sins60 ,the disease or misfortune that had overtaken him was a proof of the sin1 even though it had been committed involuntarily or in ignorance that it was wrong4 8,when ,i was little ,i sinned10 says another psalm1 8yea1 ,i transgressed the commandments of my god407#djc7 ,repentance has its corollary confession1 whether public or private4 ,and the ritual texts show that both public and private confession was practised in ,babylonia4 ,indeed1 private confession seems to have been the older and more usual method4 ,the penitential psalms are in the first person singular1 like the ,hebrew psalms2 in public confession the ,babylonian probably believed that a man was more likely to think about the sins of others than about his own4 ,penitence implies a need of absolution4 ,it also implies a belief in the sinfulness of human nature and the purity of the divine4 ,the purity1 it is true1 may be ceremonial rather than moral1 and in the early days of ,babylonian religion the ceremonial element almost obscured the moral4 ,but as time went on the moral element grew ever stronger1 and the ritual texts began to be superseded by prayers of a more spiritual character4 ,the prayers addressed by ,nebuchadrezzar to ,merodach rise almost to the height of a passionate faith in the absolute goodness and mercy of the god4 ,speaking generally1 then1 we may say that the religion of ,babylonia was essentially anthropomorphic1 with all the faults and virtues of an anthropomorphic conception of the divine4 ,but it was grafted on a primeval stock of ,sumerian shamanism from the influences of which it never wholly shook itself free4 ,it thus differed from ,hebrew anthropomorphism1 with which in other respects it had so much in common4 ,behind the lineaments of ,hebrew anthropomorphism ghost or goblin are not to be found4 ,and yet between the religion of ,babylonia and that of ,israel there was much that was alike4 ,it was natural1 indeed1 that it should be so4 ,the ,babylonians of history were ,semitic1 and ,abraham the ,hebrew had sprung from a ,babylonian city4 ,in the last lecture ,i drew attention to the similarity that existed between the temples of ,babylonia and that of ,jerusalem1 a similarity that extended even to details4 ,there was the same similarity between the ,babylonian rituals and the ,mosaic ,law2 the priesthood1 moreover1 was established on the same lines1 and the prophets and seers of ,israel have their analogues in those of ,chalda4 ,the religious law and ritual of the ,hebrews looks back like their calendar to the banks of the ,euphrates4 ,the same lesson is taught by the literary traditions of the ,hebrew people4 ,the cosmology of ,genesis has its roots in the cosmology of ,eridu1 and the first home of mankind is placed by the ,old ,testament in ,eden1 8the plain0 of ,babylonia1 which was watered by the ,tigris and ,euphrates4 ,the ,babylonian story of the ,deluge is the parent of that which is recounted in the ,hebrew ,scriptures1 while it was at ,babylon that the dispersal of mankind took place4 ,the background of ,hebrew history is as purely ,babylonian as the background of ,hebrew ritual4 ,and1 as ,gunkel has shown17#djd7 the old ,babylonian traditions embodied in the ,book of ,genesis must have made their way to the ,west at the very beginning of ,hebrew history4 ,they enter into the web of the earliest ,hebrew thought1 and are presupposed by ,hebrew literature4 ,the cosmology which saw the primordial element in the watery deep1 and told of the victory that had been won over ,tiamt1 the dragon of chaos1 must have been already known in ,canaan when the language and script of ,babylonia were taught in its schools1 and ,babylonian literature studied in its libraries4 ,long before the ,mosaic age1 the literary culture of ,babylonia had profoundly affected the peoples of ,syria1 and had penetrated even to the banks of the ,nile4 ,need we be surprised1 then1 if we find a 8sea0 in the temple of ,solomon1 the symbol of beliefs which had their origin on the shores of the ,persian ,gulf1 or priestly ordinances which recall those of ancient ,chalda8 ,the ordinances and temples were but the outward symbols of the ideas that had created them4 ,the anthropomorphism of ,semitic ,babylonia is reflected in the anthropomorphism of the ,israelites4 ,the sense of sin and of the overwhelming power of the deity1 the efficacy of penitence and the necessity of a mediator1 are common to both ,babylonia and ,israel4 ,hence it is that the penitential psalms of the ,babylonian ritual bear so striking a resemblance to the psalms of the ,old ,testament2 hence1 too1 the individual element and deep spirituality that characterise them4 ,israel was indebted to ,babylonia for something more than the seeds of a merely material civilisation4 ,it is true that there is a gulf1 wide and impassable1 between the ,babylonian religion as we decipher it in the cuneiform tablets1 and the religion of ,israel as it is presented to us in the ,old ,testament4 ,on the one side1 we have a gross and grotesque polytheism2 on the other1 an uncompromising monotheism4 ,babylonian religion made terms with magic and sorcery1 and admitted them in a certain degree to its privileges2 they were not incompatible with polytheism2 but between them and the worship of the one ,god there could be no reconciliation4 ,it was the same with the sensualities that masqueraded at ,erech in the garb of a religious cult2 they belonged to a system in which the sun-god was ,baal1 and a goddess claimed the divided adoration of man4 ,to ,israel they were forbidden1 like the necromancy and witchcraft with which they were allied4 ,but deep and impassable as may be the gulf which separated the ,mosaic ,law from the official religion of ,babylonia1 different as may have been the development of prophecy in ,babylonia and ,israel1 the primordial ideas from which they started were strangely alike4 ,the same relation that is borne by the religion of ancient ,egypt to ,christianity is borne by the religion of ,babylonia to ,judaism4 ,the ,babylonian conception of the divine1 imperfect though it was1 underlay the faith of the ,hebrew1 and tinctured it up to the end4 ,the ,jew never wholly freed himself from the dominion of beliefs which had their first starting-point in the 8plain0 of ,babylonia2 his religious horizon remained bounded by death1 and the ,god of ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob continued to be the ,god of the living and not of the dead4 ,it was in this world that the righteous were rewarded and the wicked punished2 the world to come was the dreary shadow-land of ,babylonian teaching1 a land of darkness where all things are forgotten1 but also a land where 8the wicked cease from troubling1 and the weary are at rest40 ,,index4 1 #cah1 #cch1 #dhb4 ,abraham1 #dig1 #dih4 absolution1 ,babylonian doctrine of1 #dig4 ,abusir4 ,see ,busiris4 ,abydos1 #ajd1 #aai1 #aei1 #aff4 ,adam1 #chd1 #dag4 ,adapa the first man1 #chc1 #dbc1 #dbd1 #dci1 #dde4 ,adonis1 #ddg4 ons1 ,gnostic1 #cig4 ,akhem1 #afa4 ,see ,horus of ,nekhen4 ,akkad1 #bfd1 #bgj4 ,alexander1 #de1 #ddg4 ,allat1 #bhh4 ,alu1 fields of1 #cg1 #aef1 #afa1 #afh1 #ahd1 #aia1 #bjj4 ,am ,duat4 ,see ,book of4 ,amherst1 ,lord1 of ,hackney1 #bee4 ',ammi1 #dhd4 ,amon1 #hi1 #ij1 #id1 #adh sq41 #bdi4 ,amon-hotep ,,iii41 born of a virgin1 #de1 #bdi4 ,amon-hotep ,,iv4 7,khu-n-,aten71 #aa1 #ce1 #ib1 #aie4 ,amon-t1 #bca4 ,amorites1 #bfe1 #bga1 #cbj4 ,amraphel4 ,see ,khammurabi4 amulets1 #bbf1 #bbg4 ,anak1 #acf4 ,anat1 #caj4 ancestor-worship1 #abb4 angel1 #cae1 #cfa1 #def1 #dif4 ,anhur1 #dd1 #hg1 #hi1 #afj1 #afc4 animal gods of ,babylonia1 #djf4 animal worship1 #ajj sq41 #bdb4 ,ansar1 #cfg1 #cij1 #djd4 anthropomorphism1 #ajg1 #cdi1 #dih4 ,anu1 #cjh sq41 #cdb1 #chd1 #dce1 #def4 identified with other gods1 #ccf4 ,anubis1 #ij1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aeh4 ,anunit1 #cdd4 ,anunna1 #cdd1 #cef4 ,anunna-ki1 #cji1 #cce1 #cgf4 ,anuqet1 #ace4 nz1 #aef4 apes of ,thoth1 #acb4 ,apis1 #aaj1 #aae1 #bjf4 ,apophis1 #afb1 #ahg1 #aii1 #bab1 #bbe4 ,arabia1 #bfa1 #cae1 #cag1 #cba1 #dha1 #dhc1 #dhe4 ,arad-,ea1 #dcg4 ,arallu1 #dea1 #deb1 #dhf4 ,ararat1 #dda4 ark1 #cfi1 #dfj4 ,arum1 #cje1 #chc1 #dcb1 #dcc1 #ddj4 ,aari1 #aca1 #adg1 #afd sq41 #bgb1 #bhh1 #cjj1 #cac1 #cbe1 #dja1 #djf1 #deg1 #dif4 ,ashel1 #add4 ,asherah1 #cba1 #cch1 #cfg4 ,ashtoreth1 #cch1 #cci1 #cdb1 #dhc4 ,assur1 #he1 #cdf1 #cff sq41 #dhf4 ,assur-bani-pal1 #bhi1 #bib1 #daf1 #dfd1 #dgj4 ,assurit1 #cga4 astronomy1 ,babylonian1 #bcf1 #daa1 #dhj4 astro-theology1 #bcd1 #dch4 ,atarpi1 #dch1 #ddf4 ,aten-,ra1 #id4 hymn to1 #if4 universal father1 #ih4 ,athtar 7,istar71 #adg1 #cba1 #dhb4 ,atmu4 ,see ,tum4 ,at-,nebes1 #bbe4 axe1 double-headed1 #abh4 ,azaga-suga1 #cec4 ba4 ,see ,soul4 ,baal1 #ih1 #bhg1 #caj1 #cad1 #cae1 #cag1 #cbh1 #ccj1 #cdi1 #cfd1 #cgj1 #cie1 #dfg1 #dhb4 ,babylon1 colony of ,eridu1 #bfa1 #cbg1 #cce1 #cfg1 #cid4 ,babylonia and ,egypt1 #bcd4 divided into ,states1 #bfd4 ,babylonian theology artificial1 #bgc4 ,babylonians1 mixed race1 #bgj4 ,bkhu1 #adf4 ,bakis1 #aaa4 ,balawt1 #dfa4 ,ball1 ,mr41 #afd4 8banner-name10 #ec4 ,bast1 #add1 #bca4 ,bau1 #cjd sq41 #djg1 #dfj1 #dgc4 beast-worship1 #cg4 ,bel1 #aah1 #bfg1 #cja1 #cab1 #cdh4 ,bel-,merodach1 #bef4 ,see ,merodach4 ,belshazzar1 #dfi4 ,beltis 7,bilat71 #caj4 bennu4 ,see phnix4 ,berenik1 city of1 #bbc4 ,berossos1 #bfd1 #bfi1 #bii1 #cjg1 #cgg1 #daa1 #dcf1 #dec1 #dge4 ,bes1 #aci1 #dhe4 ,bilu4 ,see ,bel4 ,book ,am ,duat1 #aie sq4 ,book of ,respirations1 #aid4 ,book of the ,dead1 #agc1 #ahb sq4 ,borsippa1 #bee1 #dec4 ,brahmanism1 #ajc4 ,breasted1 ,professor1 #if4 ,bubastis1 #aab1 #add1 #ade4 bulls1 winged1 #aah1 #bbd1 #ced4 ,busiris1 #aef1 #afj4 ,buto1 #aed1 #afb4 ,cain1 #cjg1 #cjh4 calendar1 ,babylonian and ,hebrew1 #dgb4 ,canaan1 #bei1 #bfa1 #bhg1 #caj1 #dhc4 cannibalism1 #af1 #bcd4 cats1 #add1 #bjh4 ,chabas1 #bcb4 ,champollion1 #ahg1 #bdi4 chaos1 #cge1 #cgf1 #chh1 #chi4 ,chemosh1 #he1 #cde1 #cdf4 cherubim1 #aah1 #ced1 #dga4 ,christian theology1 #bcj4 ,christianity and ,osirian creed1 #bdh4 ,clement1 ,st41 #ajj1 #abj1 #aha4 confession in ,babylonia1 #dah1 #dhh sq41 #dig4 confession1 the negative1 #agd1 #dhi4 cow of ,istar1 #adh4 creation1 epic of1 #bch1 #chg sq4 of heavenly bodies1 #cic4 of man1 #cjd4 ,sumerian story of1 #chj4 creator-potter1 #cge4 dad1 #bbg4 ,daddu1 #aef1 #aeg4 ,damascius1 #cfg1 #chg4 ,dam-kina1 #cjj sq4 dances1 sacred1 #acd4 ,danga dwarf1 #acc1 #aci1 #dhe4 death1 origin of1 #chd1 #dbe4 decans1 #bcg4 deep1 the1 #bci1 #cge1 #chi4 deification of ,babylonian kings1 #bij1 #cea4 deluge1 ,babylonian story of1 #dcg sq41 #ddc sq41 #dic4 deluge in ,genesis1 #ddc1 #ddd4 de ,morgan1 ,m41 #ei1 #aje4 ,dendera1 #hg1 #ade4 ,dep4 ,see ,buto4 de ,sarzec1 ,m41 #bed4 ,deukalion1 #dde4 development1 #bdh4 dimmer1 #dje4 ,diodorus1 #bcg4 disc1 solar1 #gf1 #hi1 #id sq41 #bbd1 #cfi4 legend of1 #bbf4 dismemberment of corpse1 #be4 double4 ,see ,ka and ,zi4 ,du-azagga1 #cbg1 #cgd1 #def4 ,dungi1 #da4 ,ea1 #hf1 #aca1 #acg1 #afd1 #bci1 #bfb1 #bfi1 #bgi1 #bhg1 #bii1 #cjd1 #cjg1 #cbf1 #cec1 #ced1 #cgd1 #chf1 #dja1 #dci4 ,ea1 code of1 #dhi4 ,ea-bani1 #bhc1 #dcc sq4 ,eden or ,edin1 #bfj1 #bfc1 #bha1 #che4 ,edfu1 #bba4 ,egypt1 earliest races of1 #bc4 early kingdoms of1 #cg sq41 #dc4 origin of name1 #ee1 #eh4 ,pharaonic conquest of1 #bbd4 ,egyptian conception of ,god1 #cd4 ,egyptians1 conservative1 #cj1 #cf4 disinclined for the abstract1 #cj1 #cf4 ,egyptians1 origin of1 #bb4 ekimmu1 #bhd1 #bhe1 #bhg4 ,e-kur7a71 #cjf1 #cef1 #cgd1 #cgf1 #ddi1 #dea1 #deg4 ,elamites1 #bff1 #bgj1 #dcd4 ,el-,kab 7,nekheb71 #ci1 #ace1 #afh4 ,el-lil4 ,see ,en-lil4 ,elohim1 #bhf4 emanation1 doctrine of1 #ia1 #bej4 embalming1 #bc1 #fh4 n1 #dac4 ,endor1 witch of1 #bhf4 ,en-lil1 #bfa1 #bfb1 #bfi1 #bhb1 #bhe1 #big1 #cji1 #cae1 #cdh1 #ceb1 #cec1 #cgf1 #cgi1 #dje1 #djf1 #dci1 #deb4 ,en-me-sarra1 #djh1 #dhf4 ,ennead1 the1 #cc1 #hb1 #cad4 ,enos1 #cjh4 nu1 #djd1 #daj1 #dae4 ,erech1 #cjh1 #caa1 #cab1 #cdj1 #cda1 #dcb1 #dcc1 #dec1 #dfa4 ,ereskigal1 #dbh4 ,eridu1 #ach1 #afd1 #bfj1 #bfb1 #bfh1 #cja1 #cjd1 #cbg1 #cfg1 #cgc1 #cha1 #chf1 #djg4 ,erman1 ,professor1 #abe4 ,erment1 #hf1 #aaa4 -,saggil1 #cbd1 #cbh1 #cgd1 #chb1 #dac1 #ded4 -,sarra1 #cef4 ,esau1 #bgb4 ,etana1 story of1 #dbe4 euhemerism1 #abc4 ,evans1 ,dr4 ,a4 ,j41 #abh4 fasting1 #dah1 #dgg4 ,feast of ,weeks1 #dgd4 feather cap1 #acf4 festivals1 #dgb sq4 fetishism in primitive ,egypt1 #ajc1 #bje1 #bbg4 folk-lore1 limitations of1 #ah4 frog1 the1 #acf4 ,genesis1 ,book of1 #cdj4 cosmology of1 #chh1 #cie4 deluge in1 #ddc1 #ddd4 genii of the dead1 #fe4 ghost of unburied dead1 #bhd4 ,gilgames1 #gi1 #aia1 #bhc1 #bhd1 #chc1 #dbc1 #dbf1 #dcj sq4 ,gnostics1 #ia1 #bjb1 #bej1 #cig4 ,god1 ,egyptian conception of1 #cd1 #bdd sq41 #cif4 ,god1 ,sumerian conception of1 #dje4 goddess1 ,babylonian1 #ccb4 gods1 ,babylonian1 identified with each other1 #ccj4 gods1 ,babylonian1 human1 #cdi4 ,goshen1 #bbe1 #bcf4 ,great ,bear1 the1 #bcf4 ,grbaut1 ,m41 #afd4 green paint1 #aee4 ,gudea1 #da1 #dc1 #abd1 #bed1 #bgd1 #bij1 #ceb1 #dgc1 #dge4 ,gunkel1 #dde1 #dii4 ,hadad1 #cai sq41 #cbi1 #ddj4 ,hades1 ,babylonian1 #bhf1 #bhh1 #bid1 #cdi1 #dbf1 #dbg1 #ddc1 #dia4 ,hpi4 ,see ,nile4 ,harmakhis1 #gf1 #gh1 #hi1 #bbj4 ,harper1 song of the1 #ac1 #abe4 ,harran1 #cad1 #cae1 #cce1 #dhb4 ,hathor1 #cf1 #adc1 #ade sq41 #bbh4 ,hathor-headed column1 #aai4 ,haupt1 ,prof41 #dcc1 #dee1 #dfd1 #dfe1 #dga4 hawk of ,horus1 #ga1 #ajc1 #ajd4 heart1 #ff4 ,heliopolis4 ,see ,on4 school of1 #cc1 #aca4 hell1 ,egyptian1 #agi1 #aig4 ,hrakls1 #dcb1 #dcf1 #ddc1 #ddf4 ,herkhuf1 #acc4 ,hermetic books1 #fh1 #aja1 #aha4 ,hermopolis1 school of1 #cc1 #aad1 #acj1 #acb4 ,herodotos1 #aaj1 #aab1 #aci1 #add1 #ded1 #deg4 ,hesperides1 #ddf4 ,heuzey1 ,m41 #aai4 ,hezekiah1 #ccd1 #dga4 ,hierakonpolis4 ,see ,nekhen4 hieroglyphics1 #cb4 high priest1 #bfg1 #cfg1 #dfa1 #dfb4 ,see patesi4 ,holy of ,holies1 #def1 #deg1 #dei1 #dfd4 ,hommel1 ,professor1 #ei1 #acj1 #bch1 #bef1 #bfg1 #bhg1 #cae1 #cag1 #cba1 #dcg1 #dhb1 #dhd1 #dia4 ,hor-,behudet1 #bbj4 ,hor-pes1 #bjg4 ,horus1 the elder1 #ga4 ,horus1 the younger1 son of ,isis1 #hi1 #aed1 #afa1 #afc1 #bcb1 #dif4 ,horus1 #ci1 #db1 #ed1 #fa1 #afb1 #afe1 #bch4 followers of1 #bc1 #dc1 #gc1 #ha1 #abh4 ,horus1 the golden1 #gd4 the mummified1 of ,nekhen 7see ,akhem71 #fh1 #ge1 #gh1 #afc1 #bcf4 ,horus1 two eyes of1 #gh4 hosts1 divine1 #cee4 lord of1 #dhg4 hymns1 ,babylonian1 #daa sq4 ,igigi 7angels71 #cji1 #cee4 ,imhotep1 #adj1 #bca4 ,incantations1 book of1 #djb4 incarnation1 doctrine of1 #bdb4 inspiration1 verbal1 #dad4 ,isaiah1 #deb1 #deg1 #dgg1 #dha4 ,isis1 #hd1 #ace1 #adf4 as witch1 #bai4 ,iskhara1 #cgd4 ,israelitish religion1 #dih4 ,istar1 #add1 #adf1 #bib1 #caa1 #ccb1 #ccg sq41 #cdi1 #dca1 #dcd1 #ddj1 #dfd4 ,istar1 descent of1 to ,hades1 #dbf sq4 ,isum1 #dbi4 ,jachin 7,yakin71 #cej1 #dei4 ,jacob's ladder1 #cic4 ,jastrow1 ,professor1 #ddj1 #dfd1 #dfi4 ,jensen1 ,professor1 #deg1 #dgg4 ,jokha1 #bed4 ,jubilee1 year of1 #dgf4 judgment1 future1 #agc sq41 #aia1 #bie4 ,juvenal1 #aja4 ,ka1 #dh sq41 #ahe1 #aib1 #aih1 #bbg1 #bbh1 #bgf1 #bhj1 #bhf1 #bic4 ,ka-name4 ,see banner-name4 ,khammurabi 7,amraphel71 #gi1 #bef1 #bff1 #ceb1 #cfb1 #cfe1 #daj1 #dbc1 #dch1 #dgc4 ,khar1 #gi4 ,khent-,amentit1 #afa4 ,khepera1 #bah1 #bca4 kher-heb1 #adj1 #dje4 ,khonsu1 #acj1 #aea4 khu1 #ei1 #fj sq41 #abj1 #aii4 ,khumbaba1 #dcc4 ,khu-n-,aten4 ,see ,amon-hotep ,,iv4 kigal1 #ddi1 #dee4 ,kingu1 #bhb1 #dbh4 ,kisar1 #cij4 ,kutha 7,cuthah71 #cgh4 ,lagas4 ,see ,tello4 ,larsa1 #bff1 #cah4 law1 ,egyptian conception of1 #bdg4 ,law1 ,mosaic1 #eb1 #eg1 #ii1 #dga1 #dgd1 #dih4 ,lehmann1 ,dr41 #deg4 ,lenormant1 ,fr41 #cjj1 #cii1 #djj4 lil1 #bfa1 #bgh1 #bhj sq41 #bhe1 #bhg1 #cja1 #cjf1 #cgi1 #dha4 ,lilith1 #bfa1 #bha1 #cjf4 ,lindl1 ,dr41 #bef4 ,logos1 #acb4 ,lucas1 ,paul1 #bac4 ,lugal-zaggisi1 #cjh1 #caa4 ,magan 7,sinaitic ,peninsula71 #bfe4 magic in ,israel1 #bib1 #dja4 in ,babylonia1 #dff1 #ejj4 magical texts1 #bia4 ,babylonian1 #cii sq4 ,malik1 #cba4 ,mami1 #ddf4 man1 deification of1 in ,egypt1 #cg1 #da1 #db4 man1 deification of1 in ,babylonia1 #da4 ,manes1 #fa4 ,manetho1 #fa4 maql1 collection1 #daj4 ,mas1 #gi1 #dcf4 ,maspero1 ,professor1 #cc1 #ea1 #ei1 #fj1 #fc1 #gb1 #gg1 #hc1 #hg1 #ajg1 #acb1 #aef1 #afa1 #agi1 #ahc1 #ahf1 #ahi1 #aih1 #bjg1 #baj1 #bdd4 ,mt1 #agd1 #bdg4 materialism1 #bdb4 mediation1 ,babylonian idea of1 #die sq4 ,memphis1 #ea1 #ee1 #eh1 #ij1 #aci4 origin of name of1 #ach4 ,mnant1 ,m41 #dfh4 ,mendes1 #aac1 #aae1 #aeg1 #bjf4 ,meneptah1 #ada4 ,menes1 #dd1 #fj1 #ajc1 #aba1 #afj1 #afb4 ,mentiu1 the1 #adi4 ,mentu1 #hi1 #aaa1 #adi1 #aea4 mercy-seat1 #def4 ,mermer1 #cba4 ,merodach 7,asari71 #bef1 #bfg1 #bfi1 #bhh1 #cjb1 #cjg1 #cbc sq41 #cea1 #cec1 #ced1 #cfe1 #chb1 #cia1 #dbh1 #dhc4 ,merodach identified with other gods1 #ccf4 ,merodach1 etymology of name of1 #bgb1 #bgc4 ,mert-seger1 #baj4 mesen1 #bbb4 ,messiah1 the ,egyptian1 #bdh4 metaphors1 #ae4 metempsychosis1 #ajb1 #ajh4 ,min1 #ajd4 mitra1 #ceg4 ,mnevis1 #aaa1 #aae1 #bjf4 monotheism in ,babylonia1 #ccf1 #dhd4 moon1 #acj4 eclipse of1 #dcj4 ,moon-god1 #bfa4 ,babylonian1 #cad1 #cbb1 #cdj1 #cec1 #dhb1 #dhd4 moral test of righteousness1 #agc1 #agh1 #bdg4 morality not religion1 #f4 mountain of the world1 #cgf1 #deb4 ,mummu 7chaos71 #he1 #acj4 mummy1 #bf1 #fc1 #fg1 #aed1 #aih4 ,mut1 #hj1 #ha1 #hi1 #ace1 #add1 #aea4 ,nabonidos1 #ccd1 #cfe1 #daa1 #ddh4 name1 identical with thing1 #cca4 virtue of1 #bai4 ,namtar1 #bhb4 ,nannar4 ,see ,moon-god4 ,naram-,sin1 #da1 #de1 #abe1 #bfe1 #cah1 #cea4 ,naville1 ,dr41 #gb1 #ade1 #aib1 #bej4 ,nebht1 #hd1 #ij1 #aeg1 #afb4 ,nebo1 #aff1 #bee1 #cbb1 #cee1 #cfb sq41 #cgd1 #cij1 #def1 #dhb1 #dhe1 #dif4 ,nebuchadrezzar1 #cbc1 #deg1 #dhe1 #dih4 palace of1 #bef4 ,nefer-,tum1 #ij1 #adj4 ,nekheb4 ,see ,el-,kab4 goddess1 #ci1 #dj1 #db1 #fh1 #hj1 #ace4 ,nekhen 7,hierakonpolis71 #ci1 #gb1 #ge1 #aai1 #ace1 #aff1 #afh4 ,nergal1 #bhh1 #cgh1 #dbh1 #dgj4 neter1 #abg4 ,new year1 #dgc4 ,nile1 #adj sq4 sources of1 #acg4 ,nimrod1 #ddf4 ,nin1 #cff4 ,nin-gis-zida1 #cej1 #chd1 #dfj4 ,nin-ip1 #hj1 #cef sq41 #dci1 #dgd1 #dif4 ,nin-lil1 #dje4 ,nippur1 #bed1 #bfj1 #bfh1 #bfi1 #big1 #cbh1 #cef1 #cgc1 #djg4 ,nit1 #hi1 #adc1 #cba4 ,nizir1 #dda1 #dea4 nomes1 origin of1 #ch4 standards of1 #aje4 ,norden1 #bad4 ,nu1 #hc1 #abi4 ,nu-gidda1 #aci1 #cec1 #dhe4 ,nusku1 #cfc1 #dci1 #def4 ,nut1 #hc1 #hd1 #abi4 ,nu-,urru1 #aia4 ,oannes1 #bfd1 #bii4 offerings1 ,babylonian1 #dff1 #dgj4 ,on 7,heliopolis71 #dj1 #ea1 #fa1 #hb1 #hf1 #ia1 #aad1 #abj1 #afa1 #aij1 #bca4 ,opis1 #cff4 ,oppert1 ,professor1 #dfd4 ,orion1 #bcd1 #bch4 ,osiris1 #hd1 #hg1 #ij1 #abc1 #aca1 #aci1 #adg1 #aec sq41 #aii1 #bjj1 #bcb1 #bdg1 #cbe1 #cec1 #did4 ,osiris1 judgment-hall of1 #ff4 the1 #afi4 ,palestine1 #db4 paradise1 etymology of1 #bgb4 ,patki1 #aci4 patesi4 ,see high priest4 ,pe1 #afb4 penitence1 ,babylonian idea of1 #dic sq4 ,pepi1 #gc1 #ade1 #adf1 #bch4 ,pestilence-god1 #dbi4 ,peters1 ,dr41 #bfa4 ,petrie1 ,professor1 #ec1 #fd1 #add1 #ahd4 ,pharaoh as god1 #db1 #dd1 #ajg4 son of the ,sun1 #hh4 ,pharaonic ,egyptians1 #bb1 #dj1 #dc1 #gc1 #gd1 #gf4 ,phil1 #ace4 ,philo1 #bcj4 phnix1 #aag1 #aba1 #bjg1 #bch4 ,phrygia1 #aaa4 ,piehl1 ,professor1 #ahd4 ,pierret1 ,m41 #aic4 ,pinches1 ,dr41 #bfc1 #ccf1 #cfe1 #che4 planets1 #bce4 ,plato1 #bcc4 ,platonic ideas1 #di1 #bdb4 ,plutarch1 #aja4 polytheism1 #bhi4 ,porphyry1 #fd1 #ga1 #ajb4 postal service in ,babylonia1 #bff4 priestly colleges1 #cb4 priests1 #dfa sq4 prophetess1 #dee1 #dff4 prophets1 ,babylonian college of1 #daf1 #dfc sq4 psalms1 penitential1 #daf sq41 #ejj4 ,assyrian1 #dai4 ,ptah1 #dd1 #ee1 #hg1 #ij1 #aaj1 #ach1 #aea1 #afg1 #aij4 ,ptiris1 #aaa4 ,punt1 #adf4 ,purim1 feast of1 #dgf4 ,pyramid texts1 #ae1 #cg1 #ei1 #fa1 #fd1 #gg1 #hf1 #ib1 #add1 #aeg1 #afa1 #agh1 #ahc1 #ahd1 #aia1 #bcd1 #bdd1 #beh4 ,quibell1 ,mr41 #ci1 #age4 ,ra1 #ea1 #ahb1 #bca4 followers of1 #aif4 legend of1 #baf4 ,rahab1 #cji4 ram1 #adi1 #aeg1 #cec1 #djf4 ,rassam1 ,hormuzd1 #dfa4 ,rawlinson1 ,sir ,h4 ,c41 #ccf1 #dca4 ,rawnsley1 ,canon1 #abe4 ,reisner1 ,dr41 #ahh4 relics1 #bbf4 religion1 ancient1 difficult to realise1 #df4 religion1 earliest forms of1 #g4 individual in origin1 #h4 ,renouf1 ,sir ,p4 ,l41 #ea1 #fj1 #abg4 resurrection1 #bd1 #afg1 #agj4 ritual1 ,babylonian1 #djj1 #dab4 rp1 #abi4 ,saba1 #dcg4 ,sabaism1 #dgi1 #dha1 #dhb1 #dhc4 ,sabbath1 ,babylonian1 #dgf4 etymology of1 #bgb4 sacrifice1 ,babylonian1 #dff1 #dgj1 #dgb4 daily1 #dgj4 of firstborn1 #dfg4 of lamb1 #dgb4 ,sahu4 ,see ,orion4 sahu4 ,see mummy4 ,sahu-,ra1 #ajd1 #bbc4 ,saka1 #dge4 ,samas4 ,see ,sun-god4 ,samuel1 #cff4 ,sargon of ,akkad1 #da1 #bfe1 #bij1 #cea1 #dfe1 #dhc4 ,sati1 #hj4 ,sati or ,sutu1 #ace1 #afc1 #aff4 savage man1 #ag4 scape-goat1 #dfg4 scarabs1 #fe1 #ff1 #ahh1 #bbg4 scepticism1 ,egyptian1 #ac1 #bjb4 ,scheil1 ,dr41 #aci1 #adh1 #cgh1 #dch4 ,schweinfurth1 ,dr41 #bae4 scorpion-man1 #dcf4 8sea10 artificial1 #deh1 #dei4 ,seb1 #hd1 #abi4 legend of1 #bbe4 ,sebek1 #aad1 #bbf4 ,sebennytos1 #afj4 seer1 ,babylonian1 #dfd sq4 ,sehl1 #ace4 ,sekhet1 #ij1 #ajf1 #adj1 #add1 #ade1 #bca4 ,selk1 #ajd1 #ajf4 ,semitic supremacy1 #bgj4 ,serapis1 #aac4 serpent1 bronze1 #dga4 guardian1 #bab4 with seven heads1 #bdj4 worship1 #bjh sq4 ,set1 #gd1 #ij1 #ajd1 #aab1 #aad1 #aag1 #ace1 #aec1 #afb1 #afe1 #bbc1 #bbd1 #bch4 ,seth1 #cjg4 ,shamanism1 #bih4 ,sharu1 #gc4 ,shkh ,herd1 #bac4 ,shem1 #cbh4 ,sheol1 #bie1 #dia4 shewbread1 #dee4 ships of the gods1 #bci4 ,shu1 #hc1 #hi1 #afj1 #bbe4 ,sin4 ,see ,moon-god4 sin1 ,babylonian conception of1 #dag1 #dib sq4 ,sinai1 #dhe4 ,sinaitic ,peninsula1 #adf4 ,sin-liqi-unnini1 #dbc1 #dch4 ,sippara1 #cah1 #cdd1 #dad1 #dhb4 ,sirius 7,sopd71 #adh1 #bce1 #bch4 ,smith1 ,george1 #chg1 #dcf1 #dcg1 #ded4 smiths1 #gc1 #abh4 ,sokaris1 #ach1 #aih1 #aii4 solar cult1 #ahe4 ,sopd4 ,see ,sirius4 sorcerer1 #bih4 soul1 ,egyptian doctrine of1 #bf1 #fb sq41 #ajh4 sphinx1 #gf1 #aag4 spirits1 seven evil1 #djh1 #dcj4 stars1 #cfg1 #dhj4 statues1 wonder-working1 #bbh4 ,memphite1 #ea4 why made1 #ej4 ,sumer1 #bfd4 ,sumerian1 #bed4 ,sumerians1 #bfi4 ,sun-god1 #hh1 #bic4 ,babylonian1 #cag sq41 #cba1 #cch1 #cdj1 #cgj1 #dad4 ,surippak1 #bfd1 #ddj4 surpu1 the collection1 #daj4 ,susa1 #bfe1 #bgj4 ,sutu1 #aff4 ,sutu-sar1 #aff4 swine1 #ceh1 #dfg4 sycamore worshipped1 #bjf4 of ,matarya1 #bjg4 symbolism in ,egypt1 #ce1 #di1 #bdb4 ,tabernacle of ,congregation1 #dgb4 ,tables of the ,law1 #dfa4 tablets of destiny1 #bhb1 #ccc1 #cib1 #dbh4 ,tammuz1 #cdj1 #cej1 #chd1 #chf1 #dbf1 #dcd1 #dfj1 #dgd4 ,tanen1 #adj4 ,tasmit1 #cfc1 #def4 ,tefnut1 #hc4 ,tel el-,amarna1 #ie1 #dbh1 #dde4 ,tello 7,lagas71 #bed1 #bfe1 #bgd4 temple of ,solomon1 #dei1 #dgj4 temples1 open in ,egypt1 #aaj4 ,babylonian1 #ddi1 #ded sq4 ,this1 #afj4 ,thoth1 #cf1 #cg1 #ajd1 #aad1 #acj1 #aed1 #aia4 ,tiamt1 #aah1 #cdi1 #cee1 #cgg1 #cib4 tithes1 #dfi4 totemism1 #aaf4 transformation1 #bdc4 tree of life1 #bdj1 #chd4 knowledge1 #ced1 #chf4 trees1 sacred1 #bae4 triad1 #bca4 ,babylonian1 #cac1 #cad1 #cba1 #cbb1 #cda1 #chb1 #cij4 trinity1 ,egyptian1 #ij1 #adc1 #bcj sq4 ,theban1 #aea1 #bca4 ,tum 7,atmu71 #ha1 #hc1 #he1 #hg1 #bbe1 #bca4 ,typhon1 #aec1 #agi4 ,uazit1 #dj1 #db1 #ha1 #add4 ,un-nefer1 #afh1 #bdg1 #cbe4 ,ur1 #bfa1 #bff1 #bfg1 #bgd1 #bie1 #cad1 #dhb1 #dhd4 ,urim and ,thummim1 #bhb1 #cea1 #cib1 #dbh4 ,ur-nes1 #aif4 ushebti1 #eb1 #eh1 #aab1 #aga4 utukku1 #bhc1 #bhe1 #bhg4 vampire1 #bhb1 #bhc4 ,venus1 #bch4 virgin-birth1 the1 #bdi4 ,wiedemann1 ,professor1 #adi1 #agc1 #bjh4 ,wilkinson1 ,sir ,g41 #bjg4 witchcraft1 #cei4 word1 the creative1 #aca1 #cia4 ,xisuthros1 #dcf sq4 ,yahum-ilu1 #dhd4 ,yahveh1 #ii1 #aca1 #cdf1 #cga1 #che1 #dhd1 #dhg4 zaqiqu1 #bfb1 #bhc4 ,zenjirli1 #cdf4 ,zi1 the1 #eh1 #bgf sq41 #bhc1 #bhg1 #cja1 #cjf1 #cbi1 #cgi1 #djj1 #djc1 #djd1 #dha4 ziggurat1 #dej1 #dec1 #def1 #deh4 ,zi-kum1 #bgh1 #cje1 #chf1 #djg4 ,zimbabwe1 #gb4 ,zimmern1 ,professor1 #cib1 #cid1 #dch1 #dgb1 #dhh4 ,zodiac1 #dha4 ,zu1 #cea1 #cec1 #dbi4 ,,footnotes #a ,notes for the ,nile1 pp4 #ahh1 #ahi4 #b ,rvillout in the ,revue gyptologique1 i4 #d1 ii4 #c4 #c ,for the extraordinary variety of senses in which the verb ye1 8to eat10 has come to be used in the ,african language of ,akra1 see ,pott1 ,ueber die ,verschiedenheit des menschlichen ,sprachbaues von ,wilhelm von ,humboldt1 ii4 pp4 #die-dih 7#ahgf74 ,thus ye no1 8to be master10 is literally 8to eat the upper side02 ye gb1 8to live0 or 8exist10 is literally 8to eat a day02 fe ye1 8to be cold10 is 8to eat cold40 #d ,see ,schweinfurth1 8,ueber den ,ursprung der ,aegypter10 in the ,verhandlungen der ,berliner anthropologischen ,gesellschaft1 ,june #ahig4 #e ,see ,w4 ,m4 ,flinders ,petrie1 ,religion and ,conscience in ,ancient ,egypt1 #ahih4 #f 8,the custom of dismembering the body or stripping it of its flesh is widely spread3 the neolithic tombs of ,italy contain skulls and bones which have been painted red2 ,baron de ,baye has found in the tombs of ,champagne skeletons stripped of their flesh1 and the ,patagonians and ,andamanners as well as the ,new ,zealanders still practise the custom0 7,de ,morgan1 ,recherches sur les ,origines de l',egypte1 ii4 p4 #adb74 ,secondary burial is met with in ,india among the ,kullens1 the ,kthkaris1 and the ,agariya1 as well as in ,motu1 ,melanesia1 ,sarawak1 the ,luchu ,islands1 ,torres ,straits1 and ,ashanti1 while 8in some of the ,english long barrows the bones appear to have been flung in pell-mell0 7,crooke in ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxix4 pp4 #bhd-bhf 7#ahii774 #g ,see ,maspero1 tudes de ,mythologie et d',archologie gyptiennes1 ii4 p4 #cgb sqq4 #h ,see ,maspero1 tudes de ,mythologie et l',archologie gyptiennes1 i4 p4 #he sqq4 #i ,mariette1 ,dendrah1 ,texte1 p4 #aef4 #aj ,in the ,pyramid texts the dead are described as being carried across the lake which separates this world from the fields of ,alu1 on the wings of ,thoth4 #aa ,see ,sethe in the ,zeitschrift fr ,aegyptischer ,sprache1 #ahig1 #a4 #ab ,similarly the 8chief ,kher-heb0 of the ,pharaoh1 in the age of the ,old ,empire1 bore the title of 8,chief of the city of ,nekheb0 7,ebers1 ,life in ,ancient ,egypt1 ,eng4 tr41 p4 #ij74 ,the ,pyramid texts speak of the ,white ,crown of ,southern ,egypt as well as of the royal urus 8in the city of ,nekheb0 7,pepi #afg72 and the goddess of the city is described as 8the cow ,samet-urt0 who was crowned with the two feathers 7,teta #cei74 ,elsewhere mention is made of 8the souls of ,on1 ,nekhen1 and ,pe0 7,pepi #afh1 #ahb2 see also ,teta #bgb74 ,by the 8souls of ,on0 ,ra or rather ,tum was meant2 ,pe and ,dep constituted the twin-city of the ,delta called ,buto by the ,greeks1 over a part of which 7,dep7 ,uazit the serpent-goddess of the north presided1 while the other half 7,pe7 acknowledged ,horus as its chief deity4 ,in ,teta #hh 8the doubles in ,pe0 are said to be 8the double of ,horus40 #ac ,wiedemann1 in the ,proceedings of the ,society of ,biblical ,archology1 iv4 p4 #ccb4 #ad ,the title of 8good god0 went back to a very early date1 and stands in contrast to that of nefer mt-kher1 8good and true of voice10 applied to the ordinary individual on early seal-cylinders4 #ae ,see the illustration from the temple of ,amon-hotep ,,iii4 at ,luxor1 in ,maspero1 ,dawn of ,civilisation1 p4 #aaa4 #af ,the ,westcar ,papyrus1 which was written in the time of the ,middle ,empire1 already describes the first three kings of the ,fifth ,dynasty as born of ,ruddadt 7the wife of a priest of the sun-god7 and the god ,ra of ,sakhab 7,erman1 8,die ,mrchen des ,papyrus ,westcar10 i4 p4 #ee1 in the ,mittheilungen aus den orientalischen ,sammlungen zu ,berlin1 #ahij74 #ag ,callaway1 ,unkulunkulu2 or1 the ,tradition of the ,creation as existing among the ,amazulu and other ,tribes of ,south ,africa1 pt4 i4 pp4 #b1 #g1 #h4 #ah ,professor ,maspero1 to whom1 along with ,sir ,p4 ,le ,page ,renouf1 we owe the explanation of what the ,egyptians meant by the ,ka1 first pointed out the meaning of the portrait statues which were buried in the tomb 7,recueil de ,travaux1 i4 pp4 #aeb-afj74 #ai ,renouf1 ,,tsba4 vi4 p4 #ejd sqq42 ,lepsius1 ,denkmler1 iii4 #aid4 #ac2 ,dmichen1 ,tempelinschriften1 i4 pl4 #bi4 #bj ,a ,season in ,egypt1 #ahhg1 pp4 #ba1 #bb4 #ba ,cf4 the illustrations in ,maspero1 ,dawn of ,civilisation1 p4 #bei2 and ,lepsius1 ,denkmler1 iii4 #hg4 ,in ,bonomi and ,arundale1 ,gallery of ,antiquities1 pt4 i4 pi4 #ca1 is a picture of ,thothmes ,,ii4 with his ,ka standing behind him4 #bb ,baring ,could1 ,curiosities of ,olden ,times1 #bnd ed41 p4 #eg sqq4 #bc ,it is noticeable that while the ,tel el-,amarna letters show that the actual pronunciation of the word ,ka was ,ku1 ,ha-ka-,ptah1 the sacred name of ,memphis1 being written ,khi-ku-,ptakh 7,aiguptos71 ku was 8food0 in the ,sumerian of primitive ,babylonia4 #bd ,in his tudes de ,mythologie et d',archologie gyptiennes1 i4 p4 #fa1 ,professor ,maspero gives 8cake0 as the original sense of ,ka1 which1 however1 he explains as 8a cake of earth10 and hence 8substance40 #be ,maspero1 ,dawn of ,civilisation1 p4 #aad4 ,the ,ka1 however1 is here identified with the ,khu1 and it is questionable whether the passages referred to in the ,pyramid texts really embody old ideas which are to be interpreted literally1 or whether they are not rather to be taken metaphorically4 #bf ,maspero1 ,comptes rendus du ,congrs provincial des ,orientalistes ,lyon1 #ahgh1 pp4 #bce-bfc2 ,renouf1 ,transactions of the ,society of ,biblical ,archology 7#ahgi71 vi4 pp4 #did-ejh4 #bg ,this particular bird was chosen because its name was similar in sound to that of the ,khu4 ,for the same reason the plover 7ba7 denoted the ,ba or soul4 ,on objects found by de ,morgan in the tomb of ,menes at ,negada1 the 8soul0 is represented by an ostrich4 #bh ,see ,chassinat1 ,recueil1 xix4 p4 #bc sqq4 #bi ,from the fifteenth to the eleventh century ,b4,c41 it was fashionable to substitute for the bird a beetle with a ram's head1 the phonetic value of the hieroglyph of ram being ba1 and that of the beetle kheper1 8to become40 #cj ,hermes ,trismeg41 ,pmandres1 ed4 ,parthey1 chs4 i4 and x4 #ca tudes de ,mythologie1 i4 p4 #aff4 #cb ,de ,abst4 iv4 #aj4 #cc ,cf4 also ,plutarch1 ,de ,esu carnium ,or4 ii4 p4 #iif1 and ,sept4 ,sapient4 ,conviv4 p4 #aei ,b4 #cd ,the four vases were dedicated to the man-headed ,amset 7or ,smet71 the jackal-headed ,dua-mut-ef1 the ape-headed ,hpi1 and the hawk-headed ,qeb-sonu-f1 who are identified with the planets in the ,pyramid texts 7,maspero1 8,pyramide du roi ,ounas0 in the ,recueil de ,travaux1 iii4 p4 #bje74 #ce ,see the ,book of the ,dead1 chs4 xxvi4 and sqq4 #cf ,it is still a moot question whether any scarabs go back to the age of the ,old ,empire4 ,personally1 ,i am inclined to agree with ,prof4 ,flinders ,petrie in thinking that they do so4 #cg ,or1 according to ,renouf's translation3 8,pleasant unto us1 pleasant unto the listener1 is the joy of the weighing of the words40 #ch ,three grains of the natron of the city of ,nekheb had to be used1 while only two grains of that of the north were required 7,maspero1 8,pyramide du roi ,ounas0 in the ,recueil de ,travaux1 iii4 p4 #ahb74 ,the ,horus of ,nekhen1 opposite ,el-,kab1 was represented by a mummified hawk 7akhem74 #ci ,de ,morgan1 ,recherches sur les ,origines de l'gypte1 ii4 pl4 iii4 line #b4 #dj ,zeitschrift fr ,aegyptische ,sprache1 xxxvi4 