,a ,,philosophical ,,dictionary         
,,volume ,v    ,by    ,,voltaire        
,,edition ,,de ,,la ,,pacification      
,,the ,,works ,,of ,,voltaire    ,a     
,,contemporary ,,version        ,with   
,notes by ,tobias ,smollett1 ,revised   
and ,modernized       ,new ,translations
 by ,william ,f4 ,fleming1 and an       
,introduction by ,oliver ,h4,g4 ,leigh  
,a ,,critique ,,and ,,biography    ,,by 
,,the ,,rt4 ,,hon4 ,,john ,,morley      
,,forty-,,three ,,volumes        ,one   
hundred and sixty-eight designs1        
comprising reproductions        of rare 
old engravings1 steel plates1           
photogravures1                      and 
curious fac-similes    ,,volume ,,ix    
,e4,r4 ,du,m,o,n,t                      
,,paris--,,london--,,new                
,,york--,,chicago    #aija          ,the
 ,,works of ,,voltaire         ,between 
two servants of ,humanity1 who appeared 
eighteen hundred       years apart1     
there is a mysterious relation4 99 99 99
 99 ,let us say it       with a         

sentiment of profound respect3 ,,jesus  
,,wept3 ,,voltaire ,,smiled4       ,of  
that divine tear and of that human smile
 is composed the       sweetness of the 
present civilization4                   
,,victor ,,hugo4          ,,list ,,of   
,,plates--,,vol4 ,v      ,,sans ,,souci 
,frontispiece    ,a ,,land ,,storm      
,,the ,,temptation ,,of ,,adam          
,,descartes          ,illustration3     
,,sans ,,souci             99       99  
99       99       99      ,a            
,,philosophical ,,dictionary4    ,,in   
,,ten ,,volumes    ,vol4 ,v             
,,fanaticism--,,gregory ,,vii           
99       99       99       99       99  
,,fanaticism4    ,,section ,i4          
,fanaticism is the effect of a false    
conscience1 which makes religion        
subservient to the caprices of the      
imagination1 and the excesses of the    
passions4    ,it arises1 in general1    
from legislators entertaining too narrow
 views1  or from their extending their  
regulations beyond the limits within    

which  alone they were intended to      
operate4 ,their laws are made merely for
 a  select society4 ,when extended by   
zeal to a whole people1 and transferred 
by ambition from one climate to another1
 some changes of institution  should    
take place1 some accommodation to       
persons1 places1 and  circumstances4    
,but what1 in fact1 has been the case8  
,certain minds1  constituted in a great 
degree like those of the small original 
flock1  have received a system with     
equal ardor1 and become its apostles1   
and  even its martyrs1 rather than abate
 a single iota of its demands4  ,others1
 on the contrary1 less ardent1 or more  
attached to their  prejudices of        
education1 have struggled with energy   
against the new  yoke1 and consented to 
receive it only after considerable      
softenings and  mitigations3 hence the  
schism between rigorists and moderates1 
by which  all are urged on to vehemence 
and madness--the one party for servitude
  and the other for freedom4    ,let us 

imagine an immense rotunda1 a pantheon1 
with innumerable altars  placed under   
its dome4 ,let us figure to ourselves a 
devotee of every  sect1 whether at      
present existing or extinct1 at the feet
 of that  divinity which he worships in 
his own peculiar way1 under all the     
extravagant forms which human           
imagination has been able to invent4 ,on
  the right we perceive one stretched on
 his back upon a mat1 absorbed in       
contemplation1 and awaiting the moment  
when the divine light shall come  forth 
to inform his soul4 ,on the left is a   
prostrate energumen striking  his       
forehead against the ground1 with a view
 to obtain from it an  abundant produce4
 ,here we see a man with the air and    
manner of a  mountebank1 dancing over   
the grave of him whom he invokes4 ,there
 we  observe a penitent1 motionless and 
mute as the statue before which he  has 
bent himself in humiliation4 ,one1 on   
the principle that ,god will not  blush 
at his own resemblance1 displays openly 

what modesty universally  conceals2     
another1 as if the artist would shudder 
at the sight of his  own work1 covers   
with an impenetrable veil his whole     
person and  countenance2 another turns  
his back upon the south1 because from   
that  quarter blows the devil's tempest4
 ,another stretches out his arms        
towards the east1 because there ,god    
first shows ,his radiant face4 ,young   
women1 suffused with tears1 bruise and  
gash their lovely persons under  the    
idea of assuaging the demon of desire1  
although by means tending in  fact      
rather to strengthen his influence2     
others again1 in opposite  attitudes1   
solicit the approaches of the ,divinity4
 ,one young man1 in  order to mortify   
the most urgent of his feelings1        
attaches to particular  parts of his    
frame large iron rings1 as heavy as he  
can bear2 another  checks still more    
effectually the tempter's violence by   
inhuman  amputation1 and suspends the   
bleeding sacrifice upon the altar4      

,let us observe them quit the temple1   
and1 full of the inspiration of  their  
respective deities1 spread the terror   
and delusion over the face  of the      
earth4 ,they divide the world between   
them2 and the four  extremities of it   
are almost instantly in flames3 nations 
obey them1 and  kings tremble before    
them4 ,that almost despotic power which 
the  enthusiasm of a single person      
exercises over a multitude who see or   
hear  him2 the ardor communicated to    
each other by assembled minds2          
numberless  strong and agitating        
influences acting in such circumstances1
 augmented  by each individual's        
personal anxiety and distress1 require  
but a short  time to operate1 in order  
to produce universal delirium4 ,only let
 a  single people be thus fascinated and
 agitated under the guidance of a  few  
impostors1 the seduction will spread    
with the speed of wild-fire1  prodigies 
will be multiplied beyond calculation1  
and whole communities  be led astray    

forever4 ,when the human mind has once  
quitted the luminous  track pointed out 
by nature1 it returns to it no more2 it 
wanders round  the truth1 but never     
obtains of it more than a few faint     
glimmerings1  which1 mingling with the  
false lights of surrounding             
superstition1 leave  it1 in fact1 in    
complete and palpable obscurity4    ,it 
is dreadful to observe how the opinion  
that the wrath of heaven might  be      
appeased by human massacre spread1 after
 being once started1 through  almost    
every religion2 and what various reasons
 have been given for the  sacrifice1 as 
though1 in order to preclude1 if        
possible1 the escape of  any one from   
extirpation4 ,sometimes they are enemies
 who must be  immolated to ,mars the    
exterminator4 ,the ,scythians slay upon 
the altars  of this deity a hundredth   
part of their prisoners of war2 and from
 this  usage attending victory1 we may  
form some judgment of the justice of    
war3 accordingly1 among other nations it

 was engaged in solely to supply  these 
human sacrifices1 so that1 having first 
been instituted1 as it  would seem1 to  
expiate the horrors of war1 they at     
length came to serve  as a justification
 of them4    ,sometimes a barbarous     
deity requires victims from among the   
just and  good4 ,the ,get eagerly       
dispute the honor of personally         
conveying to  ,zamolxis the vows and    
devotions of their country4 ,he whose   
good fortune  has destined him to be the
 sacrifice is thrown with the greatest  
violence upon a range of spears1 fixed  
for the purpose4 ,if on falling  he     
receives a mortal wound1 it augurs well 
as to the success of the  negotiation   
and the merit of the envoy2 but if he   
survives the wound1 he  is a wretch with
 whom the god would not condescend to   
hold any  communication4    ,sometimes  
children are demanded1 and the          
respective divinities recall  the life  
they had but just imparted3 ,justice1   
says ,montaigne1  thirsting for the     

blood of innocence6 ,sometimes the call 
is for the  dearest and nearest blood3  
the ,carthaginians sacrificed their own 
sons  to ,saturn1 as if ,time did not   
devour them with sufficient speed4      
,sometimes the demand was for the blood 
of the most beautiful4 ,that  ,amestris1
 who had buried twelve men alive in     
order to obtain from ,pluto1  in return 
for so revolting an offering1 a somewhat
 longer life--that  same ,amestris      
further sacrifices to that insatiable   
divinity twelve  daughters of the       
highest personages in ,persia2 as the   
sacrificing  priests have always taught 
men that they ought to offer on the     
altar the  most valuable of their       
possessions4 ,it is upon this principle 
that among  some nations the first-born 
were immolated1 and that among others   
they  were redeemed by offerings more   
valuable to the ministers of sacrifice4 
,this it is1 unquestionably1 which      
introduced into ,europe the practice    
prevalent for centuries of devoting     

children to celibacy at the early  age  
of five years1 and shutting up in a     
cloister the brothers of an  hereditary 
prince1 just as in ,asia the practice is
 to murder them4    ,sometimes it is the
 purest blood that is demanded4 ,we read
 of certain  ,indians1 if ,i recollect  
rightly1 who hospitably entertain all   
who visit  them and make a merit of     
killing every sensible and virtuous     
stranger  who enters their country1 that
 his talents and virtues may remain with
  them4 ,sometimes the blood required is
 that which is most sacred4 ,with  the  
majority of idolaters1 priests perform  
the office of executioner at  the altar2
 and among the ,siberians1 it is the    
practice to kill the  priests in order  
to despatch them to pray in the other   
world for the  fulfilment of the wishes 
of the people4    ,but let us turn our  
attention to other frenzies and other   
spectacles4  ,all ,europe passes into   
,asia by a road inundated with the blood
 of ,jews1  who commit suicide to avoid 

falling into the hands of their enemies4
  ,this epidemic depopulates one-half of
 the inhabited world3 kings1  pontiffs1 
women1 the young and the aged1 all yield
 to the influence of  the holy madness  
which1 for a series of two hundred      
years1 instigated  the slaughter of     
innumerable nations at the tomb of a god
 of peace4 ,then  were to be seen lying 
oracles1 and military hermits1 monarchs 
in  pulpits1 and prelates in camps4 ,all
 the different states constitute one    
delirious populace2 barriers of         
mountains and seas are surmounted2      
legitimate possessions are abandoned to 
enable their owners to fly to  conquests
 which were no longer1 in point of      
fertility1 the land of  promise2 manners
 become corrupted under foreign skies2  
princes1 after  having exhausted their  
respective kingdoms to redeem a country 
which  had never been theirs1 complete  
the ruin of them for their personal     
ransom2 thousands of soldiers1 wandering
 under the banners of many  chieftains1 

acknowledge the authority of none and   
hasten their defeat by  their desertion2
 and the disease terminates only to be  
succeeded by a  contagion still more    
horrible and desolating4    ,the same   
spirit of fanaticism cherished the rage 
for distant conquests3  scarcely had    
,europe repaired its losses when the    
discovery of a new  world hastened the  
ruin of our own4 ,at that terrible      
injunction1 ,go and  conquer1 ,america  
was desolated and its inhabitants       
exterminated2 ,africa  and ,europe were 
exhausted in vain to repeople it2 the   
poison of money  and of pleasure having 
enervated the species1 the world became 
nearly a  desert and appeared likely    
every day to advance nearer to          
desolation by  the continual wars which 
were kindled on our continent1 from the 
ambition of extending its power to      
foreign lands4    ,let us now compute   
the immense number of slaves which      
fanaticism has  made1 whether in ,asia1 
where uncircumcision was a mark of      

infamy1 or in  ,africa1 where the       
,christian name was a crime1 or in      
,america1 where the  pretext of baptism 
absolutely extinguished the feelings of 
humanity4 ,let  us compute the thousands
 who have been seen to perish either on 
scaffolds in the ages of persecution1 or
 in civil wars by the hands of  their   
fellow citizens1 or by their own hands  
through excessive  austerities1 and     
maceration4 ,let us survey the surface  
of the earth1 and  glance at the various
 standards unfurled and blazing in the  
name of  religion2 in ,spain against the
 ,moors1 in ,france against the ,turks1 
in  ,hungary against the ,tartars2 at   
the numerous military orders1 founded   
for converting infidels by the point of 
the sword1 and slaughtering one  another
 at the foot of the altar they had come 
to defend4 ,let us then  look down from 
the appalling tribunal thus raised on   
the bodies of the  innocent and         
miserable1 in order to judge the living1
 as ,god1 with a  balance widely        

different1 will judge the dead4    ,in a
 word1 let us contemplate the horrors of
 fifteen centuries1 all  frequently     
renewed in the course of a single one2  
unarmed men slain at  the feet of       
altars2 kings destroyed by the dagger or
 by poison2 a large  state reduced to   
half its extent by the fury of its own  
citizens2 the  nation at once the most  
warlike and the most pacific on the face
 of the  globe1 divided in fierce       
hostility against itself2 the sword     
unsheathed  between the sons and the    
father2 usurpers1 tyrants1 executioners1
  sacrilegious robbers1 and bloodstained
 parricides violating1 under the        
impulse of religion1 every convention   
divine or human--such is the  deadly    
picture of fanaticism4      ,,section   
,,ii4    ,if this term has at present   
any connection with its original meaning
 it  is exceedingly slight4             
,fanaticus was an honorable designation4
 ,it signified the minister or          
benefactor of a temple4 ,according to   

the dictionary of ,trvoux some          
antiquaries have discovered inscriptions
 in which ,roman citizens of            
considerable consequence assumed the    
title of fanaticus4    ,in ,cicero's    
oration pro domo sua1 a passage occurs  
in which the word  fanaticus appears to 
me of difficult explanation4 ,the       
seditious and  libertine ,clodius1 who  
had brought about the banishment of     
,cicero for  having saved the republic1 
had not only plundered and demolished   
the  houses of that great man1 but in   
order that ,cicero might never be able  
to return to his city residence he      
procured the consecration of the land   
on which it stood2 and the priests had  
erected there a temple to  liberty1 or  
rather to slavery1 in which ,csar1      
,pompey1 ,crassus1 and  ,clodius then   
held the republic4 ,thus in all ages has
 religion been  employed as an          
instrument in the persecution of great  
men4 ,when at  length1 in a happier     
period1 ,cicero was recalled1 he pleaded

 before the  people in order to obtain  
the restoration of the ground on which  
his  house had stood1 and the rebuilding
 of the house at the expense of the     
,roman people4 ,he thus expresses       
himself in the speech against ,clodius  
7,oratio pro ,domo sua1 chap4 xl73      
,adspicite1 adspicite1 pontifices1      
hominem religiosum4444 monete eum1 modum
 quemdam esse religionis2 nimium  esse  
superstitiosum non oportere4 ,quid tibi 
necesse fuit anili  superstitione1 homo 
fanatice1 sacrificium1 quod alin domi   
fieret  invisere8    ,does the word     
fanaticus1 as used above1 mean          
senseless1 pitiless1  abominable        
fanatic1 according to the present       
acceptation1 or does it  rather imply   
the pious1 religious man1 the frequenter
 and consecrator of  temples8 ,is it    
used here in the meaning of decided     
censure or ironical  praise8 ,i do not  
feel myself competent to determine1 but 
will give a  translation of the passage3
    ,behold1 reverend pontiffs1 behold  

the pious man4444 suggest to him that   
even religion itself has its limits1    
that a man ought not to be so           
over-scrupulous4 ,what occasion was     
there for a sacred person1 a fanatic    
like yourself1 to have recourse to the  
superstition of an old woman1 in  order 
to assist at a sacrifice performed in   
another person's house8    ,cicero      
alludes here to the mysteries of the    
,bona ,dea1 which had been  profaned by 
,clodius1 who1 in the disguise of a     
female1 and accompanied  by an old      
woman1 had obtained an introduction to  
them1 with a view to an  assignation    
with ,csar's wife4 ,the passage is1 in  
consequence1 evidently  ironical4       
,cicero calls ,clodius a religious man1 
and the irony requires to be kept  up   
through the whole passage4 ,he employs  
terms of honorable meaning1  more       
clearly to exhibit ,clodius's infamy4   
,it appears to me1 therefore1  that he  
uses the word in question1 fanaticus in 
its respectable  sense1 as a word       

conveying the idea of a sacrificer1 a   
pious man1 a  zealous minister of a     
temple4    ,the term might be afterwards
 applied to those who believed          
themselves  inspired by the gods1 who   
bestowed a somewhat curious gift on the 
interpreters of their will1 by ordaining
 that1 in order to be a prophet1  the   
loss of reason is indispensable4        
,les ,dieux  leur interprte         ,ont
 fait un trange don2       ,ne peut on  
tre prophte        ,sans qu'on perde la 
raison8    ,the same dictionary of      
,trvoux informs us that the old         
chronicles of  ,france call ,clovis     
fanatic and pagan4 ,the reader would    
have been pleased  to have had the      
particular chronicles specified4 ,i have
 not found this  epithet applied to     
,clovis in any of the few books ,i      
possess at my house  near ,mount        
,krapak1 where ,i now write4    ,we     
understand by fanaticism at present a   
religious madness1 gloomy and  cruel4   
,it is a malady of the mind1 which is   

taken in the same way as  smallpox4     
,books communicate it much less than    
meetings and discourses4  ,we seldom get
 heated while reading in solitude1 for  
our minds are then  tranquil and sedate4
 ,but when an ardent man of strong      
imagination  addresses himself to weak  
imaginations1 his eyes dart fire1 and   
that  fire rapidly spreads2 his tones1  
his gestures1 absolutely convulse the   
nerves of his auditors4 ,he exclaims1   
,the eye of ,god is at this moment  upon
 you2 sacrifice every mere human        
possession and feeling2 fight the       
battles of the ,lord--and and they rush 
to the fight4    ,fanaticism is1 in     
reference to superstition1 what delirium
 is to fever1  or rage to anger4 ,he who
 is involved in ecstasies and visions1  
who takes  dreams for realities1 and his
 own imaginations for prophecies1 is a  
fanatical novice of great hope and      
promise1 and will probably soon  advance
 to the highest form1 and kill man for  
the love of ,god4    ,bartholomew ,diaz 

was a fanatical monk4 ,he had a brother 
at ,nuremberg  called ,john ,diaz1 who  
was an enthusiastic adherent to the     
doctrines of  ,luther1 and completely   
convinced that the pope was ,antichrist1
 and had  the sign of the beast4        
,bartholomew1 still more ardently       
convinced that  the pope was god upon   
earth1 quits ,rome1 determined either to
 convert or  murder his brother2 he     
accordingly murdered him6 ,here is a    
perfect case  of fanaticism4 ,we have   
noticed and done justice to this ,diaz  
elsewhere4    ,polyeuctes1 who went to  
the temple on a day of solemn festival1 
to throw  down and destroy the statues  
and ornaments1 was a fanatic less       
horrible  than ,diaz1 but not less      
foolish4 ,the assassins of ,francis1    
duke of  ,guise1 of ,william1 prince of 
,orange1 of ,king ,henry ,,iii41 of     
,king ,henry  ,,iv41 and various others1
 were equally possessed1 equally        
laboring under  morbid fury1 with ,diaz4
    ,the most striking example of       

fanaticism is that exhibited on the     
night  of ,st4 ,bartholomew1 when the   
people of ,paris rushed from house to   
house  to stab1 slaughter1 throw out of 
the window1 and tear in pieces their    
fellow citizens not attending mass4     
,guyon1 ,patouillet1 ,chaudon1          
,nonnotte1 and the ex-,jesuit ,paulian1 
are merely fanatics in a                
corner--contemptible beings whom we do  
not think of guarding against4  ,they   
would1 however1 on a day of ,st4        
,bartholomew1 perform wonders4    ,there
 are some cold-blooded fanatics2 such as
 those judges who sentence  men to death
 for no other crime than that of        
thinking differently from  themselves1  
and these are so much the more guilty   
and deserving of the  execration of     
mankind1 as1 not laboring under madness 
like the ,clements1  ,chtels1           
,ravaillacs1 and ,damiens1 they might be
 deemed capable of  listening to reason4
    ,there is no other remedy for this  
epidemical malady than that spirit of   

philosophy1 which1 extending itself from
 one to another1 at length  civilizes   
and softens the manners of men and      
prevents the access of the  disease4    
,for when the disorder has made any     
progress1 we should1 without  loss of   
time1 fly from the seat of it1 and wait 
till the air has become  purified from  
contagion4 ,law and religion are not    
completely efficient  against the       
spiritual pestilence4 ,religion1 indeed1
 so far from  affording proper nutriment
 to the minds of patients laboring under
 this  infectious and infernal          
distemper1 is converted1 by the diseased
 process  of their minds1 into poison4  
,these malignant devotees have          
incessantly  before their eyes the      
example of ,ehud1 who assassinated the  
king of  ,eglon2 of ,judith1 who cut off
 the head of ,holofernes while in bed   
with  him2 of ,samuel1 hewing in pieces 
,king ,agag2 of ,jehoiada the priest1   
who  murdered his queen at the          
horse-gate4 ,they do not perceive that  

these  instances1 which are respectable 
in antiquity1 are in the present day    
abominable4 ,they derive their fury from
 religion1 decidedly as religion        
condemns it4    ,laws are yet more      
powerless against these paroxysms of    
rage4 ,to oppose  laws to cases of such 
a description would be like reading a   
decree of  council to a man in a frenzy4
 ,the persons in question are fully     
convinced that the ,holy ,spirit which  
animates and fills them is above  all   
laws2 that their own enthusiasm is1 in  
fact1 the only law which they  are bound
 to obey4    ,what can be said in answer
 to a man who says he will rather obey  
,god  than men1 and who consequently    
feels certain of meriting heaven by     
cutting your throat8    ,when once      
fanaticism has gangrened the brain of   
any man the disease may  be regarded as 
nearly incurable4 ,i have seen          
,convulsionaries who1 while  speaking of
 the miracles of ,st4 ,paris1 gradually 
worked themselves up to  higher and more

 vehement degrees of agitation till     
their eyes became  inflamed1 their whole
 frames shook1 their countenances became
 distorted  by rage1 and had any man    
contradicted them he would inevitably   
have been  murdered4    ,yes1 ,i have   
seen these wretched ,convulsionaries    
writhing their limbs and  foaming at    
their mouths4 ,they were exclaiming1 ,we
 must have blood4  ,they effected the   
assassination of their king by a lackey1
 and ended  with exclaiming against     
philosophers4    ,fanatics are nearly   
always under the direction of knaves1   
who place the  dagger in their hands4   
,these knaves resemble ,montaigne's ,old
 ,man of the  ,mountain1 who1 it is     
said1 made weak persons imagine1 under  
his  treatment of them1 that they really
 had experienced the joys of  paradise1 
and promised them a whole eternity of   
such delights if they  would go and     
assassinate such as he should point out 
to them4 ,there has  been only one      
religion in the world which has not been

 polluted by  fanaticism and that is the
 religion of the learned in ,china4 ,the
  different sects of ancient            
philosophers were not merely exempt from
 this  pest of human society1 but they  
were antidotes to it3 for the effect of 
philosophy is to render the soul        
tranquil1 and fanaticism and            
tranquillity are totally incompatible4  
,that our own holy religion has  been so
 frequently polluted by this infernal   
fury must be imputed to the  foil and   
madness of mankind4 ,thus ,icarus abused
 the wings which he  received for his   
benefit4 ,they were given him for his   
salvation and they  insured his         
destruction3         ,ainsi du plumage  
qu'il eut         ,icare pervertit      
l'usage2       ,il le reut pour son     
salut1         ,il s'en servit pour son 
dommage4                                
--,,bertaut1 bishop of ,sez4            
,,section ,,iii4    ,fanatics do not    
always fight the battles of the ,lord4  
,they do not always  assassinate kings  

and princes4 ,there are tigers among    
them1 but there  are more foxes4        
,what a tissue of frauds1 calumnies1 and
 robberies has been woven by  fanatics  
of the court of ,rome against fanatics  
of the court of ,calvin1  by ,jesuits   
against ,jansenists1 and vice versa6    
,and if you go farther  back you will   
find ecclesiastical history1 which is   
the school of  virtues1 to be that of   
atrocities and abominations1 which have 
been  employed by every sect against the
 others4 ,they all have the same        
bandage over their eyes whether marching
 out to burn down the cities and  towns 
of their adversaries1 to slaughter the  
inhabitants1 or condemn  them to        
judicial execution2 or when merely      
engaged in the comparatively  calm      
occupation of deceiving and defrauding1 
of acquiring wealth and  exercising     
domination4 ,the same fanaticism blinds 
them2 they think that  they are doing   
good4 ,every fanatic is a conscientious 
knave1 but a  sincere and honest        

murderer for the good cause4    ,read1  
if you are able1 the five or six        
thousand volumes in which1 for a        
hundred years together1 the ,jansenists 
and ,molinists have dealt out  against  
each other their reproaches and         
revilings1 their mutual  exposures of   
fraud and knavery1 and then judge       
whether ,scapin or  ,trevelin can be    
compared with them4    ,one of the most 
curious theological knaveries ever      
practised is1 in my  opinion1 that of a 
small bishop--the narrative asserts that
 he was a  ,biscayan bishop2 however1 we
 shall certainly1 at some future period 
find  out both his name and his         
bishopric--whose diocese was partly in  
,biscay  and partly in ,france4    ,in  
the ,french division of his diocese     
there was a parish which had  formerly  
been inhabited by some ,moors4 ,the lord
 of the parish or manor  was no         
,mahometan2 he was perfectly catholic1  
as the whole universe  should be1 for   
the meaning of catholic is universal4   

,my lord the bishop  had some suspicions
 concerning this unfortunate seigneur1  
whose whole  occupation consisted in    
doing good1 and conceived that in his   
heart he  entertained bad thoughts and  
sentiments savoring not a little of     
heresy4  ,he even accused him of having 
said1 in the way of pleasantry1 that    
there  were good people in ,morocco as  
well as in ,biscay1 and that an honest  
inhabitant of ,morocco might absolutely 
not be a mortal enemy of the  ,supreme  
,being1 who is the father of all        
mankind4    ,the fanatic1 upon this1    
wrote a long letter to the king of      
,france1 the  paramount sovereign of our
 little manorial lord4 ,in this letter  
he  entreated his majesty to transfer   
the manor of this stray and  unbelieving
 sheep either to ,lower ,brittany or    
,lower ,normandy1 according  to his good
 pleasure1 that he might be no longer   
able to diffuse the  contagion of heresy
 among his ,biscayan neighbors1 by his  
abominable  jests4 ,the king of ,france 

and his council smiled1 as may naturally
 be  supposed1 at the extravagance and  
folly of the demand4    ,our ,biscayan  
pastor learning1 some time afterwards1  
that his ,french  sheep was sick1       
ordered public notices to be fixed up at
 the church  gates of the canton1       
prohibiting any one from administering  
the  communion to him1 unless he should 
previously give in a bill of            
confession1 from which it might appear  
that he was not circumcised2 that  he   
condemned with his whole heart the      
heresy of ,mahomet1 and every other     
heresy of the like kind--as1 for        
example1 ,calvinism and ,jansenism2 and 
that in every point he thought like him1
 the said ,biscayan bishop4    ,bills of
 confession were at that time much in   
fashion4 ,the sick man sent  for his    
parish priest1 who was a simple and     
sottish man1 and threatened  to have him
 hanged by the parliament of ,bordeaux  
if he did not instantly  administer the 
viaticum to him4 ,the priest was        

alarmed1 and accordingly  celebrated the
 sacred ordinance1 as desired by the    
patient2 who1 after  the ceremony1      
declared aloud1 before witnesses1 that  
the ,biscayan pastor  had falsely       
accused him before the king of being    
tainted with the  ,mussulman religion2  
that he was a sincere ,christian1 and   
that the  ,biscayan was a calumniator4  
,he signed this1 after it had been      
written  down1 in presence of a notary1 
and every form required by law was      
complied with4 ,he soon after became    
better1 and rest and a good  conscience 
speedily completed his recovery4    ,the
 ,biscayan1 quite exasperated that the  
old patient should have thus  exposed   
and disappointed him1 resolved to have  
his revenge1 and thus he  set about it4 
,he procured1 fifteen days after the    
event just mentioned1 the  fabrication1 
in his own language or patois1 of a     
profession of faith  which the priest   
pretended to have heard and received4   
,it was signed by  the priest and three 

or four peasants1 who had not been      
present at the  ceremony2 and the forged
 instrument was then passed through the 
necessary and solemn form of            
verification and registry1 as if this   
form  could give it authenticity4    ,an
 instrument not signed by the party     
alone interested1 signed by  persons    
unknown1 fifteen days after the event1  
an instrument disavowed  by the real and
 credible witnesses of that event1      
involved evidently the  crime of        
forgery2 and1 as the subject of the     
forgery was a matter of  faith1 the     
crime clearly rendered both the priest  
and the witnesses  liable to the galleys
 in this world1 and to hell in the      
other4    ,our lord of the manor1       
however1 who loved a joke1 but had no   
gall or  malice in his heart1 took      
compassion both upon the bodies and     
souls of  these conspirators4 ,he       
declined delivering them over to human  
justice1  and contented himself with    
giving them up to ridicule4 ,but he     

declared  that after the death of the   
,biscayan he would1 if he survived1 have
 the  pleasure of printing an account of
 all his proceedings and manuvres  on   
this business1 together with the        
documents and evidences1 just to  amuse 
the small number of readers who might   
like anecdotes of that  description2 and
 not1 as is often pompously announced1  
with a view to  the instruction of the  
universe4 ,there are so many authors who
 address  themselves to the universe1   
who really imagine they attract1 and    
perhaps  absorb1 the attention of the   
universe1 that he conceived he might not
  have a dozen readers out of the whole 
who would attend for a moment to        
himself4 ,but let us return to          
fanaticism4    ,it is this rage for     
making proselytes1 this intensely mad   
desire which  men feel to bring others  
over to partake of their own peculiar   
cup or  communion1 that induced the     
,jesuit ,chtel and the ,jesuit ,routh to
 rush  with eagerness to the deathbed of

 the celebrated ,montesquieu4 ,these two
  devoted zealots desired nothing better
 than to be able to boast that  they had
 persuaded him of the merits of         
contrition and of sufficing  grace4 ,we 
wrought his conversion1 they said4 ,he  
was1 in the main1 a  worthy soul3 he was
 much attached to the society of ,jesus4
 ,we had some  little difficulty in     
inducing him to admit certain           
fundamental truths2  but as in these    
circumstances1 in the crisis of life and
 death1 the  mind is always most clear  
and acute1 we soon convinced him4       
,this fanatical eagerness for converting
 men is so ardent1 that the most        
debauched monk in his convent would even
 quit his mistress1 and walk to  the    
very extremity of the city1 for the sake
 of making a single convert4    ,we have
 all seen ,father ,poisson1 a ,cordelier
 of ,paris1 who impoverished  his       
convent to pay his mistresses1 and who  
was imprisoned in consequence  of the   
depravity of his manners4 ,he was one of

 the most popular  preachers at ,paris1 
and one of the most determined and      
zealous of  converters4    ,such also   
was the celebrated preacher ,fantin1 at 
,versailles4 ,the list  might be easily 
enlarged2 but it is unnecessary1 if not 
also dangerous1  to expose the freaks   
and freedoms of constituted authorities4
 ,you know  what happened to ,ham for   
having revealed his father's shame4 ,he 
became  as black as a coal4    ,let us  
merely pray to ,god1 whether rising or  
lying down1 that he would  deliver us   
from fanatics1 as the pilgrims of ,mecca
 pray that they may  meet with no sour  
faces on the road4      ,,section ,,iv4 
,ludlow1 who was rather an enthusiast   
for liberty than a fanatic in           
religion--that brave man1 who hated     
,cromwell more than he did ,charles     
,i41 relates that the parliamentary     
forces were always defeated by the      
royal army in the beginning of the civil
 war2 just as the regiment of  porters  
7portes-cochres7 were unable to stand   

the shock of conflict1  in the time of  
the ,fronde against the great ,cond4    
,cromwell said to  ,general ,fairfax3   
,how can you possibly expect a rabble of
 ,london porters  and apprentices to    
resist a nobility urged on by the       
principle1 or  rather the phantom1 of   
honor8 ,let us actuate them by a more   
powerful  phantom--fanaticism6 ,our     
enemies are fighting only for their     
king2 let  us persuade our troops they  
are fighting for their ,god4    ,give me
 a commission1 and ,i will raise a      
regiment of brother murderers1  whom ,i 
will pledge myself soon to make         
invincible fanatics6    ,he was as good 
as his word2 he composed his regiment of
 red-coated  brothers1 of gloomy        
religionists1 whom he made obedient     
tigers4 ,mahomet  himself was never     
better served by soldiers4    ,but in   
order to inspire this fanaticism1 you   
must be seconded and  supported by the  
spirit of the times4 ,a ,french         
parliament at the present  day would    

attempt in vain to raise a regiment of  
such porters as we have  mentioned2 it  
could1 with all its efforts1 merely     
rouse into frenzy a  few women of the   
fish-market4    ,only the ablest men    
have the power to make and to guide     
fanatics4 ,it is  not1 however1         
sufficient to possess the profoundest   
dissimulation and  the most determined  
intrepidity2 everything depends1 after  
these  previous requisites are secured1 
on coming into the world at a proper    
time4      ,,section ,v4    ,geometry   
then1 it seems1 is not always connected 
with clearness and  correctness of      
understanding4 ,over what precipices do 
not men fall1  notwithstanding their    
boasted leading-strings of reason6 ,a   
celebrated  ,protestant1 who was        
esteemed one of the first mathematicians
 of the age1  and who followed in the   
train of the ,newtons1 the ,leibnitzes1 
and  ,bernouillis1 at the beginning of  
the present century1 struck out some    
very singular corollaries4 ,it is said  

that with a grain of faith a man  may   
remove mountains2 and this man of       
science1 following up the method  of    
pure geometrical analysis1 reasoned thus
 with himself3 ,i have many  grains of  
faith1 and can1 therefore1 remove many  
mountains4 ,this was the  man who made  
his appearance at ,london in #agjg2 and1
 associating himself  with certain men  
of learning and science1 some of whom1  
moreover1 were  not deficient in        
sagacity1 they publicly announced that  
they would raise  to life a dead person 
in any cemetery that might be fixed     
upon4 ,their  reasoning was uniformly   
synthetical4 ,they said1 genuine        
disciples must  have the power of       
performing miracles2 we are genuine     
disciples1 we  therefore shall be able  
to perform as many as we please4 ,the   
mere  unscientific saints of the ,romish
 church have resuscitated many worthy   
persons2 therefore1 a fortiori1 we1 the 
reformers of the reformed  themselves1  
shall resuscitate as many as we may     

desire4    ,these arguments are         
irrefragable1 being constructed         
according to the  most correct form     
possible4 ,here we have at a glance the 
explanation why  all antiquity was      
inundated with prodigies2 why the       
temples of  sculapius at ,epidaurus1 and
 in other cities1 were completely filled
  with ex-votos2 the roofs adorned with 
thighs straightened1 arms  restored1 and
 silver infants3 all was miracle4    ,in
 short1 the famous ,protestant          
geometrician whom ,i speak of appeared  
so  perfectly sincere2 he asserted so   
confidently that he would raise the     
dead1 and his proposition was put       
forward with so much plausibility and   
strenuousness1 that the people          
entertained a very strong impression on 
the subject1 and ,queen ,anne was       
advised to appoint a day1 an hour1 and a
  cemetery1 such as he should himself   
select1 in which he might have the      
opportunity of performing his miracle   
legally1 and under the inspection  of   

justice4 ,the holy geometrician chose   
,st4 ,paul's cathedral for the  scene of
 his exertion3 the people ranged        
themselves in two rows2  soldiers were  
stationed to preserve order both among  
the living and the  dead2 the           
magistrates took their seats2 the       
register procured his  record2 it was   
impossible that the new miracles could  
be verified too  completely4 ,a dead    
body was disinterred agreeably to the   
holy man's  choice and direction2 he    
then prayed1 he fell upon his knees1 and
 made  the most pious and devout        
contortions possible2 his companions    
imitated  him2 the dead body exhibited  
no sign of animation2 it was again      
deposited in its grave1 and the         
professed resuscitator and his adherents
  were slightly punished4 ,i afterwards 
saw one of these misled creatures2  he  
declared to me that one of the party was
 at the time under the stain  of a      
venial sin1 for which the dead person   
suffered1 and but for which  the        

resurrection would have been infallible4
    ,were it allowable for us to reveal 
the disgrace of those to whom we owe    
the sincerest respect1 ,i should observe
 here1 that ,newton1 the great  ,newton 
himself1 discovered in the ,apocalypse  
that the pope was  ,antichrist1 and made
 many other similar discoveries4 ,i     
should also  observe that he was a      
decided ,arian4 ,i am aware that this   
deviation of  ,newton1 compared to that 
of the other geometrician1 is as unity  
to  infinity4 ,but if the exalted       
,newton imagined that he found the      
modern  history of ,europe in the       
,apocalypse1 we may say3 ,alas1 poor    
human  beings6    ,it seems as if       
superstition were an epidemic disease1  
from which the  strongest minds are not 
always exempt4 ,there are in ,turkey    
persons of  great and strong sense1 who 
would undergo empalement for the sake of
  certain opinions of ,abubeker4 ,these 
principles being once admitted1 they    
reason with great consistency2 and the  

,navaricians1 the ,radarists1 and  the  
,jabarites mutually consign each other  
to damnation in conformity to  very     
shrewd and subtle argument4 ,they all   
draw plausible consequences1  but they  
never dare to examine principles4    ,a 
report is publicly spread abroad by some
 person1 that there exists a  giant     
seventy feet high2 the learned soon     
after begin to discuss and  dispute     
about the color of his hair1 the        
thickness of his thumb1 the  measurement
 of his nails2 they exclaim1 cabal1 and 
even fight upon the  subject4 ,those who
 maintain that the little finger of the 
giant is only  fifteen lines in diameter
 burn those who assert that it is a foot
 thick4  ,but1 gentlemen1 modestly      
observes a stranger passing by1 does the
  giant you are disputing about really  
exist8 ,what a horrible doubt6  all the 
disputants cry out together4 ,what      
blasphemy6 ,what absurdity6 ,a  short   
truce is then brought about to give time
 for stoning the poor  stranger2 and1   

after having duly performed that        
murderous ceremony1 they  resume        
fighting upon the everlasting subject of
 the nails and little  finger4          
,,fancy4      ,fancy formerly signified 
imagination1 and the term was used      
simply to  express that faculty of the  
soul which receives sensible objects4   
,descartes and ,gassendi1 and all the   
philosophers of their day1 say that  the
 form or images of things are painted in
 the fancy4 ,but the greater  part of   
abstract terms are1 in the course of    
time1 received in a sense  different    
from their original one1 like tools     
which industry applies to  new purposes4
    ,fancy1 at present1 means a         
particular desire1 a transient taste2 he
  has a fancy for going to ,china2 his  
fancy for gaming and dancing has  passed
 away4 ,an artist paints a fancy        
portrait1 a portrait not taken  from any
 model4 ,to have fancies is to have     
extraordinary tastes1 but of  brief     
duration4 ,fancy1 in this sense1 falls a

 little short of oddity  7bizarrerie7   
and caprice4    ,caprice may express a  
sudden and unreasonable disgust4 ,he had
 a fancy  for music1 and capriciously   
became disgusted with it4 ,whimsicality 
gives  an idea of inconsistency and bad 
taste1 which fancy does not2 he had a   
fancy for building1 but he constructed  
his house in a whimsical taste4         
,there are shades of distinction between
 having fancies and being  fantastic2   
the fantastic is much nearer to the     
capricious and the  whimsical4 ,the word
 fantastic expresses a character unequal
 and  abrupt4 ,the idea of charming or  
pleasant is excluded from it2 whereas   
there are agreeable fancies4    ,we     
sometimes hear used in conversation odd 
fancies 7des fantasies  musques72 but   
the expression was never understood to  
mean what the  ,dictionary of ,trvoux   
supposes--,the whims of men of superior 
rank  which one must not venture to     
condemn2 on the contrary1 that          
expression  is used for the very object 

and purpose of condemning them2 and     
musque1 in this connection1 is an       
expletive adding force to the term      
fancies1 as we say1 ,sottise pomme1     
folie fieffe1 to express  nonsense and  
folly4          ,,fasti4    ,of the     
,different ,significations of this      
,word4      ,the ,latin word fasti      
signifies festivals1 and it is in this  
sense  that ,ovid treats of it in his   
poem entitled ,the ,fasti4    ,godeau   
has composed the ,fasti of the church on
 this model1 but with less  success4    
,the religion of the ,roman ,pagans was 
more calculated for poetry  than that of
 the ,christians2 to which it may be    
added1 that ,ovid was a  better poet    
than ,godeau4    ,the consular fasti    
were only the list of consuls4    ,the  
fasti of the magistrates were the days  
in which they were permitted  to plead2 
and those on which they did not plead   
were called nefasti1  because then they 
could not plead for justice4    ,the    
word nefastus in this sense does not    

signify unfortunate2 on the  contrary1  
nefastus and nefandus were the          
attributes of unfortunate  days in      
another sense1 signifying days in which 
people must not plead2  days worthy only
 to be forgotten2 ille nefasto te posuit
 die4    ,besides other fasti1 the      
,romans had their fasti urbis1 fasti    
rustici1 which were calendars of the    
particular usages1 and ceremonies  of   
the city and the country4    ,on these  
days of solemnity1 every one sought to  
astonish by the grandeur  of his dress1 
his equipage1 or his banquet4 ,this     
pomp1 invisible on  other days1 was     
called fastus4 ,it expresses            
magnificence in those who  by their     
station can afford it1 but vanity in    
others4    ,though the word fastus may  
not be always injurious1 the word       
pompous is invariably so4 ,a devotee who
 makes a parade of his virtue  renders  
humility itself pompous4                
,,fathers--,,mothers--,,children4       
,their ,duties4      ,the ,encyclopdia  

has been much exclaimed against in      
,france2 because it  was produced in    
,france1 and has done ,france honor4 ,in
 other countries1  people have not cried
 out2 on the contrary1 they have eagerly
 set about  pirating or spoiling it1    
because money was to be gained thereby4 
,but we1 who do not1 like the           
encyclopdists of ,paris1 labor for      
glory2  we1 who are not1 like them1     
exposed to envy2 we1 whose little       
society  lies unnoticed in ,hesse1 in   
,wrtemberg1 in ,switzerland1 among the  
,grisons1 or at ,mount ,krapak2 and     
have1 therefore1 no apprehension of     
having to dispute with the doctor of the
 ,comdie ,italienne1 or with a  doctor  
of the ,sorbonne2 we1 who sell not our  
sheets to a bookseller1 but  are free   
beings1 and lay not black on white until
 we have examined1 to  the utmost of our
 ability1 whether the said black may be 
of service to  mankind2 we1 in short1   
who love virtue1 shall boldly declare   
what we  think4    ,honor thy father and

 thy mother1 that thy days may be long--
 ,i would  venture to say1 ,honor thy   
father and thy mother1 though this day  
shall  be thy last4    ,tenderly love   
and joyfully serve the mother who bore  
you in her womb1  fed you at her breast1
 and patiently endured all that was     
disgusting in  your infancy4 ,discharge 
the same duties to your father1 who     
brought you  up4    ,what will future   
ages say of a ,frank1 named ,louis the  
,thirteenth1 who1  at the age of        
sixteen1 began the exercise of his      
authority with having  the door of his  
mother's apartment walled up1 and       
sending her into  exile1 without giving 
the smallest reason for so doing1 and   
solely  because it was his favorite's   
wish8    ,but1 sir1 ,i must tell you in 
confidence that my father is a drunkard1
  who begot me one day by chance1 not   
caring a jot about me2 and gave me  no  
education but that of beating me every  
day when he came home  intoxicated4 ,my 
mother was a coquette1 whose only       

occupation was  love-making4 ,but for my
 nurse1 who had taken a liking to me1   
and who1  after the death of her son1   
received me into her house for charity1 
,i  should have died of want4    ,well1 
then1 honor your nurse2 and bow to your 
father and mother when  you meet them4  
,it is said in the ,vulgate1 ',honora   
patrem tuum et  matrem tuam'--not       
dilige4    ,very well1 sir1 ,i shall    
love my father and my mother if they do 
me  good2 ,i shall honor them if they do
 me ill4 ,i have thought so ever since  
,i began to think1 and you confirm me in
 my maxims4    ,fare you well1 my child1
 ,i see you will prosper1 for you have a
 grain  of philosophy in your           
composition4    ,one word more1 sir4 ,if
 my father were to call himself         
,abraham1 and me  ,isaac1 and were to   
say to me1 ',my son1 you are tall and   
strong2 carry  these fagots to the top  
of that hill1 to burn you with after ,i 
have cut  off your head2 for ,god       
ordered me to do so when ,he came to see

 me this  morning1'--what would you     
advise me to do in such critical        
circumstances8    ,critical1 indeed6    
,but what would you do of yourself8 for 
you seem to be  no blockhead4    ,i own1
 sir1 that ,i should ask him to produce 
a written order1 and that  from regard  
for himself1 ,i should say to           
him--',father1 you are among  strangers1
 who do not allow a man to assassinate  
his son without an  express condition   
from ,god1 duly signed1 sealed and      
delivered4 ,see what  happened to poor  
,calas1 in the half ,french1 half       
,spanish town of  ,toulouse4 ,he was    
broken on the wheel2 and the            
procureur-gnral ,riquet  decided on     
having ,madame ,calas1 the mother1      
burned--all on the bare and  very       
ill-conceived suspicion1 that they had  
hung up their son1 ,mark  ,antony       
,calas1 for the love of ,god4 ,i should 
fear that his conclusions  would be     
equally prejudicial to the well-being of
 yourself and your  sister or niece1    

,madame ,sarah1 my mother4 ,once more ,i
 say1 show me a  lettre de cachet for   
cutting my throat1 signed by ,god's own 
hand1 and  countersigned by ,raphael1   
,michael1 or ,beelzebub4 ,if not1       
father--your  most obedient3 ,i will go 
to ,pharaoh of ,egypt1 or to the king of
 the  desert of ,gerar1 who both have   
been in love with my mother1 and will   
certainly be kind to me4 ,cut my brother
 ,ishmael's throat1 if you like2  but   
rely upon it1 you shall not cut mine4'  
,good2 this is arguing like a true sage4
 ,the ',encyclopdia' itself could  not  
have reasoned better4 ,i tell you1 you  
will do great things4 ,i admire  you for
 not having said an ill word to your    
father ,abraham--for not  having been   
tempted to beat him4 ,and tell me3 had  
you been that ,cram1  whom his father1  
the ,frankish ,king ,clothaire1 had     
burned in a barn2 a  ,don ,carlos1 son  
of that fox1 ,philip the ,second2 a poor
 ,alexis1 son of  that ,czar ,peter1    
half hero1 half tiger--    ,ah1 sir1 say

 no more of those horrors2 you will make
 me detest human  nature4               
,,favor4    ,of ,what is ,understood by 
the ,word4      ,favor1 from the ,latin 
word favor1 rather signifies a benefit  
than a  recompense4    ,we earnestly beg
 a favor2 we merit and loudly demand a  
recompense4 ,the  god ,favor1 according 
to the ,roman mythologists1 was the son 
of ,beauty  and ,fortune4 ,all favor    
conveys the idea of something           
gratuitous2 he has  done me the favor of
 introducing me1 of presenting me1 of   
recommending  my friend1 of correcting  
my work4 ,the favor of princes is the   
effect of  their fancy1 and of assiduous
 complaisance4 ,the favor of the people 
sometimes implies merit1 but is more    
often attributable to lucky  accident4  
,favor differs much from kindness4 ,that
 man is in favor with the king1  but he 
has not yet received any kindnesses from
 him4 ,we say that he has  been received
 into the good graces of a person1 not  
he has been received  into favor2 though

 we say to be in favor1 because favor is
 supposed to  be an habitual taste2     
while to receive into grace is to       
pardon1 or1 at  least1 is less than to  
bestow a favor4    ,to obtain grace is  
the effect of a moment2 to obtain favor 
is a work of  time4 ,nevertheless1 we   
say indifferently1 do me the kindness   
and do me  the favor1 to recommend my   
friend4    ,letters of recommendation   
were formerly called letters of favor4  
,severus  says1 in the tragedy of       
,polyeuctes3         ,je mourrais mille 
fois plutt que d'abuser       ,des      
lettres de faveur que j'ai pour         
l'pouser4         ,letters of favor1    
though ,i have to wed her1       ,i'd   
rather die a thousand times than use    
them4    ,we have the favor and         
good-will1 not the kindness of the      
prince and the  public4 ,we may obtain  
the favor of our audience by modesty1   
but it will  not be gracious if we are  
tedious4    ,this expression favor1     
signifies a gratuitous good-will1 which 

we seek  to obtain from the prince or   
the public4 ,gallantry has extended it  
to  the complaisance of the ladies2 and 
though we do not say that we have  the  
favors of the king1 we say that we have 
the favors of a lady4    ,the equivalent
 to this expression is unknown in ,asia1
 where the women  possess less          
influence4 ,formerly1 ribbons1 gloves1  
buckles1 and  sword-knots given by a    
lady1 were called favors4 ,the earl of  
,essex wore  a glove of ,queen          
,elizabeth's in his hat1 which he called
 the queen's  favor4                    
,,favorite4      ,this word has         
sometimes a bounded and sometimes an    
extended sense4  ,favorite sometimes    
conveys the idea of power2 and sometimes
 it only  signifies a man who pleases   
his master4    ,henry ,,iii4 had        
favorites who were only play-things1 and
 he had those who  governed the state1  
as the dukes of ,joyeuse and pernon4 ,a 
favorite may  be compared to a piece of 
gold1 which is valued at whatever the   

prince  pleases4    ,an ancient writer  
has asked1 ,who ought to be the king's  
favorite8--the  people6 ,good poets are 
called the favorites of the muses1 as   
prosperous  men are called the favorites
 of fortune1 because both are supposed  
to  receive these gifts without laboring
 for them4 ,it is thus1 that a  fertile 
and well-situated land is called the    
favorite of nature4    ,the woman who   
pleases the sultan most is called the   
favorite sultana4  ,somebody has written
 the history of favorites2 that is to   
say1 the  mistresses of the greatest    
princes4    ,several princes in ,germany
 have country houses which they call    
favorites4    ,a lady's favorite is now 
only to be found in romances and stories
 of the  last century4                  
,,feasts4      ,,section ,i4    ,a poor 
gentleman of the province of ,hagenau1  
cultivated his small  estate1 and ,st4  
,ragonda1 or ,radegonda1 was the patron 
of his parish4    ,now it happened1 on  
the feast of ,st4 ,ragonda1 that it was 

necessary to  do something to this poor 
gentleman's field1 without which great  
loss  would be incurred4 ,the master1   
with all his family1 after having       
devoutly assisted at mass1 went to      
cultivate his land1 on which depended   
the subsistence of his family1 while the
 rector and the other  parishioners went
 to tipple as usual4    ,the rector1    
while enjoying his glass1 was informed  
of the enormous  offence committed in   
his parish by this profane laborer1 and 
went1  burning with wine and anger1 to  
seek the cultivator4 ,sir1 you are very 
insolent and very impious to dare to    
cultivate your field1 instead of  going 
to the tavern like other people4 ,i     
agree1 sir1 replied the  gentleman1 that
 it is necessary to drink to the honor  
of the saint2 but  it is also necessary 
to eat1 and my family would die of      
hunger if ,i did  not labor4 ,drink and 
die1 then1 said the vicar4 ,in what law1
 in what  book is it so written8 said   
the laborer4 ,in ,ovid1 replied the     

vicar4  ,i think you are mistaken1 said 
the gentleman2 in what part of ,ovid    
have you read that ,i should go to the  
tavern rather than cultivate my  field  
on ,st4 ,ragonda's day8    ,it should be
 remarked that both the gentleman and   
the pastor were well  educated men4     
,read the metamorphoses of the daughters
 of ,minyas1 said  the vicar4 ,i have   
read it1 replied the other1 and ,i      
maintain that  they have no relation to 
my plough4 ,how1 impious man6 do you not
  remember that the daughters of ,minyas
 were changed into bats for having  spun
 on a feast day8 ,the case is very      
different1 replied the  gentleman1 these
 ladies had not rendered any homage to  
,bacchus4 ,i have  been at the mass of  
,st4 ,ragonda1 you can have nothing to  
say to me2 you  cannot change me into a 
bat4 ,i will do worse1 said the priest1 
,i  will fine you4 ,he did so4 ,the poor
 gentleman was ruined3 he quitted the   
country with his family--went into a    
strange one--became a ,lutheran--and    

his ground remained uncultivated for    
several years4    ,this affair was      
related to a magistrate of good sense   
and much piety4  ,these are the         
reflections which he made upon it3      
,they were no doubt innkeepers1 said he1
 that invented this prodigious  number  
of feasts2 the religion of peasants and 
artisans consists in  getting tipsy on  
the day of a saint1 whom they only know 
by this kind of  worship4 ,it is on     
these days of idleness and debauchery   
that all crimes  are committed2 it is   
these feasts which fill the prisons1 and
 which  support the police officers1    
registers1 lieutenants of police1 and   
hangmen2 the only excuse for feast-days 
among us4 ,from this cause  ,catholic   
countries are scarcely-cultivated at    
all2 whilst heretics1 by  daily         
cultivating their lands1 produce        
abundant crops4    ,it is all very well 
that the shoemakers should go in the    
morning to mass  on ,st4 ,crispin's day1
 because crepido signifies the upper    

leather of a  shoe2 that the            
brush-makers should honor ,st4 ,barbara 
their patron2 that  those who have weak 
eyes should hear the mass of ,st4       
,clara3 that ,st4----  should be        
celebrated in many provinces2 but after 
having paid their  devoirs to the saints
 they should become serviceable to men1 
they should  go from the altar to the   
plough2 it is the excess of barbarity1  
and  insupportable slavery1 to          
consecrate our days to idleness and     
vice4  ,priests1 command1 if it be      
necessary that the saints ,roche1       
,eustace1 and  ,fiacre1 be prayed to in 
the morning2 but1 magistrates1 order    
your fields  to be cultivated as usual4 
,it is labor that is necessary2 the     
greater  the industry the more the day  
is sanctified4      ,,section ,,ii4     
,letter from a ,weaver of ,lyons to the 
,gentlemen of the ,commission           
established at ,paris1 for the          
,reformation of ,religious ,orders1     
printed  in the public papers in #agfh4 

,gentlemen3 ,i am a silk-weaver1 and    
have worked at ,lyons for       nineteen
 years4 ,my wages have increased        
insensibly2 at present ,i       get     
thirty-five sous per day4 ,my wife1 who 
makes lace1 would get       fifteen     
more1 if it were possible for her to    
devote her time to it2       but as the 
cares of the house1 illness1 or other   
things1       continually hinder her1 ,i
 reduce her profit to ten sous1 which   
makes forty-five sous daily4 ,if from   
the year we deduct eighty-two           
,sundays1 or holidays1 we shall have two
 hundred and eighty-four                
profitable days1 which at forty-five    
sous make six hundred and               
thirty-nine livres4 ,that is my revenue2
 the following are my       expenses3   
,i have eight living children1 and my   
wife is on the point of being           
confined with the eleventh2 for ,i have 
lost two4 ,i have been       married    
fifteen years3 so that ,i annually      
reckon twenty-four livres       for the 

expenses of her confinements and        
baptisms1 one hundred and       eight   
livres for two nurses1 having generally 
two children out at       nurse1 and    
sometimes even three4 ,i pay fifty-seven
 livres rent and       fourteen taxes4  
,my income is then reduced to four      
hundred and thirty-six livres1       or 
twenty-five sous three deniers a day1   
with which ,i have to       clothe and  
furnish my family1 buy wood and candles1
 and support my       wife and six      
children4         ,i look forward to    
holidays with dismay4 ,i confess that ,i
 often       almost curse their         
institution4 ,they could only have been 
instituted by usurers and innkeepers4   
,my father made me study hard in my     
youth1 and wished me to become       a  
monk1 showing me in that state a sure   
asylum against want2 but ,i       always
 thought that every man owes his tribute
 to society1 and that       monks are   
useless drones who live upon the labor  
of the bees4       ,notwithstanding1 ,i 

acknowledge that when ,i see ,john      
,c----1 with       whom ,i studied1 and 
who was the most idle boy in the        
college1       possessing the first     
place among the prmontrs1 ,i cannot help
       regretting that ,i did not listen
 to my father's advice4         ,this is
 the third holiday in ,christmas1 ,i    
have pawned the little       furniture  
,i had1 ,i am in a week's debt with my  
tradesman1 and ,i       want bread--how 
are we to get over the fourth8 ,this is 
not all2 ,i       have the prospect of  
four more next week4 ,great ,god6 ,eight
 holidays       in ten days2 you cannot 
have commanded it6         ,one year ,i 
hoped that rents would diminish by the  
suppression of       one of the         
monasteries of the ,capuchins and       
,cordeliers4 ,what       useless houses 
in the centre of ,lyons are those of the
 ,jacobins1       nuns of ,st4 ,peter1  
etc4 ,why not establish them in the     
suburbs if       they are thought       
necessary8 ,how many more useful        

inhabitants would       supply their    
places6         ,all these reflections1 
gentlemen1 have induced me to address   
myself to you who have been chosen by   
the king for the task of                
rectifying abuses4 ,i am not the only   
one who thinks thus4 ,how many          
laborers in ,lyons and other places1 how
 many laborers in the       kingdom are 
reduced to the same extremities as      
myself8 ,it is       evident that every 
holiday costs the state several millions
       7livres74 ,these considerations  
will lead you to take more to heart     
the interests of the people1 which are  
rather too little attended       to4    
,i have the honor to be1 etc41          
,,bocen4    ,this request1 which was    
really presented1 will not be misplaced 
in a  work like the present4            
,,section ,,iii4    ,the feast given to 
the ,roman people by ,julius ,csar and  
the emperors who  succeeded him are well
 known4 ,the feast of twenty-two        
thousand tables  served by twenty-two   

thousand purveyors2 the naval fights on 
artificial  lakes1 etc41 have not1      
however1 been imitated by the ,herulian1
 ,lombard1  and ,frankish chieftains1   
who would have their festivity equally  
celebrated4          ,,ferrara4         
,what we have to say of ,ferrara has no 
relation to literature1 but it has  a   
very great one to justice1 which is much
 more necessary than the                
belles-lettres1 and much less           
cultivated1 at least in ,italy4         
,ferrara was constantly a fief of the   
empire1 like ,parma and ,placentia4     
,pope ,clement ,,viii4 robbed ,csar     
d',este of it by force of arms1 in      
#aeig4  ,the pretext for this tyranny   
was a very singular one for a man who   
called himself the humble vicar of      
,jesus ,christ4    ,alphonso d',este1   
the first of the name1 sovereign of     
,ferrara1 ,modena1  ,este1 ,carpio1 and 
,rovigno1 espoused a simple gentlewoman 
of ,ferrara1  named ,laura ,eustochia1  
by whom he had three children before    

marriage4  ,these children he solemnly  
acknowledged in the face of the ,church4
 ,none  of the formalities prescribed by
 the laws were wanting at this          
recognition4 ,his successor1 ,alphonso  
d',este1 was acknowledged duke of       
,ferrara2 he espoused ,julia d',urbino1 
the daughter of ,francis1 duke          
d',urbino1 by whom he had the           
unfortunate ,csar d',este1 the          
incontestable  heir of all the property 
of all the family1 and declared so by   
the last  duke1 who died ,october #bg1  
#aeig4 ,pope ,clement ,,viii41 surnamed 
,aldobrandino1 and originally of the    
family of a merchant of ,florence1      
dared to pretend that the grandmother of
 ,csar d',este was not  sufficiently    
noble1 and that the children that she   
had brought into the  world ought to be 
considered bastards4 ,the first reason  
is ridiculous  and scandalous in a      
bishop1 the second is unwarrantable in  
every  tribunal in ,europe4 ,if the duke
 was not legitimate1 he ought to have   

lost ,modena and his other states also2 
and if there was no flaw in his  title1 
he ought to have kept ,ferrara as well  
as ,modena4    ,the acquisition of      
,ferrara was too fine a thing for the   
pope not to  procure all the decretals  
and decisions of those brave            
theologians1 who  declare that the pope 
can render just that which is unjust4   
,consequently  he first excommunicated  
,csar d',este1 and as excommunication   
necessarily  deprives a man of all his  
property1 the common father of the      
faithful  raised his troops against the 
excommunicated1 to rob him of his       
inheritance in the name of the ,church4 
,these troops were defeated1 but  the   
duke of ,modena soon saw his finances   
exhausted1 and his friends  become cool4
    ,to make his case still more        
deplorable1 the king of ,france1 ,henry 
,,iv41  believed himself obliged to take
 the side of the pope1 in order to      
balance the credit of ,philip ,,ii4 at  
the court of ,rome2 in the same  manner 

that good ,king ,louis ,,xii4 less      
excusably dishonored himself by  uniting
 with that monster ,alexander ,,vi41 and
 his execrable bastard1 the  duke of    
,borgia4 ,the duke was obliged to       
return1 and the pope caused  ,ferrara to
 be invaded by ,cardinal ,aldobrandino1 
who entered this  flourishing city at   
the head of a thousand horse and five   
thousand foot  soldiers4    ,it is a    
great pity that such a man as ,henry    
,,iv4 descended to this  unworthiness   
which is called politic4 ,the ,catos1   
,metelluses1 ,scipios1  and ,fabriciuses
 would not thus have betrayed justice to
 please a  priest--and such a priest6   
,from this time ,ferrara became a       
desert2 its uncultivated soil was       
covered with standing marshes4 ,this    
province1 under the house of ,este1  had
 been one of the finest in ,italy2 the  
people always regretted their  ancient  
masters4 ,it is true that the duke was  
indemnified2 he was  nominated to a     
bishopric and a benefice2 he was even   

furnished with some  measures of salt   
from the mines of ,servia4 ,but it is no
 less true that  the house of ,modena   
has incontestable and imprescriptable   
rights to the  duchy of ,ferrara1 of    
which it was thus shamefully despoiled4 
,now1 my dear reader1 let us suppose    
that this scene took place at the  time 
in which ,jesus ,christ appeared to his 
apostles after his  resurrection1 and   
that ,simon ,barjonas1 surnamed ,peter1 
wished to possess  himself of the states
 of this poor duke of ,ferrara4 ,imagine
 the duke  coming to ,bethany to demand 
justice of the ,lord ,jesus4 ,our ,lord 
sends  immediately for ,peter and says  
to him1 ,simon1 son of ,jonas1 ,i have  
given thee the keys of heaven1 but ,i   
have not given thee those of the  earth4
 ,because thou hast been told that the  
heavens surround the globe1  and that   
the contained is in the containing1 dost
 thou imagine that  kingdoms here below 
belong to thee1 and that thou hast only 
to possess  thyself of whatever thou    

likest8 ,i have already forbidden thee  
to draw  the sword4 ,thou appearest to  
me a very strange compound2 at one time 
cutting off the ear of ,malchus1 and at 
another even denying me4 ,be more       
lenient and decorous1 and take neither  
the property nor the ears of any  one   
for fear of thine own4          ,,fever4
      ,it is not as a physician1 but as 
a patient1 that ,i wish to say a word or
  two on fever4 ,we cannot help now and 
then speaking of our enemies2 and  this 
one has been attacking me for more than 
twenty years2 not ,frron  himself has   
been more implacable4    ,i ask pardon  
of ,sydenham1 who defined fever to be an
 effort of nature1  laboring with all   
its power to expel the peccant matter4  
,we might thus  define smallpox1        
measles1 diarrha1 vomitings1 cutaneous  
eruptions1  and twenty other diseases4  
,but1 if this physician defined ill1 he 
practised well4 ,he cured1 because he   
had experience1 and he knew how to      
wait4    ,boerhaave says1 in his        

