,a ,,philosophical ,,dictionary         
,,volume ,,ix    ,by    ,,voltaire      
,,edition ,,de ,,la ,,pacification      
,,the ,,works ,,of ,,voltaire    ,a     
,,contemporary ,,version        ,with   
,notes by ,tobias ,smollett1 ,revised   
and ,modernized       ,new ,translations
 by ,william ,f4 ,fleming1 and an       
,introduction by ,oliver ,h4,g4 ,leigh  
,a ,,critique ,,and ,,biography    ,,by 
,,the ,,rt4 ,,hon4 ,,john ,,morley      
,,forty-,,three ,,volumes        ,one   
hundred and sixty-eight designs1        
comprising reproductions        of rare 
old engravings1 steel plates1           
photogravures1                      and 
curious fac-similes      ,,volume ,,xiii
      ,e4,r4 ,du,m,o,n,t    ,,paris 3   
,,london 3 ,,new ,,york 3 ,,chicago     
#aija              ,the ,,works of      
,,voltaire         ,between two servants
 of ,humanity1 who appeared eighteen    
hundred       years apart1 there is a   
mysterious relation4 99 99 99 99 ,let us
 say it       with a sentiment of       

profound respect3 ,,jesus ,,wept3       
,,voltaire ,,smiled4       ,of that     
divine tear and of that human smile is  
composed the       sweetness of the     
present civilization4                   
,,victor ,,hugo4          ,,list ,,of   
,,plates--,,vol4 ,,ix    ,,the ,,houdon 
,,bust--,frontispiece    ,,genius       
,,inspiring ,,the ,,muses    ,,samson   
,,destroying ,,the ,,temple    ,,john   
,,locke      ,illustration3 ,voltaire4  
99       99       99       99       99  
,,voltaire    ,a ,,philosophical        
,,dictionary    ,,in ,,ten ,,volumes    
,,vol4 ,,ix4                            
,,property--,,states-,,general          
99       99       99       99       99  
,,property4      ,liberty and property  
is the great national cry of the        
,english4 ,it is  certainly better than 
,st4 ,george and my right1 or ,st4      
,denis and  ,montjoie2 it is the cry of 
nature4 ,from ,switzerland to ,china the
  peasants are the real occupiers of the
 land4 ,the right of conquest alone     

has1 in some countries1 deprived men of 
a right so natural4    ,the general     
advantage or good of a nation is that of
 the sovereign1 of  the magistrate1 and 
of the people1 both in peace and war4   
,is this  possession of lands by the    
peasantry equally conducive to the      
prosperity  of the throne and the people
 in all periods and circumstances8 ,in  
order  to its being the most beneficial 
system for the throne1 it must be that  
which produces the most considerable    
revenue1 and the most numerous and      
powerful army4    ,we must inquire1     
therefore1 whether this principle or    
plan tends clearly  to increase commerce
 and population4 ,it is certain that the
 possessor of  an estate will cultivate 
his own inheritance better than that of 
another4 ,the spirit of property doubles
 a man's strength4 ,he labors for       
himself and his family both with more   
vigor and pleasure than he would  for a 
master4 ,the slave1 who is in the power 
of another1 has but little  inclination 

for marriage2 he often shudders even at 
the thought of  producing slaves like   
himself4 ,his industry is damped2 his   
soul is  brutalized2 and his strength is
 never exercised in its full energy and 
elasticity4 ,the possessor of property1 
on the contrary1 desires a wife  to     
share his happiness1 and children to    
assist in his labors4 ,his wife  and    
children constitute his wealth4 ,the    
estate of such a cultivator1  under the 
hands of an active and willing family1  
may become ten times  more productive   
than it was before4 ,the general        
commerce will be  increased4 ,the       
treasure of the prince will accumulate4 
,the country will  supply more soldiers4
 ,it is clear1 therefore1 that the      
system is  beneficial to the prince4    
,poland would be thrice as populous and 
wealthy  as it is at present if the     
peasants were not slaves4    ,nor is the
 system less beneficial to the great    
landlords4 ,if we suppose  one of these 
to possess ten thousand acres of land   

cultivated by serfs1  these ten thousand
 acres will produce him but a very      
scanty revenue1  which will be          
frequently absorbed in repairs1 and     
reduced to nothing by  the irregularity 
and severity of the seasons4 ,what will 
he in fact be1  although his estates may
 be vastly more extensive than we have  
mentioned1 if at the same time they are 
unproductive8 ,he will be merely  the   
possessor of an immense solitude4 ,he   
will never be really rich but  in       
proportion as his vassals are so2 his   
prosperity depends on theirs4  ,if this 
prosperity advances so far as to render 
the land too populous2  if land is      
wanting to employ the labor of so many  
industrious hands--as  hands in the     
first instance were wanting to cultivate
 the land--then the  superfluity of     
necessary laborers will flow off into   
cities and  seaports1 into manufactories
 and armies4 ,population will have      
produced  this decided benefit1 and the 
possession of the lands by the real     

cultivators1 under payment of a rent    
which enriches the landlords1 will  have
 been the cause of this increase of     
population4    ,there is another species
 of property not less beneficial2 it is 
that  which is freed from payment of    
rent altogether1 and which is liable    
only  to those general imposts which are
 levied by the sovereign for the        
support and benefit of the state4 ,it is
 this property which has  contributed in
 a particular manner to the wealth of   
,england1 of ,france1  and the free     
cities of ,germany4 ,the sovereigns who 
thus enfranchised the  lands which      
constituted their domains1 derived1 in  
the first instance1  vast advantage from
 so doing by the franchises which they  
disposed of  being eagerly purchased at 
high prices2 and they derive from it1   
even at  the present day1 a greater     
advantage still1 especially in ,france  
and  ,england1 by the progress of       
industry and commerce4    ,england      
furnished a grand example to the        

sixteenth century by  enfranchising the 
lands possessed by the church and the   
monks4 ,nothing  could be more odious   
and nothing more pernicious than the    
before  prevailing practice of men1 who 
had voluntarily bound themselves1 by the
  rules of their order1 to a life of    
humility and poverty1 becoming  complete
 masters of the very finest estates in  
the kingdom1 and treating  their        
brethren of mankind as mere useful      
animals1 as no better than  beasts to   
bear their burdens4 ,the state and      
opulence of this small  number of       
priests degraded human nature2 their    
appropriated and  accumulated wealth    
impoverished the rest of the kingdom4   
,the abuse was  destroyed1 and ,england 
became rich4    ,in all the rest of     
,europe commerce has never flourished2  
the arts have  never attained estimation
 and honor1 and cities have never       
advanced both  in extent and            
embellishment1 except when the serfs of 
the ,crown and the  ,church held their  

lands in property4 ,and it is deserving 
of attentive  remark that if the ,church
 thus lost rights1 which in fact never  
truly  belonged to it1 the ,crown gained
 an extension of its legitimate rights2 
for the ,church1 whose first obligation 
and professed principle it is to        
imitate its great legislator in humility
 and poverty1 was not originally        
instituted to fatten and aggrandize     
itself upon the fruit of the labors  of 
mankind2 and the sovereign1 who is the  
representative of the ,state1  is bound 
to manage with economy1 the produce of  
that same labor for the  good of the    
,state itself1 and for the splendor of  
the throne4 ,in every  country where the
 people labor for the ,church1 the      
,state is poor2 but  wherever they labor
 for themselves and the sovereign1 the  
,state is rich4    ,it is in these      
circumstances that commerce everywhere  
extends its  branches4 ,the mercantile  
navy becomes a school for the warlike   
navy4  ,great commercial companies are  

formed4 ,the sovereign finds in periods 
of  difficulty and danger resources     
before unknown4 ,accordingly1 in the    
,austrian states1 in ,england1 and in   
,france1 we see the prince easily       
borrowing from his subjects a hundred   
times more than he could obtain by      
force while the people were bent down to
 the earth in slavery4    ,all the      
peasants will not be rich1 nor is it    
necessary that they should  be so4 ,the 
,state requires men who possess nothing 
but strength and good  will4 ,even such1
 however1 who appear to many as the very
 outcasts of  fortune1 will participate 
in the prosperity of the rest4 ,they    
will be  free to dispose of their labor 
at the best market1 and this freedom    
will  be an effective substitute for    
property4 ,the assured hope of adequate 
wages will support their spirits1 and   
they will bring up their families  in   
their own laborious and serviceable     
occupations with success1 and  even with
 gayety4 ,it is this class1 so despised 

by the great and  opulent1 that         
constitutes1 be it remembered1 the      
nursery for soldiers4  ,thus1 from kings
 to shepherds1 from the sceptre to the  
scythe1 all is  animation and           
prosperity1 and the principle in        
question gives new force  to every      
exertion4    ,after having ascertained  
whether it is beneficial to a ,state    
that the  cultivators should be         
proprietors1 it remains to be shown how 
far this  principle may be properly     
carried4 ,it has happened1 in more      
kingdoms  than one1 that the emancipated
 serf has attained such wealth by his   
skill and industry as has enabled him to
 occupy the station of his  former      
masters1 who have become reduced and    
impoverished by their  luxury4 ,he has  
purchased their lands and assumed their 
titles2 the old  noblesse have been     
degraded1 and the new have been only    
envied and  despised4 ,everything has   
been thrown into confusion4 ,those      
nations which  have permitted such      

usurpations1 have been the sport and    
scorn of such  as have secured          
themselves against an evil so baneful4  
,the errors of one  government may      
become a lesson for others4 ,they profit
 by its wise and  salutary institutions2
 they may avoid the evil it has incurred
 through  those of an opposite tendency4
    ,it is so easy to oppose the        
restrictions of law to the cupidity and 
arrogance of upstart proprietors1 to fix
 the extent of lands which  wealthy     
plebeians may be allowed to purchase1 to
 prevent their  acquisition of large    
seigniorial property and privileges1    
that a firm  and wise government can    
never have cause to repent of having    
enfranchised servitude and enriched     
indigence4 ,a good is never  productive 
of evil but when it is carried to a     
culpable excess1 in which  case it      
completely ceases to be a good4 ,the    
examples of other nations  supply a     
warning2 and on this principle it is    
easy to explain why those  communities1 

which have most recently attained       
civilization and regular  government1   
frequently surpass the masters from whom
 they drew their  lessons4              
,,prophecies4      ,,section ,i4        
,this word1 in its ordinary acceptation1
 signifies prediction of the  future4   
,it is in this sense that ,jesus        
declared to ,his disciples3 ,all  things
 must be fulfilled which were written in
 the law of ,moses1 and in  the         
,prophets1 and in the ,psalms1          
concerning ,me4 ,then opened ,he their  
understanding that they might understand
 the ,scriptures4    ,we shall feel the 
indispensable necessity of having our   
minds opened to  comprehend the         
prophecies1 if we reflect that the      
,jews1 who were the  depositories of    
them1 could never recognize ,jesus for  
the ,messiah1 and  that for eighteen    
centuries our theologians have disputed 
with them to  fix the sense of some     
which they endeavor to apply to ,jesus4 
,such is  that of ,jacob--,the sceptre  

shall not depart from ,judah1 nor a     
lawgiver  from between his feet1 until  
,shiloh come4 ,that of ,moses--,the     
,lord thy  ,god will raise up unto thee 
a prophet like unto me from the nations 
and  from thy brethren2 unto ,him shall 
ye hearken4 ,that of ,isaiah--,behold a 
virgin shall conceive and bring forth a 
son1 and shall call his name  ,immanuel4
 ,that of ,daniel--,seventy weeks have  
been determined in favor  of thy people1
 etc4 ,but our object here is not to    
enter into  theological detail4    ,let 
us merely observe what is said in the   
,acts of the ,apostles1 that in  giving 
a successor to ,judas1 and on other     
occasions1 they acted  expressly to     
accomplish prophecies2 but the apostles 
themselves  sometimes quote such as are 
not found in the ,jewish writings2 such 
is  that alleged by ,st4 ,matthew3 ,and 
,he came and dwelt in a city called     
,nazareth1 that it might be fulfilled   
which was spoken by the prophets1  ,he  
shall be called a ,nazarene4    ,st4    

,jude1 in his epistle1 also quotes a    
prophecy from the book of  ,enoch1 which
 is apocryphal2 and the author of the   
imperfect work on  ,st4 ,matthew1       
speaking of the star seen in the ,east  
by the ,magi1  expresses himself in     
these terms3 ,it is related to me on the
 evidence  of ,i know not what writing1 
which is not authentic1 but which far   
from  destroying faith encourages it1   
that there was a nation on the borders  
of the eastern ocean which possessed a  
book that bears the name of ,seth1  in  
which the star that appeared to the     
,magi is spoken of1 and the  presents   
which these ,magi offered to the ,son of
 ,god4 ,this nation1  instructed by the 
book in question1 chose twelve of the   
most religious  persons amongst them1   
and charged them with the care of       
observing  whenever this star should    
appear4 ,when any of them died1 they    
substituted one of their sons or        
relations4 ,they were called magi in    
their tongue1 because they served ,god  

in silence and with a low voice4        
,these ,magi went every year1 after the 
corn harvest1 to a mountain in  their   
country1 which they called the ,mount of
 ,victory1 and which is very  agreeable 
on account of the fountains that water  
and the trees which  cover it4 ,there is
 also a cistern dug in the rock1 and    
after having  there washed and purified 
themselves1 they offered sacrifices and 
prayed  to ,god in silence for three    
days4    ,they had not continued this   
pious practice for many generations1    
when  the happy star descended on their 
mountain4 ,they saw in it the figure of 
a little child1 on which there appeared 
that of the cross4 ,it spoke to  them   
and told them to go to ,juda4 ,they     
immediately departed1 the star  always  
going before them1 and were two days on 
the road4    ,this prophecy of the book 
of ,seth resembles that of ,zorodascht  
or  ,zoroaster1 except that the figure  
seen in his star was that of a young    
virgin1 and ,zoroaster says not that    

there was a cross on her4 ,this         
prophecy1 quoted in the ,gospel of the  
,infancy1 is thus related by            
,abulpharagius3 ,zoroaster1 the master  
of the ,magi1 instructed the  ,persians 
of the future manifestation of our ,lord
 ,jesus ,christ1 and  commanded them to 
offer ,him presents when ,he was born4  
,he warned them  that in future times a 
virgin should conceive without the      
operation of  any man1 and that when she
 brought her ,son into the world1 a star
 should  appear which would shine at    
noonday1 in the midst of which they     
would  see the figure of a young virgin4
 ',you1 my children1' adds ,zoroaster1  
'will see it before all nations4 ,when1 
therefore1 you see this star  appear1 go
 where it will conduct you4 ,adore this 
dawning child2 offer it  presents1 for  
it is the word which created heaven4'   
,the accomplishment of this prophecy is 
related in ,pliny's ,natural  ,history2 
but besides that the appearance of the  
star should have  preceded the birth of 

,jesus by about forty years1 this       
passage seems  very suspicious to       
scholars1 and is not the first nor only 
one which  might have been interpolated 
in favor of ,christianity4 ,this is the 
exact  account of it3 ,there appeared at
 ,rome for seven days a comet so        
brilliant that the sight of it could    
scarcely be supported2 in the  middle of
 it a god was perceived under the human 
form2 they took it for  the soul of     
,julius ,csar1 who had just died1 and   
adored it in a  particular temple4      
,m4 ,assermany1 in his ,eastern         
,library1 also speaks of a book of      
,solomon1 archbishop of ,bassora1       
entitled ,the ,bee1 in which there is a 
chapter on this prediction of           
,zoroaster4 ,hornius1 who doubted not   
its  authenticity1 has pretended that   
,zoroaster was ,balaam1 and that was    
very  likely1 because ,origen1 in his   
first book against ,celsus1 says that   
the  ,magi had no doubt of the          
prophecies of ,balaam1 of which these   

words are  found in ,numbers3 ,there    
shall come a star out of ,jacob1 and a  
sceptre  shall rise out of ,israel4 ,but
 ,balaam was no more a ,jew than        
,zoroaster1  since he said himself that 
he came from ,aram--from the mountains  
of the  ,east4    ,besides1 ,st4 ,paul  
speaks expressly to ,titus of a ,cretan 
prophet1 and ,st4  ,clement of          
,alexandria acknowledged that ,god1     
wishing to save the ,jews1  gave them   
prophets2 with the same motive1 ,he ever
 created the most  excellent men of     
,greece2 those who were the most proper 
to receive ,his  grace1 ,he separated   
from the vulgar1 to be prophets of the  
,greeks1 in  order to instruct them in  
their own tongue4 ,has not ,plato1 he   
further  says1 in some manner predicted 
the plan of salvation1 when in the      
second book of his ',republic1' he has  
imitated this expression of  ,scripture3
 ',let us separate ourselves from the   
,just1 for he incommodes  us'2 and he   
expresses himself in these terms3 ',the 

,just shall be beaten  with rods1 ,his  
eyes shall be put out1 and after        
suffering all sorts of  evils1 ,he shall
 at last be crucified4'    ,st4 ,clement
 might have added1 that if ,jesus       
,christ's eyes were not put  out1       
notwithstanding the prophecy1 neither   
were ,his bones broken1 though  it is   
said in a psalm3 ,while they break ,my  
bones1 ,my enemies who  persecute ,me   
overwhelm ,me with their reproaches4 ,on
 the contrary1 ,st4  ,john says         
positively that the soldiers broke the  
legs of two others who  were crucified  
with ,him1 but they broke not those of  
,jesus1 that the  ,scripture might be   
fulfilled3 ,a bone of ,him shall not be 
broken4    ,this ,scripture1 quoted by  
,st4 ,john1 extended to the letter of   
the  paschal lamb1 which ought to be    
eaten by the ,israelites2 but ,john the 
,baptist having called ,jesus the ,lamb 
of ,god1 not only was the  application  
of it given to ,him1 but it is even     
pretended that ,his death  was predicted

 by ,confucius4 ,spizeli quotes the     
history of ,china by  ,maitinus1 in     
which it is related that in the         
thirty-ninth year of the  reign of      
,king-hi1 some hunters outside the gates
 of the town killed a  rare animal which
 the ,chinese called kilin1 that is to  
say1 the ,lamb of  ,god4 ,at this news1 
,confucius struck his breast1 sighed    
profoundly1 and  exclaimed more than    
once3 ,kilin1 who has said that thou art
 come8 ,he  added3 ,my doctrine draws to
 an end2 it will no longer be of use1   
since  you will appear4    ,another     
prophecy of the same ,confucius is also 
found in his second book1  which is     
applied equally to ,jesus1 though ,he is
 not designated under the  name of the  
,lamb of ,god4 ,this is it3 ,we need not
 fear but that when the  expected ,holy 
,one shall come1 all the honor will be  
rendered to ,his  virtue which is due to
 it4 ,his works will be conformable to  
the laws of  heaven and earth4    ,these
 contradictory prophecies found in the  

,jewish books seem to excuse  their     
obstinacy1 and give good reason for the 
embarrassment of our  theologians in    
their controversy with them4 ,further1  
those which we are  about to relate of  
other people1 prove that the author of  
,numbers1 the  apostles and fathers1    
recognized prophets in all nations4 ,the
 ,arabs  also pretend this1 who reckon a
 hundred and eighty thousand prophets   
from the creation of the world to       
,mahomet1 and believe that each of them 
was sent to a particular nation4 ,we    
shall speak of prophetesses in the      
article on ,sibyls4      ,,section ,,ii4
    ,prophets still exist3 we had two at
 the ,bictre in #agbc1 both calling     
themselves ,elias4 ,they were whipped2  
which put it out of all doubt4  ,before 
the prophets of ,cvennes1 who fired off 
their guns from behind  hedges in the   
name of the ,lord in #agjd1 ,holland had
 the famous ,peter  ,jurieu1 who        
published the ,accomplishment of the    
,prophecies4 ,but that  ,holland may not

 be too proud1 he was born in ,france1  
in a little town  called ,mer1 near     
,orleans4 ,however1 it must be confessed
 that it was at  ,rotterdam alone that  
,god called him to prophesy4    ,this   
,jurieu1 like many others1 saw clearly  
that the pope was the beast  in the     
,apocalypse1 that he held poculum aureum
 plenum  abominationum1 the golden cup  
full of abominations2 that the four     
first letters of these four ,latin words
 formed the word papa2 that             
consequently his reign was about to     
finish2 that the ,jews would re-enter   
,jerusalem2 that they would reign over  
the whole world during a thousand       
years2 after which would come the       
,antichrist2 finally1 ,jesus seated on a
  cloud would judge the quick and the   
dead4    ,jurieu prophesies expressly   
that the time of the great revolution   
and  the entire fall of papistry will   
fall justly in the year #afhi1 which ,i 
hold1 says he1 to be the time of the    
apocalyptic vintage1 for the two        

witnesses will revive at this time2     
after which1 ,france will break with    
the pope before the end of this century1
 or at the commencement of the  next1   
and the rest of the anti-,christian     
empire will be everywhere  abolished4   
,the disjunctive particle or1 that sign 
of doubt1 is not in the manner  of an   
adroit man4 ,a prophet should not       
hesitate2 he may be obscure1 but  he    
ought to be sure of his fact4    ,the   
revolution in papistry not happening in 
#afhi1 as ,peter ,jurieu  predicted1 he 
quickly published a new edition1 in     
which he assured the  public that it    
would be in #afij2 and1 what is more    
astonishing1 this  edition was          
immediately followed by another4 ,it    
would have been very  beneficial if     
,bayle's ,dictionary had had such a run 
in the first  instance2 the works of the
 latter have1 however1 remained1 while  
those  of ,peter ,jurieu are not even to
 be found by the side of ,nostradamus4  
,all was not left to a single prophet4  

,an ,english ,presbyterian1 who  studied
 at ,utrecht1 combated all which ,jurieu
 said on the seven vials  and seven     
trumpets of the ,apocalypse1 on the     
reign of a thousand years1  the         
conversion of the ,jews1 and even on    
,antichrist4 ,each supported  himself by
 the authority of ,cocceius1 ,coterus1  
,drabicius1 and ,commenius1  great      
preceding prophets1 and by the          
prophetess ,christina4 ,the two         
champions confined themselves to        
writing2 we hoped they would give each  
other blows1 as ,zedekiah smacked the   
face of ,micaiah1 saying3 ,which way    
went the spirit of the ,lord from my    
hand to thy cheek8 or literally3  ,how  
has the spirit passed from thee to me8  
,the public had not this  satisfaction1 
which is a great pity4      ,,section   
,,iii4    ,it belongs to the infallible 
church alone to fix the true sense of   
prophecies1 for the ,jews have always   
maintained1 with their usual  obstinacy1
 that no prophecy could regard ,jesus   

,christ2 and the ,fathers  of the       
,church could not dispute with them with
 advantage1 since1 except  ,st4 ,ephrem1
 the great ,origen1 and ,st4 ,jerome1   
there was never any ,father  of the     
,church who knew a word of ,hebrew4     
,it is not until the ninth century that 
,raban the ,moor1 afterwards bishop  of 
,mayence1 learned the ,jewish language4 
,his example was followed by  some      
others1 and then they began disputing   
with the rabbi on the sense  of the     
prophecies4    ,raban was astonished at 
the blasphemies which they uttered      
against our  ,saviour2 calling ,him a   
bastard1 impious son of ,panther1 and   
saying that  it is not permitted them to
 pray to ,god without cursing ,jesus3   
,quod  nulla oratio posset apud ,deum   
accepta esse nisi in ea ,dominum nostrum
  ,jesum ,christum maledicant4          
,confitentes eum esse impium et filium  
impii1  id est1 nescio cujus thnici     
quern nominant ,panthera1 a quo dicunt  
matrem ,domini adulteratam4    ,these   

horrible profanations are found in      
several places in the ,talmud1  in the  
books of ,nizachon1 in the dispute of   
,rittangel1 in those of  ,jechiel and   
,nachmanides1 entitled the ,bulwark of  
,faith1 and above all  in the abominable
 work of the ,toldos ,jeschut4 ,it is   
particularly in the  ,bulwark of ,faith 
of the ,rabbin ,isaac1 that they        
interpret all the  prophecies which     
announce ,jesus ,christ by applying them
 to other  persons4    ,we are there    
assured that the ,trinity is not alluded
 to in any ,hebrew  book1 and that there
 is not found in them the slightest     
trace of our  holy religion4 ,on the    
contrary1 they point out a hundred      
passages1  which1 according to them1    
assert that the ,mosaic law should      
eternally  remain4    ,the famous       
passage which should confound the ,jews1
 and make the  ,christian religion      
triumph in the opinion of all our great 
theologians1  is that of ,isaiah3       
,behold a virgin shall conceive and bear

 a son1 and  shall call his name        
,immanuel4 ,butter and honey shall he   
eat1 that he may  know how to refuse the
 evil1 and choose the good4 ,for before 
the child  shall know how to refuse the 
evil and choose the good1 the land that 
thou abhorrest shall be forsaken of both
 her kings4 ,and it shall come to  pass 
in that day1 that the ,lord shall       
whistle for the flies that are in  the  
brooks of ,egypt1 and for the bees that 
are in the land of ,assyria4  ,in the   
same day shall the ,lord shave with a   
razor that is hired1  namely1 by them   
beyond the river1 by the king of        
,assyria1 the head and  the hair of the 
genitals1 and he will also consume the  
beard4    ,moreover1 the ,lord said unto
 me1 take thee a great roll1 and write  
in it with a man's pen concerning       
,maher-shalal-hash-baz4 ,and ,i took    
unto me faithful witnesses to record1   
,uriah the priest1 and ,zachariah  the  
son of ,jeberechiah4 ,and ,i went in    
unto the prophetess2 and  she conceived 

and bare a son2 then said the ,lord to  
me1 call his name                       
,maher-shalal-hash-baz4 ,for before the 
child shall have knowledge to  cry my   
father and my mother1 the riches of     
,damascus1 and the spoil of  ,samaria1  
shall be taken away before the king of  
,assyria4    ,the ,rabbin ,isaac        
affirms1 with all the other doctors of  
his law1 that  the ,hebrew word alma    
sometimes signifies a virgin and        
sometimes a  married woman2 that ,ruth  
is called alma when she was a mother2   
that  even an adulteress is sometimes   
called alma2 that nobody is meant here  
but the wife of the prophet ,isaiah2    
that her son was not called  ,immanuel1 
but ,maher-shalal-hash-baz2 that when   
this son should eat honey  and butter1  
the two kings who besieged ,jerusalem   
would be driven from  the country1 etc4 
,thus these blind interpreters of their 
own religion1 and their own  language1  
combated with the ,church1 and          
obstinately maintained1 that  this      

prophecy cannot in any manner regard    
,jesus ,christ4 ,we have a  thousand    
times refuted their explication in our  
modern languages4 ,we  have employed    
force1 gibbets1 racks1 and flames2 yet  
they will not give  up4    ,he has borne
 our ills1 he has sustained our griefs1 
and we have beheld  him afflicted with  
sores1 stricken by ,god1 and afflicted4 
,however  striking this prediction may  
appear to us1 these obstinate ,jews say 
that  it has no relationship to ,jesus  
,christ1 and that it can only regard the
  prophets who were persecuted for the  
sins of the people4    ,and behold my   
servant shall prosper1 shall be honored1
 and raised very  high4 ,they say1      
further1 that the foregoing passage     
regards not ,jesus  ,christ but ,david2 
that this king really did prosper1 but  
that ,jesus1  whom they deny1 did not   
prosper4 ,behold ,i will make a new pact
 with the  house of ,israel1 and with   
the house of ,judah4 ,they say that this
  passage signifies not1 according to   

the letter and the sense1 anything  more
 than--,i will renew my covenant with   
,judah and with ,israel4 ,however1  this
 pact has not been renewed2 and they    
cannot make a worse bargain  than they  
have made4 ,no matter1 they are         
obstinate4    ,but thou1 ,bethlehem     
,ephratah1 though thou be little among  
the thousands  of ,judah1 yet out of    
thee shall come forth a ruler in        
,israel2 whose  goings forth have been  
from of old1 from everlasting4    ,they 
dare to deny that this prophecy applies 
to ,jesus ,christ4 ,they say  that it is
 evident that ,micah speaks of some     
native captain of  ,bethlehem1 who shall
 gain some advantage in the war against 
the  ,babylonians3 for the moment after 
he speaks of the history of ,babylon1   
and of the seven captains who elected   
,darius4 ,and if we demonstrate that  he
 treated of the ,messiah1 they still    
will not agree4    ,the ,jews are       
grossly deceived in ,judah1 who should  
be a lion1 and who  has only been an ass

 under the ,persians1 ,alexander1 the   
,seleucides1  ,ptolemys1 ,romans1       
,arabs1 and ,turks4    ,they know not   
what is understood by the ,shiloh1 and  
by the rod1 and the  thigh of ,judah4   
,the rod has been in ,juda but a very   
short time4 ,they  say miserable things2
 but the ,abb ,houteville says not much 
more with  his phrases1 his neologism1  
and oratorical eloquence2 a writer who  
always puts words in the place of       
things1 and who proposes very  difficult
 objections merely to reply to them by  
frothy discourse1 or  idle words6       
,all this is1 therefore1 labor in vain2 
and when the ,french abb would  make a  
still larger book1 when he would add to 
the five or six thousand  volumes which 
we have on the subject1 we shall only be
 more fatigued1  without advancing a    
single step4    ,we are1 therefore1     
plunged in a chaos which it is          
impossible for the  weakness of the     
human mind to set in order4 ,once more1 
we have need of a  church which judges  

without appeal4 ,for in fact1 if a      
,chinese1 a ,tartar1  or an ,african1   
reduced to the misfortune of having only
 good sense1 read  all these prophecies1
 it would be impossible for him to apply
 them to  ,jesus ,christ1 the ,jews1 or 
to anyone else4 ,he would be in         
astonishment  and uncertainty1 would    
conceive nothing1 and would not have a  
single  distinct idea4 ,he could not    
take a step in this abyss without a     
guide4  ,with this guide1 he arrives not
 only at the sanctuary of virtue1 but at
  good canon-ships1 at large            
commanderies1 opulent abbeys1 the       
crosiered  and mitred abbots of which   
are called monseigneur by his monks and 
peasants1 and to bishoprics which give  
the title of prince4 ,in a word1  he    
enjoys earth1 and is sure of possessing 
heaven4          ,,prophets4      ,the  
prophet ,jurieu was hissed2 the prophets
 of the ,cvennes were hanged  or racked2
 the prophets who went from ,languedoc  
and ,dauphiny to ,london  were put in   

the pillory2 the ,anabaptist prophets   
were condemned to  various modes and    
degrees of punishment2 and the prophet  
,savonarola was  baked at ,florence4    
,if1 in connection with these1 we may   
advert to the  case of the genuine      
,jewish prophets1 we shall perceive     
their destiny to  have been no less     
unfortunate2 the greatest prophet among 
the ,jews1 ,st4  ,john the ,baptist1 was
 beheaded4    ,zachariah is stated to   
have been assassinated2 but1 happily1   
this is not  absolutely proved4 ,the    
prophet ,jeddo1 or ,addo1 who was sent  
to ,bethel  under the injunction neither
 to eat nor drink1 having unfortunately 
tasted a morsel of bread1 was devoured  
in his turn by a lion2 and his  bones   
were found on the highway between the   
lion and his ass4 ,jonah was  swallowed 
by a fish4 ,he did not1 it is true1     
remain in the fish's  stomach more than 
three days and three nights2 even this1 
however1 was  passing threescore and    
twelve hours very uncomfortably4        

,habakkuk was transported through the   
air1 suspended by the hair of his  head1
 to ,babylon2 this was not a fatal or   
permanent calamity1 certainly2  but it  
must have been an exceedingly           
uncomfortable method of travelling4  ,a 
man could not help suffering a great    
deal by being suspended by his  hair    
during a journey of three hundred miles4
 ,i certainly should have  preferred a  
pair of wings1 or the mare ,borak1 or   
the ,hippogriffe4    ,micaiah1 the son  
of ,imla1 saw the ,lord seated on ,his  
throne1 surrounded  by ,his army of     
celestial spirits2 and the ,lord having 
inquired who could  be found to go and  
deceive ,king ,ahab1 a demon volunteered
 for that  purpose1 and was accordingly 
charged with the commission2 and        
,micaiah1  on the part of the ,lord1    
gave ,king ,ahab an account of this     
celestial  adventure4 ,he was rewarded  
for this communication by a tremendous  
blow  on his face from the hand of the  
prophet ,zedekiah1 and by being shut up 

for some days in a dungeon4 ,his        
punishment might undoubtedly have been  
more severe2 but still1 it is unpleasant
 and painful enough for a man  who knows
 and feels himself divinely inspired to 
be knocked about in so  coarse and      
vulgar a manner1 and confined in a damp 
and dirty hole of a  prison4    ,it is  
believed that ,king ,amaziah had the    
teeth of the prophet ,amos  pulled out  
to prevent him from speaking2 not that a
 person without teeth  is absolutely    
incapable of speaking1 as we see many   
toothless old ladies  as loquacious and 
chattering as ever2 but a prophecy      
should be uttered  with great           
distinctness2 and a toothless prophet is
 never listened to  with the respect due
 to his character4    ,baruch           
experienced various persecutions4       
,ezekiel was stoned by the  companions  
of his slavery4 ,it is not ascertained  
whether ,jeremiah was  stoned or sawed  
asunder4 ,isaiah is considered as having
 been  incontestably sawed to death by  

order of ,manasseh1 king of ,judah4     
,it cannot be denied1 that the          
occupation of a prophet is exceedingly  
irksome and dangerous4 ,for one who1    
like ,elijah1 sets off on his tour      
among the planets in a chariot of light1
 drawn by four white horses1  there are 
a hundred who travel on foot1 and are   
obliged to beg their  subsistence from  
door to door4 ,they may be compared to  
,homer1 who1 we  are told1 was reduced  
to be a mendicant in the same seven     
cities which  afterwards sharply        
disputed with each other the honor of   
having given  him birth4 ,his           
commentators have attributed to him an  
infinity of  allegories which he never  
even thought of2 and prophets have      
frequently  had the like honor conferred
 upon them4 ,i by no means deny that    
there  may have existed elsewhere       
persons possessed of a knowledge of the 
future4 ,it is only requisite for a man 
to work up his soul to a high  state of 
excitation1 according to the doctrine of

 one of our doughty  modern             
philosophers1 who speculates upon boring
 the earth through to the  ,antipodes1  
and curing the sick by covering them all
 over with  pitch-plaster4    ,the ,jews
 possessed this faculty of exalting and 
exciting the soul to  such a degree that
 they saw every future event as clearly 
as possible2  only unfortunately1 it is 
difficult to decide whether by          
,jerusalem they  always mean eternal    
life2 whether ,babylon means ,london or 
,paris2  whether1 when they speak of a  
grand dinner1 they really mean a fast1  
and  whether red wine means blood1 and a
 red mantle faith1 and a white mantle   
charity4 ,indeed1 the correct and       
complete understanding of the prophets  
is the most arduous attainment of the   
human mind4    ,there is likewise a     
further difficulty with respect to the  
,jewish  prophets1 which is1 that many  
among them were ,samaritan heretics4    
,hosea  was of the tribe of ,issachar1  
which dwelt in the ,samaritan territory1

  and ,elisha and ,elijah were of the   
same tribe4 ,but the objection is very  
easily answered4 ,we well know that the 
wind bloweth where it listeth1  and that
 grace lights on the most dry and       
barren1 as well as on the most  fertile 
soil4          ,,providence4      ,i was
 at the grate of the convent when       
,sister ,fessue said to ,sister         
,confite3 ,providence takes a visible   
care of me2 you know how ,i love my     
sparrow2 he would have been dead if ,i  
had not said nine ave-marias to  obtain 
his cure4 ,god has restored my sparrow  
to life2 thanks to the ,holy  ,virgin4  
,a metaphysician said to her3 ,sister1  
there is nothing so good as  ave-marias1
 especially when a girl pronounces them 
in ,latin in the  suburbs of ,paris2 but
 ,i cannot believe that ,god has        
occupied ,himself so  much with your    
sparrow1 pretty as he is2 ,i pray you to
 believe that ,he  has other matters to 
attend to4 ,it is necessary for ,him    
constantly to  superintend the course of

 sixteen planets and the rising of      
,saturn1 in  the centre of which ,he has
 placed the sun1 which is as large as a 
million of our globes4 ,he has also     
thousands and thousands of millions  of 
other suns1 planets1 and comets to      
govern4 ,his immutable laws1 and  ,his  
eternal arrangement1 produce motion     
throughout nature2 all is bound  to ,his
 throne by an infinite chain1 of which  
no link can ever be put out  of place6  
,if certain ave-marias had caused the   
sparrow of ,sister ,fessue  to live an  
instant longer than it would naturally  
have lived1 it would  have violated all 
the laws imposed from eternity by the   
,great ,being2 it  would have deranged  
the universe2 a new world1 a new ,god1  
and a new  order of existence would have
 been rendered unavoidable4    ,,sister 
,,fessue4--,what6 do you think that ,god
 pays so little attention to  ,sister   
,fessue8    ,,metaphysician4--,i am     
sorry to inform you1 that like myself   
you are but  an imperceptible link in   

the great chain2 that your organs1 those
 of  your sparrow1 and my own1 are      
destined to subsist a determinate number
  of minutes in the suburbs of ,paris4  
,,sister ,,fessue4--,if so1 ,i was      
predestined to say a certain number of  
ave-marias4    ,,metaphysician4--,yes2  
but they have not obliged the ,deity to 
prolong the  life of your sparrow beyond
 his term4 ,it has been so ordered1 that
 in  this convent at a certain hour you 
should pronounce1 like a parrot1        
certain words in a certain language     
which you do not understand2 that  this 
bird1 produced like yourself by the     
irresistible action of general  laws1   
having been sick1 should get better2    
that you should imagine that  you had   
cured it1 and that we should hold       
together this conversation4    ,,sister 
,,fessue4--,sir1 this discourse savors  
of heresy4 ,my confessor1 the  reverend 
,father de ,menou1 will infer that you  
do not believe in  ,providence4         
,,metaphysician4--,i believe in a       

general ,providence1 dear sister1 which 
has laid down from all eternity the law 
which governs all things1 like  light   
from the sun2 but ,i believe not that a 
particular ,providence  changes the     
economy of the world for your sparrow or
 your cat4    ,,sister ,,fessue4--,but  
suppose my confessor tells you1 as he   
has told me1  that ,god changes ,his    
intentions every day in favor of the    
devout8    ,,metaphysician4--,he would  
assert the greatest absurdity that a    
confessor  of girls could possibly utter
 to a being who thinks4    ,,sister     
,,fessue4--,my confessor absurd6 ,holy  
,virgin ,mary6    ,,metaphysician4--,i  
do not go so far as that4 ,i only       
observe that he  cannot1 by an          
enormously absurd assertion1 justify the
 false principles  which he has         
instilled into you--possibly very       
adroitly--in order to  govern you4      
,,sister ,,fessue4--,that observation   
merits reflection4 ,i will think of it4 
,,purgatory4      ,it is very singular  

that the ,protestant churches agree in  
exclaiming  that purgatory was invented 
by the monks4 ,it is true that they     
invented  the art of drawing money from 
the living by praying to ,god for the   
dead2  but purgatory existed before the 
monks4    ,it was ,pope ,john ,,xiv41   
say they1 who1 towards the middle of the
 tenth  century1 instituted the feast of
 the dead4 ,from that fact1 however1 ,i 
only conclude that they were prayed for 
before2 for if they then took  measures 
to pray for all1 it is reasonable to    
believe that they had  previously prayed
 for some of them2 in the same way as   
the feast of ,all  ,saints was          
instituted1 because the feast of many of
 them had been  previously celebrated4  
,the difference between the feast of    
,all ,saints  and that of the dead1 is1 
that in the first we invoke1 and that in
 the  second we are invoked2 in the     
former we commend ourselves to the      
blessed1 and in the second the unblessed
 commend themselves to us4    ,the most 

ignorant writers know1 that this feast  
was first instituted at  ,cluny1 which  
was then a territory belonging to the   
,german ,empire4 ,is it  necessary to   
repeat1 that ,st4 ,odilon1 abbot of     
,cluny1 was accustomed to  deliver many 
souls from purgatory by his masses and  
his prayers2 and  that one day a knight 
or a monk1 returning from the holy land1
 was cast  by a tempest1 on a small     
island1 where he met with a hermit1 who 
said to  him1 that in that island       
existed enormous caverns of fire and    
flames1 in  which the wicked were       
tormented2 and that he often heard the  
devils  complain of the ,abbot ,odilon  
and his monks1 who every day delivered  
some  soul or other2 for which reason it
 was necessary to request ,odilon to    
continue his exertions1 at once to      
increase the joy of the saints in       
heaven and the grief of the demons in   
hell8    ,it is thus that ,father       
,gerard1 the ,jesuit1 relates the affair
 in his  ,flower of the ,saints1 after  

,father ,ribadeneira4 ,fleury differs a 
little from this legend1 but has        
substantively preserved it4 ,this       
revelation induced ,st4 ,odilon to      
institute in ,cluny the feast of the    
dead1 which was then adopted by the     
,church4    ,since this time1 purgatory 
has brought much money to those who     
possess  the power of opening the gates4
 ,it was by virtue of this power that   
,english ,john1 that great landlord1    
surnamed ,lackland1 by declaring        
himself the liegeman of ,pope ,innocent 
,,iii41 and placing his kingdom  under  
submission1 delivered the souls of his  
parents1 who had been  excommunicated3  
,pro mortuo excommunico1 pro quo        
supplicant  consanguinei4    ,the ,roman
 chancery had even its regular scale for
 the absolution of the  dead2 there were
 many privileged altars in the fifteenth
 century1 at  which every mass performed
 for six liards delivered a soul from   
purgatory4 ,heretics could not ascend   
beyond the truth1 that the apostles  had

 the right of unbinding all who were    
bound on earth1 but not under  the      
earth2 and many of them1 like impious   
persons1 doubted the power of  the keys4
 ,it is however to be remarked1 that    
when the pope is inclined  to remit five
 or six hundred years of purgatory1 he  
accords the grace  with full power3 ,pro
 potestate a ,deo accepta concedit4     
,of the ,antiquity of ,purgatory4    ,it
 is pretended that purgatory was1 from  
time immemorial1 known to the  famous   
,jewish people1 and it is founded on the
 second book of the  ,maccabees1 which  
says expressly1 that there being found  
concealed in  the vestments of the ,jews
 7at the battle of ,adullam71 things    
consecrated  to the idols of ,jamma1 it 
was manifest that on that account they  
had  perished2 and having made a        
gathering of twelve thousand drachms of 
silver1 ,judas1 who thought religiously 
of the resurrection1 sent them to       
,jerusalem for the sins of the dead4    
,having taken upon ourselves the task of

 relating the objections of the         
heretics and infidels1 for the purpose  
of confounding them by their own        
opinions1 we will detail here these     
objections to the twelve thousand       
drachms transmitted by ,judas2 and to   
purgatory4 ,they say3 #a4 ,that twelve  
thousand drachms of silver was too much 
for ,judas ,maccabeus1 who only         
maintained a petty war of insurgency    
against a great king4    #b4 ,that they 
might send a present to ,jerusalem for  
the sins of the dead1  in order to bring
 down the blessing of ,god on the       
survivors4    #c4 ,that the idea of a   
resurrection was not entertained among  
the ,jews at  this time1 it being       
ascertained that this doctrine was not  
discussed  among them until the time of 
,gamaliel1 a little before the ministry 
of  ,jesus ,christ4    #d4 ,as the laws 
of the ,jews included in the ,decalogue1
 ,leviticus and  ,deuteronomy1 have not 
spoken of the immortality of the soul1  
nor of the  torments of hell1 it was    

impossible that they should contain the 
doctrine of purgatory4    #e4 ,heretics 
and infidels make the greatest efforts  
to demonstrate in  their manner1 that   
the books of the ,maccabees are         
evidently apocryphal4  ,the following   
are their pretended proofs3    ,the     
,jews have never acknowledged the books 
of the ,maccabees to be  canonical1 why 
then should we acknowledge them8 ,origen
 declares formally  that the books of   
the ,maccabees are to be rejected1 and  
,st4 ,jerome  regards them as unworthy  
of credit4 ,the ,council of ,laodicea1  
held in  #efg1 admits them not among the
 canonical books4 ,the ,athanasiuses1   
the  ,cyrils1 and the ,hilarys1 have    
also rejected them4 ,the reasons for    
treating the foregoing books as         
romances1 and as very bad romances1 are 
as follows3    ,the ignorant author     
commences by a falsehood1 known to be   
such by all  the world4 ,he says3       
,alexander called the young nobles1 who 
had been  educated with him from their  

infancy1 and parted his kingdom among   
them  while he still lived4 ,so gross   
and absurd a lie could not issue from   
the pen of a sacred and inspired writer4
    ,the author of the ,maccabees1 in   
speaking of ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 says3
  ,antiochus marched towards ,elymais1  
and wished to pillage it1 but was  not  
able1 because his intention was known to
 the inhabitants1 who  assembled in     
order to give him battle1 on which he   
departed with great  sadness1 and       
returned to ,babylon4 ,whilst he was    
still in ,persia1 he  learned that his  
army in ,juda had fled 444 and he took  
to his bed and  died4    ,the same      
writer himself1 in another place1 says  
quite the contrary2 for  he relates that
 ,antiochus ,epiphanes was about to     
pillage ,persepolis1 and  not ,elymais2 
that he fell from his chariot2 that he  
was stricken with an  incurable wound2  
that he was devoured by worms2 that he  
demanded pardon  of the god of the      
,jews2 that he wished himself to be a   

,jew3 it is there  where we find the    
celebrated versicle1 which fanatics have
 applied so  frequently to their        
enemies2 ,orabet scelestus ille veniam  
quam non  erat consecuturus4 ,the wicked
 man demandeth a pardon1 which he cannot
  obtain4 ,this passage is very ,jewish2
 but it is not permitted to an  inspired
 writer to contradict himself so        
flagrantly4    ,this is not all3 behold 
another contradiction1 and another      
oversight4  ,the author makes ,antiochus
 die in a third manner1 so that there is
 quite  a choice4 ,he remarks that this 
prince was stoned in the temple of      
,nanneus2 and those who would excuse the
 stupidity pretend that he here  speaks 
of ,antiochus ,eupator2 but neither     
,epiphanes nor ,eupator was  stoned4    
,moreover1 this author says1 that       
another ,antiochus 7the ,great7 was     
taken  by the ,romans1 and that they    
gave to ,eumenes the ,indies and ,media4
 ,this  is about equal to saying that   
,francis ,i4 made a prisoner of ,henry  

,,viii41  and that he gave ,turkey to   
the duke of ,savoy4 ,it is insulting the
 ,holy  ,ghost to imagine it capable of 
dictating so many disgusting            
absurdities4    ,the same author says1  
that the ,romans conquered the          
,galatians2 but they  did not conquer   
,galatia for more than a hundred years  
after4 ,thus the  unhappy story-teller  
did not write for more than a hundred   
years after  the time in which it was   
supposed that he wrote3 and it is thus1 
according to the infidels1 with almost  
all the ,jewish books4    ,the same     
author observes1 that the ,romans every 
year nominated a chief  of the senate4  
,behold a well-informed man1 who did not
 even know that  ,rome had two consuls6 
,what reliance1 say infidels1 can be    
placed in  these rhapsodies and puerile 
tales1 strung together without choice or
  order by the most imbecile of men8    
,how shameful to believe in them6 and   
the barbarity of persecuting sensible   
men1 in order to force a belief of      

miserable absurdities1 for which they   
could not but entertain the most        
sovereign contempt1 is equal to that of 
cannibals4    ,our answer is1 that some 
mistakes which probably arose from the  
copyists  may not affect the fundamental
 truths of the remainder2 that the ,holy
  ,ghost inspired the author only1 and  
not the copyists2 that if the  ,council 
of ,laodicea rejected the ,maccabees1   
they have been admitted by  the ,council
 of ,trent2 that they are admitted by   
the ,roman ,church2 and  consequently   
that we ought to receive them with due  
submission4    ,of the ,origin of       
,purgatory4    ,it is certain that those
 who admitted of purgatory in the       
primitive  church were treated as       
heretics4 ,the ,simonians were condemned
 who  admitted the purgation of         
souls--,psuken ,kadaron4    ,st4        
,augustine has since condemned the      
followers of ,origen who maintained     
this doctrine4 ,but the ,simonians and  
the ,origenists had taken their         

purgatory from ,virgil1 ,plato and the  
,egyptians4 ,you will find it clearly   
indicated in the sixth book of the neid1
 as we have already remarked4  ,what is 
still more singular1 ,virgil describes  
souls suspended in air1  others burned1 
and others drowned3                     
,ali panduntur inanes       ,suspens ad 
ventos3 aliis sub gurgite vasto         
,infectum eluitur scelus1 aut exuritur  
igni4                                   
--neid1 ,book vi1 #gdj-gdb4         ,for
 this are various penances enjoined1    
,and some are hung to bleach upon the   
wind2       ,some plunged in waters1    
others purged in fires1       ,till all 
the dregs are drained1 and all the rust 
expires4                                
--,,dryden4    ,and what is more        
singular still1 ,pope ,gregory1 surnamed
 the great1 not  only adopts this       
doctrine from ,virgil1 but in his       
theology introduces  many souls who     
arrive from purgatory after having been 
hanged or  drowned4    ,plato has spoken

 of purgatory in his ,phdon1 and it is  
easy to  discover1 by a perusal of      
,hermes ,trismegistus that ,plato       
borrowed from  the ,egyptians all which 
he had not borrowed from ,timus of      
,locris4    ,all this is very recent1   
and of yesterday1 in comparison with the
  ancient ,brahmins4 ,the latter1 it    
must be confessed1 invented purgatory   
in the same manner as they invented the 
revolt and fall of the genii or         
celestial intelligences4    ,it is in   
their ,shasta1 or ,shastabad1 written   
three thousand years before  the vulgar 
era1 that you1 my dear reader1 will     
discover the doctrine of  purgatory4    
,the rebel angels1 of whom the history  
was copied among the  ,jews in the time 
of the rabbin ,gamaliel1 were condemned 
by the ,eternal  and ,his ,son1 to a    
thousand years of purgatory1 after which
 ,god pardoned  and made them men4 ,this
 we have already said1 dear reader1 as  
also that  the ,brahmins found eternal  
punishment too severe1 as eternity never

  concludes4 ,the ,brahmins thought like
 the ,abb ,chaulieu1 and called upon    
the ,lord to pardon them1 if1 impressed 
with ,his bounties1 they could not  be  
brought to conceive that they would be  
punished so rigorously for  vain        
pleasures1 which passed away like a     
dream3         ,pardonne alors1         
,seigneur1 si1 plein de tes bonts1      
,je n'ai pu concevoir que mes fragilits1
       ,ni tous ces vains plaisirs que  
passent comme un songe1       ,pussent  
tre l'objet de tes svrits2       ,et si 
j'ai pu penser que tant des cruauts4    
,puniraient un peu trop la douceur d'un 
mensonge4               --,,epitre ,,sur
 ,,la ,,mort1 au ,marquis de la ,fare4  
,,quack 7,,or ,,charlatan74      ,the   
abode of physicians is in large towns2  
there are scarcely any in  country      
places4 ,great towns contain rich       
patients2 debauchery1 excess at  the    
tables1 and the passions1 cause their   
maladies4 ,dumoulin1 the  physician1 who
 was in as much practice as any of his  

profession1 said  when dying that he    
left two great physicians behind        
him--simple diet and  soft water4    ,in
 #agbh1 in the time of ,law1 the most   
famous of quacks of the first  class1   
another named ,villars1 confided to some
 friends1 that his uncle1  who had lived
 to the age of nearly a hundred1 and who
 was then killed by  an accident1 had   
left him the secret of a water which    
could easily  prolong life to the age of
 one hundred and fifty1 provided        
sobriety was  attended to4 ,when a      
funeral passed1 he affected to shrug up 
his  shoulders in pity3 ,had the        
deceased1 he exclaimed1 but drank my    
water1 he would not be where he is4 ,his
 friends1 to whom he generously         
imparted it1 and who attended a little  
to the regimen prescribed1 found        
themselves well1 and cried it up4 ,he   
then sold it for six francs the  bottle1
 and the sale was prodigious4 ,it was   
the water of the ,seine1  impregnated   
with a small quantity of nitre1 and     

those who took it and  confined         
themselves a little to the regimen1 but 
above all those who  were born with a   
good constitution1 in a short time      
recovered perfect  health4 ,he said to  
others3 ,it is your own fault if you are
 not  perfectly cured4 ,you have been   
intemperate and incontinent1 correct    
yourself of these two vices1 and you    
will live a hundred and fifty years  at 
least4 ,several did so1 and the fortune 
of this good quack augmented  with his  
reputation4 ,the enthusiastic ,abb de   
,pons ranked him much above  his        
namesake1 ,marshal ,villars4 ,he caused 
the death of men1 he  observed to him1  
whereas you make men live4    ,it being 
at last discovered that the water of    
,villars was only river  water1 people  
took no more of it1 and resorted to     
other quacks in lieu  of him4 ,it is    
certain that he did much good1 and he   
can only be accused  of selling the     
,seine water too dear4 ,he advised men  
to temperance1 and  so far was superior 

to the apothecary ,arnault1 who amused  
,europe with  the farce of his specific 
against apoplexy1 without recommending  
any  virtue4    ,i knew a physician of  
,london named ,brown1 who had practised 
at  ,barbadoes4 ,he had a sugar-house   
and negroes1 and the latter stole from  
him a considerable sum4 ,he accordingly 
assembled his negroes together1  and    
thus addressed them3 ,my friends1 said  
he to them1 the great  serpent has      
appeared to me during the night1 and has
 informed me that  the thief has at this
 moment a paroquet's feather at the end 
of his  nose4 ,the criminal instantly   
applied his hand to his nose4 ,it is    
thou  who hast robbed me1 exclaimed the 
master2 the great serpent has just      
informed me so2 and he recovered his    
money4 ,this quackery is scarcely       
condemnable1 but then it is applicable  
only to negroes4    ,the first ,scipio  
,africanus1 a very different person from
 the physician  ,brown1 made his        
soldiers believe that he was inspired by

 the gods4 ,this  grand charlatanism was
 in use for a long time4 ,was ,scipio to
 be blamed  for assisting himself by the
 means of this pretension8 ,he was      
possibly  the man who did most honor to 
the ,roman republic2 but why the gods   
should inspire him has never been       
explained4    ,numa did better3 he      
civilized robbers1 and swayed a senate  
composed of a  portion of them which was
 the most difficult to govern4 ,if he   
had  proposed his laws to the assembled 
tribes1 the assassins of his            
predecessor would have started a        
thousand difficulties4 ,he addressed    
himself to the goddess ,egeria1 who     
favored him with pandects from          
,jupiter2 he was obeyed without a       
murmur1 and reigned happily4 ,his       
instructions were sound1 his            
charlatanism did good2 but if some      
secret  enemy had discovered his        
knavery1 and had said1 ,let us          
exterminate an  impostor who prostitutes
 the names of the gods in order to      

deceive men1  he would have run the risk
 of being sent to heaven like ,romulus4 
,it is  probable that ,numa took his    
measures ably1 and that he deceived the 
,romans for their own benefit1 by a     
policy adapted to the time1 the  place1 
and the early manners of the people4    
,mahomet was twenty times on the point  
of failure1 but at length  succeeded    
with the ,arabs of ,medina1 who believed
 him the intimate friend  of the angel  
,gabriel4 ,if any one at present was to 
announce in  ,constantinople that he was
 favored by the angel ,raphael1 who is  
superior  to ,gabriel in dignity1 and   
that he alone was to be believed1 he    
would  be publicly empaled4 ,quacks     
should know their time4    ,was there   
not a little quackery in ,socrates with 
his familiar dmon1 and  the express     
declaration of ,apollo1 that he was the 
wisest of all men8  ,how can ,rollin in 
his history reason from this oracle8    
,why not inform  youth that it was a    
pure imposition8 ,socrates chose his    

time ill3 about  a hundred years before 
he might have governed ,athens4         
,every chief of a sect in philosophy has
 been a little of a quack2 but  the     
greatest of all have been those who have
 aspired to govern4 ,cromwell  was the  
most terrible of all quacks1 and        
appeared precisely at a time in  which  
he could succeed4 ,under ,elizabeth he  
would have been hanged2 under  ,charles 
,,ii41 laughed at4 ,fortunately for     
himself he came at a time when  people  
were disgusted with kings3 his son      
followed1 when they were weary  of      
protectors4    ,of the ,quackery of     
,sciences and of ,literature4    ,the   
followers of science have never been    
able to dispense with quackery4  ,each  
would have his opinions prevail2 the    
subtle doctor would eclipse  the angelic
 doctor1 and the profound doctor would  
reign alone4 ,everyone  erects his own  
system of physics1 metaphysics1 and     
scholastic theology2  and the question  
is1 who will value his merchandise8 ,you

 have dependants  who cry it up1 fools  
who believe you1 and protectors on whom 
to lean4  ,can there be greater quackery
 than the substitution of words for     
things1  or than a wish to make others  
believe what we do not believe          
ourselves8    ,one establishes vortices 
of subtile matter1 branched1 globular1  
and  tubular2 another1 elements of      
matter which are not matter1 and a      
pre-established harmony which makes the 
clock of the body sound the  hour1 when 
the needle of the clock of the soul is  
duly pointed4 ,these  chimeras found    
partisans for many years1 and when these
 ideas went out  of fashion1 new        
pretenders to inspiration mounted upon  
the ambulatory  stage4 ,they banished   
the germs of the world1 asserted that   
the sea  produced mountains1 and that   
men were formerly fishes4    ,how much  
quackery has always pervaded history3   
either by astonishing the  reader with  
prodigies1 tickling the malignity of    
human nature with  satire1 or by        

flattering the families of tyrants with 
infamous eulogies6    ,the unhappy class
 who write in order to live1 are quacks 
of another  kind4 ,a poor man who has no
 trade1 and has had the misfortune to   
have  been at college1 thinks that he   
knows how to write1 and repairing to a  
neighboring bookseller1 demands         
employment4 ,the bookseller knows that  
most persons keeping houses are desirous
 of small libraries1 and require        
abridgments and new tables1 orders an   
abridgment of the history of ,rapin     
,thoyras1 or of the church2 a collection
 of bon mots from the  ,menagiana1 or a 
dictionary of great men1 in which some  
obscure pedant  is placed by the side of
 ,cicero1 and a sonneteer of ,italy as  
near as  possible to ,virgil4           
,another bookseller will order romances 
or the translation of romances4  ,if you
 have no invention1 he will say to his  
workman3 ,you can collect  adventures   
from the grand ,cyrus1 from ,gusman     
d',alfarache1 from the  ,secret ,memoirs

 of a ,man of ,quality or of a ,woman of
 ,quality2 and  from the total you will 
make a volume of four hundred pages4    
,another bookseller gives ten years'    
newspapers and almanacs to a man of     
genius1 and says3 ,you will make an     
abstract from all that1 and in three    
months bring it me under the name of a  
faithful ,history of the ,times1  by ,m4
 le ,chevalier ----1 ,lieutenant de     
,vaisseau1 employed in the office  for  
foreign affairs4    ,of this sort of    
books there are about fifty thousand in 
,europe1 and the  labor still goes on   
like the secret for whitening the skin1 
blackening  the hair1 and mixing up the 
universal remedy4          ,,ravaillac4 
,i knew in my infancy a canon of ,pronne
 of the age of ninety-two years1  who   
had been educated by one of the most    
furious burghers of the  ,league--he    
always used to say1 the late ,m4 de     
,ravaillac4 ,this canon had  preserved  
many curious manuscripts of the         
apostolic times1 although they  did     

little honor to his party4 ,the         
following is one of them1 which he      
bequeathed to my uncle3    ,dialogue of 
a ,page of the ,duke of ,sully1 and of  
,master ,filesac1 ,doctor  of the       
,sorbonne1 one of the two ,confessors of
 ,ravaillac4    ,,master                
,,filesac4--,god be thanked1 my dear    
page1 ,ravaillac has died like a  saint4
 ,i heard his confession2 he repented of
 his sin1 and determined no  more to    
fall into it4 ,he wished to receive the 
holy sacrament1 but it is  not the      
custom here as at ,rome2 his penitence  
will serve in lieu of it1  and it is    
certain that he is in paradise4         
,,page4--,he in paradise1 in the ,garden
 of ,eden1 the monster6    ,,master     
,,filesac4--,yes1 my fine lad1 in that  
garden1 or heaven1 it is the  same      
thing4    ,,page4--,i believe so2 but he
 has taken a bad road to arrive there4  
,,master ,,filesac4--,you talk like a   
young ,huguenot4 ,learn that what ,i say
  to you partakes of faith4 ,he         

possessed attrition1 and attrition1     
joined  to the sacrament of confession1 
infallibly works out the salvation which
  conducts straightway to paradise1     
where he is now praying to ,god for     
you4    ,,page4--,i have no wish that he
 should address ,god on my account4 ,let
 him  go to the devil with his prayers  
and his attrition4    ,,master          
,,filesac4--,at the bottom1 he was a    
good soul2 his zeal led him to  commit  
evil1 but it was not with a bad         
intention4 ,in all his  interrogatories1
 he replied that he assassinated the    
king only because  he was about to make 
war on the pope1 and that he did so to  
serve ,god4  ,his sentiments were very  
,christian-like4 ,he is saved1 ,i tell  
you2 he was  bound1 and ,i have unbound 
him4    ,,page4--,in good faith1 the    
more ,i listen to you the more ,i regard
 you as  a man bound yourself4 ,you     
excite horror in me4    ,,master        
,,filesac4--,it is because that you are 
not yet in the right way2  but you will 

be one day4 ,i have always said that you
 were not far from  the kingdom of      
heaven2 but your time is not yet come4  
,,page4--,and the time will never come  
in which ,i shall be made to believe    
that you have sent ,ravaillac to the    
kingdom of heaven4    ,,master          
,,filesac4--,as soon as you shall be    
converted1 which ,i hope will be  the   
case1 you will believe as ,i do2 but in 
the meantime1 be assured that  you and  
the duke of ,sully1 your master1 will be
 damned to all eternity  with ,judas    
,iscariot and the wicked rich man       
,dives1 while ,ravaillac will  repose in
 the bosom of ,abraham4                 
,,page4--,how1 scoundrel6    ,,master   
,,filesac4--,no abuse1 my little son4   
,it is forbidden to call our  brother   
raca1 under the penalty of the gehenna  
or hell fire4  ,permit me to instruct   
without enraging you4    ,,page4--,go   
on2 thou appearest to me so raca1 that  
,i will be angry no  more4    ,,master  
,,filesac4--,i therefore say to you1    

that agreeably to faith you  will be    
damned1 as unhappily our dear ,henry    
,,iv4 is already1 as the  ,sorbonne     
always foresaw4    ,,page4--,my dear    
master damned6 ,listen to the wicked    
wretch6 ,a cane6 a  cane6    ,,master   
,,filesac4--,be patient1 good young man2
 you promised to listen to  me quietly4 
,is it not true that the great ,henry   
died without confession8  ,is it not    
true that he died in the commission of  
mortal sin1 being still  amorous of the 
princess of ,cond1 and that he had not  
time to receive  the sacrament of       
repentance1 ,god having allowed him to  
be stabbed in the  left ventricle of the
 heart1 in consequence of which he was  
instantly  suffocated with his own      
blood8 ,you will absolutely find no good
 ,catholic  who will not say the same as
 ,i do4    ,,page4--,hold thy tongue1   
master madman2 if ,i thought that thy   
doctors  taught a doctrine so           
abominable1 ,i would burn them in their 
lodgings4    ,,master ,,filesac4--,once 

again1 be calm2 you have promised to be 
so4 ,his  lordship the marquis of       
,cochini1 who is a good ,catholic1 will 
know how  to prevent you from being     
guilty of the sacrilege of injuring my  
colleagues4    ,,page4--,but            
conscientiously1 ,master ,filesac1 does 
thy party really think  in this manner8 
,,master ,,filesac4--,be assured of it2 
it is our catechism4                    
,,page4--,listen2 for ,i must confess to
 thee1 that one of thy ,sorbonnists     
almost seduced me last year4 ,he induced
 me to hope for a pension or a          
benefice4 ,since the king1 he observed1 
has heard mass in ,latin1 you who  are  
only a petty gentleman may also attend  
it without derogation4 ,god  takes care 
of ,his elect1 giving them mitres1      
crosses1 and prodigious  sums of money1 
while you of the reformed doctrine go on
 foot1 and can do  nothing but write4 ,i
 own ,i was staggered2 but after what   
thou hast just  said to me1 ,i would    
rather a thousand times be a ,mahometan 

than of thy  creed4    ,the page was    
wrong4 ,we are not to become ,mahometans
 because we are  incensed2 but we must  
pardon a feeling young man who loved    
,henry ,,iv4  ,master ,filesac spoke    
according to his theology2 the page     
attended to his  heart4                 
,,reasonable1 ,,or ,,right4      ,at the
 time that all ,france was carried away 
by the system of ,law1 and  when he was 
comptroller-general1 a man who was      
always in the right came  to him one day
 and said3    ,sir1 you are the greatest
 madman1 the greatest fool1 or the      
greatest  rogue1 who has yet appeared   
among us4 ,it is saying a great deal2   
but  behold how ,i prove it4 ,you have  
imagined that we may increase the riches
  of a state ten-fold by means of paper4
 ,but this paper only represents  money1
 which is itself only a representative  
of genuine riches1 the  production of   
the earth and manufacture4 ,it follows1 
therefore1 that you  should have        
commenced by giving us ten times as much

 corn1 wine1 cloth1  linen1 etc42 this  
is not enough1 they must be certain of  
sale4 ,now you  make ten times as many  
notes as we have money and commodities2 
ergo1 you  are ten times more insane1   
stupid1 or roguish1 than all the        
comptrollers  or superintendents who    
have preceded you4 ,behold how rapidly  
,i will  prove my major4    ,scarcely   
had he commenced his major than he was  
conducted to ,st4  ,lazarus4 ,when he   
came out of ,st4 ,lazarus1 where he     
studied much and  strengthened his      
reason1 he went to ,rome4 ,he demanded a
 public audience1  and that he should   
not be interrupted in his harangue4 ,he 
addressed his  holiness as follows3     
,holy father1 you are ,antichrist1 and  
behold how ,i will prove it to your     
holiness4 ,i call him ante-,christ or   
antichrist1 according to the meaning  of
 the word1 who does everything contrary 
to that which ,christ  commanded4 ,now  
,christ was poor1 and you are very rich4
 ,he paid tribute1  and you exact it4   

