,a ,,philosophical ,,dictionary ,,volume ,,iv ,by ,,voltaire ,,edition ,,de ,,la ,,pacification ,,the ,,works ,,of ,,voltaire ,a ,,contemporary ,,version ,with ,notes by ,tobias ,smollett1 ,revised and ,modernized ,new ,translations by ,william ,f4 ,fleming1 and an ,introduction by ,oliver ,h4,g4 ,leigh ,a ,,critique ,,and ,,biography ,,by ,,the ,,rt4 ,,hon4 ,,john ,,morley ,,forty-,,three ,,volumes ,one hundred and sixty-eight designs1 comprising reproductions of rare old engravings1 steel plates1 photogravures1 and curious fac-similes ,,volume ,,viii ,e4,r4 ,du,m,o,n,t ,,paris--,,london--,,new ,,york--,,chicago #aija ,the ,,works of ,,voltaire ,between two servants of ,humanity1 who appeared eighteen hundred years apart1 there is a mysterious relation4 99 99 99 99 ,let us say it with a sentiment of profound respect3 ,,jesus ,,wept3 ,,voltaire ,,smiled4 ,of that divine tear and of that human smile is composed the sweetness of the present civilization4 ,,victor ,,hugo4 ,,list ,,of ,,plates--,,vol4 ,,iv ,,voltaire',s ,,arrest ,,at ,,frankfort ,frontispiece ,,oliver ,,cromwell ,,time ,,makes ,,truth ,,triumphant ,,francis ,i4 ,,and ,,his ,,sister ,illustration3 ,voltaire's arrest at ,frankfort4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,voltaire ,a ,,philosophical ,,dictionary ,,in ,,ten ,,volumes ,,vol4 ,,iv4 ,,country--,,falsity 99 99 99 99 99 ,,country4 ,,section ,i ,according to our custom1 we confine ourselves on this subject to the statement of a few queries which we cannot resolve4 ,has a ,jew a country8 ,if he is born at ,coimbra1 it is in the midst of a crowd of ignorant and absurd persons1 who will dispute with him1 and to whom he makes foolish answers1 if he dare reply at all4 ,he is surrounded by inquisitors1 who would burn him if they knew that he declined to eat bacon1 and all his wealth would belong to them4 ,is ,coimbra his country8 ,can he exclaim1 like the ,horatii in ,corneille3 ,mourir pour la patrie est un si digne sort ,qu'on briguerait en foule1 une si belle mort4 ,so high his meed who for his country dies1 ,men should contend to gain the glorious prize4 ,he might as well exclaim1 fiddlestick6 ,again6 is ,jerusalem his country8 ,he has probably heard of his ancestors of old2 that they had formerly inhabited a sterile and stony country1 which is bordered by a horrible desert1 of which little country the ,turks are at present masters1 but derive little or nothing from it4 ,jerusalem is1 therefore1 not his country4 ,in short1 he has no country3 there is not a square foot of land on the globe which belongs to him4 ,the ,gueber1 more ancient1 and a hundred times more respectable than the ,jew1 a slave of the ,turks1 the ,persians1 or the ,great ,mogul1 can he regard as his country the fire-altars which he raises in secret among the mountains8 ,the ,banian1 the ,armenian1 who pass their lives in wandering through all the east1 in the capacity of money-brokers1 can they exclaim1 ,my dear country1 my dear country--who have no other country than their purses and their account-books8 ,among the nations of ,europe1 all those cut-throats who let out their services to hire1 and sell their blood to the first king who will purchase it--have they a country8 ,not so much so as a bird of prey1 who returns every evening to the hollow of the rock where its mother built its nest6 ,the monks--will they venture to say that they have a country8 ,it is in heaven1 they say4 ,all in good time2 but in this world ,i know nothing about one4 ,this expression1 my country1 how sounds it from the mouth of a ,greek1 who1 altogether ignorant of the previous existence of a ,miltiades1 an ,agesilaus1 only knows that he is the slave of a janissary1 who is the slave of an aga1 who is the slave of a pasha1 who is the slave of a vizier1 who is the slave of an individual whom we call1 in ,paris1 the ,grand ,turk8 ,what1 then1 is country8--,is it not1 probably1 a good piece of ground1 in the midst of which the owner1 residing in a well-built and commodious house1 may say3 ,this field which ,i cultivate1 this house which ,i have built1 is my own2 ,i live under the protection of laws which no tyrant can infringe4 ,when those who1 like me1 possess fields and houses assemble for their common interests1 ,i have a voice in such assembly4 ,i am a part of the whole1 one of the community1 a portion of the sovereignty3 behold my country6 ,what cannot be included in this description too often amounts to little beyond studs of horses under the command of a groom1 who employs the whip at his pleasure4 ,people may have a country under a good king1 but never under a bad one4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,a young pastry-cook who had been to college1 and who had mustered some phrases from ,cicero1 gave himself airs one day about loving his country4 ,what dost thou mean by country8 said a neighbor to him4 ,is it thy oven8 ,is it the village where thou wast born1 which thou hast never seen1 and to which thou wilt never return8 ,is it the street in which thy father and mother reside8 ,is it the town hall1 where thou wilt never become so much as a clerk or an alderman8 ,is it the church of ,notre ,dame1 in which thou hast not been able to obtain a place among the boys of the choir1 although a very silly person1 who is archbishop and duke1 obtains from it an annual income of twenty-four thousand louis d'or8 ,the young pastry-cook knew not how to reply2 and a person of reflection1 who overheard the conversation1 was led to infer that a country of moderate extent may contain many millions of men who have no country at all4 ,and thou1 voluptuous ,parisian1 who hast never made a longer voyage than to ,dieppe1 to feed upon fresh sea-fish--who art acquainted only with thy splendid town-house1 thy pretty villa in the country1 thy box at that opera which all the world makes it a point to feel tiresome but thyself--who speakest thy own language agreeably enough1 because thou art ignorant of every other2 thou lovest all this1 no doubt1 as well as thy brilliant champagne from ,rheims1 and thy rents1 payable every six months2 and loving these1 thou dwellest upon thy love for thy country4 ,speaking conscientiously1 can a financier cordially love his country8 ,where was the country of the duke of ,guise1 surnamed ,balafr--at ,nancy1 at ,paris1 at ,madrid1 or at ,rome8 ,what country had your cardinals ,balue1 ,duprat1 ,lorraine1 and ,mazarin8 ,where was the country of ,attila situated1 or that of a hundred other heroes of the same kind1 who1 although eternally travelling1 make themselves always at home8 ,i should be much obliged to any one who would acquaint me with the country of ,abraham4 ,the first who observed that every land is our country in which we do well1 was1 ,i believe1 ,euripides1 in his ,phdo3 4 ,the first man1 however1 who left the place of his birth to seek a greater share of welfare in another1 said it before him4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,a country is a composition of many families2 and as a family is commonly supported on the principle of self-love1 when1 by an opposing interest1 the same self-love extends to our town1 our province1 or our nation1 it is called love of country4 ,the greater a country becomes1 the less we love it2 for love is weakened by diffusion4 ,it is impossible to love a family so numerous that all the members can scarcely be known4 ,he who is burning with ambition to be edile1 tribune1 prtor1 consul1 or dictator1 exclaims that he loves his country1 while he loves only himself4 ,every man wishes to possess the power of sleeping quietly at home1 and of preventing any other man from possessing the power of sending him to sleep elsewhere4 ,every one would be certain of his property and his life4 ,thus1 all forming the same wishes1 the particular becomes the general interest4 ,the welfare of the republic is spoken of1 while all that is signified is love of self4 ,it is impossible that a state was ever formed on earth1 which was not governed in the first instance as a republic3 it is the natural march of human nature4 ,on the discovery of ,america1 all the people were found divided into republics2 there were but two kingdoms in all that part of the world4 ,of a thousand nations1 but two were found subjugated4 ,it was the same in the ancient world2 all was republican in ,europe before the little kinglings of ,etruria and of ,rome4 ,there are yet republics in ,africa3 the ,hottentots1 towards the south1 still live as people are said to have lived in the first ages of the world--free1 equal1 without masters1 without subjects1 without money1 and almost without wants4 ,the flesh of their sheep feeds them2 they are clothed with their skins2 huts of wood and clay form their habitations4 ,they are the most dirty of all men1 but they feel it not1 but live and die more easily than we do4 ,there remain eight republics in ,europe without monarchs--,venice1 ,holland1 ,switzerland1 ,genoa1 ,lucca1 ,ragusa1 ,geneva1 and ,san ,marino4 ,poland1 ,sweden1 and ,england may be regarded as republics under a king1 but ,poland is the only one of them which takes the name4 ,but which of the two is to be preferred for a country--a monarchy or a republic8 ,the question has been agitated for four thousand years4 ,ask the rich1 and they will tell you an aristocracy2 ask the people1 and they will reply a democracy2 kings alone prefer royalty4 ,why1 then1 is almost all the earth governed by monarchs8 ,put that question to the rats who proposed to hang a bell around the cat's neck4 ,in truth1 the genuine reason is1 because men are rarely worthy of governing themselves4 ,it is lamentable1 that to be a good patriot we must become the enemy of the rest of mankind4 ,that good citizen1 the ancient ,cato1 always gave it as his opinion1 that ,carthage must be destroyed3 ,delenda est ,carthago4 ,to be a good patriot is to wish our own country enriched by commerce1 and powerful by arms2 but such is the condition of mankind1 that to wish the greatness of our own country is often to wish evil to our neighbors4 ,he who could bring himself to wish that his country should always remain as it is1 would be a citizen of the universe4 ,,crimes ,,or ,,offences4 ,of ,time and ,place4 ,a ,roman in ,egypt very unfortunately killed a consecrated cat1 and the infuriated people punished this sacrilege by tearing him to pieces4 ,if this ,roman had been carried before the tribunal1 and the judges had possessed common sense1 he would have been condemned to ask pardon of the ,egyptians and the cats1 and to pay a heavy fine1 either in money or mice4 ,they would have told him that he ought to respect the follies of the people1 since he was not strong enough to correct them4 ,the venerable chief justice should have spoken to him in this manner3 ,every country has its legal impertinences1 and its offences of time and place4 ,if in your ,rome1 which has become the sovereign of ,europe1 ,africa1 and ,asia ,minor1 you were to kill a sacred fowl1 at the precise time that you give it grain in order to ascertain the just will of the gods1 you would be severely punished4 ,we believe that you have only killed our cat accidentally4 ,the court admonishes you4 ,go in peace1 and be more circumspect in future4 ,it seems a very indifferent thing to have a statue in our hall2 but if1 when ,octavius1 surnamed ,augustus1 was absolute master1 a ,roman had placed in his house the statue of ,brutus1 he would have been punished as seditious4 ,if a citizen1 under a reigning emperor1 had the statue of the competitor to the empire1 it is said that it was accounted a crime of high treason4 ,an ,englishman1 having nothing to do1 went to ,rome1 where he met ,prince ,charles ,edward at the house of a cardinal4 ,pleased at the incident1 on his return he drank in a tavern to the health of ,prince ,charles ,edward1 and was immediately accused of high treason4 ,but whom did he highly betray in wishing the prince well8 ,if he had conspired to place him on the throne1 then he would have been guilty towards the nation2 but ,i do not see that the most rigid justice of parliament could require more from him than to drink four cups to the health of the house of ,hanover1 supposing he had drunk two to the house of ,stuart4 ,of ,crimes of ,time and ,place1 which ,ought to ,be ,concealed4 ,it is well known how much our ,lady of ,loretto ought to be respected in the ,march of ,ancona4 ,three young people happened to be joking on the house of our lady1 which has travelled through the air to ,dalmatia2 which has two or three times changed its situation1 and has only found itself comfortable at ,loretto4 ,our three scatterbrains sang a song at supper1 formerly made by a ,huguenot1 in ridicule of the translation of the santa casa of ,jerusalem to the end of the ,adriatic ,gulf4 ,a fanatic1 having heard by chance what passed at their supper1 made strict inquiries1 sought witnesses1 and engaged a magistrate to issue a summons4 ,this proceeding alarmed all consciences4 ,every one trembled in speaking of it4 ,chambermaids1 vergers1 inn-keepers1 lackeys1 servants1 all heard what was never said1 and saw what was never done3 there was an uproar1 a horrible scandal throughout the whole ,march of ,ancona4 ,it was said1 half a league from ,loretto1 that these youths had killed our lady2 and a league farther1 that they had thrown the santa casa into the sea4 ,in short1 they were condemned4 ,the sentence was1 that their hands should be cut off1 and their tongues be torn out2 after which they were to be put to the torture1 to learn--at least by signs--how many couplets there were in the song4 ,finally1 they were to be burnt to death by a slow fire4 ,an advocate of ,milan1 who happened to be at ,loretto at this time1 asked the principal judge to what he would have condemned these boys if they had violated their mother1 and afterwards killed and eaten her8 ,oh6 replied the judge1 there is a great deal of difference2 to assassinate and devour their father and mother is only a crime against men4 ,have you an express law1 said the ,milanese1 which obliges you to put young people scarcely out of their nurseries to such a horrible death1 for having indiscreetly made game of the santa casa1 which is contemptuously laughed at all over the world1 except in the ,march of ,ancona8 ,no1 said the judge1 the wisdom of our jurisprudence leaves all to our discretion4 ,very well1 you ought to have discretion enough to remember that one of these children is the grandson of a general who has shed his blood for his country1 and the nephew of an amiable and respectable abbess2 the youth and his companions are giddy boys1 who deserve paternal correction4 ,you tear citizens from the state1 who might one day serve it2 you imbrue yourself in innocent blood1 and are more cruel than cannibals4 ,you will render yourselves execrable to posterity4 ,what motive has been powerful enough1 thus to extinguish reason1 justice1 and humanity in your minds1 and to change you into ferocious beasts8 ,the unhappy judge at last replied3 ,we have been quarrelling with the clergy of ,ancona2 they accuse us of being too zealous for the liberties of the ,lombard ,church1 and consequently of having no religion4 ,i understand1 then1 said the ,milanese1 that you have made yourselves assassins to appear ,christians4 ,at these words the judge fell to the ground1 as if struck by a thunderbolt2 and his brother judges having been since deprived of office1 they cry out that injustice is done them4 ,they forget what they have done1 and perceive not that the hand of ,god is upon them4 ,for seven persons legally to amuse themselves by making an eighth perish on a public scaffold by blows from iron bars2 take a secret and malignant pleasure in witnessing his torments2 speak of it afterwards at table with their wives and neighbors2 for the executioners to perform this office gaily1 and joyously anticipate their reward2 for the public to run to this spectacle as to a fair--all this requires that a crime merit this horrid punishment in the opinion of all well-governed nations1 and1 as we here treat of universal humanity1 that it is necessary to the well-being of society4 ,above all1 the actual perpetration should be demonstrated beyond contradiction4 ,if against a hundred thousand probabilities that the accused be guilty there is a single one that he is innocent1 that alone should balance all the rest4 ,query3 ,are ,two ,witnesses ,enough to ,condemn a ,man to be ,hanged8 ,it has been for a long time imagined1 and the proverb assures us1 that two witnesses are enough to hang a man1 with a safe conscience4 ,another ambiguity6 ,the world1 then1 is to be governed by equivoques4 ,it is said in ,st4 ,matthew that two or three witnesses will suffice to reconcile two divided friends2 and after this text has criminal jurisprudence been regulated1 so far as to decree that by divine law a citizen may be condemned to die on the uniform deposition of two witnesses who may be villains8 ,it has been already said that a crowd of according witnesses cannot prove an improbable thing when denied by the accused4 ,what1 then1 must be done in such a case8 ,put off the judgment for a hundred years1 like the ,athenians6 ,we shall here relate a striking example of what passed under our eyes at ,lyons4 ,a woman suddenly missed her daughter2 she ran everywhere in search of her in vain1 and at length suspected a neighbor of having secreted the girl1 and of having caused her violation4 ,some weeks after some fishermen found a female drowned1 and in a state of putrefaction1 in the ,rhne at ,condmeux4 ,the woman of whom we have spoken immediately believed that it was her daughter4 ,she was persuaded by the enemies of her neighbor that the latter had caused the deceased to be dishonored1 strangled1 and thrown into the ,rhne4 ,she made this accusation publicly1 and the populace repeated it2 persons were found who knew the minutest circumstances of the crime4 ,the rumor ran through all the town1 and all mouths cried out for vengeance4 ,there is nothing more common than this in a populace without judgment2 but here follows the most prodigious part of the affair4 ,this neighbor's own son1 a child of five years and a half old1 accused his mother of having caused the unhappy girl who was found in the ,rhne to be violated before his eyes1 and to be held by five men1 while the sixth committed the crime4 ,he had heard the words which pronounced her violated2 he painted her attitudes2 he saw his mother and these villains strangle this unfortunate girl after the consummation of the act4 ,he also saw his mother and the assassins throw her into a well1 draw her out of it1 wrap her up in a cloth1 carry her about in triumph1 dance round the corpse1 and1 at last1 throw her into the ,rhne4 ,the judges were obliged to put all the pretended accomplices deposed against in chains4 ,the child is again heard1 and still maintains1 with the simplicity of his age1 all that he had said of them and of his mother4 ,how could it be imagined that this child had not spoken the pure truth8 ,the crime was not probable1 but it was still less so that a child of the age of five years and a half should thus calumniate his mother1 and repeat with exactness all the circumstances of an abominable and unheard-of crime2 if he had not been the eye-witness of it1 and been overcome with the force of the truth1 such things would not have been wrung from him4 ,every one expected to feast his eyes on the torment of the accused2 but what was the end of this strange criminal process8 ,there was not a word of truth in the accusation4 ,there was no girl violated1 no young men assembled at the house of the accused1 no murder1 not the least transaction of the sort1 nor the least noise4 ,the child had been suborned2 and by whom8 ,strange1 but true1 by two other children1 who were the sons of the accused4 ,he had been on the point of burning his mother to get some sweetmeats4 ,the heads of the accusation were clearly incompatible4 ,the sage and enlightened court of judicature1 after having yielded to the public fury so far as to seek every possible testimony for and against the accused1 fully and unanimously acquitted them4 ,formerly1 perhaps1 this innocent prisoner would have been broken on the wheel1 or judicially burned1 for the pleasure of supplying an execution--the tragedy of the mob4 ,,criminal4 ,criminal ,prosecution4 ,very innocent actions have been frequently punished with death4 ,thus in ,england1 ,richard ,,iii41 and ,edward ,,iv41 effected by the judges the condemnation of those whom they suspected of disaffection4 ,such are not criminal processes2 they are assassinations committed by privileged murderers4 ,it is the last degree of abuse to make the laws the instruments of injustice4 ,it is said that the ,athenians punished with death every stranger who entered their areopagus or sovereign tribunal4 ,but if this stranger was actuated by mere curiosity1 nothing was more cruel than to take away his life4 ,it is observed1 in ,the ,spirit of ,laws1 that this vigor was exercised1 because he usurped the rights of a citizen4 ,but a ,frenchman in ,london who goes to the ,house of ,commons to hear the debates1 does not aspire to the rights of a citizen4 ,he is received with politeness4 ,if any splenetic member calls for the clearing of the house1 the traveller clears it by withdrawing2 he is not hanged4 ,it is probable that1 if the ,athenians passed this temporary law1 it was at a time when it was suspected that every stranger might be a spy1 and not from the fear that he would arrogate to himself the rights of citizenship4 ,every ,athenian voted in his tribe2 all the individuals in the tribe knew each other2 no stranger could have put in his bean4 ,we speak here only of a real criminal prosecution1 and among the ,romans every criminal prosecution was public4 ,the citizen accused of the most enormous crimes had an advocate who pleaded in his presence2 who even interrogated the adverse party2 who investigated everything before his judges4 ,all the witnesses1 for and against1 were produced in open court2 nothing was secret4 ,cicero pleaded for ,milo1 who had assassinated ,clodius1 in the presence of a thousand citizens4 ,the same ,cicero undertook the defence of ,roscius ,amerinus1 accused of parricide4 ,a single judge did not in secret examine witnesses1 generally consisting of the dregs of the people1 who may be influenced at pleasure4 ,a ,roman citizen was not put to the torture at the arbitrary order of another ,roman citizen1 invested with this cruel authority by purchase4 ,that horrible outrage against humanity was not perpetrated on the persons of those who were regarded as the first of men1 but only on those of their slaves1 scarcely regarded as men4 ,it would have been better not to have employed torture1 even against slaves4 ,the method of conducting a criminal prosecution at ,rome accorded with the magnanimity and liberality of the nation4 ,it is nearly the same in ,london4 ,the assistance of an advocate is never in any case refused4 ,every one is judged by his peers4 ,every citizen has the power1 out of thirty-six jurymen sworn1 to challenge twelve without reasons1 twelve with reasons1 and1 consequently1 of choosing his judges in the remaining twelve4 ,the judges cannot deviate from or go beyond the law4 ,no punishment is arbitrary4 ,no judgment can be executed before it has been reported to the king1 who may1 and who ought to bestow pardon on those who are deserving of it1 and to whom the law cannot extend it4 ,this case frequently occurs4 ,a man outrageously wronged kills the offender under the impulse of venial passion2 he is condemned by the rigor of the law1 and saved by that mercy which ought to be the prerogative of the sovereign4 ,it deserves particular remark that in the same country where the laws are as favorable to the accused as they are terrible for the guilty1 not only is false imprisonment in ordinary cases punished by heavy damages and severe penalties1 but if an illegal imprisonment has been ordered by a minister of state1 under color of royal authority1 that minister may be condemned to pay damages corresponding to the imprisonment4 ,proceedings in ,criminal ,cases ,among ,particular ,nations4 ,there are countries in which criminal jurisprudence has been founded on the canon law1 and even on the practice of the ,inquisition1 although that tribunal has long since been held in detestation there4 ,the people in such countries still remain in a species of slavery4 ,a citizen prosecuted by the king's officer is at once immured in a dungeon1 which is in itself a real punishment of perhaps an innocent man4 ,a single judge1 with his clerk1 hears secretly and in succession1 every witness summoned4 ,let us here merely compare1 in a few points1 the criminal procedure of the ,romans with that of a country of the west1 which was once a ,roman province4 ,among the ,romans1 witnesses were heard publicly in the presence of the accused1 who might reply to them1 and examine them himself1 or through an advocate4 ,this practice was noble and frank2 it breathed of ,roman magnanimity4 ,in ,france1 in many parts of ,germany1 everything is done in secret4 ,this practice1 established under ,francis ,i41 was authorized by the commissioners1 who1 in #afgj1 drew up the ordinance of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,a mere mistake was the cause of it4 ,it was imagined1 on reading the code ,de ,testibus that the words1 ,testes intrare judicii secretum1 signified that witnesses were examined in secret4 ,but secretum here signifies the chambers of the judge4 ,intrare secretum to express speaking in secret1 would not be ,latin4 ,this part of our jurisprudence was occasioned by a solecism4 ,witnesses were usually persons of the lowest class1 and whom the judge1 when closeted with them1 might induce to say whatever he wished4 ,these witnesses are examined a second time1 always in secret1 which is called1 re-examination2 and if1 after re-examination1 they retract their depositions1 or vary them in essential circumstances1 they are punished as false witnesses4 ,thus1 when an upright man of weak understanding1 and unused to express his ideas1 is conscious that he has stated either too much or too little--that he has misunderstood the judge1 or that the judge has misunderstood him--and revokes1 in the spirit of justice1 what he has advanced through incaution1 he is punished as a felon4 ,he is in this manner often compelled to persevere in false testimony1 from the actual dread of being treated as a false witness4 ,the person accused exposes himself by flight to condemnation1 whether the crime has been proved or not4 ,some jurisconsults1 indeed1 have wisely held that the contumacious person ought not to be condemned unless the crime were clearly established2 but other lawyers have been of a contrary opinion3 they have boldly affirmed that the flight of the accused was a proof of the crime2 that the contempt which he showed for justice1 by refusing to appear1 merited the same chastisement as would have followed his conviction4 ,thus1 according to the sect of lawyers which the judge may have embraced1 an innocent man may be acquitted or condemned4 ,it is a great abuse in jurisprudence that people often assume as law the reveries and errors--sometimes cruel ones--of men destitute of all authority1 who have laid down their own opinions as laws4 ,in the reign of ,louis ,,xiv41 two edicts were published in ,france1 which apply equally to the whole kingdom4 ,in the first1 which refers to civil causes1 the judges are forbidden to condemn in any suit1 on default1 when the demand is not proved2 but in the second1 which regulates criminal proceedings1 it is not laid down that1 in the absence of proof1 the accused shall be acquitted4 ,singular circumstance6 ,the law declares that a man proceeded against for a sum of money shall not be condemned1 on default1 unless the debt be proved2 but1 in cases affecting life1 the profession is divided with respect to condemning a person for contumacy when the crime is not proved2 and the law does not solve the difficulty4 ,example ,taken from the ,condemnation of a ,whole ,family4 ,the following is an account of what happened to an unfortunate family1 at the time when the mad fraternities of pretended penitents1 in white robes and masks1 had erected1 in one of the principal churches of ,toulouse1 a superb monument to a young ,protestant1 who had destroyed himself1 but who they pretended had been murdered by his father and mother for having abjured the reformed religion2 at the time when the whole family of this ,protestant1 then revered as a martyr1 were in irons1 and a whole population1 intoxicated by a superstition equally senseless and cruel1 awaited with devout impatience the delight of seeing five or six persons of unblemished integrity expire on the rack or at the stake4 ,at this dreadful period there resided near ,castres a respectable man1 also of the ,protestant religion1 of the name of ,sirven1 who exercised in that province the profession of a feudist4 ,this man had three daughters4 ,a woman who superintended the household of the bishop of ,castres1 proposed to bring to him ,sirven's second daughter1 called ,elizabeth1 in order to make her a ,catholic1 apostolical and ,roman4 ,she is1 in fact1 brought4 ,she is by him secluded with the female ,jesuits1 denominated the lady teachers1 or the black ladies4 ,they instruct her in what they know2 they find her capacity weak1 and impose upon her penances in order to inculcate doctrines which1 with gentleness1 she might have been taught4 ,she becomes imbecile2 the black ladies expel her2 she returns to her parents2 her mother1 on making her change her linen1 perceives that her person is covered with contusions2 her imbecility increases2 she becomes melancholy mad2 she escapes one day from the house1 while her father is some miles distant1 publicly occupied in his business1 at the seat of a neighboring nobleman4 ,in short1 twenty days after the flight of ,elizabeth1 some children find her drowned in a well1 on ,january #d1 #agfa4 ,this was precisely the time when they were preparing to break ,calas on the wheel at ,toulouse4 ,the word parricide1 and what is worse1 ,huguenot1 flies from mouth to mouth throughout the province4 ,it was not doubted that ,sirven1 his wife1 and his two daughters1 had drowned the third1 on a principle of religion4 ,it was the universal opinion that the ,protestant religion positively required fathers and mothers to destroy such of their children as might wish to become ,catholics4 ,this opinion had taken such deep root in the minds even of magistrates themselves1 hurried on unfortunately by the public clamor1 that the ,council and ,church of ,geneva were obliged to contradict the fatal error1 and to send to the parliament of ,toulouse an attestation upon oath that not only did ,protestants not destroy their children1 but that they were left masters of their whole property when they quitted their sect for another4 ,it is known that1 notwithstanding this attestation1 ,calas was broken on the wheel4 ,a country magistrate of the name of ,londes1 assisted by graduates as sagacious as himself1 became eager to make every preparation for following up the example which had been furnished at ,toulouse4 ,a village doctor1 equally enlightened with the magistrate1 boldly affirmed1 on inspecting the body after the expiration of eighteen days1 that the young woman had been strangled1 and afterwards thrown into the well4 ,on this deposition the magistrate issued a warrant to apprehend the father1 mother1 and the two daughters4 ,the family1 justly terrified at the catastrophe of ,calas1 and agreeably to the advice of their friends1 betook themselves instantly to flight2 they travelled amidst snow during a rigorous winter1 and1 toiling over mountain after mountain1 at length arrived at those of ,switzerland4 ,the daughter1 who was married and pregnant1 was prematurely delivered amidst surrounding ice4 ,the first intelligence this family received1 after reaching a place of safety1 was that the father and mother were condemned to be hanged2 the two daughters to remain under the gallows during the execution of their mother1 and to be reconducted by the executioner out of the territory1 under pain of being hanged if they returned4 ,such is the lesson given to contumacy6 ,this judgment was equally absurd and abominable4 ,if the father1 in concert with his wife1 had strangled his daughter1 he ought to have been broken on the wheel1 like ,calas1 and the mother to have been burned--at least1 after having been strangled--because the practice of breaking women on the wheel is not yet the custom in the country of this judge4 ,to limit the punishment to hanging in such a case1 was an acknowledgment that the crime was not proved1 and that in the doubt the halter was adopted to compromise for want of evidence4 ,this sentence was equally repugnant to law and reason4 ,the mother died of a broken heart1 and the whole family1 their property having been confiscated1 would have perished through want1 unless they had met with assistance4 ,we stop here to inquire whether there be any law and any reason that can justify such a sentence8 ,we ask the judge1 ,what madness has urged you to condemn a father and a mother8 ,it was because they fled1 he replies4 ,miserable wretch1 would you have had them remain to glut your insensate fury8 ,of what consequence could it be1 whether they appeared in chains to plead before you1 or whether in a distant land they lifted up their hands in an appeal to heaven against you8 ,could you not see the truth1 which ought to have struck you1 as well during their absence8 ,could you not see that the father was a league distant from his daughter1 in the midst of twenty persons1 when the unfortunate young woman withdrew from her mother's protection8 ,could you be ignorant that the whole family were in search of her for twenty days and nights8 ,to this you answer by the words1 contumacy1 contumacy4 ,what6 because a man is absent1 therefore must he be condemned to be hanged1 though his innocence be manifest8 ,it is the jurisprudence of a fool and a monster4 ,and the life1 the property1 and the honor of citizens1 are to depend upon this code of ,iroquois6 ,the ,sirven family for more than eight years dragged on their misfortunes1 far from their native country4 ,at length1 the sanguinary superstition which disgraced ,languedoc having been somewhat mitigated1 and men's minds becoming more enlightened1 those who had befriended the ,sirvens during their exile1 advised them to return and demand justice from the parliament of ,toulouse itself1 now that the blood of ,calas no longer smoked1 and many repented of having ever shed it4 ,the ,sirvens were justified4 ,erudimini1 qui judicatis terram4 ,be instructed1 ye judges of the earth4 ,,cromwell4 ,,section ,i4 ,cromwell is described as a man who was an impostor all his life4 ,i can scarcely believe it4 ,i conceive that he was first an enthusiast1 and that he afterwards made his fanaticism instrumental to his greatness4 ,an ardent novice at twenty often becomes an accomplished rogue at forty4 ,in the great game of human life1 men begin with being dupes1 and end in becoming knaves4 ,a statesman engages as his almoner a monk1 entirely made up of the details of his convent1 devout1 credulous1 awkward1 perfectly new to the world2 he acquires information1 polish1 finesse1 and supplants his master4 ,cromwell knew not1 at first1 whether he should become a churchman or a soldier4 ,he partly became both4 ,in #afbb he made a campaign in the army of the prince of ,orange1 ,frederick ,henry1 a great man and the brother of two great men2 and1 on his return to ,england1 engaged in the service of ,bishop ,williams1 and was the chaplain of his lordship1 while the bishop passed for his wife's gallant4 ,his principles were puritanical1 which led him to cordially hate a bishop1 and not to be partial to kingship4 ,he was dismissed from the family of ,bishop ,williams because he was a ,puritan2 and thence the origin of his fortune4 ,the ,english ,parliament declared against monarchy and against episcopacy2 some friends whom he had in that parliament procured him a country living4 ,he might be said only now to have commenced his existence2 he was more than forty before he acquired any distinction4 ,he was master of the sacred ,scriptures1 disputed on the authority of priests and deacons1 wrote some bad sermons1 and some lampoons2 but he was unknown4 ,i have seen one of his sermons1 which is insipid enough1 and pretty much resembles the holdings forth of the ,quakers2 it is impossible to discover in it any trace of that power by which he afterwards swayed parliaments4 ,the truth is1 he was better fitted for the ,state than for the ,church4 ,it was principally in his tone and in his air that his eloquence consisted4 ,an inclination of that hand which had gained so many battles1 and killed so many royalists1 was more persuasive than the periods of ,cicero4 ,it must be acknowledged that it was his incomparable valor that brought him into notice1 and which conducted him gradually to the summit of greatness4 ,he commenced by throwing himself1 as a volunteer and a soldier of fortune1 into the town of ,hull1 besieged1 by the king4 ,he there performed some brilliant and valuable services1 for which he received a gratuity of about six thousand francs from the parliament4 ,the present1 bestowed by parliament upon an adventurer1 made it clear that the rebel party must prevail4 ,the king could not give to his general officers what the parliament gave to volunteers4 ,with money and fanaticism1 everything must in the end be mastered4 ,cromwell was made colonel4 ,his great talents for war became then so conspicuous that1 when the parliament created the earl of ,manchester general of its forces1 ,cromwell was appointed lieutenant-general1 without his having passed through the intervening ranks4 ,never did any man appear more worthy of command4 ,never was seen more activity and skill1 more daring and more resources1 than in ,cromwell4 ,he is wounded at the battle of ,york1 and1 while undergoing the first dressing1 is informed that his commander1 the earl of ,manchester1 is retreating1 and the battle lost4 ,he hastens to find the earl2 discovers him flying1 with some officers2 catches him by the arm1 and1 in a firm and dignified tone1 he exclaims3 ,my lord1 you mistake2 the enemy has not taken that road4 ,he reconducts him to the field of battle2 rallies1 during the night1 more than twelve thousand men2 harangues them in the name of ,god2 cites ,moses1 ,gideon1 and ,joshua2 renews the battle at daybreak against the victorious royalist army1 and completely defeats it4 ,such a man must either perish or obtain the mastery4 ,almost all the officers of his army were enthusiasts1 who carried the ,new ,testament on their saddle-bows4 ,in the army1 as in the parliament1 nothing was spoken of but ,babylon destroyed1 building up the worship of ,jerusalem1 and breaking the image4 ,cromwell1 among so many madmen1 was no longer one himself1 and thought it better to govern than to be governed by them4 ,the habit of preaching1 as by inspiration1 remained with him4 ,figure to yourself a fakir1 who1 after putting an iron girdle round his loins in penance1 takes it off to drub the ears of other fakirs4 ,such was ,cromwell4 ,he becomes as intriguing as he was intrepid4 ,he associates with all the colonels of the army1 and thus forms among the troops a republic which forces the commander to resign4 ,another commander is appointed1 and him he disgusts4 ,he governs the army1 and through it he governs the parliament2 which he at last compels to make him commander4 ,all this is much2 but the essential point is that he wins all the battles he fights in ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland2 and wins them1 not consulting his own security while the fight rages1 but always charging the enemy1 rallying his troops1 presenting himself everywhere1 frequently wounded1 killing with his own hands many royalist officers1 like the fiercest soldier in the ranks4 ,illustration3 ,oliver ,cromwell4 ,in the midst of this dreadful war ,cromwell made love2 he went1 with the ,bible under his arm1 to an assignation with the wife of his major-general1 ,lambert4 ,she loved the earl of ,holland1 who served in the king's army4 ,cromwell took him prisoner in battle1 and had the pleasure of bringing his rival to the block4 ,it was his maxim to shed the blood of every important enemy1 in the field or by the hand of the executioner4 ,he always increased his power by always daring to abuse it2 the profoundness of his plans never lessened his ferocious impetuosity4 ,he went to the ,house of ,commons1 and drove all the members out1 one after another1 making them defile before him4 ,as they passed1 each was obliged to make a profound reverence2 one of them was passing on with his head covered2 ,cromwell seized his hat and threw it down4 ,learn1 said he1 to respect me4 ,when he had outraged all kings by beheading his own legitimate king1 and he began himself to reign1 he sent his portrait to one crowned head1 ,christina1 queen of ,sweden4 ,marvel1 a celebrated ,english poet1 who wrote excellent ,latin verses1 accompanied his portrait with six lines1 in which he introduces ,cromwell himself speaking2 ,cromwell corrected these two last verses3 ,at tibi submittit frontem reverentior umbra1 ,non sunt hi vultus regibus usque truces4 ,the spirit of the whole six verses may be given thus3 ,les armes la main j'ai dfendu les lois2 ,d'un peuple audacieux j'ai veng la querelle4 ,regardez sans frmir cette image fidle3 ,mon front n'est pas toujours l'pouvante des rois4 ',twas mine by arms t'uphold my country's laws2 ,my sword maintained a lofty people's cause2 ,with less of fear these faithful outlines trace1 ,menace of kings not always clouds my face4 ,this queen was the first to acknowledge him after he became protector of the three kingdoms4 ,almost all the sovereigns of ,europe sent ambassadors to their brother ,cromwell--to that domestic of a bishop1 who had just brought to the scaffold a sovereign related to them4 ,they emulously courted his alliance4 ,cardinal ,mazarin1 in order to please him1 banished from ,france the two sons of ,charles ,i41 the two grandsons of ,henry ,,iv41 and the two cousins-german of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,france conquered ,dunkirk for him1 and the keys of it were delivered into his possession4 ,after his death1 ,louis ,,xiv4 and his whole court went into mourning1 except mademoiselle1 who dared to appear in the circle in colors1 and alone to maintain the honor of her race4 ,no king was ever more absolute than ,cromwell4 ,he would observe that he had preferred governing under the name of protector rather than under that of king1 because the ,english were aware of the limits of the prerogative of a king of ,england1 but knew not the extent of that of a protector4 ,this was knowing mankind1 who are governed by opinion1 and whose opinion depends upon a name4 ,he had conceived a profound contempt for the religion to which he owed his success4 ,an anecdote1 preserved in the ,st4 ,john family1 sufficiently proves the slight regard he attached to that instrument which had produced such mighty effects in his hands4 ,he was drinking once in company with ,ireton1 ,fleetwood1 and ,st4 ,john1 great grandfather of the celebrated ,lord ,bolingbroke2 a bottle of wine was to be uncorked1 and the corkscrew fell under the table2 they all looked for it1 and were unable to find it4 ,in the meantime a deputation from the ,presbyterian churches awaited in the ante-chamber1 and an usher announced them4 ,tell them1 said ,cromwell1 that ,i have retired1 and that ,i am seeking the ,lord4 ,this was the expression employed by the fanatics for going to prayers4 ,having dismissed the troop of divines1 he thus addressed his companions3 ,those fellows think we are seeking the ,lord1 while we are only seeking a corkscrew4 ,there is scarcely any example in ,europe of a man who1 from so low a beginning1 raised himself to such eminence4 ,but with all his great talents1 what did he consider absolutely essential to his happiness8 ,power he obtained2 but was he happy8 ,he had lived in poverty and disquiet till the age of forty-three2 he afterwards plunged into blood1 passed his life in trouble1 and died prematurely1 at the age of fifty-seven4 ,with this life let any one compare that of a ,newton1 who lived fourscore years1 always tranquil1 always honored1 always the light of all thinking beings2 beholding every day an accession to his fame1 his character1 his fortune2 completely free both from care and remorse2 and let him decide whose was the happier lot4 ,o curas hominum6 ,o quantim est in rebus inane6 ,o human cares6 ,o mortal toil how vain6 ,,section ,,ii4 ,oliver ,cromwell was regarded with admiration by the ,puritans and ,independents of ,england2 he is still their hero4 ,but ,richard ,cromwell1 his son1 is the man for me4 ,the first was a fanatic who in the present day would be hissed down in the ,house of ,commons1 on uttering any one of the unintelligible absurdities which he delivered with such confidence before other fanatics who listened to him with open mouth and staring eyes1 in the name of the ,lord4 ,if he were to say that they must seek the ,lord1 and fight the battles of the ,lord--if he were to introduce the ,jewish jargon into the parliament of ,england1 to the eternal disgrace of the human understanding1 he would be much more likely to be conducted to ,bedlam than to be appointed the commander of armies4 ,brave he unquestionably was--and so are wolves2 there are even some monkeys as fierce as tigers4 ,from a fanatic he became an able politician2 in other words1 from a wolf he became a fox1 and the knave1 craftily mounting from the first steps where the mad enthusiasm of the times had placed him1 to the summit of greatness1 walked over the heads of the prostrated fanatics4 ,he reigned1 but he lived in the horrors of alarm and had neither cheerful days nor tranquil nights4 ,the consolations of friendship and society never approached him4 ,he died prematurely1 more deserving1 beyond a doubt1 of public execution than the monarch whom1 from a window of his own palace1 he caused to be led out to the scaffold4 ,richard ,cromwell1 on the contrary1 was gentle and prudent and refused to keep his father's power at the expense of the lives of three or four factious persons whom he might have sacrificed to his ambition4 ,he preferred becoming a private individual to being an assassin with supreme power4 ,he relinquished the protectorship without regret1 to live as a subject2 and in the tranquillity of a country life he enjoyed health and possessed his soul in peace for ninety years1 beloved by his neighbors1 to whom he was a peacemaker and a father4 ,say1 reader1 had you to choose between the destiny of the father and that of the son1 which would you prefer8 ,,cuissage4 ,dion ,cassius1 that flatterer of ,augustus and detractor from ,cicero1 because ,cicero was the friend of liberty--that dry and diffuse writer and gazetteer of popular rumors1 ,dion ,cassius1 reports that certain senators were of opinion that in order to recompense ,csar for all the evil which he had brought upon the commonwealth it would be right1 at the age of fifty-seven1 to allow him to honor with his favors all the ladies who took his fancy4 ,men are still found who credit this absurdity4 ,even the author of the ,spirit of ,laws takes it for a truth and speaks of it as of a decree which would have passed the ,roman senate but for the modesty of the dictator1 who suspected that he was not altogether prepared for the accession of so much good fortune4 ,but if the ,roman emperors attained not this right by a senatus-consultum1 duly founded upon a plebiscitum1 it is very likely that they fully enjoyed it by the courtesy of the ladies4 ,the ,marcus ,aureliuses and the ,julians1 to be sure1 exercised not this right1 but all the rest extended it as widely as they were able4 ,it is astonishing that in ,christian ,europe a kind of feudal law for a long time existed1 or at least it was deemed a customary usage1 to regard the virginity of a female vassal as the property of the lord4 ,the first night of the nuptials of the daughter of his villein belonged to him without dispute4 ,this right was established in the same manner as that of walking with a falcon on the fist1 and of being saluted with incense at mass4 ,the lords1 indeed1 did not enact that the wives of their villeins belonged to them2 they confined themselves to the daughters1 the reason of which is obvious4 ,girls are bashful and sometimes might exhibit reluctance4 ,this1 however1 yielded at once to the majesty of the laws1 when the condescending baron deemed them worthy the honor of personally enforcing their practice4 ,it is asserted that this curious jurisprudence commenced in ,scotland1 and ,i willingly believe that the ,scotch lords had a still more absolute power over their clans than even the ,german and ,french barons over their vassals4 ,it is undoubted that some abbots and bishops enjoyed this privilege in their quality of temporal lords1 and it is not very long since that these prelates compounded their prerogative for acknowledgments in money1 to which they have just as much right as to the virginity of the girls4 ,but let it be well remarked that this excess of tyranny was never sanctioned by any public law4 ,if a lord or a prelate had cited before a regular tribunal a girl affianced to one of his vassals1 in claim of her quit-rent1 he would doubtless have lost his cause and costs4 ,let us seize this occasion to rest assured that no partially civilized people ever established formal laws against morals2 ,i do not believe that a single instance of it can be furnished4 ,abuses creep in and are borne3 they pass as customs and travellers mistake them for fundamental laws4 ,it is said that in ,asia greasy ,mahometan saints march in procession entirely naked and that devout females crowd round them to kiss what is not worthy to be named1 but ,i defy any one to discover a passage in the ,koran which justifies this brutality4 ,the phallus1 which the ,egyptians carry in procession1 may be quoted in order to confound me1 as well as the idol ,juggernaut1 of the ,indians4 ,i reply that these ceremonies war no more against morals than circumcision at the age of eight days4 ,in some of our towns the holy foreskin has been borne in procession1 and it is preserved yet in certain sacristies without this piece of drollery causing the least disturbance in families4 ,still1 ,i am convinced that no council or act of parliament ever ordained this homage to the holy foreskin4 ,i call a public law which deprives me of my property1 which takes away my wife and gives her to another1 a law against morals2 and ,i am certain that such a law is impossible4 ,some travellers maintain that in ,lapland husbands1 out of politeness1 make an offer of their wives4 ,out of still greater politeness1 ,i believe them2 but ,i nevertheless assert1 that they never found this rule of good manners in the legal code of ,lapland1 any more than in the constitutions of ,germany1 in the ordinances of the king of ,france1 or in the ,statutes at ,large of ,england1 any positive law1 adjudging the right of cuissage to the barons4 ,absurd and barbarous laws may be found everywhere2 formal laws against morals nowhere4 ,,curate 7,,of ,,the ,,country74 ,a curate--but why do ,i say a curate8--even an imam1 a talapoin1 or brahmin ought to have the means of living decently4 ,the priest in every country ought to be supported by the altar since he serves the public4 ,some fanatic rogue may assert that ,i place the curate and the brahmin on the same level and associate truth with imposture2 but ,i compare only the services rendered to society1 the labor1 and the recompense4 ,i maintain that whoever exercises a laborious function ought to be well paid by his fellow-citizens4 ,i do not assert that he ought to amass riches1 sup with ,lucullus1 or be as insolent as ,clodius4 ,i pity the case of a country curate who is obliged to dispute a sheaf of corn with his parishioner2 to plead against him2 to exact from him the tenth of his peas and beans2 to be hated and to hate1 and to consume his miserable life in miserable quarrels which engross the mind as much as they embitter it4 ,i still more pity the inconsistent lot of a curate1 whom monks1 claiming the great tithes1 audaciously reward with a salary of forty ducats per annum for undertaking1 throughout the year1 the labor of visiting for three miles round his abode1 by day and by night1 in hail1 rain1 or snow1 the most disagreeable and often the most useless functions1 while the abbot or great tithe-holder drinks his rich wine of ,volney1 ,beaune1 or ,chambertin1 eats his partridges and pheasants1 sleeps upon his down bed with a fair neighbor1 and builds a palace4 ,the disproportion is too great4 ,it has been taken for granted since the days of ,charlemagne that the clergy1 besides their own lands1 ought to possess a tenth of the lands of other people1 which tenth is at least a quarter1 computing the expense of culture4 ,to establish this payment it is claimed on a principle of divine right4 ,did ,god descend on earth to give a quarter of ,his property to the abbey of ,monte ,cassino1 to the abbey of ,st4 ,denis1 to the abbey of ,fulda8 ,not that ,i know1 but it has been discovered that formerly1 in the desert of ,ethan1 ,horeb1 and ,kadesh ,barnea1 the ,levites were favored with forty-eight cities and a tenth of all which the earth produced besides4 ,very well1 great tithe-holders1 go to ,kadesh ,barnea and inhabit the forty-eight cities in that uninhabitable desert4 ,take the tenth of the flints which the land produces there1 and great good may they do you4 ,but ,abraham having combated for ,sodom1 gave a tenth of the spoil to ,melchizedek1 priest and king of ,salem4 ,very good1 combat you also for ,sodom1 but1 like ,melchizedek1 take not from me the produce of the corn which ,i have sowed4 ,in a ,christian country containing twelve hundred thousand square leagues throughout the whole of the ,north1 in part of ,germany1 in ,holland1 and in ,switzerland1 the clergy are paid with money from the public treasury4 ,the tribunals resound not there with lawsuits between landlords and priests1 between the great and the little tithe-holders1 between the pastor1 plaintiff1 and the flock defendants1 in consequence of the third ,council of the ,lateran1 of which the said flocks defendant have never heard a syllable4 ,the king of ,naples this year 7#aggb7 has just abolished tithes in one of his provinces3 the clergy are better paid and the province blesses him4 ,the ,egyptian priests1 it is said1 claimed not this tenth1 but then1 it is observed that they possessed a third part of the land of ,egypt as their own4 ,oh1 stupendous miracle6 oh1 thing most difficult to be conceived1 that possessing one-third of the country they did not quickly acquire the other two6 ,believe not1 dear reader1 that the ,jews1 who were a stiff-necked people1 never complained of the extortion of the tenths1 or tithe4 ,give yourself the trouble to consult the ,talmud of ,babylon1 and if you understand not the ,chaldan1 read the translation1 with notes of ,gilbert ,gaumin1 the whole of which was printed by the care of ,fabricius4 ,you will there peruse the adventure of a poor widow with the ,high ,priest ,aaron1 and learn how the quarrel of this widow became the cause of the quarrel of ,koran1 ,dathan1 and ,abiram1 on the one side1 and ,aaron on the other4 ,a widow possessed only a single sheep which she wished to shear4 ,aaron came and took the wool for himself3 ',it belongs to me1' said he1 'according to the law1 thou shalt give the first of the wool to ,god4' ,the widow1 in tears1 implored the protection of ,koran4 ,koran applied to ,aaron but his entreaties were fruitless4 ,aaron replies that the wool belongs to him4 ,koran gives some money to the widow and retires1 filled with indignation4 ,some time after1 the sheep produces a lamb4 ,aaron returns and carries away the lamb4 ,the widow runs weeping again to ,koran1 who in vain implores ,aaron4 ,the high priest answers1 ',it is written in the law1 every first-born male in thy flock belongs to ,god4' ,he eats the lamb and ,koran again retires in a rage4 ,the widow1 in despair1 kills her sheep2 ,aaron returns once more and takes away the shoulder and the breast4 ,koran again complains4 ,aaron replies3 ',it is written1 thou shalt give unto the priests the shoulder1 the two cheeks1 and the maw4' ,the widow could no longer contain her affliction and said1 ',anathema1' to the sheep1 upon which ,aaron observed1 ',it is written1 all that is anathema 7cursed7 in ,israel belongs to thee2' and took away the sheep altogether4 ,what is not so pleasant1 yet very remarkable1 is that in a suit between the clergy of ,rheims and the citizens1 this instance from the ,talmud was cited by the advocate of the citizens4 ,gaumin asserts that he witnessed it4 ,in the meantime it may be answered that the tithe-holders do not take all from the people1 the tax-gatherers will not suffer it4 ,to every one his share is just4 ,,curiosity4 ,suave1 mari magno turbantibus aequora ventis1 ,e terra magnum alterius spectare laborem2 ,non quia vexari quemquam est jucunda voluptas1 ,sed quibus ipse malis careas1 quia cernere suave est4 ,suave etiam belli certamina magna tueri ,per campos instructa tua sine parte pericli2 ,sed nil dulcius est1 bene quam munita tenere ,edita doctrina sapientum templa serena ,despicere unde queas alios1 passimque videre ,errare1 atque viam palantes quaerere vitae1 ,certare ingenio1 contendere nobilitate1 ,noctes atque dies niti praestante labore ,ad summas emergere opes1 rerumque potiri4 ,o miseras hominum mentes6 ,o pectora caeca6 ',tis pleasant1 when the seas are rough1 to stand ,and view another's danger1 safe at land2 ,not 'cause he's troubled1 but 'tis sweet to see ,those cares and fears1 from which ourselves are free2 ,tis also pleasant to behold from far ,how troops engage1 secure ourselves from war4 ,but1 above all1 'tis pleasantest to get ,the top of high philosophy1 and set ,on the calm1 peaceful1 nourishing head of it2 ,whence we may view1 deep1 wondrous deep below1 ,how poor mistaken mortals wandering go1 ,seeking the path to happiness2 some aim ,at learning1 not nobility1 or fame2 ,others1 with cares and dangers vie each hour ,to reach the top of wealth and sovereign power4 ,blind1 wretched man1 in what dark paths of strife ,we walk this little journey of our life4 --,,creech',s ,lucretius4 ,i ask your pardon1 ,lucretius6 ,i suspect that you are here as mistaken in morals as you are always mistaken in physics4 ,in my opinion it is curiosity alone that induces people to hasten to the shore to see a vessel in danger of being overwhelmed in a tempest4 ,the case has happened to myself1 and ,i solemnly assure you that my pleasure1 mingled as it was with uneasiness and distress1 did not at all arise from reflection1 nor originate in any secret comparison between my own security and the danger of the unfortunate crew4 ,i was moved by curiosity and pity4 ,at the battle of ,fontenoy little boys and girls climbed up the surrounding trees to have a view of the slaughter4 ,ladies ordered seats to be placed for them on a bastion of the city of ,liege that they might enjoy the spectacle at the battle of ,rocoux4 ,when ,i said1 ,happy they who view in peace the gathering storm1 the happiness ,i had in view consists in tranquillity and the search of truth1 and not in seeing the sufferings of thinking beings1 oppressed by fanatics or hypocrites under persecution for having sought it4 ,could we suppose an angel flying on six beautiful wings from the height of the ,empyrean1 setting out to take a view through some loophole of hell of the torments and contortions of the damned1 and congratulating himself on feeling nothing of their inconceivable agonies1 such an angel would much resemble the character of ,beelzebub4 ,i know nothing of the nature of angels because ,i am only a man2 divines alone are acquainted with them2 but1 as a man1 ,i think1 from my own experience and also from that of all my brother drivellers1 that people do not flock to any spectacle1 of whatever kind1 but from pure curiosity4 ,this seems to me so true that if the exhibition be ever so admirable men at last get tired of it4 ,the ,parisian public scarcely go any longer to see ,tartuffe the most masterly of ,molire's masterpieces4 ,why is it8 ,because they have gone often2 because they have it by heart4 ,it is the same with ,andromache4 ,perrin ,dandin is unfortunately right when he proposes to the young ,isabella to take her to see the method of putting to the torture2 it serves1 he says1 to pass away an hour or two4 ,if this anticipation of the execution1 frequently more cruel than the execution itself1 were a public spectacle1 the whole city of ,toulouse would have rushed in crowds to behold the venerable ,calas twice suffering those execrable torments1 at the instance of the attorney-general4 ,penitents1 black1 white1 and gray1 married women1 girls1 stewards of the floral games1 students1 lackeys1 female servants1 girls of the town1 doctors of the canon law would have been all squeezed together4 ,at ,paris we must have been almost suffocated in order to see the unfortunate ,general ,lally pass along in a dung cart1 with a six-inch gag in his mouth4 ,but if these tragedies of cannibals1 which are sometimes performed before the most frivolous of nations1 and the one most ignorant in general of the principles of jurisprudence and equity2 if the spectacles1 like those of ,st4 ,bartholomew1 exhibited by tigers to monkeys and the copies of it on a smaller scale were renewed every day1 men would soon desert such a country2 they would fly from it with horror2 they would abandon forever the infernal land where such barbarities were common4 ,when little boys and girls pluck the feathers from their sparrows it is merely from the impulse of curiosity1 as when they dissect the dresses of their dolls4 ,it is this passion alone which produces the immense attendance at public executions4 ,strange eagerness1 as some tragic author remarks1 to behold the wretched4 ,i remember being in ,paris when ,damiens suffered a death the most elaborate and frightful that can be conceived4 ,all the windows in the city which bore upon the spot were engaged at a high price by ladies1 not one of whom1 assuredly1 made the consoling reflection that her own breasts were not torn by pincers2 that melted lead and boiling pitch were not poured upon wounds of her own1 and that her own limbs1 dislocated and bleeding1 were not drawn asunder by four horses4 ,one of the executioners judged more correctly than ,lucretius1 for1 when one of the academicians of ,paris tried to get within the enclosure to examine what was passing more closely1 and was forced back by one of the guards1 ,let the gentleman go in1 said he1 he is an amateur4 ,that is to say1 he is inquisitive2 it is not through malice that he comes here2 it is not from any reflex consideration of self to revel in the pleasure of not being himself quartered2 it is only from curiosity1 as men go to see experiments in natural philosophy4 ,curiosity is natural to man1 to monkeys1 and to little dogs4 ,take a little dog with you in your carriage1 he will continually be putting up his paws against the door to see what is passing4 ,a monkey searches everywhere1 and has the air of examining everything4 ,as to men1 you know how they are constituted3 ,rome1 ,london1 ,paris1 all pass their time in inquiring what's the news8 ,,customs--,,usages4 ,there are1 it is said1 one hundred and forty-four customs in ,france which possess the force of law4 ,these laws are almost all different in different places4 ,a man that travels in this country changes his law almost as often as he changes his horses4 ,the majority of these customs were not reduced to writing until the time of ,charles ,,vii41 the reason of which probably was that few people knew how to write4 ,they then copied a part of the customs of a part of ,ponthieu1 but this great work was not aided by the ,picards until ,charles ,,viii4 ,there were but sixteen digests in the time of ,louis ,,xii41 but our jurisprudence is so improved there are now but few customs which have not a variety of commentators1 all of whom are of different opinions4 ,there are already twenty-six upon the customs of ,paris4 ,the judges know not which to prefer1 but1 to put them at their ease the custom of ,paris has been just turned into verse4 ,it was in this manner that the ,delphian pythoness of old declared her oracles4 ,weights and measures differ as much as customs1 so that which is correct in the faubourg of ,montmartre1 is otherwise in the abbey of ,st4 ,denis4 ,the ,lord pity us6 ,,cyrus4 ,many learned men1 and ,rollin among the number1 in an age in which reason is cultivated1 have assured us that ,javan1 who is supposed to be the father of the ,greeks1 was the grandson of ,noah4 ,i believe it precisely as ,i believe that ,persius was the founder of the kingdom of ,persia and ,niger of ,nigritia4 ,the only thing which grieves me is that the ,greeks have never known anything of ,noah1 the venerable author of their race4 ,i have elsewhere noted my astonishment and chagrin that our father ,adam should be absolutely unknown to everybody from ,japan to the ,strait of ,le ,maire1 except to a small people to whom he was known too late4 ,the science of genealogy is doubtless in the highest degree certain1 but exceedingly difficult4 ,it is neither upon ,javan1 upon ,noah1 nor upon ,adam that my doubts fall at present2 it is upon ,cyrus1 and ,i seek not which of the fables in regard to him is preferable1 that of ,herodotus1 of ,ctesias1 of ,xenophon1 of ,diodorus1 or of ,justin1 all of which contradict one another4 ,neither do ,i ask why it is obstinately determined to give the name of ,cyrus to a barbarian called ,khosrou1 and those of ,cyropolis and ,persepolis to cities that never bore them4 ,i drop all that has been said of the grand ,cyrus1 including the romance of that name1 and the travels which the ,scottish ,ramsay made him undertake1 and simply inquire into some instructions of his to the ,jews1 of which that people make mention4 ,i remark1 in the first place1 that no author has said a word of the ,jews in the history of ,cyrus1 and that the ,jews alone venture to notice themselves1 in speaking of this prince4 ,they resemble1 in some degree1 certain people1 who1 alluding to individuals of a rank superior to their own say1 we know the gentlemen but the gentlemen know not us4 ,it is the same with ,alexander in the narratives of the ,jews4 ,no historian of ,alexander has mixed up his name with that of the ,jews1 but ,josephus fails not to assert that ,alexander came to pay his respects at ,jerusalem2 that he worshipped1 ,i know not what ,jewish pontiff1 called ,jaddus1 who had formerly predicted to him the conquest of ,persia in a dream4 ,petty people are often visionary in this way3 the great dream less of their greatness4 ,when ,tarik conquered ,spain the vanquished said they had foretold it4 ,they would have said the same thing to ,genghis1 to ,tamerlane1 and to ,mahomet ,,ii4 ,god forbid that ,i should compare the ,jewish prophets to the predictors of good fortune1 who pay their court to conquerors by foretelling them that which has come to pass4 ,i merely observe that the ,jews produce some testimony from their nation in respect to the actions of ,cyrus about one hundred and sixty years before he was born4 ,it is said1 in the forty-fifth chapter of ,isaiah1 ,thus saith the ,lord to ,his anointed--,his ,christ--,cyrus1 whose right hand ,i have holden to subdue nations before him1 and ,i will loosen the loins of kings to open before him the two-leaved gates1 and the gates shall not be shut4 ,i will go before thee and make the crooked places straight2 ,i will break in pieces the gates of brass and cut in sunder the bars of iron4 ,and ,i will give thee the treasures of darkness and hidden riches of secret places that thou mayest know that ,i the ,lord1 who call thee by thy name1 am the ,god of ,israel1 etc4 ,some learned men have scarcely been able to digest the fact of the ,lord honoring with the name of ,his ,christ an idolater of the religion of ,zoroaster4 ,they even dare to say that the ,jews1 in the manner of all the weak who flatter the powerful1 invented predictions in favor of ,cyrus4 ,these learned persons respect ,daniel no more than ,isaiah1 but treat all the prophecies attributed to the latter with similar contempt to that manifested by ,st4 ,jerome for the adventures of ,susannah1 of ,bel and the ,dragon1 and of the three children in the fiery furnace4 ,the sages in question seem not to be penetrated with sufficient esteem for the prophets4 ,many of them even pretend that to see clearly the future is metaphysically impossible4 ,to see that which is not1 say they1 is a contradiction in terms1 and as the future exists not1 it consequently cannot be seen4 ,they add that frauds of this nature abound in all nations1 and1 finally1 that everything is to be doubted which is recorded in ancient history4 ,they observe that if there was ever a formal prophecy it is that of the discovery of ,america in the tragedy of ,seneca3 ,venient annis ,scula seris quibus oceanus ,vinculo rerum laxet1 et ingens ,pateat tellus1444 ,a time may arrive when ocean will loosen the chains of nature and lay open a vast world4 ,the four stars of the southern pole are advanced still more clearly in ,dante1 yet no one takes either ,seneca or ,dante for diviners4 ,as to ,cyrus1 it is difficult to know whether he died nobly or had his head cut off by ,tomyris1 but ,i am anxious1 ,i confess1 that the learned men may be right who claim the head of ,cyrus was cut off4 ,it is not amiss that these illustrious robbers on the highway of nations who pillage and deluge the earth with blood1 should be occasionally chastised4 ,cyrus has always been the subject of remark1 ,xenophon began and1 unfortunately1 ,ramsay ended4 ,lastly1 to show the sad fate which sometimes attends heroes1 ,danchet has made him the subject of a tragedy4 ,this tragedy is entirely unknown2 the ,cyropdia of ,xenophon is more popular because it is in ,greek4 ,the ,travels of ,cyrus are less so1 although printed in ,french and ,english1 and wonderfully erudite4 ,the pleasantry of the romance entitled ,the ,travels of ,cyrus1 consists in its discovery of a ,messiah everywhere--at ,memphis1 at ,babylon1 at ,ecbatana1 and at ,tyre1 as at ,jerusalem1 and as much in ,plato as in the gospel4 ,the author having been a ,quaker1 an ,anabaptist1 an ,anglican1 and a ,presbyterian1 had finally become a ,fnelonist at ,cambray1 under the illustrious author of ,telemachus4 ,having since been made preceptor to the child of a great nobleman1 he thought himself born to instruct and govern the universe1 and1 in consequence1 gives lessons to ,cyrus in order to render him at once the best king and the most orthodox theologian in existence4 ,these two rare qualities appear to lack the grace of congruity4 ,ramsay leads his pupil to the school of ,zoroaster and then to that of the young ,jew1 ,daniel1 the greatest philosopher who ever existed4 ,he not only explained dreams1 which is the acme of human science1 but discovered and interpreted even such as had been forgotten1 which none but he could ever accomplish4 ,it might be expected that ,daniel would present the beautiful ,susannah to the prince1 it being in the natural manner of romance1 but he did nothing of the kind4 ,cyrus1 in return1 has some very long conversations with ,nebuchadnezzar while he was an ox1 during which transformation ,ramsay makes ,nebuchadnezzar ruminate like a profound theologian4 ,how astonishing that the prince for whom this work was composed preferred the chase and the opera to perusing it6 ,,dante4 ,you wish to become acquainted with ,dante4 ,the ,italians call him divine1 but it is a mysterious divinity2 few men understand his oracles1 and although there are commentators1 that may be an additional reason why he is little comprehended4 ,his reputation will last because he is little read4 ,twenty pointed things in him are known by rote1 which spare people the trouble of being acquainted with the remainder4 ,the divine ,dante was an unfortunate person4 ,imagine not that he was divine in his own day2 no one is a prophet at home4 ,it is true he was a prior--not a prior of monks1 but a prior of ,florence1 that is to say1 one of its senators4 ,he was born in #abfj1 when the arts began to flourish in his native land4 ,florence1 like ,athens1 abounded in greatness1 wit1 levity1 inconstancy1 and faction4 ,the white faction was in great credit2 it was called after a ,signora ,bianca4 ,the opposing party was called the blacks1 in contradistinction4 ,these two parties sufficed not for the ,florentines2 they had also ,guelphs and ,ghibellines4 ,the greater part of the whites were ,ghibellines1 attached to the party of the emperors2 the blacks1 on the other hand1 sided with the ,guelphs1 the partisans of the popes4 ,all these factions loved liberty1 but did all they could to destroy it4 ,pope ,boniface ,,viii4 wished to profit by these divisions in order to annihilate the power of the emperors in ,italy4 ,he declared ,charles de ,valois1 brother of ,philip the ,fair1 king of ,france1 his vicar in ,italy4 ,the vicar came well armed and chased away the whites and the ,ghibellines and made himself detested by blacks and ,guelphs4 ,dante was a white and a ,ghibelline2 he was driven away among the first and his house razed to the ground4 ,we may judge if he could be for the remainder of his life1 favorable towards the ,french interest and to the popes4 ,it is said1 however1 that he took a journey to ,paris1 and1 to relieve his chagrin turned theologian and disputed vigorously in the schools4 ,it is added that the emperor ,henry ,,viii4 did nothing for him1 ,ghibelline as he was1 and that he repaired to ,frederick of ,aragon1 king of ,sicily1 and returned as poor as he went4 ,he subsequently died in poverty at ,ravenna at the age of fifty-six4 ,it was during these various peregrinations that he composed his divine comedy of ,hell1 ,purgatory1 and ,paradise4 ,voltaire here enters into a description of the ,inferno1 which it is unnecessary to insert1 after the various translations into ,english4 ,the conclusion1 however1 exhibiting our author's usual vivacity1 is retained4 ,is all this in the comic style8 ,no4 ,in the heroic manner8 ,no4 ,what then is the taste of this poem8 ,an exceedingly wild one1 but it contains verses so happy and piquant that it has not lain dormant for four centuries and never will be laid aside4 ,a poem1 moreover1 which puts popes into hell excites attention1 and the sagacity of commentators is exhausted in correctly ascertaining who it is that ,dante has damned1 it being1 of course1 of the first consequence not to be deceived in a matter so important4 ,a chair and a lecture have been founded with a view to the exposition of this classic author4 ,you ask me why the ,inquisition acquiesces4 ,i reply that in ,italy the ,inquisition understands raillery and knows that raillery in verse never does any harm4 ,,david4 ,we are called upon to reverence ,david as a prophet1 as a king1 as the ancestor of the holy spouse of ,mary1 as a man who merited the mercy of ,god from his penitence4 ,i will boldly assert that the article on ,david1 which raised up so many enemies to ,bayle1 the first author of a dictionary of facts and of reasonings1 deserves not the strange noise which was made about it4 ,it was not ,david that people were anxious to defend1 but ,bayle whom they were solicitous to destroy4 ,certain preachers of ,holland1 his mortal enemies1 were so far blinded by their enmity as to blame him for having praised popes whom he thought meritorious1 and for having refuted the unjust calumny with which they had been assailed4 ,this absurd and shameful piece of injustice was signed by a dozen theologians on ,dec4 #bj1 #afih1 in the same consistory in which they pretended to take up the defence of ,king ,david4 ,a great proof that the condemnation of ,bayle arose from personal feeling is supplied by the fact of that which happened in #agfa1 to ,mr4 ,peter ,anet1 in ,london4 ,the doctors ,chandler and ,palmer1 having delivered funeral sermons on the death of ,king ,george ,,ii41 in which they compared him to ,king ,david1 ,mr4 ,anet1 who did not regard this comparison as honorable to the deceased monarch1 published his famous dissertation entitled1 ,the ,history of the ,man after ,god's ,own ,heart4 ,in that work he makes it clear that ,george ,,ii41 a king much more powerful than ,david1 did not fall into the errors of the ,jewish sovereign1 and consequently could not display the penitence which was the origin of the comparison4 ,he follows1 step by step1 the ,books of ,kings1 examines the conduct of ,david with more severity than ,bayle1 and on it founds an opinion that the ,holy ,spirit does not praise actions of the nature of those attributed to ,david4 ,the ,english author1 in fact1 judges the king of ,judah upon the notions of justice and injustice which prevail at the present time4 ,he cannot approve of the assembly of a band of robbers by ,david to the amount of four hundred2 of his being armed with the sword of ,goliath1 by the high priest ,abimelech1 from whom he received hallowed bread4 ,he could not think well of the expedition of ,david against the farmer1 ,nabal1 in order to destroy his abode with fire and sword1 because ,nabal refused contributions to his troop of robbers2 or of the death of ,nabal a few days afterwards1 whose widow ,david immediately espoused4 ,he condemned his conduct to ,king ,achish1 the possessor of a few villages in the district of ,gath4 ,david1 at the head of five or six hundred banditti1 made inroads upon the allies of his benefactor ,achish4 ,he pillaged the whole of them1 massacred all the inhabitants1 men1 women1 and children at the breast4 ,and why the children at the breast8 ,for fear1 says the text1 these children should carry the news to ,king ,achish1 who was deceived into a belief that these expeditions were undertaken against the ,israelites1 by an absolute lie on the part of ,david4 ,again1 ,saul loses a battle and wishes his armor-bearer to slay him1 who refuses2 he wounds himself1 but not effectually1 and at his own desire a young man despatches him1 who1 carrying the news to ,david1 is massacred for his pains4 ,ishbosheth succeeds his father1 ,saul1 and ,david makes war upon him4 ,finally ,ishbosheth is assassinated4 ,david1 possessed of the sole dominion1 surprised the little town or village of ,rabbah and put all the inhabitants to death by the most extraordinary devices--sawing them asunder1 destroying them with harrows and axes of iron1 and burning them in brick-kilns4 ,after these expeditions there was a famine in the country for three years4 ,in fact1 from this mode of making war1 countries must necessarily be badly cultivated4 ,the ,lord was consulted as to the causes of the famine4 ,the answer was easy4 ,in a country which produces corn with difficulty1 when laborers are baked in brick-kilns and sawed into pieces1 few people remain to cultivate the earth4 ,the ,lord1 however1 replied that it was because ,saul had formerly slain some ,gibeonites4 ,what is ,david's speedy remedy8 ,he assembles the ,gibeonites1 informs them that ,saul had committed a great sin in making war upon them1 and that ,saul not being like him1 a man after ,god's own heart1 it would be proper to punish him in his posterity4 ,he therefore makes them a present of seven grandsons of ,saul to be hanged1 who were accordingly hanged because there had been a famine4 ,mr4 ,anet is so just as not to insist upon the adultery with ,bathsheba and the murder of her husband1 as these crimes were pardoned in consequence of the repentance of ,david4 ,they were horrible and abominable1 but being remitted by the ,lord1 the ,english author also absolves from them4 ,no one complained in ,england of the author1 and the parliament took little interest in the history of a kinglet of a petty district in ,syria4 ,let justice be done to ,father ,calmet2 he has kept within bounds in his dictionary of the ,bible1 in the article on ,david4 ,we pretend not1 said he1 to approve of the conduct of ,david1 but it is to be believed that this excess of cruelty was committed before his repentance on the score of ,bathsheba4 ,possibly he repented of all his crimes at the same time1 which were sufficiently numerous4 ,let us here ask what appears to us to be an important question4 ,may we not exhibit a portion of contempt in the article on ,david1 and treat of his person and glory with the respect due to the sacred books8 ,it is to the interest of mankind that crime should in no case be sanctified4 ,what signifies what he is called1 who massacres the wives and children of his allies2 who hangs the grandchildren of his king2 who saws his unhappy captives in two1 tears them to pieces with harrows1 or burns them in brick-kilns8 ,these actions we judge1 and not the letters which compose the name of the criminal4 ,his name neither augments nor diminishes the criminality4 ,the more ,david is revered after his reconciliation with ,god1 the more are his previous qualities condemnable4 ,if a young peasant1 in searching after she-asses finds a kingdom it is no common affair4 ,if another peasant cures his king of insanity by a tune on the harp that is still more extraordinary4 ,but when this petty player on the harp becomes king because he meets a village priest in secret1 who pours a bottle of olive oil on his head1 the affair is more marvellous still4 ,i know nothing either of the writers of these marvels1 or of the time in which they were written1 but ,i am certain that it was neither ,polybius nor ,tacitus4 ,i shall not speak here of the murder of ,uriah1 and of the adultery with ,bathsheba1 these facts being sufficiently well known4 ,the ways of ,god are not the ways of men1 since ,he permitted the descent of ,jesus ,christ from this very ,bathsheba1 everything being rendered pure by so holy a mystery4 ,i ask not now how ,jurieu had the audacity to persecute the wise ,bayle for not approving all the actions of the good ,king ,david4 ,i only inquire why a man like ,jurieu is suffered to molest a man like ,bayle4 ,,decretals4 ,these are letters of the popes which regulate points of doctrine and discipline and which have the force of law in the ,latin church4 ,besides the genuine ones collected by ,denis le ,petit1 there is a collection of false ones1 the author of which1 as well as the date1 is unknown4 ,it was an archbishop of ,mentz called ,riculphus who circulated it in ,france about the end of the eighth century2 he had also brought to ,worms an epistle of ,pope ,gregory1 which had never before been heard of1 but no vestige of the latter is at present remaining1 while the false decretals1 as we shall see1 have met with the greatest success for eight centuries4 ,this collection bears the name of ,isidore ,mercator1 and comprehends an infinite number of decrees falsely ascribed to the popes1 from ,clement ,i4 down to ,siricius4 ,the false donation of ,constantine2 the ,council of ,rome under ,sylvester2 the letter of ,athanasius to ,mark2 that of ,anastasius to the bishops of ,germany and ,burgundy2 that of ,sixtus ,,iii4 to the ,orientals2 that of ,leo4 ,i4 relating to the privileges of the rural bishops2 that of ,john ,i4 to the archbishop ,zachariah2 one of ,boniface ,,ii4 to ,eulalia of ,alexandria2 one of ,john ,,iii4 to the bishops of ,france and ,burgundy2 one of ,gregory1 containing a privilege of the monastery of ,st4 ,mdard2 one from the same to ,felix1 bishop of ,messina1 and many others4 ,the object of the author was to extend the authority of the pope and the bishops4 ,with this view1 he lays it down as a principle that they can be definitely judged only by the pope1 and he often repeats this maxim that not only every bishop but every priest1 and1 generally1 every oppressed individual may1 in any stage of a cause1 appeal directly to the pope4 ,he likewise considers it as an incontestable principle that no council1 not even a provincial one1 may be held without the permission of the pope4 ,these decretals1 favoring the impunity of bishops1 and still more the ambitious pretensions of the popes1 were eagerly adopted by them both4 ,in #hfa1 ,rotade1 bishop of ,soissons1 being deprived of episcopal communion in a provincial council on account of disobedience1 appeals to the pope4 ,hincmar of ,rheims1 his metropolitan1 notwithstanding his appeal1 deposes him in another council under the pretext that he had afterwards renounced it1 and submitted himself to the judgment of the bishops4 ,pope ,nicholas ,i4 being informed of this affair1 wrote to ,hincmar1 and blamed his proceedings4 ,you ought1 says he1 to honor the memory of ,st4 ,peter1 and await our judgment1 even although ,rotade had not appealed4 ,and in another letter on the same matter1 he threatens ,hincmar with excommunication1 if he does not restore ,rotade4 ,that pope did more4 ,rotade having arrived at ,rome1 he declared him acquitted in a council held on ,christmas eve1 #hfd2 and dismissed him to his see with letters4 ,that which he addressed to all the bishops is worthy of notice1 and is as follows3 ,what you say is absurd1 that ,rotade1 after having appealed to the holy see1 changed his language and submitted himself anew to your judgment4 ,even although he had done so1 it would have been your duty to set him right1 and teach him that an appeal never lies from a superior judge to an inferior one4 ,but even although he had not appealed to the holy see1 you ought by no means to depose a bishop without our participation1 in prejudice of so many decretals of our predecessors2 for1 if it be by their judgment that the writings of other doctors are approved or rejected1 how much more should that be respected which they have themselves written1 to decide on points of doctrine and discipline4 ,some tell you that these decretals are not in the book of canons2 yet those same persons1 when they find them favorable to their designs1 use both without distinction1 and reject them only to lessen the power of the holy see4 ,if the decretals of the ancient popes are to be rejected because they are not contained in the book of canons1 the writings of ,st4 ,gregory1 and the rest of the fathers1 must1 on the same principle1 be rejected also1 and even the ,holy ,scriptures themselves4 ,you say1 the pope continues1 that judgments upon bishops are not among the higher causes2 we maintain that they are high in proportion as bishops hold a high rank in the church4 ,will you assert that it is only metropolitan affairs which constitute the higher causes8 ,but metropolitans are not of a different order from bishops1 and we do not demand different witnesses or judges in the one case1 from what are usual in the other2 we therefore require that causes which involve either should be reserved for us4 ,and1 finally1 can anyone be found so utterly unreasonable as to say that all other churches ought to preserve their privileges1 and that the ,roman ,church alone should lose hers8 ,he concludes with ordering them to receive and replace ,rotade4 ,pope ,adrian1 the successor of ,nicholas ,i41 seems to have been no less zealous in a similar case relating to ,hincmar of ,laon4 ,that prelate had rendered himself hateful both to the clergy and people of his diocese1 by various acts of injustice and violence4 ,having been accused before the ,council of ,verberie--at which ,hincmar of ,rheims1 his uncle and metropolitan1 presided--he appealed to the pope1 and demanded permission to go to ,rome4 ,this was refused him4 ,the process against him was merely suspended1 and the affair went no farther4 ,but upon new matters of complaint brought against him by ,charles the ,bald and ,hincmar of ,rheims1 he was cited at first before the ,council of ,attigny1 where he appeared1 and soon afterwards fled2 and then before the ,council of ,douzy1 where he renewed his appeal1 and was deposed4 ,the council wrote to the pope a synodal letter1 on ,sept4 #f1 #hga1 to request of him a confirmation of the acts which they sent him2 but ,adrian1 far from acquiescing in the judgment of the council1 expressed in the strongest terms his disapprobation of the condemnation of ,hincmar2 maintaining that1 since ,hincmar declared before the council that he appealed to the holy see1 they ought not to have pronounced any sentence of condemnation upon him4 ,such were the terms used by that pope1 in his letter to the bishops of the council1 as also in that which he wrote to the king4 ,the following is the vigorous answer sent by ,charles to ,adrian3 ,your letters say1 ',we will and ordain1 by apostolical authority1 that ,hincmar of ,laon shall come to ,rome and present himself before us1 resting upon your supremacy4' ,we wonder where the writer of this letter discovered that a king1 whose duty it is to chastise the guilty and be the avenger of crimes1 should send to ,rome a criminal convicted according to legal forms1 and more especially one who1 before his deposition1 was found guilty1 in three councils1 of enterprises against the public peace2 and who1 after his deposition1 persisted in his disobedience4 ,we are compelled further to tell you1 that we1 kings of ,france1 born of a royal race1 have never yet passed for the deputies of bishops1 but for sovereigns of the earth4 ,and1 as ,st4 ,leon and the ,roman council have said1 kings and emperors1 whom ,god has appointed to govern the world1 have permitted bishops to regulate their affairs according to their ordinances1 but they have never been the stewards of bishops2 and if you search the records of your predecessors1 you will not find that they have ever written to persons in our exalted situation as you have done in the present instance4 ,he then adduces two letters of ,st4 ,gregory1 to show with what modesty he wrote1 not only to the kings of ,france1 but to the exarchs of ,italy4 ,finally1 he concludes1 ,i beg that you will never more send to me1 or to the bishops of my kingdom1 similar letters1 if you wish that we should give to what you write that honor and respect which we would willingly grant it4 ,the bishops of the ,council of ,douzy answered the pope nearly in the same strain2 and1 although we have not the entire letter1 it appears that their object in it was to prove that ,hincmar's appeal ought not to be decided at ,rome1 but in ,france1 by judges delegated conformably to the canons of the ,council of ,sardis4 ,these examples are sufficient to show how the popes extended their jurisdiction by the instrumentality of these false decretals2 and although ,hincmar of ,rheims objected to ,adrian1 that1 not being included in the book of canons1 they could not subvert the discipline established by the canons--which occasioned his being accused1 before ,pope ,john ,,viii41 of not admitting the decretals of the popes--he constantly cited these decretals as authorities1 in his letters and other writings1 and his example was followed by many bishops4 ,at first1 those only were admitted which were not contrary to the more recent canons1 and afterwards there was less and less scruple4 ,the councils themselves made use of them4 ,thus1 in that of ,rheims1 held in #iib1 the bishops availed themselves of the decretals of ,anacletus1 of ,julius1 of ,damasus1 and other popes1 in the cause of ,arnoul4 ,succeeding councils imitated that of ,rheims4 ,the popes ,gregory ,,vii41 ,urban ,,ii41 ,pascal ,,ii41 ,urban ,,iii41 and ,alexander ,,iii4 supported the maxims they found in them1 persuaded that they constituted the discipline of the flourishing age of the church4 ,finally1 the compilers of the canons--,bouchard of ,worms1 ,yves of ,chartres1 and ,gratian--introduced them into their collection4 ,after they became publicly taught in the schools1 and commented upon1 all the polemical and scholastic divines1 and all the expositors of the canon law1 eagerly laid hold of these false decretals to confirm the ,catholic dogmas1 or to establish points of discipline1 and scattered them profusely through their works4 ,it was not till the sixteenth century that the first suspicions of their authenticity were excited4 ,erasmus1 and many others with him1 called them in question upon the following grounds3 #a4 ,the decretals contained in the collection of ,isidore are not in that of ,denis le ,petit1 who cited none of the decretals of the popes before the time of ,siricius4 ,yet he informs us that he took extreme care in collecting them4 ,they could not1 therefore1 have escaped him1 if they had existed in the archives of the see of ,rome1 where he resided4 ,if they were unknown to the holy see1 to which they were favorable1 they were so to the whole church4 ,the fathers and councils of the first eight centuries have made no mention of them4 ,but how can this universal silence be reconciled with their authenticity8 #b4 ,these decretals do not all correspond with the state of things existing at the time in which they are supposed to have been written4 ,not a word is said of the heresies of the three first centuries1 nor of other ecclesiastical affairs with which the genuine works of the same period are filled4 ,this proves that they were fabricated afterwards4 #c4 ,their dates are almost always false4 ,their author generally follows the chronology of the pontifical book1 which1 by ,baronius's own confession1 is very incorrect4 ,this is a presumptive evidence that the collection was not composed till after the pontifical book4 #d4 ,these decretals1 in all the citations of ,scripture passages which they contain1 use the version known by the name of ,vulgate1 made1 or at least revised1 by ,st4 ,jerome4 ,they are1 therefore1 of later date than ,st4 ,jerome4 ,finally1 they are all written in the same style1 which is very barbarous2 and1 in that respect1 corresponding to the ignorance of the eighth century3 but it is not by any means probable that all the different popes1 whose names they bear1 affected that uniformity of style4 ,it may be concluded with confidence1 that all the decretals are from the same hand4 ,besides these general reasons1 each of the documents which form ,isidore's collection carries with it marks of forgery peculiar to itself1 and none of which have escaped the keen criticism of ,david ,blondel1 to whom we are principally indebted for the light thrown at the present day on this compilation1 now no longer known but as ,the ,false ,decretals2 but the usages introduced in consequence of it exist not the less through a considerable portion of ,europe4 ,,deluge 7,,universal74 ,we begin with observing that we are believers in the universal deluge1 because it is recorded in the holy ,hebrew ,scriptures transmitted to ,christians4 ,we consider it as a miracle3 #a4 ,because all the facts by which ,god condescends to interfere in the sacred books are so many miracles4 #b4 ,because the sea could not rise fifteen cubits1 or one-and-twenty standard feet and a half1 above the highest mountains1 without leaving its bed dry1 and1 at the same time1 violating all the laws of gravity and the equilibrium of fluids1 which would evidently require a miracle4 #c4 ,because1 even although it might rise to the height mentioned1 the ark could not have contained1 according to known physical laws1 all the living things of the earth1 together with their food1 for so long a time2 considering that lions1 tigers1 panthers1 leopards1 ounces1 rhinoceroses1 bears1 wolves1 hyenas1 eagles1 hawks1 kites1 vultures1 falcons1 and all carnivorous animals1 which feed on flesh alone1 would have died of hunger1 even after having devoured all the other species4 ,there was printed some time ago1 in an appendix to ,pascal's ,thoughts1 a dissertation of a merchant of ,rouen1 called ,le ,peletier1 in which he proposes a plan for building a vessel in which all kinds of animals might be included and maintained for the space of a year4 ,it is clear that this merchant never superintended even a poultry-yard4 ,we cannot but look upon ,m4 ,le ,peletier1 the architect of the ark1 as a visionary1 who knew nothing about menageries2 and upon the deluge as an adorable miracle1 fearful1 and incomprehensible to the feeble reason of ,m4 ,le ,peletier1 as well as to our own4 #d4 ,because the physical impossibility of a universal deluge1 by natural means1 can be strictly demonstrated4 ,the demonstration is as follows3 ,all the seas cover half the globe4 ,a common measure of their depths near the shores1 and in the open ocean1 is assumed to be five hundred feet4 ,in order that they might cover both hemispheres to the depth of five hundred feet1 not only would an ocean of that depth be necessary over all the land1 but a new sea would1 in addition1 be required to envelop the ocean at present existing1 without which the laws of hydrostatics would occasion the dispersion of that other new mass of water five hundred feet deep1 which should remain covering the land4 ,thus1 then1 two new oceans are requisite to cover the terraqueous globe merely to the depth of five hundred feet4 ,supposing the mountains to be only twenty thousand feet high1 forty oceans1 each five hundred feet in height1 would be required to accumulate on each other1 merely in order to equal the height of the mountains4 ,every successive ocean would contain all the others1 and the last of them all would have a circumference containing forty times that of the first4 ,in order to form this mass of water1 it would be necessary to create it out of nothing4 ,in order to withdraw it1 it would be necessary to annihilate it4 ,the event of the deluge1 then1 is a double miracle1 and the greatest that has ever manifested the power of the eternal ,sovereign of all worlds4 ,we are exceedingly surprised that some learned men have attributed to this deluge some small shell found in many parts of our continent4 ,we are still more surprised at what we find under the article on ,deluge1 in the grand ,encyclopdia4 ,an author is quoted in it1 who says things so very profound that they may be considered as chimerical4 ,this is the first characteristic of ,pluche4 ,he proves the possibility of the deluge by the history of the giants who made war against the gods6 ,briareus1 according to him1 is clearly the deluge1 for it signifies the loss of serenity3 and in what language does it signify this loss8--in ,hebrew4 ,but ,briareus is a ,greek word1 which means robust3 it is not a ,hebrew word4 ,even if1 by chance1 it had been so1 we should beware of imitating ,bochart1 who derives so many ,greek1 ,latin1 and even ,french words from the ,hebrew idiom4 ,the ,greeks certainly knew no more of the ,jewish idiom than of the language of the ,chinese4 ,the giant ,othus is also in ,hebrew1 according to ,pluche1 the derangement of the seasons4 ,but it is also a ,greek word1 which does not signify anything1 at least1 that ,i know2 and even if it did1 what1 let me ask1 could it have to do with the ,hebrew8 ,porphyrion is a shaking of the earth1 in ,hebrew2 but in ,greek1 it is porphyry4 ,this has nothing to do with the deluge4 ,mimos is a great rain2 for once1 he does mention a name which may bear upon the deluge4 ,but in ,greek mimos means mimic1 comedian4 ,there are no means of tracing the deluge of such an origin4 ,enceladus is another proof of the deluge in ,hebrew2 for1 according to ,pluche1 it is the fountain of time2 but1 unluckily1 in ,greek it is noise4 ,ephialtes1 another demonstration of the deluge in ,hebrew2 for ephialtes1 which signifies leaper1 oppressor1 incubus1 in ,greek is1 according to ,pluche1 a vast accumulation of clouds4 ,but the ,greeks1 having taken everything from the ,hebrews1 with whom they were unacquainted1 clearly gave to their giants all those names which ,pluche extracts from the ,hebrew as well as he can1 and all as a memorial of the deluge4 ,such is the reasoning of ,pluche4 ,it is he who cites the author of the article on ,deluge without refuting him4 ,does he speak seriously1 or does he jest8 ,i do not know4 ,all ,i know is1 that there is scarcely a single system to be found at which one can forbear jesting4 ,i have some apprehension that the article in the grand ,encyclopdia1 attributed to ,m4 ,boulanger1 is not serious4 ,in that case1 we ask whether it is philosophical4 ,philosophy is so often deceived1 that we shall not venture to decide against ,m4 ,boulanger4 ,still less shall we venture to ask what was that abyss which was broken up1 or what were the cataracts of heaven which were opened4 ,isaac ,vossius denies the universality of the deluge3 ,hoc est pie nugari4 ,calmet maintains it2 informing us1 that bodies have no weight in air1 but in consequence of their being compressed by air4 ,calmet was not much of a natural philosopher1 and the weight of the air has nothing to do with the deluge4 ,let us content ourselves with reading and respecting everything in the ,bible1 without comprehending a single word of it4 ,i do not comprehend how ,god created a race of men in order to drown them1 and then substituted in their room a race still viler than the first4 ,how seven pairs of all kinds of clean animals should come from the four quarters of the globe1 together with two pairs of unclean ones1 without the wolves devouring the sheep on the way1 or the kites the pigeons1 etc4 ,how eight persons could keep in order1 feed1 and water1 such an immense number of inmates1 shut up in an ark for nearly two years2 for1 after the cessation of the deluge1 it would be necessary to have food for all these passengers for another year1 in consequence of the herbage being so scanty4 ,i am not like ,m4 ,le ,peletier4 ,i admire everything1 and explain nothing4 ,,democracy4 ,le pire des tats1 c'est l'tat populaire4 ,that sway is worst1 in which the people rule4 ,such is the opinion which ,cinna gave ,augustus4 ,but on the other hand1 ,maximus maintains1 that ,le pire des tats1 c'est l'tat monarchique4 ,that sway is worst1 in which a monarch rules4 ,bayle1 in his ,philosophical ,dictionary1 after having repeatedly advocated both sides of the question1 gives1 under the article on ,pericles1 a most disgusting picture of democracy1 and more particularly that of ,athens4 ,a republican1 who is a stanch partisan of democracy1 and one of our proposers of questions1 sends us his refutation of ,bayle and his apology for ,athens4 ,we will adduce his reasons4 ,it is the privilege of every writer to judge the living and the dead2 he who thus sits in judgment will be himself judged by others1 who1 in their turn1 will be judged also2 and thus1 from age to age1 all sentences are1 according to circumstances1 reversed or reformed4 ,bayle1 then1 after some common-place observations1 uses these words3 ,a man would look in vain into the history of ,macedon for as much tyranny as he finds in the history of ,athens4 ,perhaps ,bayle was discontented with ,holland when he thus wrote2 and probably my republican friend1 who refutes him1 is contented with his little democratic city for the present4 ,it is difficult to weigh1 in an exquisitely nice balance1 the iniquities of the republic of ,athens and of the court of ,macedon4 ,we still upbraid the ,athenians with the banishment of ,cimon1 ,aristides1 ,themistocles1 and ,alcibiades1 and the sentences of death upon ,phocion and ,socrates2 sentences similar in absurdity and cruelty to those of some of our own tribunals4 ,in short1 what we can never pardon in the ,athenians is the execution of their six victorious generals1 condemned because they had not time to bury their dead after the victory1 and because they were prevented from doing so by a tempest4 ,the sentence is at once so ridiculous and barbarous1 it bears such a stamp of superstition and ingratitude1 that those of the ,inquisition1 those delivered against ,urbain ,grandier1 against the wife of ,marshal d',ancre1 against ,montrin1 and against innumerable sorcerers and witches1 etc41 are not1 in fact1 fooleries more atrocious4 ,it is in vain to say1 in excuse of the ,athenians1 that they believed1 like ,homer before them1 that the souls of the dead were always wandering1 unless they had received the honors of sepulture or burning4 ,a folly is no excuse for a barbarity4 ,a dreadful evil1 indeed1 for the souls of a few ,greeks to ramble for a week or two on the shores of the ocean6 ,the evil is1 in consigning living men to the executioner2 living men who have won a battle for you2 living men1 to whom you ought to be devoutly grateful4 ,thus1 then1 are the ,athenians convicted of having been at once the most silly and the most barbarous judges in the world4 ,but we must now place in the balance the crimes of the court of ,macedon2 we shall see that that court far exceeds ,athens in point of tyranny and atrocity4 ,there is ordinarily no comparison to be made between the crimes of the great1 who are always ambitious1 and those of the people1 who never desire1 and who never can desire1 anything but liberty and equality4 ,these two sentiments1 liberty and equality1 do not necessarily lead to calumny1 rapine1 assassination1 poisoning1 and devastation of the lands of neighbors2 but1 the towering ambition and thirst for power of the great precipitate them head-long into every species of crime in all periods and all places4 ,in this same ,macedon1 the virtue of which ,bayle opposes to that of ,athens1 we see nothing but a tissue of tremendous crimes for a series of two hundred years4 ,it is ,ptolemy1 the uncle of ,alexander the ,great1 who assassinates his brother ,alexander to usurp the kingdom4 ,it is ,philip1 his brother1 who spends his life in guilt and perjury1 and ends it by a stab from ,pausanias4 ,olympias orders ,queen ,cleopatra and her son to be thrown into a furnace of molten brass4 ,she assassinates ,aridus4 ,antigonus assassinates ,eumenes4 ,antigonus ,gonatas1 his son1 poisons the governor of the citadel of ,corinth1 marries his widow1 expels her1 and takes possession of the citadel4 ,philip1 his grandson1 poisons ,demetrius1 and defiles the whole of ,macedon with murders4 ,perseus kills his wife with his own hand1 and poisons his brother4 ,these perfidies and cruelties are authenticated in history4 ,thus1 then1 for two centuries1 the madness of despotism converts ,macedon into a theatre for every crime2 and in the same space of time you see the popular government of ,athens stained only by five or six acts of judicial iniquity1 five or six certainly atrocious judgments1 of which the people in every instance repented1 and for which they made1 as far as they could1 honorable expiation 7amende honorable47 ,they asked pardon of ,socrates after his death1 and erected to his memory the small temple called ,socrateion4 ,they asked pardon of ,phocion1 and raised a statue to his honor4 ,they asked pardon of the six generals1 so ridiculously condemned and so basely executed4 ,they confined in chains the principal accuser1 who1 with difficulty1 escaped from public vengeance4 ,the ,athenian people1 therefore1 appear to have had good natural dispositions1 connected1 as they were1 with great versatility and frivolity4 ,in what despotic state has the injustice of precipitate decrees ever been thus ingenuously acknowledged and deplored8 ,bayle1 then1 is for this once in the wrong4 ,my republican has reason on his side4 ,popular government1 therefore1 is in itself iniquitous1 and less abominable than monarchical despotism4 ,the great vice of democracy is certainly not tyranny and cruelty4 ,there have been republicans in mountainous regions wild and ferocious2 but they were made so1 not by the spirit of republicanism1 but by nature4 ,the ,north ,american savages were entirely republican2 but they were republics of bears4 ,the radical vice of a civilized republic is expressed by the ,turkish fable of the dragon with many heads1 and the dragon with many tails4 ,the multitude of heads become injurious1 and the multitude of tails obey one single head1 which wants to devour all4 ,democracy seems to suit only a very small country2 and even that fortunately situated4 ,small as it may be1 it will commit many faults1 because it will be composed of men4 ,discord will prevail in it1 as in a convent of monks2 but there will be no ,st4 ,bartholomews there1 no ,irish massacre1 no ,sicilian vespers1 no ,inquisition1 no condemnation to the galleys for having taken water from the ocean without paying for it2 at least1 unless it be a republic of devils1 established in some corner of hell4 ,after having taken the side of my ,swiss friend against the dexterous fencing-master1 ,bayle1 ,i will add3 ,that the ,athenians were warriors like the ,swiss1 and as polite as the ,parisians were under ,louis ,,xiv42 that they excelled in every art requiring genius or execution1 like the ,florentine in time of the ,medici2 that they were the masters of the ,romans in the sciences and in eloquence1 even in the days of ,cicero2 that this same people1 insignificant in number1 who scarcely possessed anything of territory1 and who1 at the present day1 consist only of a band of ignorant slaves1 a hundred times less numerous than the ,jews1 and deprived of all but their name1 yet bear away the palm from ,roman power1 by their ancient reputation1 which triumphs at once over time and degradation4 ,europe has seen a republic1 ten times smaller than ,athens1 attract its attention for the space of one hundred and fifty years1 and its name placed by the side of that of ,rome1 even while she still commanded kings2 while she condemned one ,henry1 a sovereign of ,france1 and absolved and scourged another ,henry1 the first man of his age2 even while ,venice retained her ancient splendor1 and the republic of the seven ,united ,provinces was astonishing ,europe and the ,indies1 by its successful establishment and extensive commerce4 ,this almost imperceptible ant-hill could not be crushed by the royal demon of the ,south1 and the monarch of two worlds1 nor by the intrigues of the ,vatican1 which put in motion one-half of ,europe4 ,it resisted by words and by arms2 and with the help of a ,picard who wrote1 and a small number of ,swiss who fought for it1 it became at length established and triumphant1 and was enabled to say1 ,rome and ,i4 ,she kept all minds divided between the rich pontiffs who succeeded to the ,scipios--,romanos rerum dominos--and the poor inhabitants of a corner of the world long unknown in a country of poverty and gotres4 ,the main point was1 to decide how ,europe should think on the subject of certain questions which no one understood4 ,it was the conflict of the human mind4 ,the ,calvins1 the ,bezas1 and ,turetins1 were the ,demostheneses1 ,platos1 and ,aristotles1 of the day4 ,the absurdity of the greater part of the controversial questions which bound down the attention of ,europe1 having at length been acknowledged1 this small republic turned our consideration to what appears of solid consequence--the acquisition of wealth4 ,the system of law1 more chimerical and less baleful than that of the supralapsarians and the sublapsarians1 occupied with arithmetical calculations those who could no longer gain celebrity as partisans of the doctrine of crucified divinity4 ,they became rich1 but were no longer famous4 ,it is thought at present there is no republic1 except in ,europe4 ,i am mistaken if ,i have not somewhere made the remark myself2 it must1 however1 have been a great inadvertence4 ,the ,spaniards found in ,america the republic of ,tlascala perfectly well established4 ,every part of that continent which has not been subjugated is still republican4 ,in the whole of that vast territory1 when it was first discovered1 there existed no more than two kingdoms2 and this may well be considered as a proof that republican government is the most natural4 ,men must have obtained considerable refinement1 and have tried many experiments1 before they submit to the government of a single individual4 ,in ,africa1 the ,hottentots1 the ,kaffirs1 and many communities of negroes1 are democracies4 ,it is pretended that the countries in which the greater part of the negroes are sold are governed by kings4 ,tripoli1 ,tunis1 and ,algiers are republics of soldiers and pirates4 ,there are similar ones in ,india4 ,the ,mahrattas1 and many other ,indian hordes1 have no kings3 they elect chiefs when they go on their expeditions of plunder4 ,such are also many of the hordes of ,tartars4 ,even the ,turkish ,empire has long been a republic of janissaries1 who have frequently strangled their sultan1 when their sultan did not decimate them4 ,we are every day asked1 whether a republican or a kingly government is to be preferred8 ,the dispute always ends in agreeing that the government of men is exceedingly difficult4 ,the ,jews had ,god himself for their master2 yet observe the events of their history4 ,they have almost always been trampled upon and enslaved2 and1 nationally1 what a wretched figure do they make at present6 ,,demoniacs4 ,hypochondriacal and epileptic persons1 and women laboring under hysterical affections1 have always been considered the victims of evil spirits1 malignant demons and divine vengeance4 ,we have seen that this disease was called the sacred disease2 and that while the physicians were ignorant1 the priests of antiquity obtained everywhere the care and management of such diseases4 ,when the symptoms were very complicated1 the patient was supposed to be possessed with many demons--a demon of madness1 one of luxury1 one of avarice1 one of obstinacy1 one of short-sightedness1 one of deafness2 and the exorciser could not easily miss finding a demon of foolery created1 with another of knavery4 ,the ,jews expelled devils from the bodies of the possessed1 by the application of the root barath1 and a certain formula of words2 our ,saviour expelled them by a divine virtue2 he communicated that virtue to his apostles1 but it is now greatly impaired4 ,a short time since1 an attempt was made to renew the history of ,st4 ,paulin4 ,that saint saw on the roof of a church a poor demoniac1 who walked under1 or rather upon1 this roof or ceiling1 with his head below and his feet above1 nearly in the manner of a fly4 ,st4 ,paulin clearly perceived that the man was possessed1 and sent several leagues off for some relics of ,st4 ,felix of ,nola1 which were applied to the patient as blisters4 ,the demon who supported the man against the roof instantly fled1 and the demoniac fell down upon the pavement4 ,we may have doubts about this history1 while we preserve the most profound respect for genuine miracles2 and we may be permitted to observe that this is not the way in which we now cure demoniacs4 ,we bleed them1 bathe them1 and gently relax them by medicine2 we apply emollients to them4 ,this is ,m4 ,pome's treatment of them2 and he has performed more cures than the priests of ,isis or ,diana1 or of anyone else who ever wrought by miracles4 ,as to demoniacs who say they are possessed merely to gain money1 instead of being bathed1 they are at present flogged4 ,it often happened1 that the specific gravity of epileptics1 whose fibres and muscles withered away1 was lighter than water1 and that they floated when put into it4 ,a miracle6 was instantly exclaimed4 ,it was pronounced that such a person must be a demoniac or sorcerer2 and holy water or the executioner was immediately sent for4 ,it was an unquestionable proof that either the demon had become master of the body of the floating person1 or that the latter had voluntarily delivered himself over to the demon4 ,on the first supposition the person was exorcised1 on the second he was burned4 ,thus have we been reasoning and acting for a period of fifteen or sixteen hundred years1 and yet we have the effrontery to laugh at the ,kaffirs4 ,in #afjc1 in a small village of ,franche-,comt1 a woman of quality made her granddaughter read aloud the lives of the saints in the presence of her parents2 this young woman1 who was1 in some respects1 very well informed1 but ignorant of orthography1 substituted the word histories for that of lives 7vies74 ,her step-mother1 who hated her1 said to her in a tone of harshness1 ,why don't you read as it is there8 ,the girl blushed and trembled1 but did not venture to say anything2 she wished to avoid disclosing which of her companions had interpreted the word upon a false orthography1 and prevented her using it4 ,a monk1 who was the family confessor1 pretended that the devil had taught her the word4 ,the girl chose to be silent rather than vindicate herself2 her silence was considered as amounting to confession2 the ,inquisition convicted her of having made a compact with the devil3 she was condemned to be burned1 because she had a large fortune from her mother1 and the confiscated property went by law to the inquisitors4 ,she was the hundred thousandth victim of the doctrine of demoniacs1 persons possessed by devils and exorcisms1 and of the real devils who swayed the world4 ,,destiny4 ,of all the books written in the western climes of the world1 which have reached our times1 ,homer is the most ancient4 ,in his works we find the manners of profane antiquity1 coarse heroes1 and material gods1 made after the image of man1 but mixed up with reveries and absurdities2 we also find the seeds of philosophy1 and more particularly the idea of destiny1 or necessity1 who is the dominatrix of the gods1 as the gods are of the world4 ,when the magnanimous ,hector determines to fight the magnanimous ,achilles1 and runs away with all possible speed1 making the circuit of the city three times1 in order to increase his vigor2 when ,homer compares the light-footed ,achilles1 who pursues him1 to a man that is asleep6 and when ,madame ,dacier breaks into a rapture of admiration at the art and meaning exhibited in this passage1 it is precisely then that ,jupiter1 desirous of saving the great ,hector who has offered up to him so many sacrifices1 bethinks him of consulting the destinies1 upon weighing the fates of ,hector and ,achilles in a balance4 ,he finds that the ,trojan must inevitably be killed by the ,greek1 and is not only unable to oppose it1 but from that moment ,apollo1 the guardian genius of ,hector1 is compelled to abandon him4 ,it is not to be denied that ,homer is frequently extravagant1 and even on this very occasion displays a contradictory flow of ideas1 according to the privilege of antiquity2 but yet he is the first in whom we meet with the notion of destiny4 ,it may be concluded1 then1 that in his days it was a prevalent one4 ,the ,pharisees1 among the small nation of ,jews1 did not adopt the idea of a destiny till many ages after4 ,for these ,pharisees themselves1 who were the most learned class among the ,jews1 were but of very recent date4 ,they mixed up1 in ,alexandria1 a portion of the dogmas of the ,stoics with their ancient ,jewish ideas4 ,st4 ,jerome goes so far as to state that their sect is but a little anterior to our vulgar era4 ,philosophers would never have required the aid of ,homer1 or of the ,pharisees1 to be convinced that everything is performed according to immutable laws1 that everything is ordained1 that everything is1 in fact1 necessary4 ,the manner in which they reason is as follows3 ,either the world subsists by its own nature1 by its own physical laws1 or a ,supreme ,being has formed it according to ,his supreme laws3 in both cases these laws are immovable2 in both cases everything is necessary2 heavy bodies tend towards the centre of the earth without having any power or tendency to rest in the air4 ,pear-trees cannot produce pine-apples4 ,the instinct of a spaniel cannot be the instinct of an ostrich2 everything is arranged1 adjusted1 and fixed4 ,man can have only a certain number of teeth1 hairs1 and ideas2 and a period arrives when he necessarily loses his teeth1 hair1 and ideas4 ,it is contradictory to say that yesterday should not have been2 or that to-day does not exist2 it is just as contradictory to assert that that which is to come will not inevitably be4 ,could you derange the destiny of a single fly there would be no possible reason why you should not control the destiny of all other flies1 of all other animals1 of all men1 of all nature4 ,you would find1 in fact1 that you were more powerful than ,god4 ,weak-minded persons say3 ,my physician has brought my aunt safely through a mortal disease2 he has added ten years to my aunt's life4 ,others of more judgment say1 the prudent man makes his own destiny4 ,nullum numen abest1 si sit ,prudentia1 sed te ,nos facimus1 ,fortuna1 deam coque locamus4 --,,juvenal1 ,sat4 x4 v4 #cfe4 ,we call on ,fortune1 and her aid implore1 ,while ,prudence is the goddess to adore4 ,but frequently the prudent man succumbs under his destiny instead of making it2 it is destiny which makes men prudent4 ,profound politicians assure us that if ,cromwell1 ,ludlow1 ,ireton1 and a dozen other parliamentary leaders1 had been assassinated eight days before ,charles ,i4 had his head cut off1 that king would have continued alive and have died in his bed2 they are right2 and they may add1 that if all ,england had been swallowed up in the sea1 that king would not have perished on a scaffold before ,whitehall4 ,but things were so arranged that ,charles was to have his head cut off4 ,cardinal d',ossat was unquestionably more clever than an idiot of the petites maisons2 but is it not evident that the organs of the wise d',ossat were differently formed than those of that idiot8--,just as the organs of a fox are different from those of a crane or a lark4 ,your physician saved your aunt1 but in so doing he certainly did not contradict the order of nature1 but followed it4 ,it is clear that your aunt could not prevent her birth in a certain place1 that she could not help being affected by a certain malady1 at a certain time2 that the physician could be in no other place than where he was1 that your aunt could not but apply to him1 that he could not but prescribe medicines which cured her1 or were thought to cure her1 while nature was the sole physician4 ,a peasant thinks that it hailed upon his field by chance2 but the philosopher knows that there was no chance1 and that it was absolutely impossible1 according to the constitution of the world1 for it not to have hailed at that very time and place4 ,there are some who1 being shocked by this truth1 concede only half of it1 like debtors who offer one moiety of their property to their creditors1 and ask remission for the other4 ,there are1 they say1 some events which are necessary1 and others which are not so4 ,it would be curious for one part of the world to be changed and the other not2 that one part of what happens should happen inevitably1 and another fortuitously4 ,when we examine the question closely1 we see that the doctrine opposed to that of destiny is absurd2 but many men are destined to be bad reasoners1 others not to reason at all1 and others to persecute those who reason well or ill4 ,some caution us by saying1 ,do not believe in fatalism1 for1 if you do1 everything appearing to you unavoidable1 you will exert yourself for nothing2 you will sink down in indifference2 you will regard neither wealth1 nor honors1 nor praise2 you will be careless about acquiring anything whatever2 you will consider yourself meritless and powerless2 no talent will be cultivated1 and all will be overwhelmed in apathy4 ,do not be afraid1 gentlemen2 we shall always have passions and prejudices1 since it is our destiny to be subjected to prejudices and passions4 ,we shall very well know that it no more depends upon us to have great merit or superior talents than to have a fine head of hair1 or a beautiful hand2 we shall be convinced that we ought to be vain of nothing1 and yet vain we shall always be4 ,i have necessarily the passion for writing as ,i now do2 and1 as for you1 you have the passion for censuring me2 we are both equally fools1 both equally the sport of destiny4 ,your nature is to do ill1 mine is to love truth1 and publish it in spite of you4 ,the owl1 while supping upon mice in his ruined tower1 said to the nightingale1 ,stop your singing there in your beautiful arbor1 and come to my hole that ,i may eat you4 ,the nightingale replied1 ,i am born to sing where ,i am1 and to laugh at you4 ,you ask me what is to become of liberty3 ,i do not understand you2 ,i do not know what the liberty you speak of really is4 ,you have been so long disputing about the nature of it that you do not understand it4 ,if you are willing1 or rather1 if you are able to examine with me coolly what it is1 turn to the letter ,l4 ,,devotee4 ,the word devout 7dvot7 signifies devoted 7dvou71 and1 in the strict sense of the term1 can only be applicable to monks1 and to females belonging to some religious order and under vows4 ,but as the gospel makes no mention of vows or devotees1 the title should not1 in fact1 be given to any person3 the whole world ought to be equally just4 ,a man who calls himself devout is like a plebeian who calls himself a marquis2 he arrogates a quality which does not belong to him2 he thinks himself a better man than his neighbor4 ,we pardon this folly in women2 their weakness and frivolity render them excusable2 they pass1 poor things1 from a lover to a spiritual director with perfect sincerity1 but we cannot pardon the knaves who direct them1 who abuse their ignorance1 and establish the throne of their pride on the credulity of the sex4 ,they form a snug mystical harem1 composed of seven or eight elderly beauties subjugated by the weight of inoccupation1 and almost all these subjects pay tribute to their new master4 ,no young women without lovers2 no elderly devotee without a director4--,oh1 how much more shrewd are the ,orientals than we6 ,a pasha never says1 ,we supped last night with the aga of the janissaries1 who is my sister's lover2 and with the vicar of the mosque1 who is my wife's director4 ,,dial4 ,dial of ,ahaz4 ,it is well known that everything is miraculous in the history of the ,jews2 the miracle performed in favor of ,king ,hezekiah on the dial of ,ahaz is one of the greatest that ever took place3 it is evident that the whole earth must have been deranged1 the course of the stars changed forever1 and the periods of the eclipses of the sun and moon so altered as to confuse all the ephemerides4 ,this was the second time the prodigy happened4 ,joshua had stopped the sun at noon on ,gibeon1 and the moon on ,ascalon1 in order to get time to kill a troop of ,amorites already crushed by a shower of stones from heaven4 ,the sun1 instead of stopping for ,king ,hezekiah1 went back1 which is nearly the same thing1 only differently described4 ,in the first place ,isaiah said to ,hezekiah1 who was sick1 ,thus saith the ,lord1 set thine house in order2 for thou shalt die and not live4 ,hezekiah wept and ,god was softened2 ,he signified to him1 through ,isaiah1 that he should still live fifteen years1 and that in three days he should go to the temple2 then ,isaiah brought a plaster of figs and put it on the king's ulcers1 and he was cured--et curatus est4 ,hezekiah demanded a sign to convince him that he should be cured4 ,isaiah said to him1 ,shall the shadow go forward ten degrees1 or go back ten degrees8 ,and ,hezekiah answered1 ,it is a light thing for the shadow to go down ten degrees2 let the shadow return backward ten degrees4 ,and ,isaiah the prophet cried unto the ,lord1 and ,he brought the shadow ten degrees backwards from the point to which it had gone down on the dial of ,ahaz4 ,we should like to know what this dial of ,ahaz was2 whether it was the work of a dialmaker named ,ahaz1 or whether it was a present made to a king of that name1 it is an object of curiosity4 ,there have been many disputes on this dial2 the learned have proved that the ,jews never knew either clocks or dials before their captivity in ,babylon--the only time1 say they1 in which they learned anything of the ,chaldans1 or the greater part of the nation began to read or write4 ,it is even known that in their language they had no words to express clock1 dial1 geometry1 or astronomy2 and in the ,book of ,kings the dial of ,ahaz is called the hour of the stone4 ,but the grand question is to know how ,king ,hezekiah1 the possessor of this clock1 or dial of the sun--this hour of stone--could tell that it was easy to advance the sun ten degrees4 ,it is certainly as difficult to make it advance against its ordinary motion as to make it go backward4 ,the proposition of the prophet appears as astonishing as the discourse of the king3 ,shall the shadow go forward ten degrees1 or go back ten degrees8 ,that would have been well said in some town of ,lapland1 where the longest day of the year is twenty hours2 but at ,jerusalem1 where the longest day of the year is about fourteen hours and a half1 ii was absurd4 ,the king and the prophet deceived each other grossly4 ,we do not deny the miracle1 we firmly believe it2 we only remark that ,hezekiah and ,isaiah knew not what they said4 ,whatever the hour1 it was a thing equally impossible to make the shadow of the dial advance or recede ten hours4 ,if it were two hours after noon1 the prophet could1 no doubt1 have very well made the shadow of the dial go back to four o'clock in the morning2 but in this case he could not have advanced it ten hours1 since then it would have been midnight1 and at that time it is not usual to have a shadow of the sun in perfection4 ,it is difficult to discover when this strange history was written1 but perhaps it was towards the time in which the ,jews only confusedly knew that there were clocks and sun-dials4 ,in that case it is true that they got but a very imperfect knowledge of these sciences until they went to ,babylon4 ,there is a still greater difficulty of which the commentators have not thought2 which is that the ,jews did not count by hours as we do4 ,the same miracle happened in ,greece1 the day that ,atreus served up the children of ,thyestes for their father's supper4 ,the same miracle was still more sensibly performed at the time of ,jupiter's intrigue with ,alcmena4 ,it required a night double the natural length to form ,hercules4 ,these adventures are common in antiquity1 but very rare in our days1 in which all things have degenerated4 ,,dictionary4 ,the invention of dictionaries1 which was unknown to antiquity1 is of the most unquestionable utility2 and the ,encyclopdia1 which was suggested by ,messrs4 d',alembert and ,diderot1 and so successfully completed by them and their associates1 notwithstanding all its defects1 is a decisive evidence of it4 ,what we find there under the article ,dictionary would be a sufficient instance2 it is done by the hand of a master4 ,i mean to speak here only of a new species of historical dictionaries1 which contain a series of lies and satires in alphabetical order2 such is the ,historical ,literary and ,critical ,dictionary1 containing a summary of the lives of celebrated men of every description1 and printed in #ageh1 in six volumes1 octavo1 without the name of the author4 ,the compilers of that work begin with declaring that it was undertaken by the advice of the author of the ,ecclesiastical ,gazette1 a formidable writer1 they add1 whose arrow1 which had already been compared to that of ,jonathan1 never returned back1 and was always steeped in the blood of the slain1 in the carnage of the valiant4--,a sanguine interfectorum ab adipe fortium sagitta ,jonath nunquam abiit retrorsum4 ,it will1 no doubt1 be easily admitted that the connection between ,jonathan1 the son of ,saul1 who was killed at the battle of ,gilboa1 and a ,parisian convulsionary1 who scribbles ecclesiastical notices in his garret1 in #ageh1 is wonderfully striking4 ,the author of this preface speaks in it of the great ,colbert4 ,we should conceive1 at first1 that the great statesman who conferred such vast benefits on ,france is alluded to2 no such thing1 it is a bishop of ,montpellier4 ,he complains that no other dictionary has bestowed sufficient praise on the celebrated ,abb d',asfeld1 the illustrious ,boursier1 the famous ,genes1 the immortal ,laborde1 and that the lash of invective on the other hand has not been sufficiently applied to ,languet1 archbishop of ,sens1 and a person of the name of ,fillot1 all1 as he pretends1 men well known from the ,pillars of ,hercules to the frozen ocean4 ,he engages to be animated1 energetic1 and sarcastic1 on a principle of religion2 that he will make his countenance sterner than that of his enemies1 and his front harder than their front1 according to the words of ,ezekiel1 etc4 ,he declares that he has put in contribution all the journals and all the anas2 and he concludes with hoping that heaven will bestow a blessing on his labors4 ,in dictionaries of this description1 which are merely party works1 we rarely find what we are in quest of1 and often what we are not4 ,under the word ,adonis1 for example1 we learn that ,venus fell in love with him2 but not a word about the worship of ,adonis1 or ,adonai among the ,phnicians--nothing about those very ancient and celebrated festivals1 those lamentations succeeded by rejoicings1 which were manifest allegories1 like the feasts of ,ceres1 of ,isis1 and all the mysteries of antiquity4 ,but1 in compensation1 we find ,adkichomia a devotee1 who translated ,david's psalms in the sixteenth century2 and ,adkichomus1 apparently her relation1 who wrote the life of ,jesus ,christ in low ,german4 ,we may well suppose that all the individuals of the faction which employed this person are loaded with praise1 and their enemies with abuse4 ,the author1 of the crew of authors who have put together this vocabulary of trash1 say of ,nicholas ,boindin1 attorney-general of the treasures of ,france1 and a member of the ,academy of ,belles-lettres1 that he was a poet and an atheist4 ,that magistrate1 however1 never printed any verses1 and never wrote anything on metaphysics or religion4 ,he adds that ,boindin will be ranked by posterity among the ,vaninis1 the ,spinozas1 and the ,hobbeses4 ,he is ignorant that ,hobbes never professed atheism--that he merely subjected religion to the sovereign power1 which he denominates the ,leviathan4 ,he is ignorant that ,vanini was not an atheist2 that the term atheist is not to be found even in the decree which condemned him2 and that he was accused of impiety for having strenuously opposed the philosophy of ,aristotle1 and for having disputed with indiscretion and acrimony against a counsellor of the parliament of ,toulouse1 called ,francon1 or ,franconi1 who had the credit of getting him burned to death2 for the latter burn whom they please2 witness the ,maid of ,orleans1 ,michael ,servetus1 the ,counsellor ,dubourg1 the wife of ,marshal d',ancre1 ,urbain ,grandier1 ,morin1 and the books of the ,jansenists4 ,see1 moreover1 the apology for ,vanini by the learned ,lacroze1 and the article on ,atheism4 ,the vocabulary treats ,boindin as a miscreant2 his relations were desirous of proceeding at law and punishing an author1 who himself so well deserved the appellation which he so infamously applied to a man who was not merely a magistrate1 but also learned and estimable2 but the calumniator concealed himself1 like most libellers1 under a fictitious name4 ,immediately after having applied such shameful language to a man respectable compared with himself1 he considers him as an irrefragable witness1 because ,boindin--whose unhappy temper was well known--left an ill-written and exceedingly ill-advised memorial1 in which he accuses ,la ,motte--one of the worthiest men in the world1 a geometrician1 and an ironmonger--with having written the infamous verses for which ,jean ,baptiste ,rousseau was convicted4 ,finally1 in the list of ,boindin's works1 he altogether omits his excellent dissertations printed in the collection of the ,academy of ,belles-lettres1 of which he was a highly distinguished member4 ,the article on ,fontenelle is nothing but a satire upon that ingenious and learned academician1 whose science and talents are esteemed by the whole of literary ,europe4 ,the author has the effrontery to say that his ',history of ,oracles' does no honor to his religion4 ,if ,van ,dale1 the author of the ,history of ,oracles1 and his abridger1 ,fontenelle1 had lived in the time of the ,greeks and of the ,roman republic1 it might have been said with reason that they were rather good philosophers than good pagans2 but1 to speak sincerely1 what injury do they do to ,christianity by showing that the pagan priests were a set of knaves8 ,is it not evident that the authors of the libel1 miscalled a dictionary1 are pleading their own cause8 ,jam proximus ardet ,ucalegon ,but would it be offering an insult to the ,christian religion to prove the knavery of the ,convulsionaries8 ,government has done more2 it has punished them without being accused of irreligion4 ,the libeller adds that he suspects that ,fontenelle never performed the duties of a ,christian but out of contempt for ,christianity itself4 ,it is a strange species of madness on the part of these fanatics to be always proclaiming that a philosopher cannot be a ,christian4 ,they ought to be excommunicated and punished for this alone2 for assuredly it implies a wish to destroy ,christianity to assert that it is impossible for a man to be a good reasoner and at the same time believe a religion so reasonable and holy4 ,des ,yveteaux1 preceptor of ,louis ,,xiv41 is accused of having lived and died without religion4 ,it seems as if these compilers had none2 or at least as if1 while violating all the precepts of the true one1 they were searching about everywhere for accomplices4 ,the very gentlemanly writer of these articles is wonderfully pleased with exhibiting all the bad verses that have been written on the ,french ,academy1 and various anecdotes as ridiculous as they are false4 ,this also is apparently out of zeal for religion4 ,i ought not to lose an opportunity of refuting an absurd story which has been much circulated1 and which is repeated exceedingly malapropos under the article of the ,abb ,gedoyn1 upon whom the writer falls foul with great satisfaction1 because in his youth he had been a ,jesuit2 a transient weakness1 of which ,i know he repented all his life4 ,the devout and scandalous compiler of the dictionary asserts that the ,abb ,gedoyn slept with the celebrated ,ninon de l',enclos on the very night of her completing her eightieth year4 ,it certainly was not exactly befitting in a priest to relate this anecdote in a pretended dictionary of illustrious men4 ,such a foolery1 however1 is in fact highly improbable2 and ,i can take upon me to assert that nothing can be more false4 ,the same anecdote was formerly put down to the credit of the ,abb ,chateauneuf1 who was not very difficult in his amours1 and who1 it was said1 had received ,ninon's favors when she was of the age of sixty1 or1 rather1 had conferred upon her his own4 ,in early life ,i saw a great deal of the ,abb ,gedoyn1 the ,abb ,chateauneuf1 and ,mademoiselle de l',enclos2 and ,i can truly declare that at the age of eighty years her countenance bore the most hideous marks of old age--that her person was afflicted with all the infirmities belonging to that stage of life1 and that her mind was under the influence of the maxims of an austere philosophy4 ,under the article on ,deshoulires the compiler pretends that lady was the same who was designated under the term prude 7prcieuse7 in ,boileau's satire upon women4 ,never was any woman more free from such weakness than ,madame ,deshoulires2 she always passed for a woman of the best society1 possessed great simplicity1 and was highly agreeable in conversation4 ,the article on ,la ,motte abounds with atrocious abuse of that academician1 who was a man of very amiable manners1 and a philosophic poet who produced excellent works of every description4 ,finally the author1 in order to secure the sale of his book of six volumes1 has made of it a slanderous libel4 ,his hero is ,carr de ,montgeron1 who presented to the king a collection of the miracles performed by the ,convulsionaries in the cemetery of ,st4 ,mdard2 who became mad and died insane4 ,the interest of the republic of literature and reason demands that those libellers should be delivered up to public indignation1 lest their example1 operating upon the sordid love of gain1 should stimulate others to imitation2 and the more so1 as nothing is so easy as to copy books in alphabetical order1 and add to them insipidities1 calumnies1 and abuse4 ,extract from the ,reflections of an ,academician on the ,dictionary of the ,french ,academy4 ,it would be desirable to state the natural and incontestable etymology of every word1 to compare the application1 the various significations1 the extent of the word1 with use of it2 the different acceptations1 the strength or weakness of correspondent terms in foreign languages2 and finally1 to quote the best authors who have used the word1 to show the greater or less extent of meaning which they have given to it and to remark whether it is more fit for poetry than prose4 ,for example1 ,i have observed that the inclemency of the weather is ridiculous in history1 because that term has its origin in the anger of heaven1 which is supposed to be manifested by the intemperateness1 irregularities1 and rigors of the seasons1 by the violence of the cold1 the disorder of the atmosphere1 by tempests1 storms1 and pestilential exhalations4 ,thus then inclemency1 being a metaphor1 is consecrated to poetry4 ,i have given to the word impotence all the acceptations which it receives4 ,i showed the correctness of the historian1 who speaks of the impotence of ,king ,alphonso1 without explaining whether he referred to that of resisting his brother1 or that with which he was charged by his wife4 ,i have endeavored to show that the epithets irresistible and incurable require very delicate management4 ,the first who used the expression1 the irresistible impulse of genius1 made a very fortunate hit2 because1 in fact1 the question was in relation to a great genius throwing itself upon its own resources in spite of all difficulties4 ,those imitators who have employed the expression in reference to very inferior men are plagiarists who know not how to dispose of what they steal4 ,as soon as the man of genius has made a new application of any word in the language1 copyists are not wanting to apply it1 very malapropos1 in twenty places1 without giving the inventor any credit4 ,i do not know that a single one of these words1 termed by ,boileau foundlings 7des mots trouvs7 a single new expression of genius1 is to be found in any tragic author since ,racine1 until within the last few years4 ,these words are generally lax1 ineffective1 stale1 and so ill placed as to produce a barbarous style4 ,to the disgrace of the nation1 these ,visigothic and ,vandal productions were for a certain time extolled1 panegyrized1 and admired in the journals1 especially as they came out under the protection of a certain lady of distinction1 who knew nothing at all about the subject4 ,we have recovered from all this now2 and1 with one or two exceptions1 the whole race of such productions is extinct forever4 ,i did not in the first instance intend to make all these reflections1 but to put the reader in a situation to make them4 ,i have shown at the letter ,e that our e mute1 with which we are reproached by an ,italian1 is precisely what occasions the delicious harmony of our language3--empire1 couronne1 diadme1 pouvantable1 sensible4 ,this e mute1 which we make perceptible without articulating it1 leaves in the ear a melodious sound like that of a bell which still resounds although it is no longer struck4 ,this we have already stated in respect to an ,italian1 a man of letters1 who came to ,paris to teach his own language1 and who1 while there1 ought not to decry ours4 ,he does not perceive the beauty or necessity of our feminine rhymes2 they are only e's mute4 ,this interweaving of masculine and feminine rhymes constitutes the charm of our verse4 ,similar observations upon the alphabet1 and upon words generally1 would not have been without utility2 but they would have made the work too long4 ,,diocletian4 ,after several weak or tyrannic reigns1 the ,roman ,empire had a good emperor in ,probus1 whom the legions massacred1 and elected ,carus1 who was struck dead by lightning while making war against the ,persians4 ,his son1 ,numerianus1 was proclaimed by the soldiers4 ,the historians tell us seriously that he lost his sight by weeping for the death of his father1 and that he was obliged to be carried along with the army1 shut up in a close litter4 ,his father-in-law ,aper killed him in his bed1 to place himself on the throne2 but a druid had predicted in ,gaul to ,diocletian1 one of the generals of the army1 that he would become emperor after having killed a boar4 ,a boar1 in ,latin1 is aper4 ,diocletian assembled the army1 killed ,aper with his own hands in the presence of the soldiers1 and thus accomplished the prediction of the druid4 ,the historians who relate this oracle deserve to be fed on the fruit of the tree which the druids revered4 ,it is certain that ,diocletian killed the father-in-law of the emperor1 which was his first right to the throne4 ,numerianus had a brother named ,carinus1 who was also emperor1 but being opposed to the elevation of ,diocletian1 he was killed by one of the tribunes of his army1 which formed his second pretension to the purple4 ,these were ,diocletian's rights to the throne1 and for a long time he had no other4 ,he was originally of ,dalmatia1 of the little town of ,dioclea1 of which he took the name4 ,if it be true that his father was a laborer1 and that he himself in his youth had been a slave to a senator named ,anulinus1 the fact forms his finest eulogium4 ,he could have owed his elevation to himself alone2 and it is very clear that he had conciliated the esteem of his army1 since they forgot his birth to give him the diadem4 ,lactantius1 a ,christian authority1 but rather partial1 pretends that ,diocletian was the greatest poltroon of the empire4 ,it is not very likely that the ,roman soldiers would have chosen a poltroon to govern them1 or that this poltroon would have passed through all the degrees of the army4 ,the zeal of ,lactantius against a pagan emperor is very laudable1 but not judicious4 ,diocletian continued for twenty years the master of those fierce legions1 who dethroned their emperors with as much facility as they created them2 which is another proof1 notwithstanding ,lactantius1 that he was as great a prince as he was a brave soldier4 ,the empire under him soon regained its pristine splendor4 ,the ,gauls1 the ,africans1 ,egyptians1 and ,british1 who had revolted several times1 were all brought under obedience to the empire2 even the ,persians were vanquished4 ,so much success without2 a still more happy administration within2 laws as humane as wise1 which still exist in the ,justinian code2 ,rome1 ,milan1 ,autun1 ,nicomedia1 ,carthage1 embellished by his munificence2 all tended to gain him the love and respect both of the ,east and ,west2 so that1 two hundred and forty years after his death1 they continued to reckon and date from the first year of his reign1 as they had formerly dated from the foundation of ,rome4 ,this is what is called the era of ,diocletian2 it has also been called the era of martyrs2 but this is a mistake of eighteen years1 for it is certain that he did not persecute any ,christian for eighteen years4 ,so far from it1 the first thing he did1 when emperor1 was to give a company of prtorian guards to a ,christian named ,sebastian1 who is in the list of the saints4 ,he did not fear to give a colleague to the empire in the person of a soldier of fortune1 like himself2 it was ,maximian ,hercules1 his friend4 ,the similarity of their fortunes had caused their friendship4 ,maximian was also born of poor and obscure parents1 and had been elevated like ,diocletian1 step by step1 by his own courage4 ,people have not failed to reproach this ,maximian with taking the surname of ,hercules1 and ,diocletian with accepting that of ,jove4 ,they do not condescend to perceive that we have clergymen every day who call themselves ,hercules1 and peasants denominated ,csar and ,augustus4 ,diocletian created two ,csars2 the first was another ,maximian1 surnamed ,galerius1 who had formerly been a shepherd4 ,it seemed that ,diocletian1 the proudest of men and the first introducer of kissing the imperial feet1 showed his greatness in placing ,csars on the throne from men born in the most abject condition4 ,a slave and two peasants were at the head of the empire1 and never was it more flourishing4 ,the second ,csar whom he created was of distinguished birth4 ,he was ,constantius ,chlorus1 great-nephew1 on his mother's side1 to the emperor ,claudius ,,ii4 ,the empire was governed by these four princes2 an association which might have produced four civil wars a year1 but ,diocletian knew so well how to be master of his colleagues1 that he obliged them always to respect him1 and even to live united among themselves4 ,these princes1 with the name of ,csars were in reality no more than his subjects4 ,it is seen that he treated them like an absolute sovereign2 for when the ,csar ,galerius1 having been conquered by the ,persians1 went into ,mesopotamia to give him the account of his defeat1 he let him walk for the space of a mile near his chariot1 and did not receive him into favor until he had repaired his fault and misfortune4 ,galerius retrieved them the year after1 in #big1 in a very signal manner4 ,he vanquished the king of ,persia in person4 ,these kings of ,persia had not been cured1 by the battle of ,arbela1 of carrying their wives1 daughters1 and eunuchs along with their armies4 ,galerius1 like ,alexander1 took his enemy's wife and all his family1 and treated them with the same respect4 ,the peace was as glorious as the victory4 ,the vanquished ceded five provinces to the ,romans1 from the sands of ,palmyra to ,armenia4 ,diocletian and ,galerius went to ,rome to dazzle the inhabitants with a triumph till then unheard of4 ,it was the first time that the ,roman people had seen the wife and children of a king of ,persia in chains4 ,all the empire was in plenty and prosperity4 ,diocletian went through all the provinces1 from ,rome to ,egypt1 ,syria1 and ,asia ,minor4 ,his ordinary residence was not at ,rome1 but at ,nicomedia1 near the ,euxine ,sea1 either to watch over the ,persians and the barbarians1 or because he was attached to a retreat which he had himself embellished4 ,it was in the midst of this prosperity that ,galerius commenced the persecution against the ,christians4 ,why had he left them in repose until then1 and why were they then ill treated8 ,eusebius says that a centurion of the ,trajan legion1 named ,marcellus1 who served in ,mauritania1 assisting with his troop at a feast given in honor of the victory of ,galerius1 threw his military sash1 his arms1 and his branch of vine1 on the ground1 and cried out loudly that he was a ,christian and that he would no longer serve pagans--a desertion which was punished with death by the council of war4 ,this was the first known example of the famous persecution of ,diocletian4 ,it is true that there were a great number of ,christians in the armies of the empire1 and the interest of the state demanded that such a desertion should not be allowed4 ,the zeal of ,marcellus was pious1 but not reasonable4 ,if at the feast given in ,mauritania1 viands offered to the gods of the empire were eaten1 the law did not command ,marcellus to eat of them1 nor did ,christianity order him to set the example of sedition4 ,there is not a country in the world in which so rash an action would not have been punished4 ,however1 after the adventure of ,marcellus1 it does not appear that the ,christians were thought of until the year #cjc4 ,they had1 at ,nicomedia1 a superb church1 next to the palace1 which it exceeded in loftiness4 ,historians do not tell us the reasons why ,galerius demanded of ,diocletian the instant destruction of this church2 but they tell us that ,diocletian was a long time before he determined upon it1 and that he resisted for almost a year4 ,it is very strange that after this he should be called the persecutor4 ,at last the church was destroyed and an edict was affixed by which the ,christians were deprived of all honors and dignities4 ,since they were then deprived of them1 it is evident that they possessed them4 ,a ,christian publicly tore the imperial edict in pieces--that was not an act of religion1 it was an incitement to revolt4 ,it is1 therefore1 very likely that an indiscreet and unreasonable zeal drew down this fatal persecution4 ,some time afterwards the palace of ,galerius was burned down2 he accused the ,christians1 and they accused ,galerius of having himself set fire to it1 in order to get a pretext for calumniating them4 ,the accusation of ,galerius appeared very unjust2 that which they entered against him was no less so1 for the edict having been already issued1 what new pretext could he want8 ,if he really wanted a new argument to engage ,diocletian to persecute1 this would only form a new proof of the reluctance of ,diocletian to abandon the ,christians1 whom he had always protected2 it would evidently show that he wanted new additional reasons to determine him to so much severity4 ,it appears certain that there were many ,christians tormented in the empire1 but it is difficult to reconcile with the ,roman laws the alleged reported tortures1 the mutilations1 torn-out tongues1 limbs cut and broiled1 and all the insults offered against modesty and public decency4 ,it is certain that no ,roman law ever ordered such punishments2 the aversion of the people to the ,christians might carry them to horrible excesses1 but we do not anywhere find that these excesses were ordered1 either by the emperors or the senate4 ,it is very likely that the suffering of the ,christians spread itself in exaggerated complaints3 the ,acta ,sincera informs us that the emperor1 being at ,antioch1 the prtor condemned a ,christian child named ,romanus to be burned2 that the ,jews present at the punishment began to laugh1 saying3 ,we had formerly three children1 ,shadrach1 ,meshach1 and ,abednego1 who did not burn in the fiery furnace but these do burn4 ,at that instant1 to confound the ,jews1 a great rain extinguished the pile and the little boy walked out safe and sound1 asking1 ,where then is the fire8 ,the account goes on to say that the emperor commanded him to be set free1 but that the judge ordered his tongue to be cut out4 ,it is scarcely possible to believe that the judge would have the tongue of a boy cut out1 whom the emperor had pardoned4 ,that which follows is more singular4 ,it is pretended that an old ,christian physician named ,ariston1 who had a knife ready1 cut the child's tongue out to pay his court to the prtor4 ,the little ,romanus was then carried back to prison2 the jailer asked him the news4 ,the child related at length how the old surgeon had cut out his tongue4 ,it should be observed that before this operation the child stammered very much but that now he spoke with wonderful volubility4 ,the jailer did not fail to relate this miracle to the emperor4 ,they brought forward the old surgeon who swore that the operation had been performed according to the rules of his art and showed the child's tongue which he had properly preserved in a box as a relic4 ,bring hither another person1 said he1 and ,i will cut his tongue out in your majesty's presence1 and you will see if he can speak4 ,the proposition was accepted2 they took a poor man whose tongue the surgeon cut out as he had done the child's1 and the man died on the spot4 ,i am willing to believe that the ,acts which relate this fact are as veracious as their title pretends1 but they are still more simple than sincere1 and it is very strange that ,fleury1 in his ,ecclesiastical ,history1 relates such a prodigious number of similar incidents1 being much more conducive to scandal than edification4 ,you will also remark that in this year #cjc1 in which it is pretended that ,diocletian was present at this fine affair in ,antioch1 he was at ,rome and passed all that year in ,italy4 ,it is said that it was at ,rome1 and in his presence1 that ,st4 ,genestus1 a comedian1 was converted on the stage while playing in a comedy against the ,christians4 ,this play shows clearly that the taste of ,plautus and ,terence no longer existed2 that which is now called comedy1 or ,italian farce1 seems to have originated at this time4 ,st4 ,genestus represented an invalid2 the physician asked him what was the matter with him4 ,i am too unwieldy1 said ,genestus4 ,would you have us exorcise you to make you lighter8 said the physician4 ,no1 replied ,genestus1 ,i will die a ,christian1 to be raised again of a finer stature4 ,then the actors1 dressed as priests and exorcists1 came to baptize him1 at which moment ,genestus really became a ,christian1 and1 instead of finishing his part1 began to preach to the emperor and the people4 ,the ,acta ,sincera relate this miracle also4 ,it is certain that there were many true martyrs1 but it is not true that the provinces were inundated with blood1 as it is imagined4 ,mention is made of about two hundred martyrs towards the latter days of ,diocletian in all the extent of the ,roman ,empire1 and it is averred1 even in the letters of ,constantine1 that ,diocletian had much less part in the persecution than ,galerius4 ,diocletian fell ill this year and feeling himself weakened he was the first who gave the world the example of the abdication of empire4 ,it is not easy to know whether this abdication was forced or not2 it is true1 however1 that having recovered his health he lived nine years equally honored and peaceable in his retreat of ,salonica1 in the country of his birth4 ,he said that he only began to live from the day of his retirement and when he was pressed to remount the throne he replied that the throne was not worth the tranquillity of his life1 and that he took more pleasure in cultivating his garden than he should' have in governing the whole earth4 ,what can be concluded from these facts but that with great faults he reigned like a great emperor and finished his life like a philosopher6 ,,dionysius1 ,,st4 7,,the ,,areopagite71 ,,and ,,the ,,famous ,,eclipse4 ,the author of the article ,apocrypha has neglected to mention a hundred works recognized for such1 and which1 being entirely forgotten1 seem not to merit the honor of being in his list4 ,we have thought it right not to omit ,st4 ,dionysius1 surnamed the ,areopagite1 who is pretended to have been for a long time the disciple of ,st4 ,paul1 and of one ,hierotheus1 an unknown companion of his4 ,he was1 it is said1 consecrated bishop of ,athens by ,st4 ,paul himself4 ,it is stated in his life that he went to ,jerusalem to pay a visit to the holy ,virgin and that he found her so beautiful and majestic that he was strongly tempted to adore her4 ,after having a long time governed the ,church of ,athens he went to confer with ,st4 ,john the evangelist1 at ,ephesus1 and afterwards with ,pope ,clement at ,rome2 thence he went to exercise his apostleship in ,france2 and knowing1 says the historian1 that ,paris was a rich1 populous1 and abundant town1 and like other capitals1 he went there to plant a citadel1 to lay hell and infidelity in ruins4 ,he was regarded for a long time as the first bishop of ,paris4 ,harduinus1 one of his historians1 adds that at ,paris he was exposed to wild beasts1 but1 having made the sign of the cross on them1 they crouched at his feet4 ,the pagan ,parisians then threw him into a hot oven from which he walked out fresh and in perfect health2 he was crucified and he began to preach from the top of the cross4 ,they imprisoned him with his companions ,rusticus and ,eleutherus4 ,he there said mass1 ,st4 ,rusticus performing the part of deacon and ,eleutherus that of subdeacon4 ,finally they were all three carried to ,montmartre1 where their heads were cut off1 after which they no longer said mass4 ,but1 according to ,harduinus1 there appeared a still greater miracle4 ,the body of ,st4 ,dionysius took its head in its hands and accompanied by angels singing ,gloria tibi1 ,domine1 alleluia6 carried it as far as the place where they afterwards built him a church1 which is the famous church of ,st4 ,denis4 ,mestaphrastus1 ,harduinus1 and ,hincmar1 bishop of ,rheims1 say that he was martyred at the age of ninety-one years1 but ,cardinal ,baronius proves that he was a hundred and ten1 in which opinion he is supported by ,ribadeneira1 the learned author of ,flower of the ,saints4 ,for our own part we have no opinion on the subject4 ,seventeen works are attributed to him1 six of which we have unfortunately lost2 the eleven which remain to us have been translated from the ,greek by ,duns ,scotus1 ,hugh de ,st4 ,victor1 ,albert ,magnus1 and several other illustrious scholars4 ,it is true that since wholesome criticism has been introduced into the world it has been discovered that all the books attributed to ,dionysius were written by an impostor in the year #cfb of our era1 so that there no longer remains any difficulty on that head4 ,of the ,great ,eclipse ,noticed by ,dionysius4 ,a fact related by one of the unknown authors of the life of ,dionysius has1 above all1 caused great dissension among the learned4 ,it is pretended that this first bishop of ,paris1 being in ,egypt in the town of ,diospolis1 or ,no-,amon1 at the age of twenty-five years1 before he was a ,christian1 he was there1 with one of his friends1 witness of the famous eclipse of the sun which happened at the full moon1 at the death of ,jesus ,christ and that he cried in ,greek1 ,either ,god suffers or is afflicted at the sufferings of the criminal4 ,these words have been differently related by different authors1 but in the time of ,eusebius of ,csarea it is pretended that two historians--the one named ,phlegon and the other ,thallus--had made mention of this miraculous eclipse4 ,eusebius of ,csarea quotes ,phlegon1 but we have none of his works now existing4 ,he said--at least it is pretended so--that this eclipse happened in the fourth year of the two hundredth ,olympiad1 which would be the eighteenth year of ,tiberius's reign4 ,there are several versions of this anecdote2 we distrust them all and much more so1 if it were possible to know whether they reckoned by ,olympiads in the time of ,phlegon1 which is very doubtful4 ,this important calculation interested all the astronomers4 ,hodgson1 ,whiston1 ,gale1 ,maurice1 and the famous ,halley1 demonstrated that there was no eclipse of the sun in this first year1 but that on ,november #bdth in the year of the hundred and second ,olympiad an eclipse took place which obscured the sun for two minutes1 at a quarter past one1 at ,jerusalem4 ,it has been carried still further3 a ,jesuit named ,greslon pretended that the ,chinese preserved in their annals the account of an eclipse which happened near that time1 contrary to the order of nature4 ,they desired the mathematicians of ,europe to make a calculation of it2 it was pleasant enough to desire the astronomists to calculate an eclipse which was not natural4 ,finally it was discovered that these ,chinese annals do not in any way speak of this eclipse4 ,it appears from the history of ,st4 ,dionysius the ,areopagite1 the passage from ,phlegon1 and from the letter of the ,jesuit ,greslon that men like to impose upon one another4 ,but this prodigious multitude of lies1 far from harming the ,christian religion1 only serves1 on the contrary1 to show its divinity1 since it is more confirmed every day in spite of them4 ,,diodorus ,,of ,,sicily1 ,,and ,,herodotus4 ,we will commence with ,herodotus as the most ancient4 ,when ,henry ,stephens entitled his comic rhapsody ,the ,apology of ,herodotus1 we know that his design was not to justify the tales of this father of history2 he only sports with us and shows that the enormities of his own times were worse than those of the ,egyptians and ,persians4 ,he made use of the liberty which the ,protestants assumed against those of the ,catholic1 ,apostolic1 and ,roman churches4 ,he sharply reproaches them with their debaucheries1 their avarice1 their crimes expiated by money1 their indulgences publicly sold in the taverns1 and the false relics manufactured by their own monks1 calling them idolaters4 ,he ventures to say that if the ,egyptians adored cats and onions1 the ,catholics adore the bones of the dead4 ,he dares to call them in his preliminary discourses1 theophages1 and even theokeses4 ,we have fourteen editions of this book1 for we relish general abuse1 just as much as we resent that which we deem special and personal4 ,henry ,stephens made use of ,herodotus only to render us hateful and ridiculous2 we have quite a contrary design4 ,we pretend to show that the modern histories of our good authors since ,guicciardini are in general as wise and true as those of ,herodotus and ,diodorus are foolish and fabulous4 #a4 ,what does the father of history mean by saying in the beginning of his work1 the ,persian historians relate that the ,phnicians were the authors of all the wars4 ,from the ,red ,sea they entered ours1 etc48 ,it would seem that the ,phnicians1 having embarked at the ,isthmus of ,suez1 arrived at the straits of ,babel-,mandeb1 coasted along ,ethiopia1 passed the line1 doubled the ,cape of ,tempests1 since called the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 returned between ,africa and ,america1 repassed the line and entered from the ocean into the ,mediterranean by the ,pillars of ,hercules1 a voyage of more than four thousand of our long marine leagues at a time when navigation was in its infancy4 #b4 ,the first exploit of the ,phnicians was to go towards ,argos to carry off the daughter of ,king ,inachus1 after which the ,greeks1 in their turn1 carried off ,europa1 the daughter of the king of ,tyre4 #c4 ,immediately afterwards comes ,candaules1 king of ,lydia1 who1 meeting with one of his guards named ,gyges1 said to him1 ,thou must see my wife quite naked2 it is absolutely essential4 ,the queen1 learning that she had been thus exposed1 said to the soldier1 ,you shall either die or assassinate my husband and reign with me4 ,he chose the latter alternative1 and the assassination was accomplished without difficulty4 #d4 ,then follows the history of ,arion1 carried on the back of a dolphin across the sea from the skirts of ,calabria to ,cape ,matapan1 an extraordinary voyage of about a hundred leagues4 #e4 ,from tale to tale--and who dislikes tales8--we arrive at the infallible oracle of ,delphi1 which somehow foretold that ,crsus would cook a quarter of lamb and a tortoise in a copper pan and that he would be dethroned by a mullet4 #f4 ,among the inconceivable absurdities with which ancient history abounds is there anything approaching the famine with which the ,lydians were tormented for twenty-eight years8 ,this people1 whom ,herodotus describes as being richer in gold than the ,peruvians1 instead of buying food from foreigners1 found no better expedient than that of amusing themselves every other day with the ladies without eating for eight-and-twenty successive years4 #g4 ,is there anything more marvellous than the history of ,cyrus8 ,his grandfather1 the ,mede ,astyages1 with a ,greek name1 dreamed that his daughter ,mandane--another ,greek name--inundated all ,asia2 at another time1 that she produced a vine1 of which all ,asia ate the grapes1 and thereupon the good man ,astyages ordered one ,harpagos1 another ,greek1 to murder his grandson ,cyrus--for what grandfather would not kill his posterity after dreams of this nature8 #h4 ,herodotus1 no less a good naturalist than an exact historian1 does not fail to tell us that near ,babylon the earth produced three hundred ears of wheat for one4 ,i know a small country which yields three for one4 ,i should like to have been transported to ,diabek when the ,turks were driven from it by ,catherine ,,ii4 ,it has fine corn also but returns not three hundred ears for one4 #i4 ,what has always seemed to me decent and edifying in ,herodotus is the fine religious custom established in ,babylon of which we have already spoken--that of all the married women going to prostitute themselves in the temple of ,mylitta for money1 to the first stranger who presented himself4 ,we reckon two millions of inhabitants in this city2 the devotion must have been ardent4 ,this law is very probable among the ,orientals who have always shut up their women1 and who1 more than six ages before ,herodotus1 instituted eunuchs to answer to them for the chastity of their wives4 ,i must no longer proceed numerically2 we should very soon indeed arrive at a hundred4 ,all that ,diodorus of ,sicily says seven centuries after ,herodotus is of the same value in all that regards antiquities and physics4 ,the ,abb ,terrasson said1 ,i translate the text of ,diodorus in all its coarseness4 ,he sometimes read us part of it at the house of de ,lafaye1 and when we laughed1 he said1 ,you are resolved to misconstrue2 it was quite the contrary with ,dacier4 ,the finest part of ,diodorus is the charming description of the island of ,panchaica--,panchaica ,tellus1 celebrated by ,virgil3 ,there were groves of odoriferous trees as far as the eye could see1 myrrh and frankincense to furnish the whole world without exhausting it2 fountains1 which formed an infinity of canals1 bordered with flowers1 besides unknown birds1 which sang under the eternal shades2 a temple of marble four thousand feet long1 ornamented with columns1 colossal statues1 etc4 ,this puts one in mind of the ,duke de la ,fert1 who1 to flatter the taste of the ,abb ,servien1 said to him one day1 ,ah1 if you had seen my son who died at fifteen years of age6 ,what eyes6 what freshness of complexion6 what an admirable stature6 the ,antinous of ,belvidere compared to him was only like a ,chinese baboon1 and as to sweetness of manners1 he had the most engaging ,i ever met with4 ,the ,abb ,servien melted1 the duke of ,fert1 warmed by his own words1 melted also1 both began to weep1 after which he acknowledged that he never had a son4 ,a certain ,abb ,bazin1 with his simple common sense1 doubts another tale of ,diodorus4 ,it is of a king of ,egypt1 ,sesostris1 who probably existed no more than the island of ,panchaica4 ,the father of ,sesostris1 who is not named1 determined on the day that he was born that he would make him the conqueror of all the earth as soon as he was of age4 ,it was a notable project4 ,for this purpose he brought up with him all the boys who were born on the same day in ,egypt1 and1 to make them conquerors1 he did not suffer them to have their breakfasts until they had run a hundred and eighty stadia1 which is about eight of our long leagues4 ,when ,sesostris was of age he departed with his racers to conquer the world4 ,they were then about seventeen hundred and probably half were dead1 according to the ordinary course of nature--and1 above all1 of the nature of ,egypt1 which was desolated by a destructive plague at least once in ten years4 ,there must have been three thousand four hundred boys born in ,egypt on the same day as ,sesostris1 and as nature produces almost as many girls as boys1 there must have been six thousand persons at least born on that day4 ,but women were confined every day1 and six thousand births a day produce1 at the end of the year1 two millions one hundred and ninety thousand children4 ,if you multiply by thirty-four1 according to the rule of ,kersseboom1 you would have in ,egypt more than seventy-four millions of inhabitants in a country which is not so large as ,spain or ,france4 ,all this appeared monstrous to the ,abb ,bazin1 who had seen a little of the world1 and who judged only by what he had seen4 ,but one ,larcher1 who was never outside of the college of ,mazarin arrayed himself with great animation on the side of ,sesostris and his runners4 ,he pretends that ,herodotus1 in speaking of the ,greeks1 does not reckon by the stadia of ,greece1 and that the heroes of ,sesostris only ran four leagues before breakfast4 ,he overwhelms poor ,abb ,bazin with injurious names such as no scholar in us or es had ever before employed4 ,he does not hold with the seventeen hundred boys1 but endeavors to prove by the prophets that the wives1 daughters1 and nieces of the king of ,babylon1 of the satraps1 and the magi1 resorted1 out of pure devotion1 to sleep for money in the aisles of the temple of ,babylon with all the camel-drivers and muleteers of ,asia4 ,he treats all those who defend the honor of the ladies of ,babylon as bad ,christians1 condemned souls1 and enemies to the state4 ,he also takes the part of the goat1 so much in the good graces of the young female ,egyptians4 ,it is said that his great reason was that he was allied1 by the female side1 to a relation of the bishop of ,meaux1 ,bossuet1 the author of an eloquent discourse on ,universal ,history2 but this is not a peremptory reason4 ,take care of the extraordinary stories of all kinds4 ,diodorus of ,sicily was the greatest compiler of these tales4 ,this ,sicilian had not a grain of the temper of his countryman ,archimedes1 who sought and found so many mathematical truths4 ,diodorus seriously examines the history of the ,amazons and their queen ,theaestris2 the history of the ,gorgons1 who fought against the ,amazons2 that of the ,titans1 and that of all the gods4 ,he searches into the history of ,priapus and ,hermaphroditus4 ,no one could give a better account of ,hercules3 this hero wandered through half the earth1 sometimes on foot and alone like a pilgrim1 and sometimes like a general at the head of a great army1 and all his labors are faithfully discussed1 but this is nothing in comparison with the gods of ,crete4 ,diodorus justifies ,jupiter from the reproach which other grave historians have passed upon him1 of having dethroned and mutilated his father4 ,he shows how ,jupiter fought the giants1 some in his island1 others in ,phrygia1 and afterwards in ,macedonia and ,italy2 the number of children which he had by his sister ,juno and his favorites are not omitted4 ,he describes how he afterwards became a god1 and the supreme god4 ,it is thus that all the ancient histories have been written4 ,what is more remarkable1 they were sacred2 if they had not been sacred1 they would never have been read4 ,it is clear that it would be very useful if in all they were all different1 and from province to province1 and island to island1 each had a different history of the gods1 demi-gods1 and heroes1 from that of their neighbors4 ,but it should also be observed that the people never fought for this mythology4 ,the respectable history of ,thucydides1 which has several glimmerings of truth1 begins at ,xerxes1 but1 before that epoch how much time was wasted4 ,,director4 ,it is neither of a director of finances1 a director of hospitals1 nor a director of the royal buildings that ,i pretend to speak1 but of a director of conscience1 for that directs all the others3 it is the preceptor of human kind2 it knows and teaches all that should be done or omitted in all possible cases4 ,it is clear that it would be very useful if in all courts there were one conscientious man whom the monarch secretly consulted on most occasions1 and who would boldly say1 ,non licet4 ,louis the ,just would not then have begun his mischievous and unhappy reign by assassinating his first minister and imprisoning his mother4 ,how many wars1 unjust as fatal1 a few good dictators would have spared6 ,how many cruelties they would have prevented6 ,but often1 while intending to consult a lamb1 we consult a fox4 ,tartuffe was the director of ,orgon4 ,i should like to know who was the conscientious director of the massacre of ,st4 ,bartholomew4 ,the gospel speaks no more of directors than of confessors4 ,among the people whom our ordinary courtesy calls ,pagans we do not see that ,scipio1 ,fabricius1 ,cato1 ,titus1 ,trajan1 or the ,antonines had directors4 ,it is well to have a scrupulous friend to remind you of your duty4 ,but your conscience ought to be the chief of your council4 ,a ,huguenot was much surprised when a ,catholic