,babylonian-,assyrian ,birth-,omens ,and ,their ,cultural ,significance by ,morris ,jastrow1 jr4 ,ph4 ,d4 7,leipzig7 ,professor of ,semitic ,languages in the ,university of ,pennsylvania 7,philadelphia7 ,gieen #aiad ,verlag von ,alfred ,tpelmann 7vormals ,j4 ,ricker7 ,religionsgeschichtliche ,versuche und ,vorarbeiten begrndet von ,albrecht ,dieterich und ,richard ,wnsch herausgegeben von ,richard ,wnsch und ,ludwig ,deubner in ,mnster i4 ,w4 in ,knigsberg i4 ,pr4 ,,xiv4 ,band4 #e4 ,heft ,to ,,sir ,,william ,,osler ,regius ,professor of ,medicine ,oxford ,university ,this volume is dedicated as a mark of esteem and admiration4 ,most fine1 most honour'd1 most renown'd4 7,king ,henry ,v1 #b;d ,part1 ,act ,,iv1 #e1 #afd47 ,analysis ,divination in ,babylonia and ,assyria #a ,three chief methods3 hepatoscopy1 astrology and birth-omens #a-f ,spread of ,hepatoscopy and ,astrology to ,hittites1 ,etruscans1 ,greeks and ,romans and to ,china #c-d ,the ,transition motif in religious rites and popular customs #e-f ,omen collections in ,ashurbanapal's ,library #f-g ,birth-omen reports #i-ab ,animal ,birth-omens #ab-bh ,double foetus #ac-af ,principles of interpretation #ad-ae ,multiple births among ewes #ag-ah ,malformation of ears #ai-bb ,excess number of ears #bj-bb ,ewe giving birth to young resembling lion #bc-bf ,ewe giving birth to young resembling other animals #bg-bh ,human ,birth-omens #bh-da ,twins #bi-cj ,monstrosities #cj ,multiple births #ca ,malformation of ears #cb-cc ,malformation of mouth1 nostrils1 jaws1 arms1 lips1 hand #cc-cd ,malformation of anus1 genital member1 thigh1 feet #ce-cf ,principles of interpretation #cf ,misshapen embryos #cg ,weaklings1 cripples1 deaf-mutes1 still-births1 dwarfs #ch-ci ,talking infants1 with bearded lips and teeth #ci ,infants with animal features #cb4 #cc4 #ce-cf4 #dj-da ,study of ,human ,physiognomy among ,greeks and ,romans #dc-dd ,resemblances between human and animal features #de ,porta's and ,lavater's ,views #de-dh ,study of ,human ,physiognomy based on birth-omens #di-ej ,birth-omens in ,julius ,obsequens #ej-eb ,birth-omens in ,valerius ,maximus #eb ,cicero on birth-omens #ec-ed ,macrobius on birth-omens #ee ,birth-omens among ,greeks and in ,asia ,minor #ef-eh ,birth-omens as basis of belief in fabulous and hybrid beings #ei-fb ,dragons1 ,hippocentaurs and hybrid creatures in ,babylonian-,assyrian ,literature and ,art #fc-fd ,fabulous creatures of ,greek ,mythology and ,birth-omens #fd-ff ,egyptian sphinxes #fg-gj ,totemism #gj ,metamorphosis of human beings into animals and vice versa #gj-gb ,talking animals in fairy tales #ga ,history of monsters and persistency of belief in monsters #gb-gh ,lycosthenes' work #gc-ge ,summary #gh-hj ,index #ha-hf 444 they do observe unfather'd heirs and loathly births of natures 7,king ,henry ,v4 #bnd part ,act ,,iv1 #d1 #aba-abb74 ,i ,as a result of researches in the field of ,babylonian-,assyrian divination1 now extending over a number of years#a1 it may be definitely said that apart from the large class of miscellaneous omens#b1 the ,babylonians and ,assyrians developed chiefly three methods of divination into more or less elaborate systems--divination through the inspection of the liver of a sacrificial animal or ,hepatoscopy1 through the observation of the movements in the heavens or ,astrology1 7chiefly directed to the moon and the planets but also to the sun and the prominent stars and constellations71 and through the observance of signs noted at birth in infants and the young of animals or ,birth-omens4 ,elsewhere#c1 ,i have suggested a general division of the various forms of divination methods into two classes1 voluntary and involuntary divination1 meaning by the former the case in which a sign is deliberately selected and then observed1 by the latter where the sign is not of your own choice but forced upon your attention and calling for an interpretation4 ,hepatoscopy falls within the former category#d1 ,astrology and ,birth-omens in the latter4 ,each one of these three methods rests on an underlying well-defined theory and is not the outcome of mere caprice or pure fancy1 though of course these two factors are also prominent4 ,in the case of ,hepatoscopy1 we find the underlying theory to have been the identification of the 'soul' or vital centre of the sacrificial victim--always a sheep--with the deity to whom the animal is offered1--at least to the extent that the two souls are attuned to one another4 ,the liver being1 according to the view prevalent among ,babylonians and ,assyrians as among other peoples of antiquity at a certain stage of culture1 the seat of the soul#e1 the inspection of the liver followed as the natural and obvious means of ascertaining the mind1 i4 e41 the will and disposition of the deity to whom an inquiry has been put or whom one desired to consult4 ,the signs on the liver--the size and shape of the lobes1 and of the gall bladder1 the character or peculiarities of the two appendices to the upper lobe1 7the processus pyramidalis and the processus papillaris71 and the various markings on the liver were noted1 and on the basis of the two main principles conditioning all forms of divination 7#a7 association of ideas and 7#b7 noting the events that followed upon certain signs1 a decision was reached as to whether the deity was favorably or unfavorably disposed or1 what amounted to the same thing1 whether the answer to the inquiry was favorable or unfavorable4 ,in the case of ,astrology1--a relatively more advanced method of divination1--the underlying theory rested on the supposed complete correspondence between movements and phenomena in the heavens and occurrences on earth4 ,the gods1 being identified with the heavenly bodies1--with the moon1 sun1 planets1 and fixed stars--or as we might also put it1 the heavenly bodies being personified as gods1 the movements in the heavens were interpreted as representing the activity of the gods preparing the events on earth4 ,therefore1 he who could read the signs in the heavens aright would know what was to happen here below4 ,astrology corresponded in a measure to the modern ,weather ,bureau in that it enabled one to ascertain a little in advance what was certain to happen1 sufficiently so in order to be prepared for it4 ,compared with ,hepatoscopy1 ,astrology not only represents a form of divination that might be designated as semi-scientific--only relatively scientific of course--but also occupies a higher plane1 because there was no attempt involved to induce a deity unfavorably disposed to change his mind4 ,the signs were there2 they pointed unmistakably to certain occurrences on earth that were certain to occur and it was the task of the diviner--the br or 'inspector' as the ,babylonian called him--to indicate whether what the gods were preparing would be beneficial or harmful4 ,both ,hepatoscopy and ,astrology as developed by the ,babylonians and ,assyrians br-priests exerted a wide influence1 the former spreading to the ,hittites and ,etruscans and through the one or the other medium to ,greeks and ,romans#f1 while ,babylonian-,assyrian ,astrology passing to the ,greeks became the basis for ,graeco-,roman and mediaeval ,astrology1 profoundly influencing the religious thought of ,europe#g and in a modified form surviving even to our own days4 ,the chain of evidence has recently been completed#h to prove the direct transfer of the cuneiform astrological literature to ,greek astrologers and astronomers4 ,the possibility also of a spread or at least of a secondary influence of both systems to the distant ,east is also to be considered4 ,in fact considerable evidence is now available to show that ,babylonian-,assyrian astrological notions and in part also astronomical data spread to ,china#i4 ,,ii ,the observation of signs observed in young animals and in infants at the time of birth constitutes a third division of ,babylonian-,assyrian divination1 quite equal in prominence to ,hepatoscopy and ,astrology4 ,here too we are justified in seeking for some rational or quasi-rational basis for the importance attached by ,babylonians and ,assyrians1 and as we shall see by other nations as well1 to anything of a noteworthy or unusual character observed at the moment that a new life was ushered into the world4 ,the mystery of life made as deep an impression upon primitive man and upon ancient peoples as it does on the modern scientist1 who endeavors with his better equipment and enriched by the large experience of past ages1 to penetrate to the very source of life4 ,a new life issuing from another life--what could be stranger1 what more puzzling1 what more awe-inspiring8 ,if we bear in mind that there is sufficient evidence to warrant us in saying that among peoples in a primitive state of culture1 the new life was not associated with the sexual act#aj1 the mystery must have appeared still more profound4 ,the child or the young animal was supposed to be due to the action of some spirit or demon that had found its way into the mother1 just as death was supposed to be due to some malicious demon that had driven the spirit of life out of the body4 ,the many birth customs found in all parts of the world#aa1 are associated with this impression of mystery made by the new life2 they centre largely round the idea of protection to the mother and her offspring at a critical period4 ,the rejoicing is tempered by the fear of the demons who were supposed to be lurking near to do mischief to the new life and to the one who brought it forth4 ,the thought is a natural one1 for the young life hangs in the balance1 while that of the mother appears to be positively threatened4 ,all bodily suffering and all physical ailments being ascribed to the influence of bad demons1 or to the equally malevolent influence of persons who could by their control of the demons or in some other way throw a spell over the individual1 ,birth1 ,puberty1 ,marriage and ,death as the four periods in life which may be regarded as critical and transitional are marked by popular customs and religious rites that follow mankind from primitive times down to our own days4 ,a modern scholar1 ,van ,gennep1 who has recently gathered these customs in a volume and interpreted them1 calls his work ',rites de ,passage'1 i4 e41 customs associated with the four periods of transition from one stage to the other and which survive in advanced forms of faith as ,baptism1 ,confirmation1 ,marriage ceremonies and ,funeral rites1 just as the chief festivals in all religions are the ',rites de ,passage' of nature--associated with the transition periods of the year1 with the vernal equinox1 the summer solstice1 the autumnal equinox and the winter solstice or1 expressed in agricultural terms1 with sowing time1 with blossoming or early harvest time1 with the later harvest time and with the period of decay4 ,the significance attached to birth omens is thus merely a phase of the ceremonies attendant upon the passage of the new-born from its mysterious hiding place to the light4 ,the analogy between the new life and the processes of nature is complete1 for the plant1 too1 after being hidden in the earth1 which is pictured in the religions of antiquity as a 'great mother'1 comes to the surface4 ,,iii ,the field of observation in the case of the new-born among mankind and in the animal world is large--very large1 and yet definitely bounded4 ,normal conditions were naturally without special significance1 but any deviation from the normal was regarded as a sign calling for interpretation4 ,such deviations covered a wide and almost boundless range from peculiar formations of any part of the body or of the features1 to actual malformations and monstrosities4 ,the general underlying principle was1 the greater the abnormality1 the greater the significance attached to it2 and as in the case of the movements in the heaven1 the unusual was regarded as an indication of some imminent unusual occurrence4 ,we are fortunate in possessing among the tablets of ,ashurbanapal's library1 unearthed by ,layard just fifty years ago and which is still our main source for the ,babylonian-,assyrian religious literature1 many hundreds of texts furnishing lists of birth omens and their interpretation#ab1 just as we have many hundreds of texts dealing with liver divination#ac1 and even more dealing with ,astrology#ad1 apart from the many hundreds of texts dealing with miscellaneous omens of which up to the present only a small proportion has been published#ae4 ,from this division of the great collection gathered by ,ashurbanapal's scribes chiefly from the temple archives of ,babylonia1 it appears that the br-priests made extensive collections of all kinds of omens which served the purpose of official hand-books to be consulted in case of questions put to the priests as to the significance of any particular phenomenon1 and which were also used as textbooks for the training of the aspirants to the priesthood4 ,confining ourselves to the birth-omens#af1 the first question that arises is whether the signs entered are based on actual occurrences or are fanciful4 ,in the case of many entries1 as will presently be made evident1 the anomalies noted rest upon actual observation1 but with the desire of the priests to embrace in their collections all possible contingencies so as to be prepared for any question that might at any time arise1 a large number of signs were entered which the diviners thought might occur4 ,in other words1 in order to be on the safe side the diviners allowed their fancy free rein and registered many things that we can positively say never did occur and never could occur#ag4 ,with the help of hand-books on human and animal pathology1 we can without difficulty distinguish between two classes4 ,thus1 twins being regarded as significant and triplets even more so1 the priests did not stop at this point but provided for cases when four1 five six up to eight and more infants were born at one time#ah4 ,again in regard to animals1 inasmuch as bitches and sows may throw a litter of ten and even more1 the priests in their collections carried the number up to thirty#ai which is1 of course1 out of the question4 ,for sheep and goats the number was extended up to ten1 though it probably never happened that more than triplets were ever born to an ewe or to a mother-goat4 ,even twins are rare1 and ,i am told that there are few authenticated cases of triplets4 ,malformations among infants and the young of animals were of course plentiful1 but here too the anomalies and monstrosities are not as numerous and varied as were entered in the handbooks of the ,babylonian and ,assyrian diviners4 ,the factor of fancy to which ,i have referred enters even more largely in the entries of many actual malformations1 through the assumption of a more or less fanciful resemblance of some feature or of some part of an infant or of the young of an animal with the features or parts of some animal4 ,an excess number of limbs--three legs or four arms in the case of an infant1 or five or six legs in the case of a lamb1 puppy1 pig or foal1 or two heads--is not uncommon4 ,on this basis the priests entered cases of excess legs and arms and heads up to nine and more#bj2 and similarly in regard to ears and eyes4 ,that1 however1 despite the largely fanciful character of the entries in the omen texts1 these collections not only rested on a firm basis of actual observation1 but served a practical purpose is shown by the examples that we have of official reports made by the br-priests of human and animal anomalies1 with the interpretations attached that represent quotations from the collections#ba4 ,a report of this kind in reference to an animal monstrosity reads in part as follows#bb3 ',if it is a double foetus1 but with one head1 a double spine1 two tails and one body1 the land that is now ruled by two will be ruled by one person4 ,if it is a double foetus with one head1 the land will be safe4' ,we have here two quotations from a text furnishing all kinds of peculiarities connected with a double foetus and we are fortunate in having the text from which the quotations are made#bc4 ,evidently an ewe has given birth to a monstrosity such as is here described1 the case has been reported to the diviners who furnish the king#bd with this report1 indicating that since the monstrosity has only one head1 what might have been an unfavorable omen is converted into a favorable one4 ,another report#be regarding a monstrosity born of a sow reads3 ',if a foetus has eight feet and two tails1 the ruler will acquire universal sway4 ,a butcher1 ,uddanu by name1 reported as follows3 ,a sow gave birth 7to a young7 having eight feet and two tails4 ,i have preserved it in salt and kept it in the house4 ,from ,nergal-etir#bf4' ,here we have the name of the br-priest who made the report expressly indicated4 ,the report begins with a quotation from the collections1 indicating the interpretation to be put upon the occurrence1 after which the report of the actual event that took place is given in detail2 and ,nergal-etir is careful to add that he has preserved the specimen as a proof of its occurrence1 precisely as to-day such a monstrosity would be bottled and kept in a pathological museum4 ,in another report#bg containing various quotations from the collections of birth-omens and closing with one in regard to a mare that had given birth to two colts1 one male and one female1 with smooth hair over the ears1 over the feet1 mouth and hoofs1 which is interpreted as a favorable sign#bh1 the one who makes the report adds ',whether this is so1 ,i shall ascertain4 ,it will be investigated according to instructions'4 ,evidently1 the facts had not been definitely ascertained and the diviner1 while furnishing the interpretations for various possibilities1 promises to inform himself definitely and report again as to the exact nature of the unusual occurrence4 ,frequently these omen reports contain interesting and important allusions to historical events which are then embodied in the collections#bi4 ,in fact the event which followed upon any unusual or striking sign1 whether in the heavens or among the newly born or what not1 was carefully noted and on the principle of post hoc propter hoc was regarded as the event presaged by the sign in question4 ,the definite indication of the interpretation to be put upon the omen itself was supplied by the actual event that followed upon the appearance of some sign1 though it was not supposed that the sign would always be followed by the same occurrence4 ,the point to which attention was primarily directed was whether the occurrence was of a favorable or an unfavorable nature4 ,if favorable1 the conclusion was drawn that the sign was a favorable one and hence in the event of its recurrence some favorable incident might be expected according to existing circumstances--victory in an impending battle1 suppression of an uprising1 recovery of some member of the royal household who may be lying ill1 good crops at the approaching harvest or whatever the case may be--or in general a favorable answer to any question put by a ruler4 ,the same would apply to a combination of signs1 one of the fundamental principles of divination being--once favorable1 always favorable4 ,among the birth-omen reports we have one containing a historical reference of unusual interest#cj4 ',if the foetus is male and female--omen of ,azag-,bau who ruled the land4 ,the king's country will be seized4 ,if a foetus is male and female1 without testicles1 a son of the palace#ca will rule the land or will assert himself against the king4' ,we must assume in this case that a monstrosity has been born1 having partly male and partly female organs4 ,the priest by way of interpretation notes a series of signs registered in the collections1 all prognosticating an abnormal state of affairs--a woman on the throne1 captivity1 seizure of the throne by an usurper and revolt4 ,we frequently find in the collections several interpretations registered in this way1--a valuable indication of the manner in which these collections were compiled by the priests from a variety of documents before them4 ,the name of this female ruler1 hitherto known only from this report and from a list of proper names in which ,azag-,bau occurred1 has now turned up in an important list of early dynasties ruling in the ,euphratean ,valley1 discovered and published by ,scheil#cb4 ,we may conclude1 therefore1 that at the time that ,azag-,bau sat on the throne or shortly before1 such a monstrosity actually came to light4 ,as an unusual occurrence it presaged something unusual1 and was naturally associated with the extraordinary circumstance of a woman mounting the throne4 ,azag-,bau according to the newly discovered list is the founder of a dynasty ruling in ,erech as a centre and whose date appears to be somewhere between #bhjj and #cjjj ,b4 ,c4--possibly even earlier4 ,as a founder of a dynasty that overthrew a previous one1 ,azag-,bau must have engaged in hostilities with other centres1 so that the second interpretation that 'the king's country will be seized' may well refer to some historical event of the same general period4 ,be that as it may1 the important point for us is that we have here another proof of the practical purpose served by the observation of birth-omens4 ,,iv ,passing now to some illustrations of birth-omens from the collections of the br-priests1 let us first take up some texts dealing with omens from the young of animals4 ,naturally1 the animals to which attention was directed were the domesticated ones--sheep1 goats1 cows1 dogs1 horses and pigs4 ,among these the most prominent is the sheep1 corresponding to the significance attached to the sheep in liver divination where it is1 in fact1 the only animal whose liver is read as a means of forecasting the future#cc4 ,as a result of this particularly prominent position taken by the sheep in birth-omens1 the word isbu1 designating the normal or abnormal foetus--human or animal--when introduced without further qualification generally indicates the foetus of a sheep#cd4 ,a text#ce dealing with a double foetus1 i4 e41 of a sheep#cf1 reads in part as follows3 ',if it is a double foetus with slits 787 on the head and tail1 the land will be secure4 ,if it is a double foetus and enclosed#cg1 confusion in the country1 the dynasty will come to an end4 ,if it is a double foetus1 encompassed like an enclosure1 the king will subdue 8 the land4 ,if it is a double foetus and encompassed like an enclosure1 confusion in the land1 hostilities in the country4 ,if it is a double foetus1 encompassed like an enclosure1 with slits on the body1 end of the dynasty1 confusion and disturbances in the country4 ,if it is a double foetus1 encompassed like an enclosure1 with twisted necks and only one head1 the land will remain under one head4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if it is a double foetus1 the heads enclosed1 with eight legs and only one spine1 the land will be visited by a destructive storm#ch4 ,if it is a double foetus with only one head1 the land will be secure1 the ruler will prevail against his enemy1 peace and prosperity in the country#ci4 ,if it is a double foetus with one head1 a double spine1 eight feet1 two necks and two tails1 the king will enlarge his land4 ,if it is a double foetus with one head1 double spine1 two tails and one