pls4 xii4 and xiii42 ,quibell1 ,hierakonpolis1 pt4 i4 pl4 xxix4 #da ,professor ,maspero1 however1 proposes to see in them a symbol of the king of ,upper ,egypt destroying a hostile city4 #db ,recueil de ,travaux1 xxi4 pp4 #aaf1 #aag4 ,dr4 ,naville points out that on the ,palermo ,stela the festival of the ,shesh-,hor1 with the determinative of a sacred bark1 occurs repeatedly in that part of the inscription which relates to the festivals of the kings of the first two dynasties4 ,professor ,petrie has found the same festival mentioned on two ivory tablets from the tomb of a king of the ,first ,dynasty at ,abydos 7,petrie1 ,the ,royal ,tombs of the ,first ,dynasty1 pt1 i4 pl4 xvii472 and it may be added that in the ,pyramid texts 7,pepi #fgj2 ,recueil de ,travaux1 viii4 p4 #aje7 the ,mt or ,mdit bark of the sun-god is identified with the bark of the ,shesh-,hor1 while the ,semkett or bark in which the sun-god voyages at night becomes a bark in which the place of the hawk is taken by a picture of the ben or tomb of ,osiris--here identified with that of ,akhem the mummified hawk1 which forms part of the symbol for the ,thinite nome4 ,elsewhere it is the ,semkett or day-bark of the sun which is identified with the festival of the ,shesh-,hor 7,recueil de ,travaux1 iii4 p4 #bje74 #dc ,on the mesnitiu or 8blacksmiths0 of ,horus1 see ,maspero1 tudes de ,mythologie1 ii4 p4 #cac and sqq4 ,the ,mesnit or 8,forge0 was the name given to the passage opening into the shrine of the temple of ,edfu4 #dd ,quibell1 ,hierakonpolis1 pt4 i4 pl4 ii4 #de ,see de ,roug1 ,recherches sur les ,monuments qu'on peut attribuer aux six premires dynasties1 pp4 #dd1 #de4 #df ,mr4 ,quibell found a large bronze hawk with a head of solid gold and eyes of obsidian along with two bronze figures of ,pepi1 in the foundation of the temple of ,nekhen 7,kom el-,amar72 see ,quibell1 ,hierakonpolis1 pt4 i4 pl4 xlii4 ,hor-nubi1 8the golden ,horus10 was the god of the ,antopolite nome4 #dg ,the #ast 7,ombite7 and #bnd 7,apollinopolite7 nomes1 the #crd nome 7originally7 with its capital ,nekhen1 the nomes of the 8,eastern and ,western ,horus0 7,tuphium and ,asphynis71 ,qus 8the city of ,horus the elder10 the #eth 7,coptite7 nome1 the #fth nome of ,dendera in so far as ,hathor was daughter and husband of ,horus1 the #ajth 7,antopolite7 and #abth 7,hierakopolite7 nomes1 and finally the #aeth1 #ahth1 and #bjth 7,herakleopolite7 nomes4 ,in the ,delta also ,horus was god of the #crd1 #eth1 #gth1 #hth1 #aath1 #aith1 #beth1 #bgth1 and #cjth nomes1 of which the #gth and #hth were close to the ,asiatic frontier4 #dh ,when this emblem was first invented we do not know2 it probably goes back to the pr-,menic period1 like the composite animals on the early monuments of ,nekhen and ,abydos4 ,its first dateable occurrence is on a boulder of granite in the island of ,elephantin above the name and figure of ,unas of the ,fifth ,dynasty4 ,it is also engraved above the double figure of an ,old ,empire king on a great isolated rock near ,el-,kab1 which is probably of the same date4 ,the tablet on which it is engraved faces south-east4 #di ,hor-merti1 8,horus of the two eyes10 was worshipped at ,shedennu in the ,pharbthite nome of the ,delta4 ,grbaut's view1 that the two eyes originally represented the light1 seems to me too abstract a conception for an early period 7,recueil de ,travaux1 pp4 #gb-hg1 #aab-aca74 ,in the ,pyramid texts 7,rec4 iv4 p4 #db71 mention is made of ,horus with 8the blue eyes40 #ej ,cf4 ,sayce1 ,,tsba41 ,nov4 #ahih4 ,in one case the name of the god is written ,kha-ar4 ,in ,,wai4 ii4 #ee4 #cf1 ,khur-galzu1 8,horus1 thou art great60 is given as the name of a ,sumerian goddess4 #ea ,nin-ip was identified with the planet ,saturn1 like 8,horus the bull40 #eb ,it was then that the two obelisks were erected in front of the temple by ,usertesen ,i41 which caused it to be known as ,ht-,benbeni1 8the house of the two obelisks40 #ec ,the members of the ,ennead of ,heliopolis or ,on are named in the ,pyramid texts 7,pepi ii4 #fff7 ,tum1 ,shu1 ,tefnut1 ,seb1 ,nut1 ,osiris1 ,isis1 ,set1 and ,nebht4 #ed ,see his tudes de ,mythologie et d',archologie gyptiennes1 ii4 p4 #ccg sqq4 #ee ,similarly1 on early ,babylonian seal-cylinders the leaves of the folding doors through which the sun-god comes forth at daybreak are surmounted by lions4 ,see the illustration in ,king1 ,babylonian ,religion and ,mythologie1 p4 #cb4 7,the genuineness of this cylinder has been questioned without good reason47 #ef ,the wife occasionally provided for ,asshur by the scribes was a mere grammatical abstraction1 like ,tumt1 the feminine of ,tum1 whose name is now and then met with in late ,egyptian texts4 #eg ,one of the old formul embedded in the ,pyramid texts 7,teta #hf7 reads like a passage from a ,sumerian hymn3 8,hail to thee1 great deep 7ageb71 moulder of the gods1 creator of men40 ,it belongs to ,babylonia rather than to ,egypt1 where the 8great deep0 could have been a matter only of tradition4 #eh ,see ,petrie1 ,medum1 p4 #cj4 #ei ,the existence of other cities of the name in ,upper ,egypt1 8,on of the south10 now ,erment1 and ,on1 now ,dendera1 shows that it must go back to the earliest epoch of ,pharaonic ,egypt4 ,i believe that it is the ,sumerian unu1 8city10 and that the column which represented it hieroglyphically denoted 8a foundation0 or 8settlement40 #fj ,it will be shown in a future lecture that ,osiris was the mummified ,anher4 ,one is tempted to ask whether ,pta is not similarly the mummified ,tum8 #fa tudes de ,mythologie et d',archologie gyptiennes1 ii4 p4 #bgj sqq4 #fb ,this has been proved by a stela of ,antef ,,iv4 of the ,eleventh ,dynasty1 discovered by ,m4 ,legrain in #aijj1 in the temple of ,pta4 ,khonsu was a mere epithet of the moon-god1 meaning 8wanderer40 ,in a later age ,khonsu was himself superseded by ,mentu4 #fc ,for the architectural plan of the temple1 see ,erman1 ,life in ,ancient ,egypt1 ,eng4 tr41 p4 #bhg4 #fd ,erman1 ,life in ,ancient ,egypt1 ,eng4 tr41 p4 #bfb4 #fe ,another strophe of the ,hymn to ,aten1 as translated by ,professor ,breasted 7,de ,hymnis in ,solem sub rege ,amenophide ,,iv4 conceptis1 p4 #dg71 is equally explicit3 8,thou hast created the earth according to thy pleasure1 when thou wast alone1 both all men and the cattle great and small2 all who walk upon the earth1 those on high who fly with wings2 the foreign lands of ,syria 7,khar7 and ,cush as well as the land of ,egypt2 each in its place thou appointest1 thou providest them with all that they need2 each has his granary1 his stores of grain are counted4 ,diverse are the languages of men1 more different than their shape is the colour of their skin1 7for7 thou hast distinguished the nations of the world 7one from the other740 ,in the succeeding strophe the monotheism of the worshipper of ,aten1 in whose eyes even the sacred ,nile was the creature of the one true ,god1 appears in striking contrast to the ordinary polytheism of ,egypt 7,breasted1 l4c4 p4 #ec73 8,thou createst the ,nile in the other world1 thou bringest it at thy pleasure to give life to mankind2 for thou hast made them for thyself1 ,o lord of them all who art ever with them1 ,o lord of all the earth who risest for them1 ,o sun of day 7the mighty one in87 the remotest lands1 thou givest them their life1 thou sendest forth the ,nile in heaven1 that it may descend for them2 it raises its waves mountain high like the sea1 it waters the fields of their cities4 ,how glorious are thy counsels6 ,o lord of eternity1 thou art a ,nile in heaven for foreign men and cattle throughout all the earth6 ,they walk on their feet1 7and7 the ,nile cometh to ,egypt from the other world40 #ff ,diod4 ,sic4 i4 #hc4 #fg ,except in the case of ,osiris at ,abydos2 ,petrie1 ,the ,royal ,tombs of the ,first ,dynasty1 pt4 i4 pl4 xv4 #af2 comp4 also at ,kom el-,amar1 ,hierakonpolis1 pt4 i4 pl4 xxvi4 ,b1 though here it seems to be the ,pharaoh who is represented4 #fh ,quibell in the ,zeitschrift fr ,aegyptische ,sprache1 xxxvi4 pls4 xii41 xiii42 ,hierakonpolis1 pt4 i4 pl4 xxix4 #fi ,on a stela in the ,wadi ,maghara1 in the ,sinaitic ,peninsula1 ,sahu-,ra of the ,fifth ,dynasty1 divided into two figures1 one with the crown of ,lower ,egypt the other with that of ,upper ,egypt1 is standing before a standard on which are the two emblems of ,southern and ,northern ,egypt1 ,set and ,horus4 ,set is represented by his usual animal1 but ,horus by an urus serpent and the same symbol as that on the plaque 7de ,morgan1 ,recherches sur les ,origines de l'gypte1 i4 p4 #bcc74 ,as we learn from the legend of ,seb recounted at ,at-,nebes 7,saft el-,henna71 the two relics preserved there were the urus and lock of hair of ,ra4 ,the lock of hair has practically the same form as the symbol we are considering here1 and long before the legend had been concocted1 ,ra and ,horus had been identified together 7see ,griffith1 ,antiquities of ,tell el-,yahudiyeh1 ,seventh ,memoir of the ,egypt ,exploration ,fund1 pl4 xxiii474 #gj ,de ,morgan1 ,recherches sur les ,origines de l'gypte1 ii4 pls4 ii4 and iii42 ,sayce in the ,proceedings of the ,society of ,biblical ,archology1 ,feb4 #ahih4 ,it will be noticed that ,thoth is represented by the ibis and not by the ape4 #ga ,de ,morgan1 ,recherches sur les ,origines de l'gypte1 p4 #ic4 #gb ,for late examples of the worship of animals like the cat1 ram1 swallow1 or goose1 as animals and not as incarnations of an official god1 see ,maspero1 tudes de ,mythologie et d',archologie gyptiennes1 ii4 p4 #cie sqq4 ,the rarity of them is due to their representing private and domestic cults not recognised by the religion of the ,state4 8,the worship of the swallow1 cat1 and goose1 which had commenced as the pure and simple adoration of these creatures in themselves1 always remained so for the multitude4 ,we must not forget that ,orientals regard beasts somewhat differently from ourselves4 ,they ascribe to them a language1 a knowledge of the future1 an extreme acuteness of the senses which allows them to perceive objects and beings invisible to man4 ,it was not1 indeed1 all ,egypt that worshipped in the beast the beast itself2 but a considerable part of it which belonged almost entirely to the same social condition1 and represented pretty much the same moral and intellectual ideas40 #gc ,see ,wiedemann1 ,die ,religion der alten ,aegypten1 pp4 #ajh1 #aji4 #gd ,late inscriptions call ,bakh or ,bakis 8the living soul of ,ra10 but this was when ,mentu and ,ra had been identified together4 ,stel of the ,roman period1 however1 from ,erment represent the sacred bull without any solar emblem1 while by the side of it stands a hawk-headed crocodile crowned with the orb of the sun4 ,it is possible that the latter may be connected with the hawk-headed crocodile1 with the orb of the sun on its head and an urus serpent at the end of its tail1 which in ,greek graffiti at ,phil is called ,ptiris4 #ge ,nicolaus ,damascen41 ,fr4 #abh1 ed4 ,mller4 #gf ,de ,roug1 ,monnaies de nomes1 p4 #df4 #gg ,griffith 7,proc4 of ,society of ,biblical ,archology1 xxi4 p4 #bgh7 has recently proposed to see in ,deuti a derivative from the name of the nome ,deut1 like ,anzti1 the title of ,osiris at ,busiris1 from the name of the nome ,anzet4 ,but this is 8putting the cart before the horse40 ,it was not the nomes that were birds or men1 but the deities worshipped in them4 ,anz 7perhaps from the ,semitic 'az1 8the strong one07 meant 8king10 and represented the human ,osiris4 #gh ,plutarch1 ,de ,iside et ,osiride1 ed4 ,leemans1 lxxii4 p4 #abf4 #gi ,zeitschrift fr ,aegyptische ,sprache 7#ahhj7 p4 #ej4 #hj ,rev4 ,archologique1 xxxiv4 p4 #bia4 ,on the seal-cylinder they are accompanied by the lion-headed eagle of primitive ,babylonian art4 ,the ,egyptian figures are given in the ,zeitschrift fr ,aegyptische ,sprache1 xxxvi4 pl4 xii4 #ha ,ep4 ad ,cor4 #be4 #hb ,see also ,herodotos1 ii4 #gc2 ,pliny1 ,n4 ,h4 x4 #b2 ,tertullian1 ,de ,resurr4 #ac4 #hc ,de ,morgan1 ,recherches sur les ,origines de l'gypte1 ii4 p4 #afe4 #hd ,sayce1 ,proc4 ,,sba41 ,feb4 #ahih1 ,no4 #h4 ,on a monument discovered at ,sn 7,petrie1 ,tanis1 pt4 ii4 pl4 x4 #agj71 we read of 8,horus in the bennu as a black bull10 8,horus in the bennu as a horned bull40 ,the cemetery of ,tanis was called 8the city of the phnix0 7bennu74 ,at ,edfu it is said that the phnix 7bennu7 8comes forth from the holy heart0 of ,osiris4 #he ,on a stela in the ,louvre a certain ,psamtik1 son of ,uza-,hor1 calls himself prophet of ,khufu1 ,khaf-,ra1 and ,dadef-,ra1 as well as of ,tanen1 ,isis1 and ,harmakhis4 #hf ,the versification is ,canon ,rawnsley's1 ,notes for the ,nile1 pp4 #ahh1 #ahi4 ,professor ,erman's literal translation is as follows 7,life in ,ancient ,egypt1 ,eng4 tr41 pp4 #chf1 #chg7-- 8,i heard the words of ,imhotep and ,har-dad-ef1 ,who both speak thus in their sayings3 #8,behold the dwellings of those men1 their walls fall down1 ,their place is no more1 ,they are as though they had never existed4' ,no one comes from thence to tell us what is become of them1 ,who tells us how it goes with them1 who nerves our hearts1 ,until you yourselves approach the place whither they are gone4 ,with joyful heart forget not to glorify thyself ,and follow thy heart's desire1 so long as thou livest4 ,put myrrh on thy head1 clothe thyself in fine linen1 ,anointing thyself with the marvellous things of ,god4 ,adorn thyself as beautifully as thou canst1 ,and let not thy heart be discouraged4 ,follow thy heart's desire and thy pleasures ,as long as thou livest on earth4 ,follow thy heart's desire and thy pleasures ,till there comes to thee the day of mourning4 ,yet he1 whose heart is at rest1 hears not their complaint1 ,and he who lies in the tomb understands not their mourning4 ,with beaming face keep holiday to-day1 ,and rest not therein4 ,for none carries his goods away with him1 ,yea1 none returns again1 who has journeyed thither40 #hg ,brugsch's translation 7,die ,aegyptologie1 i4 p4 #afc74 #hh ,hibbert ,lectures on the ,religion of ,ancient ,egypt 7#ahgi71 pp4 #ic-ajj4 #hi ,brugsch1 ,die ,aegyptologie1 p4 #afg4 #ij ,see ,beni-,hasan1 pt4 iii4 7,archological ,survey of ,egypt71 pl4 v4 fig4 #ge4 #ia ,the double-headed axe is carved repeatedly on the walls of the 8palace of ,minos10 discovered by ,dr4 ,a4 ,j4 ,evans at ,knossos1 and seems to have been the divine symbol which was believed to protect the building from injury4 ,on the coins of ,tarsus the sun-god ,sandan carries an axe4 #ib ,see above1 p4 #hc4 #ic ,de ,isid4 #ab4 #id ,as ,thoth writes the name of the king upon the sacred sycamore in order to ensure him everlasting life1 so the name of ,ea is written upon the core of the sacred cedar-tree 7,,wai4 iv4 #ae1 ,rev4 #aj-ac72 ,sayce1 ,hibbert ,lectures on the ,religion of the ,ancient ,babylonians1 p4 #bdj4 #ie tudes de ,mythologie et d',archologie gyptiennes1 ii4 pp4 #cha-che4 #if ,this is ,brugsch's translation 7,religion und ,mythologie der alten ,aegypter1 p4 #abc sqq472 but the meaning of the last name is doubtful1 and the first is rather 8time0 than 8eternity40 #ig ,see ,maspero1 tudes de ,mythologie et d',archologie1 ii4 pp4 #beg sqq4 and #cge sqq4 ,in an inscription discovered by ,professor ,petrie in the tombs of the first two dynasties at ,abydos1 ,thoth is represented as a seated ape 7,the ,royal ,tombs of ,abydos1 pt4 i4 pl4 xvii4 #bf74 ,on the other hand1 on the broken ,abydos slate figured in de ,morgan1 ,recherches sur les ,origines de l'gypte1 pl4 ii41 which is probably prehistoric1 ,thoth appears as an ibis4 #ih ,recherches sur