,he submitted himself to the powers that
 be1 and you  have become one of them4  
,he wandered on foot1 and you visit     
,castle  ,gandolfo in a sumptuous       
carriage4 ,he ate of all that which     
people were  willing to give him1 and   
you would have us eat fish on ,fridays  
and  ,saturdays1 even when we reside at 
a distance from the seas and rivers4    
,he forbade ,simon ,barjonas using the  
sword1 and you have many swords in  your
 service1 etc4 ,in this sense1          
therefore1 your holiness is             
,antichrist4 ,in every other sense ,i   
exceedingly revere you1 and request  an 
indulgence 'in articulo mortis4'    ,my 
free speaker was immediately confined in
 the castle of ,st4 ,angelo4  ,when he  
came out of the castle of ,st4 ,angelo1 
he proceeded to ,venice1  and demanded  
an audience of the doge4 ,your serenity1
 he exclaimed1  commits a great         
extravagance every year in marrying the 
sea2 for1 in  the first place1 people   
marry only once with the same person2   

secondly1  your marriage resembles that 
of ,harlequin1 which was only half      
performed1 as wanting the consent of one
 of the parties2 thirdly1 who  has told 
you that1 some day or other1 the other  
maritime powers will not  declare you   
incapable of consummating your marriage8
    ,having thus delivered his mind1 he 
was shut up in the tower of ,st4 ,mark4 
,when he came out of the tower of ,st4  
,mark1 he proceeded to  ,constantinople1
 where he obtained an interview with the
 mufti1 and thus  addressed him3 ,your  
religion contains some good points1 such
 as the  adoration of the ,supreme      
,being1 and the necessity of being just 
and  charitable2 nevertheless1 it is a  
mere hash composed out of ,judaism and  
a wearisome heap of stories from ,mother
 ,goose4 ,if the archangel ,gabriel  had
 brought from some planet the leaves of 
the ,koran to ,mahomet1 all  ,arabia    
would have beheld his descent4 ,nobody  
saw him1 therefore ,mahomet  was a bold 
impostor1 who deceived weak and ignorant

 people4    ,he had scarcely pronounced 
these words before he was empaled2      
nevertheless1 he had been all along in  
the right4          ,,relics4      ,by  
this name are designated the remains or 
remaining parts of the body1  or        
clothes1 of a person placed after his   
death by the ,church in the  number of  
the blessed4    ,it is clear that ,jesus
 condemned only the hypocrisy of the    
,jews1 in  saying3 ,woe unto you1       
,scribes and ,pharisees1 hypocrites6    
because ye  build the tombs of the      
prophets1 and garnish the sepulchres of 
the  righteous4 ,thus orthodox          
,christians have an equal veneration for
 the  relics and images of saints1 and  
,i know not what4 ,doctor ,henry        
ventures  to say that when bones or     
other relics are changed into worms1 we 
must  not adore these worms2 the ,jesuit
 ,vasquez decided that the opinion of   
,henry is absurd and vain1 for it       
signifies not in what manner corruption 
takes place2 consequently1 says he1 we  

can adore relics as much under  the form
 of worms as under that of ashes4       
,however this may be1 ,st4 ,cyril of    
,alexandria avows that the origin of    
relics is ,pagan2 and this is the       
description given of their worship by   
,theodoret1 who lived in the            
commencement of the ,christian era3     
,they  run to the temples of martyrs1   
says this learned bishop1 some to       
demand the preservation of their health1
 others the cure of their  maladies2 and
 barren women for fruitfulness4 ,after  
obtaining children1  these women ask the
 preservation of them4 ,those who       
undertake voyages1  pray the martyrs to 
accompany and conduct them2 and on their
 return they  testify to them their     
gratitude4 ,they adore them not as gods1
 but they  honor them as divine men2 and
 conjure them to become their           
intercessors4    ,the offerings which   
are displayed in their temples are      
public proofs  that those who have      
demanded with faith1 have obtained the  

accomplishment of their vows and the    
cure of their disorders4 ,some hang  up 
artificial eyes1 others feet1 and others
 hands of gold and silver4  ,these      
monuments publish the virtue of those   
who are buried in these  tombs1 as their
 influence publishes that the god for   
whom they suffered  is the true ,god4   
,thus ,christians take care to give     
their children the  names of martyrs1   
that they may be insured their          
protection4    ,finally1 ,theodoret     
adds1 that the temples of the gods were 
demolished1  and that the materials     
served for the construction of the      
temples of  martyrs3 ,for the ,lord1    
said he to the ,pagans1 has substituted 
his  dead for your gods2 ,he has shown  
the vanity of the latter1 and           
transferred to others the honors paid to
 them4 ,it is of this that the  famous  
sophist of ,sardis complains bitterly in
 deploring the ruin of  the temple of   
,serapis at ,canopus1 which was         
demolished by order of the  emperor     

,theodosius ,i4 in the year #chi4       
,people1 says ,eunapius1 who had never  
heard of war1 were1 however1  very      
valiant against the stones of this      
temple2 and principally against  the    
rich offerings with which it was filled4
 ,these holy places were  given to      
monks1 an infamous and useless class of 
people1 who provided  they wear a black 
and slovenly dress1 hold a tyrannical   
authority over  the minds of the people2
 and instead of the gods whom we        
acknowledge  through the lights of      
reason1 these monks give us heads of    
criminals1  punished for their crimes1  
to adore1 which they have salted in     
order to  preserve them4    ,the people 
are superstitious1 and it is            
superstition which enchains  them4 ,the 
miracles forged on the subject of relics
 became a loadstone  which attracted    
from all parts riches to the churches4  
,stupidity and  credulity were carried  
so far that1 in the year #chf1 the same 
,theodosius  was obliged to make a law  

by which he forbade buried corpses to be
  transported from one place to another1
 or the relics of any martyr to be      
separated and sold4    ,during the first
 three ages of ,christianity they were  
contented with  celebrating the day of  
the death of martyrs1 which they called 
their  natal day1 by assembling in the  
cemeteries where their bodies lay1 to   
pray for them1 as we have remarked in   
the article on ,mass4 ,they  dreamed not
 then of a time in which ,christians    
would raise temples to  them1 transport 
their ashes and bones from one place to 
another1 show  them in shrines1 and     
finally make a traffic of them2 which   
excited  avarice to fill the world with 
false relics4    ,but the ,third        
,council of ,carthage1 held in the year 
#cig1 having inserted  in the           
,scriptures the ,apocalypse of ,st4     
,john1 the authenticity of which  was   
till then contested1 this passage of    
chapter vi41 ,i saw under the  altar the
 souls of them that were slain for the  

word of ,god--authorized  the custom of 
having relics of martyrs under the      
altars2 and this  practice was soon     
regarded so essential that ,st4         
,ambrose1  notwithstanding the wishes of
 the people1 would not consecrate a     
church  where there were none2 and in   
#fib1 the ,council of ,constantinople1  
in  ,trullo1 even ordered all the altars
 to be demolished under which it  found 
no relics4    ,another ,council of      
,carthage1 on the contrary1 in the year 
#dja1 ordered  bishops to build altars  
which might be seen everywhere1 in      
fields and on  high roads1 in honor of  
martyrs2 from which were here and there 
dug  pretended relics1 on dreams and    
vain revelations of all sorts of people4
    ,st4 ,augustine relates that towards
 the year #dae1 ,lucian1 the priest of a
  town called ,caphargamata1 some miles 
distant from ,jerusalem1 three times    
saw in a dream the learned ,gamaliel1   
who declared to him that his body1  that
 of ,abibas his son1 of ,st4 ,stephen1  

and ,nicodemus1 were buried in a  part  
of his parish which he pointed out to   
him4 ,he commanded him1 on  their part  
and his own1 to leave them no longer    
neglected in the tomb in  which they had
 been for some ages1 but to go and tell 
,john1 bishop of  ,jerusalem1 to come   
and dig them up immediately1 if he would
 prevent the  ills with which the world 
was threatened4 ,gamaliel added that    
this  translation must be made in the   
episcopacy of ,john1 who died about a   
year after4 ,the order of heaven was    
that the body of ,st4 ,stephen should   
be transported to ,jerusalem4    ,either
 ,lucian did not clearly understand1 or 
he was unfortunate--he dug  and found   
nothing2 which obliged the learned ,jew 
to appear to a very  simple and innocent
 monk1 and indicate to him more         
precisely the place  where the sacred   
relics lay4 ,lucian there found the     
treasure which he  sought1 according as 
,god had revealed it unto him4 ,in this 
tomb there  was a stone on which was    

engraved the word cheliel1 which        
signifies  crown in ,hebrew1 as         
stephanos does in ,greek4 ,on the       
opening of  ,stephen's coffin the earth 
trembled1 a delightful odor issued1 and 
a  great number of sick were cured4 ,the
 body of the saint was reduced to       
ashes1 except the bones1 which were     
transported to ,jerusalem1 and placed   
in the church of ,sion4 ,at the same    
hour there fell a great rain1 until     
which they had had a great drouth4      
,avitus1 a ,spanish priest who was then 
in the ,east1 translated into ,latin    
this story1 which ,lucian wrote in      
,greek4 ,as the ,spaniard was the friend
  of ,lucian1 he obtained a small       
portion of the ashes of the saint1 some 
bones full of an oil which was a visible
 proof of their holiness1  surpassing   
newly-made perfumes1 and the most       
agreeable odors4 ,these  relics1 brought
 by ,orosius into the island of         
,minorca1 in eight days  converted five 
hundred and forty ,jews4    ,they were  

afterwards informed by divers visions   
that some monks of ,egypt  had relics of
 ,st4 ,stephen which strangers had      
brought there4 ,as the  monks1 not then 
being priests1 had no churches of their 
own1 they took  this treasure to        
transport it to a church which was near 
,usala4 ,above  the church some persons 
soon saw a star which seemed to come    
before the  holy martyr4 ,these relics  
did not remain long in this church2 the 
bishop  of ,usala1 finding it convenient
 to enrich his own1 transported them1   
seated on a car1 accompanied by a crowd 
of people1 who sang the praises  of     
,god1 attended by a great number of     
lights and tapers4    ,in this manner   
the relics were borne to an elevated    
place in the church  and placed on a    
throne ornamented with hangings4 ,they  
were afterwards  put on a little bed in 
a place which was locked up1 but to     
which a  little window was left1 that   
cloths might be touched1 which cured    
several disorders4 ,a little dust       

collected on the shrine suddenly cured  
one that was paralytic4 ,flowers which  
had been presented to the saint1        
applied to the eyes of a blind man1 gave
 him sight4 ,there were even  seven or  
eight corpses restored to life4    ,st4 
,augustine1 who endeavors to justify    
this worship by distinguishing  it from 
that of adoration1 which is due to ,god 
alone1 is obliged to  agree that he     
himself knew several ,christians who    
adored sepulchres and  images4 ,i know  
several who drink to great excess on the
 tombs1 and who1  in giving             
entertainments to the dead1 fell        
themselves on those who were  buried4   
,indeed1 turning fresh from ,paganism1  
and charmed to find deified men in  the 
,christian church1 though under other   
names1 the people honored them  as much 
as they had honored their false gods2   
and it would be grossly  deceiving      
ourselves to judge of the ideas and     
practices of the populace  by those of  
enlightened and philosophic bishops4 ,we

 know that the sages  among the ,pagans 
made the same distinctions as our holy  
bishops4 ,we  must1 said ,hierocles1    
acknowledge and serve the gods so as to 
take  great care to distinguish them    
from the supreme ,god1 who is their     
author  and father4 ,we must not too    
greatly exalt their dignity4 ,and       
finally the  worship which we give them 
should relate to their sole creator1    
whom you  may properly call the ,god of 
gods1 because ,he is the ,master of all1
 and  the most excellent of all4        
,porphyrius1 who1 like ,st4 ,paul1 terms
 the  supreme ,god1 the ,god who is     
above all things1 adds that we must not 
sacrifice to ,him anything that is      
sensible or material1 because1 being  a 
pure ,spirit1 everything material is    
impure to ,him4 ,he can only be         
worthily honored by the thoughts and    
sentiments of a soul which is not       
tainted with any sinful passion4    ,in 
a word1 ,st4 ,augustine1 in declaring   
with navet that he dared not  speak     

freely on several similar abuses on     
account of giving opportunity  for      
scandal to pious persons or to pedants1 
shows that the bishops made  use of the 
artifice to convert the ,pagans1 as ,st4
 ,gregory recommended  two centuries    
after to convert ,england4 ,this pope1  
being consulted by  the monk ,augustine 
on some remains of ceremonies1 half     
civil and half  ,pagan1 which the newly 
converted ,english would not renounce1  
answered1  ,we cannot divest hard minds 
of all their habits at once2 we reach   
not  to the top of a steep rock by      
leaping1 but by climbing step by step4  
,the reply of the same pope to          
,constantina1 the daughter of the       
emperor  ,tiberius ,constantine1 and the
 wife of ,maurice1 who demanded of him  
the  head of ,st4 ,paul1 to place in a  
temple which she had built in honor of  
this apostle1 is no less remarkable4    
,st4 ,gregory sent word to the  princess
 that the bodies of saints shone with so
 many miracles that they  dared not even

 approach their tombs to pray without   
being seized with  fear4 ,that his      
predecessor 7,pelagius ,,ii47 wishing to
 remove some silver  from the tomb of   
,st4 ,peter to another place four feet  
distant1 he  appeared to him with       
frightful signs4 ,that he 7,gregory7    
wishing to make  some repairs in the    
monument of ,st4 ,paul1 as it had sunk a
 little in  front1 and he who had the   
care of the place having had the        
boldness to  raise some bones which     
touched not the tomb of the apostle1 to 
transport  them elsewhere1 he appeared  
to him also in a terrible manner1 and he
  died immediately4 ,that his           
predecessor also wishing to repair the  
tomb  of ,st4 ,lawrence1 the shroud     
which encircled the body of the martyr  
was  imprudently discovered2 and        
although the laborers were monks and    
officers of the church1 they all died in
 the space of ten days because  they had
 seen the body of the saint4 ,that when 
the ,romans gave relics1  they never    

touched the sacred bodies1 but contented
 themselves with  putting some cloths1  
with which they approached them1 in a   
box4 ,that  these cloths have the same  
virtue as relics1 and perform as many   
miracles4 ,that certain ,greeks1        
doubting of this fact1 ,pope ,leo took a
  pair of scissors1 and in their        
presence cutting some of the cloth which
  had approached the holy bodies1 blood 
came from it4 ,that in the west of      
,rome it is a sacrilege to touch the    
bodies of saints2 and that if any  one  
attempts1 he may be assured that his    
crime will not go unpunished4  ,for     
which reason the ,greeks cannot be      
persuaded to adopt the custom of        
transporting relics4 ,that some ,greeks 
daring to disinter some bodies in  the  
night near the church of ,st4 ,paul1    
intending to transport them into  their 
own country1 were discovered1 which     
persuaded them that the relics  were    
false4 ,that the easterns1 pretending   
that the bodies of ,st4 ,peter  and ,st4

 ,paul belonged to them1 came to ,rome  
to take them to their own  country2 but 
arriving at the catacombs where these   
bodies repose1 when  they would have    
taken them1 sudden lightning and        
terrible thunder  dispersed the alarmed 
multitude and forced them to renounce   
their  undertaking4 ,that those who     
suggested to ,constantina the demand of 
the  head of ,st4 ,paul from him1 had no
 other design than that of making him   
lose his favor4 ,st4 ,gregory concludes 
with these words3 ,i have that          
confidence in ,god1 that you will not be
 deprived of the fruit of your  good    
will1 nor of the virtue of the holy     
apostles1 whom you love with  all your  
heart and with all your mind2 and that1 
if you have not their  corporeal        
presence1 you will always enjoy their   
protection4    ,yet the ecclesiastical  
history pretends that the translation of
 relics  was equally frequent in the    
,east and ,west2 and the author of the  
notes  to this letter further observes  

that the same ,st4 ,gregory afterwards  
gave several holy bodies1 and that other
 popes have given so many as six  or    
seven to one individual4    ,after this1
 can we be astonished at the favor which
 relics find in the  minds of people and
 kings8 ,the sermons most commonly      
preached among the  ancient ,french were
 composed on the relics of saints4 ,it  
was thus that  the kings ,gontran1      
,sigebert1 and ,chilperic divided the   
states of  ,clotaire1 and agreed to     
possess ,paris in common4 ,they made    
oath on the  relics of ,st4 ,polyeuctus1
 ,st4 ,hilary1 and ,st4 ,martin4 ,yet   
,chilperic  possessed himself of the    
place and merely took the precaution of 
having  a shrine1 with a quantity of    
relics1 which he had carried as a       
safeguard  at the head of his troops1 in
 hopes that the protection of these new 
patrons would shelter him from the      
punishment due to his perjury4          
,finally1 the catechism of the ,council 
of ,trent approved of the custom of     

swearing by relics4    ,it is further   
observed that the kings of ,france of   
the first and second  races kept in     
their palaces a great number of relics2 
above all1 the cap  and mantle of ,st4  
,martin2 and that they had them carried 
in their trains  and in their armies4   
,these relics were sent from the palaces
 to the  provinces when an oath of      
fidelity was made to the king1 or any   
treaty  was concluded4                  
,,religion4      ,,section ,i4    ,the  
,epicureans1 who had no religion1       
recommended retirement from public      
affairs1 study1 and concord4 ,this sect 
was a society of friends1 for           
friendship was their principal dogma4   
,atticus1 ,lucretius1 ,memmius1 and a   
few other such men1 might live very     
reputably together2 this we see in  all 
countries2 philosophize as much as you  
please among yourselves4 ,a  set of     
amateurs may give a concert of refined  
and scientific music2 but  let them     
beware of performing such a concert     

before the ignorant and  brutal vulgar1 
lest their instruments be broken over   
their heads4 ,if you  have but a village
 to govern1 it must have a religion4    
,i speak not here of an error2 but of   
the only good1 the only necessary1  the 
only proved1 and the second revealed4   
,had it been possible for the human mind
 to have admitted a religion--,i  will  
not say at all approaching ours--but not
 so bad as all the other  religions in  
the world--what would that religion have
 been8    ,would it not have been that  
which should propose to us the adoration
 of  the supreme1 only1 infinite1       
eternal ,being1 the former of the world1
 who  gives it motion and life1 cui nec 
simile1 nec secundum8 ,that which       
should re-unite us to this ,being of    
beings1 as the reward of our  virtues1  
and separate us from ,him1 as the       
chastisement of our crimes8    ,that    
which should admit very few of the      
dogmas invented by unreasoning  pride2  
those eternal subjects of disputation2  

and should teach a pure  morality1 about
 which there should never be any        
dispute8    ,that which should not make 
the essence of worship consist in vain  
ceremonies1 as that of spitting into    
your mouth1 or that of taking from  you 
one end of your prepuce1 or of depriving
 you of one of your  testicles--seeing  
that a man may fulfil all the social    
duties with two  testicles and an entire
 foreskin1 and without another's        
spitting into  his mouth8    ,that of   
serving one's neighbor for the love of  
,god1 instead of  persecuting and       
butchering him in ,god's name8 ,that    
which should tolerate  all others1 and  
which1 meriting thus the goodwill of    
all1 should alone  be capable of making 
mankind a nation of brethren8    ,that  
which should have august ceremonies1 to 
strike the vulgar1 without  having      
mysteries to disgust the wise and       
irritate the incredulous8    ,that which
 should offer men more encouragements to
 the social virtues  than expiations for

 social crimes8    ,that which should   
insure to its ministers a revenue large 
enough for  their decent maintenance1   
but should never allow them to usurp    
dignities  and power that might make    
them tyrants8    ,that which should     
establish commodious retreats for       
sickness and old  age1 but never for    
idleness8    ,a great part of this      
religion is already in the hearts of    
several  princes2 and it will prevail   
when the articles of perpetual peace1   
proposed by the abb de ,st4 ,pierre1    
shall be signed by all potentates4      
,,section ,,ii4    ,last night ,i was   
meditating2 ,i was absorbed in the      
contemplation of  nature1 admiring the  
immensity1 the courses1 the relations of
 those  infinite globes1 which are above
 the admiration of the vulgar4    ,i    
admired still more the intelligence that
 presides over this vast  machinery4 ,i 
said to myself3 ,a man must be blind not
 to be impressed by  this spectacle2 he 
must be stupid not to recognize its     

author2 he must  be mad not to adore    
him4 ,what tribute of adoration ought ,i
 to render  him8 ,should not this       
tribute be the same throughout the      
extent of space1  since the same        
,supreme ,power reigns equally in all   
that extent8    ,does not a thinking    
being1 inhabiting a star of the ,milky  
,way1 owe him  the same homage as the   
thinking being on this little globe     
where we are8  ,light is the same to the
 dog-star as to us2 morality1 too1 must 
be the  same4    ,if a feeling and      
thinking being in the dog-star is born  
of a tender  father and mother1 who have
 labored for his welfare1 he owes them  
as  much love and duty as we here owe to
 our parents4 ,if any one in the  ,milky
 ,way sees another lame and indigent1   
and does not relieve him1  though able  
to do it1 he is guilty in the sight of  
every globe4    ,the heart has          
everywhere the same duties2 on the steps
 of the throne of  ,god1 if ,he has a   
throne1 and at the bottom of the great  

abyss1 if there  be an abyss4    ,i was 
wrapt in these reflections1 when one of 
those genii who fill the  spaces between
 worlds1 came down to me4 ,i recognized 
the same aerial  creature that had      
formerly appeared to me1 to inform me   
that the  judgments of ,god are         
different from ours1 and how much a good
 action is  preferable to controversy4  
,he transported me into a desert covered
 all over with bones piled one  upon    
another2 and between these heaps of dead
 there were avenues of  evergreen trees1
 and at the end of each avenue a tall   
man of august  aspect gazing with       
compassion on these sad remains4        
,alas6 my archangel1 said ,i1 whither   
have you brought me8 ,to  desolation1   
answered he4 ,and who are those fine old
 patriarchs whom ,i  see motionless and 
melancholy at the end of those green    
avenues1 and who  seem to weep over this
 immense multitude of dead8 ,poor human 
creature6  thou shalt know1 replied the 
genius2 but1 first1 thou must weep4     

,he began with the first heap4 ,these1  
said he1 are the twenty-three  thousand 
,jews who danced before a calf1 together
 with the twenty-four  thousand who were
 slain while ravishing ,midianitish     
women2 the number of  the slaughtered   
for similar offences or mistakes amounts
 to nearly three  hundred thousand4     
,at the following avenues are the bones 
of ,christians1 butchered by one        
another on account of metaphysical      
disputes4 ,they are divided into        
several piles of four centuries each2 it
 was necessary to separate them2  for   
had they been all together1 they would  
have reached the sky4    ,what6         
exclaimed ,i1 have brethren thus treated
 their brethren2 and  have ,i the       
misfortune to be one of this            
brotherhood8    ,illustration3 ,genius  
inspiring the muses4    ,here1 said the 
spirit1 are twelve millions of          
,americans slain in  their own country  
for not having been baptized4 ,ah6 ,my  
,god6 why were  not these frightful     

skeletons left to whiten in the         
hemisphere where the  bodies were born1 
and where they were murdered in so many 
various ways8  ,why are all these       
abominable monuments of barbarity and   
fanaticism  assembled here8 ,for thy    
instruction4    ,since thou art willing 
to instruct me1 said ,i to the genius1  
tell me  if there be any other people   
than the ,christians and the ,jews1 whom
 zeal  and religion1 unhappily turned   
into fanaticism1 have prompted to so    
many  horrible cruelties8 ,yes1 said he2
 the ,mahometans have been stained  by  
the same inhuman acts1 but rarely2 and  
when their victims have cried  out      
'amman6' 7mercy67 and have offered them 
tribute1 they have  pardoned them4 ,as  
for other nations1 not one of them1     
since the  beginning of the world1 has  
ever made a purely religious war4 ,now1 
follow me6 ,i followed4    ,a little    
beyond these heaps of dead we found     
other heaps2 there were  bags of gold   
and silver2 and each pile had its label3

 ,substance of the  heretics massacred  
in the eighteenth century1 in the       
seventeenth1 in the  sixteenth1 and so  
on4 ,gold and silver of the slaughtered 
,americans1  etc42 and all these piles  
were surmounted by crosses1 mitres1     
crosiers1  and tiaras1 enriched with    
jewels4    ,what6 my genius1 was it then
 to possess these riches that these     
carcasses were accumulated8    ,yes1 my 
son4    ,i shed tears2 and when by my   
grief ,i had merited to be taken to the 
end  of the green avenues1 he conducted 
me thither4    ,contemplate1 said he1   
the heroes of humanity who have been the
  benefactors of the earth1 and who     
united to banish from the world1 as  far
 as they were able1 violence and rapine4
 ,question them4    ,i went up to the   
first of this band2 on his head was a   
crown1 and in his  hand a small censer4 
,i humbly asked him his name4 ,i1 said  
he1 am ,numa  ,pompilius2 ,i succeeded a
 robber1 and had robbers to govern2 ,i  
taught  them virtue and the worship of  

,god2 after me they repeatedly forgot   
both4 ,i forbade any image to be placed 
in the temples1 because the  divinity   
who animates nature cannot be           
represented4 ,during my reign the       
,romans had neither wars nor seditions2 
and my religion did nothing but  good4  
,every neighboring people came to honor 
my funeral1 which has  happened to me   
alone4444    ,i made my obeisance and   
passed on to the second4 ,this was a    
fine old  man1 of about a hundred1 clad 
in a white robe2 his middle finger was  
placed on his lip1 and with the other   
hand he was scattering beans  behind    
him4 ,in him ,i recognized ,pythagoras4 
,he assured me that he had  never had a 
golden thigh1 and that he had never been
 a cock1 but that he  had governed the  
,crotonians with as much justice as     
,numa had governed  the ,romans about   
the same time1 which justice was the    
most necessary and  the rarest thing in 
the world4 ,i learned that the          
,pythagoreans examined  their           

consciences twice a day4 ,what good     
people6 and how far are we  behind them6
 ,yet we1 who for thirteen hundred years
 have been nothing  but assassins1      
assert that these wise men were proud4  
,to please ,pythagoras ,i said not a    
word to him1 but went on to ,zoroaster1 
who was engaged in concentrating the    
celestial fire in the focus of a        
concave mirror1 in the centre of a      
vestibule with a hundred gates1 each    
one leading to wisdom4 ,on the principal
 of these gates ,i read these  words1   
which are the abstract of all morality1 
and cut short all the  disputes of the  
casuists3 ,when thou art in doubt       
whether an action is  good or bad1      
abstain from it4    ,certainly1 said ,i 
to my genius1 the barbarians who        
immolated all the  victims whose bones  
,i have seen had not read these fine    
words4    ,then we saw ,zaleucus1       
,thales1 ,anaximander1 and all the other
 sages who  had sought truth and        
practised virtue4    ,when we came to   

,socrates ,i quickly recognized him by  
his broken nose4  ,well1 said ,i1 you   
then are among the confidants of the    
,most ,high6 ,all  the inhabitants of   
,europe1 excepting the ,turks and the   
,crim ,tartars1 who  know nothing1      
pronounce your name with reverence4 ,so 
much is that great  name venerated1 so  
much is it loved1 that it has been      
sought to  discover those of your       
persecutors4 ,melitus and ,anitus are   
known because  of you1 as ,ravaillac is 
known because of ,henry ,,iv42 but of   
,anitus ,i know  only the name4 ,i know 
not precisely who that villain was by   
whom you  were calumniated1 and who     
succeeded in procuring your condemnation
 to  the hemlock4    ,i have never      
thought of that man since my adventure1 
answered  ,socrates2 but now that you   
put me in mind of him1 ,i pity him much4
 ,he  was a wicked priest1 who secretly 
carried on a trade in leather1 a        
traffic reputed shameful amongst us4 ,he
 sent his two children to my  school2   

the other disciples reproached them with
 their father's being a  currier1 and   
they were obliged to quit4 ,the incensed
 father was  unceasing in his endeavors 
until he had stirred up against me all  
the  priests and all the sophists4 ,they
 persuaded the council of the five      
hundred that ,i was an impious man1 who 
did not believe that the moon1          
,mercury1 and ,mars were deities4 ,i    
thought indeed1 as ,i do now1 that      
there is but one ,god1 the master of all
 nature4 ,the judges gave me up to  the 
republic's poisoner1 and he shortened my
 life a few days4 ,i died  with         
tranquillity at the age of seventy      
years1 and since then ,i have led  a    
happy life with all these great men whom
 you see1 and of whom ,i am the         
least4444    ,after enjoying the        
conversation of ,socrates for some time1
 ,i advanced  with my guide into a      
bower1 situated above the groves1 where 
all these  sages of antiquity seemed to 
be tasting the sweets of repose4        

,here ,i beheld a man of mild and simple
 mien1 who appeared to me to be  about  
thirty-five years old4 ,he was looking  
with compassion upon the  distant heaps 
of whitened skeletons through which ,i  
had been led to the  abode of the sages4
 ,i was astonished to find his feet     
swelled and  bloody1 his hands in the   
same state1 his side pierced1 and his   
ribs laid  bare by flogging4 ,good ,god6
 said ,i1 is it possible that one of the
  just and wise should be in this state8
 ,i have just seen one who was  treated 
in a very odious manner2 but there is no
 comparison between his  punishment and 
yours4 ,bad priests and bad judges      
poisoned him4 ,was it  also by priests  
and judges that you were so cruelly     
assassinated8    ,with great affability 
he answered--,yes4    ,and who were     
those monsters8    ,they were           
hypocrites4    ,ah6 you have said all6  
by that one word ,i understand that they
 would  condemn you to the worst of     
punishments4 ,you then had proved to    

them1  like ,socrates1 that the moon was
 not a goddess1 and that ,mercury was   
not  a god8    ,no2 those planets were  
quite out of the question4 ,my          
countrymen did not  even know what a    
planet was2 they were all arrant        
ignoramuses4 ,their  superstitions were 
quite different from those of the       
,greeks4    ,then you wished to teach   
them a new religion8    ,not at all2 ,i 
simply said to them--',love ,god with   
all your hearts1 and  your neighbor as  
yourselves2 for that is all4' ,judge    
whether this  precept is not as old as  
the universe2 judge whether ,i brought  
them a  new worship4 ,i constantly told 
them that ,i was come1 not to abolish   
their law1 but to fulfil it2 ,i had     
observed all their rites2 ,i was        
circumcised as they all were2 ,i was    
baptized like the most zealous of  them2
 like them ,i paid the corban2 like them
 ,i kept the ,passover2 and  ate1       
standing1 lamb cooked with lettuce4 ,i  
and my friends went to pray  in their   

temple2 my friends1 too1 frequented the 
temple after my death4  ,in short1 ,i   
fulfilled all their laws without one    
exception4    ,what6 could not these    
wretches even reproach you with having  
departed  from their laws8    ,certainly
 not4    ,why1 then1 did they put you in
 the state in which ,i now see you8     
,must ,i tell you8--,they were proud and
 selfish2 they saw that ,i knew  them2  
they saw that ,i was making them known  
to the citizens2 they were  the         
strongest2 they took away my life2 and  
such as they will always do  the same1  
if they can1 to whoever shall have done 
them too much  justice4    ,but did you 
say nothing2 did you do nothing1 that   
could serve them as a  pretext8    ,the 
wicked find a pretext in everything4    
,did you not once tell them that you    
were come to bring1 not peace1 but  the 
sword8    ,this was an error of some    
scribe4 ,i told them that ,i brought1   
not the  sword1 but peace4 ,i never     
wrote anything2 what ,i said might be   

miscopied  without any ill intent4      
,you did not then contribute in         
anything1 by your discourses1 either    
badly rendered or badly interpreted1 to 
those frightful masses of bones  which  
,i passed on my way to consult you8     
,i looked with horror on those who were 
guilty of all these murders4    ,and    
those monuments of power and wealth--of 
pride and avarice--those  treasures1    
those ornaments1 those ensigns of       
greatness1 which1 when  seeking wisdom1 
,i saw accumulated on the way--do they  
proceed from you8    ,it is impossible2 
,i and mine lived in poverty and        
lowliness2 my  greatness was only in    
virtue4    ,i was on the point of       
begging of him to have the goodness just
 to tell  me who he was2 but my guide   
warned me to refrain4 ,he told me that  
,i was  not formed for comprehending    
these sublime mysteries4 ,i conjured him
 to  tell me only in what true religion 
consisted4    ,have ,i not told you     
already8--,love ,god and your neighbor  

as yourself4    ,what6 ,can we love ,god
 and yet eat meat on a ,friday8    ,i   
always ate what was given me2 for ,i was
 too poor to give a dinner to  any one4 
,might we love ,god and be just1 and    
still be prudent enough not to  intrust 
all the adventures of one's life to a   
person one does not know8    ,such was  
always my custom4    ,might not ,i1     
while doing good1 be excused from making
 a pilgrimage to  ,st4 ,james of        
,compostello8    ,i never was in that   
country4    ,should ,i confine myself in
 a place of retirement ,with blockheads8
    ,for my part1 ,i always made little 
journeys from town to town4    ,must ,i 
take part with the ,greek or with the   
,latin ,church8    ,when ,i was in the  
world1 ,i never made any difference     
between the ,jew  and the ,samaritan4   
,well1 if it be so1 ,i take you for my  
only master4    ,then he gave me a nod1 
which filled me with consolation4 ,the  
vision  disappeared1 and ,i was left    
with a good conscience4      ,,section  

,,iii4    ,questions on ,religion4      
,,first ,,question4    ,warburton1      
bishop of ,gloucester1 author of one of 
the most learned works  ever written1   
thus expresses himself 7,divine         
,legation of ,moses1 i41  #h73 ,a       
religion1 a society1 which is not       
founded on the belief of a  future      
state1 must be supported by an          
extraordinary ,providence4 ,judaism  is 
not founded on the belief of a future   
state2 therefore1 ,judaism was          
supported by an extraordinary           
,providence4    ,many theologians rose  
up against him2 and1 as all arguments   
are  retorted1 so was his retorted upon 
himself2 he was told3    ,every religion
 which is not founded on the dogma of   
the immortality of  the soul1 and on    
everlasting rewards and punishments1 is 
necessarily  false4 ,now these dogmas   
were unknown to the ,jews2 therefore    
,judaism1 far  from being supported by  
,providence1 was1 on your own           
principles1 a false  and barbarous      

religion by which ,providence was       
attacked4    ,this bishop had some other
 adversaries1 who maintained against him
 that  the immortality of the soul was  
known to the ,jews even in the time of  
,moses2 but he proved to them very      
clearly that neither the ,decalogue1    
nor ,leviticus1 nor ,deuteronomy1 had   
said one word of such a belief2 and     
that it is ridiculous to strive to      
distort and corrupt some passages of    
other books1 in order to draw from them 
a truth which is not announced  in the  
book of the law4    ,the bishop1 having 
written four volumes to demonstrate that
 the ,jewish  law proposed neither pains
 nor rewards after death1 has never been
 able  to answer his adversaries in a   
very satisfactory manner4 ,they said to 
him3 ,either ,moses knew this dogma1 and
 so deceived the ,jews by not           
communicating it1 or he did not know it1
 in which case he did not know  enough  
to found a good religion4 ,indeed1 if   
the religion had been good  why should  

it have been abolished8 ,a true religion
 must be for all times  and all places2 
it must be as the light of the sun1     
enlightening all  nations and           
generations4    ,this prelate1          
enlightened as he is1 has found it no   
easy task to  extricate himself from so 
many difficulties4 ,but what system is  
free  from them8      ,,second          
,,question4    ,another man of learning1
 and a much greater philosopher1 who is 
one of  the profoundest metaphysicians  
of the day1 advances very strong        
arguments to prove that polytheism was  
the primitive religion of  mankind1 and 
that men began with believing in several
 gods before their  reason was          
sufficiently enlightened to acknowledge 
one only ,supreme  ,being4    ,on the   
contrary1 ,i venture to believe that in 
the beginning they  acknowledged one    
only ,god1 and that afterwards human    
weakness adopted  several4 ,my          
conception of the matter is this3    ,it
 is indubitable that there were villages

 before large towns were  built1 and    
that all men have been divided into     
petty commonwealths  before they were   
united in great empires4 ,it is very    
natural that the  people of a village1  
being terrified by thunder1 afflicted at
 the loss  of its harvests1 ill-used by 
the inhabitants of a neighboring        
village1  feeling every day its own     
weakness1 feeling everywhere an         
invisible  power1 should soon have said3
 ,there is some ,being above us who does
 us  good and harm4    ,it seems to me  
to be impossible that it should have    
said3 ,there are two  powers2 for why   
more than one8 ,in all things we begin  
with the simple2  then comes the        
compound2 and after1 by superior light1 
we go back to the  simple again4 ,such  
is the march of the human mind6    ,but 
what is this being who is thus invoked  
at first8 ,is it the sun8 ,is  it the   
moon8 ,i do not think so4 ,let us       
examine what passes in the minds  of    
children2 they are nearly like those of 

uninformed men4 ,they are  struck1      
neither by the beauty nor by the utility
 of the luminary which  animates nature1
 nor by the assistance lent us by the   
moon1 nor by the  regular variations of 
her course2 they think not of these     
things2 they  are too much accustomed to
 them4 ,we adore1 we invoke1 we seek to 
appease1 only that which we fear4 ,all  
children look upon the sky with         
indifference2 but when the thunder      
growls they tremble and run to hide     
themselves4 ,the first men undoubtedly  
did likewise4 ,it could only be a  sect 
of philosophers who first observed the  
courses of the planets1 made  them      
admired1 and caused them to be adored2  
mere tillers of the ground1  without any
 information1 did not know enough of    
them to embrace so noble  an error4     
,a village then would confine itself to 
saying3 ,there is a power which         
thunders and hails upon us1 which makes 
our children die2 let us appease  it4   
,but how shall we appease it8 ,we see   

that by small presents we have  calmed  
the anger of irritated men2 let us then 
make small presents to  this power4 ,it 
must also receive a name4 ,the first    
that presents itself  is that of chief1 
master1 lord4 ,this power then is styled
 ,my  ,lord4 ,for this reason perhaps it
 was that the first ,egyptians called   
their god knef2 the ,syrians1 ,adonai2  
the neighboring nations1  ,baal1 or     
,bel1 or ,melch1 or ,moloch2 the        
,scythians1 ,papus2 all  these names    
signifying lord1 master4    ,thus was   
nearly all ,america found to be divided 
into a multitude of  petty tribes1 each 
having its protecting god4 ,the         
,mexicans1 too1 and the  ,peruvians1    
forming great nations1 had only one     
god--the one adoring  ,manco ,capak1 the
 other the god of war4 ,the ,mexicans   
called their warlike  divinity          
,huitzilipochtli1 as the ,hebrews had   
called their ,lord  ,sabaoth4    ,it was
 not from a superior and cultivated     
reason that every people thus  began    

with acknowledging one only ,divinity2  
had they been philosophers1  they would 
have adored the ,god of all nature1 and 
not the god of a  village2 they would   
have examined those infinite relations  
among all  things which prove a ,being  
creating and preserving2 but they       
examined  nothing--they felt4 ,such is  
the progress of our feeble              
understanding4  ,each village would feel
 its weakness and its need of a         
protector2 it  would imagine that       
tutelary and terrible being residing in 
the  neighboring forest1 or on a        
mountain1 or in a cloud4 ,it would      
imagine  only one1 because the clan had 
but one chief in war2 it would imagine  
that one corporeal1 because it was      
impossible to represent it otherwise4   
,it could not believe that the          
neighboring tribe had not also its god4 
,therefore it was that ,jephthah said to
 the inhabitants of ,moab3 ,you  possess
 lawfully what your god ,chemoth has    
made you conquer2 you should1  then1 let

 us enjoy what our god has given us by  
his victories4    ,this language1 used  
by one stranger to other strangers1 is  
very  remarkable4 ,the ,jews and the    
,moabites had dispossessed the natives  
of  the country2 neither had any right  
but that of force2 and the one says  to 
the other3 ,your god has protected you  
in your usurpation2 suffer our  god to  
protect us in ours4    ,jeremiah and    
,amos both ask what right the god       
,melchem had to seize the  country of   
,gad8 ,from these passages it is evident
 that the ancients  attributed to each  
country a protecting god4 ,we find other
 traces of  this theology in ,homer4    
,it is very natural that1 men's         
imaginations being heated1 and their    
minds having acquired some confused     
knowledge1 they should soon multiply    
their gods1 and speedily assign         
protectors to the elements1 the seas1   
the forests1 the fountains1 and the     
fields4 ,the more they observed the     
stars1 the more they would be struck    

with admiration4 ,how1 indeed1  should  
they have adored the divinity of a      
brook1 and not have adored the  sun8    
,the first step being taken1 the earth  
would soon be covered with  gods2 and   
from the stars men would at last come   
down to cats and  onions4    ,reason1   
however1 will advance towards           
perfection2 time at length found        
philosophers who saw that neither       
onions1 nor cats1 nor even the stars1   
had arranged the order of nature4 ,all  
those philosophers--,babylonians1       
,persians1 ,egyptians1 ,scythians1      
,greeks1 and ,romans--admitted a        
supreme1  rewarding1 and avenging ,god4 
,they did not at first tell it to the   
people2 for whosoever should have       
spoken ill of onions and cats before    
priests and old women1 would have  been 
stoned2 whosoever should have reproached
 certain of the ,egyptians  with eating 
their gods would himself have been      
eaten--as ,juvenal relates  that an     
,egyptian was in reality killed and     

eaten quite raw in a  controversial     
dispute4    ,what then did they do8     
,orpheus and others established         
mysteries1 which  the initiated swore by
 oaths of execration not to reveal--of  
which  mysteries the principal was the  
adoration of a supreme ,god4 ,this great
  truth made its way through half the   
world1 and the number of the  initiated 
became immense4 ,it is true that the    
ancient religion still  existed2 but as 
it was not contrary to the dogma of the 
unity of ,god1 it  was allowed to exist4
 ,and why should it have been abolished8
 ,the ,romans  acknowledged the ,deus   
optimus maximus and the ,greeks had     
their  ,zeus--their supreme god4 ,all   
the other divinities were only          
intermediate  beings2 heroes and        
emperors were ranked with the gods1     
i4e41 with the  blessed2 but it is      
certain that ,claudius1 ,octavius1      
,tiberius1 and  ,caligula1 were not     
regarded as the creators of heaven and  
earth4    ,in short1 it seems proved    

that1 in the time of ,augustus1 all who 
had a  religion acknowledged a superior1
 eternal ,god1 with several orders of   
secondary gods1 whose worship was called
 idolatry4    ,the laws of the ,jews    
never favored idolatry2 for1 although   
they admitted  the ,malachim1 angels and
 celestial beings of an inferior order1 
their  law did not ordain that they     
should worship these secondary          
divinities4  ,they adored the angels1 it
 is true2 that is1 they prostrated      
themselves  when they saw them2 but as  
this did not often happen1 there was no 
ceremonial nor legal worship established
 for them4 ,the cherubim of the  ark    
received no homage4 ,it is beyond a     
doubt that the ,jews1 from  ,alexander's
 time at least1 openly adored one only  
,god1 as the  innumerable multitude of  
the initiated secretly adored ,him in   
their  mysteries4      ,,third          
,,question4    ,it was at the time when 
the worship of a ,supreme ,god was      
universally  established among all the  

wise in ,asia1 in ,europe1 and in       
,africa1 that  the ,christian religion  
took its birth4    ,platonism assisted  
materially the understanding of its     
dogmas4 ,the  ,logos1 which with ,plato 
meant the wisdom1 the reason of the     
,supreme ,being1 became with us the     
word1 and a second person of ,god4      
,profound metaphysics1 above human      
intelligence1 were an inaccessible      
sanctuary in which religion was         
enveloped4    ,it is not necessary here 
to repeat how ,mary was afterwards      
declared to  be the mother of ,god2 how 
the consubstantiality of the ,father and
 the  word was established2 as also the 
proceeding of the pneuma1 the  divine   
organ of the divine ,logos2 as also the 
two natures and two  wills resulting    
from the hypostasis2 and lastly1 the    
superior  manducation--the soul         
nourished as well as the body1 with the 
flesh and  blood of the ,god-man1 adored
 and eaten in the form of bread1 present
 to  the eyes1 sensible to the taste1   

and yet annihilated4 ,all mysteries have
  been sublime4    ,in the second       
century devils began to be cast out in  
the name of ,jesus2  before they were   
cast out in the name of ,jehovah or     
,ihaho2 for ,st4  ,matthew relates that 
the enemies of ,jesus having said that  
,he cast out  devils in the name of the 
prince of devils1 ,he answered1 ,if ,i  
cast out  devils by ,beelzebub1 by whom 
do your sons cast them out8    ,it is   
not known at what time the ,jews        
recognized ,beelzebub1 who was a        
strange god1 as the prince of devils2   
but it is known1 for ,josephus  tells   
us1 that there were at ,jerusalem       
exorcists appointed to cast out  devils 
from the bodies of the possessed2 that  
is1 of such as were  attacked by        
singular maladies1 which were then in a 
great part of the  world attributed to  
the malific genii4    ,these demons were
 then cast out by the true pronunciation
 of ,jehovah1  which is now lost1 and by
 other ceremonies now forgotten4        

,this exorcism by ,jehovah or by the    
other names of ,god1 was still in use   
in the first ages of the church4        
,origen1 disputing against ,celsus1 says
  to him3 ,if1 when invoking ,god1 or   
swearing by ,him1 you call ,him 'the    
,god of ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1'  
you will by those words do things1  the 
nature and force of which are such that 
the evil spirits submit to  those who   
pronounce them2 but if you call him by  
another name1 as ',god  of the roaring  
sea1' etc41 no effect will be produced4 
,the name of  ',israel1' rendered in    
,greek1 will work nothing2 but pronounce
 it in  ,hebrew with the other words    
required1 and you will effect the       
conjuration4    ,the same ,origen has   
these remarkable words3 ,there are names
 which are  powerful from their own     
nature4 ,such are those used by the     
sages of  ,egypt1 the ,magi of ,persia1 
and the ,brahmins of ,india4 ,what is   
called  'magic1' is not a vain and      
chimerical art1 as the ,stoics and      

