,a ,,philosophical ,,dictionary ,,volume ,,ii ,by ,,voltaire ,,edition ,,de ,,la ,,pacification ,,the ,,works ,,of ,,voltaire ,a ,,contemporary ,,version ,with ,notes by ,tobias ,smollett1 ,revised and ,modernized ,new ,translations by ,william ,f4 ,fleming1 and an ,introduction by ,oliver ,h4,g4 ,leigh ,a ,,critique ,,and ,,biography ,,by ,,the ,,rt4 ,,hon4 ,,john ,,morley ,,forty-,,three ,,volumes ,one hundred and sixty-eight designs1 comprising reproductions of rare old engravings1 steel plates1 photogravures1 and curious fac-similes ,,volume ,,vi ,e4,r4 ,du,m,o,n,t ,,paris--,,london--,,new ,,york--,,chicago #aija ,,the ,,works of ,,voltaire ,between two servants of ,humanity1 who appeared eighteen hundred years apart1 there is a mysterious relation4 99 99 99 99 ,let us say it with a sentiment of profound respect3 ,,jesus ,,wept3 ,,voltaire ,,smiled4 ,of that divine tear and of that human smile is composed the sweetness of the present civilization4 ,,victor ,,hugo4 ,,list ,,of ,,plates--,,vol4 ,,ii ,,the ,,bastille--,frontispiece ,,an ,,astrologer ,a ,,type ,,of ,,beauty ,,alexander',s ,,triumph ,illustration3 ,the ,bastille4--,for four hundred years the symbol of oppression4 ,within its walls the noblest had perished4 ,it was a perpetual threat1 it was the last and often the first argument of king and priest4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,voltaire ,a ,,philosophical ,,dictionary ,,in ,,ten ,,volumes ,,vol ,,ii4 ,,appearance--,,calends 99 99 99 99 99 ,,appearance4 ,are all appearances deceitful8 ,have our senses been given us only to keep us in continual delusion8 ,is everything error8 ,do we live in a dream1 surrounded by shadowy chimeras8 ,we see the sun setting when he is already below the horizon2 before he has yet risen we see him appear4 ,a square tower seems to be round4 ,a straight stick1 thrust into the water1 seems to be bent4 ,you see your face in a mirror and the image appears to be behind the glass3 it is1 however1 neither behind nor before it4 ,this glass1 which to the sight and the touch is so smooth and even1 is no other than an unequal congregation of projections and cavities4 ,the finest and fairest skin is a kind of bristled network1 the openings of which are incomparably larger than the threads1 and enclose an infinite number of minute hairs4 ,under this network there are liquors incessantly passing1 and from it there issue continual exhalations which cover the whole surface4 ,what we call large is to an elephant very small1 and what we call small is to insects a world4 ,the same motion which would be rapid to a snail would be very slow in the eye of an eagle4 ,this rock1 which is impenetrable by steel1 is a sieve consisting of more pores than matter1 and containing a thousand avenues of prodigious width leading to its centre1 in which are lodged multitudes of animals1 which may1 for aught we know1 think themselves the masters of the universe4 ,nothing is either as it appears to be1 or in the place where we believe it to be4 ,several philosophers1 tired of being constantly deceived by bodies1 have in their spleen pronounced that bodies do not exist1 and that there is nothing real but our minds4 ,as well might they have concluded that1 all appearances being false1 and the nature of the soul being as little known as that of the matter1 there is no reality in either body or soul4 ,perhaps it is this despair of knowing anything which has caused some ,chinese philosophers to say that nothing is the beginning and the end of all things4 ,this philosophy1 so destructive to being1 was well known in ,molire's time4 ,doctor ,macphurius represents the school2 when teaching ,sganarelle1 he says1 ,you must not say1 ',i am come1' but 'it seems to me that ,i am come'2 for it may seem to you1 without such being really the case4 ,but at the present day a comic scene is not an argument1 though it is sometimes better than an argument2 and there is often as much pleasure in seeking after truth as in laughing at philosophy4 ,you do not see the network1 the cavities1 the threads1 the inequalities1 the exhalations of that white and delicate skin which you idolize4 ,animals a thousand times less than a mite discern all these objects which escape your vision2 they lodge1 feed1 and travel about in them1 as in an extensive country1 and those on the right arm are perfectly ignorant that there are creatures of their own species on the left4 ,if you were so unfortunate as to see what they see1 your charming skin would strike you with horror4 ,the harmony of a concert1 to which you listen with delight1 must have on certain classes of minute animals the effect of terrible thunder2 and perhaps it kills them4 ,we see1 touch1 hear1 feel things only in the way in which they ought to be seen1 touched1 heard1 or felt by ourselves4 ,all is in due proportion4 ,the laws of optics1 which show you an object in the water where it is not1 and break a right line1 are in entire accordance with those which make the sun appear to you with a diameter of two feet1 although it is a million times larger than the earth4 ,to see it in its true dimensions would require an eye collecting his rays at an angle as great as his disk1 which is impossible4 ,our senses1 then1 assist much more than they deceive us4 ,motion1 time1 hardness1 softness1 dimensions1 distance1 approximation1 strength1 weakness1 appearances1 of whatever kind1 all is relative4 ,and who has created these relations8 ,,apropos4 ,all great successes1 of whatever kind1 are founded upon things done or said apropos4 ,arnold of ,brescia1 ,john ,huss1 and ,jerome of ,prague did not come quite apropos2 the people were not then sufficiently enlightened2 the invention of printing had not then laid the abuses complained of before the eyes of every one4 ,but when men began to read--when the populace1 who were solicitous to escape purgatory1 but at the same time wished not to pay too dear for indulgences1 began to open their eyes1 the reformers of the sixteenth century came quite apropos1 and succeeded4 ,it has been elsewhere observed that ,cromwell under ,elizabeth or ,charles the ,second1 or ,cardinal de ,retz when ,louis ,,xiv4 governed by himself1 would have been very ordinary persons4 ,had ,csar been born in the time of ,scipio ,africanus he would not have subjugated the ,roman commonwealth2 nor would ,mahomet1 could he rise again at the present day1 be more than sheriff of ,mecca4 ,but if ,archimedes and ,virgil were restored1 one would still be the best mathematician1 the other the best poet of his country4 ,,arabs2 ,,and1 ,,occasionally1 ,,on ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,job4 ,if any one be desirous of obtaining a thorough knowledge of the antiquities of ,arabia1 it may be presumed that he will gain no more information than about those of ,auvergne and ,poitou4 ,it is1 however1 certain1 that the ,arabs were of some consequence long before ,mahomet4 ,the ,jews themselves say that ,moses married an ,arabian woman1 and his father-in-law ,jethro seems to have been a man of great good sense4 ,mecca is considered1 and not without reason1 as one of the most ancient cities in the world4 ,it is1 indeed1 a proof of its antiquity that nothing but superstition could occasion the building of a town on such a spot1 for it is in a sandy desert1 where the water is brackish1 so that the people die of hunger and thirst4 ,the country a few miles to the east is the most delightful upon earth1 the best watered and the most fertile4 ,there the ,arabs should have built1 and not at ,mecca4 ,but it was enough for some charlatan1 some false prophet1 to give out his reveries1 to make of ,mecca a sacred spot and the resort of neighboring nations4 ,thus it was that the temple of ,jupiter ,ammon was built in the midst of sands4 ,arabia extends from northeast to southwest1 from the desert of ,jerusalem to ,aden or ,eden1 about the fiftieth degree of north latitude4 ,it is an immense country1 about three times as large as ,germany4 ,it is very likely that its deserts of sand were brought thither by the waters of the ocean1 and that its marine gulfs were once fertile lands4 ,the belief in this nation's antiquity is favored by the circumstance that no historian speaks of its having been subjugated4 ,it was not subdued even by ,alexander1 nor by any king of ,syria1 nor by the ,romans4 ,the ,arabs1 on the contrary1 subjugated a hundred nations1 from the ,indus to the ,garonne2 and1 having afterwards lost their conquests1 they retired into their own country and did not mix with any other people4 ,having never been subject to nor mixed with other nations it is more than probable that they have preserved their manners and their language4 ,indeed1 ,arabic is1 in some sense1 the mother tongue of all ,asia as far as the ,indus2 or rather1 the prevailing tongue1 for mother tongues have never existed4 ,their genius has never changed4 ,they still compose their ,nights' ,entertainments1 as they did when they imagined one ,bac or ,bacchus1 who passed through the ,red ,sea with three millions of men1 women1 and children2 who stopped the sun and moon1 and made streams of wine issue forth with a blow of his rod1 which1 when he chose1 he changed into a serpent4 ,a nation so isolated1 and whose blood remains unmixed1 cannot change its character4 ,the ,arabs of the desert have always been given to robbery1 and those inhabiting the towns been fond of fables1 poetry1 and astronomy4 ,it is said1 in the historical preface to the ,koran1 that when any one of their tribes had a good poet the other tribes never failed to send deputies to that one on which ,god had vouchsafed to bestow so great a gift4 ,the tribes assembled every year1 by representatives1 in an open place named ,ocad1 where verses were recited1 nearly in the same way as is now done at ,rome in the garden of the academy of the ,arcadii1 and this custom continued until the time of ,mahomet4 ,in his time1 each one posted his verses on the door of the temple of ,mecca4 ,labid1 son of ,rabia1 was regarded as the ,homer of ,mecca2 but1 having seen the second chapter of the ,koran1 which ,mahomet had posted1 he fell on his knees before him1 and said1 ,o ,mahomet1 son of ,abdallah1 son of ,motalib1 son of ,achem1 thou art a greater poet than ,i--thou art doubtless the prophet of ,god4 ,the ,arabs of ,maden1 ,nad1 and ,sanaa were no less generous than those of the desert were addicted to plunder4 ,among them1 one friend was dishonored if he had refused his assistance to another4 ,in their collection of verses1 entitled ,tograid1 it is related that1 one day1 in the temple of ,mecca1 three ,arabs were disputing on generosity and friendship1 and could not agree as to which1 among those who then set the greatest examples of these virtues1 deserved the preference4 ,some were for ,abdallah1 son of ,giafar1 uncle to ,mahomet2 others for ,kais1 son of ,saad2 and others for ,arabad1 of the tribe of ,as4 ,after a long dispute they agreed to send a friend of ,abdallah to him1 a friend of ,kais to ,kais1 and a friend of ,arabad to ,arabad1 to try them all three1 and to come and make their report to the assembly4 ,then the friend of ,abdallah went and said to him1 ',son of the uncle of ,mahomet1 ,i am on a journey and am destitute of everything4' ,abdallah was mounted on his camel loaded with gold and silk2 he dismounted with all speed1 gave him his camel1 and returned home on foot4 ,the second went and made application to his friend ,kais1 son of ,saad4 ,kais was still asleep1 and one of his domestics asked the traveller what he wanted4 ,the traveller answered that he was the friend of ,kais1 and needed his assistance4 ,the domestic said to him1 ',i will not wake my master2 but here are seven thousand pieces of gold1 which are all that we at present have in the house4 ,take also a camel from the stable1 and a slave2 these will1 ,i think1 be sufficient for you until you reach your own house4' ,when ,kais awoke1 he chid the domestic for not having given more4 ,the third repaired to his friend ,arabad1 of the tribe of ,as4 ,arabad was blind1 and was coming out of his house1 leaning on two slaves1 to pray to ,god in the temple of ,mecca4 ,as soon as he heard his friend's voice1 he said to him1 ',i possess nothing but my two slaves2 ,i beg that you will take and sell them2 ,i will go to the temple as well as ,i can1 with my stick4' ,the three disputants1 having returned to the assembly1 faithfully related what had happened4 ,many praises were bestowed on ,abdallah1 son of ,giafar--on ,kais1 son of ,saad--and on ,arabad1 of the tribe of ,as1 but the preference was given to ,arabad4 ,the ,arabs have several tales of this kind1 but our western nations have none4 ,our romances are not in this taste4 ,we have1 indeed1 several which turn upon trick alone1 as those of ,boccaccio1 ,guzman d',alfarache1 ,gil ,bias1 etc4 ,on ,job1 the ,arab4 ,it is clear that the ,arabs at least possessed noble and exalted ideas4 ,those who are most conversant with the oriental languages think that the ,book of ,job1 which is of the highest antiquity1 was composed by an ,arab of ,idumaea4 ,the most clear and indubitable proof is that the ,hebrew translator has left in his translation more than a hundred ,arabic words1 which1 apparently1 he did not understand4 ,job1 the hero of the piece1 could not be a ,hebrew1 for he says1 in the forty-second chapter1 that having been restored to his former circumstances1 he divided his possessions equally among his sons and daughters1 which is directly contrary to the ,hebrew law4 ,it is most likely that1 if this book had been composed after the period at which we place ,moses1 the author--who speaks of so many things and is not sparing of examples--would have mentioned some one of the astonishing prodigies worked by ,moses1 which were1 doubtless1 known to all the nations of ,asia4 ,in the very first chapter ,satan appears before ,god and asks permission to tempt ,job4 ,satan was unknown in the ,pentateuch2 it was a ,chaldan word2 a fresh proof that the ,arabian author was in the neighborhood of ,chalda4 ,it has been thought that he might be a ,jew because the ,hebrew translator has put ,jehovah instead of ,el1 or ,bel1 or ,sadai4 ,but what man of the least information does not know that the word ,jehovah was common to the ,phnicians1 the ,syrians1 the ,egyptians1 and every people of the neighboring countries8 ,a yet stronger proof--one to which there is no reply--is the knowledge of astronomy which appears in the ,book of ,job4 ,mention is here made of the constellations which we call ,arcturus1 ,orion1 the ,pleiades1 and even of those of the chambers of the south4 ,now1 the ,hebrews had no knowledge of the sphere2 they had not even a term to express astronomy2 but the ,arabs1 like the ,chaldans1 have always been famed for their skill in this science4 ,it does1 then1 seem to be thoroughly proved that the ,book of ,job cannot have been written by a ,jew1 and that it was anterior to all the ,jewish books1 ,philo and ,josephus were too prudent to count it among those of the ,hebrew canon4 ,it is incontestably an ,arabian parable or allegory4 ,this is not all4 ,we derive from it some knowledge of the customs of the ancient world1 and especially of ,arabia4 ,here we read of trading with the ,indies2 a commerce which the ,arabs have in all ages carried on1 but which the ,jews never even heard of4 ,here1 too1 we see that the art of writing was in great cultivation1 and that they already made great books4 ,it cannot be denied that the commentator ,calmet1 profound as he is1 violates all the rules of logic in pretending that ,job announces the immortality of the soul and the resurrection of the body1 when he says3 ,for ,i know that my ,redeemer liveth4 ,and though after my skin--worms destroy this body1 yet in my flesh shall ,i see ,god4 ,but ye should say1 ,why persecute we him8--seeing the root of the matter is found in me4 ,be ye afraid of the sword2 for wrath bringeth the punishment of the sword1 that ye may know there is a judgment4 ,can anything be understood by those words1 other than his hope of being cured8 ,the immortality of the soul1 and the resurrection of the body at the last day1 are truths so indubitably announced in the ,new ,testament1 and so clearly proved by the fathers and the councils1 that there is no need to attribute the first knowledge of them to an ,arab4 ,these great mysteries are not explained in any passage of the ,hebrew ,pentateuch2 how then can they be explained in a single verse of ,job and that in so obscure a manner8 ,calmet has no better reason for seeing in the words of ,job the immortality of the soul1 and the general resurrection1 than he would have for discovering a disgraceful disease in the malady with which he was afflicted4 ,neither physics nor logic take the part of this commentator4 ,as for this allegorical ,book of ,job3 it being manifestly ,arabian1 we are at liberty to say that it has neither justness1 method1 nor precision4 ,yet it is perhaps the most ancient book that has been written1 and the most valuable monument that has been found on this side the ,euphrates4 ,,ararat4 ,this is a mountain of ,armenia1 on which the ark rested4 ,the question has long been agitated1 whether the deluge was universal--whether it inundated the whole earth without exception1 or only the portion of the earth which was then known4 ,those who have thought that it extended only to the tribes then existing1 have founded their opinion on the inutility of flooding unpeopled lands1 which reason seems very plausible4 ,as for us1 we abide by the ,scripture text1 without pretending to explain it4 ,but we shall take greater liberty with ,berosus1 an ancient ,chaldan writer1 of whom there are fragments preserved by ,abydenus1 quoted by ,eusebius1 and repeated word for word by ,george ,syncellus4 ,from these fragments we find that the ,orientals of the borders of the ,euxine1 in ancient times1 made ,armenia the abode of their gods4 ,in this they were imitated by the ,greeks1 who placed their deities on ,mount ,olympus4 ,men have always confounded human with divine things4 ,princes built their citadels on mountains2 therefore they were also made the dwelling place of the gods1 and became sacred4 ,the summit of ,mount ,ararat is concealed by mists2 therefore the gods hid themselves in those mists1 sometimes vouchsafing to appear to mortals in fine weather4 ,a god of that country1 believed to have been ,saturn1 appeared one day to ,xixuter1 tenth king of ,chalda1 according to the computation of ,africanus1 ,abydenus1 and ,apollodorus1 and said to him3 ,on the fifteenth day of the month ,oesi1 mankind shall be destroyed by a deluge4 ,shut up close all your writings in ,sipara1 the city of the sun1 that the memory of things may not be lost4 ,build a vessel2 enter it with your relatives and friends2 take with you birds and beasts2 stock it with provisions1 and1 when you are asked1 ',whither are you going in that vessel8' answer1 ',to the gods1 to beg their favor for mankind4' ,xixuter built his vessel1 which was two stadii wide1 and five long2 that it1 its width was two hundred and fifty geometrical paces1 and its length six hundred and twenty-five4 ,this ship1 which was to go upon the ,black ,sea1 was a slow sailer4 ,the flood came4 ,when it had ceased ,xixuter let some of his birds fly out1 but1 finding nothing to eat1 they returned to the vessel4 ,a few days afterwards he again set some of his birds at liberty1 and they returned with mud in their claws4 ,at last they went and returned no more4 ,xixuter did likewise3 he quitted his ship1 which had perched upon a mountain of ,armenia1 and he was seen no more2 the gods took him away4 ,there is probably something historic in this fable4 ,the ,euxine overflowed its banks1 and inundated some portions of territory1 and the king of ,chalda hastened to repair the damage4 ,we have in ,rabelais tales no less ridiculous1 founded on some small portion of truth4 ,the ancient historians are1 for the most part1 serious ,rabelais4 ,as for ,mount ,ararat1 it has been asserted that it was one of the mountains of ,phrygia1 and that it was called by a name answering that of ark1 because it was enclosed by three rivers4 ,there are thirty opinions respecting this mountain4 ,how shall we distinguish the true one8 ,that which the monks now call ,ararat1 was1 they say1 one of the limits of the terrestrial paradise--a paradise of which we find but few traces4 ,it is a collection of rocks and precipices1 covered with eternal snows4 ,tournefort went thither by order of ,louis ,,xiv4 to seek for plants4 ,he says that the whole neighborhood is horrible1 and the mountain itself still more so2 that he found snow four feet thick1 and quite crystallized1 and that there are perpendicular precipices on every side4 ,the ,dutch traveller1 ,john ,struys1 pretends that he went thither also4 ,he tells us that he ascended to the very top1 to cure a hermit afflicted with a rupture4 ,his hermitage1 says he1 was so distant from the earth that we did not reach it until the close of the seventh day1 though each day we went five leagues4 ,if1 in this journey1 he was constantly ascending1 this ,mount ,ararat must be thirty-five leagues high4 ,in the time of the ,giants' war1 a few ,ararats piled one upon another would have made the ascent to the moon quite easy4 ,john ,struys1 moreover1 assures us that the hermit whom he cured presented him with a cross made of the wood of ,noah's ark4 ,tournefort had not this advantage4 ,,arianism4 ,the great theological disputes1 for twelve hundred years1 were all ,greek4 ,what would ,homer1 ,sophocles1 ,demosthenes1 ,archimedes1 have said1 had they witnessed the subtle cavillings which have cost so much blood4 ,arius has1 even at this day1 the honor of being regarded as the inventor of his opinion1 as ,calvin is considered to have been the founder of ,calvinism4 ,the pride in being the head of a sect is the second of this world's vanities2 for that of conquest is said to be the first4 ,however1 it is certain that neither ,arius nor ,calvin is entitled to the melancholy glory of invention4 ,the quarrel about the ,trinity existed long before ,arius took part in it1 in the disputatious town of ,alexandria1 where it had been beyond the power of ,euclid to make men think calmly and justly4 ,there never was a people more frivolous than the ,alexandrians2 in this respect they far exceeded even the ,parisians4 ,there must already have been warm disputes about the ,trinity2 since the patriarch1 who composed the ,alexandrian ,chronicle1 preserved at ,oxford1 assures us that the party embraced by ,arius was supported by two thousand priests4 ,we will here1 for the reader's convenience1 give what is said of ,arius in a small book which every one may not have at hand3 ,here is an incomprehensible question1 which1 for more than sixteen hundred years1 has furnished exercise for curiosity1 for sophistic subtlety1 for animosity1 for the spirit of cabal1 for the fury of dominion1 for the rage of persecution1 for blind and sanguinary fanaticism1 for barbarous credulity1 and which has produced more horrors than the ambition of princes1 which ambition has occasioned very many4 ,is ,jesus the ,word8 ,if ,he be the ,word1 did ,he emanate from ,god in time or before time8 ,if ,he emanated from ,god1 is ,he coeternal and consubstantial with ,him1 or is ,he of a similar substance8 ,is ,he distinct from ,him1 or is ,he not8 ,is ,he made or begotten8 ,can ,he beget in his turn8 ,has ,he paternity8 or productive virtue without paternity8 ,is the ,holy ,ghost made8 or begotten8 or produced8 or proceeding from the ,father8 or proceeding from the ,son8 or proceeding from both8 ,can ,he beget8 can ,he produce8 is ,his hypostasis consubstantial with the hypostasis of the ,father and the ,son8 and how is it that1 having the same nature--the same essence as the ,father and the ,son1 ,he cannot do the same things done by these persons who are ,himself8 ,these questions1 so far above reason1 certainly needed the decision of an infallible church4 ,the ,christians sophisticated1 cavilled1 hated1 and excommunicated one another1 for some of these dogmas inaccessible to human intellect1 before the time of ,arius and ,athanasius4 ,the ,egyptian ,greeks were remarkably clever2 they would split a hair into four1 but on this occasion they split it only into three4 ,alexandros1 bishop of ,alexandria1 thought proper to preach that ,god1 being necessarily individual--single--a monad in the strictest sense of the word1 this monad is triune4 ,the priest ,arius1 whom we call ,arius1 was quite scandalized by ,alexandros's monad1 and explained the thing in quite a different way4 ,he cavilled in part like the priest ,sabellius1 who had cavilled like the ,phrygian ,praxeas1 who was a great caviller4 ,alexandros quickly assembled a small council of those of his own opinion1 and excommunicated his priest4 ,eusebius1 bishop of ,nicomedia1 took the part of ,arius4 ,thus the whole ,church was in a flame4 ,the ,emperor ,constantine was a villain2 ,i confess it--a parricide1 who had smothered his wife in a bath1 cut his son's throat1 assassinated his father-in-law1 his brother-in-law1 and his nephew2 ,i cannot deny it--a man puffed up with pride and immersed in pleasure2 granted--a detestable tyrant1 like his children2 transeat--but he was a man of sense4 ,he would not have obtained the empire1 and subdued all his rivals1 had he not reasoned justly4 ,when he saw the flames of civil war lighted among the scholastic brains1 he sent the celebrated ,bishop ,osius with dissuasive letters to the two belligerent parties4 ,you are great fools1 he expressly tells them in this letter1 to quarrel about things which you do not understand4 ,it is unworthy the gravity of your ministry to make so much noise about so trifling a matter4 ,by so trifling a matter1 ,constantine meant not what regards the ,divinity1 but the incomprehensible manner in which they were striving to explain the nature of the ,divinity4 ,the ,arabian patriarch1 who wrote the history of the ,church of ,alexandria1 makes ,osius1 on presenting the emperor's letter1 speak in nearly the following words3 ,my brethren1 ,christianity is just beginning to enjoy the blessings of peace1 and you would plunge it into eternal discord4 ,the emperor has but too much reason to tell you that you quarrel about a very trifling matter4 ,certainly1 had the object of the dispute been essential1 ,jesus ,christ1 whom we all acknowledge as our legislator1 would have mentioned it4 ,god would not have sent ,his ,son on earth1 to return without teaching us our catechism4 ,whatever ,he has not expressly told us is the work of men and error is their portion4 ,jesus has commanded you to love one another1 and you begin by hating one another and stirring up discord in the empire4 ,pride alone has given birth to these disputes1 and ,jesus1 your ,master1 has commanded you to be humble4 ,not one among you can know whether ,jesus is made or begotten4 ,and in what does ,his nature concern you1 provided your own is to be just and reasonable8 ,what has the vain science of words to do with the morality which should guide your actions8 ,you cloud our doctrines with mysteries--you1 who were designed to strengthen religion by your virtues4 ,would you leave the ,christian religion a mass of sophistry8 ,did ,christ come for this8 ,cease to dispute1 humble yourselves1 edify one another1 clothe the naked1 feed the hungry1 and pacify the quarrels of families1 instead of giving scandal to the whole empire by your dissensions4 ,but ,osius addressed an obstinate audience4 ,the ,council of ,nice was assembled and the ,roman ,empire was torn by a spiritual civil war4 ,this war brought on others and mutual persecution has continued from age to age1 unto this day4 ,the melancholy part of the affair was that as soon as the council was ended the persecution began2 but ,constantine1 when he opened it1 did not yet know how he should act1 nor upon whom the persecution should fall4 ,he was not a ,christian1 though he was at the head of the ,christians4 ,baptism alone then constituted ,christianity1 and he had not been baptized2 he had even rebuilt the ,temple of ,concord at ,rome4 ,it was1 doubtless1 perfectly indifferent to him whether ,alexander of ,alexandria1 or ,eusebius of ,nicomedia1 and the priest ,arius1 were right or wrong2 it is quite evident1 from the letter given above1 that he had a profound contempt for the dispute4 ,but there happened that which always happens and always will happen in every court4 ,the enemies of those who were afterwards named ,arians accused ,eusebius of ,nicomedia of having formerly taken part with ,licinius against the emperor4 ,i have proofs of it1 said ,constantine in his letter to the ,church of ,nicomedia1 from the priests and deacons in his train whom ,i have taken1 etc4 ,thus1 from the time of the first great council1 intrigue1 cabal1 and persecution were established1 together with the tenets of the ,church1 without the power to derogate from their sanctity4 ,constantine gave the chapels of those who did not believe in the consubstantiality to those who did believe in it2 confiscated the property of the dissenters to his own profit1 and used his despotic power to exile ,arius and his partisans1 who were not then the strongest4 ,it has even been said that of his own private authority he condemned to death whosoever should not burn the writings of ,arius2 but this is not true4 ,constantine1 prodigal as he was of human blood1 did not carry his cruelty to so mad and absurd an excess as to order his executioners to assassinate the man who should keep an heretical book1 while he suffered the heresiarch to live4 ,at court everything soon changes4 ,several non-consubstantial bishops1 with some of the eunuchs and the women1 spoke in favor of ,arius1 and obtained the reversal of the lettre de cachet4 ,the same thing has repeatedly happened in our modern courts on similar occasions4 ,the celebrated ,eusebius1 bishop of ,csarea1 known by his writings1 which evince no great discernment1 strongly accused ,eustatius1 bishop of ,antioch1 of being a ,sabellian2 and ,eustatius accused ,eusebius of being an ,arian4 ,a council was assembled at ,antioch2 ,eusebius gained his cause2 ,eustatius was displaced2 and the ,see of ,antioch was offered to ,eusebius1 who would not accept it2 the two parties armed against each other1 and this was the prelude to controversial warfare4 ,constantine1 who had banished ,arius for not believing in the consubstantial ,son1 now banished ,eustatius for believing in ,him2 nor are such revolutions uncommon4 ,st4 ,athanasius was then bishop of ,alexandria4 ,he would not admit ,arius1 whom the emperor had sent thither1 into the town1 saying that ,arius was excommunicated2 that an excommunicated man ought no longer to have either home or country2 that he could neither eat nor sleep anywhere2 and that it was better to obey ,god than man4 ,a new council was forthwith held at ,tyre1 and new lettres de cachet were issued4 ,athanasius was removed by the ,tyrian fathers and banished to ,trves4 ,thus ,arius1 and ,athanasius1 his greatest enemy1 were condemned in turn by a man who was not yet a ,christian3 ,the two factions alike employed artifice1 fraud1 and calumny1 according to the old and eternal usage4 ,constantine left them to dispute and cabal1 for he had other occupations4 ,it was at that time that this good prince assassinated his son1 his wife1 and his nephew1 the young ,licinius1 the hope of the empire1 who was not yet twelve years old4 ,under ,constantine1 ,arius' party was constantly victorious4 ,the opposite party has unblushingly written that one day ,st4 ,macarius1 one of the most ardent followers of ,athanasius1 knowing that ,arius was on the way to the cathedral of ,constantinople1 followed by several of his brethren1 prayed so ardently to ,god to confound this heresiarch that ,god could not resist the prayer2 and immediately all ,arius' bowels passed through his fundament--which is impossible4 ,but at length ,arius died4 ,constantine followed him a year afterwards1 and it is said he died of leprosy4 ,julian1 in his ,csars1 says that baptism1 which this emperor received a few hours before his death1 cured no one of this distemper4 ,as his children reigned after him the flattery of the ,roman people1 who had long been slaves1 was carried to such an excess that those of the old religion made him a god1 and those of the new made him a saint4 ,his feast was long kept1 together with that of his mother4 ,after his death1 the troubles caused by the single word consubstantial agitated the empire with renewed violence4 ,constantius1 son and successor to ,constantine1 imitated all his father's cruelties1 and1 like him1 held councils--which councils anathematized one another4 ,athanasius went over all ,europe and ,asia to support his party1 but the ,eusebians overwhelmed him4 ,banishment1 imprisonment1 tumult1 murder1 and assassination signalized the close of the reign of ,constantius4 ,julian1 the ,church's mortal enemy1 did his utmost to restore peace to the ,church1 but was unsuccessful4 ,jovian1 and after him ,valentinian1 gave entire liberty of conscience1 but the two parties accepted it only as the liberty to exercise their hatred and their fury4 ,theodosius declared for the ,council of ,nice1 but the ,empress ,justina1 who reigned in ,italy1 ,illyria1 and ,africa1 as guardian of the young ,valentinian1 proscribed the great ,council of ,nice2 and soon after the ,goths1 ,vandals1 and ,burgundians1 who spread themselves over so many provinces1 finding ,arianism established in them1 embraced it in order to govern the conquered nations by the religion of those nations4 ,but the ,nican faith having been received by the ,gauls1 their conqueror1 ,clovis1 followed that communion for the very same reason that the other barbarians had professed the faith of ,arius4 ,in ,italy1 the great ,theodoric kept peace between the two parties1 and at last the ,nican formula prevailed in the east and in the west4 ,arianism reappeared about the middle of the sixteenth century1 favored by the religious disputes which then divided ,europe2 and it reappeared1 armed with new strength and a still greater incredulity4 ,forty gentlemen of ,vicenza formed an academy1 in which such tenets only were established as appeared necessary to make men ,christians4 ,jesus was acknowledged as the ,word1 as ,saviour1 and as ,judge2 but ,his divinity1 ,his consubstantiality1 and even the ,trinity1 were denied4 ,of these dogmatizers1 the principal were ,llius ,socinus1 ,ochin1 ,pazuta1 and ,gentilis1 who were joined by ,servetus4 ,the unfortunate dispute of the latter with ,calvin is well known2 they carried on for some time an interchange of abuse by letter4 ,servetus was so imprudent as to pass through ,geneva1 on his way to ,germany4 ,calvin was cowardly enough to have him arrested1 and barbarous enough to have him condemned to be roasted by a slow fire--the same punishment which ,calvin himself had narrowly escaped in ,france4 ,nearly all the theologians of that time were by turns persecuting and persecuted1 executioners and victims4 ,the same ,calvin solicited the death of ,gentilis at ,geneva4 ,he found five advocates to subscribe that ,gentilis deserved to perish in the flames4 ,such horrors were worthy of that abominable age4 ,gentilis was put in prison1 and was on the point of being burned like ,servetus1 but he was better advised than the ,spaniard2 he retracted1 bestowed the most ridiculous praises on ,calvin1 and was saved4 ,but he had afterwards the ill fortune1 through not having made terms with a bailiff of the canton of ,berne1 to be arrested as an ,arian4 ,there were witnesses who deposed that he had said that the words trinity1 essence1 hypostasis were not to be found in the ,scriptures1 and on this deposition the judges1 who were as ignorant of the meaning of hypostasis as himself1 condemned him1 without at all arguing the question1 to lose his head4 ,faustus ,socinus1 nephew to ,llius ,socinus1 and his companions were more fortunate in ,germany4 ,they penetrated into ,silesia and ,poland1 founded churches there1 wrote1 preached1 and were successful1 but at length1 their religion being divested of almost every mystery1 and a philosophical and peaceful1 rather than a militant sect1 they were abandoned2 and the ,jesuits1 who had more influence1 persecuted and dispersed them4 ,the remains of this sect in ,poland1 ,germany1 and ,holland keep quiet and concealed2 but in ,england the sect has reappeared with greater strength and clat4 ,the great ,newton and ,locke embraced it4 ,samuel ,clarke1 the celebrated rector of ,st4 ,james1 and author of an excellent book on the existence of ,god1 openly declared himself an ,arian1 and his disciples are very numerous4 ,he would never attend his parish church on the day when the ,athanasian ,creed was recited4 ,in the course of this work will be seen the subtleties which all these obstinate persons1 who were not so much ,christians as philosophers1 opposed to the purity of the ,catholic faith4 ,although among the theologians of ,london there was a large flock of ,arians1 the public mind there has been more occupied by the great mathematical truths discovered by ,newton1 and the metaphysical wisdom of ,locke4 ,disputes on consubstantiality appear very dull to philosophers4 ,the same thing happened to ,newton in ,england as to ,corneille in ,france1 whose ,pertharite1 ,thodore1 and ,recueil de ,vers were forgotten1 while ,cinna was alone thought of4 ,newton was looked upon as ,god's interpreter1 in the calculation of fluxions1 the laws of gravitation1 and the nature of light4 ,on his death1 his pall was borne by the peers and the chancellor of the realm1 and his remains were laid near the tombs of the kings--than whom he is more revered4 ,servetus1 who is said to have discovered the circulation of the blood1 was roasted by a slow fire1 in a little town of the ,allobroges1 ruled by a theologian of ,picardy4 ,,aristeas4 ,shall men forever be deceived in the most indifferent as well as the most serious things8 ,a pretended ,aristeas would make us believe that he had the ,old ,testament translated into ,greek for the use of ,ptolemy ,philadelphus--just as the ,duke de ,montausier had commentaries written on the best ,latin authors for the dauphin1 who made no use of them4 ,according to this ,aristeas1 ,ptolemy1 burning with desire to be acquainted with the ,jewish books1 and to know those laws which the meanest ,jew in ,alexandria could have translated for fifty crowns1 determined to send a solemn embassy to the high-priest of the ,jews of ,jerusalem2 to deliver a hundred and twenty thousand ,jewish slaves1 whom his father1 ,ptolemy ,soter1 had made prisoners in ,juda1 and in order to assist them in performing the journey agreeably1 to give them about forty crowns each of our money--amounting in the whole to fourteen millions four hundred thousand of our livres1 or about five hundred and seventy-six thousand pounds4 ,ptolemy did not content himself with this unheard-of liberality4 ,he sent to the temple a large table of massive gold1 enriched all over with precious stones1 and had engraved upon it a chart of the ,meander1 a river of ,phrygia1 the course of which river was marked with rubies and emeralds4 ,it is obvious how charming such a chart of the ,meander must have been to the ,jews4 ,this table was loaded with two immense golden vases1 still more richly worked4 ,he also gave thirty other golden and an infinite number of silver vases4 ,never was a book so dearly paid for2 the whole ,vatican library might be had for a less amount4 ,eleazar1 the pretended high-priest of ,jerusalem1 sent ambassadors in his turn1 who presented only a letter written upon fine vellum in characters of gold4 ,it was an act worthy of the ,jews1 to give a bit of parchment for about thirty millions of livres4 ,ptolemy was so much delighted with ,eleazar's style that he shed tears of joy4 ,the ambassador dined with the king and the chief priests of ,egypt4 ,when grace was to be said1 the ,egyptians yielded the honor to the ,jews4 ,with these ambassadors came seventy-two interpreters1 six from each of the twelve tribes1 who had all learned ,greek perfectly at ,jerusalem4 ,it is really a pity that of these twelve tribes ten were entirely lost1 and had disappeared from the face of the earth so many ages before2 but ,eleazar1 the high-priest1 found them again1 on purpose to send translators to ,ptolemy4 ,the seventy-two interpreters were shut up in the island of ,pharos4 ,each of them completed his translation in seventy-two days1 and all the translations were found to be word for word alike4 ,this is called the ,septuagint or translation of the seventy1 though it should have been called the translation of the seventy-two4 ,as soon as the king had received these books he worshipped them--he was so good a ,jew4 ,each interpreter received three talents of gold1 and there were sent to the high-sacrificer--in return for his parchment--ten couches of silver1 a crown of gold1 censers and cups of gold1 a vase of thirty talents of silver--that is1 of the weight of about sixty thousand crowns--with ten purple robes1 and a hundred pieces of the finest linen4 ,nearly all this fine story is faithfully repeated by the historian ,josephus1 who never exaggerates anything4 ,st4 ,justin improves upon ,josephus4 ,he says that ,ptolemy applied to ,king ,herod1 and not to the high-priest ,eleazar4 ,he makes ,ptolemy send two ambassadors to ,herod--which adds much to the marvellousness of the tale1 for we know that ,herod was not born until long after the reign of ,ptolemy ,philadelphus4 ,it is needless to point out the profusion of anachronisms in these and all such romances1 or the swarm of contradictions and enormous blunders into which the ,jewish author falls in every sentence2 yet this fable was regarded for ages as an incontestable truth2 and1 the better to exercise the credulity of the human mind1 every writer who repeated it added or retrenched in his own way1 so that1 to believe it all1 it was necessary to believe it in a hundred different ways4 ,some smile at these absurdities which whole nations have swallowed1 while others sigh over the imposture4 ,the infinite diversity of these falsehoods multiplies the followers of ,democritus and ,heraclitus4 ,,aristotle4 ,it is not to be believed that ,alexander's preceptor1 chosen by ,philip1 was wrong-headed and pedantic4 ,philip was assuredly a judge1 being himself well informed1 and the rival of ,demosthenes in eloquence4 ,aristotle's ,logic4 ,aristotle's logic--his art of reasoning--is so much the more to be esteemed as he had to deal with the ,greeks1 who were continually holding captious arguments1 from which fault his master ,plato was even less exempt than others4 ,take1 for example1 the article by which1 in the ,phdon ,plato proves the immortality of the soul3 ,do you not say that death is the opposite of life8 ,yes4 ,and that they spring from each other8 ,yes4 ,what1 then1 is it that springs from the living8 ,the dead4 ,and what from the dead8 ,the living4 ,it is1 then1 from the dead that all living creatures arise4 ,consequently1 souls exist after death in the infernal regions4 ,sure and unerring rules were wanted to unravel this extraordinary nonsense1 which1 through ,plato's reputation1 fascinated the minds of men4 ,it was necessary to show that ,plato gave a loose meaning to all his words4 ,death does not spring from life1 but the living man ceases to live4 ,the living springs not from the dead1 but from a living man who subsequently dies4 ,consequently1 the conclusion that all living things spring from dead ones is ridiculous4 ,from this conclusion you draw another1 which is no way included in the premises1 that souls are in the infernal regions after death4 ,it should first have been proved that dead bodies are in the infernal regions1 and that the souls accompany them4 ,there is not a correct word in your argument4 ,you should have said--,that which thinks has no parts2 that which has no parts is indestructible3 therefore1 the thinking faculty in us1 having no parts1 is indestructible4 ,or--the body dies because it is divisible2 the soul is indivisible2 therefore it does not die4 ,then you would at least have been understood4 ,it is the same with all the captious reasonings of the ,greeks4 ,a master taught rhetoric to his disciple on condition that he should pay him after the first cause that he gained4 ,the disciple intended never to pay him4 ,he commenced an action against his master1 saying3 ,i will never pay you anything1 for1 if ,i lose my cause ,i was not to pay you until ,i had gained it1 and if ,i gain it my demand is that ,i may not pay you4 ,the master retorted1 saying3 ,if you lose you must pay2 if you gain you must also pay2 for our bargain is that you shall pay me after the first cause that you have gained4 ,it is evident that all this turns on an ambiguity4 ,aristotle teaches how to remove it1 by putting the necessary terms in the argument3 ,a sum is not due until the day appointed for its payment4 ,the day appointed is that when a cause shall have been gained4 ,no cause has yet been gained4 ,therefore the day appointed has not yet arrived4 ,therefore the disciple does not yet owe anything4 ,but not yet does not mean never4 ,so that the disciple instituted a ridiculous action4 ,the master1 too1 had no right to demand anything1 since the day appointed had not arrived4 ,he must wait until the disciple had pleaded some other cause4 ,suppose a conquering people were to stipulate that they would restore to the conquered only one-half of their ships2 then1 having sawed them in two1 and having thus given back the exact half1 were to pretend that they had fulfilled the treaty4 ,it is evident that this would be a very criminal equivocation4 ,aristotle did1 then1 render a great service to mankind by preventing all ambiguity2 for this it is which causes all misunderstandings in philosophy1 in theology1 and in public affairs4 ,the pretext for the unfortunate war of #agef was an equivocation respecting ,acadia4 ,it is true that natural good sense1 combined with the habit of reasoning1 may dispense with ,aristotle's rules4 ,a man who has a good ear and voice may sing well without musical rules1 but it is better to know them4 ,his ,physics4 ,they are but little understood1 but it is more than probable that ,aristotle understood himself1 and was understood in his own time4 ,we are strangers to the language of the ,greeks2 we do not attach to the same words the same ideas4 ,for instance1 when he says1 in his seventh chapter1 that the principles of bodies are matter1 privation1 and form1 he seems to talk egregious nonsense2 but such is not the case4 ,matter1 with him1 is the first principle of everything--the subject of everything--indifferent to everything4 ,form is essential to its becoming any certain thing4 ,privation is that which distinguishes any being from all those things which are not in it4 ,matter may1 indifferently1 become a rose or an apple2 but1 when it is an apple or a rose it is deprived of all that would make it silver or lead4 ,perhaps this truth was not worth the trouble of repeating2 but we have nothing here but what is quite intelligible1 and nothing at all impertinent4 ,the act of that which is in power also seems a ridiculous phrase1 though it is no more so than the one just noticed4 ,matter may become whatever you will--fire1 earth1 water1 vapor1 metal1 mineral1 animal1 tree1 flower4 ,this is all that is meant by the expression1 act in power4 ,so that there was nothing ridiculous to the ,greeks in saying that motion was an act of power1 since matter may be moved2 and it is very likely that ,aristotle understood thereby that motion was not essential to matter4 ,aristotle's physics must necessarily have been very bad in detail4 ,this was common to all philosophers until the time when the ,galileos1 the ,torricellis1 the ,guerickes1 the ,drebels1 and the ,academy del ,cimento began to make experiments4 ,natural philosophy is a mine which cannot be explored without instruments that were unknown to the ancients4 ,they remained on the brink of the abyss1 and reasoned upon without seeing its contents4 ,aristotle's ,treatise on ,animals4 ,his researches relative to animals formed1 on the contrary1 the best book of antiquity1 because here ,aristotle made use of his eyes4 ,alexander furnished him with all the rare animals of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa4 ,this was one fruit of his conquests4 ,in this way that hero spent immense sums1 which at this day would terrify all the guardians of the royal treasury1 and which should immortalize ,alexander's glory1 of which we have already spoken4 ,at the present day a hero1 when he has the misfortune to make war1 can scarcely give any encouragement to the sciences2 he must borrow money of a ,jew1 and consult other ,jews in order to make the substance of his subjects flow into his coffer of the ,danaides1 whence it escapes through a thousand openings4 ,alexander sent to ,aristotle elephants1 rhinoceroses1 tigers1 lions1 crocodiles1 gazelles1 eagles1 ostriches1 etc42 and we1 when by chance a rare animal is brought to our fairs1 go and admire it for sixpence1 and it dies before we know anything about it4 ,of the ,eternal ,world4 ,aristotle expressly maintains1 in his book on heaven1 chap1 xi41 that the world is eternal4 ,this was the opinion of all antiquity1 excepting the ,epicureans4 ,he admitted a ,god--a first mover--and defined ,him to be one1 eternal1 immovable1 indivisible1 without qualities4 ,he must1 therefore1 have regarded the world as emanating from ,god1 as the light emanates from the sun1 and is co-existent with it4 ,about the celestial spheres he was as ignorant as all the rest of the philosophers4 ,copernicus was not yet come4 ,his ,metaphysics4 ,god being the first mover1 ,he gives motion to the soul4 ,but what is ,god1 and what is the soul1 according to him8 ,the soul is an entelechia4 ,it is1 says he1 a principle and an act--a nourishing1 feeling1 and reasoning power4 ,this can only mean that we have the faculties of nourishing ourselves1 of feeling1 and of reasoning4 ,the ,greeks no more knew what an entelechia was than do the ,south ,sea islanders2 nor have our doctors any more knowledge of what a soul is4 ,his ,morals4 ,aristotle's morals1 like all others1 are good1 for there are not two systems of morality4 ,those of ,confucius1 of ,zoroaster1 of ,pythagoras1 of ,aristotle1 of ,epictetus1 of ,antoninus1 are absolutely the same4 ,god has placed in every breast the knowledge of good1 with some inclination for evil4 ,aristotle says that to be virtuous three things are necessary--nature1 reason1 and habit2 and nothing is more true4 ,without a good disposition1 virtue is too difficult2 reason strengthens it2 and habit renders good actions as familiar as a daily exercise to which one is accustomed4 ,he enumerates all the virtues1 and does not fail to place friendship among them4 ,he distinguishes friendship between equals1 between relatives1 between guests1 and between lovers4 ,friendship springing from the rights of hospitality is no longer known among us4 ,that which1 among the ancients1 was the sacred bond of society is1 with us1 nothing but an innkeeper's reckoning2 and as for lovers1 it is very rarely nowadays that virtue has anything to do with love4 ,we think we owe nothing to a woman to whom we have a thousand times promised everything4 ,it is a melancholy reflection that our first thinkers have never ranked friendship among the virtues--have rarely recommended friendship2 but1 on the contrary1 have often seemed to breathe enmity1 like tyrants1 who dread all associations4 ,it is1 moreover1 with very good reason that ,aristotle places all the virtues between the two extremes4 ,he was1 perhaps1 the first who assigned them this place4 ,he expressly says that piety is the medium between atheism and superstition4 ,his ,rhetoric4 ,it was probably his rules for rhetoric and poetry that ,cicero and ,quintilian had in view4 ,cicero1 in his ,orator says that no one had more science1 sagacity1 invention1 or judgment4 ,quintilian goes so far as to praise1 not only the extent of his knowledge1 but also the suavity of his elocution--suavitatem eloquendi4 ,aristotle would have an orator well informed respecting laws1 finances1 treaties1 fortresses1 garrisons1 provisions1 and merchandise4 ,the orators in the parliaments of ,england1 the diets of ,poland1 the states of ,sweden1 the pregadi of ,venice1 etc41 would not find these lessons of ,aristotle unprofitable2 to other nations1 perhaps1 they would be so4 ,he would have his orator know the passions and manners of men1 and the humors of every condition4 ,i think there is not a single nicety of the art which has escaped him4 ,he particularly commends the citing of instances where public affairs are spoken of2 nothing has so great an effect on the minds of men4 ,what he says on this subject proves that he wrote his ,rhetoric long before ,alexander was appointed captain-general of the ,greeks against the great king4 ,if1 says he1 any one had to prove to the ,greeks that it is to their interest to oppose the enterprises of the king of ,persia1 and to prevent him from making himself master of ,egypt1 he should first remind them that ,darius ,ochus would not attack ,greece until ,egypt was in his power2 he should remark that ,xerxes had pursued the same course2 he should add that it was not to be doubted that ,darius ,codomannus would do the same2 and that1 therefore1 they must not suffer him to take possession of ,egypt4 ,he even permits1 in speeches delivered to great assemblies1 the introduction of parables and fables2 they always strike the multitude4 ,he relates some ingenious ones1 which are of the highest antiquity1 as the horse that implored the assistance of man to avenge himself on the stag1 and became a slave through having sought a protector4 ,it may be remarked that1 in the second book1 where he treats of arguing from the greater to the less1 he gives an example which plainly shows what was the opinion of ,greece1 and probably of ,asia1 respecting the extent of the power of the gods4 ,if1 says he1 it be true that the gods themselves1 enlightened as they are1 cannot know everything1 much less can men4 ,this passage clearly proves that omniscience was not then attributed to the ,divinity4 ,it was conceived that the gods could not know what was not2 the future was not1 therefore it seemed impossible that they should know it4 ,this is the opinion of the ,socinians at the present day4 ,but to return to ,aristotle's ,rhetoric4 ,what ,i shall chiefly remark on in his book on elocution and diction is the good sense with which he condemns those who would be poets in prose4 ,he would have pathos1 but he banishes bombast1 and proscribes useless epithets4 ,indeed1 ,demosthenes and ,cicero1 who followed his precepts1 never affected the poetic style in their speeches4 ,the style1 says ,aristotle1 must always be conformable to the subject4 ,nothing can be more misplaced than to speak of physics poetically1 and lavish figure and ornament where there should be only method1 clearness1 and truth4 ,it is the quackery of a man who would pass off false systems under cover of an empty noise of words4 ,weak minds are caught by the bait1 and strong minds disdain it4 ,among us the funeral oration has taken possession of the poetic style in prose2 but this branch of oratory1 consisting almost entirely of exaggeration1 seems privileged to borrow the ornaments of poetry4 ,the writers of romances have sometimes taken this licence4 ,la ,calprende was1 ,i think1 the first who thus transposed the limits of the arts1 and abused this facility4 ,the author of ,telemachus was pardoned through consideration for ,homer1 whom he imitated1 though he could not make verses1 and still more in consideration of his morality1 in which he infinitely surpasses ,homer1 who has none at all4 ,but he owed his popularity chiefly to the criticism on the pride of ,louis ,,xiv4 and the harshness of ,louvois1 which1 it was thought1 were discoverable in ,telemachus4 ,be this as it may1 nothing can be a better proof of ,aristotle's good sense and good taste than his having assigned to everything its proper place4 ,aristotle on ,poetry4 ,where1 in our modern nations1 shall we find a natural philosopher1 a geometrician1 a metaphysician1 or even a moralist who has spoken well on the subject of poetry8 ,they teem with the names of ,homer1 ,virgil1 ,sophocles1 ,ariosto1 ,tasso1 and so many others who have charmed the world by the harmonious productions of their genius1 but they feel not their beauties2 or if they feel them they would annihilate them4 ,how ridiculous is it in ,pascal to say3 ,as we say poetical beauty1 we should likewise say geometrical beauty1 and medicinal beauty4 ,yet we do not say so1 and the reason is that we well know what is the object of geometry1 and what is the object of medicine1 but we do not know in what the peculiar charm--which is the object of poetry--consists4 ,we know not what that natural model is which must be imitated2 and for want of this knowledge we have invented certain fantastic terms1 as age of gold1 wonder of the age1 fatal wreath1 fair star1 etc4 ,and this jargon we call poetic beauty4 ,the pitifulness of this passage is sufficiently obvious4 ,we know that there is nothing beautiful in a medicine1 nor in the properties of a triangle2 and that we apply the term beautiful only to that which raises admiration in our minds and gives pleasure to our senses4 ,thus reasons ,aristotle2 and ,pascal here reasons very ill4 ,fatal wreath1 fair star1 have never been poetic beauties4 ,if he wished to know what is poetic beauty1 he had only to read4 ,nicole wrote against the stage1 about which he had not a single idea2 and was seconded by one ,dubois1 who was as ignorant of the belles lettres as himself4 ,even ,montesquieu1 in his amusing ,persian ,letters1 has the petty vanity to think that ,homer and ,virgil are nothing in comparison with one who imitates with spirit and success ,dufrnoy's ,siamois1 and fills his book with bold assertions1 without which it would not have been read4 ,what1 says he1 are epic poems8 ,i know them not4 ,i despise the lyric as much as ,i esteem the tragic poets4 ,he should not1 however1 have despised ,pindar and ,horace quite so much4 ,aristotle did not despise ,pindar4 ,descartes did1 it is true1 write for ,queen ,christina a little divertissement in verse1 which was quite worthy of his matire cannele4 ,malebranche could not distinguish ,corneille's ,qu'il mourt from a line of ,jodle's or ,garnier's4 ,what a man1 then1 was ,aristotle1 who traced the rules of tragedy with the same hand with which he had laid down those of dialectics1 of morals1 of politics1 and lifted1 as far as he found it possible1 the great veil of nature6 ,to his fourth chapter on poetry ,boileau is indebted for these fine lines3 ,il n'est point de serpent1 ni de monstre odieux ,qui1 par l'art imit1 ne puisse plaire aux yeux4 ,d'un pinceau dlicat l'artifice agrable ,du plus affreux object fait un objet aimable2 ,ainsi1 pour nous charmer1 la tragdie eut pleurs ,d'dipe tout-sanglant fit parler les douleurs4 ,each horrid shape1 each object of affright1 ,nice imitation teaches to delight2 ,so does the skilful painter's pleasing art ,attractions to the darkest form impart2 ,so does the tragic ,muse1 dissolved in tears4 ,with tales of woe and sorrow charm our ears4 ,aristotle says3 ,imitation and harmony have produced poetry4 ,we see terrible animals1 dead or dying men1 in a picture1 with pleasure--objects which in nature would inspire us only with fear and sorrow4 ,the better they are imitated the more complete is our satisfaction4 ,this fourth chapter of ,aristotle's reappears almost entire in ,horace and ,boileau4 ,the laws which he gives in the following chapters are at this day those of our good writers1 excepting only what relates to the choruses and music4 ,his idea that tragedy was instituted to purify the passions has been warmly combated2 but if he meant1 as ,i believe he did1 that an incestuous love might be subdued by witnessing the misfortune of ,phdra1 or anger be repressed by beholding the melancholy example of ,ajax1 there is no longer any difficulty4 ,this philosopher expressly commands that there be always the heroic in tragedy and the ridiculous in comedy4 ,this is a rule from which it is1 perhaps1 now becoming too customary to depart4 ,,arms--,,armies4 ,it is worthy of consideration that there have been and still are1 upon the earth societies without armies4 ,the ,brahmins1 who long governed nearly all the great ,indian ,chersonesus2 the primitives1 called ,quakers1 who governed ,pennsylvania2 some ,american tribes1 some in the centre of ,africa1 the ,samoyedes1 the ,laplanders1 the ,kamchadales1 have never marched with colors flying to destroy their neighbors4 ,the ,brahmins were the most considerable of all these pacific nations2 their caste1 which is so ancient1 which is still existing1 and compared with which all other institutions are quite recent1 is a prodigy which cannot be sufficiently admired4 ,their religion and their policy always concurred in abstaining from the shedding of blood1 even of that of the meanest animal4 ,where such is the regime1 subjugation is easy2 they have been subjugated1 but have not changed4 ,the ,pennsylvanians never had an army2 they always held war in abhorrence4 ,several of the ,american tribes did not know what an army was until the ,spaniards came to exterminate them all4 ,the people on the borders of the ,icy ,sea are ignorant alike of armies1 of the god of armies1 of battalions1 and of squadrons4 ,besides these populations1 the priests and monks do not bear arms in any country--at least when they observe the laws of their institution4 ,it is only among ,christians that there have been religious societies established for the purpose of fighting--as the ,knights ,templars1 the ,knights of ,st4 ,john1 the ,knights of the ,teutonic ,order1 the ,knights ,swordbearers4 ,these religious orders were instituted in imitation of the ,levites1 who fought like the rest of the ,jewish tribes4 ,neither armies nor arms were the same in antiquity as at present4 ,the ,egyptians hardly ever had cavalry4 ,it would have been of little use in a country intersected by canals1 inundated during five months of the year1 and miry during five more4 ,the inhabitants of a great part of ,asia used chariots of war4 ,they are mentioned in the annals of ,china4 ,confucius says that in his time each governor of a province furnished to the emperor a thousand war chariots1 each drawn by four horses4 ,the ,greeks and ,trojans fought in chariots drawn by two horses4 ,cavalry and chariots were unknown to the ,jews in a mountainous tract1 where their first king1 when he was elected1 had nothing but she-asses4 ,thirty sons of ,jair1 princes of thirty cities1 according to the text 7,judges1 x1 #d71 rode each upon an ass4 ,saul1 afterwards king of ,judah1 had only she-asses2 and the sons of ,david all fled upon mules when ,absalom had slain his brother ,amnon4 ,absalom was mounted on a mule in the battle which he fought against his father's troops2 which proves1 according to the ,jewish historians1 either that mares were beginning to be used in ,palestine1 or that they were already rich enough there to buy mules from the neighboring country4 ,the ,greeks made but little use of cavalry4 ,it was chiefly with the ,macedonian phalanx that ,alexander gained the battles which laid ,persia at his feet4 ,it was the ,roman infantry that subjugated the greater part of the world4 ,at the battle of ,pharsalia1 ,csar had but one thousand horsemen4 ,it is not known at what time the ,indians and the ,africans first began to march elephants at the head of their armies4 ,we cannot read without surprise of ,hannibal's elephants crossing the ,alps1 which were much harder to pass then than they are now4 ,there have long been disputes about the disposition of the ,greek and ,roman armies1 their arms1 and their evolutions4 ,each one has given his plan of the battles of ,zama and ,pharsalia4 ,the commentator ,calmet1 a ,benedictine1 has printed three great volumes of his ,dictionary of the ,bible1 in which1 the better to explain ,god's commandments1 are inserted a hundred engravings1 where you see plans of battles and sieges in copper-plate4 ,the ,god of the ,jews was the ,god of armies1 but ,calmet was not ,his secretary2 he cannot have known1 but by revelation1 how the armies of the ,amalekites1 the ,moabites1 the ,syrians1 and the ,philistines were arranged on the days of general murder4 ,these plates of carnage1 designed at a venture1 made his hook five or six louis dearer1 but made it no better4 ,it is a great question whether the ,franks1 whom the ,jesuit ,daniel calls ,french by anticipation1 used bows and arrows in their armies1 and whether they had helmets and cuirasses4 ,supposing that they went to combat almost naked1 and armed1 as they are said to have been1 with only a small carpenter's ax1 a sword1 and a knife1 we must infer that the ,romans1 masters of ,gaul1 so easily conquered by ,clovis1 had lost all their ancient valor1 and that the ,gauls were as willing to be subject to a small number of ,franks as to a small number of ,romans4 ,warlike accoutrements have since changed1 as everything else changes4 ,in the days of knights1 squires1 and varlets1 the armed forces of ,germany1 ,france1 ,italy1 ,england1 and ,spain consisted almost entirely of horsemen1 who1 as well as their horses1 were covered with steel4 ,the infantry performed the functions rather of pioneers than of soldiers4 ,but the ,english always had good archers among their foot1 which contributed1 in a great measure1 to their gaining almost every battle4 ,who would believe that armies nowadays do but make experiments in natural philosophy8 ,a soldier would be much astonished if some learned man were to say to him3 ,my friend1 you are a better machinist than ,archimedes4 ,five parts of saltpetre1 one of sulphur1 and one of carbo ligneus have been separately prepared4 ,your saltpetre dissolved1 well filtered1 well evaporated1 well crystallized1 well turned1 well dried1 has been incorporated with the yellow purified sulphur4 ,these two ingredients1 mixed with powdered charcoal1 have1 by means of a little vinegar1 or solution of sal-ammoniac1 or urine1 formed large balls1 which balls have been reduced in pulverem pyrium by a mill4 ,the effect of this mixture is a dilatation1 which is nearly as four thousand to unity2 and the lead in your barrel exhibits another effect1 which is the product of its bulk multiplied by its velocity4 ,the first who discovered a part of this mathematical secret was a ,benedictine named ,roger ,bacon4 ,the invention was perfected1 in ,germany1 in the fourteenth century1 by another ,benedictine named ,schwartz4 ,so that you owe to two monks the art of being an excellent murderer1 when you aim well1 and your powder is good4 ,du ,cange has in vain pretended that1 in #acch1 the registers of the ,chambre des ,comptes1 at ,paris1 mention a bill paid for gunpowder4 ,do not believe it4 ,it was artillery which is there spoken of--a name attached to ancient as well as to modern warlike machines4 ,gunpowder entirely superseded the ,greek fire1 of which the ,moors still made use4 ,in fine1 you are the depositary of an art1 which not only imitates the thunder1 but is also much more terrible4 ,there is1 however1 nothing but truth in this speech4 ,two monks have1 in reality1 changed the face of the earth4 ,before cannon were known1 the northern nations had subjugated nearly the whole hemisphere1 and could come again1 like famishing wolves1 to seize upon the lands as their ancestors had done4 ,in all armies1 the victory1 and consequently the fate of kingdoms1 was decided by bodily strength and agility--a sort of sanguinary fury--a desperate struggle1 man to man4 ,intrepid men took towns by scaling their walls4 ,during the decline of the ,roman ,empire there was hardly more discipline in the armies of the ,north than among carnivorous beasts rushing on their prey4 ,now a single frontier fortress would suffice to stop the armies of ,genghis or ,attila4 ,it is not long since a victorious army of ,russians were unavailably consumed before ,custrin1 which is nothing more than a little fortress in a marsh4 ,in battle1 the weakest in body may1 with well-directed artillery1 prevail against the stoutest4 ,at the battle of ,fontenoy a few cannon were sufficient to compel the retreat of the whole ,english column1 though it had been master of the field4 ,the combatants no longer close4 ,the soldier has no longer that ardor1 that impetuosity1 which is redoubled in the heat of action1 when the fight is hand to hand4 ,strength1 skill1 and even the temper of the weapons1 are useless4 ,rarely is a charge with the bayonet made in the course of a war1 though the bayonet is the most terrible of weapons4 ,in a plain1 frequently surrounded by redoubts furnished with heavy artillery1 two armies advance in silence1 each division taking with it flying artillery4 ,the first lines lire at one another and after one another3 they are victims presented in turn to the bullets4 ,squadrons at the wings are often exposed to a cannonading while waiting for the general's orders4 ,they who first tire of this manuvre1 which gives no scope for the display of impetuous bravery1 disperse and quit the field2 and are rallied1 if possible1 a few miles off4 ,the victorious enemies besiege a town1 which sometimes costs them more men1 money1 and time than they would have lost by several battles4 ,the progress made is rarely rapid2 and at the end of five or six years1 both sides1 being equally exhausted1 are compelled to make peace4 ,thus1 at all events1 the invention of artillery and the new mode of warfare have established among the respective powers an equality which secures mankind from devastations like those of former times1 and thereby renders war less fatal in its consequences1 though it is still prodigiously so4 ,the ,greeks in all ages1 the ,romans in the time of ,sulla1 and the other nations of the west and south1 had no standing army2 every citizen was a soldier1 and enrolled himself in time of war4 ,it is1 at this day1 precisely the same in ,switzerland4 ,go through the whole country1 and you will not find a battalion1 except at the time of the reviews4 ,if it goes to war1 you all at once see eighty thousand men in arms4 ,those who usurped the supreme power after ,sulla always had a permanent force1 paid with the money of the citizens1 to keep the citizens in subjection1 much more than to subjugate other nations4 ,the bishop of ,rome himself keeps a small army in his pay4 ,who1 in the time of the apostles1 would have said that the servant of the servants of ,god should have regiments1 and have them in ,rome8 ,nothing is so much feared in ,england as a great standing army4 ,the janissaries have raised the sultans to greatness1 but they have also strangled them4 ,the sultans would have avoided the rope1 if instead of these large bodies of troops1 they had established small ones4 ,,arot ,,and ,,marot4 ,,with ,a ,,short ,,review ,,of ,,the ,,koran4 ,this article may serve to show how much the most learned men may be deceived1 and to develop some useful truths4 ,in the ,dictionnaire ,encyclopdique there is the following passage concerning ,arot and ,marot3 ,these are the names of two angels1 who1 the impostor ,mahomet said1 had been sent from ,god to teach man1 and to order him to abstain from murder1 false judgments1 and excesses of every kind4 ,this false prophet adds that a very beautiful woman1 having invited these two angels to her table1 made them drink wine1 with which being heated1 they solicited her as lovers2 that she feigned to yield to their passion1 provided they would first teach her the words by pronouncing which they said it was easy to ascend to heaven2 that having obtained from them what she asked1 she would not keep her promise2 and that she was then taken up into heaven1 where1 having related to ,god what had passed1 she was changed into the morning star called ,lucifer or ,aurora1 and the angels were severely punished4 ,hence it was1 according to ,mahomet1 that ,god took occasion to forbid wine to men4 ,it would be in vain to seek in the ,koran for a single word of this absurd story and pretended reason for ,mahomet's forbidding his followers the use of wine4 ,he forbids it only in the second and fifth chapters4 ,they will question thee about wine and strong liquors3 thou shalt answer1 that it is a great sin4 ,the just1 who believe and do good works1 must not be reproached with having drunk1 and played at games of chance1 before games of chance were forbidden4 ,it is averred by all the ,mahometans that their prophet forbade wine and liquors solely to preserve their health and prevent quarrels1 in the burning climate of ,arabia4 ,the use of any fermented liquor soon affects the head1 and may destroy both health and reason4 ,the fable of ,arot and ,marot descending from heaven1 and wanting to lie with an ,arab woman1 after drinking wine with her1 is not in any ,mahometan author4 ,it is to be found only among the impostures which various ,christian writers1 more indiscreet than enlightened1 have printed against the ,mussulman religion1 through a zeal which is not according to knowledge4 ,the names of ,arot and ,marot are in no part of the ,koran4 ,it is one ,sylburgius who says1 in an old book which nobody reads1 that he anathematizes the angels ,arot1 ,marot1 ,safah1 and ,merwah4 ,observe1 kind reader1 that ,safah and ,merwah are two little hills near ,mecca2 so that our learned ,sylburgius has taken two hills for two angels4 ,thus it was with every writer on ,mahometanism among us1 almost without exception1 until the intelligent ,reland gave us clear ideas of the ,mussulman belief1 and the learned ,sale1 after living twenty-four years in and about ,arabia1 at length enlightened us by his faithful translation of the ,koran1 and his most instructive preface4 ,gagnier himself1 notwithstanding his ,arabic professorship at ,oxford1 has been pleased to put forth a few falsehoods concerning ,mahomet1 as if we had need of lies to maintain the truth of our religion against a false prophet4 ,he gives us at full length ,mahomet's journey through the seven heavens on the mare ,alborac1 and even ventures to cite the fifty-third sura or chapter2 but neither in this fifty-third sura1 nor in any other1 is there so much as an allusion to this pretended journey through the heavens4 ,this strange story is related by ,abulfeda1 seven hundred years after ,mahomet4 ,it is taken1 he says1 from ancient manuscripts which were current in ,mahomet's time4 ,but it is evident that they were not ,mahomet's2 for1 after his death1 ,abubeker gathered together all the leaves of the ,koran1 in the presence of all the chiefs of tribes1 and nothing was inserted in the collection that did not appear to be authentic4 ,besides1 the chapter concerning the journey to heaven1 not only is not in the ,koran1 but is in a very different style1 and is at least four times as long as any of the received chapters4 ,compare all the other chapters of the ,koran with this1 and you will find a prodigious difference4 ,it begins thus3 ,one night1 ,i fell asleep between the two hills of ,safah and ,merwah4 ,that night was very dark1 but so still that the dogs were not heard to bark1 nor the cocks to crow4 ,all at once1 the angel ,gabriel appeared before me in the form in which the ,most ,high ,god created him4 ,his skin was white as snow4 ,his fair hair1 admirably disposed1 fell in ringlets over his shoulders2 his forehead was clear1 majestic1 and serene1 his teeth beautiful and shining1 and his legs of a saffron hue2 his garments were glittering with pearls1 and with thread of pure gold4 ,on his forehead was a plate of gold1 on which were written two lines1 brilliant and dazzling with light2 in the first were these words1 ',there is no ,god but ,god'2 and in the second these1 ',mahomet is ,god's ,apostle4' ,on beholding this1 ,i remained the most astonished and confused of men4 ,i observed about him seventy thousand little boxes or bags of musk and saffron4 ,he had five hundred pairs of wings2 and the distance from one wing to another was five hundred years' journey4 ,thus did ,gabriel appear before me4 ,he touched me1 and said1 ',arise1 thou sleeper6' ,i was seized with fear and trembling1 and starting up1 said to him1 ',who art thou8' ,he answered1 ',god have mercy upon thee6 ,i am thy brother ,gabriel4' ',o my dearly beloved ,gabriel1' said ,i1 ',i ask thy pardon2 is it a revelation of something new1 or is it some afflicting threat that thou bringest me8' ',it is something new1' returned he2 'rise1 my dearly beloved1 and tie thy mantle over thy shoulders2 thou wilt have need of it1 for thou must this night pay a visit to thy ,lord4' ,so saying1 ,gabriel1 taking my hand1 raised me from the ground1 and having mounted me on the mare ,alborac1 led her himself by the bridle4 ,in fine1 it is averred by the ,mussulmans that this chapter1 which has no authenticity1 was imagined by ,abu-,horarah1 who is said to have been contemporary with the prophet4 ,what should we say of a ,turk who should come and insult our religion by telling us that we reckon among our sacred books the letters of ,st4 ,paul to ,seneca1 and ,seneca's letters to ,st4 ,paul2 the acts of ,pilate2 the life of ,pilate's wife2 the letters of the pretended ,king ,abgarus to ,jesus ,christ1 and ,jesus ,christ's answer to the same2 the story of ,st4 ,peter's challenge to ,simon the magician2 the predictions of the sibyls2 the testament of the twelve patriarchs2 and so many other books of the same kind8 ,we should answer the ,turk by saying that he was very ill informed and that not one of these works was regarded as authentic4 ,the ,turk will make the same answer to us1 when to confound him we reproach him with ,mahomet's journey to the seven heavens4 ,he will tell us that this is nothing more than a pious fraud of latter times1 and that this journey is not in the ,koran4 ,assuredly ,i am not here comparing truth with error--,christianity with ,mahometanism--the ,gospel with the ,koran2 but false tradition with false tradition--abuse with abuse--absurdity with absurdity4 ,this absurdity has been carried to such a length that ,grotius charges ,mahomet with having said that ,god's hands are cold1 for he has felt them2 that ,god is carried about in a chair2 and that1 in ,noah's ark1 the rat was produced from the elephant's dung1 and the cat from the lion's breath4 ,grotius reproaches ,mahomet with having imagined that ,jesus ,christ was taken up into heaven instead of suffering execution4 ,he forgets that there were entire heretical communions of primitive ,christians who spread this opinion1 which was preserved in ,syria and ,arabia until ,mahomet's time4 ,how many times has it been repeated that ,mahomet had accustomed a pigeon to eat grain out of his ear1 and made his followers believe that this pigeon brought him messages from ,god8 ,is it not enough for us that we are persuaded of the falseness of his sect1 and invincibly convinced by faith of the truth of our own1 without losing our time in calumniating the ,mahometans1 who have established themselves from ,mount ,caucasus to ,mount ,atlas1 and from the confines of ,epirus to the extremities of ,india8 ,we are incessantly writing bad books against them1 of which they know nothing4 ,we cry out that their religion has been embraced by so many nations only because it flatters the senses4 ,but where is the sensuality in ordering abstinence from the wine and liquors in which we indulge to such excess2 in pronouncing to every one an indispensable command to give to the poor each year two and a half per cent1 of his income1 to fast with the greatest rigor1 to undergo a painful operation in the earliest stage of puberty1 to make1 over arid sands a pilgrimage of sometimes five hundred leagues1 and to pray to ,god five times a day1 even when in the field8 ,but1 say you1 they are allowed four wives in this world1 and in the next they will have celestial brides4 ,grotius expressly says3 ,it must have required a great share of stupidity to admit reveries so gross and disgusting4 ,we agree with ,grotius that the ,mahometans have been prodigal of reveries4 ,the man who was constantly receiving the chapters of his ,koran from the angel ,gabriel was worse than a visionary2 he was an impostor1 who supported his seductions by his courage2 but certainly there is nothing either stupid or sensual in reducing to four the unlimited number of wives whom the princes1 the satraps1 the nabobs1 and the omrahs of the ,east kept in their seraglios4 ,it is said that ,solomon had three hundred wives and seven hundred concubines4 ,the ,arabs1 like the ,jews1 were at liberty to marry two sisters2 ,mahomet was the first who forbade these marriages4 ,where1 then1 is the grossness8 ,and with regard to the celestial brides1 where is the impurity8 ,certes1 there is nothing impure in marriage1 which is acknowledged to have been ordained on earth1 and blessed by ,god ,himself4 ,the incomprehensible mystery of generation is the seal of the ,eternal ,being4 ,it is the clearest mark of ,his power that ,he has created pleasure1 and through that very pleasure perpetuated all sensible beings4 ,if we consult our reason alone it will tell us that it is very likely that the ,eternal ,being1 who does nothing in vain1 will not cause us to rise again with our organs to no purpose4 ,it will not be unworthy of the ,divine ,majesty to feed us with delicious fruits if he cause us to rise again with stomachs to receive them4 ,the ,holy ,scriptures inform us that1 in the beginning1 ,god placed the first man and the first woman in a paradise of delights4 ,they were then in a state of innocence and glory1 incapable of experiencing disease or death4 ,this is nearly the state in which the just will be when1 after their resurrection1 they shall be for all eternity what our first parents were for a few days4 ,those1 then1 must be pardoned1 who have thought that1 having a body1 that body will be constantly satisfied4 ,our fathers of the ,church had no other idea of the heavenly ,jerusalem4 ,st4 ,irenus says1 ,there each vine shall bear ten thousand branches1 each branch ten thousand clusters1 and each cluster ten thousand grapes4 ,several fathers of the ,church have1 indeed1 thought that the blessed in heaven would enjoy all their senses4 ,st4 ,thomas says that the sense of seeing will be infinitely perfect2 that the elements will be so too2 that the surface of the earth will be transparent as glass1 the water like crystal1 the air like the heavens1 and the fire like the stars4 ,st4 ,augustine1 in his ,christian ,doctrine1 says that the sense of hearing will enjoy the pleasures of singing and of speech4 ,one of our great ,italian theologians1 named ,piazza1 in his ,dissertation on ,paradise1 informs us that the elect will forever sing and play the guitar3 ,they will have1 says he1 three nobilities--three advantages1 viz43 desire without excitement1 caresses without wantonness1 and voluptuousness without excess--tres nobilitates2 illecebra sine titillatione1 blanditia sine mollitudine1 et voluptas sine exuberantia4 ,st4 ,thomas assures us that the smell of the glorified bodies will be perfect1 and will not be diminished by perspiration4 ,corporibus gloriosi serit odor ultima perfectione1 nullo modo per humidum repressus4 ,this question has been profoundly treated by a great many other doctors4 ,suarez1 in his ,wisdom1 thus expresses himself concerning taste3 ,it is not difficult for ,god purposely to make some rapid humor act on the organ of taste4 ,non est ,deo difficile facere ut sapidus humor sit intra organum gustus1 qui sensum illum intentionaliter afficere4 ,and1 to conclude1 ,st4 ,prosper1 recapitulating the whole1 pronounces that the blessed shall find gratification without satiety1 and enjoy health without disease4 ,saturitas sine fastidio1 et tota sanitas sine morbo4 ,it is not then so much to be wondered at that the ,mahometans have admitted the use of the five senses in their paradise4 ,they say that the first beatitude will be the union with ,god2 but this does not exclude the rest4 ,mahomet's paradise is a fable2 but2 once more be it observed1 there is in it neither contradiction nor impurity4 ,philosophy requires clear and precise ideas1 which ,grotius had not4 ,he quotes a great deal1 and makes a show of reasoning which