,aphorisms3 ,a more frequent opposition1
 and an  increased resistance about the 
capillary vessels1 give an absolute idea
  of an acute fever4 ,these are the     
words of a great master2 but he sets    
out with acknowledging that the nature  
of fever is profoundly hidden4    ,he   
does not tell us what that secret       
principle is which develops itself  at  
regular periods in intermittent         
fever--what that internal poison is1    
which1 after the lapse of a day1 is     
renewed--where that flame is1 which     
dies and revives at stated moments4     
,we know fairly well that we are liable 
to fever after excess1 or in            
unseasonable weather4 ,we know that     
quinine1 judiciously administered1  will
 cure it4 ,this is quite enough2 the how
 we do not know4    ,every animal that  
does not perish suddenly dies by fever4 
,the fever  seems to be the inevitable  
effect of the fluids that compose the   
blood1  or that which is in the place of
 blood4 ,the structure of every animal  

proves to natural philosophers that it  
must1 at all times1 have enjoyed  a very
 short life4    ,theologians have held1 
as have promulgated other opinions4 ,it 
is not for  us to examine this question4
 ,the philosophers and physicians have  
been  right in sensu humano1 and the    
theologians1 in sensu divino4 ,it is    
said in ,deuteronomy1 xxviii1 #bb1 that 
if the ,jews do not serve the law  they 
shall be smitten with a consumption1 and
 with a fever1 and with an              
inflammation1 and with an extreme       
burning4 ,it is only in ,deuteronomy1   
and in ,molire's ,physician in ,spite of
 ,himself1 that people have been        
threatened with fever4    ,it seems     
impossible that fever should not be an  
accident natural to an  animate body1 in
 which so many fluids circulate2 just as
 it is  impossible for an animate body  
not to be crushed by the falling of a   
rock4    ,blood makes life2 it furnishes
 the viscera1 the limbs1 the skin1 the  
very extremities of the hairs and nails 

with the fluids1 the humors  proper for 
them4    ,this blood1 by which the      
animal has life1 is formed by the chyle4
 ,during  pregnancy this chyle is       
transmitted from the uterus to the      
child1 and1  after the child is born1   
the milk of the nurse produces this same
 chyle4  ,the greater diversity of      
aliments it afterwards receives1 the    
more the  chyle is liable to be soured4 
,this alone forming the blood1 and this 
blood1 composed of so many different    
humors so subject to corruption1        
circulating through the whole human body
 more than five hundred and  fifty times
 in twenty-four hours1 with the rapidity
 of a torrent1 it is  not only          
astonishing that fever is not more      
frequent1 it is astonishing  that man   
lives4 ,in every articulation1 in every 
gland1 in every passage1  there is      
danger of death2 but there are also as  
many succors as there  are dangers4     
,almost every membrane extends or       
contracts as occasion  requires4 ,all   

the veins have sluices which open and   
shut1 giving passage  to the blood and  
preventing a return1 by which the       
machine would be  destroyed4 ,the blood1
 rushing through all these canals1      
purifies itself4  ,it is a river that   
carries with it a thousand impurities2  
it discharges  itself by perspiration1  
by transpiration1 by all the secretions4
 ,fever  is itself a succor2 it is a    
rectification when it does not kill4    
,man1 by his reason1 accelerates the    
cure by administering bitters1 and1     
above all1 by regimen4 ,this reason is  
an oar with which he may row for  some  
time on the sea of the world when       
disease does not swallow him up4    ,it 
is asked3 ,how is it that nature has    
abandoned the animals1 her work1  to so 
many horrible diseases1 almost always   
accompanied by fever8 ,how  and why is  
it that so many disorders exist with so 
much order1  formation1 and destruction 
everywhere1 side by side8 ,this is a    
difficulty that often gives me a fever1 

but ,i beg you will read the  letters of
 ,memmius4 ,then1 perhaps1 you will be  
inclined to suspect that  the           
incomprehensible artificer of           
vegetables1 animals1 and worlds1  having
 made all for the best1 could not have  
made anything better4                   
,,fiction4      ,is not a fiction1 which
 teaches new and interesting truths1 a  
fine  thing8 ,do you not admire the     
,arabian story of the sultan who would  
not  believe that a little time could   
appear long1 and who disputed with his  
dervish on the nature of duration8 ,the 
latter to convince him of it1  begged   
him only to plunge his head for a moment
 into the basin in which  he was        
washing4 ,immediately the sultan finds  
himself transported into a  frightful   
desert2 he is obliged to labor to get a 
livelihood2 he  marries1 and has        
children who grow up and ill treat him2 
finally he  returns to his country and  
his palace and he there finds the       
dervish who  has caused him to suffer so

 many evils for five and twenty years4  
,he is  about to kill him1 and is only  
appeased when he is assured that all    
passed in the moment in which1 with his 
eyes shut1 he put his head into  the    
water4    ,you still more admire the    
fiction of the loves of ,dido and neas1 
which  caused the mortal hatred between 
,carthage and ,rome1 as also that which 
exhibits in ,elysium the destinies of   
the great men of the ,roman ,empire4    
,you also like that of ,alcina1 in      
,ariosto1 who possesses the dignity of  
,minerva with the beauty of ,venus1 who 
is so charming to the eyes of her       
lovers1 who intoxicates them with       
voluptuous delights1 and unites all  the
 loves and graces1 but who1 when she is 
at last reduced to her true  self and   
the enchantment has passed away1 is     
nothing more than a little  shrivelled1 
disgusting1 old woman4    ,as to        
fictions which represent nothing1 teach 
nothing1 and from which  nothing        
results1 are they anything more than    

falsities8 ,and if they are  incoherent 
and heaped together without choice1 are 
they anything better  than dreams8      
,you will possibly tell me that there   
are ancient fictions which are very     
incoherent1 without ingenuity1 and even 
absurd1 which are still admired2  but is
 it not rather owing to the fine images 
which are scattered over  these fictions
 than to the inventions which introduce 
them8 ,i will not  dispute the point1   
but if you would be hissed at by all    
,europe1 and  afterwards forgotten      
forever1 write fictions similar to those
 which you  admire4          ,,fiert4   
,fiert is one of those expressions1     
which1 having been originally  employed 
in an offensive sense1 are afterwards   
used in a favorable one4  ,it is censure
 when this word signifies high-flown1   
proud1 haughty1 and  disdainful4 ,it is 
almost praise when it means the         
loftiness of a noble  mind4    ,it is a 
just eulogium on a general who marches  
towards the enemy with  fiert4 ,writers 

have praised the fiert of the gait of   
,louis ,,xiv42  they should have        
contented themselves with remarking its 
nobleness4    ,fiert1 without dignity1  
is a merit incompatible with modesty4   
,it is  only fiert in air and manners   
which offends2 it then displeases1 even 
in kings4    ,fiert of manner in society
 is the expression of pride2 fiert of   
soul is greatness4 ,the distinctions are
 so nice that a proud spirit is  deemed 
blamable1 while a proud soul is a theme 
of praise4 ,by the former  is understood
 one who thinks advantageously of       
himself while the latter  denotes one   
who entertains elevated sentiments4     
,fiert1 announced by the exterior1 is so
 great a fault that the weak1  who      
abjectly praise it in the great are     
obliged to soften it1 or rather  to     
extol it1 by speaking of this noble     
fiert4 ,it is not simply  vanity1 which 
consists in setting a value upon little 
things2 it is not  presumption1 which   
believes itself capable of great ones2  

it is not  disdain1 which adds contempt 
of others to a great opinion of self2   
but  it is intimately allied to all     
these faults4    ,this word is used in  
romances1 poetry1 and above all1 in     
operas1 to  express the severity of     
female modesty4 ,we meet with vain      
fiert1  vigorous fiert1 etc4 ,poets are1
 perhaps1 more in the right than they   
imagine4 ,the fiert of a woman is not   
only rigid modesty and love of  duty1   
but the high value which she sets upon  
her beauty4 ,the fiert of  the pencil is
 sometimes spoken of to signify free and
 fearless touches4          ,,figure4   
,every one desirous of instruction      
should read with attention all the      
articles in the ,dictionnaire           
,encyclopdique1 under the head  ,figure1
 viz43    ,figure of the ,earth1 by ,m4 
d',alembert--a work both clear and      
profound1  in which we find all that can
 be known on the subject4    ,figure of 
,rhetoric1 by ,csar ,dumarsais--a piece 
of instruction which  teaches at once to

 think and to write2 and1 like many     
other articles1  make us regret that    
young people in general have not a      
convenient  opportunity of reading      
things so useful4    ,human ,figure1 as 
relating to painting and sculpture--an  
excellent  lesson given to every artist1
 by ,m4 ,watelet4    ,figure1 in        
physiology--a very ingenious article1 by
 ,m4 de ,caberoles4    ,figure1 in      
arithmetic and in algebra--by ,m4       
,mallet4    ,figure1 in logic1 in       
metaphysics1 and in polite literature1  
by ,m4 le  ,chevalier de ,jaucourt--a   
man superior to the philosophers of     
antiquity1  inasmuch as he has preferred
 retirement1 real philosophy1 and       
indefatigable labor1 to all the         
advantages that his birth might have    
procured him1 in a country where birth  
is set above all beside1  excepting     
money4    ,figure or ,form of the       
,earth4    ,plato1 ,aristotle1          
,eratosthenes1 ,posidonius1 and all the 
geometricians of  ,asia1 of ,egypt1 and 

of ,greece1 having acknowledged the     
sphericity of our  globe1 how did it    
happen that we1 for so long a time1     
imagined that the  earth was a third    
longer than it was broad1 and thence    
derived the terms  longitude and        
latitude1 which continually bear        
testimony to our  ancient ignorance8    
,the reverence due to the ,bible1 which 
teaches us so many truths more          
necessary and more sublime1 was the     
cause of this1 our almost universal     
error4 ,it had been found1 in ,psalm    
ciii1 that ,god had stretched the       
heavens over the earth like a skin2 and 
as a skin is commonly longer  than it is
 wide1 the same was concluded of the    
earth4    ,st4 ,athanasius expresses    
himself as warmly against good          
astronomers as  against the partisans of
 ,arius and ,eusebius4 ,let us1 says he1
 stop  the mouths of those barbarians1  
who1 speaking without proof1 dare to    
assert that the heavens also extend     
under the earth4 ,the fathers           

considered the earth as a great ship1   
surrounded by water1 with the prow  to  
the east1 and the stern to the west4 ,we
 still find1 in ,cosmos1 a  work of the 
fourth century1 a sort of geographical  
chart1 in which the  earth has this     
figure4    ,tortato1 bishop of ,avila1  
near the close of the fifteenth century1
  declares in his commentary on         
,genesis1 that the ,christian faith is  
shaken1 if the earth is believed to be  
round4 ,columbus1 ,vespucius1 and       
,magellan1 not having the fear of       
excommunication by this learned bishop  
before their eyes1 the earth resumed its
 rotundity in spite of him4    ,then man
 went from one extreme to the other1 and
 the earth was regarded  as a perfect   
sphere4 ,but the error of the perfect   
sphere was the mistake  of philosophers1
 while that of a long1 flat earth was   
the blunder of  idiots4    ,when once it
 began to be clearly known that our     
globe revolves on its  own axis every   
twenty-four hours1 it might have been   

inferred from that  alone that its form 
could not be absolutely round4 ,not only
 does the  centrifugal zone considerably
 raise the waters in the region of the  
equator1 by the motion of the diurnal   
rotation1 but they are moreover         
elevated about twenty-five feet1 twice a
 day1 by the tides2 the lands  about the
 equator must then be perfectly         
inundated4 ,but they are not so2        
therefore the region of the equator is  
much more elevated1 in  proportion1 than
 the rest of the earth3 then the earth  
is a spheroid  elevated at the equator1 
and cannot be a perfect sphere4 ,this   
proof1  simple as it is1 had escaped the
 greatest geniuses3 because a universal 
prejudice rarely permits investigation4 
,we know that1 in #agfb1 in a voyage to 
,cayenne1 near the line1 undertaken  by 
order of ,louis ,,xiv41 under the       
auspices of ,colbert1 the patron of all 
the arts1 ,richer1 among many other     
observations1 found that the            
oscillations or vibrations of his       

timepiece did not continue so frequent  
as in the latitude of ,paris1 and that  
it was absolutely necessary to  shorten 
the pendulum one line and something more
 than a quarter4 ,physics  and geometry 
were at that time not nearly so much    
cultivated as they now  are2 what man   
would have believed that an observation 
so trivial in  appearance1 a line more  
or less1 could lead to the knowledge of 
the  greatest physical truths8 ,it was  
first of all discovered that the weight 
must necessarily be less on the equator 
than in our latitudes1 since  weight    
alone causes the oscillation of a       
pendulum4 ,consequently1 the  weight of 
bodies being the less the farther they  
are from the centre of  the earth1 it   
was inferred that the region of the     
equator must be much  more elevated than
 our own--much more remote from the     
centre2 so the  earth could not be an   
exact sphere4    ,many philosophers     
acted1 on the occasion of these         
discoveries1 as all  men act when an    

opinion is to be changed--they disputed 
on ,richer's  experiment2 they pretended
 that our pendulums made their          
vibrations more  slowly about the       
equator only because the metal was      
lengthened by the  heat2 but it was seen
 that the heat of the most burning      
summer lengthens  it but one line in    
thirty feet2 and here was an elongation 
of a line and  a quarter1 a line and a  
half1 or even two lines1 in an iron rod1
 only  three feet and eight lines long4 
,some years after ,,mm4 ,varin1         
,deshayes1 ,feuille1 and ,couplet1      
repeated  the same experiment on the    
pendulum1 near the equator2 and it was  
always  found necessary to shorten it1  
although the heat was very often less on
  the line than fifteen or twenty       
degrees from it4 ,this experiment was   
again confirmed by the academicians whom
 ,louis ,,xv4 sent to ,peru2 and who    
were obliged1 on the mountains about    
,quito1 where it froze1 to shorten  the 
second pendulum about two lines4        

,about the same time1 the academicians  
who went to measure an arc of the       
meridian in the north1 found that at    
,pello1 within the ,polar circle1 it    
was necessary to lengthen the pendulum1 
in order to have the same  oscillations 
as at ,paris3 consequently weight is    
greater at the polar  circle than in the
 latitude of ,france1 as it is greater  
in our latitude  than at the equator4   
,weight being greater in the north1 the 
north was  therefore nearer the centre  
of the earth than the equator2 therefore
 the  earth was flattened at the poles4 
,never did reasoning and experiment so  
fully concur to establish a truth4  ,the
 celebrated ,huygens1 by calculating    
centrifugal forces1 had proved  that the
 consequent diminution of weight on the 
surface of a sphere was  not great      
enough to explain the phenomena1 and    
that therefore the earth  must be a     
spheroid flattened at the poles4        
,newton1 by the principles of           
attraction1 had found nearly the same   

relations3 only it must be  observed1   
that ,huygens believed this force       
inherent in bodies  determining them    
towards the centre of the globe1 to be  
everywhere the  same4 ,he had not yet   
seen the discoveries of ,newton2 so that
 he  considered the diminution of weight
 by the theory of centrifugal forces    
only4 ,the effect of centrifugal forces 
diminishes the primitive gravity  on the
 equator4 ,the smaller the circles in   
which this centrifugal force  is        
exercised become1 the more it yields to 
the force of gravity2 thus1  at the pole
 itself the centrifugal force being     
null1 must leave the  primitive gravity 
in full action4 ,but this principle of a
 gravity always  equal1 falls to nothing
 before the discovery made by ,newton1  
that a body  transported1 for instance1 
to the distance of ten diameters from   
the  centre of the earth1 would weigh   
one hundred times less than at the      
distance of one diameter4    ,it is then
 by the laws of gravitation1 combined   

with those of the  centrifugal force1   
that the real form of the earth must be 
shown4 ,newton  and ,gregory had such   
confidence in this theory that they did 
not  hesitate to advance that           
experiments on weight were a surer means
 of  knowing the form of the earth than 
any geographical measurement4    ,louis 
,,xiv4 had signalized his reign by that 
meridian which was drawn  through       
,france3 the illustrious ,dominico      
,cassini had begun it with his  son2 and
 had1 in #agja1 drawn from the feet of  
the ,pyrenees to the  observatory a line
 as straight as it could be drawn1      
considering the  almost insurmountable  
obstacles which the height of mountains1
 the  changes of refraction in the air1 
and the altering of instruments were    
constantly opposing to the execution of 
so vast and delicate an  undertaking2 he
 had1 in #agja1 measured six degrees    
eighteen minutes of  that meridian4     
,but1 from whatever cause the error     
might proceed1 he had  found the degrees

 towards ,paris1 that is towards the    
north1 shorter than  those towards the  
,pyrenees and the south4 ,this          
measurement gave the lie  both to the   
theory of ,norwood and to the new theory
 of the earth  flattened at the poles4  
,yet this new theory was beginning to be
 so  generally received that the        
academy's secretary did not hesitate1 in
 his  history of #agja1 to say that the 
new measurements made in ,france proved 
the earth to be a spheroid flattened at 
the poles4 ,the truth was1 that         
,dominico ,cassini's measurement led to 
a conclusion directly opposite2  but1 as
 the figure of the earth had not yet    
become a question in ,france1  no one at
 that time was at the trouble of        
combating this false  conclusion4 ,the  
degrees of the meridian from ,collioure 
to ,paris were  believed to be exactly  
measured2 and the pole1 which from that 
measurement must necessarily be         
elongated1 was believed to be flattened4
    ,an engineer1 named ,m4 de ,roubais1

 astonished at this conclusion1         
demonstrated that1 by the measurements  
taken in ,france1 the earth must  be an 
oblate spheroid1 of which the meridian  
passing through the poles  must be      
longer than the equator1 the poles being
 elongated4 ,but of all  the natural    
philosophers to whom he addressed his   
dissertation1 not one  would have it    
printed2 because it seemed that the     
academy had pronounced  it as too bold  
in an individual to raise his voice4    
,some time after the  error of #agja was
 acknowledged1 that which had been said 
was unsaid2 and  the earth was          
lengthened by a just conclusion drawn   
from a false  principle4 ,the meridian  
was continued in the same principle from
 ,paris  to ,dunkirk2 and the degrees   
were still found to grow shorter as they
  approached the north4 ,people were    
still mistaken respecting the figure  of
 the earth1 as they had been concerning 
the nature of light4 ,about the  same   
time1 some mathematicians who were      

performing the same operations  in      
,china were astonished to find a        
difference among their degrees1  which  
they had expected to find alike2 and to 
discover1 after many  verifications1    
that they were shorter towards the north
 than towards the  south4 ,this         
accordance of the mathematicians of     
,france with those of  ,china was       
another powerful reason for believing in
 the oblate spheroid4  ,in ,france they 
did still more2 they measured parallels 
to the equator4  ,it is easily          
understood that on an oblate spheroid   
our degrees of  longitude must be       
shorter than on a sphere4 ,m4 de        
,cassini found the  parallel which      
passes through ,st4 ,malo to be shorter 
by one thousand and  thirty-seven toises
 than it would have been on a spherical 
earth4    ,all these measurements proved
 that the degrees had been found as it  
was  wished to find them4 ,they         
overturned1 for a time1 in ,france1 the 
demonstrations of ,newton and ,huygens2 

and it was no longer doubted that  the  
poles were of a form precisely contrary 
to that which had at first  been        
attributed to them4 ,in short1 nothing  
at all was known about the  matter4     
,at length1 other academicians1 who had 
visited the polar circle in #agcf1      
having found1 by new measurements1 that 
the degree was longer there than  in    
,france1 people doubted between them and
 the ,cassinis4 ,but these  doubts were 
soon after removed3 for these same      
astronomers1 returning  from the pole1  
examined afresh the degree to the north 
of ,paris1  measured by ,picard1 in     
#afgg1 and found it to be a hundred and 
twenty-three toises longer than it was  
according to ,picard's  measurement4    
,if1 then1 ,picard1 with all his        
precautions1 had made his  degree one   
hundred and twenty-three toises too     
short1 it was not at all  unlikely that 
the degrees towards the south had in    
like manner been  found too long4 ,thus 
the first error of ,picard1 having      

furnished the  foundations for the      
measurements of the meridian1 also      
furnished an  excuse for the almost     
inevitable errors which very good       
astronomers  might have committed in the
 course of these operations4            
,unfortunately1 other men of science    
found that1 at the ,cape of ,good       
,hope1 the degrees of the meridian did  
not agree with ours4 ,other             
measurements1 taken in ,italy1 likewise 
contradicted those of ,france1 and  all 
were falsified by those of ,china4      
,people again began to doubt1 and  to   
suspect1 in my opinion quite reasonably1
 that the earth had  protuberances4 ,as 
for the ,english1 though they are fond  
of travelling1  they spared themselves  
the fatigue1 and held fast their theory4
    ,the difference between one diameter
 and the other is not more than five  or
 six of our leagues--a difference       
immense in the eyes of a disputant1  but
 almost imperceptible to those who      
consider the measurement of the  globe  

only in reference to the purposes of    
utility which it may serve4 ,a          
geographer could scarcely make this     
difference perceptible on a map2 nor    
would a pilot be able to discover       
whether he was steering on a spheroid   
or on a sphere4 ,yet there have been men
 bold enough to assert that the  lives  
of navigators depended on this question4
 ,oh quackery6 will you  spare no       
degrees--not even those of the meridian8
          ,,figured--,,figurative4      
,we say1 a truth figured by a fable1 by 
a parable2 the church figured  by the   
young spouse in ,solomon's ,song2       
ancient ,rome figured by  ,babylon4 ,a  
figurative style is constituted by      
metaphorical expressions1  figuring the 
things spoken of--and disfiguring them  
when the metaphors  are not correct4    
,ardent imagination1 passion1           
desire--frequently deceived--produce the
  figurative style4 ,we do not admit it 
into history1 for too many  metaphors   
are hurtful1 not only to perspicuity1   

but also to truth1 by  saying more or   
less than the thing itself4    ,in      
didactic works1 this style should be    
rejected4 ,it is much more out of  place
 in a sermon than in a funeral oration1 
because the sermon is a  piece of       
instruction in which the truth is to be 
announced2 while the  funeral oration is
 a declaration in which it is to be     
exaggerated4    ,the poetry of          
enthusiasm1 as the epopee and the ode1  
is that to which  this style is best    
adapted4 ,it is less admissible in      
tragedy1 where the  dialogue should be  
natural as well as elevated2 and still  
less in  comedy1 where the style must be
 more simple4    ,the limits to be set  
to the figurative style1 in each kind1  
are  determined by taste4 ,baltasar     
,gracian says1 that our thoughts depart 
from the vast shores of memory1 embark  
on the sea of imagination1 arrive  in   
the harbor of intelligence1 and are     
entered at the custom house of  the     
understanding4    ,this is precisely the

 style of ,harlequin4 ,he says to his   
master1 ,the  ball of your commands has 
rebounded from the racquet of my        
obedience4  ,must it not be owned that  
such is frequently that oriental style  
which  people try to admire8 ,another   
fault of the figurative style is the    
accumulating of incoherent figures4 ,a  
poet1 speaking of some  philosophers1   
has called them3                        
,d'ambitieux pygmes       ,qui sur leurs
 pieds vainement redresss       ,et sur 
des monts d'argumens entasss       ,de  
jour en jour superbes ,encelades1       
,vont redoublant leurs folles escalades4
    ,when philosophers are to be written
 against1 it should be done better4     
,how do ambitious pygmies1 reared on    
their hind legs on mountains of         
arguments1 continue escalades8 ,what a  
false and ridiculous image6 ,what       
elaborate dulness6    ,in an allegory by
 the same author1 entitled the ,liturgy 
of ,cytherea1  we find these lines3     
,de toutes parts1 autour de l'inconnue1 

,ils vont tomber comme grle menue1      
,moissons des curs sur la terre jonchs1 
,et des ,dieux mme  son char attachs4   
,de par ,venus nous venons cette affaire
       ,si s'en retourne aux cieux dans 
son srail1       ,en ruminant comment il
 pourra faire       ,pour ramener la    
brebis au bercail4    ,here we have     
harvests of hearts thrown on the ground 
like small hail2  and among these hearts
 palpitating on the ground1 are gods    
bound to the  car of the unknown2 while 
love1 sent by ,venus1 ruminates in his  
seraglio  in heaven1 what he shall do to
 bring back to the fold this lost mutton
  surrounded by scattered hearts4 ,all  
this forms a figure at once so  false1  
so puerile1 and so incoherent--so       
disgusting1 so extravagant1 so  stupidly
 expressed1 that we are astonished that 
a man1 who made good  verses of another 
kind1 and was not devoid of taste1 could
 write  anything so miserably bad4      
,figures1 metaphors1 are not necessary  
in an allegory2 what has been  invented 

with imagination may be told with       
simplicity4 ,plato has more  allegories 
than figures2 he often expresses them   
elegantly and without  ostentation4     
,nearly all the maxims of the ancient   
orientals and of the ,greeks were in    
the figurative style4 ,all those        
sentences are metaphors1 or short       
allegories2 and in them the figurative  
style has great effect in rousing  the  
imagination and impressing the memory4  
,we know that ,pythagoras said1 ,in the 
tempest adore the echo1 that is1  during
 civil broils retire to the country2 and
 ,stir not the fire with  the sword1    
meaning1 do not irritate minds already  
inflamed4 ,in every  language1 there are
 many common proverbs which are in the  
figurative  style4          ,,figure    
,,in ,,theology4      ,it is quite      
certain1 and is agreed by the most pious
 men1 that figures  and allegories have 
been carried too far4 ,some of the      
fathers of the  church regard the piece 
of red cloth1 placed by the courtesan   

,rahab at  her window1 for a signal to  
,joshua's spies1 as a figure of the     
blood of  ,jesus ,christ4 ,this is an   
error of an order of mind which would   
find  mystery in everything4    ,nor can
 it be denied that ,st4 ,ambrose made   
very bad use of his taste for  allegory1
 when he says1 in his book of ,noah and 
the ,ark1 that the back  door of the ark
 was a figure of our hinder parts4      
,all men of sense have asked how it can 
be proved that these ,hebrew  words1    
maher1 salas-has-has1 7take quick the   
spoils7 are a figure of  ,jesus ,christ8
 ,how is ,judah1 tying his ass to a     
vine1 and washing his  cloak in the     
wine1 also a figure of ,him4 ,how can   
,ruth1 slipping into bed  to ,boaz1     
figure the church1 how are ,sarah and   
,rachel the church1 and  ,hagar and     
,leah the synagogue8 ,how1 do the kisses
 of the ,shunamite typify  the marriage 
of the church8 ,a volume might be made  
of these enigmas1  which1 to the best   
theologians of later times1 have        

appeared to be  rather far-fetched than 
edifying4    ,the danger of this abuse  
is fully admitted by ,abb ,fleury1 the  
author of  the ,ecclesiastical ,history4
 ,it is a vestige of rabbinism2 a fault 
into which the learned ,st4 ,jerome     
never fell4 ,it is like oneiromancy1  or
 the explanation of dreams4 ,if a girl  
sees muddy water1 when dreaming1  she   
will be ill-married2 if she sees clear  
water1 she will have a good  husband2 a 
spider denotes money1 etc4 ,in short1   
will enlightened  posterity believe it8 
,the understanding of dreams has1 for   
more than  four thousand years1 been    
made a serious study4    ,symbolical    
,figures4    ,all nations have made use 
of them1 as we have said in the article 
emblem4 ,but who began8 ,was it the     
,egyptians8 ,it is not likely4 ,we      
think we have already more than once    
proved that ,egypt is a country  quite  
new1 and that many ages were requisite  
to save the country from  inundations1  
and render it habitable4 ,it is         

impossible that the  ,egyptians should  
have invented the signs of the zodiac1  
since the  figures denoting our         
seed-time and harvest cannot coincide   
with theirs4  ,when we cut our corn1    
their land is covered with water2 and   
when we sow1  their reaping time is     
approaching4 ,thus the bull of our      
zodiac and the  girl bearing ears of    
corn cannot have come from ,egypt4      
,here is also an evident proof of the   
falsity of the new paradox1 that  the   
,chinese are an ,egyptian colony4 ,the  
characters are not the same4 ,the       
,chinese mark the course of the sun by  
twenty-eight constellations and  the    
,egyptians1 after the ,chaldans1        
reckoned only twelve1 like  ourselves4  
,the figures that denote the planets are
 in ,china and in ,india all  different 
from those of ,egypt and of ,europe2 so 
are the signs of the  metals2 so is the 
method of guiding the hand in writing4  
,nothing could  have been more          
chimerical than to send the ,egyptians  

to people ,china4    ,all these fabulous
 foundations1 laid in fabulous times1   
have caused an  irreparable loss of time
 to a prodigious multitude of the       
learned1 who  have all been bewildered  
in their laborious researches1 which    
might have  been serviceable to mankind 
if directed to arts of real utility4    
,pluche1 in his ,history1 or rather his 
fable1 of the ,heavens1 assures us  that
 ,ham1 son of ,noah1 went and reigned in
 ,egypt1 where there was nobody  to     
reign over2 that his son ,menes was the 
greatest of legislators1 and  that      
,thoth was his prime minister4          
,according to him and his authorities1  
this ,thoth1 or somebody else1          
instituted feasts in honor of the       
deluge2 and the joyful cry of ,io       
,bacche1 so famous among the ,greeks1   
was1 among the ,egyptians1 a            
lamentation4 ,bacche came from the      
,hebrew beke signifying sobs1  and that 
at a time when the ,hebrew people did   
not exist4 ,according to  this          

explanation1 joy means sorrow1 and to   
sing signifies  to weep4    ,the        
,iroquois have more sense4 ,they do not 
take the trouble to inquire  what passed
 on the shores of ,lake ,ontario some   
thousand years ago3  instead of making  
systems1 they go hunting4    ,the same  
authors affirm that the sphinxes1 with  
which ,egypt was adorned1  signified    
superabundance1 because some            
interpreters have asserted that  the    
,hebrew word spang meant an excess2 as  
if the ,egyptians had  taken lessons    
from the ,hebrew tongue1 which is1 in   
great part1 derived  from the ,phnician3
 besides1 what relation has a sphinx to 
an  abundance of water8 ,future         
schoolmen will maintain1 with greater   
appearance of reason1 that the masks    
which decorate the keystones of our     
windows are emblems of our masquerades2 
and that these fantastic  ornaments     
announced that balls were given in every
 house to which they  were affixed4     
,figure1 ,figurative1 ,allegorical1     

,mystical1 ,topological1 ,typical1 etc4 
,this is often the art of finding in    
books everything but what they  really  
contain4 ,for instance1 ,romulus killing
 his brother ,remus shall  signify the  
death of the duke of ,berry1 brother of 
,louis ,,xi42 ,regulus1  imprisoned at  
,carthage1 shall typify ,st4 ,louis     
captive at ,mansurah4    ,it is very    
justly remarked in the ,encyclopdia1    
that many fathers of  the church have1  
perhaps1 carried this taste for         
allegorical figures a  little too far2  
but they are to be reverenced1 even in  
their wanderings4  ,if the holy fathers 
used and then abused this method1 their 
little  excesses of imagination may be  
pardoned1 in consideration of their holy
  zeal4    ,the antiquity of the usage  
may also be pleaded in justification1   
since  it was practised by the earliest 
philosophers4 ,but it is true that the  
symbolical figures employed by the      
fathers are in a different taste4       
,for example3 ,when ,st4 ,augustine     

wishes to make it appear that the       
forty-two generations of the genealogy  
of ,jesus are announced by ,st4         
,matthew1 who gives only forty-one1 he  
says that ,jechonias must be  counted   
twice1 because ,jechonias is a          
corner-stone belonging to two  walls2   
that these two walls figure the old and 
the new law2 and that  ,jechonias1 being
 thus the corner-stone1 figures ,jesus  
,christ1 who is the  real corner-stone4 
,the same saint1 in the same sermon1    
says that the number forty must         
prevail2 and at once abandons ,jechonias
 and his corner-stone1 counted as  two4 
,the number forty1 he says1 signifies   
life2 ten1 which is perfect  beatitude1 
being multiplied by four1 which1 being  
the number of the  seasons1 figures     
time4    ,again1 in the same sermon1 he 
explains why ,st4 ,luke gives ,jesus    
,christ  seventy-seven ancestors3       
fifty-six up to the patriarch ,abraham1 
and  twenty-one from ,abraham up to ,god
 himself4 ,it is true that1 according to

  the ,hebrew text1 there would be but  
seventy-six2 for the ,hebrew does not   
reckon a ,cainan1 who is interpolated in
 the ,greek translation called  ,the    
,septuagint4    ,thus said ,augustine3  
,the number seventy-seven figures the   
abolition of  all sins by baptism4444   
the number ten signifies justice and    
beatitude1  resulting from1 the         
creature1 which makes seven with the    
,trinity1 which  is three3 therefore it 
is that ,god's commandments are ten in  
number4 ,the  number eleven denotes sin1
 because it transgresses ten4444 ,this  
number  seventy-seven is the product of 
eleven1 figuring sin1 multiplied by     
seven1 and not by ten1 for seven is the 
symbol of the creature4 ,three          
represents the soul1 which is in some   
sort an image of the ,divinity2 and     
four represents the body1 on account of 
its four qualities4 ,in these           
explanations1 we find some trace of the 
cabalistic mysteries and the  quaternary
 of ,pythagoras4 ,this taste was very   

long in vogue4    ,st4 ,augustine goes  
much further1 concerning the dimensions 
of matter4  ,breadth is the dilatation  
of the heart1 which performs good works2
  length is perseverance2 depth is the  
hope of reward4 ,he carries the         
allegory very far1 applying it to the   
cross1 and drawing great  consequences  
therefrom4 ,the use of these figures had
 passed from the  ,jews to the          
,christians long before ,st4            
,augustine's time4 ,it is not for  us to
 know within what bounds it was right to
 stop4    ,the examples of this fault   
are innumerable4 ,no one who has studied
 to  advantage will hazard the          
introduction of such figures1 either in 
the  pulpit or in the school4 ,we find  
no such instances among the ,romans or  
the ,greeks1 not even in their poets4   
,in ,ovid's ,metamorphoses themselves1  
we find only ingenious deductions  drawn
 from fables which are given as fables4 
,deucalion and ,pyrrha threw  stones    
behind them between their legs1 and men 

were produced therefrom4  ,ovid says3   
,inde genus durum sumus1 experiensque   
laborum1       ,et documenta damus qua  
simus origine nati4         ,thence we  
are a hardened and laborious race1      
,proving full well our stony origin4    
,apollo loves ,daphne1 but ,daphne does 
not love ,apollo4 ,this is because  love
 has two kinds of arrows2 the one golden
 and piercing1 the other  leaden and    
blunt4 ,apollo has received in his heart
 a golden arrow1  ,daphne a leaden one4 
,ecce sagittifera prompsit duo tela     
pharetra       ,diversorum operum2 fugat
 hoc1 facit illud amorem       ,quod    
facit auratum est1 et cuspide fulget    
acuta2       ,quod fugat obtusum est1 et
 habet sub arundine plumbum4444         
,two different shafts he from his quiver
 draws2       ,one to repel desire1 and 
one to cause4       ,one shaft is       
pointed with refulgent gold1       ,to  
bribe the love1 and make the lover bold2
       ,one blunt and tipped with lead1 
whose base allay       ,provokes        

disdain1 and drives desire              
away4--,,dryden4    ,these figures are  
all ingenious1 and deceive no one4      
,that ,venus1 the goddess of beauty1    
should not go unattended by the         
,graces1 is a charming truth4 ,these    
fables1 which were in the mouths of     
all--these allegories1 so natural and   
attractive--had so much sway over  the  
minds of men1 that perhaps the first    
,christians imitated while they  opposed
 them4    ,they took up the weapons of  
mythology to destroy it1 but they could 
not  wield them with the same address4  
,they did not reflect that the sacred   
austerity of our holy religion placed   
these resources out of their  power1 and
 that a ,christian hand would have dealt
 but awkwardly with the  lyre of        
,apollo4    ,however1 the taste for     
these typical and prophetic figures was 
so firmly  rooted that every prince1    
every statesman1 every pope1 every      
founder of  an order1 had allegories or 
allusions taken from the ,holy          

,scriptures  applied to him4 ,satire and
 flattery rivalled each other in drawing
 from  this source4    ,when ,pope      
,innocent ,,iii4 made a bloody crusade  
against the court of  ,toulouse1 he was 
told1 ,innocens eris a maledictione4    
,when the order  of the ,minimes was    
established1 it appeared that their     
founder had been  foretold in ,genesis3 
,minimus cum patre nostro4    ,the      
preacher who preached before ,john of   
,austria after the celebrated  battle of
 ,lepanto1 took for his text1 ,fuit homo
 missus a ,deo1 cui  nomen erat         
,johannes2 ,a man sent from ,god1 whose 
name was ,john2 and  this allusion was  
very fine1 if all the rest were         
ridiculous4 ,it is said  to have been   
repeated for ,john ,sobieski1 after the 
deliverance of  ,vienna2 but this latter
 preacher was nothing more than a       
plagiarist4    ,in short1 so constant   
has been this custom that no preacher of
 the  present day has ever failed to    
take an allegory for his text4 ,one of  

the  most happy instances is the text of
 the funeral oration over the duke of   
,candale1 delivered before his sister1  
who was considered a pattern of  virtue3
 ,die1 quia soror1 mea es1 ut mihi bene 
eveniat propter1  te4--,say1 ,i pray    
thee1 that thou art my sister1 that it  
may be well  with me for thy sake4      
,it is not to be wondered at that the   
,cordeliers carried these figures       
rather too far in favor of ,st4 ,francis
 of ,assisi1 in the famous but          
little-known book1 entitled1            
,conformities of ,st4 ,francis of       
,assisi with  ,jesus ,christ4 ,we find  
in it sixty-four predictions of the     
coming of ,st4  ,francis1 some in the   
,old ,testament1 others in the ,new2 and
 each  prediction contains three        
figures1 which signify the founding of  
the  ,cordeliers4 ,so that these fathers
 find themselves foretold in the ,bible 
a hundred and ninety-two times4    ,from
 ,adam down to ,st4 ,paul1 everything   
prefigured the blessed ,francis of      

,assisi4 ,the ,scriptures were given to 
announce to the universe the  sermons of
 ,francis to the quadrupeds1 the fishes1
 and the birds1 the  sport he had with a
 woman of snow1 his frolics with the    
devil1 his  adventures with brother     
,elias and brother ,pacificus4    ,these
 pious reveries1 which amounted even to 
blasphemy1 have been  condemned4 ,but   
the ,order of ,st4 ,francis has not     
suffered by them1 having  renounced     
these extravagancies so common to the   
barbarous ages4          ,,final        
,,causes4      ,,section ,i4    ,virgil 
says 7neid1 book vi4 #gbg73             
,mens agitat molem et magno se corpore  
miscet4         ,this active mind       
infused1 through all the space          
,unites and mingles with the mighty     
mass4--,,dryden4    ,virgil said well3  
and ,benedict ,spinoza1 who has not the 
brilliancy of  ,virgil1 nor his merit1  
is compelled to acknowledge an          
intelligence  presiding over all4 ,had  
he denied this1 ,i should have said to  

him3  ,benedict1 you are a fool2 you    
possess intelligence1 and you deny it1  
and  to whom do you deny it8    ,in the 
year #aggj1 there appeared a man1 in    
some respects far superior to  ,spinoza1
 as eloquent as the ,jewish ,hollander  
is dry1 less methodical1  but infinitely
 more perspicuous2 perhaps equal to him 
in mathematical  science2 but without   
the ridiculous affectation of applying  
mathematical  reasonings to metaphysical
 and moral subjects4 ,the man ,i mean is
 the  author of the ,system of ,nature4 
,he assumed the name of ,mirabaud1 the  
secretary of the ,french ,academy4      
,alas6 the worthy secretary was         
incapable of writing a single page of   
the book of our formidable  opponent4 ,i
 would recommend all you who are        
disposed to avail yourselves  of your   
reason and acquire instruction1 to read 
the following eloquent  though dangerous
 passage from the ,system of ,nature4   
7,part ,,ii4 v4 #aec47    ,it is        
contended that animals furnish us with a

 convincing evidence that  there is some
 powerful cause of their existence2 the 
admirable  adaptation of their different
 parts1 mutually receiving and          
conferring  aid towards accomplishing   
their functions1 and maintaining in     
health and  vigor the entire being1     
announce to us an artificer uniting     
power to  wisdom4 ,of the power of      
nature1 it is impossible for us to      
doubt2 she  produces all the animals    
that we see by the help of combinations 
of that  matter1 which is in incessant  
action2 the adaptation of the parts of  
these animals is the result of the      
necessary laws of their nature1 and  of 
their combination4 ,when the adaptation 
ceases1 the animal is  necessarily      
destroyed4 ,what then becomes of the    
wisdom1 the  intelligence1 or the       
goodness of that alleged cause1 to which
 was  ascribed all the honor of this    
boasted adaptation8 ,those animals of so
  wonderful a structure as to be        
pronounced the works of an immutable    

,god1  do not they undergo incessant    
changes2 and do not they end in decay   
and  destruction8 ,where is the wisdom1 
the goodness1 the fore-sight1 the       
immutability of an artificer1 whose sole
 object appears to be to derange  and   
destroy the springs of those machines   
which are proclaimed to be  masterpieces
 of his power and skill8 ,if this ,god  
cannot act otherwise  than thus1 he is  
neither free nor omnipotent4 ,if his    
will changes1 he is  not immutable4 ,if 
he permits machines1 which he has       
endowed with  sensibility1 to experience
 pain1 he is deficient in goodness4 ,if 
he has  been unable to render his       
productions solid and durable1 he is    
deficient  in skill4 ,perceiving as we  
do the decay and ruin not only of all   
animals1 but of all the other works of  
deity1 we cannot but inevitably         
conclude1 either that everything        
performed in the course of nature is    
absolutely necessary--the unavoidable   
result of its imperative and            

insuperable laws1 or that the artificer 
who impels her various  operations is   
destitute of plan1 of power1 of         
constancy1 of skill1 and  of goodness4  
,man1 who considers himself the         
master-work of the ,divinity1 supplies  
us  more readily and completely than any
 other production1 with evidence of  the
 incapacity or malignity of his         
pretended author4 ,in this being1       
possessed of feeling1 intuition1 and    
reason1 which considers itself as  the  
perpetual object of divine partiality1  
and forms its ,god on the  model of     
itself1 we see a machine more           
changeable1 more frail1 more  liable to 
derangement from its extraordinary      
complication1 than that of  the coarsest
 and grossest beings4 ,beasts1 which are
 destitute of our  mental powers and    
acquirements2 plants1 which merely      
vegetate2 stones1  which are unendowed  
with sensation1 are1 in many respects1  
beings far  more favored than man4 ,they
 are1 at least1 exempt from distress of 

mind1  from the tortures of thought1 and
 corrosions of care1 to which the       
latter is a victim4 ,who would not      
prefer being a mere unintelligent       
animal1 or a senseless stone1 when his  
thoughts revert to the  irreparable loss
 of an object dearly beloved8 ,would it 
not be infinitely  more desirable to be 
an inanimate mass1 than the gloomy      
votary and  victim of superstition1     
trembling under the present yoke of his 
diabolical deity1 and anticipating      
infinite torments in a future           
existence8 ,beings destitute of         
sensation1 life1 memory1 and thought    
experience no affliction from the idea  
of what is past1 present1 or to  come2  
they do not believe there is any danger 
of incurring eternal  torture for       
inaccurate reasoning2 which is believed1
 however1 by many of  those favored     
beings who maintain that the great      
architect of the world  has created the 
universe for themselves4                
,illustration3 ,,nature ,,is ,,not ,a   

,,work    ,let us not be told that we   
have no idea of a work without having   
that  of the artificer distinguished    
from the work4 ,nature is not a work4   
,she has always existed of herself4     
,every process takes place in her       
bosom4 ,she is an immense manufactory1  
provided with materials1 and she  forms 
the instruments by which she acts2 all  
her works are effects of  her own       
energy1 and of agents or causes which   
she frames1 contains1 and  impels4      
,eternal1 uncreated elements--elements  
indestructible1 ever in  motion1 and    
combining in exquisite and endless      
diversity1 originate all  the beings and
 all the phenomena that we behold2 all  
the effects1 good  or evil1 that we     
feel2 the order or disorder which we    
distinguish1  merely by different modes 
in which they affect ourselves2 and1 in 
a  word1 all those wonders which excite 
our meditation and confound our         
reasoning4 ,these elements1 in order to 
effect objects thus comprehensive  and  

important1 require nothing beyond their 
own properties1 individual  or combined1
 and the motion essential to their very 
existence2 and thus  preclude the       
necessity of recurring to an unknown    
artificer1 in order to  arrange1 mould1 
combine1 preserve1 and dissolve them4   
,but1 even admitting for a moment1 that 
it is impossible to conceive of  the    
universe without an artificer who formed
 it1 and who preserves and  watches over
 his work1 where shall we place that    
artificer8 ,shall he be  within or      
without the universe8 ,is he matter or  
motion8 ,or is he mere  space1          
nothingness1 vacuity8 ,in each of these 
cases1 he will either be  nothing1 or he
 will be comprehended in nature1 and    
subjected to her  laws4 ,if he is in    
nature1 ,i think ,i see in her only     
matter in motion1  and cannot but thence
 conclude that the agent impelling her  
is corporeal  and material1 and that he 
is consequently liable to dissolution4  
,if this  agent is out of nature1 then  

,i have no idea of what place he can    
occupy1  nor of an immaterial being1 nor
 of the manner in which a spirit1       
without  extension1 can operate upon the
 matter from which it is separated4     
,those  unknown tracts of space which   
imagination has placed beyond the       
visible  world may be considered as     
having no existence for a being who can 
scarcely see to the distance of his own 
feet2 the ideal power which  inhabits   
them can never be represented to my     
mind1 unless when my  imagination       
combines at random the fantastic colors 
which it is always  forced to employ in 
the world on which ,i am4 ,in this case1
 ,i shall  merely reproduce in idea what
 my senses have previously actually     
perceived2 and that ,god1 which ,i1 as  
it were1 compel myself to  distinguish  
from nature1 and to place beyond her    
circuit1 will ever1 in  opposition to   
all my efforts1 necessarily withdraw    
within it4    ,it will be observed and  
insisted upon by some that if a statue  

or a  watch were shown to a savage who  
had never seen them1 he would           
inevitably acknowledge that they were   
the productions of some  intelligent    
agent1 more powerful and ingenious than 
himself2 and hence  it will be inferred 
that we are equally bound to acknowledge
 that the  machine of the universe1 that
 man1 that the phenomena of nature1 are 
the  productions of an agent1 whose     
intelligence and power are far superior 
to our own4    ,i answer1 in the first  
place1 that we cannot possibly doubt    
either the  great power or the great    
skill of nature2 we admire her skill as 
often  as we are surprised by the       
extended1 varied and complicated effects
  which we find in those of her works   
that we take the pains to  investigate2 
she is not1 however1 either more or less
 skilful in any one  of her works than  
in the rest4 ,we no more comprehend how 
she could  produce a stone or a piece of
 metal than how she could produce a head
  organized like that of ,newton4 ,we   

call that man skilful who can perform   
things which we are unable to perform   
ourselves4 ,nature can perform          
everything2 and when anything exists1 it
 is a proof that she was able to  make  
it4 ,thus1 it is only in relation to    
ourselves that we ever judge  nature to 
be skilful2 we compare it in those cases
 with ourselves2 and1  as we possess a  
quality which we call intelligence1 by  
the aid of which  we produce works1 in  
which we display our skill1 we thence   
conclude that  the works of nature1     
which must excite our astonishment and  
admiration1  are not in fact hers1 but  
the productions of an artificer1        
intelligent  like ourselves1 and whose  
intelligence we proportion1 in our      
minds1 to  the degree of astonishment   
excited in us by his works2 that is1 in 
fact1  to our own weakness and          
ignorance4    ,see the reply to these   
arguments under the articles on ,atheism
 and  ,god1 and in the following        
section1 written long before the ,system

 of  ,nature4      ,,section ,,ii4      
,if a clock is not made in order to tell
 the time of the day1 ,i will then      
admit that final causes are nothing but 
chimeras1 and be content to go  by the  
name of a final-cause-finder--in plain  
language1 fool--to the end  of my life4 
,all the parts1 however1 of that great  
machine1 the world1 seem made for  one  
another4 ,some philosophers affect to   
deride final causes1 which were         
rejected1 they tell us1 by ,epicurus and
 ,lucretius4 ,but it seems to me  that  
,epicurus and ,lucretius rather merit   
the derision4 ,they tell you  that the  
eye is not made to see2 but that1 since 
it was found out that  eyes were capable
 of being used for that purpose1 to that
 purpose they  have been applied4       
,according to them1 the mouth is not    
formed to speak  and eat1 nor the       
stomach to digest1 nor the heart to     
receive the blood  from the veins and   
impel it through the arteries1 nor the  
feet to walk1  nor the ears to hear4    

,yet1 at the same time1 these very      
shrewd and  consistent persons admitted 
that tailors made garments to clothe    
them1  and masons built houses to lodge 
them2 and thus ventured to deny         
nature--the great existence1 the        
universal intelligence--what they       
conceded to the most insignificant      
artificers employed by themselves4      
,the doctrine of final causes ought     
certainly to be preserved from being    
abused4 ,we have already remarked that  
,m4 le ,prieur1 in the ,spectator of    
,nature1 contends in vain that the tides
 were attached to the ocean to  enable  
ships to enter more easily into their   
ports1 and to preserve the  water from  
corruption2 he might just as probably   
and successfully have  urged that legs  
were made to wear boots1 and noses to   
bear spectacles4    ,in order to satisfy
 ourselves of the truth of a final      
cause1 in any  particular instance1 it  
is necessary that the effect produced   
should be  uniform and invariably in    

time and place4 ,ships have not existed 
in all  times and upon all seas2        
accordingly1 it cannot be said that the 
ocean  was made for ships4 ,it is       
impossible not to perceive how          
ridiculous it  would be to maintain that
 nature had toiled on from the very     
beginning  of time to adjust herself to 
the inventions of our fortuitous and    
arbitrary arts1 all of which are of so  
late a date in their discovery2  but it 
is perfectly clear that if noses were   
not made for spectacles1  they were made
 for smelling1 and there have been noses
 ever since there  were men4 ,in the    
same manner1 hands1 instead of being    
bestowed for the  sake of gloves1 are   
visibly destined for all those uses to  
which the  metacarpus1 the phalanges of 
the fingers1 and the movements of the   
circular muscle of the wrist1 render    
them applicable by us4 ,cicero1 who     
doubted everything else1 had no doubt   
about final causes4    ,it appears      
particularly difficult to suppose that  

those parts of the  human frame by which
 the perpetuation of the species is     
conducted should  not1 in fact1 have    
been intended and destined for that     
purpose1 from  their mechanism so truly 
admirable1 and the sensation which      
nature has  connected with it more      
admirable still4 ,epicurus would be at  
least  obliged to admit that pleasure is
 divine1 and that that pleasure is a    
final cause1 in consequence of which    
beings1 endowed with sensibility1  but  
who could never have communicated it to 
themselves1 have been  incessantly      
introduced into the world as others have
 passed away from  it4    ,this         
philosopher1 ,epicurus1 was a great man 
for the age in which he  lived4 ,he saw 
that ,descartes denied what ,gassendi   
affirmed and what  ,newton              
demonstrated--that motion cannot exist  
without a vacuum4 ,he  conceived the    
necessity of atoms to serve as          
constituent parts of  invariable        
species4 ,these are philosophical ideas4