,epicureans  pretend4 ,the names        
',sabaoth' and ',adonai' were not made  
for created  beings1 but belong to a    
mysterious theology which has reference 
to the  ,creator2 hence the virtue of   
these names when they are arranged and  
pronounced according to rule4           
,origen1 when speaking thus1 is not     
giving his private opinion2 he is but   
repeating the universal opinion4    ,all
 the religions then known admitted a    
sort of magic1 which was  distinguished 
into celestial magic1 and infernal      
magic1 necromancy and  theurgy--all was 
prodigy1 divination1 oracle4 ,the       
,persians did not deny  the miracles of 
the ,egyptians1 nor the ,egyptians those
 of the ,persians4  ,god permitted the  
primitive ,christians to be persuaded of
 the truth of  the oracles attributed to
 the ,sibyls1 and left them a few other 
unimportant errors1 which were no       
essential detriment to their religion4  
,another very remarkable thing is1 that 
the ,christians of the primitive  ages  

held temples1 altars1 and images in     
abhorrence4 ,origen acknowledges  this  
7,no4 #cdg74 ,everything was afterwards 
changed1 with the discipline1  when the 
,church assumed a permanent form4       
,,fourth ,,question4    ,when once a    
religion is established in a state1 the 
tribunals are all  employed in          
perverting the continuance or renewal of
 most of the things  that were done in  
that religion before it was publicly    
received4 ,the  founders used to        
assemble in private1 in spite of        
magistrates2 but now  no assemblies are 
permitted but public ones under the eyes
 of the law1  and all concealed         
associations are forbidden4 ,the maxim  
formerly was1  that it is better to obey
 ,god than man2 the opposite maxim is   
now  adopted1 that to follow the laws of
 the state is to obey ,god4 ,nothing    
was heard of but obsessions and         
possessions2 the devil was then let     
loose upon the world1 but now the devil 
stays at home4 ,prodigies and           

predictions were necessary2 now they are
 no longer admitted3 a man who  in the  
places should foretell calamities1 would
 be sent to a madhouse4  ,the founders  
secretly received the money of the      
faithful2 but now1 a man  who should    
gather money for his own disposal1      
without being authorized  by the law1   
would be brought before a court of      
justice to answer for so  doing4 ,thus  
the scaffoldings that have served to    
build the edifice are  no longer made   
use of4      ,,fifth ,,question4        
,after our own holy religion1 which     
indubitably is the only good one1  what 
religion would be the least             
objectionable8    ,would it not be that 
which should be the simplest2 that which
 should  teach much morality and very   
few dogmas2 that which should tend to   
make  men just1 without making them     
absurd2 that which should not ordain the
  belief of things impossible1          
contradictory1 injurious to the         
,divinity1  and pernicious to mankind2  

nor dare to threaten with eternal pains 
whosoever should possess common sense8  
,would it not be that which should  not 
uphold its belief by the hand of the    
executioner1 nor inundate the  earth    
with blood to support unintelligible    
sophisms2 that in which an  ambiguous   
expression1 a play upon words1 and two  
or three supported  charters1 should not
 suffice to make a sovereign and a god  
of a priest  who is often incestuous1 a 
murderer1 and a poisoner2 which should  
not  make kings subject to this priest2 
that which should teach only the        
adoration of one ,god1 justice1         
tolerance1 and humanity4      ,,sixth   
,,question4    ,it has been said1 that  
the religion of the ,gentiles was absurd
 in many  points1 contradictory1 and    
pernicious2 but have there not been     
imputed  to it more harm than it ever   
did1 and more absurdities than it ever  
preached8    ,show me in all antiquity a
 temple dedicated to ,leda lying with a 
swan1  or ,europa with a bull4 ,was     

there ever a sermon preached at ,athens 
or at  ,rome1 to persuade the young     
women to cohabit with their poultry8    
,are the  fables collected and adorned  
by ,ovid religious8 ,are they not like  
our  ,golden ,legend1 our ,flower of the
 ,saints8 ,if some ,brahmin or dervish  
were  to come and object to our story of
 ,st4 ,mary the ,egyptian1 who not      
having  wherewith to pay the sailors who
 conveyed her to ,egypt1 gave to each of
  them instead of money what are called 
favors1 we should say to the  ,brahmin3 
,reverend father1 you are mistaken2 our 
religion is not the  ,golden ,legend4   
,we reproach the ancients with their    
oracles1 and prodigies2 if they  could  
return to this world1 and the miracles  
of our ,lady of ,loretto and  our ,lady 
of ,ephesus could be counted1 in whose  
favor would be the  balance8    ,human  
sacrifices were established among almost
 every people1 but very  rarely put in  
practice4 ,among the ,jews1 only        
,jephthah's daughter and  ,king ,agag   

were immolated2 for ,isaac and ,jonathan
 were not4 ,among the  ,greeks1 the     
story of ,iphigenia is not well         
authenticated2 and human  sacrifices    
were very rare among the ancient        
,romans4 ,in short1 the  religion of the
 ,pagans caused very little blood to be 
shed1 while ours  has deluged the earth4
 ,ours is doubtless the only good1 the  
only true  one2 but we have done so much
 harm by its means that when we speak of
  others we should be modest4           
,,seventh ,,question4    ,if a man would
 persuade foreigners1 or his own        
countrymen1 of the truth  of his        
religion1 should he not go about it with
 the most insinuating  mildness and the 
most engaging moderation8 ,if he begins 
with telling  them that what he         
announces is demonstrated1 he will find 
a multitude of  persons incredulous2 if 
he ventures to tell them that they      
reject his  doctrine only inasmuch as it
 condemns their passions2 that their    
hearts  have corrupted their minds2 that

 their reasoning is only false and      
proud1 he disgusts them2 he incenses    
them against himself2 he himself  ruins 
what he would fain establish4    ,if the
 religion he announces be true1 will    
violence and insolence render  it more  
so8 ,do you put yourself in a rage1 when
 you say that it is  necessary to be    
mild1 patient1 beneficent1 just1 and to 
fulfil all the  duties of society8 ,no2 
because everyone is of your own opinion4
 ,why1  then1 do you abuse your brother 
when preaching to him a mysterious      
system of metaphysics8 ,because his     
opinion irritates your self-love4 ,you  
are so proud as to require your brother 
to submit his intelligence to  yours2   
humbled pride produces the wrath2 it has
 no other source4 ,a man  who has       
received twenty wounds in a battle does 
not fly into a passion2  but a divine1  
wounded by the refusal of your assent1  
at once becomes  furious and implacable4
      ,,eighth ,,question4    ,must we  
not carefully distinguish the religion  

of the state from  theological religion8
 ,the religion of the state requires    
that the imans  keep registers of the   
circumcised1 the vicars or pastors      
registers of  the baptized2 that there  
be mosques1 churches1 temples1 days     
consecrated  to rest and worship1 rites 
established by law2 that the ministers  
of  those rites enjoy consideration     
without power2 that they teach good     
morals to the people1 and that the      
ministers of the law watch over the     
morals of the ministers of the temples4 
,this religion of the state  cannot at  
any time cause any disturbance4    ,it  
is otherwise with theological religion3 
this is the source of all  imaginable   
follies and disturbances2 it is the     
parent of fanaticism and  civil discord2
 it is the enemy of mankind4 ,a bonze   
asserts that ,fo is  a ,god1-that he was
 foretold by fakirs1 that he was born of
 a white  elephant1 and that every bonze
 can by certain grimaces make a ,fo4 ,a 
talapoin says1 that ,fo was a holy man1 

whose doctrine the bonzes  have         
corrupted1 and that ,sammonocodom is the
 true ,god4 ,after a  thousand arguments
 and contradictions1 the two factions   
agree to refer  the question to the     
dalai-lama1 who resides three hundred   
leagues off1  and who is not only       
immortal1 but also infallible4 ,the two 
factions send  to him a solemn          
deputation2 and the dalai-lama begins1  
according to  his divine custom1 by     
distributing among them the contents of 
his  close-stool4    ,the two rival     
sects at first receive them with equal  
reverence2 have  them dried in the sun1 
and encase them in little chaplets which
 they  kiss devoutly2 but no sooner have
 the dalai-lama and his council         
pronounced in the name of ,fo1 than the 
condemned party throw their  chaplets in
 the vice-god's face1 and would fain    
give him a sound  thrashing4 ,the other 
party defend their lama1 from whom they 
have  received good lands2 both fight a 
long time2 and when at last they are    

tired of mutual extermination1          
assassination1 and poisoning1 they      
grossly abuse each other1 while the     
dalai-lama laughs1 and still            
distributes his excrement to whosoever  
is desirous of receiving the good       
father lama's precious favors4          
,,rhyme4      ,rhyme was probably       
invented to assist the memory1 and to   
regulate at the  same time the song and 
the dance4 ,the return of the same      
sounds served  to bring easily and      
readily to the recollection the         
intermediate words  between the two     
rhymes4 ,those rhymes were a guide at   
once to the singer  and the dancer2 they
 indicated the measure4 ,accordingly1 in
 every  country1 verse was the language 
of the gods4    ,we may therefore class 
it among the list of probable1 that is1 
of  uncertain1 opinions1 that rhyme was 
at first a religious appendage or       
ceremony2 for after all1 it is possible 
that verses and songs might be          
addressed by a man to his mistress      

before they were addressed by him to    
his deities2 and highly impassioned     
lovers indeed will say that the  cases  
are precisely the same4    ,a rabbi who 
gave a general view of the ,hebrew      
language1 which ,i never  was able to   
learn1 once recited to me a number of   
rhymed psalms1 which  he said we had    
most wretchedly translated4 ,i remember 
two verses1 which  are as follows3      
,hibbitu clare vena haru       ,ulph    
nehem al jeck pharu4    ,they looked    
upon him and were lightened1 and their  
faces were not  ashamed4    ,no rhyme   
can be richer than that of those two    
verses2 and this being  admitted1 ,i    
reason in the following manner3    ,the 
,jews1 who spoke a jargon half ,phnician
 and half ,syriac1 rhymed2  therefore   
the great and powerful nations1 under   
whom they were in  slavery1 rhymed also4
 ,we cannot help believing1 that the    
,jews--who1 as  we have frequently      
observed1 adopted almost everything from
 their  neighbors--adopted from them    

also rhyme4    ,all the ,orientals      
rhyme2 they are steady and constant in  
their usages4  ,they dress now as they  
have dressed for the long series of five
 or six  thousand years4 ,we may1       
therefore1 well believe that they have  
rhymed  for a period of equal duration4 
,some of the learned contend that the   
,greeks began with rhyming1 whether  in 
honor of their gods1 their heroes1 or   
their mistresses2 but1 that  afterwards 
becoming more sensible of the harmony of
 their language1  having acquired a more
 accurate knowledge of prosody1 and     
refined upon  melody1 they made those   
requisite verses without rhyme which    
have been  transmitted down to us1 and  
which the ,latins imitated and very     
often  surpassed4    ,as for us1 the    
miserable descendants of ,goths1        
,vandals1 ,gauls1 ,franks1  and         
,burgundians--barbarians who are        
incapable of attaining either the       
,greek or ,latin melody--we are         
compelled to rhyme4 ,blank verse1 among 

all  modern nations1 is nothing but     
prose without any measure2 it is        
distinguished from ordinary prose only  
by a certain number of equal and        
monotonous syllables1 which it has been 
agreed to denominate verse4    ,we have 
remarked elsewhere that those who have  
written in blank verse  have done so    
only because they were incapable of     
rhyming4 ,blank verse  originated in an 
incapacity to overcome difficulty1 and  
in a desire to  come to an end sooner4  
,we have remarked that ,ariosto has made
 a series of forty-eight thousand       
rhymes without producing either disgust 
or weariness in a single reader4  ,we   
have observed how ,french poetry1 in    
rhyme1 sweeps all obstacles  before it1 
and that pleasure arose even from the   
very obstacles  themselves4 ,we have    
been always convinced that rhyme was    
necessary for  the ears1 not for the    
eyes2 and we have explained our         
opinions1 if not  with judgment and     
success1 at least without dictation and 

arrogance4    ,but we acknowledge that  
on the receipt at ,mount ,krapak of the 
late  dreadful literary intelligence    
from ,paris1 our former moderation      
completely abandons us4 ,we understand  
that there exists a rising sect of      
barbarians1 whose doctrine is that no   
tragedy should henceforward be  ever    
written but in prose4 ,this last blow   
alone was wanting1 in addition  to all  
our previous afflictions4 ,it is the    
abomination of desolation in  the temple
 of the muses4 ,we can very easily      
conceive that1 after  ,corneille had    
turned into verse the ,imitation of     
,jesus ,christ1 some  sarcastic wag     
might menace the public with the acting 
of a tragedy in  prose1 by ,floridor and
 ,mondori2 but this project having been 
seriously  executed by the abb          
d',aubignac1 we well know with what     
success it was  attended4 ,we well know 
the ridicule and disgrace that were     
attached to  the prose dipus of ,de la  
,motte ,houdart1 which were nearly as   

great  as those which were incurred by  
his dipus in verse4 ,what miserable     
,visigoth can dare1 after ,cinna and    
,andromache1 to banish verse from  the  
theatre8 ,after the grand and brilliant 
age of our literature1 can we  be really
 sunk into such degradation and         
opprobrium6 ,contemptible  barbarians6  
,go1 then1 and see this your prose      
tragedy performed by  actors in their   
riding-coats at ,vauxhall1 and          
afterwards go and feast  upon shoulder  
of mutton and strong beer4    ,what     
would ,racine and ,boileau have said had
 this terrible intelligence  been       
announced to them8 ,bon ,dieu6 ,good    
,god6 from what a height have  we       
fallen1 and into what a slough are we   
plunged6    ,it is certain that rhyme   
gives a most overwhelming and oppressive
  influence to verses possessing mere   
mediocrity of merit4 ,the poet in  this 
case is just like a bad machinist1 who  
cannot prevent the harsh and  grating   
sounds of his wires and pulleys from    

annoying the ear4 ,his  readers         
experience the same fatigue that he     
underwent while forming his  own rhymes2
 his verses are nothing but an empty    
jingling of wearisome  syllables4 ,but  
if he is happy in his thoughts and happy
 also in his  rhyme1 he then experiences
 and imparts a pleasure truly           
exquisite--a  pleasure that can be fully
 enjoyed only by minds endowed with     
sensibility1 and by ears attuned to     
harmony4          ,,resurrection4       
,,section ,i4    ,we are told that the  
,egyptians built their pyramids for no  
other purpose  than to make tombs of    
them1 and that their bodies1 embalmed   
within and  without1 waited there for   
their souls to come and reanimate them  
at the  end of a thousand years4 ,but if
 these bodies were to come to life      
again1  why did the embalmers begin the 
operation by piercing the skull with a  
gimlet1 and drawing out the brain8 ,the 
idea of coming to life again  without   
brains would make one suspect that--if  

the expression may be  used--the        
,egyptians had not many while alive2 but
 let us bear in mind  that most of the  
ancients believed the soul to be in the 
breast4 ,and why  should the soul be in 
the breast rather than elsewhere8       
,because1 when  our feelings are at all 
violent1 we do in reality feel1 about   
the region  of the heart1 a dilatation  
or compression1 which caused it to be   
thought  that the soul was lodged there4
 ,this soul was something aerial2 it was
 a  slight figure that went about at    
random until it found its body again4   
,the belief in resurrection is much more
 ancient than historical times4         
,athalides1 son of ,mercury1 could die  
and come to life again at will2         
sculapius restored ,hippolytus to life1 
and ,hercules1 ,alceste4 ,pelops1  after
 being cut in pieces by his father1 was 
resuscitated by the gods4  ,plato       
relates that ,heres came to life again  
for fifteen days only4    ,among the    
,jews1 the ,pharisees did not adopt the 

dogma of the  resurrection until long   
after ,plato's time4    ,in the ,acts of
 the ,apostles there is a very singular 
fact1 and one well  worthy of attention4
 ,st4 ,james and several of his         
companions advise ,st4  ,paul to go into
 the temple of ,jerusalem1 and1         
,christian as he was1 to  observe all   
the ceremonies of the ,old ,law1 in     
order--say they--that all  may know that
 those things whereof they were informed
 concerning thee  are nothing1 but that 
thou thyself also walkest orderly and   
keepest the  law4 ,this is clearly      
saying3 ,go and lie2 go and perjure     
yourself2 go  and publicly deny the     
religion which you teach4    ,st4 ,paul 
then went seven days into the temple2   
but on the seventh he was  discovered4  
,he was accused of having come into it  
with strangers1 and of  having profaned 
it4 ,let us see how he extricated       
himself4    ,but when ,paul perceived   
that the one part were ,sadducees and   
the other  ,pharisees1 he cried out in  

the council--,men and brethren1 ,i am a 
,pharisee1 the son of a ,pharisee2 of   
the hope and resurrection of the  dead  
,i am called in question4 ,the          
resurrection of the dead formed no  part
 of the question2 ,paul said this only  
to incense the ,pharisees and           
,sadducees against each other4    ,and  
when he had so said there arose a       
dissension between the ,pharisees  and  
the ,sadducees2 and the multitude was   
divided4    ,for the ,sadducees say that
 there is no resurrection1 neither angel
 nor  spirit2 but the ,pharisees confess
 both4    ,it has been asserted that    
,job1 who is very ancient1 was          
acquainted with  the doctrine of        
resurrection2 and these words are cited3
 ,i know that  my ,redeemer liveth1 and 
that one day ,his redemption shall rise 
upon me2  or that ,i shall rise again   
from the dust1 that my skin shall       
return1 and  that in my flesh ,i shall  
again see ,god4    ,but many            
commentators understand by these words  

that ,job hopes soon to  recover from   
his malady1 and that he shall not always
 remain lying on  the ground1 as he then
 was4 ,the sequel sufficiently proves   
this  explanation to be the true one2   
for he cries out the next moment to his 
false and hardhearted friends3 ,why then
 do you say let us persecute  ,him8 ,or3
 ,for you shall say1 because we         
persecuted ,him4 ,does not this         
evidently mean--you will repent of      
having ill used me1 when you shall  see 
me again in my future state of health   
and opulence4 ,when a sick man  says3 ,i
 shall rise again1 he does not say3 ,i  
shall come to life again4  ,to give     
forced meanings to clear passages is the
 sure way never to  understand one      
another2 or rather1 to be regarded by   
honest men as  wanting sincerity4       
,st4 ,jerome dates the birth of the sect
 of the ,pharisees but a very short     
time before ,jesus ,christ4 ,the rabbin 
,hillel is considered as having been    
the founder of the ,pharisac sect2 and  

this ,hillel was contemporary with  ,st4
 ,paul's master1 ,gamaliel4    ,many of 
these ,pharisees believed that only the 
,jews were brought to life  again1 the  
rest of mankind not being worth the     
trouble4 ,others  maintained that there 
would be no rising again but in         
,palestine2 and  that the bodies of such
 as were buried elsewhere would be      
secretly  conveyed into the neighborhood
 of ,jerusalem1 there to rejoin their   
souls4 ,but ,st4 ,paul1 writing to the  
people of ,thessalonica1 says3    ,for  
this we say unto you by the word of the 
,lord1 that we which are  alive1 and    
remain unto the coming of the ,lord1    
shall not prevent them  which are       
asleep4    ,for the ,lord ,himself shall
 descend from heaven with a shout1 with 
the  voice of the archangel1 and with   
the trump of ,god2 and the dead in      
,christ shall rise first4    ,then we   
which are alive and remain shall be     
caught up with them in the  clouds to   
meet the ,lord in the air2 and so shall 

we ever be with the  ,lord4    ,does not
 this important passage clearly prove   
that the first ,christians  calculated  
on seeing the end of the world8 as1     
indeed1 it was foretold  by ,st4 ,luke  
to take place while he himself was      
alive8 ,but if they did  not see this   
end of the world1 if no one rose again  
in their day1 that  which is deferred is
 not lost4    ,st4 ,augustine believed  
that children1 and even still-born      
infants1 would  rise again in a state of
 maturity4 ,origen1 ,jerome1            
,athanasius1 ,basil1  and others1 did   
not believe that women would rise again 
with the marks  of their sex4    ,in    
short1 there have ever been disputes    
about what we have been1 about  what we 
are1 and about what we shall be4        
,,section ,,ii4    ,father ,malebranche 
proves resurrection by the caterpillars 
becoming  butterflies4 ,this proof1 as  
every one may perceive1 is not more     
weighty  than the wings of the insects  
from which he borrows it4 ,calculating  

thinkers bring forth arithmetical       
objections against this truth which he  
has so well proved4 ,they say that men  
and other animals are really fed  and   
derive their growth from the substance  
of their predecessors4 ,the  body of a  
man1 reduced to ashes1 scattered in the 
air1 and falling on  the surface of the 
earth1 becomes corn or vegetable4 ,so   
,cain ate a part  of ,adam2 ,enoch fed  
on ,cain2 ,irad on ,enoch2 ,mahalaleel  
on ,irad2  ,methuselah on ,mahalaleel2  
and thus we find that there is not one  
among  us who has not swallowed some    
portion of our first parent4 ,hence it  
has  been said that we have all been    
cannibals4 ,nothing can be clearer than 
that such is the case after a battle2   
not only do we kill our brethren1  but  
at the end of two or three years1 when  
the harvests have been  gathered from   
the field of battle1 we have eaten them 
all2 and we1 in  turn1 shall be eaten   
with the greatest facility imaginable4  
,now1 when we  are to rise again1 how   

shall we restore to each one the body   
that  belongs to him1 without losing    
something of our own8    ,so say those  
who trust not in resurrection2 but the  
resurrectionists  have answered them    
very pertinently4    ,a rabbin named    
,sama demonstrates resurrection by this 
passage of  ,exodus3 ,i appeared unto   
,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 and swore 
to give unto them the land of ,canaan4  
,now--says this great                   
rabbin--notwithstanding this oath1 ,god 
did not give them that land2  therefore1
 they will rise again to enjoy it1 in   
order that the oath be  fulfilled4      
,the profound philosopher ,calmet finds 
a much more conclusive proof in         
vampires4 ,he saw vampires issuing from 
churchyards to go and suck the  blood of
 good people in their sleep2 it is clear
 that they could not  suck the blood of 
the living if they themselves were still
 dead2  therefore they had risen again2 
this is peremptory4    ,it is also      
certain that at the day of judgment all 

the dead will walk  under ground1 like  
moles--so says the ,talmud--that they   
may appear in  the valley of            
,jehoshaphat1 which lies between the    
city of ,jerusalem and  the ,mount of   
,olives4 ,there will be a good deal of  
squeezing in this  valley2 but it will  
only be necessary to reduce the bodies  
proportionately1 like ,milton's devils  
in the hall of ,pandemonium4    ,this   
resurrection will take place to the     
sound of the trumpet1 according  to ,st4
 ,paul4 ,there must1 of course1 be more 
trumpets than one2 for the  thunder     
itself is not heard more than three or  
four leagues round4 ,it is  asked3 ,how 
many trumpets will there be8 ,the       
divines have not yet made  the          
calculation2 it will nevertheless be    
made4    ,the ,jews say that ,queen     
,cleopatra1 who no doubt believed in the
  resurrection like all the ladies of   
that day1 asked a ,pharisee if we  were 
to rise again quite naked8 ,the doctor  
answered that we shall be  very well    

dressed1 for the same reason that the   
corn that has been sown  and perished   
under ground rises again in ear with a  
robe and a beard4  ,this rabbin was an  
excellent theologian2 he reasoned like  
,dom ,calmet4      ,,section ,,iii4     
,resurrection of the ,ancients4    ,it  
has been asserted that the dogma of     
resurrection was much in vogue  with the
 ,egyptians1 and was the origin of their
 embalmings and their  pyramids4 ,this  
,i myself formerly believed4 ,some said 
that the  resurrection was to take place
 at the end of a thousand years2 others 
at  the end of three thousand4 ,this    
difference in their theological opinions
  seems to prove that they were not very
 sure about the matter4    ,besides1 in 
the history of ,egypt1 we find no man   
raised again2 but among  the ,greeks we 
find several4 ,among the latter1 then1  
we must look for  this invention of     
rising again4    ,but the ,greeks often 
burned their bodies1 and the ,egyptians 
embalmed  them1 that when the soul1     

which was a small1 aerial figure1       
returned to  its habitation1 it might   
find it quite ready4 ,this had been good
 if its  organs had also been ready2 but
 the embalmer began by taking out the   
brain and clearing the entrails4 ,how   
were men to rise again without          
intestines1 and without the medullary   
part by means of which they think8      
,where were they to find again the      
blood1 the lymph1 and other humors8     
,you will tell me that it was still more
 difficult to rise again among  the     
,greeks1 where there was not left of you
 more than a pound of ashes  at the     
utmost--mingled1 too1 with the ashes of 
wood1 stuffs and spices4    ,your       
objection is forcible1 and ,i hold with 
you1 that resurrection is a  very       
extraordinary thing2 but the son of     
,mercury did not the less die  and rise 
again several times4 ,the gods restored 
,pelops to life1 although  he had been  
served up as a ragout1 and ,ceres had   
eaten one of his  shoulders4 ,you know  

that sculapius brought ,hippolytus to   
life again2  this was a verified fact1  
of which even the most incredulous had  
no  doubt2 the name of ,virbius1 given  
to ,hippolytus1 was a convincing  proof4
 ,hercules had resuscitated ,alceste and
 ,pirithous4 ,heres did1 it is          
true--according to ,plato--come to life 
again for fifteen days only2  still it  
was a resurrection2 the time does not   
alter the fact4    ,many grave schoolmen
 clearly see purgatory and resurrection 
in ,virgil4  ,as for purgatory1 ,i am   
obliged to acknowledge that it is       
expressly in  the sixth book4 ,this may 
displease the ,protestants1 but ,i have 
no  alternative3         ,non tamen omne
 malum miseris1 nec funditus omnes      
,corporea excedunt pestes1444           
,not death itself can wholly wash their 
stains2       ,but long contracted filth
 even in the soul remains4       ,the   
relics of inveterate vice they wear1    
,and spots of sin obscene in every face 
appear1444    ,but we have already      

quoted this passage in the article on   
,purgatory1  which doctrine is here     
expressed clearly enough2 nor could the 
kinsfolks  of that day obtain from the  
pagan priests an indulgence to abridge  
their  sufferings for ready money4 ,the 
ancients were much more severe and less 
simoniacal than we are notwithstanding  
that they imputed so many foolish       
actions to their gods4 ,what would you  
have8 ,their theology was made up  of   
contradictions1 as the malignant say is 
the case with our own4    ,when their   
purgation was finished1 these souls went
 and drank of the  waters of ,lethe1 and
 instantly asked that they might enter  
fresh bodies  and again see daylight4   
,but is this a resurrection8 ,not at    
all2 it is  taking an entirely new body1
 not resuming the old one2 it is a      
metempsychosis1 without any relation to 
the manner in which we of the  true     
faith are to rise again4    ,the souls  
of the ancients did1 ,i must            
acknowledge1 make a very bad  bargain in

 coming back to this world1 for seventy 
years at most1 to  undergo once more all
 that we know is undergone in a life of 
seventy  years1 and then suffer another 
thousand years' discipline4 ,in my      
humble  opinion there is no soul that   
would not be tired of this everlasting  
vicissitude of so short a life and so   
long a penance4      ,,section ,,iv4    
,resurrection of the ,moderns4    ,our  
resurrection is quite different4 ,every 
man will appear with  precisely the same
 body which he had before2 and all these
 bodies will  be burned for all         
eternity1 excepting only1 at most1 one  
in a hundred  thousand4 ,this is much   
worse than a purgatory of ten centuries1
 in order  to live here again a few     
years4    ,when will the great day of   
this general resurrection arrive8 ,this 
is not  positively known2 and the       
learned are much divided4 ,nor do they  
any more  know how each one is to find  
his own members again4 ,hereupon they   
start  many difficulties4    #a4 ,our   

body1 say they1 is1 during life1        
undergoing a continual change2  at fifty
 years of age we have nothing of the    
body in which our soul was  lodged at   
twenty4    #b4 ,a soldier from ,brittany
 goes into ,canada2 there1 by a very    
common  chance1 he finds himself short  
of food1 and is forced to eat an        
,iroquois  whom he killed the day       
before4 ,this ,iroquois had fed on      
,jesuits for two  or three months2 a    
great part of his body had become       
,jesuit4 ,here1 then1  the body of a    
soldier is composed of ,iroquois1 of    
,jesuits1 and of all  that he had eaten 
before4 ,how is each to take again      
precisely what  belongs to him8 and     
which part belongs to each8    #c4 ,a   
child dies in its mother's womb1 just at
 the moment that it has  received a     
soul4 ,will it rise again ftus1 or boy1 
or man8    #d4 ,to rise again--to be the
 same person as you were--you must have 
your  memory perfectly fresh and        
present2 it is memory that makes your   

identity4 ,if your memory be lost1 how  
will you be the same man8    #e4 ,there 
are only a certain number of earthly    
particles that can  constitute an       
animal4 ,sand1 stone1 minerals1 metals1 
contribute nothing4  ,all earth is not  
adapted thereto2 it is only the soils   
favorable to  vegetation that are       
favorable to the animal species4 ,when1 
after the  lapse of many ages1 every one
 is to rise again1 where shall be found 
the  earth adapted to the formation of  
all these bodies8    #f4 ,suppose an    
island1 the vegetative part of which    
will suffice for a  thousand men1 and   
for five or six thousand animals to feed
 and labor for  that thousand men2 at   
the end of a hundred thousand           
generations we shall  have to raise     
again a thousand millions of men4 ,it is
 clear that matter  will be wanting3    
,materies opus est1 ut crescunt post era
 saecla4    #g4 ,and lastly1 when it is 
proved1 or thought to be proved1 that a 
miracle as great as the universal       

deluge1 or the ten plagues of ,egypt1   
will be necessary to work the           
resurrection of all mankind in the      
valley  of ,jehoshaphat1 it is asked3   
,what becomes of the souls of all these 
bodies while awaiting the moment of     
returning into their cases8    ,fifty   
rather knotty questions might easily be 
put2 but the divines would  likewise    
easily find answers to them all4        
,,rights4      ,,section ,i4            
,national ,rights--,natural             
,rights--,public ,rights4    ,i know no 
better way of commencing this subject   
than with the verses of  ,ariosto1 in   
the second stanza of the #ddth canto of 
the ,orlando  ,furioso1 which observes  
that kings1 emperors1 and popes1 sign   
fine  treaties one day which they break 
the next1 and that1 whatever piety  they
 may affect1 the only god to whom they  
really appeal1 is their  interest3      
,fan lega oggi re1 papi et imperatori   
,doman saran nimici capitali3           
,perche1 qual ,papparenze esteriori1    

,non hanno i cor1 non han gli animi     
tali1       ,che non mirando al torto   
piu che al dritto4       ,attendon      
solamente al lor profitto4    ,if there 
were only two men on earth1 how would   
they live together8 ,they  would assist 
each other2 they would annoy each other2
 they would court  each other2 they     
would speak ill of each other2 fight    
with each other2  be reconciled to each 
other2 and be neither able to live with 
nor  without each other4 ,in short1 they
 would do as people at present do1  who 
possess the gift of reason certainly1   
but the gift of instinct also2  and will
 feel1 reason1 and act forever as nature
 has destined4    ,no god has descended 
upon our globe1 assembled the human     
race1 and said  to them1 ,i ordain that 
the negroes and ,kaffirs go stark naked 
and feed  upon insects4    ,i order the 
,samoyeds to clothe1 themselves with the
 skins of reindeer1  and to feed upon   
their flesh1 insipid as it is1 and eat  
dry and half  putrescent fish without   

salt4 ,it is my will that the ,tartars  
of ,thibet  all believe what their      
dalai-lama shall say2 and that the      
,japanese pay  the same attention to    
their dairo4    ,the ,arabs are not to  
eat swine1 and the ,westphalians nothing
 else but  swine4    ,i have drawn a    
line from ,mount ,caucasus to ,egypt1   
and from ,egypt to  ,mount ,atlas4 ,all 
who inhabit the east of that line may   
espouse as many  women as they please2  
those to the west of it must be         
satisfied with  one4    ,if1 towards the
 ,adriatic ,gulf1 or the marshes of the 
,rhine and the  ,meuse1 or in the       
neighborhood of ,mount ,jura1 or the    
,isle of ,albion1 any  one shall wish to
 make another despotic1 or aspire to be 
so himself1 let  his head be cut off1 on
 a full conviction that destiny and     
myself are  opposed to his intentions4  
,should any one be so insolent as to    
attempt to establish an assembly  of    
free men on the banks of the            
,manzanares1 or on the shores of the    

,propontis1 let him be empaled alive or 
drawn asunder by four horses4           
,whoever shall make up his accounts     
according to a certain rule of          
arithmetic at ,constantinople1 at ,grand
 ,cairo1 at ,tafilet1 at ,delhi1 or  at 
,adrianople1 let him be empaled alive on
 the spot1 without form of  law2 and    
whoever shall dare to account by any    
other rule at ,lisbon1  ,madrid1 in     
,champagne1 in ,picardy1 and towards the
 ,danube1 from ,ulm unto  ,belgrade1 let
 him be devoutly burned amidst chantings
 of the  ',miserere4'    ,that which is 
just along the shores of the ,loire is  
otherwise on the  banks of the ,thames2 
for my laws are universal1 etc4    ,it  
must be confessed that we have no very  
clear proof1 even in the  ,journal      
,chrtien1 nor in ,the ,key to the       
,cabinet of ,princes1 that a  god has   
descended in order to promulgate such a 
public law4 ,it exists1                 
notwithstanding1 and is literally       
practised according to the preceding    

announcement2 and there have been       
compiled1 compiled1 and compiled1 upon  
these national rights1 very admirable   
commentaries1 which have never  produced
 a sou to the great numbers who have    
been ruined by war1 by  edicts1 and by  
tax-gatherers4    ,these compilations   
closely resemble the case of conscience 
of ,pontas4 ,it  is forbidden to kill2  
therefore all murderers are punished who
 kill not  in large companies1 and to   
the sound of trumpets2 it is the rule4  
,at the time when ,anthropophagi still  
existed in the forest of ,ardennes1  an 
old villager met with a man-eater1 who  
had carried away an infant to  devour   
it4 ,moved with pity1 the villager      
killed the devourer of children  and    
released the little boy1 who quickly    
fled away4 ,two passengers1 who         
witnessed the transaction at a distance1
 accused the good man with  having      
committed a murder on the king's        
highway4 ,the person of the  offender   
being produced before the judge1 the two

 witnesses--after they  had paid the    
latter a hundred crowns for the exercise
 of his  functions--deposed to the      
particulars1 and the law being precise1 
the  villager was hanged upon the spot  
for doing that which had so much        
exalted ,hercules1 ,theseus1 ,orlando1  
and ,amadis the ,gaul4 ,ought the judge 
to be hanged himself1 who executed this 
law to the letter8 ,how ought the  point
 to be decided upon a general principle8
 ,to resolve a thousand  questions of   
this kind1 a thousand volumes have been 
written4    ,puffendorff first          
established moral existences3 ,there    
are1 said he1  certain modes which      
intelligent beings attach to things     
natural1 or to  physical operations1    
with the view of directing or           
restraining the  voluntary actions of   
mankind1 in order to infuse order1      
convenience1 and  felicity into human   
existence4    ,thus1 to give correct    
ideas to the ,swedes and the ,germans of
 the just  and the unjust1 he remarks   

that there are two kinds of place1 in   
regard  to one of which1 it is said1    
that things are for example1 here or    
there2  and in respect to the other1    
that they have existed1 do1 or will     
exist  at a certain time1 as for        
example1 yesterday1 to-day1 or          
to-morrow4 ,in  the same manner we      
conceive two sorts of moral existence1  
the one of  which denotes a moral state1
 that has some conformity with place1   
simply  considered2 the other a certain 
time1 when a moral effect will be       
produced1 etc4    ,this is not all2     
,puffendorff curiously distinguishes the
 simple moral  from the modes of        
opinion1 and the formal from the        
operative qualities4  ,the formal       
qualities are simple attributes1 but the
 operative are to be  carefully divided 
into original and derivated4    ,in the 
meantime1 ,barbeyrac has commented on   
these fine things1 and they  are taught 
in the universities1 and opinion is     
divided between ,grotius  and           

,puffendorff in regard to questions of  
similar importance4 ,take my            
recommendation2 read ,tully's ,offices4 
,,section ,,ii4    ,nothing possibly can
 tend more to render a mind false1      
obscure1 and  uncertain than the perusal
 of ,grotius1 ,puffendorff1 and almost  
all the  writers on the jus gentium4    
,we must not do evil that good may come 
of it1 says the writer to whom  nobody  
hearkens4 ,it is permitted to make war  
on a power1 lest it should  become too  
strong1 says the ,spirit of ,laws4      
,when rights are to be established by   
prescription1 the publicists call  to   
their aid divine right and human right2 
and the theologians take  their part in 
the dispute4 ,abraham and his seed1 say 
they1 had a  right to the land of       
,canaan1 because he had travelled there2
 and ,god had  given it to him in a     
vision4 ,but according to the vulgate   
sage  teachers1 five hundred and        
forty-seven years elapsed between the   
time  when ,abraham purchased a         

sepulchre in the country and ,joshua    
took  possession of a small part of it4 
,no matter1 his right was clear and     
correct4 ,and then prescription8 ,away  
with prescription6 ,ought that which    
once took place in ,palestine to serve  
as a rule for ,germany and ,italy8      
,yes1 for ,he said so4 ,be it so1       
gentlemen2 ,god preserve me from        
disputing  with you6    ,the descendants
 of ,attila1 it is said1 established    
themselves in  ,hungary4 ,till what time
 must the ancient inhabitants hold      
themselves  bound in conscience to      
remain serfs to the descendants of      
,attila8    ,our doctors1 who have      
written on peace and war1 are very      
profound2 if we  attend to them1        
everything belongs of right to the      
sovereign for whom  they write2 he1 in  
fact1 has never been able to alienate   
his domains4  ,the emperor of right     
ought to possess ,rome1 ,italy1 and     
,france2 such was  the opinion of       
,bartholus2 first1 because the emperor  

was entitled king  of the ,romans2 and1 
secondly1 because the archbishop of     
,cologne is  chancellor of ,italy1 and  
the archbishop of ,trier chancellor of  
,gaul4  ,moreover1 the emperor of       
,germany carries a gilded ball at his   
coronation1 which of course proves that 
he is the rightful master of the  whole 
globe4    ,at ,rome there is not a      
single priest who has not learned1 in   
his course  of theology1 that the pope  
ought to be master of this earth1 seeing
 it  is written that it was said to     
,simon1 the son of ,jonas3 ,thou art    
,peter1  and upon this rock ,i will     
build my church4 ,it was well said to   
,gregory  ,,vii4 that this treated only 
of souls1 and of the celestial kingdom4 
,damnable observation6 he replied2 and  
would have hanged the observer had  he  
been able4    ,spirits1 still more      
profound1 establish this reasoning by an
 argument to  which there is no reply4  
,he to whom the bishop of ,rome calls   
himself  vicar has declared that his    

dominion is not of this world2 can this 
world then belong to the vicar1 when his
 master has renounced it8 ,which  ought 
to prevail1 human nature or the         
decretals8 ,the decretals1              
indisputably4    ,if it be asked whether
 the massacre of ten or twelve millions 
of unarmed  men in ,america was         
defensible1 it is replied that nothing  
can be more  just and holy1 since they  
were not ,catholic1 apostolic and       
,roman4    ,there is not an age in which
 the declarations of war of ,christian  
princes have not authorized the attack  
and pillage of all the subjects  of the 
prince1 to whom war has been announced  
by a herald1 in a coat of  mail and     
hanging sleeves4 ,thus1 when this       
signification has been made1  should a  
native of ,auvergne meet a ,german1 he  
is bound to kill1 and  entitled to rob  
him either before or after the murder4  
,the following has been a very thorny   
question for the schools3 ,the ban1  and
 the arrire-ban1 having been ordered out

 in order to kill and be  killed on the 
frontiers1 ought the ,suabians1 being   
satisfied that the  war is atrociously  
unjust1 to march8 ,some doctors say yes2
 others1 more  just1 pronounce no4 ,what
 say the politicians8    ,when we have  
fully discussed these great preliminary 
questions1 with  which no sovereign     
embarrasses himself1 or is embarrassed1 
we must  proceed to discuss the right of
 fifty or sixty families upon the county
  of ,alost2 the town of ,orchies2 the  
duchy of ,berg and of ,juliers2 upon    
the countries of ,tournay and ,nice2    
and1 above all1 on the frontiers of  all
 the provinces1 where the weakest always
 loses his cause4    ,it was disputed   
for a hundred years whether the dukes of
 ,orleans1 ,louis  ,,xii41 and ,francis 
,i41 had a claim on the duchy of ,milan1
 by virtue of a  contract of marriage   
with ,valentina de ,milan1 granddaughter
 of the  bastard of a brave peasant1    
named ,jacob ,muzio4 ,judgment was given
 in  this process at the battle of      

,pavia4    ,the dukes of ,savoy1 of     
,lorraine1 and of ,tuscany still pretend
 to the  ,milanese2 but it is believed  
that a family of poor gentlemen exist in
  ,friuli1 the posterity in a right line
 from ,albion1 king of the ,lombards1   
who possess an anterior claim4    ,the  
publicists have written great books upon
 the rights of the kingdom  of          
,jerusalem4 ,the ,turks have written    
none1 and ,jerusalem belongs to  them2  
at least at this present writing2 nor is
 ,jerusalem a kingdom4      ,,canonical 
,,rights--,,or ,,law4    ,general ,idea 
of the ,rights of the ,church or ,canon 
,law1 by ,m4 ,bertrand1  ,heretofore    
,first ,pastor of the ,church of ,berne4
    ,we assume neither to adopt nor     
contradict the principles of ,m4        
,bertrand2  it is for the public to     
judge of them4    ,canon law1 or the    
canon1 according to the vulgar opinion1 
is  ecclesiastical jurisprudence4 ,it is
 the collection of canons1 rules of  the
 council1 decrees of the popes1 and     

maxims of the fathers4    ,according to 
reason1 and to the rights of kings and  
of the people1  ecclesiastical          
jurisprudence is only an exposition of  
the privileges  accorded to             
ecclesiastics by sovereigns representing
 the nation4    ,if two supreme         
authorities1 two administrations1 having
 separate rights1  exist1 and the one   
will make war without ceasing upon the  
other1 the  unavoidable result will be  
perpetual convulsions1 civil wars1      
anarchy1  tyranny1 and all the          
misfortunes of which history presents so
 miserable  a picture4    ,if a priest  
is made sovereign2 if the dairo of      
,japan remained emperor  until the      
sixteenth century2 if the dalai-lama is 
still sovereign at  ,thibet2 if ,numa   
was at once king and pontiff2 if the    
caliphs were heads  of the state as well
 as of religion2 and if the popes reign 
at  ,rome--these are only so many proofs
 of the truth of what we advance2 the   
authority is not divided2 there is but  

one power4 ,the sovereigns of  ,russia  
and of ,england preside over religion2  
the essential unity of  power is there  
preserved4    ,every religion is within 
the ,state2 every priest forms a part of
 civil  society1 and all ecclesiastics  
are among the number of the subjects of 
the sovereign under whom they exercise  
their ministry4 ,if a religion  exists  
which establishes ecclesiastical        
independence1 and supports them  in a   
sovereign and legitimate authority1 that
 religion cannot spring  from ,god1 the 
author of society4    ,it is even to be 
proved1 from all evidence1 that in a    
religion of which  ,god is represented  
as the author1 the functions of         
ministers1 their  persons1 property1    
pretensions1 and manner of inculcating  
morality1  teaching doctrines1          
celebrating ceremonies1 the adjustment  
of spiritual  penalties2 in a word1 all 
that relates to civil order1 ought to be
  submitted to the authority of the     
prince and the inspection of the        

magistracy4    ,if this jurisprudence   
constitutes a science1 here will be     
found the  elements4    ,it is for the  
magistracy1 solely1 to authorize the    
books admissible into  the schools1     
according to the nature and form of the 
government4 ,it is  thus that ,m4 ,paul 
,joseph ,rieger1 counsellor of the      
court1 judiciously  teaches canon law in
 the ,university of ,vienna2 and1 in the
 like manner1  the republic of ,venice  
examined and reformed all the rules in  
the states  which have ceased to belong 
to it4 ,it is desirable that examples so
 wise  should generally prevail4        
,,section ,i4    ,of the ,ecclesiastical
 ,ministry4    ,religion is instituted  
only to preserve order among mankind1   
and to  render them worthy of the bounty
 of the ,deity by virtue4 ,everything in
 a  religion which does not tend to this
 object ought to be regarded as  foreign
 or dangerous4    ,instruction1         
exhortation1 the fear of punishment to  
come1 the promises  of a blessed        

hereafter1 prayer1 advice1 and spiritual
 consolation are  the only means which  
churchmen can properly employ to render 
men  virtuous on earth and happy to all 
eternity4    ,every other means is      
repugnant to the freedom of reason2 to  
the nature  of the soul2 to the         
unalterable rights of conscience2 to the
 essence of  religion2 to that of the   
clerical ministry2 and to the just      
rights of  the sovereign4    ,virtue    
infers liberty1 as the transport of a   
burden implies active  force4 ,with     
constraint there is no virtue1 and      
without virtue no  religion4 ,make me a 
slave and ,i shall be the worse for it4 
,even the sovereign has no right to     
employ force to lead men to religion1   
which essentially presumes choice and   
liberty4 ,my opinions are no more       
dependent on authority than my sickness 
or my health4    ,in a word1 to unravel 
all the contradictions in which books on
 the canon  law abound1 and to adjust   
our ideas in respect to the             

ecclesiastical  ministry1 let us        
endeavor1 in the midst of a thousand    
ambiguities1 to  determine what is the  
,church4    ,the ,church1 then1 is all  
believers1 collectively1 who are called 
together on certain days to pray in     
common1 and at all times to perform     
good actions4    ,priests are persons   
appointed1 under the authority of the   
,state1 to  direct these prayers1 and   
superintend public worship generally4   
,a numerous ,church cannot exist without
 ecclesiastics2 but these  ecclesiastics
 are not the ,church4    ,it is not less
 evident that if the ecclesiastics1 who 
compose a part of  civil society1 have  
acquired rights which tend to trouble or
 destroy  such society1 such rights     
ought to be suppressed4    ,it is still 
more obvious that if ,god has attached  
prerogatives or rights  to the ,church1 
these prerogatives and these rights     
belong exclusively  neither to the head 
of the ,church nor to the ecclesiastics2
 because  these are not the ,church     

itself1 any more than the magistrates   
are the  sovereign1 either in a republic
 or a monarchy4    ,lastly2 it is very  
evident that it is our souls only which 
are submitted  to the care of the       
clergy1 and that for spiritual objects  
alone4    ,the soul acts inwardly2 its  
inward acts are thought1 will1          
inclination1  and an acquiescence in    
certain truths1 all which are above     
restraint2  and it is for the           
ecclesiastical ministry to instruct1 but
 not to  command them4    ,the soul acts
 also outwardly4 ,its exterior acts are 
submission to the  civil law2 and here  
constraint may take place1 and temporal 
or corporeal  penalties may punish the  
violations of the law4    ,obedience to 
the ecclesiastical order ought1         
consequently1 to be always  free and    
voluntary2 it ought to exact no other4  
,on the contrary1  submission to the    
civil law may be enforced4    ,for the  
same reason ecclesiastical penalties1   
always being spiritual1  attach in this 

world to those only who are inwardly    
convinced of their  error4 ,civil       
penalties1 on the contrary1 accompanied 
by physical evil  produce physical      
effects1 whether the offender           
acknowledge the justice  of them or not4
    ,hence it manifestly results that   
the authority of the clergy can only be 
spiritual--that it is unacquainted with 
temporal power1 and that any            
co-operative force belongs not to the   
administration of the ,church1  which is
 essentially destroyed by it4    ,it    
moreover follows that a prince1 intent  
not to suffer any division of  his      
authority1 ought not to permit any      
enterprise which places the  members of 
the community in an outward or civil    
dependence on the  ecclesiastical       
corporation4    ,such are the           
incontestable principles of genuine     
canonical right or law1  the rules and  
the decisions of which ought at all     
times to be submitted  to the test of   
eternal and immutable truths1 founded   

upon natural rights  and the necessary  
order of society4      ,,section ,,ii4  
,of the ,possessions of ,ecclesiastics4 
,let us constantly ascend to the        
principles of society1 which1 in civil  
as in religious order1 are the          
foundations of all right4    ,society in
 general is the proprietor of the       
territory of a country1 and  the source 
of national riches4 ,a portion of this  
national revenue is  devoted to the     
sovereign to support the expenses of    
government4 ,every  individual is       
possessor of that part of the territory1
 and of the  revenue1 which the laws    
insure him2 and no possession or        
enjoyment can  at any time be sustained1
 except under the protection of law4    
,in society we hold not any good1 or any
 possession as a simple natural  right1 
as we give up our natural rights and    
submit to the order of civil  society1  
in return for assurance and protection4 
,it is1 therefore1 by  the law that we  
hold our possessions4    ,no one can    

hold anything on earth through religion1
 neither lands nor  chattels2 since all 
its wealth is spiritual4 ,the           
possessions of the  faithful1 as        
veritable members of the ,church1 are in
 heaven2 it is there  where their       
treasures are laid up4 ,the kingdom of  
,jesus ,christ1 which ,he  always       
announced as at hand1 was not1 nor could
 it be1 of this world4 ,no  property1   
therefore1 can be held by divine right4 
,the ,levites under the ,hebrew law had1
 it is true1 their tithe by a  positive 
law of ,god2 but that was under a       
theocracy which exists no  longer--,god 
,himself acting as the sovereign4 ,all  
those laws have ceased1  and cannot at  
present communicate any title to        
possession4    ,if any body at present1 
like that of the priesthood1 pretend to 
possess  tithes or any other wealth by  
positive right divine1 it must produce  
an  express and incontestable proof     
enregistered by divine revelation4 ,this
  miraculous title would be1 ,i confess1

 an exception to the civil law1         
authorized by ,god1 who says3 ,all      
persons ought to submit to the powers   
that be1 because they are ordained of   
,god and established in ,his name4      
,in defect of such a title1 no          
ecclesiastical body whatever can enjoy  
aught on earth but by consent of the    
sovereignty and the authority of  the   
civil laws4 ,these form their sole title
 to possession4 ,if the clergy          
imprudently renounce this title1 they   
will possess none at all1 and  might be 
despoiled by any one who is strong      
enough to attempt it4 ,its  essential   
interest is1 therefore1 to support civil
 society1 to which it  owes everything4 
,for the same reason1 as all the wealth 
of a nation is liable without  exception
 to public expenditure for the defence  
of the sovereign and the  nation1 no    
property can be exempt from it but by   
force of law1 which law  is always      
revocable as circumstances vary4 ,peter 
cannot be exempt  without augmenting the

 tax of ,john4 ,equity1 therefore1 is   
eternally  claiming for equality against
 surcharges2 and the ,state has a right1
 at  all times1 to examine into         
exemptions1 in order to replace things  
in a  just1 natural1 proportionate      
order1 by abolishing previously granted 
immunities1 whether permitted or        
extorted4    ,every law which ordains   
that the sovereign1 at the expense of   
the  public1 shall take care of the     
wealth or possessions of any individual 
or a body1 without this body or         
individual contributing to the common   
expenses1 amounts to a subversion of    
law4    ,i moreover assert that the     
quota1 whether the contribution of a    
body or  an individual1 ought to be     
proportionately regulated1 not by him or
  them1 but by the sovereign or         
magistracy1 according to the general    
form  and law4 ,thus the sovereign or   
state may demand an account of the      
wealth  and of the possessions of       
everybody as of every individual4    ,it

 is1 therefore1 once more on these      
immutable principles that the rules  of 
the canon law should be founded which   
relate to the possessions and  revenue  
of the clergy4    ,ecclesiastics1       
without doubt1 ought to be allowed      
sufficient to live  honorably1 but not  
as members of or as representing the    
,church1 for the  ,church itself claims 
neither sovereignty nor possession in   
this world4    ,but if it be necessary  
for ministers to preside at t the altar1
 it is  proper that society should      
support them in the same manner as the  
magistracy and soldiers4 ,it is1        
therefore1 for the civil law to make a  
suitable provision for the priesthood4  
,even when the possessions of the       
ecclesiastics have been bestowed on     
them by wills1 or in any other manner1  
the donors have not been able to        
denationalize the property by           
abstracting it from public charges and  
the  authority of the laws4 ,it is      
always under the guarantee of the laws1 

without which they would not possess the
 insured and legitimate  possessions    
which they enjoy4    ,it is1 therefore1 
still left to the sovereign1 or the     
magistracy in his  name1 to examine at  
all times if the ecclesiastical revenues
 be  sufficient2 and if they are not1 to
 augment the allotted provision2 if1  on
 the contrary1 they are excessive1 it is
 for them to dispose of the  superfluity
 for the general good of society4       
,but according to the right1 commonly   
called canonical1 which has sought  to  
form a ,state within the ,state1        
imperium in imperio1  ecclesiastical    
property is sacred and intangible1      
because it belongs to  religion and the 
,church2 they have come of ,god1 and not
 of man4    ,in the first place1 it is  
impossible to appropriate this          
terrestrial  wealth to religion1 which  
has nothing temporal4 ,they cannot      
belong to  the ,church1 which is the    
universal body of the believers1        
including the  king1 the magistracy1 the

 soldiery1 and all subjects2 for we are 
never  to forget that priests no more   
form the ,church than magistrates the   
,state4    ,lastly1 these goods come    
only from ,god in the same sense as all 
goods  come from ,him1 because all is   
submitted to ,his providence4           
,therefore1 every ecclesiastical        
possessor of riches1 or revenue1 enjoys 
it only as a subject and citizen of the 
,state1 under the single  protection of 
the civil law4    ,property1 which is   
temporal and material1 cannot be        
rendered sacred or  holy in any sense1  
neither literally nor figuratively4 ,if 
it be said  that a person or edifice is 
sacred1 it only signifies that it has   
been  consecrated or set apart for      
spiritual purposes4    ,the abuse of a  
metaphor1 to authorize rights and       
pretensions destructive  to all society1
 is an enterprise of which history and  
religion furnish  more than one example1
 and even some very singular ones1 which
 are not  at present to my purpose4     

,,section ,,iii4    ,of ,ecclesiastical 
or ,religious ,assemblies4    ,it is    
certain that nobody can call any public 
or regular assembly in a  state but     
under the sanction of civil authority4  
,religious assemblies for public worship
 must be authorized by the  sovereign1  
or civil magistracy1 before they can be 
legal4    ,in ,holland1 where the civil 
power grants the greatest liberty1 and  
very  nearly the same in ,russia1 in    
,england1 and in ,prussia1 those who    
wish to  form a church have to obtain   
permission1 after which the new church  
is  in the states1 although not of the  
religion of the states4 ,in general1  as
 soon as there is a sufficient number of
 persons1 or of families1 who  wish to  
cultivate a particular mode of worship1 
and to assemble for that  purpose1 they 
can without hesitation apply to the     
magistrate1 who makes  himself a judge  
of it2 and once allowed1 it cannot be   
disturbed without  a breach of public   
order4 ,the facility with which the     

government of  ,holland has granted this
 permission has never produced any      
disorder2 and  it would be the same     
everywhere if the magistrate alone      
examined1  judged1 and protected the    
parties concerned4    ,the sovereign1 or
 civil power1 possesses the right at all
 times of  knowing what passes within   
these assemblies1 of regulating1 them in
  conformity with public order1 and of  
preventing such as produce  disorder4   
,this perpetual inspection is an        
essential portion of  sovereignty1 which
 every religion ought to acknowledge4   
,everything in the worship1 in respect  
to form of prayer1 canticles1 and       
ceremonies1 ought to be open to the     
inspection of the magistrate4 ,the      
clergy may compose these prayers2 but it
 is for the ,state to approve or  reform
 them in case of necessity4 ,bloody wars
 have been undertaken for  mere forms1  
which would never have been waged had   
sovereigns understood  their rights4    
,holidays ought to be no more           

established without the consent and     
approbation of the ,state1 who may at   
all times abridge and regulate  them4   
,the multiplication of such days always 
produces a laxity of  manners and       
national impoverishment4    ,a          
superintendence over oral instruction   
and books of devotion1 belongs  of right
 to the ,state4 ,it is not the executive
 which teaches1 but which  attends to   
the manner in which the people are      
taught4 ,morality above all  should be  
attended to1 which is always necessary2 
whereas disputes  concerning doctrines  
are often dangerous4    ,if disputes    
exist between ecclesiastics in reference
 to the manner of  teaching1 or on      
points of doctrine1 the ,state may      
impose silence on both  parties1 and    
punish the disobedient4    ,as religious
 congregations are not permitted by the 
,state in order to  treat of political  
matters1 magistrates ought to repress   
seditious  preachers1 who heat the      
multitude by punishable declamation3    

these are  pests in every ,state4       
,every mode of worship presumes a       
discipline to maintain order1           
uniformity1 and decency4 ,it is for the 
magistrate to protect this  discipline1 
and to bring about such changes as times
 and circumstances  may render          
necessary4    ,for nearly eight         
centuries the emperors of the ,east     
assembled councils  in order to appease 
religious disputes1 which were only     
augmented by the  too great attention   
paid to them4 ,contempt would have more 
certainly  terminated the vain          
disputation1 which interest and the     
passions had  excited4 ,since the       
division of the empire of the ,west into
 various  kingdoms1 princes have left to
 the pope the convocation of these      
assemblies4 ,the rights of the ,roman   
pontiff are in this respect purely      
conventional1 and the sovereigns may    
agree in the course of time1 that  they 
shall no longer exist2 nor is any one of
 them obliged to submit to  any canon   

without having examined and approved it4
 ,however1 as the  ,council of ,trent   
will most likely be the last1 it is     
useless to agitate  all the questions   
which might relate to a future general  
council4    ,as to assemblies1 synods1  
or national councils1 they indisputably 
cannot  be convoked except when the     
sovereign or ,state deems them          
necessary4 ,the  commissioners of the   
latter ought therefore to preside1      
direct all their  deliberations1 and    
give their sanction to the decrees4     
,there may exist periodical assemblies  
of the clergy1 to maintain order1  under
 the authority of the ,state1 but the   
civil power ought uniformly to  direct  
their views and guide their             
deliberations4 ,the periodical  assembly
 of the clergy of ,france is only an    
assembly of regulative  commissioners   
for all the clergy of the kingdom4      
,the vows by which certain ecclesiastics
 oblige themselves to live in a  body   
according to certain rules1 under the   

name of monks1 or of  religieux1 so     
prodigiously multiplied in ,europe1     
should always be  submitted to the      
inspection and approval of the          
magistrate4 ,these  convents1 which shut
 up so many persons who are useless to  
society1 and  so many victims who regret
 the liberty which they have lost2 these
  orders1 which bear so many strange    
denominations1 ought not to be valid  or
 obligatory1 unless when examined and   
sanctioned by the sovereign or  the     
,state4    ,at all times1 therefore1 the
 prince or ,state has a right to take   
cognizance of the rules and conduct of  
these religious houses1 and to  reform  
or abolish them if held to be           
incompatible with present               
circumstances1 and the positive welfare 
of society4    ,the revenue and property
 of these religious bodies are1 in like 
manner1  open to the inspection of the  
magistracy1 in order to judge of their  
amount and of the manner in which they  
are employed4 ,if the mass of the       

riches1 which is thus prevented from    
circulation1 be too great2 if the       
revenues greatly exceed the reasonable  
support of the regulars2 if the         
employment of these revenues be opposed 
to the general good2 if this            
accumulation impoverish the rest of the 
community2 in all these cases it        
becomes the magistracy1 as the common   
fathers of the country1 to  diminish and
 divide these riches1 in order to make  
them partake of the  circulation1 which 
is the life of the body politic2 or even
 to employ  them in any other way for   
the benefit of the public4    ,agreeably
 to the same principles1 the sovereign  
authority ought to  forbid any religious
 order from having a superior who is a  
native or  resident of another country4 
,it approaches to the crime of          
lse-majest4    ,the sovereign may       
prescribe rules for admission into these
 orders2 he  may1 according to ancient  
usage1 fix an age1 and hinder taking    
vows1  except by the express consent of 

the magistracy in each instance4 ,every 
citizen is born a subject of the ,state1
 and has no right to break his  natural 
engagements with society without the    
consent of those who  preside over it4  
,if the sovereign abolishes a religious 
order1 the vows cease to be  binding4   
,the first vow is that to the ,state2 it
 is a primary and tacit  oath authorized
 by ,god2 a vow according to the decrees
 of ,providence2 a  vow unalterable and 
imprescriptible1 which unites man in    
society to his  country and his         
sovereign4 ,if we take a posterior vow1 
the primitive one  still exists2 and    
when they clash1 nothing can weaken or  
suspend the  force of the primary       
engagement4 ,if1 therefore1 the         
sovereign declares  this last vow1 which
 is only conditional and dependent on   
the first1  incompatible with it1 he    
does not dissolve a vow1 but decrees it 
to be  necessarily void1 and replaces   
the individual in his natural state4    
,the foregoing is quite sufficient to   

dissipate all the sophistry by  which   
the canonists have sought to embarrass a
 question so simple in the  estimation  
of all who are disposed to listen to    
reason4      ,,section ,,iv4    ,on     
,ecclesiastical ,penalties4    ,since   
neither the ,church1 which is the body  
of believers collectively1  nor the     
ecclesiastics1 who are ministers in the 
,church in the name of  the sovereign   
and under his authority1 possess any    
coactive strength1  executive power1 or 
terrestrial authority1 it is evident    
that these  ministers can inflict only  
spiritual punishments4 ,to threaten     
sinners  with the anger of heaven is the
 sole penalty that a pastor is entitled 
to inflict4 ,if the name of punishment  
or penalty is not to be given to  those 
censures or declamations1 ministers of  
religion have none at all  to inflict4  
,may the ,church eject from its bosom   
those who disgrace or who trouble  it8  
,this is a grand question1 upon which   
the canonists have not  hesitated to    

adopt the affirmative4 ,let us repeat1  
in the first place1  that ecclesiastics 
are not the ,church4 ,the assembled     
,church1 which  includes the ,state or  
sovereign1 doubtless possesses the right
 to  exclude from the congregations a   
scandalous sinner1 after repeated       
charitable and sufficient warnings4 ,the
 exclusion1 even in this case1  cannot  
inflict any civil penalty1 any bodily   
evil1 or any merely earthly  privation2 
but whatever right the ,church may in   
this way possess1 the  ecclesiastics    
belonging to it can only exercise it as 
far as the  sovereign and ,state allow4 
,it is therefore still more incumbent on
 the sovereign1 in this case1 to  watch 
over the manner in which this permitted 
right is exercised1  vigilance being the
 more necessary in consequence of the   
abuse to which  it is liable4 ,it is1   
consequently1 necessary for the supreme 
civil power  to consult the rules for   
the regulation of assistance and        
charity1 to  prescribe suitable         

restrictions1 without which every       
declaration of the  clergy1 and all     
excommunication1 will be null and       
without effect1 even  when only         
applicable to the spiritual order4 ,it  
is to confound different  eras and      
circumstances1 to regulate the          
proceedings of present times  from the  
practice of the apostles4 ,the sovereign
 in those days was not  of the religion 
of the apostles1 nor was the ,church    
included in the  ,state1 so that the    
ministers of worship could not have     
recourse to the  magistrates4 ,moreover1
 the apostles were ministers            
extraordinary1 of  which we now perceive
 no resemblance4 ,if other examples of  
excommunication1 without the authority  
of the sovereign1 be quoted1 ,i  can    
only say that ,i cannot hear1 without   
horror1 of examples of  excommunication 
insolently fulminated against sovereigns
 and  magistrates2 ,i boldly reply1 that
 these denunciations amount to manifest 
rebellion1 and to an open violation of  