will not bear a close examination4 ,the unjust imputations cast on the ,mahometans would suffice to make a very large book4 ,they have subjugated one of the largest and most beautiful countries upon earth2 to drive them from it would have been a finer exploit than to abuse them4 ,the empress of ,russia supplies a great example4 ,she takes from them ,azov and ,tangarok1 ,moldavia1 ,wallachia1 and ,georgia2 she pushes her conquests to the ramparts of ,erzerum2 she sends against them fleets from the remotest parts of the ,baltic1 and others covering the ,euxine2 but she does not say in her manifestos that a pigeon whispered in ,mahomet's ear4 ,,art ,,of ,,poetry4 ,a ,,man ,a man of almost universal learning--a man even of genius1 who joins philosophy with imagination1 uses1 in his excellent article ,encyclopedia1 these remarkable words3 ,if we except this ,perrault1 and some others1 whose merits the versifier ,boileau was not capable of appreciating4 ,this philosopher is right in doing justice to ,claude ,perrault1 the learned translator of ,vitruvius1 a man useful in more arts than one1 and to whom we are indebted for the fine front of the ,louvre and for other great monuments2 but justice should also be rendered to ,boileau4 ,had he been only a versifier1 he would scarcely have been known2 he would not have been one of the few great men who will hand down the age of ,louis ,,xiv4 to posterity4 ,his tart satires1 his fine epistles1 and above all1 his art of poetry1 are masterpieces of reasoning as well as poetry--sapere est principium et fons4 ,the art of versifying is1 indeed1 prodigiously difficult1 especially in our language1 where alexandrines follow one another two by two2 where it is rare to avoid monotony2 where it is absolutely necessary to rhyme2 where noble and pleasing rhymes are too limited in number2 and where a word out of its place1 or a harsh syllable1 is sufficient to spoil a happy thought4 ,it is like dancing in fetters on a rope2 the greatest success is of itself nothing4 ,boileau's art of poetry is to be admired1 because he always says true and useful things in a pleasing manner1 because he always gives both precept and example1 and because he is varied1 passing with perfect ease1 and without ever failing in purity of language1 ,from grave to gay1 from lively to severe4 ,his reputation among men of taste is proved by the fact that his verses are known by heart2 and to philosophers it must be pleasing to find that he is almost always in the right4 ,as we have spoken of the preference which may sometimes be given to the moderns over the ancients1 we will here venture to presume that ,boileau's art of poetry is superior to that of ,horace4 ,method is certainly a beauty in a didactic poem2 and ,horace has no method4 ,we do not mention this as a reproach2 for his poem is a familiar epistle to the ,pisos1 and not a regular work like the ,georgics3 but there is this additional merit in ,boileau1 a merit for which philosophers should give him credit4 ,the ,latin art of poetry does not seem nearly so finely labored as the ,french4 ,horace expresses himself1 almost throughout1 in the free and familiar tone of his other epistles4 ,he displays an extreme clearness of understanding and a refined taste1 in verses which are happy and spirited1 but often without connection1 and sometimes destitute of harmony2 he has not the elegance and correctness of ,virgil4 ,his work is good1 but ,boileau's appears to be still better3 and1 if we except the tragedies of ,racine1 which have the superior merit of treating the passions and surmounting all the difficulties of the stage1 ,despraux's ,art of ,poetry is1 indisputably1 the poem that does most honor to the ,french language4 ,it is lamentable when philosophers are enemies to poetry4 ,literature should be like the house of ,mcenas--est locus unicuique suus4 ,the author of the ,persian ,letters--so easy to write and among which some are very pretty1 others very bold1 others indifferent1 and others frivolous--this author1 ,i say1 though otherwise much to be recommended1 yet having never been able to make verses1 although he possesses imagination and often superiority of style1 makes himself amends by saying that contempt is heaped upon poetry1 that lyric poetry is harmonious extravagance4 ,thus do men often seek to depreciate the talents which they cannot attain4 ,we cannot reach it1 says ,montaigne2 let us revenge ourselves by speaking ill of it4 ,but ,montaigne1 ,montesquieu's predecessor and master in imagination and philosophy1 thought very differently of poetry4 ,had ,montesquieu been as just as he was witty1 he could not but have felt that several of our fine odes and good operas are worth infinitely more than the pleasantries of ,rica to ,usbeck1 imitated from ,dufrnoy's ,siamois1 and the details of what passed in ,usbeck's seraglio at ,ispahan4 ,we shall speak more fully of this too frequent injustice1 in the article on ,criticism4 ,,arts--,,fine ,,arts4 ,,article ,,dedicated ,,to ,,the ,,king ,,of ,,prussia4 ,sire3 ,the small society of amateurs1 a part of whom are laboring at these rhapsodies at ,mount ,krapak1 will say nothing to your majesty on the art of war4 ,it is heroic1 or--it may be--an abominable art4 ,if there were anything fine in it1 we would tell your majesty1 without fear of contradiction1 that you are the finest man in ,europe4 ,you know1 sire1 the four ages of the arts4 ,almost everything sprung up and was brought to perfection under ,louis ,,xiv42 after which many of these arts1 banished from ,france1 went to embellish and enrich the rest of ,europe1 at the fatal period of the destruction of the celebrated edict of ,henry ,,iv4--pronounced irrevocable1 yet so easily revoked4 ,thus1 the greatest injury which ,louis ,,xiv4 could do to himself did good to other princes against his will3 this is proved by what you have said in your history of ,brandenburg4 ,if that monarch were known only from his banishment of six or seven hundred thousand useful citizens--from his irruption into ,holland1 whence he was soon forced to retreat--from his greatness1 which stayed him at the bank1 while his troops were swimming across the ,rhine2 if there were no other monuments of his glory than the prologues to his operas1 followed by the battle of ,hochstet1 his person and his reign would go down to posterity with but little clat4 ,but the encouragement of all the fine arts by his taste and munificence2 the conferring of so many benefits on the literary men of other countries2 the rise of his kingdom's commerce at his voice2 the establishment of so many manufactories2 the building of so many fine citadels2 the construction of so many admirable ports2 the union of the two seas by immense labor1 etc41 still oblige ,europe to regard ,louis ,,xiv4 and his age with respect4 ,and1 above all1 those great men1 unique in every branch of art and science1 whom nature then produced at one time1 will render his reign eternally memorable4 ,the age was greater than ,louis ,,xiv41 but it shed its glory upon him4 ,emulation in art has changed the face of the continent1 from the ,pyrenees to the icy sea4 ,there is hardly a prince in ,germany who has not made useful and glorious establishments4 ,what have the ,turks done for glory8 ,nothing4 ,they have ravaged three empires and twenty kingdoms2 but any one city of ancient ,greece will always have a greater reputation than all the ,ottoman cities together4 ,see what has been done in the course of a few years at ,st4 ,petersburg1 which was a bog at the beginning of the seventeenth century4 ,all the arts are there assembled1 while in the country of ,orpheus1 ,linus1 and ,homer1 they are annihilated4 ,that the ,recent ,birth of the ,arts does not ,prove the ,recent ,formation of the ,globe4 ,all philosophers have thought matter eternal2 but the arts appear to be new4 ,even the art of making bread is of recent origin4 ,the first ,romans ate boiled grain2 those conquerors of so many nations had neither windmills nor watermills4 ,this truth seems1 at first sight1 to controvert the doctrine of the antiquity of the globe as it now is1 or to suppose terrible revolutions in it4 ,irruptions of barbarians can hardly annihilate arts which have become necessary4 ,suppose that an army of negroes were to come upon us1 like locusts1 from the mountains of southern ,africa1 through ,monomotapa1 ,monomugi1 etc41 traversing ,abyssinia1 ,nubia1 ,egypt1 ,syria1 ,asia ,minor1 and all ,europe1 ravaging and overturning everything in its way2 there would still be a few bakers1 tailors1 shoemakers1 and carpenters left2 the necessary arts would revive2 luxury alone would be annihilated4 ,such was the case at the fall of the ,roman ,empire2 even the art of writing became very rare2 nearly all those arts which contributed to render life agreeable were for a long time extinct4 ,now1 we are inventing new ones every day4 ,from all this1 no well-grounded inference can be drawn against the antiquity of the globe4 ,for1 supposing that a flood of barbarians had entirely swept away the arts of writing and making bread2 supposing even that we had had bread1 or pens1 ink1 and paper1 only for ten years--the country which could exist for ten years without eating bread or writing down its thoughts could exist for an age1 or a hundred thousand ages1 without these helps4 ,it is quite clear that man and the other animals can very well subsist without bakers1 without romance-writers1 and without divines1 as witness ,america1 and as witness also three-fourths of our own continent4 ,the recent birth of the arts among us does not prove the recent formation of the globe1 as was pretended by ,epicurus1 one of our predecessors in reverie1 who supposed that1 by chance1 the declination of atoms one day formed our earth4 ,pomponatius used to say3 ,se il mondo non eterno1 per tutti santi molto vecchio--,if this world be not eternal1 by all the saints1 it is very old4 ,slight ,inconveniences ,attached to the ,arts4 ,those who handle lead and quicksilver are subject to dangerous colics1 and very serious affections of the nerves4 ,those who use pen and ink are attacked by vermin1 which they have continually to shake off2 these vermin are some ex-,jesuits1 who employ themselves in manufacturing libels4 ,you1 ,sire1 do not know this race of animals2 they are driven from your states1 as well as from those of the empress of ,russia1 the king of ,sweden1 and the king of ,denmark1 my other protectors4 ,the ex-,jesuits ,polian and ,nonotte1 who like me cultivate the fine arts1 persecute me even unto ,mount ,krapak1 crushing me under the weight of their reputation1 and that of their genius1 the specific gravity of which is still greater4 ,unless your majesty vouchsafe to assist me against these great men1 ,i am undone4 ,,asmodeus4 ,no one at all versed in antiquity is ignorant that the ,jews knew nothing of the angels but what they gleaned from the ,persians and ,chaldans1 during captivity4 ,it was they1 who1 according to ,calmet1 taught them that there are seven principal angels before the throne of the ,lord4 ,they also taught them the names of the devils4 ,he whom we call ,asmodeus1 was named ,hashmoda or ,chammada4 ,we know1 says ,calmet1 that there are various sorts of devils1 some of them princes and master-demons1 the rest subalterns4 ,how was it that this ,hashmoda was sufficiently powerful to twist the necks of seven young men who successively espoused the beautiful ,sarah1 a native of ,rages1 fifteen leagues from ,ecbatana8 ,the ,medes must have been seven times as great as the ,persians4 ,the good principle gives a husband to this maiden2 and behold6 the bad principle1 this king of demons1 ,hashmoda1 destroys the work of the beneficent principle seven times in succession4 ,but ,sarah was a ,jewess1 daughter of the ,jew ,raguel1 and a captive in the country of ,ecbatana4 ,how could a ,median demon have such power over ,jewish bodies8 ,it has been thought that ,asmodeus or ,chammada was a ,jew likewise2 that he was the old serpent which had seduced ,eve2 and that he was passionately fond of women1 sometimes seducing them1 and sometimes killing their husbands through an excess of love and jealousy4 ,indeed the ,greek version of the ,book of ,tobit gives us to understand that ,asmodeus was in love with ,sarah--oti daimonion philei autein4 ,it was the opinion of all the learned of antiquity that the genii1 whether good or evil1 had a great inclination for our virgins1 and the fairies for our youths4 ,even the ,scriptures1 accommodating themselves to our weakness1 and condescending to speak in the language of the vulgar1 say1 figuratively1 that the sons of ,god saw the daughters of men1 that they were fair2 and they took them wives of all which they chose4 ,but the angel ,raphael1 the conductor of young ,tobit1 gives him a reason more worthy of his ministry1 and better calculated to enlighten the person whom he is guiding4 ,he tells him that ,sarah's seven husbands were given up to the cruelty of ,asmodeus1 only because1 like horses or mules1 they had married her for their pleasure alone4 ,her husband1 says the angel1 must observe continence with her for three days1 during which time they must pray to ,god together4 ,this instruction would seem to have been quite sufficient to keep off ,asmodeus2 but ,raphael adds that it is also necessary to have the heart of a fish grilled over burning coals4 ,why1 then1 was not this infallible secret afterwards resorted to in order to drive the devil from the bodies of women8 ,why did the apostles1 who were sent on purpose to cast out devils never lay a fish's heart upon the gridiron8 ,why was not this expedient made use of in the affair of ,martha ,brossier2 that of the nuns of ,loudun2 that of the mistresses of ,urban ,gandier2 that of ,la ,cadire2 that of ,father ,girard2 and those of a thousand other demoniacs in the times when there were demoniacs8 ,the ,greeks and ,romans1 who had so many philters wherewith to make themselves beloved1 had others to cure love2 they employed herbs and roots4 ,the agnus castus had great reputation4 ,the moderns have administered it to young nuns1 on whom it has had but little effect4 ,apollo1 long ago1 complained to ,daphne that1 physician as he was1 he had never yet met with a simple that would cure love3 ,heu mihi6 quod nullis amor est medicabilis herbis4 ,what balm can heal the wounds that love has made8 ,the smoke of sulphur was tried2 but ,ovid1 who was a great master1 declares that this recipe was useless3 ,nec fugiat viro sulphure victus amor4 ,sulphur--believe me--drives not love away4 ,the smoke from the heart or liver of a fish was more efficacious against ,asmodeus4 ,the reverend father ,calmet is consequently in great trouble1 being unable to comprehend how this fumigation could act upon a pure spirit4 ,but he might have taken courage from the recollection that all the ancients gave bodies to the angels and demons4 ,they were very slender bodies2 as light as the small particles that rise from a broiled fish2 they were like smoke2 and the smoke from a fried fish acted upon them by sympathy4 ,not only did ,asmodeus flee1 but ,gabriel went and chained him in ,upper ,egypt1 where he still is4 ,he dwells in a grotto near the city of ,saata or ,taata4 ,paul ,lucas saw and spoke to him4 ,they cut this serpent in pieces1 and the pieces immediately joined again4 ,to this fact ,calmet cites the testimony of ,paul ,lucas1 which testimony ,i must also cite4 ,it is thought that ,paul ,lucas's theory may be joined with that of the vampires1 in the next compilation of the ,abb ,guyon4 ,,asphaltus4 ,,asphaltic ,,lake4--,,sodom4 ,asphaltus is a ,chaldan word1 signifying a species of bitumen4 ,there is a great deal of it in the countries watered by the ,euphrates2 it is also to be found in ,europe1 but of a bad quality4 ,an experiment was made by covering the tops of the watch-houses on each side of one of the gates of ,geneva2 the covering did not last a year1 and the mine has been abandoned4 ,however1 when mixed with rosin1 it may be used for lining cisterns2 perhaps it will some day be applied to a more useful purpose4 ,the real asphaltus is that which was obtained in the vicinity of ,babylon1 and with which it is said that the ,greek fire was fed4 ,several lakes are full of asphaltus1 or a bitumen resembling it1 as others are strongly impregnated with nitre4 ,there is a great lake of nitre in the desert of ,egypt1 which extends from lake ,mris to the entrance of the ,delta2 and it has no other name than the ,nitre ,lake4 ,the ,lake ,asphaltites1 known by the name of ,sodom1 was long famed for its bitumen2 but the ,turks now make no use of it1 either because the mine under the water is diminished1 because its quality is altered1 or because there is too much difficulty in drawing it from under the water4 ,oily particles of it1 and sometimes large masses1 separate and float on the surface2 these are gathered together1 mixed up1 and sold for balm of ,mecca4 ,flavius ,josephus1 who was of that country1 says that1 in his time1 there were no fish in the lake of ,sodom1 and the water was so light that the heaviest bodies would not go to the bottom4 ,it seems that he meant to say so heavy instead of so light4 ,it would appear that he had not made the experiment4 ,after all1 a stagnant water1 impregnated with salts and compact matter1 its specific matter being then greater than that of the body of a man or a beast1 might force it to float4 ,josephus's error consists in assigning a false cause to a phenomenon which may be perfectly true4 ,as for the want of fish1 it is not incredible4 ,it is1 however1 likely that this lake1 which is fifty or sixty miles long1 is not all asphaltic1 and that while receiving the waters of the ,jordan it also receives the fishes of that river2 but perhaps the ,jordan1 too1 is without fish1 and they are to be found only in the upper lake of ,tiberias4 ,josephus adds1 that the trees which grow on the borders of the ,dead ,sea bear fruits of the most beautiful appearance1 but which fall into dust if you attempt to taste them4 ,this is less probable2 and disposes one to believe that ,josephus either had not been on the spot1 for has exaggerated according to his own and his countrymen's custom4 ,no soil seems more calculated to produce good as well as beautiful fruits than a salt and sulphurous one1 like that of ,naples1 of ,catania1 and of ,sodom4 ,the ,holy ,scriptures speak of five cities being destroyed by fire from heaven4 ,on this occasion natural philosophy bears testimony in favor of the ,old ,testament1 although the latter has no need of it1 and they are sometimes at variance4 ,we have instances of earthquakes1 accompanied by thunder and lightning1 which have destroyed much more considerable towns than ,sodom and ,gomorrah4 ,but the ,river ,jordan necessarily discharging itself into this lake without an outlet1 this ,dead ,sea1 in the same manner as the ,caspian1 must have existed as long as there has been a ,river ,jordan2 therefore1 these towns could never stand on the spot now occupied by the lake of ,sodom4 ,the ,scripture1 too1 says nothing at all about this ground being changed into a lake2 it says quite the contrary3 ,then the ,lord rained upon ,sodom and upon ,gomorrah brimstone and fire1 from the ,lord out of heaven4 ,and ,abraham got up early in the morning1 and he looked toward ,sodom and ,gomorrah1 and toward all the land of the plain1 and beheld2 and lo1 the smoke of the country went up as the smoke of a furnace4 ,these five towns1 ,sodom1 ,gomorrah1 ,zeboin1 ,adamah1 and ,segor1 must then have been situated on the borders of the ,dead ,sea4 ,how1 it will be asked1 in a desert so uninhabitable as it now is1 where there are to be found only a few hordes of plundering ,arabs1 could there be five cities1 so opulent as to be immersed in luxury1 and even in those shameful pleasures which are the last effect of the refinement of the debauchery attached to wealth8 ,it may be answered that the country was then much better4 ,other critics will say--how could five towns exist at the extremities of a lake1 the water of which1 before their destruction1 was not potable8 ,the ,scripture itself informs us that all this land was asphaltic before the burning of ,sodom3 ,and the vale of ,sodom was full of slime-pits2 and the kings of ,sodom and ,gomorrah fled and fell there4 ,another objection is also stated4 ,isaiah and ,jeremiah say that ,sodom and ,gomorrah shall never be rebuilt2 but ,stephen1 the geographer1 speaks of ,sodom and ,gomorrah on the coast of the ,dead ,sea2 and the ,history of the ,councils mentions bishops of ,sodom and ,segor4 ,to this it may be answered that ,god filled these towns1 when rebuilt1 with less guilty inhabitants2 for at that time there was no bishop in partibus4 ,but1 it will be said1 with what water could these new inhabitants quench their thirst8 ,all the wells are brackish2 you find asphaltus and corrosive salt on first striking a spade into the ground4 ,it will be answered that some ,arabs still subsist there1 and may be habituated to drinking very bad water2 that the ,sodom and ,gomorrah of the ,eastern ,empire were wretched hamlets1 and that at that time there were many bishops whose whole diocese consisted in a poor village4 ,it may also be said that the people who colonized these villages prepared the asphaltus1 and carried on a useful trade in it4 ,the arid and burning desert1 extending from ,segor to the territory of ,jerusalem1 produces balm and aromatic herbs for the same reason that it supplies naphtha1 corrosive salt and sulphur4 ,it is said that petrifaction takes place in this desert with astonishing rapidity2 and this1 according to some natural philosophers1 makes the petrifaction of ,lot's wife ,edith a very plausible story4 ,but it is said that this woman1 having looked back1 became a pillar of salt4 ,this1 then1 was not a natural petrifaction1 operated by asphaltus and salt1 but an evident miracle4 ,flavius ,josephus says that he saw this pillar4 ,st4 ,justin and ,st4 ,irenus speak of it as a prodigy1 which in their time was still existing4 ,these testimonies have been looked upon as ridiculous fables4 ,it would1 however1 be very natural for some ,jews to amuse themselves with cutting a heap of asphaltus into a rude figure1 and calling it ,lot's wife4 ,i have seen cisterns of asphaltus1 very well made1 which may last a long time4 ,but it must be owned that ,st4 ,irenus goes a little too far when he says that ,lot's wife remained in the country of ,sodom no longer in corruptible flesh1 but as a permanent statue of salt1 her feminine nature still producing the ordinary effect3 ,uxor remansit in ,sodomis1 jam non caro corruptibilis sed statua salis semper manens1 et per naturalia ea qusunt consuetudmis hominis ostendens4 ,st4 ,irenus does not seem to express himself with all the precision of a good naturalist when he says ,lot's wife is no longer of corruptible flesh1 but still retains her feminine nature4 ,in the poem of ,sodom1 attributed to ,tertullian1 this is expressed with still greater energy3 ,dicitur et vivens alio sub corpore se us1 ,mirifice solito dispungere sanguine menses4 ,this was translated by a poet of the time of ,henry ,,ii41 in his ,gallic style3 ,la femme ,loth1 quoique sel devenue1 ,est femme encore2 car elle a sa menstrue4 ,the land of aromatics was also the land of fables4 ,into the deserts of ,arabia ,petra the ancient mythologists pretend that ,myrrha1 the granddaughter of a statue1 fled after committing incest with her father1 as ,lot's daughters did with theirs1 and that she was metamorphosed into the tree that bears myrrh4 ,other profound mythologists assure us that she fled into ,arabia ,felix2 and this opinion is as well supported as the other4 ,be this as it may1 not one of our travellers has yet thought fit to examine the soil of ,sodom1 with its asphaltus1 its salt1 its trees and their fruits1 to weigh the water of the lake1 to analyze it1 to ascertain whether bodies of greater specific gravity than common water float upon its surface1 and to give us a faithful account of the natural history of the country4 ,our pilgrims to ,jerusalem do not care to go and make these researches2 this desert has become infested by wandering ,arabs1 who range as far as ,damascus1 and retire into the caverns of the mountains1 the authority of the pasha of ,damascus having hitherto been inadequate to repress them4 ,thus the curious have but little information about anything concerning the ,asphaltic ,lake4 ,as to ,sodom1 it is a melancholy reflection for the learned that1 among so many who may be deemed natives1 not one has furnished us with any notion whatever of this capital city4 ,,ass4 ,we will add a little to the article ,ass in the ,encyclopdia1 concerning ,lucian's ass1 which became golden in the hands of ,apuleius4 ,the pleasantest part of the adventure1 however1 is in ,lucian3 ,that a lady fell in love with this gentleman while he was an ass1 but would have nothing more to say to him when he was but a man4 ,these metamorphoses were very common throughout antiquity4 ,silenus's ass had spoken2 and the learned had thought that he explained himself in ,arabic2 for he was probably a man turned into an ass by the power of ,bacchus1 and ,bacchus1 we know1 was an ,arab4 ,virgil speaks of the transformation of ,mris into a wolf1 as a thing of very ordinary occurrence3 ,saepe lupum fieri ,mrim1 et se condere silvis4 ,oft changed to wolf1 he seeks the forest shade4 ,was this doctrine of metamorphoses derived from the old fables of ,egypt1 which gave out that the gods had changed themselves into animals in the war against the giants8 ,the ,greeks1 great imitators and improvers of the ,oriental fables1 metamorphosed almost all the gods into men or into beasts1 to make them succeed the better in their amorous designs4 ,if the gods changed themselves into bulls1 horses1 swans1 doves1 etc41 why should not men have undergone the same operation8 ,several commentators1 forgetting the respect due to the ,holy ,scriptures1 have cited the example of ,nebuchadnezzar changed into an ox2 but this was a miracle--a divine vengeance--a thing quite out of the course of nature1 which ought not to be examined with profane eyes1 and cannot become an object of our researches4 ,others of the learned1 perhaps with equal indiscretion1 avail themselves of what is related in the ,gospel of the ,infancy4 ,an ,egyptian maiden having entered the chamber of some women1 saw there a mule with a silken cloth over his back1 and an ebony pendant at his neck4 ,these women were in tears1 kissing him and giving him to eat4 ,the mule was their own brother4 ,some sorceresses had deprived him of the human figure2 but the ,master of ,nature soon restored it4 ,although this gospel is apocryphal1 the very name that it bears prevents us from examining this adventure in detail2 only it may serve to show how much metamorphoses were in vogue almost throughout the earth4 ,the ,christians who composed their gospel were undoubtedly honest men4 ,they did not seek to fabricate a romance2 they related with simplicity what they had heard4 ,the church1 which afterwards rejected their gospel1 together with forty-nine others1 did not accuse its authority of impiety and prevarication2 those obscure individuals addressed the populace in language comformable with the prejudices of the age in which they lived4 ,china was perhaps the only country exempt from these superstitions4 ,the adventure of the companions of ,ulysses1 changed into beasts by ,circe1 was much more ancient than the dogma of the metempsychosis1 broached in ,greece and ,italy by ,pythagoras4 ,on what can the assertion be founded that there is no universal error which is not the abuse of some truth2 that there have been quacks only because there have been true physicians2 and that false prodigies have been believed only because there have been true ones8 ,were there any certain testimonies that men had become wolves1 oxen1 horses1 or asses8 ,this universal error had for its principle only the love of the marvellous and the natural inclination to superstition4 ,one erroneous opinion is enough to fill the whole world with fables4 ,an ,indian doctor sees that animals have feeling and memory4 ,he concludes that they have a soul4 ,men have one likewise4 ,what becomes of the soul of man after death8 ,what becomes of that of the beast8 ,they must go somewhere4 ,they go into the nearest body that is beginning to be formed4 ,the soul of a ,brahmin takes up its abode in the body of an elephant1 the soul of an ass is that of a little ,brahmin4 ,such is the dogma of the metempsychosis1 which was built upon simple deduction4 ,but it is a wide step from this dogma to that of metamorphosis4 ,we have no longer a soul without a tenement1 seeking a lodging2 but one body changed into another1 the soul remaining as before4 ,now1 we certainly have not in nature any example of such legerdemain4 ,let us then inquire into the origin of so extravagant yet so general an opinion4 ,if some father had characterized his son1 sunk in ignorance and filthy debauchery1 as a hog1 a horse1 or an ass1 and afterwards made him do penance with an ass's cap on his head1 and some servant girl of the neighborhood gave it out that this young man had been turned into an ass as a punishment for his faults1 her neighbors would repeat it to other neighbors1 and from mouth to mouth this story1 with a thousand embellishments1 would make the tour of the world4 ,an ambiguous expression would suffice to deceive the whole earth4 ,here then let us confess1 with ,boileau1 that ambiguity has been the parent of most of our ridiculous follies4 ,add to this the power of magic1 which has been acknowledged as indisputable in all nations1 and you will no longer be astonished at anything4 ,one word more on asses4 ,it is said that in ,mesopotamia they are warlike and that ,mervan1 the twenty-first caliph1 was surnamed the ,ass for his valor4 ,the patriarch ,photius relates1 in the extract from the ,life of ,isidorus1 that ,ammonius had an ass which had a great taste for poetry1 and would leave his manger to go and hear verses4 ,the fable of ,midas is better than the tale of ,photius4 ,machiavelli's ,golden ,ass4 ,machiavelli's ass is but little known4 ,the dictionaries which speak of it say that it was a production of his youth2 it would seem1 however1 that he was of mature age2 for he speaks in it of the misfortunes which he had formerly and for a long time experienced4 ,the work is a satire on his contemporaries4 ,the author sees a number of ,florentines1 of whom one is changed into a cat1 another into a dragon1 a third into a dog that bays the moon1 a fourth into a fox who does not suffer himself to be caught2 each character is drawn under the name of an animal4 ,the factions of the house of ,medicis and their enemies are doubtless figured therein2 and the key to this comic apocalypse would admit us to the secrets of ,pope ,leo and the troubles of ,florence4 ,this poem is full of morality and philosophy4 ,it ends with the very rational reflections of a large hog1 which addresses man in nearly the following terms3 ,ye naked bipeds1 without beaks or claws4 ,hairless1 and featherless1 and tender-hided1 ,weeping ye come into the world--because ,ye feel your evil destiny decided2 ,nature has given you industrious paws2 ,you1 like the parrots1 are with speech provided2 ,but have ye honest hearts8--,alas6 alas6 ,in this we swine your bipedships surpass6 ,man is far worse than we--more fierce1 more wild-- ,coward or madman1 sinning every minute2 ,by frenzy and by fear in turn beguiled1 ,he dreads the grave1 yet plunges headlong in it2 ,if pigs fall out1 they soon are reconciled2 ,their quarrel's ended ere they well begin it4 ,if crime with manhood always must combine1 ,good ,lord6 let me forever be a swine4 ,this is the original of ,boileau's ,satire on ,man1 and ,la ,fontaine's fable of the ,companions of ,ulysses2 but it is quite likely that neither ,la ,fontaine nor ,boileau had ever heard of ,machiavelli's ass4 ,the ,ass of ,verona4 ,i must speak the truth1 and not deceive my readers4 ,i do not very clearly know whether the ,ass of ,verona still exists in all his splendor2 but the travellers who saw him forty or fifty years ago agree in saying that the relics were enclosed in the body of an artificial ass made on purpose1 which was in the keeping of forty monks of ,our ,lady of the ,organ1 at ,verona1 and was carried in procession twice a year4 ,this was one of the most ancient relics of the town4 ,according to the tradition1 this ass1 having carried our ,lord in his entry into ,jerusalem1 did not choose to abide any longer in that city1 but trotted over the sea--which for that purpose became as hard as his hoof--by way of ,cyprus1 ,rhodes1 ,candia1 ,malta1 and ,sicily4 ,there he went to sojourn at ,aquilea2 and at last he settled at ,verona1 where he lived a long while4 ,this fable originated in the circumstance that most asses have a sort of black cross on their backs4 ,there possibly might be an old ass in the neighborhood of ,verona1 on whose back the populace remarked a finer cross than his brethren could boast of2 some good old woman would be at hand to say that this was the ass on which ,christ rode into ,jerusalem2 and the ass would be honored with a magnificent funeral4 ,the feast established at ,verona passed into other countries1 and was especially celebrated in ,france4 ,in the mass was sung3 ,orientis partibus ,adventabit asinus1 ,pulcher et fortissimus4 ,there was a long procession1 headed by a young woman with a child in her arms1 mounted on an ass1 representing the ,virgin ,mary going into ,egypt4 ,at the end of the mass the priest1 instead of saying ,ite missa est1 brayed three times with all his might1 and the people answered in chorus4 ,we have books on the feast of the ass1 and the feast of fools2 they furnish material towards a universal history of the human mind4 ,,assassin--,,assassination4 ,,section ,i4 ,a name corrupted from the word ,ehissessin4 ,nothing is more common to those who go into a distant country than to write1 repeat1 and understand incorrectly in their own language what they have misunderstood in a language entirely foreign to them1 and afterwards to deceive their countrymen as well as themselves4 ,error flies from mouth to mouth1 from pen1 to pen1 and to destroy it requires ages4 ,in the time of the ,crusades there was a wretched little people of mountaineers inhabiting the caverns near the road to ,damascus4 ,these brigands elected a chief1 whom they named ,cheik ,elchassissin4 ,it is said that this honorific title of cheik originally signified old1 as with us the title of seigneur comes from senior1 elder1 and the word graf1 a count1 signifies old among the ,germans2 for1 in ancient times almost every people conferred the civil command upon the old men4 ,afterwards1 the command having become hereditary1 the title of cheik1 graf1 seigneur1 or count has been given to children2 and the ,germans call a little master of four years old1 the count--that is1 the old gentleman4 ,the ,crusaders named the old man of the ,arabian mountains1 the ,old ,man of the ,hill1 and imagined him to be a great prince1 because he had caused a count of ,montserrat and some other crusading nobles to be robbed and murdered on the highway4 ,these people were called the assassins1 and their cheik the king of the vast country of the assassins4 ,this vast territory is five or six leagues long by two or three broad1 being part of ,anti-,libanus1 a horrible country1 full of rocks1 like almost all ,palestine1 but intersected by pleasant meadowlands1 which feed numerous flocks1 as is attested by all who have made the journey from ,aleppo to ,damascus4 ,the cheik or senior of these assassins could be nothing more than a chief of banditti2 for there was at that time a sultan of ,damascus who was very powerful4 ,our romance-writers of that day1 as fond of chimeras as the ,crusaders1 thought proper to relate that in #abcf this great prince of the assassins1 fearing that ,louis ,,ix41 of whom he had never heard1 would put himself at the head of a crusade1 and come and take from him his territory1 sent two great men of his court from the caverns of ,anti-,libanus to ,paris to assassinate that king2 but that having the next day heard how generous and amiable a prince ,louis was1 he immediately sent out to sea two more great men to countermand the assassination4 ,i say out to sea1 for neither the two emissaries sent to kill ,louis1 nor the two others sent to save him1 could make the voyage without embarking at ,joppa1 which was then in the power of the ,crusaders1 which rendered the enterprise doubly marvellous4 ,the two first must have found a ,crusaders' vessel ready to convey them in an amicable manner1 and the two last must have found another4 ,however1 a hundred authors1 one after another1 have related this adventure1 though ,joinville1 a contemporary1 who was on the spot1 says nothing about it--,et voil justement comme on crit l'histoire4 ,the ,jesuit ,maimbourg1 the ,jesuit ,daniel1 twenty other ,jesuits1 and ,mzeray--though he was not a ,jesuit--have repeated this absurdity4 ,the ,abb ,vli1 in his history of ,france1 tells it over again with perfect complaisance1 without any discussion1 without any examination1 and on the word of one ,william of ,nangis1 who wrote about sixty years after this fine affair is said to have happened at a time when history was composed from nothing but town talk4 ,if none but true and useful things were recorded1 our immense historical libraries would be reduced to a very narrow compass2 but we should know more1 and know it better4 ,for six hundred years the story has been told over and over again1 of the ,old ,man of the ,hill--le vieux de la montagne--who1 in his delightful gardens1 intoxicated his young elect with voluptuous pleasures1 made them believe that they were in paradise1 and sent them to the ends of the earth to assassinate kings in order to merit an eternal paradise4 ,near the ,levantine shores there dwelt of old ,an aged ruler1 feared in every land2 ,not that he owned enormous heaps of gold1 ,not that vast armies marched at his command1-- ,but on his people's minds he things impressed1 ,which filled with desperate courage every breast ,the boldest of his subjects first he took1 ,of paradise to give them a foretaste-- ,the paradise his lawgiver had painted2 ,with every joy the lying prophet's book ,within his falsely-pictured heaven had placed1 ,they thought their senses had become acquainted4 ,and how was this effected8 ',twas by wine-- ,of this they drank till every sense gave way1 ,and1 while in drunken lethargy they lay1 ,were borne1 according to their chief's design1 ,to sports of pleasantness--to sunshine glades1 ,delightful gardens and inviting shades4 ,young tender beauties were abundant there1 ,in earliest bloom1 and exquisitely fair2 ,these gayly thronged around the sleeping men1 ,who1 when at length they were awake again1 ,wondering to see the beauteous objects round1 ,believed that some way they'd already found ,those fields of bliss1 in every beauty decked1 ,the false ,mahomet promised his elect4 ,acquaintance quickly made1 the ,turks advance2 ,the maidens join them in a sprightly dance2 ,sweet music charms them as they trip along2 ,and every feathered warbler adds his song4 ,the joys that could for every sense suffice4 ,were found within this earthly paradise4 ,wine1 too1 was there--and its effects the same2 ,these people drank1 till they could drink no more1 ,were earned to the place from whence they came4 ,and what resulted from this trickery8 ,these men believed that they should surely be ,again transported to that place of pleasure1 ,if1 without fear of suffering or of death1 ,they showed devotion to ,mahomet's faith1 ,and to their prince obedience without measure4 ,thus might their sovereign with reason say1 ,and that1 now his device had made them so1 ,his was the mightiest empire here below4444 ,all this might be very well in one of ,la ,fontaine's tales--setting apart the weakness of the verse2 and there are a hundred historical anecdotes which could be tolerated there only4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,assassination being1 next to poisoning1 the crime most cowardly and most deserving of punishment1 it is not astonishing that it has found an apologist in a man whose singular reasoning is1 in some things1 at variance with the reason of the rest of mankind4 ,in a romance entitled ,emilius1 he imagines that he is the guardian of a young man1 to whom he is very careful to give an education such as is received in the military school--teaching him languages1 geometry1 tactics1 fortification1 and the history of his country4 ,he does not seek to inspire him with love for his king and his country1 but contents himself with making him a joiner4 ,he would have this gentleman-joiner1 when he has received a blow or a challenge1 instead of returning it and fighting1 prudently assassinate the man4 ,molire does1 it is true1 say jestingly1 in ,l',amour ,peintre1 assassination is the safest2 but the author of this romance asserts that it is the most just and reasonable4 ,he says this very seriously1 and1 in the immensity of his paradoxes1 this is one of the three or four things which he first says4 ,the same spirit of wisdom and decency which makes him declare that a preceptor should often accompany his pupil to a place of prostitution1 makes him decide that this disciple should be an assassin4 ,so that the education which ,jean ,jacques would give to a young man consists in teaching him how to handle the plane1 and in fitting him for salivation and the rope4 ,we doubt whether fathers of families will be eager to give such preceptors to their children4 ,it seems to us that the romance of ,emilius departs rather too much from the maxims of ,mentor in ,telemachus2 but it must also be acknowledged that our age has in all things very much varied from the great age of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,happily1 none of these horrible infatuations are to be found in the ,encyclopdia4 ,it often displays a philosophy seemingly bold1 but never that atrocious and extravagant babbling which two or three fools have called philosophy1 and two or three ladies1 eloquence4 ,,astrology4 ,astrology might rest on a better