les ,origines de l'gypte1 p4 #fe4 #ii ,maspero1 tudes de ,mythologie et d',archologie1 p4 #dbi sqq4 #ajj ,the same cap is worn by the god who sits behind a scorpion-man on a stone containing a grant of land by the ,babylonian king ,nebuchadrezzar ,i4 7,b4,c4 #aajj74 ,the stone was found at ,abu-,habba1 and is now in the ,british ,museum 7,,wai4 v4 #eg74 #aja ,maspero 7,dawn of ,civilisation1 p4 #aeg7 reproduces a picture in the temple of ,luxor representing ,khnum moulding ,amon-hotep ,,iii4 and his ,ka on a potter's table4 #ajb ,see ,scheil1 ,recueil de ,travaux1 xx4 p4 #abd sqq4 #ajc ,the khnum or 8pot0 is often used to express the name of ,khnum in the hieroglyphics4 ,it reminds us of the vase on early ,babylonian seal-cylinders from the two sides of which flow the rivers ,tigris and ,euphrates1 and which is often held in the hands of the water-god ,ea4 ,the design is reproduced with modifications on early ,syrian cylinders1 and the name of the zodiacal sign ,aquarius shows to what an antiquity it must reach back4 ,the primitive ,egyptians believed that the ,nile issued from a grotto to which the qerti or 8two gulfs0 of the ,cataract gave access 7,maspero1 ,dawn of ,civilisation1 pp4 #ai1 #ch1 #ci71 and ,khnum was the god of the ,cataract4 ,perhaps the classical representation of the ,tiber and other rivers holding urns from which a stream of water flows is derived from ,egypt4 #ajd ,men-nofer 7,memphis71 8the good place10 is the equivalent of the name of the ancient seaport of ,babylonia1 ,eridu1 the ,sumerian ,eri-duga or 8good city40 ,ea1 the culture-god and creator1 was the god of ,eridu4 ,in the ,deluge tablet 7l4 #i7 ,ea says that he had not 8opened 7pat7 the oracle of the great gods40 ,it is hardly worth while to mention that the antiquity of ,memphis has been disputed by some philologists4 #aje ,pta is stated in the ,book of the ,dead to have been the original author of the ceremony which he first performed on the dead gods4 #ajf ,this is ,maspero's view 7tudes de ,mythologie et d',archologie1 ii4 pp4 #ba1 #bb74 ,wiedemann 7,religion der alten ,aegypter1 p4 #ge7 makes ,sokaris a sun-god2 but his solar attributes belong to the time when he was identified with ,ra of ,heliopolis4 #ajg ,it was only when the sun-god had absorbed the other deities that they became the children of ,ra4 #ajh ,recueil de ,travaux1 xix4 pp4 #ej1 #ed4 #aji ,to 8come in peace0 is still a common expression in ,egyptian ,arabic1 and means 8to return safely40 ,the name seems to be taken from the office of ,im-hotep1 which was to conduct the dead safely back to a second life4 #aaj ,nofer-,tum and ,im-hotep had human forms like their father4 ,the first is a man with a lotus flower on the head1 the second a youth with a papyrus roll on the knee4 #aaa ,there was a difference only in the vowel of the first syllable4 #aab ,the ,nile-gods1 representing the ,nile and the canals1 are depicted as stout men with large breasts1 crowned with flowers1 and wearing only the narrow girdle of prehistoric ,egypt4 ,the human form agrees well with the fact that the ,nile was first engineered1 and so made a source of life for ,egypt1 by the ,pharaonic ,egyptians4 ,babylonia was the country1 it must be remembered1 where river engineering and irrigation were originally developed4 #aac 8,hymn to the ,nile10 translated by ,p4 ,guieysse1 ,records of the ,past1 new series1 iii4 p4 #df sqq4 ,the hymn was composed by ,anna or ,annana in the time of ,meneptah ,,ii4 #aad ,brugsch1 ,religion und ,mythologie1 pp4 #c1 #bdh1 #cdh4 #aae ,her name is already mentioned in the ,pyramid texts1 and in ,pepi ii4 #aca she is described as the eye of ,horus and 8the opener of the paths10 the ordinary title of ,anubis as god of the dead4 #aaf ,in the ,speos ,artermidos near ,beni-,hassan1 where a large cemetery of mummified cats has been found1 she is called ,pakht1 an older form of ,bast4 #aag ,on a slab discovered by ,professor ,petrie at ,koptos1 ,usertesen ,i4 of the ,twelfth ,dynasty already appears standing before a cat-headed goddess who is called 8,bast1 the lady of ,shel40 ,shel is perhaps ,ashel at ,karnak1 where the temple of ,mut stood1 in which so many figures of ,bast or ,sekhet have been found 7,petrie1 ,koptos1 pl4 x4 #b74 ,the name of ,bast also occurs in the ,pyramid texts 7,pepi #bij72 but here it is an epithet of ,uazit1 the goddess of ,dep or ,buto1 once the capital of the kingdom of ,northern ,egypt1 who is contrasted with the goddess of ,nekheb4 #aah ,naville1 ,bubastis 7,egypt ,exploration ,fund71 i4 pp4 #dd1 #dg1 #dh4 #aai ,horus ,ahi4 ,the meaning of ,ahi1 the local title assigned to ,horus the younger1 is doubtful4 #abj ,thus at ,dendera we read3 8,ancestral mother of the gods1 thou unitest thyself with thy father ,ra in thy festal chamber40 #aba ,the so-called ,hathor head with the horns of a cow is already found on the slate plaque of ,kom el-,amar1 which is either of the time of the ,first ,dynasty or pre-,menic 7,zeits4 f4 ,aegypt4 ,spr4 xxxvi4 pl4 xii474 ,a head of similar type is engraved under the name of ,pepi ,,ii41 discovered at ,koptos 7,petrie1 ,koptos1 pl4 v4 #g74 #abb ,horus and ,hathor1 that is to say1 ,baal and ,ashtoreth1 were1 according to the ,egyptians1 the deities of ,mafket1 the ,sinaitic ,peninsula4 #abc ,it must be remembered that in ,egypt the place occupied by the morning star in the astronomy and myths of other peoples was taken by ,sirius on account of its importance for the rising of the ,nile4 ,and ,sirius was identified with ,isis4 #abd ,recueil de ,travaux1 xx4 p4 #fb4 ,dr4 ,scheil further points out that the sacred bark of ,bau1 with whom ,istar is identified1 was called 8the ship of the holy cow40 ,at ,dendera also1 ,isis1 in her bark as goddess of the star ,sirius1 becomes ,hathor under the form of a cow4 #abe ,professor ,wiedemann has suggested that the name of ,men-tu or ,mon-tu is connected with that of ,a-mon4 ,it is1 however1 more reasonable to associate it with that of the ,mentiu or ,semitic nomads of the ,sinaitic ,peninsula4 #abf ,hence the ram-headed sphinxes that lined the roads leading to the temple of ,karnak4 ,the flesh of the ram was tabooed at ,thebes1 an indication that the animal was originally a totem 7cf4 ,herod4 ii4 #db74 #abg ,a stela of ,antef ,,iv41 found by ,m4 ,legrain in #aijj1 shows that ,khonsu was preceded by ,pta as the third member of the trinity4 ,see above1 p4 #ij4 #abh ,so ,lauth1 ,aus ,aegypten's ,vorzeit1 p4 #fa2 ,brugsch1 ,dictionnaire gographique1 pp4 #fa1 #fb2 ,maspero1 ,the ,dawn of ,civilisation1 p4 #ahj4 ,the evidence1 however1 is not quite clear4 #abi ,the bronze figures of the ibis found at ,tel el-,baqlya1 on the east bank of the ,damietta branch of the ,nile1 opposite ,abusir or ,busiris1 have shown that it is the site of the capital of the ,hermopolite nome4 #acj ,at ,bebt near ,mansra4 #aca ,this1 at least1 is how the name is usually written4 ,but on an early seal-cylinder which ,i have published in the ,proc4 ,,sba41 ,feb4 #ahih1 ,no4 #b1 where we read1 8,the city of the ram1 the city which is called ,dad10 the name is written ,d-d1 and on a libation-table of the ,sixth ,dynasty from ,el-,kab we find ,dad-d-u 7,quibell1 ,el-,kab1 pl4 iv4 #a74 ,the earlier pronunciation of the name as found in the ,pyramid texts is ,zaddu or ,zadu4 #acb ,as early as the age of the ,pyramid texts the column ,dad had come to be explained as a picture of the spine1 or rather spinal column 7zad71 of ,osiris1 which was supposed to be preserved at ,daddu or ,pi-,asar-neb-,daddu or ,abusir4 ,see ,unas #g4 #acc ,not unfrequently a rich ,egyptian who was buried at ,saqqra had a cenotaph at ,abydos4 ,i believe that the fashion had been set by the founder of the united monarchy himself1 and that besides the tomb of ,menes at ,negada there was also a cenotaph of the king at ,abydos4 ,at all events clay impressions of his ,ka-name ,aa have been found there in the ,omm el-,ga'ab4 #acd ,the title borne by ,osiris at ,abydos was ,khent-amentit1 8the ruler of the west40 ,there is no need of turning the title into a separate god who was afterwards identified with ,osiris3 he was as much ,osiris as was ,neb-,daddu1 8the lord of ,daddu40 ,professor ,maspero says with truth that 8,khent-amentit was the dead ,anher1 a sun which had set in the west0 7tudes de ,mythologie et d',archologie gyptiennes1 ii4 p4 #bd7--or rather1 perhaps1 a sun that was setting in the west1 as his domain was the necropolis of ,omm el-,ga'ab1 immediately eastward of the western boundary of hills4 ,when 8,osiris of ,daddu0 is distinguished from 8,khent-,amentit of ,abydos10 as on a stela of the ,eleventh ,dynasty 7,daressy in the ,recueil de ,travaux1 xiv4 p4 #bc71 this is only in accordance with the ,egyptian habit of transforming a divine epithet into a separate deity4 #ace ,already in the ,pyramid texts ,horus is said to have assisted in the burial of ,osiris1 who goes to the plains of ,alu with 8the great gods that proceed from ,on0 7,pepi ii4 #hfd-hgb72 and we have perhaps a reminiscence of the spread of the ,osirian cult to the south and the identification of ,osiris with ,akhem1 the mummified ,horus of ,nekhen1 in ,pepi ii4 #hdi1 where we read3 8,seb installs by his rites ,osiris as god1 to whom the watchers in ,pe make offering1 and the watchers in ,nekhen venerate him0 7,maspero in the ,recueil de ,travaux1 xii4 p4 #afh74 ,pe and ,nekhen were the capitals of the two pre-,menic kingdoms of ,northern and ,southern ,egypt1 and on a stela from ,nekhen 7,kom el-,amar7 in the ,cairo ,museum1 8,horus of ,nekhen0 is identified with ,osiris 7,recueil de ,travaux1 xiv4 p4 #bb1 ,no4 xx474 ,in the inscriptions of the ,pyramid of ,pepi ,,ii41 lines #hfd-e1 it is said that ,isis and ,nebht wept for ,osiris at ,pe along with 8the souls of ,pe40 ,pe with its temple of the younger ,horus1 and ,dep with its temple of ,uazit the goddess of the north1 together formed the city called ,buto by the ,greeks4 #acf ,so in the ,pyramid texts 7e4g4 ,teta #aga1 #agb74 #acg ,the origin of the name of ,set had already been forgotten in the age of the ,pyramid texts1 where it is explained by the determinative set1 8a stone40 #ach ,when the hieroglyphic name of the ,busirite nome was first invented1 ,osiris was still the living 8lord of ,daddu0 rather than the mummified patron of its necropolis1 since it represents him as a living ,pharaoh with the title of nz or 8chieftain40 #aci ,proceedings of the ,society of ,biblical ,archology1 xii4 #h1 pp4 #dja-djb4 #adj ,the origin of the name of ,osiris had been forgotten by the ,egyptians long before the age of the ,pyramid texts1 where we find 7,unas #bbi7 the grammatical goddess ,user-t invented to explain ,osiris1 as if the latter were the adjective user1 8strong06 ,m4 ,grbaut long ago expressed his belief that ,osiris was of foreign origin 7,recueil de ,travaux1 i4 p4 #abj74 #ada ,nebo or ,nabium 7,nabu71 8the prophet10 was the interpreter of the will of ,merodach1 just as ,merodach was the interpreter of the will of ,ea4 #adb ,the constellation of ,osiris was called 8the soul of ,osiris10 and ,professor ,maspero notes that the ,pyramid texts place his kingdom near the ,great ,bear 7tudes de ,mythologie et d',archologie1 ii4 p4 #bj74 ,isis became ,sirius1 and ,horus the morning star4 #adc ,the ,ancient ,egyptian ,doctrine of ,immortality1 p4 #dh4 #add ,renouf's translation of the #abeth chapter of the ,book of the ,dead 7,papyrus of ,ani7 is as follows3--8,i am not a doer of what is wrong4 ,i am not a plunderer4 ,i am not a robber4 ,i am not a slayer of men4 ,i do not stint the measure of corn4 ,i am not a niggard4 ,i do not desire the property of the gods4 ,i am not a teller of lies4 ,i am not a monopoliser of food4 ,i am no extortioner4 ,i am not unchaste4 ,i am not the cause of others' tears4 ,i am not a dissembler4 ,i am not a doer of violence4 ,i am not a domineering character4 ,i do not pillage cultivated land4 ,i am not an eavesdropper4 ,i am not a chatterer4 ,i do not dismiss a case through self-interest4 ,i am not unchaste with women or men4 ,i am not obscene4 ,i am not an exciter of alarms4 ,i am not hot in speech4 ,i do not turn a deaf ear to the words of righteousness4 ,i am not foul-mouthed4 ,i am not a striker4 ,i am not a quarreller4 ,i do not revoke my words4 ,i do not multiply clamour in reply to words4 ,i am not evil-minded or a doer of evil4 ,i am not a reviler of the king4 ,i put no obstruction on 7the use of the ,nile7 water4 ,i am not a bawler4 ,i am not a reviler of the god4 ,i am not fraudulent4 ,i am not sparing in offerings to the gods4 ,i do not deprive the dead of the funeral cakes4 ,i take not away the cakes of the child1 or profane the god of my locality4 ,i do not kill sacred animals40 #ade ,wiedemann1 ,die ,religion der alten ,aegypter1 pp4 #acb1 #acc2 and ,maspero1 ,dawn of ,civilisation1 pp4 #ahh-aij4 #adf ,maspero1 ,dawn of ,civilisation1 p4 #aij4 #adg ,maspero1 ,dawn of ,civilisation1 p4 #aia4 #adh ,so on a stela translated by ,professor ,maspero 7,recueil de ,travaux1 iv4 p4 #abh7 the deceased says3 8,never has one said of me1 ,what is that he hath done8 ,i have not injured1 ,i have not committed evil2 none has suffered through my fault1 the lie has never entered into me since ,i was born1 but ,i have always done that which was true in the sight of the lord of the two worlds4 ,i have been united in heart to the god2 ,i have walked in the good paths of justice1 love1 and all the virtues4 ,ah1 let my soul live 444 for behold ,i am come to this land1 ,o souls1 to be with you in the tomb1 ,i am become one of you who detest sin40 #adi ,clem4 ,alex4 ,strom4 vi4 p4 #bfj1 ed4 ,sylb4 ,see ,lepsius1 ,einleitung zur ,chronologie der ,aegypter1 pp4 #de1 #df4 ,the remains ascribed to ,hermes ,trismegistos1 including the ,dialogue called ,pmandres1 have been translated into ,english by ,j4 ,d4 ,chambers 7#ahhb74 ,the ,dialogue is already quoted by ,justin ,martyr 7,exhort4 ad ,grcos1 xxxviii474 #aej ,the extraordinary care with which the sacred texts were handed down through long periods of time is illustrated by certain of the ,pyramid texts1 which are reproduced word for word down to the close of the ,egyptian monarchy4 ,thus passages at the beginning of the inscriptions in the ,pyramid of ,unas are repeated in the ,ritual of ,abydos1 and another portion of the same text is found on a stela of the ,thirteenth ,dynasty1 as well as in one of the courts of the temple of queen ,hatshepsu at ,dr el-,bhari1 where1 as ,professor ,maspero remarks1 8we have three identical versions of different epochs and localities40 ,the invocations against serpents 7,unas #cjj-cci7 recur in the tomb of ,bak-n-ren-ef of the ,twenty-sixth ,dynasty4 ,see ,maspero1 ,recueil de ,travaux1 iii4 pp4 #ahb1 #aie1 #bbj4 ,the fact gives us confidence in the statements of the ,egyptian scribes1 that such and such chapters of the ,book of the ,dead had been 8found0 or written in the reigns of certain early kings4 #aea ,there is much to be said for the view of ,professor ,piehl1 that we have in it an amalgamation of the rituals and formul of the various chief sanctuaries of ,egypt1 which have been thrown side by side without any attempt at arrangement or harmony4 ,one of such rituals would be that mentioned on the sarcophagus of ,nes-,shu-,tefnut1 where we read of 8the sacred writings of ,horus in the city of ,huren0 in the ,busirite nome 7,recueil de ,travaux1 vi4 p4 #acd74 ,on the sarcophagus of ,beb1 discovered by ,professor ,petrie at ,dendera1 and belonging to the period between the ,sixth and the ,eleventh ,dynasties1 