the most sacred duties of  religion1    
charity1 and natural right4    ,let us  
add1 in order to afford a complete idea 
of excommunication1 and  of the true    
rules of canonical right or law in this 
respect1 that  excommunication1         
legitimately pronounced by those to whom
 the sovereign1  in the name of the     
,church1 expressly leaves the power1    
includes  privation only of spiritual   
advantages on earth1 and can extend to  
nothing else3 all beyond this will be   
abuse1 and more or less  tyrannical4    
,the ministers of the ,church can do no 
more than declare that  such and such a 
man is no more a member of the ,church4 
,he may still1  however1 enjoy          
notwithstanding the excommunication1 all
 his natural1  civil1 and temporal      
rights as a man and a citizen4 ,if the  
magistrate  steps in and deprives such a
 man1 in consequence1 of an office or   
employment in society1 it then becomes a
 civil penalty for some fault  against  
civil order4    ,let us suppose that    

which may very likely happen1 as        
ecclesiastics are  only men1 that the   
excommunication which they have been led
 to pronounce  has been prompted by some
 error or some passion2 he who is       
exposed to a  censure so precipitate is 
clearly justified in his conscience     
before  ,god2 the declaration issued    
against him can produce no effect upon  
the  life to come4 ,deprived of exterior
 communion with the true ,church1 he    
may still enjoy the consolation of the  
interior communion4 ,justified by  his  
conscience1 he has nothing to fear in a 
future existence from the  judgment of  
,god1 his only true judge4    ,it is    
then a great question1 as to canonical  
rights1 whether the clergy1  their head1
 or any ecclesiastical body whatever1   
can excommunicate the  sovereign or the 
magistracy1 under any pretext1 or for   
any abuse of  their power8 ,this        
question is essentially scandalous1 and 
the simple  doubt a direct rebellion4   
,in fact1 the first duty of man in      

society is  to respect the magistrate1  
and to advance his respectability1 and  
you  pretend to have a right to censure 
and set him aside4 ,who has given you   
this absurd and pernicious right8 ,is it
 ,god1 who governs the political  world 
by delegated sovereignty1 and who       
ordains that society shall  subsist by  
subordination8    ,the first            
ecclesiastics at the rise of            
,christianity--did they conceive        
themselves authorized to excommunicate  
,tiberius1 ,nero1 ,claudius1 or even    
,constantine1 who was a heretic8 ,how   
then have pretensions thus  monstrous1  
ideas thus atrocious1 wicked attempts   
equally condemned by  reason and by     
natural and religious rights1 been      
suffered to last so  long8 ,if a        
religion exists which teaches like      
horrors1 society ought to  proscribe it1
 as directly subversive of the repose of
 mankind4 ,the cry  of whole nations is 
already lifted up against these         
pretended canonical  laws1 dictated by  

ambition and by fanaticism4 ,it is to be
 hoped that  sovereigns1 better         
instructed in their rights1 and         
supported by the  fidelity of their     
people1 will terminate abuses so        
enormous1 and which  have caused so many
 misfortunes4 ,the author of the ,essay 
on the ,manners  and ,spirit of ,nations
 has been the first to forcibly expose  
the  atrocity of enterprises of this    
nature4      ,,section ,v4    ,of the   
,superintendence of ,doctrine4    ,the  
sovereign is not the judge of the truth 
of doctrine2 he may judge  for himself1 
like all other men2 but he ought to take
 cognizance of it  in respect to        
everything which relates to civil order1
 whether in regard  to purport or       
delivery4    ,this is the general rule  
from which magistrates ought never to   
depart4  ,nothing in a doctrine merits  
the attention of the police1 except as  
it  interests public order3 it is the   
influence of doctrine upon manners  that
 decides its importance4 ,doctrines     

which have a distant connection  only   
with good conduct can never be          
fundamental4 ,truths which conduce to   
render mankind gentle1 humane1 obedient 
to the laws and to the  government1     
interest the ,state1 and proceed        
evidently from ,god4      ,,section     
,,vi4    ,superintendence of the        
,magistracy ,over the ,administration of
 the  ,sacraments4    ,the              
administration of the sacraments ought  
to be submitted to the  careful         
inspection of the magistrates in        
everything which concerns  public order4
    ,it has already been observed that  
the magistrate ought to watch over the  
form of the public registry of          
marriages1 baptisms1 and deaths1 without
  any regard to the creed of the        
different inhabitants of the ,state4    
,similar reasons in relation to police  
and good government--do they not        
require an exact registry in the hands  
of the magistracy of all those  who make
 vows1 and enter convents in those      

countries in which convents  are        
permitted8    ,in the sacrament of      
repentance1 the minister who refuses or 
grants  absolution is accountable for   
his judgment only to ,god2 and in the   
same  manner1 the penitent is           
accountable to ,god alone1 whether he   
consummates  it all1 or does so well or 
ill4    ,no pastor1 himself a sinner1   
ought to have the right of publicly     
refusing1 on his own private authority1 
the eucharist to another sinner4  ,the  
sinless ,jesus ,christ refused not the  
communion to ,judas4    ,extreme unction
 and the viaticum1 if demanded or       
requested by the sick1  should be       
governed by the same1 rule4 ,the simple 
right of the minister  is to exhort the 
sick person1 and it is the duty of the  
magistrate to  take care that the pastor
 abuse not circumstances1 in order to   
persecute  the invalid4    ,formerly1 it
 was the ,church collectively which     
called the pastors1 and  conferred upon 
them the right of governing and         

instructing the flock4 ,at  present1    
ecclesiastics alone consecrate others1  
and the magistracy ought  to be watchful
 of this privilege4    ,it is doubtless 
a great1 though ancient abuse1 that of  
conferring orders  without functions2 it
 is depriving the ,state of members1    
without adding  to the ,church4 ,the    
magistrate is called upon to reform this
 abuse4    ,marriage1 in a civil sense1 
is the legitimate union of a man with a 
woman for the procreation of children1  
to secure their due nurture and         
education1 and in order to assure unto  
them their rights and properties  under 
the protection of the laws4 ,in order to
 confirm and establish this  union1 it  
is accompanied by a religious ceremony1 
regarded by some as a  sacrament1 and by
 others as a portion of public worship2 
a genuine  logomachy1 which changes     
nothing in the thing4 ,two points are   
therefore  to be distinguished in       
marriage--the civil contract1 or natural
  engagement1 and the sacrament1 or     

sacred ceremony4 ,marriage may          
therefore exist1 with all its natural   
and civil effects1 independently  of the
 religious ceremony4 ,the ceremonies of 
the ,church are only  essential to civil
 order1 because the ,state has adopted  
them4 ,a long  time elapsed before the  
ministers of religion had anything to do
 with  marriage4 ,in the time of        
,justinian1 the agreement of the        
parties1 in the  presence of witnesses1 
without any ceremonies of the ,church1  
legalized  marriages among ,christians4 
,it was that emperor who1 towards the   
middle  of the sixth century1 made the  
first laws by which the presence of     
priests was required1 as simple         
witnesses1 without1 however1 prescribing
  any nuptial benediction4 ,the emperor 
,leo1 who died in #hhf1 seems to have   
been the first who placed the religious 
ceremony in the number of  necessary    
conditions4 ,the terms of the law itself
 indeed1 which ordains  it1 prove it to 
have been a novelty4    ,from the       

correct idea which we now form of       
marriage1 it results in the  first      
place1 that good order1 and even piety1 
render religious forms  adopted in all  
,christian countries necessary4 ,but the
 essence of  marriage cannot be         
denationalized1 and this engagement1    
which is the  principal one in society1 
ought uniformly1 as a branch of civil   
and  political order1 to be placed under
 the authority of the magistracy4    ,it
 follows1 therefore1 that a married     
couple1 even educated in the  worship of
 infidels and heretics1 are not obliged 
to marry again1 if  they have been      
united agreeably to the established     
forms of their own  country2 and it is  
for the magistrate in all such instances
 to  investigate the state of the case4 
,the priest is at present the magistrate
 freely nominated by the law1 in        
certain countries1 to receive the       
pledged faith of persons wishing to     
marry4 ,it is very evident1 that the law
 can modify or change as it  pleases the

 extent of this ecclesiastical          
authority4    ,wills and funerals are   
incontestably under the authority of the
 civil  magistracy and the police4 ,the 
clergy have never been allowed to usurp 
the authority of the law in respect to  
these4 ,in the age of ,louis ,,xiv4     
however1 and even in that of ,louis     
,,xv41 striking examples have been      
witnessed of the endeavors of certain   
fanatical ecclesiastics to  interfere in
 the regulation of funerals4 ,under the 
pretext of heresy1  they refused the    
sacraments1 and interment2 a barbarity  
which ,pagans  would have held in       
horror4      ,,section ,,vii4           
,ecclesiastical ,jurisdiction4    ,the  
sovereign or ,state may1 without doubt1 
give up to an ecclesiastical  body1 or a
 single priest1 a jurisdiction over     
certain objects and  certain persons1   
with a power suitable to the authority  
confided4 ,i  examine not into the      
prudence of remitting a certain portion 
of civil  authority into the hands of   

any body or person who already enjoys an
  authority in things spiritual4 ,to    
deliver to those who ought to be  solely
 employed in conducting men to heaven1  
an authority upon earth1 is  to produce 
a union of two powers1 the abuse of     
which is only too easy2  but at least it
 is evident that any man1 as well as an 
ecclesiastic1 may  be intrusted with the
 same jurisdiction4 ,by whomsoever      
possessed1 it has  either been conceded 
by the sovereign power1 or usurped2     
there is no  medium4 ,the kingdom of    
,jesus ,christ is not of this world2 he 
refused to  be a judge upon earth1 and  
ordered that men should give unto ,csar 
the  things which belonged unto ,csar3  
he forbade all dominations to his       
apostles1 and preached only humility1   
gentleness1 and dependence4 ,from  him  
ecclesiastics can derive neither power1 
authority1 domination1 nor  jurisdiction
 in this world4 ,they can therefore     
possess no legitimate  authority1 but by
 a concession from the sovereign or     

,state1 from which  all authority in a  
society can properly emanate4    ,there 
was a time in the unhappy epoch of the  
feudal ages in which  ecclesiastics were
 possessed in various countries with the
 principal  functions of the magistracy3
 the authority of the lords of the lay  
fiefs1 so formidable to the sovereign   
and oppressive to the people1 has  been 
since bounded2 but a portion of the     
independence of the  ecclesiastical     
jurisdictions still exists4 ,when will  
sovereigns be  sufficiently informed and
 courageous to take back from them the  
usurped  authority and numerous         
privileges which they have so often     
abused1 to  annoy the flock which they  
ought to protect8    ,it is by this     
inadvertence of princes that the        
audacious enterprises of  ecclesiastics 
against sovereigns themselves have      
originated4 ,the  scandalous history of 
these attempts has been consigned to    
records which  cannot be contested4 ,the
 bull ,in cna ,domini1 in particular1   

still remains to prove the continual    
enterprises of the clergy against  royal
 and civil authority4    ,extract from  
the ,tariff of the ,rights ,exacted in  
,france by the ,court of  ,rome for     
,bulls1 ,dispensations1 ,absolutions1   
etc41 which ,tariff was  ,decreed in the
 ,king's ,council1 ,sept4 #d1 #afia1 and
 ,which is ,reported  ,entire in the    
,brief of ,james ,lepelletier1 ,printed 
at ,lyons in #afii1 with  the           
,approbation and ,permission of the     
,king4 ,lyons3 ,printed for ,anthony    
,boudet1 ,eighth ,edition4    #a4 ,for  
absolution for the crime of apostasy1   
payable to the pope1  twenty-four       
livres4    #b4 ,a bastard wishing to    
take orders must pay twenty-five livres 
for a  dispensation2 if desirous to     
possess a benefice1 he must pay in      
addition  one hundred and eighty livres2
 if anxious that his dispensation should
  not allude to his illegitimacy1 he    
will have to pay a thousand and fifty   
livres4    #c4 ,for dispensation and    

absolution of bigamy1 one thousand and  
fifty  livres4    #d4 ,for a            
dispensation for the error of a false   
judgment in the  administration of      
justice or the exercise of medicine1    
ninety livres4    #e4 ,absolution for   
heresy1 twenty-four livres4    #f4      
,brief of forty hours1 for seven years1 
twelve livres4    #g4 ,absolution for   
having committed homicide in            
self-defence1 or  undesignedly1         
ninety-five livres4 ,all in company of  
the murderer also  need absolution1 and 
are to pay for the same eighty-five     
livres each4    #h4 ,indulgences for    
seven years1 twelve livres4    #i4      
,perpetual indulgences for a            
brotherhood1 forty livres4    #aj4      
,dispensation for irregularity and      
incapacity1 twenty-five livres2 if  the 
irregularity is great1 fifty livres4    
#aa4 ,for permission to read forbidden  
books1 twenty-five livres4    #ab4      
,dispensation for simony1 forty livres2 
with an augmentation  according to      

circumstances4    #ac4 ,brief to permit 
the eating of forbidden meats1          
sixty-five livres4    #ad4 ,dispensation
 for simple vows of chastity or of      
religion1 fifteen  livres4 ,brief       
declaratory of the nullity of the       
profession of a monk or  a nun1 one     
hundred livres4 ,if this brief be       
requested ten years after  profession1  
double the amount4    ,dispensations in 
,relation to ,marriage4                 
,dispensations for the fourth degree of 
relationship1 with cause1  sixty-five   
livres2 without cause1 ninety livres2   
with dispensation for  familiarities    
that have passed between the future     
married persons1 one  hundred and eighty
 livres4    ,for relations of the third 
or fourth degree1 both on the side of   
the  father and mother1 without cause1  
eight hundred and eighty livres2 with   
cause1 one hundred and forty-five       
livres4    ,for relations of the second 
degree on one side1 and the fourth on   
the  other2 nobles to pay one thousand  

four hundred and thirty livres2         
roturiers1 one thousand one hundred and 
fifty livres4    ,he who would marry the
 sister of the girl to whom he has been 
affianced1  to pay for a dispensation1  
one thousand four hundred and thirty    
livres4    ,those who are relations in  
the third degree1 if they are nobles1 or
 live  creditably1 are to pay one       
thousand four hundred and thirty livres2
 if  the relationship is on the side of 
father as well as mother1 two  thousand 
four hundred and thirty livres4         
,relations in the second degree to pay  
four thousand five hundred and  thirty  
livres2 and if the female has accorded  
favors to the male1 in  addition for    
absolution1 two thousand and thirty     
livres4    ,for those who have stood    
sponsors at the baptism of the children 
of each  other1 the dispensation will   
cost two thousand seven hundred and     
thirty  livres4 ,if they would be       
absolved from premature familiarity1 one
  thousand three hundred and thirty     

livres in addition4    ,he who has      
enjoyed the favors of a widow during the
 life of her deceased  husband1 in order
 to legitimately espouse her1 will have 
to pay one  hundred and ninety livres4  
,in ,spain and ,portugal1 the marriage  
dispensations are still dearer4         
,cousins-german cannot obtain them for  
less than two thousand crowns4    ,the  
poor not being able to pay these taxes1 
abatements may be made4 ,it  is better  
to obtain half a right1 than lose all by
 refusing the  dispensation4    ,no     
reference is had here to the sums paid  
to the pope for the bulls of  bishops1  
abbots1 etc41 which are to be found in  
the almanacs2 but we  cannot perceive by
 what authority the pope of ,rome levies
 taxes upon  laymen who choose to marry 
their cousins4          ,,rivers4       
,the progress of rivers to the ocean is 
not so rapid as that of man to  error4  
,it is not long since it was discovered 
that all rivers originate  in those     
eternal masses of snow which cover the  

summits of lofty  mountains1 those snows
 in rain1 that rain in the vapor exhaled
 from the  land and sea2 and that thus  
everything is a link in the great chain 
of  nature4    ,when a boy1 ,i heard    
theses delivered which proved that all  
rivers and  fountains came from the sea4
 ,this was the opinion of all antiquity4
  ,these rivers flowed into immense     
caverns1 and thence distributed their   
waters to all parts of the world4       
,when ,aristeus goes to lament the loss 
of his bees to ,cyrene his mother1      
goddess of the little river ,enipus in  
,thessaly1 the river immediately        
divides itself1 forming as it were two  
mountains of water1 right and  left1 to 
receive him according to ancient and    
immemorial usage2 after  which he has a 
view of those vast and beautiful        
grottoes through which  flow all the    
rivers of the earth2 the ,po1 which     
descends from ,mount ,viso  in          
,piedmont1 and traverses ,italy2 the    
,teverone1 which comes from the         

,apennines2 the ,phasis1 which issues   
from ,mount ,caucasus1 and falls into   
the ,black ,sea2 and numberless others4 
,virgil1 in this instance1 adopted a    
strange system of natural  philosophy1  
in which certainly none but poets can be
 indulged4    ,such1 however1 was the   
credit and prevalence of this system    
that1  fifteen hundred years afterwards1
 ,tasso completely imitated ,virgil in  
his fourteenth canto1 while imitating at
 the same time with far greater         
felicity ,ariosto4 ,an old ,christian   
magician conducts underground the two   
knights who are to bring back ,rinaldo  
from the arms of ,armida1 as  ,melissa  
had rescued ,rogero from the caresses of
 ,alcina4 ,this venerable  sage makes   
,rinaldo descend into his grotto1 from  
which issue all the  rivers which       
refresh and fertilize our earth4 ,it is 
a pity that the  rivers of ,america are 
not among the number4 ,but as the ,nile1
 the ,danube1  the ,seine1 the ,jordan1 
and the ,volga have their source in this

 cavern1  that ought to be deemed       
sufficient4 ,what is still more in      
conformity to  the physics of antiquity 
is the circumstance of this grotto or   
cavern  being in the very centre of the 
earth4 ,of course1 it is here that      
,maupertuis wanted to take a tour4      
,after admitting that rivers spring from
 mountains1 and that both of them  are  
essential parts of this great machine1  
let us beware how we give in  to varying
 and vanishing systems4    ,when        
,maillet imagined that the sea had      
formed the mountains1 he should  have   
dedicated his book to ,cyrano de        
,bergerac4 ,when it has been said1      
also1 that the great chains of mountains
 extend from east to west1 and  that the
 greatest number of rivers also flow    
always to the west1 the  spirit of      
system has been more consulted than the 
truth of nature4    ,with respect to    
mountains1 disembark at the ,cape of    
,good ,hope1 you will  perceive a chain 
of mountains from the south as far north

 as ,monomotapa4  ,only a few persons   
have visited that quarter of the world1 
and travelled  under the line in        
,africa4 ,but ,calpe and ,abila are     
completely in the  direction of north   
and south4 ,from ,gibraltar to the river
 ,guadiana1 in a  course directly       
northward1 there is a continuous range  
of mountains4 ,new  and ,old ,castile   
are covered with them1 and the direction
 of them all is  from south to north1   
like that of all the mountains in       
,america4 ,with  respect to the rivers1 
they flow precisely according to the    
disposition  or direction of the land4  
,the ,guadalquivir runs straight to the 
south from ,villanueva to ,san  ,lucar2 
the ,guadiana the same1 as far as       
,badajos4 ,all the rivers in the  ,gulf 
of ,venice1 except the ,po1 fall into   
the sea towards the south4 ,such  is the
 course of the ,rhone from ,lyons to its
 mouth4 ,that of the ,seine is  from the
 north-northwest4 ,the ,rhine1 from     
,basle1 goes straight to the  north4    

,the ,meuse does the same1 from its     
source to the territory  overflowed by  
its waters4 ,the ,scheldt also does the 
same4    ,why1 then1 should men be so   
assiduous in deceiving themselves1 just 
for  the pleasure of forming systems1   
and leading astray persons of weak and  
ignorant minds8 ,what good can possibly 
arise from inducing a number of         
people--who must inevitably be soon     
undeceived--to believe that all  rivers 
and all mountains are in a direction    
from east to west1 or from  west to     
east2 that all mountains are covered    
with oyster-shells--which  is most      
certainly false--that anchors have been 
found on the summit of  the mountains of
 ,switzerland2 that these mountains have
 been formed by  the currents of the    
ocean2 and that limestone is composed   
entirely of  seashells8 ,what6 shall we1
 at the present day1 treat philosophy as
 the  ancients formerly treated history8
    ,to return to streams and rivers4   
,the most important and valuable things 

that can be done in relation to them is 
preventing their inundations1  and      
making new rivers--that is1 canals--out 
of those already existing1  wherever the
 undertaking is practicable and         
beneficial4 ,this is one of  the most   
useful services that can be conferred   
upon a nation4 ,the canals  of ,egypt   
were as serviceable as its pyramids were
 useless4    ,with regard to the        
quantity of water conveyed along the    
beds of rivers1  and everything relating
 to calculation on the subject1 read the
 article  on ,river1 by ,m4 d',alembert4
 ,it is1 like everything else done by   
him1  clear1 exact1 and true2 and       
written in a style adapted to the       
subject2  he does not employ the style  
of ,telemachus to discuss subjects of   
natural philosophy4          ,,roads4   
,it was not until lately that the modern
 nations of ,europe began to  render    
roads practicable and convenient1 and to
 bestow on them some  beauty4 ,to       
superintend and keep in order the road  

is one of the most  important cares of  
both the ,mogul and ,chinese emperors4  
,but these  princes never attained such 
eminence in this department as the      
,romans4  ,the ,appian1 the ,aurelian1  
the ,flaminian1 the milian1 and the     
,trajan  ways exist even at the present 
day4 ,the ,romans alone were capable of 
constructing such roads1 and they alone 
were capable of repairing them4         
,bergier1 who has written an otherwise  
valuable book1 insists much on          
,solomon's employing thirty thousand    
,jews in cutting wood on ,mount         
,lebanon1 eighty thousand in building   
the temple1 seventy thousand on         
carriages1 and three thousand six       
hundred in superintending the labors  of
 others4 ,we will for a moment admit it 
all to be true2 yet still there  is     
nothing said about his making or        
repairing highways4    ,pliny informs us
 that three hundred thousand men were   
employed for  twenty years in building  
one of the pyramids of ,egypt2 ,i am not

 disposed  to doubt it2 but surely three
 hundred thousand men might have been   
much  better employed4 ,those who worked
 on the canals in ,egypt2 or on the     
great wall1 the canals1 or highways of  
,china2 or those who constructed  the   
celebrated ways of the ,roman ,empire   
were much more usefully occupied  than  
the three hundred thousand miserable    
slaves in building a pyramidal          
sepulchre for the corpse of a bigoted   
,egyptian4    ,we are well acquainted   
with the prodigious works accomplished  
by the  ,romans1 their immense          
excavations for lakes of water1 or the  
beds of  lakes formed by nature1 filled 
up1 hills levelled1 and a passage bored 
through a mountain by ,vespasian1 in the
 ,flaminian way1 for more than a        
thousand feet in length1 the inscription
 on which remains at present4           
,pausilippo is not to be compared with  
it4    ,the foundations of the greater  
part of our present houses are far from 
being so solid as were the highways in  

the neighborhood of ,rome2 and  these   
public ways were extended throughout the
 empire1 although not upon  the same    
scale of duration and solidity4 ,to     
effect that would have  required more   
men and money than could possibly have  
been obtained4    ,almost all the       
highways of ,italy were erected on a    
foundation four feet  deep2 when a space
 of marshy ground or bog was on the     
track of the road1  it was filled up2   
and when any part of it was mountainous1
 its  pretipitousness was reduced to a  
gentle and trifling inclination from    
the general line of the road4 ,in many  
parts1 the roads were supported by      
solid walls4    ,upon the four feet of  
masonry1 were placed large hewn stones  
of marble1  nearly one foot in          
thickness1 and frequently ten feet wide2
 they were  indented by the chisel to   
prevent the slipping of the horses4 ,it 
was  difficult to say which most        
attracted admiration--the utility or the
  magnificence of these astonishing     

works4    ,nearly all of these wonderful
 constructions were raised at the public
  expense4 ,csar repaired and extended  
the ,appian way out of his own  private 
funds2 those funds1 however1 consisted  
of the money of the  republic4    ,who  
were the persons employed upon these    
works8 ,slaves1 captives taken  in war1 
and provincials that were not admitted  
to the distinction of  ,roman citizens4 
,they worked by corve1 as they do in    
,france and  elsewhere2 but some        
trifling remuneration was allowed them4 
,augustus was the first who joined the  
legions with the people in labors  upon 
the highways of the ,gauls1 and in      
,spain and ,asia4 ,he penetrated the    
,alps by the valley which bore his name1
 and which the ,piedmontese and  the    
,french corruptly called the ,valley of 
,aste4 ,it was previously  necessary to 
bring under subjection all the savage   
hordes by which these  cantons were     
inhabited4 ,there is still visible1     
between ,great and ,little  ,st4        

,bernard1 the triumphal arch erected by 
the senate in honor of him  after this  
expedition4 ,he again penetrated the    
,alps on another side  leading to       
,lyons1 and thence into the whole of    
,gaul4 ,the conquered never  effected   
for themselves so much as was effected  
for them by their  conquerors4    ,the  
downfall of the ,roman ,empire was that 
of all the public works1 as  also of all
 orderly police1 art1 and industry4 ,the
 great roads  disappeared in the ,gauls1
 except some causeways1 chausses1 which 
the unfortunate ,queen ,brunehilde kept 
for a little time in repair4 ,a man     
could scarcely move on horseback with   
safety on the ancient celebrated  ways1 
which were now becoming dreadfully      
broken up1 and impeded by  masses of    
stone and mud4 ,it was found necessary  
to pass over the  cultivated fields2 the
 ploughs scarcely effected in a month   
what they  now easily accomplish in a   
week4 ,the little commerce that remained
 was  limited to a few woollen and linen

 cloths1 and some wretchedly wrought    
hardwares1 which were carried on the    
backs of mules to the  fortifications or
 prisons called chteaux situated in the 
midst of  marshes1 or on the tops of    
mountains covered with snow4            
,whatever travelling was                
accomplished--and it could be but       
little--during  the severe seasons of   
the year1 so long and so tedious in     
northern  climates1 could be effected   
only by wading through mud or climbing  
over  rocks4 ,such was the state of the 
whole of ,france and ,germany down to   
the  middle of the seventeenth century4 
,every individual wore boots2 and in    
many of the cities of ,germany the      
inhabitants went into the streets on    
stilts4    ,at length1 under ,louis     
,,xiv41 were begun those great roads    
which other  nations have imitated4     
,their width was limited to sixty feet  
in the year  #agbj4 ,they are bordered  
by trees in many places to the extent of
 thirty  leagues from the capital1 which

 has a most interesting and delightful  
effect4 ,the ,roman military ways were  
only sixteen feet wide1 but were        
infinitely more solid4 ,it was necessary
 to repair them every year1 as is  the  
practice with us4 ,they were embellished
 by monuments1 by military  columns1 and
 even by magnificent tombs2 for it was  
not permitted1 either  in ,greece or    
,italy1 to bury the dead within the     
walls of cities1 and  still less within 
those of temples2 to do so would have   
been no less an  offence than sacrilege4
 ,it was not then as it is at present in
 our  churches1 in which1 for a sum of  
money1 ostentatious and barbarous       
vanity is allowed to deposit the dead   
bodies of wealthy citizens1  infecting  
the very place where men assemble to    
adore their ,god in  purity1 and where  
incense seems to be burned solely to    
counteract the  stench of carcasses2    
while the poorer classes are deposited  
in the  adjoining cemetery2 and both    
unite their fatal influence to spread   

contagion among survivors4    ,the      
emperors were almost the only persons   
whose ashes were permitted to  repose in
 the monuments erected at ,rome4        
,highways1 sixty feet in width1 occupy  
too much land2 it is about forty  feet  
more than necessary4 ,france measures   
two hundred leagues1 or  thereabouts1   
from the mouth of the ,rhone to the     
extremity of ,brittany1  and about the  
same from ,perpignan to ,dunkirk2       
reckoning the league at  two thousand   
five hundred toises4 ,this calculation  
requires1 merely for  two great roads1 a
 hundred and twenty millions of square  
feet of land1  all which must of course 
be lost to agriculture4 ,this loss is   
very  considerable in a country where   
the harvests are by no means always     
abundant4    ,an attempt was made to    
pave the high road from ,orleans1 which 
was not of  the width above mentioned2  
but it was seen1 in no long time1 that  
nothing could be worse contrived for a  
road constantly covered with  heavy     

carriages4 ,of these hewn paving stones 
laid on the ground1 some  will be       
constantly sinking1 and others rising   
above the correct level1  and the road  
becomes rugged1 broken1 and             
impracticable2 it was therefore  found  
necessary that the plan should be       
abandoned4    ,roads covered with gravel
 and sand require a renewal of labor    
every  year2 this labor interferes with 
the cultivation of land1 and is ruinous 
to agriculture4    ,m4 ,turgot1 son of  
the mayor of ,paris--whose name is never
 mentioned in  that city but with       
blessings1 and who was one of the most  
enlightened1  patriotic1 and zealous of 
magistrates--and the humane and         
beneficent ,m4  de ,fontette have done  
all in their power1 in the provinces of 
,limousin  and ,normandy1 to correct    
this most serious inconvenience4    ,it 
has been contended that we should follow
 the example of ,augustus and  ,trajan1 
and employ our troops in the            
construction of highways4 ,but in  that 

case the soldier must necessarily have  
an increase of pay2 and a  kingdom1     
which was nothing but a province of the 
,roman ,empire1 and which  is often     
involved in debt1 can rarely engage in  
such undertakings as the  ,roman ,empire
 accomplished without difficulty4    ,it
 is a very commendable practice in the  
,low ,countries1 to require the  payment
 of a moderate toll from all carriages1 
in order to keep the  public roads in   
proper repair4 ,the burden is a very    
light one4 ,the  peasant is relieved    
from the old system of vexation and     
oppression1 and  the roads are in such  
fine preservation as to form even an    
agreeable  continued promenade4         
,canals are much more useful still4 ,the
 ,chinese surpass all other people  in  
these works1 which require continual    
attention and repair4 ,louis  ,,xiv41   
,colbert1 and ,riquet1 have immortalized
 themselves by the canal  which joins   
the two seas4 ,they have never been as  
yet imitated4 ,it is no  difficult      

matter to travel through a great part of
 ,france by canals4  ,nothing could be  
more easy in ,germany than to join the  
,rhine to the  ,danube2 but men appear  
to prefer ruining one another's         
fortunes1 and  cutting each other's     
throats about a few paltry villages1 to 
extending  the grand means of human     
happiness4          ,,rod4      ,the    
,theurgists and ancient sages had always
 a rod with which they  operated4       
,mercury passes for the first whose rod 
worked miracles4 ,it is asserted  that  
,zoroaster also bore a great rod4 ,the  
rod of the ancient ,bacchus was  his    
,thyrsus1 with which he separated the   
waters of the ,orontes1 the  ,hydaspus1 
and the ,red ,sea4 ,the rod of ,hercules
 was his club4 ,pythagoras  was always  
represented with his rod4 ,it is said it
 was of gold2 and it  is not surprising 
that1 having a thigh of gold1 he should 
possess a rod  of the same metal4       
,abaris1 priest of the hyperborean      
,apollo1 who it is pretended was        

contemporary with ,pythagoras1 was still
 more famous for his rod4 ,it was       
indeed only of wood1 but he traversed   
the air astride of it4 ,porphyry  and   
,iamblichus pretend that these two grand
 ,theurgists1 ,abaris and  ,pythagoras1 
amicably exhibited their rods to each   
other4    ,the rod1 with sages1 was at  
all times a sign of their superiority4  
,the  sorcerers of the privy council of 
,pharaoh at first effected as many      
feats with their rods as ,moses with his
 own4 ,the judicious ,calmet  informs   
us1 in his ,dissertation on the ,book of
 ,exodus1 that these  operations of the 
,magi were not miracles1 properly       
speaking1 but  metamorphoses1 viz43     
singular and difficult indeed1 but      
nevertheless  neither contrary to nor   
above the laws of nature4 ,the rod of   
,moses had  the superiority1 which it   
ought to have1 over those of the        
,chotins of  ,egypt4    ,not only did   
the rod of ,aaron share in the honor of 
the prodigies of  that of his brother   

,moses1 but he performed some admirable 
things with  his own4 ,no one can be    
ignorant that1 out of thirteen rods1    
,aaron's  alone blossomed1 and bore buds
 and flowers of almonds4    ,the devil1 
who1 as is well known1 is a wicked aper 
of the deeds of  saints1 would also have
 his rod or wand1 with which he         
gratified the  sorcerers3 ,medea and    
,circe were always armed with this      
mysterious  instrument4 ,hence1 a       
magician never appears at the opera     
without his  rod1 and on which account  
they call their parts1 rles de baguette4
  ,no performer with cups and balls can 
manage his hey presto6 without his  rod 
or wand4    ,springs of water and hidden
 treasures are discovered by means of a 
rod  made of a hazel twig1 which fails  
not to press the hand of a fool who     
holds it too fast1 but which turns about
 easily in that of a knave4 ,m4         
,formey1 secretary of the academy of    
,berlin1 explains this phenomenon by    
that of the loadstone4 ,all the         

conjurers of past times1 it was thought1
  repaired to a sabbath or assembly on a
 magic rod or on a broom-stick2  and    
judges1 who were no conjurers1 burned   
them4    ,birchen rods are formed of a  
handful of twigs of that tree with which
  malefactors are scourged on the back4 
,it is indecent and shameful to  scourge
 in this manner the posteriors of young 
boys and girls2 a  punishment which was 
formerly that of slaves4 ,i have seen1  
in some  colleges1 barbarians who have  
stripped children almost naked2 a kind  
of  executioner1 often intoxicated1     
lacerate them with long rods1 which     
frequently covered them with blood1 and 
produced extreme inflammation4  ,others 
struck them more gently1 which from     
natural causes has been known  to       
produce consequences1 especially in     
females1 scarcely less  disgusting4     
,by an incomprehensible species of      
police1 the ,jesuits of ,paraguay       
whipped the fathers and mothers of      
families on their posteriors4 ,had      

there been no other motive for driving  
out the ,jesuits1 that would have       
sufficed4          ,,rome 7,,court      
,,of74      ,before the time of         
,constantine1 the bishop of ,rome was   
considered by the  ,roman magistrates1  
who were unacquainted with our holy     
religion1 only as  the chief of a sect1 
frequently tolerated by the government1 
but  frequently experiencing from it    
capital punishment4 ,the names of the   
first disciples1 who were by birth      
,jews1 and of their successors1 who     
governed the little flock concealed in  
the immense city of ,rome1 were         
absolutely unknown by all the ,latin    
writers4 ,we well know that  everything 
was changed1 and in what manner         
everything was changed under            
,constantine4    ,the bishop of ,rome1  
protected and enriched as he was1 was   
always in  subjection to the emperors1  
like the bishop of ,constantinople1 and 
of  ,nicomedia1 and every other1 not    
making even the slightest pretension to 

the shadow of sovereign authority4      
,fatality1 which guides the affairs of  
the universe1 finally established the   
power of the ecclesiastical ,roman      
court1 by the hands of the barbarians   
who destroyed the empire4    ,the       
ancient religion1 under which the       
,romans had been victorious for  such a 
series of ages1 existed still in the    
hearts of the population1               
notwithstanding all the efforts of      
persecution1 when1 in the four  hundred 
and eighth year of our era1 ,alaric     
invaded ,italy and beseiged  ,rome4     
,pope ,innocent ,i4 indeed did not think
 proper to forbid the  inhabitants of   
that city sacrificing to the gods in the
 capitol1 and in  the other temples1 in 
order to obtain the assistance of heaven
 against  the ,goths4 ,but this same    
,pope ,innocent1 if we may credit       
,zosimus and  ,orosius1 was one of the  
deputation sent to treat with ,alaric1 a
  circumstance which shows that the pope
 was at that time regarded as a  person 

of considerable consequence4    ,when   
,attila came to ravage ,italy in #deb1  
by the same right which the  ,romans    
themselves had exercised over so many   
and such powerful nations2  by the right
 of ,clovis1 of the ,goths1 of the      
,vandals1 and the ,heruli1  the emperor 
sent ,pope ,leo ,i41 assisted by two    
personages of consular  dignity1 to     
negotiate with that conqueror4 ,i have  
no doubt1 that  agreeably to what we are
 positively told1 ,st4 ,leo was         
accompanied by an  angel1 armed with a  
flaming sword1 which made the king of   
the ,huns  tremble1 although he had no  
faith in angels1 and a single sword was 
not  exceedingly likely to inspire him  
with fear4 ,this miracle is very finely 
painted in the ,vatican1 and nothing can
 be clearer than that it never  would   
have been painted unless it had actually
 been true4 ,what  particularly vexes   
and perplexes me is this angel's        
suffering ,aquileia1  and the whole of  
,illyria1 to be sacked and ravaged1 and 

also his not  preventing ,genseric1 at a
 later period1 from giving up ,rome to  
his  soldiers for fourteen days of      
plunder4 ,it was evidently not the angel
 of  extermination4    ,under the       
exarchs1 the credit and influence of the
 popes augmented1 but  even then they   
had not the smallest degree of civil    
power4 ,the ,roman  bishop1 elected by  
the people1 craved protection for the   
bishop1 of the  exarch of ,ravenna1 who 
had the power of confirming or of       
cancelling the  election4    ,after the 
exarchate was destroyed by the          
,lombards1 the ,lombard kings  were     
desirous of becoming masters also of the
 city of ,rome2 nothing  could certainly
 be more natural4    ,pepin1 the usurper
 of ,france1 would not suffer the       
,lombards to usurp  that capital1 and so
 become too powerful against himself2   
nothing again  can be more natural than 
this4    ,it is pretended that ,pepin   
and his son ,charlemagne gave to the    
,roman  bishops many lands of the       

exarchate1 which was designated the     
,justices  of ,st4 ,peter--les ,justices
 de ,st4 ,pierre4 ,such is the real     
origin of  their temporal power4 ,from  
this period1 these bishops appear to    
have  assiduously exerted themselves to 
obtain something of rather more         
consideration and of more consequence   
than these justices4    ,we are in      
possession of a letter from ,pope ,arian
 ,i4 to ,charlemagne1 in  which he says1
 ,the pious liberality of the emperor   
,constantine the  ,great1 of sacred     
memory1 raised and exalted1 in the time 
of the blessed  ,roman ,pontiff1        
,sylvester1 the holy ,roman ,church1 and
 conferred upon it  his own power in    
this portion of ,italy4    ,from this   
time1 we perceive1 it was attempted to  
make the world believe  in what is      
called the ,donation of ,constantine1   
which was1 in the sequel1  for a period 
of five hundred years1 not merely       
regarded as an article of  faith1 but an
 incontestable truth4 ,to entertain     

doubts on the subject of  this donation 
included at once the crime of treason   
and the guilt of  mortal sin4    ,after 
the death of ,charlemagne1 the bishop   
augmented his authority in  ,rome from  
day to day2 but centuries passed away   
before he came to be  considered as a   
sovereign prince4 ,rome had for a long  
period a patrician  municipal           
government4    ,pope ,john ,,xii41 whom 
,otho ,i41 emperor of ,germany1 procured
 to be deposed  in a sort of council1 in
 #ifc1 as simoniacal1 incestuous1       
sodomitical1 an  atheist1 in league with
 the devil1 was the first man in ,italy 
as  patrician and consul1 before he     
became bishop of ,rome2 and             
notwithstanding all these titles and    
claims1 notwithstanding the  influence  
of the celebrated ,marosia1 his mother1 
his authority was  always questioned and
 contested4    ,gregory ,,vii41 who from
 the rank of a monk became pope1 and    
pretended to  depose kings and bestow   
empires1 far from being in fact complete

 master  of ,rome1 died under the       
protection1 or rather as the prisoner of
 those  ,norman princes who conquered   
the two ,sicilies1 of which he          
considered  himself the paramount lord4 
,in the grand schism of the ,west1 the  
popes who contended for the empire  of  
the world frequently supported          
themselves on alms4    ,it is a fact not
 a little extraordinary that the popes  
did not become  rich till after the     
period when they dared not to exhibit   
themselves at  ,rome4    ,according to  
,villani1 ,bertrand de ,goth1 ,clement  
,v4 of ,bordeaux1 who  passed his life  
in ,france1 sold benefices publicly1 and
 at his death  left behind him vast     
treasures4    ,the same ,villani asserts
 that he died worth twenty-five millions
 of gold  florins4 ,st4 ,peter's        
patrimony could not certainly have      
brought him such  a sum4    ,in a word1 
down to the time of ,innocent ,,viii41  
who1 made himself master  of the castle 
of ,st4 ,angelo1 the popes never        

possessed in ,rome actual  sovereignty4 
,their spiritual authority was          
undoubtedly the foundation of their     
temporal2 but had they confined         
themselves to imitating the conduct of  
,st4 ,peter1 whose place it was         
pretended they filled1 they would never 
have obtained any other kingdom than    
that of heaven4 ,their policy always    
contrived to prevent the emperors from  
establishing themselves at ,rome1       
notwithstanding the fine and flattering 
title of king of the ,romans4  ,the     
,guelph faction always prevailed in     
,italy over the ,ghibelline4 ,the       
,romans were more disposed to obey an   
,italian priest than a ,german king4    
,in the civil wars1 which the quarrel   
between the empire and the  priesthood  
excited and kept alive for a period of  
five hundred years1  many lords obtained
 sovereignties1 sometimes in quality of 
vicars of the  empire1 and sometimes in 
that of vicars of the ,holy ,see4 ,such 
were the  princes of ,este at ,ferrara1 

the ,bentivoglios at ,bologna1 the      
,malatestas  at ,rimini1 the ,manfredis 
at ,faenza1 the ,bagliones at ,perouse1 
the ,ursins  in ,anguillara and in      
,serveti1 the ,collonas in ,ostia1 the  
,riarios at  ,forli1 the ,montefeltros  
in ,urbino1 the ,varanos in ,camerino1  
and the  ,gravinas in ,senigaglia4      
,all these lords had as much right to   
the territories they possessed as  the  
popes had to the patrimony of ,st4      
,peter2 both were founded upon          
donations4    ,it is known in what      
manner ,pope ,alexander ,,vi4 made use  
of his bastard to  invade and take      
possession of all these principalities4 
,king ,louis ,,xii4  obtained from that 
pope the cancelling of his marriage1    
after a  cohabitation of eighteen years1
 on condition of his assisting the      
usurper4    ,the assassinations         
committed by ,clovis to gain possession 
of the  territories of the petty kings  
who were his neighbors1 bear no         
comparison to the horrors exhibited on  

this occasion by ,alexander and  his    
son4    ,the history of ,nero himself is
 less abominable2 the atrocity of whose 
crimes was not increased by the pretext 
of religion2 and it is worth  observing1
 that at the very time these diabolical 
excesses were  performed1 the kings of  
,spain and ,portugal were suing to that 
pope1 one  of them for ,america1 and the
 other for ,asia1 which the monster     
accordingly granted them in the name of 
that ,god he pretended to  represent4   
,it is also worth observing that not    
fewer than a hundred  thousand pilgrims 
flocked to his jubilee and prostrated   
themselves in  adoration of his person4 
,julius ,,ii4 completed what ,alexander 
had begun4 ,louis ,,xii41 born to       
become the dupe of all his neighbors1   
assisted ,julius in seizing upon        
,bologna and ,perouse4 ,that unfortunate
 monarch1 in return for his  services1  
was driven out of ,italy1 and           
excommunicated by the very pope  whom   
the archbishop of ,auch1 the king's     

ambassador at ,rome1 addressed  with the
 words your wickedness1 instead of your 
holiness4    ,to complete his           
mortification1 ,anne of ,brittany1 his  
wife1 a woman as  devout as she was     
imperious1 told him in plain terms1 that
 he would be  damned for going to war   
with the pope4    ,if ,leo ,x4 and      
,clement ,,vii4 lost so many states     
which withdrew from the  papal          
communion1 their power continued no less
 absolute than before over  the         
provinces which still adhered to the    
,catholic faith4 ,the court of  ,rome   
excommunicated the emperor ,henry       
,,iii41 and declared ,henry ,,iv4       
unworthy to reign4    ,it still draws   
large sums from all the ,catholic states
 of ,germany1 from  ,hungary1 ,poland1  
,spain1 and ,france4 ,its ambassadors   
take precedence of  all others2 it is no
 longer sufficiently powerful to carry  
on war2 and  its weakness is in fact its
 happiness4 ,the ecclesiastical state is
 the  only one that has regularly       

enjoyed the advantages of peace since   
the  sacking of ,rome by the troops of  
,charles ,v4 ,it appears1 that the popes
  have been often treated like the gods 
of the ,japanese1 who are sometimes     
presented with offerings of gold1 and   
sometimes thrown into the river4        
,,samothrace4      ,whether the         
celebrated isle of ,samothrace be at the
 mouth of the river  ,hebrus1 as it is  
said to be in almost all the            
geographical dictionaries1  or whether  
it be twenty miles distant from it1     
which is in fact the  case1 is not what 
,i am now investigating4    ,this isle  
was for a long time the most famous in  
the whole archipelago1  and even in the 
whole world4 ,its deities called        
,cabiri1 its hierophants1  and its      
mysteries1 conferred upon it as much    
reputation as was obtained  not long    
since by ,st4 ,patrick's cave in        
,ireland4    ,this ,samothrace1 the     
modern name of which is ,samandrachi1 is
 a rock  covered with a very thin and   

barren soil1 and inhabited by poor      
fishermen4 ,they would be extremely     
surprised at being told of the glory    
which was formerly connected with their 
island2 and they would probably  ask1   
,what is glory8    ,i inquire1 what were
 these hierophants1 these holy free     
masons1 who  celebrated their ancient   
mysteries in ,samothrace1 and whence did
 they  and their gods ,cabiri come8     
,it is not probable that these poor     
people came from ,phnicia1 as  ,bochart 
infers by a long train of ,hebrew       
etymologies1 and as the ,abb  ,barrier1 
after him1 is of opinion also4 ,it is   
not in this manner that  gods gain      
establishments in the world4 ,they are  
like conquerors who  subjugate nations1 
not all at once1 but one after another4 
,the distance  from ,phnicia to this    
wretched island is too great to admit of
 the  supposition that the gods of the  
wealthy ,sidon and the proud ,tyre      
should  come to coop themselves up in   
this hermitage4 ,hierophants are not    

such  fools4    ,the fact is1 that there
 were gods of the ,cabiri1 priests of   
the ,cabiri1  and mysteries of the      
,cabiri1 in this contemptible and       
miserable island4  ,not only does       
,herodotus mention them1 but the        
,phnician historian  ,sanchoniathon1 who
 lived long before ,herodotus1 speaks of
 them in those  fragments which have    
been so fortunately preserved by        
,eusebius4 ,what is  worse still1 this  
,sanchoniathon1 who certainly lived     
before the period  in which ,moses      
flourished1 cites the great ,thaut1 the 
first ,hermes1 the  first ,mercury of   
,egypt2 and this same great ,thaut lived
 eight hundred  years before            
,sanchoniathon1 as that ,phnician       
acknowledges himself4    ,the ,cabiri   
were therefore in estimation and honor  
two thousand and three  or four hundred 
years before the ,christian era4        
,now1 if you are desirous of knowing    
whence those gods of the ,cabiri1       
established in ,samothrace1 came1 does  

it not seem probable that they  came    
from ,thrace1 the country nearest to    
that island1 and that that  small island
 was granted them as a theatre on which 
to act their farces1  and pick up a     
little money8 ,orpheus might very       
possibly be the prime  minstrel of these
 gods4    ,but who were these gods8     
,they were what all the gods of         
antiquity were1  phantoms invented by   
coarse and vulgar knaves1 sculptured by 
artisans  coarser still1 and adored by  
brutes having the name of men4    ,there
 were three sorts of ,cabiri2 for1 as we
 have already observed1  everything in  
antiquity was done by threes4 ,orpheus  
could not have made  his appearance in  
the world until long after the invention
 of these  three gods2 for he admits    
only one in his mysteries4 ,i am much   
disposed  to consider ,orpheus as having
 been a strict ,socinian4    ,i regard  
the ancient gods ,cabiri as having been 
the first gods of  ,thrace1 whatever    
,greek names may have been afterwards   

given to them4    ,there is something1  
however1 still more curious1 respecting 
the history  of ,samothrace4 ,we know   
that ,greece and ,thrace were formerly  
afflicted  by many inundations4 ,we have
 read of the deluges of ,deucaleon and  
,ogyges4 ,the isle of ,samothrace       
boasted of a yet more ancient deluge2   
and  its deluge corresponds1 in point of
 time1 with the period in which it is   
contended that the ancient king of      
,thrace1 ,xixuter1 lived1 whom we have  
spoken of under the article on ,ararat4 
,you may probably recollect that the    
gods of ,xixuter1 or ,xissuter1 who     
were in all probability the ,cabiri1    
commanded him to build a vessel  about  
thirty thousand feet long1 and a hundred
 and twelve wide2 that  this vessel     
sailed for a long time over the         
mountains of ,armenia during  the       
deluge2 that1 having taken on board with
 him some pigeons and many  other       
domestic animals1 he let loose his      
pigeons to ascertain whether  the waters

 had withdrawn2 and that they returned  
covered with dirt and  slime1 which     
induced ,xixuter to resolve on          
disembarking from his immense  vessel4  
,you will say that it is a most         
extraordinary circumstance that         
,sanchoniathon does not make any mention
 of this curious adventure4 ,i  reply1  
that it is impossible for us to decide  
whether it was mentioned  in his history
 or not1 as ,eusebius1 who has only     
transmitted to us some  fragments of    
this very ancient historian1 had no     
particular inducement  to quote any     
passage that might have existed in his  
work respecting the  ship and pigeons4  
,berosus1 however1 relates the case1 and
 he connects it  with the marvellous1   
according to the general practice of the
 ancients4  ,the inhabitants of         
,samothrace had erected monuments of    
this deluge4    ,what is more           
extraordinary and astonishing still is1 
as indeed we have  already partly       
remarked1 that neither ,greece nor      

,thrace1 nor the people  of any other   
country1 ever knew anything of the real 
and great deluge1  the deluge of ,noah4 
,how could it be possible1 we once more 
ask1 that an event so awful and         
appalling as that of the submersion of  
the whole earth should be unknown  by   
the survivors8 ,how could the name of   
our common father1 ,noah1 who           
re-peopled the world1 be unknown to all 
those who were indebted to him  for     
life8 ,it is the most prodigious of all 
progidies1 that1 of so many             
grandchildren1 not one should have ever 
spoken of his grandfather6    ,i have   
applied to all the learned men that ,i  
have seen1 and said1 ,have  you ever met
 with any old work in ,greek1 ,tuscan1  
,arabian1 ,egyptian1  ,chaldan1 ,indian1
 ,persian1 or ,chinese1 in which the    
name of ,noah is to  be found8 ,they    
have all replied in the negative4 ,this 
is a fact that  perpetually perplexes   
and confounds me4    ,but that the      
history of this universal inundation    

should be found in a  single page of a  
book written in the wilderness by       
fugitives1 and that  this page should   
have been unknown to all the rest of the
 world till  about nine hundred years   
after the foundation of ,rome--this     
perfectly  petrifies me4 ,i cannot not  
recover from its impression4 ,the effect
  is completely overpowering4 ,my worthy
 reader1 let us both together  exclaim3 
,o altitudo ignorantiarum6              
,illustration3 ,samson ,destroying the  
,temple4          ,,samson4      ,in    
quality of poor alphabetical compilers1 
collectors of anecdotes1  gatherers of  
trifles1 pickers of rags at the corners 
of the streets1 we  glorify ourselves   
with all the pride attached to our      
sublime science1 on  having discovered  
that ,samson the ,strong1 a tragedy1 was
 played at the  close of the sixteenth  
century1 in the town of ,rouen1 and that
 it was  printed by ,abraham ,couturier4
 ,john ,milton1 for a long time a       
schoolmaster of ,london1 afterwards     

,latin secretary to the protector1      
,cromwell--,milton1 the author of       
,paradise ,lost and ,paradise           
,regained--wrote the tragedy of ,samson 
,agonistes2 and it is very  unfortunate 
that we cannot tell in what year4    ,we
 know1 however1 that it has been printed
 with a preface1 in which much  is      
boasted1 by one of our brethren1 the    
commentator named ,parus1 who  first    
perceived by the force of his genius1   
that the ,apocalypse is a  tragedy4 ,on 
the strength of this discovery he       
divided the ,apocalypse  into five acts1
 and inserted choruses worthy of the    
elegance and fine  nature of the piece4 
,the author of this preface speaks to us
 of the fine  tragedies of ,st4 ,gregory
 of ,nazianzen4 ,he asserts1 that a     
tragedy should  never have more than    
five acts1 and to prove it1 he gives us 
the  ,samson ,agonistes of ,milton1     
which has but one4 ,those who like      
elaborate declamation will be satisfied 
with this piece4    ,a comedy of ,samson

 was played for a long time in ,italy4  
,a translation of  it was made in ,paris
 in #agag1 by one named ,romagnesi2 it  
was represented  on the ,french theatre 
of the pretended ,italian comedy1       
formerly the  palace of the dukes of    
,burgundy4 ,it was published1 and       
dedicated to the  duke of ,orleans1     
regent of ,france4    ,in this sublime  
piece1 ,arlequin1 the servant of        
,samson1 fights with a  turkey-cock1    
whilst his master carries off the gates 
of ,gaza on his  shoulders4    ,in      
#agcb1 it was wished to represent1 at   
the opera of ,paris1 a tragedy of       
,samson1 set to music by the celebrated 
,rameau2 but it was not permitted4      
,there was neither ,arlequin nor        
turkey-cock2 but the thing appeared too 
serious2 besides1 certain people were   
very glad to mortify ,rameau1 who       
possessed great talents4 ,yet at that   
time they performed the opera of        
,jephthah1 extracted from the ,old      
,testament1 and the comedy of the       