foundation than magic4 ,for if no one has seen farfadets1 or lemures1 or dives1 or peris1 or demons1 or cacodemons1 the predictions of astrologers have often been found true4 ,let two astrologers be consulted on the life of an infant1 and on the weather2 if one of them say that the child shall five to the age of man1 the other that he shall not2 if one foretell rain and the other fair weather1 it is quite clear that there will be a prophet4 ,the great misfortune of astrologers is that the heavens have changed since the rules of the art were laid down4 ,the sun1 which at the equinox was in the ,ram in the time of the ,argonauts1 is now in the ,bull2 and astrologers1 most unfortunately for their art1 now attribute to one house of the sun that which visibly belongs to another4 ,still1 this is not a demonstrative argument against astrology4 ,the masters of the art are mistaken2 but it is not proved that the art cannot exist4 ,there would be no absurdity in saying1 ,such a child was born during the moon's increase1 in a stormy season1 at the rising of a certain star2 its constitution was bad1 and its life short and miserable1 which is the ordinary lot of weak temperaments2 another1 on the contrary1 was born when the moon was at the full1 and the sun in all his power1 in calm weather1 at the rising of another particular star2 his constitution was good1 and his life long and happy4 ,if such observations had been frequently repeated1 and found just1 experience might1 at the end of a few thousand centuries1 have formed an art which it would have been difficult to call in question2 it would have been thought1 not without some appearance of truth1 that men are like trees and vegetables1 which must be planted only in certain seasons4 ,it would have been of no service against the astrologers to say1 ,my son was born in fine weather1 yet he died in his cradle4 ,the astrologer would have answered1 ,it often happens that trees planted in the proper season perish prematurely2 ,i will answer for the stars1 but not for the particular conformation which you communicated to your child2 astrology operates only when there is no cause opposed to the good which they have power to work4 ,illustration3 ,an ,astrologer4 ,nor would astrology have suffered any more discredit from it being said3 ,of two children who were born in the same minute1 one became a king1 the other nothing more than churchwarden of his parish2 for a defence would easily have been made by showing that the peasant made his fortune in becoming churchwarden1 just as much as the prince did in becoming king4 ,and if it were alleged that a bandit1 hung up by order of ,sixtus the ,fifth1 was born at the same time as ,sixtus1 who1 from being a swineherd1 became pope1 the astrologers would say that there was a mistake of a few seconds1 and that1 according to the rules1 the same star could not bestow the tiara and the gallows4 ,it was1 then1 only because long-accumulated experience gave the lie to the predictions that men at length perceived that the art was illusory2 but their credulity was of long duration4 ,one of the most famous mathematicians of ,europe1 named ,stoffler1 who flourished in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 foretold a universal deluge for the year #aebd4 ,this deluge was to happen in the month of ,february1 and nothing can be more plausible1 for ,saturn1 ,jupiter1 and ,mars were then in conjunction in the sign of the ,fishes4 ,every nation in ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa that heard of the prediction was in consternation4 ,the whole world expected the deluge1 in spite of the rainbow4 ,several contemporary authors relate that the inhabitants of the maritime provinces of ,germany hastened to sell their lands1 at any price1 to such as had more money and less credulity than themselves4 ,each one provided himself with a boat to serve as an ark4 ,a doctor of ,toulouse1 in particular1 named ,auriol1 had an ark built for himself1 his family1 and friends2 and the same precautions were taken in a great part of ,italy4 ,at last the month of ,february arrived1 and not a drop of rain fell1 never was a month more dry1 never were the astrologers more embarrassed4 ,however1 we neither discouraged nor neglected them2 almost all our princes continued to consult them4 ,i have not the honor to be a prince2 nevertheless1 the celebrated ,count de ,boulainvilliers and an ,italian1 named ,colonna1 who had great reputation at ,paris1 both foretold to me that ,i should assuredly die at the age of thirty-two4 ,i have already been so malicious as to deceive them thirty years in their calculation--for which ,i most humbly ask their pardon4 ,,astronomy1 ,,with ,a ,,few ,,more ,,reflections ,,on ,,astrology4 ,m4 ,duval1 who1 if ,i mistake not1 was librarian to the ,emperor ,francis ,i41 gives us an account of the manner in which1 in his childhood1 pure instinct gave him the first ideas of astronomy4 ,he was contemplating the moon which1 as it declined towards the west1 seemed to touch the trees of a wood4 ,he doubted not that he should find it behind the trees1 and1 on running thither1 was astonished to see it at the extremity of the horizon4 ,the following days his curiosity prompted him to watch the course of this luminary1 and he was still more surprised to find that it rose and set at various hours4 ,the different forms which it took from week to week1 and its total disappearance for some nights1 also contributed to fix his attention4 ,all that a child could do was to observe and to admire1 and this was doing much2 not one in ten thousand has this curiosity and perseverance4 ,he studied1 as he could1 for three years1 with no other book than the heavens1 no other master than his eyes4 ,he observed that the stars did not change their relative positions2 but the brilliancy of the planet ,venus having caught his attention1 it seemed to him to have a particular course1 like that of the moon4 ,he watched it every night2 it disappeared for a long time2 and at length he saw it become the morning instead of the evening star4 ,the course of the sun1 which from month to month1 rose and set in different parts of the heavens1 did not escape him4 ,he marked the solstices with two staves1 without knowing what the solstices were4 ,it appears to me that some profit might be derived from this example1 in teaching astronomy to a child of ten or twelve years of age1 and with much greater facility than this extraordinary child1 of whom ,i have spoken1 taught himself its first elements4 ,it is a very attractive spectacle for a mind disposed to the contemplation of nature to see that the different phases of the moon are precisely the same as those of a globe round which a lighted candle is moved1 showing here a quarter1 here the half of its surface1 and becoming invisible when an opaque body is interposed between it and the candle4 ,in this manner it was that ,galileo explained the true principles of astronomy before the doge and senators of ,venice on ,st4 ,mark's tower2 he demonstrated everything to the eyes4 ,indeed1 not only a child1 but even a man of mature age1 who has seen the constellations only on maps or globes1 finds it difficult to recognize them in the heavens4 ,in a little time the child will quite well comprehend the causes of the sun's apparent course1 and the daily revolutions of the fixed stars4 ,he will1 in particular1 discover the constellations with the aid of these four ,latin lines1 made by an astronomer about fifty years ago1 and which are not sufficiently known3 ,delta ,aries1 ,perseum ,taurus1 ,geminique ,capellam2 ,nil ,cancer1 ,plaustrum ,leo1 ,virgo ,coman1 atque ,bootem1 ,libra ,anguem1 ,anguiferum fert ,scorpios2 ,antinoum ,arcus2 ,delphinum ,caper1 ,amphora ,equos1 ,cepheida ,pisces4 ,nothing should be said to him about the systems of ,ptolemy and ,tycho ,brahe1 because they are false2 they can never be of any other service than to explain some passages in ancient authors1 relating to the errors of antiquity4 ,for instance1 in the second book of ,ovid's ,metamorphoses the sun says to ,phaton3 ,adde1 quod assidua rapitur vertigine clum2 ,nitor in adversum2 nec me1 qui ctera1 vincit ,impetus2 et rapido contrarius evehor orbi4 ,a rapid motion carries round the heavens2 ,but ,i--and ,i alone--resist its force1 ,marching secure in my opposing path4 ,this idea of a first mover turning the heavens round in twenty-four hours with an impossible motion1 and of the sun1 though acted upon by this first motion1 yet imperceptibly advancing from west to east by a motion peculiar to itself1 and without a cause1 would but embarrass a young beginner4 ,it is sufficient for him to know that1 whether the earth revolves on its own axis and round the sun1 or the sun completes his revolution in a year1 appearances are nearly the same1 and that1 in astronomy1 we are obliged to judge of things by our eyes before we examine them as natural philosophers4 ,he will soon know the cause of the eclipses of the sun and the moon1 and why they do not occur every night4 ,it will at first appear to him that1 the moon being every month in opposition to and in conjunction with the sun1 we should have an eclipse of the sun and one of the moon every month4 ,but when he finds that these two luminaries are not in the same plane and are seldom in the same line with the earth1 he will no longer be surprised4 ,he will easily be made to understand how it is that eclipses have been foretold1 by knowing the exact circle in which the apparent motion of the sun and the real motion of the moon are accomplished4 ,he will be told that observers found by experience and calculation the number of times that these two bodies are precisely in the same line with the earth in the space of nineteen years and a few hours1 after which they seem to recommence the same course2 so that1 making the necessary allowances for the little inequalities that occurred during those nineteen years1 the exact day1 hour1 and minute of an eclipse of the sun or moon were foretold4 ,these first elements are soon acquired by a child of clear conceptions4 ,not even the precession of the equinoxes will terrify him4 ,it will be enough to tell him that the sun has constantly appeared to advance in his annual course1 one degree in seventy-two years1 towards the east2 and this is what ,ovid meant to express3 ,contrarius evehor orbi2--,marching secure in my opposing path4 ,thus the ,ram1 which the sun formerly entered at the beginning of spring1 is now in the place where the ,bull was then4 ,this change which has taken place in the heavens1 and the entrance of the sun into other constellations than those which he formerly occupied1 were the strongest arguments against the pretended rules of judicial astrology4 ,it does not1 however1 appear that this proof was employed before the present century to destroy this universal extravagance which so long infected all mankind1 and is still in great vogue in ,persia4 ,a man born1 according to the almanac1 when the sun was in the sign of the ,lion1 was necessarily to be courageous2 but1 unfortunately1 he was in reality born under the sign of the ,virgin4 ,so that ,gauric and ,michael ,morin should have changed all the rules of their art4 ,it is indeed odd that all the laws of astrology were contrary to those of astronomy4 ,the wretched charlatans of antiquity and their stupid disciples1 who have been so well received and so well paid by all the princes of ,europe1 talked of nothing but ,mars and ,venus1 stationary and retrograde4 ,such as had ,mars stationary were always to conquer4 ,venus stationary made all lovers happy4 ,nothing was worse than to be born under ,venus retrograde4 ,but the fact is that these planets have never been either retrograde or stationary1 which a very slight knowledge of optics would have sufficed to show4 ,how1 then1 can it have been that1 in spite of physics and geometry1 the ridiculous chimera of astrology is entertained even to this day1 so that we have seen men distinguished for their general knowledge1 and especially profound in history1 who have all their lives been infatuated by so despicable an error8 ,but the error was ancient1 and that was enough4 ,the ,egyptians1 the ,chaldans1 the ,jews1 foretold the future2 therefore1 it may be foretold now4 ,serpents were charmed and spirits were raised in those days2 therefore1 spirits may be raised and serpents charmed now4 ,it is only necessary to know the precise formula made use of for the purpose4 ,if predictions are at an end1 it is the fault1 not of the art1 but of the artist4 ,michael ,morin and his secret died together4 ,it is thus that the alchemists speak of the philosopher's stone2 if1 say they1 we do not now find it1 it is because we do not yet know precisely how to seek it2 but it is certainly in ,solomon's collar-bone4 ,and1 with this glorious certainty1 more than two hundred families in ,france and ,germany have ruined themselves4 ,it is not then to be wondered at that the whole world has been duped by astrology4 ,the wretched argument1 there are false prodigies1 therefore there are true ones1 is neither that of a philosopher1 nor of a man acquainted with the world4 ,that is false and absurd1 therefore it will be believed by the multitude1 is a much truer maxim4 ,it is still less astonishing that so many men1 raised in other things so far above the vulgar2 so many princes1 so many popes1 whom it would have been impossible to mislead in the smallest affair of interest1 have been so ridiculously seduced by this astrological nonsense4 ,they were very proud and very ignorant4 ,the stars were for them alone2 the rest of the world a rabble1 with whom the stars had nothing to do4 ,they were like the prince who trembled at the sight of a comet1 and said gravely to those who did not fear it1 ,you may behold it without concern2 you are not princes4 ,the famous ,german leader1 ,wallenstein1 was one of those infatuated by this chimera2 he called himself a prince1 and consequently thought that the zodiac had been made on purpose for him4 ,he never besieged a town1 nor fought a battle1 until he had held a council with the heavens2 but1 as this great man was very ignorant1 he placed at the head of this council a rogue of an ,italian1 named ,seni1 keeping him a coach and six1 and giving him a pension of twenty thousand livres4 ,seni1 however1 never foresaw that ,wallenstein would be assassinated by order of his most gracious sovereign1 and that he himself would return to ,italy on foot4 ,it is quite evident that nothing can be known of the future1 otherwise than by conjectures4 ,these conjectures may be so well-founded as to approach certainty4 ,you see a shark swallow a little boy2 you may wager ten thousand to one that he will be devoured2 but you cannot be absolutely sure of it1 after the adventures of ,hercules1 ,jonas1 and ,orlando ,furioso1 who each lived so long in a fish's belly4 ,it cannot be too often repeated that ,albertus ,magnus and ,cardinal d',ailli both made the horoscope of ,jesus ,christ4 ,it would appear that they read in the stars how many devils he would cast out of the bodies of the possessed1 and what sort of death he was to die4 ,but it was unfortunate that these learned astrologers foretold all these things so long after they happened4 ,we shall elsewhere see that in a sect which passes for ,christian1 it is believed to be impossible for the ,supreme ,intelligence to see the future otherwise than by supreme conjecture2 for1 as the future does not exist1 it is1 say they1 a contradiction in terms to talk of seeing at the present time that which is not4 ,,atheism4 ,,section ,i4 ,on the ,comparison so ,often ,made between ,atheism and ,idolatry4 ,it seems to me that1 in the ,dictionnaire ,encyclopdique1 a more powerful refutation might have been brought against the ,jesuit ,richeome's opinion concerning atheists and idolaters--an opinion formerly maintained by ,st4 ,thomas1 ,st4 ,gregory ,nazianzen1 ,st4 ,cyprian1 and ,tertullian--an opinion which ,arnobius placed in a strong light when he said to the pagans1 ,do you not blush to reproach us with contempt for your gods8 ,is it not better to believe in no god than to impute to them infamous actions8--an opinion long before established by ,plutarch1 who stated that he would rather have it said that there was no ,plutarch than that there was a ,plutarch1 inconstant1 choleric1 and vindictive--an opinion1 too1 fortified by all the dialectical efforts of ,bayle4 ,such is the ground of dispute1 placed in a very striking point of view by the ,jesuit ,richeome1 and made still more specious by the way in which ,bayle sets it off3 ,there are two porters at the door of a house4 ,you ask to speak to the master4 ,he is not at home1 answers one4 ,he is at home1 answers the other1 but is busied in making false money1 false contracts1 daggers1 and poisons1 to destroy those who have only accomplished his designs4 ,the atheist resembles the former of these porters1 the pagan the latter4 ,it is then evident that the pagan offends the ,divinity more grievously than the atheist4 ,with the permission of ,father ,richeome1 and that of ,bayle himself1 this is not at all the state of the question4 ,for the first porter to be like the atheist1 he must say1 not ,my master is not here1 but ,i have no master2 he who you pretend is my master does not exist4 ,my comrade is a blockhead to tell you that the gentleman is engaged in mixing poisons and wetting poniards to assassinate those who have executed his will4 ,there is no such being in the world4 ,richeome1 therefore1 has reasoned very ill2 and ,bayle1 in his rather diffuse discourses1 has so far forgotten himself as to do ,richeome the honor of making a very lame comment upon him4 ,plutarch seems to express himself much better1 in declaring that he prefers those who say there is no ,plutarch to those who assert that ,plutarch is unfit for society4 ,indeed1 of what consequence to him was its being said that he was not in the world8 ,but it was of great consequence that his reputation should not be injured4 ,with the ,supreme ,being it is otherwise4 ,still ,plutarch does not come to the real point in discussion4 ,it is only asked who most offends the ,supreme ,being--he who denies ,him1 or he who disfigures ,him8 ,it is impossible to know1 otherwise than by revelation1 whether ,god is offended at the vain discourses which men hold about ,him4 ,philosophers almost always fall unconsciously into the ideas of the vulgar1 in supposing that ,god is jealous of ,his glory1 wrathful1 and given to revenge1 and in taking rhetorical figures for real ideas4 ,that which interests the whole world is to know whether it is not better to admit a rewarding and avenging ,god1 recompensing hidden good actions1 and punishing secret crimes1 than to admit no ,god at all4 ,bayle exhausts himself in repeating all the infamous things imputed to the gods of antiquity4 ,his adversaries answer him by unmeaning commonplaces4 ,the partisans and the enemies of ,bayle have almost always fought without coming to close quarters4 ,they all agree that ,jupiter was an adulterer1 ,venus a wanton1 ,mercury a rogue4 ,but this1 ,i conceive1 ought not to be considered2 the religion of the ancient ,romans should be distinguished from ,ovid's ,metamorphoses4 ,it is quite certain that neither they nor even the ,greeks ever had a temple dedicated to ,mercury the ,rogue1 ,venus the ,wanton1 or ,jupiter the ,adulterer4 ,the god whom the ,romans called ,deus optimus maximus--most good1 most great--was not believed to have encouraged ,clodius to lie with ,csar's wife1 nor ,csar to become the minion of ,king ,nicomedes4 ,cicero does not say that ,mercury incited ,verres to rob ,sicily1 though1 in the fable1 ,mercury had stolen ,apollo's cows4 ,the real religion of the ancients was that ,jupiter1 most good and just1 with the secondary divinities1 punished perjury in the infernal regions4 ,thus1 the ,romans were long the most religious observers of their oaths4 ,it was in no wise ordained that they should believe in ,leda's two eggs1 in the transformation of ,inachus's daughter into a cow1 or in ,apollo's love for ,hyacinthus4 ,therefore it must not be said that the religion of ,numa was dishonoring to the ,divinity4 ,so that1 as but too often happens1 there has been a long dispute about a chimera4 ,then1 it is asked1 can a people of atheists exist8 ,i consider that a distinction must be made between the people1 properly so called1 and a society of philosophers above the people4 ,it is true that1 in every country1 the populace require the strongest curb2 and that if ,bayle had had but five or six hundred peasants to govern1 he would not have failed to announce to them a rewarding and avenging ,god4 ,but ,bayle would have said nothing about them to the ,epicureans1 who were people of wealth1 fond of quiet1 cultivating all the social virtues1 and friendship in particular1 shunning the dangers and embarrassments of public affairs--leading1 in short1 a life of ease and innocence4 ,the dispute1 so far as it regards policy and society1 seems to me to end here4 ,as for people entirely savage1 they can be counted neither among the theists nor among the atheists4 ,to ask them what is their creed would be like asking them if they are for ,aristotle or ,democritus4 ,they know nothing2 they are no more atheists than they are peripatetics4 ,but1 it may be insisted1 that they live in society1 though they have no ,god1 and that1 therefore1 society may subsist without religion4 ,in this case ,i shall reply that wolves live so2 and that an assemblage of barbarous cannibals1 as you suppose them to be1 is not a society4 ,and1 further1 ,i will ask you if1 when you have lent your money to any one of your society1 you would have neither your debtor1 nor your attorney1 nor your notary1 nor your judge1 believe in a ,god8 ,,section ,,ii4 ,modern ,atheists4--,arguments of the ,worshippers of ,god4 ,we are intelligent beings1 and intelligent beings cannot have been formed by a blind1 brute1 insensible being2 there is certainly some difference between a clod and the ideas of ,newton4 ,newton's intelligence1 then1 came from some other intelligence4 ,when we see a fine machine1 we say there is a good machinist1 and that he has an excellent understanding4 ,the world is assuredly an admirable machine2 therefore there is in the world1 somewhere or other1 an admirable intelligence4 ,this argument is old1 but is not therefore the worse4 ,all animated bodies are composed of levers and pulleys1 which act according to the laws of mechanics2 of liquors1 which are kept in perpetual circulation by the laws of hydrostatics2 and the reflection that all these beings have sentiment which has no relation to their organization1 fills us with wonder4 ,the motions of the stars1 that of our little earth round the sun--all are operated according to the laws of the profoundest mathematics4 ,how could it be that ,plato1 who knew not one of these laws--the eloquent but chimerical ,plato1 who said that the foundation of the earth was an equilateral triangle1 and that of water a right-angled triangle--the strange ,plato1 who said there could be but five worlds1 because there were but five regular bodieshow1 ,i say1 was it that ,plato1 who was not even acquainted with spherical trigonometry1 had nevertheless so fine a genius1 so happy an instinct1 as to call ,god the ,eternal ,geometrician--to feel that there exists a forming ,intelligence8 ,spinoza himself confesses it4 ,it is impossible to controvert this truth1 which surrounds us and presses us on all sides4 ,argument of the ,atheists4 ,i have1 however1 known refractory individuals1 who have said that there is no forming intelligence1 and that motion alone has formed all that we see and all that we are4 ,they say boldly that the combination of this universe was possible because it exists2 therefore it was possible for motion of itself to arrange it4 ,take four planets only--,mars1 ,venus1 ,mercury1 and the ,earth2 let us consider them solely in the situations in which they now are2 and let us see how many probabilities we have that motion will bring them again to those respective places4 ,there are but twenty-four chances in this combination2 that is1 it is only twenty-four to one that these planets will not be found in the same situations with respect to one another4 ,to these four globes add that of ,jupiter2 and it is then only a hundred and twenty to one that ,jupiter1 ,mars1 ,venus1 ,mercury1 and our globe will not be placed in the same positions in which we now see them4 ,lastly1 add ,saturn2 and there will then be only seven hundred and twenty chances to one against putting these planets in their present arrangement1 according to their given distances4 ,it is1 then1 demonstrated that once1 at least1 in seven hundred and twenty cases1 chance might place these planets in their present order4 ,then take all the secondary planets1 all their motions1 all the beings that vegetate1 live1 feel1 think1 act1 on all these globes2 you have only to increase the number of chances2 multiply this number to all eternity--to what our weakness calls infinity--there will still be an unit in favor of the formation of the world1 such as it is1 by motion alone2 therefore it is possible that1 in all eternity1 the motion of matter alone has produced the universe as it exists4 ,nay1 this combination must1 in eternity1 of necessity happen4 ,thus1 say they1 not only it is possible that the world is as it is by motion alone1 but it was impossible that it should not be so after infinite combinations4 ,answer4 ,all this supposition seems to me to be prodigiously chimerical1 for two reasons3 the first is1 that in this universe there are intelligent beings1 and you cannot prove it possible for motion alone to produce understanding4 ,the second is1 that1 by your own confession1 the chances are infinity to unity1 that an intelligent forming cause produced the universe4 ,standing alone against infinity1 a unit makes but a poor figure4 ,again ,spinoza himself admits this intelligence2 it is the basis of his system4 ,you have not read him1 but you must read him4 ,why would you go further than he1 and1 through a foolish pride1 plunge into the abyss where ,spinoza dared not to descend8 ,are you not aware of the extreme folly of saying that it is owing to a blind cause that the square of the revolution of one planet is always to the squares of the others as the cube of its distance is to the cubes of the distances of the others from the common centre8 ,either the planets are great geometricians1 or the ,eternal ,geometrician has arranged the planets4 ,but where is the ,eternal ,geometrician8 ,is ,he in one place1 or in all places1 without occupying space8 ,i know not4 ,has ,he arranged all things of ,his own substance8 ,i know not4 ,is ,he immense1 without quantity and without quality8 ,i know not4 ,all ,i know is1 that we must adore ,him and be just4 ,new ,objection of a ,modern ,atheist4 ,can it be said that the conformation of animals is according to their necessities8 ,what are those necessities8 ,self-preservation and propagation4 ,now1 is it astonishing that1 of the infinite combinations produced by chance1 those only have survived which had organs adapted for their nourishment and the continuation of their species8 ,must not all others necessarily have perished8 ,answer4 ,this argument1 taken from ,lucretius1 is sufficiently refuted by the sensation given to animals and the intelligence given to man4 ,how1 as has just been said in the preceding paragraph1 should combinations produced by chance produce this sensation and this intelligence8 ,yes1 doubtless1 the members of animals are made for all their necessities with an incomprehensible art1 and you have not the boldness to deny it4 ,you do not mention it4 ,you feel that you can say nothing in answer to this great argument which ,nature brings against you4 ,the disposition of the wing of a fly1 or of the feelers of a snail1 is sufficient to confound you4 ,an ,objection of ,maupertuis4 ,the natural philosophers of modern times have done nothing more than extend these pretended arguments2 this they have sometimes done even to minuteness and indecency4 ,they have found ,god in the folds of a rhinoceros's hide2 they might1 with equal reason1 have denied ,his existence on account of the tortoise's shell4 ,answer4 ,what reasoning6 ,the tortoise and the rhinoceros1 and all the different species1 prove alike in their infinite varieties the same cause1 the same design1 the same end1 which are preservation1 generation1 and death4 ,unity is found in this immense variety2 the hide and the shell bear equal testimony4 ,what6 deny ,god1 because a shell is not like a skin6 ,and journalists have lavished upon this coxcombry praises which they have withheld from ,newton and ,locke1 both worshippers of the ,divinity from thorough examination and conviction6 ,another of ,maupertuis's ,objections4 ,of what service are beauty and fitness in the construction of a serpent8 ,perhaps1 you say1 it has uses of which we are ignorant4 ,let us then1 at least1 be silent1 and not admire an animal which we know only by the mischief it does4 ,answer4 ,be you silent1 also1 since you know no more of its utility than myself2 or acknowledge that1 in reptiles1 everything is admirably proportioned4 ,some of them are venomous2 you have been so too4 ,the only subject at present under consideration is the prodigious art which has formed serpents1 quadrupeds1 birds1 fishes1 and bipeds4 ,this art is evident enough4 ,you ask1 ,why is not the serpent harmless8 ,and why have you not been harmless8 ,why have you been a persecutor8 which1 in a philosopher1 is the greatest of crimes4 ,this is quite another question2 it is that of physical and moral evil4 ,it has long been asked1 ,why are there so many serpents1 and so many wicked men worse than serpents8 ,if flies could reason1 they would complain to ,god of the existence of spiders2 but they would1 at the same time1 acknowledge what ,minerva confessed to ,arachne in the fable1 that they arrange their webs in a wonderful manner4 ,we cannot1 then1 do otherwise than acknowledge an ineffable ,intelligence1 which ,spinoza himself admitted4 ,we must own that it is displayed as much in the meanest insect as in the planets4 ,and with regard to moral and physical evil1 what can be done or said8 ,let us console ourselves by the enjoyment of physical and moral good1 and adore the ,eternal ,being1 who has ordained the one and permitted the other4 ,one word more on this topic4 ,atheism is the vice of some intelligent men1 and superstition is the vice of fools4 ,and what is the vice of knaves8--,hypocrisy4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,unjust ,accusation4--,justification of ,vanini4 ,formerly1 whoever was possessed of a secret in any art was in danger of passing for a sorcerer2 every new sect was charged with murdering infants in its mysteries2 and every philosopher who departed from the jargon of the schools was accused of atheism by knaves and fanatics1 and condemned by blockheads4 ,anaxagorus dares to assert that the sun is not conducted by ,apollo1 mounted in a chariot and four2 he is condemned as an atheist1 and compelled to fly4 ,aristotle is accused of atheism by a priest1 and not being powerful enough to punish his accuser1 he retires to ,chalcis4 ,but the death of ,socrates is the greatest blot on the page of ,grecian history4 ,aristophanes--he whom commentators admire because he was a ,greek1 forgetting that ,socrates was also a ,greek--,aristophanes was the first who accustomed the ,athenians to regard ,socrates as an atheist4 ,this comic poet1 who is neither comic nor poetical1 would not1 among us1 have been permitted to exhibit his farces at the fair of ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,he appears to me to be much lower and more despicable than ,plutarch represents him4 ,let us see what the wise ,plutarch says of this buffoon3 ,the language of ,aristophanes bespeaks his miserable quackery2 it is made up of the lowest and most disgusting puns2 he is not even pleasing to the people2 and to men of judgment and honor he is insupportable2 his arrogance is intolerable1 and all good men detest his malignity4 ,this1 then1 is the jack-pudding whom ,madame ,dacier1 an admirer of ,socrates1 ventures to admire6 ,such was the man who1 indirectly1 prepared the poison by which infamous judges put to death the most virtuous man in ,greece4 ,the tanners1 cobblers1 and seamstresses of ,athens applauded a farce in which ,socrates was represented lifted in the air in a hamper1 announcing that there was no ,god1 and boasting of having stolen a cloak while he was teaching philosophy4 ,a whole people1 whose government sanctioned such infamous licences1 well deserved what has happened to them1 to become slaves to the ,romans1 and1 subsequently1 to the ,turks4 ,the ,russians1 whom the ,greeks of old would have called barbarians1 would neither have poisoned ,socrates1 nor have condemned ,alcibiades to death4 ,we pass over the ages between the ,roman commonwealth and our own times4 ,the ,romans1 much more wise than the ,greeks1 never persecuted a philosopher for his opinions4 ,not so the barbarous nations which succeeded the ,roman ,empire4 ,no sooner did the ,emperor ,frederick ,,ii4 begin to quarrel with the popes1 than he was accused of being an atheist1 and being the author of the book of ,the ,three ,impostors1 conjointly with his chancellor ,de ,vincis4 ,does our high-chancellor1 de l',hpital1 declare against persecution8 ,he is immediately charged with atheism--,homo doctus1 sed vetus atheus4 ,there was a ,jesuit1 as much beneath ,aristophanes as ,aristophanes is beneath ,homer--a wretch1 whose name has become ridiculous even among fanatics--the ,jesuit ,garasse1 who found atheists everywhere4 ,he bestows the name upon all who are the objects of his virulence4 ,he calls ,theodore ,beza an atheist4 ,it was he1 too1 that led the public into error concerning ,vanini4 ,the unfortunate end of ,vanini does not excite our pity and indignation like that of ,socrates1 because ,vanini was only a foreign pedant1 without merit2 however1 ,vanini was not1 as was pretended1 an atheist2 he was quite the contrary4 ,he was a poor ,neapolitan priest1 a theologian and preacher by trade1 an outrageous disputer on quiddities and universals1 and utrum chimra bombinans in vacuo possit comedere secundas intentiones4 ,but there was nothing in him tending to atheism4 ,his notion of ,god is that of the soundest and most approved theology3 ,god is the beginning and the end1 the father of both1 without need of either1 eternal without time1 in no one place1 yet present everywhere4 ,to him there is neither past nor future2 he is within and without everything2 he has created all1 and governs all2 he is immutable1 infinite without parts2 his power is his will4 ,this is not very philosophical1 but it is the most approved theology4 ,vanini prided himself on reviving ,plato's fine idea1 adopted by ,averros1 that ,god had created a chain of beings from the smallest to the greatest1 the last link of which was attached to his eternal throne2 an idea more sublime than true1 but as distant from atheism as being from nothing4 ,he travelled to seek his fortune and to dispute2 but1 unfortunately1 disputation leads not to fortune2 a man makes himself as many irreconcilable enemies as he finds men of learning or of pedantry to argue against4 ,vanini's ill-fortune had no other source4 ,his heat and rudeness in disputation procured him the hatred of some theologians2 and having quarrelled with one ,franconi1 this ,franconi1 the friend of his enemies1 charged him with being an atheist and teaching atheism4 ,franconi1 aided by some witnesses1 had the barbarity1 when confronted with the accused1 to maintain what he had advanced4 ,vanini1 on the stool1 being asked what he thought of the existence of a ,god1 answered that he1 with the ,church1 adored a ,god in three persons4 ,taking a straw from the ground1 ,this1 said he1 is sufficient to prove that there is a creator4 ,he then delivered a very fine discourse on vegetation and motion1 and the necessity of a ,supreme ,being1 without whom there could be neither motion nor vegetation4 ,the president ,grammont1 who was then at ,toulouse1 repeats this discourse in his history of ,france1 now so little known2 and the same ,grammont1 through some unaccountable prejudice1 asserts that ,vanini said all this through vanity1 or through fear1 rather than from inward conviction4 ,on what could this atrocious1 rash judgment of the president be founded8 ,it is evident1 from ,vanini's answer1 that he could not but be acquitted of the charge of atheism4 ,but what followed8 ,this unfortunate foreign priest also dabbled in medicine4 ,there was found in his house a large live toad1 which he kept in a vessel of water2 he was forthwith accused of being a sorcerer4 ,it was maintained that this toad was the god which he adored4 ,an impious meaning was attributed to several passages of his books1 a thing which is both common and easy1 by taking objections for answers1 giving some bad sense to a loose phrase1 and perverting an innocent expression4 ,at last1 the faction which oppressed him forced from his judges the sentence which condemned him to die4 ,in order to justify this execution it was necessary to charge the unfortunate man with the most enormous of crimes4 ,the grey friar--the very grey friar ,marsenne1 was so besotted as to publish that ,vanini set out from ,naples1 with twelve of his apostles1 to convert the whole world to atheism4 ,what a pitiful tale6 ,how should a poor priest have twelve men in his pay8 ,how should he persuade twelve ,neapolitans to travel at great expense1 in order to spread this revolting doctrine at the peril of their lives8 ,would a king himself have it in his power to pay twelve preachers of atheism8 ,no one before ,father ,marsenne had advanced so enormous an absurdity4 ,but after him it was repeated2 the journals and historical dictionaries caught it1 and the world1 which loves the extraordinary1 has believed the fable without examination4 ,even ,bayle1 in his miscellaneous thoughts 7,penses ,diverses71 speaks of ,vanini as of an atheist4 ,he cites his example in support of his paradox1 that a society of atheists might exist4 ,he assures us that ,vanini was a man of very regular morals1 and that he was a martyr to his philosophical opinions4 ,on both these points he is equally mistaken4 ,vanini informs us in his ,dialogues1 written in imitation of ,erasmus1 that he had a mistress named ,isabel4 ,he was as free in his writings as in his conduct2 but he was not an atheist4 ,a century after his death1 the learned ,lacroze1 and he who took the name of ,philaletes1 endeavored to justify him4 ,but as no one cares anything about the memory of an unfortunate ,neapolitan1 scarcely any one has read these apologies4 ,the ,jesuit ,hardouin1 more learned and no less rash than ,garasse1 in his book entitled ,athei ,detecti charges the ,descartes1 the ,arnaulds1 the ,pascals1 the ,malebranches1 with atheism4 ,happily1 ,vanini's fate was not theirs4 ,,section ,,iv4 ,a word on the question in morals1 agitated by ,bayle1 ,whether a society of atheists can exist4 ,here let us first observe the enormous self-contradictions of men in disputation4 ,those who have been most violent in opposing the opinion of ,bayle1 those who have denied with the greatest virulence the possibility of a society of atheists1 are the very men who have since maintained with equal ardor that atheism is the religion of the ,chinese government4 ,they have most assuredly been mistaken concerning the government of ,china2 they had only to read the edicts of the emperors of that vast country1 and they would have seen that those edicts are sermons1 in which a ,supreme ,being--governing1 avenging1 and rewarding--is continually spoken of4 ,but1 at the same time1 they are no less deceived respecting the impossibility of a society of atheists2 nor can ,i conceive how ,bayle could forget a striking instance which might have rendered his cause victorious4 ,in what does the apparent impossibility of a society of atheists consist8 ,in this3 ,it is judged that men without some restraint could not live together2 that laws have no power against secret crimes2 and that it is necessary to have an avenging ,god--punishing1 in this world or in the next1 such as escape human justice4 ,the laws of ,moses1 it is true1 did not teach the doctrine of a life to come1 did not threaten with chastisements after death1 nor even teach the primitive ,jews the immortality of the soul2 but the ,jews1 far from being atheists1 far from believing that they could elude the divine vengeance1 were the most religious of men4 ,they believed not only in the existence of an eternal ,god1 but that ,he was always present among them2 they trembled lest they should be punished in themselves1 their wives1 their children1 their posterity to the fourth generation4 ,this was a very powerful check4 ,but among the ,gentiles various sects had no restraint2 the ,skeptics doubted of everything2 the ,academics suspended their judgment on everything2 the ,epicureans were persuaded that the ,divinity could not meddle in human affairs1 and in their hearts admitted no ,divinity4 ,they were convinced that the soul is not a substance1 but a faculty which is born and perishes with the body2 consequently1 they had no restraint but that of morality and honor4 ,the ,roman senators and knights were in reality atheists2 for to men who neither feared nor hoped anything from them1 the gods could not exist4 ,the ,roman senate1 then1 in the time of ,csar and ,cicero1 was in fact an assembly of atheists4 ,that great orator1 in his oration for ,cluentius1 says to the whole assembled senate3 ,what does he lose by death8 ,we reject all the silly fables about the infernal regions4 ,what1 then1 can death take from him8 ,nothing but the susceptibility of sorrow4 ,does not ,csar1 wishing to save the life of his friend ,catiline1 threatened by the same ,cicero1 object that to put a criminal to death is not to punish him--that death is nothing--that it is but the termination of our ills--a moment rather fortunate than calamitous8 ,did not ,cicero and the whole senate yield to this reasoning8 ,the conquerors and legislators of all