,ontology ,or ! ,!ory ( ,be+ ,by ,pet] ,c(fey1 ,ph4,d4 7,l\va97 ,pr(essor ( ,logic & ,metaphysics1 ,waynoo? ,college1 ,irel& ,longmans1 ,gre5 & ,co4 ,london1 ,new ,york1 ,bombay1 ,calcutta1 & ,madras #aiah ,,cont5ts ,preface4 ,g5]al ,introduction4 ,*apt] ,i4 ,be+ ,& ,its ,prim>y ,det]m9ations4 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,becom+ ,& ,its ,implications4 ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,exi/5ce ,& ,ess5ce4 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,reality ,z ,"o ,& ,manifold4 ,*apt] ,v4 ,reality ,& ,! ,true4 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,reality ,& ,! ,good4 ,*apt] ,,vii4 ,reality ,& ,! ,beautiful4 ,*apt] ,,viii4 ,! ,categories ,( ,be+4 ,sub/ance ,& ,accid5t4 ,*apt] ,,ix4 ,nature ,& ,p]son4 ,*apt] ,x4 ,"s ,accid5t-,modes ,( ,be+3 ,quality4 ,*apt] ,,xi4 ,quantity1 ,space ,& ,"t4 ,*apt] ,,xii4 ,relation2 ,! ,relative ,& ,! ,absolute4 ,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,causality2 ,classification ,( ,causes4 ,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,effici5t ,causality2 ,ph5om5ism ,& ,occasionalism4 ,*apt] ,,xv4 ,f9al ,causes2 ,univ]sal ,ord]4 ,index4 ,footnotes ,to ,! ,/ud5ts ,pa/ ,& ,pres5t ,( ,maynoo? ,college ,,preface4 ,x is hop$ t ! pres5t volume w supply a want t is really felt by /ud5ts ( philosophy 9 our univ]sities--! want ( an ,engli% text-book on ,g5]al ,metaphysics f ! ,s*ola/ic /&po9t4 ,x is ! au?or's int5tion to supplem5t 8 ,sci5ce ( ,logic7#a7 & ! pres5t treatise on ,ontology1 by a volume on ! ,!ory ( ,k4 ,h5ce no disquisitions on ! latt] subject w be f\nd 9 ^! pages3 ! ,mod]ate ,realism ( ,ari/otle & ! ,s*oolm5 is assum$ ?r\gh\t4 ,9 ! doma9 ( ,ontology !re are _m s*ola/ic !ories & discussions :i* are commonly reg>d$ by non-s*ola/ic writ]s z possess+ n[adays = ! /ud5t ( philosophy an int]e/ t is m]ely hi/orical4 ,?is mi/ak5 notion is probably due to ! fact t few if any s]i\s attempts h yet be5 made to transpose ^! que/ions f _! m$ieval sett+ into ! language & context ( contempor>y philosophy4 ,p]haps n a s+le "o ( ^! problems is really & 9 sub/ance ali5 to pres5t-day speculations4 ,! au?or has endeav\r$1 by 8 treatm5t ( su* *>act]i/ically 8m$ieval0 discussions z ^? on ,pot5tia & ,actus1 ,ess5ce & ,exi/5ce1 ,individuation1 ! ,!ory ( ,di/9ctions1 ,sub/ance & ,accid5t1 ,nature & ,p]son1 ,logical & ,real ,relations1 ,effici5t & ,f9al ,causes1 to %[ t ! issues involv$ are 9 e in/ance z fully & ke5ly debat$--9 an alt]$ sett+ & a new t]m9ology--by rec5t & liv+ philosoph]s ( e s*ool ( ?\ght z !y 7 by ,/4 ,?omas & 8 contempor>ies 9 ! gold5 age ( m$ieval s*ola/icism4 ,&1 z ! purposes ( a text-book dem&$1 att5tion has be5 devot$ to /at+ ! problems cle>ly1 to %[+ ! significance & be>+s ( discussions & solutions1 r ?an to detail$ analyses ( argum5ts4 ,at ! same "t x is hop$ t ! treatm5t is suffici5tly full to be helpful ev5 to advanc$ /ud5ts & to all :o are int]e/$ 9 ! 8,metaphysics ( ! ,s*ools04 ,= ! conv5i5ce ( ! read] ! m advanc$ portions are pr9t$ 9 small] type4 ,! tea*+ ( ,/4 ,?omas & ! o!r great ,s*oolm5 ( ! ,middle ,ages =ms ! gr\ndwork ( ! book4 ,?is corpus ( doctr9e is sc>cely yet accessible outside its ,lat9 s\rces4 ,z typical ( ! full] s*ola/ic text-books ! excell5t treatise ( ! ,spani% au?or1 ,urraburu17#b7 has be5 mo/ frequ5tly consult$4 ,mu* assi/ance has also be5 d]iv$ f ,kleutg5's ,philosophie d] ,vorzeit17#c7 a monum5tal "w :i* ought to h be5 long s9ce translat$ into ,engli%4 ,& f9ally1 ! excell5t treatise 9 ! ,l\va9 ,c\rs de ,philosophie1 by ! pres5t ,c>d9al ,ar*bi%op ( ,me*l917#d7 has be5 consult$ ) pr(it & l>gely foll[$ 9 _m places4 ,! writ] freely & gratefully ackn[l$ges 8 indebt$ness to ^! & o!r au?ors quot$ & ref]r$ to 9 ! c\rse ( ! pres5t volume4 ,,g5]al ,,introduction4 ,i4 ,,reason ,,( ,,introductory ,,*apt]4--,x is desirable t at "s /age 9 ! c\rse ( 8 inve/igations ! /ud5t ( philosophy %\ld be invit$ to take a brief g5]al survey ( ! "w 9 :i* he is engag$4 ,?is purpose w be s]v$ by a *apt] on ! g5]al aim & scope ( philosophy1 its di/9ctive *>act]i/ics z comp>$ ) o!r l9es ( human ?\ght1 & its relations to ^! latt]4 ,su* consid]ations w at ! same "t help to def9e ,ontology1 ?us introduc+ ! read] to ! subject-matt] ( ! pres5t volume4 ,,ii4 ,,philosophy3 ,,! ,,"n ,,& ,,! ,,?+4--,9 ! fif? book ( ,cic]o's ,tusculan ,disputations we read t ! t]ms philosophus & philosophia 7 fir/ employ$ by ,py?agoras :o fl\ri%$ 9 ! six? c5tury be=e ,*ri/1 t ?is anci5t sage 0 mode/ en\gh to call himself n a 8wise man0 b a 8lov] ( wisdom0 71 71 & 8 call+ n a pr(ession ( wisdom b a se>* = wisdom4 ,h[ev]1 despite ! disclaim]1 ! t]m philosophy soon came to signify wisdom simply1 mean+ by ?is ! highe/ & mo/ preci\s k9d ( k4 ,n[ human k has = its object ev]y?+ t falls 9 any way )9 human exp]i5ce4 ,x has ext5sively a great v>iety 9 its subject-matt]1 & int5sively a great v>iety 9 its degrees ( dep? & cle>ness & p]fection4 ,individual facts ( ! pa/1 communicat$ by human te/imony1 =m ! raw mat]ials ( hi/orical k4 ,!n !re are all ! individual ?+s & ev5ts t fall )9 "o's own p]sonal exp]i5ce4 ,moreov]1 by ! /udy ( human language 7or languages71 ( works ( ! human m9d & products ( human g5ius & skill1 we ga9 a k ( lit]ature1 & ( ! arts--! f9e arts & ! me*anical arts4 ,b n m]ely d we use our s5ses & memory ?us to accumulate an unassort$ /ock ( in=mations ab\t isolat$ facts3 a miscellane\s mass ( m5tal furniture :i* con/itutes ! bulk ( human k 9 its lea/ develop$ =m--cognitio vulg>is1 ! k ( ! comp>atively un$ucat$ & unreflect+ classes ( mank9d4 ,we also use our reason+ faculty to reflect1 comp>e1 classify ^! in=mations1 to int]pret !m1 to reason ab\t !m1 to inf] f !m g5]al tru?s t embrace individual ?+s & ev5ts beyond our p]sonal exp]i5ce2 we try to expla9 !m by seek+ out _! reasons & causes4 ,?is m5tal activity gradually conv]ts our k into sci5tific k1 & ?us gives rise to ^? great gr\ps ( sy/ematiz$ tru?s call$ ! sci5ces3 z1 = example1 ! physical & ma!matical sci5ces1 ! elem5ts ( :i* usually =m "p ( our e>ly education4 ,^! sci5ces tea* u a great deal ab\t ourselves & ! univ]se 9 :i* we live4 ,!re is no ne$ to dwell on ! preci\s s]vices conf]r$ ^u mank9d by discov]ies due to ! progress ( ! v>i\s special sci5ces3 ma!matics z appli$ to eng9e]+ ( all sorts2 a/ronomy2 ! physical sci5ces ( light1 heat1 s\nd1 electricity1 magnetism1 etc42 *emi/ry 9 all its bran*es2 physiology & anatomy z appli$ 9 m$ic9e & surg]y4 ,all ^! und\bt$ly contribute mu* to man's bodily well-be+4 ,b man has a m9d z well z a body1 & he is moreov] a social be+3 !re are1 !re=e1 o!r special sci5ces--8human0 z di/9ct f 8physical0 sci5ces--9 :i* man himself is /udi$ 9 8 m5tal activities & social relations ) 8 fell[-m53 ! sci5ces ( social & political economy1 con/itutional & civil law1 gov]nm5t1 /atesman%ip1 etc4 ,fur!rmore1 man is a moral be+1 recogniz+ di/9ctions ( good & bad1 "r & wrong1 pleasure & happ9ess1 duty & responsibility1 9 8 own conduct2 & f9ally he is a religi\s be+1 face to face ) ! fact t m5 univ]sally ent]ta9 views1 beliefs1 convictions ( "s sort or o!r1 reg>d+ man's subjection to1 & dep5d5ce on1 "s high] p[] or p[]s dwell+ someh[ or some:]e )9 or above ! :ole univ]se ( 8 direct & imm$iate exp]i5ce3 !re are !re=e also sci5ces :i* deal ) ^! doma9s1 morality & religion4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 ! doma9s are s ext5sive1 & ! problems rais$ by _! ph5om5a are ( su* f>-rea*+ importance1 t ! sci5ces :i* deal ) !m c h>dly be call$ special sci5ces1 b r con/itu5t portions ( ! "o wid] & deep] g5]al sci5ce :i* is :at m5 commonly und]/& n[adays by philosophy4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 ! special sci5ces on ! "o h& & philosophy1 ! g5]al sci5ce1 on ! o!r1 w help u to realize m cle>ly ! nature & scope ( ! latt]4 ,! special sci5ces are conc]n$ ) discov]+ ! proximate reasons & causes ( ?is1 t1 & ! o!r def9ite dep>tm5t 9 ! :ole univ]se ( our exp]i5ce4 ,! subject-matt] ( "s ( !m is totally diff]5t f t ( o!rs3 physiology /udies ! functions ( liv+ organisms2 geology /udies ! =mation ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,or if two or m ( !m inve/igate ! same subject-matt] !y d s f diff]5t /&po9ts1 z :5 ! zoologi/ & ! physiologi/ /udy ! same type or specim5 9 ! animal k+dom4 ,b ! common feature ( all is ?is1 t ea* seeks only ! reasons1 causes1 & laws :i* give a proximate & p>tial explanation ( ! facts :i* x inve/igates1 leav+ unt\*$ & unsolv$ a numb] ( deep] & wid] que/ions :i* may be rais$ ab\t ! :5ce & :i!r & :y1 n only ( ! facts !mselves1 b ( ! reasons1 causes & laws assign$ by ! p>ticul> sci5ce 9 explanation ( ^! facts4 ,n[ x is ^? deep] & wid] que/ions1 :i* c be answ]$ only by ! discov]y ( ! m remote & ultimate reasons & causes ( ?+s1 t philosophy und]takes to inve/igate1 &--z f> z lies )9 man's p[]--to answ]4 ,no "o has ev] disput$ ! supreme importance ( su* inquiries into ! ultimate reasons & causes ( ?+s--into su* que/ions z ^!1 = in/ance3 ,:at is ! nature ( man himself8 ,has he 9 him a pr9ciple ( life :i* is spiritual & immortal8 ,:at 0 8 fir/ orig9 on ! e>?8 ,:5ce did he come8 ,has 8 exi/5ce any purpose1 & if s1 :at8 ,:i!r does he t5d8 ,:at is 8 de/9y8 ,:y does he di/+ui% betwe5 a "r & a wrong 9 human conduct8 ,:at is ! ultimate reason or gr\nd ( ?is di/9ction8 ,:y h m5 g5]ally "s =m or o!r ( religion8 ,:y d m5 g5]ally believe 9 ,god8 ,is !re really a ,god8 ,:at is ! orig9 ( ! :ole univ]se ( man's exp]i5ce8 ,( life 9 all its manife/ations8 ,has ! univ]se any intelligible or intellig5t purpose1 & if s1 :at8 ,c ! human m9d give a c]ta9 answ] to any ( ^! or simil> que/ions8 ,:at ab\t ! nature & value ( human k itself8 ,:at is its scope & :at are its limitations8 ,& s9ce va/ multitudes ( m5 believe t ! human race has be5 specially enlight5$ by ,god ,himself1 by ,div9e ,revelation1 to "k = c]ta9 :at man's de/9y is1 & is specially aid$ by ,god ,himself1 by ,div9e ,grace1 to "w out ?is de/9y--! "q imm$iately arises3 ,:at are ! real relations betwe5 reason alone on ! "o h& & reason enlight5$ by su* ,revelation on ! o!r1 9 o!r words betwe5 natural k & sup]natural fai?8 ,n[ x w be admitt$ t ! special sci5ces take u "s di/ance along ! road t[>ds an answ] to su* que/ions1 inasmu* z ! tru?s e/abli%$ by ^! sci5ces1 & ev5 ! wid] hypo!ses conceiv$ ?\gh n /rictly v]ifi$ 9 !m1 furni% u ) mo/ valuable data 9 our inve/igation ( ^? que/ions4 ,simil>ly ! alleg$ fact ( a ,div9e ,revelation _c be ignor$ by any man desir\s ( us+ all ! data available z helps t[>ds _! solution4 ,! ,revelation embodi$ 9 ,*ri/ianity claims n m]ely to enlight5 u 9 reg>d to _m ultimate que/ions :i* mank9d w\ld be able to answ] )\t its assi/ance1 b also to tell u ab\t our de/9y "s tru?s ( supreme import1 :i* ( ourselves we %\ld nev] h be5 able to discov]4 ,x is obvi\s1 !n1 t :e!r a man has be5 br\ght up f 8 infancy to believe 9 ! ,*ri/ian ,revelation or n1 8 :ole outlook on life w be det]m9$ v l>gely by 8 belief or disbelief 9 its au!nticity & its cont5ts4 ,simil>ly1 if he be a ,confucian1 or a ,buddhi/1 or a ,mohamm$an1 8 outlook w be 9 "p det]m9$ by :at he believes ( _! tea*+s4 ,man's conduct 9 life has und\bt$ly _m det]m9+ influ5ces1 b x w h>dly be d5i$ t among !m ! pr$om9ant influ5ce is ex]t$ by ! views t he holds1 ! ?+s he believes to be true1 conc]n+ 8 own orig91 nature & de/9y1 z well z ! orig91 nature & de/9y ( ! univ]se 9 :i* he f9ds himself4 ,! ,g]mans h an expressive t]m = t :i*1 9 ! abs5ce ( a m appropriate t]m1 we may translate z a man's _w-outlook2 !y call x 8 ,weltans*auung4 ,n[ ?is _w-outlook is =m$ by ea* individual = himself f 8 int]pretation ( 8 exp]i5ce z a :ole4 ,x is n unusual to call ?is _w-outlook a man's philosophy ( life4 ,if we use ! t]m philosophy 9 ?is wide s5se x obvi\sly includes :atev] light a man may ga!r f ! special sci5ces1 & :atev] light he may ga!r f a div9ely reveal$ religion if he believes 9 su*1 z well z ! light 8 own reason may %$ ^u a special & direct /udy ( ^? ultimate que/ions !mselves1 to :i* we h j ref]r$4 ,b we m5tion ?is wide s5se ( ! t]m philosophy m]ely to put x aside2 & to /ate t we use ! t]m 9 ! s5se m commonly accept$ n[adays1 ! s5se 9 :i* x is und]/ood to be di/9ct f ! special sci5ces on ! "o side & f sup]natural !ology or ! sy/ematic /udy ( div9ely reveal$ religion on ! o!r4 ,philosophy is di/9ct f ! special sci5ces because :ile ! latt] seek ! proximate1 ! =m] seeks ! ultimate gr\nds1 reasons & causes ( all ! facts ( human exp]i5ce4 ,philosophy is di/9ct f sup]natural !ology because :ile ! =m] uses ! unaid$ p[] ( human reason to /udy ! ultimate que/ions rais$ by human exp]i5ce1 ! latt] uses reason enlight5$ by ,div9e ,revelation to /udy ! cont5ts ( ?is ,revelation 9 all _! be>+s on man's life & de/9y4 ,h5ce we arrive at ?is simple & widely accept$ def9ition ( philosophy3 ! sci5ce ( all ?+s ?r\gh _! ultimate reasons & causes z discov]$ by ! unaid$ light ( human reason47#e7 ,! fir/ "p ( ?is def9ition m>ks (f philosophy f ! special sci5ces1 ! second "p m>ks x (f f sup]natural !ology4 ,we mu/ rememb]1 h[ev]1 t ^! ?ree dep>tm5ts ( k--sci5tific1 philosophical1 & reveal$--are n isolat$ f "o ano!r 9 any man's m9d2 !y ov]lap 9 _! subject-matt]1 & ?\gh diff]+ 9 _! respective /&po9ts !y p]meate "o ano!r ?r\gh & ?r\gh4 ,! sep>ation ( ! special sci5ces f philosophy1 ?\gh adumbrat$ 9 ! speculations ( anci5t times & made m def9ite 9 ! middle ages1 0 complet$ only 9 mod]n times ?r\gh ! gr[? & progress ( ! special sci5ces !mselves4 ,! l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 philosophy & sup]natural !ology mu/ be det]m9$ by ! prop] relations betwe5 ,reason & ,fai?3 & naturally ^! relations are a subject ( debate betwe5 philosoph]s :o believe 9 ! exi/5ce ( an au!ntic ,div9e ,revelation & philosoph]s :o d n4 ,x is ! duty ( ! philosoph] z su* to det]m9e by ! light ( reason :e!r a ,supreme ,be+ exi/s & :e!r a ,div9e ,revelation to man is possible4 ,if he conv9ces himself ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god he w h little difficulty 9 inf]r+ ! possibility ( a ,div9e ,revelation4 ,! fact ( a ,div9e ,revelation is a matt] n = philosophical b = hi/orical rese>*4 ,n[ :5 a man has conv9c$ himself ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god & ! fact ( a ,div9e ,revelation--! preambula fidei or pr]equisite conditions ( ,fai?1 z !y are call$--he mu/ see t x is em95tly reasonable = him to believe 9 ! cont5ts ( su* ,div9e ,revelation2 he mu/ see t ! tru?s reveal$ by ,god _c possibly trammel ! fre$om ( 8 own reason 9 its philosophical inquiries into ultimate problems conc]n+ man & ! univ]se2 he mu/ see t ^! tru?s may possibly act z beacons :i* w keep him f go+ a/ray 9 8 own inve/igations3 kn[+ t tru? _c contradict tru? he kn[s t if he rea*es a conclusion really incompatible ) any c]ta9ly reveal$ tru?1 su* conclusion mu/ be errone\s2 & s he is oblig$ to reconsid] ! reason+ processes t l$ him to su* a conclusion47#f7 ,?us1 ! position ( ! ,*ri/ian philosoph]1 aid$ 9 ?is negative way by ! tru?s ( an au!ntic ,div9e ,revelation1 has a di/9ct advantage ov] t ( ! philosoph] :o does n believe 9 su* revelation & :o tries to solve all ultimate que/ions indep5d5tly ( any light su* revelation may %$ ^u !m4 ,yet ! latt] philosoph] z a rule n only reg>ds ! 8indep5d5t0 position1 :i* he himself takes up 9 ! "n ( 8fre$om ( ?\ght0 & 8fre$om ( rese>*10 z ! sup]ior position1 b z ! only "o consi/5t ) ! dignity ( human reason2 & he commonly accuses ! ,*ri/ian philosoph] ( all[+ reason to be 8enslav$0 9 8! %ackles ( dogma04 ,we c see at once ! unfairness ( su* a *>ge :5 we rememb] t ! ,*ri/ian philosoph] has conv9c$ himself on gr\nds ( reason alone t ,god exi/s & has made a revelation to man4 ,8 belief 9 a ,div9e ,revelation is a reason$ belief1 a rationabile obsequium 7,rom4 ,,xii4 #a72 & only if x 7 a bl9d belief1 unju/ifiable on gr\nds ( reason1 w\ld ! accusation ref]r$ to be a fair "o4 ,! ,*ri/ian philosoph] might retort t x is ! unbeliev+ philosoph] himself :o really de/roys 8fre$om ( ?\ght & rese>*10 by claim+ = ! latt] :at is really an abuse ( fre$om1 namely lic5se to believe :at reason %[s to be errone\s4 ,b ?is c\nt]-*>ge w\ld be equally unfair1 = ! unbeliev+ philosoph] does n claim any su* undue lic5se to believe :at he kn[s to be false or to disbelieve :at he kn[s to be true4 ,if he d5ies ! fact or ! possibility ( a ,div9e ,revelation1 & !re=e pursues 8 philosophical inve/igations )\t any reg>d to ! cont5ts ( su* revelation1 x is because he has conv9c$ himself on gr\nds ( reason t su* revelation is nei!r a fact nor a possibility4 ,he & ! ,*ri/ian philosoph] _c bo? be "r2 "o ( !m mu/ be wrong2 b z reasonable m5 !y %\ld agree to diff] r ?an hurl unju/ifiable *>ges & c\nt]-*>ges at ea* o!r4 ,all philosoph]s :o believe 9 ! ,*ri/ian ,revelation & all[ its au!ntic tea*+s to guide & supplem5t _! own rational inve/igation into ultimate que/ions1 are ke5ly consci\s ( ! consequ5t sup]ior dep? & fulness & c]titude ( ,*ri/ian philosophy z comp>$ ) all ! o!r conflict+ & fragm5t>y philosophies t m>k ! progress ( human speculation on ! ultimate problems ( man & ! univ]se d[n ?r\gh ! c5turies4 ,!y feel secure 9 ! possession ( a philosophia p]5nis17#g7 & none m secure ?an ^? ( !m :o complete & confirm t philosophy by ! only full & au!ntic deposit ( ,div9ely ,reveal$ ,tru?1 :i* is to be f\nd 9 ! tea*+ ( ! ,ca?olic ,*ur*4 ,! hi/ory ( philosophical inve/igation yields no "o univ]sally receiv$ conception ( :at philosophy is1 nor w\ld ! def9ition giv5 above be unres]v$ly accept$4 ,w9delb&1 9 8 ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy7#h7 in/ances ! foll[+ pr$om9ant conceptions ( philosophy accord+ to ! *ronological ord] 9 :i* !y prevail$3 7a7 ! sy/ematic inve/igation ( ! problems rais$ by man & ! univ]se 7e>ly ,grecian philosophy3 abs5ce ( diff]5tiation ( philosophy f ! special sci5ces72 7b7 ! practical art ( human conduct1 bas$ on rational speculation 7lat] ,grecian philosophy3 di/ru/ 9 ! value ( k1 & emphasis on practical guidance ( conduct72 7c7 ! help] & h&maid ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,reveal$ ,tru?1 i4e4 sup]natural !ology1 9 ! solution ( ultimate problems 7! ,*ri/ian philosophy ( ! ,fa!rs ( ! ,*ur* & ( ! ,m$ieval ,s*ools d[n to ! sixte5? c5tury3 univ]sal recognition ( ! value ( ! ,*ri/ian ,revelation z an aid to rational inve/igation72 7d7 a purely rational inve/igation ( ^? problems1 go+ beyond ! inve/igations ( ! special sci5ces1 & ei!r ab/ract+ f1 or d5y+ ! value (1 any light or aid f ,revelation 7diff]5tiation ( ! doma9s ( sci5ce1 philosophy & !ology2 mod]n philosophies f ! sixte5? to ! n9ete5? c5tury2 excessive individualism & rationalism ( ^! z unnaturally divorc$ f recognition (1 & belief 91 ,div9e ,revelation1 & unduly isolat$ f ! progress+ positive sci5ces72 7e7 a critical analysis ( ! significance & scope & limitations ( human k itself 7rec5t philosophies1 ma9ly conc]n$ ) !ories ( k & speculations on ! nature ( ! cognitive process & ! reliability ( its products74 ,^! v>i\s conceptions are int]e/+ & sugge/ive2 mu* might be said ab\t !m1 b n to any useful purpose 9 a brief introductory *apt]4 ,let u r1 adopt+ ! def9ition already set =?1 try next to map out into its lead+ dep>tm5ts ! :ole philosophical doma94 ,,iii4 ,,divisions ,,( ,,philosophy3 ,,speculative ,,& ,,practical ,,philosophy4--,! g5]al problem ( classify+ all ! sci5ces built up by human ?\ght is a logical problem ( no little complexity :5 "o tries to "w x out 9 detail4 ,we ref] to ?is g5]al problem only to m5tion a widely accept$ pr9ciple on :i* x is usually approa*$1 & because ! division ( philosophy itself is a section ( ! g5]al problem4 ,! pr9ciple 9 "q is t sci5ces may be di/+ui%$ inde$ by p>tial or total div]sity ( subject-matt]1 b t su* div]sity is n ess5tial1 t div]sity ( /&po9t is necess>y & suffici5t to con/itute di/9ct sci5ces ev5 :5 ^! deal ) "o & ! same subject-matt]4 ,n[ apply+ ?is pr9ciple to philosophy we see fir/ly t x has ! same subject-matt] z all ! special sci5ces tak5 collectively1 b t x is di/9ct f all ( !m inasmu* z x /udies _! data n f ! /&po9t ( ! proximate causes1 b f ! high] /&po9t ( ! ultimate causes ( ^! data4 ,& we see secondly t philosophy1 hav+ ?is "o high] /&po9t ?r\gh\t all its dep>tm5ts1 is "o sci5ce2 t its divisions are only mat]ial divisions2 t !re is n a plurality ( philosophies z !re is a plurality ( sci5ces1 ?\gh !re is a plurality ( dep>tm5ts 9 philosophy47#i7 ,let u n[ see :at ^! dep>tm5ts are4 ,if we ask :y p seek k at all1 9 any dep>tm5t1 we %all detect two ma9 impell+ motives4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is simply ! desire to "k3 trahimur omnes cupiditate sci5di4 ,! natural feel+ ( wond]1 a/oni%m5t1 8admiratio10 :i* accompanies our p]ception ( ?+s & ev5ts1 prompts u to seek _! causes1 to discov] ! reasons :i* w make !m intelligible to u & enable u to und]/& !m4 ,b :ile ! possession ( k = its own sake is ?us a motive ( rese>* x is n ! only motive4 ,we seek k 9 ord] to use x = ! guidance ( our conduct 9 life1 = ! ori5tation ( our activities1 = ! improvem5t ( our condition2 kn[+ t k is p[]1 we seek x 9 ord] to make x m9i/] to our ne$s4 ,n[ 9 ! degree 9 :i* x fulfils su* ult]ior purposes1 or is s\ght = ^! purposes1 k may be describ$ z practical2 9 ! degree 9 :i* x s]ves no ult]ior end1 or is s\ght = no ult]ior end1 o!r ?an t ( p]fect+ our m9ds1 x may be describ$ z speculative4 ,( c\rse ?is latt] purpose is 9 itself a highly practical purpose2 nor inde$ is !re any k1 h[ev] speculative1 b has1 or at lea/ is capable ( hav+1 "s influ5ce or be>+ on ! actual t5or & conduct ( our lives2 & 9 ?is s5se all k is practical4 ,/ill we c di/+ui% broadly betwe5 k :i* has no direct1 imm$iate be>+ on our acts1 & k t has47#aj7 ,h5ce ! possibility ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 two great doma9s ( philosophical k--,!oretical or ,speculative ,philosophy1 & ,practical ,philosophy4 ,!re are1 9 fact1 two great doma9s into :i* ! data ( all human exp]i5ce may be divid$2 & = ea* di/9ct doma9 submitt$ to philosophical inve/igation !re w be a di/9ct dep>tm5t ( philosophy4 ,a fir/ doma9 is ! ord] realiz$ 9 ! univ]se indep5d5tly ( man2 a second is ! ord] :i* man himself realizes3 ?+s1 !re=e1 & acts4 ,! ord] ( ! ext]nal univ]se1 ! ord] ( nature z x is call$1 exi/s indep5d5tly ( u3 we m]ely /udy x 7specul>i1 71 we d n create x4 ,! o!r or practical ord] is e/abli%$ by our acts ( intellig5ce & w1 & by our bodily action on ext]nal ?+s "u ! direction ( ^? faculties 9 ! arts4 ,h5ce we h a speculative or !oretical philosophy & a practical philosophy47#aa7 ,,iv4 ,,dep>tm5ts ,,( ,,practical ,,philosophy3 ,,logic1 ,,e?ics ,,& ,,e/hetics4--,9 ! doma9 ( human activities1 to ! "r regulation ( :i* practical philosophy is direct$1 we may di/+ui% two dep>tm5ts ( m5tal activity1 namely intellectual & volitional1 & besides ^! ! :ole dep>tm5t ( ext]nal1 executive or bodily activity4 ,9 g5]al ! "r regulation ( acts may be said to consi/ 9 direct+ !m to ! realization ( "s ideal2 = all cognitive acts ?is ideal is ! true1 = all appetitive or volitional acts x is ! good1 :ile = all ext]nal op]ations x may be ei!r ! beautiful or ! useful--! respective objects ( ! f9e arts & ! me*anical arts or crafts4 ,logic1 z a practical sci5ce1 /udies ! m5tal acts & processes involv$ 9 discov]+ & prov+ tru?s & sy/ematiz+ ^! into sci5ces1 ) a view to direct+ ^! acts & processes aright 9 ! accompli%m5t ( ?is complex task4 ,h5ce x has = its subject-matt]1 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 all ! data ( human exp]i5ce1 or :atev] c be an object ( human ?\ght4 ,b x /udies ^! data n directly or 9 !mselves or = _! own sake1 b only 9 s f> z our acts ( reason1 :i* =m its direct object1 are br\ght to be> ^u !m4 ,9 all ! o!r sci5ces we employ ?\ght to /udy ! v>i\s objects ( ?\ght z ?+s1 ev5ts1 realities2 & h5ce ^! may be call$ 8real0 sci5ces1 sci5tiae reales2 :ile 9 ,logic we /udy ?\ght itself1 & ev5 "h n speculatively = its own sake or z a reality 7z we /udy x = in/ance 9 ,psy*ology71 b practically1 z a process capable ( be+ direct$ t[>ds ! discov]y & pro( ( tru?2 & h5ce 9 contradi/9ction to ! o!r sci5ces z 8real10 we call ,logic ! 8rational0 sci5ce1 sci5tia rationalis4 ,s*ola/ic philosoph]s express ?is di/9ction by say+ t :ile ,speculative ,philosophy /udies real be+ 7,ens ,reale71 or ! objects ( direct ?\ght 7objecta primae int5tionis m5tis71 ,logic /udies ! be+ :i* is ! product ( ?\ght 7,ens ,rationis71 or objects ( reflex ?\ght 7objecta secundae int5tionis m5tis747#ab7 ,! m5tal processes involv$ 9 ! atta9m5t ( sci5tific tru? are conception1 judgm5t & inf]5ce2 moreov] ^! processes h to be ex]cis$ me?odically by ! comb9$ application ( analysis & syn!sis1 or induction & d$uction1 to ! v>i\s doma9s ( human exp]i5ce4 ,all ^! processes1 !re=e1 & ! me?ods ( _! application1 con/itute ! prop] subject-matt] ( ,logic4 ,x has be5 m or less a matt] ( debate s9ce ! days ( ,ari/otle :e!r ,logic %\ld be reg>d$ z a dep>tm5t ( philosophical sci5ce prop]1 or r z a prep>atory discipl9e1 an in/rum5t or organon ( reason+--z ! collection ( ,ari/otle's own logical treatises 0 call$1--& s z a ve/ibule or introduction to philosophy4 ,& !re is a simil> diff]5ce ( op9ion z to :e!r or n x is advisable to set d[n ,logic z ! fir/ dep>tm5t to be /udi$ 9 ! philosophical curriculum4 ,su* d\bts arise f diff]5ces ( view z to ! que/ions to be inve/igat$ 9 ,logic1 & ! po9t to :i* su* inve/igations %\ld be c>ri$ !re94 ,x is possible to di/+ui% betwe5 a m elem5t>y treatm5t ( ?\ght-processes ) ! av[$ly practical aim ( sett+ =? canons ( inf]5ce & me?od :i* w\ld help & tra9 ! m9d to reason & inve/igate correctly2 & a m philosophical treatm5t ( ^? processes ) ! speculative aim ( det]m9+ _! ultimate significance & validity z factors ( k1 z atta9+ to tru?1 z productive ( sci5ce & c]titude4 ,x is only ! =m] field ( inve/igation t is usually accord$ to ,logic n[adays2 & ?us und]/ood ,logic ought to come fir/ 9 ! curriculum z a prep>atory tra9+ = philosophical /udies1 accompani$1 h[ev]1 by c]ta9 elem5t>y tru?s f ,psy*ology reg>d+ ! nature & functions ( ! human m9d4 ,! o!r doma9 ( deep] & m speculative inve/igation 0 =m]ly explor$ 9 :at 0 reg>d$ z a second portion ( logical sci5ce1 "u ! title ( 8,critical0 ,logic--,logica ,critica4 ,9 mod]n times ?is is reg>d$ z a di/9ct dep>tm5t ( ,speculative ,philosophy1 "u ! v>i\s titles ( ,epi/emology1 ,crit]iology1 or ! ,!ory ( ,k4 ,e?ics or ,moral ,philosophy 71 mos1 mores1 morals1 conduct7 is t dep>tm5t ( practical philosophy :i* has = its subject-matt] all human acts1 i4e4 all acts elicit$ or comm&$ by ! w ( man consid]$ z a free1 rational & responsible ag5t4 ,& x /udies human conduct ) ! practical purpose ( discov]+ ! ultimate end or object ( ?is conduct1 & ! pr9ciples :]eby x mu/ be regulat$ 9 ord] to atta9 to ?is end4 ,e?ics mu/ !re=e analyse & acc\nt = ! di/9ction ( "r & wrong or good & bad 9 human conduct1 = its feature ( morality4 ,x mu/ exam9e ! motives t influ5ce conduct3 pleasure1 well-be+1 happ9ess1 duty1 obligation1 moral law1 etc4 ,! supreme det]m9+ factor 9 all su* consid]ations w obvi\sly be ! ultimate end ( man1 :atev] ?is may be3 8 de/9y z reveal$ by a /udy ( 8 nature & place 9 ! univ]se4 ,n[ ! nature ( man is /udi$ 9 ,psy*ology1 z are also ! nature1 conditions & effects ( 8 free acts1 & ! facilities1 dispositions & =ms ( "* consequ5t on ^!4 ,fur!rmore1 n only f ! /udy ( man 9 ,psy*ology1 b f ! /udy ( ! ext]nal univ]se 9 ,cosmology1 we amass data f :i* 9 ,natural ,!ology we e/abli% ! exi/5ce ( a ,supreme ,be+4 ,we !n prove 9 ,e?ics t ! la/ end ( man1 8 highe/ p]fection1 consi/s 9 kn[+1 lov+1 s]v+1 & ?us glorify+ ,god1 bo? 9 ?is life & 9 ! next4 ,h5ce we c see h[ ^! bran*es ( speculative philosophy subs]ve ! practical sci5ce ( morals4 ,& s9ce a man's int]pretation ( ! moral di/9ctions--z ( "r or wrong1 m]itori\s or blamewor?y1 autonom\s or ( obligation--:i* he recognizes z p]ta9+ to 8 own actions--s9ce 8 int]pretation ( ^! di/9ctions is s intimately b\nd up ) 8 religi\s outlook & beliefs1 x is at once app>5t t ! sci5ce ( ,e?ics w be l>gely influ5c$ & det]m9$ by ! sy/em ( speculative philosophy :i* inspires x1 :e!r ?is be ,!ism1 ,monism1 ,agno/icism1 etc4 ,no d\bt ! sci5ce ( ,e?ics mu/ take z its data all sorts ( moral beliefs1 cu/oms & practices preval5t at any "t among m52 b x is n a speculative sci5ce :i* w\ld m]ely aim at a po/]iori inf]5ces or inductive g5]alizations f ^! data2 x is a practical1 normative sci5ce :i* aims at discov]+ ! tru? z to :at is ! "r & ! wrong 9 human conduct1 & at po9t+ out ! "r application ( ! pr9ciples aris+ out ( ?is tru?4 ,h5ce x is ( supreme importance = ! philosoph] ( morals to det]m9e :e!r ! human race has really be5 v\*saf$ a ,div9e ,revelation1 &1 conv9c+ himself t ,*ri/ianity conta9s su* a revelation1 to recognize ! possibility ( supplem5t+ & p]fect+ :at 8 own natural reason c discov] by :at ! ,*ri/ian religion tea*es ab\t ! end ( man z ! supreme det]m9+ pr9ciple ( human conduct4 ,n t he is to take ! reveal$ tru?s ( ,*ri/ianity z pr9ciples ( moral philosophy2 = ^! are ! pr9ciples ( ! sup]natural ,*ri/ian ,!ology ( human morals2 b t z a ,*ri/ian philosoph]1 i4e4 a philosoph] :o recognizes ! tru? ( ! ,*ri/ian ,revelation1 he %\ld reason out philosophically a sci5ce ( ,e?ics :i*1 s f> z x goes1 w be 9 h>mony ) ! moral tea*+s ( ! ,*ri/ian ,religion1 & w admit ( be+ p]fect$ by ^!4 ,?is recognition1 z already rem>k$1 w n be a h9drance b a help to him 9 explor+ ! wide doma9s ( ! individual1 dome/ic1 social & religi\s conduct ( man2 9 det]m9+1 on ! basis ( !ism e/abli%$ by natural reason1 ! "r moral conditions & relations ( man's conduct z an individual1 z a memb] ( ! family1 z a memb] ( ! /ate1 & z a creature ( ,god4 ,! nature1 s\rce & sanction ( au?ority1 dome/ic1 social & religi\s2 ( ! dictate ( consci5ce2 ( ! natural moral law & ( all positive law2 ( ! moral virtues & vices--^! are all que/ions :i* ! philosoph] ( ,e?ics has to explore by ! use ( natural reason1 & = ! inve/igation ( :i* ! ,*ri/ian philosoph] ( ,e?ics is incomp>ably bett] equipp$ ?an ! philosoph] :o1 ?\gh possess+ ! compass ( natural reason1 ignores ! beacon lights ( ,div9ely ,reveal$ ,tru?s4 ,e/hetics1 or ! ,philosophy ( ! ,f9e ,arts1 is t dep>tm5t ( philosophy :i* /udies ! conception ( ! beautiful & its ext]nal expression 9 ! works ( nature & ( man4 ,! arts !mselves1 ( c\rse1 :e!r conc]n$ ) ! realization ( ! useful or ( ! beautiful1 are di/9ct f sci5ces1 ev5 f practical sci5ces47#ac7 ,! te*nique itself consi/s 9 a skill acquir$ by practice--by practice guid$1 h[ev]1 by a set ( practical canons or rules :i* are ! ripe fruit ( exp]i5ce47#ad7 ,b beh9d e art !re is always "s backgr\nd ( m or less speculative tru?4 ,! conception ( ! useful1 h[ev] :i* und]lies ! me*anical arts & crafts1 is n an ultimate conception call+ = any fur!r analysis ?an x receives 9 ! v>i\s special sci5ces & 9 metaphysics4 ,b ! conception ( ! beautiful does seem to dem& a special philosophical consid]ation4 ,on ! subjective or m5tal side ! e/hetic s5se1 arti/ic ta/e1 ! s5tim5t ( ! beautiful1 ! complex emotions accompany+ su* exp]i5ce2 on ! objective side ! elem5ts or factors requisite to produce ?is exp]i5ce2 ! relation ( ! e/hetic to ! moral1 ( ! beautiful to ! good & ! true--^! are all di/9ctly philosophical que/ions4 ,up to ! pres5t "t1 h[ev]1 _! treatm5t has be5 divid$ betwe5 ! o!r dep>tm5ts ( philosophy--psy*ology1 cosmology1 natural !ology1 g5]al metaphysics1 e?ics--r ?an gr\p$ toge!r to =m an additional di/9ct dep>tm5t4 ,v4 ,,dep>tm5ts ,,( ,,speculative ,,philosophy3 ,,metaphysics4--,! philosophy :i* /udies ! ord] realiz$ 9 ?+s ap>t f our activity1 speculative philosophy1 has be5 v>i\sly divid$ up into sep>ate dep>tm5ts f ! fir/ orig9s ( philosophical speculation4 ,:5 we rememb] t all intellectual k ( ?+s involves ! appreh5sion ( g5]al tru?s or laws ab\t ^! ?+s1 & t ?is appreh5sion ( intelligible aspects common to a m or less ext5sive gr\p ( ?+s involves ! ex]cise ( ab/raction1 we c und]/& h[ ! :ole doma9 ( speculative k1 :e!r sci5tific or philosophical1 c be diff]5tiat$ into c]ta9 lay]s or levels1 s to speak1 accord+ to v>i\s degrees ( ab/ractness & univ]sality 9 ! intelligible aspects "u :i* ! data ( our exp]i5ce may be consid]$4 ,on ?is pr9ciple ,ari/otle & ! s*ola/ics divid$ all speculative k into ?ree great doma9s1 ,physics1 ,ma!matics & ,metaphysics1 ) _! respective prop] objects1 ,*ange1 ,quantity & ,be+1 objects :i* are successively appreh5d$ 9 ?ree great /ages ( ab/raction trav]s$ by ! human m9d 9 its ef=t to und]/& & expla9 ! ,univ]sal ,ord] ( ?+s4 ,& z a matt] ( fact p]haps ! fir/ great common & mo/ obvi\s feature :i* /rikes ! m9d reflect+ on ! visible univ]se is ! feature ( all-p]vad+ *ange 771 movem5t1 evolution1 progress & regress1 gr[? & decay2 we see x ev]y:]e 9 a v>iety ( =ms1 me*anical or local *ange1 quantitative *ange1 qualitative *ange1 vital *ange4 ,n[ ! k acquir$ by ! /udy ( ?+s "u ?is common aspect is call$ ,physics4 ,"h ! m9d ab/racts m]ely f ! individualiz+ diff]5ces ( ?is *ange 9 individual ?+s1 & fixes its att5tion on ! great1 common1 s5sible aspect itself ( visible *ange4 ,b ! m9d c ab/ract ev5 f ! s5sible *anges t take place 9 ! physical univ]se & fix its att5tion on a /atic feature 9 ! *ang+ ?+s4 ,?is /atic elem5t 7 71 :i* ! intellect appreh5ds 9 mat]ial ?+s z naturally insep>able f !m 7 71 is _! quantity1 _! ext5sion 9 space4 ,:5 ! m9d /rips a mat]ial object ( all its visible1 s5sible prop]ties--on :i* its me*anical1 physical & *emical *anges dep5d--!re /ill rema9s z an object ( ?\ght a some?+ =m$ ( p>ts outside p>ts 9 ?ree dim5sions ( space4 ,?is ab/ract quantity1 quantitas intelligibilis--:e!r z cont9u\s or discont9u\s1 z magnitude or multitude--is ! prop] object ( ,ma!matics4 ,b ! m9d c p5etrate f>!r /ill into ! reality ( ! mat]ial data :i* x f9ds end[$ ) ! attributes ( *ange & quantity3 x c elim9ate f ! object ( its ?\ght ev5 ?is latt] or ma!matical attribute1 & seize on some?+ /ill m fundam5tal4 ,! v ess5ce1 sub/ance1 nature1 be+ itself1 ( ! ?+1 ! und]ly+ subject & root pr9ciple ( all ! ?+'s op]ations & attributes1 is some?+ deep] ?an any ( ^! attributes1 some?+ at lea/ m5tally di/9ct f ^! latt] 7 73 & ?is some?+ is ! prop] object ( man's highe/ speculative k1 :i* ,ari/otle call$ 1 philosophia prima1 ! fir/ or fundam5tal or deepe/ philosophy47#ae7 ,b he gave ?is latt] ord] ( k ano!r v significant title3 he call$ x !ology or !ological sci5ce1 1 by a d5om9ation d]iv$ a potiori p>te1 f its nobl] "p1 its culm9ation 9 ! k ( ,god4 ,let u see h[4 ,= ,ari/otle fir/ philosophy is ! sci5ce ( be+ & its ess5tial attributes47#af7 ,"h ! m9d appreh5ds its object z /atic or ab/ract$ f *ange1 & z immat]ial or ab/ract$ f quantity1 ! fundam5tal attribute ( mat]ial reality--z 4 ,n[ x is ! sub/ance1 nature1 or ess5ce ( ! ?+s ( our direct & imm$iate exp]i5ce1 t =ms ! prop] object ( ?is highe/ sci5ce4 ,b 9 ^! ?+s ! sub/ance1 nature1 or ess5ce1 is n f\nd 9 real & actual sep>ation f ! mat]ial attributes ( *ange & quantity2 x is consid]$ sep>ately f ^! only by an ef=t ( m5tal ab/raction4 ,ev5 ! nature ( man himself is n :olly immat]ial2 nor is ! spiritual pr9ciple 9 man1 8 s\l1 entirely exempt f mat]ial conditions4 ,h5ce 9 s f> z fir/ philosophy /udies ! be+ ( ! ?+s ( our direct exp]i5ce1 its object is immat]ial only negatively or by m5tal ab/raction4 ,b does ?is /udy br+ )9 ! scope ( our exp]i5ce any be+ or reality t is positively & actually exempt f all *ange & all mat]ial conditions8 ,if s ! /udy ( ?is be+1 ! ,div9e ,be+1 w be ! highe/ ef=t1 ! cr[n+ p]fection1 ( fir/ philosophy2 :i* we may !re=e call ! !ological sci5ce4 8,if10 writes ,ari/otle17#ag7 8!re really exi/s a sub/ance absolutely immutable & immat]ial1 9 a ^w1 a ,div9e ,be+--z we hope to prove--!n su* ,be+ mu/ be ! absolutely fir/ & supreme pr9ciple1 & ! sci5ce t atta9s to su* ,be+ w be !ological40 ,9 ?is triple division ( speculative philosophy into ,physics1 ,ma!matics1 & ,metaphysics1 x w naturally occur to "o to ask3 ,did ,ari/otle di/+ui% betwe5 :at he call$ ,physics & :at we n[adays call ! special physical sci5ces8 ,he did4 ,^! special analytic /udies ( ! v>i\s dep>tm5ts ( ! physical univ]se1 animate & inanimate1 ,ari/otle describ$ indiscrim9ately z 8p>tial0 sci5ces3 -- 4 ,^! descriptive1 inductive1 comp>ative /udies1 proce$+ a po/]iori f effects to causes1 he conceiv$ r z a prep>ation = sci5tific k prop]2 ?is latt] he conceiv$ to be a syn!tic1 d$uctive explanation ( ?+s1 9 ! light ( "s common aspect detect$ 9 !m z pr9ciple or cause ( all _! concrete *>act]i/ics47#ah7 ,su* syn!tic k ( ?+s1 9 ! light ( "s su* common aspect z *ange1 is :at he reg>d$ z sci5tific k1 mean+ !reby :at we mean by philosophical k47#ai7 ,:at he call$ ,physics1 !re=e1 is :at we n[adays und]/& z ,cosmology & ,psy*ology47#bj7 ,ma!matical sci5ce ,ari/otle likewise reg>d$ z sci5ce 9 ! full & p]fect s5se1 i4e4 z philosophical4 ,b j z we di/+ui% n[adays betwe5 ! special physical & human sci5ces on ! "o h&1 & ! philosophy ( ext]nal nature & man on ! o!r1 s we may di/+ui% betwe5 ! special ma!matical sci5ces & a ,philosophy ( ,ma!matics3 ) ?is diff]5ce1 t :ile ! =m] gr\ps ( special sci5ces are ma9ly inductive ! ma!matical gr\p is ma9ly d$uctive4 ,fur!rmore1 ! ,philosophy ( ,ma!matics--:i* inve/igates que/ions reg>d+ ! ultimate significance ( ma!matical concepts1 axioms & assumptions3 unity1 multitude1 magnitude1 quantity1 space1 "t1 etc4--does n usually =m a sep>ate dep>tm5t 9 ! philosophical curriculum3 its problems are dealt ) z !y arise 9 ! o!r dep>tm5ts ( ,metaphysics4 ,be=e outl9+ ! mod]n divisions ( ,metaphysics we may note t ?is latt] t]m 0 n us$ by ,ari/otle4 ,we owe x probably to ,&ronicus ( ,rhodes 7 #dj ,b4,c471 :o1 :5 arrang+ a complete edition ( ,ari/otle's works1 plac$ next 9 ord] aft] ! ,physics1 or physical treatises1 all ! p>ts & fragm5ts ( ! ma/]'s works be>+ ^u ! immutable & immat]ial object ( ! philosophia prima2 ^! he labell$ 77 1 po/ physica1 ! books aft] ! physics3 h5ce ! "n metaphysics17#ba7 appli$ to ?is highe/ section ( speculative philosophy4 ,x 0 soon notic$ t ! t]m1 ?us =tuit\sly appli$ to su* inve/igations1 convey$ a v appropriate description ( _! scope & "* if int]pret$ 9 ! s5se ( 8supra-physica10 or 8trans-physica03 inasmu* z ! object ( ^! inve/igations is a hyp]physical object1 an object t is ei!r positively & really1 or negatively & by ab/raction1 beyond ! mat]ial conditions ( quantity & *ange4 ,/4 ,?omas comb9es bo? mean+s ( ! t]m :5 he says t ! /udy ( its subject-matt] comes naturally aft] ! /udy ( physics1 & t we naturally pass f ! /udy ( ! s5sible to t ( ! supras5sible47#bb7 ,! t]m philosophia prima has n[ only an hi/orical int]e/2 & ! t]m !ology1 us$ )\t qualification1 is n[ g5]ally und]/ood to signify sup]natural !ology4 ,,vi4 ,,dep>tm5ts ,,( ,,metaphysics3 ,,cosmology1 ,,psy*ology1 ,,& ,,natural ,,!ology4--,n[adays ! t]m ,metaphysics is und]/ood z synonym\s ) speculative philosophy3 ! inve/igation ( ! be+1 nature1 or ess5ce1 & ess5tial attributes ( ! realities :i* are also /udi$ 9 ! v>i\s special sci5ces3 ! se>* = ! ultimate gr\nds1 reasons & causes ( ^! realities1 ( :i* ! proximate explanations are s\ght 9 ! special sci5ces4 ,we h se5 t x has = its special object t mo/ ab/ract aspect ( reality :]eby ! latt] is conceiv$ z *angeless & immat]ial2 & we h se5 t a be+ may h ^! attributes ei!r by m5tal ab/raction m]ely1 or 9 actual reality4 ,9 o!r words ! philosophical /udy ( ?+s t are really mat]ial n only sugge/s ! possibility1 b e/abli%es ! actual exi/5ce1 ( a ,be+ t is really *angeless & immat]ial3 s t metaphysics 9 all its amplitude w\ld be ! philosophical sci5ce ( ?+s t are negatively 7by ab/raction7 or positively 79 reality7 immat]ial4 ,?is di/9ction sugge/s a division ( metaphysics into g5]al & special metaphysics4 ,! =m] w\ld be ! philosophical /udy ( all be+1 consid]$ by m5tal ab/raction z immat]ial2 ! latt] w\ld be ! philosophical /udy ( ! really & positively *angeless & immat]ial ,be+1--,god4 ,! =m] w\ld naturally fall into two great bran*es3 ! /udy ( inanimate nature & ! /udy ( liv+ ?+s1 ,cosmology & ,psy*ology2 :ile special metaphysics1 ! philosophical /udy ( ! ,div9e ,be+1 w\ld con/itute ,natural ,!ology4 ,^! ?ree dep>tm5ts1 "o ( special metaphysics & two ( g5]al metaphysics1 w\ld n be ?ree di/9ct philosophical sci5ces1 b ?ree dep>tm5ts ( ! "o speculative philosophical sci5ce4 ,! /&po9t w\ld be ! same 9 all ?ree sections1 viz4 be+ consid]$ z /atic & immat]ial by m5tal ab/raction3 = :atev] positive k we c rea* ab\t be+ t is really immat]ial c be rea*$ only ?r\gh concepts d]iv$ f mat]ial be+ & appli$ analogically to immat]ial be+4 ,cosmology & ,psy*ology divide betwe5 !m ! :ole doma9 ( man's imm$iate exp]i5ce4 ,cosmology1 utiliz+ n only ! data ( direct exp]i5ce1 b also ! conclusions e/abli%$ by ! analytic /udy ( ^! data 9 ! physical sci5ces1 explores ! orig91 nature1 & de/9y ( ! mat]ial univ]se4 ,"s philosoph]s include among ! data ( ,cosmology all ! ph5om5a ( vegetative life1 res]v+ s5ti5t & rational life = ,psy*ology2 o!rs include ev5 s5ti5t life 9 ,cosmology1 res]v+ ! /udy ( human life = ,psy*ology1 or1 z !y w\ld call x1 ,an?ropology47#bc7 ,! m]e matt] ( location is ( second>y importance4 ,see+1 h[ev]1 t man embodies 9 himself all ?ree =ms ( life1 vegetative1 s5ti5t1 & rational1 all ?ree w\ld p]haps m naturally belong to ,psy*ology1 :i* w\ld be ! philosophical /udy ( life 9 all its manife/ations 71 ! vital pr9ciple1 ! s\l74 ,j z ! conclusions ( ! physical sci5ces are ! data ( ,cosmology1 s ! conclusions ( ! natural or biological sci5ces--,zoology1 ,botany1 ,physiology1 ,morphology1 ,cellul> ,biology1 etc4--are ! data ( ,psy*ology4 ,inde$ 9 ,psy*ology itself--especially 9 m rec5t ye>s--x is possible to di/+ui% a positive1 analytic1 empirical /udy ( ! ph5om5a ( consci\sness1 a /udy :i* w\ld rank r z a special ?an z an ultimate or philosophical sci5ce2 & a syn!tic1 rational /udy ( ! results ( ?is analysis1 a /udy :i* w\ld be /rictly philosophical 9 "*4 ,?is w\ld h = its object to det]m9e ! orig91 nature & de/9y ( liv+ ?+s 9 g5]al & ( man himself 9 p>ticul>4 ,x w\ld inquire into ! nature & ess5tial prop]ties ( liv+ matt]1 into ! nature ( ! subject ( consci\s /ates1 into ! op]ations & faculties ( ! human m9d1 into ! nature ( ! human s\l & its mode ( union ) ! body1 into ! rationality ( ! human intellect & ! fre$om ( ! human w1 ! spirituality & immortality ( ! human s\l1 etc4 ,b s9ce ! human m9d itself is ! natural in/rum5t :]eby man acquires all 8 k1 x w be at once app>5t t ! /udy ( ! ph5om5on ( k itself1 ( ! cognitive activity ( ! m9d1 c be /udi$1 & mu/ be /udi$1 n m]ely z a natural ph5om5on ( ! m9d1 b f ! po9t ( view ( its special significance z repres5tative ( objects o!r ?an itself1 f ! po9t ( view ( its validity or invalidity1 its tru? or falsity1 & ) ! special aim ( det]m9+ ! scope & limitations & conditions ( its objective validity4 ,we h already ref]r$ to ! /udy ( human k f ?is /&po9t1 9 connexion ) :at 0 said above conc]n+ ,logic4 ,x has a close k9%ip ) ,logic on ! "o h&1 & ) ,psy*ology on ! o!r2 & n[adays x =ms a di/9ct bran* ( speculative ,philosophy "u ! title ( ,crit]iology1 ,epi/emology1 or ! ,!ory ( ,k4 ,aris+ out ( ! data ( our direct exp]i5ce1 ext]nal & int]nal1 z /udi$ 9 ! philosophical dep>tm5ts j outl9$1 we f9d a v>iety ( evid5ces all po9t+ beyond ! doma9 ( ?is direct exp]i5ce to ! supreme conclusion t !re exi/s ( necessity1 di/9ct f ?is directly exp]i5c$ univ]se1 z its ,creator1 ,cons]v]1 & ,rul]1 its ,fir/ ,beg9n+ & its ,la/ ,end1 its ,alpha & ,omega1 ,"o ,div9e & ,inf9ite ,be+1 ! ,deity4 ,! exi/5ce & attributes ( ! ,deity1 & ! relations ( man & ! univ]se to ! ,deity1 =m ! subject-matt] ( ,natural ,!ology4 ,,vii4 ,,dep>tm5ts ,,( ,,metaphysics3 ,,ontology ,,& ,,epi/emology4--,accord+ to ! ,ari/otelian & s*ola/ic conception speculative philosophy w\ld utilize z data ! conclusions ( ! special sci5ces--physical1 biological1 & human4 ,x w\ld try to rea* a deep] explanation ( _! data by syn!siz+ ^! "u ! wid] aspects ( *ange1 quantity1 & be+1 ?us br++ to light ! ultimate causes1 reasons1 & explanatory pr9ciples ( ?+s4 ,?is :ole /udy w\ld naturally fall into two great bran*es3 ,g5]al ,metaphysics 7,cosmology & ,psy*ology71 :i* w\ld /udy ?+s exempt f quantity & *ange n really b only by m5tal ab/raction2 & ,special ,metaphysics 7,natural ,!ology71 :i* w\ld /udy ! positively immat]ial & immutable ,be+ ( ! ,deity4 ,?is division ( ,metaphysics1 ?or\ghly s\nd 9 pr9ciple1 & bas$ on a sane & rational view ( ! relation betwe5 ! special sci5ces & philosophy1 has be5 almo/ entirely7#bd7 supplant$ 9 mod]n times by a division :i*1 ab/ract+ f ! errone\s attitude t prompt$ x 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 has mu* to recomm5d x f ! /&po9t ( practical conv5i5ce ( treatm5t4 ,! mod]n division 0 introduc$ by ,wolff 7#afgi-agee71 a ,g]man philosoph]1--a disciple ( ,leibniz 7#afdf-agaf7 & =]unn] ( ,kant 7#agbd-ahjd747be7 ,influ5c$ by ! excessively d$uctive me?od ( ,leibniz' philosophy1 :i* he s\ght to sy/ematize & to popul>ize1 he wrongly conceiv$ ! metaphysical /udy ( reality z some?+ :olly ap>t & sep>ate f ! inductive inve/igation ( ?is same reality 9 ! positive sci5ces4 ,x compris$ ! /udy ( ! mo/ fundam5tal & ess5tial pr9ciples ( be+1 consid]$ 9 !mselves2 & ! d$uctive application ( ^! pr9ciples to ! ?ree great doma9s ( actual reality1 ! corporeal univ]se1 ! human s\l1 & ,god4 ,! /udy ( ! fir/ pr9ciples ( be+ 9 !mselves w\ld con/itute ,g5]al ,metaphysics1 or ,ontology 7-74 ,_! applications w\ld con/itute ?ree great dep>tm5ts ( ,special ,metaphysics3 ,cosmology1 :i* he describ$ z 8transc5d5tal0 9 opposition to ! exp]im5tal physical sci5ces2 ,psy*ology1 :i* he t]m$ 8rational0 9 opposition to ! empirical biological sci5ces2 & f9ally ,natural ,!ology1 :i* he entitl$ ,!odicy 7--71 us+ a t]m inv5t$ by ,leibniz = 8 essays 9 v9dication ( ! wisdom & ju/ice ( ,div9e ,provid5ce not)/&+ ! evils ( ! univ]se4 8,! _s t animat$ ?is arrangem5t ( ! dep>tm5ts ( metaphysics10 writes ,m]ci]1 80 uns\nd 9 !ory & un=tunate 9 t5d5cy4 ,x /]eotyp$ = c5turies a disa/r\s divorce betwe5 philosophy & ! sci5ces1 a divorce t _h its orig9 9 circum/ances peculi> to ! intellectual atmosph]e ( ! e>ly eighte5? c5tury4 ,z a result ( x !re 0 soon no common language or und]/&+ betwe5 sci5ti/s & philosoph]s4 ,! t]ms :i* express$ ! mo/ fundam5tal ideas--matt]1 sub/ance1 movem5t1 cause1 =ce1 en]gy1 & su* l--7 tak5 9 diff]5t s5ses 9 sci5ce & 9 philosophy4 ,h5ce misund]/&+s1 aggravat$ by a gr[+ mutual di/ru/ & ho/ility1 until f9ally p came to believe t sci5tific & metaphysical preoccupations 7 incompatible if n positively oppos$ to ea* o!r407#bf7 ,h[ v diff]5t f ! dis9tegrat+ conception "h criticiz$ is ! traditional ,ari/otelian & s*ola/ic conception ( ! complem5t>y functions ( philosophy & ! sci5ces 9 unify+ human k3 a conception ?us eloqu5tly express$ by ,,newman 9 8 ,idea ( a ,univ]sity3--7#bg7 8,all t exi/s1 z contemplat$ by ! human m9d1 =ms "o l>ge sy/em or complex fact4444 ,n[1 x is n wond]ful t1 ) all its capabilities1 ! human m9d _c take 9 ?is :ole va/ fact at a s+le glance1 or ga9 possession ( x at once4 ,l a %ort-sight$ read]1 its eye pores closely1 & travels sl[ly1 ov] ! awful volume :i* lies op5 = its inspection4 ,or aga91 z we deal ) "s huge /ructure ( _m p>ts & sides1 ! m9d goes r\nd ab\t x1 not+ d[n1 fir/ "o ?+1 !n ano!r1 z be/ x may1 & view+ x "u diff]5t aspects1 by way ( mak+ progress t[>ds ma/]+ ! :ole4444 ,^! v>i\s p>tial views or ab/ractions 444 are call$ sci5ces 444 !y proce$ on ! pr9ciple ( a division ( lab\r4444 ,z !y all belong to "o & ! same circle ( objects1 !y are "o & all connect$ toge!r2 z !y are b aspects ( ?+s1 !y are sev]ally incomplete 9 _! relation to ! ?+s !mselves1 ?\gh complete 9 _! own idea & = _! own respective purposes2 on bo? acc\nts !y at once ne$ & subs]ve ea* o!r4 ,& fur!r1 ! compreh5sion ( ! be>+s ( "o sci5ce on ano!r1 & ! use ( ea* to ea*1 & ! location & limitation & adju/m5t & due appreciation ( !m all1 "o ) ano!r1 ?is belongs1 ,i conceive1 to a sort ( sci5ce di/9ct f all ( !m1 & 9 "s s5se1 a sci5ce ( sci5ces1 :i* is my own conception ( :at is meant by ,philosophy44440 ,)\t 9 any way c\nt5anc+ su* an isolation ( metaphysics f ! positive sci5ces1 we may1 nev]!less1 adopt ! mod]n division 9 sub/ance & 9 practice4 ,:ile recogniz+ ! intimate connexion betwe5 ! special sci5ces & metaphysics 9 all its bran*es1 we may reg>d z ,g5]al ,metaphysics all inquiries into ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( be+ & ( kn[+1 ( reality & ( k2 & z ,special ,metaphysics ! philosophical /udy ( physical nature1 ( human nature1 & ( ,god1 ! ,au?or & ,supreme ,cause ( all f9ite reality4 ,?us1 :ile special metaphysics w\ld embrace ,cosmology1 ,psy*ology1 & ,natural ,!ology1 g5]al metaphysics w\ld embrace ,ontology & ,epi/emology4 ,^! two latt] discipl9es mu/ no d\bt inve/igate :at is 9 a c]ta9 s5se "o & ! same subject-matt]1 inasmu* z k is k ( reality1 nor c ! kn[+ m9d 7! subjectum cognosc5s7 & ! kn[n reality 7! objectum cognitum7 be :olly sep>at$ or /udi$ 9 complete isolation f ea* o!r4 ,yet ! :ole cont5t ( human exp]i5ce1 :i* =ms _! common subject-matt]1 c be reg>d$ by m5tal ab/raction f ! two di/9ct /&po9ts ( ! kn[+ m9d & ! kn[n reality1 & c ?us give rise to two di/9ct sets ( problems4 ,epi/emology is ?us conc]n$ ) ! tru? & c]titude ( human k2 ) ! subjective conditions & ! scope & limits ( its validity2 ) ! subjective or m5tal factors involv$ 9 kn[+47#bh7 ,ontology is conc]n$ ) ! objects ( k1 ) reality consid]$ 9 ! wide/1 deepe/1 & mo/ fundam5tal aspects "u :i* x is conceiv$ by ! human m9d3 ) ! be+ & becom+ ( reality1 its possibility & its actuality1 its ess5ce & its exi/5ce1 its unity & plurality2 ) ! aspects ( tru?1 goodness1 p]fection1 beauty1 :i* x assumes 9 relation ) our m9ds2 ) ! cont+5cy ( f9ite reality & ! gr\nds & implications bo? ( its actual exi/5ce & ( its intelligibility2 ) ! modes ( its concrete exi/5ce & behavi\r1 ! supreme categories ( reality z !y are call$3 sub/ance1 individual nature1 & p]sonality2 quantity1 space & "t1 quality & relation1 causality & purpose4 ,^! are ! pr9cipal topics inve/igat$ 9 ! pres5t volume4 ,! inve/igation is conf9$ to fundam5tal concepts & pr9ciples1 leav+ _! applications to be foll[$ out 9 special metaphysics4 ,fur!rmore1 ! !ory ( k kn[n z ,mod]ate ,realism17#bi7 ! ,realism ( ,ari/otle & ! ,s*ola/ics1 9 reg>d to ! validity ( k bo? s5sual & intellectual1 is assum$ ?r\gh\t3 because n alone is ?is ! true !ory1 b--z a natural consequ5ce--x is ! only !ory :i* r5d]s ! individual ?+s & ev5ts ( human exp]i5ce really intelligible1 & at ! same "t keeps ! highe/ & mo/ ab/ract intellectual speculations ( metaphysics 9 con/ant & :olesome contact ) ! concrete1 actual _w 9 :i* we live1 move1 & h our be+4 ,,viii4 ,,rem>ks ,,on ,,"s ,,misgiv+s ,,& ,,prejudices4--,! /ud5t1 especially ! beg9n]1 w f9d ! inve/igations 9 ?is volume r ab/ract2 b if he rememb]s t ! cont5t ( our intellectual concepts1 be !y ev] s ab/ract & univ]sal1 is really embodi$ 9 ! individual ?+s & ev5ts ( 8 daily exp]i5ce1 he w n be dispos$ to d5\nce all ultimate analysis ( ^! concepts z 8unpr(itable0 or 8unreal04 ,he w recognize t ! reproa* ( 8talk+ 9 ! air10 :i* 0 levell$ by an em95t m$ieval s*ola/ic7#cj7 at c]ta9 philosoph]s ( 8 "t1 tells aga9/ ! metaphysical speculations ( ,conceptualism1 b n aga9/ ^? ( ,mod]ate ,realism4 ,! reproa* is commonly ca/ at all sy/ematic metaphysics n[adays--f prejudices too num]\s & v>i$ to admit ( inve/igation "h47#ca7 ,! mod]n prejudice :i* d5ies ! v possibility ( metaphysics1 a prejudice aris+ f ,ph5om5ism1 ,positivism1 & ,agno/icism--sy/ems :i* are !mselves no less metaphysical ?an errone\s--w be exam9$ 9 due c\rse47#cb7 ,b really 9 ord] to dispel all su* misgiv+s "o has only to rememb] t metaphysics1 sy/ematic or o!rwise1 is no?+ m ?an a man's reason$ outlook on ! _w & life4 ,:atev] 8 consci\s op9ions & convictions may be reg>d+ ! nature & purpose ( himself1 & o!r m51 & ! _w at l>ge--& if he use 8 reason at all he mu/ h "s sort ( op9ions & convictions1 :e!r positive or negative1 on ^! matt]s--^? op9ions & convictions are precisely t man's metaphysics4 8,break+ free = ! mom5t f all hi/orical & te*nical def9ition1 let u affirm3 ,to get at reality--?is is ! aim ( metaphysics40 ,s writes ,pr(essor ,ladd 9 ! op5+ *apt] ( 8 ,!ory ( ,reality47#cc7 ,b if ?is is s1 surely a sy/ematic attempt to 8get at reality10 no matt] h[ deep & wide1 no matt] h[ ab/ract & univ]sal be ! conceptions & speculations to :i* x leads u1 _c nev]!less always & ( necessity h ! effect ( involv+ u 9 a mirage ( illusion & unreality4 ,sy/ematic metaphysics--to quote aga9 ! au?or j ref]r$ to--7#cd7 is 444 ! necess>y result ( a pati5t1 ord]ly1 well-in=m$1 & prolong$ /udy ( ^? ultimate problems :i* are propos$ to e reflective m9d by ! real exi/5ces & actual transactions ( selves & ( ?+s4 ,?us consid]$ x appe>s z ! lea/ ab/ract & =eign to concrete realities ( all ! high] pursuits ( reason4 ,ma!matics is ab/ract2 logic is ab/ract2 ma!matical & s-call$ 8pure0 physics are ab/ract4 ,b metaphysics is b\nd by its v nature & call+ always to keep ne> to ! actual & to ! concrete4 ,dive into ! dep?s ( speculation inde$ x may2 & its ocean is b\ndless 9 expanse & deep beyond all rea* ( human plummets4 ,b x f9ds its place ( /&+1 = e new turn ( d>+ explanation1 on "s bit ( solid gr\nd4 ,= x is actuality :i* x wi%es to und]/&--al?\gh 9 reflective & int]pretative way4 ,to quote f ,pr(essor ,royce3 8,! basis ( our :ole !ory is ! b>e1 brute fact ( exp]i5ce :i* y h always ) y1 namely1 ! fact3 ,some?+ is real4 ,our "q is3 ,:at is ?is reality8 or1 aga91 ,:at is ! ultimately real807#ce7 ,! wond]ful progress ( ! positive sci5ces dur+ ! la/ few c5turies has be5 ! occasion ( prejudice aga9/ metaphysics 9 a v>iety ( ways4 ,x is object$1 = in/ance1 t metaphysics has no correspond+ progress to boa/ (2 & f ?is !re is b a small /ep to ! conclusion t all metaphysical speculation is /]ile4 ,! comp>ison is unfair = _m reasons4 ,rese>* into ! ultimate gr\nds & causes ( ?+s is manife/ly m difficult ?an rese>* into _! proximate gr\nds & causes4 ,aga91 :ile ! positive sci5ces h increas$ our k ma9ly 9 ext5t r ?an 9 dep?1 x is metaphysics & only metaphysics t c increase ?is k 9 its unity1 compreh5siv5ess1 & significance4 ,a positive increase 9 our k ( ! manifold data ( human exp]i5ce is n ! aim ( metaphysics2 its aim is to give an ultimate mean+ & int]pretation to ?is k4 ,x is n utilit>ian 9 ! n>r[] s5se 9 :i* ! positive & special sci5ces are utilit>ian by m9i/]+ to our mat]ial ne$s2 b 9 ! high] & nobl] s5se ( po9t+ out to u ! be>+ ( all human k & a*ievem5t on our real nature & de/9y4 ,true1 inde$1 individual lead]s & s*ools ( metaphysics h /ray$ f ! tru? & spok5 ) conflict+ & unc]ta9 voices1 especially :5 !y h fail$ to avail !mselves ( ,tru? ,div9ely ,reveal$4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n a failure ( metaphysics b ( individual metaphysicians4 ,& fur!rmore1 x is und5iable )al1 t ! metaphysical lab\rs ( ! great philosoph]s 9 all ages h contribut$ ri*ly to ! enlight5m5t & civilization ( mank9d--p>ticul>ly :5 ^! lab\rs h be5 9 concord & co-op]ation ) ! elevat+ & purify+ influ5ces ( ! ,*ri/ian religion4 ,( no metaphysical sy/em is ?is s entirely true z ( t embodi$ 9 ,s*ola/ic ,philosophy4 ,! greate/ intellect ( ! ,middle ,ages1 ,/4 ,?omas ,aqu9as1 gave to ?is philosophy an expression :i* is rightly reg>d$ by ! mod]n s*ola/ic z 8 intellectual *>t] & ! mo/ wor?y />t+-po9t ( 8 philosophical inve/igations4 ,! foll[+ passage f an em95t repres5tative ( mod]n s*ola/ic ?\ght7#cf7 is suffici5tly sugge/ive to admit ( quotation3-- ,amid ! almo/ un9t]rupt$ dis9tegration ( sy/ems dur+ ! la/ ?ree c5turies1 ! philosophy ( ,/4 ,?omas has alone be5 able to /& ! %ock ( criticism2 x alone has prov$ suffici5tly solid & compreh5sive to s]ve z an intellectual basis & unify+ pr9ciple = all ! new facts & ph5om5a br\ght to light by ! mod]n sci5ces4 ,& unless we are mu* mi/ak51 ^? :o take up & foll[ ?is philosophy w come to ?9k1 z we d1 t on ! analysis ( m5tal acts & processes1 on ! inn] nature ( corporeal ?+s1 ( liv+ ?+s1 & ( man1 on ! exi/5ce & nature ( ,god1 on ! f\ndations ( speculative & moral sci5ce1 none h ?\ght or writt5 m wisely ?an ,/4 ,?omas ,aqu9as4 ,b ?\gh we place our programme & tea*+ "u ! patronage ( ! illu/ri\s "n ( ?is pr9ce ( s*ola/ics1 we d n reg>d ! ,?omi/ic philosophy z an ideal beyond possibility ( amelioration1 or z a b\nd>y to ! activity ( ! human m9d4 ,we d ?9k1 h[ev]1 on mature reflection1 t we are act+ no less wisely ?an mode/ly 9 tak+ x z our />t+-po9t & con/ant /&>d ( ref]5ce4 ,?is we say 9 answ] to ^? ( our fri5ds & enemies :o are occasionally pleas$ to ask u if we really d mean to lead back ! mod]n m9d into ! ,middle ,ages1 & to id5tify philosophy simply ) ! ?\ght ( any "o philosoph]4 ,manife/ly1 we mean no?+ ( ! k9d4 ,has n ,leo ,,xiii41 ! great initiator ( ! new s*ola/ic movem5t1 expressly w>n$ u7#cg7 to be m9dful ( ! pres5t3 8,edicimus lib5ti gratoque animo recipi5dum esse quidquid sapi5t] dictum1 quidquid utilit] fu]it a quopiam inv5tum atque excogitatum08 ,/4 ,?omas himself w\ld be ! fir/ to rebuke ^? :o w\ld foll[ 8 own philosophical op9ions 9 all ?+s aga9/ _! own bett] judgm5t1 & to rem9d !m ( :at he wrote at ! head ( 8 ,summa3 t 9 philosophy1 ( all argum5ts t bas$ on human au?ority is ! weake/1 8locus ab auctoritate qu fundatur sup] ratione humana1 e/ infirmissimus407#ch7 ,aga91 !re=e1 let u ass]t t respect = tradition is n s]vility b m]e elem5t>y prud5ce4 ,respect = a doctr9e ( ^: s\ndness & wor? we are p]sonally conv9c$ is n feti%ism2 x is b a rational & rightful tribute to ! dom9ion ( ,tru? ov] ,m9d4 ,mod]n s*ola/ics w "k h[ to take to he>t & pr(it by ! lessons ( ! sev5te5? & eighte5? c5tury controv]sies2 !y w avoid ! mi/akes ( _! pr$ecessors2 !y w keep 9 close contact ) ! special sci5ces subsidi>y to philosophy & ) ! views & tea*+s ( mod]n & contempor>y ?9k]s47#ci7 ,an ov]we5+ confid5ce 9 ! p[] ( ! special sci5ces to solve ultimate que/ions1 or at lea/ to tell u all t c be kn[n = c]ta9 ab\t ^! problems1 a confid5ce bas$ on ! a/oni%+ progress ( ^? sci5ces 9 mod]n times1 is ! s\rce ( yet ano!r prejudice aga9/ metaphysics4 ,x is a prejudice ( ! half-educat$ m9d1 ( ! camp-foll[]s ( sci5ce1 n ( its lead]s4 ,^! latt] are ke5ly consci\s t ! solution ( ultimate que/ions lies entirely beyond ! me?ods ( ! special sci5ces4 ,n t ev5 ! mo/ em95t sci5ti/s d n indulge 9 speculations ab\t ultimate problems--z !y h a p]fect "r to d4 ,b ?\gh !y may be !mselves q aw>e t su* speculations are di/9ctly metaphysical1 !re are multitudes :o seem to ?9k t a !ory ceases to be metaphysical & becomes sci5tific provid$ only x is broa*$ by a sci5tific exp]t z di/9ct f a metaphysician47#dj7 ,b all s9c]e ?9k]s w recognize t no ultimate "q ab\t ! totality ( human exp]i5ce c be solv$ by any sci5ce :i* explores m]ely a portion ( ?is exp]i5ce4 ,nay1 ! m rapid & ext5sive is ! progress ( ! v>i\s special sci5ces1 ! m imp]ative & insi/5t becomes ! ne$ to collect & collate _! sep>ate f9d+s1 to int]rogate !m "o & all z to :e!r & h[ f> ^! f9d+s fit 9 ) ! facts & conditions ( human life & exi/5ce1 to det]m9e :at light & aid !y contribute to ! solution ( ! great & ev] recurr+ que/ions ( ! :5ce8 & :i!r8 & :y8 ( man & ! univ]se4 ,"o :o is a s9c]e sci5ti/ z well z an e>ne/ philosoph] has writt5 propos ( ?is necessity 9 ! foll[+ t]ms3-- ,! f>!r sci5ce has pu%$ back ! limits ( ! disc]nible univ]se1 ! m insi/5tly d we feel ! dem& )9 u = "s satisfactory explanation ( ! :ole4 ,! old1 et]nal problems rise up be=e u & clam\r l\dly & ev] m l\dly = "s new] & bett] solution4 ,! solution (f]$ by a bygone age 0 soo?+ at lea/1 if x 0 n f9al4 ,9 ! pres5t age1 h[ev]1 ! problems reappe> ) an acut5ess t is almo/ pa9ful3 ! deep secret ( our own human nature1 ! que/ions ( our orig9 & de/9y1 ! int]m$dl+ ( bl9d necessity & *ance & pa9 9 ! /range1 tangl$ drama ( our exi/5ce1 ! foibles & oddities ( ! human s\l1 & all ! my/ify+ problems ( social relations3 are n ^! all s _m enigmas :i* torm5t & tr\ble u :i!rsoev] we turn8 ,& all seem to circle ar\nd ! "o ess5tial "q3 ,has human nature a real mean+ & value1 or is x s utt]ly amiss t tru? & peace w nev] be its portion87#da7 ,a f9al difficulty aga9/ philosophical rese>* is sugge/$ by ! ?\ght t if ! philosoph] has to take cognizance ( all ! conclusions ( all ! special sci5ces 8 task is an impossible "o1 inasmu* z n[adays at all ev5ts x w\ld take a lifetime to become pr(ici5t 9 a few ( ^! sci5ces n to speak ( all ( !m4 ,!re is no "q1 h[ev]1 ( becom+ pr(ici5t 9 !m2 ! philosoph] ne$ n be a speciali/ 9 any positive sci5ce2 8 acqua9tance ) ! cont5ts ( ^! sci5ces ne$ ext5d no f>!r ?an su* e/abli%$ conclusions & su* curr5t ?\gh unv]ifi$ hypo!ses z h an imm$iate be>+ on ultimate or philosophical problems4 ,moreov]1 :ile x w\ld be injuri\s bo? to philosophy & to sci5ce1 z is prov$ by ! hi/ory ( bo? alike1 to sep>ate syn!tic f analytic speculation by a divorce betwe5 philosophy & sci5ce2 :ile x w\ld be unwise to ignore ! conclusions ( ! special sci5ces & to base philosophical rese>* exclusively on ! data ( ! pla9 man's common & unanalys$ exp]i5ce1 x mu/ be rememb]$ on ! o!r h& t ! mo/ fundam5tal tru?s ( speculative & practical philosophy1 ! tru?s t are mo/ important = ! "r & prop] ori5tation ( human life1 c be e/abli%$ & def5d$ indep5d5tly ( ! special rese>*es ( ! positive sci5ces4 ,! human m9d _h n to await ! discov]y ( radium 9 ord] to prove ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,su* supreme tru?s z ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 ! immortality ( ! human s\l1 ! fre$om ( ! human w1 ! exi/5ce ( a moral law1 ! di/9ction betwe5 "r & wrong1 etc41 h be5 always 9 possession ( ! human race4 ,x has be51 moreov]1 confirm$ 9 its possession ( !m by ,div9e ,revelation4 ,& x has n ne$$ ei!r ! rise or ! progress ( mod]n sci5ce to def5d !m4 ,^! fundam5tal rational tru?s con/itute a philosophia p]5nis3 a fund ( tru? :i* is1 l all tru?1 immutable1 ?\gh our human insight into x may develop 9 dep? & cle>ness4 ,b :ile ?is is s x is none ! less true t philosophy1 to be progressive 9 its own ord]1 mu/ take acc\nt ( e new fact & conclusion br\ght to light 9 e dep>tm5t ( sci5tific--& hi/orical1 & arti/ic1 & lit]>y1 & e o!r sort (--rese>*4 ,& ?is = ! simple reason t e su* accession1 :e!r ( fact or ( !ory1 is an enl>gem5t ( human exp]i5ce2 z su* x clam\rs on ! "o h& = philosophical int]pretation1 = explanation 9 ! light ( :at we "k already ab\t ! ultimate gr\nds & causes ( ?+s1 = admission into our _w-outlook1 = adju/m5t & co-ord9ation ) ! previ\s cont5ts ( ! latt]2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 by its v appe>ance on ! horizon ( human exp]i5ce x may enri* or illum9e1 rectify or o!rwise influ5ce1 ?is outlook or "s aspect ( x47#db7 ,if1 !n1 philosophy has to take acc\nt ( advances 9 e o!r dep>tm5t ( human rese>*1 x is cle> t its ma/]y at ! pres5t day is a m labori\s task ?an ev] x 0 9 ! pa/4 ,9 ord] to get an intellig5t grasp ( its pr9ciples 9 _! applications to ! problems rais$ by ! progress ( ! sci5ces1 to newly discov]$ facts & newly prop\nd$ hypo!ses1 ! /ud5t mu/ be famili> ) ^! facts & hypo!ses2 & all ! m s because ?r\gh ! m$ium ( a s5sational newspap] press t has m reg>d = novelty ?an tru?1 ^! facts & hypo!ses are no soon] br\ght to light by sci5ti/s ?an :at are (t5 g>bl$ & di/ort$ v]sions ( !m are circulat$ among ! masses47#dc7 ,simil>ly1 9 ord] t a s\nd sy/em ( speculative & practical philosophy be exp\nd$1 develop$1 & def5d$ at ! pres5t "t1 a sy/em t w embrace & co-ord9ate ! a*iev$ results ( mod]n sci5tific rese>*1 a sy/em t w (f] ! mo/ satisfactory solutions ( old difficulties 9 new =ms & give ! mo/ reasonable & reliable answ]s to ! ev] recurr+ que/ion+s ( man conc]n+ 8 own nature & de/9y--x is cle> t ! insuffici5cy ( individual ef=t mu/ be supplem5t$ by ! co-op]ation ( numb]s4 ,x is ! abs5ce ( fulness1 complet5ess1 adequacy1 9 mo/ mod]n sy/ems ( philosophy1 _! fragm5t>y "*1 ! unequal developm5t ( _! p>ts1 t acc\nts v l>gely = ! despair+ attitude ( ! _m :o n[adays despise & turn away f philosophical speculation4 ,add to ?is ! unc]ta9 voice ) :i* ^! philosophies speak 9 consequ5ce ( _! advocates ignor+ ! implications ( ! mo/ /up5d\s fact 9 human exp]i5ce1--! ,*ri/ian ,revelation4 ,b !re is "o philosophy :i* is free f ^! defects1 a philosophy :i* is 9 complete h>mony ) ,reveal$ ,tru?1 & :i* =ms ) ! latt] ! only true ,philosophy ( ,life2 & t "o philosophy is ! sy/em :i*1 assimilat+ ! wisdom ( ,plato1 ,ari/otle & all ! o!r greate/ ?9k]s ( ! _w1 has be5 traditionally exp\nd$ 9 ! ,*ri/ian s*ools--! ,s*ola/ic sy/em ( philosophy4 ,x has be5 elaborat$ by no "o man1 & is ! orig9al fruit ( no "o m9d4 ,unlike ! philosophies ( ,kant or ,hegel or ,sp5c] or ,james or ,comte or ,b]gson1 x is n a 8"o-man0 philosophy4 ,x _c boa/ ( ! novelty or orig9ality ( ! _m ecc5tric & ephem]al 8sy/ems0 :i* h succe$$ "o ano!r s rapidly 9 rec5t times 9 ! _w ( intellectual fa%ion2 b x has ev] possess$ ! endur+ novelty ( ! tru?1 :i* is ev] anci5t & ev] new4 ,n[ al?\gh ?is philosophy may h be5 ma/]$ 9 its broad outl9es & applications by specially gift$ individuals 9 pa/ ages1 its progressive exposition & developm5t1 & its application to ! va/ly ext5d$ & ev]-gr[+ doma9s ( exp]i5ce t are be+ con/antly explor$ by ! special sci5ces1 c nev] be ! "w ( any individual3 x c be accompli%$ only by ! e>ne/ co-op]ation ( ,*ri/ian philosoph]s 9 e "p ( ! civiliz$ _w47#dd7 ,9 c>ry+ on ?is "w we h n to build f ! beg9n+4 8,x has sometimes be5 rem>k$10 z ,newman obs]ves17#de7 8:5 m5 h boa/$ ( ! k ( mod]n times1 t no wond] we see m ?an ! anci5ts because we are m\nt$ ^u _! %\ld]s40 ,yes2 ! intellectual toil]s ( to-day are heirs to ! intellectual weal? ( _! ance/ors4 ,we h tradition3 n to despise b to use1 critically1 judici\sly1 rev]5tly1 if we are to use x pr(itably4 ,?omas ,davis has some:]e said t !y :o demoli% ! pa/ d n build up = ! future4 ,& we h ! ,*ri/ian ,revelation1 z a lamp to our feet & a light to our pa?s7#df7 9 all ^? rational inve/igations :i* =m ! appo9t$ task ( ! philosoph]4 ,h5ce1 ,let k gr[ f m to m1 ,b m ( rev]5ce 9 u dwell2 ,t m9d & s\l1 accord+ well1 ,may make "o music z be=e1 ,b va/]47#dg7 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,be+ ,,& ,,its ,,prim>y ,,det]m9ations4 #a4 ,,our ,,concept ,,( ,,be+3 ,,its ,,expression ,,& ,,features4--,! t]m 8,be+0 7,lat4 ens2 ,gr4 2 ,g]4 ,sei5d2 ,fr4 tant7 z pres5t p>ticiple ( ! v]b to be 7,lat4 esse2 ,gr4 2 ,g]4 ,se92 ,fr4 tre7 means exi/+ 7exi/5s1 exi/]e74 ,b ! p>ticiple has come to be us$ z a n\n2 & z su* x does n necess>ily imply actual exi/5ce hic et nunc4 ,x does inde$ imply "s relation to actual exi/5ce2 = we designate z 8be+0 79 ! sub/antive s5se7 only :atev] we conceive z actually exi/+ or at lea/ z capable ( exi/+2 & x is f ! p>ticipial s5se1 :i* implies actual exi/5ce1 t ! sub/antive s5se has be5 d]iv$4 ,moreov]1 ! intelligible use ( ! ^w 8be+0 z a t]m implies a ref]5ce to "s actually exi/+ sph]e ( reality47#dh7 ,x is 9 ! sub/antive mean+ ! t]m w be mo/ frequ5tly us$ 9 ^! pages1 z ! context w %[4 ,:5 we speak ( 8a be+0 9 ! concrete1 ! ^w has ! same mean+ z 8?+0 7res7 us$ 9 ! wide s5se 9 :i* ?is latt] includes p]sons1 places1 ev5ts1 facts & ph5om5a ( :atsoev] k9d4 ,9 ! same s5se we speak ( 8a reality10 ?is t]m hav+ tak5 on a concrete1 9 addition to its orig9al ab/ract1 mean+4 8,be+0 has also ?is ab/ract s5se :5 we speak ( 8! be+ or reality ( ?+s04 ,f9ally x may be us$ 9 a collective s5se to indicate ! sum-total ( all t is or c be--all reality4 7a7 ,! notion ( be+1 spontane\sly rea*$ by ! human m9d1 is f\nd on reflection to be ! simple/ ( all notions1 defy+ e attempt at analysis into simpl] notions4 ,x is involv$ 9 e o!r concept :i* we =m ( any object ( ?\ght :atsoev]4 ,)\t x we c\ld h no concept ( any?+4 7b7 ,x is ?us ! fir/ ( all notions 9 ! logical ord]1 i4e4 9 ! process ( rational ?\ght4 7c7 ,x is also ! fir/ ( all notions 9 ! *ronological ord]1 ! fir/ :i* ! human m9d =ms 9 ! ord] ( "t4 ,n1 ( c\rse1 t we rememb] hav+ =m$ x be=e any o!r m det]m9ate notions4 ,b ! *ild's awak5+ intellectual activity mu/ h proce$$ f ! simple/1 easie/1 mo/ sup]ficial ( all concepts1 to full]1 cle>]1 & m det]m9ate concepts1 i4e4 f ! vague & confus$ notion ( 8be+0 or 8?+0 to notions ( def9ite modes ( be+1 or k9ds ( ?+4 7d7 ,?is direct notion ( be+ is likewise ! mo/ indet]m9ate ( all notions2 ?\gh n ( c\rse entirely indet]m9ate4 ,an object ( ?\ght1 to be conceivable or intelligible at all by our f9ite m9ds1 mu/ be r5d]$ def9ite 9 "s mann] & degree2 & ev5 ?is wide/ notion ( 8be+0 is r5d]$ intelligible only by be+ conceiv$ z positive & z contra/+ ) absolute non-be+ or no?+ness47#di7 ,accord+ to ! ,hegelian philosophy 8pure ?\ght0 c app>5tly ?9k 8pure be+10 i4e4 be+ 9 absolute indet]m9at5ess1 be+ z n ev5 diff]5tiat$ f 8pure n-be+0 or absolute no?+ness4 ,& ?is absolutely indet]m9ate confusion 7we may n call x a 8syn!sis0 or 8unity07 ( some?+ & no?+1 ( be+ & n-be+1 ( positive & negative1 ( affirmation & d5ial1 w\ld be conceiv$ by our f9ite m9ds z ! objective correlative (1 & at ! same "t z absolutely id5tical )1 its subjective correlative :i* is 8pure ?\ght04 ,well1 x is ) ! human m9d & its objects1 & h[ x ?9ks ^? objects1 t we are conc]n$ at pres5t2 n ) speculations involv+ ! gratuit\s assumption ( a ,be+ t w\ld transc5d all duality ( subject & object1 all det]m9at5ess ( kn[+ & be+1 all di/9ction ( ?\ght & ?+4 ,we believe t ! human m9d c e/abli% ! exi/5ce ( a ,supreme ,be+ ^: mode ( ,?\ght & ,exi/5ce transc5ds all human compreh5sion1 b x c d s only z ! culm9at+ a*ievem5t ( all its speculation2 & ! transc5d5t ,be+ x ?us rea*es has no?+ 9 common ) ! moni/ic ideal-real be+ ( ,hegel's philosophy4 ,9 endeav\r+ to set out f ! high a priori gr\nd ( su* an intangible conception1 ! ,hegelian philosophy />ts at ! wrong end4 7e7 ,fur!r1 ! notion ( be+ is ! mo/ ab/ract ( all notions1 poore/ 9 int5sion z x is wide/ 9 ext5sion4 ,we d]ive x f ! data ( our exp]i5ce1 & ! process by :i* we rea* x is a process ( ab/raction4 ,we lay aside all ! diff]5ces :]eby ?+s are di/+ui%$ f "o ano!r2 we d n consid] ^! diff]5ces2 we presc9d or ab/ract f !m m5tally1 & reta9 = consid]ation only :at is common to all ( !m4 ,?is common elem5t =ms ! explicit cont5t ( our notion ( be+4 ,x mu/ be not$1 h[ev]1 t we d n positively exclude ! diff]5ces f ! object ( our concept2 we _c d ?is1 = ! simple reason t ! diff]5ces too are 8be+10 inasmu* z !y too are modes ( be+4 ,our attitude t[>ds !m is negative2 we m]ely ab/a9 f consid]+ !m explicitly1 ?\gh !y rema9 9 our concept implicitly4 ,! sep>ation effect$ is only m5tal1 subjective1 notional1 =mal1 negative2 n objective1 n real1 n positive4 ,h5ce ! process by :i* we n>r[ d[n ! concept ( be+ to ! m compreh5sive concept ( ?is or t g5]ic or specific mode ( be+1 does n add to ! =m] concept any?+ really new1 or di/9ct f1 or extrane\s to x2 b r br+s out explicitly some?+ t 0 implicit 9 ! latt]4 ,! composition ( be+ ) its modes is1 !re=e1 only logical composition1 n real4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x w\ld seem t :5 we ab/ract a g5]ic mode ( be+ f ! specific modes subord9ate to ! =m]1 we positively exclude ! diff]5tiat+ *>act]i/ics ( ^! species2 & t1 conv]sely1 :5 we n>r[ d[n ! g5us to a subord9ate species we d s by add+ on a diff]5tiat+ mode :i* 0 n conta9$ ev5 implicitly 9 ! g5]ic concept4 ,?us1 = example1 ! diff]5tiat+ concept 8rational0 is n conta9$ ev5 implicitly 9 ! g5]ic concept 8animal03 x is add$ on ab extra to ! latt]7#ej7 9 ord] to rea* ! specific concept ( 8rational animal0 or 8man02 s t 9 ab/ract+ ! g5]ic f ! subord9ate specific concept we presc9d objectively & really f ! diff]5tiat+ concept1 by positively exclud+ ?is latt]4 ,?is k9d ( ab/raction is call$ objective1 real1 positive2 & ! composition ( su* g5]ic & diff]5tiat+ modes ( be+ is te*nically kn[n z metaphysical composition4 ,! diff]5t modes ( be+1 :i* ! m9d c di/+ui% at diff]5t levels ( ab/raction 9 any specific concept--su* z 8rational10 8s5ti5t10 8liv+10 8corporeal10 9 ! concept ( 8man0--are likewise kn[n z 8metaphysical grades0 ( be+4 ,x has be5 que/ion$ :e!r ?is latt] k9d ( ab/raction is always us$ 9 relat+ g5]ic1 specific1 & diff]5tial modes ( be+4 ,at fir/ sight x w\ld n appe> to be a q satisfactory acc\nt ( ! process 9 cases :]e ! g5]ic notion exhibits a mode ( be+ :i* c be embodi$ only 9 "o or o!r ( a numb] ( alt]native specific modes by means ( diff]5tiae n f\nd 9 any ?+s ly+ outside ! g5us itself4 ,! g5]ic notion ( 8plane rectil9e> figure0 does n1 ( c\rse1 include explicitly its species 8triangle10 8quadrilat]al10 8p5tagon10 etc42 nor does x include ev5 implicitly any def9ite "o ( !m4 ,b ! concept ( ea* ( ! diff]5tiat+ *>act]s1 e4g4 ! diff]5tia 8?ree-sid$ness10 is un9telligible except z a mode ( a 8plane rectil9e> figure047#ea7 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is only accid5tal1 i4e4 due to ! special objects consid]$27#eb7 & ev5 "h !re p]si/s ?is diff]5ce t :]eas :at diff]5tiates ! species ( plane rectil9e> figures is n explicitly & =mally plane-rectil9e>ity1 t :i* diff]5tiates f9ite f inf9ite be+1 or sub/antial f accid5tal be+1 is itself also =mally & explicitly be+4 ,b !re are o!r cases 9 :i* ! ab/raction is manife/ly objective4 ,?us1 = example1 ! diff]5tiat+ concept 8rational0 does n ev5 implicitly include ! g5]ic concept 8animal10 = ! =m] concept may be f\nd realiz$ 9 be+s o!r ?an animals2 & ! diff]5tiat+ concept 8liv+0 does n ev5 implicitly include ! concept 8corporeal10 = x may be f\nd realiz$ 9 incorporeal be+s4 7f7 ,s9ce ! notion ( be+ is s simple t x _c be analys$ into simpl] notions :i* might s]ve z its g5us & diff]5tia1 x _c /rictly speak+ be def9$4 ,we c only describe x by consid]+ x f v>i\s po9ts ( view & comp>+ x ) ! v>i\s modes 9 :i* we f9d x realiz$4 ,?is is :at we h be5 attempt+ s f>4 ,consid]+ its fundam5tal relation to exi/5ce we might say t 8,be+ is t :i* exi/s or is at lea/ capable ( exi/+03 ,ens e/ id quod exi/it vel saltem exi/]e pote/4 ,or1 consid]+ its relation to its opposite we might say t 8,be+ is t :i* is n absolute no?+ness03 ,ens e/ id quod non e/ nihil absolutum4 ,or1 consid]+ its relation to our m9ds1 we might say t 8,be+ is :atev] is ?9kable1 :atev] c be an object ( ?\ght04 7g7 ,! notion ( be+ is s univ]sal t x transc5ds all actual & conceivable det]m9ate modes ( be+3 x embraces inf9ite be+ & all modes ( f9ite be+4 ,9 o!r words x is n itself a g5]ic1 b a transc5d5tal notion4 ,wid] ?an all1 ev5 ! wide/ & highe/ g5]a1 x is n itself a g5us4 ,a g5us is det]m9able into its species by ! addition ( diff]5ces :i* lie outside ! concept ( ! g5us itself2 be+1 z we h se51 is n 9 ?is way det]m9able into its modes4 #b4 ,,9 ,,:at ,,s5se ,,are ,,all ,,?+s ,,t ,,exi/ ,,or ,,c ,,exi/ ,,said ,,to ,,be 8,,real0 ,,or ,,to ,,h 8,,be+08--,a g5]ic concept c be pr$icat$ univocally1 i4e4 9 ! same s5se1 ( its subord9ate species4 ,^! latt] diff] f "o ano!r by *>act]i/ics :i* lie outside ! concept ( ! g5us1 :ile !y all agree 9 realiz+ ! g5]ic concept itself3 !y d n ( c\rse realize x 9 ! same way17#ec7 b z su* x is really & truly 9 ea* ( !m & is pr$icat$ 9 ! same s5se ( ea*4 ,b ! *>act]i/ics :i* diff]5tiate all g5]a & species f "o ano!r1 & f ! common notion ( be+1 9 :i* !y all agree1 are likewise be+4 ,t 9 :i* !y diff] is be+1 z well z t 9 :i* !y agree4 ,h5ce we d n pr$icate 8be+0 univocally ( its v>i\s modes4 ,:5 we say ( ! v>i\s classes ( ?+s :i* make up our exp]i5ce t !y are 8real0 7or 8realities10 or 8be+s071 we d n apply ?is pr$icate 9 altoge!r ! same s5se to ! sev]al classes2 = z appli$ to ea* class x connotes ! :ole cont5t ( ea*1 n m]ely ! "p 9 :i* ?is agrees )1 b also ! "p 9 :i* x diff]s f1 ! o!rs4 ,nor yet d we apply ! concept ( 8be+0 9 a totally diff]5t s5se to ea* sep>ate det]m9ate mode ( be+4 ,:5 we pr$icate 8be+0 ( its modes ! pr$ication is n m]ely equivocal4 ,! concept express$ by ! pr$icate-t]m 8be+0 is n totally diff]5t z appli$ to ea* subject-mode2 = 9 all cases alike x implies ei!r actual exi/5ce or "s relation !reto4 ,x only rema9s1 !re=e1 t we mu/ reg>d ! notion ( be+1 :5 pr$icat$ ( its sev]al modes1 z p>tly ! same & p>tly diff]5t2 & ?is is :at we mean :5 we say t ! concept ( be+ is analogical1 t be+ is pr$icat$ analogically ( its v>i\s modes4 ,analogical pr$ication is ( two k9ds3 a t]m or concept may be affirm$ ( a v>iety ( subjects ei!r by analogy ( attribution or by analogy ( proportion4 ,we may1 = in/ance1 speak n only ( a man z 8heal?y10 b also ( 8 food1 8 c\nt5ance1 8 occupation1 8 companion%ip1 etc41 z 8heal?y04 ,n[ heal? is f\nd really only 9 ! man1 b x is attribut$ to ! o!r ?+s ow+ to "s extr9sic b real connexion :i* !y h ) 8 heal?1 :e!r z cause1 or effect1 or indication1 ( ! latt]4 ,?is is analogy ( attribution2 ! subject ( :i* ! pr$icate is prop]ly & prim>ily affirm$ be+ kn[n z ! prim>y analogue or analogum pr9ceps1 ^? to :i* x is transf]r$ be+ call$ ! analogata4 ,x und]lies ! figures ( spee* kn[n z metynomy & syne*do*e4 ,n[ on acc\nt ( ! v>i\s relations t exi/ betwe5 ! diff]5t modes ( be+1 relations ( cause & effect1 :ole & "p1 means & end1 gr\nd & consequ5ce1 etc4--relations :i* con/itute ! ord]s ( exi/+ & possible ?+s1 ! physical & ! metaphysical ord]s--be+ is ( c\rse pr$icat$ ( its modes by analogy ( attribution2 & 9 su* pr$ication inf9ite be+ is ! prim>y analogue = f9ite be+s1 & ! sub/ance-mode ( be+ = all accid5t-modes ( be+4 ,inasmu*1 h[ev]1 z be+ is n m]ely attribut$ to ^! modes extr9sically1 b belongs to all ( !m intr9sically1 x is also pr$icat$ ( !m by analogy ( proportion4 ,?is latt] sort ( analogy is bas$ on simil>ity ( relations4 ,= example1 ! act ( und]/&+ be>s a relation to ! m9d simil> to t :i* ! act ( see+ be>s to ! eye1 & h5ce we say ( ! m9d t x 8sees0 ?+s :5 x und]/&s !m4 ,or1 aga91 we speak ( a v]dant valley 9 ! sun%9e z 8smil+10 because its appe>ance be>s a relation to ! valley simil> to t :i* a smile be>s to ! human c\nt5ance4 ,or aga91 we speak ( ! p>*$ e>? z 8?ir/+0 = ! ra9s1 or ( ! dev\t s\l z 8?ir/+0 = ,god1 because ^! relations are recogniz$ z simil> to t ( a ?ir/y p]son t[>ds ! dr9k = :i* he ?ir/s4 ,9 all su* cases ! analogical concept implies n inde$ ! same attribute 7diff]5tly realiz$7 9 all ! analogues 7z 9 univocal pr$ication7 b r a simil>ity 9 ! relation or proportion 9 :i* ea* analogue embodies or realizes "s attribute or attributes peculi> to itself4 ,see+ is to ! eye z und]/&+ is to ! m9d2 smil+ is to ! c\nt5ance z ! pleas+ appe>ance ( its natural features is to ! valley4 ,ra9 is to ! p>*$ e>?1 & ,god is to ! dev\t s\l1 z dr9k is to ! ?ir/y p]son4 ,x w be not$ t 9 all su* cases ! analogical concept is affirm$ prim>ily & prop]ly ( "s "o ?+ 7! analogum pr9ceps71 & ( ! o!r only second>ily1 & relatively to ! =m]4 ,n[1 if we reflect on ! mann] 9 :i* be+ is affirm$ ( its v>i\s modes 7e4g4 ( ! inf9ite & ! f9ite2 or ( sub/ance & accid5t2 or ( spiritual & corporeal sub/ances2 or ( quantities1 or qualities1 or causes1 etc47 we c see fir/ly t al?\gh ^! diff] f "o ano!r by all t ea* ( !m is1 by ! :ole be+ ( ea*1 yet !re is an all-p]vad+ simil>ity betwe5 ! relations :i* ^! modes be> ea* to its own exi/5ce4 ,all h1 or c h1 actual exi/5ce3 ea* accord+ to ! grade ( p]fection ( its own reality4 ,if we conceive inf9ite be+ z ! cause ( all f9ite be+s1 !n ! =m] exi/s 9 a mann] appropriate to its all-p]fect reality1 & f9ite be+s 9 a mann] proportionate to _! limit$ realities2 & s ( ! v>i\s modes ( f9ite be+ among !mselves4 ,moreov]1 we c see secondly1 z w be expla9$ m fully bel[17#ed7 t be+ is affirm$ ( ! f9ite by virtue ( its dep5d5ce on ! inf9ite1 & ( accid5t by virtue ( its dep5d5ce on sub/ance47#ee7 ,be+ or reality is !re=e pr$icat$ ( its modes by analogy ( proportion47#ef7 ,is a concept1 :5 appli$ 9 ?is way1 "o1 or is x really manifold8 ,x is n simply "o1 = ?is w\ld yield univocal pr$ication2 nor is x simply manifold1 = ?is w\ld give equivocal pr$ication4 ,be+1 consid]$ 9 its vague1 imp]fect1 inadequate s5se1 z involv+ "s common or simil> proportion or relation to exi/5ce 9 all its analogues1 is "o2 consid]$ z repres5t+ cle>ly & adequately :at is ?us simil>ly relat$ to ea* ( ! analogues1 x is manifold4 ,analogy ( proportion is ! basis ( ! figure ( spee* kn[n z metaphor4 ,x w\ld be a mi/ake1 h[ev]1 to inf] f ?is t :at is ?us analogically pr$icat$ ( a numb] ( ?+s belongs intr9sically & prop]ly only to "o ( !m1 be+ transf]r$ by a m]e extr9sic d5om9ation to ! o!rs2 & t !re=e x does n express any g5u9e k on our "p ab\t ! nature ( ^! o!r ?+s4 ,x does give u real k ab\t !m4 ,metaphor is n equivocation2 b p]haps m usually x is und]/ood n to give u real k because x is und]/ood to be bas$ on resemblances t are m]ely fanciful1 n real4 ,/ill1 no matt] h[ sl5d] & remote be ! proportional resemblance on :i* ! analogical use ( language is bas$1 9 s f> =? z x has su* a real basis x gives u real insight into ! nature ( ! analogues4 ,& if we hesitate to describe su* a use ( language z 8metaphorical10 ?is is only because 8metaphor0 p]haps too commonly connotes a c]ta9 transf]r$ & improp] ext5sion ( ! mean+ ( t]ms1 bas$ ^u a purely fanciful resemblance4 ,all our language is prim>ily & prop]ly expressive ( concepts d]iv$ f ! s5sible appe>ances ( mat]ial realities4 ,z appli$ to ! supras5sible1 intelligible aspects ( ^! realities1 su* z sub/ance & cause1 or to spiritual realities1 su* z ! human s\l & ,god1 x is analogical 9 ano!r s5se2 n z oppos$ to univocal1 b z oppos$ to prop]4 ,t is1 x expresses concepts :i* are n =m$ directly f ! pres5ce ( ! ?+s :i* !y signify1 b are ga!r$ f o!r ?+s to :i* ! latt] are necess>ily relat$ 9 a v>iety ( ways47#eg7 ,consid]+ ! orig9 ( our k1 ! mat]ial1 ! s5sible1 ! ph5om5al1 comes fir/ 9 ord]1 & m\lds our concepts & language prim>ily to its own prop] repres5tation & expression2 :ile ! spiritual1 ! intelligible1 ! sub/antial1 comes lat]1 & mu/ make use ( ! concepts & language ?us already m\ld$4 ,if we consid]1 h[ev]1 n ! ord] 9 :i* we get our k1 b ! ord] ( reality 9 ! objects ( our k1 be+ or reality is prim>ily & m prop]ly pr$icat$ ( ! inf9ite ?an ( ! f9ite1 ( ! ,creator ?an ( ! creature1 ( ! spiritual ?an ( ! mat]ial1 ( sub/ances ?an ( _! accid5ts & s5sible manife/ations or ph5om5a4 ,yet we d n pr$icate be+ or reality ( ! f9ite1 or ( creatures1 9 a m]e transf]r$1 extr9sic1 improp] s5se1 z if ^! 7 m]e manife/ations ( ! inf9ite1 or m]e effects ( ! ,fir/ ,cause1 to :i* alone reality w\ld prop]ly belong4 ,= creatures1 f9ite ?+s1 are 9 a true & prop] s5se also real4 ,duns ,scotus & ^? :o ?9k ) him cont5d t ! concept ( be+1 d]iv$ z x is f our exp]i5ce ( f9ite be+1 if appli$ only analogically to inf9ite be+ w\ld give u no g5u9e k ab\t ! latt]4 ,!y ma9ta9 t :5ev] a univ]sal concept is appli$ to ! objects 9 :i* x is realiz$ intr9sically1 x is affirm$ ( ^! objects univocally4 ,! notion ( be+1 9 its mo/ imp]fect1 inadequate1 indet]m9ate s5se1 is1 !y say1 "o & ! same 9 s f> =? z x is applicable to ! inf9ite & ! f9ite1 & to all ! modes ( ! f9ite2 & x is !re=e pr$icat$ ( all univocally47#eh7 ,b al?\gh !y apply ! concept ( be+ univocally to ! inf9ite & ! f9ite1 i4e4 to ,god & creatures1 !y admit t ! reality correspond+ to ?is univocal concept is totally diff]5t 9 ,god & 9 creatures3 t ,god diff]s by all t ,he is f creatures1 & !y by all t !y are f ,him4 ,:ile1 h[ev]1 ,scoti/s emphasize ! =mal on5ess or id5tity ( ! indet]m9ate common concept1 foll[]s ( ,/4 ,?omas emphasize ! fact t ! v>i\s modes ( be+ diff] totally1 by all t ea* ( !m is1 f "o ano!r2 &1 f ?is radical div]sity 9 ! modes ( be+1 !y inf] t ! common concept %\ld n be reg>d$ z simply ! same1 b only z proportionally ! same1 z expressive ( a simil> relation ( ea* intr9sically diff]5t mode ( reality to actual exi/5ce4 ,?omi/s lay /ill great] /ress1 p]haps1 ^u ! second consid]ation ref]r$ to above1 z a reason = reg>d+ be+ z an analogical concept :5 affirm$ ( ,creator & creature1 or ( sub/ance & accid5t3 ! consid]ation t ! f9ite is dep5d5t on ! inf9ite1 & accid5t on sub/ance4 ,if be+ is realiz$ 9 a true & prop] s5se1 & intr9sically1 z x und\bt$ly is1 9 :atev] is di/+ui%able f no?+ness1 :y n say t we %\ld affirm be+ or reality ( all ?+s 8ei!r z a g5us 9 ! /rict s5se1 or else 9 "s s5se n analogical b prop]1 aft] ! mann] 9 :i* we pr$icate a g5us ( its species & individuals8444 ,s9ce ! object ( our univ]sal idea ( be+ is admitt$ to be really 9 all ?+s1 we c evid5tly ab/ract f :at is prop] to sub/ance & to accid5t1 j z we ab/ract f :at is prop] to plants & to animals :5 we affirm ( ^! t !y are liv+ ?+s407#ei7 8,9 reply to ?is difficulty10 ,fa!r ,kleutg5 cont9ues17#fj7 8we say 9 ! fir/ place t ! idea ( be+ is 9 tru? less analogical & m prop] ?an any belong+ to ! fir/ sort ( analogy i4e4 ( attribution1 & t !re=e x approa*es m closely to g5]ic concepts prop]ly s call$4 ,at ! same "t ! diff]5ce :i* sep>ates bo? f ! latt] concepts rema9s4 ,= a "n appli$ to _m ?+s is analogical if :at x signifies is realiz$ p> excell5ce 9 "o1 & 9 ! o!rs only subord9ately & dep5d5tly on t4 ,h5ce x is t ,ari/otle reg>ds pr$ication z analogical :5 some?+ is affirm$ ( _m ?+s 7#a7 ei!r because ^! h a c]ta9 relation to "s "o ?+1 7#b7 or because !y dep5d on "s "o ?+4 ,9 ! =m] case ! ?+ signifi$ by ! "n is really & prop]ly f\nd only 9 "o s+le ?+1 & is affirm$ ( all ! o!rs only 9 virtue ( "s real relation ( ^! to ! =m]1 :e!r ?is be 7a7 t ^! ?+s m]ely resemble t s+le ?+ metaphor1 or 7b7 be> "s o!r relation to x1 su* z t ( effect to cause1 etc4 metonymy4 ,9 ! latt] case ! ?+ signifi$ by ! "n is really 9 ea* ( ! ?+s ( :i* x is affirm$2 b x is 9 "o alone p> excell5ce1 & 9 ! o!rs only by dep5d+1 = its v exi/5ce 9 !m1 on t "o4 ,n[ ! object ( ! t]m be+ is f\nd inde$ 9 accid5ts1 e4g4 9 quantity1 col\r1 %ape2 b c]ta9ly x mu/ be appli$ prim>ily to sub/ance1 & to accid5ts only dep5d5tly on ! latt]3 = quantity1 col\r1 %ape c h be+ only because ! corporeal sub/ance possesses ^! det]m9ations4 ,b ?is is n at all ! case ) a g5us & its species4 ,^! diff] f ! g5us1 n by any su* dep5d5ce1 b by ! addition ( "s special p]fection to ! con/itu5ts ( ! g5us2 = example1 9 ! brute bea/ s5sibility is add$ to vegetative life1 & 9 man intellig5ce is add$ to s5sibility4 ,"h !re is no relation ( dep5d5ce = exi/5ce4 ,ev5 if we consid]$ human life z t ( :i* life is pr9cipally ass]t$1 we c\ld n say t plants & brute bea/s s dep5d$ = _! life on ! life ( man t we c\ld n affirm life ( !m except z dep5d5t on ! life ( man3 z we _c attribute be+ to accid5ts except by reason ( _! dep5d5ce on sub/ance4 ,h5ce x is t we c consid] ap>t1 & 9 itself1 life 9 g5]al1 & attribute ?is to all liv+ ?+s )\t relat+ x to any o!r be+407#fa7 8,x might /ill be object$ t ! "o s+le be+ ( :i* we may affirm life prim>ily & pr9cipally1 ought to be n human life1 b absolute life4 ,& betwe5 ?is div9e life & ! life ( all o!r be+s !re is a relation ( dep5d5ce1 :i* rea*es ev5 to ! v exi/5ce ( life 9 ^! o!r be+s4 ,9 fact all life dep5ds on ! absolute life1 n inde$ 9 ! way accid5t dep5ds on sub/ance1 b 9 a mann] no less real & f> m excell5t4 ,?is is entirely true2 b :at are we to conclude f x if n precisely ?is1 :i* s*ola/icism tea*es3 t ! p]fections f\nd 9 ! v>i\s species ( creatures c be affirm$ ( ^! 9 ! same s5se 7univoc71 b t !y c be affirm$ ( ,god & creatures only analogically80 8,f all ( :i* we c und]/& :y x is t 9 reg>d to g5]a & species ! analogy is 9 ! ?+s b n 9 our ?\ghts1 :ile 9 reg>d to sub/ance & accid5ts x is bo? 9 ! ?+s & 9 our ?\ghts3 a diff]5ce :i* re/s n solely on our mann] ( conceiv+ ?+s1 nor a =tiori on m]e caprice or fancy1 b :i* has its basis 9 ! v nature ( ! ?+s !mselves4 ,= ?\gh 9 ! =m] case !re is a c]ta9 analogy 9 ! ?+s !mselves1 inasmu* z ! same nature1 t ( ! g5us1 is realiz$ 9 ! species 9 diff]5t ways1 /ill1 z we h se51 t is n suffici5t1 )\t ! relation ( dep5d5ce1 to yield a basis = analogy 9 our ?\ghts4 ,= x is precisely because accid5t1 z a det]m9ation ( sub/ance1 presupposes ?is latt]1 t be+ _c be affirm$ ( accid5t except z dep5d5t on sub/ance40 ,^! p>agraphs w h %[n ) suffici5t cle>ness :y we %\ld reg>d be+ n z an univocal b z an analogical concept1 :5 ref]r$ to ,god & creatures1 or to sub/ance & accid5t4 ,= ! re/1 ! div]g5ce betwe5 ! ,scoti/ & ! ,?omi/ views is n v important1 because ,scoti/s also w d5y t be+ is a g5us ( :i* ! inf9ite & ! f9ite w\ld be species2 f9ite & inf9ite are n diff]5tiae sup]add$ to be+1 inasmu* z ea* ( ^! diff]s by its :ole reality1 & n m]ely by a det]m9+ portion1 f ! o!r2 x is ow+ to ! limitations ( our ab/ractive way ( und]/&+ reality t we h to conceive ! inf9ite by fir/ conceiv+ be+ 9 ! ab/ract1 & !n m5tally det]m9+ ?is concept by ano!r1 namely1 by ! concept ( 8inf9ite mode ( be+07#fb72 ! inf9ite1 & :atev] p]fections we pr$icate =mally ( ! inf9ite1 transc5d all g5]a1 species & diff]5tiae1 because ! di/9ction ( be+ into inf9ite & f9ite is prior to ! di/9ction into g5]a1 species & diff]5tiae2 ?is latt] di/9ction apply+ only to f9ite1 n to inf9ite be+47#fc7 ,! obs]vations we h j be5 mak+ 9 reg>d to ! analogy ( be+ are ( great] importance ?an ! beg9n] c be expect$ to realize4 ,a prop] appreciation ( ! way 9 :i* be+ or reality is conceiv$ by ! m9d to app]ta9 to ! data ( our exp]i5ce1 is indisp5sable to ! def5ce ( ,!ism z aga9/ ,agno/icism & ,pan!ism4 #c4 ,,real ,,be+ ,,& ,,logical ,,be+4--,we may next illu/rate ! notion ( be+ by approa*+ x f ano!r /&po9t--by exam9+ a fundam5tal di/9ction :i* may be drawn betwe5 real be+ 7ens reale7 & logical be+ 7ens rationis74 ,we d]ive all our k1 ?r\gh ext]nal & int]nal s5se p]ception1 f ! doma9 ( actually exi/+ ?+s1 ^! ?+s includ+ our own selves & our own m9ds4 ,we =m1 f ! data ( s5se-consci\sness1 by an intellectual process prop]1 m5tal repres5tations ( an ab/ract & univ]sal "*1 :i* reveal to u p>tial aspects & phases ( ! natures ( ?+s4 ,we h no intuitive intellectual insight into ^! natures4 ,x is only by ab/ract+ _! v>i\s aspects1 by comp>+ ^! 9 judgm5ts1 & rea*+ /ill fur!r aspects by inf]5ces1 t we progress 9 our k ( ?+s--gradually1 /ep by /ep1 discursiv1 discurr5do4 ,all ?is implies reflection on1 & comp>ison (1 our own ideas1 our m5tal views ( ?+s4 ,x involves ! processes ( def9+ & classify+1 affirm+ & d5y+1 ab/ract+ & g5]aliz+1 analys+ & syn!siz+1 comp>+ & relat+ 9 a v>iety ( ways ! objects grasp$ by our ?\ght4 ,n[ 9 all ^! complex functions1 by :i* alone ! m9d c int]pret rationally :at is giv5 to x1 by :i* alone1 9 o!r words1 x c "k reality1 ! m9d necess>ily & inevitably =ms = itself 7& expresses 9 intelligible language7 a s]ies ( concepts :i* h = _! objects only ! modes 9 :i*1 & ! relations by means ( :i*1 x makes su* gradual progress 9 its int]pretation ( :at is giv5 to x1 9 its k ( ! real4 ,^! concepts are call$ secundae int5tiones m5tis--concepts ( ! second ord]1 s to speak4 ,& _! objects1 ! modes & mutual relations ( our primae int5tiones or direct concepts1 are call$ entia rationis--logical entities4 ,= example1 ab/ractness is a mode :i* affects n ! reality :i* we appreh5d intellectually1 b ! concept by :i* we appreh5d x4 ,s1 too1 is ! univ]sality ( a concept1 its communicability or applicability to an indef9ite multitude ( simil> realities--! 8int5tio univ]salitatis10 z x is call$--a mode ( concept1 n ( ! realities repres5t$ by ! latt]4 ,s1 likewise1 is ! abs5ce ( o!r reality ?an t repres5t$ by ! concept1 ! relative no?+ness or non-be+ by contra/ ) :i* ! concept is realiz$ z positive2 & ! absolute no?+ness or non-be+ :i* is ! logical correlative ( ! concept ( be+2 & ! /atic1 un*ang+ self-id5tity ( ! object z conceiv$ 9 ! ab/ract47#fd7 ,^! are n modes ( reality z x is b z x is conceiv$4 ,aga91 ! manifold logical relations :i* we e/abli% betwe5 our concepts--relations ( 7ext5sive or int5sive7 id5tity or di/9ction1 inclusion or inh]5ce1 etc4--are logical entities1 entia rationis3 relations ( g5us1 species1 diff]5tia1 proprium1 accid5s2 ! affirmative or negative relation betwe5 pr$icate & subject 9 judgm5t27#fe7 ! mutual relations ( antec$5t & consequ5t 9 inf]5ce4 ,n[ all ^! logical entities1 or objecta secundae int5tionis m5tis1 are relations e/abli%$ by ! m9d itself betwe5 its own ?\ghts2 !y h1 no d\bt1 a f\ndation 9 ! real objects ( ^? ?\ghts z well z 9 ! con/itution & limitations ( ! m9d itself2 b !y h !mselves1 & c h1 no o!r be+ ?an t :i* !y h z products ( ?\ght4 ,_! sole be+ consi/s 9 be+ ?\ght (4 ,!y are necess>y creations or products ( ! ?\ght-process z ?is goes on 9 ! human m9d4 ,we see t x is only by means ( ^! relations we c progress 9 und]/&+ ?+s4 ,9 ! ?\ght-process we _c help br++ !m to light--& ?9k+ !m aft] ! mann] ( realities1 p] modum entis4 ,:atev] we ?9k we mu/ ?9k ?r\gh ! concept ( 8be+02 :atev] we conceive we mu/ conceive z 8be+02 b on reflection we easily see t su* entities z 8no?+ness10 8negation or abs5ce or privation ( be+10 8univ]sality10 8pr$icate0--&1 9 g5]al1 all relations e/abli%$ by our own ?\ght betwe5 our own ideas repres5tative ( reality--c h !mselves no reality prop]1 no actual or possible exi/5ce1 o!r ?an t :i* !y get f ! m9d 9 virtue ( its mak+ !m objects ( its own ?\ght4 ,h5ce ! s*ola/ic def9ition ( a logical entity or ens rationis z 8t :i* has objective be+ m]ely 9 ! intellect03 8illud quod habet esse objective tantum 9 intellectu1 seu 444 id quod a ratione excogitatur ut ens1 cum tam5 9 se entitatem non habeat047#ff7 ,( c\rse ! m5tal process by :i* we ?9k su* entities1 ! m5tal /ate 9 :i* !y are held 9 consci\sness1 is j z real z any o!r m5tal process or /ate4 ,b ! entity :i* is ?us held 9 consci\sness has & c h no o!r reality ?an :at x has by be+ an object ( ?\ght4 ,& ?is precisely is :at di/+ui%es x f real be+1 f reality2 = ! latt]1 besides ! ideal exi/5ce x has 9 ! m9d :i* ?9ks ( x1 has1 or at lea/ c h1 a real exi/5ce ( its own1 indep5d5tly altoge!r ( our ?9k+ ab\t x4 ,we assume "h1 ( c\rse--:at is e/abli%$ else:]e1 z aga9/ ! subjective idealism ( ph5om5i/s & ! objective idealism ( ,b]keley--t ! reality ( actual ?+s does n consi/ 9 _! be+ p]ceiv$ or ?\ght (1 t _! 8esse0 is n 8p]cipi10 t !y h a reality o!r ?an & indep5d5t ( _! actual pres5ce to ! ?\ght ( any human m9d4 ,& ev5 purely possible ?+s1 ev5 ! creatures ( our own fancy1 ! fictions ( fable & romance1 c\ld1 absolutely speak+ & )\t any contradiction1 h an exi/5ce 9 ! actual ord]1 9 addition to ! m5tal exi/5ce !y receive f ^? :o fancy !m4 ,su* entities1 !re=e1 diff] f entia rationis2 !y1 too1 are real be+s4 ,:at ! reality ( purely possible ?+s is we %all discuss lat] on4 ,actually exi/+ ?+s at all ev5ts we assume to be giv5 to ! kn[+ m9d1 n to be creat$ by ! latt]4 ,ev5 9 reg>d to ^!1 h[ev]1 we mu/ rememb] t ! m9d 9 kn[+ !m1 9 int]pret+ !m1 9 seek+ to p5etrate ! nature ( !m1 is n purely passive2 t reality z kn[n to u--or1 9 o!r words1 our k ( reality--is ! product ( a tw(old factor3 ! subjective :i* is ! m9d1 & ! objective :i* is ! extram5tal reality act+ on1 & ?us reveal+ itself to1 ! m9d4 ,h5ce x is t :5 we come to analyse 9 detail our k ( ! nature ( ?+s--or1 9 o!r words1 ! natures ( ?+s z reveal$ to our m9ds--x w n be always easy to di/+ui% 9 ea* p>ticul> case ! prop]ties1 aspects1 relations1 di/9ctions1 etc41 :i* are real 79 ! s5se ( be+ !re 9 ! reality indep5d5tly ( ! consid]ation ( ! m9d7 f ^? t are m]ely logical 79 ! s5se ( be+ produc$ & sup]add$ to ! reality by ! m5tal process itself747#fg7 ,yet x is obvi\sly a matt] ( ! v fir/ importance to det]m9e1 z f> z may be possible1 to :at ext5t our k ( reality is n m]ely a m5tal int]pretation1 b a m5tal con/ruction1 ( ! latt]2 & :e!r1 if !re be a con/ructive or con/itutive factor 9 ?\ght1 ?is %\ld be reg>d$ z int]f]+ ) ! validity ( ?\ght z repres5tative ( reality4 ,?is problem--( ! relation ( ! ens rationis to ! ens reale 9 ! process ( cognition--has giv5 rise to discussions :i*1 9 mod]n times1 h l>gely contribut$ to ! =mation ( t special bran* ( philosophical enquiry :i* is call$ ,epi/emology4 ,b x mu/ n be imag9$ t ?is v problem 0 n discuss$1 & v widely discuss$1 by philosoph]s long be=e ! problem ( ! validity ( k assum$ ! prom95t place x has won = itself 9 mod]n philosophy4 ,ev5 a mod]ate famili>ity ) s*ola/ic philosophy w enable ! /ud5t to recognize ?is problem1 9 a v>iety ( phases1 9 ! discussions ( ! m$ieval s*oolm5 conc]n+ ! concepts ( matt] & =m1 ! simplicity & composition ( be+s1 & ! nature ( ! v>i\s di/9ctions--:e!r logical1 virtual1 =mal1 or real--:i* ! m9d ei!r inv5ts or detects 9 ! realities x endeav\rs to und]/& & expla94 #d4 ,,real ,,be+ ,,& ,,ideal ,,be+4--,! latt] ( ^! expressions has a multiplicity ( k9dr$ mean+s4 ,we use x "h 9 ! s5se ( 8be+ kn[n10 i4e4 to signify ! 8esse int5tionale10 ! m5tal pres5ce1 :i*1 9 ! s*ola/ic !ory ( k1 an entity ( :atsoev] k9d1 :e!r real or logical1 mu/ h 9 ! m9d ( ! kn[] 9 ord] t he be aw>e ( t entity4 ,a m]e logical entity1 z we h se51 has & c h no o!r mode ( be+ ?an ?is :i* consi/s 9 be+ an object ( ! m9d's aw>5ess4 ,all real be+1 too1 :5 x becomes an object ( any k9d ( human cognition :atsoev]--( intellectual ?\ght1 :e!r direct or reflex2 ( s5se p]ception1 :e!r ext]nal or int]nal--mu/ obta9 ?is sort ( m5tal pres5ce or m5tal exi/5ce3 !reby alone c x become an 8objectum cognitum04 ,only by su* m5tal mirror+1 or reproduction1 or recon/ruction1 c reality become s relat$ & connect$ ) m9d z to reveal itself to m9d4 ,"u ?is peculi> relation :i* we call cognition1 ! m9d1 z we "k f psy*ology & epi/emology1 is n passive3 if reality reveal$ itself imm$iately1 z x is1 to a purely passive m9d 77 su* conceivable71 ! exi/5ce ( error w\ld be unacc\ntable2 b ! m9d is n passive3 "u ! influ5ce ( ! reality x =ms ! intellectual concept 7! v]bum m5tale71 or ! s5se p]cept 7! species s5sibilis expressa71 9 & ?r\gh :i*1 & by means ( :i*1 x atta9s to its k ( ! real4 ,b prior 7ontologically7 to ?is m5tal exi/5ce1 & z p>tial cause ( ! latt]1 !re is ! real exi/5ce or be+1 :i* reality has indep5d5tly ( its be+ kn[n by any individual human m9d4 ,real be+1 !n1 z di/+ui%$ "h f ideal be+1 is t :i* exi/s or c exi/ extram5tally1 :e!r x is kn[n by ! human m9d or n1 i4e4 :e!r x exi/s also m5tally or n4 ,t !re is su* real be+1 ap>t f ! 8?\ght0-be+ :]eby ! m9d is con/itut$ =mally kn[+1 is prov$ else:]e2 z also t ?is esse int5tionale has modes :i* _c be attribut$ to ! esse reale4 ,we m]ely note ^! po9ts "h 9 ord] to indicate ! errors involv$ 9 ! opposite cont5tions4 ,our concepts are *>act]iz$ by ab/ractness1 by a consequ5t /atic immutability1 by a plurality (t5 result+ f purely m5tal di/9ctions1 by a univ]sality :i* transc5ds ^? di/9ctions & unifies ! v>iety ( all subord9ate concepts 9 ! wide/ concept ( be+4 ,n[ if1 = example1 we attribute ! unify+ m5tal mode ( univ]sality to real be+1 we mu/ draw ! pan!i/ic conclusion t all real be+ is "o3 ! logical outcome ( extreme realism4 ,if1 aga91 we transf] purely m5tal di/9ctions to ! unity ( ! ,absolute or ,supreme ,be+1 ?us mak+ !m real1 we !reby d5y inf9ite p]fection to ! mo/ p]fect be+ conceivable3 an error ( :i* "s ca?olic philosoph]s ( ! lat] middle ages h be5 accus$ ) "s f\ndation4 ,if1 f9ally1 we id5tify ! esse reale ) ! esse int5tionale1 & ?is ) ! ?\ght-process itself1 we f9d ourselves at ! />t+-po9t ( ,hegelian monism47#fh7 #e4 ,,fundam5tal ,,di/9ctions ,,9 ,,real ,,be+4--,leav+ logical & ideal be+ aside1 & fix+ our att5tion exclusively on real be+1 we may indicate "h a few ( ! mo/ fundam5tal di/9ctions :i* exp]i5ce enables u to recognize 9 our /udy ( ! univ]sal ord] ( ?+s4 7a7 ,possible or ,pot5tial ,be+ & ,actual ,be+4--,! fir/ ( ^! di/9ctions is t betwe5 possibility & actuality1 betwe5 t :i* c be & t :i* actually is4 ,= a prop] und]/&+ ( ?is di/9ction1 :i* w be dealt ) pres5tly1 x is necess>y to note "h ! foll[+ divisions ( actual be+1 :i* w be /udi$ 9 detail lat] on4 7b7 ,inf9ite ,be+ & ,f9ite ,be+s4--,all p h a suffici5tly cle> notion ( ,inf9ite ,be+1 or ,inf9itely ,p]fect ,be+3 ?\gh n all philosoph]s are agre$ z to h[ precisely we get ?is notion1 or :e!r !re actually exi/s su* a be+1 or :e!r if su* be+ does exi/ we c atta9 to a c]ta9 k ( su* exi/5ce4 ,by inf9ite be+ we mean a be+ possess+ all conceivable p]fections 9 ! mo/ p]fect conceivable mann]2 & by f9ite be+s all su* be+s z h actually any conceivable limitation to _! p]fection4 ,ab\t ^! nom9al def9itions !re is no dispute2 & s*ola/icism id5tifies _! respective objects ) ,god & creatures4 7c7 ,necess>y ,be+ & ,cont+5t ,be+s4--,necess>y be+ we conceive z t be+ :i* exi/s ( necessity3 be+ :i* if conceiv$ at all _c be conceiv$ z non-exi/5t3 be+ 9 ! v concept ( :i* is ess5tially involv$ ! concept ( actual exi/5ce3 s t ! attempt to conceive su* be+ z non-exi/5t w\ld be an attempt to conceive :at w\ld be self-contradictory4 ,cont+5t be+1 on ! o!r h&1 is be+ :i* is conceiv$ n to exi/ ( necessity3 be+ :i* may be conceiv$ z n actually exi/5t3 be+ 9 ! concept ( :i* is n involv$ ! concept ( actual exi/5ce4 ,! same obs]vations apply to ?is di/9ction z to ! prec$+ "o4 ,x is obvi\s t any be+ :i* we reg>d z actual we mu/ reg>d ei!r z necess>y or z cont+5t2 &1 secondly1 t necess>y be+ mu/ be consid]$ z absolutely indep5d5t1 z hav+ its actual exi/5ce f itself1 by its own nature2 :ile cont+5t be+ mu/ be consid]$ z dep5d5t = its actual exi/5ce on "s be+ o!r ?an itself4 ,h5ce necess>y be+ is t]m$ ,ens a se1 cont+5t be+ ,ens ab alio4 7d7 ,absolute ,be+ & ,relative ,be+s4--,9 mod]n philosophy ! t]ms 8absolute0 & 8relative10 z appli$ to be+1 correspond r\ghly ) ! t]ms 8,god0 & 8creatures0 9 ! usage ( !i/ic philosoph]s4 ,b ! =m] pair ( t]ms is really ( wid] application ?an ! latt]4 ,! t]m absolute means1 etymologically1 t :i* is loos$1 unfett]$1 dis5gag$ or free f bonds 7absolutum1 ab-solv]e1 solvo se-luo1 f 73 t1 !re=e1 :i* is n b\nd up ) any?+ else1 :i* is 9 "s s5se self-suffic+1 indep5d5t2 :ile ! relative is t :i* is 9 "s way b\nd up ) some?+ else1 & :i* is s f> n self-suffic+ or indep5d5t4 ,t1 !re=e1 is ontologically absolute :i* is 9 "s s5se self-suffic+1 indep5d5t ( o!r ?+s1 9 its exi/5ce2 :ile ! ontologically relative is t :i* dep5ds 9 "s real way = its exi/5ce on some?+ else4 ,aga91 t is logically absolute :i* c be conceiv$ & kn[n by u )\t ref]5ce to any?+ else2 :ile ! logically relative is t :i* we c conceive & "k only ?r\gh our k ( some?+ else4 ,& s9ce we usually "n ?+s accord+ to ! way 9 :i* we conceive !m1 we reg>d z absolute any be+ :i* is by itself & ( itself t :i* we conceive x to be1 or t :i* its "n implies2 & z relative any be+ :i* is :at its "n implies only 9 virtue ( "s relation to some?+ else47#fi7 ,?us1 a man is a man absolutely1 :ile he is a fri5d only relatively to o!rs4 ,x is obvi\s t ! prim>y & g5]al mean+ ( ! t]ms 8absolute0 & 8relative0 c be appli$ & ext5d$ 9 a v>iety ( ways4 ,= in/ance1 all be+ may be said to be 8relative0 to ! kn[+ m9d1 9 ! s5se t all k involves a transc5d5tal relation ( ! kn[n object to ! kn[+ subject4 ,9 ?is wide/ & mo/ improp] s5se ev5 ,god ,himself is relative1 n h[ev] z be+1 b z kn[n4 ,aga91 :5 we apply ! same attribute to a v>iety ( ?+s we may see t x is f\nd 9 "o ( !m 9 ! mo/ p]fect mann] conceivable1 or at lea/ 9 a full] & high] degree ?an x is f\nd 9 ! o!rs2 & t x is f\nd 9 ^! o!rs only ) "s sort ( subord9ation to1 & dep5d5ce on1 ! =m]3 we !n say t x belongs to ?is prim>ily or absolutely1 & to ! o!rs only second>ily or relatively4 ,?is is a less improp] application ( ! t]ms ?an 9 ! prec$+ case4 ,:at we h especially to rememb] "h is t !re are _m diff]5t k9ds ( dep5d5ce or subord9ation1 all alike giv+ rise to ! same usage4 ,h5ce1 apply+ ! t]ms absolute & relative to ! pr$icate 8be+0 or 8real0 or 8reality10 x is obvi\s 9 ! fir/ place t ! pot5tial z su* c be call$ 8be+10 or 8reality0 only 9 relation to ! actual4 ,x is ! actual t is be+ simplicit]1 p> excell5ce2 ! pot5tial is s only 9 relation to ?is47#gj7 ,aga91 sub/ances may be t]m$ be+s absolutely1 :ile accid5ts are be+s only relatively1 because ( _! dep5d5ce on sub/ances2 ?\gh ?is relation is q diff]5t f ! relation ( pot5tial to actual be+4 ,f9ally all f9ite1 cont+5t realities1 actual & possible1 are :at !y are only because ( _! dep5d5ce on ! ,inf9ite & ,necess>y ,be+3 & h5ce ! =m] are relative & ! latt] absolute2 ?\gh "h aga9 ! relation is diff]5t f t ( accid5t to sub/ance1 or ( pot5tial to actual4 ,s9ce ! ord] ( be+ includes all ord]s1 & s9ce a be+ is absolutely su*-or-su* 9 any ord] only :5 t be+ realizes 9 all its fulness & purity su*-or-su* reality1 x foll[s t ! be+ :i* realizes 9 all its fulness ! reality ( be+ is ! ,absolute ,be+ 9 ! highe/ possible s5se ( ?is t]m4 ,?is concept ( ,absolute ,be+ is ! ri*e/ & mo/ compreh5sive ( all possible concepts3 x is ! v anti!sis ( t o!r concept ( 8be+ 9 g5]al0 :i* is common to ev]y?+ & di/+ui%$ only f no?+ness4 ,x includes 9 itself all actual & possible modes & grades & p]fections ( f9ite ?+s1 ap>t f _! limitations1 embody+ all ( !m 9 ! "o highe/ & ri*e/ concept ( t :i* makes all ( !m real & actual1 viz4 ! concept ( ,actuality or ,actual ,reality itself4 ,hegel & 8 foll[]s h involv$ !mselves 9 a pan!i/ic philosophy by neglect+ to di/+ui% betwe5 ^? two totally diff]5t concepts47#ga7 ,a simil> error has also result$ f failure to di/+ui% betwe5 ! v>i\s modes 9 :i* be+ t is relative may be dep5d5t on be+ t is absolute4 ,god is ! ,absolute ,be+2 creatures are relative4 ,s too is sub/ance absolute be+1 comp>$ ) accid5ts z inh]+ & exi/+ 9 sub/ance4 ,b ,god is n !re=e to be conceiv$ z ! "o all-p]vad+ sub/ance1 ( :i* all f9ite ?+s1 all ph5om5a1 w\ld be only accid5tal manife/ations4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,becom+ ,,& ,,its ,,implications4 #f4 ,,! ,,/atic ,,& ,,! ,,*ang+4--,! ?+s we see ar\nd u1 ! ?+s :i* make up ! imm$iate data ( our exp]i5ce1 n only are or exi/2 !y also become1 or come into actual exi/5ce2 !y *ange2 !y pass out ( actual exi/5ce4 ,! ab/ract notion ( be+ repres5ts its object to ! m9d 9 a /atic1 p]man5t1 *angeless1 self-id5tical condition2 b if ?is condition 7 an adequate repres5tation ( reality *ange w\ld be unreal1 w\ld be only an illusion4 ,?is is :at ! ,eleatic philosoph]s ( anci5t ,greece believ$1 di/+ui%+ m]ely betwe5 be+ & no?+ness4 ,b !y 7 mi/ak52 = *ange 9 ?+s is too obvi\sly real to be elim9at$ by call+ x an illusion3 ev5 if x 7 an illusion1 ?is illusion at lea/ w\ld h to be acc\nt$ =4 ,9 ord]1 !re=e1 to und]/& reality we mu/ employ n m]ely ! notion ( be+ 7some?+ /atic71 b also ! notion ( becom+1 *ange1 process1 appe>+ & disappe>+ 7some?+ k9etic1 & some?+ dynamic74 ,9 do+ s1 h[ev]1 we mu/ n fall into ! error ( ! opposite extreme f ! ,eleatics--by reg>d+ *ange z ! adequate repres5tation ( reality4 ,?is is :at ,h]aclitus & ! lat] ,ionians did3 hold+ t no?+ is1 t all becomes 7 71 t *ange is all reality1 t ! /able1 ! p]man5t1 is non-exi/5t1 unreal1 an illusion4 ,?is too is false2 = *ange w\ld be un9telligible )\t at lea/ an abid+ law ( *ange1 a p]man5t pr9ciple ( "s sort2 :i*1 9 turn1 involves ! reality ( "s sort ( abid+1 /able1 p]man5t be+4 ,we mu/ !n--) ,ari/otle1 z aga9/ bo? ( ^? "o-sid$ conceptions--hold to ! reality bo? ( be+ & ( becom+2 & proce$ to see h[ ! /able & ! *ang+ c bo? be real4 ,to conv9ce ourselves t !y are bo? real1 v little reflection is ne$$4 ,we h actual exp]i5ce ( bo? ^? elem5ts ( reality 9 our consci\sness & memory ( our own selves4 ,e human individual 9 ! enjoym5t ( 8 m5tal faculties kn[s himself z an abid+1 self-id5tical be+1 yet z con/antly und]go+ real *anges2 s t ?r\gh\t 8 life he is really ! same be+1 ?\gh j z c]ta9ly he really *anges4 ,9 ext]nal nature1 too1 we obs]ve on ! "o h& innum]able processes ( gr[? & decay1 ( motion & int]action2 & on ! o!r h& a simil>ly all-p]vad+ elem5t ( sam5ess or id5tity amid all ?is nev]-end+ *ange4 #g4 ,,! ,,pot5tial ,,& ,,! ,,actual4 7a7 ,,possibility1 ,,absolute1 ,,relative1 ,,& ,,adequate4--,x is f our exp]i5ce ( actuality & *ange t we d]ive n only our notion ( temporal duration1 b also our notion ( pot5tial be+ or possibility1 z di/9ct f t ( actual be+ or actuality4 ,x is f our exp]i5ce ( :at actually exi/s t we are able to det]m9e :at c1 & :at _c exi/4 ,we "k f exp]i5ce :at gold is1 & :at a t[] is2 & t x is intr9sically possible = a gold5 t[] to exi/1 t su* an object ( ?\ght involves no contradiction1 t !re=e its exi/5ce is n impossible1 ev5 ?\gh x may nev] actually exi/ z a fact4 ,simil>ly1 we "k f exp]i5ce :at a squ>e is1 & :at a circle is2 & t x is intr9sically impossible = a squ>e circle to exi/1 t su* an object ( ?\ght involves a contradiction1 t !re=e n only is su* an object nev] actually exi/5t 9 fact1 b t x is 9 no s5se real1 9 no way possible4 ,?us1 intr9sic 7or objective1 absolute1 logical1 metaphysical7 possibility is ! m]e non-repugnance ( an object ( ?\ght to actual exi/5ce4 ,any be+ or object ( ?\ght t is conceivable 9 ?is way1 t c be conceiv$ z capable ( actually exi/+1 is call$ intr9sically 7or objectively1 absolutely1 logically1 metaphysically7 possible be+4 ,! abs5ce ( su* intr9sic capability ( actual exi/5ce gives u ! notion ( ! intr9sically 7objectively1 absolutely1 logically1 metaphysically7 impossible4 ,we %all return to ^! notions aga94 ,!y are necess>y "h = ! und]/&+ ( real *ange 9 ! actual univ]se4 ,fix+ our att5tion n[ ^u ! real *anges :i* *>act]ize ! data ( our exp]i5ce1 let u inquire :at conditions are necess>y 9 ord] t an intr9sically possible object ( ?\ght become "h & n[ an actual be+4 ,x matt]s n :e!r we select an example f ! doma9 ( organic nature1 ( inorganic nature1 or ( art--:e!r x be an oak1 or an iceb]g1 or a /atue4 ,9 ord] t !re be "h & n[ an actual oak-tree1 x is necess>y n only 7#a7 t su* an object be intr9sically possible1 b 7#b7 t !re h be5 plant$ "h an actual acorn1 i4e4 an actual be+ hav+ 9 x subjectively & really ! passive pot5tiality ( develop+ into an actual oak-tree1 & 7#c7 t !re be 9 ! actual ?+s ar\nd ! acorn active p[]s or =ces capable ( s influ5c+ ! lat5t1 passive pot5tiality ( ! acorn z gradually to evolve ! oak-tree !refrom4 ,s1 too1 = ! 7#a7 intr9sically possible iceb]g1 !re are ne$$ 7#b7 wat] capable ( becom+ ice1 & 7#c7 natural p[]s or =ces capable ( =m+ x into ice & sett+ ?is adrift 9 ! ocean4 ,& = ! 7#a7 intr9sically possible /atue !re are ne$$ 7#b7 ! block ( m>ble or o!r mat]ial capable ( becom+ a /atue1 & 7#c7 ! sculptor hav+ ! p[] to m\ld ?is mat]ial into an actual /atue4 ,9 ord]1 !re=e1 t a ?+ :i* is n n[ actual1 b only intr9sically or absolutely possible1 become actual1 !re mu/ actually exi/ "s be+ or be+s end[$ ) ! active p[] or pot5cy ( mak+ ?is possible ?+ actual4 ,! latt] is !n said to be relatively1 extr9sically possible--9 relation to su* be+ or be+s4 ,& obvi\sly a ?+ may be possible relatively to ! p[] ( "o be+1 & n possible relatively to less] p[] ( ano!r be+3 ! /atue t is intr9sically possible 9 ! block ( m>ble1 may be extr9sically possible relatively to ! skill$ sculptor1 b n relatively to ! unskill$ p]son :o is n a sculptor4 ,fur!rmore1 relatively to ! same ag5t or ag5ts1 ! production ( a giv5 effect1 ! do+ ( a giv5 ?+1 is said to be physically possible if x c be br\ght ab\t by su* ag5ts act+ accord+ to ! ord9>y c\rse ( nature2 if1 9 o!r words !y h ! physical p[] to d x4 ,o!rwise x is said to be physically impossible1 ev5 ?\gh metaphysically or intr9sically possible1 e4g4 x is physically impossible = a dead p]son to come to life aga94 ,a ?+ is said to be morally possible1 9 ref]5ce to free & responsible ag5ts1 if !y c d x )\t unreasonable inconv5i5ce2 o!rwise x is consid]$ z morally impossible1 ev5 ?\gh x be bo? physically & metaphysically possible3 z (t5 happ5s 9 reg>d to ! fulfilm5t ( "o's obligations4 ,t :i* is bo? intr9sically & extr9sically possible is said to be adequately possible4 ,:atev] is intr9sically possible is also extr9sically possible 9 relation to ,god1 :o is ,almighty1 ,omnipot5t4 #h4 7b7 ,,subjective 8,,pot5tia10 ,,active ,,& ,,passive4--,fur!rmore1 we conceive ! ,inf9ite ,be+1 ,almighty ,god1 z capable ( creat+1 or produc+ actual be+ f no?+ness1 i4e4 )\t any actually pre-exi/+ mat]ial out ( ^: passive pot5tiality ! actual be+ w\ld be develop$4 ,creative p[] or activity does n ne$ any pre-exi/+ subject on :i* to ex]cise its influ5ce1 any subject 9 ^: passive pot5tiality ! ?+ to be creat$ is antec$5tly implicit4 ,b all o!r p[]1 all activity ( creat$ causes1 does require "s su* actually exi/+ subject4 ,if we exam9e ! activities ( ! ag5cies t fall )9 our direct exp]i5ce1 :e!r 9 ext]nal nature or 9 our own selves1 we %all f9d t 9 no case does _! op]ative influ5ce or causality ext5d beyond ! production ( *anges 9 exi/+ be+1 or atta9 to ! production ( new actual be+ out ( no?+ness4 ,! =ces ( nature _c produce an oak )\t an acorn1 or an iceb]g )\t wat]2 nor c ! sculptor produce a /atue except f "s pre-exi/+ mat]ial4 ,! natural passive pot5tiality ( ?+s is1 moreov]1 limit$ 9 ref]5ce to ! active p[]s ( ! creat$ univ]se4 ,^!1 = example1 c educe life f ! passive pot5tiality ( inorganic matt]1 b only by assimilat+ ?is matt] into a liv+ organism3 !y _c re/ore life to a human corpse2 yet ! latt] has 9 x ! capacity to be re/or$ to life by ! direct influ5ce ( ! ,au?or ( ,nature4 ,?is special & sup]natural pot5tiality 9 creat$ ?+s1 "u ! influ5ce ( ,omnipot5ce1 is kn[n z pot5tia ob$i5talis47#gb7 ,?is consid]ation w help u to realize t all reality :i* is produc$ by *ange1 & subject to *ange1 is ess5tially a mixture ( becom+ & be+1 ( pot5tial & actual4 ,! reality ( su* be+ is n tota simul4 ,only immutable be+1 ^: duration is et]nal1 has its reality tota simul3 x alone is purely actual1 ! 8,actus ,purus02 & its duration is "o et]nal 8n[10 )\t beg9n+1 end1 or succession4 ,b mutable be+1 ^: duration 9 actual exi/5ce is measur$ by "t1 is actualiz$ only successively3 its actuality at any p>ticul> in/ant does n embody ! :ole ( its reality3 ?is latt] includes also a 800 & 8w be02 ! ?+ 0 pot5tially :at x n[ is actually1 & x w become actually some?+ :i* x n[ is only pot5tially2 nor %all we h und]/ood ev5 mod]ately ! nature or ess5ce ( any mutable be+--an oak-tree1 = example--until we h grasp$ ! fact t ! :ole reality ( its nature embraces m ?an :at we f9d ( x actually exi/+ at any giv5 in/ant ( its exi/5ce4 ,9 o!r words1 we h to be> 9 m9d t ! reality ( su* a be+ is n pure actuality b a mixture ( pot5tial & actual3 t x is an actus non-purus1 or an actus mixtus4 ,we h to note well t ! pot5tial be+ ( a ?+ is some?+ real--t x is n m]ely a modus loqu5di1 or a modus intellig5di4 ,! oak is 9 ! acorn 9 "s true & real s5se3 ! pot5tiality ( ! oak is some?+ real 9 ! acorn3 if x 7 n s1 if x 7 no?+ real 9 ! acorn1 we c\ld say ) equal tru? t a man or a horse or a h\se is pot5tially 9 ! acorn2 or1 aga9 ) equal tru?1 t ! oak is pot5tially 9 a mu/>d-se$1 or a gra9 ( corn1 or a pebble1 or a drop ( wat]4 ,!re=e ! oak is really 9 ! acorn--n actually b pot5tially1 pot5tia passiva4 ,! oak-tree is also really 9 ^? active =ces ( nature ^: influ5ce on ! acorn develop ! latt] into an actual oak-tree3 x is 9 ^? causes n actually1 ( c\rse1 b virtually1 = !y possess 9 !mselves ! op]ative p[]--pot5tia activa sive op]ativa--to educe ! oak-tree out ( ! acorn4 ,^! two pot5tial conditions ( a be+--9 ! active causes :i* produce x1 & 9 ! pre-exi/+ actual ?+ or ?+s f :i* x is produc$--are call$ ea* a real or subjective pot5cy1 pot5tia realis1 or pot5tia subjectiva1 9 di/9ction f ! m]e logical or objective possibility ( su* a be+4 ,& j z ! passive pot5tiality ( ! /atue is some?+ real 9 ! block ( m>ble1 ?\gh di/9ct f ! actuality ( ! /atue & f ! process by :i* ?is is actualiz$1 s is ! active p[] ( mak+ ! /atue some?+ real 9 ! sculptor1 ?\gh di/9ct f ! op]ation by :i* he makes ! /atue4 ,if an ag5t's p[] to act1 to produce *ange1 7 n a reality 9 ! ag5t1 a reality di/9ct f ! action ( ! latt]2 or if a be+'s capacity to und]go *ange1 & !reby to become some?+ o!r1 7 n a reality di/9ct f ! process ( *ange1 & f ! actual result ( ?is process--x w\ld foll[ n only t ! actual alone is real1 & ! m]ely possible or pot5tial unreal1 b also t no *ange c be real1 t no?+ c really become1 & no?+ really disappe>47#gc7 #i4 7c7 ,,actuality3 ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,pot5tiality4--,x is f our exp]i5ce ( *ange 9 ! _w t we d]ive our notions ( ! pot5tial & ! actual1 ( active p[] & passive pot5tiality4 ,! t]m 8act0 has prim>ily ! same mean+ z 8action10 8op]ation10 t process by :i* a *ange is wr\ght4 ,b ! ,lat9 ^w actus 7,gr4 1 7 means r t :i* is a*iev$ by ! actio1 t :i* is ! correlative & complem5t ( ! passive pot5tiality1 ! actuality ( ?is latt]3 t by :i* pot5tial be+ is r5d]$ =mally actual1 &1 by way ( consequ5ce1 ?is actual be+ itself4 8,pot5tia activa0 & its correlative 8actus0 might1 p]haps1 be appropriately r5d]$ by 8p[]0 7pote/as ag5di7 & 8action0 or 8op]ation02 8pot5tia passiva0 & its correlative 8actus10 by 8pot5tiality0 & 8actuality0 respectively4 ,9 ^! correlatives1 ! notion und]ly+ ! t]m 8actual0 is manife/ly ! notion ( some?+ complet$1 a*iev$1 p]fect$--z comp>$ ) t ( some?+ incomplete1 imp]fect1 det]m9able1 :i* is ! notion ( ! pot5tial4 ,h5ce ! notions ( pot5tia & actus h be5 ext5d$ widely beyond _! prim>y signification ( p[] to act & ! ex]cise ( ?is p[]4 ,su* pairs ( correlatives z ! det]m9able & ! det]m9$1 ! p]fectible & ! p]fect$1 ! undevelop$ or less develop$ & ! m develop$1 ! g5]ic & ! specific1 are all conceiv$ "u ! aspect ( ?is wide/ relation ( ! pot5tial to ! actual4 ,& s9ce we c di/+ui% successive /ages 9 any process ( developm5t1 or an ord] ( logical sequ5ce among ! cont5ts ( our concept ( any concrete reality1 x foll[s t :at w be conceiv$ z an actus 9 "o relation w be conceiv$ z a pot5tia 9 ano!r4 ,?us1 ! disposition ( any faculty--z1 = example1 ! sci5tific habit 9 ! intellect--is an actus or p]fection ( ! faculty reg>d$ z a pot5tia2 b x is itself a pot5tia :i* is actualiz$ 9 ! op]ation ( actually /udy+4 ,?is illu/rates ! di/9ction commonly drawn betwe5 an 8actus primus0 & an 8actus secundus0 9 any p>ticul> ord] or l9e ( reality3 ! actus primus is t :i* presupposes no prior actuality 9 ! same ord]2 ! actus secundus is t :i* does presuppose ano!r4 ,! act ( kn[+ is an actus secundus :i* presupposes ! cognitive faculty z an actus primus3 ! faculty be+ ! fir/ or fundam5tal equipm5t ( ! s\l 9 relation to k4 ,h5ce ! *ild is said to h k 89 actu primo0 z hav+ ! faculty ( reason2 & ! /ud5t to h k 89 actu secundo0 z ex]cis+ ?is faculty4 ,! actus or p]fect+ pr9ciples ( :i* we h spok5 s f> are all conceiv$ z presuppos+ an exi/+ subject on :i* !y sup]v5e4 ,!y are !re=e accid5ts z di/9ct f sub/antial con/itutive pr9ciples ( ?is subject2 & !y are !re=e call$ accid5tal actualities1 actus 8accid5tales04 ,b ! actual exi/5ce ( a be+ is also conceiv$ z ! complem5t & correlative ( its ess5ce3 z t :i* makes ! latt] actual1 ?us transf]r+ x f ! /ate ( m]e possibility4 ,h5ce exi/5ce also is call$ an actus or actuality3 ! actus 8exi/5tialis10 to di/+ui% x f ! exi/+ ?+'s activities & o!r subsequ5tly acquir$ *>act]s4 ,9 ref]5ce to ^! exi/5ce is a 8fir/ actuality0--8,esse e/ actus primus02 8,prius e/ esse quam ag]e03 8,exi/5ce is ! fir/ actuality02 8,action presupposes exi/5ce0--:ile ea* ( ^! 9 ref]5ce to exi/5ce1 is a 8second actuality10 an actus secundus4 ,:51 fur!rmore1 we proce$ to exam9e ! con/itutive pr9ciples ess5tial to any be+ 9 ! concrete1 we may be able to di/+ui% betwe5 pr9ciples :i* are det]m9able1 passive & p]si/5t ?r\gh\t all ess5tial *ange ( t be+1 & o!rs :i* are det]m9+1 specify+1 diff]5tiat+ pr9ciples4 ,9 wat]1 = example1 we may di/+ui% ! passive und]ly+ pr9ciple :i* p]si/s ?r\gh\t ! decomposition ( wat] into oxyg5 & hydrog51 f ! active specify+ pr9ciple :i* gives t sub/ratum its specific nature z wat]4 ,! =m] or mat]ial pr9ciple 71 mat]ia7 is pot5tial1 comp>$ ) ! latt] or =mal pr9ciple 71 1 1 =ma1 species1 actus7 z actual4 ,! concept ( actus is ?us appli$ to ! ess5ce itself3 ! actus 8ess5tialis0 or 8=malis0 ( a ?+ is t :i* we conceive to be ! ultimate1 complet+ & det]m9+ pr9ciple ( ! ess5ce or nature ( t ?+4 ,9 ref]5ce to ?is z well z ! o!r con/itutive pr9ciples ( ! ?+1 ! actual exi/5ce ( ! ?+ is a 8second actuality10 an actus secundus4 ,9 fact all ! con/itutive pr9ciples ( ! ess5ce ( any exi/+ ?+1 & all ! prop]ties & attributes involv$ 9 ! ess5ce or necess>ily connect$ ) ! ess5ce1 mu/ all alike be conceiv$ z logically antec$5t to ! exi/5tial actus :]eby !y are con/itut$ some?+ 9 ! actual ord]1 & n m]e possible objects ( our ?\ght4 ,& f ?is po9t ( view ! exi/5ce ( a ?+ is call$ ! ultimate actualization ( its ess5ce4 ,h5ce ! s*ola/ic aphorism3 8,esse e/ ultimus actus rei04 ,! t]m actus may designate t complem5t ( reality by :i* pot5tial be+ is made actual 7actus 8actuans071 or ?is actual be+ itself 7actus 8simplicit] dictus074 ,9 ! latt] s5se we h already di/+ui%$ ! ,be+ t is immutable1 ! ,be+ ( ,god1 z ! ,actus ,purus1 f ! be+ ( all mutable ?+s1 :i* latt] be+ is necess>ily a mixture ( pot5tial & actual1 an actus mixtus4 ,n[ if ! ess5ces ( corporeal ?+s are composite1 if !y are con/itut$ by ! union ( "s det]m9+1 =mative pr9ciple ) a det]m9able1 passive pr9ciple--( 8=m0 ) 8matt]10 9 s*ola/ic t]m9ology--we may call ^! =mative pr9ciples actus 8in=mantes02 & if ^! _c actually exi/ except 9 union ) a mat]ial pr9ciple !y may be call$ actus 8non-subsi/5tes03 e4g41 ! =mative pr9ciple or 8=ma sub/antialis0 ( wat]1 or ! vital pr9ciple ( a plant4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 !re exi/ ess5ces :i*1 be+ simple1 d n actualize any mat]ial1 det]m9able pr9ciple1 b subsi/ indep5d5tly ( any su*1 !y are call$ actus 8non-in=mantes10 or actus 8subsi/5tes04 ,su*1 = example1 are ,god1 & pure spirits ^: exi/5ce is kn[n f revelation4 ,f9ally1 !re may be a k9d ( actual ess5ce :i*1 ?\gh x naturally actualizes a mat]ial pr9ciple de facto1 c nev]!less cont9ue to subsi/ )\t ?is latt]3 su* an actual be+ w\ld be at once an actus in=mans & an actus subsi/5s2 & su*1 9 fact1 is ! human s\l4 ,?r\gh\t all di/9ctions betwe5 ! pot5tial & ! actual !re runs ! conception ( ! actual z some?+ m p]fect ?an ! pot5tial4 ,!re is 9 ! actual some?+ positive & real ov] & above :at is 9 ! pot5tial4 ,?is is an ultimate fact 9 our analysis2 & its importance w be realiz$ :5 we come to apply ! notions we h be5 expla9+ to ! /udy ( *ange4 ,! notion ( grades ( p]fection 9 ?+s is "o ) :i* ev]yone is famili>4 ,we naturally conceive "s be+s z high] ^u ! scale ( reality ?an o!rs2 z hav+ 8m0 reality1 s to speak--n necess>ily1 ( c\rse1 9 ! lit]al s5se ( size or quantity--?an o!rs2 z be+ m p]fect1 nobl]1 ( great] wor?1 value1 dignity1 excell5ce1 ?an o!rs4 ,?us we reg>d ! inf9ite z m p]fect ?an ! f9ite1 spiritual be+s z nobl] ?an mat]ial be+s1 man z a high] ord] ( be+ ?an ! brute bea/1 ?is aga9 z surpass+ ! :ole vegetable k+dom1 ! l[e/ =m ( life z high] on ! scale ( be+ ?an inorganic matt]1 ! sub/ance-mode ( be+ z sup]ior to all accid5t-modes1 ! actualiz$ /ate ( a be+ z m p]fect ?an its pot5tial /ate1 i4e4 z exi/+ 9 its mat]ial1 effici5t & ideal or exempl> causes4 ,! gr\nds & significance ( ?is m5tal appreciation ( relative values 9 ?+s mu/ be discuss$ else:]e4 ,we ref] to x "h 9 ord] to po9t out ano!r s*ola/ic aphorism1 accord+ to :i* ! high] a ?+ is 9 ! scale ( actual be+1 & ! m p]fect x is accord+ly1 ! m effici5t x w also be z a pr9ciple ( action1 ! m p[]ful z a cause 9 ! production ( *anges 9 o!r ?+s1 ! m op]ative 9 actualiz+ _! passive pot5tialities2 & conv]sely1 ! less actual a ?+ is1 & !re=e ! m imp]fect1 ! great] its passive capacity w be to und]go ! influ5ce ( ag5cies t are actual & op]ative ar\nd x4 8,z passive pot5tiality10 says ,/4 ,?omas17#gd7 8is ! m>k ( pot5tial be+1 s active p[] is ! m>k ( actual be+4 ,= a ?+ acts1 9 s f> z x is actual2 b is act$ on1 s f> z x is pot5tial40 ,our k ( ! nature ( ?+s is 9 fact exclusively bas$ on our k ( _! activities3 we h no o!r key to ! k ( :at a ?+ is ?an our k ( :at x does3 8,op]>i sequitur esse03 8,qualis e/ op]atio talis e/ natura0--8,act+ foll[s be+03 8,conduct is ! key to nature04 ,a be+ t is active or op]ative 9 ! production ( a *ange is said to be ! effici5t cause ( ! *ange1 ! latt] be+ t]m$ ! effect4 ,n[ ! great] ! *ange1 i4e4 ! high] & m p]fect be ! grade ( reality t is actualiz$ 9 ! *ange1 ! high] too 9 ! scale ( be+ mu/ be ! effici5t cause ( t *ange4 ,!re mu/ be a proportion 9 degree ( p]fection or reality betwe5 effect & cause4 ,! =m] _c exce$ 9 actual p]fection ! active p[]1 & !re=e ! actual be+1 ( ! latt]4 ,?is is s because we conceive ! effect z be+ produc$ or actualiz$ ?r\gh ! op]ative influ5ce ( ! cause1 & ) real dep5d5ce on ?is latt]2 & x is inconceivable t a cause %\ld h p[] to actualize o!r be+1 di/9ct f itself1 :i* w\ld be ( a high] grade ( excell5ce ?an itself4 ,! nature ( effici5t causality1 ( ! influ5ce by :i* ! cause is relat$ to its effect1 is n easy to det]m9e2 x w be discuss$ at a subsequ5t /age ( our inve/igations 7*4 xi472 b :atev] x be1 a little reflection %\ld conv9ce u ( ! tru? ( ! pr9ciple j /at$3 t an effect _c be m p]fect ?an its cause4 ,! m$ival s*ola/ics embodi$ ?is tru? 9 ! =mula3 ,nemo dat quod non habet--a =mula :i* we mu/ n int]pret 9 ! m re/rict$ & lit]al s5se ( ! words giv+ & hav+1 le/ we be met ) ! obvi\s objection t x is by no means necess>y = a boy to h a black eye himself 9 ord] to give "o to 8 neighb\r6 ,:at ! =mula means is t an ag5t _c give to1 or produce 91 any pot5tial subject1 receptive ( its causal influ5ce1 an actuality :i* x does n itself possess virtually1 or 9 its active p[]3 t no actuality surpass+ 9 excell5ce ! actual p]fection ( ! cause itself c be f\nd ?us virtually 9 ! active p[] ( ! latt]4 ,!re is no "q ( ! cause or ag5t transf]r+ bodily z x 7 a "p ( its own actuality to ! subject :i* is und]go+ *ange7#ge72 nor w su* crude imag9ation images help u to und]/& :at real *ange1 "u ! influ5ce ( effici5t causality1 involves47#gf7 ,an analysis ( *ange w enable u to appreciate m fully ! real difficulty ( expla9+ x1 & ! futility ( any attempt to acc\nt = x )\t admitt+ ! real1 objective validity ( ! notions ( actual & pot5tial be+1 ( active p[]s or =ces & passive pot5tialities 9 ! ?+s t are subject to *ange4 #aj4 ,,analysis ,,( ,,*ange4--,*ange 7,mutatio1 ,motus1 1 7 is "o ( ^? simple/ concepts :i* _c be def9$4 ,we may describe x1 h[ev]1 z ! transition ( a be+ f "o /ate to ano!r4 ,if "o ?+ entirely disappe>$ & ano!r 7 sub/itut$ = x1 we %\ld n reg>d ! =m] z hav+ be5 *ang$ into ! latt]4 ,:5 "o ?+ is put 9 ! place ( ano!r1 ea*1 no d\bt1 und]goes a *ange ( place1 b nei!r is *ang$ into ! o!r4 ,s1 also1 if we 7 to conceive a ?+ z absolutely ceas+ to exi/1 z laps+ into no?+ness at a giv5 in/ant1 & ano!r z com+ into exi/5ce out ( no?+ness at ! same in/ant 7& 9 ! same place71 we %\ld n consid] ?is d\ble ev5t z con/itut+ a real *ange ( ! =m] ?+ into ! latt]4 ,& al?\gh our s5ses _c te/ify to any?+ beyond sequ5ce 9 s5se ph5om5a1 our reason detects 9 real *ange some?+ o!r ?an a total sub/itution ( ?+s = "o ano!r1 or cont9u\s total cessations & inceptions ( exi/5ce 9 ?+s4 ,no d\bt1 if we conceive ! :ole ph5om5al or p]ceptible univ]se & all ! be+s :i* con/itute ?is univ]se z ess5tially cont+5t1 & !re=e dep5d5t = _! reality & _! actual exi/5ce on a ,supreme1 ,necess>y ,be+ :o creat$ & cons]ves !m1 :o at any "t may cease to cons]ve any ( !m1 & produce o!r & new be+s out ( no?+ness1 !n su* absolute cessations & inceptions ( exi/5ce 9 ! _w w\ld n be impossible4 ,god might annihilate1 i4e4 cease to cons]ve 9 exi/5ce1 ?is or t cont+5t be+ at any in/ant1 & at any in/ant create a new cont+5t be+1 i4e4 produce x 9 its totality f no pre-exi/+ mat]ial4 ,b !re is no reason to suppose t ?is is :at is con/antly tak+ place 9 ,nature3 t all *ange is simply a s]ies ( annihilations & creations4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! modes ( be+ :i* appe> & disappe> 9 real *ange1 9 ! transition ( any?+ f "o /ate to a really diff]5t /ate ( be+1 d n appe> de novo1 ex nihilo1 z absolute beg9n+s out ( no?+ness2 or disappe> totalit]1 9 nihilum1 z absolute end+s or lapses ( reality into no?+ness4 ,! real *anges :i* take place 9 ,nature are due to ! op]ation ( natural causes4 ,^! causes1 be+ f9ite 9 _! op]ative p[]s1 _c create1 i4e4 produce new be+ f no?+ness4 ,!y c1 h[ev]1 ) ! concurr5ce ( ! ,omnipot5t ,be+1 modify exi/+ modes ( be+1 i4e4 make actual :at 0 only pot5tial 9 ^! latt]4 ,! notion ( *ange is n v]ifi$ 9 ! conception ( successive annihilations & creations2 = !re is involv$ 9 ! =m] concept n m]ely ! notion ( a real diff]5ce betwe5 ! two actual /ates1 t be=e & t aft] ! *ange1 b also ! notion ( "s pot5tial reality p]si/+ ?r\gh\t ! *ange1 some?+ capable ( be+ actually s & s be=e ! *ange & actually o!rwise aft] ! *ange4 ,= real *ange1 !re=e1 we require 7#a7 two positive & really diff]5t /ates ( ! same be+1 a 8t]m9us a quo0 & a 8t]m9us ad quem02 & 7#b7 a real process ( transition :]eby some?+ pot5tial becomes actual4 ,9 creation !re is no real & positive t]m9us a quo2 9 annihilation !re is no real & positive t]m9us ad quem2 ^! !re=e are n *anges 9 ! prop] s5se ( ! t]m4 ,sometimes1 too1 *ange is affirm$1 by purely extr9sic d5om9ation1 ( a ?+ 9 :i* !re is no real *ange1 b only a relation to "s o!r really *ang+ ?+4 ,9 ?is s5se :5 an object unkn[n or un?\ght ( becomes ! actual object ( somebody's ?\ght or cognition1 x is said to 8*ange10 ?\gh ! transition f 8unkn[n0 to 8kn[n0 involves no real *ange ( /ate 9 ! object1 b only 9 ! kn[+ subject4 ,if ?\ght 7 9 any true s5se 8con/itutive0 ( reality1 z _m mod]n philosoph]s cont5d1 ! *ange 9 ! object w\ld ( c\rse be real4 ,s9ce1 !re=e1 *ange consi/s 9 ?is1 t a ?+ :i* is actually 9 a giv5 /ate ceases to be actually su* & beg9s to be actually 9 ano!r /ate1 x is obvi\s t !re p]si/s ?r\gh\t ! process "s reality :i* is 9 itself pot5tial & indiff]5t to ei!r actual /ate2 & t1 moreov]1 some?+ :i* 0 actual disappe>s1 :ile "s new actuality appe>s1 9 ?is p]si/+ pot5tiality4 ,! abid+ pot5tial pr9ciple is call$ ! matt] or subject ( ! *ange2 ! transi5t actualiz+ pr9ciples are call$ =ms4 ,n all ^! 8=ms0 :i* prec$e or result f *ange are necess>ily positive entities 9 !mselves3 !y may be m]e privations ( o!r =ms 78privatio10 73 n all *anges result 9 ! acquisition ( a new degree ( positive actual be+2 "s result 9 loss ( p]fection or actuality4 ,/ill1 ev5 9 ^! cases1 ! /ate *>act]iz$ by ! less p]fect degree ( actuality has a det]m9ate actual grade ( be+ :i* is prop] to itself1 & :i*1 z su*1 is n f\nd actually1 b only pot5tially1 9 ! /ate *>act]iz$ by ! m p]fect degree ( actuality4 ,:51 !n1 a be+ *anges f a m p]fect to a less p]fect /ate1 ! actuality ( ?is less p]fect /ate _c be adequately acc\nt$ = by seek+ x 9 ! antec$5t & m p]fect /ate3 x is n 9 ?is latt] /ate actually1 b only pot5tially2 nor d we acc\nt = x by say+ t x is 8equival5tly0 9 ! great] actuality ( ! latt] /ate3 ! two actualiz+ pr9ciples are really di/9ct1 & nei!r is :olly or ev5 p>tially ! o!r4 ,! significance ( ?is consid]ation w appe> pres5tly 9 connection ) ! s*ola/ic axiom3 ,quidquid movetur ab alio movetur4 ,mean:ile we mu/ gu>d aga9/ conceiv+ ! pot5tial or mat]ial factor 9 *ange z a sort ( actual b hidd5 core ( reality :i* itself p]si/s un*ang$ ?r\gh\t2 & ! =mative or actualiz+ factors z sup]ficially adorn+ ?is sub/ratum by con/antly replac+ "o ano!r4 ,su* a sub/itution ( imag9ation images = intellectual ?\ght w n help1 b r h9d]1 all accurate analysis4 ,x is n ! pot5tial or mat]ial factor 9 ?+s t *anges1 nor yet ! actualiz+ or =mal factors1 b ! ?+s !mselves2 & if 8?+s0 are subject to 8real *ange0 x is manife/ t ?is fact c be made intelligible1 if at all1 only by intellectually analys+ ! ?+s & _! *anges into con/itutive pr9ciples or factors :i* are nor !mselves 8?+s0 or 8*anges04 ,7 we to arrive only at pr9ciples ( ! latt] sort1 s f> f expla9+ any?+ we w\ld really only h pu%$ back ! problem a /ep f>!r4 ,x may be t none ( ! attempts yet made by philosoph]s or sci5ti/s to (f] an ultimate explanation ( *ange is entirely satisfactory1--! s*ola/ic explanation w be gradually outl9$ 9 ^! pages1--b x w be ( advantage at lea/ to recognize ! %ortcom+s ( !ories t are c]ta9ly inadequate4 ,we are n[ 9 a position to /ate & expla9 ! important s*ola/ic aphorism embody+ :at has be5 call$ ! ,pr9ciple ( ,*ange 78,pr9cipium ,motus073 ,quidquid movetur1 ab alio movetur3 8,:atev] und]goes *ange is *ang$ by some?