,prodigal ,son1 from the ,new           
,testament4    ,there is an old edition 
of the ,samson ,agonistes of ,milton1   
preceded by  an abridgment of the       
history of the hero4 ,the following is  
this  abridgment3    ,the ,jews1 to whom
 ,god promised by oath all the country  
which is between  the river of ,egypt   
and the ,euphrates1 and who through     
their sins never  had this country1 were
 on the contrary reduced to servitude1  
which  slavery lasted for forty years4  
,now there was a ,jew of the tribe of   
,dan1  named ,manoah2 and the wife of   
this ,manoah was barren2 and an angel   
appeared to this woman1 and said to her1
 ,behold1 thou shalt conceive  and bear 
a son2 and now drink no wine nor strong 
drink1 neither eat any  unclean thing2  
for the child shall be a ,nazarite to   
,god1 from the womb  to the day of his  
death4    ,the angel afterwards appeared
 to the husband and wife2 they gave him 
a  kid to eat2 he would have none of it1
 and disappeared in the midst of  the   

smoke2 and the woman said1 ,we shall    
surely die1 because we have seen  ,god2 
but they died not4    ,the slave ,samson
 being born1 was consecrated a          
,nazarite4 ,as soon as he  was grown up1
 the first thing he did was to go to the
 ,phnician or  ,philistine town of      
,timnath1 to court a daughter of one of 
his masters1  whom he married4    ,in   
going to his mistress he met a lion1 and
 tore him in pieces with his  naked     
hand1 as he would have done a kid4 ,some
 days after1 he found a  swarm of bees  
in the throat of the dead lion1 with    
some honey1 though  bees never rest on  
carrion4    ,then he proposed this      
enigma to his companions3 ,out of the   
eater came  forth meat1 and out of the  
strong came forth sweetness3 if you     
guess1 ,i  will give you thirty tunics  
and thirty gowns2 if not1 you shall give
 me  thirty gowns and thirty tunics4    
,the comrades1 not being able to guess  
in  what the solution of the enigma     
consisted1 gained over the young wife   

of ,samson2 she drew the secret from her
 husband1 and he was obliged to  give   
them thirty tunics and thirty gowns4    
,ah1 said he to them1 if ye  had not    
ploughed with my heifer1 ye would not   
have found out my riddle4    ,soon      
after1 the father-in-law of ,samson gave
 another husband to his  daughter4      
,samson1 enraged at having lost his     
wife1 immediately caught three  hundred 
foxes1 tied them two together by the    
tails with lighted  firebrands1 and they
 fired the corn of the ,philistines4    
,the ,jewish slaves1 not being willing  
to be punished by their masters for  the
 exploits of ,samson1 surprised him in  
the cavern in which he dwelt1  tied him 
with great ropes1 and delivered him to  
the ,philistines4 ,as soon  as he was in
 the midst of them1 he broke his cords1 
and finding the  jawbone of an ass1 with
 one effort he killed a thousand        
,philistines4  ,such an effort making   
him very warm1 he was dying of thirst1  
on which  ,god made a fountain spout    

from one of the teeth of the ass's      
jaw-bone4  ,samson1 having drunk1 went  
into ,gaza1 a ,philistine town2 he there
  immediately became smitten with a     
courtesan4 ,as he slept with her1 the   
,philistines shut the gates of the town1
 and surrounded the house1 when  he     
arose1 took the gates1 and carried them 
away4 ,the ,philistines1 in  despair at 
not being able to overcome this hero1   
addressed themselves to  another        
courtesan named ,delilah1 with whom he  
afterwards slept4 ,she  finally drew    
from him the secret in which his        
strength consisted3 it was  only        
necessary to shave him1 to render him   
equal to other men4 ,he was  shaved1    
became weak1 and his eyes being put out1
 he was made to turn a  mill and to play
 on the violin4 ,one day1 while playing 
in a ,philistine  temple1 between two of
 its columns1 he became indignant that  
the  ,philistines should have columned  
temples1 whilst the ,jews had only a    
tabernacle supported on four poles4 ,he 

also felt that his hair began to  grow2 
and being transported with a holy zeal1 
he pulled down the two  pillars2 by     
which concussion the temple was         
overthrown1 the ,philistines  were      
crushed to death1 and he with them4     
,such is this preface1 word for word4   
,this is the history which is the       
subject of the piece of ,milton1 and    
,romagnesi3 it is adapted to ,italian   
farce4          ,,saturn',s ,,ring4     
,this astonishing phenomenon1 but not   
more astonishing than others1 this      
solid and luminous body1 which surrounds
 the planet ,saturn1 which it           
enlightens1 and by which it is          
enlightened1 whether by the feeble      
reflection of the sun's rays1 or by some
 unknown cause1 was1 according  to a    
dreamer who calls himself a philosopher1
 formerly a sea4 ,this sea1  according  
to him1 has hardened and become earth or
 rock2 once it  gravitated towards two  
centres1 whereas at present it          
gravitates only  towards one4    ,how   

pleasantly you proceed1 my ingenious    
dreamer6 how easily you  transform water
 into rock6 ,ovid was nothing in the    
comparison4 ,what a  marvellous power   
you exercise over nature2 imagination by
 no means  confounds you4 ,oh1          
greediness to utter novelties6 ,oh1 fury
 for systems6  ,oh1 weakness of the     
human mind6 ,if anyone has spoken of    
this reverie in  the ,encyclopdia1 it is
 doubtless to ridicule it1 without which
 other  nations would have a right to   
say3 ,behold the use which the ,french  
make  of the discovery of other people6 
,huyghens discovered the ring of        
,saturn1 and calculated its appearances2
 ,hook and ,flamstead have done the     
same thing4 ,a ,frenchman has discovered
 that this solid body was even a        
circular ocean1 and this ,frenchman is  
not ,cyrano de ,bergerac6               
,,scandal4      ,without inquiring      
whether scandal originally meant a stone
 which might  occasion people to stumble
 and fall1 or a quarrel1 or a seduction1

 we  consider it here merely in its     
present sense and acceptation4 ,a       
scandal  is a serious indecorum which is
 used generally in reference to the     
clergy4 ,the tales of ,fontaine are     
libertine or licentious2 many passages  
of ,sanchez1 of ,tambourin1 and of      
,molina are scandalous4    ,a man is    
scandalous by his writings or by his    
conduct4 ,the siege which  the          
,augustins maintained against the       
patrol1 at the time of the ,fronde1  was
 scandalous4 ,the bankruptcy of the     
brother ,la ,valette1 of the ,society   
of ,jesuits1 was more than scandalous4  
,the lawsuit carried on by the  reverend
 fathers of the order of the ,capuchins 
of ,paris1 in #agfd1 was a  most        
satisfactory and delightful scandal to  
thousands4 ,for the  edification of the 
reader1 a word or two upon that subject 
in this place  will not be ill employed4
    ,these reverend fathers had been    
fighting in their convent2 some of them 
had hidden their money1 and others had  

stolen the concealed treasure4 ,up  to  
this point the scandal was only         
particular1 a stone against which  only 
,capuchins could trip and tumble2 but   
when the affair was brought  before the 
parliament1 the scandal became public4  
,it is stated in the pleadings in the   
cause1 that the convent of the ,st4     
,honor consumes twelve hundred pounds of
 bread a week1 and meat and wood  in    
proportion2 and that there are four     
collecting friars1 quteurs1  whose      
office it is1 conformably to the term1  
to raise contributions in  the city4    
,what a frightful1 dreadful scandal6    
,twelve hundred pounds of  meat and     
bread per week for a few ,capuchins1    
while so many artisans  overwhelmed with
 old age1 and so many respectable       
widows1 are exposed to  languish in     
want1 and die in misery6    ,that the   
reverend father ,dorotheus should have  
accumulated an income of  three thousand
 livres a year at the expense of the    
convent1 and  consequently of the       

public1 is not only an enormous scandal1
 but an  absolute robbery1 and a robbery
 committed upon the most needy class of 
citizens in ,paris2 for the poor are the
 persons who pay the tax imposed  by the
 mendicant monks4 ,the ignorance and    
weakness of the people make  them       
imagine that they can never obtain      
heaven without parting with  their      
absolute necessaries1 from which these  
monks derive their  superfluities4      
,this single brother1 therefore1 the    
chief of the convent1 ,dorotheus1 to    
make up his income of a thousand crowns 
a year1 must have extorted from  the    
poor of ,paris1 no less a sum than      
twenty thousand crowns4    ,consider1 my
 good reader1 that such cases are by no 
means rare1 even in  this eighteenth    
century of our era1 which has produced  
useful books to  expose abuses and      
enlighten minds2 but1 as ,i have before 
observed1 the  people never read4 ,a    
single ,capuchin1 ,recollet1 or         
,carmelite is capable  of doing more    

harm than the best books in the world   
will ever be able to  do good4    ,i    
would venture to propose to those who   
are really humane and  well-disposed1 to
 employ throughout the capital a certain
 number of  anti-,capuchins and         
anti-,recollets1 to go about from house 
to house  exhorting fathers and mothers 
to virtue1 and to keep their money for  
the  maintenance of their families1 and 
the support of their old age2 to love   
,god with all their hearts1 but to give 
none of their money to monks4  ,let us  
return1 however1 to the real meaning of 
the word scandal4    ,in the            
above-mentioned process on the subject  
of the ,capuchin convent1  ,brother     
,gregory is accused of being the father 
of a child by  ,mademoiselle            
,bras-defer1 and of having her          
afterwards married to  ,moutard1 the    
shoe-maker4 ,it is not stated whether   
,brother ,gregory  himself bestowed the 
nuptial benediction on his mistress and 
poor  ,moutard1 together with the       

required dispensation4 ,if he did so1   
the  scandal is rendered as complete as 
possible2 it includes fornication1      
robbery1 adultery1 and sacrilege4       
,horresco referens4    ,i say in the    
first place fornication1 as ,brother    
,gregory committed  that offence with   
,magdalene ,bras-defer1 who was not at  
the time more  than fifteen years of    
age4    ,i also say robbery1 as he gave 
an apron and ribbons to ,magdalene2 and 
it is clear he must have robbed the     
convent in order to purchase them1  and 
to pay for suppers1 lodgings1 and other 
expenses attending their  intercourse4  
,i say adultery1 as this depraved man   
continued his connection with           
,magdalene after she became ,madame     
,moutard4    ,and ,i say sacrilege1 as  
he was the confessor of ,magdalene4     
,and1 if he  himself performed the      
marriage ceremony for his mistress1     
judge what  sort of man ,brother        
,gregory must really have been4    ,one 
of our colleagues in this little        

collection of philosophic and           
encyclopdic questions is now engaged on 
a moral work1 on the subject of         
scandal1 against the opinion of ,brother
 ,patouillet4 ,we hope it will not  be  
long before it sees the light4          
,,schism4      ,all that we had written 
on the subject of the grand schism      
between the  ,greeks and ,latins1 in the
 essay on the manners and spirit of     
nations1  has been inserted in the great
 encyclopdic dictionary4 ,we will not   
here  repeat ourselves4    ,but when    
reflecting on the meaning of the word   
schism1 which signifies  a dividing or  
rending asunder1 and considering also   
the present state of  ,poland1 divided  
and rent as it is in a manner the most  
pitiable1 we  cannot help anew deploring
 that a malady so destructive should be 
peculiar to ,christians4 ,this malady1  
which we have not described with        
sufficient particularity1 is a species  
of madness which first affects  the eyes
 and the mouth2 the patient looks with  

an impatient and  resentful eye on the  
man who does not think exactly like     
himself1 and  soon begins to pour out   
all the abuse and reviling that his     
command of  language will permit4 ,the  
madness next seizes the hands2 and the  
unfortunate maniac writes what exhibits1
 in the most decided manner1 the        
inflamed and delirious state of the     
brain4 ,he falls into demoniacal        
convulsions1 draws his sword1 and fights
 with fury and desperation to  the last 
gasp4 ,medicine has never been able to  
find a remedy for this  dreadful        
disease4 ,time and philosophy alone can 
effect a cure4    ,the ,poles are now   
the only people among whom this         
contagion at present  rages4 ,we may    
almost believe that the disorder is born
 with them1 like  their frightful plica4
 ,they are both diseases of the head1   
and of a most  noxious character4       
,cleanliness will cure the plica2 wisdom
 alone can  extirpate schism4    ,we are
 told that both these diseases were     

unknown to the ,samartians  while they  
were ,pagans4 ,the plica affects only   
the common people at  present1 but all  
the evils originating in schism are     
corroding and  destroying the higher    
classes of the republic4    ,the cause  
of the evil is the fertility of their   
land1 which produces too  much corn4 ,it
 is a melancholy and deplorable case    
that even the blessing  of heaven should
 in fact have involved them in such     
direful calamity4  ,some of the         
provinces have contended that it was    
absolutely necessary to  put leaven in  
their bread1 but the greater part of the
 nation entertain  an obstinate and     
unalterable belief1 that1 on certain    
days of the year1  fermented bread is   
absolutely mortal4    ,such is one of   
the principal causes of the schism or   
the rending asunder  of ,poland2 the    
dispute has infused acrimony into their 
blood4 ,other  causes have added to the 
effect4    ,some have imagined1 in the  
paroxysms and convulsions of the malady 

under  which they labor1 that the ,holy 
,spirit proceeded both from the ,father 
and the ,son3 and the others have       
exclaimed1 that it proceeded from the   
,father only4 ,the two parties1 one of  
which is called the ,roman party1  and  
the other the ,dissident1 look upon each
 other as if they were  absolutely      
infected by the plague2 but1 by a       
singular symptom peculiar  to this      
complaint1 the infected ,dissidents have
 always shown an  inclination to        
approach the ,catholics1 while the      
,catholics on the other  hand have never
 manifested any to approach them4       
,there is no disease which does not vary
 in different circumstances and         
situations4 ,the diet1 which is         
generally esteemed salutary1 has been so
  pernicious to this unhappy nation1    
that after the application of it in     
#agfh1 the cities of ,uman1 ,zablotin1  
,tetiou1 ,zilianki1 and ,zafran were    
destroyed and inundated with blood2 and 
more than two hundred thousand  patients

 miserably perished4    ,on one side the
 empire of ,russia1 and on the other    
that of ,turkey1 have  sent a hundred   
thousand surgeons provided with lancets1
 bistouries1 and  all sorts of          
instruments1 adapted to cut off the     
morbid and gangrened  parts2 but the    
disease has only become more virulent4  
,the delirium has  even been so         
outrageous1 that forty of the patients  
actually met  together for the purpose  
of dissecting their king1 who had never 
been  attacked by the disease1 and whose
 brain and all the vital and noble      
parts of his body were in a perfectly   
sound state1 as we shall have to  remark
 under the article on ,superstition4 ,it
 is thought that if the  contending     
parties would refer the case entirely to
 him1 he might effect  a cure of the    
whole nation2 but it is one of the      
symptoms of this cruel  malady to be    
afraid of being cured1 as persons       
laboring under  hydrophobia dread even  
the sight of water4    ,there are some  

learned men among us who contend that   
the disease was  brought1 a long time   
ago1 from ,palestine1 and that the      
inhabitants of  ,jerusalem and ,samaria 
were long harassed by it4 ,others think 
that the  original seat of the disease  
was ,egypt1 and that the dogs and cats1 
which were there held in the highest    
consideration1 having become mad1       
communicated the madness of schism1 or  
tearing asunder1 to the greater  part of
 the ,egyptians1 whose weak heads were  
but too susceptible to the  disorder4   
,it is remarked also1 that the ,greeks  
who travelled to ,egypt1 as1 for        
example1 ,timeus of ,locris and ,plato1 
somewhat injured their brains by  the   
excursion4 ,however1 the injury by no   
means reached madness1 or  plague1      
properly so called2 it was a sort of    
delirium which was not at  all times    
easily to be perceived1 and which was   
often concealed under a  very plausible 
appearance of reason4 ,but the ,greeks  
having1 in the  course of time1 carried 

the complaint among the western and     
northern  nations1 the malformation or  
unfortunate excitability of the brain in
  our unhappy countries occasioned the  
slight fever of ,timeus and ,plato to   
break out among us into the most        
frightful and fatal contagion1 which    
the physicians sometimes called         
intolerance1 and sometimes persecution2 
sometimes religious war1 sometimes      
madness1 and sometimes pestilence4      
,we have seen the fatal ravages         
committed by this infernal plague over  
the face of the earth4 ,many physicians 
have offered their services to  destroy 
this frightful evil at its very root4   
,but what will appear to  many scarcely 
credible is1 that there are entire      
faculties of medicine1  at ,salamanca   
and ,coimbra1 in ,italy and even in     
,paris1 which maintain  that schism1    
division1 or tearing asunder1 is        
necessary for mankind2  that corrupt    
humors are drawn off from them through  
the wounds which it  occasions2 that    

enthusiasm1 which is one of the first   
symptoms of the  complaint1 exalts the  
soul1 and produces the most beneficial  
consequences2 that toleration is        
attended with innumerable               
inconveniences2 that if the whole world 
were tolerant1 great geniuses  would    
want that powerful and irresistible     
impulse which has produced so  many     
admirable works in theology2 that peace 
is a great calamity to a  state1 because
 it brings back the pleasures in its    
train2 and pleasures1  after a course of
 time1 soften down that noble ferocity  
which forms the  hero2 and that if the  
,greeks had made a treaty of commerce   
with the  ,trojans1 instead of making   
war with them1 there would never have   
been an  ,achilles1 a ,hector1 or a     
,homer1 and that the race of man would  
have  stagnated in ignorance4    ,these 
reasons1 ,i acknowledge1 are not without
 force2 and ,i request time  for giving 
them due consideration4                 
,,scrofula4      ,it has been pretended 

that divine power is appealed to in     
regard to this  malady1 because it is   
scarcely in human power to cure it4     
,possibly some monks began by supposing 
that kings1 in their character of       
representatives of the divinity1        
possessed the privilege of curing       
scrofula1 by touching the patients with 
their anointed hands4 ,but why  not     
bestow a similar power on emperors1     
whose dignity surpasses that of  kings1 
or on popes1 who call themselves the    
masters of emperors1 and who  are more  
than simple images of ,god1 being ,his  
vicars on earth8 ,it is  possible1 that 
some imaginary dreamer of ,normandy1 in 
order to render  the usurpation of      
,william the ,bastard the more          
respectable1 conceded to  him1 in       
quality of ,god's representative1 the   
faculty of curing scrofula  by the tip  
of his finger4    ,it was some time     
after ,william that this usage became   
established4 ,we  must not gratify the  
kings of ,england with this gift1 and   

refuse it to  those of ,france1 their   
liege lords4 ,this would be in defiance 
of the  respect due to the feudal       
system4 ,in short1 this power is traced 
up to  ,edward the ,confessor in        
,england1 and to ,clovis in ,france4    
,the only testimony1 in the least degree
 credible1 of the antiquity of  this    
usage1 is to be found in the writings in
 favor of the house of  ,lancaster1     
composed by the judge1 ,sir ,john       
,fortescue1 under ,henry ,,vi41  who was
 recognized king of ,france at ,paris in
 his cradle1 and then king  of ,england1
 but who lost both kingdoms4 ,sir ,john 
,fortescue asserts1 that  from time     
immemorial1 the kings of ,england were  
in possession of the  power of curing   
scrofula by their touch4 ,we cannot     
perceive1 however1  that this pretension
 rendered their persons more sacred in  
the wars  between the roses4    ,queens 
consort could not cure scrofula1 because
 they were not anointed  in the hands1  
like the kings3 but ,elizabeth1 a queen 

regnant and  anointed1 cured it without 
difficulty4    ,a sad thing happened to 
,mortorillo the ,calabrian1 whom we     
denominate ,st4  ,francis de ,paulo4    
,king ,louis ,,xi4 brought him to       
,plessis les ,tours to  cure him of his 
tendency to apoplexy1 and the saint     
arrived afflicted by  scrofula4    ,ipse
 fuit detentus gravi1 inflatura1 quam in
 parte inferiori1 gen su  dextrae circa 
guttur patiebatur4 ,chirugii dicebant1  
mortum esse  scrofarum4    ,the saint   
cured not the king1 and the king cured  
not the saint4    ,when the king of     
,england1 ,james ,,ii41 was conducted   
from ,rochester to  ,whitehall1 somebody
 proposed that he should exhibit a proof
 of genuine  royalty1 as for instance1  
that of touching for the evil2 but no   
one was  presented to him4 ,he departed 
to exercise his sovereignty in ,france  
at  ,st4 ,germain1 where he touched some
 ,hibernians4 ,his daughter ,mary1 ,king
  ,william1 ,queen ,anne1 and the kings 
of the house of ,brunswick have cured   

nobody4 ,this sacred gift departed when 
people began to reason4          ,,sect4
      ,,section ,i4    ,every sect1 of  
whatever opinion it may be1 is a        
rallying point for doubt  and error4    
,scotists1 ,thomists1 ,realists1        
,nominalists1 ,papists1  ,calvinists1   
,molinists1 and ,jansenists1 are only   
warlike appellations4    ,there is no   
sect in geometry2 we never say3 ,a      
,euclidian1 an ,archimedian4  ,when     
truth is evident1 it is impossible to   
divide people into parties  and         
factions4 ,nobody disputes that it is   
broad day at noon4    ,that part of     
astronomy which determines the course of
 the stars1 and the  return of eclipses1
 being now known1 there is no longer any
 dispute  among astronomers4    ,it is  
similar with a small number of truths1  
which are similarly  established2 but if
 you are a ,mahometan1 as there are many
 men who are  not ,mahometans1 you may  
possibly be in error4    ,what would be 
the true religion1 if ,christianity did 

not exist8 ,that in  which there would  
be no sects2 that in which all minds    
necessarily  agreed4    ,now1 in what   
doctrine are all minds agreed8 ,in the  
adoration of one ,god1  and in probity4 
,all the philosophers who have professed
 a religion have  said at all times3    
,there is a ,god1 and ,he must be just4 
,behold then  the universal religion1   
established throughout all time and     
among all  men6 ,the point then in which
 all agree is true2 the systems in      
regard to  which all differ are false4  
,my sect is the best1 says a ,brahmin4  
,but1 my good friend1 if thy sect is    
the best1 it is necessary2 for if not   
absolutely necessary1 thou must  confess
 that it is useless4 ,if1 on the        
contrary1 it is necessary1 it  must be  
so to all men2 how then is it that all  
men possess not what is  absolutely     
necessary to them8 ,how is it that the  
rest of the world  laughs at thee and   
thy ,brahma8    ,when ,zoroaster1       
,hermes1 ,orpheus1 ,minos1 and all the  

great men say3 ,let  us worship ,god1   
and be just1 no one laughs2 but all the 
world sneers at  him who pretends1 that 
to please ,god it is proper to die      
holding a cow  by the tail2 at him who  
cuts off a particle of foreskin for the 
same  purpose2 at him who consecrates   
crocodiles and onions2 at him who       
attaches eternal salvation to the bones 
of dead men carried underneath  the     
shirt1 or to a plenary indulgence       
purchased at ,rome for two sous and  a  
half4    ,whence this universal         
assemblage of laughing and hissing from 
one end of  the universe to the other8  
,it must be that the things which all   
the  world derides are not evident      
truths4 ,what shall we say to a         
secretary  of ,sejanus1 who dedicates to
 ,petronius a book1 in a confused and   
involved style1 entitled ,the ,truth of 
the ,sibylline ,oracles1 ,proved  from  
,facts4    ,this secretary at first     
proves to you1 that ,god sent upon earth
 many  ,sibyls1 one after the other1    

having no other means of instructing    
men4  ,it is demonstrated1 that ,god    
communicated with these ,sibyls1 because
 the  word sibyl signifies ,council of  
,god4 ,they ought to live a long time1  
for this privilege at least belongs to  
persons with whom ,god  communicates4   
,they amounted to twelve1 because this  
number is sacred4  ,they certainly      
predicted all the events in the world1  
because ,tarquin  the ,proud bought     
their book from an old woman for a      
hundred crowns4 ,what  unbeliever1      
exclaims the secretary1 can deny all    
these evident facts1  which took place  
in one corner of the earth1 in the face 
of all the  world8 ,who can deny the    
accomplishment of their prophecies8 ,has
 not  ,virgil himself cited the         
predictions of the ,sibyls8 ,if we have 
not the  first copies of the ,sibylline 
books1 written at a time when no one    
could  read and write1 we have authentic
 copies4 ,impiety must be silent before 
such proofs4 ,thus spoke ,houteville to 

,sejanus1 and hoped to obtain by it  the
 place of chief augur1 with a revenue of
 fifty thousand livres2 but  he obtained
 nothing4    ,that which my sect teaches
 me is obscure1 ,i confess it1 exclaims 
a  fanatic2 and it is in consequence of 
that obscurity that ,i must believe  it2
 for it says itself that it abounds in  
obscurities4 ,my sect is  extravagant1  
therefore it is divine2 for how1        
appearing so insane1  would it otherwise
 have been embraced by so many people4  
,it is precisely  like the ,koran1 which
 the ,sonnites say presents at once the 
face of an  angel and that of a beast4  
,be not scandalized at the muzzle of the
  beast1 but revere the face of the     
angel4 ,thus spoke this madman2 but a   
fanatic of another sect replied to the  
first fanatic3 ,it is thou who art  the 
beast1 and ,i who am the angel4    ,now 
who will judge this process1 and decide 
between these two inspired  personages8 
,the reasonable and impartial man who is
 learned in a science  which is not that

 of words2 the man divested of          
prejudice1 and a lover  of truth and of 
justice2 the man1 in fine1 who is not a 
beast1 and who  pretends not to be an   
angel4      ,,section ,,ii4    ,sect and
 error are synonymous terms4 ,thou art a
 peripatetic and ,i a  ,platonist2 we   
are therefore both in the wrong2 for    
thou opposest ,plato1  because his      
chimeras repel thee2 and ,i fly from    
,aristotle1 because it  appears to me   
that he knew not what he said4 ,if the  
one or the other had  demonstrated the  
truth1 there would have been an end of  
sect4 ,to declare  for the opinion of   
one in opposition to that of another1 is
 to take part  in a civil war4 ,there is
 no sect in mathematics or experimental 
philosophy3 a man who examines the      
relation between a cone and a sphere  is
 not of the sect of ,archimedes2 and he 
who perceived that the square  of the   
hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is
 equal to the sum of the  squares of the
 other two sides1 is not in consequence 

a ,pythagorean4    ,when we say that the
 blood circulates1 that the air is      
weighty1 that the  rays of the sun are a
 bundle of seven refrangible rays1 it   
follows not  that we are of the sect of 
,harvey1 of ,torricelli1 or of ,newton2 
we  simply acquiesce in the truths which
 they demonstrate1 and the whole        
universe will be of the same opinion4   
,such is the character of truth1 which  
belongs to all time and to all  men4 ,it
 is only to be produced to be           
acknowledged1 and admits of no          
opposition4 ,a long dispute signifies   
that both parties are in error4         
,,self-,,love4      ,nicole1 in his     
,moral ,essays1 written after two or    
three thousand  volumes on morals       
7,treatise on ,charity1 chap1 ii471     
says1 that by means  of the gibbets and 
tortures which are established in       
common1 the  tyrannical designs of the  
self-love of each individual are        
repressed4    ,i will not examine       
whether we have gibbets in common1 as we

 have fields  and woods in common1 and a
 common purse1 or if thoughts are       
repressed by  wheels2 but it seems to me
 very strange that ,nicole has taken    
highway  robbery and murder for         
self-love4 ,the distinctions must be a  
little  more examined4 ,he who should   
say that ,nero killed his mother from   
self-love1 that ,cartouche had much     
self-love1 would not express himself    
very correctly4 ,self-love is not a     
wickedness2 it is a sentiment natural   
to all men2 it is much more the neighbor
 of vanity than of crime4    ,a beggar  
of the suburbs of ,madrid boldly asked  
alms2 a passenger said to  him3 ,are you
 not ashamed to carry on this infamous  
trade1 when you can  work8 ,sir1 replied
 the mendicant1 ,i ask you for money1   
and not for  advice2 and turned his back
 on him with ,castilian dignity4 ,this  
gentleman was a haughty beggar2 his     
vanity was wounded by very little3  he  
asked alms for love of himself1 and     
would not suffer the reprimand  from a  

still greater love of himself4    ,a    
missionary1 travelling in ,india1 met a 
fakir loaded with chains1 naked  as an  
ape1 lying on his stomach1 and lashing  
himself for the sins of his  countrymen1
 the ,indians1 who gave him some coins  
of the country4 ,what a  renouncement of
 himself6 said one of the spectators4   
,renouncement of  myself6 said the      
fakir1 learn that ,i only lash myself in
 this world to  serve you the same in   
the next1 when you will be the horses   
and ,i the  rider4    ,those who said   
that love of ourselves is the basis of  
all our sentiments  and actions were    
right2 and as it has not been written to
 prove to men  that they have a face1   
there is no occasion to prove to them   
that they  possess self-love4 ,this     
self-love is the instrument of our      
preservation2 it resembles the provision
 for the perpetuity of mankind2  it is  
necessary1 it is dear to us1 it gives us
 pleasure1 and we must  conceal it4     
,,sensation4      ,oysters1 it is said1 

have two senses2 moles four2 all other  
animals1  like man1 five4 ,some people  
contend for a sixth1 but it is evident  
that  the voluptuous sensation to which 
they allude is reducible to that of     
touch2 and that five senses are our lot4
 ,it is impossible for us to  imagine   
anything beyond them1 or to desire out  
of their range4    ,it may be1 that in  
other globes the inhabitants possess    
sensations of  which we can form no     
idea4 ,it is possible that the number of
 our senses  augments from globe to     
globe1 and that an existence with       
innumerable and  perfect senses will be 
the final attainment of all being4      
,but with respect to ourselves and our  
five senses1 what is the extent of  our 
capacity8 ,we constantly feel in spite  
of ourselves1 and never  because we will
 do so3 it is impossible for us to avoid
 having the  sensation which our nature 
ordains when any object excites it4 ,the
  sensation is within us1 but depends   
not upon ourselves4 ,we receive it1  but

 how do we receive it8 ,it is evident   
that there is no connection  between the
 stricken air1 the words which ,i sing1 
and the impression  which these words   
make upon my brain4    ,we are          
astonished at thought1 but sensation is 
equally wonderful4 ,a  divine power is  
as manifest in the sensation of the     
meanest of insects  as in the brain of  
,newton4 ,in the meantime1 if a thousand
 animals die  before our eyes1 we are   
not anxious to know what becomes of     
their  faculty of sensation1 although it
 is as much the work of the ,supreme    
,being as our own4 ,we regard them as   
the machines of nature1 created to      
perish1 and to give place to others4    
,for what purpose and in what manner may
 their sensations exist1 when  they     
exist no longer8 ,what need has the     
author of all things to preserve        
qualities1 when the substance is        
destroyed8 ,it is as reasonable to      
assert that the power of the plant      
called sensitive1 to withdraw its       

leaves towards its branches1 exists when
 the plant is no more4 ,you will  ask1  
without doubt1 in what manner the       
sensation of animals perishes  with     
them1 while the mind of man perishes    
not8 ,i am too ignorant to  solve this  
question4 ,the eternal author of mind   
and of sensation alone  knows how to    
give1 and how to preserve them4    ,all 
antiquity maintains that our            
understanding contains nothing which    
has not been received by our senses4    
,descartes1 on the contrary1 asserts  in
 his ,romances1 that we have            
metaphysical ideas before we are        
acquainted with the nipple of our nurse4
 ,a faculty of theology  proscribed this
 dogma1 not because it was erroneous1   
but because it was  new4 ,finally1      
however1 it was adopted1 because it had 
been destroyed by  ,locke1 an ,english  
philosopher1 and an ,englishman must    
necessarily be in  the wrong4 ,in fine1 
after having so often changed opinion1  
the ancient  opinion which declares that

 the senses are the inlets to the       
understanding is finally proscribed4    
,this is acting like deeply indebted    
governments1 who sometimes issue certain
 notes which are to pass  current1 and  
at other times cry them down2 but for a 
long time no one  will accept the notes 
of the said faculty of theology4    ,all
 the faculties in the world will never  
prevent a philosopher from  perceiving  
that we commence by sensation1 and that 
our memory is nothing  but a continued  
sensation4 ,a man born without his five 
senses would be  destitute of all idea1 
supposing it possible for him to live4  
,metaphysical notions are obtained only 
through the senses2 for how is a  circle
 or a triangle to be measured1 if a     
circle or a triangle has  neither been  
touched nor seen8 ,how form an imperfect
 notion of infinity1  without a notion  
of limits8 ,and how take away limits1   
without having  either beheld or felt   
them8    ,sensation includes all our    
faculties1 says a great philosopher4    

,what  ought to be concluded from all   
this8 ,you who read and think1 pray     
conclude4    ,the ,greeks invented the  
faculty ,psyche for sensation1 and the  
faculty ,nous for mind4 ,we are1        
unhappily1 ignorant of the nature of    
these two faculties3 we possess them1   
but their origin is no more known  to us
 than to the oyster1 the sea-nettle1 the
 polypus1 worms1 or plants4  ,by some   
inconceivable mechanism1 sensitiveness  
is diffused throughout my  body1 and    
thought in my head alone4 ,if the head  
be cut off1 there will  remain a very   
small chance of its solving a problem in
 geometry4 ,in the  meantime1 your      
pineal gland1 your fleshly body1 in     
which abides your  soul1 exists for a   
long time without alteration1 while your
 separated  head is so full of animal   
spirits that it frequently exhibits     
motion  after its removal from the      
trunk4 ,it seems as if at this moment it
  possessed the most lively ideas1      
resembling the head of ,orpheus1 which  

still uttered melodious song1 and       
chanted ,eurydice1 when cast into the   
waters of the ,hebrus4    ,if we think  
no longer1 after losing our heads1      
whence does it happen  that the heart   
beats1 and appears to be sensitive after
 being torn out8    ,we feel1 you say1  
because all our nerves have their origin
 in the brain2  and in the meantime1 if 
you are trepanned1 and a portion of your
 brain  be thrown into the fire1 you    
feel nothing the less4 ,men who can     
state  the reason of all this are very  
clever4          ,,sentences            
7,,remarkable74    ,on ,natural         
,liberty4      ,in several countries1   
and particularly in ,france1 collections
 have been  made of the juridical       
murders which tyranny1 fanaticism1 or   
even error  and weakness1 have committed
 with the sword of justice4    ,there   
are sentences of death which whole years
 of vengeance could  scarcely expiate1  
and which will make all future ages     
tremble4 ,such are  the sentences given 

against the natural king of ,naples and 
,sicily1 by  the tribunal of ,charles of
 ,anjou2 against ,john ,huss and ,jerome
 of  ,prague1 by priests and monks2 and 
against the king of ,england1 ,charles  
,i41 by fanatical citizens4    ,after   
these enormous crimes1 formally         
committed1 come the legal murders       
committed by indolence1 stupidity1 and  
superstition1 and these are             
innumerable4 ,we shall relate some of   
them in other articles4    ,in this     
class we must principally place the     
trials for witchcraft1 and  never forget
 that even in our days1 in #agej1 the   
sacerdotal justice of  the bishop of    
,wrzburg has condemned as a witch a nun1
 a girl of  quality1 to the punishment  
of fire4 ,i here repeat this            
circumstance1  which ,i have elsewhere  
mentioned1 that it should not be        
forgotten4 ,we  forget too much and too 
soon4    ,every day of the year ,i would
 have a public crier1 instead of crying 
as  in ,germany and ,holland what time  

it is--which is known very well without 
their crying--cry3 ,it was on this day  
that1 in the religious wars  ,magdeburg 
and all its inhabitants were reduced to 
ashes4 ,it was on ,may  #adth that      
,henry ,,iv4 was assassinated1 only     
because he was not submissive  to the   
pope2 it was on such a day that such an 
abominable cruelty was  perpetrated in  
your town1 under the name of justice4   
,these continual advertisements would be
 very useful2 but the judgments  given  
in favor of innocence against           
persecutors should be cried with a  much
 louder voice4 ,for example1 ,i propose1
 that every year1 the two  strongest    
throats which can be found in ,paris and
 ,toulouse shall cry  these words in all
 the streets3 ,it was on such a day that
 fifty  magistrates of the council      
re-established the memory of ,john      
,calas1 with  a unanimous voice1 and    
obtained for his family the favors of   
the king  himself1 in whose name ,john  
,calas had been condemned to the most   

horrible execution4    ,it would not be 
amiss to have another crier at the door 
of all the  ministers1 to say to all who
 came to demand lettres de cachet1 in   
order to possess themselves of the      
property of their relations1 friends1   
or dependents3 ,gentlemen1 fear to      
seduce the minister by false            
statements1 and to abuse the name of the
 king4 ,it is dangerous to take  it in  
vain4 ,there was in the world one       
,gerbier1 who defended the cause  of the
 widow and orphan oppressed under the   
weight of a sacred name4 ,it  was he    
who1 at the bar of the ,parliament of   
,paris1 obtained the  abolishment of the
 ,society of ,jesus4 ,listen attentively
 to the lesson  which he gave to the    
society of ,st4 ,bernard1 conjointly    
with ,master  ,loiseau1 another         
protector of widows4    ,you must first 
know1 that the reverend ,bernardine     
fathers of ,clairvaux  possess seventeen
 thousand acres of wood1 seven large    
forges1 fourteen  large farms1 a        

quantity of fiefs1 benefices1 and even  
rights in foreign  countries4 ,the      
yearly revenue of the convent amounts to
 two hundred  thousand livres4 ,the     
treasure is immense2 the abbot's palace 
is that of  a prince4 ,nothing is more  
just2 it is a poor recompense for the   
services  which the ,bernardines        
continually render to the ,state4    ,it
 happened1 that a youth of seventeen    
years of age1 named ,castille1  whose   
baptismal name was ,bernard1 believed1  
for that reason1 that he  should become 
a ,bernardine4 ,it is thus that we      
reason at seventeen1 and  sometimes at  
thirty4 ,he went to pass his novitiate  
at ,lorraine1 in the  abbey of ,orval4  
,when he was required to pronounce his  
vows1 grace was  wanting in him3 he did 
not sign them2 he departed and became a 
man  again4 ,he established himself at  
,paris1 and at the end of thirty years1 
having made a little fortune1 he        
married1 and had children4    ,the      
reverend father1 attorney of ,clairvaux1

 named ,mayeur1 a worthy  solicitor1    
brother of the abbot1 having learned    
from a woman of pleasure  at ,paris1    
that this ,castille was formerly a      
,bernardine1 plotted to  challenge him  
as a deserter--though he was not really 
engaged--to make  his wife pass for his 
concubine1 and to place his children in 
the  hospital as bastards4 ,he          
associated himself with another rogue1  
to  divide the spoils4 ,both went to the
 court for lettres de cachet1  exposed  
their grievances in the name of ,st4    
,bernard1 obtained the  letter1 seized  
,bernard ,castille1 his wife1 and their 
children1 possessed  themselves of all  
the property1 and are now devouring it1 
you know  where4    ,bernard ,castille  
was shut up at ,orval in a dungeon1     
where he was  executed after six months1
 for fear that he should demand justice4
 ,his  wife was conducted to another    
dungeon1 at ,st4 ,pelagie1 a house for  
prostitutes4 ,of three children1 one    
died in the hospital4    ,things        

remained in this state for three years4 
,at the end of this time1  the wife of  
,castille obtained her enlargement4 ,god
 is just3 ,he gave a  second husband to 
the widow4 ,the husband1 named ,lannai1 
was a man of  head1 who discovered all  
the frauds1 horrors1 and crimes employed
  against his wife4 ,they both entered  
into a suit against the monks4 ,it is   
true1 that brother ,mayeur1 who is      
called ,dom ,mayeur1 was not hanged1 but
  the convent of ,clairvaux was         
condemned to pay forty thousand livres4 
,there is no convent which would not    
rather see its attorney hanged than     
lose its money4    ,this history should 
teach you1 gentlemen1 to use much       
moderation in the  fact of lettres de   
cachet4 ,know1 that ,master ,elias de   
,beaumont1 that  celebrated defender of 
the memory of ,calas1 and ,master       
,target that other  protector of        
oppressed innocence1 caused the man to  
pay a fine of twenty  thousand francs1  
who by his intrigues had gained a lettre

 de cachet  to seize upon the dying     
countess of ,lancize1 to drag her from  
the bosom  of her family and divest her 
of all her titles4    ,when tribunals   
give such sentences as these1 we hear   
clapping of hands  from the extent of   
the grand chamber to the gates of       
,paris4 ,take care of  yourselves1      
gentlemen2 do not lightly demand lettres
 de cachet4    ,an ,englishman1 on      
reading this article1 exclaimed1 ,what  
is a lettre de  cachet8 ,we could never 
make him comprehend it4                 
,,sentences ,,of ,,death4      ,in      
reading history1 and seeing its course  
continually interrupted with            
innumerable calamities heaped upon this 
globe1 which some call the best  of all 
possible worlds1 ,i have been           
particularly struck with the great      
quantity of considerable men in the     
,state1 in the ,church1 and in  society1
 who have suffered death like robbers on
 the highway4 ,setting  aside           
assassinations and poisonings1 ,i speak 

only of massacres in a  juridical form1 
performed with loyalty and ceremony2 ,i 
commence with  kings and queens2        
,england alone furnishes an ample list2 
but for  chancellors1 knights1 and      
esquires1 volumes are required4 ,of all 
who  have thus perished by justice1 ,i  
do not believe that there are four in   
all ,europe who would have undergone    
their sentence if their suits had       
lasted some time longer1 or if the      
adverse parties had died of apoplexy    
during the preparation4    ,if fistula  
had gangrened the rectum of ,cardinal   
,richelieu some months  longer1 the     
virtuous de ,thou1 ,cinq-,mars1 and so  
many others would have  been at liberty4
 ,if ,barneveldt had had as many        
,arminians for his judges  as           
,gomerists1 he would have died in his   
bed2 if the constable de ,luynes  had   
not demanded the confiscation of the    
property of the lady of the  ,marshal   
d',ancre1 she would not have been burned
 as a witch4 ,if a really  criminal man1

 an assassin1 a public thief1 a         
poisoner1 a parricide1 be  arrested1 and
 his crime be proved1 it is certain that
 in all times and  whoever the judges1  
he will be condemned4 ,but it is not the
 same with  statesmen2 only give them   
other judges1 or wait until time has    
changed  interests1 cooled passions1 and
 introduced other sentiments1 and their 
lives will be in safety4    ,suppose    
,queen ,elizabeth had died of an        
indigestion on the eve of the  execution
 of ,mary ,stuart1 then ,mary ,stuart   
would have been seated on the  throne of
 ,england1 ,ireland1 and ,scotland1     
instead of dying by the hand  of an     
executioner in a chamber hung with      
black4 ,if ,cromwell had only  fallen   
sick1 care would have been taken how    
,charles ,i4's head was cut  off4 ,these
 two assassinations--disguised1 ,i know 
not how1 in the garb of  the            
laws--scarcely entered into the list of 
ordinary injustice4 ,figure  to yourself
 some highwaymen who1 having bound and  

robbed two passengers1  amuse themselves
 with naming in the troop an            
attorney-general1 a  president1 an      
advocate and counsellors1 and who1      
having signed a  sentence1 cause the two
 victims to be hanged in ceremony2 it   
was thus  that the ,queen of ,scotland  
and her grandson were judged4    ,but of
 common judgments1 pronounced by        
competent judges against princes  or men
 in place1 is there a single one which  
would have been either  executed1 or    
even passed1 if another time had been   
chosen8 ,is there a  single one of the  
condemned1 immolated under ,cardinal    
,richelieu1 who  would not have been in 
favor if their suits had been prolonged 
until the  regency of ,anne of ,austria8
 ,the ,prince of ,cond was arrested     
under  ,francis ,,ii41 he was condemned 
to death by commissaries2 ,francis ,,ii4
  died1 and the ,prince of ,cond again  
became powerful4    ,these instances are
 innumerable2 we should above all       
consider the spirit  of the times4      

,vanini was burned on a vague suspicion 
of atheism4 ,at  present1 if any one was
 foolish and pedantic enough to write   
such books  as ,vanini1 they would not  
be read1 and that is all which could    
happen to  them4 ,a ,spaniard passed    
through ,geneva in the middle of the    
sixteenth  century2 the ,picard1 ,john  
,calvin1 learned that this ,spaniard was
 lodged  at an inn2 he remembered that  
this ,spaniard had disputed with him on 
a  subject which neither of them        
understood4 ,behold6 my theologian1     
,john  ,calvin1 arrested the passenger1 
contrary to all laws1 human or divine1  
contrary to the right possessed by      
people among all nations2 immured him   
in a dungeon1 and burned him at a slow  
fire with green faggots1 that the  pain 
might last the longer4 ,certainly this  
infernal manuvre would  never enter the 
head of any one in the present day2 and 
if the fool  ,servetus had lived in good
 times1 he would have had nothing to    
fear2  what is called justice is        

therefore as arbitrary as fashion4      
,there are  times of horrors and follies
 among men1 as there are times of       
pestilence1 and this contagion has made 
the tour of the world4                  
,,serpents4      ,i certify that ,i have
 many times killed serpents by          
moistening in a  slight degree1 with my 
spittle1 a stick or a stone1 and giving 
them a  slight blow on the middle of the
 body1 scarcely sufficient to produce a 
small contusion4 ,january #ai1 #ageg4   
,figuier1 ,surgeon4    ,the above       
surgeon having given me this            
certificate1 two witnesses1 who  had    
seen him kill serpents in this manner1  
attested what they had  beheld4         
,notwithstanding1 ,i wished to behold   
the thing myself2 for ,i  confess that1 
in various parts of these queries1 ,i   
have taken ,st4 ,thomas  of ,didymus for
 my patron saint1 who always insisted on
 an examination  with his own hands4    
,for eighteen hundred years this opinion
 has been perpetuated among the  people1

 and it might possibly be even eighteen 
thousand years old1 if  ,genesis had not
 supplied us with the precise date of   
our enmity to this  reptile4 ,it may be 
asserted that if ,eve had spit on the   
serpent when he  took his place at her  
ear1 a world of evil would have been    
spared human  nature4    ,lucretius1 in 
his fourth book1 alludes to this manner 
of killing  serpents as very well known3
         ,est utique ut serpens hominis 
contacta salivis4       ,disperit1 ac   
sese mandendo conficit ipsa4            
--,,lib41 iv1 v4 #fdb-fdc4         ,spit
 on a serpent1 and his vigor flies1     
,he straight devours himself1 and       
quickly dies4    ,there is some slight  
contradiction in painting him at once   
deprived of  vigor and self-devouring1  
but my surgeon ,figuier asserts not that
 the  serpents which he killed were     
self-devouring4 ,genesis says wisely    
that  we kill them with our heels1 and  
not with spittle4    ,we are in the     
midst of winter on ,january #ai1 which  

is the time when  serpents visit us4 ,i 
cannot find any at ,mount ,krapak2 but  
,i exhort all  philosophers to spit upon
 every serpent they meet with in the    
spring4 ,it  is good to know the extent 
of the power of the saliva of man4      
,it is certain that ,jesus ,christ      
employed his spittle to cure a man who  
was deaf and dumb4 ,he took him aside1  
placed ,his fingers on his ears1  and   
looking up to heaven1 sighed and said to
 him3 ,ephphatha--be  opened--when the  
deaf and dumb person immediately began  
to speak4    ,it may therefore be true  
that ,god has allowed the saliva of man 
to kill  serpents2 but ,he may have also
 permitted my surgeon to assail them    
with  heavy blows from a stick or a     
stone1 in such a way that they would die
  whether he spat upon them or not4     
,i beg of all philosophers to examine   
the thing with attention4 ,for  example1
 should they meet ,freron in the street1
 let them spit in his  face1 and if he  
die1 the fact will be confirmed1 in     

spite of all the  reasoning of the      
incredulous4    ,i take this opportunity
 also to beg of philosophers not to cut 
off the  heads of any more snails2 for  
,i affirm that the head has returned to 
snails which ,i have decapitated very   
effectively4 ,but it is not enough  that
 ,i know it by experience1 others must  
be equally satisfied in order  that the 
fact be rendered probable2 for although 
,i have twice succeeded1  ,i have failed
 thirty times4 ,success depends upon the
 age of the snail1  the time in which   
the head is cut off1 the situation of   
the incision1  and the manner in which  
it is kept until the head grows again4  
,if it is important to know that death  
may be inflicted by spitting1 it  is    
still more important to know that heads 
may be renewed4 ,man is of  more        
consequence than a snail1 and ,i doubt  
not that in due time1 when  the arts are
 brought to perfection1 some means will 
be found to give a  sound head to a man 
who has none at all4          ,,shekel4 

,a weight and denomination of money     
among the ,jews2 but as they never      
coined money1 and always made use of the
 coinage of other people1 all  gold     
coins weighing about a guinea1 and all  
silver coins of the weight  of a small  
,french crown1 were called a shekel2 and
 these shekels were  distinguished into 
those of the weight of the sanctuary1   
and those of  the weight of the king4   
,it is said in the ,book of ,samuel that
 ,absalom had very fine hair1 from      
which he cut a part every year4 ,many   
profound commentators assert that  he   
cut it once a month1 and that it was    
valued at two hundred shekels4  ,if     
these shekels were of gold1 the locks of
 ,absalom were worth two  thousand four 
hundred guineas per annum4 ,there are   
few seigniories which  produce at       
present the revenue that ,absalom       
derived from his head4    ,it is said   
that when ,abraham bought a cave in     
,hebron from the ,canaanite  ,ephron1   
,ephron sold him the cave for four      

hundred shekels of silver1 of  current  
money with the merchant--probat monet   
public4    ,we have already remarked    
that there was no coined money in these 
days1  and thus these four hundred      
shekels of silver became four hundred   
shekels in weight1 which1 valued at     
present at three livres four sous  each1
 are equal to twelve hundred and eighty 
livres of ,france4    ,it follows that  
the little field1 which was sold with   
this cavern1 was  excellent land1 to    
bring so high a price4    ,when         
,eleazar1 the servant of ,abraham1 met  
the beautiful ,rebecca1 the  daughter of
 ,bethnel1 carrying a pitcher of water  
upon her shoulder1 from  which she gave 
him and his camels leave to drink1 he   
presented her with  earrings of gold1   
which weighed two shekels1 and bracelets
 which weighed  ten1 amounting in the   
whole to a present of the value of      
twenty-four  guineas4    ,in the laws of
 ,exodus it is said that if an ox gored 
a male or female  slave1 the possessor  

of the ox should give thirty shekels of 
silver to  the master of the slave1 and 
that the ox should be stoned4 ,it is    
apparently to be understood that the ox 
in this case has produced a very        
dangerous wound1 otherwise thirty-two   
crowns was a large sum for the          
neighborhood of ,mount ,sinai1 where    
money was uncommon4 ,it is for the  same
 reason that many grave1 but too hasty1 
persons suspect that ,exodus  as well as
 ,genesis was not written until a       
comparatively late period4    ,what     
tends to confirm them in this erroneous 
opinion is a passage in the  same       
,exodus3 ,take of pure myrrh five       
hundred shekels1 and of sweet  cinnamon 
half as much2 of sweet calamus two      
hundred and fifty shekels2  of cassia   
five hundred shekels1 after the shekel  
of the sanctuary2 and  of olive-oil a   
ton1 to form an ointment to annoint the 
tabernacle2 and  whosoever anointed     
himself or any stranger with a similar  
composition1  was to be put to death4   

,it is added that with all these        
aromatics were to be united stacte1     
onyx1 galbanum1 and frankincense2 and   
that a perfume was to be mixed up       
according to the art of the apothecary  
or perfumer4    ,but ,i cannot perceive 
anything in this composition which ought
 to excite  the doubt of the            
incredulous4 ,it is natural to imagine  
that the  ,jews--who1 according to the  
text1 stole from the ,egyptians all     
which  they could bring away--had also  
taken frankincense1 galbanum1 onyx1     
stacte1 olive-oil1 cassia1 sweet        
calamus1 cinnamon1 and myrrh4 ,they     
also1 without doubt1 stole many shekels2
 indeed1 we have seen1 that one  of the 
most zealous partisans of this ,hebrew  
horde estimates what they  stole1 in    
gold alone1 at nine millions4 ,i abide  
by his reckoning4          ,,sibyl4     
,the first woman who pronounced oracles 
at ,delphos was called ,sibylla4        
,according to ,pausanias1 she was the   
daughter of ,jupiter1 and of ,lamia1    

the daughter of ,neptune1 and she lived 
a long time before the siege of  ,troy4 
,from her all women were distinguished  
by the name of sibyls1 who1  without    
being priestesses1 or even attached to a
 particular oracle1  announced the      
future1 and called themselves inspired4 
,different ages and  countries have had 
their sibyls1 or preserved predictions  
which bear  their name1 and collections 
were formed of them4    ,the greatest   
embarrassment to the ancients was to    
explain by what happy  privilege these  
sibyls had the gift of predicting the   
future4 ,platonists  found the cause of 
it in the intimate union which the      
creature1 arrived  at a certain degree  
of perfection1 might have with the      
,divinity4 ,others  attribute this      
divine property of the sibyls to the    
vapors and  exhalations of the caves    
which they inhabited4 ,finally others   
attributed  the prophetic spirit of the 
sibyls to their sombre and melancholy   
humor1  or to some singular malady4     

,st4 ,jerome maintained that this gift  
was to them a recompense for their      
chastity2 but there was at least one    
very celebrated one who boasted of      
having had a thousand lovers without    
being married4 ,it would have been  much
 more sensible in ,st4 ,jerome and other
 fathers of the ,church to have  denied 
the prophetic spirit of the sibyls1 and 
to have said that by  means of hazarding
 predictions at a venture1 they might   
sometimes have  been fulfilled1         
particularly with the help of a         
favorable commentary1 by  which words1  
spoken by chance1 have been turned into 
facts which it was  impossible they     
could have predicted4    ,it is singular
 that their predictions were collected  
after the event4  ,the first collection 
of sibylline leaves1 bought by ,tarquin1
 contained  three books2 the second was 
compiled after the fire of the capitol1 
but  we are ignorant how many books it  
contained2 and the third is that which  
we possess in eight books1 and in which 

it is doubtful whether the  author has  
not inserted several predictions of the 
second4 ,this  collection is the fruit  
of the pious fraud of some ,platonic    
,christians1  more zealous than clever1 
who in composing it thought to lend arms
 to  the ,christian religion1 and to put
 those who defended it in a situation   
to combat paganism with the greatest    
advantage4    ,this confused compilation
 of different prophecies was printed for
 the  first time in the year #aede from 
manuscripts1 and published several      
times after1 with ample commentaries1   
burdened with an erudition often        
trivial1 and almost always foreign to   
the text1 which they seldom             
enlightened4 ,the number of works       
composed for and against the            
authenticity of these sibylline books is
 very great1 and some even very         
learned2 but there prevails so little   
order and reasoning1 and the  authors   
are so devoid of all philosophic spirit 
that those who might  have courage to   

read them would gain nothing but ennui  
and fatigue4 ,the  date of the          
publication is found clearly indicated  
in the fifth and  eighth books4 ,the    
sibyl is made to say that the ,roman    
,empire will have  only fifteen         
emperors1 fourteen of which are         
designated by the numeral  value of the 
first letter of their names in the      
,greek alphabet4 ,she adds  that the    
fifteenth1 who would be a man with a    
white head1 would bear the  name of a   
sea near ,rome4 ,the fifteenth of the   
,roman emperors was ,adrian1  and the   
,asiatic gulf is the sea of which he    
bears the name4    ,from this prince1   
continues the sibyl1 three others will  
proceed who  will rule the empire at the
 same time2 but finally one of them will
  remain the possessor4 ,these three    
shoots were ,antoninus1 ,marcus         
,aurelius1 and ,lucius ,verus4 ,the     
sibyl alludes to the adoptions and      
associations which united them4 ,marcus 
,aurelius found himself sole  master of 

the empire at the death of ,lucius      
,verus1 at the commencement  of the year
 #afi2 and he governed it without any   
colleague until the year  #agg1 when he 
associated with his son ,commodus4 ,as  
there is nothing which  can have any    
relation to this new colleague of       
,marcus ,aurelius1 it is  evident that  
the collection must have been made      
between the years #afi  and #agg of the 
vulgar era4    ,josephus1 the historian1
 quotes a work of the sibyl1 in which   
the ,tower  of ,babel and the confusion 
of tongues are spoken of nearly as in   
,genesis2 which proves that the         
,christians are not the first authors of
  the supposition of the sibylline      
books4 ,josephus not relating the exact 
words of the sibyl1 we cannot ascertain 
whether what is said of the same  event 
in our collection was extracted from the
 work quoted by ,josephus2  but it is   
certain that several lines1 attributed  
to the sibyl1 in the  exhortations found
 in the works of ,st4 ,justin1 of       

,theophilus of ,antioch1  of ,clement of
 ,alexandria1 and in some other fathers1
 are not in our  collection2 and as most
 of these lines bear no stamp of        
,christianity1  they might be the work  
of some ,platonic ,jew4    ,in the time 
of ,celsus1 sibyls had already some     
credit among the  ,christians1 as it    
appears by two passages of the answer of
 ,origen4 ,but  in time sibylline       
prophecies appearing favorable to       
,christianity1 they  were commonly made 
use of in works of controversy with much
 more  confidence than by the pagans    
themselves1 who1 acknowledging sibyls to
  be inspired women1 confined themselves
 to saying that the ,christians had     
falsified their writings1 a fact which  
could only be decided by a  comparison  
of the two manuscripts1 which few people
 are in a situation  to make4           
,finally1 it was from a poem of the     
sibyl of ,cumea that the principal      
dogmas of ,christianity were taken4     
,constantine1 in the fine discourse     

which he pronounced before the assembly 
of the saints1 shows that the  fourth   
eclogue of ,virgil is only a prophetic  
description of the ,saviour2  and if    
that was not the immediate object of the
 poet1 it was that of the  sibyl from   
whom he borrowed his ideas1 who1 being  
filled with the spirit  of ,god1        
announced the birth of the ,redeemer4   
,he believed that he saw in this poem   
the miracle of the birth of ,jesus  of a
 virgin1 the abolition of sin by the    
preaching of the gospel1 and  the       
abolition of punishment by the grace of 
the ,redeemer4 ,he believed he  saw the 
old serpent overthrown1 and the mortal  
venom with which he  poisoned human     
nature entirely deadened4 ,he believed  
that he saw that  the grace of the      
,lord1 however powerful it might be1    
would nevertheless  suffer the dregs and
 traces of sin to remain in the         
faithful2 in a  word1 he believed that  
he saw ,jesus ,christ announced under   
the great  character of the ,son of     

,god4    ,in this eclogue there are many
 other passages which might have been   
said  to be copies of the ,jewish       
prophets1 who apply it themselves to    
,jesus  ,christ2 it is at least the     
general opinion of the ,church4 ,st4    
,augustine1  like others1 has been      
persuaded of it1 and has pretended that 
the lines  of ,virgil can only be       
applied to ,jesus ,christ4 ,finally1 the
 most clever  moderns maintain the same 
opinion4          ,,singing4            
,questions on ,singing1 ,music1         
,modulation1 ,gesticulation1 etc4       
,could a ,turk conceive that we have one
 kind of singing for the first of  our  
mysteries when we celebrate it in music1
 another kind which we call  motetts in 
the same temple1 a third kind at the    
opera1 and a fourth at  the theatre8    
,in like manner1 can we imagine how the 
ancients blew their flutes1  recited on 
their theatres with their heads covered 
by enormous masks1  and how their       
declamation was written down4    ,law   

was promulgated in ,athens nearly as in 
,paris we sing an air on the            
,pont-,neuf4 ,the public crier sang an  
edict1 accompanying himself on the      
lyre4    ,it is thus that in ,paris the 
rose in bud is cried in one tone2 old   
silver lace to sell in another2 only in 
the streets of ,paris the lyre is       
dispensed with4    ,after the victory of
 ,chronea1 ,philip1 the father of       
,alexander1 sang the  decree by which   
,demosthenes had made him declare war1  
and beat time with  his foot4 ,we are   
very far from singing in our streets our
 edicts1 or  finances1 or upon the two  
sous in the livre4    ,it is very       
probable that the melope1 or modulation1
 regarded by  ,aristotle in his poetic  
art as an essential part of tragedy1 was
 an  even1 simple chant1 like that which
 we call the preface to mass1 which  in 
my opinion is the ,gregorian chant1 and 
not the ,ambrosian1 and which  is a true
 melope4    ,when the ,italians revived 
tragedy in the sixteenth century the    

recitative was a melope which could not 
be written2 for who could write         
inflections of the voice which are      
octaves and sixths of tone8 ,they were  
learned by heart4 ,this custom was      
received in ,france when the ,french    
began to form a theatre1 more than a    
century after the ,italians4 ,the       
,sophonisba of ,mairet was sung like    
that of ,trissin1 but more  grossly2 for
 throats as well as minds were then     
rather coarser at ,paris4  ,all the     
parts of the actors1 but particularly of
 the actresses1 were  noted from memory 
by tradition4 ,mademoiselle ,bauval1 an 
actress of the  time of ,corneille1     
,racine1 and ,molire1 recited to me1    
about sixty years  ago or more1 the     
commencement of the part of ,emilia1 in 
,cinna1 as it  had been played in the   
first representations by ,la ,beaupr4   
,this  modulation resembled the         
declamation of the present day much less
 than  our modern recitative resembles  
the manner of reading the newspaper4    

,i cannot better compare this kind of   
singing1 this modulation1 than to  the  
admirable recitative of ,lulli1         
criticised by adorers of double         
crochets1 who have no knowledge of the  
genius of our language1 and who  are    
ignorant what help this melody furnishes
 to an ingenious and  sensible actor4   
,theatrical modulation perished with the
 comedian ,duclos1 whose only  merit    
being a fine voice without spirit and   
soul1 finally rendered that  ridiculous 
which had been admired in ,des uillets1 
and in ,champmesl4    ,tragedy is now   
played dryly2 if we were not heated by  
the pathos of the  spectacle and the    
action1 it would be very insipid4 ,our  
age1 commendable  in other things1 is   
the age of dryness4    ,it is true that 
among the ,romans one actor recited and 
another made  gestures4 ,it was not by  
chance that the abb ,dubos imagined this
  pleasant method of declaiming4 ,titus 
,livius1 who never fails to instruct  us
 in the manners and customs of the      

