,,what ,i ,,know ,,of ,,farming3    ,a  
,,series ,,of    ,,brief ,,and ,,plain  
,,expositions    ,,of    ,,practical    
,,agriculture    ,,as ,,an ,,art ,,based
 ,,upon ,,science3       ,,by ,,horace  
,,greeley4                              
,i know   ,that where the spade is      
deepest driven1       ,the best fruits  
grow4    ,,john ,g4 ,,whittier4         
,,new-,,york3   ,,published ,,by ,,the  
,,tribune ,,association4   #ahga4       
,entered1 according to ,act of          
,congress1 in the year #ahgj1 by        
,,horace ,,greeley1   at the ,office of 
the ,librarian of ,congress1 at         
,washington4       ,,to    ,,the ,,man  
,,of ,,our ,,age1    ,,who ,,shall      
,,make ,,the ,,first ,,plow ,,propelled 
,,by    ,,steam1    ,,or ,,other        
,,mechanical ,,power1 ,,whereby ,,not   
,,less ,,than    ,,ten ,,acres ,,per    
,,day    ,,shall ,,be ,,thoroughly      
,,pulverized ,,to ,a    ,,depth ,,of    
,,two ,,feet1    ,,at ,a ,,cost ,,of    
,,not ,,more ,,than ,,two ,,dollars     

,,per ,,acre1    ,,this ,,work ,,is     
,,admiringly ,,dedicated ,,by     ,,the 
,,author4     ,,contents ,,by           
,,chapters4                             
,,page          ,i4 ,will ,farming ,pay8
                          #ac           
,,ii4 ,good and ,bad ,husbandry         
#ah        ,,iii4 ,where to ,farm       
#bc         ,,iv4 ,preparing to ,farm   
#bi          ,v4 ,buying a ,farm        
#cd         ,,vi4 ,laying off a ,farm2  
,pasturing               #ci            
,,vii4 ,trees2 ,woodlands2 ,forests     
#dd       ,,viii4 ,growing ,timber2     
,tree-,planting4             #di        
,,ix4 ,planting and ,growing ,trees     
#ef          ,x4 ,draining2 ,my ,own    
#fb         ,,xi4 ,draining ,generally  
#fi        ,,xii4 ,irrigation2 ,means   
and ,ends                 #gd           
,,xiii4 ,possibilities of ,irrigation   
#gi        ,,xiv4 ,plowing1 ,deep or    
,shallow                   #he          
,,xv4 ,plowing1 ,good and ,bad          
#ia        ,,xvi4 ,thorough ,tillage    

#if       ,,xvii4 ,commercial           
,fertilizers--,gypsum4           #ajb   
,,xviii4 ,alkalis--,salt1 ,ashes1 ,lime4
               #ajg        ,,xix4 ,soils
 and ,fertilizers                       
#aab         ,,xx4 ,bones1 ,phosphates1 
,guano                  #aah            
,,xxi4 ,muck--,how to ,utilize ,it      
#abd       ,,xxii4 ,insects2 ,birds     
#abi      ,,xxiii4 ,about               
,tree-,planting                         
#acd       ,,xxiv4 ,fruit-,trees--,the  
,apple                    #aci          
,,xxv4 ,more about ,apple-,trees        
#ade       ,,xxvi4 ,hay and ,hay-,making
                        #aej            
,,xxvii4 ,peaches1 ,pears1 ,cherries1   
,grapes          #aef     ,,xxviii4     
,grain-,growing--,east and ,west        
#afb       ,,xxix4 ,esculent            
,roots--,potatoes                  #agj 
,,xxx4 ,roots--,turnips1 ,beets1        
,carrots            #agh       ,,xxxi4  
,the ,farmers' ,calling                 
#ahc      ,,xxxii4 ,a ,lesson of ,to-day

                        #ahi            
,,xxxiii4 ,intellect in ,agriculture    
#aie      ,,xxxiv4 ,sheep and           
,wool-,growing                    #bjj  
,,xxxv4 ,accounts in ,farming           
#bjg      ,,xxxvi4 ,stone on a ,farm    
#bab     ,,xxxvii4 ,fences and ,fencing 
#bai    ,,xxxviii4 ,agricultural        
,exhibitions                  #bbe      
,,xxxix4 ,science in ,agriculture       
#bca         ,,xl4 ,farm ,implements    
#bcg        ,,xli4 ,steam in            
,agriculture                      #bda  
,,xlii4 ,co-operation in ,farming       
#bdh      ,,xliii4 ,farmers' ,clubs     
#bed       ,,xliv4 ,western ,irrigation4
                       #bfj             
,,xlv4 ,sewage                          
#bff       ,,xlvi4 ,more of ,irrigation 
#bgd      ,,xlvii4 ,undeveloped ,sources
 of ,power              #bhj            
,,xlviii4 ,rural ,depopulation          
#bhf       ,,xlix4 ,large and ,small    
,farms                     #bib         
,l4 ,exchange and ,distribution4        

#big         ,,li4 ,winter ,work        
#cjc        ,,lii4 ,summing up          
#cjh     ,,preface4   ,men have written 
wisely and usefully1 in illustration and
 aid of ,agriculture1 from the platform 
of pure science4 ,acquainted with the   
laws of vegetable growth and life1 they 
so expounded and elucidated those laws  
that farmers apprehended and profitably 
obeyed them4 ,others have written1 to   
equally good purpose1 who knew little of
 science1 but were adepts in practical  
agriculture1 according to the maxims and
 usages of those who have successfully  
followed and dignified the farmer's     
calling4 ,i rank with neither of these  
honored classes4 ,my practical knowledge
 of agriculture is meager1 and mainly   
acquired in a childhood long bygone2    
while1 of science1 ,i have but a        
smattering1 if even that4 ,they are     
right1 therefore1 who urge that my      
qualifications for writing on           
agriculture are slender indeed4  ,i only
 lay claim to an invincible willingness 

to be made wiser to-day than ,i was     
yesterday1 and a lively faith in the    
possibility--nay1 the feasibility1 the  
urgent necessity1 the imminence--of very
 great improvements in our ordinary     
dealings with the soil4 ,i know that a  
majority of those who would live by its 
tillage feed it too sparingly and stir  
it too slightly and grudgingly4 ,i know 
that we do too little for it1 and expect
 it1 thereupon1 to do too much for us4  
,i know that1 in other pursuits1 it is  
only work thoroughly well done that is  
liberally compensated2 and ,i see no    
reason why farming should prove an      
exception to this stern but salutary    
law4 ,i may be1 indeed1 deficient in    
knowledge of what constitutes good      
farming1 but not in faith that the very 
best farming is that which is morally   
sure of the largest and most certain    
reward4  ,i hope to be generally        
accorded the merit of having set forth  
the little ,i pretend to know in        
language that few can fail to           

understand4 ,i have avoided1 so far as  
,i could1 the use of terms and          
distinctions unfamiliar to the general  
ear4 ,the little ,i know of oxygen1     
hydrogen1 nitrogen1 c41 ,i have kept to 
myself2 since whatever ,i might say of  
them would be useless to those already  
acquainted with the elementary truths of
 ,chemistry1 and only perplexing to     
others4 ,if there is a paragraph in the 
following pages which will not be       
readily and fully understood by an      
average school-boy of fifteen years1    
then ,i have failed to make that        
paragraph as simple and lucid as ,i     
intended4  ,many farmers are dissuaded  
from following the suggestions of       
writers on agriculture by the           
consideration of expense4 ,they urge    
that1 though men of large wealth may    
7perhaps7 profitably do what is         
recommended1 their means are utterly    
inadequate3 they might as well be urged 
to work their oxen in a silver yoke with
 gold bows4 ,i have aimed to commend    

mainly1 if not uniformly1 such          
improvements only on our grandfathers'  
husbandry as a farmer worth #a1jjj1 or  
over1 may adopt--not all at once1 but   
gradually1 and from year to year4 ,i    
hope ,i shall thus convince some farmers
 that draining1 irrigation1 deep        
plowing1 heavy fertilizing1 c41 are not 
beyond their power1 as so many have too 
readily presumed and pronounced them4   
,that ,i should say very little1 and    
that little vaguely1 of the breeding and
 raising of animals1 the proper time to 
sow or plant1 c41 c41 can need no       
explanation4 ,by far the larger number  
of those whose days have mainly been    
given to farming1 know more than ,i do  
of these details1 and are better        
authority than ,i am with regard to     
them4 ,on the other hand1 ,i have       
traveled extensively1 and not           
heedlessly1 and have seen and pondered  
certain broader features of the earth's 
improvement and tillage which many      
stay-at-home cultivators have had little

 or no opportunity to study or even     
observe4 ,by restricting the topics with
 which ,i deal1 the probability of      
treating some of them to the average    
farmer's profit is increased4  ,and1    
whatever may be his judgment on this    
slight work1 ,i know that1 if ,i could  
have perused one of like tenor half a   
century ago1 when ,i was a patient      
worker and an eager reader in my        
father's humble home1 my subsequent     
career would have been less anxious and 
my labors less exhausting than they have
 been4 ,could ,i then have caught but a 
glimpse of the beneficent possibilities 
of a farmer's life--could ,i have       
realized that he is habitually 7even    
though blindly7 dealing with problems   
which require and reward the amplest    
knowledge of ,nature's laws1 the fullest
 command of science1 the noblest efforts
 of the human intellect1 ,i should have 
since pursued the peaceful1 unobtrusive 
round of an enthusiastic and devoted1   
even though not an eminent or fortunate1

 tiller of the soil4 ,even the little   
that is unfolded in the ensuing pages   
would have sufficed to give me a far    
larger1 truer1 nobler conception of what
 the farmer of moderate means might and 
should be1 than ,i then attained4 ,i    
needed to realize that observation and  
reflection1 study and mental            
acquisition1 are as essential and as    
serviceable in his pursuit as in others1
 and that no man can have acquired so   
much general knowledge that a farmer's  
exigencies will not afford scope and use
 for it all4 ,i abandoned the farm1     
because ,i fancied that ,i had already  
perceived1 if ,i had not as yet clearly 
comprehended1 all there was in the      
farmer's calling2 whereas1 ,i had not   
really learned much more of it than a   
good plow-horse ought to understand4    
,and1 though great progress has been    
made since then1 there are still        
thousands of boys1 in this enlightened  
age and conceited generation1 who have  
scarcely a more adequate and just       

conception of agriculture than ,i then  
had4 ,if ,i could hope to reach even one
 in every hundred of this class1 and    
induce him to ponder1 impartially1 the  
contents of this slight volume1 ,i know 
that ,i shall not have written it in    
vain4  ,we need to mingle more thought  
with our work4 ,some think till their   
heads ache intensely2 others work till  
their backs are crooked to the semblance
 of half an iron hoop2 but the workers  
and the thinkers are apt to be distinct 
classes2 whereas1 they should be the    
same4 ,admit that it has always been    
thus1 it by no means follows that it    
always should or shall be4 ,in an age   
when every laborer's son may be fairly  
educated if he will1 there should be    
more fruit gathered from the tree of    
knowledge to justify the magnificent    
promise of its foliage and its bloom4 ,i
 rejoice in the belief that the         
graduates of our common schools are     
better ditch-diggers1 when they can no  
otherwise employ themselves to better   

advantage1 than though they knew not how
 to read2 but that is not enough4 ,if   
the untaught peasantry of ,russia or    
,hungary grow more wheat per acre than  
the comparatively educated farmers of   
the ,united ,states1 our education is   
found wanting4 ,that is a vicious and   
defective if not radically false mental 
training which leaves its subject no    
better qualified for any useful calling 
than though he were unlettered4 ,but ,i 
forbear to pursue this ever-fruitful    
theme4  ,i look back1 on this day       
completing my sixtieth year1 over a     
life1 which must now be near its close1 
of constant effort to achieve ends      
whereof many seem in the long retrospect
 to have been transitory and            
unimportant1 however they may have      
loomed upon my vision when in their     
immediate presence4 ,one achievement    
only of our age and country--the        
banishment of human chattelhood from our
 soil--seems now to have been worth all 
the requisite efforts1 the agony and    

bloody sweat1 through which it was      
accomplished4 ,but another reform1 not  
so palpably demanded by justice and     
humanity1 yet equally conducive to the  
well-being of our race1 presses hard on 
its heels1 and insists that we shall    
accord it instant and earnest           
consideration4 ,it is the elevation of  
,labor from the plane of drudgery and   
servility to one of self-respect1       
self-guidance1 and genuine independence1
 so as to render the human worker no    
mere cog in a vast1 revolving wheel1    
whose motion he can neither modify nor  
arrest1 but a partner in the enterprise 
which his toil is freely contributed to 
promote1 a sharer in the outlay1 the    
risk1 the loss and gain1 which it       
involves4 ,this end can be attained     
through the training of the generation  
who are to succeed us to observe and    
reflect1 to live for other and higher   
ends than those of present sensual      
gratification1 and to feel that no      
achievement is beyond the reach of their

 wisely combined and ably self-directed 
efforts4 ,to that part of the generation
 of farmers just coming upon the stage  
of responsible action1 who have         
intelligently resolved that the future  
of ,american agriculture shall evince   
decided and continuous improvement on   
its past1 this little book is           
respectfully commended4    ,h4 ,g4      
,new ,york1 ,feb4 #c1 #ahga4     ,,what 
,i ,,know ,,of ,,farming4     ,i4       
,,will ,,farming ,,pay8   ,i commence my
 essays with this question1 because1    
when ,i urge the superior advantages of 
a rural life1 ,i am often met by the    
objection that ,farming doesn't pay4    
,that1 if true1 is a serious matter4    
,let us consider3  ,i do not understand 
it to be urged that the farmer who owns 
a large1 fertile estate1 well-fenced1   
well-stocked1 with good store of        
effective implements1 cannot live and   
thrive by farming4 ,what is meant is1   
that he who has little but two brown    
hands to depend upon cannot make money1 

or can make very little1 by farming4  ,i
 think those who urge this point have a 
very inadequate conception of the       
difficulty encountered by every poor    
young man in securing a good start in   
life1 no matter in what pursuit4 ,i came
 to ,new-,york when not quite of age1   
with a good constitution1 a fair        
common-school education1 good health1   
good habits1 and a pretty fair          
trade--7that of printer47 ,i think my   
outfit for a campaign against adverse   
fortune was decidedly better than the   
average2 yet ten long years elapsed     
before it was settled that ,i could     
remain here and make any decided        
headway4 ,meantime1 ,i drank no liquors1
 used no tobacco1 attended no balls or  
other expensive entertainments1 worked  
hard and long whenever ,i could find    
work to do1 lost less than a month      
altogether by sickness1 and did very    
little in the way of helping others4 ,i 
judge that quite as many did worse than 
,i as did better2 and that1 of the young

 lawyers and doctors who try to         
establish themselves here in their      
professions1 quite as many earn less as 
earn more than their bare board during  
the first ten years of their struggle4  
,john ,jacob ,astor1 near the close of a
 long1 diligent1 prosperous career1     
wherein he amassed a large fortune1 is  
said to have remarked that1 if he were  
to begin life again1 and had to choose  
between making his first thousand       
dollars with nothing to start on1 or    
with that thousand making all that he   
had actually accumulated1 he would deem 
the latter the easier task4 ,depend upon
 it1 young men1 it is and must be hard  
work to earn honestly your first        
thousand dollars4 ,the burglar1 the     
forger1 the blackleg 7whether he play   
with cards1 with dice1 or with stocks71 
may seem to have a quick and easy way of
 making a thousand dollars2 but whoever 
makes that sum honestly1 with nothing   
but his own capacities and energies as  
capital1 does a very good five-years'   

work1 and may deem himself fortunate if 
he finishes it so soon4  ,i have known  
men do better1 even at farming4 ,i      
recollect one who1 with no capital but a
 good wife and four or five hundred     
dollars1 bought 7near ,boston7 a farm of
 two hundred mainly rough acres1 for    
#b1ejj1 and paid for it out of its      
products within the next five years1    
during which he had nearly doubled its  
value4 ,i lost sight of him then2 but ,i
 have not a doubt that1 if he lived     
fifteen years longer and had no very bad
 luck1 he was worth1 as the net result  
of twenty years' effort1 at least       
#ajj1jjj4 ,but this man would rise at   
four o'clock of a winter morning1       
harness his span of horses and hitch    
them to his large market-wagon 7loaded  
over night71 drive ten miles into       
,boston1 unload and load back again1 be 
home at fair breakfast-time1 and1       
hastily swallowing his meal1 be fresh as
 a daisy for his day's work1 in which he
 would lead his hired men1 keeping them 

clear of the least danger of falling    
asleep4 ,such men are rare1 but they    
still exist1 proving scarcely anything  
impossible to an indomitable will4 ,i   
would not advise any to work so         
unmercifully2 ,i seek only to enforce   
the truth that great achievements are   
within the reach of whoever will pay    
their price4  ,an energetic farmer      
bought1 some twenty-five years ago1 a   
large grazing farm in ,northern         
,vermont1 consisting of some #aej acres1
 and costing him about #c1jjj4 ,he had a
 small stock of cattle1 which was all   
his land would carry2 but he resolved to
 increase that stock by at least ten per
 cent4 per annum1 and to so improve his 
land by cultivation1 fertilizing1       
clover1 c41 that it would amply carry   
that increase4 ,fifteen years later1 he 
sold out farm and stock for #de1jjj1 and
 migrated to the ,west4 ,i did not      
understand that he was a specially hard 
worker1 but only a good manager1 who    
kept his eyes wide open1 let nothing go 

to waste1 and steadily devoted his      
energies and means to the improvement of
 his stock and his farm4  ,walking one  
day over the farm of the late ,prof4    
,mapes1 he showed me a field of rather  
less than ten acres1 and said1 ,i bought
 that field for #b1djj1 a year ago last 
,september4 ,there was then a light crop
 of corn on it1 which the seller        
reserved and took away4 ,i underdrained 
the field that ,fall1 plowed and        
sub-soiled it1 fertilized it liberally1 
and planted it with cabbage2 and1 when  
these matured1 ,i sold them for enough  
to pay for land1 labor1 and fertilizers1
 altogether4 ,the field was now worth   
far more than when he bought it1 and he 
had cleared it within fifteen months    
from the date of its purchase4 ,i       
consider that a good operation4 ,another
 year1 the crop might have been poor1 or
 might have sold much lower1 so as      
hardly to pay for the labor2 but there  
are risks in other pursuits as well as  
in farming4  ,a fruit-farmer1 on the    

,hudson above ,newburg1 showed me1 three
 years since1 a field of eight or ten   
acres which he had nicely set with      
,grapes1 in rows ten feet apart1 with   
beds of ,strawberries between the rows1 
from which he assured me that his sales 
per acre exceeded #gjj per annum4 ,i    
presume his outlay for labor1 including 
picking1 was less than #cjj per annum2  
but it had cost something1 to make this 
field what it then was4 ,say that he had
 spent #a1jjj per acre in underdraining1
 enriching and tilling this field1 to   
bring it to this condition1 including   
the cost of his plants1 and still there 
must have been a clear profit here of at
 least #cjj per acre4  ,i might multiply
 illustrations2 but let the foregoing   
suffice4 ,i readily admit that shiftless
 farming doesn't pay--that poor crops   
don't pay--that it is hard work to make 
money by farming without some           
capital--that frost1 or hail1 or drouth1
 or floods1 or insects1 may blast the   
farmer's hopes1 after he has done his   

best to deserve and achieve success2 but
 ,i insist that1 as a general           
proposition1 ,,good ,farming ,,does     
pay--that few pursuits afford as good a 
prospect1 as full an assurance1 of      
reward for intelligent1 energetic1      
persistent effort1 as this does4  ,i am 
not arguing that every man should be a  
farmer4 ,other vocations are useful and 
necessary1 and many pursue them with    
advantage to themselves and to others4  
,but those pursuits are apt to be       
modified by time1 and some of them may  
yet be entirely dispensed with1 which   
,farming never can be4 ,it is the first 
and most essential of human pursuits2 it
 is every one's interest that this      
calling should be honored and           
prosperous4 ,if not adequately          
recompensed1 ,i judge that is because it
 is not wisely and energetically        
followed4 ,my aim is to show how it may 
be pursued with satisfaction and profit4
     ,,ii4  ,,good ,,and ,,bad          
,,husbandry4   ,necessity is the master 

of us all4 ,a farmer may be as strenuous
 for deep plowing as ,i am--may firmly  
believe that the soil should be         
thoroughly broken up and pulverized to a
 depth of fifteen to thirty inches1     
according to the crop2 but1 if all the  
team he can muster is a yoke of thin1   
light steers1 or a span of old1 spavined
 horses1 which have not even a speaking 
acquaintance with grain1 what shall he  
do8 ,so he may heartily wish he had a   
thousand loads of barn-yard manure1 and 
know how to make a good use of every    
ounce of it2 but1 if he has it not1 and 
is not able to buy it1 he can't always  
afford to forbear sowing and planting1  
and so1 because he cannot secure great  
crops1 do without any crops at all4 ,if 
he does the best he can1 what better can
 he do8  ,again3 ,many farmers have     
fields that must await the pleasure of  
,nature to fit them for thorough        
cultivation4 ,here is a field--sometimes
 a whole farm--which1 if partially      
divested of the primitive forest1 is    

still thickly dotted with obstinate     
stumps and filled with green1 tenacious 
roots1 which could only be removed at a 
heavy1 perhaps ruinous1 cost4 ,a rich   
man might order them all dug out in a   
month1 and see his order fully obeyed2  
but1 except to clear a spot for a garden
 or under very peculiar circumstances1  
it would not pay2 and a poor man cannot 
afford to incur a heavy expense merely  
for appearance's sake1 or to make a     
theatrical display of energy4 ,in the   
great majority of cases1 he who farms   
for a living can't afford to pull green 
stumps1 but must put his newly-cleared  
land into grass at the earliest day1 mow
 the smoother1 pasture the rougher      
portions of it1 and wait for rain and   
drouth1 heat and frost1 to rot his      
stumps until they can easily be pulled  
or burned out as they stand4  ,so with  
regard to a process ,i detest1 known as 
,pasturing4 ,i do firmly believe that   
the time is at hand when nearly all the 
food of cattle will1 in our ,eastern and

 ,middle ,states1 be cut and fed to     
them--that we can't afford much longer1 
even if we can at present1 to let than  
roam at will over hill and dale1 through
 meadow and forest1 biting off the      
better plants and letting the worse go  
to seed2 often poaching up the soft1 wet
 soil1 especially in ,spring1 so that   
their hoofs destroy as much as they eat2
 nipping and often killing in their     
infancy the finest trees1 such as the   
,sugar ,maple1 and leaving only such as 
,hemlock1 ,red ,oak1 ,beech1 c41 to     
attain maturity4 ,our race generally    
emerged from savageism and squalor into 
industry1 comfort and thrift1 through   
the ,pastoral condition--the herding1   
taming1 rearing and training of animals 
being that department of husbandry to   
which barbarians are most easily        
attracted3 hence1 we cling to ,pasturing
 long after the reason for it has       
vanished4 ,the radical1 incurable vice  
of ,pasturing--that of devouring the    
better plants and leaving the worse to  

ripen and diffuse seed--can never be    
wholly obviated2 and ,i deem it safe to 
estimate that almost any farm will carry
 twice as much stock if their food be   
mainly cut and fed to them as it will if
 they are required to pick it up where  
and as it grows or grew4 ,i am sure that
 the general adoption of ,soiling       
instead of ,pasturing will add immensely
 to the annual product1 to the wealth1  
and to the population1 of our older     
,states4 ,and yet1 ,i know right well   
that many farms are now so rough and    
otherwise so unsuited to ,soiling as to 
preclude its adoption thereon for many  
years to come4  ,let me indicate what ,i
 mean by ,good ,farming1 through an     
illustration drawn from the ,great      
,west3  ,all over the settled portions  
of the ,valley of the ,upper            
,mississippi and the ,missouri1 there   
are large and small herds of cattle that
 are provided with little or no shelter4
 ,the lee of a fence or stack1 the      
partial protection of a young and       

leafless wood1 they may chance to enjoy2
 but that it is a ruinous waste to leave
 than a prey to biting frosts and       
piercing north-westers1 their owners    
seem not to comprehend4 ,many farmers   
far above want will this ,winter feed   
out fields of ,corn and stacks of ,hay  
to herds of cattle that will not be one 
pound heavier on the #ast of next ,may  
than they were on the #ast of last      
,december--who will have required that  
fodder merely to preserve their vitality
 and escape freezing to death4 ,it has  
mainly been employed as fuel rather than
 as nourishment1 and has served1 not to 
put on flesh1 but to keep out frost4    
,now ,i am familiar with the excuses for
 this waste2 but they do not satisfy me4
 ,the poorest pioneer might have built  
for his one cow a rude shelter of       
stakes1 and poles1 and straw or         
prairie-grass1 if he had realized its   
importance1 simply in the light of      
economy4 ,he who has many cattle is     
rarely without both straw and timber1   

and might shelter his stock abundantly  
if he only would4 ,nay1 he could not    
have neglected or omitted it if he had  
clearly understood that his beasts must 
somehow be supplied with heat1 and that 
he can far cheaper warm them from       
without than from within4  ,the broad1  
general1 unquestionable truths1 on which
 ,i insist in behalf of ,good ,farming  
are these2 and ,i do not admit that they
 are subject to exception3  ,i4 ,it is  
very rarely impracticable to grow good  
crops1 if you are willing to work for   
them4 ,if your land is too poor to grow 
,wheat or ,corn1 and you are not yet    
able to enrich it1 sow ,rye or          
,buckwheat2 if you cannot coax it to    
grow a good crop of anything1 let it    
alone2 and1 if you cannot run away from 
it1 work out by the day or month for    
your more fortunate neighbors4 ,the time
 and means squandered in trying to grow 
crops1 where only half or quarter crops 
can be made1 constitute the heaviest    
item on the wrong side of our farmers'  

balance-sheets2 taxing them more than   
their ,national1 ,state1 and local      
governments together do4  ,,ii4 ,good   
crops rarely fail to yield a profit to  
the grower4 ,i know there are           
exceptions1 but they are very few4 ,keep
 your eye on the farmer who almost      
uniformly has great ,grass1 good ,wheat1
 heavy ,corn1 c41 and1 unless he drinks1
 or has some other bad habit1 you will  
find him growing rich4 ,i am confident  
that white blackbirds are nearly as     
abundant as farmers who have become poor
 while usually growing good crops4      
,,iii4 ,the fairest single test of good 
farming is the increasing productiveness
 of the soil4 ,that farm which averaged 
twenty bushels of grain to the acre     
twenty years ago1 twenty-five bushels   
ten years ago1 and will measure up      
thirty bushels to the acre from this    
year's crop1 has been and is in good    
hands4 ,i know no other touchstone of   
,farming so unerring as that of the     
increase or decrease from year to year  

of its aggregate product4 ,if you would 
convince me that ,x4 is a good farmer1  
do not tell me of some great crop he has
 just grown1 but show me that his crop  
has regularly increased from year to    
year1 and ,i am satisfied4  --,i shall  
have more to say on these points as ,i  
proceed4 ,it suffices for the present if
 ,i have clearly indicated what ,i mean 
by ,good and what by ,bad ,farming4     
,,iii4  ,,where ,,to ,,farm4   ,when my 
father was over sixty years old1 and had
 lived some twenty years in ,erie       
,county1 ,pennsylvania1 he said to me3  
,i have several times removed1 and      
always toward the ,west2 ,i shall never 
remove again2 but1 were ,i to do so1 it 
would be toward the ,east4 ,experience  
has taught me that the advantages of    
every section are counterbalanced by    
disadvantages1 and that1 where any crop 
is easily produced1 there it sells low1 
and sometimes cannot be sold at all4 ,i 
shall live and die right here2 but1 were
 ,i to remove again1 it would not be    

toward the ,west4  ,this is but one side
 of a truth1 and ,i give it for whatever
 it may be worth4 ,had my father plunged
 into the primitive forest in his       
twenty-fifth rather than his forty-fifth
 year1 he would doubtless have become   
more reconciled to pioneer life than he 
ever did4 ,i would advise no one over   
forty years of age to undertake1 with   
scanty means1 to dig a farm out of the  
dense forest1 where great trees must be 
cut down and cut up1 rolled into        
log-heaps1 and hurried to ashes where   
they grew4 ,where half the timber can be
 sold for enough to pay the cost of     
cutting1 the case is different2 but ,i  
know right well that digging a farm out 
of the high woods is1 to any but a man  
of wealth1 a slow1 hard task4 ,making   
one out of naked prairie1 five to ten   
miles from timber1 is less difficult1   
but not much4 ,he who can locate where  
he has good timber on one side and rich 
prairie on the other is fortunate1 and  
may hope1 if his health be spared1 to   

surround himself with every needed      
comfort within ten years4 ,still1 the   
pioneer's life is a rugged one1         
especially for women and children2 and  
,i should advise any man who is worth   
#b1jjj and has a family1 to buy out an  
improvement 7which1 in most cases1 badly
 needs improving7 on the outskirt of    
civilization1 rather than plunge into   
the pathless forest or push out upon the
 unbroken prairie4 ,i rejoice that our  
,public ,lands are free to actual       
settlers2 ,i believe that many are      
thereby enabled to make for themselves  
homes who otherwise would have nothing  
to leave their children2 yet ,i much    
prefer a home within the boundaries of  
civilization to one clearly beyond them4
 ,there is a class of drinking1 hunting1
 frolicking1 rarely working1            
frontiersmen1 who seem to have been     
created on purpose to erect log cabins  
and break paths in advance of a         
different class of settlers1 who        
regularly come in to buy them out and   

start them along after a few years4 ,i  
should here prefer to follow rather than
 lead4 ,if ,co-operation shall ever be  
successfully applied to the improvement 
of wild lands1 ,i trust it may be       
otherwise4  ,he who has a farm already1 
and is content with it1 has no reason to
 ask1 ,whither shall ,i go8 and he may  
rest assured that thoroughly good       
farming will pay as well in ,new        
,england as in ,kansas or in ,minnesota4
 ,i advise no man who has a good farm   
anywhere1 and is able to keep it1 to    
sell and migrate4 ,i know men who make  
money by growing food within twenty     
miles of this city quite as fast as they
 could in the ,west4 ,if you have money 
to buy and work it1 and know how to make
 the most of it1 ,i believe you may find
 land really as cheap1 all things       
considered1 in ,vermont as in ,wisconsin
 or ,arkansas4  ,and yet ,i believe in  
migration--believe that there are       
thousands in the ,eastern and the       
,middle ,states who would improve their 

circumstances and prospects by migrating
 to the cheaper lands and broader       
opportunities of the ,west and ,south4  
,for1 in the first place1 most men are  
by migration rendered more energetic and
 aspiring2 thrown among strangers1 they 
feel the necessity of exertion as they  
never felt it before4 ,needing almost   
everything1 and obliged to rely wholly  
on themselves1 they work in their new   
homes as they never did in their old2   
and the consequences are soon visible   
all around them4  ,a stern chase is a   
long chase1 say the sailors2 and he who 
buys a farm mainly on credit1 intending 
to pay for it out of its proceeds1 finds
 interest1 taxes1 sickness1 bad seasons1
 hail1 frost1 drouth1 tornadoes1 floods1
 c41 c41 deranging his calculations and 
impeding his progress1 until he is often
 impelled to give up in despair4 ,there 
are men who can surmount every obstacle 
and defy discouragement--these need no  
advice2 but there are thousands who1    
having little means and large families1 

can grow into a good farm more easily   
and far more surely than they can pay   
for it2 and these may wisely seek homes 
where population is yet sparse and land 
is consequently cheap4 ,doubtless1 some 
migrate who might better have forborne2 
yet the instinct which draws our race   
toward sunset is nevertheless a true    
one4 ,the ,east will not be depopulated2
 but the ,west will grow more rapidly in
 the course of the next twenty years    
than ever in the past4 ,the ,railroads  
which have brought ,kansas and          
,minnesota within three days1 and       
,california within a week of us1 have   
rendered this inevitable4  ,but the     
,south also invites immigration as she  
never did till now4 ,her lands are still
 very cheap2 she is better timbered1 in 
the average1 than the ,west2 her climate
 attracts2 her unopened mines and unused
 water-power call loudly for enterprise1
 labor and skill4 ,it is absurd to      
insist that her soil is exhausted when  
not one-third of it has ever yet been   

plowed4 ,i do not advise solitary       
migration to the ,south1 because she    
needs schools1 mills1 roads1 bridges1   
churches1 c41 c41 which the solitary    
immigrant can neither provide nor well  
do without3 and ,i have no assurance    
that he1 if obliged to work out for     
present bread1 would find those ready to
 employ and willing to pay him2 but let 
a hundred ,northern farmers and         
mechanics worth #a1jjj to #c1jjj each   
combine to select 7through chosen       
agents7 and buy ten or twenty thousand  
acres in some ,southern ,state1         
embracing hill and vale1 timber and     
tillage1 water-power and minerals1 and  
divide it equitably among themselves1   
after laying it out with roads1 a park1 
a village-plat1 sites for churches1     
schools1 c41 and ,i am confident that   
they can thus make pleasant homes more  
cheaply and speedily there than almost  
anywhere else4  ,good farming land1     
improved or unimproved1 is this day     
cheaper in the ,united ,states1 all     

things considered1 than in any other    
country--cheaper than it can long       
remain4 ,so many are intent on short    
cuts to riches that the soil is         
generally neglected1 and may be bought  
amazingly cheap in parts of ,connecticut
 as well as in ,iowa or ,nebraska4 ,when
 ,i was last in ,illinois1 ,i rode for  
some hours beside a gray-coated farmer  
of some sixty years1 who told me this3  
,i came here thirty years ago1 and took 
up1 at #a-a_/d per acre1 a good tract of
 land1 mainly in timber4 ,i am now      
selling off the timber at #ajj per acre1
 reserving the land4 ,that seems to me a
 good operation--not so quick as a      
corner in the stock-market1 but far     
safer4 ,and1 while ,i would advise no   
man to incur debt1 ,i say most earnestly
 to all who have means1 ,look out the   
place where you would prefer to live and
 die2 take time to suit yourself        
thoroughly2 choose it with reference to 
your means1 your calling1 your          
expectations1 and1 if you can pay for   

it1 buy it4 ,do not imagine that land is
 cheap in the ,west or the ,south only2 
it is to be found cheap in every ,state 
by those who are able to own and who    
know how to use it4  ,i earnestly trust 
that the obvious advantages of settling 
in colonies are to be widely and rapidly
 improved by our people1 nearly as      
follows3 ,one thousand heads of families
 unite to form a colony1 contribute #ajj
 to #ejj each to defray the cost of     
seeking out and securing a suitable     
location1 and send out two or three of  
the most capable and trustworthy of     
their number to find and purchase it2   
and now let their lands be surveyed and 
divided into village or city lots at or 
near the center1 larger allotments 7for 
mechanics' and merchants' homes7        
surrounding that center1 and far larger 
7for farms7 outside of these2 and let   
each member1 on or soon after his       
arrival1 select a village-lot1 out-lot1 
farm1 or one of each if he chooses and  
can pay for them4 ,let ample            

reservations of the best sites for      
churches1 school-houses1 a town hall1   
public park1 etc41 be made in laying out
 the village1 and let each purchaser of 
a lot or farm be required to plant      
shade-trees along the highways which    
skirt or traverse it4 ,if irrigation by 
common effort be deemed necessary1 let  
provision be made for that4 ,run up a   
large1 roomy structure for a family     
hotel or boarding-house2 and now invite 
each stockholder to come on1 select his 
land1 pay for it1 and get up some sort  
of a dwelling1 leaving his family to    
follow when this shall have been        
rendered habitable2 but1 if they insist 
on coming on with him and taking their  
chances1 so be it4     ,,iv4            
,,preparing ,,to ,,farm4   ,i write     
mainly for beginners--for young persons1
 and some not so young1 who are looking 
to farming as the vocation to which     
their future years are to be given1 by  
which their living is to be gained4 ,in 
this chapter1 ,i would counsel young    

men1 who1 not having been reared in     
personal contact with the daily and     
yearly round of a farmer's cares and    
duties1 purpose henceforth to live by   
farming4  ,to these ,i would earnestly  
say1 ,no haste6 ,our boys are in too    
great a hurry to be men4 ,they want to  
be bosses before they have qualified    
themselves to be efficient journeymen4  
,i have personally known several        
instances of young men1 fresh from      
school or from some city vocation1      
buying or hiring a farm and undertaking 
to work it2 and ,i cannot now recall a  
single instance in which the attempt has
 succeeded2 while speedy failure has    
been the usual result4 ,the assumption  
that farming is a rude1 simple matter1  
requiring little intellect and less     
experience1 has buried many a           
well-meaning youth under debts which the
 best efforts of many subsequent years  
will barely enable him to pay off4 ,in  
my opinion1 half our farmers now living 
would say1 if questioned1 that they     

might better have waited longer before  
buying or hiring a farm4  ,when ,i was  
ten years old1 my father took a job of  
clearing off the mainly fallen and      
partially rotten timber--largely ,white 
,pine and ,black ,ash--from fifty acres 
of level and then swampy land2 and he   
and his two boys gave most of the two   
ensuing years 7#ahba-b7 to the rugged   
task4 ,when it was finished1 ,i--a boy  
of twelve years--could have taken just  
such a tract of half-burned primitive   
forest as that was when we took hold of 
it1 and cleared it by an expenditure of 
seventy to eighty per cent4 of the labor
 we actually bestowed upon that4 ,i had 
learned1 in clearing this1 how to       
economize labor in any future           
undertaking of the kind2 and so every   
one learns by experience who steadily   
observes and reflects4 ,he must have    
been a very good farmer at the start1 or
 a very poor one afterward1 who cannot  
grow a thousand bushels of grain much   
cheaper at thirty years of age than he  

could at twenty4  ,to every young man   
who has had no farming experience1 or   
very little1 yet who means to make      
farming his vocation1 ,i say1 ,hire out1
 for the coming year1 to the very best  
farmer who will give you anything like  
the value of your labor4 ,buy a very few
 choice books1 7if you have them not    
already17 which treat of ,geology1      
,chemistry1 ,botany1 and the application
 of their truths in ,practical          
,agriculture2 give to these the close   
and thoughtful attention of your few    
leisure hours2 keep your eyes wide open1
 and set down in a note-book or         
pocket-diary each night a minute of     
whatever has been done on the farm that 
day1 making a note of each storm1       
shower1 frost1 hail1 etc41 and also of  
the date at which each planted crop     
requires tillage or is ripe enough to   
harvest1 and ascertaining1 so far as    
possible1 what each crop produced on the
 farm has cost1 and which of them all   
are produced at a profit and which at a 

loss4 ,at the year's end1 hire again to 
the same or another good farmer and     
pursue the same course2 and so do till  
you shall be twenty-four or twenty-five 
years of age1 which is young enough to  
marry1 and quite young enough to        
undertake the management of a farm4 ,by 
this time1 if you have carefully saved  
and wisely invested your earnings1 you  
will have several hundred dollars2 and1 
if you do not choose to migrate to some 
region where land is very cheap1 you    
will have found some one willing to sell
 you a small farm on credit1 taking a   
long mortgage as security4 ,your        
money--assuming that you have only what 
you will have earned--will all be wanted
 to fix up your building1 buy a team and
 cow1 with the few implements needed1   
and supply you with provisions till you 
can grow some4 ,if you can start thus   
experienced and full-handed1 you may1 by
 diligence1 combined with good fortune1 
begin to make payments on your mortgage 
at the close of your second year4  ,i   

hate debt as profoundly as any one can1 
but ,i do not consider this really      
running into debt4 ,one has more land   
than he needs1 and does not need his pay
 for it forthwith2 another wants land1  
but lacks the means of present payment4 
,they two enter into an agreement       
mutually advantageous1 whereby the      
poorer has the present use and ultimate 
fee-simple of the farm in question1 in  
consideration of the payment of certain 
sums as duly stipulated4 ,technically1  
the buyer becomes a debtor2 practically1
 ,i do not regard him as such1 until    
payments fall due which he is unable    
promptly to meet4 ,let him rigorously   
avoid all other debt1 and he need not   
shrink from nor be ashamed of this4  ,i 
have a high regard for scientific       
attainments2 ,i wish every young man    
were thoroughly instructed in the       
sciences which underlie the art of      
farming4 ,but all the learning on earth1
 though it may powerfully help to make a
 good farmer1 would not of itself make  

one4 ,when a young man has learned all  
that seminaries and lectures1 books and 
cabinets1 can teach him1 he still needs 
practice and experience to make him a   
good farmer4  --,but wouldn't you have a
 young man study in order that he may   
become a good farmer8  --,if he has     
money1 ,yes4 ,i believe a youth worth   
four or five thousand dollars may wisely
 spend a tenth of his means in attending
 lectures1 and even courses of study1 at
 any good seminary where ,natural       
,science is taught and applied to       
,agriculture4 ,but life is short at     
best2 and he who has no means1 or very  
little1 cannot really afford to attend  
even an ,agricultural ,college4 ,he can 
acquire so much of ,science as is       
indispensable in the cheaper way ,i have
 indicated4 ,he cannot wisely consent to
 spend the best years of his life in    
getting ready to live4  ,he who has     
already mastered the art of farming1 and
 has adequate means1 may of course buy a
 farm to-morrow1 though he be barely or 

not quite of age4 ,he has little to     
learn from me4 ,yet ,i think even such  
have often concluded1 in after years1   
that they were too hasty in buying      
land--that they might profitably have   
waited1 and deliberated1 and garnered   
the treasures of experience1 before they
 took the grave step of buying their    
future home2 with regard to which ,i    
shall make some suggestions in my next  
chapter4  ,but ,i protest against a     
young man's declining or postponing the 
purchase of a farm merely because he is 
not able to buy a great one4 ,twenty    
acres of arable soil near a city or     
manufacturing village1 forty acres in a 
rural district of any old ,state1 or    
eighty acres in a region just beginning 
to be peopled by ,white men1 is an ample
 area for any one who is worth less than
 #b1jjj4 ,if he understands his         
business1 he will find profitable       
employment hereon for every working     
hour3 if he does not understand farming1
 he will buy his experience dear enough 

on this1 yet more cheaply than he would 
on a wider area4 ,until he shall have   
more money than he needs1 let him beware
 of buying more land than he absolutely 
wants4     ,v4  ,,buying ,a ,,farm4     
,no one need be told at this day that   
good land is cheaper than poor--that the
 former may be bought at less cost than 
it can be made4 ,yet this1 like most    
truths1 may be given undue emphasis4 ,it
 should be considered in the light of   
the less obvious truth that ,every      
farmer may make advantageous use of     
,,some poor land4 ,the smallest farm    
should have its strip or belt of forest2
 the larger should have an abundance and
 variety of trees2 and sterile1 stony   
land grows many if not most trees       
thriftily3 ,even at the risk of arousing
 ,western prejudice1 ,i maintain that   
,new-,england1 and all broken1 hilly1   
rocky countries1 have a decided         
advantage 7abundantly counterbalanced1  
no doubt7 over regions of great         
fertility and nearly uniform facility1  

in that human stupidity and mole-eyed   
greed can never wholly divest them of   
forests--that their sterile crags and   
steep acclivities must mainly be left to
 wood forever4 ,avarice may strip them  
of their covering of to-day2 but1       
defying the plow and the spade1 they    
cannot be so denuded that they will not 
be speedily reclothed with trees and    
foliage4  ,i am not a believer that     
,five ,acres or ,ten ,acres suffice for 
a farm4 ,i know where money is made on  
even fewer than five acres2 but they who
 do it are few1 and men of exceptional  
capacity and diligence4 ,their          
achievements are necessarily confined to
 the vicinage of cities or manufacturing
 villages4 ,the great majority of all   
who live by ,agriculture want room to   
turn upon--want to grow grass and keep  
stock--and1 for such1 no mere garden or 
potato-patch will answer4 ,they want    
genuine farms4  ,yet1 go where you may  
in this country1 you will hear a farmer 
saying of his neighbor1 ,he has too much

 land1 even where the criticism might   
justly be reciprocated4 ,we cannot all  
be mistaken on this head4  ,there are   
men who can each manage thousands of    
acres of tillage1 just as there are     
those who can skillfully wield an army  
of a hundred thousand men4 ,napoleon    
said there were two of this class in the
 ,europe of his day4 ,there are others  
who cannot handle a hundred acres so    
that nothing is lost through neglect or 
oversight4 ,rules must be adapted to    
average capacities and circumstances4   
,he who expects to live by              
cattle-rearing needs many more acres    
than he who is intent on grain-growing2 
while he who contemplates vegetable1    
root1 and fruit culture1 needs fewer    
acres still4 ,as to the direction of his
 efforts1 each one will be a law unto   
himself4  ,if ,i were asked1 by a young 
man intent on farming1 to indicate the  
proper area for him1 ,i would say1 ,buy 
just so large a farm as half your means 
will pay for4 ,in other words1 ,if you  

are worth #bj1jjj1 invest half of it in 
land1 the residue in stock1 tools1 etc42
 and observe the same rule of           
proportion1 whether you be worth        
#a1jjj1jjj or only #a1jjj4 ,if you are  
worth just nothing at all1 ,i would     
invest in land the half of that1 and no 
more4 ,in other words1 ,i would either  
wait to earn #ejj or over1 or push      
,westward till ,i found land that costs 
practically nothing4  ,this1 then1 ,i   
take to be the gist of the popular      
criticism on our farmers as having      
unduly enlarged their borders3 ,they    
have more land than they have capital to
 stock and till to the best advantage4  
,he who has but fifty acre has too much 
if he lets part of his land lie idle and
 unproductive for lack of team or hands 
to till it efficiently2 while he who has
 a thousand acres has none too much if  
he has the means and talents wherewith  
to make the best of it all4  ,i have    
said that ,i consider the soil of ,new  
,england as cheap1 all things           

considered1 for him who is able to buy  
and work it1 as that of ,minnesota or   
,arkansas--that ,i urge migration to the
 ,west only upon those who cannot pay   
for farms in the old ,states4 ,i doubt  
whether the farmers of any other section
 have1 in the average1 done better1     
throughout the last ten years1 than the 
butter-makers of ,vermont1 the          
cheese-dairymen of this ,state4 ,and yet
 there is1 in the ridgy1 rocky1 patchy  
character of most of our ,eastern farms1
 an insuperable barrier to the most     
economic1 effective cultivation4 ,if the
 ridges were further apart--if each     
rocky or gravelly knoll were not in     
close proximity to a strip of bog or    
morass--it would be different4 ,but the 
genius of our age points unmistakably to
 cultivation by steam or some other     
mechanical application of power2 and    
this requires spacious fields1 with few 
or no obstacles to the equable progress 
of the plow4 ,i apprehend that1 for this
 reason1 the growth of bread-corn       

eastward of the ,hudson can never more  
be considerably extended1 so long as the
 boundless1 fertile prairies can so     
easily pour their exhaustless supplies  
upon us4 ,fruits1 ,vegetables1 ,roots   
and ,grass1 we must continue to grow1   
probably in ever-increasing abundance2  
but we of the ,east will buy our        
bread-corn largely if not mainly from   
the ,west4  ,he1 therefore1 who bays    
land in the ,eastern ,states should     
regard primarily its capacity to produce
 those crops in which the ,east can     
never be supplanted--,grass1 ,fruits1   
,vegetables1 ,timber4 ,if a farm will   
also produce good ,corn or ,wheat1 that 
is a recommendation2 but let him place a
 higher value on those capacities which 
will be more generally required and     
drawn upon4  ,in the ,west1 the case is 
different2 for1 though ,wheat-culture   
still recedes before the footsteps of   
advancing population1 and ,minnesota may
 soon cease to grow for others1 as      
,western ,new-,york1 ,ohio1 ,indiana1   

and ,northern ,illinois1 have already   
done1 yet ,indian ,corn1 being the basis
 of both ,beef and ,pork1 will long hold
 its own in the ,valley of the ,ohio and
 in that of the ,upper ,mississippi4 ,as
 it recedes slowly ,westward1 ,clover   
and ,timothy1 ,butter and ,cheese1 will 
press closely on its footsteps4  ,good  
neighbors1 good roads1 good schools1    
good mechanics at hand1 and a good      
church within reach1 will always be     
valued and sought3 few farmers are      
likely to disregard them4 ,let whoever  
buys a farm whereon to live1 resolve to 
buy once for all1 and let him not forget
 that health is not only wealth but     
happiness--that an eligible location and
 a beautiful prospect are elements of   
enjoyment not only for ourselves but our
 friends2 let him not fancy that all the
 land will soon be gobbled up and held  
at exorbitant prices1 but believe that  
money will almost always command money's
 worth of whatever may be needed1 so    
that he need not embarrass himself      

to-day through fear that he may not be  
able to find sellers to-morrow1 and he  
can hardly fail to buy judiciously1 and 
thus escape that worst species of       
home-sickness--sickness of home4        
,,vi4  ,,laying ,,off ,a                
,,farm--,,pasturing4   ,whoever finds   
himself the newly installed owner and   
occupant of a farm1 should1 before doing
 much beyond growing a crop in the      
ordinary way1 study well its character1 
determine its capacities1 make himself  
well acquainted with its peculiarities  
of soil and surface1 with intent to make
 the most of it in his future           
operations4 ,i would devote at least a  
year to this thoughtful observation and 
study4  ,to one reared amid the rugged  
scenery of ,new-,england2 or on either  
slope of the ,allegheny ridge1 all      
prairie farms look alike1 just as a     
,european supposes this to be the case  
with all negroes4 ,a better acquaintance
 will show the average prairie          
quarter-section by no means an unbroken 

meadow1 level as a house-floor1 but     
diversified by water-courses1 sloughs1  
and gentle acclivities--sometimes by    
considerable ravines and barrens or     
elevated swales1 thinly covered with    
timber1 or brush1 or both4 ,but ,i will 
contemplate more especially a ,northern 
farm1 made up of hill and vale or glade1
 rocky ridge and skirting bog or other  
low land1 with a wood-lot on the rear or
 not far distant1 and clumps or belts of
 timber irregularly lining brook and    
ravine1 or lurking in the angles and    
sinuosities of walls and wooden fences1 
and a ragged1 mossy orchard sheltered in
 some quiet nook1 or sprawling over some
 gravelly hill-side4 ,a brook1 nearly   
dry in ,august1 gurgles down the        
hill-side or winds through the swamp2   
while fields1 moderately sloping here   
and nearly level there1 interposed as   
they can be1 have severally been        
devoted1 for a generation or more1      
alternately to ,grain and ,grass--the   
latter largely preponderating4 ,we will 

suppose this farm to measure from #ej to
 #aej acres4  ,now1 the young man who   
has bought or inherited this farm may be
 wholly and consciously unable to enter 
upon any expensive system of improvement
 for the next ten years--may fully      
realize that four or five days of each  
week must meantime be given to the      
growing or earning of present bread--yet
 he should none the less study well the 
capacities and adaptations of each acre1
 and mature a comprehensive plan for the
 ultimate bringing of each field into   
the best and most useful condition      
whereof it is susceptible1 before he    
cuts a living tree or digs a solitary   
drain4 ,he is morally certain of doing  
something--perhaps many things--that he 
will sadly wish undone1 if he fails to  
study peculiarities and mature a plan   
before he begins to improve or to fit   
his several fields for profitable       
cultivation4  ,and the first selection  
to be made is that of a pasture1 since  
,i am compelled to use an old1 familiar 

name for what should be essentially a   
new thing4 ,this pasture should be as   
near the center of the farm as may be1  
and convenient to the barns and         
barn-yard that are to be4 ,it should    
have some shade1 but no very young      
trees2 should be dry and rolling1 with  
an abundance of the purest living water4
 ,the smaller this pasture-lot may be1  
the better ,i shall like it1 provided   
you fence it very stoutly1 connect it   
with the barn-yard by a lane if they are
 not in close proximity1 and firmly     
resolve that1 outside of this lot1 this 
lane1 this yard and the adjacent stable1
 your cattle shall never be seen1 unless
 on the road to market4 ,very possibly1 
the day may come wherein you will decide
 to dispense with pasturing altogether2 
but that is1 for the present1           
improbable4 ,one pasture you will have2 
if you live in the broad ,west1 and     
purpose to graze extensively1 it will   
doubtless be a large one2 but permitting
 your stock to ramble in ,spring and    

,fall all over your own fields--7and    
perhaps your neighbors' also7--in quest 
of their needful food1 biting off the   
tops of the finer young trees1 trampling
 down or breaking off some that are     
older1 rubbing the bark off of your     
growing fruit-trees1 and doing damage   
that years will be required to repair1  
,i most vehemently protest against4     
,the one great error that misleads and  
corrupts mankind is the presumption that
 something may be had for nothing4 ,the 
average farmer imagines that whatever of
 flesh or of milk may accrue to him from
 the food his cattle obtain by browsing 
over his fields or through his woods1 is
 so much clear gain--that they do the   
needful work1 while he pockets the net  
proceeds4 ,but the universe was framed  
on a plan which requires so much for so 
much2 and this law will not submit to   
defiance or evasion4 ,under the         
unnatural1 exceptional conditions which 
environ the lone squatter on a vast     
prairie1 something may be made by       

turning cattle loose and letting them   
shift for themselves2 but this is at    
best transitory1 and at war with the    
exigencies of civilization4 ,whoever    
lives within sight of a school-house1 or
 within hearing of a church-bell1 is    
under the dominion of a law alike       
inexorable and beneficent--the law that 
requires each to pay for all he gets1   
and reap only where he has sown4  ,you  
can hardly have a pasture so small that 
it will not afford hospitality to weeds 
and prove a source of multiform         
infestations4 ,the plants that should   
mature and be diffused will be kept down
 to the earth2 those which should be    
warred upon and eradicated will flourish
 untouched1 ripen their seed1 and       
diffuse it far and wide4 ,thistles1     
,white ,daisy1 and every plant that     
impedes tillage and diminishes crops1   
are nourished and diffused by means of  
pastures4  ,i hold1 therefore1 that the 
good farmer will run a mowing-machine   
over his pasture twice each ,summer--say

 early in ,june1 and then late in       
,july--or1 if his lot be too rough for  
this1 will have it clipped at least once
 with a scythe4 ,cutting all manner of  
worthless if not noxious plants in the  
blossom1 will benefit the soil which    
their seeding would tax2 it will render 
the eradication of weeds from your      
tillage a far easier task2 and it will  
prevent your being a nuisance to your   
neighbors4 ,i am confident that no one  
who has formed the habit of keeping down
 the weeds in his pasture will ever     
abandon it4  ,i think each pasture      
should have 7though mine1 as yet1 has   
not7 a rude shed or other shelter       
whereto the cattle may resort in case of
 storm or other inclemency4 ,how much   
they shrink as well as suffer from one  
cold1 pelting rain1 few fully realize2  
but ,i am sure that the merciful man who
 7as the ,scripture says7 is merciful to
 his beast1 finds his humanity a good   
paying investment4 ,i doubt that the    
rule would fail1 even in ,texas2 but ,i 

am contemplating civilized husbandry1   
not the rude conditions of tropical     
semi-barbarism4 ,if only by means of    
stakes and straw1 give cattle a chance  
to keep dry and warm when they must     
otherwise shiver through a rainy1 windy 
day and night on the cold1 wet ground1  
and ,i am sure they will pay for it4    
,in confining a herd of cattle to such  
narrow limits1 ,i do not intend that    
they shall be stinted to what grows     
there4 ,on the contrary1 ,i expect them 
to be fed on ,winter ,rye1 on ,cut      
,grass1 on ,sowed ,corn1 ,sorghum1      
,stalks1 ,roots1 etc41 etc41 as each    
shall be in season4 ,with a good mower1 
it is a light hour's work before        
breakfast to cut and cart to a dozen or 
twenty head as much grass or corn as    
they will eat during the day4 ,but let  
that point stand over for the present4  
,,vii4  ,,trees--,,woodland--,,forests4 
,i am not at all sentimental--much less 
mawkish--regarding the destruction of   
trees4 ,descended from several          

generations of timber-cutters 7for my   
paternal ancestors came to ,america in  
#afdj71 and myself engaged for three    
years in land-clearing1 ,i realize that 
trees exist for use rather than for     
ornament1 and have no more scruple as to
 cutting timber in a forest than as to  
cutting grass in a meadow4 ,utility is  
the reason and end of all vegetable     
growth--of a hickory's no less than a   
corn-stalk's4 ,i have always considered 
,woodman1 spare that tree1 just about   
the most mawkish bit of badly versified 
prose in our language1 and never could  
guess how it should touch the           
sensibilities of any one4 ,understand1  
then1 that ,i urge the planting of trees
 mainly because ,i believe it will pay1 
and the preservation1 improvement1 and  
extension1 of forests1 for precisely    
that reason4  ,yet ,i am not insensible 
to the beauty and grace lent by woods1  
and groves1 and clumps or rows of trees1
 to the landscape they diversify4 ,i    
feel the force of ,emerson's averment1  

that ,beauty is its own excuse for      
being1 and know that a homestead        
embowered in1 belted by1 stately1       
graceful elms1 maples1 and evergreens1  
is really worth more1 and will sell for 
more1 than if it were naked field and   
meadow4 ,i consider it one positive     
advantage 7to balance many              
disadvantages7 of our rocky1 hilly1     
rugged ,eastern country1 that it will   
never1 in all probability1 be so denuded
 of forests as the rich1 facile prairies
 and swales of the ,great ,valley may   
be4 ,our winds are less piercing1 our   
tornadoes less destructive1 than those  
of the ,great ,west4 ,i doubt whether   
there is another equal area of the      
earth's surface whereon so many kinds of
 valuable trees grow spontaneously and  
rapidly1 defying eradication1 as        
throughout ,new ,england and on either  
slope of the ,alleghenies2 and this     
profusion of timber and foliage may well
 atone for1 or may be fairly weighed    
against1 many deficiencies and          

drawbacks4 ,the ,yankee1 who has been   
accustomed to see trees spring up       
spontaneously wherever they were not    
kept down by ax1 or plow1 or scythe1 and
 to cross running water every half mile 
of a ,summer day's journey1 may well be 
made homesick1 by two thousand miles of 
naked1 dusty1 wind-swept ,plains1       
whereon he finds no water for fifty to a
 hundred miles1 and knows it impossible 
to cut an ax-helve1 much more an        
axle-tree1 in the course of a wearying  
journey4 ,no ,eastern farmer ever       
realized the blessedness of abundant and
 excellent wood and water until he had  
wandered far from his boyhood's home4   
,no one may yet be able fully to explain
 the inter-dependence of these two      
blessings2 but the fact remains4 ,all   
over the ,plains1 there is evidence that
 trees grew and flourished where none   
are now found1 and that springs and     
streams were then frequent and abiding  
where none now exist4 ,a prominent      
citizen of ,nevada1 who explored        

southward from ,austin to the ,colorado1
 assured me that his party traveled for 
days in the bed of what had once been a 
considerable river1 but in which it was 
evident that no water had flowed for    
years4 ,and ,i have heard that since the
 ,mormons have planted trees over       
considerable sections of ,utah1 rains in
 ,summer are no longer rare1 and ,salt  
,lake evinces1 by a constant though     
moderate increase of her volume of      
waters1 that the equilibrium of         
rain-fall with evaporation in the ,great
 ,basin has been fully restored--or     
rather1 that the rain-fall is now taking
 the lead4  ,i have a firm faith that   
all the great deserts of the ,temperate 
and ,torrid ,zones will yet be reclaimed
 by irrigation and tree-planting4 ,the  
bill which ,congress did not pass1 nor  
really consider1 whereby it was         
proposed1 some years since1 to give a   
section of the woodless ,public ,lands  
remote from settlement to every one who1
 in a separate township1 would plant and

 cherish a quarter-section of choice    
forest-trees1 ought to have been        
passed--with modifications1 perhaps1 but
 preserving the central idea4 ,had ten  
thousand quarter-sections1 in so many   
different townships of the ,plains1 been
 thus planted to timber ten to twenty   
years ago1 and protected from fire and  
devastation till now1 the value of those
 ,plains for settlement would have been 
nearly or quite doubled4  ,a capital    
mistake1 it seems to me1 is being made  
by some of the dairy farmers of our own 
,state4 ,one who has a hundred acres of 
good soil1 whereof twenty or thirty are 
wooded1 cuts off his timber entirely1   
calculating that the additional grass   
that he may grow in its stead will pay  
for all the coal he needs for fuel1 so  
that he will make a net gain of the time
 he has hitherto devoted each ,winter to
 cutting and hauling wood4 ,he does not 
consider how much his soil will lose in 
,summer moisture1 how his springs and   
runnels will be dried up1 nor how the   

sweep of harsh winds will be            
intensified1 by baring his hill-tops and
 ravines to sun and breeze so utterly4  
,in my deliberate judgment1 a farm of   
one hundred acres will yield more feed1 
with far greater uniformity of product  
from year to year1 if twenty acres of   
its ridge-crests1 ravine-sides1 and     
rocky places1 are thickly covered with  
timber1 than if it be swept clean of    
trees and all devoted to grass4 ,hence1 
,i insist that the farmer who sweeps off
 his wood and resolves to depend on coal
 for fuel1 hoping to increase           
permanently the product of his dairy1   
makes a sad miscalculation4  ,spain1    
,italy1 and portions of ,france1 are now
 suffering from the improvidence that   
devoured their forests1 leaving the     
future to take care of itself4 ,i       
presume the great empires of antiquity  
suffered from the same folly1 though to 
a much greater extent4 ,the remains of  
now extinct races who formerly peopled  
and tilled the central valleys of this  

continent1 and especially the ,territory
 of ,arizona1 probably bear witness to a
 similar recklessness1 which is         
paralleled by our fathers' and our own  
extermination of the magnificent forests
 of ,white ,pine which1 barely a century
 ago1 covered so large a portion of the 
soil of our ,northern ,states4 ,vermont 
sold ,white ,pine abundantly to ,england
 through ,canada within my day3 she is  
now supplying her own wants from ,canada
 at a cost of not less than five times  
the price she sold for2 and she will be 
paying still higher rates before the    
close of this century4 ,i entreat our   
farmers not to preserve every tree1     
good1 bad1 or indifferent1 that may     
happen to be growing on their           
lands--but1 outside of the limited      
districts wherein the primitive forest  
must still be cut away in order that    
land may be obtained for cultivation1 to
 plant and rear at least two better     
trees for every one they may be impelled
 to cut down4 ,how this may1 in the     

average1 be most judiciously done1 ,i   
will try to indicate in the succeeding  
chapter4     ,,viii4  ,,growing         
,,timber--,,tree-,,planting4   ,in my   
judgment1 the proportion of a small farm
 that should be constantly devoted to   
trees 7other than fruit7 is not less    
than one-fourth2 while1 of farms        
exceeding one hundred acres in area1    
that proportion should be not less than 
one-third1 and may often be profitably  
increased to one-half4 ,i am thinking of
 such as are in good part superficially 
rugged and rocky1 or sandy and sterile1 
such as ,new-,england1 eastern          
,new-,york1 northern ,new-,jersey1 with 
both slopes of the ,alleghenies1 as well
 as the western third of our continent1 
abound in4 ,it may be that it is        
advisable to be content with a smaller  
proportion of timber in the ,prairie    
,states and the broad1 fertile          
intervales which embosom most of our    
great rivers for at least a part of     
their course2 but ,i doubt it4 ,and     

there is scarcely a farm in the whole   
country1 outside of the great primitive 
forests in which openings have but      
recently been made1 in which some       
tree-planting is not urgently required4 
,too much land1 you will hear assigned  
on every side as a reason for poor      
farming and meager crops4 ,ask an       
average farmer in ,new-,england1 in     
,virginia1 in ,kentucky1 or in ,alabama1
 why the crops of his section are in the
 average no better1 and the answer1     
three times in four1 will be1 ,our      
farmers have too much land--that is1 not
 too much absolutely1 but too much      
relatively to their capital1 stock1 and 
general ability to till effectively4    
,the habitual grower of poor crops will 
proffer this explanation quite as freely
 and frequently as his more thrifty     
neighbor4 ,and what every one asserts   
must have a basis of truth4  ,now1 ,i do
 not mean to quarrel with the instinct  
which prompts my countrymen to buy and  
hold too much land4 ,they feel1 as ,i   

do1 that land is still cheap almost     
anywhere in this country--cheap1 if not 
in view of the income now derived from  
it1 certainly in contemplation of the   
price it must soon command and the      
income it might1 under better           
management1 be made to yield4 ,under    
this conviction--or1 if you please1     
impression--every one is intent on      
holding on to more land than he can     
profitably till1 if not more than he can
 promptly pay for4  ,what ,i do object  
to is simply this--that thousands1 who  
have more land than they have capital to
 work profitably1 will persist in       
half-tilling many acres1 instead of     
thoroughly farming one-half or one third
 so many1 and getting the rest into wood
 so fast as may be4 ,i am confident that
 two-thirds of all our farmers would    
improve their circumstances and increase
 their incomes by concentrating their   
efforts1 their means1 their fertilizers1
 upon half to two-thirds of the area    
they now skim and skin1 and giving the  

residue back to timber-growing4  ,in my 
own hilly1 rocky1 often boggy1          
,westchester--probably within six of    
being the oldest ,agricultural ,county  
in the ,union--,i am confident that ten 
thousand acres might to-morrow be given 
back to forest with profit to the owners
 and advantage to all its inhabitants4  
,it is a fruit-growing1 milk-producing1 
truck-farming county1 closely adjoining 
the greatest city of the ,new ,world2   
hence1 one wherein land can be          
cultivated as profitably as almost      
anywhere else--yet ,i am satisfied that 
half its surface may be more            
advantageously devoted to timber than to
 grass or tillage4 ,nay2 ,i doubt that  
one acre in a hundred of rocky          
land--that is1 land ribbed or dotted    
with rocks that the bar or the rock-hook
 cannot lift from their beds1 and which 
it will not as yet pay to blast--is now 
tilled to profit1 or ever will be until 
it shall be found advisable to clear    
them utterly of stone breaking through  