+ else04 ,! t]m motus is "h tak5 9 ! wide s5se ( any real transition f pot5tiality to actuality1 z is evid5t f ! alt]native /atem5ts ( ! same pr9ciple3 ,nihil pote/ seipsum r$uc]e e pot5tia 9 actum3 8,no?+ c r$uce itself f pot5tiality to actuality10 or1 aga91 ,pot5tia1 qua talis1 nequit p] semetipsam ad actum r$uci1 s$ r$ucitur ab alio pr9cipio 9 actu3 8,! pot5tial z su* _c be r$uc$ by itself to ! actual1 b only by "s o!r already actual pr9ciple047#gg7 ,?is ass]tion1 rightly und]/ood1 is self-evid5tly true2 = ! /ate ( passive pot5tiality1 z su*1 involves ! abs5ce ( ! correlative actuality 9 ! pot5tial subject2 & s9ce ! actual1 z su*1 involves a p]fection :i* is n 9 ! pot5tial1 ! latt] _c conf] ^u itself ?is p]fection3 no?+ c be ! adequate pr9ciple or s\rce ( a p]fection :i* is n 9 ?is pr9ciple or s\rce3 nemo dat quod non habet4 ,we h already anticipat$ ! objection aris+ f ! consid]ation t ! /ate result+ f a *ange is sometimes 9 its totality less p]fect ?an ! /ate :i* exi/$ prior to ! *ange4 ,ev5 9 su* cases !re results f ! *ange a new actuality :i* 0 n 9 ! prior /ate1 & :i* _c be conceiv$ z a m]e "p or residue ( ! latt]1 or reg>d$ z equival5tly conta9$ 9 ! latt]4 ,ev5 grant+1 z we mu/1 t ! net result ( su* a *ange is a loss ( actuality or p]fection 9 ! subject ( *ange1 /ill !re is always a ga9 :i* is n acc\nt$ = by ! loss2 !re is always a new actual /ate :i*1 z su*1 0 n 9 ! orig9al /ate4 ,a m obvi\s objection to ! pr9ciple arises f ! consid]ation ( vital action2 b x is bas$ on a misund]/&+ ( ! pr9ciple "u discussion4 ,liv+ ?+s1 x is object$1 move !mselves3 _! vital action is spontane\s & imman5t3 orig9at+ )9 !mselves1 x has its t]m too )9 !mselves1 result+ 9 _! gradual developm5t1 gr[?1 increase ( actuality & p]fection4 ,!re=e x w\ld appe> t !y move & p]fect !mselves2 & h5ce ! s-call$ 8pr9ciple ( *ange0 is n true univ]sally4 ,9 reply to all ?is we admit t vital action is imman5t1 rema9+ )9 ! ag5t to p]fect ! latt]2 also t x is spontane\s1 inasmu* z :5 ! ag5t is actually ex]cis+ vital functions x ne$ n be actually und]go+ ! causal influ5ce ( any o!r creat$ ag5t1 or actually dep5d5t on any su* ag5t4 ,b x mu/1 nev]!less1 9 su* action1 be dep5d5t on1 & influ5c$ by1 "s actual be+ o!r ?an itself4 ,& ! reason is obvi\s3 ,if by su* action x increases its own actual p]fection1 & becomes actually o!r ?an x 0 be=e su* action1 !n x _c h giv5 itself ! actuality ( ?is p]fection1 :i* x possess$ be=e only pot5tially4 ,no d\bt1 x is n m]ely passively pot5tial 9 reg>d to su* actual p]fections1 z is ! case 9 non-vital *ange :i* results 9 ! subject f ! transitive action ( "s outside cause ^u ! latt]4 ,! liv+ ?+ has ! active p[] ( caus+ or produc+ 9 itself ^! actual p]fections3 !re is int]action betwe5 its vital p>ts3 ?r\gh "o organ or faculty x acts ^u ano!r1 ?us educ+ an actuality1 a new p]fection1 9 ?is o!r1 & ?us develop+ & p]fect+ its own be+4 ,b ev5 consid]$ z active x _c be ! adequate cause ( ! actuality acquir$ ?r\gh ! *ange4 ,if ?is actuality is some?+ really ov] & above ! reality ( its active & passive pot5tial pr9ciples1 !n x rema9s true t *ange implies ! influ5ce ( an actual be+ o!r ?an ! subject *ang$3 ,quid quid movetur1 ab alio movetur4 ,! "q "h arises1 n only 9 ref]5ce to vital ag5ts1 b to all f9ite1 creat$ causes3 ,does ! active cause ( *ange 7toge!r ) ! passive pot5tiality ( ! subject ( *ange1 :e!r ?is subject be ! ag5t itself z 9 imman5t activity1 or some?+ o!r ?an ! ag5t z 9 transitive activity71--does ?is active p[] acc\nt adequately = ! new actuality educ$ 9 ! *ange8 ,x obvi\sly does n2 = ! actuality acquir$ 9 ! *ange is1 z su*1 a new entity1 a new p]fection1 9 "s degree positively surpass+ ! total reality ( ! comb9$ active p[]s & passive pot5tialities :i* x replaces4 ,9 o!r words1 if ! actuality result+ f ! *ange is n to be f\nd 9 ! imm$iate active & passive antec$5ts ( ! *ange1 !n we are inevitably ref]r$1 = an adequate explanation ( ?is actuality1 to "s actual be+ above & beyond ^! antec$5ts4 ,& to :at sort ( actual be+ are we ref]r$8 ,to a be+ 9 :i* ! actuality ( ! effect resides only 9 ! same way z x resides 9 ! imm$iate active & passive antec$5ts ( ! *ange1 t is pot5tially8 ,no2 = ?is w\ld be useless1 m]ely pu%+ ! difficulty "o /ep f>!r back4 ,we are oblig$ r to inf] ! exi/5ce ( an ,actual ,be+ 9 :om ! actuality ( ! said effect resides actually3 n =mally1 ( c\rse1 z x exi/s 9 itself :5 x is produc$ ?r\gh ! *ange2 b em95tly1 em95t]1 9 su* a way t its actualization outside ,himself & "u ,8 influ5ce does n involve 9 ,him any loss ( p]fection1 any increase ( p]fection1 or any mann] ( *ange :atsoev]4 ,we are compell$ 9 ?is way to inf]1 f ! exi/5ce ( *ange 9 ! univ]se ( our direct exp]i5ce1 ! exi/5ce ( a transc5d5t ,immovable ,prime ,mov]1 a ,primum ,mov5s ,immobile4 ,all ! active causes or pr9ciples ( *ange :i* fall "u our notice 9 ! univ]se ( direct exp]i5ce are !mselves subject to *ange4 ,none ( !m causes *ange 9 any o!r ?+ )\t itself und]go+ *ange4 ,! active p[] ( f9ite causes is itself f9ite4 ,by educ+ ! pot5tiality ( o!r ?+s into actuality !y gradually use up _! own en]gy2 !y dim9i% & lose _! active p[] ( produc+ effects3 ?is belongs to ! v nature ( f9ite causes z su*4 ,moreov]1 !y are !mselves passive z well z active2 int]action is univ]sal among ! f9ite causes :i* con/itute ! univ]se ( our direct exp]i5ce3 !y all alike h passive pot5tiality & und]go *ange4 ,n[1 if any "o f9ite cause 9 ?is sy/em _c adequately acc\nt = ! new actuality evolv$ f ! pot5tial 9 any s+le process ( *ange1 nei!r c ! :ole sy/em adequately acc\nt = x4 ,:at is true ( !m di/ributively is true ( !m tak5 all toge!r :5 !re is "q ( :at belongs to _! nature2 & ! fact t _! active p[]s & passive pot5tialities fall %ort ( ! actuality ( ! effects we attribute to !m is a fact t app]ta9s to _! v nature z f9ite ?+s4 ,! ph5om5on ( cont9u\s *ange 9 ! univ]se involves ! cont9u\s appe>ance ( new actual be+4 ,to acc\nt = ?is con/ant /ream ( actuality we are ( necessity c>ri$ beyond ! sy/em ( f9ite1 *ang+ be+ itself2 we are =c$ to inf] ! exi/5ce ( a s\rce & pr9ciple :i* mu/ itself be purely actual & exempt f all *ange--a ,be+ :o c cause all ! actuality t results f *ange )\t los+ or ga9+ or *ang+ 9 any way ,himself1 because ,he possesses all f9ite actuality 9 ,himself 9 a sup]em95t mann] :i* transc5ds all ! ef=ts ( f9ite human intellig5ce to compreh5d or *>act]ize 9 any adequate or positive mann]4 ,! s*ola/ics express$ ?is 9 ! simple aphorism3 ,omne novum ens e/ a ,deo4 ,& x is ! realization ( ?is pr(\nd tru? t und]lies _! tea*+ on ! necessity ( ! ,div9e ,concursus1 i4e4 ! influ5ce ( ! ,inf9ite ,fir/ ,cause or ,prime ,mov] p]meat+ ! effici5cy ( all f9ite or creat$ causes4 ,"h1 = example1 is a brief rec5t /atem5t ( t doctr9e3-- 8,if we mu/ admit a causal influ5ce ( ^! ?+s ( direct exp]i5ce on "o ano!r1 !n a clos] exam9ation w conv9ce u t a f9ite ?+ c nev] be ! adequate cause ( any effect1 b is always1 metaphysically reg>d$1 only a "p-cause1 ev] ne$+ to be complet$ by ano!r cause4 ,e effect is--at lea/ "u "o aspect1 at lea/ z an effect--some?+ new1 some?+ t 0 n !re be=e4 ,ev5 7 ! effect conta9$1 :e!r =mally or virtually1 9 ! cause1 x is c]ta9ly n id5tical ) ?is latt]1 = if x 7 !re w\ld be no causality1 no?+ w\ld #8happ5'4 ,9 all caus+ & happ5+1 some?+ :i* 0 h]et(ore only possible1 becomes real & actual4 ,b ?+s _c det]m9e !mselves to influ5ce o!rs1 or to receive ! influ5ce ( o!rs1 s9ce !y are n dep5d5t 9 _! be+ on "o ano!r4 ,h5ce ! necess>y inf]5ce t all be+1 all happ5+1 all *ange1 requires ! concurr5ce ( an ,absolute ,pr9ciple ( be+4 ,:5 two ?+s act on ea* o!r ! ,absolute ,be+ mu/ "w 9 & ) !m1 ! same ,absolute ,be+ 9 bo?--to relate !m to ea* o!r1 & supplem5t _! natural insuffici5cy40 8,su* is ! pr(\nd tea*+ ab\t ! ,div9e ,concursus ) e creature4444 ,god works 9 all & ) all4 ,he p]meates all reality1 ev]y:]e2 !re is no be+ beyond ,him or indep5d5t ( ,8 cons]v+ & concurr+ p[]4 ,j z creatures are br\ght into be+ only ?r\gh ,god's omnipot5ce1 & ( !mselves h no indep5d5t reality1 s d !y ne$ ! self-same ev]-pres5t1 all-su/a9+ p[] to cont9ue 9 ?is be+ & develop x by _! activity4 ,e ev5t 9 ,nature is a transitory1 pass+ ph5om5on1 s b\nd up ) conditions & circum/ances t x mu/ disappe> to give place to "s o!r4 ,h[ c\ld a mode ( be+ s incomplete dis*>ge its function 9 exi/5ce )\t ! concurr5ce ( ! ,fir/ ,cause807#gh7 ,we h se5 n[ t 9 ! real ord] ! pot5tial presupposes ! actual2 = ! pot5tial _c actualize itself1 b c be actualiz$ only by ! action ( "s already actual be+4 ,nor c we avoid ?is consequ5ce by suppos+ ! pot5tial be+ to h _h no actual beg9n+ 9 "t1 b to be et]nally 9 process ( actualization2 = ev5 s1 x mu/ be et]nally actualiz$ by "s o!r actual be+--a position :i* ,ari/otle & "s s*ola/ics admit to be possible4 ,:e!r1 !n1 we conceive ! actualization z beg9n+ 9 "t or z proce$+ f all et]nity1 x is self-contradictory to suppose ! pot5tial z capable ( actualiz+ itself4 ,x is likewise true t ! actual prec$es ! possible 9 ! ord] ( our k4 ,! concept ( a ?+ z possible presupposes ! concept ( t ?+ z actual2 = ! possible is und]/ood to be possible only by its intelligible relation to actual exi/5ce4 ,?is is evid5tly true ( extr9sic possibility2 b our k ev5 ( ! intr9sic possibility ( a ?+ _c be ! fir/ k we possess 9 ! ord] ( "t4 ,our fir/ k is ( ! actual2 = ! m9d's fir/ cognitive act mu/ h = object ei!r itself or some?+ n itself4 ,b x kn[s itself z a consci\sly act+ & !re=e actual be+4 ,& x comes to "k ?+s o!r ?an itself only by ! fact t su* o!r ?+s act ^u x ei!r imm$iately or m$iately ?r\gh s5se-consci\sness2 s t 9 e hypo!sis its fir/ kn[n object is some?+ actual47#gi7 ,! priority ( ! actual z comp>$ ) ! pot5tial 9 ! real ord]1 sugge/s a pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god 9 ! mann] indicat$ above4 ,x also af=ds a refutation ( ,hegelian monism4 ,! conception ( ! _w1 includ+ all ! ph5om5a ( m9d & matt]1 z ! gradual self-manife/ation or evolution ( a pot5tial be+ et]nally actualiz+ itself1 is a self-contradictory conception4 ,s*ola/ics rightly ma9ta9 t ! realities f :i* we d]ive our fir/ mo/ ab/ract & transc5d5tal notion ( be+ 9 g5]al1 are actual realities4 ,hegelians seize on ! object ( ?is notion1 id5tify x ) pure ?\ght1 proclaim x ! sole reality1 & end[ x ) ! p[] ( becom+ actually ev]y?+4 ,x is manife/1 !re=e1 t !y end[ purely pot5tial be+ ) ! p[] ( actualiz+ itself4 ,nor c !y fairly avoid ?is *>ge by po9t+ out t al?\gh _! />t+-po9t is n actual be+ 7) :i* ! s*ola/ic philosophy ( be+ comm5ces71 yet nei!r is x possible or pot5tial be+1 b be+ :i* has nei!r ( ^! det]m9ations1 be+ :i* ab/racts f bo?1 l ! real be+ ( ! s*ola/ics 7#g1 #ac74 ,= ?\gh real be+ c be an object ( ab/ract human ?\ght )\t ei!r ( ! pr$icates 8exi/5t0 or 8non-exi/5t10 yet x _c be any?+ 9 ! real ord] )\t ei!r ( !m4 ,!re x mu/ be ei!r actually exi/5t or else m]ely pot5tial4 ,b ,hegelians claim absolutely indet]m9ate be+ to be z su* some?+ 9 ! real ord]2 & ?\gh !y try to di/+ui% x f pot5tial be+ !y nev]!less ?9k ( x z pot5tial be+1 = !y di/9ctly & repeat$ly decl>e t x c become all ?+s1 & does become all ?+s1 & is con/antly1 et]nally trans=m+ itself by an int]nal dialectic process into ! ph5om5a :i* con/itute ! worlds ( m9d & matt]4 ,contra/+ x ) ! ab/ract 8in]t0 be+ :i* !y conceive to be ! object ( ! traditional metaphysics1 !y end[ 8indet]m9ate be+0 ) ! active p[] ( produc+1 & ! passive pot5tiality ( becom+1 actually ev]y?+4 ,?us1 9 ord] to %[ a priori h[ ?is indet]m9ate be+ mu/ evolve itself by int]nal logical necessity into ! _w ( our direct & imm$iate exp]i5ce1 !y suppose x to be subject to *ange & to be at ! same "t self-actualiz+1 9 direct opposition to ! axiom t pot5tial reality1 reality :i* is subject to *ange1 _c actualize itself3 ,quidquid movetur ab alio moveatur oportet4 #aa4 ,,k9ds ,,( ,,*ange4--,foll[+ ,ari/otle17#hj7 we may recognize a broad & cle> di/9ction betwe5 f\r great classes ( *ange 71 mutatio7 9 ! ph5om5a ( our s5se exp]i5ce3 local *ange 7 1 1 latio72 quantitative *ange 7 1 1 augm5tatio vel dim9utio72 qualitative *ange 7 1 1 alt]atio72 & sub/antial *ange 7 1 74 ,! ?ree =m] are accid5tal1 i4e4 d n rea* or affect ! ess5ce or sub/ance ( ! ?+ t is *ang$2 ! f\r? is sub/antial1 a *ange ( ess5ce4 ,sub/antial *ange is reg>d$ z tak+ place in/antane\sly1 z soon z ! condition br\ght ab\t by ! accid5tal *anges lead+ up to x becomes naturally incompatible ) ! ess5ce or nature ( ! subject4 ,! accid5tal *anges1 on ! o!r h&1 are reg>d$ z tak+ place gradually1 z realiz+ & involv+ a succession ( /ates or conditions 9 ! subject4 ,^! *anges1 especially :5 !y take place 9 corporeal ?+s1 are prop]ly describ$ z movem5t or motion 7motus1 motio74 ,by movem5t or motion 9 ! /rict s5se we !re=e mean any *ange :i* takes place gradually or successively 9 a corporeal ?+4 ,x is only 9 a wid] & improp] s5se t ^! t]ms are sometimes appli$ to activity ( :atsoev] k9d1 ev5 ( spiritual be+s4 ,9 ?is s5se we speak ( ?\ghts1 volitions1 etc41 z movem5ts ( ! s\l1 motus animae2 or ( ,god z ! ,prime ,mov] ev] 9 motion1 ! ,primum ,mov5s semp] 9 motu4 ,) local *ange 9 mat]ial ?+s1 z also ) quantitative *ange1 gr[? & dim9ution ( quantity 7mass & volume71 ev]yone is p]fectly famili>4 ,f ! e>lie/ times1 moreov]1 we f9d bo? 9 sci5ce & philosophy ! conception ( matt] z compos$ (1 & divisible into1 ultimate p>ticles1 !mselves suppos$ to admit ( no fur!r real division1 & h5ce call$ atoms 7-1 74 ,f ! days ( ,grecian atomism m5 h attempt$ to %[ t all *ange 9 ! ,univ]se is ultimately r$ucible to *anges ( place1 ord]1 spatial arrangem5t & collocation1 ( ^? hypo!tical atomic factors4 ,x has likewise be5 commonly assum$ t *ange 9 mass is solely due to *ange 9 ! numb] ( ^? atoms1 & *ange 9 volume 7( ! same mass7 to ! relative d5sity or clos5ess ) :i* ! atoms aggregate toge!r2 ?\gh "s h held--& x is c]ta9ly n inconceivable--t exactly ! same mat]ial entity1 an atom let u say1 may be capable ( real contraction & expansion1 & s ( real *ange ( volume3 z di/9ct f ! app>5t contraction & expansion ( bodies1 a *ange :i* is suppos$ to be due to *ange ( d5sity1 i4e4 to decrease or increase 9 ! dim5sions ( ! pores or int]/ices betwe5 ! small] con/itu5t p>ts or molecules4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 ! attempts to r$uce all *ange 9 physical nature to m]e me*anical *ange i4e4 to spatial motions ( ! masses 7mol> motions71 ! molecules 7molecul> motions71 & ! atoms or o!r ultimate compon5ts ( matt] 7:e!r vibratory1 undulatory1 rotatory or translational motions71 h nev] be5 satisfactory4 ,qualitative *ange is wid] ?an mat]ial *ange1 = x includes *anges 9 spiritual be+s1 i4e4 9 be+s :i* are outside ! category ( quantity & h a mode ( exi/5ce altoge!r diff]5t f ! ext5sional1 spatial exi/5ce :i* *>act]izes matt]4 ,:51 = in/ance1 ! human m9d acquires k1 x und]goes qualitative *ange4 ,b matt]1 too1 has qualities1 & is subject to qualitative *ange4 ,x is end[$ ) active qualities1 i4e4 ) p[]s1 =ces1 en]gies1 :]eby x c n m]ely p]=m me*anical "w by produc+ local *anges 9 ! di/ribution ( its mass ?r\gh\t space1 b also produce physical & *emical *anges :i* seem at lea/ to be diff]5t 9 _! nature f m]e me*anical *anges4 ,x is likewise end[$ ) passive qualities :i* appe> to ! s5ses to be ( v>i\s k9ds1 diff]+ f "o ano!r & f ! me*anical or quantitative *>act]i/ics ( size1 %ape1 motion1 re/1 etc4 ,:ile ^! latt] are call$ 8prim>y qualities0 ( bodies--because conceiv$ to be m fundam5tal & m closely inh]5t 9 ! real & objective nature ( matt]--or 8common s5sibles0 7s5sibilia communia71 because p]ceptible by m ?an "o ( our ext]nal s5ses--! =m] are call$ 8second>y qualities10 because conceiv$ to be less *>act]i/ic ( ! real & objective nature ( matt]1 & m l>gely subjective products ( our own s5ti5t cognitive activity--or 8prop] s5sibles0 7s5sibilia propria71 because ea* ( !m is appreh5d$ by only "o ( our ext]nal s5ses3 col\r1 s\nd1 ta/e1 od\r1 temp]ature1 mat]ial /ate or texture 7e4g4 r\ghness1 liquidity1 s(tness1 etc474 ,n[ ab\t all ^! p]ceiv$ qualities & _! *anges ! "q has be5 rais$3 ,are !y1 z su*1 i4e4 z p]ceiv$ by u1 really 9 ! mat]ial ?+s or bodies :i* make up ! physical univ]se1 & really diff]5t 9 ^! bodies f ! quantitative factors & motions ( ! latt]8 ,or1 z su*1 are !y n r p>tially or :olly subjective ph5om5a--products1 at lea/ 9 "p1 ( our own s5se p]ception1 /ates ( our own consci\sness1 hav+ no?+ really correspond+ to !m 9 ! ext]nal matt] ( ! univ]se beyond ! quantitative1 me*anical factors & motions :]eby matt] acts ^u our faculties ( s5se cognition & produces ^! /ates ( consci\sness 9 u8 ,?is is a "q ( ! fir/ importance1 ! solution ( :i* belongs to ,epi/emology4 ,ari/otle w\ld n all[ t ! objective mat]ial univ]se c be d5ud$1 9 ! way j sugge/$1 ( qualities & qualitative *ange2 & s*ola/ic philosoph]s h always held ! same g5]al view4 ,:at we h to note "h1 h[ev]1 9 reg>d to ! "q is simply ?is1 t ev5 if ! _w ( matt] 7 ?us simplifi$ by transf]r+ all qualitative *ange to ! subjective doma9 ( consci\sness1 ! reality ( qualitative *ange & all ! problems aris+ f x w\ld /ill p]si/4 ,to transf] qualitative *ange f object to subject1 f matt] to m9d1 is c]ta9ly some?+ v diff]5t f expla9+ x z r$ucible to quantitative or me*anical *ange4 ,! simplification ?us effect$ w\ld be m app>5t ?an real3 x w\ld be simplify+ ! _w ( matt] by transf]r+ its complexity to ! _w ( m9d4 ,?is consid]ation is "o :i* is sometimes lo/ sight ( by sci5ti/s :o advance me*anical hypo!ses z ultimate explanations ( ! nature & activities ( ! physical univ]se4 ,if all mat]ial ?+s & processes c\ld be ultimately analys$ into configurations & local motions ( space-occupy+ atoms1 homog5e\s 9 nature & diff]+ only 9 size & %ape1 !n ea* ( ^! ultimate atomic factors w\ld be itself exempt f intr9sic *ange z to its own ess5ce & individuality4 ,9 ?is hypo!sis !re w\ld be really no su* ?+ z sub/antial *ange4 ,! collection ( atoms w\ld =m an immutable core ( mat]ial reality1 :olly simple & ev] actual4 ,su* an hypo!sis1 h[ev]1 is utt]ly inadequate z an explanation ( ! facts ( life & consci\sness4 ,& ev5 z an acc\nt ( ! processes ( ! inorganic univ]se x enc\nt]s insup]able difficulties4 ,! common belief ( m5 has always be5 t ev5 9 ?is doma9 ( reality !re are fundam5tally diff]5t k9ds ( matt]1 k9ds :i* diff] f "o ano!r n m]ely 9 ! %ape & size & configuration & arrangem5t ( _! ultimate actual con/itu5ts1 b ev5 9 ! v sub/ance or nature ( ^! con/itu5ts2 & t !re are "s mat]ial *anges :i* affect ! actual sub/ance itself ( ! matt] :i* und]goes !m4 ,?is belief s*ola/ics1 aga9 foll[+ ,ari/otle1 hold to be a correct belief1 & "o :i* is well gr\nd$ 9 reason4 ,& ?is belief 9 turn involves ! view t e type ( actual mat]ial entity--:e!r m]ely inorganic1 or end[$ ) life1 or ev5 alli$ ) a high]1 spiritual mode ( be+ z 9 ! case ( man himself--is ess5tially composite1 ess5tially a syn!sis ( pot5tial & actual pr9ciples ( be+1 & !re=e capable ( sub/antial *ange4 ,! actually exi/+ mat]ial be+ s*ola/ics describe z mat]ia secunda1 ! ( ,ari/otle2 ! purely pot5tial factor1 :i* is actualiz$ 9 ?is or t p>ticul> k9d ( matt]1 !y describe z mat]ia prima1 ! ( ,ari/otle2 ! actualiz+1 specify+1 =mative pr9ciple1 !y designate z =ma sub/antialis 774 ,& s9ce ! purely pot5tial pr9ciple _c actually exi/ except z actualiz$ by "s =mative pr9ciple1 all sub/antial *ange or transition f "o sub/antial type to ano!r is necess>ily bo? a corruptio & a g5]atio4 ,t is1 x involves ! actual disappe>ance ( "o sub/antial =m & ! actual appe>ance ( ano!r4 ,h5ce ! s*ola/ic aphorism reg>d+ sub/antial *ange3 ,corruptio unius e/ g5]atio alt]ius3 ! corruption or de/ruction ( "o k9d ( mat]ial ?+ involves ! g5]ation ( ano!r k9d4 ,! concepts ( mat]ia prima & =ma sub/antialis are concepts n ( ph5om5al entities directly accessible to ! s5ses or ! imag9ation1 b ( pr9ciples :i* c be rea*$ only m$iately & by intellect prop]4 ,!y _c be pictur$ 9 ! imag9ation1 :i* c only atta9 to ! s5sible4 ,we may help ourselves to grasp !m intellectually by ! analogy ( ! %apeless block ( m>ble & ! figure educ$ !refrom by ! sculptor1 b ?is is only an analogy3 j z ! /atue results f ! union ( an accid5tal =m ) an exi/+ matt]1 s ?is matt] itself1 ! sub/ance m>ble1 is compos$ ( a sub/antial =m & a primordial1 pot5tial matt]4 ,b !re ! analogy ceases4 ,fur!rmore1 :5 we consid] t ! prop] & prim>y objects ( ! human intellect itself are corporeal ?+s or bodies1 & t ^! bodies actually exi/ 9 nature only z composite sub/ances1 subject to ess5tial or sub/antial *ange1 we %all realize :y x is t ! concept ( mat]ia prima especially1 be+ a m$iate & negative concept1 is s difficult to grasp2 =1 z ! s*ola/ics describe x1 translat+ ,ari/otle's =mula1 x is 9 itself neque quid1 neque quantum1 neque quale1 neque aliquid eorum quibus ens det]m9atur47#ha7 ,b x is ?r\gh intellectual concepts alone1 & n ?r\gh imag9ation images1 t we may hope to analyse ! nature & processes ev5 ( ! _w ( corporeal reality2 &1 z ,/4 ,?omas well obs]ves1 x 0 because ! anci5t ,greek atomi/s did n rise above ! level ( ?9k+ 9 imag9ation images t !y fail$ to recognize ! exi/5ce1 or expla9 ! nature1 ( sub/antial *ange 9 ! mat]ial univ]se7#hb73 an obs]vation :i* applies ) equal =ce to ^? sci5ti/s & philosoph]s ( our own "t :o w\ld fa9 r$uce all physical processes to m]e me*anical *ange4 ,^?1 !n1 are ! pr9cipal k9ds ( *ange1 z analys$ by ,ari/otle & ! s*ola/ics4 ,we may note1 f9ally1 t ! di/9ction betwe5 imman5t & transitive activity is also appli$ to *ange--t is1 to *ange consid]$ z a process1 n to ! result ( ! *ange1 to *ange 9 fi]i1 n 9 facto esse4 ,imman5t movem5t or activity 7motio1 actio imman5s7 is t ( :i* ! t]m1 ! educ$ actuality1 rema9s )9 ! ag5t--:i* latt] is !re=e at once bo? ag5s & pati5s4 ,vital action is ( ?is k9d4 ,transitive movem5t or activity1 on ! o!r h& 7motio1 actio transi5s71 is t ( :i* ! t]m is "s actuality educ$ 9 a be+ o!r ?an ! ag5t4 ,! pati5s is "h really di/9ct f ! ag5s2 & x is 9 ! =m]1 n 9 ! latt]1 t ! *ange takes place3 actio fit 9 passo4 ,all *ange 9 ! inorganic univ]se is ( ?is sort 7#aja74 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,exi/5ce ,,& ,,ess5ce4 #ab4 ,,exi/5ce4--,9 ! prec$+ *apt]s we exam9$ reality 9 itself & 9 its relation to *ange or becom+4 ,we h n[ to exam9e x 9 relation to its actual exi/5ce & to its intr9sic possibility 7#g1 a74 ,exi/+ or be+ 79 ! p>ticipial s5se3 esse1 exi/]e1 7 is a simple1 indef9able notion4 ,a be+ is said to exi/ :5 x is n m]ely possible b actual1 :5 x is n m]ely pot5tial 9 its active & passive causes b has become actual ?r\gh ^? causes 7exi/]e3 ex-si/o3 ex-/>e3 to /& =?1 di/9ct f its causes72 or1 if x h no causes1 :5 x simply is 7esse71--9 :i* s5se ,god1 ! ,necess>y1 purely ,actual ,be+1 simply is4 ,?us1 exi/5ce implies ! notion ( actuality1 & is conceiv$ z t by :i* any ?+ or ess5ce is1 di/9ct f no?+ness1 9 ! actual ord]47#hc7 ,or1 aga91 x is ! actuality ( any ?+ or ess5ce4 ,ab\t any conceivable be+ we may ask two di/9ct que/ions3 7a7 ,:at is x8 & 7b7 ,does su* a be+ actually exi/8 ,! answ] to ! =m] gives u ! ess5ce1 :at is pres5t$ to ! m9d ?r\gh ! concept2 ! answ] to ! latt] in=ms u ab\t ! actual exi/5ce ( ! be+ or ess5ce 9 "q4 ,to ! m9d ( any individual man ! real exi/5ce 7z also ! real ess5ce7 ( any be+ :atsoev]1 n except+ 8 own1 c be kn[n only ?r\gh its ideal pres5ce 9 8 m9d1 ?r\gh ! concept or p]cept :]eby x becomes = him a 8kn[n object10 an objectum cognitum4 ,b ?is actual pres5ce ( kn[n be+ to ! kn[+ m9d mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) ! real exi/5ce ( su* be+ 7#d74 ,real be+ does n get its real exi/5ce 9 our m9ds or f our m9ds4 ,our cognition does n produce1 b only discov]s1 actually exi/+ reality4 ,! latt]1 by act+ on ! m9d1 eng5d]s !re9 ! cognition ( itself4 ,n[ all our k comes ?r\gh ! s5ses2 & s5se cognition is excit$ 9 u by ! direct action ( mat]ial or ph5om5al be+ on our s5se faculties4 ,b ?r\gh s5se cognition ! m9d is able to atta9 to a k bo? ( ! possibility & ( ! actual exi/5ce ( supras5sible or spiritual realities4 ,h5ce we _c describe exi/5ce z ! p[] :i* mat]ial realities h to excite 9 u a k ( !mselves4 ,_! exi/5ce is prior to ?is activity3 prius e/ esse quam ag]e4 ,nor c we limit exi/5ce to mat]ial realities2 = if !re are spiritual realities ^! too h exi/5ce1 ?\gh ?is exi/5ce c be disc]n$ only by intellect1 & n by s5se4 #ac4 ,,ess5ce4--,9 any exi/+ ?+ we c di/+ui% :at ! ?+ is1 its ess5ce1 f its actual exi/5ce4 ,if we ab/ract f ! actual exi/5ce ( a ?+1 n consid]+ :e!r x actually exi/s or n1 & fix our att5tion m]ely on :at ! ?+ is1 we are ?9k+ ( its real ess5ce4 ,if we positively exclude ! notion ( actual exi/5ce f our concept ( ! ess5ce1 & ?9k ( ! latt] z n actually exi/+1 we are consid]+ x =mally z a possible ess5ce4 ,!re is no be+1 ev5 ! ,necess>y ,be+1 ^: ess5ce we _c ?9k ( 9 ! =m] way1 i4e4 )\t includ+ 9 our concept ! notion ( actual exi/5ce2 b we _c )\t error positively exclude ! notion ( actual exi/5ce f our concept ( ! ,necess>y ,be+1 or ?9k ( ! latt] z a m]ely possible ess5ce4 ,tak5 9 its wide/ s5se1 ! ess5ce ( a ?+ 71 ess5tia1 1 quod quid e/1 quidditas7 means t by :i* a ?+ is :at x is3 id quo res e/ id quod e/3 t :i* gives u ! answ] to ! "q1 ,:at is ?is ?+8 ,quid e/ haec res8 47#hd7 ,n[ ( c\rse any individual ?+ is :at x is j precisely by all ! reality t is 9 x2 b we h no direct or intuitive intellectual insight into ?is reality2 we und]/& x only by degrees2 we explore x f v>i\s po9ts ( view1 ab/ract+ & g5]aliz+ p>tial aspects ( x z we comp>e x ) o!r ?+s & seek to classify & def9e x3 ratio humana ess5tias r]um quasi v5atur1 z ! s*ola/ics say3 ! human m9d hunts1 z x 71 aft] ! ess5ces or natures ( ?+s4 ,und]/&+ ! individual datum ( s5se exp]i5ce 7:at ,ari/otle call$ 1 or 1 & ! s*ola/ics hoc aliquid1 or sub/antia prima71 e4g4 ?is individual1 ,socrates1 fir/ "u ! vague/ concept ( be+1 !n gradually "u ! m & m det]m9ate concepts ( sub/ance1 corporeal1 liv+1 s5ti5t1 rational1 x f9ally =ms ! complex concept ( 8 species infima1 express$ by 8 l[e/ class-"n1 8man10 & explicitly set =? 9 ! def9ition ( 8 specific nature z a 8rational animal04 ,nor does our reason fail to realize t by rea*+ ?is concept ( ! specific ess5ce or nature ( ! individual1 ,socrates1 x has n yet grasp$ all ! reality :]eby ! individual is :at he is4 ,x has rea*$ :at he has 9 common ) all o!r individuals ( 8 class1 :at is ess5tial to him z a man2 x has di/+ui%$ ?is f ! unanalys$ some?+ :i* makes him ?is p>ticul> individual ( 8 class1 & :i* makes 8 specific ess5ce ?is individual ess5ce 7ess5tia 8atoma10 or 8individua072 & x has also di/+ui%$ 8 ess5ce f ^? accid5tal & ev] v>y+ attributes :i* are n ess5tial to him z a man1 & f ^? :i* are n ess5tial to him z ,socrates4 ,x is only ! unfa?om$ individual ess5ce1 z exi/+ hic et nunc1 t is concrete4 ,all ! m9d's g5]ic & specific repres5tations ( x--e4g4 ( ,socrates z a corporeal sub/ance1 a liv+ be+1 a s5ti5t be+1 a rational animal--are ab/ract1 & all m or less inadequate1 none ( !m exhau/+ its kn[able reality4 ,b x is only 9 s f> z ! m9d is able to repres5t concrete individual ?+s by su* ab/ract concepts1 t x c atta9 to intellectual k ( _! nature or reality4 ,h5ce x is t by ! t]m 8ess5ce10 simply & s9e addito1 we always mean ! ess5ce z grasp$ by ab/ract g5]ic or specific concepts 71 species71 & z ?us capable ( def9ition 71 ratio rei74 8,! ess5ce10 says ,/4 ,?omas1 8is t by :i* ! ?+ is con/itut$ 9 its prop] g5us or species1 & :i* we signify by ! def9ition :i* /ates :at ! ?+ is047#he7 ,?us und]/ood1 ! ess5ce is ab/ract1 & gives ! specific or g5]ic type to :i* ! individual ?+ belongs2 b we may also mean by ess5ce1 ! concrete ess5ce1 ! individual p]son or ?+ 7p]sona1 suppositum1 res individua74 ,! relations betwe5 ! objects ( ^? two concepts ( ess5ce w be exam9$ lat]4 ,s9ce ! specific ess5ce is conceiv$ z ! mo/ fundam5tal reality 9 ! ?+1 & z ! seat & s\rce ( all ! prop]ties & activities ( ! ?+1 x is sometimes def9$ or describ$1 9 accordance ) ?is notion ( x1 z ! prim>y con/itutive ( ! ?+ & ! s\rce ( all ! prop]ties ( ! ?+4 ,conceiv$ z ! f\ndation ( all ! prop]ties ( ! ?+ x is sometimes call$ sub/ance 71 sub/antia74 ,reg>d$ z ! s\rce ( ! ?+'s activities1 & ! pr9ciple ( its gr[? or developm5t1 x is call$ ! nature ( ! ?+ 71 natura1 f 1 nascor747#hf7 ,s9ce :at makes a ?+ t :i* x is1 by ! same fact diff]5tiates ?is ?+ f e o!r ?+1 ! ess5ce is rightly conceiv$ z t :i* gives ! ?+ its *>act]i/ic be+1 !reby m>k+ x (f f all o!r be+4 ,9 reality1 ( c\rse1 ea* individual be+ is di/9ct by all t x is f e o!r4 ,b s9ce we get our intellectual k ( ?+s by ab/ract+1 comp>+1 g5]aliz+1 & classify+ p>tial aspects ( !m1 we appreh5d "p ( ! imp]fectly grasp$ ab/ract ess5ce ( ea* individual z common to o!r classes 7g5]ic71 & "p z peculi> to t class itself 7diff]5tial72 & ?us we diff]5tiate classes ( ?+s by :at is only "p ( _! ess5ce1 by :at we call ! diff]5tia ( ea* class1 di/+ui%+ m5tally betwe5 x & ! g5]ic elem5t3 :i* two are really "o1 really id5tical1 9 e individual ( ! species ?us def9$ & classifi$4 ,b 9 ! ,ari/otelian & s*ola/ic view ( ! con/itution ( any corporeal ?+1 !re is a dang] ( tak+ :at is really only "p ( ! ess5ce ( su* a ?+ = ! :ole ess5ce4 ,accord+ to ?is view all corporeal sub/ance is ess5tially composite1 con/itut$ by two really di/9ct1 sub/antial pr9ciples1 primal matt] 7 1 mat]ia prima7 & sub/antial =m 71 7 unit$ sub/antially1 z pot5tial & actual pr9ciples1 to =m "o composite nature or ess5ce4 ,n[ ! k9d1 or species1 or specific type1 to :i* a body belongs--e4g41 a horse1 an oak1 gold1 wat]1 etc4--dep5ds ^u ! sub/antial =m :i* actualizes ! matt] or pot5tial pr9ciple4 ,9 s f> z ! corporeal ess5ce is kn[n to u at all x is kn[n ?r\gh ! =m1 :i* is ! pr9ciple ( all ! *>act]i/ic prop]ties & activities ( t p>ticul> k9d ( body4 ,h5ce x is q natural t ! 1 1 or =ma sub/antialis ( a body %\ld (t5 be ref]r$ to z ! specific ess5ce ( ! body1 ?\gh ( c\rse ! ess5ce ( ! body really includes ! mat]ial z well z ! =mal factor4 ,we may look at ! ess5ce ( any be+ f two po9ts ( view4 ,if we consid] x z x is conceiv$ actually to exi/ 9 ! be+1 we call x ! physical ess5ce4 ,if we consid] x aft] ! mann] 9 :i* x is appreh5d$ & def9$ by our intellects ?r\gh g5]ic & diff]5tiat+ concepts1 we call x ! metaphysical ess5ce4 ,?us1 ! ess5ce ( man conceiv$ by ! two def9+ concepts1 8rational animal10 is ! metaphysical ess5ce2 ! ess5ce ( man z kn[n to be compos$ ( ! two really di/9ct sub/antial pr9ciples1 s\l & body1 is ! physical ess5ce4 ,und]/ood 9 ?is way bo? are "o & ! same ess5ce consid]$ f diff]5t po9ts ( view--z exi/+ 9 ! actual ord]1 & z conceiv$ by ! m9d47#hg7 ,! physical ess5ce ( any be+1 und]/ood z ! con/itutive pr9ciple or pr9ciples f :i* all prop]ties spr+1 is ei!r simple or composite accord+ z x is und]/ood to consi/ ( "o su* con/itutive pr9ciple1 or to result f ! sub/antial union ( two con/itutive pr9ciples1 a mat]ial & a =mal4 ,?us1 ! ess5ce ( ,god1 ! ess5ce ( a purely spiritual be+1 ! ess5ce ( ! human s\l1 are physically simple2 ! ess5ce ( man1 ! ess5ces ( all corporeal be+s1 are physically composite4 ,accord+ to our mode ( conceiv+1 def9+ & classify+ ess5ces by means ( ! ab/ract g5]ic & diff]5tial grades ( be+ :i* we appreh5d 9 !m1 all ess5ces1 ev5 physically simple ess5ces1 are conceiv$ z logically & metaphysically composite4 ,moreov] we speak & ?9k ( _! g5]ic & diff]5tial factors z 8mat]ial0 & 8=mal0 respectively1 aft] ! analogy ( ! composition ( corporeal or physically composite ess5ces f ! union ( two really di/9ct pr9ciples1 matt] & =m2 ! analogy consi/+ 9 ?is1 t z matt] is ! indet]m9ate pr9ciple :i* is det]m9$ & actuat$ by =m1 s ! g5]ic concept is ! indet]m9ate concept :i* is made def9ite & specific by t ( ! diff]5tia47#hh7 ,b :5 we ?9k ( ! g5us ( any corporeal ess5ce z 8mat]ial10 & ! diff]5tia z 8=mal10 we mu/ n consid] ^! 8metaphysical p>ts0 z really di/9ct2 :]eas ! 8physical p>ts0 ( a corporeal sub/ance 7su* z man7 are really di/9ct4 ,! g5us 7animal71 al?\gh a metaphysical "p1 expresses ! :ole ess5ce 7man7 9 an indet]m9ate way2 :]eas ! 8matt]0 :i* is a physical "p1 does n express ! :ole ess5ce ( man1 nor does ! s\l :i* is also a physical "p1 b only bo? toge!r4 ,n a little error has result$ f ! confusion ( ?\ght :]eby g5us & diff]5tia h be5 reg>d$ z mat]ial & =mal con/itutives 9 ! lit]al s5se ( ^? expressions4 #ad4 ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,ab/ract ,,ess5ces4--,:5 we consid] ! ess5ces ( ?+s n z actually exi/+1 b z intr9sically possible--! ab/ract1 metaphysical ess5ces1 !re=e--we f9d t :5 z objects ( our ?\ght !y are analys$ into _! simple/ con/itu5ts & comp>$ or relat$ ) !mselves & ) "o ano!r !y pres5t !mselves to our m9ds 9 ^! relations z end[$ ) c]ta9 m or less rem>kable *>act]i/ics4 7a7 ,9 ! fir/ place1 be+ ab/ract1 !y pres5t !mselves to ! m9d z be+ :at !y are indep5d5tly ( actual exi/5ce at any p>ticul> "t or place4 ,_! intelligibility is some?+ ap>t f any relation to any actual "t or place4 ,be+ intr9sically possible1 !y might exi/ at any "t or place2 b z possible1 !y are out ( "t & out ( place--detemporaliz$ & delocaliz$1 if we may be p]mitt$ to use su* expressions47#hi7 7b7 ,fur!rmore1 s9ce ! intellect =ms its notions ( !m1 ?r\gh ! aid ( ! s5ses & ! imag9ation1 f actual realizations ( !mselves or _! con/itu5t factors1 & s9ce x und]/&s !m to be intr9sically possible1 or free f intr9sic incompatibility ( _! con/itu5t factors1 x conceives !m to be capable ( indef9itely repeat$ actualizations ?r\gh\t "t & space--unless x sees "s special reason to ! contr>y1 z x does 9 ! case ( ! ,necess>y ,be+1 & 7accord+ to "s philosoph]s7 9 ! case ( purely immat]ial be+s or pure spirits4 ,t is to say x univ]salizes !m1 & sees !m to be capable ( exi/+ at any & e conceivable "t & place4 ,?is relation ( !irs to space is n likely to be conf\nd$ ) ! imm5sity or ubiquity ( ,god4 ,b _! correspond+ relation to "t is sometimes describ$ z et]nity2 & if x is s describ$ x mu/ be c>efully di/+ui%$ f ! positive et]nity ( ,god1 ! ,immutable ,be+4 ,to di/+ui% x f ! latt] x is usually describ$ z negative et]nity1--?is indiff]5ce ( ! possible ess5ce to actual exi/5ce at any p>ticul> po9t ( "t4 ,b ap>t f ?is relation :i* we conceive x z hav+ to exi/5ce 9 ! ord] ( actual reality1 c we1 or d we1 or mu/ we conceive x z 9 itself an intr9sic possibility f all et]nity1 9 ! s5se t x nev] began to be intr9sically possible1 & w nev] cease to be s8 ,mu/ we attribute to x a positive et]nity1 n ( c\rse ( actuality or exi/5ce1 b ( ideal be+1 z an object ( ?\ght to an ,et]nally ,exi/+ ,m9d8 ,:at is ?is suppos$ et]nal possibility ( ! possible ess5ce8 ,is x no?+ actual3 ! possible z su* is no?+ actual4 ,b is x any?+ real8 ,has x only ideal be+--esse ideale or int5tionale8 ,& has x ?is only 9 & f ! human m9d1 or indep5d5tly ( ! human m9d8 ,& also indep5d5tly ( ! actual ess5ces f :i* ! human m9d gets ! data = its ?\ght1--s t we mu/ ascribe to x an et]nal ideal be+8 ,to ^! que/ions we %all return pres5tly4 7c7 ,?irdly1 ess5ces consid]$ ap>t f _! actual exi/5ce1 & comp>$ ) _! own con/itutive factors or ) "o ano!r1 reveal to ! m9d relations :i* ! m9d sees to be necess>y1 & :i* x =mulates = itself 9 necess>y judgm5ts1--judgm5ts 9 mat]ia necess>ia4 ,by virtue ( ! pr9ciple ( id5tity an ab/ract ess5ce is necess>ily :at x is1 :at ! m9d conceives x to be1 :at ! m9d conceives z its def9ition4 ,man1 z an object ( ?\ght1 is necess>ily a rational animal1 :e!r he actually exi/s or n4 ,& if he is ?\ght ( z exi/+1 he _c at ! same "t be ?\ght ( z non-exi/+1--by ! pr9ciple ( contradiction4 ,an exi/+ man is necess>ily an exi/+ man1--by ! pr9ciple ( id5tity4 ,^! logical pr9ciples are root$ 9 ! nature ( reality1 :e!r actual or possible1 consid]$ z an object ( ?\ght4 ,!re is ?us a necess>y relation betwe5 any complex object ( ?\ght & ea* ( ! con/itu5t factors into :i* ! m9d c analyse x4 ,&1 simil>ly1 !re is a necess>y negative relation--a relation ( exclusion--betwe5 any object ( ?\ght & any?+ :i* ! m9d sees to be incompatible ) t object z a :ole1 or ) any ( its con/itu5t factors4 ,aga91 ! m9d sees necess>y relations betwe5 ab/ract ess5ces comp>$ ) "o ano!r4 ,five & sev5 are necess>ily twelve4 ,:atev] beg9s to exi/ actually mu/ h a cause4 ,cont+5t be+1 if su* exi/s1 is necess>ily dep5d5t = its exi/5ce on "s o!r actually exi/+ be+4 ,if pot5tial be+ is actualiz$ x mu/ be actualiz$ by actual be+4 ,! ?ree int]ior angles ( a triangle are necess>ily equal to two "r angles4 ,& s on4 ,b is ! ab/ract ess5ce itself--ap>t f all m5tal analysis ( x1 ap>t f all comp>ison ( x ) its con/itu5t factors or ) o!r ess5ces--9 any s5se necess>y8 ,!re is no "q ( its actual exi/5ce1 b only ( itself z an object ( ?\ght4 ,n[ our ?\ght does n seem to dem& necess>ily1 or h a necess>y connexion )1 any p>ticul> object ( :i* we d de facto ?9k4 ,:at we d ?9k ( is det]m9$ by our exp]i5ce ( actual ?+s4 ,& ! ?+s :i* we conceive to be possible1 by ! ex]cise ( our reason ^u ! data ( our s5ses1 memory & imag9ation1 are det]m9$ z to _! nature & numb] by our exp]i5ce ( actual ?+s1 ev5 al?\gh !y !mselves c & d pass beyond ! doma9 ( actually exp]i5c$ ?+s4 ,! only necess>y object ( ?\ght is reality 9 g5]al3 = ! ex]cise ( ! function ( ?\ght necess>ily dem&s an object1 & ?is object mu/ be reality ( "s sort4 ,?\ght1 z we saw1 beg9s ) actual reality4 ,work+ ^u ?is1 ?\ght appreh5ds 9 x ! f\ndations ( ^? necess>y relations & judgm5ts already ref]r$ to4 ,consid]+1 moreov]1 ! actual data ( exp]i5ce1 our ?\ght c inf] f ^! ! actual exi/5ce ( "o ,be+ ,:o mu/ exi/ by a necessity ( ,8 ,ess5ce4 ,b1 fur!rmore1 mu/ all ! possible ess5ces :i* ! m9d does or c actually ?9k (1 be conceiv$ z necess>ily possible 9 ! same s5se 9 :i* x is sugge/$ t !y mu/ be conceiv$ z et]nally possible8 ,to ?is "q1 too1 we %all return pres5tly4 7d7 ,f9ally1 possible ess5ces appe> to ! m9d z immutable1 & consequ5tly indivisible4 ,?is means simply t ! relations :i* we e/abli% betwe5 !m & _! con/itutive factors are n only necess>y b immutable3 t if any con/itutive factor ( an ess5ce is conceiv$ z remov$ f x1 or any new factor z add$1 we h no long] ! orig9al ess5ce b "s o!r ess5ce4 ,if 8animal0 is a be+ ess5tially embody+ ! two objective concepts ( 8organism0 & 8s5ti5t10 !n on remov+ ei!r we h no long] ! ess5ce 8animal04 ,s1 too1 by add+ to ^! "s o!r elem5t compatible ) !m1 e4g4 8rational10 we h no long] ! ess5ce 8animal10 b ! ess5ce 8man04 ,h5ce possible ess5ces h be5 lik5$ to numb]s1 inasmu* z if we add any?+ to1 or subtract any?+ f1 any giv5 numb]1 we h n[ no long] ! orig9al numb] b ano!r47#ij7 ,?is1 too1 is only an expression ( ! laws ( id5tity & contradiction4 ,we might ask1 h[ev]1 :e!r1 ap>t f analysis & comp>ison ( an ab/ract object ( ?\ght ) its con/itutive notes or factors1 su* a possible ess5ce is 9 itself immutably possible4 ,?is is simil> to ! "q :e!r we c or mu/ conceive su* a possible ess5ce z et]nally & necess>ily possible4 #ae4 ,,gr\nds ,,( ,,^? ,,*>act]i/ics4--,9 consid]+ ! gr\nds or reasons ( ! v>i\s *>act]i/ics j enum]at$ x may be well to reflect t :5 we speak ( ! intr9sic possibility ( a possible ess5ce we conceive ! latt] z some?+ complex1 :i* we m5tally resolve into its con/itutive notes or factors or pr9ciples1 to see if ^! are compatible4 ,if !y are we pron\nce ! ess5ce intr9sically possible1 if n we pron\nce x intr9sically impossible4 ,= our m9ds1 abs5ce ( int]nal incompatibility 9 ! cont5t ( our concept ( any object is ! te/ ( its intr9sic possibility4 ,:atev] fulfils ?is te/ we consid] capable ( exi/+4 ,b :at ab\t ! possibility ( ! notes1 or factors1 or pr9ciples !mselves1 :]eby we def9e ^? ess5ces1 & by ! union ( :i* we conceive ^? ess5ces to be con/itut$8 ,h[ d we "k t ^? ab/ract pr9ciples or factors--no "o ( :i* c actually exi/ alone1 s9ce all are ab/ract--c 9 c]ta9 comb9ations =m possible objects ( ?\ght8 ,we c "k ?is only because we h ei!r exp]i5c$ su* objects z actual1 or because we inf] _! possibility f objects actually exp]i5c$4 ,& simil>ly our k ( :at is impossible is bas$ ^u our exp]i5ce ( ! actual4 ,s9ce1 moreov]1 our exp]i5ce ( ! actual is f9ite & fallible1 we may err 9 our judgm5ts z to :at ess5ces are1 & :at are n1 intr9sically possible47#ia7 ,if n[ we ask ourselves :at intelligible reason c we assign = ! *>act]i/ics j indicat$ z belong+ to possible ess5ces1 we mu/ fix our att5tion fir/ ( all on ! fundam5tal fact t ! human intellect always appreh5ds its object 9 an ab/ract condition4 ,x contemplates ! ess5ce ap>t f ! exi/5ce 9 :i* ! ess5ce is subject to circum/ances ( "t & place & *ange2 x grasps ! ess5ce 9 a /atic condition z simply id5tical ) itself & di/9ct f all else2 x sees ! ess5ce z indiff]5t to exi/5ce at any place or "t2 reflect+ !n on ! actualization ( ?is ess5ce 9 ! exi/+ ord] ( ?+s1 x appreh5ds ! ess5ce z capable ( indef9ite actualizations 7except 9 cases :]e x sees "s reason to ! contr>y71 i4e4 x univ]salizes ! ess5ce2 comp>+ x ) its con/itu5t notes or elem5ts1 & ) ^? ( o!r ess5ces1 x sees & affirms c]ta9 relations 7( id5tity or div]sity1 compatibility or incompatibility1 betwe5 ^? notes or elem5ts7 z hold+ good necess>ily & immutably1 & indep5d5tly ( ! actual embodim5t ( ^? notes or elem5ts 9 any object exi/+ at any p>ticul> place or "t4 ,all ^! features ( ! relations betwe5 ! con/itu5ts ( ab/ract1 possible ess5ces1 seem s f> to be adequately acc\nt$ = by ! fact t ! intellect appreh5ds ^? ess5ces 9 ! ab/ract3 ! data 9 :i* x appreh5ds !m be+ giv5 to x ?r\gh s5se exp]i5ce4 ,:at may be inf]r$ f ! fact t ! human intellect has ?is p[] ( ab/ract ?\ght1 is ano!r "q7#ib74 ,b grant+ t x does appreh5d ess5ces 9 ?is mann]1 we seem to h 9 ?is fact a suffici5t explanation ( ! features j ref]r$ to4 ,we h1 h[ev]1 already sugge/$ o!r que/ions ab\t ! reality ( ^? possible ess5ces4 ,is _! possibility1 s f> z kn[n to u1 expla9$ by our exp]i5ce ( actual ?+s8 ,or mu/ we ?9k !m z et]nally1 necess>ily & immutably possible8 ,f ! mann] 9 :i* we mu/ appreh5d !m1 c we inf] any?+ ab\t ! reality ( an ,et]nal1 ,immutable1 ,necess>y ,intellig5ce1 9 ^: ,?\ght & ,ess5ce alone ^? ess5ces1 z appreh5d$ by our m9ds1 c f9d _! ultimate gr\nd & explanation8 ,^! are ! que/ions we mu/ n[ endeav\r to exam9e4 #af4 ,,possible ,,ess5ces ,,z ,,su* ,,are ,,some?+ ,,di/9ct ,,f ,,m]e ,,logical ,,be+1 ,,& ,,f ,,no?+ness4--,!re h be5 philosoph]s :o h held t ! actual alone is real1 & only :ile x is actual2 t a purely 7intr9sically7 possible ess5ce z su* is no?+ real2 t ! actual alone is possible2 t ! purely possible z su* is impossible4 ,?is view is bas$ on ! errone\s assumption t :atev] is or becomes actual is s1 or becomes s1 by "s sort ( un9telligible fatali/ic necessity4 ,ap>t f ! fact t x is incompatible ) c]ta9 tru?s ( !ism1 su* z ! ,div9e ,omnipot5ce & ,fre$om 9 creat+1 x also involves ! d5ial ( all real becom+ or *ange1 & ! ass]tion t all actuality is et]nal2 = if any?+ becomes actual1 x 0 previ\sly ei!r possible or impossible2 if impossible1 x c\ld nev] become actual2 if possible1 !n z possible x 0 some?+ diff]5t f ! impossible1 or f absolute no?+ness4 ,moreov]1 ! intr9sically possible is capable ( becom+ actual1 & may be actualiz$ if !re exi/s "s actual be+ ) p[] to actualize x2 b absolute no?+ness--or1 9 o!r words1 ! intr9sically impossible--_c be actualiz$1 ev5 by ,omnipot5ce2 !re=e ! possible ess5ce z su* is some?+ positive or real1 z di/9ct f no?+ness4 ,f9ally1 intr9sically possible ess5ces c be cle>ly di/+ui%$ f "o ano!r by ! m9d2 b _! negation :i* is pure non-entity or no?+ness _c be s di/+ui%$4 ,x is !re=e cle> t possible ess5ces are 9 "s true s5se some?+ positive or real4 ,f :i* x foll[s t no?+ness1 9 ! /rict s5se1 is n ! m]e abs5ce or negation ( actuality1 b also ! abs5ce or negation ( t positive or real some?+ :i* is intr9sic possibility2 9 o!r words t no?+ness 9 ! /rict s5se means intr9sic impossibility4 ,ev5 ^? :o hold ! op9ion j reject$--t ! purely possible ess5ce z su* has no reality 9 any conceivable s5se--w\ld presumably admit t x is an object ( human ?\ght at all ev5ts2 !y w\ld accord to x ! be+ x has f ! human m9d :i* ?9ks x4 ,x w\ld !re=e be an ens rationis accord+ to ?is view1 hav+ only ! ideal be+ :i* consi/s 9 its be+ con/itut$ & contemplat$ by ! human m9d4 ,t x has ! ideal be+1 ! esse ideale or esse int5tionale1 :i* consi/s 9 its be+ contemplat$ by ! human m9d z an object ( ?\ght1 no "o w d5y4 ,b a little reflection w %[1 fir/ly1 t ?is ideal be+ is some?+ m ?an ! ideal be+ ( an ens rationis1 ( a m]e logical entity2 &1 secondly1 t a possible ess5ce mu/ h "s o!r ideal be+ ?an t :i* x has 9 ! individual human m9d4 ,! possible ess5ce is n a m]e logical entity2 = ! latt] _c be conceiv$ z capable ( exi/+ ap>t f ! human m9d1 9 ! _w ( actual exi/5ces 7#c71 :]eas ! =m] c be1 & is 9 fact1 conceiv$ z capable ( su* exi/5ce4 ,its ideal be+ 9 ! human m9d is1 !re=e1 some?+ o!r ?an t ( a m]e logical entity4 ,! ideal be+ :i* x has 9 ! human m9d z an object ( ?\ght is und\bt$ly d]iv$ f ! m9d's k ( actual ?+s4 ,we ?9k ( ! ess5ces ( actually exp]i5c$ realities ap>t f _! actual exi/5ce4 ,?us ab/ract$1 we analyse !m1 comp>e !m1 reason f !m4 ,by ^! processes we c n m]ely atta9 to a k ( ! actual exi/5ce ( o!r realities above & beyond & outside ( our own direct & imm$iate intuitional exp]i5ce1 b we c also =m concepts ( multitudes ( realities or ess5ces z intr9sically possible1 ?us giv+ ^! latt] an ideal exi/5ce 9 our own m9ds4 ,"h1 !n1 ! "q arises3 ,is ?is ! only ideal be+ t c be ascrib$ to su* ess5ces8 ,9 o!r words1 are ess5ces intr9sically possible because we ?9k !m z intr9sically possible8 ,or is x n r ! case t we ?9k !m to be intr9sically possible because !y are intr9sically possible8 ,does our ?\ght con/itute1 or does x n r m]ely discov]1 _! intr9sic possibility8 ,does ! latt] result f1 or is x n r presuppos$ by1 our ?\ght-activity8 ,! second alt]native sugge/$ 9 ea* ( ^! que/ions is ! true "o4 ,z our ?\ght is n ! s\rce ( _! actuality1 nei!r is x ! s\rce ( _! intr9sic possibility4 ,solipsism is ! r$uctio ad absurdum ( ! philosophy :i* w\ld r$uce all actuality exp]i5c$ by ! individual m9d to phases1 or ph5om5a1 or self-manife/ations1 ( ! individual m9d itself z ! "o & only actuality4 ,& no less absurd is ! philosophy :i* w\ld accord to all intr9sically possible realities no be+ o!r ?an ! ideal be+ :i* !y h z ! ?\ght-objects ( ! individual human m9d4 ,! /udy ( ! actual _w ( direct exp]i5ce leads ! imp>tial & s9c]e inquir] to ! conclusion t x is 9 "s true s5se a manife/ation ( m9d or intellig5ce3 n1 h[ev]1 ( 8 own m9d1 :i* is itself only a v t9y item 9 ! totality ( ! actual _w1 b ( "o ,supreme ,intellig5ce4 ,& 9 ?is same ,intellig5ce ! _w ( possible ess5ces too w be f\nd to h its orig9al & fundam5tal ideal be+4 #ag4 ,,possible ,,ess5ces ,,h1 ,,besides ,,ideal ,,be+1 ,,no ,,o!r ,,sort ,,( ,,be+ ,,or ,,reality ,,prop] ,,& ,,intr9sic ,,to ,,!mselves4--,be=e inquir+ fur!r into ! mann] 9 :i* we atta9 to a k ( ?is ,intellig5ce1 & ( ! ideal be+ ( possible ess5ces 9 ?is ,intellig5ce1 we may ask :e!r1 above & beyond su* ideal be+1 possible ess5ces h n p]haps f all et]nity "s be+ or reality prop] & intr9sic to !mselves2 n inde$ ! actual be+ :i* !y possess :5 actualiz$ 9 "t1 b yet "s k9d ( intr9sic reality z di/9ct f ! extr9sic ideal be+1 or esse int5tionale1 :i* consi/s m]ely 9 ?is t !y are objects ( ?\ght pres5t z su* to a ,supreme ,intellig5ce or ,m9d4 ,"s few m$ieval s*ola/ics7#ic7 cont5d$ t possible ess5ces h f all et]nity n inde$ ! exi/5ce !y may receive by creation or production 9 "t1 b an intr9sic ess5tial be+ :i*1 by creation or production1 may be transf]r$ to ! ord] ( actual exi/5ces1 & :i*1 :5 actual exi/5ce ceases 7if !y ev] receive x71 /ill cont9ues immutable & incorruptible3 :at ^! writ]s call$ ! esse ess5tiae1 z di/9ct f ! esse exi/5tiae1 conceiv+ x to be int]m$iate betwe5 ! latt] on ! "o h& & m]e ideal or logical be+ on ! o!r1 & h5ce call+ x esse dim9utum or secundum quid4 ,exam9+ ! "q f ! /&po9t ( !ism1 ^! au?ors seem to h ?\ght t s9ce ,god und]/&s ^! ess5ces z possible f all et]nity1 & s9ce ?is k mu/ h z its t]m or object some?+ real & positive1 ^! ess5ces mu/ h "s real & prop] intr9sic be+ f all et]nity3 o!rwise !y w\ld be simply no?+ness1 & no?+ness _c be ! t]m ( ! ,div9e ,intellig5ce4 ,b ! obvi\s reply is t ?\gh possible ess5ces z su* are no?+ actual !y mu/ be di/+ui%$ z realities1 capable ( actually exi/+1 f absolute no?+ness2 & t z ?us di/+ui%$ f absolute no?+ness !y are really & positively intelligible to ! ,div9e ,m9d1 z inde$ !y are ev5 to ! human m9d4 ,to be intelligible !y ne$ n h actual be+4 ,!y mu/1 no d\bt1 be capable ( hav+ actual be+1 9 ord] to be und]/ood z realities3 x is precisely 9 ?is und]/ood capability t _! reality consi/s1 = ! real includes n only :at actually exi/s b :atev] is capable ( actual exi/5ce4 ,:atev] is oppos$ to absolute no?+ness is real2 & ?is manife/ly includes n only ! actual b :atev] is intr9sically possible4 ,realities or ess5ces :i* h n actual be+ h only ideal be+2 & ideal be+ means simply pres5ce 9 "s m9d z an object ( ?\ght4 ,s*ola/ic philosoph]s g5]ally7#id7 hold t possible ess5ces z su* h no o!r be+ ?an ?is2 t be=e & until su* ess5ces actually exi/ !y h ( !mselves & 9 !mselves no be+ except ! ideal be+ :i* !y h z objects ( ! ,div9e ,intellig5ce & ! virtual be+ !y h 9 ! ,div9e ,omnipot5ce :i* may at any "t give !m actual exi/5ce4 ,"o conv9c+ reason = ?is view is ! consid]ation t if possible ess5ces z su* _h f all et]nity any prop] & intr9sic be+ 9 !mselves1 ,god c\ld nei!r create nor annihilate4 ,= 9 t hypo!sis ess5ces1 on becom+ actual1 w\ld n be produc$ ex nihilo1 inasmu* z be=e becom+ actual !y w\ld 9 !mselves & f all et]nity h _h _! own prop] real be+2 & aft] ceas+ to be actual !y w\ld /ill reta9 ?is4 ,b creation is ! production ( ! :ole reality ( actual be+ f no?+ness2 & is !re=e impossible if ! actual be+ is m]ely produc$ f an ess5ce already real1 i4e4 hav+ an et]nal positive reality ( its own4 ,! same is true ( annihilation4 ,! !ory ( et]nally exi/+ uncreat$ matt] is no less incompatible ) ! doctr9e ( creation ?an ?is !ory ( et]nally real & uncreat$ =ms or ess5ces4 ,aga91 :at c\ld ?is suppos$ positive & prop] reality ( ! possible ess5ce be8 ,if x is any?+ di/9ct f ! m]e ideal be+ ( su* an ess5ce1 z x is assum$ to be1 x mu/ aft] all be actual be+ ( "s sort1 :i* w\ld app>5tly h to be actualiz$ aga9 9 ord] to h actual exi/5ce6 ,f9ally1 ?is suppos$ et]nal reality1 prop] to possible ess5ces1 _c be any?+ uncreat$4 ,= :atev] is uncreat$ is ,god2 & s9ce x is ^! suppos$ prop] realities ( possible ess5ces t are made actual1 & con/itute ! exi/+ creat$ univ]se1 ! latt] w\ld be 9 ?is view an actualization ( ! ,div9e ,ess5ce itself1--:i* is pan!ism pure & simple4 ,& nei!r c ?is suppos$ et]nal reality1 prop] to possible ess5ces1 be any?+ creat$4 ,= su* creation w\ld be et]nal & necess>y2 :]eas ,god's creative activity is admitt$ by all s*ola/ics to be ess5tially free2 & al?\gh !y are n agre$ z to :e!r 8creation f all et]nity0 78creatio ab aet]no07 is possible1 !y are agre$ t x is n a fact4 ,possible ess5ces z su* are !re=e no?+ actual4 ,fur!rmore1 z su* !y h 9 !mselves no positive be+4 ,b !y are n !re=e unreal4 ,!y are positively intelligible z capable ( actual exi/5ce1 & !re=e z di/9ct f logical entities or entia rationis :i* are n capable ( su* exi/5ce4 ,!y are pres5t z objects ( ?\ght to m9d2 & to "s m9d o!r ?an ! individual human m9d4 ,ab\t ?is ideal be+ :i* !y h 9 ?is ,m9d we h n[ 9 ! next place to inquire4 #ah4 ,,inf]5ces ,,f ,,our ,,k ,,( ,,possible ,,ess5ces4--,we h /at$ t an imp>tial /udy ( ! actual _w w lead to ! conclusion t x is dep5d5t on a ,supreme ,intellig5ce2 & we h sugge/$ t 9 ?is ,supreme ,intellig5ce also possible ess5ces z su* h _! prim>y ideal be+ 7#af1 #ag74 ,:5 ! exi/5ce ( ,god has be5 e/abli%$--z x may be e/abli%$ by v>i\s l9es ( argum5t--f actual ?+s1 we c cle>ly see1 z w be po9t$ out pres5tly1 t 9 ! ,div9e ,ess5ce all possible ess5ces h ! ultimate s\rce ( _! possibility4 ,b _m s*ola/ic philosoph]s cont5d t ! nature & prop]ties ( possible ess5ces1 z appreh5d$ by ! human m9d1 furni% a di/9ct & conclusive argum5t = ! exi/5ce ( a ,supreme ,uncreat$ ,intellig5ce47#ie7 ,o!rs d5y ! validity ( su* a l9e ( reason+1 cont5d+ t x is bas$ on misappreh5sion & mis9t]pretation ( ^? *>act]i/ics4 ,all admit t x is n human ?\ght t makes ess5ces possible3 !y are intelligible to ! human m9d because !y are possible1 n vice v]sa47#if7 ,= ! human m9d ! imm$iate s\rce & gr\nd ( _! intr9sic possibility & *>act]i/ics is ! fact t !y are giv5 to x 9 actual exp]i5ce :ile x has ! p[] ( consid]+ !m ap>t f _! actual exi/5ce4 ,b 7#a7 are !y n indep5d5t ( exp]i5c$ actuality1 no less ?an ( ! human m9d1 s t we are =c$ to inf] f !m ! reality ( a ,supreme ,et]nal ,m9d 9 :i* !y h et]nal ideal be+8 7#b7 ,is n any possible ess5ce 7e4g4 8wat]10 or 8a triangle07 s necess>ily :at x is t ev5 if x nev] did & nev] w exi/1 nay ev5 7 !re no human or o!r f9ite m9d to conceive x1 x w\ld /ill be :at x is 7e4g4 8a *emical comp\nd ( oxyg5 & hydrog510 or 8a plane rectil9e> ?ree-sid$ figure07--s t !re mu/ be "s ,necess>ily ,exi/+ ,intellig5ce 9 & f :i* x has ?is necess>y tru? z a possible ess5ce87#ig7 ,^! ess5ces1 z kn[n to u1 are s f> f be+ gr\nd$ 91 or expla9$ by1 ! ?+s ( our actual exp]i5ce1 t we r reg>d ! latt] z gr\nd$ 9 ! =m]4 ,d we n consid] possible ess5ces z ! prototypes & exempl>s to :i* actual ?+s mu/ con=m 9 ord] to be actual1 9 ord] to exi/ at all87#ih7 7#c7 ,f9ally1 ! relations :i* we appreh5d z obta9+ betwe5 !m1 we see to be necess>y & immutable relations4 ,!y embody necess>y tru?s :i* are = our m9ds ! /&>ds ( all tru?4 ,su* necess>y tru?s _c be gr\nd$ ei!r 9 ! cont+5t human m9d1 or 9 ! cont+5t & mutable actuality ( ! ?+s ( our imm$iate exp]i5ce4 ,!re=e we c & mu/ inf] f !m ! reality ( a ,necess>y1 ,immutable ,be+1 ( ^: ess5ce !y mu/ be imitations4 ,if1 !n1 ?is ideal ord] ( intr9sically possible ess5ces is logically & ontologically prior to ! cont+5t actualizations ( any ( !m 7ev5 ?\gh x be po/]ior to !m 9 ! ord] ( our k1 :i* is bas$ on actual exp]i5ce71 !re mu/ be likewise ontologically prior to all cont+5t actualities 7includ+ our own m9ds7 "s ,necess>y ,intellig5ce 9 :i* ?is ord] ( possible ess5ces has its ideal be+4 #ai4 ,,critical ,,analysis ,,( ,,^? ,,inf]5ces4--,! validity ( ! g5]al l9e ( argum5t indicat$ 9 ! prec$+ p>agraphs has be5 s]i\sly que/ion$4 ,among o!r criticisms ! foll[+ po9ts h be5 urg$7#ii73-- 7#a7 ,actual ?+s furni% ! basis ( irrefragable pro(s ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god--! ,supreme1 ,necess>y1 ,et]nal1 ,omnisci5t1 & ,omnipot5t ,be+4 ,b we are "h inquir+ :e!r a m9d :i* has n yet s analys$ actual be+ z to see h[ x involves ?is conclusion1 or a m9d :i* ab/racts altoge!r f ! evid5ce furni%$ by actual ?+s = ?is conclusion1 c prove ! exi/5ce ( su* a be+ f ! sep>ate consid]ation ( possible ess5ces1 _! attributes & relations4 ,n[ x is n evid5t t to su* a m9d possible ess5ces reveal !mselves z hav+ et]nal ideal be+4 ,su* a m9d is1 no d\bt1 consci\s t x is n itself ! cause ( _! possibility4 ,b x sees t actual ?+s plus ! ab/ract "* ( its own ?\ght acc\nt suffici5tly = all _! features z x kn[s !m4 ,to ! "q3 ,is n _! ideal be+ et]nal8 x c only answ]3 ,t w dep5d on :e!r ! _w ( actual ?+s c be %[n to involve ! exi/5ce ( an ,et]nal ,intellig5ce4 ,until ?is is prov$ we _c say :e!r possible ess5ces h any ideal be+ o!r ?an t :i* !y h 9 human m9ds4 7#b7 ,! actual ?+s f :i* we get our concepts ( possible ess5ces d n exi/ necess>ily4 ,b1 grant$ _! exi/5ce1 we "k f !m t c]ta9 ess5ces are de facto possible4 ,!y are n necess>ily giv5 to u z possible1 any m ?an actual ?+s are necess>ily giv5 to u z actual4 ,( c\rse1 :5 !y are ?\ght ( at all1 !y are1 z objects ( ?\ght1 necess>ily & immutably id5tical ) !mselves1 & relat$ to "o ano!r z mutually compatible or incompatible1 etc4 ,b ?is necessity ( relations1 hypo!tical z x is & cont+5t on ! m5tal processes ( analysis & comp>ison1 involv$ z x is 9 ! v nature ( be+ & ?\ght1 & express$ z x is 9 ! pr9ciples ( id5tity & contradiction1 is j z true ( actual cont+5t ess5ces z ( possible ess5ces27#ajj7 & x is some?+ v diff]5t f ! sort ( necessity claim$ = possible ess5ces by ! cont5tion t !y mu/ be conceiv$ z hav+ ideal be+ necess>ily4 ,! ideal be+ !y h 9 ! human m9d is c]ta9ly n necess>y3 ! human m9d might nev] h conceiv$ ^! possible ess5ces4 ,b mu/ ! human m9d conceive a possible ess5ce z hav+ "s ideal be+ necess>ily8 ,no2 unless t m9d has already conv9c$ itself1 f a /udy ( actual ?+s1 t an ,et]nal1 ,necess>y1 ,omnisci5t ,intellig5ce exi/s3 to :i*1 ( c\rse1 su* ess5ces w\ld be et]nally & necess>ily pres5t z objects ( ?\ght4 ,if ! human m9d _h already rea*$ ?is conviction x c\ld !n see t 8ev5 if !re 7 no human intellect1 ?+s w\ld /ill be true 9 relation to ! ,div9e ,intellect4 ,b if bo? intellects 71 p] impossibile1 conceiv$ z non-exi/5t tru? w\ld p]si/ no long]407#aja7 ,suppose1 !re=e1 t x has n yet rea*$ ?is conviction1 or ab/racts altoge!r f ! exi/5ce ( ,god z kn[n f actual ?+s2 & !n1 fur!r1 imag9es ! actual ?+s ( its exp]i5ce & all human intellects & f9ite intellects ( :atsoev] k9d z non-exi/5t3 mu/ x /ill conceive possible ?+s z possible8 ,no2 possibility & impossibility1 tru? & falsity w n[ h ceas$ to h any mean+4 ,aft] su* attempt$ ab/raction ! m9d w\ld h be=e x only :at ,balmes describes z 8! abyss ( no?+04 ,& ,balmes is "r 9 say+ t ! m9d is unable 8to ab/ract all exi/5ce04 ,b ! reason ( ! inability is n1 z ,balmes cont5ds1 because :5 x has remov$ actual ?+s & f9ite m9ds !re /ill rema9s 9 spite ( x a sy/em or ord] ( possible ess5ces :i* =ces x to inf] & posit ! exi/5ce ( an ,et]nal1 ,necess>y ,m9d z ! s\rce & gr\nd ( t ord]4 ,! reason r is because ! m9d sees t ! kn[n actual ?+s1 f :i* x got all its notions ( possible ess5ces1 necess>ily imply1 z ! only intelligible gr\nd ( _! actuality1 ! exi/5ce ( a ,necess>y ,be+1 9 ^: ,intellig5ce !y mu/ h be5 conta9$ ideally1 & 9 ^: ,omnipot5ce !y mu/ h be5 conta9$ virtually1 f all et]nity4 ,f cont+5t actuality1 z kn[n to x1 ! m9d c argue to ! et]nal actuality ( ,necess>y ,be+1 & to ! impossibility ei!r ( a /ate ( absolute no?+ness1 or ( an ord] ( purely possible ?+s ap>t f all actuality4 7#c7 ,( c\rse1 :e!r ! m9d has ?us ?\ght out ! ultimate implications ( ! actuality ( exp]i5c$ ?+s or n1 once x has ?\ght & exp]i5c$ ^? ?+s x _c by any ef=t bani% ! memory ( !m f its pres5ce3 !y are !re /ill z objects ( its ?\ght ev5 :5 x ab/racts f _! actual exi/5ce4 ,b if1 :ile x has n yet se5 t _! actuality implies ! exi/5ce ( a ,necess>y1 ,omnisci5t & ,omnipot5t ,be+1 x ab/racts n only f _! actual exi/5ce b f ! exi/5ce ( all f9ite m9ds 7itself includ$71 !n 9 t /ate1 s f> z its k goes1 !re w\ld be nei!r actual nor ideal nor possible be+4 ,nor c ! fact t an ideal ord] ( possible ?+s /ill p]si/s 9 its own ?\ght mislead x into conclud+ t su* an ideal ord] really p]si/s 9 ! hypo!sis x has made4 ,= x kn[s t ?is ideal ord] /ill p]si/s = itself simply because x _c 8?9k itself away04 ,x sees all ! "t t if x c\ld effectively ?9k itself away1 ?is ideal ord] w\ld h to disappe> ) x1 leav+ no?+--s f> z x kn[s--ei!r actual or possible4 ,m]ci] has "s apposite rem>ks on ?is v po9t4 8,f ! fact10 he writes1 8t ^? ab/ract ess5ces1 grasp$ by our ab/ractive ?\ght f ! dawn ( our reason1 h gr[n s famili> to u1 we easily come to look ^u !m z pre-exi/+ ar*etypes or models ( our ?\ghts & ( ?+s2 !y =m a fund ( pr$icates by :i* we are 9 ! habit ( int]pret+ ! data ( our exp]i5ce4 ,s1 too1 ! hypo!tically necess>y relations e/abli%$ by ab/ract ?\ght betwe5 !m we come to reg>d z a sort ( et]nal sy/em ( pr9ciples1 end[$ ) a sort ( legislative p[]1 to :i* creat$ ?+s & intellig5ces mu/ con=m4 ,b !y h really no su* pre-exi/5ce4 ,! et]nal pre-exi/5ce ( ^? ess5ce-types1 :i* ,plato call$ ! #8intelligible _w1' ! 1 & ! suppos$ et]nal legislative p[] ( _! relations1 are a sort ( m5tal optical illusion4 ,^? ab/ract ess5ces1 & ! pr9ciples bas$ ^u !m1 are ! products ( our m5tal activity work+ on ! data ( our actual exp]i5ce4 ,:5 we ent] on ! doma9 ( speculative reflection 444 !y are !re be=e u2 444 b we mu/ n =get t reflection is consequ5t on ! spontane\s ?\ght-activity :i*--by work+ ab/ractively on ! actual data ( s5sible1 cont+5t1 *angeable1 temporal realities--set !m up !re4444 ,we "k f psy*ology h[ ^? ideal1 ab/ract ess5ce-types are =m$4444 ,b because we h no actual memory ( _! =mation1 :i* is s rapid z practically to escape consci\sness 9 spontane\s ?\ght1 we are naturally prone to imag9e t !y are n ! product ( our own m5tal action on ! data ( actual exp]i5ce1 b t !y exi/ 9 u1 or r above u1 & indep5d5tly ( u4 ,we c !re=e und]/& ! psy*ological illusion "u :i* ,plato wrote su* passages z ! foll[+3 #8,b if anyone %\ld tell me :y any?+ is beautiful1 ei!r because x has a bloom+1 florid col\r1 or figure1 or any?+ else ( ! k9d1 ,i dismiss all o!r reasons1 = ,i am conf\nd$ by !m all2 b ,i simply1 :olly1 & p]haps navely1 conf9e myself to ?is1 t no?+ else causes x to be beautiful1 except ei!r ! pres5ce or communication ( t ab/ract beauty1 by :atev] means & 9 :atev] way communicat$2 = ,i _c yet affirm ) c]ta9ty1 b only t by means ( beauty all beautiful ?+s become beautiful 7 74 ,= ?is appe>s to me ! safe/ answ] to give bo? to myself & o!rs1 & adh]+ to ?is ,i ?9k t ,i %all nev] fall into error4444 ,& t by magnitude great ?+s become great1 & great] ?+s great]2 & by littl5ess less ?+s become less4'7#ajb7 ,/4 ,augu/9e's doctr9e on ! inv>iable laws ( numb]s1 on ! immutable pr9ciples ( wisdom1 & on tru? g5]ally1 draws its inspiration f ?is ,platonic idealism407#ajc7 ,b ?is ,platonic doctr9e1 attribut+ to ! ab/ract ess5ces conceiv$ by our ?\ght a reality indep5d5t bo? ( our ?\ght & ( ! actual s5se data f :i* directly or indirectly we d]ive our concepts ( !m1 is reject$ z uns\nd by s*ola/ics g5]ally4 ,:5 we h prov$ f actual ?+s t ,god exi/s1 & is ! ,intellig5t & ,free ,creator ( ! actual _w ( our direct exp]i5ce1 we c ( c\rse consid] ! ,div9e ,intellect z contemplat+ f all et]nity ! ,div9e ,ess5ce1 & z see+ !re9 ! et]nal ar*etypes or ideas ( all actual & possible ess5ces4 ,we may ?us reg>d ! ,div9e ,m9d z ! et]nal 1 or mundus intelligibilis4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 is n ,plato's ?\ght2 x is :at ,/4 ,augu/9e sub/itut$ = ,platonism1 & v prop]ly4 ,b we mu/ n inf]1 f ?is tru?1 t :5 we contemplate possible ess5ces1 ) all ! *>act]i/ics we may detect 9 !m1 we are contemplat+ ?is mundus intelligibilis :i* is ! ,div9e ,m9d4 ,?is 0 ! error ( ! ontologi/s4 ,!y inf]r$ t s9ce possible ess5ces1 z kn[n by ! human m9d1 h ideal be+ indep5d5tly ( ! latt] & ( all actual cont+5t reality1 ! human m9d 9 contemplat+ !m has really an intuition ( !m z !y are se5 by ! ,div9e ,intellect ,itself 9 ! ,div9e ,ess5ce2 s t1 9 ! words ( ,giob]ti1 ! ,primum ,ontologicum1 ! ,div9e ,be+ ,himself1 is also ! primum logicum1 or fir/ reality appreh5d$ by human ?\ght47#ajd7 ,n[ ^? au?ors :o hold t ! ideal ord] ( possible ess5ces contemplat$ by ! human m9d is se5 by ! latt]1 z s contemplat$1 to h "s be+1 "s ideal be+1 really indep5d5t ( ! human m9d itself1 & ( ! actual cont+5t ?+s f :i* !y admit t ! human m9d d]ives its k ( su* ess5ces1--^! au?ors d n hold1 b d5y1 t ?is indep5d5t ideal be+1 :i* !y claim = ^! ess5ces1 is any?+ ,div9e1 t x is ! ,div9e ,ess5ce z se5 by ! ,div9e ,intellect to be imitable ad extra47#aje7 ,h5ce !y _c fairly be *>g$ ) ! error ( ontologism4 ,r5\nc+ ,plato's exagg]at$ realism1 & hold+ t our k ( ! ideal ord] ( possible ess5ces is d]iv$ by our m9d f its consid]ation ( actual ?+s1 !y yet hold t ?is ideal ord] is se5 to h "s sort ( be+ or reality indep5d5t bo? ( ! m9d & ( actual ?+s47#ajf7 ,?is is n easy to und]/&4 ,:5 we ask1 ,is ?is suppos$ indep5d5t be+ 7or reality1 or possibility7 ( possible ess5ces ! ideal be+ !y h 9 ! ,div9e m9d8--we are told t x is n27#ajg7 b t x is some?+ f :i* we c inf]1 by reason+1 ?is et]nal1 necess>y1 & immutable ideal be+ ( ^! same ess5ces 9 ! ,div9e ,m9d4 ,! consid]ations urg$ 9 ! =ego+ p>agraphs w1 h[ev]1 h %[n t ! validity ( ?is l9e ( reason+ f possible ess5ces to ! reality ( an ,et]nal1 ,div9e1 ,immutable ,intellig5ce is by no means evid5t or free f difficulties4 ,( c\rse1 :5 ! exi/5ce ( ,god has be5 prov$ f actual ?+s1 ! conception ( ! ,div9e ,intellig5ce & ,ess5ce z ! ultimate s\rce ( all possible reality1 no less ?an ( all actual reality1 w be f\nd to %$ a great deal ( new light ^u ! intr9sic possibility ( possible ess5ces4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 our k ( ! ,div9e is m]ely analogical1 & s9ce ,god's intuition ( possible ess5ces1 z imitations ( ,8 own ,div9e ,ess5ce1 completely transc5ds our compreh5sion1 & is totally diff]5t f our ab/ractive k ( su* ess5ces1 our conception ( ! mann] 9 :i* ^! ess5ces are relat$ to ! ,div9e ,nature & ! ,div9e ,attributes1 mu/ be det]m9$ aft] ! analogy ( ! mann] 9 :i* our own m9ds are relat$ to ^! ess5ces4 #bj4 ,,ess5ces ,,are ,,intr9sically ,,possible1 ,,n ,,because ,,god ,,c ,,make ,,!m ,,exi/ ,,actually2 ,,nor ,,yet ,,because ,,he ,,freely ,,wills ,,!m ,,to ,,be ,,possible2 ,,nor ,,because ,,he ,,und]/&s ,,!m ,,z ,,possible2 ,,b ,,because ,,!y ,,are ,,modes ,,9 ,,:i* ,,! ,,div9e ,,ess5ce ,,is ,,imitable ad extra4--7a7 ,! ultimate s\rce ( ! extr9sic possibility ( all cont+5t realities is ! ,div9e ,omnipot5ce3 j z ! proximate s\rce ( ! extr9sic possibility ( a /atue is ! p[] ( ! sculptor to educe x f ! block ( wood or m>ble4 ,b j z ! p[] ( ! sculptor presupposes ! intr9sic possibility ( ! /atue1 s does ! ,div9e ,omnipot5ce presuppose ! intr9sic possibility ( all possible ?+s4 ,x is n1 z ,william ( ,ockam 7 #acdg71 a s*ola/ic ( ! decad5t p]iod1 errone\sly ?\ght1 because ,god c create ?+s t su* ?+s are intr9sically possible1 b r because !y are intr9sically possible ,he c create !m4 7b7 ,n less errone\s is ! volunt>i/ !ory ( ,desc>tes1 accord+ to :i* possible ess5ces are intr9sically possible because ,god freely will$ !m to be possible47#ajh7 ,! actuality ( all creat$ ?+s dep5ds1 ( c\rse1 on ! free w ( ,god to create !m2 b t possible ess5ces are :at !y are1 & are relat$ to ea* o!r necess>ily z !y are1 because ,god has will$ !m to be su*1 is absolutely incr$ible4 ,desc>tes seems to h be5 betray$ into ?is /range error by a false notion ( :at is requisite = ! absolute fre$om & indep5d5ce ( ! ,div9e ,w3 z if ?is dem&$ t ,god %\ld be free to w1 e4g4 t two plus two be five1 or t ! radii ( a circle be unequal1 or t creatures be indep5d5t ( ,himself1 or t blasphemy be a virtu\s act6 ,! intr9sic possibility ( ess5ces is n dep5d5t on ! ,free ,w ( ,god2 ! actualization ( possible ess5ces is2 b ,god c w to actualize only su* ess5ces z ,he sees1 f compreh5d+ ,8 own ,div9e ,ess5ce1 to be intr9sically possible4 ,b x d]ogates 9 no way f ! supremacy ( ! ,div9e ,w to conceive its free volition z ?us consequ5t on1 & illum9$ by1 ! ,div9e ,k2 :]eas x is incompatible ) ! wisdom & sanctity ( ,god1 z well z inconceivable to ! human m9d1 t ! necess>y laws ( ?\ght & be+--su* z ! pr9ciples ( contradiction & id5tity1 ! pr9ciple ( causality1 ! fir/ pr9ciples ( ! moral ord]--%\ld be :at !y are simply because ,god has freely will$ !m to be s1 & might !re=e h be5 o!rwise4 ,f ! fact t we h no direct intuition ( ! ,div9e ,be+1 "s philosoph]s h conclud$ t all speculation on ! relation ( ,god to ! _w ( our direct exp]i5ce is necess>ily b>r5 & fruitless4 ,?is is a phase ( agno/icism2 &1 l all error1 x is ! exagg]ation ( a tru?3 ! tru? be+ t :ile we may rea* real k ab\t ! ,div9e ,nature & attributes by su* speculation1 we c d s only on condition t we are guid$ by analogies drawn f ,god's creation1 & rememb] t our concepts1 z appli$ to ,god1 are analogical 7#b74 8,we c "k ,god only by analogy ) cont+5t & f9ite be+s1 & consequ5tly ! realities & laws ( ! cont+5t & f9ite _w mu/ necess>ily s]ve z our t]m ( comp>ison4 ,b1 among f9ite realities1 we see an ess5tial subord9ation ( ! extr9sically possible to ! intelligible1 ( ?is to ! intr9sically possible1 & ( ?is aga9 to ! ess5tial type :i* is presuppos$ by our ?\ght4 ,!re=e1 a p>i1 we mu/ consid] ! omnipot5t w ( ,god1 :i* is ! fir/ & univ]sal cause ( all cont+5t exi/5ces1 z "u ! direction ( ! ,div9e ,omnisci5ce1 & ?is 9 turn z hav+ = its object ! ,div9e ,ess5ce & 9 x ! ess5tial types ^: intr9sic possibility is gr\nd$ on ! necess>y imitability ( ! ,div9e ,be+4 8,:51 !re=e1 9 def5ce ( 8 position1 ,desc>tes argues t #8,9 ,god will+ & kn[+ are "o & ! same2 ! reason :y ,he kn[s any?+ is because ,he wills x1 & = ?is reason only c x be true3 ,ex hoc ipso quod ,deus aliquid velit1 ideo cognoscit1 et ideo tantum talis res e/ v]a'--he is only confus+ ! issue4 ,we might1 inde$1 retort ! argum5t3 #8,9 ,god will+ & kn[+ are "o & ! same2 ! reason :y ,he wills any?+ is because ,he kn[s x1 & = ?is reason only c x be good3 ,ex hoc ipso quod aliquid cognoscit1 ideo vult1 et ideo tantum talis res e/ bona1' b bo? inf]5ces are equally unw>rant$4 ,=1 ?\gh will+ & kn[+ are c]ta9ly "o & ! same 9 ,god1 ?is "o & ! same ?+ is =mally & = our m9ds nei!r w nor intellect1 b a reality transc5d+ w & intellect1 a sub/ance inf9itely above any sub/ances kn[n to u3 1 sup]sub/antia1 z ! ,fa!rs ( ! ,*ur* & ! ,doctors ( ! ,s*ools call x4 ,b ( ?is transc5d5t sub/ance we h no intuitive k4 ,we mu/ !re=e ei!r ab&on all attempts to f9d out any?+ ab\t x1 or else appreh5d x & designate x aft] ! analogy ( :at we "k f direct exp]i5ce ab\t creat$ life & m9d4 ,& z 9 creatures w is n id5tical ) intellect1 nor ei!r ( ^! ) ! nature ( ! be+ t possesses !m2 s :at we conceive 9 ,god "u ! concept ( w1 we mu/ n id5tify 9 ?\ght ) :at we conceive 9 ,him "u ! concept ( intellect1 nor may we ) impunity conf\nd ei!r 9 our ?\ght ) ! ,nature or ,ess5ce ( ! ,div9e ,be+407#aji7 7c7 ,philosoph]s :o d5y ! validity ( all ! argum5ts advanc$ by !i/s 9 pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( a transc5d5t ,supreme ,be+1 di/9ct f ! _w ( direct human exp]i5ce1 endeav\r to acc\nt 9 v>i\s ways = ! intr9sic possibility ( ab/ract ess5ces4 ,agno/ics ei!r d5y to ^! latt] any reality :atsoev] 7#af71 or else decl>e ! problem ( _! reality insoluble4 ,moni/s ( ! mat]iali/ type--:o try to r$uce all m9d to matt] & its m]e me*anical en]gies 7#aa7--treat ! "q 9 a /ill m inadequate & unsatisfactory mann]2 :ile ! advocates ( ideali/ic monism1 l ,hegel & 8 foll[]s1 ref] u to ! suppos$ ,imman5t ,m9d ( ! univ]se = an ultimate explanation ( all intr9sic possibility4 ,c]ta9ly ?is mu/ h its ultimate s\rce 9 "s m9d2 & x is n 9 ref]r+ u to an ,et]nal ,m9d t ^! philosoph]s err1 b 9 _! conception ( ! relation ( ?is m9d to ! _w ( direct actual exp]i5ce4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 ) su* !ories we are conc]n$ j n[1 b only ) !ories put =w>d by !i/s4 ,& among ^! latt] x is surpris+ to f9d "s few7#aaj7 :o ma9ta9 t ! intr9sic possibility ( ab/ract ess5ces dep5ds ultimately & exclusively on ^! ess5ces !mselves1 irrespective ( ?+s actually exp]i5c$ by ! human m9d1 irrespective ( ! human m9d itself1 & irrespective ( ! ,div9e ,m9d & ! ,div9e ,nature4 ,z to ?is view1 we h already se5 7#ai7 t if we ab/ract f all human m9ds1 & f all actual ?+s t c be directly exp]i5c$ by su* m9ds1 we are face to face ei!r ) ! alt]native ( absolute no?+ness :]e9 ! true & ! false1 ! possible & ! impossible1 cease to h any intelligible mean+1 or else ) ! alt]native ( a ,supreme1 ,et]nal1 ,necess>y1 ,omnisci5t & ,omnipot5t ,be+1 ^: actual exi/5ce has be51 or c be1 inf]r$ f ! actual data ( human exp]i5ce4 ,n[ ! !i/1 :o admits ! exi/5ce ( su* a ,be+1 _c fail to see t possible ess5ces mu/ h _! prim>y ideal be+ 9 ! ,div9e ,intellect1 & ! ultimate s\rce ( _! intr9sic possibility 9 ! ,div9e ,ess5ce ,itself4 ,=1 kn[+ t ,god c actualize intr9sically possible ess5ces by ! creative act1 :i* is intellig5t & free1 he w und]/& t ^! ess5ces h _! ideal be+ 9 ! ,div9e ,intellect2 t ! ,div9e ,intellect sees _! intr9sic possibility by contemplat+ ! ,div9e ,ess5ce z ! ,uncreat$ ,prototype & ,exempl> ( all intr9sically possible ?+s2 & t ^! latt] are intr9sically possible precisely because !y are possible adumbrations or imitations ( ! ,div9e ,nature4 7d7 ,b are we to conceive t ess5ces are intr9sically possible precisely because ! ,div9e ,intellect1 by und]/&+ !m1 makes !m intr9sically possible8 ,or %\ld we r conceive _! intr9sic possibility z antec$5t to ?is act by :i* ! ,div9e ,intellect und]/&s !m1 & z dep5d5t only on ! ,div9e ,ess5ce ,itself1 s t ess5ces w\ld be intr9sically possible simply because ! ,div9e ,ess5ce is :at x is1 & because !y are possible imitations or expressions ( x8 ,"h s*ola/ics are n agre$4 ,"s7#aaa7 hold t ! intr9sic possibility ( ess5ces is =mally con/itut$ by ! act :]eby ! ,div9e ,intellect1 contemplat+ ! ,div9e ,ess5ce1 und]/&s ! latt] to be indef9itely imitable ad extra2 s t z ! actuality ( ?+s results f ! ,fiat ( ! ,div9e ,w1 & z _! extr9sic possibility is gr\nd$ 9 ! ,div9e ,omnipot5ce1 s _! intr9sic possibility is gr\nd$ 9 ! ,div9e ,intellect4 ,! latt]1 by und]/&+ ! ,div9e ,ess5ce1 w\ld n m]ely give an ideal be+ to ! intr9sic possibility ( ess5ces1 b w\ld make ^? ess5ces =mally possible1 !y be+ only virtually possible 9 ! ,div9e ,ess5ce consid]$ antec$5tly to ?is act ( ! ,div9e ,intellect4 ,or1 r1 z "s ,scoti/s expla9 ! matt]17#aab7 ?is ideal be+ :i* possible ess5ces h f ! ,div9e ,intellect is n z extr9sic to !m z ! ideal be+ !y h f ! human intellect1 b is r ! v fir/ be+ !y c be said =mally to h1 & is someh[ intr9sic to !m aft] ! analogy ( ! be+ :i* m]e logical entities1 entia rationis1 d]ive f ! human m9d3 :i* be+ is intr9sic to ^! entities & is 9 fact ! only be+ !y h or c h4 ,o!rs7#aac7 hold t :ile1 no d\bt1 possible ess5ces h ideal be+ 9 ! ,div9e ,intellect f ! fact t !y are objects ( ! ,div9e ,k1 yet we mu/ n conceive ^! ess5ces z d]iv+ _! intr9sic possibility f ! ,div9e ,intellect4 ,= intellect z su* presupposes its object4 ,j1 !re=e1 z possible ess5ces are n intr9sically possible because !y are und]/ood by1 & h ideal be+ 91 ! human m9d1 s nei!r are !y intr9sically possible because !y are und]/ood by1 & h ideal be+ 91 ! ,div9e ,m9d4 ,9 ord] to be und]/ood actually1 9 ord] to h ideal be+1 9 ord] to be objects ( ?\ght1 !y mu/ be intelligible2 & 9 ord] to be intelligible !y mu/ be intr9sically possible4 ,!re=e !y are =mally con/itut$ z intr9sically possible ess5ces1 n by ! fact t !y are und]/ood by ! ,div9e ,intellect1 b by ! fact t antec$5tly to ?is act 79 our way ( conceiv+ ! matt]3 = !re is really no priority ( acts or attributes 9 ,god7 !y are already possible imitations ( ! ,div9e ,ess5ce ,itself4 ,?is view seems pref]able z be+ m 9 accordance ) ! analogy ( :at takes place 9 ! human m9d4 ,! speculative intellect 9 man does n con/itute1 b presupposes its object4 ,n[1 :ile actual ?+s are ! objects ( ,god's practical sci5ce--! 8sci5tia visionis10 :i* rea*es :at is freely decre$ by ! ,div9e ,w1--possible ?+s are ! objects ( ,god's speculative sci5ce--! 8sci5tia simplicis intellig5tiae10 :i* is n1 l ! =m]1 productive ( its object1 b r contemplative ( objects pres5t$ to x by & 9 ! ,div9e ,ess5ce4 ,:y1 !n1 ultimately w ! notions 8squ>e0 & 8circle0 n coalesce s z to =m "o object ( ?\ght = ! human m9d1 :ile ! notions 8equilat]al0 & 8triangle0 w s coalesce8 ,because ! ,ess5ce ( ,god1 ! ,necess>y ,be+1 ! ,fir/ ,reality1 & ! ,s\rce ( all cont+5t reality1 af=ds no basis = ! =m] z a possible expression or imitation ( ,itself2 9 o!r words1 because ,be+ is n expressible by no?+ness1 & a 8squ>e circle0 is no?+ness3 :ile ! ,div9e ,ess5ce does af=d a basis = ! latt]2 because ,necess>y ,be+ is 9 "s intelligible way imitat$1 express$1 manife/$1 by :atev] has any be+ to di/+ui% x f no?+ness1 & an 8equilat]al triangle0 has su* be+ & is n no?+ness4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to add t :5 we conceive ! ,div9e ,ess5ce1 contemplat$ by ! ,div9e ,intellect1 z conta9+ 9 itself ! exempl>s or prototypes ( all possible ?+s1 we are n to und]/& ! ,div9e ,ess5ce z ! =mal exempl> ( ea*1 or1 a =tiori1 z a va/ collection ( su* =mally di/9ct exempl>s2 b only z virtually & equival5tly ! exempl> ( ea* & all4 ,we are n to conceive t possible ess5ces are se5 by ! ,div9e ,intellect imag$ 9 ! ,div9e ,ess5ce z 9 a mirror1 b r z 9 _! supreme s\rce & pr9ciple3 s t !y are fa9t & f> (f reflections ( ,x1 &1 :5 actualiz$1 become = u ! only means we h1 9 ?is pres5t /ate1 = rea*+ any k ( ! ,deity3 videmus nunc p] speculum47#aad7 #ba4 ,,di/9ction ,,betwe5 ,,ess5ce ,,& ,,exi/5ce ,,9 ,,actually ,,exi/+ ,,cont+5t ,,or ,,creat$ ,,be+s4--,pass+ n[ f ! consid]ation ( possible ess5ces z su*1 to ! consid]ation ( actually exi/+ ess5ces1 we h to exam9e a "q :i* has giv5 rise to a great deal ( controv]sy1 p>tly on acc\nt ( its inh]5t difficulty1 & p>tly because ( a multitude ( ambiguities aris+ f confusion ( ?\ght3 ,:at is ! nature ( ! di/9ction betwe5 ess5ce & exi/5ce 9 ! actually exi/+ ?+s ( our exp]i5ce8 ,we h se5 already t ! concepts ( ess5ce & exi/5ce are di/9ct f ea* o!r 7#ab1 #ac72 9 o!r words1 t 9 all cases !re is at lea/ a logical di/9ction betwe5 ! ess5ce & ! exi/5ce ( any be+4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 di/+ui% betwe5 creat$ or cont+5t be+s & ! ,uncreat$1 ,necess>y1 ,self-,exi/5t ,be+4 ,! latt] exi/s ess5tially1 et]nally1 by ,8 own ,ess5ce1 s t 9 ,him ess5ce & exi/5ce are really id5tical4 ,8 ess5ce is =mally ,8 ,exi/5ce2 &1 !re=e1 9 ?9k+ ( ,8 ,ess5ce we _c positively exclude ! notion ( exi/5ce or ?9k ( ,him z non-exi/5t4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 ess5ce & exi/5ce1 :i* we f9d 9 our ?\ghts1 is1 !re=e1 :5 appli$ to ,god1 a purely logical di/9ction1 due solely to our f9ite human mode ( ?9k+1 & hav+ no gr\nd or basis or reason 9 ! reality :i* is ! object ( our ?\ght4 ,on ?is !re is complete unanimity among s*ola/ic philosoph]s4 ,b :ile we conceive t ,god actually exi/s by t :]eby ,he is ,god1 by ,8 ,ess5ce ,itself1 we d n conceive t any creat$ or cont+5t be+ exi/s by t :]eby x is :at x is1 by its ess5ce4 ,we d n1 = example1 reg>d ! ess5ce ( ,socrates1 :e!r specific or individual 7t :]eby he is a man1 or t :]eby he is ?is man1 ,socrates71 z t :]eby he actually exi/s4 ,9 o!r words1 ! ess5ce ( ! exi/+ ,socrates1 be+ a cont+5t ess5ce1 does n necess>ily dem& or imply t x actually exi/4 ,our concept ( su* an ess5ce does n include ! note ( actual exi/5ce4 ,!re=e if we f9d su* an ess5ce actually exi/+ we consid] ?is actually exi/+ ess5ce z caus$ or produc$1 & cons]v$ 9 exi/5ce1 by "s o!r be+1 viz4 by ! ,necess>y ,be+3 s t if x 7 n s creat$ & cons]v$ x w\ld be a pure possibility & no?+ actual47#aae7 ,! same diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,necess>y ,be+ & cont+5t be+s w be se5 f consid]+ _! exi/5ce4 ,! ab/ract concept ( exi/5ce is r5d]$ def9ite & det]m9ate by ! ess5ce :i* x actualizes4 ,n[ e f9ite ess5ce is ( "s p>ticul> k9d2 & its exi/5ce is r5d]$ det]m9ate by ! fact t x is ! exi/5ce ( a def9ite k9d ( ess5ce4 ,! exi/5ce ( a cont+5t be+ we conceive z ! actuality ( its ess5ce2 & its ess5ce z a def9ite pot5tiality ( exi/5ce4 ,?us if we conceive exi/5ce z a p]fection x is re/rict$ by ! f9ite nature ( ! pot5tiality :i* x actualizes4 ,b ! exi/5ce ( ! ,necess>y ,be+ is ! pl5itude ( actuality1 an exi/5ce n re/rict$ by be+ ! exi/5ce ( any ess5ce t is det]m9ate because f9ite1 b ( an ess5ce t is det]m9ate by be+ above all g5]a & species1 by be+ inf9ite1 by be+ ,itself pure actuality1 9 no s5se pot5tial b p]fectly & =mally id5tical ) actual exi/5ce4 ,:ile1 !re=e1 ! ess5ce ( ! ,necess>y ,be+ is a necess>ily exi/+ ess5ce1 t ( a cont+5t be+ is n necess>ily exi/5t1 b is conceiv$ z a pot5tiality :i* has be5 de facto actualiz$ or made exi/5t by ! ,necess>y ,be+1 & :i* may aga9 cease to be actually exi/5t47#aaf7 ,on ?is too !re is unanimity among s*ola/ic philosoph]s4 ,we di/+ui% m5tally or logically betwe5 ! ess5ce ( an actually exi/+ cont+5t be+ & its exi/5ce2 consid]+ ! =m] z ! pot5tial pr9ciple1 9 relation to ! latt] z ! actualiz+ pr9ciple1 ( ! cont+5t exi/+ reality4 ,b is ! di/9ction betwe5 su* an ess5ce & its exi/5ce some?+ m ?an a logical di/9ction8 ,is x a real di/9ction8 ,?is is ! "q 9 dispute4 ,& 9 ord] to avoid misund]/&+1 we mu/ be cle> on ^! two po9ts3 fir/ly1 ( :at ess5ce & exi/5ce is !re "q8 & secondly1 :at exactly are we to und]/& by a real di/9ction 9 ?is matt]8 #bb4 ,,/ate ,,( ,,! ,,"q4--,9 ! fir/ place1 !re is no "q "h ( ! relation ( a possible ess5ce z su* to exi/5ce4 ,! possible ess5ce ( a cont+5t be+1 z su*1 has no reality outside ! ,div9e ,ess5ce1 ,intellect1 ,w1 & ,omnipot5ce4 ,be=e ! _w 0 creat$ ! possible ess5ces ( all ! be+s t con/itute x 7 c]ta9ly really di/9ct f ! actual exi/5ce ( ^! be+s :i* d con/itute ! creat$ univ]se4 ,on ?is po9t !re c be no diff]5ce ( op9ion4 ,to cont5d t x is on ! et]nal reality ( ! possible ess5ce t actual exi/5ce sup]v5es1 :5 a cont+5t be+ beg9s to exi/1 w\ld be equival5t to cont5d+ t x is ! ,div9e ,ess5ce t becomes actual 9 ! ph5om5a ( our exp]i5ce3 :i* is ! error ( ,pan!ism4 ,aga91 be=e a cont+5t ?+ comes into actual exi/5ce x may be virtually & pot5tially 9 ! active p[]s & passive pot5tialities ( o!r actually exi/+ cont+5t ?+s3 z ! oak1 = in/ance1 is 9 ! passive pot5tiality ( ! acorn & 9 ! active p[]s ( ! natural ag5cies :]eby x is evolv$ f ! acorn2 or ! /atue 9 ! block ( m>ble & 9 ! m9d & arti/ic p[] ( ! sculptor4 ,b nei!r is !re any "q "h ( ! relation ( su* pot5tial be+ or ess5ce z a ?+ has 9 its causes to ! actual exi/5ce ( ?is ?+ :5 actually produc$4 ,:atev] be+ or ess5ce x has 9 its active & passive causes is c]ta9ly really di/9ct f ! exi/5ce :i* ! ?+ has :5 x has be5 actually produc$4 ,nor is !re any d\bt or dispute ab\t ?is po9t4 ,at ! same "t mu* controv]sy is due to misund]/&+s aris+ f a confusion ( ?\ght :i* fails to di/+ui% betwe5 ! ess5ce z purely possible1 ! ess5ce z virtually or pot5tially 9 its causes1 & ! ess5ce z actually exi/+4 ,x is ab\t ! di/9ction betwe5 ! latt] & its exi/5ce t ! :ole "q is rais$4 ,& x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t ?is ess5ce1 :e!r x is really di/9ct f its exi/5ce or n1 is itself a positive reality f ! mom5t x is creat$ or produc$4 ,! "q is :e!r ! creative or productive act--:]eby ?is ess5ce is plac$ 8outside its causes10 & is n[ no long] m]ely possible1 or m]ely virtual or pot5tial 9 its causes1 b some?+ real 9 itself--has = its t]m "o reality1 or two realities1 viz4 ! ess5ce z real subjective pot5tiality ( exi/5ce1 & ! exi/5tial act or p]fection :]eby x is con/itut$ actually exi/5t47#aag7 ,! "q is exclusively conc]n$ ) ! ess5ce :i* began to exi/ :5 ! cont+5t be+ came into actual exi/5ce1 & :i* ceases to exi/ :51 or if1 ?is be+ aga9 passes out ( actual exi/5ce2 & ! "q is :e!r ?is ess5ce :i* actually exi/s is really di/9ct f ! exi/5ce :]eby x actually exi/s4 ,f9ally1 ! "q conc]ns ! ess5ce & exi/5ce ( any & e actual cont+5t reality1 :e!r su* reality be a sub/ance or an accid5t4 ,( c\rse x is prim>ily conc]n$ ) ! ess5ce & exi/5ce ( sub/ances2 b x also applies to ! ess5ce & exi/5ce ( accid5ts 9 s f> z ^! latt] w be f\nd to be really di/9ct f ! sub/ances 9 :i* !y inh]e1 & to h reality prop] to !mselves4 #bc4 ,,! ,,!ory ,,( ,,di/9ctions ,,9 ,,its ,,application ,,to ,,! ,,"q4--,9 ! next place1 :at are we to und]/& by a real di/9ction 9 ?is matt]8 ,ambiguity & obscurity ( ?\ght 9 reg>d to ! !ory ( di/9ctions1 & 9 reg>d to ! application ( ! !ory to ! pres5t "q1 has be5 probably ! mo/ f]tile s\rce ( mu* t$i\s & fruitless controv]sy 9 ?is connexion4 ,anticipat+ :at w be consid]$ m fully at a lat] /age 7#cj71 we mu/ note "h ! two ma9 classes ( di/9ction :i*1 by reflect+ on our ?\ght-processes1 we discov] betwe5 ! objects ( our ?\ght4 ,! real di/9ction is t :i* exi/s 9 ?+s indep5d5tly ( ! consid]ation ( our m9ds2 t :i* is discov]$1 b n made1 by ! m9d2 t :i* is giv5 to u 9 & ) ! data ( our exp]i5ce4 ,= example1 ! act ( ?9k+ is a reality o!r ?an1 & !re=e really di/9ct f1 ! m9d t ?9ks2 = ! m9d p]si/s aft] ! act ( ?9k+ has pass$ away4 ,oppos$ to ?is is ! m5tal or logical di/9ction1 :i* is ! di/9ction made by ! m9d itself betwe5 two diff]5t concepts ( "o & ! same reality2 :i* is n 9 ! reality indep5d5tly ( our ?\ght1 b is introduc$ into x by our ?\ght1 reg>d+ ! same reality "u diff]5t aspects or f diff]5t po9ts ( view4 ,! m9d nev] makes su* a di/9ction )\t "s gr\nd or reason = do+ s4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 ?is reason w be f\nd exclusively 9 ! m9d itself--9 ! limitations ( its modes ( ?\ght--& n 9 ! reality :i* is ! matt] or object ( ! ?\ght4 ,! di/9ction is !n said to be purely logical or m5tal4 ,su* di/9ctions are entia rationis1 logical entities4 ,an example w\ld be ! di/9ction betwe5 ! concept 8man0 & ! concept 8rational animal10 or1 9 g5]al1 betwe5 any def9able object ( ?\ght & its def9ition2 ! di/9ction1 !re=e1 betwe5 ! ess5ce & ! exi/5ce ( ! ,necess>y ,be+ is a purely logical di/9ction1 = 9 a def9ition x is ! ess5ce ( ! ?+ we def9e1 & exi/5ce is ( ! ess5ce or def9ition ( ! ,necess>y ,be+4 ,sometimes1 aga91 ! reason = mak+ a m5tal di/9ction w be f\nd 9 ! reality itself4 ,:at is "o & ! same reality pres5ts diff]5t aspects to ! m9d & evokes diff]5t concepts ( itself 9 ! m9d3 ?\gh really "o1 x is virtually manifold2 & ! di/9ction betwe5 ! concepts ( ^! v>i\s aspects is commonly kn[n z a virtual di/9ction4 ,= example1 :5 we ?9k ( any individual man z a 8rational animal10 ?\gh our concept ( 8animal nature0 is di/9ct f t ( 8rational nature10 we d n reg>d ^! 9 him z two realities co-exi/+ or comb9+ to =m 8 human nature1 b only z two di/9ct aspects "u :i* we view ! "o reality :i* is 8 human nature4 ,& we view x "u ^! two aspects because we h actual exp]i5ce ( in/ances 9 :i* animal nature is really di/9ct & sep>at$ f rationality1 e4g41 9 ! brute bea/4 ,or1 aga91 s9ce we c recognize ?ree grades ( life 9 man--vegetative1 s5ti5t1 & rational--we conceive ! "o pr9ciple ( life1 8 s\l1 z virtually ?ree pr9ciples2 & s we di/+ui% m5tally or virtually betwe5 ?ree s\ls 9 man1 al?\gh 9 reality !re is only "o4 ,or1 once m1 :5 we ?9k ( ! ,wisdom1 ! ,w1 & ! ,omnipot5ce ( ,god1 we "k t al?\gh ^! concepts repres5t diff]5t aspects ( ! ,deity1 ^! aspects are n di/9ct realities 9 ,him2 b t because ( ,8 inf9ite p]fection & inf9ite simplicity !y are all objectively "o & ! same self-id5tical reality4 ,a virtual di/9ction is said to be imp]fect 7?us approa*+ ne>] to ! nature ( a purely logical di/9ction7 :5 ea* ( ! concepts :]eby we appreh5d ! same reality only presc9ds explicitly f :at is express$ by ! o!r1 al?\gh "o ( !m is f\nd on analysis to include implicitly :at is express$ by ! o!r4 ,su* is ! di/9ction betwe5 ! be+ & ! life ( any liv+ ?+2 or ! di/9ction betwe5 ! spirituality & ! immortality ( ! human s\l2 or ! di/9ction betwe5 ,inf9ite ,wisdom & ,inf9ite ,p[]3 ! di/9ction betwe5 ! div9e attributes 9 g5]al4 ,a virtual di/9ction is said to be p]fect 7?us approa*+ ne>] to ! nature ( a real di/9ction7 :5 nei!r ( ! concepts includes ei!r explicitly or implicitly :at is express$ by ! o!r4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 is ! di/9ction betwe5 ! pr9ciple ( intellectual life & ! pr9ciple ( animal or s5ti5t life 9 man2 = n only c ^! exi/ sep>ately 7! =m] )\t ! latt]1 e4g4 9 pure spirits1 ! latt] )\t ! =m]1 e4g4 9 brute bea/s71 b also x w be f\nd t by no analysis does ei!r concept 9 any way involve ! o!r47#aah7 ,our only object 9 sett+ d[n ! v>i\s examples j giv5 is to illu/rate ! g5]al s*ola/ic tea*+ on ! doctr9e ( di/9ction4 ,9 !mselves !y are n beyond dispute1 = ! g5]al doctr9e ( di/9ction is n easy ( application 9 detail2 b !y w be suffici5t = our pres5t purpose4 ,probably ! greate/ difficulty 9 apply+ ! g5]al doctr9e w be f\nd to lie 9 discrim9at+ betwe5 virtual di/9ctions--especially p]fect virtual di/9ctions--& real di/9ctions47#aai7 ,& ?is difficulty w be appreciat$ /ill m :5 we le>n t a real di/9ction does n necess>ily involve sep>ability ( ! objects s di/+ui%$4 ,9 o!r words !re may be1 9 a composite exi/+ individual be+1 con/itutive factors or pr9ciples1 or integral p>ts1 ea* ( :i* is a positive real entity1 really di/9ct f ! o!rs1 & yet incapable ( exi/+ sep>ately or 9 isolation f ! o!rs4 8,sep>ability10 says ,m]ci]17#abj7 8is "o ( ! signs ( a real di/9ction2 b x is nei!r ess5tial to1 nor a necess>y prop]ty ( ! latt]4 ,two sep>able ?+s are ( c\rse really di/9ct f ea* o!r2 b two entities may be really di/9ct f ea* o!r )\t be+ sep>able or capable ( exi/+ ap>t f ea* o!r4 ,?us we believe t ! intellect & ! w 9 man are really di/9ct f ea* o!r1 & bo? alike f ! sub/ance ( ! human s\l2 yet !y _c exi/ isolat$ f ! s\l40 ,!re=e1 ev5 ?\gh ! objects :i* we appreh5d z di/9ct1 by means ( di/9ct concepts1 be und]/ood to be su* t !y _c actually exi/ 9 isolation f ea* o!r1 b only z unit$ 9 a composite individual be+1 /ill if x c be %[n t ea* ( !m has its own prop] reality indep5d5tly ( our ?\ght1 s t ! di/9ction betwe5 !m is n ! result ( our ?\ght1 or introduc$ by our ?\ght into ! individual ?+ or be+ :i* we are consid]+1 !n ! di/9ction mu/ be reg>d$ z real4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 x c be %[n t ! diff]5t aspects :i* we appreh5d 9 any datum by means ( di/9ct concepts h n1 ap>t f ! consid]ation ( ! m9d1 ap>t f ! analytic activity ( our own ?\ght1 ea* its own prop] reality1 b are only di/9ct m5tal views ( :at is objectively "o & ! same reality1 !n ! di/9ction mu/ be reg>d$ z logical1 n real1--& ?is ev5 al?\gh !re may be 9 ! ri*ness & fulness ( t "o reality comp>atively to ! limit$ capacity ( our m9ds1 z well z 9 ! v con/itution & modes ( ?\ght ( our m9ds !mselves1 a reason or basis =1 & an explanation (1 ! multiplicity ( concepts :]eby we atta9 to an und]/&+ ( "s "o reality4 #bd4 ,,solutions ,,( ,,! ,,"q4--,po/pon+ fur!r consid]ation ( ! s]i\s problems on ! validity ( k & its relation to reality1 to :i* ^? reflections inevitably give rise1 let u n[ return to ! ma9 "q3 ! nature ( ! di/9ction betwe5 ! ess5ce & ! exi/5ce ( any actually exi/+ cont+5t be+4 ,we ne$ n be surpris$ to f9d t ! greate/ m9ds h be5 unable to rea* ! same solution ( ?is "q4 ,= x is b a phase ( ! m g5]al metaphysical problem--at once bo? ontological & epi/emological--( ! nature ( reality & ! relation ( ! human m9d !reto4 ,nor w any s]i\s mod]n philosoph] :o is at all m9dful ( ! weal? ( curr5t controv]sial lit]ature on ?is v problem1 or ( ! endless v>iety ( conflict+ op9ions among contempor>y ?9k]s 9 reg>d to x1 be dispos$ to ridicule ! m$ieval controv]sies on ! doctr9e ( di/9ction z appli$ to ess5ce & exi/5ce4 ,no d\bt !re has be5 a good deal ( m]e v]bal1 & p]haps trifl+1 argum5tation on ! matt]3 x l5ds itself to ! dialectical skill ( ! controv]siali/ :o 8takes sides10 z well z to ! s]i\s ?\ght ( ! op5-m9d$ inve/igator4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 ?r\gh draw+ diff]5t conclusions f ! same premisses t conflict+ solutions ( ! "q h be5 rea*$1 b r ?r\gh fundam5tally diff]5t attitudes 9 reg>d to ! premisses !mselves :i* diff]5t philosoph]s pr(ess to f9d 9 ! common data ( _! exp]i5ce4 ,:5 we h once grasp$ :at philosoph]s mean by a logical or a real di/9ction z appli$ to ! relation betwe5 ess5ce & exi/5ce we %all n get any v mat]ial assi/ance t[>ds ! *oice ( a solution by consid]+ at l5g? ! argum5ts adduc$ on ei!r side47#aba7 ,^? :o believe !re is a real di/9ction7#abb7 betwe5 ! ess5ce & ! exi/5ce ( all actually exi/+ cont+5t be+s mean by ?is t ! real ess5ce :i* comes into actual exi/5ce by creation1 or by ! action ( creat$ causes1 is a reality di/9ct f ! exi/5ce :]eby x actually exi/s4 ,! actually exi/+ ess5ce is ! total t]m ( ! creative or productive act2 b :at we appreh5d 9 x "u ! concept ( ess5ce is really di/9ct f :at we appreh5d 9 x "u ! concept ( exi/5ce3 ! exi/5ce be+ a real pr9ciple :i* actualizes ! ess5ce1 & ?is latt] be+ itself ano!r real pr9ciple :i* is 9 itself a positive1 subjective pot5tiality ( exi/5ce47#abc7 ,nei!r1 ( c\rse1 c actually exi/ )\t ! o!r3 no actual exi/5ce except t ( a real ess5ce2 no exi/+ ess5ce except by reason ( ! exi/5ce :i* makes x actual4 ,b ^! two real pr9ciples ( exi/+ cont+5t be+1 insep>able z !y are & correlative1 are nev]!less di/9ct realities--di/9ct 9 ! objective ord] & indep5d5tly ( our ?\ght1--& =m by _! union a really composite product3 ! exi/+ ?+4 ,we might attempt to illu/rate ?is by ! analogy ( a body & its %ape or col\r4 ,! body itself is really di/9ct f its actual %ape & col\r3 x may lose !m1 & yet rema9 ! same body2 & x may acquire o!r %apes & col\rs4 ,at any "t ! body has actually "s p>ticul> %ape & col\r2 b t by :i* x is =mally s %ap$ & col\r$ is some?+ really diff]5t f ! body itself4 ,fur!rmore1 be=e ! body actually possess$ ?is p>ticul> %ape & col\r1 ^! 7 9 x pot5tially3 t is to say1 !re 7 !n 9 ! body ! real1 passive1 subjective pot5tialities ( ?is p>ticul> %ape & col\r4 ,s too t by :i* a real 7cont+5t7 ess5ce actually exi/s 7i4e4 ! exi/5tial act1 exi/5ce7 is really di/9ct f t :i* actually exi/s 7i4e4 ! ess5ce1 ! pot5tiality ( t exi/5tial act74 ,! analogy is1 h[ev]1 at be/ only a halt+ "o4 ,= :ile x is comp>atively easy to und]/& h[ ! passive1 subjective pot5tiality ( a %ape or col\r c be some?+ real 9 ! already actually exi/+ body1 x is n s easy to und]/& h[ ! pot5tiality ( exi/5ce1 i4e4 ! real ess5ce1 c be any?+ t is itself real & really di/9ct f ! exi/5ce47#abd7 ,! oak is really 9 ! acorn1 = ! passive1 subjective pot5tiality ( ! oak is 9 ! actual acorn2 b is ?is pot5tiality any?+ really di/9ct f ! acorn8 or %\ld we n r say t ! actual acorn is pot5tially ! oak1 or is ! pot5tiality ( ! oak8 ,at all ev5ts ev5 if x is really di/9ct f ! actual acorn1 x is 9 ! actual acorn4 ,b is x possible to conceive a real1 subjective pot5tiality :i* does n reside 9 any?+ actual87#abe7 ,n[ if ! real ess5ce is really di/9ct f its exi/5ce x mu/ be conceiv$ z a real1 subjective pot5tiality ( exi/5ce4 ,yet x _c be conceiv$ z a pot5tiality 9 any?+ actual3 except inde$ 9 ! actually exi/+ ess5ce :i* is ! composite result ( its union ) ! exi/5tial act4 ,x is n a real1 subjective pot5tiality antec$5tly to ! exi/5tial act1 & on :i* ! latt] is1 z x 71 sup]impos$37#abf7 9 itself1 x is1 9 fact1 no?+ real except z actualiz$ by ! latt]2 b1 z we h already obs]v$1 ! process ( actualization1 :e!r by direct creation or by ! action ( creat$ causes1 mu/ be conceiv$ z hav+ = its total t]m or effect a composite reality result+ f :at we c at be/ imp]fectly describe z ! union ( two correlative1 con-creat$1 or co-produc$ pr9ciples ( be+1 a pot5tial & an actual1 really di/9ct f ea* o!r3 t :]eby ! ?+ c exi/1 ! pot5tiality ( exi/5ce1 ! ess5ce2 & t :]eby ! ?+ does exi/1 ! actuality ( ess5ce1 ! exi/5ce4 ,! description is imp]fect because ^! pr9ciples are n con-creat$ or co-produc$ sep>ately2 b1 r1 ! creation or production ( an exi/+ ess5ce1 ! effici5cy by :i* x is 8plac$ outside its causes10 has "o s+le1 ?\gh composite1 t]m3 ! actually exi/+ ?+4 ,?is view1 ?us advocat+ a real di/9ction betwe5 ess5ce & exi/5ce1 may obvi\sly be reg>d$ z an emphatic expression ( ! objective validity ( intellectual k4 ,x might be reg>d$ z an application ( ! m g5]al view t ! objective concepts betwe5 :i* ! intellect di/+ui%es 9 its int]pretation ( reality %\ld be reg>d$ z repres5t+ di/9ct realities1 except :5 ! di/9ction is se5 to arise n f ! nature ( ! object b f ! nature ( ! subject1 f ! limitations & imp]fections ( our own modes ( ?\ght4 ,b 9 ! case ( any p>ticul> 7disput$7 di/9ction1 ! onus prob&i %\ld lie r on ! side ( ^? :o cont5d t su* di/9ction is logical1 & n real4 ,on ! o!r h&1 _m philosoph]s :o are no less firmly conv9c$ ( ! objective validity ( intellectual k obs]ve t x is possible to pu% ?is pr9ciple too f>1 or r to err by excess 9 its application4 ,in/ead ( plac+ ! burd5 ( pro( solely on ! side ( ! logical di/9ction1 !y w\ld place x r m on ! side ( ! real di/9ction--9 con=mity ) ! maxim ( me?od1 ,entia non sunt multiplic&a praet] necessitatem4 ,& !y ?9k t x is an error by excess to hold ! di/9ction betwe5 ess5ce & exi/5ce to be real4 ,?is br+s u to ! second alt]native op9ion3 t ! di/9ction 9 "q is n real1 b only virtual47#abg7 ,accord+ to ?is view1 ! ess5ce & ! exi/5ce ( any exi/+ cont+5t be+ are "o & ! same reality4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 9 ?is reality a basis = ! two di/9ct objective concepts--( ess5ce & ( exi/5ce--:]eby we appreh5d x4 ,= ! cont+5t be+ does n exi/ necess>ily3 we see su* be+s com+ into exi/5ce & ceas+ to exi/3 we c !re=e ?9k ( :at !y are )\t ?9k+ ( !m z actually exi/5t3 9 o!r words1 we c ?9k ( !m z possible1 & ( _! exi/5ce z t by :i* !y become actual4 ,?is is a suffici5t reason = di/+ui%+ m5tally1 9 ! exi/+ be+1 ! ess5ce :i* exi/s & ! exi/5ce by :i* x exi/s47#abh7 ,b :5 we ?9k ( ! ess5ce ( an actually exi/+ be+ z objectively possible1 or z pot5tial 9 its causes1 we are no long] ?9k+ ( x z any?+ real 9 itself1 b only ( its ideal be+ z an object ( ?\ght 9 our m9ds1 or ( ! ideal be+ x has 9 ! ,div9e ,m9d1 or ( ! pot5tial be+ x has 9 creat$ causes1 or ( ! virtual be+ x has 9 ! ,div9e ,omnipot5ce1 or ( ! ultimate basis ( its possibility 9 ! ,div9e ,ess5ce4 ,b all ^! modes ( 8be+0 we "k to be really di/9ct f ! real1 cont+5t ess5ce itself :i* beg9s to exi/ actually 9 "t1 & may cease once m to exi/ 9 "t :5 & if its own nature dem&s1 & ,god wills1 su* cessation4 ,b t ! real1 cont+5t ess5ce itself :i* s exi/s1 is some?+ really di/9ct f ! exi/5ce :]eby x exi/s2 t x =ms ) ! latt] a really composite be+2 t x is 9 itself a real1 subjective pot5tiality1 receptive ( exi/5ce z ano!r & actualiz+ reality1 really di/9ct f x1 s t ! creation or production ( any s+le actually exi/+ cont+5t be+ w\ld h = its t]m two really di/9ct pr9ciples ( be+1 a pot5tial & an actual1 ess5ce & exi/5ce1 creat$ or produc$ p] modum unius1 s to speak3 = ass]t+ all ?is x is cont5d$ by support]s ( ! virtual di/9ction t we h no suffici5t ju/ify+ reason47#abi7 ,h5ce !y conclude t a real di/9ction mu/ be d5i$3 ,entia non sunt multiplic&a praet] necessitatem4 ,?\gh ea* ( ^! op9ions has be5 def5d$ ) a great deal ( ability1 & an exhau/ive array ( argum5ts1 a m]e rehe>sal ( ^! latt] w\ld n give mu* mat]ial assi/ance t[>ds a solution ( ! "q4 ,we !re=e ab/a9 f repeat+ !m "h4 ,!re are only a few po9ts 9 connexion ) !m to :i* att5tion may be direct$4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 "s def5d]s ( ! real di/9ction urge t 7 ! di/9ction n real1 ?+s w\ld exi/ ess5tially1 i4e4 necess>ily2 & ?us ! mo/ fundam5tal gr\nd ( di/9ction betwe5 ,god & creatures1 betwe5 ! ,necess>y ,be+ & cont+5t be+s1 w\ld be de/roy$3 creatures w\ld be no long] 9 _! v con/itution composite1 mixtures ( pot5tiality & actuality1 b w\ld be purely actual1 absolutely simple &1 9 a ^w1 id5tical ) ! ,inf9ite ,be+ ,himself4 ,support]s ( ! virtual di/9ction d5y t ^? v s]i\s consequ5ces foll[ f _! view4 ,!y po9t out t ?\gh ! exi/5ce ( ! creature is really id5tical ) its ess5ce1 ! ess5ce does n exi/ necess>ily or a se2 ! :ole exi/+ ess5ce is ab alio1 is caus$1 cont+5t2 & ! fundam5tal di/9ction betwe5 su* a be+ & ! ,self-,exi/+ ,be+ is 9 ?is view p]fectly cle>4 ,nor is ! creature1 !y cont5d1 purely actual & absolutely simple2 x ne$ n h exi/$1 & x may cease to exi/2 x has1 !re=e1 a pot5tiality ( non-exi/5ce1 :i* is inconceivable 9 ! case ( ! ,necess>y & purely ,actual ,be+2 x is1 !re=e1 mutable z reg>ds exi/5ce2 besides :i* ! ess5ces ev5 ( ! mo/ simple creat$ be+s1 namely pure spirits are composite 9 ! s5se t !y h faculties & op]ations really di/9ct f _! sub/ance4 ,secondly1 x is alleg$ by "s def5d]s ( ! real di/9ction t ?is latt] view ( ! nature ( exi/+ cont+5t reality is a c>d9al doctr9e 9 ! :ole philosophical sy/em ( ,/4 ,?omas1 & ( s*ola/ics g5]ally3 s fundam5tal1 9 fact1 t _m important doctr9es1 unanim\sly held to be true by all s*ola/ics1 _c be successfully v9dicat$ ap>t f x47#acj7 ,to :i* x is repli$ t !re are no important tru?s ( s*ola/ic philosophy :i* _c be def5d$ q adequately ap>t altoge!r f ! view "o may hold on ! pres5t "q2 & t1 ?is be+ ! case1 x is unwise to endeav\r to base admitt$ly true doctr9es1 :i* c be bett] def5d$ o!rwise1 ^u an op9ion :i* c at be/ claim only ! am\nt ( probability x c d]ive f ! intr9sic m]its ( ! argum5ts by :i* x is itself support$47#aca7 ,be=e pass+ f ?is :ole "q we mu/ note ! exi/5ce ( a ?ird s*ool ( ?\ght1 id5tifi$ ma9ly ) ! foll[]s ( ,duns ,scotus47#acb7 ,^! au?ors cont5d t ! di/9ction betwe5 ess5ce & exi/5ce is n a real di/9ction1 nor yet1 on ! o!r h&1 is x m]ely a virtual di/9ction1 b "o :i* !y call =malis1 actualis ex natura rei1 t betwe5 a reality & its intr9sic modes4 ,x is bett] kn[n z ! 8,scoti/ic0 di/9ction4 ,we %all see ! nature ( x :5 deal+ ex pr(esso ) ! g5]al doctr9e ( di/9ctions4 ,! multiplicity ( ^! views1 & ! unavoidable difficulty exp]i5c$ 9 grasp+ & sett+ =? _! mean+ ) any tol]able degree ( cle>ness1 w\ld sugge/ ! reflection t 9 ^? controv]sies ! m$ieval s*ola/ics 7 p]haps endeav\r+ to ?9k & to express :at reality is1 ap>t f ?\ght & 8indep5d5tly ( ! consid]ation ( ! m9d0--a task :i*1 conceiv$ 9 ^! t]ms1 mu/ appe> fruitless2 & "o :i*1 anyh[1 involves 9 its v nature ! close/ scrut9y ( ! epi/emological problem ( ! p[] ( ! human m9d to get at lea/ a true & valid1 if n adequate & compreh5sive1 insight into ! nature ( reality4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,reality ,,z ,,"o ,,& ,,manifold4 #be4 ,,! ,,transc5d5tal ,,attributes ,,or ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,be+3 ,,unity1 ,,tru?1 ,,& ,,goodness4--,s f>1 we h analys$ ! notions ( ,real ,be+1 ( ,becom+ or ,*ange1 ( ,be+ z ,possible & z ,actual1 ( ,ess5ce & ,exi/5ce4 ,be=e approa*+ a /udy ( ! ,categories or ,suprema ,g5]a ,entis1 ! highe/ & wide/ modes 9 :i* reality manife/s itself1 we h next to consid] c]ta9 attributes or prop]ties ( be+ :i* reveal !mselves z co-ext5sive ) reality itself4 ,tak+ human exp]i5ce 9 its wide/ s5se1 z embrac+ all modes t are cognitive or alli$ ) consci\sness1 z includ+ intellect1 memory1 imag9ation1 s5se p]ception1 w & appetite1 z speculative1 e?ical or moral1 & e/hetic or arti/ic1--we f9d t ! reality :i* makes up ?is complex human exp]i5ce ( ours is univ]sally & necess>ily *>act]iz$ by c]ta9 features :i* we call ! transc5d5tal attributes or prop]ties ( be+1 inasmu* z !y transc5d all specific & g5]ic modes ( be+1 p]vade all its categories equally1 & are insep>able f any datum ( exp]i5ce4 ,we %all see t !y are n really di/9ct f ! reality :i* !y *>act]ize1 b only logically di/9ct f x1 be+ aspects "u :i* we appreh5d x1 negations or o!r logical relations :i* we necess>ily annex to x by ! m5tal processes :]eby we seek to r5d] x actually intelligible to our m9ds4 ,! fir/ 9 ord] ( ^! ontological attributes is unity3 ! concept ( t :]eby reality consid]$ 9 itself becomes a def9ite object ( ?\ght4 ,! second 9 ord] is tru?3 :i* is ! conception ( reality consid]$ 9 its relation to cognitive exp]i5ce1 to intellect4 ,! ?ird is goodness3 ! aspect "u :i* reality is relat$ z an object to appetitive exp]i5ce1 to w4 ,n[ :5 we pr$icate ( any reality "u our consid]ation t x is 8"o10 or 8good10 or 8true0--9 ! ontological s5se to be expla9$1--t :i* we pr$icate is n a m]e ens rationis1 b some?+ real1 some?+ :i* is really id5tical ) ! subject1 & :i* is di/+ui%$ f ! latt] 9 our judgm5t only by a logical di/9ction4 ,! attribution ( any ( ^! prop]ties to ! subject does n1 h[ev]1 add any?+ real to ! latt]3 x adds m]ely "s logical aspect involv$ 91 or suppos$ by1 ! attribution4 ,at ! same "t1 ?is logical aspect gives u real in=mation by mak+ explicit "s real feature ( be+ n explicitly reveal$ 9 ! concept ( be+ itself1 al?\gh involv$ 91 & foll[+ z a prop]ty f1 ! latt]4 ,!re d n seem to be any o!r transc5d5tal prop]ties ( be+ besides ! ?ree enum]at$4 ,! t]ms 8reality10 8?+10 8some?+10 are synonym\s expressions ( ! concept ( be+ itself1 r ?an ( prop]ties ( be+4 8,exi/5ce0 is n a transc5d5tal attribute ( be+1 = x is n co-ext5sive ) reality or real be+4 ,& al?\gh reality mu/ be 8ei!r possible or actual10 8ei!r necess>y or cont+5t10 8ei!r inf9ite or f9ite10 etc41 ?is necessity ( v]ify+ 9 itself "o or o!r memb] ( any su* alt]natives is n a prop]ty ( be+1 b r some?+ ess5tially root$ 9 ! v concept ( reality itself4 ,"s w\ld reg>d z a di/9ct transc5d5tal attribute ( be+ ! conception ( ! latt] z an object ( e/hetic contemplation1 z manife/+ ord] & h>mony1 z beautiful4 ,?is conception ( be+ w be f\nd1 h[ev]1 to fl[ f ! m fundam5tal aspects ( reality consid]$ z true & z good1 r ?an directly f ! concept ( be+ itself4 #bf4 ,,transc5d5tal ,,unity4--,:5 we ?9k ( any?+ z "o we ?9k ( x z undivid$ 9 itself4 ,! unity or on5ess ( be+ is ! undivid$ness ( be+3 ,unum e/ id quod e/ indivisum 9 se3 ,univ]salit] quaecunque non hab5t divisionem1 inquantum non hab5t1 sic unum dicuntur47#acc7 ,:51 !re=e1 we conceive be+ z undivid$ into con/itutive p>ts1 & unmultipli$ into repetitions ( itself1 we conceive x z a be+1 z "o4 ,= ! concept ( be+1 =mally z "o1 x does n seem necess>y t we conceive be+ z divid$ or di/9ct f all o!r be+4 ,?is second negation1 ( id5tity ) o!r be+1 r foll[s ! conception ( be+ z "o3 be+ is di/9ct f o!r be+ because x is already itself "o3 x is a prior negation t =mally con/itutes its unity1 namely1 ! negation ( int]nal division or multiplication ( itself3 ,god 0 truly "o f all et]nity1 be=e !re 0 any o!r be+1 any creat$ be+1 di/9ct f ,him4 ,! division or di/9ction ( an object ( ?\ght f :atev] is n itself is :at con/itutes ! notion ( o!rness47#acd7 ,x is manife/ t be+ & unity are really id5tical1 t :5 we ?9k ( be+ we ?9k ( :at is really undivid$ 9 itself1 t once we introduce divid$ness into ! object ( our concept we are no long] ?9k+ ( be+ b ( be+s1 i4e4 ( a multitude or plurality ea* memb] ( :i* is a be+ & "o4 ,= be+1 z an object ( ?\ght1 is ei!r simple or composite4 ,if simple1 x is n only undivid$ b indivisible4 ,if composite1 we _c ?9k ( x z a be+1 capable ( exi/+1 s long z we ?9k its p>ts z sep>ate or divid$3 only :5 we ?9k ( !m z actually unit$ & undivid$ h we ! concept ( a be+3 & eo ipso we h ! concept ( be+ z "o1 z a unity47#ace7 ,h5ce ! s*ola/ic =mul3 ,ens et unum conv]tuntur1 & ,omne ens e/ unum4 ,! tru? embodi$ 9 ^! is s self-evid5t t ! expression ( x may seem sup]flu\s2 b !y are n m]e tautologies1 & 9 ! int]e/s ( cle> & consi/5t ?9k+ our att5tion may be pr(itably direct$ to !m4 ,! same rem>k applies to mu* 9 ! pres5t & subsequ5t *apt]s on ! transc5d5tal attributes ( be+4 #bg4 ,,k9ds ,,( ,,unity4--7a7 ,! unity we h be5 describ+ has be5 call$ transc5d5tal1 to di/+ui% x f pr$icam5tal unity--! unity :i* is prop] to a special category ( be+1 namely1 quantity1 & :i*1 accord+ly1 is also call$ quantitative or ma!matical unity4 ,:ile ! =m] is common to all be+1 ) :i* x is really id5tical1 & to :i* x adds no?+ real1 ! latt] belongs & is applicable1 prop]ly speak+1 only to ! mode ( be+ :i* is corporeal1 :i* exi/s only z affect$ by quantity1 z occupy+ space1 z capable ( measurem5t2 & !re=e1 also1 ?is latt] unity adds some?+ real to ! be+ :i* x affects1 namely1 ! attribute ( quantity1 ( :i* unity is ! measure & ! g5]at+ pr9ciple47#acf7 ,= quantity1 z we %all see1 is a mode ( be+ really di/9ct f ! corporeal sub/ance :i* x affects4 ,! quantity has its own transc5d5tal unity2 s has ! sub/ance :i* x quantifies2 s has ! composite :ole1 ! quantifi$ body1 b ?is latt] transc5d5tal unity1 l ! composite be+ ) :i* x is id5tical1 is n a unum p] se b only a unum p] accid5s 7cf4 b1 infra74 ,we d]ive our notion ( quantitative or ma!matical unity1 :i* is ! pr9ciple ( c\nt+ & ! /&>d ( measur+1 f divid+ m5tally ! cont9u\s quantity or magnitude :i* is "o ( ! imm$iate data ( s5se exp]i5ce4 ,n[ ! di/9ction betwe5 ?is unit & transc5d5tal unity supposes n m]ely t quantity is really di/9ct f ! corporeal sub/ance1 b also t ! human m9d is capable ( conceiv+ z real c]ta9 modes ( be+ o!r ?an ! corporeal1 modes to :i* quantitative concepts & processes1 su* z c\nt+ & measur+1 are n prop]ly applicable1 z !y are to corporeal reality1 b only 9 an analogical or transf]r$ s5se 7#b74 ,! notion ( transc5d5tal unity1 !re=e1 be>s ! same relation to t ( quantitative unity1 z ! notion ( be+ 9 g5]al be>s to t ( quantifi$ or corporeal be+4 7b7 ,transc5d5tal unity may be ei!r ess5tial 7or sub/antial1 8unum p] se10 8unum simplicit]071 or accid5tal 78unum p] accid5s10 8unum secundum quid074 ,! =m] *>act]izes a be+ :i* has no?+ 9 x beyond :at is ess5tial to x z su*1 e4g4 ! unity ( any sub/ance3 & ?is unity is tw(old--7#a7 unity ( simplicity & 7#b7 unity ( composition--accord+ z ! sub/ance is ess5tially simple 7su* z ! human s\l or a pure _s7 or ess5tially composite 7su* z man1 or any corporeal sub/ance3 s9ce e su* sub/ance is compos$ ess5tially ( a =mative & an indet]m9ate pr9ciple747#acg7 ,accid5tal unity is ! unity ( a be+ ^: con/itu5t factors or cont5ts are n really unit$ 9 su* a way z to =m "o ess5ce1 :e!r simple or composite4 ,x is ?reefold3 7#a7 collective unity1 or unity ( aggregation1 z ( a heap ( /ones or a cr[d ( m52 7#b7 artificial unity1 z ( a h\se or a picture2 & 7#c7 natural or physical unity1 z ( any exi/+ sub/ance ) its connatural accid5ts1 e4g4 a liv+ organism ) its size1 %ape1 qualities1 etc41 or ! human s\l ) its faculties47#ach7 7c7 ,transc5d5tal unity may be ei!r individual 7s+ul>1 num]ical1 concrete1 real7 or univ]sal 7specific1 g5]ic1 ab/ract1 logical74 ,! =m] is t :i* *>act]izes be+ or reality consid]$ z actually exi/+ or z proximately capable ( exi/+3 ! unity ( an individual nature or ess5ce3 ! unity :]eby a be+ is n m]ely undivid$ 9 itself b incapable ( repetition or multiplication ( itself4 ,x is only ! individual z su* t c actually exi/3 ! ab/ract & univ]sal is incapable ( actually exi/+ z su*4 ,we %all exam9e pres5tly :at x is t individuates reality1 & :at x is t r5d]s x capable ( exi/+ actually 9 ! =m ( 8?+s0 or ( 8p]sons0--! =ms 9 :i* x actually pres5ts itself 9 our exp]i5ce4 ,ab/ract or univ]sal unity is ! unity :i* *>act]izes a reality conceiv$ z an ab/ract1 univ]sal object by ! human intellect4 ,! object ( a specific or g5]ic concept1 8man0 or 8animal10 = example1 is "o 9 ?is s5se1 undivid$ 9 itself1 b capable ( indef9ite multiplication or repetition 9 ! only mode 9 :i* x c actually exi/--! individual mode4 ,! univ]sal is unum aptum inesse pluribus4 ,f9ally1 we c conceive any nature or ess5ce )\t consid]+ x 9 ei!r ( its alt]native /ates--ei!r z individual or z univ]sal4 ,?us conceiv$ x is *>act]iz$ by a unity :i* has be5 commonly designat$ z ab/ract1 or 7by ,scoti/s7 z =mal unity4 #bh4 ,,multitude ,,& ,,numb]4--,! "o has = its correlative ! manifold4 ,units1 "o ( :i* is n ! o!r1 con/itute multitude or plurality4 ,if unity is ! negation ( actual division 9 be+1 multitude results f a second negation1 t1 namely1 by :i* ! undivid$ be+ or unit is m>k$ (f or divid$ f o!r units47#aci7 ,we h def9$ unity by ! negation ( actual intr9sic divid$ness2 & we h se5 x to be compatible ) extr9sic divid$ness1 or o!rness4 ,?us ! vague notion ( divid$ness is ant]ior to t ( unity4 ,n[ multitude involves divid$ness2 b x also involves & presupposes ! intr9sic undivid$ness or unity ( ea* con/itu5t ( ! manifold4 ,9 ! real ord] ( ?+s ! "o is prior to all divid$ness2 b on acc\nt ( ! s5su\s orig9 ( our concepts we c def9e ! =m] only by exclusion ( ! latt]4 ,! ord] 9 :i* we obta9 ^! ideas seems1 !re=e1 to be z foll[s3 8fir/ be+1 !n divid$ness1 next unity :i* excludes divid$ness1 & f9ally multitude :i* consi/s ( units047#adj7 ,! relation ( ! "o to ! manifold is t ( undivid$ be+ to divid$ be+4 ,! same reality _c be "o & manifold "u ! same aspect2 ?\gh obvi\sly a be+ may be actually "o & pot5tially manifold or vice v]sa1 or "o "u a c]ta9 aspect & manifold "u ano!r aspect4 ,f ! transc5d5tal plurality or multitude :i* we h j describ$ we c di/+ui% pr$icam5tal or quantitative plurality3 a di/9ction :i* is to be und]/ood 9 ! same way z :5 appli$ to unity4 ,quantitative multitude is ! actually sep>at$ or divid$ condition ( quantifi$ be+4 ,numb] is a multitude measur$ or c\nt$ by unity3 x is a c\nt$1 &1 !re=e1 necess>ily a def9ite & f9ite multitude4 ,n[ x is ma!matical unity t is1 prop]ly1 ! pr9ciple ( numb] & ! /&>d or measure ( all c\nt+2 & !re=e x is only to realities :i* fall )9 ! category ( quantity--9 o!r words1 to mat]ial be+--t ! concept ( numb] is prop]ly applicable4 ,no d\bt we c & d conceive transc5d5tal unity aft] ! analogy ( ! quantitative unity :i* is ! pr9ciple ( c\nt+ & measur+2 & no d\bt we c use ! transc5d5tal concept ( 8actually undivid$ be+0 z a pr9ciple ( enum]ation1 & s 8c\nt0 or 8enum]ate0 spiritual be+s2 b ?is c\nt+ is only analogical2 & _m philosoph]s1 foll[+ ,ari/otle & ,/4 ,?omas1 hold t ! concepts ( num]ical multiplicity & num]ical di/9ction are n prop]ly applicable to immat]ial be+s1 t ^! latt] diff] individually f "o ano!r n num]ically1 b ea* by its :ole nature or ess5ce1 t is1 =mally47#ada7 #bi4 ,,! ,,individual ,,& ,,! ,,univ]sal4--,we h di/+ui%$ transc5d5tal unity into individual & univ]sal 7#bg1 c74 ,reality z end[$ ) univ]sal unity is reality z appreh5d$ by ab/ract ?\ght to be capable ( indef9ite repetition or multiplication ( itself 9 actual exi/5ce4 ,reality z end[$ ) individual unity is reality appreh5d$ z actually exi/+1 or z proximately capable ( actually exi/+1 & z !re=e incapable ( any repetition or multiplication ( itself1 ( any division ( itself into o!r 8selves0 or communication ( itself to o!r 8selves04 ,:ile1 !re=e1 ! univ]sal has its reality only 9 ! individuals to :i* x communicates itself1 & :i* ?us embody x1 ! individual has its reality 9 itself & ( its own "r1 s to speak3 :5 x actually exi/s x is 8sui juris10 & z su* incommunicable1 8incommunicabilis04 ,! actually exi/+ individual is call$ 9 ,lat9 a 8suppositum0--a t]m :i* we %all r5d] by ! ,engli% 8?+0 or 8individual ?+04 ,x 0 call$ by ,ari/otle ! 1 sub/antia prima1 8fir/ sub/ance10 or 8fir/ ess5ce10 to di/+ui% x f ! sub/ance or ess5ce conceiv$ by ab/ract ?\ght z univ]sal2 ! latt] be+ designat$ z 1 sub/antia secunda1 8second sub/ance0 or 8second ess5ce04 ,n[ x is a fundam5tal assumption 9 ,ari/otelian & s*ola/ic philosophy t :atev] actually exi/s1 or :atev] is real 9 ! s5se t z su* x is proximately capable ( actual exi/5ce1 is & mu/ be individual3 t ! univ]sal z su* is n real1 i4e4 z su* _c actually exi/4 ,& ! manife/ reason = ?is assumption is t :atev] actually exi/s mu/ be1 ) entire def9it5ess & det]m9at5ess1 its own self & no?+ else3 x _c be capable ( division or repetition ( itself1 ( t :i* x really is1 into 8o!r0 realities :i* w\ld /ill be 8t individual ?+04 ,b reality consid]$ z univ]sal is capable ( su* repetition ( itself indef9itely4 ,!re=e reality _c actually exi/ z univ]sal1 b only z individual4 ,?is is m]ely pla9 common s5se2 nor does ! ideali/ic monism :i* appe>s to attribute reality to ! univ]sal z su*1 & :i* int]prets reality exclusively accord+ to ! =ms 9 :i* x pres5ts itself to ab/ract ?\ght1 really run c\nt] to ?is consid]ation2 = :at x really holds is n t univ]sals z su* are real1 b t !y are phases ( ! all-"o reality :i* is itself "o individual be+4 ,b _m mod]n philosoph]s hold t individuality1 no less ?an univ]sality1 is a =m ( ?\ght4 ,no d\bt 8individuality0 9 ! ab/ract is1 no less ?an univ]sality1 an object ab/ract$ f ! data ( exp]i5ce by ! m9d's analysis ( ! latt]4 ,b ?is is n :at ^? philosoph]s mean4 ,!y mean t ! individual z su* is n a real datum ( exp]i5ce4 ,f ! ,kantian view t individuality is a purely m5tal =m ) :i* ! m9d inve/s ! datum1 !y draw ! subjectivi/ conclusion t ! _w1 ?us int]pret$ z consi/+ ( 8individuals10 is a ph5om5al or m5tal product = ! objective validity ( :i* !re c be to man's speculative reason no suffici5t gu>antee4 ,to ?is !ory we oppose t ( ,ari/otle & ! s*ola/ics1 n m]ely t ! individual alone is actually exi/5t1 b t z actually exi/5t & z individual x is actually giv5 to u & appreh5d$ by u 9 int]nal & ext]nal s5se exp]i5ce2 & t al?\gh 9 ! inorganic _w1 & to "s ext5t 9 ! l[] =ms ( life1 we may n be able to det]m9e = c]ta9 :at portions ( ?is exp]i5ce are di/9ct individuals1 /ill 9 ! _w ( liv+ ?+s g5]ally1 & especially ( ! animal k+dom1 !re c be no difficulty 9 det]m9+ ?is1 = ! simple reason t "h reality is giv5 to u 9 s5se exp]i5ce z consi/+ ( di/9ct individuals4 ,at ! same "t x is true t we c und]/& ^! individual realities1 int]pret !m1 read ! mean+ ( !m1 only by ! intellectual function ( judgm5t1 i4e4 by ! analytic & syn!tic activity :]eby we ab/ract & univ]salize c]ta9 aspects ( !m1 & use ^! aspects z pr$icates ( ! individuals4 ,n[1 see+ t intellectual ?\ght1 z di/9ct f s5se exp]i5ce1 appreh5ds its objects only z ab/ract & pot5tially univ]sal1 only z /atic1 self-id5tical1 possible ess5ces1 & nev]!less pr$icates ^! ( ! concrete1 individual1 cont+5t1 actually exi/+ 8?+s0 ( s5se exp]i5ce1 id5tify+ !m ) ! latt] 9 affirmative judgm5ts2 see+ moreov]1 t--s9ce ! intellectual k we ?us acquire ab\t ! data ( s5se exp]i5ce is g5u9e & n *im]ical--^? 8objects0 ( ab/ract ?\ght mu/ be likewise real1 & mu/ be really 9 ^? individual s5se data 7accord+ to ! !ory ( k :i* f9ds its expression 9 ,mod]ate ,realism71--!re arises imm$iately ! problem1 or r ! gr\p ( problems1 reg>d+ ! relations betwe5 reality z reveal$ to intellect1 i4e4 z ab/ract & univ]sal1 & reality z reveal$ to s5se1 i4e4 z concrete & individual4 ,9 o!r words1 we h to inquire h[ we are to int]pret intellectually ! fact t reality1 :i* z a possible ess5ce is univ]sal = ab/ract ?\ght1 is nev]!less1 z actually exi/+1 individualiz$ = s5se--& consequ5tly = intellect reflect+ on ! data ( s5se47#adb7 #cj4 ,,! 8,,metaphysical ,,grades ,,( ,,be+0 ,,9 ,,! ,,individual4--,:at1 !n is ! relation betwe5 all t intellect c appreh5d 9 ! individual1 viz4 its l[e/ class ess5ce or specific nature1 & its :ole nature z an individual1 its ess5tia atoma or individual nature8 ,we c be/ approa* ?is problem by consid]+ fir/ ^! v>i\s ab/ract ?\ght-objects :i* intellect c appreh5d 9 ! individual4 ,:at are call$ ! metaphysical grades ( be+1 ^? positive mom5ts ( p]fection or reality :i* ! m9d detects 9 ! individual1 z1 = in/ance1 sub/antiality1 mat]iality1 organic life1 animality1 rationality1 individuality1 9 ! individual man--:e!r we describe !m z 8phases0 or 8aspects0 or 8=malities0 ( be+--are und\bt$ly di/9ct objects = ab/ract ?\ght4 ,:y does x ?us di/+ui% betwe5 !m1 & express !m by di/9ct concepts1 ev5 :5 x f9ds !m embodi$ 9 a s+le individual8 ,because1 reflect+ on ! mann] 9 :i* reality pres5ts itself1 ?r\gh s5se exp]i5ce1 z actually exi/+1 x f9ds resemblances & diff]5ces betwe5 individually di/9ct data4 ,x f9ds 9 "s ( !m grades ( reality :i* x does n f9d 9 o!rs1 individual1 specific1 & g5]ic grades2 & "s--transc5d5tal--grades common to all4 ,n[ betwe5 ^! v>i\s grades ( be+ z f\nd 9 "o & ! same individual x _c be d5i$ t !re exi/s a logical di/9ction ) a f\ndation or gr\nd = x 9 ! individual reality2 because ! latt]1 be+ m or less simil> to o!r individual realities1 causes ! m9d to appreh5d x by a numb] ( di/9ct concepts3 ! individuality :]eby x diff]s really f all o!r individuals ( ! same species2 ! specific1 diff]5tial & g5]ic grades ( be+ :]eby x is conceptually id5tifi$ ) wid] & wid] classes ( ?+s2 & ! transc5d5tal grades :]eby x is conceptually id5tifi$ ) all o!rs4 ,! simil>ity ( really di/9ct individuals1 :i* is ! conceptual id5tity ( _! qualities1 is ! gr\nd on :i* we conceptually id5tify _! ess5ces4 ,n[ is !re any reason = ?9k+ t ^! gr\nds ( simil>ity1 z f\nd 9 ! individual1 are really di/9ct f "o ano!r 9 ! latt]8 ,!y are c]ta9ly conceptually di/9ct expressions--ea* less inadequate ?an ! wid] ones--( :at is really "o individual ess5ce4 ,b we mu/ take !m to be all really id5tical 9 & ) ?is individual ess5ce1 unless we are prep>$ to hold conceptual plurality z su* to be real plurality2 9 :i* case we %\ld also hold conceptual unity z su* to be real unity4 ,b ?is latt] view is precisely ! error ( extreme realism1 ( reify+ ab/ract concepts & hold+ ! 8univ]sale a p>te rei03 a !ory :i* leads logically to monism47#adc7 #ca4 ,,individuality4--,! di/9ction1 !re=e1 betwe5 ^! grades ( be+ 9 ! individual1 is a virtual di/9ction1 i4e4 a logical di/9ction ) a gr\nd = x 9 ! reality4 ,?is is ! sort ( di/9ction :i* exi/s betwe5 ! specific nature ( ! individual1 i4e4 :at is conta9$ 9 ! def9ition ( ! l[e/ class to :i* x belongs1 & its individuality1 i4e4 :at con/itutes its nature or ess5ce z an individual4 ,no d\bt ! concrete exi/+ individual conta9s1 besides its individual nature or ess5ce1 a v>iety ( accid5tal *>act]i/ics :i* s]ve z m>ks or signs :]eby its individuality is reveal$ to u4 ,^! are call$ 8individualiz+ *>act]i/ics10 8notae individuantes10 ! famili> s*ola/ic li/ ( !m be+ 8=ma1 figura1 locus1 tempus1 /irps1 patria1 nom510 ) manife/ ref]5ce to ! individual 8man04 ,b ?\gh ^! *>act]i/ics enable u to m>k (f ! individual 9 space & "t f o!r individuals ( ! same class1 ?us reveal+ individuality to u 9 ! concrete1 x _c be held t !y con/itute ! individuality ( ! nature or sub/ance 9 ea* case4 ,if ! human sub/ance1 ess5ce1 or nature1 z f\nd 9 ,socrates1 7 held to diff] f ! human sub/ance1 ess5ce1 or nature1 z f\nd 9 ,plato1 only by ! fact t 9 ea* x is affect$ by a diff]5t set ( accid5ts1 i4e4 ( modes accid5tal to ! sub/ance z f\nd 9 ea*1 !n x w\ld foll[ t ?is sub/ance is n m]ely conceptually id5tical 9 bo?1 b t x is really id5tical 9 bo?2 :i* is ! error ( extreme realism4 ,z a matt] ( fact x is ! conv]se t is true3 ! sets ( accid5ts are di/9ct because !y affect individual sub/ances already really & individually di/9ct4 ,x is manife/ t ! accid5ts :i* are sep>able f ! individual sub/ance1 e4g4 "n1 %ape1 size1 appe>ance1 location1 etc41 _c con/itute its individuality4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 o!r *>act]i/ics :i* are insep>able f ! individual sub/ance1 or :i* are prop]ties ( ! latt]1 e4g4 ! fact t an individual man 0 born ( c]ta9 p>5ts4 ,p]haps x is su* *>act]i/ics t give its individuality to ! individual sub/ance87#add7 ,to ?9k s w\ld be to misund]/& ! "q "u discussion4 ,we are n n[ inquir+ into ! extr9sic causes :]eby actually exi/+ reality is individuat$1 into ! effici5t pr9ciples ( its individuation1 b into ! =mal & intr9sic pr9ciple ( ! latt]4 ,!re mu/ obvi\sly be some?+ intr9sic to ! individual reality itself :]eby x is individuat$4 ,& x is ab\t ?is intr9sic some?+ we are inquir+4 ,! individual man is ?is individual1 human nature is ?us individuat$ 9 him1 by some?+ t is ess5tial to human nature z f\nd 9 him4 ,?is some?+ has be5 call$--aft] ! analogy ( ! diff]5tia specifica :i* diff]5tiates species )9 a g5us--! diff]5tia individua ( ! individual4 ,x has also be5 call$ by "s ! diff]5tia num]ica1 & by ,scoti/s ! haecceitas4 ,h[ev] we are to conceive ?is some?+1 x is c]ta9 at all ev5ts t1 consid]$ z x is really f\nd 9 ! individual1 x _c be any?+ really di/9ct f ! specific nature ( ! latt]4 ,no d\bt1 ! diff]5tia specifica1 consid]$ 9 ! ab/ract1 x is n ess5tial & intr9sic to ! natura g5]ica consid]$ 9 ! ab/ract3 x is extr9sic & accid5tal to ! ab/ract cont5t ( ! latt] notion2 b ?is is because we are conceiv+ ^! grades ( be+ 9 ! ab/ract4 ,! same is true ( ! diff]5tia individua z comp>$ ) ! natura specifica 9 ! ab/ract4 ,b we are n[ consid]+ ^! grades ( reality z !y are actually 9 ! concrete individual be+3 & z !y are f\nd "h1 we h se5 t a real di/9ction betwe5 !m is inadmissible4 #cb4 ,,! 8,,pr9ciple ,,( ,,individuation04--,h[1 !n1 are we to conceive ?is some?+ :i* individuates reality8 ,x may be well to po9t out t = ! errone\s doctr9e ( extreme realism1 :i* issues 9 monism1 ! problem ( individuation1 z "h und]/ood1 does n arise4 ,= ! moni/ all plurality 9 be+ is m]ely app>5t1 n real3 !re c be no "q ( a real di/9ction betwe5 individual & individual47#ade7 ,simil>ly1 ! nom9ali/ & ! conceptuali/ evade ! problem4 ,= ^! ! individual alone is n m]ely =mally real3 x alone is fundam5tally real3 ! univ]sal is n ev5 fundam5tally real1 has no f\ndation 9 reality1 & ?us all sci5tific k ( reality z reveal$ 9 s5se exp]i5ce is r5d]$ impossible4 ,b = ! mod]ate reali/1 :ile ! individual alone is =mally real1 ! univ]sal is fundam5tally real1 & h5ce ! problem arises4 ,x may be =cibly /at$ 9 ! =m ( a p>adox3 ,t :]eby ,socrates & ,plato are really di/9ct f ea* o!r z individuals is really id5tical ) ! human nature :i* is really 9 bo?4 ,b :at individuates human nature 9 ,socrates1 or 9 ,plato1 is logically di/9ct f ! human nature t is really 9 ,socrates1 & really 9 ,plato4 ,we h only to inquire1 !re=e1 :e!r ! intr9sic pr9ciple ( individuation is to be conceiv$ m]ely z a negation1 z some?+ negative add$ by ! m9d to ! concept ( ! specific nature1 :]eby ! latt] is appreh5d$ z incapable ( multiplication into 8o!rs0 ea* ( :i* w\ld be =mally t same nature1 or1 9 o!r words1 z incommunicable2 or is ! intr9sic gr\nd ( ?is incommunicability to be conceiv$ z some?+ positive1 n inde$ z some?+ really di/9ct f1 & sup]add$ to1 ! specific nature1 b z a positive aspect ( ! latt]1 an aspect1 moreov]1 n involv$ 9 ! concept ( ! specific nature consid]$ 9 ! ab/ract4 ,( ! _m views t h be5 put =w>d on ?is "q two or ?ree call = "s att5tion4 ,9 ! op9ion ( ,?omi/s g5]ally1 ! pr9ciple :i* individuates mat]ial ?+s1 ?us multiply+ num]ically ! same specific nature1 is to be conceiv$ z a positive mode affect+ ! latt] & reveal+ x 9 a new aspect1 :]eas ! specific nature ( ! spiritual individual is itself =mally an individual4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! latt]'s individuation is already involv$ 9 ! v concept ( its specific nature1 & !re=e is n to be conceiv$ z a di/9ct positive aspect ( ! latt] b simply z ! abs5ce ( plurality & communicability 9 ! latt]4 ,9 mat]ial ?+s1 moreov]1 ! positive mode or aspect :]eby ! specific nature is f\nd num]ically multipli$1 & incommunicable z x exi/s 9 ea*1 consi/s 9 ! fact t su* a specific nature involves 9 its v con/itution a mat]ial pr9ciple :i* is actually alli$ ) c]ta9 quantitative dim5sions4 ,h5ce ! pr9ciple :i* individuates mat]ial sub/ances is n to be conceiv$--aft] ! mann] 9 :i* ,scoti/s conceive x--z an ultimate diff]5tia affect+ ! =mal factor ( ! nature1 det]m9+ ! specific nature j z ! diff]5tia specifica det]m9es ! g5]ic nature1 b z a mat]ial diff]5tiat+ pr9ciple4 ,:at individuates ! mat]ial individual1 :at m>ks x (f z "o 9 itself1 di/9ct or divid$ f o!r individuals ( ! same specific nature1 & incommunicable 9 t condition1 is ! mat]ial factor ( t individual's nature--n1 inde$1 ! mat]ial factor1 mat]ia prima1 consid]$ 9 ! ab/ract1 b ! mat]ial factor z proximately capable ( actual exi/5ce by be+ alli$ to c]ta9 m or less def9ite spatial or quantitative dim5sions3 8matt] affect$ ) quantity03 8mat]ia quantitate signata047#adf7 ,9 reg>d to mat]ial sub/ances ?is doctr9e embraces two sep>ate cont5tions3 7a7 t ! pr9ciple :i* individuates su* a sub/ance mu/ be conceiv$ z some?+ positive1 n really di/9ct f1 b yet n conta9$ 91 ! specific nature consid]$ 9 ! ab/ract2 7b7 t ?is positive aspect is to be f\nd n 9 ! =mal b 9 ! mat]ial pr9ciple ( ! composite corporeal sub/ance4 ,to ! =m] cont5tion x might be object$ t :at individuates ! specific nature _c be conceiv$ z any?+ positive1 sup]add$ to ?is nature3 x _c be any?+ accid5tal to ! latt]1 = if x 71 ! individual w\ld be only an accid5tal unity1 a 8unum p] accid5s0 & w\ld be con/itut$ by an accid5t1 :i* we h se5 to be inadmissible2 nor1 on ! o!r h&1 c x be any?+ ess5tial to ! specific nature1 = if x 71 !n individuals %\ld be capable ( adequate ess5tial def9ition1 & fur!rmore ! def9ition ( ! specific nature w\ld n really give ! :ole ess5ce or quidditas ( ! individuals--two consequ5ces :i* are commonly reject$ by all s*ola/ics4 ,to ?is1 h[ev]1 x is repli$ t ! pr9ciple ( individuation is some?+ ess5tial to ! specific nature 9 ! s5se t x is some?+ intr9sic to1 & really id5tical )1 ! :ole real sub/ance or entity ( ?is nature1 ?\gh n involv$ 9 ! ab/ract concept by ! analysis ( :i* we rea* ! def9ition or quidditas ( ?is nature4 ,:at individuates ,socrates is c]ta9ly ess5tial to ,socrates1 & is !re=e really id5tical ) 8 human nature2 x is intr9sic to ! human nature 9 him1 a mode or aspect ( 8 human sub/ance2 yet x does n ent] into ! def9ition ( 8 nature--8animal rationale0--= su* def9ition ab/racts f individuality4 ,:51 !re=e1 we say t def9ition ( ! specific nature gives ! :ole ess5ce ( an individual1 we mean t x gives explicitly ! ab/ract 7specific7 ess5ce1 n ! individuality :i* is really id5tical ) ?is1 nor1 !re=e1 ! :ole sub/antial reality ( ! individual4 ,we give diff]5t answ]s to ! que/ions1 8,:at is ,socrates80 & 8,:o is ,socrates80 ,! answ] to ! =m] "q--a 8man10 or a 8rational animal0--gives ! 8ess5ce10 b n explicitly ! :ole sub/antial reality ( ! individual1 ?is rema9+ incapable ( adequate conceptual analysis4 ,! latt] "q we answ] by giv+ ! notes t reveal individuality4 ,^!1 ( c\rse1 are 8accid5tal0 9 ! /rict s5se4 ,b ev5 ! pr9ciples :i* con/itute ! individuality ( sep>ate individuals ( ! same species1 & :i* diff]5tiate ^! individuals num]ically f "o ano!r1 we d n describe z ess5tial diff]5ces1 :]eas we d describe specific & g5]ic diff]5ces z ess5tial4 ,! reason ( ?is is t ! latt] are ab/ract1 univ]sal1 conceptual1 am5able to intellectual analysis1 sci5tifically important1 :ile ! =m] are j ! rev]se2 ! univ]sal diff]5ces alone are pr9ciples ab\t :i* we c h sci5tific k1 = 8all sci5ce is ( ! ab/ract & univ]sal027#adg7 & ?is is :at we h 9 m9d :5 we describe !m z 8ess5tial0 or 8=mal10 & individual diff]5ces z 8entitative0 or 8mat]ial04 ,! second po9t 9 ! ,?omi/ic doctr9e is t corporeal sub/ances are individuat$ by reason ( _! mat]iality4 ,! =mative1 specific1 det]m9+ pr9ciple ( ! corporeal sub/ance is r5d]$ incommunicable by its union ) ! mat]ial1 det]m9able pr9ciple2 & x becomes individually di/9ct or sep>ate by ! fact t ?is latt] pr9ciple1 9 ord] to be capable ( union ) ! giv5 specific =m1 has 9 its v ess5ce an exig5ce = c]ta9 m or less det]m9ate dim5sions 9 space4 ,corporeal ?+s h _! natural size )9 c]ta9 limits4 ,! individual ( a giv5 corporeal species c exi/ only because ! mat]ial pr9ciple1 receptive ( ?is specific =m1 has a natural relation to ! fundam5tal prop]ty ( corporeal ?+s1 viz4 quantity1 )9 c]ta9 m or less det]m9ate limits4 ,! =m is r5d]$ incommunicable by its reception 9 ! matt]4 ,?is concrete realization ( ! =m 9 ! matt] is individually di/9ct & sep>ate f o!r realizations ( ! same specific =m1 by ! fact t ! matt] ( ?is realization dem&s c]ta9 dim5sions ( quantity3 ?is latt] prop]ty be+ ! root-pr9ciple ( num]ical multiplication ( corporeal individuals )9 ! same species4 ,on ! o!r h&1 incorporeal sub/ances su* z angels or pure spirits1 be+ 8pure0 =ms1 8=m subsi/5tes10 :olly & ess5tially unalli$ ) any det]m9able mat]ial pr9ciple1 are ( !mselves n only specific b individual2 !y are !mselves ess5tially incommunicable1 sup]ior to all multiplication or repeat$ realization ( !mselves3 !y are su* t ea* c be actualiz$ only 8once & = all03 ea* is a species 9 itself3 x is ! full1 exhau/ive1 & adequate expression ( a div9e type1 ( an exempl> 9 ! ,div9e ,m9d3 its realization is n1 l t ( a mat]ial =m1 ! actuation ( an indef9itely det]m9able mat]ial pr9ciple3 x sums up & exhau/s ! imitable p]fection ( ! specific type 9 its s+le individuality1 :]eas ! p]fection ( ! specific type ( a corporeal ?+ _c be adequately express$ 9 any s+le individual realization1 b only by repeat$ realizations2 nor inde$ c x ev] be adequately1 exhau/ively express$1 by any f9ite multitude ( ^!4 ,x foll[s t 9 reg>d to pure spirits ! individuat+ pr9ciple & ! specific pr9ciple are n only really b also logically1 conceptually id5tical2 t ! di/9ction betwe5 individual & individual is "h prop]ly a specific di/9ction2 t x c be describ$ z num]ical only 9 an analogical s5se1 if by num]ical we mean mat]ial or quantitative1 i4e4 ! di/9ction betwe5 corporeal individuals ( ! same species 7#bh74 ,b ! di/9ction betwe5 individual human s\ls is n a specific or =mal di/9ction4 ,^!1 ?