,romans1 and who1 in that respect is    
more useful than the ingenious and      
satirical ,tacitus1 informs us1 ,i say1 
that ,andronicus1 being hoarse while    
singing in the interludes1 got  another 
to sing for him while he executed the   
dance2 and thence came the  custom of   
dividing interludes between dancers and 
singers3 ,dicitur  cantum egisse magis  
vigente motu quum nihil vocis usis      
impediebat4 ,the  song is expressed by  
the dance4 ,cantum egisse magis vigente 
motu4 ,with  more vigorous movements4   
,but they divided not the story of the  
piece between an actor who only         
gesticulates and another who only sings4
 ,the thing would have been as          
ridiculous as impracticable4    ,the art
 of pantomimes1 which are played without
 speaking1 is quite  different1 and we  
have seen very striking examples of it2 
but this art  can please only when a    
marked action is represented1 a         
theatrical event  which is easily       
presented to the imagination of the     

spectator4 ,it can  represent ,orosmanes
 killing ,zare and killing himself2     
,semiramis  wounded1 dragging herself on
 the frontiers to the tomb of ,ninus1   
and  holding her son in her arms4 ,there
 is no occasion for verses to express   
these situations by gestures to the     
sound of a mournful and terrible        
symphony4 ,but how would two pantomimes 
paint the dessertation of ,maximus  and 
,cinna on monarchical and popular       
governments8    ,apropos of the         
theatrical execution of the ,romans1 the
 abb ,dubos says  that the dancers in   
the interludes were always in gowns4    
,dancing  requires a closer dress4 ,in  
the ,pays de ,vaud1 a suite of baths    
built by  the ,romans1 is carefully     
preserved1 the pavement of which is     
mosaic4  ,this mosaic1 which is not     
decayed1 represents dancers dressed like
 opera  dancers4 ,we make not these     
observations to detect errors in ,dubos2
  there is no merit in having seen this 
antique monument which he had not  seen2

 and besides1 a very solid and just mind
 might be deceived by a  passage of     
,titus ,livius4          ,,slaves4      
,,section ,i4    ,why do we denominate  
slaves those whom the ,romans called    
servi1 and  the ,greeks duloi8          
,etymology is here exceedingly at fault2
 and  ,bochart has not been able to     
derive this word from the ,hebrew4      
,the most ancient record that we possess
 in which the word slave is  found is   
the will of one ,ermangaut1 archbishop  
of ,narbonne1 who  bequeathed to ,bishop
 ,fredelon his slave ,anaph--,anaphinus 
,slavonium4  ,this ,anaph was very      
fortunate in belonging to two bishops   
successively4    ,it is not unlikely    
that the ,slavonians came from the      
distant ,north with  other indigent and 
conquering hordes1 to pillage from the  
,roman ,empire  what that empire had    
pilliged from other nations1 and        
especially in  ,dalmatia and ,illyria4  
,the ,italians called the misfortune of 
falling into  their hands shiavitu1 and 

schiavi the captives themselves4    ,all
 that we can gather from the confused   
history of the middle ages is  that in  
the time of the ,romans the known world 
was divided between  freemen and slaves4
 ,when the ,slavonians1 ,alans1 ,huns1  
,heruli1  ,ostrogoths1 ,visigoths1      
,vandals1 ,burgundians1 ,franks and     
,normans came to  despoil ,europe1 there
 was little probability that the        
multitude of  slaves would diminish4    
,ancient masters1 in fact1 saw          
themselves reduced  to slavery1 and the 
smaller number enslaved the greater1 as 
negroes are  enslaved in the colonies1  
and according to the practice in many   
other  cases4    ,we read nothing in    
ancient authors concerning the slaves of
 the  ,assyrians and the ,babylonians4  
,the book which speaks most of slaves is
  the ,iliad4 ,in the first place1      
,briseis is slave to ,achilles2 and all 
the ,trojan women1 and more especially  
the princesses1 fear becoming  slaves to
 the ,greeks1 and spinners for their    

wives4    ,slavery is also as ancient as
 war1 and war as human nature4 ,society 
was  so accustomed to this degradation  
of the species that ,epictetus1 who was 
assuredly worth more than his master1   
never expresses any surprise at  his    
being a slave4    ,no legislator of     
antiquity ever attempted to abrogate    
slavery2 on the  contrary1 the people   
most enthusiastic for liberty--the      
,athenians1 the  ,lacedmonians1 the     
,romans1 and the ,carthaginians--were   
those who enacted  the most severe laws 
against their serfs4 ,the right of life 
and death  over them was one of the     
principles of society4 ,it must be      
confessed  that1 of all wars1 that of   
,spartacus was the most just1 and       
possibly the  only one that was ever    
absolutely so4    ,who would believe    
that the ,jews1 created as it might     
appear to serve all  nations in turn1   
should also appear to possess slaves of 
their own8 ,it  is observed in their    
laws1 that they may purchase their      

brethren for  six years1 and strangers  
forever4 ,it was said1 that the children
 of ,esau  would become bondsmen to the 
children of ,jacob2 but since1 under a  
different dispensation1 the ,arabs1 who 
call themselves descendants of  ,esau1  
have enslaved the posterity of ,jacob4  
,the ,evangelists put not a single word 
into the mouth of ,jesus ,christ  which 
recalls mankind to the primitive liberty
 to which they appear to  be born4      
,there is nothing said in the ,new      
,testament on this state of  degradation
 and suffering1 to which one-half of the
 human race was  condemned4 ,not a word 
appears in the writings of the apostles 
and the  fathers of the ,church1 tending
 to change beasts of burden into        
citizens1  as began to be done among    
ourselves in the thirteenth century4 ,if
  slavery be spoken of1 it is the       
slavery of sin4    ,it is difficult to  
comprehend how1 in ,st4 ,john1 the ,jews
 can say to  ,jesus3 ,we have never been
 slaves to any one--they who were at    

that  time subjected to the ,romans2    
they who had been sold in the market    
after  the taking of ,jerusalem2 they of
 whom ten tribes1 led away as slaves by 
,shalmaneser1 had disappeared from the  
face of the earth1 and of whom two      
other tribes were held in chains by the 
,babylonians for seventy years2  they   
who had been seven times reduced to     
slavery in their promised land1         
according to their own avowal2 they who 
in all their writings speak of  their   
bondage in that ,egypt which they       
abhorred1 but to which they ran  in     
crowds to gain money1 as soon as        
,alexander condescended to allow  them  
to settle there4 ,the reverend ,dom     
,calmet says1 that we must  understand  
in this passage1 intrinsic servitude1 an
 explanation which  by no means renders 
it more comprehensible4    ,italy1 the  
,gauls1 ,spain1 and a part of ,germany1 
were inhabited by  strangers1 by        
foreigners become masters1 and natives  
reduced to serfs4  ,when the bishop of  

,seville1 ,opas1 and ,count ,julian     
called over the  ,mahometan ,moors      
against the ,christian kings of the     
,visigoths1 who  reigned in the         
,pyrenees1 the ,mahometans1 according to
 their custom1  proposed to the natives1
 either to receive circumcision1 give   
battle1 or  pay tribute in money and    
girls4 ,king ,roderick was vanquished1  
and slaves  were made of those who were 
taken captive4    ,the conquered        
preserved their wealth and their        
religion by paying2 and  it is thus that
 the ,turks have since treated ,greece1 
except that they  imposed upon the      
latter a tribute of children of both    
sexes1 the boys of  which they          
circumcise and transform into pages and 
janissaries1 while  the girls are       
devoted to the harems4 ,this tribute has
 since been  compromised for money4 ,the
 ,turks have only a few slaves for the  
interior  service of their houses1 and  
these they purchase from the            
,circassians1  ,mingrelians1 and nations

 of ,lesser ,tartary4    ,between the   
,african ,mahometans and the ,european  
,christians1 the custom  of piracy1 and 
of making slaves of all who could be    
seized on the high  seas1 has always    
existed4 ,they are birds of prey who    
feed upon one  another2 the ,algerines1 
natives of ,morocco1 and ,tunisians1 all
 live by  piracy4 ,the ,knights of      
,malta1 successors to those of ,rhodes1 
formally  swear to rob and enslave all  
the ,mahometans whom they meet2 and the 
galleys of the pope cruise for          
,algerines on the northern coasts of    
,africa4 ,those who call themselves     
whites and ,christians proceed to       
purchase negroes at a good market1 in   
order to sell them dear in  ,america4   
,the ,pennsylvanians alone have         
renounced this traffic1 which  they     
account flagitious4      ,,section ,,ii4
    ,i read a short time ago at ,mount  
,krapak1 where it is known that ,i      
reside1 a book written at ,paris1       
abounding in wit and paradoxes1 bold    

views and hardihood1 resembling in some 
respects those of ,montesquieu1  against
 whom it is written4 ,in this book1     
slavery is decidedly preferred  to      
domesticity1 and above all to the free  
labor4 ,this book exceedingly  pities   
those unhappy free men who earn a       
subsistence where they please1  by the  
labor for which man is born1 and which  
is the guardian of  innocence1 as well  
as the support of life4 ,it is incumbent
 on no one1  says the author1 either to 
nourish or to succor them2 whereas1     
slaves  are fed and protected by their  
masters like their horses4 ,all this is 
true2 but human beings would rather     
provide for themselves than depend  on  
others2 and horses bred in the forest   
prefer them to stables4    ,he justly   
remarks that artisans lose many days in 
which they are  forbidden to work1 which
 is very true2 but this is not because  
they are  free1 but because ridiculous  
laws exist in regard to holidays4    ,he
 says most truly1 that it is not        

,christian charity which has broken  the
 fetters of servitude1 since the same   
charity has riveted them for  more than 
twelve centuries2 and that ,christians1 
and even monks1 all  charitable as they 
are1 still possess slaves reduced to a  
frightful  state of bondage1 under the  
name of mortaillables1 mainmortables and
  serfs of the soil4    ,he asserts that
 which is very true1 that ,christian    
princes only  affranchised their serfs  
through avarice4 ,it was1 in fact1 to   
obtain the  money laboriously amassed by
 these unhappy persons1 that they signed
  their letters of manumission4 ,they   
did not bestow liberty1 but sold it4    
,the emperor ,henry ,v4 began3 he freed 
the serfs of ,spires and ,worms in  the 
twelfth century4 ,the kings of ,france  
followed his example2 and  nothing tends
 more to prove the value of liberty than
 the high price  these gross men paid   
for it4    ,lastly1 it is for the men on
 whose condition the dispute turns to   
decide  upon which state they prefer4   

,interrogate the lowest laborer covered 
with rags1 fed upon black bread1 and    
sleeping on straw1 in a hut half  open  
to the elements2 ask this man1 whether  
he will be a slave1 better  fed1        
clothed1 and bedded2 not only will he   
recoil with horror at the  proposal1 but
 regard you with horror for making the  
proposal4 ,ask a  slave if he is willing
 to be free1 and you will hear his      
answer4 ,this  alone ought to decide the
 question4    ,it is also to be         
considered that a laborer may become a  
farmer1 and a  farmer a proprietor4 ,in 
,france1 he may even become a counsellor
 of the  king1 if he acquire riches4 ,in
 ,england1 he may become a freeholder1  
or a  member of parliament4 ,in ,sweden1
 he may become a member of the national 
states4 ,these possibilities are of more
 value than that of dying  neglected in 
the corner of his master's stable4      
,,section ,,iii4    ,puffendorff says1  
that slavery has been established by the
 free consent  of the opposing parties4 

,i will believe ,puffendorff1 when he   
shows me  the original contract4        
,grotius inquires1 whether a man who is 
taken captive in war has a right  to    
escape2 and it is to be remarked1 that  
he speaks not of a prisoner on  his     
parole of honor4 ,he decides1 that he   
has no such right2 which is  about as   
much as to say that a wounded man has no
 right to get cured4  ,nature decides   
against ,grotius4    ,attend to the     
following observations of the author of 
the ,spirit of  ,laws1 after painting   
negro slavery with the pencil of        
,molire3    ,mr4 ,perry says that the   
,moscovites sell themselves readily2 ,i 
can  guess the reason--their liberty is 
worth nothing4    ,captain ,john ,perry1
 an ,englishman1 who wrote an account of
 the state of  ,russia in #agad1 says   
nothing of that which the ,spirit of    
,laws makes  him say4 ,perry contains a 
few lines only on the subject of        
,russian  bondage1 which are as follows3
 ,the czar has ordered that1 throughout 

his states1 in future1 no one is to be  
called 'golup' or slave2 but  only      
'raab1' which signifies subject4        
,however1 the people derive no  real    
advantage from this order1 being still  
in reality slaves4    ,the author of the
 ,spirit of ,laws adds1 that according  
to ,captain  ,dampier1 everybody sells  
himself in the kingdom of ,achem4 ,this 
would  be a singular species of         
commerce1 and ,i have seen nothing in   
the  ,voyage of ,dampier which conveys  
such a notion4 ,it is a pity that a man 
so replete with wit should hazard so    
many crudities1 and so frequently  quote
 incorrectly4      ,,section ,,iv4      
,serfs of the ,body1 ,serfs of the      
,glebe1 ,mainmort1 etc4    ,it is       
commonly asserted that there are no more
 slaves in ,france2 that it  is the     
kingdom of the ,franks1 and that slave  
and ,frank are contradictory  terms2    
that people are so free there that many 
financiers die worth more  than thirty  
millions of francs1 acquired at the     

expense of the  descendants of the      
ancient ,franks4 ,happy ,french nation  
to be thus free6  ,but how1 in the      
meantime1 is so much freedom compatible 
with so many  species of servitude1 as  
for instance1 that of the mainmort8     
,many a fine lady at ,paris1 who        
sparkles in her box at the opera1 is    
ignorant that she descends from a family
 of ,burgundy1 the ,bourbonnais1        
,franche-,comt1 ,marche1 or ,auvergne1  
which family is still enslaved1         
mortaillable and mainmortable4    ,of   
these slaves1 some are obliged to work  
three days a week for the  lord1 and    
others two4 ,if they die without        
children1 their wealth belongs  to the  
lord2 if they leave children1 the lord  
takes only the finest  cattle and1      
according to more than one custom1 the  
most valuable  movables4 ,according to  
other customs1 if the son of a          
mainmortable  slave visits not the house
 of his father within a year and a day  
from  his death1 he loses all his       

father's property1 yet still remains a  
slave2 that is to say1 whatever wealth  
he may acquire by his industry1  becomes
 at his death the property of the lord4 
,what follows is still better3 ,an      
honest ,parisian pays a visit to his    
parents in ,burgundy and in             
,franche-,comt1 resides a year and a day
 in a  mainmortable house1 and returning
 to ,paris finds that his property1     
wherever situated1 belongs to the lord1 
in case he dies without issue4    ,it is
 very properly asked how the province of
 ,burgundy obtained the  nickname of    
free1 while distinguished by such a     
species of servitude8  ,it is without   
doubt upon the principle that the       
,greeks called the  furies ,eumenides1  
good hearts4    ,but the most curious   
and most consolatory circumstance       
attendant on this  jurisprudence is that
 the lords of half these mainmortable   
territories  are monks4    ,if by chance
 a prince of the blood1 a minister of   
state1 or a chancellor  cast his eyes   

upon this article1 it will be well for  
him to recollect1  that the king of     
,france1 in his ordinance of ,may #ah1  
#agca1 declares to  the nation1 that the
 monks and endowments possess more than 
half of the  property of ,franche-,comt4
    ,the marquis d',argenson1 in ,le    
,droit ,public ,ecclesiastique1 says1   
that in ,artois1 out of eighteen        
ploughs1 the monks possess thirteen4    
,the  monks themselves are called       
mainmortables1 and yet possess slaves4  
,let  us refer these monkish possessions
 to the chapter of contradictions4      
,when we have made some modest          
remonstrances upon this strange tyranny 
on  the part of people who have vowed to
 ,god to be poor and humble1 they  will 
then reply to us3 ,we have enjoyed this 
right for six hundred years2  why then  
despoil us of it8 ,we may humbly rejoin1
 that for these thirty  or forty        
thousand years1 the weasels have been in
 the habit of sucking  the blood of our 
pullets2 yet we assume to ourselves the 

right of  destroying them when we can   
catch them4    ,n4,b4 ,it is a mortal   
sin for a ,chartreux to eat half an     
ounce of mutton1  but he may with a safe
 conscience devour the entire substance 
of a  family4 ,i have seen the          
,chartreux in my neighborhood inherit a 
hundred  thousand crowns from one of    
their mainmortable slaves1 who had made 
a  fortune by commerce at ,frankfort4   
,but all the truth must be told2 it is  
no less true1 that his family enjoys the
 right of soliciting alms at the  gate  
of the convent4    ,let us suppose that 
the monks have still fifty or sixty     
thousand slaves  in the kingdom of      
,france4 ,time has not been found       
hitherto to reform  this ,christian     
jurisprudence2 but something is         
beginning to be thought  about it4 ,it  
is only to wait a few hundred years1    
until the debts of the  state be paid4  
,,sleepers 7,,the ,,seven74      ,fable 
supposes that one ,epimenides in a      
single nap1 slept twenty-seven  years1  

and that on his awaking he was quite    
astonished at finding his               
grandchildren--who asked him his        
name--married1 his friends dead1 his    
town and the manners of its inhabitants 
changed4 ,it was a fine field for       
criticism1 and a pleasant subject for a 
comedy4 ,the legend has borrowed  all   
the features of the fable1 and enlarged 
upon them4    ,the author of the ,golden
 ,legend was not the first who1 in the  
thirteenth century1 instead of one      
sleeper1 gave us seven1 and bravely     
made them seven martyrs4 ,he took his   
edifying history from ,gregory de       
,tours1 a veridical writer1 who took it 
from ,sigebert1 who took it from        
,metaphrastes1 who had taken it from    
,nicephorus4 ,it is thus that truth is  
handed down from man to man4    ,the    
reverend father ,peter ,ribadeneira1 of 
the company of ,jesus1 goes  still      
further in this celebrated ,flower of   
the ,saints1 of which  mention ,is made 
in ,molire's ,tartuffe4 ,it was         

translated1 augmented2  and enriched    
with engravings1 by the reverend ,antony
 ,girard1 of the same  society3 nothing 
was wanting to it4    ,some of the      
curious will doubtless like to see the  
prose of the reverend  father ,girard3  
behold a specimen6 ,in the time of the  
emperor ,decius1  the ,church           
experienced a violent and fearful       
persecution4 ,among other  ,christians1 
seven brothers were accused1 young1 well
 disposed1 and  graceful2 they were the 
children of a knight of ,ephesus1 and   
called  ,maximilian1 ,marius1           
,martinian1 ,dionysius1 ,john1          
,serapion1 and  ,constantine4 ,the      
emperor first took from them their      
golden girdles2 then  they hid          
themselves in a cavern1 the entrance of 
which ,decius caused to  be walled up   
that they might die of hunger4          
,father ,girard proceeds to say1 that   
all seven quickly fell asleep1 and  did 
not awake again until they had slept one
 hundred and seventy-seven  years4      

,father ,girard1 far from believing that
 this is the dream of a man awake1      
proves its authenticity by the most     
demonstrative arguments2 and when  he   
could find no other proof1 alleges the  
names of these seven  sleepers--names   
never being given to people who have not
 existed4 ,the  seven sleepers doubtless
 could neither be deceived nor          
deceivers1 so  that it is not to dispute
 this history that we speak of it1 but  
merely  to remark that there is not a   
single fabulous event of antiquity which
  has not been rectified by ancient     
legendaries4 ,all the history of  dipus1
 ,hercules1 and ,theseus is found among 
them1 accommodated to  their style4     
,they have invented little1 but they    
have perfected much4    ,i ingenuously  
confess that ,i know not whence         
,nicephorus took this fine  story4 ,i   
suppose it was from the tradition of    
,ephesus2 for the cave of  the seven    
sleepers1 and the little church         
dedicated to them1 still  exist4 ,the   

least awakened of the poor ,greeks still
 go there to perform  their devotions4  
,sir ,paul ,rycaut and several other    
,english travellers  have seen these two
 monuments2 but as to their devotions   
there1 we hear  nothing about them4     
,let us conclude this article with the  
reasoning of ,abbadie3 ,these are       
memorials instituted to celebrate       
forever the adventure of the seven      
sleepers4 ,no ,greek in ,ephesus has    
ever doubted of it1 and these ,greeks   
could not have been deceived1 nor       
deceive anybody else2 therefore the     
history of the seven sleepers is        
incontestable4          ,,slow ,,bellies
 7,,ventres ,,paresseux74      ,st4     
,paul says1 that the ,cretans were all  
liars1 evil beasts1 and  slow bellies4  
,the physician ,hequet understood by    
slow bellies1 that  the ,cretans were   
costive1 which vitiated their blood1 and
 rendered them  ill-disposed and        
mischievous4 ,it is doubtless very true 
that persons of  this habit are more    

prone to choler than others3 their bile 
passes not  away1 but accumulates until 
their blood is overheated4    ,when you 
have a favor to beg of a minister1 or   
his first secretary1  inform yourself   
adroitly of the state of his stomach1   
and always seize  on mollia fandi       
tempora4    ,no one is ignorant that our
 character and turn of mind are         
intimately  connected with the          
water-closet4 ,cardinal ,richelieu was  
sanguinary1  because he had the piles1  
which afflicted his rectum and hardened 
his  disposition4 ,queen ,anne of       
,austria always called him cul pourri   
7sore bottom71 which nickname redoubled 
his bile1 and possibly cost  ,marshal   
,marillac his life1 and ,marshal        
,bassompierre his liberty2 but ,i       
cannot discover why certain persons     
should be greater liars than others4    
,there is no known connection between   
the anal sphincter and falsehood1  like 
that very sensible one between our      
stomach and our passions1 our  manner of

 thinking and our conduct4    ,i am much
 disposed to believe1 that by slow      
bellies ,st4 ,paul  understood          
voluptuous men and gross feeders--a kind
 of priors1 canons1  and                
abbots-commendatory--rich prelates1 who 
lay in bed all the morning  to recover  
from the excesses of the evening1 as    
,marot observes in his  eighty-sixth    
epigram in regard to a fat prior1 who   
lay in bed and  fondled his grandson    
while his partridges were preparing3    
,un gros prieur son petit fils baisait1 
,et mignardait au matin dans sa couche1 
,tandis rtir sa perdrix en faisait1 etc4
    ,but people may lie in bed all the  
morning without being either liars1 or  
badly disposed4 ,on the contrary1 the   
voluptuously indolent are generally     
socially gentle1 and easy in their      
commerce with the world4    ,however    
this may be1 ,i regret that ,st4 ,paul  
should offend an entire  people4 ,in    
this passage1 humanly speaking1 there is
 neither politeness1  ability1 or even  

truth4 ,nothing is gained from men by   
calling them evil  beasts2 and doubtless
 men of merit were to be found in       
,crete4 ,why thus  outrage the country  
of ,minos1 which ,archbishop ,fnelon1   
infinitely more  polished than ,st4     
,paul1 so much eulogizes in his         
,telemachus8    ,was not ,st4 ,paul     
somewhat difficult to live with1 of a   
proud spirit1 and  of a hard and        
imperious character8 ,if ,i had been one
 of the apostles1 or  even a disciple   
only1 ,i should infallibly have         
quarrelled with him4 ,it  appears to me1
 that the fault was all on his side1 in 
his dispute with  ,simon ,peter         
,barjonas4 ,he had a furious passion for
 domination4 ,he often  boasts of being 
an apostle1 and more an apostle than his
 associates--he  who had assisted to    
stone ,st4 ,stephen1 he who had been    
assistant  persecutor under ,gamaliel1  
and who was called upon to weep longer  
for  his crimes than ,st4 ,peter for his
 weakness6--always1 however1 humanly    

speaking4    ,he boasts of being a      
,roman citizen born at ,tarsus1 whereas 
,st4 ,jerome  pretends that he was a    
poor provincial ,jew1 born at ,giscala  
in ,galilee4  ,in his letters addressed 
to the small flock of his brethren1 he  
always  speaks magisterially3 ,i will   
come1 says he to certain ,corinthians1  
and ,i will judge of you all on the     
testimony of two or three witnesses2    
and ,i will neither pardon those who    
have sinned1 nor others4 ,this nor      
others is somewhat severe4    ,many men 
at present would be disposed to take the
 part of ,st4 ,peter  against ,st4      
,paul1 but for the episode of ,ananias  
and ,sapphira1 which has  intimidated   
persons inclined to bestow alms4    ,i  
return to my text of the ,cretan liars1 
evil beasts1 and slow bellies2  and ,i  
recommend to all missionaries never to  
commence their labors among  any people 
with insults4    ,it is not that ,i     
regard the ,cretans as the most just and
 respectable of  men1 as they were      

called by fabulous ,greece4 ,i pretend  
not to reconcile  their pretended virtue
 with the pretended bull of which the   
beautiful  ,pasiph was so much enamored2
 nor with the skill exerted by the      
artisan  ,ddalus in the construction of 
a cow of brass1 by which ,pasiph was    
enabled to produce a ,minotaur1 to whom 
the pious and equitable ,minos          
sacrificed every year--and not every    
nine years--seven grown-up boys and     
seven virgins of ,athens4    ,it is not 
that ,i believe in the hundred large    
cities in ,crete1 meaning a  hundred    
poor villages standing upon a long and  
narrow rock1 with two or  three towns4  
,it is to be regretted that ,rollin1 in 
his elegant  compilation of ,ancient    
,history1 has repeated so many of the   
ancient  fables of ,crete1 and that of  
,minos among others4    ,with respect to
 the poor ,greeks and ,jews who now     
inhabit the steep  mountains of this    
island1 under the government of a pasha1
 they may  possibly be liars and evil   

disposed1 but ,i cannot tell if they are
 slow  of digestion3 ,i sincerely hope1 
however1 that they have sufficient to   
eat4          ,,society 7,,royal7 ,,of  
,,london1 ,,and ,,academies4      ,great
 men have all been formed either before 
academies or independent of  them4      
,homer and ,phidias1 ,sophocles and     
,apelles1 ,virgil and ,vitruvius1       
,ariosto and ,michelangelo1 were none of
 them academicians4 ,tasso  encountered 
only unjust criticism from the ,academy 
della ,crusca1 and  ,newton was not     
indebted to the ,royal ,society of      
,london for his  discoveries in optics1 
upon gravitation1 upon the integral     
calculus1 and  upon chronology4 ,of what
 use then are academies8 ,to cherish the
 fire  which great genius has kindled4  
,the ,royal ,society of ,london was     
formed in #affj1 six years before the   
,french ,academy of ,science4 ,it has no
 rewards like ours1 but neither has  it 
any of the disagreeable distinctions    
invented by the abb ,bignon1 who        

divided the ,academy of ,sciences       
between those who paid1 and honorary    
members who were not learned4 ,the      
society of ,london being independent1   
and only self-encouraged1 has been      
composed of members who have  discovered
 the laws of light1 of gravitation1 of  
the aberration of the  stars1 the       
reflecting telescope1 the fire engine1  
solar microscope1 and  many other       
inventions1 as useful as admirable4     
,could they have had  greater men1 had  
they admitted pensionaries or honorary  
members8    ,the famous ,doctor ,swift1 
in the last years of the reign of ,queen
 ,anne1  formed the idea of establishing
 an academy for the ,english language1  
after the model of the ,acadmie         
,franaise4 ,this project was            
countenanced  by the earl of ,oxford1   
first lord of the treasury1 and still   
more by  ,lord ,bolingbroke1 secretary  
of state1 who possessed the gift of     
speaking  extempore in parliament with  
as much purity as ,doctor ,swift        

composed in  his closet1 and who would  
have been the patron and ornament of    
this  academy4 ,the members likely to   
compose it were men whose works will    
last  as long as the ,english language4 
,doctor ,swift would have been one1 and 
,mr4 ,prior1 whom we had among us as    
public minister1 and who enjoyed a      
similar reputation in ,england to that  
of ,la ,fontaine among ourselves4       
,there were also ,mr4 ,pope1 the        
,english ,boileau1 and ,mr4 ,congreve1  
whom  they call their ,molire1 and many 
more whose names escape my              
recollection4 ,the queen1 however1 dying
 suddenly1 the ,whigs took it into      
their heads to occupy themselves in     
hanging the protectors of academies1  a 
process which is very injurious to the  
belles-lettres4 ,the members of  this   
body would have enjoyed much greater    
advantages than were possessed  by the  
first who composed the ,french ,academy4
 ,swift1 ,prior1 ,congreve1  ,dryden1   
,pope1 ,addison1 and others1 had fixed  

the ,english language by  their         
writings1 whereas ,chapelain1 ,colletet1
 ,cassaigne1 ,faret1 and  ,cotin1 our   
first academicians1 were a scandal to   
the nation2 and their  names have become
 so ridiculous that if any author had   
the misfortune to  be called ,chapelain 
or ,cotin at present1 he would be       
obliged to change  his name4    ,above  
all1 the labors of an ,english academy  
would have materially  differed from our
 own4 ,one day1 a wit of that country   
asked me for the  memoirs of the ,french
 ,academy4 ,it composes no memoirs1 ,i  
replied2 but it  has caused sixty or    
eighty volumes of compliments to be     
printed4 ,he ran  through one or two1   
but was not able to comprehend the      
style1 although  perfectly able to      
understand our best authors4 ,all that  
,i can learn by  these fine             
compositions1 said he to me1 is1 that   
the new member1  having assured the body
 that his predecessor was a great man1  
,cardinal  ,richelieu a very great man1 

and ,chancellor ,sguier a tolerably     
great  man1 the president replies by a  
similar string of assurances1 to which  
he adds a new one1 implying that the new
 member is also a sort of great  man2   
and as for himself1 the president1 he   
may also perchance possess a  spice of  
pretension4 ,it is easy to perceive by  
what fatality all the  academic speeches
 are so little honorable to the body4   
,vitium est  temporis1 potius quam      
hominis4 ,it insensibly became a custom 
for every  academician to repeat those  
eulogies at his reception2 and thus the 
body  imposed upon themselves a kind of 
obligation to fatigue the public4 ,if   
we wish to discover the reason why the  
most brilliant among the men of  genius1
 who have been chosen by this body1 have
 so frequently made the  worst speeches1
 the cause may be easily explained4 ,it 
is1 that they have  been anxious to     
shine1 and to treat worn-out matter in a
 new way4 ,the  necessity of saying     
something2 the embarrassment produced by

 the  consciousness of having nothing to
 say2 and the desire to exhibit         
ability1 are three things sufficient to 
render even a great man  ridiculous4    
,unable to discover new thoughts1 the   
new members fatigue  themselves for     
novel terms of expression1 and often    
speak without  thinking2 like men who1  
affecting to chew with nothing in their 
mouths1  seem to eat while perishing    
with hunger4 ,instead of a law in the   
,french  ,academy to have these speeches
 printed1 a law should be passed in     
prevention of that absurdity4    ,the   
,academy of ,belles-,lettres imposed    
upon itself a task more judicious  and  
useful--that of presenting to the public
 a collection of memoirs  comprising the
 most critical and curious disquisitions
 and researches4  ,these memoirs are    
already held in great esteem by         
foreigners4 ,it is only  desirable1 that
 some subjects were treated more        
profoundly1 and others  not treated of  
at all4 ,they might1 for example1 very  

well dispense with  dissertations upon  
the prerogative of the right hand over  
the left2 and  of other inquiries which1
 under a less ridiculous title1 are not 
less  frivolous4 ,the ,academy of       
,sciences1 in its more difficult and    
useful  investigation1 embraces a study 
of nature1 and the improvement of the   
arts2 and it is to be expected that     
studies so profound and  perseveringly  
pursued1 calculations so exact1 and     
discoveries so  refined1 will in the end
 produce a corresponding benefit to the 
world at  large4    ,as to the ,french  
,academy1 what services might it not    
render to letters1  to the language1 and
 the nation1 if1 instead of printing    
volumes of  compliments every year1 it  
would reprint the best works of the age 
of  ,louis ,,xiv41 purified from all the
 faults of language which have crept    
into them6 ,corneille and ,molire are   
full of them1 and they swarm in ,la     
,fontaine4 ,those which could not be    
corrected might at least be marked1  and

 ,europe at large1 which reads these    
authors1 would then learn our  language 
with certainty1 and its purity would be 
forever fixed4 ,good  ,french books1    
printed with care at the expense of the 
king1 would be  one of the most glorious
 monuments of the nation4 ,i have heard 
say1 that  ,m4 ,despraux once made this 
proposal1 which has since been renewed  
by a  man whose wit1 wisdom1 and sound  
criticism are generally acknowledged2   
but this idea has met with the fate of  
several other useful  projects--that of 
being approved and neglected4           
,,socrates4      ,is the mould broken of
 those who loved virtue for itself1 of a
  ,confucius1 a ,pythagoras1 a ,thales1 
a ,socrates8 ,in their time1 there were 
crowds of devotees to their pagods and  
divinities2 minds struck with  fear of  
,cerberus and of the ,furies1 who       
underwent initiations1  pilgrimages1 and
 mysteries1 who ruined themselves in    
offerings of black  sheep4 ,all times   
have seen those unfortunates of whom    

,lucretius speaks3         ,qui         
quocumque tamen miseri venere parentant1
       ,et nigras mactant pecudes1 et   
manibu ,divis       ,in ferias mittunt2 
multoque in rebus acerbis       ,acrius 
advertunt animus ad religionem4         
--,,lucretius1 iii1 #ea-ed4         ,who
 sacrifice black sheep on every tomb    
,to please the manes2 and of all the    
rout       ,when cares and dangers      
press1 grow most devout4                
--,,creech4    ,mortifications were in  
use2 the priests of ,cybele castrated   
themselves  to preserve continence4 ,how
 comes it1 that among all the martyrs of
  superstition1 antiquity reckons not a 
single great man--a sage8 ,it is1  that 
fear could never make virtue1 and that  
great men have been  enthusiasts in     
moral good4 ,wisdom was their           
predominant passion2 they  were sages as
 ,alexander was a warrior1 as ,homer was
 a poet1 and ,apelles  a painter--by a  
superior energy and nature2 which is all
 that is meant  by the demon of         

,socrates4    ,one day1 two citizens of 
,athens1 returning from the temple of   
,mercury1  perceived ,socrates in the   
public place4 ,one said to the other3   
,is not  that the rascal who says that  
one can be virtuous without going every 
day to offer up sheep and geese8 ,yes1  
said the other1 that is the  sage who   
has no religion2 that is the atheist who
 says there is only one  ,god4 ,socrates
 approached them with his simple air1   
his dmon1 and his  irony1 which ,madame 
,dacier has so highly exalted4 ,my      
friends1 said he  to them1 one word1 if 
you please3 a man who prays to ,god1 who
 adores  ,him1 who seeks to resemble    
,him as much as human weakness can do1  
and who  does all the good which lies in
 his power1 what would you call him8 ,a 
very religious soul1 said they4 ,very   
well2 we may therefore adore the        
,supreme ,being1 and have a great deal  
of religion8 ,granted1 said the  two    
,athenians4 ,but do you believe1 pursued
 ,socrates1 that when the  ,divine      

,architect of the world arranged all the
 globes which roll over  our heads1 when
 ,he gave motion and life to so many    
different beings1 ,he  made use of the  
arm of ,hercules1 the lyre of ,apollo1  
or the flute of  ,pan8 ,it is not       
probable1 said they4 ,but if it is not  
likely that ,he  called in the aid of   
others to construct that which we see1  
it is not  probable that ,he preserves  
it through others rather than through   
,himself4 ,if ,neptune was the absolute 
master of the sea1 ,juno of the air1    
olus of the winds1 ,ceres of            
harvests--and one would have a calm1    
when  the other would have rain--you    
feel clearly1 that the order of nature  
could not exist as it is4 ,you will     
confess1 that all depends upon ,him  who
 has made all4 ,you give four white     
horses to the sun1 and four black  ones 
to the moon2 but is it not more likely1 
that day and night are the  effect of   
the motion given to the stars by their  
,master1 than that they  were produced  

by eight horses8 ,the two citizens      
looked at him1 but  answered nothing4   
,in short1 ,socrates concluded by       
proving to them1 that  they might have  
harvests without giving money to the    
priests of ,ceres2  go to the chase     
without offering little silver statues  
to the temple of  ,diana2 that ,pomona  
gave not fruits2 that ,neptune gave not 
horses2 and  that they should thank the 
,sovereign who had made all4    ,his    
discourse was most exactly logical4     
,xenophon1 his disciple1 a man  who knew
 the world1 and who afterwards          
sacrificed to the wind1 in the  retreat 
of the ten thousand1 took ,socrates by  
the sleeve1 and said to  him3 ,your     
discourse is admirable2 you have spoken 
better than an  oracle2 you are lost2   
one of these honest people to whom you  
speak is a  butcher1 who sells sheep and
 geese for sacrifices2 and the other a  
goldsmith1 who gains much by making     
little gods of silver and brass for     
women4 ,they will accuse you of being a 

blasphemer1 who would diminish  their   
trade2 they will depose against you to  
,melitus and ,anitus1 your  enemies1 who
 have resolved upon your ruin3 have a   
care of hemlock2 your  familiar spirit  
should have warned you not to say to a  
butcher and a  goldsmith what you should
 only say to ,plato and ,xenophon4      
,some time after1 the enemies of        
,socrates caused him to be condemned by 
the council of five hundred4 ,he had two
 hundred and twenty voices in his       
favor1 which may cause it to be presumed
 that there were two hundred and  twenty
 philosophers in this tribunal2 but it  
shows that1 in all  companies1 the      
number of philosophers is always the    
minority4    ,socrates therefore drank  
hemlock1 for having spoken in favor of  
the  unity of ,god2 and the ,athenians  
afterwards consecrated a temple to      
,socrates--to him who disputed against  
all temples dedicated to inferior       
beings4          ,,solomon4             
,several kings have been good scholars1 

and have written good books4 ,the  king 
of ,prussia1 ,frederick the ,great1 is  
the latest example we have had  of it3  
,german monarchs will be found who      
compose ,french verses1 and who  write  
the history of their countries4 ,james  
,i4 in ,england1 and even  ,henry       
,,viii4 have written4 ,in ,spain1 we    
must go back as far as ,alphonso  ,x4   
,still it is doubtful whether he put his
 hand to the ,alphonsine  ,tables4      
,france cannot boast of having had an   
author king4 ,the empire of ,germany    
has no book from the pen of its         
emperors2 but ,rome was glorified in    
,csar1 ,marcus ,aurelius1 and ,julian4  
,in ,asia1 several writers are  reckoned
 among the kings4 ,the present emperor  
of ,china1 ,kien ,long1  particularly1  
is considered a great poet2 but         
,solomon1 or ,solyman1 the  ,hebrew1 has
 still more reputation than ,kien ,long1
 the ,chinese4    ,the name of ,solomon 
has always been revered in the ,east4   
,the works  believed to be his1 the     

,annals of the ,jews1 and the fables of 
the  ,arabs1 have carried his renown as 
far as the ,indies4 ,his reign is the   
great epoch of the ,hebrews4    ,he was 
the third king of ,palestine4 ,the      
,first ,book of ,kings says that  his   
mother1 ,bathsheba1 obtained from       
,david1 the promise that he should      
crown ,solomon1 her son1 instead of     
,adonijah1 his eldest4 ,it is not       
surprising that a woman1 an accomplice  
in the death of her first  husband1     
should have had artifice enough to cause
 the inheritance to be  given to the    
fruit of her adultery1 and to cause the 
legitimate son to  be disinherited1 who 
was also the eldest4    ,it is a very   
remarkable fact that the prophet        
,nathan1 who reproached  ,david with his
 adultery1 the murder of ,uriah1 and the
 marriage which  followed this murder1  
was the same who afterwards seconded    
,bathsheba in  placing that ,solomon on 
the throne1 who was born of this        
sanguine and  infamous marriage4 ,this  

conduct1 reasoning according to the     
flesh1 would  prove1 that the prophet   
,nathan had1 according to circumstances1
 two  weights and two measures4 ,the    
book even says not that ,nathan received
 a  particular mission from ,god to     
disinherit ,adonijah4 ,if he had one1 we
  must respect it2 but we cannot admit  
that we find it written4    ,it is a    
great question in theology1 whether     
,solomon is most renowned for  his ready
 money1 his wives1 or his books4 ,i am  
sorry that he commenced  his reign in   
the ,turkish style by murdering his     
brother4    ,adonijah1 excluded from the
 throne by ,solomon1 asked him1 as an   
only  favor1 permission to espouse      
,abishag1 the young girl who had been   
given  to ,david to warm him in his old 
age4 ,scripture says not whether        
,solomon  disputed with ,adonijah1 the  
concubine of his father2 but it says1   
that  ,solomon1 simply on this demand of
 ,adonijah1 caused him to be            
assassinated4 ,apparently ,god1 who gave

 him the spirit of wisdom1 refused  him 
that of justice and humanity1 as he     
afterwards refused him the gift  of     
continence4    ,it is said in the same  
,book of ,kings that he was the master  
of a great  kingdom which extended from 
the ,euphrates to the ,red ,sea and the 
,mediterranean2 but unfortunately it is 
said at the same time1 that the  king of
 ,egypt conquered the country of ,gezer1
 in ,canaan1 and that he  gave the city 
of ,gezer as a portion to his daughter1 
whom it is  pretended that ,solomon     
espoused4 ,it is also said that there   
was a king  at ,damascus2 and the       
kingdoms of ,tyre and ,sidon flourished4
 ,surrounded  thus with powerful states1
 he doubtless manifested his wisdom in  
living  in peace with them all4 ,the    
extreme abundance which enriched his    
country  could only be the fruit of this
 profound wisdom1 since1 as we have     
already remarked1 in the time of ,saul  
there was not a worker in iron in  the  
whole country4 ,those who reason find it

 difficult to understand how  ,david1   
the successor of ,saul1 so vanquished by
 the ,philistines1 could  have          
established so vast an empire4    ,the  
riches which he left to ,solomon are    
still more wonderful2 he gave  him in   
ready money one hundred and three       
thousand talents of gold1 and  one      
million thirteen thousand talents of    
silver4 ,the ,hebraic talent of  gold1  
according2 to ,arbuthnot1 is worth six  
thousand livres sterling1  the talent of
 silver1 about five hundred livres      
sterling4 ,the sum total  of the legacy 
in ready money1 without the jewels and  
other effects1 and  without the ordinary
 revenue--proportioned no doubt to this 
treasure--amounted1 according to this   
calculation1 to one billion1 one        
hundred and nineteen millions1 five     
hundred thousand pounds sterling1 or  to
 five billions1 five hundred and        
ninety-seven crowns of ,germany1 or to  
twenty-five billions1 forty-eight       
millions of francs4 ,there was not then 

so much money circulating through the   
whole world4 ,some scholars value  this 
treasure at a little less1 but the sum  
is always very large for  ,palestine4   
,we see not1 after that1 why ,solomon   
should torment himself so much to  send 
fleets to ,ophir to bring gold4 ,we can 
still less divine how this  powerful    
monarch1 in his vast states1 had not a  
man who knew how to  fashion wood from  
the forest of ,libanus4 ,he was obliged 
to beg ,hiram1  king of ,tyre1 to lend  
him wood cutters and laborers to work   
it4 ,it must  be confessed that these   
contradictions exceedingly exercise the 
genius  of commentators4    ,every day1 
fifty oxen1 and one hundred sheep were  
served up for the  dinner and supper of 
his houses1 and poultry and game in     
proportion1  which might be about sixty 
thousand pounds weight of meat per day4 
,he  kept a good house4 ,it is added1   
that he had forty thousand stables1 and 
as many houses for his chariots of war1 
but only twelve thousand stables  for   

his cavalry4 ,here is a great number of 
chariots for a mountainous  country2 and
 it was a great equipage for a king     
whose predecessor had  only a mule at   
his coronation1 and a territory which   
bred asses alone4    ,it was not        
becoming a prince possessing so many    
chariots to be limited  in the article  
of women2 he therefore possessed seven  
hundred who bore  the name of queen2 and
 what is strange1 he had but three      
hundred  concubines2 contrary to the    
custom of kings1 who have generally more
  mistresses than wives4    ,he kept    
four hundred and twelve thousand horses1
 doubtless to take the  air with them   
along the lake of ,gennesaret1 or that  
of ,sodom1 in the  neighborhood of the  
,brook of ,kedron1 which would be one of
 the most  delightful places upon earth1
 if the brook was not dry nine months of
  the year1 and if the earth was not    
horribly stony4    ,as to the temple    
which he built1 and which the ,jews     
believed to be the  finest work of the  

universe1 if the ,bramantes1 the        
,michelangelos1 and  the ,palladios1 had
 seen this building1 they would not have
 admired it4  ,it was a kind of small   
square fortress1 which enclosed a court2
 in this  court was one edifice of forty
 cubits long1 and another of twenty2 and
  it is said1 that this second edifice1 
which was properly the temple1 the      
oracle1 the holy of holies1 was only    
twenty cubits in length and  breadth1   
and twenty cubits high4 ,m4 ,souflot    
would not have been quite  pleased with 
those proportions4    ,the books        
attributed to ,solomon have lasted      
longer than his temple4    ,the name of 
the author alone has rendered these     
books respectable4 ,they  should be     
good1 since they were written by a king1
 and this king passed  for the wisest of
 men4    ,the first work attributed to  
him is that of ,proverbs4 ,it is a      
collection  of maxims1 which sometimes  
appear to our refined minds trifling1   
low1  incoherent1 in bad taste1 and     

without meaning4 ,people cannot be      
persuaded that an enlightened king has  
composed a collection of  sentences1 in 
which there is not one which regards the
 art of  government1 politics1 manners  
of courtiers1 or customs of a court4    
,they  are astonished at seeing whole   
chapters in which nothing is spoken of  
but prostitutes1 who invite passengers  
in the streets to lie with them4  ,they 
revolt against sentences in the         
following style3 ,there are three       
things that are never satisfied1 a      
fourth which never says 'enough'2 the   
grave2 the barren womb2 the earth that  
is not filled with water1 are the       
three2 and the fourth is fire1 which    
never sayeth 'enough4'    ,there be     
three things which are too wonderful for
 me2 yea1 four which ,i  know not4 ,the 
way of an eagle in the air1 the way of a
 serpent upon a  rock1 the way of a ship
 in the midst of the sea1 and the way of
 a man  with a maid4    ,there be four  
things which are little upon the earth1 

but they are  exceeding wise4 ,the ants 
are a people not strong1 yet they       
prepare their  meat in the summer2 the  
conies are but a feeble race1 yet they  
make  their houses in rocks2 the locusts
 have no king1 yet go they forth all  of
 them by bands2 the spider taketh hold  
with her hands1 and is in  kings'       
palaces4    ,can we impute such follies 
as these to a great king1 to the wisest 
of  mortals8 say the objectors4 ,this   
criticism is strong2 it should deliver  
itself with more respect4    ,the       
,proverbs have been attributed to       
,isaiah1 ,elijah1 ,sobna1 ,eliakim1     
,joachim1 and several others2 but       
whoever compiled this collection of     
,eastern sentences1 it does not appear  
that it was a king who gave  himself the
 trouble4 ,would he have said that the  
terror of the king is  like the roaring 
of a lion8 ,it is thus that a subject or
 a slave speaks1  who trembles at the   
anger of his master4 ,would ,solomon    
have spoken so  much of unchaste women8 

,would he have said3 ,look thou not upon
 the wine  when it is red1 when it      
giveth its color in the glass8    ,i    
doubt very much whether there were any  
drinking glasses in the time of         
,solomon2 it is a very recent invention2
 all antiquity drank from cups of  wood 
or metal2 and this single passage       
perhaps indicates that this  ,jewish    
collection was composed in ,alexandria1 
as well as most of the  other ,jewish   
books4    ,the ,book of ,ecclesiastes1  
which is attributed to ,solomon1 is in  
quite a  different order and taste4 ,he 
who speaks in this work seems not to be 
deceived by visions of grandeur1 to be  
tired of pleasures1 and disgusted  with 
science4 ,we have taken him for an      
,epicurean who repeats on each  page1   
that the just and unjust are subject to 
the same accidents2 that  man is nothing
 more than the beast which perishes2    
that it is better not  to be born than  
to exist2 that there is no other life2  
and that there is  nothing more good and

 reasonable than to enjoy the fruit of  
our labors  with a woman whom we love4  
,it might happen that ,solomon held such
 discourse with some of his wives2  and 
it is pretended that these are          
objections which he made2 but these     
maxims1 which have a libertine air1 do  
not at all resemble objections2  and it 
is a joke to profess to understand in an
 author the exact  contrary of that     
which he says4    ,we believe that we   
read the sentiments of a materialist1 at
 once sensual  and disgusted1 who       
appears to have put an edifying word or 
two on ,god in  the last verse1 to      
diminish the scandal which such a book  
must  necessarily create4 ,as to the    
rest1 several fathers say that ,solomon 
did  penance2 so that we can pardon him4
    ,critics have difficulty in         
persuading themselves that this book can
 be  by ,solomon2 and ,grotius pretends 
that it was written under ,zerubbabel4  
,it is not natural for ,solomon to say3 
,woe to thee1 ,o land1 when thy  king is

 a child6 ,the ,jews had not then such  
kings4    ,it is not natural for him to 
say3 ,i observe the face of the king4   
,it  is much more likely1 that the      
author spoke of ,solomon1 and that by   
this  alienation of mind1 which we      
discover in so many rabbins1 he has     
often  forgotten1 in the course of the  
book1 that it was a king whom he caused 
to speak4    ,what appears surprising to
 them is that this work has been        
consecrated  among the canonical books4 
,if the canon of the ,bible were to be  
established now1 say they1 perhaps the  
,book of ,ecclesiastes might not be     
inserted2 but it was inserted at a time 
when books were very rare1 and  more    
admired than read4 ,all that can be done
 now is to palliate the  ,epicureanism  
which prevails in this work4 ,the ,book 
of ,ecclesiastes has  been treated like 
many other things which disgust in a    
particular  manner4 ,being established  
in times of ignorance1 we are forced1 to
 the  scandal of reason1 to maintain    

them in wiser times1 and to disguise the
  horror or absurdity of them by        
allegories4 ,these critics are too bold4
    ,the ,song of ,songs is further     
attributed to ,solomon1 because the name
  of that king is found in two or three 
places2 because it is said to the       
beloved1 that she is beautiful as the   
curtains of ,solomon2 because she  says 
that she is black1 by which epithet it  
is believed that ,solomon  designated   
his ,egyptian wife4    ,these three     
reasons have not proved convincing3     
#a4 ,when the beloved1 in speaking to   
her lover1 says ,the king hath  brought 
me into his chamber1 she evidently      
speaks of another than her  lover2      
therefore the king is not this lover2 it
 is the king of the  festival2 it is the
 paranymph1 the master of the house1    
whom she means2  and this ,jewess is so 
far from being the mistress of a king1  
that  throughout the work she is a      
shepherdess1 a country girl1 who goes   
seeking her lover through the fields1   

and in the streets of the town1  and who
 is stopped at the gates by a porter who
 steals her garment4    #b4 ,i am       
beautiful as the curtains of ,solomon1  
is the expression of a  villager1 who   
would say3 ,i am as beautiful as the    
king's tapestries2 and  it is precisely 
because the name of ,solomon is found in
 this work1 that  it cannot be his4     
,what monarch could make so ridiculous a
 comparison8  ,behold1 says the beloved1
 behold ,king ,solomon with the crown   
wherewith his mother crowned him in the 
day of his espousals6 ,who  recognizes  
not in these expressions the common     
comparisons which girls  make in        
speaking of their lovers8 ,they say3 ,he
 is as beautiful as a  prince2 he has   
the air of a king1 etc4    ,it is true  
that the shepherdess1 who is made to    
speak in this amorous  song1 says that  
she is tanned by the sun1 that she is   
brown4 ,now if this  was the daughter of
 the king of ,egypt1 she was not so     
tanned4 ,females of  quality in ,egypt  

were fair4 ,cleopatra was so2 and1 in a 
word1 this  person could not be at once 
a peasant and a queen4    ,a monarch who
 had a thousand wives might have said to
 one of them3 ,let  her kiss me with the
 lips of her mouth2 for thy breasts are 
better than  wine4 ,a king and a        
shepherd1 when the subject is of        
kissing1 might  express themselves in   
the same manner4 ,it is true1 that it is
 strange  enough it should be pretended1
 that the girl speaks in this place1 and
  eulogizes the breasts of her lover4   
,we further avow that a gallant king    
might have said to his mistress3 ,a     
bundle of myrrh is my well beloved unto 
me2 he shall lie all night  between my  
breasts4    ,that he might have said to 
her3 ,thy navel is like a round goblet  
which  wanteth not liquor2 thy belly is 
like a heap of wheat set about with     
lilies2 thy two breasts are like two    
young roes that are twins2 thy neck  is 
as a tower of ivory2 thine eyes like the
 fish pools in ,heshbon2 and  thy nose  

as the tower of ,lebanon4    ,i confess 
that the ,eclogues of ,virgil are in a  
different style2 but  each has his own1 
and a ,jew is not obliged to write like 
,virgil4    ,we have not noticed this   
fine turn of ,eastern eloquence3 ,we    
have a  little sister1 and she hath no  
breasts4 ,what shall we do for our      
sister  in the day when she shall be    
spoken for8 ,if she be a wall1 we will  
build  upon her2 and if she be a door1  
we will close it4    ,solomon1 the      
wisest of men1 might have spoken thus in
 his merry moods2  but several rabbins  
have maintained1 not only that this     
voluptuous  eclogue was not ,king       
,solomon's1 but that it is not          
authentic4 ,theodore  of ,mopsuestes was
 of this opinion1 and the celebrated    
,grotius calls the  ,song of ,songs1 a  
libertine flagitious work4 ,however1 it 
is  consecrated1 and we regard it as a  
perpetual allegory of the marriage of   
,jesus ,christ with the ,church4 ,we    
must confess1 that the allegory is      

rather strong1 and we see not what the  
,church could understand1 when the      
author says that his little sister has  
no breasts4    ,after all1 this song is 
a precious relic of antiquity2 it is the
 only  book of love of the ,hebrews     
which remains to us4 ,enjoyment is often
  spoken of in it4 ,it is a ,jewish     
eclogue4 ,the style is like that of all 
the eloquent works of the ,hebrews1     
without connection1 without order1  full
 of repetition1 confused1 ridiculously  
metaphorical1 but containing  passages  
which breathe simplicity and love4      
,the ,book of ,wisdom is in a more      
serious taste2 but it is no more        
,solomon's than the ,song of ,songs4 ,it
 is generally attributed to ,jesus1  the
 son of ,sirac1 and by some to ,philo of
 ,biblos2 but whoever may be the        
author1 it is believed1 that in his time
 the ,pentateuch did not exist2  for he 
says in chapter x41 that ,abraham was   
going to sacrifice ,isaac at  the time  
of the ,deluge2 and in another place he 

speaks of the patriarch  ,joseph as of a
 king of ,egypt4 ,at least1 it is the   
most natural sense4    ,the worst of it 
is1 that the author in the same chapter 
pretends1 that  in his time the statue  
of salt into which ,lot's wife was      
changed was to  be seen4 ,what critics  
find still worse is that the book       
appears to them  a tiresome mass of     
commonplaces2 but they should consider  
that such  works are not made to follow 
the vain rules of eloquence4 ,they are  
written to edify1 and not to please1 and
 we should even combat our              
disinclination to read them4    ,it is  
very likely that ,solomon was rich and  
learned for his time and  people4       
,exaggeration1 the inseparable companion
 of greatness1 attributes  riches to him
 which he could not have possessed1 and 
books which he  could not have written4 
,respect for antiquity has since        
consecrated  these errors4    ,but what 
signifies it to us1 that these books    
were written by a ,jew8  ,our ,christian

 religion is founded on the ,jewish1 but
 not on all the  books which the ,jews  
have written4    ,for instance1 why     
should the ,song of ,songs be more      
sacred to us than  the fables of        
,talmud8 ,it is1 say they1 because we   
have comprised it in  the canon of the  
,hebrews4 ,and what is this canon8 ,it  
is a collection of  authentic works4    
,well1 must a work be divine to be      
authentic8 ,a history  of the little    
kingdoms of ,judah and ,sichem1 for     
instance--is it anything  but a history8
 ,this is a strange prejudice4 ,we hold 
the ,jews in horror1  and we insist that
 all which has been written by them1 and
 collected by  us1 bears the stamp of   
,divinity4 ,there never was so palpable 
a  contradiction4                       
,,somnambulists ,,and ,,dreamers4       
,,section ,i4    ,i have seen a         
somnambulist1 but he contented himself  
with rising1  dressing himself1 making a
 bow1 and dancing a minuet1 all which he
 did  very properly2 and having again   

undressed himself1 returned to bed and  
continued to sleep4    ,this comes not  
near the somnambulist of the            
,encyclopdia4 ,the last was  a young    
seminarist1 who set himself to compose a
 sermon in his sleep4 ,he  wrote it     
correctly1 read it from one end to the  
other1 or at least  appeared to read it1
 made corrections1 erased some lines1   
substituted  others1 and inserted an    
omitted word4 ,he even composed music1  
noted it  with precision1 and after     
preparing his paper with his ruler1     
placed the  words under the notes       
without the least mistake4    ,it is    
said1 that an archbishop of ,bordeaux   
has witnessed all these  operations1 and
 many others equally astonishing4 ,it is
 to be wished that  this prelate had    
affixed his attestation to the account1 
signed by his  grand vicars1 or at least
 by his secretary4    ,but supposing    
that this somnambulist has done all     
which is imputed to  him1 ,i would      
persist in putting the same queries to  

him as to a simple  dreamer4 ,i would   
say to him3 ,you have dreamed more      
forcibly than  another2 but it is upon  
the same principle2 one has had a fever 
only1  the other a degree of madness2   
but both the one and the other have     
received ideas and sensations to which  
they have not attended4 ,you have  both 
done what you did not intend to do4     
,of two dreamers1 the one has not a     
single idea1 the other a crowd2 the  one
 is as insensible as marble1 while the  
other experiences desires and           
enjoyments4 ,a lover composes a song on 
his mistress in a dream1 and in  his    
delirium imagines himself to be reading 
a tender letter from her1  which he     
repeats aloud3         ,scribit amatori 
meretrix2 dat adultera munus       ,in  
noctis spatio miserorum vulnera durant4 
--,,petronius1 chap4 civ4    ,does      
anything pass within you during this    
powerful dream more than what  passes   
every day when you are awake8    ,you1  
,mr4 ,seminarist1 born with the gift of 

imitation1 you have listened  to some   
hundred sermons1 and your brain is      
prepared to make them3 moved  by the    
talent of imitation1 you have written   
them waking2 and you are  led by the    
same talent and impulse when you are    
asleep4 ,but how have you  been able to 
become a preacher in a dream8 ,you went 
to sleep1 without  any desire to preach4
 ,remember well the first time that you 
were led to  compose the sketch of a    
sermon while awake4 ,you thought not of 
it a  quarter of an hour before2 but    
seated in your chamber1 occupied in a   
reverie1 without any determinate ideas1 
your memory recalls1 without  your will 
interfering1 the remembrance of a       
certain holiday2 this  holiday reminds  
you that sermons are delivered on that  
day2 you remember  a text2 this text    
suggests an exordium2 pens1 ink1 and    
paper1 are lying  near you2 and you     
begin to write things you had not the   
least previous  intention of writing4   
,such is precisely what came to pass in 

your  noctambulism4    ,you believe     
yourself1 both in the one and the other 
occupation1 to have  done only what you 
intended to do2 and you have been       
directed without  consciousness by all  
which preceded the writing of the       
sermon4    ,in the same manner when1 on 
coming from vespers1 you are shut up in 
your  cell to meditate1 you have no     
design to occupy yourself with the image
  of your fair neighbor2 but it somehow 
or another intrudes2 your  imagination  
is inflamed2 and ,i need not refer to   
the consequences4 ,you  may have        
experienced the same adventure in your  
sleep4    ,what share has your will had 
in all these modifications of sensation8
  ,the same that it has had in the      
coursing of your blood through your     
arteries and veins1 in the action of    
your lymphatic vessels1 or in the       
pulsation of your heart1 or of your     
brain4    ,i have read the article on   
,dreams in the ,encyclopdia1 and have   
understood nothing2 and when ,i search  

after the cause of my ideas and         
actions1 either in sleeping or waking1  
,i am equally confounded4    ,i know    
well1 that a reasoner who would prove to
 me when ,i wake1 and when  ,i am       
neither mad nor intoxicated1 that ,i am 
then an active agent1 would  but        
slightly embarrass me2 but ,i should be 
still more embarrassed if ,i  undertook 
to prove to him that when he slept he   
was passive and a pure  automaton4      
,explain to me an animal who is a mere  
machine one-half of his life1 and  who  
changes his nature twice every          
twenty-four hours4      ,,section ,,ii4 
,letter on ,dreams to the ,editor of the
 ,literary ,gazette1 ,august1 #agfd4    
,gentlemen3 ,all the objects of science 
are within your jurisdiction2  allow    
chimeras to be so also4 ,nil sub sole   
novum--nothing new under  the sun4 ,thus
 it is not of anything which passes in  
noonday that ,i am  going to treat1 but 
of that which takes place during the    
night4 ,be not  alarmed2 it is only with

 dreams that ,i concern myself4    ,i   
confess1 gentlemen1 that ,i am          
constantly of the opinion of the        
physician of ,m4 ,pourceaugnac2 he      
inquires of his patient the nature of   
his dreams1 and ,m4 ,pourceaugnac1 who  
is not a philosopher1 replies that  they
 are of the nature of dreams4 ,it is    
most certain however1 with no  offence  
to your ,limousin1 that uneasy and      
horrible dreams denote pain  either of  
body or mind2 a body overcharged with   
aliment1 or a mind  occupied with       
melancholy ideas when awake4    ,the    
laborer who has waked without chagrin1  
and fed without excess1  sleeps sound   
and tranquil1 and dreams disturb him    
not2 so long as he is  in this state1 he
 seldom remembers having a dream--a     
truth which ,i have  fully ascertained  
on my estate in ,herefordshire4 ,every  
dream of a  forcible nature is produced 
by some excess1 either in the passions  
of  the soul1 or the nourishment of the 
body2 it seems as if nature intended  to

 punish us for them1 by suggesting      
ideas1 and making us think in spite  of 
ourselves4 ,it may be inferred from     
this1 that those who think the  least   
are the most happy2 but it is not that  
conclusion which ,i seek to  establish4 
,we must acknowledge1 with ,petronius1  
,quidquid luce fuit1 tenebris  agit4 ,i 
have known advocates who have pleaded in
 dreams2  mathematicians who have sought
 to solve problems2 and poets who have  
composed verses4 ,i have made some      
myself1 which are very passable4 ,it  is
 therefore incontestable1 that          
consecutive ideas occur in sleep1 as    
well as when we are awake1 which ideas  
as certainly come in spite of us4  ,we  
think while sleeping1 as we move in our 
beds1 without our will having  anything 
to do either in the motive or the       
thought4 ,your ,father  ,malebranche is 
right in asserting that we are not able 
to give ourselves  ideas4 ,for why are  
we to be masters of them1 when waking1  
more than  during sleep8 ,if your       