body1 then the land that is ruled by two will be ruled by one4 ,if it is a double foetus with only one head and one spine1 eight feet1 two necks and two tails1 the king will enlarge his land4 ,if it is a double foetus with only one neck1 the ruler will enlarge his land4 ,if it is a double foetus with only one spine1 the ruler will enlarge his land4 ,if it is a double foetus with only one mouth1 the land will remain under the command of the king4 ,if it is a double foetus with only one breast1 the land will be enlarged1 rule of a legitimate king4 ,in order to grasp the principles underlying the interpretation of such omens1 we must take as our starting point the conceptions connected with the various parts of the body4 ,bearing in mind that the omens deal primarily with public affairs and the general welfare and only to a limited extent with private and individual concerns#dj1 the head of the foetus by a natural association stands for the ruler or occasionally for the owner of the mother lamb4 ,one head to the double foetus1 therefore1 indicates unity--a single rule--whereas two heads point to disruption of some kind4 ,if the double foetus is so entwined as to be shut in within an enclosure1 a similarly natural association of ideas would lead to the country being shut in1 in a state of confusion1 the land in a condition of subjugation or the like4 ,on the other hand1 if merely the heads are enclosed so as to give the impression of unity and the rest of the two bodies is disentangled1 the unfavorable sign is converted into a favorable one4 ,a second principle involved in the interpretation results in a more favorable conclusion if the double foetus shows less complications4 ,so1 a single neck or a single spine or a single breast or a single mouth point again1 like a single head1 towards unity and therefore to flourishing conditions in the land4 ,in the case of legs and tails1 to be sure1 the conditions seem to be reversed--the eight legs and two tails and two necks with one head pointing to enlargement of the land1 whereas a double foetus with only six or five feet forebodes some impending misfortune#da4 ,let us proceed further with this text4 ,if it is a double foetus1 one well formed and the second issuing from the mouth of the first#db1 the king will be killed and his army will revolt 81 his oil plantation and his dwelling will be destroyed#dc4 ,if it is a double foetus1 the second lying at the tail of the first1 with two breasts and two tails1 there will be no unity in the land#dd4 ,if it is a double foetus1 and the second lies at the tail of the first and enclosed and both are living1 ditto4 ,if it is a double foetus1 and one rides over the other1 victory1 throne will support throne4 ,if it is a double foetus and one rides over the other and there is only one head1 the power of the king will conquer the enemy's land4 ,if it is a double foetus1 one above and one below1 with only one spine and eight feet1 four ,variant3 'two' ears1 and two tails1 throne will support throne4 ,if it is a double foetus with the faces downward1 approach of the son of the king1 who will take the throne of his father1 or a second son of the king will die1 or a third son of the king will die4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if it is a double foetus with five feet1 serious hostility in the country1 the house of the man will perish1 his stall#de will be destroyed4 ,if it is a double foetus with six feet1 the population will be diminished1 confusion in the land4 ,if it is a foetus within a foetus1 the king will weaken his enemy1 his possessions will be brought into the palace#df4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if a foetus gives birth to a second foetus#dg1 the king will assert himself against his opponent4 ,it will be observed that in quite a number of cases two alternative interpretations are given1 one of an official character referring to the public welfare1 or to occurrences in the royal household#dh1 the other of an unofficial character bearing on the welfare of the individual to whom the mother lamb that had produced the monstrosity belonged4 ,one foetus issuing from the other1 or one within the other1 appears to have been a favorable or an unfavorable sign1 according to the position of the second4 ,if the one lay above the other1 the association of ideas pointed to a control of the ruler over his enemy4 ,in some cases1 the association of ideas leading to the interpretation is not clear2 and we must perhaps assume in such instances an entry of an event that actually occurred after the birth of the monstrosity in question4 ,a certain measure of arbitrariness in the interpretations also constitutes a factor to be taken into consideration2 and the last thing that we need to expect in any system of divination is a consistent application of any principle whatsoever4 ,the text passes on to an enumeration of the case of an ewe giving birth to more than two lambs4 ,the 'official' interpretations are throughout unfavorable#di1 and the priests were quite safe in their entries which were purely arbitrary in these cases1 since such multiple births never occurred4 ,it is worth while to quote these interpretations as an illustration of the fanciful factor that1 as already indicated1 played a not insignificant part in the system unfolded4 ,if an ewe gives birth to three 7lambs71 the prosperity of the country will be annulled1 but things will go well with the owner of the ewe1 his stall will be enlarged4 ,if an ewe gives birth to three fully developed 7lambs71 the dynasty will meet with opposition1 approach of an usurper1 the country will be destroyed4 ,if an ewe gives birth to four1 the land will encounter hostility1 the produce of the land will be swept away1 approach of an usurper1 destruction in the land4 ,if an ewe gives birth to four fully developed lambs1 locusts 787 will come and destroy the country4 ,if an ewe gives birth to four1 approach of an usurper1 the country will be destroyed4 ,if an ewe gives birth to five1 destruction will ravage the country1 the owner of the house will die1 his stall will be destroyed4 ,if an ewe gives birth to five1 one with the head of a bull#ej1 one with a lion-head1 one with a jackal-head1 one with a dog-head and one with the head of a lamb#ea1 devastation will take place in the country4 ,if an ewe gives birth to six1 confusion among the population4 ,if an ewe gives birth to seven1--three male and four female--1 the king will perish4 ,if an ewe gives birth to eight1 approach of an usurper1 the tribute of the king will be withheld4 ,if an ewe gives birth to nine1 end of the dynasty4 ,if an ewe gives birth to ten1 a weakling will acquire universal sovereignty#eb4 ,the general similarity of the interpretations may be taken as a further indication that the br-priests were simply giving their fancy free scope in making prognostications for conditions that could never arise2 nor is it of serious moment that in the case of triplets the interpretation is favorable to the owner of the ewe1 or that in the case of ten lambs1 even the official interpretation is not distinctly unfavorable--in view of the purely 'academic' character of such entries4 ,an extract from a long text#ec furnishing omens derived from all kinds of peculiarities and abnormal phenomena noted on the ears of an animal--primarily again the sheep1 though no doubt assumed to be applicable to other domesticated animals--will throw further light on the system of divination devised by the br-priests1 and will also illustrate the extravagant fancy of the priests in their endeavor to make their collections provide for all possible and indeed for many impossible contingencies4 ,if a foetus#ed lacks the right ear1 the rule of the king will come to an end1 his palace will be destroyed1 overthrow of the elders of the city1 the king will be without counsellors1 confusion in the land1 diminution of the cattle in the land1 the enemy will acquire control#ee4 ,if the foetus lacks a left ear1 a god will harken to the prayer of the king1 the king will take the land of his enemy1 the palace of the enemy will be destroyed1 the enemy will be without a counsellor1 the cattle of the enemy's country will be diminished1 the enemy will lose control4 ,if the right ear of the foetus is detached1 the stall#ef will be destroyed4 ,if the left ear of the foetus is detached1 the enemy's stall will be destroyed4 ,if the right ear of the foetus is split1 the herd will be destroyed or the leaders of the city will leave 7it7#eg4 ,if the left ear of the foetus is split1 the herd will be enlarged1 the leaders of the enemy's country will leave 7it74 ,if the right ear of the foetus is split and swollen with clay1 the country will have a rival4 ,if the left ear of the foetus is split and swollen with clay1 the enemy's country will have a rival4 ,if the right ear of the foetus is destroyed1 the stall will be enlarged1 the stall of the enemy will be diminished4 ,if the outside of the right ear is destroyed1 the land will yield to the enemy's land4 ,if the right ear of the foetus lies near the cheek#eh1 the enemy will prevail against the power of the king1 the king will be without counsellors1 a ruler will not inhabit the land1 or the son of the king of universal sway#ei will be king4 ,if the left ear of the foetus lies near the cheek1 an enemy will be installed in the royal palace4 ,if the right ear of the foetus lies near the jaw1 birth of a demon#fj in my land1 or in the house of the man#fa4 ,if the left ear of the foetus lies near the jaw1 birth of a demon in the enemy's land1 or the land of the enemy will perish4 ,the guiding principle of the interpretation in these instances is the natural association of the right as your side and the left with the enemy's side4 ,a defect on the right side is unfavorable to you1 i4 e41 to the king or to the country or to the individual in whose household the birth occurs1 while the same defect on the left side is unfavorable to the enemy and1 therefore1 favorable to you4 ,the principle is quite consistently carried out even to the point that if the sign itself is favorable1 it is only when it is found on the right side that it is favorable to you1 while its occurrence on the left side is favorable to the enemy4 ,defects of any kind appear to be unfavorable1 whereas an excess of organs and parts are in many instances favorable1 though with a considerable measure of arbitrariness4 ,if the foetus has two ears on the right side and none on the left1 the boundary city of the enemy will become subject to you4 ,if the foetus has two ears on the left side and none on the right1 your boundary city will become subject to the enemy4 ,if the foetus has two ears on the right side and one on the left1 the land will remain under the control of the ruler4 ,if the foetus has two ears on the left side and one on the right1 the land will revolt4 ,if within the right ear of the foetus a second ear#fb appears1 the ruler will have counsellors4 ,if within the left ear of the foetus there is a second ear1 the counsellors of the ruler will advise evilly4 ,if behind the right ear of the foetus there is a second ear1 the ruler will have counsellors4 ,if behind the left ear of the foetus there is a second ear1 confusion in the land1 the land will be destroyed#fc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if a foetus has four ears1 a king of universal sway will be in the land4 ,if a foetus has four ears1 two lying in front 7and7 two in back1 the ruler will acquire possessions in a strange country#fd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if behind the right ear1 there are two ears1 visible on the outside#fe1 the inhabitants of the boundary city will become subject to the enemy4 ,if behind the left ear there are two ears visible on the outside1 the inhabitants of the boundary city of the enemy will become subject to you4 ,if a foetus has three ears1 one on the left side and two on the right side1 the angry gods will return to the country4 ,if a foetus has three ears1 one on the left side and two on the right1 the gods will kill within the country4 ,if within the right ear of a foetus there are three ears with the inner sides well formed1 the opponent will conclude peace with the king whom he fears1 the army of the ruler will dwell in peace with him4 ,if within the left ear of a foetus there are three ears with the inner sides well formed1 thy ally will become hostile4 ,if behind each of the two ears there are three ears visible on the outside1 confusion in the land1 the counsel of the land will be discarded1 one land after the other will revolt4 ,if within each of two ears there are three ears visible on the inner side1 things will go well with the ruler's army4 ,if within each of the two ears there are three ears1 visible on the outside and the inside1 the army of the ruler will forsake him and his land will revolt4 ,if within each of the two ears there are three ears1 visible on the outside and the inside1 the army of the ruler will forsake him and his land will revolt4 ,if the ears of a foetus are choked up#ff1 in place of a large king a small king will be in the land4 ,in general1 therefore1 an excess number of ears points to enlargement1 increased power1 stability of the government and the like2 and this is probably due in part to the association of wisdom and understanding with the ear in ,babylonian#fg1 for as a general thing an excess of organs or of parts of the body is an unfavorable sign1 because a deviation from the normal4 ,in the same way as in the case of the ears1 we have birth-omen texts dealing with the head1 lips1 mouth1 eyes1 feet1 joints1 tail1 genital organs1 hair1 horns and other parts of the body#fh4 ,in many of these texts dealing with all kinds of peculiar formations and abnormalities in the case of one organ or one part of the body or the other1 a comparison is instituted between the features or parts of one animal with those of another and the interpretation is guided by the association of ideas with the animal compared4 ,a moment's reflection will show the importance of this feature in extending the field of observation almost ad infinitum4 ,a lamb born with a large head might suggest a lion1 a small long head that of a dog1 or a very broad face might suggest the features of a bull4 ,from comparisons of this kind1 the step would be a small one to calling a lamb with lion-like features1 a lion1 or a lamb with features recalling those of a dog1 a dog and so on through the list1 the interpretations being chosen through the ideas associated with the animal in question4 ,a text of this kind#fi1 of which we have many1 reads in part as follows4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a lion1 the abandoned weapons will make an attack 7again71 the king will be without a rival4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a lion1 but with a head of a 'rain bow' bird#gj1 the son will seize the throne of his father4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a lion1 but 7some of7 the features are 7also7 human1 the power of the king will conquer a powerful country4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a lion1 but 7some of7 the features are those of a lamb1 the young cattle will not prosper4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a lion1 but 7some of7 the features are those of an ass1 severe famine will occur in the country4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a lion1 but 7some of7 the features are those of a dog1 ,nergal#ga will cause destruction4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a lion but 7some of7 the features are those of a khupipi#gb1 the ruler will be without a rival and will destroy the land of his enemy4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a lion1 but with the mouth of a wild cow1 the rule of the king will not prosper4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a lion but with the mouth of a bull1 famine will ensue4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a lion with the horny exuberance of an ibex on its face1 prices will be lowered#gc4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a lion with the horny exuberance of an ibex on its face and if the eyes are open#gd1 prices will be high4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a lion with fatty flesh on the nose1 the land will be well nourished4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a lion1 and the right temple is covered with fatty flesh1 the land will be richly blessed4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a lion1 and the left temple is covered with fatty flesh1--rivalry4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a lion1 and it is covered all over with fatty flesh1 the king will be without a rival4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a lion but without a head#ge1 death of the ruler4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a lion with the gorge torn off#gf1 destruction of the land1 the mistress#gg will die4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a lion with the gorge torn off and a mutilated tail#gh1 the land will be destroyed 787 ,from texts like these it would appear that the phrase of 'an ewe giving birth to a lion' had acquired a purely conventional force to describe a lamb whose head or general features suggested those of a lion4 ,it may have come to be used indeed for a newly born lamb of unusually large proportions4 ,hence one could combine with the description of a lion-lamb such further specifications as that it also suggested human features1 or looked like an ass or a dog1 or that while it came under the category of a lion-lamb1 it yet had some of the features of a normal lamb4 ,at all events we must not credit the ,babylonians or ,assyrians with so absurd a belief as that an ewe could actually produce a lion4 ,such a supposition is at once disposed of when we come to other texts where we find entries of an ewe producing a whole series of animals--a jackal1 dog1 fox1 panther1 hyena1 gazelle1 etc4 and where we must perforce assume resemblances between a young lamb and the animals in question and not any extravagant views of possible cross-breeding#gi4 ,to clinch the matter1 we have quite a number of passages in which the preposition 'like' is introduced#hj instead of the direct equation1 showing that when the texts speak of an ewe giving birth to a lion1 a jackal1 a dog1 etc41 the priests had in mind merely a resemblance as the basis of such statements4 ,the general idea associated with the lion in divination texts is that of power1 success1 increase and the like4 ,the sign1 therefore1 of an ewe producing a lion is a favorable one2 it is only through attendant circumstances that the character of the sign is transformed into an unfavorable or partly unfavorable omen4 ,so in case the lion-lamb has a head suggestive of the variegated colors of the rainbow bird1 the sign still points to power1 but to a power exercised by the crown prince against the father4 ,if some of the features suggest those of an ass or of a dog or of a pig1 the ideas associated with these animals convert what would otherwise have been a favorable sign into an unfavorable one4 ,the mouth of a wild cow or of a bull1 thus interfering with the complete identification of the young lamb as a lion-lamb1 similarly1 brings about an unfavorable interpretation4 ,fatty flesh by a natural association points to increased prosperity1 while mutilations of the head1 tail or of any other part naturally carry with them unfavorable prognostications4 ,it is interesting to see from a long list of comparisons of a new-born lamb with all kinds of animals#ha the extent to which the association of ideas connected with the animals in question is carried4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a dog 444 the king's land will revolt4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a beaver#hb 7871 the king's land will experience misery4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a fox1 ,enlil#hc will maintain the rule of the legitimate king for many years1 or#hd the king will strengthen his power4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a ,mukh-,dul#he1 the enemy will carry away the inhabitants of the land1 the land will despite its strength go to ruin1 the dynasty will be opposed1 confusion in the land4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a panther1 the kingdom of the ruler will secure universal sway4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a hyena 7871 approach of ,elam4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a gazelle1 the days of the ruler through the grace of the gods will be long1 or the ruler will have warriors4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a hind1 the son of the king will seize his father's throne1 or the approach of ,subartu will overthrow the land4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a roebuck1 the son of the king will seize his father's throne1 or destruction of cattle#hf4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a wild cow1 revolt will prevail in the land4 ,if an ewe gives birth to an ox1 the weapons of the ruler will prevail over the weapons of the enemy4 ,if an ewe gives birth to an ox that has ganni#hg1 the ruler will weaken the land of his enemy4 ,if an ewe gives birth to an ox with two tails1 omen of ,ishbi-,ura#hh1 who was without a rival4 ,if an ewe gives birth to a cow1 the king will die1 another king will draw nigh and divide the country4 ,one might have supposed that such omens represent a purely imaginative theoretical factor1 but the introduction of the historical reference proves conclusively that the ,babylonians and ,assyrians attached an importance to the fancied resemblance of an animal to an other1 and that in the case of such strange statements as that an ewe gives birth to one of a series of all kinds of animals1 it is this fancied resemblance that forms the basis and the point of departure for the interpretation4 ,v ,if1 now1 we turn to birth-omens in the case of infants1 we find in the omen texts the same two classes1 those in which all kinds of abnormalities and malformations are registered1 and such in which the fancied resemblance of the new-born infant to some animal1 or of some features of an infant to those of an animal is introduced as a factor4 ,the principles underlying the interpretation1 so far as they can be recognized1 are naturally the same as in the case of birth-omens for the young of domesticated animals4 ,a few illustrations will make this clear4 ,a text#hi dealing with twins1 and passing on to multiple births up to eight1 reads in part as follows3 ,if a woman gives birth to two boys1 famine will prevail in the land1 the interior of the country will witness misfortune1 and misfortune will enter the house of their father#ij4 ,if a woman gives birth to two boys with one body--no union between man and wife1 that house will be reduced#ia4 ,if a woman gives birth to two boys of normal appearance1 that house#ib 444 ,if a woman gives birth to a boy and a girl1 ill luck will enter the land1 the land will be diminished4 ,if a woman gives birth to twins united at the spine1 with the faces back to back 81 the gods will forsake the country1 the king and his son will abandon the city4 ,if a woman gives birth to twins without noses and feet1 the