\gh spiritual1 are n pure spirits4 ,!y are spiritual sub/ances :i*1 ( _! v nature1 are ess5tially orda9$ = union ) matt]4 ,!y all belong to ! same species--! human species4 ,b !y d n con/itute individuals ( ?is species unless z exi/+ actually unit$ ) matt]4 ,ea* human s\l has a transc5d5tal relation to its own body1 to ! 8mat]ia signata0 = :i*1 & 9 :i*1 x 0 creat$4 ,= ea* human s\l ?is relation is unique4 ,j z x is ! mat]ial pr9ciple ( ea* human be+1 ! matt] z alli$ to quantitative dim5sions1 t individuates ! man1 s x is ! unique relation ( 8 s\l to ! mat]ial pr9ciple ?us spatially det]m9$1 t individuates 8 s\l4 ,n[ ! s\l1 ev5 :5 disembodi$ & exi/+ aft] dea?1 necess>ily reta9s 9 its v con/itution ?is ess5tial relation to its own body2 & ?us x is t disembodi$ s\ls1 ?\gh n actually alli$ ) matt]1 rema9 num]ically di/9ct & individuat$ 9 virtue ( _! ess5tial relation1 ea* to its own body4 ,we see1 !re=e1 t human s\ls1 ?\gh spiritual1 are an entirely diff]5t ord] ( be+s1 & mu/ be conceiv$ q diff]5tly1 f pure spirits4 ,we mu/ be cont5t ) ?is brief exposition ( ! ,?omi/ic doctr9e on individuation4 ,a discussion ( ! argum5ts = & aga9/ x w\ld c>ry u too f>47#adh7 ,!re is no d\bt t :at reveals ! individuality ( ! corporeal sub/ance to u is its mat]ial pr9ciple1 9 virtue ( :i* its exi/5ce is circumscrib$ )9 c]ta9 limits ( "t & space & affect$ ) individual *>act]i/ics1 8notae individuantes04 ,b ! ,?omi/ic doctr9e1 :i* f9ds 9 8mat]ia signata0 ! =mal1 intr9sic1 con/itutive pr9ciple ( individuation1 goes mu* deep]4 ,x is intimately connect$ ) ! ,ari/otelian !ory ( k & reality4 ,accord+ to ?is philosophy ! =mative pr9ciple or 1 ! =ma subtantialis1 is our sole key to ! intelligibility ( corporeal ?+s3 ^! are intelligible 9 s f> =? z !y are actual1 & !y are actual 9 virtue ( _! 8=ms04 ,h5ce ! t5d5cy ( ! s*ola/ic comm5tators ( ,ari/otle to use ! t]m 8=m0 z synonym\s ) ! t]m 8nature10 ?\gh ! :ole nature ( ! corporeal sub/ance embraces ! mat]ial z well z ! =mal pr9ciple3 = ev5 ?\gh x does1 we c und]/& no?+ ab\t ?is 8nature0 beyond :at is intelligible 9 x 9 virtue ( its 8=m40 ,! mat]ial pr9ciple1 on ! o!r h&1 is ! pot5tial1 indet]m9ate pr9ciple1 9 itself un9telligible4 ,we "k t 9 anci5t ,greek philosophy x 0 reg>d$ z ! 1 ! surd & cont+5t pr9ciple 9 ?+s1 ! elem5t :i* resi/$ rational analysis & fell outside ! scope ( 8sci5ce10 or 8k ( ! necess>y & univ]sal04 ,:ile x reveal$ ! =ms or natures ( ?+s to s5se1 x rema9$ itself imp]vi\s to intellect1 :i* grasp$ ^! natures & r5d]$ !m intelligible only by dive/+ !m ( matt]1 by ab/ract+ !m f matt]4 ,reality is intelligible only 9 s f> =? z x is immat]ial1 ei!r 9 fact or by ab/raction4 ,! human intellect1 be+ itself spiritual1 is 8receptive ( =ms )\t matt]04 ,b be+ itself alli$ ) matt]1 its prop] object is none o!r ?an ! natures or ess5ces ( corporeal ?+s1 ab/ract$1 h[ev]1 f ! matt] 9 :i* !y are actually 8imm]s$04 ,! only reason1 !re=e1 :y any intelligible =m or ess5ce :i*1 z ab/ract & univ]sal1 is 8"o0 = intellect1 is nev]!less actually or pot5tially 8manifold0 9 its reality1 is because x is alli$ ) a mat]ial pr9ciple4 ,x is ! latt] t acc\nts = ! num]ical multiplication1 9 actual reality1 ( any intelligible =m or ess5ce4 ,if ! latt] is mat]ial x c be actualiz$ only by indef9itely repeat$1 num]ically or mat]ially di/9ct1 alliances ) matt]4 ,x _c be actualiz$ 8tota simul10 or 8once = all10 z x 74 ,x is1 !re=e1 ! mat]ial pr9ciple t n m]ely reveals1 b also con/itutes1 ! individuation ( su* corporeal =ms or ess5ces4 ,h5ce1 too1 ! individual z su* _c be adequately appreh5d$ by intellect2 = all intelligible pr9ciples ( reality are =mal1 :]eas ! individuat+ pr9ciple is mat]ial4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if an intelligible ess5ce or =m be purely spiritual1 :olly unrelat$ to any indet]m9ate1 mat]ial pr9ciple1 x mu/ be 8"o0 n alone conceptually or logically b also really3 x c exi/ only z 8"o03 x is ( itself individual3 x c be diff]5tiat$ f o!r spiritual ess5ces n mat]ially b only =mally1 or1 9 o!r words1 n num]ically b by a di/9ction :i* is at once individual & specific4 ,two pure spirits _c be 8two0 num]ically & 8"o0 specifically1 two = s5se & "o = intellect1 z two m5 are3 if !y are di/9ct at all !y mu/ be di/9ct = intellect1 i4e4 !y _c be prop]ly conceiv$ z two memb]s ( ! same species4 ,9 ?is solution ( ! "q x is n easy to see h[ ! mat]ial pr9ciple1 :i*1 by its alliance ) quantity1 individuates ! =m1 is itself individuat$ s z to be ! s\rce & pr9ciple ( a multiplicity ( num]ically di/9ct & incommunicable realizations ( ?is =m4 ,p]haps ! mo/ t c be said on ?is po9t is t we mu/ conceive quantity1 :i* is ! fundam5tal prop]ty ( corporeal reality1 z be+ itself ess5tially divisible1 & ! mat]ial pr9ciple z d]iv+ f its ess5tial relation to quantity its function ( multiply+ ! same specific nature num]ically4 ,( ^? :o reject ! ,?omi/ic doctr9e "s few cont5d t x is ! actual exi/5ce ( any specific nature t %\ld be conceiv$ z individuat+ ! latt]4 ,no d\bt ! univ]sal z su* _c exi/2 reality 9 ord] to exi/ actually mu/ be individual4 ,yet x _c be actual exi/5ce t individuates x4 ,we mu/ conceive x z individual be=e conceiv+ x z actually exi/5t2 & we c conceive x z individual :ile ab/ract+ f its exi/5ce4 ,we c ?9k1 = in/ance1 ( purely possible individual m51 or angels1 z num]ically or individually di/9ct f "o ano!r4 ,moreov]1 :at individuates ! nature mu/ be ess5tial to ! latt]1 b actual exi/5ce is n ess5tial to any f9ite nature4 ,h5ce actual exi/5ce _c be ! pr9ciple ( individuation47#adi7 ,c x be cont5d$ t possible exi/5ce is :at individuates reality8 ,no2 = possible exi/5ce is no?+ m ?an intr9sic capacity to exi/ actually1 & ?is is ess5tial to all reality3 x is ! crit]ion :]eby we di/+ui% real be+ f logical be+2 b real be+1 z su*1 is indiff]5t to univ]sality or individuality2 z f> z ! simple concept ( real be+ is conc]n$ ! latt] may be ei!r univ]sal or individual2 ! concept ab/racts equally f ei!r condition ( be+4 ,! va/ majority1 !re=e1 ( ^? :o reject ! ,?omi/ic doctr9e on individuation1 support ! view t :at individuates any nature or sub/ance is simply ! :ole reality1 ! total entity1 ( ! individual4 ,?is total entity ( ! individual1 ?\gh really id5tical ) ! specific nature1 mu/ be conceiv$ z some?+ positive1 sup]add$ to ! latt]1 = x involves a some?+ :i* is logically or m5tally di/9ct f ! latt]4 ,?is some?+ is :at we conceive z a diff]5tia individua1 aft] ! analogy ( ! diff]5tia specifica :i* contracts ! concept ( ! g5us to t ( ! species2 & by ,scoti/s x has be5 t]m$ 8haecceitas0 or 8?isness04 ,)\t us+ ! ,scoti/ t]m9ology1 mo/ ( ^? s*ola/ics :o reject ! ,?omi/ doctr9e on ?is po9t advocate ! pres5t view4 ,! individuality or 8?isness0 ( ! individual sub/ance is reg>d$ z hav+ no special pr9ciple 9 ! individual1 o!r ?an ! :ole sub/antial entity ( ! latt]4 ,if ! nature is simple x is ( itself individual2 if composite1 ! intr9sic pr9ciples f :i* x results--i4e4 matt] & =m ess5tially unit$--suffice to individuate x4 ,9 ?is view1 !re=e1 ! mat]ial pr9ciple ( any individual man1 = example1 is num]ically & individually di/9ct f t ( any o!r individual1 ( itself & indep5d5tly ( its relation ei!r to ! =mative pr9ciple or to quantity4 ,! =mative pr9ciple1 too1 is individuat$ ( itself1 & n by ! mat]ial pr9ciple :i* is really di/9ct f x1 or by its relation to ?is mat]ial pr9ciple4 ,likewise ! union ( bo? pr9ciples1 :i* is a sub/antial mode ( ! composite sub/ance1 is individuat$ & r5d]$ num]ically di/9ct f all o!r unions ( ^! two individual pr9ciples1 n by ei!r or bo? ^!1 b by itself4 ,& f9ally1 ! individual composite sub/ance has its individuation f ^! two intr9sic pr9ciples ?us individually unit$4 ,x may be d\bt$1 p]haps1 :e!r ?is attempt at expla9+ ! real1 individual 8manifoldness0 ( :at is 8"o0 = intellect1 i4e4 ! univ]sal1 ?r[s any real light ^u ! problem4 ,no d\bt1 e elem5t or factor :i* is grasp$ by intellect 9 its analysis ( reality--matt]1 =m1 sub/ance1 accid5t1 quantity1 nay1 ev5 8individuality0 itself--is appreh5d$ z ab/ract & univ]sal2 & if we hold ! doctr9e ( ,mod]ate ,realism1 t ! intellect 9 appreh5d+ ! univ]sal atta9s to reality1 & n m]ely to a logical figm5t ( its own creation1 ! problem ( relat+ intelligibly ! reality :i* is 8"o0 = intellect ) ! same reality z manife/ly 8manifold0 9 its concrete realizations = s5se1 is a g5u9e philosophical problem4 ,to say t :at individuates any real ess5ce or nature1 :at deprives x ( ! 8on5ess0 & 8univ]sality0 :i* x has = intellect1 :at makes x 8?is10 8t10 or 8! o!r0 incommunicable individual1 mu/ be conceiv$ to be simply ! :ole ess5tial reality ( t nature itself--leaves u /ill 9 ignorance z to :y su* a nature1 :i* is really 8"o0 = intellect1 c be really 8manifold0 9 its actualizations = s5se exp]i5ce4 ,! reason :y ! nature :i* is "o & univ]sal = ab/ract ?\ght1 & :i* is und\bt$ly n a logical entity b a reality capable ( actual exi/5ce1 c be actualiz$ z a manifold ( di/9ct individuals1 mu/ be s\ght1 we are incl9$ to ?9k1 9 ! relation ( ?is nature to a mat]ial pr9ciple 9 alliance ) quantity :i* is ! s\rce ( all purely num]ical1 8space & "t0 di/9ctions4 #cc4 ,,individuation ,,( ,,accid5ts4--,! rle ( quantity 9 ! ,?omi/ic !ory ( individuation sugge/s ! "q3 ,h[ are accid5ts !mselves individuat$8 ,we h ref]r$ already 7#bi1 n47 to ! view t !y are individuat$ by ! individual subjects or sub/ances 9 :i* !y inh]e4 ,if we di/+ui% aga9 betwe5 :at reveals individuality & :at con/itutes x1 !re c be no d\bt t :5 accid5ts ( ! same k9d are f\nd 9 individually di/9ct subjects :at reveals ! num]ical di/9ction betwe5 ! =m] is ! fact t !y are f\nd inh]+ 9 ! latt]4 ,s1 also1 di/9ction ( individual sub/ances is ! extr9sic1 g5etic1 or causal pr9ciple ( ! num]ical di/9ction betwe5 simil> accid5ts aris+ 9 ^! sub/ances4 ,b :5 ! same k9d ( accid5t recurs successively 9 ! same individual sub/ance--z1 = example1 :5 a man p]=ms repeat$ acts ( ! same k9d--:at reveals ! num]ical or individual di/9ction betwe5 ^! latt] _c be ! individual sub/ance1 = x is "o & ! same1 b r ! "t di/9ction betwe5 ! accid5ts !mselves4 ,! intr9sic con/itutive pr9ciple :i* =mally individuates ! accid5ts ( individually di/9ct sub/ances is1 accord+ to ,?omi/s g5]ally1 _! ess5tial relation to ! individual sub/ances 9 :i* !y appe>4 ,x is n cle> h[ ?is !ory c be appli$ to ! fundam5tal accid5t ( corporeal sub/ances4 ,if ! function ( =mally individuat+ ! corporeal sub/ance itself is to be ascrib$ 9 any measure to quantity1 x w\ld seem to foll[ t ?is latt] mu/ be reg>d$ z individuat$ by itself1 by its own total entity or reality4 ,& ?is is ! view held by mo/ o!r s*ola/ics 9 reg>d to ! individuation ( accid5ts g5]ally3 t ^!1 l sub/ances1 are individuat$ by _! own total positive reality4 ,:5 !re is "q ( ! same k9d ( accid5t recurr+ 9 ! same individual subject1 ! 8"t0 di/9ction betwe5 su* successive individual accid5ts ( ! same k9d w\ld appe> n m]ely to reveal _! individuality b also to indicate a diff]5t relation ( ea* to its subject z exi/+ at t p>ticul> po9t ( space & "t3 s t ! relation ( ! accid5t to its individual subject1 z "h & n[ exi/+ 9 ! concrete1 w\ld be ! individuat+ pr9ciple ( ! accid5t4 ,:e!r a numb] ( accid5ts ( ! same species infima1 & di/9ct m]ely num]ically1 c\ld exi/ simultane\sly 9 ! same individual subject1 is a "q on :i* s*ola/ic philosoph]s are n agre$3 ! negative op9ion1 :i* has ! au?ority ( ,/4 ,?omas1 be+ ! m probable4 ,^? v>i\s que/ions on ! individuation ( accid5ts w be bett] und]/ood f a subsequ5t exposition ( ! s*ola/ic doctr9e on accid5ts 7,*4 viii474 ,x may be well to rem>k t 9 inquir+ ab\t ! individuation ( sub/ances & accid5ts we h be5 consid]+ reality f a /atic /&po9t1 seek+ h[ we are to conceive & int]pret intellectually1 or = ab/ract ?\ght1 ! relation ( ! univ]sal to ! individual4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we ascribe to 8"t0 di/9ctions any function 9 individuat+ accid5ts ( ! same k9d 9 ! same individual sub/ance1 we are introduc+ into our analysis ! k9etic aspect ( reality1 or its subjection to processes ( *ange4 ,we may call att5tion "h to a few o!r que/ions ( m9or import discuss$ by s*ola/ics4 ,fir/1 h all individuals ( ! same species ! same sub/antial p]fection1 or c individuals h diff]5t grades ( sub/antial p]fection )9 ! same species8 ,all admit ! obvi\s fact t individual diff]s f individual )9 ! same species 9 ! numb]1 v>iety1 ext5t & int5sity ( _! accid5tal prop]ties & qualities4 ,b1 hav+ ! human s\l ma9ly 9 view1 !y disagree z to :e!r ! sub/antial p]fection ( ! specific nature c be actualiz$ 9 diff]5t grades 9 diff]5t individuals4 ,accord+ to ! m common op9ion !re _c be diff]5t sub/antial grades ( ! same specific nature1 = ! simple reason t e su* grade ( sub/antial p]fection %\ld be reg>d$ z specific1 z *ang+ ! species3 h5ce1 e4g4 all human s\ls are sub/antially equal 9 p]fection4 ,?is view is obvi\sly bas$ ^u ! conception ( specific types or ess5ces z be+1 aft] ! analogy ( numb]s1 immutable :5 consid]$ 9 ! ab/ract4 ,& x seems to be confirm$ by ! consid]ation t ! intr9sic pr9ciple ( individuation is no?+1 or adds no?+1 really di/9ct f ! specific ess5ce itself4 ,ano!r "q 9 connexion ) individuation has d]iv$ at lea/ an hi/orical int]e/ f ! notable controv]sy to :i* x gave rise 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury betwe5 ,cl>ke & ,leibniz4 ,! latt]1 9 accordance ) ! pr9ciples ( 8 sy/em ( philosophy1--! ,law ( ,suffici5t ,reason & ! ,law ( ,cont9uity among ! monads or ultimate pr9ciples ( be+1--cont5d$ t two individual be+s s absolutely alike z to be indisc]nible w\ld be eo ipso id5tical1 9 o!r words1 t ! reality ( two su* be+s is impossible4 ,( c\rse if we try to conceive two individuals s absolutely alike bo? 9 ess5ce & accid5ts1 bo? 9 ! ab/ract & 9 ! concrete1 z to be indisc]nible ei!r by our s5ses or by our intellect1 or by any intellect--ev5 ! ,div9e ,intellect--we are simply conceiv+ ! same ?+ twice ov]4 ,b is !re any?+ impossible or contradictory 9 ?9k+ t ,god c\ld create two p]fectly simil> be+s1 di/9ct f ea* o!r only individually1 s simil>1 h[ev]1 t nei!r human s5se nor human intellect c\ld appreh5d !m z two1 b only z "o8 ,! impossibility is n app>5t4 ,7 !y two mat]ial individuals !y %\ld1 ( c\rse1 occupy ! same space 9 ord] to h simil> spatial relations1 b imp5etrability is n ess5tial to corporeal sub/ances4 ,& ev5 9 ! view t ea* is individuat$ by its 8mat]ia signata0 x is n impossible to conceive num]ically di/9ct quantifi$ matt]s alli$ at ! same "t to ! same dim5sions ( space4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 !re be "q ( two pure spirits1 absolutely simil> specifically1 ev5 9 ! ,?omi/ic view t "h ! individual di/9ction is at ! same "t specific !re seems to be no suffici5t gr\nd = d5y+ t ! ,div9e ,omnipot5ce c\ld create two or m su* individually 7& !re=e specifically7 di/9ct spirits37#aej7 su* di/9ction rema9+1 ( c\rse1 indisc]nible = ! f9ite human intellect4 ,! argum5t ( ,leibniz1 t !re w\ld be no suffici5t reason = ! creation ( two su* indisc]nible be+s1 & t x w\ld !re=e be repugnant to ! ,div9e ,wisdom1 is extr9sic to ! "q ( _! intr9sic possibility3 if !y be intr9sically possible !y _c be repugnant to any attribute ( ! ,div9ity1 ei!r to ! ,div9e ,omnipot5ce or to ! ,div9e ,wisdom4 #cd4 ,,id5tity4--,consid]+ ! ord] 9 :i* we acquire our ideas we are easily conv9c$ t ! notion ( f9ite be+ is antec$5t to t ( inf9ite be+4 ,moreov]1 x is f reflection on f9ite be+s t we arrive at ! mo/ ab/ract notion ( be+ 9 g5]al4 ,we make ! object ( ?is latt] notion def9ite only by divid+ x (f m5tally f no?+ness1 conceiv$ p] modum entis1 or z an ens rationis4 ,?us ! natural way ( mak+ our concepts def9ite is by limit+ !m2 x is only :5 we come to reflect on ! necess>y implications ( our concept ( 8inf9ite be+0 t we realize ! possibility ( conceiv+ a be+ :i* is def9ite )\t be+ really limit$1 :i* is def9ite by ! v fact ( its inf9ity1 by its possession ( unlimit$ p]fection2 & ev5 !n our imp]fect human mode ( conceiv+ 8inf9ite be+0 is help$ by di/+ui%+ or divid+ x (f f all f9ite be+ & contra/+ x ) ! latt]4 ,all ?is goes to prove ! tru? ( ! tea*+ ( ,/4 ,?omas1 t ! m5tal function ( divid+ or di/+ui%+ prec$es our concepts ( unity & multitude4 ,n[ ! concepts ( id5tity & di/9ction are closely alli$ ) ^? ( unity & multitude2 b !y add some?+ to ^! latt]4 ,:5 we ?9k ( a be+ z "o we mu/ analyse x fur!r1 look at x "u diff]5t aspects1 & comp>e x ) itself1 be=e we c reg>d x z ! same or id5tical ) itself4 ,or1 at lea/1 we mu/ ?9k ( x twice & comp>e x ) itself 9 ! affirmative judgm5t 8,?is is itself10 8,a is ,a10 ?us =mulat+ ! logical ,pr9ciple ( ,id5tity1 9 ord] to come into possession ( ! concept ( id5tity47#aea7 ,e affirmative categorical judgm5t ass]ts id5tity ( ! pr$icate ) ! subject 78,s is ,p073 ass]ts1 9 o!r words1 t :at we appreh5d "u ! notion ( ! pr$icate 7,p7 is really id5tical ) :at we h appreh5d$ "u ! di/9ct notion ( ! subject 7,s74 ,! syn!tic function ( ! affirmative categorical judgm5t id5tifies 9 ! real ord] :at ! analytic function ( m5tal ab/raction _h sep>at$ 9 ! logical ord]4 ,by say+ t ! affirmative categorical judgm5t ass]ts id5tity we mean t by ass]t+ t 8?is is t10 8man is rational0 we id5tify 8?is0 ) 8t10 8man0 ) 8rational10 ?us d5y+ t !y are two1 t !y are di/9ct1 t !y diff]4 ,id5tity is "o ( ^? elem5t>y concepts :i* _c be def9$2 b p]haps we may describe x z ! logical relation ?r\gh :i* ! m9d ass]ts ! objects ( two or m ( its ?\ghts to be really "o4 ,if ! object =mally repres5t$ by ea* ( ! concepts is "o & ! same--z1 e4g4 :5 we comp>e 8,a0 ) 8,a10 or 8man0 ) 8rational animal10 or1 9 g5]al1 any object ) its def9ition--! id5tity is bo? real & logical 7or conceptual1 =mal74 ,if ! concepts diff] 9 _! =mal objects :ile repres5t+ "o & ! same reality--z :5 we comp>e 8,/4 ,pet]0 ) 8head ( ! apo/les10 or 8man0 ) 8rational0--! id5tity is real1 b n logical or =mal4 ,f9ally1 if we repres5t two or m realities1 8,john1 ,james1 ,?omas10 by ! same =mal concept1 8man10 ! id5tity is m]ely logical or =mal1 n real4 ,( ^! ?ree k9ds ( id5tity ! fir/ is sometimes call$ adequate1 ! second & ?ird inadequate4 ,logical id5tity may be specific or g5]ic1 accord+ z we id5tify really di/9ct individuals "u "o specific concept1 or really di/9ct species or classes "u "o g5]ic concept4 ,aga91 x may be ess5tial or accid5tal1 accord+ z ! ab/ract & univ]sal class-concept "u :i* really di/9ct memb]s are classifi$ repres5ts a common "p ( ! ess5ce ( ^! memb]s or only a common prop]ty or accid5t4 ,?us ,john1 ,james & ,?omas are ess5tially id5tical 9 _! human nature2 !y are accid5tally id5tical 9 be+ all ?ree fair-hair$ & six feet 9 height4 ,logical id5tity "u ! concept ( quality is bas$ on ! real relation ( simil>ity2 logical id5tity "u ! concept ( quantity is bas$ on ! real relation ( equality4 ,:5 we say t ess5tial 7logical7 id5tity 7e4g4 ! id5tity ( ,john1 ,james & ,?omas "u ! concept ( 8man07 is bas$ on ! fact t ! really di/9ct individuals h really simil> natures1 we m]ely mean t our k ( natures or ess5ces is d]iv$ f our k ( qualities1 tak+ 8qualities0 9 ! wide s5se ( 8accid5ts0 g5]ally3 t ! prop]ties & activities ( ?+s are our only key to ! nature ( ^! ?+s3 ,op]>i sequitur esse4 ,x is n impli$1 nor is x true1 t real simil>ity is a p>tial real id5tity3 x is b ! gr\nd ( a p>tial logical id5tity1--id5tity "u ! common concept ( "s quality 79 ! wide s5se ( ?is t]m74 ,= example1 ! height ( ,john is z really di/9ct f t ( ,james z ! humanity ( ,john is f t ( ,james4 ,if1 !n1 individual ?+s are really di/9ct1 h[ is x t we c repres5t 7ev5 inadequately7 a multitude ( !m by "o concept8 ,to say t we c d s because !y reveal !mselves to u z simil> to "o ano!r is to say :at is und\bt$ly true2 b ?is does n solve ! problem ( ! relation betwe5 ! univ]sal & ! individual 9 human exp]i5ce3 r x places u face to face ) ?is problem4 ,rev]t+ n[ to real id5tity3 :atev] we c pr$icate affirmatively ab\t a be+ consid]$ z "o1 & z subject ( a judgm5t1 we reg>d z really id5tical ) t be+4 ,we _c pr$icate a real "p ( its real :ole1 or vice v]sa4 ,b our concepts1 :5 comp>$ toge!r 9 judgm5t1 be> logical relations ( ext5sion & int5sion to ea* o!r1 t is1 relations ( logical "p to logical :ole4 ,?us1 ! logical id5tity ( subject & pr$icate 9 ! affirmative judgm5t may be only inadequate47#aeb7 ,b ! real id5tity und]ly+ ! affirmative judgm5t is an adequate real id5tity4 ,:5 we say1 = example1 t 8,socrates is wise10 we mean t ! object ( our concept ( 8wisdom0 is 9 ?is case really & adequately id5tical ) ! object ( our concept ( 8,socrates03 9 o!r words t we are conceiv+ "o & ! same real be+ "u two di/9ct concepts1 ea* ( :i* repres5ts1 m or less adequately1 ! :ole real be+1 & "o ( !m 9 ?is case less adequately ?an ! o!r4 ,we h to be> 9 m9d t :ile consid]+ be+ z "o or manifold1 id5tical or di/9ct1 we are ?9k+ ( x 9 its /atic mode1 z an object ( ab/ract ?\ght1 n 9 its dynamic & k9etic mode z actually exi/+ 9 space & "t1 & subject to *ange4 ,x is ! id5tity ( be+ ) itself :5 consid]$ 9 ?is /atic1 un*ang+ condition1 t is embodi$ 9 ! logical ,pr9ciple ( ,id5tity4 ,9 ord]1 !re=e1 t ?is pr9ciple may f9d its application to be+ or reality z subject to actual *ange--& ?is is ! /ate 9 :i* de facto reality is pres5t$ to u z an imm$iate datum ( exp]i5ce--we mu/ seize ^u ! *ang+ reality & ?9k ( x 9 an indivisible in/ant ap>t f ! *ange to :i* x is actually subject2 only ?us does ! ,pr9ciple ( ,id5tity apply to x--z be+1 n z becom+1 n 9 fi]i1 b 9 facto esse4 ,! ,pr9ciple ( ,id5tity1 :i* applies to all real be+1 :e!r possible or actual1 tells u simply t 8a ?+ is :at x is04 ,b = ! und]/&+ ( actual be+ z subject to real *ange we mu/ supplem5t ! ,pr9ciple ( ,id5tity by ano!r pr9ciple :i* tells u t su* an actual be+ n only is actually :at x is 7,pr9ciple ( ,id5tity71 b also t x is pot5tially some?+ o!r ?an :at x actually is1 t x is pot5tially :at x c become actually 7,*4 ii474 ,we h se5 t1 s9ce *ange is n cont9u\s annihilation & creation1 ! *ang+ be+ mu/ 9 "s real & true s5se p]si/ ?r\gh\t ! process ( *ange4 ,x is f exp]i5ce ( *ange we d]ive our notion ( "t-duration2 & ! concept ( p]man5ce or /ability ?r\gh\t *ange gives u ! notion ( a real sam5ess or abid+ self-id5tity :i* is compatible ) real *ange4 ,b a be+ :i* p]si/s 9 exi/5ce is id5tical ) itself ?r\gh\t its duration only 9 s f> =? z x has n *ang$4 ,only ! ,necess>y ,be+1 ^: duration is absolutely exempt f all *ange1 is absolutely or metaphysically id5tical ) ,himself3 ,8 duration is et]nity--:i* is "o p]petual1 un*ang+ n[4 ,a be+ :i* p]si/s un*ang$ 9 its ess5ce or nature1 :i* is exempt f sub/antial *ange1 b :i* is subject to accid5tal *ange1 to a succession ( accid5tal qualities su* z vital actions--su* a be+ is said to reta9 its physical id5tity ) itself ?r\gh\t ^? *anges4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 is ! id5tity ( ! human s\l ) itself1 or ( any individual liv+ ?+ dur+ its life1 or ev5 ( an inorganic mat]ial sub/ance z long z x escapes sub/antial *ange4 ,f9ally1 ! p]si/+ id5tity ( a collection ( be+s1 unit$ by "s moral bond s z to =m a moral unit1 is spok5 ( z moral id5tity z long z ! bond rema9s1 ev5 ?\gh ! con/itu5t memb]s may be con/antly disappe>+ to be replac$ by o!rs3 z 9 a nation1 a religi\s society1 a legal corporation1 etc4 #ce4 ,,di/9ction4--,di/9ction is ! correlative ( id5tity2 x is ! abs5ce or negation ( ! latt]4 ,we express ! relation call$ di/9ction by ! negative judgm5t1 8?is is n t02 x is ! relation ( a be+ to :atev] is n itself1 ! relation ( "o to o!r4 ,di/9ction may be ei!r adequate or inadequate1 accord+ z we di/+ui% "o total object ( ?\ght f ano!r total object1 or only f a "p ( itself4 ,= example1 ! di/9ction betwe5 ,john & ,james is an adequate real di/9ction1 :ile t betwe5 ,john & 8 body is an inadequate real di/9ction2 ! di/9ction betwe5 ,john's rationality & 8 animality is an adequate logical di/9ction1 :ile ! di/9ction betwe5 ei!r ( ^! & 8 humanity is an inadequate logical di/9ction4 ,we h already 7#bc7 briefly expla9$ & illu/rat$ ! mo/ important classification ( di/9ctions3 t into real & logical2 ! sub-division ( ! latt] into purely logical & virtual2 & ( ! latt] aga9 into p]fect 7complete1 adequate7 & imp]fect 7incomplete1 inadequate74 ,b ! !ory !re briefly outl9$ calls = "s fur!r analysis & amplification4 #cf4 ,,logical ,,di/9ctions ,,& ,,_! ,,gr\nds4--,! purely logical di/9ction mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) a m]e v]bal di/9ction1 e4g4 t betwe5 an 8edifice0 & a 8build+10 or betwe5 8tru?fulness0 & 8v]acity04 ,a logical di/9ction is a di/9ction 9 ! concepts3 ^! mu/ repres5t "o & ! same reality b 9 diff]5t ways3 ! "o may be m explicit1 m fully analys$ ?an ! o!r1 z a def9ition is 9 comp>ison ) ! ?\ght-object def9$2 or ! "o may repres5t ! object less adequately ?an ! o!r1 z :5 we comp>e 79 int5sion7 ! concepts 8man0 & 8animal02 or ! "o may be pr$icat$ ( ! o!r 9 an affirmative judgm5t2 or ! "o may repres5t ! object z concrete & individual1 ! o!r ! same object z ab/ract & univ]sal47#aec7 ,comp>+1 9 ! next place1 ! purely logical ) ! virtual di/9ction1 we see t ! gr\nds = mak+ ^! di/9ctions are diff]5t4 ,e di/9ction made by ! m9d mu/ h an intelligible gr\nd or reason ( "s sort--a fundam5tum di/9ctionis4 ,n[ 9 ! case ( ! purely logical di/9ction ! gr\nd is und]/ood to consi/ exclusively 9 ! ne$s ( ! m9d itself--ne$s :i* spr+ f ! m9d's own limitations :5 confront$ ) ! task ( und]/&+ or int]pret+ reality1 ( mak+ reality intelligible4 ,purely logical di/9ctions are !re=e se5 to be a class ( purely logical relations1 i4e4 ( ^? entia rationis :i* ! m9d mu/ con/ruct = itself 9 its ef=t to und]/& ! real4 ,!y h no o!r reality z objects ( ?\ght ?an ! reality !y d]ive f ! con/itutive or con/ructive activity ( ! m9d4 ,!y are modes1 or =ms1 or t]ms1 ( ! cognitive activity itself1 n ( ! reality :i* is ! object appreh5d$ & contemplat$ by means ( ?is cognitive activity4 ,! virtual di/9ction1 on ! o!r h&1 al?\gh x also1 z an object ( ?\ght1 is only an ens rationis--inasmu* z !re is no real duality or plurality correspond+ to x 9 ! reality into :i* ! m9d introduces x1 ?is reality be+ a real unity--! virtual di/9ction is consid]$1 nev]!less1 to h a gr\nd1 or reason1 or f\ndation 7= mak+ & introduc+ x7 9 ! nature ( ?is "o reality2 t is1 x is reg>d$ z hav+ a real f\ndation1 a fundam5tum 9 re4 ,9 s f>1 !re=e1 z our k is p]meat$ by virtual di/9ctions1 reality _c be said to be =mally1 b only fundam5tally :at ?is k repres5ts x to be4 ,does ?is fact int]f]e ) ! objective validity ( our k8 ,n 9 ! lea/2 = we d n ascribe to ! reality ! di/9ctions1 & o!r su* modes or =ms1 :i* we "k by reflection to be =mally *>act]i/ic n ( ?+s b ( our ?\ght or cognition ( ?+s4 ,our k1 !re=e1 s f> z x goes1 may be a fai?ful appreh5sion ( reality1 ev5 ?\gh x be itself affect$ by modes n f\nd 9 ! reality4 ,b :at is ?is real f\ndation ( ! virtual di/9ction8 ,:at is ! fundam5tum 9 re8 ,x is n a real or objective duality 9 virtue ( :i* we c\ld say t !re are1 9 ! object ( our ?\ght1 two be+s or realities "o ( :i* is n ! o!r4 ,su* duality w\ld cause a real di/9ction4 ,b j "h ! difficulties ( our analysis beg9 to arise3 = we h to fix our att5tion on actually exi/+ realities2 &1 assum+ t ea* & e "o ( ^! is an individual1 we h to be> 9 m9d ! relation ( ! real to ! actual1 ( reality z ab/ract & univ]sal to reality z concrete & individual1 ( ! simple to ! composite1 ( ! /able to ! *ang+1 ( ess5tial to accid5tal unity--9 any & e attempt to discrim9ate 9 detail betwe5 a real & a virtual di/9ction4 ,nor is x easy to lay d[n any g5]al te/ :i* w s]ve ev5 !oretically to discrim9ate betwe5 !m4 ,let u see :at gr\nds h be5 ma9ly sugge/$ z real f\ndations = ! virtual di/9ction4 ,if a be+ :i* is n only "o b simple1 manife/s1 9 ! sup]ior grade ( be+ to :i* x belongs1 a p]fection :i* is equival5t to _m less] p]fections f\nd really di/9ct & sep>ate else:]e1 9 sep>ate be+s ( an inf]ior ord]1 ?is is consid]$ a suffici5t real gr\nd = consid]+ ! =m] be+1 ?\gh really "o & simple1 z virtually manifold47#aed7 ,! human s\l1 z be+ virtually ?reefold--rational1 s5ti5t & vegetative--is a case 9 po9t3 b only on ! assumption t ! s\l ( ! individual man c be prov$ to be "o & simple4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 all s*ola/ics reg>d z capable ( pro(3 ev5 ^? ( !m :o hold t ! p[]s or faculties :]eby x imm$iately manife/s ^! ?ree grades ( p]fection are accid5tal realities1 really di/9ct f "o ano!r & f ! sub/ance ( ! s\l itself4 ,aga91 ! be+ :i* is ! object ( our ?\ght may be s ri* 9 reality or p]fection t our f9ite m9ds _c adequately grasp x by any "o m5tal intuition1 b mu/ proce$ discursively1 by analysis & ab/raction1 tak+ 9 p>tial aspects ( x successively ?r\gh inadequate concepts2 :ile realiz+ t ^! aspects1 ^! objects ( our di/9ct concepts1 are only p>tial aspects ( "o & ! same real be+4 ,?is1 9 fact1 is our common exp]i5ce4 ,b ! !ory assumes t we are able to det]m9e :5 ^! objects ( our concepts are only m5tal aspects ( "o reality1 & :5 !y are sev]al sep>ate realities2 nay1 ev51 t we c det]m9e :e!r or n !y are really di/9ct entities unit$ toge!r to =m "o composite individual be+1 or only m5tally di/9ct views ( "o simple individual be+4 ,= example1 x is assum$ t :ile ! di/9ction betwe5 ! s5ti5t & ! rational grades ( be+ 9 a human individual c be %[n to be only a virtual di/9ction1 t betwe5 ! body & ! s\l ( ! same individual c be %[n to be a real di/9ction2 or1 aga91 t :ile ! di/9ction betwe5 ess5ce1 intellect1 & w 9 ,god1 c be %[n to be only a virtual di/9ction1 t betwe5 ess5ce1 intellect1 & w 9 man1 c be %[n to be a real di/9ction4 #cg4 ,,! ,,virtual ,,di/9ction ,,& ,,! ,,real ,,di/9ction4--,n[ s*ola/ics diff] consid]ably 9 classify+ ?is1 t1 or ! o!r di/9ction1 z logical or z real2 b ?is does n prove t x is impossible ev] to det]m9e ) c]titude :e!r any p>ticul> di/9ction is logical or real4 ,:at we are look+ = j n[ is a g5]al te/ = discrim9at+1 if su* c be f\nd4 ,& ?is br+s u to a consid]ation ( ! te/ sugge/$ 9 ! v def9itions !mselves4 ,at fir/ sight x w\ld appe> to be an impracticable1 if n ev5 an un9telligible te/3 8,! di/9ction is real if x exi/s 9 ! reality--i4e4 if ! reality is two 7or m7 be+s1 n "o be+--antec$5tly to1 or indep5d5tly (1 ! consid]ation ( ! m9d2 o!rwise ! di/9ction is logical04 ,b--x might be object$--h[ c we possibly "k :e!r or n any object ( p]ception or ?\ght is "o or m ?an "o antec$5tly to1 or indep5d5tly (1 ! consid]ation ( ! m9d8 ,x is c]ta9ly impossible = u to "k :at1 or :at k9d1 reality is1 or :e!r x is "o or manifold1 ap>t f & prior to1 ! ex]cise ( our own cognitive activity4 ,?is1 !re=e1 _c be :at ! te/ means3 to int]pret x 9 su* a s5se w\ld be absurd4 ,b :5 we h p]ceiv$ reality 9 our actual s5se exp]i5ce1 :5 we h int]pret$ x1 got ! mean+ ( x1 made x intelligible1 & actually und]/ood x1 by ! spontane\s ex]cise ( intellect1 ! judg+ & reason+ faculty3 !n1 obvi\sly1 we are at lib]ty to reflect critically on ^? antec$5t spontane\s processes1 on ! k :i* is ! result ( !m1 & ! reality :i* is kn[n ?r\gh !m2 & by su* critical reflection on ^? processes1 _! objects & _! products1 on ! 8reality z p]ceiv$ & kn[n0 & on ! 8p]ceiv+0 & 8kn[+0 ( x1 we may be able to di/+ui% betwe5 two classes ( contributions to ! total result :i* is ! 8kn[n reality03 ^? :i* we mu/ reg>d z purely m5tal1 z modes or =ms or subjectively con/ruct$ t]ms ( ! m5tal function ( cognition itself 7:e!r p]ceptual or conceptual71 & ^? :i* we mu/ reg>d z giv5 or pres5t$ to ! m9d z objects1 :i* are n 9 any s5se con/ruct$ or contribut$ by ! m9d1 :i*1 !re=e1 are :at !y are indep5d5tly ( our m5tal activity1 & :i* w\ld be & rema9 :at !y are1 & :at we h appreh5d$ !m to be1 ev5 if we _h nev] p]ceiv$ or ?\ght ( !m4 ,?is1 accord+ to ! s*ola/ics1 is ! s5se--& x is a p]fectly intelligible s5se--9 :i* we are call$ on to decide :e!r ! relat$ t]ms ( any giv5 di/9ction h be5 m]ely r5d]$ di/9ct by ! analytic activity ( ! cognitive process1 or are !mselves di/9ct realities irrespective ( ?is process4 ,t x is possible to c>ry on successfully1 at lea/ to "s ext5t1 ?is "w ( discrim9ation betwe5 ! subjective & ! objective factors ( our cognitive exp]i5ce1 c sc>cely be d5i$4 ,x is :at philosoph]s 9 e age h be5 attempt+4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 "s di/9ctions ab\t ! nature ( :i* philosoph]s h nev] be5 able to agree1 "s hold+ !m to be real1 o!rs to be only virtual3 ! =m] view be+ indicative ( ! t5d5cy to emphasize ! rle ( cognition z a passive repres5tation ( objectively giv5 reality2 ! latt] view be+ an expression ( ! opposite t5d5cy to emphasize ! active or con/itutive or con/ructive factors :]eby cognition assimilates to ! m9d's own mode ( be+ ! reality giv5 to x 9 exp]i5ce4 ,9 all cognition !re is an assimilation ( reality & m9d1 ( object & subject4 ,:5 c]ta9 di/9ctions are held to be real ?is consid]ation is emphasiz$3 t 9 ! cognitive process1 z su*1 x is ! m9d t is assimilat$ to ! objective reality47#aee7 ,:5 ^! same di/9ctions are held to be logical ?is o!r consid]ation is emphasiz$3 t 9 ! cognitive process reality mu/ also be assimilat$ to m9d1 mu/ be m5taliz$ s to speak3 ,cognitum e/ 9 cognosc5te secundum modum cognosc5tis3 t 9 ?is process ! m9d mu/ (t5 reg>d :at is "o reality "u di/9ct aspects3 & t if we reg>d ^! di/9ct aspects z di/9ct realities we are violat+ ! pr9ciple1 ,entia non sunt multiplic&a praet] necessitatem4 ,n[ ^? philosoph]s :o hold c]ta9 di/9ctions to be virtual1 & n real1 !reby ascribe to cognitive exp]i5ce a l>g] sph]e ( con/itutive or con/ructive influ5ce ?an w\ld be all[$ to x by advocates ( ! reality ( su* di/9ctions4 ,b by do+ s are !y to be reg>d$ z call+ into "q ! objective validity ( human k8 ,by no means3 ! fact t ! human m9d c und]/& reality only by processes ( ab/ract+1 g5]aliz+1 comp>+1 relat+1 analys+ & syn!siz+--processes :i* involve ! production ( logical entities--9 no way vitiates ! value ( ^! modes ( und]/&+3 x m]ely indicates t !y are less p]fect ?an intuitive modes ( und]/&+ :i* w\ld disp5se ) su* logical entities1--! modes *>act]i/ic ( pure1 angelic intellig5ces1 or ! k ( ! ,deity4 ,! objective validity ( human cognition is n int]f]$ ) ei!r by enl>g+ or by re/rict+ ! doma9 ( ! m9d's con/itutive activity 9 =m+ su* logical entities2 nor1 !re=e1 by claim+ t c]ta9 di/9ctions are real r ?an virtual1 or vice v]sa4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$1 moreov]1 t ! virtual di/9ction is n purely logical3 x has a f\ndation 9 ! reality1 a 8fundam5tum 9 re02 & 9 s f> z x has x gives u an insight into ! nature ( reality4 ,no d\bt1 any p>ticul> di/9ction _c be virtual & at ! same "t simply real3 ei!r view ( x mu/ be errone\s3 & possibly bo?1 if x happ5 to be de facto a purely logical di/9ction4 ,b ! error ( conf\nd+ a virtual di/9ction ) a real is n s great z t ( reg>d+ ei!r z a purely logical di/9ction4 ,n[ ! t5d5cy ( mu* mod]n philosophy1 "u ! influ5ce ( ,kant1 has be5 to reg>d all ! categories 9 :i* ! m9d appreh5ds reality z be+ :olly & exclusively =ms ( cognition1 z be+ 9 ! reality nei!r =mally nor ev5 fundam5tally2 & to inf] f ?is an ess5tial1 con/itutional inability ( ! m9d to atta9 to a valid k ( reality4 ,b if1 z a matt] ( fact1 ^! categories are 9 ! reality =mally1 nay1 ev5 if !y are 9 x only fundam5tally1 ! inf]5ce t issues 9 ,kantian subjectivism is unw>rant$4 ,& ^? categories we hold to be 9 ! reality at lea/ fundam5tally2 we !re=e reject ! ,kantian ph5om5ism ( ! speculative reason4 ,moreov]1 we c see no valid gr\nd = admitt+ ! ,kantian division ( ! human m9d into two totally sep>ate cognitive comp>tm5ts1 ! speculative & ! practical reason1 & ascrib+ to ea* comp>tm5t cognitive pr9ciples & capacities entirely ali5 to ! o!r4 ,to arrive at a "r !ory ( k human cognitive exp]i5ce z a :ole mu/ be analys$2 b provid$ ! analysis is really an analysis ( ?is exp]i5ce x may be legitimately direct$ t[>ds discov]+ :at ! m5tal conditions mu/ be--i4e4 ! conditions on ! side ( ! kn[+ subject1 ! subject hav+ ! exp]i5ce--:i* are necess>ily pr]equisite = hav+ su* exp]i5ce4 ,& if x be f\nd by su* analysis t cognitive exp]i5ce presupposes 9 ! kn[+ subject n m]ely a s5ti5t & intellig5t m9d1 b a m9d :i* p]ceives1 imag9es1 rememb]s reality 9 c]ta9 def9ite ways2 :i* ?9ks reality 9 c]ta9 modes & ?r\gh c]ta9 =ms :i* by its own con/itutive activity x con/ructs = itself1 & :i* x recognizes by reflection to be its own con/ructions 7e4g4 di/9ctions1 relations1 affirmations & negations1 ab/ractions1 g5]alizations1 etc43 int5tiones logicae1 logical entities71--!re is no reason :atev] 9 all ?is = inf]r+ t because ! m9d is s con/itut$1 because x has ^! modes ( cognition1 x mu/ necess>ily fail to rea*1 by means ( !m1 a true1 valid1 & g5u9e k ( reality4 ,f ! fact t human modes ( cognition are human1 & n angelic or div9e2 f ! fact t reality c be kn[n to man only ?r\gh ^! modes1 ^! f9ite modes ( f9ite human faculties1--we may inde$ inf] t ev5 our highe/ k ( reality is inadequate1 t x does n compreh5d all t is 9 ! reality1 b surely n t x is ess5tially illusory & ( its v nature incapable ( giv+ u any true & valid insight into ! nature ( reality4 ,fix+ our att5tion on ! virtual di/9ction we see t ! m9d is suppos$ by means ( x to appreh5d1 ?r\gh a plurality ( di/9ct concepts1 :at x kn[s someh[ or o!r to be "o be+4 ,n[ if x kn[s ! reality to be really "o1 x kn[s t ! =mal object ( e di/9ct concept ( ?is reality is really id5tical ) ! objects ( all ! o!r concepts ( ! latt]4 ,?is condition ( ?+s is c]ta9ly v]ifi$ :5 ! m9d c see t ea* ( ! di/9ct concepts1 ?\gh n explicitly pres5t+ ! objects ( ! o!rs1 nev]!less implicitly & necess>ily involves all ^! o!r objects37#aef7 = by see+ t ! di/9ct concepts necess>ily involve "o ano!r objectively x sees t ! reality appreh5d$ ?r\gh all ( !m mu/ necess>ily be "o reality4 ,?is is :at takes place 9 ! imp]fect virtual di/9ction3 ! concepts presc9d f "o ano!r =mally1 n objectively4 ,b suppose t ! di/9ct concepts presc9d f "o ano!r objectively1 s t !y _c be se5 by any analysis to involve "o ano!r ev5 implicitly1 b pres5t to ! m9d1 s f> z !y !mselves are conc]n$1 adequately di/9ct modes ( be+--z happ5s 9 ! p]fect virtual di/9ction1 e4g4 betwe5 organic life1 s5ti5t life1 & intellectual life 79 man71 or betwe5 animality & rationality 79 man71--!n ! all-important "q arises3 ,h[ d we "k1 9 any giv5 case ( ?is k9d1 :e!r or n ^! adequately di/9ct ?\ght-objects are id5tical ) "o ano!r 9 ! reality8 ,:at is ! te/ = det]m9+ :e!r or n1 9 a giv5 case1 ^! objects1 :i* are _m = ab/ract intellectual ?\ght1 are "o be+ 9 ! real ord]8 ,! answ] seems to be t int]nal & ext]nal s5se exp]i5ce c & does furni% u ) embodim5ts ( ^! intellectual manifolds1--embodim5ts ea* ( :i* we appreh5d z a be+ t is really "o1 z an individual subject ( :i* !y are conceptually di/9ct pr$icates4 ,x w\ld appe>1 !re=e1 t we _c rea* a true conception ( :at we are to reg>d z really "o1 or really manifold1 by ab/ract ?\ght alone4 ,x is ext]nal & int]nal s5se exp]i5ce1 n ab/ract ?\ght1 :i* fir/ br+s u into direct & imm$iate m5tal contact ) actually exi/+ reality4 ,:at we h !re=e to det]m9e is ?is3 ,does s5se exp]i5ce1 or does x n1 reveal reality to u z a real manifold1 n z "o be+ b z be+s coexi/+ outside "o ano!r 9 space1 succe$+ "o ano!r 9 "t1 int]dep5d5t on "o ano!r1 int]act+ on "o ano!r1 & by ?is int]action caus+ & und]go+ real *ange1 ea* produc+ o!rs1 or be+ produc$ by o!rs1 really di/9ct f itself8 ,9 o!r words1 is sep>at5ess ( exi/5ce 9 "t or space1 z reveal$ 9 s5se exp]i5ce1 a suffici5t index ( ! real manifoldness ( corporeal be+1 & ( ! really di/9ct individuality ( ea* su* be+8--or are we to take x t because ^? space & "t di/9ctions h to be appreh5d$ by ?\ght 9 ord] t n m]ely s5se b intellect may appreh5d corporeal be+s z really manifold1 !re=e ^! di/9ctions are n 9 ! reality giv5 to u8 ,or1 aga91 is ea* p]son's own consci\s exp]i5ce ( himself z "o be+1 ( 8 own unity1 & ( 8 di/9ctness f o!r p]sons1 a suffici5t index t ! di/9ction betwe5 p]son & p]son is a real di/9ction8--or are we to take x t because 8 feel+ ( 8 individual unity ?r\gh s5se consci\sness mu/ be int]pret$ by ! ?\ght-concepts ( 8"o0--8individual0--8p]son0--8di/9ct0 f 8o!rs10 ^! concepts d n truly express :at is really giv5 him to int]pret8 ,f9ally1 if we c inf] f ! actually exi/+ mat]ial reality :i* =ms ! imm$iate datum ( direct exp]i5ce1 or f ! human ,ego z giv5 9 ?is exp]i5ce1 ! actual exi/5ce ( a real mode ( be+ :i* is n mat]ial b spiritual1 by :at te/s c we det]m9e :e!r ?is spiritual mode ( be+ is really "o1 or :e!r !re is a real plurality ( su* be+s8 ,! solution ( ^! que/ions be>s directly on ! validity ( ! adequate or 8great]0 real di/9ction1 ! 8di/9ctio realis major seu absoluta04 ,! philosophy :i* def5ds ! validity ( ?is di/9ction1--:i* holds t ! di/9ction betwe5 individual human be+s1 & betwe5 individual liv+ ?+s g5]ally1 is 9 ! fulle/ & true/ s5se a real di/9ction1--is at all ev5ts 9 con=mity ) univ]sally prevail+ modes ( ?\ght & language2 :ile ! monism :i* repudiates ^! spontane\s int]pretations ( exp]i5ce z invalid by d5y+ all real manifoldness to reality1 c make itself intelligible only by do+ viol5ce to ?\ght & language alike4 ,n t ?is alone is a dispro( ( monism2 b at all ev5ts x creates a presumption aga9/ a sy/em to f9d x runn+ c\nt] to any ( ^? univ]sal spontane\s beliefs :i* appe> to be root$ 9 man's rational nature4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! philosophy :i* accords ) common belief 9 proclaim+ a real plurality 9 be+ has to reconcile intellect ) s5se1 & ! univ]sal ) ! individual1 by solv+ ! important problem ( individuation3 ,:at is x t makes real be+ individual1 if1 not)/&+ ! fact t intellect appreh5ds reality z ab/ract & univ]sal1 reality nev]!less c exi/ only z concrete & individual8 7#bi-cc74 #ch4 ,,! ,,real ,,di/9ction4--,9 ! next place x mu/ be rememb]$1 comp>+ ! virtual di/9ction ) ! real1 t philosoph]s h recogniz$ two k9ds ( real di/9ction3 ! major or absolute real di/9ction1 & ! m9or real1 or modal di/9ction4 ,be=e def9+ ^! let u see :at are ! usual signs by :i* a real di/9ction 9 g5]al c be recogniz$4 ,! relation ( effici5t causality1 ( effici5t cause & effect1 betwe5 two objects ( ?\ght1 is sometimes set d[n z a sure sign ( a 7major7 real di/9ction betwe5 !m47#aeg7 ,& ! reason alleg$ is t a ?+ _c be ! effici5t cause ( itself3 ! effici5t cause is necess>ily extr9sic to ! effect & _c be really id5tical ) ! latt]4 ,x is to be not$ t ?is te/ applies to reality z actually exi/+1 z produc+ or und]go+ *ange1 & t x is d]iv$ f our s5se exp]i5ce ( reality 9 process ( *ange4 ,b s9ce our concept ( effici5t causality has its orig9 9 our int]nal exp]i5ce ( our own selves z active ag5ts1 z caus+ "s portion ( :at ent]s into our exp]i5ce1 ! te/ seems to assume t we h already introduc$ into ?is exp]i5ce a real di/9ction betwe5 ! self & :at is caus$ by ! self4 ,x is n cle> t ! relation ( effici5t cause to effect1 z appli$ to creat$ causes1 c prec$e & reveal1 9 our exp]i5ce1 ! relation ( :at is really "o to :at is really o!r1 9 ?is exp]i5ce4 ,if ! reality reveal$ to u 9 our direct exp]i5ce1 ! ph5om5al univ]se1 has be5 br\ght into exi/5ce by ! creative act ( a ,supreme ,be+1 ?is1 ( c\rse1 implies a real di/9ction betwe5 ,creator & creature4 ,b x does n seem possible 9 ?is case1 or inde$ 9 any case1 to prove ! exi/5ce ( ! causal relation antec$5tly to t ( ! real di/9ction1 or to utilize ! =m] z an index to ! latt]4 ,two di/9ct ?\ght-objects are reg>d$ z really di/9ct 7#a7 :5 !y are f\nd to exi/ sep>ately & ap>t f ea* o!r 9 "t or space1 z is ! case ) any two individuals su* z ,john & ,james1 or a man & a horse2 7#b7 :51 al?\gh !y are f\nd 9 ! same individual1 "o ( !m at lea/ is sep>able f ! o!r1 9 ! s5se t x c actually exi/ )\t t o!r3 = example1 ! s\l ( any individual man c exi/ ap>t f ! mat]ial pr9ciple ) :i* x is actually unit$ to =m ?is liv+ human individual2 ! individual himself c exi/ )\t ! p>ticul> accid5tal modes1 su* z sitt+1 ?9k+1 speak+1 :i* actually affect 8 be+ at any p>ticul> in/ant ( 8 exi/5ce4 ,f ?is we c ga!r 9 ! fir/ place t ! di/9ction betwe5 two 8individuals10--individual 8p]sons0 or individual 8?+s0--is a real di/9ction 9 ! fulle/ & pla9e/ s5se ( ?is expression1 a major or absolute real di/9ction4 ,x is1 moreov]1 n m]ely real b actual4 ,two exi/+ 8individuals0 are always actually divid$ & sep>ate f ea* o!r1 :ile ea* is actually "o or actually undivid$ 9 itself4 ,& !y are s 8indep5d5tly ( ! consid]ation ( ! m9d04 ,9 ! second place1 assum+ t ! m9d c appreh5d1 9 ! individuals ( its exp]i5ce1 a unity result+ f ! union or composition ( sep>able factors or pr9ciples1 :e!r ess5tial or accid5tal #bg 7b72 & assum+ t x c "k ^! factors to be really sep>able 7?\gh actually "o & undivid$71 t is1 sep>able 9 ! s5se t ea* ( any two su* factors1 or at lea/ "o ( !m1 c\ld actually exi/ )\t ! o!r1--x reg>ds ! di/9ction betwe5 su* factors z real4 ,!y are really di/9ct because ?\gh actually "o & undivid$ !y are pot5tially manifold4 ,if ea* has a positive entity ( its own1 s t absolutely speak+ ea* c\ld exi/ )\t ! o!r1 ! di/9ction is /ill reg>d$ z an absolute or major real di/9ction4 ,= example1 ! human s\l c exi/ )\t ! body2 ! body c exi/ )\t ! s\l1 be+ actualiz$ by ! new =mative pr9ciple or pr9ciples :i* replace ! s\l at dea?2 !re=e !re is an absolute real di/9ction betwe5 ! s\l & ! body ( ! liv+ human individual3 al?\gh bo? factors =m "o actual be+1 /ill1 indep5d5tly ( ! consid]ation ( ! m9d ! "o factor is n ! o!r3 ea* is really1 ?\gh only pot5tially1 o!r ?an ! factor ) :i* x is unit$3 ! relation ( 8"o0 to 8o!r0 ?\gh n actually v]ifi$ ( ei!r factor 7s9ce !re is only "o actual be+3 ! exi/+ individual man71 is pot5tially & really v]ifi$1 i4e4 v]ifiable ( ea*4 ,aga91 ! individual corporeal sub/ance c1 absolutely speak+1 exi/ )\t its connatural accid5t ( ext]nal or local ext5sion2 ?is latt] c1 absolutely speak+1 exi/ )\t its connatural sub/ance27#aeh7 !re=e ^! are absolutely & really di/9ct4 ,if only "o ( ! factors is se5 to be capable ( exi/+ )\t ! o!r1 & ! latt] to be su* t x c\ld n actually exi/ except z unit$ ) ! =m]1 s t ! sep>ability is n mutual1 ! di/9ction is reg>d$ /ill z real1 b only z a m9or or modal di/9ction4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 is ! di/9ction betwe5 a body & its location1 or its /ate ( re/ or motion3 &1 9 g5]al1 ! di/9ction betwe5 a sub/ance & :at are call$ its accid5tal modes or modal accid5ts4 ,! di/9ction is reg>d$ z real because reflection is held to assure u t x is 9 ! reality itself indep5d5tly ( ! m9d1 & n m]ely impos$ by ! m9d on ! reality because ( "s gr\nd or reason 9 ! reality4 ,x is call$ a modal di/9ction r ?an an absolute real di/9ction because ^? accid5tal modes ( a sub/ance d n seem to h ( !mselves suffici5t reality to w>rant our call+ !m 8?+s0 or 8realities10 b r m]ely 8modes0 or 8det]m9ations0 ( ?+s or realities4 ,x is significant1 z ?r[+ light on ! relation ( ! virtual to ! real di/9ction1 t "s au?ors call ! modal di/9ction n a real di/9ction b a 8di/9ctio m$ia10 i4e4 int]m$iate betwe5 a real & a logical di/9ction2 & t ! "q :e!r x %\ld be call$ simply a real di/9ction1 or 8int]m$iate0 betwe5 a real & a logical di/9ction is reg>d$ by "s z 8a purely v]bal "q407#aei7 ,we %all recur to ! modal di/9ction lat] 7#fh74 ,9 ! ?ird place x mu/ be not$ t sep>ability 9 ! s5se expla9$1 ev5 non-mutual1 is n reg>d$ z ! only index to a real di/9ction4 ,9 o!r words1 c]ta9 di/9ctions are held by "s to be real ev5 ?\gh ?is te/ ( sep>ability does n apply4 ,= in/ance1 x is commonly held t n m]ely 9 man b 9 all corporeal individuals ! =mative & ! det]m9able pr9ciple ( ! nature or sub/ance1 ! =ma sub/antialis & ! mat]ia prima1 are really di/9ct1 al?\gh x is admitt$ t1 ap>t f ! case ( ! human s\l1 nei!r c actually exi/ except 9 union ) ! o!r4 ,:at is held 9 reg>d to accid5tal modes is also appli$ to ^! ess5tial pr9ciples ( ! corporeal sub/ance3 viz4 t !re is "h a special reason :y su* pr9ciples _c actually exi/ 9 isolation4 ,( _! v nature !y are held to be su* t !y _c be actualiz$ or actually exi/ 9 isolation1 b only 9 union4 ,b ?is fact1 x is cont5d$1 does n prove t ! pr9ciples 9 "q are m]ely m5tally di/9ct aspects ( "o reality3 ! fact t !y _c actually exi/ z su* sep>ately does n prove t !y are n really sep>able2 & x is cont5d$ t !y are really & actually sep>at$ :5ev] an individual corporeal sub/ance und]goes sub/antial *ange4 ,?is1 !n1 raises once m ! "q3 ,:at sort ( 8sep>ation0 or 8sep>ability0 is ! te/ ( a real di/9ction8 ,is x sep>at5ess 9 & = s5se p]ception1 or sep>at5ess 9 & = intellectual ?\ght8 ,! =m] is c]ta9ly ! fundam5tal index ( ! real di/9ction2 = all our k ( reality orig9ates 9 s5se exp]i5ce1 & sep>at5ess 9 "t & space1 :i* m>ks its data1 is ! key to our k ( reality z a manifold ( really di/9ct individual be+s2 & :5 we inf] f s5se-exp]i5ce ! actual exi/5ce ( a spiritual doma9 ( reality we c conceive its 8individuals0 only aft] ! analogy ( ! corporeal individuals ( our imm$iate s5se exp]i5ce4 ,s*ola/ic philosoph]s1 foll[+ ,ari/otle1 h always tak5 ! manifoldness ( reality1 i4e4 its pres5tation 9 s5se exp]i5ce 9 ! =m ( 8individuals10 ( 8?is0 & 8t10 8 10 8hoc aliquid10 z an unque/ion$ & unque/ionable real datum4 ,n t !y navely assum$ ev]y?+ p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses z an individual1 9 "t & space1 to be really an individual3 !y realiz$ t :at is p]ceiv$ by s5se z "o limit$ cont9uum1 occupy+ a def9ite portion ( space1 may be 9 reality an aggregate ( _m individuals2 & !y recogniz$ ! ne$ ( scrut9iz+ & analys+ ^? app>5t individuals 9 ord] to te/ _! real individuality2 b !y held1 & rightly1 t s5se exp]i5ce does pres5t to u "s data t are unmi/akably real individuals--individual m51 = in/ance4 ,next1 !y saw t intellectual ?\ght1 by analys+ s5se exp]i5ce1 amasses an ev]-gr[+ multitude ( ab/ract & conceptually di/9ct ?\ght-objects1 :i* x utilizes z pr$icates = ! int]pretation ( ?is s5se exp]i5ce4 ,^! ?\ght-objects intellect c unite or sep>ate2 c 9 "s cases positively see to be mutually compatible or incompatible2 c =m into ideal or possible complexes4 ,b :e!r or n ! conceptually di/9ct1 ?\gh mutually compatible1 ?\ght-objects =m+ any su* complex1 w be also really di/9ct f "o ano!r1 is a "q :i* evid5tly _c arise until su* a complex is consid]$ z an actual or possible individual be+3 = x is ! individual only t exi/s or c exi/4 ,!y w be really di/9ct :5 f\nd actualiz$ 9 di/9ct individuals4 ,ev5 ! conceptually "o & self-id5tical ab/ract ?\ght-object w be really di/9ct f itself :5 embodi$ 9 di/9ct individuals2 ! "o s+le ab/ract ?\ght-object1 8humanity10 8human nature10 is really di/9ct f itself 9 ,john & 9 ,james2 ! humanity ( ,john is really o!r ?an ! humanity ( ,james4 ,( c\rse1 if conceptually di/9ct ?\ght-objects are se5 to be mutually incompatible !y _c be f\nd realiz$ except 9 really di/9ct individuals3 ! union ( !m is only an ens rationis4 ,aga9 x may be t ! intellect is unable to pron\nce positively z to :e!r !y are compatible or n 7#ah73 z to :e!r ! complex =ms a possible be+ or n4 ,b :5 ! intellect positively sees su* ?\ght-objects to be mutually compatible--by int]pretation (1 & inf]5ce f1 its actual s5se exp]i5ce ( !m z embodi$ 9 individuals 7#ah7--;& :51 fur!rmore1 x n[ f9ds a numb] ( !m co-exi/+ 9 "s "o actual individual1 ! "q recurs3 ,h[ c x "k :e!r !y are really di/9ct f ea* o!r1 ?\gh actually unit$ to =m "o 7ess5tially or accid5tally composite7 individual1 or only conceptually di/9ct aspects ( "o 7simple7 individual #bg 7b78 ,?is1 z we h se5 already1 is ! case = :i* x is really difficult to f9d a satisfactory te/3 & h5ce ! diff]5t views to be f\nd among s*ola/ic philosoph]s z to ! nature ( ! di/9ctions :i* ! m9d makes or discov]s )9 ! individual4 ,! difficulty is ?is4 ,! conceptual di/9ction betwe5 compatible ?\ght-objects is n a pro( ( real di/9ction :5 ^! ?\ght-objects are f\nd unit$ 9 "o individual ( s5se exp]i5ce1 z e4g4 animality & rationality 9 man2 & ! only di/9ction giv5 to u by s5se exp]i5ce1 at lea/ directly & imm$iately1 z und\bt$ly real1 is ! di/9ction betwe5 corporeal individuals exi/+ ap>t 9 space or "t1 z e4g4 betwe5 man & man4 ,h[ !n1 c we %[ t any di/9ctions )9 ! individual are real8 ,well1 we h se5 t c]ta9 entities1 :i* are objects ( s5se or ( ?\ght1 or ( bo?1 c disappe> f ! individual )\t ! residue !reby p]i%+ or ceas+ to exi/ actually z an individual3 ! human s\l survives1 z an actual individual reality1 aft] its sep>ation f ! mat]ial pr9ciple ) :i* x =m$ ! individual man2 ! individual man p]si/s :ile ! accid5tal modes t affect him disappe>4 ,9 su* cases z ^!1 intellect1 int]pret+ s5se exp]i5ce & reason+ f x1 places a real di/9ction1 9 ! composite individual1 betwe5 ! factors t c cont9ue to exi/ )\t o!rs1 & ^! latt]4 ,9 do+ s x is app>5tly apply+ ! analogy ( ! typical real di/9ction--t betwe5 "o individual & ano!r4 ,! factor1 or gr\p ( factors1 :i* c cont9ue to exi/ actually aft] ! sep>ation ( ! o!rs1 is an individual3 & :at 7 sep>at$ f x 7 app>5tly real entities1 ?\gh !y may h p]i%$ by ! actual sep>ation4 ,b on :at gr\nd is ! di/9ction betwe5 ! mat]ial pr9ciple & ! vital pr9ciple ( a plant or an animal1 = example1 reg>d$ z real8 ,aga9 on ! gr\nd furni%$ by ! analogy ( ! di/9ction betwe5 individuals ( s5se exp]i5ce4 ,note t x is n betwe5 ! mat]ial & ! vital pr9ciples z objects ( ab/ract ?\ght1 i4e4 betwe5 ! mat]iality & ! vitality ( ! plant or ! animal1 t a real di/9ction is claim$3 ^! are reg>d$ only z conceptually di/9ct aspects ( ! plant or ! animal2 nor is x admitt$ t because "o ( ^! ?\ght-objects is f\nd embodi$ else:]e 9 nature )\t ! o!r--mat]iality )\t vitality 9 ! inorganic univ]se--we c !re=e conclude t !y are really di/9ct 9 ! plant or ! animal4 ,no2 x is betwe5 ! two pr9ciples conceiv$ z coexi/+ & unit$ 9 ! concrete individual t ! real di/9ction is claim$4 ,& x is held to be a real di/9ction because sub/antial *ange 9 corporeal ?+s1 i4e4 corruption & g5]ation ( individual corporeal sub/ances1 is held to be real4 ,if x is real !re is a real sep>ation ( ess5tial factors :5 ! individual p]i%es4 ,& ! factors cont9ue to be real1 z pot5tial pr9ciples ( o!r individuals1 :5 any individual corporeal sub/ance p]i%es4 ,ea* pr9ciple may n cont9ue to exi/ actually z su* 9 isolation f ! o!r--?\gh "s s*ola/ics hold t1 absolutely speak+1 !y c\ld be cons]v$ ap>t1 z actual entities1 by ! ,au?or ( ,nature4 ,b !y c actually exi/ z ess5tial pr9ciples ( o!r actual individuals3 !y are real pot5tialities1 :i* become actual 9 o!r individuals4 ,?us we see t !y are conceiv$ ?r\gh\t aft] ! analogy ( ! individual4 ,^? :o hold t1 absolutely speak+1 ! mat]ial pr9ciple z su*1 mat]ia prima1 c\ld actually exi/ 9 isolation f any =mative pr9ciple1 %\ld app>5tly admit t 9 su* a case x w\ld be an individual reality4 #ci4 ,,"s ,,que/ionable ,,di/9ctions4 ,,! ,,scoti/ ,,di/9ction4--,! difficulty ( discrim9at+ betwe5 ! virtual & ! real di/9ction 9 an individual has giv5 rise to ! conception ( di/9ctions :i* "s ma9ta9 to be real1 o!rs to be less ?an real4 ,! virtual di/9ction1 z we h hi!rto und]/ood x1 may be describ$ z extr9sic inasmu* z x arises 9 ! individual only :5 we consid] ! latt] "u diff]5t aspects1 or 9 diff]5t relations to ?+s extr9sic to x4 ,by reg>d+ an individual "u diff]5t aspects--e4g4 a man "u ! aspects ( animality & rationality--we c pr$icate contradictory attributes ( ! individual1 e4g4 ( a man t 8he is simil> to a horse10 & t 8he is n simil> to a horse04 ,n[ x is ma9ta9$ by "s t al?\gh indep5d5tly ( ! consid]ation ( ! m9d ! gr\nds ( ^! contradictory pr$ications are n actually di/9ct 9 ! individual1 nev]!less ev5 be=e su* consid]ation ! individual has a real intr9sic capacity to h ^! contradictory pr$icates affirm$ ( him3 !y c be affirm$ ( him n m]ely :5 he is reg>d$1 & because he is reg>d$1 "u conceptually diff]5t aspects1 b because ^! pr9ciples1 8animality0 & 8rationality10 are already really 9 him n m]ely z aspects b z di/9ct capacities1 z pot5tially di/9ct pr9ciples ( contradictory pr$ications4 ,! virtual di/9ction1 und]/ood 9 ?is way1 is describ$ z intr9sic4 ,x is reject$ by "s on ! gr\nd t1 at lea/ 9 its application to f9ite realities1 x involves a violation ( ! pr9ciple ( contradiction3 x seems to imply t "o & ! same individual has 9 itself absolutely 7& n m]ely z consid]$ "u diff]5t aspects & relations7 ! capacity to v]ify ( itself contradictory pr$icates4 ,scotus & 8 foll[]s g ev5 f>!r ?an ! advocates ( ?is intr9sic virtual di/9ction by ma9ta9+ ! exi/5ce ( a di/9ction :i* on ! "o h& !y hold to be less ?an real because x is n betwe5 8?+ & ?+10 & on ! o!r h& to be m ?an logical or virtual1 because x actually exi/s betwe5 ! v>i\s ?\ght-objects or 8=malitates0 7su*1 e4g4 z animality & rationality7 9 ! individual1 indep5d5tly ( ! analytic activity :]eby ! m9d detects ^! 9 ! latt]4 ,?is di/9ction ,scoti/s call a 8=mal di/9ction1 actual on ! "p ( ! ?+0--8di/9ctio =malis1 actualis ex natura rei40 ,h5ce ! "n 8=mali/s0 appli$ to ,scoti/s1 f _! advocacy ( ?is 8,scoti/ic0 di/9ction4 ,x is1 !y expla91 a di/9ction n betwe5 8?+s0 78res07 b betwe5 8=malities0 78=malitates074 ,by 8?+0 z oppos$ to 8=mality0 !y mean n m]ely ! individual1 b also any positive ?\ght-object :i*1 ?\gh x may n be capable ( exi/+ ap>t1 c really appe> 91 or disappe> f1 a ?+ :i* c s exi/3 = in/ance1 ! ess5tial factors ( a really composite ess5ce1 its accid5tal modes1 & its real relations4 ,by 8=mality0 !y mean a positive ?\ght-object :i* is absolutely insep>able f ! ?+ 9 :i* x is appreh5d$1 :i* _c exi/ )\t ! ?+1 nor ! ?+ )\t x3 = in/ance1 all ! metaphysical grades ( be+ 9 an individual1 su* z sub/antiality1 corporeity1 life1 animality1 rationality1 individuality1 9 an individual man4 ,! di/9ction is call$ 8=mal0 because x is betwe5 su* 8=malities0--ea* ( :i* is ! positive t]m ( a sep>ate concept ( ! individual4 ,x is call$ 8actual on ! side ( ! ?+0 because x is claim$ to be actually 9 ! latt] ap>t f our m5tal appreh5sion ( ! individual4 ,:at has *iefly influ5c$ ,scoti/s 9 claim+ ?is di/9ction to be ?us actually 9 ! individual1 indep5d5tly ( our m5tal activity1 is ! consid]ation t ^! metaphysical grades are gr\nds on :i* we c pr$icate contradictory attributes ( ! same individual1 e4g4 ( an individual man t 8he is simil> to a horse0 & t 8he is n simil> to a horse03 :5ce !y inf] t 9 ord] to avoid violation ( ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 we mu/ suppose ^! gr\nds to be actually di/9ct 9 ! ?+4 ,to ?is x is repli$1 fir/ly1 t if su* pr$ications 7 truly contradictory we c\ld avoid violation ( ! pr9ciple ( contradiction only by inf]r+ a real di/9ction--:i* ,scoti/s d5y to exi/--betwe5 ^! gr\nds2 secondly1 t su* pr$ications are n truly contradictory inasmu* z 8he is simil>0 really means 8he is p>tially simil>10 & 8he is n simil>0 means 8he is n completely simil>02 !re=e :5 we say t a man's rationality 8is n ! pr9ciple :]eby he resembles a horse10 & 8 animality 8is ! pr9ciple :]eby he resembles a horse10 we mean 7a7 t 8 rationality is n ! pr9ciple ( complete resemblance1 ?\gh we "k x is ! pr9ciple ( p>tial resemblance1 inasmu* z we see x to be really id5tical ) t :i* is ! pr9ciple ( p>tial resemblance1 viz4 8 animality2 & we mean 7b7 t 8 animality is ! pr9ciple ( 8 p>tial resemblance to a horse1 n ( total resemblance1 = we "k t ! animality ( a man is n p]fectly simil> to t ( a horse1 ! =m] be+ really id5tical ) rationality1 ! latt] ) irrationality4 ,:51 !n1 we pr$icate ( "o ?+ t 8x is simil> to "s o!r ?+10 & t 8x is n simil> to ?is o!r ?+0 we are n really pr$icat+ contradictories ( ! same ?+2 if we take ! pr$icates z contradictories !y are true ( ! same reality und\bt$ly1 b n "u ! same aspect4 ,scoti/s !mselves admit t ! real id5tity ( ^! aspects involves no violation ( ! pr9ciple ( contradiction2 :y1 !n1 %\ld ^! be held to be actually di/9ct =malities indep5d5tly ( ! consid]ation ( ! m9d8 ,h[ c a di/9ction t is actual indep5d5tly ( ! m9d's analysis ( ! reality be o!r ?an real8 ,is n pr$ication a "w ( ! m9d8 ,& mu/ n ! conditions on :i* reality v]ifies ! pr$ication be det]m9$ by ! m9d8 ,if1 !n1 we see t 9 ord] to ju/ify ?is pr$ication--( 8simil>0 & 8n simil>0--ab\t any reality1 x is m]ely necess>y t ! m9d %\ld appreh5d ?is reality to be 9 its undivid$ unity equival5t to manifold grades ( be+ or p]fection :i* ! m9d itself c grasp z m5tally di/9ct aspects1 by di/9ct concepts1 h[ c we be ju/ifi$ 9 suppos+ t ^! grades ( be+ are n m]ely di/+ui%able1 b actually di/9ct 9 ! reality itself1 indep5d5tly ( ! m9d8 ,! ,scoti/ doctr9e "h is indicative ( ! t5d5cy to emphasize1 p]haps unduly1 ! assimilation ( reality z a datum ) ! m9d :i* int]prets ?is datum2 to reg>d ! con/itution ( reality itself z be+ :at ab/ract ?\ght1 irrespective ( s5se exp]i5ce1 w\ld repres5t x2 & accord+ly to place 9 ! reality z be+ actually !re1 indep5d5tly ( ?\ght1 di/9ctions :i* z a matt] ( fact may be m]ely ! product ( ?\ght itself4 ,scoti/s1 by advocat+ an actual di/9ction betwe5 ^! grades ( be+1 z 8=malities0 9 ! individual1 h expos$ !mselves to ! *>ge ( extreme realism4 ,!y tea* t ea* ( ^! 8=malities0 has1 = ab/ract ?\ght1 a =mal unity :i* is sui g5]is4 ,& ?is unity is n reg>d$ z a product ( ?\ght1 any m ?an ! di/9ction betwe5 su* unities4 ,?us1 ! mat]iality appreh5d$ by ?\ght 9 all mat]ial ?+s is "o1 n because x is made "o by ! ab/ract+ & univ]saliz+ activity ( ?\ght1 z mo/ if n all o!r s*ola/ics tea*2 x is n m]ely conceptually "o ?r\gh our ?\ght-activity1 x is =mally "o ap>t f ! latt]2 & x ?us knits into a 8=mal0 unity all mat]ial ?+s4 ,& s does 8life0 all liv+ ?+s2 & 8animality0 all animals2 & 8rationality0 all m54 ,n[1 if ?is 8=mal unity0 ( any su* ess5tial or metaphysical grade ( be+ 7 reg>d$ z a real unity1 monism w\ld be ( c\rse ! logically inevitable coroll>y ( ! !ory4 ,b ! 8=mal0 unity ( any su* ess5tial grade ( be+ ,scoti/s w n admit to be a real unity1 ?\gh !y hold x to be *>act]i/ic ( reality indep5d5tly ( our ?\ght4 ,!y cont5d t ?is unity is q compatible ) ! real plurality conf]r$ ^u be+ by ! pr9ciples :i* individuate ! latt]2 & ?us !y _c be fairly accus$ ( monism4 ,_! reason+ "h is *>act]i/ically subtle4 ,j z any metaphysical grade ( be+1 consid]$ z an object ( ?\ght1 is 9 itself nei!r manifold individually nor "o univ]sally--s t1 z ,?omi/s say1 designat+ x 9 ?is condition z ! univ]sale directum1 or metaphysicum1 or fundam5tale1 or quoad rem conceptam1 we c truly affirm ( x 9 ?is condition nei!r t x is "o 7logically1 z a univ]sal7 nor t x is manifold 7really1 z multipli$ 9 actual individuals717#afj7--s likewise1 ,scoti/s cont5d1 x is 9 ?is condition ontologically1 z an entity 9 ! real ord] indep5d5tly ( ?\ght1 & z su* has a unity ( its own1 a =mal unity1 :i*1 :ile unit+ 9 a =mal unity all ! individuals t embody x1 is itself incapable ( fitt+ ?is grade ( be+ = actual exi/5ce1 & !re=e admits ^? ultimate individuat+ pr9ciples :i* make x a real manifold 9 ! actual ord]47#afa7 ,?us1 ! metaphysical grade ( be+1 :i*1 z consid]$ 9 itself1 ,?omi/s hold to be an ab/raction1 hav+ no o!r unity ?an t :i* ?\ght conf]s ^u x by mak+ x logically univ]sal1 ,scoti/s on ! contr>y hold to be z su* some?+ positive 9 ! ontological ord]1 hav+ !re a 8=mal0 unity correspond+ to ! 8conceptual0 or 8logical0 unity :i* ?\ght conf]s ^u x by univ]saliz+ x4 ,! metaphysical grade ( be+1 ?us conceiv$ z some?+ positive 9 ! real ord]1 ,scoti/s w n admit to be a 8reality10 nor ! unity :i* *>act]izes x a 8real0 unity4 ,b aft] all1 if su* a 8=mality0 ) its proportionate 8unity10 is indep5d5t ( ?\ght2 & if on ! o!r h& 8univ]sality0 is ! "w ( ?\ght1 s t ! univ]sal z su* _c be real1 x is n easy to see h[ ! ,scoti/ doctr9e escapes ! error ( extreme realism4 ,! metaphysical grade ( be+ is a 8=mality0 only because x is made ab/ract by ?\ght2 & x has 8unity0 only because x is made logically univ]sal by ?\ght2 !re=e to cont5d t z su* x is some?+ positive 9 ! real ord]1 indep5d5tly ( ?\ght1 is to 8reify0 ! ab/ract & univ]sal z su*3 :i* is extreme realism4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,reality ,,& ,,! ,,true4 #dj4 ,,ontological ,,tru? ,,consid]$ ,,f ,,analysis ,,( ,,exp]i5ce4--,we h se5 t :5 ! m9d ?9ks ( any reality x appreh5ds x z 8"o10 t ontological unity is a transc5d5tal attribute ( be+2 & ?is consid]ation l$ u to consid] ! manifoldness & ! di/9ctions :i* *>act]ize ! totality ( our exp]i5ce4 ,n[ man himself is a real be+ surr\nd$ by all ! o!r real be+s t con/itute ! univ]se4 ,moreov] he f9ds himself end[$ ) faculties :i* br+ him into consci\s relations bo? ) himself & ) ^? o!r be+s2 & only by ! prop] int]pretation ( ^! relations c he und]/& aright 8 place 9 ! univ]se4 ,! fir/ 9 ord] ( ^! relations is t ( reality to m9d 7#be74 ,?is relation betwe5 m9d & reality is :at we und]/& by ,tru?4 ,n[ tru? is attribut$ bo? to k & to ?+s4 ,we say t a p]son ?9ks or judges truly1 t 8 k is true 7or correct1 or accurate71 :5 ?+s really are z he ?9ks or judges !m to be4 ,! tru? :i* we ?us ascribe to k1 to ! m9d int]pret+ reality1 is logical tru?3 a relation ( concord or con=mity ( ! m9d int]pret+ reality--or1 ( ! m9d's judgm5t ab\t reality--) ! reality itself47#afb7 ,logical tru? is dealt ) 9 ,logic & ,epi/emology4 ,we are conc]n$ "h only ) ! tru? t is attribut$ to reality1 to ?+s !mselves3 ontological1 metaphysical1 transc5d5tal tru?1 z x is call$4 ,!re is no?+ ab/ruse or f>-fet*$ ab\t ! use ( ! t]ms 8true0 & 8tru?0 z equival5t to 8real0 & 8reality04 ,we speak ( 8true0 gold1 a 8true0 fri5d1 a 8v]itable0 h]o1 etc4 ,n[ :at d we mean by ?us ascrib+ tru? to a ?+8 ,we mean t x corresponds to a m5tal type or ideal4 ,we call a liquid true w9e or real w9e1 = in/ance1 :5 x v]ifies 9 itself ! def9ition we h =m$ ( ! nature ( w9e4 ,h5ce :5ev] we apply ! t]ms 8true0 or 8tru?0 to a ?+ we %all f9d t we are consid]+ t ?+ n absolutely & 9 itself b 9 ref]5ce to an idea 9 our m9ds3 we d n say ( a ?+ simply t x is true1 we say t x is truly su* or su* a ?+1 i4e4 t x is really ( a c]ta9 nature already conceiv$ by our m9ds4 ,if ! appe>ance ( ! ?+ sugge/s comp>ison ) "s su* ideal type or nature1 & if ! ?+ is se5 on exam9ation n really to v]ify ?is nature 9 itself1 we say t x is n really or truly su* or su* a ?+3 e4g4 t a c]ta9 liquid is n really w9e1 or is n true w9e4 ,:5 we h no su* ideal type to :i* to ref] a ?+1 :5 we d n "k its nature1 _c classify & "n x1 we h to susp5d our judgm5t & say t we d n "k :at ! ?+ really is4 ,h5ce1 = example1 ! new rays discov]$ by ,rntg5 7 call$ provisionally 8,x rays10 _! real nature be+ at fir/ unkn[n4 ,we see1 !n1 t real or ontological tru? is simply reality consid]$ z con=mable ) an ideal type1 ) an idea 9 ! m9d4 ,:5ce does ! human m9d d]ive ^! ideal types1 ^! concepts or def9itions ( ! nature ( ?+s8 ,x d]ives !m f actually exp]i5c$ reality by ab/raction1 comp>ison1 g5]alization1 & reflection on ! data ( its exp]i5ce47#afc7 ,h5ce x foll[s t ! ontological tru? ( ?+s is n kn[n by ! m9d antec$5tly to ! =mation ( ! m5tal type4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 9 ! ?+s antec$5tly to any judgm5t we =m ab\t ! ?+s2 & ! logical tru? ( our judgm5ts is dep5d5t on x1 = logical tru? is ! con=mity ( our judgm5ts ) ! real nature ( ?+s4 ,b antec$5tly to all ex]cise ( human ?\ght1 antec$5tly to our conception ( ! nature ( a ?+1 ! ?+ has n = u =mal or actual ontological tru?3 x has only fundam5tal or pot5tial ontological tru?4 ,if 9 ?is condition reality _h actual ontological tru? = u1 !re w\ld be no gr\nd = our di/+ui%+ m5tally betwe5 ! reality & ! tru? ( ?+s2 :]eas ! exi/5ce ( ?is m5tal or logical di/9ction is und5iable4 ,! concept ( reality is ! concept ( some?+ absolute2 ! concept ( ontological tru? is ! concept ( some?+ relative1 n ( an absolute b ( a relative prop]ty ( be+4 ,b if = ! human m9d ! ontological tru? ( ?+s is--at lea/ proximately1 imm$iately1 & 9 ! fir/ place--_! con=mity ) ! ab/ract concepts ( ess5ces or natures1 concepts d]iv$ by ! m9d f an analysis ( its exp]i5ce1 h[ c ?is ontological tru? be "o = all m51 or immutable & necess>y8 ,=1 s9ce m5 =m diff]5t & div]g5t & conflict+ conceptions z to ! natures ( ?+s1 & s h diff]5t views & /&>ds ( tru? = ?+s1 ontological tru? w\ld seem1 accord+ to ! exposition j outl9$1 to be n "o b manifold1 n immutable b v>iable3 consequ5ces :i* surely _c be admitt$8 ,! answ] to ?is difficulty w lead u to a deep] & m fundam5tal conception ( :at ontological tru? really is4 ,fir/1 !n1 we mu/ consid] t all m5 are end[$ ) ! same sort ( intellect1 an intellect capable ( "s insight at lea/ into ! nature ( ?+s2 t !re=e !y ab/ract ! same transc5d5tal notions & ! same wide/ concepts f _! exp]i5ce3 transc5d5tal concepts ( be+1 unity1 tru?1 goodness2 g5]ic concepts ( sub/ance1 matt]1 _s1 cause1 ( accid5t1 quantity1 multitude1 numb]1 id5tity1 simil>ity1 di/9ction1 div]sity1 etc4 ,!y also =m ! same specific concepts ( possible ess5ces4 ,al?\gh1 !re=e1 !y may disagree & err 9 reg>d to ! application ( ^? concepts1 especially ( ! l[]1 ri*] & m complex specific concepts1 to ! actual data ( _! exp]i5ce1 !y agree 9 ! fact t !y h ^? common concepts or idea-types ( reality2 also 9 ! fact t :5 !y apply ^? concepts rightly 7i4e4 by logically true judgm5ts7 to ! ?+s t make up _! exp]i5ce1 !y h s f> grasp$ ! real natures ( ^! ?+s2 & f9ally 9 recogniz+ t ! ontological tru? ( ^! ?+s lies 9 ! con=mity ( ! latt] ) _! true & prop] m5tal types or ess5ces4 ,& j z ea* ( ^! latt] is "o1 indivisible1 immutable1 necess>y & et]nal 7#ad1 #ae71 s is ! ontological tru? ( ?+s1 :e!r possible or actual1 "o1 indivisible1 immutable1 necess>y & et]nal4 ,( c\rse1 j z ! human m9d does n con/itute b only appreh5ds reality1 s ! human m9d does n con/itute ! ontological tru? ( reality1 b only appreh5ds x4 ,e reality is capable ( produc+ 9 ! human m9d a m or less adequate m5tal repres5tation ( itself3 9 ?is lies :at we may call ! pot5tial or fundam5tal ontological tru? ( reality4 ,:5 x does produce su* a m5tal concept ( itself its relation ( con=mity to ?is concept is its =mal ontological tru?4 ,( c\rse ! human m9d may err 9 apply+ to any reality a wrong concept2 :5 x does x has s f> fail$ to grasp ! real nature ( ! ?+ & !re=e ! ontological tru? :i* is really id5tical ) ?is nature4 ,b ! ?+ /ill has its ontological tru?1 indep5d5tly ( ! err+ m9d2 n only fundam5tal tru?1 b also possibly =mal tru? 9 s f> z x may be rightly appreh5d$1 & ?us relat$ to its prop] m5tal type1 by o!r human m9ds4 ,reality itself1 !re=e1 is n & _c be false1 z we %all see m fully lat]2 error or falsity is an accid5t only ( ! m9d int]pret+ reality4 #da4 ,,ontological ,,tru? ,,consid]$ ,,syn!tically1 ,,f ,,! ,,/&po9t ,,( ,,its ,,ultimate ,,real ,,basis4--,s f> we h expla9$ ontological tru? z a relation ( reality to ! human intellig5ce2 b ?is relation is n "o ( dep5d5ce4 ,! objective t]m ( ! relation1 ! reality itself1 is ant]ior to ! human m9d1 x is n con/itut$ by ! latt]4 ,! subjective t]m1 ! ab/ract concept1 is inde$ z a vital product dep5d5t on ! m9d1 b z repres5tative ( reality x is det]m9$ only by ! latt]4 ,is !re1 h[ev]1 an ,intellig5ce to :i* reality is ess5tially con=m$1 o!r ?an ! human intellig5ce8 ,grant$ ! actual exi/5ce ( cont+5t realities1 & grant$ t ! human m9d c d]ive f ^! realities rational pr9ciples :i* x sees to be necess>ily & univ]sally applicable to all ! data ( exp]i5ce1 we c demon/rate ! exi/5ce ( a ,necess>y ,be+1 a ,fir/ & ,self-,exi/5t ,intellig5ce4 ,realiz+1 !n1 t ,god has creat$ all ?+s accord+ to ,inf9ite ,wisdom1 we c see t ! ess5ces ( ?+s are imitations ( exempl> ideas 9 ! ,div9e ,m9d 7#bj74 ,on ! ,div9e ,m9d !y dep5d ess5tially = _! reality & intelligibility4 ,x is because all creat$ realities1 includ+ ! human m9d itself1 are adumbrations ( ! ,div9e ,ess5ce1 t !y are intelligible to ! human m9d4 ,?us we see t 9 ! ontological ord]1 9 ! ord] ( real gradation & dep5d5ce among ?+s1 z di/9ct f ! ord] ( human exp]i5ce17#afd7 ! reason :y reality has ontological tru? = ! human m9d is because x is antec$5tly & ess5tially 9 accord ) ! ,div9e ,m9d f :i* x d]ives its intelligibility4 ,al?\gh1 !re=e1 ontological tru? is = u proximately & imm$iately ! con=mity ( reality ) our own conceptions1 x is prim>ily & fundam5tally ! ess5tial con=mity ( all reality ) ! ,div9e ,m9d4 ,all reality1 actual & possible1 includ+ ! ,div9e ,ess5ce itself1 is actually compreh5d$ by ! ,div9e ,m9d1 is actually 9 con=mity ) ! exempl> ideas 9 ! ,div9e ,m9d1 & has !re=e ontological tru? ev5 indep5d5tly ( its relation to creat$ m9ds2 b 89 ! 7impossible7 hypo!sis ( ! abs5ce ( all intellect1 su* a ?+ z tru? w\ld be inconceivable047#afe7 ,! reason1 !re=e1 :y ?+s are ontologically true = our m9ds1 :y our m9ds c appreh5d _! ess5ces1 :y we c h any true k ab\t !m1 is 9 fact because bo? our m9ds & all ?+s else1 be+ expressions ( ! ,div9e ,ess5ce1 are 9 ess5tial con=mity ) ! ,div9e ,intellect4 ,n t we mu/ "k all ?is 9 ord] to h any logical tru?1 any true k1 ab\t ?+s2 or 9 ord] to ascribe to ?+s ! ontological tru? :i* consi/s 9 _! con=mity ) our conception ( _! nature4 ,! a!i/ c h a true k ( ?+s & c recognize 9 !m _! con=mity ) 8 m5tal conception ( _! nature2 only he is unaw>e ( ! real & fundam5tal reason :y he c d s4 ,nor c he1 ( c\rse1 :ile d5y+ ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 rise to ! full] conception ( ontological tru? :i* consi/s 9 ! ess5tial con=mity ( all reality ) ! ,div9e ,intellect1 & its ess5tial dep5d5ce on ! latt] = its intelligibility to ! human intellect4 ,naturally1 x is ?is latt] & full] conception ( ontological tru? t has be5 at all times exp\nd$ by s*ola/ic philosoph]s47#aff7 ,we may !re=e1 def9e ontological tru? z ! ess5tial con=mity ( reality1 z an object ( ?\ght1 ) intellect1 & prim>ily & especially ) ! ,div9e ,intellect4 ,! con=mity ( reality ) ! ,div9e ,intellect is describ$ z ess5tial to reality1 9 ! s5se t ! reality is dep5d5t on ! ,div9e ,intellect = its intelligibility2 x d]ives its intelligibility f ! latt]4 ,! con=mity ( reality ) ! human intellect is also ess5tial 9 ! s5se t pot5tial con=mity ) ! latt] is insep>able f reality2 x is an aspect really id5tical )1 & only logically di/9ct f1 ! latt]4 ,b inasmu* z ! actual con=mity ( reality ) our human conception ( x is cont+5t on ! exi/5ce ( human intellig5ces1 & is n ultimately dep5d5t on ! latt]1 inasmu* z reality does n d]ive its intelligibility ultimately f ?is conception--see+ t r ?is conception is d]iv$ f ! reality & is ultimately dep5d5t on ! ,div9e ,exempl>1--?is con=mity ( reality ) ! human m9d is sometimes spok5 ( z accid5tal to reality 9 contra/ ) ! relation ( dep5d5ce :i* exi/s betwe5 reality & ! ,div9e ,m9d4 ,be>+ 9 m9d t reality d]ives its intelligibility f its ess5tial con=mity ) ! ,div9e ,m9d1 & t ! human m9d d]ives its tru? f ! reality1 we c und]/& h[ x has be5 said ( tru? 9 g5]al t x is fir/ 9 ! ,uncreat$ ,intellect1 !n 9 ?+s1 !n 9 creat$ intellects2 t ! prim>y s\rce & measure ( all tru? is ! ,div9e ,intellect ,itself ,unmeasur$1 8m5surans1 non m5suratus02 t creat$ reality is measur$ by1 or con=m$ )1 ! ,div9e ,intellect1 & is 9 turn ! measure ( ! human intellect1 con=m+ ! latt] ) itself1 8m5surans et m5surata02 & t1 f9ally1 ! human intellect1 measur$ by creat$ reality & ! ,div9e ,m9d1 is itself ! measure ( no natural ?+s b only ( ! products ( human art1 8intellectus no/] 444 non m5surans quidem res naturales1 s$ artificiales tantum047#afg7 ,is tru? "o1 !n1 or is x manifold8 ,logical tru? is manifold--multipli$ by ! numb] ( creat$ intellig5ces1 & by ! numb] ( di/9ct cognitions 9 ea*4 ,! prim>y ontological tru? :i* consi/s 9 ! con=mity ( all reality ) ! ,div9e ,intellect is "o3 !re is no real plurality ( ar*etype ideas 9 ! ,div9e ,m9d2 !y are manifold only to our imp]fect human mode ( ?9k+4 ,! second>y ontological tru? :i* consi/s 9 ! con=mity ( ?+s ) ! ab/ract concepts ( creat$ intellig5ces is condition$ by1 & multipli$ )1 ! manifoldness ( ! latt]47#afh7 ,aga9 to ! "q3 ,is tru? et]nal or temporal8--we reply 9 a simil> way t ! tru? ( ! ,div9e compreh5sion ( reality1 actual & possible1 is et]nal1 b t no o!r tru? is et]nal4 ,!re is no et]nal tru? outside ( ,god4 ,creat$ ?+s are n et]nal2 & tru? is consecutive on reality3 :]e !re is no reality !re is no ontological tru?3 ! con=mity ( ?+s ) human conceptions & ! logical tru? ( ! latt] are bo? alike temporal47#afi7 ,f9ally1 we may say t ! tru? ( ! ,div9e ,intellect is immutable2 & s is ! ess5tial con=mity ( all reality ) ! ,div9e ,intellect4 ,! *ange to :i* creat$ reality is ess5tially subject is itself ess5tially con=m$ ) ! ,div9e ,m9d2 x is1 s to speak1 "p & p>cel ( ! ontological tru? ( ?is reality 9 relation to ! ,div9e ,m9d1 & _c !re=e int]f]e ) ?is ontological tru?4 ,:5 ! acorn gr[s into ! oak ! :ole process has its ontological tru?2 t ( ! acorn *anges1 n into falsity1 b into ano!r tru?1 t ( ! oak47#agj7 ,we see1 !n1 t z ?+s *ange1 _! tru? does n *ange 9 ! s5se ( be+ lo/ or giv+ place to falsity3 ! tru? ( "o /ate *anges to ! tru? ( ano!r :ile ! ontological tru? ( ! *ang+ reality p]sev]es immutably4 ,! same immutability atta*es to ! tru? ( ?+s 9 relation to ! human m9d3 ) ! qualification1 to :i* we %all return 7#dc71 t !y may occasion false judgm5ts 9 ! human m9d1 & on t acc\nt be designat$ 8false04 ,f9ally1 ! logical tru? :i* has its seat 9 creat$ intellig5ces is mutable3 x may be increas$ or dim9i%$1 acquir$ or lo/4 #db4 ,,ontological ,,tru? ,a ,,transc5d5tal ,,attribute ,,( ,,reality4--,f :at has be5 said x w be app>5t t ontological tru? is a transc5d5tal attribute ( reality4 ,t is to say1 :atev] is real1 :e!r actual or possible1 is ontologically true2 or1 9 s*ola/ic t]m9ology1 8,omne ens e/ v]um2 ,ens et v]um conv]tuntur3 ,all be+ is true2 ,! real & ! true are conv]tible t]ms04 ,= 9 ! fir/ place !re is no mode or category ( real be+1 ( :i* ! human m9d actually ?9ks1 to :i* x does n attribute ontological tru? 9 ! s5se ( con=mity ) ! "r human conception ( x4 ,moreov]1 ! prop] object ( ! human intellect is reality2 all true k is k ( reality4 ,reality ( itself is manife/ly kn[able1 intelligible1 & ?us pot5tially or fundam5tally true2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 intellect is1 accord+ to ! measure ( its capacity1 a faculty ( insight into all reality1 into :atev] is real3 intellectus pot5s fi]i omnia2 anima 444 quodammodo fit omnia47#aga7 ,d5y ei!r ( ^! po/ulates reg>d+ ! t]ms ( ! ontological relation1 reality & m9d1 & all rational ?\ght is in/antly p>alys$4 ,h5ce1 9 s f> z a reality becomes an actual object ( human k x has =mal ontological tru? 9 relation bo? to ! human m9d & to ! ,div9e ,m9d2 :ile antec$5tly to human ?\ght x is fundam5tally true1 or intelligible1 to ! human m9d1 & ( c\rse =mally true 9 relation to ! ,div9e ,m9d4 ,?us we see t :atev] is real is ontologically true2 t ontological tru? is really id5tical ) real be+2 t1 appli$ to ! latt]1 x is n a m]e extr9sic d5om9ation1 b signifies an intr9sic1 positive aspect ( reality1 viz4 ! real1 ess5tial1 or transc5d5tal relation ( all real be+ to ,m9d or ,intellect3 a relation :i* is logically or conceptually di/9ct f ! notion ( reality consid]$ 9 itself4 #dc4 ,,attribution ,,( ,,falsity ,,to ,,real ,,be+4--,if ontological tru? is really id5tical ) real be+1 if x is an ess5tial aspect ( ! latt]1 a transc5d5tal relation ( reality to m9d1 x foll[s imm$iately t !re c be no su* ?+ z transc5d5tal falsity3 if :atev] is real is ontologically true1 !n ! ontologically false mu/ be ! unreal1 mu/ be no?+ness4 ,& ?is is really s3 ontologically falsity is no?+ness4 ,we h1 !re=e1 to discov] ! real mean+ ( attribut+ falsity to ?+s1 z :5 we speak ( a false fri5d1 false gold1 false tee?1 a false musical note1 a false measure 9 poetry1 etc4 ,fir/ ( all1 !n1 x w be not$ t ea* su* object has its own real nature & "*1 its prop] m5tal correlate1 &1 !re=e1 its ontological tru?4 ,! false fri5d is a true or real deceiv]1 or traitor1 or c[>d1 or :atev] 8 real "* may be2 ! false gold is true or real bronze1 or alloy1 or :atev] x may be 9 reality2 ! false tee? are true or real ivory1 or :atev] sub/ance !y are made (2 a false musical note is a true or real note b n ! prop] "o 9 its actual sett+2 & s ( a false measure 9 poetry4 ,next1 :5 we ?us ascribe falsity to a fri5d1 or gold1 or su* l1 we see t ! epi!t 8false0 is 9 reality m]ely transf]r$ f ! false judgm5t :i* a p]son is liable to make ab\t ! object4 ,we mean t to judge t p]son a fri5d1 or t sub/ance gold1 or ^? articles real tee?1 w\ld be to =m a false judgm5t4 ,we see t x is only 9 ! judgm5t !re c be falsity2 b we transf] ! epi!t to ! object because ! object is likely to occasion ! errone\s judgm5t 9 ! fallible human m9d1 by reason ( ! resemblance ( ! object to some?+ else :i* x really is n4 ,we see1 !re=e1 t falsity is n 9 ! objects1 b is transf]r$ to !m by a purely extr9sic d5om9ation on acc\nt ( appe>ances calculat$ to mislead4 ,we commonly say1 9 su* cases t 8?+s mislead u10 t 8appe>ances deceive u04 ,?+s1 h[ev]1 d n deceive or mislead u necess>ily1 b only accid5tally3 !y are ! occasions ( our all[+ ourselves to be deceiv$3 ! fallibility & limitations ( our own m9ds 9 int]pret+ reality are ! real cause ( our errone\s judgm5ts47#agb7 ,secondly1 !re is ano!r improp] s5se 9 :i* we attribute falsity to works ( art :i* fail to realize ! arti/'s ideal4 ,9 ?is s5se we speak ( a 8false0 note 9 music1 a 8false0 measure 9 poetry1 a 8false0 t9t 9 pa9t+1 a 8false0 curve 9 sculpture or ar*itecture4 8,false0 "h means defective1 bad1 want+ 9 p]fection4 ,! object be+ out ( h>mony ) ! ideal or design 9 ! practical intellect ( ! arti/1 we describe x z 8false0 aft] ! analogy ( :at takes place :5 we describe z 8false gold0 a sub/ance :i* is out ( h>mony ) ! idea ( gold 9 ! speculative intellect4 ,x is 9 relation to ! speculative1 n ! practical1 intellect1 t ?+s h ontological tru?4 ,all creat$ ?+s are1 ( c\rse1 z su*1 9 con=mity n only ) ! ,div9e ,intellect consid]$ z speculative1 b also ) ! ,div9e ,intellect consid]$ z practical4 ,= ,god1 be+ omnipot5t1 does all ?+s accord+ to ! designs ( ,8 ,wisdom4 ,= ,him no?+ is accid5tal1 no?+ happ5s by *ance4 ,b ! _w ,he has freely will$ to create is n ! be/ possible _w4 ,bo? 9 ! physical & 9 ! moral ord] !re are ?+s & ev5ts :i* are defective1 :i* fall %ort ( _! natural p]fection4 ,?is defectiv5ess1 :i* is prop]ly physical or moral evil1 is sometimes describ$ z falsity1 ly+1 vanity1 etc41 on acc\nt ( ! discrepancy betwe5 ^? ?+s & ! ideal ( :at !y %\ld be4 ,b all su* defective realities are kn[n to be :at !y are by ! ,div9e ,m9d1 & may be kn[n z !y really are by ! human m9d4 ,!y h1 !re=e1 _! ontological tru?4 ,! "q ( _! p]fection or imp]fection gives rise to ! consid]ation ( q a diff]5t aspect ( reality1 namely its goodness4 ,?is1 !n1 we mu/ deal ) 9 ! next place4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,reality ,,& ,,! ,,good4 #dd4 ,,! ,,good ,,z 8,,desirable0 ,,& ,,z 8,,suitable04--,! notion ( ! good 7,l4 bonum2 ,gr4 7 is "o ( ! mo/ famili> ( all notions4 ,b l all o!r transc5d5tal or widely g5]ic concepts1 ! analysis ( x op5s up "s fundam5tal que/ions4 ,! pr9ces ( anci5t ,greek philosophy1 ,socrates1 ,plato & ,ari/otle1 gave mu* anxi\s ?\ght to its elucidation4 ,! t5tative grop+s ( ,socrates involv$ an ambiguity :i* issu$ 9 ! conflict+ philosophies ( ,/oicism & ,epicureanism4 ,nor did ,plato succe$ 9 br++ d[n f ! cl\ds ! 8,idea ( ! ,good0 :i* he s devot$ly wor%ipp$ z ! ,sun ( ! ,intellectual ,_w4 ,x ne$$ ! m sob] & se>*+ analysis ( ! ,/agyrite to br+ to light ! =mula s univ]sally accept$ 9 aft] ages3 ,! ,good ( be+s is t :i* all desire3 ,bonum e/ quod omnia appetunt47#agc7 ,let u try to rea* ! fundam5tal idea und]ly+ ! t]ms 8good10 8goodness10 by "s simple examples4 ,! *ild1 d]iv+ s5sible pleasure f a sweetmeat1 cries out3 ,t is good6 ,:atev] gratifies its s5ses1 gives x s5sible delight1 x likes or loves4 ,su* ?+s x desires1 seeks1 ye>ns =1 9 _! abs5ce2 & 9 _! pres5ce enjoys4 ,at ?is /age ! good means simply ! pleasure-giv+4 ,b z reason develops ! human be+ appreh5ds & describes z good n m]ely :at is pleasure-giv+1 b :atev] satisfies any natural ne$ or crav+1 :e!r purely organic1 or purely intellectual1 or m widely human3 food is good because x satisfies a physical1 organic crav+2 k is good because x satisfies a natural intellectual ?ir/2 fri5d%ip is good because x satisfies a wid] ne$ ( ! he>t4 ,"h we notice a transition f 8agreeable0 9 ! s5se ( 8pleasure-giv+0 to 8agreeable0 9 ! m prop] s5se ( 8suitable0 or useful4 ,! good is n[ conceiv$ n 9 ! n>r[ s5se ( :at yields s5sible pleasure b 9 ! wid] s5se ( t :i* is useful or suitable = ! satisfaction ( a natural t5d5cy or ne$1 t :i* is ! object ( a natural t5d5cy4 ,next1 let u reflect1 ) ,ari/otle1 t ea* ( ! individual p]sons & ?+s t make up ! _w ( our direct exp]i5ce has an end t[>ds :i* x naturally t5ds4 ,!re is a purpose 9 ! exi/5ce ( ea*4 ,ea* has a nature1 i4e4 an ess5ce :i* is = x a pr9ciple ( developm5t1 a s\rce ( all ! functions & activities :]eby x cont9ually adapts itself to its environm5t & !reby cont9ually fulfils ! aim ( its exi/5ce4 ,by its v nature x t5ds t[>ds its end along ! prop] l9e ( its developm5t47#agd7 ,9 ! _w ( consci\s be+s ?is natural t5d5cy is prop]ly call$ appetite3 s5se appetite ( :at is appreh5d$ z good by s5se cognition1 & rational appetite or w 9 reg>d to :at is appreh5d$ z good by intellect or reason4 ,9 ! _w ( unconsci\s ?+s ?is natural t5d5cy is a real t5d5cy & is analog\s to consci\s appetite4 ,h5ce x is t ,ari/otle1 tak+ 9 all grades ( real be+1 describes ! good z t :i* is ! object ( any natural t5d5cy or 8appetite0 :atsoev]3 ! good is ! 8appetibile0 or 8desirable10 t :i* all ?+s seek3 bonum e/ quod omnia appetunt4 #de4 ,,! ,,good ,,z ,,an 8,,end10 8,,p]fect+0 ,,! 8,,nature04--,s f>1 we h analys$ ! notion ( :at is 8good0 = "s be+2 & we h ga!r$ t x implies :at suits ?is be+1 :at contributes to ! latt]'s realization ( its end4 ,b we apply ! t]m 8good0 to objects1 & speak ( _! goodness1 ap>t f _! direct & imm$iate relation ( helpfulness or suitability = u4 ,:51 = in/ance1 we say ( a wat* t x is a good "o1 or ( a soldi] t he is a good soldi]1 :at precisely d we mean by su* attribution ( goodness to ?+s or p]sons8 ,a little reflection w %[ t x is intelligible only 9 ref]5ce to an end or purpose4 ,& we mean by x t ! be+ we describe z good has ! p[]s1 qualities1 equipm5ts1 :i* fit x = its end or purpose4 ,a be+ is good ^: nature is equipp$ & adapt$ = ! realization ( its natural end or purpose4 ,?us we see t ! notion ( goodness is correlative ) ! notion ( an end1 t[>ds :i*1 or = :i*1 a be+ has a natural t5d5cy or desire4 ,)\t ! concept ( a nature z t5d+ to realize an end or purpose1 ! notion ( 8! good0 w\ld be inexplicable47#age7 ,& ! two =mul1 8,! good is t :i* be+s desire1 or t[>ds :i* !y naturally t5d10 & 8,! good is t :i* is adapt$ to ! ends :i* be+s h 9 _! exi/5ce10 really come to ! same ?+2 ! =m] /atem5t resolv+ itself into ! latt] z ! m fundam5tal4 ,= ! reason :y any?+ is desirable1 :y x is ! object ( a natural t5d5cy1 is because x is good1 & n vice v]sa4 ,! description ( ! good z t :i* is desirable1 8,bonum e/ id quod e/ appetibile10 is an a po/]iori description1 a description ( cause by ref]5ce to effect47#agf7 ,a ?+ is desirable because x is good4 ,:y !n is x good1 & !re=e desirable8 ,because x suits ! natural ne$s1 & is adapt$ to ! nature1 ( ! be+ t desires x or t5ds t[>ds x2 because x helps ?is be+1 agrees ) x1 by contribut+ t[>ds ! realization ( its end3 ,bonum e/ id quod conv5it natur appet5tis3 ,! good is t :i* suits ! nature ( ! be+ t desires x4 ,! greate/ good = a be+ is ! realization ( its end2 & ! means t[>ds ?is are also good because !y contribute to ?is realization4 ,no d\bt1 9 be+s end[$ ) consci\sness ! gradual realization ( ?is natural t5d5cy1 by ! normal function+ & developm5t ( _! activities1 is accompani$ by pleasurable feel+4 ,! latt] is1 9 fact1 n an end ( action itself1 b r ! natural concomitant1 ! effect & index1 ( ! heal?y & normal activity ( ! consci\s be+3 delectatio sequitur op]ationem debitam4 ,x is ! pleasure felt 9 t5d+ t[>ds ! good t reveals ! good to ! consci\s ag5t3 t is1 tak+ pleasure 9 its wide s5se z ! feel+ ( well-be+1 ( satisfaction ) "o's :ole condition1 activities & environm5t4 ,h5ce x is ! anticipat$ pleasure1 connect$ by pa/ association ) a c]ta9 l9e ( action1 t /imulates ! consci\s be+ to act 9 t way aga94 ,x is 9 ! fir/ in/ance because a c]ta9 op]ation or t5d5cy is felt to be pleas+ t x is desir$1 & appreh5d$ z desirable4 ,nor does ! brute bea/ recognize or respond to any /imulus ( action o!r ?an pleasure4 ,b man--end[$ ) reason1 & reflect+ on ! relation betwe5 8 own nature & ! activities :]eby he duly ori5ts 8 life 9 8 environm5t--mu/ see t :at is pleasure-giv+ or 8agreeable0 9 ! ord9>y s5se ( ?is t]m is g5]ally s because x is 8agreeable0 9 ! deep] s5se ( be+ 8suitable to 8 nature10 8adapt$ to 8 end10 & !re=e 8good04 ,! good1 !n1 is :atev] suits ! nature ( a be+ t5d+ t[>ds its end3 bonum e/ conv5i5s natur appet5tis4 ,9 :at precisely does ?is suitability consi/8 ,:at suits any nature p]fects t nature1 & suits x precisely 9 s f> z x p]fects x4 ,b :atev] p]fects a nature does s only because & 9 s f> z x is a realization ( ! end t[>ds :i* ?is nature t5ds4 ,"h we rea* a new notion1 t ( 8p]fect+0 or 8p]fection10 & "o :i* is z ess5tially connect$ ) ! notion ( 8end0 or 8purpose10 z ! concept ( ! 8good0 itself is4 ,let u comp>e ^! notions ( 8goodness10 8end10 & 8p]fection04 ,we h said t a wat* or a soldi] are good :5 !y are adapt$ to _! respective ends4 ,b !y are s only because ! end itself is already good4 ,& we may ask :y any su* end is itself good & !re=e desirable4 ,= example1 :y is ! accurate indication ( "t good1 or ! def5ce ( "o's c\ntry8 ,& obvi\sly 9 su* a s]ies ( que/ions we mu/ come to some?+ :i* is good & desirable 9 & = itself1 = its own sake & n z lead+ & help+ t[>ds "s remot] good4 ,& ?is some?+ :i* is good 9 & = itself is a la/ or ultimate end--an absolute1 n a relative1 good4 ,!re mu/ be su* an absolute good1 su* an ultimate end1 if goodness 9 ?+s is to be made intelligible at all4 ,& x is only 9 s f> z ?+s t5d t[>ds ?is absolute good1 & are adapt$ to x1 t !y c be t]m$ good4 ,! realization ( ?is t5d5cy ( ?+s t[>ds ! absolute good1 or ultimate end1 is :at con/itutes ! goodness ( ^? ?+s1 & x does s because x p]fects _! natures4 ,! end t[>ds :i* any nature t5ds is ! cause ( ?is t5d5cy1 its f9al cause2 & ! influ5ce ( a f9al cause consi/s precisely 9 its goodness1 i4e4 9 its p[] ( actualiz+ & p]fect+ a nature4 ,?is influ5ce ( ! good is sometimes describ$ z ! 8diffusive0 "* ( goodness3 ,bonum e/ diffusivum sui3 ,goodness t5ds to diffuse or communicate itself1 to multiply or reproduce itself4 ,?is "*1 :i* we may recognize 9 ! goodness ( f9ite1 creat$ ?+s1 is expla9$ 9 ! philosophy ( !ism z be+ d]iv$1 ) ?is goodness itself1 f ! uncreat$ goodness ( ,god :o is ! ,ultimate ,end & ,supreme ,good ( all reality4 ,e creature has its own prop] ultimate end & highe/ p]fection 9 its be+ a manife/ation1 an expression1 a %ew+ =?1 ( ! ,div9e ,goodness4 ,x has its own actuality & goodness1 di/9ct f1 b dep5d5t on1 ! ,div9e ,goodness2 b inasmu* z its goodness is an expression or imitation ( ! ,div9e ,goodness1 we may1 by an extr9sic d5om9ation1 say t ! creature is good by ! ,div9e ,goodness4 ,9 a simil> way1 & )\t any suspicion ( pan!ism1 we may speak ( ! goodness ( creatures z be+ a p>ticipation ( ! ,div9e ,goodness 7#e74 #df4 ,,! ,,p]fect4 ,,analysis ,,( ,,! ,,notion ,,( ,,p]fection4--,x is ! realization ( ! end or object or purpose ( a nature t p]fects ! latt]1 & s f> =mally con/itutes ! goodness ( ?is nature4 ,n[ ! notion ( p]fection is n exactly ! same z ! notion ( goodness3 al?\gh :at is p]fect is always good1 :at is good is n always p]fect4 ,! t]m 8p]fect0 comes f ! ,lat9 p]fic]e1 p]fectum1 mean+ fully made1 ?or\ghly a*iev$1 complet$1 f9i%$4 ,/rictly speak+1 x is only f9ite be+1 pot5tial be+1 capable ( completion1 t c be spok5 ( z p]fectible1 or1 :5 fully actualiz$1 p]fect4 ,b by univ]sal usage ! t]m has be5 ext5d$ to ! reality ( ! ,inf9ite ,be+3 we speak ( ! latt] z ! ,inf9itely ,p]fect ,be+1 n mean+ t ?is ,be+ has be5 8p]fect$10 b t ,he is ! purely ,actual & ,inf9ite ,reality4 ,appli$ to any f9ite be+1 ! t]m 8p]fect0 means t ?is be+ has atta9$ to ! full actuality :i* we reg>d z its end1 z ! ideal ( its natural capacity & t5d5cy4 ,! f9ite be+ is subject to *ange2 x is n actualiz$ all at once1 b gradually2 by ! play ( ^? active & passive p[]s :i* are root$ 9 its nature x is gradually actualiz$1 & ?us p]fect$1 ga9+ m & m reality or be+ by ! process4 ,b :at directs ?is process & det]m9es ! l9e ( its t5d5cy8 ,! good :i* is ! end ( ! be+1 ! good t[>ds :i* ! be+ by its nature t5ds4 ,?is good1 :i* is ! t]m ( ! be+'s natural t5d5cy--:i* is1 9 o!r words1 its end--is ! fundam5tal pr9ciple7#agg7 :i* p]fects ! nature ( ! be+1 is ! s\rce & explanation ( ! process :]eby ?is nature is p]fect$3 bonum e/ p]fectivum3 ! good is ! p]fect+ pr9ciple ( reality4 ,! end itself is 8! good :i* p]fects10 bonum quod2 ! 8p]fect+0 itself is ! =mal cause ( ! goodness ( ! be+ t is p]fect$1 bonum quo2 ! be+ itself :i* is p]fect$1 & !re=e ameliorat$ or increas$ 9 goodness1 is ! bonum cui4 ,9 proportion1 !re=e1 to ! degree 9 :i* a be+ actually possesses ! p]fection due to its nature x is 8good02 9 s f> z x lacks ?is p]fection1 x is want+ 9 goodness1 or is1 z we %all see1 ontologically 8bad0 or 8evil04 ,:ile1 !n1 ! notion ( ! 8good0 implies a relation ( ! appetite or natural t5d5cy ( a be+ t[>ds its end1 ! notion ( 8p]fection10 or 8p]fect+10 conveys to our m9ds actual reality simply1 or ! actualiz+ ( reality4 ,! t]m 8p]fection0 is commonly us$ z synonym\s ) actual reality4 ,9 s f> =? z a reality is actual we say x 8has p]fection04 ,b we d n call x 8p]fect0 simply1 unless x has all ! actuality we conceive to be due to its nature3 s long z x lacks any ( ?is x is only p]fect secundum quid1 i4e4 9 proportion to ! actuality x does possess4 ,h5ce we def9e 8! p]fect0 z t :i* is actually lack+ 9 no?+ t is due to its nature4 ,! p]fect is !re=e n simply ! good1 b ! complete or f9i%$ good2 & x is ev5 logically di/9ct f ! latt]1 inasmu* z ! actuality connot$ by ! =m] has add$ to x ! relation to appetite connot$ by ! latt]4 ,simil>ly 8goodness0 is logically di/9ct f 8p]fection0 by add+ ! l relation to ! latt]4 ,al?\gh a ?+ has goodness 9 s f> z x has p]fection1 & vice v]sa1 /ill its p]fection is its actuality simply1 :ile its goodness is ?is actuality consid]$ z ! t]m ( its natural appetite or t5d5cy4 #dg4 ,,grades ,,( ,,p]fection4 ,,reality ,,z ,,/&>d ,,( ,,value4--,we may di/+ui% betwe5 /ages ( p]fection 9 ! *ang+ reality ( ! same be+1 or grades ( p]fection 9 comp>+ ) "o ano!r diff]5t classes or ord]s ( be+4 ,9 "o & ! same be+ we may di/+ui% betwe5 :at is call$ its fir/ or ess5tial p]fection1 :i* means its ess5ce or nature consid]$ z capable ( realiz+ its purpose 9 exi/5ce by t5d+ effectively t[>ds its end2 :at is call$ its int]m$iate or accid5tal p]fection1 :i* consi/s 9 all ! p[]s1 faculties & functions :]eby ?is t5d5cy is gradually actualiz$2 & :at is call$ its f9al or integral p]fection1 :i* consi/s 9 its full actualization by complete atta9m5t ( its end4 ,aga91 comp>+ ) "o ano!r ! individual be+s t make up our exp]i5ce1 we classify !m1 we arrange !m 9 a hi]>*ical ord] ( relative 8p]fection10 ( inf]iority or sup]iority1 accord+ to ! diff]5t grades ( reality or p]fection :i* we ?9k we appreh5d 9 !m4 ,?us1 we look on liv+ ?+s z a high]1 nobl]1 m p]fect ord] ( be+s ?an non-liv+ ?+s1 on animal life z a high] =m ( be+ ?an plant life1 on intellig5ce z high] ?an in/9ct1 on w z sup]ior to s5se appetite1 on m9d or _s z nobl] ?an matt]1 & s on4 ,n[ all su* comp>isons involve ! appreh5sion ( "s /&>d ( value4 ,an e/imation ( relative values1 or relative grades ( p]fection 9 ?+s1 is un9telligible except 9 ref]5ce to "s su* /&>d2 x involves ( necessity ! intuition ( su* a /&>d4 ,we feel sure t "s at lea/ ( our appreciations are unque/ionably correct3 t man1 = in/ance1 is sup]ior to ! brute bea/1 & ! latt] sup]ior to ! plant2 t ! l[e/ manife/ation ( life--9 ! amba1 or :atev] monocellul>1 microscopic g]m may be ! l[e/--is high] on ! scale ( be+ ?an ! highe/ expression ( ! me*anical1 *emical & physical =ces ( ! inorganic univ]se4 ,& if we ask ourselves :at is our /&>d ( comp>ison1 :at is our te/ or measure1 & :y are we sure ( our application ( x 9 su* cases1 our only answ] is t our /&>d ( comp>ison is reality itself1 actual be+1 p]fection2 t we rely implicitly on our intuition ( su* actual reality z manife/$ to u 9 v>y+ grades or degrees )9 our exp]i5ce2 t )\t claim+ to be infallible 9 our judgm5ts ( comp>ison1 9 our classifications ( ?+s1 9 our appreciations ( _! relative p]fection1 we may ju/ly assume reality itself to be z su* intelligible1 & ! human m9d to be capable ( obta9+ "s true & c]ta9 insight into ! nature ( reality4 #dh4 ,,! ,,good1 ,,! ,,real1 ,,& ,,! ,,actual4--,hav+ comp>$ 8p]fection0 ) 8goodness0 & ) 8be+10 let u next comp>e ! two latt] notions ) ea* o!r4 ,we %all see pres5tly t e actual be+ has its ontological goodness1 t ^! are 9 reality id5tical4 ,b !re is a logical di/9ction betwe5 !m4 ,9 ! fir/ place ! t]m 8be+0 is appli$ p> excell5ce to sub/ances r ?an to accid5ts4 ,b we d n commonly speak ( an individual sub/ance1 a p]son or ?+1 z good 9 ref]5ce to ess5tial or sub/antial p]fection47#agh7 ,:5 we describe a man1 or a ma*9e1 z 8good10 we mean t ! man possesses ^? accid5tal p]fections1 ^? qualities & end[m5ts1 :i* are suitable to 8 nature z a man2 t ! ma*9e possesses ^? prop]ties :i* adapt x to its end4 ,9 ! second place ! notion ( be+ is absolute2 t ( ! good is relative1 = x implies ! notion n ( reality simply b ( reality z desirable1 agreeable1 suitable1 z p]fect+ ! nature ( a subject1 z be+ ! end1 or conducive to ! end1 t[>ds :i* ?is nature t5ds4 ,& s9ce :at ?us p]fects mu/ be some?+ n pot5tial b actual1 x foll[s t1 unlike real tru?1 real goodness is id5tical n ) pot5tial1 b only ) actual reality4 ,x is n an attribute ( ! ab/ract1 possible ess5ce1 b only ( ! concrete1 actually exi/+ ess5ce47#agi7 ,f ! fact t ! notion ( ! good is relative x foll[s t ! same ?+ c be simultane\sly good & bad 9 diff]5t relations3 8,:at is "o man's meat is ano!r man's poison04 #di4 ,,k9ds ,,( ,,goodness2 ,,divisions ,,( ,,! ,,good4--7a7 ,! goodness ( a be+ may be consid]$ 9 relation to ?is be+ itself1 or to o!r be+s4 ,:at is good = a be+ itself1 :at makes x intr9sically & =mally good1 bonum sibi1 is :atev] p]fects x1 & 9 ! fulle/ s5se ! realization ( its end4 ,h5ce we speak ( a virtu\s1 upright man1 ^: conduct is 9 keep+ ) 8 nature & conducive to ! realization ( 8 end1 z a good man4 ,b a be+ may also be good to o!rs1 bonum alt]i1 by an extr9sic1 active1 effective goodness1 inasmu* z by its action x may help o!r be+s 9 ! realization ( _! ends4 ,9 ?is s5se1 a b5efic5t man1 :o wi%es ! well-be+ ( 8 fell[-m5 & helps !m to realize ?is well-be+1 is call$ a good man4 ,?is k9d ( goodness is :at is (t5 n[adays /yl$ philan?ropy2 9 ,*ri/ian e?ics x is kn[n z *>ity4 7b7 ,we h describ$ ! good z ! t]m or object ( natural t5d5cy or appetite4 ,9 ! doma9 ( be+s n end[$ ) ! p[] ( consci\s appreh5sion1 det]m9ism rules ?is natural t5d5cy2 ?is latt] is always ori5t$ t[>ds ! real good3 x nev] acts amiss3 x is always direct$ by ! ,div9e ,wisdom :i* has giv5 to ?+s _! natures4 ,b 9 ! doma9 ( consci\s liv+ ag5ts ?is natural t5d5cy is consequ5t on appreh5sion3 x takes ! =m ( in/9ctive animal appetite or ( rational volition4 ,& s9ce ?is appreh5sion ( ! good may be errone\s1 s9ce :at is n really good b evil may be appreh5d$ z good1 ! appetite or w1 :i* foll[s ?is appreh5sion--nil volitum nisi praecognitum--may be borne t[>ds evil sub ratione boni4 ,h5ce ! obvi\s di/9ction betwe5 real good & app>5t good--bonum v]um & bonum app>5s4 7c7 ,9 ref]5ce to any individual subject--a man1 = in/ance--x is manife/ t o!r be+s c be good = him 9 s f> z any ( !m c be 8 end or a means to ! atta9m5t ( 8 end4 ,!y are call$ 9 ref]5ce to him objective goods1 & _! goodness objective goodness4 ,b x is equally cle> t !y are good = him only because he c p]fect 8 own nature by someh[ id5tify+ or unit+ himself ) !m1 possess+1 us+1 or enjoy+ !m4 ,?is possession ( ! objective good con/itutes :at has be5 already ref]r$ to z =mal or subjective goodness47#ahj7 7d7 ,we h likewise already ref]r$ to ! fact t 9 be+s end[$ ) consci\sness & appetite prop]1 :e!r s5ti5t or rational1 ! function ( possess+ or atta9+ to :at is objectively good1 to :at suits & p]fects ! nature ( ! subject1 has = its natural concomitant a feel+ ( pleasure1 satisfaction1 well-be+1 delight1 enjoym5t4 ,& we h obs]v$ t ?is pleasurable feel+ may !n become a /imulus to fre% desire1 may inde$ be desir$ = its own sake4 ,n[ ?is subjective1 pleasure-giv+ possession ( an objective good has be5 itself call$ by s*ola/ics bonum delectabile--delectable or delight-giv+ good4 ,! objective good itself consid]$ z an end1 & ! p]fect+ ( ! subject by its atta9m5t1 h be5 call$ bonum hone/um--good :i* is really & absolutely su* 9 itself4 ,:ile if ! good 9 "q is really su* only :5 consid]$ z a means to ! atta9m5t ( an end1 ( some?+ t is good 9 itself1 ! =m] is call$ bonum utile--useful good47#aha7 ,9 ?is important triple division bonum hone/um is us$ 9 ! wide s5se 9 :i* x embraces any real good1 :e!r physical or moral4 ,z appli$ to man x w\ld !re=e embrace :atev] p]fects 8 physical life z well z :atev] p]fects 8 nature consid]$ z a rational1 & !re=e moral1 be+4 ,b 9 common usage x has be5 re/rict$ to ! latt]1 & is 9 ?is s5se synonym\s ) moral good1 virtue47#ahb7 ,fur!rmore1 a good :i* is an end1 & !re=e desirable = its own sake1 :e!r x be physical or moral1 c be at ! same "t a means to "s high] good & desir$ = ! sake ( ?is latt]4 ,h5ce ,/4 ,?omas1 foll[+ ,ari/otle1 r$uces all ! moral goods :i* are desirable 9 !mselves to two k9ds3 t :i* is desirable only = itself1 :i* is ! la/ end1 f9al felicity2 & ^? :i*1 :ile good 9 !mselves1 are also conducive to ! =m]1 & ^! are ! virtues47#ahc7 ,:5 ^! v>i\s k9ds ( goodness are exam9$ 9 ref]5ce to ! nature1 conduct & de/9y ( man1 !y raise a multitude ( problems :i* belong prop]ly to ,e?ics & ,natural ,!ology4 ,! fact t man has a composite nature :i* is ! seat ( v>i\s & conflict+ t5d5cies1 ( ! fle% & ( ! _s2 t he p]ceives 9 himself a 8d\ble law10 a high] & a l[] appetite2 t he is subject to error 9 8 appreh5sion ( ! good2 t he appreh5ds a di/9ction betwe5 pleasure & duty2 t he feels ! latt] to be ! pa? to ultimate happ9ess1--all ?is acc5tuates ! di/9ction betwe5 real & app>5t good1 betwe5 bonum hone/um1 bonum utile1 & bonum delectabile4 ,! exi/5ce ( ,god is e/abli%$ 9 ,natural ,!ology2 & 9 ,e?ics1 aid$ by ,psy*ology1 x is prov$ t no f9ite good c be ! la/ end ( man1 t ,god1 ! ,supreme1 ,inf9ite ,good1 is 8 la/ end1 & t only 9 ! possession ( ,god by k & love c man f9d 8 complete & f9al felicity4 #ej4 ,,goodness ,a ,,transc5d5tal ,,attribute ,,( ,,be+4--,we h %[n t !re is a logical di/9ction betwe5 ! concept ( 8goodness0 & t ( 8be+04 ,we h n[ to %[ t ! di/9ction is n real1 9 o!r words1 t goodness is a transc5d5tal attribute ( all actual reality1 t all be+1 9 s f> =? z x is actual1 has goodness--transc5d5tal or ontological goodness 9 ! s5se ( appetibility1 desirability1 suitability1 z already expla9$4 ,:5 ! !sis is =mulat$ 9 ! traditional s*ola/ic /atem5t1 8,omne ens e/ bonum3 ,all be+ is good0 x s\nds a />tl+ p>adox4 ,surely x _c be cont5d$ t ev]y?+ is good8 ,a canc] 9 ! /oma* is n good2 lies are n good2 yet ^! are actual realities2 canc]s exi/ & lies are told2 !re=e n e reality is good4 ,?is is unque/ionably true4 ,b x does n contradict ! !sis rightly und]/ood4 ,! true mean+ ( ! !sis is1 n t e be+ is good 9 all respects1 or possesses su* goodness z w\ld ju/ify u 9 describ+ x z 8good0 9 ! ord9>y s5se1 b t e be+ possesses "s goodness3 e be+ 9 s f> z x has actuality has =mal1 intr9sic goodness1 or is1 9 o!r words1 ! t]m or object ( natural t5d5cy or desire4 ,?is goodness1 :i* we pr$icate ( any & e actual be+1 may be 7#a7 ! t]m ( ! natural t5d5cy or appetite ( t be+ itself1 bonum sibi1 or 7#b7 x may be conceivably ! t]m ( ! appetite ( "s o!r be+1 bonum alt]i4 ,let u see :e!r x c be %[n t e actual be+ has goodness 9 "o or bo? ( ^! s5ses4 7#a7 ,bonum sibi4--,is !re any intelligible s5se 9 :i* x c be said t ! actuality ( any & e exi/+ be+ is good = t be+--bonum sibi8 ,!re is4 ,= if we recognize 9 e su* be+1 z we mu/1 a nature1 a pot5tiality ( fur!r actualization1 a t5d5cy t[>ds a /ate ( full] actuality :i* is its end2 & if1 fur!rmore1 we recognize t e su* be+ at any in/ant n m]ely is or exi/s1 b is becom+ or *ang+1 & !reby t5d+ effectively t[>ds its end2 we mu/ admit n m]ely t ! full atta9m5t ( its end 7its integral or f9al p]fection7 is 8desir$0 by1 & 8p]fects10 & is 8good0 =1 t be+'s nature2 b also t ! p>tial realization ( its end1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! actuality x has at any in/ant 9 its *ang+ condition ( exi/5ce 7its accid5tal or int]m$iate p]fection7 is simil>ly 8good0 = x2 & ev5 t its actual exi/5ce z comp>$ ) its m]e possibility 7its fir/ or ess5tial p]fection7 is 8desirable0 & 8good0 = its nature4 ,actually exi/+ be+s are intelligible only because !y exi/ = "s end or purpose1 :i*1 by _! v exi/5ce1 activities1 op]ations1 conduct1 !y t5d to realize4 ,if ?is be admitt$ we _c d5y t ! full atta9m5t ( ?is end or purpose is 8good0 = !m--suitable1 desirable1 agreeable1 p]fect+ !m4 ,9 s f> z !y fail 9 ?is purpose !y are want+ 9 goodness1 !y are bad1 evil4 ,= ! realization ( _! end _! natures are end[$ ) appropriate p[]s1 faculties1 =ces1 by ! normal function+ ( :i* !y gradually develop & gr[ 9 actuality4 ,no real be+ is by nature in]t or aimless2 no real be+ is )\t its connatural faculties1 =ces & functions4 ,b ! natural result ( all op]ation1 ( all action & int]action among ?+s1 is actualization ( ! pot5tial1 amelioration1 developm5t1 gr[? 9 p]fection & goodness by gradual realization ( ends4 ,if by accid5t any ( ^! p[]s is want+1 or acts amiss by fail+ to contribute its due p]fection to ! nature1 !re is 9 ! be+ a proportionate want ( goodness--x is s f> bad1 evil4 ,b1 ev5 s1 ! nature ( ! ?+ pres]ves its fundam5tal ori5tation t[>ds its end1 t[>ds ! p]fection natural to x1 & /ruggles z x 7 aga9/ ! evil--tries to make good ! defici5cy4 ,a canc] 9 ! /oma* is nev] good = ! /oma*1 or = ! liv+ subject ( :i* ! /oma* is an organ4 ,= ! liv+ be+ ! canc] is an evil1 a failure ( "o ( ! organs to dis*>ge its functions normally1 an abs5ce ( a good1 viz4 ! heal?y function+ ( an organ4 ,b ! canc]\s gr[?1 consid]$ 9 itself & = itself1 biologically & *emically1 has its own nature1 purpose1 t5d5cies1 laws2 nor c we d5y t its developm5t accord+ to ^! laws is 8good0 = its specific nature17#ahd7 bonum sibi4 ,x may be ask$ h[ c ! fir/ or ess5tial p]fection ( an exi/+ sub/ance1 :i* is no?+ else ?an ! actual exi/5ce ( ! nature itself1 be conceiv$ z 8good0 = ?is nature8 ,x is s inasmu* z ! actual exi/5ce ( ! sub/ance is ! fir/ /age 9 ! process by :i* ! nature t5ds t[>ds its end2 an exi/+ nature desires & t5ds t[>ds ! cons]vation ( its own be+27#ahe7 h5ce ! say+1 8,self-pres]vation is ! fir/ law ( nature02 & h5ce1 too1 ! s*ola/ic aphorism1 8,melius e/ esse quam non esse04 ,! argum5t j outl9$ t5ds to %[ t e nature ( :i* we c h direct exp]i5ce1 or 9 o!r words e f9ite1 cont+5t nature1 is bonum sibi1 =mally & intr9sically good = itself4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 equally applicable to ! ,uncreat$1 ,necess>y ,be+ ,himself4 ,! ,inf9ite ,actuality ( ! ,div9e ,nature is ess5tially ! t]m & end ( ! ,div9e ,love4 ,!re=e e actual be+ has intr9sic1 =mal goodness1 :]eby x is bonum sibi1 i4e4 its actuality is1 9 reg>d to its nature1 really an object ( t5d5cy1 desire1 appetite1 a some?+ t really suits & p]fects ?is nature4 ,?us und]/ood1 ! !sis =mulates no m]e tautology4 ,x makes a real ass]tion ab\t real be+2 nor c ! tru? ( ?is ass]tion be prov$ o!rwise ?an by an argum5t bas$1 z ours is1 on ! recognition ( purpose1 ( f9al causality1 ( adaptation ( means to ends1 9 ! actual univ]se ( our exp]i5ce4 ,not)/&+ all t has be5 said1 x may /ill be ask$ :y %\ld ^? individual be+s1 ^: exi/5ce we h claim$ to be good = !m1 exi/ at all4 ,x w be object$ t !re exi/ multitudes ( be+s ^: exi/5ce is manife/ly n good = !m4 ,take1 = in/ance1 ! case ( ! reprobate4 ,if !y wi% _! total annihilation1 if !y desire ! total cessation ( _! be+1 r ?an an exi/5ce ( et]nal puni%m5t1 !y und\bt$ly wi% x z a good4 ,is annihilation or absolute non-exi/5ce really a good = !m8 ,de facto x is = !m1 consid]$ 9 _! actual condition :i* is accid5tal to _! nature4 ,*ri/ said ( ! sc&al-giv] :at is surely true ( ! reprobate3 8,x 7 bett] = t man _h he nev] be5 born04 ,we may admit1 !re=e1 t = ! reprobate !mselves simple non-exi/5ce is m desirable1 & bett]1 ?an _! actual concrete /ate ( exi/5ce z reprobate3 because simple non-exi/5ce is = !m ! simple negation ( _! reality1 :]eas ! absolute & irrep>able loss ( _! la/ end1 ! total fru/ration ( ! purpose = :i* !y came into be+1 is = !m ! greate/ conceivable privation4 ,b ?is condition ( ! reprobate is accid5tal to _! nature1 ali5 to ! purpose ( _! be+1 a self-incurr$ failure1 a delib]ate ?w>t+ ( _! natural t5d5cy4 ,x rema9s true1 !re=e1 t _! nature is good ?\gh incapable ( progress1 its purpose is good ?\gh fru/rat$4 ,9 s f> z !y h actual reality !y h 8ess5tial0 goodness4 ,_! natures /ill t5d t[>ds self-cons]vation & ! realization ( _! end4 ,!y =m no real exception to ! g5]al tru? t 8x is bett] to be ?an n to be3 melius e/ esse quam non esse04 ,x is n annihilation z su* t is desir$ by !m1 b only z a less evil alt]native ?an ! et]nal privation ( _! la/ end47#ahf7 ,if ! evils accid5tally & actually atta*+ to a c]ta9 /ate ( exi/5ce make ! cont9uance ( ?is /ate undesirable = a be+1 x by no means foll[s t ! cont9uance ( ?is be+ 9 exi/5ce1 simply & 9 itself1 is less desirable ?an non-exi/5ce4 7#b7 ,,bonum ,,alt]i4--,ev51 h[ev]1 if x 7 grant$ t ! actual exi/5ce ( "s be+s is n good = !mselves1 might x n nev]!less be good = o!r be+s1 & 9 relation to ! g5]al s*eme ( ?+s8 ,is !re n an intelligible s5se 9 :i* e actual be+ is bonum alt]i1 good = o!r ?+s8 ,"h aga9 ! same exp]i5ce ( actual reality1 :i* tea*es u t ea* individual be+ has a nature :]eby x t5ds to its own good z a p>ticul> end1 also tea*es u t 9 ! g5]al s*eme ( reality ?+s are helpful to "o ano!r1 nay1 are int5d$ by _! int]action & co-op]ation ) "o ano!r to subs]ve ! wid] end :i* is ! good ( ! :ole sy/em ( reality4 ,!re is little use 9 puzzl+1 z p sometimes d1 ov] ! raison d'tre ( individual ?+s or classes ( ?+s 9 human exp]i5ce1 ov] ! good or ! evil ( ! exi/5ce ( ^! ?+s1 ov] ! "q :e!r or n x w\ld be bett] t ^! ?+s %\ld nev] h exi/$1 until we h consult$ n any isolat$ portion ( human exp]i5ce b ?is exp]i5ce z a :ole4 ,9 ?is we c f9d suffici5t evid5ce = ! preval5ce ( a b5efic5t purpose ev]y:]e4 ,n t we c read ?is purpose 9 e detail ( reality4 ,ev5 :5 we h conv9c$ ourselves t all creation is ! "w ( a ,supreme ,be+ :o is ,inf9ite ,goodness ,itself1 we _c ga9 t full insight into ! secret designs ( ,8 ,provid5ce1 :i* w\ld be ne$$ 9 ord] to 8ju/ify ,8 ways0 9 all ?+s4 ,b :5 we h conv9c$ ourselves t ! creat$ univ]se exi/s because ,god wills x1 we c und]/& t e actual reality 9 x mu/ be 8good10 z be+ an object or t]m ( ! ,div9e ,w4 ,e creat$ reality is ?us bonum alt]i inasmu* z x is good = ,god1 n1 ( c\rse1 9 ! impossible s5se ( p]fect+ ,him1 b z an imitation & expression ( ! ,goodness ( ! ,div9e ,nature ,itself4 ,! exp]i5ce :i* enables u to rea* a k ( ! exi/5ce & nature ( ,god1 ! ,creator1 ,cons]v]1 & ,provid5ce ( ! actual univ]se1 also tea*es u t ?is univ]se c h no o!r ultimate end or good ?an ,god ,himself1 i4e4 ,god's w to manife/ ,8 goodness by ! extr9sic glory :i* consi/s 9 ! k & love ( ,him by ,8 rational creatures4 ,! omnipot5ce ( ! ,creator1 ,8 fre$om 9 creat+1 & our k ( ! univ]se ,he has actually *os5 to create f among indef9ite possible worlds1 all alike conv9ce u t ! actual _w is nei!r ! be/ possible nor ! wor/ possible1 absolutely speak+4 ,b our k ( ,8 wisdom & p[] also conv9ces u t = ! purpose ( manife/+ ,8 glory 9 ! measure & degree 9 :i* ,he has actually *os5 to manife/ x by creat+ ! exi/+ univ]se1 & relatively to ! atta9m5t ( ?is specific purpose1 ! exi/+ univ]se is ! be/ possible4 #ea4 ,,optimism ,,& ,,pessimism4--,^? few outl9es ( ! philosophy ( !ism--!ses e/abli%$ 9 ,natural ,!ology--w reveal to u ! place ( !ism 9 relation to 8optimi/0 & 8pessimi/0 sy/ems ( philosophy4 ,pessimism1 z an outcome ( philosophical speculation1 is ! proclamation 9 "s =m or o!r ( ! conviction t human exi/5ce1 nay1 exi/5ce 9 g5]al1 is a failure1 an evil4 ,x is ! analogue1 9 relation to w1 ( :at scepticism is 9 relation to intellect2 & x is no less self-contradictory ?an ! latt]4 ,:ile ! latt] po9ts to total p>alysis ( ?\ght1 ! =m] involves a l p>alysis ( all w1 all ef=t1 all purpose 9 exi/5ce--a philosophy ( despair1 despond5cy1 gloom4 ,bo? are equally errone\s1 equally indicative ( philosophical failure1 equally repugnant to ! normal1 heal?y m9d4 ,optimism on ! o!r h& is expressive ( ! conviction t good pr$om9ates 9 all exi/5ce3 melius e/ esse quam non esse2 t at ! root ( all reality !re is a b5efic5t purpose :i* is ev] be+ realiz$2 t !re is 9 ?+s n m]ely a tru? t c be kn[n b a goodness t c be lov$4 ,exi/5ce is n an evil1 life is n a failure4 ,?is is a philosophy ( hope1 buoyancy1 ef=t & atta9m5t4 ,b is x true1 or is x an empty illusion8 ,well1 to ma9ta9 t ! actual univ]se is ! be/ absolutely1 w\ld1 ( c\rse1 be absurd4 ,if ,leibniz's 8,pr9ciple ( ,suffici5t ,reason0 oblig$ him to cont5d1 9 face ( ! pa9fully palpable facts ( physical & moral evil 9 ! univ]se1 t ?is univ]se is ! be/ absolutely possible1 ! be/ t ,god c\ld create1 we c only say3 s mu* ! worse = 8 8,pr9ciple04 ,! true optimism is t ( ! !i/ :o1 admitt+ ! preval5ce ( evil 9 ! univ]se1 9 ! s5se to be expla9$ pres5tly1 at ! same "t holds t ?r\gh\t creation ! good pr$om9ates1 t ,god's b5efic5t purpose 9 reg>d to individuals does 9 ! ma9 prevail1 & t ,8 glory is manife/$ 9 giv+ to rational creatures ! p]fection & felicity ( kn[+ & lov+ ,himself4 ,= ! !i/1 !n1 ! problem ( ! exi/5ce ( evil 9 ! univ]se assumes ! g5]al =m ( reconcil+ ! fact ( evil 9 ,god's creation ) ! fact ( ,god's inf9ite p[] & goodness4 ,?is is a problem = ,natural ,!ology4 ,"h we h m]ely to indicate "s g5]al pr9ciples aris+ f ! consid]ation ( evil z ! correlative & anti!sis ( goodness4 #eb4 ,,evil3 ,,its ,,nature ,,& ,,causes4 ,,mani*eism4--,admitt+ ! exi/5ce ( evil 9 ! univ]se1 ! s*ola/ic app>5tly )draws ! admission =?) by d5y+ ! reality ( evil4 ,! p>adox expla9s itself by comp>+ ! notions ( good & evil1 & ?us try+ to arrive at a prop] conception ( ! latt]4 ,if ontological goodness is really id5tical ) actual be+1 if be+ is good 9 s f> z x is actual1 !n x w\ld appe> t ontological evil mu/ be id5tical ) non-be+1 no?+ness4 ,& s x is1 9 ! s5se t no evil is a positive1 actual reality1 t all evil is an abs5ce ( reality4 ,b j z ! good1 ?\gh really id5tical ) ! actual1 is nev]!less logically di/9ct f ! latt]1 s is evil logically di/9ct f no?+ness1 or ! abs5ce ( reality4 ,z we h se51 ! good is t :i* p]fects a nature1 t :i* is due to a nature z ! realization ( ! end ( ! latt]4 ,s1 too1 is evil ! privation ( any p]fection due to a nature1 ! abs5ce ( some?+ positive & some?+ :i* ought to be pres5t4 ,evil1 !re=e1 is n a m]e negation or abs5ce ( be+2 x is ! abs5ce ( a good1 or 9 o!r words ! abs5ce ( a reality t %\ld be pres5t4 ,all privation is negation1 b n vice v]sa2 = privation is ! negation ( some?+ due3 ! abs5ce ( virtue is a m]e negation 9 an animal1 9 man x is a privation4 ,h5ce ! commonly accept$ def9ition ( evil3 ,malum e/ privatio boni debiti3 ,evil is ! privation ( ! goodness due to a ?+47#ahg7 ,evil is always1 !re=e1 a defect1 a defici5cy4 ,! notion ( evil is a relative1 n an absolute notion4 ,z goodness is ! "r relation ( a nature to its prop] end1 s is evil a failure1 a defect 9 ?is relation3 ,malum e/ privatio ord9is ad f9em debitum47#ahh7 ,! v f9it5ess ( a f9ite be+ is ! abs5ce ( fur!r reality 9 ?is be+2 b z ?is fur!r reality is n due to su* a be+1 its abs5ce1 :i* has sometimes be5 improp]ly describ$ z 8metaphysical evil10 is n rightly reg>d$ z evil at all3 except1 inde$1 we 7 to conceive x z happ5+ to ! ,inf9ite ,be+ ,himself1 :i* w\ld be a contradiction 9 ?\ght4 ,evil1 !n1 9 its =mal concept is no?+ positive2 x is ess5tially negative1 or r privative4 ,= ?is v reason1 :5 we consid] evil 9 ! concrete1 i4e4 z affect+ actual ?+s1 z occurr+ 9 ! actual univ]se--we c sc>cely speak ( x ) propriety z 8exi/+10--we see t x ess5tially involves "s positive1 real subject :i* x affects1 "s nature :i*1 by affect+1 x r5d]s s f> evil4 ,canc] 9 ! /oma* is a real evil ( ! /oma*1 a defect1 a defici5cy1 a failure1 9 ! adaptation ( ! /oma* to its prop] end4 ,x is n itself a positive1 absolute1 evil entity4 ,9 s f> z x is itself a positive1 physical reality1 a gr[? ( liv+ cells1 x has its own nature1 its natural t5d5cy1 its developm5t t[>ds an end 9 accordance ) biological laws3 9 all ( :i* x v]ifies ! def9ition ( ontological goodness4 ,b ! exi/5ce ( su* a gr[? 9 ! /oma* is pa?ological1 i4e4 a disease ( ! /oma*1 a prev5tion ( ! natural1 normal function ( ! /oma*1 a failure ( ! latt]'s adaptation to its end1 & h5ce an evil = ! /oma*4 ,ly+1 too1 is an evil1 a moral evil ( man z a moral subject4 ,b ?is does n mean t ! :ole physical process ( ?9k+1 judg+1 speak+1 :]eby a man lies1 is itself a positive evil entity4 ,! ?9k+ is itself good z a physical act4 ,s is ! speak+ 9 itself good z a physical act4 ,:atev] ( positive reality !re is 9 ! :ole process is good1 ontologically good4 ,b !re is a want ( con=mity ( ! language ) ! ?\ght1 entail+ a privation or failure ( adaptation ( ! man z a moral subject ) 8 end1 ) 8 real good2 & 9 ?is failure ( adaptation1 ?is privation ( goodness1 lies ! moral evil ( ly+4 ,evil1 !n1 has a mat]ial or subjective cause1 viz4 "s positive1 actual reality1 :i* is good 9 s f> =? z x is actual1 b :i* is evil1 or want+ 9 some?+ due to x1 9 s f> z ! privation :i* we h call$ evil affects x4 ,b evil has no =mal cause3 =mally x is n a reality b a privation3 8evil has no =mal cause1 b is r ! privation ( a =m047#ahi7 ,nor has evil any f9al cause1 = x consi/s precisely 9 ! failure ( a be+'s natural t5d5cy t[>ds its end1 9 ! want ( adaptation ( a nature to its end3 8nor has evil a f9al cause1 b is r ! privation ( a be+'s due relation to its natural end047#aij7 ,evil _c be ! natural result ( a be+'s t5d5cy t[>ds its end1 or a means to ! atta9m5t ( ?is end4 ,= t :i* is really an end mu/ be good1 & a means d]ives its goodness f ! end to :i* x is a means4 ,! good1 because x is an end1 or a means to an end1 is desirable2 & s1 too1 might evil be def9$ a po/]iori z t :i* is ! object ( no natural t5d5cy or desire1 t f :i* all ?+s are av]se3 malum e/ quod nullum ens appetit1 vel a quo omnia av]santur4 ,nor c evil be itself an end1 or be z su* desir$ or desirable4 ,real evil is no d\bt (t5 s\ght & desir$ by consci\s be+s1 sometimes physical evil1 sometimes moral evil4 ,b x is always desir$ & embrac$ z a good1 sub specie boni1 i4e4 :5 appreh5d$ z "h & n[ good 9 ! s5se ( gratify+1 pleasure-giv+1 bonum delectabile4 ,?is is possible because pleasure1 especially organic1 s5sible pleasure1 z di/9ct f ! /ate ( real well-be+ :i* *>act]izes true happ9ess1 is n ! exclusive concomitant ( seek+ & possess+ a real good3 x (t5 accompanies ! seek+ & possess+ ( a m]ely app>5t good3 & 9 su* cases x is itself a m]ely app>5t good1 & 9 reality evil4 ,! un=tunate man :o commits suicide does n embrace evil z su*4 ,he wrongly judges dea? to be good1 z be+ 9 8 view a less] evil ?an ! mis]ies ( 8 exi/5ce1 & "u ?is aspect ( goodness he embraces dea?4 ,f9ally we h to inquire :e!r evil has an effici5t cause4 ,see+ t x is n m]ely a logical figm5t1 see+ t x really affects actual ?+s1 t x really occurs 9 ! actual univ]se1 x mu/ h a real s\rce among ! effici5t causes ( ^! actual ?+s t make up ! univ]se4 ,x is und\bt$ly due to ! action ( effici5t causes1 i4e4 to ! failure1 ! defective action1 ( effici5t causes4 ,b be+ itself some?+ negative1 a privation1 x _c prop]ly be said to h an 8effici5t0 cause2 = ! influ5ce ( an effici5t cause is positive action1 :i* 9 turn mu/ h = its t]m some?+ positive1 some?+ real1 & !re=e good4 ,h5ce ,/4 ,augu/9e v prop]ly says t evil %\ld be describ$ z hav+ a 8defici5t0 cause r ?an an 8effici5t0 cause47#aia7 ,9 o!r words1 evil is n ! direct1 natural or normal result ( ! activity ( effici5t causes2 = ?is result is always good4 ,x mu/ !re=e be always an indirect1 abnormal1 accid5tal consequ5ce ( _! activity4 ,let u see h[ ?is c be--fir/ly 9 reg>d to physical evil1 !n 9 reg>d to moral evil4 ,9 ! action ( physical causes we may di/+ui% betwe5 ! op]ative ag5cies !mselves & ! subjects 9 :i* ! effects ( ^! op]ations are produc$4 ,sometimes ! effect is want+ 9 due p]fection1 or is 9 o!r words imp]fect1 physically evil1 because ( "s defect 9 ! ag5cies3 ! /atue may be defective because ! sculptor is unskill$1 or 8 in/rum5ts bad2 (fspr+ may be weak or mal=m$ ow+ to "s cong5ital or accid5tal weakness or unfitness 9 ! p>5ts4 ,sometimes ! evil 9 ! effect is traceable n to ! ag5ts b to ! mat]ials on :i* !y h to "w3 ! sculptor & 8 in/rum5ts may be p]fect1 b if !re be a flaw 9 ! m>ble ! /atue w be a failure2 ! educator may be effici5t1 b if ! pupil be want+ 9 aptitude or application ! results _c be 8good04 ,all ?is1 h[ev]1 does n c>ry u v f>1 = we mu/ /ill inquire :y are ! ag5cies1 or ! mat]ials1 !mselves defective4 ,moreov]1 physical evil sometimes occurs )\t any defect ei!r 9 ! ag5cies or 9 ! mat]ials4 ,! effect produc$ may be incompatible ) "s m9or p]fection already 9 ! subject2 x c !n be produc$ only at ! sacrifice ( ?is m9or p]fection3 :i* sacrifice is = ! subject pro tanto an evil4 ,x is 9 ! natural ord] ( ?+s t ! production ( a new 8=m0 or p]fection excludes ! actuality ( a pre-exi/+ =m or p]fection4 ,all nature is subject to *ange1 & we h se5 t all *ange is rul$ by ! law3 ,g5]atio unius e/ corruptio alt]ius4 ,x might p]haps be said t ?is privation or supplant+ ( p]fections 9 ?+s by ! actualization 9 ^! ?+s ( incompatible p]fections1 is inh]5t 9 ! nature ( ?+s & ess5tial to _! f9it5ess--at lea/1 if we reg>d ! ?+s n individually b z p>ts ( a :ole1 z memb]s ( a sy/em1 z subs]v+ a g5]al s*eme2--& t !re=e su* privation %\ld n be reg>d$ z physical evil prop]1 b r z 8metaphysical0 evil1 improp]ly s call$4 ,h[ev] we reg>d x1 x c h no o!r fir/ s\rce ?an ! ,w ( ! ,creator decree+ ! actual ord] ( ! exi/+ univ]se4 ,& ! same mu/ be said ( ! physical evils prop] t are incid5t to ! actual ord] ( ?+s4 ,^! evils are 8accid5tal0 :5 consid]$ 9 relation to ! individual natures ( ! creat$ ag5cies & mat]ials4 ,!y are defects or failures ( natural t5d5cies3 7 ^! natural t5d5cies always realiz$ !re w\ld be no su* evils4 ,b !y are n realiz$2 & _! 8failure0 or 8evil0 is n 8accid5tal0 9 reg>d to ,god2 = ,god has will$ & creat$ ^! ag5cies ) natural t5d5cies :i* ,he has de/9$ to be fulfill$ n always & 9 e detail1 b 9 su* measure z w secure ! actual ord] ( ! univ]se & %[ =? ,8 p]fections 9 ! f9ite degree 9 :i* ,he has freely *os5 to manife/ ^! p]fections4 ,! _w ,he has *os5 to create is n ! be/ absolutely possible3 !re are physical evils 9 x2 b x is ! be/ = ! exact purpose = :i* ,he creat$ x4 ,!re is also moral evil 9 ! univ]se4 ,9 comp>ison ) moral evil1 ! physical defects 9 ,god's creation--physical pa9 & suff]+1 mat]ial privations & h>d%ips1 decay & dea? ( liv+ ?+s--are n prop]ly evils at all4 ,at lea/ !y are n evils 9 ! same pr(\nd s5se z ! delib]ate turn+ away ( ! moral ag5t f ,god1 8 ,la/ ,end & ,ultimate ,good1 is an evil4 ,= ! physical evils incid5t to individual be+s 9 ! univ]se c be n only =ese5 by ,god b accept$ & approv$1 s to speak1 by ,8 ,w1 z subs]v+ ! realization ( ! total physical good :i* ,he wills 9 ! univ]se2 & z subord9ate to1 & in/rum5tal 9 ! realization (1 ! moral good ( mank9d3 = x is obvi\s t 9 ! all-wise designs ( ,provid5ce physical evils su* z pa91 suff]+1 pov]ty1 hung]1 etc41 may be ! means ( realiz+ moral goodness4 ,b moral evil1 on ! contr>y1 or1 9 ! language ( ,*ri/ian e?ics1 ,s9--! consci\s & delib]ate rejection1 by ! free ag5t1 ( ,god :o is 8 true good--?\gh necess>ily =ese5 by ,god 9 ! univ]se ,he has actually *os5 to create1 & !re=e necess>ily p]mitt$ by ! ,w ( ,god consequ5tly on ?is =esight1 _c h be5 & _c be int5d$ or approv$ by ,him4 ,hav+ creat$ man an intellig5t & free be+1 ,god c\ld n w or decree ! revolt ( ! latt] f ,himself4 ,he loves ess5tially ,8 own ,inf9ite ,goodness3 7 ,he to id5tify ,8 ,w ) t ( ! s9n+ creature ,he w\ld at ! same "t be turn+ away f ,8 ,goodness3 :i* is a contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,god1 !re=e1 does n w moral evil4 ,nev]!less ,he p]mits x3 o!rwise x w\ld n occur1 = no?+ c happ5 8aga9/ ,8 w04 ,he has p]mitt$ x by freely *oos+ to create ?is actual univ]se ( rational & free creatures1 =esee+ t !y w\ld s94 ,he c\ld h creat$ in/ead a univ]se ( su* be+s1 9 :i* !re w\ld be no moral evil3 = ,he is omnipot5t4 ,into ! secrets ( ,8 election x is n giv5 to f9ite m9ds to p5etrate4 ,ackn[l$g+ ,8 ,inf9ite ,p[]1 ,wisdom & ,goodness1 realiz+ at ! same "t ! f9it5ess ( our faculties1 we see h[ rational x is to b[ d[n our m9ds ) ,/4 ,paul & to exclaim 9 admiration3 8,o1 ! dep? ( ! ri*es ( ! wisdom & ( ! k ( ,god6 ,h[ incompreh5sible are ,8 judgm5ts1 & h[ unse>*able ,8 ways607#aib7 ,if x be object$ t ,god's p]mission ( moral evil 9 ! univ]se is really ! cause ( ?is evil1 & makes ,god ,himself responsible = s9 & its consequ5ces1 a satisfactory answ] is n f> to seek4 ,x is absolutely incompatible ) ,god's ,inf9ite ,sanctity t ,he be responsible = s9 & its consequ5ces4 ,= ^! ! free w ( ! creature is alone responsible4 ,! creation ( intellig5t be+s1 end[$ ) ! p[] freely to love1 hon\r & s]ve ,god1 is ! mo/ m>vell\s ( all ,god's works4 ,free w is ! noble/ end[m5t ( a creature ( ,god1 z x is also ! mo/ my/]i\s4 ,man1 :o by 8 intellig5ce has ! p[] to "k ,god z 8 ,supreme ,good1 has by 8 w ! p[] freely to t5d t[>ds ,god & atta9 to ! possession ( ,god z 8 ,la/ ,end4 ,9 s f> z man s9s1 i4e4 kn[+ly1 delib]ately1 & freely violates ! t5d5cy ( 8 nature t[>ds ,god by turn+ away f ,him1 he & he alone is responsible = ! consequ5ces1 because he has ! p[] to accompli% :at he kn[s to be ,god's design 9 8 reg>d1 & to be 8 true de/9y & pa? to happ9ess--viz4 t he t5d t[>ds union ) ,god & ! possession ( ,god--& he delib]ately fails to make use ( ?is p[]4 ,su* failure & its consequ5ces are1 !re=e1 8 own2 !y leave absolutely unt\*$ & unassail$ ! ,inf9ite ,goodness & ,b5evol5ce ( ,god's et]nal design 9 8 reg>d4 ,9 s*ola/ic =m1 ! objection is propos$ & answ]$ 9 ?is way3 8,! cause ( a cause is ! cause ( ! latt]'s effects2 b ,god is ! cause ( man1 & s9 is ! latt]'s effect2 !re=e ,god is ! cause ( s904 8,t ! cause ( a non-free cause is ! cause ( ! latt]'s effects1 we admit4 ,t ! cause ( a free cause is ! cause ( ! latt]'s effects1 at lea/ 9 ! s5se ( p]mitt+1 )\t int5d+ & be+ !reby responsible = !m1 we also admit2 always 9 ! s5se ( int5d+ & be+ responsible = !m1 we d5y4 ,! positive effects ( a creat$ free cause1 ^? :i* ! latt] by nature is int5d$ to produce1 are attributable to ! fir/ cause or creator ( ! free cause1 & ! fir/ cause is responsible = !m4 ,! failures ( ! creat$ free cause to produce its natural & int5d$ effects1 are n due to ! fir/ cause2 !y are n int5d$ by1 nor attributable to1 ! fir/ cause2 nor is ! latt] responsible = !m3 !y are failures ( ! free cause1 & ( him alone2 ?\gh !y are ( c\rse =ese5 & p]mitt$ by ! fir/ cause or creator ( ! latt]4 ,! m9or premiss ( ! objection we may admit--not+1 h[ev]1 t s9 is n prop]ly call$ an effect1 b r1 l all evil1 a failure ( "s cause to produce its connatural effect3 x is a defect1 a defici5cy1 a privation ( "s effect1 ( "s positive p]fection1 :i* ! cause ought naturally to h produc$4 ,! conclusion ( ! objection we di/+ui%1 accord+ to our analysis ( ! major premiss3 ,god is ! cause ( s9 9 ! prop] s5se ( int5d+ x1 will+ x1 & produc+ x positively1 & be+ !reby responsible = x1 we d5y2 ,god is ! cause ( s9 9 ! improp] s5se ( m]ely =esee+ & p]mitt+ x z incid5tal to ! univ]se ,he has actually will$ & decre$ to create1 z occurr+ 9 ?is univ]se by ! delib]ate failure ( free creatures to con=m !mselves to ,8 prim>y b5evol5t int5tion 9 _! reg>d1 we may grant4 ,& ?is ,div9e p]mission ( moral evil _c be %[n to be incompatible ) any attribute ( ! ,div9ity40 ,9 ! prec$+ p>agraphs we h b>ely outl9$ ! pr9ciples on :i* ! philosophy ( !ism meets ! problem ( evil 9 ! univ]se4 ,we h made assumptions :i* x is ! prop] prov9ce ( ,natural ,!ology to e/abli%1 & to t dep>tm5t also we mu/ ref] ! /ud5t = a full] treatm5t ( ! :ole problem4 ,x has be5 sometimes said t ! fact ( evil 9 ! univ]se is "o ( ! greate/ difficulties aga9/ ! philosophy ( ,!ism4 ,if ?is be tak5 z an ins9uation t ! fact ( evil c be bett] expla9$--or ev5 z well expla9$--on ! assumptions ( ,pan!ism1 ,monism1 ,mani*eism1 or any o!r philosophy besides ,!ism1 x is false4 ,if x means simply t 9 acc\nt+ = evil--:e!r on pr9ciples ( ,!ism or ( any o!r philosophy--we are =c$ to raise "s ultimate que/ions 9 ! face ( :i* we mu/ admit t we h come ^u dep?s ( my/]y :i* ! plummet ( our f9ite intellects _c hope to fa?om1 9 ?is s5se inde$ ! ass]tion may be admitt$4 ,z we h already h9t$1 ev5 ) ! light ( ! ,*ri/ian ,revelation to aid ! natural light ( reason1 !re are que/ions ab\t ! exi/5ce & causes ( evil :i* we may inde$ ask1 b :i* we _c adequately answ]4 ,& obvi\sly ?is is no reflection on ,!ism2 :ile 9 ! latt] sy/em we h a m intelligible & m satisfactory analysis ( ! problem ?an 9 any o!r philosophy4 ,among ! anci5t ,greek philosoph]s we f9d 8matt]0 77 id5tifi$ ) 8vacuum0 or 8empty space0 7 7 & ?is aga9 ) 8no?+ness0 or non-be+ 7 74 ,n[ ! concept ( evil is ! concept ( some?+ negative--a privation ( goodness1 ( be+ or reality4 ,?us ! notion ( evil came to be associat$ ) ! notion ( matt]4 ,b ! latt] notion is n really negative3 x is t ( a =mless1 *aotic1 disord]ly mat]ial4 ,:51 !re=e1 ! ,mani*eans attribut$ a positive reality to evil--conceiv+ x z ! pr9ciple ( all disord]1 /rife1 discord--!y naturally reg>d$ all matt] z ! expression ( ! ,evil ,pr9ciple1 9 opposition to s\l or _s z ! expression ( ! ,good ,pr9ciple4 ,! ,mani*ean philosophy ( ,evil1 a product ( ! e>ly ,*ri/ian c5turies1 has be5 p]haps ! mo/ notable alt]native or rival sy/em enc\nt]$ by ! !i/ic philosophy ( ,evil2 =1 not)/&+ ! fanta/ic "* ( its conceptions ,mani*eism has reappe>$ & reass]t$ itself repeat$ly 9 aft] ages1 notably 9 ! ,middle ,ages4 ,its preval5ce has probably be5 due p>tly to ! concret5ess ( its conceptions & p>tly to a c]ta9 analogy :i* !y be> t[>ds ! conception ( ,satan & ! fall5 angels 9 ,*ri/ian !ology4 ,9 bo? cases !re is ! idea ( conflict1 /rife1 active & irreconcilable opposition1 betwe5 ! p[]s ( good & ! p[]s ( evil4 ,b !re ! analogy ends4 ,:ile 9 ,*ri/ian !ology ! p[]s ( evil are pres5t$ z ess5tially subject to ! ,div9e ,omnipot5ce1 9 ,mani*eism ! ,evil ,pr9ciple1 ! ,summum ,malum1 is pres5t$ z a supreme1 self-exi/5t pr9ciple1 ess5tially indep5d5t (1 z well z antagoni/ic to1 ! ,div9e ,be+1 ! ,summum ,bonum4 ,s9ce !re is evil 9 ! _w1 & s9ce good _c be ! cause ( evil--s ! ,mani*eans argue--!re mu/ be an ess5tially ,evil ,fir/ ,pr9ciple :i* is ! prim>y s\rce ( all ! evil 9 ! univ]se1 j z !re is an ess5tially ,good ,fir/ ,pr9ciple :i* is ! s\rce ( all its good4 ,ev]y?