,malebranche had stopped there1 he would
 have been  a great philosopher2 he     
deceived himself only by going too far3 
of him  we may say3         ,processit  
longe flammantia mnia mundi4            
--,,lucretius1 i1 #gd4         ,his     
vigorous and active mind was hurled     
,beyond the flaming limits of this      
world4                                  
--,,creech4    ,for my part1 ,i am      
persuaded that the reflection that our  
thoughts  proceed not from ourselves1   
may induce the visit of some very good  
thoughts4 ,i will not1 however1         
undertake to develop mine1 for fear of  
tiring some readers1 and astonishing    
others4    ,i simply beg to say two or  
three words in relation to dreams4 ,have
 you  not found1 like me1 that they are 
the origin of the opinion so generally  
diffused throughout antiquity1 touching 
spectres and manes8 ,a man  profoundly  
afflicted at the death of his wife or   
his son1 sees them in  his sleep2 he    
speaks to them2 they reply to him2 and  

to him they have  certainly appeared4   
,other men have had similar dreams2 it  
is therefore  impossible to deny that   
the dead may return2 but it is certain1 
at the  same time1 that these deceased1 
whether inhumed1 reduced to ashes1 or   
buried in the abyss of the sea1 have not
 been able to reserve their  bodies2 it 
is1 therefore1 the soul which we have   
seen4 ,this soul must  necessarily be   
extended1 light1 and impalpable1 because
 in speaking to  it we have not been    
able to embrace it3 ,effugit imago par  
levibus  ventis4 ,it is moulded and     
designed from the body that it inhabits1
  since it perfectly resembles it4 ,the 
name of shade or manes is given it2     
from all which a confused idea remains  
in the head1 which differs itself  so   
much more because no one can understand 
it4    ,dreams also appear to me to have
 been the sensible origin of primitive  
prophecy or prediction4 ,what more      
natural or common than to dream that a  
person dear to us is in danger of dying1

 or that we see him expiring8  ,what    
more natural1 again1 than that such a   
person may really die soon  after this  
ominous dream of his friend8 ,dreams    
which have come to pass  are always     
predictions which no one can doubt1 no  
account being taken of  the dreams which
 are never fulfilled2 a single dream    
accomplished has  more effect than a    
hundred which fail4 ,antiquity abounds  
with these  examples4 ,how constructed  
are we for the reception of error6 ,day 
and  night unite to deceive us6    ,you 
see1 gentlemen1 that by attending to    
these ideas1 we may gather  some fruit  
from the book of my compatriot1 the     
dreamer2 but ,i finish1  lest you should
 take me myself for a mere visionary4   
,yours1                                 
,,john ,,dreamer4      ,,section ,,iii4 
,of ,dreams4    ,according to           
,petronius1 dreams are not of divine    
origin1 but  self-formed3        ,somnia
 qua mentes ludunt volitantibus umbris1 
,non delumbra deum nec ab there numina  

mittunt1      ,sed sibi quisque facit4  
,but how1 all the senses being defunct  
in sleep1 does there remain an  internal
 one which retains consciousness8 ,how  
is it1 that while the eyes  see not1 the
 ears hear not1 we notwithstanding      
understand in our dreams8  ,the hound   
renews the chase in a dream3 he barks1  
follows his prey1 and  is in at the     
death4 ,the poet composes verses in his 
sleep2 the  mathematician examines his  
diagram2 and the metaphysician reasons  
well  or ill2 of all which there are    
striking examples4    ,are they only the
 organs of the machine which act8 ,is it
 the pure soul1  submitted to the empire
 of the senses1 enjoying its faculties  
at  liberty8    ,if the organs alone    
produce dreams by night1 why not alone  
produce ideas  by day8 ,if the soul1    
pure and tranquil1 acting for itself    
during the  repose of the senses1 is the
 sole cause of our ideas while we are   
sleeping1 why are all these ideas       
usually irregular1 unreasonable1 and    

incoherent8 ,what6 at a time when the   
soul is least disturbed1 it is so  much 
disquieted in its imagination8 ,is it   
frantic when at liberty8 ,if it  was    
produced with metaphysical ideas1 as so 
many sages assert who dream  with their 
eyes open1 its correct and luminous     
ideas of being1 of  infinity1 and of all
 the primary principles1 ought to be    
revealed in the  soul with the greatest 
energy when the body sleeps4 ,we should 
never be  good philosophers except when 
dreaming4    ,whatever system we        
embrace1 whatever our vain endeavors to 
prove that  the memory impels the brain1
 and that the brain acts upon the soul1 
we  must allow that our ideas come1 in  
sleep1 independently of our will4 ,it   
is therefore certain that we can think  
seven or eight hours running  without   
the least intention of doing so1 and    
even without being certain  that we     
think4 ,pause upon that1 and endeavor to
 divine what there is in  this which is 
animal4    ,dreams have always formed a 

great object of superstition1 and       
nothing is  more natural4 ,a man deeply 
affected by the sickness of his mistress
  dreams that he sees her dying2 she    
dies the next day2 and of course the    
gods have predicted her death4    ,the  
general of an army dreams that he shall 
gain a battle2 he  subsequently gains   
one2 the gods had decreed that he should
 be a  conqueror4 ,dreams which are     
accomplished are alone attended to4     
,dreams  form a great part of ancient   
history1 as also of oracles4    ,the    
,vulgate thus translates the end of     
,leviticus1 xix1 #bf3 ,you shall  not   
observe dreams4 ,but the word dream     
exists not in the ,hebrew2 and  it would
 be exceedingly strange1 if attention to
 dreams was reproved in  the same book  
in which it is said that ,joseph became 
the benefactor of  ,egypt and his       
family1 in consequence of his           
interpretation of three  dreams4    ,the
 interpretation of dreams was a thing so
 common1 that the supposed  art had no  

limits1 and the interpreter was         
sometimes called upon to say  what      
another person had dreamed4             
,nebuchadnezzar1 having forgotten his   
dream1 orders his ,magi to say what it  
was he had dreamed1 and threatened  them
 with death if they failed2 but the ,jew
 ,daniel1 who was in the  school of the 
,magi1 saved their lives by divining at 
once what the king  had dreamed1 and    
interpreting it4 ,this history1 and many
 others1 may  serve to prove that the   
laws of the ,jews did not forbid        
oneiromancy1  that is to say1 the       
science of dreams4      ,,section ,,iv4 
,lausanne1 ,oct4 #be1 #ageg4    ,in one 
of my dreams1 ,i supped with ,m4        
,touron1 who appeared to compose  verses
 and music1 which he sang to us4 ,i     
addressed these four lines to  him in my
 dream3         ,mon cher ,touron1 que  
tu m'enchantes       ,par la douceur de 
tes accens6       ,que tes vers sont    
doux et coulans6       ,tu les fais     
comme tu tes chantes4         ,thy      

gentle accents1 ,touron dear1           
,sound most delightful to my ear6       
,with how much ease the verses roll1    
,which flow1 while singing1 from thy    
soul6    ,in another dream1 ,i recited  
the first canto of the ,henriade quite  
different from what it is4 ,yesterday1  
,i dreamed that verses were recited  at 
supper1 and that some one pretended they
 were too witty4 ,i replied  that verses
 were entertainments given to the soul1 
and that ornaments  are necessary in    
entertainments4    ,i have therefore    
said things in my sleep which ,i should 
have some  difficulty to say when awake2
 ,i have had thoughts and reflections1  
in  spite of myself1 and without the    
least voluntary operation on my own     
part1 and nevertheless combined my ideas
 with sagacity1 and even with  genius4  
,what am ,i1 therefore1 if not a        
machine8          ,,sophist4      ,a    
geometrician1 a little severe1 thus     
addressed us one day3 ,there is  nothing
 in literature more dangerous than      

rhetorical sophists2 and among  these   
sophists none are more unintelligible   
and unworthy of being  understood than  
the divine ,plato4    ,the only useful  
idea to be found in him1 is that of the 
immortality of  the soul1 which was     
already admitted among cultivated       
nations2 but1  then1 how does he prove  
this immortality8    ,we cannot too     
forcibly appeal to this proof1 in order 
to correctly  appreciate this famous    
,greek4 ,he asserts1 in his ,phdon that 
death is  the opposite of life1 that    
death springs from life1 and the living 
from  the dead1 consequently that our   
souls will descend beneath the earth    
when we die4    ,if it is true that the 
sophist ,plato1 who gives himself out   
for the  enemy of all sophists1 reasons 
always thus1 what have been all these   
pretended great men1 and in what has    
consisted their utility8    ,the grand  
defect of the ,platonic philosophy is   
the transformation of  abstract ideas   
into realities4 ,a man can only perform 

a fine action1  because a beauty really 
exists1 which is its archetype4    ,we  
cannot perform any action1 without      
forming an idea of the                  
action--therefore these ideas exist ,i  
know not where1 and it is  necessary to 
study them4    ,god formed an idea of   
the world before ,he created it4 ,this  
was ,his  logos3 the world1 therefore1  
is the production of the logos6    ,what
 disputes1 how many vain and even       
sanguinary contests1 has this  manner of
 argument produced upon earth6 ,plato   
never dreamed that his  doctrine would  
be able1 at some future period1 to      
divide a church which  in his time was  
not in existence4    ,to conceive a just
 contempt for all these foolish         
subtilties1 read  ,demosthenes1 and see 
if in any one of his harangues he       
employs one of  these ridiculous        
sophisms4 ,it is a clear proof that1 in 
serious  business1 no more attention is 
paid to these chimeras than in a council
  of state to theses of theology4       

,neither will you find any of this      
sophistry in the speeches of ,cicero4   
,it was a jargon of the schools1        
invented to amuse idleness--the quackery
  of mind4          ,,soul4             
,,section ,i4    ,this is a vague and   
indeterminate term1 expressing an       
unknown principle  of known effects1    
which we feel in ourselves4 ,this word  
soul answers  to the anima of the       
,latins--to the pneuma of the           
,greeks--to the term  which each and    
every nation has used to express what   
they understood no  better than we do4  
,in the proper and literal sense of the 
,latin and the languages derived  from  
it1 it signifies that which animates4   
,thus people say1 the soul of  men1 of  
animals1 and sometimes of plants1 to    
denote their principle of  vegetation   
and life4 ,this word has never been     
uttered with any but a  confused idea1  
as when it is said in ,genesis3 ,god    
breathed into his  nostrils the breath  
of life1 and he became a living soul2   

and3 ,the  soul of animals is in the    
blood2 and3 ,stay not my soul4    ,thus 
the soul was taken for the origin and   
the cause of life1 and for  life itself4
 ,hence all known nations long imagined 
that everything died  with the body4 ,if
 anything can be discerned with         
clearness in the chaos  of ancient      
histories1 it seems that the ,egyptians 
were at least the  first who made a     
distinction between the intelligence and
 the soul2 and  the ,greeks learned from
 them to distinguish their nous and     
their  pneuma4 ,the ,latins1 after the  
example of the ,greeks1 distinguished   
animus and anima2 and we have1 too1 our 
soul and our  understanding4 ,but are   
that which is the principle of our life1
 and that  which is the principle of our
 thoughts1 two different things8 ,does  
that  which causes us to digest1 and    
which gives us sensation and memory1    
resemble that which is the cause of     
digestion in animals1 and of their      
sensations and memory8    ,here is an   

eternal object for disputation3 ,i say  
an eternal object1 for  having no       
primitive notion from which to deduce in
 this investigation1  we must ever      
continue in a labyrinth of doubts and   
feeble conjectures4    ,we have not the 
smallest step on which to set our foot1 
to reach the  slightest knowledge of    
what makes us live and what makes us    
think4 ,how  should we8 ,for we must    
then have seen life and thought enter a 
body4  ,does a father know how he       
produced his son8 ,does a mother know   
how she  conceived him8 ,has anyone ever
 been able to divine how he acts1 how he
  wakes1 or how he sleeps8 ,does anyone 
know how his limbs obey his will8  ,has 
anyone discovered by what art his ideas 
are traced in his brain1 and  issue from
 it at his command8 ,feeble automata1   
moved by the invisible  hand which      
directs us on the stage of this world1  
which of us has ever  perceived the     
thread which guides us8    ,we dare to  
put in question1 whether the intelligent

 soul is spirit or  matter2 whether it  
is created before us1 or proceeds from  
nothing at our  birth2 whether1 after   
animating us for a day on this earth1 it
 lives  after us in eternity4 ,these    
questions appear sublime2 what are they8
  ,questions of blind men asking one    
another3 ,what is light8    ,when we    
wish to have a rude knowledge of a piece
 of metal1 we put it on  the fire in a  
crucible2 but have we any crucible      
wherein to put the  soul8 ,it is spirit1
 says one2 but what is spirit8          
,assuredly1 no one  knows4 ,this is a   
word so void of meaning1 that to tell   
what spirit is1  you are obliged to say 
what it is not4 ,the soul is matter1    
says another2  but what is matter8 ,we  
know nothing of it but a few appearances
 and  properties2 and not one of these  
properties1 not one of these            
appearances1 can bear the least affinity
 to thought4    ,it is something        
distinct from matter1 you say2 but what 
proof have you  of this8 ,is it because 

matter is divisible and figurable1 and  
thought is  not8 ,but how do you know   
that the first principles of matter are 
divisible and figurable8 ,it is very    
likely that they are not2 whole  sects  
of philosophers assert that the elements
 of matter have neither  figure nor     
extent4 ,you triumphantly exclaim3      
,thought is neither wood1  nor stone1   
nor sand1 nor metal2 therefore1 thought 
belongs not to  matter4 ,weak and       
presumptuous reasoners6 ,gravitation is 
neither wood1  nor sand1 nor metal1 nor 
stone2 nor is motion1 or vegetation1 or 
life1  any of all these2 yet life1      
vegetation1 motion1 gravitation1 are    
given  to matter4 ,to say that ,god     
cannot give thought to matter1 is to say
 the  most insolently absurd thing that 
has ever been advanced in the           
privileged schools of madness and folly4
 ,we are not assured that ,god has  done
 this2 we are only assured that ,he can 
do it4 ,but of what avail is  all that  
has been said1 or all that will be said1

 about the soul8 ,what  avails it that  
it has been called entelechia1          
quintessence1 flame1  ether--that it has
 been believed to be universal1         
uncreated1  transmigrant8    ,of what   
avail1 in these questions inaccessible  
to reason1 are the  romances of our     
uncertain imaginations8 ,what avails it1
 that the fathers  in the four primitive
 ages believed the soul to be corporeal8
 ,what  avails it that ,tertullian1 with
 a contradictoriness that was familiar  
to  him1 decided that it is at once     
corporeal1 figured1 and simple8 ,we have
  a thousand testimonies of ignorance1  
but not one which affords us a ray  of  
probability4    ,how1 then1 shall we be 
bold enough to affirm what the soul is8 
,we know  certainly that we exist1 that 
we feel1 that we think4 ,seek we to     
advance  one step further--we fall into 
an abyss of darkness2 and in this abyss1
  we have still the foolish temerity to 
dispute whether this soul1 of  which we 
have not the least idea1 is made before 

us or with us1 and  whether it is       
perishable or immortal8    ,the article 
on ,soul1 and all articles belonging to 
metaphysics1  should begin with a       
sincere submission to the indubitable   
tenets of the  ,church4 ,revelation is  
doubtless much better than philosophy4  
,systems  exercise the mind1 but faith  
enlightens and guides it4    ,are there 
not words often pronounced of which we  
have but a very  confused idea1 or      
perhaps no idea at all8 ,is not the word
 soul one of  these8 ,when the tongue of
 a pair of bellows is out of order1 and 
the  air1 escaping through the valve1 is
 not driven with violence towards the   
fire1 the maid-servant says3 ,the soul  
of the bellows is burst4 ,she  knows no 
better1 and the question does not at all
 disturb her quiet4    ,the gardener    
uses the expression1 ,soul of the       
plants2 and cultivates  them very well  
without knowing what the term means4    
,the musical-instrument maker places1   
and shifts forward or backward1 the     

soul of a violin1 under the bridge1 in  
the interior of the instrument3 a  sorry
 bit of wood more or less gives it or   
takes from it a harmonious  soul4    ,we
 have several manufactures in which the 
workmen give the appellation  of soul to
 their machines2 but they are never     
heard to dispute about  the word3 it is 
otherwise with philosophers4    ,the    
word soul1 with us1 signifies in general
 that which animates4 ,our              
predecessors1 the ,celts1 gave their    
soul the name of seel1 of which  the    
,english have made soul1 while the      
,germans retain seel2 and it  is        
probable that the ancient ,teutons and  
the ancient ,britons had no  university 
quarrels about this expression4    ,the 
,greeks distinguished three sorts of    
souls3 ,psyche1 signifying  the         
sensitive soul--the soul of the senses2 
and hence it was that ,love1  the son of
 ,aphrodite1 had so much passion for    
,psyche1 and that she loved  him so     
tenderly2 ,pneuma1 the breath which gave

 life and motion to  the whole machine1 
and which we have rendered by           
spiritus--spirit--a  vague term1 which  
has received a thousand different       
acceptations3 and  lastly1 nous1        
intelligence4    ,thus we possess three 
souls1 without having the slightest     
notion of any  one of them4 ,st4 ,thomas
 ,aquinas admits these three souls in   
his quality  of peripatetic1 and        
distinguishes each of the three into    
three parts4    ,psyche was in the      
breast2 ,pneuma was spread throughout   
the body2  and ,nous was in the head4   
,there was no other philosophy in our   
schools until the present day2 and woe  
to the man who took one of these  souls 
for another6    ,in this chaos of ideas1
 there was however a foundation4 ,men   
had clearly  perceived that in their    
passions of love1 anger1 fear1 etc41    
motions  were excited within them2 the  
heart and the liver were the seat of the
  passions4 ,when thinking deeply1 one  
feels a laboring in the organs of  the  

head2 therefore1 the intellectual soul  
is in the brain4 ,without  respiration  
there is no vegetation1 no life2        
therefore1 the vegetative  soul is in   
the breast1 which receives the breath of
 the air4    ,when men had seen in their
 sleep their dead relatives or friends1 
they  necessarily sought to discover    
what had appeared to them4 ,it was not  
the  body1 which had been consumed on a 
pile or swallowed up in the sea and     
eaten by the fishes4 ,however1 they     
would declare it was something1 for     
they had seen it2 the dead man had      
spoken2 the dreamer had questioned  him4
 ,was it ,psyche2 was it ,pneuma2 was it
 ,nous with whom he  had conversed in   
his sleep8 ,then a phantom was          
imagined--a slight  figure2 it was      
skia--it was daimonos--a shade of the   
manes2 a  small soul of air and fire1   
extremely slender1 wandering none knew  
where4    ,in after times1 when it was  
determined to sound the matter1 the     
undisputed result was1 that this soul   

was corporeal1 and all antiquity  had no
 other idea of it4 ,at length came      
,plato1 who so subtilized this  soul1   
that it was doubted whether he did not  
entirely separate it from  matter2 but  
the problem was never resolved until    
faith came to enlighten  us4    ,in vain
 do the materialists adduce the         
testimony of some fathers of the        
,church who do not express themselves   
with exactness4 ,st4 ,irenus says  that 
the soul is but the breath of life1 that
 it is incorporeal only in  comparison  
with the mortal body1 and that it       
retains the human figure in  order that 
it may be recognized4    ,in vain does  
,tertullian express himself thus3       
,the corporality of the soul shines     
forth in the ,gospel4 ',corporalitas    
anim in ipso evangelio relucesseit4'    
,for if the soul had not a body1  the   
image of the soul would not have the    
image of the body4    ,in vain does he  
even relate the vision of a holy woman  
who had seen a  very brilliant soul of  

the color of the air4    ,in vain does  
,tatian expressly say3                  
--,the soul of man is composed of       
several parts4    ,in vain do they      
adduce ,st4 ,hilary1 who said in later  
times3 ,there is  nothing created which 
is not corporeal1 neither in heaven nor 
on earth2  neither visible nor          
invisible2 all is formed of elements2   
and souls1  whether they inhabit a body 
or are without a body1 have always a    
corporeal substance4    ,in vain does   
,st4 ,ambrose1 in the fourth century1   
say3 ,we know nothing  but what is      
material1 excepting only the            
ever-venerable ,trinity4    ,the whole  
body of the ,church has decided that the
 soul is immaterial4  ,these holy men   
had fallen into an error then universal2
 they were men3  but they were not      
mistaken concerning immortality1 because
 it is  evidently announced in the      
,gospels4    ,so evident is our need of 
the decision of the infallible ,church  
on these  points of philosophy1 that    

indeed we have not of ourselves any     
sufficient notion of what is called pure
 spirit1 nor of what is called  matter4 
,pure spirit is an expression which     
gives us no idea2 and we are  acquainted
 with matter only by a few phenomena4   
,so little do we know of  it1 that we   
call it substance1 which word substance 
means that which  is beneath2 but this  
beneath will eternally be concealed from
 us2 this  beneath is the ,creator's    
secret1 and this secret of the ,creator 
is  everywhere4 ,we do not know how we  
receive life1 how we give it1 how we    
grow1 how we digest1 how we sleep1 how  
we think1 nor how we feel4 ,the  great  
difficulty is1 to comprehend how a      
being1 whatsoever it be1 has  thoughts4 
,,section ,,ii4    ,locke's ,doubts     
concerning the ,soul4    ,the author of 
the article on ,soul1 in the            
,encyclopdia1 who has  scrupulously     
followed ,jacquelot1 teaches us nothing4
 ,he also rises up  against ,locke1     
because the modest ,locke has said3     

,perhaps we shall never be capable of   
knowing whether a material being  thinks
 or not2 for this reason--that it is    
impossible for us to  discover1 by the  
contemplation of our own ideas1 'without
 revelation1'  whether ,god has not     
given to some portion of matter1        
disposed as ,he  thinks fit1 the power  
of perceiving and thinking2 or whether  
,he has  joined and united to matter so 
disposed1 an immaterial and thinking    
substance4 ,for with regard to our      
notions1 it is no less easy for us to   
conceive that ,god can1 if ,he pleases1 
add to an idea of matter the  faculty of
 thinking1 than to comprehend that ,he  
joins to it another  substance with the 
faculty of thinking2 since we know not  
in what  thought consists1 nor to what  
kind of substance this all-powerful     
,being  has thought fit to grant this   
power1 which could be created only by   
virtue of the good-will and pleasure of 
the ,creator4 ,i do not see that  there 
is any contradiction in ,god--that      

thinking1 eternal1 and  all-powerful    
,being--giving1 if ,he wills it1 certain
 degrees of feeling1  perception1 and   
thought1 to certain portions of matter1 
created and  insensible1 which ,he joins
 together as he thinks fit4    ,this was
 speaking like a profound1 religious1   
and modest man4 ,it is  known what      
contests he had to maintain concerning  
this opinion1 which he  appeared to have
 hazarded1 but which was really no other
 than a  consequence of the conviction  
he felt of the omnipotence of ,god1 and 
the  weakness of man4 ,he did not say   
that matter thought2 but he said that we
  do not know enough to demonstrate that
 it is impossible for ,god to add  the  
gift of thought to the unknown being    
called matter1 after granting  to it    
those of gravitation and of motion1     
which are equally  incomprehensible4    
,assuredly1 ,locke was not the only one 
who advanced this opinion2 it was  that 
of all the ancients--regarding the soul 
only as very subtile  matter1 they      

consequently affirmed that matter could 
feel and think4    ,such was the opinion
 of ,gassendi1 as we find in his        
objections to  ,descartes4 ,it is true1 
says ,gassendi1 that you know that you  
think2  but you1 who think1 know not of 
what kind of substance you are4 ,thus1  
though the operation of thought is known
 to you1 the principle of your  essence 
is hidden from you1 and you do not know 
what is the nature of  that substance1  
one of the operations of which is to    
think4 ,you resemble  a blind man who1  
feeling the heat of the sun1 and being  
informed that it  is caused by the sun1 
should believe himself to have a clear  
and  distinct idea of that luminary1    
because1 if he were asked what the sun  
is1 he could answer1 that it is a thing 
which warms4444    ,the same ,gassendi1 
in his ,philosophy of ,epicurus1 repeats
 several  times that there is no        
mathematical evidence of the pure       
spirituality of  the soul4              
,descartes1 in one of his letters to    

,elizabeth1 princess palatine1 says  to 
her3 ,i confess1 that by natural reason 
alone1 we can form many  conjectures    
about the soul1 and conceive flattering 
hopes2 but we can  have no assurance4   
,and here ,descartes combats in his     
letters what he  advances in his        
books--a too ordinary contradiction4    
,we have seen1 too1 that all the fathers
 in the first ages of the ,church1      
while they believed the soul immortal1  
believed it to be material4 ,they       
thought it as easy for ,god to preserve 
as to create4 ,they said1 ,god made  it 
thinking1 ,he will preserve it thinking4
    ,malebranche has clearly proved1    
that by ourselves we have no idea1 and  
that objects are incapable of giving us 
any2 whence he concludes that we  see   
all things in ,god4 ,this1 in substance1
 is the same as making ,god  the author 
of all our ideas2 for wherewith should  
we see ourselves in  ,him1 if we had not
 instruments for seeing8 and these      
instruments are  held and directed by   

him alone4 ,this system is a labyrinth1 
of which one  path would lead you to    
,spinozism1 another to ,stoicism1       
another to chaos4    ,when men have     
disputed well and long on matter and    
spirit1 they always  end in             
understanding neither one another nor   
themselves4 ,no philosopher  has ever   
been able to lift by his own strength   
the veil which nature has  spread over  
the first principle of things4 ,they    
dispute1 while nature is  acting4       
,,section ,,iii4    ,on the ,souls of   
,beasts1 and on ,some ,empty ,ideas4    
,before the strange system which        
supposes animals to be pure machines    
without any sensation1 men had never    
imagined an immaterial soul in  beasts2 
and no one had carried temerity so far  
as to say that an oyster  has a         
spiritual soul4 ,all the world peaceably
 agreed that beasts had  received from  
,god feeling1 memory1 ideas1 but not a  
pure spirit4 ,no one  had abused the    
gift of reason so far as to say that    

nature has given to  beasts the organs  
of feeling1 in order that they may have 
no feeling4 ,no  one had said that they 
cry out when wounded1 and fly when      
pursued1  without experiencing either   
pain or fear4    ,god's omnipotence was 
not then denied3 it was in ,his power to
  communicate to the organized matter of
 animals pleasure1 pain1  remembrance1  
the combination of some ideas2 it was in
 ,his power to give  to several of them1
 as the ape1 the elephant1 the hound1   
the talent of  perfecting themselves in 
the arts which are taught them3 not only
 was it  in ,his power to endow almost  
all carnivorous animals with the talent 
of  making war better in their          
experienced old age than in their       
confiding  youth2 not only was it in    
,his power to do this1 but ,he had done 
it1 as  the whole world could witness4  
,pereira and ,descartes maintained      
against the whole world that it was     
mistaken2 that ,god had played the      
conjurer2 that ,he had given to animals 

all the instruments of life and         
sensation1 that they might have neither 
sensation or life properly so called4   
,but some pretended philosophers1 ,i    
know not whom1 in order to answer       
,descartes' chimera1 threw themselves   
into the opposite chimera very          
liberally1 giving pure spirit to toads  
and insects4 ,in vitium ducit culp fuga4
    ,betwixt these two follies1 the one 
depriving of feeling the organs of      
feeling1 the other lodging pure spirit  
in a bug--a mean was imagined1  viz41   
instinct4 ,and what is instinct8 ,oh6 it
 is a substantial form2 it  is a plastic
 form2 it is a--,i know not what--it is 
instinct4 ,i will be  of your opinion1  
so long as you apply to most things ,i  
know not what2  so long as your         
philosophy shall begin and end with ,i  
know not2 but  when you affirm1 ,i shall
 say to you with ,prior1 in his poem on 
the  vanity of the world3         ,then 
vainly the philosopher avers       ,that
 reason guides our deeds1 and instinct  

theirs4       ,how can we justly        
different causes frame1       ,when the 
effects entirely are the same8          
,instinct and reason how can we divide8 
',tis the fool's ignorance1 and the     
pedant's pride4    ,the author of the   
article on ,soul1 in the ,encyclopdia1  
explains  himself thus3 ,i represent to 
myself the soul of beasts as a substance
  immaterial and intelligent4 ,but of   
what kind8 ,it seems to me1 that it     
must be an active principle having      
sensations1 and only sensations4444  ,if
 we reflect on the nature of the souls  
of beasts1 it does not of  itself give  
us any grounds for believing that their 
spirituality will  save them from       
annihilation4    ,i do not understand   
how you represent to yourself an        
immaterial  substance4 ,to represent a  
thing to yourself is to make to yourself
 an  image of it2 and hitherto no one   
has been able to paint the mind4 ,i am  
willing to suppose that by the word     
represent1 the author means ,i          

conceive2 for my part1 ,i own that ,i do
 not conceive it4 ,still less do  ,i    
conceive how a spiritual soul is        
annihilated1 because ,i have no         
conception of creation or of nothing2   
because ,i never attended ,god's        
council2 because ,i know nothing at all 
of the principle of things4    ,if ,i   
seek to prove that the soul is a real   
being1 ,i am stopped1 and told  that it 
is a faculty4 ,if ,i affirm that it is a
 faculty1 and that ,i have  that of     
thinking1 ,i am answered1 that ,i       
mistake2 that ,god1 the eternal  master 
of all nature1 does everything in me1   
directing all my actions1  and all my   
thoughts2 that if ,i produced my        
thoughts1 ,i should know  those which ,i
 should have the next minute2 that ,i   
never know this2 that  ,i am but an     
automaton with sensations and ideas1    
necessarily dependent1  and in the hands
 of the ,supreme ,being1 infinitely more
 subject to ,him  than clay is to the   
potter4    ,i acknowledge then my       

ignorance2 ,i acknowledge that four     
thousand  volumes of metaphysics will   
not teach us what our soul is4    ,an   
orthodox philosopher said to a heterodox
 philosopher1 ,how can you  have brought
 yourself to imagine that the soul is of
 its nature mortal1  and that it is     
eternal only by the pure will of ,god8  
,by my  experience1 says the other4     
,how6 have you been dead then8 ,yes1    
very  often3 in my youth ,i had a fit of
 epilepsy2 and ,i assure you1 that ,i   
was  perfectly dead for several hours3  
,i had no sensation1 nor even any       
recollection from the moment that ,i was
 seized4 ,the same thing happens  to me 
now almost every night4 ,i never feel   
precisely the moment when ,i  fall      
asleep1 and my sleep is absolutely      
without dreams4 ,i cannot  imagine1 but 
by conjectures1 how long ,i have slept4 
,i am dead regularly  six hours in      
twenty-four1 which is one-fourth of my  
life4    ,the orthodox then maintained  
against him that he always thought while

 he  was asleep1 without his knowing of 
it4 ,the heterodox replied3 ,i  believe1
 by revelation1 that ,i shall think     
forever in the next world2  but ,i      
assure you1 that ,i seldom think in     
this4    ,the orthodox was not mistaken 
in affirming the immortality of the     
soul1  since faith demonstrates that    
truth2 but he might be mistaken in      
affirming that a sleeping man constantly
 thinks4    ,locke frankly owned that he
 did not always think while he was      
asleep4  ,another philosopher has said3 
,thought is peculiar to man1 but it is  
not  his essence4    ,let us leave every
 man at liberty to seek into himself and
 to lose  himself in his ideas4         
,however1 it is well to know that in    
#agej1 a  philosopher underwent a very  
severe persecution1 for having          
acknowledged1 with ,locke1 that his     
understanding was not exercised every   
moment of the day and of the night1 no  
more than his arms or his legs4  ,not   
only was he persecuted by the ignorance 

of the court1 but the  malicious        
ignorance of some pretended men of      
letters assailed the object  of         
persecution4 ,that which in ,england had
 produced only some  philosophical      
disputes1 produced in ,france the most  
disgraceful  atrocities3 a ,frenchman   
was made the victim of ,locke4    ,there
 have always been among the refuse of   
our literature1 some of those  wretches 
who have sold their pens and caballed   
against their very  benefactors4 ,this  
remark is to be sure foreign to the     
article on ,soul3  but ought one to lose
 a single opportunity of striking terror
 into those  who render themselves      
unworthy of the name of literary men1   
who  prostitute the little wit and      
conscience they have to a vile interest1
  to a chimerical policy1 who betray    
their friends to flatter fools1 who     
prepare in secret the hemlock-draught   
with which powerful and wicked          
ignorance would destroy useful citizens4
    ,did it ever occur in true ,rome1   

that a ,lucretius was denounced to the  
consuls for having put the system of    
,epicurus into verse2 a ,cicero1 for    
having repeatedly written1 that there is
 no pain after death2 or that a  ,pliny 
or a ,varro was accused of having       
peculiar notions of the divinity8  ,the 
liberty of thinking was unlimited among 
the ,romans4 ,those of harsh1  jealous1 
and narrow minds1 who among us have     
endeavored to crush this  liberty--the  
parent of our knowledge1 the mainspring 
of the  understanding--have made        
chimerical dangers their pretext2 they  
have  forgotten that the ,romans1 who   
carried this liberty much further than  
we  do1 were nevertheless our           
conquerors1 our lawgivers2 and that the 
disputes of schools have no more to do  
with government than the tub of         
,diogenes had with the victories of     
,alexander4    ,this lesson is worth    
quite as much as a lesson on the soul4  
,we shall  perhaps have occasion more   
than once to recur to it4    ,in fine1  

while adoring ,god with all our soul1   
let us ever confess our  profound       
ignorance concerning that soul--that    
faculty of feeling and  thinking which  
we owe to ,his infinite goodness4 ,let  
us acknowledge that  our weak reasonings
 can neither take from nor add to       
revelation and  faith4 ,let us1 in      
short1 conclude that we ought to employ 
this  intelligence1 whose nature is     
unknown1 in perfecting the sciences     
which  are the object of the            
,encyclopdia1 as watchmakers make use of
 springs  in their watches1 without     
knowing what spring is4      ,,section  
,,iv4    ,on the ,soul1 and on our      
,ignorance4    ,relying on our acquired 
knowledge1 we have ventured to discuss  
the  question3 ,whether the soul is     
created before us8 ,whether it arrives  
from  nothing in our bodies8 ,at what   
age it came and placed itself between   
the  bladder and the intestines1 ccum   
and rectum8 ,whether it received or     
brought there any ideas1 and what those 

ideas are8 ,whether1 after  animating us
 for a few moments1 its essence is to   
live after us in  eternity1 without the 
intervention of ,god ,himself8 ,whether1
 it being a  spirit1 and ,god being     
spirit1 they are of like nature8 ,these 
questions  have an appearance of        
sublimity4 ,what are they but questions 
of men born  blind discussing the nature
 of light8    ,what have all the        
philosophers1 ancient and modern1 taught
 us8 ,a child  is wiser than they3 he   
does not think about what he cannot     
conceive4    ,how unfortunate1 you will 
say1 for an insatiable curiosity1 for an
  unquenchable thirst after well-being1 
that we are thus ignorant of  ourselves6
 ,granted3 and there are things yet more
 unfortunate than this2  but ,i will    
answer you3 ,sors tua mortalis1 non est 
mortale quod  optas4--,mortal thy fate1 
thy wishes those of gods4    ,once more 
let it be repeated1 the nature of every 
principle of things  appears to be the  
secret of the ,creator4 ,how does the   

air convey sound8  ,how are animals     
formed8 ,how do some of our members     
constantly obey our  will8 ,what hand   
places ideas in our memory1 keeps them  
there as in a  register1 and draws them 
thence sometimes at our command1 and    
sometimes  in spite of us8 ,our own     
nature1 that of the universe1 that of   
the  smallest plant--all1 to us1        
involved in utter darkness4    ,man is  
an acting1 feeling1 and thinking being2 
this is all we know of  the matter3 it  
is not given to us to know either what  
renders us feeling  or thinking1 or what
 makes us act1 or what causes us to be4 
,the acting  faculty is to us as        
incomprehensible as the thinking        
faculty4 ,the  difficulty is not so much
 to conceive how this body of clay has  
feelings  and ideas as to conceive how a
 being1 whatever it be1 has ideas and   
feelings4    ,behold on one hand the    
soul of ,archimedes1 and on the other   
that of a  simpleton2 are they of the   
same nature8 ,if their essence is to    

think1  then they think always and      
independently of the body1 which cannot 
act  without them4 ,if they think by    
their own nature1 can a soul1 which is  
incapable of performing a single        
arithmetical operation1 be of the same  
species as that which has measured the  
heavens8 ,if it is the organs of  the   
body that have made ,archimedes think1  
why does not my idiot think1  seeing    
that he is better constituted than      
,archimedes1 more vigorous1  digesting  
better1 performing all his functions    
better8 ,because1 say you1  his brain is
 not so good2 but you suppose this2 you 
have no knowledge of  it4 ,no difference
 has ever been found among sound brains 
that have been  dissected2 indeed1 it is
 very likely that the brain-pan of a    
blockhead  would be found in a better   
state than that of ,archimedes1 which   
has been  prodigiously fatigued1 and may
 be worn and contracted4    ,let us then
 conclude what we have concluded        
already1 that we are  ignorant of all   

first principles4 ,as for those who are 
ignorant and  self-sufficient1 they are 
far below the ape4    ,now then dispute1
 ye choleric arguers2 present memorials 
against one  another2 abuse one another2
 pronounce your sentences--you who know 
not a  syllable of the matter6          
,,section ,v4    ,warburtons ,paradox on
 the ,immortality of the ,soul4         
,warburton1 the editor and commentator  
of ,shakespeare1 and ,bishop of         
,gloucester1 using ,english liberty1 and
 abusing the custom of  vituperating    
against adversaries1 has composed four  
volumes to prove  that the immortality  
of the soul was never announced in the  
,pentateuch2  and to conclude from this 
very proof1 that the mission of ,moses1 
which  he calls legation1 was divine4   
,the following is an abstract of his    
book1 which he himself gives at the     
commencement of the first volume3    #a4
 ,that to inculcate the doctrine of a   
future state of rewards and  punishments
 is necessary to the well-being of civil

 society4    #b4 ,that all mankind      
wherein he is mistaken1 especially the  
most wise  and learned nations of       
antiquity1 have concurred in believing  
and  teaching1 that this doctrine was of
 such use to civil society4    #c4 ,that
 the doctrine of a future state of      
rewards and punishments is  not to be   
found in1 nor did it make part of1 the  
,mosaic dispensation4    ,that therefore
 the law of ,moses is of divine origin2 
,which one or both of the two following 
syllogisms will evince3    ,i4 ,whatever
 religion and society have no future    
state for their support  must be        
supported by an extraordinary           
,providence4    ,the ,jewish religion   
and society had no future state for     
their support2    ,therefore the ,jewish
 religion and society were supported by 
an  extraordinary ,providence4    ,and  
again1    ,,ii4 ,the ancient lawgivers  
universally believed that such a        
religion  could be supported only by an 
extraordinary ,providence4    ,moses1 an

 ancient lawgiver1 versed in all the    
wisdom of ,egypt1  purposely instituted 
such a religion2 ,therefore ,moses      
believed his  religion was supported by 
an extraordinary ,providence4    ,what  
is most extraordinary1 is this assertion
 of ,warburton1 which he has  put in    
large characters at the head of his     
work4 ,he has often been  reproached    
with his extreme temerity and dishonesty
 in daring to say  that all ancient     
lawgivers believed that a religion which
 is not founded  on rewards and         
punishments after death cannot be upheld
 but by an  extraordinary ,providence3  
not one of them ever said so4 ,he does  
not even  undertake to adduce a single  
instance of this in his enormous book1  
stuffed with an immense number of       
quotations1 all foreign to the  subject4
 ,he has buried himself under a heap of 
,greek and ,latin authors1  ancient and 
modern1 that no one may reach him       
through this horrible  accumulation of  
coverings4 ,when at length the critic   

has rummaged to the  bottom1 the author 
is raised to life from among all those  
dead1 to load  his adversaries with     
abuse4    ,it is true1 that near the    
close of the fourth volume1 after       
ranging  through a hundred labyrinths1  
and fighting all he met with on the way1
  he does at last come back to his great
 question from which he has so  long    
wandered4 ,he takes up the ,book of     
,job1 which the learned consider  as the
 work of an ,arab2 and he seeks to      
prove1 that ,job did not believe  in the
 immortality of the soul4 ,he then      
explains1 in his own way1 all  the texts
 of ,scripture that have been brought to
 combat his opinion4    ,all that should
 be said of him is1 that if he was in   
the right1 it was  not for a bishop to  
be so in the right4 ,he should have felt
 that two  dangerous consequences might 
be drawn3 but all goes by chance in this
  world4 ,this man1 who became an       
informer and a persecutor1 was not made 
a  bishop through the patronage of a    

minister of state1 until immediately    
after he wrote his book4    ,at         
,salamanca1 at ,coimbra1 or at ,rome1 he
 would have been obliged to  retract and
 to ask pardon4 ,in ,england he became a
 peer of the realm1  with an income of a
 hundred thousand livres4 ,here was     
something to  soften his manners4       
,,section ,,vi4    ,on the ,need of     
,revelation4    ,the greatest benefit   
for which we are indebted to the ,new   
,testament is  its having revealed to us
 the immortality of the soul4 ,it is    
therefore  quite in vain that this      
,warburton has sought to cloud this     
important  truth1 by continually        
representing1 in his ,legation of       
,moses1 that  the ancient ,jews had no  
knowledge of this necessary dogma1 and  
that  the ,sadducees did not admit it in
 the time of our ,lord ,jesus4    ,he   
interprets in his own way1 the very     
words which ,jesus ,christ is made  to  
utter3 ,have ye not read that which is  
spoken unto you by ,god saying1  ,i am  

the ,god of ,abraham1 and the ,god of   
,isaac1 and the ,god of ,jacob3 ,god  is
 not the ,god of the dead1 but of the   
living4 ,he gives to the parable  of the
 rich bad man a sense contrary to that  
of all the churches4  ,sherlock1 bishop 
of ,london1 and twenty other learned    
men1 have refuted  him4 ,even the       
,english philosophers have reminded him 
how scandalous it  is in an ,english    
bishop to manifest an opinion so        
contrary to the ,church  of ,england2   
and after all1 this man has thought     
proper to call others  impious3 like    
,harlequin1 in the farce of ,the        
,housebreaker 7,le  ,dvaliseur des      
,maisons7 who1 after throwing the       
furniture out at the  window1 seeing a  
man carrying some articles away1 cries  
with all his  might--,stop1 thief6      
,the revelation of the immortality of   
the soul1 and of pains and rewards      
after death1 is the more to be blessed1 
as the vain philosophy of men  always   
doubted of it4 ,the great ,csar had no  

faith in it4 ,he explained  himself     
clearly to the whole senate1 when1 to   
prevent ,catiline from  being put to    
death1 he represented to them that death
 left man without  feeling--that all    
died with him3 and no one refuted this  
opinion4    ,the ,roman ,empire was     
divided between two great principal     
sects3 that of  ,epicurus1 who affirmed 
that the divinity was useless to the    
world1 and  the soul perished with the  
body2 and that of the ,stoics1 who      
regarded  the soul as a portion of the  
divinity1 which after death was reunited
 to  its original--to the great ,all    
from which it had emanated4 ,so that1   
whether the soul was believed to be     
mortal1 or to be immortal1 all  sects   
united in contemning the idea of rewards
 and punishments after  death4    ,there
 are still remaining numerous monuments 
of this belief of the  ,romans4 ,it was 
from the force of this opinion          
profoundly engraved on all  hearts1 that
 so many ,roman heroes and so many      

private citizens put  themselves to     
death without the smallest scruple2 they
 did not wait for  a tyrant to deliver  
them into the hands of the executioner4 
,even the most virtuous men1 and the    
most thoroughly persuaded of the        
existence of a ,god1 did not then hope  
any reward1 nor did they fear any       
punishment4 ,it has been seen in the    
article on ,apocrypha1 that ,clement    
himself1 who was afterwards pope and    
saint1 began with doubting what the     
first ,christians said of another life1 
and that he consulted ,st4 ,peter  at   
,csarea4 ,we are very far from believing
 that ,st4 ,clement wrote the  history  
which is attributed to him2 but it shows
 what need mankind had  of a precise    
revelation4 ,all that can surprise us is
 that a tenet so  repressing and so     
salutary should have left men a prey to 
so many  horrible crimes1 who have so   
short a time to live1 and find          
themselves  pressed between the         
eternities4      ,,section ,,vii4       

,souls of ,fools and ,monsters4    ,a   
child1 ill-formed1 is born absolutely   
imbecile1 has no ideas1 lives  without  
ideas2 instances of this have been      
known4 ,how shall this animal  be       
defined8 ,doctors have said that it is  
something between man and  beast2 others
 have said that it is a sensitive soul1 
but not an  intellectual soul3 it eats1 
it drinks1 it sleeps1 it wakes1 it has  
sensations1 but it does not think4      
,is there for it another life1 or is    
there none8 ,the case has been put1  and
 has not yet been entirely resolved4    
,some have said that this creature must 
have a soul1 because its father  and its
 mother had souls4 ,but by this         
reasoning it would be proved that  if it
 had come into the world without a nose1
 it should have the  reputation of      
having one1 because its father and its  
mother had one4    ,a woman is brought  
to bed3 her infant has no chin2 its     
forehead is flat  and somewhat black1   
its eyes round1 its nose thin and sharp2

 its  countenance is not much unlike    
that of a swallow3 yet the rest of his  
body is made like ours4 ,it is decided  
by a majority of voices that it is  a   
man1 and possesses an immaterial soul2  
whereupon the parents have it  baptized4
 ,but if this little ridiculous figure  
has pointed claws1 and a  mouth in the  
form of a beak1 it is declared to be a  
monster2 it has no  soul2 it is not     
baptized4    ,it is known1 that in      
#agbf1 there was in ,london a woman who 
was brought  to bed every eight days of 
a young rabbit4 ,no difficulty was made 
of  refusing baptism to this child1     
notwithstanding the epidemic folly which
  prevailed in ,london for three weeks1 
of believing that this poor jade        
actually brought forth wild rabbits4    
,the surgeon who delivered her1  named  
,st4 ,andr1 swore that nothing was more 
true2 and he was believed4  ,but what   
reason had the credulous for refusing a 
soul to this woman's  offspring8 ,she   
had a soul2 her children must likewise  

have been  furnished with souls1 whether
 they had hands8 or paws1 whether they  
were  born with a snout or with a face3 
cannot the ,supreme ,being vouchsafe the
  gift of thought and sensation to a    
little nondescript1 born of a woman1    
with the figure of a rabbit1 as well as 
a little nondescript born with  the     
figure of a man8 ,will the soul which   
was ready to take up its abode  in this 
woman's ftus return unhoused8    ,it is 
very well observed by ,locke1 with      
regard to monsters1 that  immortality   
must not be attributed to the exterior  
of a body--that it  has nothing to do   
with the figure4 ,this immortality1 says
 he1 is no  more attached to the form of
 one's face or breast than it is to the 
way  in which one's beard is clipped or 
one's coat is cut4    ,he asks3 ,what is
 the exact measure of deformity by which
 you can  recognize whether an infant   
has a soul or not8 ,what is the precise 
degree at which it is to be declared a  
monster and without a soul8    ,again1  

it is asked3 ,what would a soul be that 
should have none but  chimerical ideas8 
,there are some which never go beyond   
such4 ,are they  worthy or unworthy8    
,what is to be made of their pure       
spirit8    ,what are we to think of a   
child with two heads1 which is otherwise
 well  formed8 ,some say that it has two
 souls1 because it is furnished with two
  pineal glands1 with two callous       
substances1 with two sensoria  communia4
 ,others answer that there cannot be two
 souls1 with but one  breast and one    
navel4    ,in short1 so many questions  
have been asked about this poor human   
soul1  that if it were necessary to put 
an end to them all1 such an examination 
of its own person would cause it the    
most insupportable annoyance4 ,the  same
 would happen to it as happened to      
,cardinal ,polignac at a conclave3  his 
steward1 tired of having never been able
 to make him pass his  accounts1 took a 
journey to ,rome1 and went to the small 
window of his  cell1 laden with an      

immense bundle of papers2 he read for   
nearly two  hours2 at last1 finding that
 no answer was made1 he thrust forward  
his  head3 the cardinal had been gone   
almost two hours4 ,our souls will be    
gone before their stewards have finished
 their statements2 but let us be  just  
before ,god--ignorant as both we and our
 stewards are4    ,see what is said on  
the soul in the ,letters of ,memmius4   
,,section ,,viii4    ,different         
,opinions ,criticised--,apology for     
,locke4    ,i must acknowledge1 that    
when ,i examined the infallible         
,aristotle1 the  evangelical doctor1 and
 the divine ,plato1 ,i took all these   
epithets for  nicknames4 ,in all the    
philosophers who have spoken of the     
human  soul1 ,i have found only blind   
men1 full of babble and temerity1       
striving to persuade themselves that    
they have an eagle eye2 and others1     
curious and foolish1 believing them on  
their word1 and imagining that  they see
 something too4    ,illustration3 ,john 

,locke4    ,i shall not feign to rank   
,descartes and ,malebranche with these  
teachers  of error4 ,the former assures 
us that the soul of man is a substance1 
whose essence is to think1 which is     
always thinking1 and which1 in the      
mother's womb1 is occupied with fine    
metaphysical ideas and general  axioms1 
which it afterwards forgets4    ,as for 
,father ,malebranche1 he is quite       
persuaded that we see all in  ,god--and 
he has found partisans3 for the most    
extravagant fables are  those which are 
the best received by the weak           
imaginations of men4  ,various          
philosophers then had written the       
romance of the soul3 at  length1 a wise 
man modestly wrote its history4 ,of this
 history ,i am  about to give an        
abridgment1 according to the conception 
,i have formed  of it4 ,i very well know
 that all the world will not agree with 
,locke's  ideas2 it is not unlikely1    
that against ,descartes and             
,malebranche1 ,locke  was right1 but    

that against the ,sorbonne he was wrong3
 ,i speak according  to the lights of   
philosophy1 not according to the        
relations of the  faith4    ,it is not  
for me to think otherwise than humanly2 
theologians decide  divinely1 which is  
quite another thing3 reason and faith   
are of contrary  natures4 ,in a word1   
here follows a short abstract of ,locke1
 which ,i  would censure1 if ,i were a  
theologian1 but which ,i adopt for a    
moment1  simply as a hypothesis--a      
conjecture of philosophy4 ,humanly      
speaking1  the question is3 ,what is the
 soul8    #a4 ,the word soul is one of  
those which everyone pronounces without 
understanding it2 we understand only    
those things of which we have an  idea2 
we have no idea of soul--spirit2        
therefore we do not understand  it4     
#b4 ,we have then been pleased to give  
the name of soul to the faculty of      
feeling and thinking1 as we have given  
that of life to the faculty of  living1 
and that of will to the faculty of      

willing4    ,reasoners have come and    
said3 ,man is composed of matter and    
spirit3  matter is extended and         
divisible2 spirit is neither extended   
nor  divisible2 therefore1 say they1 it 
is of another nature4 ,this is a        
joining together of beings which are not
 made for each other1 and which  ,god   
unites in spite of their nature4 ,we see
 little of the body1 we see  nothing of 
the soul2 it has no parts1 therefore it 
is eternal2 it has  ideas pure and      
spiritual1 therefore it does not receive
 them from  matter2 nor does it receive 
them from itself1 therefore ,god gives  
them  to it1 and it brings with it at   
its birth the ideas of ,god1 infinity1  
and all general ideas4    ,still humanly
 speaking1 ,i answer these gentlemen    
that they are very  knowing4 ,they tell 
us1 first1 that there is a soul1 and    
then what that  soul must be4 ,they     
pronounce the word matter1 and then     
plainly decide  what it is4 ,and ,i say 
to them3 ,you have no knowledge either  

of spirit or  of matter4 ,by spirit you 
can imagine only the faculty of         
thinking2 by  matter you can understand 
only a certain assemblage of qualities1 
colors1 extents1 and solidities1 which  
it has pleased you to call  matter2 and 
you have assigned limits to matter and  
to the soul1 even  before you are sure  
of the existence of either the one or   
the other4    ,as for matter1 you       
gravely teach that it has only extent   
and solidity2  and ,i tell you modestly1
 that it is capable of a thousand       
properties  about which neither you nor 
,i know anything4 ,you say that the soul
 is  indivisible1 eternal2 and here you 
assume that which is in question4 ,you  
are much like the regent of a college1  
who1 having never in his life  seen a   
clock1 should all at once have an       
,english repeater put into his  hands4  
,this man1 a good peripatetic1 is struck
 by the exactness with  which the hands 
mark the time1 and still more astonished
 that a button1  pressed by the finger1 

should sound precisely the hour marked  
by the  hand4 ,my philosopher will not  
fail to prove that there is in this     
machine a soul which governs it and     
directs its springs4 ,he learnedly      
demonstrates his opinion by the simile  
of the angels who keep the  celestial   
spheres in motion2 and in the class he  
forms fine theses1  maintained on the   
souls of watches4 ,one of his scholars  
opens the watch1  and nothing is found  
but springs2 yet the system of the soul 
of watches  is still maintained1 and is 
considered as demonstrated4 ,i am that  
scholar1 opening the watch called man2  
but instead of boldly defining  what we 
do not understand1 ,i endeavor to       
examine by degrees what we wish  to     
know4    ,let us take an infant at the  
moment of its birth1 and follow1 step by
  step1 the progress of its             
understanding4 ,you do me the honor of  
informing me that ,god took the trouble 
of creating a soul1 to go and  take up  
its abode in this body when about six   

weeks old2 that this soul1  on its      
arrival1 is provided with metaphysical  
ideas--having consequently  a very clear
 knowledge of spirit1 of abstract ideas1
 of infinity--being1  in short1 a very  
knowing person4 ,but unfortunately it   
quits the uterus  in the uttermost      
ignorance3 for eighteen months it knows 
nothing but its  nurse's teat2 and when 
at the age of twenty years an attempt is
 made to  bring back to this soul's     
recollection all the scientific ideas   
which it  had when it entered its body1 
it is often too dull of apprehension to 
conceive any one of them4 ,there are    
whole nations which have never had  so  
much as one of these ideas4 ,what1 in   
truth1 were the souls of  ,descartes and
 ,malebranche thinking of1 when they    
imagined such reveries8  ,let us then   
follow the idea of the child1 without   
stopping at the  imaginings of the      
philosophers4    ,the day that his      
mother was brought to bed of him and his
 soul1 there  were born in the house a  

dog1 a cat1 and a canary bird4 ,at the  
end of  eighteen months ,i make the dog 
an excellent hunter2 in a year the      
canary bird whistles an air2 in six     
weeks the cat is master of its          
profession2 and the child1 at the end of
 four years1 does nothing4 ,i1 a  gross 
person1 witnessing this prodigious      
difference1 and never having  seen a    
child1 think at first that the cat1 the 
dog1 and the canary are  very           
intelligent creatures1 and that the     
infant is an automaton4  ,however1 by   
little and little1 ,i perceive that this
 child has ideas and  memory1 that he   
has the same passions as these animals2 
and then ,i  acknowledge that he is1    
like them1 a rational creature4 ,he     
communicates  to me different ideas by  
some words which he has learned1 in like
 manner  as my dog1 by diversified      
cries1 makes known to me exactly his    
different  wants4 ,i perceive at the age
 of six or seven years the child        
combines in  his little brain almost as 

many ideas as my hound in his2 and at   
length1  as he grows older1 he acquires 
an infinite variety of knowledge4 ,then 
what am ,i to think of him8 ,shall ,i   
believe that he is of a nature          
altogether different8 ,undoubtedly not2 
for you see on one hand an idiot1  and  
on the other a ,newton2 yet you assert  
that they are of one and the  same      
nature--that there is no difference but 
that of greater and less4  ,the better  
to assure myself of the verisimilitude  
of my probable  opinion1 ,i examine the 
dog and the child both waking and       
sleeping--,i  have them each bled       
immediately2 then their ideas seem to   
escape with  their blood4 ,in this state
 ,i call them--they do not answer2 and  
if ,i  draw from them a few more ounces1
 my two machines1 which before had      
ideas in great plenty and passions of   
every kind1 have no longer any  feeling4
 ,i next examine my two animals while   
they sleep2 ,i perceive that  the dog1  
after eating too much1 has dreams2 he   

hunts and cries after the  game2 my     
youngster1 in the same state1 talks to  
his mistress and makes  love in his     
dreams4 ,if both have eaten moderately1 
,i observe that  neither of them dream2 
in short1 ,i see that the faculties of  
feeling1  perceiving1 and expressing    
their ideas unfold themselves gradually1
 and  also become weaker by degrees4 ,i 
discover many more affinities between   
them than between any man of strong mind
 and one absolutely imbecile4  ,what    
opinion then shall ,i entertain of their
 nature8 ,that which every  people at   
first imagined1 before ,egyptian policy 
asserted the  spirituality1 the         
immortality1 of the soul4 ,i shall even 
suspect that  ,archimedes and a mole are
 but different varieties of the same    
species--as an oak and a grain of       
mustard are formed by the same          
principles1 though the one is a large   
tree and the other the seed of a  small 
plant4 ,i shall believe that ,god has   
given portions of intelligence  to      

portions of matter organized for        
thinking2 ,i shall believe that  matter 
has sensations in proportion to the     
fineness of its senses1 that  it is they
 which proportion them to the measure of
 our ideas2 ,i shall  believe that the  
oyster in its shell has fewer sensations
 and senses1  because its soul being    
attached to its shell1 five senses would
 not at  all be useful to it4 ,there are
 many animals with only two senses2 we  
have five--which are very few4 ,it is to
 be believed that in other  worlds there
 are other animals enjoying twenty or   
thirty senses1 and  that other species1 
yet more perfect1 have senses to        
infinity4    ,such1 it appears to me1 is
 the most natural way of reasoning on   
the  matter--that is1 of guessing and   
inspecting with certainty4 ,a long time 
elapsed before men were ingenious enough
 to imagine an unknown being1  which is 
ourselves1 which does all in us1 which  
is not altogether  ourselves1 and which 
lives after us4 ,nor was so bold an idea

 adopted all  at once4 ,at first this   
word soul signifies life1 and was common
 to us  and the other animals2 then our 
pride made us a soul apart1 and caused  
us to imagine a substantial form for    
other creatures4 ,this human pride      
asks3 ,what then is that power of       
perceiving and feeling1 which in man is 
called soul1 and in the brute instinct8 
,i will satisfy this demand when  the   
natural philosophers shall have informed
 me what is sound1 light1  space1 body1 
time4 ,i will say1 in the spirit of the 
wise ,locke3  ,philosophy consists in   
stopping when the torch of physical     
science fails  us4 ,i observe the       
effects of nature2 but ,i freely own    
that of first  principles ,i have no    
more conception than you have4 ,all ,i  
do know is  that ,i ought not to        
attribute to several causes--especially 
to unknown  causes--that which ,i can   
attribute to a known cause2 now ,i can  
attribute  to my body the faculty of    
thinking and feeling2 therefore ,i ought

 not to  seek this faculty of thinking  
and feeling in another substance1 called
  soul or spirit1 of which ,i cannot    
have the smallest idea4 ,you exclaim    
against this proposition4 ,do you then  
think it irreligious to dare to  say    
that the body can think8 ,but what would
 you say1 ,locke would answer1  if you  
yourselves were found guilty of         
irreligion in thus daring to set  bounds
 to the power of ,god8 ,what man upon   
earth can affirm1 without  absurd       
impiety1 that it is impossible for ,god 
to give to matter  sensation and        
thought8 ,weak and presumptuous that you
 are6 you boldly  advance that matter   
does not think1 because you do not      
conceive how  matter of any kind should 
think4    ,ye great philosophers1 who   
decide on the power of ,god1 and say    
that ,god  can of a stone make an       
angel--do you not see that1 according to
  yourselves1 ,god would in that case   
only give to a stone the power of       
thinking8 for if the matter of the stone

 did not remain1 there would no  longer 
be a stone2 there would be a stone      
annihilated and an angel  created4      
,whichever way you turn you are forced  
to acknowledge two  things--your        
ignorance and the boundless power of the
 ,creator2 your  ignorance1 to which    
thinking matter is repugnant2 and the   
,creator's  power1 to which certes it is
 not impossible4    ,you1 who know that 
matter does not perish1 will dispute    
whether ,god has  the power to preserve 
in that matter the noblest quality with 
which ,he  has endowed it4 ,extent      
subsists perfectly without body1 through
 ,him1  since there are philosophers who
 believe in a void2 accidents subsist   
very well without substance with        
,christians who believe in              
transubstantiation4 ,god1 you say1      
cannot do that which implies            
contradiction4 ,to be sure of this1 it  
is necessary to know more of the  matter
 than you do know2 it is all in vain2   
you will never know more  than          

this--that you are a body1 and that you 
think4 ,many persons who  have learned  
at school to doubt of nothing1 who take 
their syllogisms  for oracles and their 
superstitions for religion1 consider    
,locke as  impious and dangerous4 ,these
 superstitious people are in society    
what  cowards are in an army2 they are  
possessed by and communicate panic      
terror4 ,we must have the compassion to 
dissipate their fears2 they must  be    
made sensible that the opinions of      
philosophers will never do harm to      
religion4 ,we know for certain that     
light comes from the sun1 and that  the 
planets revolve round that luminary2 yet
 we do not read with any the  less      
edification in the ,bible that light was
 made before the sun1 and  that the sun 
stood still over the village of ,gibeon4
 ,it is demonstrated  that the rainbow  
is necessarily formed by the rain2 yet  
we do not the  least reverence the      
sacred text which says that ,god set    
,his bow in the  clouds1 after the      