or rising within two feet of the        
surface4 ,the time will doubtless arrive
 in which many fields will pay for      
clearing of stone that would not to-day2
 these1 ,i urge1 should be given up to  
wood now1 and kept wooded until the hour
 shall have struck for ridding them of  
every impediment to the steady progress 
of both the surface and the subsoil     
plow4  ,were all the rocky crests and   
rugged acclivities of this ,county      
bounteously wooded once more1 and kept  
so for a generation1 our floods would be
 less injurious1 our springs unfailing1 
and our streams more constant and       
equable2 our blasts would be less       
bitter1 and our gales less destructive  
to fruit2 we should have vastly more    
birds to delight us by their melody and 
aid us in our not very successful war   
with devouring insects2 we should grow  
peaches1 cherries1 and other delicate   
fruits1 which the violent caprices of   
our seasons1 the remorseless            
devastations of our visible and         

invisible insect enemies1 have all but  
annihilated2 and we should keep more    
cows and make more milk on two-thirds of
 the land now devoted to grass than we  
actually do from the whole of it4 ,and  
what is true of ,westchester is         
measurably true of every rural county in
 the ,union4  ,i have said that ,i      
believe in cutting trees as well as in  
growing them2 ,i have not said1 and do  
not mean to say1 that ,i believe in     
cutting everything clean as you go4     
,that was once proper in ,westchester2  
it is still advisable in forest-covered 
regions1 where the sun must be let in   
before crops can be grown2 but1 in nine 
cases out of ten1 timber should be      
thinned or culled out rather than cut   
off2 and1 for every tree taken away1 at 
least two should be planted or set out4 
,we have pretty well outgrown the folly 
of letting every apple-tree bear such   
fruit as it will2 though in the orchard 
of my father's little farm in ,amherst1 
,n4 ,h41 whereon ,i was born1 no tree   

had ever been grafted when ,i bade adieu
 to it in #ahbj2 and ,i presume none has
 been to this day4 ,by this time1 almost
 every farmer realizes that he can't    
afford to grow little1 gnarly1          
villainously sour or detestably         
bitter-sweet apples1 when1 by duly      
setting a graft at a cost of two dimes1 
he may make that identical tree yield   
,greenings or ,pippins at least as      
bounteously4 ,i presume the cumulative  
experience of fifty or sixty generations
 of apple-growers has ripened this      
conclusion4 ,why do they not infer      
readily and generally that growing      
indifferent timber where the best and   
most valued would grow as rapidly1 is a 
stupid1 costly blunder8 ,it seems to me 
that whoever has attained the conviction
 that apple-trees should be grafted     
ought to know that it is wasteful to    
grow ,red ,oak1 ,beech1 ,white ,maple1  
and ,alder1 where ,white ,oak1 ,hickory1
 ,locust1 and ,white ,pine1 might be    
grown with equal facility1 in equal     

luxuriance1 provided the right seeds    
were planted1 and a little pains taken  
to keep down1 for a year or two1 the    
shoots spontaneously sent up by the     
wrong ones4  ,north of the ,potomac1 and
 east of the ,ohio1 and 7,i presume7 in 
limited districts elsewhere1 rocky1     
sterile woodlands1 costing #b to #ej per
 acre according to location1 etc41 are  
to-day the cheapest property to be      
bought in the ,united ,states4 ,even    
though nothing were done with them but  
keep out fire and cattle1 and let the   
young trees grow as they will1 money can
 be more profitably and safely invested 
in lands covered by young timber than in
 anything else4 ,the parent1 who would  
invest a few thousands for the benefit  
of children or grandchildren still      
young1 may buy woodlands which will be  
worth twenty times their present cost   
within the next twenty years4 ,but      
better even than this would it be to buy
 up rocky1 craggy1 naked hill-sides and 
eminences which have been pastured to   

death1 and1 shutting out cattle         
inflexibly1 scratch these over with     
plow1 mattock1 hoe1 or pick1 as         
circumstances shall dictate1 plant them 
thickly with ,chestnut1 ,walnut1        
,hickory1 ,white ,oak1 and the seeds of 
,locust and ,white ,pine4 ,i say        
,locust1 though not yet certain that    
this tree must not be started in garden 
or nursery-beds and transplanted when   
two or three years old1 so puny and     
feeble is it at the outset1 and so      
likely to be smothered under leaves or  
killed out by its more favored          
neighbors4 ,i have experiments in       
progress not yet matured1 which may shed
 light on this point before ,i finish   
these essays4  ,plant thickly1 and of   
diverse kinds1 so as to cover the ground
 promptly and choke out weeds and       
shrubs1 with full purpose to thin and   
prune as circumstances shall dictate4   
,many farmers are averse to planting    
timber1 because 7they think7 nothing can
 be realized therefrom for the next     

twenty or thirty years1 which is as long
 as they expect to live4 ,but this is a 
grave miscalculation4 ,let us suppose a 
rocky1 hilly pasture-lot of ten or      
twenty acres rudely scratched over as ,i
 have suggested1 and thickly seeded with
 hickory nuts and white oak acorns only3
 within five years1 it will yield       
abundantly of hoop poles1 though the    
better1 more promising half be left to  
mature1 as they should be2 two years    
later1 another and larger crop of       
hoop-poles may be cut1 still sparing the
 best2 and thenceforth a valuable crop  
of timber may be taken from that land2  
for1 if cut at the proper season1 at    
least two thrifty sprouts will start    
from every stump2 and so that wood will 
yield a clear income each year while its
 best trees are steadily growing and    
maturing4 ,i do not advise restriction  
to those two species of timber2 but ,i  
insist that a young plantation of       
forest-trees may and should yield a     
clear income in every year after its    

fourth4  ,as to the ,far ,west--the     
,plains1 the ,parks1 and the ,great     
,basin--there is more money to be made  
by dotting them with groves of choice   
timber than by working the richest veins
 of the adjacent mountains4 ,whoever    
will promptly start1 near a present or  
prospective railroad1 forty acres of    
choice trees--,hickory1 ,white ,oak1    
,locust1 ,chestnut1 and ,white          
,pine--within a circuit of three hundred
 miles from ,denver1 on land which he   
has made or is making provision to      
irrigate--may begin to sell trees       
therefrom two years hence1 and persist  
in selling annually henceforth for a    
century--at first1 for transplanting2   
very soon1 for a variety of uses in     
addition to that4         99       99   
99       99       99  --,but this paper 
grows too long1 and ,i must postpone to 
the next my more especial suggestions to
 young farmers with regard to           
tree-planting4     ,,ix4  ,,planting    
,,and ,,growing ,,trees4   ,whoever has 

recently bought1 inherited1 or otherwise
 become the owner of a farm1 has usually
 found some part or parts of it devoted 
to wood2 and this1 if not in excess1 he 
will mainly preserve1 while he studies  
and plans with a view to the ultimate   
devotion to timber of just those        
portions of his land that are best      
adapted to that use4 ,in locating that  
timber1 ,i would have him consider these
 suggestions3  ,i4 ,land wisely planted 
with trees1 and fenced so far as need be
 to keep out cattle1 costs nothing4     
,whatever else you grow involves labor  
and expenditure2 trees grow of their own
 accord4 ,you may neglect them          
utterly--may wander over the earth and  
be absent for ten or twenty years1 while
 your fences decay and your fields are  
overcropped to exhaustion2 even your    
meadows may be run out by late mowing   
and close feeding at both ends of the   
season1 till a dozen acres will hardly  
subsist a span of horses and a cow2 but 
your woods need only to be let alone to 

insure that their value shall have      
decidedly increased during your absence4
 ,they will richly reward labor and care
 in thinning1 trimming1 and             
transplanting--you may profitably employ
 in them any time that you can spare    
them--but they will do very well if     
simply let alone4 ,and1 unlike any other
 product with which ,i am acquainted1   
you may take crop after crop of wood    
from the same lot1 and the soil will be 
richer and more productive after the    
last than it was before the first4      
,whether wholly because their roots     
permeate and break up the soil during   
their life and enrich it in their decay1
 or for diverse reasons1 it is certainly
 true that land--and especially poor    
land--is enriched by growing upon it a  
crop of almost any timber1 the          
evergreens possibly excepted4 ,so1      
should you ever have land that you      
cannot till to profit1 whether because  
it is too poor1 or because you have a   
sufficiency that is better1 you should  

at once devote it to wood4  ,,ii4 ,your 
springs and streams will be rendered    
more equable and enduring by increasing 
the area and the luxuriance of your     
timber4 ,they may have become scanty and
 capricious under a policy of reckless1 
wholesale destruction of trees2 they    
will be reenforced and reinvigorated by 
doubling the area of your woods1 while  
quadrupling the number1 and increasing  
the average size1 of your trees4  ,,iii4
 ,all ravines and steep hill-sides      
should be devoted to trees4 ,every acre 
too rocky to be thoroughly cleared of   
stone and plowed should be set apart for
 tree-growing4 ,wherever the soil will  
be gullied or washed away by violent    
rains if under tillage1 it should be    
excluded from cultivation and given up  
to trees4 ,men often doubt the profit of
 heavy manuring2 and well they may1 if  
three-fourths of the fertilizers applied
 are soaked out and swept away by       
flooding rains or sudden thaws and      
floated off to some distant sea or bay2 

but let all that is applied to the soil 
only remain there till it is carted away
 in crops1 and it will hardly be        
possible to manure too highly for       
profit4  ,,iv4 ,trees1 especially       
evergreens1 may be so disposed as to    
modify agreeably the average temperature
 of your farm1 or at least of the most  
important parts of it4 ,when ,i bought  
my place--or rather the first           
installment of it--the best spot ,i     
could select for a garden lay at the    
foot of a hill which half surrounded it 
on the south and east1 leaving it       
exposed to the full sweep of north and  
north-west winds2 so that1 though the   
soil was gravelly and warm1 my garden   
was likely to be cold and backward4 ,to 
remedy this1 ,i planted four rows of    
evergreens 7,balsam ,fir1 ,pine1 ,red   
,cedar1 and ,hemlock71 along a low ridge
 bounding it on the north1 following an 
inward curve of the ridge at its west   
end2 and those evergreens have in       
sixteen years grown into very           

considerable trees1 forming a shady1    
cleanly1 inviting bower1 or sylvan      
retreat1 daintily carpeted with the     
fallen leaves of the overhanging firs4  
,i judge that the average temperature of
 the soil for some yards southward of   
this wind-break is at least five degrees
 higher1 throughout the growing season1 
than it formerly was or would now be if 
these evergreens were swept away2 while 
the aspect of the place is agreeably    
diversified1 and even beautified1 by    
their appearance4 ,i believe it would   
sell for some hundreds of dollars more  
with than without that thrifty1 growing 
clump of evergreens4  ,v4 ,i have       
already urged1 though not strongly      
enough1 that crops1 as well as springs1 
will be improved by keeping the crests  
of ridges thickly wooded1 thus          
depositing moisture in ,winter and      
,spring1 to be slowly yielded to the    
adjacent slopes during the heat and     
drouth of ,summer4 ,i firmly believe    
that the slopes of a hill whose crest is

 heavily wooded will yield larger       
average crops than slope and crest      
together would do if both were bare of  
trees4  ,,vi4 ,the banks of considerable
 streams1 ponds1 etc41 may often be so  
planted with trees that these will shade
 more water than land1 to the comfort   
and satisfaction of the fish1 and the   
protection of those banks from abrasion 
by floods and rapid currents4 ,sycamore1
 ,elm1 and ,willow1 do well here2 if    
choice ,grape-,vines are set beside and 
allowed to run over some of them1 the   
effect is good1 and the grapes          
acceptable to man and bird4  ,,vii4     
,never forget that a good tree grows as 
thriftily and surely as a poor one4     
,many a farmer has to-day ten to forty  
acres of indifferent cord-wood where he 
might1 at a very slight cost1 have had  
instead an equal quantity of choice     
timber1 worth ten times as much4        
,hickory1 ,chestnut1 and ,walnut1 while 
they yield nuts that can be eaten or    
sold1 are worth far more as timber than 

an equal bulk of ,beech1 ,birch1        
,hemlock1 or ,red ,oak4 ,chestnut has   
more than doubled in value within the   
last few years1 mainly because it has   
been found excellent for the inside     
wood-work of dwellings4 ,locust also    
seems to be increasing in value4 ,ten   
acres of large1 thrifty ,locust near    
this ,city would now buy a pretty good  
farm2 as ,i presume it would1 if located
 near any of our great cities4  ,,viii4 
,where several good varieties of ,timber
 are grown together1 some insect or     
atmospheric trouble may blast one of    
them1 yet leave the residue alive and   
hearty4 ,and1 if all continue thrifty1  
some may be cut out and sold1 leaving   
others more room to grow and rapidly    
attain a vigorous maturity4  ,,ix4      
,wherever timber has become scarce and  
valuable1 a wood-lot should be thinned  
out1 nevermore cleared off1 unless it is
 to be devoted to a different use4 ,it  
seems to me that destroying a forest    
because we want timber is like          

smothering a hive of bees because we    
want honey4  ,x4 ,timber should be cut  
with intelligent reference to the       
future4 ,locust and other valuable trees
 that it is desirable should throw up   
shoots from the stump1 and rapidly      
reproduce their kind1 should be cut in  
,march or ,april2 while trees that you  
want to exterminate should be cut in    
,august1 so that they may not sprout4   
,there may be exceptions to this rule2  
but ,i do not happen to recollect any4  
,evergreens do not sprout2 and ,i think 
these should be cut in ,winter--at all  
events1 not in ,spring1 when full of sap
 and thus prone to rapid decay4  ,,xi4  
,your plantation will furnish pleasant  
and profitable employment at almost any 
season4 ,i doubt that any one in this   
country has ever yet bestowed so much   
labor and care on a young forest as it  
will amply reward4 ,sow your seeds      
thickly2 begin to thin the young trees  
when they are a foot high1 and to trim  
them so soon as they are three feet1 and

 you may have thousands thriving on a   
fertile acre1 and pushing their growth  
upward with a rapidity and to an        
altitude outrunning all preconception4  
,,xii4 ,springs and streams will soon   
appear where none have appeared and     
endured for generations1 when we shall  
have reclothed the nakedness of the     
,plains with adequate forests4 ,rains   
will become moderately frequent where   
they are now rare1 and confined to the  
season when they are of least use to the
 husbandman4  ,i may have more to say of
 trees by-and-by1 but rest here for the 
present4 ,the importance of the topic   
can hardly be overrated4     ,x4        
,,draining--,,my ,,own4   ,my farm is in
 the township of ,newcastle1            
,westchester ,county1 ,n4 ,y41 #ce miles
 from our ,city ,hall1 and a little     
eastward of the hamlet known as         
,chappaqua1 called into existence by a  
station on the ,harlem ,railroad4 ,it   
embraces the south-easterly half of the 
marsh which the railroad here traverses 

from south to north--my part measuring  
some fifteen acres1 with five acres more
 of slightly elevated dry land between  
it and the foot of the rather rugged    
hill which rises thence on the east and 
on the south1 and of which ,i now own   
some fifty acres1 lying wholly eastward 
of my low land1 and in good part covered
 with forest4 ,of this1 ,i bought more  
than half in #ahec1 and the residue in  
bits from time to time as ,i could      
afford it4 ,the average cost was between
 #acj and #adj per acre3 one small and  
poor old cottage being the only building
 ,i found on the tract1 which consisted 
of the ragged edges of two adjacent     
farms1 between the western portions of  
which mine is now interposed1 while they
 still adjoin each other beyond the     
north and south road1 half a mile from  
the railroad1 on which their buildings  
are located and which forms my eastern  
boundary4 ,my stony1 gravelly upland    
mainly slopes to the west2 but two acres
 on my east line incline toward the road

 which bounds me in that direction1     
while two more on my south-east corner  
descend to the little brook which1      
entering at that corner1 keeps          
irregularly near my south line1 until it
 emerges1 swelled by a smaller runnel   
that enters my lowland from the north   
and traverses it to meet and pass off   
with the larger brooklet aforesaid4 ,i  
have done some draining1 to no great    
purpose1 on the more level portions of  
my upland2 but my lowland has challenged
 my best efforts in this line1 and ,i   
shall here explain them1 for the        
encouragement and possible guidance of  
novices in draining4 ,let me speak first
 of  ,my ,difficulties4--,this marsh or 
bog consisted1 when ,i first grappled   
with it1 of some thirty acres1 whereof  
,i then owned less than a third4 ,to    
drain it to advantage1 one person should
 own it all1 or the different owners    
should cooperate2 but ,i had to go it   
alone1 with no other aid than a freely  
accorded privilege of straightening as  

well as deepening the brook which wound 
its way through the dryer meadow just   
below me1 forming here the boundary of  
two adjacent farms4 ,i spent #ajj on    
this job1 which is still imperfect2 but 
the first decided fall in the stream    
occurs nearly a mile below me2 and you  
tire easily of doing at your own cost   
work which benefits several others as   
much as yourself4 ,my drainage will     
never be perfect till this brook1 with  
that far larger one in which it is      
merged sixty rods below me1 shall have  
been sunk three or four feet1 at a      
further expense of at least #ejj4  ,this
 bog or swamp1 when ,i first bought into
 it1 was mainly dedicated to the use of 
frogs1 muskrats and snapping-turtles4 ,a
 few small water-elms and soft maples   
grew upon it1 with swamp alder partly   
fringing the western base of the hill   
east of it1 where the rocks which had1  
through thousands of years1 rolled from 
the hill1 thickly covered the surface1  
with springs bubbling up around and     

among them4 ,decaying stumps and        
imbedded fragments of trees argued that 
timber formerly covered this marsh as   
well as the encircling hills4 ,a tall1  
dense growth of blackberry briers1      
thoroughwort1 and all manner of         
marsh-weeds and grasses1 covered the    
center of the swamp each ,summer2 but my
 original portion of it1 being too wet  
for these1 was mainly addicted to       
hassocks or tussocks of wiry1 worthless 
grass2 their matted roots rising in hard
 bunches a few inches above the soft1   
bare1 encircling mud4 ,the bog ranged in
 depth from a few inches to five or six 
feet1 and was composed of black1 peaty1 
vegetable mold1 diversified by          
occasional streaks of clay or sand1 all 
resting on a substratum of hard1 coarse 
gravel1 out of which two or three       
springs bubbled up1 in addition to the  
half a dozen which poured in from the   
east1 and a tiny rivulet which 7except  
in a very dry1 hot time7 added the      
tribute of three or four more1 which    

sprang from the base of a higher shelf  
of the hill near the middle of what is  
now my farm4 ,add to these that the     
brook which brawled and foamed down my  
hill-side near my south line as         
aforesaid1 had brought along an         
immensity of pebbles and gravel of which
 it had mainly formed my five acres of  
dryer lowland1 had thus built up a      
pretty swale1 whereon it had the bad    
habit of filling up one channel1 and    
then cutting another1 more devious and  
eccentric1 if possible1 than any of its 
predecessors--and you have some idea of 
the obstacles ,i encountered and        
resolved to overcome4 ,one of my first  
substantial improvements was the cutting
 of a straight channel for this current 
and1 by walling it with large stones1   
compelling the brook to respect         
necessary limitations4 ,it was not my   
fault that some of those stones were set
 nearly upright1 so as to veneer the    
brook rather than thoroughly constrain  
it3 hence1 some of the stones1          

undermined by strong currents1 were     
pitched forward into the brook by high  
,spring freshets1 so as to require      
resetting more carefully4 ,this was a   
mistake1 but1 not one of  ,my           
,blunders4--,these1 the natural results 
of inexperience and haste1 were very    
grave4 ,not only had ,i had no real     
experience in draining when ,i began1   
but ,i could hire no foreman who know   
much more of it than ,i did4 ,i ought to
 have begun by securing an ample and    
sure fall where the water left my land1 
and next cut down the brooklet or open  
ditch into which ,i intended to drain to
 the lowest practicable point--so low1  
at least1 that no drain running into it 
should ever be troubled with back-water4
 ,nothing can be more useless than a    
drain in which water stagnates1 choking 
it with mud4 ,then ,i should have bought
 hundreds of ,hemlock or other cheap    
boards1 slit them to a width of four or 
five inches1 and1 having opened the     
needed drains1 laid these in the bottom 

and the tile thereupon1 taking care to  
break joint1 by covering the meeting    
ends of two boards with the middle of a 
tile4 ,laying tile in the soft mud of a 
bog1 with nothing beneath to prevent    
their sinking1 is simply throwing away  
labor and money4 ,i cannot wonder that  
tile-draining seems to many a humbug1   
seeing that so many tile are laid so    
that they can never do any good4        
,having1 by successive purchases1 become
 owner of fully half of this swamp1 and 
by repeated blunders discovered that    
making stone drains in a bog1 while it  
is a capital mode of getting rid of the 
stone1 is no way at all to dry the soil1
 ,i closed my series of experiments two 
years since by carefully relaying my    
generally useless tile on good strips of
 board1 sinking them just as deep as ,i 
could persuade the water to run off     
freely1 and1 instead of allowing them to
 discharge into a brooklet or open      
ditch1 connecting each with a covered   
main of four to six-inch tile2 these    

mains discharging into the running brook
 which drains all my farm and three or  
four of those above it just where it    
runs swiftly off from my land4 ,if a    
thaw or heavy rain swells the brook 7as 
it sometimes will7 so that it rises     
above my outlet aforesaid1 the strong   
current formed by the concentration of  
the clear contents of so many drains    
will not allow the muddy water of the   
brook to back into it so many as three  
feet at most2 and any mud or sediment   
that may be deposited there will be     
swept out clean whenever the brook shall
 have fallen to the drainage level4 ,for
 this and similar excellent devices1 ,i 
am indebted to the capital engineering  
and thorough execution of ,messrs4      
,chickering  ,gall1 whose work on my    
place has seldom required mending1 and  
never called for reconstruction4  ,my   
,success4--,i judge that there are not  
many tracts more difficult to drain than
 mine was1 considering all the          
circumstances1 except those which are   

frequently flowed by tides or the waters
 of some lake1 or river4 ,had ,i owned  
the entire swamp1 or had there been a   
fall in the brook just below me1 had ,i 
had any prior experience in draining1 or
 had others equally interested          
cooperated in the good work1 my task    
would have been comparatively light4 ,as
 it was1 ,i made mistakes which         
increased the cost and postponed the    
success of my efforts2 but this is at   
length complete4 ,i had seven acres of  
,indian ,corn1 one of ,corn ,fodder1 two
 of ,oats1 and seven or eight acres of  
,grass1 on my lowland in #ahfi2 and1    
though the ,spring months were quite    
rainy1 and the latter part of ,summer   
rather dry1 my crops were all good4 ,i  
did not see better in ,westchester      
,county2 and ,i shall be quite content  
with as good hereafter4 ,of my seven    
hundred bushels of ,corn 7ears17 ,i     
judge that two-thirds would be accounted
 fit for seed anywhere2 my ,grass was   
cut twice1 and yielded one large crop   

and another heavier than the average    
first crop throughout our ,state4 ,my   
drainage will require some care         
henceforth2 but the fifteen acres ,i    
have reclaimed from utter uselessness   
and obstructions are decidedly the best 
part of my farm1 ,uplands may be        
exhausted2 these never can be4  ,the    
experience of another season 7#ahgj7 of 
protracted drouth has fully justified my
 most sanguine expectations4 ,i had this
 year four acres of ,corn1 and as many  
of ,oats1 on my swamp1 with the residue 
in ,grass2 and they were all good4 ,i   
estimate my first ,hay-crop at over two 
and a half tuns per acre1 while the     
rowen or aftermath barely exceeded half 
a tun per acre1 because of the severity 
of the drouth1 which began in ,july and 
lasted till ,october4 ,my ,oats were    
good1 but not remarkably so2 and ,i had 
#haj bushels of ears of sound1 ripe     
,corn from four acres of drained swamp  
and two and a half of upland4 ,i        
estimate my upland ,corn at seventy     

7shelled7 bushels1 and my lowland at    
fifty-five 7shelled7 bushels per acre4  
,others1 doubtless1 had more1 despite   
the unpropitious season2 but my crop was
 a fair one1 and ,i am content with it4 
,my upland ,corn was heavily manured2 my
 lowland but moderately4 ,there are many
 to tell you how much ,i lose by my     
farming2 ,i only say that1 as yet1 no   
one else has lost a farthing by it1 and 
,i do not complain4     ,,xi4           
,,draining ,,generally4   ,having       
narrated my own experience in draining  
with entire unreserve1 ,i here submit   
the general conclusions to which it has 
led me3  ,i4 ,while ,i doubt that there 
is any land above water that would not  
be improved by a good system of         
underdrains1 ,i am sure that there is a 
great deal that could not at present be 
drained to profit4 ,forests1 hill-side  
pastures1 and most dry gravelly or sandy
 tracts1 ,i place in this category4     
,perhaps one-third of ,new-,england1    
half of the ,middle ,states1 and        

three-fourths of the ,mississippi       
,valley1 may ultimately be drained with 
profit4  ,,ii4 ,all swamp lands without 
exception1 nearly all clay soils1 and a 
majority of the flat or gently rolling  
lands of this country1 must eventually  
be drained1 if they are to be tilled    
with the best results4 ,i doubt that    
there is a garden on earth that would   
not be 7unless it already had been7     
improved by thorough underdraining4     
,,iii4 ,the uses of underdrains are many
 and diverse4 ,to carry off surplus     
water1 though the most obvious1 stands  
by no means alone4 #a4 ,underdrained    
land may be plowed and sowed            
considerably earlier in ,spring than    
undrained soil of like quality4 #b4     
,drained fields lose far less than      
others of their fertility by washing4   
#c4 ,they are not so liable to be       
gullied by sudden thaws or flooding     
rains4 #d4 ,where a field has been      
deeply subsoiled1 ,i am confident that  
it will remain mellow and permeable by  

roots longer than if undrained4 #e4     
,less water being evaporated from       
drained than from undrained land1 the   
soil will be warmer throughout the      
growing season2 hence1 the crop will be 
heavier1 and will mature earlier4 #f4   
,being more porous and less compact1 ,i 
think the soil of a drained field       
retains more moisture in a season of    
drouth1 and its growing plants suffer   
less therefrom1 than if it were         
undrained4 ,in short1 ,i thoroughly     
believe in underdraining4  ,,iv4 ,yet ,i
 advise no man to run into debt for     
draining1 as ,i can imagine a mortgage  
on a farm so heavy and pressing as to be
 even a greater nuisance than stagnant  
water in its soil4 ,labor and tile are  
dear with us2 ,i do not expect that     
either will ever be so cheap here as in 
,england or ,belgium4 ,what ,i would    
have each farmer in moderate            
circumstances do is to drain his wettest
 field next ,fall--that is1 after       
finishing his haying and before cutting 

up his corn--taking care to secure      
abundant fall to carry off the water in 
time of flood1 and doing his work       
thoroughly4 ,having done this1 let him  
subsoil deeply1 fertilize amply1 till   
carefully1 and watch the result4 ,i     
think it will soon satisfy him that such
 draining pays4  ,v4 ,i do not insist on
 tile as making the only good drain2 but
 ,i have had no success with any other4 
,the use of stone1 in my opinion1 is    
only justified where the field to be    
drained abounds in them and no other use
 can be made of them4 ,to make a good   
drain with ordinary boulders or         
cobble-stones requires twice the        
excavation and involves twice the labor 
necessarily expended on tile-draining2  
and it is neither so effective nor so   
durable4 ,earth will be carried by water
 into a stone drain2 rats and other     
vermin will burrow in it and dig 7or    
enlarge7 holes thence to the surface2 in
 short1 it is not the thing4 ,better    
drain with stone where they are a       

nuisance than not at all2 but ,i predict
 that you will dig them up after giving 
them a fair trial and replace them with 
tile4 ,in a wooded country1 where tile  
were scarce and dear1 ,i should try     
draining with slabs or cheap boards     
dressed to a uniform width of six or    
eight inches1 and laid in a ditch dug   
with banks inclined or sloped to the    
bottom1 so as to form a sort of ,v2 the 
lower edge of the two side-slabs coming 
together at the bottom1 and a third     
being laid widely across their upper    
edges1 so as to form a perfect cap or   
cover4 ,in firm1 hard soil1 this would  
prove an efficient drain1 and1 if well  
made1 would last twenty years4          
,uniformity of temperature and of       
moisture would keep the slabs tolerably 
sound for at least so long2 and1 if the 
top of this drain were two feet below   
the surface1 no plowing or trampling    
over it would harm it4  ,,vi4 ,as to    
draining by what is called a ,mole      
,plow1 which simply makes a waterway    

through the subsoil at a depth of three 
feet or thereabout1 ,i have no          
acquaintance with it but by hearsay4 ,it
 seems to me morally impossible that    
drains so made should not be lower at   
some points than at others1 so as to    
retain their fill of water instead of   
carrying it rapidly off2 and ,i am sure 
that plowing1 or even carting heavy     
loads over them1 must gradually choke   
and destroy them4 ,yet this kind of     
draining is comparatively so cheap1 and 
may1 with a strong team1 be effected so 
rapidly1 that ,i can account for its    
popularity1 especially in prairie       
regions4 ,where the subsoil is rocky1 it
 is impracticable2 where it is hard-pan1
 it must be very difficult2 where it is 
loose sand1 it cannot endure2 but in    
clays or heavy loams1 it may1 for a few 
years1 render excellent service4 ,i wish
 the heavy clays of ,vermont1 more      
especially of the ,champlain basin1 were
 well furrowed or pierced by even such  
drains2 for ,i am confident that they   

would temporarily improve both soil and 
crop2 and1 if they soon gave out1 they  
would probably be replaced by others    
more durable4  --,i shall not attempt to
 give instructions in drain-making2 but 
,i urge every novice in the art to      
procure ,waring's or some other work on 
the subject and study it carefully3     
then1 if he can obtain at a fair price  
the services of an experienced drainer1 
hire him to supervise the work4 ,one    
point only do ,i insist on--that is1    
draining into a main rather than an open
 ditch or brook2 for it is difficult in 
this or any harsher climate to prevent  
the crumbling of your outlet tile by    
frost4 ,below the ,potomac or the       
,arkansas1 this may not be apprehended2 
and there it may be best to have your   
drains separately discharge from a      
road-side bank or into an open ditch1 as
 they will thus inhale more air1 and so 
help 7in ,summer7 to warm and moisten   
the soil above them2 but in our climate 
,i believe it better to let your drains 

discharge into a covered main or mains  
as aforesaid1 than into an open ditch or
 brook4  ,tile and labor are dear with  
us2 ,i presume labor will remain so4    
,but1 in our old ,states1 there are     
often laborers lacking employment in    
,november and the ,winter months2 and it
 is the wisest and truest charity to    
proffer them pay for work4 ,some will   
reject it unless the price be           
exorbitant2 but there are scores of the 
deserving poor in almost every rural    
county1 who would rather earn a dollar  
per day than hang around the grog-shops 
waiting for ,spring4 ,get your tiles    
when you can1 or do not get them at all1
 but let it be widely known that you    
have work for those who will do it for  
the wages you can afford1 and you will  
soon have somebody to earn your money4  
,having staked out your drains1 set     
these to work at digging them1 even     
though you should not be able to tile   
them for a year4 ,cut your outlet deep1 
and your land will profit by a year of  

open drains4     ,,xii4                 
,,irrigation--,,means ,,and ,,ends4     
,while few can have failed to realize   
the important part played by ,water in  
the economy of vegetation1 ,i judge that
 the question--,how can ,i secure to my 
growing plants a sufficiency of moisture
 at all times8--has not always presented
 itself to the farmer's mind as         
demanding of him a practical solution4  
,to rid his soil and keep it free of    
superfluous1 but especially of stagnant 
water1 he may or may not accept as a    
necessity2 but that1 having provided for
 draining away whatever is excessive1 he
 should turn a short corner and begin at
 once to provide that water shall be    
supplied to his fields and plants       
whenever they may need it1 he is often  
slow to apprehend4 ,yet this provision  
is but the counterpart and complement of
 the other4  ,i had sped across ,europe 
to ,venice1 and noted with interest the 
admirable1 effective irrigation of the  
great plain of ,lombardy1 before ,i     

could call any land my own4 ,i saw there
 a region perhaps thirty miles wide by  
one hundred and fifty along the east    
bank of the ,po1 rising very gently     
thence to the foot of the ,austrian     
,alps1 which ,providence seems to have  
specially adapted to be improved by     
irrigation4 ,the torrents of melted snow
 which in ,spring leap and foam adown   
the southern face of the ,alps1 bringing
 with them the finer particles of soil1 
are suddenly arrested and form lakes    
7,garda1 ,maggiore1 ,como1 etc47 just as
 they emerge upon the plain4 ,these     
lakes1 slowly rising1 often overflow    
their banks1 with those of the small    
rivers that bear their waters westward  
to the ,po2 and this overflow was a     
natural source of abiding fertility4 ,to
 dam these outlets1 and thus control    
their currents1 was a very simple and   
obvious device of long ago1 and was     
probably begun by a very few individuals
 7if by more than one71 whose success   
incited emulation1 until the present    

extensive and costly system of          
irrigating dams and canals was gradually
 developed4 ,when ,i traversed ,lombardy
 in ,july1 #ahea1 the beds of streams   
naturally as large as the ,pemigewasset1
 ,battenkill1 ,canada ,creek1 or        
,humboldt1 were utterly dry2 the water  
which would naturally have flowed       
therein being wholly transferred to an  
irrigating canal 7or to canals7 often   
two or three miles distant4 ,the        
reservoirs thus created were filled in  
,spring1 when the streams were fullest  
and their water richest1 and gradually  
drawn upon throughout the later growing 
season to cover the carefully leveled   
and graded fields on either side to the 
depth of an inch or two at a time4 ,if  
any failed to be soon absorbed by the   
soil1 it was drawn off as here          
superfluous1 and added to the current   
employed to moisten and fertilize the   
field next below it2 and so field after 
field was refreshed and enriched1 to the
 husbandman's satisfaction and profit4  

,it may be that the rich glades of      
,english ,lancashire bear heavier       
average crops2 but those of ,lombardy   
are rarely excelled on the globe4  ,why 
should not our ,atlantic slope have its 
,lombardy8 ,utah1 ,nevada1 and          
,california1 exhibit raw1 crude         
suggestions of such a system2 but why   
should the irrigation of the ,new ,world
 be confined to regions where it is     
indispensable1 when that of the ,old is 
not8 ,i know no good reason whatever for
 leaving an ,american field unirrigated 
where water to flow it at will can be   
had at a moderate cost4  ,when ,i first 
bought land 7in #ahec7 ,i fully purposed
 to provide for irrigating my nearly    
level acres at will1 and ,i constructed 
two dams across my upland stream with   
that view2 but they were so badly       
planned that they went off in the flood 
caused by a tremendous rain the next    
,spring2 and1 though ,i rebuilt one of  
them1 ,i submitted to a miscalculation  
which provided for taking the water1 by 

means of a syphon1 out of the pond at   
the top and over the bank that rose     
fifteen or twenty feet above the surface
 of the water4 ,of course1 air would    
work into the pipe after it had carried 
a stream unexceptionably for two or     
three days1 and then the water would run
 no longer4 ,had ,i taken it from the   
bottom of the pond through my dam1 it   
would have run forever1 7or so long as  
there was water covering its inlet in   
the pond27 but bad engineering flung me2
 and ,i have never since had the heart  
7or the means7 to revise and correct its
 errors4  ,my next attempt was on a much
 humbler scale1 and ,i engineered it    
myself4 ,toward the north end of my     
farm1 the hill-side which rises east of 
my lowland is broken by a swale or      
terrace1 which gives me three or four   
acres of tolerably level upland1 along  
the upper edge of which five or six     
springs1 which never wholly fail1 burst 
from the rocks above and unite to form a
 petty runnel1 which dries up in very   

hot or dry weather1 but which usually   
preserved a tiny stream to be lost in   
the swamp below4 ,north of the gully cut
 down the lower hill-side by this       
streamlet1 the hill-side of some three  
acres is quite steep1 still partially   
wooded1 and wholly devoted to pasturage4
 ,making a petty dam across this runnel 
at the top of the lower acclivity1 ,i   
turned the stream aside1 so that it     
should henceforth run along the crest of
 this lower hill1 falling off gradually 
so as to secure a free current1 and     
losing its contents at intervals through
 variable depressions in its lower bank4
 ,dam and artificial water-course       
together cost me #ij1 which was about   
twice what it should have been4 ,that   
rude and petty contrivance has now been 
ten years in operation1 and may have    
cost #e per annum for oversight and     
repairs4 ,its effect has been to double 
the grass grown on the two acres it     
constantly irrigates1 for which ,i paid 
#bhj1 or more than thrice the cost of my

 irrigation4 ,but more3 my hill-side1   
while it was well grassed in ,spring1   
always gave out directly after the first
 dry1 or hot week2 so that1 when ,i most
 needed feed1 it afforded none2 its     
herbage being parched up and dead1 and  
thus remaining till refreshed by        
generous rains4 ,i judge1 therefore1    
that my irrigation has more than doubled
 the product of those two acres1 and    
that these are likely to lose nothing in
 yield or value so long as that petty   
irrigating ditch shall be maintained4   
,i know this is small business4 ,but    
suppose each of the hundred thousand    
,new-,england farms1 whereof five to ten
 acres might be thus irrigated at a cost
 not exceeding #ajj per farm1 had been  
similarly prepared to flow those acres  
last ,spring and early ,summer1 with an 
average increase therefrom of barely one
 tun of ,hay 7or its equivalent in      
pasturage7 per acre4 ,the #ejj1jjj tuns 
of ,hay thus realized would have saved  
#bjj1jjj head of cattle from being sent 

to the butcher while too thin for good  
beef1 while every one of them was       
required for further use1 and will have 
to be replaced at a heavy cost4 ,shall  
not these things be considered8 ,shall  
not all who can do so at moderate cost  
resolve to test on their own farms the  
advantages and benefits that may be     
secured by ,irrigation8     ,,xiii4     
,,the ,,possibilities ,,of ,,irrigation4
   ,i have given an account of my poor1 
little experiment in ,irrigation1       
because it is one which almost every    
farmer can imitate and improve upon1    
however narrow his domain and slender   
his fortune4 ,i presume there are ,half 
a ,million homesteads in the ,united    
,states which have natural facilities   
for ,irrigation at least equal to mine2 
many of them far greater4 ,along either 
slope of the ,alleghenies1 throughout a 
district at least a thousand miles long 
by three hundred wide1 nearly every farm
 might be at least partially irrigated  
by means of a dam costing from          

twenty-five to one hundred dollars2 so  
might at least half the farms in        
,new-,england and our own ,state4 ,on   
the prairies1 the plans must be         
different1 and the expense probably     
greater1 but the results obtained would 
bounteously reward the outlay4 ,i shall 
not see the day1 but there are those now
 living who will see it1 when ,artesian 
wells will be dug at points where many  
acres may be flowed from a gentle swell 
in the midst of a vast plain1 or at the 
head of a fertile valley1 expressly1 or 
at least mainly1 that its waters may be 
led across that plain1 adown that       
valley1 in irrigating streams and       
ditches1 until they have been wholly    
drank up by the soil4 ,i have seen      
single wells in ,california that might  
be made to irrigate sufficiently        
hundreds of acres1 by the aid of a      
reservoir into which their waters could 
be discharged when the soil did not     
require them1 and there retained until  
the thirsty earth demanded them4  ,an   

old and successful farmer in my         
neighborhood affirms that ,water is the 
cheapest and best fertilizer ever       
applied to the soil4 ,if this were      
understood to mean that no other is     
needed or can be profitably applied1 it 
would be erroneous4 ,still1 ,i think it 
clearly true that the annual product of 
most farms can be increased1 and the    
danger of failure averted1 more cheaply 
by the skillful application of water    
than by that of any other fertilizer    
whatever1 ,plaster 7,gypsum7 possibly   
excepted4  ,i took a run through        
,virginia last ,summer1 not far from the
 #ast of ,august4 ,that ,state was then 
suffering intensely from drouth1 as she 
continued to do for some weeks          
thereafter4 ,i am quite sure that ,i saw
 on her thirsty plains and hillsides not
 less than three hundred thousand acres 
planted with ,indian ,corn1 whereof the 
average product could not exceed ten    
bushels per acre1 while most of it would
 fall far below that yield1 and there   

were thousands of acres that would not  
produce one sound ear6 ,every one       
deplored the failure1 correctly         
attributing it to the prevailing drouth4
 ,and yet1 ,i passed hundreds if not    
thousands of places where a very        
moderate outlay would have sufficed to  
dam a stream or brooklet issuing from   
between two spurs of the ,blue ,ridge1  
or the ,alleghenies1 so that a          
refreshing current of the copious and   
fertilizing floods of ,winter and       
,spring1 warmed by the fervid suns of   
,june and ,july1 could have been led    
over broad fields lying below1 so as to 
vanquish drouth and insure generous     
harvests4 ,nay2 ,i feel confident that  
,i could in many places have constructed
 rude works in a week1 after that drouth
 began to be felt1 that would have saved
 and made the ,corn on at least a       
portion of the planted acres through    
which the now shrunken brooks danced and
 laughed idly down to the larger streams
 in the wider and equally thirsty       

valleys4 ,of course1 ,i know that this  
would have been imperfect irrigation--a 
mere stop-gap--that the cold            
spring-water of a parched ,summer cannot
 fertilize as the hill-wash of ,winter  
and ,spring1 if thriftily garnered and  
warmed through and through for sultry   
weeks1 would do2 yet ,i believe that    
very many farmers might1 even then1 have
 secured partial crops by such          
irrigation as was still possible1 had   
they1 even at the eleventh hour1 done   
their best to retrieve the errors of the
 past4  ,for the present1 ,i would only 
counsel every farmer to give his land a 
careful scrutiny with a view to         
irrigation in the future4 ,no one is    
obliged to do any faster than his means 
will justify2 and yet it may be well to 
have a clear comprehension of all that  
may ultimately be done to profit1 even  
though much of it must long remain      
unattempted4 ,in many cases1 a stream   
may be dammed for the power which it    
will afford for two or three months of  

each year1 if it shall appear that this 
use is quite consistent with its        
employment to irrigation1 when the      
former alone would not justify the      
requisite outlay4 ,it is by thus making 
one expense subserve two quite          
independent but not inconsistent        
purposes that success is attained in    
other pursuits2 and so it may be in     
farming4  ,as yet1 each farmer must     
study his own resources with intent to  
make the most of them4 ,if a manageable 
stream crosses or issues from his land1 
he must measure its fall thereon1 study 
the lay of the land1 and determine      
whether he can or cannot1 at a tolerable
 cost1 make that stream available in the
 irrigation of at least a portion of his
 growing crops when they shall need     
water and the skies decline to supply   
it4 ,on many1 ,i think on most1 farms   
situated among hills1 or upon the slopes
 of mountains1 something may be done in 
this way--done at once1 and with        
immediate profit4 ,but this is          

rudimentary1 partial1 fragmentary1 when 
compared with the irrigation which yet  
shall be4 ,i am confident that there are
 points on the ,carson1 the ,humboldt1  
the ,weber1 the ,south ,platte1 the     
,cache-le-,poudre1 and many less noted  
streams which thrid the central plateau 
of our continent1 where an expenditure  
of #aj1jjj to #ej1jjj may be judiciously
 made in a dam1 locks and canals1 for   
the purposes of irrigation and milling  
combined1 with a moral certainty of     
realizing fifty per cent4 annually on   
the outlay1 with a steady increase in   
the value of the property4 ,if my eye   
did not deceive me1 there is one point  
on the ,carson where a dam that need not
 cost #ej1jjj would irrigate one hundred
 square miles of rich plain which1 when 
,i saw it eleven years ago1 grew nought 
but the worthless shrubs of the desert1 
simply because nothing else could endure
 the intense1 abiding drouth of each    
,nevada ,summer4 ,such palpable         
invitations to thrift cannot remain     

forever unimproved4  ,in regions like   
this1 where ,summer rains are the rule  
rather than the exception1 the need of  
irrigation is not so palpable1 since we 
do or may secure decent average crops in
 its absence4 ,yet there is no farm in  
our country that would not yield        
considerably more grain and more grass1 
more fruit and more vegetables1 if its  
owner had water at command which he     
could apply at pleasure and to any      
extent he should deem requisite4 ,most  
men1 thus empowered1 would at first     
irrigate too often and too copiously2   
but experience would soon temper their  
zeal1 and teach them    ,the precious   
art of ,not too much2  and they would   
thenceforth be careful to give their    
soil drink yet1 not drown it4         99
       99       99       99       99    
,whoever lives beyond the close of this 
century1 and shall then traverse our    
prairie ,states1 will see them whitened 
at intervals by the broad sails of      
windmills erected over wells1 whence    

every gale or breeze will be employed in
 pumping water into the ponds or        
reservoirs so located that water may be 
drawn therefrom at will and diffused in 
gentle streamlets over the surrounding  
fields to invigorate and impel their    
growing crops4 ,and1 when all has been  
done that this paper faintly            
foreshadows1 our people will have barely
 indicated1 not by any means exhausted1 
the beneficent possibilities of         
irrigation4  ,the difficulty is in      
making a beginning4 ,too many farmers   
would fain conceal a poverty of thought 
behind an affectation of dislike or     
contempt for novelties4 ,humbug6 is     
their stereotyped comment on every      
suggestion that they might wisely and   
profitably do something otherwise than  
as their grandfathers did4 ,they assume 
that those respected ancestors did very 
well without ,irrigation2 wherefore1 it 
cannot now be essential4 ,but the       
circumstances have materially changed4  
,the disappearance of the dense1 high   

woods that formerly almost or quite     
surrounded each farm has given a sweep  
to the heated1 parching winds of        
,summer1 to which our ancestors were    
strangers4 ,our springs1 our streams1 do
 not hold out as they once did4 ,our    
,summer drouths are longer and fiercer4 
,even though our grandfathers did not1  
we do need and may profit by            
,irrigation4     ,,xiv4                 
,,plowing--,,deep ,,or ,,shallow4       
,rules absolutely without exception are 
rare2 and they who imagine that ,i      
insist on plowing all lands deeply are  
wrong for ,i hold that much land should 
never be plowed at all4 ,in fact1 ,i    
have seen in my life nearly as large an 
area that ought not as ,i have that     
ought to be plowed1 by which ,i mean    
that half the land ,i have seen may     
serve mankind better if devoted to      
timber than if subjected to tillage4 ,i 
personally know farmers who would thrive
 far better if they tilled but half the 
area they do1 bestowing on this all the 

labor and fertilizers they spread over  
the whole1 even though they threw the   
residue into common and left it there4  
,i judge that a majority of our farmers 
could increase the recompense of their  
toil by cultivating fewer acres than    
they now do4  ,nor do ,i deny that there
 are soils which it is not advisable to 
plow deeply4 ,prof4 ,mapes told me he   
had seen a tract in ,west ,jersey       
whereof the soil was but eight inches   
deep1 resting on a stratum of copperas  
7sulphate of iron17 which1 being        
upturned by the plow and mingled with   
the soil1 poisoned the crops planted    
thereon4 ,and ,i saw1 last ,summer1 on  
the intervale of ,new ,river1 in the    
western part of ,old ,virginia1 many    
acres of ,corn which were thrifty and   
luxuriant in spite of shallow plowing   
and intense drouth1 because the rich1   
black loam which had there been         
deposited by semi-annual inundations1   
until its depth ranged from two to      
twenty feet1 was so inviting and        

permeable that the corn-roots ran below 
the bottom of the furrow about as       
readily as above that line4 ,i do not   
doubt that there are many millions of   
acres of such land that would produce   
tolerably1 and sometimes bounteously1   
though simply scratched over by a brush 
harrow and never plowed at all4 ,in the 
infancy of our race1 when there were few
 mouths to fill and when farming        
implements were very rude and           
ineffective1 cultivation was all but    
confined to these facile strips and     
patches1 so that the utility1 the need1 
of deep tillage was not apparent4 ,and  
yet1 we know the crops often failed     
utterly in those days1 plunging whole   
nations into the miseries of famine4    
,the primitive plow was a forked stick  
or tree-top1 whereof one prong formed   
the coulter1 the other and longer the   
beam2 and he who first sharpened the    
coulter-prong with a stone hatchet was  
the ,whitney or ,mc,cormick of his day4 
,the plow in common use to-day in ,spain

 or ,turkey is an improvement on this1  
for it has an iron point2 still1 it is a
 miserable tool4 ,when1 at five years   
old1 ,i first rode the horse which drew 
my father's plow in furrowing for or    
cultivating his corn1 it had an iron    
coulter and an iron share2 but it was   
mainly composed of wood4 ,in the hard1  
rocky soil of ,new-,hampshire1 as full  
of bowlders and pebbles as a ,christmas 
pudding is of plums1 plowing with such  
an implement was a sorry business at    
best4 ,my father hitched eight oxen and 
a horse to his plow when he broke up    
pebbly green-sward1 and found an acre of
 it a very long day's work4 ,i hardly   
need add that subsoiling was out of the 
question1 and that six inches was the   
average depth of his furrow4  ,i judge  
that the best ,steel ,plows now in use  
do twice the execution that his did with
 a like expenditure of power--that we   
can1 with equal power1 plow twelve      
inches as easily and rapidly as he      
plowed six4 ,ought we to do it8 ,will it

 pay8  ,i first farmed for myself in    
#ahde on a plat of eight acres1 in what 
was then the open country skirting the  
,east ,river nearly abreast the lower   
point of ,blackwell's ,island1 near     
,fiftieth-st41 on a little indentation  
of the shore known as ,turtle ,bay4     
,none of the ,avenues east of ,third was
 then opened above ,thirtieth-st42 and  
the neighborhood1 though now perforated 
by streets and covered with houses1 was 
as rural and secluded as heart could    
wish4 ,one fine ,spring morning1 a      
neighbor called and offered to plow for 
#e my acre of tillage not cut up by rows
 of box and other shrubs2 and ,i told   
him to go ahead4 ,i came home next      
evening1 just as he was finishing the   
job1 which ,i contemplated most         
ruefully4 ,his plow was a pocket        
edition2 his team a single horse2 his   
furrows at most five inches deep4 ,i    
paid him1 but told him plainly that ,i  
would have preferred to give the money  
for nothing4 ,he insisted that he had   

plowed for me as he plowed for others   
all around me4 ,i will tell you1 ,i     
rejoined1 exactly how this will work4   
,throughout the ,spring and early       
,summer1 we shall have frequent rains   
and moderate heat3 thus far1 my crops   
will do well4 ,but then will come hot   
weeks1 with little or no rain2 and they 
will dry up this shallow soil and every 
thing planted thereon4  ,the result     
signally justified my prediction4 ,we   
had frequent rains and cloudy1 mild     
weather1 till the #ast of ,july1 when   
the clouds vanished1 the sun came out   
intensely hot1 and we had scarcely a    
sprinkle till the #ast of ,september1 by
 which time my ,corn and ,potatoes had  
about given up the ghost4 ,like the seed
 which fell on stony ground in the      
,parable of the ,sower1 that which ,i   
had planted had withered away because   
there was no root2 and my prospect for a
 harvest was utterly blighted1 where1   
with twelve inches of loose1 fertile1   
well pulverized earth at their roots1 my

 crops would have been at least         
respectable4 ,when ,i became once more a
 farmer in a small way on my present    
place1 ,i had not forgotten the lesson1 
and ,i tried to have plowed deeply and  
thoroughly so much land as ,i had plowed
 at all4 ,my first ,summer here 7#ahec7 
was a very dry one1 and crops failed in 
consequence around me and all over the  
country2 yet mine were at least fair2   
and ,i was largely indebted for them to 
relatively deep plowing4 ,i have since  
suffered from frost 7on my low land71   
from the rotting of seed in the ground1 
from the ravages of insects1 etc42 but  
never by drouth2 and ,i am entirely     
confident that ,deep ,plowing has done  
me excellent service4 ,my only trouble  
has been to get it done2 for there are  
apt to be reasons8--7haste1 lateness in 
the season1 etc47--for plowing shallowly
 for just this time1 with full intent to
 do henceforth better4         99       
99       99       99       99  ,i close 
this paper with a statement made to me  

by an intelligent ,british farmer living
 at ,maidstone1 south of ,england4 ,he  
said3  ,a few years ago there came into 
my hands a field of twelve acres1 which 
had been an orchard2 but the trees were 
hopelessly in their dotage4 ,they must  
be cut down2 then their roots must be   
grubbed out2 so ,i resolved to make a   
clean job of it1 and give the field a   
thorough trenching4 ,choosing a time in 
,autumn or early ,winter when labor was 
abundant and cheap1 ,i had it turned    
over three spits 7#bg inches7 deep2 the 
lowest being merely reversed2 the next  
reversed and placed at the top2 the     
surface being reversed and placed below 
the second4 ,the soil was strong and    
deep1 as that of an orchard should be2  
,i planted the field to ,garden ,peas1  
and my first picking was very abundant4 
,about the time that peas usually begin 
to wither and die1 the roots of mine    
struck the rich soil which had been the 
first stratum1 but was now the second1  
and at once the stalks evinced a new    

life--threw out new blossoms1 which were
 followed by pods2 and so kept on       
blossoming and forming peas for weeks1  
until this first crop far more than paid
 the cost of trenching and cultivation4 
,thus far my ,english friend4 ,who will 
this year try a patch of ,peas on a plat
 made rich and mellow for a depth of at 
least two feet1 and frequently moistened
 in ,summer by some rude kind of        
irrigation8  ,the fierceness of our     
,summer suns1 when not counteracted by  
frequent showers1 shortens deplorably   
the productiveness of many ,vegetables  
and ,berries4 ,our ,strawberries bear   
well1 but too briefly2 our ,peas wither 
up and cease to blossom after they have 
been two or three weeks plump enough to 
pick4 ,our ,raspberries1 ,blackberries1 
etc41 fruit well1 but are out of bearing
 too soon after they begin to yield     
their treasures4 ,i am confident that   
this need not be4 ,with a deep1 rich    
soil1 kept moistened by a periodical    
flow of water1 there need not and should

 not be any such haste to give over     
blooming and bearing4 ,the fruit is     
,nature's attestation of the geniality  
of the season1 the richness and         
abundance of the elements inhering in   
the soil or supplied to it by the water4
 ,double the supply of these1 and       
sterility should be postponed to a far  
later day than that in which it is now  
inaugurated4     ,,xv4                  
,,plowing--,,good ,,and ,,bad4   ,there 
are so many wrong ways to do a thing to 
but one right one that there is no      
reason in the impatience too often      
evinced with those who contrive to      
swallow the truth wrong end foremost1   
and thereupon insist that it won't do4  
,for instance3 ,a farmer hears something
 said of deep plowing1 and1 without any 
clear understanding of or firm faith in 
it1 resolves to give it a trial4 ,so he 
buys a great plow1 makes up a strong    
team1 and proceeds to turn up a field   
hitherto plowed but six inches to a     
depth of a foot3 in other words1 to bury

 its soil under six inches of cold1     
sterile clay1 sand1 or gravel4 ,on this1
 he plants or sows grain1 and is lucky  
indeed if he realizes half a crop4      
,hereupon1 he reports to his neighbors  
that ,deep ,plowing is a humbug1 as he  
suspected all along2 but now he knows1  
for he has tried it4 ,there are several 
other wrong ways1 which ,i will hurry   
over1 in order to set forth that which  
,i regard as the right one4  ,here is a 
middling farmer of the old school1 who  
walks carefully in the footsteps of his 
respected grandfather1 but with inferior
 success1 because sixty annual harvests1
 though not particularly luxuriant1 have
 partially exhausted the productive     
capacity of the acres he inherited4 ,he 
now garners from fifteen to thirty      
bushels per acre of ,corn1 from ten to  
twenty of ,wheat1 from fifteen to twenty
 of ,rye1 from twenty to thirty of      
,oats1 and from a tun to a tun and a    
half of ,hay1 as the season proves more 
or less propitious1 and just contrives  

to draw from his sixty to one hundred   
acres a decent subsistence for his      
family2 plowing1 as his father and      
grandfather did1 to a depth of five to  
seven inches3 ,what can ,deep ,plowing  
do for him8  ,i answer--,by itself1     
nothing whatever4 ,if in every other    
respect he is to persist in doing just  
as his father and his grandfather did1  
,i doubt the expediency of doubling the 
depth of his furrows4 ,true1 the worst  
effects of the change would be realized 
at the outset1 and ,i feel confident    
that his six inches of subsoil1 having  
been made to change places with that    
which formerly rested upon it1 must     
gradually be wrought upon by air1 and   
rain1 and frost1 until converted into a 
tolerably productive soil1 through which
 the roots of most plants would easily  
and speedily make their way down to the 
richer stratum which1 originally        
surface1 has been transposed into       
subsoil4 ,but this exchange of positions
 between the original surface and       

subsoil is not what ,i mean by ,deep    
,plowing1 nor anything like it4 ,what ,i
 do mean is this3  ,having thoroughly   
underdrained a field1 so that water will
 not stand upon any part of its surface1
 no matter how much may there be        
deposited1 the next step in order is to 
increase the depth of the soil4 ,to this
 end1 procure a regular sub-soil plow of
 the most approved pattern1 attach to it
 a strong team1 and let it follow the   
breaking-plow in its furrow1 lifting and
 pulverizing the sub-soil to a depth of 
not less than six inches1 but leaving it
 in position exactly where it was4 ,the 
surface-plow turns the next furrow upon 
this loosened sub-soil1 and so on till  
the whole field is thus pulverized to a 
depth of not less than twelve inches1   
or1 better still1 fifteen4 ,now1 please 
remember that you have twice as much    
soil per acre to fertilize as there was 
before2 hence1 that it consequently     
requires twice as much manure1 and you  
will have laid a good foundation for    

increased crops4 ,i do not say that all 
the additional outlay will be returned  
to you in the increase of your next     
crop1 for ,i do not believe anything of 
the sort2 but ,i do believe that this   
crop will be considerably larger for    
this generous treatment1 especially if  
the season prove remarkably dry or      
uncommonly wet2 and that you will have  
insured better crops in the years to    
come1 including heavier grass1 after    
that field shall once more be laid down2
 and that1 in case of the planting of   
that field to fruit or other trees1 they
 will grow faster1 resist disease       
better1 and thrive longer1 than if the  
soil were still plowed as of old4 7,i   
shall insist hereafter on the advantage 
and importance of subsoiling orchards47 
,take another aspect--that of subsoiling
 hill-sides to prevent their abrasion by
 water3  ,i have two bits of warm1      
gravelly hill-side1 which bountifully   
yield ,corn1 ,wheat and ,oats1 but which
 are addicted to washing4 ,i presume one

 of these bits1 at the south-east corner
 of my farm1 has been plowed and planted
 not less than one hundred times1 and   
that at least half the fertilizers      
applied to it have been washed into the 
brook1 and hence into the ,hudson4 ,to  
say that #a1jjj have thus been          
squandered on that patch of ground1     
would be to keep far within the truth4  
,and1 along with the fertilizers1 a     
large portion of the finer and better   
elements of the original soil have thus 
been swept into the brook1 and so       
lavished upon the waters of our bay4    
,but1 since ,i had those lots thoroughly
 subsoiled1 all the water that falls    
upon them when in tillage sinks into the
 soil1 and remains there until drained  
away by filtration or evaporation2 and  
,i never saw a particle of soil washed  
from either save once1 when a thaw of   
one or two inches on the surface1       
leaving the ground solidly frozen       
beneath1 being quickly followed by a    
pouring rain1 washed away a few bushels 

of the loosened and sodden surface1     
proving that the law by virtue of which 
these fields were formerly denuded while
 in cultivation is still active1 and    
that ,deep ,plowing is an effective and 
all but unfailing antidote for the evil 
it tends to incite4  ,we plow too many  
acres annually1 and do not plow them so 
thoroughly as we ought4 ,in the good    
time coming1 when ,steam shall have been
 so harnessed to a gang of six to twelve
 plows that1 with one man guiding and   
firing1 it will move as fast as a man   
ought to walk1 steaming on and          
thoroughly pulverizing from twelve to   
twenty-five acres per day1 ,i believe we
 shall plow at least two feet deep1 and 
plow not less than twice before putting 
in any crop whatever4 ,then we may lay  
down a field in the confident trust that
 it will yield from two and a half to   
three tuns of good hay per annum for the
 next ten or twelve years2 while1 by the
 help of irrigation and occasional      
top-dressing1 it may be made to average 

at least three tuns for a life-time1 if 
not forever4  ,when my ,grass-land      
requires breaking up--as it sometimes   
does--,i understand that it was not     
properly laid down1 or has not been well
 treated since4 ,a good grazing farmer  
once insisted in my hearing that        
grass-land should never be plowed--that 
the vegetable mold forming the surface1 
when the timber was first cut off2      
should remain on the surface forever4   
,considering how uneven the stumps and  
roots and cradle-knolls of a primitive  
forest are apt to leave the ground1 ,i  
judge that this is an extreme statement4
 ,but land once thoroughly plowed and   
subsoiled ought thereafter to be kept in
 grass by liberal applications of       
,gypsum1 well-cured ,muck1 and barn-yard
 ,manure to its surface1 without needing
 to be plowed again and reseeded4 ,put  
back in ,manure what is taken of in     
,hay1 and the ,grass should hold its    
own4     ,,xvi4  ,,thorough ,,tillage4  
,my little1 hilly1 rocky farm teaches   

lessons of thoroughness which ,i would  
gladly impart to the boys of to-day who 
are destined to be the farmers of the   
last quarter of this century4 ,i am sure
 they will find profit in farming better
 than their grandfathers did1 and       
especially in putting their land into   
the best possible condition for         
effective tillage4 ,there were stones in
 my fields varying in size from that of 
a brass kettle up to that of a          
hay-cock--some of them raising their    
heads above the surface1 others         
burrowing just below it--which had been 
plowed around and over perhaps a hundred
 times1 till ,i went at them with team  
and bar1 or 7where necessary7 with drill
 and blast1 turned or blew them out1 and
 hauled them away1 so that they will    
interfere with cultivation nevermore4 ,i
 insist that this is a profitable       
operation--that a field which will not  
pay for such clearing should be planted 
with trees and thrown out of cultivation
 conclusively4 ,dodging and skulking    

from rock to rock is hard upon team1    
plow1 and plowman2 and it can rarely    
pay4 ,land ribbed and spotted with fast 
rocks will pay if judiciously planted   
with ,timber--possibly if well set in   
,fruit--but tilling it from year to year
 is a thankless task2 and its owner may 
better work by the day for his neighbors
 than try to make his bread by such     
tillage4  ,so with fields soaked by     
springs or sodden with stagnant water4  
,if you say you cannot afford to drain  
your wet land1 ,i respond that you can  
still less afford to till it without    
draining4 ,if you really cannot afford  
to fit it for cultivation1 your next    
best course is to let it severely alone4
  ,a poor man who has a rough1 rugged1  
sterile farm1 which he is unable to     
bring to its best possible condition at 
once1 yet which he clings to and must   
live from1 should resolve that1 if life 
and health be spared him1 he will       
reclaim one field each year until all   
that is not devoted to timber shall have

 been brought into high condition4 ,when
 his ,summer harvest is over1 and his   
,fall crops have received their last    
cultivation1 there will generally be    
from one to two ,autumn months which he 
can devote mainly to this work4 ,let him
 take hold of it with resolute purpose  
to improve every available hour1 not by 
running over the largest possible area1 
but by dealing with one field so        
thoroughly that it will need no more    
during a long life-time4 ,if it has     
stone that the plow will reach1 dig them
 out2 if it needs draining1 drain it so 
thoroughly that it may hereafter be     
plowed in ,spring so soon as the frost  
leaves it2 and now let soil and subsoil 
be so loosened and pulverized that roots
 may freely penetrate them to a depth of
 fifteen to twenty inches1 finding      
nourishment all the way1 with incitement
 to go further if ever failing moisture 
shall render this necessary4 ,drouth    
habitually shortens our ,fall crops from
 ten to fifty per cent42 it is sure to  

injure us more gravely as our forests   
are swept away by ax and fire2 and1     
while much may be done to mitigate its  
ravages by enriching the soil so as to  
give your crops an early start1 and a   
rank1 luxuriant growth1 the farmer's    
chief reliance must still be a depth of 
soil adequate to withstand weeks of the 
fiercest sunshine4  ,i have considered  
what is urged as to the choice of roots 
to run just beneath the surface1 and it 
does not signify4 ,roots seek at once   
heat and moisture2 if the moisture      
awaits them close to the surface1 of    
course they mainly run there1 because   
the heat is there greatest4 ,if moisture
 fails there1 they must descend to seek 
it1 even at the cost of finding the heat
 inadequate--though heat increases and  
descends under the fervid suns which rob
 the surface of moisture4 ,make the soil
 rich and mellow ever so far down1 and  
you need not fear that the roots will   
descend an inch lower than they should4 
,they understand their business2 it is  

your sagacity that may possibly prove   
deficient4  ,i suspect that the average 
farmer does far too little plowing--by  
which ,i mean1 not that he plows too few
 acres1 for he often plows too many1 but
 that he should plow oftener as well as 
deeper and more thoroughly4 ,i spent    
three or four of my boyish ,summers     
planting and tilling ,corn and ,potatoes
 on fields broken up just before they   
were planted1 never cross-plowed1 and of
 course tough and intractable throughout
 the season4 ,the yield of ,corn was    
middling1 considering the season2 that  
of ,potatoes more than middling2 yet1 if
 those fields had been well plowed in   
the previous ,autumn1 cross-plowed early
 in the ,spring2 and thoroughly harrowed
 just before planting-time1 ,i am       
confident that the yield would have been
 far greater1 and the labor 7save in    
harvesting7 rather less--the cost of the
 ,fall plowing being over-balanced by   
the saving of half the time necessarily 
given to the planting and hoeing4  ,fall