+ 9 ! _w--& especially man himself1 compos$ ( matt] & _s--is ! expression & ! !atre ( ! ess5tial conflict :i* is be+ ev] wag$ betwe5 ! ,good & ! ,evil ,pr9ciple4 ,ev]y:]e ?r\gh\t ! univ]se we f9d ?is dualism3 betwe5 _s & matt]1 light & d>kness1 ord] & disord]1 etc4 ,f all t has be5 said 9 ! prec$+ p>agraphs reg>d+ ! nature & causes ( good & evil ! errors ( ! ,mani*ean sy/em w be app>5t4 ,its fundam5tal error is ! conception ( evil z a positive entity4 ,evil is n a positive entity b a privation4 ,& ?is be+ s1 its occurr5ce does n dem& a positive effici5t cause4 ,x c be expla9$ & acc\nt$ = by defici5cy or failure 9 causes t are good 9 s f> =? z !y are op]ative1 b :i* h n all ! goodness _! nature dem&s4 ,& we h se5 h[ ?is failure ( creat$ causes is p]mitt$ by ! ,fir/ ,cause1 & is n incompatible ) ,8 ,inf9ite ,goodness4 ,besides1 ! ,mani*ean conception ( an intr9sically evil cause1 a cause t c\ld produce only evil1 is a contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,! op]ation ( an effici5t cause mu/ h a positive t]m3 9 s f> z ! t]m is positive x is good3 & !re=e its cause _c h be5 totally evil1 b mu/ h be5 9 "s degree good4 ,! crucial po9t 9 ! :ole debate is ?is1 t we _c conceive evil z a positive entity4 ,by do+ s we r5d] reality un9telligible2 we de/roy ! fundam5tal gr\nd ( any possible di/9ction betwe5 good & evil1 ?us r5d]+ bo? alike inconceivable4 ,ea* is correlative to ! o!r2 we _c und]/& ! "o )\t ! o!r4 ,if1 !re=e1 goodness is an aspect ( real be+1 & id5tical ) reality1 evil mu/ be a negation ( reality1 & _c be made intelligible o!rwise4 ,f9ally1 ! ,mani*ean conception ( two ,supreme1 ,self-,exi/5t1 ,indep5d5t ,fir/ ,pr9ciples is obvi\sly self-contradictory4 ,z is %[n 9 ,natural ,!ology1 ,be+ t is absolutely ,supreme1 ,self-,exi/5t & ,necess>y1 mu/ by ,its v nature be unique3 !re c\ld n be two su* ,be+s4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,reality ,,& ,,! ,,beautiful4 #ec4 ,,! ,,concept ,,( ,,! ,,beautiful ,,f ,,! ,,/&po9t ,,( ,,exp]i5ce4--,tru? & ,goodness *>act]ize reality z relat$ to intellect & to w4 ,intimately connect$ ) ^! notions is t ( ! beautiful17#aic7 :i* we mu/ n[ briefly analyse4 ,! f9e arts h = _! common object ! expression ( ! beautiful2 & ! dep>tm5t ( philosophy :i* /udies ^!1 ! philosophy ( ! beautiful1 is g5]ally describ$ z ,e/hetics47#aid7 ,l ! t]ms 8true0 & 8good10 ! t]m 8beautiful0 72 pul*rum1 beau1 s*n1 etc47 is famili> to all4 ,to rea* a def9ition ( x let u "q exp]i5ce4 ,:at d m5 commonly mean :51 face to face ) "s object or ev5t1 !y say 8,t is beautiful08 ,!y give expression to ?is s5tim5t 9 ! pres5ce ( a natural object su* z a l&scape reveal+ m\nta9 & valley1 lake & riv] & pla9 & woodl&1 gl[+ 9 ! gold5 gl[ ( ! sett+ sun2 or 9 contemplat+ "s "w ( art--pa9t+1 sculpture1 ar*itecture1 music3 ! ,si/9e ,madonna1 ! ,moses ( ,mi*ael ,angelo1 ! ,ca!dral ( ,notre ,dame1 a symphony ( ,bee?ov52 or "s lit]>y ma/]piece3 ,%akespe>e's ,macbe?1 or ,dante's ,div9a ,comm$ia1 or ,newman's ,apologia1 or ,kickham's ,knocknag[4 ,!re are o!r ?+s ! sight ( :i* ar\ses no su* s5tim5t1 b leaves u indiff]5t2 & o!rs aga91 ! sight ( :i* ar\ses a contr>y s5tim5t1 to :i* we give expression by designat+ !m z 8commonplace10 8vulg>10 8ugly04 ,! s5tim5t 9 "q is "o ( pleasure & approval1 or ( displeasure & disapproval4 ,h5ce ! fir/ fact to note is t ! beautiful pleases u1 affects u agreeably1 :ile ! commonplace or ! ugly leaves u indiff]5t or displeases u1 affects u disagreeably4 ,b ! good pleases u & affects u agreeably4 ,is ! beautiful1 !n1 id5tical ) ! good8 ,no2 ! really beautiful is inde$ always good2 b n ev]y?+ t is good is beautiful2 nor is ! pleasure ar\s$ by ! good id5tical ) t ar\s$ by ! beautiful4 ,:atev] gratifies ! l[] s5se appetites & causes organic pleasure is good--bonum delectabile--b is n deem$ beautiful4 ,eat+ & dr9k+1 re/+ & sleep+1 indulg+ ! s5ses ( t\*1 ta/e & smell1 are inde$ pleasure-giv+1 b !y h no association ) ! beautiful4 ,aga91 ! de=m$ *ild may be ! object ( ! "m's special love4 ,b ! pleasure ?us d]iv$ f ! good1 z ! object ( appetite1 desire1 delight1 is n e/hetic pleasure4 ,if we exam9e ! latt]1 ! pleasure caus$ by ! beautiful1 we %all f9d t x is inv>iably a pleasure peculi> to k1 to appreh5sion1 p]ception1 imag9ation1 contemplation4 ,h5ce 9 ! doma9 ( ! s5ses we designate z 8beautiful0 only :at c be appreh5d$ by ! two high] s5ses1 see+ & he>+1 :i* approximate mo/ closely to intellect1 & :i*1 ?r\gh ! imag9ation1 furni% data = contemplation to ! intellect47#aie7 ,?is br+s u to ,/4 ,?omas's def9ition3 ,pul*ra sunt qu visa plac5t3 ^? ?+s are beautiful ^: vision pleases u1--:]e vision is to be und]/ood 9 ! wide s5se ( appreh5sion1 contemplation47#aif7 ,! own] ( a beautiful demesne1 or ( an art treasure1 may d]ive pleasure f 8 s5se ( proprietor%ip2 b ?is is di/9ct f ! e/hetic pleasure t may be d]iv$ by o!rs1 no less ?an by himself1 f ! m]e contemplation ( ^? objects4 ,e/hetic pleasure is dis9t]e/$3 x spr+s f ! m]e contemplation ( an object z beautiful2 :]eas ! pleasure t spr+s f ! object z good is an int]e/$ pleasure1 a pleasure ( possession4 ,no d\bt ! beautiful is really id5tical ) ! good1 ?\gh logically di/9ct f ! latt]47#aig7 ,! ord]l9ess :i* we %all see to be ! *ief objective factor ( beauty1 is itself a p]fection ( ! object1 & z su* is good & desirable4 ,h5ce ! beautiful c be an object ( int]e/$ desire1 b only "u ! aspect ( goodness4 ,"u ! aspect ( beauty ! object c excite only ! dis9t]e/$ e/hetic pleasure ( contemplation4 ,b if e/hetic pleasure is d]iv$ f contemplation1 is n ?is id5tify+ ! beautiful ) ! true1 & supplant+ art by sci5ce8 ,aga9 ! consequ5ce is inadmissible2 = n e pleasure peculi> to k is e/hetic4 ,!re is a pleasure 9 seek+ & discov]+ tru?1 ! pleasure :i* gratifies ! s*ol> & ! sci5ti/3 ! pleasure ( ! philologi/ 9 trac+ roots & p>adigms1 ( ! *emi/ 9 analys+ unsav\ry mat]ials1 ( ! anatomi/ 9 explor+ ! /ructure ( organisms po/ mortem4 ,b ^! ?+s are n 8beautiful04 ,! really beautiful is inde$ always true1 b x _c well be ma9ta9$ t all tru?s are beautiful4 ,t two & two are f\r is a tru?1 b 9 :at intelligible s5se c\ld x be said to be beautiful8 ,b besides ! sci5tific pleasure ( seek+ & discov]+ tru?1 !re is ! pleasure :i* comes f contemplat+ ! object kn[n4 ,! aim ( ! sci5ti/ or s*ol> is to discov] tru?2 t ( ! arti/ is1 ?r\gh k to d]ive complac5cy f contemplat+ ! ?+ kn[n4 ,! sci5ti/ or s*ol> may be also an arti/1 or vice v]sa2 b ! sci5ti/'s pleasure prop] lies exclusively 9 discov]+ tru?1 :]eas t ( ! arti/ lies 9 contemplat+ some?+ appreh5d$1 imag9$1 conceiv$4 ,! arti/ is n conc]n$ z to :e!r :at he appreh5ds is real or imag9>y1 c]ta9 or conjectural1 b only z to :e!r or h[ f> ! contemplation ( x w ar\se emotions ( pleasure1 admiration1 en?usiasm2 :ile ! sci5ti/'s supreme conc]n is to "k ?+s1 to see !m z !y are4 ,! beautiful1 !n1 is always true1 ei!r z actual or z ideal2 b ! true is beautiful only :5 x s reveals itself z to ar\se 9 u ! desire to see or he> x1 to consid] x1 to dwell & re/ 9 ! contemplation ( x4 ,let u accept1 !n1 ! a po/]iori def9ition ( ! beautiful z t :i* x is pleas+ to contemplate2 & be=e inquir+ :at precisely is x1 on ! side ( ! object1 t makes ! latt] agreeable to contemplate1 let u exam9e ! subjective factors & conditions ( e/hetic exp]i5ce4 #ed4 ,,! ,,e/hetic ,,s5tim5t4 ,,appreh5sion ,,( ,,! ,,beautiful4--,we h se5 t bo? ! appetitive & ! cognitive faculties are involv$ 9 ! exp]i5ce ( ! beautiful4 ,contemplation implies cognition2 :ile ! feel+ ( pleasure1 complac5cy1 satisfaction1 delight1 indicates ! op]ation ( appetite or w4 ,n[ ! notion ( ! beautiful1 l all our notions1 has its orig9 9 s5se exp]i5ce2 b x is itself supras5sible = x is rea*$ by ab/raction1 & ?is is above ! p[] ( s5se faculties4 ,:ile ! s5ses & imag9ation appreh5d beautiful objects ! intellect atta9s to t :i* makes ^! objects beautiful1 to ! ratio pul*ri t is 9 !m4 ,no d\bt1 ! p]ception or imag9ation ( beautiful ?+s1 9 nature or 9 art1 produces z its natural concomitant1 a feel+ ( s5sible pleasure4 ,to he> sweet music1 to gaze on ! brilliant v>iety ( col\rs 9 a gorge\s pageant1 to inhale delici\s p]fumes1 to ta/e sav\ry di%es--all su* exp]i5ces gratify ! s5ses4 ,b ! feel+ ( su* s5sible pleasure is q di/9ct f ! e/hetic enjoym5t :i* accompanies ! appreh5sion ( ! beautiful2 ?\gh x is v (t5 conf\nd$ ) ! latt]4 ,su* s5ti5t /ates ( agreeable feel+ are ma9ly passive1 organic1 physiological2 :ile e/hetic enjoym5t1 ! appreciation ( ! beautiful1 is em95tly active4 ,x implies ! op]ation ( a supras5sible faculty1 ! intellig5ce2 x accompanies ! reaction ( ! latt] faculty to "s appropriate objective /imulus ( ! supras5sible1 intelligible ord]1 to "s 8idea0 embodi$ 9 ! object ( s5se47#aih7 ,! error ( conf\nd+ e/hetic enjoym5t ) m]e organic s5se pleasure is *>act]i/ic ( all s5si/ & mat]iali/ philosophies4 ,a feel+ ( s5sible gratification always1 no d\bt1 accompanies our appreh5sion & enjoym5t ( ! beautiful2 = j z man is n a m]ely s5ti5t be+ s nei!r is he a pure intellig5ce4 ,beauty rea*es him ?r\gh ! s5ses2 9 ord] t an object be beautiful = him1 9 ord] t ! contemplation ( x may please him1 x mu/ be 9 h>mony ) 8 :ole human nature1 :i* is bo? s5ti5t & intellig5t2 x mu/1 !re=e1 be agreeable to ! s5ses & imag9ation z well z to ! intellect4 8,!re is no pa9t+10 writes ,m4 ,brunetire17#aii7 8b %\ld be above all a joy to ! eye6 no music b %\ld be a delight = ! e>60 ,o!rwise we %all n appreh5d 9 x ! ord]1 p]fection1 h>mony1 adaptation to human nature1 :]eby we pron\nce an object beautiful & rejoice 9 ! contemplation ( x4 ,& x is ?is intellectual activity t is prop]ly e/hetic4 8,:at makes u consid] a col\r beautiful10 writes ,bossuet17#bjj7 is ! secret judgm5t we pron\nce ^u its adaptation to ! eye :i* x pleases4 ,beautiful s\nds1 songs1 cad5ces1 h a simil> adaptation to ! e>4 ,to appreh5d ?is adaptation promptly & accurately is :at is describ$ z hav+ a good e>1 ?\gh prop]ly speak+ ?is judgm5t %\ld be attribut$ to ! intellect4 ,accord+ to "s ! e/hetic s5tim5t1 ! appreciation & enjoym5t ( ! beautiful1 is an exclusively subjective exp]i5ce1 an emotional /ate :i* has all its s\rces )9 ! consci\s subject1 & :i* has no real1 extram5tal correlative 9 ?+s4 ,accord+ to o!rs beauty is already 9 ! extram5tal reality indep5d5tly ( any subjective conditions1 & has no m5tal factors 9 its con/itution z an object ( exp]i5ce4 ,bo? ( ^! extreme views are errone\s4 ,e/hetic pleasure1 l all pleasure1 is ! natural concomitant ( ! full1 ord]ly1 normal ex]cise ( ! subject's consci\s activities4 ,^! activities are call$ =? by1 & ex]cis$ ^u1 "s object4 ,= e/hetic pleasure !re mu/ be 9 ! object some?+ ! contemplation ( :i* w elicit su* h>moni\s ex]cise ( ! faculties4 ,e/hetic pleasure1 !re=e1 _c be purely subjective3 !re mu/ be an objective factor 9 its realization4 ,b on ! o!r h& ?is objective factor _c provoke e/hetic enjoym5t indep5d5tly ( ! dispositions ( ! subject4 ,x mu/ be 9 h>mony ) ^? dispositions--cognitive1 appetitive1 affective1 emotional1 temp]am5tal--9 ord] to evoke su* a m5tal view ( ! object t ! contemplation ( ! latt] w cause e/hetic pleasure4 ,& x is precisely because ^! dispositions1 :i* are s v>iable f "o individual to ano!r1 t+e & col\r ! m5tal view1 :ile ?is 9 turn det]m9es ! quality ( ! e/hetic judgm5t & feel+1 t p disagree & dispute int]m9ably ab\t que/ions ( beauty 9 art & nature4 ,h]e9 beauty diff]s f tru?4 ,no d\bt p dispute ab\t ! latt] also2 b at all ev5ts !y recognize its objective "* & ! propriety ( an appeal to ! indep5d5t1 imp]sonal /&>d ( evid5ce4 ,n s1 h[ev]1 9 reg>d to beauty3 ,de gu/ibus non e/ disput&um3 !re is no disput+ ab\t ta/es4 ,! p]ception ( beauty1 ! judgm5t t some?+ is or is n beautiful1 is ! product ( an act ( ta/e1 i4e4 ( ! individual's intellig5ce affect$ by num]\s concrete p]sonal dispositions bo? ( ! s5ti5t & ( ! spiritual ord]1 n only cognitive & appetitive b temp]am5tal & emotional4 ,moreov]1 besides ?is v>iety 9 subjective dispositions1 we h to be> 9 m9d ! effects ( arti/ic culture1 ( educat+ ! ta/e4 ,! eye & ! e>1 :i* are ! two ma9 *annels ( data = ! intellect1 c be made by tra9+ m delicate & exact+1 s t ! same level ( e/hetic appreciation c be ma9ta9$ only by a con/antly increas+ measure ( arti/ic /imulation4 ,f9ally1 ap>t f all t a beautiful object directly conveys to u = contemplation1 !re is some?+ m :i* x may indirectly sugge/3 x ar\ses a di/9ct activity ( ! imag9ation :]eby we fill up1 9 our own individual degree & accord+ to our own int]pretation1 :at has n be5 actually suppli$ 9 x by nature or art4 ,all ^? influ5ces acc\nt suffici5tly = ! subjectivity & v>iability ( ! e/hetic s5tim5t1 = div]sity ( arti/ic ta/es among individuals1 = ! transitions ( fa%ion 9 art f epo* to epo* & f race to race4 ,b x mu/ n be conclud$ t ! subjective factors 9 ! con/itution ( ! beautiful are :olly *angeable4 ,s9ce human nature is fundam5tally ! same 9 all m5 !re ought to be a fund ( e/hetic judgm5ts & pleasures common to all2 !re ought to be 9 nature & 9 art "s ?+s :i* are recogniz$ & enjoy$ z beautiful by all4 ,& !re are su*4 ,9 matt]s ( detail ! maxim holds3 ,de gu/ibus non disput&um4 ,b !re are fundam5tal e/hetic judgm5ts = :i* x does n hold4 ,s9ce m5 h a common nature1 & s9ce1 z we %all see pres5tly1 !re are recognizable & /able objective factors to det]m9e e/hetic judgm5ts1 !re is a legitimate f\ndation on :i* to discuss & e/abli% "s e/hetic canons ( univ]sal validity4 #ee4 ,,objective ,,factors ,,9 ,,! ,,con/itution ,,( ,,! ,,beautiful4--8,ask ! arti/10 writes ,/4 ,augu/9e17#bja7 8:e!r beautiful ?+s are beautiful because !y please u1 or r please u because !y are beautiful1 & he w reply unhesitat+ly t !y please u because !y are beautiful40 ,:at1 !n is x t makes !m beautiful1 & s causes ! e/hetic pleasure we exp]i5ce 9 contemplat+ !m8 ,9 ord] t an object produce pleasure ( any sort 9 a consci\s be+ x mu/ evoke ! ex]cise ( ?is be+'s faculties2 = ! consci\s condition :i* we describe z pleasure is always a reflex ( consci\s activity4 ,fur!rmore1 ?is activity mu/ be full & int5se & well-ord]$3 if x be excessive or defective1 if x be ill-regulat$1 wrongly di/ribut$ among ! faculties1 x w n h pleasure = its reflex1 b ei!r indiff]5ce or pa94 ,h5ce ! object :i* evokes ! e/hetic pleasure ( contemplation mu/ 9 ! fir/ place be complete or p]fect ( its k9d 7#df74 ,! truncat$ /atue1 ! /unt$ oak1 ! de=m$ animal1 ! crippl$ human be+1 are n beautiful4 ,!y are want+ 9 ! integrity due to _! nature4 ,b ?is is n en\gh4 ,to be beautiful1 ! object mu/ 9 ! second place h a c]ta9 l>g5ess or amplitude1 a c]ta9 greatness or p[]1 :]eby x c act en]getically on our cognitive faculties & /imulate !m to vigor\s action4 ,! little1 ! trifl+1 ! commonplace1 ! insignificant1 evokes no feel+ ( admiration4 ,! sight ( a small pa/ure-field leaves u indiff]5t2 b ! vision ( va/ expanses ( mead[ & cornfield & woodl& exhil>ates u4 ,a collection ( petty hillocks is un9t]e/+1 :ile ! t[]+ sn[-clad ,alps are magnific5t4 ,! multiplication table elicits no emotion2 b ! triumphant discov]y & pro( ( "s new tru? 9 sci5ce1 "s f>-rea*+ !orem t op5s up new vi/as ( rese>* or %$s a new light on long famili> facts1 may fill ! m9d ) ec/asies ( pure e/hetic enjoym5t47#bjb7 ,!re is no moral beauty 9 help+ up a *ild t has /umbl$ & fall5 9 ! mud1 b !re is 9 risk+ "o's life to save ! *ild f burn+ or dr[n+4 ,!re mu/1 !n1 be 9 ! object a c]ta9 l>g5ess :i* w secure en]gy ( appeal to our cognitive faculties2 b ?is en]gy mu/ n be excessive1 x mu/ n dazzle1 x mu/ be 9 proportion to ! capacity ( our faculties47#bjc7 ,a ?ird requisite = beauty is t ! object be 9 itself duly proportion$1 ord]ly1 well arrang$4 ,ord] g5]ally may be def9$ z "r or prop] arrangem5t4 ,we c see 9 ?+s a tw(old ord]1 dynamic1 or t ( subord9ation1 & /atic1 or t ( co-ord9ation3 ! "r arrangem5t ( means t[>ds ends1 & ! "r arrangem5t ( p>ts 9 a :ole1 or memb]s 9 a sy/em4 ,! =m] indicates ! influ5ce ( f9al causes & expresses prim>ily ! goodness ( ?+s4 ,! latt] is det]m9$ by ! =mal causes ( ?+s & expresses prim>ily _! beauty4 ,! ord] ess5tial to beauty consi/s 9 ?is1 t ! manifold & di/9ct ?+s or acts :i* contribute to x mu/ =m "o :ole4 ,h5ce ord] has be5 def9$ z unity 9 v>iety3 unitas 9 v>ietate2 v>iety be+ ! mat]ial cause1 & unity ! =mal cause1 ( ord]4 ,b we c appreh5d unity 9 a v>iety ( ?+s only on condition t !y are arrang$1 i4e4 t !y %[ =? cle>ly to ! m9d a set ( mutual relations :i* c be easily grasp$4 ,:y is x t ?+s mutually relat$ to "o ano!r 9 "o way make up :at we decl>e to be a *aotic jumble1 :ile if relat$ 9 ano!r way we decl>e !m to be ord]ly8 ,because unless ^! relations pres5t !mselves 9 a c]ta9 way !y w fail to unify ! manifold = u4 ,we h an intellectual intuition ( ! num]ical s]ies2 & ( proportion1 :i* is equality ( num]ical relations4 ,9 ! doma9s ( magnitude & multitude ! m9d naturally seeks to detect ^! proportions4 ,s also 9 ! doma9s ( s5sible qualities1 su* z s\nds & col\rs1 we h an analog\s intuition ( a qualitative s]ies1 & we naturally try to detect h>mony1 :i* is ! gradation ( qualitative relations 9 ?is s]ies4 ,! detection ( proportion & h>mony 9 a v>iety ( ?+s pleases u1 because we are ?us enabl$ to grasp ! manifold z exhibit+ unity2 :ile ! abs5ce ( ^! elem5ts leaves u ) ! dissatisfi$ feel+ ( some?+ want+4 ,:e!r ?is be because ord] 9 ?+s is ! expression ( an intellig5t w1 ( purpose & design1 & !re=e calls =? our intellig5t & volitional activity1 ) its consequ5t & connatural feel+ ( satisfaction1 we d n inquire "h4 ,b c]ta9 x is t ord] is ess5tial to beauty1 t e/hetic pleasure spr+s only f ! contemplation ( proportion & h>mony1 :i* give unity to v>iety47#bjd7 ,& ! explanation ( ?is is n f> to seek4 ,= ! full & vigor\s ex]cise ( contemplative activity we ne$ objective v>iety4 ,:atev] lacks v>iety1 & /imulates u 9 "o uni=m mann]1 becomes monoton\s & causes ennui4 ,:ile on ! o!r h& m]e multiplicity di/racts ! m9d1 disp]ses & weak5s att5tion1 & begets fatigue4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 h v>iety1 b v>iety comb9$ ) ! unity t w conc5trate & su/a9 att5tion1 & ?us call =? ! highe/ & ke5e/ en]gy ( intellectual activity4 ,h5ce ! function ( rhy?m 9 music1 poetry & oratory2 ( composition & p]spective 9 pa9t+2 ( design 9 ar*itecture4 ,! m p]fect ! relations are :i* con/itute ord]1 ! m cle>ly w ! unity ( ! object %9e =?2 h5ce ! m fully & easily w x be grasp$1 & ! m int5se ! e/hetic pleasure ( contemplat+ x4 ,/4 ,?omas ?us sums up ! objective conditions ( ! beautiful3 integrity or p]fection1 proportion or h>mony1 & cl>ity or spl5d\r47#bje7 #ef4 ,,"s ,,def9itions ,,( ,,! ,,beautiful4--,an object is beautiful :5 its contemplation pleases u2 & ?is takes place :5 ! object1 complete & entire 9 itself1 possesses t ord]1 h>mony1 proportion ( p>ts1 :i* w call =? ! full & vigor\s ex]cise ( our cognitive activity4 ,all ?is am\nts to say+ t ! beauty ( a ?+ is ! revelation or manife/ation ( its natural p]fection47#bjf7 ,p]fection is ?us ! f\ndation ( beauty2 ! %[+ =? ( ?is p]fection is :at con/itutes beauty =mally4 ,e real be+ has a nature :i* con/itutes x1 & activities :]eby x t5ds to realize ! purpose ( its exi/5ce4 ,n[ ! p]fection ( any nature is manife/$ by ! proportion ( its con/itutive p>ts & by ! h>mony ( all its activities4 ,h5ce we see t ord] is ess5tial to beauty because ord] %[s =? ! p]fection ( ! beautiful4 ,an object is beautiful 9 ! degree 9 :i* ! proportion ( its p>ts & ! h>mony ( its activities %[ =? ! p]fection ( its nature4 ,?us1 />t+ ) ! subjective1 a po/]iori def9ition ( beauty f its effect3 beauty is t ^: contemplation pleases u--we h pass$ to ! objective & natural def9ition ( beauty by its prop]ties3 beauty is ! evid5t integrity1 ord]1 proportion & h>mony1 ( an object--& !nce to :at we may call ! a priori or syn!tic def9ition1 :i* emphasizes ! p]fection reveal$ by ! /atic & dynamic ord] ( ! ?+3 ! beauty ( an object is ! manife/ation ( its natural p]fection by ! proportion ( its p>ts & ! h>mony ( its activities47#bjg7 ,a few samples ( ! _m def9itions t h be5 set =? by v>i\s au?ors w n be )\t int]e/4 ,vallet7#bjh7 def9es beauty z ! spl5d\r ( p]fection4 ,o!r au?ors def9e x z ! spl5d\r ( ord]4 ,^! def9itions sacrifice cle>ness to brevity4 ,beauty is ! spl5d\r ( ! true4 ,?is def9ition1 commonly attribut$ to ,plato1 b )\t reason1 is inadequate & ambigu\s4 ,c\s97#bji7 def9es beauty z unity 9 v>iety4 ,?is leaves out an ess5tial elem5t1 ! cl>ity or cle> manife/ation ( ord]4 ,kant def9es beauty z ! p[] an object possesses ( giv+ free play to ! imag9ation )\t transgress+ ! laws ( ! und]/&+47#baj7 ,?is def9ition emphasizes ! necess>y h>mony ( ! beautiful ) our cognitive faculties1 & ! fact t ! e/hetic s5tim5t is n caprici\s b subject to ! laws ( ! und]/&+4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 inadequate1 9 z mu* z x omits all ref]5ce to ! objective factors ( beauty4 #eg4 ,,classifications4 ,,! ,,beautiful ,,9 ,,nature4--,all real beauty is ei!r natural or artificial4 ,natural beauty is t :i* *>act]izes :at we call ! 8works ( ,nature0 or ! 8works ( ,god04 ,artificial beauty is ! beauty ( 8works ( art04 ,aga91 j z we c di/+ui% ! real beauty ( ! latt] f ! ideal beauty :i* ! human arti/ conceives 9 8 m9d z its ar*etype & exempl> cause1 s1 too1 we c di/+ui% betwe5 ! real beauty ( natural ?+s & ! ideal beauty ( _! uncreat$ ar*etypes 9 ! ,m9d ( ! ,div9e ,arti/4 ,we "k t ! beauty ( ! human arti/'s ideal is sup]ior to1 & nev] fully realiz$ 91 t ( ! actually a*iev$ product ( 8 art4 ,is ! same true ( ! natural beauty ( ,god's works8 ,t ! works ( ,god 9 g5]al are beautiful _c be d5i$2 ,8 ,wisdom 8spreads beauty abroad0 ?r\gh\t ,8 works2 ,he arranges all ?+s accord+ to weight & numb] & measure3cum pond]e1 num]o et m5sura2 ,8 ,provid5ce disposes all ?+s /rongly & sweetly3 =tit] et suavit]4 ,b :ile creatures1 by reveal+ _! own beauty1 reflect ! ,uncreat$ beauty ( ,god 9 ! precise degree :i* ,he has will$ f all et]nity1 x _c be said t !y all realize ! beauty ( _! ,div9e ,exempl>s accord+ to ,8 prim>y purpose & decree4 ,s9ce !re is physical & moral evil 9 ! univ]se1 s9ce !re are be+s :i* fail to realize _! ends1 to atta9 to ! p]fection ( _! natures1 x foll[s t ^! be+s are n beautiful4 ,9 s f> =? z !y h real be+1 & ! goodness or p]fection :i* is id5tical ) _! reality1 x may be admitt$ t all real be+s are fundam5tally beautiful2 = goodness or p]fection is ! f\ndation ( beauty47#baa7 ,b 9 s f> z !y fail to realize ! p]fection due to _! natures !y lack ev5 ! f\ndation ( beauty4 ,fur!rmore1 9 ord] t a ?+ :i* has ! full p]fection due to its nature be =mally beautiful1 x mu/ actually %[ =? by ! cle>ness ( its proportions & ! h>mony ( its activities ! fulness ( its natural p]fections4 ,b !re is no ne$ to prove t ?is is n univ]sally v]ifi$ 9 nature--or 9 art ei!r4 ,& h5ce we mu/ inf] t =mal beauty is n a transc5d5tal attribute ( reality47#bab7 ,real beauty may be fur!r divid$ into mat]ial or s5sible or physical1 & intellectual or spiritual4 ,! =m] reveals itself to he>+1 see+ & imag9ation2 ! latt] c be appreh5d$ only by intellect2 b intellect dep5ds = all its objects on ! data ( ! imag9ation4 ,! beauty ( spiritual realities is ( c\rse ( a high]1 nobl] & m excell5t ord] ?an t ( ! realities ( s5se4 ,! spiritual beauty :i* falls directly )9 human exp]i5ce is t ( ! human _s itself2 f ! s\l & its exp]i5ces we c rise to an appreh5sion--analogical & inadequate--( ! ,beauty ( ! ,inf9ite ,be+4 ,9 ! s\l itself we c di/+ui% two s\rces ( beauty3 :at we may call its natural end[m5ts su* z intellect & w1 & its moral dispositions1 its p]fections & excell5ces z a free1 intellig5t1 moral ag5t--its virtues4 ,beauty ( s\l1 especially ! moral beauty ( ! virtu\s s\l1 is incomp>ably m preci\s ?an beauty ( body4 ,! latt]1 ( c\rse1 l all real beauty 9 ,god's creation1 has its prop] dignity z an expression & revelation1 h[ev] fa9t & inadequate1 ( ! ,uncreat$ ,beauty ( ! ,deity4 ,b inasmu* z x is s inf]ior to ! moral beauty prop] to man1 9 itself s frail & evanesc5t1 9 its influ5ce on human passions s dang]\s to virtue1 we c und]/& :y 9 ! ,prov]bs ( ,solomon x is proclaim$ to be va9 & deceitful 9 contra/ ) ! moral beauty ( fe>+ ! ,"l3 ,fallax gratia et vana e/ pul*ritudo2 muli] tim5s dom9um ipsa laudabitur47#bac7 #eh4 ,,! ,,beautiful ,,9 ,,art4 ,,scope ,,& ,,function ,,( ,,! ,,f9e ,,arts4--,! expression ( beauty is ! aim ( ! f9e arts4 ,art 9 g5]al is 8! prop] conception ( a "w to be accompli%$03 8ars nihil aliud e/ quam recta ratio aliquorum op]um faci5dorum047#bad7 ,:ile ! me*anical arts aim at ! production ( ?+s useful1 ! f9e arts aim at ! production ( ?+s beautiful1 i4e4 ( works :i* by _! ord]1 symmetry1 h>mony1 spl5d\r1 etc41 w give su* apt expression to human ideals ( natural beauty z to elicit e/hetic enjoym5t 9 ! highe/ possible degree4 ,! arti/1 !n1 mu/ be a fai?ful /ud5t & admir] ( all natural beauty2 n inde$ to aim at exact reproduction or imitation ( ! latt]2 b to draw !refrom 8 inspiration & ideals4 ,ev5 ! mo/ beautiful ?+s ( nature express only inadequately ! ideal beauty :i* ! human m9d may ga!r f ! /udy ( !m4 ,?is ideal is :at ! arti/ is ev] /ruggl+ to express1 ) ! ev]-pres5t & torm5t+ consci\sness t ! a*ievem5t ( 8 highe/ ef=t w fall immeasurably %ort ( giv+ adequate expression to x4 ,if ea* ( ! ?+s ( nature 7 s :olly simple & intelligible z to pres5t ! same ideal type ( beauty to all1 & leave no room = individual diff]5ces ( int]pretation1 !re w\ld be no v>iety 9 ! products ( arti/ic g5ius1 except inde$ :at w\ld result f p]fect or imp]fect execution4 ,b ! ?+s ( nature are complex1 & 9 "p at lea/ enigmatical2 !y pres5t diff]5t aspects to diff]5t m9ds & sugge/ a v>iety ( int]pretations2 !y leave l>ge scope to ! play ( ! imag9ation bo? z to conception ( ! ideal itself & z to ! arrangem5t & manipulation ( ! s5sible mat]ials 9 :i* ! ideal is to f9d expression4 ,by means ( ^! two functions1 conception & expression1 ! g5ius ( ! arti/ seeks to int]pret & realize = u ideal types ( natural beauty4 ,! qualities ( a "w ( art1 ! conditions x mu/ fulfil1 are ^? already enum]at$ 9 reg>d to beauty g5]ally4 ,x mu/ h unity1 ord]1 proportion ( p>ts2 x mu/ be true to nature1 n 9 ! s5se ( a m]e copy1 b 9 ! s5se ( draw+ its inspiration f nature1 & s help+ u to und]/& & appreciate ! beauties ( nature2 x mu/ display a p[] & cle>ness ( expression adju/$ to ! capacity ( ! normal m9d4 ,we may add--z indicat+ ! connexion ( art ) morality--t ! "w ( art mu/ n be su* z to excite disapproval or cause pa9 by %ock+ any normal faculty1 or runn+ c\nt] to any fundam5tal belief1 sympa?y1 s5tim5t or feel+1 ( ! human m9d4 ,! contemplation ( ! really beautiful1 :e!r 9 nature or 9 art1 ought p] se to h an elevat+1 ennobl+1 ref9+ influ5ce on ! m9d4 ,b ! beautiful is n ! good2 nor does ! cultivation ( ! f9e arts necess>ily enri* ! m9d morally4 ,f ! e?ical po9t ( view art is "o ( ^? indiff]5t ?+s :i* ! w c make morally good or morally evil4 ,s9ce man is a moral be+1 no human int]e/ c fall outside ! moral sph]e1 or claim indep5d5ce ( ! moral law2 & art is a human int]e/4 ,nei!r ! creator1 nor ! critic1 nor ! /ud5t ( a "w ( art c claim t ! latt]1 simply because x is a "w ( art1 is nei!r morally good nor morally bad2 or t he 9 8 special relation to x is indep5d5t ( ! moral law4 ,"u ! speci\s plea t sci5ce 9 seek+ tru? is nei!r positively moral nor positively immoral1 b ab/racts altoge!r f ! quality ( morality1 x is sometimes claim$ t1 a p>i1 art 9 its pursuit ( ! beautiful %\ld be held to ab/ract f moral di/9ctions & h no conc]n = moral good or evil4 ,b 9 ! fir/ place1 ?\gh sci5ce z su* seeks simply ! true1 & 9 ?is s5se ab/racts f ! good & ! evil1 /ill ! man ( sci5ce bo? 9 acquir+ & communicat+ tru? is b\nd by ! moral law3 he may n1 "u ! plea t he is le>n+ or tea*+ tru?1 d any?+ morally wrong1 any?+ t w =feit or endang] moral rectitude1 :e!r 9 himself or 9 o!rs4 ,& 9 ! second place1 ow+ to ! diff]5t relations ( tru? & beauty to moral goodness1 we mu/ d5y ! p>ity on :i* ! argum5t re/s4 ,tru? appeals to ! reason alone2 beauty appeals to ! s5ses1 ! he>t1 ! w1 ! passions & emotions3 8,pul*rum trahit ad se desid]ium04 ,! sci5ti/ expresses tru? 9 ab/ract laws1 def9itions & =mulas3 a law ( *emi/ry w help ! f>m] to f]tilize ! soil1 or ! an>*i/ to assass9ate sov]eigns4 ,b ! arti/ expresses beauty 9 concrete =ms calculat$ to provoke emotions ( e/hetic enjoym5t f ! contemplation ( !m4 ,n[ !re are o!r pleasure-giv+ emotions1 s5sual & c>nal emotions1 ! indiscrim9ate excitem5t & unbridl$ indulg5ce ( :i* ! moral law condemns z evil2 & if a "w ( art be ( su* a k9d t x is directly calculat$ to excite !m1 ! arti/ /&s condemn$ by ! moral law1 & t ev5 ?\gh 8 aim may h be5 to give expression to beauty & call =? e/hetic enjoym5t m]ely4 ,if ! prepond]at+ influ5ce ( ! arti/'s "w on ! normal human individual be a solicitation ( ! latt]'s nature t[>ds :at is evil1 :at is oppos$ to 8 real p]fection1 8 moral progress1 8 la/ end1 !n t arti/'s "w is n a "w ( art or truly beautiful4 ,! net result ( its appeal be+ evil & unheal?y1 x _c be itself a ?+ ( beauty4 8,art = art's sake0 is a cry t is n[ no long] novel4 ,tak5 lit]ally x is unmean+1 = art is a means to an end--! expression ( ! beautiful2 & a means z su* _c be 8= its own sake04 ,b x may signify t art %\ld subs]ve no extr9sic purpose1 pr(essional or utilit>ian2 t x %\ld be dis9t]e/$2 t ! arti/ mu/ aim at ! conception & expression ( ! beautiful ?r\gh a dis9t]e/$ admiration & en?usiasm = ! beautiful4 ,9 ?is s5se ! =mula expresses a pr9ciple :i* is absolutely true1 & :i* ass]ts ! noble mission ( ! arti/ to mank9d4 ,b ! =mula is also commonly und]/ood to claim ! emancipation ( ! arti/ f ! bonds ( morality1 & 8 fre$om to conceive & express beauty 9 :atev] =ms he pleases1 :e!r ^! may aid m5 to virtue or solicit !m to vice4 ,?is is ! p]nici\s error to :i* we h j ref]r$4 ,& we may n[ add t ?is errone\s cont5tion is n only e?ically b also arti/ically uns\nd4 ,= surely art ought to be bas$ on tru?3 ! arti/ %\ld und]/& human nature1 to :i* 8 "w appeals3 he %\ld n reg>d z truly beautiful a "w ! contemplation ( :i* w produce a discord 9 ! s\l1 :i* w di/urb ! "r ord] ( ! s\l's activities1 :i* w solicit ! l[] faculties to revolt aga9/ ! high]2 & ?is is :at takes place :5 ! arti/ ignores moral rectitude 9 ! pursuit ( 8 art3 by despis+ ! =m] he is false to ! latt]4 ,he fails to realize t ! "w ( art mu/ be judg$ n m]ely 9 relation to ! total am\nt ( pleasure x may cause 9 ^? :o contemplate x1 b also 9 relation to ! quality ( ?is pleasure2 & n m]ely 9 relation to e/hetic pleasure1 b 9 relation to ! total effect1 ! :ole concrete influ5ce ( ! "w on all ! m5tal faculties4 ,he fails to see t if ?is total influ5ce is evil1 ! "w t causes x _c be good nor !re=e really beautiful4 ,are we to conclude1 !n1 t ! arti/ is b\nd to aim positively & always at produc+ a good moral effect ?r\gh 8 "w8 ,by no means4 ,e/hetic pleasure is1 z we h said1 indiff]5t4 ,! pursuit ( x1 ?r\gh ! conception & expression ( ! beautiful1 is ! prop] & intr9sic end ( ! f9e arts1 & is 9 itself legitimate s long z x does n run c\nt] to ! moral law4 ,x has no ne$ to run c\nt] to ! moral law1 nor c x d s )\t defeat+ its own end4 ,outside its prop] limits art ceases to be art2 )9 its prop] limits x has a noble & elevat+ mission2 & x c s]ve indirectly b p[]fully ! int]e/s ( tru? & goodness by help+ m5 to sub/itute = ! l[] & gross] pleasures ( s5se ! high] & pur] e/hetic pleasures :i* issue f ! dis9t]e/$ contemplation ( ! beautiful4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,! ,,categories ,,( ,,be+4 ,,sub/ance ,,& ,,accid5t4 #ei4 ,,! ,,conception ,,( ,,ultimate ,,categories4--,hav+ exam9$ s f> ! notion ( real be+ itself1 :i* is ! prop] subject-matt] ( ontology1 & ^? wide/ or transc5d5tal notions :i* are coext5sive ) t ( reality1 we mu/ next inquire into ! v>i\s modes 9 :i* we f9d real be+ express$1 det]m9$1 actualiz$1 z x falls )9 our exp]i5ce4 ,9 o!r words1 we mu/ exam9e ! highe/ categories ( be+1 ! suprema g5]a entis4 ,consid]$ f ! po9t ( view ( ! logical arrangem5t ( our concepts1 ea* ( ^! categories reveals itself z a prim>y & imm$iate limitation ( ! ext5sion ( ! transc5d5tal concept ( real be+ itself4 ,ea* is ultimately di/9ct f ! o!rs 9 ! s5se t no two ( !m c be br\ght "u any o!r z a g5us1 nor c we discov] any int]m$iate notion betwe5 any "o ( !m & ! notion ( be+ itself4 ,! latt] notion is n prop]ly a g5us ( :i* !y w\ld be species1 nor c x be pr$icat$ univocally ( any two or m ( !m 7#b74 ,ea* is itself an ultimate g5us1 a g5us supremum4 ,by us+ ^! notions z pr$icates ( our judgm5ts we are enabl$ to int]pret ?+s1 to obta9 a g5u9e if inadequate insight into reality2 = we assume z e/abli%$ 9 ! ,!ory ( ,k t all our univ]sal concepts h real & objective validity1 t !y give u real k ( ! nature ( ^? individual ?+s :i* =m ! data ( our s5se exp]i5ce4 ,h5ce ! /udy ( ! categories1 :i* is = ,logic a classification ( our wide/ concepts1 become = ,metaphysics an inquiry into ! modes :i* *>act]ize real be+47#bae7 ,by det]m9+ :at ^! modes are1 by /udy+ _! *>act]i/ics1 by trac+ !m ?r\gh ! data ( exp]i5ce1 we advance 9 our k ( reality4 ,! mo/ div]g5t views h prevail$ among philosoph]s bo? z to :at a category is or signifies1 & z to :at or h[ _m ! really ultimate categories are4 ,is a category1 su* z sub/ance1 or quality1 or quantity1 a mode ( real be+ reveal$ to ! kn[+ m9d1 z mo/ anci5t & m$ieval philosoph]s ?\ght1 ) ,ari/otle & ,/4 ,?omas8 or is x a m5tal mode impos$ on reality by ! kn[+ m9d1 z _m mod]n philosoph]s h ?\ght1 ) ,kant & aft] him8 ,x is = ! ,!ory ( ,k to exam9e ?is alt]native2 nor %all we discuss x "h except v incid5tally3 = we %all assume z true ! broad affirmative answ] to ! fir/ alt]native4 ,t is to say1 we %all hold t ! m9d is able to see1 9 ! categories g5]ally1 modes ( reality2 reject+ ! sceptical conclusions ( ,kantism 9 reg>d to ! p[] ( ! ,speculative ,reason1 & ! pr9ciples :i* lead to su* conclusions4 ,z to ! numb] & classification ( ! ultimate categories1 ?is is obvi\sly a "q :i* _c be settl$ a priori by any su* purely d$uctive analysis ( ! concept ( be+ z ,hegel seems to h attempt$2 b only a po/]iori1 i4e4 by an analysis ( exp]i5ce 9 its broade/ s5se z includ+ ,matt] & ,_s1 ,nature & ,m9d1 ,object & ,subject ( ,?\ght1 & ev5 ! ,process ( ,?\ght itself4 ,moreov] x is n surpris+ t ) ! progress ( philosophical reflection1 c]ta9 categories %\ld h be5 /udi$ m deeply at c]ta9 epo*s ?an ev] previ\sly1 t !y %\ld h be5 8discov]$0 s to speak1 n ( c\rse 9 ! s5se t ! human m9d _h n be5 previ\sly 9 possession ( !m1 b 9 ! s5se t because ( clos] /udy !y furni%$ ! m9d ) a ri*] & full] p[] ( 8expla9+0 ?+s4 ,x is natural1 too1 t hi/orians ( philosophy1 int5t on trac+ ! movem5t ( philosophic ?\ght1 %\ld be incl9$ to ov]-emphasize ! relativity ( ! categories1 z reg>ds _! 8expla9+0 value--_! relativity to ! g5]al m5tality ( a c]ta9 epo* or p]iod47#baf7 ,b !re is dang] "h ( conf\nd+ c]ta9 l>ge hypo!tical conceptions1 :i* are f\nd to yield valuable results at a c]ta9 /age 9 ! progress ( ! sci5ces17#bag7 ) ! categories prop] ( real be+4 ,if ! m9d ( man is ( ! same nature 9 all m51 if x contemplates ! same univ]se1 if x is capable ( rea*+ tru? ab\t ?is univ]se--real tru? :i* is immutable1--!n ! modes ( be+ :i* x appreh5ds 9 ! univ]se1 & by conceiv+ :i* x int]prets ! latt]1 mu/ be 9 ! univ]se z kn[n1 & mu/ be !re immutably4 ,n[h]e d we f9d ?is m cle>ly illu/rat$ ?an 9 ! futility ( ! num]\s attempts ( mod]n philosoph]s to d5y ! reality ( ! category ( sub/ance1 & to give an intelligible int]pretation ( exp]i5ce )\t ! aid ( ?is category4 ,we %all see t z a matt] ( fact x is impossible to d5y 9 ?\ght ! reality ( sub/ance1 or to ?9k at all )\t x1 h[ev] philosoph]s may h d5i$ x 9 language1--or ?\ght t !y d5i$ x :5 !y only reject$ "s errone\s or indef5sible mean+ ( ! t]m4 #fj4 ,,! ,,ari/otelian ,,categories4--,! fir/ palpable di/9ction we obs]ve 9 ! data ( exp]i5ce is t betwe5 sub/ance & accid5t4 8,we might naturally ask10 writes ,ari/otle17#bah7 8:e!r :at is signifi$ by su* t]ms z walk+1 sitt+1 feel+ well1 is a be+ 7or reality74444 ,& we might be incl9$ to d\bt x1 = no s+le "o ( su* acts exi/s by itself 7 71 no "o ( !m is sep>able f sub/ance 772 x is r to him :o walks1 or sits1 or feels well1 t we give ! "n ( be+4 ,t :i* is a be+ 9 ! prim>y mean+ ( ?is t]m1 a be+ simply & absolutely1 & n m]ely a be+ 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 or ) a qualification1 is sub/ance-- 407#bai7 ,b manife/ly1 ?\gh sub/ances1 or :at 9 ord9>y language we call 8p]sons0 & 8?+s0--m51 animals1 plants1 m9]als--are real be+s 9 ! fulle/ s5se1 nev]!less sitt+1 walk+1 ?9k+1 will+1 & actions g5]ally1 are also und\bt$ly realities2 s too are /ates & qualities2 & %ape1 size1 po/ure1 etc4 ,& yet we d n f9d any ( ^! latt] actually exi/+ 9 !mselves l sub/ances1 b only dep5d5tly on sub/ances--on 8p]sons0 or 8?+s0 t ?9k or walk or act1 or are l>ge or small1 hot or cold1 or h "s %ape or quality4 ,!y are all accid5ts1 9 contradi/9ction to sub/ance4 ,x is f> easi] to di/+ui% betwe5 accid5ts & sub/ance ?an to give an exhau/ive li/ ( ! ultimate & irr$ucible classes ( ! =m]4 ,ari/otle enum]ates n9e3 ,quantity 771 ,quality 771 ,relation 7 71 ,action 771 ,passion 771 ,:]e 771 ,:5 771 ,po/ure 771 ,ext]nal ,condition or ,/ate 774 ,mu* has be5 said = & aga9/ ! exhau/ive "* ( ?is classification4 ,s*ola/ics g5]ally h def5d$ & adopt$ x4 ,/4 ,?omas gives ! foll[+ reason$ analysis ( x37#bbj7 ,s9ce accid5ts may be di/+ui%$ by _! relations to sub/ance1 we see t "s affect sub/ances intr9sically1 o!rs extr9sically2 & 9 ! =m] case1 ei!r absolutely or relatively3 if relatively we h ! category ( relation2 if absolutely we h ei!r quantity or quality accord+ z ! accid5t affects ! sub/ance by reason ( ! matt]1 or ! =m1 ( ! latt]4 ,:at affects & d5om9ates a sub/ance extr9sically does s ei!r z a cause1 or z a measure1 or o!rwise4 ,if z a cause1 ! sub/ance is ei!r suff]+ action1 or act+ itself2 if z a measure1 x d5om9ates ! subject z 9 "t1 or 9 place1 or 9 reg>d to ! relative position ( its p>ts1 its po/ure1 9 ! place :i* x occupies4 ,f9ally1 if ! accid5t affects ! sub/ance extr9sically1 ?\gh n z cause or z measure1 b only z *>act]iz+ its ext]nal condition & imm$iate surr\nd+s1 z :5 we describe a man z clo!d or arm$1 we h ! category ( condition4 ,x might be said t all ?is is m +5i\s ?an conv9c+2 b x is easi] to criticize ,ari/otle's li/ ?an to sugge/ a bett] "o4 ,9 addition to :at we h said ( x else:]e17#bba7 a few rem>ks w be suffici5t 9 ! pres5t context4 ,"s ( ! categories1 z be+ ( less] importance1 we may treat incid5tally :5 deal+ ) ! m important ones4 ,ubi1 ,qu&o1 & ,situs1 toge!r ) ! analysis ( our notions ( ,space & ,"t1 fall naturally into ! g5]al doctr9e ( ,quantity4 ,! f9al category1 1 h[ev] int]pret$17#bbb7 may be ref]r$ to ,quality1 ,quantity1 or ,relation4 ,a m s]i\s po9t = consid]ation is ! fact1 g5]ally admitt$ by s*ola/ics17#bbc7 t "o & ! same real accid5t may belong to diff]5t categories if we reg>d x f diff]5t /&po9ts4 ,actio & passio are "o & ! same motus or *ange1 reg>d$ 9 relation to ! ag5t & to ! effect1 respectively4 ,place1 9 reg>d to ! locat$ body belongs to ! category ubi1 :]eab\ts2 9 reg>d to ! locat+ body x is an aspect ( ! latt]'s quantity4 ,relation1 z we %all see1 is probably n an entity really di/9ct f its f\ndation--quality1 quantity1 or causality4 ,! reason alleg$ = ?is p>tial abs5ce ( real di/9ction betwe5 ! ,ari/otelian categories is t !y 7 ?\ght out prim>ily f a logical po9t ( view--t ( pr$ication47#bbd7 ,& ! reason is a satisfactory "o1 = real di/9ction is n necess>y = div]sity ( pr$ication4 ,!n1 :]e !y are n really di/9ct entities ^! categories are at lea/ aspects s fundam5tally di/9ct & mutually irr$ucible t ea* ( !m is inde$ a summum g5us imm$iately "u ! concept ( be+ 9 g5]al4 ,x seems a bold claim to make = any s*eme ( categories1 t x exhau/s all ! kn[n modes ( reality4 ,we (t5 exp]i5ce objects ( ?\ght :i* seem at fir/ sight incapable ( r$uction to any ( ,ari/otle's suprema g5]a4 ,b m mature reflection w always enable u to f9d a place = !m4 ,9 ord] t any extr9sic d5om9ation ( a sub/ance con/itute a category di/9ct f ^? enum]at$1 x mu/ affect ! sub/ance 9 "s real way di/9ct f any ( ^? n9e2 & x mu/ moreov] be n a m]e complex or aggregate ( two or m ( ! latt]4 ,h5ce d5om9ations :i* objects d]ive f ! fact t !y are t]ms ( m5tal activities :i* are really imman5t1 actiones 8int5tionales10--d5om9ations su* z 8be+ kn[n10 8be+ lov$10--nei!r belong to ! category ( 8passio0 prop]1 nor d !y con/itute any di/9ct category4 ,!y are entia rationis1 logical relations4 ,aga91 :ile effici5t causation resolves itself into ! categories ( actio & passio1 ! causation ( f9al1 =mal & mat]ial causes _c be ref]r$ to ^! categories1 b nei!r does x con/itute any new category4 ,! influ5ce ( a f9al cause consi/s 9 no?+ m ?an its be+ a good :i* is ! t]m ( appetite or desire4 ,! causation ( ! =mal cause consi/s 9 its =mally con/itut+ ! effect3 x is always ei!r a sub/antial or an accid5tal =m1 & s mu/ be ref]r$ to ! categories ( sub/ance1 or quality1 or quantity4 ,simil>ly mat]ial causality consi/s 9 ?is t ! matt] is a p>tial con/itutive pr9ciple ( ! composite be+2 & x !re=e ref]s u to ! category ( sub/ance4 ,x may be not$1 too1 t ! ontological pr9ciples ( a composite be+--su* z primal matt] & sub/antial =m--s9ce !y are !mselves n prop]ly 8be+s10 b only 8pr9ciples ( be+10 are said to belong ea* to its prop] category1 n =mally b only ref]5tially1 n =malit] b only r$uctiv4 ,f9ally1 ! v>i\s prop]ties t are assign$ to c]ta9 accid5ts !mselves are ei!r logical relations 7su* z 8n hav+ a contr>y0 or 8be+ a measure071 or real relations1 or intr9sic modes ( ! accid5t itself 7z :5 a quality is said to h a c]ta9 8int5sity072 b 9 all cases :]e !y are n m]e logical entities !y w be f\nd to come "u "o or o!r ( ! ,ari/otelian categories4 ,! 8real be+0 :i* is ?us 8det]m9$0 into ! supreme modes or categories ( sub/ance & accid5ts is1 ( c\rse1 8be+0 consid]$ sub/antially z ess5tial 7:e!r possible or actual71 & n m]ely be+ t is actually exi/5t1 exi/5tial be+1 9 ! p>ticipial s5se4 ,fur!rmore1 x is prim>ily f9ite or creat$ be+ t is s det]m9$4 ,! ,inf9ite ,be+ is above ! categories1 sup]-sub/antial4 ,x is because sub/ance is ! mo/ p]fect ( ! categories1 & because ! ,inf9ite ,be+ v]ifies 9 ,himself 9 an incompreh5sibly p]fect mann] all ! p]fections ( sub/ance1 t we speak ( ,him z a sub/ance3 rememb]+ always t ^! ess5tially f9ite human concepts are to be pr$icat$ ( ,him only analogically 7#b1 #e74 ,x may be inquir$ :e!r 8accid5t0 is a g5us :i* %\ld be pr$icat$ univocally ( ! n9e ,ari/otelian categories z species8 or is ! concept ( 8accid5t0 only analogical1 s t ^! n9e categories w\ld be ea* a summum g5us 9 ! /rict s5se1 i4e4 an ultimate & imm$iate det]m9ation ( ! concept ( 8be+0 itself8 ,we h se5 already t ! concept ( 8be+0 z appli$ to 8sub/ance0 & 8accid5t0 is analogical 7#b74 ,s1 too1 x is analogical z appli$ to ! v>i\s categories ( accid5ts4 ,= ! *>act]i/ic note ( 8accid5t10 t ( 8affect+1 inh]+ 90 a subject1 c sc>cely be said to be v]ifi$ 89 ! same way10 8univocally10 ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( accid5ts2 x is !re=e m probably correct n to reg>d 8accid5t0 z a g5us prop]1 b to conceive ea* k9d ( accid5t z a summum g5us com+ imm$iately "u ! transc5d5tal concept ( 8be+04 #fa4 ,,! ,,ph5om5i/ ,,attack ,,on ,,! ,,traditional ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,sub/ance4--,pass+ n[ to ! "q ( ! exi/5ce & nature ( sub/ances1 & _! relation to accid5ts1 we %all f9d evid5ces ( misund]/&+s to :i* _m philosophical errors may be ascrib$ at lea/ 9 "p4 ,x is a fairly common cont5tion t ! di/9ction betwe5 sub/ance & accid5t is really a gr\ndless di/9ction2 t we h exp]i5ce m]ely ( transi5t ev5ts or happ5+s1 int]nal & ext]nal1 ) relations ( coexi/5ce or sequ5ce betwe5 !m2 t x is an illusion to suppose1 und]ly+ ^!1 an in]t1 abid+ basis call$ 8sub/ance02 t ?is c be at be/ b a useless "n = ea* ( ! collections ( ext]nal & int]nal appe>ances :i* make up our total exp]i5ce ( ! out] _w & ( our own m9ds4 ,?is is ! g5]al position ( ph5om5i/s4 8,:at d y "k ( sub/ance10 !y ask u1 8except t x is an indet]m9ate & unkn[n some?+ und]ly+ ph5om5a8 ,& ev5 if y c\ld prove its exi/5ce1 :at w\ld x avail y1 s9ce 9 its nature x is1 & mu/ rema91 unkn[n8 ,no d\bt ! m9d naturally supposes ?is #8some?+' und]ly+ ph5om5a2 b x is a m]e m5tal fiction ! reality ( :i* _c be prov$1 & ! nature ( :i* is admitt$1 ev5 by "s :o believe 9 its real exi/5ce1 to be unkn[able40 ,n[ !re c be no d\bt ab\t ! supreme importance ( ?is "q3 all p>ties are pretty g5]ally agre$ t on ! real or fictiti\s "* ( sub/ance ! v exi/5ce ( g5u9e metaphysics 9 ! traditional s5se dep5ds4 ,& at fir/ sight ! possibility ( su* a controv]sy z ! pres5t "o seems v /range4 8,is x cr$ible10 asks ,m]ci]17#bbe7 8t ?9k]s ( ! fir/ ord]1 l ,hume1 ,mill1 ,sp5c]1 ,kant1 ,wundt1 ,pauls51 ,littr1 ,ta9e1 %\ld h fail$ to recognize ! sub/antial "* ( ?+s1 & ( ! ,ego or ,self8 ,mu/ !y n h se5 t !y 7 plac+ !mselves 9 op5 revolt aga9/ s\nd common s5se8 ,& on ! o!r h& is x likely t ! g5ius ( ,ari/otle c\ld h be5 dup$ by ! nave illusion :i* ph5om5i/s mu/ logically ascribe to him8 ,or t all ^? s9c]e & e>ne/ tea*]s :o adopt$ & pres]v$ 9 s*ola/ic philosophy = c5turies ! p]ipatetic di/9ction betwe5 sub/ance & accid5ts %\ld h be5 all utt]ly a/ray 9 int]pret+ an elem5t>y fact ( common s5se80 ,!re mu/ h be5 misund]/&+s1 possibly on bo? sides1 & mu* wa/e ( argum5t 9 refut+ *im]as4 ,let u endeav\r to f9d out :at !y are & h[ !y gradually arose4 ,ph5om5ism has _h its orig9 9 ! ,idealism :i* conf9es ! human m9d to a k ( its own /ates1 proclaim+ ! unkn[ability ( any reality o!r ?an ^!2 & 9 ! ,positivism :i* admits ! reality only ( t :i* falls directly )9 ext]nal & int]nal s5se exp]i5ce4 ,desc>tes did n d5y ! sub/antiality ( ! s\l1 nor ev5 ( bodies2 b 8 ideali/ !ory ( k r5d]$ suspect all in=mation d]iv$ by 8 d$uctive1 a priori me?od ( reason+ f suppos$ innate ideas1 reg>d+ ! nature & prop]ties ( bodies4 ,locke reject$ ! innatism ( ,desc>tes1 ascrib+ to s5se exp]i5ce a positive rle 9 ! =mation ( our ideas1 & prov+ conclusively t we h no su* intuitive & d$uctively d]iv$ k ( real sub/ances z ,desc>tes cont5d$ =47#bbf7 ,locke himself did n d5y ! exi/5ce ( sub/ances17#bbg7 any m ?an ,desc>tes4 ,b un=tunately he prop\nd$ ! mi/ak5 assumption ( ,idealism1 t ! m9d c "k only its own /ates2 & also ! error ( ?9k+ t because we h n an intuitive insight into ! specific nature ( individual sub/ances we c "k no?+ at all ?r\gh any *annel ab\t _! nature3 & he ga!r$ f ?is latt] error a g5]al notion or def9ition ( sub/ance :i* is a di/9ct dep>ture f :at ,ari/otle & ! m$ieval s*ola/ics _h traditionally und]/ood by sub/ance4 ,= ,locke sub/ance is m]ely a suppos$1 b unkn[n1 support = accid5ts47#bbh7 ,sett+ out ) ^! two notions--t all objects ( k mu/ be /ates or phases ( m9d1 & t mat]ial sub/ance is a suppos$1 b unkn[n & unkn[able1 sub/ratum ( ! qualities reveal$ to our m9ds 9 ! process ( s5se p]ception--x 0 easy = ,b]keley to support by plausible argum5ts 8 d5ial ( ! reality ( any su* ?+s z mat]ial sub/ances4 ,& x 0 j z easy1 if some:at m audaci\s1 on ! "p ( ,hume to argue q logically t if ! suppos$ b unkn[able sub/antial sub/ratum ( ext]nal s5se ph5om5a is illusory1 s likewise is ! suppos$ sub/antial ,ego :i* is ?\ght to und]lie & support ! int]nal ph5om5a ( consci\sness4 ,hume's rejection ( sub/ance is app>5tly complete & absolute1 & is s int]pret$ by _m ( 8 disciples4 ,b a ?or\gh-go+ ph5om5ism is 9 reality impossible2 no philosoph]s h ev] succe$$ 9 ?9k+ out an intelligible !ory ( ?+s )\t ! concepts ( 8matt]10 & 8_s10 & 8?+s10 & ! 8,ego0 or 8,self10 h[ev] !y may h tri$ to disp5se ) !m2 & ^! are concepts ( sub/ances4 ,h5ce !re are ^? :o d\bt t ,hume 0 s]i\s 9 8 elaborate reason+ away ( sub/ances4 ,! fact is t ,hume 8reason$ away0 sub/ance only 9 ! s5se ( an unkn[able sub/ratum ( ph5om5a1 & n 9 ! s5se ( a some?+ t exi/s 9 itself47#bbi7 ,s f> f d5y+ ! exi/5ce ( entities t exi/ 9 !mselves1 he seems to h multipli$ ^! beyond ! wilde/ dreams ( all previ\s philosoph]s by sub/antializ+ accid5ts47#bcj7 ,:at he does call into d\bt is ! capacity ( ! human m9d to atta9 to a k ( ! specific natures ( su* entities2 & ev5 "h ! argum5ts ( ph5om5ism /rike ! false ,c>tesian !ory ( k1 r ?an ! sob] & mod]ate tea*+s ( s*ola/icism reg>d+ ! nature & limitations ( our k ( sub/ances4 #fb4 ,,! ,,s*ola/ic ,,view ,,( ,,our ,,k ,,9 ,,reg>d ,,to ,,! ,,exi/5ce ,,& ,,nature ,,( ,,sub/ances4--,:at1 !n1 are ^! latt] tea*+s8 ,t we h a direct1 intellectual insight into ! specific ess5ce or nature ( a corporeal sub/ance su* z gold1 simil> to our insight into ! ab/ract ess5ce ( a triangle8 ,by no means2 ,locke 0 q "r 9 reject+ ! ,c>tesian claim to intuitions :i* 7 suppos$ to yield up all k ( ?+s by 8ma!matical10 i4e4 d$uctive1 a priori reason+4 ,! s*ola/ic tea*+ is briefly z foll[s3-- ,fir/1 z reg>ds our k ( ! exi/5ce ( sub/ances1 & ! mann] 9 :i* we obta9 our concept ( sub/ance4 ,we get ?is concept f corporeal sub/ances1 & aft]w>ds apply x to spiritual sub/ances2 s t our k ( ! =m] is 8imm$iate0 only 9 ! relative s5se ( be+ prior to ! latt]1 n 9 ! s5se t x is a direct intuition ( ! natures ( corporeal sub/ances4 ,we h no su* direct insight into _! natures4 ,b our concept ( !m z actually exi/+ is also imm$iate 9 ! s5se t at fir/ we spontane\sly conceive e object :i* comes be=e our consci\sness z some?+ exi/+ 9 itself4 ,! *ild appreh5ds ea* sep>ate /imulant ( its s5se p]ception--resi/ance1 col\r1 s\nd1 etc4--z a 8?is 0or a 8t10 i4e4 z a sep>ate some?+1 exi/+ !re 9 itself2 9 o!r words x appreh5ds all realities z sub/ances3 n1 ( c\rse1 t ! *ild has yet any reflex k ( :at a sub/ance is1 b unkn[+ly x applies to all realities at fir/ ! concept :i* x und\bt$ly possesses 8some?+ exi/+ 9 itself04 ,x likewise appreh5ds ea* su* reality z 8"o0 or 8undivid$ 9 itself10 & z 8di/9ct f o!r ?+s04 ,su* is ! *ild's imm$iate1 direct1 & implicit idea ( sub/ance4 ,b if we are to believe ,hume1 :at is true ( ! *ild rema9s true ( ! man3 = ! latt]1 too1 8e p]ception is a sub/ance1 & e di/9ct "p ( a p]ception a di/9ct sub/ance047#bca7 ,no?+1 h[ev]1 c\ld be m manife/ly at v>iance ) ! facts4 ,= z reason is develop$ & reflective analysis proce$s1 ! *ild mo/ und\bt$ly realizes t n ev]y?+ t falls )9 its exp]i5ce has ! "* ( 8a some?+ exi/+ 9 itself & di/9ct f o!r ?+s04 8,walk+10 8talk+10 & 8actions0 g5]ally1 x appreh5ds z realities1--z realities :i*1 h[ev]1 d n 8exi/ 9 !mselves10 b 9 o!r be+s1 9 ! be+s t 8walk0 & 8talk0 & 8act04 ,& ^! latt] be+s x /ill appreh5ds z 8exi/+ 9 !mselves10 & z ?us diff]+ f ! =m]1 :i* 8exi/ n 9 !mselves b 9 o!r ?+s04 ,?us ! *ild comes into possession ( ! notion ( 8accid5t10 & ( ! fur!r notion ( 8sub/ance0 z some?+ :i* n only exi/s 9 itself 71 ens 9 se subsi/5s71 b :i* is also a support or subject ( accid5ts 71 sub/ans1 sub/>e747#bcb7 ,nor1 inde$1 ne$ ! *ild's reason be v highly develop$ 9 ord] to realize t if exp]i5ce furni%es x ) 8be+s t d n exi/ 9 !mselves10 !re mu/ also be be+s :i* d exi/ 9 !mselves3 t if 8accid5ts0 exi/ at all x w\ld be un9telligible & self-contradictory to d5y ! exi/5ce ( 8sub/ances04 ,h5ce1 9 ! ord] ( our exp]i5ce ! fir/1 implicit notion ( sub/ance is t ( 8some?+ exi/+ 9 itself0 772 ! fir/ explicit notion ( x1 h[ev]1 is t by :i* x is appreh5d$ z 8a subject or support ( accid5ts0 71 sub-/>e1 sub/antia72 !n by reflection we g back to ! explicit notion ( x z 8some?+ exi/+ 9 itself04 ,9 ! real or ontological ord] ! p]fection ( 8exi/+ 9 itself0 is manife/ly m fundam5tal ?an t ( 8support+ accid5ts04 ,x is 9 accordance ) a natural law ( language t we "n ?+s aft] ! prop]ties :]eby !y reveal !mselves to u1 r ?an by names imply+ :at is m fundam5tal & ess5tial 9 !m4 8,to exi/ 9 itself0 is an absolute p]fection1 ess5tial to sub/ance2 8to support accid5ts0 is only a relative p]fection2 nor c we "k a priori b a sub/ance might p]haps exi/ )\t any accid5ts3 we only "k t accid5ts _c exi/ )\t "s sub/ance1 or subject1 or p[] :i* w su/a9 !m 9 exi/5ce4 ,c sub/ance be appreh5d$ by ! s5ses1 or only by intellect8 ,/rictly speak+1 only by intellect3 x is nei!r a 8prop] object0 ( any "o s5se1 su* z ta/e1 or col\r1 or s\nd2 nor a 8common object0 ( m ?an "o s5se1 z ext5sion is ) reg>d to sight & t\*3 x is1 9 s*ola/ic language1 n a 8s5sibile p] se10 n itself an object ( s5se k1 b only 8s5sibile p] accid5s10 i4e4 x may be said to be 8accid5tally0 an object ( s5se because ( its conjunction ) accid5ts :i* are ! prop] objects ( s5se3 s t :5 ! s5ses p]ceive accid5ts :at !y are really p]ceiv+ is ! sub/ance affect$ by ! accid5ts4 ,b /rictly & prop]ly x is by intellect we consci\sly grasp t :i* 9 ! reality is ! sub/ance3 :ile ! ext]nal & int]nal s5se faculties make u aw>e ( v>i\s qualities1 activities1 or o!r accid5ts ext]nal to ! 8self10 or ( v>i\s /ates & conditions ( ! 8self10 ! intellect--:i* is a faculty ( ! same s\l z ! s5se faculties--makes u simultane\sly aw>e ( corporeal sub/ances actually exi/+ outside u1 or ( ! concrete sub/ance ( ! 8ego0 or 8self10 exi/+ & reveal+ itself to u 9 & ?r\gh its consci\s activities1 z ! sub/antial1 abid+1 & unify+ subject & pr9ciple ( ^! consci\s activities4 ,?us1 !n1 d we atta9 to ! concept ( sub/ance 9 g5]al1 to a conviction ( ! concrete actual exi/5ce ( t mode ( be+ ! ess5tial *>act]i/ic ( :i* is 8to exi/ 9 itself04 ,9 ! next place1 h[ d we rea* a k ( ! specific natures ( sub/ances87#bcc7 ,:at is ! "*1 & :at are ! limitations1 ( su* k8 ,"h1 especially1 ! v cauti\s & mod]ate doctr9e ( s*ola/icism has be5 l>gely misconceiv$ & misrepres5t$ by ph5om5i/s & o!rs4 ,ab\t ! specific nature ( sub/ances we "k j precisely :at _! accid5ts reveal to u--t & no m4 ,we h no intuitive insight into _! natures2 all our k "h is ab/ractive & discursive4 ,z are _! prop]ties--_! activities1 en]gies1 qualities1 & all _! accid5ts--s is _! nature4 ,we "k ( ! latt] j :at we c inf] f ! =m]4 ,op]>i sequitur esse2 we h no o!r key ?an ?is to k ( _! specific natures4 ,we h exp]i5ce ( !m only ?r\gh _! prop]ties1 _! behavi\r1 _! activities2 analysis ( ?is exp]i5ce1 a po/]iori reason+ f x1 inductive g5]alization bas$ ^u x3 su* are ! only *annels we possess1 ! only means at our disposal1 = rea*+ a k ( _! natures4 #fc4 ,,ph5om5i/ ,,difficulties ,,aga9/ ,,?is ,,view4 ,,its ,,v9dication4--,n[ ! ph5om5i/ w really grant all ?is4 ,8 only objection w be t su* k ( sub/ance is really no k at all2 or t1 su* z x is1 x is useless4 ,b surely ! k t ?is mode ( be+ really exi/s1 t !re is a mode ( be+ :i* 8exi/s 9 itself10 is already "s k1 & g5u9e k1 ( sub/ance8 ,no d\bt1 ! in=mation conta9$ 9 ?is v indet]m9ate & g5]ic concept is imp]fect2 b !n x is only a />t+ po9t1 an all-important />t+ po9t1 h[ev]2 = n only is x p]fectible b e item ( k we ga!r f exp]i5ce p]fects x1 :]eas )\t x ! intellect is p>alys$ 9 its attempt to int]pret exp]i5ce3 inde$ s indisp5sable is ?is concept ( sub/ance to ! human m9d t1 z we h se51 no philosoph] has ev] be5 really able to disp5se ) x4 ,:5 ph5om5i/s say t :at we call m9d is only a bundle ( p]ceptions & ideas2 :5 !y speak ( ! fl[ ( ev5ts1 :i* is ourselves1 ( :i* we are consci\s17#bcd7 ! v language !y !mselves make use ( cries out aga9/ _! pr(ess$ ph5om5ism4 ,= :y speak ( 8we10 8ourselves10 etc41 if !re be no 8we0 or 8ourselves0 o!r ?an ! p]ceptions1 ideas1 ev5ts1 etc41 ref]r$ to8 ,( c\rse ! explanation ( ?is /range attitude on ! "p ( ^! philosoph]s is simple en\gh2 !y h a wrong conception ( sub/ance & ( ! relation ( accid5ts !reto2 !y appe> to imag9e t accord+ to ! traditional tea*+ no?+ ( all we c discov] ab\t accid5ts--or1 z !y pref] to t]m !m1 8ph5om5a0--c possibly ?r[ any light ^u ! nature ( sub/ance3 z if ! rle ( ph5om5a 7 to cov] up & conceal f u "s sort ( inn] core 7:i* !y call sub/ance71 & n r to reveal to u ! nature ( t 8be+1 exi/+ 9 itself10 ( :i* ^! ph5om5a are ! prop]ties & manife/ations4 ,! d5ial ( sub/ance leads inevitably to ! sub/antializ+ ( accid5ts4 ,x is possible t ! mann] 9 :i* "s s*ola/ics h spok5 ( accid5ts has facilitat$ ?is error47#bce7 ,anyh[ ! error is "o t leads inevitably to contradictions 9 ?\ght itself4 ,mill1 = in/ance1 foll[+ out ! arbitr>y po/ulates ( subjectivism & ph5om5ism1 f9ally analys$ all reality into pres5t s5sations ( ! individual consci\sness1 plus p]man5t possibilities ( s5sations4 ,n[1 consi/5tly ) ! ideali/ic po/ulate1 ^! 8p]man5t possibilities0 %\ld be no?+ m ?an a c]ta9 tone1 col\r+1 quality ( ! 8pres5t0 s5sation1 due to ! fact t ?is has 9 x1 z "p & p>cel ( itself1 feel+s ( memory & expectation2 9 :i* case ! 8pres5t s5sation10 tak5 9 its concrete fulness1 w\ld be ! sole reality1 & w\ld exi/ 9 itself4 ,?is 8solipsism0 is ! ultimate logical issue ( subjective idealism1 & x is a suffici5t r$uctio ad absurdum ( ! :ole sy/em4 ,or else1 to evade ?is issue1 ! 8p]man5t possibilities0 are suppos$ to be some?+ really o!r ?an ! 8pres5t s5sations04 ,9 :i* case we mu/ ask :at ,mill c mean by a 8p]man5t possibility04 ,:e!r x be subjective or objective possibility1 x is presumably1 accord+ to ,mill's ?\ght1 "s prop]ty or appurt5ance ( ! individual consci\sness1 i4e4 a quality prop] to a subject or sub/ance47#bcf7 ,b to d5y t ! consci\s subject is a sub/ance1 & at ! same "t to cont5d t x is a 8p]man5t possibility ( s5sation10 i4e4 t x has prop]ties :i* c app]ta9 only to a sub/ance1 is simply to hold :at is self-contradictory4 ,aft] ^! explanations x w be suffici5t m]ely to /ate =mally ! pro( t sub/ances really exi/4 ,x is exce$+ly simple1 & its =ce w be appreciat$ f all t has be5 said s f>3 ,:atev] we become aw>e ( z exi/+ at all mu/ exi/ ei!r 9 itself1 or by be+ su/a9$1 support$ 9 exi/5ce1 9 some?+ else 9 :i* x inh]es4 ,if x exi/s 9 itself x is a sub/ance2 if n x is an accid5t1 & !n ! 8some?+ else0 :i* supports x1 mu/ 9 turn ei!r exi/ 9 itself or 9 some?+ else4 ,b s9ce an inf9ite regress 9 ?+s exi/+ n 9 !mselves b 9 o!r ?+s is impossible1 we are =c$ to admit ! reality ( a mode ( be+ :i* exi/s 9 itself--viz4 sub/ance4 ,or1 aga91 we are =c$ to admit ! real exi/5ce ( accid5ts--or1 if y w1 8ph5om5a0 or 8appe>ances0--i4e4 ( realities or modes ( be+ ^: nature is manife/ly to modify or qualify 9 "s way or o!r "s subject 9 :i* !y inh]e4 ,c we conceive a /ate :i* is n a /ate ( some?+8 a ph5om5on or appe>ance :i* is n an appe>ance ( some?+8 a vital act :i* is n an act ( a liv+ ?+8 a s5sation1 ?\ght1 desire1 emotion1 unless ( "s consci\s be+ t feels1 ?9ks1 desires1 exp]i5ces ! emotion8 ,no2 & !re=e s9ce su* accid5tal modes ( be+ really exi/1 !re exi/s also ! sub/antial mode ( be+ 9 :i* !y inh]e4 ,& ! exp]i5c$ realities :i* v]ify ?is notion ( 8sub/ance0 z ! 8mode ( be+ :i* exi/s 9 itself10 are manife/ly n "o b manifold4 ,individual 8p]sons0 & 8?+s0--m51 animals1 plants--are all s _m really & num]ically di/9ct sub/ances 7#ch74 ,s1 too1 are ! ultimate individual elem5ts 9 ! inorganic univ]se1 :atev] ^! may be 7#ca74 ,nor does ! univ]sal int]action ( ^! individuals on "o ano!r1 or _! manifold =ms ( int]dep5d5ce on "o ano!r ?r\gh\t ! c\rse ( _! ev]-*ang+ exi/5ce & activities1 int]f]e 9 any way ) ! sub/antiality ( ! mode ( be+ ( ea*4 ,^! mutual relations ( all sorts1 v real & actual z !y und\bt$ly are1 only con/itute ! univ]se a cosmos1 ?us end[+ x ) unity ( ord]1 b n ) unity ( sub/ance 7#bg74 ,let u n[ meet ! objection ( ,hume3 t !re is no sub/antial s\l di/9ct f its acts1 t x is only ! sum-total ( ! acts1 ea* ( ^! be+ a sub/ance4 ,! objection has be5 repeat$ 9 ! metaphorical language 9 :i* ,huxley & ,ta9e speak ( ! s\l1 ! liv+ s\l1 z no?+ m ?an a republic ( consci\s /ates1 or ! movem5t ( a lum9\s %eaf etc4 ,& ,locke & ,b]keley _h already cont5d$ t an apple or an orange is no?+ m ?an a collection or sum-total ( s5sible qualities1 s t if we conceive ^! remov$ !re is no?+ left1 = beyond ^! !re 0 no?+ !re4 ,n[ we admit t ! sub/ance ( ! s\l is n adequately di/9ct f its acts1 or ! sub/ance ( ! apple or orange f its qualities4 ,z a matt] ( fact we nev] exp]i5ce sub/ance ap>t f accid5ts or accid5ts ap>t f sub/ance27#bcg7 we d n "k :e!r !re exi/s1 or ev5 :e!r !re c exi/1 a creat$ sub/ance devoid ( all accid5ts2 nor c we "k1 f ! light ( reason alone1 :e!r any accid5ts c\ld exi/ ap>t f sub/ance47#bch7 ,we h1 !re=e1 no gr\nd 9 natural exp]i5ce = demon/rat+ su* an adequate real di/9ction 7#ch7 betwe5 sub/ance & accid5ts z w\ld involve ! sep>ability ( ! latt] f ! =m]4 ,b t ! acts ( ! s\l are s _m really di/9ct entities1 ea* 8exi/+ 9 itself10 ea* !re=e a sub/ance1 s t ! t]m 8s\l0 is m]ely a title we give to _! sum-total2 & simil>ly ! t]ms 8apple0 & 8orange0 m]ely titles ( collections ( qualities ea* ( :i* w\ld be an entity exi/+ 9 itself & really di/9ct f ! o!rs1 ea* 9 o!r words a sub/ance1--?is we entirely d5y4 ,we reg>d x z utt]ly unreasonable ( ph5om5i/s ?us to multiply sub/ances4 ,our cont5tion is t ! individual s\l or m9d is "o sub/ance1 & t x is p>tially & really1 ?\gh n adequately1 di/9ct f ! v>i\s consci\s acts1 /ates1 processes1 functions1 :i* are c]ta9ly !mselves real entities1--entities1 h[ev]1 ! reality ( :i* is dep5d5t on t ( ! s\l1 entities :i* ?is dep5d5t or 8inh]+0 mode ( be+ m>ks (f z di/9ct 9 _! nature1 & incapable ( total id5tification ) t o!r non-inh]+ or subsi/+ mode ( be+ :i* *>act]izes ! sub/ance ( ! s\l4 ,we _c help ?9k+ t ?is ph5om5i/ d5ial ( sub/ance1 ) its consequ5t inevitable sub/antialization ( accid5ts1 is l>gely due to a mi/ak5 mann] ( reg>d+ ! concrete exi/+ object z a m]e me*anical bundle ( di/9ct & indep5d5t ab/ractions4 ,e aspect ( x is m5tally isolat$ f ! o!rs & held ap>t z an 8impression10 an 8idea10 etc4 ,!n ! object is suppos$ to be con/itut$ by1 & to consi/ (1 a sum-total ( ^! sep>ate 8elem5ts10 integrat$ toge!r by "s sort ( m5tal *emi/ry4 ,! attempt is next made to acc\nt = our total consci\s exp]i5ce ( reality by a numb] ( pr9ciples or laws ( :at is kn[n z 8association ( ideas04 ,& ph5om5i/s disc\rse le>n$ly ab\t ^! laws 9 app>5t oblivion ( ! fact t by d5y+ ! reality ( any sub/antial1 abid+1 self-id5tical s\l1 di/9ct f ! transi5t consci\s /ates ( ! pass+ mom5t1 !y h left out ( acc\nt ! only reality capable ( 8associat+0 any m5tal /ates1 or mak+ m5tal life at all intelligible4 ,once ! s\l is reg>d$ m]ely z 8a s]ies ( consci\s /ates10 or a 8/ream ( consci\sness10 or a succession ( 8pulses ( cognitive consci\sness10 su* elem5t>y facts z memory1 unity ( consci\sness1 ! feel+ ( p]sonal id5tity & p]sonal responsibility1 become absolutely inexplicable47#bci7 ,exp]i5ce1 !re=e1 does reveal to u ! real exi/5ce ( sub/ances1 ( 8?+s t exi/ 9 !mselves10 & likewise ! reality ( o!r modes ( be+ :i* h _! actuality only by inh]+ 9 ! sub/ances :i* !y affect4 8,a sub/ance10 says ,/4 ,?omas1 8is a ?+ ^: nature x is to exi/ n 9 ano!r1 :]eas an accid5t is a ?+ ^: nature x is to exi/ 9 ano!r407#bdj7 ,e concrete be+ t falls )9 our exp]i5ce--a man1 an oak1 an apple--furni%es u ) ! data ( ^! two concepts3 ! be+ exi/+ 9 itself1 ! sub/ance2 & secondly1 its accid5ts4 ,! =m] concept comprises only con/itutive pr9ciples :i* we see to be ess5tial to t sort ( be+3 ! mat]ial1 ! vegetative1 ! s5ti5t1 ! rational pr9ciple1 9 a man1 or 8 s\l & 8 body2 ! mat]ial pr9ciple & ! =mal or vital pr9ciple 9 an apple4 ,! latt] concept1 t ( accid5ts1 comprises only ^? *>act]i/ics ( ! ?+ :i* are no d\bt real1 b :i* d n con/itute ! ess5ce ( ! be+1 :i* c *ange or be abs5t )\t involv+ ! de/ruction ( t ess5ce4 ,an intellectual analysis ( our exp]i5ce enables u--&1 z we h rem>k$ above1 x alone enables u--to di/+ui% betwe5 ^! two classes ( objective concepts1 ! concept ( ! pr9ciples t are ess5tial to ! sub/ance or be+ t exi/s 9 itself1 & ! concept ( ! attributes t are accid5tal to ?is be+2 & exp]i5ce alone enables u1 by /udy+ ! latt] gr\p1 ! accid5ts ( ! be+1 :e!r naturally sep>able or naturally insep>able f ! latt]1 to inf] f ^? accid5ts :atev] we c "k ab\t ! =m] gr\p1 ab\t ! pr9ciples t con/itute ! specific nature ( ! p>ticul> k9d ( sub/ance t may be "u inve/igation4 ,x may1 p]haps1 be urg$ aga9/ all ?is1 t exp]i5ce does n w>rant our plac+ a real di/9ction betwe5 ! entities we describe z 8accid5ts0 & ^? :i* we claim to be con/itutive ( ! 8sub/ance10 or 8?+ :i* exi/s 9 itself02 t all ! entities )\t exception1 :i* we appreh5d by di/9ct concepts 9 any concrete exi/+ be+ su* z a man1 an oak1 or an apple1 are only "o & ! same individual reality look$ at "u diff]5t aspects2 t ! di/9ction betwe5 !m is only a logical or m5tal di/9ction2 t we sep>ate 9 ?\ght :at is "o 9 reality because we reg>d ea* aspect 9 ! ab/ract & ap>t f ! o!rs2 t to suppose 9 any su* concrete be+ ! exi/5ce ( two di/9ct modes ( reality--viz4 a reality t exi/s 9 itself1 & o!r realities inh]+ 9 ?is latt]--is simply to make ! mi/ake ( transf]r+ to ! real ord] ( concrete ?+s :at we f9d 9 ! logical ord] ( conceptual ab/ractions4 ,?is objection1 :i* calls = s]i\s consid]ation1 leads to a diff]5t conclusion f ! previ\s objection4 ,x sugge/s ! conclusion1 n t sub/ances are unreal1 b t accid5ts are unreal4 ,ev5 if x 7 valid x w\ld leave unt\*$ ! exi/5ce ( sub/ances4 ,we hope to meet x satisfactorily by e/abli%+ pres5tly ! exi/5ce ( accid5ts really di/9ct f ! sub/ances 9 :i* !y inh]e4 ,:ile ! objection draws att5tion to ! important tru? t di/9ctions recogniz$ 9 ! conceptual ord] are n always real1 x c]ta9ly does n prove t all accid5ts are only m5tally di/9ct aspects ( sub/ance4 ,= surely a man's ?\ghts1 volitions1 feel+s1 emotions1 8 consci\s /ates g5]ally1 *ang+ z !y d f mom5t to mom5t1 are n really id5tical ) ! man himself :o cont9ues to exi/ ?r\gh\t ?is incessant *ange2 yet !y are realities1 appe>+ & disappe>+ & hav+ all _! actuality 9 him1 :ile he p]si/s z an actual be+ 8exi/+ 9 himself04 #fd4 ,,errone\s ,,views ,,on ,,! ,,nature ,,( ,,sub/ance4--,if we fail to rememb] t ! notion ( sub/ance1 z 8a be+ exi/+ 9 itself & support+ ! accid5ts :i* affect x10 is a mo/ ab/ract & g5]ic notion2 if we transf] x 9 ?is ab/ract condition to ! real ord]2 if we imag9e t ! concrete individual sub/ances :i* actually exi/ 9 ! real ord] m]ely v]ify ?is wide/ notion & are devoid ( all fur!r cont5t2 t !y possess 9 !mselves no fur!r ri*ness ( reality2 if we =get t actual sub/ances1 9 all ! v>iety ( _! natures1 z mat]ial1 or liv+1 or s5ti5t1 or rational & spiritual1 are inde$ full1 vibrant1 palpitat+ ) manifold & div]sifi$ reality2 if we rob !m ( all ?is p]fection or locate x 9 _! accid5ts z consid]$ ap>t f !mselves1--we are likely to =m v errone\s notions bo? ( sub/ances & ( accid5ts1 & ( _! real relations to "o ano!r4 ,x w help u to =m accurate concepts ( !m1 concepts really w>rant$ by exp]i5ce1 if we exam9e briefly "s ( ! m rem>kable misconceptions ( sub/ance t h at "o "t or o!r ga9$ curr5cy4 7a7 ,sub/ance is n a concrete core on :i* concrete accid5ts are sup]impos$1 or a sort ( k]nel ( :i* !y =m ! r9d4 ,su* a way ( conceiv+ !m is z mislead+ z x is crude & mat]ial4 ,no d\bt ! language :i*1 = want ( bett]1 we h to employ 9 reg>d to sub/ance & accid5ts1 sugge/s fancies ( t k9d3 we speak ( sub/ance 8support+10 8su/a9+0 accid5ts1 & ( ^! z 8support$ by10 & 8inh]+ 90 ! =m]4 ,b ?is does n really signify any juxtaposition or sup]position ( concrete entities4 ,! sub/ance is a subject det]m9able by its v>i\s accid5ts2 ^! are actualizations ( its pot5tiality2 its relation to !m is ! relation ( ! pot5tial to ! actual1 ( a 8mat]ial0 or 8det]m9able0 subject to 8=mal0 or 8det]m9+0 pr9ciples4 ,b ! appe>ance or disappe>ance ( accid5ts nev] takes place 9 ! same concrete subject3 by _! v>iations ! concrete subject is *ang$3 at any in/ant ! sub/ance affect$ by its accid5ts is "o individual concrete be+ 7#bg71 & ! inevitable result ( any modification 9 !m is t ?is individual1 concrete be+ is *ang$1 is no long] ! same4 ,no d\bt1 x pres]ves its sub/antial id5tity ?r\gh\t accid5tal *ange1 b n its concrete id5tity1--t is to say1 n :olly4 ,?is is ! *>act]i/ic ( e f9ite be+1 subject to *ange & exi/+ 9 "t3 x has ! actuality ( its be+1 n tota simul1 b only gradually1 successively 7#aj74 ,f ?is1 too1 we see t al?\gh sub/ance is a m p]fect mode ( be+ ?an accid5t--because ! =m] exi/s 9 itself :ile ! latt] has its actuality only 9 some?+ else1--nev]!less1 creat$1 f9ite sub/ance is a mode ( be+ :i* is itself imp]fect1 & p]fectible by accid5ts3 ano!r illu/ration ( ! tru? t all creat$ p]fection is only relative1 n absolute4 ,to ! notion ( 8inh]5ce0 we %all return 9 connexion ) our treatm5t ( accid5ts 7#fe74 7b7 ,aga91 sub/ance is wrongly conceiv$ z an in]t sub/ratum und]ly+ accid5ts4 ,?is false notion appe>s to h orig9at$ ) ,desc>tes3 he conceiv$ ! two great classes ( creat$ sub/ances1 matt] & _s1 z ess5tially in]t4 ,= him1 matt] is simply a res ext5sa2 ext5sion 9 ?ree dim5sions con/itutes its ess5ce1 & ext5sion is ( c\rse in]t3 all motion is giv5 to matt] & cons]v$ 9 x by ,god4 ,_s or s\l is simply a res cogitans1 a be+ ^: ess5ce is ?\ght2 b 9 ?9k+ _s too is passive1 = x simply receives ideas z wax does ! impress ( a seal4 ,nay1 ev5 :5 s\l or _s wills x is really in]t or passive1 = ,god puts all its volitions into x47#bda7 ,f ^! errone\s conceptions ! e>li] disciples ( ,desc>tes took ! obvi\s /ep =w>d into ,occasionalism2 & to !m likewise may be trac$ ! conviction ( _m contempor>y philosoph]s t ! human s\l--a be+ t is s em95tly vital & active--_c possibly be a sub/ance3 nei!r inde$ c\ld x be1 if sub/ance 7 any?+ l :at ,desc>tes conceiv$ x to be4 ,! ,g]man philosoph]s1 ,wundt & ,pauls51 = example1 argue t ! s\l _c be a sub/ance4 ,b :5 we inquire :at !y mean by sub/ance1 :at d we f9d8 ,t ) !m ! concept ( sub/ance applies only to ! corporeal univ]se1 :]e x prop]ly signifies ! atoms :i* are 8! absolutely p]man5t sub/ratum1 qualitatively & quantitatively un*angeable1 ( all corporeal reality047#bdb7 ,no wond] !y w\ld argue t ! s\l is n a sub/ance6 ,no actually exi/+ sub/ance is in]t4 ,:at is true1 h[ev]1 is ?is1 t :5 we conceive a be+ z a sub/ance1 :5 we ?9k ( x "u ! ab/ract concept ( sub/ance1 we ( c\rse ab/ract f its concrete exi/5ce z an active ag5t2 9 o!r words we consid] x n f ! dynamic1 b f ! /atic aspect1 n z x is 9 ! concrete1 b z con/itut+ an object ( ab/ract ?\ght3 & s ! error ( ,desc>tes seems to h be5 t already ref]r$ to1--! mi/ake ( transf]r+ to ! real ord] conditions t obta9 only 9 ! logical ord]4 7c7 ,to ! ,c>tesian conception ( sub/ances z in]t entities end[$ only ) motions communicat$ to !m ab extra1 ! me*anical or atomi/ conception ( reality1 z x is call$1 ,leibniz oppos$ ! o!r extreme conception ( sub/ances z ess5tially active entities4 ,= him sub/ance is an ens prditum vi ag5di3 activity is ! fundam5tal note 9 ! concept ( sub/ance4 ,^! ess5tially active entities he conceiv$ z be+ all simple & unext5d$1 ! corporeal no less ?an ! spiritual ones4 ,& he gave !m ! title ( monads4 ,x is unnecess>y = our pres5t purpose to g into any details ( 8 +5i\s dynamic !ory ( ! univ]se z a va/ sy/em ( ^! monads4 ,we ne$ only rem>k t :ile combat+ ! !ory ( in]t sub/ances he himself err$ 9 ! opposite extreme4 ,he conceiv$ e monad z end[$ ess5tially ) active t5d5cy or ef=t :i* is nev] )\t its effect1--an exclusively imman5t effect1 h[ev]1 :i* is ! con/ant result ( con/ant imman5t action3 = he d5i$ ! possibility ( transitive activity1 actio transi5s2 & he conceiv$ ! imman5t activity ( ! monad z be+ 9 its nature p]ceptive17#bdc7 t is to say1 cognitive or repres5tative1 9 ! s5se t ea* monad1 ?\gh 8wrapt up 9 itself1 doorless & w9d[less10 if we may s describe x1 nev]!less mirrors m or less in*oatively1 vaguely1 or cle>ly1 all o!r monads1 & is ?us itself a m9iature ( ! :ole univ]se1 a microcosm ( ! macrocosm4 ,ap>t f ! fancifulness ( 8 :ole sy/em1 a fancifulness :i* is1 h[ev]1 p]haps m app>5t ?an real1 8 conception ( sub/ance is mu* less objectionable ?an t ( ,desc>tes4 ,= z a matt] ( fact e individual1 actually exi/+ sub/ance is end[$ ) an int]nal directive t5d5cy t[>ds "s t]m to be realiz$ or atta9$ by its activities4 ,e sub/ance has a transc5d5tal relation to ! op]ations :i* are natural to x1 & :]eby x t5ds to realize ! purpose ( its be+4 ,b nev]!less sub/ance %\ld n be def9$ by action1 = all action ( creat$ sub/ances is an accid5t1 n a sub/ance2 nor ev5 by its transc5d5tal relation to action1 = :5 we conceive x "u ?is aspect we conceive x z an ag5t or cause1 n z a sub/ance simply4 ,! latt] concept ab/racts f action & reveals its object simply z 8a reality exi/+ 9 itself04 ,:5 we ?9k ( a sub/ance z a pr9ciple ( action we describe x by ! t]m nature4 7d7 ,a v widespread notion ( sub/ance is ! conception ( x z a 8p]man5t10 8/able10 8p]si/+0 subject ( 8transi5t10 8ephem]al0 realities call$ accid5ts or ph5om5a4 ,?is view ( sub/ance is ma9ly due to ! influ5ce ( ,kant's philosophy4 ,accord+ to 8 tea*+ we c ?9k ! succession ( ph5om5a :i* appe> to our s5se consci\sness only by ! aid ( a pure intuition 9 :i* our s5sibility appreh5ds !m1 viz4 "t4 ,n[ ! application ( ! category ( sub/ance to ?is pure intuition ( our s5sibility eng5d]s a s*ema ( ! imag9ation1 viz4 ! p]si/5ce ( ! object 9 "t4 ,p]si/5ce1 !re=e1 is = him ! ess5tial note ( sub/ance4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 too1 has giv5 apt expression to ?is widely preval5t notion3 8,exi/5ce means no?+ m ?an p]si/5ce2 & h5ce 9 ,m9d t :i* p]si/s 9 spite ( all *anges1 & ma9ta9s ! unity ( ! aggregate 9 defiance ( all attempts to divide x1 is t ( :i* exi/5ce 9 ! full s5se ( ! ^w mu/ be pr$icat$--t :i* we mu/ po/ulate z ! sub/ance ( ,m9d 9 contradi/9ction to ! v>y+ =ms x assumes4 ,b if s1 ! impossibility ( kn[+ ! sub/ance ( ,m9d is manife/407#bdd7 ,?us1 sub/ance is conceiv$ z ! unique b hidd5 & unkn[able basis ( all ! ph5om5a :i* con/itute ! totality ( human exp]i5ce4 ,:at is to be said ( su* a conception8 ,!re is j ?is mu* tru? 9 x3 t sub/ance is relatively /able or p]man5t1 i4e4 9 comp>ison ) accid5ts2 ! latt] _c survive ! de/ruction or disappe>ance ( ! sub/ance 9 :i* !y inh]e1 :ile a sub/ance c p]si/ ?r\gh incessant *ange ( its accid5ts4 ,b accid5ts are n absolutely ephem]al1 nor is sub/ance absolutely p]man5t3 7 an accid5t to exi/ = ev] x w\ld n cease to be an accid5t1 nor w\ld a sub/ance be any less a sub/ance 7 x creat$ & !n in/antane\sly annihilat$4 ,b 9 ! latt] case ! human m9d c\ld n appreh5d ! sub/ance2 = s9ce all human cognitive exp]i5ce takes place 9 "t1 :i* involves duration1 ! m9d c appreh5d a sub/ance only on condition t ! latt] has "s p]man5ce1 "s appreciable duration 9 exi/5ce4 ,?is fact1 too1 expla9s 9 "s measure ! error ( conceiv+ p]man5ce z ess5tial to a sub/ance4 ,b ! error has ano!r s\rce also3 ,"u ! influ5ce ( subjective idealism philosoph]s h come to reg>d ! individual's consci\sness ( 8 own self1 ! consci\sness ( ! ,ego1 z ! sole & unique s\rce ( our concept ( sub/ance4 ,! passage we h j quot$ f ,sp5c] is an illu/ration4 ,& s9ce ! spiritual pr9ciple ( our consci\s acts is a p]man5t pr9ciple :i* abides ?r\gh\t all ( !m1 ?us expla9+ ! unity ( ! individual human consci\sness1 ^? :o conceive sub/ance 9 g5]al aft] ! model ( ! ,ego1 naturally conceive x z an ess5tially /able subject ( incessant & evanesc5t processes4 ,b x is q arbitr>y ?us to conceive ! ,ego z ! sole type ( sub/ance4 ,bodies are sub/ances z well z spirits1 matt] z well z m9d4 ,& ! p]man5ce ( corporeal sub/ances is m]ely relative4 ,nev]!less !y are really sub/ances4 ,! relative /ability ( _s :i* is immortal1 & ! relative in/ability ( matt] :i* is corruptible1 h no?+ to d ) ! sub/antiality ( ei!r4 ,bo? alike are sub/ances1 = bo? alike h t mode ( be+ :i* consi/s 9 _! exi/+ 9 !mselves1 & n by inh]+ 9 o!r ?+s z accid5ts d4 7e7 ,sp5c]'s conception ( sub/ance z ! p]man5t1 unkn[able gr\nd ( ph5om5a1 implies t sub/ance is "o1 n manifold1 & ?us sugge/s ! view ( reality kn[n z ,monism4 ,!re is yet ano!r mi/ak5 notion ( sub/ance1 ! notion 9 :i* ! well kn[n pan!i/ic philosophy ( ,sp9oza has _h its orig94 ,sp9oza appe>s to h giv5 ! ambigu\s def9ition ( ,desc>tes--8,sub/antia e/ res quae ita exi/it1 ut nulla alia re indigeat ad exi/5dum0--an int]pretation :i* n>r[$ its application d[n to ! ,necess>y ,be+2 = he def9$ sub/ance 9 ! foll[+ t]ms3 8,p] sub/antiam intelligo id quod e/ 9 se et p] se concipitur3 hoc e/1 id cujus conceptus non indiget conceptu alt]ius rei a quo =m>i debeat04 ,by ! ambigu\s phrase1 t sub/ance 8requires no o!r ?+ = exi/+10 ,desc>tes c]ta9ly meant to convey :at has always be5 und]/ood by ! s*ola/ic expression t sub/ance 8exi/s 9 itself04 ,he c]ta9ly did n mean t sub/ance is a reality :i* 8exi/s ( itself10 i4e4 t x is :at s*ola/ics mean by ,ens a se1 ! ,be+ t has its actuality f its own ess5ce1 by virtue ( its v nature1 & 9 absolute indep5d5ce ( all o!r be+2 = su* ,be+ is ,"o alone1 ! ,necess>y ,be+1 ,god ,himself1 :]eas ,desc>tes cle>ly held & taught ! real exi/5ce ( f9ite1 creat$ sub/ances47#bde7 ,yet ,sp9oza's def9ition ( sub/ance is applicable only to su* a be+ t our concept ( ?is be+ %[s =? ! actual exi/5ce ( ! latt] z absolutely expla9$ & acc\nt$ = by ref]5ce to ! ess5ce ( ?is be+ itself1 & indep5d5tly ( any ref]5ce to o!r be+4 ,9 o!r words1 x applies only to ! ,necess>y ,be+4 ,?is conception ( sub/ance is ! />t+-po9t ( ,sp9oza's pan!i/ic philosophy4 ,n[1 ! s*ola/ic def9ition ( sub/ance & ,sp9oza's def9ition embody two entirely di/9ct notions4 ,sp9oza's def9ition conveys :at s*ola/ics mean by ! ,self-,exi/5t ,be+1 ,ens a se2 & ?is ! s*ola/ics di/+ui% f caus$ or creat$ be+1 ens ab alio4 ,bo? phrases ref] =mally & prim>ily1 n to ! mode ( a be+'s exi/5ce :5 x does exi/1 b to ! orig9 ( ?is exi/5ce 9 relation to ! be+'s ess5ce2 & specifically x m>ks ! di/9ction betwe5 ! ,ess5ce t is self-expla9+1 self-exi/5t1 ess5tially actual 78a se071 ! ,necess>y ,be+1 & ess5ces t d n !mselves expla9 or acc\nt = _! own actual exi/5ce1 ess5ces t h n _! actual exi/5ce f !mselves or ( !mselves1 ess5ces t are 9 reg>d to _! actual exi/5ce cont+5t or dep5d5t1 ess5ces :i*1 !re=e1 if !y actually exi/1 c d s only dep5d5tly on "s o!r be+ :5ce !y h d]iv$ ?is exi/5ce 78ab alio07 & on :i* !y ess5tially dep5d = its cont9uance4 ,n ! lea/ evil ( ,sp9oza's def9ition is ! confusion caus$ by gratuit\sly wre/+ an important philosophical t]m l sub/ance f its traditional s5se & us+ x ) q a diff]5t mean+2 & ! same is true 9 its measure ( ! o!r mi/ak5 notions ( sub/ance :i* we h be5 exam9+4 ,by def9+ sub/ance z an ens 9 se1 or p] se /ans1 s*ola/ic philosoph]s mean simply t sub/ance does n dep5d intr9sically on any subjective or mat]ial cause 9 :i* its actuality w\ld be support$2 !y d n mean to imply t x does n dep5d extr9sically on an effici5t cause f :i* x has its actuality & by :i* x is cons]v$ 9 be+4 ,!y ass]t t all creat$ sub/ances1 no less ?an all accid5ts1 h _! be+ 8ab alio0 f ,god2 t !y exi/ only by ! ,div9e creation & cons]vation1 & act only by ! ,div9e concursus or concurr5ce2 b :ile sub/ances & accid5ts are bo? alike dep5d5t on ?is extr9sic cons]v+ & concurr+ influ5ce ( a ,div9e1 ,transc5d5t ,be+1 sub/ances are exempt f ?is o!r & di/9ct mode ( dep5d5ce :i* *>act]izes accid5ts3 intr9sic dep5d5ce on a subject 9 :i* !y h _! actuality47#bdf7 ,:5 we say t sub/ance exi/s 89 itself10 obvi\sly we d n atta* to ! preposition 890 any local signification1 z a "p exi/+ 890 ! :ole4 ,nor d we mean t !y exi/ 890 !mselves 9 ! same s5se z !y h _! be+ 890 ,god4 ,9 a c]ta9 true s5se all creatures exi/ 890 ,god3 ,9 ipso enim vivimus1 et movemur1 et sumus 7,acts xxii41 #bh71 9 ! s5se t !y are kept 9 be+ by ,8 omnipres5t cons]v+ p[]4 ,b ,he does n su/a9 !m z a subject 9 :i* !y inh]e1 z sub/ance su/a9s ! accid5ts :i* det]m9e x1 !reby giv+ expression to its concrete actuality47#bdg7 ,by say+ t sub/ance exi/s 89 itself0 we mean to exclude ! notion ( its exi/+ 89 ano!r0 ?+1 z an accid5t does4 ,& ?is we %all und]/& bett] by exam9+ a little m closely ?is peculi> mode ( be+ :i* *>act]izes accid5ts4 #fe4 ,,! ,,nature ,,( ,,accid5t4 ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,sub/ance4 ,,its ,,causes4--,f all t has prec$$ we w h ga!r$ ! g5]al notion ( accid5t z t mode ( real be+ :i* is f\nd to h its reality1 n by exi/+ 9 itself1 b by affect+1 det]m9+1 "s sub/ance 9 :i* x inh]es z 9 a subject4 ,:at d we mean by say+ t accid5ts inh]e 9 sub/ances z _! subjects8 ,"h we mu/ at once lay aside z errone\s ! crude conception ( some?+ z locat$ spatially )9 some?+ else1 z conta9$ 9 conta9]1 z e4g4 wat] 9 a vessel2 & ! equally crude conception ( some?+ be+ 9 some?+ else z a "p is 9 ! :ole1 z e4g4 an arm is 9 ! body4 ,su* imag9ations are :olly mislead+4 ,! actually exi/+ sub/ance has its be+ or reality2 x is an actual ess5ce4 ,ea* real accid5t ( x is likewise a reality1 & has an ess5ce1 di/9ct f t ( ! sub/ance1 yet n :olly indep5d5t ( ! latt]3 x is a det]m9ation ( ! det]m9able be+ ( ! sub/ance1 affect+ or modify+ ! latt] 9 "s way or o!r1 & hav+ no o!r raison d'tre ?an ?is rle ( actualiz+ 9 "s specific way "s receptive pot5tiality ( ! concrete sub/ance4 ,& s9ce its reality is ?us dep5d5t on t ( ! sub/ance :i* x affects1 we _c ascribe to x actual ess5ce or be+ 9 ! same s5se z we ascribe ?is to sub/ance1 b only analogically7#bdh7 7#b74 ,h5ce s*ola/ics commonly tea* t we ought to conceive an accid5t r z an 8entity ( an entity10 8ens entis10 ?an z an entity simply2 r z inh]+1 indwell+1 affect+ 79-esse7 "s subject1 ?an simply z exi/+ itself 7esse72 z some?+ ^: ess5ce is r ! det]m9ation1 affection1 modification ( an ess5ce ?an itself an ess5ce prop]1 ! t]m 8ess5ce0 designat+ prop]ly only a sub/ance3 accid5tis esse e/ inesse47#bdi7 ,?is conception might1 no d\bt1 if press$ too f>1 be inapplicable to absolute accid5ts1 l quantity1 :i* are some?+ m ?an m]e modifications ( sub/ance2 b x rightly emphasizes ! dep5d5ce ( ! reality ( accid5t on t ( sub/ance1 ! non-sub/antial & 8dim9i%$0 "* ( ! 8accid5t0-mode ( be+2 x also helps to %[ t ! 8inh]5ce0 ( accid5t 9 sub/ance is a relation--( det]m9+ to det]m9able be+--:i* is sui g5]is2 & f9ally x puts u on our gu>d aga9/ ! errors t may be1 & h be51 committ$ by conceiv+ accid5ts 9 ! ab/ract & reason+ ab\t !m ap>t f _! sub/ances1 z if !y !mselves 7 sub/ances4 ,?is 8inh]5ce0 ( accid5t 9 sub/ance1 ?is mode ( be+ :]eby x affects1 det]m9es or modifies ! sub/ance1 diff]s f accid5t to accid5t2 ^!1 9 fact1 are classifi$ into suprema g5]a by reason ( _! diff]5t ways ( affect+ sub/ance 7#fj74 ,to ?is we %all return lat]4 ,"h we may inquire1 ab\t ?is g5]al relation ( accid5t to sub/ance1 :e!r x is ess5tial to an accid5t actually to inh]e 9 a sub/ance1 if n imm$iately1 !n at lea/ ?r\gh ! m$ium ( "s o!r accid5t4 ,we sugge/ ?is latt] alt]native because z we %all see pres5tly !re are "s accid5ts1 su* z col\r1 ta/e1 %ape1 :i* imm$iately affect ! ext5sion ( a body1 & only ?r\gh ?is ! sub/ance ( ! body itself4 ,n[ ! ord9>y c\rse ( nature nev] pres5ts u ) accid5ts except z inh]+1 m$iately or imm$iately1 9 a sub/ance4 ,nor is x probable t ! natural light ( our reason w\ld ev] sugge/ to u ! possibility ( an exception to ?is g5]al law4 ,b ! ,*ri/ian philosoph] kn[s1 f ,div9e ,revelation1 t 9 ! ,bless$ ,eu*>i/ ! quantity or ext5sion ( bread & w9e1 toge!r ) ! ta/e1 col\r1 =m1 etc41 :i* affect ?is ext5sion1 rema9 9 exi/5ce aft] _! connatural sub/ance ( bread & w9e has disappe>$ by transub/antiation4 ,9 ! sup]natural ord] ( ,8 provid5ce ,god pres]ves ^! accid5ts 9 exi/5ce )\t a subject2 b 9 ?is /ate1 ?\gh !y d n actually inh]e 9 any sub/ance1 !y reta9 _! natural aptitude & exig5ce = su* inh]5ce4 ,! ,*ri/ian philosoph]1 !re=e1 w n def9e accid5t z 8! mode ( be+ :i* inh]es 9 a subject10 b z 8! mode ( be+ :i* 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( nature inh]es 9 a subject10 or z 8! mode ( be+ :i* has a natural exig5ce to inh]e 9 a subject04 ,x is n actual inh]5ce1 b ! natural exig5ce to inh]e1 t is ess5tial to an accid5t z su*47#bej7 ,fur!rmore1 an accid5t ne$s a sub/ance n =mally qua sub/ance1 or z a mode ( be+ naturally exi/+ 9 itself2 x ne$s a sub/ance z a subject 9 :i* to inh]e1 :i* x w 9 "s way affect1 det]m9e1 qualify2 b ! subject 9 :i* x imm$iately inh]es ne$ n always be a sub/ance3 x may be "s o!r accid5t1 9 :i* case bo? ( c\rse w naturally require "s sub/ance z _! ultimate basis4 ,comp>+ n[ ! concept ( accid5t ) t ( sub/ance1 we f9d t ! latt] is presuppos$ by ! =m]2 t ! latt] is prior 9 ?\ght to ! =m]2 t we conceive accid5t z some?+ ov] & above1 some?+ sup]add$ to sub/ance z subject4 ,= in/ance1 we c def9e matt] & =m )\t ! prior concept ( body1 or animality & rationality )\t ! prior concept ( man2 b we _c def9e col\r )\t ! prior concept ( body1 or ! faculty ( spee* )\t ! prior concept ( man47#bea7 ,sub/ance1 !re=e1 is prior 9 ?\ght to accid5t2 b is ! sub/ance itself also prior temporally 7prior tempore7 to its accid5ts8 ,x is prior 9 "t to "s ( !m1 no d\bt2 ! individual human be+ is ?us prior1 = in/ance1 to ! k he may acquire dur+ life4 ,b !re is no reason = say+ t a sub/ance mu/ be prior 9 "t to all its accid5ts27#beb7 s f> z we c discov]1 no creat$ sub/ance comes into exi/5ce devoid ( all accid5ts3 corporeal sub/ance devoid ( int]nal quantity1 or spiritual sub/ance devoid ( intellect & w4 ,if prior 9 ?\ght1 ?\gh n necess>ily 9 "t1 to its accid5ts1 is a sub/ance prior to its accid5ts really1 ontologically 7prior natura78 ,yes2 x is ! real or ontological pr9ciple ( its accid5ts2 x su/a9s !m1 & !y dep5d on x4 ,x is a passive or mat]ial cause 7us+ ! t]m 8mat]ial0 9 ! wide s5se1 z applicable ev5 to spiritual sub/ances71 or a receptive subject1 det]m9$ 9 "s way by !m z =mal pr9ciples4 ,x is at ! same "t an effici5t & passive cause ( "s ( its own accid5ts3 ! s\l is an effici5t cause ( its own imman5t processes ( ?\ght & volition1 & at ! same "t a passive pr9ciple ( !m1 und]go+ real *ange by _! occurr5ce4 ,( o!rs x is m]ely a receptive1 det]m9able subject1 ( ^?1 namely1 :i* h an adequate & necess>y f\ndation 9 its own ess5ce1 & :i* are call$ prop]ties 9 ! /rict s5se3 )\t ^! x _c exi/1 ?\gh !y d n con/itute its ess5ce1 or ent] into ! concept ( ! latt]2 b x is n prior to !m 9 "t1 nor is x ! effici5t cause ( !m2 x is1 h[ev]1 a real pr9ciple ( !m1 an ess5ce f ! reality ( :i* !y necess>ily result1 & on :i* _! own reality dep5ds4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 is ! faculty ( ?\ght1 or volition1 or spee* 9 reg>d to man4 ,! accid5t-mode ( be+ is1 !re=e1 a mode ( be+ :i* det]m9es a sub/ance 9 "s real way4 ,its =mal effect is to give ! sub/ance "s real & def9ite det]m9ation3 n esse simplicit] b esse tale4 ,) ! sub/ance x con/itutes a concrete real be+ :i* is unum p] accid5s1 n unum p] se4 ,! accid5t has no =mal cause3 x is itself a 8=m0 & its causality is t ( a =mal cause1 :i* consi/s 9 its communicat+ itself to a subject1 &1 by its union !re)1 con/itut+ "s new reality--9 ?is case a concrete be+ end[$ ) 8accid5tal0 unity4 ,accid5ts h ( c\rse1 a mat]ial cause2 n1 h[ev]1 9 ! s5se ( a mat]ia ex qua1 a mat]ial f :i* !y are con/itut$1 inasmu* z !y are simple 8=ms02 b 9 ! s5se ( a subject 9 :i* !y are receiv$ & 9 :i* !y inh]e2 & ?is 8mat]ial cause0 is1 proximately or remotely1 sub/ance4 ,sub/ance also is ! f9al cause1 ! raison d'tre1 ( ! reality ( ! accid5tal mode ( be+4 ,accid5ts exi/ = ! p]fect+ ( sub/ances3 accid5tia sunt propt] sub/antiam4 ,z we h se5 already1 & z w appe> m cle>ly lat] on1 ! fundam5tal reason = ! reality ( an accid5tal mode ( be+1 really di/9ct f ! creat$ or f9ite sub/ance 7= ! ,inf9ite ,sub/ance has no accid5ts71 is t ! creat$ sub/ance is imp]fect1 limit$ 9 its actual p]fection1 does n exi/ tota simul1 b develops1 ?r\gh a process ( *ange 9 "t1 f its fir/ or ess5tial p]fection1 ?r\gh int]m$iate p]fections1 till x rea*es ! f9al p]fection 7#df7 ( its be+4 ,h all accid5ts effici5t causes8 ,^? :i* are call$ common accid5ts z di/9ct f prop] accid5ts or prop]ties 7#ff7 h und\bt$ly effici5t causes3 ! v>i\s ag5cies :i* produce real b accid5tal *anges 9 ! individual sub/ances ( ! univ]se4 ,prop] accid5ts1 h[ev]1 inasmu* z !y ( necessity exi/ simultane\sly ) ! sub/ances to :i* !y belong1 & fl[ f ^! sub/ances by a necessity ( ! v ess5ce ( ^! latt]1 _c be said to h any effici5t causes o!r ?an ^? :i* contribute by _! effici5cy to ! sub/antial *anges by :i* ^! sub/ances are br\ght into actual exi/5ce2 nor c !y be said to be caus$ effici5tly by ^! sub/ances !mselves1 b only to 8fl[0 or 8result0 necess>ily f ! latt]1 inasmu* z !y come into exi/5ce simultane\sly )1 b dep5d5tly on1 ^! sub/ances4 ,h5ce1 :ile sub/ances are univ]sally reg>d$ z real pr9ciples ( _! prop]ties--z1 = in/ance1 ! s\l 9 reg>d to intellect & w1 or corporeal sub/ance 9 reg>d to quantity--!y are n really effici5t causes ( _! prop]ties1 i4e4 !y d n produce ^! prop]ties by action4 ,= ^! prop]ties are antec$5t to all action ( ! sub/ance2 nor c a creat$ sub/ance act by its ess5ce1 b only ?r\gh active p[]s1 or faculties1 or =ces1 :i* m$itate betwe5 ! ess5ce ( a creat$ sub/ance & its actions1 & :i* are ! proximate pr9ciples ( ^! actions1 :ile ! sub/ance or nature is _! remote pr9ciple4 ,h5ce ! 8prop]ties0 :i* necess>ily result f a sub/ance or nature1 h z _! effici5t causes ! ag5cies productive ( ! sub/ance itself47#bec7 #ff4 ,,ma9 ,,divisions ,,( ,,accid5ts4--,^! consid]ations w help u to und]/& ! significance ( a few important divisions ( accid5ts3 into prop] & common1 insep>able & sep>able4 ,we %all !n be 9 a position to exam9e ! nature ( ! di/9ction betwe5 accid5ts & sub/ance1 & to e/abli% ! exi/5ce ( accid5ts really di/9ct f sub/ance4 7a7 ,! attributes :i* we affirm ( sub/ance1 o!r ?an ! notes con/itutive ( its ess5ce1 are divid$ into prop] accid5ts1 or prop]ties 9 ! /rict s5se 71 proprium71 & common accid5ts1 or accid5ts 9 ! m ord9>y s5se 71 ac-cid5s74 ,a prop]ty is an accid5t :i* belongs exclusively to a c]ta9 class or k9d ( sub/ance1 & is f\nd always 9 all memb]s ( t class1 inasmu* z x has an adequate f\ndation 9 ! nature ( t sub/ance & a necess>y connexion !re)4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 are ! faculties ( intellect & w 9 all spiritual be+s2 ! faculties ( speak+1 laugh+1 weep+ 9 man2 ! temporal & spatial mode ( be+ :i* *>act]izes all creat$ sub/ances47#bed7 ,:5 reg>d$ f ! logical po9t ( view1 z attributes pr$icable ( _! sub/ances consid]$ z logical subjects1 !y are di/+ui%$ on ! "o h& f :at con/itutes ! ess5ce ( ?is subject 7z g5us1 diff]5tia1 species71 b also on ! o!r h& f ^? attributes :i* _c be se5 to h any absolutely necess>y connexion ) ?is subject4 ,! latt] attributes alone are call$ logical accid5ts1 ! te/ be+ ! abs5ce ( a necess>y connexion 9 ?\ght ) ! logical subject47#bee7 ,b ! =m] class1 :i* are di/+ui%$ f 8logical0 accid5ts & call$ logical prop]ties 78propria07 are none ! less real accid5ts :5 consid]$ f ! ontological /&po9t2 = !y d n con/itute ! ess5ce ( ! sub/ance2 !y are outside ! concept ( ! latt]1 & sup]-add$--?\gh necess>ily--to x4 ,:e!r1 h[ev]1 all or any ( ^! 8prop]ties10 :i* philosoph]s ?us classify z real or ontological accid5ts1 8prop]0 accid5ts1 ( c]ta9 sub/ances1 are really di/9ct f ! concrete1 individual sub/ances to :i* !y belong1 or are only aspects ( ! latt]1 8sub/antial modes10 only virtually di/9ct 9 ea* case f ! individual sub/ance itself1--is ano!r & m difficult "q 7#fi74 ,su* a prop]ty is c]ta9ly n really sep>able f its sub/ance2 we _c conceive ei!r to exi/ really )\t ! o!r2 ?\gh we c by ab/raction ?9k1 & reason1 & speak1 ab\t ei!r ap>t f ! o!r47#bef7 ,real insep>ability is1 h[ev]1 reg>d$ by s*ola/ic philosoph]s z q compatible ) :at !y und]/& by a real di/9ction 7#ch74 ,a common accid5t is "o :i* has no su* absolutely necess>y connexion ) its sub/ance z a 8prop]ty0 has2 "o :i*1 !re=e1 c be conceiv$ z abs5t f ! sub/ance )\t !reby entail+ ! de/ruction ( ! latt]'s ess5ce1 or ( any?+ b\nd up by a necessity ( ?\ght ) ?is ess5ce4 ,& su* common accid5ts are ( two k9ds4 ,!y may be su* t 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( nature1 & s f> z its =ces & laws are conc]n$1 !y are nev] f\nd to be abs5t f _! connatural sub/ances--insep>able accid5ts4 ,?us ! col\r ( ! ,e?iopian is an insep>able accid5t ( 8 human nature z an ,e?iopian2 he is naturally black2 b if born ( ,e?iopian p>5ts he w\ld /ill be an ,e?iopian ev5 if he happ5$ to gr[ up :ite in/ead ( black4 ,we c\ld n1 h[ev]1 conceive an ,e?iopian1 or any o!r human be+1 exi/+ )\t ! faculties 7n ! use7 ( intellect & w1 or ! faculty 7n ! organs1 or ! actual ex]cise ( ! faculty7 ( human spee*4 ,or common accid5ts may be su* t !y are sometimes pres5t 9 _! sub/ances1 & sometimes abs5t--sep>able accid5ts4 ,^! are by f> ! mo/ num]\s class ( accid5ts3 ?9k+1 will+1 talk+1 & actions g5]ally2 heal? or illness2 virtues1 vices1 acquir$ habits2 re/ or motion1 temp]ature1 col\r1 =m1 location1 etc4 7b7 ,! next important division ( accid5ts is t into m]e extr9sic d5om9ations & intr9sic accid5ts2 ! latt] be+ subdivid$ into modal & absolute accid5ts1 respectively4 ,an absolute accid5t is "o :i* n m]ely affects its sub/ance intr9sically1 giv+ ! latt] an actual det]m9ation or mode ( be+1 ( "s sort or o!r1 b :i* has moreov] "s entity or reality prop] to itself :]eby x ?us affects ! sub/ance1 an entity really di/9ct f ! ess5ce ( ! sub/ance ?us det]m9$ by x4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 are all vital activities ( liv+ ?+s27#beg7 k1 & o!r acquir$ habits2 quantity1 ! fundam5tal accid5t :]eby corporeal sub/ances are all capable ( exi/+ ext5d$ 9 space2 & su* s5sible qualities & en]gies ( matt] z heat1 col\r1 me*anical =ce1 electrical en]gy1 etc4 ,su*1 too1 accord+ to _m1 are intellect1 w1 & s5se faculties 9 man4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 o!r intr9sic det]m9ations ( sub/ance1 o!r modifications ( ! latt]1 :i* d n seem to involve any new or additional reality 9 ! sub/ance1 ov] & above ! modification itself4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 are motion1 re/1 ext]nal =m or figure1 9 bodies4 ,^! are call$ modal accid5ts4 ,!y (t5 affect n ! sub/ance itself imm$iately1 b "s absolute accid5t ( ! latt]1 & are h5ce call$ 8accid5tal modes04 ,^? enum]at$ are obvi\sly modes ( ! quantity ( bodies4 ,n[ ! appe>ance or disappe>ance ( su* an accid5t 9 a sub/ance und\bt$ly involves a real *ange 9 ! latt]1 & n m]ely 9 our ?\ght2 :5 a body moves1 or comes to re/1 or alt]s its =m1 !re is a *ange 9 ! reality z well z 9 our ?\ght2 & 9 ?is s5se ^! accid5ts are real & intr9sic to _! sub/ances4 ,yet1 ?\gh we _c say t motion1 re/1 %ape1 etc41 are really id5tical ) ! body & only m5tally di/9ct aspects ( x1 at ! same "t nei!r c we say t by _! appe>ance or disappe>ance ! body ga9s or loses any reality o!r ?an an accid5tal det]m9ation ( itself2 :]eas x does ga9 some?+ m ?an ?is :5 x is heat$1 or electrifi$1 or increas$ 9 quantity2 j z a man :o acquires k1 or virtue1 is n only really modifi$1 b is modifi$ by real entities :i* he has acquir$1 n hav+ actually possess$ !m be=e4 ,f9ally1 !re are accid5ts :i* d n affect ! sub/ance intr9sically at all1 :i* d n det]m9e any real *ange 9 x1 b m]ely give x an extr9sic d5om9ation 9 relation to some?+ outside x 7#fj74 ,?us1 :ile ! quality ( heat is an absolute accid5t 9 a body1 ! action :]eby ! latt] heats neighb\r+ bodies is no new reality 9 ! body itself1 & produces no real *ange 9 ! latt]1 b only gives x ! extr9sic d5om9ation ( heat+ 9 ref]5ce to ^! o!r bodies 9 :i* ! effect really takes place4 ,simil>ly ! location ( any corporeal sub/ance 9 space or 9 "t relatively to o!rs 9 ! space or "t s]ies--its ext]nal place 7ubi7 or "t 7qu&o71 z !y are call$--or ! relative position ( its p>ts 7situs7 9 ! place occupi$ by x3 ^! d n intr9sically det]m9e x or conf] ^u x any intr9sic modification ( its sub/ance4 ,n1 inde$1 t !y are m]e entia rationis1 m]e logical fictions ( our ?\ght4 ,!y are realities1 b n realities :i* affect ! sub/ances d5om9at$ f !m2 !y are accid5tal modes ( o!r sub/ances1 or ( ! absolute accid5ts ( o!r sub/ances4 ,f9ally1 ! accid5t :i* we call a 8real relation0 presupposes 9 its subject "s absolute accid5t su* z quantity or quality1 or "s real & intr9sic *ange det]m9+ ^!1 or affect+ ! sub/ance itself2 b :e!r relation is itself a reality ov] & above su* f\ndation1 is a disput$ "q4 ,f ^! classifications ( accid5ts x w be at once app>5t t ! g5]al notion ( accid5t1 z a dep5d5t mode ( be+1 sup]add$ to ! ess5ce ( a sub/ance & 9 "s way det]m9+ ! latt]1 is realiz$ 9 widely diff]5t & m]ely analogical ways 9 ! diff]5t ultimate classes ( accid5ts4 #fg4 ,,real ,,exi/5ce ,,( ,,accid5ts4 ,,nature ,,( ,,! ,,di/9ction ,,betwe5 ,,accid5ts ,,& ,,sub/ance4--,x w\ld be sup]flu\s to prove ! g5]al proposition t accid5ts really exi/4 ,9 e/abli%+ ! real exi/5ce ( sub/ances we h se5 t ! real exi/5ce ( "s accid5ts at lea/ has nev] be5 s]i\sly d5i$4 ,^! are (t5 call$ n[adays ph5om5a2 & philosoph]s :o h d5i$ or d\bt$ ! real exi/5ce ( sub/ances h be5 call$ 8ph5om5i/s0 simply because !y h admitt$ ! real exi/5ce only ( ^! ph5om5a2 ?\gh1 if !y 7 z logical z ,hume !y might h se5 ) him t su* d5ial1 s f> f aboli%+ sub/ance1 c\ld only lead to ! sub/antializ+ ( accid5ts 7#fc74 ,b :ile und\bt$ly !re are realities :i* 8exi/ 9 !mselves10 su* z individual m51 animals & plants1 !re is no reason = attribut+ ?is same mode ( exi/5ce to entities su* z ! ?\ghts1 volitions1 emotions1 virtues or vices1 ( ! individual man2 or ! in/9ct1 hung]1 or illness ( ! dog2 or ! col\r1 p]fume1 or =m ( ! rose4 ,! concrete individual man1 or dog1 or rose1 reveals itself to our m9ds z a sub/antial entity1 affect$ ) ^! v>i\s accid5tal entities :i* are really di/9ct f ! sub/antial entity itself & f "o ano!r4 ,nay1 9 mo/ ( ! in/ances j cit$1 !y are physically sep>able f ! sub/antial entity 9 :i* !y inh]e2 n ( c\rse 9 ! s5se t !y c\ld actually exi/ )\t x1 b 9 ! s5se t x c & does cont9ue to exi/ actually )\t !m 7#ch72 = x cont9ues to exi/ :ile !y come & g1 appe> & disappe>47#beh7 ,( c\rse ! concrete individual man1 or dog1 or rose1 does n cont9ue to exi/ actually un*ang$1 & totally id5tical ) itself ?r\gh\t ! *ange ( accid5ts 7#fd71 = ! accid5ts are "p ( ! concrete individual reality2 nay1 ev5 ! sub/ance itself ( ! concrete individual does n rema9 totally unaffect$ by ! *ange ( ! accid5ts2 because if !y really affect x1 z !y d1 _! *ange _c leave x totally unaffect$2 sub/ance is n at all a *angeless1 concrete core1 surr\nd$ by an ev]-*ang+ r9d or ve/ure ( accid5ts2 or a d>k1 hidd51 immutable & inscrutable backgr\nd ( a panorama ( ph5om5a 7#fd74 ,b ?\gh x is beyond all d\bt really affect$ by ! *ange ( its accid5ts1 x is also beyond all d\bt indep5d5t ( !m 9 reg>d to ! ess5tial mode ( its be+1 9 z mu* z x exi/s & cont9ues to exi/ 9 itself ?r\gh\t all fluctuation ( its accid5ts2 :ile ^! on ! o!r h& h only t ess5tially dep5d5t mode ( be+ :]eby !y are actual only by affect+ & det]m9+ "s subject 9 :i* !y inh]e & :i* supports _! actuality4 ,! exi/5ce1 !re=e1 ( "s accid5ts1 :i* are n only really di/9ct b ev5 physically sep>able f _! sub/ances1 _c reasonably be call$ into "q4 ,to d5y ! exi/5ce ( su* accid5ts1 or1 :at comes to ! same ?+1 _! real di/9ction f sub/ance1 is to take up "s "o ( ^! ?ree equally unt5able positions3 t all ! *anges :i* take place )9 & ar\nd u are sub/antial *anges2 or1 t !re is no su* ?+ z real *ange1 all *ange be+ a m5tal illusion2 or1 t contradictory /ates c be affirm$ ( ! same reality47#bei7 ,b ! nature ( ! real di/9ction betwe5 accid5ts & sub/ance is n 9 all cases s easy to det]m9e4 ,nor c we discuss ! "q "h 9 ref]5ce to ea* summum g5us ( accid5t sep>ately4 ,def]r+ to ! *apt] on ,relation ! "q ( ! di/9ction ( ?is p>ticul> accid5t f sub/ance & ! o!r categories1 we may conf9e our att5tion "h to ! di/9ction betwe5 sub/ance & ! ?ree classes ( accid5ts we h call$ extr9sic d5om9ations1 modal accid5ts1 & absolute accid5ts respectively4 8,!re are accid5ts10 writes ,kleutg517#bfj7 8:i* place no?+ & *ange no?+ 9 ! subject itself1 b are ascrib$ to x by reason ( "s extr9sic ?+2 o!rs1 aga91 produce inde$ 9 ! subject itself "s new mode ( be+1 b )\t _! exi/+ 9 x z a new reality1 di/9ct f its reality2 o!rs1 f9ally1 are !mselves a new reality1 & h ?us a be+ :i* is prop] to !mselves1 ?\gh ?is be+ is ( c\rse dep5d5t on ! sub/ance4 ,^! latt] alone c be really di/9ct f ! sub/ance1 9 ! full s5se 9 :i* a real di/9ction is t betwe5 ?+ & ?+4 ,n[ ,c>tesian philosoph]s h d5i$ t !re are any su* accid5ts z ^? ( ! latt] class2 reject+ ! division ( accid5ts into absolute & modal1 !y tea* t all accid5ts are m]e modifications or det]m9ations ( sub/ance1 t !y consi/ solely ( v>i\s locations & comb9ations ( ! ultimate p>ts ( a sub/ance1 or relations ( ! latt] to o!r sub/ances40 ,n[ all extr9sic d5om9ations ( a sub/ance d seem on analysis ultimately to resolve !mselves p>tly into relations ( ! latt] to o!r sub/ances1 & p>tly into modal or absolute accid5ts ( o!r sub/ances4 ,h5ce we may conf9e our att5tion "h to ! di/9ction betwe5 ^! two classes ( accid5t & _! connatural sub/ances4 ,&1 approa*+ ?is "q1 x w be well = u to be> two ?+s 9 m9d4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 our def9itions bo? ( sub/ance & ( accid5t are ab/ract & g5]ic or univ]sal4 ,b ! ab/ract & univ]sal does n exi/ z su*4 ,! concrete1 individual1 actually exi/+ sub/ance is nev] m]ely 8a be+ t naturally exi/s 9 itself10 nor is ! accid5t ( su* a sub/ance m]ely a v]ification ( its def9ition z 8a be+ t naturally inh]es 9 some?+ else04 ,9 e case :at really & actually exi/s is ! individual1 a be+ concret$ ( sub/ance & accid5ts1 a be+ :i* is ev] & always a real unity1 composite no d\bt1 b really "o2 & ?is no matt] :at sort ( di/9ction we hold to obta9 betwe5 ! sub/ance & its accid5ts4 ,?is is important2 its significance w be bett] appreciat$ accord+ z we exam9e ! di/9ctions 9 "q4 ,secondly1 z s*ola/ics und]/& a real di/9ction1 ?is c obta9 n m]ely betwe5 diff]5t 8p]sons0 or 8?+s0 :i* are sep>ate f "o ano!r 9 "t or space1 b also betwe5 diff]5t con/itutive pr9ciples ( any "o s+le concrete1 composite1 individual be+ 7#ch74 ,we h se5 t !y are n agre$ z to :e!r ! ess5ce & ! exi/5ce ( any actual creature are really di/9ct or n 7#bd74 ,& x may help u to cle> up our notion ( 8accid5t0 if we adv]t "h to _! discussion ( ! "q :e!r or n an accid5t ought to be reg>d$ z hav+ an exi/5ce ( its own1 an exi/5ce prop] to itself4 ,^? :o ?9k t ! di/9ction betwe5 ess5ce & exi/5ce 9 creat$ ?+s is a real di/9ction1 hold t accid5ts z su* h no exi/5ce ( _! own1 t !y are actualiz$ by ! exi/5ce ( ! sub/ance1 or r ( ! concrete1 composite individual2 t s9ce ! latt] is a real unity--n a m]e artificial aggregation ( entities1 b a be+ naturally "o--x c h only "o exi/5ce3 ,impossibile e/ quod unius rei non sit unum esse27#bfa7 t by ?is "o exi/5ce ! concrete1 composite ess5ce ( ! sub/ance1 z affect$ & det]m9$ by its accid5ts1 is actualiz$4 ,!y cont5d t if ea* ( ! pr9ciples1 :e!r sub/antial or accid5tal1 ( a concrete individual be+ _h its own exi/5ce1 _! union1 no matt] h[ intimate1 c\ld n =m a natural unit>y be+1 an individual1 b only an aggregate ( su* be+s4 ,x is nei!r ! matt]1 nor ! =m1 nor ! corporeal sub/ance ap>t f its accid5ts1 t exi/s3 x is ! sub/ance completely det]m9$ by all its accid5ts & modes t is ! prop] subject ( exi/5ce47#bfb7 ,x alone is actualiz$1 & t by "o exi/5ce1 :i* is ! 8ultimate actuality0 ( ! concrete1 composite1 individual ess5ce3 esse e/ ultimus actus4 ,h5ce x is too1 !y urge1 t an accid5t %\ld be conceiv$ n prop]ly z 8a be+10 b only z t :]eby a be+ is su* or su*3 ,accid5s non e/ ens1 s$ ens entis4 ,b x _c be s conceiv$ if we attribute to x an exi/5ce ( its own2 = !n x w\ld be 8a be+0 9 ! full & prop] s5se ( ! ^w4 ,?is is ! view ( ,/4 ,?omas1 & ( ,?omi/s g5]ally4 ,! argum5ts 9 support ( x are s]i\s1 b n conv9c+4 ,& ! same may be said ( ! reasons adduc$ = ! opposite view3 t exi/5ce n be+ really di/9ct f ess5ce1 accid5ts 9 s f> z !y c be said to h an ess5ce ( _! own h likewise an exi/5ce ( _! own4 ,support]s ( ?is view n only admit b ma9ta9 t ! entity ( a real1 exi/+ accid5t is a 8dim9i%$0 entity1 inasmu* z x is dep5d5t 9 a s5se 9 :i* a really exi/+ sub/ance is n dep5d5t4 ,!y simply d5y ! ,?omi/ ass]tion t sub/antial & accid5tal pr9ciples _c comb9e to =m a real & natural unit1 an individual be+1 if ea* be accord$ an exi/5ce appropriate & proportionate to its p>tial ess5ce2 nor inde$ c ,?omi/s prove ?is ass]tion4 ,moreov]1 if exi/5ce be n really di/9ct f ess5ce1 !re is no m inconv5i5ce 9 ! claim t p>tial exi/5ces c comb9e to =m "o complete exi/5ce1 unum esse1 ?an 9 ! ,?omi/ claim t p>tial ess5ces1 su* z sub/antial & accid5tal con/itutive pr9ciples1 c comb9e to =m "o complete ess5ce1 "o individual subject ( exi/5ce4 ,!n1 fur!rmore1 x is urg$ t ! sub/ance exi/s prior 9 "t to "s ( its accid5ts2 t x is prior 9 nature to its prop]ties1 :i* are und]/ood to proce$ or fl[ f x2 & t !re=e its exi/5ce _c be !irs1 any m ?an its ess5ce c be !irs4 ,f9ally1 x is po9t$ out t s9ce exi/5ce is ! actuality ( ess5ce1 ! exi/5ce :i* actualizes a sub/ance _c be id5tical ) t :i* actualizes an accid5t4 ,at all ev5ts1 :e!r ! "o exi/5ce ( ! concrete individual sub/ance z det]m9$ by its accid5ts be z x 7 a simple & indivisible exi/5tial act1 :i* actualizes ! composite individual subject1 z ,?omi/s hold1 or :e!r x be a composite exi/5tial act1 really id5tical ) ! composite individual subject1 z 9 ! o!r view17#bfc7 ?is concrete exi/5ce ( ! individual is con/antly v>y+ ) ! v>iation ( ! accid5ts ( ! individual4 ,?is is equally true on ei!r view4 ,inquir+ into ! di/9ction betwe5 sub/ance & its intr9sic accid5ts1 :e!r modal or absolute1 we h fir/ to rem>k t all accid5ts _c possibly be r$uc$ to relations2 = if relation itself is some?+ extr9sic to ! ?+s relat$1 x mu/ at lea/ presuppose a real & intr9sic f\ndation or basis = itself 9 ! ?+s relat$4 ,local motion1 = in/ance1 is a *ange 9 ! spatial relations ( a body to o!r bodies4 ,b x _c be m]ely ?is4 ,= if spatial relations are n m]e subjective or m5tal fabrications1 if !y are 9 any intelligible s5se real1 !n a *ange 9 !m mu/ involve a *ange ( some?+ intr9sic to ! bodies conc]n$4 ,n[ ,desc>tes1 9 d5y+ ! exi/5ce ( absolute accid5ts1 9 r$uc+ all accid5ts to modes ( sub/ances1 und]/ood by modes n any intr9sic det]m9ations ( sub/ance1 b only extr9sic det]m9ations ( ! latt]4 ,all accid5ts ( mat]ial sub/ance 7 = him m]e locations1 arrangem5ts1 dispositions ( its ext5d$ p>ts3 ext5sion be+ its ess5ce4 ,simil>ly1 all accid5ts ( spiritual sub/ance 7 = him m]e modalities & mutual relations ( its 8?\ght0 or 8consci\sness03 ?is latt] be+ = him ! ess5ce ( _s4 ,we h "h n only ! error ( id5tify+ or conf\nd+ accid5ts su* z ?\ght & ext5sion ) _! connatural sub/ances1 _s & matt]1 b also ! error ( suppos+ t extr9sic relations & modes ( a sub/ance1 & *anges 9 ^!1 c be real1 )\t !re be+ 9 ! sub/ances !mselves any intr9sic1 real1 *angeable accid5ts1 :i* w\ld acc\nt = ! extr9sic relations & _! *anges4 ,if !re are no intr9sic accid5ts1 really affect+ & det]m9+ sub/ances1 & yet really di/9ct f ! latt]1 !n we mu/ admit ei!r t all *ange is an illusion or else t all *ange is sub/antial2 & ?is is ! dilemma t really confronts ! ,c>tesian philosophy4 #fh4 ,,modal ,,accid5ts ,,& ,,! ,,modal ,,di/9ction4--,! real di/9ction :i* we claim to exi/ betwe5 a sub/ance & its intr9sic accid5ts is n ! same 9 all cases3 9 reg>d to "s accid5ts1 :i* we h call$ intr9sic modes ( ! sub/ance1 x is a m9or or modal real di/9ction2 9 reg>d to o!rs :i* we h call$ absolute accid5ts1 x is a major real di/9ction 7#ch74 ,let u fir/ consid] ! =m]4 ,! t]m mode has a v>iety ( mean+s1 "s v wide1 "s re/rict$4 ,:5 "o concept det]m9es or limits ano!r 9 any way we may call x a mode ( ! latt]4 ,if !re is no real di/9ction betwe5 ! det]m9+ & ! det]m9$ ?\ght-object1 ! mode is call$ a metaphysical mode3 z rationality is ( animality 9 man4 ,aga91 creat$ ?+s are all 8modes0 ( be+2 & ! v>i\s aspects ( a creature may be call$ 8modes0 ( ! latt]3 z 8f9it5ess0 is a mode ( e creat$ be+4 ,we d n use ! t]m 9 ^? wide s5ses 9 ! pres5t context4 ,"h we und]/& by a mode "s positive reality :i* s affects ano!r & di/9ct reality z to det]m9e ! latt] proximately to "s def9ite way ( exi/+ or act+1 to :i* ! latt] is itself indiff]5t2 )\t1 h[ev]1 add+ to ! latt] any new & prop] entity o!r ?an ! said det]m9ation47#bfd7 ,su* modes are call$ physical modes4 ,& "s philosoph]s ma9ta9 t !re are n only accid5tal modes1 ?us really di/9ct f ! sub/ance1 b t !re are ev5 "s sub/antial modes really di/9ct f ! ess5ce ( ! sub/ance :i* !y affect3 = in/ance1 t ! really di/9ct con/itutive pr9ciples ( any individual corporeal sub/ance1 matt] & =m1 are actually unit$ only 9 virtue ( a sub/antial mode :]eby ea* is orda9$ = union ) ! o!r2 or t subsi/5ce1 :]eby ! individual sub/ance is made a subsi/5t & incommunicable 8p]son0 or 8?+10 is a sub/antial mode ( ! individual nature47#bfe7 ,) ^! latt] we are n conc]n$ "h1 b only ) accid5tal modes1 su* z ext]nal %ape or figure1 local motion1 position1 action17#bff7 etc4 ,n[ :5 a sub/ance is affect$ by su* accid5ts z ^! x is impossible on ! "o h& to ma9ta9 t !y add any new positive entity ( _! own to x2 !y d n seem to h any reality ov] & above ! det]m9ation or modification 9 :i* _! v pres5ce 9 ! sub/ance consi/s4 ,& on ! o!r h& x _c be d5i$ t !y express "s real pr$icate :i* c be affirm$ ( ! sub/ance 9 virtue ( _! pres5ce 9 x1 & t indep5d5tly ( our ?\ght2 9 o!r words x _c be ma9ta9$ t !y are m]e figm5ts or =ms ( ?\ght1 m]e entia rationis4 ,if a piece ( wax has a c]ta9 def9ite %ape1 ?is %ape is insep>able f ! wax3 x is no?+ except 9 ! wax1 = x _c exi/ ap>t f ! wax2 b 9 ! wax x is some?+ 9 "s real s5se di/9ct f ! wax1 inasmu* z ! wax w\ld p]si/ ev5 if x disappe>$4 ,no d\bt x is ess5tial to ! wax1 z ext5d$ 9 space1 to h "s %ape or o!r2 b x is indiff]5t to any p>ticul> %ape1 & h5ce some?+ di/9ct f x is requir$ to remove ?is indiff]5ce4 ,?is some?+ is ! p>ticul> %ape x actually possesses4 ,! %ape1 !re=e1 is an accid5tal mode ( ! ext5sion ( ! wax1 a mode :i* is really di/9ct1 by a m9or real di/9ction1 f ?is ext5sion :i* is its imm$iate subject47#bfg7 ,h5ce we conclude t !re are accid5tal modes1 or modal accid5ts1 really di/9ct f ! subjects 9 :i* !y inh]e4 #fi4 ,,di/9ction ,,betwe5 ,,sub/ance ,,& ,,its 8,,prop]0 ,,accid5ts4 ,,unity ,,( ,,! ,,concrete ,,be+4--,turn+ next to ! di/9ction betwe5 absolute accid5ts & sub/ance1 we h se5 already t sep>able absolute accid5ts su* z acquir$ habits ( m9d & c]ta9 s5sible qualities & en]gies ( bodies are really di/9ct f _! subjects4 ,absolute accid5ts :i* are naturally insep>able f _! subjects--su* z ext]nal quantity or spatial ext5sion or volume is 9 reg>d to ! corporeal sub/ance--are also really di/9ct f _! subjects2 ?\gh we _c "k by reason alone :e!r or h[ f> su* accid5ts are absolutely sep>able f ^! subjects3 f ,*ri/ian ,revelation we "k t ext5sion at lea/ is sep>able f ! sub/ance ( a body1 & ) ext5sion all ! o!r corporeal accid5ts :i* inh]e imm$iately 9 ext5sion47#bfh7 ,b a special difficulty arises 9 reg>d to ! nature ( ! di/9ction betwe5 a sub/ance & its prop] accid5ts17#bfi7 i4e4 ^? :i* h su* an adequate & necess>y gr\nd 9 ! ess5ce ( ! sub/ance t ! latt] _c exi/ )\t !m3 accid5ts :i* are simultane\s ) ! sub/ance & proce$ necess>ily f x1 su* z ! int]nal quantity ( a corporeal sub/ance1 or ! intellectual & appetitive p[]s or faculties ( a spiritual sub/ance4 ,! m$ieval s*ola/ic philosoph]s 7 by no means unanim\s z to ! nature ( ?is di/9ction4 ,_! discussion ( ! "q c5tres ma9ly ar\nd ! di/9ction betwe5 ! spiritual human s\l & its spiritual faculties1 intellect & w1 & betwe5 ^! faculties !mselves4 ,x is in/ructive--z ?r[+ additional light on :at !y und]/ood by a real di/9ction--to f9d t :ile ,?omi/s g5]ally h held t ! di/9ction "h 9 "q is a real di/9ction1 _m o!r s*ola/ics h held t x is only a virtual di/9ction1 :ile ,scoti/s h g5]ally taught t x is a =mal di/9ction 7#ce-ci74 ,kleutg57#bgj7 int]prets ! =mal di/9ction advocat$ by ,scotus 9 ! pres5t context z really equival5t to ! virtual di/9ction4 ,/4 ,bonav5ture1 aft] ref]r+ to ! latt] di/9ction1 & to ! real di/9ction prop\nd$ by ,/4 ,?omas1 adopts himself an int]m$iate view3 t ! faculties ( ! s\l are inde$ really di/9ct f "o ano!r1 b nev]!less are n really di/9ct1 z accid5tal entities1 f ! sub/ance ( ! s\l itself4 ,we see h[ ?is c be by consid]+ t ! mat]ial & =mal pr9ciples :i* con/itute a corporeal sub/ance1 ?\gh really di/9ct f ea* o!r1 are n really di/9ct f ! sub/ance itself4 ,!y are n accid5ts ( ! latt] b con/itute its ess5ce1 & s are to be ref]r$ r$uctiv to ! category ( sub/ance4 ,s1 by analogy1 ! faculties ( ! s\l1 ?\gh really di/9ct f ea* o!r1 d n belong to any accid5tal category really di/9ct f ! sub/ance ( ! s\l1 b belong r$uctiv to ! latt] category1 n inde$ z con/itut+1 b z fl[+ imm$iately & necess>ily f1 ! sub/ance ( ! s\l itself47#bga7 ,&1 l ,/4 ,?omas1 he f9ds ! ultimate s\rce & explanation ( ?is multiplicity ( faculties & =ces 9 ! f9it5ess ( ! creat$ sub/ance z su*47#bgb7 ,b ,/4 ,?omas w5t f>!r ?an ,/4 ,bonav5ture1 = he taught--z inde$ ,?omi/s g5]ally tea*1 & _m :o are n ,?omi/s--t ! faculties ( ! human s\l are really di/9ct f "o ano!r1 n m]ely z proximate pr9ciples ( really di/9ct vital acts1 b z accid5tal entities or ess5ces2 & t z su* !y are really di/9ct f ! ess5ce or sub/ance itself ( ! human s\l4 ,! argum5ts 9 fav\r ( ?is view w be giv5 9 _! prop] place 9 connexion ) ! category ( ,quality4 ,if !y are n demon/rative 9 _! =ce1 !y are c]ta9ly su* t ! view = :i* !y make is v highly probable2 b we are conc]n$ "h to %[1 9 ?is conclud+ section1 t ! recognition ( a real di/9ction 9 g5]al betwe5 sub/ance & its accid5ts does n 9 any way compromise ! real unity ( ! concrete individual be+4 ,x has be5 widely accus$ ( do+ s by philosoph]s :o try to discr$it ?is view )\t fully und]/&+ x4 ,?is *>act]i/ically mod]n attitude is illu/rat$ by ! p]si/5t attempts t h be5 made 9 rec5t times to ?r[ ridicule on :at !y describe z ! 8faculty psy*ology047#bgc7 ,! s\rce ( ?is gr\ndless *>ge lies p>tly 9 ! mi/ak5 conception ( accid5t & sub/ance z concrete entities sup]add$ ! "o to ! o!r2 p>tly 9 ! mi/ak5 notion t ! union ( sub/ance & accid5ts _c result 9 a real unity1 t !re _c be m or less p]fect grades ( real unity 7#bg72 & p>tly 9 ! false assumption t real di/9ction always implies mutual sep>ability ( concrete entities4 ,( ^! errors we ne$ only ref] to t conc]n+ unity4 ,mod]n philosoph]s n uncommonly conceive ! union ( sub/ance & accid5ts z be+ necess>ily a m]e me*anical union or aggregation1 & oppose x to 8organic0 unity :i* !y reg>d z a real unity involv+ ! ri*ness ( an en]getic1 8liv+0 multiplicity4 ,?is involves a misrepres5tation ( ! traditional s*ola/ic view4 ,! union ( sub/ance & accid5t is n a me*anical union4 ,no?+ c\ld be f>!r f ! m9ds ( ! s*ola/ic int]pret]s ( ,ari/otle ?an ! conception ( ! ultimate pr9ciples ( ! univ]se ( our exp]i5ce z in]t entities mov$ accord+ to purely me*anical laws2 or ( ! individual concrete be+ z a m]e ma*9e1 or a m]e aggregate ( me*anical elem5ts4 ,!y recogniz$ ev5 9 ! individual inorganic sub/ance an int]nal1 unify+1 active & directive pr9ciple ( all ! en]gies & activities ( ! ?+--its sub/antial =m4 ,& if ?is is all ^? philosoph]s mean by ! metaphorical transf]5ce ( ! t]ms 8organic unity10 8int]nal liv+ pr9ciple ( developm5t10 etc41 to ! m9]al _w1 !y are s f> 9 accord ) ! traditional s*ola/ic philosophy27#bgd7 :ile if !y mean t all sub/ances are pr9ciples ( 8vital0 en]gy1 or t all reality is "o organic unity1 9 ! lit]al s5se ( ^! t]ms1 !y are committ+ !mselves ei!r to ! palpably false !ory ( pan-psy*ism1 or to ! gratuit\s reass]tion ( a v old & v crude =m ( monism4 ,by 8organic0 unity we und]/& ! unity ( any liv+ organism1 a unity :i* is mu* m p]fect ?an t ( ! p>ts ( a ma*9e1 or ?an any natural juxtaposition ( mat]ial p>ts 9 an inorganic :ole2 = ! organs1 ?\gh di/9ct 9 numb] & 9 nature f "o ano!r1 are unit$ by an int]nal pr9ciple to =m "o liv+ individual1 s t if any organ 7 sep>at$ f ! liv+ organism x w\ld cease to be an organ47#bge7 ,b organic unity is n by any means ! mo/ p]fect k9d ( unity conceivable47#bgf7 ,! liv+ organism exi/s & develops & atta9s to ! p]fection ( its be+ only ?r\gh a multiplicity ( integral p>ts ext5d$ 9 space4 ,! spiritual sub/ance is subject to no su* disp]sion ( its be+4 ,f its union ) ! faculties :]eby x atta9s to its natural developm5t1 !re results a real unity ( a high] ord] ?an t ( any organism4 ,& nev]!less1 ev5 ?\gh ! unity ( ! concrete spiritual sub/ance & its faculties be s f> high] ?an a me*anical or ev5 an organic unity1 x is n p]fect4 ,ev5 ?\gh ! faculties ( ! s\l be det]m9ations ( its sub/ance1 ev5 ?\gh !y fl[ f x z actualities dem&$ by its ess5ce = ! normal & natural developm5t ( its be+1 /ill x is a complete subsi/+ ess5ce ( its k9d )\t !m2 x possesses its ess5tial p]fection )\t !m1 s t h[ev] intimate be _! union ) x !y c nev] =m "o ess5ce ) x2 x ne$s !m only = ! full] developm5t ( its be+ by acquir+ fur!r int]m$iate p]fections & ?us atta9+ to its f9al p]fection 7#df74 ,& "h we t\* on ! mo/ fundam5tal gr\nd ( ! di/9ction1 9 all creat$ ?+s1 betwe5 _! sub/ance & _! accid5tal p]fections4 ,unlike ! ,necess>y1 ,absolute ,be+1 ^: inf9ite p]fection is ! et]nal actuality ( ,8 ess5ce1 no creature possesses ! actuality ( its be+ tota simul1 b only by a progressive developm5t :]eby x gradually acquires really new int]m$iate & f9al p]fections1 really di/9ct f1 ?\gh naturally due to1 its ess5ce4 ,h5ce1 ev5 ?\gh "s ( its accid5ts--prop]ties su* z ! p[]s & faculties we h be5 discuss+--be n really di/9ct f ! ess5ce :]e) !y are necess>ily connect$1 ?is is n true ( its acquir$ habits & dispositions1 or ( ! activities :i* proce$ f ^! latt] z _! proximate pr9ciples4 ,at ! same "t ! concrete be+ is1 at e mom5t ( its exi/5ce & developm5t1 a real unity1 b a unity :i*1 involv+ 9 itself z x does a real multiplicity ( di/9ct pr9ciples1 mu/ ev] fall inf9itely %ort ( ! p]fect type ( real unity--t realiz$ only 9 ! ,self-,exi/5t1 ,necess>y ,be+4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,nature ,,& ,,p]son4 #gj4 ,,"s ,,divisions ,,( ,,sub/ances4--,9 ! prec$+ *apt] we discuss$ ! nature ( sub/ance & accid5t 9 g5]al1 & ! relation betwe5 a sub/ance & its accid5ts4 ,we mu/ next exam9e ! category ( sub/ance m 9 detail1 t]m9at+ z x does 9 ! important concept ( p]sonality or p]son4 ,?is latt] conception is "o :i* mu/ h its orig9 = all philosoph]s 9 ! /udy ( ! human individual1 b :i*1 = s*ola/ic philosoph]s1 is complet$ & p]fect$ by ! light ( ,*ri/ian ,revelation4 ,we %all endeav\r to %[ 9 ! fir/ place :at c be ga!r$ f ! light ( reason ab\t ! con/itution ( p]sonality1 & also briefly to note h[ ,*ri/ian ,revelation has increas$ our insight into ! p]fections involv$ 9 x4 ,z lead+ up to ! concept ( p]son1 we mu/ set =? c]ta9 divisions or classifications ( sub/ance3 into fir/ & second sub/ances1 & into complete & incomplete sub/ances47#bgg7 7a7 ,! specific & g5]ic natures ( sub/antial entities d n inh]e1 l accid5ts1 9 individual sub/ances2 !y con/itute ! ess5ce ( ! latt]1 & h5ce ^! univ]sals are call$ sub/ances4 ,b ! univ]sal z su* does n really exi/2 x is realiz$ only 9 individuals2 9 ! logical ord] x pre-supposes ! individual z a logical subject ( :i* x is affirm$1 a subjectum attributionis seu pra$icationis4 ,h5ce x is call$ a second sub/ance1 :ile ! individual sub/ance is call$ a fir/ sub/ance4 ,( c\rse we c pr$icate attributes ( univ]sal sub/ances1 & use ^! z logical subjects1 z :5 we say 8,man is mortal04 ,b su* propositions h no real mean+1 & give u no in=mation ab\t reality1 except 9 s f> z we c ref] _! pr$icates 78mortal071 ?r\gh ! m$ium ( _! univ]sal subjects 78man071 back ultimately to ! individual sub/ances 7,john1 ,james1 etc47 :i* alone are real1 & 9 :i* alone ! univ]sal 78man07 has its reality4 ,h5ce ! individual is1 9 ! logical ord]1 ! ultimate & fundam5tal subject ( all our pr$ications4 ,& fur!rmore1 ! individual sub/ance _c be us$ z a logical pr$icate ( any?+ und]ly+ itself1 :ile ! univ]sal sub/ance c be s us$ 9 relation to ! individual4 ,9 ! ontological ord]1 ( c\rse1 ! univ]sal sub/ance is individualiz$1 &1 z individual1 x is ! subject 9 :i* all accid5ts inh]e1 _! subjectum inhaesionis3 ! only subject ( _m ( !m1 & ! remote or ultimate subject ( ^? ( !m :i* inh]e imm$iately 9 o!r accid5ts4 ,?us :ile 9 ! ontological ord] all sub/ances1 :e!r we ?9k ( !m z univ]sal or z individual1 are ! ultimate subjects ( inhesion = all real accid5ts1 9 ! logical ord] x is only ! individual sub/ance t is ! ultimate subject ( attribution = all logical pr$icates4 ,h5ce x 0 t ! individual sub/ance 7 71 v9dicat+ = itself m fully ! rle ( subject1 0 call$ by ,ari/otle 1 sub/antia prima1 :ile he call$ ! univ]sal1 specific or g5]ic sub/ance1 1 sub/antia secunda47#bgh7 ,^! are1 ( c\rse1 two ways ( reg>d+ sub/ance1 & n two really di/9ct species ( sub/ance z g5us4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 ! membra divid5tia is logical1 n real4 ,! p]fectly intelligible s5se 9 :i* ,ari/otle & ! s*ola/ics designate ! univ]sal a sub/ance1 ! s5se ( mod]ate realism1 accord+ to :i* ! univ]sal con/itutes1 & is id5tical )1 ! ess5ce ( ! individual 8p]son0 or 8?+10 is entirely diff]5t f ! s5se 9 :i* _m expon5ts ( mod]n moni/ic idealism conceive ! univ]sal z ! sub/ance p> excell5ce1 ! ens realissimum1 det]m9+1 express+1 evolv+ itself 9 ! individual ph5om5a ( m9d & ( nature1 :i* w\ld be m]ely its manife/ations47#bgi7 7b7 ,! divisions ( sub/ance into spiritual & corporeal1 ( ! latt] into inorganic & organic1 ( ^! aga9 into vegetative & animal1 & f9ally ( animal sub/ances into brute animals & human be+s1--(f] no special difficulties4 ,all purely natural or rational k ( ! possibility & nature ( purely spiritual sub/ances is bas$ on ! analogy ( our k ( ! human s\l1 :i*1 ?\gh a spiritual sub/ance1 is n a pure _s1 b is naturally alli$ ) matt] 9 its mode ( exi/5ce4 ,! individual human be+ (f]s to human exp]i5ce ! sole example ( ! suffici5tly my/]i\s conjunction & comb9ation ( matt] & _s1 ( ! corporeal mode ( be+ & ! spiritual mode ( be+1 to =m "o composite sub/ance1 p>tly corporeal & p>tly spiritual4 7c7 ,?is 9 turn sugge/s ! division ( sub/ances into simple & composite4 ,! latt] are ^? :i* we und]/& to be con/itut$ by ! natural & sub/antial union ( two really di/9ct b incomplete sub/antial pr9ciples1 a =mative1 det]m9+1 specify+ pr9ciple1 & a mat]ial1 det]m9able1 indiff]5t pr9ciple3 su* are all corporeal sub/ances :e!r inorganic1 vegetative1 s5ti5t1 or rational4 ,! =m]1 or simple sub/ances1 are ^? :i* we und]/& to be con/itut$ by a sole & s+le sub/antial pr9ciple :i* det]m9es & specifies _! ess5ce1 )\t ! conjunction ( any mat]ial1 det]m9able pr9ciple4 ,we h no direct & imm$iate exp]i5ce ( any complete creat$ sub/ance ( ?is k9d2 b ea* ( u has su* direct exp]i5ce ( an incomplete simple sub/ance1 viz4 8 own s\l2 :ile we c inf] f our exp]i5ce ! exi/5ce ( o!r incomplete simple sub/ances1 viz4 ! =mative pr9ciples ( corporeal sub/ances1 z also ! possibility ( su* complete simple sub/ances z pure spirits1 & ! actual exi/5ce ( ! p]fectly simple1 uncreat$ sub/ance ( ! ,inf9ite ,be+4 7d7 ,if !re are su* ?+s z composite sub/ances1 i4e4 sub/ances con/itut$ by ! sub/antial union ( two really di/9ct pr9ciples1 !n x foll[s t :ile ! composite sub/ance itself is complete1 ea* ( its sub/antial con/itutive pr9ciples is incomplete4 ,( c\rse !re are _m philosoph]s n[adays :o reject z m]e m5tal fictions1 z products ( m]e logical di/9ctions1 & z devoid ( objective validity1 ! notions ( composite sub/ance & incomplete sub/ance4 ,nor is ?is to be wond]$ at :5 we rememb] :at a v>iety ( gr\ndless & gratuit\s notions are curr5t 9 reg>d to sub/ance itself 7#fd74 ,b und]/&+ sub/ance 9 ! traditional s5se already expla9$ 7#fb71 !re is no?+ :atev] inconsi/5t 9 ! notion ( a composite sub/ance1 or ( an incomplete sub/ance1--provid$ ^! notions are und]/ood 9 ! s5se to be expla9$ pres5tly4 ,nay1 m1 n only are ^! notions intr9sically possible3 we mu/ ev5 hold !m to be objectively valid & real1 to be truly expressive ( ! nature ( reality1 unless we are prep>$ to hold t !re is no su* ?+ z sub/antial *ange 9 ! univ]se1 & t man himself is a m]e aggregate ( mat]ial atoms mov$ accord+ to me*anical laws & inhabit$ by a consci\s s\l1 or ?9k+ pr9ciple1 r ?an an individual be+ ) "o def9ite sub/antial nature4 ,:at1 !n1 are we to und]/& by complete & incomplete sub/ances respectively8 ,a sub/ance is reg>d$ z complete 9 ! fulle/ s5se :5 x is want+ 9 no sub/antial pr9ciple )\t :i* x w\ld be incapable ( exi/+ & dis*>g+ all its functions 9 ! actual ord] z an individual ( "s def9ite species4 ,( c\rse no creat$ sub/ance exi/s or dis*>ges its functions unless x is end[$ ) "s accid5ts1 e4g4 ) prop]ties1 faculties1 =ces1 etc4 ,b !re is no "q ( ^! "h4 ,we are consid]+ only ! ess5tial p]fections ( ! sub/ance4 ,?us1 !n1 any exi/+ individual ( any species--a man1 a horse1 an oak--is a complete sub/ance 9 ?is fulle/ s5se4 ,x is complete 9 ! l9e ( sub/ance1 9 sub/antial p]fection1 89 ord9e sub/antialitatis10 inasmu* z x c exi/ 7& does actually exi/7 )\t be+ conjo9$ or unit$ sub/antially ) any o!r sub/ance to =m a composite sub/ance o!r ?an itself4 ,& x is complete 9 ! l9e ( specific p]fection1 89 ord9e speciei10 because n only c x exi/ )\t su* conjunction ) any o!r sub/antial pr9ciple1 b x c dis*>ge all ! functions natural to its species1 & ?us t5d t[>ds its f9al p]fection 7#dg7 )\t su* conjunction4 ,b x is conceivable t a sub/ance might be complete 9 ! l9e ( sub/antial p]fections1 & ?us be capable ( exi/+ 9 ! actual ord] & dis*>g+ !re "s ( ! functions ( its species )\t conjunction ) any o!r sub/antial pr9ciple1 & yet be incapable ( dis*>g+ all ! functions natural to an individual ( its species )\t conjunction ) "s o!r sub/antial pr9ciple1 9 :i* case x w\ld be incomplete 9 ! l9e ( specific p]fection1 ?\gh complete 9 ev]y?+ p]ta9+ to its sub/antiality4 ,we "k ( "o su* sub/ance1--! human s\l4 ,be+ spiritual & immortal1 x c exi/ ap>t f ! body to :i* x is unit$ by nature1 & 9 ?is sep>at$ condition reta9 & ex]cise its spiritual faculties ( intellect & w2 x is !re=e complete z reg>ds ! di/9ctively sub/antial p]fection :]eby x is 8capable ( exi/+ 9 itself04 ,b be+ ( its nature de/9$ = union ) a mat]ial pr9ciple1 con/itut+ an individual ( ! human species only by means ( su* union1 & be+ capable ( dis*>g+ "s ( ! functions ( ?is species1 viz4 ! s5ti5t & vegetative functions1 only :5 s unit$1 x has n all ! p]fections ( its species indep5d5tly ( ! body2 & x is !re=e an incomplete sub/ance 9 ! l9e ( specific p]fections1 ?\gh complete 9 ^? ess5tial to its sub/antiality4 ,aga91 if x be true t j z man is compos$ ( two sub/antial pr9ciples1 s\l & body1 s e liv+ ?+ is compos$ ( a sub/antial vital pr9ciple & a sub/antial mat]ial pr9ciple1 & t e inorganic individual ?+ is likewise compos$ ( two really di/9ct sub/antial pr9ciples1 a =mative & a passive or mat]ial pr9ciple2 & if1 fur!rmore1 x be true t ap>t f ! spiritual pr9ciple 9 man e o!r vital or =mative pr9ciple ( ! composite 8?+s0 ( our exp]i5ce is ( su* a nature t x _c actually exi/ except 9 union ) "s mat]ial pr9ciple1 & vice v]sa1--!n x foll[s necess>ily t all su* sub/antial pr9ciples ( ^! complete composite sub/ances are !mselves incomplete sub/ances3 & incomplete n only 9 reg>d to p]fections :i* w\ld make !m subsi/+ individuals ( a species1 b 7unlike ! human s\l7 incomplete ev5 9 ! l9e ( sub/antiality itself1 inasmu* z no "o ( !m is capable ( actually exi/+ at all except 9 union ) its connatural & correlative pr9ciple4 ,?us we arrive at ! notion ( sub/ances t are incomplete 9 ! l9e ( specific p]fections1 or 9 t ( sub/antial p]fections1 or ev5 9 bo? l9es4 ,an incomplete sub/ance1 !re=e1 is n "o :i* v]ifies ! def9ition ( sub/ance only 9 "p4 ,! incomplete sub/ance fully v]ifies ! def9ition ( a sub/ance47#bhj7 ,x is conjo9$1 no d\bt1 ) ano!r to =m a complete sub/ance2 b x does n exi/ 9 ! o!r1 or 9 ! composite sub/ance1 z accid5ts d4 ,x is a sub/antial pr9ciple ( ! composite sub/ance1 n an accid5tal det]m9ation ( ! latt]1 or ( ! o!r sub/antial pr9ciple ) :i* x is conjo9$4 ,x ?us v]ifies ! notion ( sub/ance z a mode ( be+ :i* naturally exi/s 9 itself2 & unit$ ) its correlative sub/antial pr9ciple x dis*>ges ! function ( support+ all accid5tal det]m9ations :i* affect ! composite sub/antial ess5ce4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 x does n exi/ itself indep5d5tly z an individual ( a species1 b only =ms ! complete individual sub/ance by union ) its correlative sub/antial pr9ciple1 x may be1 & has be51 accurately describ$ z n belong+ to ! category ( sub/ance =mally1 b only ref]5tially1 8r$uctiv04 ,! concepts ( composite sub/ance1 ( complete & incomplete sub/ances1 und]/ood z we h j expla9$ !m1 are !re=e p]fectly intelligible 9 !mselves4 ,& ?is is all we are conc]n$ to %[ 9 ! pres5t context4 ,?is is n ! place to e/abli% ! !ses ( psy*ology & cosmology f :i* !y are borr[$4 ,t ! human s\l is spiritual & immortal2 t its union ) a really di/9ct mat]ial pr9ciple to =m ! individual human sub/ance or nature is a sub/antial union2 t all liv+ organisms & all inorganic bodies are really composite sub/ances & subject to sub/antial *ange3 ^! v>i\s !ses ( s*ola/ic philosophy we "h assume to be true4 ,& if !y are true ! conception ( incomplete sub/ances naturally unit$ to =m a complete composite sub/ance is n only intelligible z an hypo!sis b is objectively true & valid z a !sis2 & ?us ! notion ( an incomplete sub/ance is n only a consi/5t & legitimate notion1 b is also a notion :i* gives m5tal expression to an objective reality4 ,we may add ?is consid]ation3 ,! concept ( an accid5t really di/9ct f its sub/ance involves no intr9sic repugnance4 ,yet an accid5t is a mode ( be+ :i* is s weak & want+ 9 reality1 if we may speak 9 su* t]ms1 t x _c naturally exi/ except by inh]+1 m$iately or imm$iately1 9 ! /rong] & m real mode ( be+ :i* is sub/ance4 ,b an incomplete sub/ance is a high] grade ( reality ?an any accid5t4 ,!re=e if accid5ts c be real1 a =tiori incomplete sub/ances c be real4 #ga4 ,,sub/ance ,,& ,,nature4--,we h already po9t$ out 7#ac7 t ! t]ms 8ess5ce10 8sub/ance10 & 8nature0 d5ote :at is really ! same ?+1 reg>d$ "u diff]5t aspects4 ,! t]m 8ess5ce0 is some:at wid] ?an 8sub/ance10 inasmu* z x means 8:at a ?+ is10 :e!r ! ?+ be a sub/ance1 an accid5t1 or a concrete exi/+ individual includ+ sub/ance & accid5ts4 ,! traditional mean+ ( ! t]m 8nature0 9 ,ari/otelian & s*ola/ic philosophy is unmi/akable4 ,x means ! ess5ce or sub/ance ( an individual p]son or ?+1 reg>d$ z ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! latt]'s activities4 ,e f9ite individual comes into exi/5ce incomplete1 hav+ no d\bt its ess5tial p]fections & prop]ties actually1 b its int]m$iate & f9al p]fections only pot5tially 7#dg74 ,^! x realizes gradually1 ?r\gh ! ex]cise ( its connatural activities4 ,e be+ is ess5tially int5d$ = activity ( "s sort3 8,omne ens e/ propt] suam op]ationem10 says ,/4 ,?omas4 ,& by ! con/ant int]play ( _! activities ^! be+s realize & su/a9 ! univ]sal ord] :i* makes ! _w a cosmos4 ,!re is 9 all ?+s an imman5t purpose or f9ality :i* enables u to speak ( ! :ole sy/em :i* !y =m z 8,univ]sal ,nature047#bha7 ,!re=e :at we call a sub/ance or ess5ce f ! /atic po9t ( view we call a nature :5 we consid] x f ! dynamic /&po9t1 or z an ag5t47#bhb7 ,no d\bt ! =ces1 faculties & p[]s1 ! active & passive accid5tal pr9ciples1 :]eby su* an ag5t ex]ts & und]goes action1 are ! proximate pr9ciples ( all ?is action & *ange1 b ! remote & fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! latt] is ! ess5ce or sub/ance ( ! ag5t itself1 9 o!r words its nature4 ,n all mod]n s*ola/ics1 h[ev]1 are will+ ?us to id5tify nature ) sub/ance4 ,we h no intuitive insight into :at any real ess5ce or sub/ance is2 our k ( x is discursive1 d]iv$ by inf]5ce f ! ph5om5a1 ! op]ations1 ! conduct ( ?