we have not only 8early versions0 of parts of the ,book of the ,dead1 but also chapters which do not occur in the standard text 7,petrie1 ,dendereh1 #ahih1 pp4 #ef-eh74 #aeb ,we even read in them of ,ra being 8purified in the fields of ,alu0 7,unas #daa74 #aec ,maspero1 tudes de ,mythologie et d',archologie gyptiennes1 pp4 #cfg-cgj4 #aed ,various interpretations have been given of the phrase per m hru4 ,i have adopted that which seems to me most consonant with both grammar and logical probability4 #aee ,the inscribed scarab does not seem to be older than the age of the ,eleventh ,dynasty1 when it began to take the place of the cylinder as a seal4 ,at all events there is no authentic record of the discovery of one in any tomb of an earlier date1 and the scarabs with the names of ,neb-ka-ra1 ,khufu1 and other early kings1 were for the most part made in the time of the ,twenty-sixth ,dynasty4 ,it is possible1 however1 that some at least of the scarabs which bear the name of ,ra-n-ka of the ,eighth ,dynasty are contemporaneous with the ,pharaoh whose name is written upon them4 ,if so1 they are the oldest inscribed scarabs with which we are acquainted4 ,uninscribed scarabs1 however1 go back to the prehistoric age4 ,the use of the scarab as an amulet is already referred to in the ,pyramid texts4 ,and ,dr4 ,reisner has discovered green porcelain beetles in the prehistoric graves of ,negadiy1 along with other green porcelain amulets1 such as turtles1 etc4 #aef ,as is also the case in the ,pyramid texts4 #aeg ,maspero1 tudes de ,mythologie et d',archologie1 p4 #cfi4 #aeh ,maspero1 8,la ,pyramide de ,pepi #a;er0 in ,recueil de ,travaux1 vii4 pp4 #afa1 #afb4 ,in the ,babylonian ,epic of ,gilgames the place of ,nu-,urru is taken by ,ur-,ninnu4 #aei ,the ,book of the ,dead has been analysed by ,maspero1 tudes de ,mythologie et d',archologie gyptiennes1 i4 pp4 #cbe-chg4 #afj ,translated by ,p4 ,j4 de ,horrack4 #afa ,for a translation and analysis of the ,book of ,am ,duat1 see ,maspero1 tudes de ,mythologie et d',archologie gyptiennes ii4 pp4 #a-afc4 #afb ,revue gyptologique1 i4 #d1 ii4 #c 7#ahhj1 #ahha71 where an account of the demotic story is given by ,e4 ,rvillout4 #afc ,scheil1 8,tombeaux thbains0 in ,mmoires de la ,mission archologique franaise du ,caire1 v4 #d1 pl4 #d4 #afd ,so in the ,pyramid texts 7,unas #agj7 reference is made to 8the baqt10 or 8ben-nut tree which is in ,on40 ,the tree is the ,moringa aptera ,grtner1 from the fruit of which the myrobalanum oil was extracted 7,joret1 ,les ,plantes dans l',antiquit et au ,moyen ,age1 i4 pp4 #acc1 #acd74 #afe ,ancient ,egyptians1 iii4 p4 #cdi4 ,the bennu is described as 8the soul of ,osiris40 #aff tudes de ,mythologie et d',archologie1 ii4 p4 #cie sqq4 #afg ,the influence of the ,state religion is visible in the picture1 as the cow has the solar disc between its horns1 and the cobra is crowned not only with horns1 but also with the solar disc4 ,behind the cobra is the leafy branch of a tree4 ,there is no reason for supposing with ,wiedemann 7,muson1 #ahhd7 that the monument is ,ethiopian3 what is decipherable in the inscription is purely ,egyptian4 ,professor ,wiedemann calls the animal on the left a ram1 but my drawing made it a cow4 ,at the feet of the cow1 which has a garland round the neck1 are two vases4 #afh ,see the very interesting study of ,maspero on 8,la ,desse ,miritskro et ses gurisons miraculeuses0 in tudes de ,mythologie et d',archologie1 ii4 pp4 #djb-dai2 ,recueil de ,travaux1 ii4 p4 #aji sqq4 #afi ,the ,belmore collection of ,egyptian antiquities contains several stel which commemorate the popular worship of the serpent2 see ,belmore ,collection1 pls4 #g1 #h1 and #ab4 ,in one of them the urus has the human head of the official deity2 in another it stands on the top of a shrine2 but on one 7given in pl4 #g7 the worshipper is kneeling before a coluber of great length1 which has none of the attributes of the ,state gods1 and whose numerous coils remind us of ,apophis4 #agj ,herodotos1 i4 #gh4 #aga ,sayce1 8,serpent ,worship in ,ancient and ,modern ,egypt10 in the ,contemporary ,review1 ,oct4 #ahic4 #agb ,voyage du ,sieur ,paul ,lucas1 fait en mdccxiv etc41 par ,ordre de ,louis ,,xiv41 ii4 pp4 #hc-hf4 #agc ,voyage d'gypte et de ,nubie1 nouv4 dit4 par ,l4 ,langls1 ii4 pp4 #fd-fi4 #agd ,see my article on 8,serpent ,worship in ,ancient and ,modern ,egypt10 in the ,contemporary ,review1 ,oct4 #ahic4 ,on a rock called ,hagar el-,ghorb1 a few miles north of ,assuan1 ,i have found graffiti of the age of the ,twelfth ,dynasty1 which show that a chapel of 8the living serpent0 stood on the spot2 and a native informed me that the rock is still haunted by a monstrous serpent1 8as long as an oar and as thick as a man10 which appears at night and destroys1 with the fire that blazes from its eyes1 whoever is unfortunate enough to fall in its way4 ,see ,recueil de ,travaux1 xvi4 p4 #agd4 #age ,in the ,verhandlungen der ,gesellschaft fr ,erdkunde zu ,berlin1 #ahhi1 ,no4 #g4 #agf ,the legend was first published by ,pleyte and ,rossi1 8,les ,papyrus hiratiques de ,turin10 pls4 #ca1 #gg1 #aca-h4 ,it was translated by ,lefbure in the ,zeitschrift fr ,aegyptische ,sprache1 #ahhc1 pp4 #bg-cc4 #agg ,the shrine of ,horus1 whom the legend here identifies with the son of ,osiris1 was called ,mesen at ,edfu4 ,the winged solar disc1 which seems to have originated there1 is called sometimes 8the lord of the city of ,beudet10 sometimes 8the lord of the city of ,mesen40 ,beudet was formerly read ,hud1 and it is possible that this was really the pronunciation of the name in later days4 ,at all events it seems to be the origin of the modern ,edfu1 which1 of course1 has nothing to do with the verb deb1 8to pierce40 #agh 8,the ,city of the ,twins0 seems to be the same as a-,zaui1 8the ,house of the ,twins10 which ,dmichen identifies with the ,greek ,khnubis1 close to ,esna4 ,an inscription at ,esna says that it was also termed ,pa-,saura1 8the ,house of ,saura0 7of the ,fifth ,dynasty71 a name which ,dmichen finds in that of the modern village of ,sahera1 south of ,esna4 ,on a prehistoric slate found at ,abydos the name of the city appears to be indicated by the figures of two twins inside the cartouche of a town 7de ,morgan1 ,recherches sur les ,origines de l'gypte1 i4 pl4 iii41 first register74 #agi ,naville1 ,mythe d',horus1 pls4 #ab-ah2 ,brugsch1 ,abhandlungen der ,gtting4 gelehrt4 ,akademie1 xiv4 #ahj ,griffith1 8,minor ,explorations10 in the ,seventh ,memoir of the ,egypt ,exploration ,fund 7#ahij71 pp4 #ga-gc2 ,maspero1 ,dawn of ,civilisation1 pp4 #afi-aga4 #aha ,cf4 the #aeeth chapter of the ,book of the ,dead3 8,these words must be spoken over a gilded dad1 which is made from the heart of a sycamore and hung round the neck of the dead4 ,then shall he pass through the gates of the other world40 ,when this chapter was written1 however1 the real origin of the dad--a row of four columns--had been forgotten1 and it was imagined to represent the backbone of ,osiris4 ,we are transported by it into the full bloom of religious symbolism4 #ahb ,erman1 ,life in ,ancient ,egypt1 ,eng4 tr41 p4 #bgc4 #ahc ,see ,maspero1 tudes de ,mythologie et d',archologie gyptiennes1 i4 pp4 #hb-hi4 #ahd ,see above1 p4 #ij4 #ahe ,records of the ,past1 first series1 ii4 #ahf ,see ,cudworth's translation of ,iamblichus4 #ahg ,maspero1 8,la ,pyramide du ,roi ,ounas10 in the ,recueil de ,travaux1 iv4 pp4 #ei-fa4 #ahh ,elsewhere in the ,pyramid texts the ,akhimu-seku or planets of the northern hemisphere are identified with the gods 7,unas #bah-bbj72 ,unas himself rises as a star 7,unas #cia72 ,sirius is the sister of ,pepi 7,pepi #agb72 while the ,kh or luminous spirits are identified with the planets 7,teta #bhi74 ,we hear of the 8fields of the stars0 7,unas #dai71 of the morning star in the fields of ,alu 7,pepi #hj71 and of ,akhimt1 the grammatically-formed wife of ,akhim 8planet10 who is associated with 8,bab1 the lord of night0 7,unas #fde1 #fdf74 ,one of the constellations frequently mentioned in the ,pyramid texts is 8the ,bull of heaven10 which was also an important constellation in early ,babylonian astronomy1 where the name formed part of an astronomical system2 in ,unas #dba the 8,bull of heaven0 is called the ,an or 8column0 of ,heliopolis4 ,we hear also of 8the fresh water of the stars0 7,unas #baj74 ,with the latter may be compared the goddess ,qebu1 or 8,fresh ,water10 the daughter of ,anubis1 the primitive god of the dead1 who poured forth the liquid from four vases 7,pepi #cic74 ,with the name of the goddess the symbol of the ,antopolite nome of ,upper ,egypt is associated4 #ahi ,in the ,proc4 ,,sba4 xv4 p4 #bcc4 #aij ,or rather1 perhaps1 was the ,osiris of primeval ,egypt4 #aia ,lepsius1 ,chronologie der ,aegypter1 pp4 #gh1 #gi4 ,see ,brugsch1 ,die ,aegyptologie1 ii4 pp4 #cci-cdb4 #aib ,hommel1 ,ausland1 #ahib1 p4 #ajb2 ,ginzel1 ,beitrge zur alten ,geschichte1 i4 pp4 #ab-ae4 ,diodorus 7ii4 #cj7 states that the 8councillor gods0 were only thirty in number2 but the list of planetary stations discovered by ,hommel in ,,wai4 v4 #df1 shows that the text must be corrected into thirty-six4 ,indeed1 ,diodorus himself adds that every ten days there was a change of constellation1 so that in a year of #cfj days there must have been thirty-six constellations in all4 #aic ,the ,egyptian za is the ,semitic i1 8ship10 from which it seems to have been borrowed4 #aid ,maspero1 8,la ,pyramide du ,roi ,pepi #a;er0 in ,recueil de ,travaux1 viii4 p4 #ajc4 #aie ,for instance1 in the ,rhind ,papyrus3 ,wiedemann1 8,ein altgyptischer ,weltschpfungsmythus10 in the ,urquell1 new ser41 ii4 p4 #fd1 8,heaven was not1 earth was not1 the good and evil serpents did not exist40 #aif ,see above1 p4 #hf4 #aig ,the serpent with the seven necks 7,unas #fcj1 ,teta #cje7 is the ,babylonian 8serpent with the seven heads10 and points to ,babylonia1 where alone seven was a sacred number4 ,other coincidences between ,egyptian and ,babylonian mythology that may be noted are 8the tree of life0 7khet n nkh7 which grew in ,alu1 and was given by the stars to the dead that they might live for ever 7,pepi #dca72 and the 8great house10 the ,babylonian -gal1 which is several times referred to in the ,pyramid texts4 #aih ,thus in the ,pyramid texts 7,unas #eah7 ,unas is described as 8eating0 the crowns of ,upper and ,lower ,egypt4 #aii tudes de ,mythologie et d',archologie gyptiennes1 ii4 pp4 #ddf1 #ddg4 #bjj ,golnischeff1 in the ,recueil de ,travaux1 xv4 pp4 #hh1 #hi4 ,the passage is found in ,papyrus #aaaf of the ,hermitage at ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,the words 8son of man0 are a literal translation of the original si-n-sa4 #bja ,for the scenes accompanying the text1 see ,gayet1 8,le ,temple de ,louxor10 in the ,mmoires de la ,mission archologique franaise au ,caire1 xv4 #a1 pl4 lxxi41 where1 however1 the copy of the inscriptions is very incorrect4 ,my translation is made from a copy of my own4 ,the whole inscription is as follows3 8,said by ,amon-,ra1 etc43 ,he 7the god7 has incarnated himself in the royal person of this husband1 ,thothmes ,,iv41 etc42 he found her lying in her beauty2 he stood beside her as a god4 ,she has fed upon sweet odours emanating from his majesty4 ,he has gone to her that he may be a father through her4 ,he caused her to behold him in his divine form when he had gone upon her that she might bear a child at the sight of his beauty4 ,his lovableness penetrated her flesh1 filling it with the odour of all his perfumes of ,punt4 8,said by ,mut-em-ua before the majesty of this august god ,amon1 etc41 the twofold divinity3 ,how great is thy twofold will1 how glorious thy designs in making thy heart repose upon me6 ,thy dew is upon all my flesh in 444 ,this royal god has done all that is pleasing to him with her4 8,said by ,amon before her majesty3 ,amon-hotep is the name of the son which is in thy womb4 ,this child shall grow up according to the words which proceed out of thy mouth4 ,he shall exercise sovereignty and righteousness in this land unto its very end4 ,my soul is in him3 he shall wear the twofold crown of royalty1 ruling the two lands like the sun for ever40 #bjb ,also written ,tello1 on the assumption that the second syllable represents lo1 8a tablet40 ,but the native pronunciation is ,tello4 #bjc ,the palace is represented by the mound called ,el-,qasr1 the temple by that called ,tell ',amrn ibn ',ali4 #bjd ,the name of ,khammu-rabi or ,ammu-rabi is written ,ammu-rapi in ,harper1 ,letters1 iii4 p4 #beg1 ,no4 #bee 7,k #eeb71 as was first noticed by ,dr4 ,pinches 7see the ,proc4 of the ,society of ,biblical ,archology1 ,may #aija1 p4 #aia72 ,dr4 ,lindl suggests that the final -l of the ,hebrew form is derived from the title ilu1 8god10 so often given to the king4 ,professor ,hommel further points out that the character be with which the final syllable of the royal name is sometimes written also had the value of pil4 #bje ,erid is a ,semitised abbreviation of the ,sumerian ,eri-dugga1 8good city40 #bjf ,years ago ,i pointed out that uru was one of the words which 7along with what it signified7 was borrowed by the ,semites from their ,sumerian neighbours or predecessors 7,transactions of ,society of ,biblical ,archology1 i4 #b1 pp4 #cjd1 #cje74 #bjg ,literally1 8the lord of the ghost7s710 8the ghost-lord40 ,the name has been so misunderstood and misinterpreted1 that it is necessary to enter into some details in regard to it1 though the facts ought to be known even to the beginner in ,assyriology4 ,the ,sumerian lilla or lil meant a 8ghost10 8spirit10 or 8spook10 and was borrowed by the ,semites under the form of lil1 from which the feminine liltu was formed in order to represent the female lil whom the ,sumerians called kiel lilla1 8handmaid of 7the male7 lil40 ,liltu is the ,hebrew ,llth 7,isa4 xxxiv4 #ad74 ,in the lexical tablets the lil is explained as 8a breath of wind0 7saru71 or more exactly as a zaqiqu1 or 8dust-cloud0 7not1 of course1 8a fog10 as it has sometimes been translated1 in defiance alike of common sense and of modern ,arab beliefs74 ,when the spirit of ,ea-bani rose from the ground1 it naturally took the form of a 8dust-cloud02 at other times1 when the spirits appeared in the air1 they revealed their presence by a draught of cold 8wind40 #bjh ,see ,pinches1 8,certain ,inscriptions and ,records referring to ,babylonia and ,elam10 in the ,journal of the ,victoria ,institute1 xxix4 p4 #dd3 8between the mouths of the rivers on both sides40 #bji ,it is significant that although the antediluvian kings enumerated by ,berossos must have belonged to ,eridu1 as is shown by their connection with the ,oannes-gods who rose from the ,persian ,gulf1 they are not kings of ,eridu1 but of ,pantibibla and ,larankha 7which seems to have been the ,surippak of the cuneiform texts74 #baj ,thureau-,dangin1 in the ,revue ,smitique4 #baa ,heuzey1 8,sceaux indits des rois d',agad10 in the ,revue d',assyriologie1 iv4 #a1 pp4 #a-ab4 #bab ,it is to this adoption by the god that the phrase met with in early ,sumerian texts--8the king 7or the man7 the son of his god0--probably refers1 though it may possibly have eventually come to be synonymous with 8pious man40 ,professor ,hommel compares ,hebrew names like ,ben-,ammi1 8the son of 7the god7 ,ammi40 #bac ,a4 ,h4 #hc-a-ah1 #ahff1 ,rev4 v41 published by ,pinches in the ,proceedings of the ,society of ,biblical ,archology1 xviii4 #h 7#ahif71 and explained by him1 p4 #bee4 ,i should myself prefer to render ,par-,eu 8the land of the offspring of the