 ,nothing1 however1  was more           
respectable than the morality of genuine
 ,epicureans2 it  consisted in          
sequestration from public affairs1 which
 are incompatible  with wisdom1 and in  
friendship1 without which life is but a 
burden4 ,but  as to the rest of the     
philosophy of ,epicurus1 it appears not 
to be more  admissible than the grooved 
or tubular matter of ,descartes4 ,it is1
 as it  appears to me1 wilfully to shut 
the eyes and the understanding1 and to  
maintain that there is no design in     
nature2 and if there is design1  there  
is an intelligent cause--there exists a 
,god4    ,some point us to the          
irregularities of our globe1 the        
volcanoes1 the  plains of moving sand1  
some small mountains swallowed up in the
 ocean1  others raised by earthquakes1  
etc4 ,but does it follow from the naves 
of  your chariot wheel taking fire1 that
 your chariot was not made expressly    
for the purpose of conveying you from   
one place to another8    ,the chains of 

mountains which crown both hemispheres1 
and more than six  hundred rivers which 
flow from the foot of these rocks       
towards the sea2  the various streams   
that swell these rivers in their        
courses1 after  fertilizing the fields  
through which they pass2 the innumerable
  fountains which spring from the same  
source1 which supply necessary          
refreshment1 and growth1 and beauty to  
animal and vegetable life2 all  this    
appears no more to result from a        
fortuitous concourse and an  obliquity  
of atoms1 than the retina which receives
 the rays of light1 or  the crystalline 
humor which refracts it1 or the drum of 
the ear which  admits sound1 or the     
circulation of the blood in our veins1  
the systole  and diastole of the heart1 
the regulating principle of the machine 
of  life4      ,,section ,,iii4    ,it  
would appear that a man must be supposed
 to have lost his senses  before he can 
deny that stomachs are made for         
digestion1 eyes to see1  and ears to    

hear4    ,on the other hand1 a man must 
have a singular partiality for final    
causes1 to assert that stone was made   
for building houses1 and that  silkworms
 are produced in ,china that we may wear
 satins in ,europe4    ,but1 it is      
urged1 if ,god has evidently done one   
thing by design1 he has  then done all  
things by design4 ,it is ridiculous to  
admit ,providence in  the one case and  
to deny it in the others4 ,everything   
that is done was  foreseen1 was         
arranged4 ,there is no arrangement      
without an object1 no  effect without a 
cause2 all1 therefore1 is equally the   
result1 the  product of the final cause2
 it is1 therefore1 as correct to say    
that  noses were made to bear           
spectacles1 and fingers to be adorned   
with  rings1 as to say that the ears    
were formed to hear sounds1 the eyes to 
receive light4    ,all that this        
objection amounts to1 in my opinion1 is 
that everything is  the result1 nearer  
or more remote1 of a general final      

cause2 that  everything is the          
consequence of eternal laws4 ,when the  
effects are  invariably the same in all 
times and places1 and when these uniform
  effects are independent of the beings 
to which they attach1 then there  is    
visibly a final cause4    ,all animals  
have eyes and see2 all have ears and    
hear2 all have mouths  with which they  
eat2 stomachs1 or something similar1 by 
which they  digest their food2 all have 
suitable means for expelling the fces2  
all  have the organs requisite for the  
continuation of their species2 and      
these natural gifts perform their       
regular course and process without any  
application or intermixture of art4     
,here are final causes clearly          
established2 and to deny a truth so     
universal would be a perversion of  the 
faculty of reason4    ,but stones1 in   
all times and places1 do not constitute 
the materials of  buildings4 ,all noses 
do not bear spectacles2 all fingers do  
not carry a  ring2 all legs are not     

covered with silk stockings4 ,a         
silkworm1  therefore1 is not made to    
cover my legs1 exactly as your mouth is 
made  for eating1 and another part of   
your person for the garderobe4 ,there   
are1 therefore1 we see1 immediate       
effects produced from final causes1  and
 effects of a very numerous description1
 which are remote productions  from     
those causes4    ,everything belonging  
to nature is uniform1 immutable1 and the
 immediate  work of its author4 ,it is  
he who has established the laws by which
 the  moon contributes three-fourths to 
the cause of the flux and reflux of  the
 ocean1 and the sun the remaining       
fourth4 ,it is he who has given a       
rotatory motion to the sun1 in          
consequence of which that orb           
communicates its rays of light in the   
short space of seven minutes and a  half
 to the eyes of men1 crocodiles1 and    
cats4    ,but if1 after a course of     
ages1 we started the inventions of      
shears and  spits1 to clip the wool of  

sheep with the one1 and with the other  
to  roast in order to eat them1 what    
else can be inferred from such          
circumstances1 but that ,god formed us  
in such a manner that1 at some  time or 
other1 we could not avoid becoming      
ingenious and carnivorous8    ,sheep1   
undoubtedly1 were not made expressly to 
be roasted and eaten1  since many       
nations abstain from such food with     
horror4 ,mankind are not  created       
essentially to massacre one another1    
since the ,brahmins1 and the            
respectable primitives called ,quakers1 
kill no one4 ,but the clay out of  which
 we are kneaded frequently produces     
massacres1 as it produces  calumnies1   
vanities1 persecutions1 and             
impertinences4 ,it is not  precisely    
that the formation of man is the final  
cause of our madnesses  and follies1 for
 a final cause is universal1 and        
invariable in every age  and place2 but 
the horrors and absurdities of the human
 race are not at  all the less included 

in the eternal order of things4 ,when we
 thresh our  corn1 the flail is the     
final cause of the separation of the    
grain4 ,but  if that flail1 while       
threshing my grain1 crushes to death a  
thousand  insects1 that occurs not by an
 express and determinate act of my will1
  nor1 on the other hand1 is it by mere 
chance2 the insects were1 on this       
occasion1 actually under my flail1 and  
could not but be there4    ,it is a     
consequence of the nature of things that
 a man should be  ambitious2 that he    
should enroll and discipline a number of
 other men2  that he should be a        
conqueror1 or that he should be         
defeated2 but it can  never be said that
 the man was created by ,god to be      
killed in war4    ,the organs with which
 nature has supplied us cannot always be
 final  causes in action4 ,the eyes     
which are bestowed for seeing are not   
constantly open4 ,every sense has its   
season for repose4 ,there are some      
senses that are even made no use of4 ,an

 imbecile and wretched female1  for     
example1 shut up in a cloister at the   
age of fourteen years1 mars  one of the 
final causes of her existence2 but the  
cause1 nevertheless1  equally exists1   
and whenever it is free it will operate4
          ,,finesse1 ,,fineness1 ,,etc4 
,of the ,different ,significations of   
the ,word4      ,fineness either in its 
proper or its figurative sense does not 
signify  either light1 slender1 fine1 or
 of a rare thin texture2 this word      
expresses something delicate and        
finished4 ,light cloth1 soft linen1 thin
  lace1 or slender galloon1 are not     
always fine4    ,this word has a        
relation to the verb to finish1 whence  
come the  finishings of art2 thus1 we   
say1 the finishings of ,vanderwerff's   
pencil  or of ,mieris2 we say1 a fine   
horse1 fine gold1 a fine diamond4 ,a    
fine  horse is opposed to a clumsy one2 
the fine diamond to a false one2 fine   
or refined gold to gold mixed with      
alloy4    ,fineness is generally applied

 to delicate things and lightness of    
manufacture4 ,although we say a fine    
horse1 we seldom say1 the fineness  of a
 horse4 ,we speak of the fineness of    
hair1 lace1 or stuff4 ,when by  this    
word we should express the fault or     
wrong use of anything1 we add  the      
adverb too2 as--,this thread is broken1 
it was too fine2 this stuff  is too fine
 for the season4    ,fineness or        
finesse1 in a figurative sense1 applies 
to conduct1 speech1  and works of mind4 
,in conduct1 finesse always expresses1  
as in the arts1  something delicate or  
subtile2 it may sometimes exist without 
ability1  but it is very rarely         
unaccompanied by a little deception2    
politics  admit it1 and society reproves
 it4    ,finesse is not exactly         
subtlety2 we draw a person into a snare 
with  finesse2 we escape from it with   
subtlety4 ,we act with finesse1 and we  
play a subtle trick4 ,distrust is       
inspired by an unsparing use of         
finesse2 yet we almost always deceive   

ourselves if we too generally  suspect  
it4    ,finesse1 in works of wit1 as in 
conversation1 consists in the art of not
  expressing a thought clearly1 but     
leaving it so as to be easily           
perceived4 ,it is an enigma to which    
people of sense readily find the        
solution4    ,a chancellor one day      
offering his protection to parliament1  
the first  president turning towards the
 assembly1 said3 ,gentlemen1 thank the  
chancellor2 he has given us more than we
 demanded of him--a very witty  reproof4
    ,finesse1 in conversation and       
writing1 differs from delicacy2 the     
first  applies equally to piquant and   
agreeable things1 even to blame and     
praise2 and still more to indecencies1  
over which a veil is drawn1  through    
which we cannot penetrate without a     
blush4 ,bold things may be  said with   
finesse4    ,delicacy expresses soft and
 agreeable sentiments and ingenious     
praise2  thus finesse belongs more to   
epigram1 and delicacy to madrigal4 ,it  

is  delicacy which enters into a lover's
 jealousies1 and not finesse4    ,the   
praises given to ,louis ,,xiv4 by       
,despraux are not always equally        
delicate2 satires are not always        
sufficiently ingenious in the way of    
finesse4 ,when ,iphigenia1 in ,racine1  
has received from her father the  order 
never to see ,achilles more1 she cries3 
,dieux plus doux1 vous  n'aviez demand  
que ma vie6--,more gentle gods1 you only
 ask my life6  ,the true character of   
this partakes rather of delicacy than of
 finesse4          ,,fire4              
,,section ,i4    ,is fire anything more 
than an element which lights1 warms1 and
 burns us8  ,is not light always fire1  
though fire is not always light8 ,and is
 not  ,boerhaave in the right8    ,is   
not the purest fire extracted from our  
combustibles1 always gross1  and        
partaking of the bodies consumed1 and   
very different from elementary  fire8   
,how is fire distributed throughout     
nature1 of which it is the  soul8       

,ignis ubique latet1 naturam amplectitur
 omnem1       ,cuncta parit1 renovat1   
dividit1 unit1 alit4    ,why did        
,newton1 in speaking of rays of light1  
always say1 ,de natura  radiorum lucis1 
utrum corpora sint necne non disputamus2
 without  examining whether they were   
bodies or not8    ,did he only speak    
geometrically8 ,in that case1 this doubt
 was useless4  ,it is evident that he   
doubted of the nature of elementary     
fire1 and  doubted with reason4    ,is  
elementary fire a body like others1 as  
earth and water8 ,if it was a  body of  
this kind1 would it not gravitate like  
all other matter8 ,would  it escape from
 the luminous body in the right line8   
,would it have a  uniform progression8  
,and why does light never move out of a 
right line  when it is unimpeded in its 
rapid course8    ,may not elementary    
fire have properties of matter little   
known to us1  and properties of         
substance entirely so8 ,may it not be a 
medium between  matter and substances of

 another kind8 ,and who can say that    
there are  not a million of these       
substances8 ,i do not say that there    
are1 but ,i  say it is not proved that  
there may not be4    ,it was very       
difficult to believe about a hundred    
years ago that bodies  acted upon one   
another1 not only without touching1 and 
without emission1  but at great         
distances2 it is1 however1 found to be  
true1 and is no  longer doubted4 ,at    
present1 it is difficult to believe that
 the rays of  the sun are penetrable by 
each other1 but who knows what may      
happen to  prove it8    ,however that   
may be1 ,i wish1 for the novelty of the 
thing1 that this  incomprehensible      
penetrability could be admitted4 ,light 
has something so  divine that we should 
endeavor to make it a step to the       
discovery of  substances still more     
pure4    ,come to my aid1 ,empedocles   
and ,democritus2 come and admire the    
wonders  of electricity2 see if the     
sparks which traverse a thousand bodies 

in  the twinkling of an eye are of      
ordinary matter2 judge if elementary    
fire  does not contract the heart1 and  
communicate that warmth which gives     
life6 ,judge if this element is not the 
source of all sensation1 and if         
sensation is not the origin of thought2 
though ignorant and insolent  pedants   
have condemned the proposition1 as one  
which should be  persecuted4    ,tell   
me1 if the ,supreme ,being1 who presides
 over all nature1 cannot  forever       
preserve these elementary atoms which he
 has so rarely endowed8  ,igneus est    
ollis vigor et clestis origo4    ,the   
celebrated ,le ,cat calls this vivifying
 fluid an amphibious being1  endowed by 
its author with a superior refinement   
which links it to  immaterial beings1   
and thereby ennobles and elevates it    
into that medium  nature which we       
recognize1 and which is the source of   
all its  properties4    ,you are of the 
opinion of ,le ,cat8 ,i would be so too 
if ,i could2 but  there are so many     

fools and villains that ,i dare not4 ,i 
can only think  quietly in my own way at
 ,mount ,krapak4 ,let others think as   
well as they  are allowed to think1     
whether at ,salamanca or ,bergamo4      
,,section ,,ii4    ,what is ,understood 
by ,fire ,used ,figuratively4    ,fire1 
particularly in poetry1 often signifies 
love1 and is employed more  elegantly in
 the plural than in the singular4       
,corneille often says un  beau feu for a
 virtuous and noble love4 ,a man has    
fire in his  conversation2 that does not
 mean that he has brilliant and         
enlightened  ideas1 but lively          
expressions animated by action4    ,fire
 in writing does not necessarily imply  
lightness and beauty1 but  vivacity1    
multiplied figures1 and spontaneous     
ideas4 ,fire is a merit in  speech and  
writing only when it is well managed4   
,it is said that poets  are animated    
with a divine fire when they are        
sublime2 genius cannot  exist without   
fire1 but fire may be possessed without 

genius4          ,,firmness4            
,firmness comes from firm1 and has a    
different signification from  solidity  
and hardness2 a squeezed cloth1 a beaten
 negro1 have firmness  without being    
hard or solid4    ,it must always be    
remembered that modifications of the    
soul can only be  expressed by physical 
images2 we say firmness of soul1 and of 
mind1  which does not signify that they 
are harder or more solid than usual4    
,firmness is the exercise of mental     
courage2 it means a decided  resolution2
 while obstinacy1 on the contrary1      
signifies blindness4 ,those  who praise 
the firmness of ,tacitus are not so much
 in the wrong as ,p4  ,bouhours         
pretends2 it is an accidental ill-chosen
 term1 which expresses  energy and      
strength of thought and of style4 ,it   
may be said that ,la  ,bruyre has a firm
 style1 and that many other writers have
 only a hard  one4          ,,flattery4 
,i find not one monument of flattery in 
remote antiquity2 there is no  flattery 

in ,hesiod--none in ,homer4 ,their      
stories are not addressed to a  ,greek1 
elevated to some dignity1 nor to his    
lady2 as each canto of  ,thomson's      
,seasons is dedicated to some person of 
rank1 or as so many  forgotten epistles 
in verse have been dedicated1 in        
,england1 to  gentlemen or ladies of    
quality1 with a brief eulogy1 and the   
arms of  the patron or patroness placed 
at the head of the work4    ,nor is     
there any flattery in ,demosthenes4     
,this way of asking alms  harmoniously  
began1 if ,i mistake not1 with ,pindar4 
,no hand can be  stretched out more     
emphatically4    ,it appears to me that 
among the ,romans great flattery is to  
be dated  from the time of ,augustus4   
,julius ,csar had scarcely time to be   
flattered4 ,there is not1 extant1 any   
dedicatory epistle to ,sulla1  ,marius1 
or ,carbo1 nor to their wives1 or their 
mistresses4 ,i can well  believe that   
very bad verses were presented to       
,lucullus and ,pompey2 but1  thank ,god1

 we do not have them4    ,it is a great 
spectacle to behold ,cicero equal in    
dignity to ,csar1  speaking before him  
as advocate for a king of ,bithynia and 
,lesser  ,armenia1 named ,deiotarus1    
accused of laying ambuscades for him1   
and even  designing to assassinate him4 
,cicero begins with acknowledging that  
he  is disconcerted in his presence4 ,he
 calls him the vanquisher of the        
world--victorem orbis terrarum4 ,he     
flatters him2 but this adulation  does  
not yet amount to baseness2 some sense  
of shame still remains4    ,but with    
,augustus there are no longer any       
bounds2 the senate decrees his          
apotheosis during his lifetime4 ,under  
the succeeding emperors this  flattery  
becomes the ordinary tribute1 and is no 
longer anything more  than a style4 ,it 
is impossible to flatter any one1 when  
the most  extravagant adulation has     
become the ordinary currency4    ,in    
,europe1 we have had no great monuments 
of flattery before ,louis ,,xiv4  ,his  

father1 ,louis ,,xiii41 had very little 
incense offered him4 ,we find no        
mention of him1 except in one or two of 
,malherbe's odes4 ,there1 indeed1       
according to custom1 he is called thou  
greatest of kings--as the  ,spanish     
poets say to the king of ,spain1 and the
 ,english poets 7laureate7  to the king 
of ,england2 but the better part of the 
poet's praises is  bestowed on ,cardinal
 ,richelieu1 whose soul is great and    
fearless2 who  practises so well the    
healing art of government1 and who knows
 how to  cure all our evils3            
,dont l'me toute grande est une me      
harde1       ,qui pratique si bien l'art
 de nous secourir1       ,que1 pourvu   
qu'il soit cru1 nous n'avons maladie1   
,qu'il ne sache gurir4    ,upon ,louis  
,,xiv4 flattery came in a deluge4 ,but  
he was not like the man  said to have   
been smothered by the rose leaves heaped
 upon him2 on the  contrary1 he thrived 
the more4    ,flattery1 when it has some
 plausible pretext1 may not be so       

pernicious  as it has been thought2 it  
sometimes encourages to great acts2 but 
its  excess is vicious1 like the excess 
of satire4 ,la ,fontaine says1 and      
pretends to say it after sop3           
,on ne peut trop louer trois sortes de  
personnes2       ,les dieux1 sa         
maitresse1 et son roi4       sope le    
disait2 j'y souscris quant  moi2        
,ces sont maximes toujours bonnes4      
,your flattery to three sorts of folks  
apply3--       ,you cannot say too civil
 things       ,to gods1 to mistresses1  
and kings2       ,so honest sop         
said--and so say ,i4    ,honest sop said
 no such thing2 nor do we find that he  
flattered any  king1 or any concubine4  
,it must not be thought that kings are  
in reality  flattered by all the        
flatteries that are heaped upon them2   
for the  greater number never reach     
them4    ,one common folly of orators is
 that of exhausting themselves in       
praising  some prince who will never    
hear of their praises4 ,but what is most

  lamentable of all is that ,ovid should
 have praised ,augustus even while  he  
was dating de ,ponto4    ,the perfection
 of the ridiculous might be found in the
 compliments which  preachers address to
 kings1 when they have the happiness of 
exhibiting  before their majesties4--,to
 the reverend ,father ,gaillard1        
preacher to  the king4 ,ah6 most        
reverend father1 do you preach only for 
the king8  ,are you like the monkey at  
the fair1 which leaps only for the king8
          ,,force 7,,physical74         
,what is force8 ,where does it reside8  
,whence does it come8 ,does it  perish8 
,or is it ever the same8    ,it has     
pleased us to denominate force that     
weight which one body  exercises upon   
another4 ,here is a ball of two hundred 
pounds' weight on  this floor2 it       
presses the floor1 you say1 with a force
 of two hundred  pounds4 ,and this you  
call a dead force4 ,but are not these   
words  dead and force a little          
contradictory8 ,might we not as well say

  dead alive--yes and no at once8       
,this ball weighs4 ,whence comes this   
weight8 and is this weight a  force8 ,if
 the ball were not impeded1 would it go 
directly to the  centre of the earth8   
,whence has it this incomprehensible    
property8    ,it is supported by my     
floor2 and you freely give to my floor  
the vis  inerti--inerti signifying      
inactivity1 impotence4 ,now is it not   
singular that impotence should be       
denominated force8    ,what is the      
living force which acts in your arm and 
your leg8 ,what is  the source of it8   
,how can it be supposed that this force 
exists when you  are dead8 ,does it go  
and take up its abode elsewhere1 as a   
man goes to  another house when his own 
is in ruins8    ,how can it have been   
said that there is always the same force
 in nature8  ,there must1 then1 have    
been always the same number of men1 or  
of active  beings equivalent to men4    
,why does a body in motion communicate  
its  force to another body with which it

 comes in contact8    ,these are        
questions which neither geometry1 nor   
mechanics1 nor  metaphysics can answer4 
,would you arrive at the first principle
 of the  force of bodies1 and of motion1
 you must ascend to a still superior    
principle4 ,why is there anything8      
,,force--,,strength4      ,these words  
have been transplanted from simple to   
figurative speech4  ,they are applied to
 all the parts of the body that are in  
motion1 in  action--the force of the    
heart1 which some have made four hundred
  pounds1 and some three ounces2 the    
force of the viscera1 the lungs1 the    
voice2 the force of the arm4    ,the    
metaphor which has transported these    
words into morals has made them  express
 a cardinal virtue4 ,strength1 in this  
sense1 is the courage to  support       
adversity1 and to undertake virtuous and
 difficult actions2 it  is the animi    
fortitudo4    ,the strength of the mind 
is penetration and depth--ingenii vis4  
,nature gives it as she gives that of   

the body2 moderate labor increases  and 
excessive labor diminishes it4    ,the  
force of an argument consists in a clear
 exposition of  clearly-exhibited       
proofs1 and a just conclusion2 with     
mathematical  theorems it has nothing to
 do2 because the evidence of a          
demonstration  can be made neither more 
nor less2 only it may be arrived at by a
 longer  or a shorter path--a simpler or
 more complicated method4 ,it is in     
doubtful questions that the force of    
reasoning is truly applicable4    ,the  
force of eloquence is not merely a train
 of just and vigorous  reasoning1 which 
is not incompatible with dryness2 this  
force1 requires  floridity1 striking    
images1 and energetic expressions4 ,thus
 it has been  said1 that the sermons of 
,bourdaloue have force1 those of        
,massillon  more elegance4 ,verses may  
have strength1 and want every other     
beauty4  ,the strength of a line in our 
language consists principally in saying 
something in each hemistich4            

,strength in painting is the expression 
of the muscles1 which1 by feeling       
touches1 are made to appear under the   
flesh that covers them4 ,there is  too  
much strength when the muscles are too  
strongly articulated4 ,the  attitudes of
 the combatants have great strength in  
the battles of  ,constantine1 drawn by  
,raphael and ,julio ,romano2 and in     
those of ,csar1  painted by ,lebrun4    
,inordinate strength is harsh in        
painting and  bombastic in poetry4      
,some philosophers have asserted that   
force is a property inherent in  matter2
 that each invisible particle1 or rather
 monad1 is endowed with  an active      
force2 but it would be as difficult to  
demonstrate this  assertion as it would 
be to prove that whiteness is a quality 
inherent  in matter1 as the ,trvoux     
dictionary says in the article          
,inherent4    ,the strength of every    
animal has arrived at the highest when  
the animal  has attained its full       
growth4 ,it decreases when the muscles  

no longer  receive the same quantity of 
nourishment3 and this quantity ceases to
 be  the same when the animal spirits no
 longer communicate to the muscles      
their accustomed motion4 ,it is probable
 that the animal spirits are of  fire1  
inasmuch as old men want motion and     
strength in proportion as they  want    
warmth4          ,,franchise4      ,a   
word which always gives an idea of      
liberty in whatever sense it is  taken2 
a word derived from the ,franks1 who    
were always free4 ,it is so  ancient1   
that when the ,cid besieged and took    
,toledo1 in the eleventh  century1      
franchies or franchises were given to   
all the ,french who went  on this       
expedition1 and who established         
themselves at ,toledo4 ,all walled      
cities had franchises1 liberties1 and   
privileges1 even in the greatest        
anarchy of feudal power4 ,in all        
countries possessing assemblies or      
states1 the sovereign swore1 on his     
accession1 to guard their liberties4    

,this name1 which has been given        
generally to the rights of the people1  
to immunities1 and to sanctuaries or    
asylums1 has been more particularly     
applied to the quarters of the          
ambassadors of the court of ,rome4 ,it  
was  a plot of ground around their      
palaces1 which was larger or smaller    
according to the will of the ambassador4
 ,the ground was an asylum for          
criminals1 who could not be there       
pursued4 ,this franchise was            
restricted1 under ,innocent ,,xi4 to the
 inside of their palaces4 ,churches  and
 convents had the same privileges in    
,italy1 but not in other states4  ,there
 are in ,paris several places of        
sanctuary1 in which debtors cannot  be  
seized for their debts by common        
justice1 and where mechanics can  pursue
 their trades without being freemen4    
,mechanics have this privilege  in the  
,faubourg ,st4 ,antoine1 but it is not  
an asylum like the ,temple4    ,the word
 franchise1 which usually expresses the 

liberties of a nation1  city1 or person1
 is sometimes used to signify liberty of
 speech1 of  counsel1 or of a law       
proceeding2 but there is a great        
difference between  speaking with       
frankness and speaking with liberty4 ,in
 a speech to a  superior1 liberty is a  
studied or excessive boldness--frankness
  outstepping its just bounds4 ,to speak
 with liberty is to speak without  fear2
 to speak with frankness is to conduct  
yourself openly and nobly4  ,to speak   
with too much liberty is to become      
audacious2 to speak with too  much      
frankness is to be too open-hearted4    
,,francis ,,xavier4      ,it would not  
be amiss to know something true         
concerning the celebrated  ,francis     
,xavero1 whom we call ,xavier1 surnamed 
the ,apostle of the ,indies4  ,many     
people still imagine that he established
 ,christianty along the  whole southern 
coast of ,india1 in a score of islands1 
and above all in  ,japan4 ,but thirty   
years ago1 even a doubt on the subject  

was hardly to  be tolerated in ,europe4 
,the ,jesuits have not hesitated to     
compare him to  ,st4 ,paul4 ,his travels
 and miracles had been written in part  
by  ,tursellinus and ,orlandini1 by     
,levena1 and by ,partoli1 all ,jesuits1 
but  very little known in ,france2 and  
the less people were acquainted with    
the details the greater was his         
reputation4    ,when the ,jesuit        
,bouhours composed his history1 he      
7,bouhours7 was  considered as a man of 
very enlightened mind1 and was living in
 the best  company in ,paris2 ,i do not 
mean the company of ,jesus1 but that of 
men of  the world the most distinguished
 for intellect and knowledge4 ,no one   
wrote in a purer or more unaffected     
style2 it was even proposed in the      
,french ,academy that it should trespass
 against the rules of its  institution1 
by receiving ,father ,bouhours into its 
body4 ,he had another  great advantage  
in the influence of his order1 which    
then1 by an almost  inconceivable       

illusion1 governed all ,catholic        
princes4    ,sound criticism was1 it is 
true1 beginning to rear its head2 but   
its  progress was slow3 men were1 in    
general1 more anxious to write ably than
  to write what was true4    ,bouhours  
wrote the lives of ,st4 ,ignatius and   
,st4 ,francis ,xavier almost  without   
encountering a single objection4 ,even  
his comparison of ,st4  ,ignatius to    
,csar1 and ,xavier to ,alexander1 passed
 without  animadversion2 it was         
tolerated as a flower of rhetoric4    ,i
 have seen in the ,jesuit's college1    
,rue ,st4 ,jacques1 a picture twelve    
feet long and twelve high1 representing 
,ignatius and ,xavier ascending to      
heaven1 each in a magnificent chariot   
drawn by four milk-white horses2  and   
above1 the ,eternal ,father1 adorned    
with a fine white beard  descending to  
,his waist1 with ,jesus and the ,virgin 
beside him2 the ,holy  ,ghost beneath   
them1 in the form of a dove2 and angels 
joining their  hands1 and bending down  

to receive ,father ,ignatius and ,father
 ,xavier4    ,had anyone publicly made a
 jest of this picture1 the reverend     
,father ,la  ,chaise1 confessor to the  
king1 would infallibly have had the     
sacrilegious scoffer honored with a     
lettre de cachet4    ,it cannot be      
denied that ,francis ,xavier is         
comparable to ,alexander1  inasmuch as  
they both went to ,india--so is         
,ignatius to ,csar1 both  having been in
 ,gaul4 ,but ,xavier1 the vanquisher of 
the devil1 went far  beyond ,alexander1 
the conqueror of ,darius4 ,how          
gratifying it is to see  him going1 in  
the capacity of a volunteer converter1  
from ,spain into  ,france1 from ,france 
to ,rome1 from ,rome to ,lisbon1 and    
from ,lisbon to  ,mozambique1 after     
making the tour of ,africa4 ,he stays a 
long time at  ,mozambique1 where he     
receives from ,god the gift of prophecy3
 he then  proceeds to ,melinda1 where he
 disputes on the ,koran with the        
,mahometans1  who doubtless understand  

his religion as well as he understands  
theirs1  and where he even finds        
caciques1 although they are to be found 
nowhere  but in ,america4 ,the          
,portuguese vessel arrives at the island
 of ,zocotora1  which is unquestionably 
that of the ,amazons3 there he converts 
all the  islanders1 and builds a church4
 ,thence he reaches ,goa1 where he finds
 a  pillar on which ,st4 ,thomas had    
engraved1 that one day ,st4 ,xavier     
should  come and re-establish the       
,christian religion1 which had          
flourished of  old in ,india4 ,xavier   
has no difficulty whatever in perusing  
the ancient  characters1 whether ,indian
 or ,hebrew1 in which this prophecy is  
expressed4 ,he forthwith takes up a     
hand-bell1 assembles all the little     
boys around him1 explains to them the   
creed1 and baptizes them--but his  great
 delight was to marry the ,indians to   
their mistresses4    ,from ,goa he      
speeds to ,cape ,comorin1 to the fishing
 coast1 to the kingdom  of ,travancore4 

,his greatest anxiety1 on arriving in   
any country1 is to  quit it4 ,he embarks
 in the first ,portuguese ship he finds1
 whithersoever  it is bound1 it matters 
not to ,xavier2 provided only that he is
  travelling somewhere1 he is content4  
,he is received through charity1 and    
returns two or three times to ,goa1 to  
,cochin1 to ,cori1 to ,negapatam1 to    
,meliapour4 ,a vessel is departing for  
,malacca1 and ,xavier accordingly  takes
 his passage for ,malacca1 in great     
despair that he has not yet had  an     
opportunity of seeing ,siam1 ,pegu1 and 
,tonquin4 ,we find him in the  island of
 ,sumatra1 at ,borneo1 at ,macassar1 in 
the ,moluccas1 and  especially at       
,ternate and ,amboyna4 ,the king of     
,ternate had1 in his  immense seraglio1 
a hundred women in the capacity of      
wives1 and seven or  eight hundred in   
that of concubines4 ,the first thing    
,xavier does is to  turn them all out4  
,please to observe that the island of   
,ternate is two  leagues across4        

,thence finding another ,portugese      
vessel bound for ,ceylon1 he returns to 
,ceylon1 where he makes various         
excursions to ,goa and to ,cochin4 ,the 
,portuguese were already trading to     
,japan4 ,a ship sails for that country3 
,xavier takes care to embark in it1 and 
visits all the ,japan islands4 ,in      
short 7says the ,jesuit ,bouhours71 the 
whole length of ,xavier's routes1       
joined together1 would reach several    
times around the globe4    ,be it       
observed1 that he set out on his travels
 in #aedb1 and died in  #aeeb4 ,if he   
had time to learn the languages of all  
the nations he  visited1 it was no      
trifling miracle3 if he had the gift of 
tongues1 it  was a greater miracle      
still4 ,but unfortunately1 in several of
 his  letters1 he says that he is       
obliged to employ an interpreter2 and in
  others he acknowledges that he finds  
extreme difficulty in learning the      
,japanese language1 which he cannot     
pronounce4    ,the ,jesuit ,bouhours1 in

 giving some of his letters1 has no     
doubt that  ,st4 ,francis ,xavier had   
the gift of tongues2 but he acknowledges
 that  he had it not always4 ,he had it1
 says he1 on several occasions2  for1   
without having learned the ,chinese     
tongue1 he preached to the  ,chinese    
every morning at ,amanguchi1 which is   
the capital of a province  in ,japan4   
,he must have been perfectly acquainted 
with all the languages of the  ,east2   
for he made songs in them of the        
,paternoster1 ,ave-,maria1 and  ,credo1 
for the instruction of the little boys  
and girls4    ,but the best of all is1  
that this man1 who had occasion for a   
dragoman1  spoke every tongue at once1  
like the apostles2 and when he spoke    
,portuguese1 in which language ,bouhours
 acknowledges that the saint  explained 
himself very ill1 the ,indians1 the     
,chinese1 the ,japanese1 the            
inhabitants of ,ceylon and of ,sumatra1 
all understood him perfectly4    ,one   
day in particular1 when he was preaching

 on the immateriality of the  soul1 the 
motion of the planets1 the eclipses of  
the sun and moon1 the  rainbow1 sin and 
grace1 paradise and purgatory1 he made  
himself  understood to twenty persons of
 different nations4    ,is it asked how 
such a man could make so many converts  
in ,japan8 ,the  simple answer is that  
he did not make any2 but other ,jesuits1
 who staid  a long time in the country1 
by favor of the treaties between the    
kings  of ,portugal and the emperors of 
,japan1 converted so many people1 that a
  civil war ensued1 which is said to    
have cost the lives of nearly four      
hundred thousand men4 ,this is the most 
noted prodigy that the  missionaries    
have worked in ,japan4    ,but those of 
,francis ,xavier are not without their  
merit4 ,among his host  of miracles1 we 
find no fewer than eight children raised
 from the dead4  ,xavier's greatest     
miracle1 says the ,jesuit ,bouhours1 was
 not his  raising so many of the dead to
 life1 but his not himself dying of     

fatigue4    ,but the pleasantest of his 
miracles is1 that having dropped his    
crucifix  into the sea1 near the island 
of ,baranura1 which ,i am inclined to   
think  was the island of ,barataria1 a  
crab came1 four-and-twenty hours after1 
bringing the cane between its claws4    
,the most brilliant of all1 and after   
which no other deserves to be  related1 
is that in a storm which lasted three   
days1 he was constantly  in two ships1 a
 hundred and fifty leagues apart1 and   
served one of them  as a pilot4 ,the    
truth of this miracle was attested by   
all the  passengers1 who could neither  
deceive nor be deceived4    ,yet all    
this was written seriously and with     
success in the age of ,louis  ,,xiv41 in
 the age of the ,provincial ,letters1 of
 ,racine's tragedies1 of  ,bayle's      
,dictionary1 and of so many other       
learned works4    ,it would appear to be
 a sort of miracle that a man of sense1 
like  ,bouhours1 should have committed  
such a mass of extravagance to the      

press1 if we did not know to what       
excesses men can be carried by the      
corporate spirit in general1 and the    
monachal spirit in particular4 ,we  have
 more than two hundred volumes entirely 
in this taste1 compiled by  monks2 but  
what is most to be lamented is1 that the
 enemies of the monks  also compile4    
,they compile more agreeably1 and are   
read4 ,it is most  deplorable that1 in  
nineteen-twentieths of ,europe1 there is
 no longer  that profound respect and   
just veneration for the monks which is  
still  felt for them in some of the     
villages of ,aragon and ,calabria4      
,the miracles of ,st4 ,francis ,xavier1 
the achievements of ,don ,quixote1  the 
,comic ,romance1 and the convulsionaries
 of ,st4 ,medard1 have an equal  claim  
on our admiration and reverence4        
,after speaking of ,francis ,xavier it  
would be useless to discuss the  history
 of the other ,francises4 ,if you would 
be instructed thoroughly1  consult the  
conformities of ,st4 ,francis of        

,assisi4    ,since the fine history of  
,st4 ,francis ,xavier by the ,jesuit    
,bouhours1 we  have had the history of  
,st4 ,francis ,rgis by the ,jesuit      
,daubenton1  confessor to ,philip ,v4 of
 ,spain3 but this is small-beer after   
brandy4 ,in  the history of the blessed 
,rgis1 there is not even a single       
resuscitation4                          
,,franks--,,france--,,french      ,italy
 has always preserved its name1         
notwithstanding the pretended           
establishment of neas1 which should have
 left some traces of the  language1     
characters1 and manners of ,phrygia1 if 
he ever came with  ,achates and so many 
others1 into the province of ,rome1 then
 almost a  desert4 ,the ,goths1         
,lombards1 ,franks1 ,allemani or        
,germans1 who have by  turns invaded    
,italy1 have at least left it its name4 
,the ,tyrians1 ,africans1 ,romans1      
,vandals1 ,visigoths1 and ,saracens1    
have1  one after the other1 been masters
 of ,spain1 yet the name of ,spain      

exists4 ,germany has also always        
preserved its own name2 it has merely   
joined that of ,allemagne to it1 which  
appellation it did not receive  from any
 conqueror4    ,the ,gauls are almost   
the only people in the west who have    
lost their  name4 ,this name was        
originally ,walch or ,welsh2 the ,romans
 always  substituted a ,g for the ,w1   
which is barbarous3 of ,welsh they made 
,galli1 ,gallia4 ,they distinguished the
 ,celtic1 the ,belgic1 and the          
,aquitanic ,gaul1 each of which spoke a 
different jargon4    ,who were1 and     
whence came these ,franks1 who in such  
small numbers and  little time possessed
 themselves of all the ,gauls1 which in 
ten years  ,csar could not entirely     
reduce8 ,i am reading an author who     
commences by  these words3 ,the ,franks 
from whom we descend4 444 ,ha6 my       
friend1 who  has told you that you      
descend in a right line from a ,frank8  
,clovodic1  whom we call ,clovis1       
probably had not more than twenty       

thousand men1  badly clothed and armed1 
when he subjugated about eight or ten   
millions  of ,welsh or ,gauls1 held in  
servitude by three or four ,roman       
legions4 ,we  have not a single family  
in ,france which can furnish1 ,i do not 
say the  least proof1 but the least     
probability1 that it had its origin from
 a  ,frank4    ,when the pirates of the 
,baltic ,sea came1 to the number of     
seven or eight  thousand1 to give       
,normandy in fief1 and ,brittany in     
arrire fief1 did  they1 leave any       
archives by which it may be seen whether
 they were the  fathers of all the      
,normans of the present day8    ,it has 
been a long time believed that the      
,franks came from the ,trojans4         
,ammianus ,marcellinus1 who lived in the
 fourth century1 says3 ,according  to   
several ancient writers1 troops of      
fugitive ,trojans established           
themselves on the borders of the ,rhine1
 then a desert4 ,as to neas1 he  might  
easily have sought an asylum at the     

extremity of the  ,mediterranean1 but   
,francus1 the son of ,hector1 had too   
far to travel to  go towards ,dsseldorf1
 ,worms1 ,solm1 ,ehrenbreitstein4       
,fredegarius doubts not that the ,franks
 at first retired into ,macedonia1  and 
carried arms under ,alexander1 after    
having fought under ,priam2 on  which   
alleged facts the monk ,otfried         
compliments the emperor1 ,louis the     
,german4    ,the geographer of ,ravenna1
 less fabulous1 assigns the first       
habitation  of the horde of ,franks     
among the ,cimbrians1 beyond the ,elbe1 
towards the  ,baltic ,sea4 ,these       
,franks might well be some remains of   
these barbarian  ,cimbri defeated by    
,marius2 and the learned ,leibnitz is of
 this opinion4    ,it is very certain   
that1 in the time of ,constantine1      
beyond the ,rhine1  there were hordes of
 ,franks or ,sicambri1 who lived by     
pillage4 ,they  assembled under bandit  
captains1 chiefs whom historians have   
had the  folly to call kings4           

,constantine himself pursued them to    
their haunts1  caused several to be     
hanged1 and others to be delivered to   
wild beasts1  in the amphitheatre of    
,trier1 for his amusement4 ,two of their
 pretended  kings perished in this      
manner1 at which the panegyrists of     
,constantine  are in ecstasies4    ,the 
,salic law1 written1 it is said1 by     
these barbarians1 is one of the  absurd 
chimeras with which we have always been 
pestered4 ,it would be  very strange if 
the ,franks had written such a          
considerable code in their  marshes1 and
 the ,french had not any written usages 
until the close of  the reign of        
,charles ,,vii4 ,it might as well be    
said that the ,algonquins  and          
,chicachas had written laws4 ,men are   
never governed by authentic  laws1      
consigned to public records1 until they 
have been assembled into  cities1 and   
have a regular police1 archives1 and all
 that characterizes  a civilized nation4
 ,when you find a code in a nation which

 was barbarous  at the time it was      
written1 who lived upon rapine and      
pillage1 and which  had not a walled    
town1 you may be sure that this code is 
a pretended  one1 which has been made in
 much later times4 ,fallacies and       
suppositions  never obliterate this     
truth from the minds of the wise4       
,what is more ridiculous still1 this    
,salic law has been given to us in      
,latin2 as if savages1 wandering beyond 
the ,rhine1 had learnt the ,latin       
language4 ,it is supposed to have been  
first digested by ,clovis1 and it  ran  
thus3 ,while the illustrious nation of  
the ,franks was still  considered       
barbarous1 the heads of this nation     
dictated the ,salic law4  ,they chose   
among themselves four chiefs1 ,visogast1
 ,bodogast1 ,sologast1                  
,vindogast--taking1 according to ,la    
,fontaine's fable1 the names of  places 
for those of men3         ,notre magot  
prit pour ce coup       ,le nom d'un    
port pour un nom d'homme4    ,these     

names are those of some ,frank cantons  
in the province of ,worms4  ,whatever   
may be the epoch in which the customs   
denominated the ,salic law  were        
constructed on an ancient tradition1 it 
is very clear that the  ,franks were not
 great legislators4    ,what is the     
original meaning of the word ,frank8    
,that is a question of  which we know   
nothing1 and which above a hundred      
authors have endeavored  to find out4   
,what is the meaning of ,hun1 ,alan1    
,goth1 ,welsh1 ,picard8 ,and  what do   
these words signify8    ,were the armies
 of ,clovis all composed of ,franks8 ,it
 does not appear so4  ,childeric the    
,frank had made inroads as far as       
,tournay4 ,it is said that  ,clovis was 
the son of ,childeric1 and ,queen       
,bazine1 the wife of ,king  ,bazin4 ,now
 ,bazin and ,bazine are assuredly not   
,german names1 and we have  never seen  
the least proof that ,clovis was their  
son4 ,all the ,german  cantons elected  
their chiefs1 and the province of       

,franks had no doubt  elected ,clovis as
 they had done his father4 ,he made his 
expedition  against the ,gauls1 as all  
the other barbarians had undertaken     
theirs  against the ,roman ,empire4     
,do you really and truly believe that   
the ,herulian ,odo1 surnamed ,acer by   
the ,romans1 and known to us by the name
 of ,odoacer1 had only ,herulians  in   
his train1 and that ,genseric conducted 
,vandals alone into ,africa8 ,all  the  
wretches without talent or profession1  
who have nothing to lose1 do  they not  
always join the first captain of robbers
 who raises the  standard of            
destruction8    ,as soon as ,clovis had 
the least success1 his troops were no   
doubt joined  by all the ,belgians who  
panted for booty2 and this army is      
nevertheless  called the army of        
,franks4 ,the expedition is very easy4  
,the ,visigoths  had already invaded    
one-third of ,gaul1 and the ,burgundians
 another4 ,the  rest submitted to       
,clovis4 ,the ,franks divided the land  

of the vanquished1  and the ,welsh      
cultivated it4    ,the word ,frank      
originally signified a free possessor1  
while the others  were slaves4 ,hence   
come the words franchise1 and to        
enfranchise--,i  make you a ,frank1 ,i  
render you a free man4 ,hence1          
francalenus1  holding freely2 frank     
aleu1 frank dad1 frank chamen1 and so   
many  other terms half ,latin and half  
barbarian1 which have so long composed  
the miserable patois spoken in ,france4 
,hence1 also1 a franc in gold or silver 
to express the money of the king  of the
 ,franks1 which did not appear until a  
long time after1 but which  reminds us  
of the origin of the monarchy4 ,we still
 say twenty francs1  twenty livres1     
which signifies nothing in itself2 it   
gives no idea of  the weight or value of
 the money1 being only a vague          
expression1 by  which ignorant people   
have been continually deceived1 not     
knowing really  how much they receive or
 how much they pay4    ,charlemagne did 

not consider himself as a ,frank2 he was
 born in  ,austrasia1 and spoke the     
,german language4 ,he was of the family 
of  ,arnold1 bishop of ,metz1 preceptor 
to ,dagobert4 ,now it is not probable   
that a man chosen for a preceptor was a 
,frank4 ,he made the greatest  glory of 
the most profound ignorance1 and was    
acquainted only with the  profession of 
arms4 ,but what gives most weight to the
 opinion that  ,charlemagne regarded the
 ,franks as strangers to him is the     
fourth  article of one of his           
capitularies on his farms4 ,if the      
,franks1 said  he1 commit any ravages on
 our possessions1 let them be judged    
according  to their laws4    ,the       
,carlovingian race always passed for    
,german3 ,pope ,adrian ,,iv41 in his    
letter to the archbishops of ,mentz1    
,cologne1 and ,trier1 expresses  himself
 in these remarkable terms3 ,the emperor
 was transferred from the  ,greeks to   
the ,germans4 ,their king was not       
emperor until after he had  been crowned

 by the pope4444 all that the emperor   
possessed he held from  us4 ,and as     
,zacharius gave the ,greek ,empire to   
the ,germans1 we can give  that of the  
,germans to the ,greeks4    ,however1   
,france having been divided into eastern
 and western1 and the  eastern being    
,austrasia1 this name of ,france        
prevailed so far1 that even  in the time
 of the ,saxon emperors1 the court of   
,constantinople always  called them     
pretended ,frank emperors1 as may be    
seen in the letters of  ,bishop         
,luitgrand1 sent from ,rome to          
,constantinople4    ,of the ,french     
,nation4    ,when the ,franks           
established themselves in the country of
 the first  ,welsh1 which the ,romans   
called ,gallia1 the nation was composed 
of  ancient ,celts or ,gauls1 subjugated
 by ,csar1 ,roman families who were     
established there1 ,germans who had     
already emigrated there1 and finally  of
 the ,franks1 who had rendered          
themselves masters of the country under 

their chief ,clovis4 ,while the monarchy
 existed1 which united ,gaul and        
,germany1 all the people1 from the      
source of the ,weser to the seas of     
,gaul1 bore the name of ,franks4 ,but   
when at the congress of ,verdun1 in     
#hdc1 under ,charles the ,bald1 ,germany
 and ,gaul were separated1 the name  of 
,franks remained to the people of       
western ,france1 which alone retained   
the name of ,france4    ,the name of    
,french was scarcely known until towards
 the tenth century4  ,the foundation of 
the nation is of ,gallic families1 and  
traces of the  character of the ancient 
,gauls have always existed4    ,indeed1 
every people has its character1 as well 
as every man2 and this  character is    
generally formed of all the resemblances
 caused by nature  and custom among the 
inhabitants of the varieties which      
distinguish  them4 ,thus ,french        
character1 genius1 and wit1 result from 
that which has  been common to the      
different provinces in the kingdom4 ,the

 people of  ,guienne and those of       
,normandy differ much2 there is1        
however1 found in  them the ,french     
genius1 which forms a nation of these   
different  provinces1 and distinguishes 
them from the ,indians and ,germans4    
,climate  and soil evidently imprint    
unchangeable marks on men1 as well as on
  animals and plants4 ,those which      
depend on government1 religion1 and     
education are different4 ,that is the   
knot which explains how people have     
lost one part of their ancient character
 and preserved the other4 ,a  people who
 formerly conquered half the world are  
no longer recognized  under sacerdotal  
government1 but the seeds of their      
ancient greatness of  soul still exist1 
though hidden beneath weakness4    ,in  
the same manner the barbarous government
 of the ,turks has enervated  the       
,egyptians and the ,greeks1 without     
having been able to destroy the         
original character or temper of their   
minds4    ,the present character of the 

,french is the same as ,csar ascribed to
 the  ,gauls--prompt to resolve1 ardent 
to combat1 impetuous in attack1 and     
easily discouraged4 ,csar1 ,agatius1 and
 others say1 that of all the  barbarians
 the ,gauls were the most polished4     
,they are still in the most  civilized  
times the model of politeness to all    
their neighbors1 though  they           
occasionally discover the remains of    
their levity1 petulance1 and  barbarity4
    ,the inhabitants of the coasts of   
,france were always good seamen2 the    
people of ,guienne always compose the   
best infantry2 those who inhabit  the   
provinces of ,blois and ,tours are not1 
says ,tasso1 robust and  indefatigable1 
but bland and gentle1 like the land     
which they inhabit4         4444 ,gente 
robusta1 e faticosa1       ,la terra    
molle1 e lieta1 e dilettosa             
,simili a se gli abitator1 produce4     
,but how can we reconcile the character 
of the ,parisians of our day with  that 
which the ,emperor ,julian1 the first of

 princes and men after ,marcus          
,aurelius1 gave to the ,parisians of his
 time8--,i love this people1 says  he in
 his ,misopogon1 because they are       
serious and severe like  myself4 ,this  
seriousness1 which seems at present     
banished from an  immense city become   
the centre of pleasure1 then reigned in 
a little  town destitute of amusements3 
in this respect the spirit of the       
,parisians has changed notwithstanding  
the climate4    ,the affluence1         
opulence1 and idleness of the people who
 may occupy  themselves with pleasures  
and the arts1 and not with the          
government1  have given a new turn of   
mind to a whole nation4    ,further1 how
 is it to be explained by what degrees  
this people have  passed from the       
fierceness which characterized them in  
the time of ,king  ,john1 ,charles      
,,vi41 ,charles ,,ix41 ,henry ,,iii41   
and ,henry ,,iv41 to the soft  facility 
of manners for which they are now the   
admiration of ,europe8 ,it  is that the 

storms of government and religion forced
 constitutional  vivacity into paroxysms
 of faction and fanaticism2 and that    
this same  vivacity1 which always will  
exist1 has at present no object but the 
pleasures of society4 ,the ,parisian is 
impetuous in his pleasures as he        
formerly was in his fierceness4 ,the    
original character which is caused  by  
the climate is always the same4 ,if at  
present he cultivates the  arts1 of     
which he was so long deprived1 it is not
 that he has another  mind1 since he has
 not other organs2 but it is that he has
 more relief1  and this relief has not  
been created by himself1 as by the      
,greeks and  ,florentines1 among whom   
the arts flourished like the natural    
fruits of  their soil4 ,the ,frenchman  
has only received them1 but having      
happily  cultivated and adopted these   
exotics1 he has almost perfected them4  
,the ,french government was originally  
that of all the northern  nations--of   
all those whose policy was regulated in 

general assemblies  of the nation4      
,kings were the chief of these          
assemblies2 and this was  almost the    
only administration of the ,french in   
the first two  generations1 before      
,charles the ,simple4    ,when the      
monarchy was dismembered1 in the decline
 of the ,carlovingian  race1 when the   
kingdom of ,aries arose1 and the        
provinces were occupied  by vassals     
little dependent on the crown1 the name 
of ,french was more  restricted4 ,under 
,hugh ,capet1 ,henry1 and ,philip1 the  
people on this side  the ,loire only1   
were called ,french4 ,there was then    
seen a great  diversity of manners and  
of laws in the provinces held from the  
crown of  ,france4 ,the particular lords
 who became the masters of these        
provinces  introduced new customs into  
their new states4 ,a ,breton and a      
,fleming  have at present some          
conformity1 notwithstanding the         
difference of  their character1 which   
they hold from the sun and the climate1 

but  originally there was not the least 
similitude between them4    ,it is only 
since the time of ,francis ,i4 that     
there has been any  uniformity in       
manners and customs4 ,the court1 at this
 time1 first began  to serve for a model
 to the ,united ,provinces2 but in      
general1  impetuosity in war1 and a lax 
discipline1 always formed the           
predominant  character of the nation4   
,gallantry and politeness began to      
distinguish the ,french under ,francis  
,i4 ,manners became odious after the    
death of ,francis ,,ii4 ,however1 in the
  midst of their horrors1 there was     
always a politeness at court which the  
,germans and ,english endeavored to     
imitate4 ,the rest of ,europe1 in aiming
  to resemble the ,french1 were already 
jealous of them4 ,a character in one  of
 ,shakespeare's comedies says that it is
 difficult to be polite without  having 
been at the court of ,france4    ,though
 the nation has been taxed with         
frivolity by ,csar1 and by all          

neighboring nations1 yet this kingdom1  
so long dismembered1 and so often  ready
 to sink1 is united and sustained       
principally by the wisdom of its        
negotiations1 address1 and patience2 but
 above all1 by the divisions of         
,germany and ,england4 ,brittany alone  
has been united to the kingdom by a     
marriage2 ,burgundy by right of fee1 and
 by the ability of ,louis ,,xi42        
,dauphiny by a donation1 which was the  
fruit of policy2 the county of          
,toulouse by a grant1 maintained by an  
army2 ,provence by money4 ,one  treaty  
of peace has given ,alsace1 another     
,lorraine4 ,the ,english have  been     
driven from ,france1 notwithstanding the
 most signal victories1  because the    
kings of ,france have known how to      
temporize1 and profit on  all favorable 
occasions2--all which proves1 that if   
the ,french youth are  frivolous1 the   
men of riper age1 who govern it1 have   
always been wise4  ,even at present the 
magistracy are severe in manners1 as in 

the time of  the ,emperor ,julian4 ,if  
the first successes in ,italy1 in the   
time of  ,charles ,,viii41 were owing to
 the warlike impetuosity of the nation1 
the  disgraces which followed them were 
caused by the blindness of a court      
which was composed of young men alone4  
,francis ,i4 was only unfortunate  in   
his youth1 when all was governed by     
favorites of his own age1 and he        
rendered his kingdom more flourishing at
 a more advanced age4    ,the ,french   
have always used the same arms as their 
neighbors1 and have  nearly the same    
discipline in war1 but were the first   
who discarded the  lance and pike4 ,the 
battle of ,ivry discouraged the use of  
lances1 which  were soon abolished1 and 
under ,louis ,,xiv4 pikes were also     
discontinued4  ,they wore tunics and    
robes until the sixteenth century4      
,under ,louis the  ,young they left off 
the custom of letting the beards grow1  
and retook to  it under ,francis ,i4    
,only under ,louis ,,xiv4 did they begin

 to shave the  entire face4 ,their dress
 is continually changing1 and at the end
 of each  century the ,french might take
 the portraits of their grandfathers for
  those of foreigners4          ,,fraud4
    ,whether pious ,frauds should be    
practised upon the ,people4    ,once    
upon a time the fakir ,bambabef met one 
of the disciples of  ,confutzee 7whom we
 call ,confucius71 and this disciple was
 named ,whang4  ,bambabef maintained    
that the people require to be deceived1 
and ,whang  asserted that we should     
never deceive any one4 ,here is a sketch
 of their  dispute3    ,,bambabef4--,we 
must imitate the ,supreme ,being1 who   
does not show us  things as they are4   
,he makes us see the sun with a diameter
 of two or  three feet1 although it is a
 million of times larger than the earth4
 ,he  makes us see the moon and the     
stars affixed to one and the same blue  
surface1 while they are at different    
elevations2 he chooses that a  square   
tower should appear round to us at a    

distance2 he chooses that  fire should  
appear to us to be hot1 although it is  
neither hot nor cold2  in short1 he     
surrounds us with errors1 suitable to   
our nature4    ,,whang4--,what you call 
error is not so4 ,the sun1 such as it   
is1 placed at  millions of millions of  
lis from our globe1 is not that which we
 see1  that which we really perceive3 we
 perceive only the sun which is painted 
on our retina1 at a determinate angle4  
,our eyes were not given us to  know    
sizes and distances3 to know these1     
other aids and other  operations are    
necessary4    ,bambabef seemed much     
astonished at this position4 ,whang1    
being very  patient1 explained to him   
the theory of optics2 and ,bambabef1    
having  some conception1 was convinced  
by the demonstrations of the disciple of
  ,confucius4 ,he then resumed in these 
terms3    ,,bambabef4--,if ,god does    
not1 as ,i thought1 deceive us by the   
ministry of  our senses1 you will at    
least acknowledge that our physicians   

are  constantly deceiving children for  
their good4 ,they tell them that they   
are giving them sugar1 when in reality  
they are giving them rhubarb4 ,i1  a    
fakir1 may then deceive the people1 who 
are as ignorant as children4            
,,whang4--,i have two sons2 ,i have     
never deceived them4 ,when they have    
been  sick1 ,i have said to them3 ,here 
is a nauseous medicine2 you must have   
the courage to take it2 if it were      
pleasant1 it would injure you4 ,i  have 
never suffered their nurses and tutors  
to make them afraid of  ghosts1 goblins1
 and witches4 ,i have thereby made them 
wise and  courageous citizens4          
,,bambabef4--,the people are not born so
 happily as your family4                
,,whang4--,men all nearly resemble one  
another2 they are born with the same    
dispositions4 ,their nature ought not to
 be corrupted4    ,,bambabef4--,we teach
 them errors1 ,i own2 but it is for     
their good4 ,we  make them believe that 
if they do not buy our blessed nails1 if

 they do  not expiate their sins by     
giving us money1 they will1 in another  
life1  become post-horses1 dogs1 or     
lizards4 ,this intimidates them1 and    
they  become good people4               
,,whang4--,do you not see that you are  
perverting these poor folks8 ,there  are
 among them many more than you think    
there are who reason1 who make a  jest  
of your miracles and your superstitions2
 who see very clearly that  they will   
not be turned into lizards1 nor into    
post-horses4 ,what is the  consequence8 
,they have good sense enough to perceive
 that you talk to  them very            
impertinently2 but they have not enough 
to elevate themselves  to a religion    
pure and untrammelled by superstition   
like ours4 ,their  passions make them   
think there is no religion1 because the 
only one that  is taught them is        
ridiculous3 thus you become guilty of   
all the vices  into which they plunge4  
,,bambabef4--,not at all1 for we teach  
them none but good morals4              

,,whang4--,the people would stone you if
 you taught impure morals4 ,men are  so 
constituted that they like very well to 
do evil1 but they will not  have it     
preached to them4 ,but a wise morality  
should not be mixed up  with absurd     
fables3 for by these impostures1 which  
you might do without1  you weaken that  
morality which you are forced to teach4 
,,bambabef4--,what6 do you think that   
truth can be taught to the people       
without the aid of fables8              
,,whang4--,i firmly believe it4 ,our    
literati are made of the same stuff as  
our tailors1 our weavers1 and our       
laborers4 ,they worship a creating1     
rewarding1 and avenging ,god4 ,they do  
not sully their worship by absurd       
systems1 nor by extravagant ceremonies4 
,there are much fewer crimes  among the 
lettered than among the people2 why     
should we not condescend  to instruct   
our working classes as we do our        
literati8    ,,bambabef4--,that would be
 great folly2 as well might you wish    

them to  have the same politeness1 or to
 be all jurisconsults4 ,it is neither   
possible nor desirable4 ,there must be  
white bread for the master1 and  brown  
for the servant4    ,,whang4--,i own    
that men should not all have the same   
science2 but there  are things necessary
 to all4 ,it is necessary that each one 
should be  just2 and the surest way of  
inspiring all men with justice is to    
inspire  them with religion without     
superstition4    ,,bambabef4--,that is a
 fine project1 but it is impracticable4 
,do you think  it is sufficient for men 
to believe in a being that rewards and  
punishes8 ,you have told me that the    
more acute among the people often       
revolt against fables4 ,they will1 in   
like manner1 revolt against truth4      
,they will say3 ,who shall assure me    
that ,god rewards and punishes8 ,where  
is the proof8 ,what mission have you8   
,what miracle have you worked that ,i   
should believe in you8 ,they will laugh 
at you much more than at me4            

,,whang4--,your error is this3 ,you     
imagine that men will spurn an idea that
  is honest1 likely1 and useful to every
 one2 an idea which accords with  human 
reason1 because they reject things which
 are dishonest1 absurd1  useless1       
dangerous1 and shocking to good sense4  
,the people are much disposed to believe
 their magistrates2 and when  their     
magistrates propose to them only a      
rational belief1 they embrace  it       
willingly4 ,there is no need of         
prodigies to believe in a just ,god1    
who reads the heart of man3 this is an  
idea too natural1 too necessary1  to be 
combated4 ,it is not necessary to know  
precisely how ,god rewards  and         
punishes3 to believe in ,his justice is 
enough4 ,i assure you that ,i  have seen
 whole towns with scarcely any other    
tenet2 and that in them ,i  have seen   
the most virtue4    ,,bambabef4--,take  
heed what you say4 ,you will find       
philosophers in these  times1 who will  
deny both pains and rewards4            