the known world then1 evidently1 formed a society of men who feared nothing from the gods1 but were real atheists4 ,bayle next examines whether idolatry is more dangerous than atheism--whether it is a greater crime not to believe in the ,divinity than to have unworthy notions of it2 in this he thinks with ,plutarch--that it is better to have no opinion than a bad opinion2 but1 without offence to ,plutarch1 it was infinitely better that the ,greeks should fear ,ceres1 ,neptune1 and ,jupiter than that they should fear nothing at all4 ,it is clear that the sanctity of oaths is necessary2 and that those are more to be trusted who think a false oath will be punished1 than those who think they may take a false oath with impunity4 ,it cannot be doubted that1 in an organized society1 it is better to have even a bad religion than no religion at all4 ,it appears then that ,bayle should rather have examined whether atheism or fanaticism is the most dangerous4 ,fanaticism is certainly a thousand times the most to be dreaded2 for atheism inspires no sanguinary passion1 but fanaticism does2 atheism does not oppose crime1 but fanaticism prompts to its commission4 ,let us suppose1 with the author of the ,commentarium ,return ,gallicarum1 that the ,high-,chancellor de l',hpital was an atheist2 he made none but wise laws2 he recommended only moderation and concord4 ,the massacres of ,st4 ,bartholomew were committed by fanatics4 ,hobbes passed for an atheist2 yet he led a life of innocence and quiet1 while the fanatics of his time deluged ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland with blood4 ,spinoza was not only an atheist--he taught atheism2 but assuredly he had no part in the judicial assassination of ,barneveldt2 nor was it he who tore in pieces the two brothers ,de ,witt1 and ate them off the gridiron4 ,atheists are1 for the most part1 men of learning1 bold but bewildered1 who reason ill and1 unable to comprehend the creation1 the origin of evil1 and other difficulties1 have recourse to the hypothesis of the eternity of things and of necessity4 ,the ambitious and the voluptuous have but little time to reason2 they have other occupations than that of comparing ,lucretius with ,socrates4 ,such is the case with us and our time4 ,it was otherwise with the ,roman senate1 which was composed almost entirely of theoretical and practical atheists1 that is1 believing neither in ,providence nor in a future state2 this senate was an assembly of philosophers1 men of pleasure1 and ambitious men1 who were all very dangerous1 and who ruined the commonwealth4 ,under the emperors1 ,epicureanism prevailed4 ,the atheists of the senate had been factious in the times of ,sulla and of ,csar2 in those of ,augustus and ,tiberius1 they were atheistical slaves4 ,i should not wish to come in the way of an atheistical prince1 whose interest it should be to have me pounded in a mortar2 ,i am quite sure that ,i should be so pounded4 ,were ,i a sovereign1 ,i would not have to do with atheistical courtiers1 whose interest it was to poison me2 ,i should be under the necessity of taking an antidote every day4 ,it is then absolutely necessary for princes and people that the idea of a ,supreme ,being--creating1 governing1 rewarding1 and punishing--be profoundly engraved on their minds4 ,there are1 nations of atheists1 says ,bayle in his ,thoughts on ,comets4 ,the ,kaffirs1 the ,hottentots1 and many other small populations1 have no god2 they neither affirm nor deny that there is one2 they have never heard of ,him2 tell them that there is one1 and they will easily believe it2 tell them that all is done by the nature of things1 and they will believe you just the same4 ,to pretend that they are atheists would be like saying they are anti-,cartesians4 ,they are neither for ,descartes nor against him2 they are no more than children2 a child is neither atheist nor deist2 he is nothing4 ,from all this1 what conclusion is to be drawn8 ,that atheism is a most pernicious monster in those who govern2 that it is the same in the men of their cabinet1 since it may extend itself from the cabinet to those in office2 that1 although less to be dreaded than fanaticism1 it is almost always fatal to virtue4 ,and especially1 let it be added1 that there are fewer atheists now than ever--since philosophers have become persuaded that there is no vegetative being without a germ1 no germ without a design1 etc41 and that the corn in our fields does not spring from rottenness4 ,unphilosophical geometricians have rejected final causes1 but true philosophers admit them2 and1 as it is elsewhere observed1 a catechist announces ,god to children1 and ,newton demonstrates ,him to the wise4 ,if there be atheists1 who are to blame8 ,who but the mercenary tyrants of our souls1 who1 while disgusting us with their knavery1 urge some weak spirits to deny the ,god whom such monsters dishonor8 ,how often have the people's bloodsuckers forced overburdened citizens to revolt against the king6 ,men who have fattened on our substance1 cry out to us3 ,be persuaded that an ass spoke2 believe that a fish swallowed a man1 and threw him up three days after1 safe and sound1 on the shore2 doubt not that the ,god of the universe ordered one ,jewish prophet to eat excrement1 and another to buy two prostitutes1 and have bastards by them2 such are the words put into the mouth of the ,god of purity and truth6 ,believe a hundred things either visibly abominable or mathematically impossible2 otherwise the ,god of ,mercy will burn you in hell-fire1 not only for millions of millions of ages1 but for all eternity1 whether you have a body or have not a body4 ,these brutal absurdities are revolting to rash and weak minds1 as well as to firm and wise ones4 ,they say3 ,our teachers represent ,god to us as the most insensate and barbarous of all beings2 therefore1 there is no ,god4 ,but they ought to say1 ,our teachers represent ,god as furious and ridiculous1 therefore ,god is the reverse of what they describe ,him2 ,he is as wise and good as they say ,he is foolish and wicked4 ,thus do the wise decide4 ,but1 if a fanatic hears them1 he denounces them to a magistrate--a sort of priest's officer1 which officer has them burned alive1 thinking that he is therein imitating and avenging the ,divine ,majesty which he insults4 ,,atheist4 ,,section ,i4 ,there were once many atheists among the ,christians2 they are now much fewer4 ,it at first appears to be a paradox1 but examination proves it to be a truth1 that theology often threw men's minds into atheism1 until philosophy at length drew them out of it4 ,it must indeed have been pardonable to doubt of the ,divinity1 when ,his only announcers disputed on ,his nature4 ,nearly all the first ,fathers of the ,church made ,god corporeal1 and others1 after them1 giving ,him no extent1 lodged ,him in a part of heaven4 ,according to some1 ,he had created the world in ,time2 while1 according to others1 ,he had created ,time itself4 ,some gave ,him a ,son like to ,himself2 others would not grant that the ,son was like to the ,father4 ,it was also disputed in what way a third person proceeded from the other two4 ,it was agitated whether the ,son had been1 while on earth1 composed of two persons4 ,so that the question undesignedly became1 whether there were five persons in the ,divinity--three in heaven and two for ,jesus ,christ upon earth2 or four persons1 reckoning ,christ upon earth as only one2 or three persons1 considering ,christ only as ,god4 ,there were disputes about ,his mother1 ,his descent into hell and into limbo2 the manner in which the body of the ,god-man was eaten1 and the blood of the ,god-man was drunk2 on grace2 on the saints1 and a thousand other matters4 ,when the confidants of the ,divinity were seen so much at variance among themselves anathematizing one another from age to age1 but all agreeing in an immoderate thirst for riches and grandeur--while1 on the other hand1 were beheld the prodigious number of crimes and miseries which afflicted the earth1 and of which many were caused by the very disputes of these teachers of souls--it must be confessed that it was allowable for rational men to doubt the existence of a being so strangely announced1 and for men of sense to imagine that a ,god1 who could of ,his own free will make so many beings miserable1 did not exist4 ,suppose1 for example1 a natural philosopher of the fifteenth century reading these words in ,st4 ,thomas's ,dream3 ,virtus cli1 loco spermatis1 sufficit cum elementis et putrefactione ad generationem animalium imperfectorum4 ,the virtue of heaven instead of seed is sufficient1 with the elements and putrefaction1 for the generation of imperfect animals4 ,our philosopher would reason thus3 ,if corruption suffices with the elements to produce unformed animals1 it would appear that a little more corruption1 with a little more heat1 would also produce animals more complete4 ,the virtue of heaven is here no other than the virtue of nature4 ,i shall then think1 with ,epicurus and ,st4 ,thomas1 that men may have sprung from the slime of the earth and the rays of the sun--a noble origin1 too1 for beings so wretched and so wicked4 ,why should ,i admit a creating ,god1 presented to me under so many contradictory and revolting aspects8 ,but at length physics arose1 and with them philosophy4 ,then it was clearly discovered that the mud of the ,nile produced not a single insect1 nor a single ear of corn1 and men were found to acknowledge throughout1 germs1 relations1 means1 and an astonishing correspondence among all beings4 ,the particles of light have been followed1 which go from the sun to enlighten the globe and the ring of ,saturn1 at the distance of three hundred millions of leagues2 then1 coming to the earth1 form two opposite angles in the eye of the minutest insect1 and paint all nature on its retina4 ,a philosopher was given to the world who discovered the simple and sublime laws by which the celestial globes move in the immensity of space4 ,thus the work of the universe1 now that it is better known1 bespeaks a workman1 and so many never-varying laws announce a lawgiver4 ,sound philosophy1 therefore1 has destroyed atheism1 to which obscure theology furnished weapons of defence4 ,but one resource was left for the small number of difficult minds1 which1 being more forcibly struck by the pretended injustices of a ,supreme ,being than by his wisdom1 were obstinate in denying this first mover4 ,nature has existed from all eternity2 everything in nature is in motion1 therefore everything in it continually changes4 ,and if everything is forever changing1 all possible combinations must take place2 therefore the present combinations of all things may have been the effect of this eternal motion and change alone4 ,take six dice1 and it is #df1fee to one that you do not throw six times six4 ,but still there is that one chance in #df1fef4 ,so1 in the infinity of ages1 any one of the infinite number of combinations1 as that of the present arrangement of the universe1 is not impossible4 ,minds1 otherwise rational1 have been misled by these arguments2 but they have not considered that there is infinity against them1 and that there certainly is not infinity against the existence of ,god4 ,they should1 moreover1 consider that if everything were changing1 the smallest things could not remain unchanged1 as they have so long done4 ,they have at least no reason to advance why new species are not formed every day4 ,on the contrary1 it is very probable that a powerful hand1 superior to these continual changes1 keeps all species within the bounds it1 has prescribed them4 ,thus the philosopher1 who acknowledges a ,god1 has a number of probabilities on his side1 while the atheist has only doubts4 ,it is evident that in morals it is much better to acknowledge a ,god than not to admit one4 ,it is certainly to the interest of all men that there should be a ,divinity to punish what human1 justice cannot repress2 but it is also clear that it were better to acknowledge no ,god than to worship a barbarous one1 and offer ,him human victims1 as so many nations have done4 ,we have one striking example1 which places this truth beyond a doubt4 ,the ,jews1 under ,moses1 had no idea of the immortality of the soul1 nor of a future state4 ,their lawgiver announced to them1 from ,god1 only rewards and punishments purely temporal2 they1 therefore1 had only this life to provide for4 ,moses commands the ,levites to kill twenty-three thousand of their brethren for having had a golden or gilded calf4 ,on another occasion twenty-four thousand of them are massacred for having had commerce with the young women of the country2 and twelve thousand are struck dead because some few of them had wished to support the ark1 which was near falling4 ,it may1 with perfect reverence for the decrees of ,providence1 be affirmed1 humanly speaking1 that it would have been much better for these fifty-nine thousand men1 who believed in no future state1 to have been absolute atheists and have lived1 than to have been massacred in the name of the ,god whom they acknowledged4 ,it is quite certain that atheism is not taught in the schools of the learned of ,china1 but many of those learned men are atheists1 for they are indifferent philosophers4 ,now it would undoubtedly be better to live with them at ,pekin1 enjoying the mildness of their manners and their laws1 than to be at ,goa1 liable to groan in irons1 in the prisons of the inquisition1 until brought out in a brimstone-colored garment1 variegated with devils1 to perish in the flames4 ,they who have maintained that a society of atheists may exist have then been right1 for it is laws that form society1 and these atheists1 being moreover philosophers1 may lead a very wise and happy life under the shade of those laws4 ,they will certainly live in society more easily than superstitious fanatics4 ,people one town with ,epicureans such as ,simonides1 ,protagoras1 ,des ,barreux1 ,spinoza2 and another with ,jansenists and ,molinists4 ,in which do you think there will be the most quarrels and tumults8 ,atheism1 considering it only with relation to this life1 would be very dangerous among a ferocious people1 and false ideas of the ,divinity would be no less pernicious4 ,most of the great men of this world live as if they were atheists4 ,every man who has lived with his eyes open knows that the knowledge of a ,god1 ,his presence1 and ,his justice1 has not the slightest influence over the wars1 the treaties1 the objects of ambition1 interest or pleasure1 in the pursuit of which they are wholly occupied4 ,yet we do not see that they grossly violate the rules established in society4 ,it is much more agreeable to pass our lives among them than among the superstitious and fanatical4 ,i do1 it is true1 expect more justice from one who believes in a ,god than from one who has no such belief2 but from the superstitious ,i look only for bitterness and persecution4 ,atheism and fanaticism are two monsters which may tear society in pieces2 but the atheist preserves his reason1 which checks his propensity to mischief1 while the fanatic is under the influence of a madness which is constantly urging him on4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,in ,england1 as everywhere else1 there have been1 and there still are1 many atheists by principle2 for there are none but young1 inexperienced preachers1 very ill-informed of what passes in the world1 who affirm that there cannot be atheists4 ,i have known some in ,france1 who were quite good natural philosophers2 and have1 ,i own1 been very much surprised that men who could so ably develop the secret springs of nature should obstinately refuse to acknowledge the hand which so evidently puts those springs in action4 ,it appears to me that one of the principles which leads them to materialism is that they believe in the plentitude and infinity of the universe1 and the eternity of matter4 ,it must be this which misleads them1 for almost all the ,newtonians whom ,i have met admit the void and the termination of matter1 and consequently admit a ,god4 ,indeed1 if matter be infinite1 as so many philosophers1 even including ,descartes1 pretend1 it has of itself one of the attributes of the ,supreme ,being3 if a void be impossible1 matter exists of necessity2 it has existed from all eternity4 ,with these principles1 therefore1 we may dispense with ,god1 creating1 modifying1 and preserving matter4 ,i am aware that ,descartes1 and most of the schools which have believed in the plenum1 and the infinity of matter1 have nevertheless admitted a ,god2 but this is only because men scarcely ever reason or act upon their principles4 ,had men reasoned1 consequently1 ,epicurus and his apostle ,lucretius must have been the most religious assertors of the ,providence which they combated2 for when they admitted the void and the termination of matter1 a truth of which they had only an imperfect glimpse1 it necessarily followed that matter was the being of necessity1 existing by itself1 since it was not indefinite4 ,they had1 therefore1 in their own philosophy1 and in their own despite1 a demonstration that there is a ,supreme ,being1 necessary1 infinite1 the fabricator of the universe4 ,newton's philosophy1 which admits and proves the void and finite matter1 also demonstratively proves the existence of a ,god4 ,thus ,i regard true philosophers as the apostles of the ,divinity4 ,each class of men requires its particular ones2 a parish catechist tells children that there is a ,god1 but ,newton proves it to the wise4 ,in ,london1 under ,charles ,,ii4 after ,cromwell's wars1 as at ,paris under ,henry ,,iv4 after the war of the ,guises1 people took great pride in being atheists2 having passed from the excess of cruelty to that of pleasure1 and corrupted their minds successively by war and by voluptuousness1 they reasoned very indifferently4 ,since then the more nature has been studied the better its ,author has been known4 ,one thing ,i will venture to believe1 which is1 that of all religions1 theism is the most widely spread in the world4 ,it is the prevailing religion of ,china2 it is that of the wise among the ,mahometans2 and1 among ,christian philosophers1 eight out of ten are of the same opinion4 ,it has penetrated even into the schools of theology1 into the cloisters1 into the conclave2 it is a sort of sect without association1 without worship1 without ceremonies1 without disputes1 and without zeal1 spread through the world without having been preached4 ,theism1 like ,judaism1 is to be found amidst all religions2 but it is singular that the latter1 which is the extreme of superstition1 abhorred by the people and contemned by the wise1 is everywhere tolerated for money2 while the former1 which is the opposite of superstition1 unknown to the people1 and embraced by philosophers alone1 is publicly exercised nowhere but in ,china4 ,there is no country in ,europe where there are more theists than in ,england4 ,some persons ask whether they have a religion or not4 ,there are two sorts of theists4 ,the one sort think that ,god made the world without giving man rules for good and evil4 ,it is clear that these should have no other name than that of philosophers4 ,the others believe that ,god gave to man a natural law4 ,these1 it is certain1 have a religion1 though they have no external worship4 ,they are1 with reference to the ,christian religion1 peaceful enemies1 which she carries in her bosom2 they renounce without any design of destroying her4 ,all other sects desire to predominate1 like political bodies1 which seek to feed on the substance of others1 and rise upon their ruin2 theism has always lain quiet4 ,theists have never been found caballing in any state4 ,there was in ,london a society of theists1 who for some time continued to meet together4 ,they had a small book of their laws1 in which religion1 on which so many ponderous volumes have been written1 occupied only two pages4 ,their principal axiom was this3 ,morality is the same among all men2 therefore it comes from ,god4 ,worship is various2 therefore it is the work of man4 ,the second axiom was3 ,men1 being all brethren1 and acknowledging the same ,god1 it is execrable that brethren should persecute brethren1 because they testify their love for the common father in a different manner4 ,indeed1 said they1 what upright man would kill his elder brother because one of them had saluted their father after the ,chinese and the other after the ,dutch fashion1 especially while it was undecided in what way the father wished their reverence to be made to him8 ,surely he who should act thus would be a bad brother rather than a good son4 ,i am well aware that these maxims lead directly to the abominable and execrable dogma of toleration2 but ,i do no more than simply relate the fact4 ,i am very careful not to become a controversialist4 ,it must1 however1 be admitted that if the different sects into which ,christians have been divided had possessed this moderation1 ,christianity would have been disturbed by fewer disorders1 shaken by fewer revolutions1 and stained with less blood4 ,let us pity the theists for combating our holy revelation4 ,but whence comes it that so many ,calvinists1 ,lutherans1 ,anabaptists1 ,nestorians1 ,arians1 partisans of ,rome1 and enemies of ,rome1 have been so sanguinary1 so barbarous1 and so miserable1 now persecuting1 now persecuted8 ,it is because they have been the multitude4 ,whence is it that theists1 though in error1 have never done harm to mankind8 ,because they have been philosophers4 ,the ,christian religion has cost the human species seventeen millions of men1 reckoning only one million per century1 who have perished either by the hands of the ordinary executioner1 or by those of executioners paid and led to battle--all for the salvation of souls and the greater glory of ,god4 ,i have heard men express astonishment that a religion so moderate1 and so apparently conformable to reason1 as theism1 has not been spread among the people4 ,among the great and little vulgar may be found pious herb-women1 ,molinist duchesses1 scrupulous seamstresses who would go to the stake for anabaptism1 devout hackney-coachmen1 most determined in the cause of ,luther or of ,arius1 but no theists2 for theism cannot so much be called a religion as a system of philosophy1 and the vulgar1 whether great or little1 are not philosophers4 ,locke was a declared theist4 ,i was astonished to find1 in that great philosopher's chapter on innate ideas1 that men have all different ideas of justice4 ,were such the case1 morality would no longer be the same2 the voice of ,god would not be heard by man2 natural religion would be at an end4 ,i am willing to believe1 with him1 that there are nations in which men eat their fathers1 and where to lie with a neighbor's wife is to do him a friendly office2 but if this be true it does not prove that the law1 ,do not unto others that which you would not have others do unto you1 is not general4 ,for if a father be eaten1 it is when he has grown old1 is too feeble to crawl along1 and would otherwise be eaten by the enemy4 ,and1 ,i ask1 what father would not furnish a good meal to his son rather than to the enemies of his nation8 ,besides1 he who eats his father hopes that he in turn shall be eaten by his children4 ,if a service be rendered to a neighbor by lying with his wife1 it is when he cannot himself have a child1 and is desirous of having one2 otherwise he would be very angry4 ,in both these cases1 and in all others1 the natural law1 ,do not to another that which you would not have another do to you1 remains unbroken4 ,all the other rules1 so different and so varied1 may be referred to this4 ,when1 therefore1 the wise metaphysician1 ,locke1 says that men have no innate ideas1 that they have different ideas of justice and injustice1 he assuredly does not mean to assert that ,god has not given to all men that instinctive self-love by which they are of necessity guided4 ,,atoms4 ,epicurus1 equally great as a genius1 and respectable in his morals2 and after him ,lucretius1 who forced the ,latin language to express philosophical ideas1 and--to the great admiration of ,rome--to express them in verse--,epicurus and ,lucretius1 ,i say1 admitted atoms and the void4 ,gassendi supported this doctrine1 and ,newton demonstrated it4 ,in vain did a remnant of ,cartesianism still combat for the plenum2 in vain did ,leibnitz1 who had at first adopted the rational system of ,epicurus1 ,lucretius1 ,gassendi1 and ,newton1 change his opinion respecting the void after he had embroiled himself with his master ,newton4 ,the plenum is now regarded as a chimera4 ,in this ,epicurus and ,lucretius appear to have been true philosophers1 and their intermediaries1 who have been so much ridiculed1 were no other than the unresisting space in which ,newton has demonstrated that the planets move round their orbits in times proportioned to their areas4 ,thus it was not ,epicurus' intermediaries1 but his opponents1 that were ridiculous4 ,but when ,epicurus afterwards tells us that his atoms declined in the void by chance2 that this declination formed men and animals by chance2 that the eyes were placed in the upper part of the head and the feet at the end of the legs by chance2 that ears were not given to hear1 but that the declination of atoms having fortuitously composed ears1 men fortuitously made use of them to hear with--this madness1 called physics1 has been very justly turned into ridicule4 ,sound philosophy1 then1 has long distinguished what is good in ,epicurus and ,lucretius1 from their chimeras1 founded on imagination and ignorance4 ,the most submissive minds have adopted the doctrine of creation in time1 and the most daring have admitted that of creation before all time4 ,some have received with faith a universe produced from nothing2 others1 unable to comprehend this doctrine in physics1 have believed that all beings were emanations from the ,great--the ,supreme and ,universal ,being2 but all have rejected the fortuitous concurrence of atoms2 all have acknowledged that chance is a word without meaning4 ,what we call chance can be no other than the unknown cause of a known effect4 ,whence comes it then1 that philosophers are still accused of thinking that the stupendous and indescribable arrangement of the universe is a production of the fortuitous concurrence of atoms--an effect of chance8 ,neither ,spinoza nor any one else has advanced this absurdity4 ,yet the son of the great ,racine says1 in his poem on ,religion3 ,o toi6 qui follement fais ton ,dieu du hasard1 ,viens me dvelopper ce nid qu'avec tant d'art1 ,au mme ordre toujours architecte fidle1 ,a l'aide de son bee maonne l'hirondelle2 ,comment1 pour lever ce hardi btiment1 ,a-t-elle en le broyant arrondi son ciment8 ,oh ye1 who raise ,creation out of chance1 ,as erst ,lucretius from th' atomic dance6 ,come view with me the swallow's curious nest1 ,where beauty1 art1 and order1 shine confessed4 ,how could rude chance1 forever dark and blind1 ,preside within the little builder's mind8 ,could she1 with accidents unnumbered crowned1 ,its mass concentrate1 and its structure round6 ,these lines are assuredly thrown away4 ,no one makes chance his ,god2 no one has said that while a swallow tempers his clay1 it takes the form of his abode by chance4 ,on the contrary1 it is said that he makes his nest by the laws of necessity1 which is the opposite of chance4 ,the only question now agitated is1 whether the author of nature has formed primordial parts unsusceptible of division1 or if all is continually dividing and changing into other elements4 ,the first system seems to account for everything1 and the second1 hitherto at least1 for nothing4 ,if the first elements of things were not indestructible one element might at last swallow up all the rest1 and change them into its own substance4 ,hence1 perhaps it was that ,empedocles imagined that everything came from fire1 and would be destroyed by fire4 ,this question of atoms involves another1 that of the divisibility of matter ad infinitum4 ,the word atom signifies without parts--not to be divided4 ,you divide it in thought1 for if you were to divide it in reality it would no longer be an atom4 ,you may divide a grain of gold into eighteen millions of visible parts2 a grain of copper dissolved in spirit of sal ammoniac has exhibited upwards of twenty-two thousand parts2 but when you have arrived at the last element the atom escapes the microscope1 and you can divide no further except in imagination4 ,the infinite divisibility of atoms is like some propositions in geometry4 ,you may pass an infinity of curves between a circle and its tangent1 supposing the circle and the tangent to be lines without breadth2 but there are no such lines in nature4 ,you likewise establish that asymptotes will approach one another without ever meeting2 but it is under the supposition that they are lines having length without breadth--things which have only a speculative existence4 ,so1 also1 we represent unity by a line1 and divide this line and this unity into as many fractions as you please2 but this infinity of fractions will never be any other than our unity and our line4 ,it is not strictly demonstrated that atoms are indivisible1 but it appears that they are not divided by the laws of nature4 ,,avarice4 ,avarities1 amor habendi--desire of having1 avidity1 covetousness4 ,properly speaking1 avarice is the desire of accumulating1 whether in grain1 movables1 money1 or curiosities4 ,there were avaricious men long before coin was invented4 ,we do not call a man avaricious who has four and twenty coach horses1 yet will not lend one to his friend3 or who1 having two thousand bottles of ,burgundy in his cellar1 will not send you half a dozen1 when he knows you to be in want of them4 ,if he show you a hundred thousand crowns' worth of diamonds you do not think of asking him to present you with one worth twenty livres2 you consider him as a man of great magnificence1 but not at all avaricious4 ,he who in finance1 in army contracts1 and great undertakings gained two millions each year1 and who1 when possessed of forty-three millions1 besides his houses at ,paris and his movables1 expended fifty thousand crowns per annum for his table1 and sometimes lent money to noblemen at five per cent1 interest1 did not pass1 in the minds of the people1 for an avaricious man4 ,he had1 however1 all his life burned with the thirst of gain2 the demon of covetousness was perpetually tormenting him2 he continued to accumulate to the last day of his life4 ,this passion1 which was constantly gratified1 has never been called avarice4 ,he did not expend a tenth part of his income1 yet he had the reputation of a generous man1 too fond of splendor4 ,a father of a family who1 with an income of twenty thousand livres1 expends only five or six1 and accumulates his savings to portion his children1 has the reputation among his neighbors of being avaricious1 mean1 stingy1 a niggard1 a miser1 a grip-farthing2 and every abusive epithet that can be thought of is bestowed upon him4 ,nevertheless this good citizen is much more to be honored than the ,crsus ,i have just mentioned2 he expends three times as much in proportion4 ,but the cause of the great difference between their reputations is this3 ,men hate the individual whom they call avaricious only because there is nothing to be gained by him4 ,the physician1 the apothecary1 the wine-merchant1 the draper1 the grocer1 the saddler1 and a few girls gain a good deal by our ,croesus1 who is truly avaricious4 ,but with our close and economical citizen there is nothing to be done4 ,therefore he is loaded with maledictions4 ,as for those among the avaricious who deprive themselves of the necessaries of life1 we leave them to ,plautus and ,molire4 ,,augury4 ,must not a man be very thoroughly possessed by the demon of etymology to say1 with ,pezron and others1 that the ,roman word augurium came from the ,celtic words au and gur8 ,according to these learned men au must1 among the ,basques and ,bas-,bretons1 have signified the liver1 because asu1 which1 7say they7 signified left1 doubtless stood for the liver1 which is on the right side2 and gur meant man1 or yellow1 or red1 in that ,celtic tongue of which we have not one memorial4 ,truly this is powerful reasoning4 ,absurd curiosity 7for we must call things by their right names7 has been carried so far as to seek ,hebrew and ,chaldee derivations from certain ,teutonic and ,celtic words4 ,this1 ,bochart never fails to do4 ,it is astonishing with what confidence these men of genius have proved that expressions used on the banks of the ,tiber were borrowed from the patois of the savages of ,biscay4 ,nay1 they even assert that this patois was one of the first idioms of the primitive language--the parent of all other languages throughout the world4 ,they have only to proceed1 and say that all the various notes of birds come from the cry of the two first parrots1 from which every other species of birds has been produced4 ,the religious folly of auguries was originally founded on very sound and natural observations4 ,the birds of passage have always marked the progress of the seasons4 ,we see them come in flocks in the spring1 and return in the autumn4 ,the cuckoo is heard only in fine weather1 which his note seems to invite4 ,the swallows1 skimming along the ground1 announce rain4 ,each climate has its bird1 which is in effect its augury4 ,among the observing part of mankind there were1 no doubt1 knaves who persuaded fools that there was something divine in these animals1 and that their flight presaged our destinies1 which were written on the wings of a sparrow just as clearly as in the stars4 ,the commentators on the allegorical and interesting story of ,joseph sold by his brethren1 and made ,pharaoh's prime minister for having explained his dreams1 infer that ,joseph was skilled in the science of auguries1 from the circumstance that ,joseph's steward is commanded to say to his brethren1 ,is not this it 7the silver cup7 in which my lord drinketh8 and whereby indeed he divineth8 ,joseph1 having caused his brethren to be brought back before him1 says to them3 ,what deed is this that ye have done8 ,wot ye not that such a man as ,i can certainly divine8 ,judah acknowledges1 in the name of his brethren1 that ,joseph is a great diviner1 and that ,god has inspired him3 ,god hath found out the iniquity of thy servants4 ,at that time they took ,joseph for an ,egyptian lord4 ,it is evident from the text that they believe the ,god of the ,egyptians and of the ,jews had discovered to this minister the theft of his cup4 ,here1 then1 we have auguries or divination clearly established in the ,book of ,genesis2 so clearly that it is afterwards forbidden in ,leviticus3 ,ye shall not eat anything with the blood2 neither shall ye use enchantment nor observe times4 ,ye shall not round the corners of your heads1 neither shalt thou mar the corners of thy beard4 ,as for the superstition of seeing the future in a cup1 it still exists1 and is called seeing in a glass4 ,the individual must never have known pollution2 he must turn towards the east1 and pronounce the words1 ,abraxa per dominum nostrum1 after which he will see in a glass of water whatever he pleases4 ,children were usually chosen for this operation4 ,they must retain their hair2 a shaven head1 or one wearing a wig1 can see nothing in a glass4 ,this pastime was much in vogue in ,france during the regency of the duke of ,orleans1 and still more so in the times preceding4 ,as for auguries1 they perished with the ,roman ,empire4 ,only the bishops have retained the augurial staff1 called the crosier2 which was the distinctive mark of the dignity of augur2 so that the symbol of falsehood has become the symbol of truth4 ,there were innumerable kinds of divinations1 of which several have reached our latter ages4 ,this curiosity to read the future is a malady which only philosophy can cure1 for the weak minds that still practise these pretended arts of divination--even the fools who give themselves to the devils--all make religion subservient to these profanations1 by which it is outraged4 ,it is an observation worthy of the wise1 that ,cicero1 who was one of the college of augurs1 wrote a book for the sole purpose of turning auguries into ridicule2 but they have likewise remarked that ,cicero1 at the end of his book1 says that superstition should be destroyed1 but not religion4 ,for1 he adds1 the beauty of the universe1 and the order of the heavenly bodies force us to acknowledge an eternal and powerful nature4 ,we must maintain the religion which is joined with the knowledge of this nature1 by utterly extirpating superstition1 for it is a monster which pursues and presses us on every side4 ,the meeting with a pretended diviner1 a presage1 an immolated victim1 a bird1 a ,chaldan1 an aruspice1 a flash of lightning1 a clap of thunder1 an event accidentally corresponding with what has been foretold to us1 everything disturbs and makes us uneasy2 sleep itself1 which should make us forget all these pains and fears1 serves but to redouble them by frightful images4 ,cicero thought he was addressing only a few ,romans1 but he was speaking to all men and all ages4 ,most of the great men of ,rome no more believed in auguries than ,alexander ,,vi41 ,julius ,,ii41 and ,leo ,x41 believed in ,our ,lady of ,loretto and the blood of ,st4 ,januarius4 ,however1 ,suetonius relates that ,octavius1 surnamed ,augustus1 was so weak as to believe that a fish1 which leaped from the sea upon the shore at ,actium1 foreboded that he should gain the battle4 ,he adds that1 having afterwards met an ass-driver1 he asked him the name of his ass2 and the man having answered that his ass was named ,nicholas1 which signifies conqueror of nations1 he had no longer any doubts about the victory2 and that he afterwards had brazen statues erected to the ass-driver1 the ass1 and the jumping fish4 ,he further assures us that these statues were placed in the ,capitol4 ,it is very likely that this able tyrant laughed at the superstitions of the ,romans1 and that his ass1 the driver1 and the fish1 were nothing more than a joke4 ,but it is no less likely that1 while he despised all the follies of the vulgar1 he had a few of his own4 ,the barbarous and dissimulating ,louis ,,xi4 had a firm faith in the cross of ,st4 ,louis4 ,almost all princes1 excepting such as have had time to read1 and read to advantage1 are in some degree infected with superstition4 ,,augustine4 ,augustine1 a native of ,tagaste1 is here to be considered1 not as a bishop1 a doctor1 a father of the ,church1 but simply as a man4 ,this is a question in physics1 respecting the climate of ,africa4 ,when a youth1 ,augustine was a great libertine1 and the spirit was no less quick in him than the flesh4 ,he says that before he was twenty years old he had learned arithmetic1 geometry and music without a master4 ,does not this prove that1 in ,africa1 which we now call ,barbary1 both minds and bodies advance to maturity more rapidly than among us8 ,these valuable advantages of ,st4 ,augustine would lead one to believe that ,empedocles was not altogether in the wrong when he regarded fire as the principle of nature4 ,it is assisted1 but by subordinate agents4 ,it is like a king governing the actions of all his subjects1 and sometimes inflaming the imaginations of his people rather too much4 ,it is not without reason that ,syphax says to ,juba1 in the ,cato of ,addison1 that the sun which rolls its fiery car over ,african heads places a deeper tinge upon the cheeks1 and a fiercer flame within their hearts4 ,that the dames of ,zama are vastly superior to the pale beauties of the north3 ,the glowing dames of ,zama's royal court ,have faces flushed with more exalted charms2 ,were you with these1 my prince1 you'd soon forget ,the pale unripened beauties of the north4 ,where shall we find in ,paris1 ,strasburg1 ,ratisbon1 or ,vienna young men who have learned arithmetic1 the mathematics and music without assistance1 and who have been fathers at fourteen8 ,doubtless it is no fable that ,atlas1 prince of ,mauritania1 called by the ,greeks the son of heaven1 was a celebrated astronomer1 and constructed a celestial sphere such as the ,chinese have had for so many ages4 ,the ancients1 who expressed everything in allegory1 likened this prince to the mountain which bears his name1 because it lifts its head above the clouds1 which have been called the heavens by all mankind who have judged of things only from the testimony of their eyes4 ,these ,moors cultivated the sciences with success1 and taught ,spain and ,italy for five centuries4 ,things are greatly altered4 ,the country of ,augustine is now but a den of pirates1 while ,england1 ,italy1 ,germany1 and ,france1 which were involved in barbarism1 are greater cultivators of the arts than ever the ,arabians were4 ,our only object1 then1 in this article is to show how changeable a scene this world is4 ,augustine1 from a debauchee1 becomes an orator and a philosopher2 he puts himself forward in the world2 he teaches rhetoric2 he turns ,manichan1 and from ,manichanism passes to ,christianity4 ,he causes himself to be baptized1 together with one of his bastards1 named ,deodatus2 he becomes a bishop1 and a father of the ,church4 ,his system of grace has been reverenced for eleven hundred years as an article of faith4 ,at the end of eleven hundred years some ,jesuits find means to procure an anathema against ,augustine's system1 word for word1 under the names of ,jansenius1 ,st4 ,cyril1 ,arnaud1 and ,quesnel4 ,we ask if this revolution is not1 in its kind1 as great as that of ,africa1 and if there be anything permanent upon earth8 ,,augustus 7,,octavius74 ,the ,morals of ,augustus4 ,manners can be known only from facts1 which facts must be incontestable4 ,it is beyond doubt that this man1 so immoderately praised as the restorer of morals and of laws1 was long one of the most infamous debauchees in the ,roman commonwealth4 ,his epigram on ,fulvia1 written after the horrors of the proscriptions1 proves that he was no less a despiser of decency in his language than he was a barbarian in his conduct4 ,this abominable epigram is one of the strongest testimonies to ,augustus' infamous immorality4 ,sextus ,pompeius also reproached him with shameful