 ,plowing has this recommendation--it   
lightens labor at the busier season1 by 
transferring it to one of comparative   
dullness4 ,i may have said that ,i      
consider him a good farmer who knows how
 to make a rainy day equally effective  
with one that is dry and fair2 and1 in  
the same spirit1 ,i count him my master 
in this art who can make a day's work in
 ,autumn or ,winter save a day's work in
 ,spring or ,summer4 ,show me a farmer  
who has no land plowed when ,may opens1 
and is just waking up to a consciousness
 that his fences need mending and his   
trees want trimming1 and ,i will guess  
that the sheriff will be after him      
before ,may comes round again4          
99       99       99       99       99  
,there is no superstition in the belief 
that land is 7or may be7 enriched by    
,fall ,plowing4 ,the ,autumn gales are  
freighted with the more volatile        
elements of decaying vegetation4 ,these1
 taken up wherever they are given of in 
excess1 are wafted to and deposited in  

the soils best fitted for their         
reception4 ,regarded simply as a method 
of fertilizing1 ,i do not say that ,fall
 ,plowing is the cheapest2 ,i do say    
that any poor field1 if well plowed in  
the ,fall1 will be in better heart the  
next ,spring1 for what wind and rain    
will meantime have deposited thereon4   
,frost1 too1 in any region where the    
ground freezes1 and especially where it 
freezes and thaws repeatedly1 plays an  
important and beneficial part in        
aerating and pulverizing a freshly      
plowed soil1 especially one thrown up   
into ridges1 so as to be most thoroughly
 exposed to the action of the more      
volatile elements4 ,the farmer who has a
 good team may profitably keep the plow 
running in ,autumn until every rood that
 he means to till next season has been  
thoroughly pulverized4  ,in this        
section1 our minute chequer-work of     
fences operates to obstruct and impede  
,plowing4 ,our predecessors wished to   
clear their fields1 at least            

superficially1 of the loose1 troublesome
 bowlders of granite wherewith they were
 so thickly sown2 they mistakenly       
fancied that they could lighten their   
own toil by sending their cattle to     
graze1 browse1 and gnaw1 wherever a crop
 was not actually on the ground2 so they
 fenced their farms into patches of two 
or ten acres1 and thought they had      
thereby increased their value6 ,that was
 a sad miscalculation4 ,weeds1 briars   
and bushes were sheltered1 and nourished
 by these walls2 weasels1 rats and other
 destructive animals1 found protection  
and impunity therein2 a wide belt on    
either side was made useless or worse2  
while ,plowing was rendered laborious1  
difficult1 and inefficient1 by the      
necessity of turning after every few    
hundred steps4 ,we are growing slowly   
wiser1 and burying a part of these      
walls1 or building them into concrete   
barns or other useful structures2 but   
they are still far too plentiful1 and   
need to be dealt with more sternly4 ,o  

squatter on a wide prairie1 on the bleak
 ,plains1 or in a broad ,pacific valley1
 where wood must be hauled for miles and
 loose stone are rarely visible1 thank  
,god for the benignant dispensation     
which has precluded you from half       
spoiling your farm by a multiplicity of 
obstructing1 deforming1 fences1 and so  
left its soil free and open to be       
everywhere pervaded1 loosened1          
permeated1 by the renovating ,plow6     
,,xvii4  ,,commercial                   
,,fertilizers--,,gypsum4   ,prices vary 
so widely in different localities that  
no fertilizer can be pronounced         
everywhere cheapest or best worth       
buying2 and yet ,i doubt that there is a
 rood of our country's surface in fit   
condition to be cultivated to which     
,gypsum 7,plaster of ,paris7 might not  
be applied with profit4 ,where it costs 
#aj or over per tun1 ,i would apply it  
sparingly--say1 one bushel per          
acre--while ,i judge three bushels per  
acre none too much in regions where it  

may be bought much cheaper4 ,even the   
poor man who has but one cow1 should buy
 a barrel of it1 and dust his stable    
therewith after cleaning it each day4   
,he who has a stock of cattle should    
never be without it1 and should freely  
use it1 alike in stable and yard1 to    
keep down the noisome odors1 and thus   
retain the volatile elements of the     
manure4 ,every meadow1 every pasture1   
should be sown with it at least         
triennially2 where it is abundant and   
cheap1 as in ,central ,new-,york1 ,i    
would apply it each year1 unless careful
 observation should satisfy me that it  
no longer subserved a good purpose4  ,as
 to the time of application1 while ,i   
judge any season will do1 my present    
impression is that it will do most good 
if applied when the ,summer is hottest  
and the ground driest4 ,if1 for         
instance1 you close your haying in      
mid-,summer1 having been hurried by the 
rapid ripening of the grass1 and find   
your meadows baked and cracked by the   

intense heat1 ,i reckon that you may    
proceed to dust those meadows with      
,gypsum with a moral certainty that none
 of it will be wasted4 ,so if your ,corn
 and other ,fall crops are suffering    
from and likely to be stunted by drouth1
 ,i advise the application of ,gypsum   
broadcast1 as evenly as may be and as   
bounteously as its price and your means 
will allow4 ,i do not believe it so well
 to apply it specially to the growing   
stalks1 a spoon-full or so per hill2 and
 ,i doubt that it is ever judicious to  
plant it in the hill with the seed4 ,the
 readiest and quickest mode of          
application is also1 ,i believe1 the    
best4  ,how ,gypsum impels and          
invigorates vegetable growth1 ,i do not 
pretend to know2 but that it does so was
 demonstrated by ,nature long before    
,man took the hint that she freely gave4
 ,the city of ,paris and a considerable 
adjacent district rest on a bed of      
,gypsum1 ranging from five to twenty    
feet below the surface1 and considerably

 decomposed in its upper portion by the 
action of water4 ,this region produces  
,wheat most luxuriantly1 and ,i presume 
has done so from time immemorial4 ,at   
length it crawled through the hair of   
the tillers of this soil that the       
substance which did so much good        
fortuitously1 and 7as it were7 because  
it could not do otherwise1 might do     
still more if applied to the soil1 with 
deliberate intent to test its value as a
 fertilizer4 ,the result we all         
understand4  ,gypsum is a chemical      
compound of ,sulphur and ,lime--so much 
is agreed2 and the theory of chemists   
has been that2 as the winds pass over a 
surface sown with it1 the ,ammonia which
 has been exhaled by a thousand         
barn-yards1 bogs1 c41 having a stronger 
affinity for ,sulphur than ,lime has1   
dissolves the ,gypsum1 combines with the
 ,sulphur1 forming a ,sulphate of       
,ammonia1 and leaves the ,lime to get on
 as it may4 ,i accept this theory1      
having no reason to distrust it2 and1   

knowing that ,sulphate of ,ammonia is a 
powerful stimulant of vegetable growth  
7as any one may be assured by buying a  
little of it from some druggist and     
making the necessary application71 ,i   
can readily see how the desired result  
might in this way be produced4 ,for our 
purpose1 however1 let it suffice that it
 is produced1 of which almost any one   
may be convinced by sowing with ,gypsum 
and passing by alternate strips or belts
 of the same clover field4 ,i suspect   
that not many fertilizers repay their   
cost out of the first crop2 but ,i      
account ,gypsum one of them2 and ,i     
submit that no farmer can afford not to 
try it4 ,that its good effect is        
diminished by many and frequent         
applications1 is highly probable2 but   
there is no hill or slope to which      
,gypsum has never yet been applied which
 ought not to make its acquaintance this
 very year4 ,i am confident that there  
are pastures which might be made to     
increase their yield of ,grass one-third

 by a moderate dressing of it4  ,i have 
heard ,andrew ,b4 ,dickinson1 late of   
,steuben ,county1 and one of the best   
unscientific1 unlearned farmers ever    
produced by our ,state1 maintain that he
 can not only enrich his own farm but   
impoverish his neighbors' by the free   
use of ,gypsum on his woodless hills4   
,the chemist's explanation of this      
effect is above indicated4 ,the         
plastered land attracts and absorbs not 
only its own fair proportion of the     
breeze-borne ,ammonia1 but much that1 if
 the equilibrium had not been disturbed 
by such application1 would have been    
deposited on the adjacent hills4 ,as    
,mr4 ,d4 makes not the smallest         
pretensions to science1 the coincidence 
between his dictum and the chemist's    
theory is noteworthy4  ,now that our    
country is completely gridironed with   
,canals and ,railroads1 bringing        
whatever has a mercantile value very    
near every one's door1 ,i suggest that  
no township should go without ,gypsum4  

,five dollars will buy at least two     
barrels of it almost anywhere2 and two  
barrels may be sown over five or six    
acres4 ,let it be sown so that its      
effect 7or non-effect7 may be palpable2 
give it a fair1 careful trial1 and await
 the result4 ,if it seem to subserve no 
good purpose1 be not too swift to enter 
up judgment2 but buy two barrels more1  
vary your time and method of            
application1 and try again4 ,if the     
result be still null1 let it be given up
 that ,gypsum is not the fertilizer     
needed just there--that some            
ill-understood peculiarity of soil or   
climate renders it there ineffective4   
,then let its use be there abandoned2   
but it will still remain true that1 in  
many localities and in countless        
instances1 ,gypsum has been fully proved
 one of the best and cheapest commercial
 fertilizers known to mankind4  ,i never
 tried1 but on the strength of others'  
testimony believe in the improvement of 
soils by means of calcined clay or      

earth4 ,mr4 ,andrew ,b4 ,dickinson      
showed me where he had1 during a dry    
,autumn plowed up the road-sides through
 his farm1 started fires with a few     
roots or sticks1 and then piled on sods 
of the upturned clay and grass-roots    
till the fire was nearly smothered1 when
 each heap smoked and smouldered like a 
little coal-pit till all of it that was 
combustible was reduced to ashes1 when  
ashes and burned clay were shoveled into
 a cart and strewn over his fields1 to  
the decided improvement of their crops4 
,whoever has a clay sod to plow up1 and 
is deficient in manure1 may repeat this 
experiment with a moral certainty of    
liberal returns4     ,,xviii4  ,,alkalis
 444 ,,salt--,,ashes--,,lime4   ,i do   
not know a rood of our country's surface
 so rich in all the materials which     
enter into the production of the        
,grains1 ,grasses1 ,fruits1 and         
,vegetables1 which are the objects and  
rewards of cultivation1 that it could   
not be improved by the application of   

fertilizers2 if there be such1 ,i       
heartily congratulate the owners1 and   
advise them not to sell4 ,nor do ,i     
believe that there are many acres so    
fertile that they would not produce more
 ,indian ,corn1 more ,hemp1 more        
,cotton1 and more of whatever may be    
their appropriate staple1 if judiciously
 fertilized4 ,if there be farms or      
fields originally so good that manure   
would not increase their yield1 ,i am   
confident that the first half-dozen     
crops will have taken that conceit out  
of them4 ,prairies and river-bottoms may
 yield ever so bounteously2 but that    
very luxuriance of growth insures their 
gradual exhaustion of certain elements  
of crops1 which must needs be replaced  
or their product will dwindle4 ,whoever 
has sold a thousand bushels of grain1 or
 its equivalent in meat1 from his farm1 
has thereby impoverished that farm1     
unless he has applied something that    
balances its loss4 ,i perceive that     
virtue has gone out of me1 observed the 

,saviour1 because the hem of his garment
 had been touched2 and every field that 
had been cropped might make a similar   
report whenever its annual loss by      
abstraction has not been balanced by    
some kind of fertilizer4 ,the farmer who
 grows the largest crops is the most    
merciless exhauster of the soil1 unless 
he balances his annual drafts 7as good  
farmers rarely fail to do7 by at least  
equal reenforcements of the productive  
capacity of his fields4  ,the good      
farmer begins by inquiring1 ,wherein was
 my soil originally deficient8 and of   
what has it been exhausted by subsequent
 crops8 ,i judge that my gravelly       
hill-sides would reward the application 
of two hundred loads 7or tuns7 of pure  
clay per acre1 as ,i think the clay     
flats which border ,lake ,champlain     
would pay for a like application of sand
 or fine gravel where that material is  
found in convenient proximity2 and yet1 
,i know very well that1 on at least     
three-fourths of our country's area1    

such application would cost far more    
than it would be worth4 ,every farmer   
must act on his knowledge of his soil   
and its peculiar needs1 and not blindly 
follow the dictum of another4 ,yet ,i   
know few farms which1 were they mine1 ,i
 would not consider enhanced in value by
 a vigorous application of some alkaline
 substance--,lime1 ,salt1 ,ashes1 or    
some of the cheaper ,nitrates4 ,i should
 be very glad to apply one thousand     
bushels of good house-made1 hard-wood   
,ashes to my twenty acres of arable     
upland1 if ,i could buy them1 delivered1
 at twenty five cents per bushel2 but   
they are not to be had4 ,i doubt that   
there are a hundred acres of warm1 dry1 
gravelly or sandy soil east of the      
,alleghanies that would not amply reward
 a similar application4 ,but ,ashes in  
quantity are unattainable1 since no good
 farmer sells them1 and ,coal is the    
chief fuel of cities and villages4 ,the 
,marls of ,new-,jersey ,i judge fully   
equal in average value to ,ashes which  

have been nearly deprived of their      
potash by leaching1 but not quite half  
equal1 bushel for bushel1 to unleached  
,ashes4 ,i judge that average ,marl is  
worth #aj cents per bushel where ,ashes 
may be had for #be4 ,but ,marl is found 
only in a few localities1 and a material
 worth but #aj cents per bushel will not
 bear transportation beyond #dj miles by
 wagon or #bjj by water4 ,salt is only  
found or made at a few points1 and is   
too dear for general use as a           
fertilizer4 ,where the refuse product of
 ,salt-,works can be cheaply bought1    
good farmers will eagerly compete for   
it1 if their lands at all resemble mine4
 ,i judge the tun of ,potash ,i ordered 
fifteen years ago from ,syracuse1 paying
 #ej and transportation1 was the        
cheapest fertilizer ,i ever bought4 ,it 
was so impregnated with ,salt 7from the 
boiling over of the salt-kettles into   
the ashes7 as to be worthless for other 
than agricultural purposes2 but ,i mixed
 it with a large pile of ,muck that ,i  

had recently dug1 and1 six or eight     
months thereafter1 applied the product  
to a very poor1 gravelly hill-side which
 ,i had just broken up2 and the         
immediate result was a noble crop of    
,corn4 ,that hill-side has not yet      
forgotten the application4  --,if ,i    
should try to explain just how and why  
,lime is a fertilizer1 ,i should        
probably fail2 and ,i am well assured   
that liming has in some cases been      
overdone2 yet ,i think most observers   
will concur in my statement that any    
region which has been limed year after  
year produces crops of noticeable       
excellence4 ,i cite as examples ,chester
 and ,lancaster ,counties1              
,pennsylvania1 with ,stark and adjacent 
counties of ,ohio4 ,possibly1 results   
equally gratifying might be secured by  
applying some other substance2 ,i only  
know that frequently limed lands are    
generally good lands1 as their crops do 
testify4 ,i heartily wish that the flat 
clay intervales of ,western ,vermont    

could have a fair trial of the virtues  
of liming4 ,i should expect to see them 
thereby rendered friable and arable2 no 
longer changing speedily from the       
semblance of tar to that of brick1 but  
readily plowed and tilled1 and yielding 
liberally of ,grain as well as ,grass4  
,i am confident that most farms in our  
country will pay for liming to the      
extent of fifty bushels per acre where  
the cost of quick-lime does not exceed  
ten cents per bushel2 and most farmers1 
by taking1 hot from the kiln1 the refuse
 lime that is deemed unfit for building 
purposes1 can obtain it cheaper than    
that4  ,i wish some farmer who gives    
constant personal attention to his      
work--as ,i cannot--would make some     
careful tests of the practical value of 
alkalis4 ,for instance3 the abundance   
and tenacity of our common sorrel is    
supposed to indicate an acid condition  
of the soil2 and all who have tried it  
know that sorrel is hard to kill by     
cultivation4 ,i suggest that whoever is 

troubled with it should cover two square
 rods with one bushel of quick-lime just
 after plowing and harrowing this       
,spring2 then apply another bushel to   
four square rods adjacent2 then make    
similar applications of ashes to two and
 four square rods respectively1 taking  
careful note of the boundaries of each  
patch1 and leaving the rest of the field
 destitute of either application4 ,i    
will not anticipate the result3 more    
than one year may be required to evolve 
it2 but ,i am confident that a few such 
experiments would supply data whereof ,i
 am in need2 and there are doubtless    
others whose ignorance is nearly equal  
to mine4  ,many have applied ,lime to   
their fields without realizing any      
advantage therefrom4 ,in some cases1    
there was already a sufficiency of this 
ingredient in the soil1 and the         
application of more was one of those    
many wasteful blunders induced by our   
ignorance of ,chemistry4 ,but much ,lime
 is naturally adulterated with other    

minerals1 especially with ,manganese1 so
 that its application to most if not to 
all soils subserves no good end4 ,in the
 absence of exact1 scientific knowledge1
 ,i would buy fifty bushels of          
quick-lime1 apply them to one acre      
running through a field1 and watch the  
effect4 ,if it doesn't pay1 you have a  
bad article1 or your soil is not        
deficient in ,lime4     ,,xix4  ,,soils 
,,and ,,fertilizers4   ,a farmer is a   
manufacturer of articles wherefrom      
mankind are fed and clad2 his raw       
materials are the soil and the various  
substances he mingles therewith or adds 
thereto in order to increase its        
productive capacity4 ,his art consists  
in transforming by cultivation crude1   
comparatively worthless1 and even       
noxious1 offensive materials into       
substances grateful to the senses1      
nourishing to the body1 and sometimes   
invigorating1 even strengthening1 to the
 mind4  ,i have heard of lands that were
 naturally rich enough2 ,i never was so 

lucky or perchance so discerning as to  
find them4 ,yet ,i have seen ,illinois  
bottoms whereof ,i was assured that the 
soil was fully sixteen feet deep1 and a 
rich1 black alluvium from top to bottom2
 and ,i do not question the statements  
made to me from personal observation    
that portions of the strongly alkaline  
plain or swale on which ,salt ,lake     
,city is built1 being for the first time
 plowed1 irrigated1 and sown to ,wheat1 
yielded ninety bushels of good grain per
 acre4 ,i never saw1 yet on evidence    
believe1 that pioneer settlers of the   
,miami ,valley1 wishing1 some years     
after settling there1 to sell their     
farms1 advertised them as peculiarly    
desirable in that the barns stood over a
 creek or branch1 which swept away the  
manure each ,winter or ,spring without  
trouble to the owner2 and ,i have myself
 grown both ,wheat and ,oats that were  
very rank and heavy in straw1 yet which 
fell so flat and lay so dead that the   
heads scarcely bore a kernel4 ,had ,i   

been a wiser1 better farmer1 ,i should  
have known how to stiffen the straw and 
make it do its office1 in spite of wind 
and storm4  ,and let me here say1 lest  
,i forget it in its appropriate place1  
that ,i am confident that most farmers  
sow grain too thickly for any but very  
poor land4 ,if one thinks it necessary  
to scatter three bushels of ,oats per   
acre1 ,i tell him that he should apply  
more manure and less seed--that land    
which requires three bushels of seed is 
not rich enough to bear ,oats4 ,he might
 better concentrate his manure on half  
so much land1 and save two-thirds of his
 seed4  ,i do not hold that the         
remarkably rich soils ,i have instanced 
needed fertilizing when first plowed2 ,i
 will presume that they did not4 ,yet1  
having never yet succeeded in manuring a
 corn-field so high that a few loads    
more would not 7,i judge7 have increased
 the crop1 ,i doubt whether even the    
richest ,illinois bottoms would not     
yield more ,corn1 year by year1 if      

reenforced with the contents of a good  
barn-yard4 ,and1 when the first heavy   
crop of ,corn has been taken from a     
field1 that field--no matter how deep   
and fertile its soil--is less rich in   
corn-forming elements than it was       
before4 ,just so sure as that there is  
no depletion or shrinkage when nothing  
is taken from nothing1 so sure is it    
that something cannot be taken from     
something without diminishing its       
capacity to yield something at the next 
call4 ,rotation of crops is an excellent
 plan2 for one may flourish on that     
which another has rejected2 but this    
does not overbear ,nature's inflexible  
exaction of so much for so much4 ,hence1
 if there ever was a field so rich that 
nothing could be added that would       
increase its productive capacity1 the   
first exacting crop thereafter taken    
from it diminished that capacity1 and   
rendered a fresh application of some    
fertilizer desirable4  ,years ago1 a    
,western man exhibited at our ,farmers' 

,club a specimen of the soil of his     
region which was justly deemed very     
rich1 taken from a field whereon ,corn  
had been repeatedly grown without       
apparent exhaustion4 ,a chemical        
analysis had been made of it1 which was 
submitted with the soil4 ,it was claimed
 that nothing could improve its capacity
 for producing the great ,illinois      
staple4 ,prof4 ,mapes dissented from    
this conclusion4 ,this soil1 said he1   
while very rich in nearly every element 
which enters into the composition of    
,corn1 gives barely a trace of          
,chlorine1 the base of ,salt4 ,hence1 if
 five bushels per acre of ,salt be      
applied to that field1 and it does not  
thereupon yield five bushels more per   
annum of ,corn1 ,i will agree to eat the
 field4  ,many men fertilize their poor 
lands only1 supposing that the better   
can do without4 ,i judge that to be a   
mistake4 ,my rule would be to plant the 
poorest with such choice trees as thrive
 without manure1 and pile the           

fertilizers upon the better4 ,it seems  
to me plain that of two fields1 one of  
which has a soil containing nine-tenths 
of the elements of the desired crop1    
while the other shows but one to        
three-tenths1 it is a more hopeful and  
less thankless task to enrich the former
 than the latter4 ,if you are required  
to supply to a field nearly everything  
that your proposed crop will withdraw   
from it1 ,i do not see where the profit 
comes in2 but if you are required to    
supply but a tenth1 because the soil as 
you found it stood ready to contribute  
the remaining nine-tenths1 it seems to  
me that the margin for profit is here   
decidedly the greater4  ,how many tuns  
of earth ought a farmer to be obliged to
 turn over and over in order to obtain  
therefrom a hundred bushels of ,corn8   
,two hundred8 ,five hundred8 ,a         
thousand8 ,five thousand8 ,other things 
being equal1 no one will doubt that1 if 
he can make the ,corn from one hundred  
tuns of soil1 it were better to do so   

than to employ five hundred or five     
thousand4 ,it seems clear to my mind    
that1 though other conditions be        
unequal1 it is generally well to        
endeavor to produce the required        
quantity from the smaller rather than   
the larger area4  ,i fully share the    
average farmer's partiality for         
barn-yard manure in preference to most1 
if not all1 commercial fertilizers4 ,in 
my judgment1 almost any farmer who has  
cattle1 with fit shelter and ,winter    
fodder1 can make fertilizers far cheaper
 than he can buy them4 ,i judge that    
almost every farmer who has paid #ajj or
 over for ,guano 7for instance71 might  
have more considerably enriched his farm
 by drawing muck from some convenient   
bog or pond into his barn-yard in       
,august or ,september and carting it    
thence to his fields the next ,fall4 ,if
 he can get no muck within a mile1 let  
him cut1 when they are in blossom1 all  
the weeds that grow near him1 especially
 by the road-side1 cart them at once    

into his barn-yard1 and there convert   
them into fertilizers4 ,in ,autumn1     
replace the hay-rack on the wagon or    
cart1 and pile load after load of       
freshly-fallen leaves into your yard2   
taking them1 if you may1 from the sides 
of roads and fences1 and from any place 
where they may have been lodged or      
heaped by the winds1 your own wood-lot  
excepted4 ,plow the turf off of any     
scurvy lot or road-side1 and pile it    
into the barn-yard2 nay1 dig a hundred  
loads of pure clay1 and place it there1 
if you can get it at a small expense1   
and your average soil is gravelly or    
sandy4 ,the farmer who is unable or     
reluctant to buy commercial fertilizers 
should apply his whole force every      
,autumn to replenishing his barn-yard   
with that material which he can obtain  
most easily which the trampling of his  
cattle may readily convert into manure4 
,a month is too little1 two months would
 not be too much1 to devote to this good
 work4 ,some may seem obliged to        

postpone it to ,winter2 but that is to  
run the risk of embarrassment by frost  
or snow1 and encounter the certainty    
that your material will be inferior in  
quality1 or not so well fitted to apply 
to grain-crops the ensuing ,fall4       
--,all this1 you may say1 is not        
instruction4 ,we ought to know exactly  
what lands are enriched by ,gypsum1 and 
what1 if any1 are not2 why these are    
fertilized1 why those are not1 by a     
common application2 how great is the    
profit of such application in any case2 
and what substitute can most nearly     
subserve the same ends where ,gypsum is 
not to be had4 ,i admit all you claim1  
and do not doubt that there shall yet be
 a ,scientific ,agriculture that will   
fully answer your requirements4 ,as yet1
 however1 it exists but in suggestions  
and fragments2 and attempts to complete 
it by naked assertions and sweeping     
generalizations tend rather to mislead  
and disgust the young farmer than really
 to enlighten and guide him4 ,at all    

events1 ,i shall aim to set forth as    
true no more than ,i know1 or with good 
reason confidently believe4  ,i close by
 reiterating my belief that no farmer   
ever yet impoverished himself by making 
too much manure or by applying too much 
of his own manufacture4 ,i cannot speak 
so confidently of buying commercial     
fertilizers2 but these ,i will discuss  
in my next chapter4     ,,xx4           
,,bones--,,phosphates--,,guano4   ,i    
hate to check improvement or chill the  
glow of ,faith2 yet ,i do so keenly     
apprehend that many of our people1      
especially among the ,southern          
cotton-growers1 are squandering money on
 ,commercial ,fertilizers1 that ,i am   
bound to utter my note of warning1 even 
though it should pass wholly unheeded4  
,let me make my position as clear as ,i 
can4  ,i live in a section which has    
been cultivated for more than two       
centuries1 while its proximity to a     
great city has tempted to crop it       
incessantly1 exhaustively4 ,wheat while 

its original surface soil of six to     
twelve inches of vegetable mold 7mainly 
composed of decayed forest-leaves7      
remained2 then ,corn and ,oats2 at      
length1 ,milk1 ,beef1 and ,apples--have 
exhausted the hill-sides and gentler    
slopes of ,westchester ,county1 except  
where they have been kept in heart by   
judicious culture and liberal           
fertilizing2 and1 even here1 that subtle
 element1 ,phosphorus1 which enters     
minutely but necessarily into the       
composition of every animal and nearly  
every vegetable structure has been      
gradually drawn away in ,grain1 in      
,milk1 in ,bones1 and not restored to   
the soil by the application of ordinary 
manures4 ,i am convinced that a field   
may be so manured as to give three tuns 
of ,hay per acre1 yet so destitute of   
,phosphorus that a sound1 healthy animal
 cannot be grown therefrom4 ,for two    
centuries1 the tillers of ,westchester  
,county knew nothing of ,chemistry or   
,phosphorus1 and allowed the unvalued   

bones of their animals to be exported to
 fatten ,british meadows1 without an    
effort to retain them4 ,hence1 it has   
become absolutely essential that we buy 
and apply ,phosphates1 even though the  
price be high2 for our land can no      
longer do without them4 ,wherever a     
steer or heifer can occasionally be     
caught gnawing or mumbling over an old  
bone1 there ,phosphates are             
indispensable1 no matter at what cost4  
,better pay #ajj per tun for a dressing 
of one hundred pounds of ,bone per acre 
than try to do without4  ,but no lands  
recently brought into cultivation--no   
lands where the bones of the animals fed
 thereon have been allowed1 for         
unnumbered years past1 to mingle with   
the soil--can be equally hungry for     
,phosphates2 and ,i doubt that any      
cotton-field in the ,south will ever    
return an outlay of even #ej per tun for
 any ,phosphatic fertilizer whatever4   
,that any preparation of ,bone1 or      
whereof ,bone is a principal element1   

will increase the succeeding crops1 is  
undoubted2 but that it will ever return 
its cost and a decent margin of profit1 
is yet to be demonstrated to my         
satisfaction4  ,no doubt1 there are     
special cases in which the application  
even of ,peruvian ,guano at #ij per tun 
is advisable4 ,a compost of ,muck1      
,lime1 c41 equally efficient1 might be  
far cheaper2 but months would be        
required to prepare and perfect it1 and 
meantime the farmer would lose his crop1
 or fail to make one4 ,if a tun of      
,guano1 or of some expensive ,phosphate1
 will give him six or eight acres of    
,clover where he would otherwise have   
little or none1 and he needs that       
,clover to feed the team wherewith he is
 breaking up and fitting his farm to    
grow a good crop next year1 he may      
wisely make the purchase and            
application1 even though he may be able 
to compost for next year's use twice the
 value of fertilizers for the precise   
cost of this4 ,but ,i am so thorough in 

my devotion to home industry1 that ,i   
hold him an unskillful farmer who       
cannot1 nine times in ten1 make1 mainly 
from materials to be found on or near   
his farm1 a pile of compost for #ajj    
that will add more to the enduring      
fertility of his farm than anything he  
can bring from a distance at a cost of  
#aej4  ,understand that this is a       
general rule1 and subject1 like all     
general rules1 to exceptions4 ,gypsum1  
,i think every farmer should buy2 ,lime 
also1 if his soil needs it2 ,phosphates 
in some shape1 if past ignorance or     
folly has allowed that soil to be       
despoiled of them2 ,wood ,ashes1 if any 
one can be found so brainless as to sell
 them2 ,marl1 of course1 where it is    
found within ten miles2 ,guano very     
rarely1 and mainly when something is    
needed to make a crop before coarser and
 colder fertilizers can be brought into 
a condition of fitness for use2 but the 
general rule ,i insist on is this3 ,a   
good farmer will1 in the course of      

twenty or thirty years1 make at least   
#aj worth of fertilizers for every      
dollar's worth he buys from any dealer1 
unless it be the sweepings or other     
excretions of some not distant city4  ,i
 have used ,guano frequently1 and1      
though it has generally made its mark1  
,i never yet felt sure that it returned 
me a profit over its cost4 ,phosphates  
have done better1 especially where      
applied to ,corn in the hill1 either at 
the time of planting or later2 yet my   
strong impression is that ,flour of     
,bone1 applied broadcast and freely1    
especially when ,wheat or ,oats are sown
 on a field that is to be laid down to  
,grass1 pays better and more surely than
 anything else ,i order from the ,city1 
,gypsum1 and possibly ,oyster-,shell    
,lime1 excepted4  ,my experience can be 
no safe guide for others1 since it is   
not proved that the anterior condition  
and needs of their soils are precisely  
like those of mine4 ,i apprehend that   
,guano has not had a fair trial on my   

place--that carelessness in pulverizing 
or in application has caused it to waste
 its sweetness on the desert air1 or    
that a drouth following its application 
has prevented the due development of its
 virtues4 ,and still my impression that 
,guano is the brandy of vegetation1     
supplying to plants stimulus rather than
 nutrition1 is so clear and strong that 
it may not easily be effaced4 ,it seems 
to me plainly absurd to send ten        
thousand miles for this stimulant1 when 
this or any other great city annually   
poisons its own atmosphere and the      
adjacent waters with excretions which   
are of very similar character and value1
 and which ,science and ,capital might  
combine to utilize at less than half the
 cost of like elements in the form of   
,guano4  ,my object in this paper is to 
incite experiment and careful           
observation4 ,no farmer should          
absolutely trust aught but his own      
senses4 ,a ,rhode ,islander once assured
 me that he applied to four acres of    

thin1 slaty gravel one hundred pounds   
per acre of ,nitrate of ,soda which cost
 him #d per hundred1 and obtained       
therefrom four additional tuns of good  
,hay1 worth #ae per tun3 ,net profit    
7after allowing for the cost of making  
the ,hay71 say #cj4 ,he might not be so 
fortunate on a second trial1 and there  
may not be another four acres of the    
earth's surface where ,nitrate of ,soda 
would do so well2 but1 should ,i ever   
have a fair opportunity1 ,i mean to see 
what a little of that ,nitrate will do  
for me4 ,and ,i hope farmers may more   
and more be induced to conform in       
practice to the ,apostolic precept1     
,prove all things3 ,hold fast that which
 is good4 ,no one's success or failure  
in a particular instance should be      
conclusive with others1 because of the  
infinite diversity of antecedent and    
attendant circumstances2 but if every   
thrifty farmer would give to each of the
 commercial fertilizers--,lime1 ,gypsum1
 ,guano1 ,raw ,bone1 ,phosphates1       

,ashes1 ,salt1 ,marl1 etc4--such a      
careful trial as he might1 observing    
closely and recording carefully the     
results1 we should soon have a mass of  
facts and results1 wherefrom deductions 
might be drawn of signal practical value
 to the present and to future           
generations4  ,i firmly believe that    
great results of signal beneficence are 
to be slowly but surely achieved by     
means of the household convenience known
 as the ,earth-,closet1 and by kindred  
devices for rendering inoffensive and   
utilizing the most powerful fertilizer  
produced on every farm and in every     
household4 ,that is a vulgar            
squeamishness which leaves it to poison 
the atmosphere and offend the senses on 
the assumption that it is too noisome to
 be dealt with or utilized4 ,a true     
refinement counsels that it be daily    
covered1 and its odor absorbed or       
suppressed by earth1 or muck1 or ashes1 
and thus prepared for removal to and    
incorporation with the soil4 ,it is far 

within the truth to estimate our        
,national loss by the waste of this     
material at #a per head1 or #dj1jjj1jjj 
in all per annum3 a waste which is      
steadily diminishing the productive     
capacity of our soil4 ,this cannot1 must
 not1 be allowed to continue4 ,we must  
devise or adopt some mode of securing   
and applying this powerful fertilizer2  
and ,i defer to that which is already in
 extensive and daily expanding use4 ,let
 whoever can do better2 but meantime let
 us welcome and diffuse the ,earth      
,closet4     ,,xxi4  ,,muck--,,how ,,to 
,,utilize ,,it4   ,the time will be1 ,i 
cannot doubt1 when chemists can tell us 
the exact positive or relative value of 
a cord of ,muck--how this swamp or that 
pond affords a choice article1 while the
 product of another will hardly pay for 
digging4 ,there may be chemists whose   
judgment on these points is now worth   
far more than mine1 since mine is worth 
exactly nothing4 ,i do know1 however1   
that ,muck is a valuable fertilizer1 and

 that digging and composting it does    
pay4 ,i judge that ,i have transferred  
at least three thousand loads of it from
 my swamp to my upland2 and the effect  
had been all that ,i expected4 ,let me  
speak of ,muck generally1 in the light1 
of my own experience4  ,wherever rocks  
in ridges come to the surface of a      
valley1 plain1 or gentle slope1 water is
 apt to be collected or retained by     
them1 forming ponds or shallower pools1 
which may or may not dry up in ,summer1 
but which are seldom dry late in        
,autumn1 when plants are dying and      
leaves are falling4 ,the latter1 caught 
in their descent by the harsh winds of  
the season1 are swept along the bare1   
dry ground1 till they strike the water1 
which arrests their progress and soon   
engulfs them4 ,thus an acre of watery   
surface will often collect1 and retain  
the dead foliage of five to ten acres of
 forest2 and next ,fall will render its 
kindred tribute1 and the next1 and the  
next1 for ever4 ,there cannot be less   

than fifty millions of acres of ,swamps 
in our old ,states 7including ,maine72  
whereof ,i presume the larger area was  
covered with water until the slow       
contributions of leaves and weeds filled
 them above the level at which water is 
no longer retained on the surface4 ,and 
still1 they are so moist and boggy1 and 
their rank vegetation is so retentive1  
that the leaves swept in from the       
adjacent hills and glades are firmly    
retained and aid to increase the depth  
of their vegetable mold1 which varies   
from a few inches to twenty and even    
thirty feet4 ,in my old ,county of      
,westchester1 ,i roughly estimate that  
there are at least five thousand acres  
of bog1 whereof but a very few hundreds 
have yet been subdued to the uses of    
cultivation4  ,whoever digs a quantity  
of ,swamp ,muck and applies it directly 
to his fields or garden1 will derive    
little or no immediate benefit          
therefrom4 ,it is green1 sour1 cold1 and
 more likely to cover his farm thickly  

and persistently with ,sorrel1          
,eye-smart1 ,rag-weed1 ,parsley1 and    
other infestations1 than to add a bushel
 per acre to his crop of ,grain or      
,roots4 ,and thus many have tried ,muck1
 and1 on trial1 pronounced it a         
pestilent humbug4  ,but let any farmer  
turn his whole force into a bog or marsh
 directly after finishing his ,summer   
harvest 7when it is apt to be driest and
 warmest71 and1 having freed it of water
 to the best of his ability1 dig and    
draw out one hundred cords of its black1
 oozy substance1 and he will know better
 than to unite in that hasty judgment4  
,if the bog be near his farm-yard1 let  
the ,muck be shoveled at once into a    
cart and drawn thither2 but1 if not1 let
 it be simply brought out in            
wheel-barrows and deposited1 not more   
than two feet deep1 on the most         
convenient bank that is well drained and
 perfectly dry4 ,here let it dry and    
drain till after ,fall harvest1 and then
 begin to draw it gradually into the    

yards1 and especially where it may be   
worked over by swine and scratched over 
for seeds and insects by fowls4         
,assuming that the farm-yard is lowest  
in the centre and allows no liquid to   
escape save by evaporation1 the ,muck   
may well be dumped on the drier sides2  
thence1 after being worked over and     
trampled through and through1 to be     
shoveled into the centre and replaced by
 fresh arrivals4 ,a hundred cords may   
thus be so mixed and ripened as to be   
fit to draw out next ,may and used as a 
fertilizer for ,grain or ,roots1 though1
 if not so treated1 it should lie       
exposed to sun and wind a full year2    
being applied in the ,fall to crops of  
,winter grain or spread upon the fields 
to be planted or sowed next ,spring4    
,all the manure made during the ,winter 
should be spread over that which lies in
 the yard at least monthly2 and then new
 ,muck drawn in1 to be rooted or        
scratched over1 trampled into the       
underlying strata1 and overspread in its

 turn4 ,thus treated1 ,i am confident   
that each hundred cords of ,muck will be
 equal in value to an equal quantity of 
manure1 though it may not give up its   
fertilizing properties so freely to the 
first crop that follows its application4
 ,i have land that did not yield 7in    
pasture7 the equivalent of half a tun of
 hay pet annum when ,i bought it1 that  
now yields at least three tuns of good  
hay per annum2 and its renovation is    
mainly due to a free application of     
,swamp ,muck4  ,to those who have a good
 stock of animals1 with ,muck convenient
 to their yards1 ,i would not recommend 
any other treatment than the foregoing2 
but there are many who keep few animals1
 or whose muck-beds lie at the back of  
their farms1 two or three hundred rods  
from their barns2 while they wish to    
fertilize the fields in this quarter1   
which have been slighted in former      
applications1 because of the distance   
over which manure had to be hauled4 ,if 
these possess or can buy good hard-wood1

 house-made ,ashes at twenty-five cents 
or less per bushel1 ,i would say1 ,mix  
these well1 at the rate of two or three 
bushels to the card1 with your ,muck as 
you dig it2 work it over the next       
,spring1 and apply it the ensuing ,fall1
 so as to give it a full year to ripen  
and sweeten1 and it will be all right4  
,but1 if you have not and cannot get the
 ,ashes1 and can procure dirty1 refuse  
,salt from some meat-packer or wholesale
 grocer1 apply this as you would have   
applied the ,ashes1 but in rather larger
 quantity2 and1 if you can get neither  
,ashes nor ,salt1 use quick ,lime1 as   
fresh and hot from the kiln as you can  
apply it4 ,the best ,lime is that from  
burned ,oyster-,shells2 ,i consider     
this1 if nowise slaked1 nearly equal to 
refuse ,salt2 but ,oyster-,shell ,lime  
is too dear at most inland points2 and  
here the refuse of the kilns--that which
 is not good enough for mason-work--must
 be used4 ,usually1 the lime-burner has 
a load or more of this at the clearing  

out of every kiln1 which he will sell   
quite cheap if it be taken out of his   
way at once2 and this should be looked  
for and secured4 ,being inferior in     
quality 7often because imperfectly      
burned71 it should be applied in larger 
quantity--not less than four bushels to 
each cord of ,muck4         99       99 
99       99       99  ,i will not here  
describe the process of mixing ,salt    
with ,lime commended by ,prof4 ,mapes1  
because it is not easy to bring these   
two ingredients together so as to mix   
them with the ,muck as it is dug3 and1  
though ,i have used them after ,prof4   
,mapes's recipe1 and purpose to do so   
hereafter1 ,i do not feel certain that  
any positive advantage results from     
their blended application as a ,chloride
 of ,lime4 ,if ,i should gain further   
light on this point before completing   
this series1 ,i shall not fail to impart
 it4     ,,xxii4  ,,insects--,,birds4   
,if ,i were to estimate the average     
absolute loss of the farmers of this    

country from ,insects at #ajj1jjj1jjj   
per annum1 ,i should doubtless be far   
below the mark4 ,the loss of fruit alone
 by the devastations of insects1 within 
a radius of fifty miles from this ,city1
 must amount in value to ,millions4 ,in 
my neighborhood1 the ,peach once        
flourished1 but flourishes no more1 and 
,cherries have been all but annihilated4
 ,apples were till lately our most      
profitable and perhaps our most         
important product2 but the worms take   
half our average crop and sadly damage  
what they do not utterly destroy4 ,plums
 we have ceased to grow or expect2 our  
,pears are generally stung and often    
blighted2 even the ,currant has at last 
its fruit-destroying worm4 ,we must     
fight our paltry adversaries more       
efficiently1 or allow them to drive us  
wholly from the field4  ,now1 ,i have no
 doubt that our best allies in this     
inglorious warfare are the ,birds4 ,they
 would save us1 if we did not destroy   
them4 ,the ,british plowman1 turning his

 sod with a myriad of crows1 blackbirds1
 etc41 chasing his steps and all but    
getting under his feet in their eager   
quest of grubs1 bugs1 etc41 is a        
spectacle to be devoutly thankful for4  
,whenever clouds of birds shall         
habitually darken our fields in ,may and
 7less notably7 throughout the ,summer  
months1 we may reasonably hope to grow  
fair crops of our favorite ,fruits from 
year to year1 and realize that we owe   
them to the constant1 and zealous1      
though not quite disinterested1 efforts 
of our friends1 the ,birds4  ,but ,i do 
not regard the ravages of ,insects as   
entirely due to the reckless destruction
 and consequent scarcity of our ,birds4 
,i hold that their multiplication and   
their devastations are largely incited  
by the degeneracy of our plants caused  
by the badness of our culture4 ,on this 
point1 consider a statement made to me1 
some fifteen or twenty years ago1 by the
 late ,gov4 ,william ,f4 ,packer1 of    
,pennsylvania3  ,i know 7said ,gov4 ,p47

 the narrow valley of a stream that runs
 into the west branch of the            
,susquehanna1 which was cleared of the  
primitive forest some forty or fifty    
years since1 and has ever since been    
alternately in tillage and grass4 ,a    
road ran through the middle of it1      
dividing it into two narrow fields4 ,a  
few years ago1 this road was abandoned1 
and the whole of this little valley1    
including the road-way1 thrown into a   
single field1 which was thereupon sown  
to ,wheat4 ,at harvest-time1 this       
remarkable phenomenon was presented3 ,a 
good crop of sound grain on the strip   
four or fire rods wide formerly covered 
by the road2 while nearly every berry on
 either side of it was destroyed by the 
weevil or midge4  ,now ,i do not infer  
from this fact that insect ravages are  
wholly due to our abuse and exhaustion  
of the soil4 ,i presume that ,wheat and 
other crops would be devastated by      
insects if there were no slovenly1      
niggard1 exhausting tillage4 ,but ,i do 

firmly hold that at least half our      
losses by insects would be precluded if 
our fields were habitually kept in      
better heart by deep culture1 liberal   
fertilizing1 and a judicious rotation of
 crops4 ,i heard little of insect       
ravages in the wheat-fields of ,western 
,new-,york throughout the first thirty  
years of this century2 but1 when crop   
after crop of ,wheat had been taken from
 the same fields until they had been    
well nigh exhausted of their            
,wheat-forming elements1 we began to    
hear of the desolation wrought by       
insects2 and those ravages increased in 
magnitude until ,wheat-culture had to be
 abandoned for years4 ,i believe that we
 should have heard little of insects had
 ,wheat been grown on those fields but  
one year in three since their redemption
 from the primal forest4  ,but1 whatever
 might once have been1 the ,philistines 
are upon us4 ,we are doomed1 for at     
least a generation1 to wage a relentless
 war against insects multiplied beyond  

reason by the neglect and short-comings 
of our predecessors4 ,we are in like    
condition with the inhabitants of the   
,british isles a thousand years ago1    
whose forefathers had so long endured   
and so unskillfully resisted invasion   
and spoliation by the ,northmen that    
they had come to be regarded as the     
sea-kings' natural prey4 ,for           
generations1 it has been customary      
hereabout to slaughter without remorse  
the birds1 and let caterpillars1 worms1 
grasshoppers1 etc41 multiply and ravage 
unresisted4 ,we must pay for past errors
 by present loss and years of extra     
effort4 ,and1 precisely because the task
 is so arduous1 we ought to lose no time
 in addressing ourselves to its         
execution4  ,the first step to be taken 
is very simple4 ,let every farmer who   
realizes the importance and beneficence 
of ,birds teach his own children and    
hirelings that1 except the ,hawk1 they  
are to be spared1 protected1 kindly     
treated1 and 7when necessary7 fed4 ,they

 are to be valued and cherished as the  
voluntary police of our fields and      
gardens1 constantly employed in fighting
 our battles against our ruthless foes4 
,the boy who robs a bird's nest is      
robbing the farmer of a part of his     
crops4 ,he who traverses a farm shooting
 and mangling its feathered sentinels   
diminishes its future product of ,grain 
and nearly destroys that of ,fruit4 ,the
 farmer might as well consent that any  
strolling ruffian should shoot his      
,horses or ,cattle as his ,birds4 ,begin
 at home to make this truth felt and    
respected1 and it will be the easier to 
impress it also on your neighbors4      
,next1 there should be neighborhood or  
township associations for the protection
 of insect-eating birds4 ,we must not   
merely agree to let them live--we must  
cherish and protect them4 ,i believe    
that very simple cups or bowls of       
cast-iron1 having each a hole in its    
centre of suitable size1 that need not  
cost sixpence each1 and could be        

fastened to the side of a tree with one 
nail lightly driven1 would in time be   
adopted by many birds as nesting        
strongholds1 whence they might laugh to 
scorn their predacious enemies4 ,if     
every harmless bird could build its nest
 among us in a place where its eggs     
would be safe from hawks1 crows1 cats1  
boys1 and other robbers1 the number of  
such birds would quickly be doubled and 
quadrupled4  ,and we must summon the law
 to our aid4 ,though law can do little  
or nothing against stealthy1 skulking   
nest-plunderers1 it can help us         
materially in our warfare with the      
cowardly vagabonds who traverse our     
fields with musket or rifle1 blazing    
away at every unsuspecting robin or     
thrush that they can discover4 ,make it 
trespass1 punishable with fine and      
imprisonment1 to shoot on another's land
 without his express permission1 and the
 cowardly massacre of the farmers'      
humble allies would be checked at once1 
and1 when public sentiment had been     

properly enlightened1 might1 in         
civilized regions1 be arrested          
altogether4     ,,xxiii4  ,,about       
,,tree-,,planting4   ,i have had so     
little experience in ,tree-,planting    
that ,i should have preferred to say no 
more about it2 but letters that have    
reached me imply that the ignorance of  
others is even denser than mine4 ,for   
the sake of those only who are conscious
 that they know nothing1 yet are not    
unwilling to learn1 ,i venture a few    
timid suggestions with regard to        
,tree-,planting4  ,i4 ,ten or twelve    
years ago1 ,i bought a pound or more of 
,locust seed rather late in the ,spring1
 scalded it by plunging for a moment the
 little cotton bag which held it into a 
pot of boiling water1 and letting the   
seed steep and steam in the bag till    
next morning1 when the seed was planted 
in rows in a newly broken bit of poor   
old pasture-land4 ,this was a mistake2  
,i should have given that seed the      
richest available spot in my garden1 to 

say nothing of planting it as early as  
,april #bjth4 ,my locusts came up slowly
 and grew feebly that year1 not to speak
 of the many seeds that did not sprout  
at all4 ,still many came up and         
survived1 and my place is this day the  
richer for them4 ,it might have been    
still richer had ,i seasonably known    
more4  ,,ii4 ,what ,i would now advise  
as to ,locust and most other trees is   
that the best seed be procured in the   
,fall1 or so soon as it drops from the  
trees2 that part of it be sown in       
drills1 two feet apart1 with two inches 
between seeds in the drills1 and that   
the richest of dry1 warm garden-soil be 
devoted to this purpose4 ,fill a large  
box with rich loam1 stir four ounces of 
seed into this1 and set the box in a    
cool cellar where frost does not enter1 
and here let it remain till ,april2 then
 take out the seed and earth together1  
and sow in drills as above4 ,if some one
 who cuts ,locust during the ,winter or 
,spring will allow you to trace the     

smaller surface-roots from the new-made 
stumps and cut or dig them up1 cut fifty
 or a hundred pieces of root the size of
 your finger each two feet long1 and    
plant these1 about ,may #a1 in the      
places where you want ,locusts to come  
forward most rapidly4 ,some of them may 
not grow1 but ,i think many will2 and1  
from all these sources1 ,i judge that   
you will obtain a good supply of young  
trees4 ,let those you start from the    
seed get two years' growth before you   
take them up and set them where you want
 trees1 whether in your present woods1  
in rugged1 rocky pastures1 on the sides 
of steep ravines1 or around your        
buildings4 ,you cannot fail to obtain   
some trees if you follow these          
directions4  ,,iii4 ,begin early this   
,fall to gather ,chestnuts1 ,hickory    
,nuts1 ,walnuts1 ,white ,oak1 ,acorns1  
etc41 to plant4 ,select the largest and 
finest nuts1 giving the preference to   
those which ripen and fall earliest4    
,keep them in cool1 damp earth in some  

barn or cellar where rats and mice      
cannot reach them1 and persist in       
collecting till ,december4 ,then plant a
 part in your garden or in any rich     
ground where they are not likely to be  
disturbed2 letting the residue remain in
 the boxes of moist earth where you     
first placed them till early ,spring2   
then plant these1 like the former1 in   
rows two feet apart1 with six inches    
between seed and seed in each row1 and  
give the rows careful culture for two   
years2 after which1 set them where you  
wish them to grow4  ,i venture to       
suggest that he who has a ragged1 stony 
hill or other lot which he wishes to    
surrender to forest should plow it1 if  
it can be plowed1 next ,september or    
,october2 if too rocky to be even       
imperfectly plowed1 dig up the earth    
with pick and spade1 and sow it thickly 
with hickory nuts1 walnuts1 chestnuts1  
locust and other tree-seeds1 expecting  
that some will be dug up and carried off
 by squirrels1 etc41 and that others    

will fail to germinate4 ,go over it with
 hoes the ensuing ,june or ,july1       
killing all weeds and other             
infestations2 and1 nearly a year later1 
repeat the operation1 taking up young   
trees from your garden or nursery1 and  
filling them in wherever there is room4 
,plant thickly in order to force an     
upward rather than a scraggy growth2 and
 so that you may begin to cut out the   
superfluous saplings for bean-poles1    
hoop-poles1 etc41 three or four years   
thereafter4 ,cut late in ,winter or     
early in ,spring1 so that the stumps    
will each throw up two or more shoots or
 sprouts1 which usually grow much faster
 than the original tree did4 ,and the   
process of thinning may thus be         
continued indefinitely1 while the       
choicer trees are allowed to attain     
their stateliest proportions4 ,and thus 
a rocky1 sterile hill-side or knoll may 
be made to yield a crop annually after  
the first two or three years from       
planting1 while growing trees of decided

 value4 ,i judge that almost any land   
within fifty miles of a great city and  
not more than two miles from a railroad 
depot or from navigable water may thus  
be made to earn a good interest on #ajj 
per acre1 after meeting all the cost of 
breaking up and planting4 ,i confidently
 assert that many thousands of sterile1 
rocky acres1 which now yield less than  
#e per acre annually in pasturage1 would
 net at least double that sum to the    
owner if wisely devoted to forest-trees4
         99       99       99       99  
99  ,i have a hearty love of forests4   
,they proffer gentle companionship to   
the thoughtful and rest to the          
overworked1 fevered brain4 ,our streams 
will be fuller and less capricious1 our 
gales less destructive1 our climate more
 equable1 when we shall have reclothed  
our rugged slopes and rocky crests with 
trees4 ,timber grows yearly scarcer and 
dearer1 when it ought to be becoming    
more plentiful and accessible1 and would
 be if we devoted to trees all the land 

which we cultivate at a loss or fail to 
cultivate at all4 ,let our boys be      
incited to gather seeds and plant       
nurseries2 let young trees be bought by 
the thousand where they now are by the  
dozen1 and let us all cooperate in      
covering our unsightly rocks and making 
glad our waste places by a              
superabundance of choice1 thrifty1      
healthy trees4  ,many of our young men  
have a taste for adventure and          
excitement which leads them to the      
ocean1 the mines1 to ,australia or some 
other far-off land recently and scantily
 peopled by civilized beings4 ,i will   
not quarrel with their taste2 but ,i    
judge that there are openings for their 
enterprise and daring within the area of
 our own country4 ,let one thousand of  
them resolve to devote the next five    
years to planting forests on the        
treeless plains and virtual deserts of  
the ,great ,basin and on either side of 
it2 let them select locations where some
 acres may cheaply and surely be        

irrigated1 and1 having carefully        
provided themselves with an abundance of
 the best seeds1 let them start patches 
of woodland at points the most remote   
from present timber1 until a thousand   
different forests--one to each of the   
associates--shall have been started and 
guarded till their roots have taken firm
 hold of the earth4 ,i presume ,congress
 would grant them preemptions to each   
section on which they thus planted at   
least forty acres of forest1 and that   
most of these preemption rights could1  
within ten years1 be sold to settlers   
for many times their original cost4     
,,xxiv4  ,,fruit-,,trees--,,the ,,apple4
   ,if ,i were asked to say what single 
aspect of our economic condition most   
strikingly and favorably distinguished  
the people of our ,northern ,states from
 these of most if not all other         
countries which ,i have traversed1 ,i   
would point at once to the fruit-trees  
which so generally diversify every      
little as well as larger farm throughout

 these ,states1 and are quite commonly  
found even on the petty holdings of the 
poorer mechanics and workmen in every   
village and in the suburbs and outskirts
 of every city4 ,i can recall nothing   
like it abroad1 save in two or three of 
the least mountainous and most fertile  
districts of northern ,switzerland4     
,italy has some approach to it in the   
venerable olive-trees which surround or 
flank many1 perhaps most1 of her        
farm-houses1 upholding grape-vines as   
ancient and nearly as large as          
themselves2 but the average             
,new-,england or ,middle ,state         
homestead1 with its ample ,apple-orchard
 and its cluster of ,pear1 ,cherry and  
,plum-trees surrounding its house and   
dotting or belting its garden1 has an   
air of comfort and modest thrift1 which 
,i have nowhere else seen fairly        
equaled4 ,upland ,virginia and the      
mountainous portion of the ,states      
southward of her may in time surpass the
 most favored regions of the ,north in  

the abundance1 variety and excellence of
 their fruits2 for the ,peach and the   
,grape find here a congenial climate1   
while they are grown with difficulty1   
where they can be grown at all1 in the  
,north2 but1 up to this hour1 ,i judge  
that our country north of the ,potomac  
is better supplied with wholesome and   
palatable tree-fruits than any other    
portion of the earth's surface of equal 
or nearly equal area4  ,on the whole1 ,i
 deem it a misfortune that our ,northern
 ,states were so admirably adapted to   
the ,apple and kindred fruit-trees that 
our pioneer forefathers had little more 
to do than bury the seeds in the ground 
and wait a few years for the resulting  
fruit4 ,the soil1 formed of decayed     
trees and their foliage1 thickly covered
 with the ashes of the primitive forest1
 was as genial as soil could be2 while  
the remaining woods1 which still covered
 seven-eighths of the country1 shut out 
or softened the cold winds of ,winter   
and ,spring1 rendering it less          

difficult1 a century ago1 to grow fine  
peaches in southern ,new-,hampshire than
 it now is in southern ,new-,york4      
,devastating insects were precluded by  
those great1 dense woods from diffusing 
themselves from orchard to orchard as   
they now do4 ,snows fell more heavily   
and lay longer then than now1 protecting
 the roots from heavy frosts1 and       
keeping back buds and blossoms in       
,spring1 to the signal advantage of the 
husbandman4 ,i estimate that my         
apple-trees would bear at least         
one-third more fruit if ,i could retard 
their blossoming a fortnight1 so as to  
avoid the cold rains and cutting winds1 
often succeeded by frosts1 which are apt
 to pay their unwelcome farewell visits 
just when my trees are in bloom or when 
the fruit is forming directly           
thereafter4 ,hence1 ,i say to every one 
who shall hereafter set an orchard1     
,give it the northward slope of a hill  
if that be possible4 ,other things being
 equal1 the orchard which blossoms      

latest will1 in a series of years1 yield
 most fruit1 and will be most likely to 
bear when the ,apple-crop of your       
vicinity proves a failure4 ,i do not    
recommend storing ice to plant or bury  
under the trees in ,april1 for that     
involves too much labor and expense2 yet
 ,i have no doubt that even that has    
been and sometimes might be done with   
profit4 ,in the average1 however1 ,i    
judge that it would not pay4  ,in       
locating and setting an orchard1 the    
very first consideration is thorough    
drainage4 ,nothing short of a           
destructive fire can be more injurious  
to an apple-tree than compelling it to  
stand throughout ,winter and ,spring in 
sour1 stagnant water4 ,barrenness1 dead 
branches1 and premature general decay1  
are the natural and righteous           
consequences of such crying abuse4      
,there are many reasons for choosing    
sloping or broken ground for an         
apple-orchard1 whereof comparative      
exemption from frost and natural        

facility of drainage are the most       
obvious4 ,a level field1 thoroughly     
undrained to-day1 may1 through neglect  
and the mischiefs wrought by burrowing  
animals1 have become little better than 
a morass thirty years hence2 but an     
orchard set on a tolerably steep        
hillside is reasonably secure against   
wet feet to the close of its natural    
life4  ,a gravelly or sandy loam is     
generally preferred for orchards2 yet ,i
 have known them to flourish and bear   
generously on heavy clay4 ,whoever has a
 gravelly field will wisely prefer this 
for ,apples1 not merely to clay but to  
sand as well4  ,and1 while many young   
orchards have doubtless been injured by 
immoderate applications of rank1 green  
manures1 ,i doubt that any man has ever 
yet bestowed too much care and expense  
on the preparation of his ground for    
fruit-trees4 ,where ridges or plateaus  
of fast stone do not forbid1 ,i would   
say1 ,turn over the soil to a depth of  
at least fifteen inches with a large    

plow and a strong team2 then lift and   
pulverize the subsoil to a depth of not 
less than nine inches2 apply all the    
,wood-ashes you can get1 with one       
thousand bushels of ,marl if you are in 
a ,marl region2 if not1 use instead from
 thirty to fifty bushels of quick ,lime 
7oyster-shell if that is to be had7 with
 one hundred loads per acre of ,swamp   
,muck which has lain a year on dry      
upland1 baking in the sun and wind2 and 
now you may think of setting your trees4
 ,if your soil was rich ,western prairie
 or ,middle-,state garden to begin with1
 you can dispense with all these        
fertilizers2 yet ,i doubt that there is 
an acre of ,western prairie that would  
not be improved by the ,lime or 7perhaps
 better still7 a smaller quantity of    
refuse ,salt from a packing-house or    
meat retailing grocery4 ,there are not  
many farms that would not repay the     
application of five bushels per acre of 
refuse ,salt at twenty-five cents per   
bushel4  ,your trees once set--7and he  

who sets twenty trees per day as they   
should be set1 with each root in its    
natural position1 and the earth pressed 
firmly around its trunk1 but no higher  
than as it originally grew1 is a        
faithful1 efficient worker71 ,i would   
cultivate the land1 7for the trees'     
sake71 growing crops successively of    
,ruta ,bagas1 ,carrots1 ,beets1 and     
early ,potatoes1 but no grain whatever1 
for six or seven years1 disturbing the  
roots of the trees as little as may be1 
and guarding their trunks from tug1 or  
trace1 or whiffle-tree1 by three stakes 
set firmly in the ground about each     
tree1 not so near it as to preclude     
constant cultivation with the hoe inside
 as well as outside of the stakes1 so as
 to let no weed mature in the field4    
,apply from year to year well-rotted    
compost to the field in quantity        
sufficient fully to counterbalance the  
annual abstraction by your crops4 ,make 
it a law inflexible and relentless that 
no animal shall be let into this orchard

 to forage1 or for any purpose whatever 
but to draw on manures1 to till the     
soil1 and to draw away the crops4 ,thus 
until the first blossoms begin to appear
 on the trees2 then lay down to grass   
without grain1 unless it be a crop of   
,rye or ,oats to be cut and carried off 
for feed when not more than half grown1 
leaving the ground to the young grass4  
,let the grass be mowed for the next two
 or three years1 and thenceforward      
devote it to the pasturage of ,swine1   
running over it with a scythe once or   
twice each ,summer to clear it of weeds1
 and taking out the ,swine a few days   
before beginning to gather the ,apples1 
but putting them back again the day     
after the harvest is completed4 ,let the
 ,swine be sufficiently numerous and    
hungry to eat every apple that falls    
within a few hours after it is dropped1 
and to insure their rooting out every   
grub or worm that burrows in the earth  
beneath the trees1 ready to spring up   
and apply himself to mischief at the    

very season when you could best excuse  
his absence4 ,i do not commend this as  
all1 or nearly all1 that should be done 
in resistance to the pest of insect     
ravage2 but ,i begin with the ,hog as   
the orchardist's readiest1 cheapest1    
most effective ally or servitor in the  
warfare he is doomed unceasingly to wage
 against the spoilers of his heritage4  
,i will indicate some further defensive 
enginery in my next chapter4     ,,xxv  
,,more ,,about ,,apple-,,trees4   ,in my
 opinion1 ,apple-trees1 in most         
orchards1 are planted too far apart and 
allowed to grow taller and spread their 
limbs more widely than is profitable4 ,i
 judge that a pruner or picker should be
 able to reach the topmost twig of any  
tree with a ten-foot pole1 and that no  
limb should be allowed to extend more   
than eight feet from the trunk whence it
 springs4 ,our ,autumnal ,equinox occurs
 before our ,apples are generally ripe  
for harvest1 and1 finding our best trees
 bending under a heavy burden of fruit1 

its fierce gales are apt to make bad    
work with trees as well as apples4 ,the 
best tree ,i had1 with several others1  
was thus ruined by an equinoctial       
tempest a few years since4 ,barren trees
 escape unharmed1 while those heavily   
laden with large fruit are wrenched and 
twisted into fragments4 ,and1 even apart
 from this peril1 a hundred weight of   
fruit at or near the extremity of limbs 
which extend ten or twelve feet         
horizontally from the trunk1 tax and    
strain a tree more than four times that 
weight growing within four or five feet 
of the trunk1 and on limbs that maintain
 a semi-erect position4 ,i diffidently  
suggest1 therefore1 that no apple-tree  
be allowed to exceed fifteen feet in    
height1 nor to send a limb more than    
eight feet from its trunk1 and that     
trees be set 7diamond-fashion7          
twenty-four feet apart each way1 instead
 of thirty-two1 as some of mine were4 ,i
 judge that the larger number of trees  
7#gb per acre7 will produce more fruit  

in the average than the larger but fewer
 trees grown on squares of two by two   
rods to each1 that they will thrive and 
bear longer1 and that not one will be   
destroyed or seriously harmed by winds  
where a dozen would if allowed to grow  
as high and spread as far as they could4
         99       99       99       99  
99  ,every apple-tree should be pruned  
each year of its life3 that is1 it      
should be carefully examined with intent
 to prune if that be found necessary4   
,it should be pruned with a careful eye 
to giving it the proper shape1 which1   
from the point where it first forks     
upward1 should be that of a tea-cup1    
very nearly4 ,i have seen young trees so
 malformed that they could rarely1 if   
ever1 bear fruit enough to render them  
profitable4 ,and the pruning should be  
so carefully1 judiciously done from the 
outset that no wood two years old should
 ever be cut away4 ,with old1 malformed1
 diseased1 worm-eaten1 decaying trees1  
the best must be done that can be2 but  

he who1 pruning a tree that he set and  
has hitherto cared for1 finds himself   
obliged to cut off a limb thicker than  
his thumb1 may justly suspect himself of
 lacking a mastery of the art of        
fruit-growing4  ,sprouts from the root  
of an apple-tree remind me of children  
who habitually play truant or are kept  
out of school4 ,they not merely can     
never come to good1 but they are a      
nuisance to the neighborhood and bring  
reproach on the community4  ,the        
apple-grower should never forget that   
every producer needs to be fed in       
proportion to his product4 ,if a cow    
gives twenty quarts of milk per day1 she
 needs more grass or other food than if 
she gave but two quarts2 and an acre of 
orchard that yields a hundred barrels of
 ,apples per annum needs something given
 to the soil to balance the draft made  
upon it4 ,nature offers us good         
bargains2 but she does not trust and    
will not be cheated4 ,when she offers a 
bushel of ,corn for a bushel of dirty   