+s1 9 accordance ) ! pr9ciple1 ,op]>i sequitur esse4 ,moreov]1 ! actually exi/+1 concrete individual--a man1 = in/ance--has a great v>iety ( activities1 spiritual1 s5ti5t1 vegetative1 & inorganic2 he has1 moreov]1 9 ! con/itution ( 8 body a v>iety ( di/9ct organs & memb]s2 he assimilates into 8 body a v>iety ( inorganic sub/ances2 ! tissues ( 8 body appe> to be diff]5t 9 k9d2 ! vital functions :i* subs]ve nutrition1 gr[? & reproduction are at lea/ analog\s to me*anical1 physical & *emical *anges1 if inde$ !y are n really & simply su*2 x may be1 !re=e1 t ! ultimate mat]ial con/itu5ts ( 8 body rema9 sub/antially unalt]$ 9 _! passage into1 & ?r\gh1 & out ( ! cycle ( 8 vegetative life2 t !y reta9 _! elem5tal sub/antial =ms :ile !y assume a new nature by becom+ p>ts ( ! "o organic :ole1 ^: high] directive pr9ciple dom9ates & co-ord9ates all _! v>i\s en]gies47#bhc7 ,if ?is be s !re is 9 ! same individual a multiplicity ( really & actually di/9ct sub/ances2 ea* ( ^!1 moreov]1 has its own exi/5ce proportionate to its ess5ce1 s9ce ! exi/5ce ( a creat$ reality is n really di/9ct f its ess5ce2 nor is !re any reason = say+ t any ( ^! sub/ances is incomplete2 :at we h a "r to say is t no "o ( !m sep>ately is a complete nature1 t ea* be+ an incomplete nature unites ) all ! o!rs to =m "o complete nature3 inasmu* z no "o ( !m sep>ately is an adequate intr9sic pr9ciple ( all ! functions :i* x c dis*>ge1 & is naturally de/9$ to dis*>ge1 by its natural union ) ! o!rs1 :]eas !re results f _! union a new fundam5tal pr9ciple ( a co-ord9at$ & h>moniz$ sy/em ( op]ations--9 a ^w1 a new nature4 ,?is l9e ( ?\ght implies among o!r ?+s 7a7 ! view t :]eas !re is no gr\nd = admitt+ ! exi/5ce ( incomplete sub/ances1 !re is gr\nd = di/+ui%+ betwe5 complete & incomplete natures2 7b7 ! view t f ! union or conjunction ( an actual multiplicity ( sub/ances1 ea* rema9+ unalt]$ & p]si/+ 9 its exi/5ce actually di/9ct f ! o!rs1 !re c arise "o s+le complete nature--a nature :i* w be "o be+ simply & really1 unum ens p] se et simplicit]1 & n m]ely an aggregate ( be+s or an accid5tal unity1 unum p] accid5s1--& !re does arise su* a nature :5ev] ! compon5t sub/ances n m]ely co-op]ate to dis*>ge c]ta9 functions :i* none ( !m c\ld dis*>ge sep>ately 7:i* inde$ is true ( an accid5tal union1 z ( two horses draw+ a load :i* nei!r c\ld draw by itself71 b :5 !y unite 9 a m p]man5t & intimate way accord+ to :at we call 8natural laws0 or 8laws ( nature10 s z to =m a new fundam5tal pr9ciple ( su* functions47#bhd7 ,^! views und\bt$ly owe _! orig9 to ! belief t c]ta9 facts br\ght to light by ! physical & biological sci5ces 9 mod]n times af=d /rong evid5ce t ! elem5t>y mat]ial con/itu5ts ( bodies1 :e!r inorganic or liv+1 rema9 sub/antially unalt]$ :ile comb9+ to =m ! multitud9\s natural k9ds or natures ( ^? liv+ or non-liv+ mat]ial ?+s4 ,x 0 to reconcile ?is suppos$ plurality ( actually di/9ct & div]se sub/ances 9 ! individual ) ! indubitable real unity ( ! latt]1 t ^! philosoph]s di/+ui%$ betwe5 sub/ance & nature4 ,b x is n cle> t ! facts alleg$ af=d any su* evid5ce4 ,( c\rse if ! philosoph] approa*es ! consid]ation ( x ) :at we may call ! atomic preconception ( mat]ial sub/ances z p]man5t1 un*angeable entities1 ?is view w preclude all recognition ( sub/antial *ange 9 ! univ]se2 x w !re=e =ce him to conclude t ea* individual1 composite ag5t has a unity :i* mu/ be less ?an sub/antial1 & :i*1 because he feels x to be m ?an a m]e accid5tal or artificial unity1 he w describe z natural1 z a union to =m "o nature4 ,b if he approa* ! evid5ce 9 "q ) ! view t sub/antial *ange is possible1 ?is view1 involv+ ! recognition ( incomplete sub/ances z real1 w remove all necessity = di/+ui%+ betwe5 sub/ance & nature1 & w enable him to conclude t h[ev] v>i\s & manifold be ! activities ( ! individual1 _! co-ord9ation & unification1 z proce$+ f ! individual1 po9t to a sub/antial unity 9 ! latt] z _! fundam5tal pr9ciple1 a unity result+ f ! union ( incomplete sub/ances4 ,?is latt] is und\bt$ly ! view ( ,/4 ,?omas1 ( practically all ! m$ieval s*ola/ics1 & ( mo/ s*ola/ics 9 mod]n times4 ,nor d we see any suffici5t reason = rec$+ f x1 or admitt+ ! mod]n di/9ction betwe5 sub/ance & nature4 ,& if x be object$ t ! view :i* admits ! reality ( incomplete sub/ances & sub/antial *ange is z mu* a preconception z :at we h call$ ! atomic view ( sub/ance1 our answ] is1 once m1 t s9ce we h no intellectual intuition into ! real con/itution ( ! sub/ances :i* con/itute ! univ]se1 s9ce we c argue to ?is only by obs]v+ & reason+ f _! activities on ! pr9ciple ,op]>i requitur esse1 ! evid5ce alone mu/ decide :i* view ( ^! sub/ances is ! correct "o4 ,does ! evid5ce af=d$ u by a sci5tific analysis ( all ! functions1 inorganic1 vegetative1 s5ti5t & rational1 ( an individual man1 =bid u to conclude t he is "o complete sub/ance1 result+ f ! union ( two incomplete sub/antial pr9ciples1 a spiritual s\l & a mat]ial pr9ciple8 & at ! same "t compel u to inf] t he is "o complete nature result+ f ! union ( a plurality ( pr9ciples suppos$ to be complete z sub/ances & incomplete z natures8 ,we believe t x does n2 nor c we see t any really useful purpose is s]v$ by ?us sett+ up a real di/9ction betwe5 sub/ance & nature4 ,f ! evid5ce to h& x is nei!r m nor less difficult to inf] unity ( sub/ance ?an unity ( nature 9 ! individual4 ,! inf]5ce 9 "q is an inf]5ce f facts 9 ! ph5om5al ord]1 9 ! doma9 ( ! s5ses1 to :at mu/ be actually !re 9 ! n\m5al ord]1 9 ! doma9 ( nature or sub/ance1 a doma9 :i* _c be rea*$ by ! s5ses b only by intellect4 ,nor w any imag9ation images :i* picture = u ! physical fusion or coalesc5ce ( mat]ial ?+s 9 ! doma9 ( ! s5ses help u 9 ! lea/ to conceive 9 any positive way ! mode 9 :i* incomplete natures or sub/ances unite to =m a complete nature or sub/ance4 ,= ^! latt] facts belong to ! doma9 :i* ! s5ses _c rea* at all1 & :i* intellect c rea* only inf]5tially & n by direct insight4 ,h5ce we consid] ! view :i* reg>ds real unity ( nature z compatible ) real & actual plurality ( complete sub/ances 9 ! individual1 z improbable4 ,at ! same "t we d n believe t ?is view is a necess>y coroll>y f ! real id5tification ( ess5ce ) exi/5ce 9 creat$ ?+s4 ,we h se5 t ev5 if accid5ts h _! own exi/5ce 9 s f> z !y h _! own ess5ce--z !y h if ess5ce & exi/5ce be really id5tical--nev]!less ! concrete sub/ance z det]m9$ by its accid5ts c h a really unit>y exi/5ce1 unum esse correspond+ to & id5tical ) its composite con/itution 7#fg74 ,simil>ly1 if ! exi/5ce ( ea* incomplete sub/ance is id5tical ) its incomplete ess5ce1 ?is is no ob/acle to ! complete sub/ance--:i* results f ! union ( two su* incomplete sub/antial pr9ciples--hav+ "o complete unit>y exi/5ce id5tical ) its composite ess5ce4 ,h5ce x is useless to argue aga9/ ! view t a plurality ( actually di/9ct & complete sub/ances c unite to =m a complete nature :i* w be really "o be+1 on ! gr\nd t ea* complete sub/ance has already its own exi/5ce & t ?+s :i* h & pres]ve _! own exi/5ce _c =m "o be+4 ,su* an argum5t is inconclusive2 = al?\gh "o be+ has ( c\rse only "o exi/5ce1 x has n be5 prov$ t ?is "o exi/5ce _c result f ! union ( _m incomplete exi/5ces3 especially if ^! exi/5ces be id5tical ) ! incomplete ess5ces :i* are admitt$ly capable ( unit+ to =m "o complete ess5ce4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be reasonably urg$ aga9/ ! op9ion "u criticism t1 s9ce ! complete sub/ances are suppos$ to rema9 complete & un*ang$ 9 _! /ate ( comb9ation1 x is difficult to see h[ ?is comb9ation c be a real union & n m]ely an extr9sic juxtaposition1--"o :i* rema9s 9 reality a m]ely accid5tal conjunction1 ev5 ?\gh we may dignify x ) ! title ( a 8natural union04 ,& f9ally x may be po9t$ out t 9 ?is view ! op]ations ( ! individual h n really "o ultimate intr9sic pr9ciple at all1 s9ce beh9d ! suppos$ unity ( nature !re is a m fundam5tal plurality ( actually di/9ct sub/ances4 #gb4 ,,subsi/5ce ,,& ,,p]sonality4--,we h already exam9$ ! relation betwe5 ! individual & ! univ]sal1 betwe5 fir/ & second sub/ances1 9 connexion ) ! doctr9e ( ,individuation 7#ca-c74 ,& we !n saw t :atev] x be t individuates ! univ]sal nature1 x is at all ev5ts n to be reg>d$ z any?+ extr9sic & sup]add$ to ?is nature 9 ! individual1 z any?+ really di/9ct f ?is nature3 t1 = in/ance1 :at makes ,plato's human nature to be ,plato's is n any?+ really di/9ct f ! human nature t is 9 ,plato4 ,we h n[ to fix our att5tion on ! nature z individualiz$4 ,we h to consid] ! complete individual nature or sub/ance itself 9 actually exi/+ individual 8?+s0 or 8p]sons04 ,we mu/ rememb] t s*ola/ics are n agre$ z to :e!r !re is a real di/9ction or only a virtual di/9ction betwe5 ! actual exi/5ce & ! complete individual ess5ce or sub/ance or nature ( creat$ individual be+s 7#ba-d74 ,fur!rmore we h se5 t philosoph]s :o /udy ! metaphysics ( ! inorganic _w & ( ! l[] =ms ( life are unable to say ) c]ta9ty :at is ! individual 9 ^! doma9s3 :e!r x is ! *emical molecule or ! *emical atom or ! electron2 :e!r x is ! s+le liv+ cell or ! liv+ mass consi/+ ( a plurality ( su* cells 7#ca74 ,b we h also se5 t z we asc5d ! scale ( liv+ ?+s all difficulty 9 designat+ ! g5u9e individual disappe>s3 t a man1 a horse1 an oak tree1 are und\bt$ly individual be+s4 ,be>+ ^! ?+s 9 m9d we h n[ to inquire into :at has be5 call$ ! subsi/5ce or p]sonality ( ! complete individual sub/ance or nature3 t p]fection :i* enables u =mally to designate ! latt] a 8subsi/+ ?+07#bhe7 or a 8p]son04 ,by p]sonality we mean ! subsi/5ce ( a complete individual rational nature4 ,we %all !re=e inquire into ! mean+ ( ! g5]ic t]m subsi/5tia 7or suppositalitas71 subsi/5ce1 9 ! ab/ract4 ,b let u look at x fir/ 9 ! concrete4 ,a complete individual nature or sub/ance1 :5 x exi/s 9 ! actual ord]1 really di/9ct & sep>ate 9 its own complete entity f e o!r exi/+ be+1 ex]cis+ its p[]s & dis*>g+ its functions ( its own "r & accord+ to ! laws ( its own be+1 is said to subsi/1 or to h ! p]fection ( subsi/5ce4 ,9 ?is /ate x n only exi/s 9 itself z e sub/ance does2 x is n only incommunicable to any o!r be+ z e individual is1 9 contradi/9ction ) second or univ]sal sub/ances :i* are1 z su*1 indef9itely communicable to individuals2 b x is also a complete :ole1 incommunicable z a m]e integral or ess5tial "p to "s o!r :ole1 unlike ! incomplete sub/antial con/itu5ts1 or integral p>ts1 memb]s or organs (1 say1 an individual organic body2 & f9ally x is incommunicable 9 ! s5se t x is n capable ( be+ assum$ into ! subsi/+ unity ( "s o!r sup]ior 8suppositum0 or 8p]son04 ,all ^? *>act]i/ics we f9d 9 ! individual 8subsi/+ ?+0 or 8p]son04 ,x 8exi/s 9 itself0 & is n communicable to ano!r sub/ance z an accid5t1 because x is itself a sub/ance4 ,x is n communicable to individuals z a univ]sal1 because x is itself an individual4 ,x is n communicable z an integral or ess5tial "p to a :ole1 because x is itself a complete sub/ance & nature47#bhf7 ,f9ally x is n communicable to1 & _c be assum$ into1 ! unity ( a high] p]sonality s z to subsi/ by virtue ( ! latt]'s subsi/5ce1 because x has a p]fection incompatible ) su* assumption1 viz4 its own prop] subsi/5ce1 :]eby x is already an actually subsi/+ ?+ or p]son 9 its own "r1 or sui juris1 s to speak4 ,! m5tion ( ?is la/ sort ( incommunicability w\ld be sup]flu\s1 & inde$ un9telligible1 did we n "k f ,div9e ,revelation t ! human nature ( our ,div9e ,"l & ,savi\r1 ,jesus ,*ri/1 ?\gh x is a complete & mo/ p]fect individual nature1 is nev]!less n a p]son1 because ,x is assum$ into ! ,p]sonality ( ! ,second ,p]son ( ! ,div9e ,tr9ity1 &1 unit$ hypo/atically or p]sonally ) ?is ,div9e ,p]son1 subsi/s by virtue ( ! ,div9e ,subsi/5ce ( ! latt]4 ,we see1 !re=e1 :at subsi/5ce does = a complete individual nature 9 ! /atic ord]4 ,x makes ?is nature sui juris1 incommunicable1 & entirely indep5d5t 9 ! mode ( its actual be+3 leav+ unt\*$1 ( c\rse1 ! ess5tial dep5d5ce ( ! creat$ 8subsi/+ ?+0 or 8p]son0 on ! ,creator4 ,9 ! dynamic ord]1 ! ord] ( activity & developm5t1 subsi/5ce makes ! complete individual nature n only ! ultimate pr9ciple by :i* all ! functions ( ! individual are dis*>g$1 b also ! ultimate pr9ciple or ag5t :i* ex]cises ^! functions3 :ile ! nature z su* is ! ultimate pr9cipium ,,quo1 ! nature z subsi/+ is ! ultimate pr9cipium ,,quod1 9 reg>d to all actions emanat+ f ?is nature4 ,h5ce ! s*ola/ic aphorism3 ,actiones sunt suppositorum4 ,t is1 all actions emanat+ f a complete individual nature are always ascrib$ & attribut$ to ! latt] z subsi/+1 to ! 8subsi/+ ?+0 or 8p]son04 ,9 reg>d to an individual human p]son1 = in/ance1 :e!r 8 intellect ?9ks1 or 8 w resolves1 or 8 imag9ation pictures ?+s1 or 8 eyes see1 or 8 h& writes1 or 8 /oma* dige/s1 or 8 lungs brea!1 or 8 head a*es1 x is ! man1 ! p]son1 prop]ly1 t dis*>ges or suff]s all ^! functions1 ?\gh by means ( diff]5t faculties1 organs & memb]s2 & x is to him prop]ly t we ascribe all ( !m47#bhg7 ,n[ ! individual human p]son is nei!r 8 s\l1 nor 8 body1 nor ev5 bo? conceiv$ z two2 he is "o be+1 "o complete sub/ance or nature compos$ p>tly ( a spiritual pr9ciple or s\l & p>tly ( a mat]ial pr9ciple :i* ! s\l 8in=ms0 & s con/itutes a liv+ human body4 ,h5ce ! human s\l itself1 :e!r we consid] x z unit$ to ! mat]ial pr9ciple 9 ! liv+ human p]son1 or z disembodi$ & sep>ate f its connatural mat]ial pr9ciple1 is n a complete sub/ance1 is n capable ( subsi/+ & hav+ its human activities ref]r$ ultimately to itself z ! subsi/+1 p]sonal pr9ciple :i* elicits ^! activities4 ,no d\bt ! disembodi$ s\l has actual exi/5ce1 b x has n ! p]fection ( subsi/5ce or p]sonality3 x is n a complete individual ( ! human species to :i* x belongs1 & !re=e x _c be prop]ly call$ a human p]son1 a complete subsi/+ individual ( ! human species47#bhh7 ,fur!rmore1 ev5 ?\gh an individual nature be complete z a nature1 end[$ ) all ! sub/antial & specific p]fections :i* con/itute x a complete individual ( ! species to :i* x belongs1 nev]!less if x is assum$ into ! p]sonality ( ano!r & high] nature1 & subsi/s 9 p]sonal union ) ! latt] & by virtue ( ! latt]'s subsi/5ce1 !n t nature1 n hav+ its own prop] & connatural subsi/5ce1 is n itself a p]son4 ,nor c ! actions :i* are elicit$ by means ( x be ascrib$ ultimately to x2 !y mu/ be ascrib$ to ! p]son by ^: subsi/5ce x subsi/s & into ^: p]sonality x has be5 assum$4 ,if an individual human nature be ?us hypo/atically or p]sonally assum$ into1 & unit$ )1 a high] ,div9e ,p]sonality1 & subsi/s only by ?is ,p]sonality1 su* a human nature w be really & truly an individual nature ( ! human species2 ! actions elicit$ ?r\gh x & p]=m$ by means ( x w be really & truly human actions2 b x w n be a human p]son2 :ile its actions w be really & truly ! actions ( ! ,div9e ,p]son1 & w !re=e be also really & truly div9e3 !y w be ! actions ( ! ,god-,man1 div9e & human1 !&ric4 ,all ?is we "k only f ,div9e ,revelation conc]n+ ! hypo/atic union ( ! human nature ( ,*ri/ ) ! ,p]son ( ! ,div9e ,^w2 nor c\ld we "k x o!rwise4 ,b all ?is does n modify1 x only supplem5ts & completes1 :at ! light ( reason discloses to u reg>d+ ! subsi/5ce or p]sonality ( any complete individual nature4 ,we are n[ 9 a position to give nom9al def9itions ( subsi/5ce & p]sonality bo? 9 ! ab/ract & 9 ! concrete1 i4e4 def9itions :i* w indicate to u :at exactly x is t ^! t]ms d5ote17#bhi7 & :i* w ?us enable u to inquire into _! connotation1 or 9 o!r words to ask :at is x precisely t con/itutes subsi/5ce or p]sonality4 ,by 8subsi/5ce0 78subsi/5tia10 8suppositalitas07 we mean t p]fection :]eby a fully complete individual nature is r5d]$ 9 e way1 9 its be+ & 9 its actions1 di/9ct f & incommunicable to any & e o!r be+1 s t x exi/s & acts sui juris1 autonom\sly1 indep5d5tly ( e o!r be+ save ! ,creator47#bij7 ,by a 8subsi/+ be+0 9 ! concrete 71 8suppositum10 hypo/asis71 we mean a be+ end[$ ) ?is p]fection ( subsi/5ce2 9 o!r words1 a be+ t is a complete individual nature exi/+ & act+ 9 e way di/9ct f & incommunicable to any o!r be+1 s t x exi/s & acts sui juris1 autonom\sly4 8,p]sonality0 is simply ! subsi/5ce ( a complete individual nature t is rational1 intellig5t4 ,a 8p]son0 is simply a subsi/+ nature t is rational1 intellig5t3 ,p]sona e/ suppositum rationale4 ,! def9ition giv5 by ,botius is classic3 8,p]sona e/ sub/antia individua ,,rationalis naturae03 8! individual sub/ance ( a rational nature10--:]e ! t]m individual is und]/ood to imply actually exi/+ & subsi/+4 ,! special "n :i* has ?us be5 traditionally appli$ to rational or intellig5t subsi/+ be+s 7z di/9ct f animals1 plants1 & mat]ial 8?+s07--! t]m 8p]son0 78p]sona10 a mask3 p]-sonus2 cf4 ,gr4 1 f 1 ! face1 c\nt5ance7--orig9ally mean+ a rle or "* 9 a drama1 came to be appli$ to ! subsi/+ human individual1 & to connote a c]ta9 dignity ( ! latt] z comp>$ ) ! l[] or non-rational be+s ( ! univ]se4 ,& 9 fact ! ascription ( its actions to ! subsi/+ be+ is m deeply gr\nd$ 9 ! subsi/5ce ( rational1 intellig5t be+s1 :o1 z free ag5ts1 c m prop]ly direct & control ^! actions47#bia7 #gc4 ,,di/9ction ,,betwe5 ,,! ,,individual ,,nature ,,& ,,its ,,subsi/5ce4 ,,:at ,,con/itutes ,,p]sonality8--,kn[+ n[ :at we mean by ! t]ms 8subsi/5ce10 8suppositum10 8p]son10 & 8p]sonality10 we h next to inquire 9 :at precisely does subsi/5ce consi/4 ,:at is x t con/itutes a complete individual nature a 8subsi/+ be+10 or if ! nature be rational1 a 8p]son08 ,subsi/5ce connotes1 ov] & above ! mode ( 8exi/+ 9 itself0 :i* *>act]izes all sub/ance1 ! notion t ! sub/ance or nature is individual1 t x is complete1 t x is 9 e way incommunicable1 t x is sui juris or autonom\s 9 its exi/5ce & activities4 ,^! notions are all positive2 !y imply positive p]fections3 ev5 incommunicability is really a positive p]fection ?\gh ! t]m is negative4 ,b is any "o ( ! positive p]fections1 ?us conta9$ 9 ! notion ( subsi/5ce1 a positive some?+ ov] & above1 & really di/9ct f1 ! p]fection already impli$ 9 ! concept ( a complete individual nature z su*8 ,"s ( ^? philosoph]s :o reg>d ! di/9ction betwe5 ess5ce & exi/5ce 9 creatures z a real di/9ction1 id5tify ! subsi/5ce ( ! complete individual nature ) its actual exi/5ce1 ?us plac+ a real di/9ction betwe5 nature & subsi/5ce or p]sonality47#bib7 ,ap>t f ^!1 h[ev]1 x is n likely t any philosoph]s1 guid$ by ! light ( reason alone1 w\ld ev] h held1 or ev5 suspect$1 t ! subsi/5ce ( an actually exi/+ individual nature is a positive p]fection really di/9ct f1 & sup]add$ to1 ! latt]4 ,= we nev]1 9 our natural exp]i5ce1 enc\nt] an exi/+ individual sub/ance1 or nature1 or ag5t1 t is n di/9ct1 autonom\s1 indep5d5t1 sui juris1 & incommunicable 9 its mode ( be+ & act+4 ,rigor\sly1 h[ev]1 ?is w\ld only prove t subsi/5ce is a p]fection naturally insep>able f ! complete individual nature2 conceivably x might /ill be really di/9ct f ! latt]4 ,b :e!r or n su* real di/9ction c\ld be suspect$ by ! unaid$ light ( reason work+ on natural exp]i5ce1 at all ev5ts :at we "k f ,div9e ,revelation conc]n+ ! hypo/atic union ( ! human nature ( our ,"l ,jesus ,*ri/ ) ! ,p]son ( ! ,div9e ,^w1 enables u to realize t !re c be1 9 ! actual ord] ( ?+s1 a complete individual nature :i* is n a 8subsi/+ be+0 or 8p]son02 = ! human nature ( our ,"l is de facto su* a nature1--& ab actu ad posse valet consecutio4 ,?is in=mation1 h[ev]1 is n decisive 9 det]m9+ ! "* ( ! di/9ction betwe5 ! individual sub/ance or nature & its subsi/5ce4 ,x may be t ! complete individual nature is eo ipso & id5tically a 8subsi/+ be+0 or 8p]son10 t x is always indep5d5t1 autonom\s1 sui juris1 by ! v fact t x is a complete individual nature1 unless x is ,,de ,,facto assum$ into ! p]sonality ( a high] nature1 s t 9 ?is int]communication ) ! latt]1 9 ! unity ( ! latt]'s p]sonality1 x is n indep5d5t1 autonom\s1 sui juris1 b dep5d5t1 subord9ate1 & alt]ius juris4 ,9 ?is condition1 x loses no?+ positive by ! fact t x is n n[ a p]son & has n its own subsi/5ce2 nor does x ga9 any natural p]fection1 = x 0 ex hypo!si complete & p]fect z a nature2 b x ga9s some?+ sup]natural inasmu* z x n[ subsi/s 9 a mann] :olly undue to x47#bic7 ,accord+ to ?is view1 !re=e1 subsi/5ce w\ld n be a p]fection really di/9ct f ! complete individual nature2 x w\ld be a m5tally di/9ct aspect ( ! latt]1 a positive aspect1 h[ev]1 consi/+ 9 ?is nature's complet5ess1 its self-suffic+1 autonom\s "*1 & consequ5t incommunicability47#bid7 ,! pr9cipal difficulty aga9/ ?is view is a !ological difficulty4 ,z =mulat$ by ,urraburu17#bie7 x appe>s to involve an ambiguity 9 ! expression 8sub/antial union04 ,x is briefly ?is3 ,if ! subsi/5ce prop] to a complete individual nature adds no positive p]fection to ! latt]1 s t ! latt] necess>ily subsi/s & is a p]son unless x is actually assum$ into a high] p]sonality1 & by ! v fact t x is n actually s assum$1 !n ! human nature ( ,*ri/ 8is z complete 9 e way & 9 e l9e ( sub/antial p]fection1 by virtue ( its own prop] entity1 :5 actually unit$ ) ! ,div9e ,p]son1 z x w\ld be 7 x n s unit$1 or z ! p]son ( ,pet]1 or ,paul1 or any o!r human p]son is04 ,b ?is implies t !re are 9 ,*ri/ 8two sub/ances complete 9 e respect04 ,n[ betwe5 two su* sub/ances 8!re _c be a sub/antial union10 a union :i* w\ld con/itute 8"o be+10 8unum p] se ens04 ,h5ce ! view 9 "q w\ld appe> to be inadmissible4 ,b x is n prov$ t ! union ( 8two sub/ances complete 9 e respect0 _c result 9 ! con/itution ( a be+ t is really & g5u9ely "o--8unum p] se ens0--9 ! case 9 :i* ! union is a p]sonal union4 ,! hypo/atic union ( ! human nature ( ,*ri/ ) ! ,div9e ,p]son is prim>ily a p]sonal union :]eby ! =m] nature subsi/s by & 9 ! ,div9e ,p]sonality4 ,x has ! effect ( con/itut+ ! unit$ t]ms 8"o subsi/+ be+10 & !re=e has sup]em95tly1 if n =mally1 ! effect ( a 8sub/antial union04 ,nay1 x is a 8sub/antial0 union 9 ! s5se t x is a union ( two sub/ances1 n ( a sub/ance & accid5ts2 & also 9 ! s5se t x is n a m]e accid5tal aggregation or artificial juxtaposition ( sub/ances1 result+ m]ely 9 ! con/itution ( collective or artificial unity1 a unum p] accid5s4 ,b is x a 8sub/antial0 union 9 ! s5se t x is su* a union ( sub/ances z results 9 "o 8nature08 ,mo/ c]ta9ly n2 = ?is 0 ! h]esy ( ! ,monophysites3 t 9 ,*ri/ !re is only "o nature result+ f ! union ( ! human nature ) ! ,div9e4 ,if !n1 ) ,urraburu1 we mean by 8nature0 simply 8sub/ance reg>d$ z a pr9ciple ( action0 7#ga71 & if1 fur!rmore1 ! hypo/atic union does n result 9 "o 8nature10 nei!r does x result 9 "o 8sub/ance10 nor c x be a 8sub/antial0 or 8natural0 union 9 ?is s5se47#bif7 ,he does n say1 ( c\rse1 t ! hypo/atic union is a 8sub/antial union0 :i* results 9 8"o nature10 or ev5 explicitly t x results 9 8"o sub/ance10 b he says t ! two sub/ances are 8sub/antially conjo9$10 8sub/antialit] conjunguntur02 & he cont9ues1 8a sub/antial union is su* a conjunction ( two sub/antial realities t !re results f x "o sub/antial some?+1 :i* is truly & prop]ly "o0--8unio enim sub/antialis1 e/ talis du>um r]um sub/antialium conjunctio1 p] quam resultat unum aliquid sub/antiale quod v]e et proprie sit unum107#big7--;& he concludes t 8!re is some?+ sub/antial want+ 9 ! human nature ( ,*ri/1 viz4 p]sonality1 :i*1 ( c\rse1 is mo/ abundantly suppli$ 9 ! hypo/atic union by ! ,div9e ,p]son0--8reliquum e/1 ut naturae humanae 9 ,*ri/o aliquid desit sub/antiale1 nempe p]sonalitas1 quod p] unionem hypo/aticam cumulatissime suppleatur a ,v]bo407#bih7 ,n[1 ?is 8aliquid sub/antiale0 _c be 8aliquid naturale0 9 ! s5se t x is some?+ con/itutive ( ! human sub/ance or nature2 = ! human sub/ance or nature ( ,*ri/ is c]ta9ly complete & p]fect z a sub/ance or nature4 ,x mu/ be "s complem5t or mode1 t is naturally due to x1 b sup]naturally suppli$ by ! ,p]son ( ! ,div9e ,^w47#bii7 ,?is br+s u to ! view t subsi/5ce is a some?+ positive1 di/9ct 9 "s real way1 & n m]ely 9 our concepts1 f ! complete individual sub/ance4 ,accord+ to ! m common view ( ca?olic philosoph]s 7& !ologians7 subsi/5ce is "s positive p]fection really di/9ct f ! complete individual nature4 ,b ! support]s ( ?is g5]al view expla9 x 9 diff]5t ways4 ,we h already ref]r$ to ! view ( c]ta9 ,?omi/s :o1 id5tify+ subsi/5ce ) ! actual exi/5ce ( ! complete sub/ance or nature1 place a real di/9ction betwe5 ! exi/5ce & ! sub/ance or nature4 ,o!r ,?omi/s1 :ile def5d+ ! latt] di/9ction1 po9t out t actual exi/5ce conf]s no real p]fection1 b only actualizes ! real2 !y hold1 !re=e1 t subsi/5ce is n exi/5ce1 b is r a p]fection ( ! real1 ess5tial1 or sub/antial ord]1 z di/9ct f ! exi/5tial ord]--a p]fection presuppos$ by actual exi/5ce1 & ^: prop] function is to unify all ! sub/antial con/itu5ts & accid5tal det]m9ations ( ! individual sub/ance or nature1 ?us mak+ x a really unit>y be+--8unum ens p] se0--proximately capable ( be+ actualiz$ by ! simple exi/5tial act3 :i* latt] is ! ultimate actuality ( ! real be+3 esse e/ ultimus actus47#cjj7 ,! concrete individual nature1 conta9+ z x does a plurality ( really di/9ct pr9ciples1 sub/antial & accid5tal1 ne$s "s unify+ pr9ciple to make ^! "o incommunicable reality1 proximately capable ( receiv+ a correspond+ unit>y exi/5tial act3 )\t su* a pr9ciple1 !y say1 ea* ( ! sub/antial & accid5tal pr9ciples 9 ! concrete individual nature w\ld h its own exi/5ce3 s t ! result w\ld be n really "o be+1 b a be+ really manifold & only accid5tally "o--8unum p] accid5s04 ,?is pr9ciple is subsi/5ce4 ,! human nature ( our ,div9e ,"l has n its own connatural subsi/5ce2 ?is is suppli$ by ! subsi/5ce ( ! ,div9e ,p]son4 ,moreov]1 s9ce ! human nature 9 "q has n its own subsi/5ce1 nei!r has x its own exi/5ce2 exi/5ce is ! actuality ( ! subsi/+ be+2 !re=e !re is 9 ,*ri/ b "o exi/5ce1 t ( ! ,div9e ,p]son1 :]eby also ! human nature ( ,*ri/ exi/s47#cja7 ,( ^? :o d5y t ! di/9ction betwe5 ! exi/5ce & ! ess5ce ( any creat$ nature is a real di/9ction1 "s hold 9 ! pres5t matt] ! ,scoti/ view t subsi/5ce is n a positive p]fection really di/9ct f ! complete individual nature4 ,o!rs1 h[ev]1 hold :at we h v5tur$ to reg>d z ! m common view3 t p]sonality is some?+ positive & really di/9ct f nature4 ,b !y expla9 :at !y conceive subsi/5ce to be )\t any ref]5ce to exi/5ce1 & )\t di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! ess5tial & ! exi/5tial ord] ( reality4 ,! mo/ common explanation seems to be t subsi/5ce is a unify+ pr9ciple ( ! concrete individual nature1 z /at$ above4 ,?us conceiv$1 x is n an absolute reality2 nor is ! di/9ction betwe5 x & ! nature a major real di/9ction4 ,x is a sub/antial mode 7#fh71 naturally sup]add$ to ! sub/ance & modally di/9ct f ! latt]4 ,x s completes & det]m9es ! sub/ance or nature t ! latt] n only exi/s 9 itself b is also1 by virtue ( ?is mode1 incommunicable 9 e way & sui juris47#cjb7 ,x gives to ! sub/ance t ultimate det]m9at5ess :i* an accid5tal mode su* z a def9ite %ape or location gives to ! accid5t ( quantity47#cjc7 ,?is mode is abs5t 7sup]naturally7 f ! human nature ( our ,div9e ,"l2 ?is nature is !re=e communicable2 & ! ,p]sonality ( ! ,div9e ,^w sup]naturally supplies ! function ( ?is abs5t natural mode4 ,x mu/ be confess$ t x is n easy to und]/& h[ ?is or any o!r sub/antial mode c be really di/9ct f ! sub/ance x modifies4 ,& 9 tru? ! di/9ction is n real 9 ! full s5se3 x is n betwe5 ?+ & ?+1 int] rem et rem4 ,all t is claim$ = x is t x is n m]ely m5tal2 t x is n m]ely an ens rationis :i* ! m9d projects into ! reality2 t x is a positive p]fection ( ! nature or sub/ance1 a p]fection :i*1 ?\gh naturally insep>able f ! latt]1 is n absolutely insep>able1 & :i*1 !re=e1 is de facto sup]naturally abs5t f ! human nature & replac$ by ! ,div9e ,p]sonality 9 ! case ( ! hypo/atic union4 ,x belongs1 moreov]1 to ! ord] ( sub/ance1 n to t ( accid5ts3 ! sub/antial mode diff]s f ! accid5tal mode1 or modal accid5t1 9 ?is1 t x gives to ! sub/ance "s ultimate det]m9+ p]fection :i* app]ta9s to ! sub/ance z su*1 & :]eby ! sub/ance is complet$ 9 ! ord] ( 8exi/+ 9 itself04 ,subsi/5ce is n an accid5t1 ev5 ?\gh x sup]v5es on ! complete nature1 = x det]m9es ! sub/ance ( ! latt]1 n 9 relation to any l9e ( accid5tal activity1 z a p[] or faculty1 nor z some?+ modify+ x accid5tally1 b z a mode :i* ultimately det]m9es & p]fects x 9 ! ord] ( sub/antial reality itself1 9 ! ord] ( 8exi/+ 9 itself0 9 su* a full & p]fect mann] z to be sui juris & incommunicable4 ,! ma9 difficulty aga9/ ?is view is also !ological3 ,if subsi/5ce is a positive p]fection x ei!r belongs to ! complete individual nature or x does n2 9 ! =m] case ! humanity ( ,*ri/1 assum$ by ! ,div9e ,^w1 0 n a complete human nature2 9 ! latt] case ! individual human nature c exi/ )\t x3 & bo? consequ5ces are equally inadmissable4 ,b x may be repli$ t1 grant+ ! fir/ memb] ( ! disjunctive1 ! consequ5ce inf]r$ f x does n really foll[3 subsi/5ce belongs to ! complete individual nature z an ultimate natural complem5t2 b :5 x is abs5t & suppli$ sup]naturally by ! ,div9e ,p]sonality ! nature is /ill complete z a nature3 x is want+ 9 no absolute or entitative p]fection1 b only 9 a modality :i* is sup]em95tly suppli$ by ! ,div9e ,p]sonality4 ,nei!r is ! consequ5ce f ! second memb] ( ! disjunctive a valid inf]5ce4 ,= ?\gh p]sonality z a mode does n belong to ! ess5ce ( an individual human nature1 no su* individual nature c exi/ )\t "s p]sonality1 ei!r its own or ano!r3 j z ext5sion _c exi/ )\t "s %ape1 ?\gh any p>ticul> %ape is n ess5tial to x4 ,to sum up1 !n1 ! doctr9e ( ! two prec$+ sections3 ,:at are we to und]/& by a p]son1 & by p]sonality8 ,unque/ionably our conception ( p]son & p]sonality 7concrete & ab/ract7 is ma9ly det]m9$1 & v rightly s1 by an analysis ( :at con/itutes ! actually exi/+ individual ( ! human species4 ,:atev] our concept be1 x mu/ c]ta9ly be realiz$ & v]ifi$ 9 all human individuals3 ^!1 be=e all o!r be+s1 mu/ be includ$ 9 ! d5otation ( our concept ( p]son4 ,9 fact1 = ! philosoph]1 guid$ by ! natural light ( reason alone1 ! t]m c h h>dly any o!r connotation4 ,he w1 no d\bt1 ascribe p]sonality1 z ! highe/ mode ( be+ he kn[s (1 to ! ,supreme ,be+2 b he w "h ascribe x only 9 an analogical & sup]em95t way2 & only f ,div9e ,revelation c he "k t ?is ,supreme ,be+ has n a s+le b a ?reefold ,p]sonality4 ,aga91 8 consid]ation ( ! nature ( ! human s\l z an embodi$ sub/ance :i* is nev]!less spiritual & immortal w enable him to affirm ! possibility ( purely spiritual creat$ be+s2 & ^! he w ( c\rse conceive z p]sons4 ,b1 conceiv+ ! human s\l itself z a con/itu5t pr9ciple ( ! human individual1 he w n conceive ! s\l itself z a p]son4 ,! philosoph] :o und]/&s ! traditional ,ari/otelian conceptions ( sub/ance1 ( individual sub/ance 7sub/antia prima71 ( incomplete1 complete1 & composite sub/ances1 ( sub/ance consid]$ z nature or pr9ciple ( action1 ( sub/ance consid]$ z hypo/asis1 z ! actually exi/+ individual be+ :i* is ! ultimate logical subject ( all pr$ications & ! ultimate ontological subject ( all real det]m9ations3 ! philosoph] :o und]/&s ^! concepts1 & :o admits !m to be validly gr\nd$ 9 exp]i5ce1 & to (f] z f> z !y g a correct int]pretation ( reality1 w h no difficulty 9 mak+ up 8 m9d ab\t :at is requisite to con/itute a p]son4 ,:]ev] he f9ds an exi/+ individual be+ ( any species1 a be+ :i*1 ev5 if x is really composite1 is nev]!less really "o1 su* a be+ he w pron\nce to be a 8subsi/+ individual be+04 ,he may n be able1 9 ! inorganic _w or among ! l[] =ms ( life1 to di/+ui% = c]ta9 :at is ! real individual f :at may be p]haps only an accid5tal1 if natural1 colony or gr\p ( real individuals4 ,z a te/ he w always seek = ! manife/ation ( an int]nal directive pr9ciple :]eby all ! vital functions ( ! organiz$ mass ( matt] 9 "q are co-ord9at$ 9 su* a mann] z to make = ! pres]vation1 gr[? & developm5t ( ! :ole ?r\gh\t a def9ite life cycle f bir? to dea?4 ,?is =mative & directive pr9ciple is evid5ce ( an individual unity ( nature & subsi/5ce2 & su* evid5ce is abundantly pres5t 9 8individuals0 ( all ! high] species 9 botany & zoology4 ,! 8individual subsi/+ be+0 w !re=e be a 8complete individual sub/ance or nature1 exi/+ & act+ 9 e way di/9ct f & incommunicable to any o!r be+1 s t x exi/s & acts sui juris1 autonom\sly04 ,if su* an individual nature is n m]ely corporeal b organic or animate1 n m]ely animate b s5ti5t1 & n m]ely s5ti5t b rational or intellig5t1 i4e4 con/itut$ at lea/ 9 "p by a spiritual sub/antial pr9ciple :]eby ! individual is intellig5t & free1 !n t individual is a p]son4 ,e individual ( ! human species is su*4 ,& all t is ess5tial to 8 complete individual human nature ent]s into & con/itutes 8 p]son 9 ! concrete4 ,n m]ely1 !re=e1 8 intellect & w2 n m]ely 8 s\l consid]$ z 8m9d10 i4e4 z ! basis & pr9ciple ( 8 :ole consci\s & subconsci\s psy*ic life2 or also z ! pr9ciple ( 8 m]ely organic life2 or also z ! actualiz+ pr9ciple ( 8 corporeal nature2 b no less also ! corporeal pr9ciple itself ( 8 composite be+1 ! body itself ) all its p>ts & memb]s & organs3 all ^! )\t exception belong equally to ! human p]son2 all ( !m )\t exception g to con/itute ! ,ego47#cjd7 ,?is1 :i* is ! ,ari/otelian & s*ola/ic view ( ! human p]son1 is 9 p]fect accord ) ! common-s5se view ( ! matt] z evid5c$ by ! ord9>y usages ( language4 ,we speak intelligibly no less ?an correctly :5 we say t a man's body is "p ( 8 p]son z well z 8 s\l or m9d4 ,& we make a no less accurate1 intelligible1 & necess>y di/9ction1 :5 we di/+ui% betwe5 all t :i* con/itutes ! human p]son & t :]eby we "k ourselves & o!r human individuals to be p]sons4 ,yet ?is di/9ction is n kept cle>ly 9 m9d by _m mod]n philosoph]s1 :o1 approa*+ ! /udy ( p]sonality exclusively f ! side ( :at ! individual consci\sness te/ifies z to ! unity & cont9uity 7or o!rwise7 ( m5tal life 9 ! individual1 are sc&aliz$ at ! ass]tion t ! human body c h any?+ to d ) human p]sonality4 #gd4 ,,consci\sness ,,( ,,! ,,p]sonal ,,self4--,9 ord] to =m ! concept ( p]son1 & to f9d t concept v]ifi$ 9 ! data ( our exp]i5ce1 x is absolutely ess5tial t we be end[$ ) ! faculty ( intellig5ce1 ! spiritual p[] ( =m+ ab/ract concepts2 & secondly1 t hav+ =m$ ! concept ( p]son z a 8rational or intellig5t subsi/+ be+10 we be capable1 by ! ex]cise ( reflex consci\sness1 to f9d 9 our own m5tal life ! data f :i* we c conclude t ?is concept ( p]son is v]ifi$ 9 ea* & e "o ( ourselves4 ,x is because we are end[$ ) intellig5ce t we c =m all ! ab/ract notions--( sub/ance1 individual1 subsi/5ce1 exi/5ce1 etc41--:i* ent] into & con/itute our concept ( p]son4 ,& x is because we c1 by means ( ?is faculty1 reflect on our own m5tal op]ations1 & inf] f !m t ea* ( u is a complete individual rational nature subsi/+ indep5d5tly & incommunicably1 t we c "k ourselves to be p]sons4 ,h[ ! human individual =ms ^! concepts & f9ds !m v]ifi$ 9 8 own 8self10 h[ he gradually comes into consci\s possession ( ! k ( 8 own individual be+ z an ,ego1 self1 or p]son1 are problems = ,psy*ology47#cje7 ,x w be suffici5t "h to po9t out t !re are gr\nds = di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! individual's implicit subjective aw>5ess ( 8 subsi/5ce or 8selfhood0--an aw>5ess :i* accompanies all 8 consci\s m5tal functions1 & :i* becomes m explicit & def9ite z ! p[] ( introspection & reflex consci\sness develops--& ! 8ab/ract quasi-objective notion ( 8 own p]sonality habitually possess$ by e human be+047#cjf7 ,! individual human be+ imm$iately appreh5ds 8 own exi/5ce1 & 8 abid+ unity or sam5ess ?r\gh\t incessantly *ang+ /ates1 9 ! temporal s]ies ( 8 consci\s activities2 b 8 k ( ! nature ( 8 own be+ c be ! result only ( a long & c>efully conduct$ analysis ( 8 own activities1 & ( inf]5ces bas$ on ! "* ( ^! activities4 ,! =m] or implicit k ( ! self 9 ! concrete is direct & intuitive4 ,! individual ,ego appreh5ds itself 9 its /ates4 ,?is k comes ma9ly f )91 & is subject to gradual developm5t4 ,fa!r ,mah] ?us describes h[ ! *ild comes gradually into possession ( x3-- ,z ?\ghts ( pleasures & pa9s repeat$ 9 ! pa/ & expect$ 9 ! future gr[ m di/9ct1 ! dissimil>ity betwe5 ^! & ! p]man5t abid+ self comes to be m fully realiz$4 ,pass+ emotions ( fe>1 ang]1 vanity1 pride1 or sympa?y1 acc5tuate ! diff]5ce4 ,b mo/ probably x is ! dawn+ s5se ( p[] to resi/ & ov]come ris+ impulse1 & ! dim nasc5t consci\sness ( responsibility1 :i* lead up to ! f9al revelation1 until at la/1 9 "s reflective act ( memory or *oice1 or 9 "s vague ef=t to und]/& ! (t-he>d 8,i10 ! great tru? is manife/$ to him3 ! *ild ent]s1 z x 71 into possession ( 8 p]sonality1 & kn[s himself z a ,self-consci\s ,be+4 ,! ,ego does n create b discov]s itself4 ,9 ,j\ffroy's felicit\s phrase1 x 8breaks its %ell10 & f9ds t x is a ,p]sonal ,ag5t ) an exi/5ce & individuality ( its own1 /&+ h5ce=w>d alone 9 opposition to ! univ]se47#cjg7 ,aft] ?is /age is rea*$1 ! human individual easily di/+ui%es betwe5 ! 8self0 z ! cause or subject ( ! /ates1 & ! /ates z modifications ( ! self4 ,?is di/9ction is implicit 9 ! concomitant aw>5ess ( self :i* accompanies all ex]cise ( direct cognitive consci\sness4 ,x is explicit 9 all delib]ate acts ( reflex1 introspective self-consci\sness4 ,! data f :i* we =m ! ab/ract concepts ( sub/ance1 nature1 individual1 p]son1 self1 etc41 & f :i* we arrive by reason+ at a philosophical k ( ! nature & p]sonality ( ! human individual1 are furni%$ ma9ly by introspection2 b also 9 "p by ext]nal obs]vation ( ! univ]se ar\nd u4 ,concomitantly1 h[ev]1 ) ! process by :i* we become implicitly b imm$iately aw>e ( ! ,ego or self z an abid+ self-id5tical p]son 9 & ?r\gh our own m5tal activity1 we gradually =m a quasi-objective & hi/orical view ( our own p]sonality z "o ( a numb] ( simil> p]sonalities ar\nd u 9 ! univ]se4 ,?is view1 says ,fa!r ,mah]1 ga!rs into itself ! hi/ory ( my pa/ life--! actions ( my *ildhood1 boyhood1 y\?1 & lat] ye>s4 ,int]wov5 ) !m all is ! image ( my bodily organism1 & clu/]+ ar\nd are a fr+e ( recollections ( my dispositions1 habits1 & "*1 ( my hopes & regrets1 ( my resolutions & failures1 along ) a dim consci\sness ( my position 9 ! m9ds ( o!r selves4 ,"u ! =m ( a repres5tation ( ?is composite art1 b\nd toge!r by ! ?read ( memory1 ea* ( u ord9>ily conceives 8 complete abid+ p]sonality4 ,?is idea is necess>ily und]go+ con/ant modification2 & x is 9 comp>+ ! pres5t =m ( ! repres5tation ) ! pa/1 :il/ adv]t+ to consid]able alt]ations 9 my "*1 bodily appe>ance1 & ! l1 t ,i sometimes say3 8,i am completely *ang$10 8,i am q ano!r p]son10 ?\gh ,i am1 ( c\rse1 conv9c$ t x is ! same 8,i0 :o am *ang$ 9 accid5tal qualities4 ,x is because ?is complex notion ( my p]sonality is an ab/raction f my rememb]$ exp]i5ces t a p]v]sion ( imag9ation & a rupture ( memory c sometimes induce ! s-call$ 8illusions or alt]ations ( p]sonality047#cjh7 ,:5 we rememb] t ?is objective conception ( ! self is s dep5d5t on ! function ( memory1 & t ! normal ex]cise ( ?is faculty is 9 turn s dep5d5t on ! normal function+ ( ! bra9 & ! n]v\s sy/em17#cji7 we c haz>d an intelligible explanation ( ! abnormal facts record$ by mo/ mod]n psy*ologi/s conc]n+ hypnotism1 somnambulism & 8d\ble0 or 8multiple0 consci\sness47#caj7 ,fa!r ,mah]1 ascrib+ ^! ph5om5a p>tly to dislocations ( memory1 p>tly to unusual gr\p+s ( m5tal /ates accord+ to ! laws ( m5tal association--gr\p+s t arise f peculi> physiological connexions betwe5 ! v>i\s neural function+s ( ! bra9 c5tres1--& p>tly to semi-consci\s or reflex n]ve processes1 emphasizes an important fact t is sometimes lo/ sight (3 ! fact t "s section at lea/ ( ! individual's consci\s m5tal life is common to1 & pres5t ?r\gh\t1 ! two or m 8/ates0 or 8conditions0 betwe5 :i* any su* abnormal individual is f\nd to alt]nate4 ,?is consid]ation is itself suffici5t to disprove ! !ory--to :i* we %all pres5tly ref]--t !re is or may be 9 ! individual human be+ a d\ble1 or ev5 a multiple 8human p]sonality04 #ge4 ,,false ,,!ories ,,( ,,p]sonality4--,x is pla9 t consci\s m5tal activity _c con/itute human p]sonality1 or subconsci\s m5tal activity ei!r1 = all activity is ( ! accid5tal mode ( be+1 is an accid5t1 :]eas a p]son mu/ be a sub/ance4 ,( c\rse x is ! self-consci\s cognitive activity ( ! human individual t reveals to ! latt] 8 own self z a p]son3 x is ! ex]cise ( reflex consci\sness comb9$ ) memory t gives u ! feel+ ( p]sonal id5tity ) ourselves ?r\gh\t ! *ang+ ev5ts ( our m5tal & bodily life4 ,fur!rmore1 ?is self-consci\sness has its root 9 ! rational nature ( ! human individual2 & rationality ( nature is ! diff]5tiat+ pr9ciple :i* makes ! subsi/+ individual a 8p]son0 z di/9ct f a 7subsi/+7 8?+04 ,b !n1 x is n ! feel+ ( p]sonal id5tity t con/itutes ! p]son4 ,actual consci\sness is nei!r ! ess5ce1 nor ! s\rce1 nor ev5 ! index ( p]sonality2 = x is only an activity1 & an activity :i* reveals imm$iately n ! p]son z su*1 b ! nature z rational27#caa7 nor does ! rational 7sub/antial7 pr9ciple ( a composite nature con/itute ! latt] a p]son2 b only ! subsi/5ce ( ! complete 7composite7 individual nature itself4 ,^! consid]ations are suffici5tly obvi\s2 !y presuppose1 h[ev]1 ! tru? ( ! traditional doctr9e already expla9$ 9 reg>d to ! exi/5ce1 nature & cognoscibility ( sub/ance4 ,philosoph]s :o h misund]/ood & reject$ & lo/ ?is traditional doctr9e ( sub/ance h prop\nd$ _m v>ieties ( unsatisfactory & inconsi/5t !ories 9 reg>d to :at con/itutes 8p]son0 & 8p]sonality04 ,! ma9 feature ( all su* !ories is _! id5tification ( p]sonality ) ! habitual consci\sness ( self1 or habitual feel+ ( p]sonal id5tity3 a feel+ :i*1 h[ev]1 mu/ be admitt$ to include memory 9 "s =m1 :ile ! function ( memory 9 any %ape or =m _c be satisfactorily expla9$ on any !ory ( ! human ,ego :i* d5ies t !re is a human sub/ance p]si/+ p]man5tly z a unify+ pr9ciple ( successive m5tal /ates 7#fc-d74 ,s f> z ,engli% philosophy is conc]n$ su* !ories appe> to h _h _! orig9 9 ,locke's tea*+ on p]son & p]sonal id5tity4 ,discuss+ ! notions ( id5tity & div]sity17#cab7 he di/+ui%es betwe5 ! id5tity ( an individual sub/ance ) itself 9 its duration ?r\gh\t "t1 & :at he t]ms p]sonal id5tity2 :ile by id5tity 9 g5]al he means n ab/ract id5tity b ! concrete p]man5ce ( a ?+ ?r\gh\t "t 7#cd74 ,on ?is we h to call att5tion to ! fact t j z duration is n ess5tial to ! con/itution ( a sub/ance1 s nei!r is x ess5tial to ! con/itution ( a complete subsi/+ individual sub/ance or p]son 7#fd72 ?\gh x is1 ( c\rse1 an ess5tial condition = all human appreh5sion :e!r ( sub/ance or ( p]son4 ,locke 0 wrong1 !re=e1 9 conf\nd+ :at reveals to u ! abid+ p]man5ce1 id5tity or sam5ess ( a subsi/+ ?+ or p]son 7:e!r ! 8self0 or any o!r subsi/+ ?+ or p]son7 ?r\gh\t its duration 9 "t1 ) :at con/itutes ! subsi/+ ?+ or p]son4 ,fur!rmore1 8 di/9ction betwe5 sub/antial id5tity1 i4e4 ! sam5ess ( an individual sub/ance ) itself ?r\gh\t "t1 & p]sonal id5tity or sam5ess1 0 also an error4 ,= z long z !re is sub/antial unity1 cont9uity1 or id5tity ( ! subsi/+ individual sub/ance1 s long is !re unity1 cont9uity1 or id5tity ( its subsi/5ce1 or ( its p]sonality if x be a rational sub/ance4 ,! subsi/5ce ( a complete individual inorganic sub/ance is *ang$ z soon z ! individual und]goes sub/antial *ange3 we h !m no long] ! same subsi/+ individual be+4 ,s1 too1 ! subsi/5ce ( ! organic individual is *ang$ z soon z ! latt] und]goes sub/antial *ange by ! dissolution ( life1 by ! sep>ation ( its =mative & vital sub/antial pr9ciple f its mat]ial sub/antial pr9ciple3 aft] su* dissolution we h no long] ! same subsi/+ plant or animal4 ,&1 f9ally1 ! subsi/5ce ( an individual man is *ang$1 or int]rupt$1 or ceases by dea?1 :i* sep>ates 8 s\l1 8 vital pr9ciple1 f 8 body4 ,we say1 moreov]1 t 9 ! latt] case ! human p]son ceases to exi/ :5 ! id5tity or p]man5ce ( 8 subsi/+ sub/ance or nature t]m9ates at dea?2 = p]sonal id5tity we hold to be ! id5tity ( ! complete subsi/+ sub/ance or nature ) itself4 ,b ,locke1 :o practically agrees ) :at we h said reg>d+ ! abid+ id5tity ( ! subsi/+ individual be+ ) itself--:e!r ?is individual be an inorganic individual1 a plant1 a brute bea/1 or a man7#cac7--;di/+ui%es at ?is po9t betwe5 id5tity ( ! subsi/+ individual sub/ance & p]sonal id5tity4 ,( id5tity 9 g5]al he says t 8to conceive & judge ( x aright1 we mu/ consid] :at idea ! ^w x is appli$ to /&s =2 x be+ "o ?+ to be ! same sub/ance1 ano!r ! same man1 & a ?ird ! same p]son1 if p]son1 man1 & sub/ance1 are ?ree names /&+ = ?ree diff]5t ideas047#cad7 ,&1 /ruggl+ to dissociate 8p]son0 f 8sub/ance10 he cont9ues ?us3-- ,to f9d :]e9 p]sonal id5tity consi/s1 we mu/ consid] :at p]son /&s =2 :i*1 ,i ?9k1 is a ?9k+1 intellig5t be+1 t has reason & reflection1 & c consid] itself z itself1 ! same ?9k+ ?+ 9 diff]5t times & places2 :i* x does only by t consci\sness :i* is insep>able f ?9k+1 &1 z x seems to me1 ess5tial to x4 ,:5 we see1 he>1 smell1 ta/e1 feel1 m$itate1 or w any ?+1 we "k t we d s4 ,?us x is always z to our pres5t s5sations & p]ceptions1 & by ?is e "o is to himself :at he calls self2 x n be+ consid]$ 9 ?is case :e!r ! same self be cont9u$ 9 ! same or div]s sub/ances4 ,= s9ce consci\sness always accompanies ?9k+1 & x is t :i* makes e "o to be :at he calls self1 & !reby di/+ui%es himself f all o!r ?9k+ ?+s2 9 ?is alone consi/s p]sonal id5tity1 i4e4 ! sam5ess ( a rational be+3 & z f> z ?is consci\sness c be ext5d$ backw>ds to any pa/ action or ?\ght1 s f> rea*es ! id5tity ( t p]son2 x is ! same self n[ x 0 !n2 & x is by ! same self ) ?is pres5t "o t n[ reflects on x1 t t action 0 done47#cae7 ,! def9ition ( p]son 9 ?is passage z 8a ?9k+1 intellig5t be+10 etc41 is n f> remov$ f our own def9ition2 b surely consci\s ?\ght is n 8t :i* makes e "o to be :at he calls self10 see+ t consci\s ?\ght is only an activity or function ( ! 8rational be+04 ,x is consci\s ?\ght1 ( c\rse1 includ+ memory1 t reveals ! 8rational be+0 to himself z a self1 & z ! same or id5tical self ?r\gh\t "t2 b unless ! 8rational be+10 or ! 8?9k+1 intellig5t be+1 t has reason & reflection10 etc4--:i* is ,locke's own def9ition ( 8p]son0--7 !re all ! "t id5tical ) itself1 ex]cis+ ^? di/9ct & successive acts ( consci\sness & memory1 & unify+ !m1 h[ c\ld ^! acts ev5 reveal ! 8p]son0 or 8 8p]sonal id5tity0 to himself1 n to speak ( _! con/itut+ p]sonality or p]sonal id5tity8 ,x is p]fectly pla9 t ^! acts presuppose ! 8p]son10 ! 8?9k+1 intellig5t be+10 or1 z we h express$ x1 ! 8subsi/+1 rational1 individual nature0 already con/itut$2 & x is equally pla9 t ! 8p]sonal id5tity0 :i* !y reveal is con/itut$ by1 & consi/s simply 91 ! duration or cont9u$ exi/5ce ( ?is same subsi/+ individual rational nature2 nor c\ld ^! acts reveal any id5tity1 p]sonal or o!rwise1 unless !y 7 ! acts ( "o & ! same actually subsi/+1 exi/+ & p]si/+ sub/ance4 ,yet ,locke ?9ks he c divorce p]sonal id5tity f id5tity ( sub/ance1 & acc\nt = ! =m] indep5d5tly ( ! latt]4 ,9 face ( ! obvi\s difficulty t actual consci\sness is n cont9u\s b int]mitt5t1 he tries to ma9ta9 t ! consci\sness :i* l9ks toge!r pres5t /ates ) rememb]$ /ates is suffici5t to con/itute p]sonal id5tity ev5 al?\gh !re may h int]v5$ betwe5 ! pres5t & ! pa/ /ates a complete *ange ( sub/ance1 s t x is really a diff]5t sub/ance :i* exp]i5ces ! pres5t /ates f t :i* exp]i5c$ ! pa/ /ates4 ,! "q ,:e!r we are ! same ?9k+ ?+1 i4e4 ! same sub/ance or no 444 conc]ns n p]sonal id5tity at all3 ! "q be+1 :at makes ! same p]son1 & n :e!r x be ! same id5tical sub/ance1 :i* always ?9ks 9 ! same p]son3 diff]5t sub/ances1 by ! same consci\sness 7:]e !y d p>take 9 x71 be+ unit$ into "o p]son1 z well z diff]5t bodies by ! same life are unit$ into "o animal1 ^: id5tity is pres]v$1 9 t *ange ( sub/ances1 by ! unity ( "o cont9u$ life 444 = animal id5tity is pres]v$ 9 id5tity ( life1 & n ( sub/ance47#caf7 ,"h ! cont5tion is t we c h 8! same p]son0 & yet n necess>ily 8! same id5tical sub/ance10 because consci\sness may give a p]sonal unity to di/9ct & successive sub/ances 9 ! individual man j z animal life gives an analog\s unity to di/9ct & successive sub/ances 9 ! individual animal4 ,?is is v sup]ficial2 = x only sub/itutes = ! problem ( human p]sonality ! simil> problem ( expla9+ ! unity & sam5ess ( subsi/5ce 9 ! individual liv+ ?+3 a problem :i* involves ! fact ( memory 9 animals4 ,= s*ola/ic philosoph]s unity ( life 9 ! liv+ ?+1 involv+ ! fact ( memory 9 animals1 is expla9$ by ! p]fectly intelligible & w-gr\nd$ tea*+ t !re is 9 ea* individual liv+ ?+ a =mative & vital pr9ciple :i* is sub/antial1 a =ma sub/antialis1 :i* unites1 9 ! abid+ self-id5tical unity ( a complete individual composite sub/ance1 ! mat]ial pr9ciple ( ! corporeal sub/ances :i* ?us g1 9 ! incessant process ( sub/antial *ange kn[n z metabolism1 to =m p>tially1 & to support ! sub/antial cont9uity (1 ! liv+ individual4 ,:ile ! latt] is ?us 9 con/ant process ( mat]ial1 or p>tial1 sub/antial *ange1 x rema9s1 z long z x lives1 ! same complete individual sub/ance1 & ?is 9 virtue ( ! abid+ sub/antial =mative & vital pr9ciple :i* actuates & animates x4 ,! abid+ p]man5ce or self-id5tity ( ! subsi/+ individual sub/ance :i* feels or ?9ks1 & rememb]s1 is an intelligible1 & inde$ ! only intelligible1 gr\nd & explanation ( memory1 & ( our consci\sness ( p]sonal id5tity4 ,b if we leave out ( acc\nt ?is abid+ cont9uity & self-id5tity ( ! subsi/+ individual sub/ance or nature1 :i* is ! subject1 cause & ag5t ( ^! acts ( memory & consci\sness1 h[ c ^! latt]1 9 & by !mselves1 possibly =m1 or ev5 inde$ reveal to u1 our p]sonal id5tity8 ,locke felt ?is difficulty2 & he tri$ 9 va9 to meet x3 9 va91 = x is insup]able4 ,he m]ely sugge/s t 8! same consci\sness 444 c be transf]r$ f "o ?9k+ sub/ance to ano!r10 9 :i* case 8x w be possible t two ?9k+ sub/ances may make successively "o p]son047#cag7 ,?is is practically 8 la/ ^w on ! "q1--& x is wor?y ( note1 = x virtually sub/antializes consci\sness4 ,x makes consci\sness1 :i* is really only an act or a s]ies ( acts1 a some?+ sub/antial & subsi/+4 ,we h se5 already h[ mod]n ph5om5i/s1 once !y reject ! notion ( sub/ance z invalid or sup]flu\s1 mu/ by t v fact equival5tly sub/antialize accid5ts 7#fa72 = sub/ance1 be+ a necess>y category ( human ?\ght z ex]cis$ on reality1 _c really be disp5s$ )4 ,& we see 9 ! pres5t context an illu/ration ( ?is fact4 ,! abid+ self-id5tity ( ! human p]son _c be expla9$ o!rwise ?an by ! abid+ self-id5tical subsi/5ce ( ! individual human sub/ance4 ,if p]sonal id5tity 7 con/itut$ & det]m9$ by consci\sness1 by ! s]ies ( consci\s /ates connect$ & unifi$ by memory1 !n x w\ld appe> t ! human be+ 9 infancy1 9 sleep1 9 unconsci\sness1 or 9 a /ate ( insanity1 is n a human p]son6 ,philosoph]s :o h n ! h>dihood to d5y human p]sonality to ! individual ( ! human species 9 ^! /ates1 & :o on ! o!r h& w n recognize ! possession ( a rational nature or sub/ance by ! subsi/+ individual z ! gr\nd ( ! latt]'s p]sonality & p]sonal id5tity1 h rec\rse to ! hypo!sis ( a sub-consci\s1 or 8sub-lim9al0 consci\sness 9 ! individual1 z a sub/itute4 ,if by ?is !y m]ely meant an abid+ sub/antial rational pr9ciple ( all m5tal activities1 ev5 ( ^? :i* may be semi-consci\s or sub-consci\s1 !y w\ld be m]ely call+ by ano!r "n :at we call ! rational nature ( man4 ,& ! fact t !y ref] to ?is pr9ciple z ! sub-consci\s 8self0 or 8,ego0 %[s h[ insi/5t is ! rational ne$ = root+ p]sonality & p]sonal id5tity 9 some?+ :i* is a sub/ance4 ,b !y d n & w n conceive x z a sub/ance2 :]eas if x is n ?is1 if x is only a 8process10 or a 8function10 or a 8s]ies0 or 8/ream0 ( processes or functions1 x c no m con/itute or expla91 or ev5 reveal1 p]sonal id5tity1 ?an a s]ies or /ream ( consci\s /ates c47#cah7 ,unable z he 0 to expla9 h[ ! same consci\sness c\ld p]si/ ?r\gh\t a succession ( really & adequately di/9ct sub/ances 7except by virtually sub/antializ+ consci\sness71 ,locke nev]!less p]si/$ 9 hold+ t consci\sness & consci\sness alone 7includ+ memory1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is inexplicable on any o!r !ory ?an t ( a subsi/+ & p]si/+ sub/ance or nature :i* rememb]s71 con/itutes p]sonality & p]sonal id5tity4 ,we h dwelt ^u 8 tea*+ ma9ly because all mod]n ph5om5i/s try to expla9 p]sonality on ! same pr9ciples--i4e4 indep5d5tly ( ! doctr9e ( sub/ance4 ,z a coroll>y f 8 doctr9e he inf]r$ t if a man completely & irrevocably loses consci\sness or r memory ( 8 pa/ life1 ?\gh he rema9s ! same 8man0 he is no long] ! same 8p]son03 8if x be possible = ! same man to h di/9ct incommunicable consci\sness at diff]5t times1 x is pa/ d\bt ! same man w\ld at diff]5t times make diff]5t p]sons027#cai7 & he goes on 9 ?is s5se to give a lit]al int]pretation to ! modes ( spee* we h ref]r$ to above47#cbj7 ,he likewise admitt$ t two or m 8p]sons10 i4e4 consci\snesses1 c be l9k$ ) ! same individual human be+1 or ! same individual human s\l1 alt]nately appe>+ & disappe>+1 giv+ place successively to "o ano!r4 ,:5 any "o ( ^! 8p]sonalities0 or consci\snesses ceases to be actual1 x mu/ 9 ,locke's view cease to be 9 any s5se real3 s t !re c\ld n be two or m p]sonalities at ! same "t 9 ! same individual human be+4 ,mod]n psy*ologi/s1 h[ev]1 ( ! ph5om5i/ s*ool1 conv9c$ t sub-consci\s m5tal activities are n only possible1 b t ! fact ( su* activities is well e/abli%$ by a v>iety ( exp]i5ces1 h ext5d$ ,locke's conception ( p]sonality 7z actual consci\sness7 to embrace gr\ps ( m5tal activities :i* may em]ge only int]mitt5tly 8above ! ?re%old ( consci\sness04 ,h5ce !y expla9 ! abnormal cases ( d\ble or multiple consci\sness already ref]r$ to1 z be+ manife/ations ( really di/9ct 8p]sonalities0 9 "o & ! same human individual4 ,9 normal human be+s !re is1 !y say1 only "o normally 8consci\s p]sonality04 ,! sub-consci\s m5tal activities ( su* an individual !y bulk toge!r z =m+ ?is individual's 8sub-lim9al0 or 8sub-consci\s0 ,ego or 8self03 presumably a di/9ct p]sonality f ! consci\s "o4 ,9 ! abnormal cases ( 8d\ble-consci\sness0 ! sublim9al self /ruggles = ma/]y ov] ! consci\s self & is = a "t successful3 ! two p]sonalities ?us = a "t *ang+ places z x 74 ,9 ! r>] or m abnormal cases ( treble or multiple consci\sness1 !re are presumably ?ree or m 8p]sonalities0 engag$ 9 ! /ruggle1 ea* com+ to ! surface 9 turn & subm]g+ ! o!rs4 ,x is n ! fancifulness ( ?is !ory t "o might object to s mu* z its utt] inadequacy to expla9 ! facts1 nay1 its utt] un9telligibility on ! pr9ciples ( ^? :o prop\nd x4 ,= we mu/ n lose sight ( ! fact t x is prop\nd$ by philosoph]s :o purport to expla9 m5tal life & human p]sonality )\t rec\rse to a sub/antial s\l1 to any sub/antial basis ( m5tal life1 or inde$ to ! concept ( sub/ance at all3 by philosoph]s :o w talk ( a m5tal process )\t admitt+ m9d or s\l z a sub/ance or subject ( t process1 ( a 8s]ies0 or 8/ream0 ( m5tal functions or activities )\t all[+ any ag5t t w\ld ex]cise ^? functions1 or any sub/antial abid+ pr9ciple t w\ld unify ! s]ies or /ream & "k x z su*2 philosoph]s :o reg>d ! ,ego1 8self10 or 8p]son10 z no?+ o!r ?an ! gr\p or s]ies or /ream ( m5tal /ates1 & n z any?+ ( :i* ^! are ! /ates2 &1 f9ally1 :o speak ( ^! gr\ps ( functions or activities z 8p]sonalities0--:i* !y describe z 8/ruggl+0 ) "o ano!r--app>5tly oblivi\s ( ! fact t by us+ su* language !y are 9 _! ?\ght at lea/ trans=m+ ^! activities into ag5ts1 ^! /ates into subjects ( /ates1 9 a ^w1 ^! accid5ts into sub/ances2 or else !y are mak+ _! language & _! ?\ght alike un9telligible47#cba7 ,( c\rse ^? num]\s mod]n philosoph]s :o1 l ,james1 try to 8f9d a place = all ! exp]i5tial facts un5cumb]$ by any hypo!sis l t ( an individual sub/antial s\l1 presumably save t ( pass+ /ates ( m9d0 ibid41 p4 #dhj1 d n really leave ^! 8/ates0 susp5d$ 9 mid-air z x 74 ,! imp]ative ne$ = admitt+ ! reality ( sub/ance always ultimately ass]ts itself3 z :5 ,james recognizes ! necessity ( admitt+ some?+ 8m ?an ! b>e fact ( co-exi/5ce ( a pass+ ?\ght ) a pass+ bra9-/ate0 ,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology1 i41 p4 #cdf--;apud ,,mah]1 ibid41 p4 #dhc4 ,only 8 speculation z to :at con/itutes ?is 8some?+ #8m' :i* lies beh9d our m5tal /ates0 ibid41 p4 #dhe is n p>ticul>ly conv9c+3 8,= my own "p10 he says1 8,i confess t ! mom5t ,i become metaphysical & try to def9e ! m1 ,i f9d ! notion ( "s sort ( an anima mundi ?9k+ 9 all ( u to be a m promis+ hypo!sis1 9 spite ( all its difficulties1 ?an t ( a lot ( absolutely individual s\ls0 ibid41 p4 #cdf--;apud ,,mah]1 ibid44 ,?is re/atem5t ( ! m$ieval pan!i/ic !ory kn[n z ,av]rosm1 ,monopsy*ism1 or ! !ory ( ! intellectus sep>atus cf4 ,,de ,,wulf1 ,hi/ory ( ,m$ieval ,philosophy1 pp4 #cha sqq41 is a some:at disappo9t+ contribution to ,metaphysics f ! mo/ brilliant ( our mod]n psy*ologi/s4 ,! 8difficulties0 ( ?is 8m promis+ hypo!sis0 _h discr$it$ x a r long "t be=e ,pr(essor ,james resurrect$ x cf4 criticisms--apud ,,mah]1 ibid44 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,"s ,,accid5t-,,modes ,,( ,,be+3 ,,quality4 #gf4 ,,ontology ,,& ,,! ,,accid5t-,,modes ,,( ,,be+4--,"u ! ultimate category or g5us supremum ( ,sub/ance exp]i5ce reveals to u two broadly di/9ct sub-classes3 corporeal sub/ances1 8bodies0 or 8mat]ial0 ?+s1 & spiritual sub/ances or 8spirits04 ,( ^! latt] we h direct exp]i5ce only ( "o class1 viz4 embodi$ spirits or human s\ls4 ,! inve/igation ( ! nature ( ^! belongs to ,psy*ology1 & f ! data ( t sci5ce we may inf]1 by ! light ( reason1 ! possibility ( ano!r class ( spirits1 viz4 pure spirits1 be+s ( ^: actual exi/5ce we "k f ,div9e ,revelation4 ,! exi/5ce ( a ,supreme ,be+1 ,:om we mu/ conceive analogically z sub/ance & _s1 is demon/rat$ by ! light ( reason 9 ,natural ,!ology4 ,! inve/igation ( ! nature ( corporeal sub/ances belongs prop]ly to ,cosmology4 ,h5ce 9 ! pres5t treatise we h no fur!r direct conc]n ) ! sub/ance-mode ( reality27#cbb7 b only ) its accid5t-modes1 & n ) all ( ^!4 ,n ) all ( !m2 = ^? :i* belong prop]ly to spiritual sub/ances1 or prop]ly to corporeal sub/ances1 call = special treatm5t 9 ,psy*ology & ,cosmology respectively4 ,9 ! ma91 only su* species ( accid5ts z are common to matt] & _s alike1 w =m ! subject ( ! rema9+ portion ( ! pres5t volume4 ,only ! broad] aspects ( su* categories z ,quality1 ,quantity & ,causality--aspects :i* h a m direct be>+ on ! ,!ory ( ,be+ & ! ,!ory ( ,k 9 g5]al1--call = treatm5t 9 ,g5]al ,metaphysics4 ,a m detail$ treatm5t mu/ be s\ght 9 o!r dep>tm5ts ( ,philosophy4 #gg4 ,,nature ,,( ,,! ,,accid5t ,,call$ ,,quality4--,9 ! wide/ s5se ( ! t]m1 ,quality is synonym\s ) logical attribute4 ,9 ?is s5se :atev] c be pr$icat$ ( a subject1 :atev] logically det]m9es a subject 9 any way = our ?\ght is a quality or 8attribute0 ( t subject4 ,9 a s5se almo/ equally wide ! t]m is us$ to designate any real det]m9ation1 :e!r sub/antial or accid5tal1 ( a subject4 ,9 ?is s5se ! diff]5tial elem5t1 or diff]5tia specifica1 det]m9es ! g5]ic elem5t1 or g5us1 ( a sub/ance3 x tells u :at k9d or species ! sub/ance is3 e4g4 :at k9d ( animal a man is1 viz4 rational2 :at k9d ( liv+ ?+ an animal is1 viz4 s5ti5t2 :at k9d ( body or corporeal ?+ a plant is1 viz4 liv+4 ,& h5ce s*ola/ics h said ( ! pr$icable 8diff]5tia specifica0 t x is pr$icat$ adjectivally1 or z a quality1 to tell u 9 :at ! ?+ consi/s1 or :at is its nature3 diff]5tia specifica pra$icatur 9 quale quid3 x gives u ! det]m9+ pr9ciple ( ! specific nature4 ,or1 aga91 quality is us$ synonym\sly ) any accid5tal det]m9ation ( a sub/ance4 ,9 ?is s5se magnitude1 location1 action1 etc41 ?\gh !y det]m9e a subject 9 diff]5t accid5tal ways1 nev]!less are all indiscrim9ately said to 8qualify0 x 9 ! s5se ( det]m9+ x someh[ or o!r1 & are !re=e call$ 8qualities0 9 ! wide s5se ( 8accid5ts04 ,h5ce1 aga91 ! s*ola/ics h said t inasmu* z all accid5ts det]m9e or qualify _! subjects1 !y are pr$icat$ ( ^! qualitatively1 & may be call$ 9 a wide s5se 8qualifications0 or 8qualities03 omnia g5]a accid5tium qualificant sub/antiam et pra$icantur 9 quale4 ,x is 9 ?is wide s5se t we use ! t]m :5 we say t ! 7specific7 nature 7or 8k9d07 ( a ?+ is reveal$ by its 8qualities02 = ! nature ( a ?+ is reveal$ by all its accid5ts4 ,& :5 we inf] ! nature ( a ?+ f its activities1 9 accordance ) ! maxim ,qualis e/ op]atio talis e/ natura1 we mu/ take ! t]m 8op]atio0 or 8activity0 to include ! op]ation ( ! ?+ on our cognitive faculties1 ! /ates ( cognitive consci\sness ?us ar\s$ 9 u1 & all ! o!r accid5ts ?us reveal$ to u 9 ! ?+ by its 8k-elicit+0 action on our m9ds4 ,b ! t]m ,quality has be5 traditionally re/rict$1 aft] ,ari/otle1 to designate prop]ly "o p>ticul> category ( accid5ts di/9ct f ! o!rs & f sub/ance4 ,a def9ition prop] ( any g5us supremum is ( c\rse out ( ! "q4 ,b x is n easy to give ev5 a description :i* w convey an accurate notion ( ! special category ( ,quality1 & m>k x (f f ! o!r accid5t-categories4 ,if we say ) ,ari/otle t quality is 8t :]eby we are enabl$ to describe :at sort 71 quale7 any?+ is07#cbc7--;e4g4 t x is :ite by :it5ess1 /rong by /r5g?1 etc4--we are only illu/rat+ ! ab/ract by ! concrete4 ,b ev5 ?is s]ves ! purpose ( help+ u to realize :at quality 9 g5]al means4 ,= we are m famili> ) ! concrete ?an ) ! ab/ract3 & we c see a broad di/9ction betwe5 ! "q3 8,:at sort is t ?+8 ,qualis e/ i/a res80 7,quality71 & ! "q3 8,h[ l>ge is t ?+8 ,quanta e/ i/a res80 7,quantity71 or 8,:]e is t ?+80 7,place71 or 8,:at is x do+8 ,:at is happ5+ to x80 7,actio et ,passio71 or 8,:at does x resemble80 7,relation71 etc4 ,?is w help u to realize t !re are accid5tal modes ( be+ :i* affect sub/ances 9 a diff]5t way f all ! extr9sic d5om9ations ( ! latt] 7#fj71 & also 9 a diff]5t way f ,quantity1 ,relation1 & ,causality2 & ^! modes ( be+1 :]eby ! sub/ance is ( su* a sort1 or 9 su* a condition1 we call qualities4 ,& if we inquire :at special k9d ( det]m9ation ( ! sub/ance is common to qualities1 & m>ks ^! (f f ! o!r accid5ts1 we %all f9d x to consi/ 9 ?is1 t quality is an accid5tal mode ( be+ :i* s affects ! sub/ance t x disposes ! latt] well or ill 9 reg>d to ! p]fections natural to ?is p>ticul> k9d ( sub/ance3 x alt]s ! latt] accid5tally by increas+ or dim9i%+ its natural p]fection4 ,we h se5 t no creat$ sub/ance has all ! p]fection natural to its k9d1 tota simul or ab initio 7#df72 t x fulfils its rle 9 exi/5ce by developm5t1 by t5d+ t[>ds its full or f9al p]fection4 ,! accid5tal realities :i* sup]v5e on its ess5ce1 & ?us alt] its p]fection )9 ! limits ( its k9d or species1 are :at we call qualities4 ,!y div]sify ! sub/ance accid5tally 9 its p]fection1 9 its concrete mode ( exi/+ & behav+3 by _! appe>ance & disappe>ance !y d n *ange ! ess5tial p]fection ( ! sub/ance 7#df71 !y d n effect a sub/antial *ange2 b !y *ange its int]m$iate1 accid5tal p]fection2 & ?is qualitative *ange is te*nically kn[n & describ$ z alt]ation7#cbd7 7#aa74 ,h5ce we f9d ,quality describ$ by ,/4 ,?omas z ! sort ( accid5t :i* modifies or disposes ! sub/ance 9 itself3 8accid5s modificativum s5 dispositivum sub/antiae9 seipsa10 & by ,alb]tus ,magnus some:at m explicitly z 8! sort ( accid5t :i* completes & p]fects sub/ance 9 its exi/5ce & activity3 accid5s compl5s ac p]fici5s sub/antiam t>n 9 exi/5do quam 9 op]&o047#cbe7 ,?is notion w be convey$ ) suffici5t cle>ness if we describe ,quality z t absolute accid5t :i* det]m9es a sub/ance aft] ! mann] ( an accid5tal 8diff]5tia10 affect+ ! ess5tial p]fection ( ! sub/ance 9 reg>d to its exi/5ce or to its activity4 ,h5ce 7#a7 ! ,pure ,actuality ( ! ,inf9itely ,p]fect ,be+ _c admit qualities1 inasmu* z quality implies only a relative & limit$ p]fection2 7#b7 ! qualities ( a corporeal sub/ance are gr\nd$ 9 ! =mative pr9ciple :i* gives t sub/ance its specific nature & is ! pr9ciple ( its t5d5cy & developm5t t[>ds its f9al p]fection1 :]eas its quantity is gr\nd$ 9 its det]m9able or mat]ial pr9ciple2 7#c7 ! ess5tial diff]5tiat+ pr9ciples ( sub/ances--be+ kn[n to u n intuitively1 b only ab/ractively & discursively1 i4e4 by inf]5ce f ! behavi\r ( ^! sub/ances1 f ! effects ( _! activities--are (t5 designat$ n by :at con/itutes !m intr9sically1 b by ! accid5tal p]fections or qualities :i* are our only key to a k ( !m4 ,= in/ance1 we diff]5tiate ! nature ( man f t ( ! brute bea/ by describ+ ! =m] z rational3 a t]m :i* really designates n ! ess5ce or nature itself1 b "o ( its fundam5tal qualities1 viz4 ! faculty ( reason4 #gh4 ,,imm$iate ,,sub-,,classes ,,( ,,quality ,,z ,g5us ,supremum4--,on acc\nt ( ! enorm\s v>iety ( qualities :i* *>act]ize ! data ( our exp]i5ce1 ! problem ( classify+ qualities is n a simple "o4 ,its details belong to ! special sci5ces & to ! o!r dep>tm5ts ( philosophy4 ,"h we mu/ conf9e ourselves to an attempt at indicat+ ! imm$iate sub-classes ( ! g5us supremum4 ,& 9 ?is context x w n be out ( place to call att5tion to a rem>kable1 & 9 our view q errone\s1 tr5d ( mod]n ?\ght4 ,x accompani$ ! adv5t ( :at is kn[n z atomism or ! me*anical conception ( ! univ]se1 a conception mu* 9 vogue ab\t half a c5tury ago1 b aga9/ :i* !re are already abundant evid5ces ( a /rong reaction4 ,we ref] to ! incl9ation ( sci5ti/s & philosoph]s to elim9ate ,quality altoge!r z an ultimately di/9ct category ( human exp]i5ce1 by r$uc+ all qualities to quantity1 local relations1 & me*anical or spatial motions ( matt] 7cf4 #aa74 ,9 ?is !ory all ! s5sible qualities ( ! mat]ial univ]se w\ld be really & objectively no?+ m ?an locations & motions ( ! ultimate con/itu5ts ( p]ceptible matt]4 ,all ! *emical1 physical & me*anical en]gies or =ces ( ext]nal nature w\ld be purely quantitative dispositions or configurations ( matt] 9 motion3 realities t c\ld be exhau/ively kn[n by ma!matical analysis & measurem5t4 ,& :5 x 0 f\nd t qualitative concepts /ubbornly resi/$ all attempts at elim9ation1 or r$uction to quantitative concepts1 ev5 9 ! inve/igation ( ! mat]ial univ]se or ext]nal nature1 sci5ti/s & philosoph]s ( ext]nal nature ?\ght to get rid ( !m by locat+ !m exclusively 9 ! human m9d1 & ?us pu%+ !m ov] on psy*ologi/s & philosoph]s ( ! m9d = fur!r & f9al exorcism4 ,= a "t extreme mat]iali/s1 less wise ?an d>+1 endeav\r$ to r$uce ev5 m9d & all its consci\s /ates & processes to a m]e subjective aspect ( :at1 look$ at objectively1 w\ld be m]ely matt] 9 motion47#cbf7 ,x c be %[n 9 ,cosmology1 ,psy*ology1 & ,epi/emology t all su* attempts to analyse qualities into some?+ o!r ?an qualities1 are utt]ly unsatisfactory & unsuccessful4 ,& we may see ev5 f an enum]ation ( "s ( ! ma9 classes ( qualities t su* attempts 7 =$oom$ to failure4 ,s*ola/ic ,philosophy has g5]ally adopt$ ,ari/otle's division ( qualities into f\r great gr\ps37#cbg7 7#a7 1 habitus vel dispositio2 7#b7 1 pot5tia naturalis vel impot5tia2 7#c7 1 pot5tiae passivae et passiones2 7#d7 1 =ma vel figura4 ,/4 ,?omas (f]s ! foll[+ gr\nd = ?is classification4 ,s9ce quality1 he says17#cbh7 is an accid5tal det]m9ation ( ! sub/ance itself1 i4e4 ( ! p]fection ( its concrete exi/5ce & activity1 & s9ce we may di/+ui% f\r aspects ( ! sub/ance3 its nature itself z p]fectible2 its intr9sic pr9ciples ( act+ & receiv+ action1 pr9ciples spr++ f ! =mative1 specific con/itu5t ( its nature2 its receptivity ( *ange effect$ by su* action1 a receptivity gr\nd$ 9 ! det]m9able or mat]ial pr9ciple ( its nature2 & f9ally its quantity1 if x be a corporeal sub/ance1--we c likewise di/+ui% betwe5 7#a7 acquir$ habits or dispositions1 su* z heal?1 k1 virtue1 vice1 etc41 :i* imm$iately det]m9e ! p]fection ( ! sub/ance1 dispos+ x well or ill 9 relation to its la/ end2 7#b7 intr9sic natural =ces1 faculties1 p[]s ( action1 aptitudes1 capacities1 su* z intellect1 w1 imag9ation1 in/9ct1 organic vital =ces1 physical1 *emical1 me*anical en]gies2 7#c7 /ates result+ 9 a corporeal be+ f ! action ( its milieu ^u x3 ! passions & emotions ( s5ti5t liv+ ?+s1 su* z s5sations ( pleasure1 pa91 ang]1 etc42 ! s5sible qualities ( matt]1 su* z col\r1 ta/e1 smell1 temp]ature1 feel or texture1 etc42 &1 f9ally 7#d7 ! quality ( =m or %ape :i* is a m]e det]m9ation ( ! quantity ( a corporeal sub/ance4 ,?is classification is n inde$ p]fect1 = ! same individual quality c be plac$ 9 diff]5t classes :5 look$ at f diff]5t /&po9ts3 heat1 = in/ance1 may be reg>d$ z a natural op]ative p[] ( a sub/ance 9 a /ate ( combu/ion1 or z a s5sible quality produc$ 9 t sub/ance by ! op]ation ( o!r ag5cies4 ,b x has ! m]it ( be+ an exhau/ive classification2 & philosoph]s h n succe$$ 9 improv+ on x4 ,qualities ( ! ?ird & f\r? class d n call = special treatm5t4 ,9 ! ?ird class1 ,ari/otle's di/9ction betwe5 7qualitates passibiles7 & 7passiones7 is bas$ ^u ! relatively p]man5t or transi5t "* ( ! quality 9 "q4 ,! transi5t quality1 su* z ! blu% produc$ by %ame or ! pallor produc$ by fe>1 w\ld be a passio27#cbi7 :]eas ! m p]man5t quality1 su* z ! natural col\r ( ! c\nt5ance1 w\ld be a passibilis qualitas4 ,! 8passions0 or s5sible *anges :i* result f c]ta9 consci\s /ates1 & affect ! organism ( ! s5ti5t liv+ be+1 are includ$ 9 ?is class z passiones2 :ile ! visible manife/ations ( m p]man5t m5tal d]angem5t or insanity w\ld be includ$ 9 x z passibiles qualitates4 ,we may1 p]haps1 get a fairly cle> & compreh5sive notion ( all t is conta9$ 9 ?is class z 8s5sible qualities0 by realiz+ t ^! embrace :atev] is ! imm$iate cause or ! imm$iate result ( ! s5se modification involv$ 9 any act or process ( s5se consci\sness4 ,su* 8s5sible qualities10 !re=e1 belong 9 "p to ! objects :i* provoke s5se p]ception1 & 9 "p to ! s5ti5t subject :i* elicits ! consci\s act4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important problems 9 ! ,!ory ( ,k1 & "o :i* ramifies into ,cosmology & ,psy*ology1 is t ( det]m9+ ! precise significance ( ^! 8s5sible qualities10--& especially 9 det]m9+ :e!r !y are qualities ( an extram5tal reality1 or m]ely /ates ( ! individual m9d or consci\sness itself4 ,=m or figure1 :i* con/itutes ! f\r? class ( quality1 is a mode ( ! quantity ( a body1 be+ m]ely ! p>ticul> surface t]m9ation ( its ext5sion or volume4 ,consid]$ z a mode ( ab/ract or ma!matical quantity1 x belongs to ! doma9 ( ma!matics4 ,consid]$ 9 ! concrete body1 x is ! physical1 s5sible =m1 %ape1 or figure1 ( ! latt]2 & "h x may be ei!r natural or artificial1 accord+ z x results f ! unimp$$ action ( natural =ces or f ^! =ces z manipulat$ & direct$ by intellig5t ag5ts4 ,x is wor?y ( special note t :ile ext5sion or volume is indicative ( ! mat]ial pr9ciple ( corporeal sub/ances1 ! figure or %ape naturally assum$ by ?is volume is det]m9$ by _! =mative pr9ciple1 & is ?us indicative ( _! specific nature4 ,?is is already noticeable 9 ! inorganic _w1 :]e _m ( ! *emically diff]5t sub/ances assume ea* its own di/9ctive cry/all9e =m4 ,b x is p>ticul>ly 9 ! doma9s ( botany & zoology t ! natural ext]nal =m ( ! liv+ individual organism is recogniz$ z "o ( ! mo/ important gr\nds ( its classification & "o ( ! sure/ te/s ( its specific nature47#ccj7 #gi4 ,,habits ,,& ,,dispositions4--,e creat$ be+ is subject to *ange1 capable ( developm5t or retrogression1 end[$ ) a natural t5d5cy t[>ds "s end :i* x c rea* by a natural process ( activity1 & :i* con/itutes = x1 :5 atta9$1 its full & f9al p]fection 7#ff74 ,?r\gh ?is process ( *ange x acquires accid5tal modes ( be+ :i* help x or h9d] x1 dispose x or indispose x1 9 ! ex]cise ( its natural activities1 & !re=e also 9 ! concrete p]fection ( its nature z t5d+ t[>ds its natural end4 ,su* an accid5tal mode ( be+ is acquir$ by a s]ies ( transi5t actions & exp]i5ces1 actiones et passiones3 aft] ^! h pass$ away x rema9s1 & n m]ely z a /ate or condition result+ f ! *anges wr\ght 9 ! subject by ^! exp]i5ces1 b z a disposition t[>ds easi] repetition ( su* exp]i5ces4 ,moreov]1 x may be n a m]e transi5t disposition1 b some?+ /able & p]man5t1 n easily remov$ or annull$1 a dispositio difficile mobilis4 ,& j z x is ess5tially indicative ( pa/ actions :]eby x 0 acquir$1 s1 too1 ! v raison d'tre ( its actuality is to dispose its subject = fur!r & future *anges1 = op]ations & effects :i* are n yet actual b only pot5tial 9 ?is subject4 ,su* an accid5tal mode ( be+ is :at ,ari/otle call$ 1 & ! s*ola/ics habitus4 ,) ,ari/otle1 !y def9e habit z a m or less /able disposition :]eby a subject is well or ill dispos$ 9 itself or 9 relation to o!r ?+s3 ,habitus dicitur dispositio difficile mobilis secundum quam b5e vel male disponitur subjectum aut secundum se aut 9 ord9e ad aliud47#cca7 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 a habit 77 & a simple disposition 77 is t ! =m] is by nature a m or less /able quality :ile ! latt] is un/able & transi5t4 ,moreov]1 ! facilities acquir$ by repeat$ action ( ! organs or memb]s ( m5 or animals1 & ! p>ticul> 8set0 acquir$ by c]ta9 tools or in/rum5ts f cont9u$ use1 are m prop]ly call$ dispositions ?an habits3 !y are n habits 9 ! /rict s5se1 ?\gh !y are (t5 call$ habits 9 ! ord9>y & loos] usage ( common spee*4 ,a little reflection w %[ t ! only prop] subjects ( natural habits 9 ! /rict s5se are ! spiritual faculties ( an intellig5t & free ag5t4 ,s9ce all natural habits are acquir$ by ! pa/ activities1 & dispose = ! future activities1 ( a be+ n absolutely p]fect1 b p>tly pot5tial & p>tly actual1 & subject to *ange1 x foll[s t only f9ite be+s c h habits4 ,b1 fur!rmore1 be+s t are n free1 t h n control or dom9ion ( _! own actions1 t h n fre$om ( *oice1 are det]m9$ by _! nature1 by a necess>y law ( _! activity1 to elicit ! actions :i* !y d actually elicit3 su* be+s are by _! nature det]m9ata ad unumn2 !y are conf9$ necess>ily to ! p>ticul> l9es ( action :]eby !y fulfil _! rle 9 ! actual ord] ( ?+s4 ,z ,ari/otle rem>ks1 y may ?r[ ! same /one repeat$ly 9 ! same direction & ) ! same velocity3 x w nev] acquire a habit ( mov+ 9 t direction ) t velocity47#ccb7 ,! same is true ( plants & animals2 = a habit 9 ! /rict s5se implies n m]ely a c]ta9 mutability 9 its subject2 x implies1 & consi/s 91 a /able modification ( "s p[] or faculty :i* c h its activities direct$ indiff]5tly 9 "o or o!r ( a v>iety ( *annels or l9es3 ! p[] or faculty :i* is ! prop] subject ( a habit mu/ be a pot5tia dirigibilis vel det]m9abilis ad div]sa4 ,h5ce m]ely mat]ial p[]s ( action--su* z ! me*anical1 physical & *emical =ces ( inorganic nature1 or ! organic p[]s ( liv+ bodies1 :e!r vegetative or m]ely s5ti5t1--s9ce !y are all ( !mselves1 ( _! nature1 det]m9$ to c]ta9 l9es ( action1 & to ^! only1--su* p[]s _c become ! subjects ( habits1 ( /able dispositions t[>ds "o l9e ( action r ?an ano!r4 8,! p[]s ( mat]ial nature10 says ,/4 ,?omas1 8d n elicit _! op]ations by means ( habits1 = !y are ( !mselves already adequately det]m9$ to _! p>ticul> l9es ( action407#ccc7 ,only ! spiritual faculties ( free ag5ts are1 !n1 ! prop] seat ( real habits4 ,only ( free ag5ts c we say /rictly t 8habit is second nature04 ,only ^! c direct ! op]ations ( _! intellect & w1 & ?r\gh ^! latt] ! op]ations ( _! s5se faculties1 bo? cognitive & appetitive1 9 a way conducive to _! la/ end or 9 a way t deviates !refrom1 by atta*+ _! intellects to tru? or to error1 _! wills to virtue or to vice1 & ?us =m+ 9 ^! faculties /able dispositions or habits47#ccd7 ,is !re any s5se1 !n1 9 :i* we c speak ( ! s5ti5t 7cognitive & appetitive7 & executive p[]s ( man z ! seat ( habits8 ,! activities ( ^? faculties are "u ! control ( intellect & w2 ! acts elicit$ by ! =m] are comm&$ by ! latt]2 !y are acts t issue prim>ily f ! latt] faculties2 & h5ce ! dispositions t result f repetition ( ^! acts & give a facility = fur!r repetition ( !m--acts ( talk+1 walk+1 s++1 play+ musical in/rum5ts1 ex]cis+ any h&icraft--are p>tly1 ?\gh only second>ily1 dispositions =m$ 9 ^! s5ti5t faculties 7! 8tra9$0 eye1 ! 8tra9$0 e>1 ! 8discrim9at+0 s5se ( ta/e1 ! 8al]t0 s5se ( t\* 9 ! deaf1 dumb1 or bl9d71 or 9 ^! executive p[]s1 :]eby ! latt] m promptly & easily obey ! 8comm&0 ( ! high] faculties2 b !y are prim>ily & pr9cipally habits ( ^! high] faculties !mselves r5d]+ ! latt] p]man5tly 8apt0 to 8comm&0 & utilize ! subord9ate p[]s 9 ! repetition ( su* acts47#cce7 ,unque/ionably ! bodily organs acquire by ex]cise a def9ite 8set0 :i* facilitates _! fur!r ex]cise4 ,b ?is 8set0 is n some?+ t !y c use !mselves2 nor is x some?+ t removes or less5s a natural indet]m9at5ess or indiff]5ce ( ^! p[]s2 = !y are n indiff]5t3 !y mu/ act1 at any in/ant1 9 ! "o way :i* _! concrete nature 9 all its surr\nd+s actually dem&s4 ,!y !mselves are only in/rum5ts ( ! high] faculties2 ^! alone h fre$om ( *oice betwe5 l9es ( action2 x is only ! /able modifications :i* ^! acquire1 :i* !y !mselves c use1 & :i* dispose !m by less5+ _! indet]m9at5ess1 t are prop]ly call$ habits4 ,!re are1 !re=e1 9 ! organic faculties ( man dispositions :i* give facility ( action4 ,!re are1 moreov]1 organic dispositions :i* dispose ! organism n = action b = its union ) ! =mative pr9ciple or s\l3 habituales dispositiones mat]iae ad =mam47#ccf7 ,ari/otle gives z in/ances bodily heal? or beauty47#ccg7 ,b ^! dispositiones mat]iales ad =mam he does n call habits1 any m ?an ! organic dispositiones ad op]ationem j ref]r$ to3 & = ?is reason1 t al?\gh all ^! dispositions h a c]ta9 degree ( /ability 9 ! organism--a /ability :i* !y d]ive1 moreov]1 f ! s\l :i* is ! =mative pr9ciple t secures ! cont9uity & individual id5tity ( ! organism1--yet !y are n ( !mselves1 ( _! own nature1 /able2 :]eas ! acquir$ dispositions ( ! spiritual faculties1 intellect & w1 root$ z !y are 9 a subject t is spiritual & sub/antially immutable1 are ( _! own nature /able & p]man5t4 ,nor are all dispositions ( ^! latt] faculties to be deem$ habits1 b only ^? :i* arise f acts :i* give !m ! special "* ( /ability4 ,h5ce m]e op9ion 9 ! intellectual ord]1 z di/9ct f sci5ce1 or a m]e incl9ation result+ f a few isolat$ acts1 z di/9ct f a virtue or a vice 9 ! moral ord]1 are n habits47#cch7 ,habits1 !re=e1 belong prop]ly to ! faculties ( a spiritual sub/ance2 indirectly1 h[ev]1 !y ext5d _! influ5ce to ! l[] or organic p[]s dep5d5t on1 & controll$ by1 ! spiritual faculties4 ,to ! v>i\s dispositions & facilities ( action acquir$ by animals ?r\gh 8tra9+10 8adaptation10 8acclimatization10 etc41 we may apply :at has be5 said 9 reg>d to ! s5se faculties & executive p[]s ( ! human body4 ,j z we may reg>d ! int]nal s5se faculties 7memory1 imag9ation1 s5se appetite7 9 man z 9 a second>y & subord9ate way subjects ( habits1 9 s f> z ^! faculties act "u ! direction & control ( human reason & w17#cci7 s also ! organic dispositions induc$ 9 irrational animals by ! direction & guidance ( human reason may inde$ be reg>d$ z ext5sions or effects ( ! habits t dispose ! rational human faculties1 b n z !mselves 9 ! /rict s5se habits47#cdj7 ,if1 !n1 habits belong prop]ly to intellect & w1 & if _! function is to dispose or indispose ! human ag5t = ! atta9m5t ( ! p]fection 9 :i* 8 la/ end consi/s1 we mu/ naturally look to ,psy*ology & ,e?ics = a detail$ analysis ( !m4 ,"h we mu/ be cont5t ) a ^w on _! orig91 _! effects1 & _! importance4 ,habits are produc$ by acts4 ,! act modifies ! faculty4 ,if1 = in/ance1 no?+ rema9$ 9 our cognitive faculties aft] ea* transi5t cognitive act _h pass$1 memory w\ld be inexplicable & k impossible2 nor c\ld ! repetition ( any act ev] become easi] ?an its fir/ p]=mance4 ,?is some?+ t rema9s is a habit1 or ! beg9n+ ( a habit ,a habit may be produc$ by a s+le act3 ! m9d's fir/ intuition ( an axiom or pr9ciple produces a habit or habitual k ( t pr9ciple4 ,b z a rule x requires a repetition ( any act1 & t = a long "t at comp>atively %ort int]vals1 to produce a habit ( t act1 a /able disposition :]eby x c be readily repeat$2 & to /r5g!n & p]fect ! habit ! acts mu/ be =m$ ) a gr[+ degree ( int5sity & en]gy4 ,progress 9 virtue dem&s su/a9$ & increas+ly e>ne/ ef=ts4 ,! natural effect ( habit is to p]fect ! faculty17#cda7 to increase its en]gy1 to make x m prompt to act1 & ?us to facilitate ! p]=mance ( ! act = :i* ! habit disposes x4 ,x also eng5d]s & develops a natural ne$ or t5d5cy or desire to repeat ! act1 & a natural av]sion f ! acts oppos$ to ! habit4 ,f9ally1 accord+ z ! habit gr[s1 ! p]=mance ( ! act dem&s less ef=t1 calls = less actual att5tion2 ?us ! habit dim9i%es ! feel+ ( ef=t & t5ds to br+ ab\t a quasi-automatic & semi-consci\s =m ( activity4 ,good habits are ^? :i* p]fect ! nature ( ! ag5t1 :i* advance x t[>ds ! realization ( its end2 bad habits are ^? :i* ret>d & prev5t ! realization ( ?is end4 ,h5ce ! e?ical importance1 to ! human p]son1 ( =m+1 fo/]+ & confirm+ good habits1 z also ( avoid+1 resi/+ & eradicat+ bad habits1 c sc>cely be exagg]at$4 ,! pr(\nd & all-p]vad+ influ5ce ( habit 9 ! m5tal & moral life ( man is un=tunately f> f be+ adequately appreciat$ ev5 by ^? responsible = ! secul>1 moral & religi\s education ( ! "y4 ,?is is p]haps ma9ly due to ! fact t ! influ5ce ( habit on ! conduct ( life1 enorm\s z x is 9 fact1 is s secret1 s l>gely unconsci\s1 t x easily escapes notice4 ,c>eful reflection on our actions1 dilig5t /udy ( ! spr+s ( action 9 our ev]yday life1 are ne$$ to reveal ?is influ5ce4 ,b ! m we analyse human conduct 9 ourselves & o!rs1 ! m firmly conv9c$ we become t human "* & conduct are ma9ly dep5d5t on ! =mation ( habits4 ,habits are ! gr& cons]v+ & p]fect+--or ! t]rible und]m9+ & de/roy+--=ce ( life4 ,!y are ! fruit ( our pa/ & ! se$ ( our future4 ,9 !m ! words ( ,leibniz f9d _! fulle/ v]ification3 8! pres5t is lad5 ) ! pa/ & pregnant ) ! future04 ,by =m+ good habits we escape ! di%e>t5+ difficulties ( p]petual beg9n+s2 & ?us ! lab\r we devote to ! acquisition ( wisdom & virtue has its fir/ ri* recomp5se 9 ! facility x gives u to advance on ! pa? ( progress4 ,x has be5 truly & rightly said t all g5u9e education consi/s 9 ! =mation ( good habits4 #hj4 ,,p[]s1 ,,faculties ,,& ,,=ces4--,a natural op]ative p[]1 faculty1 or =ce 71 pot5tia1 facultas1 virtus ag5di7 is a quality :i* r5d]s ! nature ( ! individual ag5t apt to elicit c]ta9 actions4 ,by impot5ce or incapacity 71 impot5tia1 incapacitas7 ,ari/otle meant n an opposite k9d ( quality1 9 contradi/9ction to p[] or faculty1 b only a p[] ( a weak] ord]1 diff]+ 9 degree1 n 9 k9d1 f ! real p[] :i* r5d]s an ag5t proximately capable ( act+2 su* weak] capacities1 = in/ance1 z ! infant's p[] to walk1 or ! defective eyesight ( ! ag$4 ,x is to ! individual subsi/+ p]son or ?+ t all ! actions proce$+ f ! latt] are ascrib$3 actiones sunt suppositorum3 ! 8suppositum0 or p]son is ! pr9cipium ,,quod agit4 ,& x acts 9 accordance ) its nature2 ?is latt] is ! pr9cipium ,,quo ag5s agit3 ! nature is ! sub/ance or ess5ce z a pr9ciple ( ! actions :]eby ! individual t5ds to realize its end4 ,b is a creat$1 f9ite nature ! imm$iate or proximate pr9ciple ( its activities1 s t x is op]ative p] se8 ,or is x only _! remote pr9ciple1 elicit+ !m n by itself b only by means ( p[]s1 faculties1 =ces1 :i* are !mselves accid5tal p]fections ( ! sub/ance & really di/9ct f x1 qualities int]m$iate betwe5 ! latt] & its actions1 be+ ! proximate pr9ciples ( ! latt]8 ,no d\bt :5 any individual nature is act$ ^u by o!r ag5cies1 :5 x und]goes real *ange "u ! influ5ce ( its environm5t1 its passive pot5tiality is be+ s f> =? actualiz$4 ,moreov] :5 ! nature itself acts imman5tly1 ! t]m ( su* action rema9+ )9 ! ag5t itself to actualize or p]fect x1 "s passive pot5tiality ( ! ag5t is be+ actualiz$4 ,9 ^! cases ! nature be=e be+ ?us actualiz$ 0 really capable ( su* actualization4 ,?is passive pot5tiality1 h[ev]1 is itself no?+ actual1 x implies no actual p]fection 9 ! nature4 ,b we mu/ di/+ui% c>efully f ?is passive or receptive pot5tiality ( a nature its active or op]ative p[]s--pot5tiae op]ativae4 ,^! may be !mselves actual p]fections 9 ! nature1 accid5tal p]fections actually 9 ! nature1 & p]haps really di/9ct f x4 ,t !y are inde$ actual p]fections ( ! nature is fairly obvi\s3 x is an actual p]fection ( a nature to be proximately & imm$iately1 & )\t any fur!r complem5t or addition to its reality1 capable ( act+2 & ?is is true :e!r ! action 9 "q be imman5t or transitive3 if x be imman5t1 ! p]fection result+ f ! action1 ! t]m ( ! latt]1 w be a p]fection ( ! ag5t itself1 & 9 ?is case ! ag5t by virtue ( its op]ative p[] w h _h ! capacity ( p]fect+ itself2 :ile if ! action be transitive ! ag5t w h _h1 9 virtue ( its op]ative p[]1 ! capacity ( produc+ p]fections 9 o!r ?+s4 ,9 ei!r case su* capacity is und\bt$ly an actual p]fection ( ! ag5t t possesses x4 ,h5ce ! tru? ( ! s*ola/ic =mula3 ,omne ag5s agit 9 quantum e/ 9 ,,actu1 patiatur v]o inquantum e/ 9 ,,pot5tia4 ,fur!rmore1 all su* op]ative p[]s are really di/9ct f ! actions :i* imm$iately proce$ f !m3 ?is1 too1 is obvi\s1 = :ile ! op]ative p[] is a /able1 abid+ *>act]i/ic ( ! ag5t1 ! actions elicit$ by means ( x are transi5t4 ,b :at is ! nature ( ?is op]ative p[] 9 relation to ! nature itself ( ! ag5t8 ,x is an actual p]fection ( ?is nature4 ,x is1 moreov]1 unlike acquir$ habits1 native to ?is nature1 born ) x s to speak1 naturally insep>able f x4 ,fur!r /ill1 op]ative p[]s w\ld seem to be all prop]ties 7#fi7 ( _! respective natures3 inasmu* z x is only 9 virtue ( ! op]ative p[] t ! nature c act1 & !re c be no nature )\t connatural op]ations :]eby x t5ds to realize ! full & f9al p]fection ( its be+1 ! p]fection :i* is ! v raison d'tre ( its pres5ce 9 ! actual ord] ( ?+s4 ,! "q !re=e n>r[s itself d[n to ?is3 ,are op]ative p[]s1 :i* p]fect ! nature ( :i* !y are prop]ties1 really di/9ct f ?is nature1 or are !y only virtually di/9ct aspects "u :i* we view ! nature itself8 ,= example1 :5 we speak ( intellect & w z be+ faculties ( ! human s\l1 d we m]ely mean t intellect is ! s\l itself reg>d$ z capable ( reason+1 & w ! s\l itself reg>d$ z capable ( will+8 ,or d we mean t ! s\l is n by itself & 9 virtue ( its own ess5ce capable ( reason+ & will+2 t x c reason & w only ?r\gh ! in/rum5tality ( two realities ( ! accid5tal ord]1 really di/9ct f1 ?\gh at ! same "t necess>ily root$ 9 & spr++ f1 ! sub/ance ( ! s\l itself3 realities :i* we call p[]s or faculties8 ,or aga91 :5 we speak ( a man or an animal z hav+ v>i\s s5se faculties--int]nal & ext]nal1 cognitive1 appetitive1 executive--d we m]ely mean t ! liv+1 s5ti5t organism is itself directly capable ( elicit+ acts ( v>i\s k9ds3 ( imag9+1 desir+1 see+1 he>+1 etc48 ,or d we mean t ! organism c elicit ^! v>i\s acts only by means ( sev]al accid5tal realities1 really di/9ct f1 & inh]+ 91 itself8 ,if su* op]ative p[]s or faculties are naturally insep>able f ! sub/ance 9 :i* !y inh]e1 if !y are s necess>ily consequ5t on ! nature ( ! latt] t x _c exi/ )\t !m1 are !y any?+ m ?an virtually di/9ct aspects ( ! sub/ance itself8 ,on ?is "q1 z we h already se5 7#fi71 s*ola/ics are n agre$4 ,/4 ,?omas1 & ,?omi/s g5]ally1 ma9ta9 t intellect & w are really di/9ct f ! sub/ance ( ! s\l1 & likewise t ! s5se faculties are really di/9ct f ! sub/ance ( ! animat$ organism 9 :i* !y inh]e47#cdb7 ,9 ?is view ! di/9ction is n m]ely a virtual di/9ction betwe5 diff]5t aspects ( ! s\l 7or ! organism7 itself1 gr\nd$ 9 ! v>iety & complexity ( ! acts :i* emanate f ! latt]3 ! faculties are real entities ( ! accid5tal ord]1 m$iat+ betwe5 ! sub/ance & its actions1 & involv+ 9 ! concrete be+ a plurality :i*1 h[ev]1 is n incompatible ) ! real unity ( ! latt] 7#fi74 ,! foll[+ are "s ( ! argum5ts urg$ 9 pro( ( a real di/9ction3-- 7a7 ,exi/5ce & action are two really di/9ct actualities2 !re=e ! pot5tialities :i* !y actualize mu/ be really di/9ct3 = su* is ! transc5d5tal relation betwe5 ! pot5tial & ! actual t any pot5tial subject & ! correspond+ p]fection :i* actualizes x mu/ belong to ! same g5us supremum3 ! "o _c be a sub/ance & ! o!r an accid5t47#cdc7 ,n[ exi/5ce is ! actuality ( ess5ce & action is ! actuality ( op]ative p[] or faculty4 ,b action is c]ta9ly an accid5t2 !re=e ! op]ative p[] :i* x actualizes mu/ also be an accid5t1 & mu/ !re=e be really di/9ct f ! sub/ance ( :i* x is a p[]1 & ( :i* exi/5ce is ! actuality4 ,?is l9e ( argum5t applies ) equal =ce to all creat$ natures47#cdd7 ,9 ! ,inf9ite ,be+ alone are op]ation & sub/ance id5tical4 ,no creature is op]ative 9 virtue ( its sub/ance4 ,! actions ( a creature _c be actualizations ( its sub/ance3 exi/5ce is ! actualization ( its sub/ance2 !re=e its actions mu/ be actualizations ( pot5tialities :i* are accid5ts di/9ct f its sub/ance2 9 o!r words1 ( op]ative p[]s :i* belong inde$ necess>ily to its sub/ance b are really di/9ct f ! latt]4 ,?is argum5t re/s on v ultimate metaphysical conceptions4 ,b n all s*ola/ics w admit ! assumptions x involves4 ,h[1 = in/ance1 does x appe> t ! creat$ or f9ite sub/ance z su* _c be imm$iately op]ative8 ,ev5 7 x imm$iately op]ative its actions w\ld /ill be accid5ts1 & ! di/9ction betwe5 ,creator & creature w\ld /& unt\*$4 ,! op]ative p[] mu/ be an accid5t because ! action :i* actualizes x1 ! 8actus secundus10 is an accid5t4 ,b ! consequ5tia has n be5 prov$1 & x is n self-evid5t4 ,on ! !ory ( ! real di/9ction1 is n ! op]ative p[] itself an actual p]fection ( ! sub/ance1 & !re=e 9 "s sort an actualization ( ! latt]8 ,& yet !y are n 9 ! same ultimate category1 9 eodem g5]e supremo4 ,! nature :i* is ! pot5tial subject1 p]fect$ by ! op]ative p[]1 is a sub/ance1 :ile ! op]ative p[] :i* p]fects ! sub/ance by actualiz+ ?is pot5tiality is an accid5t4 ,( c\rse !re is n exactly ! same correlation betwe5 sub/ance & op]ative p[] z betwe5 ! latt] & action4 ,b anyh[ ! action is 9 "s true s5se an actualization ( ! sub/ance1 at lea/ ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! p[]1 unless we are prep>$ to break up ! concrete unity ( ! ag5t by ref]r+ ! action solely to ! p[] ( ! ag5t1 & isolat+ ! sub/ance ( ! latt] z a sort ( immutable core :i* m]ely 8exi/s03 a mode ( conceiv+ ! matt]1 :i* looks v l ! mi/ake ( reify+ ab/ract concepts4 ,& if ! action is 9 any true s5se an actualization ( ! sub/ance1 we h1 aft] all1 a pot5tia & actus :i* are n 9 ! same ultimate category4 ,^! consid]ations c>ry u1 ( c\rse1 "r into :at is p]haps ! mo/ fundam5tal ( all metaphysical problems3 t ( ! mode 9 :i* f9ite reality is actual4 ,9 its concrete actuality e f9ite real be+ is ess5tially subject to *ange3 its actuality is n tota simul3 at e in/ant x n only is b is becom+3 x is a mixture ( pot5tiality & actuality3 x is ev] really *ang+1 & yet ! 8x0 :i* *anges c 9 "s real degree & = "s real space ( "t p]si/ or endure id5tical ) itself z a 8subsi/+ ?+0 or 8p]son04 ,h[1 !n1 are we to conceive aright ! mode ( its actuality8 ,take ! concrete exi/+ be+ at any in/ant ( its actuality3 suppose t x is n m]ely und]go+ *ange ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( o!r be+s 9 its environm5t1 or ?r\gh its own imman5t action1 b t x is itself 8act+10 :e!r imman5tly or transitively4 ,if we consid] t at ?is in/ant its exi/5ce is 8really di/9ct0 f its action we _c mean by ?is t !re is 9 x an un*ang+ sub/antial core1 :i* is actually m]ely 8exi/+10 & a ve/ure ( active & passive accid5tal pr9ciples1 :i* is j n[ actual 7?\gh always 9 a /ate ( flux or *ange7 by 8act+0 or 8be+ act$ on047#cde7 ,su* a conception w\ld conflict ) ! tru? t ! exi/+ sub/ance is ev] be+ really & actually1 ?\gh accid5tally1 det]m9$1 *ang$1 modifi$1 improv$ or disimprov$1 9 its total concrete exi/+ reality4 ,ev5 :5 ^! *anges are n s pr(\nd z to de/roy its sub/antial id5tity & ?us t]m9ate its actuality z an individual be+1 ev5 :51 9 o!r words1 !y are n sub/antial1 !y are none ! less real & really affect ! sub/ance4 ,s9ce !y are real !y necess>ily involve ! recognition ( really di/9ct pr9ciples 9 ! concrete be+ & preclude ! view t ! di/9ctions :i* we recognize 9 ! ev]-*ang+ modes ( its actuality1 z reveal$ to u 9 "t & space1 are all m]ely conceptual or logical di/9ctions project$ by ! m9d into :at w\ld !re=e be 9 fact a simple & immutable reality4 ,! d5ial ( any real di/9ction betwe5 successive actual /ates1 or betwe5 co-exi/+ pr9ciples ( ^? /ates1 9 any f9ite be+1 w\ld lead logically to ! ,eleatic doctr9e1 i4e4 to d5ial ( ! reality ( *ange4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :ile recogniz+ t *ange is a reality & n a subjective m5tal illusion1 & t real *ange c be gr\nd$ only 9 a plurality ( really di/9ct pr9ciples 9 ! f9ite individual be+1 we mu/ at ! same "t hold t ?is plurality ( really di/9ct pr9ciples 9 ! individual does n de/roy a real unity1 /ability1 & self-id5tical cont9uity ( ! individual be+ 9 ! mode ( its actuality ?r\gh\t "t4 ,n1 ( c\rse1 t ?is /ability or sam5ess ( ! individual ?r\gh\t "t is complete & adequate to ! exclusion ( all real *ange1 b x is c]ta9ly a real cont9uity ( "o & ! same individual be+3 to d5y ?is w\ld be to remove all p]man5ce f reality & to r$uce all real be+ to flux or *ange1 i4e4 to ! ( ! ,ionian philosoph]1 ,h]aclitus4 ,we _c get a true conception ( any f9ite reality by consid]+ x m]ely f ! /atic po9t ( view1 :i* is ! natural /&po9t ( ab/ract ?\ght2 we mu/ view x also f ! dynamic-k9etic /&po9t1 i4e4 n m]ely z an ess5ce or pr9ciple ( exi/5ce1 b z a p[] or pr9ciple ( action1 & ( consequ5t *ange1 evolution1 or decay4 ,& ! philosophy :i* is ! late/ fa%ion among contempor>y sy/ems1 t ( ! brilliant ,fr5* ?9k] & writ]1 ,b]gson1 has at all ev5ts ! m]it ( emphasiz+ ?is important tru?1 t if our philosophical analysis ( exp]i5ce is to be fruitful we mu/ try to grasp reality n m]ely z x pres5ts itself to ab/ract ?\ght at any section drawn by ! latt] ?r\gh ! incessant process ( its fi]i or cont9u\s actualization 9 "t1 b also to grasp & analyse z f> z possible ! fi]i or process itself1 & br+ to light :atev] we f9d t ?is process implies4 ,^! consid]ations may help ! /ud5t to e/imate = himself ! value & ! limitations ( ! argum5t :i* has sugge/$ !m4 7b7 ,a ?+ _c be really id5tical ) a v>iety ( ?+s t are really di/9ct f "o ano!r2 b ! faculties ( ! s\l are really di/9ct f "o ano!r2 !re=e !y mu/ be really di/9ct f ! sub/ance ( ! s\l4 ,! m9or premiss is support$ by ^! consid]ations3 ,! vegetative & s5ti5t op]ations ( ! human individual are op]ations ( ! liv+ organism1 :ile ! high] op]ations ( rational ?\ght & volition are op]ations ( ! s\l alone1 ! spiritual or immat]ial pr9ciple 9 ! individual4 ,b ! immat]ial pr9ciple _c be really & adequately id5tical ) ! animat$ organism4 ,!re=e ! p[]s or imm$iate pr9ciples ( ^! two classes ( functions1 belong+ z !y d to two really 7?\gh n adequately7 di/9ct sub/antial pr9ciples1 _c be really id5tical ) "o ( !m1 viz4 ) ! s\l itself1 ! spiritual pr9ciple4 ,aga93 ,! ex]cise ( c]ta9 functions by ! human individual is subord9ate to1 & dep5d5t on ! previ\s ex]cise ( o!r functions4 ,= example1 actual volition is necess>ily dep5d5t & consequ5t on actual ?\ght3 we _c w or desire any good )\t fir/ kn[+ x z a good4 ,b ! imm$iate pr9ciple ( any function or activity _c be dep5d5t on or subord9ate to itself4 ,!re=e ! imm$iate pr9ciples ( su* controll+ & controll$ activities--intellect & w1 = example--mu/ be really di/9ct faculties47#cdf7 7c7 ,suppose ! sub/ance or nature ( an ag5t--! human individual1 = in/ance--7 really id5tical ) all its p[]s or faculties1 t ^! 7 m]ely ! nature itself view$ "u diff]5t aspects1 s t !re w\ld be 9 reality only "o op]ative p[] 9 ! individual1 !n !re w\ld be no reason :y ! individual c\ld n or %\ld n at any in/ant elicit "o s+le action or op]ation :i* w\ld be simultane\sly an act ( ?9k+1 will+1 see+1 he>+1 etc41 i4e4 :i* w\ld h at once 9 itself ! modalities ( all human activities4 ,b univ]sal exp]i5ce te/ifies1 on ! contr>y1 t ! op]ations ( ! individual are ea* ( "s p>ticul> mode only1 t he _c elicit e mode ( human activity simultane\sly1 t he nev] elicits "o s+le act hav+ a v>iety ( modes4 ,b :y c\ld he n1 if 8 sub/ance or nature itself 7 ! "o & only proximate pr9ciple ( all 8 modes ( activity8 ,because ! conditions = ! full & adequate ex]cise ( ?is "o s+le or proximate pr9ciple 7at once sub/ance & p[]7 are nev] realiz$6 ,b x is arbitr>y to assume ! exi/5ce ( a p[] :i* c\ld nev] pass fully into ! act connatural to x4 ,& moreov]1 ev5 if ^! conditions are p>tially realiz$ we %\ld see z a consequ5ce ( ?is "s human activity :i* w\ld manife/ 9 "s degree at lea/ all ! modalities ( ! v>i\s human actions ( :i* we h exp]i5ce4 ,b we h no exp]i5ce ( a s+le human activity manife/+ 9 any degree ! modalities ( ! num]\s & really di/9ct human activities :i* exp]i5ce reveals to u4 ,h5ce ! v>iety ( ^! really di/9ct modes ( activity c be expla9$ only by ! fact t ! human individual elicits !m ?r\gh proximate op]ative pr9ciples or p[]s :i* are really di/9ct f "o ano!r & f ! nature itself ( ! individual47#cdg7 ,! problem ( analys+ & classify+ ! =ces1 faculties1 or p[]s ( ! subsi/+ ?+s & p]sons 9 ! univ]se ( our exp]i5ce1 belongs p>tly to ,cosmology & p>tly to ,psy*ology4 ,9 ! latt] x becomes ma9ly a problem ( classify+ our m5tal acts1 functions1 or processes--our /ates ( consci\sness4 ,ap>t f ! "q :e!r or n our m5tal faculties are really di/9ct f "o ano!r & f ! human nature or sub/ance itself ( ! individual1 ! problem ( _! prop] classification is important f ! po9t ( view ( me?od & ( accurate psy*ological analysis4 ,we h se5 already 7#fi7 t ! greate/ s*ola/ic philosoph]s are n unanim\s 9 decl>+ ! di/9ction to be real4 ,b x is at lea/ a virtual di/9ction2 & ev5 z su* x gives rise to ! problem ( classification4 ,x w be suffici5t "h to indicate ! g5]al pr9ciple on :i* ! classification proce$s3 ,:]ev] ! acts are adequately di/9ct !y proce$ f di/9ct p[]s2 & ! acts are adequately di/9ct :5 !y h adequately di/9ct =mal objects47#cdh7 ,pot5tiae specificantur p] actus et objecta4 ,! op]ation or act is ! correlative ( ! p[] or faculty2 & ! =mal object or t]m ( ! op]ation is ! f9al cause ( ! latt]1 ! end = :i* x is elicit$4 ,on ?is basis ,ari/otle & ! s*ola/ics di/+ui% two m5tal faculties ( ! high] or spiritual ord]1 intellect & w2 & 9 ! l[] or s5se ord] ( m5tal life !y di/+ui% "o appetitive faculty1 s5se appetite1 & sev]al cognitive s5se faculties4 ,^! latt] comprise ! int]nal s5se faculties1 viz4 ! s5sus communis or unify+ & associat+ s5se1 ! imag9ation1 s5se memory1 & in/9ct2 & ! ext]nal s5se faculties comprise sight1 s\nd1 ta/e1 smell & t\*4 #ha4 ,,"s ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,qualities4--7a7 ,qualities h contr>ies4 ,heal? & illness1 virtue & vice1 sci5ce & error1 etc41 are oppos$ z contr>ies4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n a prop]ty ( qualities2 x is n v]ifi$ 9 p[]s1 or 9 =ms & figures2 & x is v]ifi$ 9 accid5ts :i* are n qualities1 e4g4 9 actio & passio4 7b7 ,quality is ! basis or 8fundam5tum0 ( all relations ( simil>ity & dissimil>ity4 ,?is attribute seems to be 9 ! /rict s5se a prop]ty ( all qualities4 ,sub/ances are simil> 9 s f> z !y h ! same k9d ( qualities1 dissimil> 9 s f> z !y h diff]5t k9ds4 ,simil>ity ( sub/ances is ! ma9 index to id5tity ( nature or k9d2 b x mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) ! latt]4 ,! latt] _c always be inf]r$ ev5 f a high degree ( simil>ity3 "s specifically di/9ct classes ( ?+s are v simil> to "o ano!r4 ,nor1 on ! o!r h&1 is full & complete simil>ity a necess>y consequ5ce ( id5tity ( nature3 individuals ( ! same species are (t5 v dissimil>1 v unlike "o ano!r4 7c7 ,qualities admit ( v>y+ degrees ( int5sity4 ,!y c increase or dim9i% 9 ! same sub/ance1 :ile num]ically 7& specifically7 di/9ct sub/ances c h ! same k9d ( quality 9 diff]5t degrees4 ,?is is manife/ 9 reg>d to 8habits10 8passions0 & 8s5sible qualities04 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is cle>ly n true ( 8=m0 or 8figure04 ,diff]5t individuals c h ! same k9d ( 8natural p[]0 9 diff]5t degrees4 ,"o man may be naturally ( ke5] intellect & /rong] w ?an ano!r3 ! weak p[] 0 :at ,ari/otle call$ 7impot5tia74 ,b :e!r ! natural p[]s ( ! same individual c !mselves increase or decrease 9 /r5g? or int5sity--& n m]ely ! habits t affect ^! p[]s--is n s cle>4 ,op]ative p[]s are c]ta9ly p]fect$ 7or injur$7 by ! acquisition ( good 7or bad7 habits4 ,9 ! view ( ^? :o d5y a real di/9ction betwe5 natural op]ative p[] or faculty & sub/ance1 x is1 ( c\rse1 ! sub/ance itself t is s p]fect$ 7or injur$74 ,?is attribute1 !re=e1 is n f\nd 9 all qualities2 b x is f\nd 9 qualities alone1 & n 9 any o!r category or mode ( be+4 ,h[ are we to conceive ?is v>iation 9 int5sity1 ?is gr[? or dim9ution ( any quality1 9 a sub/ance 9 :i* su* *ange takes places8 ,on ?is po9t philosoph]s are n agre$4 ,by 8degree ( int5sity0--8int5sio vel remissio qualitatis0--we und]/& ! degree 7or *ange ( degree7 9 :i* ! same num]ical quality affects ! same "p or ! same p[] ( its subject1 ?us r5d]+ ?is "p or p[] =mally m or less 8qualifi$0 9 "s p>ticul> way4 ,?is is cle>ly some?+ q diff]5t f ! ext5sion ( ! same quality to diff]5t p>ts 7or its )drawal f diff]5t p>ts7 ( ! same ext5d$ subject4 ,9 a corporeal1 ext5d$ sub/ance1 !re c accord+ly be "q ( bo? k9ds ( *ange1 int5sive & ext5sive2 :ile 9 a simple1 spiritual sub/ance !re c obvi\sly be "q only ( int5sive *ange ( qualities4 ,& ! fact ( int5sive *ange ( qualities is an und5iable fact ( exp]i5ce4 ,9 :at mann] does x take place8 ,"s au?ors conceive x z an addition or subtraction ( grades or degrees ( ! same quality4 ,o!rs1 conceiv+ qualities z simple1 indivisible entities or 8=ms10 & !nce d5y+ ! possibility ( di/9ct grades ( any quality1 conceive su* *ange to take place by ?is simple entity affect+ its subject m or less intimately1 becom+ m or less firmly root$1 z x 71 9 its subject47#cdi7 ,& !y expla9 ?is m or less p]fect mode ( inh]5ce 9 a v>iety ( ways1 all ( :i* are gr\nd$ on c]ta9 texts ( ,/4 ,?omas37#cej7 ! quality receives a new accid5tal mode :]eby x 8communicates itself to0 ! subject1 & 8in=ms0 ! latt]1 m or less p]fectly2 or1 x is educ$ m or less fully f ! pot5tiality ( its subject1 ?us qualify+ ! latt] 9 ! degree 9 :i* x is educ$ f1 & root$ 91 ! latt]4 ,^! explanations are in/ructive1 z illu/rat+ ! view t ! actual reality ( ! accid5tal mode ( be+ consi/s 9 its affect+1 det]m9+1 ! subject 9 :i* x inh]es4 ,/4 ,?omas1 pr(ess+ t he c atta* no intelligible mean+ to addition or sub/raction ( grades17#cea7 tea*es t ! habit ( *>ity1 = example1 c be increas$ 8secundum ess5tiam0 by 8inh]+ m p]fectly10 8be+ m firmly root$0 9 its subject2 =1 he says1 s9ce x is an accid5t1 8ejus esse e/ inesse4 ,unde nihil e/ aliud ipsam secundum ess5tiam aug]i1 quam eam magis inesse subjecto1 quod e/ magis eam radic>i 9 subjecto4 ,augetur ergo ess5tialit]444 ita quod magis ac magis 9 subjecto esse incipiat407#ceb7 ,& else:]e he concludes ) ! words3 8,pon]e igitur quod aliqua qualitas non augeatur secundum ess5tiam1 s$ augeatur secundum radicationem 9 subjecto vel secundum int5sionem actus1 e/ pon]e contradictoria esse simul047#cec7 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,quantity1 ,,space ,,& ,,"t4 #hb4 ,,analysis ,,( ,,! ,,concept ,,( ,,quantity4--,a detail$ /udy ( ,quantity1 includ+ ,space & ,"t1 & ! ,ari/otelian categories ,ubi1 ,qu&o & ,situs1 belongs to ,cosmology4 ,"h we %all conf9e ourselves ma9ly to ! exposition ( c]ta9 elem5t>y notions prep>atory to su* detail$ /udy2 & we %all assume ! validity ( ! ,s*ola/ic ,!ory ( ,k3 t a real1 mat]ial _w exi/s indep5d5tly ( our m9ds2 t x consi/s ( mat]ial sub/ances or bodies1 animate & inanimate1 end[$ ) ! fundam5tal accid5t ( quantity or ext5sion2 t ^! bodies possess1 moreov]1 _m o!r real accid5ts su* z qualities & en]gies1 *emical1 physical & me*anical2 t !y are subject to real *ange1 local1 quantitative1 qualitative & sub/antial2 t our concepts ( space & "t1 d]iv$ f ^? ( ext5sion & *ange1 are n purely subjective or m5tal =ms ( cognition1 b are objectively valid notions gr\nd$ 9 ! reality ( ! corporeal univ]se & giv+ u a g5u9e1 if inadequate1 insight into ! nature ( ?is reality4 ,among ! *>act]i/ics recogniz$ by physici/s 9 all p]ceptible matt]--divisibility1 comm5surability1 imp5etrability1 passivity or in]tia1 subjection to ext]nal =ces or en]gies1 ext]nal ext5sion or volume1 int]nal quantity or mass--!re are none m fundam5tal ?an ^? ( volume & mass1 or ext5sion & quantity47#ced7 ,n[h]e1 h[ev]1 d we f9d a bett] illu/ration ( ! fact t x is impossible to give a def9ition prop] ( any supreme category1 or ev5 a description ( x by ! aid ( any m elem5t>y notions1 ?an 9 ! attempts ( philosoph]s to describe ,quantity4 ,:51 = in/ance1 we describe ext]nal1 actual1 local1 or spatial ext5sion z t accid5t ( a corporeal sub/ance or body 9 virtue ( :i* ! latt] s exi/s t x has p>ts outside p>ts 9 space1 we h to admit at once t ! notions express$ by ! t]ms 8p>ts10 8outside0 & 8space0 are no simpl] ?an ! notion ( ext5sion itself3 9 fact our notions ( 8place0 7locus7 & 8space0 7spatium7 are d]iv$ f1 & presuppose1 t ( ext5sion4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is no s]i\s disadvantage2 = ! description1 su* z x is1 indicates :at we mean by ! t]ms 8local1 spatial1 ext]nal1 actual ext5sion10 & decl>es ?is latt] to be an accid5t ( corporeal sub/ances4 ,ext5sion1 z x is actually 9 ! concrete body1 affect$ by a v>iety ( s5sible qualities1 is call$ physical ext5sion2 reg>d$ 9 ! ab/ract1 ap>t f ^! qualities1 x is call$ geometrical or ma!matical ext5sion3 tr9a dim5sio1 or ext5sion 9 ?ree dim5sions1 l5g?1 bread? & dep?4 ,if we ab/ract f "o ( ^! we h ext5sion 9 two dim5sions1 sup]ficial ext5sion2 if we ab/ract f two1 we h ext5sion 9 "o dim5sion1 l9e> ext5sion2 & if we ab/ract f all ?ree we h ! extreme limit+ concept ( ! ma!matical po9t4 ,( ^! f\r ab/ract ma!matical concepts1 8po9t10 8l9e10 8surface10 & 8volume10 ea* expresses ! ma!matical limitation ( ! succe$+ "o4 ,we _c conceive a body exi/+ by hav+ p>ts outside p>ts 9 space1 ea* "p occupy+ exclusively a place appropriat$ to itself1 unless we conceive ! body1 ! corporeal sub/ance1 z hav+ already a plurality ( really di/9ct or di/+ui%able p>ts 9 itself1 & ab/ract+ f all relation to space4 ,! sub/ance mu/ be conceiv$ z hav+ a plurality ( really di/9ct or di/+ui%able integral p>ts ( itself1 be=e ^! p>ts c be conceiv$ z exi/+ outside "o ano!r1 ea* 9 its own place4 ,& ! prop]ty 9 virtue ( :i* ! corporeal sub/ance has 9 itself ?is plurality ( di/9ct integral p>ts1 :]eby x is capable ( occupy+ space1 & ( be+ imp5etrable1 divisible1 measurable1 etc41 is call$ int]nal1 radical1 pot5tial quantity or ext5sion47#cee7 ,! corporeal sub/ance itself is1 ( c\rse1 ess5tially composite1 ess5tially divisible into two ess5tial con/itutive pr9ciples1 ! passive1 det]m9able1 or mat]ial pr9ciple 7mat]ia prima71 & ! specify+1 det]m9+1 =mative pr9ciple 7=ma sub/antialis74 ,!n we conceive ?is ess5tially composite sub/ance z necess>ily end[$ ) ! prop]ty ( int]nal quantity :]eby x is composite 9 ano!r ord]3 compos$ (1 & divisible into1 really di/9ct integral p>ts1 ea* ( :i* is1 ( c\rse1 ess5tially composite l ! :ole itself47#cef7 ,f9ally we conceive t ! corporeal sub/ance1 end[$ ) ?is prop]ty1 has also1 z a connatural b really di/9ct & absolutely sep>able effect ( ! latt]1 ! accid5tal mode ( be+1 call$ ext]nal or local ext5sion1 9 virtue ( :i* x actually occupies space1 & ?us becomes ! subject ( all ^? qualities :]eby x is p]ceptible to our s5ses4 ,we h next to inquire into ! relations betwe5 ^! ?ree di/9ct objective concepts1 corporeal sub/ance1 int]nal quantity1 & local or ext]nal ext5sion4 #hc4 ,,corporeal ,,sub/ance1 ,,quantity ,,& ,,ext5sion4--,! corporeal sub/ance is an ess5tially composite sub/ance1 result+ f ! union ( two di/9ct ess5tial con/itutive pr9ciples4 ,x exi/s 9 itself & is ! ultimate subject ( all ! det]m9ations :]eby x reveals itself to our s5ses4 ,its actual ext5sion 9 space is a fundam5tal mode or det]m9ation ( its reality1 b x is a mode :i* is di/9ct f ! reality itself ( ! corporeal sub/ance4 ,ari/otle reg>d$ ! di/9ction z real4 ,9 8 ,metaphysics he decl>es t ! ?ree dim5sions ( bodies are quantities1 n sub/ances1 t quantity is n a sub/ance1 :]eas t 9 :i* x ultimately inh]es is a sub/ance27#ceg7 9 8 ,physics he says t sub/ance is ( itself indivisible & is made divisible by its quantity or ext5sion27#ceh7 9 8 ,de ,anima7#cei7 he obs]ves t ext]nal quantity is directly p]ceptible by ! s5ses 7s5sibile p] se7 :ile sub/ance is only indirectly p]ceptible 7s5sibile p] accid5s737#cfj7 f :i* x is inf]r$ t sub/ance & ext5sion _c be really id5tical4 ,aga91 ,/4 ,?omas argues t a corporeal sub/ance z su*1 & s f> z its ess5ce is conc]n$1 is indiff]5t to great] or less ext5sion 9 space1 t ! :ole nature or sub/ance ( a man1 = in/ance1 is indiff]5t to1 & indep5d5t (1 8 p>ticul> size at any po9t ( "t1 t :ile he gr[s f *ildhood to manhood x is 8 ext]nal quantity t *anges1 b n 8 humanity1 8 human ess5ce1 nature1 or sub/ance47#cfa7 ,consid]ations su* z ^!1 ?\gh !y d n inde$ am\nt to cog5t pro(s ( a real di/9ction betwe5 spatial ext5sion & corporeal sub/ance1 %\ld make any s]i\s philosoph] hesitate to id5tify ^! absolutely1 z ,desc>tes & 8 foll[]s did :5 !y decl>$ ! ess5ce ( corporeal sub/ance to consi/ 9 ?ree dim5sions ( spatial ext5sion4 ,ev5 look+ at ! matt] f ! po9t ( view ( natural reason alone1 & ap>t altoge!r f any light t may be ?r[n ^u x = ! ,*ri/ian philosoph] by ,div9e ,revelation1 x is only ! sup]ficial ?9k] :o w conclude t because ext5sion--:i* reveals to 8 intellect ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ext]nal s5se p]ception ! pres5ce ( a corporeal sub/ance--is naturally insep>able f ! latt]1 !re=e x is really & absolutely id5tical ) ?is latt]4 ,! philosoph] :o rememb]s h[ little is kn[n = c]ta9 ab\t ! ultimate1 ess5tial con/itution ( bodies or corporeal sub/ances1 w be sl[ to conclude t ! spatially ext5d$ mode ( _! be+ ent]s into ! con/itution ( _! ess5ce1 & is n r an accid5tal det]m9ation :]eby ^! sub/ances h _! integral p>ts disp]s$ or ext5d$ 9 space & ?us reveal$ to ! human intellect ?r\gh s5se p]ception4 ,& if he be a ,*ri/ian philosoph] he w naturally inquire :e!r any tru? ( ! ,*ri/ian ,revelation w help indirectly to det]m9e ! "q4 ,desc>tes & 8 foll[]s 7 ,*ri/ian philosoph]s2 & h5ce x 0 all ! m ra% & imprud5t ( !m1 9 spite ( :at !y knew conc]n+ ! ,bless$ ,eu*>i/1 to id5tify ! corporeal sub/ance ) its spatial ext5sion4 ,!y knew t by transub/antiation ! bread & w9e are *ang$ sub/antially into ! ,body & ,blood ( ,*ri/4 ,b all ! appe>ances or ph5om5a ( bread & w9e rema9 aft] transub/antiation1 ! ,eu*>i/ic species z !y are call$1 ! ta/e1 col\r1 =m1 etc41 9 a ^w1 all ! s5sible qualities ( ^! sub/ances1 includ+ ! ext5sion 9 :i* !y imm$iately inh]e4 ,f ! reveal$ tru? t ! sub/ances disappe>1 & f ! manife/ fact t all _! accid5ts rema91 ,*ri/ian philosoph]s & !ologians h rightly drawn ! suffici5tly obvi\s inf]5ce t ! spatially ext5d$ quantity1 :i* imm$iately supports all ! o!r s5sible qualities1 mu/ be itself an absolute accid5t n only really di/9ct1 b by ! absolute p[] ( ,god really sep>able1 f its connatural sub/ance1 ! bread & ! w9e respectively2 & t ?is ext5d$ quantity rema9s 9 ?is /ate ( actual sep>ation miracul\sly support$ by ! direct influ5ce ( ! ,div9e ,omnipot5ce4 ,& :ile ,*ri/ian philosoph]s :o hold ?is view c def5d x f all *>ges ( inconsi/5cy1 unreasonabl5ess & impossibility1 ,desc>tes & 8 foll[]s c def5d _! p>ticul> view only by ! admission t 9 ! case ( ! consecrat$ ,eu*>i/ our s5ses are deceiv$4 ,9 ?is view1 :ile no accid5ts ( ! bread & w9e rema9 objectively1 ,god ,himself produces directly 9 our m9ds ! subjective1 m5tal /ates :i* ! bread & w9e produc$ be=e consecration47#cfb7 ,?is gratuit\s asp]sion is ca/ on ! tru/wor?9ess ( s5se p]ception1 simply on acc\nt ( ! preconceiv$ !ory id5tify+ ! corporeal sub/ance ) its ext5sion4 ,accord+ to ! common view1 on ! o!r h&1 ! s5ses are n really deceiv$4 ,t to :i* !y te/ify is really !re1 viz4 ! :ole collection ( natural accid5ts ( bread & w9e4 ,x is n ! function ( ! s5ses1 b ( ! intellect1 to te/ify to ! pres5ce ( ! sub/ance4 ,( c\rse ! unbeliev] look+ at ! consecrat$ species1 or ! believ] :o looks at !m n kn[+ t !y h be5 consecrat$1 ?9ks t ! sub/ance ( bread & ! sub/ance ( w9e are !re4 ,ea* is deceiv$ intellectually1 ! "o by 8 unbelief ( a tru?1 ! o!r by 8 ignorance ( a fact4 ,if bo? knew ( ! fact ( consecration1 & if ! =m] believ$ 9 ! effect ( x1 nei!r w\ld be deceiv$47#cfc7 ,:ile ! ,c>tesian view is ?us op5 to su* s]i\s objections1 ! only plausible difficulty aga9/ ! traditional view is t ( conceiv+ h[ ! reality ( a m]ely accid5tal mode ( be+1 su* z ext5sion1 c be su/a9$ 9 ! actual ord] ( ?+s ap>t f its connatural sub/ance1 & yet n become itself eo ipso a sub/ance4 ,ne$less to say we h no positive conception ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! ,div9e ,omnipot5ce ?us su/a9s ext5sion2 b s9ce ?is latt]1 be+ an absolute accid5t1 & n a m]e modal det]m9ation ( ! sub/ance1 has a reality ( its own1 ! miracul\s p]si/5ce ( ?is reality _c be %[n to be impossible4 ,nor is x1 9 ?is sep>at$ condition1 itself a sub/ance1 = x /ill reta9s its natural aptitude = inh]5ce 9 its connatural sub/ance2 & ?is aptitude alone1 n actual inh]5ce1 is ( its ess5ce z an accid5t 7#fe73 reta9+ ?is natural aptitude x _c possibly become a sub/ance1 x _c be id5tifi$ ) ! sub/antial mode ( be+ :i* has ess5tially ! v opposite aptitude1 t ( exi/+ 9 itself4 ,ext]nal ext5sion1 !n1 is an absolute accid5t1 really di/9ct f ! corporeal sub/ance1 & naturally ?\gh n absolutely insep>able f ! latt]4 ,x is ! natural concomitant or consequ5ce ( ! int]nal quantity :]eby ! corporeal sub/ance has 9 itself a plurality ( di/9ct integral p>ts4 ,?is int]nal quantity itself is ei!r an aspect ( ! corporeal sub/ance itself1 only virtually di/9ct f ! latt]1 or else 9 ! /rict s5se a prop]ty1 absolutely insep>able1 if really di/9ct1 f ! sub/ance4 ,natural exp]i5ce furni%es no example ( a corporeal sub/ance actually exi/+ devoid ( int]nal quantity or int]nal di/9ction ( integral p>ts47#cfd7 ,b s*ola/ic philosoph]s are n agre$ z to :e!r ! corporeal sub/ance is itself & by its own ess5ce a manifold ( really di/9ct integral p>ts 79 :i* case int]nal quantity w\ld be m]ely ! aspect "u :i* ! ess5ce is ?us reg>d$ z an integral :ole con/itut$ by a plurality ( di/9ct integral p>ts2 :ile1 look$ at z an ess5ce1 x w\ld be an ess5tial :ole con/itut$ by ! union ( two ess5tial p>ts or pr9ciples7--or :e!r x is =mally con/itut$ an integral :ole1 n by its ess5ce 7:i* makes x only an ess5tial :ole1 an ess5tially composite sub/ance71 b by a prop]ty really di/9ct1 ?\gh necess>ily fl[+1 f ?is ess5ce1 viz4 int]nal quantity4 ,accord+ to ! =m] view ! mat]ial pr9ciple 7mat]ia prima7 ( ! composite corporeal sub/ance is su* t ! ess5ce result+ f its union ) ! =mative pr9ciple 7=ma sub/antialis7 is necess>ily an integral :ole ) di/+ui%able integral p>ts1 ea* ( :i* naturally dem&s ! spatially ext5d$ mode ( be+ :i* ext]nal ext5sion de facto conf]s ^u x4 ,accord+ to ! latt] view1 :i* is t ( ,/4 ,?omas & 8 foll[]s g5]ally1 ! corporeal sub/ance z su* has no mode ( composition o!r ?an ess5tial composition3 x is n ( itself an integral :ole1 comp\nd$ ( di/9ct or di/+ui%able integral p>ts 7ea* ( :i* w\ld be1 l ! :ole1 ess5tially composite73 ( itself x is indivisible into integral p>ts3 x is1 !re=e1 9 ?is ord] ( be+1 simple & n composite4 ,x has1 no d\bt1 by reason ( its mat]ial pr9ciple1 an absolutely necess>y exig5ce = divisibility into di/9ct integral p>ts1 = integral composition 9 o!r words4 ,b ?is actual integral composition1 ?is actual divisibility1 is ! =mal effect ( a prop]ty really di/9ct f ! sub/antial ess5ce itself2 & ?is prop]ty is int]nal quantity3 ! connatural1 b absolutely sep>able1 complem5t ( ?is int]nal quantity be+1 z 9 ! o!r view1 local or spatial ext5sion4 ,9 bo? views ext]nal ext5sion is an absolute accid5t ( ! corporeal sub/ance2 & 9 ! ,?omi/ view int]nal quantity w\ld also appe> to be an absolute accid5t1 & n a m]e mode4 ,x is in/ructive to reflect h[ f> ?is s*ola/ic doctr9e removes u f ! ,c>tesian view :i* sets up an absolute anti!sis betwe5 m9d or _s1 & matt] or body1 plac+ ! ess5ce ( ! =m] 9 ?\ght & t ( ! latt] 9 ext5sion4 ,accord+ to ! s*ola/ic view ! spiritual sub/ance is an immat]ial 8actuality0 or 8=m02 x is ess5tially simple1 & n l a corporeal sub/ance an ess5tially composite sub/ance result+ f ! union ( a =mative pr9ciple or 8=m0 ) a passive1 det]m9able1 mat]ial pr9ciple4 ,& s9ce x is ! mat]ial pr9ciple t dem&s ! prop]ty ( int]nal quantity & ! accid5t ( ext]nal ext5sion1 :]eby ! corporeal sub/ance becomes an integral :ole ) its p>ts ext5d$ 9 space1 x foll[s t ! spiritual sub/ance1 hav+ no mat]ial pr9ciple 9 its con/itution1 is n only ess5tially simple--to ! exclusion ( di/9ct pr9ciples ( its ess5ce1--b is also & z a consequ5ce integrally simple1 to ! exclusion ( di/9ct integral p>ts1 & ( ! ext5d$ or *>act]i/ically corporeal mode ( occupy+ space4 ,s f> !re is contra/ betwe5 ! two great sub/antial modes ( f9ite be+1 matt] & _s2 b ! contra/ is by no means an absolute anti!sis4 ,= if we look at ! ess5ce alone ( ! corporeal sub/ance x is n ( itself actually ext5d$ 9 space3 9 ! ,?omi/ view x is n ev5 ( itself divisible into di/9ct integral p>ts4 ,x diff]s f _s 9 ?is t :ile ! latt] is ess5tially simple ! =m] is ess5tially composite & has by reason ( ?is composit5ess a natural aptitude = divisibility into p>ts & = ! ext5sion ( ^! p>ts 9 space1 an aptitude :i* _s does n possess4 ,b ! corporeal sub/ance may exi/ )\t actual ext5sion1 & consequ5tly )\t any ( ^? o!r attributes su* z imp5etrability1 solidity1 col\r1 etc41 ?r\gh :i* x is p]ceptible to our s5ses4 ,9 ?is condition1 h[ does x diff] f _s8 ,9 be+ ess5tially composite1 & 9 be+ p]haps end[$ ) di/+ui%able integral p>ts47#cfe7 ,b 9 ?is condition ! ess5tial mode ( its be+ has a relation to space :i* closely resembles ! mode 9 :i* _s exi/s 9 space3 x is relat$ to space some:at 9 ! mann] 9 :i* ! s\l is 9 ! space occupi$ by ! body--:ole 9 ! :ole ( ?is space & :ole 9 e assignable portion ( ?is space4 ,s t aft] all1 diff]5t z matt] & _s und\bt$ly are1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 !m is by no means t sort ( ,c>tesian *asm :i* human ?\ght mu/ = ev] fail to bridge4 ,by virtue ( its ext]nal ext5sion ! corporeal sub/ance exi/s by hav+ di/+ui%able p>ts outside p>ts 9 space4 ,we c conceive any p]ceptible volume ( matt] z be+ p]fectly cont9u\s1 if x has no actual limits or actual di/9ction ( p>ts )9 itself1 b is "o individual be+ completely fill+ ! :ole space )9 its out] surface2 or imp]fectly cont9u\s1 if :ile be+ "o & undivid$ x has )9 its volume pores or int]/ices1 :e!r ^! be empty or fill$ ) "s o!r sort ( matt]2 or z made up ( contigu\s integral p>ts if ea* or ^! is really di/9ct & actually divid$ f e o!r1 :ile ea* actually t\*es ) its out] limits ! adjac5t limits ( ! p>ts ly+ next to x1 s t all ! int]nal p>ts or limits are co-t]m9\s2 or z made up ( sep>ate1 discrete or di/ant p>ts no "o ( :i* actually t\*es any o!r4 ,x is cle> t !re mu/ be1 9 any actually ext5d$ volume ( matt]1 ultimate p>ts :i* are really cont9u\s--unless we are to hold1 ) dynami/s1 t our p]ception ( ext5sion is produc$ 9 our m9ds by ! action ( extram5tal po9ts or c5tres ( =ce :i* are !mselves simple or unext5d$4 ,b ! physical ph5om5a ( contraction1 expansion1 absorption1 undulatory & vibratory motions accompany+ our s5sations ( light1 heat & s\nd1 z well z _m o!r physical ph5om5a1 all po9t to ! fact t volumes ( matt] :i* are app>5tly cont9u\s are really por\s3 ! molecul> /ructure ( p]ceptible matt] is an accept$ physical !ory2 & sci5ti/s also univ]sally accept z a work+ hypo!sis ! exi/5ce ( an imp]ceptible mat]ial m$ium p]vad+ & fill+ all real space1 ?\gh !re is no agreem5t z to ! prop]ties ) :i* !y suppose ?is hypo!tical m$ium1 ! 8e!r10 to be end[$4 ,aga91 z reg>ds ! divisibility ( ext5d$ matt]1 x is obvi\s t if we conceive ext5sion 9 ?ree dim5sions geometrically1 ma!matically or 9 ! ab/ract1 any su* volume or ext5sion is indef9itely divisible 9 ?\ght4 ,b if we inquire h[ f> any concrete1 actually exi/+ volume ( matt] is divisible1 we "k 9 ! fir/ place t we _c divide ! body ( any actual organic liv+ ?+ indef9itely )\t de/roy+ its life1 & s its specific "*4 ,nor c we c>ry on ! division ( inorganic matt] indef9itely = want ( suffici5tly delicate divid+ in/rum5ts4 ,b ap>t f ?is ! sci5ce ( *emi/ry po9ts to ! fact t e inorganic *emical comp\nd has an ultimate individual unit1 ! *emical molecule1 :i* we _c sub-divide )\t de/roy+ ! specific nature ( ! comp\nd by resolv+ x into its elem5ts or into less complex comp\nds4 ,fur!rmore1 ea* 8elem5t>y0 or 8*emically simple0 body--su* z gold1 oxyg51 c>bon1 etc4--seems resolvable into units call$ 8atoms10 :i* appe> to be ultimate individual units 9 ! s5se t if _! mass c be subdivid$ 7z appe>s possible f rese>*es t h orig9at$ 9 ! discov]y ( radium7 ! subdivisions are specifically diff]5t k9ds ( matt] f t ( ! atom s divid$4 ,9 ! inorganic _w ! p]ceptible mass ( matt] is c]ta9ly n an individual be+1 a unum p] se1 b only a collection ( individual atoms or molecules1 a unum p] accid5s4 ,:e!r ! molecule or ! atom ( ! *emically elem5t>y body is ! 8individual10 _c be det]m9$ ) any degree ( c]titude4 ,x w\ld appe>1 h[ev]1 t e specifically di/9ct type ( inorganic matt]1 :e!r comp\nd or elem5t>y1 requires = its exi/5ce a c]ta9 m9imal volume1 by ! sub-division ( :i* ! type is sub/antially *ang$2 & ?is is manife/ly true ( organic or liv+ matt]3 s t matt] z x naturally exi/s w\ld appe> n to be indef9itely divisible4 ,if 9 a *emically homog5e\s mass ( inorganic matt] 7su* z c>bon or wat]7 ! *emical molecule be reg>d$ z ! 8individual10 ?is _c be ! case 9 any organic1 liv+ ?+1 = :atev] matt] is assimilat$ into ! liv+ sub/ance ( su* a be+ eo ipso und]goes sub/antial *ange :]eby x loses ! nature x _h & becomes a con/itu5t ( ! liv+ individual4 ,! sub/antial1 8individual0 unity ( ! organic liv+ be+ seems to be compatible n m]ely ) qualitative 7/ructural & functional7 het]og5eity ( p>ts1 b also ) 7p]haps ev5 complete7 spatial sep>at5ess ( ^! p>ts4 ,if ! /ructure ( ! liv+ body is really 8molecul>10 i4e4 if x has di/ances betwe5 its ultimate integral units1 s t ^! are n 9 spatial contact1 !n ! fact t ! =mative1 vital pr9ciple 7=ma sub/antialis1 anima7 unifies ?is mat]ial manifold1 & con/itutes x an 8individual0 by actualiz+ & vitaliz+ ea* & all ( ! mat]ial units1 spatially sep>ate z !y are1--?is fact w help u to realize t ! =mative pr9ciple ( ! composite corporeal sub/ance has n ( itself ! spatial1 ext5d$ mode ( be+1 b t ! sub/ance d]ives ! latt] f its mat]ial pr9ciple 7mat]ia prima74 #hd4 ,,place ,,& ,,space4--,f ! concept ( ! volume or actual ext5sion ( a body we pass imm$iately to t ( ! 8place0 7locus7 :i* x occupies4 ,we may di/+ui% betwe5 ! int]nal & ! ext]nal place ( a body4 ,by ! =m] we und]/& ! out] 7convex7 surface ( ! body itself1 reg>d$ z a receptacle conta9+ ! volume ( ! body4 ,if1 !re=e1 !re 7 only "o body 9 exi/5ce x w\ld h its own int]nal place3 ?is is indep5d5t ( o!r bodies4 ,n s1 h[ev]1 ! ext]nal place2 = by ! ext]nal place ( a body we mean ! imm$iately surr\nd+ 7concave7 surface1 =m$ by ! bodies :i* circumscribe ! body 9 "q1 & consid]$ =mally z an immovable conta9] ( ?is body4 ,?is is a free r5d]+ ( ,ari/otle's def9ition3 ,place is ! fir/ 7or imm$iate7 immovable surface 7or limit7 ( t :i* conta9s a body3 prima immobilis sup]ficies ejus quod cont9et47#cff7 ,if a holl[ sph]e 7 fill$ ) wat]1 ! inn] or concave surface ( ! sph]e w\ld be ! 8ext]nal place0 ( ! wat]4 ,n1 h[ev]1 ?is surface consid]$ mat]ially1 b =mally z a surface1 s t if ! sph]e c\ld be remov$1 & ano!r in/antane\sly sub/itut$ = x1 ! wat] w\ld /ill be conta9$ )9 ! same =mal surface2 its locus ext]nus w\ld rema9 ! same4 ,&1 aga91 x is ! conta9+ surface consid]$ z immovable or z circumscrib+ t def9ite portion ( space1 t con/itutes ! locus ext]nus or 8ext]nal place0 ( ! locat$ body3 s t if ! sph]e ) ! wat] 7 mov$ ! latt] w\ld !reby obta9 a new ext]nal location1 = ?\gh ! conta9+ surface be /ill mat]ially & =mally ! same1 x is no long] ! same z a locat+ surface1 see+ t x n[ m>ks (f a portion ( space diff]5t f t m>k$ (f by x be=e x 0 mov$4 ,ari/otle's def9ition def9es :at is kn[n z ! prop] ext]nal place ( a body4 ,f ?is we di/+ui% ! common ext]nal place or location ( a body3 und]/&+ by ! latt]1 or 8locus communis10 ! :ole collection ( spatial relations ( ! body 9 "q to all ! bodies 9 its imm$iate neighb\rhood4 ,x is by indicat+ ^! relations1 or "s ( !m1 t we assign ! ,ari/otelian category1 or extr9sic d5om9ation1 ,ubi47#cfg7 ,reg>d$ ontologically1 ! int]nal place ( a body is an absolute accid5t3 x is ! accid5t :i* gives ! latt] concrete volume or ext]nal ext5sion1 & x is n really di/9ct f ! latt]4 ,! ext]nal place ( a body includes 9 addition ! spatial relations ( ! latt] to o!r bodies1 relations gr\nd$ 9 ! volumes ( ^? bodies4 ,x is by reason ( ^! spatial relations ) c]ta9 bodies1 t a be+ is said to be 8pres5t0 9 a c]ta9 place4 ,a corporeal ext5d$ sub/ance is said to occupy space circumscriptiv1 or by hav+ p>ts outside p>ts 9 ! place x occupies4 ,a f9ite or creat$ spiritual sub/ance is said to occupy space def9itiv inasmu* z x c naturally ex]cise its influ5ce only )9 c]ta9 m or less ext5d$ spatial limits3 z ! human s\l does )9 ! conf9es ( ! body47#cfh7 ,! ,inf9ite ,be+ is said to occupy space repletiv4 ,! actual pres5ce ( ,god 9 all real space1 cons]v+ 9 its exi/5ce all creat$1 cont+5t reality1 is call$ ! ,div9e ,ubiquity4 ,! p]fection :]eby ,god c be pres5t 9 o!r worlds & o!r spaces :i* ,he may actualize is call$ ! ,div9e ,imm5sity4 ,! local pres5ce ( a f9ite be+ to o!r f9ite be+s is itself a positive p]fection--bas$ on its actual ext5sion if x be an ext5d$ corporeal sub/ance1 or on its p[] ( op]at+ )9 a c]ta9 space if x be a spiritual sub/ance4 ,! fact t 9 ! case ( a f9ite be+ ?is local pres5ce is itself limit$1 is at once a coroll>y & an index ( ! f9it5ess ( ! be+ 9 "q4 ,only ! ,inf9ite ,be+ is omnipres5t or ubiquit\s4 ,b e f9ite be+1 :e!r corporeal or spiritual1 f ! v fact t x exi/s at all1 mu/ exi/ some:]e or h "s locus int]nus1 & x mu/ h "s local pres5ce if !re are o!r corporeal1 ext5d$ be+s 9 exi/5ce4 ,?us ! local pres5ce ( a be+ is a 7f9ite7 p]fection :i* seems to be gr\nd$ 9 ! v nature itself ( ! creature47#cfi7 ,f ! concept ( place we pass naturally to ! m complex & ab/ract notion ( space4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 by cognitive processes1 bo? s5ti5t & intellectual1 t we come into possession ( ! ab/ract concept ( space4 ,^! processes are subjective 9 ! s5se t !y are processes ( ! individual's m5tal faculties4 ,di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! processes & ! object or cont5t :i* is br\ght into consci\sness1 or put 9 pres5ce ( ! m9d1 by means ( !m2 & assum+ t ?is object or cont5t is n a m]e =m or groove ( our cognitive activity1 n a m]e antec$5t condition requisite on ! m5tal side = ! consci\s ex]cise ( ?is activity on its data1 b t on ! contr>y x is1 or involves1 an objective1 extram5tal reality appreh5d$ by ! m9d1--we g on to inquire 9 :at ?is objective reality consi/s4 ,9 approa*+ ! "q we mu/ fir/ note t :at is true ( e ab/ract & univ]sal concept is true ( ! concept ( space1 viz4 t ! ab/ractness & univ]sality 78int5tio univ]salitatis07 ( real be+1 z appreh5d$ by ! intellect1 are modes or =ms ( ?\ght1 entia rationis1 logical conditions & relations :i* are creat$ by ?\ght1 & :i* exi/ only 9 & = ?\ght2 :ile ! reality itself is ! object appreh5d$ 9 ^! modes & "u ^! conditions3 ,univ]sale e/ =malit] 9 m5te et fundam5talit] 9 re4 ,n[ ?r\gh ! concept ( space we appreh5d a reality4 ,our concept ( real space has = its object an actual reality4 ,:at is ?is reality8 ,if space is real1 9 :at does its reality consi/8 ,we answ] t ! reality :i* we appreh5d ?r\gh ?is concept is ! total am\nt ( ! actual ext5sion or magnitude ( all creat$ & coexi/+ bodies2 n1 h[ev]1 ?is total magnitude consid]$ absolutely & 9 itself1 b z end[$ ) real & mutual relations ( all its p>ts to "o ano!r17#cgj7 relations :i* are appreh5d$ by u z di/ances1 l9e>1 sup]ficial1 & volum9al4 ,su*1 !n1 is ! reality correspond+ to our concept ( real & actual space4 ,b no soon] h we rea*$ ?is concept ?an we may look at its object 9 ! ab/ract1 remove m5tally all limits f x1 & conceive all ext5d$ bodies z actually non-exi/5t4 ,:at is ! result8 ,! result is t we h n[ pres5t to our m9ds ! possibility ( ! exi/5ce ( ext5d$ bodies1 & a concomitant imag9ation image 7:i* memory w n all[ u to bani% f consci\sness7 ( a va/ & b\ndless empt9ess1 an indef9ite & unmeasurable vacuum 9 :i* bodies 7 or may be4 ,! intellectual concept is n[ n a concept ( any actual object1 b ( a m]e possibility3 ! possibility ( a corporeal1 ext5d$ univ]se4 ,?is is ! concept ( :at we call ideal or possible space2 & l ! concept ( any o!r possible reality x is d]iv$ by u f our exp]i5ce ( actual reality1--9 ?is case f our exp]i5ce ( ext5d$ bodies z actually exi/+4 ,! corporeal univ]se has n exi/$ f all et]nity1 b x 0 possible f all et]nity4 ,:5 we ?9k ( t possibility z antec$5t to all creation1 we are ?9k+ ( bodies1 & ( _! ext5sion1 z possible2 & ! concept ( _! total ext5sion z possible is ! concept ( ideal or possible space4 ,?is concept is1 ?r\gh a psy*ological necessity1 accompani$ by an imag9ation image ( :at we call imag9>y space3 ! unlimit$ vacuity :i* prec$$ corporeal creation1 :i* w\ld /ill p]si/ 7 ! latt] totally annihilat$1 :i* rea*es out indef9itely beyond its actual limits1 :i* imag9ation pictures = u z a receptacle 9 :i* bodies may exi/ b :i* all ! "t our reason assures u is actually no?+1 be+ really only ! kn[n possibility ( corporeal creatures4 ,?is famili> notion ( an empty receptacle = bodies is :at we h 9 m9d :5 we ?9k ( bodies z exi/+ 89 space04 ,h5ce we say t space1 z conceiv$ by ! human m9d1 is n a m]e subjective =m ( cognition1 a m]e ens rationis1 inasmu* z our concept has a f\ndation 9 reality1 viz4 ! actual ext5sion ( all exi/+ bodies2 nor is x on ! o!r h& simply a real entity1 because ?is actual ext5sion ( bodies does n really exi/ 9 ! mann] 9 :i* we appreh5d x "u ! ab/ract concept ( space1 z a m]e possibility1 or empty receptacle1 ( bodies4 ,space is !re=e an ens rationis cum fundam5to 9 re4 ,a great v>iety ( int]e/+ b ab/ruse que/ions arise f ! consid]ation ( space2 b !y belong prop]ly to ,cosmology & ,natural ,!ology4 ,= example3 ,is real space actually inf9ite 9 magnitude1 or f9ite8 ,9 o!r words1 besides ! :ole sol> sy/em--:i* is 9 reality m]ely "o /> plus its planets & _! satellites1--is !re 9 exi/5ce an actually inf9ite multitude ( su* /ell> worlds8 ,x is n likely t ?is c ev] be det]m9$ empirically4 ,_m philosoph]s ma9ta9 t ! "q mu/ be answ]$ 9 ! negative1 inasmu* z an actually inf9ite multitude is impossible4 ,o!rs1 h[ev]1 d5y t ! impossibility ( an actually inf9ite multitude c be prov$47#cga7 ,aga91 )9 ! limits ( ! actual corporeal univ]se1 are !re really vacant spaces1 or is all space )9 ^! limits actually 7or ev5 necess>ily7 fill$ ) an all-p]vad+ e!r or corporeal m$ium ( "s sort8 ,h[ w\ld local motion be possible if all space 7 full ( imp5etrable matt]8 ,h[ w\ld ! real int]action ( di/ant bodies on "o ano!r be possible if !re 7 only vacant space betwe5 !m8 ,is ! real volume or ext5sion ( a corporeal sub/ance 7z di/9ct f its app>5t volume1 :i* is suppos$ to include int]/ices1 or spaces n fill$ ) t body7 actually or necess>ily un*angeable8 ,or is ! int]nal quantity ( a body actually or necess>ily un*angeable8 ,c m ?an "o individual corporeal sub/ance simultane\sly occupy exactly ! same space8 7,?is is n possible naturally1 = imp5etrability is a natural consequ5ce ( local ext5sion2 b x is possible miracul\sly--if all ! bodies1 or all except "o1 be miracul\sly depriv$ ( local or spatial ext5sion47 ,c ! same individual body be pres5t at ! same "t 9 totally diff]5t & di/ant places8 7,n naturally1 ( c\rse2 b h[ x c happ5 ev5 miracul\sly is a m difficult "q ?an ! prec$+ "o4 ,x is 9 virtue ( its actual or local ext5sion t a body is pres5t s5sibly 9 a def9ite place4 ,depriv$ miracul\sly ( ?is ext5sion x c be simultane\sly 9 sev]al places1 z our ,bless$ ,"l's ,body is 9 ! ,eu*>i/4 ,b if a body has its natural local ext5sion at "o def9ite place1 does ?is ext5sion s conf9e its pres5ce to ?is place t x _c be simultane\sly pres5t--miracul\sly1 & )\t its local ext5sion--at o!r places8 ,! mo/ we c say is t ! absolute impossibility ( ?is is nei!r self-evid5t nor capable ( cog5t pro(4 ,! ,body ( our ,"l has its natural local ext5sion 9 heav5--= heav51 :i* w be ! abode ( ! glorifi$ bodies ( ! bless$ aft] ! g5]al resurrection1 mu/ be n m]ely a /ate or condition1 b a place--& at ! same "t x is sacram5tally pres5t 9 _m places on e>?47 #he4 ,,"t3 ,,its ,,appreh5sion ,,& ,,measurem5t4--,if ! concept ( space is difficult to analyse1 & gives rise to "s practically insoluble problems1 ?is is /ill m true ( ! concept ( "t4 8,:at1 !n1 is "t80 exclaims ,/4 ,augu/9e 9 8 ,confessions47#cgb7 8,if no "o asks me1 ,i "k2 b if ,i am ask$ to expla9 x1 !n ,i d n "k60 ,we rea* ! notion ( space ?r\gh our ext]nal p]ception ( ext5sion by ! s5ses ( sight & t\*4 ,s also we d]ive ! notion ( "t f our p]ception ( motion or *ange1 & ma9ly f our consci\sness ( *ange & succession 9 our own consci\s /ates4 ,! concept ( "t involves imm$iately two o!r concepts1 t ( duration1 & t ( succession4 ,duration1 or cont9uance 9 exi/5ce1 is ( two k9ds1 p]man5t & successive4 ,p]man5t duration is ! duration ( an immutable be+1 =mally & 9 s f> z x is immutable4 ,successive duration is ! cont9u$ exi/5ce or duration ( a be+ t is subject to *ange1 =mally & 9 s f> z x is mutable4 ,n[ real *ange involves a cont9u\s succession ( real /ates1 x is a cont9u\s process or fi]i2 & x is ! duration ( a be+ subject to su* *ange t we call "t or temporal duration4 ,_h we no consci\sness ( *ange1 or succession ( /ates1 we c\ld h no notion ( "t2 ?