god ,eu0 7or ,esau74 #bad ,see my ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #ajg1 note4 #bae ,this at least was the ease in the time of ,gudea1 to whom we owe all the more important theological references found in the ,tello texts4 #baf ,thus we have the phrase 8to swear by the ,zi of the king0 7see ,delitzsch1 ,assyrisches ,handwrterbuch1 s4v4 nisu74 ,the ,zi included the ekim or specific ghost1 whose prominence belongs rather to post-,sumerian days than to the early ages of ,babylonian history4 #bag ,king1 ,babylonian ,religion1 p4 #df4 #bah ,,wai4 ii4 #cf4 #ed1 #ef4 #cc-ch4 #bai ,see my ,hibbert ,lectures on ,babylonian ,religion1 p4 #cge4 ,a common phrase is 8the ,zi 7,assyr4 nis7 of the great gods0 7,delitzsch1 ,assyrisches ,handwrterbuch1 s4v4 nisu74 ,in the incantation text1 ,,wai4 iv4 #a1 #b1 the gods of later times are still ,zis4 ,a translation of part of the text will be given in a future chapter4 ,for the possibility that the ,zi and the ,lil originally had much the same meaning1 the one being used at ,eridu and the other at ,nippur1 see the next lecture4 #bbj ,scheil in ,recueil de ,travaux1 xxii4 p4 #ch4 #bba ,see ,sm4 #aiha4 #c1 where the edinna or 8desert0 is called the home of the lilla4 #bbb ,uda-kra4 #bbc ,by assimilation ,en-lil became ,el-lil4 ,the name is literally 8ghost-lord10 where the singular lil represents a class4 ,hence ,en-lil is 8lord of the ghosts0 in general1 conceived of as 8the devil0 is often conceived of in ,christian literature1 or as ,hades sometimes meant all the denizens of the underworld in ,greek4 ,dialectic forms of the name are ,mul-lil and ,u-lil4 #bbd ,under ,semitic influence these 8tablets of destiny0 lost their primitive signification1 and became1 like the ,urim and ,thummim of the ,old ,testament1 simply a means of predicting the future4 #bbe ,at ,eridu the ,zi seems to have taken the place occupied by the ,lil at ,nippur2 at all events1 just as ,en-lil was the chief ,lil or ,lilla at ,nippur1 so ,ea seems to have been the chief ,zi at ,eridu4 ,on this see the next lecture4 #bbf ,zaqiqu is of course a 8cloud of dust10 not 8a wind10 as some scholars have translated it4 ,a wind does not rise up out of the earth1 but comes from the air or sky4 ,in ,,wai4 v4 #f1 vi4 #fd1 the meaning of zaqiqi can be 8dust0 and nothing else3 ilni-su istarti-su amn ana zakiki1 8its gods and goddesses ,i reduced to dust40 #bbg ,,wai4 v4 #fa1 vi4 #ed1 #ee1 where we must read kibira4 #bbh ,professor ,hommel has shown that among the ,arabian and ,western ,semites 7the ,canaanites excepted7 the original ,baal was rather the moon-god than the sun-god4 ,the supremacy of the sun-god belongs to ,semitic ,babylonia 7,aufstze und ,abhandlungen1 ii4 pp4 #adi-afe74 #bbi ,with this phrase1 which is so frequent in the ,babylonian texts1 ,hommel compares names like ,ben-,ammi1 8the son of 7the god7 ,ammi40 #bcj ,thureau-,dangin in the ,recueil de ,travaux1 xix4 p4 #ahf4 #bca ,quoted by ,king1 ,babylonian ,religion1 p4 #di4 #bcb ,by assimilation ,en-lil became ,el-lil 7and ,ul-lil7 in one of the ,sumerian dialects 7,,wai4 v4 #cg4 #ba74 ,hence the ,illinos 7for which ,illillos must be read7 of ,damascius4 #bcc ,aari-galu-dugga4 ,we owe the interpretation of the name to the insight and learning of ,fr4 ,lenormant1 from whose untimely death the investigation of ,babylonian religion has suffered grievously4 #bcd ,is it possible that the original difference between the ,zi and the ,lil was that the one term was used at ,eridu the other at ,nippur1 the meaning being pretty much the same in both cases8 ,unfortunately we have no materials at present for answering the question4 #bce ,,wai4 ii4 #ee4 #dc1 #eh4 #eg2 iii4 #fg4 #aef4 #bcf ,her assignment as a wife to the sun-god of ,kis or to ,nin-ip of ,nippur belongs to a later period2 see my ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #bfc4 #bcg ,originally1 however1 she had been merely a spirit in the form of a heifer2 ,,wai4 ii4 #fb4 #de1 where 8the ship of ,bau0 is called 8the ship of the holy cow40 ,the name is doubtless ,sumerian1 and it seems to be the origin of the ,baau of ,phnician cosmology1 which asserted that the first men1 n and ,protogonos1 were born of 8the wind ,kolpia and his wife ,baau1 which is interpreted ,night0 7,eusebius1 ,prpar4 ,evang4 i4 #aj74 ,baau is probably the ,hebrew ,bohu4 #bch ,see my ,hibbert ,lectures1 pp4 #bfb1 #cgd1 #cge4 -kur1 8the house of the earth10 was the name of the temple of ,en-lil at ,nippur4 ,it was the abode of the 8lord of the spirits0 of the earth and the underworld4 #bci ,she is called 8the handmaid of the spirit of ,e-kura0 7,,wai4 ii4 #ed4 #ah74 ,the 8spirit of ,e-kura0 is ,en-lil1 whose temple ,e-kura was1 and consequently the title identifies her with the kiel lilla or 8handmaid of the ,lil10 who eventually became the ,lilith of ,jewish folk-lore4 #bdj ,hence in the hymn which describes the oraculur tree of ,eridu 7,,wai4 v4 #ae7 the 8couch0 of ,ea is called 8the bed of ,zi-,kum0 in 8the central place of the earth40 #bda ,see my ,hibbert ,lectures on the ,religion of the ,ancient ,babylonians1 pp4 #cgd1 #cge4 #bdb ,similarly1 as ,i first indicated in my ,hibbert ,lectures 7p4 #acb71 the first two antediluvian kings of ,babylonia given by ,berossos do not belong to the original list1 but have been prefixed to it when ,babylon became the leading city of the country1 and it was accordingly necessary to make it the capital of the kingdom from the very beginning of time4 ,it is worth notice that1 just as the first two antediluvian ,babylonian kings are a later addition to the original list1 so the first two antediluvian patriarchs in the ,book of ,genesis seem to have been added to the original eight4 ,adam and ,enos are synonyms like ,cainan and ,cain1 for whom ,seth1 the ,sutu or ,bedwin 7,num4 xxiv4 #ag71 was substituted4 ,in the ,babylonian list1 ,amelon or ,amilu1 8man10 corresponds with ,enos1 just as ,ammenon 7,ummanu1 8the craftsman07 corresponds with ,cainan or ,cain1 8the smith40 ,for both the ,babylonian and the ,hebrew1 man in the abstract was followed immediately by civilised man4 #bdc ,the ,igigi are represented ideographically by vii 7the ideograph of plurality74 ,perhaps1 therefore1 they were originally the spirits of the five planets duplicated according to their appearance in the evening and morning4 ,if the opinion of ,pognon 7,l',inscription de ,bavian1 i4 p4 #be7 could be sustained that the original ideograph was really vii and not vii1 we should have a better explanation of them as the seven planets which1 in ,chaldan astronomy1 included the sun and moon4 ,the meaning of the name is unknown4 ,guyard's supposition1 that it is derived from the ,assyrian aggu1 8to be angry0 7not 8to be strong10 as he imagined71 is devoid of probability4 ,in ,k #bajj1 col4 iv41 it is also written ,igg1 and explained by isartum1 8justice10 or 8straight direction40 ,in ,,wai4 ii4 #ce4 #cg1 the ,,nun-,,gal 7pronounced ,kisagal7 is called the ,rbu which ,jensen would connect with the ,hebrew ,rahab4 #bdd ,the divine 8lord0 of a place or territory1 such as is met with in a ,south ,arabian or ,phnician inscription1 is totally different from the lord of the ghost-world at ,nippur4 ,the one was master of a definite territory on the surface of the earth1 the other was a spirit ruling over other spirits in an underground world4 ,the two conceptions have nothing in common with one another4 #bde ,the evidence that has since come to light shows that ,i was wrong in my ,hibbert ,lectures 7pp4 #aaj1 #aic7 in supposing that the origin of the triad was purely ,sumerian4 ,it was really due to the fusion of the ,sumerian and ,semitic elements in the official ,babylonian religion4 ,possibly the astronomical triad of the sun1 moon1 and evening star may have suggested the artificial grouping of the gods of the three great seats of religious culture1 but that was all4 ,the origin of the triad must be sought in geography1 or rather in the fact that ,ana1 ,en-lil1 and ,ea represented the three chief sanctuaries and centres of religious influence in ,babylonia4 ,i have already pointed out 7,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #aib7 that from the fact that ,ana is the first of the triad we may infer that the whole doctrine originated in the theological school of ,erech4 ,erech1 in fact1 was the meeting-place of the ,semite and ,sumerian1 where the ,semitic influence first found itself supreme4 ,the ,baal of historical ,semitic religion was a sky-god1 despite ,robertson ,smith's ingenious philological attempts to find a terrestrial source for him4 #bdf ,cf4 ,hommel1 ,aufstze und ,abhandlungen1 ii4 pp4 #adi-afe4 ,hommel has proved1 with the help of the ,minan inscriptions1 that primitive ,semitic religion consisted of moon and star worship1 the moon-god ,athtar and an 8angel0 god standing at the head of the pantheon1 while the sun-goddess was attached to them as daughter or wife4 ,the supreme ,baal of the ,western ,semites was thus originally the moon-god1 a fact that throws light on his cult at ,ur and ,harran1 which lay outside ,babylonia proper1 and were inhabited by a large ,west ,semitic population4 #bdg ,religion of ,babylonia and ,assyria1 p4 #gd4 #bdh ,the name of the ,edomite king -rammu in the time of ,sennacherib shows that the name and worship of had been carried to the ,west4 ,compare also the name of ,ehud 7,judg4 iii4 #ae74 seems to have been a title signifying 8the father10 the actual ,sumerian name of the deity being ,sirrigam 7see my ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #agh74 #bdi ,for the absorption by ,hadad of the ,sumerian god of the air1 ,meri or ,mermer1 the divine patron of the city of ,muru1 my ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #bjb sqq41 may be consulted4 ,gubra1 8the lady of the plain10 was apparently originally the wife of ,meri2 when ,meri passed into ,hadad1 ,gubra necessarily became the wife of the latter1 8the lord of the mountain10 as he was called4 ,as ,hadad was already provided with a wife1 ,sala1 the next step was to identify ,sala and ,gubra4 ,properly speaking1 ,gubra represented the ,canaanitish goddess ,ashrah1 ,asirtum in ,babylonian3 see ,reisner1 8,sumerisch-babylonische ,hymnen nach ,thontafeln griechischer ,zeit10 in the ,mittheilungen aus den orientalischen ,sammlungen zu ,berlin1 x4 p4 #aci1 where the ,sumerian ,martue mulu kharsagga-ga ,gubarra gasan gu-edin is translated ,amurru bel sad ,asratum belit tseri1 8the ,amorite god 7,hadad71 the lord of the mountain2 ,asratum 7,ashrah71 the lady of the plain40 #bej ,the triad of ,athtar1 the moon-god and the 8angel-messenger10 which ,hommel has shown to be presupposed in the ,south ,arabian inscriptions1 was due to the influence of ,babylonian culture4 ,this is made clear by the ,babylonian name of the moon-god1 ,sin1 in the inscriptions of ,hadhramaut1 and of ,auby1 i4e4 ,nebo1 in those of ,katabn4 ,on the other hand1 the addition of the sun-goddess to the triad is purely ,semitic4 #bea ,east ,india ,house ,inscription1 i4 #eb-;ii4 #e4 #beb ,east ,india ,house ,inscription1 ix4 #de-x4 #e4 #bec ,the solar character of ,merodach was first pointed out by myself 7,trans4 ,,sba4 7#ahgc7 ii4 p4 #bdf71 and the proofs of it were given in my ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #ajj sqq4 ,the ,sumerian poem in which the creation is ascribed to ,ea makes -,saggil originally the name of the temple of ,ea at ,eridu1 from whence it must have been transferred to ,babylon when ,ea was supplanted by ,merodach4 ,from the list of ,babylonian kings in which their names are explained1 we may perhaps infer that the proper title of the temple at ,babylon was ,e7s7-,guzi4 ,guzi had the same meaning in ,sumerian as -,saggil1 8the house of the high head0 7,,wai4 ii4 #cj4 #d1 #bf4 #eh74 #bed ,compare ,ati1 8prince10 the title of ,osiris4 #bee ,this was first pointed out by ,ball1 ,proceedings of the ,society of ,biblical ,archology1 xii4 #h1 pp4 #dja1 #djb4 #bef ,we may compare the statement in a hymn 7,,wai4 v4 #ej4 i4 #e7 that the sun-god 8rises from the ,du-azagga1 the place of destinies10 where the ,assyrian translation has 8mountain of destinies40 ,the ,du-azagga was on the horizon of ,ea's domain1 the deep4 #beg ,more commonly written umu4 #beh ,abil-,sin1 8the son of the moon-god10 the god of the city of ,ur1 to which the preceding dynasty had belonged4 #bei ,though ,zi is used here in its ,semitic sense of 8life0 in the abstract1 the position given to it as the first of the divine names and qualities bestowed on ,merodach is significant4 ,before he can be identified with any of the gods of the official pantheon1 he must become a ,zi or 8spirit10 or more strictly 8the spirit0 of heaven4 ,similarly the divine essence of ,ea is still called his ,zi or 8spirit10 a survival from a time when ,ea was not yet a god4 #bfj ,it is probable that the word 8wind0 here1 though its original sense was obscured or forgotten1 goes back to an age when it signified the lil of which in the lexical tablets it is given as an equivalent4 #bfa ,it must also be remembered that the attentions lavished by ,nabonidos upon the older sanctuaries of ,babylonia outside the walls of ,babylon belonged to the earlier part of his reign4 #bfb ,,wai4 ii4 #ed1 ,no4 #d2 iii4 #fi1 ,no4 #a4 ,in ii4 #ed1 ,no4 #c1 the cosmic deities are made 8the mother7s7 and father7s7 of ,anu0 instead of being identified with him4 ,but the identification is doubtless really due to the fact that ana meant 8god0 as well as 8,anu40 #bfc ,journal of the ,victoria ,institute1 xxviii4 #h-aj4 #bfd ,thus the god ,tispak 7the ,susinak of ,susa1 ,k #ibfia1 ,rev4 ii4 #ce7 is identified with ,istar in ,,wai4 #ce4 #ah1 comp4 ii4 #eg4 #ce2 and ,iskhara1 another name of ,istar1 is called a male deity with a wife1 ,almanti 7,strassmaier1 #cija74 ,professor ,barton notices 7,journal of ,american ,oriental ,society1 #ba1 pp4 #ahf-ahh7 that an inscription of ,lugal-khai1 an early king of ,kis1 is dedicated to 8the king ,nana and the lady ,nana40 #bfe ,,wai4 iii4 #ec4 #cj-i4 #bff ,i can suggest no better etymology for the word ,anunna than that proposed in my ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #ahb4 ,it is supported by ,k #bajj1 col4 iv41 where the ,sumerian pronunciation of ,anunna-ki is given as ,enu-kki1 8the lord of the earth40 ,when the 8spirits of the earth0 came to be distinguished from 8the angels0 or 8spirits0 of the air1 the form ,anunna-ki or ,anunna-ge1 8the spirit of the earth0 or 8lower world10 became more usual than the simple ,anunna4 ,the latter is used of the ,igigi or 8angels0 in ,k #dfbi1 ,rev41 and of the ,anunna-ki in ,,wai4 iv4 #a1 #b1 col4 iv4 #c4 #bfg ,hoffmann remarks in regard to the ,aramaic inscriptions of ,zenjirli 7,zeitschrift fr ,assyriologie1 xi4 p4 #bec73 8,the most interesting fact is that even the theological ,hadad-stela makes no mention of a female goddess40 #bfh ,the origin and nature of ,tammuz have been investigated in my ,hibbert ,lectures1 pp4 #bbj-bde1 and need not be repeated here4 ,he was primarily a ,zi or spirit worshipped at ,eridu1 where he was known as 8the ,son of the ,spirit of the ,deep10 i4e4 ,ea4 ,he was1 in fact1 the primitive sun-god of ,eridu1 though his character underwent strange transformations in the course of his identification with ,nin-giru 7,inguria7 and other gods4 ,but ,tammuz was a sun-god who spent half his annual life in the underworld1 or1 according to another view1 as fellow-warder with ,nin-gis-zida of the gates of heaven4 ,hence he pastures his cattle in