,,whang4--,but you will acknowledge that
 these philosophers will much more      
strongly deny your inventions2 so you   
will gain nothing by that4  ,supposing  
that there are philosophers who do not  
agree with my  principles1 they are not 
the less honest men2 they do not the    
less  cultivate virtue1 which should be 
embraced through love1 and not through  
fear4 ,moreover1 ,i maintain that no    
philosopher can ever be assured that    
,providence does not reserve pains for  
the wicked1 and rewards for the  good4  
,for1 if they ask me who has told me    
that ,god punishes1 ,i shall ask  them  
who has told them that ,god does not    
punish4 ,in short1 ,i maintain  that the
 philosophers1 far from contradicting1  
will aid me4 ,will you be  a            
philosopher8    ,,bambabef4--,with all  
my heart4 ,but do not tell the fakirs4  
,and let us1  above all1 remember that  
if a philosopher would be of service to 
human  society1 he must announce a ,god4
          ,,free-,,will4      ,from the 

commencement of the time in which men   
began to reason1  philosophers have     
agitated this question1 which           
theologians have  rendered              
unintelligible by their absurd          
subtleties upon grace4 ,locke is        
perhaps the first who1 without having   
the arrogance of announcing a  general  
principle1 has examined human nature by 
analysis4 ,it has been  disputed for    
three thousand years1 whether the will  
is free or not2  ,locke shows that the  
question is absurd1 and that liberty    
cannot belong  to the will any more than
 color and motion4    ,what is meant by 
the expression to be free8 ,it signifies
 power1 or  rather it has no sense at   
all4 ,to say that the will can1 is in   
itself  as ridiculous as if we said that
 it is yellow1 or blue1 round1 or       
square4    ,will is will1 and liberty is
 power4 ,let us gradually examine the   
chain  of what passes within us1 without
 confusing our minds with any           
scholastic terms1 or antecedent         

principle4    ,it is proposed to you to 
ride on horseback2 it is absolutely     
necessary  for you to make a choice1 for
 it is very clear that you must either  
go  or not2 there is no medium1 you must
 absolutely do the one or the other4    
,so far it is demonstrated that the will
 is not free4 ,you will get on          
horseback2 why8 ,because ,i will to do  
so1 an ignoramus will say4 ,this  reply 
is an absurdity2 nothing can be done    
without reason or cause4 ,your  will    
then is caused by what8 ,the agreeable  
idea which is presented to  your brain2 
the predominant1 or determined idea2    
but1 you will say1  cannot ,i resist an 
idea which predominates over me8 ,no1   
for what would  be the cause of your    
resistance8 ,an idea by which your will 
is swayed  still more despotically4     
,you receive your ideas1 and1 therefore1
 receive your will4 ,you will then      
necessarily2 consequently1 the word     
liberty belongs not to will in any      
sense4    ,you ask me how thought and   

will are formed within you8 ,i answer   
that ,i  know nothing about it4 ,i no   
more know how ideas are created than ,i 
know  how the world was formed4 ,we are 
only allowed to grope in the dark in    
reference to all that inspires our      
incomprehensible machine4    ,will1     
then1 is not a faculty which can be     
called free4 ,free-will is a  word      
absolutely devoid of sense1 and that    
which scholars have called              
indifference1 that is to say1 will      
without cause1 is a chimera  unworthy to
 be combated4    ,in what then consists 
liberty8 ,in the power of doing what we 
will8 ,i  would go into my cabinet2 the 
door is open1 ,i am free to enter4 ,but1
 say  you1 if the door is shut and ,i   
remain where ,i am1 ,i remain freely4   
,let  us explain ourselves--you then    
exercise the power that you possess of  
remaining2 you possess this power1 but  
not the power of going out4    ,liberty1
 then1 on which so many volumes have    
been written1 reduced to  its proper    

sense1 is only the power of acting4     
,in what sense must the expression this 
man is free be spoken8 ,in the  same    
sense in which we use the words health1 
strength1 and  happiness4 ,man is not   
always strong1 healthy1 or happy4 ,a    
great  passion1 a great obstacle1 may   
deprive him of his liberty1 or power of 
action4    ,the words liberty and       
free-will are1 then1 abstractions1      
general  terms1 like beauty1 goodness1  
justice4 ,these terms do not signify    
that  all men are always handsome1 good1
 and just1 neither are they always      
free4    ,further1 liberty being only   
the power of acting1 what is this power8
 ,it  is the effect of the constitution1
 and the actual state of our organs4    
,leibnitz would solve a problem of      
geometry1 but falls into an apoplexy2   
he certainly has not the liberty to     
solve his problem4 ,a vigorous young    
man1 passionately in love1 who holds his
 willing mistress in his arms1  is he   
free to subdue his passion8 ,doubtless  

not4 ,he has the power of  enjoying1 and
 has not the power to abstain4 ,locke   
then is very right in  calling liberty1 
power4 ,when can this young man abstain1
 notwithstanding  the violence of his   
passion8 ,when a stronger idea shall    
determine the  springs of his soul and  
body to the contrary4    ,but how8 ,have
 other animals the same liberty1 the    
same power8 ,why not8  ,they have sense1
 memory1 sentiment1 and perceptions like
 ourselves2 they  act spontaneously as  
we do4 ,they must1 also1 like us1 have  
the power of  acting by virtue of their 
perception1 and of the play of their    
organs4    ,we exclaim3 ,if it be thus1 
all things are machines merely2         
everything in  the universe is subjected
 to the eternal laws4 ,well1 would you  
have  everything rendered subject to a  
million of blind caprices8 ,either all  
is the consequence of the nature of     
things1 or all is the effect of the     
eternal order of an absolute master2 in 
both cases1 we are only wheels  to the  

machine of the world4    ,it is a       
foolish1 common-place expression that   
without this pretended  freedom of will1
 rewards and punishments are useless4   
,reason1 and you  will conclude quite   
the contrary4    ,if1 when a robber is  
executed1 his accomplice1 who sees him  
suffer1 has  the liberty of not being   
frightened at the punishment2 if his    
will  determines of itself1 he will go  
from the foot of the scaffold to        
assassinate on the high road2 if struck 
with horror1 he experiences an          
insurmountable terror1 he will no longer
 thieve4 ,the punishment of his         
companion will become useful to him1 and
 moreover prove to society that  his    
will is not free4    ,liberty1 then1 is 
not and cannot be anything but the power
 of doing what  we will4 ,that is what  
philosophy teaches us4 ,but1 if we      
consider liberty  in the theological    
sense1 it is so sublime a matter that   
profane eyes  may not be raised so high4
          ,,french ,,language4      ,the

 ,french language did not begin to      
assume a regular form until the  tenth  
century2 it sprang from the remains of  
the ,latin and the ,celtic1  mixed with 
a few ,teutonic words4 ,this language   
was1 in the first  instance1 the        
provincial ,roman1 and the ,teutonic was
 the language of the  courts1 until the 
time of ,charles the ,bald4 ,the        
,teutonic remained the  only language in
 ,germany1 after the grand epoch of the 
division in #dcc4  ,the rustic ,roman   
prevailed in ,western ,france2 the      
inhabitants of the  ,pays de ,vaud1 of  
the ,valois1 of the valley of ,engadine1
 and some other  cantons1 still preserve
 some manifest vestiges of this idiom4  
,at the commencement of the eleventh    
century1 ,french began to be written2   
but this ,french retained more of       
,romance or rustic ,roman than of the   
language of the present day4 ,the       
romance of ,philomena1 written in the   
tenth century1 is not very different in 
language from that of the laws  of the  

,normans4 ,we cannot yet trace the      
original ,celtic1 ,latin1 and  ,german4 
,the words which signify the members of 
the human body1 or  things in daily use1
 which have no relation to the ,latin or
 ,german1 are  of ancient ,gallic or    
,celtic1 as tte1 jambe1 sabre1 point1   
alter1 parler1 couter1 regarder1 crier1 
cotume1 ensemble1  and many more of the 
same kind4 ,the greater number of the   
warlike  phrases were ,french or        
,german1 as marche1 halte1 marchal1     
bivouac1  lansquenet4 ,almost1 all the  
rest are ,latin1 and the ,latin words   
have  been all abridged1 according to   
the usage and genius of the nations of  
the north4    ,in the twelfth century1  
some terms were borrowed from the       
philosophy of  ,aristotle2 and toward   
the sixteenth century1 ,greek names were
 found for  the parts of the human body1
 and for its maladies and their         
remedies4  ,although the language was   
then enriched with ,greek1 and aided    
from the  time of ,charles ,,viii4 with 

considerable accessions from the        
,italian1  already arrived at           
perfection1 it did not acquire a regular
 form4  ,francis ,i4 abolished the      
custom of pleading and of judging in    
,latin1  which proved the barbarism of a
 language which could not be used in    
public proceedings--a pernicious custom 
to the natives1 whose fortunes  were    
regulated in a language which they could
 not understand4 ,it then  became       
necessary to cultivate the ,french1 but 
the language was neither  noble nor     
regular1 and its syntax was altogether  
capricious4 ,the genius  of its         
conversation being turned towards       
pleasantry1 the language became  fertile
 in smart and lively expressions1 but   
exceedingly barren in  dignified and    
harmonious phrases2 whence it arises    
that in the  dictionaries of rhymes1    
twenty suitable words are found for     
comic poetry  for one of poetry of a    
more elevated nature4 ,this was the     
cause that  ,marot never succeeded in   

the serious style1 and that ,amyot was  
unable to  give a version of the elegant
 simplicity of ,plutarch4    ,the       
,french tongue acquired strength from   
the pen of ,montaigne1 but still  wanted
 elevation and harmony4 ,ronsard injured
 the language by  introducing into      
,french poetry the ,greek compounds1    
derivable from the  physicians4         
,malherbe partly repaired the fault of  
,ronsard4 ,it became  more lofty and    
harmonious by the establishment of the  
,french ,academy1  and finally in the   
age of ,louis ,,xiv4 acquired the       
perfection by which it  is now          
distinguished4    ,the genius of the    
,french language--for every language has
 its genius--is  clearness and order4   
,this genius consists in the facility   
which a  language possesses of          
expressing itself more or less happily1 
and of  employing or rejecting the      
familiar terms of other languages4 ,the 
,french  tongue having no declensions1  
and being aided by articles1 cannot     

adopt  the inversions of the ,greek and 
the ,latin2 the words are necessarily   
arranged agreeably to the course of the 
ideas4 ,we can only say in one  way1    
,plancus a pris soin des affaires de    
,csar2 but this phrase in  ,latin1 ,res 
,csaris1 ,plancus diligenter curavit may
 be arranged in a  hundred and twenty   
different forms without injuring the    
sense or rules  of the language4 ,the   
auxiliary verbs1 which lengthen and     
weaken phrases  in the modern tongues1  
render that of ,france still less       
adapted to the  lapidary style4 ,its    
auxiliary verbs1 its pronouns1 its      
articles1 its  deficiency of declinable 
participles1 and1 lastly1 its uniformity
 of  position1 preclude the exhibition  
of much enthusiasm in poetry2 it        
possesses fewer capabilities of this    
nature than the ,italian and the        
,english2 but this constraint and       
slavery render it more proper for       
tragedy and comedy than any language in 
,europe4 ,the natural order in  which   

the ,french people are obliged to       
express their thoughts and  construct   
their phrases1 infuses into their speech
 a facility and  amenity which please   
everybody2 and the genius of the nation 
suiting  with the genius of the         
language1 has produced a greater number 
of books  agreeably written than are to 
be found among any other people4        
,social freedom and politeness having   
been for a long time established in     
,france1 the language has acquired a    
delicacy of expression1 and a  natural  
refinement which are seldom to be found 
out of it4 ,this  refinement has        
occasionally been carried too far2 but  
men of taste have  always known how to  
reduce it within due bounds4    ,many   
persons have maintained that the ,french
 language has been  impoverished since  
the days of ,montaigne and ,amyot1      
because expressions  abound in these    
authors which are no longer employed2   
but these are for  the most part terms  
for which equivalents have been found4  

,it has been  enriched with a number of 
noble and energetic expressions1 and1   
without  adverting to the eloquence of  
matter1 has certainly that of speech4   
,it  was during the reign of ,louis     
,,xiv41 as already observed1 that the   
language was fixed4 ,whatever changes   
time and caprice may have in store1  the
 good authors of the seventeenth and    
eighteenth centuries will always  serve 
for models4    ,circumstances created no
 right to expect that ,france would be  
distinguished in philosophy4 ,a ,gothic 
government extinguished all kind  of    
illumination during more than twelve    
centuries2 and professors of  error1    
paid for brutalizing human nature1 more 
increased the darkness4  ,nevertheless1 
there is more philosophy in ,paris than 
in any town on  earth1 and possibly than
 in all the towns put together1         
excepting  ,london4 ,the spirit of      
reason has even penetrated into the     
provinces4 ,in  a word1 the ,french     
genius is probably at present equal to  

that of  ,england in philosophy2 while  
for the last four-score years ,france   
has  been superior to all other nations 
in literature2 and has undeniably  taken
 the lead in the courtesies of society1 
and in that easy and  natural           
politeness1 which is improperly termed  
urbanity4          ,,friendship4    ,the
 temple of friendship has long been     
known by name1 but it is well  known    
that it has been very little frequented2
 as the following verses  pleasantly    
observe1 ,orestes1 ,pylades1 ,pirithous1
 ,achates1 and the tender  ,nisus1 were 
all genuine friends and great heroes2   
but1 alas1 existent  only in fable3     
,en vieux langage on voit sur la faade1 
,les noms sacrs d',oreste et de ,pylade2
       ,le mdaillon du bon ,pirithous1  
,du sage ,achate et du tendre ,nisus2   
,tous grands hros1 tous amis vritables2 
,ces noms sont beaux2 mais ils sont dans
 les fables4    ,friendship commands    
more than love and esteem4 ,love your   
neighbor  signifies assist your         

neighbor1 but not--enjoy his            
conversation with  pleasure1 if he be   
tiresome2 confide to him your secrets1  
if he be a  tattler2 or lend him your   
money1 if he be a spendthrift4          
,friendship is the marriage of the soul1
 and this marriage is liable to         
divorce4 ,it is a tacit contract between
 two sensible and virtuous  persons4 ,i 
say sensible1 for a monk or a hermit    
cannot be so1 who lives  without knowing
 friendship4 ,i say virtuous1 for the   
wicked only have  accomplices--the      
voluptuous1 companions--the interested1 
associates2  politicians assemble       
factions--the generality of idle men    
have  connections--princes1 courtiers4  
,virtuous men alone possess friends4    
,cethegus was the accomplice of         
,catiline1 and ,mcenas the courtier of  
,octavius2 but ,cicero was the friend of
 ,atticus4    ,what is caused by this   
contract between two tender1 honest     
minds8 ,its  obligations are stronger or
 weaker according to the degrees of     

sensibility1 and the number of services 
rendered4    ,the enthusiasm of         
friendship has been stronger among the  
,greeks and  ,arabs than among us4 ,the 
tales that these people have imagined on
 the  subject of friendship are         
admirable2 we have none to compare to   
them4 ,we  are rather dry and           
reserved--in everything4 ,i see no great
 trait of  friendship in our histories1 
romances1 or theatre4    ,the only      
friendship spoken of among the ,jews1   
was that which existed  between         
,jonathan and ,david4 ,it is said that  
,david loved him with a love  stronger  
than that of women2 but it is also said 
that ,david1 after the  death of his    
friend1 dispossessed ,mephibosheth1 his 
son1 and caused him  to be put to death4
    ,friendship was a point of religion 
and legislation among the ,greeks4 ,the 
,thebans had a regiment of lovers--a    
fine regiment2 some have taken it  for a
 regiment of nonconformists4 ,they are  
deceived2 it is taking a  shameful      

accident for a noble principle4         
,friendship1 among the ,greeks1  was    
prescribed by the laws and religion4    
,manners countenanced abuses1  but the  
laws did not4          ,,frivolity4     
,what persuades me still more of the    
existence of ,providence1 said the      
profound author of ,bacha ,billeboquet1 
is that to console us for our           
innumerable miseries1 nature has made us
 frivolous4 ,we are sometimes           
ruminating oxen1 overcome by the weight 
of our yoke2 sometimes  dispersed doves1
 tremblingly endeavoring to avoid the   
claws of the  vulture1 stained with the 
blood of our companions2 foxes1 pursued 
by  dogs2 and tigers1 who devour one    
another4 ,then we suddenly become       
butterflies2 and forget1 in our volatile
 winnowings1 all the horrors  that we   
have experienced4    ,if we were not    
frivolous1 what man without shuddering1 
could live in a  town in which the wife 
of a marshal of ,france1 a lady of honor
 to the  queen1 was burned1 under the   

pretext that she had killed a white cock
 by  moonlight2 or in the same town in  
which ,marshal ,marillac was            
assassinated according to form1 pursuant
 to a sentence passed by  judicial      
murderers appointed by a priest in his  
own country house1 in  which he embraced
 ,marion de ,lorme while these robed    
wretches executed  his sanguinary       
wishes8    ,could a man say to himself1 
without trembling in every nerve1 and   
having  his heart frozen with horror3   
,here ,i am1 in the very place which1 it
 is  said1 was strewed with the dead and
 dying bodies of two thousand young     
gentlemen1 murdered near the ,faubourg  
,st4 ,antoine1 because one man in a  red
 cassock displeased some others in black
 ones6    ,who could pass the ,rue de la
 ,fronerie without shedding tears and   
falling into paroxysms of rage against  
the holy and abominable  principles     
which plunged the sword into the heart  
of the best of men1  and of the greatest
 of kings8    ,we could not walk a step 

in the streets of ,paris on ,st4        
,bartholomew's  day1 without saying3 ,it
 was here that one of my ancestors was  
murdered  for the love of ,god2 it was  
here that one of my mother's family was 
dragged bleeding and mangled2 it was    
here that one-half of my countrymen     
murdered the other4    ,happily1 men are
 so light1 so frivolous1 so struck with 
the present and  so insensible to the   
past1 that in ten thousand there are not
 above two  or three who make these     
reflections4    ,how many boon          
companions have ,i seen1 who1 after the 
loss of children1  wives1 mistresses1   
fortune1 and even health itself1 have   
eagerly  resorted to a party to retail a
 piece of scandal1 or to a supper to    
tell  humorous stories4 ,solidity       
consists chiefly in a uniformity of     
ideas4 ,it  has been said that a man of 
sense should invariably think in the    
same  way2 reduced to such an           
alternative1 it would be better not to  
have been  born4 ,the ancients never    

invented a finer fable than that which  
bestowed  a cup of the water of ,lethe  
on all who entered the ,elysian fields4 
,if you would tolerate life1 mortals1   
forget yourselves1 and enjoy it4        
,,gallant4      ,this word is derived   
from gal the original signification of  
which  was gayety and rejoicing1 as may 
be seen in ,alain ,chartier1 and in     
,froissart4 ,even in the ,romance of the
 ,rose we meet with the word  galand in 
the sense of ornamented1 adorned4       
,la belle fut bien attornie       ,et   
d'un filet d'or galande4    ,it is      
probable that the gala of the ,italians1
 and the galan of the  ,spaniards1 are  
derived from the word gal which seems to
 be  originally ,celtic2 hence1 was     
insensibly formed gallant1 which        
signifies a man forward1 or eager to    
please4 ,the term received an  improved 
and more noble signification in the     
times of chivalry1 when the  desire to  
please manifested itself in feats of    
arms1 and personal  conflict4 ,to       

conduct himself gallantly1 to extricate 
himself from an  affair gallantly1      
implies1 even at present1 a man's       
conducting himself  conformably to      
principle and honor4 ,a gallant man     
among the ,english1  signifies a man of 
courage2 in ,france it means more--a man
 of noble  general demeanor4 ,a gallant 
7un homme galant7 is totally different  
from a gallant man 7un galant homme72   
the latter means a man of  respectable  
and honorable feeling--the former1      
something nearer the  character of a    
petit matre a man successfully addicted 
to intrigue4  ,being gallant 7tre       
galant7 in general implies an assiduity 
to please  by studious attentions1 and  
flattering deference4 ,he was           
exceedingly  gallant to those ladies1   
means merely1 he behaved more than      
politely to  them2 but being the gallant
 of a lady is an expression of stronger 
meaning2 it signifies being her lover2  
the word is scarcely any longer  in use 
in this sense1 except in low or familiar

 poetry4 ,a gallant is not  merely a man
 devoted to and successful in intrigue1 
but the term  implies1 moreover1        
somewhat of impudence and effrontery1 in
 which sense  ,fontaine uses it in the  
following3 ,mais un 'galant1' chercheur 
des  pucelages4    ,thus are various    
meanings attached to the same word4 ,the
 case is similar  with the term         
gallantry1 which sometimes signifies a  
disposition to  coquetry1 and a habit of
 flattery2 sometimes a present of some  
elegant  toy1 or piece of jewelry2      
sometimes intrigue1 with one woman or   
with  many2 and1 latterly1 it has even  
been applied to signify ironically the  
favors of ,venus2 thus1 to talk         
gallantries1 to give gallantries1 to    
have  gallantries1 to contract a        
gallantry1 express very different       
meanings4  ,nearly all the terms which  
occur frequently in conversation        
acquire1 in  the same manner1 various   
shades of meaning1 which it is difficult
 to  discriminate2 the meaning of terms 

of art is more precise and less         
arbitrary4          ,,gargantua4        
,if ever a reputation was fixed on a    
solid basis1 it is that of  ,gargantua4 
,yet in the present age of philosophy   
and criticism1 some rash  and daring    
minds have started forward1 who have    
ventured to deny the  prodigies believed
 respecting this extraordinary          
man--persons who have  carried their    
skepticism so far as even to doubt his  
very existence4    ,how is it possible1 
they ask1 that there should have existed
 in the  sixteenth century a            
distinguished hero1 never mentioned by a
 single  contemporary1 by ,st4          
,ignatius1 ,cardinal ,capitan1 ,galileo1
 or  ,guicciardini1 and respecting whom 
the registers of the ,sorbonne do not   
contain the slightest notice8           
,investigate the histories of ,france1  
of ,germany1 of ,england1 ,spain1 and   
other countries1 and you find not a     
single word about ,gargantua4 ,his      
whole life1 from his birth to his death1

 is a tissue of inconceivable           
prodigies4    ,his mother1 ,gargamelle1 
was delivered of him from the left ear4 
,almost  at the instant of his birth he 
called out for a drink1 with a voice    
that  was heard even in the districts of
 ,beauce and ,vivarais4 ,sixteen ells of
  cloth were required to make him       
breeches1 and a hundred hides of brown  
cows were used in his shoes4 ,he had not
 attained the age of twelve years       
before he gained a great battle1 and    
founded the abbey of ,thlme4  ,madame   
,badebec was given to him in marriage1  
and ,badebec is proved to be  a ,syrian 
name4    ,he is represented to have     
devoured six pilgrims in a mere salad1  
and the  river ,seine is stated to have 
flowed entirely from his person1 so that
  the ,parisians are indebted for their 
beautiful river to him alone4    ,all   
this is considered contrary to nature by
 our carping philosophers1  who scruple 
to admit even what is probable1 unless  
it is well supported  by evidence4      

,they observe1 that if the ,parisians   
have always believed in ,gargantua1     
that is no reason why other nations     
should believe in him2 that if          
,gargantua had really performed one     
single prodigy out of the many          
attributed to him1 the whole world would
 have resounded with it1 all  records   
would have noticed it1 and a hundred    
monuments would have  attested it4 ,in  
short1 they very unceremoniously treat  
the ,parisians who  believe in          
,gargantua as ignorant simpletons and   
superstitious idiots1  with whom are    
inter-mixed a few hypocrites1 who       
pretend to believe in  ,gargantua1 in   
order to obtain some convenient         
priorship in the abbey of  ,thlme4      
,the reverend ,father ,viret1 a         
,cordelier of full-sleeved dignity1 a   
confessor of ladies1 and a preacher to  
the king1 has replied to our            
,pyrrhonean philosophers in a manner    
decisive and invincible4 ,he very       
learnedly proves that if no writer1 with

 the exception of ,rabelais1 has        
mentioned the prodigies of ,gargantua1  
at least1 no historian has  contradicted
 them2 that the sage de ,thou1 who was a
 believer in  witchcraft1 divination1   
and astrology1 never denied the miracles
 of  ,gargantua4 ,they were not even    
called in question by ,la ,mothe le     
,vayer4  ,mzeray treated them with such 
respect as not to say a word against    
them1 or indeed about them4 ,these      
prodigies were performed before the     
eyes of all the world4 ,rabelais was a  
witness of them4 ,it was impossible     
that he could be deceived1 or that he   
would deceive4 ,had he deviated  even in
 the smallest degree from the truth1 all
 the nations of ,europe  would have been
 roused against him in indignation2 all 
the gazetteers  and journalists of the  
day would have exclaimed with one voice 
against  the fraud and imposture4    ,in
 vain do the philosophers reply--for    
they reply to everything--that1  at the 
period in question1 gazettes and        

journals were not in existence4  ,it is 
said in return that there existed what  
was equivalent to them1 and  that is    
sufficient4 ,everything is impossible in
 the history of  ,gargantua1 and from   
this circumstance itself may be inferred
 its  incontestable truth4 ,for if it   
were not true1 no person could possibly 
have ventured to imagine it1 and its    
incredibility constitutes the great     
proof that it ought to be believed4     
,open all the ,mercuries1 all the       
,journals de ,trvoux2 those immortal    
works which teem with instruction to the
 race of man1 and you will not  find a  
single line which throws a doubt on the 
history of ,gargantua4 ,it  was reserved
 for our own unfortunate age to produce 
monsters1 who would  establish a        
frightful ,pyrrhonism1 under the        
pretence of requiring  evidence as      
nearly approaching to mathematical as   
the case will admit1  and of a devotion 
to reason1 truth1 and justice4 ,what a  
pity6 ,oh1 for a  single argument to    

confound them6    ,gargantua founded the
 abbey of ,thlme4 ,the title deeds1 it  
is true1  were never found2 it never had
 any2 but it exists1 and produces an    
income of ten thousand pieces of gold a 
year4 ,the river ,seine exists1  and is 
an eternal monument of the prodigious   
fountain from which  ,gargantua supplied
 so noble a stream4 ,moreover1 what will
 it cost you to  believe in him8 ,should
 you not take the safest side8          
,gargantua can  procure for you wealth1 
honors1 and influence4 ,philosophy can  
only  bestow on you internal            
tranquillity and satisfaction1 which you
 will of  course estimate as a trifle4  
,believe1 then1 ,i again repeat1 in     
,gargantua2 if you possess the slightest
 portion of avarice1 ambition1 or       
knavery1 it is the wisest part you can  
adopt4          ,,gazette4      ,a      
narrative of public affairs4 ,it was at 
the beginning of the  seventeenth       
century that this useful practice was   
suggested and  established at ,venice1  

at the time when ,italy still continued 
the centre  of ,european negotiations1  
and ,venice was the unfailing asylum of 
liberty4 ,the leaves or sheets          
containing this narrative1 which were   
published once a week1 were called      
,gazettes1 from the word gazetta1  the  
name of a small coin1 amounting nearly  
to one of our demi-sous1 then  current  
at ,venice4 ,the example was afterwards 
followed in all the great  cities of    
,europe4    ,journals of this           
description have been established in    
,china from time  immemorial4 ,the      
,imperial ,gazette is published there   
every day by  order of the court4       
,admitting this gazette to be true1 we  
may easily  believe it does not contain 
all that is true2 neither in fact should
 it  do so4    ,thophraste ,renaudot1 a 
physician1 published the first gazettes 
in  ,france in #afja1 and he had an     
exclusive privilege for the publication1
  which continued for a long time a     
patrimony to his family4 ,the like      

privilege became an object of importance
 at ,amsterdam1 and the greater  part of
 the gazettes of the ,united ,provinces 
are still a source of  revenue to many  
of the families of magistrates1 who pay 
writers for  furnishing materials for   
them4 ,the city of ,london alone        
publishes more  than twelve gazettes in 
the course of a week4 ,they can be      
printed only  upon stamped paper1 and   
produce no inconsiderable income to the 
,state4    ,the gazettes of ,china      
relate solely to that empire2 those of  
the  different states of ,europe embrace
 the affairs of all countries4          
,although they frequently abound in     
false intelligence1 they may            
nevertheless be considered as supplying 
good material for history2  because1 in 
general1 the errors of each particular  
gazette are corrected  by subsequent    
ones1 and because they contain authentic
 copies of almost  all state papers1    
which indeed are published in them by   
order of the  sovereigns or governments 

themselves4 ,the ,french gazettes have  
always  been revised by the ministry4   
,it is on this account that the writers 
of  them have always adhered to certain 
forms and designations1 with a          
strictness apparently somewhat          
inconsistent with the courtesies of     
polished society1 bestowing the title of
 monsieur only on some  particular      
descriptions of persons1 and that of    
sieur upon others2 the  authors having  
forgotten that they were not speaking in
 the name of  their king4 ,these public 
journals1 it must be added1 to their    
praise1  have never been debased by     
calumny1 and have always been written   
with  considerable correctness4    ,the 
case is very different with respect to  
foreign gazettes2 those of  ,london1    
with the exception of the court gazette1
 abound frequently in  that coarseness  
and licentiousness of observation which 
the national  liberty allows4 ,the      
,french gazettes established in that    
country have  been seldom written with  

purity1 and have sometimes been not a   
little  instrumental in corrupting the  
language4 ,one of the greatest faults   
which has found a way into them arises  
from the authors having concluded  that 
the ancient forms of expression used in 
public proclamations and in  judicial   
and political proceedings and documents 
in ,france1 and with  which they were   
particularly conversant1 were analogous 
to the regular  syntax of our language1 
and from their having accordingly       
imitated that  style in their narrative4
 ,this is like a ,roman historian's     
using the  style of the law of the      
twelve tables4    ,in imitation of the  
political gazettes1 literary ones began 
to be  published in ,france in #affe2   
for the first journals were1 in fact1   
simply advertisements of the works      
recently printed in ,europe2 to this    
mere announcement of publication was    
soon added a critical examination  or   
review4 ,many authors were offended at  
it1 notwithstanding its great           

moderation4    ,we shall here speak only
 of those literary gazettes with which  
the  public1 who were previously in     
possession of various journals from     
every  country in ,europe in which the  
sciences were cultivated1 were          
completely  overwhelmed4 ,these gazettes
 appeared at ,paris about the year      
#agbc1 under  many different names1 as  
,the ,parnassian ,intelligencer1        
,observations  on ,new ,books1 etc4 ,the
 greater number of them were written for
 the  single purpose of making money2   
and as money is not to be made by       
praising authors1 these productions     
consisted generally of satire and       
abuse4 ,they often contained the most   
odious personalities1 and for a  time   
sold in proportion to the virulence of  
their malignity2 but reason  and good   
taste1 which are always sure to prevail 
at last1 consigned them  eventually to  
contempt and oblivion4                  
,,genealogy4      ,,section ,i4    ,many
 volumes have been written by learned   

divines in order to reconcile  ,st4     
,matthew with ,st4 ,luke on the subject 
of the genealogy of ,jesus  ,christ4    
,the former enumerates only twenty-seven
 generations from ,david  through       
,solomon1 while ,luke gives forty-two1  
and traces the descent  through ,nathan4
 ,the following is the method in which  
the learned ,calmet  solves a difficulty
 relating to ,melchizedek3 ,the         
,orientals and the  ,greeks1 ever       
abounding in fable and invention1       
fabricated a genealogy  for him1 in     
which they give us the names of his     
ancestors4 ,but1 adds  this judicious   
,benedictine1 as falsehood always       
betrays itself1 some  state his         
genealogy according to one series1 and  
others according to  another4 ,there are
 some who maintain that he descended    
from a race  obscure and degraded1 and  
there are some who are disposed to      
represent  him as illegitimate4    ,this
 passage naturally applies to ,jesus1 of
 whom1 according to the  apostle1       

,melchizedek was the type or figure4 ,in
 fact1 the gospel of  ,nicomedes        
expressly states that the ,jews1 in the 
presence of ,pilate1  reproached ,jesus 
with being born of fornication2 upon    
which the learned  ,fabricius remarks1  
that it does not appear from any clear  
and credible  testimony that the ,jews  
directed to ,jesus ,christ during ,his  
life1 or  even to ,his apostles1 that   
calumny respecting ,his birth which they
 so  assiduously and virulently         
circulated afterwards4 ,the ,acts of the
  ,apostles1 however1 inform us that the
 ,jews of ,antioch opposed  themselves1 
blaspheming against what ,paul spoke to 
them concerning  ,jesus2 and ,origen    
maintains that the passage in ,st4      
,john's gospel ,we  are not born of     
fornication1 we have never been in      
subjection unto any  man was an indirect
 reproach thrown out by the ,jews       
against ,jesus on  the subject of ,his  
birth4 ,for1 as this father informs us1 
they pretended  that ,jesus was         

originally from a small hamlet of ,juda1
 and ,his mother  nothing more than a   
poor villager subsisting by her labor1  
who1 having  been found guilty of       
adultery with a soldier of the name of  
,panther1 was  turned away by her       
husband1 whose occupation was that of a 
carpenter2  that1 after this disgraceful
 expulsion1 she wandered about miserably
  from one place to another1 and was    
privately delivered of ,jesus1 who1     
pressed by the necessity of ,his        
circumstances1 was compelled to go and  
hire ,himself as a servant in ,egypt1   
where ,he acquired some of those        
secrets which the ,egyptians turn to so 
good an account1 and then  returned to  
,his own country1 in which1 full of the 
miracles ,he was  enabled to perform1   
,he proclaimed ,himself to be ,god4     
,according to a very old tradition1 the 
name of ,panther1 which gave  occasion  
to the mistake of the ,jews1 was1 as we 
are informed by ,st4  ,epiphanius1 the  
surname of ,joseph's father1 or rather1 

as is asserted by  ,st4 ,john           
,damascene1 the proper name of ,mary's  
grandfather4    ,as to the situation of 
servant1 with which ,jesus was          
reproached1 ,he  declares ,himself that 
,he came not to be served1 but to serve4
 ,zoroaster1  according to the          
,arabians1 had in like manner been the  
servant of  ,esdras4 ,epictetus was even
 born in servitude4 ,accordingly1 ,st4  
,cyril of  ,jerusalem justly observed   
that it is no disgrace to any man4      
,on the subject of the miracles1 we     
learn indeed from ,pliny that the       
,egyptians had the secret of dyeing with
 different colors1 stuffs which  were   
dipped in the very same furnace1 and    
this is one of the miracles  which the  
gospel of the ,infancy attributes to    
,jesus4 ,but1 according to  ,st4        
,chrysostom1 ,jesus performed no miracle
 before ,his baptism1 and those  stated 
to have been wrought by ,him before are 
absolute fabrications4 ,the  reason     
assigned by this father for such an     

arrangement is1 that the  wisdom of ,god
 determined against ,christ's performing
 any miracles in ,his  childhood1 lest  
they should have been regarded as       
impostures4    ,epiphanius in vain      
alleges that to deny the miracles       
ascribed by some to  ,jesus during ,his 
infancy1 would furnish heretics with a  
specious pretext  for saying that ,he   
became ,son of ,god only in consequence 
of the effusion  of the ,holy ,spirit1  
which descended upon ,him at ,his       
baptism2 we are  contending here1 not   
against heretics1 but against ,jews4    
,mr4 ,wagenseil has presented us with a 
,latin translation of a ,jewish work    
entitled ,toldos ,jeschu1 in which it is
 related that ,jeschu1 being at         
,bethlehem in ,judah1 the place of his  
birth1 cried out aloud1 ,who are  the   
wicked men that pretend ,i am a bastard1
 and spring from an impure  origin8     
,they are themselves bastards1          
themselves exceedingly impure6 ,was  ,i 
not born of a virgin mother8 ,and ,i    

entered through the crown of her  head6 
,this testimony appeared of such        
importance to ,m4 ,bergier1 that that   
learned divine felt no scruple about    
employing it without quoting his        
authority4 ,the following are his words1
 in the twenty-third page of the        
,certainty of the ,proofs of            
,christianity3 ,jesus was born of a     
virgin  by the operation of the ,holy   
,spirit4 ,jesus ,himself frequently     
assured us  of this with ,his own mouth2
 and to the same purpose is the recital 
of  the apostles4 ,it is certain that   
these words are only to be found in  the
 ,toldos ,jeschu2 and the certainty of  
that proof1 among those  adduced by ,m4 
,bergier1 subsists1 although ,st4       
,matthew applies to ,jesus  the passage 
of ,isaiah3 ,he shall not dispute1 he   
shall not cry aloud1  and no one shall  
hear his voice in the streets4          
,according to ,st4 ,jerome1 there was in
 like manner an ancient tradition  among
 the ,gymnosophists of ,india1 that     

,buddha1 the author of their  creed1 was
 born of a virgin1 who was delivered of 
him from her side4 ,in  the same manner 
was born ,julius ,csar1 ,scipio         
,africanus1 ,manlius1 ,edward  ,,vi4 of 
,england1 and others1 by means of an    
operation called by surgeons  the       
,csarian operation1 because it consists 
in abstracting the child  from the womb 
by an incision in the abdomen of the    
mother4 ,simon1  surnamed the ,magician1
 and ,manes both pretended to have been 
born of  virgins4 ,this might1 however1 
merely mean1 that their mothers were    
virgins at the time of conceiving them4 
,but in order to be convinced of  the   
uncertainty attending the marks and     
evidences of virginity1 it will  be     
perfectly sufficient to read the        
commentary of ,m4 de ,pompignan1 the    
celebrated bishop of ,puy en ,velai1 on 
the following passage in the ,book  of  
,proverbs3 ,there are three things which
 are too wonderful for me1  yea1 four   
which ,i know not4 ,the way of an eagle 

in the air1 the way of a  serpent upon a
 rock1 the way of a ship in the midst of
 the sea1 and the  way of a man in his  
youth4 ,in order to give a literal      
translation of  the passage1 according  
to this prelate 7in the third chapter of
 the  second part of his work entitled  
,infidelity ,convinced by the           
,prophecies71 it would have been        
necessary to say1 ,viam viri in  virgine
 adolescentula--,the way of a man with a
 maid4 ,the translation  of our         
,vulgate1 says he1 substitutes another  
meaning1 exact indeed and  true1 but    
less conformable to the original text4  
,in short1 he  corroborates his curious 
interpretation by the analogy between   
this  verse and the following one3 ,such
 is the life of the adulterous woman1   
who1 after having eaten1 wipeth her     
mouth and saith1 ,i have done no        
wickedness4    ,however this may be1 the
 virginity of ,mary was not generally   
admitted1  even at the beginning of the 
third century4 ,many have entertained   

the  opinion and do still1 said ,st4    
,clement of ,alexandria1 that ,mary was 
delivered of a son without that delivery
 producing any change in her  person2   
for some say that a midwife who visited 
her after the birth  found her to retain
 all the marks of virginity4 ,it is     
clear that ,st4  ,clement refers here to
 the gospel of the conception of ,mary1 
in which  the angel ,gabriel says to    
her1 ,without intercourse with man1     
thou1 a  virgin1 shalt conceive1 thou1 a
 virgin1 shalt be delivered of a child1 
thou1 a virgin1 shalt give suck2 and    
also to the first gospel of ,james1  in 
which the midwife exclaims1 ,what an    
unheard-of wonder6 ,mary has just       
brought a son into the world1 and yet   
retains all the evidences of  virginity4
 ,these two gospels were1 nevertheless1 
subsequently rejected  as apocryphal1   
although on this point they were        
conformable to the  opinion adopted by  
the church2 the scaffolding was removed 
after the  building was completed4      

,what is added by ,jeschu--,i entered by
 the crown of the head--was  likewise   
the opinion held by the church4 ,the    
,breviary of the ,maronites  represents 
the word of the ,father as having       
entered by the ear of the  blessed      
woman4 ,st4 ,augustine and ,pope ,felix 
say expressly that the  virgin became   
pregnant through the ear4 ,st4 ,ephrem  
says the same in a  hymn1 and ,voisin1  
his translator1 observes that the idea  
came originally  from ,gregory of       
,neocsarea1 surnamed ,thaumaturgos4     
,agobar relates that  in his time the   
church sang in the time of public       
service3 ,the ,word  entered through the
 ear of the virgin1 and came out at the 
golden gate4  ,eutychius speaks also of 
,elian1 who attended at the ,council of 
,nice1 and  who said that the ,word     
entered by the ear of the virgin1 and   
came out  in the way of childbirth4     
,this ,elian was a rural bishop1 whose  
name  occurs in ,selden's published     
,arabic ,list of ,fathers who attended  

the  ,council of ,nice4    ,it is well  
known that the ,jesuit ,sanchez gravely 
discussed the question  whether the     
,virgin ,mary contributed seminally in  
the incarnation of  ,christ1 and that1  
like other divines before him1 he       
concluded in the  affirmative4 ,but     
these extravagances of a prurient and   
depraved  imagination should be classed 
with the opinion of ,aretin1 who        
introduces  the ,holy ,spirit on this   
occasion effecting his purpose under the
 figure  of a dove2 as mythology        
describes ,jupiter to have succeeded    
with ,leda in  the form of a swan1 or as
 the most eminent authors of the        
church--,st4  ,austin1 ,athenagoras1    
,tertullian1 ,st4 ,clement of           
,alexandria1 ,st4 ,cyprian1             
,lactantius1 ,st4 ,ambrose--and others  
believed1 after ,philo and ,josephus1   
the historian1 who were ,jews1 that     
angels had associated with the          
daughters of men1 and engaged in sexual 
connection with them4 ,st4  ,augustine  

goes so far as to charge the ,manichans 
with teaching1 as a  part of their      
religious persuasion1 that beautiful    
young persons  appeared in a state of   
nature before the princes of darkness1  
or evil  angels1 and deprived them of   
the vital substance which that father   
calls  the nature of ,god4 ,herodius is 
still more explicit1 and says that the  
divine majesty escaped through the      
productive organs of demons4    ,it is  
true that all these fathers believed    
angels to be corporeal4 ,but1  after the
 works of ,plato had established the    
idea of their spirituality1  the ancient
 opinion of a corporeal union between   
angels and women was  explained by the  
supposition that the same angel who1 in 
a woman's form1  had received the       
embraces of a man1 in turn held         
communication with a  woman1 in the     
character of a man4 ,divines1 by the    
terms incubus and  succubus1 designate  
the different parts thus performed by   
angels4  ,those who are curious on the  

subject of these offensive and revolting
  reveries may see further details in   
,various ,readings of the ,book of      
,genesis1 by ,otho ,gualter2 ,magical   
,disquisitions1 by ,delvis1 and the     
,discourses on ,witchcraft1 by ,henry   
,boguet4      ,,section ,,ii4    ,no    
genealogy1 even although reprinted in   
,morri1 approaches that of  ,mahomet or 
,mahommed1 the son of ,abdallah1 the son
 of ,abd'all ,montaleb1  the son of     
,ashem2 which ,mahomet was1 in his      
younger days1 groom of the  widow       
,khadijah1 then her factor1 then her    
husband1 then a prophet of  ,god1 then  
condemned to be hanged1 then conqueror  
and king of ,arabia2 and  who finally   
died an enviable death1 satiated with   
glory and with love4    ,the ,german    
barons do not trace back their origin   
beyond ,witikind2 and  our modern       
,french marquises can scarcely any of   
them show deeds and  patents of an      
earlier date than ,charlemagne4 ,but the
 race of ,mahomet1 or  ,mohammed1 which 

still exists1 has always exhibited a    
genealogical tree1  of which the trunk  
is ,adam1 and of which the branches     
reach from ,ishmael  down to the        
nobility and gentry who at the present  
day bear the high  title of cousins of  
,mahomet4    ,there is no difficulty    
about this genealogy1 no dispute among  
the  learned1 no false calculations to  
be rectified1 no contradictions to      
palliate1 no impossibilities to be made 
possible4    ,your pride cavils against 
the authenticity of these titles4 ,you  
tell me  that you are descended from    
,adam as well as the greatest prophet1  
if  ,adam was the common father of our  
race2 but that this same ,adam was      
never known by any person1 not even by  
the ancient ,arabs themselves2  that the
 name has never been cited except in the
 books of the ,jews2 and  that1         
consequently1 you take the liberty of   
writing down false against  the high and
 noble claims of ,mahomet1 or ,mohammed4
    ,you add that1 in any case1 if there

 has been a first man1 whatever his     
name might be1 you are a descendant from
 him as decidedly as ,khadijah's        
illustrious groom2 and that1 if there   
has been no first man1 if the  human    
race always existed1 as so many of the  
learned pretend1 then you  are clearly a
 gentleman from all eternity4    ,in    
answer to this you are told that you are
 a plebeian 7roturier7 from  all        
eternity1 unless you can produce a      
regular and complete set of  parchments4
    ,you reply that men are equal2 that 
one race cannot be more ancient than    
another2 that parchments1 with bits of  
wax dangling to them1 are a  recent     
invention2 that there is no reason that 
compels you to yield to  the family of  
,mahomet1 or to that of ,confucius2 or  
to that of the  emperors of ,japan2 or  
to the royal secretaries of the grand   
college4 ,nor  can ,i oppose your       
opinion by arguments1 physical1         
metaphysical1 or  moral4 ,you think     
yourself equal to the dairo of ,japan1  

and ,i entirely  agree with you4 ,all   
that ,i would advise you is1 that if    
ever you meet  with him1 you take good  
care to be the stronger4                
,,genesis4      ,the sacred writer      
having conformed himself to the ideas   
generally  received1 and being indeed   
obliged not to deviate from them1 as    
without  such condescension to the      
weakness and ignorance of those whom he 
addressed1 he would not have been       
understood1 it only remains for us to   
make some observations on the natural   
philosophy prevailing in those  early   
periods2 for1 with respect to theology1 
we reverence it1 we  believe in it1 and 
never either dispute or discuss it4     
,in the beginning ,god created the      
heaven and the earth4 ,thus has the     
original passage been translated1 but   
the translation is not correct4  ,there 
is no one1 however slightly informed    
upon the subject1 who is not  aware that
 the real meaning of the word is1 ,in   
the beginning the gods  made firent or  

fit the heaven and the earth4 ,this     
reading1  moreover1 perfectly           
corresponds with the ancient idea of the
  ,phnicians1 who imagined that1 in     
reducing the chaos 7chautereb7  into    
order1 ,god employed the agency of      
inferior deities4    ,the ,phnicians had
 been long a powerful people1 having a  
theogony of  their own1 before the      
,hebrews became possessed of a few      
cantons of land  near their territory4  
,it is extremely natural to suppose that
 when the  ,hebrews had at length formed
 a small establishment near ,phnicia1   
they began to acquire its language4 ,at 
that time their writers might1  and     
probably did1 borrow the ancient        
philosophy of their masters4 ,such  is  
the regular march of the human mind4    
,at the time in which ,moses is supposed
 to have lived1 were the  ,phnician     
philosophers sufficiently enlightened to
 regard the earth  as a mere point in   
the compass with the infinite orbs      
placed by ,god in  the immensity of     

space1 commonly called heaven8 ,the idea
 so very  ancient1 and at the same time 
so utterly false1 that heaven was made  
for  earth1 almost always prevailed in  
the minds of the great mass of the      
people4 ,it would certainly be just as  
correct and judicious for any  person to
 suppose1 if told that ,god created all 
the mountains and a  single grain of    
sand1 that the mountains were created   
for that grain of  sand4 ,it is scarcely
 possible that the ,phnicians1 who were 
such  excellent navigators1 should not  
have had some good astronomers2 but  the
 old prejudices generally prevailed1 and
 those old prejudices were  very        
properly spared and indulged by the     
author of the ,book of ,genesis1  who   
wrote to instruct men in the ways of    
,god1 and not in natural  philosophy4   
,the earth was without form 7tohu bohu7 
and void2 darkness rested upon  the face
 of the deep1 and the spirit of ,god    
moved upon the surface of  the waters4  
,tohu bohu means precisely chaos1       

disorder4 ,it is one of those  imitative
 words which are to be found in all     
languages2 as1 for example1  in the     
,french we have sens dessus dessous1    
tintamarre1 trictrac1  tonnerre1 bombe4 
,the earth was not as yet formed in its 
present state2  the matter existed1 but 
the divine power had not yet arranged   
it4 ,the  spirit of ,god means literally
 the breath1 the wind1 which agitated   
the  waters4 ,the same idea occurs in   
the ,fragments of the ,phnician  author 
,sanchoniathon4 ,the ,phnicians1 like   
every other people1  believed matter to 
be eternal4 ,there is not a single      
author of antiquity  who ever           
represented something to have been      
produced from nothing4 ,even  throughout
 the whole ,bible1 no passage is to be  
found in which matter is  said to have  
been created out of nothing4 ,not1      
however1 that we mean to  controvert the
 truth of such creation4 ,it was1       
nevertheless1 a truth not  known by the 
carnal ,jews4    ,on the question of the

 eternity of the world1 mankind has     
always been  divided1 but never on that 
of the eternity of matter4 ,from        
nothing1  nothing can proceed1 nor into 
nothing can aught existent return4 ,de  
nihilo nihilum1 et in nihilum nil posse 
gigni reverti4 7,persius2 ,sat4  iii47  
,such was the opinion of all antiquity4 
,god said let there be light1 and there 
was light2 and he saw that the  light   
was good1 and he divided the light from 
the darkness2 and he  called the light  
day1 and the darkness night2 and the    
evening and the  morning were the first 
day4 ,and ,god said also1 let there be a
 firmament  in the midst of the waters1 
and let it divide the waters from the   
waters4 ,and ,god made the firmament1   
and divided the waters which were  under
 the firmament from the waters which    
were above the firmament4 ,and  ,god    
called the firmament heaven4 ,and the   
evening and the morning were  the second
 day4444 ,and he saw that it was good4  
,we begin with examining whether ,huet1 

bishop of ,avranches1 ,leclerc1 and     
some other commentators1 are not in the 
right in opposing the idea of  those who
 consider this passage as exhibiting the
 most sublime  eloquence4    ,eloquence 
is not aimed at in any history written  
by the ,jews4 ,the style  of the passage
 in question1 like that of all the rest 
of the work1  possesses the most perfect
 simplicity4 ,if an orator1 intending to
 give  some idea of the power of ,god1  
employed for that purpose the short and 
simple expression we are considering1   
,he said1 let there be light1 and  there
 was light1 it would then be sublime4   
,exactly similar is the  passage in one 
of the ,psalms1 ,dixit1 et facta        
sunt--,he spake1 and  they were made4   
,it is a trait which1 being unique in   
this place1 and  introduced purposely in
 order to create a majestic image1      
elevates and  transports the mind4 ,but1
 in the instance under examination1 the 
narrative is of the most simple         
character4 ,the ,jewish writer is       

speaking  of light just in the same     
unambitious manner as of other objects  
of  creation2 he expresses himself      
equally and regularly after every       
article1 and ,god saw that it was good4 
,everything is sublime in the  course or
 act of creation1 unquestionably1 but   
the creation of light is  no more so    
than that of the herbs of the field2 the
 sublime is something  which soars far  
from the rest1 whereas all is equal     
throughout the  chapter4    ,but        
further1 it was another very ancient    
opinion that light did not  proceed from
 the sun4 ,it was seen diffused         
throughout the atmosphere1  before the  
rising and after the setting of that    
star2 the sun was  supposed merely to   
give it greater strength and clearness2 
accordingly  the author of ,genesis     
accommodates himself to this popular    
error1 and  even states the creation of 
the sun and moon not to have taken place
  until four days after the existence of
 light4 ,it was impossible that  there  

could be a morning and evening before   
the existence of a sun4 ,the  inspired  
writer deigned1 in this instance1 to    
condescend to the gross  and wild ideas 
of the nation4 ,the object of ,god was  
not to teach the  ,jews philosophy4 ,he 
might have raised their minds to the    
truth1 but he  preferred descending to  
their error4 ,this solution can never be
 too  frequently repeated4    ,the      
separation of the light from the        
darkness is a part of the same  system  
of philosophy4 ,it would seem that night
 and day were mixed up  together1 as    
grains of different species which are   
easily separable from  each other4 ,it  
is sufficiently known that darkness is  
nothing but the  absence of light1 and  
that there is in fact no light when our 
eyes  receive no sensation of it2 but at
 that period these truths were far  from
 being known4    ,the idea of a         
firmament1 again1 is of the very highest
 antiquity4 ,the  heavens are imagined  
to be a solid mass1 because they always 

exhibited  the same phenomena4 ,they    
rolled over our heads1 they were        
therefore  constituted of the most solid
 materials4 ,who could suppose that the 
exhalations from the land and sea       
supplied the water descending from the  
clouds1 or compute their corresponding  
quantities8 ,no ,halley then lived  to  
make so curious a calculation4 ,the     
heavens therefore were conceived  to    
contain reservoirs4 ,these reservoirs   
could be supported only on a  strong    
arch1 and as this arch of heaven was    
actually transparent1 it  must          
necessarily have been made of crystal4  
,in order that the waters  above might  
descend from it upon the earth1 sluices1
 cataracts1 and  floodgates were        
necessary1 which might be opened and    
shut as  circumstances required4 ,such  
was the astronomy of the day2 and1 as   
the  author wrote for ,jews1 it was     
incumbent upon him to adopt their gross 
ideas1 borrowed from other people       
somewhat less gross than themselves4    

,god also made two great lights1 one to 
rule the day1 the other the  night2 ,he 
also made the stars4    ,it must be     
admitted that we perceive throughout the
 same ignorance of  nature4 ,the ,jews  
did not know that the moon shone only   
with a reflected  light4 ,the author    
here speaks of stars as of mere luminous
 points1 such  as they appear1 although 
they are in fact so many suns1 having   
each of  them worlds revolving round it4
 ,the ,holy ,spirit1 then1 accommodated 
,himself to the spirit of the times4 ,if
 ,he had said that the sun was a        
million times larger than the earth1 and
 the moon fifty times smaller1  no one  
would have comprehended ,him4 ,they     
appear to us two stars of  nearly equal 
size4    ,god said1 also1 let us make   
man in our own image1 and let him have  
dominion over the fishes4    ,what      
meaning did the ,jews attach to the     
expression1 let us make man in  our own 
image8 ,the same as all antiquity       
attached to it3 ,finxit in  effigiem    

moderantum cuncta deorum4 7,ovid1       
,metam4 i4 #hb47    ,no images are made 
but of bodies4 ,no nation ever imagined 
a ,god without  body1 and it is         
impossible to represent ,him otherwise4 
,we may indeed say  that ,god is nothing
 that we are acquainted with1 but we can
 have no  idea of what ,he is4 ,the     
,jews invariably conceived ,god to be   
corporeal1  as well as every other      
people4 ,all the first fathers of the   
,church1  also1 entertained the same    
belief till they had embraced the ideas 
of  ,plato1 or rather until the light of
 ,christianity became more pure4    ,he 
created them male and female4 ,if ,god1 
of the secondary or inferior  gods1     
created mankind1 male and female1 after 
their own likeness1 it  would seem in   
that case1 as if the ,jews believed that
 ,god and the gods  who so formed them  
were male and female4 ,it has been a    
subject of  discussion1 whether the     
author means to say that man had        
originally two  sexes1 or merely that   