\gh we might h a notion ( un*ang+ duration if p] impossibile our cognitive activity 7 itself devoid ( any succession ( consci\s /ates & _h = its object only un*ang+ reality4 ,b s9ce our cognitive activity is de facto successive we c appreh5d p]man5t or un*ang+ duration1 n z x is 9 itself1 b only aft] ! analogy ( successive or temporal duration 7#hf74 ,! cont9u\s s]ies ( successive /ates involv$ 9 *ange is1 !re=e1 ! real & objective cont5t ( our notion ( "t2 j z ! co-exi/+ total ( ext5sion =ms ! cont5t ( our notion ( space4 ,! concept ( space is ! concept ( some?+ /atic2 t ( "t is ! concept ( some?+ k9etic4 ,"t is ! cont9uity ( *ange3 :]e !re is *ange !re is "t2 )\t *ange "t w\ld be inconceivable4 ,*ange involves succession1 & succession involves ! temporal elem5ts ( 8be=e0 & 8aft]10 sep>at$ by ! indivisible limit+ factor call$ ! 8n[0 or 8pres5t in/ant04 ,! 8pa/0 & ! 8future0 are ! two p>ts ( "t1 :ile ! 8pres5t in/ant0 is n a "p ( "t1 b a po9t ( dem>cation at :i* ! future fl[s into ! pa/4 ,*ange is a reality2 x is a real mode ( ! exi/5ce ( mutable ?+s2 b nei!r ! imm$iately pa/ /ate1 nor ! imm$iately future /ate ( a *ang+ reality1 are actual at ! pres5t in/ant3 x is only to ! p]man5t1 abid+ m9d1 appreh5d+ real *ange1 & end[$ ) memory & expectation1 t ! pa/ & ! future are actually 7&1 ( c\rse1 only ideally1 n really7 pres5t4 ,& x is only by hold+ pa/ & future 9 pres5t consci\sness1 by di/+ui%+ m5tally betwe5 !m1 by c\nt+ or measur+ ! cont9u\s fl[ ( successive /ates f future to pa/1 ?r\gh ! pres5t in/ant1 t ! m9d comes into possession ( ! concept ( "t47#cgc7 ,! m9d ?us appreh5ds "t z ! measure ( ! cont9u\s fl[ ( successive /ates 9 ?+s subject to *ange4 ,z ?us appreh5d$1 "t is n m]ely ! reality ( *ange3 x is ! successive cont9uity or duration ( *ange consid]$ z a measure ( *ange4 ,x is t )9 :i* all *anges are conceiv$ to happ53 j z space is conceiv$ z t )9 :i* all ext5d$ ?+s are conceiv$ to exi/4 ,we h said t )\t real *ange or motion !re c\ld be no "t4 ,we c n[ add t )\t a m9d to appreh5d & measure ?is motion !re c\ld be no "t4 ,z ,/4 ,?omas decl>es1 foll[+ ,ari/otle3 ,si non esset anima non esset tempus47#cgd7 ,= "t1 z appreh5d$ by means ( our ab/ract & univ]sal concept1 is n simply a reality1 b a reality end[$ ) logical relations1 or1 9 o!r words1 a logical entity gr\nd$ 9 reality1 an ens rationis cum fundam5to 9 re4 ,?is br+s u to ,ari/otle's classic def9ition17#cge7 :i* is at once pi?y & pregnant3 1 3 ,tempus e/ num]us motus secundum prius et po/]ius3 ,"t is ! measure ( motion or *ange by :at we conceive z be=e & aft]1 or future & pa/1 9 its process4 ,e *ange involves its own intr9sic fl[ ( /ates f future to pa/4 ,x is by m5tally di/+ui%+ ^! /ates1 & by ?us comput+1 c\nt+1 numb]+1 ! cont9u\s fl[ or *ange1 t we d]ive f ! latt] ! notion ( "t47#cgf7 ,if1 !n1 we consid] all creat$ ?+s1 all ?+s subject to *ange1 we %all realize t real "t comm5c$ ) ! creation ( ! fir/ ( !m & w cont9ue z long z !y 7or any ( !m7 cont9ue to exi/4 ,we ?us arrive at a conception ( "t 9 g5]al1 analog\s to t ( space3 ! :ole cont9u\s s]ies ( successions1 9 *ang+ ?+s1 f future to pa/1 reg>d$ z t 9 :i* ^! *anges occur1 & :i* is ! measure ( !m4 ,"h1 too1 z 9 ! case ( space1 we c di/+ui% real "t1 :i* is ! total duration ( actual *anges1 f ideal or imag9>y "t :i* is ! conceiv$ & imag9$ duration ( m]ely possible *anges4 ,b a m important di/9ction is t betwe5 intr9sic or int]nal "t1 or ! duration ( any concrete mutable reality consid]$ 9 itself1 & extr9sic or ext]nal "t1 :i* is "s o!r extr9sic temporal duration ) :i* we comp>e1 & by :i* we may measure1 ! =m] duration4 ,e *ange or motion has its own int]nal "t2 & ?is is :at we h be5 s f> endeav\r+ to analyse4 ,if two m5 />t at ! same in/ant to walk 9 ! same direction1 & if "o walk ?ree miles & ! o!r f\r1 :ile ! h&s ( a wat* m>k ! lapse ( an h\r1 ! ext]nal "t ( ea* walk w be ! same1 w co9cide ) "o & ! same motion ( ! h&s ( ! wat* us$ z a measure4 ,b ! int]nal "t ( ! f\r-mile walk w be great] ?an t ( ! ?ree-mile walk4 ,! =m] w be a great] am\nt ( *ange ?an ! latt]2 & !re=e its int]nal "t1 e/imat$ by ?is am\nt absolutely1 w be great] ?an t ( ! latt] e/imat$ by its am\nt absolutely47#cgg7 ,! great] ! am\nt ( a *ange ! great] ! int]nal "t-duration or s]ies ( successive /ates :i* measures ?is *ange absolutely47#cgh7 ,j z ! category ,:]e is indicat$ by ! spatial relations ( a body to o!r bodies1 s ! category ,:5 is indicat$1 9 reg>d to any ev5t or process1 by its comm5suration or comp>ison ) o!r ev5ts or processes4 ,?is br+s u to ! notion ( measurem5t4 ,to measure any?+ quantitatively is to apply to x successively "s quantitative unit tak5 z a /&>d & to c\nt ! numb] ( times x conta9s ?is unit4 ,?is is a process ( m5tally break+ up cont9u\s quantity or magnitude--:e!r p]man5t or successive1 i4e4 :e!r ext5sion or motion--into discont9u\s quantity or multitude4 ,if ! measurem5t ( p]man5t quantity by spatial units1 & ! *oos+ ( su* units1 are difficult processes17#cgi7 ^? ( measur+ successive quantity & fix+ on temporal units are m difficult /ill4 ,is !re any natural motion or *ange ( a g5]al "*1 :]eby we c measure 7ext]nally7 ! "t-duration ( all o!r *anges8 ,! motions ( ! e>? itself--on its axis & ar\nd ! sun--at once sugge/ !mselves4 ,& ^! motions =m 9 fact ! natural g5]al /&>d = measur+ ! "t ( all o!r ev5ts 9 ! univ]se4 ,all artificial or me*anical devices1 su* z h\r-glasses1 wat*es1 clocks1 *ronomet]s1 etc41 are simply contrivances = ! m conv5i5t application ( t g5]al & natural /&>d to all p>ticul> ev5ts4 ,x requires a little reflection to realize t all our means ( measur+ "t-duration c only atta9 to approximate accuracy1 inasmu* z our faculties ( s5se p]ception1 no matt] by :at devices !y are aid$1 are s limit$ 9 range & p5etration t fluctuations :i* fall bel[ ! m9ima s5sibilia _c be detect$4 ,x is a necess>y condition ( any motion us$ z a /&>d = "t-measurem5t t x be regul>4 ,t ! /&>d motions we actually employ are absolutely regul> we h no gu>antee4 ,we c te/ _! regul>ity only up to ! po9t at :i* our p[] ( detect+ irregul>ity fails4 ,reflection w also %[ t our appreciation ( "t-duration is also relative1 n absolute4 ,x is always a comp>ison ( "o fl[ or curr5t ( consci\s exp]i5ces ) ano!r4 ,x is ! great] regul>ity ( a/ronomical motions1 z comp>$ ) *anges or processes exp]i5c$ z tak+ place )9 ourselves1 t causes u to fix on ! =m] z ! m suitable /&>d = ! measurem5t ( "t4 8,!re is inde$10 writes ,fa!r ,mah]17#chj7 8a c]ta9 rhy?m 9 _m ( ! processes ( our organic life1 su* z respiration1 circulation1 & ! recurr5t ne$s ( food & sleep1 :i* probably contribute mu* to our p[] ( e/imat+ duration4444 ,! irregul> "* & v>y+ duration ( consci\s /ates1 h[ev]1 soon br+ home to u ! unfitness ( ^! subjective ph5om5a to s]ve z a /&>d measure ( "t40 ,moreov]1 our e/imate ( duration is l>gely dep5d5t on ! nature ( ! e/imat$ exp]i5ces & ( our m5tal attitude t[>ds !m3 8,a p]iod ) pl5ty ( v>i$ incid5t1 su* z a =tnight's travel1 passes rapidly at ! "t4 ,:il/ we are int]e/$ 9 ea* successive exp]i5ce we h little sp>e att5tion to notice ! duration ( ! exp]i5ce4 ,!re is almo/ complete lapse ( ! #8enum]at+' activity4 ,b 9 retrospect su* a p]iod exp&s1 because x is e/imat$ by ! numb] & v>iety ( ! impressions :i* x pres5ts to recollection4 ,on ! o!r h& a dull1 monoton\s1 or unattractive occupation1 :i* leaves mu* ( our m5tal en]gy free to adv]t to its duration1 is ov]-e/imat$ :il/ tak+ place4 ,a c\ple ( h\rs sp5t impati5tly wait+ = a tra91 a few days 9 idl5ess on bo>d %ip1 a week conf9$ to "o's room1 are (t5 decl>$ to con/itute an #8age'4 ,b :5 !y are pa/ su* p]iods1 be+ empty ( incid5t1 %r9k up into v small dim5sions4444 ,simil>ly1 rec5t int]vals are exagg]at$ comp>$ ) equal p]iods m remote4 ,:il/ z we gr[ old] & new exp]i5ces become few] & less impressive1 ea* ye> at its close seems %ort] ?an its pr$ecessor407#cha7 ,f ^? facts x w\ld seem p]fectly legitimate to draw ?is r surpris+ inf]5ce3 t if ! rate ( all ! *anges tak+ place 9 ! univ]se 7 to be sudd5ly & simultane\sly alt]$ 9 ! same direction--all increas$ or all dim9i%$ 9 ! same degree--& if our p[]s ( p]ception 7 simultane\sly s alt]$ z to be readju/$ to ?is new rate ( *ange1 we c\ld n become aw>e ( ! alt]ation47#chb7 ,suppos+1 = in/ance1 t ! rate ( motion 7 d\bl$1 ! same am\nt ( *ange w\ld take place 9 ! new day z actually took place 9 ! old4 ,! ext]nal or comp>ative "t ( all movem5ts--t is to say1 ! "t ( :i* alone we c h any appreciation--w\ld be ! same z ( old4 ,! new day w\ld1 ( c\rse1 appe> only half z long z ! old to a m9d n readju/$ to ! new conditions2 b ?is w\ld /ill be ext]nal "t4 ,b w\ld ! int]nal1 intr9sic "t ( ea* movem5t be unalt]$8 ,x w\ld be ! same = ! readju/$ m9d z x 0 previ\sly = ! m9d adju/$ to ^! previ\s conditions4 ,by an unalt]$ m9d1 h[ev]1 by ! ,div9e ,m9d1 = in/ance1 ! same am\nt ( motion w\ld be se5 to con/itute ! same movem5t "u bo? conditions1 b to take place twice z quickly "u ! new conditions z x did "u ! old4 ,?is aga91 h[ev]1 involves a comp>ison1 & ?us in=ms u m]ely ( ext]nal or relative "t4 ,if we id5tify intr9sic "t ) am\nt ( *ange1 mak+ ! latt] ! measure ( ! =m]1 we mu/ conclude t alt]ation 9 ! rate ( a motion does n alt] its absolute "t3 & ?is is evid5t :5 we reflect t ! v notion ( a rate ( motion involves ! comp>ison ( ! latt] ) "s o!r motion47#chc7 ,f9ally1 we h no positive conception ( ! mann] 9 :i* "t duration is relat$ to1 or kn[n by1 ! ,div9e ,et]nal ,m9d1 :i* is pres5t to all "t--pa/1 pres5t & future4 ,besides ! "q ( ! relativity ( "t1 !re are _m o!r curi\s & difficult que/ions :i* arise f a consid]ation ( "t-duration1 b a detail$ consid]ation ( !m belongs to ,cosmology4 ,we w m]ely indicate a few ( !m4 ,h[ f> is "t rev]sible1 at lea/ 9 ! case ( purely me*anical movem5ts87#chd7 ,_h "t a beg9n+8 ,we "k f ,revelation t de facto x _h4 ,b c we det]m9e by ! light ( reason alone :e!r or n x mu/ h _h a beg9n+8 ,! greate/ philosoph]s are divid$ z to possibility or impossibility ( creat$ reality exi/+ f all et]nity4 ,/4 ,?omas has /at$1 z 8 consid]$ op9ion1 t ! impossibility ( creatio ab aet]no _c be prov$4 ,if a s]ies ( creatures c\ld h exi/$ successively f all et]nity1 & !re=e )\t any fir/ t]m ( ! s]ies1 ?is w\ld involve ! possibility ( an actually inf9ite multitude ( creatures2 b an actually inf9ite multitude ( creatures1 :e!r exi/+ simultane\sly or successively1 is reg>d$ by mo/ philosoph]s z be+ self-contradictory & intr9sically impossible4 ,& ?is al?\gh ! ,div9e ,ess5ce1 be+ inf9itely imitable ad extra1 & be+ cle>ly compreh5d$ z su* by ! ,div9e ,m9d1 conta9s virtually ! ,div9e exempl>s ( an inf9ite multitude ( possible creatures4 ,^? :o def5d ! possibility ( an actually inf9ite multitude ( creatures consid] ?is fact ( ! inf9ite imitability ( ! ,div9e ,ess5ce z ! gr\nd ( ?is possibility4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ^? :o hold t an actually inf9ite multitude is self-contradictory d5y ! validity ( ?is argum5t f possibility to actuality2 & !y br+ =w>d su* s]i\s consid]ations & argum5ts 9 fav\r ( _! own view t ?is latt] has be5 at all times mu* m commonly advocat$ ?an ! =m] "o47#che7 ,w "t h an end8 ,all ! evid5ce ( ! physical sci5ces confirms ! tru? ( ! ,*ri/ian fai? t ext]nal "t1 z measur$ by ! motions ( ! heav5s1 w h an end4 ,b ! int]nal or intr9sic "t :i* w be ! measure ( ! activities ( immortal creatures w h no end47#chf7 #hf4 ,,duration ,,( ,,immutable ,,be+3 ,,et]nity4--,we h se5 t duration is ! p]sev]ance or cont9uance ( a be+ 9 its exi/5ce4 ,! duration ( ! ,absolutely ,immutable ,be+ is a positive p]fection id5tical ) ! ess5ce itself ( ?is ,be+4 ,x is a duration )\t beg9n+1 )\t end1 )\t *ange or succession1 a p]man5t z di/9ct f a successive duration1 = x is ! duration ( ! ,necess>y ,be+1 ^: ess5ce is ,pure ,actuality4 ,?is duration is et]nity3 an int]m9able duration exi/+ all toge!r4 ,aet]nitas e/ int]m9abilis duratio tota simul exi/5s4 ,?is is ! common def9ition ( et]nity 9 ! prop] s5se ( ! t]m--absolute or necess>y et]nity4 ,! ^w 8int]m9abilis0 connotes a positive p]fection3 ! exclusion ( beg9n+ & end4 ,! ^w 8tota0 does n imply t ! et]nity has p>ts4 ,! expression 8tota simul0 excludes ! imp]fection :i* is *>act]i/ic ( "t duration1 viz4 ! succession ( 8be=e0 & 8aft]04 ,! def9ition giv5 by ,botius7#chg7 emphasizes ^! po9ts1 z also ! indefectible "* ( immutable life 9 ! ,et]nal ,be+3 ,aet]nitas e/ int]m9abilis vitae tota simul et prefecta possessio4 ,!re is1 9 ! next place1 a k9d ( duration :i* has be5 call$ hypo!tical1 relative1 or borr[$ et]nity3 aet]nitas hypo!tica1 relativa1 p>ticipata1 also call$ by s*ola/ics 8aevit]nitas04 ,x is ! duration 9 exi/5ce ( a be+ t is cont+5t1 b ( its nature incorruptible1 immortal1 su* z ! human s\l or a pure _s4 ,ev5 if su* a be+ exi/$ f all et]nity its exi/5ce w\ld be cont+5t1 dep5d5t on a real pr9ciple di/9ct f itself3 its duration1 !re=e1 w\ld n be et]nity 9 ! /rict s5se4 ,on ! o!r h&1 once creat$ by ,god1 its nature w\ld dem& cons]vation )\t end2 nor c\ld x naturally cease to exi/1 ?\gh absolutely speak+ x c\ld cease to exi/ 7 ,god to )draw f x ,8 cons]v+ p[]4 ,its duration1 !re=e1 diff]s f ! duration ( corporeal creatures :i* are by nature subject to *ange1 decay1 & cessation ( _! be+4 ,a cont+5t spiritual sub/ance has by nature a beg9n+ to its duration1 or at lea/ a duration :i* is n ess5tial to x b dep5d5t on ! ,necess>y ,be+1 a duration1 h[ev]1 :i* is naturally )\t end2 :]eas ! duration ( ! corporeal be+ has by nature bo? a beg9n+ & an end4 ,b philosoph]s are n agre$ z to ! nature & gr\nd ( ! di/9ction betwe5 ^! two k9ds ( duration 9 cont+5t be+s4 ,no cont+5t be+ is self-exi/5t1 nei!r has any cont+5t be+ ! pr9ciple ( its own duration 9 its own ess5ce4 ,j z x _c beg9 to exi/ ( itself1 s nei!r c x cont9ue to exi/ ( itself4 ,at ! same "t1 grant$ t x has obta9$ f ,god actual exi/5ce1 "s k9d or degree ( duration1 ( cont9uance 9 t exi/5ce1 seems to be naturally due to its ess5ce4 ,o!rwise cons]vation w\ld be n only really b =mally a cont9u$ creation4 ,x is su* inde$ on ! "p ( ,god3 9 ,god !re is no v>iety ( activity4 ,b on ! "p ( ! creature1 ! pres]vation ( ! latt] 9 exi/5ce1 & !re=e "s degree ( duration1 seems to be due to x on ! hypo!sis t x has be5 br\ght into exi/5ce at all4 ,! cons]v+ influ5ce ( ,god is to its duration 9 exi/5ce :at ! concurr+ influ5ce ( ,god is to ! ex]cise ( its activities47#chh7 ,9 ?is s5se ! duration ( a f9ite be+ 9 exi/5ce is a positive p]fection :i* we may reg>d z a prop]ty ( its nature4 ,b is ?is p]fection or prop]ty ( ! creature :i* we call duration1 7a7 ess5tially successive 9 all creatures1 spiritual z well z corporeal8 ,& 7b7 is x really id5tical ) _! actual exi/5ce 7or ) ! reality ( :atev] *ange or actualization occurs to _! exi/5ce71 or x is a mode ( ?is exi/5ce or *ange1 really di/9ct f ! latt] & conf]r+ ^u ! latt] ! p]fection ( cont9uity or p]si/5ce8 ,?is1 at all ev5ts1 is univ]sally admitt$3 t we _c become aw>e ( any duration o!rwise ?an ?r\gh our appreh5sion ( *ange2 t we h direct k only ( successive duration2 t we c conceive ! p]man5t duration ( immutable reality only aft] ! analogy ( successive duration1 or z ! co-exi/5ce ( immutable reality ) ! successive duration ( mutable ?+s4 ,n[ "s philosoph]s id5tify successive duration ) *ange1 & hold t successive duration is =mally ! duration ( ?+s subject to *ange2 t 9 s f> z a be+ is subject to *ange its duration is successive1 & 9 s f> z x is free f *ange its duration approa*es ! ess5tially p]man5t duration ( ! ,et]nal1 ,immutable ,be+2 t !re=e ! duration ( corporeal1 corruptible1 mortal be+s is p> excell5ce successive or temporal duration 7tempus72 t spiritual be+s1 :i* are sub/antially immutable1 b nev]!less h a successive s]ies ( spiritual activities1 h a sort ( duration m p]fect1 because m p]man5t1 ?an m]e temporal duration1 b less p]fect1 because less p]man5t1 ?an et]nal duration 7aevum1 aevit]nitas72 :ile ! ,absolutely ,immutable ,be+ alone has p]fect p]man5t duration 7aet]nitas747#chi7 ,x is n cle> :e!r accord+ to ?is view we %\ld di/+ui% betwe5 ! duration ( spiritual sub/ances z p]man5t1 & t ( _! acts z successive2 or :y we %\ld n attribute p]man5t duration to corporeal sub/ances & _! p]man5t accid5ts1 conf9+ successive duration =mally to motion or *ange itself4 ,x is1 moreov]1 impli$ 9 ?is view t duration is n any really di/9ct p]fection or mode sup]add$ to ! actuality ( ! be+ t endures4 ,o!r philosoph]s hold t all duration ( creatures is successive2 t no individual creature has a mixture ( p]man5t & successive duration2 t ?is successive duration is really di/9ct f t :i* endures by means ( x2 t x is really di/9ct ev5 f ! reality ( *ange or motion itself2 t x is a real mode ! =mal function ( :i* is to conf] on ! endur+ reality a s]ies ( actualities 9 ! ord] ( 8succession ( po/]ior to prior10 a s]ies ( intr9sic qu&ocationes 7analag\s to ! intr9sic locations :i* _! ext5sion conf]s ^u bodies 9 space74 ,^! philosoph]s di/+ui% betwe5 cont9u\s or 7indef9itely7 divisible successive duration1 ! 7indef9itely divisible7 p>ts ( :i* are 8pa/0 & 8future10 & ! pres5t n a 8"p0 b only an 8indivisible limit0 betwe5 ! two p>ts2 & discont9u\s or indivisible successive duration1 ^: p>ts are sep>ate & indivisible units ( duration succe$+ "o ano!r discont9u\sly3 ea* "p be+ a real b indivisible duration1 s t besides ! p>ts t are pa/ & future1 ! pres5t is also a "p1 :i* is--l an in/ant ( "t--indivisible1 b :i* is also--unlike an in/ant ( "t--a real duration4 ,! =m] k9d ( successive duration !y ascribe to corporeal1 corruptible creatures2 ! latt] to spiritual1 incorruptible creatures4 ,?is view is def5d$ ) mu* =ce & +5uity by ,de ,san 9 8 ,cosmologia27#cij7 :]e also a full discussion ( mo/ ( ! o!r que/ions we h t\*$ ^u w be f\nd4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,relation2 ,,! ,,relative ,,& ,,! ,,absolute4 #hg4 ,,importance ,,( ,,! ,,pres5t ,,category4--,an analysis ( ! concept ( ,relation w be f\nd to h a v direct be>+ bo? on ! ,!ory ( ,be+ & on ! ,!ory ( ,k4 ,= ! human m9d k is embodi$ 9 ! m5tal act ( judgm5t1 & ?is is an act ( comp>ison1 an act :]eby we relate or ref] "o concept to ano!r4 ,! act ( cognition itself involves a relation betwe5 ! kn[+ subject & ! kn[n object1 betwe5 ! m9d & reality4 ,reality itself is und]/ood only by our m5tally recogniz+ or e/abli%+ relations betwe5 ! objects :i* make up = u ! :ole kn[able univ]se4 ,?is univ]se we appreh5d n z a multitude ( isolat$1 unconnect$ individuals1 b z an ord]$ :ole ^: p>ts are int]-relat$ by _! mutual co-ord9ations & subord9ations4 ,! ord] we appreh5d 9 ! univ]se results f ^! v>i\s int]-relations :]eby we appreh5d x z a sy/em4 ,:at we call a law ( nature1 = in/ance1 is no?+ m or less ?an ! expression ( "s con/ant relation :i* we believe to exi/ betwe5 c]ta9 p>ts ( ?is sy/em4 ,! /udy ( ,relation1 !re=e1 belongs n m]ely to ,logic or ! ,!ory ( ,k1 b also to ! ,!ory ( ,be+1 to ,metaphysics4 ,:at1 !n1 is a relation8 ,:at is ! object ( ?is m5tal concept :i* we express by ! t]m relation8 ,are !re 9 ! kn[n & kn[able univ]se ( our exp]i5ce real relations8 ,or are all relations m]ely logical1 pure creations ( our cognitive activity8 ,c we classify relations1 :e!r real or logical8 ,:at con/itutes a relation =mally8 ,:at are ! prop]ties or *>act]i/ics ( relations8 ,^! are "s ( ! que/ions we mu/ attempt to answ]4 ,aga91 !re is mu* ambiguity1 & n a little error1 9 ! use ( ! t]ms 8absolute0 & 8relative0 9 mod]n philosophy4 ,to "s ( ^! s\rces ( confusion we h ref]r$ already 7#e74 ,x is a commonplace ( mod]n philosophy1 a ?+ accept$ z unque/ion$ & unque/ionable1 t we "k1 & c "k1 only ! relative4 ,!re is a true s5se 9 ?is1 b ! true s5se is n ! g5]ally accept$ "o4 ,consid]+ ! ord] 9 :i* our k ( reality progresses x is unque/ionable t we fir/ simply p]ceive 8?+s0 successively1 ?+s m or less simil> or dissimil>1 )\t realiz+ 9 :at !y agree or diff]4 ,to realize ! latt] involves reflection & comp>ison4 ,simil>ly we p]ceive 8ev5ts0 9 succession1 ev5ts "s ( :i* dep5d on o!rs1 b )\t at fir/ not+ or realiz+ ?is dep5d5ce4 ,9 o!r words we appreh5d at fir/ ap>t f _! relations1 or z absolute1 ?+s & ev5ts :i* are really relative2 & we d s spontane\sly1 )\t realiz+ ev5 t we p]ceive !m z absolute4 ,! se$ ne$s soil & ra9 & sun%9e = its gr[?2 b ^! d n ne$ ! se$4 ,! turb9e ne$s ! wat]1 b ! wat] does n ne$ ! turb9e4 ,:5 we realize su* facts z ^!1 by reflection1 contra/+ :at is dep5d5t ) :at is indep5d5t1 :at is l or unlike1 be=e or aft]1 great] or less ?an1 o!r ?+s1 ) :at ea* ( ^! is 9 itself1 we come into consci\s possession ( ! notion ( 8! relative0 & oppose ?is to ! notion ( 8! absolute04 ,:at we conceive z dep5d5t we conceive z relative2 :at we conceive1 by negation1 z indep5d5t1 we conceive z absolute4 ,!n by fur!r obs]vation & reflection we gradually realize t :at we appreh5d$ z indep5d5t ( c]ta9 ?+s is dep5d5t on c]ta9 o!r ?+s2 t ! same ?+ may be indep5d5t 9 "s respects & dep5d5t 9 o!r respects4 ,! ra9 does n dep5d on ! se$ :i* x causes to g]m9ate1 b x does dep5d on ! cl\ds4 ,! wat] :i* turns ! turb9e does n dep5d on ! turb9e1 b x does dep5d on ! ra92 & ! ra9 dep5ds on ! evaporation ( ! wat]s ( ! ocean2 & ! evaporation on ! sol> heat2 & ?is aga9 on *emical & physical processes 9 ! sun2 & s on1 z f> z s5se exp]i5ce w c>ry u3 until we realize t ev]y?+ :i* falls directly )9 ?is s5se exp]i5ce is dep5d5t & !re=e relative4 ,simil>ly1 ! accid5t ( quantity1 9 virtue ( :i* we pron\nce "o ( two bodies to be l>g] ?an ! o!r1 is some?+ absolute z comp>$ ) ?is relation itself2 b z comp>$ ) ! sub/ance 9 :i* x inh]es1 x is dep5d5t on ! latt]1 or relative to ! latt]1 :ile ! sub/ance is absolute1 or free f dep5d5ce on x4 ,b if sub/ance is absolute z comp>$ ) accid5t1 9 ! s5se t sub/ance is n dep5d5t on a subject 9 :i* to inh]e1 b exi/s 9 itself1 x is n absolute 9 ! s5se und]/ood by ,sp9oza1 9 ! s5se ( exi/+ ( itself1 indep5d5tly ( any effici5t cause to acc\nt = its orig9 7#fd74 ,all ! sub/ances 9 ! univ]se ( our direct s5se exp]i5ce are cont+5t1 dep5d5t ab alio1 & !re=e 9 ?is s5se relative1 n absolute4 ,?is is ! true s5se 9 :i* relativity is an ess5tial note ( ! reality ( all ! data ( ! _w ( our s5se exp]i5ce4 ,!y are all cont+5t1 or relative1 or condition$ exi/5ces4 ,&1 z ,kant rightly taught1 ?is exp]i5ce =ces u inevitably to ?9k ( a ,necess>y1 ,absolute1 ,uncondition$ ,be+1 on :om ^! all dep5d4 ,b1 z c be prov$ 9 ,natural ,!ology aga9/ ,kant1 ?is concept is n a m]e regulative idea ( ! reason1 a =m ( ?\ght :]eby we sy/ematize our exp]i5ce3 x is a concept ! object ( :i* is n m]ely a necessity ( ?\ght b also an objectively exi/+ reality47#cia7 ,b 9 ! ?\ght ( mo/ mod]n philosoph]s relativism1 or ! doctr9e t 8we c "k only ! relative10 is some?+ v diff]5t f all ?is4 ,= positivi/s1 disciples ( ,augu/e ,comte 7#agih-aheg71 x means t we c "k only ! ph5om5a :i* fall "u ! notice ( our s5ses1 & ! laws ( resemblance1 succession1 etc41 accord+ to :i* !y occur4 ,all 8!ological0 que/s = supra-mundane causes & reasons ( ^! ev5ts1 & all 8metaphysical0 que/s = supras5sible =ces1 p[]s1 influ5ces1 9 ! ev5ts !mselves1 z expla9+ or acc\nt+ = ^! latt]1 are accord+ to ?is !ory necess>ily futile3 ! m9d mu/ re/ cont5t ) a k ( ! positive facts ( s5se1 & _! relations4 ,relativism is ?us ano!r "n = ,positivism4 ,= ! psy*ological s5sism ( ,engli% philosoph]s f ,hobbes #aehh-afgi & ,locke #afcb-agjd d[n to ,mill #ahjf-gc & ,ba9 #ahah-aijc relativism means t all consci\s cognition--:i* !y t5d to r$uce to modes & complexes ( s5sation--mu/ be1 & c only be1 a cognition ( ! *ang+1 ! transitional1 ! relative47#cib7 ,accord+ to an extreme =m ( ?is !ory ! m9d c appreh5d only relations1 b n ! t]ms ( any ( ^! relations3 x c appreh5d no?+ z absolute4 ,moreov] ! relations :i* x appreh5ds x creates itself4 ,?us all reality is r$uc$ to a sy/em ( relations4 ,= ,mill ! supreme category ( real be+ 0 ,s5sation3 b s5sation c be only a feel+ ( a relation3 ?us ! supreme category ( real be+ w\ld be ,relation47#cic7 ,b ! ma9 curr5t ( relativism is t :i* has issu$ f ,kant's philosophy & work$ itself out 9 v>i\s curr5ts su* z ,sp5c]'s ,agno/icism1 ,hegel's ,monism1 & ,r5\vi]'s ,neo-criticism47#cid7 ,! m9d c "k only :at is relat$ to x1 :at is pres5t to x1 :at is 9 x2 n :at is ap>t f x1 di/9ct f x4 ,! m9d _c "k ! real nature ( ! extram5tal1 nor ev5 if !re be an extram5tal real4 ,subject & object 9 k are really "o3 individual m9ds are only self-consci\s phases 9 ! ev]-evolv+ reality ( ! ,"o ,sole ,actual ,be+4 ,^! are b a few ( ! errone\s curr5ts ( mod]n relativism4 ,a detail$ analysis ( !m belongs to ! ,!ory ( ,k4 ,b x may be po9t$ out "h t !y are errone\s because !y h di/ort$ & exagg]at$ c]ta9 pr(\nd tru?s conc]n+ ! scope & limits ( human k4 ,x is true t we h no positive1 prop]1 intuitive k ( ! ,absolute ,be+ :o is ! ,fir/ ,cause & ,la/ ,end ( ! univ]se2 t all our k ( ! nature & attributes ( ! ,inf9ite ,be+ is negative1 analogical1 ab/ractive4 ,9 a c]ta9 s5se1 !re=e1 ,he is above ! scope ( our faculties2 ,he is ,incompreh5sible4 ,b x is false to say t ,he is ,unkn[able2 t our k ( ,him1 inadequate & imp]fect z x is1 is n g5u9e1 real1 & in/ructive1 z f> z x goes4 ,aga91 a di/9ct k ( any object implies def9+1 limit+1 di/+ui%+1 comp>+1 relat+1 judg+2 analys+ & syn!siz+4 ,x implies !re=e t we appreh5d ?+s 9 relations ) o!r ?+s4 ,b ?is supposes an antec$5t1 if indi/9ct1 appreh5sion ( ! 8?+s0 !mselves4 ,inde$ we _c help pron\nc+ z simply un9telligible ! cont5tion t all k is ( relations1 & t we c h no k ( ?+s z absolute4 ,h[ c\ld we become aw>e ( relations )\t be+ aw>e ( ! t]ms relat$8 ,sp5c] himself admits t ! v reason+ :]eby we e/abli% ! 8relativity ( k0 leads u inevitably to ass]t z necess>y ! exi/5ce ( ! non-relative1 ! ,absolute37#cie7 a necessity :i* ,kant also recognizes4 ,f9ally1 ! fact t reality1 9 ord] to be kn[n1 mu/ be pres5t to ! kn[+ m9d--or1 9 o!r words1 t k itself is a relation betwe5 object & subject--9 no way ju/ifies ! conclusion t we _c "k ! real nature ( ?+s z !y are 9 !mselves1 absolutely1 b only our own subjective1 m5tal impressions or repres5tations ( ! absolute reality1 9 itself unkn[able47#cif7 ,! obvi\s fact t any reality 9 ord] to be kn[n mu/ be relat$ to ! kn[+ m9d1 seems to be reg>d$ by "s philosoph]s z if x 7 a mom5t\s discov]y4 ,!n1 conceiv+ ! 8?+-9-itself10 ! absolute1 z a some?+ /&+ out ( all relation to m9d1 !y decl>e solemnly t we _c "k ! absolute3 a decl>ation :i* may be int]pret$ ei!r z a m]e truism--t we _c "k a ?+ )\t kn[+ x6--or z a purely gratuit\s ass]tion1 t besides ! _w ( realities :i* reveal !mselves to our m9ds !re is ano!r _w ( unatta9$ & unatta9able 8?+s-9-!mselves0 :i* are z x 7 ! real realities6 ,^! philosoph]s h yet to %[ t !re is any?+ absurd or impossible 9 ! view t !re is simply "o _w ( realities--realities :i* exi/ absolutely 9 !mselves ap>t f our appreh5sion ( !m & :i* 9 ! process ( cognition come into relation ) our m9ds47#cig7 ,moreov]1 if besides ?is _w ( kn[n & kn[able realities !re 7 su* a _w ( 8transc5d5tal0 ?+s-9-!mselves z ^! philosoph]s disc\rse (1 su* a _w w\ld h v little conc]n = u17#cih7 s9ce by def9ition & ex hypo!si x w\ld be = u necess>ily z if x 7 n3 inde$ ! hypo!sis ( su* a transc5d5tal _w is self-contradictory1 = ev5 did x exi/ we c\ld n ?9k ( x4 ,! process ( cognition has inde$ its difficulties & my/]ies4 ,to exam9e ^!1 to acc\nt = ! possibility ( tru? & error1 to analyse ! gr\nds & def9e ! scope & limits ( human c]titude1 are problems = ! ,!ory ( ,k1 on ! doma9 ( :i* we are tr5*+ p]haps too f> already 9 ! pres5t context4 ,b at all ev5ts to conceive reality z absolute 9 ! s5se ( be+ totally unrelat$ to m9d1 & !n to ask3 ,is reality s trans=m$ 9 ! v process ( cognition t ! m9d _c possibly appreh5d x or repres5t x z x really is8--?is c]ta9ly is to misconceive & mis-/ate 9 a hopeless fa%ion ! ma9 problem ( ,epi/emology4 #hh4 ,,analysis ,,( ,,! ,,concept ,,( ,,relation4--,relation is "o ( ^? ultimate concepts :i* does n admit ( def9ition prop]4 ,& l o!r ultimate concepts x is famili> to all4 ,two l9es1 ea* measur+ a y>d1 are equal to ea* o!r 9 l5g?3 equality is a quantitative relation4 ,! numb] #b is half ( #d1 & #d is twice #b3 half & d\ble express ea* a quantitative relation ( inequality4 ,if two tw9 bro!rs are l ea* o!r we h ! qualitative relation ( resemblance or simil>ity2 if a negro & a ,european are unlike ea* o!r we h ! qualitative relation ( dissimil>ity4 ,! /eam ( ! locomotive moves ! tra93 a relation ( effici5t causality1 ( effici5t cause to effect4 ,! human eye is adapt$ to ! function ( see+3 a relation ( purpose or f9ality1 ( means to end4 ,& s on4 ,! objective concept ( relation ?us e/abli%es a conceptual unity betwe5 a pair ( ?+s 9 ! doma9 ( "s o!r category4 ,l quantity1 quality1 actio & passio1 etc41 x is an ultimate mode ( reality z appreh5d$ ?r\gh human exp]i5ce4 ,b :ile ! reality ( ! o!r accid5t-categories app]ta9s to sub/ances consid]$ absolutely or 9 isolation f "o ano!r1 ! reality ( ?is category :i* we call relation app]ta9s indivisibly to two 7or m7 toge!r1 s t :5 "o ( ^! is tak5 or consid]$ ap>t f ! o!r 7or o!rs7 ! relation =mally disappe>s4 ,ea* ( ! o!r 7absolute7 accid5ts is =mally 8some?+0 78aliquid02 8071 :]eas ! =mal function ( relation is to ref] some?+ 8to some?+0 else 78ad aliquid02 8 074 ,! o!r accid5ts =mally inh]e 9 a subject1 8hab5t esse 9 subjecto02 relation1 consid]$ =mally z su*1 does n inh]e 9 a subject1 b gives ! latt] a respect1 or be>+1 or ref]5ce1 or ord9ation1 to or t[>ds some?+ else3 8relatio dat subjecto respectum vel esse ad aliquid aliud04 ,! l5g? ( ea* ( two l9es is an absolute accid5t ( t l9e1 b ! relation ( equality or inequality is intelligible only ( bo? toge!r4 ,de/roy "o l9e & ! relation is de/roy$1 ?\gh ! o!r l9e reta9s its l5g? absolutely & unalt]$4 ,& s ( ! o!r examples j giv54 ,relation1 !n1 consid]$ =mally z su*1 is n an absolute accid5t inh]+ 9 a subject1 b is a ref]5ce ( ?is subject to "s o!r ?+1 ?is latt] be+ call$ ! t]m ( ! relation4 ,h5ce relation is describ$ by ! s*ola/ics z ! ord9ation or respect or ref]5ce ( "o ?+ to ano!r3 ordo vel respectus vel habitudo unius ad aliud4 ,! relation ( a subject to some?+ else z t]m is =mally n any?+ absolute1 8aliquid0 9 t subject1 b m]ely ref]s ?is subject to some?+ else z t]m1 8ad aliquid04 ,h5ce ,ari/otle's designation ( relation z 8 10 8ad aliquid10 8to or t[>ds some?+04 8,we conceive z relations 10 he says1 8^? ?+s ^: v entity itself we reg>d z be+ someh[ ( o!r ?+s or to ano!r ?+407#cii7 ,to con/itute a relation ( :atsoev] k9d1 ?ree elem5ts or factors are ess5tial3 ! two extremes ( ! relation1 viz4 ! subject ( ! relation & ! t]m to :i* ! subject is ref]r$1 & :at is call$ ! f\ndation1 or basis1 or gr\nd1 or reason1 ( ! relation 7fundam5tum relationis74 ,?is latt] is ! cause or reason on acc\nt ( :i* ! subject be>s ! relation to its t]m4 ,x is always some?+ absolute1 9 ! extremes ( ! relation4 ,h5ce x foll[s t we may reg>d any relation 9 two ways1 ei!r =mally z ! actual bond or l9k ( connexion betwe5 ! extremes1 or fundam5tally1 i4e4 z 9 its cause or f\ndation 9 ^! extremes4 ,?is is express$ te*nically by di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! relation secundum esse 9 & secundum esse ad1 i4e4 betwe5 ! absolute entity ( its f\ndation 9 ! subject & ! purely relative entity 9 :i* ! relation itself =mally consi/s4 ,ne$less to say1 ! latt]1 :atev] x is1 does n add any absolute entity to t ( ei!r extreme4 ,b 9 :at does ?is relative entity itself consi/8 ,be=e attempt+ an answ] to ?is "q we mu/ endeav\r to di/+ui%1 9 ! next section 7#hi71 betwe5 purely logical relations & relations :i* are 9 "s true s5se real4 ,"h we may note c]ta9 coroll>ies f ! concept ( relation z j analys$4 ,realities ( :i* ! objective concept ( relation is v]ifi$ d]ive f ?is latt] c]ta9 prop]ties or special *>act]i/ics4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is reciprocity3 two relat$ extremes are z su* intelligible only 9 ref]5ce to ea* o!r3 fa!r to son1 half to d\ble1 l to l1 etc41 & vice v]sa3 ,correlativa se invicem connotant4 ,! second is t ?+s relat$ to "o ano!r are collat]al or concomitant 9 nature3 ,correlativa sunt simul natura3 nei!r relat$ extreme is z su* naturally prior to ! o!r4 ,?is is to be und]/ood ( ! relation only 9 its =mal aspect1 n fundam5tally4 ,fundam5tally or mat]ialit]1 ! cause = in/ance is naturally prior to its effect4 ,! ?ird is t relat$ ?+s are concomitant logically1 or 9 ! ord] ( k3 ,correlativa sunt simul cognitione3 a reality c be kn[n & def9$ z relative to ano!r reality only by ! simultane\s cognition ( bo? extremes ( ! relation4 #hi4 ,,logical ,,relations4--,logical relations are ^? :i* are creat$ by our own ?\ght1 & :i* c h no be+ o!r ?an ! be+ :i* !y h 9 & = our ?\ght4 ,t !re are su* relations1 :i* are ! exclusive product ( our ?\ght-activity1 is univ]sally admitt$4 ,! m9d c reflect on its own direct concepts2 x c comp>e & co-ord9ate & subord9ate !m among !mselves2 x ?us =ms ideas ( relations betwe5 ^? concepts1 ideas :i* ! s*ola/ics call reflex or logical ideas1 or 8secund int5tiones m5tis04 ,^! relations are entia rationis1 purely logical relations4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 are ! relations ( g5us to species1 ( pr$icate to subject1 ! relations describ$ 9 ,logic z ! prdicabilia4 ,moreov] we c comp>e our direct univ]sal concepts ) ! individual realities !y repres5t1 & see t ?is feature or mode ( univ]sality 9 ! concept1 its 8int5tio univ]salitatis0 is a logical relation ( ! concept to ! reality :i* x repres5ts3 a logical relation1 inasmu* z its subject 7! concept7 & its f\ndation 7! ab/ractness ( ! concept7 are 9 !mselves pure products ( our ?\ght-activity4 ,fur!rmore1 we are =c$ by ! imp]fection ( ! ?\ght-processes :]eby we appreh5d reality--conception ( ab/ract ideas1 limitation ( concepts 9 ext5sion & int5sion1 affirmation & negation1 etc4--to appreh5d conceptual limitations1 negations1 comp>isons1 etc41 9 a ^w1 all logical entities1 z if !y 7 realities1 or aft] ! mann] ( realities1 i4e4 to conceive :at is really 8no?+0 z if x 7 really 8some?+10 to conceive ! non-ens z if x 7 an ens1 to conceive x p] modum entis 7#c74 ,& :5 we comp>e ^! logical entities ) "o ano!r1 or ) real entities1 ! relations ?us e/abli%$ by our ?\ght are all logical relations4 ,f9ally1 x foll[s f ?is same imp]fection 9 our human modes ( ?\ght t we sometimes und]/& ?+s only by attribut+ to ^! c]ta9 logical relations1 i4e4 relations :i* affect n ! reality ( ^! ?+s1 _! esse reale1 b only ! mode ( _! pres5ce 9 our m9ds1 _! esse ideale 7#d74 ,9 view ( ! di/9ction betwe5 logical relations & ^? we %all pres5tly describe z real relations1 & especially 9 view ( ! preval5t t5d5cy 9 mod]n philosophy to reg>d all relations z m]ely logical1 x w\ld be desirable to classify logical relations & to indicate ! ways 9 :i* !y are creat$ by1 or result f1 our ?\ght-processes4 ,we "k ( no m satisfactory analysis ?an t accompli%$ by ,/4 ,?omas ,aqu9as 9 v>i\s p>ts ( 8 _m monum5tal & endur+ works4 ,9 8 ,comm5t>ies on ! ,s5t5ces7#djj7 he enum]ates f\r ways 9 :i* logical relations arise f our ?\ght-processes4 ,9 8 ,quae/iones ,disputatae7#dja7 he r$uces ^! to two3 "s logical relations1 he says1 are inv5t$ by ! intellect reflect+ on its own concepts & are attribut$ to ^! concepts2 o!rs arise f ! fact t ! intellect c und]/& ?+s only by relat+1 gr\p+1 classify+ !m1 only by introduc+ among !m an arrangem5t or sy/em ( relations ?r\gh :i* alone x c und]/& !m1 relations :i* x c\ld only errone\sly ascribe to ^! ?+s z !y really exi/1 s9ce !y are only project$1 z x 71 into ^! ?+s by ! m9d4 ,?us1 ?\gh x consci\sly ?9ks ( ^! ?+s z s relat$1 x delib]ately ab/a9s f ass]t+ t ^! relations really affect ! ?+s !mselves4 ,n[ ! mi/ake ( all ^? philosoph]s1 :e!r anci5t1 m$ieval or mod]n1 :o d5y t any relations are real1 seems to be t !y c>ry ?is ab/5tion too f>4 ,!y cont5d t all relations are simply read into ! reality by our ?\ght2 t none are 9 ! reality 9 any true s5se indep5d5tly ( our ?\ght4 ,!y ?us exagg]ate ! rle ( ?\ght z a con/itutive factor ( kn[n or exp]i5c$ reality2 & !y (t5 d s to su* a degree t accord+ to _! philosophy human ?\ght n m]ely discov]s or kn[s reality b practically con/itutes or creates x3 or at all ev5ts to su* a degree t cognition w\ld be ma9ly a process :]eby reality is assimilat$ to m9d & n r a process :]eby m9d is assimilat$ to reality4 ,aga9/ all su* ideali/ t5d5cies 9 philosophy we ass]t t n all relations are logical1 t !re are "s relations :i* are n m]e products ( ?\ght1 b :i* are !mselves real4 #ij4 ,,real ,,relations2 ,,_! ,,exi/5ce ,,v9dicat$4--,a real relation is "o :i* is n a m]e product ( ?\ght1 b :i* obta9s betwe5 real ?+s indep5d5tly ( our ?\ght4 ,= a real relation !re mu/ be 7a7 a real1 individual subject2 7b7 a real f\ndation2 & 7c7 a real1 individual t]m1 really di/9ct f ! subject4 ,if ! subject ( ! relation1 or its f\ndation1 be n real1 b a m]e ens rationis1 obvi\sly ! relation _c be m ?an logical4 ,if1 moreov]1 ! t]m be n a really di/9ct entity f ! subject1 !n ! relation c be no?+ m ?an a m5tal comp>ison ( "s ?+ ) itself1 ei!r "u ! same aspect or "u m5tally di/9ct aspects4 ,a relation is real 9 ! fulle/ s5se :5 ! extremes are mutually relat$ 9 virtue ( a f\ndation really exi/+ 9 bo?4 ,h5ce ,/ ,?omas' def9ition ( a real relation z a connexion betwe5 "s two ?+s 9 virtue ( some?+ really f\nd 9 bo?3 habitudo int] aliqua duo secundum aliquid realit] conv5i5s utrique47#djb7 ,n[ ! "q3 ,are !re 9 ! real _w1 among ! ?+s :i* make up ! univ]se ( our exp]i5ce1 relations :i* are n m]ely logical1 :i* are n a m]e product ( our ?\ght8--c admit ( only "o reasonable answ]4 ,t !re are relations :i* are 9 "s true s5se real & indep5d5t ( our ?\ght-activity mu/ be app>5t to ev]yone ^: m5tal outlook on ?+s has n be5 w>p$ by ! speci\s sophi/ries ( "s =m or o!r ( ,subjective ,idealism4 ,= ex pr(esso refutations ( ,ideali/ !ories ! /ud5t mu/ consult treatises on ! ,!ory ( ,k4 ,a few consid]ations on ! pres5t po9t w be suffici5tly conv9c+ "h4 ,fir/1 !n1 let u appeal to ! famili> examples m5tion$ above4 ,are n two l9es1 ea* a y>d long1 really equal 9 l5g?1 :e!r we "k x or n8 ,is n a l9e a y>d long really great] ?an ano!r l9e a foot 9 l5g?1 :e!r we "k x or n8 ,surely our ?\ght does n create b discov]s ! equality or inequality4 ,! tw9 bro!rs really resemble ea* o!r1 ev5 :5 no "o is ?9k+ ( ?is resemblance2 ! resemblance is !re :e!r anyone adv]ts to x or n4 ,! motion ( ! tra9 really dep5ds on ! =ce ( ! /eam2 x is n our ?\ght t produces ?is relation ( dep5d5ce4 ,! eye is really s con/ruct$ z to p]ceive light1 & ! light is really su* by nature z to ar\se ! s5sation ( vision2 surely x is n our ?\ght t produces ?is relation ( mutual adaptation 9 ^! realities4 ,su* relations are1 !re=e1 9 "s true s5se real & indep5d5t ( our ?\ght3 unless inde$ we are prep>$ to say ) ideali/s t ! l9es1 ! bro!rs1 ! tra91 ! /eam1 ! eye1 & ! light--9 a ^w1 t n m]ely relations1 b all accid5ts & sub/ances1 all realities--are m]e products ( ?\ght1 ideas1 /ates ( consci\sness4 ,aga91 ord] is b a sy/em ( relations ( co-ord9ation & subord9ation betwe5 really di/9ct ?+s4 ,b !re is real ord] 9 ! univ]se4 ,& !re=e !re are real relations 9 ! univ]se4 ,!re is real ord] 9 ! univ]se3 ,9 ! physical univ]se d we n exp]i5ce a real subord9ation ( effects to causes1 a real adaptation ( means to ends8 ,& 9 ! moral univ]se is n ?is /ill m app>5t8 ,! dome/ic society1 ! family1 is n m]ely an aggregate ( individuals any "o ( :om we may designate indiscrim9ately husb& or wife1 fa!r or "m1 bro!r or si/]4 ,^! relations ( ord] are real2 !y are obvi\sly n ! product ( our ?\ght1 n produc$ by x1 b only discov]$1 appreh5d$ by x4 ,x is a pr(\nd tru? t n all ! reality ( ! univ]se :i* pres5ts itself to ! human m9d = analysis & int]pretation1 n all ! reality ( ?is univ]se1 is to be f\nd 9 ! m]e sum-total ( ! individual entities t con/itute x1 consid]+ ^! entities ea* absolutely & 9 isolation f ! o!rs4 ,nor does all its real p]fection consi/ 9 ! m]e sum-total ( ! absolute p]fections intr9sic to1 & inh]5t 91 ^? v>i\s individual entities4 ,ov] & above ^! individual entities & _! absolute p]fections1 !re is a doma9 ( reality1 & ( real p]fections1 consi/+ 9 ! real adaptation1 int]action1 int]dep5d5ce1 arrangem5t1 co-ord9ation & subord9ation1 ( ^? absolute entities & p]fections among !mselves4 ,& if we realize ?is pr(\nd tru?7#djc7 we %all h no difficulty 9 recogniz+ t1 :ile ! ?\ght-processes :]eby we int]pret ?is univ]se produce logical relations :i* we utilize 9 ?is int]pretation1 !re is also 9 ?is univ]se itself a sy/em ( relations :i* are real1 :i* are n inv5t$1 b are m]ely detect$1 by our m9ds4 ,accord+ to ideali/s1 relation is a subjective category ( ! m9d4 ,x belongs to ph5om5a only on ! introduction ( ! latt] into ! und]/&+4 8,laws no m exi/ 9 ph5om5a10 writes ,kant17#djd7 8?an ph5om5a exi/ 9 !mselves2 ! =m] are relative to ! subject 9 :i* ! ph5om5a inh]e1 9 s f> z ?is subject is end[$ ) und]/&+2 j z ! latt] are relative to ?is same subject 9 s f> z x is end[$ ) s5sibility40 ,?is is ambigu\s & mislead+4 ,( c\rse1 laws or any o!r relations d n exi/ = u1 are n kn[n by u1 are n br\ght into relation to our und]/&+1 z long z we d n consci\sly grasp ! two t]ms & ! f\ndation on :i* ! law1 or any o!r relation1 re/s4 ,b !re are relations ^: t]ms & f\ndations are ant]ior to1 & indep5d5t (1 our ?\ght1 & :i* consequ5tly are n a product ( ?\ght4 8,s5sations1 or o!r feel+s be+ giv510 writes ,j4 ,s4 ,mill17#dje7 8succession & simultane\sness are ! two conditions to ! alt]native ( :i* !y are subject$ by ! nature ( our faculties40 ,b1 z ,m4 ,boirac p]t95tly asks17#djf7 8:y d we apply 9 any p>ticul> case ! "o alt]native ( ! two-fac$ category r ?an ! o!r8 ,is x n because 9 e case ! concrete application made by our faculties is det]m9$ by ! objects !mselves1 by an objective & real f\ndation ( ! relation80 #ia4 ,,mutual ,,& ,,mix$ ,,relations2 ,,transc5d5tal ,,relations4--,!re are1 !n1 relations :i* are 9 "s true s5se real4 ,b 9 :at does ! reality ( a real relation consi/8 ,be=e answ]+ ?is "q we mu/ exam9e ! ma9 classes ( real relations4 ,we h already ref]r$ to ! mutual relation z "o :i* has a real f\ndation 9 bo? ( ! extremes1 su* z ! relation betwe5 fa!r & son1 or betwe5 a great] & a less] quantity1 or betwe5 two equal quantities1 or betwe5 two simil> p47#djg7 ,su* a relation is call$ a relatio aequip]antiae1 a relation ( ! same d5om9ation1 if x has ! same "n on bo? sides1 z 8equal--equal10 8simil>--simil>10 8fri5d--fri5d10 etc4 ,x is call$ a relatio disquip]antiae1 ( diff]5t d5om9ation1 if x has a diff]5t "n1 indicat+ a diff]5t k9d ( relation1 on ei!r side1 z 8fa!r--son10 8cause--effect10 8ma/]--s]vant10 etc4 ,di/9ct f ?is is ! non-mutual or mix$ relation1 :i* has a real f\ndation only 9 "o extreme1 s t ! relation ( ?is to ! o!r extreme is real1 :ile ! relation ( ! latt] to ! =m] is only logical47#djh7 ,= in/ance1 ! relation ( e creature to ! ,creator is a real relation1 = ! ess5tial dep5d5ce ( ! creature on ! ,creator is a relation gr\nd$ 9 ! v nature ( ! creature z a cont+5t be+4 ,b ! relation ( ! ,creator to ! creature is only logical1 = ! creative act on :i* x is gr\nd$ implies 9 ! ,creator no reality di/9ct f ,8 sub/ance1 :i* sub/ance has no necess>y relation to any creature4 ,simil>ly1 ! relation ( ! 7f9ite7 kn[+ m9d to ! kn[n object is a real relation1 = x is gr\nd$ 9 a new quality1 viz4 k1 :]eby ! m9d is p]fect$4 ,b ! relation ( ! object to ! m9d is n a real relation1 = by becom+ actually kn[n ! object itself does n und]go any real *ange or acquire any new reality or p]fection4 ,we h se5 already 7#db1 #ej7 t all reality has a transc5d5tal or ess5tial relation to intellect & to w1 ontological tru? & ontological goodness4 ,^! relations ( reality to ! ,div9e ,intellect & ,w are =mally or actually v]ifi$ 9 all ?+s2 :]eas ! transc5d5tal tru? & goodness ( any ?+ 9 reg>d to any creat$ intellect & w are =mal or actual only :5 t ?+ is actually kn[n & will$ by su* creat$ faculties3 ! relations ( a ?+ to a m9d t does n actually "k & desire t ?+ are only fundam5tal or pot5tial tru? & goodness4 ,?is br+s u to a second great division ( relations1 into ess5tial or transc5d5tal & accid5tal or pr$icam5tal4 ,an ess5tial or transc5d5tal relation is "o :i* is involv$ 9 ! v ess5ce itself ( ! relat$ ?+4 ,x ent]s into & is insep>able f ! concept ( ! latt]4 ,?us 9 ! concept ( ! creature z su* !re is involv$ an ess5tial relation ( ! latt]'s dep5d5ce on ! ,creator4 ,s1 too1 e individual reality involves ess5tial relations ( id5tity ) itself & di/9ction f o!r ?+s1 & ess5tial relations ( tru? & goodness to ! ,div9e ,m9d & creat$ m9ds4 ,k involves an ess5tial relation to a kn[n object4 ,accid5ts involve ! ess5tial relation ( an aptitude to inh]e 9 sub/ances4 ,actio involves an ess5tial relation to an ag5s1 & passio to a pati5s2 matt] to =m & =m to matt]4 ,& s on4 ,9 g5]al1 :]ev] any subject has an intr9sic & ess5tial exig5ce or aptitude or incl9ation1 :]eby !re is e/abli%$ a connexion ( ?is subject )1 or a ref]5ce to1 some?+ else1 an ord9ation or 8ordo0 to some?+ else1 !re we h an 8ess5tial0 relation47#dji7 ,su* a relation is t]m$ 8transc5d5tal0 because x c be v]ifi$ ( a subject 9 any category2 &1 s9ce x adds no?+ real to its subject x does n ( itself con/itute any new category ( real be+4 ,l ! logical relation x is ref]r$ to "h 9 ord] to br+ out1 by way ( contra/1 ! accid5tal or pr$icam5tal relation :i* is ! prop] subject-matt] ( ! pres5t *apt]4 #ib4 ,,pr$icam5tal ,,relations2 ,,_! ,,f\ndations ,,& ,,divisions4--,an accid5tal or pr$icam5tal relation is "o :i* is n ess5tial to ! relat$ subject1 b sup]add$ to1 & sep>able f1 ! latt]4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 are relations ( equality or inequality1 simil>ity or dissimil>ity4 ,x is n involv$ 9 ! nature ( ! subject itself1 b is sup]9duc$ on ! latt] by reason ( "s real f\ndation really di/9ct f ! nature ( ?is subject4 ,its sole function is to ref] ! subject to ! t]m1 :ile ! ess5tial or transc5d5tal relation is r an intr9sic attribute or aptitude ( ! nature itself z a pr9ciple ( action1 or an effect ( action4 ,! real1 accid5tal relation is ! "o :i* ,ari/otle plac$ 9 a category ap>t z "o ( ! ultimate accid5tal modes ( real be+4 ,h5ce x is call$ a 8pr$icam5tal0 relation4 ,:at are its pr9cipal sub-classes8 ,real relations are divid$ accord+ to ! nature ( _! f\ndations4 ,b "s relations are real ex utraque p>te--mutual relations1 :ile o!rs are real only on ! side--mix$ relations4 ,moreov]1 "s real relations are transc5d5tal1 o!rs pr$icam5tal4 ,ari/otle 9 assign+ ?ree di/9ct gr\nds ( pr$icam5tal relations seems to h includ$ "s relations t are transc5d5tal47#daj7 ,he di/+ui%es7#daa7 7a7 relations gr\nd$ 9 unity & multitude2 7b7 relations gr\nd$ 9 effici5t causality2 & 7c7 relations gr\nd$ 9 8comm5suration04 7a7 ,by 8unity & multitude0 he is commonly int]pret$ to mean id5tity or div]sity n m]ely 9 quantity1 b 9 any 8=mal0 factor1 & !re=e also 9 quality1 & 9 nature or sub/ance4 ,?+s t are "o 9 quantity we t]m equal2 "o 9 quality1 simil>2 "o 9 sub/ance1 id5tical4 ,& if !y are n "o 9 ^! respects we call !m unequal1 dissimil>1 di/9ct or div]se1 respectively4 ,ab\t quantity z a f\ndation = real1 pr$icam5tal relations !re c be no difficulty4 ,inde$ x is 9 a c]ta9 s5se impli$ 9 all relations--at lea/ z appreh5d$ by ! human m9d4 ,= we appreh5d relations1 ( :atsoev] k9d1 by m5tal comp>ison1 & ?is involves ! consci\sness ( numb] or plurality1 ( two ?+s comp>$47#dab7 ,& :5 we comp>e ?+s on ! basis ( any quality we d s only by di/+ui%+ & measur+ int5sive grades 9 ?is quality1 aft] ! analogy ( ext5sive or quantitative measurem5t 7#hj74 ,nev]!less j z quality is a di/9ct accid5t irr$ucible to quantity 7#gg71 s are relations bas$ on quality diff]5t f ^? bas$ on quantity4 ,b :at ab\t sub/ance or nature z a f\ndation ( pr$icam5tal relations8 ,= ^!1 z di/9ct f transc5d5tal relations1 "s accid5t really di/9ct f ! sub/ance seems to be requir$4 ,! sub/antial1 individual id5tity ( any real be+ ) itself is only a logical relation1 = !re are n two really di/9ct extremes4 ,! specific id5tity ( ,john ) ,james 9 virtue ( _! common human nature is a real relation b x w\ld appe> to be transc5d5tal47#dac7 ,! relation ( ! real ,john & ! real ,james to our k ( !m is ! transc5d5tal relation ( any reality to k1 ! relation ( ontological tru?4 ,?is relation is ess5tially actual 9 reg>d to ! ,div9e m9d1 b only pot5tial1 & accid5tally actual1 9 reg>d to any creat$ m9d 7#db74 ,! relation ( real di/9ction betwe5 two individual sub/ances is a real b transc5d5tal relation1 gr\nd$ 9 ! transc5d5tal attribute ( on5ess :i* *>act]izes e real be+ 7#bf1 #bg74 7b7 ,effici5t causality1 actio et passio1 c und\bt$ly be ! gr\nd ( real pr$icam5tal relations4 ,if ! action is transitive7#dad7 ! pati5s or recipi5t ( ! real *ange acquires by ?is latt] ! basis ( a relation ( real dep5d5ce on ! cause or ag5s4 ,aga91 if ! action provokes reaction1 s t !re is real int]action1 ea* ag5s be+ also pati5s1 !re arises a mutual pr$icam5tal relation ( int]dep5d5ce betwe5 ! two ag5cies4 ,fur!rmore1 if ! ag5t itself is 9 any way really p]fect$ by ! action !re arises a real pr$icam5tal relation :i* is mutual3 n m]ely a real relation ( effect to ag5t b also ( ag5t to effect4 ,?is is true 9 all cases ( :at s*ola/ics call 8univocal0 z di/9ct f 8equivocal0 causation4 ,( ! =m]1 9 :i* ! ag5t produces an effect l 9 nature to itself1 ! propagation ( _! species by liv+ ?+s is ! great example4 ,"h n only is ! relation ( (fspr+ to p>5ts a real relation1 b t ( p>5ts to (fspr+ is also a real relation4 ,& ?is real relation is p]man5t because x is gr\nd$ n m]ely 9 ! transi5t g5]ative processes b 9 "s real & abid+ result ( ^! processes--ei!r "s physical disposition 9 ! p>5ts !mselves17#dae7 or "s specific p]fection attribut$ by extr9sic d5om9ation to ! individual p>5ts3 ! p>5ts are 9 a s5se cont9u$ 9 _! (fspr+3 8g5]ation really p]petuates ! species1 ! specific nature1 & 9 ?is s5se may be said to p]fect ! individual p>5ts047#daf7 ,9 cases ( 8equivocal0 causation--i4e4 :]e ! effect is diff]5t 9 nature f ! cause1 z :5 a man builds a h\se--! ag5t does n s cle>ly b5efit by ! action1 s t 9 su* cases1 :ile ! relation ( ! effect to ! cause is real1 "s au?ors w\ld reg>d t ( ! cause to ! effect z logical47#dag7 ,:51 h[ev]1 we rememb] t ! effici5t activity ( all creat$ causes is necess>ily dep5d5t on ! ,div9e ,concursus1 & necess>ily involves *ange 9 ! creat$ cause itself1 we c reg>d ?is *ange z 9 all cases ! gr\nd ( a real relation ( ! creat$ cause to its effect4 ,b ! creat+ & cons]v+ activity ( ! ,div9e ,be+ _c gr\nd a real relation ( ! latt] to creatures because ! ,div9e ,be+ is ,pure & ,un*angeable ,actuality1 acquir+ no new p]fection1 & und]go+ no real *ange1 by su* activity47#dah7 7c7 ,by comm5suration z a basis ( real relations ,ari/otle does n mean quantitative measurem5t1 b ! det]m9ation ( ! p]fection ( "o reality by its be+ ess5tially con=m$ to1 & regulat$ by1 ano!r3 z ! p]fection ( k or sci5ce1 = in/ance1 is det]m9$ by ! p]fection ( its object4 ,?is sort ( comm5suration1 or ess5tial ord9ation ( "o reality to ano!r1 is obvi\sly ! basis ( transc5d5tal relations4 ,"s au?ors w\ld consid] t besides ! transc5d5tal relation ( sci5ce to its object1 a relation :i* is indep5d5t ( ! actual exi/5ce ( ! latt]1 !re also exi/s an accid5tal relation 9 sci5ce to its object z long z ?is latt] is 9 actual exi/5ce4 ,b r x %\ld be said t j z ! transc5d5tal tru?-relation ( any real object to intellect is fundam5tal 7pot5tial7 or =mal 7actual7 accord+ z ?is intellect m]ely c "k ?is object or actually does "k x1 s also ! transc5d5tal relation ( k to its object is fundam5tal or =mal accord+ z ?is object is m]ely possible or actually exi/+4 ,we ga!r f ! =ego+ analysis t ! ?ree ma9 classes ( pr$icam5tal relations are ^? bas$ on quantity1 quality1 & causality1 respectively4 #ic4 ,,9 ,,:at ,,does ,,! ,,reality ,,( ,,pr$icam5tal ,,relations ,,consi/8--,we h se5 t n all relations are purely logical4 ,!re are real relations2 & ( ^! "s are n m]ely aspects ( ! o!r categories ( real be+1 n m]ely transc5d5tal attributes virtually di/9ct f1 b really id5tical )1 ^! o!r absolute modes ( real be+ :i* we designate z 8sub/ance10 8quantity10 8quality10 8cause10 8effect10 etc4 ,!re are real relations :i* =m a di/9ct accid5tal mode ( real be+ & s con/itute a category ap>t4 ,! fact1 h[ev]1 t ^! pr$icam5tal relations h be5 plac$ by ,ari/otle & 8 foll[]s 9 a category ap>t does n ( itself prove t ! pr$icam5tal relation is a special reality sui g5]is1 really & adequately di/9ct f ! realities :i* con/itute ! o!r categories 7#fj74 ,if ! pr$icam5tal relation be n a purely logical entity1 if x be an ens rationis cum fundam5to 9 re1 or1 9 o!r words1 if ! object ( our concept ( 8pr$icam5tal relation10 has a f\ndation 9 reality 7e4g4 l ! concepts ( 8space0 & 8"t071 !n x may reasonably be plac$ 9 a category ap>t1 ev5 al?\gh x may n be itself =mally a reality4 ,we h !re=e to see :e!r or n ! pr$icam5tal relation is1 or embodies1 any mode ( real be+ adequately di/9ct f ^! modes :i* con/itute ! o!r categories4 ,! pr$icam5tal relation is real 9 ! s5se t x implies1 9 addition to two really di/9ct extremes1 a real f\ndation 9 "o or bo? ( ^! extremes1 a real accid5t su* z quantity1 quality1 or causality4 ,t is to say1 consid]$ 9 its f\ndation or cause1 consid]$ fundam5tally or secundum suum esse 9 subjecto1 ! pr$icam5tal relation is real1 inasmu* z its f\ndation is a reality indep5d5tly ( ! consid]ation ( ! m9d4 ,no d\bt1 if ! pr$icam5tal relation1 adequately consid]$1 implies no o!r reality ?an t ( its f\ndation & t]ms1 !n ! pr$icam5tal relation does n conta9 any special reality sui g5]is1 di/9ct f sub/ances1 quality1 quantity1 & o!r su* absolute modes ( real be+4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 does n prev5t its rank+ z a di/9ct category provid$ x adds a virtually di/9ct & altoge!r peculi> aspect to ^? absolute realities4 ,n[1 consid]$ adequately1 ! pr$icam5tal relation adds to ! reality x has 9 its f\ndation ! actual ref]5ce ( subject to t]m4 ,9 fact1 x is 9 ?is ref]5ce ( subject to t]m1 ?is 8esse ad10 t ! relation =mally consi/s4 ,! "q !re=e may be /at$ ?us3 ,is ?is =mal relation ( subject to t]m1 ?is 8esse ad0 a real entity sui g5]is1 really di/9ct f ! absolute entities ( subject1 t]m & f\ndation1 & 9 contradi/9ction to ^! & all absolute entities a 8relative entity10 actually exi/+ 9 ! real univ]se indep5d5tly ( our ?\ght8 ,or is x1 on ! contr>y1 itself =mally a m]e product ( our ?\ght1 a product ( ! m5tal act ( comp>ison1 an ens rationis an aspect sup]add$ by our m9ds to ! extremes comp>$1 & to ! f\ndation 9 virtue ( :i* we comp>e !m8 ,a good _m s*ola/ics1 & "s ( !m m5 ( great "n17#dai7 h esp\s$ ! =m] alt]native1 consid]+ t ! reality ( ! pr$icam5tal relation _c be v9dicat$--aga9/ ideali/s1 :o w\ld r$uce all relations to m]e logical entities--o!rwise ?an by accord+ to ! relation consid]$ =mally1 i4e4 secundum suum 8esse ad10 an entity 9 ! actual ord] ( ?+s indep5d5t ( our ?\ght3 add+ z an argum5t t if relation =mally z su* is any?+ at all1 if all relation be n a m]e m5tal fabrication1 x is ess5tially a 8relative0 entity1 & t manife/ly a 8relative0 entity _c be really id5tical ) any 8absolute0 entity4 ,& !y claim = ?is view ! au?ority ( ,/ ,?omas47#dbj7 ,! great majority ( s*ola/ics1 h[ev]1 esp\se ! second alt]native3 t ! relation1 consid]$ =mally1 8secundum esse ad10 is a product ( our m5tal comp>ison ( subject ) t]m4 ,x is n itself a real entity or a real mode1 sup]add$ to ! reality ( extremes & f\ndation4 ,9 ! fir/ place !re is no ne$ to suppose ! reality ( su* a relative entity4 ,entia non sunt multiplic&a prt] necessitatem4 ,x is an abuse ( realism to suppose t ! =mal elem5t ( a relation1 its 8esse ad10 is a di/9ct & sep>ate reality4 ,! reality ( ! pra$icam5tal relation is safegu>d$ )\t any su* po/ulate4 ,s9ce ! pr$icam5tal relation1 consid]$ adequately1 i4e4 n m]ely =mally b fundam5tally1 n m]ely secundum esse ad b secundum esse 91 involves z its f\ndation an absolute accid5t :i* is real indep5d5tly ( our ?\ght1 ! pr$icam5tal relation is n a m]e ens rationis4 ,x has a f\ndation 9 reality4 ,x is an ens rationis cum fundam5to 9 re4 ,?is is a suffici5t c\nt]-ass]tion to ,idealism1 & a suffici5t reason = treat+ relation z a di/9ct category ( real be+4 ,t !re is no ne$ = su* a relative entity w be manife/ if we consid] ! simple case ( two b>s ( iron ea* a y>d long4 ,! l5g? ( ea* is an absolute accid5t ( ea*4 ,! l5g? ( ei!r1 consid]$ absolutely & 9 itself1 is n =mally ! equality ( ?is ) ! o!r4 ,nor are bo? l5g?s consid]$ sep>ately ! =mal relation ( equality4 ,b bo? consid]$ toge!r are ! adequate f\ndation ( ?is =mal relation2 bo? consid]$ toge!r are ?is relation pot5tially1 fundam5tally1 s t all t is ne$$ = ! actual1 =mal relation ( equality is ! m5tal appreh5sion ( ! two l5g?s toge!r4 ,! m5tal process ( comp>ison is ! only ?+ requir$ to make ! pot5tial relation actual2 & ! product ( ?is m5tal process is ! =mality or 8esse ad0 ( ! relation1 ! actual ref]5ce ( ! extremes to ea* o!r4 ,besides ! absolute accid5ts :i* con/itute ! f\ndation ( ! relation some?+ m is requir$ = ! con/itution ( ! adequate pr$icam5tal relation4 ,?is 8some?+ m10 h[ev]1 is a m9d capable ( comp>+ ! extremes1 & n any real entity di/9ct f extremes & f\ndation4 ,antec$5tly to ! act ( comp>ison ! =mally relative elem5t ( ! relation1 its 8esse ad10 0 n any?+ actual2 x 0 ! m]e comp>ability ( ! extremes 9 virtue ( ! f\ndation4 ,if ! 8esse ad0 7 a sep>ate real entity1 a relative entity1 really di/9ct f extremes & f\ndation1 :at sort ( entity c\ld x be8 ,be+ an accid5t1 x %\ld inh]e 91 or be a mode ( its subject4 ,b if x did x w\ld lose its =mally relative "* by becom+ an inh]5t mode ( an absolute reality4 ,:ile to conceive x z an entity a/ride on bo? extremes1 & bridg+ or connect+ ^! toge!r1 w\ld be to sub/itute ! crude imag]y ( ! imag9ation = intellectual ?\ght4 ,9 ! second place1 if a subject c acquire a relation1 or lose a relation1 )\t und]go+ any real *ange1 !n ! relation consid]$ =mally z su*1 or secundum 8esse ad10 _c be a reality4 ,b a subject c acquire or lose a relation )\t und]go+ any real *ange4 ,!re=e ! relation consid]$ =mally1 z di/9ct f its f\ndation & extremes1 is n a reality4 ,! m9or ( ?is argum5t may be prov$ by ! consid]ation ( a few simple examples4 ,a *ild already born is nei!r l>g] nor small] ?an its bro!r t w be born two ye>s h5ce47#dba7 ,b aft] ! bir? ( ! latt] *ild ! =m] c acquire ^? relations successively )\t any real *ange 9 itself1 & m]ely by ! gr[? ( ! y\ng] *ild4 ,aga91 "o :ite ball ,a is simil> 9 col\r to ano!r :ite ball ,b4 ,pa9t ! latt] black1 & eo ipso ! =m] loses its relation ( resemblance )\t any real *ange 9 itself4 ,& ?is appe>s to be ! view ( ,/4 ,?omas4 ,if1 he writes1 ano!r man becomes equal 9 size to me by gr[+ :ile ,i rema9 un*ang$ 9 size1 !n al?\gh eo ipso ,i become equal 9 size to him1 ?us acquir+ a new relation1 nev]!less ,i ga9 or acquire no?+ new3 8nihil adv5it mihi de novo1 p] hoc quod incipio esse alt]i aequalis p] ejus mutationem04 ,relation1 he says1 is an extram5tal reality by reason ( its f\ndation or cause1 :]eby "o reality is ref]r$ to ano!r47#dbb7 ,relation itself1 consid]$ =mally z di/9ct f its f\ndation1 is n a reality2 x is real only inasmu* z its f\ndation is real47#dbc7 ,aga91 relation is some?+ inh]5t1 b n =mally z a relation1 & h5ce x c disappe> )\t any real *ange 9 its subject47#dbd7 ,a real relation may be de/roy$ 9 "o or o!r ( two ways3 ei!r by ! de/ruction or *ange ( ! f\ndation 9 ! subject1 or by ! de/ruction ( ! t]m1 entail+ ! cessation ( ! ref]5ce1 )\t any *ange 9 ! subject47#dbe7 ,h5ce1 too1 ! reason alleg$ by ,/4 ,?omas :y relation1 unlike ! o!r categories ( real be+1 c be itself divid$ into logical entity & real entity1 ens rationis & ens reale3 because =mally x is an ens rationis1 & only fundam5tally1 or 9 virtue ( its f\ndation1 is x an ens reale47#dbf7 ,& h5ce1 f9ally1 ! reason :y ,/4 ,?omas1 foll[+ ,ari/otle1 describes relation z hav+ a 8less] reality10 an 8esse debilius107#dbg7 ?an ! o!r or absolute categories ( real be+3 n z if x 7 a sort ( dim9utive entity1 int]m$iate betwe5 no?+ness & ! absolute modes ( reality1 b because be+ dep5d5t = its =mal actuality n m]ely on a f\ndation 9 its subject1 b also on a t]m to :i* ! latt] is ref]r$1 x c p]i% n m]ely by ! de/ruction ( its subject l o!r accid5ts1 b also by ! de/ruction ( its t]m :ile subject & f\ndation rema9 un*ang$4 ,if1 !n1 ! real relation1 consid]$ =mally or 8secundum esse ad0 is n a reality1 ! relation "u ?is aspect is a logical1 n a real1 accid5t4 ,to con/itute a mutual real relation !re is ne$$ a f\ndation 9 bo? ( ! extremes4 ,z long z ! t]m ( ! relation does n actually exi/1 n only does ! relation n exi/ =mally & actually1 b x is n ev5 adequately pot5tial3 ! f\ndation 9 ! subject alone is n an adequate f\ndation4 ,to ?is view1 :i* d5ies any di/9ct reality to ! pr$icam5tal relation consid]$ =mally1 x has be5 object$ t ! pr$icam5tal relation is ?us conf\nd$ ) ! transc5d5tal relation4 ,b ?is is n s2 = ! transc5d5tal relation is always ess5tial to its subject1 :atev] ?is subject may be1 :ile ! pr$icam5tal relation1 consid]$ =mally1 is a logical accid5t sep>able f its subject1 & consid]$ fundam5tally x is "s absolute accid5t really di/9ct f ! sub/ance ( ! relat$ extremes4 ,= in/ance1 ! action :i* m$iates betwe5 cause & effect is itself transc5d5tally relat$ to bo?2 :ile x is at ! same "t ! adequate f\ndation :]eby cause & effect are pr$icam5tally relat$ to ea* o!r47#dbh7 ,if :at we h call$ ! =mal elem5t ( a relation be no?+ really di/9ct f ! extremes & f\ndation1 x foll[s t "s real relations betwe5 creatures are really id5tical ) _! sub/ances27#dbi7 & to ?is x has be5 object$ t no relation 9 creatures c be1 quoad rem1 sub/antial3 8,nulla relatio10 says ,/4 ,?omas17#dcj7 8e/ sub/antia secundum rem 9 creaturis04 ,to ?is x may be repli$ t ev5 9 ^! cases ! relation itself1 consid]$ adequately1 is n :olly id5tical ) ! sub/ance ( ei!r extreme4 ,x sup]adds a sep>able logical accid5t to ^!47#dca7 ,f9ally x is object$ t ! view :i* d5ies a di/9ct reality to ! =mal elem5t ( a real relation1 to its 8esse ad10 equival5tly d5ies all reality to relations1 & is !re=e 9 sub/ance id5tical ) ! ideali/ doctr9e already reject$ 7#ij74 ,b ?is is a misconception4 ,accord+ to ideali/s1 relations gr\nd$ on quality1 quantity1 causality1 etc41 are exclusively 9 ! intellect1 9 our m5tal activity & its m5tal products1 9 our concepts alone1 & are 9 no true s5se *>act]i/ic ( reality4 ,?is is v diff]5t f say+ t our concepts ( su* relations are gr\nd$ 9 ! realities comp>$1 & t ^! realities are really end[$ ) ev]y?+ t con/itutes su* relations1 ! comp>ative act ( ! intellect be+ requir$ m]ely to appreh5d ^! *>act]i/ics & s to give ! relation its =mal complet5ess47#dcb7 ,!re is all ! diff]5ce t exi/s betwe5 a !ory :i* s exagg]ates ! con/itutive function ( ?\ght z to r$uce all intellectual k to a k ( m]e subjective m5tal appe>ances1 & a !ory :i*1 :ile recogniz+ ?is function & its products1 w n all[ t ^! ca/ any cl\d or veil betwe5 ! intellect & a g5u9e insight into objective reality4 ,^! m5tal processes are guid$ by reality2 ! entia rationis :i* are _! products are gr\nd$ 9 reality2 moreov] we c q well di/+ui% betwe5 ^! m5tal modes & products ( our intellectual activity & ! real cont5ts reveal$ to ! m9d 9 ^! modes & processes4 ,s long1 !re=e1 z we avoid ! mi/ake ( ascrib+ to ! objective reality itself any ( ^! m5tal modes 7z1 = in/ance1 extreme reali/s d :5 !y ass]t ! extram5tal reality ( ! =mal univ]sal71 our recognition ( !m c 9 no way jeop>dize ! objective validity ( intellectual k4 ,p]haps an excessive timidity 9 ?is direction is 9 "s degree acc\ntable = ! 8abuse ( realism0 :i* ascribes to ! =mal elem5t ( a relation a di/9ct extram5tal17#dcc7 objective reality4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,causality2 ,,classification ,,( ,,causes4 #id4 ,,traditional ,,concept ,,( ,,cause4--,! modes ( real be+ :i* we h be5 s f> exam9+--sub/ance1 quality1 quantity1 relation--are modes ( reality consid]$ z /atic4 ,b x 0 po9t$ out 9 an e>ly *apt] 7*4 ii47 t ! univ]se ( our exp]i5ce is subject to *ange1 t x is ev] becom+1 t x is ! sc5e ( a cont9u\s _w-process :i* is app>5tly regulat$ by m or less /able pr9ciples or laws1 ^! laws & processes con/itut+ ! univ]sal ord] :i* x is ! duty ( ! philosoph] to /udy & expla94 ,we mu/ n[ return to ?is k9etic & dynamic aspect ( reality1 & inve/igate ! pr9ciples ( *ange 9 ?+s by a /udy ( ,causes4 ,z ) ! names ( ! o!r ultimate categories1 s too "h1 ! g5]al s5se ( ! t]m 8cause0 7causa1 7 is famili> to all1 :ile analysis reveals a great v>iety ( modalities ( ?is common signification4 ,we und]/& by a cause any?+ :i* has a positive influ5ce ( any sort on ! be+ or happ5+ ( some?+ else4 ,9 philosophy ?is is ! mean+ :i* has be5 atta*$ traditionally to ! t]m s9ce ! days ( ,ari/otle2 ?\gh 9 its pres5t-day sci5tific use ! t]m has almo/ lo/ ?is mean+1 ma9ly ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( mod]n ph5om5ism47#dcd7 ,! traditional notion ( cause is usually exp\nd$ by comp>+ x ) c]ta9 k9dr$ notions3 pr9ciple1 condition1 occasion1 reason4 ,a pr9ciple is t f :i* any?+ proce$s 9 any way :atsoev]47#dce7 ,any sort ( intr9sic connexion betwe5 two objects ( ?\ght is suffici5t to con/itute ! "o a 8pr9ciple0 ( ! o!r2 b a m]e extr9sic or "t sequ5ce is n suffici5t4 ,a logical pr9ciple is "s tru? f :i* fur!r tru?s are or may be d]iv$4 ,a real pr9ciple is "s reality f :i* ! be+ or happ5+ ( some?+ orig9ates & proce$s47#dcf7 ,if ?is procession involves a real & positive influ5ce ( ! pr9ciple on t :i* proce$s f x1 su* a real pr9ciple is a cause4 ,b !re may be a real & intr9sic connexion )\t any su* influ5ce4 ,= in/ance1 9 ! sub/antial *anges :i* occur 9 physical nature ! g5]ation ( ! new sub/antial =mative pr9ciple necess>ily presupposes ! privation ( ! "o :i* antec$5tly 8in=m$0 ! mat]ial pr9ciple2 b ?is 8privatio =mae0 has no positive influ5ce on ! g5]ation ( ! new 8=m02 x is1 h[ev]1 ! necess>y & natural antec$5t to ! g5]ation ( ! latt]2 h5ce al?\gh ?is 8privatio =mae0 is a real pr9ciple ( sub/antial *ange 7! process or fi]i7 x is n a cause ( ! latt]4 ,! notion ( pr9ciple1 ev5 ( real pr9ciple1 is !re=e wid] ?an ! notion ( cause47#dcg7 ,a condition1 9 ! prop] s5se ( a necess>y condition or conditio s9e qua non1 is some?+ :i* mu/ be realiz$ or fulfill$ be=e ! ev5t or effect 9 "q c happ5 or be produc$4 ,on ! side ( ! latt] !re is real dep5d5ce1 b f ! side ( ! =m] !re is no real & positive influ5ce on ! happ5+ ( ! ev5t4 ,! influ5ce ( ! condition is negative2 or1 if positive1 x is only indirect1 consi/+ 9 ! removal ( "s ob/acle--8remov5s probib5s0--to ! positive influ5ce ( ! cause4 ,9 ?is precisely a condition diff]s f a cause3 w9d[s1 = in/ance1 are a condition = ! light+ ( a room 9 ! daylight1 b ! sun is ! cause4 ,! di/9ction is cle> & intelligible1 nor may x be ignor$ 9 a philosophical analysis ( causality4 ,at ! same "t x is easy to und]/& t :]e1 z 9 ! inductive sci5ces1 !re is "q ( discov]+ all ! antec$5ts1 positive & negative1 ( any giv5 k9d ( ph5om5on1 9 ord] to br+ to light & =mulate ! law or laws accord+ to :i* su* ph5om5on occurs1 ! di/9ction betwe5 cause & condition is ( m9or importance47#dch7 ,an occasion is any circum/ance or comb9ation ( circum/ances fav\rable to ! action ( a free cause4 ,= in/ance1 a =c$ sale is an occasion = buy+ *eaply2 night is an occasion ( !ft2 bad companion%ip is an occasion ( s94 ,an occasion has no intr9sic connexion ) ! effect z 9 ! case ( a pr9ciple1 nor is x necess>y = ! production ( ! effect z 9 ! case ( a condition4 ,x is spok5 ( only 9 connexion ) ! action ( a free cause2 & x diff]s f a cause 9 hav+ no positive & direct influ5ce on ! production ( ! effect4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 a real ?\gh indirect influ5ce on ! production ( ! effect by solicit+ & aid+ ! det]m9ation ( ! free effici5t cause to act4 ,9 s f> z x does ex]t su* an influ5ce x may be reg>d$ z a p>tial effici5t cause1 n a physical b a moral cause1 ( ! effect4 ,to ask = ! reason ( any ev5t or ph5om5on1 or ( ! nature or exi/5ce ( any reality1 is to dem& an explanation ( ! latt]2 x is to seek :at acc\nts = ! latt]1 :at makes ?is intelligible to our m9ds4 ,:atev] is a cause is !re=e also a reason1 b ! latt] notion is wid] ?an ! =m]4 ,:atev] expla9s a tru? is a logical reason ( ! latt]4 ,b s9ce all tru?s are conc]n$ ) realities !y mu/ h ultimately real reasons1 i4e4 explanatory pr9ciples inh]5t 9 ! realities !mselves4 ,! k ( ^! real or ontological pr9ciples ( ?+s is ! logical reason ( our und]/&+ ( ! ?+s !mselves4 ,b ! ontological pr9ciples1 :i* are ! real reasons ( ! ?+s1 are wid] 9 ext5t ?an ! causes ( ^! ?+s1 = !y include pr9ciples t are n causes4 ,fur!rmore1 ! grades ( reality :i* we discov] 9 ?+s by ! activity ( ab/ract ?\ght1 & :]eby we comp>e1 classify & def9e ^? ?+s1 we appreh5d z explanatory pr9ciples ( ! latt]2 & ^! pr9ciples1 ?\gh really 9 ! ?+s1 & !re=e real 8reasons10 are n 8causes04 ,?us1 life is a real reason1 ?\gh n a cause1 ( s5sibility 9 ! animal organism2 ! s\l's indep5d5ce ( matt] 9 its mode ( exi/5ce is a real reason1 ?\gh n a cause1 ( its spiritual activities4 ,h5ce1 betwe5 a reason & t :i* x acc\nts = !re may be only a logical di/9ction1 :ile betwe5 a cause & t :i* x causes !re mu/ be a real di/9ction 7#ch74 ,to und]/& all ! intr9sic pr9ciples :i* con/itute ! ess5ce ( any?+ is to "k ! suffici5t reason ( its reality4 ,to und]/& all ! extr9sic pr9ciples :i* acc\nt = its actual exi/5ce is to "k ! suffici5t reason ( its exi/5ce2 & to und]/& ?is latt] adequately is to realize t ! ?+ dep5ds ultimately = its actual exi/5ce on a ,reality or ,be+ :i* necess>ily exi/s by virtue ( its own ess5ce4 ,:at has be5 call$ ! ,pr9ciple ( ,suffici5t ,reason ass]ts1 :5 appli$ to reality1 t e exi/+ reality mu/ h a suffici5t reason = exi/+ & = be+ :at x is47#dci7 ,unlike ! ,pr9ciple ( ,causality :i* is an axiomatic or self-evid5t tru?1 ?is pr9ciple is r a necess>y po/ulate ( all k1 an assumption t reality is intelligible4 ,x does n mean t all reality1 or ev5 any s+le f9ite reality1 is adequately intelligible to our f9ite m9ds4 ,9 ! words ( ,bossuet1 we d n "k ev]y?+ ab\t any?+3 8n\s ne savons le t\t de ri504 ,9 reg>d to cont+5t ess5ces1 if ^! be composite we c f9d a suffici5t reason :y !y are su* 9 _! con/itutive pr9ciples2 b 9 reg>d to simple ess5ces1 or to ! simple con/itutive pr9ciples ( composite ess5ces1 we c f9d no suffici5t reason :y !y are su* 9 any?+ ev5 logically di/9ct f !mselves3 !y are :at !y are because !y are :at !y are1 & to dem& :y !y are :at !y are1 is1 z ,ari/otle rem>k$1 to ask an idle "q4 ,at ! same "t1 :5 we h conv9c$ ourselves t _! actual exi/5ce involves ! exi/5ce ( a ,supreme1 ,self-,exi/5t1 ,intellig5t ,be+1 we c see t ! ess5ce ( ?is ,be+ is ! ultimate gr\nd ( ! intr9sic possibility ( all f9ite ess5ces 7#bj74 ,9 reg>d to cont+5t exi/5ces ! ,pr9ciple ( ,suffici5t ,reason is co9cid5t ) ! ,pr9ciple ( ,causality1 inasmu* z ! suffici5t reason ( ! actual exi/5ce ( any cont+5t ?+ consi/s 9 ! extr9sic real pr9ciples :i* are its causes4 ,! exi/5ce ( cont+5t ?+s involves ! exi/5ce ( a ,necess>y ,be+4 ,we may say t ! suffici5t reason = ! exi/5ce ( ! ,necess>y ,be+ is ! ,div9e ,ess5ce ,itself2 b ?is is m]ely d5y+ t !re is outside ?is ,be+ any suffici5t reason1 i4e4 any cause ( ! latt]'s exi/5ce2 x is ! recognition t ! ,pr9ciple ( ,causality is inapplicable to ! ,necess>y ,be+4 ,! ,pr9ciple ( ,suffici5t ,reason1 9 ?is application ( x1 is logically po/]ior to ! ,pr9ciple ( ,causality47#ddj7 #ie4 ,,classification ,,( ,,causes3 ,,ari/otle',s ,,f\rfold ,,division4--,9 mod]n times _m sci5ti/s & philosoph]s h ?\ght x possible to expla9 ! ord] & c\rse ( nature1 ! :ole cosmic process & ! entire univ]se ( our exp]i5ce1 by an appeal to ! op]ation ( effici5t causes4 ,esp\s+ a me*anical1 z oppos$ to a teleological1 conception ( ! univ]se1 !y h d5i$ or ignor$ all influ5ce ( purpose1 & es*ew$ all /udy ( f9al causes4 ,fur!rmore1 misconceiv+ or neglect+ ! category ( sub/ance1 & ! doctr9e ( sub/antial *ange1 !y f9d no place 9 _! speculations = any consid]ation ( =mal & mat]ial causes4 ,yet )\t f9al1 =mal & mat]ial causes1 s fully analys$ by ,ari/otle7#dda7 & ! s*ola/ics1 no satisfactory explanation ( ! _w ( our exp]i5ce c possibly be f\nd4 ,let u !re=e comm5ce by outl9+ ! traditional f\rfold division ( causes4 ,we h se5 already t *ange involves composition or composit5ess 9 ! ?+ t is subject to *ange4 ,h5ce two intr9sic pr9ciples contribute to ! con/itution ( su* a ?+1 ! "o a passive1 det]m9able pr9ciple1 its mat]ial cause1 ! o!r an active1 det]m9+ pr9ciple1 its =mal cause4 ,"s *anges 9 mat]ial ?+s are sup]ficial1 n rea*+ to ! sub/ance itself ( ! ?+2 ^! are accid5tal1 involv+ ! union ( "s accid5tal 8=m0 ) ! concrete pre-exi/+ sub/ance z mat]ial 7mat]ia 8secunda074 ,o!rs are m pr(\nd1 *anges ( ! sub/ance itself2 ^! are sub/antial1 involv+ ! union ( a new sub/antial 8=m0 ) ! primal mat]ial pr9cipal 7mat]ia 8prima07 ( ! sub/ance und]go+ ! *ange4 ,b :e!r ! *ange be sub/antial or accid5tal we c always di/+ui% 9 ! result+ composite ?+ two intr9sic con/itutive pr9ciples1 its =mal cause & its mat]ial cause4 ,! ag5cies 9 nature :i*1 by _! activity1 br+ ab\t *ange1 are effici5t causes4 ,f9ally1 s9ce x is an und5iable fact t !re is ord] 9 ! univ]se1 t its processes give evid5ce ( regul>ity1 ( op]ation accord+ to law1 t ! cosmos reveals a h>moni\s co-ord9ation ( manifold ag5cies & a subord9ation ( means to ends1 x foll[s t !re mu/ be work+ 9 & ?r\gh all nature a directive pr9ciple1 a pr9ciple ( plan or design1 a pr9ciple accord+ to :i* ^? manifold ag5cies "w toge!r 9 fulfilm5t ( a purpose1 = ! atta9m5t ( ends4 ,h5ce ! reality ( a f\r? class ( causes1 f9al causes4 ,! sep>ate influ5ce ( ea* ( ^? f\r k9ds ( cause c be cle>ly illu/rat$ by ref]5ce to ! production ( any "w ( art4 ,:51 = in/ance1 a sculptor *isels a /atue f a block ( m>ble1 ! latt] is ! mat]ial cause 7mat]ia secunda7 ( ! /atue1 ! =m :i* he induces on x by 8 lab\r is ! =mal cause 7=ma accid5talis71 ! sculptor himself z ag5t is ! effici5t cause1 & ! motive f :i* he works--money fame1 e/hetic pleasure1 etc4--is ! f9al cause4 ,! =mal & mat]ial causes are intr9sic to ! effect2 !y con/itute ! effect 9 facto esse1 ! di/9ction ( ea* f ! latt] be+ an inadequate real di/9ction4 ,x is n s usual n[adays to call ^! intr9sic con/itutive pr9ciples ( ?+s causes ( ! latt]2 b !y v]ify ! g5]al def9ition ( cause4 ,! o!r two causes1 ! effici5t & ! f9al1 are extr9sic to ! effect1 & really & adequately di/9ct f x17#ddb7 extr9sic pr9ciples ( its production1 its fi]i4 ,?is classification ( causes is adequate27#ddc7 x answ]s all ! que/ions t c be ask$ 9 explanation ( ! production ( any effect3 a quo8 ex quo8 p] quid8 propt] quid8 ,nor is !re any sort ( cause :i* _c be br\ght "u "s "o or o!r ( ^? f\r heads4 ,:at is call$ an 8exempl> cause10 causa exempl>is1 i4e4 ! ideal or model or plan 9 ! m9d ( an intellig5t ag5t1 accord+ to :i* he aims & /rives to execute 8 "w1 may be reg>d$ z an extr9sic =mal cause2 or aga91 9 s f> z x aids & equips ! ag5t = 8 task1 an effici5t cause2 or1 aga91 9 s f> z x repres5ts a good to be realiz$1 a f9al cause47#ddd7 ,! objects ( our k are 9 a true s5se causes ( our k3 any su* object may be reg>d$ z an effici5t cause1 bo? physical & moral1 ( ?is k1 9 s f> z by its action on our m9ds x det]m9es ! activity ( our cognitive faculties2 or1 aga91 z a f9al cause1 inasmu* z x is ! end & aim ( ! k4 ,! ess5ce ( ! s\l is1 z we h se5 7#fi71 n exactly an effici5t cause ( ! faculties :i* are its prop]ties2 b x is _! f9al cause1 inasmu* z _! raison d'tre is to p]fect x2 & _! subjective or mat]ial cause1 inasmu* z x is ! seat & support ( ^! faculties4 ,! f\rfold division is analogical1 n univocal3 ?\gh ! matt]1 ! =m1 ! ag5t1 & ! end or purpose1 all contribute positively to ! production ( ! effect1 x is cle> t ! "* ( ! causal influ5ce is widely diff]5t 9 ea* case4 ,aga91 its memb]s d n dem& di/9ct subjects3 all f\r classes ( cause may be v]ifi$ 9 ! same subject4 ,= in/ance1 ! human s\l is a =mal cause 9 reg>d to ! composite human individual1 a mat]ial cause 9 reg>d to its habits1 an effici5t cause 9 reg>d to its acts1 & a f9al cause 9 reg>d to its faculties4 ,fur!rmore1 ! f\rfold division is n an imm$iate division1 = x foll[s ! division ( cause 9 g5]al into intr9sic & extr9sic causes4 ,f9ally1 x is a division ( ! causes :i* we f9d to be op]ative 9 ! univ]se4 ,b ! philosophical /udy ( ! univ]se w lead u gradually to ! conviction t itself & all ! causes 9 x are !mselves cont+5t1 !mselves caus$ by & dep5d5t on1 a ,cause outside or extr9sic to ! univ]se1 a ,fir/1 ,uncaus$1 ,uncreat$1 ,self-,exi/5t1 ,necess>y ,cause 7,causa ,prima1 ,increata71 at once ! effici5t & f9al cause ( all ?+s4 ,9 contra/ ) ?is ,uncreat$1 ,fir/ ,cause1 all ! o!r causes we h n[ to inve/igate are call$ creat$ or second causes 7causae secundae1 creatae74 ,a cause may be ei!r total1 adequate1 or p>tial1 inadequate1 accord+ z ! effect is due to its influ5ce solely1 or to its influ5ce 9 conjunction )1 or dep5d5ce on1 ! influ5ce ( "s o!r cause or causes ( ! same ord]4 ,a creat$ cause1 !re=e1 is a total cause if ! effect is due to its influ5ce indep5d5tly ( o!r creat$ causes2 ?\gh ( c\rse all creat$ causes are dep5d5t1 bo? z to _! exi/5ce & z to _! causality1 on ! influ5ce ( ! ,fir/ ,cause4 ,)\t ! activity ( creat$ effici5t & f9al causes ! ,fir/ ,cause c accompli% directly :atev] ^! c accompli%--except _! v causality itself1 :i* _c be actualiz$ )\t !m1 b = :i* ,he c supply em95t]4 ,simil>ly1 :ile x is incompatible ) ,8 ,inf9ite ,p]fection t ,he dis*>ge ! function ( mat]ial or =mal cause ( f9ite composite ?+s1 ,he c imm$iately create ^! latt] by ! simultane\s production 7ex nihilo7 & union ( _! mat]ial & =mal pr9ciples4 ,a cause is said to be 9 actu secundo :5 x is actually ex]cis+ its causal influ5ce4 ,antec$5tly to su* ex]cise1 at lea/ prioritate naturae1 x is said to be 9 actu primo3 :5 x has ! exp$ite p[] to dis*>ge its function z cause x is 9 actu primo proximo1 :ile if its p[] is 9 any way incomplete1 hamp]$ or unready1 x is 9 actu primo remoto4 ,_m o!r divisions ( cause1 subord9ate to ! ,ari/otelian division1 w be expla9$ 9 connexion ) ! memb]s ( ?is latt]4 #if4 ,,mat]ial ,,& ,,=mal ,,causes4--,^! are prop]ly subject-matt] = ,cosmology4 ,we w !re=e v briefly supplem5t :at has be5 said already conc]n+ !m 9 connexion ) ! doctr9e ( ,*ange 7*4 ii474 ,by a mat]ial cause we mean t out ( :i* any?+ is made3 id ex quo aliquid fit4 ,matt] is correlative ) =m3 f ! union ( ^! !re results a composite reality end[$ ) ei!r ess5tial or accid5tal unity--) ! =m] if ! mat]ial pr9ciple be absolutely indet]m9ate & ! correlative =m sub/antial1 ) ! latt] if ! mat]ial pr9ciple be "s actually exi/+ individual reality & ! =m "s sup]v5+ accid5t4 ,prop]ly speak+ only corporeal sub/ances h mat]ial causes17#dde7 b ! t]m 8mat]ial cause0 is us$ 9 an ext5d$ s5se to signify any pot5tial1 passive1 receptive subject ( =mative or actuat+ pr9ciples3 ?us ! s\l is ! subjective or mat]ial cause ( its faculties & habits2 ess5ce ( exi/5ce2 g5us ( diff]5tia1 etc4 ,9 :at does ! positive causal influ5ce ( a mat]ial cause consi/8 ,h[ does x contribute positively to ! actualization ( ! composite reality ( :i* x is ! mat]ial cause8 ,x receives & unites ) ! =m :i* is educ$ f its pot5tiality by ! action ( effici5t causes1 & ?us contributes to ! g5]ation ( ! concrete1 composite individual reality47#ddf7 ,x is by reason ( ! causality ( ! =mal cause t we speak ( a ?+ be+ =mally su* or su*4 ,z correlative ( mat]ial cause x f9ds its prop] application 9 ref]5ce to ! con/itution ( corporeal ?+s4 ,! =mative pr9ciple1 call$ =ma sub/antialis1 :i* actuates1 det]m9es1 specifies ! mat]ial pr9ciple1 & by union ) ! latt] con/itutes an individual corporeal sub/ance ( a def9ite k9d1 is ! 7sub/antial7 =mal cause ( ?is composite sub/ance47#ddg7 ,! mat]ial pr9ciple ( corporeal ?+s is ( itself indiff]5t to any species ( body2 x is ! =m t removes ?is indef9it5ess & det]m9es ! matt]1 by its union ) ! latt]1 to con/itute a def9ite type ( corporeal sub/ance47#ddh7 ,! exi/5ce ( diff]5t species ( liv+ organisms & diff]5t types ( inorganic matt] 9 ! univ]se implies 9 ! con/itution ( ^! ?+s a common mat]ial pr9ciple1 mat]ia prima1 & a multiplicity ( diff]5tiat+1 specify+1 =mative pr9ciples1 =mae sub/antiales4 ,t ! di/9ction betwe5 ^! two pr9ciples 9 ! con/itution ( any individual corporeal sub/ance1 :e!r liv+ or inorganic1 is n m]ely a virtual di/9ction betwe5 metaphysical 7g5]ic & specific7 grades ( be+ 9 ! individual1 b a real di/9ction betwe5 sep>able entities1 is a s*ola/ic !sis e/abli%$ 9 ! ,special ,metaphysics ( ! organic & inorganic doma9s ( ! univ]se47#ddi7 ,s9ce ! =m is a p]fect+1 actuat+ pr9ciple1 ! t]m is (t5 us$ synonym\sly ) actus1 actuality4 ,& s9ce besides ! ess5tial p]fection :i* a be+ has by virtue ( its sub/antial =m x may h accid5tal p]fections by reason ( sup]v5+ accid5tal =ms1 ^!1 too1 are =mal causes4 ,9 :at does ! causal influ5ce ( ! =mal cause consi/8 ,9 communicat+ itself intr9sically to ! mat]ial pr9ciple or passive subject f ^: pot5tiality x is evok$ by ! action ( effici5t causes2 9 actuat+ t pot5tiality by intr9sic union !re)1 & ?us det]m9+ ! individual subject to be actually or =mally an individual ( su* or su* a k9d4 ,! mat]ial & =mal causes are intr9sic pr9ciples ( ! con/itution ( ?+s4 ,we next pass to an analysis ( ! two extr9sic causes1 & fir/ly ( ! effici5t cause & its causality4 #ig4 ,,effici5t ,,cause2 ,,traditional ,,concept ,,expla9$4--,by effici5t cause we und]/& t by :i* any?+ takes place1 happ5s1 occurs3 id a quo aliquid fit4 ,! _w ( our ext]nal & int]nal exp]i5ce is ! sc5e ( incessant *anges3 m5 & ?+s n only are1 b are con/antly becom+4 ,n[ e su* *ange is orig9at$ by "s active pr9ciple1 & ?is we call ! effici5t cause ( ! *ange4 ,ari/otle call$ x or 1 ! k9etic or mov+ pr9ciple2 or aga91 1 pr9cipium motus vel mutationis 9 alio1 8! pr9ciple ( motion or *ange 9 "s o!r ?+04 ,! result a*iev$ by ?is *ange1 ! actualiz$ pot5tiality1 is call$ ! effect2 ! causality itself ( ! effici5t cause is call$ action 771 motion1 *ange--&1 f ! po9t ( view ( ! effect1 passio 774 ,! p]fection or end[m5t :]eby an effici5t cause acts1 i4e4 its effici5cy 771 is call$ active p[] 7pot5tia seu virtus activa72 x is also call$ =ce or pot5tial en]gy 9 ref]5ce to inanimate ag5ts1 faculty 9 ref]5ce to animate ag5ts1 especially m5 & animals4 ,?is active p[] ( an effici5t cause or ag5t is to be c>efully di/+ui%$ f ! passive pot5tiality act$ ^u & und]go+ *ange4 ,! =m] connotes a p]fection1 ! latt] an imp]fection3 unumquodque agit inquantum e/ 9 actu1 patitur v]o inquantum1 e/ 9 pot5tia4 ,! scope ( ! active p[] ( a cause is ! measure ( its actuality1 ( its p]fection 9 ! scale ( reality2 :ile ! ext5t ( ! passive pot5tiality ( pati5s is a measure ( its relative imp]fection4 ,! actuation ( ! =m] is actio1 t ( ! latt] passio4 ,! po9t ( ontological connexion ( ! two pot5tiae is ! *ange 7motus1 71 ?is be+ at once ! =mal p]fect+ ( ! passive pot5tiality 9 ! pati5s or effect1 & ! imm$iate t]m ( ! effici5cy or active p[] ( ! ag5s or cause4 ,actio & passio1 !re=e1 are n expressions ( "o & ! same concept2 !y express two di/9ct concepts ( "o & ! same reality1 viz4 ! *ange3 actio et passio sunt idem num]o motus4 ,?is *ange takes place =mally 9 ! subject ^u :i* ! effici5t cause acts1 = x is an actuation ( ! pot5tiality ( ! =m] "u ! influ5ce ( ! latt]3 2 4 ,consid]$ 9 ! pot5tiality ( ?is subject--8 3 hujus 9 hococ0--x is call$ passio4 ,consid]$ z a t]m ( ! active p[] ( ! cause--8 3 hujus p] hoc0--x is call$ actio4 ,! fact t actio & passio are really & objectively "o & ! same motus does n militate aga9/ _! be+ reg>d$ z two sep>ate supreme categories1 = !y are objects ( di/9ct concepts17#dej7 & ?is is suffici5t to con/itute !m di/9ct categories 7#fj74 ,d\bts are sometimes rais$1 z ,/4 ,?omas rem>ks17#dea7 ab\t ! ass]tion t ! action ( an ag5t is n =mally 9 ! latt] b 9 ! pati5s3 actio fit 9 passo4 ,x is cle>1 h[ev]1 he cont9ues1 t ! action is =mally 9 ! pati5s = x is ! actuation n ( any pot5tiality ( ! ag5t1 b ( ! passive pot5tiality ( ! pati5s3 x is 9 ! latt] t ! motus or *ange1 :i* is bo? actio & passio1 takes place1 dep5d5tly ( c\rse on ! influ5ce ( ! ag5t1 or effici5t cause ( ! *ange4 ,! active p[] ( an effici5t cause is an index ( ! latt]'s actuality2 ! ex]cise ( ?is p[] 7i4e4 action7 does n =mally p]fect ! ag5t1 = x is n an actuation ( any passive pot5tiality ( ! latt]2 x =mally p]fects ! pati5s4 ,only imman5t action p]fects ! ag5t1 & !n n z ag5t b z pati5s or receiv] ( ! actuality effect$ by ! action 7cf4 #ajc infra74 ,we may1 !n1 def9e effici5t cause z ! extr9sic pr9ciple ( ! *ange or production ( any?+ by means ( action3 pr9cipium extr9sicum a quo fluit motus vel productio rei m$iante actione4 ,x is a 8fir/0 pr9ciple z comp>$ ) mat]ial & =mal causes = its influ5ce is obvi\sly prior 9 nature to !irs2 also z comp>$ ) ! o!r extr9sic cause1 ! f9al cause1 9 ord9e executionis1 n1 h[ev]1 9 ord9e int5tionis4 ,! 8end10 n z realiz$ b z realizable1 n 9 execution b 9 int5tion1 dis*>ges its function & ex]ts its influ5ce z 8f9al cause0 & 9 ?is ord] ! f9al cause1 z w appe> lat]1 is ! fir/ ( all causes3 f9is e/ ultimus 9 executione s$ primus 9 int5tione4 8,*ange or production10 9 ! def9ition1 is to be und]/ood n 9 ! /rict s5se 9 :i* x presupposes an exi/+ subject or mat]ial1 b 9 ! wide s5se 9 :i* x includes any production ( new reality1 ev5 creation or production ex nihilo4 8,action10 too1 is to be und]/ood 9 ! wide s5se 9 :i* x includes ! action ( ! ,fir/ ,cause1 :i* action is really id5tical ) ! ess5ce ( ! latt]4 ,we conceive creation aft] ! analogy ( ! effici5t action ( creat$ or 8second0 causes3 we h no prop] concept ( ! inf9ite p]fection ( ! ,div9e activity4 ,9 all creat$ effici5t causes n only is ! action itself1 b also ! effici5cy1 =ce1 p[]1 faculty1 :i* is its proximate pr9ciple1 really di/9ct f ! nature or ess5ce ( ! ag5t2 ! =m] is a sub/ance1 ! latt] an accid5t4 ,f9ally1 ! action ( a creat$ effici5t cause is ei!r transitive 7transi5s7 or imman5t 7imman5s7 accord+ z ! *ange wr\ght by ! action takes place 9 some?+ else 7z :5 ! sun heats or lights ! e>?7 or 9 ! cause itself 7z :5 a man reasons or wills74 ,9 ! =m] case ! action p]fects n ! ag5t b ! o!r ?+1 ! pati5s2 9 ! latt] case x p]fects ! ag5t itself1 ag5s & pati5s be+ "h ! same id5tical concrete individual47#deb7 #ih4 ,,"s ,,s*olia ,,on ,,causation4 ,,! ,,pr9ciple ,,( ,,causality4--,be=e enum]at+ ! pr9cipal k9ds ( effici5t cause1 & analys+ ! nature ( effici5t causality1 we may set d[n "h c]ta9 self-evid5t axioms & aphorisms conc]n+ causation 9 g5]al4 7a7 ,! mo/ important ( ^! is ! ,pr9ciple ( ,causality1 :i* has be5 enunciat$ 9 a v>iety ( ways3 ,:atev] happ5s has a cause2 ,:atev] beg9s to be has a cause2 ,:atev] is cont+5t has a cause2 ,no?+ occurs )\t a cause4 ,n ev]y?+ t beg9s to be has necess>ily a mat]ial cause1 or a =mal cause1 really di/9ct f itself4 ,= in/ance1 simple spiritual be+s1 l ! human s\l1 h no mat]ial cause1 nor any =mal cause or con/itutive pr9ciple di/9ct f _! ess5ce4 ,simil>ly1 ! :ole univ]se1 hav+ be5 creat$ ex nihilo1 _h no pre-exi/+ mat]ial cause4 ,all ! mat]ial be+s1 h[ev]1 :i* are produc$1 g5]at$1 br\ght into actual exi/5ce 9 ! c\rse ( ! incessant *anges :i* *>act]ize ! physical univ]se1 h bo? mat]ial & =mal causes4 ,b ! ,pr9ciple ( ,causality ref]s ma9ly to extr9sic causes4 ,x is commonly und]/ood only ( effici5t causes2 & only 9 reg>d to ^! is x self-evid5t4 ,we %all see t z a matt] ( fact no?+ happ5s )\t a f9al cause3 t intellig5t purpose p]vades reality ?r\gh & ?r\gh4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is a conclusion1 n a pr9ciple4 ,:at is really a self-evid5t1 axiomatic1 necess>y pr9ciple is t :atev] happ5s has an ,,effici5t cause4 ,only ! ,necess>y1 ,self-,exi/+1 ,et]nal ,be+1 has ! suffici5t reason ( ,8 actual exi/5ce 9 ,himself1 9 ,8 own ess5ce4 ,t any be+ :i* is cont+5t c\ld exi/ indep5d5tly ( "s o!r actual be+ z ! cause ( ?is exi/5ce2 t x c\ld h come into exi/5ce or begun to exi/ f absolute no?+ness1 or be produc$ or br\ght into actual exi/5ce )\t any actual be+ to produce x2 or t1 once exi/+ & subject to *ange1 x c\ld und]go *ange & h its pot5tialities actualiz$ )\t any actual be+ to cause su* *ange 7#aj7--;all ?is is positively un?9kable & absolutely repugnant to our intellig5ce2 all ?is our reason p]emptorily decl>es to be intr9sically impossible4 ,nor is !re "q ( a m]e psy*ological inconceivability1 su* z might be due to a long-cont9u$ cu/om ( associat+ ! idea ( a 8beg9n+0 ) ! idea ( a 8cause0 ( ?is beg9n+--z ph5om5i/s g5]ally cont5d47#dec7 ,!re is "q ( an impossibility :i* our reason categorically dictates to be a real1 ontological impossibility4 ,! ,pr9ciple ( ,causality is !re=e a necess>y1 a priori1 self-evid5t pr9ciple4 7b7 ,e effect mu/ h an adequate effici5t cause1 i4e4 a cause suffici5tly p]fect1 suffici5tly high on ! scale ( be+1 to h ! active p[] to produce ! effect 9 "q2 o!rwise ! effect w\ld be p>tially uncaus$1 :i* is impossible4 7c7 ,an effect _c z su* be actually m p]fect ?an its adequate 7creat$7 cause4 ,! reason is t ! effect z su* is really dep5d5t = its actuality on its adequate creat$ cause4 ,x d]ives its actuality f ! latt]4 ,n[ x is inconceivable t an ag5t c\ld be ! active1 productive pr9ciple ( a great] p]fection1 a high] grade ( actuality1 ?an itself possesses4 ,:atev] be ! nature ( effici5t causality1 actio & passio 7#ajb71 or ( ! dep5d5ce ( ! produc$ actuality ^u ! active p[] ( its adequate effici5t cause 7#aj71 ! reality ( ?is dep5d5ce =bids u to ?9k t 9 ! natural ord] ( effici5t causation a high] grade ( reality c be actualiz$ ?an ! ag5t is capable ( actualiz+1 or t ! ag5t c naturally actualize a high] or m p]fect grade ( reality ?an is actually its own4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 be> 9 m9d t !re is "q ( ! adequate creat$ cause ( an effect2 & t to acc\nt fully = ! actualization ( any pot5tial reality :atsoev] we are =c$ to recognize 9 all causation ( creat$ effici5t causes ! concursus ( ! ,fir/ ,cause4 7d7 ,! actuality ( ! effect is 9 its adequate creat$ cause or causes1 n actually & =mally1 b pot5tially or virtually4 ,if ! cause produce an effect ( ! same k9d z itself 7causa univoca71 z :5 liv+ organisms propagate _! species1 ! p]fection ( ! effect is said to be 9 ! cause equival5tly 7aequival5t]72 if x produce an effect ( a diff]5t k9d f itself 7causa analoga71 z :5 a sculptor makes a /atue1 ! p]fection ( ! effect is said to be 9 ! cause em95tly 7em95t]74 7e7 ,omne ag5s agit inquantum e/ 9 actu4 ,! op]ative p[] ( a be+ is 9 proportion to its own actual p]fection3 ! high] an ag5t is on ! scale ( reality1 or 9 o!r words ! m p]fect its grade ( be+1 ! high] & m p]fect w be ! effects a*iev$ by ! ex]cise ( its op]ative p[]s4 ,9 fact our *ief te/ ( ! p]fection ( any nature is analysis ( its op]ations4 ,h5ce ! maxim s (t5 ref]r$ to already3-- 7f7 ,op]>i sequitur esse2 qualis e/ op]atio talis e/ natura2 modus op]&i sequitur modum ess5di4 ,op]ation is ! key to nature2 we "k :at any ?+ is by :at x does4 7g7 ,nihil agit ultra suam speciem2 or1 aga91 ,omne ag5s agit simile sibi4 ,^! are inductive g5]alizations ga!r$ f exp]i5ce1 & h ref]5ce to ! natural op]ation ( ag5ts1 especially 9 ! organic _w4 ,liv+ organisms reproduce only _! own k9d4 ,moreov]1 e ag5cy 9 ! univ]se has op]ative p[]s ( a def9ite k9d2 act+ accord+ to its nature x produces c]ta9 effects & ^! only2 o!rs x _c produce3 ?is is1 9 ! natural ord] ( ?+s1 & ) ! natural concursus ( ! ,fir/ ,cause4 ,b creat$ causes h a passive ob$i5tial capacity 7pot5tia ob$i5tialis7 :]eby _! nature c be s elevat$ by ! ,fir/ ,cause t !y c produce1 ) ,8 special1 sup]natural concursus1 effects ( an entirely high] ord] ?an ^? )9 ! ambit ( _! natural p[]s47#ded7 7h7 ,f a kn[n effect1 ( :atsoev] k9d1 we c argue ) c]ta9ty1 a po/]iori1 to ! exi/5ce ( an adequate effici5t cause1 & to "s k ( ! nature ( su* a cause47#dee7 ,by virtue ( ! pr9ciple ( causality we c inf] ! exi/5ce ( an adequate cause conta9+ ei!r equival5tly or em95tly all ! p]fections ( ! effect 9 "q4 #ii4 ,,classification ,,( ,,effici5t ,,causes4--7a7 ,we h already ref]r$ to ! di/9ction betwe5 ! ,fir/ ,cause & ,second or ,creat$ ,causes4 ,! =m] is absolutely indep5d5t ( all o!r be+s bo? z to ,8 p[] & z to ! ex]cise ( ?is p[]4 ,! latt] are dep5d5t1 = bo?1 ^u ! =m]4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 a fir/1 or prim>y1 or indep5d5t cause1 & second1 or subord9ate1 or dep5d5t causes c be und]/ood n only ( causes univ]sally1 b also z obta9+ among creat$ causes !mselves4 ,9 g5]al ! subord9ation ( a cause to a sup]ior or ant]ior cause may be ei!r ess5tial or accid5tal3 ess5tial1 :5 ! second cause dep5ds--ei!r = its exi/5ce or = an indisp5sable complem5t ( its effici5cy--on ! pres5t actual influ5ce ( ! o!r cause2 accid5tal :5 ! second cause has inde$ receiv$ its exi/5ce or effici5cy f ?is o!r cause1 b is n[ no long] dep5d5t1 = its exi/5ce or action1 on ! latt]4 ,?us1 liv+ organisms are1 z causes1 accid5tally subord9ate to _! p>5t organisms3 !y d]iv$ _! exi/5ce f ! latt]1 b are indep5d5t ( ^! :5 9 _! maturity !y cont9ue to exi/1 & live1 & act ( !mselves & = !mselves4 ,b all creatures1 on ! o!r h&1 are1 z causes1 ess5tially subord9ate to ! ,creator1 inasmu* z !y c exi/ & act only 9 con/ant dep5d5ce on ! ev] pres5t & ev] actual cons]v+ & concurr+ influ5ce ( ! ,creator4 ,x is obvi\s t all ! memb]s ( any s]ies ( causes ess5tially subord9ate ! "o to ! o!r mu/ exi/ simultane\sly4 ,:e!r su* a s]ies c\ld be inf9ite dep5ds1 !re=e1 on ! "q :e!r an actually inf9ite multitude is intr9sically possible4 ,?is difficulty _c be urg$ ) su* =ce aga9/ an inf9ite regress 9 causes accid5tally subord9ate to "o ano!r2 = "h su* a regress w\ld n involve an actually inf9ite multitude ( ?+s exi/+ simultane\sly4 ,9 ! case ( ess5tially subord9ate causes1 moreov]1 ! s]ies1 :atev] ab\t its inf9ity1 mu/ conta91 or r imply above x1 "o cause :i* is fir/ 9 ! s5se ( be+ indep5d5t1 or exempt f ! subord9ation *>act]i/ic ( all ! o!rs4 ,& ! reason is obvi\s3 ,s9ce no "o ( !m c exi/ or act except dep5d5tly on ano!r1 & ?is on ano!r1 & s on1 x is manife/ t ! s]ies _c exi/ at all unless !re is "s "o cause :i*1 unlike all ! o!rs1 exi/s & acts )\t su* subord9ation or dep5d5ce4 ,h5ce1 9 ess5tially subord9ate causes an inf9ite regress is impossible47#def7 ,9 ,natural ,!ology ^! consid]ations are ( supreme importance4 7b7 ,an effici5t cause may be describ$ z imman5t or transitive accord+ z ! t]m ( its action rema9s )9 ! cause itself1 or is produc$ 9 some?+ else4 ,! action ( ! ,fir/ ,cause is =mally imman5t1 be+ id5tical ) ! ,div9e ,nature itself2 x is virtually transitive :5 x is creative1 or op]ative among creatures4 7c7 ,an effici5t cause is ei!r a pr9cipal or an in/rum5tal cause4 ,:5 two causes s comb9e to produce an effect t "o ( !m uses ! o!r ! =m] is call$ ! pr9cipal & ! latt] ! in/rum5tal cause4 ,?us ,i am ! pr9cipal cause ( ! words ,i am writ+2 my p5 is ! in/rum5tal cause ( !m4 ,su* an effect is always attribut$ to ! pr9cipal cause1 n to ! in/rum5tal4 ,! notion ( an in/rum5t is q a famili> notion4 ,an in/rum5t helps ! pr9cipal ag5t to d :at ! latt] c\ld n o!rwise d1 or at lea/ n s easily4 ,an in/rum5t !re=e is really a cause4 ,x contributes positively to ! production ( ! effect4 ,h[ does x d s8 ,by reason ( its nature or /ructure x influ5ces1 modifies1 & directs 9 a p>ticul> way1 ! effici5cy ( ! pr9cipal cause4 ,b ?is prop]ty ( ! in/rum5tal cause comes into play only :5 ! latt] is be+ actually us$ by a pr9cipal cause4 ,a p51 a saw1 a hamm]1 a spade1 h ea* its own in/rum5tality4 ,! p5 w n cut1 nor ! saw m\ld iron1 nor ! hamm] dig1 nor ! spade write1 = ! ag5t t uses !m4 ,ea* w produce its own k9d ( effect :5 us$2 b none ( !m w produce any effect except :5 us$3 ?\gh ea* has 9 itself p]man5tly & inh]5tly ! p[] to produce its own prop] effect 9 use47#deg7 ,we h in/anc$ ! use ( artificial in/rum5ts4 ,b nature itself provides "s ag5cies ) :at may be call$ natural in/rum5ts4 ,! sem5 :]eby liv+ organisms propagate _! k9d is an in/ance4 ,9 a less prop] s5se ! v>i\s memb]s ( ! body are call$ in/rum5ts ( ! human p]son z pr9cipal cause1 8in/rum5ta conjuncta04 ,! notion ( an in/rum5tal cause involves !n 7a7 subord9ation ( ! latt]1 9 its in/rum5tal activity1 to a pr9cipal cause1 7b7 incapacity to produce ! effect o!rwise ?an by modify+ & direct+ ! influ5ce ( ! pr9cipal cause4 ,?is prop]ty :]eby ! in/rum5tal cause modifies or det]m9es 9 a p>ticul> way ! influ5ce ( ! pr9cipal cause1 is call$ by ,/4 ,?omas an actio or op]atio ( ! =m]2 ! di/9ction betwe5 ! pr9cipal & ! in/rum5tal cause be+ t :]eas ! =m] acts by virtue ( a p[] p]man5tly inh]5t 9 x z a natural p]fection1 ! latt] acts z an in/rum5t only by virtue ( ! transi5t motion :i* x d]ives f ! pr9cipal cause :i* utilizes x47#deh7 ,we may1 !re=e1 def9e an in/rum5tal cause z "o :i*1 :5 act+ z an in/rum5t1 produces ! effect n by virtue ( its inh]5t p[] alone1 b by virtue ( a p[] communicat$ to x by "s pr9cipal cause :i* acts ?r\gh x4 ,a pr9cipal cause1 on ! o!r h&1 is "o :i* produces its effect by virtue ( an active p[] p]man5tly inh]5t 9 itself4 ,! designations pr9cipal & in/rum5tal are obvi\sly correlative4 ,moreov]1 all creat$ causes may be call$ in/rum5tal 9 relation to ! ,fir/ ,cause4 ,=1 n only are !y dep5d5t on ! latt] = ! cons]vation ( _! nature & active p[]s2 !y are also dep5d5t1 9 _! action1 9 _! actual ex]cise ( ^! p[]s1 on ! ,fir/ ,cause 7= ! concursus ( ! latt]747#dei7 ,yet "s creat$ causes h ^! p[]s p]man5tly1 & c ex]cise !m )\t subord9ation to o!r creatures2 :ile o!rs ne$1 = ! ex]cise ( _! prop] functions1 n only ! ,div9e concursus1 b also ! motion ( o!r creatures4 ,h5ce ! =m] are rightly call$ pr9cipal creat$ causes1 & ! latt] in/rum5tal creat$ causes4 7d7 ,effici5t causes are divid$ into free causes & necess>y causes4 ,a free or self-det]m9+ cause is "o :i* is n det]m9$ by its nature to "o l9e ( action1 b has ! p[] ( *oos+1 or det]m9+ itself1 to act or ab/a91 :5 all ! conditions requisite = act+ are pres5t4 ,man is a free ag5t1 or free cause1 ( 8 delib]ate actions4 ,a necess>y cause1 or natural cause z x is sometimes call$1 is "o :i* is det]m9$ by its nature to "o inv>iable l9e ( action1 s t1 grant$ ! conditions requisite = action1 x _c naturally ab/a9 f act+ 9 t inv>iable mann]4 ,all ! physical ag5cies ( ! inorganic _w1 all plant & animal organisms b5ea? man himself1 are necess>y causes4 ,! fre$om ( ! human w is e/abli%$ aga9/ det]m9ism 9 ,psy*ology47#dfj7 ,! difficulties ( det]m9i/s aga9/ ?is doctr9e are = ! mo/ "p bas$ on misconceptions1 or on errone\s & gratuit\s assumptions4 ,we may m5tion two ( !m "h47#dfa7 ,free activity1 !y say1 w\ld be causeless activity3 x w\ld violate ! 8law ( univ]sal causation04 ,we reply t free activity is by no means causeless activity4 ,! free ag5t himself is 9 ! fulle/ & true/ s5se ! effici5t cause ( 8 free acts4 ,x is by 8 causal1 effici5t influ5ce t ! act ( free *oice is det]m9$ & elicit$4 ,free causality evid5tly does n violate ! necess>y1 a priori pr9ciple set =? above "u ! title ( ! ,pr9ciple ( ,causality4 ,b--!y urge 9 ! second place--x violates ! 8law ( univ]sal causation10 i4e4 ! law t e ev5t 9 nature mu/ be ! result ( "s set ( ph5om5al antec$5ts :i* necessitate x1 & :i*1 !re=e1 :5ev] v]ifi$1 mu/ produce ?is result & no o!r2 & by violat+ ?is law x removes all suppos$ 8free0 activities f ! doma9 ( t regul>ity & uni=mity )\t :i* no sci5tific k ( su* ph5om5a w\ld be possible4 ,to ?is we reply1 fir/ly1 t ! law ( uni=m causation 9 nature1 ! law :i* is kn[n z ! 8,law ( ! ,uni=mity ( ,nature10 & :i*1 "u ! title ( ! 8,law ( ,univ]sal ,causation0 is conf\nd$ by det]m9i/s & ph5om5i/s ) ! entirely di/9ct 8,pr9ciple ( ,causality0--is n by any means a law ( necess>y causation47#dfb7 ,! /atem5t t ,nature is uni=m 9 its activities is n ! expression ( an a priori1 necess>y tru?1 l ! ,pr9ciple ( ,causality4 ,x is a g5]alization f exp]i5ce4 ,& exp]i5ce te/ifies to ! exi/5ce ( grades 9 ?is all-prevail+ uni=mity4 ,9 ! doma9 ( physical nature x is ! expression ( ! ,free ,w ( ! ,au?or ( ,nature1 :o may miracul\sly d]ogate f ?is physical uni=mity = high]1 moral ends4 ,9 ! doma9 ( delib]ate human activities x is ! expression ( t less rigor\s b no less real uni=mity :i* is dep5d5t on ! free w ( man4 ,& j z ! possibility ( miracles 9 ! =m] doma9 does n de/roy ! regul>ity on :i* ! g5]alizations ( ! physical sci5ces are bas$1 s nei!r does ! fact ( human free w r5d] wor?less or unreliable ! g5]alizations ( ! human sci5ces 7e?ical1 social1 political1 economic1 etc47 ab\t human conduct4 ,7 ! appe>ance ( miracles 9 ! physical doma91 or ! ord9>y play ( free w 9 ! human doma91 entirely caprici\s1 motiveless1 purposeless1 ! results w\ld1 ( c\rse1 be *aotic1 prec>i\s1 unacc\ntable1 un9telligible1 & sci5tific k ( !m w\ld be impossible3 = ! assumption t reality is ! "w ( intellig5t purpose1 & is !re=e a regul>1 ord]ly expression ( law1 9 o!r words1 ! assumption t ! univ]se is intelligible1 is a pr]equisite condition = sci5tific k ab\t ! univ]se4 ,b det]m9i/s seem to assume t ,div9e ,provid5ce & human free w mu/ necess>ily imply t ! :ole univ]se ( physical ph5om5a & human activities w\ld be an un9telligible *aos2 & hav+ erect$ ?is philosophical sc>ecr[ on a gratuit\s assumption !y ?9k x w gradually exorcise all belief 9 ,div9e ,provid5ce & human fre$om f ! 8sci5tific0 m9d6 7e7 ,effici5t causes are ei!r physical or moral4 ,a physical effici5t cause is "o :i* produces its effect by its own prop] p[] & action--:e!r imm$iately or by means ( an in/rum5t4 ,= in/ance1 ! billi>d play] is ! physical cause ( ! motion he imp>ts to ! balls by means ( ! cue4 ,a moral cause is "o :i* produces its effect by ! repres5tation ( some?+ z good or evil to ! m9d ( a free ag5t2 by induc+ ! latt] ?r\gh example1 advice1 p]suasion1 promises1 ?reats1 comm&s1 entreaties1 etc41 to produce ! effect 9 "q4 ,= in/ance1 a ma/] is ! moral cause ( :at 8 s]vant does 9 ob$i5ce to 8 comm&s4 ,! motives set =? by way ( inducem5t to ! latt] are ( c\rse f9al causes ( ! latt]'s action4 ,b ! =m]1 by sett+ !m =?1 is ! moral cause ( ! action3 he is und\bt$ly m ?an a m]e condition2 he contributes positively & effici5tly to ! effect4 ,8 physical causation1 h[ev]1 does n rea* to ! effect itself1 b only to ! effect wr\ght 9 ! m9d ( ! s]vant by 8 comm&4 ,x is causally connect$ ) ! physical action ( ! s]vant by means ( an int]m$iate l9k :i* we may call m5tal or psy*ical causation--actio 8int5tionalis10--! action ( cognition on ! m9d ( a cognitive ag5t4 ,! ag5t employ$ by a moral cause to produce an effect physically may be call$ an in/rum5tal cause 9 a wide & less prop] s5se ( ?is t]m1 ! in/rum5tality be+ moral1 n physical4 ,only free ag5ts c be moral causes2 & z a rule !y are t]m$ moral causes only :5 !y produce ! effect ?r\gh ! physical op]ation ( ano!r free ag5t4 ,:at if !y employ n free ag5ts1 nor yet inanimate in/rum5ts1 b ag5ts end[$ ) s5se cognition & s5se appetite1 to produce effects8 ,if a man set 8 dog at ano!r1 is he ! moral or ! physical cause ( ! injuries inflict$ by ! dog8 ,t he is ! pr9cipal effici5t cause is unque/ionable4 ,b is he ! pr9cipal physical cause & ! dog ! in/rum5t8 ,we ?9k x is m prop] to call ! pr9cipal effici5t cause a moral cause 9 all cases :]e !re int]v5es betwe5 8 physical action & ! effect an int]m$iate l9k ( 8psy*ical0 or 8int5tional0 action1 ev5 ?\gh1 z 9 ! pres5t example1 ?is psy*ical l9k is ( ! s5ti5t1 n ! intellectual1 ord]4 7f7 ,! effici5t cause1 l o!r causes1 may be ei!r p>tial or total1 accord+ z x produces ! effect by co-op]ation ) o!r causes1 or by itself alone4 ,! aim ( ! inductive sci5ces is to discov] = ea* k9d ( natural ev5t or ph5om5on ! 8total cause0 9 ! compreh5sive s5se ( ! :ole gr\p ( positive ag5cies or causes prop]1 & negative antec$5t & concomitant conditions :i* are indisp5sable & necessitat+ pr9ciples ( ! happ5+ ( su* k9d ( ev5t47#dfc7 7g7 ,we c di/+ui% betwe5 ! imm$iate or det]m9+1 ! m or less proximate1 & ! m or less remote1 effici5t causes ( an ev5t4 ,?us1 ! application ( ! fuse to ! *>ge ( dynamite 9 a rock is ! imm$iate or det]m9+ cause ( ! explosion :i* bur/s ! rock2 ! light+ ( ! fuse1 ! plac+ ( ! *>ge1 etc41 ! m proximate causes2 ! mak+ ( ! fuse1 dynamite1 in/rum5ts1 etc41 ! m remote causes4 ,aga9 ! aim ( ! inductive sci5ces is to discov] ! 8total proximate cause0 ( ev5ts17#dfd7 leav+ ! inve/igation ( ultimate causes1 z well z ! analysis ( causality itself1 to philosophy4 7h7 ,f9ally1 we mu/ di/+ui% betwe5 ! individual ag5t itself z cause 7! suppositum or p]son t acts72 ! ag5t's nature & active p[] z causes2 & ! action1 or ex]cise ( ?is p[] z cause4 ,! =m]1 ! individual1 concrete ag5t1 is ! 8pr9cipium quod agit10 & is call$ ! 8causa ut quae04 ,! nature & ! active p[] ( ! ag5t are ea* a 8pr9cipium quo ag5s agit10 ! remote & ! proximate pr9ciple ( action respectively2 & ea* is call$ a 8causa ut qua04 ,! action ( ! ag5t is ! cause ( ! effect 9 ! s5se t ! actual production or fi]i ( any?+ is ! imm$iate cause ( ?is ?+ 9 facto esse4 ,correspond+ to ^! di/9ctions we di/+ui% betwe5 ! cause 9 actu primo remoto1 9 actu primo proximo1 & 9 actu secundo4 ,^! di/9ctions are ( no little importance4 ,by ignor+ !m1 & by los+ sight ( ! intr9sic 7=mal & mat]ial7 causes ( natural ph5om5a1 _m mod]n sci5ti/s & philosoph]s h conf\nd$ cause & effect ) ! process itself ( causation1 & decl>$ t cause & effect are n di/9ct realities1 b only two m5tal aspects ( "o & ! same reality47#dfe7 ,! same may be said ( all ! di/9ctions s f> enum]at$4 ,!y are absolutely ess5tial to ! =mation ( cle> ideas on ! "q ( causality4 ,no t]m 9 famili> use is ( m pr(\nd philosophical significance1 & at ! same "t m ela/ic & ambigu\s 9 its popul> mean+s1 ?an ! t]m cause4 ,?is is ke5ly felt 9 ! ,logic ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 :]e n only ! discov]y1 b ! exact measurem5t1 ( physical causes1 is ! goal ( rese>*4 8,:5 we call "o ?+10 writes ,mr4 ,joseph17#dff7 8! cause ( ano!r1 ! real relation betwe5 !m is n always ! same4444 ,we say t molecul> action is ! cause ( heat1 t ! heat ( ! sun is ! cause ( gr[?1 t />vation is sometimes ! cause ( dea?1 t jeal\sy is a frequ5t cause ( crime4 ,we %\ld 9 ! fir/ case ma9ta9 t cause & effect are reciprocally necess>y2 no heat )\t molecul> motion & no molecul> motion )\t heat4 ,9 ! second ! effect _c exi/ )\t ! cause1 b ! cause may exi/ )\t ! effect1 = ! sun %9es on ! moon b no?+ gr[s !re4 ,9 ! ?ird ! cause _c exi/ )\t ! effect1 = />vation mu/ produce dea?1 b ! effect may exi/ )\t ! cause1 s9ce dea? ne$ n h be5 produc$ by />vation4 ,9 ! f\r? case we c h ! cause )\t ! effect1 & also ! effect )\t ! cause2 = jeal\sy may exi/ )\t produc+ crime1 & crime may occur )\t ! motive ( jeal\sy4 ,x is pla9 !n t we d n always mean ! same ?+ by our words :5 we say t two ?+s are relat$ z cause & effect2 & anyone :o w\ld classify & "n ! v>i\s modes 9 :i* two ?+s may be causally relat$ w\ld d a great s]vice to cle> ?9k+40 ,9 ! popul> acceptation ( ! t]m cause1 ! same k9d ( ev5t c h a plurality ( 7effici5t7 causes4 ,dea?1 = example1 may be br\ght ab\t 9 diff]5t cases by diff]5t diseases or accid5ts4 ,b if we und]/& by ! total effici5t cause ( any giv5 k9d ( effect ! sum-total ( ag5cies & conditions :i* :5 pres5t necessitate ?is k9d ( an effect1 & :i* are collectively & sev]ally indisp5sable = its production1 !n x is obvi\s t a giv5 k9d ( effect c h only "o k9d ( su* total gr\p ( antec$5ts z total cause1 j z any "o individual effect c h only "o individual total cause1 viz4 ! "o :i* actually produc$ x2 a simil> total cause w\ld produce a simil> effect1 b c\ld n produce ! num]ically id5tical individual effect ( ! o!r simil> cause47#dfg7 ,! m$ieval s*ola/ics discuss$ ! "q 9 connexion ) ! problem ( individuation3 8,w\ld ,alex&] ! ,great h be5 ! same individual _h he be5 born ( o!r p>5ts ?an ,philip & ,olympia80 ,! "q is h>dly intelligible4 ,! p]son born ( ^! o!r p>5ts might inde$ h be5 z simil> z y w to ! actual ,alex&] ( hi/ory1 b w\ld n & c\ld n h be5 ! actual ,alex&] ( hi/ory4 ,n[adays ! "q discuss$ 9 ?is connexion is n s mu* :e!r ! same k9d ( natural ph5om5on c be produc$ by diff]5t k9ds ( total cause--= ! answ] to ?is "q dep5ds :olly on ! wid] or ! n>r[] mean+ atta*$ to ! t]m 8total cause107#dfh7--;b r :e!r or h[ f> ! inductive sci5ti/'s ideal ( se>*+ always = ! necessitat+ & indisp5sable cause 7or1 z x is also call$1 ! 8reciprocat+0 or 8comm5surate0 cause7 is a practical ideal4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,effici5t ,,causality2 ,,ph5om5ism ,,& ,,occasionalism4 #ajj4 ,,objective ,,validity ,,( ,,! ,,traditional ,,concept ,,( ,,effici5t ,,causality4--,we h se5 h[ mod]n s5si/s1 ph5om5i/s1 & positivi/s h d\bt$ or d5i$ ! p[] ( ! human m9d to atta9 to a k ( any objective reality correspond+ to ! category ( sub/ance 7 #fa sqq474 ,!y treat 9 a simil> way ! traditional concept ( effici5t causality4 ,& 9 deliv]+ _! op5 or veil$ attacks on ! real validity ( ?is notion !y h made a mislead+ use ( ! prop] & legitimate function ( ! inductive sci5ces4 ,! *ief aim ( ! natural sci5ti/ is to seek out & br+ to light ! :ole gr\p ( necessitat+ & indisp5sable 7ph5om5al7 antec$5ts ( any giv5 k9d ( ev5t1 & to =mulate ! natural law ( _! connexion ) ?is k9d ( ev5t4 ,!re is no p>ticul> objection to 8 call+ ^! antec$5ts ! inv>iable1 or ev5 ! necess>y or necessitat+1 antec$5ts ( ! ev5t2 provid$ he does n claim :at he _c prove--& :at1 z we %all see lat] 7#ajd71 is n true1 viz4--t ! inv>iability or necessity ( ?is connexion betwe5 ph5om5al antec$5ts & consequ5ts is :olly inviolable1 fatal1 absolute 9 "*4 ,he may rightly claim = any su* e/abli%$ connexion ! hypo!tical1 conditional necessity :i* *>act]izes all inductively e/abli%$ laws ( physical nature4 ,!re are su* antec$5ts & consequ5ts 9 ! univ]se2 !re are connexions betwe5 !m :i* are m ?an m]e casual connexions ( "t sequ5ce1 :i* are connexions ( physical law1 inasmu* z !y are connexions bas$ on ! natures ( ag5cies 9 an ord]ly univ]se1 connexions ( ^! ag5cies ) _! natural effects4 ,all ?is is und5iable4 ,moreov]1 s long z ! sci5ti/ conf9es himself to inf]5ces conc]n+ su* connexions betwe5 ph5om5a1 to inf]5ces & g5]alizations bas$ on ! assum$ uni=mity ( nature1 he is work+ 9 8 prop] sph]e4 ,nay1 ev5 if he *ooses to designate ^! gr\ps ( inv>iable ph5om5al antec$5ts by ! title ( 8physical causes0 we "k :at he means2 ?\gh we p]ceive "s dang] ( confusion1 inasmu* z we see him arrogat+ to ! notion ( regul>ity or uni=mity ( connexion i4e4 to ! notion ( physical law1 a t]m1 causality1 :i* traditionally express$ some?+ q di/9ct f ?is1 viz4 ! notion ( positive influ5ce ( "o ?+ on ! be+ or happ5+ ( ano!r4 ,b :5 ph5om5i/ philosoph]s adopt ?is usage we _c feel reassur$ aga9/ ! dang] ( confusion by su* prote/ations z ^? ( ,mill 9 ! foll[+ passage3--7#dfi7 ,i premise1 !n1 t :5 9 ! c\rse ( ?is inquiry ,i speak ( ! cause ( any ph5om5on1 ,i d n mean a cause :i* is n itself a ph5om5on2 ,i make no rese>* into ! ultimate or ontological cause ( any?+4 ,to adopt a di/9ction famili> 9 ! writ+s ( ! ,scot* metaphysicians1 & especially ( ,reid1 ! causes ) :i* ,i conc]n myself are n effici5t1 b physical causes4 ,!y are causes 9 t s5se alone1 9 :i* "o physical fact is said to be ! cause ( ano!r4 ,( ! effici5t causes ( ph5om5a1 or :e!r any su* causes exi/ at all ,i am n call$ ^u to give an op9ion4 ,! notion ( causation is deem$1 by ! s*ools ( metaphysics mo/ 9 vogue at ! pres5t mom5t1 to imply a my/]i\s & mo/ p[]ful tie1 su* z _c1 or at lea/ does n1 exi/ betwe5 any physical fact & t o!r physical fact on :i* x is inv>iably consequ5t1 & :i* is popul>ly t]m$ its cause2 & !nce is d$uc$ ! suppos$ necessity ( asc5d+ high]1 into ! ess5ces & inh]5t con/itution ( ?+s1 to f9d ! true cause1 ! cause :i* is n only foll[$ by1 b actually produces1 ! effect4 ,no su* necessity exi/s = ! purposes ( ! pres5t inquiry1 nor w any su* doctr9e be f\nd 9 ! foll[+ pages4 ,! only notion ( a cause1 :i* ! !ory ( induction requires1 is su* a notion z c be ga9$ by exp]i5ce4 ,! ,law ( ,causation1 :i* is ! ma9 pill> ( inductive sci5ce1 is b ! famili> tru?1 t inv>iability ( succession is f\nd by obs]vation to obta9 betwe5 e fact 9 nature & "s o!r fact :i* has prec$$ x2 indep5d5tly ( all consid]ations respect+ ! ultimate mode ( production ( ph5om5a1 & ( e o!r "q reg>d+ ! nature ( 8,?+s 9 !mselves04 ,?is passage--:i* expresses fairly well ! ph5om5i/ & positivi/ attitude 9 reg>d to ! reality1 or at lea/ ! cognoscibility1 ( effici5t causes--fairly bri/les ) inaccuracies1 misconceptions1 & false ins9uations47#dgj7 ,b we are conc]n$ "h only ) ! d5ial t any notion ( an effici5t cause 8c be ga9$ f exp]i5ce10 & ! d\bt consequ5tly ca/ on ! objective validity ( ?is notion4 ,! ,s5sism :i* reg>ds our highe/ intellectual activities z m]e organic associations ( s5ti5t /ates ( consci\sness1 has = its logical issue ! ,positivism :i* cont5ds t all valid k is conf9$ to ! exi/5ce & "t & space relations ( s5se ph5om5a4 ,9 ?us d5y+ to ! m9d all p[] ( atta9+ to a valid k ( any?+ supras5sible--su* z sub/ance1 p[]1 =ce1 effici5t cause1 etc4--,positivism passes ov] into ,agno/icism4 ,9 refutation ( ?is philosophy1 9 s f> z x d5ies t we h any gr\nds 9 exp]i5ce = believ+ 9 ! real exi/5ce ( effici5t causes1 we may set d[n 9 ! fir/ place ?is univ]sal belief itself ( ! human race t !re are 9 ! univ]se effici5t causes ( ! ev5ts t happ5 9 x4 ,m5 univ]sally believe t !y !mselves z ag5ts contribute by a real & positive influ5ce to ! actual occurr5ce ( _! own ?\ghts1 reason+s1 wi%es1 desires1 s5sations2 t _! m5tal resolves to speak1 walk1 write1 eat1 or p]=m any o!r ext]nal1 bodily works d really1 positively1 & effici5tly produce or cause ^? works2 t ext]nal ph5om5a h a real influ5ce on happ5+s 9 _! own bodies1 t fire burns !m & food n\ri%es !m2 t ext]nal ph5om5a also h a real & positive influ5ce on _! s5se organs1 & ?r\gh ^! on _! m9ds by ! production !re ( consci\s /ates su* z s5sations2 f9ally t ext]nal ph5om5a h a real & positive influ5ce on "o ano!r2 t by action & int]action !y really produce ! *anges t are con/antly tak+ place 9 ! univ]se3 t ! sun does really heat & light ! e>?1 t ! s[+ ( ! se$ 9 spr+time has really a positive influ5ce on ! exi/5ce ( crops 9 ! h>ve/1 t ! tak+ ( poison has und\bt$ly a real influ5ce on ! dea? :i* results f x4 ,& if any man ( ord9>y intellig5ce & pla9 common s5se is told t su* belief is an illusion1 t 9 all su* cases ! connexion betwe5 ! ?+s1 facts or ev5ts :i* he designates z 8cause0 & 8effect10 is a m]e connexion ( inv>iable "t sequ5ce betwe5 antec$5ts & consequ5ts1 t 9 no case is !re evid5ce ( any positive1 productive influ5ce ( ! "o fact ^u ! o!r1 he w ei!r smile incr$ul\sly & decl9e to take 8 objector s]i\sly1 or he w simply ask ! latt] to prove ! univ]sal belief to be an illusion4 ,8 conviction ( ! real & objective validity ( 8 notion ( effici5t cause1 z some?+ :i* positively influ5ces ! happ5+ ( ?+s1 is s pr(\nd & in]adicable t x mu/ necess>ily be gr\nd$ 91 & confirm$ by1 8 con/ant exp]i5ce ( ! real _w 9 :i* he lives & moves4 ,n t he pr(esses to be able to expla9 ! nature ( ?is effici5t influ5ce 9 :i* he believes4 ,ev5 if he 7 a philosoph] he might n be able to satisfy himself or o!rs on ?is po9t ,b be+ a pla9 man ( ord9>y intellig5ce he has s5se en\gh to di/+ui% betwe5 ! exi/5ce ( a fact & its nature1 its explanation1 its quomodo2 & to believe 9 ! real exi/5ce ( a positive effici5t1 productive influ5ce ( cause on effect1 h[ev] ?is influ5ce is to be conceiv$ or expla9$4 ,a second argum5t = ! objective validity ( ! concept ( effici5t cause may be drawn f a consid]ation ( ! ,pr9ciple ( ,causality4 ,! exp]i5ce on :i* ! pla9 man gr\nds 8 belief 9 ! validity ( 8 notion ( cause is n m]e un9t]pret$ s5se exp]i5ce 9 its raw & brute condition1 s to speak2 x is ?is s5se exp]i5ce rationaliz$1 assimilat$ into 8 intellig5ce--spontane\sly & half unconsci\sly1 p]haps--by ! light ( ! self-evid5t ,pr9ciple ( ,causality1 t :atev] happ5s has a cause4 ,:5 ! pla9 man believes t all ! v>i\s ag5cies 9 nature1 l ^? enum]at$ above1 are n m]ely temporal antec$5ts or concomitants ( _! effects1 b are really productive ( ^? effects1 he is really apply+ ! univ]sal & necess>y tru?--t an 8ev5t10 a 8happ5+10 a 8*ange10 a 8comm5cem5t0 ( any new actual mode ( be+ dem&s ! exi/5ce ( ano!r actual be+ z cause--! tru? embodi$ 9 ! ,pr9ciple ( ,causality1 to ?is1 t1 & ! o!r ev5t ( 8 exp]i5ce3 he is locat+ ! 8causes0 ( ^! ev5ts 9 ! v>i\s p]sons & ?+s :i* he reg>ds z ! ag5ts or produc]s ( ^! ev5ts4 ,9 mak+ su* applications he may v possibly err 9 detail4 ,b no actual application ( ! pr9ciple at all is really requir$ = e/abli%+ ! objective validity ( ! concept ( cause4 ,!re are philosoph]s :o--errone\sly1 z we %all see--d5y t ! ,pr9ciple ( ,causality f9ds its application 9 ! doma9 ( creat$ ?+s1 :o hold1 9 o!r words1 t no creat$ be+s c be effici5t causes 7#ajb71 & :o nev]!less recognize1 & q rightly1 t ! concept ( effici5t cause is an objectively valid concept4 ,& !y d s because !y see t s9ce ev5ts1 beg9n+s1 happ5+s1 *anges1 are real1 !re mu/ be really & objectively exi/5t an effici5t cause ( !m--:atev] & :]ev] su* effici5t cause may be3 :e!r x be "o or manifold1 f9ite or inf9ite1 etc4 ,we h already exam9$ ,hume's attempt to d5y ! ontological necessity ( ! ,pr9ciple ( ,causality & to sub/itute !re= a subjectively or psy*ologically necess>y 8feel+ ( expectation0 gr\nd$ on habitual association ( ideas4 ,kant1 on ! o!r h&1 admits ! self-evid5t1 necess>y "* ( ! ,pr9ciple2 b holds t1 s9ce ?is necessity is eng5d]$ by ! m9d's impos+ a subjective =m ( ?\ght on ! data ( s5se consci\sness1 ! pr9ciple is validly applicable only to connexions )9 ! _w ( m5tal appe>ances1 & n at all to ! _w ( real be+4 ,he ?us transf]s ! discussion to ! doma9 ( ,epi/emology1 :]e 9 opposition to 8 !ory ( k ! ,pr9ciple ( ,causality c be %[n to be applicable to all cont+5t reality1 & to be !re=e legitimately employ$ 9 ,natural ,!ology = ! purpose ( e/abli%+ ! real exi/5ce ( an ,uncaus$ ,fir/ ,cause4 #aja4 ,,orig9 ,,( ,,! ,,concept ,,( ,,effici5t ,,cause4--,we h se5 t univ]sal belief 9 ! real exi/5ce ( effici5t causes is gr\nd$ 9 exp]i5ce4 ,! =mation ( ! concept1 & its application or ext5sion to ! _w )9 & ar\nd u1 are gradual47#dga7 ,active p[]1 =ce1 en]gy1 effici5cy1 faculty1 or by :atev] o!r "n we may call x1 is ( c\rse exp]i5c$ only 9 its actual ex]cise1 9 action1 motion1 production ( *ange4 ,our fir/ exp]i5ce ( its ex]cise is f\nd 9 our consci\sness ( our own p]sonal activities1 m5tal & bodily3 9 our ?9k+1 will+ or *oos+1 9 our delib]ate control ( our m5tal processes1 & 9 ! delib]ate ex]cise ( our s5se faculties & bodily organs4 ,9 all ?is we are consci\s ( ex]t+ p[]1 =ce1 en]gy3 we appreh5d ourselves z ag5ts or effici5t causes ( our m5tal processes & bodily movem5ts4 ,we appreh5d ^! happ5+s z due to ! ex]cise ( our own p[] to produce !m4 ,see+ o!r human be+s behave l ourselves1 we inf] by analogy t !y also possess & ex]cise active p[]s l our own1 t !y1 too1 are effici5t causes4 ,f9ally1 obs]v+ t effects l to ^? produc$ by ourselves1 :e!r 9 ourselves or 9 ! mat]ial _w ar\nd u1 are also consequ5t on c]ta9 o!r *anges 9 ext]nal nature1 :e!r organic or inorganic1 we inf] by analogy t ^! corporeal ?+s h also p[]s1 =ces1 en]gies1 :]eby !y produce ^! effects4 ,:ile our s5ses te/ify only to "t & space connexions betwe5 physical happ5+s 9 ext]nal nature1 our intellect appreh5ds action & int]action1 i4e4 causal dep5d5ce ( ev5ts on ! active influ5ce or effici5cy ( physical ?+s z ag5ts or causes47#dgb7 ,?us1 our k ( ! exi/5ce & nature ( ! =ces1 p[]s & en]gies :i* con/itute mat]ial ?+s effici5t causes is po/]ior to1 & d]iv$ by analogy f1 our k ( ! m5tal & bodily p[]s :i* reveal !mselves to u 9 our consci\s vital processes z con/itut+ our own p]sonal effici5t causality4 ,?is conception ( effici5t causality ev5 9 ! inanimate ?+s ( ext]nal nature1 aft] ! analogy ( our own vital p[]s z reveal$ 9 our consci\s activities1 is sometimes disp>ag$ z nave an?ropomorphism4 ,x j dep5ds on ! mann] & degree 9 :i* we press ! analogy4 ,obs]v+ t our e>li] notion ( cause is 8! notion ( p[] comb9$ ) a purpose & an end0 7?us includ+ effici5t & f9al causality71 ,newman rem>ks7#dgc7 t 8,accord+ly1 :]ev] ! _w is "y1 ! movem5ts & *anges ( physical nature h be5 & are spontane\sly ascrib$ by its p to ! pres5ce & w ( hidd5 ag5ts1 :o haunt e "p ( x1 ! woods1 ! m\nta9s & ! /reams1 ! air & ! />s1 = good or = evil--j z *ildr5 aga91 by beat+ ! gr\nd aft] fall+1 imply t :at has bruis$ !m has intellig5ce04 ,?is is an?ropomorphism4 ,s1 too1 w\ld be ! conception ( ! =ces or p[]s ( inanimate nature z p[]s ( sub-consci\s 8p]ception0 & 8appetition0 7,leibniz71 or1 aga91 z rudim5t>y or dim9i%$ 8w-p[]0 7,c\s9747#dgd7 8,physical ph5om5a1 z su*1 are )\t s5se10 z ,newman rightly obs]ves2 & consequ5tly we may n attribute to !m any sort ( consci\s effici5cy1 :e!r p]ceptive or appetitive4 ,b ,newman appe>s to err 9 ! opposite direction :5 he adds t 8exp]i5ce tea*es u no?+ ab\t physical ph5om5a z causes047#dge7 ,! tru? lies betwe5 ^! extremes4 ,tak+ exp]i5ce 9 ! wide s5se 9 :i* x includes rational int]pretation (1 & inf]5ce f1 ! data ( int]nal & ext]nal s5se p]ception1 exp]i5ce c]ta9ly reveals to u ! exi/5ce ( physical ph5om5a z effici5t causes1 or 9 o!r words t !re is real & effici5t causality n only 9 our own p]sons b also 9 ! ext]nal physical univ]se2 & z to ! nature ( ?is causality x also gives u at lea/ "s little reliable in=mation4 ,by pursu+ ?is latt] "q a little we %all be l$ to exam9e c]ta9 difficulties :i* lie at ! root ( ,occasionalism3 ! error ( d5y+ t creatures1 or at lea/ m]ely corporeal creatures1 c be 9 any true s5se effici5t causes4 ,a detail$ inquiry into ! nature ( ! active p[]s1 =ces or en]gies ( ! inorganic univ]se1 i4e4 into ! nature ( corporeal effici5t causality1 belongs to ,cosmology2 j z a simil> inquiry into vital1 s5ti5t & spiritual effici5t causality belongs to ,psy*ology4 ,"h we h only to asc]ta9 :at is common & ess5tial to all effici5t causality z su*1 :at 9 g5]al is involv$ 9 ! ex]cise ( effici5t causality1 9 actio & passio1 & :at are ! ma9 implications reveal$ 9 a /udy ( x4 #ajb4 ,,analysis ,,( ,,effici5t ,,causality1 ,,or ,actio ,,& ,passio3 7a7 ,,! ,,fir/ ,,cause ,,& ,,creat$ ,,causes4--,we h already ref]r$ to ! univ]sal dep5d5ce ( all creat$ causes on ! ,fir/ ,cause2 & we %all h occasion to return to x 9 connexion ) ,occasionalism4 ,god has creat$ all second causes2 ,he has giv5 !m _! p[]s ( action2 ,he cons]ves _! be+ & _! p[]s 9 exi/5ce2 ,he applies ^! p[]s or puts !m 9 act2 ,he concurs ) all _! actions2 ,he is !re=e ! pr9cipal cause ( all _! effects2 & 9 relation to ,him !y are z in/rum5tal causes3 8,deus e/ causa actionis cujuslibet inquantum dat virtutem ag5di1 et inquantum cons]vat eam1 et inquantum applicat actioni1 et inquantum ejus virtute omnis alia virtus agit407#dgf7 ,9 our analysis ( *ange 7#aj7 we saw :y no f9ite1 creat$ ag5t c be ! adequate cause ( ! new actualities or p]fections involv$ 9 *ange1 & h[ we are !re=e oblig$1 by a necessity ( ?\ght1 to inf] ! exi/5ce ( a ,fir/ ,cause1 an ,un*ang+1 ,inf9ite ,s\rce ( ^! new actualities47#dgg7 ,! pr9ciple ^u :i* ! argum5t 0 bas$ is ?is3 t ! actuality ( ! effect is some?+ ov] & above ! reality :i* x _h 9 ! passive pot5tiality ( its creat$ mat]ial cause & 9 ! active p[]s ( its creat$ effici5t cause antec$5tly to its production3 t !re=e ! production ( ?is actuality1 ?is novum esse1 implies ! influ5ce--by way ( co-op]ation or concursus ) ! creat$ effici5t cause--( an ,actual ,be+ 9 :om ! actuality ( all effects is conta9$ 9 an em95tly p]fect way4 ,ev5 ) ! ,div9e concursus a creat$ cause _c itself create1 because ev5 ) ?is concursus its effici5cy atta9s only to ! modify+ or *ang+ ( pre-exi/+ be+3 & 9 creation !re is no pre-exi/+ be+1 no mat]ial cause1 no real passive pot5tiality to be actuat$4 ,b )\t ?is concursus n only c x n create2 x _c ev51 z an effici5t cause1 actuate a real pre-exi/+ pot5tiality4 ,& :y8 ,because its effici5cy _c atta9 to ! production ( new actuality4 ,x det]m9es ! mode ( ?is actuality1 & !re9 precisely lies ! effici5cy ( ! creat$ cause4 ,b ! positive entity or p]fection ( ?is new actuality c be produc$ only by ! ,inf9ite1 ,*angeless1 ,inexhau/ible ,s\rce ( all actuality1 co-op]at+ ) ! creat$ cause7#dgh7 7#ajc74 ,b1 x might be object$1 p]haps creat$ effici5t causes are !mselves ! adequate & absolutely indep5d5t pr9ciples ( ! :ole actuality ( _! effects8 ,!y _c be su*2 & t = ! simple reason t !y are n always 9 act4 ,7 !y su* !y %\ld be always & necess>ily 9 act3 !y %\ld always & necess>ily conta9 9 !mselves1 & t actually & 9 an em95tly p]fect mann]1 all ! p]fections ( all ! effects :i* !y gradually produce 9 ! univ]se4 ,b exp]i5ce %[s u t creat$ causes are n always act+1 t _! active p[]1 _! causality 9 actu primo is n to be id5tifi$ ) _! action1 _! causality 9 actu secundo2 & reason tells u t s9ce ?is is s1 s9ce action is some?+ m ?an active p[]1 s9ce a cause act+ has m actuality ?an ! same cause n act+1 x mu/ h be5 det]m9$ or r$uc$ to action by "s actuality o!r ?an itself4 ,?is surplus ( actuality or p]fection 9 an act+ cause1 z comp>$ ) ! same cause prior to its act+1 is ! ,div9e concursus4 ,9 o!r words1 an active p[] :i* is really di/9ct f its action requires to be mov$ or r$uc$ to its act 7:i* is actio7 no less ?an a passive pot5tiality requir$ to be mov$ to its act 7:i* is passio71 by "s really di/9ct actual be+4 ,a creat$ effici5t cause1 !re=e1 by pass+ f ! /ate ( re/1 or m]e p[] to act1 into ! /ate ( action1 is p]fect$ by hav+ its active p[] actualiz$1 i4e4 by ! ,div9e concursus3 9 ?is s5se action is a p]fection ( ! ag5t4 ,b x is n an entitative p]fection ( ! latt]'s ess5ce2 x is n a p]man5t or /able elevation or p]fection ( ! latt]'s p[]s2 x is n ! completion ( any passive pot5tiality ( ! latt]2 nor !re=e is x prop]ly speak+ a *ange ( ! ag5t z su*2 x is1 z we h said already1 r an index ( ! latt]'s p]fection 9 ! scale ( real be+47#dgi7 ,action really p]fects ! pati5s2 & only :5 ?is is id5tical 9 its concrete individuality ) ! ag5s is ! latt] p]man5tly p]fect$ by ! action4 ,! action ( creat$ causes1 !re=e1 dep5ds on ! action ( ! ,fir/ ,cause4 ,we d]ive our notion ( action f ! =m] & apply x analogically to ! latt]4 ,if we comp>e !m we %all f9d t1 not)/&+ _m diff]5ces1 ! notion ( action 9 g5]al involves a 8simple0 or 8unmix$0 p]fection :i* c1 )\t an?ropomorphism1 be appli$ analogically to ! ,div9e ,action4 ,! ,div9e ,action is id5tical ) ! ,div9e ,p[] & ! ,div9e ,ess5ce4 ,9 creatures ess5ce1 p[] & action are really di/9ct4 ,! ,div9e ,action1 :5 creative1 has n = its t]m a *ange 9 ! /rict s5se 7#aj1 #aa71 = x produces be+ ex nihilo1 :]eas ! action ( creatures _c h = t]m ! production ( new be+ ex nihilo1 b only ! *ange ( pre-exi/+ be+4 ,! ,div9e ,action1 :e!r 9 creat+ or cons]v+ or concurr+ ) creatures1 implies 9 ,god no real transition f p[] to act2 :]eas ! action ( creatures does imply su* transition 9 !m4 ,su* are ! diff]5ces2 b ) !m !re is ?is po9t ( agreem5t3 ! ,div9e ,action implies 9 ,god an effici5cy :i* has = its t]m ! orig9 ( new be+ dep5d5tly on ?is effici5cy47#dhj7 ,s1 too1 does ! action ( creatures4 ,positive effici5t influ5ce on ! "o side1 & ! orig91 production1 or 8fi]i0 ( new actual be+ on ! o!r1 ) a relation ( real dep5d5ce on ?is effici5cy3 su* is ! ess5tial note ( all effici5t causality1 :e!r ( ,god or ( creatures47#dha7 #ajc4 7b7 ,,actio ,,imman5s ,,& ,,actio ,,transi5s4--,let u comp>e 9 ! next place ! p]fectly imman5t spiritual causality ( ?\ght1 ! less p]fectly imman5t organic causality ( liv+ ?+s1 & ! transitive physical causality ( ! ag5cies ( inorganic nature4 ,! t]m ( an imman5t action rema9s ei!r )9 ! v faculty :i* elicits x1 affect+ ?is faculty z a habit3 ?us acts ( ?\ght t]m9ate 9 ! intellectual habits call$ sci5ces1 acts ( free *oice 9 ! habits ( w call$ virtues or vices47#dhb7 ,or x rema9s at lea/ )9 ! ag5t3 z :5 9 ! vital process ( nutrition ! v>i\s p>ts & memb]s ( ! liv+ organism s int]act z procure ! gr[? & developm5t ( ! liv+ individual :i* is ! cause ( ^! functions47#dhc7 ,9 ^? cases ! ag5t itself is ! pati5s1 :]eas e ag5cy 9 ! inorganic univ]se acts n ^u itself1 b only on "s o!r ?+1 transitively4 ,b imman5t action1 no less ?an transitive action1 is productive ( real *ange--n1 ( c\rse1 9 ! physical s5se 9 :i* ?is t]m is id5tifi$ ) 8motion0 & und]/ood ( corporeal *ange1 b 9 ! metaphysical s5se ( an actuation ( "s passive pot5tiality 7#aj1 #aa747dhd7 ,:at1 !n1 d we f9d common to ! imman5t & ! transitive causality ( creat$ causes8 ,an active p[] or influ5ce on ! side ( ! ag5t1 an actuation ( ?is active p[]1 ei!r by ! action ( o!r causes on ?is ag5t1 or by ! fulfilm5t ( all conditions requisite = ! action ( ! ag5t1 & 9 all cases by ! concursus ( ! ,fir/ ,cause2 &1 on ! side ( ! effect1 ! production ( "s new actuality1 ! actuation ( "s passive pot5tiality1 dep5d5tly on ! cause n[ 9 action4 ,?us we see t 9 all cases action1 or ! ex]cise ( effici5t causality1 implies t some?+ :i* 0 n actual becomes actual1 t some?+ :i* 0 n1 n[ is2 & t ?is becom+1 ?is actuation1 ?is production1 is really & ess5tially dep5d5t on ! influ5ce1 ! effici5cy1 ( "s actual be+ or be+s1 :i* we !re=e call effici5t causes4 #ajd4 ,,errone\s ,,!ories ,,( ,,effici5t ,,causality4 ,,imag9ation ,,& ,,?\ght4--,are we c]ta9 ( any?+ m ab\t ! nature ( ?is connect+ l9k betwe5 effici5t cause & effect1 :i* we call action8 ,speculations & !ories !re are inde$ 9 abundance4 ,"s ( ^! c be %[n to be false2 & ?us our k ( ! real nature ( action may be at lea/ negatively if n positively p]fect$4 ,our concept ( action is d]iv$1 l all our concepts1 f exp]i5ce2 & al?\gh we are consci\s ( spiritual action 9 ! ex]cise ( intellect & w1 yet x is insep>ably alli$ ) s5ti5t action & ?is aga9 ) organic & corporeal action4 ,nor c we conceive or describe spiritual action )\t ! aid ( imag9ation images1 or 9 language o!r ?an t borr[$ f ! doma9 ( corporeal ?+s1 :i* are ! prop] object ( ! human intellect47#dhe7 ,n[ 9 all ?is !re is a dang]3 ! dang] ( mi/ak+ imag9ation images = ?\ghts1 & ( giv+ a lit]al s5se to language 9 contexts :]e ?is language mu/ be rightly und]/ood to apply only analogically4 ,9 analys+ ! nature ( effici5t causality we might be tempt$ to ?9k t we und]/ood x by imag9+ "s sort ( a fl[ or transf]5ce ( "s sort ( actual reality f ag5s to pati5s4 ,x is q true t 9 describ+ action1 ! actual connect+ l9k betwe5 ag5s & pati5s1 we h to use language sugge/ive ( "s su* imag9ation image4 ,we h no option 9 ! matt]1 = all human language is bas$ ^u s5se consci\sness ( physical ph5om5a4 ,:5 we describe effici5cy z an 8influ5ce0 ( cause on effect1 or ! effect z 8dep5d5t0 on ! cause1 ! =m] t]m sugge/s a 8fl[+10 j z ! latt] sugge/s a 8hang+04 ,s1 too1 :5 we speak ( ! effect z 8aris+10 8orig9at+10 8spr++10 or 8emanat+10 f ! cause47#dhf7 ,b we h got to ask ourselves :at su* language means1 i4e41 :at concepts x expresses1 & n :at imag9ation images accompany ! use ( x4 ,n[ :5 we reflect t ! s5ses te/ify only to "t & space sequ5ces & collocations ( ! ph5om5a :i* we reg>d z causally connect$1 & :5 we feel conv9c$ t !re is some?