land will be diminished#ic4 ,if a woman gives birth to twins in an abnormal condition1 the land will perish1 the house of the man will be destroyed4 ,if a woman gives birth to twins united at the sides#id1 the land ruled by one will be controlled by two4 ,if a woman gives birth to twins united at the sides1 7and7 the right hand of the one lying to the right is missing1 the weapon of the enemy will kill me1 the land will be diminished1 weakness will bring about defeat and my army will be destroyed4 ,if a woman gives birth to twins united at the sides1 and the left hand of the one lying to the left is missing#ie 444 ,if a woman gives birth to twins united at the sides and the right hands are missing--attack1 the enemy will destroy the produce of the land4 ,if a woman gives birth to twins united at the sides1 and the left hands are missing1 the produce of the enemy's land will be destroyed#if4 ,if a woman gives birth to twins1 united at the sides1 and the right foot of the one lying to the right is missing1 the enemy will abandon the rest of my land1 the land will be captured4 ,if a woman gives birth to twins united at the sides1 and the left foot of the one lying to the left1 is missing1 ,i will abandon the rest of the enemy's land1 and the land of the enemy will be captured#ig4 ,if a woman gives birth to twins united at the sides1 and the right feet are missing1 the seat of the country#ih will be overthrown and captured4 ,if a woman gives birth to twins united at the sides and the left feet are missing1 the seat of the enemy's land will be overthrown and captured4 ,if a woman gives birth to two girls1 the house will be destroyed4 ,if a woman gives birth to two girls and they die#ii 444 ,if a woman gives birth to three well developed girls1 the land of the ruler will be enlarged4 ,if a woman gives birth to two girls with one body1 no union between man and wife1 the land will be diminished#ajj4 ,if a woman gives birth to two girls of normal appearance 444#aja4 ,if a woman gives birth to three boys1 distress will seize the land 444 ,if a woman gives birth to four 787 boys1 destruction in the land#ajb4 ,through another fragment#ajc1 the list of multiple births is carried up to eight--a perfectly safe procedure on the part of the br-priests1 since it is unlikely that the case of more than four births at one time ever occurred in the whole scope of ,babylonian-,assyrian history4 ,the interpretations in the case of more than triplets appear to have been consistently unfavorable4 ,even twins1 as is apparent from the above entries1 were generally regarded as unfavorable1 because of the deviation from the normal involved2 and this was certainly the case when monstrous factors were connected with the double birth--the two united at the backs or at the sides--or when the twins lacked a part of the body such as noses1 hands or feet4 ,the fundamental distinction between the right side as representing your side and the left as the enemy's side intervenes to differentiate between the application of the omen to the king or to the country on the one hand1 and to the enemy or his country on the other4 ,corresponding to the text above discussed#ajd1 in which interpretations are offered for all kinds of malformations or peculiarities1 in connection with the ears of newly-born animals1 we have a text#aje furnishing omens in the same way in the case of human births4 ,if a woman gives birth1 7and the child has7 a lion's ear1 a powerful king will rule in the land4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the right ear#ajf is missing1 the life of the ruler will come to an end4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the left ear is missing1 the life of the king will be long4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and both ears are missing1 famine will prevail in the country1 and the land will be diminished4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the right ear is small1 the house of the man will be destroyed4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the left ear is small1 the house of the man will be enlarged4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and both ears are small1 the house of the man will be overthrown4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the right ear is detached#ajg1 the house of the man will be destroyed4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the left ear is detached1 the house of the opponent will be destroyed1 the house of the man#ajh will be enlarged4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and both ears are detached1 the house of the man will encounter misfortune4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the right ear reaches to the cheek1 a weakling will be born in the man's house4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the left ear reaches to the cheek1 a strong one will be born in the man's house#aji4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and both ears reach to the cheek1 that land will be destroyed1 protection will be withdrawn4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the right ear is deformed1 a weakling will be born in the man's house4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the left ear is deformed1 a strong one will be born in the man's house#aaj4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the right ear of the child lies at the lower jaw#aaa1 the son of the man will destroy the man's house4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the left ear lies at the lower jaw1 the son of the man will encircle the man's house#aab4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and there are two ears on the right side and the left ear is missing1 the angry gods will return to the land and the land will have peace4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and there are two ears on the left side and the right ear is missing1 the counsel of the land will be disturbed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if a woman gives birth1 and both ears are flattened1--revolt4 ,the principle consistently applied throughout these omens is that a defect or deformity on the right side is an unfavorable sign1 and that the same phenomenon on the left side is unfavorable to the enemy1 or favorable to you4 ,a large ear--suggesting that of a lion--points by association to enlargement and increased strength4 ,the text then passes on to other peculiarities4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and 7the child has7 the mouth of a bird1 that land will be destroyed4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the mouth is missing1 the mistress of the house will die4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the right nostril is missing1--injury4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and both nostrils are missing1 the land will experience distress1 the house of the man will be destroyed4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the jaws are missing#aac1 the days of the ruler will come to an end1 the house will be destroyed4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the lower jaw is missing1 the enemy will take the boundary strip of my land4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the arms 787 are missing1 the house of the man will be destroyed4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the arms 787 are short1 he will attain favor4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the upper lip rides over the lower one#aad1 he will attain favor4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the lips are missing1 the land will encounter distress1 the house of the man will be destroyed4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and one arm is short1 that man will be preferred#aae4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the right hand is missing1 that land will suffer destruction4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and both hands are missing1 the enemy will conquer the city of the new-born#aaf4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the fingers of the right hand are missing1 the ruler will be hemmed in by his enemy4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and there are six fingers on the right hand1 misfortune will seize the house4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and there are six toes on the right and on the left foot1 the children#aag will encounter misfortune4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and there are six toes on the right foot1 there will be injury#aah4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the genital member is missing1 the master of the house will be weakened1 drying up of the field4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the genital member and the testicles are missing1 the land will encounter misfortune1 the woman#aai will suffer pain1 the house#abj will control the palace#aba4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the anus is closed#abb1 the land will suffer famine4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the anus is missing 81 the king will be restrained in his palace4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the right thigh is missing1 the land of the ruler will go to ruin4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the left thigh is missing1 the enemy's land will go to ruin4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if a woman gives birth1 and both feet are missing1 the course of the land will be checked1 that house will be destroyed4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the right foot of the child is like that of a turtle#abc1 the enemy will destroy the property of the land4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and hands and feet are like those of a turtle1 the ruler will destroy the product of his land4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the feet are attached to the belly 787#abd1 the possession of the house will be destroyed4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the child has only one foot1 which is attached to the belly 787 and does not touch the ground#abe the land will suffer misfortune1 the house will be destroyed4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and it has three feet of which two are entwined in one another#abf with the body1 destruction will prevail in the land4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and it has four feet and genital member and pudenda are there1 the land will suffer misfortune1 a strange ruler will appear on the scene4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the right leg is missing1 the land of the ruler will go to ruin4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the left leg is missing1 the enemy's land will go to ruin4 ,in general1 malformations are looked upon as unfavorable1 as are also excess organs or parts e4 g4 six fingers or six toes2 and it is only occasionally that a peculiarity such as shortened arms or a protruding upper lip1 receives a favorable interpretation4 ,the variations in the interpretations themselves are not numerous1 and for the most part are probably selected in an entirely arbitrary fashion1 though here1 too1 as has been pointed out several times1 association of ideas enters as a factor1 as1 e4 g41 where large ears are made to point to increased power4 ,at the same time1 it is also clear that the great majority of the malformations and abnormalities in the text that we have just discussed are such as actually do occur and with the help of medical works on human malformations#abg1 many of the omens described in this and in other texts can be identified4 ,there can1 therefore1 be no doubt that the collections of the br-priests dealing with birth-omens observed in infants1 likewise1 rest upon actual observations1 though the field was extended by passing on from actual to purely fanciful and impossible abnormalities4 ,the extent to which this attempt to provide for all kinds of contingencies was carried in the collections is illustrated by a portion of the first tablet of a series#abh dealing with human birth-omens4 ,this section treating in part of the birth of shapeless abortions reads as follows3 ,if a woman gives birth to pudenda#abi1 the royal dynasty will be changed4 ,if a woman gives birth to a head#acj1 the land will encounter distress4 ,if a woman gives birth to a form of some kind#aca1 king against king1--his rival1 will prevail4 ,if a woman gives birth to a foetus#acb1 the land will encounter distress4 ,if a woman gives birth to a foetus in which there is a second1 the rule of the king and of his sons will come to an end 444 the power of the land will dwindle4 ,if a woman gives birth to a mass of clay#acc1 the king's land will oppose him and cause terror4 ,if a woman is pregnant with a mass of clay and gives birth to a mass of clay1 misfortune will come1 the mother will close off her gate against the daughter1 there will be no protection1 the man#acd will go to ruin1 the produce of the field will not prosper4 ,if a woman gives birth to a male still-birth1 ,nergal#ace will destroy1 the man#acf will die before his time4 ,if a woman gives birth to a weak boy1 distress1 destruction of the house#acg4 ,if a woman gives birth to a weak girl1 that house will be destroyed by fire4 ,if a woman gives birth to a lame boy1 distress1 that house will be destroyed4 ,if a woman gives birth to a lame girl1 ditto4 ,if a woman gives birth to a cripple1 that house will be plundered4 ,if a woman gives birth to a crippled girl1 that house will be destroyed 84 99 99 99 99 99 ,if a woman gives birth to something that has no face#ach1 the land will experience sorrow1 that house will not prosper4 ,if a woman gives birth to a weakling1 that city#aci will experience misfortune 84 ,if a woman gives birth to a crippled being1 the land will experience sorrow1 that house will not prosper4 ,if a woman gives birth to a deaf mute1 the house will be shut in4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if a woman gives birth to a dwarf#adj of a half-shape1 that city will be opposed4 ,if a woman gives birth to a half-shaped being with bearded lips#ada1 talking#adb1 and that moves about1 and has teeth#adc--;hostility of ,nergal1 the crushing force of a powerful attack on the land1 a god#add will destroy1 streets will be attacked1 houses will be seized4 ,one may question whether all of such monstrosities actually occurred1 though they are all possible1 if we add the factor of fancy to account for some of the descriptions4 ,the conventional character of the interpretations and the constant repetition of the same prognostications likewise indicate the desire on the part of the br-priests to exhaust their medical knowledge of monstrosities and malformations that could occur1 in order to swell the collections to the largest possible proportions4 ,the first tablet of the series#ade of which an extract has just been given1 begins with an enumeration of various animals to which a newly born infant bears a resemblance and which is expressed1 similarly to what we found in the animal birth-omens1 by the phrase that the woman gives birth to the animal in question4 ,the series begins as follows3 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the offspring cries in the womb1 the land will encounter sickness4 ,if a woman gives birth1 and the offspring cries in the womb and it is distinctly heard1 a powerful enemy will arise and overthrow the land1 destruction will sweep the land1 the enemy will destroy the precious possession1 or the master's house will be destroyed4 ,if a woman gives birth to a lion1 that city will be taken1 the king will be captured4 ,if a woman gives birth to a dog1 the master of the house will die and that house will be destroyed1 confusion1 ,nergal will destroy4 ,if a woman gives birth to a pig1 a woman will seize the throne4 ,if a woman gives birth to an ox1 the king of universal rule will prevail in the land4 ,if a woman gives birth to an ass1 the king of universal rule will prevail in the land4 ,if a woman gives birth to a lamb1 the ruler will be without a rival4 ,if a woman gives birth to a ,s#adf1 the ruler will be without a rival4 ,if a woman gives birth to a serpent#adg1 ,i will surround the house of the master4 ,if a woman gives birth to a dolphin 787#adh1 the house of the man will be enlarged 84 ,if a woman gives birth to a fish-being#adi1 the rule of the king will prosper1 the gods will return to the land4 ,if a woman gives birth to a bird#aej1444 ,these examples will suffice to show the part played by the supposed resemblance of a new-born infant with one animal or the other in the ,babylonian-,assyrian birth-omens2 nor is it difficult to see how the thought of such resemblances should arise1 for1 as a matter of fact1 the shape of the head of an infant easily suggests that of a dog or a bird4 ,the ear if unusually large might recall a donkey's ear2 a small eye1 that of a pig1 and a large one1 that of a lion#aea4 ,the association of ideas with the various animals no doubt suggests the interpretation in most cases1 though in others the interpretation appears to be of a purely conventional type and as a rule favorable4 ,,vi ,now what does all this mean8 ,is there any larger significance in these elaborate collections of birth-omens8 ,do investigations of this character serve any purpose beyond finding out how foolish many millions of people were thousands of years ago1 though to be sure it may be some satisfaction to ascertain for oneself that foolishness has so venerable an ancestry4 ,bouch-,leclercq says at the close of his introduction to his great work on ,greek ,astrology#aeb that 'it is not a waste of time to find out how other peoples wasted theirs'4 ,but there would be small comfort even in such a reflection1 if studies in the history of divination did not furnish a larger outlook on the development of human thought--if in short such studies did not have some important bearing on the cultural history of mankind4 ,let us see whether this is the case4 ,such is the curious nature of man that his science starts with superstition4 ,the intellectual effort involved in developing what to us at least must appear as a foolish and erroneous notion1 nevertheless1 results in some positive advantage4 ,we often hear it said that medicine starts with religion1 and this is true in the sense that the cure of disease was once closely bound up with the belief that all suffering was due to some demon or invisible spirit that had entered the body--a view that is after all not so far removed from the modern 'germ' theory holding for so many diseases1 for the germs are practically invisible and their demoniac character will assuredly not be denied4 ,the cure of a disease in primitive medicine consisted in driving the demon out of the body1 for which again we might without much difficulty find an equivalent in modern medicinal methods4 ,incantations were supposed to have the power of frightening the demon or in some other way of inducing them to leave the body of the victim1 but it was soon discovered that certain herbs and concoctions helped to this end--not that it was at first supposed that such herbs and concoctions were useful to the patient1 but that they were obnoxious to the demons who preferred to leave their victims rather than endure the nasty and ill-smelling combinations that frequently form the medical prescriptions attached to the incantations#aec4 ,what we would regard as medicinal remedies were originally given to the patient1 with a view and in the hope of disgusting the demon that had caused the disease--a supplement therefore to the power attributed to the recitation of certain combinations of words1 and all with a view to force the demons to release their hold on the sufferer by quitting his body4 ,from such superstitious beginnings medicine1 closely bound up with the prevailing religious beliefs1 took its rise4 ,in the same way1 liver divination though as a practice it belongs to the period of primitive culture and rests on an asumption which from the modern scientific point of view is the height of absurdity1 nevertheless1 led to the study of anatomy and as a matter of fact1 the observation of the liver for purposes of divination represents the beginnings of the study of anatomy#aed4 ,astrology led to astronomy1 and in the same way the observation of birth-omens gave rise to another science or at least to a mental discipline that until quite recently was regarded as a science--namely1 the study of human and animal physiognomy4 ,the importance given to any and to all kinds of peculiarities in the case of the young of animals and in new-born infants naturally sharpened the powers of observation1 and led people to carefully scrutinize and study the features of the new-born4 ,the large part played in this scrutiny by the supposed resemblance of the features of an infant to those of some animal formed a natural starting point1 from which it was not a very large step to the position that this supposed resemblance had a bearing on the child itself4 ,in other words the birth-omens in so far as they referred to phenomena among infants had a double significance2 they portended something of moment either to the general welfare or to the house in which the birth took place and also to the child4 ,it is certainly not accidental that in the study of ,human ,physiognomy as carried on among the ,greeks and ,romans as well as among mediaeval ,arabic and ,christian writers1 the supposed resemblances of people to animals was one of the chief methods employed for determining the character of an individual4 ,this phase of ,human ,physiognomy ,i venture to trace back directly to divination through birth-omens1 which would by a natural process lead to the study of human features as a means of ascertaining the character of an individual4 ,among the ,greeks1 the great ,plato#aee was supposed to approve of the theory that a man possesses to some extent the traits of the animal that he resembles2 and it seems to be a kind of poetic justice that a philosopher holding so manifestly absurd a theory should himself1 as will presently appear1 have been compared by a celebrated physiognomist of the #afth century to a dog--though to be sure to a dog of the finer type4 ,polemon and ,adamantius many centuries after ,plato are among the significant names of those who tried to work out the theory in the form of an elaborate science#aef4 ,aristotle who can generally be counted upon to have sane views on most subjects opposed this method of studying human character1 though until a few decades ago a work on ,human ,physiognomy#aeg based on the theory of a man's possessing the traits of the animal that he resembles passed as a production of ,aristotle4 ,it is one of the many merits of modern scholarship to have removed this stigma from the prince of ,greek philosophers4 ,aristotle1 as a matter of fact1 in a significant passage in his de ,generatione ,animalium 7,,iv1 #ed7 denies the possibility of the crossing of an animal of one species with that of another1 and adds that malformations can produce apparent similarities between animals of different species1 but which are to be explained through the workings of natural laws4 ,these laws condition deviations from the normal as well as all normal phenomena4 ,nothing in nature1 ,aristotle sums up1 