lady told him that she had a confessor to absolve her from her sins and a director to prevent her committing them4 ,how can your vessel so often go astray1 madam1 said he1 having two such good pilots8 ,the learned observe that it is not the privilege of every one to have a director4 ,it is like having an equerry2 it only belongs to ladies of quality4 ,the ,abb ,gobelin1 a litigious and covetous man1 directed ,madame de ,maintenon only4 ,the directors of ,paris often serve four or five devotees at once2 they embroil them with their husbands1 sometimes with their lovers1 and occasionally fill the vacant places4 ,why have the women directors and the men none8 ,it was possibly owing to this distinction that ,mademoiselle de la ,vallire became a ,carmelite when she was quitted by ,louis ,,xiv41 and that ,m4 de ,turenne1 being betrayed by ,madame de ,coetquin1 did not make himself a monk4 ,st4 ,jerome1 and ,rufinus his antagonist1 were great directors of women and girls4 ,they did not find a ,roman senator or a military tribune to govern4 ,these people profited by the devout facility of the feminine gender4 ,the men had too much beard on their chins and often too much strength of mind for them4 ,boileau has given the portrait of a director in his ,satire on ,women1 but might have said something much more to the purpose4 ,,disputes4 ,there have been disputes at all times1 on all subjects3--,mundum tradidit disputationi eorum4 ,there have been violent quarrels about whether the whole is greater than a part2 whether a body can be in several places at the same time2 whether the whiteness of snow can exist without snow1 or the sweetness of sugar without sugar2 whether there can be thinking without a head1 etc4 ,i doubt not that as soon as a ,jansenist shall have written a book to demonstrate that one and two are three1 a ,molinist will start up and demonstrate that two and one are five4 ,we hope to please and instruct the reader by laying before him the following verses on ,disputation4 ,they are well known to every man of taste in ,paris1 but they are less familiar to those among the learned who still dispute on gratuitous predestination1 concomitant grace1 and that momentous question--whether the mountains were produced by the sea4 ,,on ,,disputation4 ,each brain its thought1 each season has its mode2 ,manners and fashions alter every day2 ,examine for yourself what others say2-- ,this privilege by nature is bestowed2-- ,but1 oh6 dispute not--the designs of heaven ,to mortal insight never can be given4 ,what is the knowledge of this world worth knowing8 ,what1 but a bubble scarcely worth the blowing8 ,quite full of errors was the world before2 ,then1 to preach reason is but one error more4 ,viewing this earth from ,luna's elevation1 ,or any other convenient situation1 ,what shall we see8 ,the various tricks of man4 ,here is a synod--there is a divan2 ,behold the mufti1 dervish1 iman1 bonze1 ,the lama and the pope on equal thrones4 ,the modern doctor and the ancient rabbi1 ,the monk1 the priest1 and the expectant abb3 ,if you are disputants1 my friends1 pray travel-- ,when you come home again1 you'll cease to cavil4 ,that wild ,ambition should lay waste the earth1 ,or ,beauty's glance give civil discord birth2 ,that1 in our courts of equity1 a suit ,should hang in doubt till ruin is the fruit2 ,that an old country priest should deeply groan1 ,to see a benefice he'd thought his own ,borne off by a court abb2 that a poet ,should feel most envy when he least should show it2 ,and1 when another's play the public draws1 ,should grin damnation while he claps applause2 ,with this1 and more1 the human heart is fraught-- ,but whence the rage to rule another's thought2 ,say1 wherefore--in what way--can you design ,to make your judgment give the law to mine8 ,but chiefly ,i detest those tiresome elves1 ,half-learned critics1 worshipping themselves1 ,who1 with the utmost weight of all their lead1 ,maintain against you what yourself have said2 ,philosophers--and poets--and musicians-- ,great statesmen--deep in third and fourth editions-- ,they know all--read all--and 7the greatest curse7 ,they talk of all--from politics to verse2 ,on points of taste they'll contradict ,voltaire2 ,in law e'en ,montesquieu they will not spare2 ,they'll tutor ,broglio in affairs of arms2 ,and teach the charming d',egmont higher charms4 ,see them1 alike in great and small things clever1 ,replying constantly1 though answering never2 ,hear them assert1 repeat1 affirm1 aver1 ,wax wroth4 ,and wherefore all this mighty stir8 ,this the great theme that agitates their breast-- ,which of two wretched rhymesters rhymes the best8 ,pray1 gentle reader1 did you chance to know ,one ,monsieur d',aube1 who died not long ago8 ,one whom the disputatious mania woke ,early each morning8 ,if1 by chance1 you spoke ,of your own part in some well-fought affair1 ,better than you he knew how1 when1 and where2 ,what though your own the deed and the renown8 ,his letters from the army put you down2 ,e'en ,richelieu he'd have told--if he attended-- ,how ,mahon fell1 or ,genoa was defended4 ,although he wanted neither wit nor sense1 ,his every visit gave his friends offence2 ,i've seen him1 raving in a hot dispute1 ,exhaust their logic1 force them to be mute1 ,or1 if their patience were entirely spent1 ,rush from the room to give their passion vent4 ,his kinsmen1 whom his property allured1 ,at last were wearied1 though they long endured4 ,his neighbors1 less athletic than himself1 ,for health's sake laid him wholly on the shelf4 ,thus1 'midst his many virtues1 this one failing ,brought his old age to solitary wailing2-- ,for solitude to him was deepest woe-- ,a sorrow which the peaceful ne'er can know ,at length1 to terminate his cureless grief1 ,a mortal fever came to his relief1 ,caused by the great1 the overwhelming pang1 ,of hearing in the church a long harangue ,without the privilege of contradiction2 ,so1 yielding to this crowning dire affliction1 ,his spirit fled4 ,but1 in the grasp of death1 ',twas some small solace1 with his parting breath1 ,to indulge once more his ruling disposition ,by arguing with the priest and the physician4 ,oh6 may the ,eternal goodness grant him now ,the rest he ne'er to mortals would allow6 ,if1 even there1 he like not disputation ,better than uncontested1 calm salvation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but see1 my friends1 this bold defiance made ,to every one of the disputing trade1 ,with a young bachelor their skill to try2 ,and ,god's own essence shall the theme supply4 ,come and behold1 as on the theatric stage1 ,the pitched encounter1 the contending rage2 ,dilemmas1 enthymemes1 in close array-- ,two-edged weapons1 cutting either way2 ,the strong-built syllogism's pondering might1 ,the sophism's vain ignis fatuus light2 ,hot-headed monks1 whom all the doctors dread1 ,and poor ,hibernians arguing for their bread1 ,fleeing their country's miseries and morasses ,to live at ,paris on disputes and masses2 ,while the good public lend their strict attention ,to what soars far above their sober comprehension4 ,is1 then1 all arguing frivolous or absurd8 ,was ,socrates himself not sometimes heard ,to hold an argument amidst a feast8 ,e'en naked in the bath he hardly ceased4 ,was this a failing in his mental vision8 ,genius is sure discovered by collision2 ,the cold hard flint by one quick blow is fired2-- ,fit emblem of the close and the retired1 ,who1 in the keen dispute struck o'er and o'er1 ,acquire a sudden warmth unfelt before4 ,all this1 ,i grant1 is good4 ,but mark the ill3 ,men by disputing have grown blinder still4 ,the crooked mind is like the squinting eye3 ,how can you make it see itself awry8 ,who's in the wrong8 ,will any answer ,i8 ,our words1 our efforts1 are an idle breath2 ,each hugs his darling notion until death2 ,opinions ne'er are altered2 all we do ,is1 to arouse conflicting passions1 too4 ,not truth itself should always find a tongue2 ,to be too stanchly right1 is to be wrong4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in earlier days1 by vice and crime unstained1 ,justice and ,truth1 two naked sisters1 reigned2 ,but long since fled--as every one can tell-- ,justice to heaven and ,truth into a well4 ,now vain ,opinion governs every age1 ,and fills poor mortals with fantastic rage4 ,her airy temple floats upon the clouds2 ,gods1 demons1 antic sprites1 in countless crowds1 ,around her throne--a strange and motley mask-- ,ply busily their never-ceasing task1 ,to hold up to mankind's admiring gaze ,a thousand nothings in a thousand ways2 ,while1 wafted on by all the winds that blow1 ,away the temple and the goddess go4 ,a mortal1 as her course uncertain turns1 ,to-day is worshipped1 and to-morrow burns4 ,we scoff1 that young ,antinous once had priests2 ,we think our ancestors were worse than beasts2 ,and he who treats each modern custom ill1 ,does but what future ages surely will4 ,what female face has ,venus smiled upon8 ,the ,frenchman turns with rapture to ,brionne1 ,nor can believe that men were wont to bow ,to golden tresses and a narrow brow4 ,and thus is vagabond ,opinion seen ,to sway o'er ,beauty--this world's other queen6 ,how can we hope1 then1 that she e'er will quit ,her vapory throne1 to seek some sage's feet1 ,and ,truth from her deep hiding-place remove1 ,once more to witness what is done above8 ,and for the learned--even for the wise-- ,another snare of false delusion lies2 ,that rage for systems1 which1 in dreamy thought1 ,frames magic universes out of naught2 ,building ten errors on one truth's foundation4 ,so he who taught the art of calculation1 ,in one of these illusive mental slumbers1 ,foolishly sought the ,deity in numbers2 ,the first mechanic1 from as wild a notion1 ,would rule man's freedom by the laws of motion4 ,this globe1 says one1 is an extinguished sun2 ,no1 says another1 'tis a globe of glass2 ,and when the fierce contention's once begun1 ,book upon book--a vast and useless mass--,on ,science's altar are profusely strewn1 ,while ,disputation sits on ,wisdom's throne4 ,and then1 from contrarieties of speech1 ,what countless feuds have sprung6 ,for you may teach1 ,in the same words1 two doctrines different quite ,as day from darkness1 or as wrong from right4 ,this has indeed been man's severest curse2 ,famine and pestilence have not been worse1 ,nor e'er have matched the ills whose aggravations ,have scourged the world through misinterpretations4 ,how shall ,i paint the conscientious strife8 ,the holy transports of each heavenly soul-- ,fanaticism wasting human life ,with torch1 with dagger1 and with poisoned bow2 ,the ruined hamlet and the blazing town1 ,homes desolate1 and parents massacred1 ,and temples in the ,almighty's honor reared ,the scene of acts that merit most his frown6 ,rape1 murder1 pillage1 in one frightful storm1 ,pleasure with carnage horribly combined1 ,the brutal ravisher amazed to find ,a sister in his victim's dying form6 ,sons by their fathers to the scaffold led2 ,the vanquished always numbered with the dead4 ,oh1 ,god1 permit that all the ills we know ,may one day pass for merely fabled woe6 ,but see1 an angry disputant steps forth-- ,his humble mien a proud heart ill conceals ,in holy guise inclining to the earth1 ,offering to ,god the venom he distils4 ,beneath all this a dangerous poison lies2 ,so--every man is neither right nor wrong1 ,and1 since we never can be truly wise1 ,by instinct only should be driven along4 ,sir1 ,i've not said a word to that effect4 ,it's true1 you've artfully disguised your meaning4 ,but1 ,sir1 my judgment ever is correct4 ,sir1 in this case1 'tis rather overweening4 ,let truth be sought1 but let all passion yield2 ',discussion's right1 and disputation's wrong2' ,this have ,i said--and that at court1 in field1 ,or town1 one often should restrain one's tongue4 ,but1 my dear ,sir1 you've still a double sense2 ,i can distinguish-- ,sir1 with all my heart2 ,i've told my thoughts with all due deference1 ,and crave the like indulgence on your part4 ,my son1 all 'thinking' is a grievous crime2 ,so ,i'll denounce you without loss of time4 ,blest would be they who1 from fanatic power1 ,from carping censors1 envious critics1 free1 ,o'er ,helicon might roam in liberty1 ,and unmolested pluck each fragrant flower6 ,so does the farmer1 in his healthy fields1 ,far from the ills in swarming towns that spring1 ,taste the pure joys that our existence yields1 ,extract the honey and escape the sting4 ,illustration3 ,truth from her deep hiding-place remove once more to witness what is done above ,,distance4 ,a man who knows how to reckon the paces from one end of his house to the other might imagine that nature had all at once taught him this distance and that he has only need of a coup d'il1 as in the case of colors4 ,he is deceived2 the different distances of objects can be known only by experience1 comparison1 and habit4 ,it is that which makes a sailor1 on seeing a vessel afar off1 able to say without hesitation what distance his own vessel is from it1 of which distance a passenger would only form a very confused idea4 ,distance is only the line from a given object to ourselves4 ,this line terminates at a point2 and whether the object be a thousand leagues from us or only a foot1 this point is always the same to our eyes4 ,we have then no means of directly perceiving distances1 as we have of ascertaining by the touch whether a body is hard or soft2 by the taste1 if it is bitter or sweet2 or by the ear1 whether of two sounds the one is grave and the other lively4 ,for if ,i duly notice1 the parts of a body which give way to my fingers are the immediate cause of my sensation of softness1 and the vibrations of the air1 excited by the sonorous body1 are the immediate cause of my sensation of sound4 ,but as ,i cannot have an immediate idea of distance ,i must find it out by means of an intermediate idea1 but it is necessary that this intermediate idea be clearly understood1 for it is only by the medium of things known that we can acquire a notion of things unknown4 ,i am told that such a house is distant a mile from such a river1 but if ,i do not know where this river is ,i certainly do not know where the house is situated4 ,a body yields easily to the impression of my hand3 ,i conclude immediately that it is soft4 ,another resists1 ,i feel at once its hardness4 ,i ought therefore to feel the angles formed in my eye in order to determine the distance of objects4 ,but most men do not even know that these angles exist2 it is evident1 therefore1 that they cannot be the immediate cause of our ascertaining distances4 ,he who1 for the first time in his life1 hears the noise of a cannon or the sound of a concert1 cannot judge whether the cannon be fired or the concert be performed at the distance of a league or of twenty paces4 ,he has only the experience which accustoms him to judge of the distance between himself and the place whence the noise proceeds4 ,the vibrations1 the undulations of the air carry a sound to his ears1 or rather to his sensorium1 but this noise no more carries to his sensorium the place whence it proceeds than it teaches him the form of the cannon or of the musical instruments4 ,it is the same thing precisely with regard to the rays of light which proceed from an object1 but which do not at all inform us of its situation4 ,neither do they inform us more immediately of magnitude or form4 ,i see from afar a little round tower4 ,i approach1 perceive1 and touch a great quadrangular building4 ,certainly1 this which ,i now see and touch cannot be that which ,i saw before4 ,the little round tower which was before my eyes cannot be this large1 square building4 ,one thing in relation to us is the measurable and tangible object2 another1 the visible object4 ,i hear from my chamber the noise of a carriage1 ,i open my window and see it4 ,i descend and enter it4 ,yet this carriage that ,i have heard1 this carriage that ,i have seen1 and this carriage which ,i have touched are three objects absolutely distinct to three of my senses1 which have no immediate relation to one another4 ,further2 it is demonstrated that there is formed in my eye an angle a degree larger when a thing is near1 when ,i see a man four feet from me than when ,i see the same man at a distance of eight feet4 ,however1 ,i always see this man of the same size4 ,how does my mind thus contradict the mechanism of my organs8 ,the object is really a degree smaller to my eyes1 and yet ,i see it the same4 ,it is in vain that we attempt to explain this mystery by the route which the rays follow or by the form taken by the crystalline humor of the eye4 ,whatever may be supposed to the contrary1 the angle at which ,i see a man at four feet from me is always nearly double the angle at which ,i see him at eight feet4 ,neither geometry nor physics will explain this difficulty4 ,these geometrical lines and angles are not really more the cause of our seeing objects in their proper places than that we see them of a certain size and at a certain distance4 ,the mind does not consider that if this part were to be painted at the bottom of the eye it could collect nothing from lines that it saw not4 ,the eye looks down only to see that which is near the ground1 and is uplifted to see that which is above the earth4 ,all this might be explained and placed beyond dispute by any person born blind1 to whom the sense of sight was afterwards attained4 ,for if this blind man1 the moment that he opens his eyes1 can correctly judge of distances1 dimensions1 and situations1 it would be true that the optical angles suddenly formed in his retina were the immediate cause of his decisions4 ,doctor ,berkeley asserts1 after ,locke--going even further than ,locke--that neither situation1 magnitude1 distance1 nor figure would be discerned by a blind man thus suddenly gifted with sight4 ,in fact1 a man born blind was found in #agbi1 by whom this question was indubitably decided4 ,the famous ,cheselden1 one of those celebrated surgeons who join manual skill to the most enlightened minds1 imagined that he could give sight to this blind man by couching1 and proposed the operation4 ,the patient was with great difficulty brought to consent to it4 ,he did not conceive that the sense of sight could much augment his pleasures1 except that he desired to be able to read and to write1 he cared indeed little about seeing4 ,he proved by this indifference that it is impossible to be rendered unhappy by the privation of pleasures of which we have never formed an idea--a very important truth4 ,however this may be1 the operation was performed1 and succeeded4 ,this young man at fourteen years of age saw the light for the first time1 and his experience confirmed all that ,locke and ,berkeley had so ably foreseen4 ,for a long time he distinguished neither dimensions1 distance1 nor form4 ,an object about the size of an inch1 which was placed before his eyes1 and which concealed a house from him1 appeared as large as the house itself4 ,all that he saw seemed to touch his eyes1 and to touch them as objects of feeling touch the skin4 ,he could not at first distinguish that which1 by the aid of his hands1 he had thought round from that which he had supposed square1 nor could he discern with his eyes if that which his hands had felt to be tall and short were so in reality4 ,he was so far from knowing anything about magnitude that after having at last conceived by his sight that his house was larger than his chamber1 he could not conceive how sight could give him this idea4 ,it was not until after two months' experience he could discover that pictures represented existing bodies1 and when1 after this long development of his new sense in him1 he perceived that bodies1 and not surfaces only1 were painted in the pictures1 he took them in his hands and was astonished at not finding those solid bodies of which he had begun to perceive the representation1 and demanded which was the deceived1 the sense of feeling or that of sight4 ,thus was it irrevocably decided that the manner in which we see things follows not immediately from the angles formed in the eye4 ,these mathematical angles were in the eyes of this man the same as in our own and were of no use to him without the help of experience and of his other senses4 ,the adventure of the man born blind was known in ,france towards the year #agce4 ,the author of the ,elements of ,newton1 who had seen a great deal of ,cheselden1 made mention of this important discovery1 but did not take much notice of it4 ,and even when the same operation of the cataract was performed at ,paris on a young man who was said to have been deprived of sight from his cradle1 the operators neglected to attend to the daily development of the sense of sight in him and to the progress of nature4 ,the fruit of this operation was therefore lost to philosophy4 ,how do we represent to ourselves dimensions and distances8 ,in the same manner that we imagine the passions of men by the colors with which they vary their countenances1 and by the alteration which they make in their features4 ,there is no person who cannot read joy or grief on the countenance of another4 ,it is the language that nature addresses to all eyes1 but experience only teaches this language4 ,experience alone teaches us that1 when an object is too far1 we see it confusedly and weakly1 and thence we form ideas1 which always afterwards accompany the sensation of sight4 ,thus every man who at ten paces sees his horse five feet high1 if1 some minutes after1 he sees this horse of the size of a sheep1 by an involuntary judgment immediately concludes that the horse is much farther from him4 ,it is very true that when ,i see my horse of the size of a sheep a much smaller picture is formed in my eye--a more acute angle2 but it is a fact which accompanies1 not causes1 my opinion4 ,in like manner1 it makes a different impression on my brain1 when ,i see a man blush from shame and from anger2 but these different impressions would tell me nothing of what was passing in this man's mind1 without experience1 whose voice alone is attended to4 ,so far from the angle being the immediate cause of my thinking that a horse is far off when ,i see it very small1 it happens that ,i see my horse equally large at ten1 twenty1 thirty1 or forty paces1 though the angle at ten paces may be double1 treble1 or quadruple4 ,i see at a distance1 through a small hole1 a man posted on the top of a house2 the remoteness and fewness of the rays at first prevent me from distinguishing that it is a man2 the object appears to me very small4 ,i think ,i see a statue two feet high at most2 the object moves2 ,i then judge that it is a man2 and from that instant the man appears to me of his ordinary size4 ,whence come these two judgments so different8 ,when ,i believed that ,i saw a statue1 ,i imagined it to be two feet high1 because ,i saw it at such an angle2 experience had not led my mind to falsify the traits imprinted on my retina2 but as soon as ,i judged that it was a man1 the association established in my mind by experience between a man and his known height of five or six feet1 involuntarily obliged me to imagine that ,i saw one of a certain height2 or1 in fact1 that ,i saw the height itself4 ,it must therefore be absolutely concluded1 that distance1 dimension1 and situation are not1 properly speaking1 visible things2 that is to say1 the proper and immediate objects of sight4 ,the proper and immediate object of sight is nothing but colored light2 all the rest we only discover by long acquaintance and experience4 ,we learn to see precisely as we learn to speak and to read4 ,the difference is1 that the art of seeing is more easy1 and that nature is equally mistress of all4 ,the sudden and almost uniform judgments which1 at a certain age1 our minds form of distance1 dimension1 and situation1 make us think that we have only to open our eyes to see in the manner in which we do see4 ,we are deceived2 it requires the help of the other senses4 ,if men had only the sense of sight1 they would have no means of knowing extent in length1 breadth1 and depth1 and a pure spirit perhaps would not know it1 unless ,god revealed it to him4 ,it is very difficult1 in our understanding1 to separate the extent of an object from its color4 ,we never see anything but what is extended1 and from that we are led to believe that we really see the extent4 ,we can scarcely distinguish in our minds the yellow that we see in a louis d'or from the louis d'or in which we see the yellow4 ,in the same manner1 as when we hear the word louis d'or pronounced1 we cannot help attaching the idea of the money to the word which we hear spoken4 ,if all men spoke the same language1 we should be always ready to believe in a necessary connection between words and ideas4 ,but all men in fact do possess the same language of imagination4 ,nature says to them all3 ,when you have seen colors for a certain time1 imagination will represent the bodies to which these colors appear attached to all alike4 ,this prompt and summary judgment once attained will be of use to you during your life2 for if to estimate the distances1 magnitudes1 and situations of all that surrounds you1 it were necessary to examine the visual angles and rays1 you would be dead before you had ascertained whether the things of which you have need were ten paces from you or a hundred thousand leagues1 and whether they were of a size of a worm or of a mountain4 ,it would be better to be born blind4 ,we are then1 perhaps1 very wrong1 when we say that our senses deceive us4 ,every one of our senses performs the function for which it was destined by nature4 ,they mutually aid one another to convey to our minds1 through the medium of experience1 the measure of knowledge that our being allows4 ,we ask from our senses what they are not made to give us4 ,we would have our eyes acquaint us with solidity1 dimension1 distance1 etc42 but it is necessary for the touch to agree for that purpose with the sight1 and that experience should second both4 ,if ,father ,malebranche had looked at this side of nature1 he would perhaps have attributed fewer errors to our senses1 which are the only sources of all our ideas4 ,we should not1 however1 extend this species of metaphysics to every case before us4 ,we should only call it to our aid when the mathematics are insufficient4 ,,divinity ,,of ,,jesus4 ,the ,socinians1 who are regarded as blasphemers1 do not recognize the divinity of ,jesus ,christ4 ,they dare to pretend1 with the philosophers of antiquity1 with the ,jews1 the ,mahometans1 and most other nations1 that the idea of a god-man is monstrous2 that the distance from ,god to man is infinite2 and that it is impossible for a perishable body to be infinite1 immense1 or eternal4 ,they have the confidence to quote ,eusebius1 bishop of ,csarea1 in their favor1 who1 in his ,ecclesiastical ,history1 i41 #i1 declares that it is absurd to imagine the uncreated and unchangeable nature of ,almighty ,god taking the form of a man4 ,they cite the fathers of the ,church1 ,justin and ,tertullian1 who have said the same thing3 ,justin1 in his ,dialogue with ,triphonius2 and ,tertullian1 in his ,discourse against ,praxeas4 ,they quote ,st4 ,paul1 who never calls ,jesus ,christ ,god1 and who calls ,him man very often4 ,they carry their audacity so far as to affirm that the ,christians passed three entire ages in forming by degrees the apotheosis of ,jesus2 and that they only raised this astonishing edifice by the example of the pagans1 who had deified mortals4 ,at first1 according to them1 ,jesus was only regarded as a man inspired by ,god1 and then as a creature more perfect than others4 ,they gave ,him some time after a place above the angels1 as ,st4 ,paul tells us4 ,every day added to ,his greatness4 ,he in time became an emanation1 proceeding from ,god4 ,this was not enough2 ,he was even born before time4 ,at last ,he was made ,god consubstantial with ,god4 ,crellius1 ,voquelsius1 ,natalis ,alexander1 and ,horneck have supported all these blasphemies by arguments which astonish the wise and mislead the weak4 ,above all1 ,faustus ,socinus spread the seeds of this doctrine in ,europe2 and at the end of the sixteenth century a new species of ,christianity was established4 ,there were already more than three hundred4 ,,divorce4 ,in the article on ,divorce1 in the ,encyclopdia1 it is said that the custom of divorce having been brought into ,gaul by the ,romans1 it was therefore that ,basine1 or ,bazine1 quitted the king of ,thuringia1 her husband1 in order to follow ,childeric1 who married her4 ,why not say that because the ,trojans established the custom of divorce in ,sparta1 ,helen repudiated ,menelaus according to law1 to run away with ,paris into ,phrygia8 ,the agreeable fable of ,paris1 and the ridiculous one of ,childeric1 who never was king of ,france1 and who it is pretended carried off ,bazine1 the wife of ,bazin1 have nothing to do with the law of divorce4 ,they all quote ,cheribert1 ruler of the little town of ,lutetia1 near ,issay--,lutetia ,parisiorum--who repudiated his wife4 ,the ,abb ,velly1 in his ,history of ,france1 says that this ,cheribert1 or ,caribert1 divorced his wife ,ingoberg to espouse ,mirefleur1 the daughter of an artisan2 and afterwards ,theudegild1 the daughter of a shepherd1 who was raised to the first throne of the ,french ,empire4 ,there was at that time neither first nor second throne among these barbarians whom the ,roman ,empire never recognized as kings4 ,there was no ,french ,empire4 ,the empire of the ,french only commenced with ,charlemagne4 ,it is very doubtful whether the word mirefleur was in use either in the ,welsh or ,gallic languages1 which were a patois of the ,celtic jargon4 ,this patois had no expressions so soft4 ,it is also said that the ruler or governor ,chilperic1 lord of the province of ,soissonnais1 whom they call king of ,france1 divorced his queen ,andovere1 or ,andove2 and here follows the reason of this divorce4 ,this ,andovere1 after having given three male children to the lord of ,soissons1 brought forth a daughter4 ,the ,franks having been in some manner ,christians since the time of ,clovis1 ,andovere1 after her recovery1 presented her daughter to be baptized4 ,chilperic of ,soissons1 who was apparently very tired of her1 declared that it was an unpardonable crime in her to be the godmother of her infant1 and that she could no longer be his wife by the laws of the ,church4 ,he therefore married ,fredegond1 whom he subsequently put away also1 and espoused a ,visigoth4 ,to conclude1 this scrupulous husband ended by taking ,fredegond back again4 ,there was nothing legal in all this1 and it ought no more to be quoted than anything which passed in ,ireland or the ,orcades4 ,the ,justinian code1 which we have adopted in several points1 authorizes divorce2 but the canonical law1 which the ,catholics have placed before it1 does not permit it4 ,the author of the article says that divorce is practised in the states of ,germany1 of the confession of ,augsburg4 ,he might have added that this custom is established in all the countries of the ,north1 among the reformed of all professions1 and among all the followers of the ,greek ,church4 ,divorce is probably of nearly the same date as marriage4 ,i believe1 however1 that marriage is some weeks more ancient2 that is to say1 men quarrelled with their wives at the end of five days1 beat them at the end of a month1 and separated from them after six weeks' cohabitation4 ,justinian1 who collected all the laws made before him1 to which he added his own1 not only confirms that of divorce1 but he extends it still further2 so that every woman1 whose husband is not a slave1 but simply a prisoner of war during five years1 may1 after the five years have expired1 contract another marriage4 ,justinian was a ,christian1 and even a theologian2 how is it1 then1 that the ,church derogates from his laws8 ,it was when the ,church became the sovereign and the legislator4 ,the popes had not much trouble to substitute their decretals instead of the civil code in the ,west1 which was plunged in ignorance and barbarism4 ,they took1 indeed1 so much advantage of the prevailing ignorance1 that ,honorius ,,iii41 ,gregory ,,ix41 and ,innocent ,,iii41 by their bulls1 forbade the civil law to be taught4 ,it may be said of this audacity1 that it is not creditable1 but true4 ,as the ,church alone took cognizance of marriages1 so it alone judged of divorce4 ,no prince effected a divorce and married a second wife without previously obtaining the consent of the pope4 ,henry ,,viii41 king of ,england1 did not marry without his consent1 until after having a long time solicited his divorce in the court of ,rome in vain4 ,this custom1 established in ignorant times1 is perpetuated in enlightened ones only because it exists4 ,all abuse eternizes itself2 it is an ,augean stable1 and requires a ,hercules to cleanse it4 ,henry ,,iv4 could not be the father of a king of ,france without the permission of the pope2 which must have been given1 as has already been remarked1 not by pronouncing a divorce1 but a lie2 that is to say1 by pretending that there had not been previous marriage with ,margaret de ,valois4 ,,dog4 ,it seems as if nature had given the dog to man for his defence and pleasure2 it is of all animals the most faithful2 it is the best possible friend of man4 ,it appears that there are several species absolutely different4 ,how can we believe that a greyhound comes originally from a spaniel8 ,it has neither its hair1 legs1 shape1 ears1 voice1 scent1 nor instinct4 ,a man who has never seen any dogs but barbets or spaniels1 and who saw a greyhound for the first time1 would take it rather for a dwarf horse than for an animal of the spaniel race4 ,it is very likely that each race was always what it now is1 with the exception of the mixture of a small number of them4 ,it is astonishing that1 in the ,jewish law1 the dog was considered unclean1 as well as the griffin1 the hare1 the pig1 and the eel2 there must have been some moral or physical reason for it1 which we have not yet discovered4 ,that which is related of the sagacity1 obedience1 friendship1 and courage of dogs1 is as extraordinary as true4 ,the military philosopher1 ,ulloa1 assures us that in ,peru the ,spanish dogs recognize the men of the ,indian race1 pursue them1 and tear them to pieces2 and that the ,peruvian dogs do the same with the ,spaniards4 ,this would seem to prove that each species of dogs still retained the hatred which was inspired in it at the time of the discovery1 and that each race always fought for its master with the same valor and attachment4 ,why1 then1 has the word dog become an injurious term8 ,we say1 for tenderness1 my sparrow1 my dove1 my chicken2 we even say my kitten1 though this animal is famed for treachery2 and1 when we are angry1 we call people dogs6 ,the ,turks1 when not even angry1 speak with horror and contempt of the ,christian dogs4 ,the ,english populace1 when they see a man who1 by his manner or dress1 has the appearance of having been born on the banks of the ,seine or of the ,loire1 commonly call him a ,french dog--a figure of rhetoric which is neither just to the dog nor polite to the man4 ,the delicate ,homer introduces the divine ,achilles telling the divine ,agamemnon that he is as impudent as a dog--a classical justification of the ,english populace4 ,the most zealous friends of the dog must1 however1 confess that this animal carries audacity in its eyes2 that some are morose2 that they often bite strangers whom they take for their master's enemies1 as sentinels assail passengers who approach too near the counterscarp4 ,these are probably the reasons which have rendered the epithet dog insulting2 but we dare not decide4 ,why was the dog adored and revered--as has been seen--by the ,egyptians8 ,because the dog protects man4 ,plutarch tells us that after ,cambyses had killed their bull ,apis1 and had had it roasted1 no animal except the dog dared to eat the remains of the feast1 so profound was the respect for ,apis2 the dog1 not so scrupulous1 swallowed the god without hesitation4 ,the ,egyptians1 as may be imagined1 were exceedingly scandalized at this want of reverence1 and ,anubis lost much of his credit4 ,the dog1 however1 still bears the honor of being always in the heavens1 under the names of the great and little dog4 ,we regularly record the dog-days4 ,but of all dogs1 ,cerberus has had the greatest reputation2 he had three heads4 ,we have remarked that1 anciently1 all went by threes--,isis1 ,osiris1 and ,orus1 the three first ,egyptian divinities2 the three brother gods of the ,greek world--,jupiter1 ,neptune1 and ,pluto2 the three ,fates1 the three ,furies1 the three ,graces1 the three judges of hell1 and the three heads of this infernal dog4 ,we perceive here with grief that we have omitted the article on ,cats2 but we console ourselves by referring to their history4 ,we will only remark that there are no cats in the heavens1 as there are goats1 crabs1 bulls1 rams1 eagles1 lions1 fishes1 hares1 and dogs2 but1 in recompense1 the cat has been consecrated1 or revered1 or adored1 as partaking of divinity or saintship in several towns1 and as altogether divine by no small number of women4 ,,dogmas4 ,we know that all belief taught by the ,church is a dogma which we must embrace4 ,it is a pity that there are dogmas received by the ,latin ,church1 and rejected by the ,greek4 ,but if unanimity is wanting1 charity replaces it4 ,it is1 above all1 between hearts that union is required4 ,i think that we can relate a dream to the purpose1 which has already found favor in the estimation of many peaceably disposed persons4 ,on ,feb4 #ah1 #agfc1 of the vulgar era1 the sun entering the sign of the fishes1 ,i was transported to heaven1 as all my friends can bear witness4 ,the mare ,borac1 of ,mahomet1 was not my steed1 neither was the fiery chariot of ,elijah my carriage4 ,i was not carried on the elephant of ,somonocodom1 the ,siamese2 on the horse of ,st4 ,george1 the patron of ,england2 nor on ,st4 ,anthony's pig4 ,i avow with frankness that my journey was made ,i know not how4 ,it will be easily believed that ,i was dazzled2 but it will not so easily be credited that ,i witnessed the judgment of the dead4 ,and who were the judges8 ,they were--do not be displeased at it--all those who have done good to man4 ,confucius1 ,solon1 ,socrates1 ,titus1 ,antoninus1 ,epictetus1 ,charron1 de ,thou1 ,chancellor de ,l' ,hpital1 and all the great men who1 having taught and practised the virtues that ,god requires1 seemed to be the only persons possessing the right of pronouncing his devrees4 ,i shall not describe on what thrones they were seated1 nor how many celestial beings were prostrated before the eternal architect of all worlds1 nor what a crowd of the inhabitants of these innumerable worlds appeared before the judges4 ,i shall not even give an account of several little interesting peculiarities which were exceedingly striking4 ,i remarked that every spirit who pleaded his cause and displayed his specious pretensions had beside him all the witnesses of his actions4 ,for example1 when ,cardinal ,lorraine boasted of having caused some of his opinions to be adopted by the ,council of ,trent1 and demanded eternal life as the price of his orthodoxy1 there immediately appeared around him twenty ladies of the court1 all bearing on their foreheads the number of their interviews with the cardinal4 ,i also saw those who had concerted with him the foundations of the infamous league4 ,all the accomplices of his wicked designs surrounded him4 ,over against ,cardinal ,lorraine was ,john ,calvin1 who boasted1 in his gross patois1 of having trampled upon the papal idol1 after others had overthrown it4 ',i have written against painting and sculpture1' said he2 ',i have made it apparent that good works are of no avail1 and ,i have proved that it is diabolical to dance a minuet4 ,send away ,cardinal ,lorraine quickly1 and place me by the side of ,st4 ,paul4' ,as he spoke there appeared by his side a lighted pile2 a dreadful spectre1 wearing round his neck a ,spanish frill1 arose half burned from the midst of the flames1 with dreadful shrieks4 ',monster1' cried he2 'execrable monster1 tremble6 recognize that ,servetus1 whom you caused to perish by the most cruel torments1 because he had disputed with you on the manner in which three persons can form one substance4' ,then all the judges commanded that ,cardinal ,lorraine should be thrown into the abyss1 but that ,calvin should be punished still more rigorously4 ,i saw a prodigious crowd of spirits1 each of which said1 ',i have believed1 ,i have believed6' but on their forehead it was written1 ',i have acted1' and they were condemned4 ,the ,jesuit ,letellier appeared boldly with the bull ,unigenitus in his hand4 ,but there suddenly arose at his side a heap1 consisting of two thousand lettres-de-cachet4 ,a ,jansenist set fire to them1 and ,letellier was burned to a cinder2 while the ,jansenist1 who had no less caballed than the ,jesuit1 had his share of the flames4 ,i saw approach1 from right and left1 troops of fakirs1 talapoins1 bonzes1 and black1 white1 and gray monks1 who all imagined that1 to make their court to the ,supreme ,being1 they must either sing1 scourge themselves1 or walk quite naked4 ',what good have you done to men8' was the query4 ,a dead silence succeeded to this question4 ,no one dared to answer2 and they were all conducted to the mad-houses of the universe1 the largest buildings imaginable4 ,one cried out that he believed in the metamorphoses of ,xaca1 another in those of ,somonocodom4 ',bacchus stopped the sun and moon6' said this one4 ',the gods resuscitated ,pelops6' said the other4 ',here is the bull in cna ,domini6' said a newcomer--and the officer of the court exclaimed1 ',to ,bedlam1 to ,bedlam6' ,when all these causes were gone through1 ,i heard this proclamation3 ',by the ,eternal ,creator1 ,preserver1 ,rewarder1 ,revenger1 ,forgiver1 etc41 be it known to all the inhabitants of the hundred thousand millions of millions of worlds that it hath pleased us to form1 that we never judge any sinners in reference to their own shallow ideas1 but only as to their actions4 ,such is our ,justice4' ,i own that this was the first time ,i ever heard such an edict2 all those which ,i had read1 on the little grain of dust on which ,i was born1 ended with these words3 ',such is our pleasure4' ,,donations4 ,the ,roman ,republic1 which seized so many states1 also gave some away4 ,scipio made ,massinissa king of ,numidia4 ,lucullus1 ,sulla1 and ,pompey1 each gave away half a dozen kingdoms4 ,cleopatra received ,egypt from ,csar4 ,antony1 and afterwards ,octavius1 gave the little kingdom of ,juda to ,herod4 ,under ,trajan1 the famous medal of regna assignata was struck and kingdoms bestowed4 ,cities and provinces given in sovereignty to priests and to colleges1 for the greater glory of ,god1 or of the gods1 are seen in every country4 ,mahomet1 and the caliphs1 his vicars1 took possession of many states in the propagation of their faith1 but they did not make donations of them4 ,they held by nothing but their ,koran and their sabre4 ,the ,christian religion1 which was at first a society of poor people1 existed for a long time on alms alone4 ,the first donation was that of ,ananias and ,sapphira his wife4 ,it was in ready money and was not prosperous to the donors4 ,the ,donation of ,constantine4 ,the celebrated donation of ,rome and all ,italy to ,pope ,sylvester by the emperor ,constantine1 was maintained as a part of the creed of ,rome until the sixteenth century4 ,it was believed that ,constantine1 being at ,nicomedia1 was cured of leprosy at ,rome by the baptism which he received from ,bishop ,sylvester1 though he was not baptized at all2 and that by way of recompense he gave forthwith the city of ,rome and all its western provinces to this ,sylvester4 ,if the deed of this donation had been drawn up by the doctor of the ,italian comedy1 it could not have been more pleasantly conceived4 ,it is added that ,constantine declared all the canons of ,rome consuls and patricians--patricios et consules effici --that he himself held the bridle of the mare on which the new bishop was mounted--tenentes frenum equi illius4 ,it is astonishing to reflect that this fine story was held an article of faith and respected by the rest of ,europe for eight centuries1 and that the ,church persecuted as heretics all those who doubted it4 ,donation of ,pepin4 ,at present people are no longer persecuted for doubting that ,pepin the usurper gave1 or was able to give1 the exarchate of ,ravenna to the pope4 ,it is at most an evil thought1 a venial sin1 which does not endanger the loss of body or of soul4 ,the reasoning of the ,german lawyers1 who have scruples in regard to this donation1 is as follows3 #a4 ,the librarian ,anastatius1 whose evidence is always cited1 wrote one hundred and forty years after the event4 #b4 ,it is not likely that ,pepin1 who was not firmly established in ,france1 and against whom ,aquitaine made war1 could give away1 in ,italy1 states which already belonged to the emperor1 resident at ,constantinople4 #c4 ,pope ,zacharias recognized the ,roman-,greek emperor as the sovereign of those lands1 disputed by the ,lombards1 and had administered the oath to him2 as may be seen by the letters of this bishop1 ,zacharias of ,rome to ,bishop ,boniface of ,mentz4 ,pepin could not give to the pope the imperial territories4 #d4 ,when ,pope ,stephen ,,ii4 produced a letter from heaven1 written in the hand of ,st4 ,peter1 to ,pepin1 to complain of the grievances of the king of the ,lombards1 ,astolphus1 ,st4 ,peter does not mention in his letter that ,pepin had made a present of the exarchate of ,ravenna to the pope2 and certainly ,st4 ,peter would not have failed to do so1 even if the thing had been only equivocal2 he understands his interest too well4 ,finally1 the deed of this donation has never been produced2 and what is still stronger1 the fabrication of a false one cannot be ventured4 ,the only proofs are vague recitals1 mixed up with fables4 ,instead of certainty1 there are only the absurd writings of monks1 copied from age to age1 from one another4 ,the ,italian advocate who wrote in #agbb to prove that ,parma and ,placentia had been ceded to the holy see as a dependency of the exarchate1 asserts that the ,greek emperors were justly despoiled of their rights because they had excited the people against ,god4 ,can lawyers write thus in our days8 ,yes1 it appears1 but only at ,rome4 ,cardinal ,bellarmine goes still farther4 ,the first ,christians1 says he1 supported the emperors only because they were not the strongest4 ,the avowal is frank1 and ,i am persuaded that ,bellarmine is right4 ,the ,donation of ,charlemagne4 ,at a time when the court of ,rome believed itself deficient in titles1 it pretended that ,charlemagne had confirmed the donation of the exarchate1 and that he added to it ,sicily1 ,venice1 ,benevento1 ,corsica1 and ,sardinia4 ,but as ,charlemagne did not possess any of these states1 he could not give them away2 and as to the town of ,ravenna1 it is very clear that he kept it1 since in his will he made a legacy to his city of ,ravenna as well as to his city of ,rome4 ,it is surprising enough that the popes have obtained ,ravenna and ,rome2 but as to ,venice1 it is not likely that the diploma which granted them the sovereignty will be found in the palace of ,st4 ,mark4 ,all these acts1 instruments1 and diplomas have been subjects of dispute for ages4 ,but it is a confirmed opinion1 says ,giannone1 that martyr to truth1 that all these pieces were forged in the time of ,gregory ,,vii4 ,e costante opinione presso i piu gravi scrittori che tutti questi istromenti e diplomi furono supposti ne tempi d',ildebrando4 ,donation of ,benevento by the ,emperor ,henry ,,iii4 ,the first well attested donation which was made to the see of ,rome was that of ,benevento1 and that was an exchange of the ,emperor ,henry ,,iii4 with the pope4 ,it wanted only one formality1 which was that the emperor who gave away ,benevento was not the owner of it4 ,it belonged to the dukes of ,benevento1 and the ,roman-,greek emperors reclaimed their rights on this duchy4 ,but history supplies little beyond a list of those who have accommodated themselves with the property of others4 ,donation of the ,countess ,mathilda4 ,the most authentic and considerable of these donations was that of all the possessions of the famous ,countess ,mathilda to ,gregory ,,vii4 ,she was a young widow1 who gave all to her spiritual director4 ,it is supposed that the deed was twice executed and afterwards confirmed by her will4 ,however1 there still remains some difficulty4 ,it was always believed at ,rome that ,mathilda had given all her states1 all her possessions1 present and to come1 to her friend ,gregory ,,vii4 by a solemn deed1 in her castle of ,canossa1 in #ajgg1 for the relief of her own soul and that of her parents4 ,and to corroborate this precious instrument a second is shown to us1 dated in the year #aajb1 in which it is said that it is to ,rome that she made this donation2 that she recalled it1 and that she afterwards renewed it2 and always for the good of her soul4 ,how could so important a deed be recalled8 ,was the court of ,rome so negligent8 ,how could an instrument written at ,canossa have been written at ,rome8 ,what do these contradictions mean8 ,all that is clear is that the souls of the receivers fared better than the soul of the giver1 who to save it was obliged to deprive herself of all she possessed in favor of her physicians4 ,in short1 in #aajb1 a sovereign was deprived of the power of disposing of an acre of land2 yet after this deed1 and to the time of her death1 in #aaae1 there are still found considerable donations of lands made by this same ,mathilda to canons and monks4 ,she had not1 therefore1 given all4 ,finally1 this deed was very likely made by some ingenious person after her death4 ,the court of ,rome still includes among its titles the testament of ,mathilda1 which confirmed her donations4 ,the popes1 however1 never produce this testament4 ,it should also be known whether this rich countess had the power to dispose of her possessions1 which were most of them fiefs of the empire4 ,the ,emperor ,henry ,v41 her heir1 possessed himself of all1 and recognized neither testament1 donation1 deed1 nor right4 ,the popes1 in temporizing1 gained more than the emperors in exerting their authority2 and in time these ,csars became so weak that the popes finally obtained the succession of ,mathilda1 which is now called the patrimony of ,st4 ,peter4 ,donation of the ,sovereignty of ,naples to the ,popes4 ,the ,norman gentlemen who were the first instruments of the conquests of ,naples and ,sicily achieved the finest exploit of chivalry that was ever heard of4 ,from forty to fifty men only delivered ,salerno at the moment it was taken by an army of ,saracens4 ,seven other ,norman gentlemen1 all brothers1 sufficed to chase these same ,saracens from all the country1 and to take prisoner the ,greek emperor1 who had treated them ungratefully4 ,it was quite natural that the people1 whom these heroes had inspired with valor1 should be led to obey them through admiration and gratitude4 ,such were the first rights to the crown of the two ,sicilies4 ,the bishops of ,rome could no more give those states in fief than the kingdoms of ,boutan or ,cachemire4 ,they could not even grant the investiture which would have been demanded of them2 for1 in the time of the anarchy of the fiefs1 when a lord would hold his free land as a fief for his protection1 he could only address himself to the sovereign or the chief of the country in which it was situated4 ,and certainly the pope was neither the sovereign of ,naples1 ,apulia1 nor ,calabria4 ,much has been written about this pretended vassalage1 but the source has never been discovered4 ,i dare say that it is as much the fault of the lawyers as of the theologians4 ,every one deduces from a received principle consequences the most favorable to himself or his party4 ,but is the principle true8 ,is the first fact by which it is supported incontestable8 ,it is this which should be examined4 ,it resembles our ancient romance writers1 who all take it for granted that ,francus brought the helmet of ,hector to ,france4 ,this casque was impenetrable1 no doubt2 but had ,hector really worn it8 ,the holy ,virgin's milk is also very respectable2 but do the twenty sacristies1 who boast of having a gill of it1 really possess it8 ,men of the present time1 as wicked as foolish1 do not shrink from the greatest crimes1 and yet fear an excommunication1 which would render them execrable to people still more wicked and foolish than themselves4 ,robert and ,richard ,guiscard1 the conquerors of ,apulia and ,calabria1 were excommunicated by ,pope ,leo ,,ix4 ,they were declared vassals of the empire2 but the emperor1 ,henry ,,iii41 discontented with these feudatory conquerors1 engaged ,leo ,,ix4 to launch the excommunication at the head of an army of ,germans4 ,the ,normans1 who did not fear these thunderbolts like the princes of ,italy1 beat the ,germans and took the pope prisoner4 ,but to prevent the popes and emperors hereafter from coming to trouble them in their possessions1 they offered their conquests to the ,church under the name of oblata4 ,it was thus that ,england paid the ,peter's pence2 that the first kings of ,spain and ,portugal1 on recovering their states from the ,saracens1 promised two pounds of gold a year to the ,church of ,rome4 ,but ,england1 ,spain1 nor ,portugal never regarded the pope as their sovereign master4 ,duke ,robert1 oblat of the ,church1 was therefore no feudatory of the pope2 he could not be so1 since the popes were not the sovereigns of ,rome4 ,this city was then governed by its senate1 and the bishop possessed only influence4 ,the pope was at ,rome precisely what the elector is at ,cologne4 ,there is a prodigious difference between the oblat of a saint and the feudatory of a bishop4 ,baronius1 in his ,acts1 relates the pretended homage done by ,robert1 duke of ,apulia and ,calabria1 to ,nicholas ,,ii42 but this deed is suspected1 like many others2 it has never been seen1 it has never been found in any archives4 ,robert entitled himself duke by the grace of ,god and ,st4 ,peter2 but certainly ,st4 ,peter had given him nothing1 nor was that saint king of ,rome4 ,the other popes1 who were kings no more than ,st4 ,peter1 received without difficulty the homage of all the princes who presented themselves to reign over ,naples1 particularly when these princes were the most powerful4 ,donation of ,england and ,ireland to the ,popes by ,king ,john4 ,in #abac1 ,king ,john1 vulgarly called ,lackland1 or more properly ,lackvirtue1 being excommunicated and seeing his kingdom laid under an interdict1 gave it away to ,pope ,innocent ,,iii4 and his successors4 ,not constrained with fear1 but with my full consent and the advice of my barons1 for the remission of my sins against ,god and the ,church1 ,i resign ,england and ,ireland to ,god1 ,st4 ,peter1 ,st4 ,paul1 and our lord the ,pope ,innocent1 and to his successors in the apostolic chair4 ,he declared himself feudatory lieutenant of the pope1 paid about eight thousand pounds sterling in ready money to the legate ,pandulph1 promised to pay a thousand more every year1 gave the first year in advance to the legate who trampled upon him1 and swore on his knees that he submitted to lose all in the event of not paying at the time appointed4 ,the jest of this ceremony was that the legate departed with the money and forgot to remove the excommunication4 ,examination of the ,vassalage of ,naples and ,england4 ,it may be asked which was the more valuable1 the donation of ,robert ,guiscard or that of ,john ,lackland2 both had been excommunicated1 both had given their states to ,st4 ,peter and became only the farmers of them4 ,if the ,english barons were indignant at the infamous bargain of their king with the pope1 and cancelled it1 the ,neapolitan barons could have equally cancelled that of ,baron ,robert2 and that which they could have done formerly they certainly can do at present4 ,were ,england and ,apulia given to the pope1 according to the law of the ,church or of the fiefs1 as to a bishop or a sovereign8 ,if to a bishop1 it is precisely contrary to the law of ,jesus1 who so often forbids his disciples to take anything1 and who declares to them that ,his kingdom is not of this world4 ,if as to a sovereign1 it was high treason to his imperial majesty2 the ,normans had already done homage to the emperor4 ,thus no right1 spiritual or temporal1 belonged to the popes in this affair4 ,when the principle is erroneous1 all the deductions are so of course4 ,naples no more belonged to the pope than ,england4 ,there is still another method of providing against this ancient bargain2 it is the right of the people1 which is stronger than the right of the fiefs4 ,the people's right will not suffer one sovereign to belong to another1 and the most ancient law is to be master of our own1 at least when we are not the weakest4 ,of ,donations ,made by the ,popes4 ,if principalities have been given to the bishops of ,rome1 they have given away many more4 ,there is not a single throne in ,europe to which they have not made a present4 ,as soon as a prince had conquered a country1 or even wished to do it1 the popes granted it in the name of ,st4 ,peter4 ,sometimes they even made the first advances1 and it may be said that they have given away every kingdom but that of heaven4 ,few people in ,france know that ,julius ,,ii4 gave the states of ,king ,louis ,,xii4 to the ,emperor ,maximilian1 who could not put himself in possession of them4 ,they do not sufficiently remember that ,sixtus ,v41 ,gregory ,,xiv41 and ,clement ,,viii41 were ready to make a present of ,france to whomsoever ,philip ,,ii4 would have chosen for the husband of his daughter ,clara ,eugenia4 ,as to the emperors1 there is not one since ,charlemagne that the court of ,rome has not pretended to nominate4 ,this is the reason why ,swift1 in his ,tale of a ,tub1 says that ,lord ,peter became suddenly mad1 and that ,martin and ,jack1 his brothers1 confined him by the advice of their relations4 ,we simply relate this drollery as a pleasant blasphemy of an ,english priest against the bishop of ,rome4 ,all these donations disappear before that of the ,east and ,west ,indies1 with which ,alexander ,,vi4 of his divine power and authority invested ,spain and ,portugal4 ,it was giving almost all the earth4 ,he could in the same manner have given away the globes of ,jupiter and ,saturn with their satellites4 ,particular ,donations4 ,the donations of citizens are treated quite differently4 ,the codes are unanimously agreed that