weaknesses3 ,effeminatum infectatus est4 ,antony1 before the triumvirate1 declared that ,csar1 great-uncle to ,augustus1 had adopted him as his son only because he had been subservient to his pleasures2 ,adopt ionem avunculi stupro meritum4 ,lucius ,csar charged him with the same crime1 and even asserted that he had been base enough to sell himself to ,hirtius for a very considerable sum4 ,he was so shameless as to take the wife of a consul from her husband in the midst of a supper2 he took her to a neighboring closet1 staid with her there for some time1 and brought her back to table without himself1 the woman1 or her husband blushing at all at the proceeding4 ,we have also a letter from ,antony to ,augustus1 couched in these terms3 ,ita valeas ut hanc epistolam cum leges1 non inieris ,testullam1 aut ,terentillam1 aut ,russillam1 aut ,salviam1 aut omnes4 ,anne refert ubi et in quam arrigas8 ,we are afraid to translate this licentious letter4 ,nothing is better known than the scandalous feast of five of the companions of his pleasures with five of the principal women of ,rome4 ,they were dressed up as gods and goddesses1 and imitated all the immodesties invented in fable--,bum nova ,divorum cnat adulteria4 ,and on the stage he was publicly designated by this famous line3 ,videsne ut cinaedus orbem digito temperet8 ,almost every ,latin author that speaks of ,ovid asserts that ,augustus had the insolence to banish that ,roman knight1 who was a much better man than himself1 merely because the other had surprised him in an incest with his own daughter ,julia2 and that he sent his daughter into exile only through jealousy4 ,this is the more likely1 as ,caligula published aloud that his mother was born from the incest of ,augustus with ,julia4 ,so says ,suetonius1 in his life of ,caligula4 ,we know that ,augustus repudiated the mother of ,julia the very day she was brought to bed of her1 and on the same day took ,livia from her husband when she was pregnant of ,tiberius--another monster1 who succeeded him4 ,such was the man to whom ,horace said3 ,res ,italas armis tuteris1 moribus ornes1 ,legibus emendes4444 ,it is hard to repress our indignation at reading at the commencement of the ,georgics that ,augustus is one of the greatest of divinities2 and that it is not known what place he will one day deign to occupy in heaven2 whether he will reign in the air1 or become the protector of cities1 or vouchsafe to accept the empire of the seas3 ,an ,deus immensi venias maris1 ac tua nauta ,numina sola celant tibi servial ultima ,thule4 ,ariosto speaks with much more sense as well as grace1 when he says in his fine thirty-fifth canto3 ,non fu si santo ne benigno ,augusto ,come la tromba di ,virgilio sonna2 ,l'aver avuto in poesia buon gusto ,la proscriptione iniqua gli perdona4 ,augustus was not quite so mild and chaste ,as he's by honest ,virgil represented2 ,but then1 the tyrant had poetic taste2 ,with this the poet fully was contented4 ,the ,cruelties of ,augustus4 ,if ,augustus was long abandoned to the most shameful and frantic dissipation1 his cruelty was no less uniform and deliberate4 ,his proscriptions were published in the midst of feasting and revelry2 he proscribed more than three hundred senators1 two thousand knights1 and one hundred obscure but wealthy heads of families1 whose only crime was their being rich1 ,antony and ,octavius had them killed1 solely that they might get possession of their money2 in which they differed not the least from highway robbers1 who are condemned to the wheel4 ,octavius1 immediately after the ,persian war1 gave his veterans all the lands belonging to the citizens of ,mantua and ,cremona1 thus recompensing murder by depredation4 ,it is but too certain that the world was ravaged1 from the ,euphrates to the extremities of ,spain1 by this man without shame1 without faith1 honor1 or probity1 knavish1 ungrateful1 avaricious1 blood-thirsty1 cool in the commission of crime1 who1 in any well-regulated republic1 would have been condemned to the greatest of punishments for the first of his offences4 ,nevertheless1 the government of ,augustus is still admired1 because under him ,rome tasted peace1 pleasure and abundance4 ,seneca says of him3 ,clementiam non voco lassam crudelitatem--,i do not call exhausted cruelty clemency4 ,it is thought that ,augustus became milder when crime was no longer necessary to him2 and that1 being absolute master1 he saw that he had no other interest than to appear just4 ,but it appears to me that he still was pitiless rather than clement2 for1 after the battle of ,actium1 he had ,antony's son murdered at the feet of ,csar's statue2 and he was so barbarous as to have young ,csarion1 the son of ,csar and ,cleopatra1 beheaded1 though he had recognized him as king of ,egypt4 ,suspecting one day that the prtor ,quintus ,gallius had come to an audience with a poinard under his robe1 he had him put to the torture in his presence2 and1 in his indignation at hearing that senator call him a tyrant1 he tore out his eyes with his own hands2 at least1 so says ,suetonius4 ,we know that ,csar1 his adopted father1 was great enough to pardon almost all his enemies2 but ,i do not find that ,augustus pardoned one of his4 ,i have great doubts of his pretended clemency to ,cinna4 ,this affair is mentioned neither by ,suetonius nor by ,tacitus4 ,suetonius1 who speaks of all the conspiracies against ,augustus1 would not have failed to mention the most memorable4 ,the singularity of giving a consulship to ,cinna in return for the blackest perfidy would not have escaped every contemporary historian4 ,dion ,cassius speaks of it only after ,seneca2 and this passage in ,seneca has the appearance rather of declamation than of historical truth4 ,besides1 ,seneca lays the scene in ,gaul1 and ,dion at ,rome2 this contradiction deprives the occurrence of all remaining verisimilitude4 ,not one of our ,roman histories1 compiled in haste and without selection1 has discussed this interesting fact4 ,lawrence ,echard's ,history has appeared to enlightened men to be as faulty as it is mutilated2 writers have rarely been guided by the spirit of examination4 ,cinna might be suspected1 or convicted1 by ,augustus of some infidelity2 and1 when the affair had been cleared up1 he might honor him with the vain title of consul2 but it is not at all probable that ,cinna sought by a conspiracy to seize the supreme authority--he1 who had never commanded an army1 was supported by no party1 and was a man of no consideration in the empire4 ,it is not very likely that a mere subordinate courtier would think of succeeding a sovereign who had been twenty years firmly established on his throne1 and had heirs2 nor is it more likely that ,augustus would make him consul immediately after the conspiracy4 ,if ,cinna's adventure be true1 ,augustus pardoned him only because he could not do otherwise1 being overcome by the reasoning or the importunities of ,livia1 who had acquired great influence over him1 and persuaded him1 says ,seneca1 that pardon would do him more service than chastisement4 ,it was then only through policy that he1 for once1 was merciful2 it certainly was not through generosity4 ,shall we give a robber credit for clemency1 because1 being enriched and secure1 enjoying in peace the fruits of his rapine1 he is not every day assassinating the sons and grandsons of the proscribed1 while they are kneeling to and worshipping him8 ,after being a barbarian he was a prudent politician4 ,it is worthy of remark that posterity never gave him the title of virtuous1 which was bestowed on ,titus1 on ,trajan1 and the ,antonines4 ,it even became customary in the compliments paid to emperors on their accession1 to wish that they might be more fortunate than ,augustus1 and more virtuous than ,trajan4 ,it is now1 therefore1 allowable to consider ,augustus as a clever and fortunate monster4 ,louis ,racine1 son of the great ,racine1 and heir to a part of his talents1 seems to forget himself when he says1 in his ,reflections on ,poetry1 that ,horace and ,virgil spoiled ,augustus2 they exhausted their art in poisoning the mind of ,augustus by their praises4 ,these expressions would lead one to believe that the eulogies so meanly lavished by these two great poets1 corrupted this emperor's fine disposition4 ,but ,louis ,racine very well knew that ,augustus was an exceedingly bad man1 regarding crime and virtue with indifference1 availing himself alike of the horrors of the one and the appearances of the other1 attentive solely to his own interest1 employing bloodshed and peace1 arms and laws1 religion and pleasure1 only to make himself master of the earth1 and sacrificing everything to himself4 ,louis ,racine only shows us that ,virgil and ,horace had servile souls4 ,he is1 unfortunately1 too much in the right when he reproaches ,corneille with having dedicated ,cinna to the financier ,montoron1 and said to that receiver4 ,what you most especially have in common with ,augustus is the generosity with which1 etc41 for1 though ,augustus was the most wicked of ,roman citizens1 it must be confessed that the first of the emperors1 the master1 the pacificator1 the legislator of the then known world1 should not be placed absolutely on a level with a clerk to a comptroller-general in ,gaul4 ,the same ,louis ,racine1 in justly condemning the mean adulation of ,corneille1 and the baseness of the aged ,horace and ,virgil1 marvellously lays hold of this passage in ,massillon's ,petit ,carme6 ,it is no less culpable to fail in truth towards monarchs than to be wanting in fidelity2 the same penalty should be imposed on adulation as on revolt4 ,i ask your pardon1 ,father ,massillon2 but this stroke of yours is very oratorical1 very preacher-like1 very exaggerated4 ,the ,league and the ,fronde have1 if ,i am not deceived1 done more harm than ,quinault's prologues4 ,there is no way of condemning ,quinault as a rebel4 ,est modus in rebus4 ,father ,massillon1 which is wanting in all manufacturers of sermons4 ,,avignon4 ,avignon and its country are monuments of what the abuse of religion1 ambition1 knavery1 and fanaticism united can effect4 ,this little country1 after a thousand vicissitudes1 had1 in the twelfth century1 passed into the hands of the counts of ,toulouse1 descended from ,charlemagne by the female side4 ,raymond ,,vi41 count of ,toulouse1 whose forefathers had been the principal heroes in the crusades1 was stripped of his states by a crusade which the pope stirred up against him4 ,the cause of the crusade was the desire of having his spoils2 the pretext was that in several of his towns the citizens thought nearly as has been thought for upwards of two hundred years in ,england1 ,sweden1 ,denmark1 three-fourths of ,switzerland1 ,holland1 and half of ,germany4 ,this was hardly a sufficient reason for giving1 in the name of ,god1 the states of the count of ,toulouse to the first occupant1 and for devoting to slaughter and fire his subjects1 crucifix in hand1 and white cross on shoulder4 ,all that is related of the most savage people falls far short of the barbarities committed in this war1 called holy4 ,the ridiculous atrocity of some religious ceremonies always1 accompanied these horrid excesses4 ,it is known that ,raymond ,,vi4 was dragged to a church of ,st4 ,giles's1 before a legate1 naked to the waist1 without hose or sandals1 with a rope about his neck1 which was held by a deacon1 while another deacon flogged him1 and a third sung miserere with some monks--and all the while the legate was at dinner4 ,such was the origin of the right of the popes over ,avignon4 ,count ,raymond1 who had submitted to the flagellation in order to preserve his states1 underwent this ignominy to no purpose whatever4 ,he had to defend by arms what he had thought to preserve by suffering a few stripes2 he saw his towns laid in ashes1 and died in #abac amid the vicissitudes of the most sanguinary war4 ,his son1 ,raymond ,,vii41 was not1 like his father1 suspected of heresy2 but he was the son of a heretic1 and was to be stripped of all his possessions1 by virtue of the ,decretals2 such was the law4 ,the crusade1 therefore1 was continued against him2 he was excommunicated in the churches1 on ,sundays and holidays1 to the sound of bells and with tapers extinguished4 ,a legate who was in ,france during the minority of ,st4 ,louis raised tenths there to maintain this war in ,languedoc and ,provence4 ,raymond defended himself with courage2 but the heads of the hydra of fanaticism were incessantly reappearing to devour him4 ,the pope at last made peace because all his money had been expended in war4 ,raymond ,,vii4 came and signed the treaty before the portal of the cathedral of ,paris4 ,he was forced to pay ten thousand marks of silver to the legate1 two thousand to the abbey of ,citeaux1 five hundred to the abbey of ,clairvaux1 a thousand to that of ,grand-,selve1 and three hundred to that of ,belleperche---all for the salvation of his soul1 as is specified in the treaty4 ,so it was that the ,church always negotiated4 ,it is very remarkable that in this document the count of ,toulouse constantly puts the legate before the king3 ,i swear and promise to the legate and to the king faithfully to observe all these things1 and to cause them to be observed by my vassals and subjects1 etc4 ,this was not all4 ,he ceded to ,pope ,gregory ,,ix4 the country of ,venaissin beyond the ,rhne1 and the sovereignty of seventy-three castles on this side the same river4 ,the pope adjudged this fine to himself by a particular act1 desirous that1 in a public instrument1 the acknowledgment of having exterminated so many ,christians for the purpose of seizing upon his neighbor's goods1 should not appear in so glaring a light4 ,besides1 he demanded what ,raymond could not grant1 without the consent of the ,emperor ,frederick ,,ii4 ,the count's lands1 on the left bank of the ,rhne1 were an imperial fief1 and ,frederick ,,ii4 never sanctioned this exaction4 ,alphonso1 brother of ,st4 ,louis1 having married this unfortunate prince's daughter1 by whom he had no children1 all the states of ,raymond ,,vii4 in ,languedoc1 devolved to the crown of ,france1 as had been stipulated in the marriage contract4 ,the country of ,venaissin1 which is in ,provence1 had been magnanimously given up by the ,emperor ,frederick ,,ii4 to the count of ,toulouse4 ,his daughter ,joan1 before her death1 had disposed of them by will in favor of ,charles of ,anjou1 count of ,provence1 and king of ,naples4 ,philip the ,bold1 son of ,st4 ,louis1 being pressed by ,pope ,gregory ,,ix41 gave the country of ,venaissin to the ,roman church in #abgd4 ,it must be confessed that ,philip the ,bold gave what in no way belonged to him2 that this cession was absolutely null and void1 and that no act ever was more contrary to all law4 ,it is the same with the town of ,avignon4 ,joan of ,france1 queen of ,naples1 descended from the brother of ,st4 ,louis1 having been1 with but too great an appearance of justice1 accused of causing her husband to be strangled1 desired the protection of ,pope ,clement ,,vi41 whose see was then the town of ,avignon1 in ,joan's domains4 ,she was countess of ,provence4 ,in #acdg the ,provencals made her swear1 on the gospel1 that she would sell none of her sovereignties4 ,she had scarcely taken this oath before she went and sold ,avignon to the pope4 ,the authentic act was not signed until ,june #ad1 #acdh2 the sum stipulated for was eighty thousand florins of gold4 ,the pope declared her innocent of her husband's murder1 but never paid her4 ,joan's receipt has never been produced4 ,she protested juridically four several times against this deceitful purchase4 ,so that ,avignon and its country were never considered to have been dismembered from ,provence1 otherwise than by a rapine1 which was the more manifest1 as it had been sought to cover it with the cloak of religion4 ,when ,louis ,,xi4 acquired ,provence he acquired it with all the rights appertaining thereto2 and1 as appears by a letter from ,john of ,foix to that monarch1 had in #adfd resolved to enforce them4 ,but the intrigues of the court of ,rome were always so powerful that the kings of ,france condescended to allow it the enjoyment of this small province4 ,they never acknowledged in the popes a lawful possession1 but only a simple enjoyment4 ,in the treaty of ,pisa1 made by ,louis ,,xiv4 with ,alexander ,,vii41 in #affd1 it is said that1 every obstacle shall be removed1 in order that the pope may enjoy ,avignon as before4 ,the pope1 then1 had this province only as cardinals have pensions from the king1 which pensions are discretional4 ,avignon and its country were a constant source of embarrassment to the ,french government2 they afforded a refuge to all the bankrupts and smugglers1 though very little profit thence accrued to the pope4 ,louis ,,xiv4 twice resumed his rights2 but it was rather to chastise the pope than to reunite ,avignon and its country with his crown4 ,at length ,louis ,,xv4 did justice to his dignity and to his subjects4 ,the gross and indecent conduct of ,pope ,rezzonico 7,clement ,,xiii47 forced him in #agfh to revive the rights of his crown4 ,this pope had acted as if he belonged to the fourteenth century4 ,he was1 however1 with the applause of all ,europe1 convinced that he lived in the eighteenth4 ,when the officer bearing the king's orders entered ,avignon1 he went straight to the legate's apartment1 without being announced1 and said to him1 ,sir1 the king takes possession of his town4 ,there is some difference between this proceeding and a count of ,toulouse being flogged by a deacon1 while a legate is at dinner4 ,things1 we see1 change with times4 ,,austerities4 ,,mortifications4 ,,flagellations4 ,suppose that some chosen individuals1 lovers of study1 united together after a thousand catastrophes had happened to the world1 and employed themselves in worshipping ,god and regulating the time of the year1 as is said of the ancient ,brahmins and ,magi2 all this is perfectly good and honest4 ,they might1 by their frugal life1 set an example to the rest of the world2 they might abstain1 during the celebration of their feasts1 from all intoxicating liquors1 and all commerce with their wives2 they might be clothed modestly and decently2 if they were wise1 other men consulted them2 if they were just1 they were loved and reverenced4 ,but did not superstition1 brawling1 and vanity soon take the place of the virtues8 ,was not the first madman that flogged himself publicly to appease the gods the original of the priests of the ,syrian goddess1 who flogged themselves in her honor2 of the priests of ,isis1 who did the same on certain days2 of the priests of ,dodona1 named ,salii1 who inflicted wounds on themselves2 of the priests of ,bellona1 who struck themselves with sabres2 of the priests of ,diana1 who drew blood from their backs with rods2 of the priests of ,cybele1 who made themselves eunuchs2 of the fakirs of ,india1 who loaded themselves with chains8 ,has the hope of obtaining abundant alms nothing at all to do with the practice of these austerities8 ,is there not some similarity between the beggars1 who make their legs swell by a certain application and cover their bodies with sores1 in order to force a few pence from the passengers1 and the impostors of antiquity1 who seated themselves upon nails1 and sold the holy nails to the devout of their country8 ,and had vanity never any share in promoting these public mortifications1 which attracted the eyes of the multitude8 ,i scourge myself1 but it is to expiate your faults2 ,i go naked1 but it is to reproach you with the richness of your garments2 ,i feed on herbs and snails1 but it is to correct in you the vice of gluttony2 ,i wear an iron ring to make you blush at your lewdness4 ,reverence me as one cherished by the gods1 and who will bring down their favors upon you4 ,when you shall be accustomed to reverence me1 you will not find it hard to obey me2 ,i will be your master1 in the name of the gods2 and then1 if any one of you disobey my will in the smallest particular1 ,i will have you impaled to appease the wrath of heaven4 ,if the first fakirs did not pronounce these words1 it is very probable that they had them engraved at the bottom of their hearts4 ,human sacrifices1 perhaps1 had their origin in these frantic austerities4 ,men who drew their blood in public with rods1 and mangled their arms and thighs to gain consideration1 would easily make imbecile savages believe that they must sacrifice to the gods whatever was dearest to them2 that to have a fair wind1 they must immolate a daughter2 to avert pestilence1 precipitate a son from a rock2 to have infallibly a good harvest1 throw a daughter into the ,nile4 ,these ,asiatic superstitions gave rise to the flagellations which we have imitated from the ,jews4 ,their devotees still flog themselves1 and flog one another1 as the priests of ,egypt and ,syria did of old4 ,among us the abbots flogged their monks1 and the confessors their penitents--of both sexes4 ,st4 ,augustine wrote to ,marcellinus1 the tribune1 that the ,donatists must be whipped as schoolmasters whip their scholars4 ,it is said that it was not until the tenth century that monks and nuns began to scourge themselves on certain days of the year4 ,the custom of scourging sinners as a penance was so well established that ,st4 ,louis's confessor often gave him the whip4 ,henry ,,ii4 was flogged by the monks of ,canterbury 7in #abjg74 ,raymond1 count of ,toulouse1 with a rope round his neck1 was flogged by a deacon1 at the door of ,st4 ,giles's church1 as has before been said4 ,the chaplains to ,louis ,,viii41 king of ,france1 were condemned by the pope's legate to go at the four great feasts to the door of the cathedral of ,paris1 and present rods to the canons1 that they might flog them in expiation for the crime of the king1 their master1 who had accepted the crown of ,england1 which the pope had taken from him by virtue of the plenitude of his power4 ,indeed1 the pope showed great indulgence in not having the king himself whipped1 but contenting himself with commanding him1 on pain of damnation1 to pay to the apostolic chamber the amount of two years' revenue4 ,from this custom is derived that which still exists1 of arming all the grand-penitentiaries in ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome with long wands instead of rods1 with which they give gentle taps to the penitents1 lying all their length on the floor4 ,in this manner it was that ,henry ,,iv41 of ,france1 had his posteriors flogged by ,cardinal ,ossat and ,duperron4 ,so true is it that we have scarcely yet emerged from barbarism4 ,at the commencement of the thirteenth century fraternities of penitents were formed at ,perosia and ,bologna4 ,young men almost naked1 with a rod in one hand and a small crucifix in the other1 flogged themselves in the streets2 while the women peeped through the window-blinds and whipped themselves in their chambers4 ,these flagellators inundated ,europe2 there are many of them still to be found in ,italy1 in ,spain1 and even in ,france1 at ,perpignan4 ,at the beginning of the sixteenth century it was very common for confessors to whip the posteriors of their penitents4 ,a history of the ,low ,countries1 composed by ,meteren1 relates that a cordelier named ,adriacem1 a great preacher at ,bruges1 used to whip his female penitents quite naked4 ,the ,jesuit ,edmund ,auger1 confessor to ,henry ,,iii41 persuaded that unfortunate prince to put himself at the head of the flagellators4 ,flogging the posteriors is practised in various convents of monks and nuns2 from which custom there have sometimes resulted strange immodesties1 over which we must throw a veil1 in order to spare the blushes of such as wear the sacred veil1 and whose sex and profession are worthy of our highest regard4 ,,authors4 ,author is a generic term1 which1 like the names of all other professions1 may signify author of the good1 or of the bad2 of the respectable1 or of the ridiculous2 of the useful1 or the agreeable2 or lastly1 the producer of disgusting trash4 ,this name is also common to different things4 ,we say equally the author of nature and the author of the songs of the ,pont ,neuf1 or of the literary age4 ,the author of a good work should beware of three things--title1 dedication1 and preface4 ,others should take care of the fourth1 which is writing at all4 ,as to the title1 if the author has the wish to put his name to it1 which is often very dangerous1 it should at least be under a modest form2 it is not pleasant to see a pious work1 full of lessons of humanity1 by ,sir or ,my ,lord4 ,the reader2 who is always malicious1 and who often is wearied1 usually turns into ridicule a book that is announced with so much ostentation4 ,the author of the ,imitation of ,jesus ,christ did not put his name to it4 ,but the apostles1 you will say1 put their names to their works2 that is not true1 they were too modest4 ,the apostle ,matthew never entitled his book the ,gospel of ,st4 ,matthew2 it is a homage that has been paid to him since4 ,st4 ,luke himself1 who collected all that he had heard said1 and who dedicated his book to ,theophilus1 did not call it the ,gospel of ,st4 ,luke4 ,st4 ,john alone mentions himself in the ,apocalypse2 and it is supposed that this book was written by ,cerinthus1 who took the name of ,john to give authority to his production4 ,however it may have been in past ages1 it appears to me very bold in authors now to put names and titles at the head of their works4 ,the bishops never fail to do so1 and the thick quartos which they give us under the title of mandaments are decorated with armorial bearings and the insignia of their station2 a word1 no doubt1 is said about ,christian humility1 but this word is often followed by atrocious calumnies against those who are of another communion or party4 ,we only speak here1 however1 of poor profane authors4 ,the duke de la ,rochefoucauld did not announce his thoughts as the production of ,monseigneur le dud de la ,rochefoucauld1 pair de ,france4 ,some persons who only make compilations in which there may be fine things1 will find it injudicious to announce them as the work of ,a4,b41 professor of the university of ----1 doctor of divinity1 member of this or of that academy1 and so on4 ,so many dignities do not render the book better4 ,it will still be wished that it was shorter1 more philosophical1 less filled with old stories4 ,with respect to titles and quality1 nobody cares about them4 ,dedications are often only offerings from interested baseness to disdainful vanity4 ,who would believe that ,rohaut1 soi-disant physician1 in his dedication to the duke of ,guise1 told him that his ancestors had maintained1 at the expense of their blood1 political truth1 the fundamental laws of the state1 and the rights of sovereigns8 ,le ,balafr and the duke of ,mayenne would be a little surprised if this epistle were read to them in the other world4 ,and what would ,henry ,,iv4 say8 ,most of the dedications in ,england are made for money1 just as the capuchins present us with salad on condition of our giving them drink4 ,men of letters in ,france are ignorant of this shameful abasement1 and have never exhibited so much meanness1 except some unfortunates1 who call themselves men of letters in the same sense that sign-daubers boast of being of the profession of ,raphael1 and that the coachman of ,vertamont was a poet4 ,prefaces are another rock4 ,the ,i is hateful1 says ,pascal4 ,speak of yourself as little as you can1 for you ought to be aware that the self-love of the reader is as great as your own4 ,he will never pardon you for wishing to oblige him to esteem you4 ,it is for your book to speak to him1 should it happen to be read among the crowd4 ,the illustrious suffrages with which my piece has been honored will make me dispense with answering my adversaries--the applauses of the public4 ,erase all that1 sir2 believe me you have had no illustrious suffrages2 your piece is eternally forgotten4 ,some censors have pretended that there are too many events in the third act2 and that in the fourth the princess is too late in discovering the tender sentiments of her heart for her lover4 ,to that ,i answer-- ,answer nothing1 my friend1 for nobody has spoken-1 or will speak of thy princess4 ,thy piece has fallen because it is tiresome1 and written in flat and barbarous verse2 thy preface is a prayer for the dead1 but it will not revive them4 ,others attest that all ,europe has not understood their treatises on compatibility--on the ,supralapsarians--on the difference which should be made between the ,macedonian and ,valentinian heresies1 etc4 ,truly1 ,i believe that nobody understands them1 since nobody reads them4 ,we are inundated with this trash and with continual repetition2 with insipid romances which copy their predecessors2 with new systems founded on ancient reveries2 and little histories taken from larger ones4 ,do you wish to be an author8 ,do you wish to make a book8 ,recollect that it must be new and useful1 or at least agreeable4 ,why from your provincial retreat would you assassinate me with another quarto1 to teach me that a king ought to be just1 and that ,trajan was more virtuous than ,caligula8 ,you insist upon printing the sermons which have lulled your little obscure town to repose1 and will put all our histories under contributions to extract from them the life of a prince of whom you can say nothing new4 ,if you have written a history of your own time1 doubt not but you will find some learned chronologist1 or newspaper commentator1 who will relieve you as to a date1 a ,christian name1 or a squadron which you have wrongly placed at the distance of three hundred paces from the place where if really stood4 ,be grateful1 and correct these important errors forthwith4 ,if an ignoramus1 or an empty fool1 pretend to criticise this thing or the other1 you may properly confute him2 but name him rarely1 for fear of soiling your writings4 ,if you are attacked on your style1 never answer2 your work alone should reply4 ,if you are said to be sick1 content yourself that you are well1 without wishing to prove to the people that you are in perfect health2 and1 above all1 remember that the world cares very little whether you are well or ill4 ,a hundred authors compile to get their bread1 and twenty fools extract1 criticise1 apologize1 and satirize these compilations to get bread also1 because they have no profession4 ,all these people repair on ,fridays to the lieutenant of the police at ,paris to demand permission to sell their drugs4 ,they have audience immediately after the courtesans1 who do not regard them1 because they know that they are poor customers4 ,they return with a tacit permission to sell and distribute throughout the kingdom their stories2 their collection of bon-mots2 the life of the unfortunate ,rgis2 the translation of a ,german poem2 new discoveries on eels2 a new copy of verses2 a treatise on the origin of bells1 or on the loves of the toads4 ,a bookseller buys their productions for ten crowns2 they give five of them to the journalist1 on condition that he will speak well of them in his newspaper4 ,the critic takes their money1 and says all the ill he can of their books4 ,the aggrieved parties go to complain to the ,jew1 who protects the wife of the journalist1 and the scene closes by the critic being carried to ,fort ,evque2 and these are they who call themselves authors6 ,these poor people are divided into two or three bands1 and go begging like mendicant friars2 but not having taken vows their society lasts only for a few days1 for they betray one another like priests who run after the same benefice1 though they have no benefice to hope for4 ,but they still call themselves authors6 ,the misfortune of these men is that their fathers did not make them learn a trade1 which is a great defect in modern policy4 ,every man of the people who can bring up his son in a useful art1 and does not1 merits punishment4 ,the son of a mason becomes a ,jesuit at seventeen2 he is chased from society at four and twenty1 because the levity of his manners is too glaring4 ,behold him without bread6 ,he turns journalist1 he cultivates the lowest kind of literature1 and becomes the contempt and horror of even the mob4 ,and such as these1 again1 call themselves authors6 ,the only authors are they who have succeeded in a genuine art1 be it epic poetry1 tragedy1 comedy1 history1 or philosophy1 and who teach or delight mankind4 ,the others1 of whom we have spoken1 are1 among men of letters1 like bats among the birds4 ,we cite1 comment1 criticise1 neglect1 forget1 and1 above all1 despise an author who is an author only4 ,apropos of citing an author1 ,i must amuse myself with relating a singular mistake of the reverend ,father ,viret1 cordelier and professor of theology4 ,he read in the ,philosophy of ,history of the good abb ,bazin that no author ever cited a passage of ,moses before ,longinus1 who lived and died in the time of the ,emperor ,aurelian4 ,forthwith the zeal of ,st4 ,francis was kindled in him4 ,viret cries out that it is not true2 that several writers have said that there had been a ,moses1 that even ,josephus had spoken at length upon him1 and that the ,abb ,bazin is a wretch who would destroy the seven sacraments4 ,but1 dear ,father ,viret1 you ought to inform yourself of the meaning of the word1 to cite4 ,there is a great deal of difference between mentioning an author and citing him4 ,to speak1 to make mention of an author1 is to say that he has lived--that he has written in such a time2 to cite is to give one of his passages--as ,moses says in his ,exodus--as ,moses has written in his ,genesis4 ,now the ,abb ,brazin affirms that no foreign writers--that none even of the ,jewish prophets have ever quoted a single passage of ,moses1 though he was a divine author4 ,truly1 ,father ,viret1 you are very malicious1 but we shall know at least1 by this little paragraph1 that you have been an author4 ,the most voluminous authors that we have had in ,france are the comptrollers-general of the finances4 ,ten great volumes might be made of their declarations1 since the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,parliaments have been sometimes the critics of these works1 and have found erroneous propositions and contradictions in them4 ,but where are the good authors who have not been censured8 ,,authority4 ,miserable human beings1 whether in green robes or in turbans1 whether in black gowns or in surplices1 or in mantles and bands1 never seek to employ authority where nothing is concerned but reason1 or consent to be reviled in all ages as the most impertinent of men1 as well as to endure public hatred as the most unjust4 ,you have been told a hundred times of the insolent absurdity with which you condemned ,galileo1 and ,i speak to you of it for the hundred and first4 ,i would have it inscribed over the door of your holy office4 ,seven cardinals1 assisted by certain minorite friars1 threw into prison the master of thinking in ,italy1 at the age of seventy2 and made him live upon bread and water because he instructed mankind in that of which they were ignorant4 ,having passed a decree in favor of the categories of ,aristotle1 the above junta learnedly and equitably doomed to the penalty of the galleys whoever should dare to be of another opinion from the ,stagyrite1 of whom two councils had burned the books4 ,further1 a ,faculty1 which possessed very small faculties1 made a decree against innate ideas1 and afterwards another for them1 without the said ,faculty being informed1 except by its beadles1 of what an idea was4 ,in neighboring schools legal proceedings were commenced against the circulation of the blood4 ,a process was issued against inoculation1 and the parties cited by summons4 ,one and twenty volumes of thoughts in folio have been seized1 in which it was wickedly and falsely said that triangles have always three angles2 that a father was older than his son2 that ,rhea ,silvia lost her virginity before her accouchement2 and that farina differs from oak leaves4 ,in another year the following question was decided3 ,utrum chimra bombinans in vacuo possit comedere secundas intentiones8 and decided in the affirmative4 ,these judges1 of course1 considered themselves much superior to ,archimedes1 ,euclid1 ,cicero1 or ,pliny1 and strutted about the ,universities accordingly4 ,,axis4 ,how is it that the axis of the earth is not perpendicular to the equator8 ,why is it raised toward the north and inclined towards the south pole1 in a position which does not appear natural1 and which seems the consequence of some derangement1 or the result of a period of a prodigious number of years8 ,is it true that the ecliptic continually inclines by an insensible movement towards the equator and that the angle formed by these two lines has a little diminished in two thousand years8 ,is it true that the ecliptic has been formerly perpendicular to the equator1 that the ,egyptians have said so1 and that ,herodotus has related it8 ,this motion of the ecliptic would form a period of about two millions of years4 ,it is not that which astounds us1 for the axis of the earth has an imperceptible movement in about twenty-six thousand years which occasions the precession of the equinoxes4 ,it is as easy for nature to produce a rotation of twenty thousand as of two hundred and sixty ages4 ,we are deceived when we are told that the ,egyptians had1 according to ,herodotus1 a tradition that the ecliptic had been formerly perpendicular to the equator4 ,the tradition of which ,herodotus speaks has no relation to the coincidence of the equinoctial and ecliptic lines2 that is quite another affair4 ,the pretended scholars of ,egypt said that the sun in the space of eleven thousand years had set twice in the east and risen twice in the west4 ,when the equator and the ecliptic coincided1 and when the days were everywhere equal to the nights the sun did not on that account change its setting and rising1 but the earth turned on its axis from west to east1 as at this day4 ,this idea of making the sun set in the east is a chimera only worthy of the brains of the priests of ,egypt and shows the profound ignorance of those jugglers who have had so much reputation4 ,the tale should be classed with those of the satyrs who sang and danced in the train of ,osiris2 with the little boys whom they would not feed till after they had run eight leagues1 to teach them to conquer the world2 with the two children who cried bec in asking for bread and who by that means discovered that the ,phrygian was the original language2 with ,king ,psammeticus1 who gave his daughter to a thief who had dexterously stolen his money1 etc4 ,ancient history1 ancient astronomy1 ancient physics1 ancient medicine 7up to ,hippocrates71 ancient geography1 ancient metaphysics1 all are nothing but ancient absurdities which ought to make us feel the happiness of being born in later times4 ,there is1 no doubt1 more truth in two pages of the ,french ,encyclopdia in relation to physics than in all the library of ,alexandria1 the loss of which is so much regretted4 ,,babel4 ,,section ,i4 ,babel signifies among the ,orientals1 ,god the ,father1 the power of ,god1 the gate of ,god1 according to the way in which the word is pronounced4 ,it appears1 therefore1 that ,babylon was the city of ,god1 the holy city4 ,every capital of a state was a city of ,god1 the sacred city4 ,the ,greeks called them all ,hieropolis1 and there were more than thirty of this name4 ,the tower of ,babel1 then1 signifies the tower of ,god the ,father4 ,josephus says truly that ,babel signifies confusion2 ,calmet says1 with others1 that ,bilba1 in ,chaldan1 signifies confounded1 but all the ,orientals have been of a contrary opinion4 ,the word confusion would be a strange etymon for the capital of a vast empire4 ,i very much like the opinion of ,rabelais1 who pretends that ,paris was formerly called ,lutetia on account of the ladies' white legs4 ,be that as it may1 commentators have tormented themselves to know to what height men had raised this famous tower of ,babel4 ,st4 ,jerome gives it twenty thousand feet4 ,the ancient ,jewish book entitled ,jacult gave it eighty-one thousand4 ,paul ,lucas has seen the remains of it and it is a fine thing to be as keen-sighted as ,paul ,lucas1 but these dimensions are not the only difficulties which have exercised the learned4 ,people have wished to know how the children of ,noah1 after having divided among themselves the islands of the nations and established themselves in various lands1 with each one his particular language1 families1 and people1 should all find themselves in the plain of ,shinaar1 to build there a tower saying1 ,let us make us a name lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth4 ,the ,book of ,genesis speaks of the states which the sons of ,noah founded4 ,it has related how the people of ,europe1 ,africa1 and ,asia1 all came to ,shinaar speaking one language only1 and purposing the same thing4 ,the ,vulgate places the ,deluge in the year of the world #afef1 and the construction of the tower of ,babel #agga1 that is to say1 one hundred and fifteen years after the destruction of mankind1 and even during the life of ,noah4 ,men then must have multiplied with prodigious celerity2 all the arts revived in a very little time4 ,when we reflect on the great number of trades which must have been employed to raise a tower so high we are amazed at so stupendous a work4 ,the patriarch ,abraham was born1 according to the ,bible1 about four hundred years after the deluge1 and already we see a line of powerful kings in ,egypt and in ,asia4 ,bochart and other sages have pleasantly filled their great books with ,phnician and ,chaldan words and systems which they do not understand4 ,they have learnedly taken ,thrace for ,cappadocia1 ,greece for ,crete1 and the island of ,cyprus for ,tyre2 they sport in an ocean of ignorance which has neither bottom nor shore4 ,it would have been shorter for them to have avowed that ,god1 after several ages1 has given us sacred books to render us better men and not to make us geographers1 chronologists1 or etymologists4 ,babel is ,babylon4 ,it was founded1 according to the ,persian historians1 by a prince named ,tamurath4 ,the only knowledge we have of its antiquities