,god made ,adam and ,eve on the same    
day4 ,the most  natural meaning is that 
,god formed ,adam and ,eve at the same  
time2 but  this interpretation involves 
an absolute contradiction to the        
statement  of the woman's being made out
 of the rib of man after the seven days 
were concluded4    ,and he rested on the
 seventh day4 ,the ,phnicians1          
,chaldans1 and  ,indians1 represented   
,god as having made the world in six    
periods1 which  the ancient ,zoroaster  
calls the six ,gahanbars1 so celebrated 
among the  ,persians4    ,it is beyond  
all question that these nations         
possessed a theology before  the ,jews  
inhabited the deserts of ,horeb and     
,sinai1 and before they could  possibly 
have had any writers4 ,many writers have
 considered it probable  that the       
allegory of six days was imitated from  
that of the six  periods4 ,god may have 
permitted the idea to have prevailed in 
large and  populous empires before he   
inspired the ,jewish people with it4 ,he

 had  undoubtedly permitted other people
 to invent the arts before the ,jews    
were in possession of any one of them4  
,from this pleasant place a river went  
out which watered the garden1 and       
thence it was divided into four rivers4 
,one was called ,pison1 which  compassed
 the whole land of ,havilah1 whence     
cometh gold4444 the second  was called  
,gihon and surrounds ,ethiopia4444 the  
third is the ,tigris1 and  the fourth   
the ,euphrates4    ,according to this   
version1 the earthly paradise would have
 contained  nearly a third part of ,asia
 and of ,africa4 ,the sources of the    
,euphrates  and the ,tigris are sixty   
leagues distant from each other1 in     
frightful  mountains1 bearing no        
possible resemblance to a garden4 ,the  
river which  borders ,ethiopia1 and     
which can be no other than the ,nile1   
commences its  course at the distance of
 more than a thousand leagues from the  
sources  of the ,tigris and ,euphrates2 
and1 if the ,pison means the ,phasis1 it

 is  not a little surprising that the   
source of a ,scythian river and that of 
an ,african one should be situated on   
the same spot4 ,we must therefore  look 
for some other explanation1 and for     
other rivers4 ,every commentator  has   
got up a paradise of his own4    ,it has
 been said that the ,garden of ,eden    
resembles the gardens of ,eden  at      
,saana in ,arabia ,felix1 celebrated    
throughout all antiquity2 that the      
,hebrews1 a very recent people1 might be
 an ,arabian horde1 and assume to       
themselves the honor of the most        
beautiful spot in the finest district   
of ,arabia2 and that they have always   
converted to their own purposes the     
ancient traditions of the vast and      
powerful nations in the midst of whom   
they were in bondage4 ,they were not1   
however1 on this account1 the less      
under the divine protection and         
guidance4    ,the ,lord then took the   
man and put him into the ,garden of     
,eden that he  might cultivate it4 ,it  

is very respectable and pleasant for a  
man to  cultivate his garden1 but it    
must have been somewhat difficult for   
,adam to have dressed and kept in order 
a garden of a thousand leagues in       
length1 even although he had been       
supplied with some assistants4          
,commentators on this subject1          
therefore1 we again observe1 are        
completely at a loss1 and must be       
content to exercise their ingenuity in  
conjecture4 ,accordingly1 these four    
rivers have been described as  flowing  
through numberless different            
territories4    ,eat not of the fruit of
 the tree of knowledge of good and evil4
 ,it is  not easy to conceive that there
 ever existed a tree which could teach  
good and evil1 as there are trees that  
bear pears and apricots4 ,and  besides  
the question is asked1 why is ,god      
unwilling that man should know  good and
 evil8 ,would not his free access to    
this knowledge1 on the  contrary1       
appear--if we may venture to use such   

language--more  worthy of ,god1 and far 
more necessary to man8 ,to our weak     
reason it  would seem more natural and  
proper for ,god to command him to eat   
largely  of such fruit2 but we must     
bring our reason under subjection1 and  
acquiesce with humility and simplicity  
in the conclusion that ,god is to  be   
obeyed4    ,illustration3 ,,the         
,,temptation ,,of ,,adam    ,if thou    
shalt eat thereof1 thou shalt die4      
,nevertheless1 ,adam ate of  it and did 
not die2 on the contrary1 he is stated  
to have lived on for  nine hundred and  
thirty years4 ,many of the fathers      
considered the whole  matter as an      
allegory4 ,in fact1 it might be said    
that all other animals  have no         
knowledge that they shall die1 but that 
man1 by means of his  reason1 has such  
knowledge4 ,this reason is the tree of  
knowledge which  enables him to foresee 
his end4 ,this1 perhaps1 is the most    
rational  interpretation that can be    
given4 ,we venture not to decide        

positively4    ,the ,lord said1 also1 it
 is not good for man to be alone2 let us
 make  him a helpmeet for him4 ,we      
naturally expect that the ,lord is about
 to  bestow on him a wife2 but first he 
conducts before him all the various     
tribes of animals4 ,perhaps the copyist 
may have committed here an error  of    
transposition4    ,and the name which   
,adam gave to every animal is its true  
name4 ,what we  should naturally        
understand by the true name of an       
animal1 would be a  name describing all1
 or at least1 the principal properties  
of its  species4 ,but this is not the   
case in any language4 ,in each there are
  some imitative words1 as coq and cocu 
in the ,celtic1 which bear  some slight 
similarity to the notes of the cock and 
the cuckoo2  tintamarre1 trictrac1 in   
,french2 alali1 in ,greek2 lupus1 in    
,latin1  etc4 ,but these imitative words
 are exceedingly few4 ,moreover1 if     
,adam  had thus thoroughly known the    
properties of various animals1 he must  

either have previously eaten of the     
fruit of the tree of knowledge1 or  it  
would apparently have answered no end   
for ,god to have interdicted him  from  
it4 ,he must have already known more    
than the ,royal ,society of  ,london1   
and the ,academy of the ,sciences4      
,it may be remarked that this is the    
first time the name of ,adam occurs  in 
the ,book of ,genesis4 ,the first man1  
according to the ancient  ,brahmins1 who
 were prodigiously anterior to the      
,jews1 was called ,adimo1  a son of the 
earth1 and his wife1 ,procris1 life4    
,this is recorded in the  ,vedas1 in the
 history of the second formation of the 
world4 ,adam and ,eve  expressed        
perfectly the same meanings in the      
,phoenician language--a new  evidence of
 the ,holy ,spirit's conforming ,himself
 to commonly received  ideas4    ,when  
,adam was asleep ,god took one of his   
ribs and put flesh instead  thereof2 and
 of the rib which he had taken from     
,adam he formed a woman1  and he brought

 the woman to ,adam4    ,in the previous
 chapter the ,lord had already created  
the male and the  female2 why1          
therefore1 remove a rib from the man to 
form out of it a  woman who was already 
in being8 ,it is answered that the      
author barely  announces in the one case
 what he explains in another4 ,it is    
answered  further that this allegory    
places the wife in subjection to her    
husband1  and expresses their intimate  
union4 ,many persons have been led to   
imagine from this verse that men have   
one rib less than women2 but this  is a 
heresy1 and anatomy informs us that a   
wife has no more ribs than  her husband4
    ,but the serpent was more subtle    
than all animals on the earth2 he said  
to the woman1 etc4 ,throughout the whole
 of this article there is no  mention   
made of the devil4 ,everything in it    
relates to the usual course  of nature4 
,the serpent was considered by all      
oriental nations1 not only  as the most 
cunning of all animals1 but likewise as 

immortal4 ,the  ,chaldans had a fable   
concerning a quarrel between ,god and   
the serpent1  and this fable had been   
preserved by ,pherecydes4 ,origen cites 
it in his  sixth book against ,celsus4  
,a serpent was borne in procession at   
the  feasts of ,bacchus4 ,the           
,egyptians1 according to the statement  
of ,eusebius  in the first book of the  
tenth chapter of his ,evangelical       
,preparation1  attached a sort of       
divinity to the serpent4 ,in ,arabia1   
,india1 and even  ,china1 the serpent   
was regarded as a symbol of life2 and   
hence it was  that the emperors of      
,china1 long before the time of ,moses1 
always bore  upon their breast the image
 of a serpent4    ,eve expresses no     
astonishment at the serpent's speaking  
to her4 ,in all  ancient histories1     
animals have spoken2 hence ,pilpay and  
,lokman excited  no surprise by their   
introduction of animals conversing and  
disputing4    ,the whole of this affair 
appears so clearly to have been supposed

 in the  natural course of events1 and  
so unconnected with anything            
allegorical1  that the narrative assigns
 a reason why the serpent1 from that    
time1 has  moved creeping on its belly1 
why we always are eager to crush it     
under  our feet1 and why it always      
attempts--at least according to the     
popular  belief--to bite and wound us4  
,precisely as1 with respect to presumed 
changes affecting certain animals       
recorded in ancient fable1 reasons  were
 stated why the crow which originally   
had been white is at the  present day   
black2 why the owl quits his gloomy     
retreat only by night2  why the wolf is 
devoted to carnage4 ,the fathers1       
however1 believed the  affair to be an  
allegory at once clear and venerable4   
,the safest way is  to believe like     
them4    ,i will multiply thy sorrow and
 thy conception2 in sorrow shalt thou   
bring forth children4 ,thou shalt be    
under the power of the man1 and he      
shall rule over thee4 ,why1 it is asked1

 should the multiplication of           
conception be a punishment8 ,it was1 on 
the contrary1 says the objector1        
esteemed a superior blessing1           
particularly among the ,jews4 ,the pains
 of  childbirth are inconsiderable1 in  
all except very weak or delicate  women4
 ,those accustomed to labor are         
delivered1 particularly in warm         
climates1 with great ease4 ,brutes      
frequently experience greater  suffering
 from this process of nature3 some even 
die under it4 ,and with  respect to the 
superiority or dominion of the man over 
the woman1 it is  merely in the natural 
course of events2 it is the effect of   
strength of  body1 and even of strength 
of mind4 ,men1 generally speaking1      
possess  organs more capable of         
continued attention than women1 and are 
better  fitted by nature for labors both
 of the head and arm4 ,but when a woman 
possesses both a hand and a mind more   
powerful than her husband's1 she        
everywhere possesses the dominion over  

him2 it is then the husband that  is    
under subjection to the wife4 ,there is 
certainly truth in these  remarks2 but  
it might1 nevertheless1 very easily be  
the fact that1  before the commission of
 the original sin1 neither subjection   
nor sorrow  existed4    ,the ,lord made 
for them coats of skins4 ,this passage  
decidedly proves  that the ,jews        
believed ,god to be corporeal4 ,a rabbi1
 of the name of  ,eliezer1 stated in his
 works that ,god clothed ,adam and ,eve 
with the skin  of the very serpent who  
had tempted them2 and ,origen maintains 
that this  coat of skins was a new      
flesh1 a new body1 which ,god conferred 
on man4  ,it is far better to adhere    
respectfully to the literal texts4      
,and the ,lord said2 ,lo6 ,adam is      
become like one of us4 ,it seems as if  
the ,jews admitted1 originally1 many    
gods4 ,it is somewhat more difficult  to
 determine what they meant by the word  
,god1 ,elohim4 ,some  commentators have 
contended that the expression one of us 

signifies  the ,trinity4 ,but certainly 
there is nothing relating to the        
,trinity  throughout the ,bible4 ,the   
,trinity is not a compound of many or   
several  ,gods3 it is one and the same  
god threefold2 and the ,jews never heard
 the  slightest mention of one god in   
three persons4 ,by the words like us1   
or as one of us1 it is probable that the
 ,jews understood the angels1  ,elohim4 
,it is this passage which has induced   
many learned men very  rashly to        
conclude that this book was not written 
until that people had  adopted the      
belief of those inferior gods4 ,but this
 opinion has been  condemned4    ,the   
,lord sent him forth from the garden of 
,eden to cultivate the  ground4 ,but1 it
 is remarked by some1 the ,lord had     
placed him in the  garden of ,eden to   
cultivate that garden4 ,if ,adam1       
instead of being a  gardener1 merely    
becomes a laborer1 his situation1 they  
observe1 is not  made very much worse by
 the change4 ,a good laborer is well    

worth a good  gardener4 ,these remarks  
must be regarded as too light and       
frivolous4 ,it  appears more judicious  
to say that ,god punished disobedience  
by  banishing the offender from the     
place of his nativity4    ,the whole of 
this history1 generally                 
speaking--according to the opinion  of  
liberal1 not to say licentious1         
commentators--proceeds upon the idea    
which has prevailed in every past age1  
and still exists1 that the first  times 
were better and happier than those which
 followed4 ,men have  always complained 
of the present and extolled the past4   
,pressed down by  the labors of life1   
they have imagined happiness to consist 
in  inactivity1 not considering that the
 most unhappy of all states is that  of 
a man who has nothing to do4 ,they felt 
themselves frequently  miserable1 and   
framed in their imaginations an ideal   
period in which all  the world had been 
happy2 although it might be just as     
naturally and  truly supposed that there

 had existed times in which no tree     
decayed and  perished1 in which no beast
 was weak1 diseased1 or devoured by     
another1  and in which spiders did not  
prey upon flies4 ,hence the idea of the 
golden age2 of the egg pierced by       
,arimanes2 of the serpent who stole     
from the ass the recipe for obtaining a 
happy and immortal life1 which  the man 
had placed upon his pack-saddle2 of the 
conflict between ,typhon  and ,osiris1  
and between ,opheneus and the gods2 of  
the famous box of  ,pandora2 and of all 
those ancient tales1 of which some are  
ingenious1  but none instructive4 ,but  
we are bound to believe that the fables 
of  other nations are imitations of the 
,hebrew history1 since we possess the   
ancient history of the ,hebrews1 and the
 early books of other nations are       
nearly all destroyed4 ,besides the      
testimonies in favor of the ,book of    
,genesis are irrefragable4    ,and ,he  
placed before the garden of ,eden a     
cherub with a flaming sword1  which     

turned all round to guard the way to the
 tree of life4 ,the word  kerub         
signifies ox4 ,an ox armed with a       
flaming sword is rather a  singular     
exhibition1 it is said1 before a portal4
 ,but the ,jews  afterwards represented 
angels under the form of oxen and hawks 
although  they were forbidden to make   
any images4 ,they evidently derived     
these  emblems of oxen and hawks from   
the ,egyptians1 whom they imitated in so
  many other things4 ,the ,egyptians    
first venerated the ox as the emblem of 
agriculture1 and the hawk as that of the
 winds2 but they never converted  the ox
 into a sentinel4 ,it is probably an    
allegory2 and the ,jews by  kerub       
understood nature4 ,it was a symbol     
formed of the head of an  ox1 the head  
and body of a man1 and the wings of a   
hawk4    ,and the ,lord set a mark upon 
,cain4 ,what ,lord8 says the infidel4   
,he  accepts the offering of ,abel1 and 
rejects that of his elder brother1      
without the least reason being assigned 

for the distinction4 ,by this           
proceeding the ,lord was the cause of   
animosity between the two brothers4  ,we
 are presented in this piece of history1
 it is true1 with a moral1  however     
humiliating1 lesson2 a lesson to be     
derived from all the fables  of         
antiquity1 that scarcely had the race of
 man commenced the career of  existence1
 before one brother assassinates        
another4 ,but what the sages1  of this  
world consider contrary to everything   
moral1 to everything just1  to all the  
principles of common sense1 is that     
,god1 who inflicted  eternal damnation  
on the race of man1 and useless         
crucifixion on ,his own  son1 on account
 merely of the eating of an apple1      
should absolutely  pardon a fratricide6 
nay1 that ,he should more than pardon1  
that ,he  should take the offender under
 ,his peculiar protection6 ,he declares 
that  whoever shall avenge the murder of
 ,abel shall experience sevenfold the   
punishment that ,cain might have        

suffered4 ,he puts a mark upon him as a 
safeguard4 ,here1 continue these vile   
blasphemers1 here is a fable as         
execrable as it is absurd4 ,it is the   
raving of some wretched ,jew1 who  wrote
 those infamous and revolting fooleries1
 in imitation of the tales  so greedily 
swallowed by the neighboring population 
in ,syria4 ,this  senseless ,jew        
attributes these atrocious reveries to  
,moses1 at a time  when nothing was so  
rare as books4 ,that fatality1 which    
affects and  disposes of everything1 has
 handed down this contemptible          
production to  our own times4 ,knaves   
have extolled it1 and fools have        
believed it4 ,such  is the language of a
 tribe of theists1 who1 while they adore
 a ,god1 dare  to condemn the ,god of   
,israel2 and who judge of the conduct of
 the  eternal ,deity by the rules of our
 own imperfect morality1 and erroneous  
justice4 ,they admit a ,god1 to subject 
,him to our laws4 ,let us guard  against
 such rashness2 and1 once again it must 

be repeated1 let us  revere what we     
cannot comprehend4 ,let us cry out1 ,o  
,altitudo6 ,o the  height and depth6    
with all our strength4    ,the gods     
,elohim1 seeing the daughters of men    
that they were fair1 took  for wives    
those whom they chose4 ,this            
imagination1 again1 may be traced  in   
the history of every people4 ,no nation 
has ever existed1 unless  perhaps we may
 except ,china1 in which some god is not
 described as  having had offspring from
 women4 ,these corporeal gods frequently
  descended to visit their dominions    
upon earth2 they saw the daughters of   
our race1 and attached themselves to    
those who were most interesting and     
beautiful3 the issue of this connection 
between gods and mortals must of  course
 have been superior to other men2       
accordingly1 ,genesis informs us  that  
from the association it mentions1 of the
 gods with women1 sprang a  race of     
giants4    ,i will bring a deluge of    
waters upon the earth4 ,i will merely   

observe  here that ,st4 ,augustine1 in  
his ,city of ,god1 ,no4 #h1 says1       
,maximum  illud diluvium ,grca nec      
,latina novit historia--neither ,greek  
nor  ,latin history knows anything about
 the great deluge4 ,in fact1 none had   
ever been known in ,greece but those of 
,deucalion and ,ogyges4 ,they are       
regarded as universal in the fables     
collected by ,ovid1 but are wholly      
unknown in eastern ,asia4 ,st4          
,augustine1 therefore1 is not mistaken1 
in  saying that history makes no mention
 of this event4    ,god said to ,noah1  
,i will make a covenant with you1 and   
with your seed  after you1 and with all 
living creatures4 ,god make a covenant  
with  beasts6 ,what sort of a covenant8 
,such is the outcry of infidels4 ,but if
  ,he makes a covenant with man1 why not
 with the beast8 ,it has feeling1  and  
there is something as divine in feeling 
as in the most metaphysical  meditation4
 ,besides1 beasts feel more correctly   
than the greater part of  men think4 ,it

 is clearly in virtue of this treaty    
that ,francis d',assisi1  the founder of
 the ,seraphic order1 said to the       
grasshoppers and the  hares1 ,pray sing1
 my dear sister grasshopper2 pray       
browse1 my dear  brother hare4 ,but what
 were the conditions of the treaty8     
,that all  animals should devour one    
another2 that they should feed upon our 
flesh1  and we upon theirs2 that1 after 
having eaten them1 we should proceed    
with wrath and fury to the extermination
 of our own race--nothing being  then   
wanting to crown the horrid series of   
butchery and cruelty1 but  devouring our
 fellow-men1 after having thus          
remorselessly destroyed  them4 ,had     
there been actually such a treaty as    
this it could have been  entered into   
only with the devil4    ,probably the   
meaning of the whole passage is neither 
more nor less than  that ,god is equally
 the absolute master of everything that 
breathes4  ,this pact can be nothing    
more than an order1 and the word        

covenant is  used merely as more        
emphatic and impressive2 we should not  
therefore be  startled and offended at  
the words1 but adore the spirit1 and    
direct our  minds back to the period in 
which this book was written--a book of  
scandal to the weak1 but of edification 
to the strong4    ,and ,i will put my   
bow in the clouds1 and it shall be a    
sign of my  covenant4 ,observe that the 
author does not say1 ,i have put my bow 
in  the clouds2 he says1 ,i will put3   
this clearly implies it to have been    
the prevailing opinion that there had   
not always been a rainbow4 ,this        
phenomenon is necessarily produced by   
rain2 yet in this place it is           
represented as something supernatural1  
exhibited in order to announce  and     
prove that the earth should no more be  
inundated4 ,it is singular to  choose   
the certain sign of rain1 in order to   
assure men against their  being drowned4
 ,but it may also be replied that in any
 danger of  inundation1 we have the     

cheering security of the rainbow4       
,but the ,lord came down to see the city
 and the tower which the sons of  ,adam 
had built1 and he said1 ',behold a      
people which have but one  language4    
,they have begun to do this1 and they   
will not desist until  they have        
completed it4 ,come1 then1 let us go and
 confound their  language1 that no one  
may understand his neighbor4' ,observe  
here1 that  the sacred writer always    
continues to conform to the popular     
opinions4  ,he always speaks of ,god as 
of a man who endeavors to inform himself
 of  what is passing1 who is desirous of
 seeing with his own eyes what is  going
 on in his dominions1 who calls together
 his council in order to  deliberate    
with them4    ,and ,abraham having      
divided his men--who were three hundred 
and eighteen  in number--fell upon the  
five kings1 and pursued them unto ,hoba1
 on the  left hand of ,damascus4 ,from  
the south bank of the lake of ,sodom to 
,damascus was a distance of eighty      

leagues1 not to mention crossing the    
mountains ,libanus and ,anti-,libanus4  
,infidels smile and triumph at such     
exaggeration4 ,but as the ,lord favored 
,abraham1 nothing was in fact           
exaggerated4    ,and two angels arrived 
at ,sodom at even4 ,the whole history of
 these  two angels1 whom the inhabitants
 of ,sodom wished to violate1 is perhaps
  the most extraordinary in the records 
of all antiquity4 ,but it must be       
considered that almost all ,asia        
believed in the existence of the        
demoniacal incubus and succubus2 and    
moreover1 that these two angels  were   
creatures more perfect than mankind1 and
 must have possessed more  beauty to    
stimulate their execrable tendencies4   
,it is possible that the  passage may be
 only meant as a rhetorical figure to   
express the  atrocious depravity of     
,sodom and ,gomorrah4 ,it is not without
 the  greatest diffidence that we       
suggest to the learned this solution4   
,as to ,lot1 who proposes to the people 

of ,sodom the substitution of his  two  
daughters in the room of the angels2 and
 his wife1 who was changed  into a      
statue of salt1 and all the rest of that
 history1 what shall we  venture to say8
 ,the old ,arabian tale of ,kinyras and 
,myrrha has some  resemblance to the    
incest of ,lot with his daughters2 and  
the adventure  of ,philemon and ,baucis 
is somewhat similar to the case of the  
two angels  who appeared to ,lot and his
 wife4 ,with respect to the statue of   
salt1 we  know not where to find any    
resemblance2 perhaps in the history of  
,orpheus and ,eurydice4    ,many        
ingenious men are of opinion1 with the  
great ,newton and the learned  ,leclerc 
that the ,pentateuch was written by     
,samuel when the ,jews had a  little    
knowledge of reading and writing1 and   
that all these histories  are imitations
 of ,syrian fables4    ,but it is enough
 that all this is in the ,holy          
,scripture to induce us to  reverence   
it1 without attempting to find out in   

this book anything  besides what is     
written by the ,holy ,spirit4 ,let us   
always recollect that  those times were 
not like our times2 and let us not fail 
to repeat1  after so many great men1    
that the ,old ,testament is a true      
history2 and  that all that has been    
written differing from it by the rest of
 the  world is fabulous4    ,some       
critics have contended that all the     
incredible passages in the  canonical   
books1 which scandalize weak minds1     
ought to be suppressed2  but it has been
 observed in answer that those critics  
had bad hearts1  and ought to be burned 
at the stake2 and that it is impossible 
to be a  good man without believing that
 the people of ,sodom wanted to violate 
two angels4 ,such is the reasoning of a 
species of monsters who wish to  lord it
 over the understandings of mankind4    
,it is true that many eminent fathers of
 the ,church have had the prudence  to  
turn all these histories into           
allegories1 after the example of the    

,jews1 and particularly of ,philo4 ,the 
popes1 more discreet1 have  endeavored  
to prevent the translation of these     
books into the vulgar  tongue1 lest some
 men should in consequence be led to    
think and judge1  about what was        
proposed to them only to adore4    ,we  
are certainly justified in concluding   
hence1 that those who  thoroughly       
understand this book should tolerate    
those who do not  understand it at all2 
for if the latter understand nothing of 
it1 it is  not their own fault3 on the  
other hand1 those who comprehend nothing
  that it contains should tolerate those
 who comprehend everything in it4       
,learned and ingenious men1 full of     
their own talents and acquirements1     
have maintained that it is impossible   
that ,moses could have written the      
,book of ,genesis4 ,one of their        
principal reasons is that in the history
  of ,abraham that patriarch is stated  
to have paid for a cave which he        
purchased for the interment of his wife1

 in silver coin1 and the king of  ,gerar
 is said to have given ,sarah a thousand
 pieces of silver when he  restored her1
 after having carried her off for her   
beauty at the age of  seventy-five4     
,they inform us that they have consulted
 all the ancient  authors1 and that it  
appears very certain that at the period 
mentioned  silver money was not in      
existence4 ,but these are evidently mere
 cavils1  as the ,church has always     
firmly believed ,moses to have been the 
author  of the ,pentateuch4 ,they       
strengthen all the doubts suggested by  
,aben-,ezra1 and ,baruch ,spinoza4 ,the 
physician ,astruc1 father-in-law of  the
 comptroller-general ,silhouette1 in his
 book--now become very  scarce--called  
,conjectures on the ,book of ,genesis1  
adds some  objections1 inexplicable     
undoubtedly to human learning1 but not  
so to a  humble and submissive piety4   
,the learned1 many of them1 contradict  
every  line1 but the devout consider    
every line sacred4 ,let us dread falling

  into the misfortune of believing and  
trusting to our reason2 but let us      
bring ourselves into subjection in      
understanding as well as in heart4      
,and ,abraham said that ,sarah was his  
sister1 and the king of ,gerar took  her
 for himself4 ,we admit1 as we have said
 under the article on  ,abraham1 that   
,sarah was at this time ninety years of 
age1 that she had  been already carried 
away by a king of ,egypt1 and that a    
king of this  same horrid wilderness of 
,gerar1 likewise1 many years afterwards1
  carried away the wife of ,isaac1      
,abraham's son4 ,we have also spoken of 
his servant1 ,hagar1 who bore him a son1
 and of the manner in which the         
patriarch sent her and her son away4 ,it
 is well known how infidels  triumph on 
the subject of all these histories1 with
 what a disdainful  smile they speak of 
them1 and that they place the story of  
one ,abimelech  falling in love with    
,sarah whom ,abraham had passed off as  
his sister1  and of another ,abimelech  

falling in love with ,rebecca1 whom     
,isaac also  passes as his sister1 even 
beneath the thousand and one nights of  
the  ,arabian fables4 ,we cannot too    
often remark that the great error of all
  these learned critics is their wishing
 to try everything by the test of  our  
feeble reason1 and to judge of the      
ancient ,arabs as they judge of  the    
courts of ,france or of ,england4       
,and the soul of ,shechem1 ,king        
,hamor's son1 was bound up with the soul
  of ,dinah1 and he soothed her grief by
 his tender caresses1 and he went  to   
,hamor his father1 and said to him1 give
 me that woman to be my wife4    ,here  
our critics exclaim in terms of stronger
 disgust than ever4 ,what6  say they2   
the son of a king is desirous to marry a
 vagabond girl2 the  marriage is        
celebrated2 ,jacob the father1 and      
,dinah the daughter1 are  loaded with   
presents2 the king of ,shechem deigns to
 receive those  wandering robbers called
 patriarchs within his city2 he has the 

incredible politeness or kindness to    
undergo1 with his son1 his court1  and  
his people1 the rite of circumcision1   
thus condescending to the  superstition 
of a petty horde that could not call    
half a league of  territory their own6  
,and in return for this astonishing     
hospitality and  goodness1 how do our   
holy patriarchs act8 ,they wait for the 
day when the  process of circumcision   
generally induces fever1 when ,simeon   
and ,levi  run through the whole city   
with poniards in their hands and        
massacre the  king1 the prince his son1 
and all the inhabitants4 ,we are        
precluded from  the horror appropriate  
to this infernal counterpart of the     
tragedy of  ,st4 ,bartholomew1 only by a
 sense of its absolute impossibility4   
,it is an  abominable romance2 but it is
 evidently a ridiculous romance4 ,it is 
impossible that two men could have      
slaughtered in quiet the whole          
population of a city4 ,the people might 
suffer in a slight degree from  the     

operation which had preceded1 but       
notwithstanding this1 they would  have  
risen in self-defence against two       
diabolical miscreants2 they would  have 
instantly assembled1 would have         
surrounded them1 and destroyed them     
with the summary and complete vengeance 
merited by their atrocity4    ,but there
 is a still more palpable impossibility4
 ,it is1 that according  to the accurate
 computation of time1 ,dinah1 this      
daughter of ,jacob1  could be only three
 years old2 and that1 even by forcing up
 chronology  as far as possible in favor
 of the narrative1 she could at the very
 most  be only five4 ,it is here1 then1 
that we are assailed with bursts of     
indignant exclamation6 ,what6 it is     
said1 what6 is it this book1 the  book  
of a rejected and reprobate people2 a   
book so long unknown to all  the world2 
a book in which sound reason and decent 
manners are outraged  in every page1    
that is held up to us as irrefragable1  
holy1 and dictated  by ,god ,himself8   

,is it not even impious to believe it8  
or could anything  less than the fury of
 cannibals urge to the persecution of   
sensible and  modest men for not        
believing it8    ,to this we reply3 ,the
 ,church declares its belief in it4 ,the
 copyists  may have mixed up some       
revolting absurdities with respectable  
and  genuine histories4 ,it belongs to  
the holy church only to decide4  ,the   
profane ought to be guided by her4      
,those absurdities1 those alleged       
horrors do not affect the substance of  
our faith4 ,how lamentable would  be the
 fate of mankind1 if religion and virtue
 depended upon what  formerly happened  
to ,shechem and to little ,dinah6       
,these are the kings who reigned in the 
land of ,edom before the children  of   
,israel had a king4 ,this is the        
celebrated passage which has proved  one
 of the great stumbling stones4 ,this it
 was which decided the great  ,newton1  
the pious and acute ,samuel ,clarke1 the
 profound and philosophic  ,bolingbroke1

 the learned ,leclerc1 the ingenious    
,frret1 and a host of  other enlightened
 men1 to maintain that it was impossible
 ,moses could  have been the author of  
,genesis4    ,we admit that in fact     
these words could not have been written 
until  after the time that the ,jews had
 kings4    ,it is principally this verse
 that determined ,astruc to give up the 
inspired authority of the whole ,book of
 ,genesis1 and suppose the author  had  
derived his materials from existing     
memoirs and records4 ,his work is       
ingenious and accurate1 but it is rash1 
not to say audacious4 ,even a  council  
would scarcely have ventured on such an 
enterprise4 ,and to what  purpose has it
 served ,astruc's thankless and         
dangerous labor--to double  the darkness
 he wished to enlighten8 ,here is the   
fruit of the tree of  knowledge1 of     
which we are all so desirous of eating4 
,why must it be1  that the fruit of the 
tree of ignorance should be more        
nourishing and  more digestible8    ,but

 of what consequence can it be to us1   
after all1 whether any  particular verse
 or chapter was written by ,moses1 or   
,samuel1 or the  priest 7sacrificateur7 
who came to ,samaria1 or ,esdras1 or any
 other  person8 ,in what respect can our
 government1 our laws1 our fortunes1 our
  morals1 our well-being1 be bound up   
with the unknown chiefs of a  wretched  
and barbarous country called ,edom or   
,iduma1 always inhabited  by robbers8   
,alas6 those poor ,arabs1 who have not  
shirts to their backs1  neither know nor
 care whether or not we are in          
existence6 ,they go on  steadily        
plundering caravans1 and eating barley  
bread1 while we are  perplexing and     
tormenting ourselves to know whether any
 petty kings  flourished in a particular
 canton of ,arabia ,petra1 before they  
existed  in a particular canton         
adjoining the west of the lake of       
,sodom6      ,o miseras hominum curas6  
,opectora cca6                          
--,,lucretius1 ii4 #ad4    ,blind1      

wretched man6 in what dark paths of     
strife  ,thou walkest the little journey
 of thy life6--,,creech4                
,,genii4      ,the doctrines of judicial
 astrology and magic have spread all    
over the  world4 ,look back to the      
ancient ,zoroaster1 and you will find   
that of the  genii long established4    
,all antiquity abounds in astrologers   
and  magicians2 such ideas were         
therefore very natural4 ,at present1 we 
smile  at the number who entertained    
them2 if we were in their situation1 if 
like them we were only beginning to     
cultivate the sciences1 we should       
perhaps believe just the same4 ,let us  
suppose ourselves intelligent  people1  
beginning to reason on our own          
existence1 and to observe the  stars4   
,the earth1 we might say1 is no doubt   
immovable in the midst of  the world2   
the sun and planets only revolve in her 
service1 and the  stars are only made   
for us2 man1 therefore1 is the great    
object of all  nature4 ,what is the     

intention of all these globes1 and of   
the immensity  of heaven thus destined  
for our use8 ,it is very likely that all
 space  and these globes are peopled    
with substances1 and since we are the   
favorites of nature1 placed in the      
centre of the universe1 and all is  made
 for man1 these substances are evidently
 destined to watch over man4    ,the    
first man who believed the thing at all 
possible would soon find  disciples     
persuaded that it existed4 ,we might    
then commence by saying1  genii perhaps 
exist1 and nobody could affirm the      
contrary2 for where is  the             
impossibility of the air and planets    
being peopled8 ,we might  afterwards say
 there are genii1 and certainly no one  
could prove that  there are not4 ,soon  
after1 some sages might see these genii1
 and we  should have no right to say to 
them3 ,you have not seen them2 as these 
persons might be honorable1 and         
altogether worthy of credit4 ,one might 
see the genius of the empire or of his  

own city2 another that of ,mars  or     
,saturn2 the genii of the four elements 
might be manifested to several          
philosophers2 more than one sage might  
see his own genius2 all at first  might 
be little more than dreaming1 but dreams
 are the symbols of truth4    ,it was   
soon known exactly how these genii were 
formed4 ,to visit our  globe1 they must 
necessarily have wings2 they therefore  
had wings4 ,we  know only of bodies2    
they therefore had bodies1 but bodies   
much finer  than ours1 since they were  
genii1 and much lighter1 because they   
came  from so great a distance4 ,the    
sages who had the privilege of          
conversing  with the genii inspired     
others with the hope of enjoying the    
same  happiness4 ,a skeptic would have  
been ill received1 if he had said to    
them3 ,i have seen no genius1 therefore 
there are none4 ,they would have        
replied3 ,you reason ill2 it does not   
follow that a thing exists not1  which  
is unknown to you4 ,there is no         

contradiction in the doctrine which     
inculcates these ethereal powers2 no    
impossibility that they may visit  us2  
they show themselves to our sages1 they 
manifest themselves to us2  you are not 
worthy of seeing genii4    ,everything  
on earth is composed of good and evil2  
there are therefore  incontestably good 
and bad genii4 ,the ,persians had their 
peris and  dives2 the ,greeks1 their    
demons and cacodmons2 the ,latins1 bonos
 et  malos genios4 ,the good genii are  
white1 and the bad black1 except among  
the negroes1 where it is necessarily the
 reverse4 ,plato without  difficulty    
admits of a good and evil genius for    
every individual4 ,the  evil genius of  
,brutus appeared to him1 and announced  
to him his death  before the battle of  
,philippi4 ,have not grave historians   
said so8 ,and  would not ,plutarch have 
been very injudicious to have assured us
 of this  fact1 if it were not true8    
,further1 consider what a source of     
feasts1 amusements1 good tales1 and  bon

 mots1 originated in the belief of      
genii6    ,there were male and female   
genii4 ,the genii of the ladies were    
called by  the ,romans little ,junos4   
,they also had the pleasure of seeing   
their  genii grow up4 ,in infancy1 they 
were a kind of ,cupid with wings1 and   
when they protected old age1 they wore  
long beards1 and even sometimes  the    
forms of serpents4 ,at ,rome1 there is  
preserved a marble1 on which is         
represented a serpent under a palm tree1
 to which are attached two  crowns with 
this inscription3 ,to the genius of the 
,augusti2 it was the  emblem of         
immortality4    ,what demonstrative     
proof have we at present1 that the      
genii1 so  universally admitted by so   
many enlightened nations1 are only      
phantoms  of the imagination8 ,all that 
can be said is reduced to this3 ,i have 
never seen a genius1 and no one of my   
acquaintance has ever seen one2  ,brutus
 has not written that his genius        
appeared to him before the battle  of   

,philippi2 neither ,newton1 ,locke1 nor 
even ,descartes1 who gave the  reins to 
his imagination2 neither kings nor      
ministers of state have  ever been      
suspected of communing with their genii2
 therefore ,i do not  believe a thing of
 which there is not the least truth4 ,i 
confess their  existence is not         
impossible2 but the possibility is not a
 proof of the  reality4 ,it is possible 
that there may be satyrs1 with little   
turned-up  tails and goats' feet2 but ,i
 must see several to believe in them2   
for if  ,i saw but one1 ,i should still 
doubt their existence4                  
,,genius4      ,of genius or demon1 we  
have already spoken in the article on   
angel4 ,it  is not easy to know         
precisely whether the peris of the      
,persians were  invented before the     
demons of the ,greeks1 but it is very   
probable that  they were4 ,it may be1   
that the souls of the dead1 called      
shades1 manes1  etc41 passed for demons4
 ,hesiod makes ,hercules say that a     

demon dictated  his labors4    ,the     
demon of ,socrates had so great a       
reputation1 that ,apuleius1 the  author 
of the ,golden ,ass1 who was himself a  
magician of good repute1  says in his   
,treatise on the ,genius of ,socrates1  
that a man must be  without religion who
 denies it4 ,you see that ,apuleius     
reasons precisely  like brothers        
,garasse and ,bertier3 ,you do not      
believe that which ,i  believe2 you are 
therefore without religion4 ,and the    
,jansenists have  said as much of       
brother ,bertier1 as well as of all the 
world except  themselves4 ,these demons1
 says the very religious and filthy     
,apuleius1 are intermediate powers      
between ether and our lower region4     
,they live in our atmosphere1 and bear  
our prayers and merits to the  gods4    
,they treat of succors and benefits1 as 
interpreters and  ambassadors4 ,plato   
says1 that it is by their ministry that 
revelations1  presages1 and the miracles
 of magicians1 are effected4--,cterum   

sunt  qudam divin medi potestates1 inter
 summum thera1 et infimas terras1  in   
isto intersit ris spatio1 per quas et   
desideria nostra et merita ad  deos     
commeant4 ,hos ,grco nomine demonias    
nuncupant4 ,inter terricolas  cli       
colasque victores1 hinc pecum1 inde     
donorum3 qui ultro citroque  portant1   
hinc petitiones1 inde suppetias3 ceu    
quidam utriusque  interpretes1 et       
salutigeri4 ,per hos eosdem1 ut ,plato  
in symposio  autumat1 cuncta denuntiata2
 et majorum varia miracula1 omnesque    
prsagium species reguntur4    ,st4      
,augustine has condescended to refute   
,apuleius in these words3    ,it is     
impossible for us to say that demons are
 neither mortal nor  eternal1 for all   
that has life1 either lives eternally1  
or loses the  breath of life by death2  
and ,apuleius has said1 that as to time1
 the  demons are eternal4 ,what then    
remains1 but that demons hold a medium  
situation1 and have one quality higher  
and another lower than mankind2  and as1

 of these two things1 eternity is the   
only higher thing which  they           
exclusively possess1 to complete the    
allotted medium1 what must be  the      
lower1 if not misery8 ,this is powerful 
reasoning6    ,as ,i have never seen any
 genii1 demons1 peris1 or hobgoblins1   
whether  beneficent or mischievous1 ,i  
cannot speak of them from knowledge4 ,i 
only  relate what has been said by      
people who have seen them4    ,among the
 ,romans1 the word genius was not used  
to express a rare  talent1 as with us3  
the term for that quality was ingenium4 
,we use the  word genius indifferently  
in speaking of the tutelar demon of a   
town  of antiquity1 or an artist1 or a  
musician4 ,the term genius seems to     
have been intended to designate not     
great talents generally1 but those  into
 which invention enters4 ,invention1    
above everything1 appeared a  gift from 
the gods--this ingenium1 quasi          
ingenitum1 a kind of divine             
inspiration4 ,now an artist1 however    

perfect he may be in his profession1  if
 he have no invention1 if he be not     
original1 is not considered a  genius4  
,he is only inspired by the artists his 
predecessors1 even when  he surpasses   
them4    ,it is very probable that many 
people now play at chess better than the
  inventor of the game1 and that they   
might gain the prize of corn  promised  
him by the ,indian king4 ,but this      
inventor was a genius1 and  those who   
might now gain the prize would be no    
such thing4 ,poussin1 who  was a great  
painter before he had seen any good     
pictures1 had a genius  for painting4   
,lulli1 who never heard any good        
musician in ,france1 had a  genius for  
music4    ,which is the more desirable  
to possess1 a genius without a master1  
or  the attainment of perfection by     
imitating and surpassing the masters    
which precede us8    ,if you put this   
question to artists1 they will perhaps  
be divided2 if  you put it to the       
public1 it will not hesitate4 ,do you   

like a beautiful  ,gobelin tapestry     
better than one made in ,flanders at the
 commencement of  the arts8 ,do you     
prefer modern masterpieces of engraving 
to the first  wood-cuts8 the music of   
the present day to the first airs1 which
  resembled the ,gregorian chant8 the   
makers of the artillery of our time  to 
the genius which invented the first     
cannon8 everybody will answer1  yes4    
,all purchasers will say3 ,i own that   
the inventor of the shuttle  had more   
genius than the manufacturer who made my
 cloth1 but my cloth is  worth more than
 that of the inventor4    ,in short1    
every one in conscience will confess1   
that we respect the  geniuses who       
invented the arts1 but that the minds   
which perfect them  are of more present 
benefit4      ,,section ,,ii4    ,the   
article on ,genius has been treated in  
the ,encyclopdia by men  who possess it4
 ,we shall hazard very little after     
them4    ,every town1 every man         
possessed a genius4 ,it was imagined    

that those who  performed extraordinary 
things were inspired by their genius4   
,the nine  muses were nine genii1 whom  
it was necessary to invoke2 therefore   
,ovid  says3 ,et ,deus in nobis1        
agitante calescimus illo--,the ,god     
within  us1 ,he the mind inspires4      
,but1 properly speaking1 is genius      
anything but capability8 ,what is       
capability but a disposition to succeed 
in an art8 ,why do we say the  genius of
 a language8 ,it is1 that every         
language1 by its terminations1          
articles1 participles1 and shorter or   
longer words1 will necessarily  have    
exclusive properties of its own4    ,by 
the genius of a nation is meant the     
character1 manners1 talents1 and  even  
vices1 which distinguish one people from
 another4 ,it is sufficient  to see the 
,french1 ,english1 and ,spanish people1 
to feel this difference4    ,we have    
said that the particular genius of a man
 for an art is a  different thing from  
his general talent2 but this name is    

given only to  a very superior ability4 
,how many people have talent for poetry1
 music1  and painting2 yet it would be  
ridiculous to call them geniuses4       
,genius1 conducted by taste1 will never 
commit a gross fault4 ,racine1  since   
his ,andromache1 ,le ,poussin1 and      
,rameau1 has never committed  one4      
,genius1 without taste1 will often      
commit enormous errors2 and1 what  is   
worse1 it will not be sensible of them4 
,,geography4      ,geography is one of  
those sciences which will always require
 to be  perfected4 ,notwithstanding the 
pains that have been taken1 it has      
hitherto been impossible to have an     
exact description of the earth4 ,for    
this great work1 it would be necessary  
that all sovereigns should come  to an  
understanding1 and lend mutual          
assistance4 ,but they have ever  taken  
more pains to ravage the world than they
 have to measure it4    ,no one has yet 
been able to make an exact map of upper 
,egypt1 nor of the  regions bordering on

 the ,red ,sea1 nor of the vast country 
of ,arabia4 ,of  ,africa we know only   
the coasts2 all the interior is no more 
known than  it was in the times of      
,atlas and ,hercules4 ,there is not a   
single  well-detailed map of all the    
,grand ,turk's possessions in ,asia2 all
 is  placed at random1 excepting some   
few large towns1 the crumbling remains  
of which are still existing4 ,in the    
states of the ,great ,mogul something   
is known of the relative positions of   
,agra and ,delhi2 but thence to the     
kingdom of ,golconda everything is laid 
down at a venture4    ,it is known that 
,japan extends from about the thirtieth 
to the fortieth  degree of north        
latitude2 there cannot be an error of   
more than two  degrees1 which is about  
fifty leagues2 so that1 relying on one  
of our  best maps1 a pilot would be in  
danger of losing his track or his life4 
,as for the longitude1 the first maps of
 the ,jesuits determined it  between the
 one hundred and fifty-seventh and the  

one hundred and  seventy-fifth degree2  
whereas1 it is now determined between   
the one  hundred and forty-sixth and the
 one hundred and sixtieth4    ,china is 
the only ,asiatic country of which we   
have an exact measurement2  because the 
emperor ,kam-hi employed some ,jesuit   
astronomers to draw  exact maps1 which  
is the best thing the ,jesuits have     
done4 ,had they been  content with      
measuring the earth1 they would never   
have been proscribed4    ,in our western
 world1 ,italy1 ,france1 ,russia1       
,england1 and the principal  towns of   
the other states1 have been measured by 
the same method as was  employed in     
,china2 but it was not until a very few 
years ago1 that in  ,france it was      
undertaken to form an entire topography4
 ,a company taken  from the ,academy of 
,sciences despatched engineers or       
surveyors into  every corner of the     
kingdom1 to lay down even the meanest   
hamlet1 the  smallest rivulet1 the      
hills1 the woods1 in their true places4 

,before  that time1 so confused was the 
topography1 that on the eve of the      
battle  of ,fontenoy1 the maps of the   
country being all examined1 every one of
  them was found entirely defective4    
,if a positive order had been sent from 
,versailles to an inexperienced  general
 to give battle1 and post himself as    
appeared most advisable from  the maps1 
as sometimes happened in the time of the
 minister ,chamillar1  the battle would 
infallibly have been lost4    ,a general
 who should carry on a war in the       
country of the ,morlachians1  or the    
,montenegrins1 with no knowledge of     
places but from the maps1  would be at  
as great a loss as if he were in the    
heart of ,africa4    ,happily1 that     
which has often been traced by          
geographers1 according to  their own    
fancy1 in their closets1 is rectified on
 the spot4 ,in  geography1 as in morals1
 it is very difficult to know the world 
without  going from home4    ,it is not 
with this department of knowledge1 as   

with the arts of poetry1  music1 and    
painting4 ,the last works of these kinds
 are often the worst4  ,but in the      
sciences1 which require exactness rather
 than genius1 the  last are always the  
best1 provided they are done with some  
degree of  care4    ,one of the greatest
 advantages of geography1 in my opinion1
 is this3  your fool of a neighbor1 and 
his wife almost as stupid1 are          
incessantly  reproaching you with not   
thinking as they think in ,rue ,st4     
,jacques4  ,see1 say they1 what a       
multitude of great men have been of our 
opinion1 from ,peter the ,lombard down  
to the ,abb ,petit-pied4 ,the whole     
universe has received our truths2 they  
reign in the ,faubourg ,st4 ,honor1  at 
,chaillot and at tampes1 at ,rome and   
among the ,uscoques4 ,take a map  of the
 world2 show them all ,africa1 the      
empires of ,japan1 ,china1 ,india1      
,turkey1 ,persia1 and that of ,russia1  
more extensive than was the ,roman      
,empire2 make them pass their finger    

over all ,scandinavia1 all the north  of
 ,germany1 the three kingdoms of ,great 
,britain1 the greater part of the  ,low 
,countries1 and of ,helvetia2 in short  
make them observe1 in the four  great   
divisions of the earth1 and in the      
fifth1 which is as little known  as it  
is great in extent1 the prodigious      
number of races1 who either  never heard
 of those opinions1 or have combated    
them1 or have held them  in abhorrence1 
and you will thus oppose the whole      
universe to ,rue ,st4  ,jacques4    ,you
 will tell them that ,julius ,csar1 who 
extended his power much  farther than   
that street1 did not know a word of all 
which they think so  universal2 and that
 our ancestors1 on whom ,julius ,csar   
bestowed the  lash1 knew no more of them
 than he did4    ,they will then1       
perhaps1 feel somewhat ashamed at having
 believed that  the organ of ,st4       
,severin's church gave the tone to the  
rest of the  world4                     
,,glory--,,glorious4      ,,section ,i4 

,glory is reputation joined with esteem1
 and is complete when admiration  is    
superadded4 ,it always supposes that    
which is brilliant in action1 in        
virtue1 or in talent1 and the           
surmounting of great difficulties4 ,csar
  and ,alexander had glory4 ,the same   
can hardly be said of ,socrates4 ,he    
claims esteem1 reverence1 pity1         
indignation against his enemies2 but the
  term glory applied to him would be    
improper2 his memory is venerable       
rather than glorious4 ,attila had much  
brilliancy1 but he has no glory2  for   
history1 which may be mistaken1         
attributes to him no virtues3  ,charles 
,,xii4 still has glory2 for his valor1  
his disinterestedness1 his  liberality1 
were extreme4 ,success is sufficient for
 reputation1 but not  for glory4 ,the   
glory of ,henry ,,iv4 is every day      
increasing2 for time has  brought to    
light all his virtues1 which were       
incomparably greater than  his defects4 
,glory is also the portion of inventors 

in the fine arts2 imitators have  only  
applause4 ,it is granted1 too1 to great 
talents1 but in sublime arts  only4 ,we 
may well say1 the glory of ,virgil1 or  
,cicero1 but not of  ,martial1 nor of   
,aulus ,gellius4    ,men have dared to  
say1 the glory of ,god3 ,god created    
this world for ,his  glory2 not that the
 ,supreme ,being can have glory2 but    
that men1 having  no expressions        
suitable to ,him1 use for ,him those by 
which they are  themselves most         
flattered4    ,vainglory is that petty  
ambition which is contented with        
appearances1  which is exhibited in     
pompous display1 and never elevates     
itself to  greater things4 ,sovereigns1 
having real glory1 have been known to be
  nevertheless fond of                  
vainglory--seeking too eagerly after    
praise1 and  being too much attached to 
the trappings of ostentation4    ,false 
glory often verges towards vanity2 but  
it often leads to excesses1  while      
vainglory is more confined to splendid  

littlenesses4 ,a prince who  should look
 for honor in revenge1 would seek a     
false glory rather than a  vain one4    
,to give glory signifies to acknowledge1
 to bear witness4 ,give glory to  truth1
 means acknowledging truth--,give glory 
to the ,god whom you  serve--,bear      
witness to the ,god whom you serve4     
,glory is taken for heaven--,he dwells  
in glory2 but this is the case in  no   
religion but ours4 ,it is not allowable 
to say that ,bacchus or  ,hercules was  
received into glory1 when speaking of   
their apotheosis4 ,the  saints and      
angels have sometimes been called the   
glorious1 as dwelling  in the abode of  
glory4    ,gloriously is always taken in
 the good sense2 he reigned gloriously2 
he  extricated himself gloriously from  
great danger or embarrassment4    ,to   
glory in1 is sometimes taken in the     
good1 sometimes in the bad1  sense1     
according to the nature of the object in
 question4 ,he glories in  a disgrace   
which is the fruit of his talents and   

the effect of envy4 ,we  say of the     
martyrs1 that they glorified ,god--that 
is1 that their  constancy made the ,god 
whom they attested revered by men4      
,,section ,,ii4    ,that ,cicero should 
love glory1 after having stifled        
,catiline's  conspiracy1 may be pardoned
 him4 ,that the king of ,prussia1       
,frederick the  ,great1 should have the 
same feelings after ,rosbach and ,lissa1
 and after  being the legislator1 the   
historian1 the poet1 and the philosopher
 of  his country--that he should be     
passionately fond of glory1 and at the  
same time1 have self-command enough to  
be modestly so--he will1 on that        
account1 be the more glorified4    ,that
 the empress ,catherine ,,ii4 should    
have been forced by the brutish         
insolence of a ,turkish sultan to       
display all her genius2 that from the   
far north she should have sent four     
squadrons which spread terror in the    
,dardanelles and in ,asia ,minor2 and   
that1 in #aggj1 she took four  provinces

 from those ,turks who made ,europe     
tremble--with this sort of  glory she   
will not be reproached1 but will be     
admired for speaking of  her successes  
with that air of indifference and       
superiority which shows  that they were 
merited4    ,in short1 glory befits     
geniuses of this sort1 though belonging 
to the  very mean race of mortals4      
,but if1 at the extremity of the west1 a
 townsman of a place called ,paris      
thinks he has glory in being harangued  
by a teacher of the university1  who    
says to him3 ,monseigneur1 the glory you
 have acquired in the  exercise of your 
office1 your illustrious labors with    
which the universe  resounds1 etc41 then
 ,i ask if there are mouths enough in   
that universe  to celebrate1 with their 
hisses1 the glory of our citizen1 and   
the  eloquence of the pedant who attends
 to bray out this harangue at           
monseigneur's hotel8 ,we are such fools 
that we have made ,god glorious  like   
ourselves4    ,that worthy chief of the 

dervishes1 ,ben-al-betif1 said to his   
brethren  one day3 ,my brethren1 it is  
good that you should frequently use that
  sacred formula of our ,koran1 ',in the
 name of the most merciful ,god'2       
because ,god uses mercy1 and you learn  
to do so too1 by oft repeating the      
words that recommend virtue1 without    
which there would be few men left  upon 
the earth4 ,but1 my brethren1 beware of 
imitating those rash ones  who boast1 on
 every occasion1 of laboring for the    
glory of ,god4    ,if a young simpleton 
maintains a thesis on the categories1 an
 ignoramus  in furs presiding1 he is    
sure to write in large characters1 at   
the head  of his thesis1 ',ek alha abron
 doxa6--',ad majorem ,dei gloriam4'     
--,to  the greater glory of ,god4 ,if a 
good ,mussulman has had his house       
whitewashed1 he cuts this foolish       
inscription in the door4 ,a saka        
carries water for the greater glory of  
,god4 ,it is an impious usage1  piously 
used4 ,what would you say of a little   

chiaoux1 who1 while  emptying our       
sultan's close-stool1 should exclaim3   
,to the greater glory  of our invincible
 monarch8 ,there is certainly a greater 
distance  between ,god and the sultan   
than between the sultan and the little  
chiaoux4    ,ye miserable earth-worms1  
called men1 what have you resembling the
  glory of the ,supreme ,being8 ,can ,he
 love glory8 ,can ,he receive it from   
you8 ,can ,he enjoy it8 ,how long1 ye   
two-legged animals without feathers1    
will you make ,god after your own image8
 ,what6 because you are vain1  because  
you love glory1 you would have ,god love
 it also8 ,if there were  several ,gods1
 perhaps each one would seek to gain the
 good opinion of  his fellows4 ,that    
might be glory to ,god4 ,such a ,god1 if
 infinite  greatness may be compared    
with extreme lowliness1 would be like   
,king  ,alexander or ,iscander1 who     
would enter the lists with none but     
kings4  ,but you1 poor creatures6 what  
glory can you give to ,god8 ,cease to   

profane the sacred name4 ,an emperor1   
named ,octavius ,augustus1 forbade  his 
being praised in the schools of ,rome1  
lest his name should be  brought into   
contempt4 ,you can bring the name of the
 ,supreme ,being  neither into contempt1
 nor into honor4 ,humble yourselves in  
the dust2  adore1 and be silent4        
,thus spake ,ben-al-betif2 and the      
dervishes cried out3 ,glory to ,god6    
,ben-al-betif has said well4            
,,section ,,iii4    ,conversation with a
 ,chinese4    ,in #agbc1 there was in   
,holland a ,chinese3 this ,chinese was a
 man of  letters and a merchant2 which  
two professions ought not to be         
incompatible1 but which have become so  
amongst us1 thanks to the extreme       
regard which is paid to money1 and the  
little consideration which  mankind have
 ever shown1 and will ever show1 for    
merit4    ,this ,chinese1 who spoke a   
little ,dutch1 was once in a            
bookseller's shop  with some men of     
learning4 ,he asked for a book1 and     

,bossuet's ,universal  ,history1 badly  
translated1 was proposed to him4 ,ah6   
said he1 how  fortunate6 ,i shall now   
see what is said of our great empire--of
 our  nation1 which has existed as a    
national body for more than fifty       
thousand years--of that succession of   
emperors who have governed us for  so   
many ages4 ,i shall now see what is     
thought of the religion of the  men of  
letters--of that simple worship which we
 render to the ,supreme  ,being4 ,how   
pleasing to see what is said in ,europe 
of our arts1 many of  which are more    
ancient amongst us than any ,european   
kingdom4 ,i guess the  author will have 
made many mistakes in the history of the
 war which we  had twenty-two thousand  
five hundred and fifty-two years ago1   
with the  warlike nations of ,tonquin   
and ,japan1 and of that solemn embassy  
which  the mighty emperor of the ,moguls
 sent to ask laws from us1 in the year  
of the world                            
#ejj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jgi1abc1dej1jjj4 ,alas6

 said one of the  learned men to him1   
you are not even mentioned in that book2
 you are  too inconsiderable2 it is     
almost all about the first nation in the
  world--the only nation1 the great     
,jewish people6    ,the ,jewish people6 
exclaimed the ,chinese4 ,are they1 then1
 masters of  at least three-quarters of 
the earth8 ,they flatter themselves that
  they shall one day be so1 was the     
answer2 until which time they have  the 
honor of being our old-clothes-men1 and1
 now and then1 clippers of  our         
coin4--,you jest1 said the ,chinese2 had
 these people ever a vast  empire8 ,they
 had as their own for some years1 said  
,i1 a small  country2 but it is not by  
the extent of their states that a people
 are  to be judged2 as it is not by his 
riches that we are to estimate a man4   
,but is no other people spoken of in    
this book8 asked the man of  letters4   
,undoubtedly1 returned a learned man who
 stood next me1 and  who instantly      
replied1 there is a deal said in it of a

 small country  sixty leagues broad1    
called ,egypt1 where it is asserted that
 there was a  lake a hundred and fifty  
leagues round1 cut by the hands of      
men4--,zounds6 said the ,chinese2 a lake
 a hundred and fifty leagues  round in a
 country only sixty broad6 ,that is     
fine1 indeed6--,everybody  was wise in  
that country1 added the doctor4 ,oh6    
what fine times they  must have been1   
said the ,chinese4 ,but is that         
all8--,no1 replied the  ,european2 he   
also treats of that celebrated people1  
the ,greeks4 ,who  are these ,greeks8   
asked the man of letters4 ,ah6 continued
 the other1  they inhabited a province  
about a two-hundredth part as large as  
,china1  but which has been famous      
throughout the world4 ,i have never     
heard  speak of these people1 neither in
 ,mogul nor in ,japan1 nor in ,great    
,tartary1 said the ,chinese1 with an    
ingenuous look4    ,oh1 ignorant1       
barbarous man6 politely exclaimed our   
scholar4 ,know you  not1 then1 the      

,theban ,epaminondas2 nor the harbor of 
,piraeus2 nor the  name of the two      
horses of ,achilles2 nor that of        
,silenus's ass8 ,have you  not heard of 
,jupiter1 nor of ,diogenes1 nor of      
,lais1 nor of ,cybele1  nor--    ,i am  
much afraid1 replied the man of letters1
 that you know nothing  at all of the   
ever memorable adventure of the         
celebrated ,xixofou  ,concochigramki1   
nor of the mysteries of the great ,fi   
,psi ,hi ,hi4 ,but  pray1 what are the  
other unknown things of which this      
universal history  treats8 ,the scholar 
then spoke for a quarter of an hour on  
the ,roman  commonwealth3 but when he   
came to ,julius ,csar1 the ,chinese     
interrupted  him1 saying1 ,as for him1  
,i think ,i know him3 was he not a      
,turk8    ,what6 said the scholar1      
somewhat warm1 do you not at least know 
the  difference between ,pagans1        
,christians1 and ,mussulmans8 ,do you   
not know  ,constantine1 and the history 
of the popes8 ,we have indistinctly     

heard1 answered the ,asiatic1 of one    
,mahomet4    ,it is impossible1 returned
 the other1 that you should not1 at     
least1  be acquainted with ,luther1     
,zuinglius1 ,bellarmin1 colampadius4 ,i 
shall never remember those names1 said  
the ,chinese4 ,he then went away  to    
sell a considerable parcel of tea and   
fine grogram1 with which he  bought two 
fine girls and a ship-boy1 whom he took 
back to his own  country1 adoring ,tien1
 and commending himself to ,confucius4  
,for myself1 who was present at this    
conversation1 ,i clearly saw what  glory
 is2 and ,i said3 ,since ,csar and      
,jupiter are unknown in the finest1  the
 most ancient1 the most extensive1 the  
most populous and  well-regulated       
kingdom upon earth2 it beseems you1 ye  
governors of some  little country1 ye   
preachers in some little parish1 or some
 little  town--ye doctors of ,salamanca 
and of ,bourges1 ye flimsy authors1 and 
ye  ponderous commentators--it beseems  
you to make pretensions to renown6      

,,goat--,,sorcery4      ,the honors of  
every kind which antiquity paid to goats
 would be very  astonishing1 if anything
 could astonish those who have grown a  
little  familiar with the world1 ancient
 and modern4 ,the ,egyptians and the    
,jews  often designated the kings and   
the chiefs of the people by the word    
goat4 ,we find in ,zachariah3    ,mine  
anger was kindled against the shepherds1
 and ,i punished the goats2  for the    
,lord of ,hosts hath visited his flock1 
the house of ,judah1 and  hath made them
 as his goodly horse in the battle4     
,remove out of the midst of ,babylon1   
says ,jeremiah to the chiefs of the     
people2 go forth out of the land of the 
,chaldans1 and be as the  he-goats      
before the flocks4    ,isaiah1 in       
chapters x4 and xiv41 uses the term     
goat1 which has been  translated prince4
 ,the ,egyptians went much farther than 
calling their  kings goats2 they        
consecrated a goat in ,mendes1 and it is
 even said that  they adored him4 ,the  

truth very likely was1 that the people  
took an  emblem for a divinity1 as is   
but too often the case4    ,it is not   
likely that the ,egyptian shon or       
shotim1 i4e41 priests1  immolated goats 
and worshipped them at the same time4   
,we know that they  had their goat      
,hazazel1 which they adorned and crowned
 with flowers1 and  threw down headlong1
 as an expiation for the people2 and    
that the ,jews  took from them1 not only
 this ceremony1 but even the very name  
of  ,hazazel1 as they adopted many other
 rites from ,egypt4    ,but goats       
received another1 and yet more singular 
honor4 ,it is beyond a  doubt that in   
,egypt many women set the same example  
with goats1 as  ,pasiphae did with her  
bull4    ,the ,jews but too faithfully  
imitated these abominations4 ,jeroboam  
instituted priests for the service of   
his calves and his goats4    ,the       
worship of the goat was established in  
,egypt1 and in the lands of a  part of  
,palestine4 ,enchantments were believed 

to be operated by means of  goats1 and  
other monsters1 which were always       
represented with a goat's  head4        
,magic1 sorcery1 soon passed from the   
,east into the ,west1 and extended      
itself throughout the earth4 ,the sort  
of sorcery that came from the ,jews  was
 called ,sabbatum by the ,romans1 who   
thus confounded their sacred day  with  
their secret abominations4 ,thence it   
was1 that in the neighboring  nations1  
to be a sorcerer and to go to the       
sabbath1 meant the same  thing4         
,wretched village women1 deceived by    
knaves1 and still more by the  weakness 
of their own imaginations1 believed that
 after pronouncing the  word abraxa1 and
 rubbing themselves with an ointment    
mixed with  cow-dung and goat's hair1   
they went to the sabbath on a           
broom-stick in  their sleep1 that there 
they adored a goat1 and that he enjoyed 
them4    ,this opinion was universal4   
,all the doctors asserted that it was   
the  devil1 who metamorphosed himself   

into a goat4 ,this may be seen in ,del  
,rio's ,disquisitions1 and in a hundred 
other authors4 ,the theologian          
,grillandus1 a great promoter of the    
,inquisition1 quoted by ,del ,rio1 says 
that sorcerers call the goat ,martinet4 
,he assures us that a woman who  was    
attached to ,martinet1 mounted on his   
back1 and was carried in an  instant    
through the air to a place called the   
,nut of ,benevento4    ,there were books
 in which the mysteries of the sorcerers
 were written4 ,i  have seen one of     
them1 at the head of which was a figure 
of a goat very  badly drawn1 with a     
woman on her knees behind him4 ,in      
,france1 these  books were called       
grimoires2 and in other countries the   
devil's  alphabet4 ,that which ,i saw   
contained only four leaves1 in almost   
illegible characters1 much like those of
 the ,shepherd's ,almanac4    ,reasoning
 and better education would have        
sufficed in ,europe for the  extirpation
 of such an extravagance2 but executions

 were employed  instead of reasoning4   
,the pretended sorcerers had their      
grimoire and  the judges had their      
sorcerer's code4 ,in #aeii1 the ,jesuit 
,del ,rio1 a  doctor of ,louvain1       
published his ,magical ,disquisitions4  
,he affirms  that all heretics are      
magicians1 and frequently recommends    
that they be  put to the torture4 ,he   
has no doubt that the devil transforms  
himself  into a goat and grants his     
favors to all women presented to him4   
,he  quotes various jurisconsults1      
called demonographers1 who assert that  
,luther was the son of a woman and a    
goat4 ,he assures us that at  ,brussels1
 in #aeie1 a woman was brought to bed of
 a child1 of which the  devil1 disguised
 as a goat1 was father1 and that she was
 punished1 but  he does not inform us in
 what manner4    ,but the jurisprudence 
of witchcraft has been the most         
profoundly treated  by one ,boguet1     
grand juge en dernier ressort of an     
abbey of ,st4  ,claude in               