no one can give away the property of another as well as that no person can take it4 ,it is a universal law4 ,in ,france1 jurisprudence was uncertain on this object1 as on almost all others1 until the year #agca1 when the equitable ,chancellor d',aguesseau1 having conceived the design of making the law uniform1 very weakly began the great work by the edict on donations4 ,it is digested in forty-seven articles1 but1 in wishing to render all the formalities concerning donations uniform1 ,flanders was excepted from the general law1 and in excepting ,flanders1 ,artois was forgotten1 which should have enjoyed the same exception2 so that in six years after the general law1 a particular one was obliged to be made for ,artois4 ,these new edicts concerning donations and testaments were principally made to do away with all the commentators who had considerably embroiled the laws1 having already compiled six commentaries upon them4 ,it may be remarked that donations1 or deeds of gift1 extend much farther than to the particular person to whom a present is made4 ,for every present there must be paid to the farmers of the royal domain--the duty of control1 the duty of insinuation the duty of the hundredth penny1 the tax of two sous in the livre1 the tax of eight sous in the livre1 etc4 ,so that every time you make a present to a citizen you are much more liberal than you imagine4 ,you have also the pleasure of contributing to the enriching of the farmers-general1 but1 after all1 this money does not go out of the kingdom like that which is paid to the court of ,rome4 ,,drinking ,,healths4 ,what was the origin of this custom8 ,has it existed since drinking commenced8 ,it appears natural to drink wine for our own health1 but not for the health of others4 ,the propino of the ,greeks1 adopted by the ,romans1 does not signify ,i drink to your good health1 but ,i drink first that you may drink afterwards--,i invite you to drink4 ,in their festivals they drink to celebrate a mistress1 not that she might have good health4 ,see in ,martial3 ,naevia sex cyathis1 septem ,justina bibatur--,six cups for ,naevia1 for ,justina seven4 ,the ,english1 who pique themselves upon renewing several ancient customs1 drink to the honor of the ladies1 which they call toasting1 and it is a great subject of dispute among them whether a lady is toastworthy or not--whether she is worthy to be toasted4 ,they drank at ,rome for the victories of ,augustus1 and for the return of his health4 ,dion ,cassius relates that after the battle of ,actium the senate decreed that1 in their repasts1 libations should be made to him in the second service4 ,it was a strange decree4 ,it is more probable that flattery had voluntarily introduced this meanness4 ,be it as it may1 we read in ,horace3 ,hinc ad vina redit ltus1 et alteris ,te mensis adhibet ,deum1 ,te multa prece2 te prosequitur nero ,defuso pateris2 et labiis tuum ,miscet numen2 uti ,graecia ,castoris ,et magni nemore ,herculis4 ,longas o utinam1 dux bone ferias ,praestes ,hesperiae2 dicimus integro ,sicci mane die1 dicimus uvidi1 ,quum sol oceano subest4 ,to thee he chants the sacred song1 ,to thee the rich libation pours2 ,thee placed his household gods among1 ,with solemn daily prayer adores2 ,so ,castor and great ,hercules of old ,were with her gods by graceful ,greece enrolled4 ,gracious and good1 beneath thy reign ,may ,rome her happy hours employ1 ,and grateful hail thy just domain ,with pious hymn and festal joy4 ,thus1 with the rising sun we sober pray1 ,thus1 in our wine beneath his setting ray4 ,it is very likely that hence the custom arose among barbarous nations of drinking to the health of their guests1 an absurd custom1 since we may drink four bottles without doing them the least good4 ,the dictionary of ,trvoux tells us that we should not drink to the health of our superiors in their presence4 ,this may be the case in ,france or ,germany1 but in ,england it is a received custom4 ,the distance is not so great from one man to another at ,london as at ,vienna4 ,it is of importance in ,england to drink to the health of a prince who pretends to the throne2 it is to declare yourself his partisan4 ,it has cost more than one ,scotchman and ,hibernian dear for having drank to the health of the ,stuarts4 ,all the ,whigs1 after the death of ,king ,william1 drank not to his health1 but to his memory4 ,a ,tory named ,brown1 bishop of ,cork in ,ireland1 a great enemy to ,william in ,ireland1 said1 that he would put a cork in all those bottles which were drunk to the glory of this monarch4 ,he did not stop at this silly pun2 he wrote1 in #agjb1 an episcopal address to show the ,irish that it was an atrocious impiety to drink to the health of kings1 and1 above all1 to their memory2 that the latter1 in particular1 is a profanation of these words of ,jesus ,christ3 ,drink this in remembrance of me4 ,it is astonishing that this bishop was not the first who conceived such a folly4 ,before him1 the ,presbyterian ,prynne had written a great book against the impious custom of drinking to the health of ,christians4 ,finally1 there was one ,john ,geza1 vicar of the parish of ,st4 ,faith1 who published ,the ,divine ,potion to ,preserve ,spiritual ,health1 by the ,cure of the ,inveterate ,malady of ,drinking ,healths2 with ,clear and ,solid ,arguments against this ,criminal ,custom1 all for the ,satisfaction of the ,public1 at the ,request of a ,worthy ,member of ,parliament1 in the ,year of ,our ,salvation #afdh4 ,our reverend ,father ,garasse1 our reverend ,father ,patouillet1 and our reverend ,father ,nonnotte are nothing superior to these profound ,englishmen4 ,we have a long time wrestled with our neighbors for the superiority--,to which is it due8 ,,the ,,druids4 ,the ,scene is in ,tartarus4 ,the ,furies ,entwined with ,serpents1 and ,whips in ,their ,hands4 ,come along1 ,barbaquincorix1 ,celtic druid1 and thou1 detestable ,grecian hierophant1 ,calchas1 the moment of your just punishment has returned again2 the hour of vengeance has arrived--the bell has sounded6 ,,the ,,druid ,,and ,,calchas4 ,oh1 heavens6 my head1 my sides1 my eyes1 my ears6 pardon1 ladies1 pardon6 ,,calchas4 ,mercy6 two vipers are penetrating my eye-balls6 ,,druid4 ,a serpent is devouring my entrails6 ,,calchas4 ,alas1 how am ,i mangled6 ,and must my eyes be every day restored1 to be torn again from my head8 ,,druid4 ,must my skin be renewed only to dangle in ribbons from my lacerated body8 ,,tisiphone4 ,it will teach you how to palm off a miserable parasitical plant for a universal remedy another time4 ,will you still sacrifice boys and girls to your god ,theutates1 priest8 still burn them in osier baskets to the sound of a drum8 ,,druid4 ,never1 never2 dear lady1 a little mercy1 ,i beseech you4 ,,tisiphone4 ,you never had any yourself4 ,seize him1 serpents1 and now another lash6 ,,alecto4 ,let them curry well this ,calchas1 who advances towards us1 ,with cruel eye1 dark mien1 and bristled hair4 ,,calchas4 ,my hair is torn away2 ,i am scorched1 flayed1 impaled6 ,,alecto4 ,wretch6 ,will you again cut the throat of a beautiful girl1 in order to obtain a favorable gale1 instead of uniting her to a good husband8 ,,calchas ,,and ,,the ,,druid4 ,oh1 what torments6 and yet we die not4 ,,tisiphone4 ,hey-dey6 ,god forgive me1 but ,i hear music6 ,it is ,orpheus2 why our serpents1 sister1 have become as gentle as lambs6 ,,calchas4 ,my sufferings cease2 how very strange6 ,,the ,,druid4 ,i am altogether recovered4 ,oh1 the power of good music6 ,and who are you1 divine man1 who thus cures wounds1 and rejoices hell itself8 ,,orpheus4 ,my friends1 ,i am a priest like yourselves1 but ,i never deceived anyone1 nor cut the throat of either boy or girl in my life4 ,when on earth1 instead of making the gods hated1 ,i rendered them beloved1 and softened the manners of the men whom you made ferocious4 ,i shall exert myself in the like manner in hell4 ,i met1 just now1 two barbarous priests whom they were scourging beyond measure2 one of them formerly hewed a king in pieces before the ,lord1 and the other cut the throat of his queen and sovereign at the horse gate4 ,i have terminated their punishment1 and1 having played to them a tune on the violin1 they have promised me that when they return into the world they will live like honest men4 ,,druid ,,and ,,calchas4 ,we promise the same thing1 on the word of a priest4 ,,orpheus4 ,yes1 but ,passato il pericolo1 gabbato il santo4 ,the scene closes with a-figure ,dance1 performed by ,orpheus1 the ,condemned1 and the ,furies1 to light and agreeable music4 ,,ease4 ,easy applies not only to a thing easily done1 but also to a thing which appears to be so4 ,the pencil of ,correggio is easy1 the style of ,quinault is much more easy than that of ,despraux1 and the style of ,ovid surpasses in facility that of ,persius4 ,this facility in painting1 music1 eloquence1 and poetry1 consists in a natural and spontaneous felicity1 which admits of nothing that implies research1 strength1 or profundity4 ,thus the pictures of ,paul ,veronese have a much more easy and less finished air than those of ,michel ,angelo4 ,the symphonies of ,rameau are superior to those of ,lulli1 but appear less easy4 ,bossuet is more truly eloquent and more easy than ,flchier4 ,rousseau1 in his epistles1 has not near the facility and truth of ,despraux4 ,the commentator of ,despraux says that this exact and laborious poet taught the illustrious ,racine to make verses with difficulty1 and that those which appear easy are those which have been made with the most difficulty4 ,it is true that it often costs much pains to express ourselves with clearness1 as also that the natural may be arrived at by effort2 but it is also true that a happy genius often produces easy beauties without any labor1 and that enthusiasm goes much farther than art4 ,most of the impassioned expressions of our good poets have come finished from their pen1 and appear easy1 as if they had in reality been composed without labor2 the imagination1 therefore1 often conceives and brings forth easily4 ,it is not thus with didactic works1 which require art to make them appear easy4 ,for example1 there is much less ease than profundity in ,pope's ,essay on ,man4 ,bad works may be rapidly constructed1 which1 having no genius1 will appear easy1 and it is often the lot of those who1 without genius1 have the unfortunate habit of composing4 ,it is in this sense that a personage of the old comedy1 called the ,italian1 says to another3 ,thou makest bad verses admirably well4 ,the term easy is an insult to a woman1 but is sometimes in society praise for a man2 it is1 however1 a fault in a statesman4 ,the manners of ,atticus were easy2 he was the most amiable of the ,romans2 the easy ,cleopatra gave herself as easily to ,antony as to ,csar2 the easy ,claudius allowed himself to be governed by ,agrippina2 easy applied to ,claudius is only a lenitive1 the proper expression is weak4 ,an easy man is in general one possessed of a mind which easily gives itself up to reason and remonstrance--a heart which melts at the prayers which are made to it2 while a weak man is one who allows too much authority over him4 ,,eclipse4 ,in the greatest part of the known world every extraordinary phenomenon was for a long time believed to be the presage of some happy or miserable event4 ,thus the ,roman historians have not failed to observe that an eclipse of the sun accompanied the birth of ,romulus1 that another announced his death1 and that a third attended the foundation of the city of ,rome4 ,we have already spoken of the article entitled ,the ,vision of ,constantine1 of the apparition of the cross which preceded the triumph of ,christianity1 and under the article on ,prophecy1 we shall treat of the new star which enlightened the birth of ,jesus4 ,we will1 therefore1 here confine ourselves to what has been said of the darkness with which all the earth was covered when ,he gave up the ghost4 ,the writers of the ,greek and ,romish ,churches have quoted as authentic two letters attributed to ,dionysius the ,areopagite1 in which he relates that being at ,heliopolis in ,egypt1 with his friend ,apollophanes1 he suddenly saw1 about the sixth hour1 the moon pass underneath the sun1 which caused a great eclipse4 ,afterwards1 in the ninth hour1 they perceived the moon quitting the place which she occupied and return to the opposite side of the diameter4 ,they then took the rules of ,philip ,aridus1 and1 having examined the course of the stars1 they found that the sun could not have been naturally eclipsed at that time4 ,further1 they observed that the moon1 contrary to her natural motion1 instead of going to the west to range herself under the sun1 approached on the eastern side and that she returned behind on the same side1 which caused ,apollophanes to say1 ,these1 my dear ,dionysius1 are changes of ,divine things1 to which ,dionysius replied1 ,either the author of nature suffers1 or the machine of the universe will be soon destroyed4 ,dionysius adds that having remarked the exact time and year of this prodigy1 and compared them with what ,paul afterwards told him1 he yielded up to the truth as well as his friend4 ,this is what led to the belief that the darkness happening at the death of ,jesus ,christ was caused by a supernatural eclipse2 and what has extended this opinion is that ,maldonat says it is that of almost all the ,catholics4 ,how is it possible to resist the authority of an ocular1 enlightened1 and disinterested witness1 since it was supposed that when he saw this eclipse ,dionysius was a pagan8 ,as these pretended letters of ,dionysius were not forged until towards the fifteenth or sixteenth century1 ,eusebius of ,csarea was contented with quoting the evidence of ,phlegon1 a freed man of the emperor ,adrian4 ,this author was also a pagan1 and had written ,the ,history of the ,olympiads1 in sixteen books1 from their origin to the year #adj of the vulgar era4 ,he is made to say that in the fourth year of the two hundred and second ,olympiad there was the greatest eclipse of the sun that had ever been seen2 the day was changed to night at the sixth hour1 the stars were seen1 and an earthquake overthrew several edifices in the city of ,nica in ,bithynia4 ,eusebius adds that the same events are related in the ancient monuments of the ,greeks1 as having happened in the eighteenth year of ,tiberius4 ,it is thought that ,eusebius alluded to ,thallus1 a ,greek historian already cited by ,justin1 ,tertullian1 and ,julius ,africanus1 but neither the work of ,thallus1 nor that of ,phlegon having reached us1 we can only judge of the accuracy of these two quotations of reasoning4 ,it is true that the ,paschal ,chronicle of the ,greeks1 as well as ,st4 ,jerome ,anastatius1 the author of the ,historia ,miscella1 and ,freculphus of ,luxem1 among the ,latins1 all unite in representing the fragment of ,phlegon in the same manner4 ,but it is known that these five witnesses1 so uniform in their dispositions1 translated or copied the passage1 not from ,phlegon himself1 but from ,eusebius2 while ,john ,philoponus1 who had read ,phlegon1 far from agreeing with ,eusebius1 differs from him by two years4 ,we could also name ,maximus and ,maleba1 who lived when the work of ,phlegon still existed1 and the result of an examination of the whole is that five of the quoted authors copy ,eusebius4 ,philoponus1 who really saw the work of ,phlegon1 gives a second reading1 ,maximus a third1 and ,maleba a fourth1 so that they are far from relating the passage in the same manner4 ,in short1 the calculations of ,hodgson1 ,halley1 ,whiston1 and ,gale ,morris have demonstrated that ,phlegon and ,thallus speak of a natural eclipse which happened ,november #bd1 in the first year of the two hundred and second ,olympiad1 and not in the fourth year1 as ,eusebius pretends4 ,its size at ,nica in ,bithynia1 was1 according to ,whiston1 only from nine to ten digits1 that is to say1 two-thirds and a half of the sun's disc4 ,it began at a quarter past eight1 and ended at five minutes past ten1 and between ,cairo in ,egypt1 and ,jerusalem1 according to ,mr4 ,gale ,morris1 the sun was totally obscured for nearly two minutes4 ,at ,jerusalem the middle of the eclipse happened about an hour and a quarter after noon4 ,but what ought to spare all this discussion is that ,tertullian says the day became suddenly dark while the sun was in the midst of his career2 that the pagans believed that it was an eclipse1 not knowing that it had been predicted by the prophet ,amos in these words3 ,i will cause the sun to go down at noon1 and ,i will darken the earth in the clear day4 ,they1 adds ,tertullian1 who have sought for the cause of this event and could not discover it1 have denied it2 but the fact is certain1 and you will find it noted in your archives4 ,origen1 on the contrary1 says that it is not astonishing foreign authors have said nothing about the darknesses of which the evangelists speak1 since they only appeared in the environs of ,jerusalem2 ,juda1 according to him1 being designated under the name of all the earth in more than one place in ,scripture4 ,he also avows that the passage in the ,gospel of ,st4 ,luke1 in which we read that in his time all the earth was covered with darkness1 on account of an eclipse of the sun1 had been thus falsified by some ignorant ,christian who thought thereby to throw a light on the text of the evangelist1 or by some ill-intentioned enemy who wished a pretext to calumniate the ,church1 as if the evangelists had remarked an eclipse at a time when it was very evident that it could not have happened4 ,it is true1 adds he1 that ,phlegon says that there was one under ,tiberius1 but as he does not say that it happened at the full moon there is nothing wonderful in that4 ,these obscurations1 continues ,origen1 were of the nature of those which covered ,egypt in the time of ,moses1 and were not felt in the quarter in which the ,israelites dwelt4 ,those of ,egypt lasted three days1 while those of ,jerusalem only lasted three hours2 the first were after the manner of the second1 and even as ,moses raised his hands to heaven and invoked the ,lord to draw them down on ,egypt1 so ,jesus ,christ1 to cover ,jerusalem with darkness1 extended his hands on the cross against an ungrateful people who had cried3 ',crucify him1 crucify him6' ,we may1 in this case1 exclaim with ,plutarch1 that the darkness of superstition is more dangerous than that of eclipses4 ,,economy 7,,rural74 ,the primitive economy1 that which is the foundation of all the rest1 is rural4 ,in early times it was exhibited in the patriarchal life and especially in that of ,abraham1 who made a long journey through the arid deserts of ,memphis to buy corn4 ,i shall continue1 with due respect1 to discard all that is divine in the history of ,abraham1 and attend to his rural economy alone4 ,i do not learn that he ever had a house2 he quitted the most fertile country of the universe and towns in which there were commodious houses1 to go wandering in countries1 the languages of which he did not understand4 ,he went from ,sodom into the desert of ,gerar without forming the least establishment4 ,when he turned away ,hagar and the child ,ishmael it was still in a desert and all the food he gave them was a morsel of bread and a cruse of water4 ,when he was about to sacrifice his son ,isaac to the ,lord it was again in a desert4 ,he cut the wood himself to burn the victim and put it on the back of ,isaac1 whom he was going to immolate4 ,his wife died in a place called ,kirgath-arba1 or ,hebron2 he had not six feet of earth in which to bury her1 but was obliged to buy a cave to deposit her body4 ,this was the only piece of land which he ever possessed4 ,however1 he had many children1 for1 without reckoning ,isaac and his posterity1 his second wife ,keturah1 at the age of one hundred and forty years1 according to the ordinary calculation1 bore him five male children1 who departed towards ,arabia4 ,it is not said that ,isaac had a single piece of land in the country in which his father died2 on the contrary1 he went into the desert of ,gerar with his wife1 ,rebecca1 to the same ,abimelech1 king of ,gerar1 who had been in love with his mother4 ,the king of the desert became also amorous of ,rebecca1 whom her husband caused to pass for his sister1 as ,abraham had acted with regard to ,sarah and this same ,king ,abimelech forty years before4 ,it is rather astonishing that in this family the wife always passed for the sister when there was anything to be gained1 but as these facts are consecrated1 it is for us to maintain a respectful silence4 ,scripture says that ,abraham enriched himself in this horrible country1 which became fertile for his benefit1 and that he became extremely powerful4 ,but it is also mentioned that he had no water to drink2 that he had a great quarrel with the king's herdsmen for a well2 and it is easy to discover that he still had not a house of his own4 ,his children1 ,esau and ,jacob1 had not a greater establishment than their father4 ,jacob was obliged to seek his fortune in ,mesopotamia1 whence ,abraham came2 he served seven years for one of the daughters of ,laban1 and seven other years to obtain the second daughter4 ,he fled with his wives and the flocks of his father-in-law1 who pursued him4 ,a precarious fortune1 that of ,jacob4 ,esau is represented as wandering like ,jacob4 ,none of the twelve patriarchs1 the children of ,jacob1 had any fixed dwelling1 or a field of which they were the proprietors4 ,they reposed in their tents like ,bedouin ,arabs4 ,it is clear that this patriarchal life would not conveniently suit the temperature of our atmosphere4 ,a good cultivator1 such as ,pignoux of ,auvergne1 must have a convenient house with an aspect towards the east1 large barns and stables1 stalls properly built1 the whole amounting to about fifty thousand francs of our present money in value4 ,he must sow a hundred acres with corn1 besides having good pastures2 he should possess some acres of vineyard1 and about fifty for inferior grain and herbs1 thirty acres of wood1 a plantation of mulberries1 silkworms1 and bees4 ,with all these advantages well economized1 he can maintain a family in abundance4 ,his land will daily improve2 he will support them without fearing the irregularity of the seasons and the weight of taxes1 because one good year repairs the damages of two bad ones4 ,he will enjoy in his domain a real sovereignty1 which will be subject only to the laws4 ,it is the most natural state of man1 the most tranquil1 the most happy1 and1 unfortunately1 the most rare4 ,the son of this venerable patriarch1 seeing himself rich1 is disgusted with paying the humiliating tax of the taille4 ,having unfortunately learned some ,latin he repairs to town1 buys a post which exempts him from the tax and which bestows nobility4 ,he sells his domain to pay for his vanity1 marries a girl brought up in luxury who dishonors and ruins him2 he dies in beggary1 and his only son wears a livery in ,paris4 ,,economy ,,of ,,speech-- ,,to ,,speak ,,by ,,economy4 ,this is an expression consecrated in its appropriation by the fathers of the ,church and even by the primitive propagators of our holy religion4 ,it signifies the application of oratory to circumstances4 ,for example3 ,st4 ,paul1 being a ,christian1 comes to the temple of the ,jews to perform the ,judaic rites1 in order to show that he does not forsake the ,mosaic law2 he is recognized at the end of a week and accused of having profaned the temple4 ,loaded with blows1 he is dragged along by the mob2 the tribune of the cohort--tribunis cohortis --arrives1 and binds him with a double chain4 ,the next day this tribune assembles the council and carries ,paul before it1 when the ,high ,priest ,ananias commences proceedings by giving him a box on the ear1 on which ,paul salutes him with the epithet of a whited wall4 ,but when ,paul perceived that the one part were ,sadducees and the other ,pharisees1 he cried out in the council1 ',men and brethren1 ,i am a ,pharisee1 the son of a ,pharisee1 of the hope and resurrection of the dead ,i am called in question4' ,and when he had so said there arose a discussion between the ,pharisees and the ,sadducees1 and the multitude was divided4 ,for the ,sadducees say that there is no resurrection1 neither angel nor spirit1 but the ,pharisees confess both4 ,it is very evident from the text that ,paul was not a ,pharisee after he became a ,christian and that there was in this affair no question either of resurrection or hope1 of angel or spirit4 ,the text shows that ,paul spoke thus only to embroil the ,pharisees and ,sadducees4 ,this was speaking with economy1 that is to say1 with prudence2 it was a pious artifice which1 perhaps1 would not have been permitted to any but an apostle4 ,it is thus that almost all the fathers of the ,church have spoken with economy4 ,st4 ,jerome develops this method admirably in his fifty-fourth letter to ,pammachus4 ,weigh his words4 ,after having said that there are occasions when it is necessary to present a loaf and to throw a stone1 he continues thus3 ,pray read ,demosthenes1 read ,cicero1 and if these rhetoricians displease you because their art consists in speaking of the seeming rather than the true1 read ,plato1 ,theophrastus1 ,xenophon1 ,aristotle1 and all those who1 having dipped into the fountain of ,socrates1 drew different waters from it4 ,is there among them any candor1 any simplicity8 ,what terms among them are not ambiguous1 and what sense do they not make free with to bear away the palm of victory8 ,origen1 ,methodius1 ,eusebius1 ,apollinarus1 have written a million of arguments against ,celsus and ,porphyry4 ,consider with what artifice1 with what problematic subtlety they combat the spirit of the devil4 ,they do not say what they think1 but what it is expedient to say3 ,non quod sentiunt1 sed quod necesse est dicunt4 ,and not to mention other ,latins--,tertullian1 ,cyprian1 ,minutius1 ,victorinus1 ,lactantius1 and ,hilarius--whom ,i will not cite here2 ,i will content myself with relating the example of the ,apostle ,paul1 etc4 ,st4 ,augustine often writes with economy4 ,he so accommodates himself to time and circumstances that in one of his epistles he confesses that he explained the ,trinity only because he must say something4 ,assuredly this was not because he doubted the ,holy ,trinity1 but he felt how ineffable this mystery is and wished to content the curiosity of the people4 ,this method was always received in theology4 ,it employed an argument against the ,eucratics1 which was the cause of triumph to the ,carpocratians2 and when it afterwards disputed with the ,carpocratians its arms were changed4 ,it is asserted that ,jesus ,christ died for many when the number of rejected is set forth1 but when his universal bounty is to be manifested he is said to have died for all4 ,here you take the real sense for the figurative2 there the figurative for the real1 as prudence and expediency direct4 ,such practices are not admitted in justice4 ,a witness would be punished who told the pour and contre of a capital offence4 ,but there is an infinite difference between vile human interests1 which require the greatest clearness1 and divine interests1 which are hidden in an impenetrable abyss4 ,the same judges who require indubitable demonstrative proofs will be contented in sermons with moral proofs1 and even with declamations exhibiting no proofs at all4 ,st4 ,augustine speaks with economy1 when he says1 ,i believe1 because it is absurd2 ,i believe1 because it is impossible4 ,these words1 which would be extravagant in all worldly affairs1 are very respectable in theology4 ,they signify that what is absurd and impossible to mortal eyes is not so to the eyes of ,god2 ,god has revealed to me these pretended absurdities1 these apparent impossibilities1 therefore ,i ought to believe them4 ,an advocate would not be allowed to speak thus at the bar4 ,they would confine in a lunatic asylum a witness who might say1 ,i assert that the accused1 while shut up in a country house in ,martinique1 killed a man in ,paris1 and ,i am the more certain of this homicide because it is absurd and impossible4 ,but revelations1 miracles1 and faith are quite a distinct order of things4 ,the same ,st4 ,augustine observes in his one hundred and fifty-third letter1 ,it is written that the whole world belongs to the faithful1 and infidels have not an obolus that they possess legitimately4 ,if upon this principle a brace of bankers were to wait upon me to assure me that they were of the faithful1 and in that capacity had appropriated the property belonging to me1 a miserable worldling1 to themselves1 it is certain that they would be committed to the ,chtelet1 in spite of the economy of the language of ,st4 ,augustine4 ,st4 ,irenus asserts that we must not condemn the incest of the two daughters of ,lot1 nor that of ,thamar with her father-in-law1 because the ,holy ,scripture has not expressly declared them criminal4 ,this verbal economy prevents not the legal punishment of incest among ourselves4 ,it is true that if the ,lord expressly ordered people to commit incest it would not be sinful1 which is the economy of ,irenus4 ,his laudable object is to make us respect everything in the ,holy ,scriptures1 but as ,god has not expressly praised the foregoing doings of the daughters of ,lot and of ,judah we are permitted to condemn them4 ,all the first ,christians1 without exception1 thought of war like the ,quakers and ,dunkards of the present day1 and the ,brahmins1 both ancient and modern4 ,tertullian is the father who is most explicit against this legal species of murder1 which our vile human nature renders expedient4 ,no custom1 no rule1 says he1 can render this criminal destruction legitimate4 ,nevertheless1 after assuring us that no ,christian can carry arms1 he says1 by economy1 in the same book1 in order to intimidate the ,roman ,empire1 although of such recent origin1 we fill your cities and your armies4 ,it is in the same spirit that he asserts that ,pilate was a ,christian in his heart1 and the whole of his apology is filled with similar assertions1 which redoubled the zeal of his proselytes4 ,let us terminate these examples of the economical style1 which are numberless1 by a passage of ,st4 ,jerome1 in his controversy with ,jovian upon second marriages4 ,the holy ,jerome roundly asserts that it is plain1 by the formation of the two sexes--in the description of which he is rather particular--that they are destined for each other1 and for propagation4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that they are to make love without ceasing1 in order that their respective faculties may not be bestowed in vain4 ,this being the case1 why should not men and women marry again8 ,why1 indeed1 is a man to deny his wife to his friend if a cessation of attention on his own part be personally convenient8 ,he may present the wife of another with a loaf of bread if she be hungry1 and why may not her other wants be supplied1 if they are urgent8 ,functions are not given to lie dormant1 etc4 ,after such a passage it is useless to quote any more1 but it is necessary to remark1 by the way1 that the economical style1 so intimately connected with the polemical1 ought to be employed with the greatest circumspection1 and that it belongs not to the profane to imitate the things hazarded by the saints1 either as regards the heat of their zeal or the piquancy of their delivery4 ,,elegance4 ,according to some authors this word comes from electus1 chosen2 it does not appear that its etymology can be derived from any other ,latin word1 since all is choice that is elegant4 ,elegance is the result of regularity and grace4 ,this word is employed in speaking of painting and sculpture4 ,elegans signum is opposed to signum rigens--a proportionate figure1 the rounded outlines of which are expressed with softness1 to a cold and badly-finished figure4 ,the severity of the ancient ,romans gave an odious sense to the word elegantia4 ,they regarded all kinds of elegance as affectation and far-fetched politeness1 unworthy the gravity of the first ages4 ,vit non laudi fuit1 says ,aulus ,gellius4 ,they call him an elegant man1 whom in these days we designate a petit-matre 7bellus homuncio71 and which the ,english call a beau2 but towards the time of ,cicero1 when manners received their last degree of refinement1 elegans was always deemed laudatory4 ,cicero makes use of this word in a hundred places to describe a man or a polite discourse4 ,at that time even a repast was called elegant1 which is scarcely the case among us4 ,this term among the ,french1 as among the ancient ,romans1 is confined to sculpture1 painting1 eloquence1 and still more to poetry2 it does not precisely mean the same thing as grace4 ,the word grace applies particularly to the countenance1 and we do not say an elegant face1 as we say elegant contours2 the reason is that grace always relates to something in motion1 and it is in the countenance that the mind appears2 thus we do not say an elegant gait1 because gait includes motion4 ,the elegance of a discourse is not its eloquence2 it is a part of it2 it is neither the harmony nor metre alone2 it is clearness1 metre1 and choice of words1 united4 ,there are languages in ,europe in which nothing is more scarce than an elegant expression4 ,rude terminations1 frequent consonants1 and auxiliary-verbs grammatically repeated in the same sentence1 offend the ears even of the natives themselves4 ,a discourse may be elegant without being good1 elegance being1 in reality1 only a choice of words2 but a discourse cannot be absolutely good without being elegant4 ,elegance is still more necessary to poetry than eloquence1 because it is a part of that harmony so necessary to verse4 ,an orator may convince and affect even without elegance1 purity1 or number2 a poet cannot really do so without being elegant3 it is one of the principal merits of ,virgil4 ,horace is much less elegant in his satires and epistles1 so that he is much less of a poet sermoni proprior4 ,the great point in poetry and the oratorical art is that the elegance should never appear forced2 and the poet in that1 as in other things1 has greater difficulties than the orator1 for harmony being the base of his art1 he must not permit a succession of harsh syllables4 ,he must even sometimes sacrifice a little of the thought to elegance of expression1 which is a constraint that the orator never experiences4 ,it should be remarked that if elegance always appears easy1 all that is easy and natural is not1 however1 elegant4 ,it is seldom said of a comedy that it is elegantly written4 ,the simplicity and rapidity of a familiar dialogue exclude this merit1 so proper to all other poetry4 ,elegance would seem inconsistent with the comic4 ,a thing elegantly said would not be laughed at1 though most of the verses of ,molire's ,amphitryon1 with the exception of those of mere pleasantry1 are elegantly written4 ,the mixture of gods and men in this piece1 so unique in its kind1 and the irregular verses1 forming a number of madrigals1 are perhaps the cause4 ,a madrigal requires to be more elegant than an epigram1 because the madrigal bears somewhat the nature of the ode1 and the epigram belongs to the comic4 ,the one is made to express a delicate sentiment1 and the other a ludicrous one4 ,elegance should not be attended to in the sublime3 it would weaken it4 ,if we read of the elegance of the ,jupiter ,olympus of ,phidias1 it would be a satire4 ,the elegance of the ,venus of ,praxiteles may be properly alluded to4 ,,elias ,,or ,,elijah1 ,,and ,,enoch4 ,elias and ,enoch are two very important personages of antiquity4 ,they are the only mortals who have been taken out of the world without having first tasted of death4 ,a very learned man has pretended that these are allegorical personages4 ,the father and mother of ,elias are unknown4 ,he believes that his country1 ,gilead1 signifies nothing but the circulation of time4 ,he proves it to have come from ,galgala1 which signifies revolution4 ,but what signifies the name of the village of ,galgala6 ,the word ,elias has a sensible relation to that of ,elios1 the sun4 ,the burned sacrifice offered by ,elias1 and lighted by fire from heaven1 is an image of that which can be done by the united rays of the sun4 ,the rain which falls1 after great heats1 is also a physical truth4 ,the chariot of fire and the fiery horses1 which bore ,elias to heaven1 are a lively image of the four horses of the sun4 ,the return of ,elias at the end of the world seems to accord with the ancient opinion1 that the sun would extinguish itself in the waters1 in the midst of the general destruction that was expected1 for almost all antiquity was for a long time persuaded that the world would sooner or later be destroyed4 ,we do not adopt these allegories2 we only stand by those related in the ,old ,testament4 ,enoch is as singular a personage as ,elias1 only that ,genesis names his father and son1 while the family of ,elias is unknown4 ,the inhabitants of both ,east and ,west have celebrated this ,enoch4 ,the ,holy ,scripture1 which is our infallible guide1 informs us that ,enoch was the father of ,methuselah1 or ,methusalem1 and that he only dwelt on the earth three hundred and sixty-five years1 which seems a very short life for one of the first patriarchs4 ,it is said that he walked in the way of ,god and that he appeared no longer because ,god carried him away4 ,it is that1 says ,calmet1 which makes the holy fathers and most of the commentators assure us that ,enoch still lives2 that ,god has borne him out of the world as well as ,elias2 that both will come before the last judgment to oppose the antichrist2 that ,elias will preach to the ,jews1 and ,enoch to the ,gentiles4 ,st4 ,paul1 in his ,epistle to the ,hebrews--which has been contested--says expressly1 by faith ,enoch was translated1 that he should not see death1 because death had translated him4 ,st4 ,justin1 or somebody who had taken his name1 says that ,elias and ,enoch are in a terrestrial paradise1 and that they there wait the second coming of ,jesus ,christ4 ,st4 ,jerome1 on the contrary1 believes that ,enoch and ,elias are in heaven4 ,it is the same ,enoch1 the seventh man after ,adam1 who is pretended to have written the book quoted by ,st4 ,jude4 ,tertullian says that this work was preserved in the ark1 and even that ,enoch made a second copy of it after the deluge4 ,this is what the ,holy ,scripture and the holy fathers relate of ,enoch2 but the profane writers of the ,east tell us much more4 ,they believe that there really was an ,enoch1 and that he was the first who made slaves of prisoners of war2 they sometimes call him ,enoc1 and sometimes ,edris4 ,they say that he was the same who gave laws to the ,egyptians under the name of ,thaut1 called by the ,greeks ,hermes ,trismegistus4 ,they give him a son named ,sabi1 the author of the religion of the ,sabans4 ,there was a tradition in ,phrygia on a certain ,anach1 the same whom the ,hebrews call ,enoch4 ,the ,phrygians held this tradition from the ,chaldans or ,babylonians1 who also recognized an ,enoch1 or ,anach1 as the inventor of astronomy4 ,they wept for ,enoch one day in the year in ,phrygia1 as they wept for ,adonis among the ,phnicians4 ,the ingenious and profound writer1 who believes ,elias a person purely allegorical1 thinks the same of ,enoch4 ,he believes that ,enoch1 ,anach1 ,annoch1 signified the year2 that the ,orientals wept for it1 as for ,adonis1 and that they rejoiced at the commencement of the new year2 that ,janus1 afterwards known in ,italy1 was the ancient ,anach1 or ,annoch1 of ,asia2 that not only ,enoch formerly signified1 among all nations1 the beginning and end of the year1 but the last day of the week2 that the names of ,anne1 ,john1 ,januarius1 ,janvier1 and ,january1 all come from the same source4 ,it is difficult to penetrate the depths of ancient history4 ,when we seize truth in the dark1 we are never sure of retaining her4 ,it is absolutely necessary for a ,christian to hold by the ,scriptures1 whatever difficulty he may have in understanding them4 ,,eloquence4 ,eloquence was created before the rules of rhetoric1 as the languages are formed before grammar4 ,nature renders men eloquent under the influence of great interests or passions4 ,a person much excited sees things with a different eye from other men4 ,to him all is the object of rapid comparison and metaphor4 ,without premeditation1 he vivifies all1 and makes all who listen to him partake of his enthusiasm4 ,a very enlightened philosopher has remarked that people often express themselves by figures2 that nothing is more common or more natural than the turns called tropes4 ,thus1 in all languages1 the heart burns1 courage is kindled1 the eyes sparkle2 the mind is oppressed1 it is divided1 it is exhausted2 the blood freezes1 the head is turned upside down2 we are inflated with pride1 intoxicated with vengeance4 ,nature is everywhere painted in these strong images1 which have become common4 ,it is from her that instinct learns to assume a modest tone and air1 when it is necessary4 ,the natural desire of captivating our judges and masters2 the concentrated energies of a profoundly stricken soul1 which prepares to display the sentiments which oppress it1 are the first teachers of this art4 ,it is the same nature which sometimes inspires lively and animated sallies2 a strong impulse or a pressing danger prompts the imagination suddenly4 ,thus a captain of the first caliphs1 seeing the ,mussulmans fly from the field of battle1 cried out1 ,where are you running to8 ,your enemies are not there4 ,this speech has been given to many captains2 it is attributed to ,cromwell4 ,strong minds much oftener accord than fine wits4 ,rasi1 a ,mussulman1 captain of the time of ,mahomet1 seeing his ,arabs frightened at the death of their general1 ,derar1 said to them1 ,what does it signify that ,derar is dead8 ,god is living1 and observes your actions4 ,where is there a more eloquent man than that ,english sailor who decided the war against ,spain in #agdj8 ,when the ,spaniards1 having mutilated me1 were going to kill me1 ,i recommended my soul to ,god1 and my vengeance to my country6 ,nature1 then1 elicits eloquence2 and if it be said that poets are created and orators formed1 it is applicable only when eloquence is forced to study the laws1 the genius of the judges1 and the manners of the times4 ,nature alone is spontaneously eloquent4 ,the precepts always follow the art4 ,tisias was the first who collected the laws of eloquence1 of which nature gives the first rules4 ,plato afterwards said1 in his ,gorgias1 that an orator should have the subtlety of the logician1 the science of the philosopher1 almost the diction of the poet1 and the voice and gesture of the greatest actors4 ,aristotle1 also1 showed that true philosophy is the secret guide to perfection in all the arts4 ,he discovered the sources of eloquence in his ,book of ,rhetoric4 ,he showed that logic is the foundation of the art of persuasion1 and that to be eloquent is to know how to demonstrate4 ,he distinguished three kinds of eloquence3 the deliberative1 the demonstrative1 and the judiciary4 ,the deliberative is employed to exhort those who deliberate in taking a part in war1 in peace1 etc42 the demonstrative1 to show that which is worthy of praise or blame2 the judiciary1 to persuade1 absolve1 condemn1 etc4 ,he afterwards treats of the manners and passions with which all orators should be acquainted4 ,he examines the proofs which should be employed in these three species of eloquence1 and finally he treats of elocution1 without which all would languish4 ,he recommends metaphors1 provided they are just and noble2 and1 above all1 he requires consistency and decorum4 ,all these precepts breathe the enlightened precision of a philosopher1 and the politeness of an ,athenian2 and1 in giving the rules of eloquence1 he is eloquent with simplicity4 ,it is to be remarked1 that ,greece was the only country in the world in which the laws of eloquence were then known1 because it was the only one in which true eloquence existed4 ,the grosser art was known to all men2 sublime traits have everywhere escaped from nature at all times2 but to rouse the minds of the whole of a polished nation--to please1 convince1 and affect at the same time1 belonged only to the ,greeks4 ,the ,orientals were almost all slaves2 and it is one of the characteristics of servitude to exaggerate everything4 ,thus the ,asiatic eloquence was monstrous4 ,the ,west was barbarous in the time of ,aristotle4 ,true eloquence began to show itself in the time of the ,gracchi1 and was not perfected until the time of ,cicero4 ,mark ,antony1 the orator ,hortensius1 ,curion1 ,csar1 and several others1 were eloquent men4 ,this eloquence perished with the republic1 like that of ,athens4 ,sublime eloquence1 it is said1 belongs only to liberty2 it consists in telling bold truths1 in displaying strong reasons and representations4 ,a man often dislikes truth1 fears reason1 and likes a well-turned compliment better than the sublimest eloquence4 ,cicero1 after having given the examples in his harangues1 gave the precepts in his ,book of the ,orator2 he followed almost all the methods of ,aristotle1 and explained himself in the style of ,plato4 ,it distinguishes the simple species1 the temperate1 and the sublime4 ,rollin has followed this division in his ,treatise on ,study2 and he pretends that which ,cicero does not1 that the temperate is a beautiful river1 shaded with green forests on both sides2 the simple1 a properly-served table1 of which all the meats are of excellent flavor1 and from which all refinement is banished2 that the sublime thunders forth1 and is an impetuous current which overthrows all that resists it4 ,without sitting down to this table1 without following this thunderbolt1 this current1 or this river1 every man of sense must see that simple eloquence is that which has simple things to expose1 and that clearness and elegance are all that are necessary to it4 ,there is no occasion to read ,aristotle1 ,cicero1 and ,quintilian1 to feel that an advocate who begins by a pompous exordium on the subject of a partition wall is ridiculous2 it was1 however1 the fault of the bar until the middle of the seventeenth century2 they spoke with emphasis of the most trivial things4 ,volumes of these examples may be compiled2 but all might be reduced to this speech of a witty advocate1 who1 observing that his adversary was speaking of the ,trojan war and of ,scamander1 interrupted him by saying1 ,the court will observe that my client is not called ,scamander1 but ,michaut4 ,the sublime species can only regard powerful interests1 treated of in a great assembly4 ,there may still be seen lively traces of it in the ,parliament of ,england'3 several harangues partook of it which were pronounced there in #agci1 when they debated about declaring war against ,spain4 ,the spirits of ,cicero and ,demosthenes seem to have dictated several passages in their speeches2 but they will not descend to posterity like those of the ,greeks and ,romans1 because they want the art and charm of diction1 which place the seal of immortality on good works4 ,the temperate species is that of those preparatory discourses1 of those public speeches1 and of those studied compliments1 in which the deficiency of matter must be concealed with flowers4 ,these three species are often mingled1 as also the three objects of eloquence1 according to ,aristotle3 the great merit of the orator consists in uniting them with judgment4 ,great eloquence can scarcely be known to the bar in ,france1 because it does not conduct to honors1 as in ,athens1 ,rome1 and at present in ,london2 neither has it great public interests for its object2 it is confined to funeral orations1 in which it borders a little upon poetry4 ,bossuet1 and after him ,flchier1 seem to have obeyed that precept of ,plato1 which teaches us that the elocution of an orator may sometimes be the same as that of a poet4 ,pulpit oratory had been almost barbarous until ,p4 ,bourdaloue2 he was one of the first who caused reason to be spoken there4 ,the ,english did not arrive at that art until a later date1 as is avowed by ,burnet1 bishop of ,salisbury4 ,they knew not the funeral oration2 they avoided1 in their sermons1 all those vehement turns which appeared not to them consistent with the simplicity of the ,gospel2 and they were diffident of using those far-fetched divisions which are condemned by ,arch-bishop ,fnelon1 in his dialogues ,sur l'loquence4 ,though our sermons turn on the most important subjects to man1 they supply few of those striking parts which1 like the fine passages of ,cicero and ,demosthenes1 are fit to become the models of all the western nations4 ,the reader will therefore be glad to learn the effect produced by ,m4 ,massillon1 since bishop of ,clermont1 the first time that he preached his famous sermon on the small number of the elect4 ,a kind of transport seized all the audience2 they rose involuntarily2 the murmurs of acclamation and surprise were so great as to disturb the orator2 and this confusion only served to augment the pathos of his discourse4 ,the following is the passage3 ,i will suppose that this is our last hour1 that the heavens open over our heads1 that time is past1 and that eternity commences2 that ,jesus ,christ is going to appear to judge us according to our works1 and that we are all here to receive from ,him the sentence of eternal life or death3 ,i ask you1 overwhelmed with terror like yourselves1 without separating my lot from your own1 and putting myself in the same situation in which we must all one day appear before ,god our judge--if ,jesus ,christ were now to make the terrible separation of the just from the unjust1 do you believe that the greater part would be saved8 ,do you believe that the number of the righteous would be in the least degree equal to the number of the sinners8 ,do you believe that1 if ,he now discussed the works of the great number who are in this church1 ,he would find ten righteous souls among us8 ,would ,he find a single one8 ,there are several different editions of this discourse1 but the substance is the same in all of them4 ,this figure1 the boldest which was ever employed1 and the best timed1 is one of the finest turns of eloquence which can be read either among the ancients or moderns2 and the rest of the discourse is not unworthy of this brilliant appeal4 ,preachers who cannot imitate these fine models would do well to learn them by heart1 and deliver them to their congregations--supposing that they have the rare talent of declamation--instead of preaching to them1 in a languishing style1 things as common-place as they are useless4 ,it is asked1 if eloquence be permitted to historians8 ,that which belongs to them consists in the art of arranging events1 in being always elegant in their expositions1 sometimes lively and impressive1 sometimes elaborate and florid2 in being strong and true in their pictures of general manners and principal personages1 and in the reflections naturally incorporated with the narrative1 so that they should not appear to be obtruded4 ,the eloquence of ,demosthenes belongs not to ,thucydides2 a studied harangue1 put into the mouth of a hero who never pronounced it is1 in the opinion of many enlightened minds1 nothing more than a splendid defect4 ,if1 however1 these licences be permitted1 the following is an occasion in which ,mzeray1 in his great history1 may obtain grace for a boldness so approved by the ancients1 to whom he is equal1 at least on this occasion4 ,it is at the commencement of the reign of ,henry ,,iv41 when that prince1 with very few troops1 was opposed near ,dieppe by an army of thirty thousand men1 and was advised to retire into ,england1 ,mzeray excels himself in making a speech for ,marshal ,biron1 who really was a man of genius1 and might have said a part of that which the historian attributes to him3 ,what1 sire1 are you advised to cross the sea1 as if there was no other way of preserving your kingdom than by quitting it8 ,if you were not in ,france1 your friends would have you run all hazards and surmount all obstacles to get there2 and now you are here1 they would have you depart--would have you voluntarily do that to which the greatest efforts of your enemies ought not to constrain you6 ,in your present state1 to go out of ,france only for four-and-twenty hours would be to banish yourself from it forever4 ,as to the danger1 it is not so great as represented2 those who think to overcome us are either the same whom we shut up so easily in ,paris1 or people who are not much better1 and will rapidly have more subjects of dispute among themselves than against us4 ,in short1 sire1 we are in ,france1 and we must remain here2 we must show ourselves worthy of it2 we must either conquer it or die for it2 and even when there is no other safety for your sacred person than in flight1 ,i well know that you would a thousand times rather die planted in the soil1 than save yourself by such means4 ,your majesty would never suffer it to be said that a younger brother of the house of ,lorraine had made you retire1 and1 still less1 that you had been seen to beg at the door of a foreign prince4 ,no1 no1 sire--there is neither crown nor honor for you across the sea2 if you thus demand the succor of ,england1 it will not be granted2 if you present yourself at the port of ,rochelle1 as a man anxious to save himself1 you will only meet with reproaches and contempt4 ,i cannot believe that you would rather trust your person to the inconstancy of the waves1 or the mercy of a stranger1 than to so many brave gentlemen and old soldiers1 who are ready to serve you as ramparts and bucklers2 and ,i am too much devoted to your majesty to conceal from you1 that if you seek your safety elsewhere than in their virtue1 they will be obliged to seek theirs in a different party from your own4 ,this fine speech which ,mzeray puts into the mouth of ,marshal ,biron is no doubt what ,henry ,,iv4 felt in his heart4 ,much more might be said upon the subject2 but the books treating of eloquence have already said too much2 and in an enlightened age1 genius1 aided by examples1 knows more of it than can be taught by all the masters in the world4 ,,emblems4 ,,figures1 ,,allegories1 ,,symbols1 ,,etc4 ,in ,antiquity1 everything is emblematical and figurative4 ,the ,chaldans began with placing a ram1 two kids1 and a bull among the constellations1 to indicate the productions of the earth in spring4 ,in ,persia1 fire is the emblem of the divinity2 the celestial dog gives notice to the ,egyptians of the inundations of the ,nile2 the serpent1 concealing its tail in its head1 becomes the image of eternity4 ,all nature is painted and disguised4 ,there are still to be found in ,india many of those gigantic and terrific statues which we have already mentioned1 representing virtue furnished with ten arms1 with which it may successfully contend against the vices1 and which our poor missionaries mistook for representations of the devil2 taking it for granted1 that all those who did not speak ,french or ,italian were worshippers of the devil4 ,show all these symbols devised by antiquity to a man of clear sense1 but who has never heard them at all mentioned or alluded to1 and he will not have the slightest idea of their meaning4 ,it would be to him a perfectly new language4 ,the ancient poetical theologians were under the necessity of ascribing to the deity eyes1 hands1 and feet2 of describing him under the figure of a man4 ,st4 ,clement of ,alexandria quotes verses from ,xenophanes the ,colophonian1 which state that every species of animal supplies metaphor to aid the imagination in its ideas of the deity--the wings of the bird1 the speed of the horse1 and the strength of the lion4 ,it is evident1 from these verses of ,xenophanes1 that it is by no means a practice of recent date for men to represent ,god after their own image4 ,the ancient ,thracian ,orpheus1 the first theologian among the ,greeks1 who lived long before ,homer1 according to the same ,clement of ,alexandria1 describes ,god as seated upon the clouds1 and tranquilly ruling the whirlwind and the storm4 ,his feet reach the earth1 and ,his hands extend from one ocean to the other4 ,he is the beginning1 middle1 and end of all things4 ,everything being thus represented by figure and emblem1 philosophers1 and particularly those among them who travelled to ,india1 employed the same method2 their precepts were emblems1 were enigmas4 ,stir not the fire with a sword3 that is1 aggravate not men who are angry4 ,place not a lamp under a bushel3 conceal not the truth from men4 ,abstain from beans3 frequent not popular assemblies1 in which votes were given by white or black beans4 ,have no swallows about your house3 keep away babblers4 ,during a tempest1 worship the echo3 while civil broils endure1 withdraw into retirement4 ,never write on snow3 throw not away instruction upon weak and imbecile minds4 ,never devour either your heart or your brains3 never give yourself up to useless anxiety or intense study4 ,such are the maxims of ,pythagoras1 the meaning of which is sufficiently obvious4 ,the most beautiful of all emblems is that of ,god1 whom ,timus of ,locris describes under the image of ,a circle whose centre is everywhere and circumference nowhere4 ,plato adopted this emblem1 and ,pascal inserted it among his materials for future use1 which he entitled his ,thoughts4 ,in metaphysics and in morals1 the ancients have said everything4 ,we always encounter or repeat them4 ,all modern books of this description are merely repetitions4 ,the farther we advance eastward1 the more prevalent and established we find the employment of emblems and figures3 but1 at the same time1 the images in use are more remote from our own manners and customs4 ,the emblems which appear most singular to us are those which were in frequent if not in sacred use among the ,indians1 ,egyptians1 and ,syrians4 ,these people bore aloft in their solemn processions1 and with the most profound respect1 the appropriate organs for the perpetuation of the species--the symbols of life4 ,we smile at such practices1 and consider these people as simple barbarians4 ,what would they have said on seeing us enter our temples wearing at our sides the weapons of destruction8 ,at ,thebes1 the sins of the people were represented by a goat4 ,on the coast of ,phnicia1 a naked woman with the lower part of her body like that of a fish was the emblem of nature4 ,we cannot be at all surprised if this employment of symbols extended to the ,hebrews1 as they constituted a people near the ,desert of ,syria4 ,of ,some ,emblems ,used by the ,jewish ,nation4 ,one of the most beautiful emblems in the ,jewish books1 is