,salt1 ,shell ,lime1 or ,wood-,ashes1 a 
load of ,hay for a load of ,muck1 we    
ought not to stint the measure1 but pay 
her demand ungrudgingly4         99     
99       99       99       99  ,and now 
a last word on ,insects4  ,my township  
7,newcastle7 is said to have formerly   
grown more ,apples per annum than any   
other township in the ,united ,states2  
its apple-trees are still as numerous as
 ever1 but their product has fallen off 
deplorably4 ,i estimate the average     
yield of the last three years at less   
than a bushel per annum for each        
full-grown tree2 ,i think a majority of 
the trees have not borne a bushel each  
in all these three years4 ,unseasonable 
frosts1 storms1 etc41 have borne the    
blame of this barrenness--perhaps       
justly1 if we consider only immediate   
causes--but the caterpillar and other   
vermin are1 in my view1 our more potent1
 though remoter1 afflictions4 ,not less 
than four times within the last sixteen 
years have our trees been covered with  

nests and worms2 and ,i have seen whole 
orchards stripped of nearly every leaf  
till they were as bare 7of every thing  
but caterpillars7 in ,july as they      
should have been in ,december4 ,after   
the scourge had passed1 the trees reclad
 themselves with leaves2 but they grew  
old under that visitation faster in one 
year than they would have done in ten of
 healthful fruit-bearing2 and they are  
now prematurely gray and moss-covered   
because of the terrible infliction4  ,i 
lay down the general proposition that no
 man who harbors caterpillars has any   
moral right to ,apples--that each grower
 should be required to make his choice  
between them4 ,slovenly farmers say1 ,o 
there are so many of them that ,i cannot
 kill half so fast as they multiply4    
,then ,i say1 cut down and burn up the  
trees you can best spare1 until you have
 no more left than you can keep clear of
 worms4  ,if it were the law of the land
 that whoever allowed caterpillars to   
nest and breed in his fruit-trees should

 pay a heavy fine for each nest1 we     
should soon be comparatively clear of   
the scourges4 ,in the absence of such   
salutary regulation1 one man fights them
 with persistent resolution1 only to see
 his orchard again and again invaded and
 ravaged by the pests hatched and       
harbored by his careless neighbors4 ,he 
thus pays and repays the penalty of     
others' negligence and misdoing until1  
discouraged and demoralized1 he abandons
 the hopeless struggle1 and thenceforth 
repels the enemy from a few favorite    
trees around his dwelling1 and          
surrenders his orchard to its fate4     
,thus bad laws 7or no laws7 are         
constantly making bad farmers4 ,the     
birds that would help us to make head   
against our insect foes are slaughtered 
by reckless boys--many of them big      
enough to know better--and our perils   
and losses from enemies who would be    
contemptible if their numbers did not   
render them formidable increase from    
year to year4 ,we must change all this2 

and the first requisite of our situation
 is a firm alliance of the entire       
farming and fruit-growing interest      
defensive as to birds1 offensive toward 
their destroyers1 and toward the vermin 
multiplied and shielded by the ruthless 
massacre of our feathered friends4      
,since the foregoing was written we have
 had 7in #ahgj7 the greatest ,apple-crop
 throughout our section that mine eyes  
did ever yet behold4 ,it was so abundant
 that ,i could not sell all my          
cider-apples to the vinegar-makers1 even
 at fitly cents per barrel4 ,this       
establishes the continued capacity of   
our region to bear ,apples1 and should  
invite to the planting of new orchards  
and the fertilization and renovation of 
old ones4     ,,xxvi4  ,,hay ,,and      
,,hay-,,making   ,the ,grass-crop of    
this1 as of many1 if not most1 other    
countries1 is undoubtedly the most      
important of its annual products2       
requiring by far the largest area of its
 soil1 and furnishing the principal food

 of its ,cattle1 and thus contributing  
essentially to the subsistence of its   
working animals and to the production of
 those ,meats which form a large and    
constantly increasing proportion of the 
food of every civilized people4 ,but ,i 
propose to speak in this essay of that  
proportion of the ,grass-crop--say #be  
to #ce per cent4 of the whole--which is 
cut1 cured and housed 7or stacked7 for  
,hay1 and which is mainly fed out to    
animals in ,winter and ,spring1 when    
frost and snow have divested the earth  
of herbage or rendered it inaccessible4 
,the ,seventh ,census 7#ahej7 returned  
the ,hay-crop of the preceding year at  
#ac1hch1fdb tuns1 which the ,eighth     
,census increased to #ai1abi1abh tuns as
 the product of #ahei4 ,confident that  
most farmers underestimate their        
,hay-crops1 and that hundreds of        
thousands who do not consider themselves
 farmers1 but who own or rent little    
homesteads of two to ten acres each1    
keeping thereon a cow or two and often a

 horse1 fail to make returns of the two 
to five tuns of ,hay they annually      
produce1 considering them too trivial1  
,i estimate the actual ,hay-crop of all 
our ,states and ,territories for the    
current year at #dj1jjj1jjj tuns1 or    
about a tun to each inhabitant1 although
 ,i do not expect the new ,census to    
place it much1 if any1 above #be1jjj1jjj
 tuns4 ,the estimated average value of  
this crop is #aj 7gold7 per tun1 making 
its aggregate value1 at my estimate of  
its amount1 #djj1jjj1jjj--;and the      
quantity is constantly and rapidly      
increasing4  ,that quantity should be   
larger from the area devoted to meadows1
 and the quality a great deal better4 ,i
 estimate that #cj1jjj1jjj acres are    
annually mowed to obtain these          
#dj1jjj1jjj tuns of ,hay1 giving an     
average yield of #a-a_/c tuns per acre1 
while the average should certainly not  
fall below two tuns per acre4 ,my upland
 has a gravelly1 rocky soil1 not natural
 to grass1 and had been pastured to     

death for at least a century before ,i  
bought it2 yet it has yielded me an     
average of not less than #b-a_/b tuns to
 the acre for the last sixteen years1   
and will not yield less while ,i am     
allowed to farm it4 ,my lowland 7bog    
when ,i bought it7 is bound henceforth  
to yield more2 but1 while imperfectly or
 not at all drained1 it was of course a 
poor reliance--yielding bounteously in  
spots1 in others1 little or nothing4    
,in nothing else is shiftless1 slovenly 
farming so apt to betray itself as in   
the culture of ,grass and the management
 of grass lands4 ,pastures overgrown    
with bushes and chequered by quaking1   
miry bogs2 meadows foul with every weed1
 from white daisy up to the rankest     
brakes1 with hill-sides that may once   
have been productive1 but from which    
crop after crop has been taken and      
nothing returned to them1 until their   
yield has shrunk to half or             
three-fourths of a tun of poor hay1     
these are the average indications of a  

farm nearly run out by the poorest sort 
of farming4 ,such farms were common in  
the ,new ,england of my boyhood2 ,i     
trust they are less so to-day2 yet ,i   
seldom travel ten miles in any region   
north or east of the ,delaware without  
seeing one or more of them4  ,fifty     
years ago1 ,i judge that the greater    
part of the hay made in ,new-,england   
was cut from sour1 boggy land1 that was 
devoted to grass simply because nothing 
else could be done with it4 ,i have     
helped to carry the crop off on poles   
from considerable tracts on which oxen  
could not venture without miring4 ,it   
were superfluous to add that no         
well-bred animal would eat such stuff1  
unless the choice were between it and   
absolute starvation4 ,in many cases1 a  
very little work done in opening the    
rudest surface-drains would have        
transformed these bogs into decent      
meadows1 and the product1 by the help of
 plowing or seeding1 into               
unexceptionable hay4  ,there are not    

many farmers1 apart from our wise and   
skillful dairymen1 who use half enough  
grass-seed2 men otherwise thrifty often 
fail in this respect4 ,if half our      
ordinary farmers would thoroughly seed  
down a full third of the area they      
usually cultivate1 and devote to the    
residue the time and efforts they now   
give to the whole1 they would grow more 
grain and vegetables1 while the         
additional grass would be so much clear 
again4  ,we sow almost exclusively      
,timothy and ,clover1 when there are at 
least #bj different grasses required by 
our great diversity of soils1 and of    
these three or four might often be sown 
together with profit2 especially in     
seeding down fields intended for        
pasture1 we might advantageously use a  
greater variety and abundance of seed4  
,i believe that there are grasses not   
yet adopted and hardly recognized by the
 great body of our farmers--the         
buffalo-grass of the prairies for       
one--that will yet be grown and prized  

over a great part of our country4  ,as  
for ,hay-,making1 my conviction is      
strong that our grass is cut in the     
average from two to three weeks too     
late1 and that not only is our hay      
greatly damaged thereby1 but our meadows
 needlessly impoverished and exhausted4 
,the formation and perfection of seed   
always draw heavily upon the soil4 ,a   
crop of grass cut when the earliest     
blossoms begin to drop--which1 in my    
judgment1 is the only right time--will  
not impoverish the soil half so much as 
will the same crop cut three weeks      
later2 while the roots of the earlier   
cut grass will retain their vitality at 
least thrice as long as though half the 
seed had ripened before the crop was    
harvested4 ,grass that was fully ripe   
when cut has lost at least half its     
nutriment1 which no chemistry can ever  
restore4 ,hay alone is dry fodder for a 
long ,winter1 especially for young      
stock2 but hay cut after it was dead    
ripe1 is proper nutriment for no animal 

whatever--not even for old horses1 who  
are popularly supposed to like and      
thrive upon it4  ,the fact that our     
farmers are too generally short-handed  
throughout the season of the ,summer    
harvest1 while it seems to explain the  
error ,i combat1 renders it none the    
less disastrous and deplorable4 ,i      
estimate the depreciation in the value  
of our hay-crop1 by reason of late      
cutting1 as not less than one-fifth2    
and1 when we consider that a full half  
of our farmers turn out their cattle to 
ravage and poach up their fields in     
quest of fodder a full month earlier    
than they should1 because their hay is  
nearly or quite exhausted1 the          
consequences of this error are seen to  
diffuse themselves over the whole       
economy of the farm4         99       99
       99       99       99  ,from the  
hour in which grass falls under the     
,mower1 it ought to be kept in motion   
until laid at rest in the stack or the  
barn2 keep stirring it with the tedder  

until it is ready to be raked into light
 winrows1 and turn these over and over  
until they will answer to go upon the   
cart4 ,in any bright1 hot day1 the grass
 mowed in the morning should be stacked 
before the dew falls at night2 while1 if
 any is mowed after noon1 it should be  
cocked and capped by sunset1 even though
 it be necessary to open it out the next
 fair morning4  ,i have a dream of      
hay-making1 especially with regard to   
clover1 without allowing it to be       
scalded by fierce sunshine4 ,in my      
dream1 the grass is raked and loaded    
nearly as fast as cut1 drawn to the     
barn-yard1 and there pitched upon an    
endless apron1 on which it is carried   
slowly through a drying-house1 heated to
 some #bjj deg4 ,fahrenheit by steam or 
by charcoal in a furnace below1 somewhat
 after the manner of a hop-kiln4 ,while 
passing slowly through this heated      
atmosphere1 the grass is continually    
forked up and shaken so as to expose    
every lock of it to the drying heat1    

until it passes off thereby deprived of 
its moisture and is precipitated into a 
mow or upon a stack-bottom at the       
opposite side2 load after load being    
pitched upon the apron continuously1 and
 the drying process going steadily      
forward by night as well as by day1 and 
without regard to the weather outside4  
,i do not assert that this vision will  
ever be realized2 but ,i have known     
dreams as wild as this transformed by   
time and thought into beneficent        
realities4  ,i ask no one to share my   
dreams or sympathise with their drift   
and purpose4 ,i only insist that        
,hay-making1 as it is managed all around
 me1 is ruder in its processes and more 
uncertain in its results than it should 
or need be4 ,we cut our grass rapidly   
and well2 we gather and house it with   
tolerable efficiency2 but we cure much  
of it imperfectly and wastefully4 ,the  
fact that most of it is over-ripe when  
cut aggravates the pernicious effects of
 its subsequent exposure to dew and     

rain2 and the net result is damaged     
fodder which is at once unpalatable and 
innutritious4     ,,xxvii4              
,,peaches--,,pears--,,cherries--,,grapes
4   ,our harsh1 capricious climate north
 of the latitudes of ,philadelphia1     
,cincinnati1 and ,st4 ,louis--so much   
severer than that of corresponding      
latitudes in ,europe--is unfavorable1 or
 at least very trying1 to all the more  
delicate and luscious ,fruits1 berries  
excepted4 ,except on our ,pacific coast1
 of which the ,winter temperature is at 
least ten degrees milder than that of   
the ,atlantic1 the finer ,peaches and   
,grapes are grown with difficulty north 
of the fortieth degree of latitude1 save
 in a few specially favored localities1 
whereof the southern shore of ,lake     
,erie is most noted1 though part of that
 of ,lake ,ontario and of the west coast
 of ,lake ,michigan are likewise well   
adapted to the ,peach4  ,it is not the  
mere fact that the mercury in           
,fahrenheit's thermometer sometimes     

ranges below zero1 and the earth is     
deeply frozen1 but the suddenness       
wherewith such rigor succeeds and is    
succeeded by a temperature above the    
freezing point1 that proves so          
inhospitable to the most valued         
,tree-,fruits4 ,and1 as the dense       
forests which formerly clothed the      
,alleghenies and the ,atlantic slope1   
are year by year swept away1 the        
severity of our cold snaps1 and the     
celerity with which they appear and     
disappear1 are constantly aggravated4 ,a
 change of #fj deg41 or from #ej deg4   
above to #aj deg4 below zero1 between   
morning and the following midnight1 soon
 followed by an equally rapid return to 
an average ,november temperature1 often 
proves fatal even to hardy forest-trees4
 ,i have had the ,red ,cedar in my woods
 killed by scores during an open1       
capricious ,winter2 and my observation  
indicates the warmest spots in a forest 
as those where trees are most likely to 
be thus destroyed4 ,after an ,arctic    

night1 in which they are frozen solid1 a
 bright sun sends its rays into the     
warmest nooks1 whence the wind is       
excluded1 and wholly or partially thaws 
out the smaller trees2 which are        
suddenly frozen solid again so soon as  
the sunshine is withdrawn2 and this     
partly explains to my mind the fact that
 peach-buds are often killed in lower   
and level portions of an orchard1 while 
they retain their vitality on the       
hill-side and at its crest1 not #hj rods
 distant from those destroyed4 ,the fact
 that the colder air descends into and  
remains in the valleys of a rolling     
district contributes also to the correct
 explanation of a phenomenon which has  
puzzled some observers4  ,unless in a   
favored locality1 it seems to the       
unadvisable for a farmer who expects to 
thrive mainly by the production of      
,grain and ,cattle1 to attempt the      
growing of the finer ,fruits1 except for
 the use of his own family4 ,in a       
majority of cases1 a multiplicity of    

cares and labors precludes his giving to
 his ,peaches and ,grapes1 his ,plums   
and ,quinces1 the seasonable and        
persistent attention which they         
absolutely require4 ,quite commonly1 a  
farmer visits a grand nursery1 sees with
 admiration its trees and vines loaded  
with the most luscious ,fruits1 and     
rashly infers that he has only to buy a 
good stock of like ,trees and ,vines to 
insure himself an abundance of delicious
 fruit4 ,so he buys and sets2 but with  
no such preparation of the soil1 and no 
such care to keep it mellow and free    
from weeds1 or to baffle and destroy    
predatory insects1 as the nurseryman    
employs4 ,hence the utter disappointment
 of his hopes2 borers1 slugs1           
caterpillars1 and every known or unknown
 species of insect enemies1 prey upon   
his neglected favorites4 ,at intervals1 
some domestic animal or animals get     
among them1 and break down a dozen in an
 hour4 ,so1 the far greater number come 
to grief1 without having had one fair   

chance to show what they could do1 and  
the farmer jumps to the conclusion that 
the nurseryman was a swindler1 and the  
trees he sells scarcely related to those
 whose abundant and excellent fruits    
tempted him to buy4 ,i counsel every    
farmer to consider thoughtfully the     
treatment absolutely required for the   
production of the finer ,fruits before  
he allows a nurseryman to make a bill   
against him1 and not expect to grow     
,duchesse ,pears as easily as           
,blackberries1 or ,ionas and ,catawbas  
as readily as he does ,fox-grapes on the
 willows which overhang his brook2 for  
if he does he will surely be            
disappointed4  ,some of our hardier and 
coarser ,grapes--the ,concord preeminent
 among them--are grown with considerable
 facility over a wide extent of our     
country2 and many farmers1 having       
planted them in congenial soil1 and     
tended them well throughout their       
infancy1 are rewarded by a bounteous    
product for two or three years4         

,believing their success assured1 they  
imagine that their vines may henceforth 
be neglected1 and in the course of two  
or three more years they are often      
utterly ruined4 ,i know that there are  
wild grapes of some value1 in the       
absence of better1 which thrive and bear
 without attention2 but ,i do not       
believe that any grape which will sell  
in a market where good fruit was ever   
seen1 can be grown north of             
,philadelphia but by constant care and  
labor1 or at a cost of less than five   
cents per pound1 under the most         
judicious and skillful treatment4 ,in   
,california1 and ,i presume in most of  
our ,states south of the ,potomac and   
,ohio1 choice grapes may be grown more  
abundantly and more cheaply4 ,yet ,i    
think the localities are few and far    
between in which a tun of good grapes   
can be grown as cheaply as a tun of     
wheat1 under the most judicious         
cultivation in either case4  ,i do not  
mean to discourage grape-growing2 on the

 contrary1 ,i would have every farmer1  
even so far north as ,vermont and       
,wisconsin1 experiment cautiously with a
 dozen of the most promising varieties1 
including always the more hardy1 in the 
hope of finding some one or more adapted
 to his soil1 and capable of enduring   
his climate4 ,even in ,france1 the land 
of the vine1 one farm will produce a    
grape which the very next will not3 no  
man can satisfactorily say why4 ,the    
farmer1 who has tried half a dozen      
grapes and failed with all1 should not  
be deterred from further experiments1   
for the very next may prove a success4  
,i would only say1 ,be moderate in your 
expectations and careful in your        
experiments2 and never risk even #ajj on
 a vineyard1 till you have ascertained1 
at a cost of #e or under1 whether the   
species you are testing will thrive and 
bear on your soil4  ,in my own case1 my 
upland mainly sloping to the west1 with 
a hill rising directly south of it1 ,i  
have had no luck with ,grapes1 and ,i   

have wasted little time or means upon   
them4 ,i have done enough to show that  
they can be grown1 even in such a       
locality1 but not to profit or          
satisfaction4  ,i would advise the      
farmer who proposes to grow ,pear1      
,peaches1 and ,quinces1 for home use    
only or mainly1 to select a piece of    
dry1 gravelly or sandy loam1 underdrain 
it thoroughly1 plow or trench it very   
deeply1 and fertilize it generously1 in 
good part with ashes and with leaf-mold 
from his woods4 ,locate the pig-pen on  
one side of it1 fence it strongly1 and  
let the pigs have the run of it for a   
good portion of each year4 ,in this plat
 or yard1 plant half a dozen ,cherry and
 as many ,pear trees of choice          
varieties1 the ,bartlett foremost among 
them2 keep clear of all dwarfs1 and let 
your choicest trees have a chance to run
 under the pig-pen if they will4 ,plant 
here also1 if your climate does not     
forbid1 a dozen well-chosen             
,peach-trees1 and two each year         

thereafter to replace those that will   
soon be dying out2 and give half a dozen
 ,quinces moist and rich locations by   
the side of your fences2 surrounding    
each tree with stakes or pickets that   
will preclude too great familiarity on  
the part of the swine1 and will not     
prevent a sharp scrutiny for borers in  
their season4 ,do not forget that a     
fruit-tree is like a cow tied to an     
immovable stake1 from which you cannot  
continue to draw a pail of milk per day 
unless you carry her a liberal supply of
 food2 and every ,fall cart in half a   
dozen loads of muck from some convenient
 swamp or pond for your pigs to turn    
over3 ,should they leave any weeds1 cut 
them with a scythe as often as they seem
 to need it2 never allowing one to ripen
 seed4 ,there may be easier and surer   
ways to obtain choice fruits2 but this  
one commends itself to my judgment as   
not surpassed by any other4 ,i think few
 have grown fruits to profit but those  
who make this a specialty2 and ,i feel  

that disappointment in fruit-culture is 
by no means near the end4 ,you can grow 
,plums1 or ,grapes1 or ,peaches1 outside
 of the climate most congenial to them1 
but this is a work wherein success is   
likely to cost more than its worth4 ,try
 it first on a small scale1 if you will 
try it2 and be sure you do it           
thoroughly4     ,,xxviii4               
,,grain-,,growing--,,east ,,and ,,west4 
,i disclaim all pretensions to ability  
to teach ,western farmers how to grow   
,indian ,corn abundantly and profitably1
 while ,i cheerfully admit that they    
have taught me somewhat thoroughly worth
 knowing4 ,in my boyhood1 ,i hoed ,corn 
diligently for weeks at a time1 drawing 
the earth from between the rows up about
 the stalks to a depth of three or four 
inches2 thus forming hills which the    
,west has since taught me to be of no   
use1 but rather a detriment1            
embarrassing the efforts of the growing1
 hungry plants to throw out their roots 
extensively in every direction1 and     

subjecting them to needless injury from 
drouth4 ,i am thoroughly convinced that 
,corn1 properly planted1 will1 like     
,wheat and all other grains1 root itself
 just deep enough in the ground1 and    
that to keep down all weeds and leave   
the surface of the corn-field open1     
mellow and perfectly flat1 is the best  
as well as the cheapest way to cultivate
 ,corn4 ,and ,i do not believe that so  
much human food1 with so little labor1  
is produced elsewhere on earth as in the
 spacious fields of ,wheat and ,corn in 
our grand ,mississippi valley4  ,and yet
 ,i have seen in that valley many ample 
stretches covered with ,corn1 whereof   
the tillage seemed susceptible of       
improvement4 ,riding between these great
 corn-fields in ,october1 after         
everything standing thereon had been    
killed by frost1 it seemed to my        
observation that1 while the corn-crop   
was fair1 the weed-crop was far more    
luxuriant2 so that1 if everything had   
been cut clean from the ground1 and the 

corn and the weeds placed in opposite   
scales1 the latter would have weighed   
down the former4 ,i cannot doubt that   
the cultivation1 or lack of cultivation1
 which produces or permits such results1
 is not merely slovenly1 but unthrifty4 
,the ,west is for the present1 as for a 
generation she has been1 the granary of 
the ,east4 ,in my judgment1 she will not
 long be content to remain so4 ,fifty   
years ago1 the ,genesee valley supplied 
most of the wheat and flour imported    
into ,new-,england2 ten years later1    
,northern ,ohio was our principal       
resource2 ten years later still1        
,michigan1 ,indiana1 northern ,illinois1
 and eastern ,wisconsin1 had been added 
to our grain-growing territory4 ,another
 decade1 and our flour manufacturers had
 crossed the ,mississippi1 laying ,iowa 
and ,minnesota under liberal            
contributions1 while western ,new-,york 
had ceased to grow even her own         
breadstuffs1 and ,ohio to produce one   
bushel more than she needed for home    

consumption4 ,can we doubt that this    
steady recession of our ,egypt1 our     
,hungary1 is destined to continue8      
,twenty-three years ago1 when ,i first  
rode out from the then rising village of
 ,chicago to see the ,illinois prairies1
 nearly every wagon ,i met was loaded   
with wheat1 going into ,chicago1 to be  
sold for about fifty cents per bushel1  
and the proceeds loaded back in the form
 of lumber1 groceries1 and almost       
everything else1 grain excepted1 needed 
by the pioneers1 then dotting1 thinly   
and irregularly1 that whole region with 
their cabins4 ,now1 ,i presume the      
district ,i then traversed produces     
hardly more grain than it consumes2     
taking ,illinois altogether1 ,i doubt   
that she will grow her own breadstuffs  
after #ahhj2 not that she will be unable
 to produce a large surplus1 but that   
her farmers will have decided that they 
can use their lands otherwise to greater
 advantage4 ,iowa and ,minnesota will   
continue to export grain for perhaps    

twenty years longer2 but even their time
 will come for saying1 ,new-,york and   
,new-,england 7not to speak of ,old     
,england7 are too far away to furnish   
profitable markets for such bulky       
products2 the cost of transportation    
absorbs the larger part of the cargo4   
,we must export instead ,wool1 ,meat1   
,lard1 ,butter1 ,cheese1 ,hops1 and     
various ,manufactures1 whereof the      
freight will range from #b up to not    
more than #be per cent4 of the value4   
,they thus save their soil from the     
tremendous exaction made by taking      
grain-crop after grain-crop             
persistently1 which long ago exhausted  
most of ,new-,england and eastern       
,new-,york of wheat-forming material1   
and has since wrought the same          
deplorable result in our rich ,genesee  
valley2 while eastern ,pennsylvania1    
though settled nearly two centuries ago1
 having pursued a more rational and     
provident system of husbandry1 grows    
excellent wheat-crops to this day4  ,i  

insist that the ,states this side of the
 ,delaware2 though they will draw much  
grain from the ,canadas after the       
political change that cannot be far     
distant1 will be compelled to grow a    
very considerable share of their own    
breadstuff2 that the ,west will cease to
 supply them unless at prices which they
 will deem exorbitant2 and that         
grain-growing eastward of a line drawn  
from ,baltimore this north to the ,lakes
 will have to be very considerably      
extended4 ,let us see1 then1 whether    
this might not be done with profit even 
now1 and whether the ,east is not unwise
 in having so generally abandoned       
grain-growing4  ,i leave out of the     
account most of ,new-,england1 as well  
as of ,eastern ,new-,york1 and the more 
rugged portions of ,new-,jersey and     
,pennsylvania1 where the rocky1 hilly1  
swampy face of the country seems to     
forbid any but that patchy cultivation1 
wherein machinery and mechanical power  
can scarcely be made available1 and     

which seem1 therefore1 permanently fated
 to persevere in a system of agriculture
 and horticulture not essentially unlike
 that they now exhibit4 ,in the valleys 
of the ,penobscot1 the ,kennebec1 the   
,hudson1 and of our smaller rivers1     
there are considerable tracts absolutely
 free from these natural impediments1   
whereon a larger and more efficient     
husbandry is perfectly practicable1 even
 now2 but these intervales are generally
 the property of many owners2 are cut up
 by roads and fences2 and are held at   
high prices3 so that ,i will simply pass
 them by1 and take for illustration the 
,pine ,barrens of ,southern             
,new-,jersey1 merely observing that what
 ,i say of them is equally applicable1  
with slight modifications1 to large     
portions of ,long ,island1 ,delaware1   
,maryland1 ,virginia1 and the           
,carolinas4  ,the ,pine ,barrens of     
,new-,jersey are a marine deposit of    
several hundred feet in depth1 mainly   
sand1 with which more or less clay is   

generally intermingled1 while there are 
beds and even broader stretches of this 
material nearly or quite pure2 the clay 
sometimes underlying the sand at a depth
 of #aj to #cj or #dj inches4 ,vast     
deposits of muck or leaf-mold1 often of 
many acres in extent and from two to    
twenty feet in depth1 are very common2  
so that hardly any portion of the dry or
 sandy land is two miles distant from   
one or more of them1 while some is      
usually much nearer2 and half the entire
 region is underlaid by at least one    
stratum of the famous marl 7formed of   
the decomposed bones of gigantic marine 
monsters long ago extinct7 which has    
already played so important and         
beneficent a part in the renovation and 
fertilization of large districts in     
,monmouth1 ,burlington1 ,salem1 and     
other counties4  ,let us suppose now    
that a farmer of ample means and        
generous capacity should purchase four  
hundred acres of these barrens1 with    
intent to produce therefrom1 not sweet  

potatoes1 melons1 and the truck to which
 ,southern ,jersey is so largely        
devoted1 but substantial ,grain and     
,meat2 and let us see whether the       
enterprise would probably pay4  ,let us 
not stint the outlay1 but1 presuming the
 tract to be eligibly located on a      
railroad not too distant from some good 
marl-bed1 estimate as follows3          
,purchase-money of #djj acres at #be per
 acre                   #aj1jjj         
,clearing1 grubbing1 fencing and        
breaking up ditto at #bj   per acre1    
over and above the proceeds of the wood 
#h1jjj    ,one thousand bushels of best 
,marl per acre1 at #f cents per   bushel
 delivered                              
#bd1jjj    ,one hundred loads of ,swamp 
,muck1 per acre1 at #ej cents   per load
                                        
#bj1jjj    ,fifty bushels 7unslaked7 of 
,oyster-shell ,lime 7to compost   with  
the ,muck71 per acre1 at #be cents per  
bushel1 delivered     #e1jjj    ,one    
hundred tuns of ,bone ,flour at #ej per 

tun                   #e1jjj            
-------   ,net cost1 #ahj per acre4     
,total                   #gb1jjj  ,i    
believe that this tract1 divided by     
light fences into four fields of #ajj   
acres each1 and seeded in rotation to   
,corn1 ,wheat1 ,clover and other        
grasses1 would produce fully #fj bushels
 of ,corn and #cj of ,wheat per acre1   
with not less than #c tuns of good ,hay2
 and that by cutting1 steaming1 and     
feeding the stalks and straw on the     
place1 not pasturing1 but keeping up the
 stock1 and feeding them1 as indicated  
in a former chapter of these essays1 and
 selling their product in the form of   
,milk1 ,butter1 ,cheese and ,meat1 a    
greater profit would be realized than   
could be from a like investment in ,iowa
 or ,kansas4 ,the soil is warm1 readily 
frees itself1 or is freed1 from surplus 
water2 is not addicted to weeds2 may be 
plowed at least #bjj days in a year2 may
 be sowed or planted in the ,spring1    
when ,minnesota is yet solidly frozen2  

while the crop1 early matured1 is on    
hand to take advantage of any sudden    
advance in the ,european or our own     
seaboard markets4 ,labor1 also1 is      
cheaper and more rapidly procured in the
 neighborhood of this great focus of    
immigration than it is or can be in the 
,west2 and our capable farmers may take 
their pick of the workers thronging     
hither from ,europe1 at the moment of   
their landing on our shore4 ,of course1 
the owner of such an estate as ,i have  
roughly outlined1 would be likely to    
keep a part of his purchase in timber1  
proving the quality thereof by cutting  
out the less desirable trees1 trimming  
up the rest1 and planting new ones among
 them2 and he would be almost certain to
 devote some part of his farm annually  
to the growth of ,roots1 ,vegetables1   
and ,fruits4 ,but ,i have aimed to show 
only that he would grow grain here at a 
profit1 and ,i think ,i have succeeded4 
,his #fj bushels of corn 7shelled7 per  
acre could be sold at his crib1 one year

 with another1 for #fj silver dollars2  
and he need seldom wait a month after   
husking it for customers who would      
gladly take his grain and pay the money 
for it4 ,this would be just about double
 what the ,iowa or ,missouri farmer can 
expect to average for his ,corn4 ,the   
abundant fodder would also be worth in  
,new-,jersey at least double its value  
in ,iowa2 and ,i judge that the farmer  
able to buy1 prepare1 fertilize1 and    
cultivate #a1bjj acres of the ,jersey   
barrens1 could make more than thrice the
 profit to be realized by the owner of  
#djj acres4 ,he would plow and seed as  
well as thrash1 shell1 cut stalks and   
straw1 and prepare the food of his      
animals1 wholly by steam-power1 and     
would soon learn to cultivate a square  
mile at no greater expense than is now  
involved in the as perfect tillage of   
#bjj acres4  ,this essay is not intended
 to prove that ,grain is not or may not 
be profitably cultivated at the ,west1  
nor that it is unadvisable for ,eastern 

farmers to migrate thither in order so  
to cultivate it4 ,what ,i maintain is1  
that ,wheat1 ,indian ,corn1 and nearly  
all our great food staples1 may also be 
profitably produced on the seaboard1 and
 that thousands of square miles1 now    
nearly or quite unproductive1 may be    
wisely and profitably devoted to such   
production4 ,let us regard1 therefore1  
without alarm1 the prospect of such a   
development and diversification of      
,western ,industry as will render       
necessary a large and permanent         
extension 7or rather revival7 of        
,eastern grain-growing4     ,,xxix4     
,,esculent ,,roots--,,potatoes4   ,in no
 other form can so large an amount and  
value of human food be obtained from an 
acre of ground as in that of edible     
roots or tubers2 and of these the       
,potato is by far the most acceptable1  
and in most general use4 ,our ancestors1
 it is settled1 were destitute and      
ignorant of the ,potato prior to the    
discovery of ,america1 though ,europe   

would now find it difficult to subsist  
her teeming millions without it4 ,in    
travelling pretty widely over that      
continent1 ,i cannot remember that ,i   
found1 any considerable district in     
which the ,potato was not cultivated1   
though ,ireland1 western ,england1 and  
northern ,switzerland1 with a small     
portion of northern ,italy1 are         
impressed on my mind as the most        
addicted to the growth of this esculent4
 ,other roots are eaten occasionally1 by
 way of variety1 or as giving a relish  
to ordinary food2 but the ,potato alone 
forms part of the every day diet alike  
of prince and peasant4 ,it is an almost 
indispensable ingredient of the feasts  
of ,dives1 while it is the cheapest and 
commonest resort for satiating or       
moderating the hunger of ,lazarus4 ,i   
recollect hearing my parents1 fifty     
years ago1 relate how1 in their         
childhood and youth1 the poor of        
,new-,england1 when the grain-crop of   
that region was cut short1 as it often  

was1 were obliged to subsist through the
 following ,winter mainly on ,potatoes  
and ,milk2 and ,i then accorded to those
 unfortunates of the preceding          
generation a sympathy which ,i should   
now considerably abate1 provided the    
,potatoes were of good quality4 ,roasted
 ,potatoes1 seasoned with salt and      
butter and washed down with bounteous   
draughts of fresh buttermilk1 used in   
those days to be the regular supper     
served up in farmers' homes after a     
churning of cream into butter2 and ,i   
have since eaten costly suppers that    
were not half so good4  ,the ,potato1   
say some accredited accounts1 was first 
brought to ,europe from ,virginia1 by   
,sir ,walter ,raleigh in #aehf or #aehg2
 but ,i do not believe the story4       
,authentic tradition affirms that the   
,potato was utterly unknown in          
,new-,england1 or at all events east of 
the ,connecticut1 when the              
,scotch-,irish who first settled        
,londonderry1 ,n4 ,h41 came over from   

old ,londonderry1 ,ireland1 bringing the
 ,potato with them4 ,they spent the     
,winter of #agai in different parts of  
,massachusetts and ,maine--quite a      
number of them at ,haverhill1 ,mass41   
where they gave away a few ,potatoes for
 seed1 on leaving for their own chosen  
location in the ,spring2 and they       
afterward learned that the ,english     
colonists1 who received them1 tried hard
 to find or make the seed-balls edible  
the next ,fall but were obliged to give 
it up as a bad job2 leaving the tubers  
untouched and unsuspected in the ground4
  ,i doubt that the ,potato was found   
growing by ,europeans in any part of    
this country1 unless it be in that we   
have acquired from ,mexico4 ,it is      
essentially a child of the mountains1   
and ,i presume it grew wild nowhere else
 than on the sides of the great chain   
which traversed ,spanish ,america1 at a 
height of from #e1jjj to #h1jjj feet    
above the surface of the ocean4 ,here it
 found a climate cooled by the elevation

 and moistened by melting snows from    
above and by frequent showers1 yet one  
which seldom allowed the ground to be   
frozen to any considerable depth1 while 
the pure and bracing atmosphere was     
congenial to its nature and             
requirements4 ,in this country1 the     
,potato is hardiest and thriftiest among
 the ,white ,mountains of               
,new-,hampshire1 the ,green ,mountains  
of ,vermont1 on the ,catskills and      
kindred elevations in our own ,state1   
and in similar regions of ,pennsylvania 
and the ,states further ,south and      
,west4  ,my own place is at least #ae   
miles from1 and #ejj feet above1 ,long  
,island ,sound2 yet ,i cannot make the  
,potato1 by the most generous treatment1
 so prolific as it was in               
,new-,hampshire in my boyhood1 where ,i 
dug a bushel from #ad hills1 grown on   
rough1 hard ground1 but which1 having   
just been cleared of a thick growth of  
bushes and briars1 was probably better  
adapted to this crop than though it had 

been covered an inch deep with barn-yard
 manure4  ,he who has a tolerably dry1  
warm sandy soil1 covered two or three   
inches deep with decayed or decaying    
leaves and brush1 may count with        
confidence on raising from it a good    
crop of ,potatoes1 provided his seed be 
sound and healthy4 ,on the other hand1  
all authorities agree that animal       
manures1 unless very thoroughly rotted  
and intimately mixed with the soil1 are 
injurious to the quality of ,potatoes   
grown thereon1 stimulating any tendency 
to disease1 if they do not originally   
produce such disease4 ,i believe that   
,swamp ,muck1 dug in ,summer or ,autumn1
 deposited on a dry bank or glade1 and  
cured of its acidity by an admixture of 
,wood-,ashes1 of ,lime1 or of ,salt     
7better still1 of ,lime and ,salt       
chemically compounded by dissolving the 
,salt in the least possible quantity of 
,water1 and slaking the lime with that  
,water71 forms an excellent fertilizer  
for ,potatoes1 if administered with a   

liberal hand4 ,a bushel of either of    
these alkalies to a cord of muck is too 
little2 the dose should be doubled if   
possible2 but1 if the quantity be small1
 mix it more carefully1 and give it all 
the time you can wherein to operate upon
 the muck before applying the mixture to
 your fields4  ,where the muck is not   
easily to be had1 yet the soil is thin  
and poor1 ,i would place considerable   
reliance on deep plowing and subsoiling 
in the ,fall1 and cross-plowing just    
before planting in the ,spring4 ,give a 
good dressing of ,plaster1 not less than
 #bjj lbs4 to the acre1 directly after  
the ,fall plowing2 if you have ,ashes1  
scatter them liberally in the drill or  
hill as you plant2 and1 if you have them
 not1 supply their place with           
,superphosphate or ,bone-dust4 ,i think 
many farmers will be agreeably surprised
 by the additional yield which will     
accrue from this treatment of their     
soil4  ,those who have no swamp muck1   
and feel that they can afford the       

outlay1 may1 by plowing or subsoiling   
early in the ,fall1 seeding heavily with
 rye1 and turning this under when the   
time comes for planting in the ,spring1 
improve both crop and soil materially4  
,but even to these ,i would say3 ,apply 
the ,gypsum in the ,fall1 and the ,ashes
 or ,lime and ,salt mixture in the      
,spring2 and now1 with good seed and    
good luck1 you will be reasonably sure  
of a bounteous harvest4 ,if a farmer1   
having a poor worn-out field of sandy   
loam1 wants to do his very best by it1  
let him plow1 subsoil1 sow rye and      
plaster in the ,fall1 as above          
indicated1 turn this under1 and sow     
buckwheat late in the next ,spring2 plow
 this under in turn when it has attained
 its growth1 and sow to clover2 turn    
this down the following ,spring1 and    
,plant to late potatoes1 and he will not
 merely obtain a large crop1 but have   
his land in admirable condition for     
whatever way follow4  ,i am quite well  
aware that such an outlay of labor and  

seed1 with an entire loss of crop for   
one season1 will seem to many too       
costly4 ,i do not advise it except under
 peculiar circumstances2 and yet ,i am  
confident that there are many fields    
that would be doubled in value by such  
treatment1 which would richly repay all 
its cost4 ,that most farmers could not  
afford thus to treat their entire farms 
at once1 is very true2 yet it does not  
follow that they might not deal with    
field after field thus thoroughly1      
living on the products of #dj or #ej    
acres1 while they devoted five or six   
annually to the work of thorough        
renovation4  ,a quarter of a century    
ago1 we were threatened with a complete 
extinction of the ,potato1 as an article
 of food3 the stalks1 when approaching  
or just attaining maturity1 were        
suddenly smitten with fatal             
disease--usually1 after a warm rain     
followed by scalding sunshine--the      
growing tubers were speedily affected2  
they rotted in the ground1 and they     

rotted nearly as badly if dug2 and whole
 townships could hardly show a bushel of
 sound ,potatoes4  ,a desolating famine 
in ,ireland1 which swept away or drove  
into exile nearly two millions of her   
people1 was the most striking and       
memorable result of this wide-spread    
disaster4 ,for several succeeding       
seasons1 the ,potato was similarly1     
though not so extensively1 affected2 and
 the fears widely expressed that the day
 of its usefulness was over1 seemed to  
have ample justification4 ,speaking     
generally1 the ,potato has never since  
been so hardy or prolific as it was half
 a century ago2 it has gradually        
recovered1 however1 from its low estate1
 and1 though the malady still lingers1  
and from time to time renews its ravages
 in different localities1 the farmer now
 plants judiciously and on fit ground1  
with a reasonable hope that his labor   
will be duly rewarded4  ,it seems to be 
generally agreed that clayey soils are  
not adapted to its growth2 that1 if the 

quantity of the crop be not stinted1 its
 quality is pretty sure to be inferior2 
and ,i can personally testify that the  
planting of ,potatoes on wet soil--that 
is1 on swampy or spongy land which has  
not been thoroughly drained and         
sweetened--is a hopeless1 thriftless    
labor--that the crop will seldom be     
worth the seed4  ,as to the ten or a    
dozen different insects to which the    
,potato-rot has been attributed1 ,i     
regard them all as consequences1 not    
causes2 attracted to prey on the plant  
by its sickly1 weakly condition1 and not
 really responsible for that condition4 
,if any care for my reasons1 let him    
refer to what ,i have said of the       
,wheat-plant and its insect enemies4#a  
,there has been much discussion as to   
the kind of seed to be planted2 and ,i  
think the result has been a pretty      
general conviction that it is better to 
cut the tuber into pieces having two or 
three eyes each1 than to plant it whole1
 since the whole ,potato sends up a     

superfluity of stalks1 with a like      
effect on the crop to that of putting   
six or eight kernels of corn in each    
hill4  ,small ,potatoes are immature1   
unripe1 and of course should never be   
planted1 since their progeny will be    
feeble and sickly4 ,select for seed none
 but thoroughly ripe ,potatoes1 and the 
larger the better4  ,my own judgment    
favors planting in drills rather than   
hills1 with ample space for working     
between them2 not less than #cj inches3 
the seed being dropped about #f inches  
apart in the drill4 ,the soil must be   
deep and mellow1 for the ,potato suffers
 from drouth much sooner than ,indian   
,corn or almost any other crop usually  
grown among us4 ,i believe in covering  
the seed from #b to #b-a_/b inches2 and 
,i hold to flat or level culture for    
this as for everything else4 ,planting  
on a ridge made by turning two furrows  
together may be advisable where the land
 is wet2 but then wet land never can be 
made fit for cultivation1 except by     

underdraining4 ,and ,i insist upon      
setting the rows or drills well apart1  
because ,i hold that the soil should    
often be loosened and stirred to a good 
depth with the subsoil plow2 and that   
this process should be persevered in    
till the plant is in blossom4 ,hardly   
any plant will pay better for persistent
 cultivation than the ,potato4  ,as to  
varieties1 ,i will only say that        
planting the tubers for seed is an      
unnatural process1 which tends and must 
tend to degeneracy4 ,the new varieties  
now most prized will certainly run out  
in the course of twenty or thirty years 
at furthest1 and must be replaced from  
time to time by still newer1 grown from 
the seed4 ,this creation of new species 
is1 and must be1 a slow1 expensive      
process2 since not one in a hundred of  
these varieties possess any value4 ,i   
don't quite believe in selling--,i mean 
in buying--,potatoes at #a per pound2   
but he who originates a really valuable 
new ,potato deserves a recompense for   

his industry1 patience1 and good        
fortune2 and ,i shall be glad to learn  
that he receives it4  ,,footnotes3  #a  
,see ,chapter ,,xxii4     ,,xxx4        
,,roots--,,turnips--,,beets--,,carrots  
,if there be any who still hold that    
this country must ultimately rival that 
magnificent ,turnip-culture which has so
 largely transformed the agricultural   
industry of ,england and ,scotland1     
while signally and beneficently         
increasing its annual product1 ,i judge 
that time will prove them mistaken4 ,the
 striking diversity of climate between  
the opposite coasts of the ,atlantic    
forbids the realization of their hopes4 
,the ,british ,isles1 with a            
considerable portion of the adjacent    
coast of ,continental ,europe1 have a   
climate so modified by the ,gulf ,stream
 and the ocean that their ,summers are  
usually moist and cool1 their ,autumns  
still more so1 and their ,winters rarely
 so cold as to freeze the earth         
considerably2 while our ,summers and    

,autumns1 are comparatively hot and dry2
 our ,winters in part intensely cold1 so
 as to freeze the earth solid for a foot
 or more4 ,hence1 every variety of      
turnip is exposed here in its tenderer  
stages to the ravages of every devouring
 insect2 while the #ast of ,december    
often finds the soil of all but our     
,southern and ,pacific ,states so frozen
 that cannon-wheels would hardly track  
it1 and roots not previously dug up must
 remain fast in the earth for weeks and 
often for months4 ,hence1 the turnip can
 never grow so luxuriantly1 nor be      
counted on with such certainty1 here as 
in ,great ,britain2 nor can animals be  
fed on it in ,winter1 except at the     
heavy cost of pulling or digging1       
cutting off the tops and carefully      
housing in ,autumn1 and then slicing and
 feeding out in ,winter4 ,it is manifest
 that turnips thus handled1 however     
economically1 cannot compete with hay   
and corn-fodder in our ,eastern and     
,middle ,states2 nor with these and the 

cheaper species of grain in the ,west1  
as the daily ,winter food of cattle4    
,still1 ,i hold that our stock-growing  
farmers profitably may1 and ultimately  
will1 grow some turnips to be fed out to
 their growing and working animals4 ,a  
good meal of turnips given twice a week1
 if not oftener1 to these1 will         
agreeably and usefully break the        
monotony of living exclusively on dry   
fodder1 and will give a relish to their 
hay or cut stalks and straw1 which      
cannot fail to tell upon their appetite1
 growth and thrift4 ,let our            
cattle-breeders begin with growing an   
acre or two each of ,swedes per annum1  
so as to give their stock a good feed of
 them1 sliced thin in an effective      
machine1 at least once in each week1 and
 ,i feel confident that they will       
continue to grow turnips1 and will grow 
more and more of them throughout future 
years4  ,the ,beet seems to me better   
adapted to our climate1 especially south
 of the fortieth degree of north        

latitude1 than any variety of the       
,turnip with which ,i am acquainted1 and
 destined1 in the good time coming1 when
 we shall have at least doubled the     
average depth of our soil1 to very      
extensive cultivation among us4 ,i am   
not regarding either of these roots with
 reference to its use as human food1    
since our farmers generally understand  
that use at least as well as ,i do2 nor 
will ,i here consider at length the use 
of the ,beet in the production of       
,sugar4 ,i value that use highly1       
believing that millions of the poorer   
classes throughout ,europe have been    
enabled to enjoy ,sugar through its     
manufacture from the ,beet who would    
rarely or never have tasted that luxury 
in the absence of this manufacture4 ,the
 people of ,europe thus made familiar   
with ,sugar can hardly be fewer than    
#ajj1jjj1jjj2 and the number is annually
 increasing4 ,the cost of ,sugar to     
these is considerably less in money1    
while immeasurably less in labor1 than  

it would or could have been had the     
tropical ,cane been still regarded as   
the only plant available for the        
production of ,sugar4  ,but the ,west   
,indies1 wherein the ,cane flourishes   
luxuriantly and renews itself           
perennially1 lie at our doors4 ,they    
look to us for most of their daily      
bread1 and for many other necessaries of
 life2 while several1 if not all of     
them1 are manifestly destined1 in the   
natural progress of events1 to invoke   
the protection of our flag4 ,i do not1  
therefore1 feel confident that ,beet    
,sugar now promises to become an        
important staple destined to take a high
 rank among the products of our national
 industry4 ,with cheap labor1 ,i believe
 it might to-day he manufactured with   
profit in the rich1 deep valleys of     
,california1 and perhaps in those of    
,utah and ,colorado as well4 ,on the    
whole1 however1 ,i cannot deem the      
prospect encouraging for the ,american  
promoters of the manufacture of ,beet   

,sugar4  ,but when we shall have        
deepened essentially the soil of our    
arable acres1 fertilized it abundantly1 
and cured it by faithful cultivation of 
its vicious addiction to weed-growing1  
,i believe we shall devote millions of  
those acres to the growth of ,beets for 
cattle-food1 and1 having learned how to 
harvest as well as till them mainly by  
machinery1 with little help from hand   
labor1 we shall produce them with       
eminent profit and satisfaction to the  
grower4 ,on soil fully two feet deep1   
thoroughly underdrained and amply       
fertilized1 ,i believe we shall often   
produce one thousand bushels of ,beets  
to the acre2 and so much acceptable and 
valuable food for cattle can hardly be  
obtained from an acre in any other form4
         99       99       99       99  
99  ,so with regard to ,carrots4 ,i have
 never achieved eminent success in      
growing these1 nor ,beets2 mainly       
because the soil on which ,i attempted  
to grow them was not adapted to1 or     

rather not yet in condition for1 such   
culture4 ,but1 should ,i live a few     
years longer1 until my reclaimed swamp  
shall have become thoroughly sweetened  
and civilized1 ,i mean to grow on some  
part thereof #a1jjj bushels of ,carrots 
per acre1 and a still larger product of 
,beets2 and the ,carrot1 in my judgment1
 ought now to be extensively grown in   
the ,south and ,west1 as well as in this
 section1 for feeding to horses4 ,i hold
 that #fj bushels of ,carrots and #ej of
 ,oats1 fed in alternate meals1 are of  
at least equal value as horse-feed with 
#ajj bushels of ,oats alone1 while more 
easily grown in this climate4 ,the      
,oat-crop makes heavy drafts upon the   
soil1 while our hot ,summers are not    
congenial to its thrift or perfection4  
,since we must grow ,oats1 we must be   
content to import new seed every #aj or 
#ae years from ,scotland1 ,norway1 and  
other countries which have cooler1      
moister ,summers than our own2 for the  
,oat will inevitably degenerate under   

such suns as blazed through the latter  
half of our recent ,june4 ,believing    
that the ,carrot may profitably replace 
at least half the ,oats now grown in    
this country1 ,i look forward with      
confidence to its more and more         
extensive cultivation4  ,the advantage  
of feeding ,roots to stock is not to be 
measured and bounded by their essential 
value4 ,beasts1 like men1 require a     
variety of food1 and thrive best upon a 
regimen which involves a change of diet4
 ,admit that hay is their cheapest      
,winter food2 still1 an occasional meal 
of something more succulent will prove  
beneficial1 and this is best afforded by
 ,roots4     ,,xxxi  ,,the ,,farmer',s  
,,calling4   ,if any one fancies that he
 ever heard me flattering farmers as a  
class1 or saying anything which implied 
that they were more virtuous1 upright1  
unselfish1 or deserving1 than other     
people1 ,i am sure he must have         
misunderstood or that he now            
misrecollects me4 ,i do not even join in

 the cant1 which speaks of farmers as   
supporting everybody else--of farming as
 the only indispensable vocation4 ,you  
may say if you will that mankind could  
not subsist if there were no tillers of 
the soil2 but the same is true of       
house-builders1 and of some other       
classes4 ,a thoroughly good farmer is a 
useful1 valuable citizen3 so is a good  
merchant1 doctor1 or lawyer4 ,it is not 
essential to the true nobility and      
genuine worth of the farmer's calling   
that any other should be assailed or    
disparaged4  ,still1 if one of my three 
sons had been spared to attain manhood1 
,i should have advised him to try to    
make himself a good farmer2 and this    
without any romantic or poetic notions  
of ,agriculture as a pursuit4 ,i know   
well1 from personal though youthful     
experience1 that the farmer's life is   
one of labor1 anxiety1 and care2 that   
hail1 and flood1 and hurricane1 and     
untimely frosts1 over which he can exert
 no control1 will often destroy in an   

hour the net results of months of his   
persistent1 well-directed toil2 that    
disease will sometimes sweep away his   
animals1 in spite of the most judicious 
treatment1 the most thoughtful          
providence1 on his part2 and that       
insects1 blight1 and rust1 will often   
blast his well-grounded hopes of a      
generous harvest1 when they seem on the 
very point of realization4 ,i know that 
he is necessarily exposed1 more than    
most other men1 to the caprices and     
inclemencies of weather and climate2 and
 that1 if he begins responsible life    
without other means than those he finds 
in his own clear head and strong arms1  
with those of his helpmeet1 he must     
expect to struggle through years of     
poverty1 frugality1 and resolute1       
persistent1 industry1 before he can     
reasonably hope to attain a position of 
independence1 comfort1 and comparative  
leisure4 ,i know that much of his work  
is rugged1 and some of it absolutely    
repulsive2 ,i know that he will seem1   

even with unbroken good fortune1 to be  
making money much more slowly than his  
neighbor1 the merchant1 the broker1 or  
eloquent lawyer1 who fills the general  
eye while he prospers1 and1 when he     
fails1 sinks out of sight and is soon   
forgotten2 and yet1 ,i should have      
advised my sons to choose farming as    
their vocation1 for these among other   
reasons3  ,i4 ,there is no other        
business in which success is so nearly  
certain as in this4 ,of one hundred men 
who embark in trade1 a careful observer 
reports that ninety-five fail2 and1     
while ,i think this proportion too      
large1 ,i am sure that a large majority 
do1 and must fail1 because competition  
is so eager and traffic so enormously   
overdone4 ,if ten men endeavor to       
support their families by merchandise in
 a township which affords adequate      
business for but three1 it is certain   
that a majority must fail2 no matter how
 judicious their management or how      
frugal their living4 ,but you may double

 the number of farmers in any           
agricultural county ,i ever traversed1  
without necessarily dooming one to      
failure1 or even abridging his gains4   
,if half the traders and professional   
men in this country were to betake      
themselves to farming to-morrow1 they   
would not render that pursuit one whit  
less profitable1 while they would       
largely increase the comfort and wealth 
of the entire community2 and1 while a   
good merchant1 lawyer1 or doctor1 may be
 starved out of any township1 simply    
because the work he could do well is    
already confided to others1 ,i never yet
 heard of a temperate1 industrious1     
intelligent1 frugal1 and energetic      
farmer who failed to make a living1 or  
who1 unless prostrated by disease or    
disabled by casualty1 was precluded from
 securing a modest independence before  
age and decrepitude divested him of the 
ability to labor4  ,,ii4 ,i regard      
farming as that vocation which conduces 
most directly and palpably to a         

reverence for ,honesty and ,truth4 ,the 
young lawyer is often constrained1 or at
 least tempted1 by his necessities1 to  
do the dirty professional work of a     
rascal intent on cheating his neighbor  
out of his righteous dues4 ,the young   
doctor may be likewise incited to resort
 to a quackery he despises in order to  
secure instant bread2 the unknown author
 is often impelled to write what will   
sell rather than what the public ought  
to buy2 but the young farmer1 acting as 
a farmer1 must realize that his success 
depends upon his absolute verity and    
integrity4 ,he deals directly with      
,nature1 which never was and never will 
be cheated4 ,he has no temptation to sow
 beach sand for plaster1 dock-seed for  
clover1 or stoop to any trick or juggle 
whatever4 ,whatsoever a man soweth that 
shall he also reap1 while true1 in the  
long run1 of all men1 is instantly and  
palpably true as to him4 ,when he1      
having grown his crop1 shall attempt to 
sell it--in other words1 when he ceases 

to be a farmer and becomes a trader--he 
may possibly be tempted into one of the 
many devious ways of rascality2 but1 so 
long as he is acting simply as a farmer1
 he can hardly be lured from the broad1 
straight highway of integrity and       
righteousness4  ,,iii4 ,the farmer's    
calling seems to me that most conducive 
to thorough manliness of character4     
,nobody expects him to cringe1 or smirk1
 or curry favor1 is order to sell his   
produce4 ,no merchant refuses to buy it 
because his politics are detested or his
 religious opinions heterodox4 ,he may  
be a ,mormon1 a ,rebel1 a ,millerite1 or
 a ,communist1 yet his ,grain or his    
,pork will sell for exactly what it is  
worth--not a fraction less or more than 
the price commanded by the kindred      
product of like quality and intrinsic   
value of his neighbor1 whose opinions on
 all points are faultlessly orthodox and
 popular4 ,on the other hand1 the       
merchant1 the lawyer1 the doctor1       
especially if young and still struggling

 dubiously for a position1 are          
continually tempted to sacrifice or     
suppress their profoundest convictions  
in deference to the vehement and often  
irrational prepossessions of the        
community1 whose favor is to them the   
breath of life4 ,she will find that that
 won't go down here1 was the comment of 
an old woman on a ,mississippi          
steamboat1 when told that the plain1    
deaf stranger1 who seemed the focus of  
general interest1 was ,miss ,martineau1 
the celebrated ,unitarian2 and in so    
saying she gave expression to a feeling 
which pervades and governs many if not  
most communities4 ,i doubt whether the  
social intolerance of adverse opinions  
is more vehement anywhere else than     
throughout the larger portion of our own
 country4 ,i have repeatedly been stung 
by the receipt of letters gravely       
informing me that my course and views on
 a current topic were adverse to public 
opinion3 the writers evidently assuming1
 as a matter of course1 that ,i was a   

mere jumping-jack1 who only needed to   
know what other people thought to insure
 my instant and abject conformity to    
their prejudices4 ,very often1 in other 
days1 ,i was favored with letters from  
indignant subscribers1 who1 dissenting  
from my views on some question1 took    
this method of informing me that they   
should no longer take my journal--a     
superfluous trouble1 which could only   
have meant dictation or insult1 since   
they had only to refrain from renewing  
their subscriptions1 and their ,tribune 
would stop coming1 whenever they should 
have received what we owed them2 and it 
would in no case stop till then4 ,that a
 journalist was in any sense a public   
teacher--that he necessarily had        
convictions1 and was not likely to      
suppress them because they were not     
shared by others--in short1 that his    
calling was other and higher than that  
of a waiter at a restaurant1 expected to
 furnish whatever was called for1 so    
long as the pay was forthcoming--these  

ex-subscribers had evidently not for one
 moment suspected4 ,that such persons   
have little or no capacity to insult1 is
 very true2 and yet1 a man is somewhat  
degraded in his own regard by learning  
that his vocation is held in such low   
esteem by others4 ,the true farmer is   
proudly aware that it is quite otherwise
 with his pursuit--that no one expects  
him to swallow any creed1 support any   
party1 or defer to any prejudice1 as a  
condition precedent to the sale of his  
products4 ,hence1 ,i feel that it is    
easier and more natural in his pursuit  
than in any other for a man to work for 
a living1 and aspire to success and     
consideration1 without sacrificing      
self-respect1 compromising integrity1 or
 ceasing to be essentially and          
thoroughly a gentleman4     ,,xxxii4  ,a
 ,,lesson ,,of ,,to-,,day4   ,the       
current season is quite commonly        
characterized as the coldest1 the       
hottest1 the wettest1 or the dryest1    
that was ever known4 ,men undoubtingly  

assert that they never knew a ,summer so
 hot1 or a ,winter so cold1 when in fact
 several such have occurred within the  
cycle of their experience4 ,hardly      
anything else is so easily or so        
speedily forgotten as extremes of       
temperature or inclemencies of weather1 
after they have passed away4 ,i presume 
there have been six to ten ,summers1    
since the beginning of this century1 as 
hot and as dry as that of #ahgj2 yet the
 fact remains that1 throughout the      
,eastern section of our country1 to say 
nothing of the rest1 the heat and drouth
 of the current ,summer have been quite 
remarkable4 ,for two months past1       
counting from the #ajth of ,june1 nearly
 every day has been a hot one1 with     
blazing sunshine throughout1 rarely     
interrupted and slightly modified by    
infrequent and inadequate showers2 and1 
as a general result of this tropical    
fervor1 the earth is parched and baked  
from ten to forty inches from the       
surface2 streams and ponds are dried up 

or shrunk to their lowest dimensions2   
forests are often ravaged and desolated 
by fires2 our pastures are dry and      
brown2 while crops of ,hay1 ,oats1      
,potatoes1 ,buckwheat1 etc41 either have
 proved1 or certainly must prove1 a     
disappointment to the hopes of the      
growers4 ,i estimate the average product
 for #ahgj of the farms of              
,new-,england1 eastern ,new-,york and   
,new-,jersey1 as not more than          
two-thirds of a full harvest2 while the 
earth remains at this moment so baked   
and incrusted that several days' rain is
 needed to fit it for ,fall plowing and 
the sowing of ,winter grain4  ,such     
seasons must not be regarded as         
extraordinary4 ,the ,summer of #ahed was
 nearly or quite as dry as this2 and ,i 
presume one or two such have intervened 
since that time4 ,the heat of #ahgj is  
remarkable for its persistence rather   
than its intensity4 ,every ,summer has  
its heated term2 that of #ahgj has been 
longer in this region than any before it

 that ,i can remember1 though doubtless 
the recollection of others might supply 
its perfect counterpart4 ,nearly every  
,summer has its drouth2 the present is  
peculiar rather for its early           
commencement than its extreme duration4 
,as our country is more and more denuded
 of its primitive forests1 drouths      
longer and severer even than this may   
naturally be expected4 ,what our farmers
 have to do is1 to prepare for and      
provide against them4  ,such seasons are
 disastrous to those only who farm as if
 none such were to be expected4 ,those  
who plow deeply1 fertilize bountifully1 
and cultivate thoroughly1 need not fear 
them1 as fields of ,hay and ,oats       
already harvested1 and of ,corn and     
,potatoes now hastening to maturity in  
almost every township of the suffering  
region1 abundantly attest4 ,i doubt that
 more luxuriant crops of ,corn1         
,tobacco1 or ,onions1 were ever grown on
 the bottom-lands of the ,connecticut   
,valley than may be seen there to-day1  

with failures all about them1 and under 
drouth so fierce that ,blackberries and 
,whortleberries are withered when half  
grown2 even the bushes in some cases    
perishing for lack of moisture4  ,my    
last trip took me along the banks of the
 upper ,hudson1 through the rugged      
county of ,warren1 ,n4 ,y4 ,the narrow1 
irregular intervale of this mountain    
stream appear to have been cultivated   
for the last fifty or sixty years by a  
hardy race1 who look mainly to the      
timber of the wild region north of them 
for a subsistence4 ,in such a district1 
whatever ministers to the sustenance of 
man or beast bears a high price2 and    
,corn1 ,rye1 ,oats1 ,buckwheat1 ,apples 
and ,grass1 are grown wherever the soil 
is not too rugged or too sterile for    
culture4 ,i presume half a crop of ,hay 
has been secured throughout this valley1
 with perhaps a full crop of ,rye where 
,rye was sown2 but of ,oats the yield   
will be considerably less than that1    
while of ,corn and ,buckwheat it will   

range from ten bushels per acre down to 
nothing4 ,when ,i1 last ,summer1 passed 
through spacious field after field of   
,corn in ,virginia that would not mature
 a single ear1 ,i spoke of it as        
something unknown at the ,north2 but    
there are fields planted to ,corn1 in   
the upper valley of the ,hudson1 that   
will not produce a single sound ear1 nor
 one bushel even of the shortest and    
poorest nubbins2 and alongside of these 
are acres of ,buckwheat1 blossoming at  
an average hight of four inches1 and not
 likely to get two inches higher4  ,now1
 if this land were so poor or so rocky  
that good crops could not be extracted  
from it1 far be it from me to disparage 
the agriculture whereof the results are 
so meagre2 but ,i am speaking of a river
 intervale of considerable natural      
fertility1 from which deep and thorough 
cultivation would insure ample harvests1
 subject only to the contingency of     
early frosts in ,autumn4 ,were these    
lands fertilized and cultivated as they 

might be1 and as mine are1 they would   
yield #cj bushels of ,rye or #fj of     
,indian ,corn per acre1 and would richly
 repay the husbandman's outlay and      
efforts4 ,now1 ,i venture to say that   
all the grain ,i saw growing in the     
valley of the ,hudson through ,warren   
,county will not return the farmer #ge  
cents for each day's labor expended     
thereon1 allowing nothing for the use of
 the land4  ,but how shall we obtain    
fertilizers8 ,i am often asked4 ,we are 
poor2 we can afford to keep but few     
cattle2 ,guano1 ,phosphate1 ,bones1     
,lime1 etc41 are beyond our means4 ,even
 if we could pay for them1 the cost of  
transportation to our out-of-the-way    
nooks would be heavy4 ,we cannot deal   
with our lands so bountifully as you do1
 but must be content to do as we can4   
,to all which ,i make answer3 ,no man   
ever lacked fertilizers who kept his    
eyes wide open and devoted two months of
 each ,fall and ,winter to collecting   
and preparing them4 ,wherever swamp muck

 may be had1 wherever bogs exist or     
flags or rushes grow1 there are         
materials which1 carted into the        
barn-yard in ,autumn or ,winter1 may be 
drawn out fertilizers in season for     
,corn-planting next ,spring4 ,wherever a
 pond or slough dries up in ,summer or  
,autumn1 there is material that may be  
profitably transformed into next year's 
grass or grain4 ,in the absence of all  
these--and they are seldom very far from
 one who knows how to look for          
them--rank weeds of all sorts1 if cut   
while green and tender1 or forest       
leaves1 gathered in the ,fall1 used for 
litter in the stable1 and thence thrown 
into the yard1 will serve an excellent  
purpose4 ,nay1 more3 ,i am confident    
that the farmer who lacks these1 but has
 access to a bed or bank of simple clay1
 may cart #bjj loads of it in ,november 
into an ordinary farm-yard1 have it     
trampled into and mixed with his manure 
in the ,winter1 and draw it out in the  
,spring1 excellently fitted to enrich   

his sandy or gravelly land1 and insure  
him1 in connection with deep and        
thorough culture1 a generous yield of   
,corn1 even in such a season as the     
present4 ,dr4 ,george ,b4 ,loring1 the  
most successful farmer in               
,massachusetts1 uses naked beach sand in
 abundance as litter for his #hj cows1  
mixes it with his manure throughout the 
,winter1 and draws out the compound to  
fertilize his clay meadows in the       
,spring1 with most satisfactory results4
 ,depend on it1 no man need lack        
fertilizers who begins in season and is 
willing to work for them4  ,and yet once
 more3  ,from the hills which inclose   
this valley of the upper ,hudson 7and   
from ever so many other valleys as      
well71 brooks and rivulets1 copious in  
,spring1 when their waters are          
surcharged and discolored by the richest
 juices of the uplands1 pour down in    
frequent cascades and dance across the  
intervale to be lost in the river4      
,there is scarcely an acre of that      

intervale which might not be irrigated  
from these streams at a very moderate   
outlay of work at the season when work  
is least pressing3 the water thus held  
back by dams being allowed to flow      
thence gently and equably across the    
intervale1 conveying not moisture only1 
but fertility also1 to every plant      
growing thereon4 ,i am confident that ,i
 passed many places on the upper        
,hudson1 as well as on the ,connecticut 
and ,ammonoosuc1 where #ajj faithful    
days' work providing for irrigation     
would have given #ajj bushels of grain1 
or #aj tuns of hay additional this year1
 and as much per annum henceforth1 at a 
cost of not more than two days' work in 
each year hereafter4  ,farmers1 but     
above all farmers' sons1 think of these 
things4     ,,xxxiii4  ,,intellect ,,in 
,,agriculture4   ,if a man whose capital
 consists of the clothes on his back1 #e
 in his pocket1 and an ax over his right
 shoulder1 undertakes to hew for himself
 a farm out of the primitive forest1 he 

must of course devote some years to     
rugged manual labor1 or he will fail of 
success4 ,it is indeed possible that he 
should find others1 even on the rude    
outposts of civilization1 who will hire 
them to teach school1 or serve as county
 clerk1 or survey lands1 or do something
 else of like nature3 thus enabling him 
to do his chopping trees1 and rolling   
logs1 and breaking up his stumpy acres1 
by proxy2 but the fair presumption is   
that he will have to chop and log1 and  
burn off and fence1 and break up1 by the
 use of his own proper muscle2 and he   
must be energetic and frugal1 as well as
 fortunate1 if he gets a comfortable    
house over his head1 with forty arable  
acres about him1 at the end of fifteen  
years' hard work4 ,if he has brains1 and
 has been well educated1 he may possibly
 shorten this ordeal to ten years2 but1 
should he begin by fancying hard work   
beneath him1 or his abilities too great 
to be squandered in bushwhacking1 he is 
very likely to come out at the little   

end of the horn1 and1 straggling back to
 some populous settlement1 more needy   
and seedy than when he set forth to     
wrest a farm from the wilderness1       
declare the pioneer's life one of such  
dreary1 hopeless privation that no one  
who can read or cypher ought ever to    
attempt it4  ,a poor man1 who undertakes
 to live by his wits on a farm that he  
has bought on credit1 is not likely to  
achieve a brilliant success2 but the    
farmer whose hand and brain work in     
concert will never find nor fancy his   
intellect or his education too good for 
his calling4 ,he may very often discover
 that he wasted months of his           
school-days on what was ill-adapted to  
his needs1 and of little use in fighting
 the actual battle of life2 but he will 
at the same time have ample reason to   
lament the meagerness and the deficiency
 of his knowledge4  ,i hold our average 
,common ,schools defective1 in that they
 fail to teach ,geology and ,chemistry1 
which in my view are the natural bases  

of a sound1 practical knowledge of      
things--knowledge which the farmer1 of  
all men1 can least afford to miss4      
,however it may be with others1 he      
vitally needs to understand the         
character and constitution of the soil  
he must cultivate1 the elements of which
 it is composed1 and the laws which     
govern their relations to each other4   
,instruct him in the higher mathematics 
if you will1 in logic1 in meteorology1  
in ever so many languages2 but not till 
he shall have been thoroughly grounded  
in the sciences which unlock for him the
 arcana of ,nature2 for these are       
intimately related to all he must do1   
and devise1 and direct1 throughout the  
whole course of his active career4      
,whatever he may learn or dispense with1
 a knowledge of these sciences is among 
the most urgent of his life-long needs4 
,hence1 ,i would suggest that a simple1 
lucid1 lively1 accurate digest of the   
leading principles and facts in ,geology
 and ,chemistry1 and their application  

to the practical management of a farm1  
ought to constitute the ,reader of the  
highest class in every ,common ,school1 
especially in rural districts4 ,leave   
out details and recipes1 with directions
 when to plant or sow1 etc42 for these  
must vary with climates1 circumstances1 
and the progress of knowledge2 but let  
the body and bones1 so to speak1 of a   
primary agricultural education be taught
 in every school1 in such terms and with
 such clearness as to commend them to   
the understanding of every pupil4 ,i    
never yet visited a school in which     
something was not taught which might be 
omitted or postponed in favor of this4  
,out of school and after school1 let the
 young farmer delight in the literature 
illustrative of his calling--,i mean the
 very best of it4 ,let him have few     
agricultural books2 but let these treat 
of principles and laws rather than of   
methods and applications4 ,let him learn
 from these how to ascertain by         
experiment what are the actual and      

pressing needs of his soil1 and he will 
readily determine by reflection and     
inquiry how those needs may be most     
readily and cheaply satisfied4  ,all the
 books in the world never of themselves 
made one good farmer2 but1 on the other 
hand1 no man in this age can be a       
thoroughly good farmer without the      
knowledge which is more easily and      
rapidly acquired from books than        
otherwise4 ,books are no substitute for 
open-eyed observation and practical     
experience2 but they enable one familiar
 with their contents to observe with an 
accuracy1 and experiment with an        
intelligence1 that are unattainable     
without them4 ,the very farmer who tells
 you that he never opened a book which  
treats of ,agriculture1 and never wants 
to see one1 will ask his neighbor how to
 grow or cure tobacco1 or hops1 or      
sorgho1 or any crop with which he is yet
 unacquainted1 when the chances are a   
hundred to one that this particular     
neighbor cannot advise him so well as   

the volume which embodies the experience
 of a thousand cultivators of this very 
plant instead of barely one4 ,a good    
book treating practically of            
,agriculture1 or of some department     
therein1 is simply a compendium of the  
experience of past ages combined with   
such knowledge as the present generation
 have been enabled to add thereto4 ,it  
may be faulty or defective on some      
points2 it is not to be blindly confided
 in1 nor slavishly followed--it is to be
 mastered1 discussed1 criticised1 and   
followed so far as its teachings        
coincide with the dictates of science1  
experience1 and common sense4 ,its true 
office is suggestion2 the good farmer   
will lean upon and trust it as an oracle
 only where his own proper knowledge    
proves entirely deficient4  ,by-and-by1 
it will be generally realized that few  
men live or have lived who cannot find  
scope and profitable employment for all 
their intellect on a two-hundred-acre   
farm4 ,and then the farmer will select  

the brightest of his sons to follow him 
in the management and cultivation of the
 paternal acres1 leaving those of       
inferior ability to seek fortune in     
pursuits for which a limited and special
 capacity will serve1 if not suffice4   
,and then we shall have an ,agriculture 
worthy of our country and the age4      
,meantime1 let us make the most of what 
we have1 by diffusing1 studying1        
discussing1 criticizing1 ,liebig's      
,agricultural ,chemistry1 ,dana's ,muck 
,manual1 ,waring's ,elements1 and the   
books that each treat more especially of
 some department of the farmer's art1   
and so making ourselves familiar1 first1
 with the principles1 then with the     
methods1 of scientific1 efficient1      
successful husbandry4 ,let us1 who love 
it1 treat ,agriculture as the elevated1 
ennobling pursuit it might and should   
be1 and thus exalt it in the estimation 
of the entire community4  ,we may1 at   
all events1 be sure of this3 ,just so   
fast and so far as farming is rendered  

an intellectual pursuit1 it will attract
 and retain the strongest minds1 the    
best abilities1 of the human race4 ,it  
has been widely shunned and escaped     
from1 mainly because it has seemed a    
calling in which only inferior          
capacities were required or would be    
rewarded4 ,let this error give place to 
the truth1 and ,agriculture will win    
votaries from among the brightest       
intellects of the race4     ,,xxxiv4    
,,sheep ,,and ,,wool-,,growing4   ,ours 
is eminently an agricultural country4   
,we produce most of our ,food1 and      
export much more than we import of both 
,grain and ,meat4 ,of ,cotton1 we grow  
some ,three ,millions of bales annually1
 whereof we export fully two-thirds4    
,but of this we reimport a portion in   
the shape of ,fabrics and of ,thread2   
and yet1 while we are largely clothed in
 ,woolens1 and extensive sections of our
 country are admirably adapted to the   
rearing of ,sheep and the production of 
,wool1 we not only import a considerable

 share of the ,woolens in which we are  
clad1 but we also import a considerable 
proportion of the ,wool wherefrom we    
manufacture the ,woolens fabricated on  
our own soil4 ,in other words3 while we 
are a nation of farmers and herdsmen1 we
 fail to grow so much ,wool as is needed
 to shield us against the caprices and  
inclemencies of our diverse but         
generally fitful climates4  ,there is a 
seeming excuse for this in the fact that
 extensive regions in ,south ,america   
and ,australia1 are devoted to          
,sheep-growing where animals are neither
 housed nor herded1 and where they are  
exclusively fed1 at all seasons1 on     
those native grasses which are the      
spontaneous products of the soil4 ,i    
presume ,wool is in those regions       
produced cheaper than it can permanently
 be on any considerable area of our own 
soil2 and yet ,i believe that the       
,united ,states should1 and profitably  
might1 grow as much ,wool as is needed  
for their own large annual consumption4 