+ m ?an ?is 9 ! causal connexion1--:i* some?+ m we describe 9 ! t]ms illu/rat$ above1--we mu/ inquire :e!r we h any rational gr\nd = ?9k+ t ?is some?+ m is really any?+ 9 ! nature ( a spatial transf]5ce ( "s actual reality f ag5s to pati5s4 ,!re are inde$ _m philosoph]s & sci5ti/s :o seem to believe t !re is su* a local transf]5ce ( "s actuality f cause to effect1 t effici5t causality is expla9$ by x1 & _c be intelligibly expla9$ o!rwise4 ,z a matt] ( fact !re is no rational gr\nd = believ+ 9 any su* transf]5ce1 & ev5 7 !re su* transf]5ce1 s f> f its be+ ! only intelligible explanation ( effici5t causality1 x w\ld leave ! :ole problem entirely unexpla9$--& n m]ely ! problem ( spiritual1 imman5t causality1 to :i* x is manife/ly inapplicable1 b ev5 ! problem ( corporeal1 transitive causality47#dhg7 ,we h already ref]r$ at "s l5g? 7#i-aa7 to ! philosophy :i* has endeav\r$ to r$uce all *ange1 or at lea/ all corporeal *ange1 to me*anical *ange2 all qualities1 p[]s1 =ces1 en]gies ( ! univ]se1 to ultimate p>ticles or atoms ( matt] 9 motion2 & all effici5t causality to a fl[ or transf]5ce ( spatial motion f p>ticle to p>ticle or f body to body4 ,a full analysis ( all su* !ories belongs to ,cosmology4 ,b we may recall a few ( ! m obvi\s consid]ations already urg$ aga9/ !m4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! attempt to expla9 all qualities 9 ! mat]ial univ]se--all ! p[]s1 =ces1 en]gies1 ( matt]--by ma9ta9+ t objectively & extram5tally !y are all purely quantitative realities1 all spatial motions ( matt]--does n expla9 ! qualitative factors & di/9ctions 9 ! _w ( our s5se exp]i5ce at all1 b simply transf]s ! problem ( expla9+ !m f ! philosophy ( matt] to ! philosophy ( m9d1 by mak+ !m all subjective aft] ! mann] ( ,kant's analysis ( exp]i5ce 7#aa74 ,9 ! second place1 :5 we endeav\r to conceive1 to appreh5d intellectually1 h[ motion1 or inde$ any o!r physical or real entity1 c\ld actually pass or be transf]r$ f ag5s to pati5s1 :e!r ^! be spatially 9 contact or n1 we f9d su* a supposition positively un9telligible4 ,motion is n a sub/ance2 & if x is an accid5t x _c migrate f subject to subject4 ,! idea t corporeal effici5t causality--ev5 me*anical causality--c be expla9$ by su* a transf]5ce ( actual accid5tal modes ( be+ f ag5s to pati5s is bas$ on a v crude & errone\s conception ( :at an accid5tal mode ( be+ really is 7#fe74 ,! m we reflect on ! nature ( real *ange 9 ! univ]se1 & ( ! effici5t causality :]eby x is realiz$1 ! m conv9c$ we mu/ become t !re c be no satisfactory explanation ( ^! facts :i* does n recognize & take acc\nt ( ?is great fundam5tal fact3 t cont+5t real be+ is n all actual1 t x is p>tly pot5tial & p>tly actual2 t !re=e our concepts ( 8passive pot5tiality0 & 8active p[]0 are n m]e subjective m5tal motions1 ) at be/ a m]e regulative or sy/ematiz+ function 7aft] ! mann] ( ,kant's philosophy71 b t !y are really & objectively valid concepts--concepts :i* f ! "t ( ,ari/otle h giv5 philosoph]s ! only insight into ! nature ( effici5t causality :i* is at any rate satisfactory & intelligible z f> z x goes4 ,( ?is great fact ! advocates ( ! me*anical !ory ( effici5t causality h1 9 ! ?ird place1 fail$ to take acc\nt4 ,& x is p>tly because ) ! revival ( atomism at ! dawn ( mod]n philosophy ?is traditional ,ari/otelian conception ( cont+5t be+ z pot5tial & actual 0 lo/ sight ( 7#fd71 t su* a crude & really un9telligible acc\nt ( effici5t causality1 z a 8fl[ ( motion10 has be5 able to f9d su* cont9u$ & widespread acceptance4 ,ano!r reason ( ! preval5ce ( ?is t5d5cy to 8expla90 all physical effici5t causality z a propagation ( spatial motions ( matt] is to be f\nd 9 ! s5si/ view ( ! human m9d :i* conf\nds intellectual ?\ght ) m5tal imag]y1 :i* c\nt5ances only picturable factors 9 its 8explanations10 & d5\nces z 8metaphysical10 8occult10 & 8unv]ifiable0 all explanatory pr9ciples su* z =ces1 p[]s1 pot5tialities1 etc41 :i* are n directly picturable 9 ! imag9ation47#dhh7 ,& x is a curi\s fact t x is su* philosoph]s !mselves :o are really guilty ( ! *>ge :i* !y lay at ! door ( ! traditional metaphysics3 ! *>ge ( (f]+ explanations--( effici5t causality1 = in/ance--:i* are really no explanations4 ,= :ile !y put =w>d _! !ory ( ! 8fl[ ( motion0 z a real explanation ( ! quomodo ( effici5t causality--& ! ultimate & only explanation ( x )9 rea* ( ! human m9d1 if we are to accept _! view ( ! matt]--! expon5t ( ! traditional metaphysics m mode/ly conf9es himself to sett+ =? ! inevitable implications ( ! fact ( effici5t causality1 &1 )\t purport+ to (f] any positive explanation ( ! real nature ( action or effici5t influ5ce1 he is cont5t to supplem5t 8 analysis negatively by po9t+ out ! un9telligible & illusory "* ( _! pr(f]$ 8explanations04 ,9 ! exact me?ods ( ! physical sci5ces1 _! quantitative evaluation ( all corporeal =ces :e!r me*anical1 physical1 or *emical1 9 t]ms ( me*anical "w1 :i* is measur$ by ! motion ( matt] ?r\gh space1 & 9 ! great physical g5]alization kn[n z ! law ( ! equival5ce ( en]gies1 or ( ! equality ( action & reaction1--we c detect yet fur!r app>5t reasons = ! conception ( effici5t causality z a m]e transf]5ce or int]*ange ( actual physical & measurable entities among bodies4 ,x is an e/abli%$ fact n only t all corporeal ag5ts gradually lose _! en]gy or p[] ( action by actually ex]cis+ ?is p[]1 b t ?is loss ( en]gy is 9 direct proportion to ! am\nt ( en]gy ga9$ by ! recipi5ts ( _! action2 & ?is fact w\ld naturally sugge/ ! m5tal picture ( a transf]5ce ( "s actual measurable entity f cause to effect4 ,b x does n necess>ily imply su* transf]5ce--ev5 if ! latt] 7 intelligible1 :i*1 z we h se51 x is n4 ,! fact is q intelligibly expla9$ by ! natural supposition t 9 proportion z ! ag5s exhau/s its active p[] by ex]cise ! pati5s ga9s 9 "s =m ( actuality4 ,simil>ly1 ! fact t all =ms ( corporeal en]gy c be measur$ 9 t]ms ( me*anical en]gy does n at all imply t !y all really are me*anical en]gy1 b only t natural ag5ts c by ! use ( "o =m ( en]gy produce ano!r =m 9 equival5t quantity4 ,& f9ally1 ! law ( ! cons]vation ( corporeal en]gy 9 ! univ]se is expla9$ by ! law ( ! equality ( action & reaction1 & )\t rec\rse to ! un9telligible supposition t ?is sum-total ( en]gy is "o un*ang+ & un*angeable actuality4 ,!re is j "o o!r consid]ation :i* at fir/ sight appe>s to fav\r ! 8transf]5ce0 !ory ( causality1 b :i* on analysis %[s h[ illusory ! pr(f]$ explanation is1 & h[ un9telligible ! simple/ ph5om5on ( *ange mu/ be to ^? :o fail to grasp ! pr(\nd significance ( ! pr9ciple t all real be+ :i* is subject to *ange mu/ ( necessity be p>tly pot5tial & p>tly actual4 ,we allude to ! g5]al assumption ( physical sci5ti/s t corporeal action ( :atsoev] k9d takes place only on contact1 :e!r m$iate or imm$iate1 betwe5 ! bodies 9 "q47#dhi7 ,n[ x is well to be> 9 m9d t ?is is n a self-evid5t tru? or pr9ciple1 b only an hypo!sis1 a v legitimate hypo!sis & "o :i* works admirably1 b /ill only an hypo!sis4 ,x implies ! assumption t "s sort ( sub/ance--call$ ! univ]sal e!r--actually exi/s & fills all space1 s]v+ z a m$ium = ! action ( gravitation1 light1 radiant heat1 electricity & magnetism1 betwe5 ! e>? & ! o!r planets1 ! sun & ! />s4 ,?is :ole supposition is ! only ?9kable alt]native to actio 9 di/ans4 ,if ^? bodies really act on "o ano!r--& ! fact t !y d is und5iable1--& if !re 7 no su* m$ium betwe5 !m1 !n ! causal influ5ce ( "o body %\ld be able to produce an effect 9 ano!r body spatially di/ant f1 & n physically connect$ by any mat]ial m$ium )1 ! =m]4 ,h5ce two que/ions3 ,is ?is alt]native1 actio 9 di/ans1 imag9able8 i4e4 c we =m any positive imag9ation image ( h[ ?is w\ld take place8 ,& secondly3 ,is x ?9kable1 conceivable1 intr9sically possible8 ,we ne$ n hesitate to answ] ! =m] "q 9 ! negative4 ,b z to ! latt] "q all we c say is t we h nev] met any cog5t pro( ( ! intr9sic impossibility ( actio 9 di/ans4 ,! effici5t action ( a f9ite cause implies t x has active p[] & is cons]v$ 9 exi/5ce ) ?is p[] by ! ,creator or ,fir/ ,cause1 t ?is p[] is r$uc$ to act by ! ,div9e concursus1 & t dep5d5tly on ?is cause s act+ "s *ange takes place1 "s pot5tiality is actualiz$ 9 "s o!r f9ite be+4 ,no?+ m ?an ?is is involv$ 9 ! g5]al concept ( effici5t causality4 ,( c\rse real influ5ce on ! "o side1 & real dep5d5ce on ! o!r1 imply "s real connexion ( cause ) effect4 ,b is spatial connexion a necess>y condition ( real connexion8 ,is a physical1 ph5om5al1 imag9able1 efflux ( "s entity out ( ! cause into ! effect1 ei!r imm$iately or ?r\gh "s m$ium z a *annel1 a necess>y condition = real influ5ce8 ,!re is no?+ ( ! k9d 9 spiritual causality2 & to dem& any?+ ( ! k9d = causality 9 g5]al w\ld be to make imag9ation1 n ?\ght1 ! te/ & measure ( ! real4 ,b p]haps spatial connexion is ess5tial to ! real connexion involv$ 9 ?is p>ticul> k9d ( causality1 corporeal causality8 ,p]haps4 ,b x has nev] be5 prov$4 ,too little is kn[n ab\t ! reality ( space1 ab\t ! ultimate nature ( mat]ial ph5om5a & _! relation to our m9ds1 to ju/ify any?+ l dogmatism on su* an ultimate "q4 ,x may well be t if we _h a deep] insight into ^! ?+s we c\ld pron\nce actio 9 di/ans to be absolutely incompatible ) ! ess5ces ( ! ?+s :i* d z a matt] ( fact con/itute ! actual corporeal univ]se4 ,b 9 ! abs5ce ( su* insight we _c pron\nce actio 9 di/ans to be intr9sically impossible4 ,physical sci5ti/s assume t z a matt] ( fact bodies d n act 9 di/ans4 ,grant$ ! assumption to be correct1 x /ill rema9s an op5 "q :e!r by a miracle !y c\ld act 9 di/ans1 i4e4 :e!r or n su* action w\ld be incompatible ) _! nature z f9ite corporeal causes4 ,ow+ to a v natural t5d5cy to re/ 9 imag9ation images we are incl9$ n only to pron\nce z impossible any process ! mode ( :i* is n positively imag9able1 b also to ?9k t we rightly und]/& a process once we h provid$ ourselves ) an imag9ation image ( x--:5 z a matt] ( fact ?is image may cov] an entirely gr\ndless conception or !ory ( ! process4 ,h5ce ! fairly preval5t idea t :ile actio 9 di/ans is impossible1 ! int]action ( bodies on contact is p]fectly intelligible & pres5ts no difficulties4 ,:5 a billi>d ball 9 motion /rikes ano!r at re/ x communicates "s or all ( its motion to ! o!r1 & t is all3 no?+ simpl]6 ,& !n all ! physical1 *emical1 & sub/antial *anges 9 ! mat]ial univ]se are r$ucible to ?is common d5om9ator6 ,! atomic philosophy1 ) its two mode/ po/ulates ( matt] & motion1 is a delightfully simple philosophy2 b un=tunately = its philosophical pre/ige x does n expla9 causality or *ange4 ,nor c ^! facts be expla9$ by any philosophy :i* ignores ! mo/ elem5t>y implication ( all real *ange3 ! implication t *ang+ reality involves real passive pot5tialities & real active p[]s or =ces 9 ! ph5om5a :i* con/itute ! *ang+ reality ( ! univ]se4 #aje4 ,,! ,,subject ,,( ,,effici5t ,,causality4 ,,occasionalism4--,we h e/abli%$ ! objective validity ( ! concept ( effici5t causality & analys$ its implications4 ,!re h be5 philosoph]s :o1 :ile admitt+ ! objective validity ( ! concept1 h ma9ta9$ t no creature1 or at lea/ no corporeal creature1 c be an effici5t cause4 ,effici5t influ5ce is1 9 _! view1 incompatible ) ! nature ( a corporeal sub/ance3 only spiritual sub/ances c be effici5t causes3 corporeal ?+s1 conditions1 & happ5+s1 are all only ! occasions on :i* spiritual sub/ances act effici5tly 9 & ?r\gh all creat$ nature4 ,h5ce ! "n ( ! !ory3 ,occasionalism4 ,!re are two =ms ( x3 ! mild]1 :i* admits t creat$ spirits or m9ds are effici5t causes2 & ! m extreme view1 accord+ to :i* no creature c be an effici5t cause1 inasmu* z effici5t causality is ess5tially a ,div9e attribute1 a pr]ogative ( ! ,div9ity4 ,?is error 0 n unkn[n 9 ! ,middle ,ages17#dij7 b x 0 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury t c]ta9 disciples ( ,desc>tes1--,geul9cx 7#afbe-affi7 & ,malebran*e 7#afch-agae71--;expressly inf]r$ x f ! ,c>tesian anti!sis ( matt] & _s & ! ,c>tesian doctr9e t matt] is ess5tially in]t1 or inactive4 ,accord+ to ! gratuit\s & unprov5 ass]tion laid d[n by ,geul9cx z a pr9ciple3 ,quod nescis quomodo fiat1 id non facis1--we d n cause our own s5sations or reason+ processes1 nor our own bodily movem5ts1 inasmu* z we d n "k h[ ^! take place2 nor c bodies cause !m1 any m ?an our own creat$ spirits1 inasmu* z bodies are ess5tially inactive4 ,accord+ to ,malebran*e ! m9d c p]ceive no necess>y nexus betwe5 effects & any cause o!r ?an ! ,div9e ,w27#dia7 moreov] reflection conv9ces u t effici5t causality is some?+ ess5tially ,div9e & incommunicable to creatures27#dib7 & f9ally nei!r bodies c be causes1 = !y are ess5tially in]t1 nor our m9ds & wills1 = we d n "k h[ a volition c\ld move any organ or memb] ( our bodies47#dic7 ,yet ,malebran*e1 at ! co/ ( inconsi/5cy ) 8 own pr9ciples1 safegu>ds free w 9 man by all[+ an exclusively imman5t effici5cy to spiritual causes47#did7 ,su* is ! tea*+ ( ,occasionalism4 ,our criticism ( x w be brief47#die7 7#a7 ,aga9/ ! doctr9e t creatures g5]ally are n1 & _c be1 effici5t causes1 we direct ! fir/ argum5t already outl9$ 7#ajj7 aga9/ ,ph5om5ism & ,positivism1--! argum5t f ! univ]sal belief ( mank9d1 bas$ on ! te/imony ( consci\sness z rationally int]pret$ by human intellig5ce4 ,consci\sness te/ifies n m]ely t processes ( ?\ght1 imag9ation1 s5sation1 volition1 etc41 take place )9 our m9ds2 n m]ely t our bodily movem5ts1 su* z speak+1 walk+1 writ+1 occur2 b t we are ! causes ( !m47#dif7 ,x is idle to say t we d n effici5tly move our limbs because we may n be able to und]/& or expla9 fully 8h[ an unext5d$ volition c move a mat]ial limb047#dig7 ,consci\sness te/ifies to ! fact t ! volition does move ! limb2 & t is en\gh47#dih7 ,! fact is "o ?+1 ! quomodo ( ! fact is q ano!r ?+4 ,nor is !re any gr\nd :atev] = ! ass]tion t a cause1 9 ord] to produce an effect1 mu/ und]/& h[ ! ex]cise ( its own effici5cy br+s t effect ab\t4 ,moreov]1 ,malebran*e's concession ( at lea/ imman5t activity to ! w is at all ev5ts an admission t !re is 9 ! nature ( ! creature z su* no?+ incompatible ) its be+ an effici5t cause4 7#b7 ,al?\gh ,malebran*e bases 8 philosophy ma9ly on d$uctive1 a priori reason+s f a consid]ation ( ! ,div9e attributes1 8 sy/em is really d]ogatory to ! p]fection ( ! ,fir/ ,cause1 & especially to ! ,div9e ,wisdom4 ,to say1 = in/ance1 t ,god creat$ an organ s well adapt$ to dis*>ge ! function ( see+ z ! human eye1 & !n to d5y t ! latt] dis*>ges ?is or any function1 is tantam\nt to accus+ ,god ( folly4 ,!re is no reason 9 ?is sy/em :y any creat$ ?+ or condition ( ?+s w\ld be ev5 ! appropriate occasion ( ! ,fir/ ,cause produc+ any def9ite effect4 ,ev]y?+ w\ld be an equally appropriate occasion1 or r no?+ w\ld be 9 any intelligible s5se an appropriate occasion1 = any ex]cise ( ! ,div9e causality4 ,! admirable ord] ( ! univ]se--) its unity 9 v>iety1 its adaptation ( means to ends1 its gradation ( creat$ p]fections--is an intelligible manife/ation ( ! ,div9e p]fections on ! assumption t creatures effici5tly co-op]ate ) ! ,fir/ ,cause 9 realiz+ & ma9ta9+ ?is ord]4 ,b if !y 7 all in]t1 inop]ative1 useless = ?is purpose1 :at c\ld be ! raison d'tre ( _! div]sifi$ end[m5ts & p]fections8 ,s f> f manife/+ ! wisdom1 p[] & goodness ( ,god !y w\ld evid5ce an aimless & s5seless prodigality4 7#c7 ,occasionalism imp]ils ! di/9ction betwe5 creatures & a p]sonal ,god4 ,al?\gh ,malebran*e1 f]v5t ca?olic t he 01 prote/$ aga9/ ! pan!ism ( 8le misrable ,sp9oza10 8 own sy/em conta9s ! undevelop$ g]m ( ?is p]nici\s error4 ,=1 if creatures are n effici5t causes n only are _! v>iety & multiplicity mean+less1 z contribut+ no?+ t[>ds ! ord] ( ! univ]se1 b _! v exi/5ce z di/9ct realities seems to h no raison d'tre4 ,malebran*e emphasizes ! tru? t ,god does no?+ useless3 ,dieu ne fait ri5 d'inutile4 ,v well4 ,if1 !n1 a be+ does no?+1 :at purpose is s]v$ by its exi/5ce8 ,( :at use is x8 ,:at is ! measure ( a creature's reality1 if n its action & its p[] ( action8 ,s intimately 9 fact is ?is notion ( causality b\nd up ) ! notion ( ! v reality ( ?+s t ! concept ( an absolutely in]t1 inactive reality is sc>cely intelligible4 ,x is almo/ an axiom 9 s*ola/ic philosophy t e nature has its correlative activity1 e be+ its op]ation3 ,omne ens e/ propt] suam op]ationem2 ,omnis natura ord9atur ad propriam op]ationem4 ,h5ce if :at we call creatures _h really no prop] activity di/9ct f t ( ! ,fir/ ,cause1 on :at gr\nds c\ld we suppose !m to h a real & prop] exi/5ce ( _! own di/9ct f ! reality ( ! ,inf9ite ,be+8 ,or :o c\ld "q ! lawfulness ( ! inf]5ce t !y are n really creatures1 b only s _m phases1 aspects1 manife/ations ( ! "o & sole exi/+ reality8 ,:i* is ,pan!ism4 7#d7 ,occasionalism leads to ,subjective ,idealism by de/roy+ all gr\nd = ! objective validity ( human sci5ce4 ,h[ d we "k ! real natures ( ?+s8 ,by reason+ f _! activities 9 virtue ( ! pr9ciple1 ,op]>i sequitur esse47#dii7 ,b if ?+s h no activities1 no op]ations1 su* reason+ is illusory4 ,h[1 = in/ance1 d we ju/ify by rational demon/ration1 9 opposition to subjectivism1 ! common-s5se int]pretation ( ! data ( s5se consci\sness z reveal+ to u ! real & extram5tal exi/5ce ( a mat]ial univ]se8 ,by argu+1 9 virtue ( ! pr9ciple ( causality1 f our consci\sness ( our own passivity 9 ext]nal s5se p]ception1 to ! real exi/5ce ( bodies outside our m9ds1 z excitants ( our cognitive activity & p>tial causes ( ^! consci\s1 p]ceptive processes4 ,b if occasionalism 7 true su* inf]5ce w\ld be illusory1 & we %\ld inf]1 ) ,b]keley1 t only ,god & m9ds exi/1 b n any mat]ial univ]se4 ,malebran*e admits ! possible validity ( ?is inf]5ce to immat]ialism f 8 pr9ciples1 & gr\nds 8 own belief 9 ! exi/5ce ( an ext]nal mat]ial univ]se solely on fai? 9 ,div9e ,revelation47#ejj7 ,x only rema9s to answ] c]ta9 difficulties urg$ by occasionali/s aga9/ ! possibility ( attribut+ real effici5cy to creatures4 7#a7 ,!y argue t effici5t causality is some?+ ess5tially ,div9e1 & !re=e _c be communicat$ to creatures4 ,we reply t :ile ! absolutely indep5d5t causality ( ! ,fir/ ,cause is ess5tially ,div9e1 ano!r k9d or ord] ( causality1 dep5d5t on ! =m]1 b none ! less real1 c be & is communicat$ to creatures4 ,& j z ! fact t creatures h real be+1 real exi/5ce1 di/9ct f1 b dep5d5t on1 ! exi/5ce ( ! ,inf9ite ,be+1 does n d]ogate f ! supremacy ( ! latt]1 s ! fact t creatures h real effici5t causality1 di/9ct f1 b dep5d5t on1 ! causality ( ! ,fir/ ,cause1 does n d]ogate f ! latt]'s supremacy4 7#b7 ,!y urge t effici5t causality is creative1 & !re=e inf9ite & incommunicable4 ,we reply t !re is a pla9 di/9ction betwe5 creative activity & ! effici5t activity we claim = creatures4 ,creation is ! production ( new be+ f no?+ness4 ,god alone1 ! ,inf9ite ,be+1 c create2 &1 fur!rmore1 accord+ to ! common view ( ,!i/ic philosoph]s a creature _c ev5 be an in/rum5t ( ! ,fir/ ,cause 9 ?is production ( new be+ f no?+ness4 ,& ! ma9 reason = ?is appe>s to be t ! effici5cy ( ! creature1 act+1 ( c\rse1 ) ! ,div9e concursus1 necess>ily presupposes "s pre-exi/+ be+ z mat]ial on :i* to op]ate1 & is conf9$ to ! *ange or det]m9ation ( new =ms or modes ( ?is pre-exi/+ reality4 ,su* effici5cy1 subord9ate to ! ,div9e concursus & limit$ to su* an ord] ( effects1 is pla9ly di/9ct f creative activity4 7#c7 ,b ! creature1 act+ ) ! ,div9e concursus1 ei!r contributes some?+ real & positive to ! effect or contributes no?+4 ,! =m] alt]native is inadmissible1 = ,god is ! cause ( ev]y?+ real & positive3 omne novum ens e/ a ,deo4 ,& 9 ! latt] alt]native1 :i* is ! true "o1 ! concursus is sup]flu\s2 ,god does all2 & creatures are n really effici5t causes4 ,we reply t ! =m] alt]native1 n ! latt]1 is ! true "o4 ,b ! =m] alt]native does n imply t ! creature produces any new reality indep5d5tly ( ! ,fir/ ,cause2 nor is x incompatible ) ! tru? t ,god is ! au?or & cause ( all positive reality3 omne novum ens e/ a ,deo4 ,no d\bt1 7 we to conceive ! co-op]ation ( ,god & ! creature aft] ! mann] ( ! co-op]ation ( two p>tial causes ( ! same ord]1 produc+ by _! jo9t effici5cy "s "o total effect--l ! co-op]ation ( two horses draw+ a c>t1--x w\ld foll[ t ! creature's %>e ( ! jo9t effect w\ld be indep5d5t ( ! ,div9e concursus & attributable to ! creature alone1 t ! creature w\ld produce "s reality indep5d5tly ( ! ,fir/ ,cause4 ,b t is n ! way 9 :i* ! ,fir/ ,cause concurs ) creat$ causes4 ,!y are n p>tial causes ( ! same ord]4 ,ea* is a total cause 9 its own ord]4 ,!y s co-op]ate t ,god1 besides hav+ creat$ & n[ cons]v+ ! second cause1 & mov+ ! latt]'s p[] to act1 produces ,himself ! :ole effect directly & imm$iately by ! effici5cy ( ,8 concursus2 :ile at ! same "t ! second cause1 ?us r$uc$ to act1 & act+ ) ! concursus1 also directly & imm$iately produces ! :ole effect4 ,!re is "o effect1 "o *ange 9 facto esse1 "o *ange 9 fi]i1 & !re=e "o action z consid]$ 9 ! subject *ang$1 s9ce ! action takes place 9 ?is latt]3 actio fit 9 passo4 ,?is *ange1 ?is action consid]$ ?us passively1 or 89 passo10 is ! total t]m ( ea* effici5cy1 ! ,div9e & ! creat$1 n p>tly ( ! "o & p>tly ( ! o!r4 ,x is "o & indivisible2 x is :olly due to1 & :olly atta9$ by1 ea* effici5cy2 n1 h[ev]1 "u ! same =mal aspect4 ,we may di/+ui% 9 x two =malities3 x is a novum ens1 a new actuality1 some?+ positive & actual sup]add$ to ! exi/+ ord] ( real1 cont+5t be+2 b x is n 8be+ 9 g5]al0 or 8actuality 9 g5]al10 x is "s specifically1 nay individually1 det]m9ate mode ( actuality or actual be+4 ,we h se5 t x is precisely because e real effect has ! =m] aspect t x dem&s = its adequate explanation1 & z its only intelligible s\rce1 ! pres5ce & influ5ce ( a purely actual1 un*ang+1 inf9ite1 inexhau/ible productive pr9ciple ( all actual cont+5t reality3 h5ce ! necessity & efficacy ( ! ,div9e concursus4 ,& simil>ly x is because ! new actuality involv$ 9 e *ange is an individually def9ite mode ( actuality t we c detect 9 x ! ne$ =1 & ! efficacy (1 ! creat$ cause3 ! nature ( ?is latt]1 ! "* & scope & int5sity ( its active p[] is :at det]m9es ! individuality ( ! total result1 to ! total production ( :i* x has by ! aid ( ! ,div9e concursus atta9$4 7#d7 ,b ,god c ,himself produce ! total result "u bo? =malities )\t any effici5cy ( ! creature4 ,!re=e ! difficulty rema9s t ! latt] effici5cy is sup]flu\s & useless3 & entia non sunt multiplic&a praet] necessitatem4 ,we reply t z a matt] ( fact ! effects produc$ 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( nature are produc$ by ,god "u bo? =malities2 b also by ! creat$ cause "u bo? =malities3 inasmu* z ! =malities are b m5tally di/9ct aspects ( "o real result :i* is1 z reg>ds its extr9sic causes1 individual & indivisible4 ,! di/9ction ( ^! =mal aspects only helps u to realize h[ de facto su* an effect is due to ! coop]ation ( ! ,fir/ ,cause & creat$ causes4 ,t ,god c\ld produce all su* effects )\t any creat$ causes--we mu/ di/+ui%4 ,"s su* effects ,he c\ld n produce )\t creat$ causes1 = su* production w\ld be self-contradictory4 ,he c\ld n produce1 = in/ance1 a volition except z ! act ( a creat$ w1 or a ?\ght except z ! act ( a creat$ intellect1 or a vital *ange except z ! act ( a liv+ creature4 ,b ap>t f su* cases :i* w\ld involve an intr9sic impossibility1 ,god c\ld ( c\rse produce1 )\t creat$ ag5ts1 ! effects :i* ,he does produce ?r\gh _! creat$ effici5cy4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 n a "q ( :at c\ld be1 b ( :at actually is4 ,& we ?9k t ! argum5ts already set =? prove conclusively t creatures are n de facto ! in]t1 inactive1 aimless & unmean+ ?+s !y w\ld be if ,occasionalism 7 ! true int]pretation ( ! univ]se ( our actual exp]i5ce2 b t ^! creatures are 9 a true s5se effici5t causes1 & t j z by _! v co-exi/5ce ) ,god1 z cont+5t be+s1 !y d n d]ogate f ,8 ,inf9ite ,actuality b r %[ =? ,8 ,inf9ity1 s by _! coop]ation ) ,him z subord9ate & dep5d5t effici5t causes !y d n d]ogate f ,8 supremacy z ,fir/ ,cause1 b r %[ =? ! inf9ite & inexhau/ible ri*es ( ,8 ,wisdom & ,omnipot5ce4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,f9al ,,causes2 ,,univ]sal ,,ord]4 #ajf4 ,,two ,,conceptions ,,( ,,exp]i5ce1 ,,! ,,me*anical ,,& ,,! ,,teleological4--,we h se5 t all *ange 9 ! univ]se dem&s = its explanation c]ta9 real pr9ciples1 viz4 passive pot5tiality1 actualization1 & active p[] or effici5cy2 9 o!r words t x po9ts to mat]ial1 =mal & effici5t causes4 ,d ^! pr9ciples suffice to expla9 ! c\rse ( nature to ! inquir+ m9d8 ,me*ani/s say1 ,yes2 ^! pr9ciples expla9 x s f> z x is capable ( explanation4 ,teleologi/s say1 ,no2 ^! pr9ciples d n ( !mselves acc\nt = ! univ]se ( our exp]i5ce3 ?is univ]se reveals itself z a cosmos3 h5ce x dem&s = its explanation real pr9ciples or causes ( ano!r sort1 f9al causes1 ! exi/5ce ( :i* implies purpose1 plan or design1 & !re=e also intellig5ce4 ,! problem :e!r or n ! univ]se manife/s ! exi/5ce & influ5ce ( f9al causes has be5 sometimes =mulat$ 9 ?is /rik+ fa%ion3 ,is x t birds h w+s 9 ord] to fly1 or is x m]ely t !y fly because !y h w+s8 ,su* a graphic /atem5t ( ! problem is mislead+1 = x sugge/s t ! alt]natives are mutually exclusive1 t we mu/ vote ei!r = f9al causes or = effici5t causes4 ,z a matt] ( fact we accept bo?4 ,effici5t causes acc\nt = ! c\rse ( nature2 b !y ne$ to be det]m9$ by ! influ5ce ( f9al causes4 ,moreov]1 ! "q h[ f> ?is influ5ce ( f9al causes ext5ds--f9ality 7f9alitas71 z x is te*nically t]m$--is a second>y "q2 nor does ! advocate ( f9al causality 9 ! univ]se und]take to decide its nature & scope 9 e in/ance & detail1 any m ?an ! physical sci5ti/ does to po9t out all ! physical laws embodi$ 9 an individual natural ev5t1 or ! biologi/ to say :e!r a d\btful specim5 ( matt] is organic or inorganic1 or :e!r a c]ta9 sort ( liv+ cell is animal or vegetable4 ,! teleologi/'s !sis1 z aga9/ t ( me*anism1 is simply t !re are f9al causes 9 ! univ]se1 t ! univ]se does really manife/ ! pres5ce & influ5ce ( f9al causes47#eja7 ,!re are two ways1 h[ev]1 ( conceiv+ ?is influ5ce z p]meat+ ! univ]se4 ,! conception ( f9al causality 9 g5]al is1 z we %all see1 ! conception ( act+ = an end1 f a motive1 ) a purpose1 plan or design = ! atta9m5t ( some?+4 ,x implies arrangem5t1 ord9ation1 adaptation ( means to ends 7#ee74 ,n[ at lea/ !re appe>s to be1 p]vad+ ! univ]se ev]y:]e & direct+ its activities1 su* an adaptation4 ,! admirable equilibrium ( =ces :i* secures ! regul> motions ( ! heav5ly bodies2 ! exact mixture ( gases :i* makes our atmosph]e suitable = organic life2 ! di/ance & relative positions ( ! sun & ! e>?1 :i* secure conditions fav\rable to organic life2 ! *emical trans=mations :]eby inorganic elem5ts & comp\nds g to =m ! liv+ sub/ance ( plants & are ?us prep>$ = assimilation z food by animal organisms2 ! wond]fully grad$ hi]>*y ( liv+ species 9 ! animate _w1 & ! mutual int]dep5d5ce ( plants & animals2 ! endless v>iety ( in/9cts :i* secure ! pres]vation & well-be+ ( liv+ individuals & species2 mo/ notably ! adaptability & adaptation ( o!r mundane creatures to human uses by man himself1--innum]able facts su* z ^! conv9ce u t ! ?+s ( ! univ]se are useful to "o ano!r1 t !y are con/itut$ & dispos$ 9 relation to "o ano!r z if !y _h be5 delib]ately *os5 to suit "o ano!r1 to fit 9 h>moni\sly toge!r 9 mutual co-ord9ation & subord9ation s t by _! int]action & int]dep5d5ce !y "w out a plan or design & subs]ve z means to def9ite ends4 ,?is suitability ( ?+s relatively to "o ano!r1 ?is h>mony ( ! nature & activity ( ea* ) ! nature & activity ( e o!r1 we may designate z extr9sic f9ality4 ,! ,creator has will$ s to arrange & dispose all creatures 9 conditions ( space & "t t su* h>moni\s b purely extr9sic relations ( mutual adaptation d de facto obta9 & cont9ue to prevail betwe5 !m "u ,8 guidance4 ,b are ^! creatures !mselves1 9 _! own individual natures1 equally indiff]5t to any def9ite mode ( action1 s t ! ord]ly concurr5ce ( _! activities is due to an initial collocation & impulse div9ely impress$ ^u !m f )\t1 & n to any purposive pr9ciple intr9sic to !mselves individually8 ,desc>tes1 ,leibniz & c]ta9 support]s ( ! !ory ( atomic dynamism reg>d+ ! con/itution ( matt]1 :ile recogniz+ a relative & extr9sic f9ality 9 ! univ]se 9 ! s5se expla9$1 seem to reg>d ! individual ag5cies ( ! univ]se z m]e effici5t causes1 n ( !mselves end[$ ) any imman5t1 intr9sic directive pr9ciple ( _! activities1 & s contribut+ by m]e extr9sic arrangem5t to ! ord] ( ! univ]se4 ,s*ola/ic philosoph]s1 on ! contr>y1 foll[+ ! ?\ght ( ,ari/otle17#ejb7 consid] t e ag5cy 9 ! univ]se is end[$ ) an intr9sic pr9ciple ( f9ality :i* con/antly directs its activities t[>ds ! realization ( a p]fection :i* is prop] to x & :i* con/itutes its intr9sic end 7#de-df74 ,& :ile ea* ?us t5ds to its own prop] p]fection by ! natural play ( its activities1 ea* is s relat$ to all o!rs t !y simultane\sly realize ! extr9sic purpose :i* consi/s 9 ! ord] & h>mony ( ! :ole univ]se4 ,?us ! extr9sic & relative f9ality :]eby all conspire to con/itute ! univ]se a cosmos is second>y & po/]ior & subord9ate to ! deep]1 intr9sic1 imman5t & absolute f9ality :]eby ea* individual creat$ nature moves by a t5d5cy or law ( its be+ t[>ds ! realization ( a good :i* p]fects x z its natural end4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ! nature ( ?is intr9sic & extr9sic f9ality 9 ! univ]se1 & to v9dicate its exi/5ce aga9/ ! philosophy ( ,me*anism1 we mu/ next analyse ! concept1 & inve/igate ! influ5ce1 ( :at are call$ f9al causes4 #ajg4 ,,! ,,concept ,,( ,,f9al ,,cause2 ,,its ,,objective ,,validity ,,9 ,,all ,,nature4 ,,classification ,,( ,,f9al ,,causes4--,:5 we speak ( ! end ( ! ye>1 or ! end ( a wall1 we mean ! extreme limit or ultimate po9t2 & ! t]m conveys no notion ( a cause4 ,simil>ly1 7 a p]son to say 8,i h got to ! end ( my "w10 we %\ld und]/& him to mean simply t he _h f9i%$ x4 ,b :5 p act delib]ately & z intellig5t be+s1 !y usually act = "s consci\s purpose1 ) "s object 9 view1 = ! a*ievem5t or atta9m5t ( some?+2 !y cont9ue to act until !y h atta9$ ?is object2 :5 !y h atta9$ x !y cease to act2 its atta9m5t syn*ronizes ) ! end ( _! action1 tak+ ?is t]m 9 ! s5se j illu/rat$4 ,probably ?is is ! reason :y ! t]m end has be5 ext5d$ f its orig9al s5se to signify ! object = ! atta9m5t ( :i* an intellig5t ag5t acts4 ,?is object ( consci\s desire induces ! ag5t to seek x2 & because x ?us influ5ces ! ag5t to act x v]ifies ! notion ( a cause3 x is a f9al cause1 an end 9 ! causal s5se4 ,= in/ance1 a "y man wi%es to become a m$ical doctor3 ! art ( heal+ is ! end he wi%es to secure4 ,= ?is purpose he pursues a c\rse ( /udies & passes c]ta9 exam9ations2 ^! acts :]eby he qualifies himself by obta9+ a c]ta9 fund ( k & skill are means to ! end int5d$ by him4 ,he ne$ n desire ^! prep>atory lab\rs = _! own sake2 b he does desire !m z useful = 8 purpose1 z means to 8 end3 9 s f> z he wills !m z means he wills !m n = _! own sake b because ( ! end1 propt] f9em4 ,he appreh5ds ! end z a good2 he int5ds its atta9m5t2 he elects or selects c]ta9 acts or l9es ( action z means suitable = ?is purpose4 ,an end or f9al cause1 !re=e1 may be def9$ z some?+ appreh5d$ z a good1 & :i*1 because desir$ z su*1 influ5ces ! w to *oose "s action or l9e ( action judg$ necess>y or useful = ! atta9m5t ( ?is good4 ,h5ce ,ari/otle's def9ition ( end z 3 id cujus gratia aliquid fit3 t = ! sake ( :i* an ag5t acts4 ,! end und]/ood 9 ?is s5se is a motive ( action2 n only w\ld ! action n take place )\t ! ag5t's int5d+ ! end1 %[+ ! latt] to be a conditio s9e qua non2 b1 m ?an ?is1 ! end z a good1 appreh5d$ & will$1 has a positive influ5ce on ! ultimate effect or issue1 s t x is really a cause4 ,man is consci\s ( ?is 8f9ality10 or influ5ce ( f9al causes on 8 own delib]ate actions4 ,z an intellig5t be+ he acts 8= ends10 & ord]s or regulates 8 actions z means to ^? ends2 s mu* s t :5 we see a man's acts1 8 :ole conduct1 utt]ly unrelat$ to rational ends1 :olly at v>iance & out ( jo9t ) ! usual ends ( intellig5t human activity1 we take x z an indication ( loss ( reason1 insanity4 ,fur!rmore1 man is free2 he *ooses ! ends = :i* he acts2 he acts electiv propt] f9es4 ,b 9 ! doma9 ( animal life & activity is !re any evid5ce ( ! influ5ce ( f9al causes8 ,mo/ und\bt$ly4 ,wat* ! movem5ts ( animals seek+ _! prey2 obs]ve ! wide doma9 ( animal in/9cts2 /udy ! elaborate & intricate l9es ( action :]eby !y protect & fo/] & pres]ve _! lives1 & re> _! "y & propagate _! species3 c\ld !re be cle>] or m abundant evid5ce t 9 all ?is conduct !y are influ5c$ by objects :i* !y appreh5d & seek z s5sible goods8 ,n t !y c conceive 9 ! ab/ract ! ratio bonitatis 9 ^! ?+s1 or freely *oose !m z good1 = !y are incapable ( ab/ract ?\ght & consequ5t free *oice2 b t ^! s5sible objects1 appreh5d$ by !m 9 ! concrete1 d really influ5ce or move _! s5se appetites to desire & seek !m2 & ! influ5ce ( an object on s5se appetite spr+s f ! goodness ( ?is object 7#dd1 #de74 ,!y t5d t[>ds appreh5d$ goods2 !y act appreh5siv propt] f9es47#ejc7 ,f9ally1 ev5 9 ! doma9s ( unconsci\s ag5cies1 ( plant life & inorganic nature1 we h evid5ce ( ! influ5ce ( f9al causes4 ,= "h too we witness innum]able v>i$1 complex1 ev]-r5ew$ activities1 con/antly issu+ 9 results useful to1 & good =1 ! ag5ts :i* elicit !m3 op]ations :i* contribute to ! developm5t & p]fection ( ! natures ( ^! ag5ts 7#df74 ,n[ if simil> effects dem& simil> causes h[ c we refuse to recognize ev5 9 ^! activities ( physical nature ! influ5ce ( f9al causes8 ,:5ev] & :]ev] we f9d a great & complex v>iety ( active p[]s1 =ces1 en]gies1 issu+ inv>iably 9 effects :i* suit & develop & p]fect ! ag5ts 9 "q1--9 a ^w1 :i* are good = ^! ag5ts1--:e!r ! latt] be consci\s or unconsci\s1 does n reason itself dictate to u t all su* doma9s ( action mu/ be subject to ! influ5ce ( f9al causes8 ,( c\rse x w\ld be m]e unreflect+ an?ropomorphism to attribute to unconsci\s ag5cies a consci\s subjection to ! attract+ & direct+ influ5ce ( su* causes4 ,b ! recognition ( su* influ5ce 9 ?is doma9 implies no nave supposition ( t sort4 ,x does1 h[ev]1 imply ?is v reasonable view3 t !re mu/ be "s reason or gr\nd 9 ! nature or con/itution ( ev5 an inanimate ag5t = its act+ always 9 a uni=m mann]1 conducive to its own developm5t & p]fection2 t !re mu/ be 9 ! nature ( ea* & e "o ( ! va/ multitude ( su* ag5ts :i* make up ! :ole physical univ]se a reason or gr\nd = ea* co-op]at+ con/antly & h>moni\sly ) all ! o!rs to secure & pres]ve t g5]al ord] & regul>ity :i* enables u to pron\nce ! univ]se n a *aos b a cosmos4 ,n[ t gr\nd or reason 9 ?+s1 :]eby !y act 9 su* a mann]--n indiff]5tly1 *aotically1 caprici\sly1 aimlessly1 un9telligibly1 b def9itely1 regul>ly1 reliably1 purposively1 intelligibly--is a real pr9ciple ( _! natures1 impress+ on _! natures a def9ite t5d5cy1 directive ( _! activities t[>ds results :i*1 z be+ suit$ to ^! natures1 be> to ^! latt] ! relation ( f9al causes4 ,a directive pr9ciple ne$ n itself be consci\s2 ! inn] directive pr9ciple ( inanimate ag5ts t[>ds :at is good = !m1 :at p]fects !m1 :at is !re=e 9 a true & real s5se _! end 7#de1 #df71 is n consci\s4 ,b 9 virtue ( x !y act z if !y 7 consci\s1 nay intellig5t1 i4e4 !y act executiv propt] f9es4 ,( c\rse ! exi/5ce ( ?is pr9ciple 9 inanimate ag5cies necess>ily implies intellig5ce3 ?is inde$ is our v cont5tion aga9/ ! :ole philosophy ( me*anism1 positivism & agno/icism4 ,b is ?is intellig5ce really id5tical ) ! ag5cies ( nature1 s t all ! ph5om5a ( exp]i5ce1 :i* con/itute ! cosmos or univ]se1 are b phases 9 ! evolution ( ,"o ,sole ,reality :i* is cont9ually manife/+ itself "u ! di/9ct aspects ( nature & m9d8 ,or is ?is intellig5ce1 ?\gh virtually imman5t 9 ! univ]se1 really di/9ct f x--really transc5d5t1--a ,supreme ,intellig5ce :i* has creat$ & cont9ues to cons]ve ?is univ]se & gov]n all its activities8 ,?is is a di/9ct "q3 x is ! "q ( ,monism or ,!ism z an ultimate int]pretation ( human exp]i5ce4 ,we conclude !n t :at we call f9ality1 or ! influ5ce ( f9al causes1 p]vades ! :ole univ]se2 t 9 ! doma9 ( consci\s ag5ts x is consci\s1 in/9ctive :5 x solicits s5se appetite1 volunt>y :5 x solicits intellig5t w2 t 9 ! doma9 ( unconsci\s ag5cies x is n consci\s b 8natural0 or 8physical0 solicit+ ! 8nature0 or 8appetitus naturalis0 ( ^! ag5cies4 ,be=e inquir+ into ! nature ( f9al causality we may indicate briefly ! ma9 divisions ( f9al causes3 "s ( ^! conc]n ! doma9 ( human activity & are ( importance to ,e?ics r ?an to ,ontology4 7a7 ,we h already di/+ui%$ betwe5 intr9sic & extr9sic f9ality4 ,an intr9sic f9al cause is an end or object :i* p]fects ! nature itself ( ! ag5t :i* t5ds t[>ds x3 n\ri%m5t1 = in/ance1 is an intr9sic end 9 relation to ! liv+ organism4 ,an extr9sic f9al cause is n "o t[>ds :i* ! nature ( ! ag5t imm$iately t5ds1 b "o :i*1 int5d$ by "s o!r ag5t1 is de facto realiz$ by ! t5d5cy ( ! =m] t[>ds its own intr9sic end4 ,?us1 ! g5]al ord] ( ! univ]se is an extr9sic end 9 relation to ea* individual ag5cy 9 ! univ]se3 x is an end int5d$ by ! ,creator & de facto realiz$ by ea* individual ag5cy act+ 9 accordance ) its own p>ticul> nature4 7b7 ,v simil> to ?is is ! famili> di/9ction betwe5 ! f9is op]is & ! f9is op]antis4 ,! =m] is ! end necess>ily & de facto realiz$ by ! act itself1 by its v nature1 indep5d5tly ( any o!r end ! ag5t may h expressly int5d$ to atta9 by means ( x4 ,! latt] is ! end expressly int5d$ by ! ag5t1 & :i* may v>y = "o & ! same k9d ( act4 ,= in/ance1 ! f9is op]is ( an act ( almsgiv+ is ! actual aid+ ( ! m5dicant2 ! f9is op]antis may be *>ity1 or self-d5ial1 or vanity1 or :atev] o!r motive influ5ces ! giv]4 7c7 ,ak9 to ^? also is ! di/9ction betwe5 an unconsci\s1 or physical1 or 8natural0 end1 & a consci\s1 or m5tal1 or 8int5tional0 end4 ,! =m] is t t[>ds :i* ! nature or 8appetitus naturalis0 ( unconsci\s ag5cies t5ds2 ! latt] is an end appreh5d$ by a consci\s ag5t4 7d7 ,an end may be ei!r ultimate or proximate or int]m$iate4 ,an ultimate end is "o :i* is s\ght = its own sake1 z contra/$ ) an int]m$iate end :i* is will$ r z a means to ! =m]1 & ) a proximate end :i* is int5d$ la/ & s\ght fir/ z a means to realiz+ ! o!rs4 ,x %\ld be not$ t proximate & int]m$iate ends1 9 s f> z !y are s\ght = ! sake ( "s ult]ior end1 are n ends at all b r means2 only 9 s f> z !y pres5t "s good desirable = its own sake1 are !y prop]ly ends1 or f9al causes4 ,fur!rmore1 an ultimate end may be su* absolutely or relatively3 absolutely if x _c possibly be subord9at$ or ref]r$ to any ult]ior or high] good2 relatively if1 ?\gh ultimate 9 a p>ticul> ord] z comp>$ ) means lead+ up to x1 x is nev]!less capable ( be+ subord9at$ to a high] good1 ?\gh n actually ref]r$ to ?is latt] by any explicit volition ( ! ag5t t seeks x4 7e7 ,we c reg>d ! end = :i* an ag5t acts ei!r objectively1--f9is 8objectivus10--or =mally1--f9is 8=malis04 ,! =m] is ! objective good itself :i* ! ag5t wi%es to realize1 possess or enjoy2 ! latt] is ! act :]eby ! ag5t =mally secures1 appropriates1 unites himself )1 ?is objective good4 ,?us1 ,god ,himself is ! objective happ9ess 7beatitudo objectiva7 ( man1 :ile man's actual possession (1 or union )1 ,god1 by k & love1 is man's =mal happ9ess 7beatitudo =malis74 7f7 ,we may di/+ui% also betwe5 ! real end 7f9is 8qui0 or 8cujus01 & ! p]sonal end 7f9is 8cui074 ,! =m] is ! good :i* ! ag5t desires1 ! good = ! sake ( :i* 8cujus0 gratia7 he acts4 ,! latt] is ! subject or p]son to :om he wi%es ?is good1 or = :om he wi%es to procure x4 ,?us1 a lab\r] may "w to e>n a su/5ance = himself or also = 8 family4 ,! real & ! p]sonal end are nev] will$ sep>ately1 b always z "o concrete good4 7g7 ,! di/9ction betwe5 a pr9cipal end & an accessory end 7motivum 8impulsivum07 is obvi\s4 ,! =m] c move to act ( itself )\t ! latt]1 b ! latt] /r5g!ns ! influ5ce ( ! =m]4 ,a really *>itable p]son1 :ile efficaci\sly mov$ to give alms by sympa?y ) ! poor1 may n be un9flu5c$ by vanity to let o!rs "k ( 8 *>ity4 7h7 ,f9ally we may note ! !ological di/9ction betwe5 ! natural end1 & ! sup]natural end1 ( man z a rational & moral ag5t4 ,! =m] is ! end due to man's nature1 ! latt] is an end :i* is gratuit\s & undue to 8 nature4 ,god might n h creat$ ! _w or man1 & 9 ?is s5se ev5 ! natural end ( man is a gratuit\s gift ( ,god2 b grant$ t ,god did decree to create ! _w & man1 an end correspond+ to man's nature & p[]s 0 due to him3 ! k1 s]vice & love ( ,god z kn[n to man by ! light ( natural reason4 ,b z a matt] ( fact ,god1 9 ,8 actual provid5ce1 has decre$ = man an incomp>ably high] & purely gratuit\s end1 an end reveal$ to man by ,god ,himself1 an end entirely undue n only to man b to any & e possible creature3 ! ,beatific ,vision ( ! ,div9e ,ess5ce = ev] 9 heav54 #ajh4 ,,causality ,,( ,,! ,,f9al ,,cause2 ,,relation ,,( ,,! ,,latt] ,,to ,,effici5t1 ,,=mal1 ,,& ,,mat]ial ,,causes4--,we c be/ analyse ! influ5ce ( ! f9al cause by /udy+ ?is influ5ce z ex]t$ on consci\s & intellig5t ag5ts4 ,! f9al cause has a positive influ5ce ( "s sort on ! production1 happ5+1 actualization ( effects4 ,:at is ! nature ( ?is influ5ce8 ,! f9al cause ex]ts its influ5ce by be+ a good1 an appreh5d$ good2 x ex]ts ?is influ5ce on ! appetite ( ! ag5t1 solicit+ ! latt] to p]=m c]ta9 acts = ! realization1 atta9m5t1 possession1 or enjoym5t ( ?is good4 ,b x mu/ n be conceiv$ z ! effici5t cause ( ?is movem5t ( ! appetite1 nor may its influ5ce be conceiv$ z action4 ,an effici5t cause mu/ actually exi/ 9 ord] to act2 b :5 ! f9al cause1 z an appreh5d$ good1 ex]ts its influ5ce on ! appetite x is n yet actual3 n until ! ag5t1 by 8 action1 has realiz$ ! end & actually atta9$ x1 does ! end1 z a good1 actually exi/4 ,we mu/ di/+ui% betwe5 ! end z atta9$ & ! end z int5d$1 betwe5 ! f9is 9 executione & ! f9is 9 int5tione4 ,x is n ! end z atta9$ t is a f9al cause2 z atta9$ x is an effect pure & simple4 ,x is ! end z int5d$ t is a f9al cause2 & z int5d$ x does n yet actually exi/3 h5ce its influ5ce _c be by way ( action4 ,p]haps x is ! idea or cognition ( ! int5d$ end t ex]ts ! peculi> influ5ce ( f9al cause8 ,no2 ! idea or cognition ( ! end actually exi/s1 no d\bt1 9 ! consci\s ag5t1 b ?is is only a condition1 a conditio s9e qua non1 = ! appreh5d$ good1 ! f9al cause1 to ex]t its influ5ce3 nil volitum nisi praecognitum4 ,x is n ! cognition ( ! good1 h[ev]1 t moves ! ag5t to act1 x is n ! idea ( ! good t ! ag5t desires or /rives =1 b ! good itself4 ,x is ! good itself1 ! kn[n good1 t ex]ts ! influ5ce1 & ?is influ5ce consi/s 9 ! passive incl9ation or attraction or t5d5cy ( ! appetite t[>ds ! good3 a t5d5cy :i* necess>ily results f ! v pres5ce ( ! good 7n really or physically ( c\rse1 b repres5tatively1 m5tally1 8int5tionally10 by 8esse int5tionale02 cf4 #d7 9 ! ag5t's consci\sness1 & :i* is =mally ! actualization ( ! causal p[] or influ5ce ( ! f9al cause4 8,j z ! effici5t cause influ5ces by act+10 says ,/4 ,?omas17#ejd7 8s ! f9al cause influ5ces by be+ ye>n$ = & desir$04 ,look$ at f ! side ( ! ag5t t und]goes x1 ?is influ5ce is a passive yield+3 ?is next becomes an active motion ( appetite2 & 9 ! case ( free w a delib]ate act ( int5d+ ! end1 foll[$ by acts ( *oos+ means1 & f9ally by acts comm&+ ! executive faculties to employ ^! means4 ,look$ at f ! side ( ! f9al cause1 ! influ5ce consi/s 9 an attraction ( appetite t[>ds union ) itself z a good4 ,! matt] _c be analys$ mu* fur!r2 nor w imag9ation images help u "h any m ?an 9 ! case ( effici5t causality4 ,x mu/ be not$1 h[ev]1 t ! influ5ce ( ! f9al cause is ! influ5ce n ( a reality z actual1 or 9 its esse actuale1 b ( a reality z pres5t to a p]ceiv+ m9d1 or 9 its esse int5tionale4 ,at ! same "t x w\ld be a mi/ake to inf] f ?is t ! influ5ce ( ! f9al cause is n real4 ,x is sometimes describ$ z 8int5tional0 causality1 8causalitas int5tionalis02 b ?is mu/ n be tak5 to mean t x is n real3 = x is n ! 8esse int5tionale0 ( ! good1 i4e4 ! cognition ( ! good1 its pres5ce 9 ! m9d or consci\sness ( ! ag5t1 t moves ! latt]'s appetite3 x is ! appreh5d$ good1 appreh5d$ z real1 z possible ( actual atta9m5t1 t moves ! ag5t to act4 ,! influ5ce may n be physical 9 ! s5se ( be+ productive (1 or int]*angeable )1 or measurable by1 corporeal en]gy1 or 9 t]ms ( me*anical "w2 nor is x2 b x is none ! less real4 ,b if ! influ5ce ( a f9al cause really rea*es to ! effect ( ! ag5t's actions only ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! latt]'s appetite1 & !re=e ?r\gh a l9k ( 8int5tional0 causality1 does x n at once foll[ t ! attribution ( f9al causality to ! doma9 ( unconsci\s & inorganic activities1 c be at be/ m]ely metaphorical8 ,! attribution to su* ag5cies ( an 8appetitus naturalis0 is intelligible inde$ z a /rik+ & p]haps n unpoetic metaphor4 ,b to cont5d t x is any?+ m ?an a metaphor1 to claim s]i\sly t inanimate ag5cies are sway$ & influ5c$ by 8ends10--is n ?is really to sub/itute my/icism & my/]y = rational speculation & analysis8 ,me*ani/s are wont to dismiss ! doctr9e ( f9al causes 9 ! physical univ]se ) (fh& *>ges ( ?is k9d4 ,!y are b too ready to attribute x to a my/ical attitude ( m9d4 ,f9al causes1 !y say1 are n discov]$ 9 inanimate nature by ! cold1 calculat+1 unemotional analysis to :i* reason submits its activities1 b are read into x by m9ds :i* all[ !mselves to be prompt$ by ! imag9ation & emotions to p]sonify & an?ropomorphize inanimate ag5cies4 ,! accusation is z plausible z x is unju/4 ,x is plausible because ! attribution ( f9al causes to inanimate nature1 & ( an 8appetitus naturalis0 to its ag5cies1 seems to imply ! recognition ( consci\s1 m5tal1 8int5tional0 influ5ce 9 ?is doma94 ,b x really implies no?+ ( ! sort2 & h5ce ! inju/ice ( ! *>ge4 ,:at x does imply is ! exi/5ce ( a g5u9e analogy betwe5 ! nature & natural activities ( physical ag5cies on ! "o h& & ! appetite & appetitive activities ( consci\s ag5cies on ! o!r4 ,! exi/5ce ( ?is analogy is absolutely und5iable4 ,! ord]ly1 inv>iable & uni=mly suitable "* ( physical activities1 simply =ces our reason to recognize 9 physical ag5cies natures :i* t5d t[>ds _! developm5t1 & :i* by _! activities atta9 to :at is good = !m1 to :at p]fects !m4 ,9 o!r words we h to recognize t ea* by its natural l9e ( activity atta9s to results t are good & useful to x j z if x appreh5d$ !m z su* & consci\sly t5d$ t[>ds !m4 ,! analogy is !re2 & ! recognition ( x1 s f> f be+ a 8my/ic0 int]pretation ( facts1 is an elem5t>y logical ex]cise ( our reason+ faculty4 ,! s*ola/ics emphasiz$ _! recognition ( ! analogy by call+ ! nature ( an unconsci\s ag5t1--! pr9ciple ( its active t5d5cies t[>ds ! realization ( its own p]fection--an 8appetitus naturalis03 an expression into :i* no "o famili> ) s*ola/ic t]m9ology w\ld v5ture to read any elem5t ( my/icism47#eje7 ,e sep>ate ag5cy 9 nature has a uni=m mode ( activity2 by foll[+ out ?is l9e ( action ea* co-op]ates ) all ! o!rs 9 ma9ta9+ ! ord]ly c\rse ( nature4 ,^! are facts :i* call = explanation4 ,!y are n expla9$ by ! supposition ( me*ani/s t ^! ag5cies are m]e effici5t causes3 effici5t causality does n acc\nt = ord]1 x has got simply no?+ to d ) ord] or regul>ity4 ,consequ5tly ! la/ ^w ( ! me*anical philosophy on ! fact ( ord] 9 ! univ]se is--,agno/icism4 ,9 opposition to ?is attitude we are f> f cont5d+ t !re is no my/]y1 or t all is cle> ei!r 9 reg>d to ! fact ( *ange or ! fact ( regul>ity4 ,j z we _c expla9 ev]y?+ 9 effici5t causality1 s nei!r c we expla9 ev]y?+ 9 f9al causality4 ,b we d cont5d t ! elem5t ( ord]1 developm5t1 evolution1 ev5 9 ! physical univ]se1 c be p>tially expla9$ by recogniz+ 9 its sev]al ag5cies a nature1 a pr9ciple ( developm5t1 a passive incl9ation implant$ 9 ! v be+ ( ^! ag5cies by ! ,intellig5t ,au?or ( _! be+4 ,9 consci\s ag5cies ?is incl9ation or t5d5cy to actions con=mable or connatural to _! be+ is n always 9 act2 x is ar\s$ by consci\s cognition1 p]ception1 or imag9ation ( a good1 & op]ates int]mitt5tly4 ,9 unconsci\s ag5cies x is cong5ital & con/antly 9 act1 i4e4 z a t5d5cy1 n z actually op]ative3 = its actual developm5t due conditions ( environm5t are requir$3 ! se$ w n gr[ )\t a suitable soil1 temp]ature1 moi/ure1 etc4 ,9 consci\s ag5cies ! t5d5cy1 consid]$ entitatively or z a reality 9 !m1 is an accid5tal =m2 9 unconsci\s ag5cies x is _! =ma sub/antialis1 ! =mative sub/antial pr9ciple1 :i* det]m9es ! specific type to :i* _! nature belongs47#ejf7 ,9 all ag5cies ! incl9ation or appetite or t5d5cy to action arises f a =m2 an elicit$ appetite f an 8int5tional0 =m1 a natural appetite f a 8natural0 =m3 ,omnis incl9atio seu appetitus consequitur =mam2 appetitus elicitus =mam int5tionalem1 appetitus naturalis =mam naturalem4 ,! s*ola/ic view t f9al causality p]vades all ?+s is express$ 9 ! aphorism1 ,omne ag5s agit propt] f9em3 ,e ag5cy acts = an end4 ,f our analysis ( f9al causality x w be se5 t ! 8end0 becomes a cause by ex]cis+ its influ5ce on ! ag5t or effici5t cause1 & ?us initiat+ ! action ( ! latt]4 ,we h se5 already t mat]ial & =mal causes ex]cise _! causality dep5d5tly on ! effici5t cause ( ! *ange or effect produc$ by ! latt]4 ,we n[ see t ! f9al cause1 ! end z int5d$1 det]m9es ! action ( ! effici5t cause2 h5ce its causality holds ! primacy z comp>$ ) t ( ! o!r causes3 x is 9 ?is s5se ! cause ( causes1 causa caus>um47#ejg7 ,b :ile ! end z int5d$ is ! />t+ po9t ( ! :ole process1 ! end z atta9$ is ! ultimate t]m ( ! latt]4 ,h5ce ! s*ola/ic aphorism3 ,f9is e/ primus 9 int5tione et ultimus 9 executione4 ,& ?is is true :]e ! process involves a s]ies ( acts atta9+ to means subord9ate to an end3 ?is latt] is ! fir/ ?+ int5d$ & ! la/ atta9$4 ,! f9al cause1 ! end z int5d$1 is extr9sic to ! effect4 ,x is intr9sic to ! effici5t cause4 ,x is a 8=ma0 or det]m9ative pr9ciple ( ! latt]3 a =ma int5tionalis 9 consci\s ag5ts1 a =ma naturalis 9 unconsci\s ag5ts4 #aji4 ,,nature ,,& ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,nature4 ,,"* ,,& ,,gr\nds ,,( ,,_! ,,necessity ,,& ,,univ]sality4 ,,sci5tific ,,det]m9ism ,,& ,,philosophic ,,fatalism4--,by ! t]m nature we h se5 t ,ari/otle & ! s*ola/ics meant ! ess5ce or sub/ance ( an ag5t reg>d$ z inn] pr9ciple ( ! latt]'s normal activities1 z det]m9+ ! b5t or incl9ation ( ^!1 & !re=e z 9 a real s5se _! f9al cause4 ,h5ce ,ari/otle's def9ition ( nature z a c]ta9 pr9ciple or cause ( ! motion & re/ ( ! ?+ 9 :i* t pr9ciple is root$ fundam5tally & ess5tially & n m]ely accid5tally47#ejh7 ,! s*ola/ics1 recogniz+ t ?is int5tio naturae1 ?is subjection to f9ality1 9 unconsci\s ag5cies mu/ be ! "w & ! index ( intellig5ce1 9 o!r words t ?is analogical f9ality 9 inanimate ?+s mu/ connote a prop] f9ality1 a prop]ly purposive mode ( action1 9 ! au?or ( ^! ?+s1 conceiv$ ?is nature or int5tio naturae z ! impression ( a div9e art or plan ^u ! v be+ ( all creatures by ! ,creator ,himself4 ,h5ce ,/4 ,?omas's pr(\nd & well-kn[n description ( nature z 8! pr9ciple ( a div9e art impress$ ^u ?+s1 9 virtue ( :i* !y move t[>ds det]m9ate ends04 ,def9+ art z ! j conception ( ext]nal works to be accompli%$17#eji7 he obs]ves t nature is a sort ( art3 8z if a %ip-build] 7 to end[ 8 mat]ials ) ! p[] ( mov+ & adapt+ !mselves s z to =m or con/ruct a %ip047#eaj7 ,& else:]e he rem>ks t nature diff]s f art only 9 ?is t ! =m] is an intr9sic1 ! latt] an extr9sic1 pr9ciple ( ! "w :i* is accompli%$ ?r\gh its influ5ce3 s t if ! art :]eby a %ip is con/ruct$ 7 intr9sic to ! mat]ials1 ! %ip w\ld be con/ruct$ by nature z x actually is by art47#eaa7 ,su*1 !n1 is ! teleological conception ( ! nature ( ea* individual ag5cy 9 ! univ]se4 ,:5 we speak ( 8univ]sal nature10 8ext]nal nature10 8physical nature10 8! c\rse ( nature10 8! laws ( nature10 etc4 we are us+ ! t]m 9 a collective s5se to signify ! sum-total ( all ! ag5cies :i* con/itute ! :ole physical univ]se2 & fur!rmore 9 all su* contexts we usually und]/& by nature ! _w ( corporeal ?+s z di/9ct f ! doma9 ( m9d or _s4 ,! pro( ( ?is view1--t ! ag5cies ( ! physical univ]se are n m]ely effici5t causes1 b t !y act "u ! influ5ce ( ends2 t !y h def9ite l9es ( action :i* are natural to !m1 & :]eby !y realize _! own individual developm5t & ! ma9t5ance ( ! univ]se z a cosmos2 t by do+ s !y reveal ! influ5ce ( intellig5t purpose1--! pro( ( ?is view lies1 z we h se51 9 ! fact t _! activities are regul>1 uni=m1 & mutually useful1 or1 9 o!r words1 t !y are productive ( ord] 7#aaj74 ,be>+ ?is 9 m9d let u inquire into ! v>i\s mean+s disc]nible 9 ! v famili> expressions1 8laws ( nature10 8physical laws10 8natural laws047#eab7 ,we may und]/& fir/ly by a law ( nature ?is innate t5d5cy we h be5 describ+ z impress$ ^u ! v be+ ( all creat$ ?+s by ! ,creator4 ,x is 9 ?is s5se we speak ( a ?+ act+ 8naturally10 or 8accord+ to ! law ( its nature10 or 8accord+ to its nature10 :5 we see x act+ accord+ to :at we conceive to be ! end int5d$ = x1 act+ 9 a mann] conducive to ! developm5t ( its own individuality1 ! pres]vation ( its specific type or k9d1 & ! fulfilm5t ( its rle 9 ! g5]al s*eme ( ?+s4 ,:at ?is 8natural0 mode ( action is = ?is p>ticul> k9d ( ?+1 we ga!r f our exp]i5ce ( ! regul> or normal activity ( ?+s ( its k9d4 ,?us1 we say x is a law ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 to comb9e 9 def9ite proportions1 "u suitable conditions1 to =m wat]2 a law ( all p>ticles ( matt] 9 ! univ]se to t5d to move t[>ds "o ano!r ) a def9ite accel]ation2 a law ( liv+ organisms to reproduce _! k9d4 ,?is usage comes ne>e/ to ! orig9al mean+ ( ! t]m law3 a precept or comm& impos$ on intellig5t ag5ts by a sup]ior4 ,= we conceive ?is natural t5d5cy impress$ on physical ag5cies by ! ,creator aft] ! analogy ( a precept or comm&4 ,& we h good reason to d s3 because uni=mity ( conduct 9 intellig5t ag5ts is ! normal result ( _! ob$i5ce to a law impos$ ^u !m2 & we see 9 ! activities ( ! physical univ]se an all-p]vad+ feature ( regul>ity4 ,secondly1 we transf] ! t]m law to ?is result itself ( ! natural t5d5cy ( ! be+1 ( ! conv]g5ce ( its activities t[>ds its end4 ,t is to say1 we call ! uni=m mode ( action ( an ag5t a law ( nature1 a natural or physical law4 ,?is usage1 :i* is common 9 ! positive sci5ces1 implies a less pr(\nd1 a m sup]ficial1 b a p]fectly legitimate mode ( appreh5d+ & /udy+ ! *anges & ph5om5a ( ! physical univ]se4 ,?irdly1 s9ce ! sev]al ag5cies ( ! univ]se co-exi/ 9 "t & space1 s9ce !y con/antly int]act on "o ano!r1 s9ce = ! ex]cise ( ! natural activities ( ea* c]ta9 extr9sic conditions ( relation%ip ) its environm5t mu/ be fulfill$1 an accurate k & exact =mulation ( ^! relations are obvi\sly requisite = a sci5tific & practical insight into ! mode ( activity ( any natural ag5cy4 ,9 fact ! physical sci5ti/ may & does take = grant$ ! natural t5d5cy & ! uni=mity ( action result+ !refrom1 & conf9es himself to discov]+ & =mulat+ ! relations betwe5 any giv5 k9d ( action & ! extr9sic conditions requisite = its ex]cise4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 w\ld be any *emical 8law0 sett+ =? ! measure1 & ! conditions ( temp]ature1 pressure1 etc41 9 :i* c]ta9 *emical elem5ts comb9e to =m a c]ta9 *emical comp\nd4 ,to all su* =mulae sci5ti/s give ! title ( physical laws1 or laws ( physical nature4 ,^! =mulae1 descriptive ( ! mann] 9 :i* a ph5om5on takes place1 sett+ =? ) ! greate/ possible quantitative exactness ! ph5om5al factors7#eac7 t ent] into & prec$e & accompany x1 are laws 9 a /ill m sup]ficial & /ill less philosophical s5se1 b a s5se :i* is mo/ commonly--& ju/ly--accept$ 9 ! positive or physical sci5ces4 ,be=e exam9+ ! feature & *>act]i/ic ( necessity & univ]sality :i* ent]s into all ^! v>i\s conceptions ( a 8physical law0 we h "h to obs]ve t x w\ld make = cle>ness1 & = a bett] und]/&+ betwe5 physics & metaphysics1 betwe5 sci5ce & philosophy1 betwe5 ! inve/igator :o seeks by obs]vation & exp]im5t = ! proximate ph5om5al conditions & 8physical0 causes ( ph5om5a1 & ! inve/igator :o seeks = ! ultimate real gr\nd & explanation ( ^! latt] by speculative analysis ( !m1 & by reason+ f ! sci5ti/'s discov]ies ab\t !m1--if x 7 und]/ood & agre$ t inve/igation into ! scope & significance & ultimate gr\nd ( ?is feature ( /ability 9 ! laws ( physical nature belongs to ! philosoph] r ?an to ! sci5ti/4 ,we h already call$ att5tion to ! fact t ! propriety ( su* an obvi\sly reasonable & intelligible division ( lab\r is almo/ univ]sally admitt$ 9 !ory bo? by sci5ti/s & by philosoph]s2 ?\gh1 un=tunately1 x is n always rememb]$ 9 practice 7#ajj74 ,9 !ory ! sci5ti/ assumes1 & v prop]ly assumes1 t ! ag5cies ) :i* he deals are n caprici\s1 unreliable1 irregul>1 b /able1 reliable1 regul> 9 _! mode ( action1 t 9 simil> sets ( conditions & circum/ances !y w act uni=mly4 ,)\t inquir+ into ! ultimate gr\nds ( ?is assumption he premises t all 8 conclusions1 all 8 inductive g5]alizations ab\t ! activity ( ^! ag5cies1 w hold good ( ^! latt] j 9 s f> z !y d act accord+ to 8 g5]al po/ulate z to _! regul>ity4 ,he !n proce$s1 by ! inductive processes ( hypo!sis & exp]im5tal v]ification1 to det]m9e :at ag5cies produce su* or su* an ev5t1 "u :at conditions !y br+ ?is ab\t1 :at are all ! ph5om5al conditions1 positive & negative1 antec$5t & concomitant1 9 ! abs5ce ( any "o ( :i* ?is ev5t w n happ51 & 9 ! pres5ce ( all ( :i* x w happ54 ,^! are1 9 accordance ) 8 assumption1 det]m9+ causes ( ! ev5t2 ! k ( !m is f ! speculative po9t ( view extremely important1 & f ! practical /&po9t ( inv5tion & appli$ sci5ce extremely useful4 ,z a sci5ti/ he has no o!r k 9 view3 he aims at discov]+ ! 8h[10 ! quomodo1 ( natural ph5om5a1--h[1 = in/ance1 "u :at conditions & 9 :at measure1 wat] is produc$ f oxyg5 & hydrog54 ,:5 he has discov]$ all ^! positive & negative conditions 8 sci5tific k ( ! =mation ( wat] is complete4 ,b !re are o!r que/ions 9 reg>d to natural ph5om5a to :i* ! exp]im5tal me?ods ( ! positive sci5ces c (f] no reply4 ,!y c tell u no?+ ab\t ! wid] 8h[0 :i* resolves itself into a 8:y40 ,!y c give no in=mation ab\t ! ultimate causes1 orig9s1 reasons1 or ess5ces1 ( ^? ph5om5a4 ,z ,pa/eur & o!r equally illu/ri\s sci5ti/s h proclaim$1 exp]im5tal sci5ce is ess5tially positive1 i4e4 conf9$ to ! proximate ph5om5al conditions & causes ( ?+s2 x has no?+ to say1 nor has x any ne$ or any "r to say any?+1 ab\t ! ultimate nature1 or fir/ orig91 or f9al de/9y1 ( ! ?+s & ev5ts ( ! univ]se4 ,yet su* que/ions arise1 & clam\r insi/5tly = solution4 ,h[ is x1 or :y is x1 t natural ph5om5a are uni=mly l9k$ to c]ta9 o!r ph5om5al antec$5ts or 8physical0 causes8 ,is x absolutely impossible1 inconceivable1 t ?is sequ5ce %\ld be f\nd n to obta9 9 ev5 a s+le individual in/ance8 ,:y %\ld !re be su* uni=m 8sequ5ces0 or 8laws0 at all8 ,are !re exceptions1 or c !re be exceptions to ^! 8laws ( physical nature08 ,:at is ! "* & :at are ! gr\nds ( ! necessity ( ^! laws8 ,e liv+ organism comes f a liv+ cell--n f any liv+ cell1 b f "s p>ticul> k9d ( liv+ cell4 ,b :y are !re su* k9ds ( cells8 ,:y are !re liv+ cells at all8 ,:5ce _! fir/ orig98 ,aga91 grant$ t !re are diff]5t k9ds or types ( liv+ cells1 :y %\ld a p>ticul> k9d ( cell give rise1 by division & evolution1 to an organism ( ! same k9d or type z ! p>5t organisms8 ,:y does x n always d s8 ,:y are :at biologi/s describe z 8mon/]s0 9 ! organic k+dom possible8 ,& :y1 s9ce !y are possible1 are !y n z num]\s z :at are recogniz$ z ! normal types or k9ds ( liv+ organisms8 ,n[ ^! are que/ions 9 reg>d to :i* n only e pr(ess+ physical sci5ti/ & e pr(ess+ metaphysician1 b e ?9k+ man1 mu/ take up "s attitude or o!r4 ,a refusal to consid] !m1 on ! plea t !y are insoluble1 is j z def9ite an attitude z any o!r2 nor by assum+ ?is attitude does any man1 ev5 ?\gh he be a speciali/ 9 "s dep>tm5t ( ! positive or physical sci5ces1 escape be+ a 8metaphysician0 or a 8philosoph]10 h[ev] mu* he may deprecate su* titles2 = he is tak+ up a reason$ attitude--we presume x is su*1 & n ! outcome ( m]e prejudice--on ultimate que/ions4 ,& ?is is philosophy2 ?is is metaphysics4 ,:51 !re=e1 a physical sci5ti/ ei!r av[s or ins9uates t because ! me?ods ( physical sci5ce1 :i* are suitable = ! discov]y ( ! proximate causes ( ph5om5a1 c tell him no?+ ab\t ultimate que/ions conc]n+ ^! ph5om5a1 !re=e !re is no?+ to be kn[n ab\t ^! que/ions1 he is n only committ+ himself1 nol5s vol5s1 to def9ite philosophical views1 b he is do+ a s]i\s diss]vice to physical sci5ce itself by misconceiv+ & mis-/at+ its rightful scope & limits4 ,he has j an equal "r ) any o!r man to utilize ! e/abli%$ tru?s ( physical sci5ce to help him 9 answ]+ ultimate que/ions4 ,nay1 he may ev5 use ! unv]ifi$ hypo!ses & sy/ematic conceptions7#ead7 ( physical sci5ce = :at !y are wor? 9 help+ him to det]m9e 8 g5]al _w-view4 ,b 8 compet5ce z a speciali/ 9 physical sci5ce does n conf] ^u him any special qualification = e/imat+ ! value ( ^! tru?s & hypo!ses z evid5ce 9 ! doma9 ( ultimate problems4 ,nor c he1 because he is a sci5ti/1 or ev5 because he may g s f> z to ass]t ! "r ( speak+ 9 ! "n ( 8sci5ce10 claim = 8 p>ticul> int]pretation ! privilege ( exemption f criticism2 & ?is is true no matt] :at 8 int]pretation may be--:e!r x be agno/icism1 me*anism1 teleologism1 monism1 or !ism4 ,^! obs]vations may appe> elem5t>y & obvi\s2 b ! ins9uation ( positivism & ph5om5ism1 t :atev] is n itself ph5om5al & v]ifiable by ! exp]im5tal me?ods ( ! physical sci5ces is 9 no wise kn[able1 & ! ins9uation ( me*ani/s t _! _w-view is ! only "o compatible ) ! tru?s ( sci5ce & !re=e ! only 8sci5tific0 philosophy1 ju/ify u 9 reit]at+ & emphasiz+ ev5 su* obvi\s me?odological consid]ations4 ,be>+ !m 9 m9d1 let u n[ exam9e ! uni=mity & necessity ( ! laws ( physical nature4 ,und]/&+ by natural law ! natural incl9ation or t5d5cy ( ! creature to a def9ite l9e ( activity1 ?is law is ( itself det]m9+ or necessitat+4 ,moreov]1 x is absolutely insep>able f ! ess5ce ( ! creature4 ,grant$ t ! creature exi/s1 x has ?is t5d5cy to ex]t & direct all its =ces & en]gies 9 a def9ite1 normal way1 = ! realization ( its end4 ,?is nisus naturae is nev] abs5t2 x is obs]vable ev5 :]e1 z 9 ! g5]ation ( 8mon/]s0 by liv+ organisms1 x p>tially fails to atta9 its end4 ,a law ( nature1 tak5 9 ?is s5se1 is absolutely necess>y to1 & insep>able f1 ! creat$ ag5t2 x admits ( no exceptions2 no ag5t c exi/ )\t x2 = x is id5tical ) ! v be+ ( ! ag5t ,b ! uni=mity ( action result+ f ?is natural t5d5cy1 ! uni=m s]ies ( normal op]ations :]eby x realizes its end1 is n absolutely necess>y1 inviolable1 unexceptional4 ,9 ! fir/ place ! ,au?or ( ,nature c1 = a high] or moral purpose1 prev5t any creat$ ag5cy sup]naturally1 miracul\sly1 f actually ex]cis+ its active p[]s 9 accordance ) its nature = ! prosecution ( its natural end4 ,b ap>t altoge!r f ?is1 ab/ract+ f all special int]f]5ce ( ! ,fir/ ,cause1 & conf9+ our att5tion to ! natural ord] itself1 we h to consid] t = any physical ag5cy to act 9 its natural or normal mann] c]ta9 extr9sic conditions are always requisite3 oxyg5 & hydrog51 = in/ance1 w comb9e to produce wat]1 b only "u c]ta9 conditions ( contact1 pressure1 temp]ature1 etc4 ,?is g5]al requirem5t arises f ! fact already m5tion$1 t physical ag5cies co-exi/ 9 "t & space & are con/antly int]act+4 ,^! extr9sic conditions are1 ( c\rse1 n expressly /at$ 9 ! =mulation ( ^? uni=mities & quantitative descriptions call$ 8laws ( nature0 9 ! second & ?ird int]pretations ( ?is expression z expla9$ above4 ,x is tak5 z und]/ood t ! law applies only if & :5 & :]e all su* conditions are v]ifi$4 ,! law1 !re=e1 z /at$ categorically1 does n express an absolutely necess>y1 univ]sal1 & unexceptional tru?4 ,x may admit ( exceptions4 ,9 ! next place1 :5 we come to exam9e ^! exceptions to uni=mity1 ^! failures or fru/rations ( ! normal or natural activities ( physical ag5cies1 we f9d x possible to di/+ui% r\ghly1 ) ,ari/otle1 betwe5 two gr\ps ( su* 8uni=mities0 or 8laws04 ,!re are fir/ly ^? :i*1 s f> z our exp]i5ce goes1 seem to prevail always 771 unexceptionally2 & secondly1 ^? :i* seem to prevail g5]ally1 = ! mo/ "p 7 71 ?\gh n unexceptionally4 ,! =m] w\ld be ! outcome ( active p[]s1 en]gies1 =ces1 de facto pres5t & preval5t always & ev]y:]e 9 all physical ag5cies1 & ( su* a "* t ! conditions requisite = _! actual op]ation w\ld be always v]ifi$4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 w\ld be ! =ce ( gravity 9 all pond]able matt]2 & h5ce ! law ( gravitation is reg>d$ z all-p]vad+1 univ]sal1 unexceptional4 ,b !re are o!r natural or normal effects :i* are ! outcome ( p[]s1 =ces1 en]gies1 n all-p]vad+1 b re/rict$ to special gr\ps ( ag5cies1 dep5d5t = _! actual production on ! pres5ce ( a great & complex v>iety ( extr9sic conditions1 & liable !re=e to be imp$$ by ! int]f]+ action ( num]\s o!r natural ag5cies4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 w\ld be ! natural p[]s & processes :]eby liv+ organisms propagate _! k9d4 ,! law1 !re=e1 :i* /ates x to be a uni=mity ( nature t liv+ organisms reproduce (fspr+ simil> to !mselves 9 k9d1 is a g5]al law1 admitt+ exceptions4 ,op]ations & effects :i* foll[ f ! nature ( _! causes are call$ natural 7 1 747#eae7 ,"s causes produce _! natural effects always 7 71 o!rs produce _! natural effects usually1 z a g5]al rule 7 747#eaf7 ,op]ations & effects :i* are produc$ by ! int]f]+ influ5ce ( extr9sic ag5cies 7 8viol5t10 z oppos$ to natural71 & n 9 accordance ) ! nature ( _! pr9cipal cause1 are call$ by ,ari/otle accid5tal 7 1 72 & ^!1 he rem>ks1 p commonly describe z due to *ance 7 747#eag7 ,all are famili> ) ev5ts or happ5+s describ$ z 8=tuit\s10 8accid5tal10 8exceptional10 8unexpect$10 ) ?+s happ5+ by 8*ance10 by 7good or bad7 8luck0 or 8=tune047#eah7 ,!re are t]ms 9 all languages expressive ( ?is exp]i5ce--casus1 sors1 =tuna1 1 etc4 ,! notion und]ly+ all ( !m is t ( some?+ occurr+ un9t5tionally1 praet] int5tionem ag5tis4 ,:e!r *ance effects result f ! action ( intellig5t ag5ts or f ! op]ation ( physical causes !y are n 8int5d$10--by ! delib]ate purpose ( ! intellig5t ag5t 9 ! "o case1 or by ! natural t5d5cy1 ! int5tio naturae1 ( ! m]e physical ag5cy 9 ! o!r4 ,su* an effect1 !re=e1 has n a natural cause2 h5ce x is consid]$ exceptional1 & is always m or less unexpect$4 ,nature1 z ,ari/otle rightly obs]ves17#eai7 nev] produces a *ance effect4 ,8 mean+ is1 t :5ev] su* an effect occurs x is n br\ght ab\t 9 accordance ) ! natural t5d5cy ( any physical ag5cy4 ,x results f a collision or co9cid5ce ( two or m su* ag5cies1 ea* act+ accord+ to its nature4 ,! hunt]'s act ( fir+ at a wild f[l is an int5tional act4 ,! boy's act ( com+ into ! ?icket to ga!r wild fl[]s is an int5tional act4 ,! accid5tal %oot+ ( ! boy is ! result ( a co9cid5ce ( ! two int5tional acts4 ,simil>ly1 ea* ( all ! v>i\s ag5cies :i* br+ ab\t ! developm5t ( an embryo 9 ! mat]nal womb has its own imm$iate & p>ticul> natural effect1 & only m$iately contributes to ! g5]al effect ( br++ ! embryo to maturity4 ,z a rule ^! p>ticul> effects are fav\rable to ! g5]al effect4 ,b sometimes ! imm$iate ends d n subs]ve ?is ult]ior purpose4 ,! result is accid5tal1 exceptional1 a deviation f ! normal type1 an anomaly1 a 8mon/]0 9 ! doma9 ( liv+ organisms4 ,ari/otle's analysis1 correct s f>1 is incomplete4 ,x assigns no ultimate explanation ( ! fact t !re are su* enc\nt]s ( individual natural t5d5cies 9 ! univ]se1 su* failures 9 ! subord9ation ( p>ticul> ends to wid] ult]ior ends4 ,z a matt] ( fact ^! *ance effects1 al?\gh n 8int5d$0 by ! natures ( individual creat$ ag5cies1 are n :olly & entirely un9t5d$4 ,!y are n :olly aimless4 ,!y ent] into ! g5]al plan & s*eme ( ?+s z kn[n & will$ by ! ,au?or ( ,nature4 ,!y are kn[n to ,8 ,intellig5ce1 & will$ & rul$ by ,8 ,provid5ce4 ,= ,him !re c be no su* ?+ z *ance4 ,effects t are accid5tal 9 relation to creat$ causes1 effects t run c\nt] to ! nature or int5tio naturae ( ^!1 are =ese5 & will$ by ,him & made to subs]ve t wid] & m g5]al end :i* is ! univ]sal ord] ( ! _w t ,he has actually will$ to create4 ,x is only 9 relation to ! natures ( individual ag5cies1 & to ! limit$ horizon ( our f9ite intellig5ces1 t su* ph5om5a c pres5t ! aspect ( =tuit\s or *ance occurr5ces4 ,be=e pass+ on to deal1 9 our conclud+ section1 ) ! great fact ( ord]1 let u briefly comp>e ) ! =ego+ explanation ( nature & its laws ! attempt ( me*ani/s to expla9 ^! )\t recogniz+ 9 ! physical univ]se any influ5ce ( f9al causes1 or any indication ( a purposive intellig5ce4 ,we h v5tur$ to describe _! attitude z philosophic fatalism47#ebj7 ,accord+ to _! view !re is no gr\nd = ! di/9ction betwe5 ph5om5a t happ5 8naturally0 & ph5om5a t happ5 8accid5tally0 or 8by *ance04 ,all alike happ5 by ! same k9d ( g5]al necessity3 ! g5]ation ( a 8mon/]0 is z 8natural0 z ! g5]ation ( normal (fspr+2 ! =m]1 :5 x occurs1 is j z inevitably ! outcome ( ! physical =ces at "w 9 ! p>ticul> case z ! latt] is ! outcome ( ! p>ticul> set ( effici5t causes :i* d actually produce ! normal result3 ! only diff]5ce is t ! =m]1 occurr+ less frequ5tly & z ! result ( a r>] & less kn[n conjunction ( 8physical0 causes ?an ! latt]1 is n expect$ by u to occur1 & is consequ5tly reg>d$1 :5 x does occur1 z exceptional4 ,n[ x is q true t :at we call 8*ance0 effects1 or 8exceptional0 effects1 result j z inevitably f ! set ( =ces op]ative 9 _! case1 z normal effects result f ! =ces op]ative 9 !irs4 ,b ?is leaves = explanation some?+ :i* ! me*ani/ _c expla94 ,he reg>ds a physical law m]ely z a g5]alization1 beyond exp]i5ce1 ( "s exp]i5c$ uni=mity2 & he holds t all our physical laws are provisional 9 ! s5se t a wid] & deep] k ( ! actual conditions ( int]action among ! physical =ces ( ! univ]se w\ld enable u to elim9ate exceptions--:i* are all app>5t1 n real--by re/at+ our laws 9 su* a compreh5sive way z to include all su* cases4 ,we may1 inde$1 admit t our physical laws are op5 to revision & re/atem5t 9 ?is s5se1 & are de facto (t5 modifi$ 9 ?is s5se by ! progress ( sci5ce4 ,b ! important po9t is ?is1 t ! me*ani/ does n admit ! exi/5ce1 9 physical ag5cies1 ( any law 9 ! s5se ( a natural incl9ation t[>ds an end1 or 9 any s5se 9 :i* x w\ld imply intellig5ce1 design1 or purpose4 ,on ! contr>y1 claim+ z he does t all physical ph5om5a are r$ucible to me*anical motions ( in]t masses1 atoms1 or p>ticles ( matt] 9 space1 he is oblig$ to reg>d all physical ag5cies z be+1 s f> z _! nature is conc]n$1 :olly indiff]5t to any p>ticul> =m ( activity47#eba7 ,committ$ to ! indef5sible view t all qualitative *ange is r$ucible to quantitative 7#aa71 & all mat]ial diff]5ces to diff]5ces 9 ! location ( mat]ial p>ticles & 9 ! velocity & direction ( ! spatial motion impress$ ^u ea* by o!rs extr9sic to itself1 he has left himself no factors :]e) to expla9 ! actual ord] & c\rse ( ! univ]se1 o!r ?an ! purely indiff]5t factors ( ess5tially or naturally homog5e\s p>ticles ( in]t matt] end[$ ) local motion4 ,we emphasize ?is feature ( indiff]5ce2 = ! conception ( an in]t p>ticle ( matt] subject to me*anical motion impress$ ^u x f )\t1 is ! v type ( an indiff]5t ag5cy4 ,:at su* an entity w d1 :e!r or n x w move1 ) :at velocity & 9 :at direction x w move--9 a ^w1 its entire conduct1 its rle 9 ! univ]se1 ! sum-total ( its functions--no?+ ( all ?is is dep5d5t on itself2 ev]y?+ dep5ds on ag5cies extr9sic to x1 & on its extr9sic "t-&-space relations to ^! ag5cies2 & ^! latt] 9 turn are 9 ! same condition z itself4 ,n[ is x conceivable t ag5cies ( ?is k9d1 ( !mselves absolutely indiff]5t to any p>ticul> k9d ( effect1 suitable or unsuitable1 regul> or irregul>1 ord]ly or disord]ly1 c\ld actually produce & ma9ta9 ! exi/+ ord] ( ! univ]se8 ,if !y 7 !mselves produc$ by an ,all-,wise & ,all-,p[]ful ,be+1 & def9itely arrang$ 9 spatial relations to "o ano!r1 & initial me*anical motion 9 def9ite directions & velocities impress$ on ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! sy/em1 !re is no d5y+ t ,inf9ite ,wisdom & ,p[] c\ld1 by ,div9e concurr5ce ev5 ) su* indiff]5t ag5cies1 realize & ma9ta9 a cosmos1 or ord]ly univ]se4 ,su* purely extr9sic f9ality 7#ajf7 c\ld1 absolutely speak+1 acc\nt = ! exi/5ce ( ord]1 uni=mity1 regul>ity1 sy/em2 ?\gh all ! evid5ce furni%$ by ! univ]se ( our actual exp]i5ce po9ts to ! exi/5ce ( intr9sic f9ality also z und]/ood by ,ari/otle & ! s*ola/ics4 ,b ! me*ani/ w n all[ ev5 extr9sic f9ality2 he w n recognize 9 ! actual univ]se ( our exp]i5ce any evid5ce ( a ,rul+ ,intellig5ce realiz+ a plan or design = an intellig5t purpose2 he d5ies ! necessity ( ! inf]5ce f ! data ( human exp]i5ce to ! exi/5ce ( a ,guid+ ,intellig5ce4 ,& :at are 8 alt]natives8 ,he may *oose "o or o!r ( two4 ,he may re/ate 9 ! m sci5tific & impos+ t]m9ology ( mod]n me*anics ! crude conception ( ! anci5t ,greek atomi/s3 t ! actual ord] ( ! univ]se is ! absolutely inevitable & fatal outcome ( a c]ta9 collocation ( ! mov+ masses ( ! physical univ]se1 a collocation fav\rable to ord]1 a collocation :i* j happ5$ to occur by "s happy *ance f ! ess5tially aimless1 purposeless1 indiff]5t & *aotic motions ( ^? mat]ial masses & p>ticles4 ,we say 8*aotic10 = *aos is ! abs5ce ( cosmos2 & ord] is ! fact t has got to be expla9$4 ,9 ! concept ( indiff]5t1 in]t atoms ( matt] mov+ ?r\gh space !re is emphatically no pr9ciple ( ord]27#ebb7 & h5ce ! me*ani/ :o w n admit ! necessity ( inf]r+ an ,intellig5ce to give ^! mov+ masses or atoms ! collocation fav\rable to ord] is =c$ to 8expla90 ?is suppos$ collocation by attribut+ x to pure *ance--! concursus =tuitus atomorum ( ! anci5t ,greeks4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we reflect t ! m num]\s ^! atoms & ! m v>i$ & complex _! motions1 ! small] is ! *ance ( a collocation fav\rable to ord]2 t ! atoms & motions are suppos$ actually to surpass any assignable numb]2 t !re=e ! *ance ( any su* fav\rable collocation occurr+ is indef9itely small] ?an any measurable proportion1--we c draw our own conclusions ab\t ! value ( su* a speculation z a rational 8explanation0 ( ! exi/+ cosmos4 ,& ?is ap>t altoge!r f ! consid]ation t ! fact to be expla9$ is n m]ely ! mom5t>y occurr5ce ( an ord]ly collocation1 b ! ma9t5ance ( an ord]ly sy/em ( cosmic ph5om5a ?r\gh\t ! lapse ( all "t4 ,no ord]ly f9ite sy/em ( me*anical motions arrang$ by human skill c pres]ve its ord]ly motions indef9itely )\t intellig5t human sup]vision3 ! neglect$ ma*9e w get out ( ord]1 run d[n1 we> out1 if left to itself2 & we are ask$ to believe t ! :ole univ]se is "o va/ ma*9e :i* n only goes on )\t intellig5t sup]vision1 b :i* actually made itself by *ance67#ebc7 ,naturally su* an 8explanation0 ( ! univ]se does n comm5d itself to any man ( s]i\s ?\ght1 :atev] 8 difficulties may be aga9/ ! argum5t f ! fact ( ord] 9 ! univ]se to ! exi/5ce ( an ,intellig5t ,design]4 ,add to ?is ! consid]ation t ! me*ani/ !ory does n ev5 claim to acc\nt = ! fir/ orig9 ( ! univ]se3 x po/ulates ! exi/5ce ( matt] 9 motion4 ,9 reg>d to ?is supreme problem ( ! fir/ orig9 ( ! univ]se ! attitude ( ! me*ani/ is av[$ly agno/ic2 & 9 view ( :at we h j rem>k$ ab\t ! 8*ance0 !ory z an 8explanation0 ( ! exi/+ ord] ( ! univ]se1 x is no matt] = surprise t mo/ me*ani/s reject ?is !ory & embrace ! agno/ic attitude 9 reg>d to ?is latt] problem also4 ,:e!r ! agno/ic attitude !y assume be negative or positive1 i4e4 :e!r !y are cont5t to say t !y !mselves at lea/ fail to f9d any satisfactory rational explanation ( ! orig9 & nature ( ! cosmos1 or cont5d fur!r t no rational solution ( ^! problems is )9 ! rea* ( ! human m9d1 _! tea*+ is refut$ 9 ,natural ,!ology1 :]e ! !i/ic solution ( ^! problems is set =? & v9dicat$4 #aaj4 ,,! ,,ord] ,,( ,,! ,,univ]se2 ,a ,,fact ,,& ,,its ,,implications4--,! consid]ations s f> submitt$ 9 ?is *apt]1 z po9t+ to ! exi/5ce & influ5ce ( f9al causes 9 ! univ]se1 w be /r5g!n$ & complet$ by a brief analysis ( ord] & its implications4 ,we h se5 already 7#ee7 t ! appreh5sion ( ord] 9 ?+s implies ! recognition ( "s unify+ pr9ciple 9 :at is manifold4 ,:at1 9 g5]al1 is ! nature ( ?is pr9ciple8 ,x is ! po9t ( view1 ! /&po9t f :i* ! unify+ arrangem5t or disposition ( ! manifold is c>ri$ out2 9 o!r words x is ! end1 object1 or purpose1 ( ! ord]ly arrangem5t4 ,! arrangem5t1 & ! ord] result+ f x1 w v>y accord+ to ! end 9 view--:e!r1 = in/ance1 x be an arrangem5t ( books 9 a libr>y1 ( pictures 9 a gall]y1 ( mat]ials 9 an edifice1 ( p>ts 9 a ma*9e4 ,h5ce ,/4 ,?omas's def9ition ( ord] z ! due adaptation ( means to ends3 recta ratio r]um ad f9em4 ,:5 ?is adaptation is ! "w ( human intellig5ce ! ord] realiz$ is artificial1 :5 x is ! "w ( nature ! ord] realiz$ is natural4 ,art is an extr9sic pr9ciple ( ord]1 nature implies inde$ also an intellig5t extr9sic pr9ciple ( ord]1 b is itself an intr9sic pr9ciple ( ord]3 ! works ( nature & ^? ( art h ?is feature 9 common1 t !y manife/ adaptation ( means to ends47#ebd7 ,! subord9ation ( means to ends realizes an ord] :i* has = its unify+ pr9ciple ! influ5ce ( an end1 a f9al cause4 ,! gr\p ( dynamic relations ?us reveal$ con/itutes :at is call$ teleological ord]1 ! ord] ( purpose or f9ality4 ,! realization or execution ( su* an ord] implies ! simultane\s exi/5ce ( co-ord9at$ p>ts or memb]s 9 a sy/em1 a realiz$ :ole ) complex1 co-ord9at$1 ord]ly p>ts1 ! pr9ciple ( unity 9 ?is sy/em be+ ! =m ( ! :ole4 ,?is realiz$1 dispos$1 or con/itut$ ord]1 is call$ ! e/hetic ord] 7#ee71 ! ord] ( co-ord9ation1 composition1 con/itution4 ,9 ultimate analysis1 h[ev]1 ^! two ord]s1 ! teleological & ! e/hetic1 hav+ z respective unify+ pr9ciples ! f9al cause & ! =mal cause1 are n two really di/9ct ord]s1 b r two aspects ( "o & ! same ord]3 we h se5 t 9 ! ?+s ( nature ! intr9sic end or f9al cause ( ea* is id5tical ) its =ma sub/antialis or =mal cause 7#ajh74 ,b ! f9al cause is naturally prior to ! =mal cause1 & consequ5tly ! teleological ord] is m fundam5tal ?an ! e/hetic4 ,/4 ,augu/9e's def9ition ( ord] z 8! arrangem5t ( a multiplicity ( ?+s1 simil> & dissimil>1 accord+ its prop] place to ea*107#ebe7 reveals ! mat]ial cause ( ord] 9 ! multiplicity ( v>i$ elem5ts1 ! =mal cause ( ord] 9 ! gr\p ( relations result+ f ! arrangem5t or dispositio1 & ! effici5t cause ( ord] 9 ! ag5t t disposes or arranges !m4 ,! f9al cause1 ?\gh n directly m5tion$1 is impli$ 9 ! fact t ! place ( ea* factor 9 ! sy/em is necess>ily det]m9$ by ! function x has to fulfil1 ! "p x is suit$ by its nature to play1 9 contribut+ to ! realization ( ! end or purpose ( ! arrangem5t4 ,if1 !n1 ord] is ! "r arrangem5t or disposition ( ?+s accord+ to _! de/9ation1 or 9 ! mutual relations dem&$ by _! ends1 x necess>ily foll[s t ! v exi/5ce ( natural ord] 9 ! univ]se implies t ?is univ]se is n a "w ( *ance b a purposive "w1 j z ! exi/5ce ( artificial ord] 9 products ( human art implies t ^! products are n ! result ( *ance b ( activity influ5c$ by f9al causes47#ebf7 ,x is 9 fact impossible to conceive ord] except z result+ f ! influ5ce ( f9al causes4 ,"r reason rejects z an utt]ly inadequate explanation ( ! natural ord] ( ! univ]se ! fanta/ic & f>-fet*$ supposition ( a *ance collocation ( indiff]5t1 undet]m9$ & aimless physical ag5cies47#ebg7 ,if we f9d 9 ! actual physical univ]se difficulties aga9/ ! view t ?is univ]se reveals ! influ5ce ( f9al causes1 su* difficulties d n arise f ! fact t !re is ord] 9 ! univ]se1 b r f ! fact t ) ?is ord] !re seems to coexi/ "s degree ( disord] also4 ,9 s f> =? z !re is natural ord] !re is cog5t evid5ce ( ! influ5ce ( f9al causes4 ,& s necess>y is ?is inf]5ce t ev5 "o s+le au!ntic in/ance ( natural ord] 9 an o!rwise *aotic univ]se w\ld oblige u to inf] ! exi/5ce & influ5ce ( a f9al cause to acc\nt = t solit>y in/ance4 ,we mean by an au!ntic in/ance "o :i* evid5ces a real & su/a9$ uni=mity1 regul>ity1 mutual co-ord9ation & subord9ation ( factors 9 ! behavi\r ( any gr\p ( natural ag5cies2 = we all[ t transi5t mom5t>y collocations & concurr5ces ( indiff]5t ag5cies1 act+ aimlessly & )\t purpose z a matt] ( fact1 might pres5t to our m9ds1 accu/om$ to seek = ord]ly & purposive ph5om5a1 ! deceptive appe>ance ( ord]4 ,ord]1 !n1 we take x1 necess>ily implies ! exi/5ce & influ5ce ( f9al causes4 ,?is 9 turn1 z we h already obs]v$1 implies ) equal necessity ! exi/5ce ( ,intellig5t ,purpose4 ,if1 !n1 !re is natural ord] 9 ! univ]se1 !re mu/ exi/ an ,intellig5t ,w to acc\nt = ?is natural ord]4 ,leav+ ! developm5t ( ?is l9e ( argum5t to its prop] place 9 ,natural ,!ology1 !re rema9s ! simple "q ( fact3 ,is ! physical univ]se a cosmos8 ,does x reveal ord]--a natural ord] di/9ct f ! artificial ord] realiz$ by ! human m9d 9 ! me*anical & f9e arts1 an ord]1 !re=e1 realiz$ n by ! human m9d b by "s o!r m9d1 by ! ,div9e ,m9d8 ,! evid5ces ( su* ord] sup]ab\nd4 ,we h already ref]r$ to "s ( !m 7#ajf71 nor is !re any ne$ to lab\r ! matt]4 ,two po9ts1 h[ev]1 9 connexion ) ?is univ]sally recogniz$ fact ( ord] 9 ! univ]se1 call = a brief m5tion be=e we conclude4 ,!y are 9 ! nature ( difficulties aga9/ ! ord9>y1 reasonable view ( ! matt]1 ! view on :i* ! !i/ic argum5t f ord] is bas$4 ,9 accordance ) ! ,kantian !ory ( k x is object$ t ! ord] :i* we appreh5d1 or ?9k we appreh5d1 9 ! univ]se1 is n really 9 ! univ]se ( our exp]i5ce1 b is z x 7 project$ into ?is univ]se by our own m9ds 9 ! v process ( cognition itself4 ,x is !re=e n real b only app>5t1 n n\m5al b only ph5om5al4 ,x is simply a product ( ! categoriz+1 unify+1 sy/ematiz+ activity ( our m9ds4 ,x is a feature ( ! ph5om5on or m5tal product1 i4e4 ( ! n\m5al datum z inve/$ ) a category ( ?\ght4 ,b :e!r or n x is a *>act]i/ic ( ! real univ]se itself man's speculative reason is by its v con/itution ess5tially incapable ( ev] discov]+4 ,! !ory ( k on :i* ?is difficulty is bas$ c be %[n to be uns\nd & errone\s4 ,= a criticism ( ! !ory we mu/ ref] ! read] to s*ola/ic works on ,epi/emology4 ,x may be obs]v$1 h[ev]1 ap>t f ! m]its or dem]its ( ! !ory1 t ! exp]i5c$ fact ( ord] is by no means demoli%$ or expla9$ away by any que/ions t may be rais$ ab\t ! exact location ( ! fact1 if we may s express x4 ,ord] is a fact1 an und5iable1 exp]i5c$ fact2 & x looms j z l>ge1 & cries out j z insi/5tly = explanation1 ) :i*ev] ( ! impos+ adjectives 8n\m5al0 or 8ph5om5al0 a philosoph] may *oose to qualify x2 nor d we dim9i% its reality by call+ x ph5om5al "o :it m ?an we increase t reality by call+ x n\m5al4 ,! o!r difficulty arises f ! exi/5ce ( disord] 9 ! univ]se4 ,pessimi/s ( ! type ( ,s*op5hau] or ,nietzs*e conc5trate _! att5tion s exclusively on ! evid5ces ( disord]1 ! failures ( adaptation ( means to ends1 ! defects & excesses1 ! prodigality & p5ury1 ! pa9 & suff]+1 :i* ab\nd 9 physical nature--n to speak ( moral evil1--t !y become bl9d to all evid5ces ( ord]1 & proclaim all belief 9 ord] an illusion4 ,! picture ( ,nature1 r$ 9 too? & claw ,) rav9e7#ebh7 is1 h[ev]1 ! product ( a morbid & di/raught imag9ation r ?an a sane view ( ! facts4 ,! und5iable exi/5ce ( disord]1 ( physical evils1 defects1 failures1 fru/rations ( natural t5d5cy 9 ! univ]se1 does n obscure or conceal f ! normal1 unbiass$ m9d ! equally und5iable evid5ces ( a great & wide & g5]ally prevail+ ord]4 ,nor does x conceal f su* a m9d ! fact t ! exi/5ce ( ord] 9 any measure or degree implies ( necessity ! exi/5ce ( plan or design1 & !re=e ( intellig5t purpose also4 ,inf]r+ f ?is fact ( ord] ! exi/5ce ( a ,supreme ,intellig5ce1 & inf]r+ by o!r l9es ( reason+ f ! data ( exp]i5ce ! dep5d5ce ( ! univ]se on ?is ,intellig5ce z ,creator1 ,cons]v] & ,rul]1 ! !i/ is confront$ ) ! reality ( moral & physical evil 7#eb71 i4e4 ( disord] 9 ! univ]se4 ,b he does n see 9 ?is disord] any?+ ess5tially incompatible ) 8 e/abli%$ conclusion t ! univ]se is a f9ite creation ( ,inf9ite ,wisdom1 & a free manife/ation ( ! latt] to man4 ,if ! actual univ]se is imp]fect1 he kn[s t ,god creat$ x freely & might h creat$ a m p]fect or a less p]fect "o4 ,kn[+ t ,god is ,all-,p[]ful z ,he is ,all-,wise1 he kn[s t ! actual univ]se1 ?\gh imp]fect absolutely1 is p]fect relatively1 9 t x infallibly reveals ! ,div9e ,wisdom & ,goodness exactly 9 ! measure 9 :i* ,god has will$ to reveal ,himself 9 ,8 works4 ,consci\s on ! "o h& t 8 f9ite m9d _c trace 9 detail all ! purposes ( ,god 9 nature1 or assign to all individual ev5ts _! div9ely appo9t$ ends1 he is confid5t on ! o!r h& t ! :ole univ]se is intelligible only z ! work+ out ( a ,div9e plan1 & n o!rwise4 ,to 8 m9d z a !i/ ^! l9es are a cle>] expression ( rationally gr\nd$ optimism ?an !y 7 p]haps ev5 to ! poet :o p5n$ !m3-- ,i tru/ 9 nature = ! /able laws ,( beauty & utility4 ,spr+ %all plant ,& ,autumn g>n] to ! end ( "t4 ,i tru/ 9 ,god--! "r %all be ! "r ,& o!r ?an ! wrong1 :ile ,he endures2 ,i tru/ 9 my own s\l1 t c p]ceive ,! outw>d & ! inw>d1 ,nature's good ,& ,god's47#ebi7 ,we h se5 t ! ag5cies :i* con/itute ! univ]sal ord] h ea* its own inn] pr9ciple ( f9ality2 t ^! ag5cies are n isolat$ b mutually relat$ 9 su* ways t ! ends ( ea* subs]ve an extr9sic & remot] end :i* is none o!r ?an ?is univ]sal ord] :]eby we recognize ! _w z a cosmos4 ,! ma9t5ance ( ?is ord] is ! intr9sic end ( ! univ]se z a :ole3 an end :i* is imman5t 9 ! univ]se1 an end :i* is ( c\rse a good4 ,b ?is univ]sal ord] itself is = an end1 an extr9sic1 transc5d5t end1 di/9ct f itself2 & ?is end1 too1 mu/ be a good4 8,! univ]se10 says ,/4 ,?omas17#ecj7 8has ! good ( ord] & ano!r di/9ct good40 ,! univ]sal ord]1 says ,ari/otle1 has itself an end1 a good1 :i* is "o1 & to :i* all else is orda9$3 8 047#eca7 ,:at c ?is ,supreme ,good be1 ?is absolutely ,ultimate ,end1 ?is ,transc5d5t ,pr9ciple ( all nature1 & ( all nature's t5d5cies & activities8 ,:5ce comes ?is univ]sal t5d5cy ( all nature1 if n f ! ,be+ :o is ! ,"o1 ,et]nal1 ,immutable ,prime ,mov]17#ecb7 & ^: mov+ influ5ce is ,love87#ecc7 ,su* is ! pr(\nd ?\ght ( ,ari/otle1 a ?\ght re-e*o$ s sublimely by ! immortal poet ( ,*ri/ian philosophy 9 ! clos+ l9e ( ! ,p>adiso3-- ,l'amor *e muove il ,sole e l'altre /elle4 ,! imm$iate factors ( ! univ]sal ord] ( nature1 !mselves devoid ( intellig5ce1 mu/ !re=e be ! "w ( ,intellig5t ,w4 ,to arrange ^! factors z p>ts ( "o h>moni\s :ole1 z memb]s ( "o ord]ly sy/em1 ,supreme ,wisdom mu/ h conceiv$ ! plan & *os5 ! means to realize x4 ,! manife/ation ( ,god's glory by ! realization ( ?is plan1 su* is ! ultimate transc5d5t end ( ! :ole creat$ univ]se4 8,! :ole ord] ( ! univ]se10 writes ,/4 ,?omas1 develop+ ! ?\ght ( ,ari/otle17#ecd7 8is = ! ,prime ,mov] !re(2 ?is ord] has = its purpose ! work+ out 9 an ord]ly univ]se ( ! plan conceiv$ & will$ by ! ,prime ,mov]4 ,& h5ce ! ,prime ,mov] is ! pr9ciple ( ?is univ]sal ord]40 ,! tru?s s briefly outl9$ 9 ?is clos+ *apt] on ! ord] & purpose ( ! univ]se h n[h]e f\nd m apt & lucid philosophical =mulation ?an 9 ! monum5tal writ+s ( ! ,angel ( ! ,*ri/ian ,s*ools2 nor p]haps h !y ev] else:]e appe>$ 9 a m felicit\s sett+ ( poetic imag]y ?an 9 ^! /anzas f ! immortal epic ( ! ,poet ( ! ,*ri/ian ,s*ools3-- 444 ,le cose tutte quante ,hann' ord9e tra lora2 e que/a =ma ,*e l'univ]so a ,dio fa simigliante4 ,qui veggion l'alte creature l'orma ,dell'et]no ,valore1 il quale f9e ,al quale fatta la toccata norma4 ,nell' ord9e *'io dico sono accl9e ,tutte nature p] div]se sorti ,pi al ,pr9cipio loro e m5 vic9e2 ,onde si muovono a div]si porti ,p] lo gran m> dell'ess]e1 e ciascuna ,con in/9to a lei dato *e la porti4 ,que/i ne porta il fuoco inv] la ,luna3 ,que/i ne' cuor mortali p]motore2 ,que/i la t]ra 9 se /r+e ed aduna4 ,n pur le creature1 *e son fuore ,d'intellig5za1 que/' arco saetta ,ma quelle *' hanno intelletto ed amore4 ,la ,provid5za1 *e cotanto assetta1 ,del suo lume fa il ciel sempre quieto1 ,nel qual si volge quel *'ha maggior fretta3 ,ed ora li1 com' a sito decreto1 ,c5 porta la virt di quella corda1 ,*e ci *e scocca drizzo 9 segno lieto47#ece7 ,,index4 ,absolute1 !1 #dg sq42 & relative1 #ccb sqq4 ,accid5ts1 individuation (1 #acc sqq42 causes (1 #bce-f2 divisions (1 #bcg sqq42 exi/5ce & relation to sub/ance1 #bcb sqq41 #bdj sqq41 #bdc1 #bdg n41 #bdi1 #cac4 ,actio et passio1 v4 causality1 causes4 ,actio int5tionalis1 #cgh4 ,actio 9 di/ans1 #cie-f4 ,action1 imman5t & transitive1 #gc1 #cfi1 #cia-b4 ,actual & pot5tial1 #eb sqq4 & passim4 ,actuality1 goodness & p]fection1 #agc sqq4 ,actus ,purus1 #ed1 #eh4 ,,aegidius1 #ajh n4 ,aevet]nitas1 aevum1 #bcj4 ,agno/icism1 #if1 #ig1 #cce1 #chc1 #dji1 #dad1 #dbg4 ,,alb]tus ,,magnus1 #ajh n41 #bja n41 #bhh4 ,,alex&] ,,( ,,hales1 #aaj n41 #aab n4 ,analogy1 analogical pr$ication1 #cf sqq41 #abb n41 #bab1 #bdj1 #bgb1 #ccj2 a4 inf]5ce1 #chf-g1 #cia4 ,,&ronicus ,,( ,,rhodes1 #ag4 ,anima mundi1 #bhd4 ,,anselm1 ,,/41 #cec n4 ,an?ropology1 #ai4 ,appetite1 #afg sqq4 ,appetitus naturalis1 #dji-aj1 #dac-ae4 ,,ari/otle1 on philosophy1 #e2 on e/hetics1 #ac2 on !ology1 #ae1 #af2 on special sci5ces1 #af2 on analogy1 #dj2 on *ange1 #ea1 #ef1 #fh sqq42 on ess5ce1 #ge2 on individual1 #abj-a2 on ! good1 #afg sqq42 on beauty1 #bjj n41 #bja n42 on sub/ance & accid5t1 #bji1 #bdi2 on 8fir/0 & 8second0 sub/ances1 #beb-c2 on quality1 #bhg1 #bij-b2 on habits1 #bic-f2 on quantity1 #caa n42 on place1 #cah2 on "t1 #cdb2 on relation1 #ccg n41 #cdf-h2 on pr9ciples1 #ceh n42 on causes1 #cfa sqq41 #cfg2 on f9al causes1 #djf sqq42 on 8nature10 #daf sqq41 #dbb-d1 #dbf2 on ord] ( ! univ]se1 #dcc4 ,art1 & nature1 #daf-ag4 ,arts1 f9e & me*anical1 #ac1 #ad1 #dcj2 & sci5ce1 #aid-e2 scope (1 #bjd sqq42 & morals1 #bje-f4 ,atomism1 v4 ,me*anism4 ,,augu/9e1 ,,/41 on basis ( possible ess5ces1 #hi n41 #id2 on evil1 #ahe n42 on beauty1 #aih1 #bjj n41 #bjb n42 on "t1 #cbb2 on ord]1 #dbi4 ,,aureolus1 #aaj n4 ,,av]ro,,sm1 #bhd4 ,,balmes1 #hi n41 #ij n41 #ic4 ,,ba,,ez1 ,d41 #ajh n41 #cej n4 ,,baumg>t51 #aib n4 ,beatitudo1 #age n41 #daa4 ,beauty1 ! ,beautiful1 #ac1 #ad2 analysis (1 #aib sqq42 def9itions (1 #bja sqq4 ,be+1 concept analys$1 #cb sqq42 real be+ & logical be+1 #aj1 #db sqq41 #he1 #adj4 -- & ,ideal ,be+1 #de sqq41 #he4 -- fundam5tal di/9ction 91 #df sqq4 -- metaphysical grades (1 #abc sqq4 -- pot5tial & actual1 #ea sqq4 ,,b]gson1 #cj1 #bhi n41 #cjc4 ,,b]keley1 #bae1 #bba1 #cej n41 #djj4 ,,biel1 ,g41 #aaj n4 ,,billot1 #bff n4 ,bilocation1 #cbb4 ,,bo,,tius1 #cbi4 ,,boirac1 #cdc4 ,,bonav5ture1 ,,/41 on di/9ction ( s\l & faculties1 #bdg-h4 ,,bossuet1 #aif1 #cfj4 ,,br[n+1 #dcb4 ,,bruneti,,re1 #aif4 ,,bulliat1 #acj n4 ,,cajetan1 #bd1 #ch n41 #ajh n41 #cej n4 ,,capreolus1 #hg n41 #ajh n41 #cej n4 ,,c>y1 #dcd n4 ,categories1 ultimate1 analysis (1 #bjh sqq42 n adequately di/9ct z modes1 #baj-aa1 #cej2 b exhau/ive1 #baa-ab4 ,causa exempl>is1 #cfb4 ,causalitas 8int5tionalis10 #dac4 ,causality1 causes1 notion analys$1 #ceg sqq42 classification1 #cfa sqq42 pr9ciple ( ,c41 #cfi sqq41 #chd-e2 8plurality0 ( causes1 #chj2 causality & uni=mity1 #cgg1 #cha1 #chb2 8physical0 cause1 #chb1 #dai2 ph5om5i/ view (1 #chb sqq42 & inductive sci5ce1 #cei1 #cgi1 #cha1 #chb n42 & det]m9ism1 #cgg2 & creation1 #cia1 #djj-a4 ,causality1 effici5t1 z index ( real di/9ction1 #adh2 classification ( effici5t causes1 #cgb sqq42 in/rum5tal1 #cgc-f2 objective validity ( concept1 #chb sqq42 orig9 ( concept1 #che sqq42 analysis (1 #cff sqq41 #chh sqq42 errone\s !ories (1 #cib-f2 & occasionalism1 #cif sqq41 #djj sqq4 -- f9al 7v4 purpose71 #cfa1 #cfh2 intr9sic & extr9sic f9ality1 #djd sqq41 #dbf2 all-p]vad+ influ5ce (1 #dji2 divisions (1 #dji sqq42 analysis (1 #daasqq42 z imply+ intellig5ce1 #dji1 #dad-ae1 #dbf4 -- =mal1 #cfa1 #cfd-e4 -- mat]ial1 #cfa1 #cfd-f4 ,*ance1 #dbc sqq4 ,*ange1 #fa sqq41 #cjb-e2 & "t1 #cbc2 & causality1 #cfg1 #chi-if4 ,,cic]o1 #a4 ,,cl>ke1 #ace4 ,cognitio 8vulg>is10 #b4 ,composition1 logical & metaphysical1 #cd2 ess5tial & integral1 #caa1 #cad-af2 z index ( f9it5ess1 #bdh4 ,,comte1 #cj1 #ccd4 ,conceptualism1 #bd1 #abe4 ,concursus ,div9us1#ff1 #cbi1 #cdh1 #cge n41 #chh sqq42 necessity (1 #chi-ia1 #dja-c4 ,condition1 & cause1 #ceh-i1 #dai4 ,consci\sness1 & p]sonality1 #bgc1 #bgg sqq42 8sublim9al10 #bhb sqq4 ,con/itutive or con/ructive factors 9 ?\ght1 #de1 #gd1 #cdj1 #cee-f4 ,cont+5t & necess>y ,be+1 #dg4 ,co-op]ation1 9 philosophical /udies1 #cj4 ,correlatives1 #chh4 ,corruptio et g5]atio1 #ga1 #ahf4 ,cosmology1 #af1 #ai1 #bhe1 #cji1 #cfd1 #chh1 #cic4 ,,c\s91 #cja1 #chg4 ,creatio ab aet]no1 #hi1 #cbh4 ,crit]iology1 v4 ,k1 !ory (4 ,,dante1 #dcd n4 ,,david ,,( ,,d9ant1 #abe n4 ,,de ,,munnynck1 #hd n41 #hi n41 #ia n41 #id n41 #ie n4 ,,de ,,san1 #bda n41 #cbg n41 #cca n4 ,,desc>tes1 on basis ( ess5ces1 #if1 #ig2 on sub/ance1 #bad1 #bbf-h1 #bcj1 #bda n42 on accid5ts1 #bdd2 on corporeal sub/ance1 #cab-ac1 #cae1 #cig4 ,design1 v4 purpose & f9al cause4 ,,de ,,wulf1 #f n41 #bg n41 #bi n41 #aef n41 #aie n41 #bhd4 ,disposition1 v4 habit4 ,dispositiones ad =mam1 #bie n4 ,disord]1 fact (1 #dca-b4 ,di/9ctions1 doctr9e (1 #aje sqq41 #aci sqq41 #bdb-c1 #bdi-ea1 #cja-e4 ,,domet ,,de ,,vorges1 #chg n4 8,d\ble law0 9 man1 #agf4 8,d\ble p]sonality10 #bhb-d4 ,,driscoll1 #hi n4 ,,dupasqui]1 #ii n4 ,,dur&us1 #aaj n4 ,duration1 #cbb1 #cbe n41 #cbh sqq4 ,education1 & habits1 #bih4 ,effici5cy1 concept (1 v4 cause 7effici5t74 ,ego1 v4 p]son4 ,,eleatics1 #ea1 #abe1 #cjc4 ,end 7v4 purpose71 #djf4 ,en]gies1 equival5ce (1 #cie4 ,ens a se1 ab alio1 #dg2 & ens 9 se1 #bcj-a1 #ccd4 ,ens rationis1 v4 ,be+4 ,entitative habit1 #bib n4 ,epi/emology1 v4 ,k1 !ory (4 ,esse 8int5tionale10 #de1 #df1 #dab4 ,ess5ce1 analysis (1 #ge sqq42 & nature & sub/ance1 #gi1 #beh4 ,e/hetics1 #ac1 #ad1 #aib sqq4 ,et]nity1 #cbh sqq42 ( ess5ces1 #hj sqq4 ,e!r1 hypo!sis (1 #cag1 #cie4 ,e?ics1 #aa-ab1 #bif-g1 #dbh-i4 ,eu*>i/1 & sub/ance & accid5ts1 #bbc n41 #bcc1 #bdc n42 & quantity1 #cab-af2 #cai n41 #cbb1 #cde n4 ,,euck51 #bh4 ,evil1 analysis (1 #ahb sqq4 ,exempl>ism1 #ih1 #ajj1 #afa-b4 ,exi/5ce1 & ess5ce1 #aja-ac2 ( accid5ts1 #bdc-fa2 & subsi/5ce1 #bff1 #bfi2 & action1 #cja4 ,ext5sion1 v4 quantity4 ,extr9sic d5om9ations1 #bch1 #bci4 ,faculties1 #bih sqq42 & sub/ance1 #cjj sqq4 ,fai? & reason1 #e4 ,fatalism1 #dbd n4 ,figure1 or =m1 z indicative ( nature1 #bib-c4 ,f9is1 f9ality1 v4 purpose & f9al causes4 ,f9ite & ,inf9ite1 #dg1 #cja-c4 ,,fonseca1 #aac n4 8,=ma0 z ess5ce or nature1 #gh-i1 #acj4 ,=mae subsi/5tes1 #abi4 8,=mal0 unity1 #aef4 ,=malitates1 #aed4 ,=mative pr9ciples1 simplicity (1 #cag-ah2 plurality 9 ! individual1 #cfe 7n4 #d74 ,,francis ,,( ,,vittoria1 #aac n4 ,,franzel91 #aaj n41 #bfg n4 ,free causes1 #cgf-g2 & occasionalism1 #cih4 ,fre$om ( ?\ght1 #f4 ,g5]atio1 v4 corruptio4 ,g5u5sis1 #ih n4 8,g5us0 & 8diff]5tia0 z 8mat]ia0 & 8=ma10 #gi n41 #cfe 7n4 #d74 ,,geul9cx1 #cig4 ,,giob]ti1 #id4 ,good1 analysis ( !1 #afg sqq42 divisions ( !1 #age sqq42 & be+1 #agg sqq42 & beauty1 #aic4 ,,g\d91 #ajh n4 ,graceful1 elegant1 !1 #aii n4 ,,gregory ,,( ,,val5tia1 #aaj n4 ,habit1 analysis (1 #bib sqq4 ,haecceitas1 #abe1 #acb4 ,,h>p]1 #ii n4 ,,hegel1 ,hegelianism1 #cj1 #cc1 #df1 #di1 #fg-h1 #ig1 #bjh1 #cce4 ,,h5ry ,,( ,,gh5t1 #hg n41 #aac n4 ,,h]aclitus1 #ea1 #cjc4 ,,hickey1 #hi n4 ,,hobbes1 #ccd4 ,h,,ffd+1 #bcj n4 ,,hume1 #bac2 on sub/ance1 #bae1 #bag1 #bba2 on cause1 #cgj n41 #che4 ,,hunley1 #bai n4 ,hypo/asis1 #bfe4 ,hypo/atic ,union1 #bfg-ga4 ,idealism1 #bad1 #ccd-f1 #cda1 #cdc1 #djj4 ,id5tity1 #ace sqq42 & *ange1 #aci1 #bbf1 #bda1 #bgh2 p]sonal1 #bgf1 #bgg sqq4 ,immat]ial1 positively & negatively1 #af4 ,imm5sity1 ,div9e1 #cai4 ,imp5etrability1 #cji1 #cbb4 ,incommutabilia v]a1 #hi n4 ,indisc]nibles1 id5tity (1 #ace4 ,individuation1 #abj1 #abc sqq41 #adh1 #bfa4 ,inf9ite & ,f9ite1 #dg2 & categories1 #bab4 ,inf9ite regress 9 causation1 #cgc4 ,inh]5ce1 v4 accid5t4 ,int5tio m5tis1 #aj1 #dc1 #add n41 #ade1 #baa1 #cci4 8,int5tio naturae10 #dad n41 #daf1 #dbc4 8,int5tional0 causality1 #dac4 ,,james1 #cj2 on p]sonal id5tity1 #bhc-d4 ,,john ,,( ,,/4 ,,?omas1 #ajh n41 #cej n4 ,,joseph1 on mean+s ( 8cause10 #cgi-hj4 ,,j\ffroy1 #bge4 ,,kant1 #ba1 #cj1 #aba1 #ade1 #bja1 #bjh1 #bbh1 #ccd1 #cce1 #cdc1 #che1 #cic1 #cid1 #dcj4 ,,kappes1 ,m41 #ge n4 ,,kleutg51 #ch1 #ci1 #dj1 #dc1 #hg n41 #ajc n41 #adb n42 on accid5ts1 #bdb1 #bdg n41 #bfg n41 #ccj n4 ,,klimke1 #fg n4 ,k1 relativity (1 #cce sqq4 --sci5tific1 #b4 --!ory (1 #aa1 #bj1 #bc1 #de1 #df1 #gj1 #ajh2 & doctr9e ( di/9ctions1 #adc-f1 #aea-c2 & categories ( be+1 #bjg sqq41 #bhe1 #bhi2 & category ( relation1 #ccb sqq41 #che2 & causality1 #cic2 & ord]1 #dcj-a4 ,lac5sis1 ,philosophia1 #ba4 ,,lacordaire1 #hi n4 ,,ladd1 #bd1 #bg4 ,,lah\sse1 #ii n4 ,,lam9ne1 #fj n41 #cga n4 ,law1 ( nature1 #dah sqq4 ,,leibniz1 #ba1 #ih n41 #ace1 #ahb1 #bbg1 #bih1 #chg1 #djf4 ,,leo ,,xiii1 #g1 #bf4 ,,lib]atore1 #ii n4 ,,littr1 #bac4 ,,locke1 on sub/ance1 #bad1 #bba2 on p]sonality1 #bgg-hd1 #ccd4 ,logic1 #aj4 ,,mah]1 #bbc n41 #bcj n41 #bgc n42 on consci\sness ( self1 #bgd-f1 #bhb n42 on !ories ( self1 #bhc-d1 #bhi n42 on p]ception ( "t1 #cbd n41 #cbf-g2 on relativity ( k1 #ccf n42 on cause1 #chf n4 ,,malebran*e1 #cig-djj4 ,mani*eism1 #ahb1 #ahi-ia4 ,,ma/rius1 #ii n4 ,mat]ia prima1 ,ari/otle on1 #ga-b4 ,mat]ia signata1 #abg1 #abi1 #aca1 #ace4 ,ma!matical unity1 #aaf1 #aai4 ,ma!matics1 philosophy (1 #ag1 #be4 ,matt]1 & evil1 #aij4 -- divisibility ( 7v4 individuation71 #cag2 cont9uity (1 #cag-ah4 ,measurem5t1 relativity (1 #cbe-g4 ,me*anism1 me*anical conception ( univ]se1 #fi1 #bfe1 #bhi1 #cic-f1 #djd1 #dji1 #dac1 #dad1 #dbd-i4 ,memory1 & p]sonality1 #bgf-hd4 ,,m5dive1 #ii n4 ,,m]ci]1 on division ( metaphysics1 #ba2 on s*ola/icism1 #bf-g2 on *>act]i/ics ( ess5ces1 #hc1 #ic-d2 on analogical concept ( ,god1 #ig2 on di/9ction1 #ajg2 on ph5om5ism1 #bac1 #bbd n41 #bfi n42 on faculty & sub/ance1 #cje n42 on int]action1 #cia2 on effici5t cause1 #cic n42 on occasionalism1 #cih n42 on me*anism1 #dbf n41 #dbi n4 ,metaphor1 & analogy1 #ci4 ,metaphysics1 division (1 #ae sqq42 etymology (1 #ag1 #ah2 scope (1 #bd1 #be1 #bg2 & physics1 v4 physics4 ,,mill1 #bac1 #bbj1 #ccd1 #cdc2 on causes1 #chb4 ,modal di/9ction1 #aej1 #bde sqq4 ,modes1 accid5tal & sub/antial1 #aej-a1 #bci1 #bde sqq41 #bgj1 #cbe n41 #ccj-a4 ,,mol9a1 #aac n4 ,monadology1 ( ,leibniz1 #bbg4 ,monism1 #df1 #ig1 #ajc1 #abe1 #bcj1 #bhd1 #cej n41 #cii4 #dji4 ,monophysites1 #bfh4 ,monopsy*ism1 #bhd4 ,moral cause1 #cgg-h4 ,morality & art1 #bje-f4 ,motion 7v4 *ange71 & effici5t causality1 #cib-f4 ,multitude1 actually inf9ite1 #cba-b4 ,nature & sub/ance1 #beg sqq42 & p]son1 #bfa sqq42 analysis ( notion (1 #dfa sqq4 ,necess>y & ,cont+5t ,be+1 #dg4 ,necessity ( ess5ces1 #ha sqq4 -- ( physical laws1 #dai-bh4 ,,newman1 on scope ( philosophy1 #bb1 #ca2 on causality1 #cgg1 #chg4 ,,nietzs*e1 #dca4 ,nisus naturae1 #dba4 ,nom9alism1 #abe4 ,notas individuantes1 #abd1 #aca4 ,,nys1 #cji n41 #caa n41 #cba n41 #cbg n41 #cbh n41 #cie n4 ,occasion1 & cause1 #cei4 ,occasionalism1 #bbf1 #chg1 #chh2 exam9$1 #cif-djc4 ,ontology1 #ba1 #bc4 ,ontologism1 #ie1 #cej n4 ,optimism1 #aha-b1 #dcb4 ,old]1 /atic & dynamic1 #aii1 #dbh2 & beauty1 #aid1 #aii1 #dbh2 natural & artificial1 #dbh2 & relation1 #cdb2 & f9al cause1 #dbh2 & =mal cause1 #dbi2 & intellig5t purpose1 #dag1 #dbi-cj1 #dcc4 ,panpsy*ism1 #bej4 ,pan!ism1 v4 monism4 ,,pauls51 #bac1 #bbf-g4 ,p]fection1 analysis (1 #aga sqq42 & beauty1 #bja2 grades (1 #ei1 #agb-c2 9 sub/ances1 #acd1 #bee2 & di/9ction1 #adb n42 & habit1 #big2 & relation1 #cdb4 ,p]son1 p]sonality1 #bfb sqq42 def9ition (1 #bfe1 #bgj n42 di/9ction f individual nature1 #bff sqq42 false !ories (1 #bgf sqq42 8subconsci\s10 #bhc-d4 ,,pes*1 #ii n4 ,pessimism1 #aha-b1 #dca4 ,ph5om5ism1 & sub/ance1 #bac sqq41 #bbc2 sub/antializes accid5ts1 #bae2 sub/antializes consci\sness1 #bha1 #bhb-d2 & causality1 #chb sqq41 #cih1 #dba4 ,philosophy1 notion (1 #b sqq42 divisions (1 #g sqq42 & special sci5ces1 #bh-i4 ,place1 analysis (1 #cah sqq4 ,,plato1 #ic1 #id1 #ie1 #afg1 #bjj n41 #bja4 ,pleasure1 s5sible & e/hetic1 #aif-g1 #bje-f4 ,,po9c>1 #aii n4 ,positivism1 #bad1 #ccd1 #chc1 #dji1 #dba4 ,possible1 !1 #eb sqq41 #hb sqq42 & intelligible1 #ig2 & passive pot5tiality1 #aji4 ,pot5tia ob$iantialis1 #cgb4 ,pot5tial1 v4 actual4 ,p[]1 op]ative1 #ee2 & passive pot5tiality1 #bih sqq42 z index ( p]fection1 #bjb n42 classification (1 #cje4 ,praescisio objectiva et =malis1 #cd1 #adf-g4 ,prime mov]1 necessity (1 #fe-g4 ,pr9ciple1 notion (1 #ceg-h4 ,privatio1 #fb1 #ceh4 ,provid5ce1 & *ance1 #dbd4 ,psy*ology1 #ai1 #bif4 ,purpose1 & ! good1 #afi1 #dje sqq42 & p]fection1 #djh2 & ord]1 #dbi4 ,,py?agoras1 #a4 ,,quality1 analysis (1 #bhf sqq42 divisions (1 #bhh sqq42 *>act]i/ics (1 #cje sqq42 grades ( int5sity 91 #cjg4 ,quantity1 & individuation1 #acc2 analysis (1 #cji sqq42 & corporeal sub/ance1 #caa sqq42 int]nal & ext]nal1 #cji-aj1 #cad4 ,rate1 notion (1 #cbe n41 #cbg n4 ,,rada1 #ii n4 ,realism1 mod]ate1 #bc1 #abe1 #acc1 #bdb-c1 #cbj4 -- extreme1 #df1 #aef-g4 ,reason1 & cause1 #cei-fj4 -- 8suffici5t10 #ace1 #ahb1 #cfj4 ,,re9/adl]1 #ajf n4 ,relation1 analysis (1 #ccf sqq42 logical1 #cch sqq42 real1 #cda sqq42 transc5d5tal1 #cde2 pr$icam5tal1 #cdf sqq4 2 reality ( ! 8esse ad10 #cej-f4 ,relative1 !1 #dg sqq41 #ccb sqq4 ,,r5\vi]1 #cce4 ,revelation1 #d sqq41 #ab1 #be1 #ahi1 #bcc1 #bdg1 #beb1 #bfc1 #bfe1 #bfg1 #cab-ae1 #cbh1 #ceh n4 ,,rickaby1 #bgf n4 ,,roscoe1 #hc n4 ,,royce1 #be4 ,,s*iff9i1 #ii n4 ,s*ola/icism1 #bf1 #cj2 on sub/ance1 #bah sqq4 ,,s*op5hau]1 #dca4 ,sci5ce1 v4 k4 ,sci5ces1 special1 #af1 #bg2 at ,l\va9 & ,maynoo?1 #bi n4 ,,scotus1 #cd1 #ci sqq41 #ii1 #aac1 #abe1 #acb1 #aec sqq41 #bdg1 #bfg n4 ,self1 consci\sness (1 #bgd sqq4 7v4 p]son47 ,,s5eca1 #dbd n4 ,s5sibilia propria et communia1 objectivity (1 #gj2 p] se et p] accid5s1 #bah1 #bfj4 ,s5sism1 #ccd1 #chc n41 #cid n4 ,simil>ity1 & id5tity1 #acg1 #cjf2 & di/9ction1 #aec4 ,simplicity1 & quantity1 #cjg n4 ,situs1 category (1 #cji1 #cai n4 ,,socrates1 #afg4 ,solipsism1 #hf4 ,,sonc9as1 #ajh n4 ,,soto1 ,d4 ,,de1 #aac n4 ,space1 analysis (1 #cai sqq42 problems on1 #cba-b4 ,speciali/s1 sci5tific1 & metaphysics1 #bg-bh4 ,species expressa1 #df2 s5sibilis1 #cac4 ,,sp5c]1 #cj1 #bac1 #bbh1 #bbi1 #cce4 ,,sp9oza1 on sub/ance1 #bcj-b1 #ccd1 #cii4 ,spirits1 individuation (1 #abi1 #aca4 ,,/or*5au1 #ih n4 ,,su>ez1 #da1 #dd1 #aaj n41 #aaa n41 #bfg n4 ,sublime1 !1 #aii n4 ,subsi/5tia1 #aca1 #bfa sqq4 7v4 p]son71 #bga-c4 ,sub/ance1 category (1 und5iable 9 ?\ght1 #bji1 #bae1 #bbj1 #bha1 #bhb-d2 reality (1 #bac sqq42 cognoscibility (1 #bac sqq41 #bai sqq42 plurality (1 #bba2 di/9ction f accid5ts1 #bbd sqq41 #cja-e2 errone\s notions (1 #bbe sqq42 p]man5ce (1 #bbi1 #bgg2 divisions (1 #beb sqq42 complete & incomplete1 #bed sqq42 corporeal & spiritual1 #bec-d1 #cae-f2 relation to space1 #cai4 ,sub/antial *ange1 #ga4 ,,sully-,,prudhomme1 #bjc n4 ,sup]natural !ology1 #e1 #ab1 #ac4 -- end1 #daa4 ,suppositum1 suppositalitas1 v4 p]son1 p]sonality4 ,,ta9e1 #bac4 ,ta/e1 e/hetic1 #aig4 ,teleology1 v4 purpose & f9al cause4 ,,t5nyson1 #ca1 #dca4 ,!odicy1 #ba4 ,!ology1 natural1 #ae1 #ai1 #ahb1 #ahi1 #bhe1 #ccd1 #dch1 #dcj4 ,,?omas1 ,,/41 on division ( philosophy1 #i1 #ah1 #bf2 on analogy1 #cf2 on absolute be+1 #di2 on action1 #fj1 #fd2 on ess5ces1 #gf1 #gi1 #ib2 on exi/5ce & ess5ces1 #ajb n41 #aaj n41 #aab n42 on unity1 #aaf n41 #aag n41 #aai n41 #abj n41 #aef n41 #bej2 on individuation1 #abg n42 on ontological tru?1 #afb-c1 & falsity1 #afe n42 on ! good1 #afi n41 #agd n41 #agf n41 #ahj n42 on evil1 #ahc n41 #ahd n42 on ! beautiful1 #aic n41 #aid n41 #bjj n42 on ,ari/otle's categories1 #baj1 #baa n42 on sub/ance & accid5t1 #bji n41 #bbc n41 #bca n41 #bcb n41 #bcd n41 #bda n41 #bdc n41 #bdh2 on ess5ce z nature1 #beh-fa2 on subsi/5ce & p]sonality1 #bfc n41 #bff n41 #bfi2 on quality1 #bhc1 #bij1 #bic2 on habits1 #bid-f2 on p[] & sub/ance1 #cjj sqq42 on grades 9 quality1 #cjg-h2 on quantity & corporeal sub/ance1 #caa sqq42 on body & _s1 #cad-f2 on "t1 #cbc-d2 on creatio ab aet]no1 #cbh2 on duration1 #ccj n42 on relations1 #cci-dj1 #cda n41 #cdb n41 #cdd n41 #cdg1 #cdh n41 #cea n41 #cec n41 #ced n41 #cee n41 #cef n42 on classification ( causes1 #cfb n42 on mat]ial & =mal causes1 #cfe n42 on action1 #cfg-h2 on in/rum5tal cause1 #cge2 on creat$ causes1 #chh n41 #chi n42 on occasionalism1 #djj n42 on f9al causality1 #djh n41 #dab n41 #dae n42 on nature & art1 #dag1 #dbh n42 on ord]1 #dbh1 #dcb n41 #dcc4 ,?\ght & imag]y1 #cib-f4 ,"t1 analysis (1 #cbb sqq42 problems on1 #cbh4 ,tradition1 #ca4 ,transc5d5tal & g5]ic notions1 #ce2 attributes ( be+1 #aad sqq42 relations1 #cde4 ,transub/antiation1 #bcc4 ,tru?1 ontological1 #aeh sqq4 ,,turn]1 #ba n4 ,ubi1 category (1 #cji1 #cai4 ,ubiquity1 ,div9e1 #cai4 ,uni=mity ( ,nature1 #cgg2 & law1 #dah2 & inductive sci5ce1 #dai2 degrees (1 #dbb sqq4 ,union1 sub/antial & p]sonal1 #bfh4 ,unity1 doctr9e (1 #aad sqq41 #bdb-c2 8organic0 & 8me*anical10 #bdi-ea1 #bfj-a1 #bgh2 ( liv+ individual1 #bhj-a1 #cja-e2 conceptual1 #ccg4 ,univ]sal & individual 7v4 individuation71 #beb-c4 ,univocal1 v4 analogical4 ,,urraburu1 #ce1 #hg n41 #hh n41 #ii n41 #abd n42 on modes1 #bde n42 on nature & p]son1 #bfg-h1 #bgj n41 #bhh n41 #cde n41 #cee n42 on in/rum5tal causes1 #cgd n42 on cause1 #cic n4 ,vacuum1 & motion1 #cba4 ,,vallet1 #bja4 ,v>iety1 & beauty1 #bjj4 ,,vasquez1 #aaj n4 ,,veit*1 #ccd n4 ,vital *ange1 #fd-e4 -- acts1 #bdf n4 ,volunt>ism1 #if-g4 ,weltans*auung1 ,_w-view1 #d1 #bi1 #cj4 ,,william ,,( ,,ockam1 #ie4 ,,w9delb&1 #g1 #bjh n4 ,,wolff1 #ba1 #ih4 ,,wundt1 #bac1 #bbf1 #bfg n4 ,,zigli>a1 #fd n41 #ajg n41 #aef n41 #cja n41 #cbj n41 #cih n4 ,,footnotes #a #b vols4 ,longmans1 #aiab4 #b ,in/itutions ,metaphysica1 quas ,roma1 9 ,pontificia ,univ]sitate ,gregoriana tradid]at ,p4 ,,joannes ,,josephus ,,urraburu1 ,s4,j4 ,volum5 ,secundum3 ,ontologia 7,rome1 #ahia74 #c ,fr5* v]sion by ,,si]p1 #d vols4 ,p>is1 ,gaume1 #ahfh4 #d ,ontologie1 ou ,mtaphysique ,gnrale1 p> ,d4 ,,m]ci]4 ,l\va91 #cme dit41 #aijb4 #e 4--,,ari/otle1 ,metaph41 ,i41 #a4 8,sapi5tia philosophia e/ sci5tia quae consid]at primas et univ]sales causas40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,9 ,metaph41 ,i41 ,i4 #b4 #f ,cf4 ,,de ,,wulf1 ,s*ola/icism ,old & ,new1 pp4 #ei-fa1 #aia-d2 ,hi/ory ( ,m$ieval ,philosophy1 pp4 #caa-ac2 also two articles 9 ! ,iri% ,ecclesia/ical ,record 7,m>* & ,may1 #aijf7 on ,?\ghts on ,philosophy & ,religion1 & an article 9 ! ,iri% ,!ological ,qu>t]ly 7,octob]1 #aiaj7 on ,philosophy & ,sect>ianism 9 ,belfa/ ,univ]sity1 by ! pres5t writ]4 #g ,cf4 ,encyclical ,aet]ni ,patris1 on ,philosophical ,/udies1 by ,pope ,leo ,,xiii41 ,augu/ #d1ahhj4 #h ,introduction1 #a4 #i ,z a brief g5]al /atem5t ( ! matt] ?is is suffici5tly accurate & w n be misund]/ood4 ,( c\rse ! g5]al /&po9t ( ultimate causes & reasons admits )9 itself "s v>iety ( aspects4 ,?us ,epi/emology & ,psy*ology deal ) human ?\ght1 b "u diff]5t aspects2 ,psy*ology & ,e?ics deal ) human volition1 b "u diff]5t aspects1 etc4 #aj 8,!oreticus sive speculativis intellectus1 9 hoc proprie ab op]ativo sive practico di/+uitur1 quod speculativus habet pro f9e v]itatem quam consid]at1 practicus autem v]itatem consid]atam ord9at 9 op]ationem tamquam 9 f9em2 et ideo diff]unt ab invicem f9e2 f9is speculativae e/ v]itas1 f9is op]ativae sive practicae actio40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,9 lib4 ,boetii de ,tr9itate4 #aa ,"h is ,/4 ,?omas' exposition & ju/ification ( ! doctr9e 9 ! text3 8,sapi5tis e/ ord9>e4 ,cujus ratio e/1 quia sapi5tia e/ potissima p]fectio rationis1 cujus proprium e/ cognosc]e ord9em4444 ,ordo autem quadruplicit] ad rationem comp>atatur4 ,e/ enim quidam ordo quem ratio non facit1 s$ solum consid]at1 sicut e/ ordo r]um naturalium4 ,alius autem e/ ordo1 quem ratio consid]&o facit 9 proprio actu1 puta cum ord9at conceptus suos ad invicem1 et signa conceptuum1 quae sunt voces significativae4 ,t]tius autem e/ quem ratio consid]&o facit 9 op]ationibus voluntatis4 ,qu>tus autem e/ ordo quem ratio consid]&o facit 9 ext]ioribus rebus1 qu>um ipsa e/ causa1 sicut 9 arca et domo4 ,et quia consid]atio rationis p] habitum p]ficitur1 secundum hos div]sos ord9es quos proprie ratio consid]at1 sunt div]sae sci5tiae4 ,nam ad philosophiam naturalem p]t9et consid]>e ord9em r]um quem ratio humana consid]at s$ non facit2 ita quod sub naturali philosophia compreh5damus et metaphysicam4 ,ordo autem quem ratio consid]&o facit 9 proprio actu1 p]t9et ad rationalem philosophiam1 cujus e/ consid]>e ord9em p>tium orationis ad invicem et ord9em pr9cipiorum ad invicem et ad conclusiones4 ,ordo autem actionum volunt>i>um p]t9et ad consid]ationem moralis philosophiae4 ,ordo autem quem ratio consid]&o facit 9 rebus ext]ioribus con/itutis p] rationem humanam1 p]t9et ad artes me*anicas40--,9 ,x4 ,e?ic4 ad ,ni*om41 i41 lect4 #a4 #ab ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 i41 ,introduction1 *4 ii4 & iii4 #ac ,,ari/otle & ! s*ola/ics di/+ui%$ betwe5 ! doma9 ( ! practical 71 1 ag]e1 agibilia7 & ! op]ative or productive 71 1 fac]e1 factibilia74 #ad ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 i41 #h4 #ae 8,qudam igitur sunt speculabilium qu dep5d5t a mat]ia secundum esse1 quia non nisi 9 mat]ia esse possunt1 et hc di/+uuntur quia dep5d5t qudam a mat]ia secundum esse et intellectum1 sicut illa 9 quorum def9itione ponitur mat]ia s5sibilis3 unde s9e mat]ia s5sibili intelligi non possunt2 ut 9 def9itione hom9is oportet accip]e c>nem et ossa3 et de 8 e/ physica sive sci5tia naturalis4 ,qudam v]o sunt qu1 quamvis dep5deant a mat]ia s5sibili secundum esse1 non tam5 secundum intellectum1 quia 9 eorum def9itionibus non ponitur mat]ia s5sibilis1 ut l9ea et num]us3 et de 8 e/ ma!matica4 ,qudam v]o sunt speculabilia qu non dep5d5t a mat]ia secundum esse1 quia s9e mat]ia esse possunt3 sive nunquam s9t 9 mat]ia1 sicut ,deus et angelus1 sive 9 quibusdam s9t 9 mat]ia et 9 quibusdam non1 ut sub/antia1 qualitas1 pot5tia et actus1 unum et multa1 etc41 de quibus omnibus e/ !ologia1 id e/ sci5tia div9a1 quia prcipuum cognitorum 9 ea e/ ,deus4 ,alio nom9e dicitur metaphysica1 id e/1 transphysica1 quia po/ physicam dic5da occurrit nobis1 quibus ex s5sibilibus competit 9 ins5sibilia dev5ire4 ,dicitur etiam philosophia prima1 9 quantum sci5tiae ali ab ea pr9cipia sua accipi5tes eam sequuntur40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,9 lib4 ,boetii de ,tr9itate1 q4 #e1 a4 #a4 #af 4--,metaph4 ,,iii41 ,i 7ed4 ,didot74 #ag ,metaph4 ,x41 *4 vii41 #e & #f4 #ah ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 ii41 #bea-e4 #ai ,:5 ! t]m 8sci5ce0 is us$ n[adays 9 contradi/9ction to 8philosophy10 x usually signifies ! k embodi$ 9 :at are call$ ! special1 or positive1 or inductive sci5ces--a k :i* ,ari/otle w\ld n reg>d z /rictly or fully sci5tific4 #bj ,ari/otle's conception ( ! close relation betwe5 ,physics 7or ! ,philosophy ( ,nature7 & ^? analytic /udies :i* we n[adays describe z ! physical sci5ces1 be>s witness to ! close alliance :i* he conceiv$ to exi/ betwe5 s5se obs]vation on ! "o h& & rational speculation on ! o!r4 ,?is sane view ( ! cont9uity ( human k1 a view to :i* ! ,s*oolm5 ( ! ,middle ,ages 7 ev] fai?ful1 0 supplant$ at ! dawn ( mod]n philosophy 9 ! sixte5? & sev5te5? c5turies by ! opposite view1 :i* l$ to a divorce betwe5 physics & metaphysics1 & to a s]ies ( misund]/&+s :i* /ill prevail ) equal detrim5t to sci5ce & philosophy alike4 #ba ,cf4 ,,de ,,wulf1 ,hi/ory ( ,m$ieval ,philosophy1 pp4 #bh-i1 #ff2 ,,m]ci]1 ,ontologie1 ,introd41 p4 v41 n4 #bb 8,dicitur metaphysica sci5tia id e/1 transphysica1 quia po/ physicam dic5da occurrit nobis1 quibus ex s5sibilibus competit 9 ins5sibilia dev5ire40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,9 ,lib4 ,boetii de ,tr9itate1 q4 #e1 a4 #a4 #bc ,?is is also ! title ( ! social & e?nological /udy ( ! v>i\s races ( m51 _! primitive habits1 cu/oms1 in/itutions1 etc4 #bd ,n entirely2 = in/ance1 :at is p]haps ! mo/ compreh5sive c\rse ( philosophy publi%$ 9 rec5t times1 ! ,philosophia ,lac5sis 7#aa vols41 ,h]d]1 #ahhh-aijj7 app>5tly foll[s ! arrangem5t ( metaphysics outl9$ above4 ,! fundam5tal que/ions on kn[+ & be+1 :i* usually con/itute di/9ct dep>tm5ts "u ! respective titles ( ,epi/emology & ,ontology1 are "h treat$ "u ! compreh5sive title ( ,in/itutiones ,logicales 7#c vols474 ,h[ev]1 !y are really metaphysical problems1 problems ( speculative philosophy1 :]ev] !y be treat$2 & ! fact t ! que/ions usually treat$ 9 ,ontology are "h treat$ 9 a volume ap>t 7vol4 iii4 ( ! ,in/itutiones ,logicales3 "u ! peculi> title ( ,logica ,realis71 & n 9 ! volumes assign$ to g5]al metaphysics1 %[s ! necessity & conv5i5ce ( ! m mod]n arrangem5t4 ,g5]al metaphysics are dealt ) 9 #b vols4 ( ,in/itutiones ,philosophiae ,naturalis & #c vols4 ( ,in/itutiones ,psy*ologicae2 special metaphysics 9 ! ,in/itutiones ,!odicae 7#a vol472 e?ics 9 #b vols4 ( ,in/itutiones ,juris ,naturae4 #be ,cf4 ,,turn]1 ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 p4 #ebe4 #bf ,,m]ci]1 ,logique1 ,introd41 #i4 #bg pp4 #de1 #ea4 #bh ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 i41 #ag4 #bi ,cf4 ibid4 i41 ,introd41 *4 i4 #cj ,,cajetan1 ,9 #b ,po/ ,anal41 *4 xiii4 #ca ,cf4 ,,m]ci]1 ,ontologie1 #f-ac2 ,,ladd1 ,a ,!ory ( ,reality1 *4 i4 #cb infra1 *4 viii42 ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 ii41 ,"p ,,iv41 *4 iii4-vi42 ,"p ,v41 *4 i4 #cc p4 #ah--;9 :i* context w be f\nd a ma/]ly analysis & criticism ( curr5t prejudices & objections aga9/ sy/ematic metaphysics4 #cd ibid4 pp4 #ai-bj4 #ce ,,royce1 ,! ,conception ( ,god1 p4 #bjg4 #cf ,,m]ci]1 ,logique1 ,introd41 #ad4 #cg ,encyclical1 ,aet]ni ,patris1 on philosophical /udies4 #ch ,summa ,!ologica1 #a1 q4 #a1 a4 #h1 ad4 #b4 #ci ,cf4 ,,m]ci]1 ,orig9es de la psy*ologie contempora9e1 *4 viii42 ,,de ,,wulf1 ,s*ola/icism ,old & ,new 7passim74 #dj ,cf4 ,,ladd1 op4 cit41 pp4 #i1 #aj4 #da ,,euck51 ,gesammelte ,aufsaetze zur ,philosophie und ,leb5sans*auung1 #aeg 7,leipzig1 #aijc74 #db ,cf4 art4 ,philosophy & ! ,sci5ces at ,l\va91 9 ! ,iri% ,ecclesia/ical ,record1 ,may1 #aije1 repr9t$ z ,app5dix 9 ,,de ,,wulf',s ,s*ola/icism ,old & ,new4 #dc ,h5ce ! necessity ( equipp+ ! /ud5t ( philosophy ) a k ( ! ma9 conclusions & !ories ( ! sci5ces t h an imm$iate be>+ on philosophy3 *emi/ry1 physics1 geology1 a/ronomy1 me*anics1 ! axioms & po/ulates ( pure & appli$ ma!matics1 cellul> biology1 embryology1 ! physiology ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 botany & zoology1 political economy1 sociology & e?nology4 ,n[h]e is ! sy/em ( comb9+ ! sci5tific ) ! philosophical =mation ( m9d m ?or\ghly c>ri$ out at ! pres5t "t ?an 9 ! curriculum ( ! ,philosophical ,in/itute at ! ,univ]sity ( ,l\va94 ,9 ! ,college ( ,maynoo? n only is ! /udy ( philosophy complet$ by a full] c\rse ( ,*ri/ian ,!ology1--bo? discipl9es ?us comb9+ to give ! /ud5t all ! ess5tial elem5ts ( a complete ,philosophy ( ,life 7ii471--b x is prec$$ by an elem5t>y tra9+ 9 ! physical sci5ces & accompani$ by c\rses on ! hi/ory ( sci5tific !ories 9 *emi/ry1 physics1 physiology1 & g5]al biology4 #dd 8,we may m5tion x 9 pass+10 writes ,m]ci] 9 8 g5]al introduction to philosophy 7,logique1 #a1 p4 #f7--8;x 0 ?is feel+ ( individual impot5ce 9 face ( ! task confront+ ! philosoph] at ! pres5t day1 t inspir$ ! f\ndation ( ! ,philosophical ,in/itute at ! ,univ]sity ( ,l\va904 ,he _h previ\sly outl9$ ! project 9 8 ,rapport sur les tudes philosophiques at ! ,congress ( ,me*l9 9 #ahia4 ,"h are a few brief extracts f t memorable docum5t3 8,s9ce individual ef=t feels itself well nigh p[]less 9 ! pres5ce ( ! field ( obs]vation :i* goes on wid5+ day by day1 association mu/ make up = ! insuffici5cy ( ! isolat$ work]2 m5 ( analysis & m5 ( syn!sis mu/ come toge!r & =m1 by _! daily int]c\rse & unit$ action1 an atmosph]e suit$ to ! h>moni\s developm5t ( sci5ce & philosophy alike44440 8,man has multipli$ 8 p[] ( vision2 he ent]s ! _w ( ! inf9itely small2 he fixes 8 scrut9iz+ gaze ^u regions :]e our mo/ p[]ful telescopes disc]n no limits4 ,physics & ,*emi/ry progress ) giant /rides 9 ! /udy ( ! prop]ties ( matt] & ( ! comb9ations ( its elem5ts4 ,geology & ,a/ronomy recon/ruct ! hi/ory ( ! orig9 & =mation ( our planet4 ,biology & ! natural sci5ces /udy ! m9ute /ructure ( liv+ organisms1 _! di/ribution 9 space & succession 9 "t2 & ,embryology explores _! orig94 ,! ar*ological1 philological & social sci5ces recon/ruct ! pa/ ages ( our hi/ory & civilizations4 ,:at an inexhau/ible m9e is "h to exploit1 :at regions to explore & mat]ials to analyse & int]pret2 f9ally :at pione]s we mu/ engage 9 ! "w if we are to h a %>e 9 g>n]+ ^? treasures60 #de ,gramm> ( ,ass5t1 p4 #bbi4 #df ,luc]na p$ibus meis v]bum tuum1 et lum5 semitis meis4--,ps4 cxviii41 #aje4 #dg ,,t5nyson1 ,9 ,memoriam4 #dh ,cf4 ,logic1 i41 #abc4 #di ,cf4 ,logic1 i41 pp4 #bjd-f4 #ej ,cf4 ,,scotus1 ,summa ,!ologica1 edit4 by ,monte=t9o 7,rome1 #aijj71 i41 p4 #ajf1 ,ad t]tium4 #ea ,cf4 ,logic1 i41 pp4 #aai-bj4 #eb ,cf4 ,,scotus1 op4 cit41 i41 pp4 #ajd1 #abi2 also ,,urraburu1 ,ontologia1 ,disp4 ,,iii41 ,cap4 ,,ii41 ,art4 ,,iii41 p4 #aee4 #ec ,h5ce ,/4 ,?omas calls ! ?+s ab\t :i* a g5]ic or specific concept is pr$icat$ 8analoga secundum esse et non secundum int5tionem0 7,9 #a ,s5t41 ,di/4 xix41 q4 #e1 a4 #b1 ad a am73 we br+ !m "u ! same notion or 8int5tio0 7e4g4 8liv+ be+071 b ! cont5t ( ?is notion is realiz$ 9 ! v>i\s ?+s 7e4g4 9 ,socrates1 ?is horse1 t rose-tree1 etc47 9 v>y+ & unequal degrees ( p]fection4 ,h5ce1 too1 ?is univocal relation ( ! g5us to its subord9ate subjects is sometimes 7improp]ly7 call$ 8analogy ( inequality04 #ed ,cf4 infra1 *4 viii4 #ee ,cf4 ,,kleutg51 ,philosophie d] ,vorzeit1 #eii1 #fjj4 #ef ,?is1 ( c\rse1 is ! prop] sort ( analogical pr$ication3 ! pr$ication bas$ ^u simil>ity ( proportions or relations4 ,etymologically1 analogy means equality ( proportions 7,cf4 ,logic1 ii41 p4 #afj74 ,on ! :ole subject ! /ud5t may consult ) pr(it ,cajetan's ,opusculum de ,nom9um ,analogia1 publi%$ z an app5dix to vol4 iv4 ( ,/4 ,?omas' ,qu/iones ,disputat 9 ,de ,m>ia's edition 7#ahhc74 #eg ,cf4 ,,kleutg51 op4 cit41 #dj-db4 #eh ,cf4 ,,scotus1 op4 cit41 i41 pp4 #cah-bb1 #abe-aca1 #ajb-g 7especially p4 #abh1 ,ad t]tium72 p4 #aca1 ,ad sextum2 p4 #cba1 ,ad t]tium4 #ei ,,kleutg51 op4 cit41 #eii4 #fj ibid41 #fjj4 #fa ,,su>ez1 ,metaph41 ,di/4 xxviii41 #c2 ,di/4 xxxii41 #b4 #fb ,,scotus1 op4 cit41 i41 pp4 #ajf-g1 #abh-i4 #fc ibid41 p4 #ajg4 #fd ,cf4 ,,kleutg51 ,la philosophie scola/ique 78,die ,philosophie d] ,vorzeit074 ,fr4 trans4 by ,si]p 7,p>is1 #ahfh71 vol4 i41 p4 #ff1 #ce4 #fe ,! logical copula1 :i* expresses ?is relation & ass]ts ! tru? ( ! judgm5t1 expresses1 ( c\rse1 a logical entity1 an ens rationis4 ,true judgm5ts may be /at$ ab\t logical entities z well z ab\t realities4 ,b s9ce ! =m] c be conceiv$ only aft] ! mann] ( ! latt]1 ! appropriat5ess ( us+ ! v]b :i* expresses exi/5ce or reality1 z ! logical copula1 w be at once app>5t4 ,cf4 ,logic1 i41 p4 #bdi1 n4 #a4 #ff ,,su>ez1 ,metaph41 ,di/4 #ed1 i41 #f4 #fg ,cf4 ,logic1 i41 pp4 #bh-i4 #fh ,cf4 ,,kleutg51 op4 cit41 #eea-b4 #fi ,cf4 ,logic1 i41 pp4 #gj-a4 #gj 8,esse actum quondam nom9at3 non enim dicitur esse aliquid ex hoc1 quod e/ 9 pot5tia1 s$ ex hoc1 quod e/ 9 actu40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,contra ,g5t4 i41 c4 xxii41 #d4 #ga ,c]ta9 m$ieval philosoph]s _h made ! same mi/ake4 ,/4 ,?omas po9ts out _! error frequ5tly4 ,cf4 ,contra ,g5tes1 i41 c4 xxvi3 8,quia id1 quod commune e/1 p] additionem specificatur vel individuatur1 /imav]unt1 div9um esse1 cui nulla fit additio1 non esse aliquid proprium1 s$ esse commune omnium3 non consid]antes1 quod id1 quod commune e/1 vel univ]sale1 s9e additione esse non pote/1 s$ s9e additione consid]atur4 ,non enim animal pote/ esse absque rationali vel irrationali diff]5tia1 quamvis s9e 8 diff]5tiis consid]etur2 licet enim cogitetur univ]sale absque additione1 non tam5 absque receptibilitate additionis e/4 ,nam si animali nulla diff]5tia addi posset1 g5us non esset2 et similit] e/ de omnibus aliis nom9ibus4 ,div9um autem esse e/ absque additione1 non solum cogitatione1 s$ etiam 9 r]um natura2 et non solum absque additione1 s$ absque receptibilitate additionis4 ,unde ex hoc ipso quod additionem non recipit1 nec recip]e pote/1 magis concludi pote/ quod ,deus non sit esse commune1 s$ esse proprium4 ,et5im ex hoc ipso suum esse ab omnibus aliis di/+uitur1 quia nihil ei addi pote/40 #gb ,cf4 ,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,,qq4 ,,dd4 ,de ,pot5tia1 q4 i4 art4 #a1 ad4 #ah4 #gc ,,ari/otle1 ,metaph41 c4 iv41 v41 apud ,,kleutg51 op4 cit41 iii41 p4 #fj4 #gd ,contra ,g5tes1 ,,ii41 c4 vii4 #ge ,cf4 ,,lam9ne1 ,cause et ,effet--,revue neo-scola/ique1 ,febru>y1 #aiad1 p4 #ch4 #gf ,/4 ,?omas uses :at is = him /rong language :5 he describes su* a view z ridicul\s3 8,ridiculum e/ dic]e quod ideo corpus non agat1 quia accid5s non transit de subjecto 9 subjectum2 non enim hoc modo dicitur corpus calidum calefac]e1 quod idem num]o calor1 qui e/ 9 calefaci5te corpore1 transeat ad corpus calefactum2 s$ quia virtute caloris1 qui e/ 9 calefaci5te corpore1 alius calor num]o fit actu 9 corpore calefacto1 qui prior erat 9 eo 9 pot5tia4 ,ag5s enim naturale non e/ traduc5s propriam =mam 9 alt]um subjectum1 s$ r$uc5s subjectum quod patitur de pot5tia 9 actum40--,contra ,g5tes1 ,l4 ,,iii41 c4 lxix4 #gg ,cf4 ,,zigli>a1 ,ontologia 7#h71 ix41 ,qu9tum4 ,cf4 also ,,ari/otle1 ,metaph4 v41 ,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,9 ,metaph41 v41 #ad1 & ,contra ,g5tes1 i41 c4 xvi41 :]e he emphasizes ! tru? t pot5tial be+ presupposes actual be+3 8,quamvis id quod qu&oque e/ 9 pot5tia1 qu&oque 9 actu1 prius sit tempore 9 pot5tia quam 9 actu1 tam5 simplicit] actus e/ prior pot5tia2 quia pot5tia non educit se 9 actum1 s$ opportet quod educatur 9 actum p] aliquid quod sit 9 actu4 ,omne igitur quod e/ aliquo modo 9 pot5tia1 habet aliquid prius se04 #gh ,,klimke1 ,d] ,monismus und se9e philosophis*5 ,grundlag51 p4 #ahe4 ,cf4 ,iri% ,!ological ,qu>t]ly1 vol4 vii4 7,april1 #aiab71 p4 #aeg sqq41 art4 ,reflections on ,"s ,=ms ( ,monism4 #gi ,= relations ( pot5tia & actus1 cf4 ,,m]ci]1 ,ontologie1 #bad4 #hj ,cf4 ,physics1 v41 #a2 ,de ,anima1 i41 #c4 #ha 1 1 1 1 4--,metaph4 vi41 c4 iii4 #hb 8,decepit antiquos philosophos hanc rationem induc5tes1 ignorantia =mae sub/antialis4 ,non enim adhuc tantum pr(ec]ant ut intellectus eorum se elev>et ad aliquid quod e/ supra s5sibilia3 et ideo illas =mas tantum consid]av]unt1 qu sunt s5sibilia propria vel communia4 ,hujusmodi autem manife/um e/ esse accid5tia1 ut album et nigrum1 magnum et p>vum1 et hujusmodi4 ,=ma autem sub/antialis non e/ s5sibilis nisi p] accid5s1 et ideo ad ejus cognitionem non b]v5]unt1 ut scir5t ipsam mat]iam di/+u]e40--,9 ,metaph4 vii41 #b4 #hc 8,esse actum quemdam nom9at3 non enim dicitur esse aliquid1 ex hoc quod e/ 9 pot5tia1 s$ ex hoc quod e/ 9 actu40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,contra ,g5tes1 i41 *4 xxii41 #d4 #hd ,! etymology ( ,ari/otle's description ( ! ess5ce z is n easy to expla94 ,! expression supposes a dative und]/ood1 e4g4 1 ! be+ prop] to man4 ,to ! "q 2 :at is ! be+ or ess5ce prop] to man8 ! answ] is3 t :i* gives ! def9ition ( man1 t :i* expla9s :at he is-- 4 ,is ! imp]fect1 1 an ar*aic =m = ! pres5t1 2 or is x a delib]ate sugge/ion ( ! pr(\nd doctr9e t ! ess5ce z ideal1 or possible1 is ant]ior to its actual1 physical realization8 ,comm5tators are n agre$4 ,cf4 ,,mat?ias ,,kappes1 ,ari/oteles-,lexicon1 p4 #be 7,pad]born1 #ahid72 ,,m]ci]1 ,ontologie1 p4 #cj n4 #he ,ess5tia e/ illud p] quod res con/ituitur 9 proprio g5]e vel specie1 et quod significamus p] def9itionem indicantem quid e/ res4--,de ,ente et ,ess5tia1 *4 i4 #hf ,,ari/otle1 ,metaph41 v41 #d2 ,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,de ,pot5tia ,dei1 q4 ix41 art4 #a4 #hg ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 ! expression 8metaphysical ess5ce0 is us$ to signify ^? objective concepts1 & ^? only1 )\t :i* ! ?+ _c be conceiv$1 7or sometimes1 ev5 ! "o :i* is consid]$ mo/ fundam5tal among ^!71 & !re=e z n explicitly involv+ ! concepts ( prop]ties :i* foll[ necess>ily f ! =m]2 :ile ! 8physical ess5ce0 is und]/ood to signify all ^? real elem5ts )\t :i* ! ?+ _c actually exi/1 includ+1 !re=e1 all su* necess>y prop]ties4 ,tak5 9 ?is s5se ! physical ess5ce ( man w\ld include n m]ely s\l & body1 b also su* prop]ties z ! capacity ( spee*1 ( laught]1 ( us+ tools1 ( cook+ food1 etc4 #hh ,et ex hoc patet ratio1 writes ,/4 ,?omas1 qu>e g5us et species et diff]5tia se habeant proportionalit] ad mat]iam1 =mam et compositum 9 natura1 quamvis non s9t idem cum illis2 quia neque g5us e/ mat]ia1 s$ sumitur a mat]ia ut significans totum2 nec diff]5tia e/ =ma1 s$ sumitur a =ma ut significans totum4 ,unde dicimus hom9em esse animal rationale1 et non ex animali et rationali2 sicut dicimus eum esse ex corpore et anima4 ,ex corpore enim et anima dicitur esse homo1 sicut ex duabus rebus qudam t]tia res con/ituta1 qu neutra ill>um e/3 homo enim nec e/ anima neque corpus2 s$ si homo aliquo modo ex animali et rationali dicatur esse1 non erit sicut res t]tia ex duabus rebus s$ sicut intellectus conceptus t]tius ex duobus intellectibus4 ,intellectus enim animalis e/ s9e det]m9atione =mae specialis naturam exprim5s rei1 ex eo quod e/ mat]iale respectu ultimae p]fectionis4 ,intellectus autem hujus diff]5tiae1 rationalis1 consi/it 9 det]m9atione =mae specialis3 ex quibus duobus intellectibus con/ituitur intellectus speciei vel def9itionis4 ,et ideo sicut res con/ituta ex aliquibus non recipit prdicationem e>um r]um ex quibus con/ituitur2 ita nec intellectus recipit prdicationem eorum intellectuum ex quibus con/ituitur2 non enim dicimus1 quod def9itio sit g5us vel diff]5tia4--,de ,ente et ,ess5tia1 cap4 iii4 #hi ,cf4 ,,m]ci]1 ,psy*ologie1 vol4 ii41 #afi 7#f? edit41 #aijc1 pp4 #bd-e74 #ij ,cf4 ,,ari/otle1 ,metaph41 ,l4 viii41 #aj2 ,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,9 viii41 ,metaph41 ,lect4 iii41 p>4 i4 #ia ,cf4 ,,m]ci]1 ,ontologie1 pp4 #db-c4 ,h[ d we "k t n only wat] 7,h#b,o7 is a possible ess5ce b also hydrog5 di-oxide 7,h#b,o#b78 ,because ! latt] sub/ance has be5 actually =m$ by *emi/s 7,cf4 ,,roscoe1 ,elem5t>y ,*emi/ry1 ,lesson ,,vi474 ,is hydrog5 tri-oxyde 7,h#b,o#c7 a possible sub/ance8 ,we may ask *emi/s1--& !y may n be able to tell u ) any c]ta9ty :e!r x is or n4 #ib ,! actual exi/5ce ( a ?9k+ m9d is ( c\rse a necess>y condition1 9 ! actual ord]1 = ! appreh5sion ( objects 9 ?is ab/ract way4 ,b su* exi/5ce is no "p ( ! appreh5d$ object4 ,t ! human m9d1 :i* is itself f9ite1 cont+5t1 alli$ ) matt]1 & dep5d5t on ! activity ( corporeal s5se organs = ! objects ( its k1 %\ld nev]!less h ! p[] to appreh5d cont+5t realities ap>t f _! cont+5t actual exi/5ce 9 "t & space1--is a fact ( ! greate/ significance z reg>ds ! nature ( ! m9d itself4 ,b if we try to prove ! exi/5ce ( ,god f a consid]ation ( ! nature & p[]s ( ! human m9d1 our argum5t proce$s f ! actual1 & is di/9ct f any argum5t bas$ exclusively on ! nature & prop]ties ( possible ess5ces z su*4 ,/4 ,augu/9e's argum5t assumes z a fact t ! human m9d repres5ts to itself possible ess5ces z hav+ reality indep5d5tly bo? ( its own ?\ght & ( any actual exi/5ce ( su* ess5ces 7,cf4 ,,de ,,munnynck1 ,praelectiones de ,dei ,exi/5tia1 p4 #bc74 ,b is ?is a fact8 ,?is is ! really debatable po9t4 #ic ,among o!rs ,h5ry ( ,,gh5t 7 #abic2 ,cf4 ,,de ,,wulf1 ,hi/ory ( ,m$ieval ,philosophy1 pp4 #cfd-f2 ,,kleutg51 ,philosophie d] ,vorzeit1 ,diss]t1 vi41 cap4 ii41 #b #eha-e71 ,capreolus 7#achj-addd71 c]ta9 ,scoti/s1 & c]ta9 !osophi/s ( ! ?irte5? & f\rte5? c5turies1 are cr$it$ ) ?is peculi> view4 ,= num]\s ref]5ces1 ,cf4 ,,urraburu1 ,ontologia1 ,disp4 iii41 cap4 ii41 art4 v4 pp4 #fej-fc4 #id ,cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 pp4 #feb-c1 = ref]5ces2 among o!rs1 to ,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,de ,pot5tia1 q4 #c1 art4 #a1 ad #bum2 art4 #g1 ad #ajum2 art4 #e1 argum4 #bo2 ibid41 ad #bum4 ,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 #ad1 art4 #i2 q4 #de1 art4 #a2 ibid4 1 art4 #b1 ad #bum2 q4 #fa1 art4 #b1 corp4 #ie ,among o!rs1 ,,balmes 7,fundam5tal ,philosophy1 bk4 iv41 *4 xxvi471 ,,lepidi 7,ontologia1 quot$ by ,,de ,,munynck1 ,praelectiones de ,dei ,exi/5tia1 ,l\va91 #aijd1 p4 #ai72 ,,de ,,munynck 7ibid41 pp4 #ai-bc1 #df-g1 #ge72 ,,hickey 7,!ologia ,naturalis1 pp4 #ca-d72 ,,driscoll 7,god1 pp4 #gb sqq472 ,,lacordaire 7,god1 p4 #ba72 ,,kleutg51 ,philosophie d] ,vorzeit1 ,diss]t4 iv41 #dgf4 #if ,tru? is n ! "w ( any human intellig5ce1 says ,/4 ,augu/9e1 nor c any "o arrogate to himself ! "r to say 8my tru?10 or 8?y tru?10 b all mu/ say simply 8! tru?03 8,quapropt]1 nullo modo negav]is esse incommutabilem v]itatem1 haec omnia1 quae incommutabilit] v]a sunt1 cont95tem1 quam non possis dic]e vel tuam vel meam1 vel cujuscumque hom9is1 s$ omnibus incommutabilia v]a c]n5tibus1 tamquam miris modis secretum et publicum lum51 prae/o esse ac se praeb]e communit]3 omne autem quod communit] omnibus ratioc9antibus atque intellig5tibus prae/o e/1 ad ullius eorum proprie naturam p]t9]e quis dix]it80--,de ,lib]o ,arbitrio1 lib4 ii41 *4 xii4 ,cf4 8 /rik+ expression ( ! same ?\ght 9 8 ,comm5t>y1 ,sup] ,g5esim ad ,litt]am1 lib4 ii41 cap4 vii43 8,we may conceive ! heav5s & ! e>?1 t 7 creat$ 9 six days1 ceas+ to exi/2 b c we conceive ! numb] #8six' ceas+ to be ! sum ( six units803 8,facilius coelum et t]ra transire possunt1 quae secundum num]um s5>ium fabricata sunt1 quam effici possit ut s5>ius num]us suis p>tibus non compleatur0 7apud ,,m]ci]1 ,ontologie1 pp4 #ce-f74 #ig ,cf4 ,,balmes 7,fundam5tal ,philosophy1 bk4 iv41 *4 xxvi471 :o1 analys+ ! tru? ( ! proposition 8,two circles ( equal diamet]s are equal10 z an example ( ! necess>y1 et]nal1 immutable *>act]i/ics ( possible ess5ces1 goes s f> z to write 7italics ours73 8,:at w\ld happ51 if1 )draw+ all bodies1 all s5sible repres5tations1 & ev5 all intellig5ces1 we %\ld imag9e absolute & univ]sal no?+8 ,we see ! tru? ( ! proposition ev5 on ?is supposition3 = x is impossible = u to hold x to be false4 ,on e supposition1 our und]/&+ sees a connection :i* x _c de/roy3 ! condition once e/abli%$1 ! result w infallibly foll[4 8,an absolutely necess>y connection1 f\nd$ nei!r on u1 nor on ! ext]nal _w1 :i* exi/s be=e any?+ we c imag9e1 & subsi/s aft] we h annihilat$ all by an ef=t ( our und]/&+1 mu/ be bas$ ^u some?+1 x _c h no?+ = its orig93 to say ?is w\ld be to ass]t a necess>y fact )\t a suffici5t reason4 8,x is true t 9 ! proposition n[ be=e u no?+ real is affirm$1 b if we reflect c>efully we f9d ev5 "h ! greate/ difficulty = ^? :o d5y a real f\ndation to pure possibility4 ,:at is rem>kable 9 ?is ph5om5on1 is precisely ?is1 t our und]/&+ feels itself =c$ to give its ass5t to a proposition :i* affirms an absolutely necess>y connection )\t any relation to an exi/+ object4 ,x is conceivable t an intellig5ce affect$ by o!r be+s may "k _! nature & relations2 b x is n s easy ( compreh5sion h[ x c discov] _! nature & relations 9 an absolutely necess>y mann]1 :5 x ab/racts all exi/5ce1 :5 ! gr\nd ^u :i* ! eyes ( ! und]/&+ are fix$1 is ! abyss ( no?+4 8,we deceive ourselves :5 we imag9e x possible to ab/ract all exi/5ce4 ,ev5 :5 we suppose our m9d to h lo/ sight ( e ?+1 a v easy supposition1 grant+ t we f9d 9 our consci\sness ! cont+5cy ( our be+1 ! und]/&+ /ill p]ceives a possible ord]1 & imag9es x to be all occupi$ ) pure possibility1 indep5d5t ( a be+ ^u :i* x is bas$4 ,we repeat1 t ?is is an illusion1 :i* disappe>s s soon z we reflect ^u x4 ,9 pure no?+1 no?+ is possible2 !re are no relations1 no connections ( any k9d2 9 no?+ !re are no comb9ations1 x is a gr\nd ^u :i* no?+ c be pictur$4 8,! objectivity ( our ideas & ! p]ception ( necess>y relations 9 a possible ord]1 reveal a communication ( our und]/&+ ) a be+ on :i* is f\nd$ all possibility4 ,?is possibility c be expla9$ on no supposition except t :i* makes ! communication consi/ 9 ! action ( ,god giv+ to our m9d faculties p]ceptive ( ! necess>y relation ( c]ta9 ideas1 bas$ ^u necess>y be+1 & repres5tative ( ,8 inf9ite ess5ce40 ,balmes1 !re=e1 does n mean t we c\ld cont9ue to see ess5ces z possible 7 we to imag9e )drawn n m]ely f9ite m9ds b ev5 ! ,div9e ,m9d4 ,9 su* an absurd hypo!sis1 no?+ w\ld appe> true or false1 possible or impossible4 ,b he cont5ds t ev5 :5 we try to ?9k away all m9ds1 ev5 ! ,div9e ,m9d1 we /ill see possible ess5ces to be possible4 ,& f ?is he argues t1 s9ce we h successfully ?