,franche-,comt4 ,he gives an account of 
all the executions to  which he         
condemned wizards and witches1 and the  
number is very  considerable4 ,nearly   
all the witches are supposed to have had
 commerce  with the goat4    ,it has    
already been said that more than a      
hundred thousand sorcerers  have been   
executed in ,europe4 ,philosophy alone  
has at length cured men  of this        
abominable delusion1 and has taught     
judges that they should not  burn the   
insane4          ,,god--,,gods4         
,,section ,i4    ,the reader cannot too 
carefully bear in mind that this        
dictionary has  not been written for the
 purpose of repeating what so many      
others have  said4    ,the knowledge of 
a ,god is not impressed upon us by the  
hands of nature1  for then men would all
 have the same idea2 and no idea is born
 with us4  ,it does not come to us like 
the perception of light1 of the ground1 
etc41 which we receive as soon as our   
eyes and our understandings are  opened4

 ,is it a philosophical idea8 ,no2 men  
admitted the existence of  gods before  
they were philosophers4    ,whence1     
then1 is this idea derived8 ,from       
feeling1 and from that natural  logic   
which unfolds itself with age1 even in  
the rudest of mankind4  ,astonishing    
effects of nature were beheld--harvests 
and barrenness1 fair  weather and       
storms1 benefits and scourges2 and the  
hand of a master was  felt4 ,chiefs were
 necessary to govern societies2 and it  
was needful to  admit sovereigns of     
these new sovereigns whom human weakness
 had given  itself--beings before whose 
power these men who could bear down     
their  fellow-men might tremble4 ,the   
first sovereigns in their time employed 
these notions to cement their power4    
,such were the first steps2 thus  every 
little society had its god4 ,these      
notions were rude because  everything   
was rude4 ,it is very natural to reason 
by analogy4 ,one  society under a chief 
did not deny that the neighboring tribe 

should  likewise have its judge1 or its 
captain2 consequently it could not deny 
that the other should also have its god4
 ,but as it was to the interest  of each
 tribe that its captain should be the   
best1 it was also  interested in        
believing1 and consequently it did      
believe1 that its god  was the          
mightiest4 ,hence those ancient fables  
which have so long been  generally      
diffused1 that the gods of one nation   
fought against the gods  of another4    
,hence the numerous passages in the     
,hebrew books1 which we  find constantly
 disclosing the opinion entertained by  
the ,jews1 that the  gods of their      
enemies existed1 but that they were     
inferior to the ,god of  the ,jews4     
,meanwhile1 in the great states where   
the progress of society allowed to      
individuals the enjoyment of speculative
 leisure1 there were priests1  ,magi1   
and philosophers4    ,some of these     
perfected their reason so far as to     
acknowledge in secret  one only and     

universal god4 ,so1 although the ancient
 ,egyptians adored  ,osiri1 ,osiris1 or 
rather ,osireth 7which signifies this   
land is mine72  though they also adored 
other superior beings1 yet they admitted
 one  supreme1 one only principal god1  
whom they called ,knef1 whose symbol    
was a sphere placed on the frontispiece 
of the temple4    ,after this model1 the
 ,greeks had their ,zeus1 their         
,jupiter1 the master  of the other gods1
 who were but what the angels are with  
the ,babylonians  and the ,hebrews1 and 
the saints with the ,christians of the  
,roman  communion4    ,it is a more     
thorny question than it has been        
considered1 and one by no  means        
profoundly examined1 whether several    
gods1 equal in power1 can  exist at the 
same time8    ,we have no adequate idea 
of the ,divinity2 we creep on from      
conjecture to  conjecture1 from         
likelihood to probability4 ,we have very
 few  certainties4 ,there is something2 
therefore there is something eternal2   

for nothing is produced from nothing4   
,here is a certain truth on which  the  
mind reposes4 ,every work which shows us
 means and an end1 announces  a workman2
 then this universe1 composed of        
springs1 of means1 each of  which has   
its end1 discovers a most mighty1 a most
 intelligent workman4  ,here is a       
probability approaching the greatest    
certainty4 ,but is this  supreme        
artificer infinite8 ,is he everywhere8  
,is he in one place8 ,how  are we1 with 
our feeble intelligence and limited     
knowledge1 to answer  these questions8  
,my reason alone proves to me a being   
who has arranged the matter of this     
world2 but my reason is unable to prove 
to me that he made this  matter--that he
 brought it out of nothing4 ,all the    
sages of antiquity1  without exception1 
believed matter to be eternal1 and      
existing by  itself4 ,all then that ,i  
can do1 without the aid of superior     
light1 is to  believe that the ,god of  
this world is also eternal1 and existing

 by  ,himself4 ,god and matter exist by 
the nature of things4 ,may not other    
gods exist1 as well as other worlds8    
,whole nations1 and very enlightened    
schools1 have clearly admitted two gods 
in this world--one the source of  good1 
the other the source of evil4 ,they     
admitted an eternal war between  two    
equal powers4 ,assuredly1 nature can    
more easily suffer the existence  of    
several independent beings in the       
immensity of space1 than that of        
limited and powerless gods in this      
world1 of whom one can do no good1  and 
the other no harm4    ,if ,god and      
matter exist from all eternity1 as      
antiquity believed1 here  then are two  
necessary beings2 now1 if there be two  
necessary beings1  there may be thirty4 
,these doubts alone1 which are the germ 
of an  infinity of reflections1 serve at
 least to convince us of the feebleness 
of our understanding4 ,we must1 with    
,cicero1 confess our ignorance of the   
nature of the ,divinity2 we shall never 

know any more of it than he did4    ,in 
vain do the schools tell us that ,god is
 infinite negatively and not            
privatively--formaliter et non          
materialiter that ,he is the first  act1
 the middle1 and the last--that ,he is  
everywhere without being in  any place2 
a hundred pages of commentaries on      
definitions like these  cannot give us  
the smallest light4 ,we have no steps   
whereby to arrive at  such knowledge4   
,we feel that we are under the hand of  
an invisible being2 this is all2  we    
cannot advance one step farther4 ,it is 
mad temerity to seek to divine  what    
this being is--whether he is extended or
 not1 whether he is in one  place or    
not1 how he exists1 or how he operates4 
,,section ,,ii4    ,i am ever           
apprehensive of being mistaken2 but all 
monuments give me  sufficient evidence  
that the polished nations of antiquity  
acknowledged  a supreme god4 ,there is  
not a book1 not a medal1 not a          
bas-relief1 not  an inscription1 in     

which ,juno1 ,minerva1 ,neptune1 ,mars1 
or any of the  other deities1 is spoken 
of as a forming being1 the sovereign of 
all  nature4 ,on the contrary1 the most 
ancient profane books that we           
have--those of ,hesiod and              
,homer--represent their ,zeus as the    
only  thunderer1 the only master of gods
 and men2 he even punishes the other    
gods2 he ties ,juno with a chain1 and   
drives ,apollo out of heaven4    ,the   
ancient religion of the ,brahmins--the  
first that admitted celestial           
creatures--the first which spoke of     
their rebellion--explains itself in     
sublime manner concerning the unity and 
power of ,god2 as we have seen in  the  
article on ,angel4    ,the ,chinese1    
ancient as they are1 come after the     
,indians4 ,they have  acknowledged one  
only god from time immemorial2 they have
 no subordinate  gods1 no t mediating   
demons or genii between ,god and man2 no
 oracles1 no  abstract dogmas1 no       
theological disputes among the lettered2

 their  emperor was always the first    
pontiff2 their religion was always      
august  and simple2 thus it is that this
 vast empire1 though twice subjugated1  
has constantly preserved its integrity1 
has made its conquerors receive  its    
laws1 and notwithstanding the crimes and
 miseries inseparable from  the human   
race1 is still the most flourishing     
state upon earth4    ,the ,magi of      
,chalda1 the ,sabeans1 acknowledged but 
one supreme god1 whom  they adored in   
the stars1 which are his work4 ,the     
,persians adored him in  the sun4 ,the  
sphere placed on the frontispiece of the
 temple of ,memphis  was the emblem of  
one only and perfect god1 called ,knef  
by the  ,egyptians4    ,the title of    
,deus ,optimus ,maximus was never given 
by the ,romans to  any but ,jupiter1    
hominum sator atque deorum4 ,this great 
truth1 which  we have elsewhere pointed 
out1 cannot be too often repeated4      
,this adoration of a ,supreme ,god1 from
 ,romulus down to the total  destruction

 of the empire and of its religion1 is  
confirmed4 ,in spite of  all the follies
 of the people1 who venerated secondary 
and ridiculous  gods1 and in spite of   
the ,epicureans1 who in reality         
acknowledged none1  it is verified that1
 in all times1 the magistrates and the  
wise adored  one sovereign ,god4        
,from the great number of testimonies   
left us to this truth1 ,i will  select  
first that of ,maximus of ,tyre1 who    
flourished under the  ,antonines--those 
models of true piety1 since they were   
models of  humanity4 ,these are his     
words1 in his discourse entitled ,of    
,god1  according to ,plato4 ,the reader 
who would instruct himself is requested 
to weigh them well3    ,men have been so
 weak as to give to ,god a human figure1
 because they  had seen nothing superior
 to man2 but it is ridiculous to        
imagine1 with  ,homer1 that ,jupiter or 
the ,supreme ,divinity has black        
eyebrows and  golden hair1 which he     
cannot shake without making the heavens 

tremble4    ,when men are questioned    
concerning the nature of the ,divinity1 
their  answers are all different4 ,yet1 
notwithstanding this prodigious variety 
of opinions1 you will find one and the  
same feeling throughout the             
earth--viz41 that there is but one ,god1
 who is the father of all4444    ,after 
this formal avowal1 after the immortal  
discourses of ,cicero1 of  ,antonine1 of
 ,epictetus1 what becomes of the        
declamations which so many  ignorant    
pedants are still repeating8 ,what avail
 those eternal  reproachings of base    
polytheism and puerile idolatry1 but to 
convince us  that the reproachers have  
not the slightest acquaintance with     
sterling  antiquity8 ,they have taken   
the reveries of ,homer for the doctrines
 of  the wise4    ,is it necessary to   
have stronger or more expressive        
testimony8 ,you will  find it in the    
letter from ,maximus of ,madaura to ,st4
 ,augustine2 both  were philosophers and
 orators2 at least1 they prided         

themselves on being  so2 they wrote to  
each other freely2 they were even       
friends as much as a  man of the old    
religion and one of the new could be    
friends4 ,read  ,maximus of ,madaura's  
letter1 and the bishop of ,hippo's      
answer3    ,letter from ,maximus of     
,madaura4    ,now1 that there is a      
sovereign ,god1 who is without          
beginning1 and1 who1  without having    
begotten anything like unto himself1 is 
nevertheless the  father and the former 
of all things1 what man can be gross and
 stupid  enough to doubt8 ,he it is of  
whom1 under different names1 we adore   
the  eternal power extending through    
every part of the world--thus honoring  
separately1 by different sorts of       
worship1 what may be called his  several
 members1 we adore him entirely4444 ,may
 those subordinate gods  preserve you1  
under whose names1 and by whom all we   
mortals upon earth  adore the common    
father of gods and men1 by different    
sorts of worship1  it is true1 but all  

according in their variety1 and all     
tending to the  same end4    ,by whom   
was this letter written8 ,by a          
,numidian--one of the country of  the   
,algerines6    ,augustine's ,answer4    
,in your public square there are two    
statues of ,mars1 the one naked1 the    
other armed2 and close by1 the figure of
 a man who1 with three fingers  advanced
 towards ,mars1 holds in check that     
divinity1 so dangerous to the  whole    
town4 ,with regard to what you say of   
such gods1 being portions of  the only  
true ,god1 ,i take the liberty you give 
me1 to warn you not to  fall into such a
 sacrilege2 for that only ,god1 of whom 
you speak1 is  doubtless ,he who is     
acknowledged by the whole world1 and    
concerning  whom1 as some of the        
ancients have said1 the ignorant agree  
with the  learned4 ,now1 will you say   
that he whose strength1 if not his      
cruelty1  is represented by an inanimate
 man1 is a portion of that ,god8 ,i     
could  easily push you hard on this     

subject2 for you will clearly see how   
much  might be said upon it2 but ,i     
refrain1 lest you should say that ,i    
employ  against you the weapons of      
rhetoric rather than those of virtue4   
,we know not what was signified by these
 two statues1 of which no vestige  is   
left us2 but not all the statues with   
which ,rome was filled--not the         
,pantheon and all the temples           
consecrated to the inferior gods1 nor   
even  those of the twelve greater gods  
prevented ,deus ,optimus                
,maximus--,god1 most good1 most         
great--from being acknowledged          
throughout the empire4    ,the          
misfortune of the ,romans1 then1 was    
their ignorance of the ,mosaic  law1 and
 afterwards1 of the law of the disciples
 of our ,saviour ,jesus  ,christ--their 
want of the faith--their mixing with the
 worship of a  supreme ,god the worship 
of ,mars1 of ,venus1 of ,minerva1 of    
,apollo1 who  did not exist1 and their  
preserving that religion until the time 

of the  ,theodosii4 ,happily1 the       
,goths1 the ,huns1 the ,vandals1 the    
,heruli1 the  ,lombards1 the ,franks1   
who destroyed that empire1 submitted to 
the truth1  and enjoyed a blessing      
denied to ,scipio1 to ,cato1 to         
,metellus1 to  ,emilius1 to ,cicero1 to 
,varro1 to ,virgil1 and to ,horace4     
,none of these great men knew ,jesus    
,christ1 whom they could not know2 yet  
they did not worship the devil1 as so   
many pedants are every day  repeating4  
,how should they worship the devil1 of  
whom they had never  heard8    ,a       
,calumny on ,cicero by ,warburton1 on   
the ,subject of a ,supreme ,god4        
,warburton1 like his contemporaries1 has
 calumniated ,cicero and ancient  ,rome4
 ,he boldly supposes that ,cicero       
pronounced these words1 in his  ,oration
 for ,flaccus3    ,it is unworthy of the
 majesty of the empire to adore only one
  ,god--,majestatem imperii non decuit  
ut unus tantum ,deus colatur4    ,it    
will1 perhaps1 hardly be believed that  

there is not a word of this in  the     
,oration for ,flaccus1 nor in any of    
,cicero's works4 ,flaccus1 who  had     
exercised the prtorship in ,asia ,minor1
 is charged with exercising  some       
vexations4 ,he was secretly persecuted  
by the ,jews1 who then  inundated ,rome2
 for1 by their money1 they had obtained 
privileges in  ,rome at the very time   
when ,pompey1 after ,crassus1 had taken 
,jerusalem1  and hanged their petty     
king1 ,alexander1 son of ,aristobolus4  
,flaccus had  forbidden the conveying of
 gold and silver specie to ,jerusalem1  
because  the money came back altered1   
and commerce was thereby injured2 and he
  had seized the gold which was         
clandestinely carried4 ,this gold1 said 
,cicero1 is still in the treasury4      
,flaccus has acted as disinterestedly   
as ,pompey4    ,cicero1 then1 with his  
wonted irony1 pronounces these words3   
,each  country has its religion2 we have
 ours4 ,while ,jerusalem was yet free1  
while the ,jews were yet at peace1 even 

then they held in abhorrence the        
splendor of this empire1 the dignity of 
the ,roman name1 the  institutions of   
our ancestors4 ,now that nation has     
shown more than ever1  by the strength  
of its arms1 what it should think of the
 ,roman ,empire4  ,it has shown us1 by  
its valor1 how dear it is to the        
immortal gods2 it  has proved it to us1 
by its being vanquished1 expatriated1   
and  tributary4--,stantibus             
,hierosolymis1 pacatisque ,judais1 tamen
 istorum  religio sacrorum1 a splendore 
hujus imperii1 gravitate nominis nostri1
  ma jorum institutis1 abhorrebat2 nunc 
vero hoc magis quid ilia gens1  quid de 
imperio nostro sentiret1 ostendit armis2
 quam cara diis  immortalibus esset1    
docuit1 quod est victa1 quod elocata1   
quod  servata4    ,it is then quite     
false that ,cicero1 or any other ,roman1
 ever said that  it did not become the  
majesty of the empire to acknowledge a  
supreme  ,god4 ,their ,jupiter1 the     
,zeus of the ,greeks1 the ,jehovah of   

the  ,phnicians1 was always considered  
as the master of the secondary  gods4   
,this great truth cannot be too forcibly
 inculcated4    ,did the ,romans ,take  
,their ,gods from the ,greeks8    ,had  
not the ,romans served gods for whom    
they were not indebted to the  ,greeks8 
,for instance1 they could not be guilty 
of plagiarism in adoring  ,coelum1 while
 the ,greeks adored ,ouranon2 or in     
addressing themselves to  ,saturnus and 
,tellus1 while the ,greeks addressed    
themselves to ,ge and  ,chronos4 ,they  
called ,ceres1 her whom the ,greeks     
named ,deo and ,demiter4    ,their      
,neptune was ,poseidon1 their ,venus was
 ,aphrodite2 their ,juno was  called1 in
 ,greek1 ,era2 their ,proserpine1 ,core2
 and their favorites1 ,mars  and        
,bellona1 were ,ares and ,enio4 ,in none
 of these instances do the names        
resemble4    ,did the inventive spirits 
of ,rome and of ,greece assemble8 or did
 the one  take from the other the thing1
 while they disguised the name8 ,it is  

very natural that the ,romans1 without  
consulting the ,greeks1 should make  to 
themselves gods of the heavens1 of time2
 beings presiding over war1  over       
generation1 over harvests1 without going
 to ,greece to ask for gods1  as they   
afterwards went there to ask for laws4  
,when you find a name that  resembles   
nothing else1 it is but fair to believe 
it a native of that  particular country4
    ,but is not ,jupiter1 the master of 
all the gods1 a word belonging to  every
 nation1 from the ,euphrates to the     
,tiber8 ,among the first ,romans1  it   
was ,jov1 ,jovis2 among the ,greeks1    
,zeus2 among the  ,phnicians1 the       
,syrians1 and the ,egyptians1 ,jehovah4 
,does not this resemblance serve to     
confirm the supposition that every      
people had the knowledge of the ,supreme
 ,being8--a knowledge confused1 it  is  
true2 but what man can have it distinct8
      ,,section ,,iii4    ,examination  
of ,spinoza4    ,spinoza cannot help    
admitting an intelligence acting in     

matter1 and  forming a whole with it4   
,i must conclude1 he says1 that the     
absolute being is neither thought  nor  
extent1 exclusively of each other2 but  
that extent and thought are  necessary  
attributes of the absolute being4       
,herein he appears to differ from all   
the atheists of antiquity2 from         
,ocellus1 ,lucanus1 ,heraclitus1        
,democritus1 ,leucippus1 ,strato1       
,epicurus1  ,pythagoras1 ,diagoras1     
,zeno of ,elis1 ,anaximander1 and so    
many others4 ,he  differs from them1    
above all1 in his method1 which he took 
entirely from  the reading of           
,descartes1 whose very style he has     
imitated4    ,the multitude of those who
 cry out against ,spinoza1 without ever 
having  read him1 will especially be    
astonished by his following declaration4
 ,he  does not make it to dazzle        
mankind1 nor to appease theologians1 nor
 to  obtain protectors1 nor to disarm a 
party2 he speaks as a philosopher1      
without naming himself1 without         

advertising himself2 and expresses      
himself in ,latin1 so as to be          
understood by a very small number4 ,here
 is  his profession of faith4           
,spinoza's ,profession of ,faith4    ,if
 ,i also concluded that the idea of     
,god1 comprised in that of the  infinity
 of the universe1 excused me from       
obedience1 love1 and worship1  ,i should
 make a still more pernicious use of my 
reason2 for it is  evident to me that   
the laws which ,i have received1 not by 
the relation  or intervention of other  
men1 but immediately from ,him1 are     
those which  the light of nature points 
out to me as the true guides of rational
  conduct4 ,if ,i failed of obedience1  
in this particular1 ,i should sin1 not  
only against the principle of my being  
and the society of my kind1 but  also   
against myself1 in depriving myself of  
the most solid advantage of  my         
existence4 ,this obedience does1 it is  
true1 bind me only to the  duties of my 
state1 and makes me look on all besides 

as frivolous  practices1 invented in    
superstition to serve the purposes of   
their  inventors4    ,with regard to the
 love of ,god1 so far1 ,i conceive1 is  
this idea from  tending to weaken it1   
that no other is more calculated to     
increase it2  since1 through it1 ,i know
 that ,god is intimate with my being2   
that ,he  gives me existence and my     
every property2 but ,he gives me them   
liberally1 without reproach1 without    
interest1 without subjecting me to      
anything but my own nature4 ,it banishes
 fear1 uneasiness1 distrust1 and  all   
the effects of a vulgar or interested   
love4 ,it informs me that this  is a    
good which ,i cannot lose1 and which ,i 
possess the more fully1 as ,i  know and 
love it4    ,are these the words of the 
virtuous and tender ,fnelon1 or those of
  ,spinoza8 ,how is it that two men so  
opposed to each other1 have1 with  such 
different notions of ,god1 concurred in 
the idea of loving ,god for  ,himself8  
,it must be acknowledged that they went 

both to the same end--the one as  a     
,christian1 the other as a man who had  
the misfortune not to be so2  the holy  
archbishop1 as philosopher1 convinced   
that ,god is distinct  from nature2 the 
other as a widely-erring disciple of    
,descartes1 who  imagined that ,god is  
all nature4    ,the former was orthodox1
 the latter was mistaken1 ,i must       
assent2 but  both were honest1 both     
estimable in their sincerity1 as in     
their mild  and simple manners2 though  
there is no other point of resemblance  
between the imitator of the ,odyssey1   
and a dry ,cartesian fenced round  with 
arguments2 between one of the most      
accomplished men of the court of  ,louis
 ,,xiv4 invested with what is called a  
high divinity1 and a poor  unjudazed    
,jew1 living with an income of three    
hundred florins1 in the  most profound  
obscurity4    ,if there be any          
similitude between them1 it is that     
,fnelon was accused  before the         
,sanhedrim of the new law1 and the other

 before a synagogue  without power or   
without reason2 but the one submitted1  
the other  rebelled4    ,foundation of  
,spinoza's ,philosophy4    ,the great   
dialectician ,bayle has refuted         
,spinoza4 ,his system1 therefore1  is   
not demonstrated1 like one of ,euclid's 
propositions2 for1 if it were  so1 it   
could not be combated4 ,it is1          
therefore1 at least obscure4    ,i have 
always had some suspicion that ,spinoza1
 with his universal  substance1 his     
modes and accidents1 had some other     
meaning than that in  which he is       
understood by ,bayle2 and consequently1 
that ,bayle may be  right1 without      
having confounded ,spinoza4 ,and1 in    
particular1 ,i have  always thought that
 often ,spinoza did not understand      
himself1 and that  this is the principal
 reason why he has not been understood4 
,it seems to me that the ramparts of    
,spinozism might be beaten down on a    
side which ,bayle has neglected4        
,spinoza thinks that there can exist but

  one substance2 and it appears         
throughout his book that he builds his  
theory on the mistake of ,descartes1    
that nature is a plenum4    ,the theory 
of a plenum is as false as that of a    
void4 ,it is now  demonstrated that     
motion is as impossible in absolute     
fulness1 as it is  impossible that1 in  
an equal balance1 a weight of two pounds
 in one  scale should sink a weight of  
two in the other4    ,now1 if every     
motion absolutely requires empty space1 
what becomes of  ,spinoza's one and only
 substance8 ,how can the substance of a 
star1  between which and us there is a  
void so immense1 be precisely the       
substance of this earth1 or the         
substance of myself1 or the substance of
  a fly eaten by a spider8    ,perhaps  
,i mistake1 but ,i never have been able 
to conceive how ,spinoza1  admitting an 
infinite substance of which thought and 
matter are the two                      
modalities--admitting the substance     
which he calls ,god1 and of which all   

that we see is mode or accident--could  
nevertheless reject final causes4  ,if  
this infinite1 universal being thinks1  
must he not have design8 ,if he  has    
design1 must he not have a will8        
,illustration3 ,descartes4    ,spinoza  
says1 we are modes of that absolute1    
necessary1 infinite being4  ,i say to   
,spinoza1 we will1 and have design1 we  
who are but modes2  therefore1 this     
infinite1 necessary1 absolute being     
cannot be deprived  of them2 therefore1 
he has will1 design1 power4    ,i am    
aware that various philosophers1 and    
especially ,lucretius1 have  denied     
final causes2 ,i am also aware that     
,lucretius1 though not very  chaste1 is 
a very great poet in his descriptions   
and in his morals2 but  in philosophy ,i
 own he appears to me to be very far    
behind a college  porter or a parish    
beadle4 ,to affirm that the eye is not  
made to see1  nor the ear to hear1 nor  
the stomach to digest--is not this the  
most  enormous absurdity1 the most      

revolting folly1 that ever entered the  
human mind8 ,doubter as ,i am1 this     
insanity seems to me evident1 and ,i    
say so4    ,for my part1 ,i see in      
nature1 as in the arts1 only final      
causes1 and ,i  believe that an apple   
tree is made to bear apples1 as ,i      
believe that a  watch is made to tell   
the hour4    ,i must here acquaint the  
readers that if ,spinoza1 in several    
passages of  his works1 makes a jest of 
final causes1 he most expressly         
acknowledges  them in the first part of 
his ,being1 in ,general and in          
,particular4    ,here he says1 ,permit  
me for a few moments to dwell with      
admiration on  the wonderful            
dispensation of nature1 which1 having   
enriched the  constitution of man with  
all the resources necessary to prolong  
to a  certain term the duration of his  
frail existence1 and to animate his     
knowledge of himself by that of an      
infinity of distant objects1 seems      
purposely to have neglected to give him 

the means of well knowing what  he is   
obliged to make a more ordinary use     
of--the individuals of his own  species4
 ,yet1 when duly considered1 this       
appears less the effect of a  refusal   
than of an extreme liberality2 for1 if  
there were any  intelligent being that  
could penetrate another against his     
will1 he  would enjoy such an advantage 
as would of itself exclude him from     
society2 whereas1 in the present state  
of things1 each individual  enjoying    
himself in full independence            
communicates himself so much only  as he
 finds convenient4    ,what shall ,i    
conclude from this8 ,that ,spinoza      
frequently contradicted  himself2 that  
he had not always clear ideas2 that in  
the great wreck of  systems1 he clung   
sometimes to one plank1 sometimes to    
another2 that in  this weakness he was  
like ,malebranche1 ,arnauld1 ,bossuet1  
and ,claude1 who  now and then          
contradicted themselves in their        
disputes2 that he was like  numberless  

metaphysicians and theologians8 ,i shall
 conclude that ,i have  additional      
reason for distrusting all my           
metaphysical notions2 that ,i am  a very
 feeble animal1 treading on quicksands1 
which are continually  giving way       
beneath me2 and that there is perhaps   
nothing so foolish as  to believe       
ourselves always in the right4          
,baruch ,spinoza1 you are very confused2
 but are you as dangerous as you  are   
said to be8 ,i maintain that you are    
not2 and my reason is1 that you  are    
confused1 that you have written in bad  
,latin1 and that there are  not ten     
persons in ,europe who read you from    
beginning to end1 although  you have    
been translated into ,french4 ,who is   
the dangerous author8 ,he  who is read  
by the idle at court and by the ladies4 
,,section ,,iv4    ,the ,system of      
,nature4    ,the author of the ,system  
of ,nature has had the advantage of     
being read  by both learned and         
ignorant1 and by women4 ,his style1     

then1 has merits  which that of ,spinoza
 wanted4 ,he is often luminous1         
sometimes eloquent2  although he may be 
charged1 like all the rest1 with        
repetition1  declamation1 and           
self-contradiction4 ,but for profundity1
 he is very  often to be distrusted both
 in physics and in morals4 ,the interest
 of  mankind is here in question2 we    
will1 therefore1 examine whether his    
doctrine is true and useful2 and will1  
if we can1 be brief4    ,order and      
disorder do not exist4 ,what6 in        
physics1 is not a child born  blind1    
without legs1 or a monster1 contrary to 
the nature of the  species8 ,is it not  
the ordinary regularity of nature that  
makes order1  and irregularity that     
constitutes disorder8 ,is it not a great
  derangement1 a dreadful disorder1 when
 nature gives a child hunger and  closes
 the sophagus8 ,the evacuations of every
 kind are necessary2  yet the channels  
are frequently without orifices1 which  
it is necessary  to remedy4 ,doubtless  

this disorder has its cause2 for there  
is no effect  without a cause2 but it is
 a very disordered effect4    ,is not   
the assassination of our friend1 or of  
our brother1 a horrible  disorder in    
morals8 ,are not the calumnies of a     
,garasse1 of a ,letellier1  of a        
,doucin1 against ,jansenists1 and those 
of ,jansenists against  ,jesuits1 petty 
disorders8 ,were not the massacre of    
,st4 ,bartholomew1 the  ,irish massacre1
 etc41 execrable disorders8 ,this crime 
has its cause in  passion1 but the      
effect is execrable2 the cause is fatal2
 this disorder  makes us shudder4 ,the  
origin of the disorder remains to be    
discovered1  but the disorder exists4   
,experience proves to us that the matter
 which we regard as inert and  dead     
assumes action1 intelligence1 and life1 
when it is combined in a  certain way4  
,this is precisely the difficulty4 ,how 
does a germ come to life8 ,of this  the 
author and the reader are alike         
ignorant4 ,hence1 are not the ,system   

of ,nature1 and all the systems in the  
world1 so many dreams8    ,it would be  
necessary to define the vital principle1
 which ,i deem  impossible4 ,is not this
 definition very easy1 very common8 ,is 
not life  organization with feeling8    
,but that you have these two properties 
from  the motion of matter alone1 it is 
impossible to give any proof2 and if  it
 cannot be proved1 why affirm it8 ,why  
say aloud1 ,i know1 while you  say to   
yourself1 ,i know not8    ,it will be   
asked1 what is man8 etc4 ,assuredly1    
this article is no  clearer than the    
most obscure of ,spinoza's2 and many    
readers will feel  indignant at the     
decisive tone which is assumed without  
anything being  explained4    ,matter is
 eternal and necessary2 but its forms   
and its combinations are  transitory and
 contingent1 etc4 ,it is hard to        
comprehend1 matter being1  according to 
our author1 necessary1 and without      
freedom1 how there can  be anything     
contingent4 ,by contingency1 we         

understand that which may be1  or may   
not be2 but since all must be1 of       
absolute necessity1 every  manner of    
being1 which he here very erroneously   
calls contingent1 is as  absolutely of  
necessity as the being itself4 ,here    
again we are in a  labyrinth4    ,when  
you venture to affirm that there is no  
,god1 that matter acts of  itself by an 
eternal necessity1 it must be           
demonstrated like a  proposition in     
,euclid1 otherwise you rest your system 
only on a perhaps4  ,what a foundation  
for that which is most interesting to   
the human race6    ,if man is by his    
nature forced to love his well-being1 he
 is forced to  love the means of that   
well-being4 ,it were useless1 and       
perhaps unjust1  to ask a man to be     
virtuous1 if he cannot be so without    
making himself  unhappy4 ,so soon as    
vice makes him happy1 he must love vice4
    ,this maxim is yet more execrable in
 morals than the others are in  physics4
 ,were it true that a man could not be  

virtuous without  suffering1 he must be 
encouraged to suffer4 ,our author's     
proposition  would evidently be the ruin
 of society4 ,besides1 how does he know 
that  we cannot be happy without having 
vices8 ,on the contrary1 is it not      
proved by experience that the           
satisfaction of having subdued them is a
  thousand times greater than the       
pleasure of yielding to them8--a        
pleasure always empoisoned1 a pleasure  
leading to woe4 ,by subduing our  vices1
 we acquire tranquillity1 the consoling 
testimony of our  conscience2 by giving 
ourselves up to them1 we lose our       
health1 our  quiet--we risk everything4 
,thus our author himself1 in twenty     
passages1  wishes all to be sacrificed  
to virtue2 and he advances this         
proposition  only to give in his system 
a fresh proof of the necessity of being 
virtuous4    ,they who1 with so many    
arguments1 reject innate ideas should   
have  perceived that this ineffable     
intelligence by which the world is said 

to  be guided1 and of which our senses  
can determine neither the existence  nor
 the qualities1 is a being of reason4   
,but1 truly1 how does it follow from our
 having no innate ideas1 that  there is 
no ,god8 ,is not this consequence       
absurd8 ,is there any  contradiction in 
saying that ,god gives us ideas through 
our senses8 ,is  it not1 on the         
contrary1 most clearly evident1 that if 
there is an  ,almighty ,being from whom 
we have life1 we owe to him our ideas   
and our  senses as well as everything   
else8 ,it should first have been proved 
that ,god does not exist1 which our     
author has not done1 which he has not   
even attempted to do before this page of
 his tenth chapter4    ,fearful of      
wearying the reader by an examination of
 all these detached  passages1 ,i will  
come at once to the foundation of the   
book1 and the  astonishing error upon   
which the author has built his system4  
,story of the ,eels on ,which the       
,system is ,founded4    ,about the year 

#agej there was1 in ,france1 an ,english
 ,jesuit called  ,needham1 disguised as 
a secular1 who was then serving as tutor
 to the  nephew of ,m4 ,dillon1         
archbishop of ,toulouse4 ,this man made 
experiments  in natural philosophy1 and 
especially in chemistry4    ,having put 
some rye meal into well-corked bottles1 
and some boiled  mutton gravy into other
 bottles1 he thought that his mutton    
gravy and  his meal had given birth to  
eels1 which again produced others2 and  
that  thus a race of eels was formed    
indifferently from the juice of meat1 or
  from a grain of rye4    ,a natural    
philosopher1 of some reputation1 had no 
doubt that this  ,needham was a profound
 atheist4 ,he concluded that1 since eels
 could be  made of rye meal1 men might  
be made of wheat flour2 that nature and 
chemistry produce all2 and that it was  
demonstrated that we may very  well     
dispense with an all-forming ,god4      
,this property of meal very easily      
deceived one who1 unfortunately1 was    

already wandering amidst ideas that     
should make us tremble for the  weakness
 of the human mind4 ,he wanted to dig a 
hole in the centre of the  earth1 to see
 the central fire2 to dissect           
,patagonians1 that he might  know the   
nature of the soul2 to cover the sick   
with pitch1 to prevent  them from       
perspiring2 to exalt his soul1 that he  
might foretell the  future4 ,if to these
 things it were added1 that he had the  
still greater  unhappiness of seeking to
 oppress two of his brethren1 it would  
do no  honor to atheism2 it would only  
serve to make us look into ourselves    
with confusion4    ,it is really strange
 that men1 while denying a creator1     
should have  attributed to themselves   
the power of creating eels4    ,but it  
is yet more deplorable that natural     
philosophers1 of better  information1   
adopted the ,jesuit ,needham's          
ridiculous system1 and joined  it to    
that of ,maillet1 who asserted that the 
ocean had formed the ,alps  and         

,pyrenees1 and that men were originally 
porpoises1 whose forked tails  changed  
in the course of time into thighs and   
legs4 ,such fancies are  worthy to be   
placed with the eels formed by meal4 ,we
 were assured1 not  long ago1 that at   
,brussels a hen had brought forth half a
 dozen young  rabbits4    ,this         
transmutation of meal and gravy into    
eels was demonstrated to be as  false   
and ridiculous as it really is1 by ,m4  
,spallanzani1 a rather better  observer 
than ,needham4 ,but the extravagance of 
so palpable an illusion  was evident    
without his observations4    ,needham's 
eels soon followed the ,brussels' hen4  
,nevertheless1 in #agfh1 the correct1   
elegant1 and judicious translator of    
,lucretius was so far led away1 that he 
not only1 in his notes to book  viii4 p4
 #cfa1 repeats ,needham's pretended     
experiments1 but he also does  all he   
can to establish their validity4 ,here1 
then1 we have the new  foundation of the
 ,system of ,nature4    ,the author1 in 

the second chapter1 thus expresses      
himself3 ,after  moistening meal with   
water1 and shutting up the mixture1 it  
is found  after a little time1 with the 
aid of the microscope1 that it has      
produced organized beings1 of whose     
production the water and meal were      
believed to be incapable4 ,thus         
inanimate nature can pass into life1    
which is itself but an assemblage of    
motions4    ,were this unparalleled     
blunder true1 yet1 in rigorous          
reasoning1 ,i do  not see how it would  
prove there is no ,god2 ,i do not see   
why a supreme1  intelligent1 and mighty 
being1 having formed the sun and the    
stars1  might not also deign to form    
animalculae without a germ4 ,here is no 
contradiction in terms4 ,a demonstrative
 proof that ,god has no existence  must 
be sought elsewhere2 and most assuredly 
no person has ever found1  or will ever 
find1 one4    ,our author treats final  
causes with contempt1 because the       
argument is  hackneyed2 but this        

much-contemned argument is that of      
,cicero and of  ,newton4 ,this alone    
might somewhat lessen the confidence of 
atheists in  themselves4 ,the number is 
not small of the sages who1 observing   
the  course of the stars1 and the       
prodigious art that pervades the        
structure  of animals and vegetables1   
have acknowledged a powerful hand       
working  these continual wonders4       
,the author asserts that matter1 blind  
and without choice1 produces            
intelligent animals4 ,produce1 without  
intelligence1 beings with  intelligence6
 ,is this conceivable8 ,is this system  
founded on the  smallest verisimilitude8
 ,an opinion so contradictory requires  
proofs no  less astonishing than itself4
 ,the author gives us none2 he never    
proves  anything2 but he affirms all    
that he advances4 ,what chaos6 what     
confusion6 and what temerity6           
,spinoza at least acknowledged an       
intelligence acting in this great       
whole1 which constituted nature3 in this

 there was philosophy4 ,but in  the new 
system1 ,i am under the necessity of    
saying that there is none4    ,matter   
has extent1 solidity1 gravity1          
divisibility4 ,i have all these as  well
 as this stone3 but was a stone ever    
known to feel and think8 ,if ,i  am     
extended1 solid1 divisible1 ,i owe it to
 matter4 ,but ,i have sensations  and   
thoughts--to what do ,i owe them8 ,not  
to water1 not to mire--most  likely to  
something more powerful than myself4    
,solely to the combination  of the      
elements1 you will say4 ,then prove it  
to me4 ,show me plainly that  my        
intelligence cannot have been given to  
me by an intelligent cause4 ,to  this   
are you reduced4    ,our author         
successively combats the ,god of the    
schoolmen--a ,god composed  of          
discordant qualities2 a ,god to whom1 as
 to those of ,homer1 is  attributed the 
passions of men2 a ,god capricious1     
fickle1 unreasonable1  absurd--but he   
cannot combat the ,god of the wise4 ,the

 wise1  contemplating nature1 admit an  
intelligent and supreme power4 ,it is   
perhaps impossible for human reason1    
destitute of divine assistance1 to  go a
 step further4    ,our author asks where
 this being resides2 and1 from the      
impossibility  that anyone1 without     
being infinite1 should tell where ,he   
resides1 he  concludes that ,he does not
 exist4 ,this is not philosophical2 for 
we are  not1 because we cannot tell     
where the cause of an effect is1 to     
conclude  that there is no cause4 ,if   
you had never seen a gunner1 and you saw
 the  effects of a battery of cannon1   
you would not say it acts entirely by   
itself4 ,shall it1 then1 only be        
necessary for you to say there is no    
,god1 in order to be believed on your   
words8    ,finally1 his great objection 
is1 the woes and crimes of mankind--an  
objection alike ancient and             
philosophical2 an objection common1 but 
fatal and terrible1 and to which we find
 no answer but in the hope of a  better 

life4 ,yet what is this hope8 ,we can   
have no certainty in it but  from       
reason4 ,but ,i will venture to say1    
that when it is proved to us  that a    
vast edifice1 constructed with the      
greatest art1 is built by an  architect1
 whoever he may be1 we ought to believe 
in that architect1  even though the     
edifice should be stained with our      
blood1 polluted by  our crimes1 and     
should crush us in its fall4 ,i inquire 
not whether the  architect is a good    
one1 whether ,i should be satisfied with
 his  building1 whether ,i should quit  
it rather than stay in it1 nor whether  
those who are lodged in it for a few    
days1 like myself1 are content3 ,i  only
 inquire if it be true that there is an 
architect1 or if this house1  containing
 so many fine apartments and so many    
wretched garrets1 built  itself4        
,,section ,v4    ,the ,necessity of     
,believing in a ,supreme ,being4    ,the
 great1 the interesting object1 as it   
appears to me1 is1 not to argue         

metaphysically1 but to consider whether1
 for the common good of us  miserable   
and thinking animals1 we should admit a 
rewarding and avenging  ,god1 at once   
our restraint and consolation1 or should
 reject this idea1  and so abandon      
ourselves to calamity without hope1 and 
crime without  remorse4    ,hobbes says 
that if1 in a commonwealth1 in which no 
,god should be  acknowledged1 any       
citizen were to propose one1 he would   
have him hanged4    ,apparently1 he     
meant by this strange exaggeration1 a   
citizen who should  seek to rule in the 
name of a god1 a charlatan who would    
make himself a  tyrant4 ,we understand  
citizens1 who1 feeling the weakness of  
human  nature1 its perverseness1 and its
 misery1 seek some prop to support it   
through the languors and horrors of this
 life4    ,from ,job down to us1 a great
 many men have cursed their existence2  
we  have1 therefore1 perpetual need of  
consolation and hope4 ,of these your    
philosophy deprives us4 ,the fable of   

,pandora was better2 it left us         
hope--which you snatch from us6         
,philosophy1 you say1 furnishes no proof
  of happiness to come4 ,no--but you    
have no demonstration of the contrary4  
,there may be in us an indestructible   
monad which feels and thinks1  without  
our knowing anything at all of how that 
monad is made4 ,reason is  not          
absolutely opposed to this idea1 though 
reason alone does not prove  it4 ,has   
not this opinion a prodigious advantage 
over yours8 ,mine is  useful to mankind1
 yours is baneful2 say of it what you   
will1 it may  encourage a ,nero1 an     
,alexander ,,vi41 or a ,cartouche4 ,mine
 may restrain  them4    ,marcus         
,antoninus and ,epictetus believed that 
their monad1 of whatever  kind it was1  
would be united to the monad of the     
,great ,being2 and they  were the most  
virtuous of men4    ,in the state of    
doubt in which we both are1 ,i do not   
say to you with  ,pascal1 choose the    
safest4 ,there is no safety in          

uncertainty4 ,we are  here not to talk1 
but to examine2 we must judge1 and our  
judgment is not  determined by our will4
 ,i do not propose to you to believe    
extravagant  things1 in order to escape 
embarrassment4 ,i do not say to you1 ,go
 to  ,mecca1 and instruct yourself by   
kissing the black stone1 take hold of a 
cow's tail1 muffle yourself in a        
scapulary1 or be imbecile and fanatical 
to acquire the favor of the ,being of   
beings4 ,i say to you3 ,continue  to    
cultivate virtue1 to be beneficent1 to  
regard all superstition with  horror1 or
 with pity2 but adore1 with me1 the     
design which is manifested  in all      
nature1 and consequently the ,author of 
that design--the  primordial and final  
cause of all2 hope with me that our     
monad1 which  reasons on the great      
eternal being1 may be happy through that
 same great  ,being4 ,there is no       
contradiction in this4 ,you can no more 
demonstrate  its impossibility than ,i  
can demonstrate mathematically that it  

is so4  ,in metaphysics we scarcely     
reason on anything but probabilities4   
,we are  all swimming in a sea of which 
we have never seen the shore4 ,woe be to
  those who fight while they swim6 ,land
 who can3 but he that cries out to  me1 
,you swim in vain1 there is no land1    
disheartens me1 and deprives  me of all 
my strength4    ,what is the object of  
our dispute8 ,to console our unhappy    
existence4 ,who  consoles it--you or ,i8
    ,you yourself own1 in some passages 
of your work1 that the belief in a  ,god
 has withheld some men on the brink of  
crime2 for me1 this  acknowledgment is  
enough4 ,if this opinion had prevented  
but ten  assassinations1 but ten        
calumnies1 but ten iniquitous judgments 
on the  earth1 ,i hold that the whole   
earth ought to embrace it4    ,religion1
 you say1 has produced thousands of     
crimes--say1 rather1  superstition1     
which unhappily reigns over this globe2 
it is the most  cruel enemy of the pure 
adoration due to the ,supreme ,being4   

,let us detest this monster which has   
constantly been tearing the bosom  of   
its mother2 they who combat it are      
benefactors to mankind3 it is a  serpent
 enclosing religion in its folds1 its   
head must be bruised1  without wounding 
the parent whom it infects and devours4 
,you fear1 that1 by adoring ,god1 men   
would soon again become  superstitious  
and fanatical4 ,but is it not to be     
feared that in denying  ,him1 they would
 abandon themselves to the most         
atrocious passions1 and  the most       
frightful crimes8 ,between these two    
extremes is there not a  very rational  
mean8 ,where is the safe track between  
these two rocks8 ,it  is ,god1 and wise 
laws4    ,you affirm that it is but one 
step from adoration to superstition3 but
  there is an infinity to               
well-constituted minds1 and these are   
now very  numerous2 they are at the head
 of nations2 they influence public      
manners1 and1 year by year1 the         
fanaticism that overspread the earth is 

receding in its detestable usurpations4 
,i shall say a few words more in answer 
to what you say in page #bbc4 ,if  it be
 presumed that there are relations      
between man and this incredible  being1 
then altars must be raised and presents 
must be made to him1  etc42 if no       
conception be formed of this being1 then
 the matter must be  referred to        
priests1 who4444 ,a great evil to be    
sure1 to assemble in  the harvest       
season1 and thank ,god for the bread    
that ,he has given us6  ,who says you   
should make presents to ,god8 ,the idea 
is ridiculous6 ,but  where is the harm  
of employing a citizen1 called an elder 
or priest1  to render thanks to the     
,divinity in the name of the other      
citizens8--provided the priest is not a 
,gregory ,,vii4 trampling on the  heads 
of kings1 nor an ,alexander ,,vi4       
polluting by incest his daughter1  the  
offspring of a rape1 and1 by the aid of 
his bastard son1 poisoning  and         
assassinating almost all the neighboring

 princes3 provided that1 in  a parish1  
this priest is not a knave1 picking the 
pockets of the  penitents he confesses1 
and using the money to seduce the girls 
he  catechises2 provided that this      
priest is not a ,letellier1 putting the 
whole kingdom in combustion by rogueries
 worthy of the pillory1 nor a           
,warburton1 violating the laws of       
society1 making public the private      
papers of a member of parliament in     
order to ruin him1 and calumniating     
whosoever is not of his opinion4 ,the   
latter cases are rare4 ,the  sacerdotal 
state is a curb which forces to good    
behavior4    ,a stupid priest excites   
contempt2 a bad priest inspires horror2 
a good  priest1 mild1 pious1 without    
superstition1 charitable1 tolerant1 is  
one  who ought to be cherished and      
revered4 ,you dread abuses--so do ,i4   
,let us  unite to prevent them2 but let 
us not condemn the usage when it is     
useful to society1 when it is not       
perverted by fanaticism1 or by          

fraudulent wickedness4    ,i have one   
very important thing to tell you4 ,i am 
persuaded that you are  in a great      
error1 but ,i am equally convinced that 
you are honest in your  self-delusion4  
,you would have men virtuous even       
without a ,god1 although  you have      
unfortunately said that so soon as vice 
renders man happy1 he  must love vice--a
 frightful proposition1 which your      
friends should have  prevailed on you to
 erase4 ,everywhere else you inspire    
probity4 ,this  philosophical dispute   
will be only between you and a few      
philosophers  scattered over ,europe2   
the rest of the earth will not even hear
 of it4  ,the people do not read us4 ,if
 some theologian were to seek to        
persecute  us1 he would be impudent as  
well as wicked2 he would but serve to   
confirm you1 and to make new atheists4  
,you are wrong3 but the ,greeks did not 
persecute ,epicurus2 the ,romans did    
not persecute ,lucretius4 ,you are      
wrong3 but your genius and your virtue  

must be respected1 while you are refuted
 with all possible strength4    ,in my  
opinion1 the finest homage that can be  
rendered to ,god is to stand  forward in
 ,his defence without anger2 as the most
 unworthy portrait that  can be drawn of
 ,him is to paint ,him vindictive and   
furious4 ,he is truth  itself2 and truth
 is without passion4 ,to be a disciple  
of ,god is to  announce ,him as of a    
mild heart and of an unalterable mind4  
,i think1 with you1 that fanaticism is a
 monster a thousand times more          
dangerous than philosophical atheism4   
,spinoza did not commit a single  bad   
action4 ,chtel and ,ravaillac1 both     
devotees1 assassinated ,henry ,,iv4     
,the atheist of the closet is almost    
always a quiet philosopher1 while  the  
fanatic is always turbulent3 but the    
court atheist1 the atheistical  prince1 
might be the scourge of mankind4 ,borgia
 and his like have done  almost as much 
harm as the fanatics of ,mnster and of  
the ,cvennes4 ,i  say the fanatics on   

both sides4 ,the misfortune is1 that    
atheists of the  closet make atheists of
 the court4 ,it was ,chiron who brought 
up  ,achilles2 he fed him with lion's   
marrow4 ,achilles will one day drag     
,hector's body round the walls of ,troy1
 and immolate twelve captives to  his   
vengeance4    ,god keep us from an      
abominable priest who should hew a king 
in pieces  with his sacrificing knife1  
as also from him who1 with a helmet on  
his  head and a cuirass on his back1 at 
the age of seventy1 should dare to  sign
 with his three bloody fingers the      
ridiculous excommunication of a  king of
 ,france6 and from4444 and from4444     
,but also1 may ,god preserve us from a  
choleric and barbarous despot1 who1  not
 believing in a ,god1 should be his own 
,god1 who should render himself         
unworthy of his sacred trust by         
trampling on the duties which that trust
  imposes1 who should remorselessly     
sacrifice to his passions1 his  friends1
 his relatives1 his servants1 and his   

people4 ,these two tigers1  the one     
shorn1 the other crowned are equally to 
be feared4 ,by what means  shall we     
muzzle them84444    ,if the idea of a   
,god has made a ,titus or a ,trajan1 an 
,antonine or an  ,aurelius1 and those   
great ,chinese emperors1 whose memory is
 so dear to  the second of the most     
ancient and most extensive empires in   
the world1  these examples are          
sufficient for my cause--and my cause is
 that of all  mankind4    ,i do not     
believe that there is in all ,europe one
 statesman1 one man at  all versed in   
the affairs of the world1 who has not   
the most profound  contempt for the     
legends with which we have been         
inundated1 even more  than we now are   
with pamphlets4 ,if religion no longer  
gives birth to  civil wars1 it is to    
philosophy alone that we are indebted1  
theological  disputes beginning to be   
regarded in much the same manner as the 
quarrels of ,punch and ,judy at the     
fair4 ,a usurpation1 alike odious and   

ridiculous1 founded upon fraud on one   
side and stupidity on the other1  is    
every instant undermined by reason1     
which is establishing its reign4  ,the  
bull ,in cna ,domini--that masterpiece  
of insolence and folly1 no  longer dares
 appear1 even in ,rome4 ,if a regiment  
of monks makes the  least evolution     
against the laws of the state1 it is    
immediately broken4  ,but1 because the  
,jesuits have been expelled1 must we    
also expel ,god8 ,on  the contrary1 we  
must love ,him the more4      ,,section 
,,vi4    ,in the reign of ,arcadius1    
,logomachos1 a theologue of             
,constantinople1  went into ,scythia and
 stopped at the foot of ,mount ,caucasus
 in the  fruitful plains of ,zephirim1  
on the borders of ,colchis4 ,the good   
old man  ,dondindac was in his great    
hall between his large sheepfold and his
  extensive barn2 he was on his knees   
with his wife1 his five sons and  five  
daughters1 his kinsmen and servants2 and
 all were singing the  praises of ,god1 

after a light repast4 ,what are you     
doing1 idolater8  said ,logomachos to   
him4 ,i am not an idolater1 said        
,dondindac4 ,you  must be an idolater1  
said ,logomachos1 for you are not a     
,greek4 ,come1  tell me what you were   
singing in your barbarous ,scythian     
jargon8 ,all  tongues are alike to the  
ears of ,god1 answered the ,scythian2 we
 were  singing ,his praises4 ,very      
extraordinary6 returned the theologue2 a
  ,scythian family praying to ,god      
without having been instructed by us6   
,he  soon entered into conversation with
 the ,scythian ,dondindac2 for the      
theologue knew a little ,scythian1 and  
the other a little ,greek4 ,this        
conversation has been found in a        
manuscript preserved in the library of  
,constantinople4    ,,logomachos4       
,let us see if you know your catechism4 
,why do you pray to ,god8               
,,dondindac4    ,because it is just to  
adore the ,supreme ,being1 from whom we 
have  everything4    ,,logomachos4      

,very fair for a barbarian4 ,and what do
 you ask of him8    ,,dondindac    ,i   
thank ,him for the blessings ,i enjoy1  
and even for the trials which ,he  sends
 me2 but ,i am careful to ask nothing of
 ,him2 for ,he knows our wants  better  
than we do2 besides1 ,i should be afraid
 of asking for fair  weather while my   
neighbor was asking for rain4           
,,logomachos4    ,ah6 ,i thought he     
would say some nonsense or other4 ,let  
us begin farther  back4 ,barbarian1 who 
told you that there is a ,god8          
,,dondindac    ,all nature tells me4    
,,logomachos4    ,that is not enough4   
,what idea have you of ,god8            
,,dondindac    ,the idea of my ,creator2
 my master1 who will reward me if ,i do 
good1 and  punish me if ,i do evil4     
,,logomachos4    ,trifles6 trash6 ,let  
us come to some essentials4 ,is ,god    
infinite  secundum quid1 or according to
 essence8    ,,dondindac    ,i don't    
understand you4    ,,logomachos4        
,brute beast6 ,is ,god in one place1 or 

in every place8    ,,dondindac4    ,i   
know not 444 just as you please4        
,,logomachos4    ,ignoramus6444 ,can ,he
 cause that which has not been to have  
been1 or that  a stick shall not have   
two ends8 ,does ,he see the future as   
future1 or as  present8 ,how does ,he   
draw being from nothing1 and how reduce 
being to  nothing8    ,,dondindac4    ,i
 have never examined these things4      
,,logomachos4    ,what a stupid fellow6 
,well1 ,i must come nearer to your      
level4444 ,tell  me1 friend1 do you     
think that matter can be eternal8       
,,dondindac    ,what matters it to me   
whether it exists from all eternity or  
not8 ,i do  not exist from all eternity4
 ,god must still be my ,master4 ,he has 
given  me the nature of justice2 it is  
my duty to follow it3 ,i seek not to be 
a  philosopher2 ,i wish to be a man4    
,,logomachos4    ,one has a great deal  
of trouble with these block-heads4 ,let 
us proceed  step by step4 ,what is ,god8
    ,,dondindac    ,my sovereign1 my    

judge1 my father4    ,,logomachos4      
,that is not what ,i ask4 ,what is ,his 
nature8    ,,dondindac4    ,to be mighty
 and good4    ,,logomachos4    ,but is  
,he corporeal or spiritual8             
,,dondindac4    ,how should ,i know     
that8    ,,logomachos4    ,what2 do you 
not know what a spirit is8              
,,dondindac4    ,not in the least4 ,of  
what service would that knowledge be to 
me8 ,should  ,i be more just8 ,should ,i
 be a better husband1 a better father1 a
 better  master1 or a better citizen8   
,,logomachos4    ,you must absolutely be
 taught what a spirit is4 ,it is--it    
is--it is--,i  will say what another    
time4    ,,dondindac4    ,i much fear   
that you will tell me rather what it is 
not than what it is4  ,permit me1 in    
turn1 to ask you one question4 ,some    
time ago1 ,i saw one of  your temples3  
why do you paint ,god with a long beard8
    ,,logomachos4    ,that is a very    
difficult question1 and requires        
preliminary  instruction4               