can be contra naturam4 ,it would appear from passages like this that in ,aristotle's days the resemblances between an animal of one species and that of another1 and the resemblance between man and animals had led to the belief of cross breeds to account for such resemblances1 while monstrosities among animals and among men were looked upon as omens sent by the gods as a warning or as curses for crimes committed--a point of view that1 as we shall see1 is likewise to be traced back to ,babylonian-,assyrian influences4 ,there were others besides ,aristotle who opposed the current views1 but the curious thing is that even those who rejected the theory of a transition of one species to another still maintained that certain traits in an individual could be associated with and explained by features that they had in common with some animal or the other4 ,notable among these was ,giovanni ,porta1 a most distinguished scholar of the #afth century1 who while a believer in magic was also a scientific investigator whose researches proved of great value in developing a true theory of light and who among other achievements invented the camera obscura4 ,he wrote a work in ,latin1 de ,humana ,physiognomica 7,sorrento1 #aehf7 which he himself translated into ,italian 7,naples1 #aeih7 and which subsequently appeared in ,french and ,german editions4 ,it remained in fact the standard work on the subject up to the time of ,lavater's great work on ,physiognomy at the end of the #ahth century4 ,porta opposed ,plato's theory that a man has the traits of the animal that he resembles1 on the ground that a man may have features suggesting various animals4 ,his forehead may recall that of a dog1 while his mouth may be like the snout of a swine1 and his ears may resemble those of an ass4 ,in fact ,porta maintains that no man has features all of which suggest a comparison with one animal only4 ,yet ,porta is of the opinion that the resemblance between men and animals1 which is self-evident1 forms the basis for the study of human character1 with this modification1 however1 which makes the theory even more complicated1 that each feature1--the forehead1 the eyes1 the nose1 the mouth1 the ears1 the lips and even the eyebrows1 and the color of hair of the head or the beard--betrays some characteristic4 ,it is through the combination of all these features that the character is to be determined1 but each feature is compared by ,porta to the corresponding one of some animal and its significance set forth according to the idea associated with the animal4 ,porta's treatise is1 therefore1 quite as largely taken up with comparisons between men and animals as are the treaties of other ,physiognomists1 only in more detailed fashion4 ,thus a long forehead or one not too flat or too even1 suggested to ,porta the character of a sagacious dog and by way of illustration 7p4 #aad and #aah7aeh places the portrait of a dog side by side with one traditionally supposed to be a likeness of ,plato4 ,dante1 so ,porta tells us1 also had such a dog forehead4 ,a square forehead suggests that of a lion 7#aae7 and points to magnanimity1 courage and prudence--provided1 he adds1 the rest of the face is in proportion2 a high1 rounded forehead 7#aag7 is compared with that of an ass1 and is an indication of stupidity and imprudence4 ,in the case of noses1 comparisons are instituted with the beaks of ravens1 eagles and roosters1 with the noses of oxen1 swine1 dogs1 apes and stags1 and horses4 ,since the raven is an impudent and rapacious bird1 he who is endowed by nature with a nose that curves from the forehead outward will also show these unpleasant qualities2 on the other hand1 if the nose is shaped like an eagle's beak1 the person will share the magnanimity and royal spirit of the bird of ,jupiter4 ,the illustration 7#aej7 shows the picture of the ,emperor ,sergius ,galba1 side by side with an eagle's face4 ,cyrus and ,artaxerxes1 too1 are said to have had noses of this fortunate shape2 and by way of confirmation of the theory1 ,porta gives illustrations of the magnanimity of these and of other rulers who had a beak like that of an eagle4 ,a nose broad in the middle and sloping inwards 7#aed71 suggesting that of an ox1 indicates a lying and verbose individual2 a thick nose 7#aee7 is pictured side by side with a swine's head with the usual uncomplimentary traits associated with that animal4 ,in this way and in most detailed fashion ,porta takes up in succession the mouth1 the ears1 the eyes1 the teeth1 the lips1 the hair and the face in general#aei4 ,a very large and broad face is compared with that of an ox or ass 7#agb seq47 and indicates ignorance1 stupidity1 laziness and obstinacy2 a very small face resembles that of a cat or an ape 7#agd seq47 and prognosticates timidity1 shrewd servility and narrowness2 a very fleshy face is again compared with that of an ox 7#agg72 a very bony one with that of an ass1 though ,porta here as elsewhere is somewhat embarrassed by the variant opinions of his authorities ,pseudo-,aristotle1 ,polemon and ,adamantius and not infrequently has recourse to textual changes in order to solve difficulties4 ,the doubt as to the reasonableness of the whole theory never appears1 however1 to have entered his mind1 and he cheerfully proceeds with his comparisons in the course of which he introduces notable historical personages as illustrations4 ,in this way ,socrates is compared to a stag and because of his baldness is given a malignant1 and1 according to others1 a lascivious nature 7#hg72 the ,emperor ,vitellius is likened to an owl 7#ab72 ,actiolinus to a hunting dog because of the groove above his eyes 7#abe72 ,plato1 as we have seen1 to a dog and ,sergius ,galba to an eagle1 while the head of ,alexander the ,great1 though only of medium size1 is compared with that of a lion 7#gb74 ,such was the influence of ,porta's work that it remained the authority for the study of ,human ,physiognomy till towards the end of the #ahth century when ,lavater's four volumes of ,physiognomical ,fragments#afj appeared with their wonderful illustrations1 to which the profound impression made by the work was largely due4 ,lavater constantly refers to ,porta1 but one of his main objects is to controvert the thesis that the comparison of human features with those of animals should form the means of determining the trait indicated by the feature in question4 ,curiously enough in a preliminary outline of his system of ,physiognomy#afa1 ,lavater had included a chapter on the resemblance between man and animals1 but by the time he came to work out his system he had changed his mind and henceforth opposed ,porta's view4 ,to be sure1 the grounds on which he does so are more of a sentimental than of a scientific character4 ,lavater--a clergyman and a believer in the special creation of man by the ,divine ,power 7,physiognomische ,fragmente ,,ii #aib71--protests against a possible relationship between man and the animal world1 declaring that to see animal features in the human face is to lower the dignity of mankind4 ,man created as ,god's supreme achievement can have nothing to do with the animal creation which represents a lower order of being4 ,even ,lavater does not go so far as to deny all resemblances between human features and those of animals4 ,he admits and sympathizes and enlarges on them in several passages 7,,ii #aib2 ,,iv #ef72 but he ascribes them to accident or to fancy1 and declines to draw therefrom the conclusion that the individual who has some feature or a number of features that suggest those of some animal must1 therefore1 have the traits associated with the animal or the animals in question4 ,it is rather strange that ,lavater should not have hit upon the real objection to ,porta's method which lies in the contradictions in which he necessarily involves himself by comparing the various features of an individual with various animals1 the forehead with one animal1 the eyes with another1 the lips with a third and so on2 and since the animals in question show entirely different and contradictory traits1 it is manifestly impossible to reach any rational conclusions as to a man's character by so absurd a method4 ,however1 although ,lavater does not reveal the real weakness of the current theory of ,human ,physiognomy1 yet he contributed to the overthrow of the theory itself which had reached the stage of reductio ad absurdum through the modifications introduced by ,porta4 ,it often happens that an outlived theory is set aside through arguments that are in themselves insufficient to do so4 ,through ,lavater the study of ,physiognomy was thrown back on the scrutiny of human features1 and the determination of a man's character by a direct method and without recourse to comparisons with the features of animals4 ,in thus removing1 however1 what had been one of the props of the study of ,human ,physiognomy1 ,lavater shook the foundation of the study itself4 ,with the advent of modern medicine1 the study of ,physiognomy was dethroned from the place that it had so long occupied and was relegated to the pseudo-sciences--an interesting and in many respects a suggestive intellectual discipline1 but not a science4 ,as a recent writer tersely puts it ',the physiognomical feeling and sensation will never die out among people1 for the roots lie deep in human nature4 ,it is erroneous1 however1 to attempt to construct a science out of it'#afb4 ,the thought1 however1 of endeavoring to determine the character of an individual by a study of the peculiarities and striking indications of his features would never have arisen1 but for the antecedent beliefs that gave to the observation of birth-omens so prominent a place among methods of divination4 ,corresponding to the emphasis laid upon the individual factor when ,babylonian-,assyrian ,astrology passed to the ,greeks and which led to ',genethlialogy' or the casting of the individual horoscope as the chief phase of astrology1 in contradistinction to the exclusive bearing of astrology in its native haunt on the general welfare#afc1 the ,babylonian-,assyrian system of divination through the study of birth-omens received an individualistic aspect upon passing to the ,greeks and ,romans1 by leading to the study of human features as a means of determining the character of an individual2 and with the character also the prognostication of the fate in store for him during his earthly career4 ,in other words1 the rise of the study of ,human ,physiognomy finds a natural explanation1 if we assume that it takes its rise from a system of divination based on the observation of peculiarities noted at the time of birth4 ,it was natural when divination methods were employed to forecast the future of the individual1 that the thought should arise of a close relationship between the features of an individual and his personality1 which would include the powers and qualities bestowed on him1 and which determine his actions and the experiences he will encounter4 ,the fact that in this pseudo-science of ,physiognomy1 the comparison between man and animals played so significant a part among ,greek and ,roman ,physiognomists and through them among the scientists of ,europe till almost to the threshold of the modern movement in science1 adds an additional force to the thesis here set forth4 ,such a method of determining the traits possessed by an individual1 and which was the keynote of ,human ,physiognomy till the days of ,lavater1 would not have maintained so strong a hold on thinkers and on the masses had it arisen in connection with the study itself4 ,it was embodied into the study of ,human ,physiognomy as an integral part of it1 because it represented an established tradition4 ,the ,babylonian-,assyrian birth-omens in which this very comparison between man and animals forms so important a factor furnish the natural conditions for the rise of the tradition1 while the long range of time covered by the ,babylonian-,assyrian birth-omens supply the second factor needed to account for the persistency of the tradition after it had passed beyond the confines within which it arose4 ,,vii ,now in order to justify the proposition that the study of ,human ,physiognomy1 as developed among the ,greeks and ,romans and as passed on to others with its insistence on the fancied resemblance between man and animals as a leading and indeed as a fundamental factor1 is to be directly carried back to the birth-omens of ,babylonia and ,assyria1 we ought to be able to establish that among ,greeks and ,romans the abnormalities observed at the birth of infants and of the young of animals were really regarded as omens1 and that such omens show a sufficient affinity to what we find among ,babylonians and ,assyrians to warrant the conclusion that1 just as ,hepatoscopy and ,astrology came to the ,greeks and ,romans through influences emanating from the ,euphrates ,valley1 so also the third large division of divination methods may be traced to the same source4 ,let us first take up the ,romans for which the material at our disposal is so much more abundant4 ,julius ,obsequens1 a writer whose exact date has not yet been determined1 collected in his famous ,liber de ,prodigiis#afd all the omens that had been noted during a certain period of ,roman history4 ,he enumerates in all #gb covering the years #ee to #acb ,a4 ,d4 and the list itself is an instructive commentary on the attention that was paid to 'signs' of all kinds among the ,romans as an index of the will and the intention of the gods4 ,we find references to such phenomena as a rain of stones1--presumably hail stones--of oil1 blood and milk--apparently allusions to volcanic eruptions1 disguised in somewhat fanciful language--of the sun seen at night--perhaps a description of an eclipse when to a frightened populace it might appear as though night had suddenly set in--of blood appearing in rivers and of milk in lakes--no doubt a pollution of some kind due perhaps to masses of earth or to glacial deposits pouring into the river--to burning torches in the heavens--probably comets with long tails--and more the like1 all indicative of the unbridled play of popular fancy and showing that among the ,romans1 as among ,babylonians and ,assyrians1 all unusual occurrences were looked upon as omens--portending some unusual happenings4 ,now among the #gb signs of ,julius ,obsequens there are quite a number of actual birth-omens1 the character of which is so close to what we find in the collections of the br priests as to show a practical identity in the points of view4 ,so we are told of several instances of a mule 7supposed to be sterile7 giving birth to a young 7 #fe71 in one case even to triplets 7 #ae71 in another to a young with five feet 7 #bg74 ,for the year #hc he records among various remarkable occurrences all regarded as omens1 the birth of a colt with five feet 7 #bd72 two years in succession a two-headed calf 7 #ca-cb74 ,very much as in the ,babylonian-,assyrian collections we read 7 #ad7 of a sow giving birth to a young with the hands and feet of a man4 ,among human monstrosities1 our author records the case of a boy with three feet and one hand 7 #bj71 with one hand 7 #eb71 a boy with a closed anus 7 #bf1 #dj71 with four feet1 four eyes and four ears and with double genital members 7 #be74 ,several instances are given of androgynous infants 7 #bb1 #cb and #cf74 ,twins born at ,nursia in the year #ajj are described as follows1 'the girl with all parts intact1 the boy with the upper part of the belly open1 revealing the intestines#afe1 the anus closed1 and speaking as he expired' 7 #dj74 ,the talking infant is a not infrequent phenomenon#aff4 ,in the following year the birth of a boy who said 'ave' is recorded 7 #da74 ,again1 as in the collections of the br priests#afg1 we read 7 #eg7 of a woman giving birth to a serpent4 ,to these birth-omens further examples can be added from that inexhaustible storehouse of encyclopaedic knowledge1 the ,natural ,history of ,pliny the ,younger who1 among other things1 tells us 7,hist4 ,nat4 ,,vii #c7 of a woman ,alcippa who gave birth to a child with the head of an elephant#afh4 ,valerius ,maximus in his de ,dictis ,factisque ,memorabilibus devotes a chapter to ,prodigia#afi of the same miscellaneous character as the collection of ,julius ,obsequens--many in fact identical--among which by the side of rivers flowing with blood1 talking oxen who utter words of warning#agj1 rain of stones1 mysterious voices1 we also find birth-omens such as the speaking infant and the child with an elephant's head#aga4 ,suetonius#agb tells us that ,caesar's horse had human feet and that the ,haruspices--the ,etruscan augurs--declared it to be an omen that the world would one day belong to ,caesar4 ,we see1 therefore1 that among the ,romans birth-omens were regarded from the same point of view as among the ,babylonians and ,assyrians and that the interpretation of the omens was the concern of a special class who acted as diviners4 ,now the question may properly be put at this juncture1 whether we are in a position to trace the actual interpretation of birth-omens among the ,romans back to the ,babylonian-,assyrian br-priests8 ,to this question1 ,i think an affirmative answer may unhesitatingly be given4 ,we have in the first place the testimony of ,cicero#agc1 as well as other writers#agd that the ,etruscans who are described as skilled in all kinds of divination were especially versed in the interpretation of malformations among infants and among the young of animals4 ,cicero emphasizes more particularly by the side of birth-omens1 divination through the sacrificial animal and through phenomenen in the heavens1 thus giving us the same three classes that we find among ,babylonians and ,assyrians4 ,since ,hepatoscopy and ,astrology among ,greeks and ,romans can be traced back directly to ,babylonia and ,assyria#age1 the presumption is in favor of the thesis that the ,etruscan augurs derived their birth-omens also from the same source4 ,the character of the specimens that we have of the ,etruscan interpretations of birth-omens strengthens this presumption4 ,so1 e4 g41 ,cicero preserves the wording of such a birth-omen#agf which presents a perfect parallel to what we find in the collections of the ,babylonian-,assyrian br priests1 to wit1 that if a woman gives birth to a lion1 it is an indication that the state will be vanquished by an enemy4 ,if we compare with this a statement in a ,babylonian-,assyrian text dealing with birth-omens#agg1 vis43 ',if a woman gives birth to a lion1 that city will be taken1 the king will be imprisoned'1 it will be admitted that the coincidence is too close to be accidental4 ,the phraseology1 resting upon the resemblance between man and animals1 is identical4 ,the comparison of an infant to a lion1 as of a new-born lamb to a lion is characteristic of the ,babylonian-,assyrian divination texts and even the form of the omen1 stating that the woman actually gave birth to a lion is the same in both while the basis of interpretation--the lion pointing to an exercise of strength--is likewise identical4 ,ordinarily the resemblance of the feature of an infant to that of a lion points to increased power on the part of the king of the country1 but in the specific case1 the omen is unfavorable also in the ,babylonian text4 ,it is the enemy who will develop power1 so that the agreement between the ,babylonian and ,etruscan omen extends even to the exceptional character of the interpretation in this particular instance4 ,in the same passage#agh1 ,cicero refers to the two-fold interpretation given for the case of a girl born with two heads1 one that there will be revolt among the people1 the other that the marriage tie will be broken4 ,we thus have two interpretations1 one bearing on the public weal1 the other on private affairs1 corresponding to the frequent combination of 'official' and 'unofficial' interpretations in the collections of the br-priests#agi4 ,the specific interpretations are again of the same character as we find in the ,babylonian-,assyrian texts1 'revolt'#ahj being in fact one of the most common1 while the other corresponds to the phrase 'no unity among man and wife' found in the texts above discussed#aha4 ,it so happens that in the case of the birth of a two-headed girl we have both the 'official' and the 'unofficial' interpretation1 namely1 ',no union between man and wife and diminution of the land'#ahb--;forming a really remarkable parallel to the ,etruscan omen4 ,further testimony to the parallelism between ,etruscan and ,babylonian-,assyrian methods of divination in the case of birth-omens is born by an interesting passage in the ,annals of ,tacitus 7,,xv1 #dg7 that two-headed children or two-headed young of animals were interpreted by the ,haruspices as pointing to an approaching change of dynasty and to the appearance of a weak ruler4 ,again1 therefore1 prognostications that present a complete parallel to what we find in the ,babylonian-,assyrian texts#ahc4 ,macrobius#ahd preserves an ,etruscan interpretation of a birth-omen relating to the color of newly born lambs4 ,a purple or golden color of the lamb points to good luck4 ,this 'purple' color corresponds to the term smu frequently occurring in ,babylonian-,assyrian omen texts and which is generally rendered 'dark red'#ahe4 ,in the collections of the br-priests1 many references are found to the colors of the young animals and among these we have as a complete parallel to the statement in ,macrobius the following#ahf3 ,if an ewe gives birth to a young of dark-red color1--good fortune#ahg4 ,lastly1 the terms used to describe all kinds of malformations--monstra and prodigia#ahh1 i4 e41 phenomena that 'point' to something show a parallel conception to the ,babylonian-,assyrian viewpoint that abnormality in the case of the young of animals and of infants are primarily signs sent to indicate unusual events that would shortly happen4 ,that the ,greeks also attached an importance to malformations1 may be concluded from ,aristotle's protest#ahi against the supposition that a woman can give birth to an infant with the features of some animal#aij1 or that an animal can give birth to a young with human features4 ,such resemblances1 he asserts1 are merely superficial and he endeavors to account for them as for all malformations in a scientific manner1 as due to an insufficient control of the fructifying matter which prevents a normal development of the embryo4 ,while ,aristotle does not directly refer to the belief that malformations and monstrosities were looked upon by ,greeks as omens1 the emphatic manner in which he states that abnormalities cannot be against nature but only against the ordinary course of nature#aia indicates that he is polemicizing against a view which looked upon such anomalies as contrary to nature1 and presumably regarded them1 therefore1 from the same point of view as did the ,babylonians and ,etruscans4 ,we have a direct proof for this view however1 in ,valerius ,maximus1 who includes in his list of prodigia birth-omens recorded among the ,greeks1 such as a mare giving birth to a hare at the time that ,xerxes was planning his invasion of ,greece which was regarded as an omen of the coming event#aib1 or again an infant with malformation of the mouth#aic4 ,herodotus#aid records as another sign at the time of ,xerxes' contemplated invasion of ,greece a mule giving birth to a chicken with double genital organs1 male and female1 which is clearly again a birth omen4 ,a further proof is furnished in a passage in ,aelian#aie1 which reports that an ewe in the herd of ,nikippos gave birth to a lion and that this was regarded as an omen prognosticating that ,nikippos1 who at the time was a simple citizen1 would become the ruler of the island4 ,it will be recalled that this birth-omen--the ewe giving birth to a lion--is not only of special frequency1 in the omen series of ,babylonia and ,assyria#aif1 but is part of the conventional divinatory phraseology of these texts1 while the interpretation based on the association of the lion with power forms a complete and verbal parallel to the system devised by the br-priests4 ,the fact that the birth-omen is reported as occurring at ,cos is rather interesting1 because it was there that ,berosus1 who brought ,babylonian ,astrology to the ,greeks1 settled and opened his school for instruction in the divinatory methods of the br-priests4 ,we are1 therefore1 justified in looking upon this circumstance as a link connecting birth-omens among ,greek settlements with influences1 emanating directly from the civilization of the ,euphrates ,valley4 ,as another proof of the spread of ,babylonian-,assyrian divination in other parts of the ancient world1 we may point to the story reported by ,herodotus#aig of a concubine of ,king ,meles of ,sardis who gave birth to a lion1 and of the tale found in ,cicero as well as in ,herodotus#aih1 of the speaking infant of king ,croesus of ,lydia which was interpreted as an omen of the coming destruction of the kingdom and of the royal house4 ,here1 again1 we find 7a7 the familiar phraseology resting upon the supposed resemblance between man and animals and 7b7 the agreement in the interpretation of the anomaly of an infant capable of speaking--a birth-omen of particularly ominous significance#aii4 ,bearing in mind the discovery of clay models of livers with inscriptions revealing the terminology of ,babylonian-,assyrian ,hepatoscopy in the ,hittite centre ,boghaz-,kewi#bjj and which definitely establishes the spread of this division of ,babylonian-,assyrian ,divination to ,asia ,minor1 it is quite in keeping with what we would have a right to expect1 to come across traces of ,babylonian-,assyrian birth-omens in this same general region4 ,that the ,etruscans are to be traced back to ,asia ,minor is a thesis that is now so generally accepted as to justify us in regarding it as definitely established#bja4 ,hepatoscopy and ,birth-omens thus followed the same course in passing from the distant ,east to the ,west4 ,we may sum up our thesis in the general statement that ,babylonian divination made its way from ,babylonia to ,assyria1 subsequently spread to ,asia ,minor and through the mediation of ,hittites and ,etruscans came to the ,greeks and ,romans#bjb4 ,the same is the case with ,astrology so far as the ,romans were concerned1 for whom the ,etruscans again represent the mediators1 while the ,greeks appear to have obtained their knowledge of ,babylonian-,assyrian ,astrology through the direct contact between ,greece and ,euphratean culture1 leading to a mutual exchange of views and customs4 ,,viii ,there is still another aspect of the subject of ,babylonian-,assyrian ,birth-omens to which attention should be directed1 and which will further illustrate the cultural significance of the views that gave rise to this extensive subdivision of ,babylonian-,assyrian divination4 ,we have in the course of our investigations noted the tendency in the collections of the br-priests to allow a free scope to the reins of fancy1 which led to the amplification of entries of actual occurrences by adding entries of abnormalities that do not occur4 ,in order to be prepared for all contingencies1 the priests1 as we saw1 extended the scope of birth-omens in all directions1 through entries for an ascending scale of multiple births which went far beyond the remotest possibility1 through equally extravagant entries of the number of excess organs or of excess parts of the body1 and through the most fanciful combinations of the features1 aspects and parts of various animals in the case of new-born infants and the young of animals4 ,the omission of the preposition 'like'#bjc in the case of these entries obscured the starting-point for such comparisons1 and it was natural for the idea of an ewe actually giving birth to a lion1 or for a woman to some animal or the other--a lion1 dog1 fox1 etc4--to take root#bjd4 ,strange as this may seem to us1 yet if we bear in mind the ignorance of people in the ancient world as to the origin and course of pregnancy and the general lack of knowledge of the laws of nature1 the dividing line between the possible and the impossible would be correspondingly faint4 ,at all events1 the transition from the abnormal to the belief in monstrosities that were quite out of the question and that represent the outcome of pure fancy would be more readily made4 ,indeed1 through a combination of all the features involved in the entries of the br-priests1 we obtain a reasonable basis for the belief1 widespread throughout the ancient ,orient as well as in the ,greek and ,roman world and existing up to the threshhold of modern science1 in all kinds of monstrous beings which find their reflex in the fabulous creatures of mythology1 legend and folklore4 ,in other words1 the ,babylonian-,assyrian birth-omens form the first chapter in the history of monsters4 ,the very term monstrum1 as already suggested1 reflects the ,babylonian-,assyrian point of view1 as a being which is sent as a sign--'pointing' 7monstrare7 to some coming event4 ,a monstrum is in fact a demonstration of the will or intent of a deity1 which becomes definite through the interpretation put upon it4 ,perhaps this point will become a little clearer1 if we consider some of the possibilities included in the ,babylonian-,assyrian birth-omens4 ,an ewe giving birth to a lamb with two or even more heads1 or to a creature with some of the organs and parts of the body doubled and with some single is certainly a monstrosity2 and it is only a small step from such monstrosities which fall within the category of the abnormally possible to supposed combinations of the parts or features of various animals in one being4 ,we actually read in one of these texts#bje of an isbu or a young lamb having the head of a lion and the tail of a fox1 or the head of a dog and the mouth of a lion1 or the head of a mountain goat and the mouth of a lion2 or in another text#bjf of colts with heads or manes of lions1 or with the claws of lions or feet of dogs or with the heads of dogs4 ,it is only necessary to carry this fanciful combination a little further to reach the conception that led to picturing the ,egyptian sphinxes or the ,babylonian sedu or lamassu#bjg--the protecting spirits or demons guarding the entrances to palaces and temples1 as having the head of a man1 the body of a lion or bull2 and in the case of the ,assyrian sphinxes also the wings of an eagle4 ,similarly1 in the case of infants we find actual monstrosities recorded as a child with a double face1 four hands and four feet#bjh1 or with the ear of a lion and the mouth of a bird4 ,here again the step is a small one to the assumption of hybrid beings as hippocentaurs--half man and half horse--or tritons and mermaids--half human1 half fish--or satyrs and fawns or monsters like ,cerberus with several heads4 ,it has commonly been held that the conception of such fabulous hybrid beings rested on a popular belief in a kind of primitive theory of evolution1 according to which in an early stage creatures were produced in a mixed form and that gradually order was brought out of this chaotic stage of creation4 ,berosus#bji in his account of creation according to ,babylonian traditions voices this theory1 and gives a description of the 'mixed' creatures that marked this earliest period of time1 men with double wings1 some with four wings and two faces1 some with one body but two heads and having both male and female organs1 others with goat's legs and horns1 with horses feet1 the hind parts of the body like a horse1 in front like a man1 7i4 e41 hippocentaurs74 ,there were also bulls with human heads1 dogs with four bodies and fish tails1 horses with the head of dogs1 men and other creatures with heads and bodies of horses but tails of fishes1 and various other creatures with the forms of all kinds of animals 444 all kinds of marvellous hybrid beings4 ,the description1 which is confirmed in part by the ,marduk ,epic or the ',babylon' version of creation where we encounter 'scorpion men'1 'fish-men'1 'goat-fish'1 dragons and other monstrous beings#baj as the brood of ,tiamat the symbol of primaeval chaos1 reads like an extract from the birth-omens in the ,babylonian-,assyrian handbooks of divination4 ,as a matter of fact1 many of the hybrid beings described by ,berosus can be parallelled in those parts of the collections that have been published#baa4 ,my thesis1 therefore1 is that the birth-omens gave rise to the belief in all kinds of monstrous and fabulous beings4 ,the resemblances between men and animals1 as well as between an animal of one species with that of another1 led to the supposition that all manner of hybrid beings could be produced in nature4 ,the fanciful combinations in the collections of the br-priests1 in part reflecting popular fancies1 in part 'academical' exercises of the fancies of the priests1 formed the basis and starting-point for the theory that at the beginning of time1 pictured as a condition of chaos and confusion1 such hybrid beings represented the norm1 while with the substitution of law and order for chaos and confusion1 their occurrence was exceptional and portended some approaching deviation from the normal state of affairs4 ,it is not unusual in the history of religious and of popular beliefs to find fancy and fanciful resemblances leading to the belief in the reality4 ,once the thought suggested by the manifold abnormalities occurring in the young of domestic animals and among infants firmly rooted1 there was no limit to the course of unbridled fancy in this direction4 ,adding to this the practical importance attached to birth-omens1 what would be more natural than that with the development and spread of systems of divination devised to interpret the strange phenomena observed at birth1 the belief in all kinds of monsters and monstrosities should likewise have been developed and should have spread with the extending influence of ,babylonian-,assyrian divination4 ,babylonian literature furnishes many examples of the persistency of such beliefs4 ,it is sufficient to refer 7a7 to the gigantic scorpion-men who keep guard at the gate of the sun in the mountain ,masu and who are described in the ,gilgamesh epic#bab as 'terrible'1 whose very aspect is death1 7b7 to ,engidu1 the companion of ,gilgamesh1 who is pictured as a man with the body of a bull1 and the horns of a bison#bac1 7c7 to the monster ,tiamat in the creation tale pictured in art with the mouth and foreclaws of a lion1 wings and hind-feet of an eagle#bad1 or as a monstrous dragon with the head of a serpent1 fore feet of a panther1 hind talons of an eagle1 or again described as a serpent of seven heads#bae1 and 7d7 to the 'mixed' creatures--man1 bull or lion and eagle combined--above referred to and that appear in such various forms in ,babylonian and ,assyrian art#baf1 and reappear as sphinxes in ,hittite#bag and ,egyptian art4 ,the ,hippocentaur in various forms also appears in the ,babylonian art of the ,cassite period#bah4 ,if we are correct in tracing the spread of ,babylonian-,assyrian birth-omens to the peoples of ,asia ,minor and thence to the ,greeks and ,romans1 and in associating the belief in all kinds of monstrous and fabulous beings with these birth-omens and as a direct outcome of the fanciful combinations embodied in the collections of the br-priests1 the spread of this belief would accompany the extension of the sphere of influence of ,babylonian-,assyrian divination and of ,euphratean culture in general4 ,the thesis here proposed would1 therefore1 carry with it the assumption that the fabulous creatures of ,greek and ,roman mythology1 as well as the wide spread belief in monstrosities of all kinds found in ,greek and ,roman writers1 and which belief through the influence of ,greek and ,roman ideas was carried down to the middle ages and up to our own days1 reverts in the last instance to the ,babylonian-,assyrian birth-omens4 ,,ix ,the thesis that the fabulous figures of ,greek mythology were suggested by malformations was set forth some twelve years ago by ,prof4 ,friedrich ,schatz in a monograph on ',die griechischen ,gtter und die menschlichen ,migeburten' 7,wiesbaden #aija71 in which he endeavored to show that the conceptions of such beings as the ,cyclops1 ,harpies1 ,centaurs and ,sirens were merely the fanciful elaborations of the impression made by actually occurring abnormal phenomena in the case of infants4 ,the cyclops 7#i seq4 with illustrations7 was suggested by the child born with one eye#bai1 the siren 7#aa seq4 with illustration7 by the abnormal but actually occurring phenomenon of a child born with the feet united#bbj4 ,a double headed god like ,janus 7#ab seq47 was suggested by the monstrosity of a child with two heads and even such a tale as that of the head of the ,gorgon1 ,schaatz believes is based 7#bd seq4 with illustrations7 or1 at all events1 suggested by the fact that a woman gave birth to an undeveloped embryo which suggests a human head#bba4 ,the three heads of ,cerberus1 ,diana of the many breasts and even harpies are similarly explained as suggested by malformations or by excess parts or organs4 ,having reached my conclusions long before ,i learned of ,dr4 ,schaatz's monograph1 ,i was naturally glad to find that the idea had occurred to some one who had approached the subject from an entirely different point of view and without reference to birth-omens4 ,i would not go so far as ,dr4 ,schaatz in the attempt to trace back all the fabulous creatures of mythology1 to certain specific malformations4 ,indeed some of his combinations are almost as fanciful as the creatures themselves1 e4 g41 his endeavor to explain the ,prometheus myth as suggested by 'extopy of the liver' 7#cf71 whereas the tale clearly rests upon the old theory of the liver as the seat of the life#bbb1 but the main thought that the idea of monstrous beings was suggested by actual malformations plus the factor of unbridled fancy is1 ,i venture to think1 correct4 ,we must1 of course1 add to human malformations the many abnormal phenomena occurring in the young of animals in which the determining factor is again the significance attached to all kinds of malformation among human beings and animals as birth-omens4 ,this factor must be taken as our point of departure2 it furnishes a reason not merely for the rise of the belief in all kinds of fabulous creatures but also for the elaboration and the persistency of the belief and for its embodiment in the religious thought of peoples4 ,it is because the malformation is an omen that it leads to further beliefs and fancies4 ,the direct association of the belief in fabulous creatures with birth-omens in ,babylonia and ,assyria lends a presumption in favor of the same association among the ,greeks4 ,if1 therefore1 we can trace the attachment to birth-omens among ,greeks and ,romans to the ,euphrates ,valley1 we will have found a reasonable explanation for the part played by monsters and fabulous beings in the mythology and the religion of the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,further than this1 it is not necessary to go4 ,it is not essential to the establishment of the thesis to trace all the fabulous beings of classical mythology to actual malformations4 ,the factor of fancy would lead to the extension of the sphere far beyond the original boundaries2 nor is it necessary to find parallels to all the creatures of ,greek and ,roman mythology in ,babylonian and ,assyrian literature or art in order to justify the dependence of the former upon ,babylonian-,assyrian birth-omens4 ,no doubt the ,greeks1 more particularly1 developed the conception in their own way1 adding other features to it1 just as they modified ,babylonian-,assyrian astrology in adapting it to their environment and their way of thinking1 and just as the ,etruscans and ,romans modified the ,babylonian-,assyrian hepatoscopy#bbc4 ,all that is claimed here is that the conception of monstrous and fabulous beings is a direct outcome of the importance attached to ,birth-omens2 and since the ,babylonians and ,assyrians are the only people who developed an elaborate system of divination in which the interpretation of birth-omens constituted an important division1 and which spread with the extension of ,euphratean culture to ,asia ,minor and thence to ,greece and ,rome1 ,i claim that the ultimate source of the belief itself is to be sought in the ,euphrates ,valley4 ,can we trace the conception likewise to the distant ,east8 ,dr4 ,bab in an interesting essay on ',geschlechtsleben1 ,geburt und ,migeburten' in the ,zeitschr4 fr ,ethnologie#bbd adopts the thesis of ,dr4 ,schaatz and applies it to account for the frequent representation of gods in ,india with excess organs or an excess number of parts of the body--gods and goddesses with many heads1 with three or four eyes1 various breasts and more the like4 ,the same would of course apply to representations of ,chinese gods and demons4 ,bab's paper is elaborately illustrated and the juxtaposition of actual malformations with the representation of gods and demons in ,india and ,china leaves no doubt of at least a partial dependence of these artistic fancies upon actual occurrences in nature#bbe4 ,again1 however1 a warning is in order not to carry the thesis too far2 nor is it possible to furnish definite proofs for the spread of ,babylonian-,assyrian systems of divination to the distant ,east1 though we now have some evidence pointing to a spread in this direction of ,babylonian-,assyrian astrology#bbf and perhaps also of ,babylonian-,assyrian hepatoscopy#bbg4 ,in a general way1 we are also justified in seeking for an early connection--commercial1 artistic and social--between the ,euphrates ,valley and distant ,india and ,china1 but for the present we must rest content with the assertion of the possibility that ,babylonian-,assyrian birth-omens1 and with this system of divination also the conception of and belief in hybrid monsters and fabulous creatures spread eastwards as well as westwards4 ,how stands the case with ,egypt1 where we find sphinxes that represent a combination of man and animal and where we encounter numerous gods composed of human bodies with the heads of animals8 ,the question of foreign influences in the earlier art of ,egypt is one that has as yet scarcely been touched1 and we are equally at sea as to the possibility of very early connections between the ,euphratean culture and that which arose in the valley of the ,nile4 ,the fact that the oldest pyramid--that of ,king ,zoser at ,sakkarah--is formed of a succession of terraces#bbh like the zikkurats or stage-towers of ,babylonia and moreover is of brick was regarded by ,ihering#bbi as an evidence of an influence exerted by ,babylonia upon ,egypt4 ,an isolated phenomenon is too slender a thread on which to hang a weighty theory1 and the step pyramid of ,zoser can be explained as a transition from a form of the mastaba to the genuine pyramid1 without recourse to foreign models4 ,all attempts to find a connection between the ,egyptian hieroglyphics and the oldest hieroglyphics forms from which the ,babylonian cuneiform script developed have likewise ended in negative results and the same is to be said of endeavors to find any direct connection between ,babylonian and ,egyptian beliefs and rites and myths and despite certain rather striking points of resemblance#bcj4 ,and yet it is difficult to suppress the impression one receives that much in ,egyptian art and in the ,egyptian religion suggests early outside influences4 ,with ,babylonia and ,egypt in more or less close touch as far back at least as #agjj ,b4 ,c41 and with ,asiatic entanglements reverting to a still earlier period1 the possibility of some connection between the ,egyptian forms of the sphinx--the crouching lion with the human head1 the falcon-headed and ram-headed sphinxes--and the combinations of the human face with bulls and lions in ,babylonian art to which the ,assyrians added the wings1 cannot be summarily set aside4 ,the question as to the age of the sphinx at ,gizeh--the oldest of all--is still in abeyance4 ,maspero ascribes it to the early ,memphite art#bca1 ,spiegelberg to the middle kingdom#bcb1 while others bring it down to the #ahth dynasty4 ,if we accept ,spiegelberg's date we will be close to the period when by general consent the ,mediterranean culture--including therefore ,syria1 ,palestine and ,western ,asia in general--exercised a decided influence on ,egypt4 ,it is during the time of the new kingdom that the sphinxes become frequent1 as it is at this period that the tendency to represent the gods as a combination of the human and animal form becomes prominent and reaches its highest form of expression4 ,now1 to be sure1 we have not as yet come across any traces of ,babylonian-,assyrian divination in any of its forms in ,egypt1 but that may be due to the rationalistic character of the ,egyptian religion in the 'official' form revealed by the monuments and the literature which1 while full of rites and ceremonials connected so largely with the cult of the dead1 is yet relatively free of magic or divination4 ,it is possible1 however1 that in the unofficial popular customs divination may have played a greater part than we suspect4 ,be this as it may1 the conception of monstrous beings may have found its way into ,egypt even without the transfer of the practice of interpreting birth-omens4 ,the thesis of outside influences to account for the ,egyptian sphinxes and for the combination of the human and animal form as a means of representing gods and goddesses1 is on the whole more plausible than to assume that ,babylonians and ,egyptians should have independently hit upon the idea of carving sphinxes to protect the entrances to temples and palaces4 ,naturally1 we must again be on our guard not to carry the theory too far4 ,the form given to the images of the gods by the ,egyptians suggests the almost perfect blending of the human and animal1 and as such is a distinct expression of the genius of ,egyptian art4 ,all that is claimed here is that the thought of reproducing hybrid and fabulous beings in art did not arise in ,egypt without some outside influences4 ,resemblances between the human form and the features of animals may have suggested themselves to all peoples without any influence exerted by one on the other1 but in order to take the further step1 leading to the belief in the actual existence of beings in which the human and the animal are combined1 the resemblances must have been fraught with some practical significance4 ,this condition1 ,i hold1 is fulfilled if the resemblances--as well as all kinds of other abnormalities--are looked upon as signs