\ght away f9ite m9ds & ! actuality ( ess5ces1 :ile ! possibility ( ^! latt] /ill p]si/s1 ^! mu/ be gr\nd$ 9 ! ,m9d ( ,god1 ! ,actual1 ,et]nal1 ,necess>y ,be+1 :]e !y h et]nal ideal be+4 ,cf4 ,,de ,,munnynck 7op4 cit41 pp4 #bb-c73 8,ponamus mundum non esse1 nec supponamus ,dei exi/5tiam4 ,9 nihilo illo1 omne ens actuale exclud5s1 remanet intacta--hoc c]tissime scimus ex objectivo valore intellectus no/ri--realitas aet]na1 immutabilis1 ord9is idealis4 ,illa realitas ess5ti>um1 he adds 7ibid41 n4 #b71 indep5d5s ab omni actuali exi/5tia1 atque ab omni actu intellectus1 e/ fundam5tum metaphysicum realismi platonici4--,habet praet]ea mirum hoc sy/ema1 ut omnes sciunt1 fundam5tum crit]iologicum4 ,ess5tiae sunt1 nec tam5 exi/unt4 ,illa realitas1 praet] mundum totum1 praet] entia rationis1 inde/ructibilis p]sev]at1 nec tam5 actualis e/4 ,haec quomodo intelligi possit nescimus1 nisi ponatur illam fund>i 9 pl5itud9e aet]na1 inf9ita1 absoluta ,esse absoluti4 ,hoc ente supremo posito1 omnia lucidissima se praeb5t intellectui2 illo ,deo optimo--quem non possumus1 p]spectis illis altissimis1 non ador>e--sublato1 admitt5dae sunt ess5tiae r]um ab aet]no reales s9e actuali exi/5tia2 atque pro9de quid non-individuale e/ reale 9 se1 quod tam5 concipi non pote/ nisi objective 9 m5te40 #ih ,cf4 ,,/4 ,,augu/9e1 ,de ,lib]o ,arbitrio1 lib4 ii41 *4 viii4 #ii ,cf4 especially ,,m]ci]1 ,ontologie1 pp4 #dj-di4 #ajj ,x is1 = example1 j z necess>ily & immutably true ( any actually exi/+ man t he _c be at ! same "t exi/+ & n exi/+ z x is t a man _c be an irrational animal4 #aja 8,unde1 etiamsi intellectus humanus non esset1 adhuc res dic]5tur v]ae 9 ord9e ad intellectum div9um4 ,s$ si ut]que intellectus1 quod e/ impossibile1 intellig]etur auf]ri1 nullo modo ratio v]itatis reman]et40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,de ,v]itate1 q4 i41 art4 ii4 #ajb ,phd1 #ajj1 ,c4 ff4 #ajc ,,m]ci]1 ,ontologie1 pp4 #de-g4 #ajd ,cf4 ,,de ,,munnynck1 op4 cit41 pp4 #bd-e4 #aje ,cf4 ,,de ,,munnynck1 op4 cit41 pp4 #bd-e4 #ajf ibid41 pp4 #bb1 #bd4 #ajg 8,qu objecta non div9a esse1 luce cl>ius app>et4 ,attam5 ilia pond]&o1 modumque inspici5do quo repres5tantur a m5te humana1 atque praesuppon5do valorem objectivum intellectus1 concludimus ex ideis ad realitates illas qu 9 ,esse div9o fundantur 444 ratione horum objectorum scil4 ide>um no/r>um p]cipimus1 ope ratioc9ii1 illa positive aet]na et immutabilia1 qu reapse 9 ,deitate fundantur1 atque sunt ipse ,deus quat5us imitabilis40--ibid41 pp4 #bd-e4 ,cf4 extract quot$ above1 p4 #ia n4 #ajh 8,non ideo voluit ,deus mundum cre>e 9 tempore1 quia vidit melius sic =e1 quam si creasset ab t]no2 nec voluit tres angulos trianguli quales esse duobus rectis1 quia cognovit alit] fi]i non posse4 ,s$ contra1 quia voluit cre>e mundum 9 tempore1 ideo sic melius e/1 quam si creatus fuisset ab t]no1 et quia voluit tres angulos trianguli necess>io quales esse duobus rectis1 idcirco jam v]um e/1 et alit] fi]i non pote/1 atque ita de reliquis40--,,desc>tes1 9 ,resp4 ad ,sext4 ,objectiones1 ad #fum scrupulum4 #aji ,,m]ci]1 op4 cit41 pp4 #eh-fj4 #aaj ,,urraburu 7op4 cit4 ,disp4 iii41 cap4 ii41 iii41 p4 #fga7 m5tions ,wolff1 ,leibniz1 ,g5u5sis & ,/or*5au z hold+ ?is view4 #aaa ,among o!rs1 ,lib]atore1 ,lah\sse1 ,pes*1 ,h>p]4 ,cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 ibid4 #aab ,dupasqui]1 ,ma/rius & ,rada1 apud ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 ibid41 pp4 #fgi-ha4 #aac ,urraburu1 ,s*iff9i1 ,m5dive4 ,cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 ibid41 p4 #fga4 #aad #a ,cor4 xiii4 #ab4 #aae 8,ex hoc ipso quod quidditati esse attribuitur1 non solum esse1 s$ ipsa quidditas cre>i dicitur3 quia antequam esse habeat1 nihil e/1 nisi =te 9 intellectu creantis1 ubi non e/ creatura1 s$ creatrix ess5tia40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,de ,pot5tia1 q4 iii41 art4 v41 ad #b um4 #aaf 8,ipsum esse competit primo ag5ti secundum propriam naturam3 esse enim ,dei e/ ejus sub/antia1 ut o/5sum e/ 7,c4 ,g41 ,lib4 i41 c4 #bb74 ,quod autem competit alicui secundum naturam suam1 non conv5it aliis nisi p] modum p>ticipationis1 sicut calor aliis corporibus ab igne i4e4 z caus$ or produc$ 9 !m4 ,cf4 ,kleutg51 op4 cit41 ,diss]t41 i41 c4 iii41 #fa4 ,ipsum igitur esse competit aliis omnibus a primo ag5te p] p>ticipationem quamdam4 ,quod autem alicui competit p] p>ticipationem1 non e/ sub/antia ejus4 ,impossibile e/ igitur quod sub/antia alt]ius entis praet] ag5s primum sit ipsum esse4 ,h9c e/ quod ,exod4 iii41 proprium nom5 ,dei ponitur esse qui e/1 quia ejus solius proprium e/1 quod sua sub/antia non sit aliud quam suum esse40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,contra ,g5tes1 ,l4 ii41 cap4 #eb1 n4 #g4 8,quod ine/ alicui ab ag5te1 oportet esse actum ejus2 ag5tis enim e/ fac]e aliquid actu4 ,o/5sum e/ autem supra1 quod omnes aliae sub/anti hab5t esse a primo ag5te1 et p] hoc ips sub/anti creat sunt1 quod esse ab alio hab5t4 ,ipsum igitur esse ine/ sub/antiis creatis ut quidam actus e>um4 ,id autem1 cui actus ine/1 pot5tia e/3 nam actus 9 quantum hujusmodi ad pot5tiam ref]tur4 ,9 qualibet igitur sub/antia creata e/ pot5tia et actus40--ibid41 cap4 #ec1 n4 #b4 8,omne quod recipit aliquid ab alio1 e/ 9 pot5tia respectu illius3 et hoc quod receptum e/ 9 eo1 e/ actus ejus2 ergo oportet1 quod ipsa =ma vel quidditas1 qu e/ intellig5tia i4e4 a pure _s1 sit 9 pot5tia respectu esse1 quod a ,deo recipit1 et illud esse receptum e/ p] modum actus1 et ita inv5itur actus et pot5tia 9 intellig5tiis i4e4 pure spirits1 non tam5 =ma et mat]ia nisi aequivoce40--,de ,ente et ,ess5tia1 cap4 v4 ,cf4 also ,summa ,!ol41 ,p4 i41 q4 iii41 art4 #d2 q4 xiii41 art4 #aa2 q4 lxxv41 art4 #e1 ad #d um4 ,quodlibeta1 ii41 art4 #c2 ix41 art4 #f4 ,de ,pot5tia1 q4 vii41 art4 #b4 ,9 ,metaph41 iii41 ,di/4 vi41 q4 #b1 art4 #b4 ,contra ,g5tes1 ,l4 ii41 cap4 #ed1 #fh4 ,/4 ,?omas is usually int]pret$ z tea*+ t ! di/9ction betwe5 ess5ce & exi/5ce 9 creat$ ?+s is a real di/9ction4 ,b !re are "s :o h be5 unable to conv9ce !mselves t ! ,angelic ,doctor has made 8 m9d entirely cle> on ! subject4 ,kleutg51 = in/ance1 writes 7op4 cit41 ,diss]t4 vi41 c4 ii41 #egd1 n4 #b73 8,9 ! extracts quot$ above ,/4 ,?omas cle>ly /ates t ! di/9ction made by our ?\ght is bas$ on ! nature ( creat$ ?+s1 b n t ?is di/9ction is t :i* exi/s betwe5 diff]5t p>ts1 dep5d5t on "o ano!r1 ea* hav+ its own prop] be+ or reality40 #aag ,cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 #bdi1 #eo4 #aah ,cf4 ,,re9/adl]1 ,ontologia1 lib4 ii41 cap4 i41 art4 ii41 #b4 #aai ,zigli>a 7,ontologia 7#ad71 iii4 iv47 gives ! virtual di/9ction z a sub-class ( ! real di/9ction2 add+1 h[ev] 7accord+ to ,g\d91 ,metaph41 ,disp4 i41 q4 iii4 art4 ii41 i7 t 8?is virtual di/9ction is n s mu* a real di/9ction z ! basis ( a m5tal di/9ction04 #abj op4 cit41 p4 #aaj4 #aba ,^! may be se5 9 abundance 9 ! works ( any ( ! s*ola/ic writ]s1 m$ieval or mod]n1 :o discuss ! "q4 ,cf41 e4g4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 #bea-d4 #abb ,besides ,/4 ,?omas 7cf4 supra1 p4 #ajb1 n4 #b71 ,alb]tus ,magnus 7#aaic-abhj71 ,aegidius ,romanus 7 circa #acjj71 ,capreolus 7#achj-addd71 ,sonc9as 7 #adid71 ,cajetan 7#adfh-aecd71 ,sylve/] ,f]r>i5sis 7#adgd-aebh71 ,dom9icus ,baez 7#aebh-afjd71 ,john ( ,/4 ,?omas 7#aehi-afdd71 ,g\d9 7#afci-ie71 are among ! mo/ not$ s*ola/ics to hold ?is view4 ,x is support$ by ! memb]s ( ! ,dom9ican ,ord] g5]ally2 & by n a few ,jesuits among rec5t s*ola/ic writ]s2 also by ,,m]ci]1 op4 cit41 #dh-ea4 #abc ,cf4 ,,kleutg51 op4 cit41 #ege4 #abd ibid41 #egg4 #abe ,cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 ,disp4 iv41 cap4 i41 art4 #b1 pp4 #gcj-ca4 #abf 8,esse rei quamvis sit aliud ab ejus ess5tia1 non tam5 e/ intellig5dum1 quod sit aliquod sup]additum1 ad modum accid5tis1 s$ quasi con/ituitur p] pr9cipia ess5tiae4 ,et ideo hoc nom51 quod imponitur ab esse 7ens7 significat idem cum nom9e quod imponitur ab ipsa ess5tia40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,9 ,metaph41 ,l4 iv41 l4 #b4 #abg ,among ! advocates ( ?is view are ,alex&] ( ,hales 7 #abde71 ,aureolus 7 #acbb71 ,dur&us 7 #accb71 ,gabriel ,biel 7 #adie71 ,su>ez 7#aedh-afag71 ,toletus 7#aecb-aeif71 ,vasquez 7#aeea-afjd71 ,gregory ( ,val5tia 7 circa #afjj71 & ! ,jesuits g5]ally3 "s few reg>d+ ! di/9ction z purely logical1 e4g4 ,franzel9 7apud ,,m]ci]1 op4 cit41 #dg1 p4 #aaj1 n4 #b74 ,= details & argum5ts on bo? sides1 cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 ,disp4 iv41 cap4 i41 art4 #b4 #abh 8,compositum ex esse et ess5tia dicitur de ratione entis creati secundum fundam5tum1 quod 9 ipso ente creato habet2 hoc autem fundam5tum non e/ aliud nisi quia creatura non habet ex se actu exi/]e1 s$ tantum e/ ens pot5tiale1 quod ab alio pote/ esse p>ticip>e3 nam h9c fit1 ut ess5tia creaturae concipiatur a nobis ut pot5tiale quid1 esse v]o ut modus seu actus1 quo talis ess5tia ens 9 actu con/ituitur40--,,su>ez1 ,metaph41 ,disp4 xxxi41 #ac4 #abi ,:5 we speak ( an ess5ce z receiv+ exi/5ce1 we d n necess>ily imply a real di/9ction betwe5 receiv] & receiv$3 8,non e/ imag9&um quod una res sit1 quae p>ticipat sicut ess5tia1 et alia quae p>ticipatur sicut esse1 s$ quia una et eadem res e/ realitas modo p>ticipato et p] vim alt]ius sicut p] vim ag5tis3 haec enim realitas de se non e/ nisi sub modo possibili2 quod autem sit et voc>i possit actus1 hoc habet p] vim ag5tis40--,,alex&] ,,( ,,hales1 ,9 ,metaph41 ,l4 vii41 text #bb4 8,non omne acceptum10 writes ,/4 ,?omas1 8e/ receptum 9 aliquo subjecto2 alioqu9 non posset dici quod tota sub/antia rei creatae sit accepta a ,deo1 cum totius sub/antiae non sit aliquod subjectum receptivum0--,summa ,!ol41 ,i41 q4 xxvii41 art4 ii41 ad4 #cum4 #acj ,cf4 ,,m]ci]1 op4 cit41 #di4 ,"s ( ^! doctr9es we %all exam9e lat]1 by way ( illu/ration1 9 connexion ) ! ,unity ( be+4 #aca ,cf4 ,,urraburu1 ibid41 art4 iii41 ,obj4 #i1 ,resp4 #acb ,?is view is advocat$ by1 among o!rs1 ,duns ,scotus 7#abff-acjh71 ,h5ry ( ,gh5t 7 #abic71 ,francis de ,vittoria 7#adhj-aeff71 ,dom9icus de ,soto 7#adif-aefj71 ,mol9a 7#aece-afjj71 ,fonseca 7#aedh-ig71 & ,scoti/s g5]ally4 #acc ,,ari/otle1 ,metaph41 lib4 #e1 text ii41 cap4 #f2 ,,/4 ,,?omas1 9 loc4 et alibi4 #acd 8,si 444 modus entis accipiatur 444 secundum divisionem unius ab alt]o1 444 hoc exprimit hoc nom5 aliquid1 dicitur enim aliquid quasi aliud quid4 ,unde sicut ens dicitur unum inquantum e/ indivisum 9 se1 ita dicitur aliquid inquantum e/ ab aliis div]sum40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,de ,v]itate1 q4 #a1 a4 #a4 #ace 8,nam omne ens e/ aut simplex1 aut compositum4 ,quod autem e/ simplex1 e/ indivisum et actu et pot5tia4 ,quod autem e/ compositum1 non habet esse1 quamdiu p>tes ejus s9t divisae1 s$ po/quam con/ituunt et componunt ipsum compositum4 ,unde manife/um e/ quod esse cujuslibet rei consi/it 9 indivisione2 et inde e/1 quod unumquodque sicut cu/odit suum esse1 ita cu/odit suam unitatem40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 xi41 a4 #a4 #acf 8,unum v]o quod e/ pr9cipium num]i1 addit supra sub/antiam rationem m5surae1 quae e/ propria passio quantitatis1 et primo inv5itur 9 unitate4 ,et dicitur p] privationem vel negationem divisionis1 quae e/ secundum quantitatem cont9uam4 ,nam num]us ex divisione cont9ui causatur40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,9 ,metaph41 lib4 #d1 lect4 #b1 p>4 b4 #acg ,^? :o reg>d ! di/9ction betwe5 ! ess5ce & ! exi/5ce ( an actually exi/+ sub/ance z real consid] ! latt] z an ens unum p] se4 ,! exi/5ce ( a real di/9ction betwe5 ! ess5tial con/itutive factors ( a composite sub/ance is univ]sally reg>d$ by s*ola/ics z compatible ) ess5tial unity--unitas p] se--9 ! latt]4 ,su* factors are really di/9ct1 & sep>able or divisible1 b actually undivid$4 ,s also1 ! union ( an individual nature & its subsi/5ce 7#gc7 =ms a unum p] se 7unum compositionis7 9 ! view ( ^? :o place a real di/9ction betwe5 ^! factors4 #ach ,( c\rse ess5tial unity ( composition is also 8natural04 ,cf4 ,,kleutg51 op4 cit41 #fca-h4 #aci 8,unum quod conv]titur cum ente ponit quidem ipsum ens1 s$ nihil sup]addit1 nisi negationem divisionis4 ,multitudo autem ei correspond5s addit supra res1 qu dicuntur mult1 quod unaquque e>um sit una1 et quod una e>um non sit alt]a4444 ,et sic1 cum unum addat supra ens unam negationem1 secundum quod aliquid e/ indivisum 9 se1 multitudo addit duas negationes1 pr\t scilicet aliquid e/ 9 se indivisum1 et pr\t e/ ab alio divisum1 et unum eorum non esse alt]um40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,de ,pot5t41 q4 #i1 a4 #g4 #adj 8,sic ergo primo 9 intellectu no/ro cadit ens1 et de9de divisio1 et po/ hoc unum quod divisionem privat1 et ultimo multitudo qu ex unitatibus con/ituitur40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,9 ,metaph41 lib4 #aj1 lect4 #d1 p>4 c4 #ada ,omnis pluralitas consequitur aliquam divisionem4 ,e/ autem duplex divisio3 una mat]ialis qu fit secundum divisionem cont9ui1 et hanc sequitur num]us1 qui e/ species quantitatis4 ,unde talis num]us1 non e/ nisi 9 rebus mat]ialibus hab5tibus quantitatem4 ,alia e/ divisio =malis1 qu fit p] oppositas vel div]sas =mas3 et hanc divisionem sequitur multitudo qu non e/ 9 aliquo g5]e1 s$ e/ de transc5d5tibus1 secundum quod ens dividitur p] unum et multa4 ,et talem multitud9em solam cont+it esse 9 rebus immat]ialibus4--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 xxx41 art4 #c4 #adb ,we may conf9e our att5tion "h to sub/ances1 assum+ = ! pres5t t accid5ts are individuat$ by ! individual sub/ances 9 :i* !y inh]e4 ,we may note fur!r t x is only corporeal individuals t fall directly )9 our exp]i5ce4 ,we c1 ( c\rse1 inf] f ! latt] ! actual exi/5ce ( individual spiritual realities subsi/+ ap>t f matt]1 viz4 human s\ls aft] dea?1 & also ! possibility ( purely spiritual individual be+s su* z angels4 ,b :5 we conceive ^! z individuals we mu/ conceive !m aft] ! analogy ( individuals 9 ! doma9 ( corporeal reality3 x is only ?r\gh concepts d]iv$ f ?is doma91 & f9d+ _! prop] application )9 x1 t we c h any k ( supras5sible or spiritual realities1 viz4 by apply+ ^? concepts analogically to ! latt]4 #adc ,! 8=mal-actual0 di/9ction1 :i* ,scoti/s advocate betwe5 ^! grades ( be+1 we %all exam9e lat]4 #add ,cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 p4 #bhj3 8,pr9cipium 444 intr9sicum vel =male e/ aliquid insitum rei1 p]t95sque ad intr9secam et ultimam individui con/itutionem1 et fundans =malitatem illam1 quae individitatio dicitur4 ,sicut enim mat]ia e/ 9 hom9e1 v4g4 pr9cipium et fundam5tum propt] quod e/1 ac pra$icatur mat]ialis1 et =ma fundat 9 eodem pra$icatum rationalis1 totaque natura composita1 humanitas1 pra$icatum hom9is2 ita qua]imus quid sit illud primum pr9cipium1 unde exi/it 9 quovis individuo sua peculi>is ac propria individuatio40 #ade ,9 anci5t ,greece ! ,eleatics argu$ aga9/ ! possibility ( real plurality some:at 9 ?is wise3 ,if !re 7 really diff]5t be+s any two ( !m w\ld diff] f ea* o!r only by "s ?ird reality1 & ?is aga9 f ea* ( ! =m] by a f\r? & a fif? reality1 & s on ad inf9itum3 :i* w\ld involve ! absurdities ( inf9ite numb] & inf9ite regress4 ,a simil> argum5t 0 us$ by ! m$ieval pan!i/1 ,david ( ,d9ant1 to id5tify ,god ) ! mat]ial pr9ciple ( corporeal reality3 ,god & prim>y matt] exi/ & d n diff]2 !re=e !y are id5tical3 = if !y diff]$ !y %\ld diff] by some?+ di/9ct f ei!r1 & ?is aga9 %\ld diff] f bo? by some?+ di/9ct f all ?ree1 & s on ad inf9itum3 :i* is absurd4 ,su* sophisms arise f accept+ ! purely ab/ract view ( reality z adequate4 ,we h se5 already1 9 deal+ ) ! ab/ract notion ( be+1 t f ?is po9t ( view x mu/ be recogniz$ & admitt$ t ! reality :]eby ?+s diff] 7viz4 be+7 is also ! reality :]e9 !y agree 7viz4 be+1 also74 ,! p>adox is re/at$ bel[ 9 reg>d to individuation4 #adf ,mat]ia 444 duplicit] accipitur1 scilicet1 ut signata et non signata4 ,et dicitur signata1 secundum quod consid]atur cum det]m9atione dim5sionum h>um scilicet vel ill>um2 non signata autem1 qu s9e det]m9atione dim5sionum consid]atur4 ,secundum hoc igitur e/ sci5dum1 quod mat]ia signata e/ individuationis pr9cipium4--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,de ,v]itate1 q4 ii41 art4 #f1 ad4 #g;am4 #adg ,cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 ,disp4 ii41 cap4 #b1 iii41 pp4 #bga-c4 #adh ,^! w easily be f\nd 9 any ( ! full] s*ola/ic treatises4 ,cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 ,disp4 ii41 cap4 #b1 art4 #d4 ,philosophia ,lac5cis1 ,logica1 #abhb sqq42 ,,m]ci]1 ,ontologie1 #cf-db2 ,,kleutg51 ,philosophie ,scola/ique1 #faj sqq42 ,,bulliat1 ,?saurus ,philosophiae ,?omi/icae 7,nantes1 #ahii71 pp4 #aga sqq4--a useful book ( ref]5ce = ! tea*+ ( ,/4 ,?omas4 #adi ,a k9dr$ view to ?is is ! view t subsi/5ce 78subsi/5tia10 8suppositalitas07 or p]sonality 78p]sonalitas07 is ! pr9ciple ( individuation4 ,we %all see lat] 9 :at subsi/5ce or p]sonality is suppos$ to consi/4 ,"h x is suffici5t to obs]ve t ! individual nature z su* has n necess>ily subsi/5ce or p]sonality2 h5ce x _c be individuat$ by ?is latt]4 #aej ,! consi/5t attitude = ! ,?omi/ "h w\ld1 h[ev]1 appe> to be a d5ial t su* a ?+ w\ld be intr9sically possible4 #aea ,hujusmodi relatio non pote/ consi/]e nisi 9 quodam ord9e1 quem ratio ad9v5it alicujus ad seipsum secundum aliquas ejus duas consid]ationes4--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 xxviii41 art4 #c1 ad4 #b;am4 #aeb ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 vol4 i41 #ei4 #aec ,x is only ! concrete & individual t z su* c exi/ actually2 ! ab/ract & univ]sal z su* _c exi/ actually3 ab/ractness & univ]sality are m5tal modes--entia rationis--annex$ by ! m9d to ! real cont5t ( its concepts3 consid]$ z ?\ght-objects !y are !mselves n real entities3 !y d n affect reality z giv5 to u 9 our exp]i5ce4 ,b p]haps concret5ess & individuality are also m]e m5tal modes1 affect+ reality n z giv5 to u 9 our exp]i5ce b only z subject$ to ! process ( intellectual conception1 or at lea/ z subject$ to ! process ( s5se p]ception8 ,?is w\ld appe> to be "p ( ! g5]al ,kantian !ory ( k3 t we c appreh5d reality z concrete & individual only because space & "t1 :i* *>act]ize ! concrete & individual mode ( be+1 are m5tal modes :i* mu/ be appli$ to reality z a pr]equisite condition = r5d]+ ! latt] capable ( appreh5sion 9 our exp]i5ce4 ,?is cont5tion is exam9$ 9 ano!r context4 ,cf4 infra1 pp4 #ade1 #adg1 #aea4 #aed ,?us ! recognition ( a virtual di/9ction 9 a be+ is a sign ( ! relative p]fection ( ! latt]3 ! be+ involves 9 its high] sort ( unity p]fections else:]e disp]s$ & sep>ate4 ,! be+ is ( a high] ord] ?an if ! pr9ciples ( ^! p]fections 9 x 7 really di/9ct f "o ano!r4 ,b ! virtual di/9ction also seems to imply a relative imp]fection :5 x is f\nd 9 creatures1 inasmu* z "h ! ?\ght-objects s di/+ui%$ are always pr9ciples ( a plurality ( really di/9ct accid5tal p]fections3 & real plurality 9 a be+ is less p]fect ?an unity4--,cf4 ,,kleutg51 op4 cit41 #fcc4 #aee 8,omnis cognitio e/ a pot5tia et objecto1 sive a cognosc5te et cognito4 ,ratio a priori e/1 quia omnis cognitio saltem creata e/ expressio et imitatio atque imago vitalis objecti4 ,inquantum igitur e/ vitalis1 proc$it a cognosc5te2 implicat enim cognosc5tem viv]e p] aliquid1 quod ab ipso non e/1 s$ pure illud recipit ab alio m]e passive se hab5do2 inquantum v]o cognitio e/ expressio1 imitatio et imago objecti1 proc$it ab objecto0--,,silve/] ,,maurus1 ,quae/4 ,philos41 q4 #b4 ,?is is ! common s*ola/ic di/9ction3 cognition z a product repres5tative or expressive ( reality is a product det]m9$ by ! influ5ce ( reality 7z active7 on ! m9d 7z passive72 cognition z a vital process is active1 a reaction ( m9d to ! influ5ce ( reality4 ,x may be rem>k$1 h[ev]1 t ! cognitive process1 z vital1 has always a positive t]m4 ,our cognitive processes are p>tly at lea/ processes ( ab/ract+1 comp>+1 relat+1 univ]saliz+3 processes :i* produce 8int5tiones logicas0 or 8entia rationis10 su* z ! 8int5tio univ]salitatis0 ! relation ( subject to pr$icate1 & o!r logical relations & logical di/9ctions3 & h5ce arises ! difficulty1 :5 we come to reflect on our cognitive exp]i5ce1 ( discrim9at+ betwe5 ^! 8logical entities0 & ! reality :i* we int]pret by means ( !m3 ( discrim9at+1 9 o!r words1 betwe5 logical & real di/9ctions4 #aef ,x is n necess>y ( c\rse t ?is implicit embodim5t ( all ! o!rs1 by any "o ( !m1 be se5 to be mutual4 ,x is suffici5t1 = in/ance1 t ( ! concepts a1 b1 c & d1 a be se5 implicitly to involve b1 b to involve c1 etc41 ?\gh n vice v]sa4 ,h[ev]1 x mu/ be rem>k$ t 9 ! ex]cise ( ?\ght ^u its ab/ract objects we feel some?+ want+ to our intellectual insight z long z ! relations we appreh5d are n reciprocal4 ,9 ! sci5ces ( ab/ract quantity we approximate to ! ideal ( e/abli%+ reciprocal relations ?r\gh\t ! :ole sy/em ( ! concepts analys$4 ,b ab/ract ?\ght does n give u an adequate appreh5sion ( ! real3 x repres5ts reality only "u ! /atic aspect1 & z ab/ract1 i4e4 ap>t f ! individualiz+ conditions ( "t & space :i* affect its concrete1 actual exi/5ce z reveal$ 9 s5se exp]i5ce4 ,7 we to neglect ! latt]1 & consid] m]ely :at ab/ract ?\ght gives u1 we %\ld reg>d z really "o :at is "o = ?\ght4 ,b :at is "o = ?\ght is ! univ]sal2 & ! logical issue ( hold+ ! univ]sal z su* to be real is monism4 ,or aga91 to put ! matt] 9 ano!r way1 9 s f> z intellect sees ! objects ( its v>i\s ab/ract concepts to involve "o ano!r necess>ily1 x has no reason--z long z x ignores ! v]dict ( s5se exp]i5ce on ! real manifoldness ( actually exi/+ be+--to ab/a9 f attribut+ a real unity to ! :ole sy/em ( ab/ract ?\ght-objects :i* x contemplates z reciprocally & necess>ily int]relat$4 ,on ! contr>y1 x %\ld pron\nce t :atev] plurality c be unifi$ by ! dialectically necess>y relations discov]$ by ?\ght1 is really "o1 & mu/ be reg>d$ z "o reality3 :i*1 aga91 is monism4 ,b a philosophy :i* ?us ignores s5se exp]i5ce mu/ be "o-sid$ & mislead+4 #aeg ,cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 ,disp4 ii41 cap4 ii41 art4 #e 7p4 #cai74 #aeh ,cf4 infra1 #hc4 #aei ,cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 ibid4 p4 #cbb4 #afj ,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,de ,ente et ,ess5tia1 cap4 iv43 8,ideo1 si qua]atur utrum i/a natura possit dici una vel plures1 neutrum conc$5dum e/3 quia utrumque e/ extra intellectum conceptum humanitatis1 et utrumque pote/ sibi accid]e4 ,si enim pluralitas esset de ratione ejus1 nunquam posset esse una3 cum tam5 una sit secundum quod e/ 9 ,sorte4 ,similit] si unitas esset de intellectu et ratione ejus1 tunc esset una et eadem natura ,sortis et ,platonis1 nec posset 9 pluribus plurific>i40 ,cf4 ,,zigli>a1 ,summa ,philos41 ,ontologia 7#a71 iv41 v42 7#c7 iv4 #afa 8,licet enim 7natura7 nunquam sit s9e aliquo i/orum1 non tam5 e/ de se aliquod i/orum1 ita etiam 9 r]um natura secundum illam entitatem habet v]um #8esse' extra animam reale3 et secundum illam entitatem habet unitatem sibi proportionabilem1 quae e/ indiff]5s ad s+ul>itatem1 ita quod non1 repugnat illi unitati de se1 quod cum quacumque unitate s+ul>itatis ponatur40--,,scotus1 ,9 ,l4 ,s5t41 #b1 di/4 iii41 q4 #g4--;,cf4 ,,de ,,wulf1 ,hi/ory ( ,m$ieval ,philosophy1 p4 #cgb4 #afb ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 ii41 #bdh4 ,moral tru? or v]acity--! con=mity ( language ) ?\ght--is treat$ 9 ,e?ics4 #afc ,cf4 ,,m]ci]1 ,ontologie1 ,p4 ii41 #d1 i4 #afd ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 ii41 #beb-d4 #afe 8,si omnis intellectus 7quod e/ impossibile7 intellig]etur auf]ri1 nullo modo ratio v]itatis reman]et40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,de ,v]itate1 q4 i41 art #a1 #b 9 f9e4 #aff ,cf4 ,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,de ,v]itate1 q4 i41 & passim4 #afg ,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,de ,v]itate1 q4 i41 art4 #b4 #afh ,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,de ,v]itate1 q4 i41 art4 #d2 ,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 #af1 art4 #f4 #afi 8,si intellectus humanus non esset1 adhuc res dic]5tur v] 9 ord9e ad intellectum div9um4 ,s$ si ut]que intellectus1 quod e/ impossibile1 intellig]etur auf]ri1 nullo modo ratio v]itatis reman]et40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,de ,v]itate1 q4 i41 art4 #b4 #agj 8,si ergo accipiatur v]itas rei secundum ord9em ad intellectum div9um1 tunc quidem mutatur v]itas rei mutablis 9 aliam v]itatem1 non 9 falsitatem40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ibid4 q4 i41 art4 #f4 #aga ,cf4 ,,ari/otle1 ,de ,anima1 iii42 ,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,de ,v]itate1 q4 i41 art4 #a4 #agb 8,res p] se non fallunt1 s$ p] accid5s4 ,dant enim occasionem falsitatis2 eo quod similitud9em eorum g]unt quorum non hab5t exi/5tiam4444 ,res notitiam sui facit 9 anima p] ea quae de ipsa ext]ius app>5t 444 et ideo qu&o 9 aliqua re app>5t s5sibiles qualitates demon/rantes naturam quae eis non sube/1 dicitur res illa esse falsa4444 ,nec tam5 res e/ hoc modo causa falsitatis 9 anima1 quod necess>io falsitatem causat40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 #ag1 art4 #a1 ad4 #b2 ,de ,v]itate1 q4 i41 art4 #aj1 c4 #agc 1 4--,,ari/otle1 ,e?41 i4 #agd ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 ii41 #bag4 #age 8,bonum autem1 cum habeat notionem appetibilis1 importat habitud9em caus f9alis40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 #e1 art4 #b1 ad4 #a4 #agf 8,prima autem non possunt notific>i p] aliqua priora1 s$ notificantur p] po/]iora1 sicut caus p] proprios effectus4 ,cum autem bonum proprie sit motivum appetitus1 describitur bonum p] motum appetitus1 sicut solet manife/>i vis motiva p] motum4 ,et ideo dicit 7,ari/oteles7 quod philosophi b5e enunciav]unt bonum esse id quod omnia appetunt40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,comm5t4 9 ,e?4 ,ni*41 i41 lect4 #a;a4 #agg ,! 8end10 :i* is la/ 9 ! ord] ( actual atta9m5t1 is fir/ z ! ideal t]m ( ! aim or t5d5cy ( ! nature3 f9is e/ ultimus 9 executione1 s$ primus 9 int5tione3 x is t = ! sake ( :i*1 & ) a view to :i*1 ! :ole process ( actualization or 8p]fect+0 goes on4 ,cf4 infra1 #ajh4 #agh 8,licet bonum et ens s9t idem secundum rem2 quia tam5 diff]unt secundum rationem1 non eodem modo dicitur aliquid ens simplicit] et bonum simplicit]4 ,nam1 cum ens dicat aliquid esse 9 actu1 actus autem proprie ord9em habeat ad pot5tiam1 secundum hoc simplicit] aliquid dicitur esse ens secundum quod primo sec]nitur ab eo quod e/ 9 pot5tia tantum2 hoc autem e/ esse sub/antiale rei uniuscujusque4 ,unde p] suum esse sub/antiale dicitur unumquodque ens simplicit]2 p] actus autem sup]additos dicitur aliquid esse secundum quid4444 ,sic ergo secundum primum esse1 quod e/ sub/antiale1 dicitur aliquid ens simplicit] et bonum secundum quid1 id e/1 inquantum e/ ens2 secundum v]o ultimum actum dicitur aliquid ens secundum quid1 et bonum simplicit]40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 #e1 art4 #a1 ad4 #a4 #agi 8,respectus 444 qui importatur nom9e boni e/ habitudo p]fectivi secundum quodaliquid natum e/ p]fic]e non solum secundum rationem speciei i4e4 ! ab/ract ess5ce1 s$ secundum esse quod habet 9 rebus2 hoc enim modo f9is p]ficit ea quae sunt ad f9em40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,de ,v]itate1 q4 #bf1 art4 #f4 #ahj ,cf4 ! famili> e?ical di/9ction betwe5 objective1 & =mal or subjective happ9ess1 beatitudo objectiva & beatitudo =malis seu subjectiva4 #aha 8,9 motu appetitus1 id quod e/ appetibile t]m9ans motum appetitus secundum quid1 ut m$ium p] quod t5ditur 9 aliud1 vocatur utile4 ,id autem quod appetitur ut ultimum t]m9ans totalit] motum appetitus sicut qua$am res 9 quam p] se appetitus t5dit1 vocatur hone/um2 quia hone/um dicitur quod p] se desid]atur4 ,id autem quod t]m9at motum appetitus1 ut quies 9 se desid]ata1 e/ delectabile40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 #e1 art4 #c4 #ahb ,excell5tia hom9is maxime consid]atur secundum virtutem1 quae e/ dis positio p]fecti ad optimum1 ut dicitur 9 #f ,physic4 ,et ideo1 hone/um1 proprie loqu5do1 9 idem ref]tur cum virtute4--ibid41 #b;a #b;ae1 q4 #ade1 art4 ,i1 c4 #ahc 8,eorum quae propt] se appreh5duntur1 qua$am appreh5duntur solum propt] se1 et nunquam propt] aliud1 sicut felicitas1 quae e/ ultimus f9is2 qua$am v]o appreh5duntur et propt] se1 9 quantum hab5t 9 seipsis aliquam rationem bonitatis1 etiamsi nihil aliud boni p] ea nobis accid]et1 et tam5 sunt appetibilia propt] aliud1 9 quantum scilicet p]ducunt nos 9 aliquod bonum p]fectius3 et hoc modo virtutes sunt propt] se appreh5d5dae40--ibid41 ad ,i4 #ahd ,cf4 ,,m]ci]1 op4 cit41 p4 #bcf4 #ahe 8,omnia 444 quae jam hab5t esse1 illud esse suum naturalit] amant1 et ipsam tota virtute cons]vant4444 ,ipsum igitur esse habet rationem boni4 ,unde sicut impossibile e/ quod sit aliquod ens quod non habeat esse1 ita necesse e/ quod omne ens sit bonum ex hoc ipso quod habet esse40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,de ,v]itate1 q4 #ba1 art4 #b1 c4 #ahf 8,non-esse secundum se non e/ appetibile1 s$ p] accid5s1 inquantum scilicet ablatio alicujus mali e/ appetibilis2 quod malum quidem auf]tur p] non-esse2 ablatio v]o mali non e/ appetibilis1 nisi inquantum p] malum privatur quoddam esse4 ,illud igitur1 quod p] se e/ appetibile1 e/ esse2 non-esse v]o1 p] accid5s tantum1 inquantum scilicet quoddam esse appetitur1 quo homo non su/9et priv>i2 et sic etiam p] accid5s non-esse dicitur bonum40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 #e1 art4 #b1 ad4 #c4 #ahg 8,malum e/ defectus boni quod natum e/ et debet hab]i40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 #di1 art4 #a1 c4 #ahh ibid4 #ahi 8,causam =malem malum non habet1 s$ e/ magis privatio =mae40--,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 #di1 art4 #a1 c4 #aij 8,nec causam f9alem habet malum1 s$ magis e/ privatio ord9is ad debitum f9em40--ibid4 #aia 8,non e/ causa effici5s s$ defici5s mali1 quia malum non e/ effectio s$ defectio40--,de ,civ4 ,dei1 xii41 #g4 #aib 8,o1 altitudo diviti>um sapi5tiae1 et sci5tiae ,dei6 ,quam incompreh5sibilia sunt judicia ejus1 et inve/igabiles viae ejus60--,rom4 xi41 #cc4 #aic ,connect$ ) ! transc5d5tal notion ( unity is ano!r concept1 t ( ord]1 :i* w be m fully exam9$ :5 we come to treat ( causes4 #aid ,,baumg>t51 a ,g]man philosoph] ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 0 ! fir/ to use ! t]m ,ae/hetica 9 ?is s5se4 #aie 8,dic5dum e/ quod pul*rum e/ idem bono sola ratione diff]5s4 ,cum enim bonum sit quod omnia appetunt1 de ratione boni e/1 quod 9 eo quietetur appetitus2 s$ ad rationem pul*ri att9et quod 9 ejus aspectu seu cognitione quietetur appetitus2 unde et illi s5sus prcipue respiciunt pul*rum1 qui maxime cognoscitivi sunt1 scilicet visus et auditus rationi des]vi5tes2 dicimus enim pul*ra visibilia et pul*ros sonos2 9 s5sibilibus autem aliorum s5suum non utimur nom9e pul*ritud9is2 non enim dicimus pul*ros sapores1 aut odores40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 ia4 ii41 q4 #bg1 art4 #a1 ad4 #c4 #aif 8,ad rationem pul*ri p]t9et1 quod 9 ejus aspectu seu cognitione quietetur appetitus 444 ita quod pul*rum dicatur id1 cujus ipsa appreh5sio placet40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 ia4 ii41 q4 #bg1 art4 #a1 ad4 #c4 ,& ! ,angelic ,doctor ju/ifies ! ext5d$ use ( ! t]m vision3 8,de aliquo nom9e duplicit] conv5it loqui1 uno modo secundum ejus primam impositionem1 alio modo secundum usum nom9is1 sicut patet 9 nom9e visionis1 quod primo impositum e/ ad signific&um actum s5sus visus2 s$ propt] dignitatem et c]titud9em hujus s5sus ext5sum e/ hoc nom51 secundum usum loqu5tium1 ad omnem cognitionem aliorum s5suum2 dicimus enim3 ,vide quomodo sapit1 vel quomodo r$olet1 vel quomodo e/ calidum2 et ult]ius etiam ad cognitionem intellectus1 secundum illud ,matt4 v4 #h3 ,beati mundi corde quoniam ipsi ,deum videbunt40--i41 q4 #fg1 art4 #a1 c4 #aig 8,pul*rum et bonum 9 subjecto quidem sunt idem1 quia sup] e&em rem fundantur1 scilicet sup] =mam1 et propt] hoc bonum laudatur ut pul*rum3 s$ ratione diff]unt3 nam bonum proprie respicit appetitum3 444 et ideo habet rationem f9is4444 ,pul*rum autem respicit vim cognoscitivam3 pul*ra enim dicuntur qu visa plac5t40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 #e1 art4 #d1 ad4 #a4 #aih ,cf4 ,,de ,,wulf1 ,la ,valeur e/htique de la moralit dans l'art1 pp4 #bh-i4 #aii ,l',art et la ,morale1 p4 #bi4 #bjj ,de la connaissance de ,dieu et de soi-mme1 *4 i41 #h4 #bja ,de ,v]a ,religione1 c4 #cb4 #bjb ,cf4 ,,po9c>1 ,confr5ce sur les rapports de l'analyse et de la physique ma!matique4--apud ,,m]ci]1 ,ontologie1 #bgd1 pp4 #edf-g n4 #bjc ,:5 ! object s excels 9 greatness or gr&eur z to exce$ m or less our capacity to realize x we speak ( x z sublime4 ,! sublime calls =? emotions ( self-abasem5t1 rev]5ce1 & ev5 fe>4 ,if an object possess+ ! o!r requisites ( beauty is want+ 9 due magnitude1 we describe x z pretty or elegant4 ,! t]ms grace1 graceful1 apply especially to gait1 ge/ure1 movem5t4 #bjd ,on ?is po9t all ! great philosoph]s are unanim\s4 ,= ,plato1 beauty :e!r ( s\l or ( body1 :e!r ( animate or ( inanimate ?+s1 results n f *ance1 b f ord]1 rectitude1 art3 1 7,plato1 ,gorg4 #ejf;,d74 ,ari/otle places beauty 9 gr&eur & ord]3 7,poetics1 *4 viii41 n4 #h74 7,metaph41 xii41 *4 iii41 n4 #aa74 8,nihil10 writes ,/4 ,augu/9e1 8e/ ord9atum quod non sit pul*rum40 8,pul*ra10 says ,/4 ,?omas1 8dicuntur quae visa plac5t2 unde pul*rum 9 debita proportione consi/it0 7,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 #e1 art4 #d1 ad4 #a74 #bje 8,ad pul*ritud9em tria requiruntur2 primo quidem integritas sive p]fectio2 quae enim dim9uta sunt1 hoc ipso turpia sunt2 et debita proportio sive consonantia2 et it]um cl>itas40--,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 #ci1 art4 #h1 c4 ,else:]e he omits integrity1 suppos+ x impli$ 9 ord]3 8ad rationem pul*ri sive decori concurrit et cl>itas et debita proportio04 ,& else:]e aga9 he omits cl>ity1 ?is be+ a necess>y effect ( ord]3 8pul*rum 9 debita proportione consi/it04 #bjf ,by 8natural p]fection0 is meant ! p]fection :i* a nature acquires by ! realization ( its end 7#e73 7,ari/otle74 #bjg ,?is def9ition co9cides ) t f\nd 9 a m$ieval s*ola/ic treatise ,de ,pul*ro et ,bono1 attribut$ to ,/4 ,?omas or ,alb]tus ,magnas3 8,ratio pul*ri 9 univ]sali consi/it 9 respl5d5tia =mae sup] p>tes mat]iae proportionatas1 vel sup] div]sas vires vel actiones40 ,cf4 ,,m]ci]1 ,ontologie1 p4 #eed4 #bjh ,l',ide du beau dans la philosophie de ,s4 ,?omas d',aqu91 p4 #b4 #bji ,du ,vrai1 du ,beau et du ,bi51 viie leon4 #baj ,kritik d] ,ur!ilskraft1 ,?4 i41 ,abs*n4 #a1 ,b4 #a1 passim4 #baa 8,omnis corporea creatura 444 bonum e/ infimum1 et 9 g5]e suo pul*rum quoniam =ma et specie cont9etur40--,,/4 ,,augu/9e1 ,de ,v]a ,relig41 c4 #bj4 #bab ,at ! same "t x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t _m ( ! judgm5ts by :i* ?+s are pron\nc$ 8ugly0 or 8commonplace0 are errone\s4 ,?is is p>tly because !y are bas$ on fir/ & sup]ficial s5se impressions3 beauty mu/ be appreh5d$ & judg$ by ! intellect1 & by ! intellect 8in=m$0 ) g5u9e k2 to ! eye ( enlight5$ intellig5ce !re are beauties ( /ructure & organization 9 ! beetle or ! tadpole z well z 9 ! peacock or ! spaniel4 ,x is p>tly1 too1 because we unconsci\sly or semi-consci\sly apply /&>ds ( human beauty to be+s t are m]ely animal3 8,to "k really :e!r !re are ugly monkeys we %\ld h to consult a monkey2 = ! beauty we unconsci\sly look =1 & c]ta9ly d n f9d1 9 ! monkey1 is ! beauty ( ! human =m2 & :5 we decl>e ! monkey ugly :at we really mean is t x w\ld be ugly if x 7 a human be+2 :i* is und5iable40--,,sully-,,prudhomme1 ,l',expression dans les beaux arts1 p4 #ajd4 #bac ,prov]bs1 xxxi4 #cj4 #bad ,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 ia1 iiae1 q4 #eg1 art4 #c1 c4 #bae ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 i41 #gj sqq4 #baf ,cf4 ,,w9delb&1 ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy 7tr4 ,tufts71 ,introduction4 #bag ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 ii4 ,p4 iv41 *4 v4 #bah ,metaph41 vi41 #a4 #bai ,cf4 ,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 #ij1 art4 #b3 8,illud proprie dicitur esse quod ipsum habet esse quasi 9 suo esse subsi/5s4 ,unde sol sub/anti proprie et v]e dicuntur entia2 accid5s v]o non habet esse s$ eo aliquid e/1 et hac ratione ens dicitur 444 accid5s dicitur magis entis quam ens40 #bbj ,9 ,metaph41 ,l4 v41 lect4 #i2 cf4 ,9 ,physic41 ,l4 iii41 lect4 #e4 #bba ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 i41 #ga1 #gc-gf4 #bbb ibid41 #gd1 #gf4 #bbc ,cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 #bfh 7p4 #ffh72 ,,m]ci]1 ,logique1 #cc 7#d? edit41 p4 #ii74 #bbd ,cf4 ,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,9 ,metaph41 ,l4 xi41 lect4 #i3 8,s$ sci5dum e/ quod prdicam5ta div]sificantur secundum div]sos modos prdic&i4 ,unde idem1 secundum quod div]simode de div]sis prdicatur1 ad div]sa prdicam5ta p]t9et4444 ,similit] motus secundum quod prdicatur de subjecto 9 quo e/1 con/ituit prdicam5tum passionis4 ,secundum autem quod prdicatur de eo a quo e/1 con/ituit prdicam5tum actionis40 #bbe ,ontologie1 #ach 7#crd edit41 p4 #bfc74 #bbf ,cf4 ,essay conc]n+ ,human ,und]/&+1 book iv41 *4 vi41 #aa3 8,_h we su* ideas ( sub/ances1 z to "k :at real con/itutions produce ^? s5sible qualities we f9d 9 !m1 & h[ ^! qualities fl[$ f !nce1 we c\ld1 by ! specific ideas ( _! real ess5ces 9 our own m9ds1 m c]ta9ly f9d out _! prop]ties1 & discov] :at prop]ties !y _h or _h n1 ?an we c n[ by our s5ses3 & to "k ! prop]ties ( gold1 x w\ld be no m necess>y t gold %\ld exi/1 ?an x is necess>y = ! kn[+ ! prop]ties ( a triangle1 t ! triangle %\ld exi/ 9 any matt]2 ! idea 9 our m9ds w\ld s]ve = ! "o z well z ! o!r40 #bbg 8,s5sation conv9ces u t !re are solid1 ext5d$ sub/ances2 & reflection1 t !re are ?9k+ ones3 exp]i5ce assures u ( ! exi/5ce ( su* be+s40--ibid41 book ii41 *4 xxiii41 #bi4 ,locke prote/$ repeat$ly aga9/ ! *>ge t he d5i$ ! exi/5ce ( sub/ances4 #bbh ,! notion "o has ( pure sub/ance is 8only a supposition ( he kn[s n :at support ( su* qualities1 :i* are capable ( produc+ simple ideas 9 u2 :i* qualities are commonly call$ accid5ts4444 ,! idea !n we h1 to :i* we give ! g5]al "n sub/ance1 be+ no?+ b ! suppos$1 b unkn[n support ( ^? qualities we f9d exi/+1 :i* we imag9e _c subsi/1 #8s9e re sub/ante1' )\t some?+ to support !m1 we call t support sub/antia40--book ii41 *4 xxiii41 #b4 ,9 ! foll[+ passage we may detect ! ideali/ic ins9uation t k rea*es only to 8ideas0 or m5tal /ates1 n to ! extram5tal reality1 ! 8secret1 ab/ract nature ( sub/ance03 8,:atev] !re=e be ! secret ab/ract nature ( sub/ance 9 g5]al1 all ! ideas we h ( p>ticul> di/9ct sorts ( sub/ances1 are no?+ b sev]al comb9ations ( simple ideas1 co-exi/+ 9 su*1 ?\gh unkn[n1 cause ( _! union1 z makes ! :ole subsi/ ( itself04 ,x belongs1 ( c\rse1 to ! ,!ory ( ,k1 n to ! ,!ory ( ,be+1 to %[ h[ gr\ndless ! ideali/ic assumption is4 #bbi ,inquir+ into ! causes ( our 8impressions0 & 8ideas10 he admits ! exi/5ce ( 8bodies0 :i* cause !m & 8m9ds0 :i* exp]i5ce !m3 8,we may well ask1 ,:at causes induce u to believe 9 ! exi/5ce ( body8 b 'tis va9 to ask1 ,:e!r !re be body or n8 ,t is a po9t1 :i* we mu/ take = grant$ 9 all our reason+s40--,a ,treatise on ,human ,nature1 ,"p iv41 ii4 #bcj ,( ! def9ition ( a sub/ance z some?+ :i* may exi/ by itself1 he says3 8?is def9ition agrees to ev]y?+ t c possibly be conceiv'd2 & w nev] s]ve to di/+ui% sub/ance f accid5t1 or ! s\l f its p]ceptions4444 ,s9ce all our p]ceptions are diff]5t f ea* o!r1 & f ev]y?+ else 9 ! univ]se1 !y are also di/9ct & sep>able1 & may be consid]'d z sep>ately exi/5t1 & may exi/ sep>ately1 & h no ne$ ( any?+ else to support _! exi/5ce4 ,!y are1 !re=e1 sub/ances1 z f> z ?is def9ition expla9s a sub/ance40--ibid41 v4 8,we h no p]fect idea ( sub/ance1 b 444 tak+ x = some?+ t c exi/ by itself1 'tis evid5t e p]ception is a sub/ance1 & e di/9ct "p ( a p]ception a di/9ct sub/ance40--ibid4 #bca ,cf4 ,,m]ci]1 op4 cit41 #adb 7p4 #bgb74 #bcb ,cf4 ,,kleutg51 op4 cit41 ,diss]t4 vi41 *4 iii41 li1 #eib4 #bcc ,assum+ = ! mom5t t we c "k sub/ance to be n "o b manifold3 t exp]i5ce reveals to u a plurality ( num]ically or really1 & ev5 specifically & g5]ically1 di/9ct sub/ances4 ,cf4 infra1 p4 #bba4 #bcd ,cf4 ,,huxley1 ,hume1 bk4 ii41 *4 ii4 ,,ta9e1 ,de ,l',intellig5ce1 t4 i41 ,preface1 & passim4 #bce ,cf4 #fe1 infra4 #bcf ,su* t]ms z 8corruptible10 8de/ructible10 etc41 imply c]ta9 attributes ( a ?+ :i* c be corrupt$1 de/roy$4 ,conceiv+ ?is attribute 9 ! ab/ract we =m ! t]ms 8corruptibility10 8de/ructibility10 etc4 ,s1 too1 ! t]m 8possibility0 =m$ f ! adjective 8possible10 simply implies 9 ! ab/ract :at ! latt] implies 9 ! concrete--an active or passive p[] ( a ?+ to cause or to become some?+2 or else ! m9d's conception ( ! non-repugnance ( ?is some?+4 ,to sub/antialize a possibility1 !re=e1 is suffici5tly absurd2 b to speak ( a possibility z real & at ! same "t to d5y ! reality ( any subject 9 :i* x w\ld h its reality1 is no less s4 #bcg except 9 ! ,bless$ ,eu*>i/3 "h we "k f ,div9e ,revelation t ! accid5ts ( bread & w9e exi/ ap>t f _! connatural sub/ance4 ,we _c1 by ! light ( reason1 prove positively ! possibility ( su* sep>ate exi/5ce ( accid5ts2 at ! mo/1 m5 ( ! supreme g5ius ( an ,ari/otle may h /rongly suspect$ su* possibility1 & may h conv9c$ !mselves ( ! futility ( all attempts to prove 9 any way ! impossibility ( su* a condition ( ?+s4 ,nor c we1 ev5 ) ! light ( ,revelation1 d any m ?an %[ ! futility ( su* attempts1 ?us negatively def5d+ ! possibility ( :at we "k f ,revelation to be a fact4 #bch ,cf4 n4 #a4 #bci ,cf4 ,,mah]1 ,psy*ology1 *4 xxii41 = a full analysis & refutation ( ph5om5i/ !ories t w\ld d5y ! sub/antiality ( ! human p]son4 #bdj 8,sub/antia e/ res1 cujus naturae debetur esse non 9 alio2 accid5s v]o e/ res1 cujus naturae debetur esse 9 alio40--,quodlib41 ix41 a4 #e1 ad4 #b4 #bda ,cf4 ,,desc>tes1 ,oeuvres1 edit4 ,c\s91 tome ix41 p4 #aff--;apud ,,m]ci]1 ,ontologie1 p4 #bhj4 #bdb ,,pauls51 ,e9leitung 9 die ,philosophie1 ,b]l91 #ahif1 ,s4 #ace--;apud ,,m]ci]1 loc4 cit4 #bdc & also appetitive2 z 9 m5tal life appetition is a natural consequ5t ( p]ception4 ,x is 9 accordance ) ?is latt] idea t ,wundt conceives all reality z be+ 9 its ultimate nature appetitive activity3 ! ,ego is a 8volitional unit0 & ! univ]se a 8collection ( volitional units04--,cf4 ,,wundt1 ,sy/em d] ,philosophie1 ,leipzig1 #ahhi1 ,s4 #dae-dba4 #bdd ,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology1 ,pt4 ii41 *4 i41 #ei4 #bde ,b f ,desc>tes' doctr9e ( two passive sub/ances s anti!tically oppos$ to ea* o!r ! transition to ,sp9ozism 0 easy & obvi\s4 ,if m9d & matt] are s absolutely oppos$ z ?\ght & ext5sion1 h[ c !y unite to =m "o human individual 9 man8 ,if bo? are purely passive1 & if ,god alone puts into !m _! consci\s /ates & _! me*anical movem5ts respectively1 :at rema9s prop] to ea* b a pure passivity t w\ld really be common to bo?8 ,w\ld x n be m consi/5t !n to ref] ?is ?\ght-ess5ce or receptivity ( consci\s activities1 & ?is ext5sion-ess5ce or receptivity ( me*anical movem5ts1 to ,god z _! prop] s\rce1 to reg>d !m z two attributes ( ,8 unique & self-exi/5t sub/ance1 & ?us to reg>d ,god z sub/antially imman5t 9 all ph5om5a1 & ^! z only diff]5t expressions ( ,8 all-p]vad+ ess5ce8 ,?is is :at ,sp9oza did2 & 8 monism 9 "o =m or o!r is ! la/ ^w ( _m contempor>y philosoph]s on ! nature ( ! univ]se :i* con/itutes ! totality ( human exp]i5ce4--,cf4 ,h,,ffd+1 ,outl9es ( ,psy*ology1 *4 ii41 & criticism ( same apud ,,mah]1 ,psy*ology1 *4 xxiii4 #bdf 8,esse sub/anti non dep5det ab esse alt]ius sicut ei inhr5s1 licet omnia dep5deant a ,deo sicut a causa prima40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,de ,causa ,mat]i1 cap4 viii4 #bdg ,cf4 ,,kleutg51 op4 cit4 #eid4 #bdh ,ibid41 #eig-fjj4 #bdi 8,illud proprie dicitur esse1 quod ipsum habet esse1 quasi 9 suo esse subsi/5s4 ,unde sol sub/anti proprie et v]e dicuntur entia2 accid5s v]o non habet esse1 s$ eo aliquid e/1 et hac ratione ens dicitur3 sicut alb$o dicitur ens quia ea aliquid e/ album4 ,et propt] hoc dicitur 9 ,metaph41 l4 #g al4 #f1 c4 i4 ,ari/41 quod accid5s dicitur magis entis quam ens40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 i4 q4 #ij1 art4 #b4 8,illud cui adv5it accid5s1 e/ ens 9 se completum consi/5s 9 suo esse1 quod quidem esse naturalit] prc$it accid5s1 quod sup]v5it3 et ideo accid5s sup]v5i5s1 ex conjunctione sui cum eo1 cui sup]v5it1 non causat illud esse 9 quo res subsi/it p] quod res e/ ens p] se3 s$ causat quoddam esse secundum1 s9e quo res subsi/5s intelligi pote/ esse1 sicut primum pote/ intelligi s9e secundo1 vel prdicatum s9e subjecto4 ,unde ex accid5te et subjecto non fit unum p] se1 s$ unum p] accid5s1 et ideo ex eorum conjunctione non resultat ess5tia qudam1 sicut ex conjunctione =m cum mat]ia3 propt] quod accid5s neque rationem complet ess5ti habet1 neque p>s complet ess5ti e/1 s$ sicut e/ ens secundum quid1 ita et ess5tiam secundum quid habet40--,de ,ente et ,ess5tia1 *4 vii4 #bej 8,non e/ def9itio sub/anti1 ens p] se s9e subjecto1 nec def9itio accid5tis1 ens 9 subjecto2 s$ quidditati seu ess5ti sub/anti competit hab]e esse non 9 subjecto2 quidditati autem sive ess5ti accid5tis competit hab]e esse 9 subjecto40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 iii41 q4 #gg1 art4 #a1 ad4 #b4 #bea ,cf4 ,,kleutg51 op4 cit41 #eie-eif4 #beb ibid41 #fai4 #bec ,cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 #cbj-cbe4 #bed ,,kleutg51 op4 cit41 #fah1 #fbd4 #bee ,?is logical usage is appli$ equally to attributes ( a logical subject :i* is n itself a sub/ance b an accid5t2 x turns solely on ! po9t :e!r ! concept ( ! logical pr$icate ( a judgm5t is or is n connect$ by an absolute logical connexion1 a connexion ( ?\ght1 ) ! concept ( ! logical subject4 #bef ,cf4 ,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,quae/4 ,disp41 ,de ,spir4 ,creat41 art4 #aa1 ad4 #g4 #beg ,cf41 h[ev]1 #fh1 p4 #bdf1 n4 #b1 infra4 #beh ,/4 ,?omas1 ^: language is usually s mod]ate1 ?us expresses 8 view ( ! doctr9e aft]w>ds prop\nd$ by ,desc>tes :5 ! latt] decl>$ ! ess5ce ( ! s\l to be ?\ght3 8,quidquid dicatur de pot5tiis animae1 tam5 nullus unquam op9atur1 nisi insanus1 quod habitus et actus animae s9t ipsa ejus ess5tia40--,quae/4 ,disp41 ,de ,spir4 ,creat41 art4 #aa1 ad #a4 ,= a v conv9c+ treatm5t ( ?is "q1 cf4 ,,kleutg51 op4 cit41 #fbe-fbf4 #bei ,,de ,,san1 ,cosmologia1 #cbc1 apud ,,m]ci]1 op4 cit41 #aeh4 #bfj op4 cit41 #fbe4 #bfa ,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 iii41 q4 #ag1 art4 #b1 c4 #bfb ,h5ce ,/4 ,?omas says1 9 reg>d to ! ,bless$ ,eu*>i/1 t ! accid5ts ( bread & w9e _h n an exi/5ce ( _! own z long z ! sub/ance ( bread & w9e 0 !re2 t ?is is true ( accid5ts g5]ally2 t x is n !y t exi/1 b r _! subjects2 t _! function is to det]m9e ^! subjects to exi/ z *>act]iz$ 9 a c]ta9 way1 z :it5ess gives sn[ a :ite exi/5ce3 8,dic5dum quod accid5tia panis et v9i1 man5te sub/antia panis et v9i non habebant ipsa esse sicut nec alia accid5tia1 s$ subjecta eorum habebant hujusmodi esse p] ea1 sicut nix e/ alba p] alb$9em40--,summa ,!ol41 iii41 q4 #gg1 art4 #a1 ad4 #d4 #bfc ,= ! argum5ts on bo? sides cf4 ,,m]ci]1 ,ontologie1 #aef 7pp4 #cjh sqq474 ,! indirect argum5t :i* ! au?or d]ives f ! fact t ! ,div9e ,concursus is necess>y = ! activity ( creatures1 :ile (f]+ an intelligible explanation ( ?is necessity on ,?omi/ic pr9ciples1 does n t\* ! probability ( o!r explanations4 #bfd ,cf4 ,,urraburu',s def9ition3 8entitas vel realitas a subjecto realit] di/9cta1 cujus totum esse consi/it 9 ultima det]m9atione rei ad aliquod munus obeundum1 vel ad aliquam realem d5om9ationem actu hab5dam1 s9e qua1 saltem 9 individuo sumpta1 res eadem pote/ exi/]e absolute04--op4 cit41 #abj 7p4 #chj74 #bfe ,cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 #bia 7p4 #hed1 qu>ta op9io71 p4 #hed4 #bff ,:e!r imman5t vital acts--especially ( ! spiritual faculties 9 man3 ?\ghts1 volitions1 etc4--are m]e modes1 or :e!r !y are absolute accid5ts1 hav+ _! own prop] & positive reality :i* p]fects _! subject by affect+ x1 is a disput$ "q4 ,habits1 acquir$ by repetition ( su* acts1 e4g4 k & virtue1 belong+ z !y d to ! category ( quality1 are m ?an m]e modalities ( ! human subject3 !y h an absolute1 positive entity1 :]eby !y add to ! total p]fection ( ! latt]4 #bfg ,cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 #aba 7pp4 #chf sqq474 #bfh ,! fact t ,ari/otle ,metaph41 lib4 vii4 7al4 vi471 *4 iii4 seems to h plac$ a real di/9ction betwe5 ext5sion & corporeal sub/ance1 :ile he c\ld n h suspect$ ! absolute sep>ability ( ! =m] f ! latt]1 w\ld g to %[ t he did n reg>d sep>ability z ! only te/ ( a real di/9ction4 ,cf4 ,,kleutg51 op4 cit41 ibid4 #bfi ,obvi\sly we are n conc]n$ h]e) all ! attributes :i* by a necessity ( ?\ght we ascribe to an ess5ce1 e4g4 ! corruptibility ( a corporeal sub/ance1 or ! immortality ( a spiritual sub/ance4 ,^! are n entities really di/9ct f ! sub/ance1 b only aspects :i* we recognize to be necess>y coroll>ies ( its nature4 ,we are conc]n$ only ) prop]ties :i* are real p[]s1 faculties1 =ces1 aptitudes ( ?+s4--,cf4 ,,kleutg51 op4 cit41 #fbg4 #bgj op4 cit41 #fbh4 #bga 8,t]tii sunt1 qui dicunt1 quod pot5tiae animae nec adeo sunt idem ipsi animae1 sicut sunt ejus pr9cipia intr9sica et ess5tialia1 nec adeo div]sae1 ut c$ant 9 aliud g5us1 sicut accid5tia2 s$ 9 g5]e sub/antiae sunt p] r$uctionem 444 et ideo quasi m$ium t55tes int] utramque op9ionem dicunt1 quasdam animae pot5tias sic diff]re ad invicem1 ut nullo modo dici poss9t una pot5tia3 non tam5 conc$unt1 eas simplicit] div]sific>i secundum ess5tiam1 ita ut dicantur div]sae ess5tiae1 s$ diff]re ess5tialit] 9 g5]e pot5tiae1 ita ut dicantur div]sa in/rum5ta ejusdem sub/antiae40--,9 lib4 ii41 di/4 xxiv41 p4 #a1 art4 #b1 q4 #a4 ,9 ! same context he expla9s :at we are to und]/& by ref]r+ any?+ to a c]ta9 category p] r$uctionem3 8,sunt enim qua$am1 quae sunt 9 g5]e p] se1 aliqua p] r$uctionem ad idem g5us4 ,illa p] se sunt 9 g5]e1 quae p>ticipant ess5tiam completam g5]is1 ut species et individua2 illa v]o p] r$uctionem1 quae nan dicunt completam ess5tiam4444 ,qua$am r$ucuntur sicut pr9cipia 444 aut ess5tialia1 sicut sunt mat]ia et =ma 9 g5]e sub/antiae2 aut integrantia1 sicut p>tes sub/antiae4444 ,qua$am r$ucuntur sicut viae 444 aut sicut viae ad res1 et sic motus et mutationes1 ut g5]atio1 r$ucuntur ad sub/antiam2 aut sicut viae a rebus1 et sic hab5t r$uci pot5tiae ad g5us sub/antiae4 ,prima enim ag5di pot5tia1 quae egressum dicitur hab]e ab ipsa sub/antia1 ad idem g5us r$ucitur1 quae non adeo elongatur ab ipsa sub/antia1 ut dicat aliam ess5tiam completam40--ibid41 ad4 #h4 #bgb 8,quoniam pot5tia creaturae arctata e/1 non potuit creatura hab]e posse p]fectum1 nisi esset 9 ea pot5ti>um multitudo1 ex qu>um collectione sive adunatione1 una suppl5te defectum alt]ius1 result>et unum posse completum1 sicut manife/e animadv]ti pote/ 9 organis humani corporis1 quorum unumquodque indiget a virtute alt]ius adjuv>i40--,9 lib4 ii41 di/4 xxiv41 p4 #a1 art4 #b1 q4 #h4 #bgc ,! /ud5t w f9d 9 ,,mah]',s ,psy*ology 7*4 iii47 a cle> & well-reason$ exposition ( ! inconsi/5cy & gr\ndlessness ( su* attacks on ! doctr9e ( faculties4 #bgd ,cf4 ,,kleutg51 op4 cit41 #fcf-fcg4 #bge 8,cum corpus hom9is aut cujuslibet alt]ius animalis sit quoddam totum naturale1 dicit unum ex eo quod unam =mam habeat qua p]ficitur non solum secundum aggregationem aut compositionem1 ut accidit 9 domo et 9 aliis hujusmodi4 ,unde opportet quod quaelibet p>s hom9is et animalis recipiat esse i4e4 sibi proprium et speciem ab anima sicut a propria =ma4 ,unde ,philosophus dicit 7l4 ii4 de anima1 text4 #i71 quod rec$5te anima neque oculus neque c>o neque aliqua p>s manet nisi aequivoce40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,quae/4 ,disp4 de anima1 art4 #aj--;apud ,,kleutg51 op4 cit41 #fcb4 #bgf ,! mo/ p]fect real unity is ( c\rse t :i* includes all p]fection 9 ! simplicity ( its actual ess5ce1 )\t any disp]sion or plurality ( its be+1 )\t any admixture ( accid5t or pot5tiality4 ,su* is ! unity ( ! ,inf9ite ,be+ alone4 ,no f9ite be+ possesses its actuality tota simul4 ,& ! creature falls %ort ( p]fect unity 9 proportion z x atta9s to ?is actuality only by a multiplicity ( real *anges1 by a v>iety ( really di/9ct pr9ciples & p[]s1 ess5tial & accid5tal1 9 its concrete mode ( be+4 ,9 proportion z creat$ ?+s are high] or l[] 9 ! scale ( be+ 7#dg71 !y realize a high] or a l[] grade ( unity 9 _! mode ( individual exi/5ce4 #bgg ,we are conc]n$ "h only ) f9ite1 creat$ sub/ances1 z di/9ct f ! ,div9e ,uncreat$ ,sub/ance on :om ^! dep5d 7#fd74 #bgh ,,ari/otle1 ,categ4 *4 iii41 passim2 ,metaph41 l4 v4 7al4 vi471 *4 viii42 ,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,9 ,metaph41 l4 v4 lect4 #aj2 ,,kleutg51 op4 cit41 #ehi-eia4 #bgi ,cf4 ,,kleutg51 op4 cit41 #ehg1 #fjb-fjc4 #bhj ,cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 #bgg1 #bgi4 #bha ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 ii41 #bag 7pp4 #ff sqq474 #bhb ,sci5dum e/ quod nom5 naturae significat quodlibet pr9cipium intr9sicum motus2 secundum quod ,philosophus dicit quod natura e/ pr9cipium motus 9 eo 9 quo e/ p] se1 et non secundum accid5s4--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 iii41 q4 #b1 art4 #a 9 c4 #bhc ,& "h we are rem9d$ ( ! view ( _m m$ieval s*ola/ics ( high au?ority1 t ! same mat]ial entity c h at ! same "t a plurality ( =mative pr9ciples or sub/antial =ms ( diff]5t grades ( p]fection4 #bhd ,cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 #bhb 7p4 #hbe74 #bhe ,= want ( a m appropriate r5d]+ we translate ! ,lat9 t]m suppositum 7,gr4 7 by ! phrase 8subsi/+ ?+02 ?\gh ! classical t]ms are really g5]ic3 suppositum be+ a g5us ( :i* !re are two species1 suppositum irrationale 78?+0 or 8subsi/+ ?+07 & suppositum rationale 78p]son074--,cf4 infra1 pp4 #bfe-f4 #bhf ,complete 9 e way3 9 sub/antial & 9 specific p]fections4 ,! sep>at$ s\l1 ?\gh x is an exi/+ individual sub/ance1 reta9s its ess5tial communicability to its connatural mat]ial pr9ciple1 ! body4 ,h5ce x has n 8subsi/5ce10 x is n a 8p]son04--,cf4 infra1 p4 #bfd4 #bhg 8,p] se ag]e conv5it p] se exi/5ti4 ,s$ p] se exi/5s qu&oque pote/ dici aliquid1 si non sit inhr5s ut accid5s1 vel ut =ma mat]ialis1 etiamsi sit p>s4 ,s$ proprie et p] se subsi/5s dicitur quod neque e/ pra$icto modo inhr5s neque e/ p>s4 ,secundum quem modum oculus aut manus non pote/ dici p] se subsi/5s1 et p] consequ5s nec p] se op]ans4 ,unde et op]ationes p>tium attribuuntur toti p] p>tes4 ,dicimus enim quod homo videt p] oculum et palpat p] manum40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 #ge1 art4 #b1 ad4 #b4 #bhh ,cf4 prec$+ note4 ,/4 ,?omas cont9ues3 8,pote/ igitur dici quod anima intelligit1 sicut oculus videt1 s$ magis proprie dicitur quod homo intelligat p] animam0 7ibid472 & else:]e he writes3 8,dic5dum quod anima e/ p>s humanae speciei i4e4 naturae4 ,et ideo1 licet sit sep>ata1 quia tam5 ret9et naturam unibilitatis1 non pote/ dici sub/antia individua quae e/ hypo/asis vel sub/antia prima1 sicut nec manus1 nec quaecumque alia p>tium hom9is2 et sic non competit ei neque def9itio p]sonae1 neque nom540--,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 #bi1 art4 #a1 ad4 #e4 #bhi ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 i41 #ed-e4 #bij ,all creat$ subsi/+ ?+s & p]sons dep5d1 ( c\rse1 ess5tially on ! ,necess>y ,be+ = _! exi/5ce & = _! activity4 ,?is ,necess>y ,be+ we "k f ,revelation to be ,triune1 ,?ree 9 ,p]sons1 ,"o 9 ,nature4 ,! subsi/5ce ( ea* ,div9e ,p]son ( ! ,bless$ ,tr9ity excludes all modes ( dep5d5ce4 #bia 8,hoc 444 quod e/ p] se ag]e1 excell5tiori modo conv5it sub/antiis rationalis naturae quam aliis4 ,nam solae sub/antiae rationales hab5t dom9ium sui actus1 ita quod 9 eis e/ ag]e et non ag]e2 aliae v]o sub/antiae magis aguntur quam agunt4 ,et ideo conv5i5s fuit ut sub/antia individua rationalis naturae speciale nom5 hab]et40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,quae/4 ,disp4 de ,pot5tia1 q4 ix41 art4 #a1 ad4 #c4 #bib ,cf4 ,,billot1 ,de ,v]bo ,inc>nato1 q4 ii4--apud ,,m]ci]1 op4 cit41 #aea 7pp4 #bii-cjj74 #bic ,cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 #bia1 = an exhau/ive li/ ( ! au?orities 9 fav\r ( ea* ( ! v>i\s views prop\nd$ 9 ?is pres5t context4 #bid 8,natura s+ul>is et integra p] se consituitur 9 sua indep5d5tia1 non aliquo positivo addito ultra illam entitatem positivam1 qua e/ haec natura40--,,scotus1 iii41 ,di/4 i4 q4 #a1 n4 #i & n4 #aa1 ad4 #c4 ,cf4 ,,su>ez1 ,metaph41 ,disp4 xxxiv4 #b2 ,,kleutg51 op4 cit41 #faf2 ,,franzel91 ,de v]bo ,inc>nato1 ,?4 xxix4 #bie op4 cit41 #bic 7p4 #hfa74 #bif ,nei!r is x a natural union 9 ! s5se ( be+ due to ! human nature2 x is :olly undue to ! latt]1 & is 9 ?is s5se sup]natural4 #big op4 cit41 #bic 7p4 #hfa74 #bih ibid4 ,f>!r on 7p4 #hfc7 he says x is c]ta9 t ! ,div9e ,nature ( ! ,^w is sub/antially unit$ ) humanity 9 a unity ( p]son or subsi/5ce3 8c]tum e/ eamdem naturam div9am sub/antialit] uniri cum humanitate 9 unitate suppositi20 & = ?is he consid]s t ! human nature mu/ be incomplete 89 ratione p]sonae04 ,b ?is proves no?+2 = ( c\rse ! human nature mu/ be want+ 9 p]sonality4 ,b x is complete z a nature4 ,nor does ! aphorism he quotes--8,quidquid sub/antiae 9 sua specie completae acc$it1 accid5s e/10--apply to subsi/5ce or p]sonality sup]v5+ on a complete sub/ance4 #bii 8,humanitas illa scil4 ,*ri/i1 quamvis completa 9 esse naturae1 non tam5 habet ultimum complem5tum 9 g5]e sub/antiae cum 9 se non subsi/at40--ibid41 #bif 7p4 #hff74 #cjj ,?is view1 :i* has _m support]s1 is cle>ly expla9$ & ably def5d$ by ,,m]ci] 9 8 ,ontologie1 #aea 7pp4 #bih-cjb71 #eb 7pp4 #acd-e71 #di 7p4 #abg1 n4 #a74 #cja ,cf4 ,,m]ci]1 op4 cit41 #di 7p4 #abg1 n4 #a74 #cjb ,h5ce ,urraburu gives ?is real def9ition ( subsi/5ce3 ultimus naturae t]m9us 9 ord9e sub/antiali sive 9 ratione exi/5tis p] se3 ! ultimate t]m 7or det]m9ation7 ( a nature 9 ! ord] ( sub/antiality or ( 8exi/+ by itself0--op4 cit41 #bif 7p4 #hff74 #cjc 8,sicut enim modus accid5talis figurae t]m9at quantitatem1 et modus ubicationis con/ituit rem hic et non alibi1 ita modus sub/antialis p]sonalitatis t]m9ans naturam r$dit illam incommunicabilem ali5o supposito40--,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 #bia 7p4 #hed74 #cjd ,! t]ms 8,self10 8,ego10 & 8,p]son0 we take to be id5tical 9 ref]5ce to ! human individual4 ,! m9d is n ! ,ego1 self1 or p]son1 b only a "p ( x4--,cf4 ,,mah]1 ,psy*ology1 *4 vi41 p4 #ajd4 #cje ,cf4 ,,mah]1 ,psy*ology1 *4 xvii4 #cjf ibid41 p4 #cfe4 #cjg ,cf4 ,,mah]1 ,psy*ology1 p4 #cfc4 #cjh ,cf4 ,,mah]1 ,psy*ology1 p4 #cfe 7italics 9 la/ s5t5ce ours74 #cji ,cf4 ,,rickaby1 ,fir/ ,pr9ciples1 p4 #cgj4 #caj ,cf4 ,,mah]1 ibid41 pp4 #dhg-ib2 ,,m]ci]1 ,psy*ologie1 ii41 pp4 #aig-bbd 7#f? edit472 ,ontologie1 #aec 7p4 #cjd74 #caa ,!re are cog5t !ological reasons also aga9/ ! view t consci\sness con/itutes p]sonality4 ,= in/ance1 ! human nature ( our ,div9e ,"l has its own prop] consci\sness1 :i*1 nev]!less1 does n con/itute ?is nature a p]son4 #cab ,essay ,conc]n+ ,human ,und]/&+1 bk4 ii41 *4 xxvii4 #cac 8,t be+ !n "o plant :i* has su* an organization ( p>ts 9 "o coh]5t body p>tak+ ( "o common life1 x cont9ues to be ! same plant z long z x cont9ues to p>take ( ! same life1 ?\gh t life be communicat$ to diff]5t p>ticles ( matt] vitally unit$ to ! liv+ plant1 9 a l cont9u$ organization con=mable to t sort ( plants4444 8,! case is n s mu* diff]5t 9 brutes1 b t anyone may h5ce see :at makes an animal & cont9ues x ! same4444 8,?is also %[s :]e9 ! id5tity ( ! same man consi/s3 viz4 9 no?+ b a p>ticipation ( ! same cont9u$ life1 by con/antly fleet+ p>ticles ( matt]1 9 succession vitally unit$ to ! same organiz$ body4444 ,= if ! id5tity ( s\l alone makes ! same man1 & !re be no?+ 9 ! nature ( matt] :y ! same individual _s may be unit$ i4e4 successively to diff]5t bodies1 x w be possible t 444 m5 liv+ 9 di/ant ages1 & ( diff]5t temp]s1 may h be5 ! same man44440--,essay ,conc]n+ ,human ,und]/&+1 bk4 ii4 *4 xxvii4 #d-f4 ,yet ?\gh 8id5tity ( s\l0 does n make 8! same man10 ,locke goes on imm$iately to ass]t t id5tity ( consci\sness1 :i* is b a function ( ! s\l1 makes ! same p]son4 #cad ,essay ,conc]n+ ,human ,und]/&+1 bk4 ii41 *4 xxvii41 #g4 ,names d n /& = ideas or concepts b = conceiv$ realities2 & ! "q "h is3 ,:at is ! conceiv$ reality 79 ! exi/+ human individual7 = :i* ! t]m 8p]son0 /&s8 #cae ibid41 #i4 #caf ,essay ,conc]n+ ,human ,und]/&+1 bk4 ii41 *4 xxvii41 #ac1 #ad4 #cag ,essay ,conc]n+ ,human ,und]/&+1 bk4 ii41 *4 xxvii41 #ac4 #cah ,= a se>*+ criticism ( su* !ories ( ! ,ego or human p]son1 cf4 ,,mah]1 ,psy*ology1 *4 xxii4 #cai ibid41 #ai4 #cbj p4 #bgf4 #cba ,cf4 ,,mah]',s criticism ( ,pr(essor ,james' !ory on d\ble p]sonality 7op4 cit41 *4 xxii41 pp4 #dia-b73 8,pr(essor ,james devotes mu* space to ^! 'mutations' ( ! ,ego1 yet ov]looks ! fact t !y are peculi>ly fatal1 n to 8 adv]s>ies1 b to 8 own !ory t #8! pres5t ?\ght is ! only ?9k]1' & t seem+ id5tity is suffici5tly pres]v$ by ea* ?\ght 'appropriat+' & #8inh]it+' ! cont5ts ( its pr$ecessor4 ,! difficulties pres5t$ to ?is process ( inh]itance by su* facts z sleep & swoon+ h be5 already dwelt ^u cf4 ibid41 p4 #dhj 7c72 b "h !y are if possible increas$4 ,! la/ consci\s ?\ght (1 say1 ,felida #b has to transmit its ga!r$ exp]i5ce n to its proximate consci\s successor1 :i* is ,felida #a1 b across sev5 mon?s ( vacuum until on ! ext9ction ( ,felida #a ! next consci\s ?\ght :i* con/itutes ,felida #b is born into exi/5ce4 ,if ! s+le p]sonality is h>d = ,mr4 ,james to expla91 #8d\ble-p]sonality' at lea/ d\bles 8 difficulties40 #cbb ,cf4 infra1 #hb4 #cbc 1 4--,categ41 *4 iv4 ,cf4 ,,/4 ,,?omas3 8,haec e/ ratio =malis qualitatis1 p] quam respondemus int]roganti qualis res sit40 #cbd ,! o!r accid5ts1 e4g4 actio & passio1 9 s f> z !y *ange ! p]fection ( ! sub/ance1 d s only by produc+ qualities 9 x4 ,quantity1 :i* is ! connatural accid5t ( all corporeal sub/ance1 adds ( itself no special complem5t or degree ( accid5tal p]fection to ! latt]1 9 ! s5se ( dispos+ 7or indispos+7 ! latt] = ! atta9m5t ( ! full & f9al p]fection due to its specific nature2 b only 9 ! s5se t x supposes m or less ( t k9d ( sub/ance to exi/1 or 9 ! s5se 9 :i* x is und]/ood to include ! qualities ( :i* x may be ! imm$iate subject4--,cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 #cbf4 #cbe ,9 ,pra$icam5ta1 *4 i4 #cbf ,cf4 ,,mah]1 ,psy*ology1 *4 xii1 xiii1 xxiii1 xxv4 ,,b]gson rightly recognizes ! irr$ucibility ( quality to quantity 7,essai sur les donnes imm$iates de la consci5ce1 passim74 ,b he wrongly inf]s f ?is 8fundam5tal ant9omy10 z he calls x1 ! exi/5ce1 9 ea* human individual1 ( a two-fold ,ego1 a deep] self :]e all is quality1 & a sup]ficial self :i* projects consci\s /ates1 9 /atic & num]ical isolation f "o ano!r1 into a homog5e\s space :]e all is quantitative1 ma!matical4 ,! reasonable inf]5ce is m]ely t ! human m9d recognizes 9 ! data ( its exp]i5ce a c]ta9 ri*ness & v>iety ( modes ( real be+4 #cbg ,metaph4 ,v41 *4 xiv41 :]e ! f\r gr\ps are f9ally r$uc$ to two4 #cbh ,summa ,!ol41 ia1 iiae1 q4 #di1 art4 #b4 #cbi ,to be di/+ui%$ f ! passio :i* is correlative ( actio & :i* consi/s 9 ! actual und]go+ ( ! latt]1 ! actual reception ( ! accid5tal =m :i* is ! t]m ( ! latt]4 #ccj 8,int] omnes qualitates1 figurae maxime sequuntur et demon/rant speciem r]um4 ,quod maxime 9 plantis et animalibus patet1 9 quibus nullo c]tiori indicio div]sitas speci]um dijudic>i pote/1 quam div]sitate figurae40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,9 ,,vii4 ,physic1 lect4 #e4 #cca ,e natural habit1 z we h j se51 has an ess5tial relation to activity4 ,e su* habit inh]es imm$iately 9 "s op]ative faculty1 z sci5ce 9 ! intellect1 or ju/ice 9 ! w4 ,all natural habits are op]ative4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 z we "k f ,div9e ,revelation1 an 8entitative0 habit1 a habitus entitativus1 :i* affects ! sub/ance itself ( ! human s\l1 ennobl+ its natural mode ( be+ & s p]fect+ x z to raise x to a high] or sup]natural plane ( be+1 to an ord] ( exi/5ce altoge!r undue to its nature3 ! sup]naturally infus$ habit ( sanctify+ grace4 #ccb ,e?4 ,eud41 ii41 #b4 #ccc 8,vires naturales non agunt op]ationes suas m$iantibus aliquibus habitibus1 quia secundum seipsas sunt det]m9atae ad unum40--,summa ,!ol41 ia ii1 q4 #di1 art4 #d1 ad #b4 #ccd 8,intellectus 444 e/ subjectum habitus4 ,illi enim competit esse subjectum habitus quod e/ 9 pot5tia ad multa2 et hoc maxime competit intellectui44440--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 ia1 iie1 q4 #ej1 art4 #d1 ad4 #a4 8,omnis pot5tia quae div]simode pote/ ord9>i ad ag5dum1 indiget habitu1 quo b5e disponatur ad suum actum4 ,voluntas autem cum sit pot5tia rationalis1 div]simode pote/ ad ag5dum ord9>i3 et ideo oportet 9 voluntate aliquem habitum pon]e1 quo b5e disponatur ad suum actum 44410--ibid4 art4 #e1 9 c4 #cce 8,habitualis dispositio requiritur ubi subjectum e/ 9 pot5tia ad multa4 ,op]ationes v]o quae sunt ab anima p] corpus1 pr9cipalit] quidem sunt ipsius animae1 secund>io v]o ipsius corporis4 ,habitus autem proportionantur op]ationibus2 unde ex similibus actibus similes habitus causantur1 ut dicitur 9 #b ,e?ic41 cap4 #a et #b2 9 corpore v]o possunt esse secund>io1 inquantum scilicet corpus disponitur et habilitatur ad prompte des]vi5dum op]ationibus animae40--,summa ,!ol41 ia ii1 q4 #di1 art4 #a1 9 c4 #ccf ,cf4 ,,/4 ,,?omas1 ibid41 q4 #ej1 art4 #a4--,,m]ci]1 ,ontologie1 #afd4 #ccg ,accord+ to ! s*ola/ic !ory ( matt] & =m ! matt] mu/ be pr$ispos$ by c]ta9 qualities = ! reception ( a giv5 sub/antial =m4 ,! *emical elem5ts :i* =m a comp\nd w n d s 9 any & e condition1 b only :5 def9itely dispos$ & br\ght toge!r "u fav\rable conditions4 ,^! elem5t>y qualities1 consid]$ 9 !mselves1 are n habits or dispositions3 8,unde qualitates simplices elem5torum1 quae secundum unum modum det]m9atum naturis elem5torum conv5iunt1 non dicimus dispositiones vel habitus1 s$ simplices qualitates40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ibid41 q4 #di1 art4 #d1 9 ,c4 ,!y are natural qualities & n dispositions produc$ by dispos+ causes4 #cch ,/4 ,?omas reg>ds ! di/9ction betwe5 habits & m]e dispositions z a di/9ction n ( degree b ( k9d3 8,dispositio et habitus possunt di/+ui sicut div]sae species unius g5]is subalt]ni1 ut dicantur dispositiones illae qualitates primae speciei quibus conv5it secundum propriam rationem ut de facili amittantur1 quia hab5t causas mutabiles1 ut aegritudo et sanitas2 habitus v]o dicantur illae qualitates quae secundum suam rationem hab5t quod non de facili transmut5tur quia hab5t causas immobiles2 sicut sci5tia et virtutes2 et secundum hoc disposito non fit habitus40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 ia1 ii1 q4 #di1 art4 #b1 ad4 #c4 #cci 8,vires s5sitivae duplicit] possunt consid]>i3 uno modo1 secundum quod op]ant] ex in/9ctu naturae2 alio modo1 secundum quod op]antur ex imp]io rationis4 ,secundum igitur quod op]antur ex in/9ctu naturae1 sic ord9antur ad unum1 sicut et natura2 et ideo sicut 9 pot5tiis naturalibus non sunt aliqui habitus1 ta etiam nec 9 pot5tiis s5sitivis1 secundum quod ex in/9ctu naturae op]antur4 ,secundum v]o quod op]antur ex imp]io rationis1 sic ad div]sa ord9>i possunt3 et sic possunt esse 9 eis aliqui habitus1 quibus b5e aut male ad aliquid disponuntur40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ibid41 q4 #ej1 art4 #c1 9 c4 ,9 ?is context ! angelic doctor1 foll[+ ,ari/otle1 places ! virtues ( temp]ance & =titude 9 ! s5se appetite z controll$ by ! rational w4 ,= ! same reason he admits ! possibility ( habits 9 ! faculties ( int]nal s5se p]ception1 ?\gh n 9 ! ext]nal s5ses 7ibid41 ad4 #c74 #cdj 8,quia bruta animalia a ratione hom9is p] qu&am consuetud9em disponuntur ad aliquid op]&um sic1 vel alit]1 hoc modo 9 brutis animalibus habitus quodammodo poni possunt4444 ,deficit tam5 ratio habitus quantum ad usum voluntatis quia non hab5t dom9ium ut5di vel non ut5di1 quod videtur ad rationem habitus p]t9]e2 et ideo1 proprie loqu5do1 9 eis habitus esse non possunt40--ibid41 ad4 #b4 #cda ,x mu/ n be =gott5 t habit is an accid5t1 an accid5tal p]fection ( ! sub/ance or nature ( an individual ag5t2 x imm$iately affects ! op]ative p[] ( ! ag5t1 :i* op]ative p[] is itself an accid5t ( ?is ag5t's nature 7con/itut+ ! second sub-class ( ! accid5t1 ,quality74 ,habit is ?us at once an actuality or actualization ( ! op]ative p[] & a pot5tiality ( fur!r & m p]fect acts4 ,x is int]m$iate betwe5 ! op]ative p[] & ! complete actualization :i* ! p[] receives by ! acts t spr+ f ! latt] z p]fect$ by ! habit4 ,faculty & habit =m "o complete proximate pr9ciple ( ^? acts3 a pr9ciple :i* is at once a p>tial actualization ( ! individual ag5t's nature & a pot5tiality ( fur!r actualization ( ?is nature4 #cdb 8,si pot5tiae animae non sunt ipsa ess5tia animae1 sequitur quod s9t accid5tia 9 aliquo novem g5]um cont5ta4 ,sunt enim 9 secunda specie qualitatis1 qu dicitur pot5tia vel impot5tia naturalis40--,q4 ,disp4 de ,spir4 ,creat41 art4 #aa1 9 c4 #cdc ,cf4 ,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 #gf1 art4 #a1 9 c4--8,cum pot5tia et actus dividant ens1 et quodlibet g5us entis1 opportet quod ad idem g5us ref]atur pot5tia et actus2 et ideo si actus non e/ 9 g5]e sub/antiae1 pot5tia1 qu dicitur ad illum actum1 non pote/ esse 9 g5]e sub/antiae4 ,op]atio autem animae non e/ 9 g5]e sub/antiae1 s$ 9 solo ,deo1 cujus op]atio e/ ejus sub/antia40--,cf4 ,,zigli>a1 ,ontologia 7#i71 xi43 8,actus et pot5tia ess5tialit] ad illum actum ord9ata sunt 9 eodem g5]e supremo40 #cdd 8,nec 9 angelo1 nec 9 aliqua creatura1 virtus vel pot5tia op]ativa e/ idem quod sua ess5tia4444 ,actus ad quem comp>atur pot5tia op]ativa e/ op]atio4 ,9 angelo autem non e/ idem intellig]e et esse2 nec aliqua alia op]atio1 aut 9 ipso aut 9 quocunque alio creato1 e/ idem quod ejus esse4 ,unde ess5tia angeli non e/ ejus pot5tia intellectiva1 nec alicujus creati ess5tia e/ ejus op]ativa pot5tia40--ibid41 q4 #ed1 art #c4 #cde ,z we %all see lat]1 action z su* does n p]fect or *ange ! ag5s1 unless :51 z 9 imman5t action1 ! ag5s is id5tical ) ! pati5s4 ,action =mally actualizes or p]fects ! pati5s3 actio fit 9 passo4 ,b ! ex]cise ( any activity by an ag5t und\bt$ly connotes or implies a p]fection ( ?is ag5t4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 t ! actual op]ation z su* 7unless x is imman5t7 adds a new p]fection to ! ag5t4 ,r ! ag5t's p[] ( act+1 reveal$ to u 9 its ex]cise1 is = u a measure ( ! actual p]fection ( ! ag5t4 ,b ! "q rema9s3 ,is ?is p[] or p]fection1 s f> z we "k x1 a sub/antial p]fection8 ,is x ! v p]fection itself ( ! ag5t's sub/ance or nature z kn[n to u8 ,or is x an accid5tal p]fection :i* is = u an index ( a correspond+ degree ( sub/antial p]fection8 ,9 gett+ our k ( ! nature ( a sub/ance f a consid]ation ( its s5sible accid5ts1 its ph5om5a1 its op]ations--accord+ to ! rule1 ,op]>i sequitur esse3 qualis e/ op]atio talis e/ natura--c we use a s+le inf]5ce1 f action to nature1 or mu/ we use a d\ble inf]5ce1 f action to p[]1 & f p[] to nature8 ,b ev5 if we h to make ! d\ble inf]5ce1 ?is ( itself does n prove any m ?an a conceptual di/9ction betwe5 p[] & nature4 #cdf ,cf44 ,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,q4 ,disp4 de spir4 creat41 art4 #aa1 9 c4--,,mah]1 ,psy*ology *4 iii4 #cdg ,cf4 ,,m]ci]1 ,ontologie1 #afh4 #cdh ,cf4 ibid41 op4 cit41 #afi2 ,,mah]1 ,psy*ology1 *4 iii4 7p4 #bi1 n4 #c47 #cdi ,( c\rse all accid5ts are 8=ms0 9 ! s5se ( be+ det]m9+ pr9ciples ( _! subjects1 ^! be+ consid]$ z det]m9able or receptive pr9ciples4 ,ev5 quantity is a =m 9 ?is s5se4 ,b quantity itself does n appe> to be a 8simple0 pr9ciple 9 ! s5se ( be+ 8indivisible03 its v function is to make ! corporeal sub/ance divisible into integral p>ts4 ,:at !n ( all ^? qualities :i* inh]e imm$iately 9 ! quantity ( corporeal sub/ances8 ,!y are det]m9ations or affections ( a composite1 ext5d$1 divisible subject4 ,conceiv$ 9 ! ab/ract !y h1 ( c\rse1 ! attributes ( indivisibility1 immutability1 etc41 *>act]i/ic ( all ab/ract ess5ces 7#ad74 ,b 9 _! physical actuality 9 :at intelligible s5se c !y be said to be simple1 indivisible entities8 #cej ,summa ,!ol41 ia1 iiae1 q4 #eb1 art4 #b2 iia1 iiae1 q4 #bd1 art4 #d1 #e4--,q4 ,disp4 de ,virtutibus 9 communi1 q4 i1 art4 #aa1 9 c4--,i4 ,9 ,s5t5t41 ,di/41 #ag1 q4 #b1 art4 #b4--;,cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 #cbi-ccb1 = argum5ts & au?orities4 ,! au?or himself def5ds ! =m] view1 accord+ to :i* alt]ation takes place by a real addition or sub/raction ( grades ( ! same quality4 #cea ,i4 ,9 ,s5t5t41 ,di/41 #ag1 q4 #b1 art4 #b4 #ceb iia1 iiae1 q4 #bd1 art4 #d1 ad4 #c4 #cec ,q4 ,disp4 de ,virtut41 q4 #a1 art4 #aa1 9 c4 #ced ,! sci5tific concept ( 8volume0 is id5tical ) ! common & philosophical concept ( 8ext]nal1 actual1 local1 or spatial ext5sion04 ,! functions ascrib$ by physics & me*anics to ! 8mass0 ( a body h no o!r s\rce1 9 ! body1 ?an :at philosoph]s und]/& by ! 8int]nal ext5sion0 or 8quantity0 ( ! body4--,cf4 ,nys1 ,cosmologie 7,l\va91 #aijc71 #aib-bjc4 #cee ,! t]ms quantity & ext5sion are commonly tak5 z synonym\s2 b quantity is m prop]ly appli$ to ! int]nal plurality ( integral p>ts ( ! sub/ance itself1 ext5sion to ! disp]sion ( ^! p>ts outside "o ano!r 9 space4 #cef ,h5ce ,ari/otle's def9ition 9 ,metaph41 iv43 8,quantum dicitur1 quod e/ 9 insita divisibile1 quorum utrumque aut s+ula unum quid et hoc quid apta sunt esse03 a quantifi$ sub/ance is "o :i* is divisible into p>ts t are really 9 x i4e4 p>tes integrantes1 p>ts ea* ( :i* is capable ( becom+ a di/9ct subsi/+ individual ?+4--,cf4 ,,nys1 ,cosmologie1 #aed4 #ceg 8,longitudo1 latitudo et pr(unditas quantitates qua$am1 s$ non sub/antiae sunt4 ,quantitas enim non e/ sub/antia1 s$ magis cui haec ipsa primo insunt illud e/ sub/antia40--,metaph41 ,l4 vii41 *4 iii4 #ceh ,physic1 ,l4 i41 *4 ii4 #cei ,l4 ii41 *4 iv4 #cfj ,cf4 #fb supra4 #cfa 8,propria 444 totalitas sub/antiae cont9etur indiff]5t] 9 p>va vel magna quantitate2 sicut 444 tota natura hom9is 9 magno1 vel p>vo hom9e40--,summa ,!ol41 iii41 q4 #gf1 art4 #a1 ad4 #c4 #cfb ,no argum5t 9 fav\r ( ?is view c be bas$ on ! use ( ! t]m species 78man5tibus dumtaxat speciebus panis et v9i07 by ! ,fa!rs ( ! ,c\ncil ( ,tr5t4 ,= !m1 z = all ,ca?olic philosoph]s & !ologians ( ! "t1 ! s*ola/ic t]m species1 us$ 9 su* a context1 meant simply ! objective1 p]ceptible accid5ts ( ! sub/ance4 ,cf4 ,,nys1 op4 cit41 #age4 #cfc ,h5ce ! significance ( ! l9es 9 ,,/4 ,,?omas' hymn1 ,adoro ,te devote3-- ,visus1 tactus1 gu/us 9 te fallitur1 ,s$ auditu solo tuto cr$itur4 #cfd & nei!r does ,revelation4 ,! ,body ( our ,bless$ ,"l exi/s 9 ! ,eu*>i/ )\t its connatural ext]nal ext5sion & consequ5t imp5etrability4 ,b accord+ to ! common tea*+ ( ,ca?olic !ologians x has its int]nal quantity1 its di/9ct integral p>ts1 organs & memb]s--really di/9ct f "o ano!r1 ?\gh int]p5etrat+ & n spatially ext]nal to "o ano!r4 ,its mode ( exi/5ce 9 ! space occupi$ by ! sacram5tal species is ?us analog\s to ! mode 9 :i* ! s\l is 9 ! body1 or a pure _s 9 space4 #cfe ,we "k f ,revelation t ! ,body ( our ,"l exi/s 9 ?is way 9 ! ,eu*>i/4 ,we "k1 too1 f ,revelation t aft] ! g5]al resurrection ! glorifi$ bodies ( ! j w be real bodies1 real corporeal sub/ances1 & nev]!less t !y w be end[$ ) prop]ties v diff]5t f ^? :i* !y possess 9 ! pres5t /ate3 t !y w be immortal1 incorruptible1 impassible1 8spiritual0 7cf4 #a ,cor4 xv474 ,! ,ca?olic philosoph] :o adds ^? scatt]$ rays ( reveal$ light to :at 8 own rational analysis ( exp]i5ce tells him ab\t matt] & _s1 w und]/& ! possibility ( su* a k9%ip betwe5 ! latt] z w make ! fact ( _! union 9 8 own nature & p]son n p]haps any less wond]ful1 b at any rate a little less surpris+ & inscrutable3 & ?is )\t committ+ himself to ! objective idealism :]eby ,b]keley1 :ile endeav\r+ to %[ ! utt] unreality ( matt]1 only succe$$ 9 p]suad+ himself t its reality 0 n indep5d5t ( all m9d4 #cff 8 1 40--,physic1 ,l4 iv41 *4 iv4 7#f74 #cfg ,! category ,situs is commonly int]pret$ to signify ! mutual spatial relations or dispositions ( ! v>i\s p>ts ( a body 9 ! place actually occupi$ by ! latt]4 #cfh ,a body depriv$ ( its connatural ext5sion exi/s 9 space 9 a mann] analog\s to t 9 :i* ! s\l is 9 ! body4 ,! ,body ( our ,div9e ,"l is 9 ! ,eu*>i/ 9 ?is mann]--8sacram5talit]04 #cfi ,cf4 ,,kleutg51 op4 cit41 #fbd4 #cgj ,cf4 ,,zigli>a1 ,ontologia 7#ce71 iv4 #cga ,cf4 ,,nys1 ,la ,notion d',espace 7,l\va91 #aija71 pp4 #ie sqq4--,la ,notion de ,temps 7,l\va91 #ahih71 pp4 #abc sqq4 #cgb 8,quid e/ ergo tempus8 ,si nemo ex me qua]at1 scio2 si qua]5ti explic>e velim1 nescio40--,confess4 ,l4 xi41 *4 xiv4 #cgc 8,cum enim intelligimus extrema div]sa alicujus m$ii1 et anima dicat1 illa esse duo nunc1 hoc prius1 illud po/]ius quasi num]&o prius et po/]ius 9 motu1 tunc hoc dicimus esse tempus40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 9 ,phys41 ,l4 iv4 lect4 #ag;a4 #cgd ,s5t5t41 ,di/4 xix41 q4 ii41 art4 #a4--;,cf4 ,lect4 xxiii4 9 iv4 ,physic4 #cge ,physic41 iv41 *4 xi4--,cf4 ,,/4 ,,?omas 9 loc4 #cgf 8,! conception ( v>iation unit$ ) sam5ess is n1 h[ev]1 ! :ole cognition ( "t4 ,= ?is ! m9d mu/ be able to comb9e 9 ?\ght two diff]5t movem5ts or pulsations ( consci\sness1 s z to repres5t an int]val betwe5 !m4 ,x mu/ hold toge!r two n[s1 conceiv+ !m1 9 succession1 yet unit+ !m ?r\gh t intellectual syn!tic activity by :i* we enum]ate a collection ( objects--a process or act :i* c>ries concomitantly ! consci\sness ( its own cont9u\s unity40--,,mah]1 ,psy*ology1 *4 xvii4 #cgg ,t is1 provid$ we ab/ract f all comp>ison ( ?is int]nal "t duration ) t ( any o!r curr5t ( consci\s exp]i5ces 9 ! e/imat+ m9d4 ,z a matt] ( fact we always & necess>ily comp>e ! "t duration ( any p>ticul> exp]i5c$ *ange ) t ( ! rema9+ portion ( ! :ole curr5t ( successive consci\s /ates :i* make up our m5tal life4 ,& ?us we feel1 n t ! f\r-mile walk _h a long] "t duration ?an ! ?ree-mile walk1 b r t x took place at a quick] rate1 m rapidly1 ?an ! latt]4 ,b if a m9d :i* _h no o!r consci\sness ( *ange :atsoev] ?an1 e4g4 t ( ! two walks exp]i5c$ successively1 no o!r /&>d *ange ) :i* to comp>e ea* ( !m z x occurr$--if su* a m9d exp]i5c$ ea* 9 ?is way1 w\ld x pron\nce ! f\r-mile walk to h occupi$ a long] "t ?an ! ?ree-mile walk8--,cf4 infra1 p4 #cbg4 #cgh ,?is is true on ! assumption t ! intr9sic "t-duration ( a successive1 cont9u\s *ange1 its divisibility into di/9ct 8n[s0 relat$ z 8be=e0 & 8aft]10 is really id5tical ) ! cont9u\s1 successive /ates con/itut+ ! *ange itself1 & is n a really di/9ct mode sup]add$ to ?is *ange1 a cont9u\s s]ies ( 8qu&ocationes10 di/9ct f ! *ange1 & giv+ ! latt] its temporal duration4 ,b _m philosoph]s hold t 9 all creatures duration is a mode ( _! exi/5ce really di/9ct f ! creatures !mselves t h ?is duration or cont9u$ exi/5ce4--,cf4 infra1 #hf4 #cgi ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 ii41 #bdf1 pp4 #bja sqq4 #chj op4 cit41 c4 xvii4 #cha op4 cit41 c4 xvii4 #chb ,cf4 ,,nys1 ,la ,notion de ,temps 7,lova91 #ahih71 p4 #ajd4 #chc ,! fact t we c p]ceive & e/imate temporal duration only extr9sically1 & 9 ultimate analysis by comp>ison ) ! fl[ ( our own consci\s /ates1 & t !re=e we c h no p]ception or conception ( ! intr9sic "t duration ( any *ange1 seems to h be5 ov]look$ by ,,de ,,san 7,cosmologia1 pp4 #ebh-i7 :5 he argues f our p]ception ( diff]5t rates ( motion1 9 fav\r ( ! view t "t duration is n really id5tical ) motion or *ange1 b a sup]add$ mode1 really di/9ct f ! latt]4 #chd ,cf4 ,,nys1 ,la ,notion de ,temps1 pp4 #he sqq4 #che ,cf4 ,,nys1 op4 cit41 pp4 #abj sqq41 = a def5ce ( ! view t an actually inf9ite multitude involves no contradiction4 #chf ibid41 pp4 #afb-i4 #chg ,de ,consolatione1 ,l4 v41 pr4 ult4 #chh ,cf4 ,,kleutg51 op4 cit41 #fbd4 #chi 8,e/ ergo dic5dum1 quod1 cum aet]nitas sit m5sura esse p]man5tis secundum quod aliquid rec$it a p]man5tia ess5di1 secundum hoc rec$it ab aet]nitate4 ,qua$am autem sic rec$unt a p]man5tia ess5di1 quod esse eorum e/ subjectum transmutationis1 vel 9 transmutatiose consi/it2 et hujusmodi m5surantur tempore1 sicut omnis motus1 et etiam esse omnium corruptibilium4 ,qua$am v]o rec$unt m9us a p]man5tia ess5di1 quia esse eorum nec 9 transmutatione consi/it nec e/ subjectum transmutationis2 tam5 hab5t transmutationem adjunctam vel 9 actu vel 9 pot5tia 444 patet de angelis1 quod scilicet hab5t esse intransmutabile cum transmutabilitate secundum electionem1 quantum ad eorum naturam p]t9et1 et cum transmutabilitate intellig5ti>um1 et affectionum1 et locorum suo modo4 ,et ideo hujusmodi m5surantur aevo1 quod e/ m$ium int] aet]nitatem et tempus4 ,esse autem quod m5surat aet]nitas1 nec e/ mutabile nec mutabilitati adjunctum4 ,sic ergo tempus habet prius et po/]ius1 aevum non habet 9 se prius et po/]ius1 s$ ei conjungi possunt2 aet]nitas autem non habet prius neque po/]ius1 neque ea compatitur40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 x41 art4 #e1 9 c4 #cij pp4 #eag-eg4 #cia ,invisibilia enim ipsius a creatura mundi1 p] ea quae facta sunt intellecta1 conspiciuntur1 sempit]na quoque ejus virtus et div9itas1 ita ut qui v]itatem ,dei 9 inju/itia det95t s9t inexcusabiles4--,rom4 ii4 #bj #ah4 #cib ,cf4 ,,mah]1 ,psy*ology 7#d? edit471 pp4 #ij-b4 #cic ,= a cle> & tr5*ant criticism ( mod]n relativi/ !ories1 cf4 ,,veit*1 ,kn[+ & ,be+1 especially *4 iv41 8,relation10 pp4 #abi sqq4 #cid ,cf4 ,,m]ci]1 op4 cit41 #agi-hj4 #cie ,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology1 ,p4 ii41 *4 iii41 #hh4 #cif ,cf4 ,,mah]1 ,psy*ology1 pp4 #aeg-i4 #cig 8,we _c ( c\rse p]ceive an unp]ceiv$ _w1 nor c we conceive a _w ! conception ( :i* is n 9 ! m9d2 b !re is no contradiction or absurdity 9 ! proposition3 #8,a mat]ial _w ( ?ree dim5sions has exi/$ = a "t unp]ceiv$ & un?\ght ( by any creat$ be+1 & !n reveal$ itself to human m9ds'40--,,mah]1 ,psy*ology1 p4 iii1 n4 #cih 8,i d n pret5d to demon/rate any?+1 nor d ,i feel mu* conc]n1 ab\t any unkn[able n\m5on :i* nev] reveals itself 9 my consci\sness4 ,if !re be 9 exi/5ce an inscrutable #8transc5d5tal ,ego1' et]nally scre5$ f my k5 by ?is self-ass]t+ #8empirical ,ego1' ,i confess ,i feel v little int]e/ 9 ! nature or ! welf>e ( ! =m]4 ,! only s\l ab\t :i* ,i c>e is t :i* imm$iately pres5ts itself 9 its acts1 :i* ?9ks1 wills1 rememb]s1 believes1 loves1 rep5ts1 & hopes40--,,mah]1 op4 cit41 p4 #dge4 ,cf4 ,,m]ci]1 op4 cit41 #ahj1 pp4 #cfc4 #cii 1 1 1 1 4--,categ4 v4 #a4 #djj ,i ,s5t5t41 ,di/4 xxvi41 q4 #b1 art4 #a4 #dja 8,sicut realis relatio consi/it 9 ord9e rei ad rem1 ita relatio rationis consi/it 9 ord9e intellectuum ord9ation ( concepts2 quod quidem duplicit] pote/ cont+]e4 ,uno modo secundum quod i/e ordo e/ ad9v5tus p] intellectum1 et attributus ei1 quod relative dicitur2 et hujusmodi sunt relationes quae attribuuntur ab intellectu rebus intellectis1 pr\t sunt intellectae1 sicut relatio g5]is et speciei2 has enim relationes ratio ad9v5it consid]&o ord9em ejus1 quod e/ 9 intellectu ad res1 quae sunt extra1 vel etiam ord9em intellectuum ad invicem4 ,alio modo secundum quod hujusmodi relationes consequuntur modum intellig5di1 videlicet quod intellectus intelligit aliquid 9 ord9e ad aliud2 licet illum ord9em intellectus non ad9v5iat1 s$ magis ex quadam necessitate consequatur modum intellig5di4 ,et hujusmodi relationes intellectus non attribuit ei1 quod e/ 9 intellectu1 s$ ei1 quod e/ 9 re4 ,et hoc quidem cont+it secundum quod aliqua non hab5tia secundum se ord9em1 ord9ate intelliguntur2 licet intellectus non intelligit ea hab]e ord9em1 quia sic esset falsus4 ,ad hoc autem quod aliqua habeant ord9em1 oportet quod utrumque sit ens1 et utrumque ord9abile ad aliud4 ,qu&oque autem intellectus accipit aliqua duo ut entia1 quorum alt]um tantum vel neutrum e/ ens2 sicut cum accipit duo futura1 vel unum praes5s et aliud futurum1 et intelligit unum cum ord9e ad aliud1 dicit alt]um esse prius alt]o2 unde i/ae relationes sunt rationis tantum1 utpote modum intellig5di consequ5tes4 ,qu&oque v]o accipit unum ut duo1 et intelligit ea cum quodam ord9e2 sicut cum dicitur aliquid esse idem sibi3 et sic talis relatio e/ rationis tantum4 ,qu&oque v]o accipit aliqua duo ut ord9abilia ad invicem1 int] quae non e/ ordo m$ius1 immo alt]um ipsorum ess5tialit] e/ ordo2 sicut cum dicit relationem accid]e subjecto2 unde talis relatio relationis ad quodcumque aliud e/ rationis tantum4 ,qu&oque v]o accipit aliquid cum ord9e ad aliud1 inquantum e/ t]m9us ord9is alt]ius ad ipsum1 licet ipsum non ord9etur ad aliud3 sicut accipi5do scibile ut t]m9um ord9is sci5tiae ad ipsum40--,de ,pot5tia1 q4 vii41 art4 #aa2 cf4 ibid4 art4 #aj4 8,cum relatio requirit duo extrema1 triplicit] se habet ad hoc quod sit res naturae aut rationis4 ,qu&oque enim ex utraque p>te e/ res rationis tantum1 qu&o scilicet ordo vel habitudo non pote/ esse int] aliqua nisi secundum appreh5sionem intellectus tantum1 utpote cum dicimus idem eidem idem4 ,nam secundum quod ratio appreh5dit bis aliquod unum /atuit illud ut duo2 et sic appreh5dit qu&am habitud9em ipsius ad seipsum4 ,et similit] e/ de omnibus relationibus quae sunt int] ens et non ens1 quas =mat ratio1 inquantum appreh5dit non ens ut quoddam extremum4 ,et idem e/ de omnibus relationibus quae consequuntur actum rationis1 ut g5us1 species1 et hujusmodi44440--,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 xiii41 art4 #g4 #djb ,summa ,!ol41#a4 q4 xiii4 art4 #g4 ,else:]e he po9ts ! di/9ction 9 ^! t]ms3 8,respectus ad aliud aliqu&o e/ 9 ipsa natura r]um1 utpote qu&o aliquae res secundum suam naturam ad invicem ord9atae sunt1 et ad invicem incl9ationem hab5t2 et hujusmodi relationes oportet esse reales4444 ,aliqu&o v]o respectus significatus p] ea1 quae dicuntur ,ad aliquid1 e/ tantum 9 ipsa appreh5sione rationis conf]5tis unum alt]i2 et tunc e/ relatio rationis tantum1 sicut cum comp>at ratio hom9em animali1 ut speciem ad g5us40--ibid41 q4 xxviii41 art4 #a4 #djc ,/4 ,?omas gives expression to x 9 ^! s5t5ces3 8,p]fectio et bonum quae sunt 9 rebus extra animam1 non solum att5duntur secundum aliquid absolute inha]5s rebus1 s$ etiam secundum ord9em unius rei ad aliam2 sicut etiam 9 ord9e p>tium ex]citus1 bonum ex]citus consi/it3 huic enim ord9i comp>at ,philosophus ,ari/ot41 xii4 7x47 ,metaph41 ,comm5t4 #eb sqq4 ord9em univ]si4 ,oportet1 ergo 9 ipsis rebus ord9em quemdam esse2 hic autem ordo relatio qua$am e/4444 ,sic ergo oportet quod res hab5tes ord9em ad aliquid1 realit] ref]antur ad ipsum1 et quod 9 eis aliqua res sit relatio40--,,qq4 ,disp4 ,de ,pot5tia1 q4 vii41 art4 #i4 #djd ,kritik d] re95 ,v]nunft1 bk4 i41 ,haupt/4 ii41 ,abs*n4 ii41 #bf4 #dje ,logic1 bk4 i41 *4 iii41 #aj4 #djf ,l',ide du phnomne1 p4 #aha--;apud ,,m]ci]1 op4 cit41 #agc4 #djg 8,qua$am v]o relationes sunt quantum ad utrumque extremum res naturae1 qu&o scilicet e/ habitudo int] aliqua duo secundum aliquid realit] conv5i5s utrique2 sicut patet de omnibus relationibus quae consequuntur quantitatem1 ut magnum et p>vum1 duplum et dimidium1 et hujusmodi2 nam quantitas e/ 9 utroque extremorum3 et simile e/ de relationibus quae consequuntur actionem et passionem1 ut motivum et mobile1 pat] et filius1 et similia40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 xiii41 art4 #g4 #djh 8,qu&oque v]o relatio 9 uno extremorum e/ res naturae1 et 9 alt]o e/ res rationis tantum3 et hoc cont+it qu&ocunque duo extrema non sunt unius ord9is2 sicut s5sus et sci5tia ref]untur ad s5sibile et scibile2 quae quidem1 inquantum sunt res qua$am 9 esse naturale exi/5tes1 sunt extra ord9em esse s5sibilis et intelligibilis4 ,et ideo 9 sci5tia quidem et s5su e/ relatio realis1 inquantum ord9antur ad sci5dum vel s5ti5dum res2 s$ res ipsae 9 se consid]atae sunt extra ord9em hujusmodi2 unde 9 eis non e/ aliqua relatio realit] ad sci5tiam et s5sum1 s$ secundum rationem tantum1 inquantum intellectus appreh5dit ea ut t]m9os relationum sci5tiae et s5sus4 ,unde ,philosophus dicit 9 #e ,metaph41 text4 #bj1 quod non dicuntur relative1 eo quod ipsa ref]antur ad alia1 s$ quia alia ref]antur ad ipsa40--ibid4 #dji ,be+ really & adequately id5tical ) its f\ndation1 :i* is ! ess5ce ( its subject1 ?is relation does n necess>ily ne$ ! actual exi/5ce ( its t]m4 ,?us actual k or sci5ce1 :i* is a habit ( ! m9d1 has a transc5d5tal relation to its object ev5 ?\gh ?is latt] be n actual b only a pure possibility4 ,simil>ly ! accid5t ( quantity su/a9$ )\t its connatural sub/ance 9 ! ,eu*>i/1 reta9s its transc5d5tal relation to ! latt]4--,cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 #cce 7p4 #iig74 #daj ,cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 #ccf 7p4 #iij74 #daa ,metaph41 ,l4 v41 *4 xv4 ,cf4 ,,/4 ,,?omas1 9 loc41 lect4 #ag1 :]e1 approv+ ( ?is triple division1 he writes3 8,cum enim relatio quae e/ 9 rebus1 consi/at 9 ord9e unius rei ad aliam1 oportet tot modis hujusmodi relationes esse1 quot modis cont+it unam rem ad aliam ord9>i4 ,ord9atur autem una res ad aliam1 vel secundum esse1 pr\t esse unius rei dep5det ab alia1 et sic e/ t]tius modus4 ,vel secundum virtutem activam et passivam1 secundum quod una res ab alia recipit1 vel alt]i conf]t aliquid2 et sic e/ secundus modus4 ,vel secundum quod quantitas unius rei pote/ m5sur>i p] aliam2 et sic e/ primus modus40 #dab ,cf4 ,,m]ci]1 op4 cit41 #age4 ,= transc5d5tal & pr$icam5tal unity1 cf4 supra1 #bf1 #bh4 #dac ,cf4 infra1 p4 #cee4 ,"s au?ors hold t ! relation 9 "q is pr$icam5tal4 ,cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 p4 #ihg4 ,! nature or ess5ce ( any individual w\ld seem to imply 9 its v concept a transc5d5tal relation ( specific id5tity ) all o!r actual & possible individual embodim5ts ( ?is ess5ce4 ,! po9t is "o ( second>y importance4 #dad ,ev5 virtually1 ?\gh n =mally4 ,! creative act is n =mally transitive2 x is virtually s3 & 9 ! creature x gr\nds ! latt]'s relation ( real dep5d5ce on ! ,creator4 #dae ,cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 #ccf 7p4 #ihi71 #cda 7p4 #ajaa72 ,,/4 ,,?omas1 iii4 ,s5t5t41 ,di/41 viii41 q4 i41 art4 #e4 #daf ,,m]ci]1 op4 cit41 #age4 #dag ,,m]ci]1 ibid4 #dah 8,cum igitur ,deus sit extra totum ord9em creaturae1 et omnes creaturae ord95tur ad ipsum et non e conv]so2 manife/um e/ quod creaturae realit]1 ref]untur ad ipsum ,deum2 s$ 9 ,deo non e/ aliqua realis relatio ejus ad creaturas1 s$ secundum rationem tantum1 inquantum creaturae ref]antur ad ipsum40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 xiii41 art4 #g4 #dai ,among o!rs ,cajetan1 ,f]ri>i5sis1 ,capreolus1 ,baez1 ,joannes a ,/4 ,?oma4 ,cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 #cch 7p4 #iid72 ,,m]ci]1 op4 cit41 #agd4 ,x w\ld be int]e/+ to "k h[ precisely ^? au?ors conceiv$ ?is 8relative0 entity1 ?is 8esse ad0 z a reality indep5d5t ( _! own ?\ght-activity4 ,cf4 art4 by ! pres5t writ] 9 ! ,iri% ,!ological ,qu>t]ly 7vol4 vii41 ,april1 #aiab3 8,reflections on "s ,=ms ( ,monism10 pp4 #afg-h73 8,! :ole univ]se ( direct exp]i5ce displays a unity ( ord] or design :i* p]vades x ?r\gh & ?r\gh2 x is a revelation ( intellig5t purpose4 ,n[ a ,cosmos1 an ord]ly univ]se--:i* is intelligible only z ! expression ( intellig5t purpose1 & n o!rwise--is a sy/em ( int]relat$ factors4 ,b relat+ is un9telligible except z an expression ( ! activity ( m9d or _s1 t is1 ( some?+ at lea/ analog\s to our m5tal activity ( comp>+ & judg+4 ,s*ola/ic philosoph]s1 z we "k1 discuss ! "q :e!r or h[ f> ! exact object ( our #8relation' concept is real2 t is1 :e!r ?is object is1 9 itself & ap>t f ! t]ms relat$ & ! f\ndation1 a m]e ens rationis1 a product ( our ?\ght1 or :e!r x is 9 itself some?+ m ?an ?is2 & "s ( !m hold t !re are relations :i*1 9 !mselves & =mally z relations1 are some?+ m ?an m]e products ( our ?\ght4 ,n[ if !re be su* relations1 s9ce !y are n products ( our ?\ght1 we may fairly ask3 ,mu/ !y be ! product ( "s ?\ght8 ,& f our analysis ( our v notion ( :at a relation is1 x w\ld seem t !y mu/ be 9 "s sort or o!r a product or expression ( "s ?\ght-activity3 ev5 relations betwe5 mat]ial ?+s4 ,x is 9 det]m9+ h[ precisely ?is is1 or c be1 t ! !i/ & ! moni/ diff]4 ,! !i/ reg>ds all mat]ial ?+s1 ) _! real relations--& all our f9ite human m9ds1 :i* appreh5d ! mat]ial _w & its relations & !mselves & "o ano!r--z be+ inde$ 9 a true s5se t]ms or objects ( ! ,?\ght ( ,god2 n1 h[ev]1 z !re=e id5tical or consub/antial ) ! ,div9e ,_s1 b z di/9ct f ,x ?\gh dep5d5t on ,x3 inasmu* z he holds ! ,div9e ,?\ght to be creative1 & reg>ds all ^! ?+s z its creat$ t]ms4 ,! k9%ip he detects betwe5 matt] & _s lies precisely 9 ?is1 t matt] is = him a creat$ t]m ( ! ,div9e ,?\ght4 ,= him too1 !re=e1 matt] c h no exi/5ce except z a t]m ( ?\ght--! creative ,?\ght ( ,god40 ,n t 8! intelligible relations appreh5d$ by u 9 matt] are 444 id5tical 9 reality ) ! ?\ght-activity ( ! ,div9e ,m9d10 z ,ontologi/s h taught cf4 supra1 #ad1 #ah1 #ai2 nor t we c directly inf] ! exi/5ce ( a ,supreme ,_s f ! exi/5ce ( matt]1 z ,b]keley tri$ to d by errone\sly reg>d+ ! latt] m]ely z an ess5tially m9d-dep5d5t ph5om5on2 because 8= ! or?odox !i/ matt] is 9 its own prop] nature n spiritual1 m5tal1 psy*ical2 n any?+ aft] ! mann] ( a ?\ght-process1 or end[$ ) ! _s-mode ( be+04 ,if pr$icam5tal relations1 su* z quality or simil>ity ( mat]ial ?+s1 are1 z ^? m$ieval s*ola/ics cont5d$1 real entities1 8relative0 9 _! nature1 & really di/9ct f _! extremes & f\ndations1 did ^? s*ola/ics conceive su* 8relative entities0 z ess5tially m9d-dep5d5t entities8 ,if !y did !y w\ld probably h conceiv$ !m 9 ! s5se ( ,b]keley1 z creat$ t]ms ( ! ,div9e ,?\ght1 r ?an 9 ! ,ontologi/ s5se :i* w\ld id5tify !m ) ! ,div9e ,?\ght itself4 ,b x is n likely t !y conceiv$ su* relative entities z ess5tially ?\ght-dep5d5t1 any m ?an ! absolute mat]ial realities relat$ to "o ano!r by means ( ^! relative entities4 ,on ! o!r h& x is n easy to see h[ su* relative entities c be any?+ m ?an m]e products ( "s ?\ght-activity or o!r4 #dbj ,!y rely especially on ?is text f ! ,de ,pot5tia 7q4 vii41 art4 #i73 8,relatio e/ debilioris esse int] omnia pra$icam5ta2 ideo putav]unt quidam eam esse ex secundis intellectibus4 ,secundum ergo hanc positionem sequ]etur quod relatio non sit 9 rebus extra animam s$ 9 solo intellectu1 sicut int5tio g5]is et speciei1 et secund>um sub/anti>um4 ,hoc autem esse non pote/4 ,9 nullo enim pra$icam5to ponitur aliquid nisi res praet] animam exi/5s4 ,nam ens rationis dividitur contra ens divisum p] decem pra$icam5ta4444 ,si autem relatio non e/ 9 rebus extra animam non pon]etur ad aliquid unum g5us pra$icam5ti40 #dba ,cf4 ,,/4 ,,anselm1 ,monolog41 *4 xxvi4 #dbb 8,relatio habet quod sit res naturae ex sua causa p] quam una res naturalem ord9em habet ad alt]am40--,quodl4 #a1 art4 #b4 #dbc 8,9 hoc diff]t ,ad ,aliquid i4e4 ,relation ab aliis g5]ibus2 quod alia g5]a ex propria sui ratione hab5t1 quod aliquid s9t1 sicut quantitas ex hoc ipso quod e/ quantitas1 aliquid ponit3 et similit] e/ de aliis4 ,s$ ,ad ,aliquid ex propria sui g5]is ratione non habet1 quod ponat aliquid1 s$ ad aliquid4444 ,habet autem relatio quod sit aliquid reale ex eo1 quod relationem causat40--,quodl4 #i1 art4 #d4 ,cf4 ,de ,pot5tia1 q4 ii41 art4 #e4 #dbd 8,relatio e/ aliquid inha]5s licet non ex hoc ipso quod e/ relatio4444 ,et ideo nihil prohibet1 quod esse des9at hujusmodi accid5s s9e mutatione ejus 9 quo e/40--,de ,pot5tia1 q4 vii41 art4 #i1 ad4 #g4 #dbe 8,et utroque modo cont+it 9 realibus relationibus de/rui relationem3 vel p] de/ructionem quantitatis or o!r f\ndation1 unde ad hanc mutationem quantitatis sequitur p] accid5s mutatio relationis3 vel etiam secundum quod cessat respectus ad alt]um1 remoto illo ad quod ref]ebatur2 et tunc relatio cessat1 nulla mutatione facta 9 ipsa4 ,unde 9 illis 9 quibus non e/ relatio nisi secundum hunc respectum1 v5iunt et rec$unt relationes s9e aliqua mutatione ejus1 quod ref]tur40--,9 i4 ,s5t41 ,di/4 xxvi41 q4 ii41 art4 #a1 ad4 #c4 #dbf 8,relationes diff]unt 9 hoc ab omnibus aliis r]um g5]ibus1 quia ea quae sunt aliorum g5]um1 ex ipsa ratione sui g5]is hab5t1 quod s9t res naturae1 sicut quantitates ex ratione quantitatis1 et qualitates ex ratione qualitatis4 ,s$ relationes non hab5t quod s9t res naturae ex ratione respectus ad alt]um4444 ,s$ relatio habet quod sit res naturae ex sua causa1 p] quam una res naturalem ord9em habet ad alt]am1 qui quidem ordo naturalis et realis e/ ipsis ipsa relatio40--,quodl41 #a1 art4 #b4 #dbg ,cf4 supra1 p4 #cea1 n4 #a2 9 :i* context we may reasonably suppose him to be argu+ t relation consid]$ adequately is n a m]e logical entity1 8ex secundis intellectibus10 inasmu* z1 hav+ a real f\ndation 9 ?+s outside ! m9d1 x is 9 ?is respect real1 indep5d5tly ( our ?\ght4 #dbh ,cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 #cda 7p4 #ajjh74 #dbi ibid41 p4 #ajjg2 cf4 supra1 p4 #cdg4 #dcj ,9 i4 ,s5t5t41 ,di/4 iv41 q4 #a1 art4 #a1 ad4 #c4 #dca ,cf4 ,,urraburu1 ibid41 pp4 #ajjf-g3 8,de9de nullam relationem esse sub/antiam scripsit ,s4 ,?omas vel quia pl]umque ratio fund&i non e/ sub/antia 444 vel potius quia semp] relatio1 etiam cum 9 sub/antia fundatur1 aliquid addit supra sub/antiam cujuslibet extremi relati s+illatim sumpti1 quia non id5tificatur cum fundam5to pr\t se t5et ex p>te solius subjecti1 vel solius t]m9i1 s$ pr\t se t5et ea p>te utriusque4 ,qu>e relatio 444 semp] exprimit d5om9ationem cont+5tem et accid5talit] sup]v5i5tem subjecto1 utpote quae adesse vel abesse pote/1 pr\t adsit vel deficiat t]m9us40 #dcb 8,illi enim ! ref]5ce is to c]ta9 m$ieval ideali/s quamvis agnosc]5t duo alba exi/5tia negabant d>i actu 9 rebus =malem simil>itatem i4e4 ev5 aft] ! comp>ative activity ( ?\ght1 s$ =malem similitud9em1 et aliam quamvis relationem1 reponebant 9 actu intellectus unum cum alio comp>antis2 nos v]o ante actum intellectus agnoscimus 9 rebus1 quidquid sufficit ad con/itu5dam relationem similitud9is1 div]sitatis1 pat]nitatis1 etc41 ita ut hujusmodi d5om9ationes non v]ific5tur de actu intellectus unum cum alio comp>antis1 s$ pl5am habeant 9 rebus ipsis v]ificationem40--,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 p4 #ajaj4 #dcc ,9 :at s5se 8extram5tal08--,cf4 supra1 p4 #cej1 n4 #a 7end74 #dcd ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 ii41 #bah4 ,= ! concepts ( 8cause0 & 8causality0 9 ! inductive sci5ces1 z well z = mu* t _c be repeat$ "h1 ! /ud5t may consult ) advantage vol4 ii41 p4 iv41 *4 iii41 iv4 & vi4 ( ! "w ref]r$ to4 #dce 8,id a quo aliquid proc$it quocunque modo40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 xxxiii41 art4 #a4 #dcf ,h5ce ,ari/otle's def9ition ( pr9ciple1 includ+ bo? logical & real pr9ciples3 4--,metaph4 ,,iv41 *4 i4 #dcg ,a cause mu/ be prior 9 nature to its effect1 b n necess>ily prior 9 "t4 ,9 fact ! action ( ! cause & ! production ( ! effect mu/ be simultane\s4 ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 ii41 #bbj4 ,consid]$ =mally z correlatives !y are simul natura4 ,a pr9ciple mu/ likewise be 9 "s s5se prior to :at proce$s f x1 n necess>ily1 h[ev]1 by priority ( "t1 nor by priority ( nature involv+ real dep5d5ce4 ,! ,*ri/ian ,revelation reg>d+ ! ,bless$ ,tr9ity involves t ! ,fir/ ,div9e ,p]son is ! 8pr9ciple0 f :i* ! ,second proce$s1 & ! ,fir/ & ! ,second ! 8pr9ciple0 f :i* ! ,?ird proce$s2 yet "h !re is no dep5d5ce or inequality1 or any priority except ! 8relation ( orig90 be call$ priority4 #dch ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 ii41 #baf4 #dci ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 i41 #af2 ii41 #bad1 #bbd 7p4 #aac74 #ddj ,cf4 ,,m]ci]1 op4 cit41 #beb4 #dda ,cf4 ,physic41 ,lib4 ii41 cap4 #c2 ,metaph41 ,lib4 i41 cap4 #c2 v41 cap4 #b4 #ddb i4e4 f ! effect consid]$ =mally z a t]m ( ! activity2 9 ! case ( imman5t activity1 z1 e4g4 ?\ght or volition1 :]e ! effect rema9s )9 ! ag5t 7z a v]bum m5tale or o!r m5tal t]m71 unit+ ) ! concrete reality ( ! latt]1 ! effect is n adequately di/9ct f ! ag5t z affect$ by ?is t]m or product4 #ddc ,cf4 ,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,9 ,physic41 ii41 lect4 #aj3 8,necesse e/ quatuor esse causas3 quia cum causa sit1 ad quam sequitur esse alt]ius1 esse ejus quod habet causam pote/ consid]>i duplicit]3 uno modo absolute1 et sic causa ess5di e/ =ma p] quam aliquid e/ ens 9 actu2 alio modo secundum quod de pot5tia ente fit actu ens3 et quia omne quod e/ 9 pot5tia1 r$ucitur ad actum p] id quod e/ actu ens1 ex hoc necesse e/ esse duas alias causas1 scilicet mat]iam1 et ag5tem quod r$ucit mat]iam de pot5tia 9 actum4 ,actio autem ag5tis ad aliquod det]m9atum t5dit1 sicut ab aliquo det]m9ato pr9cipio proc$it2 nam omne ag5s agit quod e/ sibi conv5i5s4 ,id autem ad quod int5dit actio ag5tis dicitur causa f9alis4 ,sic igitur necesse e/ esse causas quatuor40 #ddd ,cf4 ,,m]ci]1 op4 cit41 #bdg-h4 #dde ,c]ta9 m$ieval s*ola/ics1 especially ( ! ,franciscan ,s*ool1 reg>d$ spiritual sub/ances z hav+ 9 _! con/itution a c]ta9 pot5tial1 det]m9able pr9ciple1 :i* !y call$ 8mat]ia04 ,/4 ,?omas1 )\t object+ to ! designation1 insi/$ t su* pot5tial pr9ciple _c be ! same z ! mat]ia prima ( corporeal sub/ances 7cf4 ,de ,sub/antis ,sep>atis1 *4 vii474 #ddf ,cf4 ,,/4 ,,?omas3 8,actio e/ actus activi et passio e/ actus passivi0 7iii4 ,physic41 l4 #e72 8,mat]ia non fit causa 9 actu nisi secundum quod alt]atur et mutatur0 7i4 ,contra ,g5tes1 xvii472 8,mat]ia e/ causa =mae1 inquantum =ma non e/ nisi 9 mat]ia0 7,de ,pr9cip4 ,naturae74 #ddg ,cf4 ,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,de ,pr9cip4 ,naturae1 ibid43 8444 et similit] =ma e/ causa mat]iae1 inquantum mat]ia non habet esse 9 actu nisi p] =mam2 mat]ia enim et =ma dicuntur relative ad invicem2 dicuntur etiam relative ad compositum1 sicut p>s ad totum04 #ddh 8,mat]ia cum sit inf9it>um =m>um det]m9atur p] =mam1 et p] eam consequitur aliquam speciem40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 vii41 art4 #a4 #ddi ,to ,special ,metaphysics also belongs ! controv]t$ "q :e!r or n a plurality ( really di/9ct sub/antial =ms c ent] into ! con/itution ( an individual corporeal sub/ance4 ,:5 we classify corporeal ?+s into g5]a & species accord+ to _! natural k9ds 7cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 i41 #fg71 ^! latt] are det]m9$ by ! =mae sub/antiales ( ! ?+s classifi$1 & are call$ infim species4 ,num]ically di/9ct individuals :i* h 7conceptually7 ! same =ma sub/antialis1 fall into ! same infima species2 :ile if su* individuals h 7conceptually & num]ically7 di/9ct =mae sub/anialis !y fall into di/9ct infimae species ( "s high] common g5us4 ,! wid] ! g5]ic concept ! l>g] ! gr\p ( individuals :i* x unifies3 x is a pr9ciple ( conceptual unity1 i4e4 ( univ]sality4 ,! objects ( our g5]ic1 diff]5tial1 & specific concepts1 ?r\gh\t ?is process ( classification1 are only virtually di/9ct metaphysical grades ( be+ 9 ! individuals4 ,n[ if ! =ma sub/antialis :i* yields ! unify+ concept ( ! species infima = ! individuals1 & ! mat]ial pr9ciple :i* is ! gr\nd ( ! num]ical di/9ction betwe5 ^! latt]1 7 likewise reg>d$ by ! s*ola/ics z be+ m]ely virtually di/9ct metaphysical grades ( be+1 9 ea* individual1 !n ! "q ( a plurality ( really di/9ct =ms 9 "o & ! same individual w\ld h no mean+3 all 8=ms0 9 ! latt] w\ld be only virtually di/9ct f "o ano!r & f ! mat]ial pr9ciple4 ,b ! s*ola/ics did n conceive t ! real gr\nd = gr\p+ individuals into species infimae 0 ! same z t = gr\p+ ^! latt] into wid] g5]a4 ,!y reg>d$ ! relation betwe5 ! =ma sub/antialis & ! mat]ia prima 9 ! individual z q diff]5t f t betwe5 ! g5]ic & specific grades ( be+ 9 ! individual 7cf4 supra1 #ch2 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 i41 #dd2 ,,joseph1 ,introduction to ,logic1 pp4 #ic-f74 ,:ile !y consid]$ ! latt] a relation ( virtual di/9ction !y held ! =m] to be "o ( real di/9ction4 ,& :ile !y recogniz$ ! concept ( ! species infima to be a pr9ciple ( conceptual unity 9 gr\p+ ! individuals toge!r m5tally1 ,/4 ,?omas emphasiz$ especially ! rle ( ! =ma sub/antialis 7on :i* t concept 0 f\nd$7 z a pr9ciple ( real unity 9 ! individual3 8,ab eodam habet res esse et unitatem4 ,manife/um e/ autem quod res habet esse p] =mam4 ,unde et p] =mam res habet unitatem0 7,quodlib4 i41 art4 #f74 ,if we accept ?is doctr9e ( ,/4 ,?omas ! argum5ts :i* he bases on x aga9/ ! possibility ( a plurality ( di/9ct sub/antial =ms 9 ! same corporeal individual are unansw]able 7,cf4 ,,m]ci]1 ,ontologie1 #bae74 #dej 8,idem actus secundum rem e/ duorum secundum div]sam rationem3 ag5tis quidem1 secundum quod e/ ab eo1 pati5tis autem1 secundum quod e/ 9 ipso4444 ,ex eo quod actio et passio sunt unus motus non sequitur quod actio et passio1 vel doctio et doctr9a1 s9t idem2 s$ quod motus cui ine/ utrumque eorum1 sit idem4 ,qui quidem motus secundum unam rationem e/ actio1 et secundum aliam rationem e/ passio2 alt]um enim e/ secundum rationem esse actus hujus1 ut 9 hoc1 et esse actus hujus1 ut ab hoc2 motus autem dicitur actio secundum quod e/ actus ag5tis ut ab hoc2 dicitur autem passio secundum quod e/ actus pati5tis ut 9 hoc4 ,et sic patet quod licet motus sit idem mov5tis et moti1 propt] hoc quod ab/rahit ab utraque ratione3 tam5 actio et passio diff]unt propt] hoc quod div]sas rationes 9 sua significatione hab5t40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,9 ,phys41 iii4 #a4 #e4 #dea 8,solet dubium esse apud quosdam1 utrum motus sit 9 mov5te1 aut 9 mobili4444 ,s$ manife/um e/ quod actus cujuslibet e/ 9 eo cujus e/ actus2 actus autem motus e/ 9 mobili1 cum sit actus mobilis1 causatus tam5 9 eo a mov5te 444 cum motus sit actus exi/5tis 9 pot5tia1 sequitur quod motus non sit actus alicujus inquantum e/ mov5s1 s$ inquantum e/ mobile40--ibid41 #a4 #d4 #deb ,"s languages m>k ! di/9ction betwe5 ^! two k9ds ( action3 8,diff]t autem fac]e et ag]e3 quia factio e/ actio transi5s 9 ext]iorem mat]iam1 sicut a$ific>e1 sec>e et hujusmodi2 ag]e autem e/ actio p]man5sl9 ipso ag5te sicut vid]e1 velle et hujusmodi40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol4 iae iia1 q4 lxvii41 art4 #d1 c4 #dec ,hume w5t ev5 f>!r1 at lea/ 9 language2 = he alleg$ 7:e!r he really believ$ is ano!r "q7 t he c\ld ov]come ! suppos$ m]ely psy*ological difficulty1 t he c\ld easily--&1 presumably1 )\t do+ viol5ce to 8 rational nature--conceive a non-exi/5t ?+ z com+ into exi/5ce )\t a cause6 ,he proclaim$ t he c\ld a*ieve ! feat ( ?9k+ :at ! univ]sal voice ( mank9d has decl>$ to be un?9kable3 an absolute beg9n+ ( be+ f no?+ness4 8,! k ( ?is relation 7causality7 is n10 he writes1 89 any in/ance atta9$ by reason+s a priori2 b arises entirely f exp]i5ce1 :5 we f9d t any p>ticul> objects are con/antly conjo9$ ) ea* o!r 07,works1 ed4 ,gre5 & ,grose1 iv41 #bd74 8,all di/9ct ideas are sep>able f ea* o!r1 &1 z ! ideas ( cause & effect are evid5tly di/9ct1 'twill be easy = u 767 to conceive any object z nonexi/5t ?is mom5t1 & exi/5t ! next1 )\t conjo9+ to x ! di/9ct idea ( a cause or produc+ pr9ciple0 7,treatise on ,human ,nature1 p4 #cha74 ,on ?is argum5t 787 ev5 su* an ard5t admir] ( ! pan-ph5om5i/ z ,huxley 01 is =c$ to rem>k t 8x is ( ! circul> sort1 = ! major premise1 t all di/9ct ideas are sep>able 9 ?\ght1 assumes ! "q at issue0 7,,huxley',s ,hume1 p4 #abb74 #ded ,?us1 = in/ance1 man1 elevat$ by sanctify+ grace1 c p]=m acts :i* m]it ! sup]natural rew>d ( ! ,beatific ,vision4 #dee ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 ii41 #bca4 #def ,cf4 ,,ari/otle1 ,metaph41 ii41 cap4 #b4 #deg ,cf4 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 #cib 7p4 #aabc73 8,unde adaequata virtus in/rum5talis videtur confl>i ex naturali in/rum5ti virtute vel efficacitate et ex virtute causae pr9cipalis sibi transeunt] addita1 doc5te ,s4 ,?oma3 ,in/rum5tum virtutem in/rum5talem acquirit duplicit] scilicet qu&o accipit =mam in/rum5ti et qu&o movetur a pr9cipali ag5te ad effectum 7,summa ,!ol41 iii41 q4 xix41 art4 #c1 ad4 #b740 #deh 8,ad aliquem effectum aliquid op]atur duplicit]4 ,uno modo sicut p] se ag5s2 et dicitur p] se ag]e quod agit p] aliquam =mam sibi inha]5tem p] modum naturae completae1 sive habeat illam =mam a se1 sive ab alio4444 ,alio modo aliquid op]atur ad effectum aliquem in/rum5talit]1 quod quidem non op]atur ad effectum p] =mam sibi inha]5tem1 s$ solum inquantum e/ motum a p] se ag5te4 ,haec e/ ratio in/rum5ti1 inquantum e/ in/rum5tum1 ut moveat motum2 unde sicut se habet =ma completa ad p] se ag5tem1 ita se habet motus1 quo movetur a pr9cipale ag5te1 ad in/rum5tum1 sicut s]ra op]atur ad scamnum4 ,quamvis enim s]ra habeat aliquam actionem quae sibi competit secundum propriam =mam1 ut divid]e2 tam5 aliquem effectum habet qui sibi non competit1 nisi inquantum e/ mota ab artifice1 scilicet fac]e rectam incisionem1 et conv5i5tem =mae artis3 et sic in/rum5tum habet duas op]ationes2 unam quae competit ei secundam rationem propriam2 aliam quae competit ei secundam quod e/ motum a p] se ag5te1 quae transc5dit virtutem propriae =mae40--,de ,v]itate1 q4 xxvii41 art4 #d4 ,x is n cle>1 h[ev]1 t ,/4 ,?omas reg>d$ ^! two 8op]ationes0 ( ! in/rum5tal cause z really di/9ct1 = he says t x acts z an in/rum5t 7i4e4 modifies ! effici5cy ( ! pr9cipal cause7 only by ex]cis+ its own prop] function3 8,omne ag5s in/rum5tale exsequitur actionem pr9cipalis ag5tis p] aliquam op]ationem propriam1 et connaturalem sibi1 sicut calor naturalis g5]at c>nem dissolv5do et dig]5do1 et s]ra op]atur ad factionem scamni sec&o0 7,contra ,g5tes1 ii41 *4 xxi473 f :i* he goes on to argue t no creature c act ev5 z an in/rum5tal cause 9 creat+4--,cf4 iv4 ,s5t41 ,di/4 i41 q4 i41 art4 #d1 sol4 #b4--;,de ,pot5tia1 q4 iii41 art4 #g4--,summa ,!ol41 iii41 q4 lxii41 art4 #a1 ad4 #b4 #dei ,/4 ,?omas1 prov+ ! necessity ( ! ,div9e concursus = all creat$ causes1 illu/rates ! g5]al di/9ction betwe5 a pr9cipal & an in/rum5tal cause3 8,virtus naturalis quae e/ rebus naturalibus 9 sua in/itutione collata1 ine/ eis ut qua$em =ma hab5s esse ratum et firmum 9 natura4 ,s$ id quod a ,deo fit 9 re naturali1 quo actualit] agat1 e/ ut int5tio sola1 hab5s esse quoddam incompletum1 p] modum quo 444 virtus artis e/ 9 in/rum5to artificis4 ,sicut ergo securi p] artem d>i potuit acum51 ut esset =ma 9 ea p]man5s1 non autem d>i ei potuit quod vis artis esset 9 ea quasi qua$am =ma p]man5s1 nisi hab]et intellectum2 ita rei naturali potuit conf]ri virtus propria1 ut =ma 9 ipsa p]man5s1 non autem vis qua agit ad esse ut in/rum5tum primae causae1 nisi d>etur ei quod esset univ]sale ess5di pr9cipium2 nec it]um virtuti naturali conf]ri potuit ut mov]et seipsam1 nec ut cons]v>et se 9 esse3 unde sicut patet quod in/rum5to artificis conf]ri non oportuit quod op]>etur absque motu artis2 ita rei naturali conf]ri non potuit quod op]>etur absque op]atione div9a40--,,qq4 ,,dd4 ,de4 ,pot41 q4 iii41 art4 #g4 #dfj ,cf4 ,,mah]1 ,psy*ology1 *4 xix4--,,m]ci]1 ,psy*ologie1 ii41 *4 i4 #b4 #dfa ,= a full] treatm5t ( ?is :ole subject1 cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 ii41 ,"p iv41 *s4 iii41 iv42 ,"p v41 *4 i4--,,mah]1 ,psy*ology1 *4 xix41 pp4 #dbc-d4 #dfb ,cf4 ,,newman1 ,gramm> ( ,ass5t1 ,"p i41 *4 iv41 #a 7#e71 7#f72 #b1 rem>k #a4 #dfc ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 ii41 #baf1 #bah1 #bai4 #dfd ibid41 #baf4 #dfe ibid41 #bbj4 #dff ,introduction to ,logic1 pp4 #fd-e4 #dfg ,cf4 :at 0 said above 7#cb7 ab\t ! causal or extr9sic1 z di/9ct f ! intr9sic1 pr9ciple ( individuation4 #dfh 8,:5ev] sci5ce tries to f9d ! cause n ( a p>ticul> ev5t1 su* z ! ,fr5* ,revolution 7^: cause mu/ be z unique z t ev5t itself is71 b ( an ev5t ( a k9d1 su* z consumption1 or comm]cial crises1 x looks 9 ! la/ resort = a comm5surate cause4 ,:at is t exact /ate or condition ( ! body1 giv5 :i* x mu/ & )\t :i* x _c be 9 consumption8 ,:at are ^? conditions 9 a comm]cial community1 giv5 :i* !re mu/ & )\t :i* !re _c be a comm]cial crisis80--,,joseph1 op4 cit41 p4 #fe4 ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 ii41 #bba4 #dfi ,sy/em ( ,logic1 iii41 v41 #b4 #dgj ,= in/ance3 7a7 ,! 8ontological0 or 8true0 cause1 :i* 8actually produces0 ! effect1 ne$ n necess>ily be ! 8ultimate0 cause ( ! latt]4 7b7 ,a 8physical fact0 c be ! cause ( ano!r 9 ! s5se ( be+ ! inv>iable antec$5t 7or physical cause7 ( ! latt]1 b n 89 t s5se alone02 x may also be an effici5t cause ( ! latt] by ex]t+ an active influ5ce on ! happ5+ ( ?is latt]4 7c7 ,:e!r or n effici5cy is 8a my/]i\s & mo/ p[]ful tie10 at any rate x does exi/ betwe5 8physical facts0 9 ! univ]se4 7d7 ,its analysis reveals n a 8suppos$ necessity ( asc5d+ 444 to 444 ! true cause1 444 :i* 444 produces ! effect10 z if ! proximate causes did n also truly produce ! latt]2 b a real necessity ( asc5d+ to a ,fir/ ,cause z ! s\rce & support & complem5t ( ! real effici5cy ( ^! proximate causes4 7e7 ,a m]ely logical !ory ( ,induction does n inde$ dem& any inquiry ei!r into ! effici5cy ( natural ag5cies1 or into ! nature & gr\nds ( ! 8inv>iability0 or 8necessity0 or 8law0 :]eby ^! are connect$ ) _! effects4 ,b a philosophical !ory ( ,induction does imply su* inquiries4 ,& "h ph5om5i/ writ]s l ,mill h laid !mselves op5 to two accusations4 ,= :ile pr(ess+ m]ely to ab/ract f ! problem ( effici5cy !y h tri$ equival5tly to d5y its exi/5ce by proclaim+ x sup]flu\s & insoluble1 besides consci\sly or unconsci\sly misrepres5t+ x4 ,& simil>ly1 9 deal+ ) ! inv>iability ( causal sequ5ces 9 ! univ]se1 ) ! necess>y "* ( its physical laws1 !y h misconceiv$ ?is necessity z be+ me*anical1 fatal1 absolutely inviolable2 & h wrongly proclaim$ its ultimate gr\nds to be unkn[able 7,agno/icism74 ,cf4 infra1 #ajd2 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 ii41 ,"p ,,iv41 *s4 iii41 iv41 & v42 ,"p ,v41 *4 i4 ,?us1 :ile es*ew+ ! g5u9e ,metaphysics1 :i* seeks ! real nature & causes ( ! _w ( our exp]i5ce1 z sup]flu\s & futile1 !y h sub/itut$ = x a mask$ & spuri\s metaphysics :i* !y h wrongly fa!r$ on ,physical ,sci5ce3 a mass ( m or less sup]ficial speculations :i* h n ev5 ! m]it ( consi/5cy4 ,no philosoph]1 />t+ ) _! views on ! nature ( ! human m9d1 c consi/5tly claim = ! latt] any really valid or reliable k ( laws1 any m ?an ( causes4 ,= ! k ( a law1 ev5 z a g5]aliz$ fact1 is a k t claims to pass beyond ! limits ( ! individual's pres5t & rememb]$ exp]i5ces4 ,b !re c be no rational ju/ification1 :e!r psy*ological or ontological1 = ! c]ta9 reliability ( su* a /ep1 9 ! philosophy :i* logically r$uces all c]ta9 k to ! m]e aw>5ess ( a fl[ ( successive s5sations suppos$ to con/itute ! total cont5t ( ! individual consci\sness & ! total reality ( human exp]i5ce4 #dga ,cf4 ,,mah]1 ,psy*ology1 *4 xvii41 pp4 #cfh-gj4--,,m]ci]1 op4 cit41 #bbi4 #dgb 8,:5 an ef=t ( att5tion comb9es two ideas1 :5 "o billi>d ball moves ano!r1 :5 a /eam hamm] flatt5s out a lump ( solid iron1 :5 a bl[ on ! head knocks a man d[n1 9 all ^! cases !re is some?+ m ?an1 & ess5tially diff]5t f1 ! m]e sequ5ce ( two ph5om5a3 !re is effective =ce--causal action ( an ag5t end[$ ) real en]gy40--,,mah]1 op4 cit41 ibid41 p4 #cgj4 #dgc ,gramm> ( ,ass5t1 p4 #ff4 #dgd ,cf4 ,,domet ,,de ,,vorges1 ,cause effici5te et cause f9ale1 p4 #ci4 ,volitional activity is no d\bt ! mo/ prom95t type ( effici5t causality 9 our m5tal life4 ,b x is n ! only type2 we h direct consci\s exp]i5ce ( intellectual ef=t1 ( ! "w ( ! imag9ation1 ( ! ex]cise ( organic & muscul> en]gy4 ,!re is no w>rant !re=e = conceiv+ all effici5t p[] or en]gy1 aft] ! model ( w-p[]1 z ,newman among o!rs appe>s to h done :5 he wrote 9 ^! t]ms3 8,/>t+1 !n1 f exp]i5ce1 ,i consid] a cause to be an effective w3 & by ! doctr9e ( causation1 ,i mean ! notion1 or fir/ pr9ciple1 t all ?+s come ( effective w0 7ibid41 p4 #fh74 ,no d\bt1 all ?+s d come ultimately f ! effective w ( ,god4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n a fir/ pr9ciple1 b a remote philosophical conclusion4 #dge ibid41 p4 #ff4 #dgf ,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,,qq4 ,disp4 ,de ,pot5tia1 q4 iii41 art4 #g1 9 c4 #dgg 8,nulla res p] seipsam movet vel agit1 nisi sit mov5s non motum4444 ,et quia natura inf]ior ag5s non agit nisi mota 444 et hoc non cessat qu\sque p]v5iatur ad ,deum1 sequitur de necessitate quod ,deus sit causa actionis cujuslibet rei naturalis1 ut mov5s et applicans virtutem ad ag5dum40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,de ,pot5tia ,dei1 q4 iii41 art4 #g4 #dgh ,?is is ! pr9ciple repeat$ly express$ by ,,/4 ,,?omas3 8,unde qu>to modo unum e/ causa alt]ius1 sicut pr9cipale ag5s e/ causa actionis in/rum5ti3 et hoc modo etiam oportet dic]e1 quod ,deus e/ causa omnis actionis rei naturalis4 ,quanto enim aliqua causa e/ altior1 tanto e/ communior et efficacior1 tanto pr(undius +r$itur 9 effectum1 et de remotiori pot5tia ipsum r$ucit 9 actum4 ,9 qualibet autem re naturali inv5imus quod e/ ens et quod e/ res naturalis1 et quod e/ talis vel talis naturae4 ,quorum primum e/ commune omnibus entibus2 secundum omnibus rebus naturalibus2 t]tium 9 una specie2 et qu>tum1 si addamus accid5tia1 e/ proprium huic individuo4 ,hoc ergo individuum ag5do non pote/ con/itu]e aliud 9 simili specie1 nisi pr\t e/ in/rum5tum illius causae quae respicit totam speciem et ult]ius totum esse naturae inf]ioris4 ,et propt] hoc nihil agit 9 speciem 9 i/is inf]ioribus 444 nec aliquid agit ad esse nisi p] virtutem ,dei4 ,ipsum enim esse e/ communissimus effectus1 primus et intimior omnibus aliis effectibus2 et ideo soli ,deo competit secundum virtutem propriam talis effectus3 unde etiam1 ut dicitur 9 ,lib4 de ,causis 7prop4 #i71 intellig5tia non dat esse1 nisi pr\t e/ 9 ea virtus div9a4 ,sic ergo ,deus e/ causa omnis actionis pr\t quodlibet ag5s e/ in/rum5tum div9ae virtutis op]antis40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,de ,pot5tia ,dei1 q4 iii4 art #g4--;,cf4 supra1 #ii 7c71 p4 #cge1 n4 #b4 #dgi ,:y1 !n1 is a f9ite cause n capable ( act+ un9t]rupt$ly8 :y are its p[]s1 =ces1 en]gies1 fatigu$1 less5$1 exhau/$ by ex]cise8 ,simply because its action is proportionate to its p[]s1 & ^! to its f9ite nature4 #dhj 8,creatio non e/ mutatio nisi secundum modum intellig5di tantum4 ,nam de ratione mutationis e/ quod aliquid idem se habeat alit] nunc et prius4444 ,s$ 9 creatione1 p] quam producitur tota sub/antia rei1 non pote/ accipi aliquid idem alit] se hab5s nunc et prius1 nisi secundum intellectum tantum2 sicut si intelligatur aliqua res prius non fuisse totalit]1 et po/ea esse4 ,s$ cum actio et passio conv5iant 9 una sub/antia motus1 et diff]ant solum secundum habitud9es div]as 444 oportet quod subtracto motu1 non remaneant nisi div]sae habitud9es 9 creante et creato4 ,s$ quia modus signific&i sequitur modum intellig5di 444 creatio significatur p] modum mutationis2 et propt] hoc dicitur quod cre>e e/ ex nihilo aliquid fac]e2 quamvis fac]e et fi]i magis 9 hoc conv5iant quam mut>e et mut>i2 quia fac]e et fi]i important habitud9em causae ad effectum et effectus ad causam1 s$ mutationem ex consequ5ti40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 xlv41 art4 #b1 ad4 #b4 #dha 8,remoto motu1 actio nihil aliud importat quam ord9em orig9is effectus secundum quod effectus a causa aliqua proc$it40--op4 cit41 i4 q4 xli41 art4 #a1 ad #b4 #dhb ,! act ( ! w is1 ( c\rse1 virtually transitive :5 x wills or det]m9es bodily movem5ts4--,cf4 ,,mah]1 ,psy*ology1 *s4 x41 xxiii4 7pp4 #eag-bd74 #dhc ,at ! same "t x mu/ be not$ t organic vital activity is transitive 9 ! s5se t no "p or memb] ( ! organism acts ^u itself1 b only on o!r p>ts1 9 ! production ( ! local1 quantitative & qualitative *anges involv$ 9 nutrition4 ,x is subject to ! inductively e/abli%$ law :i* seems to regulate all corporeal action3 t all su* action involves reaction ( ! pati5s on ! ag5s4 ,m5tal activity is outside ?is law4 ,cognitive & appetitive faculties d n react on ! objects :i* r$uce ^! faculties to act1 ?us ar\s+ _! imman5t activity4--,cf4 ,,m]ci]1 op4 cit41 #bbg4 #dhd ,cf4 ,,m]ci]1 op4 cit4 #dhe ,cf4 ,,mah]1 ,psy*ology1 *s4 xiii4 & xiv4 #dhf ,cf4 ,,urraburu3 8,vel1 si mavis1 dic causam effici5tem esse causam1 a qua fit aliquid1 vel a quo proprie oritur actio1 intellig5do p] actionem emanationem et fluxum ac dep5d5tiam effectus a causa40--op4 cit41 #chi 7p4 #aaab74 #dhg ,cf4 ,,m]ci]1 op4 cit41 #bbi3 8,l'action1 l'effici5ce1 qu'e/ elle1 en quoi consi/e-t-elle8 ,e/-ce une sorte d'c\lem5t de la cause dans l'effet8 videmm5t non4 ,lorsque n\s v\lons n\s lev] une conception mtaphysique1 n\s n\s raccro*ons une image s5sible1 et n\s n\s p]suadons volonti]s1 que la nettet de la premire rpond la facilit avec laquelle n\s n\s figurons la seconde4 ,il faut se dfi] de cette illusion4 ,puisque l'action1 mme corporelle1 ne modifie po9t l'ag5t1 la causalit effici5te ne peut consi/] dans un influx physique1 qui pass]ait de la cause dans l'effet40 #dhh ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 ii41 #bbh-i4 #dhi ,we might add ?is o!r fact3 t all k9ds ( corporeal activity & *ange 7#aa7 seem to involve motion or local *ange4 ,?is does n prove t !y all are motion or local *ange4 ,! significance ( ! fact lies probably 9 ?is1 t local motion is necess>y = procur+ & cont9u+ physical contact betwe5 ! int]act+ physical ag5cies4--,cf4 ,,nys1 ,cosmologie1 #bbg-i4 #dij ,cf4 ,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,contra ,g5tes1 iii41 #fi4 #dia 8,une cause vritable e/ une cause1 entre laquelle et son effet l'esprit ap]oit une liaison ncessaire3 c'e/ a9si que je l'ent5des4 ,?is is ambigu\s4 ,or il n'y a que l'tre inf9im5t p>fait entre la volont duquel et les effets l'esprit ap]oive une liaison ncessaire4 ,il n'y a donc que ,dieu qui soit vritable cause1 et il semble mme qu'il y ait contradiction dire que les hommes puiss5t l'tre0--,de la r*]*e de la vrit1 ,liv4 #fme1 #b;e p>tie1 *4 iii4 #dib 8,si l'on vi5t considr] att5tivem5t l'ide que l'on a de cause ou de puissance d'agir1 on ne peut en d\t] que cette ide ne prs5te quelque *ose de div940--ibid4 #dic 8,il n'y a po9t d'homme qui sa*e seulem5t ce qu'il faut faire p\r remu] un de ses doigts p> le moy5 des esprits animaux40--ibid4 #did 8,j'ai t\j\rs s\t5ue que l'me tait l'unique cause de ses actes1 c'e/ dire de ses dt]m9ations libres ou de ses actes bons ou mauvais4444 ,j'ai t\j\rs s\t5u que l'me tait active1 mais que ses actes ne produisai5t ri5 de physique40--,rflexions sur la prmotion physique4 8,je crois que la volont e/ une puissance active1 qu'elle a un vritable p\voir de se dt]m9]2 mais son action e/ imman5te2 c'e/ une action qui ne produit ri5 p> son efficace propre1 pas mme le m\vem5t de son bras40--,rponse la #cme lettre d',arnauld4 #die ,cf4 ,,m]ci]1 op4 cit41 #bcj-b2 ,,zigli>a1 ,ontologia 7#de72 ,,urraburu1 op4 cit41 #cic sqq4 #dif ,we may reasonably ask ! occasionali/ to suppose = ! mom5t t we are effici5t causes ( our m5tal processes & to tell u :at bett] pro( ( x c\ld he dem&1 or :at bett] pro( c\ld be =?com+1 ?an ?is pro( f consci\sness4 #dig ,,mah]1 ,psy*ology1 *4 x41 p4 #bbj4 #dih ,%\ld anyone d\bt t consci\sness does te/ify to ?is fact1 we may prove x inductively f ! con/ant correlation betwe5 ! m5tal /ate & ! bodily movem5t3 8,i w to move my arm1 x moves2 ,i w t x rema9 at re/1 x does n move2 ,i w t its movem5t be m or less /rong & rapid1 ! /r5g? & rapidity v>y ) ! det]m9ation ( my w4 ,:at m complete inductive pro( c we h ( ! effici5cy ( our w-action on ! ext]nal _w80--,,m]ci]1 op4 cit41 #bca4 #dii 8,si effectus non producuntur ex actione r]um creat>um1 s$ solum ex actione ,dei1 impossibile e/ quod p] effectus manife/etur virtus alicujus causae creatae3 non enim effectus o/5dit virtutem causae nisi ratione actionis1 quae a virtute proc$5s ad effectum t]m9atur4 ,natura autem causae non cognoscitur p] effectum1 nisi inquantum p] ipsum cognoscitur virtus1 quae naturam consequitur4 ,si igitur res creatae non hab5t actiones ad produc5dum effectum1 sequitur1 quod nunquam naturam alicujus rei creatae pot]it cognosci p] effectum2 et sic subtrahitur nobis omnis cognitio sci5tiae naturalis1 9 qua praecipuae demon/rationes p] effectum sequuntur40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,contra ,g5tes1 ,l4 iii41 cap4 #fi4 #ejj 8,je demeure d'accord que la foi oblige croire qu'il y a des corps2 mais1 p\r l'vid5ce1 il me semble qu'elle n'e/ po9t entire1 et que n\s ne sommes po9t inv9ciblem5t ports croire qu'il y ait quelqu'autre *ose que ,dieu et notre esprit40--,r*]*e de la vrite1 #fme claircissem5t4 #eja ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 ii41 #bag4 #ejb ,metaph41 v41 #ag4 #ejc 8,qua$am v]o ad bonum incl9antur cum aliqua cognitione2 non quidem sic quod cognoscant ipsam rationem boni1 s$ cognoscunt aliquod bonum p>ticul>e4444 ,incl9atio autem hanc cognitionem sequ5s dicitur appetitus s5sitivus4 ,qua$am v]o incl9antur ad bonum cum cognitione qua cognoscant ipsam boni rationem2 et haec incl9atio dicitur voluntas40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 xlix41 art4 #a4 #ejd 8,sicut influ]e causae effici5tis e/ ag]e1 ita influ]e causae f9alis e/ appeti et desid]>i40--,de ,v]itate1 q4 xxii41 art4 #b4 #eje ,9 its mod]n usage ! t]m 8int5tion0 is insep>able f ! notion ( consci\s direction4 ,! s*ola/ics us$ ! t]m 8int5tio0 9 a wid] & deep] s5se to connote ! natural t5d5cy ( all creat$ ag5cies t[>ds _! natural activities & l9es ( developm5t4 ,& 9 unconsci\s ag5cies !y did n hesitate to ref] to x z 8int5tio naturae0 or 8appetitus naturalis04 #ejf 8,res naturalis p] =mam qua p]ficitur 9 sua specie1 habet incl9ationem 9 proprias op]ationes et proprium f9em1 quem p] op]ationes consequitur2 quale enim unumquodque e/1 talia op]atur1 et 9 sibi conv5i5tia t5dit40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,contra ,g5tes1 iv41 #ai4 8,omnia suo modo p] appetitum incl9antur 9 bonum1 s$ div]simode4 ,qua$am enim incl9antur 9 bonum p] solam naturalem habitud9em absque cognitione1 sicut plantae et corpora inanimata2 et talis incl9atio ad bonum vocatur appetitus naturalis40--,summa ,!ol41 i41 q4 xlix41 art4 #a4 #ejg 8,causa effici5s et f9is sibi correspond5t invicem1 quia effici5s e/ pr9cipium motus1 f9is autem t]m9us4 ,et similit] mat]ia et =ma3 nam =ma dat esse1 mat]ia autem recipit4 ,e/ igitur effici5s causa f9is1 f9is autem causa effici5tis4 ,effici5s e/ causa f9is quantum ad esse1 quidem1 quia mov5do p]ducit effici5s ad hoc1 quod sit f9is4 ,f9is autem e/ causa effici5tis non quantum ad esse s$ quantum ad rationem causalitatis4 ,nam effici5s e/ causa 9 quantum agit2 non autem agit nisi causa gratia f9is4 ,unde ex f9e habet suam causalitatem effici5s40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,9 ,metaph41 v41 #b4 8,sci5dum quod licet f9is sit ultimus 9 esse 9 quibusdam1 9 causalitate tam5 e/ prior semp]1 unde dicitur causa caus>um1 quia e/ causa causalitatis 9 omnibus causis4 ,e/ enim causa causalitatis effici5tis1 ut jam dictum e/4 ,effici5s autem e/ causa causalitatis et mat]iae et =mae40--ibid41 lect4 #c4 #ejh 1 4 ,natura e/ pr9cipium quoddam et causa cur id moveatur et quiescat1 9 quo ine/ primum1 p] se et non secundum accid5s4--,physic41 ,l4 ii41 cap4 #a4 #eji 8,ars nihil aliud e/ quam recta ratio aliquorum op]um faci5dorum40--,summa ,!ol4 ia iiae1 q4 lvii41 art4 #c4--;,cf4 ,9 ,po/4 ,anal41 l4 #a4 #eaj 8,natura nihil aliud e/ quam ratio cujusdam artis1 scilicet div9ae1 indita rebus qua ipsae res mov5tur ad f9em det]m9atum2 sicut si artifex factor navis posset lignis tribu]e quod ex seipsis mov]5tur ad navis =mam induc5dam40--,9 ,,ii ,phys41 lect4 #ad4 8,omnia naturalia1 9 ea quae eis conv5iunt1 sunt incl9ata1 hab5tia 9 seipsis aliquod incl9ationis pr9cipium1 ratione cujus eorum incl9atio naturalis e/1 ita ut quodammodo ipsa vadant1 et non solum ducantur 9 f9es debitos40--,de ,v]itate1 q4 xxii41 art4 #g4 #eaa 8,9 nullo enim alio natura ab arte videtur diff]re1 nisi quia natura e/ pr9cipium intr9secum1 et ars e/ pr9cipium extr9sicum4 ,si enim ars factiva navis esset intr9seca ligno1 facta fuisset navis a natura1 sicut modo fit ab arte40--,9 ,,ii4 ,phys41 lect4 #ac4 #eab ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 ii41 #bag4 #eac ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 ii1 #bbg4 #ead ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 ii41 #bbf-ca4 #eae ,,ari/otle1 ,metaph41 iv41 *4 v4 #eaf ,physic41 ii41 *4 v4 #eag ibid4 #eah ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 ii41 #bfd1 #bfh-i4 #eai 4--,de ,coelo1 ii41 #h4 #ebj ,fatalism is ! view t all ?+s happ5 by a bl9d1 inevitable1 et]nally =$oom$ & un9telligible necessity4 ,?us ,,s5eca 7,nat4 ,quae/41 ,l4 ,,iii41 cap4 #cf7 describes fatum z necessitas omnium r]um actionumque1 quam nulla vis rumpat4 ,?is necessitas ineluctabilis is totally diff]5t f ! conditional physical necessity ( ! c\rse ( ,nature dep5d5tly on ! ,fiat ( a ,supreme ,free ,w guid$ by ,supreme ,intellig5ce 7,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 #bbd1 #bdi1 #bec1 #beg74 ,if ! necessity ( actual occurr5ces is n ultimately traceable to ! ,fiat ( an ,intellig5t ,w--& me*ani/s d5y t x c be s trac$--x is rightly describ$ z fatali/ic1 bl9d1 purposeless1 un9telligible4 #eba ,cf4 ,,m]ci]1 op4 cit41 #bei1 #bfj4 #ebb 8,expliqu] p> une r5contre =tuite1 la conv]g5ce d'lm5ts1 dont *acun a sa p\sse propre1 c'e/ r5dre raison de la conv]g5ce p> des pr9cipes de div]g5ce4444 ,il e/ donc contradictoire d'attribu] au has>d la raison explicative de l'ordre40--,,m]ci]1 op4 cit41 #bfj4 #ebc ,cf4 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 ii41 #bbd1 #bej1 & passim4 #ebd 8,similit] ex prioribus p]v5itur ad po/]iora 9 arte et 9 natura3 unde si artificialia1 ut domus1 fi]5t a natura1 hoc ord9e fi]5t1 quo nunc fiunt p] artem3 scilicet prius in/itu]etur fundam5tum1 et po/ea erig]5tur p>ietes1 et ultimo suppon]etur tectum4444 ,et similit] si ea quae fiunt a natura fi]5t ab arte1 hoc modo fi]5t sicut apta nata sunt fi]i a natura2 ut patet 9 sanitate1 quam contigit fi]i1 et ab arte et a natura4444 ,unde manife/um e/ quod 9 natura e/ alt]um propt] alt]um1 scilicet priora propt] po/]iora1 sicut et 9 arte40--,,/4 ,,?omas1 ,9 ,,ii4 ,phys41 lect4 #ac4--;,cf4 supra1 p4 #dag1 n4 #c4 #ebe 8,ordo e/ p>ium disp>iumque r]um sua cuique loca tribu5s dispositio40--,de ,civ4 ,dei1 xix41 #ac4 #ebf ,cf4 ,,m]ci]1 op4 cit41 #beg-fa4 #ebg 8,la conv]g5ce de causes indiffr5tes qui ralis5t d'une manire h>monieuse et p]si/ante un mme objet ordonn1 ne s'explique po9t p> des co9cid5ces =tuites2 elle rclame un pr9cipe int]ne de conv]g5ce40--,ibid41 #bfj4 #ebh ,,t5nyson1 ,9 ,memoriam1 lvi4 #ebi ,,br[n+1 ,a ,s\l's ,trag$y1 ,act4 #a4 #ecj 8,univ]sum habet bonum ord9is et bonum sep>atum40--,9 ,metaph41 xii41 l4 #ab4 #eca ,,ari/otle1 ,metaph41 xi41 #aj4 ,does ,ari/otle tea* t ,god moves ! univ]se only z its ,f9al ,cause1 z ! ,supreme ,good t[>ds :i* x t5ds1 or also z ,effici5t ,cause8 ,8 ?\ght is "h obscure1 & has giv5 rise to mu* controv]sy among 8 int]pret]s4 #ecb 1 4--,ibid41 xi41 #h4 #ecc 7 7 1 4--ibid41 #g4 #ecd 8,totus ordo univ]si e/ propt] primum mov5tem1 ut scilicet explicetur 9 univ]so ord9ato id quod e/ 9 intellectu et voluntate primi mov5tis4 ,et sic oportet quod a primo mov5te sit tota ord9atio univ]si40--,ibid41 xii41 l4 #ab4 #ece 444 ,among !mselves all ?+s ,h ord]2 & f h5ce ! =m1 :i* makes ,! univ]se resemble ,god4 ,9 ?is ,! high] creatures see ! pr9t$ /eps ,( t et]nal wor?1 :i* is ! end ,:i!r ! l9e is drawn4 ,all natures lean ,9 ?is _! ord]1 div]sely1 "s m1 ,"s less approa*+ to _! primal s\rce4 ,?us !y to diff]5t hav5s are mov$ on ,?r\gh ! va/ sea ( be+1 & ea* "o ,) in/9ct giv'n1 t be>s x 9 its c\rse2 ,?is to ! lun> sph]e directs ! fire1 ,?is prompts ! he>ts ( mortal animals1 ,?is ! brute e>? toge!r knits & b9ds4 ,nor only creatures1 void ( intellect1 ,are aim'd at by ?is b[2 b ev5 ^? ,t h intellig5ce & love1 are pi]c$4 ,t ,provid5ce1 :o s well ord]s all1 ,) h] own light makes ev] calm ! heav51 ,9 :i* ! sub/ance t ha? greate/ spe$ ,is turn$3 & ?i!r n[1 z to our seat ,pr$e/9'd1 we are c>ri$ by ! =ce ,( t /rong cord1 t nev] looses d>t1 ,b at fair aim & glad 444 --,,dante1 ,p>adiso1 ,cant4 i4 7tr4 by ,,c>y74