,,dondindac4    ,before ,i receive your 
instruction1 ,i must relate to you a    
thing which  one day happened to me4 ,i 
had just built a closet at the end of my
  garden1 when ,i heard a mole arguing  
thus with an ant3 ,here is a fine       
fabric1 said the mole2 it must have been
 a very powerful mole that  performed   
this work4 ,you jest1 returned the ant2 
the architect of  this edifice is an ant
 of mighty genius4 ,from that time ,i   
resolved  never to dispute4             
,,good--,,the ,,sovereign ,,good1 ,a    
,,chimera4      ,,section ,i4           
,happiness is an abstract idea composed 
of certain pleasurable  sensations4     
,plato1 who wrote better than he        
reasoned1 conceived the  notion of his  
world in archetype2 that is1 his        
original world--of his  general ideas of
 the beautiful1 the good1 the orderly1  
and the just1 as  if there had existed  
eternal beings1 called order1 good1     
beauty1 and  justice2 whence might be   
derived the feeble copies exhibited here

 below  of the just1 the beautiful1 and 
the good4    ,it is1 then1 in           
consequence of his suggestions that     
philosophers have  occupied themselves  
in seeking for the sovereign good1 as   
chemists seek  for the philosopher's    
stone2 but the sovereign good has no    
more  existence than the sovereign      
square1 or the sovereign crimson3 there 
is  the crimson color1 and there are    
squares2 but there is no general        
existence so denominated4 ,this         
chimerical manner of reasoning was for a
  long time the bane of philosophy4     
,animals feel pleasure in performing all
 the functions for which they are       
destined4 ,the happiness which poetical 
fancy has imagined would be an          
uninterrupted series of pleasures2 but  
such a series would be  incompatible    
with our organs and our destination4    
,there is great  pleasure in eating1    
drinking1 and connubial endearments2 but
 it is clear  that if a man were always 
eating1 or always in the full ecstasy of

  enjoyment1 his organs would be        
incapable of sustaining it3 it is       
further  evident that he would be unable
 to fulfil the destinies he was born to1
  and that1 in the case supposed1 the   
human race would absolutely perish      
through pleasure4    ,to pass constantly
 and without interruption from one      
pleasure to another  is also a chimera4 
,the woman who has conceived must go    
through  childbirth1 which is a pain2   
the man is obliged to cleave wood and   
hew  stone1 which is not a pleasure4    
,if the name of happiness is meant to be
 applied to some pleasures which  are   
diffused over human life1 there is in   
fact1 we must admit1  happiness4 ,if the
 name attaches only to one pleasure     
always permanent1  or a continued       
although varied range of delicious      
enjoyment1 then  happiness belongs not  
to this terraqueous globe4 ,go and seek 
for it  elsewhere4    ,if we make       
happiness consist in any particular     
situation that a man may  be in1 as for 

instance1 a situation of wealth1 power1 
or fame1 we are no  less mistaken4      
,there are some scavengers who are      
happier than some  sovereigns4 ,ask     
,cromwell whether he was more happy when
 he was lord  protector of ,england1    
than when1 in his youthful days1 he     
enjoyed  himself at a tavern2 he will   
probably tell you in answer1 that the   
period of his usurpation was not the    
period most productive of  pleasures4   
,how many plain or even ugly country    
women are more happy than  were ,helen  
and ,cleopatra4    ,we must here however
 make one short remark2 that when we say
 such a  particular man is probably     
happier than some other2 that a young   
muleteer has advantages very superior to
 those of ,charles ,v42 that a          
dressmaker has more enjoyment than a    
princess1 we should adhere to the       
probability of the case4 ,there is      
certainly every appearance that a       
muleteer1 in full health1 must have more
 pleasure than ,charles the  ,fifth1    

laid up with the gout2 but nevertheless 
it may also be1 that  ,charles1 on his  
crutches1 revolves in his mind with such
 ecstasy the  facts of his holding a    
king of ,france and a pope prisoners1   
that his lot  is absolutely preferable  
to that of the young and vigorous       
muleteer4    ,it certainly belongs to   
,god alone1 to a being capable of seeing
 through  all hearts1 to decide which is
 the happiest man4 ,there is only one   
case  in which a person can affirm that 
his actual state is worse or better     
than that of his neighbor2 this case is 
that of existing rivalship1 and  the    
moment that of victory4    ,i will      
suppose that ,archimedes has an         
assignation at night with his  mistress4
 ,nomentanus has the same assignation at
 the same hour4  ,archimedes presents   
himself at the door1 and it is shut in  
his face2 but  it is opened to his      
rival1 who enjoys an excellent supper1  
which he  enlivens by his repeated      
sallies of wit upon ,archimedes1 and    

after the  conclusion of which he       
withdraws to still higher enjoyments1   
while the  other remains exposed in the 
street to all the pelting of a pitiless 
storm4 ,there can be no doubt that      
,nomentanus has a right to say3 ,i am   
more happy to-night than ,archimedes3 ,i
 have more pleasure than he2 but  it is 
necessary1 in order to admit the truth  
and justness of the  inference of the   
successful competitors in his own favor1
 to suppose  that ,archimedes is        
thinking only about the loss of his good
 supper1  about being despised and      
deceived by a beautiful woman1 about    
being  supplanted by his rival1 and     
annoyed by the tempest2 for1 if the     
philosopher in the street should be     
calmly reflecting that his soul  ought  
to be above being discomposed by a      
strumpet or a storm1 if he  should be   
absorbed in a profound and interesting  
problem1 and if he  should discover the 
proportions between the cylinder and the
 sphere1 he  may experience a pleasure a

 hundred times superior to that of      
,nomentanus4    ,it is only therefore in
 the single case of actual pleasure and 
actual  pain1 and without a reference to
 anything else whatever1 that a         
comparison between any two individuals  
can be properly made4 ,it is            
unquestionable that he who enjoys the   
society of his mistress is  happier at  
the moment than his scorned rival       
deploring over his  misfortune4 ,a man  
in health1 supping on a fat partridge1  
is undoubtedly  happier at the time than
 another under the torment of the colic2
 but we  cannot safely carry our        
inferences farther2 we cannot estimate  
the  existence of one man against that  
of another2 we possess no accurate      
balance for weighing desires and        
sensations4    ,we began this article   
with ,plato and his sovereign good2 we  
will  conclude it with ,solon and the   
saying of his which has been so highly  
celebrated1 that we ought to pronounce  
no man happy before his death4  ,this   

maxim1 when examined into1 will be found
 nothing more than a  puerile remark1   
just like many other apothegms          
consecrated by their  antiquity4 ,the   
moment of death has nothing in common   
with the lot  experienced by any man in 
life2 a man may perish by a violent and 
ignominious death1 and yet1 up to that  
moment1 may have enjoyed all the        
pleasures of which human nature is      
susceptible4 ,it is very possible and   
very common for a happy man to cease to 
be so2 no one can doubt it2 but  he has 
not the less had his happy moments4     
,what1 then1 can ,solon's expression    
strictly and fairly mean8 that a man    
happy to-day is not certain of being so 
to-morrow6 ,in this case it is a  truth 
so incontestable and trivial that1 not  
merely is it not worthy of  being       
elevated into a maxim1 but it is not    
worthy delivering at all4      ,,section
 ,,ii4    ,well-being is a rare         
possession4 ,may not the sovereign good 
in this  world be considered as a       

sovereign chimera8 ,the ,greek          
philosophers  discussed at great length1
 according to their usual practice1 this
  celebrated question4 ,the reader will1
 probably1 compare them to just so  many
 mendicants reasoning about the         
philosopher's stone4    ,the sovereign  
good6 ,what an expression6 ,it might as 
well have been  asked3 ,what is the     
sovereign blue1 or the sovereign ragout1
 or the  sovereign walk1 or the         
sovereign reading8    ,every one places 
his good where he can1 and has as much  
of it as he can1  in his own way1 and in
 very scanty measure4 ,castor loved     
horses2 his  twin brother1 to try a     
fall--    ,quid dem8 quid non dem8      
renuis tu quod jubet alter4444 ,castor  
gaudet  equis1 ovo prognatus eodem      
,pugnis1 etc4    ,the greatest good is  
that which delights us so powerfully as 
to render  us incapable of feeling      
anything else2 as the greatest evil is  
that  which goes so far as to deprive us
 of all feeling4 ,these are the two     

extremes of human nature1 and these     
moments are short4 ,neither extreme     
delight nor extreme torture can last a  
whole life4 ,the sovereign good  and the
 sovereign evil are nothing more than   
chimeras4    ,we all know the beautiful 
fable of ,crantor4 ,he introduces upon  
the stage  at the ,olympic games1       
,wealth1 ,pleasure1 ,health1 and        
,virtue4 ,each claims  the apple4       
,wealth says1 ,i am the sovereign good1 
for with me all goods  are purchased4   
,pleasure says1 the apple belongs to me1
 for it is only on  my account that     
wealth is desired4 ,health asserts1 that
 without her  there can be no pleasure1 
and wealth is useless4 ,finally1 ,virtue
 states  that she is superior to the    
other three1 because1 although possessed
 of  gold1 pleasures1 and health1 a man 
may make himself very contemptible by   
misconduct4 ,the apple was conferred on 
,virtue4    ,the fable is very          
ingenious2 it would be still more so if 
,crantor had  said that the sovereign   

good consists in the combination of the 
four  rivals1 ,virtue1 ,health1 ,wealth1
 and ,pleasure2 but this fable neither  
does1 nor can1 resolve the absurd       
question about the sovereign good4      
,virtue is not a good2 it is a duty4 ,it
 is of a different nature2 of a         
superior order4 ,it has nothing to do   
with painful or with agreeable          
sensations4 ,a virtuous man1 laboring   
under stone and gout1 without aid1      
without friends1 destitute of           
necessaries1 persecuted1 and chained    
down  to the floor by a voluptuous      
tyrant who enjoys good health1 is very  
wretched2 and his insolent persecutor1  
caressing a new mistress on his  bed of 
purple1 is very happy4 ,say1 if you     
please1 that the persecuted  sage is    
preferable to the persecuting           
profligate2 say that you admire  the one
 and detest the other2 but confess that 
the sage in chains is  scarcely less    
than mad with rage and pain2 if he does 
not himself admit  that he is so1 he    

completely deceives you2 he is a        
charlatan4          ,,good4    ,of ,good
 and ,evil1 ,physical and ,moral4       
,we here treat of a question of the     
greatest difficulty and importance4  ,it
 relates to the whole of human life4 ,it
 would be of much greater  consequence  
to find a remedy for our evils2 but no  
remedy is to be  discovered1 and we are 
reduced to the sad necessity of tracing 
out their  origin4 ,with respect to this
 origin1 men have disputed ever since   
the  days of ,zoroaster1 and in all     
probability they disputed on the same   
subject long before him4 ,it was to     
explain the mixture of good and evil    
that they conceived the idea of two     
principles--,oromazes1 the author of    
light1 and ,arimanes1 the author of     
darkness2 the box of ,pandora2 the two  
vessels of ,jupiter2 the apple eaten by 
,eve2 and a variety of other  systems4  
,the first of dialecticians1 although   
not the first of  philosophers1 the     
illustrious ,bayle1 has clearly shown   

how difficult it  is for ,christians who
 admit one only ,god1 perfectly good and
 just1 to  reply to the objections of   
the ,manichans who acknowledge two      
,gods--one  good1 and the other evil4   
,the foundation of the system of the    
,manichans1 with all its antiquity1  was
 not on that account more reasonable4   
,lemmas1 susceptible of the most  clear 
and rigid geometrical demonstrations1   
should alone have induced  any men to   
the adoption of such a theorem as the   
following3 ,there are  two necessary    
beings1 both supreme1 both infinite1    
both equally  powerful1 both in conflict
 with each other1 yet1 finally1 agreeing
 to  pour out upon this little          
planet--one1 all the treasures of his   
beneficence1 and the other all the      
stores of his malice4 ,it is in vain    
that the advocates of this hypothesis   
attempt to explain by it the cause  of  
good and evil3 even the fable of        
,prometheus explains it better4 ,every  
hypothesis which only serves to assign a

 reason for certain things1  without    
being1 in addition to that              
recommendation1 established upon        
indisputable principles1 ought          
invariably to be rejected4    ,the      
,christian doctors--independently of    
revelation1 which makes  everything     
credible--explain the origin of good-and
 evil no better than  the partner-gods  
of ,zoroaster4    ,when they say ,god is
 a tender father1 ,god is a just king2  
when they add  the idea of infinity to  
that of love1 that kindness1 that       
justice which  they observe in the best 
of their own species1 they soon fall    
into the  most palpable and dreadful    
contradictions4 ,how could this         
sovereign1 who  possessed in infinite   
fulness the principle or quality of     
human justice1  how could this father1  
entertaining an infinite affection for  
his  children2 how could this being1    
infinitely powerful1 have formed        
creatures in ,his own likeness1 to have 
them immediately afterwards  tempted by 

a malignant demon1 to make them yield to
 that temptation to  inflict death on   
those whom ,he had created immortal1 and
 to overwhelm  their posterity with     
calamities and crimes6 ,we do not here  
speak of a  contradiction still more    
revolting to our feeble reason4 ,how    
could ,god1  who ransomed the human race
 by the death of ,his only ,son2 or     
rather1 how  could ,god1 who took upon  
,himself the nature of man1 and died on 
the  cross to save men from perdition1  
consign over to eternal tortures  nearly
 the whole of that human race for whom  
,he died8 ,certainly1 when we  consider 
this system merely as                   
philosophers--without the aid of        
faith--we must consider it as absolutely
 monstrous and abominable4 ,it  makes of
 ,god either pure and unmixed malice1   
and that malice infinite1  which created
 thinking beings1 on purpose to devote  
them to eternal  misery1 or absolute    
impotence and imbecility1 in not being  
able to  foresee or to prevent the      

torments of his offspring4    ,but the  
eternity of misery is not the subject of
 this article1 which  relates properly  
only to the good and evil of the present
 life4 ,none of  the doctors of the     
numerous churches of ,christianity1 all 
of which  advocate the doctrine we are  
here contesting1 have been able to      
convince  a single sage4    ,we cannot  
conceive how ,bayle1 who managed the    
weapons of dialectics with  such        
admirable strength and dexterity1 could 
content himself with  introducing in a  
dispute a ,manichan1 a ,calvinist1 a    
,molinist1 and a  ,socinian4 ,why did he
 not introduce1 as speaking1 a          
reasonable and  sensible man8 ,why did  
not ,bayle speak in his own person8 ,he 
would have  said far better what we     
shall now venture to say ourselves4 ,a  
father  who kills his children is a     
monster2 a king who conducts his        
subjects  into a snare1 in order to     
obtain a pretext for delivering them up 
to  punishment and torture1 is an       

execrable tyrant4 ,if you conceive ,god 
to  possess the same kindness which you 
require in a father1 the same  justice  
that you require in a king1 no possible 
resource exists by  which1 if we may use
 the expression1 ,god can be exculpated2
 and by  allowing ,him to possess       
infinite wisdom and infinite goodness   
you1 in  fact1 render ,him infinitely   
odious2 you excite a wish that ,he had  
no  existence2 you furnish arms to the  
atheist1 who will ever be justified  in 
triumphantly remarking to you3 ,better  
by far is it to deny a ,god  altogether1
 than impute to ,him such conduct as you
 would punish1 to the  extremity of the 
law1 in men4    ,we begin then with     
observing1 that it is unbecoming in us  
to ascribe to  ,god human attributes4   
,it is not for us to make ,god after our
 own  likeness4 ,human justice1 human   
kindness1 and human wisdom can never be 
applied or made suitable to ,him4 ,we   
may extend these attributes in our      
imagination as far as we are able1 to   

infinity2 they will never be other  than
 human qualities with boundaries        
perpetually or indefinitely  removed2 it
 would be equally rational to attribute 
to ,him infinite  solidity1 infinite    
motion1 infinite roundness1 or infinite 
divisibility4  ,these attributes can    
never be ,his4    ,philosophy informs us
 that this universe must have been      
arranged by a  ,being incomprehensible1 
eternal1 and existing by ,his own       
nature2 but1  once again1 we must       
observe that philosophy gives us no     
information on  the subject of the      
attributes of that nature4 ,we know what
 ,he is not1  and not what ,he is4      
,with respect to ,god1 there is neither 
good nor evil1 physically or  morally4  
,what is physical or natural evil8 ,of  
all evils1 the greatest1  undoubtedly1  
is death4 ,let us for a moment consider 
whether man could  have been immortal4  
,in order that a body like ours should  
have been indissoluble1  imperishable1  
it would have been necessary that it    

should not be  composed of parts2 that  
it--should not be born2 that it should  
have  neither nourishment nor growth2   
that it should experience no change4    
,let  any one examine each of these     
points2 and let every reader extend     
their  number according to his own      
suggestions1 and it will be seen that   
the  proposition of an immortal man is a
 contradiction4    ,if our organized    
body were immortal1 that of mere animals
 would be so  likewise2 but it is       
evident that1 in the course of a very   
short time1  the whole globe would1 in  
this case1 be incompetent to supply     
nourishment to those animals2 those     
immortal beings which exist only in     
consequence of renovation by food1 would
 then perish for want of the  means of  
such renovation4 ,all this involves     
contradiction4 ,we might make  various  
other observations on the subject1 but  
every reader who deserves  the name of a
 philosopher will perceive that death   
was necessary to  everything that is    

born2 that death can neither be an error
 on the part  of ,god1 nor an evil1 an  
injustice1 nor a chastisement to man4   
,man1 born to die1 can no more be exempt
 from pain than from death4 ,to  prevent
 an organized substance endowed with    
feeling from ever  experiencing pain1 it
 would be necessary that all the laws of
 nature  should be changed2 that matter 
should no longer be divisible2 that it  
should neither have weight1 action1 nor 
force2 that a rock might fall on  an    
animal without crushing it2 and that    
water should have no power to           
suffocate1 or fire to burn it4 ,man1    
impassive1 then1 is as much a           
contradiction as man immortal4    ,this 
feeling of pain was indispensable to    
stimulate us to  self-preservation1 and 
to impart to us such pleasures as are   
consistent  with those general laws by  
which the whole system of nature is     
bound and  regulated4    ,if we never   
experienced pain1 we should be every    
moment injuring  ourselves without      

perceiving it4 ,without the excitement  
of uneasiness1  without some sensation  
of pain1 we should perform no function  
of life2  should never communicate it1  
and should be destitute of all the      
pleasures of it4 ,hunger is the         
commencement of pain which compels us to
  take our required nourishment4 ,ennui 
is a pain which stimulates to  exercise 
and occupation4 ,love itself is a       
necessity which becomes  painful until  
it is met with corresponding attachment4
 ,in a word1 every  desire is a want1 a 
necessity1 a beginning of pain4 ,pain1  
therefore1 is  the mainspring of all the
 actions of animated beings4 ,every     
animal  possessed of feeling must be    
liable to pain1 if matter is divisible2 
and  pain was as necessary as death4 ,it
 is not1 therefore1 an error of         
,providence1 nor a result of malignity1 
nor a creature of imagination4  ,had we 
seen only brutes suffer1 we should1 for 
that1 never have accused  nature of     
harshness or cruelty2 had we1 while     

ourselves were impassive1  witnessed the
 lingering and torturing death of a     
dove1 when a kite  seized upon it with  
his murderous talons1 and leisurely     
devouring its  bleeding limbs1 doing in 
that no more than we do ourselves1 we   
should  not express the slightest murmur
 of dissatisfaction4 ,but what claim    
have  we for an exemption of our own    
bodies from such dismemberment and      
torture beyond what might be urged in   
behalf of brutes8 ,is it that we        
possess an intellect superior to theirs8
 ,but what has intellect to do  with the
 divisibility of matter8 ,can a few     
ideas more or less in a brain  prevent  
fire from burning1 or a rock from       
crushing us8    ,moral evil1 upon which 
so many volumes have been written is1 in
 fact1  nothing but natural evil4 ,this 
moral evil is a sensation of pain       
occasioned by one organized being to    
another4 ,rapine1 outrage1 etc41 are    
evil only because they produce evil4    
,but as we certainly are unable to  do  

any evil1 or occasion any pain to ,god1 
it is evident by the light of           
reason--for faith is altogether a       
different principle--that in relation   
to the ,supreme ,being and as affecting 
,him1 moral evil can have no  existence4
    ,as the greatest of natural evils is
 death1 the greatest of moral evils  is1
 unquestionably1 war4 ,all crimes follow
 in its train2 false and  calumnious    
declarations1 perfidious violation of   
the treaties1 pillage1  devastation1    
pain1 and death under every hideous and 
appalling form4    ,all this is physical
 evil in relation to man1 but can no    
more be  considered moral evil in       
relation to ,god than the rage of dogs  
worrying  and destroying one another4   
,it is a mere common-place idea1 and as 
false  as it is feeble1 that men are the
 only species that slaughter and        
destroy one another4 ,wolves1 dogs1     
cats1 cocks1 quails1 all war with  their
 respective species3 house spiders      
devour one another2 the male            

universally fights for the female4 ,this
 warfare is the result of the  laws of  
nature1 of principles in their very     
blood and essence2 all is  connected2   
all is necessary4    ,nature has granted
 man about two and twenty years of life1
 one with  another2 that is1 of a       
thousand children born in the same      
month1 some of  whom have died in their 
infancy1 and the rest lived respectively
 to the  age of thirty1 forty1 fifty1   
and even eighty years1 or perhaps       
beyond1  the average calculation will   
allow to each the above-mentioned number
 of  twenty-two years4    ,how can it   
affect the ,deity1 whether a man die in 
battle or of a fever8  ,war destroys    
fewer human beings than smallpox4 ,the  
scourge of war is  transient1 that of   
smallpox reigns with paramount and      
permanent fatality  throughout the      
earth1 followed by a numerous train of  
others2 and taking  into consideration  
the combined1 and nearly regular        
operation of the  various causes which  

sweep mankind from the stage of life1   
the allowance  of two and twenty years  
for every individual will be found in   
general to  be tolerably correct4       
,man1 you say1 offends ,god by killing  
his neighbor2 if this be the case1  the 
directors of nations must indeed be     
tremendous criminals2 for1 while  even  
invoking ,god to their assistance1 they 
urge on to slaughter immense  multitudes
 of their fellow-beings1 for            
contemptible interests which it  would  
show infinitely more policy1 as well as 
humanity1 to abandon4 ,but  how--to     
reason merely as philosophers--how do   
they offend ,god8 ,just as  much as     
tigers and crocodiles offend him4 ,it   
is1 surely1 not ,god whom  they harass  
and torment1 but their neighbor4 ,it is 
only against man that  man can be       
guilty4 ,a highway robber can commit no 
robbery on ,god4 ,what  can it signify  
to the eternal ,deity1 whether a few    
pieces of yellow  metal are in the hands
 of ,jerome1 or of ,bonaventure8 ,we    

have necessary  desires1 necessary      
passions1 and necessary laws for the    
restraint of  both2 and while on this   
our ant-hill1 during the little day of  
our  existence1 we are engaged in eager 
and destructive contest about a  straw1 
the universe moves1 on in its majestic  
course1 directed by  eternal and        
unalterable laws1 which comprehend in   
their operation the  atom that we call  
the earth4          ,,gospel4      ,it  
is a matter of high importance to       
ascertain which are the first  gospels4 
,it is a decided truth1 whatever        
,abbadie may assert to the  contrary1   
that none of the first fathers of the   
,church1 down to ,irenus  inclusively1  
have quoted any passage from the four   
gospels with which we  are acquainted4  
,and to this it may be added1 that the  
,alogi1 the  ,theodosians1 constantly   
rejected the gospel of ,st4 ,john1 and  
always  spoke of it with contempt2 as we
 are informed by ,st4 ,epiphanius in his
  thirty-fourth homily4 ,our enemies    

further observe that the most ancient   
fathers do not merely forbear to quote  
anything from our gospels1 but  relate  
many passages or events which are to be 
found only in the  apocryphal gospels   
rejected by the canon4    ,st4 ,clement1
 for example1 relates that our ,lord1   
having been questioned  concerning the  
time when ,his kingdom would come1      
answered1 ,that will be  when what is   
without shall ,resemble that within1 and
 when there shall be  neither male nor  
female4 ,but we must admit that this    
passage does not  occur in either of our
 gospels4 ,there are innumerable other  
instances to  prove this truth2 which   
may be seen in the ,critical            
,examination of ,m4  ,frret1 perpetual  
secretary of the ,academy of ,belles    
,lettres at ,paris4    ,the learned     
,fabricius took the pains to collect the
 ancient gospels  which time has spared2
 that of ,james appears to be the first2
 and it is  certain that it still       
possesses considerable authority with   

some of the  ,oriental churches4 ,it is 
called the first gospel4 ,there remain  
the  passion and the resurrection1      
pretended to have been written by       
,nicodemus4 ,this gospel of ,nicodemus  
is quoted by ,st4 ,justin and           
,tertullian4 ,it is there we find the   
names of our ,lord's accusers--,annas1  
,caiaphas1 ,soumas1 ,dathan1 ,gamaliel1 
,judas1 ,levi1 and ,napthali2 the       
attention and particularity with which  
these names are given confer upon  the  
work an appearance of truth and         
sincerity4 ,our adversaries have        
inferred that as so many false gospels  
were forged1 which at first were        
recognized as true1 those which         
constitute at the present day the       
foundation of our own faith may have    
been forged also4 ,they dwell much  on  
the circumstance of the first heretics  
suffering even death itself in  defence 
of these apocryphal gospels4 ,there have
 evidently been1 they  say1 forgers1    
seducers1 and men who have been seduced 

by them into  error1 and died in defence
 of that error2 it is1 at least1        
therefore1 no  proof of the truth of    
,christianity that it has had its       
martyrs who have  died for it4    ,they 
add further1 that the martyrs were never
 asked the question1  whether they      
believed the gospel of ,john or the     
gospel of ,james4 ,the  ,pagans could   
not put a series of interrogatories     
about books with which  they were not at
 all acquainted2 the magistrates        
punished some  ,christians very         
unjustly1 as disturbers of the public   
peace1 but they  never put particular   
questions to them in relation to our    
four gospels4  ,these books were not    
known to the ,romans before the time of 
,diocletian1  and even towards the close
 of ,diocletian's reign1 they had       
scarcely  obtained any publicity4 ,it   
was deemed in a ,christian a crime both 
abominable and unpardonable to show a   
gospel to any ,gentile4 ,this is so     
true1 that you cannot find the word     

gospel in any profane author  whatever4 
,the rigid ,socinians1 influenced by the
 above-mentioned or other  difficulties1
 do not consider our four divine gospels
 in any other light  than as works of   
clandestine introduction1 fabricated    
about a century  after the time of      
,jesus ,christ1 and carefully concealed 
from the  ,gentiles for another century 
beyond that2 works1 as they express it1 
of  a coarse and vulgar character1      
written by coarse and vulgar men1 who1  
for a long time confined their          
discourses and appeals to the mere      
populace of their party4 ,we will not   
here repeat the blasphemies uttered  by 
them4 ,this sect1 although considerably 
diffused and numerous1 is at  present as
 much concealed as were the first       
gospels4 ,the difficulty of  converting 
them is so much the greater1 in         
consequence of their  obstinately       
refusing to listen to anything but mere 
reason4 ,the other  ,christians contend 
against them only with the weapons of   

the ,holy  ,scripture3 it is            
consequently impossible that1 being thus
 always in  hostility with respect to   
principles1 they should ever unite in   
their  conclusions4    ,with respect to 
ourselves1 let us ever remain inviolably
 attached to our  four gospels1 in union
 with the infallible church4 ,let us    
reject the  five gospels which it has   
rejected2 let us not inquire why our    
,lord  ,jesus ,christ permitted five    
false gospels1 five false histories of  
his  life to be written2 and let us     
submit to our spiritual pastors and     
directors1 who alone on earth are       
enlightened by the ,holy ,spirit4       
,into what a gross error did ,abbadie   
fall when he considered as authentic    
the letters so ridiculously forged1 from
 ,pilate to ,tiberius1 and the          
pretended proposal of ,tiberius to place
 ,jesus ,christ in the number of  the   
gods4 ,if ,abbadie is a bad critic and a
 contemptible reasoner1 is the  ,church 
on that account less enlightened8 are we

 the less bound to  believe it8 ,shall  
we at all the less submit to it8        
,,government4      ,,section ,i4    ,the
 pleasure of governing must certainly be
 exquisite1 if we may judge  from the   
vast numbers who are eager to be        
concerned in it4 ,we have many  more    
books on government than there are      
monarchs in the world4 ,heaven  preserve
 me from making any attempt here to give
 instruction to kings  and their noble  
ministers--their valets1 confessors1 or 
financiers4 ,i  understand nothing about
 the matter2 ,i have the profoundest    
respect and  reverence for them all4 ,it
 belongs only to ,mr4 ,wilkes1 with his 
,english  balance1 to weigh the merits  
of those who are at the head of the     
human  race4 ,it would1 besides1 be     
exceedingly strange if1 with three or   
four  thousand volumes on the subject of
 government1 with ,machiavelli1 and     
,bossuet's ,policy of the ,holy         
,scripture1 with the ,general           
,financier1  the ,guide to ,finances1   

the ,means of ,enriching a ,state1 etc41
 there  could possibly be a single      
person living who was not perfectly     
acquainted with the duties of kings and 
the science of government4    ,professor
 ,puffendorf1 or1 as perhaps we should  
rather say1 ,baron  ,puffendorf1 says   
that ,king ,david1 having sworn never to
 attempt the life  of ,shimei1 his privy
 counsellor1 did not violate his oath   
when1  according to the ,jewish history1
 he instructed his son ,solomon to get  
him assassinated1 because ,david had    
only engaged that he himself would  not 
kill ,shimei4 ,the baron1 who rebukes so
 sharply the mental  reservations of the
 ,jesuits1 allows ,david1 in the present
 instance1 to  entertain one which would
 not be particularly palatable to privy 
counsellors4    ,let us consider the    
words of ,bossuet in his ,policy of the 
,holy  ,scripture1 addressed to         
,monseigneur the ,dauphin4 ,thus we see 
royalty  established according to the   
order of succession in the house of     

,david  and ,solomon1 and the throne of 
,david is secured forever--although1 by 
the way1 that same little joint-stool   
called a 'throne1' instead of  being    
secured forever1 lasted1 in fact1 only a
 very short time4 ,by  virtue of this   
law1 the eldest son was to succeed1 to  
the exclusion of  his brothers1 and on  
this account ,adonijah1 who was the     
eldest1 said to  ,bathsheba1 the mother 
of ,solomon1 ,thou knowest that the     
kingdom was  mine1 and all ,israel had  
recognized my right2 but the ,lord hath 
transferred the kingdom to my brother   
,solomon4 ,the right of ,adonijah  was  
incontestable4 ,bossuet expressly admits
 this at the close of this  article4    
,the ,lord has transferred is only a    
usual phrase1 which means1  ,i have lost
 my property or right1 ,i have been     
deprived of my right4  ,adonijah was the
 issue of a lawful wife2 the birth of   
his younger  brother was the fruit of a 
double crime4    ,unless1 then1 says    
,bossuet1 something extraordinary       

occurred1 the  eldest was to succeed4   
,but the something extraordinary1 in the
 present  instance1 which prevented it  
was1 that ,solomon1 the issue of a      
marriage  arising out of a double       
adultery and a murder1 procured the     
assassination1 at the foot of the altar1
 of his elder brother and his  lawful   
king1 whose rights were supported by the
 high priest ,abiathar and  the chief   
commander ,joab4 ,after this we must    
acknowledge that it is more  difficult  
than some seem to imagine to take       
lessons on the rights of  persons1 and  
on the true system of government from   
the ,holy ,scriptures1  which were first
 given to the ,jews1 and afterwards to  
ourselves1 for  purposes of a far higher
 nature4    ,the preservation of the    
people is the supreme law4 ,such is the 
fundamental maxim of nations2 but in all
 civil wars the safety of the  people is
 made to consist in slaughtering a      
number of the citizens4 ,in  all foreign
 wars1 the safety of a people consists  

in killing their  neighbors1 and taking 
possession of their property6 ,it is    
difficult to  perceive in this a        
particularly salutary right of nations1 
and a  government eminently favorable to
 liberty of thought and social          
happiness4    ,there are geometrical    
figures exceedingly regular and complete
 in their  kind2 arithmetic is perfect2 
many trades or manufactures are carried 
on  in a manner constantly uniform and  
excellent2 but with respect to the      
government of men1 is it possible for   
any one to be good1 when all are        
founded on passions in conflict with    
each other8    ,no convent of monks ever
 existed without discord2 it is         
impossible1  therefore1 to exclude it   
from kingdoms4 ,every government        
resembles not  merely a monastic        
institution1 but a private household4   
,there are none  existing without       
quarrels2 and quarrels between one      
people and another1  between one prince 
and another1 have ever been1 sanguinary2

 those  between subjects and their      
sovereigns have been sometimes no less  
destructive4 ,how is an individual to   
act8 ,must he risk joining in the       
conflict1 or withdraw from the scene of 
action8      ,,section ,,ii4    ,more   
than one people are desirous of new     
constitutions4 ,the ,english  would have
 no objection to a change of ministers  
once in every eight  hours1 but they    
have no wish to change the form of their
 government4    ,the modern ,romans are 
proud of their church of ,st4 ,peter and
 their  ancient ,greek statues2 but the 
people would be glad to be better fed1  
although they were not quite so rich in 
benedictions2 the fathers of  families  
would be content that the ,church should
 have less gold1 if the  granaries had  
more corn2 they regret the time when the
 apostles  journeyed on foot1 and when  
the citizens of ,rome travelled from one
  palace to another in litters4    ,we  
are incessantly reminded of the         
admirable republics of ,greece4 ,there  

is no question that the ,greeks would   
prefer the government of a ,pericles    
and a ,demosthenes to that of a pasha2  
but in their most prosperous and  palmy 
times they were always complaining2     
discord and hatred prevailed  between   
all the cities without1 and in every    
separate city within4 ,they  gave laws  
to the old ,romans1 who before that time
 had none2 but their  own were so bad   
for themselves that they were           
continually changing them4    ,what     
could be said in favor of a government  
under which the just  ,aristides was    
banished1 ,phocion put to death1        
,socrates condemned to  drink hemlock   
after having been exposed to banter and 
derision on the  stage by ,aristophanes2
 and under which the ,amphyctions1 with 
contemptible imbecility1 actually       
delivered up ,greece into the power of  
,philip1 because the ,phocians had      
ploughed up a field which was part of   
the territory of ,apollo8 ,but the      
government of the neighboring           

monarchies was worse4    ,puffendorf    
promises us a discussion on the best    
form of government4 ,he  tells us1 that 
many pronounce in favor of monarchy1 and
 others1 on the  contrary1 inveigh      
furiously against kings2 and that it    
does not fall  within the limits of his 
subject to examine in detail the reasons
 of the  latter4 ,if any mischievous and
 malicious reader expects to be told    
here  more than he is told by           
,puffendorf1 he will be much deceived4  
,a ,swiss1 a ,hollander1 a ,venetian    
nobleman1 an ,english peer1 a cardinal1 
and a count of the empire1 were once    
disputing1 on a journey1 about the      
nature of their respective governments1 
and which of them deserved the          
preference3 no one knew much about the  
matter2 each remained in his own        
opinion without having any very distinct
 idea what that opinion was2 and  they  
returned without having come to any     
general conclusion2 every one  praising 
his own country from vanity1 and        

complaining of it from  feeling4        
,what1 then1 is the destiny of mankind8 
,scarcely any great nation is  governed 
by itself4 ,begin from the east1 and    
take the circuit of the  world4 ,japan  
closed its ports against foreigners from
 the well-founded  apprehension of a    
dreadful revolution4    ,china actually 
experienced such a revolution2 she obeys
 ,tartars of a  mixed race1 half        
,mantchou and half ,hun4 ,india obeys   
,mogul ,tartars4 ,the  ,nile1 the       
,orontes1 ,greece1 and ,epirus are still
 under the yoke of the  ,turks4 ,it is  
not an ,english race that reigns in     
,england2 it is a ,german  family which 
succeeded to a ,dutch prince1 as the    
latter succeeded a  ,scotch family which
 had succeeded an ,angevin family1 that 
had replaced a  ,norman family1 which   
had expelled a family of usurping       
,saxons4 ,spain  obeys a ,french family2
 which succeeded to an ,austrasian race1
 that  ,austrasian race had succeeded   
families that boasted of ,visigoth      

extraction2 these ,visigoths had been   
long driven out by the ,arabs1 after    
having succeeded to the ,romans1 who had
 expelled the ,carthaginians4 ,gaul     
obeys ,franks1 after having obeyed      
,roman prefects4    ,the same banks of  
the ,danube have belonged to ,germans1  
,romans1 ,arabs1  ,slavonians1          
,bulgarians1 and ,huns1 to twenty       
different families1 and  almost all     
foreigners4    ,and what greater wonder 
has ,rome had to exhibit than so many   
emperors  who were born in the barbarous
 provinces1 and so many popes born in   
provinces no less barbarous8 ,let him   
govern who can4 ,and when any one  has  
succeeded in his attempts to become     
master1 he governs as he can4           
,,section ,,iii4    ,in #agfi1 a        
traveller delivered the following       
narrative3 ,i saw1 in the  course of my 
journey1 a large and populous country1  
in which all offices  and places were   
purchasable2 ,i do not mean             
clandestinely1 and in  evasion of the   

law1 but publicly1 and in conformity to 
it4 ,the right to  judge1 in the last   
resort1 of the honor1 property1 and life
 of the  citizen1 was put to auction in 
the same manner as the right and        
property  in a few acres of land4 ,some 
very high commissions in the army are   
conferred only on the highest bidder4   
,the principal mystery of their         
religion is celebrated for the petty sum
 of three sesterces1 and if the         
celebrator does not obtain this fee he  
remains idle like a porter  without     
employment4    ,fortunes in this country
 are not made by agriculture1 but are   
derived  from a certain game of chance1 
in great practice there1 in which the   
parties sign their names1 and transfer  
them from hand to hand4 ,if they  lose1 
they withdraw into the mud and mire of  
their original extraction2  if they win1
 they share in the administration of    
public affairs2 they  marry their       
daughters to mandarins1 and their sons  
become a species of  mandarins also4    

,a considerable number of the citizens  
have their whole means of  subsistence  
assigned upon a house1 which possesses  
in fact nothing1 and  a hundred persons 
have bought for a hundred thousand      
crowns each the  right of receiving and 
paying the money due to these citizens  
upon their  assignments on this         
imaginary hotel2 rights which they never
 exercise1  as they in reality know     
nothing at all of what is thus supposed 
to pass  through their hands4           
,sometimes a proposal is made and cried 
about the streets1 that all who  have a 
little money in their chest should      
exchange it for a slip of  exquisitely  
manufactured paper1 which will free you 
from all pecuniary  care1 and enable you
 to pass through life with ease and     
comfort4 ,on the  morrow an order is    
published1 compelling you to change this
 paper for  another1 much better4 ,on   
the following day you are deafened with 
the cry  of a new paper1 cancelling the 
two former ones4 ,you are ruined6 ,but  

long  heads console you with the        
assurance1 that within a fortnight the  
newsmen will cry up some proposal more  
engaging4    ,you travel into one       
province of this empire1 and purchase   
articles of  food1 drink1 clothing1 and 
lodging4 ,if you go into another        
province1 you  are obliged to pay duties
 upon all those commodities1 as if you  
had just  arrived from ,africa4 ,you    
inquire the reason of this1 but obtain  
no  answer2 or if1 from extraordinary   
politeness1 any one condescends to      
notice your questions1 he replies that  
you come from a province reputed        
foreign1 and that1 consequently1 you are
 obliged to pay for the  convenience of 
commerce4 ,in vain you puzzle yourself  
to comprehend how  the province of a    
kingdom can be deemed foreign to that   
kingdom4    ,on one particular occasion1
 while changing horses1 finding myself  
somewhat fatigued1 ,i requested the     
postmaster to favor me with a glass  of 
wine4 ',i cannot let you have it1' says 

he2 'the superintendents of  thirst1 who
 are very considerable in number1 and   
all of them remarkably  sober1 would    
accuse me of drinking to excess1 which  
would absolutely be  my ruin4' ',but    
drinking a single glass of wine1' ,i    
replied1 'to repair a  man's strength1  
is not drinking to excess2 and what     
difference can it  make whether that    
single glass of wine is taken by you or 
me8'    ',sir1' replied the man1 'our   
laws relating to thirst are much more   
excellent than you appear to think them4
 ,after our vintage is finished1        
physicians are appointed by the regular 
authorities to visit our  cellars4 ,they
 set aside a certain quantity of wine1  
such as they judge  we may drink        
consistently with health4 ,at the end of
 the year they  return2 and if they     
conceive that we have exceeded their    
restriction by  a single bottle2 they   
punish us with very severe fines2 and if
 we make  the slightest resistance1 we  
are sent to ,toulon to drink salt-water4

  ,were ,i to give you the wine you ask1
 ,i should most certainly be charged    
with excessive drinking4 ,you must see  
to what danger ,i should be exposed     
from the supervisors of our health4'    
,i could not refrain from astonishment  
at the existence of such a  system2 but 
my astonishment was no less on meeting  
with a disconsolate  and mortified      
pleader1 who informed me that he had    
just then lost1 a  little beyond the    
nearest rivulet1 a cause precisely      
similar to one he  had gained on this   
side of it4 ,i understood from him that1
 in his  country1 there are as many     
different codes of laws as there are    
cities4  ,his conversation raised my    
curiosity4 ',our nation1' said he1 'is  
so  completely wise and enlightened1    
that nothing is regulated in it4 ,laws1 
customs1 the rights of corporate bodies1
 rank1 precedence1 everything is        
arbitrary2 all is left to the prudence  
of the nation4'    ,i happened to be    
still in this same country when it      

became involved in  a war with some of  
its neighbors4 ,this war was nicknamed  
',the ,ridicule1'  because there was    
much to be lost and nothing to be gained
 by it4 ,i went  upon my travels        
elsewhere1 and did not return till the  
conclusion of  peace1 when the nation   
seemed to be in the most dreadful state 
of  misery2 it had lost its money1 its  
soldiers1 its fleets1 and its  commerce4
 ,i said to myself1 its last hour is    
come2 everything1 alas6  must pass away4
 ,here is a nation absolutely           
annihilated4 ,what a dreadful  pity6 for
 a great part of the people were        
amiable1 industrious1 and gay1  after   
having been formerly coarse1            
superstitious1 and barbarous4    ,i was 
perfectly astonished1 at the end of only
 two years1 to find its  capital and    
principal cities more opulent than ever4
 ,luxury had  increased1 and an air of  
enjoyment prevailed everywhere4 ,i could
 not  comprehend this prodigy2 and it   
was only after ,i had examined into the 

government of the neighboring nations   
that ,i could discover the cause of     
what appeared so unaccountable4 ,i found
 that the government of all the  rest   
was just as bad as that of this nation1 
and that this nation was  superior to   
all the rest in industry4    ,a         
provincial of the country ,i am speaking
 of was once bitterly  complaining to me
 of all the grievances under which he   
labored4 ,he was  well acquainted with  
history4 ,i asked him if he thought he  
should have  been happier had he lived a
 hundred years before1 when his country 
was  in a comparative state of          
barbarism1 and a citizen was liable to  
be  hanged for having eaten flesh in    
,lent8 ,he shook his head in the        
negative4 ,would you prefer the times of
 the civil wars1 which began at  the    
death of ,francis ,,ii42 or the times of
 the defeats of ,st4 ,quentin and       
,pavia2 or the long disorders attending 
the wars against the ,english2 or  the  
feudal anarchy2 or the horrors of the   

second race of kings1 or the  barbarity 
of the first8 ,at every successive      
question1 he appeared to  shudder more  
violently4 ,the government of the       
,romans seemed to him the  most         
intolerable of all4 ',nothing can be    
worse1' he said1 'than to be  under     
foreign masters4' ,at last we came to   
the ,druids4 ',ah6' he  exclaimed1 ',i  
was quite mistaken3 it is still worse to
 be governed by  sanguinary priests4'   
,he admitted1 at last1 although with    
sore  reluctance1 that the time he lived
 in was1 all things considered1 the     
least intolerable and hateful4          
,,section ,,iv4    ,an eagle governed   
the birds of the whole country of       
,ornithia4 ,he had no  other right1 it  
must be allowed1 than what he derived   
from his beak and  claws2 however1 after
 providing liberally for his own repasts
 and  pleasures1 he governed as well as 
any other bird of prey4    ,in his old  
age he was invaded by a flock of hungry 
vultures1 who rushed  from the depths of

 the ,north to scatter fear and         
desolation through his  provinces4      
,there appeared1 just about this time1 a
 certain owl1 who was  born in one of   
the most scrubby thickets of the empire1
 and who had long  been known under the 
name of luci-fugax1 or light-hater4 ,he 
possessed much cunning1 and associated  
only with bats2 and1 while the  vultures
 were engaged in conflict with the      
eagle1 our politic owl and  his party   
entered with great adroitness1 in the   
character of  pacificators1 on that     
department of the air which was disputed
 by the  combatants4    ,the eagle and  
vultures1 after a war of long duration1 
at last actually  referred the cause of 
contention to the owl1 who1 with his    
solemn and  imposing physiognomy1 was   
well formed to deceive them both4    ,he
 persuaded the eagles and vultures to   
suffer their claws to be a  little      
pared1 and just the points of their     
beaks to be cut off1 in order  to bring 
about perfect peace and reconciliation4 

,before this time1 the  owl had always  
said to the birds1 ,obey the eagle2     
afterwards1 in  consequence of the      
invasion1 he had said to them1 ,obey the
 vultures4  ,he now1 however1 soon      
called out to them1 ,obey me only4 ,the 
poor birds  did not know to whom to     
listen3 they were plucked by the eagle1 
the  vultures1 and the owl and bats4    
,qui habet aures1 audiat4--,he that     
hath ears to hear1 let him hear4        
,,section ,v4    ,i have in my          
possession a great number of catapult   
and balist of the  ancient ,romans1     
which are certainly rather worm-eaten1  
but would still  do very well as        
specimens4 ,i have many water-clocks1   
but half of them  probably out of repair
 and broken1 some sepulchral lamps1 and 
an old  copper model of a quinquereme4  
,i have also togas1 pretextas1 and      
laticlaves in lead2 and my predecessors 
established a society of  tailors2 who1 
after inspecting ancient monuments1 can 
make up robes  pretty awkwardly4 ,for   

these reasons thereunto moving us1 after
 hearing  the report of our chief       
antiquary1 we do hereby appoint and     
ordain1 that  all the said venerable    
usages should be observed and kept up   
forever2  and every person1 through the 
whole extent of our dominions1 shall    
dress  and think precisely as men       
dressed and thought in the time of      
,cnidus  ,rufillus1 proprietor of the   
province devolved to us by right1 etc4  
,it is represented to an officer        
belonging to the department whence this 
edict issued1 that all the engines      
enumerated in it are become useless2    
that the understandings and the         
inventions of mankind are every day     
making new advances towards perfection2 
and that it would be more  judicious to 
guide and govern men by the reins in    
present use1 than by  those by which    
they were formerly subjected2 that no   
person could be  found to go on board   
the quinquereme of his most serene      
highness2 that  his tailors might make  

as many laticlaves as they pleased1 and 
that not  a soul would purchase one of  
them2 and that it would be worthy of his
  wisdom to condescend1 in some small   
measure1 to the manner of thinking  that
 now prevailed among the better sort of 
people in his own dominions4    ,the    
officer above mentioned promised to     
communicate this representation  to a   
clerk1 who promised to speak about it to
 the referendary1 who  promised to      
mention it to his most serene highness  
whenever an  opportunity should offer4  
,,section ,,vi4    ,picture of the      
,english ,government4    ,the           
establishment of a government is a      
matter of curious and interesting       
investigation4 ,i shall not speak1 in   
this place1 of the great ,tamerlane1  or
 ,timerling1 because ,i am not precisely
 acquainted with the mystery of  the    
,great ,mogul's government4 ,but we can 
see our way somewhat more  clearly into 
the administration of affairs in        
,england2 and ,i had rather  examine    

that than the administration of ,india2 
as ,england1 we are  informed1 is       
inhabited by free men and not by slaves2
 and in ,india1  according to the       
accounts we have of it1 there are many  
slaves and but  few free men4    ,let   
us1 in the first place1 view a ,norman  
bastard seating himself upon  the throne
 of ,england4 ,he had about as much     
right to it as ,st4 ,louis  had1 at a   
later period1 to ,grand ,cairo4 ,but    
,st4 ,louis had the misfortune  not to  
begin with obtaining a judicial decision
 in favor of his right to  ,egypt from  
the court of ,rome2 and ,william the    
,bastard failed not to  render his cause
 legitimate and sacred1 by obtaining in 
confirmation of  the rightfulness of his
 claim1 a decree of ,pope ,alexander    
,,ii4 issued  without the opposite party
 having obtained a hearing1 and simply  
in  virtue of the words1 ,whatsoever    
thou shalt bind on earth1 shall be      
bound in heaven4 ,his competitor1       
,harold1 a perfectly legitimate         

monarch1 being thus bound by a decree of
 heaven1 ,william united to this  virtue
 of the holy see another of far more    
powerful efficacy still1  which was the 
victory of ,hastings4 ,he reigned1      
therefore1 by the right  of the         
strongest1 just as ,pepin and ,clovis   
had reigned in ,france2 the  ,goths and 
,lombards in ,italy2 the ,visigoths1 and
 afterwards the ,arabs in  ,spain2 the  
,vandals in ,africa1 and all the kings  
of the world in  succession4    ,it must
 be nevertheless admitted1 that our     
,bastard possessed as just a  title as  
the ,saxons and the ,danes1 whose title1
 again1 was quite as good  as that of   
the ,romans4 ,and the title of all these
 heroes in succession  was precisely    
that of robbers on the highway1 or1 if  
you like it  better1 that of foxes and  
pole-cats when they commit their        
depredations  on the farm-yard4    ,all 
these great men were so completely      
highway robbers1 that from the  time of 
,romulus down to the buccaneers1 the    

only question and concern  were about   
the spolia opima1 the pillage and       
plunder1 the cows and  oxen carried off 
by the hand of violence4 ,mercury1 in   
the fable1 steals  the cows of ,apollo2 
and in the ,old ,testament1 ,isaiah     
assigns the name of  robber to the son  
whom his wife was to bring into the     
world1 and who was  to be an important  
and sacred type4 ,that name was         
,mahershalalhashbaz1  divide speedily   
the soil4 ,we have already observed1    
that the names of  soldier and robber   
were often synonymous4    ,thus then did
 ,william soon become king by divine    
right4 ,william ,rufus1  who usurped the
 crown over his elder brother1 was also 
king by divine  right1 without any      
difficulty2 and the same right attached 
after him to  ,henry1 the third usurper4
    ,the ,norman barons who had joined  
at their own expense in the invasion of 
,england1 were desirous of compensation4
 ,it was necessary to grant it1  and for
 this purpose to make them great        

vassals1 and great officers of  the     
crown4 ,they became possessed of the    
finest estates4 ,it is evident  that    
,william would rather1 had he dared1    
have kept all to himself1 and  made all 
these lords his guards and lackeys4 ,but
 this would have been  too dangerous an 
attempt4 ,he was obliged1 therefore1 to 
divide and  distribute4    ,with respect
 to the ,anglo-,saxon lords1 there was  
no very easy way of  killing1 or even   
making slaves of the whole of them4     
,they were  permitted in their own      
districts1 to enjoy the rank and        
denomination of  lords of the           
manor--seignieurs chtelans4 ,they held  
of the great  ,norman vassals1 who held 
of ,william4    ,by this system         
everything was kept in equilibrium until
 the breaking out  of the first quarrel4
 ,and what became of the rest of the    
nation8 ,the  same that had become of   
nearly all the population of ,europe4   
,they became  serfs or villeins4    ,at 
length1 after the frenzy of the         

,crusades1 the ruined princes sell      
liberty to the serfs of the glebe1 who  
had obtained money by labor and         
commerce4 ,cities are made free1 the    
commons are granted certain  privileges2
 and the rights of men revive even out  
of anarchy itself4    ,the barons were  
everywhere in contention with their     
king1 and with one  another4 ,the       
contention became everywhere a petty    
intestine war1 made up  out of          
numberless civil wars4 ,from this       
abominable and gloomy chaos  appeared a 
feeble gleam1 which enlightened the     
commons1 and considerably  improved     
their situation4    ,the kings of       
,england1 being themselves great vassals
 of ,france for  ,normandy1 and         
afterwards for ,guienne and other       
provinces1 easily adopted  the usages of
 the kings from whom they held4 ,the    
states of the realm  were long made up1 
as in ,france1 of barons and bishops4   
,the ,english court of chancery was an  
imitation of the council of state1  of  

which the chancellor of ,france was     
president4 ,the court of king's  bench  
was formed on the model of the          
parliament instituted by ,philip le     
,bel4 ,the common pleas were like the   
jurisdiction of the chtelat4 ,the  court
 of exchequer resembled that of the     
superintendents of the  finances--gnraux
 des finances--which became1 in ,france1
 the court of  aids4    ,the maxim that 
the king's domain is inalienable is     
evidently taken from  the system of     
,french government4    ,the right of the
 king of ,england to call on his        
subjects to pay his  ransom1 should he  
become a prisoner of war2 that of       
requiring a subsidy  when he married his
 eldest daughter1 and when he conferred 
the honor of  knighthood on his son2 all
 these circumstances call to            
recollection the  ancient usages of a   
kingdom of which ,william was the chief 
vassal4    ,scarcely had ,philip le ,bel
 summoned the commons to the            
states-general1  before ,edward1 king of

 ,england1 adopted the like measure1 in 
order to  balance the great power of the
 barons4 ,for it was under this         
monarch's  reign that the commons were  
first clearly and distinctly summoned to
  parliament4    ,we perceive1 then1    
that up to this epoch in the fourteenth 
century1 the  ,english government       
followed regularly in the steps of      
,france4 ,the two  churches are entirely
 alike2 the same subjection to the court
 of ,rome2  the same exactions which are
 always complained of1 but1 in the end1 
always paid to that rapacious court2 the
 same dissensions1 somewhat  more or    
less violent2 the same excommunications2
 the same donations to  monks2 the same 
chaos2 the same mixture of holy rapine1 
superstition1  and barbarism4    ,as    
,france and ,england1 then1 were for so 
long a period governed by the  same     
principles1 or rather without any       
principle at all1 and merely by  usages 
of a perfectly similar character1 how is
 it that1 at length1 the  two           

governments have become as different as 
those of ,morocco and ,venice8    ,it   
is1 perhaps1 in the first place to be   
ascribed to the circumstance of         
,england1 or rather ,great ,britain1    
being an island1 in consequence of      
which the king has been under no        
necessity of constantly keeping up a    
considerable standing army which might  
more frequently be employed  against the
 nation itself than against foreigners4 
,it may be further observed1 that the   
,english appear to have in the          
structure of their minds something more 
firm1 more reflective1 more             
persevering1 and1 perhaps1 more         
obstinate1 than some other nations4     
,to this latter circumstance it may be  
probably attributed1 that1 after        
incessantly complaining of the court of 
,rome1 they at length completely  shook 
off its disgraceful yoke2 while a people
 of more light and  volatile character  
has continued to wear it1 affecting at  
the same time  to laugh and dance in its

 chains4    ,the insular situation of   
the ,english1 by inducing the necessity 
of  urging to the particular pursuit and
 practice of navigation1 has  probably  
contributed to the result we are here   
considering1 by giving to  the natives a
 certain sternness and ruggedness of    
manners4    ,these stern and rugged     
manners1 which have made their island   
the theatre  of many a bloody tragedy1  
have also contributed1 in all           
probability1 to  inspire a generous     
frankness4    ,it is in consequence of  
this combination of opposite qualities  
that so  much royal blood has been shed 
in the field1 and on the scaffold1 and  
yet poison1 in all their long and       
violent domestic contentions1 has  never
 been resorted to2 whereas1 in other    
countries1 under priestly  domination   
poison has been the prevailing weapon of
 destruction4    ,the love of liberty   
appears to have advanced1 and to have   
characterized  the ,english1 in         
proportion as they have advanced in     

knowledge and in  wealth4 ,all the      
citizens of a state cannot be equally   
powerful1 but they  may be equally free4
 ,and this high point of distinction and
 enjoyment  the ,english1 by their      
firmness and intrepidity1 have at length
 attained4    ,to be free is to be      
dependent only on the laws4 ,the        
,english1 therefore1  have ever loved   
the laws1 as fathers love their         
children1 because they  are1 or at least
 think themselves1 the framers of them4 
,a government like this could be        
established only at a late period2      
because it was necessary long to        
struggle with powers which commanded    
respect1 or at least1 impressed awe--the
 power of the pope1 the most  terrible  
of all1 as it was built on prejudice and
 ignorance2 the royal  power ever       
tending to burst its proper boundary1   
and which it was  requisite1 however    
difficult1 to restrain within it2 the   
power of the  barons1 which was1 in     
fact1 an anarchy2 the power of the      

bishops1 who1  always mixing the sacred 
with the profane1 left no means         
unattempted to  prevail over both barons
 and kings4    ,the house of commons    
gradually became the impregnable mole1  
which  successfully repelled those      
serious and formidable torrents4    ,the
 house of commons is1 in reality1 the   
nation2 for the king1 who is  the head1 
acts only for himself1 and what is      
called his prerogative4 ,the  peers are 
a parliament only for themselves2 and   
the bishops only for  themselves1 in the
 same manner4    ,but the house of      
commons is for the people1 as every     
member of it is  deputed by the people4 
,the people are to the king in the      
proportion of  about eight millions to  
unity4 ,to the peers and bishops they   
are as  eight millions to1 at most1 two 
hundred4 ,and these eight million free  
citizens are represented by the lower   
house4    ,with respect to this         
establishment or constitution--in       
comparison with  which the republic of  