the following exquisite passage in ,ecclesiastes3 ,when the grinders shall cease because they are few2 when those that look out of the windows shall be darkened2 when the almond tree shall flourish2 when the grasshopper shall become a burden2 when desire shall fail2 the silver cord be loosed2 the golden bowl be fractured3 and the pitcher broken at the fountain4 ,the meaning is1 that the aged lose their teeth2 that their sight becomes impaired2 that their hair becomes white1 like the blossom of the almond tree2 that their feet become like the grasshopper2 that their hair drops off like the leaves of the fir tree2 that they have lost the power of communicating life2 and that it is time for them to prepare for their long journey4 ,the ,song of ,songs1 as is well known1 is a continued emblem of the marriage of ,jesus ,christ with the church4 ,let him kiss me with a kiss of his mouth1 for thy breasts are better than wine4 ,let him put his left hand under my head1 and embrace me with his right hand4 ,how beautiful art thou1 my love3 thy eyes are like those of the dove2 thy hair is as a flock of goats2 thy lips are like a ribbon of scarlet1 and thy cheeks like pomegranates2 how beautiful is thy neck6 how thy lips drop honey6 my beloved put in his hand by the hole of the door1 and my bowels were moved for him2 thy navel is like a round goblet2 thy belly is like a heap of wheat set about with lilies2 thy two breasts are like two young roes that are twins2 thy neck is like a tower of ivory2 thy nose is as the tower of ,lebanon2 thy head is like ,mount ,carmel2 thy stature is that of a palm tree4 ,i said1 ,i will ascend the palm tree and will gather of its fruits4 ,what shall we do for our little sister8 she has no breasts4 ,if she be a wall1 we will build upon her a tower of silver2 if she be a door1 we will enclose her with boards of cedar4 ,it would be necessary to translate the whole canticle1 in order to see that it is an emblem from beginning to end4 ,the ingenious ,calmet1 in particular1 demonstrates that the palm tree which the lover ascended is the cross to which our ,lord ,jesus ,christ was condemned4 ,it must however be confessed1 that sound and pure moral doctrine is preferable to these allegories4 ,we find in the books of this people a great number of emblems and types which shock at the present day1 and excite at once our incredulity and ridicule1 but which1 to the ,asiatics1 appear clear1 natural1 and unexceptionable4 ,god appeared to ,isaiah1 the son of ,amos1 and said to him1 ,go take thy girdle from thy loins and thy shoes from thy feet1 and he did so1 walking naked and barefoot4 ,and the ,lord said1 ,like as my servant ,isaiah hath walked naked and barefoot for three years for a sign upon ,egypt and ,ethiopia1 so shall the king of ,assyria lead away the ,egyptian and ,ethiopian prisoners1 young and old1 naked and barefoot1 with their hind parts uncovered1 to the shame of ,egypt4 ,this appears to us exceedingly strange3 but let us inform ourselves a little about what is passing in our own times among ,turks1 and ,africans1 and in ,india1 where we go to trade with so much avidity and so little success4 ,we shall learn that it is by no means unusual to see the santons there absolutely naked1 and not only in that state preaching to women1 but permitting them to salute particular parts of their body1 yet neither indulging or inspiring the slightest portion of licentious or unchaste feeling4 ,we shall see on the banks of the ,ganges an innumerable company both of men and women naked from head to foot1 extending their arms towards heaven1 and waiting for the moment of an eclipse to plunge into the river4 ,the citizens of ,paris and ,rome should not be too ready to think all the rest of the world bound down to the same modes of living and thinking as themselves4 ,jeremiah1 who prophesied in the reign of ,jehoiakim1 king of ,jerusalem1 in favor of the king of ,babylon1 puts chains and cords about his neck1 by order of the ,lord1 and sends them to the kings of ,edom1 ,ammon1 ,tyre and ,sidon1 by their ambassadors who had been sent to ,zedekiah at ,jerusalem4 ,he commands them to address their master in these words3 ,thus saith the ,lord of ,hosts the ,god of ,israel1 thus shall ye say unto your masters3 ,i have made the earth1 the men1 and the beasts of burden which are upon the ground1 by my great power and by my outstretched arm1 and have given it unto whom it seemed good unto me4 ,and now have ,i given all these lands into the hands of ,nebuchadnezzar1 the king of ,babylon1 my servant1 and all the beasts of the field have ,i given him besides1 that they may serve him4 ,i spake also all these words to ,zedekiah1 king of ,judah1 saying unto him1 submit your neck to the yoke of the king of ,babylon1 serve him1 him and his people1 and you shall live1 etc4 ,accordingly1 ,jeremiah was accused of betraying his king1 and of prophesying in favor of the enemy for the sake of money4 ,it has even been asserted that he was stoned4 ,it is clear that the cords and chains were the emblem of that servitude to which ,jeremiah was desirous that the nation should submit4 ,in a similar manner we are told by ,herodotus1 that one of the kings of ,scythia sent ,darius a present of a bird1 a mouse1 a frog1 and five arrows4 ,this emblem implied that1 if ,darius did not fly as fast as a bird1 a mouse1 or a frog1 he would be pierced by the arrows of the ,scythians4 ,the allegory of ,jeremiah was that of weakness2 the emblem of the ,scythians was that of courage4 ,thus1 also1 when ,sextus ,tarquinius consulted his father1 whom we call ,tarquinius ,superbus1 about the policy he should adopt to the ,gabii1 ,tarquin1 who was walking in his garden1 answered only by striking off the heads of the tallest poppies4 ,his son caught his meaning1 and put to death the principal citizens among them4 ,this was the emblem of tyranny4 ,many learned men have been of opinion that the history of ,daniel1 of the dragon1 of the den of seven lions who devoured every day two sheep and two men1 and the history of the angel who transported ,habakkuk by the hair of his head to dine with ,daniel in the lion's den1 are nothing more than a visible allegory1 an emblem of the continual vigilance with which ,god watches over his servants4 ,but it seems to us a proof of greater piety to believe that it is a real history1 like many we find in the ,sacred ,scriptures1 displaying without figure and type the divine power1 and which profane minds are not permitted to explore4 ,let us consider those only as genuine emblems and allegories1 which are indicated to us as such by ,holy ,scripture itself4 ,in the thirteenth year and the fifteenth day of the fourth month1 as ,i was in the midst of the captives on the banks of the river ,chobar1 the heavens were opened1 and ,i saw the visions of ,god1 etc4 ,the word of the ,lord came to ,ezekiel the priest1 the son of ,buzi1 in the land of the ,chaldans by the river ,chobar1 and the hand of the ,lord was upon him4 ,it is thus that ,ezekiel begins his prophecy2 and1 after having seen a fire and a whirlwind1 and in the midst of the fire four living animals resembling a man1 having four faces and four wings with feet resembling those of calves1 and a wheel which was upon the earth1 and which had four parts1 the four parts of the wheel going at the same time1 etc4 ,he goes on to say1 ,the spirit entered into me1 and placed me firm upon my feet4444 ,then the ,lord said unto me3 ',son of man1 eat that thou findest2 eat this book1 and go and speak to the children of ,israel4' ,so ,i opened my mouth1 and ,he caused me to eat that book4 ,and the spirit entered into me and made me stand upon my feet4 ,and he said unto me3 ',go and shut thyself up in the midst of thy house4 ,son of man1 these are the chains with which thou shalt set thy face firm against it2 thou shalt be bound1' etc4 ',and thou1 son of man1 take a tile and place it before thee and portray thereon the city of ,jerusalem4' ',take also a pan of iron1 and thou shalt place it as a wall of iron between thee and the city2 thou shalt be before ,jerusalem as if thou didst besiege it2 it is a sign to the house of ,israel4' ,after this command ,god orders him to sleep three hundred and ninety days on his left side1 on account of the iniquities of the house of ,judah4 ,before we go further we will transcribe the words of that judicious commentator ,calmet1 on this part of ,ezekiel's prophecy1 which is at once a history and an allegory1 a real truth and an emblem4 ,these are the remarks of that learned ,benedictine3 ,there are some who think that the whole of this occurred merely in vision2 that a man cannot continue lying so long on the same side without a miracle2 that1 as the ,scripture gives us no intimation that this is a prodigy1 we ought not to multiply miraculous acts without necessity2 that1 if the prophet continued lying in that manner for three hundred and ninety days1 it was only during the nights2 in the day he was at liberty to attend to his affairs4 ,but we do not see any necessity for recurring to a miracle1 nor for any circuitous explanation of the case here stated4 ,it is by no means impossible for a man to continue chained and lying on his side for three hundred and ninety days4 ,we have every day before us cases which prove the possibility among prisoners1 sick persons1 and persons deranged and chained in a state of raving madness4 ,prado testifies that he saw a mad person who continued bound and lying quite naked on his side upwards of fifteen years4 ,if all this had occurred only in vision1 how could' the ,jews of the captivity have comprehended what ,ezekiel meant to say to them8 ,how would that prophet have been able to execute the divine commands8 ,we must in that case admit likewise that he did not prepare the plan of ,jerusalem1 that he did not represent the siege1 that he was not bound1 that he did not eat the bread of different kinds of grain in any other than the same way2 namely1 that of vision1 or ideally4 ,we cannot but adopt the opinion of the learned ,calmet1 which is that of the most respectable interpreters4 ,it is evident that the ,holy ,scripture recounts the matter as a real truth1 and that such truth is the emblem1 type1 and figure of another truth4 ,take unto thee wheat and barley1 and beans and lentils1 and millet and vetches1 and make cakes of them for as many days as thou art to sleep on thy side4 ,thou shalt eat for three hundred and ninety days 444 thou shalt eat it as barley cakes1 and thou shalt cover it with human ordure4 ,thus shall the children of ,israel eat their bread defiled4 ,it is evident that the ,lord was desirous that the ,israelites should eat their bread defiled4 ,it follows therefore that the bread of the prophet must have been defiled also4 ,this defilement was so real that ,ezekiel expressed actual horror at it4 ,alas6 he exclaimed1 my life 7my soul7 has not hitherto been polluted1 etc4 ,and the ,lord says to him1 ,i allow thee1 then1 cow's dung instead of man's1 and with that shalt thou prepare thy bread4 ,it appears1 therefore1 to have been absolutely essential that the food should be defiled in order to its becoming an emblem or type4 ,the prophet in fact put cow-dung with his bread for three hundred and ninety days1 and the case includes at once a fact and a symbol4 ,of the ,emblem of ,aholah and ,aholibah4 ,the ,holy ,scripture expressly declares that ,aholah is the emblem of ,jerusalem4 ,son of man1 cause ,jerusalem to know her abominations2 thy father was an ,amorite1 and thy mother was a ,hittite4 ,the prophet then1 without any apprehension of malignant interpretations or wanton railleries1 addresses the young ,aholah in the following words3 ,ubera tua intumuerunt1 et pilus tuus germinavit2 et eras nuda et confusione plena4--,thy breasts were fashioned1 and thy hair was grown1 and thou wast naked and confused4 ,et transivi per te2 et ecce tempus tuum1 tempus amantium2 et expandi amictum meum super te et operui ignominiam tuam4 ,et juravi tibi1 et ingressus sum pactum tecum 7ait ,dominus ,deus71 et facta es mihi4--,i passed by and saw thee2 and saw thy time was come1 thy time for lovers2 and ,i spread my mantle over thee and concealed thy shame4 ,and ,i swore to thee1 and entered into a contract with thee1 and thou becamest mine4 ,et habens fiduciam in pulchritudine tua fornicata es in nomine tuo2 et exposuisti fornicationem tuam omni transeunti1 at ejus fieres4--,and1 proud of thy beauty1 thou didst commit fornication without disguise1 and hast exposed thy fornication to every passerby1 to become his4 ,et dificavisti tibi lupanar1 et fecisti tibi prostibulum in cunctis plateis4--,and thou hast built a high place for thyself1 and a place of eminence in every public way4 ,et divisisti pedes tuos omni transeunti1 et multiplicasti fornicationes tuas4--,and thou hast opened thy feet to every passerby1 and hast multiplied thy fornications4 ,et fornicata es cum filiis ,egypti vicinis tuis1 magnarum carnium2 et multiplicasti fornicationem tuam ad irritandum me4--,and thou hast committed fornication with the ,egyptians thy neighbors1 powerful in the flesh2 and thou hast multiplied thy fornication to provoke me4 ,the article of ,aholibah1 which signifies ,samaria1 is much stronger and still further removed from the propriety and decorum of modern manners and language4 ,denudavit quoque fornicationes suas1 discooperuit ignominiam suam4--,and she has made bare her fornications and discovered her shame4 ,multiplicavit enim fornicationes suas1 recordans dies adolescenti su4--,for she has multiplied her fornications1 remembering the days of her youth4 ,et insanivit libidine super concubitum eorum carnes sunt ut carnes asinorum1 et sicut fluxus equorum1 fluxus eorum4--,and she has maddened for the embraces of those whose flesh is as the flesh of asses1 and whose issue is as the issue of horses4 ,these images strike us as licentious and revolting4 ,they were at that time simply plain and ingenuous4 ,there are numerous instances of the like in the ,song of ,songs1 intended to celebrate the purest of all possible unions4 ,it must be attentively considered that these expressions and images are always delivered with seriousness and gravity1 and that in no book of equally high antiquity is the slightest jeering or raillery ever applied to the great subject of human production4 ,when dissoluteness is condemned1 it is so in natural and undisguised terms1 but such are never used to stimulate voluptuousness or pleasantry4 ,this high antiquity has not the slightest touch of similarity to the licentiousness of ,martial1 ,catullus1 or ,petronius4 ,of ,hosea1 and ,some ,other ,emblems4 ,we cannot regard as a mere vision1 as simply a figure1 the positive command given by the ,lord to ,hosea to take to himself a wife of whoredoms and have by her three children4 ,children are not produced in a dream4 ,it is not in a vision that he made a contract with ,gomer1 the daughter of ,diblaim1 by whom he had two boys and a girl4 ,it was not in a vision that he afterwards took to himself an adulteress by the express order of the ,lord1 giving her fifteen pieces of silver and a measure and a half of barley4 ,the first of these disgraced women signified ,jerusalem and the second ,samaria4 ,but the two unions with these worthless persons1 the three children1 the fifteen pieces of silver1 and the bushel and a half of barley1 were not the less real for having included or been intended as an emblem4 ,it was not in a vision that the patriarch ,salmon married the harlot ,rahab1 the grandmother of ,david4 ,it was not in a vision that ,judah committed incest with his daughter-in-law ,thamar1 from which incest sprang ,david4 ,it was not in a vision that ,ruth1 ,david's other grandmother1 placed herself in the bed with ,boaz4 ,it was not in a vision that ,david murdered ,uriah and committed adultery with ,bathsheba1 of whom was born ,king ,solomon4 ,but1 subsequently1 all these events became emblems and figures1 after the things which they typified were accomplished4 ,it is perfectly clear1 from ,ezekiel1 ,hosea1 ,jeremiah1 and all the ,jewish prophets1 and all the ,jewish books1 as well as from all other books which give us any information concerning the usages of the ,chaldans1 ,persians1 ,phnicians1 ,syrians1 ,indians1 and ,egyptians2 it is1 ,i say1 perfectly clear that their manners were very different from ours1 and that the ancient world was scarcely in a single point similar to the modern one4 ,pass from ,gibraltar to ,mequinez1 and the decencies and decorums of life are no longer the same2 you no longer find the same ideas4 ,two sea leagues have changed everything4 ,,enchantment4 ,,magic1 ,,conjuration1 ,,sorcery1 ,,etc4 ,it is not in the smallest degree probable that all those abominable absurdities are owing1 as ,pluche would have us believe1 to the foliage with which the heads of ,isis and ,osiris were formerly crowned4 ,what connection can this foliage have with the art of charming serpents1 with that of resuscitating the dead1 killing men by mere words1 inspiring persons with love1 or changing men into beasts8 ,enchantment 7incantatio7 comes1 say some1 from a ,chaldee word1 which the ,greeks translate productive song4 ,incantatio comes from the ,chaldee4 ,truly1 the ,bocharts are great travellers and proceed from ,italy to ,mesopotamia in a twinkling6 ,the great and learned ,hebrew nation is rapidly explored1 and all sorts of books1 and all sorts of usages1 are the fruits of the journey2 the ,bocharts are certainly not charlatans4 ,is not a large portion of the absurd superstitions which have prevailed to be ascribed to very natural causes8 ,there are scarcely any animals that may not be accustomed to approach at the sound of a bagpipe1 or a single horn1 to take their food4 ,orpheus1 or some one of his predecessors1 played the bagpipe better than other shepherds1 or employed singing4 ,all the domestic animals flocked together at the sound of his voice4 ,it was soon supposed that bears and tigers were among the number collected2 this first step accomplished1 there was no difficulty in believing that ,orpheus made stones and trees dance4 ,if rocks and pine-trees can be thus made to dance a ballet1 it will cost little more to build cities by harmony1 and the stones will easily arrange themselves at ,amphion's song4 ,a violin only will be wanted to build a city1 and a ram's horn to destroy it4 ,the charming of serpents may be attributed to a still more plausible cause4 ,the serpent is neither a voracious nor a ferocious animal4 ,every reptile is timid4 ,the first thing a reptile does1 at least in ,europe1 on seeing a man1 is to hide itself in a hole1 like a rabbit or a lizard4 ,the instinct of a man is to pursue everything that flies from him1 and to fly from all that pursue him1 except when he is armed1 when he feels his strength1 and1 above all1 when he is in the presence of many observers4 ,the serpent1 far from being greedy of blood and flesh1 feeds only upon herbs1 and passes a considerable time without eating at all2 if he swallows a few insects1 as lizards and chameleons do1 he does us a service4 ,all travellers relate that there are some very large and long ones2 although we know of none such in ,europe4 ,no man or child was ever attacked there by a large serpent or a small one4 ,animals attack only what they want to eat2 and dogs never bite passengers but in defence of their masters4 ,what could a serpent do with a little infant8 ,what pleasure could it derive from biting it8 ,it could not swallow even the fingers4 ,serpents do certainly bite1 and squirrels also1 but only when they are injured1 or are fearful of being so4 ,i am not unwilling to believe that there have been monsters among serpents as well as among men4 ,i will admit that the army of ,regulus was put under arms in ,africa against a dragon2 and that there has since been a ,norman there who fought against the waterspout4 ,but it will be granted1 on the other hand1 that such cases are exceedingly rare4 ,the two serpents that came from ,tenedos for the express purpose of devouring ,laocoon1 and two great lads twenty years of age1 in the presence of the whole ,trojan army1 form a very fine prodigy1 and one worthy of being transmitted to posterity by hexameter verses1 and by statues which represent ,laocoon like a giant1 and his stout boys as pygmies4 ,i conceive this event to have happened in those times when a prodigious wooden horse took cities which had been built by the gods1 when rivers flowed backward to their fountains1 when waters were changed to blood1 and both sun and moon stood still on the slightest possible occasion4 ,everything that has been related about serpents was considered probable in countries in which ,apollo came down from heaven to slay the serpent ,python4 ,serpents were also supposed to be exceedingly sensible animals4 ,their sense consists in not running so fast as we do1 and in suffering themselves to be cut in pieces4 ,the bite of serpents1 and particularly of vipers1 is not dangerous1 except when irritation has produced the fermentation of a small reservoir of very acid humor which they have under their gums4 ,with this exception1 a serpent is no more dangerous than an eel4 ,many ladies have tamed and fed serpents1 placed them on their toilets1 and wreathed them about their arms4 ,the negroes of ,guinea worship a serpent which never injures any one4 ,there are many species of those reptiles1 and some are more dangerous than others in hot countries2 but in general1 serpents are timid and mild animals2 it is not uncommon to see them sucking the udder of a cow4 ,those who first saw men more daring than themselves domesticate and feed serpents1 inducing them to come to them by a hissing sound in a similar way to that by which we induce the approach of bees1 considered them as possessing the power of enchantment4 ,the ,psilli and ,mars1 who familiarly handled and fondled serpents1 had a similar reputation4 ,the apothecaries of ,poitou1 who take up vipers by the tail1 might also1 if they chose1 be respected as magicians of the first order4 ,the charming of serpents was considered as a thing regular and constant4 ,the ,sacred ,scripture itself1 which always enters into our weaknesses1 deigned to conform itself to this vulgar idea4 ,the deaf adder1 which shuts its ears that it may not hear the voice of the charmer4 ,i will send among you serpents which will resist enchantments4 ,the slanderer is like the serpent1 which yields not to the enchanter4 ,the enchantment was sometimes so powerful as to make serpents burst asunder4 ,the natural philosophy of antiquity made this animal immortal4 ,if any rustic found a dead serpent in his road1 some enchanter must inevitably have deprived it of its right to immortality3 ,frigidus in pratis cantando rumpitur anguis4 --,,virg4 ,eclogue viii4 #ga4 ,verse breaks the ground1 and penetrates the brake1 ,and in the winding cavern splits the snake4 --,,dryden4 ,enchantment of the ,dead1 or ,evocation4 ,to enchant a dead person1 to resuscitate him1 or barely to evoke his shade to speak to him1 was the most simple thing in the world4 ,it is very common to see the dead in dreams1 in which they are spoken to and return answers4 ,if any one has seen them during sleep1 why may he not see them when he is awake8 ,it is only necessary to have a spirit like the pythoness2 and1 to bring this spirit of python-ism into successful operation it is only necessary that one party should be a knave and the other a fool2 and no one can deny that such rencontres very frequently occur4 ,the evocation of the dead was one of the sublimest mysteries of magic4 ,sometimes there was made to pass before the eyes of the inquiring devotee a large1 black figure1 moved by secret springs in dimness and obscurity4 ,sometimes the performers1 whether sorcerers or witches1 limited themselves to declaring that they saw the shade which was desired to be evoked1 and their word was sufficient2 this was called necromancy4 ,the famous witch of ,endor has always been a subject of great dispute among the fathers of the ,church4 ,the sage ,theodoret1 in his sixty-second question on the ,book of ,kings1 asserts that it is universally the practice for the dead to appear with the head downwards1 and that what terrified the witch was ,samuel's being upon his legs4 ,st4 ,augustine1 when interrogated by ,simplicion1 replies1 in the second book of his ,questions1 that there is nothing more extraordinary in a witch's invoking a shade than in the devil's transporting ,jesus ,christ through the air to the pinnacle of the temple on the top of a mountain4 ,some learned men1 observing that there were oracular spirits among the ,jews1 have ventured to conclude that the ,jews began to write only at a late period1 and that they built almost everything upon ,greek fable2 but this opinion cannot be maintained4 ,of ,other ,sorceries4 ,when a man is sufficiently expert to evoke the dead by words1 he may yet more easily destroy the living1 or at least threaten them with doing so1 as the physician1 malgr lui1 told ,lucas that he would give him a fever4 ,at all events1 it was not in the slightest degree doubtful that sorcerers had the power of killing beasts2 and1 to insure the stock of cattle1 it was necessary to oppose sorcery to sorcery4 ,but the ancients can with little propriety be laughed at by us1 who are ourselves scarcely even yet extricated from the same barbarism4 ,a hundred years have not yet expired since sorcerers were burned all over ,europe2 and even as recently as #agej1 a sorceress1 or witch1 was burned at ,wurzburg4 ,it is unquestionable that certain words and ceremonies will effectually destroy a flock of sheep1 if administered with a sufficient portion of arsenic4 ,the ,critical1 ,history of ,superstitious ,ceremonies1 by ,lebrun of the ,oratory1 is a singular work4 ,his object is to oppose the ridiculous doctrine of witchcraft1 and yet he is himself so ridiculous as to believe in its reality4 ,he pretends that ,mary ,bucaille1 the witch1 while in prison at ,valognes1 appeared at some leagues distance1 according to the evidence given on oath to the judge of ,valognes4 ,he relates the famous prosecution of the shepherds of ,brie1 condemned in #afia1 by the ,parliament of ,paris1 to be hanged and burned4 ,these shepherds had been fools enough to think themselves sorcerers1 and villains enough to mix real poisons with their imaginary sorceries4 ,father ,lebrun solemnly asserts that there was much of what was supernatural in what they did1 and that they were hanged in consequence4 ,the sentence of the parliament is in direct opposition to this author's statement4 ,the court declares the accused duly attainted and convicted of superstitions1 impieties1 sacrileges1 profanations1 and poisonings4 ,the sentence does not state that the death of the cattle was caused by profanations1 but by poison4 ,a man may commit sacrilege without as well as with poison1 without being a sorcerer4 ,other judges1 ,i acknowledge1 sentenced the priest ,ganfredi to be burned1 in the firm belief that1 by the influence of the devil1 he had an illicit commerce with all his female penitents4 ,ganfredi himself imagined that he was under that influence2 but that was in #afaa1 a period when the majority of our provincial population was very little raised above the ,caribs and negroes4 ,some of this description have existed even in our own times2 as1 for example1 the ,jesuit ,girard1 the ex-,jesuit ,nonnotte1 the ,jesuit ,duplessis1 and the ex-,jesuit ,malagrida2 but this race of imbeciles is daily hastening to extinction4 ,with respect to lycanthropy1 that is1 the transformation of men into wolves by the power of enchantment1 we may observe that a young shepherd's having killed a wolf1 and clothed himself with its skin1 was enough to excite the terror of all the old women of the district1 and to spread throughout the province1 and thence through other provinces1 the notion of a man's having been changed into a wolf4 ,some ,virgil will soon be found to say3 ,his ego spe lupum fieri1 et se condere silvis ,mrim spe animas imis exire sepulchris4 ,smeared with these powerful juices on the plain4 ,he howls a wolf among the hungry train1 ,and oft the mighty necromancer boasts ,with these to call from tombs the stalking ghosts4 --,,dryden4 ,to see a man-wolf must certainly be a great curiosity2 but to see human souls must be more curious still2 and did not the monks of ,monte ,cassino see the soul of the holy ,benedict1 or ,bennet8 ,did not the monks of ,tours see ,st4 ,martin's8 and the monks of ,st4 ,denis that of ,charles ,martel8 ,enchantments to ,kindle ,love4 ,these were for the young4 ,they were vended by the ,jews at ,rome and ,alexandria1 and are at the present day sold in ,asia4 ,you will find some of these secrets in the ,petit ,albert2 and will become further initiated by reading the pleading composed by ,apuleius on his being accused by a ,christian1 whose daughter he had married1 of having bewitched her by philtres4 ,emilian1 his father-in-law1 alleged that he had made use of certain fishes1 since1 ,venus having been born of the sea1 fishes must necessarily have prodigious influence in exciting women to love4 ,what was generally made use of consisted of vervain1 tenia1 and hippomanes2 or a small portion of the secundine of a mare that had just foaled1 together with a little bird called wagtail2 in ,latin motacilla4 ,but ,apuleius was chiefly accused of having employed shell-fish1 lobster patties1 she-hedgehogs1 spiced oysters1 and cuttle-fish1 which was celebrated for its productiveness4 ,apuleius clearly explains the real philtre1 or charm1 which had excited ,pudentilla's affection for him4 ,he undoubtedly admits1 in his defence1 that his wife had called him a magician4 ,but what1 says he1 if she had called me a consul1 would that have made me one8 ,the plant satyrion was considered both among the ,greeks and ,romans as the most powerful of philtres4 ,it was called planto aphrodisia1 the plant of ,venus4 ,that called by the ,latins eruca is now often added to the former4--,et venerem revocans eruca morantem4 ,a little essence of amber is frequently used4 ,mandragora has gone out of fashion4 ,some exhausted debauchees have employed cantharides1 which strongly affect the susceptible parts of the frame1 and often produce severe and painful consequences4 ,youth and health are the only genuine philtres4 ,chocolate was for a long time in great celebrity with our debilitated petits-matres4 ,but a man may take twenty cups of chocolate without inspiring any attachment to his person4--444 ut amoris amabilis esto4 7,ovid1 ,a4 ,a4 ii41 #ajg47--,wouldst thou be loved1 be amiable4 ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,world4 ,the greater part of the ,greek philosophers held the universe to be eternal both with respect to commencement and duration4 ,but as to this petty portion of the world or universe1 this globe of stone and earth and water1 of minerals and vapors1 which we inhabit1 it was somewhat difficult to form an opinion2 it was1 however1 deemed very destructible4 ,it was even said that it had been destroyed more than once1 and would be destroyed again4 ,every one judged of the whole world from his own particular country1 as an old woman judges of all mankind from those in her own nook and neighborhood4 ,this idea of the end of our little world and its renovation strongly possessed the imagination of the nations under subjection to the ,roman ,empire1 amidst the horrors of the civil wars between ,csar and ,pompey4 ,virgil1 in his ,georgics 7i41 #dfh71 alludes to the general apprehension which rilled the minds of the common people from this cause3 ,impiaque eternam timuerunt secula noctem4--,and impious men now dread eternal night4 ,lucan1 in the following lines1 expresses himself much more explicitly3 ,hos ,csar populos1 si nunc non usserit ignis ,uret cum terris1 uret cum gurgite ponti4 ,communis mundo superest rogus4444 --,,phars4 vii4 v4 #hab1 #ad4 ,though now thy cruelty denies a grave1 ,these and the world one common lot shall have2 ,one last appointed flame1 by fate's decree1 ,shall waste yon azure heavens1 the earth1 and sea4 --,,rowe4 ,and ,ovid1 following up the observations of ,lucan1 says3 ,esse quoque in fatis reminiscitur affore tempus1 ,quo mare1 quo tellus1 correptaque regia cli1 ,ardent et mundi moles operosa laboret4 --,,met4 i4 v4 #bef1 #eh4 ,for thus the stern1 unyielding fates decree1 ,that earth1 air1 heaven1 with the capacious sea1 ,all shall fall victims to consuming fire1 ,and in fierce flames the blazing world expire4 ,consult ,cicero himself1 the philosophic ,cicero4 ,he tells us1 in his book concerning the ,nature of the ,gods1 the best work perhaps of all antiquity1 unless we make an exception in favor of his treatise on human duties1 called ,the ,offices2 in that book1 ,i say1 he remarks3 ,ex quo eventurum nostri putant id1 de quo ,pantium addubitare dicebant2 ut ad extremum omnis mundus ignosceret1 cum1 humore consumpto1 neque terra ali posset1 neque remearet1 aer cujus ortus1 aqua omni exhausta1 esse non posset2 ita relinqui nihil prter ignem1 a quo rursum animante ac ,deo renovatio mundi fieret2 atque idem ornatus oriretur4 ,according to the ,stoics1 the whole world will eventually consist only of fire2 the water being then exhausted1 will leave no nourishment for the earth2 and the air1 which derives its existence from water1 can of course no longer be supplied4 ,thus fire alone will remain1 and this fire1 reanimating everything with1 as it were1 god-like power and energy1 will restore the world with improved beauty4 ,this natural philosophy of the ,stoics1 like that indeed of all antiquity1 is not a little absurd2 it shows1 however1 that the expectation of a general conflagration was universal4 ,prepare1 however1 for greater astonishment than the errors of antiquity can excite4 ,the great ,newton held the same opinion as ,cicero4 ,deceived by an incorrect experiment of ,boyle1 he thought that the moisture of the globe would at length be dried up1 and that it would be necessary for ,god to apply ,his reforming hand manum emendatricem4 ,thus we have the two greatest men of ancient ,rome and modern ,england precisely of the same opinion1 that at some future period fire will completely prevail over water4 ,this idea of a perishing and subsequently to be renewed world was deeply rooted in the minds of the inhabitants of ,asia ,minor1 ,syria1 and ,egypt1 from the time of the civil wars of the successors of ,alexander4 ,those of the ,romans augmented the terror1 upon this subject1 of the various nations which became the victims of them4 ,they expected the destruction of the world and hoped for a new one4 ,the ,jews1 who are slaves in ,syria and scattered through every other land1 partook of this universal terror4 ,accordingly1 it does not appear that the ,jews were at all astonished when ,jesus said to them1 according to ,st4 ,matthew and ,st4 ,luke3 ,heaven and earth shall pass away4 ,he often said to them3 ,the kingdom of ,god is at hand4 ,he preached the gospel of the kingdom of ,god4 ,st4 ,peter announces that the gospel was preached to them that were dead1 and that the end of the world drew near4 ,we expect1 says he1 new heavens and a new earth4 ,st4 ,john1 in his first ,epistle1 says3 ,there are at present many antichrists1 which shows that the last hour draws near4 ,st4 ,luke1 in much greater detail1 predicts the end of the world and the last judgment4 ,these are his words3 ,there shall be signs in the moon and in the stars1 roarings of the sea and the waves2 men's hearts failing them for fear shall look with trembling to the events about to happen4 ,the powers of heaven shall be shaken2 and then shall they see the ,son of ,man coming in a cloud1 with great power and majesty4 ,verily ,i say unto you1 the present generation shall not pass away till all this be fulfilled4 ,we do not dissemble that unbelievers upbraid us with this very prediction2 they want to make us blush for our faith1 when we consider that the world is still in existence4 ,the generation1 they say1 is passed away1 and yet nothing at all of this is fulfilled4 ,luke1 therefore1 ascribes language to our ,saviour which he never uttered1 or we must conclude that ,jesus ,christ ,himself was mistaken1 which would be blasphemy4 ,but we close the mouth of these impious cavillers by observing that this prediction1 which appears so false in its literal meaning1 is true in its spirit2 that the whole world meant ,juda1 and that the end of the world signified the reign of ,titus and his successors4 ,st4 ,paul expresses himself very strongly on the subject of the end of the world in his ,epistle to the ,thessalonians3 ,we who survive1 and who now address you1 shall be taken up into the clouds to meet the ,lord in the air4 ,according to these very words of ,jesus and ,st4 ,paul1 the whole world was to have an end under ,tiberius1 or at latest under ,nero4 ,st4 ,paul's prediction was fulfilled no more than ,st4 ,luke's4 ,these allegorical predictions were undoubtedly not meant to apply to the times of the evangelists and apostles1 but to some future time1 which ,god conceals from all mankind4 ,tu ne quaesieris 7scire nefas7 quem mihi1 quem tibi ,finem ,dii dederint1 ,leuconoe1 nec ,babylonios ,tentaris numeros4 ,ut melius1 quicquid erit1 pati6 --,,horace i4 ode xl4 ,strive not ,leuconoe1 to pry ,into the secret will of fate1 ,nor impious magic vainly try ,to know our lives' uncertain date4 --,,francis4 ,it is still perfectly certain that all nations then known entertained the expectation of the end of the world1 of a new earth and a new heaven4 ,for more than sixteen centuries we see that donations to monkish institutions have commenced with these words3 ,adventante mundi vespere1 etc4--,the end of the world being at hand1 ,i1 for the good of my soul1 and to avoid being one of the number of the goats on the left hand4444 leave such and such lands to such a convent4 ,fear influenced the weak to enrich the cunning4 ,the ,egyptians fixed this grand epoch at the end of thirty-six thousand five hundred years2 ,orpheus is stated to have fixed it at the distance of a hundred and twenty thousand years4 ,the historian ,flavius ,josephus asserts that ,adam1 having predicted that the world would be twice destroyed1 once by water and next by fire1 the children of ,seth were desirous of announcing to the future race of men the disastrous catastrophe4 ,they engraved astronomical observations on two columns1 one made of bricks1 which should resist the fire that was to consume the world2 the other of stones1 which would remain uninjured by the water that was to drown it4 ,but what thought the ,romans1 when a few slaves talked to them about an ,adam and a ,seth unknown to all the world besides8 ,they smiled4 ,josephus adds that the column of stones was to be seen in his own time in ,syria4 ,from all that has been said1 we may conclude that we know exceedingly little of past events--that we are but ill acquainted with those present--that we know nothing at all about the future--and that we ought to refer everything relating to them to ,god1 the master of those three divisions of time and of eternity4 ,,enthusiasm4 ,this ,greek word signifies emotion of the bowels1 internal agitation4 ,was the word invented by the ,greeks to express the vibrations experienced by the nerves1 the dilation and shrinking of the intestines1 the violent contractions of the heart1 the precipitous course of those fiery spirits which mount from the viscera to the brain whenever we are strongly and vividly affected8 ,or was the term enthusiasm1 after painful affection of the bowels1 first applied to the contortions of the ,pythia1 who1 on the ,delphian tripod1 admitted the inspiration of ,apollo in a place apparently intended for the receptacle of body rather than of spirit8 ,what do we understand by enthusiasm8 ,how many shades are there in our affections6 ,approbation1 sensibility1 emotion1 distress1 impulse1 passion1 transport1 insanity1 rage1 fury4 ,such are the stages through which the miserable soul of man is liable to pass4 ,a geometrician attends at the representation of an affecting tragedy4 ,he merely remarks that it is a judicious1 well-written performance4 ,a young man who sits next to him is so interested by the performance that he makes no remark at all2 a lady sheds tears over it2 another young man is so transported by the exhibition that to his great misfortune he goes home determined to compose a tragedy himself4 ,he has caught the disease of enthusiasm4 ,the centurion or military tribune who considers war simply as a profession by which he is to make his fortune1 goes to battle coolly1 like a tiler ascending the roof of a house4 ,csar wept at seeing the statue of ,alexander4 ,ovid speaks of love only like one who understood it4 ,sappho expressed the genuine enthusiasm of the passion1 and if it be true that she sacrificed her life to it1 her enthusiasm must have advanced to madness4 ,the spirit of party tends astonishingly to excite enthusiasm2 there is no faction that has not its energumens its devoted and possessed partisans4 ,an animated speaker who employs gesture in his addresses1 has in his eyes1 his voice1 his movements1 a subtle poison which passes with an arrow's speed into the ears and hearts of his partial hearers4 ,it was on this ground that ,queen ,elizabeth forbade any one to preach1 during six months1 without an express licence under her sign manual1 that the peace of her kingdom might be undisturbed4 ,st4 ,ignatius1 who possessed very warm and susceptible feelings1 read the lives of the fathers of the desert after being deeply read in romances4 ,he becomes1 in consequence1 actuated by a double enthusiasm4 ,he constitutes himself knight to the ,virgin ,mary1 he performed the vigil of arms2 he is eager to fight for his lady patroness2 he is favored--with visions2 the virgin appears and recommends to him her son1 and she enjoins him to give no other name to his society than that of the ,society of ,jesus4 ,ignatius communicates his enthusiasm to another ,spaniard of the name of ,xavier4 ,xavier hastens away to the ,indies1 of the language of which he is utterly ignorant1 thence to ,japan1 without knowing a word of ,japanese4 ,that1 however1 is of no consequence2 the flame of his enthusiasm catches the imagination of some young ,jesuits1 who1 at length1 make themselves masters of that language4 ,these disciples1 after ,xavier's death1 entertain not the shadow of a doubt that he performed more miracles than ever the apostles did1 and that he resuscitated seven or eight persons at the very least4 ,in short1 so epidemic and powerful becomes the enthusiasm that they form in ,japan what they denominate a ,christendom 7une ,chrtient74 ,this ,christendom ends in a civil war1 in which a hundred thousand persons are slaughtered3 the enthusiasm then is at its highest point1 fanaticism2 and fanaticism has become madness4 ,the young fakir who fixes his eye on the tip of his nose when saying his prayers1 gradually kindles in devotional ardor until he at length believes that if he burdens himself with chains of fifty pounds weight the ,supreme ,being will be obliged and grateful to him4 ,he goes to sleep with an imagination totally absorbed by ,brahma1 and is sure to have a sight of him in a dream4 ,occasionally even in the intermediate state between sleeping and waking1 sparks radiate from his eyes2 he beholds ,brahma resplendent with light2 he falls into ecstasies1 and the disease frequently becomes incurable4 ,what is most rarely to be met with is the combination of reason with enthusiasm4 ,reason consists in constantly perceiving things as they really are4 ,he1 who1 under the influence of intoxication1 sees objects double is at the time deprived of reason4 ,enthusiasm is precisely like wine1 it has the power to excite such a ferment in the blood-vessels1 and such strong vibrations in the nerves1 that reason is completely destroyed by it4 ,but it may also occasion only slight agitations so as not to convulse the brain1 but merely to render it more active1 as is the case in grand bursts of eloquence and more especially in sublime poetry4 ,reasonable enthusiasm is the patrimony of great poets4 ,this reasonable enthusiasm is the perfection of their art4 ,it is this which formerly occasioned the belief that poets were inspired by the gods1 a notion which was never applied to other artists4 ,how is reasoning to control enthusiasm8 ,a poet should1 in the first instance1 make a sketch of his design4 ,reason then holds the crayon4 ,but when he is desirous of animating his characters1 to communicate to them the different and just expressions of the passions1 then his imagination kindles1 enthusiasm is in full operation and urges him on like a fiery courser in his career4 ,but his course has been previously traced with coolness and judgment4 ,enthusiasm is admissible into every species of poetry which admits of sentiment2 we occasionally find it even in the eclogue2 witness the following lines of ,virgil 7,eclogue x4 v4 #eh73 ,jam mihi per rupes videor lucosque sonantes ,ire2 libet ,partho torquere cydonia cornu ,spicula2 tanquam haec sint nostri medicina furoris1 ,aut deus ille malis hominum mitescere discat6 ,nor cold shall hinder me1 with horns and hounds ,to thrid the thickets1 or to leap the mounds4 ,and now1 methinks1 through steepy rocks ,i go1 ,and rush through sounding woods and bend the ,parthian bow3 ,as if with sports my sufferings ,i could ease1 ,or by my pains the god of ,love appease4 ,the style of epistles and satires represses enthusiasm1 we accordingly see little or nothing of it in the works of ,boileau and ,pope4 ,our odes1 it is said by some1 are genuine lyrical enthusiasm1 but as they are not sung with us1 they are1 in fact1 rather collections of verses1 adorned with ingenious reflections1 than odes4 ,of all modern odes that which abounds with the noblest enthusiasm1 an enthusiasm that never abates1 that never falls into the bombastic or the ridiculous1 is ,timotheus1 or ,alexander's ,feast1 by ,dryden4 ,it is still considered in ,england as an inimitable masterpiece1 which ,pope1 when attempting the same style and the same subject1 could not even approach4 ,this ode was sung1 set to music1 and if the musician had been worthy of the poet it would have been the masterpiece of lyric poesy4 ,the most dangerous tendency of enthusiasm in this occurs in an ode on the birth of a prince of the bast1 rant1 and burlesque4 ,a striking example of this occurs in an ode on the birth of a prince of the blood royal3 ,o suis-je8 quel nouveau miracle ,tient encore mes sens enchants ,quel vaste1 quel pompeux spectacle ,frappe mes yeux pouvants8 ,un nouveau monde vient d'clore ,l'univers se reforme encore ,dans les abmes du chaos2 ,et1 pour rparer ses ruines ,je vois des demeures divines ,descendre un peuple de hros4 --,j4,b4 ,,rousseau4 ,ode on the ,birth of the ,duke of ,brittany4 ,here we find the poet's senses enchanted and alarmed at the appearance of a prodigy--a vast and magnificent spectacle--a new birth which is to reform the universe and redeem it from a state of chaos1 all which means simply that a male child is born to the house of ,bourbon4 ,this is as bad as ,je chante les vainqueurs1 des vainqueurs de la terre4 ,we will avail ourselves of the present opportunity to observe that there is a very small portion of enthusiasm in the ,ode on the ,taking of ,namur4 ,,envy4 ,we all know what the ancients said of this disgraceful passion and what the moderns have repeated4 ,hesiod is the first classic author who has spoken of it4 ,the potter envies the potter1 the artisan the artisan1 the poor even the poor1 the musician the musician--or1 if any one chooses to give a different meaning to the word avidos--the poet the poet4 ,long before ,hesiod1 ,job had remarked1 ,envy destroys the little-minded4 ,i believe ,mandeville1 the author of the ,fable of the ,bees1 is the first who has endeavored to prove that envy is a good thing1 a very useful passion4 ,his first reason is that envy was as natural to man as hunger and thirst2 that it may be observed in all children1 as well as in horses and dogs4 ,if you wish your children to hate one another1 caress one more than the other2 the prescription is infallible4 ,he asserts that the first thing two young women do when they meet together is to discover matter for ridicule1 and the second to flatter each other4 ,he thinks that without envy the arts would be only moderately cultivated1 and that ,raphael would never have been a great painter if he had not been jealous of ,michael ,angelo4 ,mandeville1 perhaps1 mistook emulation for envy2 perhaps1 also1 emulation is nothing but envy restricted within the bounds of decency4 ,michael ,angelo might say to ,raphael1 your envy has only induced you to study and execute still better than ,i do2 you have not depreciated me1 you have not caballed against me before the pope1 you have not endeavored to get me excommunicated for placing in my picture of the ,last ,judgment one-eyed and lame persons in paradise1 and pampered cardinals with beautiful women perfectly naked in hell6 ,no6 your envy is a laudable feeling2 you are brave as well as envious2 let us be good friends4 ,but if the envious person is an unhappy being without talents1 jealous of merit as the poor are of the rich2 if under the pressure at once of indigence and baseness he writes ,news from ,parnassus1 ,letters from a ,celebrated ,countess1 or ,literary ,annals1 the creature displays an envy which is in fact absolutely good for nothing1 and for which even ,mandeville could make no apology4 ,descartes said3 ,envy forces up the yellow bile from the lower part of the liver1 and the black bile that comes from the spleen1 which diffuses itself from the heart by the arteries4 ,but as no sort of bile is formed in the spleen1 ,descartes1 when he spoke thus1 deserved not to be envied for his physiology4 ,a person of the name of ,poet or ,poetius1 a theological blackguard1 who accused ,descartes of atheism1 was exceedingly affected by the black bile4 ,but he knew still less than ,descartes how his detestable bile circulated through his blood4 ,madame ,pernelle is perfectly right3 ,les envieux mourront1 mais non jamais l'envie4--,the envious will die1 but envy never4 7,tartuffe1 ,act ,v1 ,scene #c47 ,that it is better to excite envy than pity is a good proverb4 ,let us1 then1 make men envy us as much as we are able4 ,,epic ,,poetry4 ,since the word epos1 among the ,greeks1 signified a discourse1 an epic poem must have been a discourse1 and it was in verse because it was not then the custom to write in prose4 ,this appears strange1 but it is no less true4 ,one ,pherecydes is supposed to have been the first ,greek who made exclusive use of prose to compose one of those half-true1 half-false histories so common to antiquity4 ,orpheus1 ,linus1 ,thamyris1 and ,musus1 the predecessors of ,homer1 wrote in verse only4 ,hesiod1 who was certainly contemporary with ,homer1 wrote his ,theogony and his poem of ,works and ,days entirely in verse4 ,the harmony of the ,greek language so invited men to poetry1 a maxim turned into verse was so easily engraved on the memory that the laws1 oracles1 morals1 and theology were all composed in verse4 ,of ,hesiod4 ,he made use of fables which had for a long time been received in ,greece4 ,it is clearly seen by the succinct manner in which he speaks of ,prometheus and ,epimetheus that he supposes these notions already familiar to all the ,greeks4 ,he only mentions them to show that it is necessary to labor1 and that an indolent repose1 in which other mythologists have made the felicity of man to consist1 is a violation of the orders of the ,supreme ,being4 ,hesiod afterwards describes the four famous ages1 of which he is the first who has spoken1 at least among the ancient authors who remain to us4 ,the first age is that which preceded ,pandora--the time in which men lived with the gods4 ,the iron age is that of the siege of ,thebes and ,troy4 ,i live in the fifth1 says he1 and ,i would ,i had never been born4 ,how many men1 oppressed by envy1 fanaticism1 and tyranny1 since ,hesiod1 have said the same6 ,it is in this poem of ,works and ,days that those proverbs are found which have been perpetuated1 as--the potter is jealous of the potter1 and he adds1 the musician of the musician1 and the poor even of the poor4 ,we there find the original of our fable of the nightingale fallen into the claws of the vulture4 ,the nightingale sings in vain to soften him2 the vulture devours her4 ,hesiod does not conclude that a hungry belly has no ears1 but that tyrants are not to be mollified by genius4 ,a hundred maxims worthy of ,xenophon and ,cato are to be found in this poem4 ,men are ignorant of the advantage of society3 they know not that the half is more valuable than the whole4 ,iniquity is pernicious only to the powerless4 ,equity alone causes cities to flourish4 ,one unjust man is often sufficient to ruin his country4 ,the wretch who plots the destruction of his neighbor often prepares the way to his own4 ,the road to crime is short and easy4 ,that of virtue is long and difficult1 but towards the end it is delightful4 ,god has placed labor as a sentinel over virtue4 ,lastly1 the precepts on agriculture were worthy to be imitated by ,virgil4 ,there are1 also1 very fine passages in his ,theogony4 ,love1 who disentangles chaos2 ,venus1 born of the sea from the genital parts of a god nourished on earth1 always followed by ,love1 and uniting heaven1 earth1 and sea1 are admirable emblems4 ,why1 then1 has ,hesiod had less reputation than ,homer8 ,they seem to me of equal merit1 but ,homer has been preferred by the ,greeks because he sang their exploits and victories over the ,asiatics1 their eternal enemies4 ,he celebrated all the families which in his time reigned in ,achaia and ,peloponnesus2 he wrote the most memorable war of the first people in ,europe against the most flourishing nation which was then known in ,asia4 ,his poem was almost the only monument of that great epoch4 ,there was no town nor family which did not think itself honored by having its name mentioned in these records of valor4 ,we are even assured that a long time after him some differences between the ,greek towns on the subject of adjacent lands were decided by the verses of ,homer4 ,he became1 after his death1 the judge of cities in which it is pretended that he asked alms during his life1 which proves1 also1 that the ,greeks had poets long before they had geographers4 ,it is astonishing that the ,greeks1 so disposed to honor epic poems which immortalized the combats of their ancestors1 produced no one to sing the battles of ,marathon1 ,thermopyl1 ,plata1 and ,salamis4 ,the heroes of these times were much greater men than ,agamemnon1 ,achilles1 and ,ajax4 ,tyrtus1 a captain1 poet1 and musician1 like the king of ,prussia in our days1 made war and sang it4 ,he animated the ,spartans against the ,messenians by his verses1 and gained the victory4 ,but his works are lost4 ,it does not appear that any epic poem was written-in the time of ,pericles4 ,the attention of genius was turned towards tragedy1 so that ,homer stood alone1 and his glory increased daily4 ,we now come to his ,iliad4 ,of the ,iliad4 ,what confirms me in the opinion that ,homer was of the ,greek colony established at ,smyrna is the oriental style of all his metaphors and pictures3 ,the earth which shook under the feet of the army when it marched like the thunderbolts of ,jupiter on the hills which overwhelmed the giant ,typhon2 a wind blacker than night winged with tempests2 ,mars and ,minerva followed by ,terror1 ,flight1 and insatiable ,discord1 the sister and companion of ,homicide1 the goddess of battles1 who raises tumults wherever she appears1 and who1 not content with setting the world by the ears1 even exalts her proud head into heaven4 ,the ,iliad is full of these images1 which caused the sculptor ,bouchardon to say1 ,when ,i read ,homer ,i believe myself twenty feet high4 ,his poem1 which is not at all interesting to us1 was very precious to the ,greeks4 ,his gods are ridiculous to reasonable but they were not so to partial eyes1 and it was for partial eyes that he wrote4 ,we laugh and shrug our shoulders at these gods1 who abused one another1 fought one another1 and combated with men--who were wounded and whose blood flowed1 but such was the ancient theology of ,greece and of almost all the ,asiatic people4 ,every nation1 every little village had its particular god1 which conducted it to battle4 ,the inhabitants of the clouds and of the stars which were supposed in the clouds1 had a cruel war4 ,the combat of the angels against one another was from time immemorial the foundation of the religion of the ,brahmins4 ,the battle of the ,titans1 the children of heaven and earth1 against the chief gods of ,olympus1 was also the leading mystery of the ,greek religion4 ,typhon1 according to the ,egyptians1 had fought against ,oshiret1 whom we call ,osiris1 and cut him to pieces4 ,madame ,dacier1 in her preface to the ,iliad1 remarks very sensibly1 after ,eustathius1 bishop of ,thessalonica1 and ,huet1 bishop of ,avranches1 that every neighboring nation of the ,hebrews had its god of war4 ,indeed1 does not ,jephthah say to the ,ammonites1 ,wilt not thou possess that which ,chemosh thy god giveth thee to possess8 ,so1 whomsoever the ,lord our ,god shall drive out from before us1 from them will we possess4 ,do we not see the ,god of ,judah a conqueror in the mountains and repulsed in the valleys8 ,as to men wrestling against divinities1 that is a received idea4 ,jacob wrestled one whole night with an angel4 ,if ,jupiter sent a deceiving dream to the chief of the ,greeks1 the ,lord also sent a deceiving spirit to ,king ,ahab4 ,these emblems were frequent and astonished nobody4 ,homer has then painted the ideas of his own age2 he could not paint those of the generations which succeeded him4 ,homer has great faults4 ,horace confesses it1 and all men of taste agree to it2 there is only one commentator who is blind enough not to see them4 ,pope1 who was himself a translator of the ,greek poet1 says3 ,it is a vast but uncultivated country where we meet with all kinds of natural beauties1 but which do not present themselves as regularly as in a garden2 it is an abundant nursery which contains the seeds of all fruits2 a great tree that extends superfluous branches which it is necessary to prune4 ,madame ,dacier sides with the vast country1 the nursery and the tree1 and would have nothing curtailed4 ,she was no doubt a woman superior to her sex1 and has done great service to letters1 as well as her husband1 but when she became masculine and turned commentator1 she so overacted her part that she piqued people into finding fault with ,homer4 ,she was so obstinate as