the fields beyond the river ,khubur1 the ocean-stream that encircles the earth1 on the road to the land of the dead 7,craig1 ,religious ,texts1 i4 p4 #ag74 ,on the other hand1 he was also said to dwell in the midst of the cosmic temple of ,ea at ,eridu1 between the ,tigris and ,euphrates 7,,wai4 iv4 #ae4 #eh-ei74 ,it is possible1 though not yet proved1 that in ,tammuz two deities have been combined together1 the sun-god and the vegetation of the spring which the young sun of the year brings into existence4 ,however this may be1 in ,tammuz and ,nin-gis-zida ,i see the ,babylonian prototypes of the two pillars ,jachin and ,boaz erected by ,solomon in front of the temple 7#a ,kings vii4 #ba74 ,nin-gis-zida means 8the lord of the upright post0 7bil itsi kni in ,semitic ,babylonian71 and thus corresponds with ,jachin4 #bfi ,thureau-,dangin in the ,recueil de ,travaux relatifs la ,philologie et l',archologie gyptiennes et assyriennes1 xix4 pp4 #ahe-ahg4 #bgj ,published and translated by me in the ,transactions of the ,society of ,biblical ,archology1 v4 7#ahgg7 p4 #dda1 where ,i pointed out for the first time that the early ,babylonian kings were deified4 #bga ,scheil in the ,recueil de ,travaux1 xviii4 p4 #ga1 xxi4 p4 #bg4 #bgb ,see ,brnnow1 ,classified ,list1 ,no4 #hhhc4 #bgc ,,wai4 ii4 #ee4 #bg1 iv4 #be4 #dj4 ,dara1 ,semitic turakhu1 is shown to be 8an antelope0 by the figure of an antelope1 ending in a fish1 which is stated to represent ,ea on a boundary-stone from ,susa published in de ,morgan's ,dlgation en ,perse1 vol4 i41 and explained by ,scheil in the ,recueil de ,travaux1 xxiii4 pp4 #if1 #ig4 ,the figure is accompanied by the symbol of ,ea1 a weapon which terminates in the head of a ram4 #bgd ,,wai4 iii4 #fh4 #ab-ad4 ,see my ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #bhf4 ,for 8the cow0 ,bau1 see above1 p4 #adh4 ,nergal or ,allamu was originally the gazelle 7,brnnow1 ,classified ,list1 ,nos4 #aijf1 #aijg74 #bge ,,wai4 ii4 #ah4 #eg1 #ee4 #fi1 iv4 #c4 #be4 #bgf ,thus the monkey is associated with ,nu-gidda1 8the dwarf10 who in his turn accompanies the moon-god4 #bgg ,the last line of this hymn 7,,wai4 iv4 #ae4 #eb sqq471 of which ,i have given a translation in my ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #bch1 has been discovered by ,dr4 ,pinches1 and published by him in the ,journal of ,transactions of the ,victoria ,institute1 xxix4 p4 #dd4 #bgh ,in ,reisner1 8,sumerisch-babylonische ,hymnen nach ,thontafeln griechischer ,zeit10 in the ,mittheilungen aus den orientalischen ,sammlungen1 x4 p4 #ace1 #be-cb1 and p4 #aci1 #aea-aeh1 we read1 8the great gods are #ej2 the gods of destiny are #g2 the ,anunnaki of heaven are #cjj2 the ,anunnaki of earth are #fjj40 #bgi ,hence he is called by ,nebuchadrezzar pakid kissat sam u irtsitim1 8marshaller of the hosts of heaven and earth0 7,,wai4 i4 #ea4 #ac74 #bhj ,for the ,anunna-ki and ,igigi1 see above1 p4 #cdd4 #bha ,the solar character of ,nin-ip was first pointed out by myself in the ,transactions of the ,society of ,biblical ,archology1 ii4 7#ahgc7 p4 #bdf1 and again in my ,hibbert ,lectures1 pp4 #aeb1 #aec4 ,he was probably called ,br in ,assyrian1 but the ,cilician ,nineps shows that he was also known by his ,sumerian title of ,nin-ip4 ,see my paper in the ,proc4 ,,sba4 xx4 #g1 pp4 #bfa1 #bfb4 #bhb ,the ideograph denotes the keffya1 corresponding both to the veil and to the turban4 ,in its earliest pictorial form it represents a veil covering both the head and face1 and leaving only the hair at the back of the head visible4 ,it was usually termed uras1 a word borrowed by ,semitic ,babylonian under the form of urasu1 which in its turn created the verb arsu1 8to veil10 and the word aristu1 8a cloak40 ,the keffya was also known in ,sumerian as mutra1 ,semitic mutru1 from which the ,greek was borrowed4 ,the mitra properly signified the ,oriental turban2 but as no such head-dress was worn by the ,greeks1 it is already used by ,homer for the girdle of the waist4 ,besides the value of uras1 the ideograph also had the value of dara 7in ,assyrian nibittu and ikhu1 8a veil074 ,it is possible that the actual pronunciation of the name ,nin-ip was ,in-dar4 #bhc ,,wai4 ii4 #eg4 #ci4 #bhd ,gwydion induced ,pryderi by stratagem to give some of them to him1 and so carried them from ,dyved to ,north ,wales2 ,rhys1 ,hibbert ,lectures on ,celtic ,heathendom1 pp4 #bdb-bdd4 #bhe ,cf4 ,,wai4 ii4 #ai4 #di;b1 8the spirits of the earth ,i made grope like swine in the hollows40 #bhf ,see1 for example1 ,,wai4 ii4 #ed4 #c ,obv4 #d-ad1 #d4 #cg-de4 #bhg ,there is no reason for holding that the temple of -,zida rebuilt by ,khammurabi at ,borsippa1 was any other than the old -,zida which was dedicated to ,nebo4 #bhh ,for names like ,sippar-sad1 ,sippar-saduni1 ,up-semi1 and ,up-natsir1 see ,pinches1 ,revue de l',histoire des ,religions1 xliii4 p4 #bgg4 #bhi ,support may be found for this etymology in the common title of ,assur as 8the good god10 which is written ideographically an-dugga4 ,but even if the ,assyrians believed that this was the proper signification of the name of their god1 it does not follow that they were right2 and since the characters representing the title could be read ,,an-,,sar1 it is possibly only a play on the supposed connection of the name with the ,sumerian ,ansar4 ,the latter appears as ,assoros in ,damascius4 ,perhaps ,assur 7originally ,asur7 is merely asurru1 8a wall40 #bij ,glaser1 ,skizze der ,geschichte ,arabiens 7#ahhi71 pp4 #fd-gd4 #bia ,du-azagga4 ,as the 8holy mound0 was the home of ,ea1 it follows that it was originally part of the ,persian ,gulf2 on the other hand1 the name given to it implies that it resembled a mountain lifting itself up into the sky4 ,the sun rose from it 7,,wai4 v4 #ej4 #e;a72 hence it must have been the eastern horizon1 which1 to an inhabitant of ,eridu1 would have been the horizon of the sea1 that ascended towards the heavens like a great mound4 ,a model was made of it1 which became the parakku or mercy-seat of ,ea in his temple at ,eridu4 ,when ,eridu and its god were supplanted by ,babylon and ,bel-,merodach1 the ,du-azagga was transferred to the latter city and became 8the seat of the oracles0 in the shrine of ,bel-,merodach1 8whereon10 according to ,nebuchadrezzar1 8at the festival of ,zagmuku1 at the beginning of the year1 on the #hth and #aath days1 the king of the gods of heaven and earth1 ,bel1 the god1 seats himself1 while the gods of heaven and earth reverently regard him1 standing before him with bowed heads40 ,when ,nebo became the minister of ,merodach1 he too was addressed as 8the god of the holy mound0 7,,wai4 ii4 #ed4 #ga71 and one of 8the three great names of ,anu0 was said to be 8the king who comes forth from the holy mound10 another of the names being 8the creator of the heavenly hosts0 7,,wai4 iii4 #fh4 #ai1 #bj74 ,even ,istar1 or rather ,iskhara1 is called 8the goddess of the holy mound0 7,,wai4 iii4 #fh4 #bg74 ,it may be added that a lexical tablet makes the 8holy mound0 a synonym of the deep 7,,wai4 v4 #da1 ,no4 #a74 #bib ,,wai4 ii4 #eh4 #eg4 ,his ,sumerian title as the divine potter was ,nunurra1 which is explained as 8god of the pot10 or more literally 8lord of the pot0 7,brnnow1 ,classified ,list1 #ehie74 ,see ,scheil1 ,recueil de ,travaux1 xx4 p4 #abe4 #bic ,el-lil1 it should be noted1 was called 8the great mountain0 7,kur-gal1 ,sadu-rabu in ,semitic71 and the name of his temple was -kur1 8the house of the mountain40 ,it is probable that the belief in the ,kharsag-kurkurra1 or 8mountain of the world10 on which the gods lived1 originated at ,nippur4 ,from ,isa4 xiv4 #ac we gather that it was placed in the north4 ,nin-lil1 the wife of ,en-lil1 is called ,nin-kharsag1 8the lady of the mountain10 by ,samsu-iluna1 who describes her as 8the mother who created me0 7,brit4 ,mus41 pl4 #aii1 #a4 #da74 #bid ,these are the creatures described by ,berossos as sprung from the bosom of ,tiamt--winged men1 with four or two faces1 or with the feet of horses and goats2 human-headed bulls2 dog-headed horses1 and the like--which were depicted on the walls of the temple of ,bel-,merodach1 the successor of ,bel of ,nippur 7,syncell4 p4 #bi2 ,euseb4 ,chron4 ,armen4 p4 #aj1 ed4 ,mai74 #bie ,a variant fragment of the legend1 as was first recognised by myself in the ,proc4 ,,sba4 xx4 pp4 #ahg-ahi1 was published by ,dr4 ,scheil from an early ,babylonian tablet in the ,recueil de ,travaux1 xx4 pp4 #ff1 #fg4 #bif ,an indication may1 however1 be found in the statement that the ,lillum or 8,lil0 was the 8mother-father0 of ,en-lil 7,,wai4 iv4 #bg4 #e71 and the further reference to the ,zi or 8spirit0 who was the 8mother-father0 of ,en-lil and ,nin-lil 7,,wai4 iv4 #a4 ,col4 ii4 #be-bh74 ,the genderless ,sumerian knew of no distinction of sex2 the creative principle was at once female and male4 ,it will be noticed that the female element takes precedence of the male in contradistinction to ,semitic ideas4 #big ,these two lines are an interpolation4 #bih ,these three lines have been interpolated4 #bii ,the name of ,merodach has been substituted for that of ,ea4 #cjj ,a play on the name of ,eri-dugga1 8the good city40 #cja ,probably an interpolation4 #cjb ,originally ,ea4 #cjc ,these two lines do not belong to the original poem4 #cjd ,for ,tammuz and ,nin-gis-zida1 see above1 p4 #cej1 note4 ,it may be added that in the ,maql collection of incantation texts1 ,nin-gis-zida seems to be regarded as a goddess and the consort of ,nusku1 the fire-god4 ,nin1 in ,sumerian1 more often signified 8lady0 than 8lord40 ,it is possible that at ,eridu she was held to be the wife of ,tammuz4 #cje ,perhaps ,hommel is right in translating 8palm40 #cjf ,cp4 ,gen4 iii4 #h4 #cjg ,zikum or ,nammu1 the abyss1 who is called the mother of ,ea4 ,nammu is given as the ,sumerian name or title of ,zikum in ,cuneiform ,texts1 xii4 p4 #bf1 #a4 #bj4 #cjh ,see my ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #bch1 and ,pinches1 ,journal of the ,victoria ,institute1 xxix4 p4 #dd4 #cji ,,wai4 iv4 #ae1 ,col4 ii4 #e1 #f4 #caj ,so in ,,wai4 iv4 #be4 #di1 an-sar ki-sar is translated 8the hosts of heaven and earth40 ,in ,,wai4 v4 #dc4 #bg1 the ,sumerian 8the divine scribe1 the creator of the hosts of earth10 is paraphrased by the ,semitic translator ,nab pakid kissat sam u irtsiti1 8,nebo1 the captain of the hosts of heaven and earth40 ,for the ,semite1 the god he worshipped was lord of the hosts of heaven as well as of the spirits of the earth4 #caa ,it is possible that the ,hebrew ,urim and ,thummim were really connected with the ,babylonian 8tablets of destiny40 ,the latter were fastened 8on the breast10 according to the ,epic of the ,creation1 like the ,urim and ,thummim of the ,israelitish high priest4 ,in ,,wai4 iv4 #ah1 ,no4 #c1 ,ea describes a sort of magical breastplate1 made of gold1 which was to be set with precious stones and fastened to the breast4 ,nine stones are named1 which seem to have been carved into figures of the gods1 like ,egyptian amulets1 since they are said to be 8the flesh of the gods40 ,professor ,zimmern even suggests 7,beitrge zur ,kenntniss der babylonischen ,religion1 p4 #ia7 that ,urim is to be identified with the ,assyrian urtu1 a synonym of tertu 7trh71 8instruction0 or 8law40 #cab ,compare the 8ladder0 of ,jacob 7,gen4 xxviii4 #ab74 ,a similar staircase or ladder is represented on the conical or egg-shaped stone which symbolised the moon-god of ,harran 7e4g4 ,lajard1 ,culte de ,mithra1 #ed1 #d74 #cac ,en-me1 literally1 8lord of the voice10 appears to have been pronounced n in ,sumerian1 since the ,semitic nu was borrowed from it4 ,the word has the same root as n1 8an incantation10 and the nu denoted the priest who 8recited0 the incantatory ritual4 ,he may thus be compared with the ,egyptian kher-heb4 ,there was an nu or 8chanter of ,istar10 whose technical name was ukurrim1 and another of ,ea1 8the holy father10 who was called the sennu4 ,the incantatory formul1 it must be remembered1 relate for the most part to ,ea and ,istar4 ,another class of the nu was called sailu1 8the magian10 in ,assyrian 7literally1 8the questioner0 of the spirits who may have practised ventriloquism72 in ,sumerian the name may be read n-lil1 8the chanter of the lil40 #cad ,i can still see no better etymology for dimmer1 dingir1 8god10 than the one ,i proposed in my ,hibbert ,lectures 7p4 #adc71 viz4 dim1 8to create0 or 8make40 ,from the same root we have dim or dimma1 8offspring0 7,,wai4 v4 #bi4 #ga71 which illustrates the antithesis between the ,sumerian who regarded generation as an act of creation1 and the ,semite who regarded creation as an act of generation4 ,in ,,wai4 ii4 #dg4 #bi1 dim takes the place of dumu1 8son40 ,dimme and dimmea show that in dimmer the final consonant is a suffix4 #cae ,,wai4 ii4 #ee4 #bg1 iv4 #be4 #dj4 ,i have retained here the ordinary rendering of 8gazelle0 for the ,assyrian ditanu1 though it is more probable that its ,sumerian equivalent elim 7perhaps the ,heb4 yl7 means 8ram40 ,at all events elim is given as kuarikku or 8ram0 in ,sc4 #cae4 ,but there is a difficulty about the god to whom the name was originally applied4 ,in ,,wai4 ii4 #ee4 #ca-cc1 8the princely elim10 8the mighty elim10 and 8the earth-creating elim0 are given as names of ,ea2 whereas in ,,wai4 v4 #ba4 #aa1 elim is a synonym of the god ,aari1 and in ,sc4 #cab it is the equivalent of ,el-lil4 ,as 8the ship0 or ark of ,ea was 8the ship of the antelope of the deep10 ,ea must have been the antelope 7turakhu7 rather than the ram or gazelle2 and ,i believe1 therefore1 that the transference of what was properly the name of ,el-lil to ,asari and ,ea was due to the confusion that grew up between ,el-lil after his transformation into the ,semitic ,bel and ,asari after his transformation into the ,semitic ,bel-,merodach4 ,the ideograph which denotes elim represents a quadruped1 sometimes with an eye1 sometimes with the ideograph of sheep1 attached to it4 #caf ,,wai4 v4 #eb1 ,col4 iv4 #h4 #cag ,perhaps1 however1 the 8divine seven0 was descended from the seven gods who were sons of ,en-me-sarra1 according to ,,wai4 iv4 #bc1 ,no4 #a4 ,en-me-sarra means 8the incantation-priest of the 7heavenly7 hosts0 7nu sa kissati71 and his 8sons0 therefore remind us of ,job xxxviii4 #g4 ,it will not be forgotten that ,philo ,byblius made 8the seven sons of ,sydyk1 the ,kabeiri1 with their eighth brother ,asklpios 7,ashmn710 the first writers of history 7,euseb4 ,prp4 evang4 i4 #aj74 #cah ,it has been edited and translated by ,tallqvist1 ,die ,assyrische ,beschwrungsserie ,maql 7#ahid71 who calculates that it contained #aeej lines1 or more than #ijjj words4 #cai ,the whole work is in the metrical form characteristic of ,semitic ,babylonian4 ,it has been edited by ,zimmern1 ,beitrge zur ,kenntniss der babylonischen ,religion2 ,die ,beschwrungstafeln ,shurpu 7#ahif74 #cbj ,isa4 viii4 #ai4 ,the beginning1 for instance1 of the second book of the ,maql collection had to be recited in a whisper before a wax image4 #cba ,as the title of the latter work is sometimes written ,,ud-,,ma ,,an ,,en-,,lil as well as ,,ud ,,an ,,en-,,lil1 the real translation may be 8when 7enu-ma7 ,bel10 rather than 8,illumination 7namaru7 of ,bel10 these having been the opening words of the first tablet4 ,since1 however1 it was translated into ,greek by ,berossos as a work of 8,bel0 7,seneca1 ,qust4 ,nat4 iii4 #bi71 the name assigned to it in the text is on the whole to be preferred4 #cbb ,,wai4 iv4 #ai1 ,no4 #b4 #cbc ,,wai4 iv4 #bh1 ,no4 #a4 #cbd ,literally1 8the prophetdom0 or 8college of prophets0 