,plato is merely a ridiculous reverie1  
and which  might be thought to have been
 invented by ,locke1 or ,newton1 or     
,halley1  or ,archimedes--it sprang1 in 
fact1 out of abuses1 of a most dreadful 
description1 and such as are calculated 
to make human nature shudder4  ,the     
inevitable friction of this vast machine
 nearly proved its  destruction in the  
days of ,fairfax and ,cromwell4         
,senseless fanaticism  broke into this  
noble edifice1 like a devouring fire    
that consumes a  beautiful building     
formed only of wood4    ,in the time of 
,william the ,third it was rebuilt of   
stone4 ,philosophy  destroyed           
fanaticism1 which convulses to their    
centres states even the  most firm and  
powerful4 ,we cannot easily help        
believing that a  constitution which has
 regulated the rights of king1 lords1   
and people1  and in which every         
individual finds security1 will endure  
as long as  human institutions and      
concerns shall have a being4    ,we     

cannot but believe1 also1 that all      
states not established upon  similar    
principles1 will experience revolutions4
    ,the ,english constitution has1 in  
fact1 arrived at that point of          
excellence1 in consequence of which all 
men are restored to those  natural      
rights1 which1 in nearly all monarchies1
 they are deprived of4  ,these rights   
are1 entire liberty of person and       
property2 freedom of the  press2 the    
right of being tried in all criminal    
cases by a jury of  independent men--the
 right of being tried only according to 
the strict  letter of the law2 and the  
right of every man to profess1          
unmolested1  what religion he chooses1  
while he renounces offices1 which the   
members  of the ,anglican or established
 church alone can hold4 ,these are      
denominated privileges4 ,and1 in truth1 
invaluable privileges they are  in      
comparison with the usages of most other
 nations of the world6 ,to be  secure on
 lying down that you shall rise in      

possession of the same  property with   
which you retired to rest2 that you     
shall not be torn from  the arms of your
 wife1 and from your children1 in the   
dead of night1 to  be thrown into a     
dungeon1 or buried in exile in a desert2
 that1 when  rising from the bed of     
sleep1 you will have the power of       
publishing all  your thoughts2 and that1
 if you are accused of having either    
acted1  spoken1 or written wrongly1 you 
can be tried only according to law4     
,these privileges attach to every one   
who sets his foot on ,english  ground4  
,a foreigner enjoys perfect liberty to  
dispose of his property  and person2    
and1 if accused of any offence1 he can  
demand that half the  jury shall be     
composed of foreigners4    ,i will      
venture to assert1 that1 were the human 
race solemnly assembled  for the purpose
 of making laws1 such are the laws they 
would make for  their security4 ,why    
then are they not adopted in other      
countries8 ,but  would it not be equally

 judicious to ask1 why cocoanuts1 which 
are  brought to maturity in ,india1 do  
not ripen at ,rome8 ,you answer1 these  
cocoanuts did not always1 or for some   
time1 come to maturity in ,england2     
that the trees have not been long       
cultivated2 that ,sweden1 following her 
example1 planted and nursed some of them
 for several years1 but that  they did  
not thrive2 and that it is possible to  
produce such fruit in  other provinces1 
even in ,bosnia and ,servia4 ,try and   
plant the tree then4    ,and you who    
bear authority over these benighted     
people1 whether under  the name of      
pasha1 effendi1 or mollah1 let me advise
 you1 although an  unpromising subject  
for advice1 not to act the stupid as    
well as  barbarous part of riveting your
 nations in chains4 ,reflect1 that the  
heavier you make the people's yoke1 the 
more completely your own  children1 who 
cannot all of them be pashas1 will be   
slaves4 ,surely you  would not be so    
contemptible a wretch as to expose your 

whole posterity  to groan in chains1 for
 the sake of enjoying a subaltern       
tyranny for a  few days6 ,oh1 how great 
at present is the distance between an   
,englishman  and a ,bosnian6            
,,section ,,vii4    ,the mixture now    
existing in the government of           
,england--this concert  between the     
commons1 the lords1 and the king--did   
not exist always4  ,england was long a  
slave4 ,she was so to the ,romans1 the  
,saxons1 ,danes1  and ,french4 ,william 
the ,conqueror1 in particular1 ruled her
 with a  sceptre of iron4 ,he disposed  
of the properties and lives of his new  
subjects like an ,oriental despot2 he   
prohibited them from having either  fire
 or candle in their houses after eight  
o'clock at night1 under pain  of death3 
his object being either to prevent      
nocturnal assemblies among  them1 or    
merely1 by so capricious and extravagant
 a prohibition1 to  show how far the    
power of some men can extend over       
others4 ,it is true1  that both before  

as well as after ,william the           
,conqueror1 the ,english had            
parliaments2 they made a boast of them2 
as if the assemblies then called        
parliaments1 made up of tyrannical      
churchmen and baronial robbers1 had     
been the guardians of public freedom and
 happiness4    ,the barbarians1 who1    
from the shores of the ,baltic poured   
over the rest  of ,europe1 brought with 
them the usage of states or parliaments1
 about  which a vast deal is said and   
very little known4 ,the kings were not  
despotic1 it is true2 and it was        
precisely on this account that the      
people groaned in miserable slavery4    
,the chiefs of these savages1 who  had  
ravaged ,france1 ,italy1 ,spain1 and    
,england1 made themselves monarchs4     
,their captains divided among themselves
 the estates of the vanquished2  hence1 
the margraves1 lairds1 barons1 and the  
whole series of the  subaltern tyrants1 
who often contested the spoils of the   
people with the  monarchs1 recently     

advanced to the throne and not firmly   
fixed on it4  ,these were all birds of  
prey1 battling with the eagle1 in order 
to suck  the blood of the doves4 ,every 
nation1 instead of one good master1 had 
a  hundred tyrants4 ,the priests soon   
took part in the contest4 ,from time    
immemorial it had been the fate of the  
,gauls1 the ,germans1 and the  islanders
 of ,england1 to be governed by their   
druids and the chiefs of  their         
villages1 an ancient species of barons1 
but less tyrannical than  their         
successors4 ,these druids called        
themselves mediators between ,god  and  
men2 they legislated1 they              
excommunicated1 they had the power of   
life and death4 ,the bishops gradually  
succeeded to the authority of the       
druids1 under the ,goth and ,vandal     
government4 ,the popes put themselves   
at their head2 and1 with briefs1 bulls1 
and monks1 struck terror into  the      
hearts of kings1 whom they sometimes    
dethroned and occasionally  caused to be

 assassinated1 and drew to themselves1  
as nearly as they  were able1 all the   
money of ,europe4 ,the imbecile ,ina1   
one of the tyrants  of the ,english     
heptarchy1 was the first who1 on a      
pilgrimage to ,rome1  submitted to pay  
,st4 ,peter's penny--which was about a  
crown of our  money--for every house    
within his territory4 ,the whole island 
soon  followed this example2 ,england   
gradually became a province of the pope2
  and the holy father sent over his     
legates1 from time to time1 to levy     
upon it his exorbitant imposts4 ,john1  
called ,lackland1 at length made a  full
 and formal cession of his kingdom to   
his holiness1 by whom he had  been      
excommunicated2 the barons1 who did not 
at all find their account  in this      
proceeding1 expelled that contemptible  
king1 and substituted in  his room      
,louis ,,viii41 father of ,st4 ,louis1  
king of ,france4 ,but they soon  became 
disgusted with the new-comer1 and       
obliged him to recross the sea4         

,while the barons1 bishops1 and popes   
were thus harassing and tearing  asunder
 ,england1 where each of the parties    
strove eagerly to be the  dominant one1 
the people1 who form the most numerous1 
useful1 and  virtuous portion of a      
community1 consisting of those who study
 the laws  and sciences1 merchants1     
artisans1 and even peasants1 who        
exercise at  once the most important and
 the most despised of occupations2 the  
people1 ,i say1 were looked down upon   
equally by all these combatants1 as  a  
species of beings inferior to mankind4  
,far1 indeed1 at that time1 were  the   
commons from having the slightest       
participation in the government3  they  
were villeins1 or serfs of the soil2    
both their labor and their  blood       
belonged to their masters1 who were     
called nobles4 ,the greater  number of  
men in ,europe were what they still     
continue to be in many  parts of the    
world--the serfs of a lord1 a species of
 cattle bought and  sold together with  

the land4 ,it required centuries to get 
justice done  to humanity2 to produce an
 adequate impression of the odious and  
execrable nature of the system1         
according to which the many sow1 and    
only the few reap2 and surely it may    
even be considered fortunate for        
,france that the powers of these petty  
robbers were extinguished there by  the 
legitimate authority of kings1 as it was
 in ,england by that of the  king and   
nation united4    ,happily1 in          
consequence of the convulsions of       
empires by the contests  between        
sovereigns and nobles1 the chains of    
nations are more or less  relaxed4 ,the 
barons compelled ,john 7,lackland7 and  
,henry ,,iii to grant the  famous       
charter1 the great object of which1 in  
reality1 was to place the  king in      
dependence on the lords1 but in which   
the rest of the nation  was a little    
favored1 to induce it1 when occasion    
might require1 to  range itself in the  
ranks of its pretended protectors4 ,this

 great  charter1 which is regarded as   
the sacred origin of ,english liberties1
  itself clearly shows how very little  
liberty was understood4 ,the very  title
 proves that the king considered himself
 absolute by right1 and  that the barons
 and clergy compelled him to abate his  
claim to this  absolute power only by   
the application of superior force4      
,these are the  words with which ,magna 
,charta begins3 ,we grant1 of our free  
will1 the  following privileges to the  
archbishops1 bishops1 abbots1 priors1   
and  barons1 of our kingdom1 etc4       
,throughout the articles of it1 not a   
word  is said of the house of commons2 a
 proof that it did not then exist1 or   
that it existed without power4 ,the     
freemen of ,england are specified in    
it1 a melancholy demonstration that     
there were men who were not free4 ,we   
perceive1 from the thirty-seventh       
article1 that the pretended freemen     
owed service to their lord4 ,liberty of 
such a description had but too  strong a

 similarity to bondage4 ,by the         
twenty-first article1 the king  ordains 
that henceforward his officers shall not
 take away the horses  and ploughs of   
freemen1 without paying for them4 ,this 
regulation was  considered by the people
 as true liberty1 because it freed them 
from a  greater tyranny4 ,henry ,,vii41 
a successful warrior and politician1 who
  pretended great attachment to the     
barons1 but who cordially hated and     
feared them1 granted them permission to 
alienate their lands4 ,in  consequence  
of this1 the villeins1 who by their     
industry and skill  accumulated         
property1 in the course of time became  
purchasers of the  castles of the       
illustrious nobles who had ruined       
themselves by their  extravagance1 and1 
gradually1 nearly all the landed        
property of the  kingdom changed        
masters4    ,the house of commons now   
advanced in power every day4 ,the       
families of  the old nobility became    
extinct in the progress of time2 and1 as

 in  ,england1 correctly speaking1 peers
 only are nobles1 there would scarcely  
have been any nobles in the country1 if 
the kings had not1 from time to  time1  
created new barons1 and kept up the body
 of peers1 whom they had  formerly so   
much dreaded1 to counteract that of the 
commons1 now become  too formidable4    
,all the new peers1 who compose the     
upper house1 receive  from the king     
their title and nothing more1 since none
 of them have the  property of the lands
 of which they bear the names4 ,one is  
duke of  ,dorset1 without possessing a  
single foot of land in ,dorsetshire2    
another  is an earl under the name of a 
certain village1 yet scarcely knowing   
where that village is situated4 ,they   
have power in the parliament1 and       
nowhere else4    ,you hear no mention1  
in this country1 of the high1 middle1   
and low  courts of justice1 nor of the  
right of chase over the lands of private
  citizens1 who have no right to fire a 
gun on their own estates4    ,a man is  

not exempted from paying particular     
taxes because he is a  noble or a       
clergyman4 ,all imposts are regulated by
 the house of commons1  which1 although 
subordinate in rank1 is superior in     
credit to that of  the lords4 ,the peers
 and bishops may reject a bill sent up  
to them by  the commons1 when the object
 is to raise money1 but they can make no
  alteration in it3 they must admit it  
or reject it1 without restriction4      
,when the bill is confirmed by the      
lords1 and assented to by the king1     
then all the classes of the nation      
contribute4 ,every man pays1 not        
according to his rank--which would be   
absurd--but according to his  revenue4  
,there is no arbitrary faille or        
capitation1 but a real tax on  lands4   
,these were all valued in the reign of  
the celebrated ,king  ,william4 ,the tax
 exists still unaltered1 although the   
rents of lands  have considerably       
increased2 thus no one is oppressed1 and
 no one  complains4 ,the feet of the    

cultivator are not bruised and mutilated
 by  wooden shoes2 he eats white bread2 
he is well clothed4 ,he is not afraid   
to increase his farming-stock1 nor to   
roof his cottage with tiles1 lest  the  
following year should1 in consequence1  
bring with it an increase of  taxation4 
,there are numerous farmers who have an 
income of about five or  six hundred    
pounds sterling1 and still disdain not  
to cultivate the land  which has        
enriched them1 and on which they enjoy  
the blessing of  freedom4      ,,section
 ,,viii4    ,the reader well knows that 
in ,spain1 near the coast of ,malaga1   
there was  discovered1 in the reign of  
,philip ,,ii41 a small community1 until 
then  unknown1 concealed in the recesses
 of the ,alpuxarras mountains4 ,this    
chain of inaccessible rocks is          
intersected by luxuriant valleys1 and   
these valleys are still cultivated by   
the descendants of the ,moors1 who  were
 forced1 for their own happiness1 to    
become ,christians1 or at least  to     

appear such4    ,among these ,moors1 as 
,i was stating1 there was1 in the time  
of ,philip1 a  small society1 inhabiting
 a valley to which there existed no     
access but  through caverns4 ,this      
valley is situated between ,pitos and   
,portugos4 ,the  inhabitants of this    
secluded abode were almost unknown to   
the ,moors  themselves4 ,they spoke a   
language that was neither ,spanish nor  
,arabic1  and which was thought to be   
derived from that of the ancient        
,carthaginians4    ,this society had but
 little increased in numbers3 the reason
 alleged for  which was that the ,arabs1
 their neighbors1 and before their time 
the  ,africans1 were in the practice of 
coming and taking from them the young   
women4    ,these poor and humble1 but   
nevertheless happy1 people1 had never   
heard  any mention of the ,christian or 
,jewish religions2 and knew very little 
about that of ,mahomet1 not holding it  
in any estimation4 ,they offered  up1   
from time immemorial1 milk and fruits to

 a statue of ,hercules4 ,this  was the  
amount of their religion4 ,as to other  
matters1 they spent their  days in      
indolence and innocence4 ,they were at  
length discovered by a  familiar of the 
,inquisition4 ,the grand inquisitor had 
the whole of them  burned4 ,this is the 
sole event of their history4    ,the    
hallowed motives of their condemnation  
were1 that they had never  paid taxes1  
although1 in fact1 none had ever been   
demanded of them1 and  they were totally
 unacquainted with money2 that they were
 not possessed  of any ,bible1 although 
they did not understand ,latin2 and that
 no person  had been at the pains of    
baptizing them4 ,they were all invested 
with the  san benito1 and broiled to    
death with becoming ceremony4    ,it is 
evident that this is a specimen of the  
true system of government2  nothing can 
so completely contribute to the content1
 harmony1 and  happiness of society4    
,,gourd ,,or ,,calabash4      ,this     
fruit grows in ,america on the branches 

of a tree as high as the  tallest oaks4 
,thus1 ,matthew ,garo1 who is thought so
 wrong in ,europe for finding fault     
with gourds creeping on the ground1     
would have been right in ,mexico4 ,he   
would have been still more in the right 
in ,india1 where cocoas are very        
elevated4 ,this proves that we should   
never hasten to conclusions4 ,what  ,god
 has made1 ,he has made well1 no doubt2 
and has placed his gourds on  the ground
 in our climates1 lest1 in falling from 
on high1 they should  break ,matthew    
,garo's nose4    ,the calabash will only
 be introduced here to show that we     
should  mistrust the idea that all was  
made for man4 ,there are people who     
pretend that the turf is only green to  
refresh the sight4 ,it would  appear1   
however1 that it is rather made for the 
animals who nibble it  than for man1 to 
whom dog-grass and trefoil are useless4 
,if nature has  produced the trees in   
favor of some species1 it is difficult  
to say to  which she has given the      

preference4 ,leaves1 and even bark1     
nourish a  prodigious multitude of      
insects3 birds eat their fruits1 and    
inhabit  their branches1 in which they  
build their industriously formed nests1 
while the flocks repose under their     
shades4    ,the author of the ,spectacle
 de la ,nature pretends that the sea has
 a  flux and reflux1 only to facilitate 
the going out and coming in of our      
vessels4 ,it appears that even ,matthew 
,garo reasoned better2 the              
,mediterranean1 on which so many vessels
 sail1 and which only has a tide  in    
three or four places1 destroys the      
opinion of this philosopher4    ,let us 
enjoy what we have1 without believing   
ourselves the centre and  object of all 
things4          ,,grace4      ,in      
persons and works1 grace signifies1 not 
only that which is pleasing1  but that  
which is attractive2 so that the        
ancients imagined that the  goddess of  
beauty ought never to appear without the
 graces4 ,beauty never  displeases1 but 

it may be deprived of this secret charm1
 which invites  us to regard it1 and    
sentimentally attracts and fills the    
soul4 ,grace  in figure1 carriage1      
action1 discourse1 depends on its       
attractive  merit4 ,a beautiful woman   
will have no grace1 if her mouth be shut
  without a smile1 and if her eyes      
display no sweetness4 ,the serious is   
not always graceful1 because            
unattractive1 and approaching too near  
to  the severe1 which repels4    ,a     
well-made man whose carriage is timid or
 constrained1 gait precipitate  or      
heavy1 and gestures awkward1 has no     
gracefulness1 because he has  nothing   
gentle or attractive in his exterior4   
,the voice of an orator  which wants    
flexibility or softness is without      
grace4    ,it is the same in all the    
arts4 ,proportion and beauty may not be 
graceful4 ,it cannot be said that the   
pyramids of ,egypt are graceful2 it     
cannot be said that the ,colossus of    
,rhodes is as much so as the ,venus of  

,cnidus4 ,all that is merely strong and 
vigorous exhibits not the charm of      
grace4    ,it would show but small      
acquaintance with ,michelangelo and     
,caravaggio to  attribute to them the   
grace of ,albano4 ,the sixth book of the
 neid is  sublime2 the fourth has more  
grace4 ,some of the gallant odes of     
,horace  breathe gracefulness1 as some  
of his epistles cultivate reason4    ,it
 seems1 in general1 that the little and 
pretty of all kinds are more            
susceptible of grace than the large4 ,a 
funeral oration1 a tragedy1 or a        
sermon1 are badly praised1 if they are  
only honored with the epithet of        
graceful4    ,it is not good for any    
kind of work to be opposed to grace1 for
 its  opposite is rudeness1 barbarity1  
and dryness4 ,the ,hercules of ,farnese 
should not have the gracefulness of the 
,apollo of ,belvidere and of  ,antinous1
 but it is neither rude nor clumsy4 ,the
 burning of ,troy is not  described by  
,virgil with the graces of an elegy of  

,tibullus3 it pleases  by stronger      
beauties4 ,a work1 then1 may be deprived
 of grace1 without  being in the least  
disagreeable4 ,the terrible1 or         
horrible1 in  description1 is not to be 
graceful1 neither should it solely      
affect its  opposite2 for if an artist1 
whatever branch he may cultivate1       
expresses  only frightful things1 and   
softens them not by agreeable contrasts1
 he  will repel4    ,grace1 in painting 
and sculpture1 consists in softness of  
outline and  harmonious expression2 and 
painting1 next to sculpture1 has grace  
in the  unison of parts1 and of figures 
which animate one another1 and which    
become agreeable by their attributes and
 their expression4    ,graces of        
diction1 whether in eloquence or poetry1
 depend on choice of  words and harmony 
of phrases1 and still more upon delicacy
 of ideas and  smiling descriptions4    
,the abuse of grace is affectation1 as  
the abuse of  the sublime is absurdity2 
all perfection is nearly a fault4    ,to

 have grace applies equally to persons  
and things4 ,this dress1 this  work1 or 
that woman1 is graceful4 ,what is called
 a good grace applies to  manner alone4 
,she presents herself with good grace4  
,he has done that  which was expected of
 him with a good grace4 ,to possess the 
graces3  ,this woman has grace in her   
carriage1 in all that she says and does4
    ,to obtain grace is1 by a metaphor1 
to obtain pardon1 as to grant grace  is 
to grant pardon4 ,we make grace of one  
thing by taking away all the  rest4 ,the
 commissioners took all his effects and 
made him a gift--a  grace--of his money4
 ,to grant graces1 to diffuse graces1 is
 the finest  privilege of the           
sovereignty2 it is to do good by        
something more than  justice4 ,to have  
one's good graces is usually said in    
relation to a  superior3 to have a      
lady's good graces1 is to be her        
favorite lover4 ,to  be in grace1 is    
said of a courtier who has been in      
disgrace3 we should  not allow our      

happiness to depend on the one1 nor our 
misery on the  other4 ,graces1 in       
,greek1 are charities2 a term which     
signifies  amiable4    ,the graces1     
divinities of antiquity1 are one of the 
most beautiful  allegories of the ,greek
 mythology4 ,as this mythology always   
varied  according either to the         
imagination of the poets1 who were its  
theologians1 or to the customs of the   
people1 the number1 names1 and          
attributes of the graces often change2  
but it was at last agreed to fix  them  
as three1 ,aglaia1 ,thalia1 and         
,euphrosyne1 that is to say1  sparkling1
 blooming1 mirthful4 ,they were always  
near ,venus4 ,no veil  should cover     
their charms4 ,they preside over favors1
 concord1  rejoicings1 love1 and even   
eloquence2 they were the sensible emblem
 of  all that can render life agreeable4
 ,they were painted dancing and  holding
 hands2 and every one who entered their 
temples was crowned with  flowers4      
,those who have condemned the fabulous  

mythology should at least  acknowledge  
the merit of these lively fictions1     
which announce truths  intimately       
connected with the felicity of mankind4 
,,grace 7,,of74      ,,section ,i4      
,this term1 which signifies favor or    
privilege1 is employed in this sense  by
 theologians4 ,they call grace a        
particular operation of ,god on         
mankind1 intended to render them just   
and happy4 ,some have admitted          
universal grace1 that which ,god gives  
to all men1 though mankind1  according  
to them1 with the exception of a very   
small number1 will be  delivered to     
eternal flames3 others admit grace      
towards ,christians of  their communion 
only2 and lastly1 others only for the   
elect of that  communion4    ,it is     
evident that a general grace1 which     
leaves the universe in vice1  error1 and
 eternal misery1 is not a grace1 a      
favor1 or privilege1 but a              
contradiction in terms4    ,particular  
grace1 according to theologians1 is     

either in the first place  sufficing1   
which if resisted1 suffices             
not--resembling a pardon given  by a    
king to a criminal1 who is nevertheless 
delivered over to the  punishment2 or   
efficacious when it is not resisted1    
although it may  be resisted2 in this   
case1 they just resemble famished guests
 to whom  are presented delicious       
viands1 of which they will surely eat1  
though1  in general1 they may be        
supposed at liberty not to eat2 or      
necessary1  that is1 unavoidable1 being 
nothing more than the chain of eternal  
decrees and events4 ,we shall take care 
not to enter into the long and          
appalling details1 subtleties1 and      
sophisms1 with which these questions    
are embarrassed4 ,the object of this    
dictionary is not to be the vain  echo  
of vain disputes4    ,st4 ,thomas calls 
grace a substantial form1 and the       
,jesuit ,bouhours names  it a je ne sais
 quoi2 this is perhaps the best         
definition which has  ever been given of

 it4    ,if the theologians had wanted a
 subject on which to ridicule           
,providence1  they need not have taken  
any other than that which they have     
chosen4 ,on  one side the ,thomists     
assure us that man1 in receiving        
efficacious  grace1 is not free in the  
compound sense1 but that he is free in  
the  divided sense2 on the other1 the   
,molinists invent the medium doctrine of
  ,god and congruity1 and imagine       
exciting1 preventing1 concomitant1 and  
co-operating grace4    ,let us quit     
these bad but seriously constructed     
jokes of the  theologians2 let us leave 
their books1 and each consult his common
  sense2 when he will see that all these
 reasoners have sagaciously  deceived   
themselves1 because they have reasoned  
upon a principle  evidently false4 ,they
 have supposed that ,god acts upon      
particular views2  now1 an eternal ,god1
 without general1 immutable1 and eternal
 laws1 is  an imaginary being1 a        
phantom1 a god of fable4    ,why1 in all

 religions on which men pique themselves
 on reasoning1 have  theologians been   
forced to admit this grace which they do
 not  comprehend8 ,it is that they would
 have salvation confined to their own   
sect1 and further1 they would have this 
salvation divided among those  who are  
the most submissive to themselves4      
,these particular theologians1  or      
chiefs of parties1 divide among         
themselves4 ,the ,mussulman doctors     
entertain similar opinions and similar  
disputes1 because they have the  same   
interest to actuate them2 but the       
universal theologian1 that is to  say1  
the true philosopher1 sees that it is   
contradictory for nature to  act on     
particular or single views2 that it is  
ridiculous to imagine ,god  occupying   
,himself in forcing one man in ,europe  
to obey ,him1 while ,he  leaves all the 
,asiatics intractable2 to suppose ,him  
wrestling with  another man who         
sometimes submits1 and sometimes disarms
 ,him1 and  presenting to another a     

help1 which is nevertheless useless4    
,such grace1  considered in a true point
 of view1 is an absurdity4 ,the         
prodigious mass  of books composed on   
this subject is often an exercise of    
intellect1 but  always the shame of     
reason4      ,,section ,,ii4    ,all    
nature1 all that exists1 is the grace of
 ,god2 ,he bestows on all  animals the  
grace of form and nourishment4 ,the     
grace of growing seventy  feet high is  
granted to the fir1 and refused to the  
reed4 ,he gives to  man the grace of    
thinking1 speaking1 and knowing him2 ,he
 grants me the  grace of not            
understanding a word of all that        
,tournelli1 ,molina1 and  ,soto1 have   
written on the subject of grace4    ,the
 first who has spoken of efficacious and
 gratuitous grace is1 without           
contradiction1 ,homer4 ,this may be     
astonishing to a bachelor of theology1  
who knows no author but ,st4 ,augustine2
 but1 if he read the third book of  the 
,iliad1 he will see that ,paris says to 

his brother ,hector3 ,if the  gods have 
given you valor1 and me beauty1 do not  
reproach me with the  presents of the   
beautiful ,venus2 no gift of the gods is
 despicable--it  does not depend upon   
man to obtain them4    ,nothing is more 
positive than this passage4 ,if we      
further remark that  ,jupiter1 according
 to his pleasure1 gave the victory      
sometimes to the  ,greeks1 and at others
 to the ,trojans1 we shall see a new    
proof that all  was done by grace from  
on high4 ,sarpedon1 and afterwards      
,patroclus1 are  barbarians to whom by  
turns grace has been wanting4    ,there 
have been philosophers who were not of  
the opinion of ,homer4 ,they  have      
pretended that general ,providence does 
not immediately interfere  with the     
affairs of particular individuals2 that 
it governs all by  universal laws2 that 
,thersites and ,achilles were equal     
before it1 and  that neither ,chalcas   
nor ,talthybius ever had versatile or   
congruous  graces4    ,according to     

these philosophers1 the dog-grass and   
the oak1 the mite and  the elephant1    
man1 the elements and stars1 obey       
invariable laws1 which  ,god1 as        
immutable1 has established from all     
eternity4      ,,section ,,iii4    ,if  
one were to come from the bottom of     
hell1 to say to us on the part of  the  
devil--,gentlemen1 ,i must inform you   
that our sovereign lord has  taken all  
mankind for his share1 except a small   
number of people who  live near the     
,vatican and its dependencies--we should
 all pray of this  deputy to inscribe us
 on the list of the privileged2 we      
should ask him  what we must do to      
obtain this grace4    ,if he were to    
answer1 ,you cannot merit it1 my master 
has made the list  from the beginning of
 time2 he has only listened to his own  
pleasure1 he  is continually occupied in
 making an infinity of pots-de-chambre  
and  some dozen gold vases2 if you are  
pots-de-chambre so much the worse  for  
you4    ,at these fine words we should  

use our pitchforks to send the          
ambassador  back to his master4 ,this   
is1 however1 what we have dared to      
impute to  ,god---to the eternal and    
sovereignly good being6    ,man has been
 always reproached with having made ,god
 in his own image1  ,homer has been     
condemned for having transported all the
 vices and  follies of earth into       
heaven4 ,plato1 who has thus justly     
reproached him1  has not hesitated to   
call him a blasphemer2 while we1 a      
hundred times  more thoughtless1 hardy1 
and blaspheming than this ,greek1 who   
did not  understand conventional        
language1 devoutly accuse ,god of a     
thing of  which we have never accused   
the worst of men4    ,it is said that   
the king of ,morocco1 ,muley ,ismael1   
had five hundred  children4 ,what would 
you say if a marabout of ,mount ,atlas  
related to you  that the wise and good  
,muley ,ismael1 dining with his family1 
at the  close of the repast1 spoke thus3
    ,i am ,muley ,ismael1 who has       

forgotten you for my glory1 for ,i am   
very  glorious4 ,i love you very        
tenderly1 ,i shelter you as a hen covers
 her  chickens2 ,i have decreed that one
 of my youngest children shall have the 
kingdom of ,tafilet1 and that another   
shall possess ,morocco2 and for my      
other dear children1 to the number of   
four hundred and ninety-eight1 ,i  order
 that one-half shall be tortured1 and   
the other half burned1 for ,i  am the   
,lord ,muley ,ismael4    ,you would     
assuredly take the marabout for the     
greatest fool that ,africa  ever        
produced2 but if three or four thousand 
marabouts1 well entertained  at your    
expense1 were to repeat to you the same 
story1 what would you  do8 ,would you   
not be tempted to make them fast upon   
bread and water  until they recovered   
their senses8    ,you will allege that  
my indignation is reasonable enough     
against the  supralapsarians1 who       
believe that the king of ,morocco begot 
these five  hundred children only for   

his glory2 and that he had always the   
intention to torture and burn them1     
except two1 who were destined to  reign4
    ,but ,i am wrong1 you say1 against  
the infralapsarians1 who avow that it   
was not the first intention of ,muley   
,ismael to cause his children to        
perish2 but that1 having foreseen that  
they would be of no use1 he  thought he 
should be acting as a good father in    
getting rid of them by  torture and     
fire4    ,ah1 supralapsarians1          
infralapsarians1 free-gracians1         
sufficers1  efficacians1 jansenists1 and
 molinists become men1 and no longer    
trouble  the earth with such absurd and 
abominable fooleries4      ,,section    
,,iv4    ,holy advisers of modern ,rome1
 illustrious and infallible theologians1
 no  one has more respect for your      
divine decisions than ,i2 but if ,paulus
  milius1 ,scipio1 ,cato1 ,cicero1      
,csar1 ,titus1 ,trajan1 or ,marcus      
,aurelius1  revisited that ,rome to     
which they formerly did such credit1 you

 must  confess that they would be a     
little astonished at your decisions on  
grace4 ,what would they say if they     
heard you speak of healthful grace      
according to ,st4 ,thomas1 and medicinal
 grace according to ,cajetan2 of        
exterior and interior grace1 of free1   
sanctifying1 co-operating1 actual1      
habitual1 and efficacious grace1 which  
is sometimes inefficacious2 of  the     
sufficing which sometimes does not      
suffice1 of the versatile and           
congruous--would they really comprehend 
it more than you and ,i8    ,what need  
would these poor people have of your    
instructions8 ,i fancy ,i  hear them    
say3 ,reverend fathers1 you are terrible
 genii2 we foolishly  thought that the  
,eternal ,being never conducted ,himself
 by particular  laws like vile human    
beings1 but by general laws1 eternal    
like ,himself4  ,no one among us ever   
imagined that ,god was like a senseless 
master1 who  gives an estate to one     
slave and refuses food to another2 who  

orders one  with a broken arm to knead a
 loaf1 and a cripple to be his courier4 
,all is grace on the part of ,god2 ,he  
has given to the globe we inhabit  the  
grace of form2 to the trees the grace of
 making them grow2 to  animals that of  
feeding them2 but will you say1 because 
one wolf finds  in his road a lamb for  
his supper1 while another is dying with 
hunger1  that ,god has given the first  
wolf a particular grace8 ,is it a       
preventive  grace to cause one oak to   
grow in preference to another in which  
sap is  wanting8 ,if throughout nature  
all being is submitted to general laws1 
how can a single species of animals     
avoid conforming to them8    ,why should
 the absolute master of all be more     
occupied in directing the  interior of a
 single man than in conducting the      
remainder of entire  nature8 ,by what   
caprice would ,he change something in   
the heart of a  ,courlander or a        
,biscayan1 while ,he changes nothing in 
the general laws  which ,he has imposed 

upon all the stars4    ,what a pity to  
suppose that ,he is continually making1 
defacing1 and  renewing our sentiments6 
,and what audacity in us to believe     
ourselves  excepted from all beings6    
,and further1 is it not only for those  
who  confess that these changes are     
imagined8 ,a ,savoyard1 a ,bergamask1 on
  ,monday1 will have the grace to have a
 mass said for twelve sous2 on  ,tuesday
 he will go to the tavern and have no   
grace2 on ,wednesday he will  have a    
co-operating grace1 which will conduct  
him to confession1 but he  will not have
 the efficacious grace of perfect       
contrition2 on ,thursday  there will be 
a sufficing grace which will not        
suffice1 as has been  already said4 ,god
 will labor in the head of this         
,bergamask--sometimes  strongly1        
sometimes weakly1 while the rest of the 
earth will no way  concern ,him6 ,he    
will not deign to meddle with the       
interior of the  ,indians and ,chinese6 
,if you possess a grain of reason1      

reverend fathers1  do you not find this 
system prodigiously ridiculous8         
,poor1 miserable man6 behold this oak   
which rears its head to the clouds1  and
 this reed which bends at its feet2 you 
do not say that efficacious  grace has  
been given to the oak and withheld from 
the reed4 ,raise your  eyes to heaven2  
see the eternal ,demiourgos creating    
millions of worlds1  which gravitate    
towards one another by general and      
eternal laws4 ,see the  same light      
reflected from the sun to ,saturn1 and  
from ,saturn to us2 and  in this grant  
of so many stars1 urged onward in their 
rapid course2 in  this general obedience
 of all nature1 dare to believe1 if you 
can1 that  ,god is occupied in giving a 
versatile grace to ,sister ,theresa1 or 
a  concomitant one to ,sister ,agnes4   
,atom--to which another foolish atom has
 said that the ,eternal has  particular 
laws for some atoms of thy neighborhood2
 that ,he gives ,his  grace to that one 
and refuses it to this2 that such as had

 not grace  yesterday shall have it     
to-morrow--repeat not this folly4 ,god  
has made  the universe1 and creates not 
new winds to remove a few straws in one 
corner of the universe4 ,theologians are
 like the combatants in ,homer1  who    
believed that the gods were sometimes   
armed for and sometimes  against them4  
,had ,homer not been considered a poet1 
he would be deemed a  blasphemer4    ,it
 is ,marcus ,aurelius who speaks1 and   
not ,i2 for ,god1 who inspires you1  has
 given me grace to believe all that you 
say1 all that you have said1  and all   
that you will say4                      
,,grave--,,gravity4      ,grave1 in its 
moral meaning1 always corresponds with  
its physical one2  it expresses         
something of weight2 thus1 we say--a    
person1 an author1 or  a maxim of       
weight1 for a grave person1 author1 or  
maxim4 ,the grave is to  the serious    
what the lively is to the agreeable4 ,it
 is one degree more  of the same thing1 
and that degree a considerable one4 ,a  

man may be  serious by temperament1 and 
even from want of ideas4 ,he is grave1  
either  from a sense of decorum1 or from
 having ideas of depth and importance1  
which induce gravity4 ,there is a       
difference between being grave and      
being a grave man4 ,it is a fault to be 
unseasonably grave4 ,he who is  grave in
 society is seldom much sought for2 but 
a grave man is one who  acquires        
influence and authority more by his real
 wisdom than his  external carriage4    
,tum pietate gravem ac meritis si forte 
virum quem       ,conspexere1 silent1   
adrectisque auribus adstant4            
--,,virgil',s neid1 i4 #aea4         ,if
 then some grave and pious man appear1  
,they hush their noise1 and lend a      
listening ear4                          
--,,dryden4    ,a decorous air should be
 always preserved1 but a grave air is   
becoming  only in the function of some  
high and important office1 as1 for      
example1  in council4 ,when gravity     
consists1 as is frequently the case1    

only in  the exterior carriage1         
frivolous remarks are delivered with a  
pompous  solemnity1 exciting at once    
ridicule and aversion4 ,we do not easily
  pardon those who wish to impose upon  
us by this air of consequence and       
self-sufficiency4    ,the duke de ,la   
,rochefoucauld said ,gravity is a       
mysteriousness of body  assumed in order
 to conceal defects of mind4 ,without   
investigating  whether the phrase       
mysteriousness of body is natural and   
judicious1 it  is sufficient to observe 
that the remark is applicable to all who
 affect  gravity1 but not to those who  
merely exhibit a gravity suitable to the
  office they hold1 the place where they
 are1 or the business in which  they are
 engaged4    ,a grave author is one     
whose opinions relate to matters        
obviously  disputable4 ,we never apply  
the term to one who has written on      
subjects  which admit no doubt or       
controversy4 ,it would be ridiculous to 
call  ,euclid and ,archimedes grave     

authors4    ,gravity is applicable to   
style4 ,livy and de ,thou have written  
with  gravity4 ,the same observations   
cannot with propriety be applied to     
,tacitus1 whose object was brevity1 and 
who has displayed malignity2  still less
 can it be applied to ,cardinal de      
,retz1 who sometimes infuses  into his  
writings a misplaced gayety1 and        
sometimes even forgets  decency4    ,the
 grave style declines all sallies of wit
 or pleasantry2 if it  sometimes reaches
 the sublime1 if on any particular      
occasion it is  pathetic1 it speedily   
returns to the didactic wisdom and noble
  simplicity which habitually           
characterizes it2 it possesses strength 
without daring4 ,its greatest difficulty
 is to avoid monotony4    ,a grave      
affair 7affaire71 a grave case 7cas71 is
 used concerning a  criminal rather than
 a civil process4 ,a grave disease      
implies danger4                         
,,great--,,greatness4    ,of the        
,meaning of ,these ,words4    ,great is 

one of those words which are most       
frequently used in a moral  sense1 and  
with the least consideration and        
judgment4 ,great man1 great  genius1    
great captain1 great philosopher1 great 
poet2 we mean by this  language one who 
has far exceeded ordinary limits4 ,but1 
as it is  difficult to define those     
limits1 the epithet great is often      
applied  to those who possess only      
mediocrity4    ,this term is less vague 
and doubtful when applied to material   
than to  moral subjects4 ,we know what  
is meant by a great storm1 a great      
misfortune1 a great disease1 great      
property1 great misery4    ,the term    
large 7gros7 is sometimes used with     
respect to subjects of  the latter      
description1 that is1 material ones1 as 
equivalent to great1  but never with    
respect to moral subjects4 ,we say large
 property for  great wealth1 but not a  
large captain for a great captain1 or a 
large  minister for a great minister4   
,great financier means a man eminently  

skilful in matters of national finance2 
but gros financier expresses  merely a  
man who has become wealthy in the       
department of finance4    ,the great man
 is more difficult to be defined than   
the great artist4 ,in  an art or        
profession1 the man who has far         
distanced his rivals1 or who  has the   
reputation of having done so1 is called 
great in his art1 and  appears1         
therefore1 to have required merit of    
only one description in  order to obtain
 this eminence2 but the great man must  
combine different  species of merit4    
,gonsalvo1 surnamed the ,great ,captain1
 who observed  that the web of honor was
 coarsely woven1 was never called a     
great  man4 ,it is more easy to name    
those to whom this high distinction     
should  be refused than those to whom it
 should be granted4 ,the denomination   
appears to imply some great virtues4    
,all agree that ,cromwell was the  most 
intrepid general1 the most profound     
statesman1 the man best  qualified to   

conduct a party1 a parliament1 or an    
army1 of his day2 yet  no writer ever   
gives him the title of great man2       
because1 although he  possessed great   
qualities1 he possessed not a single    
great virtue4    ,this title seems to   
fall to the lot only of the small number
 of men who  have been distinguished at 
once by virtues1 exertions1 and success4
  ,success is essential1 because the man
 who is always unfortunate is  supposed 
to be so by his own fault4    ,great    
7grand71 by itself1 expresses some      
dignity4 ,in ,spain it is a high  and   
most distinguishing appellative         
7grandee7 conferred by the king on      
those whom he wishes to honor4 ,the     
grandees are covered in the presence  of
 the king1 either before speaking to him
 or after having spoken to  him1 or     
while taking their seats with the rest4 
,charles the ,fifth conferred the       
privileges of grandeeship on sixteen    
principal noblemen4 ,that emperor       
himself afterwards granted the same     

honors to many others4 ,his successors1 
each in his turn1 have added to  the    
number4 ,the ,spanish grandees have long
 claimed to be considered of  equal rank
 and dignity with the electors and the  
princes of ,italy4 ,at  the court of    
,france they have the same honors as    
peers4    ,the title of great has been  
always given1 in ,france1 to many of the
  chief officers of the crown--as great 
seneschal1 great master1 great          
chamberlain1 great equerry1 great       
pantler1 great huntsman1 great          
falconer4 ,these titles were given them 
to distinguish their pre-eminence  above
 the persons serving in the same        
departments under them4 ,the            
distinction is not given to the         
constable1 nor to the chancellor1 nor to
  the marshals1 although the constable  
is the chief of all the household       
officers1 the chancellor the second     
person in the state1 and the marshal    
the second officer in the army4 ,the    
reason obviously is1 that they had  no  

deputies1 no vice-constables1           
vice-marshals1 vice-chancellors1 but    
officers under another denomination who 
executed their orders1 while the  great 
steward1 great chamberlain1 and great   
equerry1 etc41 had stewards1            
chamberlains1 and equerries under them4 
,great 7grand7 in connection with       
seigneur1 great lord1 has a             
signification more extensive and        
uncertain4 ,we give this title of  grand
 seigneur 7seignor7 to the ,turkish     
sultan1 who assumes that of  pasha1 to  
which the expression grand seignor does 
not correspond4 ,the  expression un     
grand1 great man1 is used in speaking of
 a man of  distinguished birth1 invested
 with dignities1 but it is used only by 
the  common people4 ,a person of birth  
or consequence never applies the term   
to any one4 ,as the words great lord    
7grand seigneur7 are commonly  applied  
to those who unite birth1 dignity1 and  
riches1 poverty seems to  deprive a man 
of the right to it1 or at least to      

render it inappropriate  or ridiculous4 
,accordingly1 we say a poor gentleman1  
but not a poor  grand seigneur4         
,great 7grand7 is different from mighty 
7puissant74 ,a man may at the  same time
 be both one and the other1 but puissant
 implies the  possession of some office 
of power and consequence4 ,grand        
indicates  more show and less reality2  
the puissant commands1 the grand        
possesses honors4    ,there is greatness
 7grandeur7 in mind1 in sentiments1 in  
manners1 and in  conduct4 ,the          
expression is not used in speaking of   
persons in the  middling classes of     
society1 but only of those who1 by their
 rank1 are  bound to show nobility and  
elevation4 ,it is perfectly true that a 
man of  the most obscure birth and      
connections may have more greatness of  
mind  than a monarch4 ,but it would be  
inconsistent with the usual phraseology 
to say1 that merchant or that farmer    
acted greatly 7avec  grandeur72 unless1 
indeed1 in very particular              

circumstances1 and  placing certain     
characters in striking opposition1 we   
should1 for  example1 make such a remark
 as the following3 ,the celebrated      
merchant  who entertained ,charles the  
,fifth in his own house1 and lighted a  
fire  of cinnamon wood with that        
prince's bond to him for fifty thousand 
ducats1 displayed more greatness of soul
 than the emperor4    ,the title of     
greatness 7grandeur7 was formerly given 
to various  persons possessing stations 
of dignity4 ,french clergymen1 when     
writing  to bishops1 still call them    
your greatness4 ,those titles1 which are
  lavished by sycophancy and caught at  
by vanity1 are now little used4         
,haughtiness is often mistaken for      
greatness 7grandeur74 ,he who is        
ostentatious of greatness displays      
vanity4 ,but one becomes weary and      
exhausted with writing about greatness4 
,according to the lively remark  of     
,montaigne1 we cannot obtain it1 let us 
therefore take our revenge by  abusing  

it4          ,,greek4    ,observations  
,upon the ,extinction of the ,greek     
,language at ,marseilles4      ,it is   
exceedingly strange that1 as ,marseilles
 was founded by a ,greek  colony1       
scarcely any vestige of the ,greek      
language is to be found in  ,provence   
,languedoc1 or any district of ,france2 
for we cannot consider as  ,greek the   
terms which were taken1 at a            
comparatively modern date1 from  the    
,latins1 and which had been adopted by  
the ,romans themselves from the  ,greeks
 so many centuries before4 ,we received 
those only at second hand4  ,we have no 
right to say that we abandoned the word 
,got for that of  ,theos1 rather than   
that of ,deus1 from which1 by a         
barbarous  termination1 we have made    
,dieu4    ,it is clear that the ,gauls1 
having received the ,latin language with
 the  ,roman laws1 and having afterwards
 received from those same ,romans the   
,christian religion1 adopted from them  
all the terms which were connected  with

 that religion4 ,these same ,gauls did  
not acquire1 until a late  period1 the  
,greek terms which relate to medicine1  
anatomy1 and surgery4    ,after         
deducting all the words originally      
,greek which we have derived  through   
the ,latin1 and all the anatomical and  
medical terms which were1  in           
comparison1 so recently acquired1 there 
is scarcely anything left2  for surely1 
to derive abrger from brakus1 rather    
than from  abreviare2 acier from axi    
rather than from acies2  acre from      
agros1 rather than from ager2 and aile  
from  ily rather than from ala--this1 ,i
 say1 would surely be perfectly         
ridiculous4    ,some have even gone so  
far as to say that omelette comes from  
omeilaton because meli in ,greek        
signifies honey1 and oon an  egg4 ,in   
the ,garden of ,greek ,roots there is a 
more curious derivation  still2 it is   
pretended that diner 7dinner7 comes from
 deipnein1  which signifies supper4     
,as some may be desirous of possessing a

 list of the ,greek words which  the    
,marseilles colony may have introduced  
into the language of the  ,gauls1       
independently of those which came       
through the ,romans1 we present  the    
following one3         ,aboyer1 perhaps 
from bauzein4       ,affre1 affreux1    
from afronos4       ,agacer1 perhaps    
from anaxein4       ,alali1 a ,greek    
war-cry4       ,babiller1 perhaps from  
babazo4       ,balle1 from ballo4       
,bas1 from batys4       ,blesser1 from  
the aorist of blapto4       ,bouteille1 
from bouttis4       ,bride1 from bryter4
       ,brique1 from bryka4       ,coin1
 from gonia4       ,colre1 from chole4  
,colle1 from colla4       ,couper1 from 
cop to4       ,cuisse1 perhaps from     
ischis4       ,entraille1 from entera4  
,ermite1 from eremos4       ,fier1 from 
fiaros4       ,gargarizer1 from         
gargarizein4       ,idiot1 from idiotes4
       ,maraud1 from miaros4            
,moquer1 from mokeuo4       ,moustache1 
from mustax4       ,orgueil1 from orge4 

,page1 from pais4       ,siffler1       
perhaps from siffloo4       ,tuer1      
thuein4    ,i am astonished to find so  
few words remaining of a language spoken
 at  ,marseilles1 in the time of        
,augustus1 in all its purity2 and ,i am 
particularly astonished to find the     
greater number of the ,greek words      
preserved in ,provence1 signifying      
things of little or no utility1 while   
those used to express things of the     
first necessity and importance are      
utterly lost4 ,we have not a single one 
remaining that signifies land1  sea1    
sky1 the sun1 the moon1 rivers1 or the  
principal parts of the human  body2 the 
words used for which might have been    
expected to be  transmitted down from   
the beginning through every succeeding  
age4  ,perhaps we must attribute the    
cause of this to the ,visigoths1 the    
,burgundians1 and the ,franks2 to the   
horrible barbarism of all those  nations
 which laid waste the ,roman ,empire1 a 
barbarism of which so many  traces yet  

remain4          ,,guarantee4      ,a   
guarantee is a pledge by which a person 
renders himself responsible to  another 
for something1 and binds himself to     
secure him in the enjoyment  of it4 ,the
 word 7garant7 is derived from the      
,celtic and ,teutonic  warrant4 ,in all 
the words which we have retained from   
those ancient  languages we have changed
 the w into g4 ,among the greater number
 of  the nations of the ,north warrant  
still signifies assurance1 guaranty2    
and in this sense it means1 in ,english1
 an order of the king1 as  signifying   
the pledge of the king4 ,when in the    
middle ages kings  concluded treaties1  
they were guaranteed on both sides by a 
considerable  number of knights1 who    
bound themselves by oath to see that the
 treaty  was observed1 and even1 when a 
superior education qualified them to do 
so1 which sometimes happened1 signed    
their names to it4 ,when the emperor    
,frederick ,barbarossa ceded so many    
rights to ,pope ,alexander ,,iii4 at the

  celebrated congress of ,venice1 in    
#aaag1 the emperor put his seal to the  
instrument which the pope and cardinals 
signed4 ,twelve princes of the  empire  
guaranteed the treaty by an oath upon   
the gospel2 but none of  them signed it4
 ,it is not said that the doge of       
,venice guaranteed that  peace which was
 concluded in his palace4 ,when ,philip 
,augustus made peace  in #abjj with     
,king ,john of ,england1 the principal  
barons of ,france and  ,normandy swore  
to the due observance of it1 as         
cautionary or  guaranteeing parties4    
,the ,french swore that they would take 
arms against  their king if he violated 
his word1 and the ,normans1 in like     
manner1 to  oppose their sovereign if he
 did not adhere to his4 ,one of the     
constables of the ,montmorency family1  
after a negotiation with one of  the    
earls of ,march1 in #abbg1 swore to the 
observance of the treaty upon  the soul 
of the king4    ,the practice of        
guaranteeing the states of a third party

 was of great  antiquity1 although under
 a different name4 ,the ,romans in this 
manner  guaranteed the possessions of   
many of the princes of ,asia and        
,africa1 by  taking them under their    
protection until they secured to        
themselves the  possession of the       
territories thus protected4 ,we must    
regard as a mutual  guaranty the ancient
 alliance between ,france and ,castile1 
of king to  king1 kingdom to kingdom1   
and man to man4    ,we do not find any  
treaty in which the guaranty of the     
states of a third  party is expressly   
stipulated for before that which was    
concluded  between ,spain and the       
states-general in #afji1 by the         
mediation of ,henry  ,,iv4 ,he procured 
from ,philip ,,iii41 king of ,spain1 the
 recognition of the  ,united ,provinces 
as free and sovereign states4 ,he signed
 the guaranty of  this sovereignty of   
the seven provinces1 and obtained the   
signature of  the same instrument from  
the king of ,spain2 and the republic    

acknowledged that it owed its freedom to
 the interference of the ,french        
monarch4 ,it is principally within our  
own times that treaties of  guaranty    
have become comparatively frequent4     
,unfortunately these  engagements have  
occasionally produced ruptures and war2 
and it is  clearly ascertained that the 
best of all possible guaranties is      
power4          ,,gregory ,,vii4        
,bayle himself1 while admitting that    
,gregory was the firebrand of ,europe1  
concedes to him the denomination of a   
great man4 ,that old ,rome1 says  he1   
which plumed itself upon conquests and  
military virtue1 should have  brought so
 many other nations under its dominion1 
redounds1 according to  the general     
maxims of mankind1 to her credit and    
glory2 but1 upon the  slightest         
reflection1 can excite little surprise4 
,on the other hand1 it  is a subject of 
great surprise to see new ,rome1 which  
pretended to value  itself only on an   
apostolic ministry1 possessed of an     

authority under  which the greatest     
monarchs have been constrained to bend4 
,caron may  observe1 with truth1 that   
there is scarcely a single emperor who  
has  opposed the popes without feeling  
bitter cause to regret his resistance4  
,even at the present day the conflicts  
of powerful princes with the court  of  
,rome almost always terminate in their  
confusion4    ,i am of a totally        
different opinion from ,bayle4 ,there   
will probably be  many of a different   
one from mine4 ,i deliver it however    
with freedom1  and let him who is       
willing and able refute it4    #a4 ,the 
differences of the princes of ,orange   
and the seven provinces with  ,rome did 
not terminate in their confusion2 and   
,bayle1 who1 while at  ,amsterdam1 could
 set ,rome at defiance1 was a happy     
illustration of the  contrary4    ,the  
triumphs of ,queen ,elizabeth1 of       
,gustavus ,vasa in ,sweden1 of the      
kings of ,denmark1 of all the princes of
 the north of ,germany1 of the  finest  

part of ,helvetia1 of the single and    
small city of ,geneva--the  triumphs1 ,i
 say1 of all these over the policy of   
the ,roman court are  perfectly         
satisfactory testimonies that it may be 
easily and  successfully resisted1 both 
in affairs of religion and government4  
#b4 ,the sacking of ,rome by the troops 
of ,charles the ,fifth2 the pope        
7,clement ,,vii47 a prisoner in the     
castle of ,st4 ,angelo2 ,louis ,,xiv4   
compelling ,pope ,alexander ,,vii4 to   
ask his pardon1 and erecting even in    
,rome itself a monument of the pope's   
submission2 and1 within our own  times1 
the easy subversion of that steady1 and 
apparently most  formidable support of  
the papal power1 the society of ,jesuits
 in ,spain1  in ,france1 in ,naples1 in 
,goa1 and in ,paraguay--all this        
furnishes  decisive evidence1 that1 when
 potent princes are in hostility with   
,rome1  the quarrel is not terminated in
 their confusion2 they may occasionally 
bend before the storm1 but they will not

 eventually be overthrown4    ,when the 
popes walked on the heads of kings1 when
 they conferred crowns  by a parchment  
bull1 it appears to me1 that at this    
extreme height of  their power and      
grandeur they did no more than the      
caliphs1 who were the  successors of    
,mahomet1 did in the very period of     
their decline4 ,both of  them1 in the   
character of priests1 conferred the     
investiture of empires1  in solemn      
ceremony1 on the most powerful of       
contending parties4    #c4 ,maimbourg   
says3 ,what no pope ever did before1    
,gregory ,,viii4 did1  depriving ,henry 
,,iv4 of his dignity of emperor1 and of 
his kingdoms of  ,germany and ,italy4   
,maimbourg is mistaken4 ,pope ,zachary  
had1 long before that1 placed a  crown  
on the head of the ,austrasian ,pepin1  
who usurped the kingdom of  the ,franks2
 and ,pope ,leo ,,iii4 had declared the 
son of that ,pepin emperor  of the      
,west1 and thereby deprived the empress 
,irene of the whole of that  empire2 and

 from that time1 it must be admitted1   
there has not been a  single priest of  
the ,romish church who has not imagined 
that his bishop  enjoyed the disposal of
 all crowns4    ,this maxim was always  
turned to account when it was possible  
to be so4  ,it was considered as a      
consecrated weapon1 deposited in the    
sacristy of  ,st4 ,john of ,lateran1    
which might be drawn forth in solemn and
 impressive  ceremony on every occasion 
that required it4 ,this prerogative is  
so  commanding2 it raises to such a     
height the dignity of an exorcist born  
at ,velletri or ,civit ,vecchia1 that if
 ,luther1 colampadius1 ,john  ,calvin1  
and all the prophets of the ,cvennes1   
had been natives of any  miserable      
village near ,rome1 and undergone the   
tonsure there1 they would  have         
supported that church with the same rage
 which they actually  manifested for its
 destruction4    #d4 ,everything1 then1 
depends on the time and place of a man's
 birth1 and  the circumstances by which 

he is surrounded4 ,gregory ,,vii4 was   
born in an  age of barbarism1 ignorance1
 and superstition2 and he had to deal   
with a  young1 debauched1 inexperienced 
emperor1 deficient in money1 and whose  
power was contested by all the powerful 
lords of ,germany4    ,we cannot        
believe1 that1 from the time of the     
,austrasian ,charlemagne1  the ,roman   
people ever paid very willing obedience 
to ,franks or  ,teutonians3 they hated  
them as much as the genuine old ,romans 
would have  hated the ,cimbri1 if the   
,cimbri had obtained dominion in ,italy4
 ,the  ,othos had left behind them in   
,rome a memory that was execrated1      
because  they had enjoyed great power   
there2 and1 after the time of the       
,othos1  ,europe it is well known became
 involved in frightful anarchy4    ,this
 anarchy was not more effectually       
restrained under the emperors of  the   
house of ,franconia4 ,one-half of       
,germany was in insurrection against    
,henry ,,iv4 ,the countess ,mathilda1   

grand duchess1 his cousin-german1 more  
powerful than himself in ,italy1 was his
 mortal enemy4 ,she possessed1  either  
as fiefs of the empire1 or as allodial  
property1 the whole duchy  of ,tuscany1 
the territory of ,cremona1 ,ferrara1    
,mantua1 and ,parma2 a part  of the     
,marches of ,ancona1 ,reggio1 ,modena1  
,spoleto1 and ,verona2 and she  had     
rights1 that is to say pretensions1 to  
the two ,burgundies2 for the  imperial  
chancery claimed those territories1     
according to its regular  practice of   
claiming everything4    ,we admit1 that 
,gregory ,,vii4 would have been little  
less than an idiot  had he not exerted  
his strongest efforts to secure a       
complete influence  over this powerful  
princess2 and to obtain1 by her means1 a
 point of  support and protection       
against the ,germans4 ,he became her    
director1 and1  after being her         
director1 her heir4    ,i shall not1 in 
this place1 examine whether he was      
really her lover1 or  whether he only   

pretended to be so2 or whether his      
enemies merely  pretended it2 or        
whether1 in his idle moments1 the       
assuming and ardent  little director did
 not occasionally abuse the influence he
 possessed  with his penitent1 and      
prevail over a feeble and capricious    
woman4 ,in  the course of human events  
nothing can be more natural or common2  
but as  usually no registers are kept of
 such cases2 as those interesting       
intimacies between the directors and    
directed do not take place before       
witnesses1 and as ,gregory has been     
reproached with this imputation only  by
 his enemies1 we ought not to confound  
accusation with proof4 ,it is  quite    
enough that ,gregory claimed the whole  
of his penitent's property4    #e4 ,the 
donation which he procured to be made to
 himself by the countess  ,mathilda1 in 
the year #ajgg1 is more than suspected4 
,and one proof that  it is not to be    
relied upon is that not merely was this 
deed never  shown1 but that1 in a second

 deed1 the first is stated to have been 
lost4 ,it was pretended that the        
donation had been made in the fortress  
of ,canossa1 and in the second act it is
 said to have been made at ,rome4       
,these circumstances may be considered  
as confirming the opinion of some       
antiquaries1 a little too scrupulous1   
who maintain that out of a  thousand    
grants made in those times--and those   
times were of long  duration--there are 
more than nine hundred evidently        
counterfeit4    ,there have been two    
sorts of usurpers in our quarter of the 
world1  ,europe--robbers and forgers4   
#f4 ,bayle1 although allowing the title 
of ,great to ,gregory1 acknowledges  at 
the same time that this turbulent man   
disgraced his heroism by his            
prophecies4 ,he had the audacity to     
create an emperor1 and in that he  did  
well1 as the emperor ,henry ,,iv4 had   
made a pope4 ,henry deposed him1  and he
 deposed ,henry4 ,so far there is       
nothing to which to object--both  sides 

are equal4 ,but ,gregory took it into   
his head to turn prophet2 he  predicted 
the death of ,henry ,,iv4 for the year  
#ajhj2 but ,henry ,,iv4  conquered1 and 
the pretended emperor ,rudolph was      
defeated and slain in  ,thuringia by the
 famous ,godfrey of ,bouillon1 a man    
more truly great than  all the other    
three4 ,this proves1 in my opinion1 that
 ,gregory had more  enthusiasm than     
talent4    ,i subscribe with all my     
heart to the remark of ,bayle1 that when
 a man  undertakes to predict the       
future1 he is provided against          
everything by a  face of brass1 and an  
inexhaustible magazine of equivocations4
 ,but your  enemies deride your         
equivocations2 they also have a face of 
brass like  yourself2 and they expose   
you as a knave1 a braggart1 and a fool4 
#g4 ,our great man ended his public     
career with witnessing the taking of    
,rome by assault1 in the year #ajhc4 ,he
 was besieged in the castle1 since      
called ,st4 ,angelo1 by the same emperor

 ,henry ,,iv41 whom he had dared to     
dispossess1 and died in misery and      
contempt at ,salerno1 under the         
protection of ,robert ,guiscard the     
,norman4    ,i ask pardon of modern     
,rome1 but when ,i read the history of  
the ,scipios1  the ,catos1 the ,pompeys1
 and the ,csars1 ,i find a difficulty in
 ranking  with them a factious monk who 
was made a pope under the name of       
,gregory  ,,vii4    ,but our ,gregory   
has obtained even a yet finer title2 he 
has been made a  saint1 at least at     
,rome4 ,it was the famous cardinal      
,coscia who effected  this canonization 
under ,pope ,benedict ,,xiii4 ,even an  
office or service of  ,st4 ,gregory     
,,vii4 was printed1 in which it was     
said1 that that saint  absolved the     
faithful from the allegiance which they 
had sworn to their  emperor4    ,many   
parliaments of the kingdom were desirous
 of having this legend  burned by the   
executioner3 but ,bentivoglio1 the      
nuncio--who kept one of  the actresses  

at the opera1 of the name of            
,constitution1 as his  mistress1 and had
 by her a daughter called la ,legende2 a
 man otherwise  extremely amiable1 and a
 most interesting companion--procured   
from the  ministry a mitigation of the  
threatened storm2 and1 after passing    
sentence of condemnation on the legend  
of ,st4 ,gregory1 the hostile party     
were contented to suppress it and to    
laugh at it4