,here are my reasons3  ,i4 ,when the    
predominant interest of ,british        
,manufactures constrained the entire    
repeal of the duties on imported ,wool1 
whereby ,sheep-growing had previously   
been protected1 the farmers apprehended 
that they must abandon that department  
of their industry2 but the event proved 
this calculation a mistake4 ,they grow  
more ,sheep and at better profit to-day 
than they did when their ,wool brought a
 higher price under the influence of    
,protective duties1 because the largely 
increased price of their ,mutton more   
than makes up to them their loss by the 
reduced prices of their ,wool4 ,so1     
while ,i do not expect that ,american   
,wool will ever again command such high 
prices as it has done at some periods in
 the past1 ,i am confident that the     
general appreciation in the prices of   
,meat1 which has occurred within the    
last ten or fifteen years1 and which    
seems likely to be enduring1 will render
 ,sheep-growing more profitable in the  

future than it has been in the past4 ,at
 all events1 while our farmers are      
generally obliged to sell their ,grain  
and ,meat at prices somewhat below the  
range of the ,british markets1 it is    
hardly conceivable that they should not 
afford to grow ,wool1 for which they    
receive higher average prices than the  
,british farmers do1 who feed their     
,sheep on the produce of lands worth    
from #cjj to #ejj 7gold7 per acre4      
,,ii4 ,interest being relatively high in
 this country1 and ,capital with most   
farmers deficient1 it is a serious      
objection to cattle-growing that the    
farmer must wait three or four years    
before receiving a return for his       
outlay4 ,if he begins poor1 with but a  
few cows and a team1 he naturally wants 
to rear and keep all his calves for     
several years in order to adequately    
stock his farm1 so that little or no    
income is meantime realized from his    
herd2 whereas a flock of ,sheep yields a
 fleece per head each year1 though not  

even a lamb is sold1 while its increase 
in numbers is far more rapid than that  
of a herd of cattle4  ,,iii4 ,almost    
every farmer1 at least in the old       
,states1 finds some part of his land    
infested with bushes and briers1 which  
seem to flourish by cutting1 if he finds
 time to cut them1 and which the        
ruggedness of his soil precludes his    
exterminating by the plow4 ,in every    
such case1 ,sheep are his natural       
allies--his unpaid police--his vigilant 
and thorough-going assistants4 ,give    
them an even start in ,spring with the  
bushes and briers2 let their number be  
sufficient2 and they are very sure to   
come out ahead in the ,fall4  ,,iv4 ,our
 farmers in the average are too much    
confined in ,summer and ,autumn to salt 
meats1 and especially to ,pork4 ,however
 excellent in quality these may be1     
their exclusive use is neither healthful
 nor palatable4 ,with a good flock of   
,sheep1 the most secluded farmer may    
have fresh meat every week in haying and

 harvest-time if he chooses2 and he will
 find this better for his family1 and   
more satisfactory to his workmen1 than a
 diet wherefrom fresh meat is excluded4 
,v4 ,now1 ,i do not insist that every   
farmer should grow ,sheep1 for ,i know  
that many are so situated that they     
cannot4 ,in stony regions1 where walls  
are very generally relied on for fences1
 ,i am aware that ,sheep are with       
difficulty kept within bounds2 and this 
is a serious objection4 ,in the         
neighborhood of cities and large        
villages1 where ,fresh ,meat may be     
bought from day to day1 one valid reason
 for keeping them has no application2   
yet ,i hold that twice as many of our   
farmers as now have flocks ought to have
 them1 and would thereby increase their 
profits as well as the comfort of their 
families4  ,the most serious obstacle to
 ,sheep husbandry in this country is the
 abundance and depredations of dogs4    
,farmers by tens of thousands have sold 
off1 or killed off1 their flocks1 mainly

 because they could not otherwise       
protect themselves against their        
frequent decimation by prowling curs1   
which were not worth the powder required
 to shoot them4 ,it seems to me that a  
farmer thus despoiled is perfectly      
justifiable in placing poisoned food    
where these cut-throats will be apt to  
find it while making their next raid on 
his ,sheep4 ,i should have no scruple in
 so doing1 provided ,i could guard      
effectually against the poisoning of any
 other than the culprits4  ,in a        
well-settled1 thrifty region1 where     
ample barns are provided1 ,i judge that 
the losses of ,sheep by dogs may be     
reduced to a minimum by proper          
precautions4 ,elsewhere than in wild1   
new frontier settlements1 every flock of
 ,sheep should have a place of refuge   
beneath the hay-floor of a good barn1   
and be trained to spend every night     
there1 as well as to seek this shelter  
against every pelting storm4 ,even if   
sent some distance to pasture1 an       

unbarred lane should connect such       
pasture with their fold2 and they should
 be driven home for a few nights1 if    
necessary1 until they had acquired the  
habit of coming home at nightfall2 and  
,i am assured that ,sheep thus lodged   
will very rarely be attacked by dogs or 
wolves4  ,as yet1 our farmers have not  
generally realized that enhancement of  
the value of ,mutton1 whereby their     
,british rivals have profited so        
largely4 ,their fathers began to breed  
,sheep when a fleece sold for much more 
than a carcase1 and when fineness and   
abundance of ,wool were the main        
consideration4 ,but such is no longer   
the fact1 at least in the ,eastern and  
,middle ,states4 ,to-day1 large and     
long-wooled ,sheep of the ,cotswold and 
similar breeds are grown with far       
greater profit in this section than the 
fine-wooled ,merino and ,saxony1 except 
where choice specimens of the latter can
 be sold at high prices for removal to  
,texas and the ,far ,west4 ,the growing 

of these high-priced animals must       
necessarily be confined to few hands4   
,the average farmer cannot expect to    
sell bucks at #a1jjj1 and even at       
#e1jjj1 as some have been sold1 or at   
least reported4 ,he must calculate that 
his ,sheep are to be sold1 when sold at 
all1 at prices ranging from #aj down to 
#e1 if not lower1 so that mechanics and 
merchants may buy and eat them without  
absolute ruin2 and he must realize that 
#ajj pounds of ,mutton at #aj cents1    
with #f pounds of ,wool at #cj cents1   
amount to more than #fj pounds of       
,mutton at #h cents1 and #aj pounds of  
,wool at #fj cents4 ,farmers who grow   
,sheep for ,mutton in this vicinity1 and
 manage to have lambs of good size for  
sale in ,june or ,july1 assure me that  
their profit on these is greater than on
 almost anything else their farms will  
produce2 and they say what they know4   
,the satisfactory experience of this    
class may be repeated to-day in the     
neighborhood of any considerable city in

 the ,union4 ,sheep-growing is no       
experiment2 it is an assured and        
gratifying success with all who         
understand and are fitly placed for its 
prosecution4 ,wool may never again be so
 high as we have known it1 since the    
,far ,west and ,texas can grow it very  
cheaply1 while its transportation costs 
less than five per cent4 of its value1  
where that of ,grain would be #ge per   
cent42 but ,mutton is a wholesome and   
generally acceptable meat1 whereof the  
use and popularity1 are daily           
increasing2 so that its market value    
will doubtless be greater in the future 
than it has been in the past4 ,i would  
gladly incite the farmers of our country
 to comprehend this fact1 and act so as 
to profit by it4  ,but the new region   
opened to ,sheep-growing by the pioneers
 of ,colorado1 and other ,territories1  
is destined to play a great part in the 
satisfaction of our need of ,wool4 ,the 
elevated ,plains and ,valleys which     
enfold and embrace the ,rocky ,mountains

 are exceedingly favorable to the cheap 
production of ,wool4 ,their pure1 dry1  
bracing atmosphere2 the rarity of their 
drenching storms2 the fact that their   
soil is seldom or never sodden with     
water2 and the excellence of their      
short1 thin grasses1 even in ,winter1   
render them admirably adapted to the    
wants of the shepherd and his flocks4 ,i
 do not believe in the wisdom or        
humanity1 while ,i admit the            
possibility1 of keeping ,sheep without  
cured fodder on the ,plains or          
elsewhere2 on the contrary1 ,i would    
have ample and effective shelter against
 cold and wet provided for every flock1 
with ,hay1 or ,grain1 or ,roots1 or     
somewhat of each of them1 for at least  
two months of each year2 but1 even thus1
 ,i judge that fine ,wool can be grown  
in ,colorado or ,wyoming far cheaper    
than in ,new ,england or even           
,minnesota1 and of better quality than  
in ,texas or ,south ,america4 ,and ,i am
 grievously mistaken if ,sheep husbandry

 is not about to be developed on the    
,plains with a rapidity and success     
which have no ,american precedent4      
,,xxxv4  ,,accounts ,,in ,,farming4     
,farmers1 it is urged1 sometimes fail2  
and this is unfortunately true of them1 
as of all others4 ,some fail in         
integrity2 others in sobriety2 many in  
capacity2 most in diligence2 but not a  
few in method or system4 ,quite a number
 fail because they undertake too much at
 the outset2 that is1 they run into debt
 for more land than they have capital to
 stock or means to fertilize1 and are   
forced into bankruptcy by the interest  
ever-accruing upon land which they are  
unable to cultivate4 ,if they should get
 ahead a little by active exertion      
throughout the day1 the interest would  
overtake and pass them during the       
ensuing night4  ,few of the unsuccessful
 realize the extent to which their ill  
fortune is fairly attributable to their 
own waste of time4 ,men not naturally   
lazy squander hours weekly in the       

village1 or at the railroad station1    
without a suspicion that they are thus  
destroying their chances of success in  
life4 ,to-day is given up to a          
monkey-show2 half of to-morrow is lost  
in attendance on an auction2 part of    
next day is spent at a caucus or a jury 
trial2 and so on until one-third of the 
year is virtually wasted4  ,now1 the men
 who have achieved eminent success1     
within my observation1 have all been    
rigid economists of time4 ,they managed 
to transact their business at the       
county-seat while serving there as grand
 or petit jurors1 or detained under     
subpoena as witnesses2 they never       
attended an auction unless they really  
needed something which was there to be  
sold1 and then they began their day's   
work earlier and ended it later in order
 to redeem the time which they borrowed 
for the sale4 ,i do not believe that any
 ,american farmer who could count up    
three hundred full days' work in every  
year between his twenty-first and his   

thirtieth ever yet failed1 except as a  
result of speculation1 or endorsing1 or 
inordinate running into debt4  ,i would1
 therefore1 urge every farmer to keep a 
rigid account current of the disposal of
 his time1 so as to be able to see at   
the year's end exactly how many days    
thereof he had given to productive      
labor2 how many to such abiding         
improvements as fencing and draining2   
and how many to objects which neither   
increased his crop nor improved his     
farm4 ,i am sure many would be amazed at
 the extent of this last category4  ,if 
every youth who expects to live by      
farming would buy a cheap pocket-book or
 wallet which contains a diary wherein a
 page is allotted to each day of the    
year1 and would1 at the close of that   
day1 or at least while its incidents    
were still fresh in his mind1 set down  
under its proper head whatever incidents
 were most noteworthy--as1 for instance1
 a soaking rain2 a light or heavy       
shower2 a slight or killing frost2 a    

fall of snow2 a hurricane2 a hail-storm2
 a gale2 a decidedly hot or notably cold
 temperature2 the turning out of cattle 
to pasture or sheltering them against   
the severity of ,winter2 also the       
planting or sowing of each crop or      
field1 and whether harm was done to it  
by frost in its infancy or when it      
approached maturity--he would thus      
provide himself with annual volumes of  
fact which would prove instructive and  
valuable throughout his maturer years4  
,the good farmer will of course keep    
accounts with such of his neighbors as  
he sees fit to deal with2 and he ought  
to charge a lent or credit a borrowed   
plow1 harrow1 reaper1 log-chain1 or     
other implement1 precisely as though it 
were meal or meat of an equal value4 ,i 
judge that borrowed implements1 if      
regularly charged at cost1 and credited 
at their actual value when returned1    
would generally come home sooner and in 
better condition4  ,but the farmer1 like
 every one else1 should be most careful 

to keep debt and credit with himself and
 his farm4 ,if a dollar is spent or     
lent1 his books should show it2 and let 
items and sum total stare him in the    
face when he strikes a balance at the   
close of the year4 ,if there has been no
 leakage either of dimes or of hours1 he
 will seldom be poorer on the #cast of  
,december than he was on the #ast of the
 preceding ,january4  ,most farmers fail
 to keep accounts with their several    
fields and crops2 yet what could be more
 instructive than these8 ,here are ten  
acres of ,corn1 with a yield of #bj to  
#dj bushels per acre--a like area and   
like yield of ,oats2 a smaller or larger
 of ,rye1 ,buckwheat1 or ,beans1 as the 
case may be4 ,if the produce is sold1   
most farmers know how much it brings2   
but how many know how much it cost8 ,say
 the ,corn brings #ge cents per bushel1 
and the ,oats #ej cents3 was either or  
both produced at a profit8 ,if so1 at   
what profit8 ,here is a farmer who has  
grown from #ajj to #hjj bushels of ,corn

 per annum for the last #bj years2 ought
 he not to know by this time what ,corn 
costs him in the average1 and whether it
 could or could not with profit give    
place to something else8 ,most farmers  
grow some crops at a profit1 others at a
 loss2 ought they not to know1 after an 
experience of five or ten years1 what   
crops have put money into their pockets1
 and what have made them poorer for the 
growing8  ,of course1 there is          
complication and some degree of         
uncertainty in all such account-keeping2
 for every one is aware that some crops 
take more from the soil than others1 and
 so leave it in a worse condition for   
those that are to follow1 and that some 
exact large reenforcements of           
fertilizers1 whereof a part only is     
fairly chargeable to the first ensuing  
product1 while a large share inures to  
the subsequent harvests4 ,each must     
judge for himself how much is to be     
credited for such improvement1 and how  
much charged against other crops for    

deterioration4 ,he1 for example1 whose  
meadows will cut from two to three tuns 
per acre of good ,english ,hay may      
generally sell that ,hay for twice if   
not thrice the immediate cost of its    
production1 and so seem to be realizing 
a large profit2 but1 if he gives nothing
 to the soil in return for the heavy    
draft thus made upon it1 his crop will  
dwindle year by year1 until it will     
hardly pay for cutting2 and the         
diminution in value of his meadows will 
nearly or quite balance the seeming     
profit accruing from his ,hay4 ,but     
account-keeping in every business       
involves essentially identical          
calculations2 and the merchant who this 
year makes no net profit on his goods1  
but doubles the number of his customers 
and the extent of his trade1 has thriven
 precisely as has the farmer whose      
profit on his crops has all been        
invested in drains permeating his bogs1 
and in ,lime1 ,plaster1 and other       
fertilizers1 applied to and permanently 

enriching his dryer fields4  ,to make   
each day a critic on the last1 was the  
aspiration of a wise man1 if not a great
 poet4 ,so the farmer who will keep     
careful and candid accounts ,with       
himself1 annually correcting his        
estimates by the light of experience1   
will soon learn what crops he may       
reasonably expect to grow at a profit1  
and to reject such as are likely to     
involve him in loss2 and he who1 having 
done this1 shall blend common sense with
 industry1 will have no reason to       
complain thereafter that there is no    
profit in farming1 and no chance of     
achieving wealth by pursuing it4        
,,xxxvi4  ,,stone ,,on ,a ,,farm4       
,this earth1 geologists say1 was once an
 immense expanse of heated vapor1 which1
 gradually cooling at its surface1 as it
 whirled and sped through space1        
contracted and formed a crust1 which we 
know as ,rock or ,stone4 ,this crust has
 since been broken through1 and tilted  
up into ranges of mountains and hills1  

by the action of internal fires1 by the 
transmutation of solid bodies into more 
expansive gases2 and the fragments torn 
away from the sharper edges of upheaved 
masses of granite1 quartz1 or sandstone1
 having been frozen into iceberg1       
floating1 or soon to be so1 have been   
carried all over the surface of our     
planet1 and dropped upon the greater    
part1 as those icebergs were ultimately 
resolved1 by a milder temperature1 into 
flowing water4 ,when the seas were      
afterward reduced nearly or quite to    
their present limits1 and the icebergs  
restricted to the frigid zones and their
 vicinity1 streams had to make their way
 down the sides of the mountains and    
hills to the subjacent valleys and      
plains1 sweeping along not merely sand  
and gravel1 but bowlders also1 of every 
size and form1 and sometimes great rocks
 as well1 by the force of their         
impetuous currents4 ,and1 as a very     
large1 if not the larger portion of our 
earth's surface bears testimony to the  

existence and powerful action through   
ages1 of larger and smaller             
water-courses1 a wide and general       
diffusion of stones1 not in place1 but  
more or less triturated1 smoothed1 and  
rounded1 by the action of water1 was    
among the inevitable results4  ,these   
stones are sometimes a facility1 but    
oftener an impediment1 to efficiency in 
agriculture4 ,when heated by fervid     
sunshine throughout the day1 they retain
 a portion of that heat through a part  
of the succeeding night1 thereby raising
 the temperature of the soil1 and       
increasing the deposit of dew on the    
plants there growing4 ,when generally   
broken so finely as to offer no         
impediment to cultivation1 they not     
merely absorb heat by day1 to be given  
off by night1 but1 by rendering the soil
 open and porous1 secure a much more    
extensive diffusion of air through it   
than would otherwise be possible4 ,thus 
do slaty soils achieve and maintain a   
warmth unique in their respective       

latitudes1 so as to ripen grapes further
 ,north1 and at higher elevations1 than 
would otherwise be possible4  ,the great
 ,prairies of the ,west1 with a         
considerable portion of the valleys and 
plains of the ,atlantic slope1 expose no
 rock at their surfaces1 and little     
beneath them1 until the soil has been   
traversed1 and the vicinity of the      
underlying rock in place fairly         
attained4 ,to farmers inured to the     
perpetual stone-picking of              
,new-,england1 and other hilly regions1 
this is a most welcome change2 but when 
the pioneer comes to look about him for 
stone to wall his cellar and his well1  
to underpin his barn1 and form the      
foundations of his dwelling1 he realizes
 that the bowlders he had exulted in    
leaving behind him were not wholly and  
absolutely a nuisance2 glad as he was to
 be rid of them forever1 he would like  
now to call some of them back again4    
,yet1 the ,eastern farmer of to-day has 
fewer uses for stone than his           

grandfather had4 ,he does not want his  
farm cut up into two or three-acre      
patches1 by broad-based1 unsightly      
walls1 which frost is apt to heave year 
after year into greater deformity and   
less efficiency2 nor does he care longer
 to use them in draining1 since he must 
excavate and replace thrice as much     
earth in making a stone as in making a  
tile drain2 while the former affords    
shelter and impunity to rats1 mice1 and 
other mischievous1 predatory animals1   
whose burrowing therein tends constantly
 to stimulate its natural tendency to   
become choked with sand and earth4 ,of  
the stone drains1 constructed through   
parts of my farm by foremen whose wills 
proved stronger than my own1 but two    
remain in partial operation1 and ,i     
shall rejoice when these shall have     
filled themselves up and been counted   
out evermore4 ,happily1 they were sunk  
so low that the subsoil plow will never 
disturb them4  ,still1 my confidence    
that nothing was made in vain is        

scarcely shaken by the prevalence and   
abundance of stone on our ,eastern      
farms4 ,we may not have present use for 
them all2 but our grandsons will be     
wiser than we1 and have uses for them   
which we hardly suspect4 ,i reinsist    
that land which is very stony was mainly
 created with an eye to timber-growing1 
and that millions of acres of such ought
 forthwith to be planted with ,hickory1 
,white ,oak1 ,locust1 ,chestnut1 ,white 
,pine1 and other valuable forest-trees4 
,every acre of thoroughly dry land1     
lying near a railroad1 in the ,eastern  
or ,middle ,states1 may be made to pay a
 good interest on from #ej up to #ajj1  
provided there be soil enough above its 
rocks to afford a decent foothold for   
trees2 and how little will answer this  
purpose none can imagine who have not   
seen the experiment tried4 ,sow thickly1
 that you may begin to cut out poles six
 to ten feet long within three or four  
years1 and keep cutting out 7but never  
cutting off7 thenceforward1 until time  

shall be no more1 and your rocky crests1
 steep hillsides and ravines1 will take 
rank with the most productive portions  
of your farm4  ,in the edges of these   
woods1 you may deposit the surplus      
stones of the adjacent cultivated       
fields1 in full assurance that moth and 
rust will not corrupt nor thieves break 
through and steal1 but that you and your
 sons and grandsons will find them there
 whenever they shall be needed1 as well 
as those you found there when you came  
into possession of the farm4  ,i am     
further confident that we shall build   
more and more with rough1 unshapen      
stone1 as we grow older and wiser4 ,in  
our harsh1 capricious climate1 walls of 
stone-concrete afford the cheapest and  
best protection alike against heat and  
frost1 for our animals certainly1 and1  
,i think1 also for ourselves4 ,let the  
farmer begin his barn by making of      
stone1 laid in thin mortar1 a           
substantial basement story2 let into a  
hillside1 for his manure and his        

root-cellar2 let him build upon this a  
second story of like materials for the  
stalls of his cattle2 and now he may add
 a third story and roof of wood for his 
bay and grain1 if he sees fit4 ,his son 
or grandson will1 probably1 take this   
off1 and replace it with concrete walls 
and a slate roof2 or this may be        
postponed until the original wooden     
structure has rotted off2 but ,i feel   
sure that1 ultimately1 the dwellings as 
well as barns of thrifty farmers1 in    
stony districts1 will mainly be built of
 rough stone1 thrown into a box and     
firmly cemented by a thin mortar        
composed of much sand and little lime2  
and that thus at least ten thousand tuns
 of stone to each farm will be disposed 
of4 ,it may be somewhat later still     
before our barn-yards1 fowl inclosures1 
gardens1 pig-pens1 etc41 will be shut in
 by cemented walls2 but the other sort  
affords such ample and perpetual lurking
 places for rats1 minks1 weasels1 and   
all manner of destructive vermin1 that  

they are certain to go out of fashion   
before the close of the next century4   
,as to blasting out ,stone1 too large or
 too firmly fixed to be otherwise       
handled1 ,i would solve the problem by  
asking1 ,do you mean to keep this lot in
 cultivation8 ,if you do1 clear it of   
stone from the surface upward1 and for  
at least two feet downward1 though they 
be as large as haycocks1 and as fixed as
 the everlasting hills4 ,clear your     
field of every stone bigger than a goose
 egg1 that the ,plow or the ,mower may  
strike in doing its work1 or give it up 
to timber1 plant it thoroughly1 and     
leave its stones unmolested until you or
 your descendants shall have a paying   
use for them4  ,a friend deeply engaged 
in lumbering gives me a hint1 which ,i  
think some owners of stony farms will   
find useful4 ,he is obliged to run his  
logs down shallow1 stony creeks1 from   
the bottom of which large rocks often   
protrude1 arresting the downward        
progress of his lumber4 ,when the beds  

of these creeks are nearly dry in       
,summer1 he goes in1 with two or three  
stout1 strong assistants1 armed with    
crowbars and levers1 and rolls the      
stones to this side and that1 so as to  
leave a clear passage for his logs4     
,occasionally1 he is confronted by a big
 fellow1 which defies his utmost force2 
when1 instead of drilling and blasting1 
he gathers dead tree-tops1 and other dry
 wood of no value1 from the banks1 and  
builds a hot fire on the top of each    
giant bowlder4 ,when the fire has burned
 out1 and the rock has cooled1 he finds 
it softened1 and1 as it were1 rotten1 on
 the top1 often split1 and every way so 
demoralized that he can deal with it as 
though it were chalk or cheese4 ,he     
estimates his saving by this process1 as
 compared with drilling and blasting as 
much more than fifty per cent4 ,i trust 
farmers with whom wood is abundant1 and 
big stones superabundant1 will give this
 simple device a trial4 ,powder and     
drilling cost money1 part of which may  

be saved by this expedient4  ,i have    
built some stone walls--at first1 not   
very well2 but for the last ten years my
 rule has been3 ,very little fence on a 
farm1 but that little of a kind that    
asks no forbearance of the wildest bull 
that ever wore a horn4 ,the last wall ,i
 built cost me at least #e per rod2 and 
it is worth the money4 ,beginning by    
plowing its bed and turning the two     
furrows together1 so as to raise the    
ground a foot1 and make a shallow ditch 
on either side1 ,i built a wall thereon 
which will outlast my younger child4 ,an
 ordinary wall dividing a wood on the   
north from an open field of sunny1      
gravelly loam on the south1 would have  
been partly thrown down and wholly      
twisted out of shape in a few years1 by 
the thawing of the earth under its sunny
 side1 while it remained firm as a rock 
on the north2 but the ground is always  
dry under my entire wall2 so nothing    
freezes there1 and there is consequently
 nothing to thaw and let down my wall4  

,i shall be sorely disappointed if that 
wall does not outlast my memory1 and be 
known as a thorough barrier to roving   
cattle long after the name of its       
original owner shall have been          
forgotten4     ,,xxxvii4  ,,fences ,,and
 ,,fencing4   ,though ,i have already   
indicated1 incidentally1 my decided     
objections to our prevalent system of   
,fencing1 ,i deem the subject of such   
importance that ,i choose to discuss it 
directly4 ,excessive ,fencing is        
peculiarly an ,american abuse1 which    
urgently cries for reform4  ,solon      
,robinson says the fence-tax is the     
heaviest of our farmer's taxes4 ,i add1 
that it is the most needless and        
indefensible4  ,highways we must have1  
and people must traverse them2 but this 
gives them no right to trample down or  
otherwise injure the crops growing on   
either side4 ,in ,france1 and other     
parts of ,europe1 you see grass and     
grain growing luxuriantly up to the very
 edge of the beaten tracks1 with nothing

 like a fence between them4 ,yet those  
crops are nowise injured or disturbed by
 wayfarers4 ,whoever chooses to impel   
animals along these roads must take care
 to have them completely under          
subjection1 and must see that they do no
 harm to whatever grows by the wayside4 
,in this country1 cattle-driving1 except
 on a small scale1 and for short        
distances1 has nearly been superceded by
 railroads4 ,the great droves formerly  
reaching the ,atlantic seaboard on foot1
 from ,ohio or further ,west1 are now   
huddled into cars and hurried through in
 far less time1 and with less waste of  
flesh2 but they reach us fevered1       
bruised1 and every way unwholesome4     
,every animal should be turned out to   
grass1 after a railroad journey of more 
than twelve hours1 and left there a full
 month before he is taken to the        
slaughter-pen4 ,we must have many more  
deaths per annum in this city than if   
the animals on which we subsist were    
killed in a condition which rendered    

them fit for human food4  ,ultimately1  
our fresh ,beef1 ,mutton and ,pork1 will
 come to us from the ,prairies in       
refrigerating cars3 each animal having  
been killed while in perfect health1    
unfevered and untortured by days of     
cramped1 galled1 and thirsty suffering1 
on the cars4 ,this will leave their     
offal1 including a large portion of     
their bones1 to enrich the fields whence
 their sustenance was drawn and from    
which they should never be taken4 ,the  
cost of transporting the meat1 hides1   
and tallow1 in such cars1 would be less 
than that of bringing through the       
animals on their legs2 while the danger 
of putrefaction might be utterly        
precluded4  ,but to return to ,fencing3 
,our growing plants must be preserved   
from animal ravage2 but it is most      
unjust to impose the cost of this       
protection on the growers4 ,whoever     
chooses to rear or buy animals must take
 care that they do not infest and       
despoil his neighbors4 ,whoever sees fit

 to turn animals into the street1 should
 send some one with them who will be    
sure to keep them out of mischief1 which
 browsing young trees in a forest       
clearly is4  ,if the inhabitants of a   
settlement or village surrounded by open
 prairie1 see fit to pasture their      
cattle thereon1 they should send them   
out each morning in the charge of a     
well-mounted herdsmen1 whose duty should
 be summed up in keeping them from      
evildoing by day and bringing them      
safely back to their yard or yards at   
nightfall4  ,fencing bears with special 
severity on the pioneer class1 who are  
least able to afford the outlay4 ,the   
clearing of the pioneer's first year in 
the wilderness1 being enlarged by ax and
 fire1 needs a new and far longer       
environment next year2 and so through   
subsequent years until clearing is at an
 end4 ,many a pioneer is thus impelled  
to devote a large share of his time to  
,fencing2 and yet his crops often come  
to grief through the depredations of his

 own or his neighbor's breachy cattle4  
,fences produce nothing but unwelcome   
bushes1 briers and weeds4 ,so far as    
they may be necessary1 they are a       
deplorable necessity4 ,when constructed 
where they are not really needed1 they  
evince costly folly4 ,i think ,i could  
point out farms which would not sell    
to-day for the cost of rebuilding their 
present fences4  ,we cannot make open   
drains or ditches serve for fences in   
this country1 as they sometimes do in   
milder and more equable climates1       
because our severe frosts would heave   
and crumble their banks if nearly       
perpendicular1 sloping them at length in
 places so that animals might cross them
 at leisure4 ,nor have we1 so far north 
as this city1 had much success with     
hedges1 for a like reason4 ,there is    
scarcely a hedge-plant at once efficient
 in stopping animals and so hardy as to 
defy the severity1 or rather the        
caprice1 of our ,winters4 ,i scarcely   
know a hedge which is not either        

inefficient or too costly for the       
average farmer2 and then a hedge is a   
fixture2 whereas we often need to move  
or demolish our fences4  ,wire ,fences  
are least obnoxious to this objection2  
they are very easily removed2 but a     
careless teamster1 a stupid animal1 or a
 clumsy friend1 easily makes a breach in
 one1 which is not so easily repaired4  
,of the few ,wire ,fences within my     
knowledge1 hardly one has remained      
entire and efficient after standing two 
or three years4  ,stone ,walls1 well    
built1 on raised foundations of dry     
earth1 are enduring and quite effective1
 but very costly4 ,my best have cost me 
at least #e per rod1 though the raw     
material was abundant and accessible4 ,i
 doubt that any good wall is built1 with
 labor at present prices1 for less than 
#e per rod4 ,perhaps ,i should account  
this costliness a merit1 since it must  
impel farmers to study how to make few  
fences serve their turn4  ,rail ,fences 
will be constructed only where timber is

 very abundant1 of little value1 and    
easily split4 ,whenever the burning of  
timber to be rid of it has ceased1 there
 the making of rail fences must be near 
its end4  ,where fences must still be   
maintained1 ,i apprehend that posts and 
boards are the cheapest material4       
,though ,pine lumber grows dear1        
,hemlock still abounds2 and the rapid   
destruction of trees for their bark to  
be used in tanning must give us cheap   
hemlock boards throughout many ensuing  
years4 ,spruce1 ,tamarack1 and other    
evergreens from our ,northern swamps1   
will come into play after ,hemlock shall
 have been exhausted4  ,as for posts1   
,red ,cedar is a general favorite2 and  
this tree seems to be rapidly           
multiplying hereabout4 ,i judge that    
farmers who have it not1 might wisely   
order it from a nursery and give it an  
experimental trial4 ,it is hardy2 it is 
clean2 it makes but little shade2 and it
 seems to fear no insect whatever4 ,it  
flourishes on rocky1 thin soils2 and a  

grove of it is pleasant to the sight--at
 least1 to mine4  ,locust is more widely
 known and esteemed2 but the borer has  
proved destructive to it on very many   
farms1 though not on mine4 ,i like it   
well1 and mean to multiply it           
extensively by drilling the seed in rich
 garden soil and transplanting to rocky 
woodland when two years old4 ,sowing the
 seed among rocks and bushes ,i have    
tried rather extensively1 with poor     
success4 ,if it germinates at all1 the  
young tree is so tiny and feeble that   
bushes1 weeds1 and grass1 overtop and   
smother it4  ,that a post set top-end   
down will last many years longer than if
 set as it grew1 ,i do firmly believe1  
though ,i cannot attest it from personal
 observation4 ,i understand the reason  
to be this3 ,trees absorb or suck up    
moisture from the earth2 and the        
particles which compose them are so     
combined and adjusted as to facilitate  
this operation4 ,plant a post deeply and
 firmly in the ground1 butt-end         

downward1 and it will continue to absorb
 moisture from the earth as it did when 
alive2 and the post1 thus moistened     
to-day and dried by wind and sun        
to-morrow1 is thereby subjected to more 
rapid disintegration and decay than when
 reversed4  ,my general conclusion is1  
that the good farmer will have fewer and
 better fences than his thriftless      
neighbor1 and that he will study and    
plan to make fewer and fewer rods of    
fence serve his needs1 taking care that 
all he retains shall be perfect and     
conclusive4 ,breachy cattle are a sad   
affliction alike to their owner and his 
neighbor2 and shaky1 rotting1           
tumble-down fences1 are justly          
responsible for their perverse          
education4 ,let us each resolve to take 
good care that his own cattle shall in  
no case afflict his neighbors1 and we   
shall all need fewer fences henceforth  
and evermore4     ,,xxxviii4            
,,agricultural ,,exhibitions4   ,i must 
have attended not less than fifty ,state

 or ,county ,fairs for the exhibition   
7mainly7 of ,agricultural ,machines and 
,products4 ,from all these1 ,i should   
have learned something1 and presume ,i  
did2 but ,i cannot now say what4 ,hence1
 ,i conclude that these ,fairs are not  
what they might and should be4 ,in other
 words1 they should be improved4 ,but   
how8  ,as the people compose much the   
largest and best part of these shows1   
the reform must begin with them4        
,two-thirds of them go to a ,fair with  
no desire to learn therefrom--no belief 
that they can there be taught anything4 
,of course1 not seeking1 they do not    
find4 ,if they could but realize that a 
,farmer's ,fair might and should teach  
farmers somewhat that would serve them  
in their vocation1 a great point would  
be gained4 ,but they go in quest of     
entertainment1 and find this mainly in  
horse-racing4  ,of all human            
opportunities for instruction in        
humility and self-depreciation1 the     
average public speaker's is the best4   

,he hurries to a place where he has been
 told that his presence and utterance   
are earnestly and generally             
desired--perhaps to find that his       
invitation came from an insignificant   
and odious handful1 who had some private
 ax to grind so repugnant to the great  
majority that they refuse to countenance
 the procedure1 no matter how great the 
temptation4 ,even where there is no such
 feud1 many1 having satiated their      
curiosity by a long stare at him1 walk  
whistling off1 without waiting or       
wishing to hear him4 ,but the speaker at
 a ,fair must compete with a thousand   
counter-attractions1 the least of them  
far more popular and winning than he can
 hope to be4 ,he is heard1 so far as he 
is heard at all1 in presence of and     
competition with all the bellowing      
bulls1 braying1 jacks1 and squealing    
stallions1 in the county2 if he holds1  
nevertheless1 a quarter of the crowd1 he
 does well3 but let two jockeys start a 
buggy-race around the convenient track1 

and the last auditor shuts his ears and 
runs off to enjoy the spectacle4        
,decidedly1 ,i insist that a            
,fair-ground is poorly adapted to the   
diffusion of ,agricultural              
knowledge--that the people present      
acquire very little information there1  
even when they get all they want4  ,what
 is needed to render our annual ,fairs  
useful and instructive far beyond       
precedent1 ,i sum up as follows3  ,i4   
,each farmer in the county or township  
should hold himself bound to make some  
contribution thereto4 ,if only a good   
hill of ,corn1 a peck of ,potatoes1 a   
bunch of ,grapes1 a ,squash1 a ,melon1  
let him send that4 ,if he can send all  
of these1 so much the better4 ,there is 
very rarely a thrifty farmer who could  
not add to the attractions and merits of
 a ,fair if he would try4 ,if he could  
send a coop of superior ,fowls1 a likely
 ,calf1 or a first-rate ,cow1 better    
yet2 but nine-tenths of our farmers     
regard a ,fair as something wherewith   

they have nothing to do1 except as      
spectators4 ,when it is half over1 they 
lounge into it with hands in their      
pockets1 stare about for an hour1 and go
 home protesting that they could beat   
nearly everything they saw there4 ,then 
why did they not try8 ,how can we have  
good ,fairs1 if those who might make the
 best display of products save          
themselves the trouble by not making    
any8 ,the average meagerness of our     
,fairs1 so generally and justly         
complained of1 is not the fault of those
 who sent what they had1 but of those   
who1 having better1 were too lazy to    
send anything4 ,until this is radically 
changed1 and the blame fastened on those
 who might have contributed1 but did    
not1 our ,fairs cannot help being       
generally meager and poor4  ,,ii4 ,it   
seems to me that there is great need of 
an interesting and faithful running     
commentary on the various articles      
exhibited4 ,a competent person should be
 employed to give an hour's off-hand    

talk on the cattle and horses on hand1  
explaining the diverse merits and faults
 of the several breeds there exhibited1 
and of the representatives of those     
breeds then present4 ,if any are        
peculiarly adapted to the locality1 let 
that fact be duly set forth1 with the   
simple object of enabling farmers to    
breed more intelligently1 and more      
profitably4 ,then let the implements and
 machinery on exhibition be likewise    
explained and discussed1 and let their  
superiority in whatever respect to those
 they have superseded or are designed to
 supersede be clearly pointed out4 ,so1 
if there be any new ,grain1 ,vegetable1 
or ,fruit1 on the tables1 let it be made
 the subject of capable and thoroughly  
impartial discussion1 before such only  
as choose to listen1 and without putting
 the mere sightseers to grave           
inconvenience4 ,a lecture-room should   
always be attached to a ,fair-ground1   
yet so secluded as to shut out the noise
 inseparable from a crowded exhibition4 

,here1 meetings should be held each     
evening1 for general discussion2 every  
one being encouraged to state concisely 
the impressions made on him1 and the    
improvements suggested to him1 by what  
he had seen4 ,do let us try to reflect  
and consider more at these gatherings1  
even though at the cost of seeing less4 
,,iii4 ,the well supported ,agricultural
 ,society of a rich and populous county 
must be able1 or should be able1 to give
 two or three liberal premiums for      
general proficiency in farming4 ,if #ajj
 could be proffered to the owner or     
manager of the best tilled farm in the  
county1 #ej to the owner of the best    
orchard1 and #ej to the boy under #ah   
years of age who grew the best acre of  
,corn or ,roots that year1 ,i am        
confident that an impulse would thereby 
be given to agricultural progress4 ,our 
premiums are too numerous and too petty1
 because so few1 are willing to         
contribute with no expectation of       
personal benefit or distinction4 ,if we 

had but the right spirit aroused1 we    
might dispense with most of our petty   
premiums1 or replace them by medals of  
no great cost1 and devote the money thus
 saved to higher and nobler ends4  ,,iv4
 ,much of the speaking at ,fairs seems  
to me insulting to the intelligence of  
the ,farmers present1 who are grossly   
flattered and eulogized1 when they often
 need to be admonished and incited to   
mend their ways4 ,what use or sense can 
there be in a lawyer1 doctor1 broker1 or
 editor1 talking to a crowd of farmers  
as if they were the most favored of     
mortals and their life the noblest and  
happiest known to mankind8 ,whatever it 
might be1 and may yet become1 we all    
know that the average farmer's life is  
not what it is thus represented3 for1 if
 it were1 thousands would be rushing    
into it where barely hundreds left it3  
whereas we all see that the fact is     
quite otherwise4 ,no good can result    
from such insincere and extravagant     
praises of a calling which so few freely

 choose1 and so many gladly shun4 ,grant
 that the farmer's ought to be the most 
enviable and envied vocation1 we know   
that in fact it is not and1 agreeing    
that it should be1 the business in hand 
is to make it so4 ,there must be        
obstacles to surmount1 mistakes to set  
right1 impediments to overcome1 before  
farming can be in all respects the      
idolized pursuit which poets are so     
ready to proclaim it and orators so     
delight to represent it4 ,let us        
struggle to make it all that fancy has  
ever painted it2 but1 so long as it is  
not1 let us respect undeniable facts1   
and characterize it exactly as it is4   
,v4 ,if our counties were thoroughly    
canvassed by township committees1 and   
each tiller of the soil asked to pledge 
himself in writing to exhibit something 
at the next ,county ,fair1 we should    
soon witness a decided improvement4     
,many would be incited to attend who now
 stay away2 while the very general      
complaint that there is nothing worth   

coming to see would be heard no more4   
,as yet1 a majority of farmers regard   
the ,fair much as they do a circus or   
traveling menagerie1 taking no interest 
in it except as it may afford them      
entertainment for the passing hour4 ,we 
must change this essentially2 and the   
first step is to induce1 by concerted   
solicitation1 at least half the farmers 
in the county to pledge themselves each 
to exhibit something at the next annual 
,fair1 or pay #e toward increasing its  
premiums4  ,,vi4 ,in short1 we must all 
realize that the ,county or ,township   
,fair is our ,fair--not got up by others
 to invite our patronage or criticism1  
but something whereto it is incumbent on
 us to contribute1 and which must be    
better or worse as we choose to make it4
 ,realizing this1 let us stop carping   
and give a shoulder to the wheel4       
,,xxxix4  ,,science ,,in ,,agriculture4 
,i am not a scientific farmer2 it is not
 probable that ,i ever shall be4 ,i have
 no such knowledge of ,chemistry and    

,geology as any man needs to make him a 
thoroughly good farmer4 ,i am quite     
aware that men have raised good crops--a
 good many of them--who knew nothing of 
science1 and did not consider any       
acquaintance with it conducive to       
efficiency or success in their vocation4
 ,i have no doubt that men will continue
 to grow such crops1 and to make money  
by agriculture1 who hardly know what is 
meant by ,chemistry or ,geology2 and yet
 ,i feel sure that1 as the years roll   
by1 ,science will more and more be      
recognized and accepted as the true1    
substantial base of efficient and       
profitable cultivation4 ,let me here    
give briefly the grounds of this        
conviction3  ,every plant is composed of
 elements whereof a very small portion  
is drawn from the soil1 while the ampler
 residue1 so long as the plant continues
 green and growing1 is mainly water1    
though a variable and often considerable
 proportion is imbibed or absorbed from 
the atmosphere1 which is understood to  

yield freely nearly all the elements    
required of it1 provided the plants are 
otherwise in healthful and thrifty      
condition4 ,water is supplied from the  
sky1 or from springs and streams2 and   
little more than the most ordinary      
capacity for observation is required to 
determine when it is present in         
sufficient quantity1 when in baleful    
excess4 ,but who1 unaided by ,science1  
can decide whether the soil does or does
 not contain the elements requisite for 
the luxuriant growth and perfect        
development of ,wheat1 or ,fruit1 or    
,grass1 or ,beets1 or ,apples8 ,who     
knows1 save as he blindly infers from   
results1 what mineral ingredients of    
this or that crop are deficient in given
 field1 and what are present in excess8 
,and how shall any one be enlightened   
and assured on the point1 unless by the 
aid of ,science8  ,i have bought and    
applied to my farm some two thousand    
bushels of ,lime1 and ten or a dozen    
tuns of ,plaster2 and ,i infer1 from    

what seemed to be results1 that each of 
these minerals has been applied with    
profit2 but ,i do not know it4 ,the     
increased product which ,i have         
attributed to one or both of these      
elements may have had a very different  
origin and impulse4 ,i only grope my way
 in darkness when ,i should clearly and 
surely see4  ,an agricultural essayist  
in ,maine has recently put forth a canon
 which1 if well grounded1 is of great   
value to farmers4 ,he asserts that the  
growth of acid plants like ,sorrel1     
,dock1 etc41 in a field1 results from   
sourness in the soil1 and that1 where   
this exists1 ,lime--that is1 the        
ordinary ,carbonate of ,lime--is        
urgently required2 whereas the          
application of ,plaster or ,gypsum      
7,sulphate of ,lime7 to that field must 
be useless and wasteful4 ,if such be the
 truth1 a knowledge of it would be worth
 millions of dollars to our farmers4    
,but ,i lack the scientific attainment  
needed to qualify me for passing        

judgment thereon4  ,there is great      
diversity of opinion among farmers with 
regard to the value of ,swamp ,muck4    
,one has applied it to his land to good 
purpose2 so he holds ,muck1 if          
convenient1 the cheapest and best       
fertilizer a farmer can add to his      
ordinary barn-yard manure2 another has  
applied cords upon cords of ,muck1 and  
says he has derived therefrom no benefit
 whatever4 ,now1 this contrariety of    
conclusion may result from imperfect    
judgment on one side or the other1 or   
from the condition precedent of the     
diverse soils3 one of them requiring    
what ,muck could supply1 while the other
 required something very different from 
that2 or it may be accounted for by the 
fact that the ,muck applied in one case 
was of superior quality1 and in the     
other good for nothing4 ,where ,muck is 
composed almost wholly of the leaves of 
forest-trees which1 through thousands of
 years1 have been blown into a bog1 or  
shallow pond1 and there been gradually  

transformed into a fine1 black dust or  
earth1 ,i do not see how it can possibly
 be applied to an upland1 especially a  
sandy or gravelly soil1 without         
conducing to the subsequent production  
of bounteous crops4 ,true1 it may be    
sour when first drawn from the stagnant 
pool or bog in which it has lain so     
long1 and may need to be mixed with     
,lime1 or ,salt1 or ,ashes1 and         
subjected to the action of sun and      
frost1 to ripen and sweeten it4 ,but it 
seems to me impossible that such ,muck  
should be applied to almost any         
reasonably dry land1 without improving  
its consistency and increasing its      
fertility4 ,but all ,muck is not the    
product of decayed forest-leaves2 and   
that which was formed of coarse1 rank   
weeds and brakes1 of rotten wood and    
flags1 or skunk cabbage1 may be of very 
inferior quality1 so as hardly to repay 
the cost of digging and applying it4    
,science will yet enable us to fix1 at  
least approximately1 the value of each  

deposit of ,muck1 and so give a         
preference to the best4  ,the ,analysis 
of ,soils1 whereof much was heard and   
whence much was hoped a few years since1
 seems to have fallen into utter        
discredit1 so that every would-be       
popular writer gives it a passing fling 
or kick4 ,that any analysis yet made was
 and is worthless1 ,i can readily       
concede1 without shaking in the least my
 conviction that soils will yet be      
analyzed1 under the guidance of a truer1
 profounder ,science1 to the signal     
enlightenment and profit of their       
cultivators4 ,here is a retired         
merchant1 banker1 doctor1 or lawyer1 who
 has bought a spacious and naturally    
fertile but worn-out1 run-down farm1 on 
which he proposes to spend the remainder
 of his days4 ,of course1 he must       
improve and enrich it2 but with what8   
and how8 ,all the manure he finds1 or1  
for the present1 can make on it1 will   
hardly put the first acre in high       
condition1 while he grows old and is    

unwilling to wait forever4 ,he is able  
and ready to buy fertilizers1 and does  
buy right and left1 without knowing     
whether his land needs ,lime1 or        
,phosphate1 or ,potash1 or something    
very different from either4 ,say he     
purchases #b1jjj worth ,of one or more  
of these fertilizers3 it is highly      
probable that #a1ejj might have served  
him better if invested in due proportion
 in just what his land most urgently    
needs2 and ,i unflinchingly believe that
 we shall yet have an analysis of soils 
that will tell him just what fertilizers
 he ought to apply1 and what quantity of
 each of them4  ,science has already    
taught us that every load of ,hay or    
,grain drawn from a field abstracts     
therefrom a considerable quantity of    
certain minerals--say ,potash1 ,lime1   
,soda1 ,magnesia1 ,chlorine1 ,silica1   
,phosphorus--and that the soil is       
thereby impoverished until they be      
replaced1 in some form or other4 ,as no 
deposit in a bank was ever so large that

 continual drafts would not ultimately  
exhaust it1 so no soil was ever so rich 
that taking crop after crop from it     
annually1 yet giving nothing back1 would
 not render it sterile or worthless4    
,sun and rain and wind will do their    
part in the work of renovation2 but all 
of them together cannot restore to the  
soil the mineral elements whereof each  
crop takes a portion1 and which1 being  
once completely exhausted1 can only be  
replaced at a heavy cost4 ,science      
teaches us to foresee and prevent such  
exhaustion--in part1 by a rotation of   
crops1 and in part by a constant        
replacement of the minerals annually    
borne away3 the subtraction being       
greater in proportion as the crop is    
more exacting and luxuriant4  ,what ,i  
know of ,science applicable to ,farming 
is little indeed2 but ,i know that there
 is such ,science1 and that each        
succeeding year enlarges1 improves1 and 
perfects it4 ,i know that ,i should thus
 far have farmed to far better purpose1 

if ,i had been master even of so much   
,science as already exists4  ,understand
 that ,i am not a teacher of this       
,science--,i stand very low in the class
 of learners4 ,i began to learn too late
 in life1 and have been too incessantly 
harassed by a multiplicity of cares1 to 
make any satisfactory progress4 ,any    
tolerably educated boy of fifteen may   
know far more of ,agricultural ,science 
by the time he has passed his eighteenth
 birthday than ,i do4 ,what ,i know in  
this respect can help him very little2  
my faith that there is much to be known1
 and that he may master it if he will1  
is all that is of much importance4 ,if  
,i can convince a considerable number of
 our youth that they may surely acquire 
a competence by the time they shall have
 passed their fortieth year1 without    
excessive labor or penurious frugality1 
by means of that knowledge of principles
 and laws subservient to ,agriculture   
which their fathers could not1 but which
 they easily may attain1 ,i shall have  

rendered a substantial service alike to 
them and to our country4     ,,xl4      
,,farm ,,implements4   ,a good workman1 
it is said1 does not quarrel with his   
tools--which1 if true1 ,i judge is due  
to the fact that he generally manages to
 have good ones4 ,to work hard          
throughout a long day under a burning   
sun1 is sufficiently trying1 without    
rendering the labor doubly repugnant by 
the use of ill-contrived1 imperfect1    
inefficient implements4  ,the           
half-century which nearly bounds my     
recollection has witnessed great        
improvements in this respect4 ,the      
,plow1 mainly of wood1 wherewith my     
father broke up his stony1 hide-bound   
acres of ,new-,hampshire pebbles and    
gravel1 in my early boyhood1 would now  
be spurned if offered as a gift to the  
poorest and most thriftless farmer among
 us2 and the ,hoes which were allotted  
to us boys in those days1 after the     
newer and better had been assigned to   
the men1 would be rejected with disdain 

by the stupidest negro in ,virginia4    
,though there is still room for         
improvement1 we use far better          
implements than our grandfathers did1   
with a corresponding increase in the    
efficiency of our labor2 but the        
cultivators of ,spain1 ,portugal1 and   
the greater part of ,europe1 still      
linger in the dark ages in this respect4
 ,their plows are little better than the
 forked sticks which served their       
barbarian ancestors1 and their          
implements generally are beneath        
contempt4 ,with such implements1 deep   
and thorough culture is simply          
impossible1 unless by the use of the    
spade2 and he must be a hard worker who 
produces a peck of ,wheat or half a     
bushel of ,indian ,corn per day by the  
exclusive use of this tool4 ,the soil of
 ,france is so cut up and subdivided    
into little strips of two or three roods
 up to as many acres each--each strip   
forming the entire patrimony of a       
family--that agricultural advancement or

 efficiency is1 with the great mass of  
,french cultivators1 out of the         
question4 ,hence1 ,i judge that1 outside
 of ,great ,britain and ,australia1     
there is no country wherein an average  
year's work produces half so much grain 
as in our own1 in spite of our slovenly 
tillage1 our neglect and waste of       
fertilizers1 and the frequent failures  
of our harvests4 ,belgium1 ,holland1 and
 northern ,france1 can teach us neatness
 and thoroughness of cultivation2 the   
,british isles may fairly boast of      
larger and surer crops of ,wheat1 ,oats1
 ,potatoes1 and ,grass1 than we are     
accustomed to secure2 but1 in the       
selection of implements1 and in the     
average efficiency of labor1 our best   
farmers are ahead of then all4  ,bear   
with me1 then1 while ,i interpose a     
timid plea for our inventors and        
patentees of implements1 whose          
solicitations that a trial1 or at least 
an inspection1 be accorded to their     
several contrivances1 are too often     

repelled with churlish rudeness4 ,i     
realize that our thriving farmers are   
generally absorbed in their own plans   
and efforts1 and that the agent or      
salesman who insists on an examination  
of his new harrow1 or pitchfork1 or     
potato-digger1 is often extravagant in  
his assumptions1 and sometimes a bore4  
,still1 when ,i recollect how tedious   
and how back-breaking were the methods  
of mowing ,grass and reaping ,grain with
 the ,scythe and ,sickle1 which held    
unchallenged sway in my early boyhood1  
,i entreat the farmer who is petitioned 
to accord ten or fifteen minutes to the 
setting forth1 by some errant stranger1 
of the merits of his new horse-hoe or   
tedder1 to give the time1 if he can2 and
 that without sour looks or a mien of   
stolid incredulity4 ,the ,biblical      
monition that1 in evincing a generous   
hospitality1 we may sometimes entertain 
angels unawares1 seems to me in point4  
,a new implement may be defective and   
worthless1 and yet contain the germ or  

suggest the form of a thoroughly good   
one4 ,give the inventor or his          
representative a courteous hearing if   
you can1 even though this should        
constrain you to make up the time so    
lost after the day's work would         
otherwise have ended4  ,i suspect that  
the average farmer of our completely    
rural districts would be surprised1 if  
not instructed1 by a day's careful      
scrutiny of the contents of one of our  
great implement warehouses4 ,so many and
 such various and ingenious devices for 
pulverizing the earth applying          
fertilizers to the soil1 planting or    
sowing rapidly1 eradicating weeds1      
economizing labor in harvesting1 etc41  
will probably transcend not merely his  
experience1 but his imagination2 and    
every one of these myriad implements is 
useful in its place1 though no single   
farmer can afford to buy all or half of 
them4 ,it will yet1 ,i think1 be found  
necessary by the farmers of a           
school-district1 if not of a township1  

to meet and agree among themselves that 
one will buy this implement1 another    
that1 and so on1 until twenty or thirty 
such devices as a ,stump or             
,rock-,puller1 a ,clod-,crusher1        
,thrashing-,machine1 ,fanning-,mill1    
etc41 shall be owned in the             
neighborhood--each by a separate farmer1
 willing to live and let live--with an  
understanding that each shall be used in
 turn by him who needs it2 and so every 
one shall be nearly as well accommodated
 as though he owned them all4  ,for the 
number and variety of useful implements 
increase so rapidly1 while their        
usefulness is so palpable1 that1 though 
it is difficult to farm efficiently     
without many if not most of them1 it is 
impossible that the young farmer of     
moderate means should buy and keep them 
all4 ,true1 he might hire when he       
needed1 if what he wanted were always at
 hand2 but this can only be assured by  
some such arrangement as ,i have        
suggested1 wherein each undertakes to   

provide and keep that which he will most
 need2 agreeing to lend it whenever it  
can be spared to any other member of the
 combination1 who undertakes to minister
 in like manner to his need in return4  
,i think few will doubt that the        
inventions in aid of ,agriculture during
 the last forty years will be far       
surpassed by those of the forty years   
just before us4 ,the magnificent        
fortunes which1 it is currently         
understood1 have rewarded the inventors 
of the more popular ,mowers1 ,reapers1  
etc41 of our day1 are sure to stimulate 
alike the ingenuity and the avarice of  
clever men throughout the coming years1 
and to call into existence ten thousand 
patents1 whereof a hundred will be      
valuable1 and ten or twelve eminently   
useful4 ,plowing land free from stumps  
and stones cannot long be the tedious1  
patience-trying process we have known   
it4 ,the machinery which will at once   
pulverize the soil to a depth of two    
feet1 fertilize and seed it1 not        

requiring it to be trampled by the hoofs
 of animals employed in subsoiling and  
harrowing1 will soon be in general use1 
especially on the spacious1 deep1       
inviting prairies of the ,great         
,west4--,but ,i must defer what ,i have 
to say of ,steam and its uses in        
,agriculture to another chapter4        
,,xli4  ,,steam ,,in ,,agriculture4     
,as yet1 the great body of our farmers  
have been slow in availing themselves of
 the natural forces in operation around 
them4 ,vainly for them does the wind    
blow across their fields and over their 
hill-tops4 ,it neither thrashes nor     
grinds their grain2 it has ceased even  
to separate it from the chaff4 ,the     
brook brawls and foams idly adown the   
precipice or hillside3 the farmer grinds
 his grain1 churns his cream1 and turns 
his grindstone1 just as though falling  
water did not embody power4 ,he draws   
his ,logs to one mill1 and his ,wheat1  
,corn1 or ,rye to another1 and returns  
in due season with his boards or his    

meal2 but the lesson which the mill so  
plainly teaches remains1 by him unread4 
,where running or leaping water is not1 
there brisk breezes and fiercer gales   
are apt to be4 ,but the average farmer  
ignores the mechanical use of stream and
 breeze alike1 taxing his own muscle to 
achieve that which the blind forces of  
,nature stand ready to do at his        
command4 ,it may not1 and ,i think it   
will not1 be always thus4  ,steam1 as a 
cheap source of practically limitless   
power1 is hardly a century old2 yet it  
has already revolutionized the          
mechanical and manufacturing industry of
 ,christendom4 ,it weaves the far       
greater part of all the ,textile        
,fabrics that clothe and shelter and    
beautify the human family4 ,it fashions 
every bar and every rail of ,iron or of 
,steel2 it impels the machinery of      
nearly every manufactory of wares or of 
implements2 and it is very rapidly      
supplanting wind in the propulsion of   
vessels on the high seas1 as it has     

already done on rivers and on most      
inland waters4  ,water is1 however1     
still employed as a power in certain    
cases1 but mainly because its adaptation
 to this end has cost many thousands of 
dollars which its disuse would render   
worthless4  ,i am quite within bounds in
 estimating that nine-tenths of all the 
material force employed by man in       
,manufactures1 ,mechanics1 and          
,navigation1 is supplied by ,steam1 and 
that this disproportion will be         
increased to ninety-nine hundredths     
before the close of this century4  ,for 
,agriculture1 ,steam has done very much1
 in the transportation of crops and of  
fertilizers1 but very little in the     
preparation or cultivation of the soil4 
,of steam-wagons for roads or fields1   
steam-plows for pulverizing and         
deepening the soil1 and                 
steam-cultivators for keeping weeds down
 and rendering tillage more efficient1  
we have had many heralded in sanguine   
bulletins throughout the last forty     

years1 but ,i am not aware that one of  
them has fulfilled the sanguine hopes of
 its author4 ,though a dozen            
,steam-,plows have been invented in this
 country1 and several imported from     
,europe1 ,i doubt that a single square  
mile of our country's surface has been  
plowed wholly by steam down to this     
hour4 ,if it has1 ,louisiana--a ,state  
which one would not naturally expect to 
find in the van of industrial           
progress--has enjoyed the benefit and   
earned the credit of the achievement4   
,of what ,steam has yet accomplished in 
direct aid of ,agriculture1 ,i have     
little to say1 though in ,great ,britain
 quite a number of steam-plows are      
actually at work in the fields1 and 7,i 
am assured71 with fair success4 ,until  
something breaks or gives out1 one of   
these plows does its appointed work     
better and cheaper than such work is or 
can be done by animal power2 but all the
 steam-plows whereof ,i have any        
knowledge seem too bulky1 too           

complicated1 too costly1 ever to win    
their way into general use4 ,i value    
them only as hints and incitements      
toward something better suited to the   
purpose4  ,what our farmers need is not 
a steam-plow as a specialty1 but a      
locomotive that can travel with         
facility1 not only on common            
wagon-roads1 but across even            
freshly-plowed fields1 without          
embarrassment1 and prove as docile to   
its manager's touch as an average span  
of horses4 ,such a locomotive should not
 cost more then #ejj1 nor weigh more    
than a tun when laden with fuel and     
water for a half-hour's steady work4 ,it
 should be so contrived that it may be  
hitched in a minute to a plow1 a harrow1
 a wagon1 or cart1 a saw or grist-mill1 
a mower or reaper1 a thresher or        
stalk-cutter1 a stump or rock-puller1   
and made useful in pumping and draining 
operations1 digging a cellar or laying  
up a wall1 as also in ditching or       
trenching4 ,we may have to wait some    

years yet for a servant so dexterous and
 docile1 yet ,i feel confident that our 
children will enjoy and appreciate his  
handiwork4  ,the farmer often needs far 
more power at one season than at        
another1 and is compelled to retain and 
subsist working animals at high cost    
through months in which he has no use   
for them1 because he must have them when
 those months have transpired4 ,if he   
could replace those animals by a machine
 which1 when its season of usefulness   
was over1 could be cleaned1 oiled1 and  
put away under a tight roof until next  
seeding-time1 the saving alike of cost  
and trouble would be very considerable4 
,when our ,american reapers first       
challenged attention in ,great ,britain1
 the general skepticism as to their     
efficiency was counteracted by the      
suggestion that1 even though reaping by 
machinery should prove more expensive   
than reaping by hand1 the ability to cut
 and save the grain-crop more rapidly   
than hitherto would over-balance that   

enhancement of cost4 ,in the ,british   
,isles1 day after day of chilling wind  
and rain is often encountered in        
harvest-time3 the standing ,wheat or    
,oats or ,barley becoming draggled1 or  
lodged1 or beaten out1 while the owner  
impatiently awaits the recurrence of    
sunny days4 ,when these at length       
arrive1 he is anxious to harvest many   
acres at once1 since his ,grain is      
wasting and he knows not how soon cloud 
and tempest may again be his portion4   
,but all his neighbors are in like      
predicament with himself1 and all       
equally intent on hurrying the harvest2 
so that little extra help is attainable4
 ,if now the aid of a machine may be    
commanded1 which will cut #ae or #bj    
acres per day1 he cares less how much   
that work will cost than how soon it can
 be effected4 ,hence1 even though       
cutting by horse-power had proved more  
costly than cutting by hand1 it would   
still have been welcome4  ,so it is with
 ,plowing1 here and almost everywhere4  