to quarrel even with ,monsieur de ,la ,motte4 ,she wrote against him like the head of a college1 and ,la ,motte answered like a polite and witty woman4 ,he translated the ,iliad very badly1 but he attacked ,madame ,dacier very well4 ,we will not speak of the ,odyssey here2 we shall say something of that poem while treating of ,ariosto4 ,of ,virgil4 ,it appears to me that the second1 fourth1 and sixth book of the neid are as much above all ,greek and ,latin poets1 without exception1 as the statues of ,girardon are superior to all those which preceded them in ,france4 ,it is often said that ,virgil has borrowed many of the figures of ,homer1 and that he is even inferior to him in his imitations1 but he has not imitated him at all in the three books of which ,i am speaking2 he is there himself touching and appalling to the heart4 ,perhaps he was not suited for terrific detail1 but there had been battles enough4 ,horace had said of him1 before he attempted the neid3 ,molle atque facetum ,virgilio annuerunt gaudentes rure camoen4 ,smooth flow his lines1 and elegant his style1 ,on ,virgil all the rural muses smile4 --,,francis4 ,facetum does not here signify facetious but agreeable4 ,i do not know whether we shall not find a little of this happy and affecting softness in the fatal passion of ,dido4 ,i think at least that we shall there recognize the author of those admirable verses which we meet with in his ,eclogues3 ,ut vidi1 ut perii1 ut me malus abstulit error6--,i saw1 ,i perished1 yet indulged my pain4--7,dryden47 ,certainly the description of the descent into hell would not be badly matched with these lines from the fourth ,eclogue3 ,ille ,deum vitam accipiet1 divisque videbit ,permistos heroas1 et ipse videbitur illis-- ,pacatumque reget patriis virtutibus orbem4 ,the sons shall lead the lives of gods1 and be ,by gods and heroes seen1 and gods and heroes see4 ,the jarring nations he in peace shall bind1 ,and with paternal virtues rule mankind4 --,,dryden4 ,i meet with many of these simple1 elegant1 and affecting passages in the three beautiful books of the neid4 ,all the fourth book is filled with touching verses1 which move those who have any ear or sentiment at all1 even to tears1 and to point out all the beauties of this book it would be necessary to transcribe the whole of it4 ,and in the sombre picture of hell1 how this noble and affecting tenderness breathes through every line4 ,it is well known how many tears were shed by the emperor ,augustus1 by ,livia1 and all the palace1 at hearing this half line alone3 ,tu ,marcellus eris4--,a new ,marcellus will in thee arise4 ,homer never produces tears4 ,the true poet1 according to my idea1 is he who touches the soul and softens it1 others are only fine speakers4 ,i am far from proposing this opinion as a rule4 ,i give my opinion1 says ,montaigne1 not as being good1 but as being my own4 ,of ,lucan4 ,if you look for unity of time and action in ,lucan you will lose your labor1 but where else will you find it8 ,if you expect to feel any emotion or any interest you will not experience it in the long details of a war1 the subject of which is very dry and the expressions bombastic1 but if you would have bold ideas1 an eloquent expatiation on sublime and philosophical courage1 ,lucan is the only one among the ancients in whom you will meet with it4 ,there is nothing finer than the speech of ,labienus to ,cato at the gates of the temple of ,jupiter ,ammon1 if we except the answer of ,cato itself3 ,hremus cuncti superis8 temploque tacente ,nil facimus non sponte ,dei 4444 ,steriles num legit arenas4 ,ut caneret paucis2 mersit ne hoc pulvere verum6 ,estne ,dei sedes nisi terra et pontus et aer1 ,et clum et virtus8 ,superos quid qurimus ultra8 ,jupiter est quodcumque vides quocumque moveris4 ,and though our priests are mutes1 and temples still1 ,we act the dictates of his mighty will2 ,canst thou believe1 the vast eternal mind1 ,was e'er to ,syrts and ,libyan sands confined8 ,that he would choose this waste1 this barren ground1 ,to teach the thin inhabitants around8 ,is there a place that ,god would choose to love ,beyond this earth1 the seas1 yon heaven above1 ,and virtuous minds1 the noblest throne of ,jove8 ,why seek we farther1 then8 ,behold around2 ,how all thou seest doth with the ,god abound1 ,jove is seen everywhere1 and always to be found4 --,,rowe4 ,put together all that the ancients poets have said of the gods and it is childish in comparison with this passage of ,lucan1 but in a vast picture1 in which there are a hundred figures1 it is not sufficient that one or two of them are finely designed4 ,of ,tasso4 ,boileau has exposed the tinsel of ,tasso1 but if there be a hundred spangles of false gold in a piece of gold cloth1 it is pardonable4 ,there are many rough stones in the great marble building raised by ,homer4 ,boileau knew it1 felt it1 and said nothing about it4 ,we should be just4 ,we recall the reader's memory to what has been said of ,tasso in the ,essay on ,epic ,poetry1 but we must here observe that his verses are known by heart all over ,italy4 ,if at ,venice any one in a boat sings a stanza of the ,jerusalem ,delivered1 he is answered from a neighboring bark with the following one4 ,if ,boileau had listened to these concerts he could have said nothing in reply4 ,as enough is known of ,tasso1 ,i will not repeat here either eulogies or criticisms4 ,i will speak more at length of ,ariosto4 ,of ,ariosto4 ,homer's ,odyssey seems to have been the first model of the ,morgante1 of the ,orlando ,innamorato1 and the ,orlando ,furioso1 and1 what very seldom happens1 the last of the poems is without dispute the best4 ,the companions of ,ulysses changed into swine2 the winds shut up in goats' skins2 the musicians with fishes' tails1 who ate all those who approached them2 ,ulysses1 who followed the chariot of a beautiful princess who went to bathe quite naked2 ,ulysses1 disguised as a beggar1 who asked alms1 and afterwards killed all the lovers of his aged wife1 assisted only by his son and two servants--are imaginations which have given birth to all the poetical romances which have since been written in the same style4 ,but the romance of ,ariosto is so full of variety and so fertile in beauties of all kinds that after having read it once quite through ,i only wish to begin it again4 ,how great the charm of natural poetry6 ,i never could read a single canto of this poem in a prose translation4 ,that which above all charms me in this wonderful work is that the author is always above his subject1 and treats it playfully4 ,he says the most sublime things without effort and he often finishes them by a turn of pleasantry which is neither misplaced nor far-fetched4 ,it is at once the ,iliad1 the ,odyssey1 and ,don ,quixote1 for his principal knight-errant becomes mad like the ,spanish hero1 and is infinitely more pleasant4 ,the subject of the poem1 which consists of so many things1 is precisely that of the romance of ,cassandra1 which was formerly so much in fashion with us1 and which has entirely lost its celebrity because it had only the length of the ,orlando ,furioso1 and few of its beauties1 and even the few being in ,french prose1 five or six stanzas of ,ariosto will eclipse them all4 ,his poem closes with the greater part of the heroes and princesses who have not perished during the war all meeting in ,paris1 after a thousand adventures1 just as the personages in the romance of ,cassandra all finally meet again in the house of ,palemon4 ,the ,orlando ,furioso possesses a merit unknown to the ancients--it is that of its exordiums4 ,every canto is like an enchanted palace1 the vestibule of which is always in a different taste--sometimes majestic1 sometimes simple1 and even grotesque4 ,it is moral1 lively1 or gallant1 and always natural and true4 ,,epiphany4 ,the ,manifestation1 the ,appearance1 the ,illustration1 the ,radiance4 ,it is not easy to perceive what relation this word can have to the three kings or magi1 who came from the east under the guidance of a star4 ,that brilliant star was evidently the cause of bestowing on the day of its appearance the denomination of the ,epiphany4 ,it is asked whence came these three kings8 ,what place had they appointed for their rendezvous8 ,one of them1 it is said1 came from ,africa2 he did not1 then1 come from the ,east4 ,it is said they were three magi1 but the common people have always preferred the interpretation of three kings4 ,the feast of the kings is everywhere celebrated1 but that of the magi nowhere2 people eat king's-cake and not magi-cake1 and exclaim the king drinks--not the magi drink4 ,moreover1 as they brought with them much gold1 incense1 and myrrh1 they must necessarily have been persons of great wealth and consequence4 ,the magi of that day were by no means very rich4 ,it was not then as in the times of the false ,smerdis4 ,tertullian is the first who asserted that these three travellers were kings4 ,st4 ,ambrose1 and ,st4 ,csar of ,arles1 suppose them to be kings1 and the following passages of ,psalm lxxi4 are quoted in proof of it3 ,the kings of ,tarshish and of the isles shall offer him gifts4 ,the kings of ,arabia and of ,saba shall bring him presents4 ,some have called these three kings ,magalat1 ,galgalat1 and ,saraim1 others ,athos1 ,satos1 and ,paratoras4 ,the ,catholics knew them under the names of ,gaspard1 ,melchior1 and ,balthazar4 ,bishop ,osorio relates that it was a king of ,cranganore1 in the kingdom of ,calicut1 who undertook this journey with two magi1 and that this king on his return to his own country built a chapel to the ,holy ,virgin4 ,it has been inquired how much gold they gave ,joseph and ,mary4 ,many commentators declare that they made them the richest presents2 they built on the authority of the ,gospel of the ,infancy1 which states that ,joseph and ,mary were robbed in ,egypt by ,titus and ,dumachus1 but1 say they1 these men would never have robbed them if they had not had a great deal of money4 ,these two robbers were afterwards hanged2 one was the good thief and the other the bad one4 ,but the ,gospel of ,nicodemus gives them other names2 it calls them ,dimas and ,gestas4 ,the same ,gospel of the ,infancy says that they were magi and not kings who came to ,bethlehem2 that they had in reality been guided by a star1 but that the star having ceased to appear while they were in the stable1 an angel made its appearance in the form of a star to act in its stead4 ,this gospel asserts that the visit of the three magi had been predicted by ,zerdusht1 whom we call ,zoroaster4 ,suarez has investigated what became of the gold which the three kings or magi presented2 he maintains that the amount must have been very large1 and that three kings could never make a small or moderate present4 ,he says that the whole sum was afterwards given to ,judas1 who1 acting as steward1 turned out a rogue and stole the whole amount4 ,all these puerilities can do no harm to the ,feast of the ,epiphany1 which was first instituted by the ,greek ,church1 as the term implies1 and was afterwards celebrated by the ,latin ,church4 ,,equality4 ,nothing can be clearer than that men1 enjoying the faculties of their common nature1 are in a state of equality2 they are equal when they perform their animal functions1 and exercise their understandings4 ,the king of ,china1 the great mogul1 or the ,turkish pasha cannot say to the lowest of his species1 ,i forbid you to digest your food1 to discharge your fces1 or to think4 ,all animals of every species are on an equality with one another1 and animals have by nature beyond ourselves the advantages of independence4 ,if a bull1 while paying his attentions to a heifer1 is driven away by the horns of another bull stronger than himself1 he goes to seek a new mistress in another meadow1 and lives in freedom4 ,a cock1 after being defeated1 finds consolation in another hen-roost4 ,it is not so with us4 ,a petty vizier banishes a bostangi to ,lemnos2 the vizier ,azem banishes the petty vizier to ,tenedos2 the pasha banishes the vizier ,azem to ,rhodes2 the janissaries imprison the pasha and elect another who will banish the worthy ,mussulmans just when and where he pleases1 while they will feel inexpressibly obliged to him for so gentle a display of his authority4 ,if the earth were in fact what it might be supposed it should be--if men found upon it everywhere an easy and certain subsistence1 and a climate congenial to their nature1 it would be evidently impossible for one man to subjugate another4 ,let the globe be covered with wholesome fruits2 let the air on which we depend for life convey to us no diseases and premature death2 let man require no other lodging than the deer or roebuck1 in that case the ,genghis ,khans and ,tamerlanes will have no other attendants than their own children1 who will be very worthy persons1 and assist them affectionately in their old age4 ,in that state of nature enjoyed by all undomesticated quadrupeds1 and by birds and reptiles1 men would be just as happy as they are4 ,domination would be a mere chimera--an absurdity which no one would think of1 for why should servants be sought for when no service is required8 ,if it should enter the mind of any individual of a tyrannical disposition and nervous arm to subjugate his less powerful neighbor1 his success would be impossible2 the oppressed would be on the ,danube before the oppressor had completed his preparations on the ,volga4 ,all men1 then1 would necessarily have been equal had they been without wants2 it is the misery attached to our species which places one man in subjection to another2 inequality is not the real grievance1 but dependence4 ,it is of little consequence for one man to be called his highness and another his holiness1 but it is hard for me to be the servant of another4 ,a numerous family has cultivated a good soil1 two small neighboring families live on lands unproductive and barren4 ,it will therefore be necessary for the two poor families to serve the rich one1 or to destroy it4 ,this is easily accomplished4 ,one of the two indigent families goes and offers its services to the rich one in exchange for bread1 the other makes an attack upon it and is conquered4 ,the serving family is the origin of domestics and laborers1 the one conquered is the origin of slaves4 ,it is impossible in our melancholy world to prevent men living in society from being divided into two classes1 one of the rich who command1 the other of the poor who obey1 and these two are subdivided into various others1 which have also their respective shades of difference4 ,you come and say1 after the lots are drawn1 ,i am a man as well as you2 ,i have two hands and two feet2 as much pride as yourself1 or more2 a mind as irregular1 inconsequent1 and contradictory as your own4 ,i am a citizen of ,san ,marino1 or ,ragusa1 or ,vaugirard2 give me my portion of land4 ,in our known hemisphere are about fifty thousand millions of acres of cultivable land1 good and bad4 ,the number of our two-footed1 featherless race within these bounds is a thousand millions2 that is just fifty acres for each3 do me justice2 give me my fifty acres4 ,the reply is3 go and take them among the ,kaffirs1 the ,hottentots1 and the ,samoyeds2 arrange the matter amicably with them2 here all the shares are filled up4 ,if you wish to have food1 clothing1 lodging1 and warmth among us1 work for us as your father did--serve us or amuse us1 and you shall be paid2 if not1 you will be obliged to turn beggar1 which would be highly degrading to your sublime nature1 and certainly preclude that actual equality with kings1 or even village curates1 to which you so nobly pretend4 ,all the poor are not unhappy4 ,the greater number are born in that state1 and constant labor prevents them from too sensibly feeling their situation2 but when they do strongly feel it1 then follow wars such as those of the popular party against the senate at ,rome1 and those of the peasantry in ,germany1 ,england1 and ,france4 ,all these wars ended sooner or later in the subjection of the people1 because the great have money1 and money in a state commands everything2 ,i say in a state1 for the case is different between nation and nation4 ,that nation which makes the best use of iron will always subjugate another that has more gold but less courage4 ,every man is born with an eager inclination for power1 wealth1 and pleasure1 and also with a great taste for indolence4 ,every man1 consequently1 would wish to possess the fortunes and the wives or daughters of others1 to be their master1 to retain them in subjection to his caprices1 and to do nothing1 or at least nothing but what is perfectly agreeable4 ,you clearly perceive that with such amiable dispositions1 it is as impossible for men to be equal as for two preachers or divinity professors not to be jealous of each other4 ,the human race1 constituted as it is1 cannot exist unless there be an infinite number of useful individuals possessed of no property at all1 for most certainly a man in easy circumstances will not leave his own land to come and cultivate yours2 and if you want a pair of shoes you will not get a lawyer to make them for you4 ,equality1 then1 is at the same time the most natural and the most chimerical thing possible4 ,as men carry everything to excess if they have it in their power to do so1 this inequality has been pushed too far2 it has been maintained in many countries that no citizen has a right to quit that in which he was born4 ,the meaning of such a law must evidently be3 ,this country is so wretched and ill-governed we prohibit every man from quitting it1 under an apprehension that otherwise all would leave it4 ,do better2 excite in all your subjects a desire to stay with you1 and in foreigners a desire to come and settle among you4 ,every man has a right to entertain a private opinion of his own equality to other men1 but it follows not that a cardinal's cook should take it upon him to order his master to prepare his dinner4 ,the cook1 however1 may say3 ,i am a man as well as my master2 ,i was born like him in tears1 and shall like him die in anguish1 attended by the same common ceremonies4 ,we both perform the same animal functions4 ,if the ,turks get possession of ,rome1 and ,i then become a cardinal and my master a cook1 ,i will take him into my service4 ,this language is perfectly reasonable and just1 but1 while waiting for the ,grand ,turk to get possession of ,rome1 the cook is bound to do his duty1 or all human society is subverted4 ,with respect to a man who is neither a cardinal's cook nor invested with any office whatever in the state--with respect to an individual who has no connections1 and is disgusted at being everywhere received with an air of protection or contempt1 who sees quite clearly that many men of quality and title have not more knowledge1 wit1 or virtue than himself1 and is wearied by being occasionally in their antechambers--what ought such a man to do8 ,he ought to stay away4 ,,essenians4 ,the more superstitious and barbarous any nation is1 the more obstinately bent on war1 notwithstanding its defeats2 the more divided into factions1 floating between royal and priestly claims2 and the more intoxicated it may be by fanaticism1 the more certainly will be found among that nation a number of citizens associated together in order to live in peace4 ,it happens during a season of pestilence that a small canton forbids all communication with large cities4 ,it preserves itself from the prevailing contagion1 but remains a prey to other maladies4 ,of this description of persons were the ,gymnosophists in ,india1 and certain sects of philosophers among the ,greeks4 ,such also were the ,pythagoreans in ,italy and ,greece1 and the ,therapeut in ,egypt4 ,such at the present day are those primitive people called ,quakers and ,dunkards1 in ,pennsylvania1 and very nearly such were the first ,christians who lived together remote from cities4 ,not one of these societies was acquainted with the dreadful custom of binding themselves by oath to the mode of life which they adopted1 of involving themselves in perpetual chains1 of depriving themselves1 on a principle of religion1 of the grand right and first principle of human nature1 which is liberty2 in short1 of entering into what we call vows4 ,st4 ,basil was the first who conceived the idea of those vows1 of this oath of slavery4 ,he introduced a new plague into the world1 and converted into a poison that which had been invented as a remedy4 ,there were in ,syria societies precisely similar to those of the ,essenians4 ,this we learn from the ,jew ,philo1 in his treatise on the ,freedom of the ,good4 ,syria was always superstitious and factious1 and always under the yoke of tyrants4 ,the successors of ,alexander made it a theatre of horrors4 ,it is by no means extraordinary that among such numbers of oppressed and persecuted beings1 some1 more humane and judicious than the rest1 should withdraw from all intercourse with great cities1 in order to live in common1 in honest poverty1 far from the blasting eyes of tyranny4 ,during the civil wars of the latter ,ptolemies1 similar asylums were formed in ,egypt1 and when that country was subjugated by the ,roman arms1 the ,therapeut established themselves in a sequestered spot in the neighborhood of ,lake ,mris4 ,it appears highly probable that there were ,greek1 ,egyptian1 and ,jewish ,therapeut4 ,philo1 after eulogizing ,anaxagoras1 ,democritus1 and other philosophers1 who embraced their way of life1 thus expresses himself3 ,similar societies are found in many countries2 ,greece and other regions enjoy institutions of this consoling character4 ,they are common in ,egypt in every district1 and particularly in that of ,alexandria4 ,the most worthy and moral of the population have withdrawn beyond ,lake ,mris to a secluded but convenient spot1 forming a gentle declivity4 ,the air is very salubrious1 and the villages in the neighborhood sufficiently numerous1 etc4 ,thus we perceive that there have everywhere existed societies of men who have endeavored to find a refuge from disturbances and factions1 from the insolence and rapacity of oppressors4 ,all1 without exception1 entertained a perfect horror of war1 considering it precisely in the same light in which we contemplate highway robbery and murder4 ,such1 nearly1 were the men of letters who united1 in ,france and founded the ,academy4 ,they quietly withdrew from the factious and cruel scenes which desolated the country in the reign of ,louis ,,xiii4 ,such also were the men who founded the ,royal ,society at ,london1 while the barbarous idiots called ,puritans and ,episcopalians were cutting one another's throats about the interpretation of a few passages from three or four old and unintelligible books4 ,some learned men have been of opinion that ,jesus ,christ1 who condescended to make his appearance for some time in the small district of ,capernaum1 in ,nazareth1 and some other small towns of ,palestine1 was one of those ,essenians who fled from the tumult of affairs and cultivated virtue in peace4 ,but the name ,essenian1 never even once occurs in the four ,gospels1 in the ,apocrypha1 or in the ,acts1 or the ,epistles of the apostles4 ,although1 however1 the name is not to be found1 a resemblance is in various points observable--confraternity1 community of property1 strictness of moral conduct1 manual labor1 detachment from wealth and honors2 and1 above all1 detestation of war4 ,so great is this detestation1 that ,jesus ,christ commands his disciples when struck upon one cheek to offer the other also1 and when robbed of a cloak to deliver up the coat likewise4 ,upon this principle the ,christians conducted themselves1 during the two first centuries1 without altars1 temples1 or magistracies--all employed in their respective trades or occupations1 all leading secluded and quiet lives4 ,their early writings attest that they were not permitted to carry arms4 ,in this they perfectly resembled our ,quakers1 ,anabaptists1 and ,mennonites of the present day1 who take a pride in following the literal meaning of the gospel4 ,for although there are in the gospel many passages which1 when incorrectly understood1 might breed violence--as the case of the merchants scourged out of the temple avenues1 the phrase compel them to come in1 the dangers into which they were thrown who had not converted their master's one talent into five talents1 and the treatment of those who came to the wedding without the wedding garment--although1 ,i say1 all these may seem contrary to the pacific spirit of the gospel1 yet there are so many other passages which enjoin sufferance instead of contest1 that it is by no means astonishing that1 for a period of two hundred years1 ,christians held war in absolute execration4 ,upon this foundation was the numerous and respectable society of ,pennsylvanians established1 as were also the minor sects which have imitated them4 ,when ,i denominate them respectable1 it is by no means in consequence of their aversion to the splendor of the ,catholic church4 ,i lament1 undoubtedly1 as ,i ought to do1 their errors4 ,it is their virtue1 their modesty1 and their spirit of peace1 that ,i respect4 ,was not the great philosopher ,bayle right1 then1 when he remarked that a ,christian of the earliest times of our religion would be a very bad soldier1 or that a soldier would be a very bad ,christian8 ,this dilemma appears to be unanswerable2 and in this point1 in my opinion1 consists the great difference between ancient ,christianity and ancient ,judaism4 ,the law of the first ,jews expressly says1 ,as soon as you enter any country with a view to possess it1 destroy everything by fire and sword2 slay1 without mercy1 aged men1 women1 and children at the breast2 kill even all the animals2 sack everything and burn everything4 ,it is your ,god who commands you so to do4 ,this injunction is not given in a single instance1 but on twenty different occasions1 and is always followed4 ,mahomet1 persecuted by the people of ,mecca1 defends himself like a brave man4 ,he compels his vanquished persecutors to humble themselves at his feet1 and become his disciples4 ,he establishes his religion by proselytism and the sword4 ,jesus1 appearing between the times of ,moses and ,mahomet1 in a corner of ,galilee1 preaches forgiveness of injuries1 patience1 mildness1 and forbearance1 dies himself under the infliction of capital punishment1 and is desirous of the same fate for ,his first disciples4 ,i ask candidly1 whether ,st4 ,bartholomew1 ,st4 ,andrew1 ,st4 ,matthew1 and ,st4 ,barnabas1 would have been received among the cuirassiers of the emperor1 or among the royal guards of ,charles ,,xii48 ,would ,st4 ,peter himself1 though he cut off ,malchus' ear1 have made a good officer8 ,perhaps ,st4 ,paul1 accustomed at first to carnage1 and having had the misfortune to be a bloody persecutor1 is the only one who could have been made a warrior4 ,the impetuosity of his temperament and the fire of his imagination would have made him a formidable commander4 ,but1 notwithstanding these qualities1 he made no effort to revenge himself on ,gamaliel by arms4 ,he did not act like the ,judases1 the ,theudases1 and the ,barchochebases1 who levied troops3 he followed the precepts of ,jesus ,christ2 he suffered2 and1 according to an account we have of his death1 he was beheaded4 ,to compose an army of ,christians1 therefore1 in the early period of ,christianity1 was a contradiction in terms4 ,it is certain that ,christians were not enlisted among the troops of the empire till the spirit by which they were animated was changed4 ,in the first two centuries they entertained a horror for temples1 altars1 tapers1 incense1 and lustral water4 ,porphyry compares them to the foxes who said the grapes are sour4 ,if1 said he1 you could have had beautiful temples burnished with gold1 and large revenues for a clergy1 you would then have been passionately fond of temples4 ,they afterwards addicted themselves to all that they had abhorred4 ,thus1 having detested the profession of arms1 they at length engaged in war4 ,the ,christians in the time of ,diocletian were as different from those of the time of the apostles1 as we are from the ,christians of the third century4 ,i cannot conceive how a mind so enlightened and bold as ,montesquieu's could severely censure another genius much more accurate than his own1 and oppose the following just remark made by ,bayle3 a society of real ,christians might live happily together1 but they would make a bad defence on being attacked by an enemy4 ,they would1 says ,montesquieu1 be citizens infinitely enlightened on the subject of their duties1 and ardently zealous to discharge them4 ,they would be fully sensible of the rights of natural defence4 ,the more they thought they owed religion1 the more they would think they owed their country4 ,the principles of ,christianity deeply engraved on their hearts would be infinitely more powerful than the false honor of monarchies1 the human virtues of republics1 or the servile fear which operates under despotism4 ,surely the author of the ,spirit of ,laws did not reflect upon the words of the gospel1 when saying that real ,christians would be fully sensible of the rights of natural defence4 ,he did not recollect the command to deliver up the coat after the cloak had been taken2 and1 after having received a blow upon one cheek1 to present the other also4 ,here the principle of natural defence is most decidedly annihilated4 ,those whom we call ,quakers have always refused to fight2 but in the war of #agef1 if they had not received assistance from the other ,english1 and suffered that assistance to operate1 they would have been completely crushed4 ,is it not unquestionable that men who thought and felt as martyrs would fight very ill as grenadiers8 ,every sentence of that chapter of the ,spirit of ,laws appears to me false4 ,the principles of ,christianity deeply engraved on their hearts1 would be infinitely more powerful1 etc4 ,yes1 more powerful to prevent their exercise of the sword1 to make them tremble at shedding their neighbor's blood1 to make them look on life as a burden of which it would be their highest happiness to be relieved4 ,if1 says ,bayle1 they were appointed to drive back veteran corps of infantry1 or to charge regiments of cuirassiers1 they would be seen like sheep in the midst of wolves4 ,bayle was perfectly right4 ,montesquieu did not perceive that1 while attempting to refute him1 he contemplated only the mercenary and sanguinary soldiers of the present day1 and not the early ,christians4 ,it would seem as if he had been desirous of preventing the unjust accusations which he experienced from the fanatics1 by sacrificing ,bayle to them4 ,but he gained nothing by it4 ,they are two great men1 who appear to be of different opinions1 but who1 if they had been equally free to speak1 would have been found to have the same4 ,the false honor of monarchies1 the human virtues of republics1 the servile fear which operates under despotism2 nothing at all of this goes towards the composition of a soldier1 as the ,spirit of ,laws pretends4 ,when we levy a regiment1 of whom a quarter part will desert in the course of a fortnight1 not one of the men enlisted thinks about the honor of the monarchy3 they do not even know what it is4 ,the mercenary troops of the republic of ,venice know their country2 but nothing about republican virtue1 which no one ever speaks of in the place of ,st4 ,mark4 ,in one word1 ,i do not believe that there is a single man on the face of the earth who has enlisted in his regiment from a principle of virtue4 ,neither1 again1 is it out of a servile fear that ,turks and ,russians fight with the fierceness and rage of lions and tigers4 ,fear does not inspire courage4 ,nor is it by devotion that the ,russians have defeated the armies of ,mustapha4 ,it would1 in my opinion1 have been highly desirable that so ingenious a man should have sought for truth rather than display4 ,when we wish to instruct mankind1 we ought to forget ourselves1 and have nothing in view but truth4 ,,eternity4 ,in my youth ,i admired all the reasonings of ,samuel ,clarke4 ,i loved his person1 although he was a determined ,arian as well as ,newton1 and ,i still revere his memory1 because he was a good man2 but the impression which his ideas had stamped on my yet tender brain was effaced when that brain became more firm4 ,i found1 for example1 that he had contested the eternity of the world with as little ability as he had proved the reality of infinite space4 ,i have so much respect for the ,book of ,genesis1 and for the church which adopts it1 that ,i regard it as the only proof of the creation of the world five thousand seven hundred and eighteen years ago1 according to the computation of the ,latins1 and seven thousand and seventy-eight years1 according to the ,greeks4 ,all antiquity believed matter1 at least1 to be eternal2 and the greatest philosophers attributed eternity also to the arrangement of the universe4 ,they are all mistaken1 as we well know2 but we may believe1 without blasphemy1 that the eternal ,former of all things made other worlds besides ours4 ,,eucharist4 ,on this delicate subject1 we shall not speak as theologians4 ,submitting in heart and mind to the religion in which we are born1 and the laws under which we live1 we shall have nothing to do with controversy2 it is too hostile to all religions which it boasts of supporting--to all laws which it makes pretensions to explain1 and especially to that harmony which in every period it has banished from the world4 ,one-half of ,europe anathematizes the other on the subject of the ,eucharist2 and blood has flowed in torrents from the ,baltic ,sea to the foot of the ,pyrenees1 for nearly two centuries1 on account of a single word1 which signifies gentle charity4 ,various nations in this part of the world view with horror the system of transubstantiation4 ,they exclaim against this dogma as the last effort of human folly4 ,they quote the celebrated passage of ,cicero1 who says that men1 having exhausted all the mad extravagancies they are capable of1 have yet never entertained the idea of eating the ,god whom they adore4 ,they say that as almost all popular opinions are built upon ambiguities and abuse of words1 so the system of the ,roman ,catholics concerning the ,eucharist and transubstantiation is founded solely on an ambiguity2 that they have interpreted literally what could only have been meant figuratively2 and that for the sake of mere verbal contests1 for absolute misconceptions1 the world has for six hundred years been drenched in blood4 ,their preachers in the pulpits1 their learned in their publications1 and the people in their conversational discussions1 incessantly repeat that ,jesus ,christ did not take ,his body in ,his two hands to give ,his disciples to eat2 that a body cannot be in a hundred thousand places at one time1 in bread and in wine2 that the ,god who formed the universe cannot consist of bread which is converted into fces1 and of wine which flows off in urine2 and that the doctrine may naturally expose ,christianity to the derision of the least intelligent1 and to the contempt and execration of the rest of mankind4 ,in this opinion the ,tillotsons1 the ,smallridges1 the ,claudes1 the ,daills1 the ,amyrauts1 the ,mestrezats1 the ,dumoulins1 the ,blondels1 and the numberless multitude of the reformers of the sixteenth century1 are all agreed2 while the peaceable ,mahometan1 master of ,africa1 and of the finest part of ,asia1 smiles with disdain upon our disputes1 and the rest of the world are totally ignorant of them4 ,once again ,i repeat that ,i have nothing to do with controversy4 ,i believe with a lively faith all that the ,catholic apostolic religion teaches on the subject of the ,eucharist1 without comprehending a single word of it4 ,the question is1 how to put the greatest restraint upon crimes4 ,the ,stoics said that they carried ,god in their hearts4 ,such is the expression of ,marcus ,aurelius and ,epictetus1 the most virtuous of mankind1 and who might almost be called gods upon earth4 ,they understood by the words ,i carry ,god within me1 that part of the divine universal soul which animates every intelligent being4 ,the ,catholic religion goes further4 ,it says1 ,you shall have within you physically what the ,stoics had metaphysically4 ,do not set yourselves about inquiring what it is that ,i give you to eat and drink1 or merely to eat4 ,only believe that what ,i so give you is ,god4 ,he is within you4 ,shall your heart then be defiled by anything unjust or base8 ,behold then men receiving ,god within them1 in the midst of an august ceremonial1 by the light of a hundred tapers1 under the influence of the most exquisite and enchanting music1 and at the footstool of an altar of burnished gold4 ,the imagination is led captive1 the soul is rapt in ecstasy and melted6 ,the votary scarcely breathes2 he is detached from every terrestrial object1 he is united with ,god1 ,he is in our flesh1 and in our blood6 ,who will dare1 or who even will be able1 after this1 to commit a single fault1 or to entertain even the idea of it8 ,it was clearly impossible to devise a mystery better calculated to retain mankind in virtue4 ,yet ,louis ,,xi41 while receiving ,god thus within him1 poisons his own brother2 the archbishop of ,florence1 while making ,god1 and the ,pazzi while receiving ,him1 assassinate the ,medici in the cathedral4 ,pope ,alexander ,,vi41 after rising from the bed of his bastard daughter1 administers ,god to ,csar ,borgia1 his bastard son1 and both destroy by hanging1 poison1 and the sword1 all who are in possession of two acres of land which they find desirable4 ,julius ,,ii4 makes and eats ,god2 but1 with his cuirass on his back and his helmet on his head1 he imbrues his hands in blood and carnage4 ,leo ,x4 contains ,god in his body1 his mistress in his arms1 and the money extorted by the sale of indulgences1 in his own and his sister's coffers4 ,trolle1 archbishop of ,upsala1 has the senators of ,sweden slaughtered before his face1 holding a papal bull in his hand4 ,von ,galen1 bishop of ,mnster1 makes war upon all his neighbors1 and becomes celebrated for his rapine4 ,the ,abb ,n---- is full of ,god1 speaks of nothing but ,god1 imparts ,god to all the women1 or weak and imbecile persons that he can obtain the direction of1 and robs his penitents of their property4 ,what are we to conclude from these contradictions8 ,that all these persons never really believed in ,god2 that they still less1 if possible1 believed that they had eaten ,his body and drunk ,his blood2 that they never imagined they had swallowed ,god2 that if they had firmly so believed1 they never would have committed any of those deliberate crimes2 in a word1 that this most miraculous preventive of human atrocities has been most ineffective8 ,the more sublime such an idea1 the more decidedly is it secretly rejected by human obstinacy4 ,the fact is1 that all our grand criminals who have been at the head of government1 and those also who have subordinately shared in authority1 not only never believed that they received ,god down their throats1 but never believed in ,god at all2 at least they had entirely effaced such an idea from their minds4 ,their contempt for the sacrament which they created or administered was extended at length into a contempt of ,god ,himself4 ,what resource1 then1 have we remaining against depredation1 insolence1 outrage1 calumny1 and persecution8 ,that of persuading the strong man who oppresses the weak that ,god really exists4 ,he will1 at least1 not laugh at this opinion2 and1 although he may not believe that ,god is within him1 he yet may believe that ,god pervades all nature4 ,an incomprehensible mystery has shocked him4 ,but would he be able to say that the existence of a remunerating and avenging ,god is an incomprehensible mystery8 ,finally1 although he does not yield his belief to a ,catholic bishop who says to him1 ,behold1 that is your ,god1 whom a man consecrated by myself has put into your mouth2 he may believe the language of all the stars and of all animated beings1 at once exclaiming3 ,god is our creator6 ,,execution4 ,,section ,i4 ,yes1 we here repeat the observation1 a man that is hanged is good for nothing2 although some executioner1 as much addicted to quackery as cruelty1 may have persuaded the wretched simpletons in his neighborhood that the fat of a person hanged is a cure for the epilepsy4 ,cardinal ,richelieu1 when going to ,lyons to enjoy the spectacle of the execution of ,cinq-,mars and de ,thou1 was informed that the executioner had broken his leg4 ,what a dreadful thing it is1 says he to the chancellor ,sguier1 we have no executioner6 ,i certainly admit that it must have been a terrible disaster4 ,it was a jewel wanting in his crown4 ,at last1 however1 an old worthy was found1 who1 after twelve strokes of the sabre1 brought low the head of the innocent and philosophic de ,thou4 ,what necessity required this death8 ,what good could be derived from the judicial assassination of ,marshal de ,marillac8 ,i will go farther4 ,if ,maximilian1 duke of ,sully1 had not compelled that admirable ,king ,henry ,,iv4 to yield to the execution of ,marshal ,birou1 who was covered with wounds which had been received in his service1 perhaps ,henry would never have suffered assassination himself2 perhaps that act of clemency1 judiciously interposed after condemnation1 would have soothed the still raging spirit of the league2 perhaps the outcry would not then have been incessantly thundered into the ears of the populace--the king always protects heretics1 the king treats good ,catholics shamefully1 the king is a miser1 the king is an old debauche1 who1 at the age of fifty-seven fell in love with the young princess of ,cond1 and forced her husband to fly the kingdom with her4 ,all these embers of universal discontent would probably not have been alone sufficient to inflame the brain of the fanatical ,feuillant1 ,ravaillac4 ,with respect to what is ordinarily called justice1 that is1 the practice of killing a man because he has stolen a crown from his master2 or burning him1 as was the case with ,simon ,morin1 for having said that he had had conferences with the ,holy ,spirit2 and as was the case also with a mad old ,jesuit of the name of ,malagrida1 for having printed certain conversations which the holy virgin held with ,st4 ,anne1 her mother1 while in the womb--this practice1 it must be acknowledged1 is neither conformable to humanity or reason1 and cannot possibly be of the least utility4 ,we have already inquired what advantage could ensue to the state from the execution of that poor man known under the name of the madman2 who1 while at supper with some monks1 uttered certain nonsensical words1 and who1 instead of being purged and bled1 was delivered over to the gallows8 ,we further ask1 whether it was absolutely necessary that another madman1 who was in the bodyguards1 and who gave himself some slight cuts with a hanger1 like many other impostors1 to obtain remuneration1 should be also hanged by the sentence of the parliament8 ,was this a crime of such great enormity8 ,would there have been any imminent danger to society in saving the life of this man8 ,what necessity could there be that ,la ,barre should have his hand chopped off and his tongue cut out1 that he should be put to the question ordinary and extraordinary1 and be burned alive8 ,such was the sentence pronounced by the ,solons and ,lycurguses of ,abbeville6 ,what had he done8 ,had he assassinated his father and mother8 ,had people reason to apprehend that he would burn down the city8 ,he was accused of want of reverence in some secret circumstances1 which the sentence itself does not specify4 ,he had1 it was said1 sung an old song1 of which no one could give an account2 and had seen a procession of capuchins pass at a distance without saluting it4 ,it certainly appears as if some people took great delight in what ,boileau calls murdering their neighbor in due form and ceremony1 and inflicting on him unutterable torments4 ,these people live in the forty-ninth degree of latitude1 which is precisely the position of the ,iroquois4 ,let us hope that they may1 some time or other1 become civilized4 ,among this nation of barbarians1 there are always to be found two or three thousand persons of great kindness and amiability1 possessed of correct taste1 and constituting excellent society4 ,these will1 at length1 polish the others4 ,i should like to ask those who are so fond of erecting gibbets1 piles1 and scaffolds1 and pouring leaden balls through the human brain1 whether they are always laboring under the horrors of famine1 and whether they kill their fellow-creatures from any apprehension that there are more of them than can be maintained8 ,i was once perfectly horror-struck at seeing a list of deserters made out for the short period merely of eight years4 ,they amounted to sixty thousand4 ,here were sixty thousand co-patriots1 who were to be shot through the head at the beat of drum2 and with whom1 if well maintained and ably commanded1 a whole province might have been added to the kingdom4 ,i would also ask some of these subaltern ,dracos1 whether there are no such things wanted in their country as highways or crossways1 whether there are no uncultivated lands to be broken up1 and whether men who are hanged or shot can be of any service8 ,i will not address them on the score of humanity1 but of utility3 unfortunately1 they will often attend to neither2 and1 although ,m4 ,beccaria met with the applauses of ,europe for having proved that punishments ought only to be proportioned to crimes1 the ,iroquois soon found out an advocate1 paid by a priest1 who maintained that to torture1 hang1 rack1 and burn in all cases whatsoever1 was decidedly the best way4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,but it is ,england which1 more than any other country1 has been distinguished for the stern delight of slaughtering men with the pretended sword of the law4 ,without mentioning the immense number of princes of the blood1 peers of the realm1 and eminent citizens1 who have perished by a public death on the scaffold1 it is sufficient to call to mind the execution of ,queen ,anne ,boleyn1 ,queen ,catherine ,howard1 ,lady ,jane ,grey1 ,queen ,mary ,stuart1 and ,king ,charles ,i1 in order to justify the sarcasm which has been frequently applied1 that the history of ,england ought to be written by the executioner4 ,next to that island1 it is alleged that ,france is the country in which capital punishments have been most common4 ,i shall say nothing of that of ,queen ,brunehaut1 for ,i do not believe it4 ,i pass by innumerable scaffolds1 and stop before that of ,count ,montecuculi1 who was cut into quarters in the presence of ,francis ,i4 and his whole court1 because ,francis1 the dauphin1 had died of pleurisy4 ,that event occurred in #aecf4 ,charles ,v41 victorious on all the coasts of ,europe and ,africa1 was then ravaging both ,provence and ,picardy4 ,during that campaign which commenced advantageously for him1 the young dauphin1 eighteen years of age1 becomes heated at a game of tennis1 in the small city of ,tournon4 ,when in high perspiration he drinks iced water1 and in the course of five days dies of the pleurisy4 ,the whole court and all ,france exclaim that the ,emperor ,charles ,v4 had caused the dauphin of ,france to be poisoned4 ,this accusation1 equally horrible and absurd1 has been repeated from time to time down to the present4 ,malherbe1 in one of his odes1 speaks of ,francis1 whom ,castile1 unequal to cope with in arms1 bereaved of his son4 ,we will not stop to examine whether the emperor was unequal to the arms of ,francis ,i41 because he left ,provence after having completely sacked it1 nor whether to poison a dauphin is to steal him2 but these bad lines decidedly show that the poisoning of the dauphin ,francis by ,charles ,v4 was received throughout ,france as an indisputable truth4 ,daniel does not exculpate the emperor4 ,henault1 in his ,chronological ,summary1 says3 ,francis1 the dauphin1 poisoned4 ,it is thus that all writers copy from one another4 ,at length the author of the ,history of ,francis ,i4 ventures1 like myself1 to investigate the fact4 ,it is certain that ,count ,montecuculi1 who was in the service of the dauphin1 was condemned by certain commissioners to be quartered1 as guilty of having poisoned that prince4 ,historians say that this ,montecuculi was his cup-bearer4 ,the dauphins have no such officer3 but ,i will admit that they had4 ,how could that gentleman1 just at the instant1 have mixed up poison in a glass of fresh water8 ,did he always carry poison in his pocket1 ready whenever his master might call for drink8 ,he was not the only person present with the dauphin1 who was1 it appears1 wiped and rubbed dry by some of his attendants after the game of tennis was finished4 ,the surgeons who opened the body declared1 it is said1 that the prince had taken arsenic4 ,had the prince done so1 he must have felt intolerable pains about his throat1 the water would have been colored1 and the case would not have been treated as one of pleurisy4 ,the surgeons were ignorant pretenders1 who said just what they were desired to say2 a fact which happens every day4 ,illustration3 ,francis ,i4 and his sister4 ,what interest could this officer have in destroying his master8 ,who was more likely to advance his fortune8 ,but1 it is said1 it was intended also to poison the king4 ,here is a new difficulty and a new improbability4 ,who was to compensate him for this double crime8 ,charles ,v41 it is replied--another improbability equally strong4 ,why begin with a youth only eighteen years and a half old1 and who1 moreover1 had two brothers8 ,how was the king to be got at8 ,montecuculi did not wait at his table4 ,charles ,v4 had nothing to gain by taking away the life of the young dauphin1 who had never drawn a sword1 and who certainly would have had powerful avengers4 ,it would have been a crime at once base and useless4 ,he did not fear the father1 we are to believe1 the bravest knight of the ,french court2 yet he was afraid of the son1 who had scarcely reached beyond the age of childhood6 ,but1 we are informed1 this ,montecuculi1 on the occasion of a journey to ,ferrara1 his own country1 was presented to the emperor1 and that that monarch asked him numerous questions relating to the magnificence of the king's table and the economy of his household4 ,this certainly is decisive evidence that the ,italian was engaged by ,charles ,v4 to poison the royal family6 ,oh6 but it was not the emperor himself who urged him to commit this crime3 he was impelled to it by ,anthony de ,leva and the ,marquis di ,gonzaga4 ,yes1 truly1 ,anthony de ,leva1 eighty years of age1 and one of the most virtuous knights in ,europe6 and this noble veteran1 moreover1 was indiscreet enough to propose executing this scheme of poisoning in conjunction with a prince of ,gonzaga4 ,others mention the ,marquis del ,vasto1 whom we call du ,gast4 ,contemptible impostors6 ,be at least agreed among yourselves4 ,you say that ,montecuculi confessed the fact before his judges4 ,have you seen the original documents connected with the trial8 ,you state that the unfortunate man was a chemist4 ,these then are your only proofs1 your only reasons1 for subjecting him to the most dreadful of executions3 he was an ,italian1 he was a chemist1 and ,charles ,v4 was hated4 ,his glory then provoked indeed a base revenge4 ,good ,god6 ,your court orders a man of rank to be cut into quarters upon bare suspicion1 in the vain hope of disgracing that powerful emperor4 ,some time afterwards your suspicions1 always light and volatile1 charge this poisoning upon ,catherine de ,medici1 wife of ,henry ,,ii41 then dauphin and subsequently king of ,france4 ,you say that1 in order to reign1 she destroyed by poison the first dauphin1 who stood between her husband and the throne4 ,miserable impostors6 ,once again1 ,i say1 be consistent6 ,catherine de ,medici was at that time only seventeen years of age4 ,it has been said that ,charles ,v4 himself imputed this murder to ,catherine1 and the historian ,pera is quoted to prove it4 ,this however1 is an error4 ,these are the historian's words3 ,this year the dauphin of ,france died at ,paris with decided indications of poison4 ,his friends ascribed it to the orders of the ,marquis del ,vasto and ,anthony de ,leva1 which led to the execution of ,count ,montecuculi1 who was in the habit of corresponding with them3 base and absurd suspicion of men so highly honorable1 as by destroying the dauphin little or nothing could be gained4 ,he was not yet known by his valor any more than his brothers1 who were next in the succession to him4 ,to one presumption succeeded another4 ,it was pretended that this murder was committed by order of the duke of ,orleans1 his brother1 at the instigation of his wife1 ,catherine de ,medici1 who was ambitious of being a queen1 which1 in fact1 she eventually was4 ,it is well remarked by a certain author1 that the dreadful death of the duke of ,orleans1 afterwards ,henry ,,ii41 was the punishment of heaven upon him for poisoning his brother--at least1 if he really did poison him--a practice too common among princes1 by which they free themselves at little cost from stumbling-blocks in their career1 but frequently and manifestly punished by ,god4 ,signor di ,pera1 we instantly perceive1 is not an absolute ,tacitus2 besides1 he takes ,montecuculi1 or ,montecuculo1 as he calls him1 for a ,frenchman4 ,he says the dauphin died at ,paris1 whereas it was at ,tournon4 ,he speaks of decided indications of poison from public rumor2 but it is clear that he attributes the accusation of ,catherine de ,medici only to the ,french4 ,this charge is equally unjust and extravagant with that against ,montecuculi4 ,in fact1 this volatile temperament1 so characteristic of the ,french1 has in every period of our history led to the most tragical catastrophes4 ,if we go back from the iniquitous execution of ,montecuculi to that of the ,knights ,templars1 we shall see a series of the most atrocious punishments1 founded upon the most frivolous presumptions4 ,rivers of blood have flowed in ,france in consequence of the thoughtless character and precipitate judgment of the ,french people4 ,we may just notice the wretched pleasure that some men1 and particularly those of weak minds1 secretly enjoy in talking or writing of public executions1 like that they derive from the subject of miracles and sorceries4 ,in ,calmet's ,dictionary of the ,bible you may find a number of fine engravings of the punishments in use among the ,hebrews4 ,these prints are absolutely sufficient to strike every person of feeling with horror4 ,we will take this opportunity to observe that neither the ,jews nor any other people ever thought of fixing persons to the cross by nails2 and that there is not even a single instance of it4 ,it is the fiction of some painter1 built upon an opinion completely erroneous4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,ye sages who are scattered over the world--for some sages there are--join the philosophic ,beccaria1 and proclaim with all your strength that punishments ought to be proportioned to crimes3 ,that after shooting through the head a young man of the age of twenty1 who has spent six months with his father and mother or his mistress1 instead of rejoining his regiment1 he can no longer be of any service to his country3 ,that if you hang on the public gallows the servant girl who stole a dozen napkins from her mistress1 she will be unable to add to the number of your citizens a dozen children1 whom you may be considered as strangling in embryo with their parent2 that there is no proportion between a dozen napkins and human life2 and1 finally1 that you really encourage domestic theft1 because no master will be so cruel as to get his coachman hanged for stealing a few of his oats2 but every master would prosecute to obtain the infliction of a punishment which should be simply proportioned to the offence3 ,that all judges and legislators are guilty of the death of all the children which unfortunate1 seduced women desert1 expose1 or even strangle1 from a similar weakness to that which gave them birth4 ,on this subject ,i shall without scruple relate what has just occurred in the capital of a wise and powerful republic1 which however1 with all its wisdom1 has unhappily retained some barbarous laws from those old1 unsocial1 and inhuman ages1 called by some the ages of purity of manners4 ,near this capital a new-born infant was found dead2 a girl was apprehended on suspicion of being the mother2 she was shut up in a dungeon2 she was strictly interrogated2 she replied that she could not have been the mother of that child1 as she was at the present time pregnant4 ,she was ordered to be visited by a certain number of what are called 7perfectly malapropos in the present instance7 wise women--by a commission of matrons4 ,these poor imbecile creatures declared her not to be with child1 and that the appearance of pregnancy was occasioned by improper retention4 ,the unfortunate woman was threatened with the torture2 her mind became alarmed and terrified2 she confessed that she had killed her supposed child2 she was capitally convicted2 and during the actual passing of her sentence was seized with the pains of childbirth4 ,her judges were taught by this most impressive case not lightly to pass sentences of death4 ,with respect to the numberless executions which weak fanatics have inflicted upon other fanatics equally weak1 ,i will say nothing more about them2 although it is impossible to say too much4 ,there are scarcely any highway robberies committed in ,italy without assassinations1 because the punishment of death is equally awarded to both crimes4 ,it cannot be doubted that ,m4 de ,beccaria1 in his ,treatise on ,crimes and ,punishments has noticed this very important fact4 ,,executioner4 ,it may be thought that this word should not be permitted to degrade a dictionary of arts and sciences2 it has a connection however with jurisprudence and history4 ,our great poets have not disdained frequently to avail themselves of this word in tragedy3 ,clytemnestra1 in ,iphigenia1 calls ,agamemnon the executioner of his daughter4 ,in comedy it is used with great gayety2 ,mercury in the ,amphitryon 7act i4 scene #b71 says3 ,comment1 bourreau6 tu fais des cris6--,how1 hangman6 thou bellowest6 ,and even the ,romans permitted themselves to say3 ,quorsum vadis1 carnifex8--,whither goest thou1 hangman8 ,the ,encyclopdia1 under the word ,executioner1 details all the privileges of the ,parisian executioner2 but a recent author has gone farther4 ,in a romance on education1 not altogether equal to ,xenophon's ,cyropdia or ,fnelon's ,telemachus1 he pretends that the monarch of a country ought1 without hesitation1 to bestow the daughter of an executioner in marriage on the heir apparent of the crown1 if she has been well educated1 and if she is of a sufficiently congruous disposition with the young prince4 ,it is a pity that he has not mentioned the precise sum she should carry with her as a dower1 and the honors that should be conferred upon her father on the day of marriage4 ,it is scarcely possible1 with due congruity1 to carry further the profound morality1 the novel rules of decorum1 the exquisite paradoxes1 and divine maxims with which the author ,i speak of has favored and regaled the present age4 ,he would undoubtedly feel the perfect congruity of officiating as bridesman at the wedding4 ,he would compose the princess's epithalamium1 and not fail to celebrate the grand exploits of her father4 ,the bride may then possibly impart some acrid kisses2 for be it known that this same writer1 in another romance called ,hloise1 introduces a young ,swiss1 who had caught a particular disorder in ,paris1 saying to his mistress1 ,keep your kisses to yourself2 they are too acrid4 ,a time will come when it will scarcely be conceived possible that such works should have obtained a sort of celebrity2 had the celebrity continued1 it would have done no honor to the age4 ,fathers of families soon made up their minds that it was not exactly decorous to marry their eldest sons to the daughters of executioners1 whatever congruity might appear to exist between the lover and the lady4 ,there is a rule in all things1 and certain limits which cannot be rationally passed4 ,est modus in rebus1 sunt certi denique fines1 ,quos ultra citraque nequit consistere rectum4 ,,expiation4 ,dieu fit du repentir la vertu des mortels4 ,the repentance of man is accepted by ,god as virtue1 and perhaps the finest institution of antiquity was that solemn ceremony which repressed crimes by announcing that they would be punished1 and at the same time soothed the despair of the guilty by permitting them to redeem their transgressions by appointed modes of penance4 ,remorse1 it is to be remembered1 must necessarily have preceded expiation1 for diseases are older than medicine1 and necessities than relief4 ,there was1 then1 previously to all public and legal forms of worship1 a natural and instinctive religion which inflicted grief upon the heart of any one who1 through ignorance or passion1 had committed an inhuman action4 ,a man in a quarrel has killed his friend1 or his brother1 or a jealous and frantic lover has taken the life of her without whom he felt as if it were impossible to live4 ,the chief of a nation has condemned to death a virtuous man and useful citizen4 ,such men1 if they retain their senses and sensibility1 become overwhelmed by despair4 ,their consciences pursue and haunt them2 two courses only are open to them1 reparation or to become hardened in guilt4 ,all who have the slightest feeling remaining choose the former2 monsters adopt the latter4 ,as soon as religion was established1 expiations were admitted4 ,the ceremonies attending them were1 unquestionably1 ridiculous2 for what connection is there between the water of the ,ganges and a murder8 ,how could a man repair homicide by bathing8 ,we have already commented on the excess of absurdity and insanity which can imagine that what washes the body1 washes the soul also1 and expunges from it the stain of evil actions4 ,the water of the ,nile had afterwards the same virtue as that of the ,ganges2 other ceremonies were added to these ablutions4 ,the ,egyptians took two he-goats and drew lots which of the two should be cast out loaded with the sins of the guilty4 ,this goat was called ,hazazel1 the expiator4 ,what connection is there1 pray1 between a goat and the crime of a human being8 ,it is certainly true that in after times this ceremony was sanctified among our fathers the ,jews1 who adopted many of the ,egyptian rites2 but the souls of the ,jews were undoubtedly purified1 not by the goat but by repentance4 ,jason1 having killed ,absyrtus1 his brother-in-law1 went1 we are told1 with ,medea1 who was more guilty than himself1 to be absolved by ,circe1 the queen and priestess of a1 who passed in those days for a most powerful sorceress4 ,circe absolved them with a sucking pig and salt cakes4 ,this might possibly be a very good dish1 but it could neither compensate for the blood of ,absyrtus1 nor make ,jason and ,medea more worthy people1 unless while eating their pig they also manifested the sincerity of their repentance4 ,the expiation of ,orestes1 who had avenged his father by the murder of his mother1 consisted in going and stealing a statue from the ,tartars of the ,crimea4 ,the statue was probably extremely ill executed1 and there appeared nothing to be gained by such an enterprise4 ,in later times these things were contrived better3 mysteries were invented1 and the offenders might obtain absolution at these mysteries by submitting to certain painful trials1 and swearing to lead a new life4 ,it is from this oath that the persons taking it had attached to them1 among all nations1 a name corresponding to that of initiated qui ineunt vitam novam1--who begin a new career1 who enter upon the path of virtue4 ,we have seen under the article on ,baptism that the ,christian catechumens were not called initiated till after they had been baptized4 ,it is indisputable1 that persons had not their sins washed away in these mysteries1 but by virtue of their oath to become virtuous3 the hierophant in all the ,grecian mysteries1 when dismissing the assembly1 pronounced the two ,egyptian words1 ,koth1 ompheth1 watch1 be pure2 which at once proves that the mysteries came originally from ,egypt1 and that they were invented solely for the purpose of making mankind better4 ,wise men1 we thus see1 have1 in every age1 done all in their power to inspire the love of virtue1 and to prevent the weakness of man from sinking under despair2 but1 at the same time there have existed crimes of such magnitude and horror that no mystery could admit of their expiation4 ,nero1 although an emperor1 could not obtain initiation into the mysteries of ,ceres4 ,constantine1 according to the narrative of ,zosimus1 was unable to procure the pardon of his crimes3 he was polluted with the blood of his wife1 his son1 and all his relations4 ,it was necessary1 for the protection of the human race1 that crimes so flagitious should be deemed incapable of expiation1 that the prospect of absolution might not invite to their committal1 and that hideous atrocity might be checked by universal horror4 ,the ,roman ,catholics have expiations which they call penances4 ,we have seen1 under the article on ,austerities1 how grossly so salutary an institution has been abused4 ,according to the laws of the barbarians who subverted the ,roman ,empire1 crimes were expiated by money4 ,this was called compounding3 ,let the offender compound by paying ten1 twenty1 thirty shillings4 ,two hundred sous constituted the composition price for killing a priest1 and four hundred for killing a bishop2 so that a bishop was worth exactly two priests4 ,after having thus compounded with men1 ,god ,himself was compounded with1 when the practice of confession became generally established4 ,at length ,pope ,john ,,xxii4 established a tariff of sins4 ,the absolution of incest1 committed by a layman1 cost four livres tournois3 ,ab incestu pro laico in foro conscientic turonenses quatuor4 ,for a man and woman who have committed incest1 eighteen livres tournois1 four ducats1 and nine carlines4 ,this is certainly unjust2 if one person pays only four livres tournois1 two persons ought not to pay more than eight4 ,even crimes against nature have actually their affixed rates1 amounting to ninety livres tournois1 twelve ducats1 and six carlines3 ,cum inhibitione turonenses #ij1 ducatos #ab1 carlinos #ij1 etc4 ,it is scarcely credible that ,leo ,x4 should have been so imprudent as to print this book of rates or indulgences in #aead1 which1 however1 we are assured he did2 at the same time it must be considered that no spark had then appeared of that conflagration1 kindled afterwards by the reformers2 and that the court of ,rome reposed implicitly upon the credulity of the people1 and neglected to throw even the slightest veil over its impositions4 ,the public sale of indulgences1 which soon followed1 shows that that court took no precaution whatever to conceal its gross abominations from the various nations which had been so long accustomed to them4 ,when the complaints against the abuses of the ,romish church burst forth1 it did all in its power to suppress this publication1 but all was in vain4 ,if ,i may give my opinion upon this book of rates1 ,i must say that ,i do not believe the editions of it are genuine2 the rates are not in any kind of proportion and do not at all coincide with those stated by d',aubign1 the grandfather of ,madame de ,maintenon1 in the confession of de ,sancy4 ,depriving a woman of her virginity is estimated at six gros1 and committing incest with a mother or a sister1 at five gros4 ,this is evidently ridiculous4 ,i think that there really was a system of rates or taxes established for those who went to ,rome to obtain absolution or purchase dispensations1 but that the enemies of the ,holy ,see added largely1 in order to increase the odium against it4 ,consult ,bayle1 under the articles on ,bank1 ,dupinet1 ,drelincourt4 ,it is at least positively certain that these rates were never authorized by any council2 that they constituted an enormous abuse1 invented by avarice1 and respected by those who were interested in its not being abolished4 ,the sellers and the purchasers equally found their account in it2 and accordingly none opposed it before the breaking out of the disturbances attending the ,reformation4 ,it must be acknowledged that an exact list of all these rates or taxes would be eminently useful in the formation of a history of the human mind4 ,,extreme4 ,we will here attempt to draw from the word extreme an idea that may be attended with some utility4 ,it is every day disputed whether in war success is ascribable to conduct or to fortune4 ,whether in diseases1 nature or medicine is most operative in healing or destroying4 ,whether in law it is not judicious for a man to compromise1 although he is in the right1 and to defend a cause although he is in the wrong4 ,whether the fine arts contribute to the glory or to the decline of a state4 ,whether it is wise or injudicious to encourage superstition in a people4 ,whether there is any truth in metaphysics1 history1 or morals4 ,whether taste is arbitrary1 and whether there is in reality a good and a bad taste4 ,in order to decide at once all these questions1 take an advantage of the extreme cases under each1 compare these two extremes1 and you will immediately discover the truth4 ,you wish to know whether success in war can be infallibly decided by conduct2 consider the most extreme case1 the most opposed situations in which conduct alone will infallibly triumph4 ,the hostile army must necessarily pass through a deep mountain gorge2 your commander knows this circumstance2 he makes a forced march1 gets possession of the heights1 and completely encloses the enemy in the defile2 there they must either perish or surrender4 ,in this extreme case fortune can have no share in the victory4 ,it is demonstrable1 therefore1 that skill may decide the success of a campaign1 and it hence necessarily follows that war is an art4 ,afterwards imagine an advantageous but not a decisive position2 success is not certain1 but it is exceedingly probable4 ,and thus1 from one gradation to another1 you arrive at what may be considered a perfect equality between the two armies4 ,who shall then decide8 ,fortune2 that is1 some unexpected circumstance or event2 the death of a general officer going to execute some important order2 the derangement of a division in consequence of a false report1 the operation of sudden panic1 or various other causes for which prudence can find no remedy2 yet it is still always certain that there is an art1 that there is a science in war4 ,the same must be observed concerning medicine2 the art of operating with the head or hand to preserve the life which appears likely to be lost4 ,the first who applied bleeding as speedily as possible to a patient under apoplexy2 the first who conceived the idea of plunging a bistoury into the bladder to extract the stone from it1 and of closing up the wound2 the first who found out the method of stopping gangrene in any part of the human frame1 were undoubtedly men1 almost divine1 and totally unlike the physicians of ,molire4 ,descend from this strong and decisive example to cases less striking and more equivocal2 you perceive fevers and various other maladies cured without its being possible to ascertain whether this is done by the physician or by nature2 you perceive diseases1 the issue of which cannot be judged2 various physicians are mistaken in their opinions of the seat or nature of them2 he who has the acutest genius1 the keenest eye1 develops the character of the complaint4 ,there is then an art in medicine1 and the man of superior mind is acquainted with its niceties4 ,thus it was that ,la ,peyronie discovered that one of the courtiers had swallowed a sharp bone1 which had occasioned an ulcer and endangered his life2 and thus also did ,boerhaave discover the complaint1 as unknown as it was dreadful1 of a countess of ,wassenaer4 ,there is1 therefore1 it cannot be doubted1 an art in medicine1 but in every art there are ,virgils and ,mviuses4 ,in jurisprudence1 take a case that is clear1 in which the law pronounces decisively2 a bill of exchange correctly drawn and regularly accepted2 the acceptor is bound to pay it in every country in the world4 ,there is1 therefore1 a useful jurisprudence1 although in innumerable cases sentences are arbitrary1 because1 to the misery of mankind1 the laws are ill-framed4 ,would you wish to know whether the fine arts are beneficial to a nation8 ,compare the two extremes3 ,cicero and a perfect ignoramus4 ,decide whether the fall of ,rome was owing to ,pliny or to ,attila4 ,it is asked whether we should encourage superstition in the people4 ,consider for a moment what is the greatest extreme on this baleful subject1 the massacre of ,st4 ,bartholomew1 the massacres of ,ireland1 or the ,crusades2 and the question is decided4 ,is there any truth in metaphysics8 ,advert to those points which are most striking and true4 ,something exists2 something1 therefore1 has existed from all eternity4 ,an eternal being exists of himself2 this being cannot be either wicked or inconsistent4 ,to these truths we must yield2 almost all the rest is open to disputation1 and the clearest understanding discovers the truth4 ,it is in everything else as it is in colors2 bad eyes can distinguish between black and white2 better eyes1 and eyes much exercised1 can distinguish every nicer gradation3 ,usque adeo quod tangit idem est1 tamen ultima distant4 ,,ezekiel4 ,of ,some ,singular ,passages in ,this ,prophet1 and of ,certain ,ancient ,usages4 ,it is well known that we ought not to judge of ancient usages by modern ones2 he that would reform the court of ,alcinous in the ,odyssey1 upon the model of the ,grand ,turk1 or ,louis ,,xiv41 would not meet with a very gentle reception from the learned2 he who is disposed to reprehend ,virgil for having described ,king ,evander covered with a bear's skin and accompanied by two dogs at the introduction of ambassadors1 is a contemptible critic4 ,the manners of the ancient ,egyptians and ,jews are still more different from ours than those of ,king ,alcinous1 his daughter ,nausica1 and the worthy ,evander4 ,ezekiel1 when in slavery among the ,chaldans1 had a vision near the small river ,chobar1 which falls into the ,euphrates4 ,we ought not to be in the least astonished at his having seen animals with four faces1 four wings1 and with calves' feet2 or wheels revolving without aid and instinct with life2 these images are pleasing to the imagination2 but many critics have been shocked at the order given him by the ,lord to eat1 for a period of three hundred and ninety days1 bread made of barley1 wheat1 or millet1 covered with human ordure4 ,the prophet exclaimed in strong disgust1 ,my soul has not hitherto been polluted2 and the ,lord replied1 ,well1 ,i will allow you instead of man's ordure to use that of the cow1 and with the latter you shall knead your bread4 ,as it is now unusual to eat a preparation of bread of this description1 the greater number of men regard the order in question as unworthy of the ,divine ,majesty4 ,yet it must be admitted that cow-dung and all the diamonds of the great ,mogul are perfectly equal1 not only in the eyes of a ,divine ,being1 but in those of a true philosopher2 and1 with regard to the reasons which ,god might have for ordering the prophet this repast1 we have no right to inquire into them4 ,it is enough for us to see that commands which appear to us very strange1 did not appear so to the ,jews4 ,it must be admitted that the synagogue1 in the time of ,st4 ,jerome1 did not suffer ,ezekiel to be read before the age of thirty2 but this was because1 in the eighteenth chapter1 he says that the son shall not bear the iniquity of his father1 and it shall not be any longer said the fathers have eaten sour grapes1 and the children's teeth are set on edge4 ,this expression was considered in direct contradiction to ,moses1 who1 in the twenty-eighth chapter of ,numbers1 declares that the children bear the iniquity of the fathers1 even to the third and fourth generation4 ,ezekiel1 again1 in the twentieth chapter1 makes the ,lord say that ,he has given to the ,jews precepts which are not good4 ,such are the reasons for which the synagogue forbade young people reading an author likely to raise doubts on the irrefragability of the laws of ,moses4 ,the censorious critics of the present day are still more astonished with the sixteenth chapter of ,ezekiel4 ,in that chapter he thus takes it upon him to expose the crimes of the city of ,jerusalem4 ,he introduces the ,lord speaking to a young woman2 and the ,lord said to her1 ,when thou wast born1 thy navel string was not cut1 thou wast not salted1 thou wast quite naked1 ,i had pity on thee2 thou didst increase in stature1 thy breasts were fashioned1 thy hair was grown1 ,i passed by thee1 ,i observed thee1 ,i knew that the time of lovers was come1 ,i covered thy shame1 ,i spread my skirt over thee2 thou becamest mine2 ,i washed and perfumed thee1 and dressed and shod thee well2 ,i gave thee a scarf of linen1 and bracelets1 and a chain for thy neck2 ,i placed a jewel in thy nose1 pendants in thy ears1 and a crown upon thy head4 ,then1 confiding in thy beauty1 thou didst in the height of thy renown1 play the harlot with every passer-by4444 ,and thou hast built a high place of profanation 444 and thou hast prostituted thyself in public places1 and opened thy feet to every one that passed 444 and thou hast committed fornication with the ,egyptians 444 and finally thou hast paid thy lovers and made them presents1 that they might lie with thee 444 and by hiring them1 instead of being hired1 thou hast done differently from other harlots4444 ,the proverb is1 as is the mother1 so is the daughter1 and that proverb is used of thee1 etc4 ,still more are they exasperated on the subject of the twenty-third chapter4 ,a mother had two daughters1 who early lost their virginity4 ,the elder was called ,ahola1 and the younger ,aholibah4444 ,aholah committed fornication with young lords and captains1 and lay with the ,egyptians from her early youth4444 ,aholibah1 her sister1 committed still greater fornication with officers and rulers and well-made cavaliers2 she discovered her shame1 she multiplied her fornications1 she sought eagerly for the embraces of those whose flesh was as that of asses1 and whose issue was as that of horses4 ,these descriptions1 which so madden weak minds1 signify1 in fact1 no more than the iniquities of ,jerusalem and ,samaria2 these expressions1 which appear to us licentious1 were not so then4 ,the same vivacity is displayed in many other parts of ,scripture without the slightest apprehension4 ,opening the womb is very frequently mentioned4 ,the terms made use of to express the union of ,boaz with ,ruth1 and of ,judah with his daughter-in-law1 are not indelicate in the ,hebrew language1 but would be so in our own4 ,people who are not ashamed of nakedness1 never cover it with a veil4 ,in the times under consideration1 no blush could have been raised by the mention of particular parts of the frame of man1 as they were actually touched by the person who bound himself by any promise to another2 it was a mark of respect1 a symbol of fidelity1 as formerly among ourselves1 feudal lords put their hands between those of their sovereign4 ,we have translated the term adverted to by the word thigh4 ,eliezer puts his hand under ,abraham's thigh4 ,joseph puts his hand under the thigh of ,jacob4 ,this custom was very ancient in ,egypt4 ,the ,egyptians were so far from attaching any disgrace to what we are desirous as much as possible to conceal and avoid the mention of1 that they bore in procession a large and characteristic image1 called ,phallus1 in order to thank the gods for making the human frame so instrumental in the perpetuation of the human species4 ,all this affords sufficient proof that our sense of decorum and propriety is different from that of other nations4 ,when do the ,romans appear to have been more polished than in the time of ,augustus8 ,yet ,horace scruples not to say1 in one of his moral pieces3 ,nec metuo1 ne dum futuo vir rure recurrat 7,satire ,,ii41 book i41 v4 #abg47 ,augustus uses the same expression in an epigram on ,fulvia4 ,the man who should among us pronounce the expression in our language corresponding to it1 would be regarded as a drunken porter2 that word1 as well as various others used by ,horace and other authors1 appears to us even more indecent than the expressions of ,ezekiel4 ,let us then do away with our prejudices when we read ancient authors1 or travel among distant nations4 ,nature is the same everywhere1 and usages are everywhere different4 ,i once met at ,amsterdam a rabbi quite brimful of this chapter4 ,ah6 my friend1 says he1 how very much we are obliged to you4 ,you have displayed all the sublimity of the ,mosaic law1 ,ezekiel's breakfast2 his delightful left-sided attitudes2 ,aholah and ,aholibah are admirable things2 they are types1 my brother--types which show that one day the ,jewish people will be masters of the whole world2 but why did you admit so many others which are nearly of equal strength8 ,why did not you represent the ,lord saying to the sage ,hosea1 in the second verse of the first chapter1 ',hosea1 take to thyself a harlot1 and make to her the children of a harlot8' ,such are the very words4 ,hosea takes the young woman and has a son by her1 and afterwards a daughter1 and then again a son2 and it was a type1 and that type lasted three years4 ,that is not all2 the ,lord says in the third chapter1 ',go and take to thyself a woman who is not merely a harlot1 but an adulteress4' ,hosea obeyed1 but it cost him fifteen crowns and eighteen bushels of barley2 for1 you know1 there was very little wheat in the land of promise--but are you aware of the meaning of all this8 ,no1 said ,i to him4 ,nor ,i neither1 said the rabbi4 ,a grave person then advanced towards us and said they were ingenious fictions and abounding in exquisite beauty4 ,ah1 sir1 remarked a young man1 if you are inclined for fictions1 give the preference to those of ,homer1 ,virgil1 and ,ovid4 ,he who prefers the prophecies of ,ezekiel deserves to breakfast with him4 ,,fable4 ,it is very likely that the more ancient fables1 in the style of those attributed to sop1 were invented by the first subjugated people4 ,free men would not have had occasion to disguise the truth2 a tyrant can scarcely be spoken to except in parables2 and at present1 even this is a dangerous liberty4 ,it might also very well happen that men naturally liking images and tales1 ingenious persons amused themselves with composing them1 without any other motive4 ,however that may be1 fable is more ancient than history4 ,among the ,jews1 who are quite a modern people in comparison with the ,chaldans and ,tyrians1 their neighbors1 but very ancient by their own accounts1 fables similar to those of sop existed in the time of the ,judges1 #abcc years before our era1 if we may depend upon received computations4 ,it is said in the ,book of ,judges that ,gideon had seventy sons born of his many wives2 and that1 by a concubine1 he had another son named ,abimelech4 ,now1 this ,abimelech slew sixty-nine of his brethren upon one stone1 according to ,jewish custom1 and in consequence the ,jews1 full of respect and admiration1 went to crown him king1 under an oak near ,millo1 a city which is but little known in history4 ,jotham alone1 the youngest of the brothers1 escaped the carnage--as it always happens in ancient histories--and harangued the ,israelites1 telling them that the trees went one day to choose a king2 we do not well see how they could march1 but if they were able to speak1 they might just as well be able to walk4 ,they first addressed themselves to the olive1 saying1 ,reign thou over us4 ,the olive replied1 ,i will not quit the care of my oil to be promoted over you4 ,the fig-tree said that he liked his figs better than the trouble of the supreme power4 ,the vine gave the preference to its grapes4 ,at last the trees addressed themselves to the bramble1 which answered3 ,if in truth ye anoint one king over you1 then come and put your trust in my shadow2 and if not1 let fire come out of the bramble and devour the cedars of ,lebanon4 ,it is true that this fable falsifies throughout1 because fire cannot come from a bramble1 but it shows the antiquity of the use of fables4 ,that of the belly and the members1 which calmed a tumult in ,rome about two thousand three hundred years ago1 is ingenious and without fault4 ,the more ancient the fables the more allegorical they were4 ,is not the ancient fable of ,venus1 as related by ,hesiod1 entirely a fable of nature8 ,this ,venus is the goddess of beauty4 ,beauty ceases to be lovely if unaccompanied by the graces4 ,beauty produces love4 ,love has features which pierce all hearts2 he wears a bandage1 which conceals the faults of those beloved4 ,he has wings2 he comes quickly and flies away the same4 ,wisdom is conceived in the brain of the chief of the gods1 under the name of ,minerva4 ,the soul of man is a divine fire1 which ,minerva shows to ,prometheus1 who makes use of this divine fire to animate mankind4 ,it is impossible1 in these fables1 not to recognize a lively picture of pure nature4 ,most other fables are either corruptions of ancient histories or the caprices of the imagination4 ,it is with ancient fables as with our modern tales2 some convey charming morals1 and others very insipid ones4 ,the ingenious fables of the ancients have been grossly imitated by an unenlightened race--witness those of ,bacchus1 ,hercules1 ,prometheus1 ,pandora1 and many others1 which were the amusement of the ancient world4 ,the barbarians1 who confusedly heard them spoken of1 adopted them into their own savage mythology1 and afterwards it is pretended that they invented them4 ,alas6 poor unknown and ignorant people1 who knew no art either useful or agreeable--to whom even the name of geometry was unknown--dare you say that you have invented anything8 ,you have not known either how to discover truth1 or to lie adroitly4 ,the most elegant ,greek fable was that of ,psyche2 the most pleasant1 that of the ,ephesian matron4 ,the prettiest among the moderns is that of ,folly1 who1 having put out ,love's eyes1 is condemned to be his guide4 ,the fables attributed to sop are all emblems2 instructions to the weak1 to guard them as much as possible against the snares of the strong4 ,all nations1 possessing a little wisdom1 have adopted them4 ,la ,fontaine has treated them with the most elegance4 ,about eighty of them are masterpieces of simplicity1 grace1 finesse1 and sometimes even of poetry4 ,it is one of the advantages of the age of ,louis ,,xiv4 to have produced a ,la ,fontaine4 ,he has so well discovered1 almost without seeking it1 the art of making one read1 that he has had a greater reputation in ,france than genius itself4 ,boileau has never reckoned him among those who did honor to the great age of ,louis ,,xiv42 his reason or his pretext was that he had never invented anything4 ,what will better bear out ,boileau is the great number of errors in language and the incorrectness of style2 faults which ,la ,fontaine might have avoided1 and which this severe critic could not pardon4 ,his grasshopper1 for instance1 having sung all the summer1 went to beg from the ant1 her neighbor1 in the winter1 telling her1 on the word of an animal1 that she would pay her principal and interest before midsummer4 ,the ant replies3 ,you sang1 did you8 ,i am glad of it2 then now dance4 ,his astrologer1 again1 who falling into a ditch while gazing at the stars1 was asked3 ,poor wretch6 do you expect to be able to read things so much above you8 ,yet ,copernicus1 ,galileo1 ,cassini1 and ,halley have read the heavens very well2 and the best astronomer that ever existed might fall into a ditch without being a poor wretch4 ,judicial astrology is indeed ridiculous charlatanism1 but the ridiculousness does not consist in regarding the heavens2 it consists in believing1 or in making believe1 that you read what is not there4 ,several of these fables1 either ill chosen or badly written1 certainly merit the censure of ,boileau4 ,nothing is more insipid than the fable of the drowned woman1 whose corpse was sought contrary to the course of the river1 because in her lifetime she had always been contrary4 ,the tribute sent by the animals to ,king ,alexander is a fable1 which is not the better for being ancient4 ,the animals sent no money1 neither did the lion advise them to steal it4 ,the satyr who received a peasant into his hut should not have turned him out on seeing that he blew his fingers because he was cold2 and afterwards1 on taking the dish between his teeth1 that he blew his pottage because it was hot4 ,the man was quite right1 and the satyr was a fool4 ,besides1 we do not take hold of dishes with our teeth4 ,the crab-mother1 who reproached her daughter with not walking straight2 and the daughter1 who answered that her mother walked crooked1 is not an agreeable fable4 ,the bush and the duck1 in commercial partnership with the bat1 having counters1 factors1 agents1 paying principal and interest1 etc41 has neither truth1 nature1 nor any kind of merit4 ,a bush which goes with a bat into foreign countries to trade is one of those cold and unnatural inventions which ,la ,fontaine should not have adopted4 ,a house full of dogs and cats1 living together like cousins and quarrelling for a dish of pottage1 seems also very unworthy of a man of taste4 ,the chattering magpie is still worse4 ,the eagle tells her that he declines her company because she talks too much4 ,on which ,la ,fontaine remarks that it is necessary at court to wear two faces4 ,where is the merit of the fable of the kite presented by a bird-catcher to a king1 whose nose he had seized with his claws8 ,the ape who married a ,parisian girl and beat her is an unfortunate story presented to ,la ,fontaine1 and which he has been so unfortunate as to put into verse4 ,such fables as these2 and some others1 may doubtless justify ,boileau2 it might even happen that ,la ,fontaine could not distinguish the bad fables from the good4 ,madame de la ,sablire called ,la ,fontaine a fabulist1 who bore fables as naturally as a plum-tree bears plums4 ,it is true that he had only one style1 and that he wrote an opera in the style of his fables4 ,notwithstanding all this1 ,boileau should have rendered justice to the singular merit of the good man1 as he calls him1 and to the public1 who are right in being enchanted with the style of many of his fables4 ,la ,fontaine was not an original or a sublime writer1 a man of established taste1 or one of the first geniuses of a brilliant era2 and it is a very remarkable fault in him that he speaks not his own language correctly4 ,he is in this respect very inferior to ,phaedrus1 but he was a man unique in the excellent pieces that he has left us4 ,they are very numerous1 and are in the mouths of all those who have been respectably brought up2 they contribute even to their education4 ,they will descend to posterity2 they are adapted for all men and for all times1 while those of ,boileau suit only men of letters4 ,of ,those ,fanatics ,who ,would ,suppress the ,ancient ,fables4 ,there is among those whom we call ,jansenists a little sect of hard and empty heads1 who would suppress the beautiful fables of antiquity1 to substitute ,st4 ,prosper in the place of ,ovid1 and ,santeuil in that of ,horace4 ,if they were attended to1 our pictures would no longer represent ,iris on the rainbow1 or ,minerva with her aegis2 but instead of them1 we should have ,nicholas and ,arnauld fighting against the ,jesuits and ,protestants2 ,mademoiselle ,perrier cured of sore eyes by a thorn from the crown of ,jesus ,christ1 brought from ,jerusalem to ,port ,royal2 ,counsellor ,carr de ,montgeron presenting the account of ,st4 ,mdard to ,louis ,,xv42 and ,st4 ,ovid resuscitating little boys4 ,in the eyes of these austere sages1 ,fnelon was only an idolater1 who1 following the example of the impious poem of the neid1 introduced the child ,cupid with the nymph ,eucharis4 ,pluche1 at the end of his fable of the ,heavens1 entitled ,their ,history1 writes a long dissertation to prove that it is shameful to have tapestry worked in figures taken from ,ovid's ,metamorphoses2 and that ,zephyrus and ,flora1 ,vertumnus and ,pomona1 should be banished from the gardens of ,versailles4 ,he exhorts the school of belles-lettres to oppose itself to this bad taste2 which reform alone1 he says1 is capable of re-establishing the belles-lettres4 ,other puritans1 more severe than sage a little time ago1 would have proscribed the ancient mythology as a collection of puerile tales1 unworthy the acknowledged gravity of our manners4 ,it would1 however1 be a pity to burn ,ovid1 ,horace1 ,hesiod1 our fine tapestry pictures and our opera4 ,if we were spared the familiar stories of sop1 why lay hands on those sublime fables1 which have been respected by mankind1 whom they have instructed8 ,they are mingled with many insipidities1 no doubt1 but what good is without an alloy8 ,all ages will adopt ,pandora's box1 at the bottom of which was found man's only consolation--hope2 ,jupiter's two vessels1 which unceasingly poured forth good and evil2 the cloud embraced by ,ixion1 which is the emblem and punishment of an ambitious man2 and the death of ,narcissus1 which is the punishment of self-love4 ,what is more sublime than the image of ,minerva1 the goddess of wisdom1 formed in the head of the master of the gods8 ,what is more true and agreeable than the goddess of beauty1 always accompanied by the graces8 ,the goddesses of the arts1 all daughters of memory--do they not teach us1 as well as ,locke1 that without memory we cannot possess either judgment or wit8 ,the arrows of ,love1 his fillet1 and his childhood2 ,flora1 caressed by ,zephyrus1 etc4--are they not all sensible personifications of pure nature8 ,these fables have survived the religions which consecrated them4 ,the temples of the gods of ,egypt1 ,greece1 and ,rome are no more1 but ,ovid still exists4 ,objects of credulity may be destroyed1 but not those of pleasure2 we shall forever love these true and lively images4 ,lucretius did not believe in these fabulous gods1 but he celebrated nature under the name of ,venus4 ,alma ,venus cli subter labentia signa ,qu mare navigerum1 qu terras frugiferentes ,concelebras1 per te quoniam genus omne animantum ,concipitur1 visitque exortum lumina solis1 etc4 ,kind ,venus1 glory of the blest abodes1 ,parent of ,rome1 and joy of men and gods2 ,delight of all1 comfort of sea and earth1 ,to whose kind power all creatures owe their birth1 etc4 --,,creech4 ,if antiquity in its obscurity was led to acknowledge divinity in its images1 how is it to be blamed8 ,the productive soul of the world was adored by the sages2 it governed the sea under the name of ,neptune1 the air under the image of ,juno1 and the country under that of ,pan4 ,it was the divinity of armies under the name of ,mars2 all these attributes were animated personifications4 ,jupiter was the only god4 ,the golden chain with which he bound the inferior gods and men was a striking image of the unity of a sovereign being4 ,the people were deceived1 but what are the people to us8 ,it is continually asked why the ,greek and ,roman magistrates permitted the divinities whom they adored in their temples to be ridiculed on their stage8 ,this is a false supposition4 ,the gods were not mocked in their theatres1 but the follies attributed to these gods by those who had corrupted the ancient mythology4 ,the consuls and prtors found it good to treat the adventure of the two ,sosias wittily1 but they would not have suffered the worship of ,jupiter and ,mercury to be attacked before the people4 ,it is thus that a thousand things which appear contradictory are not so in reality4 ,i have seen1 in the theatre of a learned and witty nation1 pieces taken from the ,golden ,legend2 will it1 on that account1 be said that this nation permits its objects of religion to be insulted8 ,it need not be feared we shall become ,pagans for having heard the opera of ,proserpine at ,paris1 or for having seen the nuptials of ,psyche1 painted by ,raphael1 in the pope's palace at ,rome4 ,fable forms the taste1 but renders no person idolatrous4 ,the beautiful fables of antiquity have also this great advantage over history3 they are lessons of virtue1 while almost all history narrates the success of vice4 ,jupiter in the fable descends upon earth to punish ,tantalus and ,lycaon2 but in history our ,tantaluses and ,lycaons are the gods of the earth4 ,baucis and ,philemon had their cabin changed into a temple2 our ,baucises and ,philemons are obliged to sell1 for the collector of the taxes1 those kettles which1 in ,ovid1 the gods changed into vases of gold4 ,i know how much history can instruct us and how necessary it is to know it2 but it requires much ingenuity to be able to draw from it any rules for individual conduct4 ,those who know politics only through books will be often reminded of those lines of ,corneille1 which observe that examples will seldom suffice for our guidance1 as it often happens that one person perishes by the very expedient which has proved the salvation of another4 ,les exemples recens suffiraient pour m'instruire ,si par l'exemple seul on devait se conduire2 ,mais souvent l'un se perd o l'autre s'est sauv1 ,et par o l'un prit1 un autre est conserv4 ,henry ,,viii41 the tyrant of his parliament1 his ministers and his wives1 of consciences and purses1 lived and died peaceably4 ,charles ,i4 perished on the scaffold4 ,margaret of ,anjou in vain waged war in person a dozen times with the ,english1 the subjects of her husband1 while ,william ,,iii4 drove ,james ,,ii4 from ,england without a battle4 ,in our days we have seen the royal family of ,persia murdered1 and strangers upon the throne4 ,to look at events only1 history seems to accuse ,providence1 and fine moral fables justify it4 ,it is clear that both the useful and agreeable may be discovered in them1 however exclaimed against by those who are neither the one nor the other4 ,let them talk on1 and let us read ,homer and ,ovid1 as well as ,titus ,livius and ,rapin de ,thoyras4 ,taste induces preferences and fanaticism exclusions4 ,the arts are united1 and those who would separate them know nothing about them4 ,history teaches us what we are--fable what we ought to be4 ,tous les arts sont amis1 ainsi qu ils sont divins2 ,qui veut les sparer est loin de les connatre4 ,l'histoire nous apprend ce que sont les humains1 ,la fable ce qu ils doivent tre4 ,,faction4 ,on the ,meaning of the ,word4 ,the word faction comes from the ,latin facere2 it is employed to signify the state of a soldier at his post1 on duty 7en faction71 squadrons or troops of combatants in the circus2 green1 blue1 red1 and white factions4 ,the acceptation in which the term is generally used is that of a seditious party in the state4 ,the term party in itself implies nothing that is odious1 that of faction is always odious4 ,a great man1 and even a man possessing only mediocrity of talent1 may easily have a party at court1 in the army1 in the city1 or in literature4 ,a man may have a party in consequence of his merit1 in consequence of the zeal and number of his friends1 without being the head of a party4 ,marshal ,catinat1 although little regarded at court1 had a large party in the army without making any effort to obtain it4 ,a head of a party is always a head of a faction2 such were ,cardinal ,retz1 ,henry1 duke of ,guise1 and various others4 ,a seditious party1 while it is yet weak and has no influence in the government1 is only a faction4 ,csar's faction speedily became a dominant party1 which swallowed up the republic4 ,when the emperor ,charles ,,vi4 disputed the throne of ,spain with ,philip ,v4 he had a party in that kingdom1 and at length he had no more than a faction in it4 ,yet we may always be allowed to talk of the party of ,charles ,,vi4 ,it is different with respect to private persons4 ,descartes for a long time had a party in ,france2 it would be incorrect to say he had a faction4 ,thus we perceive that words in many cases synonymous cease to be so in others4 ,,faculty4 ,all the powers of matter and mind are faculties2 and1 what is still worse1 faculties of which we know nothing1 perfectly occult qualities2 to begin with motion1 of which no one has discovered the origin4 ,when the president of the faculty of medicine in the ,malade ,imaginaire1 asks ,thomas ,diafoirus3 ,quare opium facit dormire8--,why does opium cause sleep8 ,thomas very pertinently replies1 ,quia est in eo virtus dormitiva qu facit sopire4--,because it possesses a dormitive power producing sleep4 ,the greatest philosophers cannot speak more to the purpose4 ,the honest chevalier de ,jaucourt acknowledges1 under the article on ,sleep1 that it is impossible to go beyond conjecture with respect to the cause of it4 ,another ,thomas1 and in much higher reverence than his bachelor namesake in the comedy1 has1 in fact1 made no other reply to all the questions which are started throughout his immense volumes4 ,it is said1 under the article on ,faculty1 in the grand ,encyclopdia1 that the vital faculty once established in the intelligent principle by which we are animated1 it may be easily conceived that the faculty1 stimulated by the expressions which the vital sensorium transmits to part of the common sensorium1 determines the alternate influx of the nervous fluid into the fibres which move the vital organs in order to produce the alternate contradiction of those organs4 ,this amounts precisely to the answer of the young physician ,thomas3 ,quia est in eo virtus alterniva qu facit alternare4 ,and ,thomas ,diafoirus has at least the merit of being shortest4 ,the faculty of moving the foot when we wish to do so1 of recalling to mind past events1 or of exercising our five senses2 in short1 any and all of our faculties will admit of no further or better explanation than that of ,diafoirus4 ,but consider thought6 say those who understand the whole secret4 ,thought1 which distinguishes man from all animals besides3 ,sanctius his animal1 mentisque capacius alt4 7,ovid's ,metamorph4 i4 #gf47--,more holy man1 of more exalted mind6 ,as holy as you like2 it is on this subject1 that of thought or mind1 that ,diafoirus is more triumphant than ever4 ,all would reply in accordance with him3 ,quia est in eo virtus pensativa qu facit pensare4 ,no one will ever develop the mysterious process by which he thinks4 ,the case we are considering then might be extended to everything in nature4 ,i know not whether there may not be found in this profound and unfathomable gulf of mystery an evidence of the existence of a ,supreme ,being4 ,there is a secret in the originating or conservatory principles of all beings1 from a pebble on the seashore to ,saturn's ,ring and the ,milky ,way4 ,but how can there be a secret which no one knows8 ,it would seem that some being must exist who can develop all4 ,some learned men1 with a view to enlighten our ignorance1 tell us that we must form systems2 that we shall at last find the secret out4 ,but we have so long sought without obtaining any explanation that disgust against further search has very naturally succeeded4 ,that1 say they1 is the mere indolence of philosophy2 no1 it is the rational repose of men who have exerted themselves and run an active race in vain4 ,and after all1 it must be admitted that indolent philosophy is far preferable to turbulent divinity and metaphysical delusion4 ,,faith4 ,,section ,i4 ,what is faith8 ,is it to believe that which is evident8 ,no4 ,it is perfectly evident to my mind that there exists a necessary1 eternal1 supreme1 and intelligent being4 ,this is no matter of faith1 but of reason4 ,i have no merit in thinking that this eternal and infinite being1 whom ,i consider as virtue1 as goodness itself1 is desirous that ,i should be good and virtuous4 ,faith consists in believing not what seems true1 but what seems false to our understanding4 ,the ,asiatics can only by faith believe the journey of ,mahomet to the seven planets1 and the incarnations of the god ,fo1 of ,vishnu1 ,xaca1 ,brahma1 and ,sommonocodom4 ,they submit their understandings2 they tremble to examine3 wishing to avoid being either impaled or burned1 they say3 ,i believe4 ,we do not here intend the slightest allusion to the ,catholic faith4 ,not only do we revere it1 but we possess it4 ,we speak of the false1 lying faith of other nations of the world1 of that faith which is not faith1 and which consists only in words4 ,there is a faith for things that are merely astonishing and prodigious1 and a faith for things contradictory and impossible4 ,vishnu became incarnate five hundred times2 this is extremely astonishing1 but it is not1 however1 physically impossible2 for if ,vishnu possessed a soul1 he may have transferred that soul into five hundred different bodies1 with a view to his own felicity4 ,the ,indian1 indeed1 has not a very lively faith2 he is not intimately and decidedly persuaded of these metamorphoses2 but he will nevertheless say to his bonze1 ,i have faith2 it is your will and pleasure that ,vishnu has undergone five hundred incarnations1 which is worth to you an income of five hundred rupees3 very well2 you will inveigh against me1 and denounce me1 and ruin my trade if ,i have not faith2 but ,i have faith1 and here are ten rupees over and above for you4 ,the ,indian may swear to the bonze that he believes without taking a false oath1 for1 after all1 there is no demonstration that ,vishnu has not actually made five hundred visits to ,india4 ,but if the bonze requires him to believe what is contradictory or impossible1 as that two and two make five1 or that the same body may be in a thousand different places1 or that to be and not to be are precisely one and the same thing2 in that case1 if the ,indian says he has faith he lies1 and if he swears that he believes he commits perjury4 ,he says1 therefore1 to the bonze3 ,my reverend father1 ,i cannot declare that ,i believe in these absurdities1 even though they should be worth to you an income of ten thousand rupees instead of five hundred4 ,my son1 the bonze answers1 give me twenty rupees and ,god will give you grace to believe all that you now do not believe4 ,but how can you expect or desire1 rejoins the ,indian1 that ,god should do that by me which ,he cannot do even by ,himself8 ,it is impossible that ,god should either perform or believe contradictions4 ,i am very willing to say1 in order to give you satisfaction1 that ,i believe what is obscure1 but ,i cannot say that ,i believe what is impossible4 ,it is the will of ,god that we should be virtuous1 and not that we should be absurd4 ,i have already given you ten rupees2 here are twenty more2 believe in thirty rupees2 be an honest man if you can and do not trouble me any more4 ,it is not thus with ,christians4 ,the faith which they have for things which they do not understand is founded upon that which they do understand2 they have grounds of credibility4 ,jesus ,christ performed miracles in ,galilee2 we ought1 therefore1 to believe all that ,he said4 ,in order to know what ,he said we must consult the ,church4 ,the ,church has declared the books which announce ,jesus ,christ to us to be authentic4 ,we ought1 therefore1 to believe those books4 ,those books inform us that he who will not listen to the ,church shall be considered as a tax-gatherer or a ,pagan2 we ought1 therefore1 to listen to the ,church that we may not be disgraced and hated like the farmers-general4 ,we ought to submit our reason to it1 not with infantile and blind credulity1 but with a docile faith1 such as reason itself would authorize4 ,such is ,christian faith1 particularly the ,roman faith1 which is the faith par excellence4 ,the ,lutheran1 ,calvinistic1 or ,anglican faith is a wicked faith4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,divine faith1 about which so much has been written1 is evidently nothing more than incredulity brought under subjection1 for we certainly have no other faculty than the understanding by which we can believe2 and the objects of faith are not those of the understanding4 ,we can believe only what appears to be true2 and nothing can appear true but in one of the three following ways3 by intuition or feeling1 as ,i exist1 ,i see the sun2 by an accumulation of probability amounting to certainty1 as there is a city called ,constantinople2 or by positive demonstration1 as triangles of the same base and height are equal4 ,faith1 therefore1 being nothing at all of this description1 can no more be a belief1 a persuasion1 than it can be yellow or red4 ,it can be nothing but the annihilation of reason1 a silence of adoration at the contemplation of things absolutely incomprehensible4 ,thus1 speaking philosophically1 no person believes the ,trinity2 no person believes that the same body can be in a thousand places at once2 and he who says1 ,i believe these mysteries1 will see1 beyond the possibility of a doubt1 if he reflects for a moment on what passes in his mind1 that these words mean no more than1 ,i respect these mysteries2 ,i submit myself to those who announce them4 ,for they agree with me1 that my reason1 or their own reason1 believe them not2 but it is clear that if my reason is not persuaded1 ,i am not persuaded4 ,i and my reason cannot possibly be two different beings4 ,it is an absolute contradiction that ,i should receive that as true which my understanding rejects as false4 ,faith1 therefore1 is nothing but submissive or deferential incredulity4 ,but why should this submission be exercised when my understanding invincibly recoils8 ,the reason1 we well know1 is1 that my understanding has been persuaded that the mysteries of my faith are laid down by ,god ,himself4 ,all1 then1 that ,i can do1 as a reasonable being1 is to be silent and adore4 ,this is what divines call external faith2 and this faith neither is1 nor can be1 anything more than respect for things incomprehensible1 in consequence of the reliance ,i place on those who teach them4 ,if ,god ,himself were to say to me1 ,thought is of an olive color2 the square of a certain number is bitter2 ,i should certainly understand nothing at all from these words4 ,i could not adopt them either as true or false4 ,but ,i will repeat them1 if ,he commands me to do it2 and ,i will make others repeat them at the risk of my life4 ,this is not faith2 it is nothing more than obedience4 ,in order to obtain a foundation then for this obedience1 it is merely necessary to examine the books which require it4 ,our understanding1 therefore1 should investigate the books of the ,old and ,new ,testament1 just as it would ,plutarch or ,livy2 and if it finds in them incontestable and decisive evidences--evidences obvious to all minds1 and such as would be admitted by men of all nations--that ,god ,himself is their author1 then it is our incumbent duty to subject our understanding to the yoke of faith4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,we have long hesitated whether or not to publish the following article1 ,faith1 which we met with in an old book4 ,our respect for the chair of ,st4 ,peter restrained us4 ,but some pious men having satisfied us that ,alexander ,,vi4 and ,st4 ,peter had nothing in common1 we have at last determined to publish this curious little production1 and do it without the slightest scruple4 ,prince ,pico della ,mirandola once met ,pope ,alexander ,,vi4 at the house of the courtesan ,emilia1 while ,lucretia1 the holy father's daughter1 was confined in childbirth1 and the people of ,rome were discussing whether the child of which she was delivered belonged to the pope1 to his son the ,duke de ,valentinois1 or to ,lucretia's husband1 ,alphonso of ,aragon1 who was considered by many as impotent4 ,the conversation immediately became animated and gay4 ,cardinal ,bembo relates a portion of it4 ,my little ,pico1 says the pope1 whom do you think the father of my grandson8 ,i think your son-in-law1 replied ,pico4 ,what6 how can you possibly believe such nonsense8 ,i believe it by faith4 ,but surely you know that an impotent man cannot be a father4 ,faith1 replied ,pico1 consists in believing things because they are impossible2 and1 besides1 the honor of your house demands that ,lucretia's son should not be reputed the offspring of incest4 ,you require me to believe more incomprehensible mysteries4 ,am ,i not bound to believe that a serpent spoke2 that from that time all mankind were damned2 that the ass of ,balaam also spoke with great eloquence2 and that the walls of ,jericho fell down at the sound of trumpets8 ,pico thus proceeded with a long train of all the prodigious things in which he believed4 ,alexander absolutely fell back upon his sofa with laughing4 ,i believe all that as well as you1 says he1 for ,i well know that ,i can be saved only by faith1 as ,i can certainly never be so by works4 ,ah1 holy father6 says ,pico1 you need neither works nor faith2 they are well enough for such poor1 profane creatures as we are2 but you1 who are absolutely a vice-god--you may believe and do just whatever you please4 ,you have the keys of heaven2 and ,st4 ,peter will certainly never shut the door in your face4 ,but with respect to myself1 who am nothing but a poor prince1 ,i freely confess that ,i should have found some very powerful protection necessary1 if ,i had lain with my own daughter1 or had employed the stiletto and night-shade as often as your holiness4 ,alexander ,,vi4 understood raillery4 ,let us speak seriously1 says he to the prince4 ,tell me what merit there can be in a man's saying to ,god that he is persuaded of things of which1 in fact1 he cannot be persuaded8 ,what pleasure can this afford to ,god8 ,between ourselves1 a man who says that he believes what is impossible to be believed1 is--a liar4 ,pico della ,mirandola at this crossed himself in great agitation4 ,my ,god6 says he1 ,i beg your holiness' pardon2 but you are not a ,christian4 ,i am not1 says the pope1 upon my faith4 ,i suspected so1 said ,pico della ,mirandola4 ,,falsity4 ,falsity1 properly speaking1 is the contrary to truth2 not intentional lying4 ,it is said that there were a hundred thousand men destroyed by the great earthquake at ,lisbon2 this is not a lie--it is a falsity4 ,falsity is much more common than error2 falsity falls more on facts1 and error on opinions4 ,it is an error to believe that the sun turns round the earth2 but it is a falsity to advance that ,louis ,,xiv4 dictated the will of ,charles ,,ii4 ,the falsity of a deed is a much greater crime than a simple lie2 it is a legal imposture--a fraud committed with the pen4 ,a man has a false mind when he always takes things in a wrong sense1 when1 not considering the whole1 he attributes to one side of an object that which belongs to the other1 and when this defect of judgment has become habitual4 ,falseheartedness is1 when a person is accustomed to flatter1 and to utter sentiments which he does not possess2 this is worse than dissimulation1 and is that which the ,latins call simulatio4 ,there is much falsity in historians2 error among philosophers4 ,falsities abound in all polemical writings1 and still more in satirical ones4 ,false minds are insufferable1 and false hearts are horrible4 ,,falsity ,,of ,,human ,,virtues4 ,when the ,duke de la ,rochefoucauld wrote his ,thoughts on ,self-,love1 and discovered this great spring of human action1 one ,m4 ,esprit of the ,oratory1 wrote a book entitled ,of the ,falsity of ,human ,virtues4 ,this author says that there is no virtue but by grace2 and he terminates each chapter by referring to ,christian charity4 ,so that1 according to ,m4 ,esprit1 neither ,cato1 ,aristides1 ,marcus ,aurelius1 nor ,epictetus were good men1 who can be found only among the ,christians4 ,among the ,christians1 again1 there is no virtue except among the ,catholics2 and even among the ,catholics1 the ,jesuits must be excepted as the enemies of the ,oratory2 ergo1 virtue is scarcely to be found anywhere except among the enemies of the ,jesuits4 ,this ,m4 ,esprit commences by asserting that prudence is not a virtue2 and his reason is that it is often deceived4 ,it is as if he had said that ,csar was not a great captain because he was conquered at ,dyrrachium4 ,if ,m4 ,esprit had been a philosopher1 he would not have examined prudence as a virtue1 but as a talent--as a useful and happy quality2 for a great rascal may be very prudent1 and ,i have known many such4 ,oh the age of pretending that ,nul n'aura de vertu que nous et nos amis6--,none are virtuous but ourself and friends6 ,what is virtue1 my friend8 ,it is to do good2 let us then do it1 and that will suffice4 ,but we give you credit for the motive4 ,what1 then6 according to you1 there is no difference between the ,president de ,thou and ,ravaillac8 between ,cicero and that ,popilius whose life he saved1 and who afterwards cut off his head for money2 and thou wilt pronounce ,epictetus and ,porphyrius rogues because they did not follow our dogmas8 ,such insolence is disgusting2 but ,i will say no more1 for ,i am getting angry4