consists in the astronomical observations of nineteen hundred and three years1 sent by ,callisthenes by order of ,alexander1 to his preceptor ,aristotle4 ,to this certainty is joined the extreme probability that a nation which had made a series of celestial observations for nearly two thousand years had congregated and formed a considerable power several ages before the first of these observations4 ,it is a pity that none of the calculations of the ancient profane authors agree with our sacred ones1 and that none of the names of the princes who reigned after the different epochs assigned to the ,deluge have been known by either ,egyptians1 ,syrians1 ,babylonians1 or ,greeks4 ,it is no less a pity that there remains not on the earth among the profane authors one vestige of the famous tower of ,babel2 nothing of this story of the confusion of tongues is found in any book4 ,this memorable adventure was as unknown to the whole universe as the names of ,noah1 ,methuselah1 ,cain1 and ,adam and ,eve4 ,this difficulty tantalizes our curiosity4 ,herodotus1 who travelled so much1 speaks neither of ,noah1 or ,shem1 ,reu1 ,salah1 or ,nimrod4 ,the name of ,nimrod is unknown to all profane antiquity2 there are only a few ,arabs and some modern ,persians who have made mention of ,nimrod in falsifying the books of the ,jews4 ,nothing remains to conduct us through these ancient ruins1 unknown to all the nations of the universe during so many ages1 but faith in the ,bible1 and happily that is an infallible guide4 ,herodotus1 who has mingled many fables with some truths1 pretends that in his time1 which was that of greatest power of the ,persian sovereigns of ,babylon1 all the women of the immense city were obliged to go once in their lives to the temple of ,mylitta1 a goddess who was thought to be the same as ,aphrodite1 or ,venus1 in order to prostitute themselves to strangers1 and that the law commanded them to receive money as a sacred tribute1 which was paid over to the priesthood of the goddess4 ,but even this ,arabian tale is more likely than that which the same author tells of ,cyrus dividing the ,indus into three hundred and sixty canals1 which all discharged themselves into the ,caspian ,sea6 ,what should we say of ,mzeray if he had told us that ,charlemagne divided the ,rhine into three hundred and sixty canals1 which fell into the ,mediterranean1 and that all the ladies of his court were obliged once in their lives to present themselves at the church of ,st4 ,genevieve to prostitute themselves to all comers for money8 ,it must be remarked that such a fable is still more absurd in relation to the time of ,xerxes1 in which ,herodotus lived1 than it would be in that of ,charlemagne4 ,the ,orientals were a thousand times more jealous than the ,franks and ,gauls4 ,the wives of all the great lords were carefully guarded by eunuchs4 ,this custom existed from time immemorial4 ,it is seen even in the ,jewish history that when that little nation wished like the others to have a king1 ,samuel1 to dissuade them from it and to retain his authority1 said that a king would tyrannize over them and that he would take the tenths of their vines and corn to give to his eunuchs4 ,the kings accomplished this prediction1 for it is written in the ,first ,book of ,kings that ,king ,ahab had eunuchs1 and in the ,second that ,joram1 ,jehu1 ,jehoiakim1 and ,zedekiah had them also4 ,the eunuchs of ,pharaoh are spoken of a long time previously in the ,book of ,genesis1 and it is said that ,potiphar1 to whom ,joseph was sold1 was one of the king's eunuchs4 ,it is clear1 therefore1 that there were great numbers of eunuchs at ,babylon to guard the women4 ,it was not then a duty for them to prostitute themselves to the first comer1 nor was ,babylon1 the city of ,god1 a vast brothel as it has been pretended4 ,these tales of ,herodotus1 as well as all others in the same taste1 are now so decried by all people of sense--reason has made so great progress that even old women and children will no longer believe such extravagances--,non est vetula qu credat nec pueri credunt1 nisi qui nondum re lavantur4 ,there is in our days only one man who1 not partaking of the spirit of the age in which he lives1 would justify the fable of ,herodotus4 ,the infamy appears to him a very simple affair4 ,he would prove that the ,babylonian princesses prostituted themselves through piety1 to the first passengers1 because it is said in the holy writings that the ,ammonites made their children pass through the fire in presenting them to ,moloch4 ,but what relation has this custom of some barbarous hordes--this superstition of passing their children through the flames1 or even of burning them on piles1 in honor of ,i know not whom--of ,moloch2 these ,iroquois horrors of a petty1 infamous people to a prostitution so incredible in a nation known to be the most jealous and orderly of the ,east8 ,would what passes among the ,iroquois be among us a proof of the customs of the courts of ,france and of ,spain8 ,he also brings1 in further proof1 the ,lupercal feast among the ,romans during which he says the young people of quality and respectable magistrates ran naked through the city with whips in their hands1 with which they struck the pregnant women of quality1 who unblushingly presented themselves to them in the hope of thereby obtaining a happy deliverance4 ,now1 in the first place1 it is not said that these ,romans of quality ran quite naked1 on the contrary1 ,plutarch expressly observes1 in his remarks on the custom1 that they were covered from the waist downwards4 ,secondly1 it seems by the manner in which this defender of infamous customs expresses himself that the ,roman ladies stripped naked to receive these blows of the whip1 which is absolutely false4 ,thirdly1 the ,lupercal feast has no relation whatever to the pretended law of ,babylon1 which commands the wives and daughters of the king1 the satraps1 and the magi to sell and prostitute themselves to strangers out of pure devotion4 ,when an author1 without knowing either the human mind or the manners of nations1 has the misfortune to be obliged to compile from passages of old authors1 who are almost all contradictory1 he should advance his opinions with modesty and know how to doubt1 and to shake off the dust of the college4 ,above all he should never express himself with outrageous insolence4 ,herodotus1 or ,ctesias1 or ,diodorus of ,sicily1 relate a fact3 you have read it in ,greek1 therefore this fact is true4 ,this manner of reasoning1 which is not that of ,euclid1 is surprising enough in the time in which we live2 but all minds will not be instructed with equal facility2 and there are always more persons who compile than people who think4 ,we will say nothing here of the confusion of tongues which took place during the construction of the tower of ,babel4 ,it is a miracle1 related in the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,we neither explain1 nor even examine any miracles1 and as the authors of that great work1 the ,encyclopdia1 believed them1 we also believe them with a lively and sincere faith4 ,we will simply affirm that the fall of the ,roman ,empire has produced more confusion and a greater number of new languages than that of the tower of ,babel4 ,from the reign of ,augustus till the time of the ,attilas1 the ,clovises1 and the ,gondiberts1 during six ages1 terra erat unius labii--the known earth was of one language4 ,they spoke the same ,latin at the ,euphrates as at ,mount ,atlas4 ,the laws which governed a hundred nations were written in ,latin and the ,greek served for amusement1 whilst the barbarous jargon of each province was only for the populace4 ,they pleaded in ,latin at once in the tribunals of ,africa and of ,rome4 ,an inhabitant of ,cornwall departed for ,asia ,minor sure of being understood everywhere in his route4 ,it was at least one good effected by the rapacity of the ,romans that people found themselves as well understood on the ,danube as on the ,guadalquiver4 ,at the present time a ,bergamask who travels into the small ,swiss cantons1 from which he is only separated by a mountain1 has the same need of an interpreter as if he were in ,china4 ,this is one of the greatest plagues of modern life4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,vanity has always raised stately monuments4 ,it was through vanity that men built the lofty tower of ,babel4 ,let us go and raise a tower1 the summit of which shall touch the skies1 and render our name celebrated before we are scattered upon the face of the earth4 ,the enterprise was undertaken hi the time of a patriarch named ,phaleg1 who counted the good man ,noah for his fifth ancestor4 ,it will be seen that architecture1 and all the arts which accompany it1 had made great progress in five generations4 ,st4 ,jerome1 the same who has seen fauns and satyrs1 has not seen the tower of ,babel any more than ,i have1 but he assures us that it was twenty thousand feet high4 ,this is a trifle4 ,the ancient book1 ,jacult written by one of the most learned ,jews1 demonstrates the height to be eighty-one thousand ,jewish feet1 and every one knows that the ,jewish foot was nearly as long as the ,greek4 ,these dimensions are still more likely than those of ,jerome4 ,this tower remains1 but it is no longer quite so high2 several quite veracious travellers have seen it4 ,i1 who have not seen it1 will talk as little of it as of my grandfather ,adam1 with whom ,i never had the honor of conversing4 ,but consult the reverend father ,calmet2 he is a man of fine wit and a profound philosopher and will explain the thing to you4 ,i do not know why it is said1 in ,genesis1 that ,babel signifies confusion1 for1 as ,i have already observed1 ba answers to father in the eastern languages1 and bel signifies ,god4 ,babel means the city of ,god1 the holy city4 ,but it is incontestable that ,babel means confusion1 possibly because the architects were confounded after having raised their work to eighty-one thousand feet1 perhaps1 because the languages were then confounded1 as from that time the ,germans no longer understood the ,chinese1 although1 according to the learned ,bochart1 it is clear that the ,chinese is originally the same language as the ,high ,german4 ,,bacchus4 ,of all the true or fabulous personages of profane antiquity ,bacchus is to us the most important4 ,i do not mean for the fine invention which is attributed to him by all the world except the ,jews1 but for the prodigious resemblance of his fabulous history to the true adventures of ,moses4 ,the ancient poets have placed the birth of ,bacchus in ,egypt2 he is exposed on the ,nile and it is from that event that he is named ,mises by the first ,orpheus1 which1 in ,egyptian1 signifies saved from the waters1 according to those who pretend to understand the ancient ,egyptian tongue1 which is no longer known4 ,he is brought up near a mountain of ,arabia called ,nisa1 which is believed to be ,mount ,sinai4 ,it is pretended that a goddess ordered him to go and destroy a barbarous nation and that he passed through the ,red ,sea on foot1 with a multitude of men1 women1 and children4 ,another time the river ,orontes suspended its waters right and left to let him pass1 and the ,hydaspes did the same4 ,he commanded the sun to stand still2 two luminous rays proceeded from his head4 ,he made a fountain of wine spout up by striking the ground with his thyrsis1 and engraved his laws on two tables of marble4 ,he wanted only to have afflicted ,egypt with ten plagues1 to be the perfect copy of ,moses4 ,vossius is1 ,i think1 the first who has extended this parallel4 ,the bishop of ,avranches1 ,huet1 has pushed it quite as far1 but he adds1 in his ,evangelical ,demonstrations that ,moses is not only ,bacchus1 but that he is also ,osiris and ,typhon4 ,he does not halt in this fine path4 ,moses1 according to him1 is sculapius1 ,amphion1 ,apollo1 ,adonis1 and even ,priapus4 ,it is pleasant enough that ,huet founds his proof that ,moses is ,adonis in their both keeping sheep3 ,et formosus oves1 ad flumina pavit ,adonis4 ,he contends that he is ,priapus because ,priapus is sometimes painted with an ass1 and the ,jews were supposed1 among the ,gentiles1 to adore an ass4 ,he gives another proof1 not very canonical1 which is that the rod of ,moses might be compared to the sceptre of ,priapus4 ,sceptrum tribuitur ,priapo1 virga ,most4 ,neither is this demonstration in the manner of ,euclid4 ,we will not here speak of the more modern ,bacchuses1 such as he who lived two hundred years before the ,trojan war1 and whom the ,greeks celebrated as a son of ,jupiter1 shut up in his thigh4 ,we will pause at him who was supposed to be born on the confines of ,egypt and to have performed so many prodigies4 ,our respect for the sacred ,jewish books will not permit us to doubt that the ,egyptians1 the ,arabs1 and even the ,greeks1 have imitated the history of ,moses4 ,the difficulty consists solely in not knowing how they could be instructed in this incontrovertible history4 ,with respect to the ,egyptians1 it is very likely that they never recorded these miracles of ,moses1 which would have covered them with shame4 ,if they had said a word of it the historians1 ,josephus and ,philo1 would not have failed to have taken advantage of it ,josephus1 in his answer to ,appion1 made a point of citing all the ,egyptian authors who have mentioned ,moses1 and he finds none who relate one of these miracles4 ,no ,jew has ever quoted any ,egyptian author who has said a word of the ten plagues of ,egypt1 of the miraculous passage through the ,red ,sea1 etc4 ,it could not be among the ,egyptians1 therefore1 that this scandalous parallel was formed between the divine ,moses and the profane ,bacchus4 ,it is very clear that if a single ,egyptian author had said a word of the great miracles of ,moses all the synagogue of ,alexandria1 all the disputatious church of that famous town would have quoted such word1 and have triumphed at it1 every one after his manner4 ,athenagorus1 ,clement1 ,origen1 who have said so many useless things1 would have related this important passage a thousand times and it would have been the strongest argument of all the fathers4 ,the whole have kept a profound silence2 they ,had1 therefore1 nothing to say4 ,but how was it possible for any ,egyptian to speak of the exploits of a man who caused all the first born of the families of ,egypt to be killed2 who turned the ,nile to blood1 and who drowned in the ,red ,sea their king and all his army8 ,all our historians agree that one ,clodowick1 a ,sicambrian1 subjugated ,gaul with a handful of barbarians4 ,the ,english are the first to say that the ,saxons1 the ,danes1 and the ,normans came by turns to exterminate a part of their nation4 ,if they had not avowed this truth all ,europe would have exclaimed against its concealment4 ,the universe should exclaim in the same manner at the amazing prodigies of ,moses1 of ,joshua1 of ,gideon1 ,samson1 and of so many leaders and prophets4 ,the universe is silent notwithstanding4 ,amazing mystery6 ,on one side it is palpable mat all is true1 since it is found in the holy writings1 which are approved by the ,church2 on the other it is evident that no people have ever mentioned it4 ,let us worship ,providence1 and submit ourselves in all things4 ,the ,arabs1 who have always loved the marvellous1 were probably the first authors of the fables invented of ,bacchus1 afterwards adopted and embellished by the ,greeks4 ,but how came the stories of the ,arabs and ,greeks to agree so well with those of the ,jews8 ,it is known that the ,hebrews never communicated their books to any one till the time of the ,ptolemies2 they regarded such communication as a sacrilege1 and ,josephus1 to justify their obstinacy in concealing the ,pentateuch from the rest of the world1 says that ,god punished all foreigners who dared to speak of the ,jewish histories4 ,if we are to believe him1 the historian ,theopompus1 for only designing to mention them in his work1 became deranged for thirty days1 and the tragic poet ,theodectes was struck blind for having introduced the name of the ,jews into one of his tragedies4 ,such are the excuses that ,flavius ,josephus gives in his answer to ,appion for the history of the ,jews being so long unknown4 ,these books were of such prodigious scarcity that we only hear of one copy under ,king ,josiah1 and this copy had been lost for a long time and was found in the bottom of a chest on the report of ,shaphan1 scribe to the ,pontiff ,hilkiah1 who carried it to the king4 ,this circumstance happened1 according to the ,second ,book of ,kings1 six hundred and twenty-four years before our vulgar era1 four hundred years after ,homer1 and in the most flourishing times of ,greece4 ,the ,greeks then scarcely knew that there were any ,hebrews in the world4 ,the captivity of the ,jews at ,babylon still more augmented their ignorance of their own books4 ,esdras must have restored them at the end of seventy years and for already more than five hundred years the fable of ,bacchus had been current among the ,greeks4 ,if the ,greeks had founded their fables on the ,jewish history they would have chosen facts more interesting to mankind1 such as the adventures of ,abraham1 those of ,noah1 of ,methuselah1 of ,seth1 ,enoch1 ,cain1 and ,eve2 of the fatal serpent and of the tree of knowledge1 all which names have ever been unknown to them4 ,there was only a slight knowledge of the ,jewish people until a long time after the revolution that ,alexander produced in ,asia and in ,europe2 the historian ,josephus avows it in formal terms4 ,this is the manner in which he expresses himself in the commencement of his reply to ,appion1 who 7by way of parenthesis7 was dead when he answered him1 for ,appion died under the ,emperor ,claudius1 and ,josephus wrote under ,vespasian4 ,as the country we inhabit is distant from the sea we do not apply ourselves to commerce and have no communication with other nations4 ,we content ourselves with cultivating our lands1 which are very fertile1 and we labor chiefly to bring up our children properly1 because nothing appears to us so necessary as to instruct them in the knowledge of our holy laws and in true piety1 which inspires them with the desire of observing them4 ,the above reasons1 added to others already mentioned1 and this manner of life which is peculiar to us1 show why we have had no communication with the ,greeks1 like the ,egyptians and ,phnicians4 ,is it astonishing that our nation1 so distant from the sea1 not affecting to write anything1 and living in the way which ,i have related1 has been little known8 ,after such an authentic avowal from a ,jew1 the most tenacious of the honor of his nation that has ever written1 it will be seen that it is impossible for the ancient ,greeks to have taken the fable of ,bacchus from the holy books of the ,hebrews1 any more than the sacrifice of ,iphigenia1 that of the son of ,idomeneus1 the labors of ,hercules1 the adventure of ,eurydice1 and others4 ,the quantity of ancient tales which resemble one another is prodigious4 ,how is it that the ,greeks have put into fables what the ,hebrews have put into histories8 ,was it by the gift of invention2 was it by a facility of imitation1 or in consequence of the accordance of fine minds8 ,to conclude3 ,god has permitted it--a truth which ought to suffice4 ,of what consequence is it that the ,arabs and ,greeks have said the same things as the ,jews8 ,we read the ,old ,testament only to prepare ourselves for the ,new1 and in neither the one nor the other do we seek anything but lessons of benevolence1 moderation1 gentleness1 and true charity4 ,,bacon 7,,roger74 ,it is generally thought that ,roger ,bacon1 the famous monk of the thirteenth century1 was a very great man and that he possessed true knowledge1 because he was persecuted and condemned to prison by a set of ignoramuses4 ,it is a great prejudice in his favor1 ,i own4 ,but does it not happen every day that quacks gravely condemn other quacks1 and that fools make other fools pay the penalty of folly8 ,this1 our world1 has for a long time resembled the compact edifices in which he who believes in the eternal ,father anathematizes him who believes in the ,holy ,ghost2 circumstances which are not very rare even in these days4 ,among the things which render ,friar ,bacon commendable we must first reckon his imprisonment1 and then the noble boldness with which he declared that all the books of ,aristotle were fit only to be burned and that at a time when the learned respected ,aristotle much more than the ,jansenists respect ,st4 ,augustine4 ,has ,roger ,bacon1 however1 done anything better than the ,poetics1 the ,rhetoric1 and the ,logic of ,aristotle8 ,these three immortal works clearly prove that ,aristotle was a very great and fine genius--penetrating1 profound1 and methodical2 and that he was only a bad natural philosopher because it was impossible to penetrate into the depths of physical science without the aid of instruments4 ,does ,roger ,bacon1 in his best work1 in which he treats of light and vision1 express himself much more clearly than ,aristotle when he says light is created by means of multiplying its luminous species1 which action is called univocal and conformable to the agent8 ,he also mentions another equivocal multiplication1 by which light engenders heat and heat putrefaction4 ,roger ,bacon likewise tells us that life may be prolonged by means of spermaceti1 aloes1 and dragons' flesh1 and that the philosopher's stone would render us immortal4 ,it is thought that besides these fine secrets he possessed all those of judicial astrology1 without exception1 as he affirms very positively in his ,opus ,majus1 that the head of man is subject to the influences of the ram1 his neck to those of the bull1 and his arms to the power of the twins4 ,he even demonstrates these fine things from experience1 and highly praises a great astrologer at ,paris who says that he hindered a surgeon from putting a plaster on the leg of an invalid1 because the sun was then in the sign of ,aquarius1 and ,aquarius is fatal to legs to which plasters are applied4 ,it is an opinion quite generally received that ,roger was the inventor of gunpowder4 ,it is certain that it was in his time that important discovery was made1 for ,i always remark that the spirit of invention is of all times and that the doctors1 or sages1 who govern both mind and body are generally profoundly ignorant1 foolishly prejudiced1 or at war with common sense4 ,it is usually among obscure men that artists are found animated with a superior instinct1 who invent admirable things on which the learned afterwards reason4 ,one thing that surprises me much is that ,friar ,bacon knew not the direction of the magnetic needle1 which1 in his time1 began to be understood in ,italy1 but in lieu thereof he was acquainted with the ,secret of the hazel rod and many such things ,of which he treats in his ,dignity of the ,experimental ,art4 ,yet1 notwithstanding this pitiable number of absurdities and chimeras1 it must be confessed that ,roger ,bacon was an admirable man for his age4 ,what age8 you will ask--that of feudal government and of the schoolmen4 ,figure to yourself ,samoyedes and ,ostiacs who read ,aristotle4 ,such were we at that time4 ,roger ,bacon knew a little of geometry and optics1 which made him pass for a sorcerer at ,rome and ,paris4 ,he was1 however1 really acquainted with the matter contained in the ,arabian ,alhazen1 for in those days little was known except through the ,arabs4 ,they were the physicians and astrologers of all the ,christian kings4 ,the king's fool was always a native2 his doctor an ,arab or a ,jew4 ,transport this ,bacon to the times in which we live and he would be1 no doubt1 a great man4 ,he was gold1 encrusted with the rust of the times in which he lived1 this gold would now be quickly purified4 ,poor creatures that we are6 ,how many ages have passed away in acquiring a little reason6 ,,banishment4 ,banishment for a term of years1 or for life3 a penalty inflicted on delinquents1 or on individuals who are wished to be considered as such4 ,not long ago it was the custom to banish from within the limits of the jurisdiction1 for petty thefts1 forgeries1 and assaults1 the result of which was that the offender became a great robber1 forger1 or murderer in some other jurisdiction4 ,this is like throwing into a neighbor's field the stones that incommode us in our own4 ,those who have written on the laws of nations have tormented themselves greatly to determine whether a man who has been banished from his country can justly be said still to belong to that country4 ,it might almost as well be asked whether a gambler1 who has been driven away from the gaming-table1 is still one of the players at that table4 ,if by the law of nature a man is permitted to choose his country1 still more is the man who has lost the rights of a citizen at liberty to choose himself a new country4 ,may he bear arms against his former fellow-citizens8 ,of this we have a thousand examples4 ,how many ,french ,protestants1 naturalized in ,england1 ,holland1 or ,germany1 have served1 not only against ,france1 but against armies in which their relatives1 their own brothers1 have fought8 ,the ,greeks in the armies of the king of ,persia fought against the ,greeks1 their old fellow-countrymen4 ,the ,swiss in the service of ,holland have fired upon the ,swiss in the service of ,france4 ,this is even worse than fighting against those who have banished you1 for1 after all1 drawing the sword in revenge does not seem so bad as drawing it for hire4 ,,baptism4 ,a ,greek ,word1 ,signifying ,immersion4 ,,section ,i4 ,we do not speak of baptism as theologians2 we are but poor men of letters1 who shall never enter the sanctuary4 ,the ,indians plunge1 and have from time immemorial plunged1 into the ,ganges4 ,mankind1 always guided by their senses1 easily imagined that what purified the body likewise purified the soul4 ,in the subterranean apartments under the ,egyptian temples there were large tubs for the priests and the initiated4 ,o nimium faciles qui tristia crimina cdis ,fluminea tolli posse putatis aqua6 ,old ,baudier1 when he was eighty1 made the following comic translation of these lines3 ,c'est une drle de maxime1 ,qu'une lessive efface un crime4 ,one can't but think it somewhat droll1 ,pump-water thus should cleanse a soul4 ,every sign being of itself indifferent1 ,god vouchsafed to consecrate this custom amongst the ,hebrew people4 ,all foreigners that came to settle in ,palestine were baptized2 they were called domiciliary proselytes4 ,they were not forced to receive circumcision1 but only to embrace the seven precepts of the ,noachides1 and to sacrifice to no strange god4 ,the proselytes of justice were circumcised and baptized2 the female proselytes were also baptized1 quite naked1 in the presence of three men4 ,the most devout among the ,jews went and received baptism from the hands of the prophets most venerated by the people4 ,hence it was that they flocked to ,st4 ,john1 who baptized in the ,jordan4 ,jesus ,christ ,himself1 who never baptized any one1 deigned to receive baptism from ,st4 ,john4 ,this custom1 which had long been an accessory of the ,jewish religion1 received new dignity1 new value from our ,saviour1 and became the chief rite1 the principal seal of ,christianity4 ,however1 the first fifteen bishops of ,jerusalem were ,jews4 ',the ,christians of ,palestine long continued to circumcise4 ,st4 ,john's ,christians never received baptism from ,christ4 ,several other ,christian societies applied a cautery to the baptized1 with a red-hot iron1 being determined to the performance of this extraordinary operation by the words of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1 related by ,st4 ,luke3 ,i baptize you with water1 but ,he that cometh after me shall baptize you with fire4 ,this was practised by the ,seleucians1 the ,herminians1 and some others4 ,the words1 ,he shall baptize you with fire1 have never been explained4 ,there are several opinions concerning the baptism by fire which is mentioned by ,st4 ,luke and ,st4 ,matthew4 ,perhaps the most likely opinion is that it was an allusion to the ancient custom of the devotees to the ,syrian goddess1 who1 after plunging into water1 imprinted characters on their bodies with a hot iron4 ,with miserable man all was superstition1 but ,jesus substituted for these ridiculous superstitions a sacred ceremony--a divine and efficacious symbol4 ,in the first ages of ,christianity nothing was more common than to postpone the receiving of baptism until the last agony4 ,of this the example of the ,emperor ,constantine is a very strong proof4 ,st4 ,andrew had not been baptized when he was made bishop of ,milan4 ,the custom of deferring the use of the sacred bath until the hour of death was soon abolished4 ,baptism of the ,dead4 ,the dead also were baptized4 ,this is established by the passage of ,st4 ,paul to the ,corinthians3 ,if we rise not again what shall they do that receive baptism from the dead8 ,here is a point of fact4 ,either the dead themselves were baptized1 or baptism was received in their names1 as indulgences have since been received for the deliverance of the souls of friends and relatives out of purgatory4 ,st4 ,epiphanius and ,st4 ,chrysostom inform us that it was a custom in some ,christian societies1 and principally among the ,marcionites1 to put a living man under the dead man's bed2 he was then asked if he would be baptized2 the living man answered yes1 and the corpse was taken and plunged into a tub of water4 ,this custom was soon condemned4 ,st4 ,paul mentions it but he does not condemn it2 on the contrary he cites it as an invincible argument to prove resurrection4 ,baptism by ,aspersion4 ,the ,greeks always retained baptism by immersion4 ,the ,latins1 about the close of the eighth century1 having extended their religion into ,gaul and ,germany and seeing that immersion might be fatal to infants in cold countries1 substituted simple aspersion and thus drew upon themselves frequent anathemas from the ,greek ,church4 ,st4 ,cyprian1 bishop of ,carthage1 was asked if those were really baptized who had only had their bodies sprinkled all over4 ,he answers1 in his seventy-sixth letter1 that several churches did not believe the sprinkled to be ,christians2 that1 for his own part1 he believes that they are so1 but that they have infinitely less grace than those who have been thrice dipped1 according to custom4 ,a person was initiated among the ,christians as soon as he was dipped2 until then he was only a catechumen4 ,to be initiated it was necessary to have sponsors to answer to the ,church for the fidelity of the new ,christians and that the mysteries should not be divulged4 ,hence it was that in the first ages the ,gentiles had1 in general1 as little knowledge of the ,christian mysteries as the ,christians had of the mysteries of ,isis and the ,eleusinian ,ceres4 ,cyril of ,alexandria1 in his writing against the ,emperor ,julian1 expresses himself thus3 ,i would speak of baptism but that ,i fear my words would reach them who are not initiated4 ,at that time there was no worship without its mysteries1 its associations1 its catechumens1 its initiated1 and its professed4 ,each sect required new virtues and recommended to its penitents a new life--initium nov vit--whence the word initiation4 ,the initiation of ,christians1 whether male or female1 consisted in their being plunged quite naked into a tub of cold water1 to which sign was attached the remission of all their sins4 ,but the difference between ,christian baptism and the ,greek1 ,syrian1 ,egyptian1 and ,roman ceremonies was the difference between truth and falsehood4 ,jesus ,christ was the ,high ,priest of the new law4 ,in the second century infants began to be baptized2 it was natural that the ,christians should desire their children1 who would have been damned without this sacrament1 to be provided with it4 ,it was at length concluded that they must receive it at the expiration of eight days1 because that was the period at which1 among the ,jews1 they were circumcised4 ,in the ,greek ,church this is still the custom4 ,such as died in the first week were damned1 according to the most rigorous fathers of the ,church4 ,but ,peter ,chrysologos1 in the fifth century1 imagined limbo1 a sort of mitigated hell1 or properly1 the border1 the outskirt of hell1 whither all infants dying without baptism go and where the patriarchs remained until ,jesus ,christ's descent into hell4 ,so that the opinion that ,jesus ,christ descended into limbo1 and not into hell1 has since then prevailed4 ,it was agitated whether a ,christian in the deserts of ,arabia might be baptized with sand1 this was answered in the negative4 ,it was asked if rosewater might be used1 it was decided that pure water would be necessary but that muddy water might be made use of4 ,it is evident that all this discipline depended on the discretion of the first pastors who established it4 ,the ,anabaptists and some other communions out of the pale have thought that no one should be baptized without a thorough knowledge of the merits of the case4 ,you require1 say they1 a promise to be of the ,christian society1 but a child can make no engagement4 ,you give it a sponsor1 but this is an abuse of an ancient custom4 ,the precaution was requisite in the first establishment4 ,when strangers1 adult men and women1 came and presented themselves to be received into the society and share in the alms there was needed a guarantee to answer for their fidelity2 it was necessary to make sure of them2 they swore they would be ,jews1 but an infant is in a diametrically opposite case4 ,it has often happened1 that a child baptized by ,greeks at ,constantinople has afterwards been circumcised by ,turks1 a ,christian at eight days old and a ,mussulman at thirty years1 he has betrayed the oaths of his godfather4 ,this is one reason which the ,anabaptists might allege2 it would hold good in ,turkey1 but it has never been admitted in ,christian countries where baptism insures a citizen's condition4 ,we must conform to the rights and laws of our country4 ,the ,greeks re-baptize such of the ,latins as pass from one of our ,latin communions to the ,greek communion4 ,in the last century it was the custom for these catechumens to pronounce the following words3 ,i spit upon my father and my mother who had me ill baptized4 ,this custom still exists1 and will1 perhaps1 long continue to exist in the provinces4 ,notions of ,rigid ,unitarians ,concerning ,baptism4 ,it is evident to whosoever is willing to reason without prejudice that baptism is neither a mark of grace conferred nor a seal of alliance1 but simply a mark of profession4 ,that baptism is not necessary1 neither by necessity of precept1 nor by necessity of means4 ,that it was not instituted by ,christ and that it may be omitted by the ,christian without his suffering any inconvenience therefrom4 ,that baptism should be administered neither to children1 nor to adults1 nor1 in general1 to any individual whatsoever4 ,that baptism might be of service in the early infancy of ,christianity to those who quitted paganism in order to make their profession of faith public and give an authentic mark of it1 but that now it is absolutely useless and altogether indifferent4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,baptism1 immersion in water1 abstersion1 purification by water1 is of the highest antiquity4 ,to be cleanly was to be pure before the gods4 ,no priest ever dared to approach the altar with a soil upon his body4 ,the natural inclination to transfer to the soul that which appertains to the body led to the belief that lustrations and ablutions took away the stains of the soul as they removed those of the garments and that washing the body washed the soul also4 ,hence the ancient custom of bathing in the ,ganges1 the waters of which were thought to be sacred2 hence the lustrations so frequent among every people4 ,the ,oriental nations1 inhabiting hot countries1 were the most religiously attached to these customs4 ,the ,jews were obliged to bathe after any pollution--after touching an unclean animal1 touching a corpse1 and on many other occasions4 ,when the ,jews received among them a stranger converted to their religion they baptized1 after circumcising him1 and if it was a woman she was simply baptized--that is1 dipped in water in the presence of three witnesses4 ,this immersion was reputed to give the persons baptized a new birth1 a new life2 they became at once ,jewish and pure4 ,children born before this baptism had no share in the inheritance of their brethren1 born after them of a regenerated father and mother4 ,so that1 with the ,jews1 to be baptized and to be born again were the same thing1 and this idea has remained attached to baptism down to the present day4 ,thus1 when ,john1 the forerunner1 began to baptize in the ,jordan he did but follow an immemorial usage4 ,the priests of the law did not call him to account for this baptizing as for anything new1 but they accused him of arrogating to himself a right which belonged exclusively to them --as ,roman ,catholic priests would have a right to complain if a layman took upon himself to say mass4 ,john was doing a lawful thing but was doing it unlawfully4 ,john wished to have disciples1 and he had them4 ,he was chief of a sect among the lower orders of the people and it cost him his life4 ,it even appears that ,jesus was at first among his disciples1 since he was baptized by him in the ,jordan1 and ,john sent some of his own party to ,him a short time before ,his death4 ,the historian ,josephus speaks of ,john but not of ,jesus--an incontestable proof that in his time ,john the ,baptist had a greater reputation than ,he whom he baptized4 ,a great multitude followed him1 says that celebrated historian1 and the ,jews seemed disposed to undertake whatever he should command them4 ,from this passage it appears that ,john was not only the chief of a sect1 but the chief of a party4 ,josephus adds that he caused ,herod some uneasiness4 ,he did indeed make himself formidable to ,herod1 who1 at length1 put him to death1 but ,jesus meddled with none but the ,pharisees4 ,josephus1 therefore1 mentions ,john as a man who had stirred up the ,jews against ,king ,herod2 as one whose zeal had made him a state criminal1 but ,jesus1 not having approached the court1 was unknown to the historian ,josephus4 ,the sect of ,john the ,baptist differed widely in discipline from that of ,jesus4 ,in the ,acts of the ,apostles we see that twenty years after the execution of ,jesus1 ,apollos of ,alexandria1 though become a ,christian1 knew no baptism but that of ,john1 nor had any idea of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,several travellers1 and among others ,chardin1 the most accredited of all1 say that in ,persia there still are disciples of ,john1 called ,sabis1 who baptize in his name and acknowledge ,jesus as a prophet1 but not as a god4 ,as for ,jesus ,christ ,himself ,he received baptism but conferred it on no one2 ,his apostles baptized the catechumens1 or circumcised them as occasion required2 this is evident from the operation of circumcision performed by ,paul on his disciple ,timothy4 ,it also appears that when the apostles baptized it was always in the name of ,jesus ,christ alone4 ,the ,acts of the ,apostles do not mention any one baptized in the name of the ,father1 ,son1 and ,holy ,ghost--whence it may be concluded that the author of the ,acts of the ,apostles knew nothing of ,matthew's gospel1 in which it is said3 ,go and teach all nations1 baptizing them in the name of the ,father1 and of the ,son1 and of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,the ,christian religion had not yet received its form4 ,even the ,symbol1 which was called the ,symbol of the ,apostles1 was not made until after their time1 of this no one has any doubt4 ,in ,paul's ,epistle to the ,corinthians we find a very singular custom which was then introduced--that of baptizing the dead1 but the rising ,church soon reserved baptism for the living alone2 at first none were baptized but adults1 and the ceremony was often deferred until the age of fifty1 or the last sickness1 that the individual might carry with him into the other world the unimpaired virtue of a baptism recently performed4 ,now1 all children are baptized3 none but the ,anabaptists reserve this ceremony for the mature age2 they plunge their whole bodies into the water4 ,the ,quakers1 who compose a very numerous society in ,england and in ,america1 do not use baptism3 the reason is that ,jesus ,christ did not baptize any of ,his disciples1 and their aim is to be ,christians only as ,his disciples were--which occasions a very wide difference between them and other communions4 ,addition to the ,article ,baptism by ,abb ,nicaise4 ,the ,emperor ,julian1 the philosopher1 in his immortal ,satire on the ,csars1 puts these words into the mouth of ,constantius1 son of ,constantine3 ,whosoever feels himself guilty of rape1 murder1 plunder1 sacrilege1 and every most abominable crime1 so soon as ,i have washed him with this water1 he shall be clean and pure4 ,it was1 indeed1 this fatal doctrine that occasioned the ,christian emperors1 and the great men of the empire1 to defer their baptism until death4 ,they thought they had found the secret of living criminal and dying virtuous4 ,how strange an idea--that a pot of water should wash away every crime6 ,now1 all children are baptized because an idea no less absurd supposes them all criminal2 they are all saved until they have the use of reason and the power to become guilty6 ,cut their throats1 then1 as quickly as possible1 to insure their entrance into paradise4 ,this is so just a consequence that there was once a devout sect that went about poisoning and killing all newly-baptized infants4 ,these devout persons reasoned with perfect correctness1 saying3 ,we do these little innocents the greatest possible good2 we prevent them from being wicked and unhappy in this life and we give them life eternal4 ,,baruch1 ,,or ,,barak1 ,,and ,,deborah2 ,,and1 ,,incidentally1 ,,on ,,chariots ,,of ,,war4 ,we have no intention here to inquire at what time ,baruch was chief of the ,jewish people2 why1 being chief1 he