,our farmers have this year been unable 
to begin ,plowing for ,winter ,grain so 
early as they desired1 by reason of the 
intense heat and drouth1 whereby their  
fields were baked to the consistency of 
half-burned brick4 ,much seed will in   
consequence have been sown too late1    
while much seeding will have been       
precluded altogether1 by inability to   
prepare the ground in due season4 ,if a 
machine had been at hand whereby #ae or 
#bj acres per day could have been plowed
 and harrowed1 thousands would have     
invoked its aid to enable them to sow   
their ,grain in tolerable season1 even  
though the cost had been essentially    
heavier than that of old-fashioned      
plowing4 ,i traversed ,illinois on the  
#acth and #adth of ,may1 #ahei1 when its
 entire soil seemed soaked and sodden   
with incessant rains1 which had not yet 
ceased pouring4 ,inevitably1 there had  
been little or no plowing yet for the   
vast ,corn-crop of that ,state2 yet     
barely two weeks would intervene before 

the close of the proper season for      
,corn-planting4 ,even if these should be
 wholly favorable1 the plowing could not
 be effected in season1 and much ground 
must be planted too late or not planted 
at all4 ,in every such case1 a machine  
that would plow six or eight furrows as 
fast as a man ought to walk1 would add  
immensely to the year's harvest1 and be 
hailed as a general blessing4  ,i       
recollect that a ,german observer of    
,western cultivation--a man of decided  
perspicacity and wide                   
observation--recommended that each      
farmer who had not the requisite time or
 team for getting in his ,corn-crop in  
due season should plow single furrows   
through his field at intervals of #c to 
#c-a_/b feet1 plant his ,corn on the    
earth thus turned1 and proceed1 so soon 
as his planting was finished1 to plow   
out the spaces as yet undisturbed       
between the springing rows of ,corn4 ,i 
do not know that this recommendation was
 ever widely followed2 but ,i judge     

that1 under certain circumstances1 it   
might be1 to decided advantage and      
profit4  ,i have not attempted to       
indicate all the benefits which ,steam  
is to confer directly on ,agriculture1  
within the next half-century4 ,that     
,irrigation must become general1 ,i     
confidently believe2 and ,i anticipate a
 very extensive sinking of wells1 at    
favorable points1 in order that water   
shall be drawn therefrom by wind or     
steam to moisten and enrich the slopes  
and plains around them4 ,such a         
locomotive as ,i have foreshadowed might
 be taken from well to well1 pumping    
from each in an hour or two sufficient  
water to irrigate several of the        
adjacent acres2 thus starting a second  
crop of ,hay on fields whence the first 
had been taken1 and renewing verdure and
 growth where we now see vegetation     
suspended for weeks1 if not months4 ,i  
feel sure that the mass of our farmers  
have not yet realized the importance and
 beneficence of ,irrigation1 nor the    

facility wherewith its advantages may be
 secured4     ,,xlii4  ,,co-,,operation 
,,in ,,farming4   ,the word of hope and 
cheer for ,labor in our days is         
,,cooperation--that is1 the combination 
by many of their means and efforts to   
achieve results beneficial to them all4 
,it differs radically from ,communism1  
which proposes that each should receive 
from the aggregate product of human     
labor enough to satisfy his wants1 or at
 least his needs1 whether he shall have 
contributed to that aggregate much1 or  
little1 or nothing at all4 ,cooperation 
insists that each shall receive from the
 joint product in proportion to his     
contributions thereto1 whether in       
capital1 skill1 or labor4 ,if one       
associate has ten children and another  
none1 ,communism would apportion to each
 according to the size of his family    
alone2 while ,cooperation would give to 
each what he had earned1 regardless of  
the number dependent upon him4 ,thus the
 two systems are radical antagonists1   

and only the grossly ignorant or        
willfully blind will confound them4  ,a 
young farmer1 whose total estate is less
 than #ejj1 not counting a priceless    
wife and child1 resolves to migrate from
 one of the old ,states to ,kansas1     
,minnesota1 or one of the ,territories3 
he has heard that he will there find    
public land whereon he may make a home  
of a quarter-section1 paying therefor   
#bj or less for the cost of survey and  
of the necessary papers4 ,so he may3    
but1 on reaching the ,land of ,promise1 
whether with or without his family1 he  
finds a very large belt of still vacant 
land beyond the settlements already     
transformed into private property1 and  
either not for sale at all or held on   
speculation1 quite out of his reach4    
,the public land which he may take under
 the ,homestead law lies a full day's   
journey beyond the border settlements1  
to which he must look for ,mills1       
,stores1 ,schools1 and even ,highways4  
,if he persists in squatting1 with      

intent to earn his quarter-section by   
settlement and cultivation1 he must take
 a long day's journey across unbridged  
streams and sloughs1 over unmade roads1 
to find boards1 or brick1 or meal1 or   
glass1 or groceries2 while he must      
postpone the education of his children  
to an indefinite future day4 ,gradually1
 the region will be settled1 and the    
conveniences of civilization will find  
their way to his door1 but not till     
after he will have suffered through     
several years for want of them2 often   
compelled to make a journey to get a    
plow or yoke mended1 a grist of grain   
ground1 or to minister to some other    
trivial but inexorable want4 ,he who    
thus acquires his quarter-section must  
fairly earn it1 and may be thankful if  
his children do not grow up rude1       
coarse1 and illiterate4  ,but suppose   
one thousand just such young farmers as 
he is1 with no more means and no greater
 efficiency than his1 were to set forth 
together1 resolved to find a suitable   

location whereon they might all settle  
on adjoining quarter-sections1 thus     
appropriating the soil of five or six   
embryo townships3 who can fail to see   
that three-fourths of the obstacles and 
discouragements which confront the      
solitary pioneer would vanish at the    
outset8 ,roads1 ,bridges1 ,mills1--nay1 
even ,schools and ,churches--would be   
theirs almost immediately2 while        
mechanics1 merchants1 doctors1 etc41    
would fairly overrun their settlement   
and solicit their patronage at every    
road-crossing4 ,within a year after the 
location of their several claims1 they  
would have achieved more progress and   
more comfort than in five years under   
the system of straggling and isolated   
settlement which has hitherto prevailed4
 ,the change ,i here indicate appeals to
 the common sense and daily experience  
of our whole people4 ,it is not         
necessary1 however desirable1 that the  
pioneers should be giants in wisdom1 in 
integrity1 or in piety1 to secure its   

benefits4 ,a knave or a fool may be     
deemed an undesirable neighbor2 but a   
dozen such in the township would not    
preclude1 and could hardly diminish1 the
 advantages naturally resulting from    
settlement by ,cooperation4  ,nor are   
these confined to pioneers transcending 
the boundaries of civilization4 ,i wish 
,i could induce a thousand of our       
colored men now precariously subsisting 
by servile labor in the cities1 to      
strike out boldly for homes of their    
own1 and for liberty to direct their own
 labor1 whether they should settle on   
the frontier in the manner just         
outlined1 or should buy a tract of cheap
 land on ,long ,island1 in ,new-,jersey1
 ,maryland1 or some ,state further      
,south4 ,i cannot doubt that the        
majority of them would work their way up
 to independence2 and this very much    
sooner1 and after undergoing far less   
privation1 than almost every pioneer who
 has plunged alone into the primitive   
forest or struck out upon the broad     

prairie and there made himself a farm4  
,the insatiable demand for fencing is   
one of the pioneer's many trials4       
,though he has cleared off but three    
acres of forest during his first ,fall  
and ,winter1 he must surround those     
acres with a stout fence1 or all he     
grows will be devoured by hungry        
cattle--his own1 if no others4 ,whether 
he adds two or ten acres to his clearing
 during the next year1 they must in turn
 be surrounded by a fence2 and nothing  
short of a very stout one will answer3  
so he goes on clearing and fencing1     
usually burning up a part of his fence  
whenever he burns over his new clearing2
 then building a new one around this1   
which will have to be sacrificed in its 
turn4 ,i believe that many pioneers have
 devoted as much time to fencing their  
fields as to tilling them throughout    
their first six or eight years4  ,it is 
different with those who settle on broad
 prairies1 but not essentially better4  
,each pioneer must fence his patch of   

tillage with material which costs him   
more1 and is procured with greater      
difficulty1 than though he were cutting 
a hole in the forest4 ,often1 when he   
thinks he has fenced sufficiently1 the  
hungry1 breachy cattle1 who roam the    
open prairies around him1 judge his     
handiwork less favorably2 and he wakes  
some ,august morning1 when feed is      
poorest outside and most luxuriant      
within his inclosure1 to find that      
twenty or thirty cattle have broken     
through his defenses and half destroyed 
his growing crop4  ,if1 instead of this 
wasteful lack of system1 a thousand or  
even a hundred farmers would combine to 
fence several square miles into one     
grand inclosure for cultivation1        
erecting their several habitations      
within or without its limits1 as to each
 should be convenient-- apportioning it 
for cultivation1 or owning it in        
severalty1 as they should see fit--an   
immense economy would be secured1 just  
when1 because of their poverty1 saving  

is most important4 ,their stock might   
range the open prairie unwatched2 and   
they might all sleep at night in serene 
confidence that their corn and cabbages 
were not in danger of ruthless          
destruction4 ,among the settlers in our 
great primitive forests1 the system of  
,cooperative ,farming would have to be  
modified in details1 while it would be  
in essence the same4  ,and1 once adopted
 with regard to fencing1 other          
adaptations as obvious and beneficent   
would from day to day suggest           
themselves4 ,each pioneer would learn   
how to advance his own prosperity by    
combining his efforts with those of his 
neighbors4 ,he would perceive that the  
common wants of a hundred may be        
supplied by a combined effort at less   
than half the cost of satisfying them   
when each is provided for alone4 ,he    
would grow year by year into a clearer  
and firmer conviction that short-sighted
 selfishness is the germ of half the    
evils that afflict the human race1 and  

that the true and sure way to a         
bounteous satisfaction of the wants of  
each is a generous and thoughtful       
consideration for the needs of all4     
99       99       99       99       99  
,and here let me pay my earnest and     
thankful tribute to ,mr4 ,e4 ,v4 de     
,boissiere1 a philanthropic ,frenchman1 
who has purchased #c1cjj acres of mainly
 rolling prairie-land in ,kansas1 near  
,princeton1 ,franklin ,county1 and is   
carefully1 cautiously1 laying thereon   
the foundations of a great cooperative  
farm1 where1 in addition to the usual   
crops1 it is expected that ,silk and    
other exotics will in due time be       
extensively grown and transformed into  
fabrics1 and that various manufactures  
will vie with ,agriculture in affording 
attractive and profitable employment to 
a considerable population4 ,i have not  
been accustomed to look with favor on   
our new ,states and unpeopled           
,territories as an arena for such       
experiments1 since so many of their     

early settlers are intent on getting    
rich by land-speculation--at all events1
 through the exercise of some others'   
muscles than their own--while the       
opportunities for and incitements to    
migration and relocation are so         
multiform and powerful4 ,doubtless1 ,m4 
de ,boissiere will be often tried by    
stampedes of his volunteer associates1  
who1 after the novelty of cooperative   
effort has worn off1 will find life on  
his domain too tame and humdrum for     
their excitable and high-strung natures4
 ,i trust1 however1 that he will        
persevere through every discouragement1 
and triumph over every obstacle2 that   
the right men for associates will       
gradually gather about him2 that his    
enterprise and devotion will at length  
be crowned by a signal and inspiring    
success2 and that thousands will be     
awakened by it to a larger and nobler   
conception of the mission of ,industry1 
and the possibilities of achievement    
which stud the path of simple1 honest1  

faithful1 persistent ,work4     ,,xliii4
  ,,farmers' ,,clubs4   ,farmers1 like  
other men1 divide naturally into two    
classes--those who do too much work1 and
 those who do too little4 ,i know men   
who are no farmers at all1 only by      
virtue of the fact that each of them    
inherited1 or somehow acquired1 a farm1 
and have since lived upon and out of it1
 in good part upon that which it could  
not help producing--they not doing so   
much as one hundred fair days' work each
 per annum4 ,one of this class never    
takes a periodical devoted to farming2  
evinces no interest in county fairs or  
township clubs1 save as they may afford 
him an excuse for greater idleness2 and 
insists that there is no profit in      
farming4 ,as land steadily depreciates  
in quality under his management1 he is  
apt to sell out whenever the increase of
 population or progress of improvement  
has given additional value to his farm1 
and move off in quest of that           
undiscovered country where idleness is  

compatible with thrift1 profits are     
realized from light crops1 and men grow 
rich by doing nothing4  ,the opposite   
class of wanderers from the golden mean 
is hardly so numerous as the idlers1 yet
 it is quite a large one4 ,its leading  
embodiment1 to my mind1 is one whom ,i  
knew from childhood1 who1 born poor and 
nowise favored by fortune1 was rated as 
a tireless worker from early boyhood1   
and who achieved an independence before 
he was forty years old in a rural       
,new-,england township1 simply by       
rugged1 persistent labor--in youth on   
the farms of other men2 in manhood1 on  
one of his own4 ,this man was older at  
forty than his father1 then seventy1 and
 died at fifty1 worn out with excessive 
and unintermitted labor1 leaving a widow
 who greatly preferred him to all his   
ample wealth1 and an only son who1 so   
soon as he can get hold of it1 will     
squander the property much faster1 and  
even more unwisely1 than his father     
acquired it4  ,to the class of which    

this man was a fair representative1     
,farmers' ,clubs must prove of signal   
value4 ,though there should be nothing  
else than a ,farmers' ,club in his      
neighborhood1 it can hardly fail in time
 to make such a one realize that life   
need not and should not be all drudgery2
 that there are other things worth      
living for beside accumulating wealth4  
,let his wife and his neighbor succeed  
in drawing such a one into two or three 
successive meetings1 and he can hardly  
fail to perceive that thrift is a       
product of brain as well as of muscle2  
that he may grow rich by learning and   
knowing as well as by delving1 and that1
 even though he should not1 there are   
many things desirable and laudable      
beside the accumulation of wealth4  ,a  
true ,farmers' ,club should consist of  
all the families residing in a small    
township1 so far as they can be induced 
to attend it1 even though only half     
their members should be present at any  
one meeting4 ,it should limit speeches  

to ten minutes1 excepting only those    
addresses or essays which eminently     
qualified persons are requested to      
specially prepare and read4 ,it should  
have a president1 ready and able to     
repress all ill-natured personalities1  
all irrelevant talk1 and especially all 
straying into the forbidden regions of  
political or theological disputation4   
,at each meeting1 the subject should be 
chosen for the next1 and not less than  
four members pledged to make some       
observations thereon1 with liberty to   
read them if unused to speaking in      
public4 ,those having been heard1 the   
topic should be open to discussion by   
all present3 the humblest and youngest  
being specially encouraged to state any 
facts within their knowledge which they 
deem pertinent and cogent4 ,let every   
person attending be thus incited to say 
something calculated to shed light on   
the subject1 to say this in the fewest  
words possible1 and with the utmost care
 not to annoy or offend others1 and it  

is hardly possible that one evening per 
week devoted to these meetings should   
not be spent with equal pleasure and    
profit4  ,the chief end to be achieved  
through such meetings is a development  
of the faculty of observation and the   
habit of reflection4 ,too many of us    
pass through life essentially blind and 
deaf to the wonders and glories manifest
 to clearer eyes all around us4 ,the    
magnificent phenomena of the ,seasons1  
even the awakening of ,nature from death
 to life in ,spring-time1 make little   
impression on their senses1 still less  
on their understandings4 ,there are men 
who have passed forty times through a   
forest1 and yet could not name1 within  
half a dozen1 the various species of    
trees which compose it2 and so with     
everything else to which they are       
accustomed4 ,they need even more than   
knowledge an intellectual awakening2 and
 this they could hardly fail to receive 
from the discussions of an intelligent  
and earnest ,farmers' ,club4  ,a genuine

 and lively interest in their vocation  
is needed by many farmers1 and by most  
farmers' sons4 ,too many of these regard
 their homesteads as a prison1 in which 
they must remain until some avenue of   
escape into the great world shall open  
before them4 ,the farm to such is but   
the hollow log into which a bear crawls 
to wear out the rigors of ,winter and   
await the advent of ,spring4 ,too many  
of our boys fancy that they know too    
much for farmers1 when in fact they know
 far too little4 ,a good ,farmers'      
,club1 faithfully attended1 would take  
this conceit out of them1 imbuing them  
instead with a realizing sense of their 
ignorance and incompetency1 and a hearty
 desire for practical wisdom4  ,a       
recording secretary1 able to state in   
the fewest words each important         
suggestion or fact elicited in the      
course of an evening's discussion1 would
 be hardly less valuable or less honored
 than a capable president4 ,a single    
page would often suffice for all that   

deserves such record out of an evening's
 discussion2 and this1 being transferred
 to a book and preserved1 might be      
consulted with interest and profit      
throughout many succeeding years4 ,no   
other duty should be required of the    
member who rendered this service1 the   
correspondence of the ,club being       
devolved upon another secretary4 ,the   
habit of bringing grafts1 or plants1 or 
seeds1 to ,club meetings1 for gratuitous
 distribution1 has been found to        
increase the interest1 and enlarge the  
attendance of those formerly            
indifferent4 ,almost every good farmer  
or gardener will sometimes have choice  
seeds or grafts to spare1 which he does 
not care or cannot expect to sell1 and  
these being distributed to the ,club    
will not only increase its popularity1  
but give him a right to share when      
another's surplus is in like manner     
distributed4 ,if one has choice fruits  
to give away1 the ,club will afford him 
an excellent opportunity2 but ,i would  

rather not attract persons to its       
meetings by a prospect of having their  
appetites thus gratified at others'     
expense4 ,a ,flower-,show once in each  
year1 and an ,exhibition of ,fruits and 
other choice products at an evening     
meeting in ,september or ,october1      
should suffice for festivals4 ,let each 
member consider himself pledged to bring
 to the ,exhibition the best material   
result of his year's efforts1 and the   
aggregate will be satisfactory and      
instructive4  ,the organization of a    
,farmers' ,club is its chief difficulty4
 ,the larger number of those who ought  
to participate usually prefer to stand  
back1 not committing themselves to the  
effort until after its success has been 
assured4 ,to obviate this embarrassment1
 let a paper be circulated for          
signatures1 pledging each signer to     
attend the introductory meeting and     
bring at least a part of his family4    
,when forty have signed such a call1    
success will be well-nigh assured4      

,,xliv4  ,,western ,,irrigation4   ,i   
have already set forth my belief that   
,irrigation is everywhere practicable1  
is destined to be generally adopted1 and
 to prove signally beneficent4 ,i do not
 mean that every acre of the ,states    
this side of the ,missouri will ever be 
thus supplied with water1 but that some 
acres of every township1 and of nearly  
every farm1 should and will be4 ,i      
propose herein to speak with direct     
reference to that large portion of our  
country which cannot be cultivated to   
any purpose without ,irrigation4 ,this  
region1 which is practically rainless in
 ,summer1 may be roughly indicated as   
extending from the forks of the ,platte 
westward1 and as including all our      
present ,territories1 a portion of      
,western ,texas1 the entire ,state of   
,nevada1 and at least nine-tenths of    
,california4 ,on this vast area1 no rain
 of consequence falls between ,april and
 ,november1 while its soil1 parched by  
fervid1 cloudless suns1 and swept by    

intensely dry winds1 is utterly divested
 of moisture to a depth of three or four
 feet2 and ,i have seen the tree known  
as ,buckeye growing in it1 at least six 
inches in diameter1 whereon every leaf  
was withered and utterly dead before the
 end of ,august1 though the tree still  
lived1 and would renew its foliage next 
,spring4  ,most of this broad area is   
usually spoken of as desert1 because    
treeless1 except on the slopes of its   
mountains1 where certain evergreens     
would seem to dispense with moisture1   
and on the brink of infrequent and      
scanty streams1 where the all but       
worthless ,cotton-wood is often found   
growing luxuriantly4 ,a very little low 
,gamma ,grass on the ,plains1 some      
straggling ,bunch-grass on the          
mountains1 with an endless profusion of 
two poor shrubs1 popularly known as     
,sage-brush and ,grease-wood1 compose   
the vegetation of nearly or quite a     
million square miles4  ,i will confine  
myself in this essay to the readiest    

means of irrigating the ,plains1 by     
which ,i mean the all but treeless      
plateau that stretches from the base of 
the ,rocky ,mountains1 #cjj to #djj     
miles eastward1 sloping imperceptibly   
toward the ,missouri1 and drained by the
 affluents of the ,platte1 the ,kansas1 
and the ,arkansas rivers4  ,the ,north  
,platte has its sources in the western1 
as the ,south ,platte has in the        
eastern1 slopes of the ,rocky           
,mountains4 ,each of them pursues a     
generally north-east course for some    
#cjj miles1 and then turns sharply to   
the eastward1 uniting some #cjj miles   
eastward of the mountains1 where the    
,plains melt into the ,prairies4        
,between these two rivers and the       
eastern base of the mountains lies an   
irregular delta or triangle1 which seems
 susceptible of irrigation at a smaller 
cost than the residue4 ,the location of 
,union ,colony may be taken as a fair   
illustration of the process1 and the    
facilities therefor afforded by nature4 

,among the streams which1 taking rise in
 the eastern gorges of the ,rocky       
,mountains1 run into the ,south ,platte1
 the most considerable has somehow      
acquired the ,french name of ,cache la  
,poudre4 ,it heads in and about ,long's 
,peak1 and1 after emerging from the     
mountains1 runs some #bj to #be miles   
nearly due east1 with a descent in that 
distance of about #ajj feet4 ,its waters
 are very low in ,autumn and ,winter1   
and highest in ,may1 ,june and ,july1   
from the melting of snow and ice on the 
lofty mountains which feed it4 ,like all
 the streams of this region1 it is broad
 and shallow1 with its bed but three to 
four feet below the plains on either    
side4  ,greeley1 the nucleus of ,union  
,colony1 is located at the crossing of  
the ,cache la ,poudre by the            
,denver-,pacific ,railroad1 about midway
 of its course from the ,kansas ,pacific
 at ,denver northward to the ,union     
,pacific at ,cheyenne4 ,here a village  
of some #djj to #ejj houses has suddenly

 grown up during the past ,summer4  ,the
 first irrigating canal of ,union       
,colony leaves the ,cache la ,poudre six
 or eight miles above ,greeley1 on the  
south side1 and is carried gradually    
further and further from the stream     
until it is fully a mile distant at the 
village1 whence it is continued to the  
,platte4 ,branches or ditches lead      
thence northward1 conveying rills       
through the streets of the village1 the 
gardens or plats of its inhabitants1 and
 the public square1 or plaza1 which is  
designed to be its chief ornament4      
,other branches lead to the farms and   
five-acre allotments whereby the village
 is surrounded2 as still others will do 
in time to all the land between the     
canal and the river4 ,in due time1      
another canal will be taken out from a  
point further up the stream1 and will   
irrigate the lands of the colony lying  
south of the present canal1 and which   
are meantime devoted to pasturage in    
common4  ,taking the water out of the   

river is here a very simple matter4 ,at 
the head of an island1 a rude dam of    
brush and stones and earth is thrown    
across the bed of the stream1 so as to  
raise the surface two or three feet when
 the water is lowest1 and very much less
 when it is highest4 ,thus deflected1 a 
portion of the water flows easily into  
the canal4  ,a very much larger and     
longer canal1 leaving the ,cache la     
,poudre close to the mountains1 and     
gradually increasing its distance from  
that stream to four or five miles1 is   
now in progress by sections1 and is to  
be completed this ,winter4 ,its length  
will be thirty miles1 and it will       
irrigate1 when the necessary sub-canals 
shall have been constructed1 not less   
than #dj1jjj acres4 ,but it may be ten  
years before all this work is completed 
or even required4 ,the lands most easily
 watered from the main canal will be    
first brought into cultivation2 the     
sub-canals will be dug as they shall be 
wanted4  ,at first1 members of the      

,colony arriving at its location1       
hesitated to take farm allotments and   
build upon them1 from distrust of the   
capacities of the soil4 ,they saw       
nothing of value growing upon it2 the   
little grass found upon it was short1   
thin1 and brown4 ,it was not black1 like
 the prairies and bottoms of ,illinois  
and ,kansas1 but of a light yellow      
snuff-color1 and deemed sterile by many4
 ,but a few took hold1 and planted and  
sowed resolutely2 and1 though it was too
 late in the season for most grains1 the
 results were most satisfactory4 ,wheat 
sown in ,june produced #cj bushels to   
the acre2 ,oats did as well2 while      
,potatoes1 ,beets1 ,turnips1 ,squashes1 
,cabbages1 etc41 yielded bounteously2   
,tomatoes did likewise1 but the plants  
were obtained from ,denver4 ,little was 
done with ,indian ,corn1 but that little
 turned out well1 though ,i judge that  
the ,summer nights are too cold here to 
justify sanguine expectations of a      
,corn-crop--the altitude being #e1jjj   

feet above the sea1 with snow-covered   
mountains always visible in the west4   
,for other ,grains1 and for all         
,vegetables and ,grasses1 ,i believe    
there is no better soil in the world4   
,to many1 the cost of ,irrigation would 
seem so much added to the expense of    
cultivating without irrigation2 but this
 is a mistake4 ,here is land entirely   
free from stump1 or stick1 or stone1    
which may easily and surely be plowed or
 seeded in ,march or ,april1 and which  
will produce great crops of nearly every
 grain1 grass or vegetable1 with a very 
moderate outlay of labor to subdue and  
till it4 ,the farmer need not lose three
 days per annum by rains in the growing 
season1 and need not fear storm or      
shower when he seeks to harvest his     
grass or grain4 ,nothing like ague or   
any malarious disease exhausts his      
vitality or paralyzes his strength4 ,i  
saw men breaking up for the first time  
tracts which had received no water1     
using but a single span of horses as    

team2 whereas1 breaking up in the       
,prairie ,states involves a much larger 
outlay of power4 ,the advantage of early
 sowing is very great2 that of a long   
planting season hardly less so4 ,i      
believe a farmer in this colony may keep
 his plow running through ,october1     
,november1 and a good portion of        
,december2 start it again by the #ast of
 ,march1 and commence seeding with      
,wheat1 ,oats1 and ,barley1 and keep    
seeding1 including planting and         
gardening1 until the first of ,june1    
which is soon enough to plant potatoes  
for ,winter use4 ,thenceforth1 he may   
keep the weeds out of his ,corn1 ,roots1
 and ,vegetables1 for six ,weeks or two 
months2 and1 as every day is a bright   
working-day1 he can get on much faster  
than he could if liable to frequent     
interruptions by rains4 ,i estimate the 
cost of bringing water to each farm at  
#e per acre1 and that of leading it     
about in sub-ditches1 so that it shall  
be available and applicable on every    

acre of that farm1 at somewhat less2 but
 let us suppose that the first cost of  
having water everywhere and always at   
command is #aj per acre1 and that it    
will cost thereafter #a per acre to     
apply it1 ,i maintain that it is richly 
worth having1 and that nearly every farm
 product can be grown cheaper by its    
help than on lands where irrigation is  
presumed unnecessary4 ,there are not    
many acres laid down to grass in        
,new-,england1 whether for hay or       
pasture1 that would not have justified  
an outlay of #aj per acre to secure     
their thorough irrigation simply for    
this year alone4     ,,xlv4  ,,sewage4  
,the great empires of antiquity were    
doomed to certain decay and dissolution 
by a radical vice inherent in their     
political and social constitution4      
,power rapidly built up a great capital1
 whereto population was attracted from  
every quarter2 and that capital became a
 focus of luxury and consumption4       
,grain1 ,meat1 and ,vegetables--the fat 

of the land and the spoils of the       
sea--were constantly absorbed by it in  
enormous quantities2 while nothing1 or1 
at best1 very little1 was returned      
therefrom to the continually exhausted  
and impoverished soil4 ,thus1 a few     
ages1 or at most a few centuries1       
sufficed to divest a vast surrounding   
district1 first1 of its fertility1      
ultimately of its capacity for          
production4 ,and so ,nineveh1 ,thebes1  
,babylon1 successively ceased to be     
capitals1 and became ruins amid deserts4
 ,rome impoverished ,italy south of the 
,apennines2 then ,sicily2 and1 at last1 
,egypt3 her sceptre finally departing1  
because her millions could no longer be 
fed without dispersion4  ,that some     
means must be devised whereby to return 
to the soil those elements which the    
removal of crop after crop inevitably   
exhausts1 is a truth which has but      
recently begun to be clearly understood4
 ,unluckily1 the difficulty of such     
restoration is seriously augmented by   

the fact that cities1 and all           
considerable aggregations of human      
beings1 tend strongly in our day to     
locations by the sea-side1 in valleys1  
and by the margins of rivers4           
,anciently1 cities and villages were    
often built on hill-tops1 or at         
considerable elevations1 because foes   
could be excluded or repelled from such 
locations more surely1 and with smaller 
force1 than elsewhere4 ,from such       
elevations1 it need not have been       
difficult to diffuse1 by means of water1
 all that could be gladly spared which  
would aid to fertilize the adjacent     
farms and gardens4 ,a kindred           
distribution of the exuviae of our      
modern cities is a far more difficult   
and costly undertaking1 and involves    
bold and skillful engineering4  ,yet the
 problem1 though difficult1 must be     
solved1 or our great cities will be     
destroyed by their own physical         
impurities4 ,the growth and expansion of
 cities1 throughout the present century1

 have been wholly beyond precedent2 and 
thus the difficulty of making a         
satisfactory disposition of their offal 
has been fearfully augmented4 ,the      
sewerage of our streets and houses      
modifies the problem1 but does not solve
 it4 ,desolating epidemics1 like the    
,plague1 ,yellow ,fever1 and the        
,cholera1 will often visit our great    
cities1 and decimate their people1      
unless means can be found to cleanse    
them wholly and incessantly of whatever 
tends to pollute and render noisome     
their atmosphere4  ,,sewage is the term 
used in ,england to designate water     
which1 having been slightly impregnated 
with the feculence and ordure of a city 
or village1 is diffused over a farm or  
farms adjacent1 in order to impart at   
once fertility and moisture to its soil4
 ,to secure an equable and thorough     
dissemination of ,sewage1 it is         
essential that the land to which it is  
applied1 if not originally level or     
nearly so1 shall be brought into such   

condition that the impregnated water may
 be applied to its entire surface1 and  
shall thence settle into1 moisten1 and  
fertilize1 each cubic inch of the soil4 
,this involves a very considerable      
initial outlay2 but the luxuriance of   
the crops unfailingly produced1 under   
the influence of this vivifying         
irrigation1 abundantly justifies and    
rewards that outlay4  ,as yet1 the      
application of ,sewage is in its        
infancy2 since the perfect and total    
conversion of all that a great city     
excretes into the most available food   
for plants1 requires not only immense   
mains and reservoirs1 with a costly     
network of distributing dykes or        
ditches1 but novel appliances in        
engineering1 and a large investment of  
time as well as money4 ,years must yet  
elapse before all the excretions of a   
great city like ,london or ,new-,york   
can thus be transmuted into the means of
 fertilizing whole counties in their    
vicinity4 ,but the work is already well 

begun1 and another generation will see  
it all but completed4 ,meantime1 many   
smaller cities1 more eligibly located   
for the purpose1 are already enriching  
by their ,sewage the rural districts    
adjacent1 which they had previously     
tended strongly to impoverish4          
,edinburgh1 the capital of ,scotland1 is
 among them4 ,the little village of     
,romford1 ,england1 is one of those     
which have recently been made to        
contribute by ,sewage to this beneficent
 end2 and a visit of inspection paid to 
it1 on the #aeth of ,october last1 by   
the ,london ,board of ,works1 elicited  
accounts of the process and its results1
 in the ,london journals1 which afforded
 hints for and incitement to similar    
undertakings in this and other          
countries--undertakings which may be    
postponed1 but the only question is one 
of time4 ,the ,daily ,news of ,oct4     
#agth1 says3  ,breton's ,farm consists  
of #aba acres of light and poor gravelly
 soil2 and it now receives the whole    

available sewage of the town of         
,romford--that is1 of about #g1jjj      
persons4 ,this is conveyed to the land  
by an iron pipe of #ah inches in        
diameter1 which is laid under ground1   
and discharges its contents into an open
 tank4 ,from this tank1 the sewage is   
pumped to a height of #bj feet1 and is  
then distributed over the land by iron  
or concrete troughs1 or 'carriers1'     
fitted with sluices and taps1 so that   
the amount of sewage applied to any     
given portion of the field can be       
regulated with the greatest facility and
 nicety4 ,to insure the regular and even
 flow of the sewage when discharged from
 the carriers1 it was necessary to lay  
out the land with mathematical accuracy2
 and it has been leveled and formed by  
the theodolite into rectilinear beds of 
uniform width of thirty feet1 slightly  
inclining from the centres1 along which 
the sewage is applied4 ,the carriers or 
open troughs1 by which the sewage is    
conveyed1 run along the top of each     

series of these beds or strikes2 and at 
the bottom there is in every case a good
 road1 by means of which free access is 
provided for a horse and cart1 or for   
the steam plow--the use of which is in  
contemplation--to every bed and crop4   
,these arrangements--the carrying out of
 which involved the removal of six      
hundred trees and a great length of     
heavy fences1 the filling up of a number
 of ditches and no less than nine ponds1
 as well as the complete underdraining  
of the whole farm--were mainly effected 
last year2 but it was not until the     
middle of ,april1 #ahgj1 that ,mr4 ,hope
 received any of this sewage from the   
town of ,romford1 and not until the     
following month that he obtained both   
the day and night supply4 ,satisfactory1
 therefore1 as have been the results of 
the present season's operations1 they   
have been obtained under disadvantageous
 circumstances1 and cannot be regarded  
as affording complete evidence of the   
benefits which may be derived from the  

application of sewage to even a poor and
 thin soil1 which had already ruined    
more than one of those who had attempted
 to cultivate it4 ,to mention only one  
drawback which arose from the lateness  
of the period at which the sewage was   
first received1 ,mr4 ,hope had not the  
advantage of being able to apply it to  
his seed-beds3 and thus many1 if not all
 his plants were not ready for setting  
out so early as they would be in a      
future year1 and some of the crops have 
suffered in consequence--that is to say1
 have suffered in a comparative sense4  
,speaking positively1 they have in all  
instances been much larger1 not only    
than any that could have been grown upon
 the same land without the use of       
sewage1 but than any which have been    
raised from much superior land in the   
immediate neighborhood4 ,the crops which
 have been or are being raised on       
different parts of the firm1 are of     
diverse character2 but1 with all1 the   
method of cultivation adopted has been  

attended with almost equal success4     
,italian rye-grass1 beans1 peas1        
mangolds1 carrots1 broccoli1 cabbages1  
savoys1 beet-root1 ,batavia yams1       
,jersey cabbages1 and ,indian corn1 have
 all grown with wonderful rapidity and  
yielded abundant harvests under the     
stimulating and nourishing influence of 
the ,romford sewage4 ,the visitors of   
,saturday last1 as they tramped over the
 farm under the guidance of its         
energetic proprietor1 had an opportunity
 of witnessing the abundance and        
excellence of many of these crops4 ,even
 where the mangolds1 from being planted 
late1 had not attained any extraordinary
 size1 it was noticeable that the plants
 were especially vigorous1 and that     
there was not a vacant space in any of  
the rows4 ,all the plants which had been
 placed in the ground had thriven1 and  
would give a good return4 ,where this   
crop had been specially treated with a  
view to forthcoming shows1 the roots had
 attained an enormous size1 and1 like   

some of the cabbages1 had assumed almost
 gigantic proportions4 ,the carrots were
 very fine and well-grown1 and the heads
 of the ,walcheren broccoli were as     
white1 and firm1 and crispy1 as the     
finest cauliflowers2 while the savoys1  
of unusual size and weight1 were as     
round and hard as cannon balls2 and some
 of the drumhead cabbages1 although     
equally distinguished for closeness and 
firmness1 were large enough in the heart
 to hold a good-sized child1 and might1 
as was suggested upon the ground1 very  
well be introduced into some pantomimic 
scene representing the kingdom of       
,brobdingnag4 ,the ,indian corn had     
reached the respectable height of some  
eight feet1 and1 with few exceptions1   
each stalk carried a good-sized and     
well-filled cob or ear4 ,these1 unless  
we should have another spell of         
exceptionally hot weather1 will not     
ripen2 but in their green state they are
 readily eaten by horses and cattle1 and
 prove excellent fodder4  ,in the course

 of their peregrinations1 ,mr4 ,hope's  
guests of course paid a visit to the    
tank in which the sewage is received    
before it is pumped on the land4 ,we    
need hardly say that the appearance of  
this miniature lake of nastiness was    
anything but agreeable2 but its odor was
 by no means overpowering1 nor1 indeed1 
very offensive4 ,the rill of bright1    
clear water which flowed in at one      
corner1 and some of which was handed    
about in tumblers1 looking as pure as   
the limpid stream which flows from the  
most effective filters that are to be   
seen in the windows of ,london dealers1 
had only a short time before flowed out 
of this hideous reservoir in a very     
different state4 ,we had met it in the  
carriers flowing along in a dark1 inky  
stream1 not smelling much1 but covered  
with an ugly gray froth which reminded  
one of some of the most disagreeable    
details in the manufacture of sugar and 
rum1 or suggested the idea that it had  
been used for a very foul wash indeed4  

,with these reminiscences fresh in one's
 memory1 it required some courage to    
comply with the pressing invitations to 
taste this 'effluent water4' ,there     
were1 however1 many of the party who    
braved the attempt2 and1 by all who     
tasted it1 the water was pronounced to  
be destitute of any except a slightly   
mineral flavor4 ,in dry weather1 this   
effluent water1 which has passed through
 the land and been collected by the     
drains1 after mixing with the sewage1 is
 again pumped over the fields2 in wet   
weather1 it can be turned into the brook
 which is dignified with the name of the
 river ,rom4 99 99 99 ,we have omitted  
to mention that the rent paid by ,mr4   
,hope is ,l#c per acre1 and the cost of 
the sewage 7at #bs4 per head7 ,l#f more4
  --,i think few thoughtful readers will
 doubt that here is the germ of a great 
movement in advance for the ,agriculture
 of all old and densely peopled         
communities1 and that our youngest      
cities and manufacturing villages may   

wisely consider it deeply1 with a view  
to its ultimate if not early imitation4 
,that we are not prepared to incur the  
inevitable expense of a thorough system 
of sewerage with reference to the       
application to the soil of all the      
fertilizing elements that a city would  
gladly spare1 by no means proves that we
 should not consider and plan with a    
view to the ultimate creation and       
utilization of ,sewage4     ,,xlvi4     
,,more ,,of ,,irrigation4   ,i have thus
 far considered ,irrigation with special
 reference to those limited1 yet very   
considerable districts1 which are       
traversed or bordered by living streams1
 and1 having a level or slightly rolling
 surface1 present obvious facilities for
 and incitements to the operation4 ,such
 are the valleys of the ,platte1 and of 
nearly or quite all its affluents after 
they leave the ,rocky ,mountains2 such  
is the valley of the upper ,arkansas2   
such the valleys of the ,smoky ,hill and
 the ,republican1 so far down as        

,irrigation may be considered necessary4
 ,irrigation on all these seems to me   
inevitable1 and certain to be speedily1 
though capriciously1 effected4  ,i      
believe a dam across either fork of the 
,platte1 at any favorable point above   
their junction1 raising the surface of  
the stream six feet1 at a cost not      
exceeding #aj1jjj1 would suffice to     
irrigate completely not less than fifty 
square miles of the valley below it1    
while serving at the same time to       
furnish power for mills and factories to
 a very considerable extent2 for the    
need of ,irrigation is not incessant1   
but generally confined to two or three  
months per annum1 and all of the volume 
of the stream not needed for ,irrigation
 could be utilized as power4 ,thus the  
valleys of the few constant             
water-courses of the ,plains may come at
 an early day to employ and subsist a   
dense and energetic population1 engaged 
in the successful prosecution alike of  
agriculture and manufactures1 while     

belts1 groves1 and forests1 of choice1  
luxuriant timber1 will diversify and    
embellish regions now bare of trees1 and
 but thinly covered with dead herbage   
from ,june until the following ,april4  
,but1 when we rise above the bluffs1 and
 look off across the blank1 bleak areas 
where no living water exists1 the       
problem becomes more difficult1 and its 
solution will doubtless be much longer  
postponed4 ,to a stranger1 these bleak  
uplands seem sterile2 and1 though such  
is not generally the fact1 the          
presumption will repel experiments which
 involve a large initial outlay4 ,the   
railroad companies1 which now own large 
tracts of these lands1 will be obliged  
either to demonstrate their value1 or to
 incite individuals and colonists to do 
it by liberal concessions4 ,as the case 
stands to-day1 most of these lands1     
which would have been dear at five cents
 per acre before the roads were built1  
could not be sold at any price to actual
 settlers1 even with the railroad in    

plain sight1 because of the dearth of   
fuel and timber1 and because also the   
means of rendering them fruitful and    
their cultivation profitable are out of 
reach of the ordinary pioneer4 ,hence1  
so long as the valleys of the living    
streams proffer such obvious invitations
 to settlement and tillage1 by the aid  
of ,irrigation1 ,i judge that the higher
 and dryer plains will mainly be left to
 the half-savage herdsmen who rear      
cattle and sheep without feeding and    
sheltering them1 by giving them the     
range of a quarter-section to each      
bullock1 and submitting to the loss of a
 hundred head or so after each great and
 cold snow-storm1 as an unavoidable     
dispensation of ,providence4  ,but in   
process of time even the wild herdsmen  
will be softened into or replaced by    
regular farmers1 plowing and seeding for
 vegetables and small grains1 sheltering
 their habitations with trees1 and      
sending their children to school4 ,this 
change involves ,irrigation2 and the    

following are among the ways in which it
 will be effected3  ,the ,plains are    
nowhere absolutely flat 7as ,i presume  
the desert of ,sahara is not71 but      
diversified by slopes1 and swells1 and  
gentle ridges or divides1 affording     
abundant facilities for the distribution
 of water4 ,a well1 sunk on the crest of
 one of these divides1 will be filled   
with living water at a depth ranging    
from #ej to #ajj feet4 ,a windmill of   
modest dimensions placed over this well 
will be rarely stopped for want of      
impelling power3 ,wind being1 next to   
space1 the thing most abundant on the   
,plains4 ,a reservoir or pond covering  
three or four acres may be made adjacent
 to the well at a small cost of labor1  
by excavating slightly and using the    
earth to form an embankment on the lower
 side4 ,the windmill1 left alone1 will  
fill the reservoir during the windy     
,winter and ,spring months with water   
soon warmed in the sun1 and ready to be 
drawn off as wanted throughout the      

thirsty season of vegetable growth and  
maturity4 ,carefully saved1 the product 
of one well will serve to moisten and   
vivify a good many acres of grass or    
tillage4  ,such is the retail plan      
applicable to the wants of solitary     
farmers2 but ,i hope to see it          
supplemented and invigorated by the     
extensive introduction of ,artesian     
wells1 whereof two1 by way of           
experiment1 are now in progress at      
,denver and ,kit ,carson respectively4  
,i need not here describe the ,artesian 
well1 farther than to say that it is    
made by boring to a depth ranging from  
#gjj to more than a #ajjj feet1 tubing  
regularly from the top downward until a 
stream is reached which will rise to and
 above the surface1 flowing over the top
 of the tube in a stream often as large 
as an average stove-pipe4 ,such a well1 
after supplying a settlement or modest  
village with water1 may be made to fill 
a reservoir that will sufficiently      
irrigate a thousand cultivated acres4   

,its water will usually be warmer than  
though obtained from near the surface1  
and hence better adapted to ,irrigation4
  ,of course1 the ,artesian well is     
costly1 and will not soon be constructed
 for uses purely agricultural2 but the  
railroads traversing the ,plains and the
 ,great ,basin will sometimes be        
compelled to resort to one without      
having use for a twentieth part of the  
water they thus entice from the bowels  
of the earth2 and that which they cannot
 use they will be glad to sell for a    
moderate price1 thus creating oases of  
verdure and bounteous production4 ,the  
palpable interest of railroads in       
dotting their long lines of desolation  
with such cheering contrasts of field   
and meadow and waving trees1 render     
nowise doubtful their hearty cooperation
 with any enterprising pioneer who shall
 bring the requisite capital1 energy1   
knowledge1 and faith1 to the prosecution
 of the work4  ,these are but hasty     
suggestions of methods which will       

doubtless be multiplied1 varied1 and    
improved upon1 in the light of future   
experience and study4 ,and when the very
 best and most effective methods of     
subduing the ,plains to the uses of     
civilized man shall have been discovered
 and adopted1 there will still remain   
vast areas as free commons for the      
herdsmen and sporting-grounds for the   
hunter of the ,elk and the ,antelope1   
after the ,buffalo shall have utterly   
disappeared4  ,i do not doubt the       
assertion of the plainsmen that rain    
increases as settlements are multiplied4
 ,crossing the ,plains in #ahei1 ,i     
noted indications that timber had       
formerly abounded where none now grows2 
and ,i presume that1 as young trees are 
multiplied in the wake of civilization1 
finally thickening into clumps of timber
 and beginning a forest1 more rain will 
fall1 and the extension of woodlands    
become comparatively easy4 ,but1        
relatively to the country eastward of   
the ,missouri1 the ,plains will always  

be arid and thirsty1 with a pure1       
bracing atmosphere that will form a     
chief attraction to thousands suffering 
from or threatened with pulmonary       
afflictions4 ,a million of square miles1
 whereon is found no single swamp or    
bog1 and not one lake that withstands   
the drouth of ,summer1 can never have a 
moist climate1 and never fail to realize
 the need of ,irrigation4  ,the ,plains 
will in time give lessons1 which even   
the well-watered and verdurous ,east may
 read with profit4 ,such level and      
thirsty clays as largely border ,lake   
,champlain1 for example1 traversed by   
streams from mountain ranges on either  
hand1 will not always be owned and      
cultivated by men insensible to the     
profit of ,irrigation4 ,nor will such   
rich valleys as those of the            
,connecticut1 the ,kennebec1 the        
,susquehanna1 be left to suffer year    
after year from drouth1 while the water 
which should refresh them runs idly and 
uselessly by4 ,agriculture repels       

innovation1 and loves the beaten track2 
but such lessons as ,new-,england has   
received in the great drouth of #ahgj   
will not always be given and endured in 
vain4     ,,xlvii4  ,,undeveloped       
,,sources ,,of ,,power4   ,the more ,i  
consider the present state of our       
,agriculture1 the more emphatic is my   
discontent with the farmer's present    
sources and command of power4 ,the      
subjugation and tillage of a farm1 like 
the running of a factory or furnace1    
involves a continual use of ,power2 but 
the manufacturer obtains his from       
sources which supply it cheaply and in  
great abundance1 while the farmer has   
been content with an inferior article1  
in limited supply1 at a far heavier     
cost4 ,yet the stream which turns the   
factory's wheels and sets all its       
machinery in motion traverses or skirts 
many farms as well1 and1 if properly    
harnessed1 is just as ready to speed the
 plow as to impel the shuttles of a     
woolen-mill1 or revolve the cylinders of

 a calico-printery4 ,nature is          
impartially kind to all her children2   
but some of them know how to profit by  
her good-will far more than others4 ,no 
doubt1 we all have much yet to learn1   
and our grandchildren will marvel at the
 proofs of stupidity evinced in our     
highest achievements2 but ,i am not     
mistaken in asserting that1 as yet1 the 
farmers' control of ,nature's free gifts
 of power is very far inferior to that  
of nearly every other class of          
producers4  ,i have been having much    
plowing done this ,fall--in my orchards1
 for what ,i presume to be the good of  
the trees2 on my drained swamp1 because 
it is not yet fully subdued and         
sweetened1 and ,i judge that the        
,winter's freezing and thawing will aid 
to bring it into condition4 ,and then my
 swamp lies so low and absolutely flat  
that the thaws and rains of ,spring     
render plowing it in season for ,oats1  
or any other crop that requires early   
seeding1 a matter of doubt and          

difficulty4 ,all the land ,i now        
cultivate1 or seek to cultivate1 has    
already been well plowed more than once2
 no stump or stone impedes progress in  
the tracts ,i have plowed this ,fall2   
yet a good plow1 drawn by two strong    
yoke of oxen1 rarely breaks up half an  
acre per day2 and ,i estimate two acres 
per week about what has been averaged1  
at a cost of #ah for the plowman and    
driver2 offsetting the oxen's labor     
against the work done by the men at the 
barn and elsewhere apart from plowing4  
,in other words3 ,i am confident that my
 plowing has cost me1 from first to     
last1 at least1 #aj per acre1 and would 
have cost still more if it had been done
 as thoroughly as it ought4 ,i am quite 
aware that this is high--that sandy     
soils and dry loams are plowed much     
cheaper2 and that farmers who plow wall 
7with whom ,i do not rank those who     
scratch the earth to a depth of four or 
five inches7 do it at a much lower rate4
 ,still1 ,i estimate the average cost in

 this country of plowing land twelve    
inches deep at #e per acre2 and ,i am   
confident that it does not cost one cent
 less4  ,nor is cost the only           
discouragement4 ,there is not half so   
much nor so thorough plowing among us1  
especially in the ,fall2 as there should
 be4 ,the soil is1 for a good part of   
the time1 too dry or too wet2 the       
weather is inclement1 or the ground is  
frozen3 so the plow must stand still4   
,at length1 the signs are auspicious2   
the ground is in just the right         
condition2 and we would gladly plow ten1
 twenty1 fifty acres during the brief   
period wherein it remains so2 but this  
is impossible4 ,others want to improve  
the opportunity as well as we2 extra    
teams are rarely to be had at any price2
 and our own slow-moving oxen refuse to 
be hurried4 ,standing half a mile off1  
you can see them move2 if your eye-sight
 is keen1 and you have some stationary  
object interposed whereby to take an    
observation2 but it is as much as ever4 

,if your soil is such that you can use  
horses1 you get on1 of course1 much     
faster2 but all that you gain in breadth
 you are apt to lose in depth4 ,there   
may be spans that will take the plow    
right along though you sink it to the   
beam2 but they are sure to be slow      
travelers4 ,i never knew a span that    
would plow an acre per day as ,i think  
it should be plowed2 though1 if your    
only object be to get over as much      
ground as possible1 you may afflict and 
titillate two acres1 or as much more as 
you please4  ,now1 ,i have before me a  
letter to ,the ,times 7,london7 by ,mr4 
,william ,smith1 of ,woolston1 ,bucks1  
who states that he has just harvested   
his fifteenth annual crop cultivated by 
steam-power1 and has prepared his land  
for the sixteenth2 and he gives details1
 showing that he breaks up and ridges   
heavy clay soils at the rate of six     
acres per day1 and plows lands already  
in tillage at the rate of fully nine    
acres per day4 ,he gives the total cost1

 7including wear and tear17 of breaking 
up a foot deep and ridging #fe acres in 
,september and ,october in this year1   
#ahgj1 at ,l#bj #fs4 #f;d4 or about #ajj
 in gold3 call it #aab in our           
greenbacks1 and still it falls          
considerably below #b 7greenbacks7 per  
acre4 ,say that labor and fuel are twice
 as dear in this country as in ,england1
 and this would make the cost of        
thoroughly pulverizing by steam-power a 
heavy clay soil to a depth of twelve    
inches less than #d per acre here4 ,i do
 not believe this could be done by      
animal power at #aj per acre1 not       
considering the difficulty of getting it
 thoroughly done at all4 ,mr4 ,smith    
pertinently says3 ,horse-power could not
 give at any cost such valuable work as 
this steam-power ridging and subsoiling 
is4 ,he tills #aff acres in all1 making 
the cost of steam-plowing his           
stubble-land #ds4 #h-a_/b;d4 per acre   
7say #a4cj greenback74 ,and he gives    
this interesting item3  ,no4 #e1 light  

land1 #ab acres1 was ridge-plowed and   
subsoiled last year for beans3 that     
operation left the land1 after the      
bean-crop came off1 in so nice a state1 
that cultivating once over with horses1 
at a cost of #bs4 per acre1 was all that
 was needed this ,autumn for wheat next 
year4 ,the wheat was drilled four days  
back4  --,now ,i am not commending      
,steam as the best source of power in   
aid of ,agriculture4 ,i hope we shall be
 able to do better ere long4 ,i         
recognize the enormous waste involved in
 the movement of an engine1 boiler1     
etc41 weighing several tons1 back and   
forth across our fields1 and apprehend  
that it must be difficult to avoid a    
compression of the soil therefrom4 ,a   
stationary engine and boiler at either  
end of the field1 hauling a gang of     
plows this way and that by means of     
ropes and pulleys1 must involve a very  
heavy outlay for machinery and a        
considerable cost in its removal from   
farm to farm1 or even from field to     

field4 ,either of these may be the best 
device yet perfected2 but we are bound  
to do better in time4  ,precisely how   
and when the winds which sweep over our 
fields shall be employed to pulverize   
and till the soil1 are among the many   
things ,i do not know2 but1 that the end
 will yet be achieved1 ,i undoubtingly  
trust4 ,i know somewhat--not much--of   
what has been done and is doing1 both in
 ,europe and ,america1 to extend and    
diversify the utilization of wind as a  
source of power1 and to compress and    
retain it so that the gale which sweeps 
over a farm to-night may afford a       
reserve or fund of power for its        
cultivation on the morrow or thereafter4
 ,i know a little of what has been      
devised and done toward converting and  
transmitting1 through the medium of     
compressed air1 the power generated by a
 waterfall--say ,niagara or             
,minnehaha--so that it may be expended  
and utilized at a distance of miles from
 its source1 impelling machinery of all 

kinds at half the cost of steam4 ,i know
 vaguely of what is being done with     
,electricity1 with an eye to its        
employment in the production of power1  
by means of enginery not a tenth so     
weighty and cumbrous as that required   
for the generation and utilization of   
,steam1 and by means of a consumption   
7that is1 transformation7 of materials  
not a hundredth part so bulky and heavy 
as the water and steam which fill the   
boilers of our factories and            
locomotives4 ,i am no mechanician1 and  
will not even guess from what source1   
through what agencies1 the new power    
will be vouch-safed us which is in time 
to pulverize our fields to any required 
depth with a rapidity1 perfection1 and  
economy1 not now anticipated by the     
great body of our farmers4 ,but my faith
 in its achievement is undoubting2 and1 
though ,i may not live to see it1 ,i    
predict that there are readers of this  
essay who will find the forces          
abundantly generated all around us by   

the spontaneous movement of ,wind1      
,water1 and ,electricity--one or more1  
and probably by all of them--so utilized
 and wielded as to lighten immensely the
 farmer's labor1 while quadrupling its  
efficiency in producing all by which our
 ,earth ministers to the sustenance and 
comfort of man4     ,,xlviii4  ,,rural  
,,depopulation4   ,complaint is widely  
made of a decrease in the relative      
population of our rural districts2 and  
not without reason1 or1 at least1       
plausibility4 ,i presume the ,census of 
#ahgj will return no more farmers in the
 ,state of ,new ,york1 and probably some
 fewer in ,new ,england1 than were shown
 by the ,census of #ahfj4 ,the very     
considerable augmentation of the number 
of their people will be found living    
wholly in the cities and incorporated   
villages4 ,i doubt whether there are    
more farmers in the ,state of ,new ,york
 to-day than there were in #ahdj1 though
 the total population has meantime      
doubled4 ,many farms have been          

transformed into country-seats for city 
bankers1 merchants1 and lawyers2 others 
have been consolidated1 so that what    
were formerly two or three1 now         
constitute but one2 and1 though every   
body says1 ,our farms are too large for 
our capital1 ,we run over too much land1
 etc41 etc41 yet1 ,i can hear of few    
farms that have been1 or are expected to
 be1 divided1 except into village or    
city lots2 while the prevalent tendency 
is still the other way4 ,an inefficient 
farmer dies heavily in debt1 or is sold 
out by the sheriff3 his farm is rarely  
divided between two purchasers1 while it
 is quite often absorbed into the estate
 of some thrifty neighbor2 and thus     
small farmers are selling out and moving
 westward much oftener than large ones4 
,such are the obvious facts3 now for    
some of the reasons3  ,i4 ,our ,state1  
like ,new ,england1 was originally all  
but covered by a heavy growth of forest4
 ,the removal of this timber involved   
very much hard work1 most of which has  

been done in this century1 and much of  
it by the present generation4 ,when ,i  
first traversed ,chautauqua ,county1    
forty-three years ago1 from two-thirds  
to three-fourths of her acres must have 
been still covered with the primeval    
forest--a tall1 heavy growth of ,beech1 
,maple1 ,hemlock1 ,white ,pine1 etc41   
which yielded very slowly to the efforts
 of the average chopper4 ,many a pioneer
 gave half his working hours for twenty 
years to the clearing off of ,timber1   
,fencing1 cutting out roads1 etc41 and  
had not sixty acres in arable condition 
at the last4 ,outside of the villages1  
the population of that county was       
probably as great in #ahcj as it is     
to-day1 though the annual production of 
her tillage was not half what it now is4
 ,her farms are now made2 her remaining 
woodlands are worth about as much per   
acre as her tillage2 there is now       
comparatively little timber-cutting1 or 
land-clearing2 and two-thirds of the    
pioneers1 or their sons who inherited   

their farms1 have sold out1 or been sold
 out1 and pushed further westward4      
,meantime1 ,grazing and ,dairying have  
extensively supplanted ,grain-growing2  
and farmers who found more work than    
they could do on #fj or #hj acres1 now  
manage #afj to #cbj acres with ease4 ,i 
do not say that they ought not to farm  
better2 ,i only state the facts that    
they thrive by this dairy-farming1 and  
are not exhausting their lands4 ,and    
what is true of ,chautauqua is          
measurably true of half the rural       
,counties in our ,state4  ,,ii4         
,formerly1 ,wood was the only fuel known
 to our farmers1 while immense          
quantities of it were burned in our     
cities1 at the salt-works1 etc4 ,at     
present1 wood is scarcely used for fuel1
 except as kindling1 in any of our      
cities1 villages1 or manufactories1     
while the consumption of ,coal by our   
farmers is already very large1 and      
rapidly extending4 ,all this reduces the
 demand for labor on our farms and in   

our forests1 while increasing the       
corresponding demand in the ,coal       
,mines1 and on the railroads4 ,luzerne  
,county1 ,pennsylvania1 has doubled her 
population within the last twelve or    
fourteen years2 and this at the expense 
of our rural districts4  ,,iii4 ,our    
agricultural implements and machinery   
grow annually more effective1 and at the
 same time more costly4 ,the outfit of a
 good farm costs five-fold what it did  
forty years ago4 ,the farmer makes and  
secures his ,hay far more rapidly and   
effectively than his father did1 but    
pays far more for ,reapers1 ,mowers1    
,rakers1 etc42 in other words1 he makes 
,winter work abridge that of            
,summer--makes a hundred days' work in  
some village or city save thrice as many
 days' work on his farm4 ,this enhances 
his profits1 but swells our urban1 while
 it diminishes our rural population4    
,,iv4 ,much has been said of the        
degeneracy and increasing sterility of  
the ,new ,england ,puritan stock4 ,all  

this is shallow and absurd4 ,there never
 before were so many people who proudly 
traced their origin to a ,new ,england  
ancestry as now4 ,what is true in the   
premises is this3 ,the ,new ,england    
stock is becoming very widely diffused1 
and is giving place1 to a considerable  
extent1 to other elements in its        
original home4 ,forty years ago1 at     
least seven-eighths of the inhabitants  
of ,boston were of ,new ,england birth  
and lineage2 now1 hardly half are so4   
,the descendants of the ,pilgrims are   
scattered all over our wide country2    
while hundreds of thousands have flowed 
in from ,ireland1 from ,germany1 from   
,canada1 to fill the places thus        
relinquished2 and1 since most of the    
immigrants1 whether into or out of ,new 
,england1 seek their future homes in the
 spring-time of life1 their children are
 mainly born to them after rather than  
before their migration4 ,the ,yankees   
have no fewer children than formerly2   
but they are now born in ,minnesota1 in 