sent for a specific purpose i4 e4 to point to some unusual happening that may be confidently expected4 ,the monster in short presupposes what the word implies1 that it is a 'sign'--an omen of some kind4 ,a warning may also not be out of place against connecting the belief in monsters and fabulous creatures with the mental processes that give rise to totemistic beliefs4 ,in so far as totemism implies the descent of a clan or group from some animal1 it rests in part upon the supposed resemblance between man and animals4 ,without this feature the thought of a descent of human beings from some animal would hardly have occurred to people1 but this is only one factor involved4 ,ignorance as to processes of nature in bringing about a new life is an equally important factor2 and there are others4 ,but totemism does not involve the combination of the human and the animal form in one being4 ,that combination belongs to an entirely different process of thought1 though it also has as its starting-point the recognition of a resemblance between man and animals4 ,the conception of hybrid beings is allied to that of human creatures or of animals who through defects or through an excess number of organs or of parts of the body represent striking deviations from the normal4 ,both classes fall within the category of monsters1 i4 e41 they are signs sent for a specific purpose4 ,descent from an animal totem1 however1 where the belief exists1 is not looked upon as abnormal1 but on the contrary as the rule4 ,still a third direction taken by the impression made upon man through the recognition of a resemblance between him and certain species of the animal world is represented by the belief--so widespread--of the possibility of the change of the human form into the animal4 ,references to such phenomena are not infrequent in ,latin ,literatures4 ,pliny#bcc refers to several instances of women being transformed into men4 ,livy#bcd also speaks of this phenomenon as a matter of common belief2 and it is merely another phase of this same belief that we encounter in the famous ,metamorphoses of ,ovid where the gods take on the form of animals1 ,io being changed to a cow and back again to human form1 ,jupiter to a bull1 ,cadmus to a dragon1 ,medea to a fish1 and so on through quite a long list4 ,circe by virtue of her powers can change men to swine1 just as she transforms her rivals into trees4 ,apuleius' famous tale of the ,golden ,ass where the hero is changed into a talking ass rests upon the same deep-rooted belief1 which appears again in a modified form in the ,jatakas or ,birth-stories of ,india where ,buddha takes on the form of all kinds of animals and which lead to the beast fables of ,bidpai where animals are introduced at every turn who talk and act as men#bce4 ,even such a tale as that of ,balaam's talking ass would not have arisen without the antecedent belief in the possibility of a transformation of man to animals and the reverse4 ,in fact the talking animal in all fairy tales rests in the last instance on a metamorphosis4 ,but this metamorphosis has nothing to do with hybrid creatures or monsters4 ,the universal spread of totemistic beliefs preclude a priori a single centre as a starting-point for such beliefs2 and the same in all probabilities holds good for the belief that men may be changed into animals and the reverse4 ,in both1 however1 the factor of the resemblance between man and animals is undoubtedly involved4 ,all that is claimed by my thesis is that the development of this recognition of a resemblance between man and animal in the direction which led to the belief in fabulous creatures and monsters1 that is to say combinations of man and animal in one being1 side by side with abnormalities through defective organs or parts of the body1 or through an excess in the number of the organs or parts of the body is associated1 wherever it is found1 with birth-omens2 that is1 with the observation of striking or peculiar phenomena observed at the time of birth in the case of infants or the young of animals and regarded as omens4 ,monstra1 prodigia1 ostenta and portenta to use the terms employed by ,latin writers4 ,all these terms convey the idea that such phenomena are signs sent by the gods as a means of indicating what the gods have in mind1 or1 to put it more generally1 what the future has in store4 ,this chain of ideas and conceptions and beliefs is restricted to culture circles which have been subject to common influences4 ,x ,the history of monsters forms an interesting division in the annals of mankind1 and ,i should like in conclusion to call attention to the persistency of this belief down to the threshhold almost of our own days4 ,among the ,romans up to the latest period the old law of either burning the monsters or of throwing them into the sea was generally carried out#bcf4 ,this was done on the supposition that the monster was an ill omen foreboding evil and which was sent as a punishment4 ,plutarch tells a story#bcg which despite the skeptical attitude assumed by the narrator1 shows that the same point of view prevailed among the ,greeks4 ,from the ,greeks and ,romans the belief in all kinds of monsters and the view that they were signs of divine anger was handed down to ,christian ,europe4 ,precisely as among the ,babylonians and ,assyrians1 no distinction was drawn between monstrosities that actually occurred--such as infants1 or the young of animals with two heads1 or with only one eye1 or with no nose1 or an otherwise defective face1 or with an excess number of hands or feet in the case of children1 or an excess number of feet in the case of animals and the like#bch--;and such as are purely imaginary1 or in which the imagination plays at least a leading factor4 ,a learned ,jesuit1 ,conrad ,lycosthenes1 published an elaborate work in #aeeg under the title ,prodigiorum ac ,ostentorum ,chronicon 7,basel7 in which he put together all miracles1 miraculous happenings and strange phenomena from the creation of the world down to his days4 ,this is only one of a number of compilations of this character1 the significant feature of which is the jumbling together into one class1 of miracles1 of unusual phenomena in the heavens and on earth1 of the birth of malformations--human or animal--including monstrosities and fanciful hybrid creatures1--all being viewed as signs sent by a divine power4 ,lycosthenes includes in his compilation the accounts of ancient writers and later travellers of peoples of remarkable formation such as the ,scipodes and ,monomeri 7#aj7 of whom ,pliny#bci reports that they have only one foot1 of people who have the heads of dogs 7#aa71 of others living in ,western ,ethiopia 7#h7 who have four eyes1 of the ,ipopodes in ,asia 7#h7 who have the feet of horses1 and of the ,scythians 7ib47 who have only one eye1 or of people have no heads1 of others with eyes1 nose and mouth on the breast 7#i71 or who have six arms1 7#ad7 or who are provided with hoofs and horns1 or of women 7#ac7 who lay their young in the form of eggs4 ,lycosthenes' work is elaborately illustrated and so he portrays for us these strange beings1 as well as men with the heads of dogs 7#aa71 hippocentaurs 7#ab71 men with six arms 7#ad71 baldheaded women with beards1 and people in the region of the ,north ,sea who have ears that cover the whole body 7#ac71 mermaids1 tritons1 satyrs1 fauns 7#aj1 #bh1 #bah1 #caa1 #cag7 and harpies 7#ca74 ,the whole army of fabulous beings of mythology and folk-lore is brought before us#bdj1 including the remarkable creature whom ,gessner in his great work on ,animals#bda describes as 'a virgin with human face1 arms and hands1 body of a dog1 wings of a bird1 claws of a lion and the tail of a dragon'4 ,naive credulity alone would be insufficient to account for such fancies1 but if we start from the deep impression made by malformations of all kinds from the point of view of birth-omen divination1 the exaggeration of such malformations through the play of the imagination would follow from the inherent fondness of human nature for the marvellous4 ,a large part of ,lycosthenes' work is taken up with the malformations and monstrosities mentioned in classical writers--,pliny1 ,livy1 ,cicero1 ,valerius ,maximus1 ,julius ,obsequens1 ,aelian1 etc4 which he has collected with great patience4 ,passing beyond classical days1 he is at equal pains to put together all records of unusual phenomena1 adding generally the attendant circumstances or the events that followed1 which the sign was regarded as portending4 ,all kinds of monstrosities are described1 together with the date and the place of their appearance4 ,a lamb with a swine's head 7#acf71 born in ,macedonia presaged the war with ,phillip which soon thereafter broke out4 ,a double-headed ox born in the year #egc ,b4 ,c4 7#cji7 presaged the defeat of the ,persians4 ,a child without arms 7#caf7 and the tail of a fish instead of legs1 born in ,thrace in #fja ,a4 ,d41 was ordered to be killed4 ,in #hed ,a4 ,d4 a boy attached to a dog was born 7#ceb1 see the illustration74 ,this happened in the days of ,lotharius ,caesar1 duke of ,saxony1 who soon thereafter died4 ,in #heh ,a4 ,d4 7#cec7 a monstrosity of mixed shape was born and all kinds of misfortunes followed4 ,twins united at the loins born in ,england in #aaab are brought into connection with a victory of ,king ,boleslaus of ,poland and the death of ,waldrich1 duke of ,saxony4 ,he carries his chronicle beyond #aedcbdb in which year a human monstrosity was born at ,cracow1 with flames starting out of the eyes1 mouth and nose1 with horns on its head1 with the tail of a dog1 with faces of apes on its breast and legs1 with the eyes of a cat and with claws4 ,it lived for four hours1 cried ',vigilate1 ,dominus ,deus vester adventat' and expired4 ,the point of view throughout is the time-honored one that the monstrosity is a monstrum--a sign sent by an angered deity1 just as on the other hand as a trace of the pristine ignorance of the processes of nature1 the belief continued to prevail that such monstrosities were due to the intercourse of women with demons--either wilfully accomplished by the woman1 or without her knowledge4 ,martin in his ,histoire des ,monstres devotes an entire chapter#bdc to illustrations of this belief1 which is advocated as late as the year #ahcf by ,goerres#bdd1 the ,professor of ,philosophy at the ,munich ,university1 and even as late as the year #ahfd by ,delaporte in a book on the devil#bde4 ,such a belief which involves the possibility of pregnancy without the ordinary sexual intercourse and which has left its traces far and wide#bdf in the religious history of mankind must have acted as a powerful agent in maintaining also the belief in all kinds of monstrosities that could never have occurred4 ,the demons naturally could do anything1 and thus a very simple theory was evolved to account for such monstrosities and which supplemented the older one#bdg that accounted for the simpler hybrid beings as due to the intercourse of a human being with an animal4 ,the cooperation of the demons1 moreover1 was a natural correlative to the belief that deviations from the normal course of things were omens4 ,even ,christian theology found no difficulty in assuming that ,god permitted a demon to exercise his power over those who had through sin forfeited the ,divine protection1 with the result that in many cases the unfortunate mother was brought before a tribunal and not infrequently suffered death for the sin of intercourse with some demon4 ,martin's work1 above referred to1 also furnishes abundant evidence of the persistency both of the belief in monsters and of their being regarded as omens even in the scientific world down to a very late date4 ,he tells the story#bdh of the birth of twins1 united at the breast1 in the year #aefi4 ,the royal physician ,jacques ,roy was commissioned to make an autopsy and to report on the result4 ,he closes his report with a poem1 glorifying the ,catholic ,church and vigorously denouncing the ,protestant movement4 ,more than this1 he concludes from the fact that one of the twins received the baptismal rite before dying1 while the other died without baptism that the ,catholic church would survive the ,hugenot heresy4 ,in #afje twins united at the umbilicum were born in ,paris1 and despite the fact that the ,faculty of ,medicine of ,paris presented a scientific report1 accounting for the monstrosity through the fact that 'the semen was too plentiful for one body and two small for two'1 a chronicler in embodying the report of the physicians in his account presents his view that the monstrosity was a symbol of the wickedness of ,papism and of ,mohammedanism4 ,between #aeci and #afje we have the ,edict of ,nantes which in rendering civil liberty to the ,hugenots brought about a reversion of feeling in their favor4 ,the tables are therefore turned1 and the monstrosity is now a sign sent against the ,catholic ,church4 ,the chronicler breaks out in rhyme as follows#bdi3 ,je tiens que ces deux fronts1 cette face jumelle1 ,sont deux religions1 dont l'une est qui s'appelle ,papisme1 et son autheur est l'antechrist romain1 ,de l'autre est ,mahumet avec son ,alcorain4 ,the persistency of the belief in monsters even in scientific or quasi-scientific circles and of regarding monsters as omens no doubt had much to do with the fact that a really scientific theory to account for such malformations as actually do occur was not put forth until the year #ahbf when ,etienne ,geoffroy ,st4 ,hilaire in reporting to the ,french ,academy of ,medicine on a mummy found at ,hermopolis#bej and which appeared to have been that of a human monstrosity1 enunciated the view which led to the science of ,teratology1 as a branch of modern medicine#bea4 ,but despite the results of scientific investigation which so strikingly justify ,aristotle's protest against regarding abnormal phenomena in the young of animals and of infants as contra naturam1 the strong desire for the marvellous still helps to maintain at least the belief in monsters1 even if the corollary that the monster is a birth-omen has disappeared4 ,the believers of the ,middle ,ages have been succeeded by the deceivers of the #aith and #bjth centuries--the naive ,lycosthenes by the shrewder ,barnums#beb who in order to supply the demand created by the love of the marvellous have manufactured their monsters4 ,to be sure even this is not quite new under the sun1 for ,pliny#bec tells us that he saw a hippocentaur which was brought to ,rome from ,thessalonica at the order of the ,emperor ,claudius and which1 as it subsequently turned out1 was the embalmed body of a horse to which a human foetus had been skillfully attached4 ,the latest companion piece to this neat bit of trickery is to be found in a description of a fish with the head of a man that was exhibited in the ,crimea in #aiaa--;fished up in the ,pacific ,ocean#bed6 ,,xi ,to sum up the results of our investigations in a series of propositions3 #a4 ,the ,babylonian-,assyrian birth-omens which can be traced back to at least #bjjj ,b4 ,c4 rest on the impression made by the mystery of a new life emerging from another4 #b4 ,a leading factor in the interpretation of the omens was the recognized resemblance--often striking--between the features of an infant and that of some animal1 or of an animal to some other4 #c4 ,as ,babylonian-,assyrian hepatoscopy led to the study of the anatomy of the liver1 and ,babylonian-,assyrian astrology to the study of the phenomena in the heavens1 so the resemblance between man and animals became the basis for the study of ,human ,physiognomy1 which when it came to the ,greeks and ,romans was made a means of determining the character of the individual1 just as ,babylonian-,assyrian astrology when transferred to ,greece and ,rome was applied to the individual as a means of casting his horoscope1 i4 e41 for determining the general course of his life4 #d4 ,this same factor of the resemblance between men and animals in conjunction with the ignorance as to the processes of nature led to the belief in all kinds of hybrid creatures1 composed of human and animal organs or features4 #e4 ,this belief underlies the fabulous creatures of ,greek and ,roman mythology1 and also helps to explain the representation of gods as partly animalic in ,egypt1 in ,india and in ,china4 #f4 ,the recognition of a resemblance between man and animals is universal1 and besides leading in connection with birth-omens to the belief in the actual existence of beings composed of partly human and partly animal organs or parts of the body1 developed quite independently of such associations also in three other directions1 leading on the one hand to the belief in the descent of a clan or group from some animal1 and on the other to the belief in a transformation of a human being into an animal and vice versa1 and thirdly to the ,beast ,fables of ,india in which beasts that talk like human beings are introduced4 #g4 ,the theory set forth in ,berosus of a time when mixed creatures of all kinds existed reflects the fanciful combinations found in the collections of the br-priests4 #h4 ,the ,roman view of a monster as a 'sign' 7monstrum71 sent as an indication of some event of a disastrous character1 is directly traceable to the ,babylonian-,assyrian point of view of malformations of all kinds and deviations from the normal as birth-omens4 #i4 ,from ,rome this view passed over to mediaeval ,europe1 where under ,christian influence the monster became a 'sign' sent by an angered deity as a warning and as a punishment for sins4 #aj4 ,the pristine ignorance of the course of nature1 leading to the assumption that conception could take place without sexual intercourse1 had its natural outcome in the belief that women giving birth to monstrosities had intercourse--wilful or unknown to them--with demons as emissaries of the devil1 or with the devil himself4 ,this attitude served to maintain the belief in monsters down to the threshhold of modern science4 #aa4 ,the ,roman law of burning the monstrous birth or of throwing it into the sea was maintained for a long time and led also to the punishment of the woman who through supposed intercourse with a demon had given birth to a monster4 #ab4 ,the view taken of monsters as a sign sent by an angered ,deity had much to do with preventing the rise of a scientific theory to account for actual malformations of all kinds4 #ac4 ,the rise of ,teratology as a branch of medical science in the #aith century represents the closing chapter in the history of monsters1 which is thus to be traced back to ,babylonian-,assyrian birth-omens--one of the three chief branches of ,babylonian-,assyrian divination that all made their way with the spread of the influence of ,euphratean culture throughout ,asia ,minor and westwards to ,greece and ,rome1 and that may also have passed to the distant ,east4 ,addendum1 to page #dc1 ,note #b4 ,porta1 who in his ,della ,fisonomia dell' ,huomo 7,venice edition1 #afdh1 chapters ,,xiii and ,,xiv1 or ,latin edition ,de ,humana ,physiognomia1 ,frankfurt #afah1 chapter ,,ix7 ascribes to ,plato the opinion that a man who resembles an animal is likely to have the traits of that animal1 appears to base this view on such a passage as ,phaedo #ca1 referred to in the note1 and which is given as the reference in the ,german translation of ,porta's work4 ,the passage1 however1 hardly admits of this interpretation1 though it would appear from ,porta1 who evidently does not stand alone in his opinion1 that from ,plato's view that according to the life led by a man his soul will be transferred into an animal having the traits manifested by the individual1 the corollary was drawn that a man who resembles an animal has a soul which shows the traits of the animal which he resembles4 ,index 7,assyrian words italicized7 ,acephaly #be ,actiolinus1 likened to a hunting dog #dg ,adamantius #dd ,aelian #eg4 #ge ,agnathy #cd ,alexander the ,great1 likened to a lion #dg ,algemundus1 ,king of ,lombards #h4 #gd alluttu 7dolphin7 #dj ,androgynous formations #aa4 #ea4 #ef ,animals #h4 #ab4 #bf4 #dj seq4 #ea seq4 -- with two to seven heads #fb ,anus1 closed #ce4 #ea seq4 ,ape1 human nose compared with ape's #df ,aprosopy #ch ,apuleius #ga ,aristotle #dd4 #ef4 #ei4 #gg ,arms1 one arm short #cd ,arnobius #ec ,ashurbanapal 7,assyrian ruler7 #f4 #bc ,ashurbanapal's ,library #f ,ass1 born by woman #dj -- ,golden ,ass #ga -- human face compared with #df seq4 -- talking #ga ,astrology #a -- underlying theory #c -- among ,greeks and ,romans #c4 #ej4 #ec4 #gi -- among ,etruscans #c -- among ,hittites #c -- in ,europe #d ,astrology in ,china #d -- official reports #i -- leads to astronomy #dc -- horoscope #gi ,azag-,bau 7female ruler7 #aa seq4 ,bab1 ,e4 #ff ,babylonia and ,egypt #fh ,balaam's ass #ga ,baldness1 a sign of lasciviousness #dg ,baptism #e ,barnum1 ,p4 ,t4 #gh br 7diviner7 #c4 #g4 #i seq4 #ab4 #ah seq4 #cg4 #ed4 #ei seq4 #fd4 #gi ,baur1 ,paul ,v4 #fd ,beard1 child born with #ci ,belly1 open #eb ,berosus #eg4 #fb ,bezold1 ,carl #d ,bird1 sending out birds #b -- born by woman #da -- child with mouth of #fa ,birnbaum1 ,r4 #cd4 #cg ,birth customs #e ,birth-omens #b -- basis of #d -- mystery of birth #d -- texts #f seq4 -- official reports #i -- basis of interpretation #aa seq4 #ad seq4 #af seq4 #ai4 #bj4 #bb seq4 -- combination of texts #ai -- animal #i-bh -- human #bh-da -- lead to study of human physiognomy #dc seq4 -- as warnings #dd -- among ,romans #eb seq4 -- give rise to belief in hybrid and fabulous beings #fb -- in ,india #fg -- in ,china #fg -- in ,egypt #fg -- in ,europe #gb ,blood1 in rivers #ea seq4 -- 1 rain of blood #ea ,boghaz-,keui #eh ,boissier1 ,alfred #aa ,boleslaus1 ,king of ,poland #ge ,boll1 ,franz #d ,bouch-,leclercq1 ,a4 #da ,boy see ,child ,brachyprosopy #be ,buddha #ga ,bull1 with human head #fa -- ,jupiter changed to bull #ga ,cadmus1 changed into a dragon #ga ,caesar1 ,julius1 his horse had human feet #eb ,calf1 two-headed #gd ,cat1 human face compared with cat's #df ,cerberus #fa4 #fe ,chavannes1 ,eduard #fg ,chicken1 as offspring of mule #ef ,child1 with mouth of bird #cc -- without mouth #cc -- androgynous #ea4 #fb4 #gd -- with one hand #ea -- with three feet #ea -- with three feet and one hand #ea -- with closed anus #ea seq4 -- with open belly #eb -- with four feet1 four eyes1 four ears1 and double genital members #ea -- with two faces1 four hands and four feet #fb -- with face of an ass #fb -- with caudal appendix #gc -- with club-foot #gc -- with six toes #gc -- with elephant's head #gd -- with three legs #gd -- with three legs and three hands #ga -- with four legs #gd -- with four hands and four legs #gd -- with beard and four eyes #gd -- two-headed #gd -- without eyes or nose #gd -- without arms or feet #gd -- without eyes1 no arms1 and fish's tail instead of feet #gd -- speaking #eb4 #gd -- speaking in womb #gd ,china #fg -- astrology in ,china #d ,cicero #ec seq4 #eg4 #gd ,claudius 7,roman ,emperor7 #ga ,clay1 ,a4 ,t4 #fd ,club-foot #gc ,cos #eg ,cow #ab4 #ga ,cracow1 monster of #ge ,cripple #ch ,croesus 7,king of ,lydia7 #eg seq4 ,cross-breeding #dd4 #ei ,cumont1 ,franz #d ,cyclops #fd ,dante1 dog forehead #df ,deaf-mute #ch ,death 7see also ,funeral rites7 #e ,delaporte1 ,albert #gf ,demon #bj4 #db4 #ge ,diana of many breasts #fe ,divination1 methods #a seq4 -- basis of interpretation #aa ,diviner see br ,dderlein1 ,albert #h ,dog #ab4 #dj4 #ei4 #fa -- ,plato compared to a #dd4 #dg -- born by a woman #dj4 #ei -- with four bodies and fish tails #fa -- with six divisions of foot #gc ,dragon #fc ,dwarf #ci ,eagle #fa -- human nose compared with beak of #df seq4 ,ear1 deformities and omens #ai seq4 #cb seq4 ,egypt #fg seq4 #gg ,elephant1 born by woman #gd -- child with head of #eb ,ellenberger-,scheunert #bf ,engidu #fc ,enlil 7deity7 #bg ,esarhaddon 7,assyrian ruler7 #aj ,ethiopia #gc ,etruscans #c4 #eb seq4 #ed seq4 #eh ,eusebius #fa ,ewe see ,sheep ,excess number of limbs and organs #h4 #aj4 #bj seq4 #cf seq4 #ea ,fabulous beings #fa seq4 #ff seq4 ,fauns #fa ,features see ,physiognomy4 ,feet1 six toes on each foot #ce -- six toes on right foot #ce -- like those of a turtle #cf -- attached to belly #cf -- only one foot1 which is attached to belly #cf -- child with three feet #cf -- child with four feet #cf -- horse with human feet #eb ,festivals at transition periods #e seq4 ,fingers1 one missing #cd -- six on right hand #cd ,fish1 born by woman #dj -- dogs with fish tails #fa -- men and other creatures with fish tails #fa -- ,medea changed to a fish #ga ,foetus1 double #i4 #ac seq4 #ae seq4 ,fox1 born by woman #ei ,foerster1 ,richard #dd ,frazer1 ,j4 ,g4 #e ,funeral rites #e ganni #bh ,genital members1 intact #cf4 #eb -- missing #ce ,gessner1 ,conrad #gd ,gilgamesh #fc ,gizeh #fh ,goat #ab -- men with legs and horns of #fa -- goat-fish #fa ,goerres1 ,johann ,joseph von #ge ,gorgon #fe ,greek and ,roman mythology #fd seq4 #ff ,greeks and ,romans #eh ,guinard1 ,l4 #cg4 #dj4 #gc4 #gg ,hand1 child with one hand #ea ,hare1 born by mare #ef ,hartland1 ,s4 ,g4 #e ,haruspices see ,etruscans ,hepatoscopy 7see also ,liver7 #a4 #ej4 #ff4 #gh ,herbig1 ,g4 #eh ,hermopolis1 mummy #gg ,herodotus #ef ,hippocentaurs #fa4 #fc seq4 ,hirst and ,piersol #fd4 #ge ,hittites #c4 #eh -- omens #aj ,horse1 in birth-omens #ab -- with human feet #eb -- mare giving birth to a hare #ef -- hippocentaurs #fa -- men with horses' feet #fa -- three-footed #gd -- five footed #gd -- with two tails and mane of lion #fb -- with human head #fb -- with dog's head #fb ,hybrid formations #fj seq4 #fg seq4 ,ihering1 ,rudolph von #fh ,india #fg ,infant see ,child ,io1 changed into a cow #ga ,ipopodes1 have horses' feet #gc isbu 7foetus7 #ac4 #ai4 #fj4 #fb ,ishbi-urra 7,babylonian ruler71 omen #bh ,jacobs1 ,joseph #ga ,janus #fe ,jastrow1 ,morris1 jr4 #a4 #b4 #c4 #d4 #g4 #aj4 #ac4 #bc4 #bf4 #bh4 #bi4 #cf4 #ci4 #dc4 #di4 #eg4 #eh4 #fj4 #fc4 #fe4 #ff4 #fg ,jatakas #ga ,jaw1 missing #cd ,julius ,obsequens #ce4 #ej seq4 #eg4 #gd khupipi #bd ,kitt1 ,theodor #be4 #ge lamassu 7winged lion or bull7 #fb ,lamb see ,sheep ,lavater1 ,j4 ,c4 #dg4 #dh4 #ej ,leg1 missing #cf ,lion1 lamb like unto #bc seq4 #ec4 #eg4 #ei -- born by woman #dj4 #ec seq4 #eg4 #ei -- ,alexander's head compared to lion's #dg -- sedu1 lamassu with head of #fa ,lips1 missing #cd -- upper lip projecting #cd ,liver #a -- as seat of soul #b -- signs on #b -- parts of #b -- divination texts #f -- official reports #i -- divination #a4 #dd -- clay models #eh ,livy #ci4 #ga4 #gd4 #ge ,lotharius ,caesar1 ,duke of ,saxony #ge ,lu-,bat 7planet7 #ac ,luschan1 ,felix von #fc ,lycosthenes1 ,conrad #h4 #ci4 #eg4 #ge seq4 #gh4 ,macedonia1 monster of #ge ,macrobius #ee ,malformations #h4 #ai4 #bi seq4 #cb seq4 #cf seq4 #ef ,marduk ,epic #fa marratum 7rainbow7 #bc ,marriage customs #e ,martin1 ,ernest #gb4 #ge seq4 #gg ,maspero1 ,gaston #fh ,medea1 changed into a fish #ga ,medicine1 early #db ,meles 7,king of ,sardis7 #eg ,mermaids #fa ,metamorphosis1 of men into animals1 of women into men #ga ,milk1 in lakes #ea ,monomeri1 have only one foot #gc ,monstrosities #h4 #aj4 #bj4 #bi seq4 #cc seq4 #dd4 #ea seq4 #ed seq4 #fj seq4 #gb seq4 ,monstrum #ee4 #fj4 #gi ,mouth1 child with mouth of bird #cc -- child without mouth #cc -- malformation of mouth #ef ,mule1 giving birth to chicken #ef -- three-footed1 five-footed #gd ,multiple births #h4 #ag seq4 #ea seq4 #ei ,naram-,sin 7,babylonian ruler71 omens #aj ,nergal 7god of pestilence7 #ci seq4 ,nergal-etir 7diviner7 #aj ,neubert1 ,fritz #di ,nikippos #eg ,nostrils1 missing #cd ,official and unofficial interpretations #af seq4 #ai4 #cd seq4 #ed ,owl1 ,vitellius likened to #dg ,ox1 born by woman #dj -- human face compared with #df seq4 -- talking #eb4 #gd ,palestine #fi ,pathology1 human and animal #g seq4 ,periander #gb ,perokomy #be ,phillip of ,macedonia #ge ,phlegon #ga ,physiognomy1 study of #h4 #bc seq4 #dc seq4 #gj -- among ,greeks #dc seq4 #di -- ,porta's work #de seq4 -- ,lavater's work #de4 #dg seq4 -- decline of study #dh seq4 -- as indication of character #de seq4 -- in ,europe #de seq4 #di ,pied d'equin 7club-foot7 #gc ,piersol see ,hirst ,pig1 in birth-omens #ab -- with five divisions of hoof #gc ,plato1 views on resemblances between men and animals #dc seq4 #hj -- compared with dog #df seq4 ,pliny #h4 #ci4 #eb4 #ga4 #gd4 #ge4 #gh ,ploss-,bartels #e ,plutarch #gb ,polemon #dd ,porta1 ,g4 ,b4 #de seq4 #hj ,portents #ea ,prodigium #ee seq4 ,prometheus myth #fe ,pseudo-,aristotle #dd ,pyramids #fh ,puberty #e ,rain of stones1 oil1 blood #ea ,raven1 noses compared with beak of #df ,resemblances1 between animals #bc seq4 #dd seq4 #fb -- between infants and animals #dj4 #dd seq4 #fb4 #gh -- protest against #dg seq4 #gg seq4 ,richard ,,iii1 born with teeth #ci ,roscius #ee ,rossbach1 ,otto #ce4 #ea ,roy1 ,jacques #gf s 7animal7 #dj ,st4 ,hilaire ,etienne ,geoffrey #gg ,sakkarah #fh ,sargon 7,babylonian ruler71 omens #aj ,satyrs #fa ,schaatz1 ,friedrich #fd seq4 ,scheil1 ,vincent #ab ,schwalbe1 ,ernst #fg ,scipodes1 have only one foot #gc ,scythians1 have only one eye #gc sedu 7winged lion or bull7 #fb ,se-ma ,tsien #fg ,sergius ,galba 7,roman ,emperor71 likened to an eagle #dg ,serpent1 born by woman #dj4 #eb ,shakespeare's ,henry ,v #ci ,sheep1 animal of sacrifice #b -- prominence in hepatoscopy #ab -- omens #ac seq4 #ai seq4 #bc seq4 -- resemblance to lion #bc seq4 -- resemblance to infant #dj -- color of #ee -- with feet of a lion #fb -- with feet of lion1 head of dog in front1 six feet long and bristles of a swine #fb -- with feet of lion1 head of dog1 tail of swine #fb -- with two heads1 two tails and dog's feet #fb -- with two heads1 two feet1 dog's hair #fb -- with four division of hoof #gc -- without ears #gc -- two-headed #gd -- with swine's head #gd ,siren #fd ,siren formation #dj ,socrates1 compared with stag #dg ,sow #aj ,sphinxes #fj4 #fh ,spiegelberg1 ,wilhelm #fh seq4 ,stag1 human nose compared with stag's #df seq4 ,still-birth #ch ,subartu 7older name of ,assyria7 #bg ,suetonius #eb ,sun at night #ea ,swine1 born by woman #dj -- human nose compared with swine's #df -- men changed to #ga -- two-headed #gd -- with human head #gd -- with human hands and feet #gd ,syria #fi ,tacitus #ee ,talking infant #ci4 #eb4 #eg seq4 ,teeth1 child born with #ci ,teratology #gg tertu 7omen7 #ac ,testicles1 missing #ce ,thales #gb ,thigh1 missing #ce ,thompson1 ,r4 ,c4 #aa ,thrace1 monster of #ge ,thulin1 ,carl #ed seq4 tigri ili 7dwarf7 #ci ,toes1 six on foot #ce ,torches in heaven #ea ,totemism #gj4 #gi ,transition periods #e ,tritons #fa ,turtle1 child with turtle's hands and feet #ce seq4 ,twins #bh seq4 -- united at the back #gd -- breast #gf -- umbilicum #gf ,ungnad1 ,arthur #fa ,urumus 7,babylonian ruler71 omen #aj ,valerius ,maximus #eb4 #ef4 #ge ,van ,gennep1 ,arnold #e ,virolleaud1 ,charles #cg ,vitellius 7,roman ,emperor71 likened to owl #dg ,walde1 ,alois #ee ,waldrich1 ,duke of ,saxony #ge ,ward1 ,w4 ,h4 #fd ,winged human figures #fa4 #fc ,woman1 giving birth to elephant1 to serpent1 to seven children #gd ,wuelker1 ,richard #eg ,xerxes #ef ,zimmern1 ,heinrich #fa4 #fc ,zoser 7,egyptian ruler7 #fh ,,footnotes3 #a ,embodied in detail in the author's ,religion ,babyloniens und ,assyriens ,,ii #bjc-ifi to be referred to hereafter as ,jastrow ,religion4 ,see also various special articles by the writer such as ,signs and ,names for the ,liver in ,babylonian 7,zeitschr4 f4 ,assyr4 ,,xx #aje-abi74 ,the ,liver in ,antiquity and the ,beginnings of ,anatomy 7,trans4 of the ,college of ,physicians of ,phila4 ,,xxix #aag-ach74 ,the ,liver in ,babylonian ,divination 7,proc4 of the ,numismatic and ,antiquarian ,soc4 of ,phila4 ,,xxv #bc-cj74 ,the ,liver as the ,seat of the ,soul 7,studies in the ,history of ,religions presented to ,c4 ,h4 ,toy #adc-afi74 ,sign and ,name for ,planet in ,babylonian 7,proc4 ,amer4 ,philos4 ,society ,,xlvii #ada-aef74 ,hepatoscopy and ,astrology in ,babylonia and ,assyria 7ib4 ,,xlvii #fdf-fgf74 ,sun and ,saturn 7,revue d',assyriologie ,,vii ,no4 #b71 and the general survey in the author's ,aspects of ,religious ,belief and ,practice in ,babylonia and ,assyria 7,n4 ,y4 #aiaa71 ,chapter ,,iii and ,,iv4 #b ,the field of divination was gradually extended so that practically every unusual occurrence or every occurrence that even aroused attention was regarded as an omen4 ,among these miscellaneous classes of omens we may distinguish as distinct subdivisions 7a7 dreams1 7b7 phenomena connected with rivers and canals1 7c7 movements of animals--chiefly serpents1 dogs1 sheep and certain birds like ravens and falcons2 also mice and rats1 and various insects as roaches and locusts1 7d7 phenomena in houses and temples1 including probably 7as in ,leviticus1 ,chap4 #ad7 suspicious looking marks or spots1 7e7 peculiarities and diseases of any portion of the human frame4 ,no doubt the list can be still further extended4 #c ,see ,hepatoscopy and ,astrology in ,babylonia and ,assyria 7,proc4 ,amer4 ,philos4 ,society ,,xlvii #fdf sq47 #d ,the ,greek and ,roman method of sending out birds and noting their flight is another example of voluntary divination1 and so is the ancient ,arabic method of selecting arrows1 writing certain words on them1 throwing them before the image or symbol of a deity and as they fell1 reading the oracle sent by the deity4 #e ,see the details in the writer's ',the ,liver as the ,seat of the ,soul'4 7,toy ,anniversary volume #adc-afh47 #f ,see ,jastrow1 ,religion ,,ii #abj sq4 and ,the ,liver as the ,seat of the ,soul 7,toy ,anniversary volume7 #aeh-afe4 #g ,see ,cumont1 ,fatalisme ,astrale et ,religions ,antiques 7,revue d',histoire et de ,littrature ,religieuse #aiab72 also the same author's ,astrology and ,religion among the ,greeks and ,romans 7,n4 ,y4 #aiab74 #h ,bezold and ,boll1 ,reflexe astrologischer ,keilinschriften bei griechischen ,schriftstellern 7,heidelberg ,akad4 d4 ,wiss4 #aiaa72 see also ,cumont1 ,babylon und die griechische ,astronomie 7,neue ,jahrbcher f4 das klass4 ,altertum ,,xxviii ,abt4 ,i4 #a-aj74 #i ,see ,jastrow1 ,religion ,,ii #gde sq4 and ,boll1 ,der ostasiatische ,tierzyklus im ,hellenismus 7,leiden #aiab74 ,i hope to treat this phase of the subject more fully in a special article4 ,see for the present the summary of my paper on this subject in the ,actes du ,,ivre ,congrs ,international d',histoire des ,religions 7,leiden #aiac7 #ajf-aaa and ,records of the ,past 7,washington7 ,vol4 ,,xii 7#aiac7 #ab-af4 #aj ,see ,hartland1 ,primitive ,paternity--especially the summary in ,chap4 ,,vii1 and also ,frazer1 ,totemism and ,exogamy ,i #ic seq42 #aia seq4 etc4 #aa ,see ,plo-,bartels1 ,das ,weib 7#b;d ed47 ,chap4 ,,xxxii2 ,das ,kind ,chap4 ,,iii1 ,,viii1 ,,ix and ,van ,gennep1 ,rites de ,passage ,chap4 ,v4 #ab ,part ,,xxvii and ,part ,,xxviii ,pl4 #a-db of ,cuneiform ,texts from ,babylonian ,tablets etc4 in the ,british ,museum1 are taken up with texts of this character4 #ac ,parts ,,xx1 ,,xxx and ,,xxxi and ,pl4 #a-db of ,part ,,xxviii represent the bulk of this section of the ,library so far as recovered by ,layard1 ,rassam and ,george ,smith4 ,previous to the ,british ,museum publication1 ,alfred ,boissier had published three volumes of divination texts of all kinds under the title of ,documents ,assyriens relatifs aux ,prsages 7,paris #ahid-ii7 and in his ,choix de ,textes relatifs a la ,divination ,assyro-,babylonienne 7,paris #aije-jf74 #ad ,the chief publications of astrological texts is by ,ch4 ,virolleaud under the title ,l',astrologie ,chaldenne 7,paris #aijc-ac71 consisting up to the present of four parts and two supplements containing texts1 and four parts with two supplements containing the transliteration of these texts4 ,besides this publication1 ,m4 ,virolleaud has published numerous fragments of texts in the periodical ,babyloniaca1 founded and edited by him4 ,cun4 ,texts1 ,part ,,xxx ,pl4 #dc-ej also contains astrological texts2 ,part ,,xxxiii ,pl4 #a-ab are aids to astrology4 #ae ,chiefly by ,boissier in the two works mentioned in note #b on p4 #f4 #af ,copious specimens of liver divinations texts in ,german translation with comments will be found in the author's ,religion ,babyloniens und ,assyriens ,,ii #bbg-dab2 of ,astrological ,texts ib ,,ii #deh-gdj2 ,oil and ,water1 ,divination ib ,,ii #gdi-gge2 of ,animal omens ib ,,ii #gge-hbf2 of ,birth omens ib ,,ii #hcg-ida and a summary view of the miscellaneous omens ib ,,ii #idf-ifi4 #ag ,the same is the case with the collections of liver signs and to a large extent also in the case of the astrological collections4 #ah ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #bd ,cases of more than three births at one time are extremely rare4 ,a case of quintuplets in ,groningen in the year #ahig is vouched for by ,prof4 ,dderlein of ,munich and one was reported in the newspapers recently as occurring in the ,united ,states4 ,a case of sextuplets is noted by ,vasalli in the ,boll4 ,med4 della ,svizzera ,italiana1 #ahid1 ,nos4 #c and #d4 ,this seems to be the highest mark1 though ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,,vii #c1 on the authority of ,trogus records that a woman in ,egypt gave birth to seven infants at one time2 ,lycosthenes1 ,prodigiorum ac4 ,ostentorum ,chronicon 7,basel #aeeg7 p4 #bhd reports the same number born in the days of ,algemundus1 ,king of the ,lombards4 #ai ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #c4 #bj ,e4 g4 ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #de 7,k4 #abjej72 ,,xxviii ,pl4 #db1 #bj4 #ba ,in the same way we have hundreds of official reports of occurences and observed phenomena in the heavens with the interpretations taken from the astrological texts2 and we also have a large number of official reports of the same character dealing with the results of the inspection of the liver of a sacrificial animal1 killed and inspected at a given time for the purpose of obtaining an answer to a question put4 ,these reports are made in all cases to the rulers1 which thus stamps them as official4 ,see copious examples in ,jastrow1 ,religion1 ,,ii #bbg-bga2 #bge-cai 7,liver texts72 #deh-edb2 #egh-ehd2 #fac-faf2 #fci-feb2 #fef-fgc2 #fhh-fib 7,astrological ,texts74 #bb ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #bh4 #bc ,the first omen is taken from ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #bf1 #aa2 the second from ib4 line #aj4 #bd ,the omens were always supposed to bear on events of a public import2 hence the reports may always be assumed to be addressed to the reigning king1 even when this is not expressly stated4 #be ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #de4 #bf ,from other sources 7cf4 ,jastrow1 ,religion ,,ii #dfg1 #c7 we know that ,nergal-etir flourished during the reign of ,esarhaddon1 ,king of ,assyria 7#gje-ffh ,b4 ,c474 #bg ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxxvii ,pl4 #cj4 #bh ,the text from which this omen is quoted is found4 ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #dh1 #b-d4 #bi ,see examples in ,jastrow1 ,religion ,,ii #bbg-bdd 7,sargon and ,naram-,sin omens72 #ccc and #cib 7murder of a ruler ,urumu72 #eee1 7invasion of ,babylonia by ,hittites72 see also #bbf1 #c2 #hdc1 #g and articles by the writer in ,zeitschr4 f4 ,assyr4 ,,xxi #bgg-bhb and ,revue ,smitique ,,xvii #hg-if4 #cj ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #f2 also ,boissier1 ,documents ,assyriens #ahe 7the first publication of this text1 the importance of which was recognized by ,boissier7 and ,thompson1 ,reports of the ,magicians and ,astrologers of ,nineveh and ,babylon 7,london #aijj7 ,nr4 #bgf4 #ca ,i4 e4 ,a child of the harem--not the legitimate heir4 #cb ,les plus anciennes ,dynasties connues de ,sumer-,accad4 ,comptes ,rendus de l',acad4 des ,inscript4 et ,belles-,lettres #aiaa1 #fjf-fba4 #cc ,the position occupied by the sheep in divination leads in astrology to the use of the ,sumerian term ,lu-,bat1 i4 e41 'dead sheep' as the designation of the planets1 the association of ideas being 'dead sheep' trtu 'omen' and then planet1 because the planets were regarded as omens4 ,in the larger sense1 the moon and sun were included among the planets4 ,see ,jastrow1 ,religion ,,ii p4 #ddh sq4 and the article ,sign and ,name for ,planets in ,babylonian quoted in note #a on p4 #a4 #cd ,see ,jastrow ,religion ,,ii #hde1 #a and #hdg1 #fh4 #ce ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #be-bf completed by the duplicate ,pl4 #bg-bh4 #cf ,shown by the continuation of the text4 ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #bf4 #cg ,i4 e4 twisted up in a heap4 #ch ,an interpretation evidently based on the fact of a destructive storm that swept over the land after the birth of a monstrosity as described in the omen4 #ci ,three interpretations1 gathered from various documents and here united4 #dj ,not infrequently a birth-omen is interpreted as applying to the owner of the mother lamb or to the household in which the lamb was born1--but generally as an alternative to an official interpretation bearing on public affairs4 ,see e4 g4 below pp4 #ae and #af4 #da ,see below p4 #af4 #db ,i4 e41 lying at the mouth4 #dc ,i4 e41 presumably the plantation and house of the owner of the mother lamb4 #dd ,the opposite to this is 'throne will support throne'1 i4 e41 there will be mutual support4 #de ,i4 e41 the stall of the owner of the mother lamb4 #df ,i4 e41 the property of the owner of the mother lamb will be confiscated4 #dg ,i4 e41 the second issues from the belly of the other1 or appears to do so4 #dh ,whatever occurred to the king or to a member of his household was an omen for the general welfare under the ancient view of the king as the representative of the deity on earth4 #di ,a partial exception1 however occurs in the case of three and of ten lambs being produced at one birth4 ,see below p4 #ah4 #ej ,i4 e41 of course1 the head resembles that of a bull4 ,see below p4 #bc sq4 and #bg sq4 #ea ,i4 e41 with a normal head4 #eb ,a variant reads1 the city will acquire sovereignty4 #ec ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #cg-ch of which again ,pl4 #cf is an extract4 #ed ,the term used throughout is isbu for which see above p4 #ac4 #ee ,the unusual number of alternative interpretations--though all unfavorable--points to the compilation of the text from various sources in which the sign was again entered with a different interpretation in each4 ,these varying interpretations are here united2 and no doubt the priests felt that there was safety in numbers4 ,one of the seven prognosticated events was quite certain to happen--at some time4 ,the chief point was that the sign was unfavorable4 #ef ,i4 e41 the stall of the owner of the mother lamb4 #eg ,as above1 an unofficial and an official interpretation4 #eh ,i4 e41 displaced4 #ei ,i4 e41 of ,babylonia or ,assyria4 #fj ,i4 e41 a demoniac being or a monstrosity of some kind4 #fa ,i4 e41 of the owner of the mother lamb4 #fb ,i4 e41 the rudiments of what seems to be a second ear4 #fc ,similarly1 a second ear appearing below or above 787 the other one1 is a favorable sign2 on the right side1 therefore1 favorable to you1 on the left favorable to the enemy1 and1 therefore1 unfavorable to your side4 #fd ,there is inserted at this point an omen for the case that a foetus has eight 787 feet and two tails with unfavorable interpretations1 approach of an usurper1 no unity in the land1 the land will destroy its inhabitants4 #fe ,i4 e41 not one within the other--in all1 therefore1 three ears4 #ff ,literally full4 #fg ,the 'wide-eared man' 7rapas uzni7 is the wise man4 ,ashurbanapal in the subscript to the tablets of his library thanks the gods for having 'opened his ears wide'1 i4 e4 given him understanding etc4 #fh ,see the partial list of such texts1 ,jastrow1 ,religion ,,ii #hea note #a4 #fi ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #ba-bb1 with a duplicate ,pl4 #ai 7,k4 #dacb74 #gj ,for marratum the rain-bow see ,jastrow1 ,religion ,,ii #gci note #g and #hge1 note #c4 ,the rain-bow bird must have been one distinguished by its manifold coloring4 ,a lion-lamb with the head of a 'rainbow bird' was1 therefore1 a young lamb with a large lion-like head1 but showing various hues and shades4 #ga ,the god of pestilence4 #gb ,an animal not yet identified4 #gc ,low prices indicate hard times and are an unfavorable sign2 high prices are favorable4 ,the gods in ancient ,babylonia and ,assyria appear to have been on the side of the ,trusts4 #gd ,it is assumed that the abnormal birth is still-born1 but in this particular case the eyes are open4 #ge ,such a monstrosity is known as ,acephaly in modern nomenclature4 ,see ,kitt1 ,lehrbuch der pathologischen ,anatomie der ,haustiere 7#d ed47 ,i1 #gb1 for illustrations of an ,acephalus bipes4 #gf ,known in modern nomenclature as ,brachyprosopy4 ,see ,kitt1 ib4 ,i #hg sq4 #gg ,presumably the mistress of the household in which the monstrosity was born4 #gh ,perokormy--,see the illustration in ,kitt1 ib4 ,i #ge sq4 #gi ,cross-breeding1 in fact1 is a comparatively rare phenomenon in the animal world1 limited to the horse and ass1 horse and zebra1 dog and wolf1 dog and fox1 or jackal1 lion and tiger1 ox and buffalo or yak1 hare and rabbit1 camel and dromedary1 goat and mountain stag1 and possibly lambs and goats4 ,see ,ellenberger-,scheunert1 ,lehrbuch der vergleichenden ,physiologie der ,haussugetiere 7,berlin #aiaj7 #gjc4 #hj ,see the enumeration in ,jastrow1 ,religion ,,ii #hgc note #b1 e4 g41 'eyes like those of a dog' in the case of a newly-born lamb 7,cun4 ,texts ,,xvii ,pl4 #bc1 #ad71 'foot like that of a lion' 7,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #de1 #cd71 'head like that of a dog' 7,cun4 ,texts1 ,,xxviii ,pl4 #cf1 #ae72 in the case of a double foetus 'both like a lion' or 'like a dog' 7,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #dh1 #aa-ab7 etc4 #ha ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #bb1 obv4 #ac-be4 #hb ,ideographic designation 'water dog'4 #hc ,the chief god of ,nippur and the older head of the pantheon4 #hd ,i4 e41 an alternative interpretation4 #he ,an unidentified animal4 #hf ,i4 e41 an alternative interpretation of a less official character4 #hg ,see ,jastrow1 ,religion ,,ii #hgi note #i4 #hh ,founder of the ,isin dynasty 7c4 #bage ,b4 ,c47--another illustration of an historical omen4 #hi ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #d1 #ae-ci1 completed by the duplicates ,pl4 #c1 #bb-bg and ,pl4 #a1 #a-b and ,pl4 #f4 ,the complete translation of the tablet with its various duplicates will be found in ,jastrow1 ,religion ,,ii #ijj-iaf4 #ij ,an alternative 'unofficial' interpretation as in the instances noted above pp4 #ae-af1 #bj etc4 #ia ,two interpretations1 both unofficial--a rather unusual