7isipputi74 #cbe ,,wai4 v4 #d4 #hf-ia4 #cbf ,terti1 the ,heb4 thrh4 ,the laws which the gods have to obey are meant4 #cbg ,gilgames seems to mean 8great father10 from gilga1 8father10 and mes1 i4e4 mas1 8great40 #cbh ,hist4 ,anim4 xii4 #ba4 ,sokkaros1 king of ,babylonia1 fearing that his daughter's son would dethrone and slay him1 imprisoned her in a tower4 ,gilgamos1 however1 was born to her4 ,by his grandfather's orders he was thrown from the tower1 but saved by an eagle1 which caught him upon its wings4 ,philologically it is possible to identify ,sokkaros and ,akris-ios4 #cbi ,hilprecht1 ,the ,babylonian ,expedition of the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 i4 #ae4 #bf2 ,hommel in the ,proc4 ,,sba4 xvi4 pp4 #ac-ae4 ,the inscription is as follows3 8,the deified ,abil-ili7871 father of the army of ,erech1 the son of ,bel-semea1 has restored the walls of ,erech1 which were built in old times by the deified ,gilgames40 #ccj ,professor ,haupt1 however1 to whom we owe the 8editio princeps0 of the ,epic of ,gilgames1 believes that the description of the siege of ,erech does not belong to the ,epic at all4 ,he finds the beginning of it in the fragment ,k #bgef c1 generally assigned to the third book of the poem4 ,see his article on 8,the ,beginning of the ,babylonian ,nimrod ,epic0 in the 8,johns ,hopkins ,semitic ,papers0 7,journal of the ,american ,oriental ,society1 xxii4 #a 7#aija774 #cca ,as ,berossos has told us what was the pronunciation of the name of the hero of the ,chaldean ,deluge1 the disputes of modern ,assyriologists as to whether it was ,pir-napistim or the like are but labour lost4 ,the true analysis of the name ,xisuthros is still unknown1 though it is possible1 but not probable1 that ,george ,smith was right in seeing in it a metathesis of the title ,adra-khasis applied to several of the early ,babylonian heroes4 ,adra-khasis means 8the very clever10 reminding us of 8,mohammed the clever0 in modern ,egyptian folk-lore4 #ccb ,samtu1 ,heb4 shohem 7,gen4 ii4 #ab74 #ccc ,so ,hommel1 who is probably right in seeing in the word the name of ,saba in ,southern ,arabia4 #ccd ,zimmern1 indeed1 has suggested that this latter text belongs to the legend of ,atarpi1 which1 however1 has unfortunately come down to us in so mutilated a condition that no certain interpretation of it is possible4 ,the discoverer of the tablet is more probably right in connecting it with the story of the ,flood4 #cce ,who here takes the place of ,aruru4 #ccf ,the words 8,i will no longer dwell in your city1 and turn my face toward the ground of ,en-lil10 imply that ,surippak was not far from ,nippur4 #ccg ,the mountain of ,nizir was in the country called ,lulubi or ,luluwi by the ,assyrians1 ,lulu in the ,vannic inscriptions4 ,in the bilingual inscription of ,topzawa1 ,lulu is made the equivalent of the ,assyrian ,urardhu1 the ,hebrew ,ararat4 #cch ,see my ,early ,history of the ,hebrews1 p4 #abb sqq4 #cci ,loc4 cit41 p4 #abf4 #cdj ,schpfung und ,chaos in ,urzeit und ,endzeit 7#ahie74 #cda ,it should be noticed that1 as the voyage of ,xisuthros lasted for a ,babylonian week of seven nights1 so the voyage of ,deukalion lasted for a ,greek week of nine days4 ,ogyges is but a local variant of ,deukalion4 #cdb ,see ,meissner1 ,alexander und ,gilgamos 7#ahid74 #cdc ,see my ,hibbert ,lectures1 pp4 #cfj-cfc1 where the various passages relating to the ,babylonian ,olympos are quoted4 #cdd ,the land of ,arallu or ,hades4 #cde ,this1 however1 is rather the 8holy mound0 of waters1 in which ,ea had his home1 than the inland mountain of ,en-lil4 #cdf ,ur is the ,sumerian word for 8zone40 ,it is translated by arru1 8to bind02 etsdu1 8to bind the sheaves0 for harvest2 and khammu1 8to bind0 or 8fix0 laws4 #cdg ,from ,mr4 ,smith's words it is difficult to determine whether the gates were in the first or second court1 or whether 7as seems the more probable7 the tablet intended us to understand that the gates belonged to both courts4 #cdh ,the first stage was #cjj feet square and #aaj feet high1 while the topmost was #hj feet long by #gj broad and #ej high4 #cdi ,for the shewbread1 see ,zimmern1 ,beitrge zur ,kenntniss der babylonischen ,religion1 pp4 #id1 #ie2 and ,haupt1 8,babylonian ,elements in the ,levitic ,ritual10 p4 #ei 7,journal of ,biblical ,literature1 #aijj74 ,sometimes six dozen cakes were laid before the god1 sometimes three dozen1 more often only one dozen1 as among the ,israelites4 ,the shewbread is called akal pani1 which is the exact equivalent of the ,hebrew lekhem happnm2 and ,professor ,haupt has pointed out that it was required to be unleavened 7mutqu74 #cej ,cp4 ,gen4 xi4 #e4 #cea ,the ,sumerian du has1 of course1 nothing to do with the ,semitic ,babylonian d1 8a chapel0 7unless1 indeed1 the latter is borrowed from the ,sumerian word74 ,it is properly the equivalent of tilu1 8a mound0 or 8hill02 but as the tilu or tel was generally inhabited1 it came further to acquire the signification of subtu1 8a dwelling-place40 #ceb ,,wai4 v4 #ej4 i4 #e2 #da4 #a1 ,rev4 #ah4 #cec ,see above1 p4 #cgd1 note #a4 #ced ,samassumukin1 ii4 pp4 #dg-ea4 ,nebuchadrezzar calls the ,du-azagga1 8the place of the oracles of the ,ubsu-ginna1 the mercy-seat of destinies1 which on the festival of the ,new ,year 7,zag-muku71 on the eighth and eleventh days10 ,bel announces before the assembled gods4 ,jensen 7,kosmologie der ,babylonier1 pp4 #bci-bdb7 first pointed out that the ,ubsu-ginna was 8the assembly-place0 of the gods1 which was located in or upon -kur1 8the ,mountain of the ,world0 7,,wai4 iv4 #fc4 #ag474 ,it thus corresponds with 8the mount of the ,assembly0 of ,isa4 xiv4 #ac1 and illustrates the combination of the theology of ,eridu with that of ,nippur4 #cee ,,wai4 iv4 #bc1 ,no4 #a1 translated in my ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #die4 #cef ,de ,sarzec1 ,dcouvertes en ,chalde1 pp4 #baf1 #bag4 #ceg ,the sangu was called bar in ,sumerian1 with which the name of ,eber in ,gen4 xi4 #ae may possibly be compared4 #ceh ,not 8astrologers10 as has sometimes been supposed4 ,kal is borrowed from the ,sumerian kal1 as makhkh is from makh4 ,at their head was the abba-kalla1 aba-kul1 or ab-gal1 a word which under the first form is used as a proper name in early ,babylonian texts4 ,assyrian colonists carried it to ,kappadokia1 and ,strabo accordingly tells us that the high priest of ,komana was called ,abakls4 ,a ,hellenised form of the title1 ,baklos1 is given by ,hesychius1 who renders it by 8the grandee0 and 8the gallos-priest0 7see my note in the ,proc4 ,,sba4 xxiii4 p4 #ajf74 ,abgal is stated to be the equivalent not only of the borrowed ,assyrian abkallu1 but also of bil terti1 8master of the law02 khassu and imqu1 8the learned one0 7like the ,arabic 'alim72 and mar ummani1 8the craftsman0 or 8professional0 7,,wai4 v4 #ac4 #cg-db74 ,the relation of kal to gallu 7,sumerian kal and galla71 8a servant10 is not yet clear1 though it must be remembered that the gallos was the 8servant0 of ,kybel4 ,on the use of kal1 8servant0 in the ,sumerian texts1 see ,reisner1 ,tempelurkunden aus ,telloh1 pp4 #bj1 #ba4 #cei ,so in a text quoted in my ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #ha1 8like ,bel on the mercy-seat of the destinies the prophecy shall be uttered1 this shall be said3 #8,bel has come forth1 the king has looked after me4' 0 ,a special class of 8prophets0 bore the name of masmas 7whence masmasu in ,assyrian71 which is translated mullilu1 8the praiser0 of the gods 7,heb4 hilll74 #cfj ,see my ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #gi4 #cfa -kua and ,m-,kua1 bit-assaputi and elip-assaputi in ,semitic4 ,jastrow mistranslates 8dwelling-house0 instead of 8oracle0 or 8prophecy02 the true meaning of the word was already discovered by ,oppert in the early days of cuneiform decipherment4 #cfb ,the sabr was distinct from the bar1 whose name seems to have a more general signification1 and ,professor ,haupt is probably right in regarding it as the shaphel form of the latter4 ,he gives bar1 however1 too wide a meaning when he makes it denote a 8diviner0 of every kind and sort4 ,it is true that magic was taken under the gis of ,babylonian theology1 and that just as the asipi or 8prophets0 might be made to include the 8enchanters0 and 8pronouncers0 of spells1 so the bari might include those who sought to divine the future by examining the entrails of victims or by means of a cup 7cp4 ,gen4 xliv4 #e74 ,but1 properly speaking1 the bar1 like the sabr1 8revealed0 the future by means of dreams4 ,haupt's correction of baddm into brm1 8diviners10 in ,isa4 xliv4 #be and ,jer4 l4 #cf1 is brilliant 7,babylonian ,elements in the ,levitic ,ritual1 p4 #eg74 ,the ,sumerian equivalent of bar is ,,khal 7or more correctly khal72 that of sabr1 ,,pa-,,al1 where ,,pa means 8the official40 #cfc ,thureau-,dangin1 8,tablettes chaldennes indites10 in the ,revue d',assyriologie1 iv4 #c1 pl4 xiii4 #dj1 ,obv4 #cfd ,so too was a person of illegitimate birth1 as has been pointed out by ,haupt 7,journal of ,biblical ,literature 7#aijj71 p4 #eg74 #cfe ,j4 ,d4 ,price in the ,journal of the ,american ,oriental ,society1 xxi4 #b1 pp4 #a-bb4 ,in the hemerology published in ,,wai4 iv4 #cb1 the animal mentioned in col4 #a1 line #c1 is not a gazelle1 as ,i have supposed in my ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #gj1 but a 8goat0 7,sumerian sikku1 ,assyrian sapparu74 #cff ,there is no question here of a scape-goat or anything similar4 ,the word 8offspring0 is uritsu1 which is the regular equivalent of ,bir 8suboles40 ,the addition of the words sa amiluti1 8of mankind10 confines it in this case to man4 ,already1 in #ahge1 in my ,elementary ,assyrian ,grammar 7p4 #abc71 ,i pointed out that it was connected with the ,arabic warats1 which ,i see 7like many other things of the same sort7 has recently been announced as a new discovery4 ,the verb ittadin1 by the way1 is an ,iphteal1 not a ,niphal1 and therefore cannot be translated as a passive4 #cfg ,de ,sarzec1 ,dcouvertes en ,chalde1 iv4 #a1 pl4 #d bis4 ,this was in the time of king ,e-anna-du4 ,a bas-relief of the time of ,entemena on the same plate1 #e bis 7#c;b71 represents what may also be a human sacrifice1 one naked captive lying on the ground already slain1 while another is being led to execution4 #cfh ,references are given in ,jastrow1 ,religion of ,babylonia and ,assyria1 p4 #fff4 #cfi ,the tithe was paid on the #eth of ,ab2 on the #afth of ,tammuz1 nineteen days earlier1 ,gobryas had entered ,babylon with the soldiers of ,cyrus4 #cgj ,a more comprehensive term was gin1 8the fixed offering10 which included not only the daily sacrifices1 but all other stated sacrifices as well4 #cga ,see my ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #gb1 note #b4 #cgb ,,wai4 i4 #fe1 ii4 #ai-ba2 #ed4 iii4 #dh-ej4 ,see ,trumbull1 ,the ,threshold ,covenant1 pp4 #aaj1 #aaf4 #cgc ,cp4 ,lev4 v4 #g1 #aa4 #cgd ,haupt1 ,babylonian ,elements in the ,levitic ,ritual1 pp4 #fj1 #fa4 #cge ,zimmern1 ,beitrge zur ,kenntniss der ,babylonischen ,religion1 p4 #abg4 #cgf ,l4c41 p4 #hh1 note #b4 #cgg ,on the early ,babylonian calendar1 see ,radau1 ,early ,babylonian ,history1 pp4 #bhg-cjg4 #cgh ,the real reading of the god's name is unknown4 ,he was identified with ,nin-ip 7,,wai4 ii4 #eg4 #fh71 the sun of the south 7,,wai4 ii4 #eg4 #ea71 and therefore the midday sun--not the morning sun1 as has recently been maintained4 ,nin-ip was the messenger or 8angel0 of ,el-lil of ,nippur1 and consequently ,bil-'si is further identified with 8the moon of ,nippur0 7,,wai4 #eg4 #ef71 the angel of the lord of the ghost-world being more properly the moon than the sun4 ,when ,bel-,merodach of ,babylon usurped the functions of ,el-lil1 ,bel-'si naturally became ,nebo1 8the power of strength0 7,,wai4 v4 #dc4 #cg71 who stood in the same relation to ,merodach that ,nin-ip did to ,el-lil4 ,bil-'si was also the seventh of the tikpi-stars 7,,wai4 ii4 #di4 #aj-ac1 iii4 #ej-eb74 #cgi ,amiaud's translation in ,records of the ,past1 new ser41 ii4 pp4 #hc1 #hd4 #chj ,athenus1 ,deipnosophist1 #ad4 #cha ,the most obvious derivation of the ,hebrew ,purim is that which ,i have proposed in the ,proceedings of the ,society of ,biblical ,archology1 xix4 #g1 pp4 #bhj1 #bha1 little as it may suit certain fashionable hypotheses4 ,on the ,black ,obelisk 7#age71 ,shalmaneser says3 8,for the second time the ,pr-festival of ,assur and ,hadad ,i celebrated02 and a deed of sale 7,rm4 #b4 #ai7 is dated in the eponymy of ,bel-danan1 ,b4,c4 #gcd1 8in the year of his ,pr-office0 7ina san puri-su74 ,pur1 which is interpreted 8a lot10 has naturally no connection with the ,assyrian bur1 which is stated to mean 8a stone40 ,that we must read bur and not pur1 is shown by the variant spelling ba-ar 7,sa #e4 iv4 #aj74 #chb ,,wai4 ii4 #cb4 #af4 ,the reading of ,delitzsch and myself has been called in question1 the tablet having apparently been damaged since we examined it1 but all doubts have now been set at rest by ,k #icjcg1 ,obv4 #bd 7published in ,cuneiform ,texts1 xii4 #f71 where sabattum is the equivalent of a ,sumerian 8the day0 par excellence4 ,babylonia was the home of astronomy and of the sacredness of the number seven1 due to the fact that there were seven planets1 so that a seventh-day ,sabbath was natural there4 #chc ,compare the ,rabbinical phrase1 8soiling the hands10 applied to the inspired books of ,scripture4 #chd ,a translation of the whole text is given in my ,hibbert ,lectures1 pp4 #gj-gf4 ,with the last prohibition1 compare ,isa4 lviii4 #ac1 8not speaking thine own words0 on the ,sabbath-day4 #che ,jastrow1 ,the ,religion of ,babylonia and ,assyria1 pp4 #cbb1 #cbc4 #chf dipus ,judaicus 7,london1 #ahaa74 #chg ,so in the second book of the ,surpu series 7,,wai4 iv4 #ei1 ,col4 ii4 #ajf1 ,col4 iv4 #g-i1 translated in my ,hibbert ,lectures1 pp4 #ejh1 #eji72 ,,wai4 iii4 #ff4 a #i1 #ac4 #chh ,aufstze und ,abhandlungen1 ii4 pp4 #adi-afe4 #chi ,see my ,hibbert ,lectures1 pp4 #agg1 #agh4 #cij ,expository ,times1 ix4 7#ahih7 p4 #ebb2 ,march #aijj1 p4 #bgj4 #cia ,p4 #caf4 #cib ,,wai4 i4 #ea4 #a1 #ac4 #cic ,pronounced n-sarra1 nu-sa-kissati in ,semitic4 #cid ,see the translation of the hymn in my ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #cja4 ,the text has been commented on by ,fr4 ,martin1 ,textes rligieux assyriens et babyloniens1 pp4 #gg-hj4 #cie ,the god of the 8great mountain10 see above1 pp4 #cgf1 #deb4 #cif ,zimmern1 ,die ,beschwrungstafeln ,shurpu1 p4 #c sqq4 #cig ,we may notice that it is the people1 and not the king1 who will suffer for the misdeeds of the latter2 cp4 #b ,sam4 xxiv4 #ag1 and ,horace1 ,ep4 i4 #ab1 #bj3 8quicquid delirant reges1 plec tuntur ,achivi40 #cih ,,wai4 iv4 #ee4 ,the inscription was first translated by ,george ,smith1 ,assyrian ,discoveries 7#ahge71 pp4 #dji-daa1 and by myself in the ,records of the ,past1 first ser41 vii4 7#ahgf71 pp4 #aai-abb4 ,mr4 ,king has recently given the first part of the text in his ,babylonian ,religion1 pp4 #bag1 #bah4 #cii ,hommel suggests that siln1 8the hollow place underneath the earth10 is derived from sa'lnu1 8sheol0 7,aufstze und ,abhandlungen1 iii4 p4 #cdg74 #djj ,babylonian ,religion and ,mythology1 p4 #hc4 ,see ,george ,smith1 ,chaldan ,account of ,genesis1 pp4 #gh-hj 7,,ii4 #aj-ac1 #af-bc74 #dja ,k #bee1 ,obv4 i4 #ai1 ,ablu dannu mutir gimilli ,bili abi-su1 8the mighty son1 the avenger of ,bel his father40 #djb ,textes religieux assyriens et babyloniens1 p4 xvi4 #djc ,martin1 l4c41 p4 #ad4 #djd ,h4 ,gunkel1 ,schpfung und ,chaos in ,urzeit und ,endzeit 7#ahie74