,illinois1 in ,kansas2 while those born 
in ,new ,england are1 for identical     
reasons1 in large proportion of ,irish  
or of ,canadian parentage4 ,there are   
,new ,england townships1 whereof most of
 the heads of families are long past the
 prime of life2 their children having   
left them for more attractive           
localities1 and the work on their farms 
being now done mainly by foreign-born   
employes4 ,as a general rule1 the boys  
first wandered off2 leaving the girls   
only the alternative of following1 or   
dying in maidenhood4 ,marked diversities
 of race1 of creed1 and of education1   
have thus far prevented any considerable
 intermingling of the ,yankee with the  
foreign element by marriage4 ,and what  
is true of ,new ,england is measurably  
true of our own ,state4  ,i have not    
intended by these observations to combat
 the assumption that our people too     
generally prefer other employments to   
farming4 ,the obstacles to effective    
modern ,agriculture--that is1 to        

agriculture prosecuted by the help of   
efficient machinery--presented by that  
incessant alternation of rock and bog1  
which characterizes ,new ,england and   
some parts of ,new ,york1 ,i have       
already noted2 and they interpose a     
serious1 discouraging impediment to     
agricultural progress4 ,a farm          
intersected by two or three swamps and  
brooks1 separated by steep1 rocky1      
ridges1 and dotted over with pebbly     
knolls1 sometimes giving place to a     
strip of sterile sand1 is far more      
repulsive to the capable1 intelligent   
farmer of to-day than it was to his     
grandfather4 ,so far as my observation  
extends1 there are more ,new ,england   
farms on which you cannot1 than on which
 you can1 find ten acres in one unbroken
 area suitable for planting to ,corn1 or
 sowing to ,winter ,grain4 ,hence1      
,agriculture in the ,east will always   
seem petty and irregular when brought   
into contrast with the prairie          
cultivation of the ,west4 ,grain can    

never be grown here so cheaply nor so   
abundantly as there2 while the tendency 
of our pastures to cover themselves over
 with moss and worthless shrubs1 unless 
frequently broken up and reseeded1 makes
 even dairying more difficult and costly
 in ,new ,england and along its western 
border than in almost any other part of 
our country4  ,yet1 these               
discouragements are balanced by         
compensations4 ,timber springs          
luxuriantly and grows rapidly throughout
 this region2 while our harsh1          
capricious climate gives to our         
,hickory1 ,white ,oak1 ,white ,ash1 and 
other varieties1 qualities unknown to   
such grown elsewhere1 while prized      
everywhere4 ,apples1 and most fruits of 
the ,temperate ,zone1 do well with us2  
while our cities and manufacturing      
villages proffer most capacious markets4
 ,potatoes and other edible roots       
produce liberally1 and generally command
 good prices4 ,hay sells for #ab to #cj 
per ton1 is easily grown1 and is in     

eager and increasing demand4 ,we ought  
to produce twice our present crop from  
the same area1 and have need of every   
pound of it2 for neither our cattle nor 
our sheep are nearly so numerous nor so 
well fed as they should be4 ,in short1  
there is money to be made1 by those who 
have means and know how1 by buying ,new 
,england farms1 tilling them better1 and
 growing much larger crops than their   
present occupants have done4 ,there are 
many who can do better in the ,west2 but
 the right men can still make money by  
farming this side of the ,susquehanna   
and the ,genesee2 and ,i would gladly   
incite some thousands more of them to   
try4     ,,xlix4  ,,large ,,and ,,small 
,,farms4   ,there is fascination for    
most minds in naked magnitude4 ,the     
young colonel1 who can hardly handle a  
brigade effectively in battle1 would    
like of all things to command a great   
army2 and the tiller of fifty rugged    
acres has his ravishing dreams of the   
delights inherent in a great ,western   

farm1 with its square miles of          
corn-fields1 and its thousands of       
cattle4 ,each of them is partly right   
and partly wrong4  ,there are generals  
capable of commanding #ajj1jjj men1     
,napoleon says there were two such in   
his day--himself and another3 and these 
generally find the work they are fit    
for1 without special effort or          
aspiration4 ,so there are men1 each of  
whom can really farm a township1 not    
merely let a herd of cattle roam over it
 unfed and unsheltered1 living and dying
 as may chance3 the owners expecting to 
grow rich by their natural increase4    
,this ranching is not properly farming  
at all1 but a very different and far    
ruder art4 ,i judge that the farmers who
 can really till--or even graze--several
 thousand acres of land1 so as to       
realize a fair interest on its value1   
are even scarcer than the farms so      
capacious4  ,but there is such a thing  
as farming on a large scale2 and it is a
 good business for those who understand 

it1 and have all the means it requires4 
,the farmer who annually grows a        
thousand acres of good ,grain1 and takes
 reasonable care of a thousand head of  
,cattle1 is to be held in all honor4 ,he
 will usually grow both his ,grain and  
his ,beef cheaper than a small farmer   
could do it1 and will generally find a  
good balance on the right side when he  
makes up and squares his accounts of a  
year's operations4 ,i could recommend no
 man to run into debt for a great farm1 
expecting that farm to work him out of  
it but he who inherited or has acquired 
a large farm1 well stocked1 and knows   
how to make it pay1 may well cling to   
it1 and count himself fortunate in its  
possession4 ,but the great farmer is    
already regarded with sufficient envy4  
,most boys would gladly be such as he   
is2 the difficulty in the case is that  
they lack the energy1 persistency1      
resolution1 and self-denial1 requisite  
for its achievement4  ,we will leave    
large farms and farming to recommend    

themselves1 while we consider more      
directly the opportunities and          
reasonable expectations of the small    
farmer4  ,the impression widely current 
that money cannot be made on a small    
farm--that1 in farming1 the great fish  
eat up the little ones--is deduced from 
very imperfect data4 ,i have admitted   
that ,grain and ,beef can usually be    
produced at less cost on great than on  
small farms1 though the rule is not     
without exceptions4 ,i only insist that 
there are room and hope for the small   
farmer also1 and that large farming can 
never absorb nor enable us to dispense  
with small farms4  ,i4 ,and first with  
regard to ,fruit4 ,some ,tree-,fruits1  
as well as ,grapes1 are grown on a large
 scale in ,california--it is said1 with 
profit4 ,but nearly all our ,pears1     
,apples1 ,cherries1 ,plums1 etc41 are   
grown by small farmers or gardeners1 and
 are not likely to be grown otherwise4  
,all of them need at particular seasons 
a personal attention and a vigilance    

which can seldom or never be accorded by
 the owners or renters of large farms4  
,should small farms be generally        
absorbed into larger1 our ,fruit-culture
 would thenceforth steadily decline4    
,,ii4 ,the same is even more true of the
 production of ,eggs and the rearing of 
,fowls4 ,i have had knowledge of several
 attempts at producing ,eggs and ,fowls 
on a large scale in this country1 but ,i
 have no trustworthy account of a single
 decided success in such an enterprise4 
,on the contrary1 many attempts to      
multiply ,fowls by thousands have broken
 down1 just when their success seemed   
secure4 ,some contagious disease1 some  
unforeseen disaster1 blasted the        
sanguine expectations of the            
experimenter1 and transmuted his gold   
into dross4  ,yet1 ,i judge that there  
is no industry more capable of          
indefinite extension1 with fair returns1
 than ,fowl-breeding on a moderate      
scale4 ,eggs and ,chickens are in       
universal demand4 ,they are luxuries    

appreciated alike by rich and poor2 and 
they might be doubled in quantity       
without materially depressing1 the      
market4 ,our thronged and fashionable   
watering-places are never adequately    
supplied with them2 our cities          
habitually take all they can get and    
look around for more4 ,i believe that   
twice the largest number of ,chickens   
ever yet produced in one year might be  
reared in #ahga1 with profit to the     
breeders4 ,even if others should fail1  
the home market found in each family    
would prove signally elastic4  ,this    
industry should especially commend      
itself to poor widows1 struggling to    
retain and rear their children in frugal
 independence4 ,a widow who1 in the     
neighborhood of a city or of a          
manufacturing village1 can rent a       
cottage with half an acre of            
southward-sloping1 sunny land1 which she
 may fence so tightly as to confine her 
,hens therein1 whenever their roaming   
abroad would injure or annoy her        

neighbors1 and who can incur the expense
 of constructing thereon a warm1        
commodious ,hen-house1 may almost       
certainly make the production of ,eggs  
and ,fowls a source of continuous       
profit4 ,if she can obtain cheaply the  
refuse of a slaughter-house for feed1   
giving with it meal or grain in moderate
 quantities1 and according that         
constant1 personal1 intelligent         
supervision1 without which              
,fowl-breeding rarely prospers1 she may 
reasonably expect it to pay1 while      
affording her an occupation not subject 
to the caprices of an employer1 and not 
requiring her to spend her days away    
from home4  ,,iii4 ,though the ordinary 
,market ,vegetables may be grown on     
large farms1 the fact that they seldom  
are is significant4 ,cabbages1 ,peas1   
,poled ,beans1 ,tomatoes1 and even      
,potatoes1 are mainly grown on small    
farms1 as they always have been4 ,there 
are sections wherein no cash market for 
,vegetables exists or can be relied on2 

and here they will continue to be grown 
to the extent only of the growers'      
respective needs2 but wherever the      
prevalence of manufactures or the       
neighborhood of a great city gives      
reasonable assurance of a market1 they  
are grown at a profit per acre which is 
rarely realized from a ,grain-crop4 ,no 
less than #ajj per acre is often1 if not
 generally1 achieved by the growers of  
,cabbage around this city2 and this not 
from rich1 deep garden-mold1 but from   
fair farming land1 underdrained1        
subsoiled1 and liberally manured4  ,the 
careless1 slipshod farmer may do        
better--that is1 he will not fail so    
signally--in ,grain cultivation2 but    
there are few more decided or brilliant 
successes than have been achieved within
 the last few years within sight of this
 ,city1 and wholly in the tillage of    
small farms4  ,i trust ,i have here said
 enough to show that there is a         
legitimate and promising field for      
agricultural enterprise and effort1     

other than that which contemplates the  
acquisition and rule of a township1 and 
that1 while farming on a large area is  
to many attractive and inspiring1 there 
are scope and incitement also for       
tillage on a humbler scale--for tillage 
that permits no weed to ripen seed1 and 
no nest of caterpillars to flourish a   
month undisturbed--for tillage that     
achieves large crops and profits from   
small areas1 and rejoices in that       
neatness and perfection of culture      
attainable only in the management of    
small farms4     ,l4  ,,exchange ,,and  
,,distribution4   ,the machinery whereby
 the farmer of our day converts into    
cash or other values that portion of his
 products which is not consumed in his  
house or on his farm1 seems to me       
lamentably imperfect4 ,let me illustrate
 my meaning3  ,after three all but      
fruitless years1 we have this year a    
bountiful ,apple-crop1 in this ,state   
and 7,i believe7 throughout the ,north4 
,our old orchards being still1 for the  

most part1 preserved and in bearing     
condition1 while a good many young ones1
 planted ten to twenty years ago1 begin 
to fruit considerably1 we had1          
throughout the three ,fall months1 a    
superabundance of this homely1          
wholesome1 palatable fruit4 ,it should  
have been cheap for the great body of   
our mechanics and laborers to provide   
their families with all the ripe1 good  
,apples that they could consume without 
injuring themselves by gluttony4 ,good  
,apples should have been constantly     
displayed on every workingman's table1  
to be eaten raw as a dessert1 or baked  
and eaten with bread and milk for       
breakfast or supper4 ,each provident    
housewife should now have her tub of    
applesauce1 her barrel of dried apples1 
or both1 for ,winter use2 while a dozen 
bushels of good keepers should be stored
 in every cellar1 to be drawn upon from 
day to day during the next four or five 
months4 ,in short1 ,apples should have  
been and be1 from last ,august to next  

,may1 as common as bread and potatoes1  
and should have been and be as freely   
eaten in every household and by every   
fireside4  ,how nearly have we realized 
this8  ,i will not guess how many       
millions of bushels have rotted under   
the trees that bore them1 been eaten by 
animals to little or no profit1 or      
turned into cider that did not sell for 
so much as it cost1 counting the ,apples
 of no value4 ,living immediately on a  
railroad that rims into this ,city1     
wherefrom my place is #ce miles distant1
 ,i should be able to do better with    
,apples than most growers2 and yet ,i   
judge that half my ,apples were of no   
use to me4 ,many of them sold in this   
,city for #a per barrel1 including the  
cask1 which cost me #dj cents2 and1 when
 you have added the cost of             
transportation1 you can guess that ,i   
had no surplus1 after paying men #a4ej  
per day for picking and barreling them4 
,i sold all ,i could to vinegar-makers  
at fifty cents per bushel for           

cider-apples--the casks being returned4 
,but they could not take all ,i wished  
to sell them1 there being so many       
sellers pressing to get rid of their    
windfalls before they rotted on their   
hands that even this market was glutted4
 ,that it was much worse for the farmer 
a dozen miles from a railroad and a     
hundred from the nearest city1 none can 
doubt4 ,i have heard that1 in parts of  
,connecticut1 cider was sold for fifty  
cents per barrel to whoever would       
furnish casks1 and that their size was  
hardly considered4 ,manifestly1 this    
left nothing for the apples4  ,if       
,apples could have been daily supplied  
to our poorer citizens in such          
quantities as they could conveniently   
take1 at from fifty to seventy-five     
cents per bushel1 according to quality  
and comeliness1 ,i am confident that    
this ,city and its suburbs would have   
taken ,two or ,three ,millions of       
bushels more than they have done2 and   
the same is true of other cities4 ,but  

the poor rarely buy a barrel of ,apples 
at once2 and they have been required to 
pay as much for half a peck as ,i could 
get for a bushel just like them4 ,in    
other words3 the hucksters and middlemen
 set so high a price on their respective
 services in dividing up a barrel of    
,apples and conveying them from the     
rural producer to the urban consumer    
that a large portion of the farmer's    
apples must rot on his hands or be sold 
by him for less than the cost of        
harvesting1 while the poor of the cities
 find them too dear to be freely eaten4 
,nor are ,apples singular in this       
respect4 ,i would like to grow a        
thousand bushels of ,english 7round7 and
 ,french or ,swede ,turnips per annum if
 ,i could be sure of getting #a per     
barrel for them delivered at the        
railroad4 ,if the poor of this ,city    
could buy such ,turnips throughout their
 season by the half peck at the rate of 
#b per barrel1 ,i believe they would buy
 and eat many more than they do4 ,but   

they are usually asked twenty-five cents
 per half peck1 which is at the rate of 
#e per barrel2 and at this rate they    
hold them too dear for every-day use4   
,so the ,turnips are not grown1 or the  
cattle are invited to clear them off    
before they rot and become worthless and
 nuisance4  ,quite often1 a green youth 
undertakes to get rich by farming near  
some great city4 ,he has heard and      
believes that ,cabbages bring from #e to
 #h and even #aj per hundred1 ,squashes 
from #aj to #be per hundred1            
,watermelons from #bj to #ej1 and so on4
 ,he has made his calculations on this  
basis1 and sanguinely expects to make   
money rapidly4 ,but his products1 in the
 first place1 fall short of his         
estimates2 they are not ready for market
 so soon as he expected they would be2  
and1 when at length they are ready1     
every one else seems to have rushed in  
ahead of him4 ,the market is glutted2 no
 one seems to want his truck at any     
figure2 he sells it for a song1 and     

quits farming disgusted and bankrupt4   
,may be1 his stuff would have sold much 
better next week or the week after2 but 
he could not afford to bring it to      
market and take it back day after day1  
on the chance that the demand for it    
would improve by-and-by4 ,i judge that  
more young men have on this account     
turned their backs on farming1 after a  
brief trial1 than on any other4 ,they   
might have borne up against the         
shortness of their crops1 hoping for    
better luck next time2 but the necessity
 for selling them for a price that would
 not have reimbursed their cost1 had    
they been ever so luxuriant1 utterly    
disheartens and alienates them4  ,i     
preach no crusade against hucksters and 
middlemen4 ,i hold them1 in the actual  
state of things1 benefactors to both    
producers and consumers4 ,in so far as  
they deal honestly and meet promptly    
their obligations1 they deserve         
commendation rather than reproach4 ,what
 ,i urge is1 that more economical and   

efficient machinery of exchange and     
distribution ought to be devised and set
 at work--machinery that would do all   
that is required at a moderate1         
reasonable cost4  ,i would like to see  
one of our solvent1 well-managed        
,railroads advertise that it would      
henceforth buy at any of its stations   
all the farmers' produce that might be  
offered1 and pay the highest prices that
 the state of the markets would justify4
 ,let its agents purchase whatever came 
along--a basket of eggs1 a coop of      
chickens1 a barrel of apples1 a sack of 
beans1 a pail of currants--anything that
 could be sold in the city to which it  
runs1 and which would conduce to human  
sustenance or comfort4 ,its object      
should be ,freight--the rapid and vast  
increase of its transportations1 not    
extra profit on the articles            
transported4 ,but let its agents be     
ready to buy at fair prices whatever was
 offered1 paying cash down1 and pushing 
everything purchased directly into      

market1 so as to have the money back to 
buy more with directly4 ,the ,railroad  
,company1 thus owning nearly everything 
edible it brought into market1 would buy
 and sell at uniform prices1 and not bid
 against itself1 as a crowd of hucksters
 and middlemen will often do4 ,i am     
confident that a ,railroad that would   
inaugurate this system on a right basis1
 saying to every farmer living near it1 
,grow whatever your soil is best adapted
 to1 and bring it to our station3 there1
 you shall have cash down for it1 at the
 highest price we can afford to give1   
would rapidly double and quadruple its  
freights1 and would thus build up a     
business which has no parallel under the
 present system4  ,it is urged1 in      
opposition to this proposal1 that a     
,railroad so managed would monopolize   
markets1 and deal on its own terms with 
the producer and consumer4 ,if there    
were but one railroad entering a great  
city1 and no other mode of reaching it1 
this objection would be plausible1 but  

not in the actual case4 ,whoever chose  
would be at liberty to start an         
opposition1 and to use the railroad or  
dispense with it as he found advisable4 
,,li4  ,,winter ,,work4   ,,the dearth  
of employment in ,winter for farm       
laborers is a great and growing evil4   
,thousands1 being dismissed from work on
 the farms in ,november1 drift away to  
some city1 under a vague1 mistaken      
impression that there must be work at   
some rate where so much is being done   
and so many require service1 and        
squander their means and damage their   
morals in fruitless quest of what is not
 there to be had4 ,when ,spring at      
length arrives1 they sneak back to the  
rural districts1 ragged1 penniless1     
debauched1 often diseased1 and every way
 deteriorated1 by their ,winter plunge4 
,for their sakes not only1 but for the  
sakes also of those who will employ and 
those who must work with them hereafter1
 this drifting to the cities should be  
stopped4  ,in its present magnitude1 it 

is a very modern evil4 ,far within my   
recollection1 there was timber to cut   
and haul to the saw-mill1 wood to cut1  
draw1 and prepare for the year's fuel1  
with forest-land to be cleared and      
fitted for future cultivation1 even in  
,new-,england4 ,those who chose to work 
with ax or team were seldom idle in     
,winter4 ,now1 there is little timber to
 cut1 little land to clear1 and coal is 
rapidly supplanting wood as fuel4 ,so a 
larger and larger number of farm        
laborers is annually turned off when the
 ground freezes to live as they may for 
the next three or four months4  ,i      
recognize the right of the farmer1 who  
has given twelve or more hours per day  
to the tillage of his acres and the     
saving of his crops throughout the      
genial months1 to take the world more   
easily in ,winter4 ,he should now have  
leisure to return visits1 to post and   
balance his books1 and to improve his   
mind by study and reflection4 ,having   
worked hard when he must1 he ought to   

rest and recuperate when he can4 ,but he
 gravely errs who supposes that1 the    
ground being frozen1 there is no longer 
work to be done on the farm until the   
ground is fit to plow again4 ,on the    
contrary1 he who realizes that the      
farmer is a manufacturer of food and    
fibrous substances from raw materials of
 far inferior value must see that1 so   
soon as one harvest has been secured1   
the cultivator should devote his        
attention to the collection and         
utilization of the elements wherefrom a 
larger crop may be obtained from the    
same acres next season4  ,and first as  
to ,muck4 ,no one who has not valued and
 sought it is likely to know how        
generally abundant and accessible this  
material is4 ,i have found it in        
inexhaustible supply on the land of a   
pretty good cultivator who1 after       
working a fair farm ten years1 sold it  
because 7as he supposed7 it was         
destitute of this basis of extensive    
fertilization4 ,seek1 and ye shall find1

 implies that those who do not seek will
 rarely find2 and such is the fact4     
,where rock abounds1 ,muck is rarely    
wanting4 ,it covers many thousand acres 
of ,jersey sands1 where rock is unknown2
 but show me a region ridged or ribbed  
with rock1 and ,i shall confidently     
expect to find ,muck on it1 though none 
has been known or supposed to exist     
there4 ,and he who either has or can buy
 a bed of ,muck within half a mile of   
his barn1 his sty1 his hen-house1 may   
dig and draw from it all ,winter with a 
moral certainty that it will generously 
reward his outlay4 ,begin as soon after 
haying as you can spare the time1 and   
cut an outlet so deep that you may      
thereafter work dryshod2 thenceforth1   
dig and pile on the nearest accessible  
spot of dry ground1 to be drawn away to 
the barn-yard and out-houses as         
opportunity presents itself4 ,but1 even 
though you have done nothing till the   
ground freezes1 do not say it is now too
 late1 but set to work4 ,you can often  

team in ,winter where you could not at  
any other season2 and1 in digging ,muck 
from a swamp or bog well frozen over1   
you are not apt to be troubled with     
water4 ,draw all you can2 but dig much  
more2 for no money at lawful interest   
pays so well as ,muck left to dry and   
cure for months before you draw it4 ,i  
think ,i do not over-estimate the       
average value of a cubic yard of ,muck1 
well cured and mixed with warmer        
fertilizers before application to the   
soil1 at one dollar2 and ,i think there 
are few farmers in the ,old ,thirteen   
,states who cannot obtain it for less   
than that4  ,where ,muck is not to be   
had1 ,i believe the tiller of a sandy or
 gravelly farm who can get access to a  
bed or bank of clay may profitably dig  
and draw this1 to be used as he would   
use ,muck if he had it1 and even for    
direct application to the soil4 ,i do   
not think this method the most          
advisable2 yet ,i feel sure that clay   
spread over a sandy or gravelly field   

that has been laid down to grass is     
worth fifty cents per cubic yard        
wherever ,hay is worth #ab per tun2 but 
,i would wish to apply it not later than
 ,december4  ,he who has fit places of  
deposit should draw all his ,lime1      
,plaster1 and other commercial          
fertilizers1 in ,winter1 so as to be    
ready for use when required4 ,mix your  
,lime while fresh from the kiln with    
,muck1 at the rate of a bushel of the   
former to a cubic yard of the latter1   
and the ,muck will be ready for use far 
sooner than it otherwise would be4 ,be  
careful not to mix ,lime with animal    
manures in any case1 since it expels    
,ammonia1 whereas the sulphur of        
,plaster combines with that volatile    
element and fixes it4 ,there are some   
farmers who do1 but twenty times as many
 who do not1 use ,plaster enough about  
their stables and pig-pens4 ,they ought 
to realize that a bad smell implies a   
waste of ,ammonia1 which a farmer1      
unless very rich1 can hardly afford4    

,fences should all be scrutinized as    
,winter goes off1 and put into thorough 
condition for next season's service4    
,fruit-trees should be relieved of all  
dead or dying branches1 all suckers1 and
 cut back where towering to high1 or    
spreading too wide4 ,it may be better   
for the trees to do all pruning in ,may 
or ,june2 but the farmer who defers it  
to that season is very likely to be     
hurried into postponing it to another   
year--and another4  ,there is scarcely a
 forest of second or later growth which 
would not pay for thinning and trimming1
 if well done4 ,that which is out may be
 turned to good account as bean-poles1  
pea-brush1 ,summer fuel1 etc41 while    
that which is left will grow faster1    
taller1 and more shapely1 to reward you 
doubly for your pains4  --,these are but
 suggestions4 ,any farmer can add to or 
improve upon them if he will give an    
hour's thought to the subject4 ,the best
 laborers can be hired for a full year  
at a price not very much exceeding that 

which will secure their services for    
eight or nine months4 ,in the interest  
alike of good crops and good morals1 ,i 
urge every one who can to resolve that  
he will henceforth hire by the year1 or 
in some way manage to employ his        
laborers in ,winter as well as in       
,summer4     ,,lii4  ,,summing ,,up4    
,in the foregoing essays1 ,i have set   
forth1 as clearly as ,i could1 the facts
 within my knowledge which seem         
calculated to cast light upon the       
farmer's vocation1 and the principles or
 rules of action which they have        
suggested to my mind4 ,i have been      
careful not to throw any false1 delusive
 halo over this indispensable calling1  
and by no means to induce the belief    
that the farmer's lot is necessarily and
 uniformly a happy one4 ,i know that his
 is not the royal road to rapid         
acquisition1 and that few men are likely
 to amass great wealth by quietly       
tilling the soil4 ,i know1 moreover1    
that what passes for farming among us is

 not so noble1 so intellectual1 so      
attractive1 a pursuit as it might and   
should be--that most farmers might farm 
better and live to better purpose than  
they do4 ,of all the false teaching1 ,i 
most condemn that which flatters farmers
 as though they were demigods and their 
calling the grandest and the happiest   
ever followed by mortals1 when the      
hearer1 unless very green1 must feel    
that the speaker doesn't believe one    
word of all be utters2 for1 if he did1  
he would be farming1 instead of living  
by some profession1 and talking as      
though his auditors did not know wheat  
from chaff4 ,i regard the ,agriculture  
of this country as very far below the   
standard which1 it should ere this have 
reached3 ,i hold that the great mass of 
our cultivators might and should farm   
better than they do1 and that better    
farming would render their sons better  
citizens and better men4 ,if a single   
line of this little work should seem    
calculated to cajole its readers into   

self-complacency rather than instruct   
them1 ,i beg them to believe that their 
impression wrongs my purpose4  ,i am    
fully aware that others have treated my 
theme with fuller knowledge and far     
greater ability than ,i brought to its  
discussion4 ,then why not leave them the
 field8 ,simply because1 when all have  
written who can elucidate my theme1 at  
least three-fourths of those who ought  
to study and ponder it will not have    
read any treatise whatever upon         
,agriculture--will hardly have yet      
regarded it as a theme whereon books    
should be written and read4 ,and1 since 
there may be some who will read this    
treatise for its writer's sake--will    
read it when they could not be persuaded
 to do like honor to a more elaborate   
and erudite work--,i have written in the
 hope of arousing in some breasts a     
spirit of inquiry with regard to        
,agriculture as an art based on         
,science--a spirit which1 having been   
awakened1 will not fall again into      

torpor1 but which will lead on to the   
perusal and study of profounder and     
better books4  ,in the foregoing essays1
 ,i have sought to establish the        
following propositions3  #a4 ,that good 
farming is and must ever be a paying    
business1 subject1 like all others1 to  
mischances and pull-backs1 and to the   
general law that the struggle up from   
nothing to something is ever an arduous 
and almost always a slow process4 ,in   
the few instances where wealth and      
distinction have been swiftly won1 they 
have rarely proved abiding4 ,there are  
pursuits wherein success is more envied 
and dazzling than in ,agriculture2 but  
there is none wherein efficiency and    
frugality are more certain to secure    
comfort and competence4  #b4 ,though the
 poor man must often go slowly1 where   
wealth may attain perfection at a bound1
 and though he may sometimes seem       
compelled to till fields not half so    
amply fertilized as they should be1 it  
is nevertheless inflexibly true that    

bounteous crops are grown at a profit1  
while half and quarter crops are        
produced at a loss4 ,a rich man may     
afford to grow poor crops1 because he   
can afford to lose by his year's        
farming1 while the poor man cannot4 ,he 
ought1 therefore1 to till no more acres 
than he can bring into good             
condition--to sow no seed1 plow no      
field1 where he is not justified in     
expecting a good crop4 ,better five     
acres amply fertilized and thoroughly   
tilled than twenty acres which can at   
best make but a meager return1 and which
 a dry or a wet season must doom to     
partial if not absolute failure4  #c4   
,in choosing a location1 the farmer     
should resolve to choose once for all4  
,roaming from ,state to ,state1 from    
section to section1 is a sad and far too
 common mistake4 ,not merely is it true 
that ,the rolling stone gathers no moss1
 but the farmer who wanders from place  
to place never acquires that intimate   
knowledge of soil and climate which is  

essential to excellence in his vocation4
 ,he cannot read the clouds and learn   
when to expect rain1 when he may look   
for days of sunshine1 as he could if he 
had lived twenty years on the same      
place4 ,choose your home in the ,east1  
the ,south1 the ,center1 the ,west1 if  
you will 7and each section has its      
peculiar advantages72 but choose once   
for all1 and1 having chosen1 regard that
 choice as final4  #d4 ,our young men   
are apt to plunge into responsibilities 
too hastily4 ,they buy farms while they 
lack at once experience and means1 incur
 losses and debts by consequent         
miscalculations1 and drag through life a
 weary load1 which sours them against   
their pursuit1 when the fault is        
entirely their own4 ,no youth should    
undertake to manage a farm until after  
several years of training for that task 
under the eye of a capable master of the
 art of tilling the soil4 ,if he has    
enjoyed the requisite advantages on his 
father's homestead1 he may possibly be  

qualified to manage a farm at           
twenty-one2 but there are few who might 
not profitably wait and learn1 in the   
pay of some successful cultivator1 for  
several years longer2 while ,i cannot   
recall an instance of a youth rushing   
out of school or a city counting-house  
to show old farmers how their work ought
 to be done1 that did not result in     
disaster4 ,it is very well to know what 
,science teaches with regard to farming2
 but no man was ever a thoroughly good  
farmer who had not spent some years in  
actual contact with the soil4  #e4      
,while every one says of his neighbor1  
,he farms too much land1 the greed of   
acquisition does not seem at all        
chastened4 ,men stagger under loads of  
debt to-day1 who might relieve          
themselves by selling off so much of    
their land as they cannot profitably    
use2 but every one seems intent on      
holding all he can1 as if in expectation
 of a great advance in its market value4
 ,and yet you can buy farms in every old

 ,state in the ,union as cheaply per    
acre as they could have been bought in  
like condition sixty years ago2 and ,i  
doubt their selling higher sixty years  
hence than they do now4 ,no doubt1 there
 are lands1 in the vicinage of growing  
cities or villages1 that have greatly   
advanced in value2 but these are        
exceptions3 and ,i counsel every young  
farmer1 every poor farmer1 to buy no    
more land than he can cultivate         
thoroughly1 save such as he needs for   
timber4 ,never fear that there will not 
be more land for sale when you shall    
have the money wherewith to buy it2 but 
shun debt as you would the plague1 and  
prefer forty acres all your own to a    
square mile heavily mortgaged4 ,i never 
lifted a mill-stone2 but ,i have        
undertaken to carry debts1 and they are 
fearfully heavy4  #f4 ,i know that most 
,american farms east of the ,roanoke and
 the ,wabash have too many fields and   
fences1 and that the too prevalent      
custom of allowing cattle to prowl over 

meadow1 tillage and forest1 from        
,september to ,may1 picking up a        
precarious and inadequate subsistence by
 browsing and foraging at large1 is     
slovenly1 unthrifty1 and hardly         
consistent with the requirements of good
 neighborhood4 ,it is at best a         
miseducation of your cattle into lawless
 habits4 ,i do not know just where and  
when all pasturing becomes wasteful and 
improvident2 but ,i do know that        
pasturing fosters thistles1 briers1 and 
every noxious weed1 and so is           
inconsistent with cleanly and thorough  
tillage4 ,i know that the same acres    
will feed far more stock1 and keep them 
in better condition1 if their food be   
cut and fed to them1 than if they are   
sent out to gather it for themselves4 ,i
 know that the cost of cutting their    
grass and other fodder with modern      
machinery need not greatly exceed that  
of driving them to remote pastures in   
the morning and hunting them up at      
nightfall4 ,i know that penning them ten

 hours of each twenty-four in a filthy  
yard1 where they have neither food nor  
drink1 is unwise2 and ,i feel confident 
that it is already high time1 wherever  
good grass-land is worth #ajj per acre1 
to limit pasturage to one small field1  
as near the center of the farm as may   
be1 wherein shade and good water abound1
 into which green rye1 clover1 timothy1 
oats1 sowed corn1 stalks1 etc41 etc41   
may successively be thrown from every   
side1 and where shelter from a cold1    
driving storm1 is provided2 and that1 if
 cows could be milked here and left     
through night as well as day1 it would  
be found good economy4  #g4 ,i know that
 most of us are slashing down our trees 
most improvidently1 and thus compelling 
our children to buy timber at thrice the
 cost at which we might and should have 
grown it4 ,i know that it is wasteful to
 let ,white ,birch1 ,hemlock1 ,scrub    
,oak1 ,pitch ,pine1 ,dogwood1 etc41     
start up and grow on lands which might  
be cheaply sown with the seeds of       

,locust1 ,white ,oak1 ,hickory1 ,sugar  
,maple1 ,chestnut1 ,black ,walnut1 and  
,white ,pine4 ,i know that no farm in a 
settled region is so large that its     
owner can really afford to surrender a  
considerable portion of it to growing   
indifferent cord-wood when it would as  
freely grow choice timber if seeded     
therefor2 and ,i feel sure that there   
are few farms so small that a portion of
 each might not be profitably devoted to
 the growing of valuable trees4 ,i know 
that the common presumption that land so
 devoted will yield no return for a     
life-time is wrong--know that1 if       
thickly and properly seeded1 it will    
begin to yield bean-poles1 hoop-poles1  
etc41 the fifth or sixth year from      
planting1 and thenceforth will yield    
more and more abundantly forever4 ,i    
know that good timber1 in any           
well-peopled region1 should not be cut  
off1 but cut out--thinned judiciously   
but moderately and trimmed up1 so that  
it shall grow tall and run to trunk     

instead of branches2 and ,i know that   
there are all about us millions of acres
 of rocky crests and acclivities1 steep 
ravines and sterile sands1 that ought to
 be seeded to timber forthwith1 kept    
clear of cattle1 and devoted to         
tree-growing evermore4  #h4 ,i do not   
know that all lands may be profitably   
underdrained4 ,wooded uplands1 ,i know1 
could not be4 ,fields which slope       
considerably1 and so regularly that     
water never stagnates upon or near their
 surface1 do very well without4 ,light1 
leachy sands1 like those of ,long       
,island1 ,southern ,jersey1 ,eastern    
,maryland1 and the ,carolinas1 seem to  
do fairly without4 ,yet my conviction is
 strong that nearly all land which is to
 be persistently cultivated will in time
 be underdrained4 ,i would urge no      
farmer to plunge up to his neck into    
debt in order to underdrain his farm4   
,but ,i would press every one who has no
 experience on this head to select his  
wettest field1 or the wettest part of   

such field1 and1 having carefully read  
and digested ,waring's1 ,french's1 or   
some other approved work on the subject1
 procure file and proceed next ,fall to 
drain that field or part of a field     
thoroughly1 taking especial precautions 
against back-water1 and watch the effect
 until satisfied that it will or will   
not pay to drain further4 ,i think few1 
have drained one acre thoroughly1 and at
 no unnecessary cost1 without being     
impelled by the result to drain more and
 faster until they had tiled at least   
half their respective farms4  #i4 ,as to
 irrigation1 ,i doubt that there is a   
farm in the ,united ,states where       
something might not be profitably done  
forthwith to secure advantage from the  
artificial retention and application of 
water4 ,wherever a brook or runnel      
crosses or skirts a farm1 the           
question--,can the water here running   
uselessly by be retained1 and in due    
season equably diffused over some       
portion of this land8--at once presents 

itself4 ,one who has never looked with  
this now will be astonished at the      
facility with which some acres of nearly
 every farm may be irrigated4 ,often1 a 
dam that need not cost #bj will suffice 
to hold back ten thousand barrels of    
water1 so that it may be led off along  
the upper edge of a slope or glade1     
falling off just enough to maintain a   
gentle1 steady current1 and so providing
 for the application of two or three    
inches of water to several acres of     
tillage or grass just when the          
exigencies of crop and season most      
urgently require such irrigation4 ,any  
farmer east of the ,hudson can tell     
where such an application would have    
doubled the crop of #ahgj1 and precluded
 the hard necessity of selling or       
killing cattle not easily replaced4  ,of
 course1 this is but a rude beginning4  
,in time1 we shall dam very considerable
 streams mainly to this end1 and        
irrigate hundreds and thousands of acres
 from a single pond or reservoir4 ,wells

 will be sunk on plains and gentle      
swells now comparatively arid and       
sterile1 and wind or steam employed to  
raise water into reservoirs whence wide 
areas of surrounding or subjacent land  
will be refreshed at the critical       
moment1 and thus rendered bounteously   
productive4 ,on the vast1 bleak1        
treeless ,plains of the wild ,west1 even
 ,artesian wells will be sunk for this  
purpose2 and the water thus obtained    
will prove a source of fertility as well
 as refreshment1 enriching the soil by  
the minerals which it holds in solution1
 and insuring bounteous crops from wide 
stretches of now barren and worthless   
desert4 ,immigration will yet thickly   
dot the great ,sahara with oases of     
verdure and plenty2 but it will1 long   
ere that1 have covered the valleys of   
our ,great ,basin and those which skirt 
the affluents of the savage and desolate
 ,colorado with a beauty and thrift     
surpassing the dreams of poets4 ,and    
yet1 its easiest and readiest triumphs  

are to be won right here--in the valleys
 of the ,connecticut1 the ,hudson1 the  
,susquehanna1 and the ,potomac4  #aj4   
,as to ,commercial ,fertilizers1 ,i     
think ,i have been well paid for the    
application of ,gypsum 7,plaster of     
,paris7 to my upland grass at the rate  
of one bushel per acre per annum1 while 
my tillage has been supplied with it by 
dusting my stables with it after each   
cleaning1 and so applying it mingled    
with barn-yard manures4 ,lime 7unslaked7
 from burned oyster-shells1 costing me  
from #be to #cj cents per bushel        
delivered1 ,i have applied liberally1   
and ,i judge1 with profit4 ,bones1      
ground1 7the finer the better7 ,i have  
largely and ,i think advantageously     
used2 but my land had been mainly       
pastured for nearly two centuries before
 ,i bought it1 and thus continually     
drained of ,phosphates1 yet never       
replenished3 so my experience does not  
prove that the farmers of newer lands   
ought to buy bones1 though ,i advise    

them to apply all they can save or pick 
up at small cost4 ,pound them very fine 
with a beetle or ax-head on a flat      
stone1 and give them to your fowls3 if  
they refuse a part of them1 your soil   
will prove less dainty4 ,i am not sure  
that it pays to buy any manufactured    
,phosphate when you can get ,raw ,bone2 
though ,i doubt not that1 for instant   
effect1 the ,phosphate is far superior4 
,as to ,guano1 it has not paid me2 but  
that may be the fault of careless or    
unskillful application4 ,i judge that   
any one who has to deal with sterile    
sands that will not bring ,clover1 may  
wisely apply #djj pounds of ,guano per  
acre1 provided he has nothing else that 
will answer the purpose4 ,after he has  
produced one good stand of ,clover1 ,i  
doubt that he can afford to buy more    
,guano1 unless he can apply it to better
 purpose than ,i have yet done4  ,i have
 a strong impression that most farmers  
can do better at making and saving      
fertilizers than by buying them4 ,lime  

and ,sulphur 7,gypsum71 if your soil    
lacks them1 you must buy2 but a good    
farmer who keeps even a span of horses1 
three or four cows1 as many pigs1 and a 
score of fowls1 can make for #ajj       
fertilizers which ,i would rather have  
than two tuns of ,guano1 costing him    
#ahj to #bjj4 ,if he has a patch of bog 
or a miry pond on his farm--any place   
where frogs will live--he can dig       
thence1 in the dryest time next ,fall1  
two or three hundred loads of ,muck1    
which1 having been left to dry on the   
nearest high ground till ,november or   
later1 and then drawn up and dumped into
 his barn-yard1 pig-pen1 and fowl-house1
 will be ready to come out next ,spring 
in season for corn-planting1 and1 being 
liberally applied1 will do as much for  
his crop as two tons of ,guano would1   
and will strengthen his land far more4  
,if he has no ,muck1 and no neighbor who
 can spare it as well as not1 let him at
 midsummer cut all the weeds growing on 
and around his farm1 and in the ,fall   

gather all the leaves that can be       
impounded1 using these as litter for his
 cattle and beds for his pigs1 and he   
will be agreeably surprised at the bulk 
of his heap next ,spring4  ,i am an     
intense believer in ,home ,production4  
,we send ten thousand miles for ,guano1 
and suffer the equally valuable         
excretions of our cities to run to waste
 in rivers and bays1 poisoning or       
driving away the fish1 and filling the  
air with stench and pestilence4 ,no     
farmer ever yet intelligently tried to  
enrich his land and was defeated by lack
 of material4 ,he may not be able to do 
all he would like to at first2 but      
persistent effort cannot be baffled4    
#aa4 ,shallow culture is the most crying
 defect of our average farming4 ,poverty
 may sometimes excuse it2 but the excuse
 is stretched quite too far4 ,if a      
farmer has but a poor span of horses1 or
 a light yoke of thin steers1 he cannot 
plow land as it should be plowed2 but   
let him double teams with his neighbor1 

and plow alternate clays on either farm2
 or1 if this may not be1 let him buy or 
borrow a sub-soil plow1 and go once     
around with his surface plow1 then hitch
 on to the sub-soil1 and run another    
furrow in the bottom of the former4     
,there are a few intervales of rich1    
mellow soil1 deposited by the           
inundations of countless ages1 where    
shallow culture will answer1 because the
 roots of the plants run freely through 
fertile earth never yet disturbed by the
 plow2 but these marked and meagre      
exceptions do not invalidate the truth  
that nine-tenths of our tillage is      
neither so deep nor so thorough as it   
should be4 ,as a rule1 the feeding-roots
 of plants do not run below the bottom  
of the furrows1 though in some instances
 they do2 and he who fancies that five  
or six inches of soil will1 under our   
fervid suns1 with our ,summers often    
rainless for weeks1 produce as bounteous
 and as sure a crop as twelve to        
eighteen inches1 is impervious to fact  

or reason4 ,he might as sensibly        
maintain that you could draw as long and
 as heavily against a deposit in bank of
 #ejj as against one of #a1ejj4  #ab4   
,finally1 and as the sum of my          
convictions1 we need more thought1 more 
study1 more intellect1 infused into our 
,agriculture1 with less blind devotion  
to a routine which1 if ever judicious1  
has long since ceased to be so4 ,the    
tillage which a pioneer1 fighting       
single-handed and all but empty-handed  
with a dense forest of giant trees1     
which he can do no better than to cut   
down and burn1 found indispensable among
 their stumps and roots1 is not adapted 
to the altered circumstances of his     
grandchildren4 ,if our most energetic   
farmers would abstract ten hours each   
per week from their incessant drudgery1 
and devote them to reading and          
reflection with regard to their noble   
calling1 they would live longer1 live to
 better purpose1 and bequeath a better  
example1 with more property1 to their   

children4         99       99       99  
99       99  ,my self-imposed task is   
done4 ,i undertook to tell ,what ,i     
,know of ,farming through one brief     
essay for each week in #ahgj2 and1 in   
the face of multifarious and pressing   
duties1 and in despite of a severe1     
protracted illness1 the work has been   
prosecuted to completion4 ,had ,i not   
kept ahead of it while in health1 there 
were weeks when ,i must have left it    
unaccomplished1 as ,i was too ill to    
write or even stand4  ,i close with the 
avowal of my joyful trust that these    
essays1 slight and imperfect as they    
are1 will incite thousands of young     
farmers to feel a loftier pride in their
 calling and take a livelier interest in
 its improvement1 and that many will be 
induced by them to read abler and better
 works on ,agriculture and the sciences 
which minister to its efficiency and    
impel its progress toward a perfection  
which few as yet have even faintly      
foreseen4     ,,index4                  

,,accounts--,,accounts ,,in ,,farming1  
chap4 xxxv1 #bjg2     the causes of     
pecuniary failure1 #bjg2     loss from  
waste of time1 #bjg2     the author has 
found all successful farmers rigid      
economists of       time1 #bjh2         
farmers urged to keep a rigid account of
 how they dispose of their       time1  
#bjh2     keeping a diary recommended1  
#bjh2     what it should contain1 #bji2 
accounts with neighbors1 #bji2     the  
farmer should keep an account of the    
expenses of his farm1 and       the     
receipts therefrom1 #bji2     importance
 of keeping an account with the several 
fields and crops1       #baj2           
complication and uncertainty in         
account-keeping considered1 #baj-baa2   
the advantage of keeping careful        
accounts1 #baa4    ,,agriculture4 ,see  
,,farming3 books on practical1 referred 
to1 #cj4    ,,alabama1 #ej4    ,,alder1 
#ec4    ,,alkalis1 as fertilizers4 ,see 
,,fertilizers1 ,,commercial4            
,,alleghany ,,ridge1 #ci4               

,,alleghanies1 the1 #de1 #di1 #gi1 #ha1 
#aef4    ,,alps1 #ge4    ,,alps1        
,,austrian1 #ge4    ,,america1 #dd1     
#agj4    ,,amherst4 ,n4 ,h41 #eb4       
,,ammonia1 #ajd1 #cjf4    ,,ammonoosuc1 
the river1 #aid4    ,,antelope1 #bgh4   
,,apennines1 #bfg4    ,,apple1 the1 #ec1
 #aah1 #abi4     ,,fruit-,,trees4 ,,the 
,,apple1 chap4 xxix1 #aci2              
fruit-trees form a distinguishing       
feature of ,northern farms and          
holdings1 #aci2       unequaled in that 
respect elsewhere1 #adj2       our      
country north of the ,potomac excels1 in
 its supply of         tree-fruits1 all 
other portions of the earth's surface of
 equal         area1 #adj2       the    
,northern ,states admirably adapted to  
the apple and kindred                   
fruit-trees1 #adj2       effects of such
 adaptability1 #adj2       give an      
orchard the northern slope of a hill    
where possible1 #adj2       the one     
which blossoms latest1 yields1 on the   
average1 most fruit1         #ada2      

storing ice to place under trees1 not   
recommended1 #ada2       importance of  
drainage1 #ade2       some reasons for  
choosing sloping ground for an          
apple-orchard1 #ada2       the soil for 
such1 #adb2       preparation of the    
soil1 #adb-c2       treatment and care  
of the land devoted to an orchard1      
#adc-d2     ,,more ,,about ,,apple      
,,trees1 chap4 xxv1 #ade2       apple   
trees are planted too far apart1 and    
allowed to grow too         tall1 #ade2 
consequences1 #ade-f2       trees should
 be set diamond fashion1 #adf2          
pruning should be attended to annually1 
#adf2       sprouts valueless1 #adg2    
the demands which apple-trees make on   
the soil should be supplied1            
#adg2       apple-trees in the township 
of ,newcastle1 ,westchester1 ,n4 ,y41   
#adg2       causes of their             
unproductiveness1 #adg-h2               
caterpillars and their ravages1 #adh2   
duties of farmers and fruit growers1    
#adi2       the abundant apple-crop of  

#ahgj1 #adi2       establishes the      
capacity of our regions to bear ,apples1
 #adi1 #aia1         #bcb1 #bia1 #bid2  
the apple-crop of #ahgj1 as an          
illustration of the imperfect means     
of exchanging farm products1 #big-h-i2  
loss to consumers and producers1        
#bii-cjj4    ,,arizona1 #dh4            
,,arkansas1 ,state of1 #be1 #cf2     the
 river1 #gc1 #bfa2     the upper river1 
#bgd4    ,,artesian ,,wells1 #gg1       
#bgg-h1 #caf4    ,,ashes as fertilizers1
 #ajh-i1 #abg1 #abh2     use in         
preparing for an orchard1 #adb1 #agd4   
,see also ,,fertilizers1 ,,commercial4  
,,atlantic1 the coast1 #aef1 #agh2      
seaboard1 #bbj2     slope1 #gf1 #aeg1   
#bac4    ,,austin1 #df4    ,,australia1 
#ach1 #bjj1 #bch4    ,,autumn1 #hi1 #ig1
 #ii1 #aaf1 #abd1 #agc1 #agh1 #agi1     
#aib1 #aic1 #bjb1 #bfb4     ,,babylon1  
#bff4    ,,balsam ,,fir1 #eh4           
,,baltimore1 #afe4    ,,barley1 #bde1   
#bfe4    ,,barn1 the use of stone       
recommended in building a1 #baf         

,,batavia ,,yams1 #bga4    ,,battenkill1
 #ge4    ,,beans1 #baj1 #bga1 #bif4     
,,beech1 #ai1 #ec1 #fj1 #bhg4    ,,beef1
 #cg1 #aah1 #bbj1 #bid4    ,,beets4 see 
,,roots1 also #adc1 #bcb1 #bfd1 #bga4   
,,belgium1 #gj1 #bch4    ,,berries1 #ij4
    ,,birch1 #fj4    ,,birds--,,insects1
 ,,birds1 chap4 xxii1 #abi2     birds   
our best allies against insects1 #abi2  
the destruction of birds not the sole   
cause of insect ravages1 #acj2     birds
 should be protected and kindly treated1
 #acb2     associations should be formed
 to do so1 #acb2     artificial nests1  
#acc2     legal measures to protect     
birds1 #acc4    ,,black ,,ash1 #cj4     
,,blackberries1 #ij1 #aeh4    ,,black   
,,walnut1 #cad4    ,,blackwell',s       
,,island1 #hg4    ,,blue ,,ridge        
,,mountains1 #ha4    ,,board ,,of       
,,works 7,london71 #bfi4    ,,boissiere1
 ,e4 ,v1 ,,de1 #bec-d4    ,,bones4 ,see 
,,commercial ,,fertilizers1 also #aah1  
#aai1 #aib1 #cag4    ,,bone-,,dust1     
#agd4    ,,bones1 flour of1 #aba4       

,,bone ,,flour1 #afg4    ,,bones1 raw1  
#cag4    ,,boston1 farm near1 #ae1 #bhi4
    ,,botany1 #cj4    ,,buckeye1 #bfj4  
,,buckwheat1 #ba1 #ahi1 #aia1 #baj4     
,,buffalo1 #bgh4    ,,buffalo ,,grass1  
#aec4    ,,burlington1 ,n4 ,j41 #aff4   
,,butter1 #ch1 #afd1 #afg4    ,,bridges1
 #bej4    ,,british ,,isles1 #agh1 #bde4
    ,,broccoli1 #bga4     ,,cabbages1   
#bfd1 #bga1 #bif1 #cjj4                 
,,cache-,,la-,,poudre1 the river1 #hb1  
#bfb1 #bfc4    ,,california1 #bf1 #gf1  
#hj1 #aei1 #aha1 #bfj4    ,,canada1 #dh1
 #afe1 #bhi2     creek1 #ge4            
,,canals1 #aje4    ,,carolinas1 the1    
#aff1 #cae4    ,,carrots4 ,see ,,roots1 
also #adc1 #bga4    ,,carson1 the river1
 #ha1 #hc4    ,,cattle1 #ae2            
,pasturing1 #ai-bj2     ,soiling1 #bj2  
treatment of herds of1 in the           
,mississippi and ,missouri ,valleys1    
#bj2     rearing of1 referred to1 #ce1  
#acb1 #aej1 #aeg1 #bai1 #bbj1 #bbd1     
#bic4    ,,catskills1 the1 #agb4        
,,census3 the ,seventh1 #aej2     the   

,eighth1 #aej2     the1 of #ahgj1 #bhf4 
,,champlain1 the1 basin1 #gb2     lake1 
#bgi4    ,,chappaqua1 #fb4              
,,chautauqua ,co41 ,n4 ,y41 #bhg1 #bhh4 
,,cheese1 #ch1 #afd1 #afg4              
,,chemistry1 #cj1 #aai1 #aif1 #bca4     
,,cherries4 ,see ,,fruits1 also #abi1   
#aci1 #bid4    ,,chester ,,co41 ,penn41 
#aaj4    ,,chestnut1 #ed1 #ee1 #fj1     
#ace1 #acf1 #bae1 #cad4     ,see also1  
,,trees4    ,,cheyenne1 #bfb4           
,,chicago1 #afd4    ,,chickens1 #bie4   
,see ,,fowls4    ,,chlorine1 #aad1 #bce4
    ,,chloride ,,of ,,lime1 #abh4       
,,cholera1 #bfh4    ,,churches1 #bej4   
,,cincinnati1 #aef4    ,,climates1      
,american1 for the finer fruits1 #aef4  
,,clover1 #abj1 #aec1 #afg1 #cah4       
,,clubs4 ,see ,,farmers' ,,clubs4       
,,coal1 #aji1 #bhh4    ,,colonies1      
advantage of settling in1 #bh2     the  
course to adopt in organizing one1 #bh2 
,union ,colony1 #bfb2     its location1 
#bfb2     the ,city of ,greeley1 its    
nucleus1 #bfb2     irrigation canals of1

 #bfb-d2     fertility of the soil at1  
#bfd4    ,,colonists1 ,english1 #aga4   
,,colorado1 #aha1 #bjf1 #cag2     river1
 #df4    ,,congress1 #df4               
,,connecticut1 #bg1 #aga1 #bii2         
river1 #aid1 #bgi2     valley of the1   
#cag4    ,,como1 lake1 #ge4    ,,common 
,,schools1 #aif-g4    ,,communism3      
,differs radically from ,co-operation1  
#bdh4    ,,conclusions1 ,general1       
,,summing ,,up1 chap4 lli1 #cjh2     the
 facts set forth in the essays1 #cjh2   
common misrepresentations1 #cjh-i2      
object of the author in writing these   
essays1 #cji2     the propositions      
sought to be established therein1 #caj2 
good farming must ever be a paying      
business1 #caj2     thorough tillage    
advocated1 #caj2     a location should  
be permanent1 #caj2     the too great   
haste in incurring responsibilities1    
#caa2     the greed for land1 #caj2     
common abuses in fencing and            
cattle-raising1 #cab-ac2                
tree-cutting and tree-planting1 #cad-ae2

     underdraining1 #cae2               
irrigation1 #caf2     commercial        
fertilizers1 #cag-h-i2     shallow      
culture1 #cai-bj2     the need for study
 and inquiry1 #cbj-ba2     concluding   
remarks1 #cba4    ,,co-,,operation1     
reference to1 in regard to wild lands1  
#bd2     ,,co-,,operation ,,in          
,,farming1 ,,chap4 ,,xlii1 #bdh2        
,co-operation is the word of hope and   
cheer for labor1 #bdh2       its        
meaning1 #bdh2       differs radically  
from communism1 #bdh2       the         
difficulties of a young farmer who      
migrates to ,kansas1         ,minnesota 
or one of the ,territories1 #bdh-i2     
the different circumstances consequent  
on settlement by         co-operation1  
#bej2       advantages of co-operation  
not limited to colonizing distant       
tracts1 #bej2       would benefit       
colored men1 #bej-a2       fencing as an
 illustration of the loss consequent on 
want of         co-operation1 #bea-b2   
how co-operation would remedy it1 #beb2 

further application of the system1      
#beb-c2       ,mr4 ,e4 ,v4 de           
,boissiere's co-operative farming1      
#bed-e4    ,,corn1 #bj1 #ba1 #bb        
growing of bread-corn eastward of the   
,hudson1 #cg1 #dc1 #fg1 #fh1 #ha1       
#hf1 #hh1 #ib1 #id1 #ii1 #ajc1 #ajg1    
#aac1 #aad1 #aae1 #aah1 #adg4           
,,grain ,,growing--,,east ,,and         
,,west--chap4 xxviii1 #afb2       hoeing
 is of no use to ,corn1 #afb2       the 
best and cheapest way to cultivate corn1
 #afb2       the fields of the          
,mississippi ,valley are the most       
productive in the         world1 #afc2  
the tillage1 in some places1 seemed     
susceptible of improvement1 #afc2       
the ,west is the granary of the ,east1  
#afc2       a change imminent1 #afc2    
changes since twenty-three years ago    
when the author visited                 
,illinois1 #afd2       the course the   
,west will ultimately adopt1 #afd2      
exhaustion of the soil in ,new ,england 
and ,eastern ,new ,york1 #afd2       in 

the ,genesee ,valley1 #afe2             
,eastern ,pennsylvania profits by a     
provident system of husbandry1 #afe2    
the ,states this side of the ,delaware  
will yet have to grow a large           
share of their breadstuffs1 #afe2       
can it be done with profit now1         
considering1 also1 if the ,east has     
wisely1 so largely abandoned            
grain-growing1 #afe-i2       the places 
not taken into account1 #afe2       the 
,pine ,barrens of ,new ,jersey selected 
to illustrate the profits         of    
grain-growing in the ,east1 #afh2       
their nature1 #afh2       estimate of   
expenses thereon1 #afg2       the       
product anticipated1 #afg2       the    
favorable conditions the cultivator     
would enjoy1 #afh2       the money value
 of his crop1 #afh2       great economy 
could be achieved in the cost of        
cultivating1 #afi2       conclusions1   
#afi2       also #agg1 #aia1 #aib1 #aic1
 #baj1 #bbh1 #bch1 #bdb1 #bdf-g1 #bfd1  
#bfe1         #bga-b1 #bij4    ,,cotton1

 #ajg1 #bjj4    ,,cotton-,,growers1     
,southern1 #aah4    ,,cottonwood1 #bfa4 
,,credit1 buying a farm on1 #be4        
,,crops1 ,fall1 #ig4    ,,currants1     
#abi4     ,,dairying1 #bhh4    ,,dana',s
 ,,muck ,,manual1 #aii4    ,,delaware1  
the ,state of1 #afe2     the river1     
#aeb1 #afe4    ,,denver1 #bfd1 #bgg2    
,pacific ,railroad1 the1 #bfb4          
,,depopulation1 7,,rural7--,,rural      
,,depopulation1 chap4 xlviii1 #bhf2     
the alleged decrease in the relative    
population of rural districts1          
#bhf2     no increase since #ahei in the
 number of farmers in the ,state of ,new
       ,york1 #bhf2     probable slight 
decrease in that of ,new ,england1 #bhf2
     consolidating farms1 #bhf2         
small farmers are selling out and       
migrating1 #bhg2     reasons therefore1 
#bhg2     the changed character of the  
tillage1 #bhg-h2     the general use of 
coal has reduced the demand for labour1 
#bhh2     labour-saving implements1     
#bhh-i2     the supposed degeneracy of  

the ,new ,england ,puritan stock1 #bhi2 
the migration from ,new ,england1       
#bhi-ij2     the assumption that        
,americans prefer other pursuits to     
farming1 #bia2     the rock and bog of  
,new ,england form a discouraging       
impediment to       agricultural        
progress1 #bij2     compensation        
therefor1 #bia4    ,,diary1 the keeping 
of one recommended1 #ca4    ,,dickinson1
 ,andrew ,b41 #aje1 #ajf4               
,,distribution 7of farm products74 ,see 
,,exchange4    ,,dock1 #bcb4            
,,dogwood1 #cad4    ,,dogs2 their       
depredations on sheep1 #bjc-d4          
,,draining--     ,,draining--,,my ,,own1
 chap4 x1 #fb2       the author's farm1 
#fb2       situation of the land thereon
 requiring drainage1 #fb-c2             
difficulties it presented1 #fc2         
blunders1 #ff2       how repaired1 #ff2 
condition of the marsh before draining  
it1 #fa2       how success was retarded1
 #fg2       evidence of success1 #fg2   
the crops of #ahgj on the reclaimed     

land1 #fh2     ,,draining ,,generally1  
chap4 xi1 #fi2       general conclusions
 from the author's experience1 #fi2     
extent of land to be drained1 #fi2      
all swamp lands and nearly all of some  
other kinds must be         drained to  
be well tilled1 #fi2       the many uses
 of underdrains1 #fi-gj2       no one   
should run into debt for draining1 #gj2 
tile and stone drains1 #ga2             
draining by a ,mole ,plow1 #gb2         
general direction1 #gb-c2       covered 
mains recommended1 #gc2       the       
question of labor1 #gc2       a case    
where the rudest surface drains would   
have changed bog into         decent    
meadows1 #aeb2       the stone drains on
 the author's farm1 #bad2       the     
author's summing up on1 #cae4           
,,drouth--habitually shortens our ,fall 
crops1 #ih2     ,a ,,lesson ,,of        
,,to-,,day 7#ahgj71 chap4 xxxii1 #ahi2  
the popular view of hot and cold        
seasons1 #ahi2       the ,summer of     
#ahgj1 effects of the drouth1 #ahi-aij2 

general character of each ,summer1 #aij2
       proof that drouth need not be    
feared by those who farm prudently1     
#aij2       the author's observations   
during a trip through ,warren ,co41 ,n4 
,y41         #aia-b2       results to be
 attained there by right cultivation1   
#aib2       the inquiry3 how are the    
people there to obtain fertilizers8     
#aib2       answered1 #aic2             
irrigation might be applied profitably1 
#aid4     ,,earth ,,closet1 #abc4       
,,eastern ,,states1 pasturing in1 #ai4  
,,eastern ,,states1 the1 #bc1 #be-f1    
#cg1 #agi1 #ahi1 #bjd1 #bae1 #bgi1 #caa4
    ,,edinburgh1 #bfi4    ,,eggs1       
#bid-e4    ,,egypt1 #afd1 #afg4         
,,electricity1 #bhe4    ,,elk1 #bgh4    
,,elm1 #ei4    ,,emerson1 ,r4 ,w41 #dd4 
,,england1 #gj1 #hi1 #afd2              
7,western7 #agj1 #agh1 #bfh4    ,,erie  
,co41 ,pa41 #bc4    ,,europe1 #ce1 #gd1 
#aef1 #afc1 #agj1 #aga1 #agh1 #ahj1     
#bai1 #bch4    ,,exchange3 ,,exchange   
,,and ,,distribution1 chap4 l1 #big2    

the machinery for disposing of surplus  
farm products imperfect1 #big2     the  
abundant apple crop of #ahgj as an      
illustration thereof1 #big-h-i2         
apples should have been as common as    
bread or potatoes1 #bih2     the actual 
facts1 #bih2     cause of both the waste
 and dearness of apples1 #bii-cjj2      
consequent loss to producers and        
consumers1 #bii-cjj2     turnips as a   
further illustration1 #cjj2             
disappointments of inexperienced        
farmers1 #cjj-a2     hucksters and      
middlemen1 #cja2     suggestion to have 
a railroad purchase and sell farm       
products1 #cja-b2     results to be     
expected1 #cjb2     an objection        
answered1 #cjb4    ,,exhibitions        
7,,agricultural7--,,agricultural        
,,exhibitions1 chap4 xxxviii1     #bbe2 
author has attended at least fifty1     
#bbe2     concludes they were not what  
they might and should be1 #bbe2     the 
reform must begin with the people1 #bbe2
     the lot of the public speaker1     

#bbe-f2     what is needed to render our
 annual ,fairs useful and instructive   
detailed1 #bbf2     each farmer should  
hold himself bound to make some         
contribution to       his1 #bbf2     an 
interesting and running commentary      
should given1 #bbg-h2     liberal       
premiums should be given for proficiency
 in farming1 #bbh-i2     need for       
improvement in the character of the     
public speaking1 #bbi2     counties     
should be canvassed to enrol exhibitors1
 #bcj2     all in a locality should feel
 a common interest in their fair1 #bcj4 
,,eye-,,smart1 #abe4     ,,fabrics1     
#bjj4    ,,fairs4 ,see ,,exhibitions4   
,,fall1 the1 #abf1 #agc1 #agd1 #aic1    
#cah4    ,,farming--     ,,will         
,,farming ,,pay1 chap4 i1 #ac2          
will it pay considered1 #ac2       the  
case of a man without capital1 #ac2     
difficulties common to all pursuits1    
#ac-d2       ,astor referred to1 #ad2   
earning the first thousand dollars1 #ad2
       instance of remarkable success in

 farming1 near ,boston1 #ae2       case 
of a farmer in ,northern ,vermont1      
#ae-f2       ,professor ,mapes's        
success1 #ad2       profitable return   
from a fruit farm on the ,hudson1 #ae-f2
       that shiftless farming don't pay 
admitted1 #ag2       good farming       
profitable1 #ag2       farming not      
recommended as a pursuit to every man1  
#ag2       it can never be dispensed    
with1 #ag2       it is the first1 and   
most essential of human pursuits1 #ag2  
all are interested in having it honored 
and prosperous1 #ag2       if           
unprofitable1 it is from mismanagement1 
#ag2       the author's aim in these    
essays1 #ag4     ,,good ,,and ,,bad     
,,husbandry1 chap4 ii1 #ah2       good  
and bad farming considered1 #ah2        
necessity master of us all1 #ah2        
dictates the line to follow in farming1 
#ah-i2       application of the         
principle to pasturing1 #ai-bj2         
illustration of good farming1 #bj-ba2   
excuses for waste insufficient1 #ba2    

truths on which good farming depend1    
#ba2       good crops invariably        
practicable1 #ba-b2       rarely fail to
 pay1 #bc2       increasing             
productiveness of the soil the fairest  
single test1 #bb2       where to farm   
considered1 #bc2       experience of the
 author's father regarding the ,east and
 ,west1 #bc2       circumstances        
qualifying it1 #bc2       the           
difficulties of the pioneer's life1     
#bc-d2       purchase of an improvement 
recommended in certain cases1 #bd2      
civilized places are to be preferred for
 settlement1 #bd2       co-operation may
 change matters1 #bd2       good farming
 will pay everywhere1 #be2       no one 
having a good farm advised to migrate1  
#be2       money is made by farming near
 ,new ,york as fast as in the ,west1    
#be2       where migration is advised1  
and its advantages1 #be2       troubles 
attendant on buying on credit1 #be2     
the ,west will grow more rapidly than   
the ,east during the next         twenty

 years1 #bf2       the ,south invites   
immigration1 #bf2       great           
inducements offered1 #bf2       combined
 effort recommended1 #bf2       good    
farming land cheapest in the ,united    
,states1 #bg2       an incident in      
,illinois farming1 #bg2       counsel to
 intending purchasers1 #bg2       land  
cheap in every ,state1 #bh2             
advantages of settling in colonies1 #bh2
       the first steps toward doing so1 
#bh2       division of the lands1 #bh2  
laying out the town1 #bh2       the     
progress it ought to make1 #bh2         
economy of capital accomplished1 #bh2   
,,preparing ,,to ,,farm1 chap4 iv1 #bi2 
counsel intended for young men          
unaccustomed to farming1 #bi2           
patience recommended1 #bi2              
penalties of over haste1 #bi2           
value of experience illustrated1 #cj2   
an inexperienced young man advised to   
hire out1 #cj2       procure books1 #cj2
       general counsel1 #ca2       how  
the course advised differs from running 

into debt1 #ca-b2       experience and  
practice essential1 #cb2                
circumstances where theoretical study is
 approved1 #cb2       qualifying        
remarks1 #cb-c2       he who has        
mastered farming is competent to buy a  
farm1 #cc2       exceptions1 #cc2       
a young man should not wait until he can
 buy a large farm1 #cc2       twenty    
acres ample for #b1jjj capital1 #cc2    
that extent is sufficient to test his   
aptitude1 #cc2     ,,buying ,a ,,farm1  
chap4 v1 #cd2       it is better to buy 
good land than poor1 #cd2       poor    
land can be turned to account1 #cd2     
the smallest farm should have its strip 
of forest1 #cd2       advantage of ,new 
,england and countries of like surface  
over very         fertile regions1 #cd2 
cannot be divested of forest1 #cd2      
,five ,acres or ,ten ,acres not         
sufficient1 #ce2       exceptions1 #ce2 
genuine farms1 the general want1 #ce2   
the remark he has too much land1 #ce2   
some men specially adapted for large    

farms1 #ce2       individual            
circumstances control1 #ce2             
counsel to a young man intent on buying 
a farm1 #cf2       means of buying to be
 the main guide1 #cf2       capital the 
true limit1 #cf2       ,new ,england    
farms comparatively as cheap as         
,western1 #cf2       migration urged    
only for those who cannot buy farms in  
the ,old         ,states1 #cf2          
success of the butter-makers of         
,vermont1 #cf2       also of ,new ,york 
cheese dairymen1 #cf2       insuperable 
barriers in the ,east to effective      
cultivation1 #cg2       cultivation by  
steam must render large farms necessary1
 #cg2       grain growing not likely to 
be extended in the ,east1 #cg2       the
 ,west to be the source of supply of    
bread-corn to the ,east1 #cg2       main
 considerations in buying land in the   
,eastern ,states1 #cg2       in the     
,west the case is different1 #cg2       
social considerations1 #ch2       make a
 permanent investment1 #ch2       have  

confidence that industry will be        
rewarded1 #ch2     ,,laying ,,off ,a    
,,farm1 chap4 vi1 #ci2       the surface
 and soil of a farm should be carefully 
studied1 #ci2       misconception of the
 similarity of prairie farms1 #ci2      
a ,northern farm selected for           
illustration1 #dj2       preparatory    
steps in laying off1 #dj2       care    
necessary1 #dj2       a pasture to be   
first selected1 #dj2       what it      
should be1 #da2       the one great     
error in relation to this matter1 #da2  
weeds inseparable from pasture1 #db2    
treatment of a pasture1 #db-c2       it 
should have a rude shed1 #dc2           
fodder to be brought to cattle1 #dc2    
too much land and tree planting1 #ej2   
farming in ,westchester ,county1 ,n4    
,y41 #ea2       management of grass     
lands a test of farming1 #aeb2     ,,the
 ,,farmer',s ,,calling3 chap4 xxxi1     
#ahc2       merits of farmers as a      
class1 #ahc2       the author would have
 advised one of his sons if spared to   

attain         manhood to become a good 
farmer1 #ahc2       difficulties        
attending the farmer's calling1 #ahd2   
author's reason for recommending farming
 as a vocation to his son1         #ahd2
       no other business in which       
success is so nearly certain as it1     
#ahd-e2       farming conduces to a     
reverence for honesty and truth1 #ahe-f2
       it is conducive to thorough      
manliness of character1 #ahf-g2         
advantages the farmer enjoys in that    
respect over persons in other           
pursuits1 #ahg2       incidents of the  
author's experience as a journalist in  
this         regard1 #ahg-h2            
independent position of the true farmer1
 #ahh2       difficulties a young farmer
 encounters as a pioneer1 #bdh-i2       
considerably obviated be co-operation1  
#bej2       co-operation admits of wider
 application1 #bej-a2       fencing as  
an illustration of the want of          
co-operation1 #bea-b2       wide        
adaptability of co-operation1 #beb-c2   