,deluge1 as a sign that there should    
never be another  inundation4    ,what  
though the mystery of the ,trinity and  
that of the eucharist are  contradictory
 to known demonstrations8 ,they are not 
the less venerated  by ,catholic        
philosophers1 who know that the things  
of reason and those  of faith are       
different in their nature4 ,the notion  
of the antipodes was  condemned by the  
popes and the councils2 yet the popes   
discovered the  antipodes and carried   
thither that very ,christian religion1  
the  destruction of which had been      
thought to be sure1 in case there could 
be  found a man who1 as it was then     
expressed1 should have1 as relative to  
our own position1 his head downwards and
 his feet upwards1 and who1 as  the very
 unphilosophical ,st4 ,augustine says1  
should have fallen from  heaven4    ,and
 now1 let me once repeat that1 while ,i 
write with freedom1 ,i warrant  no      
opinion--,i am responsible for nothing4 
,perhaps there are1 among these  dreams1

 some reasonings1 and even some         
reveries1 to which ,i should give  the  
preference2 but there is not one that ,i
 would not unhesitatingly  sacrifice to 
religion and to my country4             
,,section ,,ix4    ,i shall suppose a   
dozen of good philosophers in an island 
where they  have never seen anything but
 vegetables4 ,such an island1 and       
especially  twelve such philosophers1   
would be very hard to find2 however1 the
  fiction is allowable4 ,they admire the
 life which circulates in the  fibres of
 the plants1 appearing to be alternately
 lost and renewed2 and  as they know not
 how a plant springs up1 how it derives 
its nourishment  and growth1 they call  
this a vegetative soul4 ,what1 they are 
asked1 do  you understand by a          
vegetative soul8 ,they answer3 ,it is a 
word that  serves to express the unknown
 spring by which all this is operated4  
,but  do you not see1 a mechanic will   
ask them1 that all this is naturally    
done by weights1 levers1 wheels1 and    

pulleys8 ,no1 the philosophers will     
say2 there is in this vegetation        
something other than ordinary motion2   
there is a secret power which all plants
 have of drawing to themselves  the     
juices which nourish them2 and this     
power cannot be explained by any  system
 of mechanics2 it is a gift which ,god  
has made to matter1 and the  nature of  
which neither you nor we comprehend4    
,after disputing thus1 our reasoners at 
length discover animals4 ,oh1 oh6  say  
they1 after a long examination1 here are
 beings organized like  ourselves4 ,it  
is indisputable that they have memory1  
and often more than  we have4 ,they have
 our passions2 they have knowledge2 they
 make us  understand all their wants2   
they perpetuate their species like us4  
,our  philosophers dissect some of these
 beings1 and find in them hearts and    
brains4 ,what6 say they1 can the author 
of these machines1 who does  nothing in 
vain1 have given them all the organs of 
feeling1 in order  that they may have no

 feeling8 ,it were absurd to think      
so--there is  certainly something in    
thera which1 for want of knowing a      
better term1  we likewise call          
soul--something that experiences        
sensations1 and has a  certain number of
 ideas4 ,but what is this principle8 ,is
 it something  absolutely different from
 matter8 ,is it a pure spirit8 ,is it a 
middle  being1 between matter1 of which 
we know little1 and pure spirit1 of     
which we know nothing8 ,is it a property
 given by ,god to organized  matter8    
,they then make experiments upon        
insects2 upon earth worms--they cut them
  into several parts1 and are astonished
 to find that1 after a short time1      
there come heads to all these divided   
parts2 the same animal is  reproduced1  
and its very destruction becomes the    
means of its  multiplication4 ,has it   
several souls1 which wait until the head
 is cut  off the original trunk1 to     
animate the reproduced parts8 ,they are 
like  trees1 which put forth fresh      

branches1 and are reproduced from slips4
  ,have these trees several souls8 ,it  
is not likely4 ,then it is very         
probable that the soul of these reptiles
 is of a different kind from  that which
 we call vegetative soul in plants2 that
 it is a faculty of a  superior order1  
which ,god has vouchsafed to give to    
certain portions of  matter4 ,here is a 
fresh proof of ,his power--a fresh      
subject of  adoration4    ,a man of     
violent temper1 and a bad reasoner1     
hears this discourse and  says to them3 
,you are wicked wretches1 whose bodies  
should be burned for  the good of your  
souls1 for you deny the immortality of  
the soul of man4  ,our philosophers then
 look at one another in perfect         
astonishment1 and  one of them mildly   
answers him3 ,why burn us so hastily8   
,whence have you  concluded that we have
 an idea that your cruel soul is mortal8
 ,from your  believing1 returns the     
other1 that ,god has given to the brutes
 which are  organized like us1 the      

faculty of having feelings and ideas4   
,now this  soul of the beasts perishes  
with them2 therefore you believe that   
the  soul of man perishes also4    ,the 
philosopher replies3 ,we are not at all 
sure that what we call soul  in animal  
perishes with them2 we know very well   
that matter does not  perish1 and we    
believe that ,god may have put in       
animals something which1  if ,god will  
it1 shall forever retain the faculty of 
having ideas4 ,we are  very far from    
affirming that such is the case1 for it 
is hardly for men  to be so confident2  
but we dare not set bounds to the power 
of ,god4 ,we  say that it is very       
probable that the beasts1 which are     
matter1 have  received from ,him a      
little intelligence4 ,we are every day  
discovering  properties of matter--that 
is1 presents from ,god--of which we had 
before  no idea4 ,we at first defined   
matter to be an extended substance2 next
 we  found it necessary to add solidity2
 some time afterwards we were obliged   

to admit that this matter has a force   
which is called vis inerti2  and after  
this1 to our great astonishment1 we had 
to acknowledge that  matter gravitates4 
,when we sought to carry our researches 
further1 we were forced to  recognize   
beings resembling matter in some things1
 but without the  other1 attributes with
 which matter is gifted4 ,the elementary
 fire1 for  instance1 acts upon our     
senses like other bodies2 but it does   
not1 like  them1 tend to a centre2 on   
the contrary1 it escapes from the centre
 in  straight lines on every side4 ,it  
does not seem to obey the laws of       
attraction1 of gravitation1 like other  
bodies4 ,there are mysteries in  optics1
 for which it would be hard to account1 
without venturing to  suppose that the  
rays of light penetrate one another4    
,there is certainly  something in light 
which distinguishes it from known       
matter4 ,light seems  to be a middle    
being between bodies and other kinds of 
beings of which  we are ignorant6 ,it is

 very likely that these other kinds are 
themselves  a medium leading to other   
creatures1 and that there is a chain of 
substances extending to infinity4 ,usque
 adeo quod tangit idem est1  tamen      
ultima distant6    ,this idea seems to  
us to be worthy of the greatness of     
,god1 if anything  is worthy of it4     
,among these substances ,he has         
doubtless had power to  choose one which
 ,he has lodged in our bodies1 and which
 we call the  human soul2 and the sacred
 books which we have read inform us that
 this  soul is immortal4 ,reason is in  
accordance with revelation2 for how     
should any substance perish8 ,every mode
 is destroyed2 the substance  remains4  
,we cannot conceive the creation of a   
substance2 we cannot  conceive its      
annihilation2 but we dare not affirm    
that the absolute  master of all beings 
cannot also give feelings and           
perceptions to the  being which we call 
matter4 ,you are quite sure that the    
essence of your  soul is to think2 but  

we are not so sure of this2 for when we 
examine a  ftus1 we can hardly believe  
that its soul had many ideas in its     
head2 and we very much doubt whether1 in
 a sound and deep sleep1 or in a        
complete lethargy1 any one ever         
meditated4 ,thus it appears to us that  
thought may very well be1 not the       
essence of the thinking being1 but a    
present made by the ,creator to beings  
which we call thinking2 from all  which 
we suspect that1 if ,he would1 ,he could
 make this present to an  atom2 and     
could preserve this atom and ,his       
present forever1 or destroy  it at ,his 
pleasure4 ,the difficulty consists not  
so much in divining how  matter could   
think1 as in divining how any substance 
whatever does  think4 ,you have ideas   
only because ,god has been pleased to   
give them to  you2 why would you prevent
 ,him from giving them to other species8
 ,can  you really be so fearless as to  
dare to believe that your soul is       
precisely of the same kind as the       

substances which approach nearest to    
the ,divinity8 ,there is great          
probability that they are of an order   
very  superior1 and that consequently   
,god has vouchsafed to give them a way  
of  thinking infinitely finer1 just as  
,he has given a very limited measure  of
 ideas to the animals which are of an   
order inferior to you4 ,i know  not how 
,i live1 nor how ,i give life2 yet you  
would have me know how ,i  have ideas4  
,the soul is a timepiece which ,god has 
given us to manage2  but ,he has not    
told us of what the spring of this      
timepiece is composed4    ,is there     
anything in all this from which it can  
be inferred that our  souls are mortal8 
,once more let us repeat it--we think as
 you do of the  immortality announced to
 us by faith2 but we believe that we are
 too  ignorant to affirm that ,god has  
not the power of granting thought to    
whatever being ,he pleases4 ,you bound  
the power of the ,creator1 which is     
boundless2 and we extend it as far as   

,his existence extends4 ,forgive us  for
 believing ,him to be omnipotent1 as we 
forgive you for restraining  ,his power4
 ,you doubtless know all that ,he can   
do1 and we know nothing of  it4 ,let us 
live as brethren2 let us adore our      
common ,father in  peace--you with your 
knowing and daring souls1 we with our   
ignorant and  timid souls4 ,we have a   
day to live2 let us pass it calmly1     
without  quarrelling about difficulties 
that will be cleared up in the immortal 
life which will begin to-morrow4    ,the
 brutal man1 having nothing good to say 
in reply1 talked a long  while1 and was 
very angry4 ,our poor philosophers      
employed themselves for  some weeks in  
reading history2 and after reading well1
 they spoke as  follows to this         
barbarian1 who was so unworthy to have  
an immortal soul3    ,my friend1 we have
 read that in all antiquity things went 
on as well as  they do in our own       
times--that there were even greater     
virtues1 and that  philosophers were not

 persecuted for the opinions which they 
held2 why1  then1 should you seek to    
injure us for opinions which we do not  
hold8 ,we  read that all the ancients   
believed matter to be eternal4 ,they who
 saw  that it was created left the      
others at rest4 ,pythagoras had been a  
cock1  his relations had been swine2 but
 no one found fault with this2 his sect 
was cherished and revered by all1 except
 the cooks and those who had  beans to  
sell4    ,the ,stoics acknowledged a    
god1 nearly the same as the god         
afterwards so  rashly admitted by the   
,spinozists2 yet ,stoicism was a sect   
the most  fruitful in heroic virtues1   
and the most accredited4    ,the        
,epicureans made their god like our     
canons1 whose indolent corpulence       
upholds their divinity1 and who take    
their nectar and ambrosia in quiet1     
without meddling with anything4 ,these  
,epicureans boldly taught the           
materiality and the mortality of the    
soul2 but they were not the less        

respected2 they were admitted into all  
offices2 and their crooked atoms  never 
did the world any harm4    ,the         
,platonists1 like the ,gymnosophists1   
did not do us the honor to think  that  
,god had condescended to form us        
,himself4 ,according to them1 ,he left  
this task to ,his officers--to genii1   
who in the course of their work  made   
many blunders4 ,the god of the          
,platonists was an excellent workman1   
who employed here below very indifferent
 assistants2 but men did not the  less  
reverence the school of ,plato4    ,in  
short1 among the ,greeks and the        
,romans1 so many sects as there were1   
so many ways of thinking about ,god and 
the soul1 the past and the  future1 none
 of these sects were persecutors4 ,they 
were all  mistaken--and we are very     
sorry for it2 but they were all         
peaceful--and  this confounds us1 this  
condemns us1 this shows us that most of 
the  reasoners of the present day are   
monsters1 and that those of antiquity   

were men4 ,they sang publicly on the    
,roman stage3 ,post mortem nihil  est1  
ipsaque mors nihil4--,naught after      
death1 and death is nothing4    ,these  
opinions made men neither better nor    
worse2 all was governed1 all  went on as
 usual2 and ,titus1 ,trajan1 and        
,aurelius governed the earth  like      
beneficent deities4    ,passing from the
 ,greeks and the ,romans to barbarous   
nations1 let us only  contemplate the   
,jews4 ,superstitious1 cruel1 and       
ignorant as this  wretched people were1 
still they honored the ,pharisees1 who  
admitted the  fatality of destiny and   
the metempsychosis2 they also paid      
respect to  the ,sadducees1 who         
absolutely denied the immortality of the
 soul and the  existence of spirits1    
taking for their foundation the law of  
,moses1  which had made no mention of   
pain or reward after death4 ,the        
,essenes1  who also believed in         
fatality1 and who never offered up      
victims in the  temple1 were reverenced 

still more than the ,pharisees and the  
,sadducees4  ,none of their opinions    
ever disturbed the government4 ,yet here
 were  abundant subjects for            
slaughtering1 burning1 and exterminating
 one  another1 had they been so         
inclined4 ,oh1 miserable men6 profit by 
these  examples4 ,think1 and let others 
think4 ,it is the solace of our feeble  
minds in this short life4 ,what6 will   
you receive with politeness a ,turk1    
who believes that ,mahomet travelled to 
the moon2 will you be careful not  to   
displease the pasha ,bonneval2 and yet  
will you have your brother  hanged1     
drawn1 and quartered1 because he        
believes that ,god created  intelligence
 in every creature8    ,so spake one of 
the philosophers2 and another of them   
added3 ,believe me1  it need never be   
feared that any philosophical opinion   
will hurt the  religion of a country4   
,what though our mysteries are contrary 
to our  demonstrations1 they are not the
 less reverenced by our ,christian      

philosophers1 who know that the objects 
of reason and faith are of  different   
natures4 ,philosophers will never form a
 religious sect2 and  why8 ,because they
 are without enthusiasm4 ,divide mankind
 into twenty  parts2 and of these1      
nineteen consist of those who labor with
 their  hands1 and will never know that 
there has been such a person as ,locke  
in  the world4 ,in the remaining        
twentieth1 how few men will be found who
  read6 and among those who read1 there 
are twenty that read novels for  one    
that studies philosophy4 ,those who     
think are excessively few2 and  those   
few do not set themselves to disturb the
 world4    ,who are they who have waved 
the torch of discord in their native    
country8 ,are they ,pomponatius1        
,montaigne1 ,la ,vayer1 ,descartes1     
,gassendi1  ,bayle1 ,spinoza1 ,hobbes1  
,shaftesbury1 ,boulainvilliers1 the     
,consul  ,maillet1 ,toland1 ,collins1   
,flood1 ,woolston1 ,bekker1 the author  
disguised  under the name of ,jacques   

,mass1 he of the ,turkish ,spy1 he of   
the  ,lettres ,persanes of the ,lettres 
,juives1 of the ,penses                 
,philosophiques8 ,no2 they are for the  
most part theologians1 who1  having at  
first been ambitious of becoming leaders
 of a sect1 have soon  become ambitious 
to be leaders of a party4 ,nay1 not all 
the books of  modern philosophy put     
together will ever make so much noise in
 the world  as was once made by the     
dispute of the ,cordeliers about the    
form of  their hoods and sleeves4       
,,section ,x4    ,on the ,antiquity of  
the ,dogma of the ,immortality of the   
,soul--,a  ,fragment4    ,the dogma of  
the immortality of the soul is at once  
the most consoling  and the most        
repressing idea that the mind of man can
 receive4 ,this fine  philosophy was as 
ancient among the ,egyptians as their   
pyramids2 and  before them it was known 
to the ,persians4 ,i have already       
elsewhere  related the allegory of the  
first ,zoroaster1 cited in the ,sadder1 

in  which ,god shows to ,zoroaster a    
place of chastisement1 such as the      
,dardaroth or ,keron of the ,egyptians1 
the ,hades and the ,tartarus  of the    
,greeks1 which we have but imperfectly  
rendered in our modern  tongues by the  
words inferno1 enfer1 infernal regions1 
hell1  bottomless pit4 ,in this place of
 punishment ,god showed to ,zoroaster   
all the bad kings2 one of them had but  
one foot2 ,zoroaster asked the  reason2 
and ,god answered that this king had    
done only one good action in  his life1 
which was by approaching to kick forward
 a trough which was  not near enough to 
a poor ass dying of hunger4 ,god had    
placed this  wicked man's foot in       
heaven2 the rest of his body was in     
hell4    ,this fable1 which cannot be   
too often repeated1 shows how ancient   
was  the opinion of another life4 ,the  
,indians were persuaded of it1 as their 
metempsychosis proves4 ,the ,chinese    
venerated the souls of their  ancestors4
 ,each of these nations had founded     

powerful empires long  before the       
,egyptians4 ,this is a very important   
truth1 which ,i think ,i  have already  
proved by the very nature of the soil of
 ,egypt4 ,the most  favorable grounds   
must have been cultivated the first2 the
 ground of  ,egypt is the least         
favorable of all1 being under water four
 months of  the year2 it was not until  
after immense labor1 and consequently   
after a  prodigious lapse of time1 that 
towns were at length raised which the   
,nile could not inundate4    ,this      
empire1 then1 ancient as it was1 was    
much less ancient than the  empires of  
,asia2 and in both one and the other it 
was believed that the  soul existed     
after death4 ,it is true that all these 
nations1 without  exception1 considered 
the soul as a light ethereal form1 an   
image of the  body2 the ,greek word     
signifying breath was invented long     
after by the  ,greeks4 ,but it is beyond
 a doubt that a part of ourselves was   
considered  as immortal4 ,rewards and   

punishments in another life were the    
grand  foundation of ancient theology4  
,pherecides was the first among the     
,greeks who believed that souls  existed
 from all eternity1 and not the first1  
as has been supposed1 who  said that the
 soul survived the body4 ,ulysses1 long 
before ,pherecides1  had seen the souls 
of heroes in the infernal regions2 but  
that souls  were as old as the world was
 a system which had sprung up in the    
,east1  and was brought into the ,west  
by ,pherecides4 ,i do not believe that  
there  is among us a single system which
 is not to be found among the ancients4 
,the materials of all our modern        
edifices are taken from the wreck of    
antiquity4      ,,section ,,xi4    ,it  
would be a fine thing to see one's soul4
 ,know thyself is an  excellent precept2
 but it belongs only to ,god to put it  
in practice4 ,who  but ,he can know ,his
 own essence8    ,we call soul that     
which animates4 ,owing to our limited   
intelligence we  know scarcely anything 

more of the matter4 ,three-fourths of   
mankind go  no further1 and give        
themselves no concern about the thinking
 being2 the  other fourth seek it2 no   
one has found it1 or ever will find it4 
,poor pedant6 thou seest a plant which  
vegetates1 and thou sayest1  vegetation1
 or perhaps vegetative soul4 ,thou      
remarkest that bodies  have and         
communicate motion1 and thou sayest1    
force2 thou seest thy  dog learn his    
craft under thee1 and thou exclaimest1  
instinct1  sensitive soul6 ,thou hast   
combined ideas1 and thou exclaimest1    
spirit6    ,but pray1 what dost thou    
understand by these words8 ,this flower 
vegetates2 but is there any real being  
called vegetation8 ,this body  pushes   
along another1 but does it possess      
within itself a distinct being  called  
force8 ,thy dog brings thee a partridge1
 but is there any being  called         
instinct8 ,wouldst thou not laugh1 if a 
reasoner--though he had  been preceptor 
to ,alexander--were to say to thee3 ,all

 animals live2  therefore there is in   
them a being1 a substantial form1 which 
is life8    ,if a tulip could speak and 
were to tell thee3 ,i and my vegetation 
are  two beings evidently joined        
together2 wouldst thou not laugh at the 
tulip8    ,let us at first see what thou
 knowest1 of what thou art certain2 that
  thou walkest with thy feet2 that thou 
digestest with thy stomach2 that  thou  
feelest with thy whole body2 and that   
thou thinkest with thy head4  ,let us   
see if thy reason alone can have given  
thee light enough by which  to conclude1
 without supernatural aid1 that thou    
hast a soul4    ,the first philosophers1
 whether ,chaldans or ,egyptians1 said3 
,there must  be something within us     
which produces our thoughts2 that       
something must  be very subtile2 it is a
 breath2 it is fire2 it is ether2 it is 
a  quintessence2 it is a slender        
likeness2 it is an antelechia2 it is a  
number2 it is a harmony4 ,lastly1       
according to the divine ,plato1 it is a 

compound of the same and the other4 ,it 
is atoms which think in us1  said       
,epicurus1 after ,democrites4 ,but1 my  
friend1 how does an atom think8         
,acknowledge that thou knowest nothing  
of the matter4    ,the opinion which one
 ought to adopt is1 doubtless1 that the 
soul is an  immaterial being2 but       
certainly we cannot conceive what an    
immaterial  being is4 ,no1 answer the   
learned2 but we know that its nature is 
to  think4 ,and whence do you know this8
 ,we know1 because it does think4 ,oh1  
ye learned6 ,i am much afraid that you  
are as ignorant as ,epicurus6 ,the      
nature of a stone is to fall1 because it
 does fall2 but ,i ask you1 what  makes 
it fall8    ,we know1 continue they1    
that a stone has no soul4 ,granted2 ,i  
believe it  as well as you4 ,we know    
that an affirmative and a negative are  
not  divisible1 are not parts of matter4
 ,i am of your opinion4 ,but matter1    
otherwise unknown to us1 possesses      
qualities which are not material1  which

 are not divisible2 it has gravitation  
towards a centre1 which ,god  has given 
it2 and this gravitation has no parts2  
it is not divisible4  ,the moving force 
of bodies is not a being composed of    
parts4 ,in like  manner the vegetation  
of organized bodies1 their life1 their  
instinct1  are not beings apart1        
divisible beings2 you can no more cut in
 two the  vegetation of a rose1 the life
 of a horse1 the instinct of a dog1 than
  you can cut in two a sensation1 an    
affirmation1 a negation4 ,therefore     
your fine argument1 drawn from the      
indivisibility of thought1 proves       
nothing at all4    ,what1 then1 do you  
call your soul8 ,what idea have you of  
it8 ,you cannot  of yourselves1 without 
revelation1 admit the existence within  
you of  anything but a power unknown to 
you of feeling and thinking4    ,now    
tell me honestly1 is this power of      
feeling and thinking the same as  that  
which causes you to digest and to walk8 
,you own that it is not2 for  in vain   

might your understanding say to your    
stomach--,digest2 it will  not1 if it be
 sick4 ,in vain might your immaterial   
being order your feet  to walk2 they    
will not stir1 if they have the gout4   
,the ,greeks clearly perceived that     
thought has frequently nothing to do    
with the play of our organs2 they       
admitted the existence of an animal     
soul for these organs1 and for the      
thoughts a soul finer1 more  subtile--a 
nous4    ,but we find that this soul of 
thought has1 on a thousand occasions1   
the  ascendency over the animal soul4   
,the thinking soul commands the hands to
  take1 and they obey4 ,it does not tell
 the heart to beat1 the blood to  flow1 
the chyle to form2 all this is done     
without it4 ,here then are two  souls   
much involved1 and neither of them      
having the mastery4    ,now1 this first 
animal soul certainly does not exist2 it
 is nothing more  than the movement of  
our organs4 ,take heed1 ,o man6 lest    
thou have no  more proofs but thy weak  

reason that the other soul exists4 ,thou
 canst  not know it but by faith2 thou  
art born1 thou eatest1 thou thinkest1   
thou wakest1 thou sleepest1 without     
knowing how4 ,god has given thee the    
faculty of thinking1 as ,he has given   
thee all the rest2 and if ,he had  not  
come at the time appointed by ,his      
providence1 to teach thee that  thou    
hast an immaterial and an immortal soul1
 thou wouldst have no  proof whatever of
 it4    ,let us examine the fine systems
 on the soul1 which thy philosophy has  
fabricated4    ,one says that the soul  
of man is part of the substance of ,god 
,himself2  another that it is part of   
the great whole2 a third that it is     
created  from all eternity2 a fourth    
that it is made1 and not created4       
,others  assure us that ,god makes souls
 according as they are wanted1 and that 
they arrive at the moment of copulation4
 ,they are lodged in the seminal        
animalcules1 cries one4 ,no1 says       
another1 they take up their abode in    

the ,fallopian tubes4 ,a third comes and
 says3 ,you are all wrong2 the soul     
waits for six weeks1 until the ftus is  
formed1 and then it takes  possession of
 the pineal gland2 but if it finds a    
false conception1 it  returns and waits 
for a better opportunity4 ,the last     
opinion is that its  dwelling is in the 
callous body2 this is the post assigned 
to it by ,la  ,peyronie4 ,a man should  
be first surgeon to the king of ,france 
to dispose  in this way of the lodging  
of the soul4 ,yet the callous body was  
not so  successful in the world as the  
surgeon was4    ,st4 ,thomas in his     
question #ge and following1 says that   
the soul is a  form subsisting per se1  
that it is all in all1 that its essence 
differs from its power2 that there are  
three vegetative souls1 viz41 the       
nutritive1 the argumentative1 and the   
generative2 that the memory of          
spiritual things is spiritual1 and the  
memory of corporeal things is           
corporeal2 that the rational soul is a  

form immaterial as to its  operations1  
and material as to its being4 ,st4      
,thomas wrote two thousand  pages1 of   
like force and clearness2 and he is the 
angel of the schools4    ,nor have there
 been fewer systems contrived on the way
 in which this  soul will feel1 when it 
shall have laid aside the body with     
which it  felt2 how it will hear without
 ears1 smell without a nose1 and touch  
without hands2 what body it will        
afterwards resume1 whether that which   
it had at two years old1 or at eighty2  
how the ,i--the identity of the  same   
person will subsist2 how the soul of a  
man become imbecile at the  age of      
fifteen1 and dying imbecile at the age  
of seventy1 will resume  the thread of  
the ideas which he had at the age of    
puberty2 by what  contrivance a soul1   
the leg of whose body shall be cut off  
in ,europe1  and one of its arms lost in
 ,america1 will recover this leg and    
arm1  which1 having been transformed    
into vegetables1 will have passed into  

the blood of some other animal4 ,we     
should never finish1 if we were to  seek
 to give an account of all the          
extravagances which this poor human     
soul has imagined about itself4    ,it  
is very singular that1 in the laws of   
,god's people1 not a word is  said of   
the spirituality and immortality of the 
soul2 nothing in the  ,decalogue1       
nothing in ,leviticus1 or in            
,deuteronomy4    ,it is quite certain1  
it is indubitable1 that ,moses nowhere  
proposes to  the ,jews pains and rewards
 in another life2 that he never mentions
 to  them the immortality of their      
souls2 that he never gives them hopes of
  heaven1 nor threatens them with hell2 
all is temporal4    ,many illustrious   
commentators have thought that ,moses   
was perfectly  acquainted with these two
 great dogmas2 and they prove it by the 
words  of ,jacob1 who1 believing that   
his son had been devoured by wild       
beasts1  said in his grief3 ,i will go  
down into the grave--in infernum--unto  

my son2 that is1 ,i will die1 since my  
son is dead4    ,they further prove it  
by the passages in ,isaiah and ,ezekiel2
 but the  ,hebrews1 to whom ,moses      
spoke1 could not have read either       
,ezekiel or  ,isaiah1 who did not come  
until several centuries after4    ,it is
 quite useless to dispute about the     
private opinions of ,moses4 ,the  fact  
is that in his public laws he never     
spoke of a life to come2 that  he       
limited all rewards and punishments to  
the time present4 ,if he knew  of a     
future life1 why did he not expressly   
set forth that dogma8 ,and if  he did   
not know of it1 what were the object and
 extent of his mission8  ,this question 
is asked by many great persons4 ,the    
answer is1 that the  ,master of ,moses1 
and of all men1 reserved to ,himself the
 right of  expounding to the ,jews1 at  
,his own time1 a doctrine which they    
were not  in a condition to understand  
when they were in the desert4    ,if    
,moses had announced the immortality of 

the soul1 a great school among  the     
,jews would not have constantly combated
 it4 ,this great retreat of  the        
,sadducees would not have been          
authorized in the ,state2 the ,sadducees
  would not have filled the highest     
offices1 nor would pontiffs have been   
chosen from their body4    ,it appears  
that it was not until after the founding
 of ,alexandria that  the ,jews were    
divided into three sects--the           
,pharisees1 the ,sadducees1  and the    
,essenes4 ,the historian ,josephus1 who 
was a ,pharisee1 informs us  in the     
thirteenth book of his ,antiquities that
 the ,pharisees believed  in the        
metempsychosis2 the ,sadducees believed 
that the soul perished  with the body2  
the ,essenes1 says ,josephus1 held that 
souls were  immortal2 according to them 
souls descended in an aerial form into  
the  body1 from the highest region of   
the air1 whither they were carried back 
again by a violent attraction2 and after
 death1 those which had belonged  to the

 good dwelt beyond the ocean in a       
country where there was neither  heat   
nor cold1 nor wind1 nor rain4 ,the souls
 of the wicked went into a  climate of  
an opposite description4 ,such was the  
theology of the ,jews4    ,he who alone 
was to instruct all men came and        
condemned these three  sects2 but       
without ,him we could never have known  
anything of our soul2  for the          
philosophers never had any determinate  
idea of it2 and  ,moses--the only true  
lawgiver in the world before our        
own--,moses1 who  talked with ,god face 
to face1 left men in the most profound  
ignorance on  this great point4 ,it is1 
then1 only for seventeen hundred years  
that  there has been any certainty of   
the soul's existence and its            
immortality4    ,cicero had only doubts2
 his grandson and granddaughter might   
learn the  truth from the first         
,galileans who came to ,rome4    ,but   
before that time1 and since then1 in all
 the rest of the earth where  the       

apostles did not penetrate1 each one    
must have said to his soul3  ,what art  
thou8 whence comest thou8 what dost     
thou8 whither goest thou8  ,thou art ,i 
know not what1 thinking and feeling3 and
 wert thou to feel  and think for a     
hundred thousand millions of years1 thou
 wouldst never  know any more by thine  
own light without the assistance of     
,god4    ,o man6 ,god has given thee    
understanding for thy own good conduct1 
and  not to penetrate into the essence  
of the things which ,he has created4    
,so thought ,locke2 and before ,locke1  
,gassendi2 and before ,gassendi1 a      
multitude of sages2 but we have         
bachelors who know all of which those   
great men were ignorant4    ,some cruel 
enemies of reason have dared to rise up 
against these truths1  acknowledged by  
all the wise4 ,they have carried their  
dishonesty and  impudence so far as to  
charge the authors of this work with    
having  affirmed that the soul is       
matter4 ,you well know1 persecutors of  

innocence1 that we have said quite the  
contrary4 ,you must have read  these    
very words against ,epicurus1           
,democritus1 and ,lucretius3 ,my        
friend1 how does an atom think8         
,acknowledge that thou knowest nothing  
of the matter4 ,it is then evident1 ye  
are calumniators4    ,no one knows what 
that material being is1 which is called 
spirit1 to  which--be it observed--you  
give this material name1 signifying     
wind4  ,all the first fathers of the    
,church believed the soul to be         
corporeal4  ,it is impossible for us    
limited beings to know whether our      
intelligence  is substance or faculty3  
we cannot thoroughly know either the    
extended  being1 or the thinking beings1
 or the mechanism of thought4    ,we    
exclaim to you1 with the ever to be     
revered ,gassendi and ,locke1 that  we  
know nothing by ourselves of the secrets
 of the ,creator4 ,and are you  gods1   
who know everything8 ,we repeat to you1 
that you cannot know the  nature and    

distinction of the soul but by          
revelation4 ,and is not this  revelation
 sufficient for you8 ,you must surely be
 enemies of this  revelation which we   
claim1 since you persecute those who    
expect  everything from it1 and believe 
only in it4    ,yes1 we tell you1 we    
defer wholly to the word of ,god2 and   
you1 enemies  of reason and of ,god1    
treat the humble doubt and humble       
submission of  the philosopher as the   
wolf in the fable treated the lamb2 you 
say to  him3 ,you said ill of me last   
year2 ,i must suck your blood4          
,philosophy  takes no revenge2 she      
smiles in peace at your vain endeavors2 
she mildly  enlightens mankind1 whom you
 would brutalize1 to make them like     
yourselves4          ,,space4      ,what
 is space8 ,there is no space in void1  
exclaimed ,leibnitz1 after  having      
admitted a void2 but when he admitted a 
void1 he had not  embroiled himself with
 ,newton1 nor disputed with him on the  
calculus of  fluxions1 of which ,newton 

was the inventor4 ,this dispute breaking
 out1  there was no longer space or a   
void for ,leibnitz4    ,fortunately1    
whatever may be said by philosophers on 
these insolvable  questions1 whether it 
be for ,epicurus1 for ,gassendi1 for    
,newton1 for  ,descartes1 or ,rohaut1   
the laws of motion will be always the   
same4         ,que ,rohaut vainement    
sche pour concevoir       ,comment tout 
tant plein1 tout a pu se mouvoir4       
--,,boileau1 ,ep4 v1 #ca-cb4    ,that   
,rohaut exhausts himself by vainly      
endeavoring to understand how  motion   
can exist in a plenum will not prevent  
our vessels from sailing  to the        
,indies1 and all motion proceeding with 
regularity4 ,pure space1  you say1 can  
neither be matter1 nor spirit2 and as   
there is nothing in  this world but     
matter and spirit1 there can therefore  
be no space4    ,so1 gentlemen1 you     
assert that there is only matter and    
spirit1 to us  who know so little either
 of the one or the other--a pleasant    

decision1  truly6 ,there are only two   
things in nature1 and these we know not4
  ,montezuma reasons more justly in the 
,english tragedy of ,dryden3 ,why  come 
you here to tell me of the emperor      
,charles the ,fifth8 ,there are  but two
 emperors in the world2 he of ,peru and 
myself4 ,montezuma spoke  of two things 
with which he was acquainted1 but we    
speak of two things  of which we have no
 precise idea4    ,we are very pleasant 
atoms4 ,we make ,god a spirit in a mode 
of our own2  and because we denominate  
that faculty spirit1 which the supreme1 
universal1 eternal1 and all-powerful    
,being has given us1 of combining a  few
 ideas in our little brain1 of the      
extent of six inches more or less1  we  
suppose ,god to be a spirit in the same 
sense4 ,god always in our  image--honest
 souls6    ,but how1 if there be        
millions of beings of another nature    
from our  matter1 of which we know only 
a few qualities1 and from our spirit1   
our  ideal breath of which we accurately

 know nothing at all8 and who can       
assert that these millions of beings    
exist not2 or suspects not that  ,god1  
demonstrated to exist by ,his works1 is 
eminently different from all  these     
beings1 and that space may not be one of
 them8    ,we are far from asserting    
with ,lucretius--         ,ergo1 prter  
inane et corpora1 tertia per se         
,nulla potest rerum in numero natura    
referri4                                
--,,lib41 i1 v4 #ddf1 #ddg4             
,that all consists of body and of       
space4--,,creech4    ,but may we venture
 to believe with him1 that space is     
infinite8    ,has any one been ever able
 to answer his question3 ,speed an arrow
 from  the limits of the world--will it 
fall into nothing1 into nihility8       
,clarke1 who spoke in the name of       
,newton1 pretends that space has        
properties1 for since it is extended1 it
 is measurable1 and therefore  exists4  
,but if we answer1 that something may be
 put where there is  nothing1 what      

answer will be made by ,newton and      
,clarke8    ,newton regards space as the
 sensorium of ,god4 ,i thought that ,i  
understood this grand saying formerly1  
because ,i was young2 at present1  ,i   
understand it no more than his          
explanation of the ,apocalypse4 ,space1 
the sensorium1 the internal organ of    
,god6 ,i lose both ,newton and myself   
there4    ,newton thought1 according to 
,locke1 that the creation might be      
explained  by supposing that ,god1 by an
 act of ,his will and ,his power1 had   
rendered  space impenetrable4 ,it is    
melancholy that a genius so profound as 
that  possessed by ,newton should       
suggest such unintelligible things4     
,,stage 7,,police ,,of ,,the74          
,kings of ,france were formerly         
excommunicated2 all from ,philip ,i4 to 
,louis ,,viii4 were solemnly so2 as also
 the emperors from ,henry ,,iv4 to      
,louis of ,bavaria inclusively4 ,the    
kings of ,england had likewise a very   
decent part of these favors from the    

court of ,rome4 ,it was the rage of  the
 times1 and this rage cost six or seven 
hundred thousand men their  lives4 ,they
 actually excommunicated the            
representatives of monarchs2 ,i  do not 
mean ambassadors1 but players1 who are  
kings and emperors three  or four times 
a week1 and who govern the universe to  
procure a  livelihood4    ,i scarcely   
know of any but this profession1 and    
that of magicians1 to  which this honor 
could now be paid2 but as sorcerers have
 ceased for the  eighty years that sound
 philosophy has been known to men1 there
 are no  longer any victims but         
,alexander1 ,csar1 ,athalie1 ,polyeucte1
 ,andromache1  ,brutus1 ,zare1 and      
,harlequin4    ,the principal reason    
given is1 that these gentlemen and      
ladies represent  the passions2 but if  
depicting the human heart merits so     
horrible a  disgrace1 a greater rigor   
should be used with painters and        
sculptors4  ,there are many licentious  
pictures which are publicly sold1 while 

we do  not represent a single dramatic  
poem which maintains not the strictest  
decorum4 ,the ,venus of ,titian and that
 of ,correggio are quite naked1 and  are
 at all times dangerous for our modest  
youth2 but comedians only  recite the   
admirable lines of ,cinna for about two 
hours1 and with the  approbation of the 
magistracy under the royal authority4   
,why1 therefore1  are these living      
personages on the stage more condemned  
than these mute  comedians on canvas8   
,ut pictura poesis erit4 ,what would    
,sophocles  and ,euripides have said1 if
 they could have foreseen that a people1
 who  only ceased to be barbarous by    
imitating them1 would one day inflict   
this disgrace upon the stage1 which in  
their time received such high  glory8   
,esopus and ,roscius were not ,roman    
senators1 it is true2 but the ,flamen   
did not declare them infamous2 and the  
art of ,terence was not doubted4  ,the  
great pope and prince1 ,leo ,x41 to whom
 we owe the renewal of good  tragedy and

 comedy in ,europe1 and who caused      
dramatic pieces to be  represented in   
his palace with so much magnificence1   
foresaw not that  one day1 in a part of 
,gaul1 the descendants of the ,celts and
 the ,goths  would believe they had a   
right to disgrace that which he honored4
 ,if  ,cardinal ,richelieu had lived--he
 who caused the ,palais ,royal to be    
built1 and to whom ,france owes the     
stage--he would no longer have  suffered
 them to have dared to cover with       
ignominy those whom he  employed to     
recite his own works4    ,it must be    
confessed that they were heretics who   
began to outrage the  finest of all the 
arts4 ,leo ,x41 having revived the      
tragic scene1 the  pretended reformers  
required nothing more to convince them  
that it was  the work of ,satan4 ,thus  
the town of ,geneva1 and several        
illustrious  places of ,switzerland1    
have been a hundred and fifty years     
without  suffering a violin amongst     
them4 ,the ,jansenists1 who now dance on

 the  tomb of ,st4 ,paris1 to the great 
edification of the neighborhood1 in the 
last century forbade a princess of      
,conti1 whom they governed1 to allow    
her son to learn dancing1 saying that   
dancing was too profane4 ,however1  as  
it was necessary he should be graceful1 
he was taught the minuet1 but  they     
would not allow a violin1 and the       
director was a long time before  he     
would suffer the prince of ,conti to be 
taught with castanets4 ,a few  ,catholic
 ,visigoths on this side the ,alps1     
therefore1 fearing the  reproaches of   
the reformers1 cried as loudly as they  
did4 ,thus1 by  degrees1 the fashion of 
defaming ,csar and ,pompey1 and of      
refusing  certain ceremonies to certain 
persons paid by the king1 and laboring  
under the eyes of the magistracy1 was   
established in ,france4 ,we do not      
declaim against this abuse2 for who     
would embroil himself with powerful  men
 of the present time1 for hedra and     
heroes of past ages8    ,we are content 

with finding this rigor absurd1 and with
 always paying  our full tribute of     
admiration to the masterpieces of our   
stage4    ,rome1 from whom we have      
learned our catechism1 does not use it  
as we do2  she has always known how to  
temper her laws according to times and  
occasions2 she has known how to         
distinguish impudent mountebanks1 who   
were formerly rightly censured1 from the
 dramatic pieces of ,trissin1 and  of   
several bishops and cardinals who have  
assisted to revive tragedy4  ,even at   
present1 comedies are publicly          
represented at ,rome in religious       
houses4 ,ladies go to them without      
scandal2 they think not that  dialogues1
 recited on boards1 are a diabolical    
infamy4 ,we have even seen  the piece of
 ,george ,dandin executed at ,rome by   
nuns1 in the presence  of a crowd of    
ecclesiastics and ladies4 ,the wise     
,romans are above all  careful how they 
excommunicate the gentlemen who sing the
 trebles in the  ,italian operas2 for1  

in truth1 it is enough to be castrated  
in this  world1 without being damned in 
the other4    ,in the good time of      
,louis ,,xiv41 there was always a bench 
at the  spectacles1 which was called the
 bench of bishops4 ,i have been a       
witness1 that in the minority of ,louis 
,,xv41 ,cardinal ,fleury1 then bishop   
of ,frjus1 was very anxious to revive   
this custom4 ,with other times and      
other manners1 we are apparently much   
wiser than in the times in which  the   
whole of ,europe came to admire our     
shows1 when ,richelieu revived the      
stage in ,france1 when ,leo ,x4 renewed 
the age of ,augustus in ,italy3 but a   
time will come in which our children1   
seeing the impertinent work of  ,father 
,le ,brun against the art of ,sophocles1
 and the works of our great  men printed
 at the same time1 will exclaim3 ,is it 
possible that the  ,french could thus   
contradict themselves1 and that the most
 absurd  barbarity has so proudly raised
 its head against some of the finest    

productions of the human mind8    ,st4  
,thomas of ,aquinas1 whose morals were  
equal to those of ,calvin and  ,father  
,quesnel--,st4 ,thomas1 who had never   
seen good comedy1 and who knew  only    
miserable players1 thinks however that  
the theatre might be useful4  ,he had   
sufficient good sense and justice to    
feel the merit of this art1  unfinished 
as it was1 and permitted and approved of
 it4 ,st4 ,charles  ,borromeo personally
 examined the pieces which were played  
at ,milan1 and  gave them his           
approbation and signature4 ,who after   
that will be  ,visigoths enough to treat
 ,roderigo and ,chimene as              
soul-corrupters8  ,would to ,god that   
these barbarians1 the enemies of the    
finest of arts1  had the piety of       
,polyeucte1 the clemency of ,augustus1  
the virtue of  ,burrhus1 and would die  
like the husband of ,al-zira6           
,,states--,,governments4      ,which is 
the best8 ,i have not hitherto known any
 person who has not  governed some      

state4 ,i speak not of messieurs the    
ministers1 who really  govern2 some two 
or three years1 others six months1 and  
others six  weeks2 ,i speak of all other
 men1 who1 at supper or in their closet1
  unfold their systems of government1   
and reform armies1 the ,church1 the     
gown1 and finances4    ,the ,abb de     
,bourzeis began to govern ,france       
towards the year #afde1 under  the name 
of ,cardinal ,richelieu1 and made the   
,political ,testament1 in  which he     
would enlist the nobility into the      
cavalry for three years1  make chambers 
of accounts and parliaments pay the     
poll-tax1 and deprive  the king of the  
produce of the excise4 ,he asserts1     
above all1 that to  enter a country with
 fifty thousand men1 it is essential to 
economy that  a hundred thousand should 
be raised4 ,he affirms that ,provence   
alone has  more fine seaports than      
,spain and ,italy together4    ,the ,abb
 de ,bourzeis had not travelled4 ,as to 
the rest1 his work abounds  with        

anachronisms and errors2 and as he makes
 ,cardinal ,richelieu sign  in a manner 
in which he never signed1 so he makes   
him speak as he had  never spoken4      
,moreover1 he fills a whole chapter with
 saying that reason  should guide a     
state1 and in endeavoring to prove this 
discovery4 ,this  work of obscurities1  
this bastard of the ,abb de ,bourzeis1  
has long  passed for the legitimate     
offspring of the ,cardinal ,richelieu2  
and all  academicians1 in their speeches
 of reception1 fail not to praise       
extravagantly this political            
masterpiece4    ,the ,sieur ,gatien de  
,courtilz1 seeing the success of the    
,testament  ,politique of ,richelieu1   
published at ,the ,hague the ,testament 
de  ,colbert with a fine letter of ,m4  
,colbert to the king4 ,it is clear that 
if this minister made such a testament1 
it must have been suppressed2  yet this 
book has been quoted by several authors4
    ,another ignoramus1 of whose name we
 are ignorant1 failed not to produce    

the ,testament de ,louis still worse1 if
 possible1 than that of  ,colbert4 ,an  
abb of ,chevremont also made ,charles1  
duke of ,lorraine1 form  a testament4   
,we have had the political testaments of
 ,cardinal ,alberoni1  ,marshal         
,belle-,isle1 and finally that of       
,mandrin4    ,m4 de ,boisguillebert1    
author of the ,dtail de la ,france      
published in  #afie1 produced the       
impracticable project of the royal      
tithe1 under the  name of the marshal de
 ,vauban4    ,a madman1 named ,la       
,jonchere1 wanting bread1 wrote1 in     
#agbj1 a ,project  of ,finance1 in four 
volumes2 and some fools have quoted this
  production as a work of ,la ,jonchere1
 the treasurer-general1 imagining  that 
a treasurer could not write a bad book  
on finance4    ,but it must be confessed
 that very wise men1 perhaps very worthy
 to  govern1 have written on the        
administration of states in ,france1    
,spain1  and ,england4 ,their books have
 done much good2 not that they have     

corrected ministers who were in place   
when these books appeared1 for a        
minister does not and cannot correct    
himself4 ,he has attained his  growth1  
and more instruction1 more counsel1 he  
has not time to listen  to4 ,the current
 of affairs carries him away2 but good  
books form1 young  people1 destined for 
their places2 and princes and statesmen 
of a  succeeding generation are         
instructed4    ,the strength and        
weakness of all governments has been    
narrowly examined  in latter times4     
,tell me1 then1 you who have travelled1 
who have read  and have seen1 in what   
state1 under what sort of government1   
would you  be born8 ,i conceive that a  
great landed lord in ,france would have 
no  objection to be born in ,germany3 he
 would be a sovereign instead of a      
subject4 ,a peer of ,france would be    
very glad to have the privileges of  the
 ,english peerage3 he would be a        
legislator4 ,the gownsman and  financier
 would find himself better off in       

,france than elsewhere4 ,but  what      
country would a wise freeman choose--a  
man of small fortune1  without          
prejudices8    ,a rather learned member 
of the council of ,pondicherry came into
 ,europe1  by land1 with a brahmin1 more
 learned than the generality of them4   
,how  do you find the government of the 
,great ,mogul8 said the counsellor4     
,abominable1 answered the brahmin2 how  
can you expect a state to be  happily   
governed by ,tartars8 ,our rajahs1 our  
omras1 and our nabobs are  very         
contented1 but the citizens are by no   
means so2 and millions of  citizens are 
something4    ,the counsellor and the   
brahmin traversed all ,upper ,asia1     
reasoning on  their way4 ,i reflect1    
said the brahmin1 that there is not a   
republic  in all this vast part of the  
world4 ,there was formerly that of      
,tyre1  said the counsellor1 but it     
lasted not long2 there was another      
towards  ,arabia ,petra1 in a little    
nook called ,palestine--if we can honor 

with  the name of republic a horde of   
thieves and usurers1 sometimes governed 
by judges1 sometimes by a sort of kings1
 sometimes by high priests2 who  became 
slaves seven or eight times1 and were   
finally driven from the  country which  
they had usurped4    ,i fancy1 said the 
brahmin1 that we should find very few   
republics on  earth4 ,men are seldom    
worthy to govern themselves4 ,this      
happiness should  only belong to little 
people1 who conceal themselves in       
islands1 or  between mountains1 like    
rabbits who steal away from carnivorous 
animals1  but at length are discovered  
and devoured4    ,when the travellers   
arrived in ,asia ,minor1 the counsellor 
said to the  brahmin1 ,would you believe
 that there was a republic formed in a  
corner  of ,italy1 which lasted more    
than five hundred years1 and which      
possessed this ,asia ,minor1 ,asia1     
,africa1 ,greece1 the ,gauls1 ,spain1   
and  the whole of ,italy8 ,it was       
therefore soon turned into a monarchy8  

said the brahmin4 ,you have guessed it1 
said the other2 but this  monarchy has  
fallen1 and every day we make fine      
dissertations to  discover the causes of
 its decay and fall4 ,you take much     
useless  pains1 said the ,indian3 this  
empire has fallen because it existed4   
,all  must fall4 ,i hope that the same  
will happen to the empire of the ,great 
,mogul4 ,apropos1 said the ,european1 do
 you believe that more honor is         
required in a despotic state1 and more  
virtue in a republic8 ,the term  honor  
being first explained to the ,indian1 he
 replied1 that honor was  more necessary
 in a republic1 and that there is more  
need of virtue in a  monarchical state4 
,for1 said he1 a man who pretends to be 
elected by  the people1 will not be so1 
if he is dishonored2 while at court he  
can  easily obtain a place1 according to
 the maxim of a great prince1 that to   
succeed1 a courtier should have neither 
honor nor a will of his own4  ,with     
respect to virtue1 it is prodigiously   

required in a court1 in order  to dare  
to tell the truth4 ,the virtuous man is 
much more at his ease in  a republic1   
having nobody to flatter4    ,do you    
believe1 said the ,european1 that laws  
and religions can be  formed for        
climates1 the same as furs are required 
at ,moscow1 and gauze  stuffs at ,delhi8
 ,yes1 doubtless1 said the brahmin2 all 
laws which  concern physics are         
calculated for the meridian which we    
inhabit2 a  ,german requires only one   
wife1 and a ,persian must have two or   
three4    ,rites of religion are of the 
same nature4 ,if ,i were a ,christian1  
how  would you have me say mass in my   
province1 where there is neither bread  
nor wine8 ,with regard to dogmas1 it is 
another thing2 climate has  nothing to  
do with them4 ,did not your religion    
commence in ,asia1 from  whence it was  
driven8 does it not exist towards the   
,baltic ,sea1 where it  was unknown8    
,in what state1 under what dominion1    
would you like to live8 said the        

counsellor4 ,under any but my own1 said 
his companion1 and ,i have  found many  
,siamese1 ,tonquinese1 ,persians1 and   
,turks who have said the  same4 ,but1   
once more1 said the ,european1 what     
state would you  choose8 ,the brahmin   
answered1 ,that in which the laws alone 
are  obeyed4 ,that is an odd answer1    
said the counsellor4 ,it is not the     
worse for that1 said the brahmin4 ,where
 is this country8 said the  counsellor4 
,the brahmin3 ,we must seek it4         
,,states-,,general4      ,there have    
been always such in ,europe1 and        
probably in all the earth1 so  natural  
is it to assemble the family1 to know   
its interests1 and to  provide for its  
wants6 ,the ,tartars had their cour-ilt4
 ,the ,germans1  according to ,tacitus1 
assembled to consult4 ,the ,saxons and  
people of the  ,north had their         
witenagemot4 ,the people at large formed
  states-general in the ,greek and      
,roman republics4    ,we see none among 
the ,egyptians1 ,persians1 or ,chinese1 

because we have  but very imperfect     
fragments of their histories3 we        
scarcely know  anything of them until   
since the time in which their kings were
  absolute1 or at least since the time  
in which they had only priests to       
balance their authority4    ,when the   
comitia were abolished at ,rome1 the    
,prtorian guards took their  place3     
insolent1 greedy1 barbarous1 and idle   
soldiers were the republic4  ,septimius 
,severus conquered and disbanded them4  
,the states-general of the ,ottoman     
,empire are the janissaries and         
cavalry2 in ,algiers and ,tunis1 it is  
the militia4 ,the greatest and most     
singular example of these states-general
 is the ,diet of ,ratisbon1 which  has  
lasted a hundred years1 where the       
representatives of the empire1 the      
ministers of electors1 princes1 counts1 
prelates and imperial cities1 to  the   
number of thirty-seven1 continually sit4
    ,the second states-general of       
,europe are those of ,great ,britain4   

,they are  not always assembled1 like   
the ,diet of ,ratisbon2 but they are    
become so  necessary that the king      
convokes them every year4    ,the ,house
 of ,commons answers precisely to the   
deputies of cities  received in the diet
 of the empire2 but it is much larger in
 number1 and  enjoys a superior power4  
,it is properly the nation4 ,peers and  
bishops  are in parliament only for     
themselves1 and the ,house of ,commons  
for all  the country4    ,this          
parliament of ,england is only a        
perfected imitation of certain          
states-general of ,france4 ,in #acee1   
under ,king ,john1 the three states     
were assembled at ,paris1 to aid him    
against the ,english4 ,they granted  him
 a considerable sum1 at five livres five
 sous the mark1 for fear the  king      
should change the numerary value4 ,they 
regulated the tax necessary  to gather  
in this money1 and they established nine
 commissioners to  preside at the       
receipt4 ,the king promised for himself 

and his  successors1 not to make any    
change in the coin in future4    ,what  
is promising for himself and his heirs8 
,either it is promising  nothing1 or it 
is saying3 ,neither myself nor my heirs 
have the right of  altering the money2  
we have not the power of doing ill4     
,with this money1 which was soon raised1
 an army was quickly formed1  which     
prevented not ,king ,john from being    
made prisoner at the battle of          
,poitiers4    ,account should be        
rendered at the end of the year1 of the 
employment of  the granted sum4 ,this is
 now the custom in ,england1 with the   
,house of  ,commons4 ,the ,english      
nation has preserved all that the       
,french nation has  lost4    ,the       
states-general of ,sweden have a custom 
still more honorable to  humanity1 which
 is not found among any other people4   
,they admit into  their assemblies two  
hundred peasants1 who form a body       
separated from  the three others1 and   
who maintain the liberty of those who   

labor for  the subsistence of man4      
,the states-general of ,denmark took    
quite a contrary resolution in #affj2   
they deprived themselves of all their   
rights1 in favor of the king4 ,they     
gave him an absolute and unlimited      
power2 but what is more strange is1     
that they have not hitherto repented it4
    ,the states-general in ,france have 
not been assembled since #afac1 and the 
cortes of ,spain lasted a hundred years 
after4 ,the latter were assembled  in   
#agab1 to confirm the renunciation of   
,philip ,v41 of the crown of  ,france4  
,these states-general have not been     
convoked since that  time4