case4 #ib ,the rest of the line is broken off4 #ic ,the line is defective1 but the omen was without doubt unfavorable4 #id ,as in the case of the famous ,siamese twins4 #ie ,interpretation broken off1 but it was no doubt the reverse of what was entered in the preceding omen1 i4 e41 unfavorable for the enemy and therefore1 favorable to your side4 #if ,the end of the line can be restored by comparison with the preceding omen4 #ig ,restoration certain4 #ih ,i4 e41 the capital4 #ii ,interpretation no doubt unfavorable4 #ajj ,restored by comparison with the second omen--above p4 #bi4 #aja ,rest of the line broken off1 but the interpretation was no doubt unfavorable4 #ajb ,the end of the line supplied by ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #bd1 #af4 #ajc ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #bda1 #af 7,k4 #chha7 to the close of the tablet4 #ajd ,above p4 #ai seq4 #aje ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #af1 together with ,pl4 #ag1 #ah--;an extract from the fuller tablet4 #ajf ,i4 e41 of the child2 and so of course in every case4 #ajg ,compare the omen in the case of the young of an animal1 above p4 #ai4 #ajh ,i4 e41 the father of the child4 #aji ,the 'left' side being unfavorable to the enemy is favorable to you4 ,we may1 however1 expect to find in a variant text ',a weakling will be born in the enemy's house'4 #aaj ,see preceding note4 #aaa ,i4 e41 misplaced4 #aab ,i4 e41 protect it4 #aac ,agnathy in modern nomenclature4 ,see ,birnbaum1 ,klinik der ,mibildungen #gc4 #aad ,i4 e41 the upper lip falls over the lower one4 #aae ,i4 e41 the father of the child4 #aaf ,i4 e41 the city in which the child was born4 #aag ,of the same house4 #aah ,presumably to the household in which the child was born4 #aai ,i4 e41 the mother4 #abj ,variant 'the offspring'1 i4 e41 the newly born infant4 #aba ,i4 e41 there will be a political upheaval4 #abb ,this malformation of a child with a closed anus is frequently referred to in ,roman omens1 e4 g41 ,julius ,obsequens1 de prodigiis 7ed4 ,robach71 #bf and #dj4 ,see below p4 #eb4 #abc ,i4 e41 only the rudiments of a foot are to be seen4 #abd ,i4 e41 they are directly attached to the body without thighs4 #abe ,i4 e41 bent and deformed so that one cannot stand on it4 #abf ,twisted legs as in the illustration in ,jastrow's ,bildermappe zur ,rel4 ,babyl4 und ,assyr4 ,no4 #ce4 #abg ,as1 e4 g41 ,guinard1 ,prcis de ,teratologie or ,birnbaum1 ,klinik der ,mibildungen4 #abh ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxviii ,pl4 #cd1 with duplicate ,k #fcj 7,virolleaud1 ,fragments des ,textes ,divinatoires #i74 #abi ,i4 e41 a shapeless abortion suggesting pudenda4 #acj ,i4 e41 a miscarriage1 shaped like a head4 #aca ,i4 e41 a shapeless mass4 #acb ,i4 e41 an embryo4 #acc ,i4 e41 a shapeless mass4 #acd ,i4 e41 the father4 ,note the five alternative interpretations pointing again to the union of various collections of omens4 #ace ,the god of pestilence4 #acf ,i4 e41 the father of the child4 #acg ,in which the birth took place4 #ach ,aprosopy4 ,see above p4 #be4 #aci ,in which the birth took place4 #adj ,the expression used is tigri ili 'a divine tigru'--which ,i take to be the ,babylonian term for dwarf4 ,see ,jastrow1 ,religion ,,ii #iac note #g4 #ada ,elsewhere we find the anomaly of a child born with a beard or with hair on the chin referred to4 ,see ,jastrow1 ,religion ,,ii #ibi4 #adb ,the talking infant 7see also ,jastrow1 ,religion ,,ii #ibi note #f7 occurs frequently as a prodigy in ,roman literature4 ,see ,lycosthenes1 ,prodigiorum ac ,ostentorum ,chronicon #aac4 #bbh etc4 #adc ,see further ,jastrow1 ,religion ,,ii #ibh--;infants born with one tooth1 with two teeth or a number of teeth4 ,the omen is also found in ,roman literature1 ,livy1 ,historia ,,xli1 #ba2 ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,,vii1 #ae4 ,king ,richard the ,third is among the historical personages said to have been born with teeth and which was regarded as an evil omen4 7,see ,henry ,v1 #c;d ,part4 ,act ,v1 #f4 #ec and #ge47 #add ,nergal1 the god of pestilence1 is meant4 ,the text adds as a note ',such a being is called a divine tigru'4 ,see note #a above4 #ade ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvi ,pl4 #d with various duplicates and 'extract' tablets4 ,see ,jastrow1 ,religion ,,ii #ijg1 note #a4 #adf ,an unidentified animal4 #adg ,in another list of birth-omens a woman giving birth to a serpent is interpreted that 'the king will increase in power' 7,cun4 ,texts ,,xxviii ,pl4 #dc1 #i74 #adh ,alluttu--described elsewhere 7,cun4 ,texts ,,xxviii ,pl4 #df1 #i71 as a fish with a thick head--probably1 therefore1 a dolphin4 #adi ,such a malformation with the feet united and ending in the rudiments of toes that resemble fish's tail is still called a ',sirenformation' in modern nomenclature4 ,see ,guinard1 ,prcis de ,teratologie #cff with illustrations fig4 #agh and #agi4 ,see also ,lycosthenes l4 c4 #adb and #caf1 also ,hirst and ,piersol1 ,human ,monstrosities #hh and ,pl4 ,,vii 7sireno-melus74 #aej ,the interpretation is broken off4 #aea ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxviii ,pl4 #c1 #aj2 where this comparison is introduced with the interpretation that 'the king will be without a rival'4 #aeb ,l'astrologie ,grecque ,,ix4 #aec ,see numerous examples in ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxiii4 #aed ,see the writer's paper on ',the ,liver and the ,beginnings of ,anatomy' quoted on p4 #a note #a4 #aee ,on the basis of such passages as ,phaedo1 #ca4 ,see1 however1 the postcript on p4 #hj4 #aef ,see ,scriptores ,physiognomici ,graeci et ,latini 7ed4 ,richard ,foerster1 ,leipzig #aijc1 #b vols47 containing the treatises of ,pseudo-,aristotle1 ,polemon1 ,adamantius and others4 ,see ,chapter ,i of ,polemon 7ed4 ,foerster ,i #ajh7 and ,chapter ,,ii 7#agj-aih72 ,chapter ,,ii1 #b of ,adamantius 7#cdi sq47 for a long enumeration of the resemblances between man and animals and the conclusions to be drawn therefrom4 #aeg ',physiognomika' included in ,foerster's edition ,i #e-ia4 ,see ,foerster's ,prolegomena to his edition ,,xix1 #b4 #aeh ,i quote from the ,latin ed4 of #aeic 7,hanovia74 #aei ,he also has a series of chapters on the voice1 which are much more reasonable in character because of the omission of any comparisons with animals2 and passes on to the hands1 the breast1 the belly and the thighs and feet1 and the general shape of the body4 #afj ,physiognomische ,fragmente 7,leipzig #agge-aggh74 #afa ,von der ,physiognomik 7,leipzig #aggb71 #b4 ,stck p4 #de4 #afb ,fritz ,neubert1 ,die volkstmlichen ,anschauungen ber ,physiognomik in ,frankreich bis zum ,ausgang des ,mittelalters 7,munich ,dissertation #aiaj7 #aah4 #afc ,see ,jastrow ,religion1 ,,ii #gjd sq4 #afd ,i quote ,rossbach's edition in the ,teubner ,series4 #afe ,in the ,babylonian-,assyrian birth-omens1 such cases1 expressed by the phrase 'middle portion open'1 are very frequent1 e4 g41 ,cun4 ,text ,,xxvii ,pl4 #dd 7,k #caff72 #dg1 #ad-ae2 #dd etc4 #aff ,see above p4 #ci and below p4 #eg4 #afg ,above p4 #dj4 #afh ,in the same paragraph he records the birth of a serpent by a woman as in ,julius ,obsequens #eg4 #afi ,book ,i1 #f4 #agj ,e4 g41 cave tibi1 ,roma 7,i1 #f1 #e7 at the time of the ,second ,punic ,war4 #aga ,i1 #f1 #e4 ,further examples of all kinds of omens are found in ,chap4 #h of the first book of the ,memorabilia4 #agb ,life of ,julius ,caesar #fa4 #agc ,de ,divinatione ,i #da-db4 #agd ,arnobius1 ,adversum ,nationes ,,vii #bf calls ,etruria the genetrix et mater superstitionis4 #age ,see above p4 #d4 #agf ,de ,divinatione ,i #ec4 #agg ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxiii ,pl4 #ad1 #d4 #agh ,de ,divinatione ,i #ec4 ,cicero does not specifically state that the interpretation is due to ,etruscan haruspices1 but ,thulin1 ,etruskische ,disziplin ,,iii #aaf1 properly concludes that ,cicero who is discussing ,etruscan augury in the paragraph has ,etruscan augurs in mind4 #agi ,see above p4 #ad note #b4 ,among the ,romans these two classes were known as ostenta publica and ostenta privata 7,thulin1 ,etruskische ,disziplin ,,iii #hf and #aaf1 #a74 #ahj ,the phrase bartu or bartu ina mti 'revolt' or 'revolt in the country' occurs hundreds of times in the divination texts4 #aha ,see p4 #bi and #ca4 #ahb ,see p4 #ca4 #ahc ,see above p4 #bi sq4 ,cicero also furnishes us 7de ,divinatione ,i #cf7 with a most striking parallel between a ,babylonian-,assyrian animal omen and an ,etruscan interpretation of the same omen4 ,he tells us that the nurse of the young ,roscius observed how a serpent came and wound itself around the sleeping child4 ,on inquiry1 the ,haruspices declared that the occurrence was an omen indicating that the child would become famous and distinguished above his fellows4 ,in the same way we find in the ,babylonian-,assyrian texts that 'if a serpent is found lying on a little child1 the child whether male or female1 will acquire renown and riches'4 ,see ,jastrow1 ,religion ,,ii #ghb and #idb1 #c4 #ahd ,saturnalia ,,iii #g1 #b also quoted by ,servius1 though in a slightly modified form4 ,see ,thulin1 ,etruskische ,disziplin ,,iii #gf and #ajb4 #ahe ,the chief colors in ,babylonia-,assyrian omen texts are white1 black1 yellow and dark red4 ,see e4 g41 ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxviii ,pl4 #cb 7,k4 #chch etc471 #d-i4 #ahf ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxviii ,pl4 #ai 7,k4 #acddc71 #e4 #ahg hud libbi1 literally 'joy of heart'4 #ahh ,cicero1 ,de ,divinatione ,i #da1 who correctly explains the application of monstrum to a malformation4 ,for the etymology of prodigium1 see ,walde1 ,lateinisch-,etymologisches ,wrterbuch s4 v4 #ahi ,de ,generatione ,animalium ,,iv1 #ed4 ,see above p4 #dd4 #aij ,he gives as illustrations a child born with the head of a ram or of an ox2 a calf born with a child's head1 or a lamb with the head of an ox4 ,see further ib ,,iv1 #fe seq4 #aia ,de ,generatione ,,iv1 #fc4 ,see above p4 #dd4 ,he argues against the possibility of such hybrid creatures 7,,iv1 #ee71 on the ground of the varying length of pregnancy in the case of women1 ewes1 bitches1 and cows4 #aib ,i1 #f1 de ,prodigiis quae evenere ,externis #a4 ,see also ,herodotus1 ,,vii #eg who represents the source of ,valerius ,maximus4 #aic ,book ,i1 #h de ,miraculis quae contigere ,externis #ab4 #aid ,,vii1 #eg4 #aie ,varia ,historia ,i #bi4 ,aelian says that the story was told by 'the children in ,cos'--evidently a rationalistic supplement to the tale1 dating from a time when it was no longer considered possible to take such stories seriously4 ,the story had become1 as we would say1 'an old wives' tale'4 #aif ,see above p4 #bd sq4 and ,jastrow1 ,religion ,,ii #hge sq4 #aig ,herodotus ,i #hd4 #aih ,herodotus ,i #he2 ,cicero1 ,de ,divinatione ,i #ec4 ,the latter preserves the tradition in its correct form ,croesi filium cum infans esset locutum4 ,the omen consists in the fact that the infant speaks as in the cases reported by ,julius ,obsequens 7see above #eb74 ,in ,herodotus the story is perverted through the rationalistic touch that the son of ,croesus was dumb for many years 7cf4 also #cd and #ci7 but suddenly acquired the power of speech4 ,the story loses its point by this modification4 ,the correct form of the story is also given by ,lycosthenes1 ,prodigiorum ac ,ostentorum ,chronicon #fe4 ,the 'speaking' infant of which ,wuelker1 ,prodigienwesen bei den ,rmern #bj gives six instances1 was always regarded as an ill omen1 prognosticating some national misfortune4 #aii ,see above p4 #ci4 #bjj ,see the writer's article ',the ,liver as the ,seat of the ,soul' in ',studies in the ,history of ,religions in honor of ,c4 ,h4 ,toy' #afd and ,jastrow1 ,religion ,,ii #gdb4 ,several of the models are now in the ,berlin ,museum1 and will1 it is hoped1 soon be published4 #bja ,see ,herbig's article on the ',etruscan ,religion' in ,hastings' ,dictionary of ,religion and ,ethics4 ,the possibility1 indeed1 that the ,etruscans belong to one of the ,hittite groups is to be seriously considered1 though naturally the problem cannot be approached until further advances in the decipherment of the ,hittite inscriptions shall have been made1 following along the line of ,r4 ,c4 ,thompson's recent attempt ,a ,new ,development of the ,hittite ,hieroglyphics 7,oxford #aiac71 which unquestionably marks considerable progress4 #bjb ,see further ,jastrow1 ,religion ,,ii #cbj1 #c4 #bjc ,see above #bf4 #bjd ,aristotle1 de ,generatione ,,iv1 #ed refers to a physiognomist who traced back all such 'malformations' 7as ,aristotle calls them7 to two or three animals1 and whose views he says met with much favor1 the assumption being that such hybrid beings were produced by the union between a woman and an animal1 or by crossing of animals4 ,as a matter of fact intercourse between a human being and an animal never produces results1 and the crossing of animals only in restricted cases1 which do not enter into consideration in the birth-omens4 ,see above p4 #bf note #a4 #bje ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #bi4 #bjf ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #dh4 #bjg ,the name given to these demons4 ,see ,jastrow1 ,bildermappe zur ,religion ,babyloniens und ,assyriens ,nr4 #fb4 #bjh ,see above p4 #bi seq4 #bji ,in the ,chronicle of ,eusebius 7ed4 ,schoene ,i #ad1 #ah74 ,see also ,zimmern1 ,keilinschriften und das ,alte ,testament ,,ii #dhh seq4 #baj ,see ,ungnad's translation in ,gressmann's ,altorientalische ,texte und ,bilder ,i #h4 #baa ,e4 g41 horses with the heads of dogs 7,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvi ,pl4 #dh1 #i72 an isbu 7young of animal7 with human head 7,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #bi1 #bf and #ca1 #h72 infants with two faces1 four hands and four feet 7,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #h1 #aj1 #ba-bb 7,k4 #gjic772 human face and body of a sedu1 i4 e41 a body of a lion or bull with wings 7,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #aj1 #bc ,pl4 #h1 #f ,pl4 #ae1ag72 infant with male and female organs 7,cun4 ,texts ,,xxviii ,pl4 #e1 #aa72 with the face of an ass 7,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #ae1 #ab72 isbu--probably lamb--with feet of a lion 7,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #de1 #cd72 horse with two tails and mane of lion 7,cun4 ,texts ,,xxvii ,pl4 #di1 #c 7,k4 #djca772 horse with human head 7,cun4 ,texts ,,xxviii ,pl4 #ca1 #g72 animals with two to seven heads 7,cun4 ,texts ,,xxviii ,pl4 #cc 7,k4 #fbhh rev4772 isbu 7here probably a lamb7 with the feet of a lion1 head of dog in front1 six feet and bristles of a swine 7,cun4 ,texts ,,xxviii ,pl4 #ch1 #ac72 with the feet of a lion1 head of a dog and tail of a swine 7ib4 #a4 #ae72 with two heads1 two tails and feet like those of a dog 7ib4 #a4 #ag72 two heads1 two feet1 hair of a dog 7ib4 #a4 #ai71 etc4 #bab ,tablet ,,ix4 #bac ,see ,jastrow1 ,bildermappe zur ,geschichte ,babyloniens und ,assyriens ,nos4 #adi1 #aej1 #ahd usw4 #bad ,see ,zimmern1 ,keilinschriften und das ,a4 ,t4 ,,ii #ejc sq4 #bae ,jastrow ib4 ,no4 #abj2 other fanciful forms1 ,nos4 #aic-aii4 #baf ,see ,jastrow1 ,bildermappe 7,gieen #aiab71 ,nos4 #cf-dg 7on ,boundary ,stones71 #eb-ec 7dragons71 #ee-fj 7winged human figures and winged human figure with eagle face71 #fa 7bull with human head71 #fb 7winged bull with human face71 #fc-fd 7winged horses1 winged bulls1 winged sphinxes1 winged human figures74 #bag ,see ,luschan1 ,ausgrabungen in ,sendschirli ,,iv #ccj sq4 and #cch sq4 and ,pl4 ,,lv-,,lvi4 #bah ,jastrow1 ,bildermappe ,no4 #cb winged hippocentaur with two heads 7man and lion7 with scorpion tail and horse's tail and scorpions attached to the forelegs2 ,no4 #cc1 upright hippocentaur1 head1 arms and upper part of the body that of a man1 lower part of the body that of a horse with two feet4 ,similar figures appear on seal cylinders1 e4 g4 ,ward1 ,seal ,cylinders of ,western ,asia1 #chb1 and ,clay1 ,dated ,cassite ,archives1 #ae and ,pl4 ,,xv1 ,no4 #f4 ,see ,baur1 ,centaurs in ,ancient ,art pp4 #a-d4 ,a vast amount of material bearing on the representation of all kinds of monstrous beings in ,babylonian1 ,assyrian and ,hittite art will be found in ,ward's valuable work just quoted1 particularly in chapters ,,li to ,,lv and ,,lxvii to ,,lxix1 but also chapters ,,vii-,,xi2 ,,xv 7,bird-man67 ,,xviii1 ,,xxxvi and ,,xxxviii4 #bai ,see e4 g4 ,hirst and ,piersol1 ,human ,monstrosities #aaf ,pl4 ,,xxii4 #bbj ,see above p4 #dj note #d4 #bba ,this birth-omen 'if a woman gives birth to a head' actually occurs in the ,babylonian-,assyrian collections1 e4 g41 ,cun4 ,texts ,,xxviii ,pl4 #cd1 #bd 7,k4 #hbgd74 ,see above p4 #cg4 #bbb ,see ,jastrow1 ,religion ,,ii #idc1 #a4 ,the vulture eats the liver because it is the seat of life4 ,the renewal of the liver is the renewal of life4 ,prometheus thus suffers perpetual death and is yet condemned to eternal renewal of life4 ,this view of the liver is incidentally a proof of the high antiquity of the myth4 #bbc ,see ,jastrow1 ,religion ,,ii #cbj seq4 #bbd ,vol4 #ch 7#aij71 #bji-caa4 #bbe ,schwalbe1 ,migeburten und ,mibildungen bei ,menschen und ,tieren ,i #ci also favors this view4 #bbf ,see p4 #d and ,jastrow1 ,religion ,,ii #gdj seq4 #bbg ,see ,jastrow1 ,religion ,,ii #icg1 #b4 ,in ,se-ma ,tsien's ,memoires ,historiques tr4 by ,chavannes ,i #ac1 there is a reference to a monster which had the body of a man and the head of an ox1 and which was born to a woman through a dragon4 #bbh ,see ,spiegelberg1 ,geschichte der gyptischen ,kunst #ag2 ,maspero ,art in ,egypt #dj4 #bbi ,the ,evolution of the ,aryan #aja4 #bcj ,pointed out by ,hommel1 ,grundri der ,geographie und ,geschichte des alten ,orients ,i #aac-abi who1 however1 includes much in his discussion that is doubtful1 and draws conclusions that are entirely too far reaching4 #bca ,see ,maspero1 ,art in ,egypt #hj4 #bcb ,geschichte der gyptischen ,kunst #ce--perhaps to ,amenemhat ,,iii of the #abth dynasty4 #bcc ,hist4 ,nat4 ,,vii #c4 #bcd ,see also ,phlegon1 ,mirabilia 7ed4 ,keller7 ,,iv-,x including 7,,vi7 the case of a woman turning into a man in the days of ,emperor ,claudius at ,antiochia4 #bce ,see ,joseph ,jacobs1 ,introduction to his edition of the ,fables of ,bidpai 7,london #ahhh7 ,,xxxix-,,li4 #bcf ,see the references in ,ernest ,martin1 ,histoire des ,monstres depuis l'antiquit jusqu' nos jours 7,paris #ahhj7 #g seq4 ,martin's book is a mine of valuable information on this subject4 #bcg ,banquet of the ,seven ,sages #c4 ,the story is placed in the days of ,periander and ,thales1 and relates the remarkable birth of a centaur in the herd of ,periander4 ,thales is asked to examine the strange creature1 and after doing so asks the diviner ,diocles1 whether he does not intend to make some expiation in order to avert the anger of the gods4 ,the diviner answers ',why not8'1 and assures ,thales that the birth of the monster is an omen of discord and sedition4 ,thales smiled and looking at the young shepherd of ,periander in charge of the herd advised ,periander to keep a look-out on his young men1 or to provide wives for them4 ,the intimation reflects little credit on ,thales' knowledge of the processes of nature4 #bch ,see for actually occurring human monstrosities1 ,hirst and ,peirsol1 ,human ,monstrosities2 ,kitt1 ,pathologische ,anatomie der ,haustiere 7#dth ed47 ,i ,chap4 ,,iii and ,guinard's ,prcis de ,teratologie 7,paris #ahic71 e4 g4 in the last named work1 a lamb without ears 7#afh71 an infant with a caudal appendix 7#hb71 club-foot 7#aca--still called pied d'equin71 six toes 7#abh71 a pig with five divisions of the hoof1 a lamb with four divisions1 a dog with six etc4 7#abi74 #bci ,hist4 ,nat4 ,,vii #c4 #bdj ,also such omens as the speaking infant 7#aac4 #aah71 while still in the womb 7#age71 the talking ox 7#fe4 #aac4 #aah4 #abe4 #abi4 #adj4 #adf4 #aec4 #aei4 #aff4 etc471 by the side of the two-headed swine 7#abi71 three-footed mule or horse 7#aej4 #aeg4 #aff71 a five-footed horse or mule 7#aca4 #acf4 #aga4 #agf71 two-headed calf 7#ahj4 #aha4 #cjh71 lamb with swine's head 7#ace4 #acf71 swine with human head 7#abd4 #acf4 #ach71 with human hands and feet 7#afe71 two-headed lamb 7#ach4 #aci4 #aig4 #aih71 boy with elephant's head 7#abe71 infant without eyes or nose 7#ada71 without arms or feet 7#adb71 two-headed boy 7#aee4 #agg4 #cae4 #cag71 with four hands and four legs 7#afc4 #afe4 #agb4 #cag71 with three legs 7#afh and #afi71 with three legs and three hands 7#aii71 with four legs 7#age71 androgynous infants 7#abe4 #ace4 #agj4 #age4 #aha4 #ahg4 #aif4 #aih71 twins united at the back etc41 7#aih4 #bhd71 a child with beard and four eyes 7#bgb71 a woman giving birth to an elephant 7#bja71 to a serpent 7#bji-baj71 a woman giving birth to seven children in days of ,algemundus1 first king of ,lombards 7#bhd71 a boy without eyes1 no arms and a fish tail instead of feet 7#caf7 etc4 #bda ,conrad ,gessner1 ,allgemeines ,thierbuch 7,deutsch von ,conrad ,foerer1 ,frankfurt #affi7 #ai4 #bdb p4 #ehb4 ,the chronicle is brought down in fact to the year #aeeg4 #bdc p4 #cb-fh4 #bdd ,christliche ,mystik ,,iii #ddj seq4 #bde ,le ,diable 7,paris #ahfd74 #bdf ,in the doctrine of the immaculate conception of the ,virgin ,mary1 this factor is involved4 #bdg ,see above #dd4 #bdh ,p4 #ih4 ,chapter ,,xii1 of ,martin's work1 7',les ,monstres ,celebres'71 furnishes many supplements to ,lycosthenes work1 including some interesting examples of ,hermaphrodites4 #bdi ,martin p4 #ajj4 #bej ,the mummy was found in the cemetery reserved for the sacred animals1 from which ,martin concludes that the ,egyptians shared the general belief in monsters as due to the combination of the human with the animal4 ,it would be interesting in view of the present stage of ,egyptological research to determine the exact character of the mummy which was thus destined to play so important a part in the history of modern medicine4 ,see ,martin1 ib ,introduction p4 ,v4 #bea ,see ,guinard1 ,prcis de ,teratologie 7,paris #ahed7 in which a full account of the theory of ,st4 ,hilaire and of those who followed in his footsteps is given4 #beb ,p4 ,t4 ,barnum1 the famous ,american showman1 in his ,memoirs tells in a most frank manner of the manufacture of his monsters--living and dead4 #bec ,hist4 ,nat4 ,,vii #c4 #bed ,amsterdamer ,weekblad voor ,nederland1 ,may #bh1 #aiaa4 ,the illustration attached to the description reveals the bogus character of the 'monster'4 ,religionsgeschichtliche ,versuche und ,vorarbeiten begrndet von ,albrecht ,dieterich und ,richard ,wnsch herausgegeben von ,richard ,wnsch und ,ludwig ,deubner in ,mnster i4 ,w4 in ,knigsberg i4 ,pr4 ,vierzehnter ,band #aiac_/aiad ,verlag von ,alfred ,tpelmann 7vorm4 ,j4 ,ricker7 in ,gieen ,inhaltsverzeichnis des vierzehnten ,bandes ,linck1 ,kurt3 ,de antiquissimis veterum quae ad ,iesum ,nazarenum spectant testimoniis 7#a4 ,heft74 ,kchling1 ,josef3 ,de coronarum apud antiquos vi atque usu 7#b4 ,heft74 ,scheftelowitz1 ,isidor3 ,das stellvertretende ,huhnopfer 7#c4 ,heft74 ,dirichlet1 ,gustav ,lejeune3 ,de veterum macarismis 7#d4 ,heft74 ,jastrow1 jr41 ,morris3 ,babylonian-,assyrian ,birth ,omens 7#e4 ,heft74 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,passages in italics are indicated by italics4 ,superscripted characters are indicated by superscript4 ,gesperrt text is indicated by gesperrt4