,mr4 ,e4 ,v4 de ,boissiere's            
co-operative farm1 #bec-d2       farming
 in ,colorado1 #bfe2       mistaken     
calculations of inexperienced farmers1  
#bii-cjj2       summing up3 the farmer's
 calling1 #cjh2       ,american farming1
 #cji2       good farming is and must   
ever be a paying business1 #caj2        
thorough tillage1 #caj2       choosing a
 location1 #caa2       prudence         
enjoined1 #caa-b2       the greed for   
land1 #cab-c2       shallow culture1    
#cai2       need for study and inquiry1 
#cbj4    ,,farms3 ,,large ,,and ,,small 
,,farms1 chap4 xlix1 #bib2     naked    
magnitude has fascination for most      
minds1 #bib2     some men can farm a    
township1 #bib2     large farmers1 #bic2
     the opportunities and expectations 
of the small farmer1 #bic2     making   
money from small farms1 #bic-d2         
large farming can never enable us to    
dispense with small farms1 #bid2        
evidence thereof1 #bid2     fruit       
culture1 #bid2     the production of    

eggs and the rearing of fowls1 #bid2    
the inducements offered to              
fowl-breeders1 #bie2     this industry  
should comment itself to poor widows1   
#bie2     the growing of market         
vegetables1 #bif2     the profits       
realized therein2 #bif2     general     
conclusions1 #bif-g4    ,,farmers'      
,,clubs--,,farmers' ,,clubs1 chap4      
xliii1 #bed2     farmers divide into two
 classes1 #bed2     characteristics of  
those who do too little work1 #bee2     
the farmers who work too much1 #bee2    
illustration thereof1 #bee2     value of
 the club to them1 #bef2     who should 
form the club1 #bef2     its rules1     
#bef-g2     the chief end to be         
attained1 #beg2     habits of           
observation and reflection1 #beg2       
evidence of the need thereof1 #beg2     
a genuine interest in their vocation is 
needed by farmers1 #beg-h2     false    
fancies to be removed1 #beh2     the    
officers of the club1 #beh2     grafts1 
plants or seeds for gratuitous          

distribution1 #beh2     an annual flower
 show1 #bei2     an exhibition of       
fruits1 #bei2     the organization of a 
farmers' club is the chief difficulty1  
#bei2     how removed1 #bei4    ,,farm  
,,implements--,,farm ,,implements1 chap4
 xli1 #bcg2     labor arduous enough    
without adding inefficient implements1  
#bcg2     improvements therein during   
fifty years1 #bcg2     proofs thereof1  
#bcg2     the inferior implements used  
in the greater part of ,europe1 #bcg-h2 
the claim of inventors or their agents  
to attention1 #bch-i2     the stock of  
an implement warehouse1 #bci2     a     
co-operative plan will be found         
necessary to secure the needful         
implements1 #bdj2     reasons therefor1 
#bdj2     greater inventions are certain
 to be made1 #bda2     inventions for   
plowing1 #bda4    ,,fences1 #ajj-a4     
,,fences ,,and ,,fencing1 chap4 xxxvii1 
#bai2     excessive fencing general1    
#bai2     fences are commonly dispensed 
with in ,france and other parts of      

,europe1 #bai2     drivers must there   
keep their cattle from injuring the     
wayside       crops1 #bai2     ,american
 railroads have largely superseded      
cattle-driving1 #bbj2     fresh meat    
will ultimately come from the ,prairies1
 in refrigerating       cars1 #bbj2     
owners of animals should be responsible 
for their care1 #bbj-bba2     fencing   
bears with special severity on the      
pioneer1 #bba2     fences1 where        
necessary1 are a deplorable necessity1  
#bba2     obstacles to introducing      
ditches and hedges1 #bba-b2     wire    
fences1 #bbb2     stone walls1 #bbb2    
rail fences1 #bbb-c2     posts and      
boards are the cheapest material for    
fences1 #bbc2     ,red ,cedar posts1    
#bbc2     ,locust posts1 #bbc2     posts
 set top-end down last longest1 #bbd2   
general conclusions1 #bbd2     forms one
 of the pioneer's many trials1 #bea2    
it is different1 but not better1 with   
settlers on broad prairies1       #bea2 
co-operation would secure an immense    

economy in1 #beb1 #bhg2     should be   
scrutinized in winter1 #cjf2     most   
,american farms east of the ,roanoke and
 ,wabash have too many       fences1    
#cac4    ,,fertilizers1 ,commercial4    
,,commercial ,,fertilizers--,,gypsum1   
chap4 xvii1 #ajb2       ,gypsum might be
 generally applied to cultivated land1  
with profit1         #ajb2       the    
case where it costs #aj1 or over1 per   
ton1 considered1 #ajb2       it should  
be used in all stables and yards1 #ajb2 
on meadows and pastures1 #ajb2          
time and mode of application1 #ajc2     
how ,gypsum impels and invigorates      
vegetable growth1 referred to1          
#ajc2       its value practically       
demonstrated in and around ,paris1      
#cjc-d2       the nature of ,gypsum1    
#ajd2       the chemists' theory of it1 
#ajd2       its actual effect assumed as
 the basis of these remarks1 #ajd2      
,gypsum ought to be extensively applied 
to pastures and slopes1         #ajd-e2 
a farmer's observations on its effects1 

#aje2       it may be easily procured1  
#aje2       its trial requested1 #aje-f2
       soils can be improved by means of
 calcined clay1 #aje2       a successful
 trial thereof1 #ajf4     ,,alkalis 444 
,,salt--,,ashes--,,lime1 chap4 xvii1    
#ajg2       all our country's surface   
might be improved by the use of suitable
         fertilizers1 #ajg2       not   
many acres but might be made more       
fertile by their use1 #ajg2             
comparative exhaustion of the soil soon 
renders them necessary1         #ajg-h2 
the good farmer's inquiry on the        
subject1 #ajh2       the state of each  
soil respectively1 the true guide in    
using         fertilizers1 #ajh2        
alkaline substances might be universally
 applied with profit1 #ajh2       the   
use of ashes considered1 #ajh-i         
,marls of ,new ,jersey1 #aji2           
,salt1 #aji2       ,potash1 #aji2       
the author's trial of1 #aji-aj2         
,lime as a fertilizer1 #aaj2            
careful tests of the value of ,alkalis  

suggested1 #aaj-aa4     ,,soil ,,and    
,,fertilizers1 chap4 xix1 #aab2         
the farmer a manufacturer1 #aab2        
the opinion that some lands are         
naturally rich enough1 #aab2       the  
great wheat product at the ,salt ,lake  
,city ,plain1 #aab2       the author's  
experience regarding the imperfect      
manuring of land1         #aac2         
more manure and less seed should be     
applied by most farmers1 #aac2       the
 richest soils deteriorate after        
successive crops1 #aad2       ,nature's 
law of inflexible exaction1 #aad2       
rich soil from the ,west exhibited at   
the ,n4 ,y4 ,farmers' ,club1 #aad2      
chemical analysis made of same1 #aad2   
,professor ,mapes' remark thereon1 #aad2
       the mistake of fertilizing poor  
lands only1 #aae2       better to       
produce the same quantity of ,corn from 
a small than a         large area in    
certain cases1 #aae2       barn-yard    
manure1 and its use1 #aae-f2       no   
farmer ever impoverished by making and  

using manure of his own                 
manufacture1 #aag2       ,lime has been 
used without advantage1 #aaa2           
reasons therefor1 #aaa2                 
adulteration of ,lime1 #aaa2            
farmers advised to be discriminating1   
#aaa2       experiment recommended where
 there is doubt1 #aaa2                  
,,bones--,,phosphates--,,guano1 chap4   
xx1 #aah2       wasteful outlay for     
fertilizers1 #aah2       fertilizers    
needed and used in ,westchester ,co41   
,n4 ,y41 #aah2       where not needed1  
#aai2       unprofitable use of ,guano1 
#abj2       exceptions to the general   
rule1 #abj2       the other fertilizers1
 #abj2       author's trial of ,guano1  
#aba2       not of general application1 
#aba2       experiments and careful     
observation recommended1 #abb2          
results that may be expected1 #abc2     
the earth closet1 #abc2       importance
 of it and kindred devices1 #abc2       
oyster-shell lime is the best1 #abh2    
the fertilizers to be used in preparing 

for an orchard1 #adb-c2       treatment 
of swamp muck for potatoes1 #agc2       
fertilizers for potatoes when muck      
cannot be had1 #agc-d2       supposed   
inquiry of the people of ,warren ,co41  
,n4 ,y1 ,how shall we         obtain    
fertilizers8 #aib2       answered1 #aic2
       a ,maine essayist on sourness of 
the soil and its remedy1 #bcb-c2        
necessity for scientific knowledge on   
the effects of1 #bcb2       importance  
of some standard to go by in using1     
#bcd-e2       the digging and drawing of
 clay as winter work1 #cjf2       value 
of clay for grass land1 #cjf2           
procuring commercial fertilizers1 as    
winter work1 #cjf4    ,,fruit3 a        
profitable fruit farm on the ,hudson1   
#ad2       culture of1 #ce1 #cg1 #ajg2  
ravages of insects on fruits1 #abi-cj4  
,,peaches--,,pears--,,cherries--,,grapes
1 chap4 xxvii1 #aef2       adaptability 
of ,american climates as regards        
fruit-growing1 #aeg2       why the      
climates of some sections are           

unfavorable for the most         valued 
tree fruits1 #aef-g2       author's     
personal observations1 #aeg2            
difficulties attending the growing of   
finer fruits1 #aeh2       counsel       
thereon to farmers mainly engaged in the
 production of         grain and cattle1
 #aeg-h2       grape-growing1 #aei2     
the mistake of neglecting vines1 #aei2  
experiment recommended1 #aei2           
necessary precautions1 #afj2       the  
course recommended to a farmer who      
proposes to grow pears1         peaches1
 and quinces1 #afj-a1 #afh1 #bbh1 #bcb1 
#bei2       the descriptions of fruit   
grown by small farmers1 #bid2           
fruit culture would decline should small
 farms be generally         absorbed    
into larger1 #bid2       treatment of   
fruit-trees in winter1 #cjg4     ,,gamma
 ,,grass1 #bfa4    ,,garda1 ,lake1 #ge4 
,,genesee1 ,valley of the1 #afc1 #afe1  
#bib4    ,,geology1 #cj1 #aij1 #bca4    
,,germany1 #bhi4    ,,grain1 #bb1 #ce1  
#dj1 #ajg1 #aaj1 #aah1 #abe1 #abf1 #acb1

 #aeg1 #afg1 #ahf1 #bjf1     #bbh1 #bce1
 #bci1 #bfd1 #bff1 #bia1 #bic1 #bid1    
#bif4     ,see also ,,corn4    ,,grapes1
 #af1 #ei1 #adj1 #bbf1 #bid4     ,see   
also ,,fruits4    ,,great ,,basin1 the1 
#ach1 #bgh1 #cag4    ,,great ,,britain1 
#agi1 #bch4    ,,grass1 #bb1 #dj1 #dc1  
#fg1 #fh1 #ie1 #ajg1 #aaj1 #aba1 #aeb-c1
 #aia1 #bcb1 #bch1     #bci1 #bfd4      
,see also ,,pasturing ,,and ,,hay4      
,,greeley1 ,horace--,arrival in ,new    
,york1 #ac-d2     own experience of the 
difficulties of securing a good start in
 life1       #ad2     remark of his     
father to1 on migration toward the      
,west1 #bc2     own evidence of the     
value of experience1 #cj2     is        
descended from several generations of   
tree-cutters1 #dd2     engaged for three
 years in land clearing1 #dd2           
reference to ,amherst1 ,n4 ,h41 his     
birthplace1 #eb2     description of his 
farm1 #fb2     drainage thereof4 #fc-h2 
observations in ,italy1 #gd-f2          
experiments in irrigation1 #gf-g2       

observations in ,virginia1 #hj2         
experience of the plowing of his plat in
 ,new ,york city1 #hg-h2     tries deep 
plowing1 #hh2     plowing of the        
hill-sides on his farm1 #id2            
benefits thereof1 #id2     judges that  
the gravelly hill-sides of his farm     
would repay applying       #bjj tons per
 acre of pure clay1 #ajh2     experience
 of guano1 #aba2     raising locust from
 seed1 #acd2     hay product of his     
farm1 #aea2     helps in hay-making from
 swamps1 #aeb2     hoed corn in his     
boyhood1 #afb2     observations on the  
corn-fields of the ,mississippi valley1 
#afc2     observations at ,chicago      
twenty-three years ago1 #afd2     finds 
potatoes less prolific on his farm than 
in ,new ,hampshire1 #agc2     speaks as 
a journalist's and farmer's calling1    
#ahg2     observations in ,warren       
county1 ,n4 ,y41 #aia2     the stone    
wall on his farm1 #bah2     experience  
of agricultural exhibitions1 #bbe2      
the plowing on his farm1 #bha2          

mentions the sale of his apples as an   
illustration of the imperfect           
means of exchanging farm products1 #bih4
    ,,greeley1 the city of1 #bfb4       
,,guano1 #aaf1 #abj1 #aba1 #aib1 #cah4  
,,gulf ,,stream1 #agh4    ,,gypsum1     
#abj1 #aba1 #abb1 #agd1 #bcc1 #cag1     
#cah4     ,see also ,,fertilizers1      
,,commercial4     ,,harlem ,,railroad1  
#fb4    ,,hawk1 the1 #acb4    ,,hay1    
#bj1 #fh1 #gh1 #ie1 #aai1 #abb1 #adg4   
,,hay ,,and ,,hay-,,making1 chap4 xxvi1 
#aej2       importance of the grass     
crop1 #aej2       the portion made into 
hay1 #aej2       its quantity1 #aej2    
the product and quality should be       
better1 #aea2       author's experience1
 #aea2       the management of grass    
lands is a criterion of farming1 #aej2  
hay-making in ,new ,england fifty years 
ago1 #aeb2       too little grass-seed  
is now used1 #aeb2       too little     
discrimination used in sowing grass     
seeds1 #aec2       the variety of good  
grasses will be increased1 #aec2        

grass is cut in the average too late1   
#aec2       consequences1 #aec-ed2      
the plea that our farmers are           
short-handed in the summer harvest1     
#aed2       treatment of grass when cut1
 #aed2       the author's anticipation  
of how hay-making will yet be carried   
on1         #aee2       the need for    
improvement in hay-making insisted on1  
#aee2       explanation thereof1 #aee4  
,also #afg1 #ahi1 #aia1 #baa1 #bce1     
#bhh1 #bia1         #cjf4       ,see    
also ,,grass4    ,,hay-,,making1 ,see   
,,hay4    ,,hemlock1 #ai1 #eh1 #fj1 #ff1
 #bbc1 #bhg1 #cad4    ,,hickory1 #ec1   
#ed1 #ee1 #ei1 #ace1 #acf1 #bae1 #bia1  
#cad4    ,,highways1 #bdi4    ,,hoes1   
#bcg4    ,,hogs1 #adc4    ,,holland1    
#bch4    ,,homestead ,,law1 #bdi4       
,,hops1 #afd4    ,,horses1 #acb2        
carrots as food for1 #ahb4    ,,hudson1 
the1 #af2     a fruit farmer on the1    
#af2     the valley of the1 #afe2       
banks of the upper1 #aia2     the valley
 of the upper1 #aij1 #aia1 #cag4        

,,humboldt1 the river1 #ha4             
,,humboldt1 the1 or ,canada ,creek1 #ge4
    ,,hungary1 #afd4     ,,illinois1    
,state of1 #cg2     ,northern1 #afc1    
#afd2     prairies of1 #afd1 #bdf1 #bfd1
 #bhi4    ,,indiana1 #cg1 #afc4         
,,insects--,,insects--,,birds1 chap4    
xxii1 #abi2     the serious loss to     
farmers from insects1 #abi2     birds   
our best allies1 #abi2     what good    
they can do1 #acj2     ravages of       
insects not entirely due to the scarcity
 of birds1 #acj2     degeneracy of our  
plants largely causes their ravages1    
#acj2     ,gov4 ,packer of              
,pennsylvania's observations thereon1   
#acj-ca2     the case of wheat and other
 plants1 #aca2     a war against insects
 must continue for a generation1 #aca2  
the destruction of birds1 #acb2     the 
measures to be adopted against insects1 
#acb2     birds should be preserved1    
#acb2     associations should be formed 
to do so1 #acb2     artificial posts1   
#acc2     legal measures proposed1 #acc2

     their ravages in ,newcastle        
township1 ,westchester1 ,n4 ,y41 #adg-h2
     caterpillars1 #adh2     numerous   
from neglect1 #adh2     duties of       
farmers and fruit growers1 #adi4        
,,intellect 7in                         
,agriculture7--,,intellect ,,in         
,,agriculture1 chap4 xxxiii1     #aie2  
years of rugged manual labor essential  
to success in hewing a farm       out of
 the forest1 #aie2     value of         
education to the farmer1 #aif2     our  
average common schools defective in not 
teaching geology and       chemistry1   
#aif2     the leading principles and    
facts of these sciences ought to        
constitute the reader of the highest    
class in the common schools1       #aif2
     counsel to the young farmer on     
agricultural books1 #aig2     their     
value demonstrated1 #aih2     a         
two-hundred acre farm will be found to  
give ample scope1 #aii2     instructions
 regarding particular books1 #aii2      
men of the strongest minds and best     

abilities will be attracted to          
farming so fast and so far as it becomes
 intellectual1 #aii4    ,,interest1     
relatively high in this country1 #bjb4  
,,iowa1 #bg1 #afc1 #afd1 #afh4          
,,ireland1 #agj1 #age1 #bhi4            
,,irrigation--     ,,irrigation--,,means
 ,,and ,,ends1 chap4 xii4 #gd2          
need of water for crops not often kept  
in view1 #gd2       the authors         
observations in ,lombardy 7,italy71     
#gd-e2       the ,atlantic ,slope and   
,irrigation1 #gf2       author's        
experience in irrigation1 #gf-g2        
results1 #gf2       irrigation of ,new  
,england farms1 #gh2       advantages   
that would result therefrom1 #gh4       
,,possibilities ,,of ,,irrigation1 chap4
 xiii1 #gi2       natural facilities for
 irrigation       general1 #gi2         
artesian wells on the prairies1 #gi2    
wells in ,california1 #hj2       water  
as a fertilizer1 #hj2       crops in    
,virginia suffering from want of        
irrigation1 #hj-a2       counsel to     

farmers on irrigation1 #ha-b2           
great profits to be realized by         
irrigation1 #hb-c2       need of        
irrigation in the ,eastern and ,middle  
,states considered1 #hc2       the      
prairie ,states after #aijj1 #hc2       
common objections to irrigation1 #hd2   
it must become general1 #bdg2           
wells will be sunk for the purpose1     
#bdg2       a steam locomotive for the  
purpose referred to1 #bdg2              
irrigation will become general1 #bdg2   
,,western ,,irrigation1 chap4 xliv1     
#bfj2       irrigation is practicable   
everywhere1 #bfj2       the portion of  
our country which cannot be cultivated  
without         irrigation1 #bfj2       
its extent1 #bfj2       its climate1    
#bfj2       it is spoken of as desert1  
#bfa2       the readiest means of       
irrigating the plains1 #bfa2       their
 extent1 #bfa2       the ,north and     
,south ,platte rivers1 #bfa2            
,union ,colony1 #bfb2       its         
location1 #bfb2       location of       

,greeley1 #bfb2       the first         
irrigating canal of ,union ,colony1     
#bfb2       branches and ditches        
therefrom1 #bfb-c2       how the water  
is deflected to it1 #bfc2       the     
larger and longer canal1 #bfc2          
doubts at first entertained respecting  
the capacities of the soil1             
#bfd2       proved baseless1 #bfd2      
products of the soil1 #bfd2       the   
cost of irrigation is not in excess of  
cultivating without it1         #bfd2   
demonstration thereof1 #bfe2       it   
would pay to expend #aj per acre for    
irrigating ,new ,england         grass  
lands1 #bff2     ,,more ,,of            
,,irrigation1 chap4 xlvi1 #bgd2         
irrigation of places bordered by streams
 referred to1 #bgd2       the facilities
 the ,platte offers for irrigation1     
#bgd-e2       results that may be       
attained1 #bge2       the ,plains1 #bge2
       obstacles to their cultivation1  
#bge-f2       the change that will be   
yet effected1 #bgf2       how the plains

 will be irrigated1 #bgf-g2             
artesian wells1 #bgg-h2       the       
co-operation of railroad companies      
anticipated1 #bgh2       rain increases 
as settlements are multiplied1 #bgh2    
the permanent character of the ,plains1 
#bgi2       tracts needing irrigation in
 the ,east1 #bgi2       summing up of   
the author's views on1 #cae-f-g4        
,,iron1 #bdb4    ,,italy 7,northern71   
#aga4     ,,kansas1 #be1 #bf1 #afg1     
#bdi1 #bfa1 #bfd1 #bhi4    ,,kansas     
,,pacific1 the railroad1 #bfb4          
,,kennebec1 the valley of the1 #afe2    
the river1 #bgi4    ,,kentucky1 #ej4    
,,kit ,,carson1 the1 #bgg4              
,,laborers1 ,farm--,dearth of employment
 for1 in winter1 a great and     growing
 evil1 #cjc4    ,,lakes1 the ,northern1 
#afe4    ,,lancaster ,,county1 ,penn41  
#aaj4    ,,lancashire 7,england71 #gf4  
,,land4 ,see ,,farming4    ,,lands1     
public1 #df4    ,,lard1 #afd4           
,,liebig',s agricultural chemistry1     
#aii4    ,,lime1 #ajd2     as a         

fertilizer1 see ,,fertilizers1          
,,commercial2       also1 #ajd1 #aaj1   
#aaa1 #abj2     oyster shell1 #aba1     
#abb1 #abh2     use in preparing for an 
orchard1 #adb1 #adc1 #adg1 #afg1 #agd1  
#aib1 #baa1       #bcb-c1 #bce1 #cjf1   
#cag1 #cah4    ,,locust1 the1 tree1 #ec1
 #ed1 #ee1 #fj1 #acd1 #bae1 #bbc1 #cad4 
,,lombardy1 #gd1 #ge1 #gf4    ,,london1 
#bfi4    ,,londonderry 7,ireland71 #aga2
     ,new ,hampshire1 #aga4    ,,long   
,,island1 ,n4 ,y41 #aff1 #bea1 #cae2    
,sound1 #agb4    ,,long',s ,,peak1 #bfb4
    ,,loring1 ,dr4 ,george ,b4 7of      
,mass471 #aic4    ,,lumbering--,how     
rocks in creeks are removed by a        
lumberman1 #bag4     ,,machines1        
agricultural1 #bbe4    ,,maggiore1      
,lake1 #ge4    ,,magnesia1 #bce4        
,,maidstone 7,england71 #hi4    ,,maine1
 #abe1 #aga1 #bcb4    ,,manganese1 #aaa4
    ,,mangolds1 #bga4    ,,manufactures1
 #afd1 #bdc4    ,,manure1 #ie4          
,,maple1 #bhg4    ,,mapes1 ,professor1  
#af1 #he1 #aad1 #abh4    ,,marl1 #aji1  

#abj1 #abb1 #adb1 #afg4     ,see also   
,,fertilizers1 ,,commercial4            
,,martineau1 ,miss41 #ahg4              
,,maryland1 #aff1 #bea2     ,eastern1   
#cae4    ,,massachusetts1 #aga1 #aic4   
,mc,c,o,r,m,i,c,k1 ,c41 #hf4    ,,meats1
 #aej1 #afd1 #afg1 #bjj1 #bja2     meat 
will be ultimately conveyed in          
refrigerating cars1 #bbj1 #bff4         
,,mechanics1 #bdc4    ,,melon1 #bbf4    
,,mexico1 #agb4    ,,michigan1 ,state   
of1 #afc2     ,lake1 #aef4    ,,middle  
,,states1 #aci4    ,,milk1 #aae1 #afg1  
#aga4    ,,mills1 #bdi1 #bej4           
,,minnehaha1 the1 #bhe4    ,,minnesota1 
#be1 #bf1 #cf1 #cg1 #afc1 #afd1 #afh1   
#bjf1 #bdi1 #bhi4    ,,missouri1 valley 
of the1 #bj2     ,state of1 #afh2       
the river1 #bfj1 #bfa1 #bgi4            
,,mississippi1 valley of the upper1 #bj1
 #ch2     valley of the1 #de1 #fi1 #afc2
     the river1 #afc4    ,,mole ,,plow1 
the1 #gb4    ,,monmouth1 ,n4 ,j41 #aff4 
,,mormons1 tree planting by1 #df4       
,,mortgage1 buying land on1 #ca4        

,,middle ,,states1 pasturing in1 #ai1   
#be1 #fi1 #adb1 #agi1 #bjd1 #bae4       
,,muck1 #ie1 #aji1 #aaf1 #abj2       use
 in preparing for an orchard1 #adb4     
,,muck--,,how ,,to ,,utilize ,,it1 chap4
 xxi1 #abd2       chemists will yet be  
able to determine the value of all      
kinds1 #abd2       use of muck          
profitable1 #abd2       the author's    
trial of it1 #abd2       how swamp muck 
forms1 #abd-e2       its vast extent1   
#abe2       little benefit derived from 
applying it directly1 #abe2       the   
true course to adopt to secure good     
returns1 #abf-g2       practical        
evidence of its value1 #abg2       the  
course to be adopted by farmers having  
few animals1 #abg-h2       mixing salt  
with lime1 #abh1 #adg1 #afg2            
diversity of opinion about1 #bcc2       
as an illustration of the need for more 
scientific knowledge1         #bcc-d2   
as an illustration of winter work1 #cjd2
       it is abundant and accessible1   
#cjd2       proof thereof1 #cje-f2      

value of muck1 #cje2       where to     
procure1 #cah4    ,,mutton4 ,see        
,,sheep2     also1 #bjj1 #bbj4          
,,napoleon ,i1 #cc1 #bib4    ,,nevada1  
#df1 #gf1 #hc1 #bfj4    ,,newburg1 ,n4  
,y41 a fruit farm above1 on the ,hudson1
 #af4    ,,newcastle 7township71        
,westchester ,co41 ,n4 ,y41 #fb1 #adg4  
,,new ,,england1 #be1 #cd1 #cf1 #ci1    
#de1 #ej1 #fi1 #gh1 #gi1 #aci1 #aeb1    
#afc1 #afd1     #afe1 #aga1 #aij1 #bjf1 
#bad1 #bff1 #bgi1 #bhf1 #bhg1 #bhi1     
#bij1 #bia1 #cjc4    ,,new ,,hampshire1 
#hg1 #adj1 #agb1 #bcg4    ,,new         
,,jersey1 #di1 #he1 #aji1 #afe2         
,southern1 #aff1 #afg1 #afh1 #afi1 #aij1
 #bea1 #cje1 #cae4    ,,new ,,river1    
,va41 #hf4    ,,new ,,york 7city71 #ac1 
#fj1 #hg1 #abi1 #bfi4    ,,new ,,york   
,,state1 #cg1 #di2     cheese dairymen  
of1 #cf1 #dg1 #fb1 #fh1 #gi1 #ajb1 #aca1
 #adj1 #afd2     ,western1 #afc2        
,eastern1 #afd1 #afe1 #aij1 #bhf1 #bij4 
,,niagara1 the falls of1 #bhe4          
,,nineveh1 #bff4    ,,nitrates4 ,see    

,,fertilizers4    ,,nitrate ,,of ,,soda1
 #abb4    ,,northern ,,states1 #dh1     
#aci1 #adj1 #aib1 #big4     ,,oats1 #fg1
 #ib1 #id1 #aac1 #aah1 #aba1 #adc1 #ahi1
 #aia1 #baj1 #bch1 #bde1 #bfd1     #bfe4
    ,,ohio1 ,state of1 #cg1 #afc1 #bbj2 
valley of the river1 #ch2     the river1
 #ec1 #aei4    ,,old ,,states1 the1 #gc1
 #bdi1 #cjf4    ,,onions1 #aia4         
,,ontario1 ,lake1 #aef4     ,,pacific   
,,states1 #agh4    ,,pacific1 the coast1
 #aef2     valley1 a broad1 #aja4       
,,packer1 ,gov4 ,william ,f41 of ,penn41
 #acj4    ,,paris1 #ajc4                
,,pastures--,pasturing will soon        
disappear in the ,eastern and ,middle   
,states1 #ai2     its pernicious        
effects1 #ai2     soiling is preferable 
to pasturing1 #bj2     a pasture should 
be the first field selected on a new    
farm1 #dj2     where it should be       
placed1 #da2     misconceptions         
respecting indiscriminate pasturing1    
#da2     treatment of a pasture1 #db-c2 
should have a shed1 #dc2     appearance 

of pastures where there is bad farming1 
#aeb2     summing up of the author's    
views on pasturing1 #cac-d4     ,see    
also ,,hay4    ,,peach-,,trees4 ,see    
,,fruits1     also #abi1 #adj1 #afa4    
,,pears4 ,see ,,fruits1     also #abi1  
#aci1 #aef1 #bjd4    ,,peas1 #hi1 #ij1  
#bga1 #bif4    ,,pennsylvania1 #bc2     
,eastern1 #afe1 #agb1 #bhh4             
,,pemigewasset1 the river1 #ge4         
,,philadelphia1 #aef1 #aei4             
,,phosphates4 ,see ,,commercial         
,,fertilizers1     also #aai1 #aba1     
#abb1 #aib4    ,,phosphorus1 #aah1 #aai1
 #bce4    ,,pippins1 #ec4               
,,pitch-,,pine1 #cad4    ,,pilgrims1 the
 descendants of the1 #bhi4    ,,pine1   
#eh1 #bbc4    ,,pine ,,barrens1 #aff4   
,,plague1 the1 #bfh4    ,,plains1 the1  
#df1 #aja1 #bfa2     irrigation of1     
#bge-i1 #caf4    ,,plaster 7,gypsum74   
,see ,,commercial ,,fertilizers1        
also #hj1 #agc1 #baa1 #bcb1 #bcc4       
,,platte1 the river1 #hb1 #bfj1 #bfa1   
#bfb2     valley of the1 #bgd4          

,,plows1 steel1 #hg4    ,,plowing3      
,,plowing1 ,,deep ,,or ,,shallow1 chap4 
xiv1 #hg2       the ,deep ,plowing of   
all lands1 not advocated1 #he2          
reasons therefor1 #he2       instances  
where ,deep ,plowing was unadvisable1   
#he-f2       the primitive plow1 #hf2   
plowing in ,new ,hampshire in the       
author's boyhood1 #hg2       will ,deep 
,plowing pay8 #hg2       author's       
experience of the plowing of a plat in  
,new ,york city1         #hg-h2         
plows deeply with profit1 #hh-i2        
an ,english farmer's trial of ,deep     
,plowing1 #hi-ij2       the imperative  
reasons for ,deep ,plowing1 #ij4        
,,plowing--,,good ,,and ,,bad1 chap4 xv1
 #ia2       misconceptions regarding    
,deep ,plowing1 #ia2       the right    
conditions for ,deep ,plowing1 #ia2     
case of a farmer of the old school      
cited1 #ia-b2       how ,deep ,plowing  
will prove profitable to him1 #ib-c2    
how he should proceed1 #ib-c2           
subsoiling hill-sides1 #id2             

author's own experience1 #id2       the 
revolution that steam-plowing will      
cause1 #ie2       plowing of ,grass land
 considered1 #ie2       treatment of    
,grass land that has been plowed1 #ie2  
plowing of a poor man's rugged sterile  
farm1 #ig-i2       ,fall-plowing1       
#ii-ajj2       fences impede plowing1   
#ajj2       favored lot of the squatter 
on the prairie in regard to plowing1    
#aja2       the plows of sixty years    
ago1 #bcg2       the plows used in the  
greater part of ,europe1 #bch2          
improvement in plowing inevitable1 #bda2
       the improved system would be     
adopted in the ,west1 #bda2       steam 
plows and their inventors1 #bdc2        
at work in ,great ,britain1 #bdc-d2     
the locomotive that is needed for       
steam-plowing1 #bdd2       losses from  
want of such1 #bdd-e2       necessity   
for greater rapidity in plowing         
demonstrated1 #bdf2       advice of a   
,german observer on plowing for ,corn1  
#bdf-g2       author's experience of the

 cost and delay of plowing1 #bha-b2     
not half so much or so thorough plowing 
done as there should be1         #bhb2  
the imperfect means of plowing1 #bhb2   
steam-plowing in ,england1 #bhc-d-e2    
application of the facts to this        
country1 #bhd4       ,see also ,,steam4 
,,plum-,,trees4 ,see ,,fruits1 also     
#abi1 #aci1 #bid4    ,,po1 the river1   
#gd-e4    ,,pork1 #cg1 #ii1 #adc1 #ahf1 
#aia1 #bbj1 #bch1 #bia4    ,,potash4    
,see ,,fertilizers1 ,,commercial1 also  
#aji4    ,,potatoes1 #hh1 #ii4          
,,esculent ,,roots--,,potatoes1 chap4   
xxix1 #agj2       their productiveness1 
#agj2       cultivated universally in   
,europe1 #agj2       they alone form    
part of the every-day food of prince and
 peasant1         #agj2       the poor  
of ,new ,england depended on them when  
the grain crop was         cut short1   
#aga2       formed part of the regular  
supper in farmers' homes1 #aga2         
the history of the ,potato1 #aga2       
it is essentially a mountainous plant1  

#agb2       it may have grown wild on   
the sides of the great chain traversing 
,spanish ,america1 #agb2                
everything there congenial to it1 #agb2 
results attained by the author in       
growing potatoes1 #agb2       conditions
 which insure a good crop1 #agb-c2      
swamp muck treated as described1 makes  
an excellent fertilizer         for1    
#agc2       how to act where such is not
 to be had1 #agc-d2       instructions  
to a farmer having a poor1 worn-out     
field of sandy         loam1 #agd2      
objections thereto considered1 #agd-e2  
the potato blights1 #age-f2       the   
kind of seed to plant1 #agf2            
drills are preferable1 in the author's  
judgment1 #agf-g2       preparation of  
the soil1 #agg2       varieties         
considered1 #agg2       growing from    
tubers tends to degeneracy1 #agg2       
the originator of a valuable new potato 
entitled to a recompense1         #agg2 
also1 #ahi1 #bfd1 #bif4    ,,potomac    
river1 the1 #ec1 #gc1 #adj1 #aei2       

valley of the1 #cag4    ,,portugal1     
#bcg4    ,,power--,,undeveloped         
,,sources ,,of ,,power1 chap4 xlvii1    
#bhj2     the farmer's sources and      
command of power less than the          
manufacturer's1 #bhj2     both have the 
same opportunities1 #bhj2     author's  
experience of the delay and cost of     
plowing1 #bha-b2     further            
illustrations of the imperfect means of 
plowing1 #bhb2     steam plowing in     
,england1 #bhb-c-d2     steam not       
commended as a source of power to the   
farmer1 #bhd2     reasons therefor1     
#bhd2     wind as a source of power1    
#bhd-e2     the further anticipated     
sources1 #bhe2     the triumphs of the  
future1 #bhe4    ,,prairie1 #bd2        
prairies1 the1 of the ,west1 #bac2      
the1 #bfa4    ,,prairie ,,states1 #df1  
#hc4    ,,pruning1 #adf4    ,,public    
,,lands1 #bd1 #df4    ,,pursley1 #abe4  
,,quinces4 ,see ,,fruits4               
,,rag-,,weed1 #abe4    ,,railroads1     
their influence on the progress of the  

,west1 #bf1 #aje2     suggestions to    
have one act as factor of farm products1
 #cja-b4    ,,raleigh1 ,sir ,walter1    
#aga4    ,,ranching1 #bib4              
,,raspberries1 #ij4    ,,reapers1       
,american1 #bde4    ,,red ,,cedar1 #eh1 
#aeg1 #bbc4    ,,red ,,oak1 #ai1 #ec1   
#fj4    ,,republican1 valleys of the1   
#bgd4    ,,roads1 #bej4    ,,robinson1  
,,solon1 on fencing1 #bai4    ,,rock4   
,see ,,stone4    ,,rocky ,,mountains1   
#bjf1 #bfa1 #bfb1 #bgd4    ,,romford1   
,england1 #bfi-gj4    ,,roots1 culture  
of1 #ce1 #dc2       all seek heat and   
moisture1 #ih1 #abf1 #afh1 #bjf1 #bbh1  
#bdb1 #bfe2     ,,fertilizers1          
,,commercial2     also #aji1 #aad1 #abb1
 #abg1 #abh1 #adc1 #adg1 #agd4    ,,salt
 ,,lake1 #df4    ,,salt ,,lake ,,city1  
#aab4    ,,savoys1 #bga4    ,,schools1  
#bdi1 #bej4    ,,science ,,in           
,,agriculture1 #cb2     ,,science ,,in  
,,agriculture1 chap4 xxxix1 #bca2       
author disclaims being a scientific     
farmer1 #bca2       men have raised good

 crops1 who knew nothing of science1    
#bca2       science is the true base of 
efficient cultivation1 #bca2       the  
elements of every plant1 #bca2          
necessity for scientific knowledge1     
#bcb2       author's personal           
experience1 #bcb2       the assertion of
 a ,maine essayist1 as an illustration  
of the need         of scientific       
information1 #bcc2       the diversity  
of opinion as to the value of swamp muck
 as a further         illustration1     
#bcc-d2       analysis of soils         
considered1 #bcd2       the necessity   
for some standard to go by in manuring  
land1 #bcd2       illustration thereof1 
#bcd-e2       science explains the      
impoverishment of soils1 #bce2          
author's testimony on the value of      
science1 from personal                  
experience1 #bcf2       a competence is 
reserved for young men fully conversant 
with         agriculture1 #bcf4         
,,scotch-,,irish1 the1 #aga4            
,,scotland1 #agh1 #bfi4    ,,scrub      

,,oak1 #cad4    ,,scythes1 #bci4        
,,seasons1 ,dry4 ,see ,,drouth4         
,,sewage--,,sewage1 chap4 xlv1 #bff2    
causes which doomed ancient empires to  
decay1 #bff2     illustrations thereof1 
#bff-g2     the soil must receive back  
the elements taken from it1 #bfg2       
obstacles thereto1 #bfg2     location of
 ancient and modern cities1 #bfg2       
imperative necessity for cleansing treat
 cities1 #bfg-h2     meaning given to   
sewage in ,england1 #bfh2     conditions
 necessary for its equable diffusion    
over the soil1 #bfh2     application of 
sewage1 #bfh2     difficulties of       
utilizing it1 #bfh-i2     the progress  
made1 #bfi2     the measures taken to   
utilize sewage at ,romford1 ,england1   
#bfi2     farm whereon it was used1 and 
the results attained1 #bfi-gj-a-b-c2    
conclusion therefrom1 #bgc-d4           
,,sheep--,,sheep ,,and ,,wool ,,growing1
 chap4 xxxiv1 #bjj2     production of   
wool in the ,united ,states             
insufficient1 #bjj2     they might      

profitably grow as much as they consume1
 #bja2     reasons therefore1 #bja2     
the increased price of mutton will make 
up for the reduction on       wool1     
#bja2     sheep-growing in ,england as  
an illustration1 #bja2     sheep soon   
make a return for the outlay on them1   
#bjb2     they successfully contend with
 bushes and briars1 #bjc2     more      
mutton should be consumed1 #bjb-c2      
all farmers are not counseled to grow   
sheep1 #bjc2     depredations of dogs1  
#bjc-d2     precautions against them1   
#bjd2     the change in the relative    
values of mutton and wool1 #bjd2     the
 relative prices and product the farmer 
must expect in the       future1 #bje2  
growing sheep for mutton near ,new      
,york1 #bje2     profit thereof1 #bje2  
sheep-growing is no experiment1 #bje2   
encouragement thereto1 #bje-f2     sheep
 growing in ,colorado and other         
,territories1 and its future1 #bjf4     
,,sicily1 #bfg4    ,,sickle1 #bci4      
,,silica1 #bce4    ,,smith1 ,,william   

7,woolston1 ,eng471 #bhc4    ,,society1 
,agricultural1 an1 #bbh4     ,see       
,,farmers' ,,clubs4    ,,soda1 #bce4    
,,soils1 analysis of1 #bcd4             
,,sorghum1 stalks of1 #dc4    ,,sorrel1 
#abe1 #bcb4    ,,south1 #be2            
inviting immigration1 #bf2     the      
inducements she offers1 #bf-g-h1 #agh1  
#caa4    ,,south ,,america1 #bjj1 #bjf4 
,,spain1 #hf1 #bcg4    ,,spanish        
,,america1 #agb4    ,,spring1 #fg1 #gj1 
#gc1 #ge1 #gf1 #gh1 #ha1 #hg1 #hh1 #ii1 
#aaa1 #abf1 #abg1 #acd1     #ace1 #acf1 
#acg1 #adj1 #ada1 #aej1 #afh1 #aga1     
#agc1 #agd1 #aic1 #aid1 #bjb1     #beh1 
#cjc1 #cai4    ,,spruce1 #bbc4          
,,squash1 #bbf1 #bfd4    ,,stark        
,,county1 ,ohio1 #aaj4    ,,steam ,,in  
,,agriculture1 cultivation by1 #cg2     
application of steam to plowing1 #ie4   
,,steam ,,in ,,agriculture1 chap4 xli1  
#bda2       farmers have been slow in   
utilizing the natural forces around     
them1 #bda2       evidence thereof1     
#bdb2       steam as a source of power  

is hardly a century old1 #bdb2       the
 revolution it has effected1 #bdb2      
it will effect still greater1 #bdc2     
steam has contributed very little to    
preparing the soil1 #bdc2               
disappointments of inventors of steam   
plows1 #bdc2       steam plowing in     
,louisiana1 #bdc2       steam plows in  
,great ,britain1 #bdc-d2       the      
locomotive that is needed for steam     
plowing1 #bdd2       the saving it would
 effect1 #bdd-e2       ,american reapers
 in ,england1 their value appreciated1  
#bde2       need for a machine to plow  
rapidly demonstrated1 #bdf2             
recommendation of a ,german observer    
regarding plowing1 #bdf2                
irrigation will become general1 #bdg2   
the locomotive referred to above could  
be used for sinking wells1         #bdg2
       steam plowing in ,england1       
#bhc-d-e4    ,,steam ,,plows4 ,see      
,,steam4    ,,steel1 #bdb4    ,,steuben 
,,county1 ,n4 ,y41 #aje4                
,,stone--,,stone ,,on ,a ,,farm1 chap4  

xxxvi1 #bac2     formation of the earth1
 #bab2     diffusion of stones over the 
surface1 #bac2     these are sometimes a
 facility1 but oftener an impediment to 
efficient agriculture1 #bac2     no rock
 on the surface of the great prairies of
 the ,west1 and a       portion of the  
valleys and plains of the ,atlantic     
slope1 #bac2     advantages and         
disadvantages thereof to the pioneer1   
#bad2     less use for stone now than   
formerly1 #bad2     the stone on        
,eastern farms to be yet utilized1      
#bad-e2     very stony land should be   
planted with trees1 #bae2     rough1    
unshapen stones will be more and more   
used for building1       #bae-f2        
instructions for building a barn partly 
with stone concrete1 #baf2     its      
advantages1 #baf2     blasting out stone
 considered1 #baf-g2     the mode a     
lumberman employs to remove rocks in    
creeks1 #bag2     the author's          
experience regarding the fencing of his 
farm1 #bah2     his stone walls1 #bah4  

,,stones1 #bdi4    ,,strawberries1 #af1 
#ij4    ,,sugar1 production of1 from the
 beet1 #ahj2     maple1 #ai1 #cad4      
,,sulphur1 #ajd4    ,,summer1 #dg1 #ei1 
#fd1 #fg1 #gh1 #hc1 #hd1 #hf1 #hh1 #ii1 
#ajc1 #abd1 #abf1 #acj1     #aed1 #agc1 
#agh1 #ahi1 #aij1 #aia1 #bjb1 #bfj1     
#bfd1 #bgi1 #bhh4                       
,,super-,,phosphate1 #agd4              
,,susquehanna1 the1 #bgi1 #bib2     the 
valley of the1 #cag4    ,,swamp ,,land3 
about #ej1jjj1jjj acres of1 in the old  
,states 7including     ,maine71 #abe2   
,see ,,draining4    ,,swine1 #adc4      
,,switzerland1 #aci2     ,northern1     
#aga4    ,,sycamore1 #ei4               
,,tamarack1 #bbc4    ,,territories1 the1
 #bjf1 #bdi4    ,,texas1 #dc1 #bje1     
#bjf2     7,western71 #bfj4    ,,textile
 ,,fabrics1 #bdb4    ,,thebes1 #bff4    
,,thistles1 #db4    ,,thread1 #bjj4     
,,tillage3 ,,thorough ,,tillage1 chap4  
xvi1 #if2     rocky character of the    
author's own fields1 #if2     clearing  
off stones profitable1 #if2             

cultivating wet lands without draining  
unprofitable1 #ig2     the course a poor
 man with a rugged1 sterile farm should 
adopt1 #ig2     should reclaim one field
 each year1 #ig2     should plow often1 
deeply and thoroughly1 #ih-i2           
reasons therefor1 #ii2     ,fall        
plowing1 #ii2     enriches the soil1    
#ii-ajj2     fences1 #ajj2     the      
favored lot of the squatter on the      
prairie1 #aja4     ,see also1           
,,plowing--,,draining--,,farming4       
,,the ,,times 7,london71#bhb            
,,timber4 ,see ,,trees4    ,,timothy    
,,grass1 #ch1 #aec4    ,,tobacco1 #aia4 
,,tomatoes1 #bfd1 #bif4    ,,tribune1   
the1 ,new ,york1 #ahh4    ,,turkey1 #hf4
    ,,turnips4 ,see ,,roots1 also #agh1 
#bfd1 #cjj4    ,,trees3 clearing off    
timber1 #cj2       ,new ,england must   
always be well wooded1 #cd1 #cg2        
,,trees--,,woodlands--,,forests1 chap4  
vii2       the author not sentimental   
regarding the destruction of1 #dd2      
utility the reason       and end of     

vegetable growth1 #dd2       profit the 
main consideration1 #dd2       the      
beauty and grace of trees1 #dd2         
,new ,england a favored section in      
regard to tree-growing1 #de2            
disadvantage of prairie land in that    
respect1 #de2       trees once grew on  
the ,plains1 #df2       tree-planting in
 ,utah1 and its climatic influence1 #df2
       failure of congress to pass a    
bill encouraging tree planting1 #df2    
mistake of the ,new ,york dairy farmers 
in destroying trees1 #dg2       ,spain1 
,italy1 and portions of ,france         
suffering from the destruction          
of their forests1 #dg2       other      
illustrations of improvidence1 #dh4     
,,growing ,,timber--,,tree-,,planting1  
chap4 viii1 #ej2       proportion of a  
farm that should be devoted to trees1   
#di2       the question of too much land
 and tree-growing1 #ea-b2       its     
general application1 #eb2       timber  
should be culled out rather than cut    
off1 #eb2       the care of apple trees 

applicable to all trees1 #eb2       some
 woodlands1 the cheapest property in the
 ,united ,states1 #ec2       another    
profitable field of labor1 #ed2         
plant thickly1 #ed2       a common      
objection answered1 #ed2       the ,far 
,west and tree-planting1 #ee4           
,,planting ,,and ,,growing ,,trees1     
chap4 ix1 #ef2       timber general on  
most farms1 #ef2       suggestions for  
locating trees1 #ef2       trees once   
planted cost nothing for cultivation1   
#ef2       the soil is richer even after
 repeated crops of wood1 #eg2       poor
 land improved by growing timber on it1 
#eg2       springs and streams will be  
rendered more equable and enduring by   
tree-growing1 #eg2       trees should be
 set on all hill-sides and ravines1 #eg2
       trees accumulate manure1 #eh2    
they can be placed so as to modify      
agreeably the temperature of a          
farm1 #eh2       author's experience1   
#eh2       trees on the crest of a hill 
improve the crops on the slope1 #ei2    

trees may be placed with advantage on   
banks of rivers1 c41 #ei2       a good  
tree grows as thriftily as a poor one1  
#ei2       evidence thereof1 #fj2       
diversity profitable1 #fj2              
wood-lot should be thinned out1 not     
cleared1 #fj2       the future should be
 considered when cutting1 #fj2          
evidence thereof1 #fj2       a          
plantation furnishes employment at all  
seasons1 #fa2       tree-growing will   
make springs appear1 and cause rain1    
#fa1 #ig4     ,,about ,,tree-,,planting1
 chap4 xxiii1 #acd2       author's      
experience in raising ,locust plants1   
#acd2       general counsel on the      
raising of locust and most other trees1 
#ace2       sowing seed and raising     
plants therefrom1 #ace2       the       
raising of ,chestnut1 ,hickory1 ,white  
,oak1 #ace-f2       how a farmer1 having
 a rugged1 stony hill should act1 #acf2 
profits which can be realized1 #acg2    
the utility of forests1 #acg-h2         
tree-planting as a field for adventurous

 young men1 #ach2       how they should 
proceed1 #ach2       the great profits  
to be realized1 #ach2       drouths may 
be expected as the country is more and  
more denuded of         its forests1    
#ajj2       how stony land may be       
advantageously used for tree-planting1  
#bae2       treatment of forests in     
winter1 #cjg2       summing up of       
author's views on1 #cad4                
,,tree-,,fruits4 ,see ,,apples ,,and    
,,fruits4    ,,tree-,,planting4 ,see    
,,trees4     ,,union ,,colony--,its     
location1 #bfb2     the city of ,greeley
 its nucleus1 #bfb2     irrigating      
canals of ,union ,colony1 #bfb-d2       
doubts of the fertility of the soil of  
its location1 #bfd2     proved          
groundless1 #bfd4    ,,united ,,states1 
#bg1 #ec2     the annual hay crop of1   
#aej1 #aea1 #cae4    ,,utah1 #df1 #gf1  
#aha4     ,,vegetables1 culture of1 #ce1
 #cg1 #ij1 #ajg1 #afh1 #bbh1 #bfd1 #bfe1
 #bff2     the growing of market1 as a  
source of profit1 #bif4    ,,venice1    

#gd4    ,,vermont--,a grazing farm in   
,northern ,vermont1 #ae1 #be1 #cf1 #dh1 
#aaj1 #aei1     #agb4    ,,vines4 ,see  
,,fruit4    ,,virginia1 #ej1 #hj1 #hf1  
#adj1 #aff1 #aia1 #bcg4     ,,walnut1   
#ed1 #fj1 #ace1 #acf4    ,,warren       
,,county1 ,n4 ,y41 #aia1 #aib4          
,,waring1 on drainage1 #gb2     elements
 of agriculture by1 #aii2     on        
drainage1 #cae4    ,,water1 #bca-b4     
,see also ,,irrigation4    ,,water      
,,melons1 #cjj    ,,weber1 the river1   
#ha4    ,,weeds1 in pastures1 #dc4      
,,west1 the1 a farmer who migrated to1  
#af2     illustration of good farming   
drawn from1 #bj1 #bc1 #be1 #bf1 #bg1    
#cf1 #cg1       #da2     regards tree   
growing1 #de1 #ee1 #adb2     the granary
 of the ,east1 #afc1 #afe1 #afh1 #afi1  
#agi2     the ,far1 #bje2     the       
,great1 #bda1 #bia1 #caa4               
,,westchester ,,county1 ,n4 ,y41 #di1   
#eb1 #fb1 #fg1 #aah1 #aai1 #abe4        
,,western ,,irrigation4 ,see            
,,irrigation4    ,,wheat1 #ba1 #bb1 #cg1

 #ib1 #id1 #aab1 #aac1 #aba1 #aca1 #afb1
 #afg1 #afi1 #bch1     #bdb1 #bde1 #bfd1
 #bfe4     ,see also ,,corn4    ,,white 
,,ash1 #bia4    ,,white ,,birch1 #cad4  
,,white ,,daisy1 #db4    ,,white        
,,maple1 #ec4    ,,white ,,mountains1   
,n4 ,h41 #agb4    ,,white ,,oak1 #ed1   
#ee1 #ace1 #bae1 #bia1 #cad4    ,,white 
,,pine1 #cj1 #dh1 #ec1 #ed1 #ee1 #bae1  
#bhg1 #cad4    ,,whitney1 ,eli1 #hf4    
,,willow1 #ei4    ,,windmill1 #bgf-g4   
,,winds--,utilizing the ,winds for      
power1 #bhd4    ,,winter1 #dg1 #ei1 #gc1
 #ha1 #hi1 #aac1 #abf1 #ace1 #adj1 #ada1
 #aej1 #aed1 #aef1     #aeg1 #aga1 #agh1
 #agi1 #aic1 #bjf1 #bji1 #bbb1 #beh1    
#bfb1 #bfc1 #bhh1 #bih4    ,,winter4    
,see ,,work1 ,,winter4    ,,wisconsin1  
#be1 #aei2     ,eastern1 #afc4    ,,wood
 ,,ashes1 #abj1 #adg1 #agc4    ,,wool1  
#afd4 ,see ,,sheep4    ,,wool ,,growing4
 ,see ,,sheep4    ,,work1               
,,winter--,,winter ,,work1 chap4 li4    
#cjc2     dearth of winter work a great 
and growing evil4 #cjc2     consequences

 thereof1 #cjc2     it is quite a modern
 evil1 #cjc-d2     the hard-working     
farmer's claim to leisure1 #cjd2     he 
errs in supposing that there is no      
winter work to be done1 #cjd2     the   
drawing and preparing of muck as an     
illustration1 #cjd-e-f2     the work to 
be substituted where muck is not to be  
had1 #cjf2     procuring commercial     
fertilizers1 #cjf2     fences1 #cjf2    
fruit trees1 #cjf2     forests1 #cjg2   
general counsel1 #cjg4    ,,wyoming1    
#bjf4     ,,zone1 temperate1 #df2       
torrid1 #df4   ,,the ,,end4     ,,horace
 ,,greeley',s ,,autobiography4          
,,recollections ,,of ,a ,,busy ,,life3  
,including ,,reminiscences ,,of         
,,american ,,politics ,,and             
,,politicians1 ,from the ,opening of the
 ,missouri ,contest to the ,downfall of 
,slavery4  ,by ,,horace ,,greeley4  ,in 
one elegant octavo volume4 ,beautifully 
printed and handsomely bound4           
,illustrated with a fine ,steel         
,portrait of ,mr4 ,greeley1 also with   

,wood ,engravings of ,the ,cot where ,i 
was ,born1 ,my ,first ,school ,house1   
,portrait of ,margaret ,faller1 ,my     
,evergreen ,hedge1 ,my ,house in the    
,woods1 ,my ,present ,home1 ,my ,barn4  
,,dedicated ,,to ,,our ,,american ,,boys
 ,,who1 ,,born ,,in ,,poverty1 ,,cradled
 ,,in ,,obscurity1 ,,and ,,early        
,,called ,,from ,,school ,,to ,,rugged  
,,labor1 ,,are ,,seeking ,,to ,,convert 
,,obstacle ,,into ,,opportunity1 ,,and  
,,wrest ,,achievement ,,from            
,,difficulty1  ,,these ,,recollections  
,,are ,,regardfully ,,inscribed ,,by    
,,their ,,author4  ,mr4 ,greeley himself
 gives the best indication of their     
nature1 when he says3 ,i shall never    
write anything else into which ,i shall 
put so much of myself1 my experiences1  
notions1 convictions1 and modes of      
thought as these ,recollections4 ,i     
give1 with small reserve1 my mental     
,history4  ,in his ,apology1 ,mr4       
,greeley says3 99 99 99 ,if my friends  
will accept the essays which conclude   

this volume as a part of my mental      
biography1 ,i respectfully proffer this 
book as my account of all of myself that
 is worth their consideration2 and ,i   
will cherish the hope that some portion1
 at least1 of its contents embody       
lessons of persistence and patience1    
which will not have been set forth in   
vain4  ,,prices3--,,extra ,,cloth1      
#b4ej4 ,,library ,,style 7sheep71 #c4ej4
 ,,half ,,morocco1 #d4jj4 ,,half ,,calf1
 ,,elegant1 #e4jj4 ,,morocco ,,antique1 
#g4jj4  ,sent by ,mail1 free1 on receipt
 of ,price4 ,address  ,,the ,,tribune1  
,new ,york4     ,,the ,,tribune         
,,almanac1  ,two ,vols4 of ,important   
,statistics for #aj4 7,about #a1hjj     
pages of closely printed matter74       
,,volume ,i4 ,,contains ,,from #ahch    
,,to #ahdd1 ,,both ,,years ,,inclusive4 
,,volume ,,ii4 ,,contains ,,from #ahde  
,,to #ahfh1 ,,both ,,years ,,inclusive4 
,in the ,fall of #ahcg--years before the
 establishment of ,,the ,,tribune--the  
,october elections having developed a   

popular uprising against the            
,,jackson-,,van ,,buren dynasty1 which  
had for ten years seemed invincible1 ,i 
was moved to issue a ,,political        
,,register for #ahch1 intended mainly to
 embody the election returns of that    
year1 and compare them with those of    
some preceding year4 ,the reception of  
that little annual was such as to       
justify its reproduction for each       
succeeding year--that of #ahdb only     
excepted--until the issue for #ahfh     
completed a series of thirty ,annual    
,registers of ,election ,returns1 with  
other useful political and statistical  
matter4 ,this annual has been known     
successively as ,the ,politician's      
,register1 ,whig ,almanac1 and ,tribune 
,almanac1 under which last name it has  
been issued for several years past4 ,the
 stereotyped plates of the earlier      
issues having been consumed in the fire 
which destroyed the ,tribune ,building  
in #ahde1 it has for some years past    
been impossible to procure full sets of 

the work at any rate1 and the imperfect 
sets from time to time thrown upon the  
market have commanded fabulous prices4  
,,horace ,,greeley4  ,the complete sets 
of the ,register and ,almanac are       
comprised in two neatly-bound volumes1  
and are now ready4 ,price1 for the two  
volumes1 #aj4  ,each order must be      
accompanied with the cash4 ,address     
,,the ,,tribune1 ,new ,york4            
,,political ,,economy1  ,,by ,,horace   
,,greeley4  ,the ,essays on ,protection 
to ,home ,industry1 published in ,the   
,tribune during the year #ahfi1 have    
been republished in a handsome volume of
 #chd pages4  ,,contents4      ,i4      
,labor--,production4    ,,ii4           
,commerce--,exchanges4   ,,iii4         
,capital--,skill--,invention--,intellect
ual ,property4    ,,iv4 ,money--,the    
,balance of ,trade4     ,v4 ,paper      
,money--,interest--,usury4    ,,vi4     
,slavery--,hired                        
,labor--,proportion--,co-operation4     
,,vii4 ,monopoly--,the ,law of          

,prices--,effect of ,duties on ,cost4   
,,viii4 ,agriculture as affected by     
,protection--,views of the ,fathers4    
,,ix4 ,the ,state--,its ,legitimate     
,sphere--,powers and ,duties--,free     
,trade        ,axioms considered4       
,x4 ,protection for ,agriculture4       
,,xi4 ,manufacturers and their ,needs4  
,,xii4 ,the ,laboring ,class--,its      
,rights1 ,interests1 ,duties1 and       
,needs4  ,,xiii4 ,the ,interest of      
,consumers--,iron4   ,,xiv4 ,protection 
,illustrated--,sugar4    ,,xv4 ,the     
,harmony of ,interests--,the ,sugar     
,industry of ,france        invigorating
 other ,industries--,beet ,sugar on its 
,triumphal        ,march4   ,,xvi4      
,american ,ship-,building1 ,shipping1   
and ,foreign ,commerce4  ,,xvii4        
,credit--,its ,uses and                 
,abuses--,foreign ,indebtedness--,our   
,national        ,debt4 ,,xviii4 ,what  
has been elucidating what shall be4     
,,xix4 ,taxation1 ,direct and ,indirect4
    ,,xx4 ,co-operation4   ,,xxi4 ,wool 

and ,woolens4  ,,xxii4 ,immigration4    
,,xxiii4 ,specific--,ad                 
,valorem--,minimum4  ,,xxiv4            
,conclusions4        ,analytical        
,appendix4  ,for sale at ,,the ,,tribune
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,mail1 postpaid1 on receipt of ,price4  
,address  ,,the ,,tribune1 ,new ,york4  
,,ewbank',s  ,hydraulics  ,mechanics  ,a
 descriptive and historical account of  
,hydraulic and other ,machines for      
,raising ,water4 ,also1 ,observations on
 ,mechanic ,arts and the ,steam ,engine4
 ,illustrated by nearly ,three ,hundred 
,engravings1 #afth edition1 with        
additional matter4 ,by ,,thomas         
,,ewbank1 late ,commissioner of         
,patents4  ,during twenty years this    
work has been recognized as a standard  
authority1 and nearly as many editions  
have been called for1 several of the    
earlier having been issued from the     
,tribune ,office4 ,by frequent additions
 and changes it has been kept fairly    
abreast of the progress of invention and

 science4  ,one large octavo vol41 bound
 in cloth4 ,price #e4 ,sent by mail en  
receipt of price4 ,address  ,,the       
,,tribune1 ,new ,york1   ,pear ,culture 
for ,profit4  ,an illustrated work 7#b;d
 edition71 by ,p4 ,t4 ,,quinn1 a        
,practical ,horticulturist1 for many    
years a successful grower of ,pears for 
market4 ,the subject is simply and      
thoroughly treated under the following  
heads3 ,varieties1 ,aspect1 ,preparation
 of the ,soil1 ,distance ,apart1        
,selecting ,trees1 ,dwarfs and          
,standards1 ,time of ,planting1         
,planting1 ,digging trees from the      
,nursery-,row and ,packing ,varieties to
 ,plant1 ,pruning1 ,orchard ,record4    
,this ,work will be found a complete    
,practical ,manual for the ,pear        
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----------------------------------------
--------                  ,transcriber's
 ,note3                                 
,inconsistent hyphenation and spelling  
in the         original document have   
been preserved4                         
,typographical errors corrected in the  
text3                                   
,page   #bj  lea changed to lee         
,page   #ii  transfering changed to     
transferring       ,page  #bbd  breechy 
changed to breachy                ,page 
#bbd  but changed to butt               
,page  #bgb  ,brobdignag changed to     
,brobdingdag         ,page  #bhc        
consideraby changed to considerably     
,page  #cbd  ,,brocoli changed to       
,,broccoli               ,page  #cbf    

,mape's changed to ,mapes's             
,page  #cbg  ,bolsalere's changed to    
,boissiere's        ,page  #ccb  ot     
changed to of                           
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--------