allowed his army to be commanded by a woman2 whether this woman1 named ,deborah1 had married ,lapidoth2 whether she was the friend or relative of ,baruch1 or perhaps his daughter or his mother2 nor on what day the battle of ,tabor1 in ,galilee1 was fought between this ,deborah and ,sisera1 captain-general of the armies of ,king ,jabin--which ,sisera commanded in ,galilee an army of three hundred thousand foot1 ten thousand horse1 and three thousand chariots of war1 according to the historian ,josephus4 ,we shall at present leave out of the question this ,jabin1 king of a village called ,azor1 who had more troops than the ,grand ,turk4 ,we very much pity the fate of his grand-vizier ,sisera1 who1 having lost the battle in ,galilee1 leaped from his chariot and four that he might fly more swiftly on foot4 ,he went and begged the hospitality of a holy ,jewish woman1 who gave him some milk and drove a great cart-nail through his head while he was asleep4 ,we are very sorry for it1 but this is not the matter to be discussed4 ,we wish to speak of chariots of war4 ,the battle was fought at the foot of ,mount ,tabor1 near the river ,kishon4 ,mount ,tabor is a steep mountain1 the branches of which1 somewhat less in height1 extend over a great part of ,galilee4 ,between this mountain and the neighboring rocks there is a small plain1 covered with great flint-stones and impracticable for cavalry4 ,the extent of this plain is four or five hundred paces4 ,we may venture to believe that ,sisera did not here draw up his three hundred thousand men in order of battle2 his three thousand chariots would have found it difficult to manuvre on such a field4 ,we may believe that the ,hebrews had no chariots of war in a country renowned only for asses1 but the ,asiatics made use of them in the great plains4 ,confucius1 or rather ,confutze1 says positively that1 from time immemorial1 each of the viceroys of the provinces was expected to furnish to the emperor a thousand war-chariots1 each drawn by four horses4 ,chariots must have been in use long before the ,trojan war1 for ,homer does not speak of them as a new invention1 but these chariots were not armed like those of ,babylon1 neither the wheels nor the axles were furnished with steel blades4 ,at first this invention must have been very formidable on large plains1 especially when the chariots were numerous1 driven with impetuosity1 and armed with long pikes and scythes1 but when they became familiar it seemed so easy to avoid their shock that they fell into general disuse4 ,in the war of #agda it was proposed to renew and reform this ancient invention4 ,a minister of state had one of these chariots constructed and it was tried4 ,it was asserted that in large plains1 like that of ,ltzen1 they might be used with advantage by concealing them behind the cavalry1 the squadrons of which would open to let them pass and then follow them1 but the generals judged that this manuvre would be useless1 and even dangerous1 now that battles are gained by cannon only4 ,it was replied that there would be as many cannon hi the army using the chariots of war to defend them as in the enemy's army to destroy them4 ,it was added that these chariots would1 in the first instance1 be sheltered from the cannon behind the battalions or squadrons1 that the latter would open and let the chariots run with impetuosity and that this unexpected attack might have a prodigious effect4 ,the generals advanced nothing in opposition to these arguments1 but they would not revive this game of the ancient ,persians4 ,,battalion4 ,let us observe that the arrangements1 the marching1 and the evolutions of battalions1 nearly as they are now practised1 were revived in ,europe by one who was not a military man--by ,machiavelli1 a secretary at ,florence4 ,battalions three1 four1 and five deep2 battalions advancing upon the enemy2 battalions in square to avoid being cut off in a rout2 battalions four deep sustained by others in column2 battalions flanked by cavalry--all are his4 ,he taught ,europe the art of war2 it had long been practised without being known4 ,the grand duke would have had his secretary teach his troops their exercises according to his new method4 ,but ,machiavelli was too prudent to do so2 he had no wish to see the officers and soldiers laugh at a general in a black cloak2 he reserved himself for the council4 ,there is something singular in the qualities which he requires in a soldier4 ,he must first have gagliardia1 which signifies alert vigor2 he must have a quick and sure eye--in which there must also be a little gayety2 a strong neck1 a wide breast1 a muscular arm1 round loins1 but little belly1 with spare legs and feet--all indicating strength and agility4 ,but above all the soldier must have honor1 and must be led by honor alone4 ,war1 says he1 is but too great a corrupter of morals1 and he reminds us of the ,italian proverb3 ,war makes thieves1 and peace finds them gibbets4 ,machiavelli had but a poor opinion of the ,french infantry1 and until the battle of ,rocroi it must be confessed that it was very bad4 ,a strange man this ,machiavelli6 ,he amused himself with making verses1 writing plays1 showing his cabinet the art of killing with regularity1 and teaching princes the art of perjuring themselves1 assassinating1 and poisoning as occasion required--a great art which ,pope ,alexander ,,vi41 and his bastard ,csar ,borgia1 practised in wonderful perfection without the aid of his lessons4 ,be it observed that in all ,machiavelli's works on so many different subjects there is not one word which renders virtue amiable--not one word proceeding from the heart4 ,the same remark has been made on ,boileau4 ,he does not1 it is true1 make virtue lovely1 but he represents it as necessary4 ,,bayle4 ,why has ,louis ,racine treated ,bayle like a dangerous man1 with a cruel heart1 in an epistle to ,jean ,baptiste ,rousseau1 which1 although printed1 is but little known8 ,he compares ,bayle1 whose logical acuteness detected the errors of opposing systems1 to ,marius sitting upon the ruins of ,carthage3 ,ainsi d'un il content ,marius1 dans sa fuite1 ,contemplait les dbris de ,carthage dtruite4 ,thus exiled ,marius1 with contented gaze1 ,thy ruins1 ,carthage1 silently surveys4 ,here is a simile which exhibits very little resemblance1 or1 as ,pope says1 a simile dissimilar4 ,marius had not destroyed reason and arguments1 nor did he contentedly view its ruins1 but1 on the contrary1 he was penetrated with an elevated sentiment of melancholy on contemplating the vicissitudes of human affairs1 when he made the celebrated answer3 ,say to the proconsul of ,africa that thou hast seen ,marius seated on the ruins of ,carthage4 ,we ask in what ,marius resembled ,bayle8 ,louis ,racine1 if he thinks fit1 may apply the epithets hard-hearted and cruel to ,marius1 to ,sulla1 to the triumvirs1 but1 in reference to ,bayle the phrases detestable pleasure1 cruel heart1 terrible man1 should not be put in a sentence written by ,louis ,racine against one who is only proved to have weighed the arguments of the ,manichans1 the ,paulicians1 the ,arians1 the ,eutychians1 against those of their adversaries4 ,louis ,racine proportions not the punishment to the offence4 ,he should remember that ,bayle combated ,spinoza1 who was too much of a philosopher1 and ,jurieu1 who was none at all4 ,he should respect the good manners of ,bayle and learn to reason from him4 ,but he was a ,jansenist1 that is to say1 he knew the words of the language of ,jansenism and employed them at random4 ,you may properly call cruel and terrible a powerful man who commands his slaves1 on pain of death1 to go and reap corn where he has sown thistles2 who gives to some of them too much food1 and suffers others to die of hunger2 who kills his eldest son to leave a large fortune to the younger4 ,all that is frightful and cruel1 ,louis ,racine6 ,it is said that such is the god of thy ,jansenists1 but ,i do not believe it4 ,oh slaves of party1 people attacked with the jaundice1 you constantly see everything yellow6 ,and to whom has the unthinking heir of a father who had a hundred times more taste than he has philosophy1 addressed this miserable epistle against the virtuous ,bayle8 ,to ,rousseau--a poet who thinks still less2 to a man whose principal merit has consisted in epigrams which are revolting to the most indulgent reader2 to a man to whom it was alike whether he sang ,jesus ,christ or ,giton4 ,such was the apostle to whom ,louis ,racine denounced ,bayle as a miscreant4 ,what motive could the author of ,phdra and ,iphigenia have for falling into such a prodigious error8 ,simply this1 that ,rousseau had made verses for the ,jansenists1 whom he then believed to be in high credit4 ,such is the rage of faction let loose upon ,bayle1 but you do not hear any of the dogs who have howled against him bark against ,lucretius1 ,cicero1 ,seneca1 ,epicurus1 nor against the numerous philosophers of antiquity4 ,it is all reserved for ,bayle2 he is their fellow citizen--he is of their time--his glory irritates them4 ,bayle is read and ,nicole is not read2 behold the source of the ,jansenist hatred6 ,bayle is studied1 but neither the reverend ,father ,croiset1 nor the reverend ,father ,caussin2 hence ,jesuitical denouncement6 ,in vain has a ,parliament of ,france done him the greatest honor in rendering his will valid1 notwithstanding the severity of the law4 ,the madness of party knows neither honor nor justice4 ,i have not inserted this article to make the eulogy of the best of dictionaries1 which would not be becoming here1 and of which ,bayle is not in need2 ,i have written it to render1 if ,i can1 the spirit of party odious and ridiculous4 ,,bdellium4 ,we are very much puzzled to know what this ,bdellium is which is found near the shores of the ,pison1 a river of the terrestrial paradise which turns into the country of the ,havilah1 where there is gold4 ,calmet relates that1 according to several commentators1 ,bdellium is the carbuncle1 but that it may also be crystal4 ,then it is the gum of an ,arabian tree and afterwards we are told that capers are intended4 ,many others affirm that it signifies pearls4 ,nothing but the etymologies of ,bochart can throw a light on this question4 ,i wish that all these commentators had been upon the spot4 ,the excellent gold which is obtained in this country1 says ,calmet1 shows evidently that this is the country of ,colchis and the golden fleece is a proof of it4 ,it is a pity that things have changed so much for ,mingrelia2 that beautiful country1 so famous for the loves of ,medea and ,jason1 now produces gold and ,bdellium no more than bulls which vomit fire and flame1 and dragons which guard the fleece4 ,everything changes in this world2 and if we do not skilfully cultivate our lands1 and if the state remain always in debt1 we shall become a second ,mingrelia4 ,,beard4 ,certain naturalists assure us that the secretion which produces the beard is the same as that which perpetuates mankind4 ,an entire hemisphere testifies against this fraternal union4 ,the ,americans1 of whatever country1 color1 or stature they may be1 have neither beards on their chins1 nor any hair on their bodies1 except their eyebrows and the hair of their heads1 ,i have legal attestations of official men who have lived1 conversed1 and combated with thirty nations of ,south ,america1 and they attest that they have never seen a hair on their bodies2 and they laugh1 as they well may1 at writers who1 copying one another1 say that the ,americans are only without hair because they pull it out with pincers2 as if ,christopher ,columbus1 ,fernando ,cortes1 and the other adventurers had loaded themselves with the little tweezers with which our ladies remove their superfluous hairs1 and had distributed them in all the countries of ,america4 ,i believed for a long time that the ,esquimaux were excepted from the general laws of the new world2 but ,i am assured that they are as free from hair as the others4 ,however1 they have children in ,chile1 ,peru1 and ,canada1 as well as in our bearded continent4 ,there is1 then1 a specific difference between these bipeds and ourselves1 in the same way as their lions1 which are divested of the mane1 and in other respects differ from the lions of ,africa4 ,it is to be remarked that the ,orientals have never varied in their consideration for the beard4 ,marriage among them has always existed1 and that period is still the epoch of life from which they no longer shave the beard4 ,the long dress and the beard impose respect4 ,the ,westerns have always been changing the fashion of the chin4 ,mustaches were worn under ,louis ,,xiv4 towards the year #afgb4 ,under ,louis ,,xiii4 a little pointed beard prevailed4 ,in the time of ,henry ,,iv4 it was square4 ,charles ,v41 ,julius ,,ii41 and ,francis ,i4 restored the large beard to honor in their courts1 which had been a long time in fashion4 ,gownsmen1 through gravity and respect for the customs of their fathers1 shaved themselves2 while the courtiers1 in doublets and little mantles1 wore their beards as long as they could4 ,when a king in those days sent a lawyer as an ambassador1 his comrades would laugh at him if he suffered his beard to grow1 besides mocking him in the chamber of accounts or of requests1--,but quite enough upon beards4 ,,beasts4 ,what a pity and what a poverty of spirit to assert that beasts are machines deprived of knowledge and sentiment1 which effect all their operations in the same manner1 which learn nothing1 never improve1 etc4 ,what is this bird1 who makes its nest in a semicircle when he attaches it to a wall2 and in a circle on a tree--this bird does all in the same blind manner6 ,the hound1 which you have disciplined for three months1 does he not know more at the end of this time than he did before8 ,does the canary1 to which you play an air1 repeat ft directly8 ,do you not employ a considerable time in teaching it8 ,have you not seen that he sometimes mistakes it1 and that be corrects himself8 ,is it because ,i speak to you that you judge ,i have sentiment1 memory1 and ideas8 ,well1 suppose ,i do not speak to you2 you see me enter my room with an afflicted air1 ,i seek a paper with disquietude1 ,i open the bureau in which ,i recollect to have shut it1 ,i hid it and read it with joy4 ,you pronounce that ,i have felt the sentiment of affliction and of joy2 that ,i have memory and knowledge4 ,extend the same judgment to the dog who has lost his master1 who has sought hum everywhere with grievous cries1 and who enters the house agitated and restless1 goes upstairs and down1 from room to room1 and at last finds in the closet the master whom he loves1 and testifies his joy by the gentleness of his cries1 by his leaps and his caresses4 ,some barbarians seize this dog1 who so prodigiously excels man in friendship1 they nail him to a table and dissect him living to show the mesenteric veins4 ,you discover in him the same organs of sentiment which are in yourself4 ,answer me1 machinist1 has nature arranged all the springs of sentiment in this animal that he should not feel8 ,has he nerves1 and is he incapable of suffering8 ,do not suppose this impertinent contradiction in mature4 ,but the masters of this school ask1 what is the soul of beasts8 ,i do not understand tins question4 ,a tree has the faculty of receiving in its fibres the sap which circulates1 of evolving its buds1 its leaves1 and its fruits4 ,you will ask me what is the soul of this tree8 ,it has received these gifts4 ,the animal has received those of sentiment1 memory1 and a certain number of ideas4 ,who has bestowed these gifts2 who has given these faculties8 ,he who has made the herb of the field to grow1 and who makes the earth gravitate towards the sun4 ,the souls of beasts are substantial forms1 says ,aristotle2 and after ,aristotle1 the ,arabian school2 and after the ,arabian school1 the ,angelical school2 and after the ,angelical school1 the ,sorbonne2 and after the ,sorbonne1 every one in the world4 ,the souls of beasts are material1 exclaim other philosophers4 ,these have not been more fortunate than the former4 ,they are in vain asked what is a material soul8 ,they say that it is a matter which has sensation2 but who has given it this sensation8 ,it is a material soul1 that is to say1 it is composed of a matter which gives sensation to matter4 ,they cannot get out of this circle4 ,listen to one kind of beasts reasoning upon another2 their soul is a spiritual being1 which dies with the body2 but what proof have you of it8 ,what idea have you of this spiritual being1 which has sentiment1 memory1 and its share of ideas and combinations1 but which can never tell what made a child of six years old8 ,on what ground do you imagine that this being1 which is not corporeal1 perishes with the body8 ,the greatest beasts are those who have suggested that this soul is neither body nor spiritan excellent system6 ,we can only understand by spirit something unknown1 which is not body4 ,thus the system of these gentlemen amounts to this1 that the soul of beasts is a substance which is neither body1 nor something which is not body4 ,whence can proceed so many contradictory errors8 ,from the custom which men have of examining what a thing is before they know whether it exists4 ,they call the speech the effect of a breath of mind1 the soul of a sigh4 ,what is the soul8 ,it is a name which ,i have given to this valve which rises and falls1 which lets the air in1 relieves itself1 and sends it through a pipe when ,i move the lungs4 ,there is not1 then1 a soul distinct from the machine4 ,but what moves the lungs of animals8 ,i have already said1 the power that moves the stars4 ,the philosopher who said1 ,deus est anim brutorum4--,god is the soul of the brutes--is right2 but he should have gone much further4 ,,beautiful 7,,the74 ,since we have quoted ,plato on love1 why should we not quote him on the beautiful1 since beauty causes love4 ,it is curious to know how a ,greek spoke of the beautiful more than two thousand years since4 ,the man initiated into the sacred mysteries1 when he sees a beautiful face accompanied by a divine form1 a something more than mortal1 feels a secret emotion1 and ,i know not what respectful fear4 ,he regards this figure as a divinity4444 ,when the influence of beauty enters into his soul by his eyes he burns2 the wings of his soul are bedewed2 they lose the hardness which retains their germs and liquefy themselves2 these germs1 swelling beneath the roots of its wings1 they expand from every part of the soul 7for soul had wings formerly71 etc4 ,i am willing to believe that nothing is finer than this discourse of the divine ,plato2 but it does not give us very clear ideas of the nature of the beautiful4 ,ask a toad what is beauty--the great beauty ,to ,kalon2 he will answer that it is the female with two great round eyes coming out of her little head1 her large flat mouth1 her yellow belly1 and brown back4 ,ask a negro of ,guinea2 beauty is to him a black1 oily skin1 sunken eyes1 and a flat nose4 ,ask the devil2 he will tell you that the beautiful consists in a pair of horns1 four claws1 and a tail4 ,then consult the philosophers2 they will answer you with jargon2 they must have something conformable to the archetype of the essence of the beautiful--to the ,to ,kalon4 ,i was once attending a tragedy near a philosopher4 ,how beautiful that is1 said he4 ,what do you find beautiful8 asked ,i4 ,it is1 said he1 that the author has attained his object4 ,the next day he took his medicine1 which did him some good4 ,it has attained its object1 cried ,i to him2 it is a beautiful medicine4 ,he comprehended that it could not be said that a medicine is beautiful1 and that to apply to anything the epithet beautiful it must cause admiration and pleasure4 ,he admitted that the tragedy had inspired him with these two sentiments1 and that it was the ,to ,kalon1 the beautiful4 ,we made a journey to ,england4 ,the same piece was played1 and1 although ably translated1 it made all the spectators yawn4 ,oh1 oh6 said he1 the ,to ,kalon is not the same with the ,english as with the ,french4 ,he concluded after many reflections that the beautiful is often merely relative1 as that which is decent at ,japan is indecent at ,rome2 and that which is the fashion at ,paris is not so at ,pekin2 and he was thereby spared the trouble of composing a long treatise on the beautiful4 ,illustration3 ,a beautiful face accompanied by a divine form4 ,there are actions which the whole world considers fine4 ,a challenge passed between two of ,csar's officers1 mortal enemies1 not to shed each other's blood behind a thicket by tierce and quarte1 as among us1 but to decide which of them would best defend the camp of the ,romans1 about to be attacked by the barbarians4 ,one of the two1 after having repulsed the enemy1 was near falling2 the other flew to his assistance1 saved his life1 and gained the victory4 ,a friend devotes himself to death for his friend1 a son for his father4 ,the ,algonquin1 the ,french1 the ,chinese1 will mutually say that all this is very beautiful1 that such actions give them pleasure1 and that they admire them4 ,they will say the same of great moral maxims2 of that of ,zoroaster3 ,if in doubt that an action be just1 desist2 of that of ,confucius3 ,forget injuries2 never forget benefits4 ,the negro1 with round eyes and flattened nose1 who would not give the ladies of our court the name of beautiful1 would give it without hesitation to these actions and these maxims4 ,even the wicked man recognizes the beauty of the virtues which he cannot imitate4 ,the beautiful1 which only strikes the senses1 the imagination1 and what is called the spirit1 is then often uncertain2 the beauty which strikes the heart is not4 ,you will find a number of people who will tell you they have found nothing beautiful in three-fourths of the ,iliad2 but nobody will deny that the devotion of ,codrus for his people was fine1 supposing it was true4 ,brother ,attinet1 a ,jesuit1 a native of ,dijon1 was employed as designer in the country house of the ,emperor ,camhi1 at the distance of some leagues from ,pekin4 ,this country house1 says he1 in one of his letters to ,m4 ,dupont1 is larger than the town of ,dijon4 ,it is divided into a thousand habitations on one line2 each one has its courts1 its parterres1 its gardens1 and its waters2 the front of each is ornamented with gold varnish and paintings4 ,in the vast enclosures of the park1 hills have been raised by hand from twenty to sixty feet high4 ,the valleys are watered by an infinite number of canals1 which run a considerable distance to join and form lakes and seas4 ,we float on these seas in boats varnished and gilt1 from twelve to thirteen fathoms long and four wide4 ,these barks have magnificent saloons1 and the borders of the canals are covered with houses1 all in different tastes4 ,every house has its gardens and cascades4 ,you go from one valley to another by alleys1 alternately ornamented with pavilions and grottoes4 ,no two valleys are alike2 the largest of all is surrounded by a colonnade1 behind which are gilded buildings4 ,all the apartments of these houses correspond in magnificence with the outside4 ,all the canals have bridges at stated distances2 these bridges are bordered with balustrades of white marble sculptured in basso-relievo4 ,in the middle of the great sea is raised a rock1 and on this rock is a square pavilion1 in which are more than a hundred apartments4 ,from this square pavilion there is a view of all the palaces1 all the houses1 and all the gardens of this immense enclosure1 and there are more than four hundred of them4 ,when the emperor gives a fte all these buildings are illuminated in an instant1 and from every house there are fireworks4 ,this is not all2 at the end of what they call the sea is a great fair1 held by the emperor's officers4 ,vessels come from the great sea to arrive at this fair4 ,the courtiers disguise themselves as merchants and artificers of all sorts2 one keeps a coffee house1 another a tavern2 one takes the profession of a thief1 another that of the officer who pursues him4 ,the emperor and all the ladies of the court come to buy stuffs1 the false merchants cheat them as much as they can2 they tell them that it is shameful to dispute so much about the price1 and that they are poor customers4 ,their majesties reply that the merchants are knaves2 the latter are angry and affect to depart2 they are appeased2 the emperor buys all and makes lotteries of it for all his court4 ,farther on are spectacles of all sorts4 ,when brother ,attinet came from ,china to ,versailles he found it small and dull4 ,the ,germans1 who were delighted to stroll about its groves1 were astonished that brother ,attinet was so difficult4 ,this is another reason which determines me not to write a treatise on the beautiful4 ,,bees4 ,the bees may be regarded as superior to the human race in this1 that from their own substance they produce another which is useful2 while1 of all our secretions1 there is not one good for anything2 nay1 there is not one which does not render mankind disagreeable4 ,i have been charmed to find that the swarms which turn out of the hive are much milder than our sons when they leave college4 ,the young bees then sting no one2 or at least but rarely and in extraordinary cases4 ,they suffer themselves to be carried quietly in the bare hand to the hive which is destined for them4 ,but no sooner have they learned in their new habitation to know their interests than they become like us and make war4 ,i have seen very peaceable bees go for six months to labor in a neighboring meadow covered with flowers which secreted them4 ,when the mowers came they rushed furiously from their hive upon those who were about to steal their property and put them to flight4 ,we find in the ,proverbs attributed to ,solomon that there are four things1 the least upon earth1 but which are wiser than the wise men--the ants1 a little people who lay up food during the harvest2 the hares1 a weak people who lie on stones2 the grasshoppers1 who have no kings and who journey in flocks2 and the lizards1 which work with their hands and dwell in the palaces of kings4 ,i know not how ,solomon forgot the bees1 whose instinct seems very superior to that of hares1 which do not lie on stone2 or of lizards1 with whose genius ,i am not acquainted4 ,moreover1 ,i shall always prefer a bee to a grasshopper4 ,the bees have1 in all ages1 furnished the poet with descriptions1 comparisons1 allegories1 and fables4 ,mandeville's celebrated ,fable of the ,bees made a great noise in ,england4 ,here is a short sketch of it3 ,once the bees1 in worldly things1 ,had a happy government2 ,and their laborers and their kings ,made them wealthy and content2 ,but some greedy drones at last ,found their way into their hive2 ,those1 in idleness to thrive1 ,told the bees they ought to fast4 ,sermons were their only labors2 ,work they preached unto their neighbors4 ,in their language they would say1 ,you shall surely go to heaven1 ,when to us you've freely given ,wax and honey all away4-- ,foolishly the bees believed1 ,till by famine undeceived2 ,when their misery was complete1 ,all the strange delusion vanished6 ,now the drones are killed or banished1 ,and the bees again may eat4 ,mandeville goes much further2 he asserts that bees cannot live at their ease in a great and powerful hive without many vices4 ,no kingdom1 no state1 says he1 can flourish without vices4 ,take away the vanity of ladies of quality1 and there will be no more fine manufactures of silk1 no more employment for men and women in a thousand different branches2 a great part of the nation will be reduced to beggary4 ,take away the avarice of our merchants1 and the fleets of ,england will be annihilated4 ,deprive artists of envy1 and emulation will cease2 we shall sink back into primitive rudeness and ignorance4 ,it is quite true that a well-governed society turns every vice to account2 but it is not true that these vices are necessary to the well-being of the world4 ,very good remedies may be made from poisons1 but poisons do not contribute to the support of life4 ,by thus reducing the ,fable of the ,bees to its just value1 it might be made a work of moral utility4 ,,beggar--,,mendicant ,every country where begging1 where mendicity1 is a profession1 is ill governed4 ,beggary1 as ,i have elsewhere said1 is a vermin that clings to opulence4 ,yes2 but let it be shaken off2 let the hospitals be for sickness and age alone1 and let the shops be for the young and vigorous4 ,the following is an extract from a sermon composed by a preacher ten years ago for the parish of ,st4 ,leu and ,st4 ,giles1 which is the parish of the beggars and the convulsionaries3 ,pauper es evangelicantur--the gospel is preached to the poor4 ,my dear brethren the beggars1 what is meant by the word gospel8 ,it signifies good news4 ,it is1 then1 good news that ,i come to tell you2 and what is it8 ,it is that if you are idlers you will die on a dung-hill4 ,know that there have been idle kings1 so at least we are told1 and they at last had not where to lay their heads4 ,if you work1 you will be as happy as other men4 ,the preachers at ,st4 ,eustache and ,st4 ,roche may deliver to the rich very fine sermons in a flowery style1 which procure for the auditors a light slumber with an easy digestion1 and for the orator a thousand crowns2 but ,i address those whom hunger keeps awake4 ,work for your bread1 ,i say2 for the ,scripture says that he who does not work deserves not to eat4 ,our brother in adversity1 ,job1 who was for some time in your condition1 says that man is born to labor as the bird is to fly4 ,look at this immense city2 every one is busy2 the judges rise at four in the morning to administer justice to you and send you to the galleys when your idleness has caused you to thieve rather awkwardly4 ,the king works2 he attends his council every day2 and he has made campaigns4 ,perhaps you will say he is none the richer4 ,granted2 but that is not his fault4 ,the financiers know1 better than you or ,i do1 that not one-half his revenue ever enters his coffers4 ,he has been obliged to sell his plate in order to defend us against our enemies4 ,we should aid him in our turn4 ,the ,friend of ,man 7l',ami des ,hommes7 allows him only seventy-five millions per annum4 ,another friend all at once gives him seven hundred and forty4 ,but of all these ,job's comforters1 not one will advance him a single crown4 ,it is necessary to invent a thousand ingenious ways of drawing this crown from our pockets1 which1 before it reaches his own1 is diminished by at least one-half4 ,work1 then1 my dear brethren2 act for yourselves1 for ,i forewarn you that if you do not take care of yourselves1 no one will take care of you2 you will be treated as the king has been in several grave remonstrances2 people will say1 ',god help you4' ,we will go into the provinces1 you will answer2 we skill be fed by the lords of the land1 by the farmers1 by the curates4 ,do not flatter yourselves1 my dear brethren1 that you shall eat at their tables2 they have for the most part enough to do to feed themselves1 notwithstanding the ',method of ,rapidly ,getting ,rich by ,agriculture' and fifty other works of the same kind1 published every day at ,paris for the use of the people in the country1 with the cultivation of which the authors never had anything to do4 ,i behold among you young men of some talent1 who say that they will make verses1 that they will write pamphlets1 like ,chisiac1 ,normotte1 or ,patouillet2 that they will work for the ',nouvelles ,ecclsiastiques' that they will write sheets for ,frron1 funeral orations for bishops1 songs for the comic opera4 ,any of these would at least be an occupation4 ,when a man is writing for the ',anne ,littraire1' he is not robbing on the highway1 he is only robbing his creditors4 ,but do better1 my dear brethren in ,jesus ,christ--my dear beggars1 who1 by passing your lives in asking charity1 run the risk of the galleys2 do better2 enter one of the four mendicant orders2 you will then be not only rich1 but honored also4 ,,bekker1 ,,the ,,world ,,bewitched1 ,,the ,,devil1 ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,enoch1 ,,and ,,sorcerers4 ,this ,balthazar ,bekker1 a very good man1 a great enemy of the everlasting hell and the devil1 and a still greater of precision1 made a great deal of noise in his time by his great book1 ,the ,world ,bewitched4 ,one ,jacques-,george de ,chaufepied1 a pretended continuator of ,bayle1 assures us that ,bekker learned ,greek at ,gascoigne4 ,niceron has good reasons for believing that it was at ,franeker4 ,this historical point has occasioned much doubt and trouble at court4 ,the fact is that in the time of ,bekker1 a minister of the ,holy ,gospel--as they say in ,holland--the devil was still in prodigious credit among divines of all sorts in the middle of the seventeenth century1 in spite of the good spirits which were beginning to enlighten the world4 ,witchcraft1 possessions1 and everything else attached to that fine divinity1 were in vogue throughout ,europe and frequently had fatal results4 ,a century had scarcely elapsed since ,king ,james himself--called by ,henry ,,iv4 ,master ,james--that great enemy of the ,roman communion and the papal power1 had published his ,demonology 7what a book for a king67 and in it had admitted sorceries1 incubuses1 and succubuses1 and acknowledged the power of the devil1 and of the pope1 who1 according to him1 had just as good a right to drive ,satan from the bodies of the possessed as any other priest4 ,and we1 miserable ,frenchmen1 who boast of having recovered some small part of our senses1 in what a horrid sink of stupid barbarism were we then immersed6 ,not a parliament1 not a presidential court1 but was occupied in trying sorcerers2 not a great jurisconsult who did not write memorials on possessions by the devil4 ,france resounded with the cries of poor imbecile creatures whom the judges1 after making them believe that they had danced round a cauldron1 tortured and put to death without pity1 in horrible torments4 ,catholics and ,protestants were alike infected with this absurd and frightful superstition2 the pretext being that in one of the ,christian gospels it is said that disciples were sent to cast out devils4 ,it was a sacred duty to put girls to the torture in order to make them confess that they had lain with ,satan1 and that they had fallen in love with him in the form of a goat4 ,all the particulars of the meetings of the girls with this goat were detailed in the trials of the unfortunate individuals4 ,they were burned at last1 whether they confessed or denied2 and ,france was one vast theatre of judicial carnage4 ,i have before me a collection of these infernal proceedings1 made by a counsellor of the ,parliament of ,bordeaux1 named ,de ,langre1 and addressed to ,monseigneur ,silleri1 chancellor of ,france1 without ,monseigneur ,silleri's having ever thought of enlightening those infamous magistrates4 ,but1 indeed1 it would have been necessary to begin by enlightening the chancellor himself4 ,what was ,france at that time8 ,a continual ,st4 ,bartholomew--from the massacre of ,vassy to the assassination of ,marshal d',ancre and his innocent wife4 ,will it be believed that in the time of this very ,bekker1 a poor girl named ,magdalen ,chaudron1 who had been persuaded that she was a witch1 was burned at ,geneva8 ,the following is a very exact summary of the procs-verbal of this absurd and horrid act1 which is not the last monument of the kind3 ,michelle1 having met the devil as she was going out of the town1 the devil gave her a kiss1 received her homage1 and imprinted on her upper lip and her right breast the mark which it is his custom to affix on all persons whom he recognizes as his favorites4 ,this seal of the devil is a small sign-manual1 which1 as demonological jurisconsults affirm1 renders the skin insensible4 ,the devil ordered ,michelle ,chaudron to bewitch two girls2 and she immediately obeyed her lord4 ,the relatives of the young women judicially charged her with devilish practices1 and the girls themselves were interrogated and confronted with the accused4 ,they testified that they constantly felt a swarming of ants in certain parts of their bodies1 and that they were possessed4 ,the physicians were then called in1 or at least those who then passed as physicians4 ,they visited the girls and sought on ,michelle's body for the devil's seal1 which the procs-verbal calls the satanic marks4 ,they thrust a large needle into the spot1 and this of itself was a grievous torture4 ,blood flowed from the puncture2 and ,michelle made known by her cries that satanic marks do not produce insensibility4 ,the judges1 seeing no satisfactory evidence that ,michelle ,chaudron was a witch1 had her put to the torture1 which never fails to bring forth proofs4 ,the unfortunate girl1 yielding at length to the violence of her tortures1 confessed whatever was required of her4 ,the physicians again sought for the satanic mark4 ,they found it in a small dark spot on one of her thighs4 ,they applied the needle2 but the torture had been so excessive that the poor1 expiring creature scarcely felt the wound2 she did not cry out2 therefore the crime was satisfactorily proved4 ,but1 as manners were becoming less rude1 she was not burned until she had been hanged4 ,every tribunal in ,christian ,europe still rings with similar condemnations2 so long did this barbarous imbecility endure1 that even in our own day1 at ,wrzburg1 in ,franconia1 there was a witch burned in #agej4 ,and what a witch6 ,a young woman of quality1 the abbess of a convent6 and in our own times1 under the empire of ,maria ,theresa of ,austria6 ,these horrors1 by which ,europe was so long filled1 determined ,bekker to fight against the devil4 ,in vain was he told1 in prose and verse1 that he was doing wrong to attack him1 seeing that he was extremely like him1 being horribly ugly2 nothing could stop him4 ,he began with absolutely denying the power of ,satan2 and even grew so bold as to maintain that he does not exist4 ,if1 said he1 there were a devil1 he would revenge the war which ,i make upon him4 ,bekker reasoned but too well in saying that if the devil existed he would punish him4 ,his brother ministers took ,satan's part and suspended ,bekker2 for heretics will also excommunicate2 and in the article of cursing1 ,geneva mimics ,rome4 ,bekker enters on his subject in the second volume4 ,according to him1 the serpent which seduced our first parents was not a devil1 but a real serpent2 as ,balaam's ass was a real ass1 and as the whale that swallowed ,jonah was a real whale4 ,it was so decidedly a real serpent1 that all its species1 which had before walked on their feet1 were condemned to crawl on their bellies4 ,no serpent1 no animal of any kind1 is called ,satan1 or ,beelzebub1 or devil1 in the ,pentateuch4 ,there is not so much as an allusion to ,satan4 ,the ,dutch destroyer of ,satan does1 indeed1 admit the existence of angels2 but at the same time he assures us that it cannot be proved by reasoning4 ,and if there are any1 says he1 in the eighth chapter of his second volume1 it is hard to say what they are4 ,the ,scripture tells us nothing about their nature1 nor in what the nature of a spirit consists4 ,the ,bible was made1 not for angels1 but for men2 ,jesus was made a man for us1 not an angel4 ,if ,bekker has so many scruples concerning angels1 it is not to be wondered at that he has some concerning devils2 and it is very amusing to see into what contortions he puts his mind in order to avail himself of such texts as appear to be in his favor and to evade such as are against him4 ,he does his utmost to prove that the devil had nothing to do with the afflictions of ,job2 and here he is even more prolix than the friends of that holy man4 ,there is great probability that he was condemned only through the ill-humor of his judges at having lost so much time in reading his work4 ,if the devil himself had been forced to read ,bekker's ,world ,bewitched he could never have forgiven the fault of having so prodigiously wearied him4 ,one of our ,dutch divine's greatest difficulties is to explain these words3 ,jesus was transported by the spirit into the desert to be tempted by the devil4 ,no text can be clearer4 ,a divine may write against ,beelzebub as much as he pleases1 but he must of necessity admit his existence2 he may then explain the difficult texts if he can4 ,whoever desires to know precisely what the devil is may be informed by referring to the ,jesuit ,scott2 no one has spoken of him more at length2 he is much worse than ,bekker4 ,consulting history1 where the ancient origin of the devil is to be found in the doctrine of the ,persians1 ,ahrimanes1 the bad principle1 corrupts all that the good principle had made salutary4 ,among the ,egyptians1 ,typhon does all the harm he can2 while ,oshireth1 whom we call ,osiris1 does1 together with ,isheth1 or ,isis1 all the good of which he is capable4 ,before the ,egyptians and ,persians1 ,mozazor1 among the ,indians1 had revolted against ,god and become the devil1 but ,god had at last pardoned him4 ,if ,bekker and the ,socinians had known this anecdote of the fall of the ,indian angels and their restoration1 they would have availed themselves of it to support their opinion that hell is not perpetual1 and to give hopes of salvation to such of the damned as read their books4 ,the ,jews1 as has already been observed1 never spoke of the fall of the angels in the ,old ,testament2 but it is mentioned in the ,new4 ,about the period of the establishment of ,christianity a book was attributed to ,enoch1 the seventh man after ,adam1 concerning the devil and his associates4 ,enoch gives us the names of the leaders of the rebellious and the faithful angels1 but he does not say that war was in heaven2 on the contrary1 the fight was upon a mountain of the earth1 and it was for the possession of young women4 ,st4 ,jude cites this book in his ,epistle3 ,and the angels1 which kept not their first estate1 but left their own habitation1 he hath reserved in everlasting chains under darkness1 unto the judgment of the great day4444 ,woe unto them1 for they have gone in the way of ,cain4444 ,and ,enoch1 also1 the seventh from ,adam1 prophesied of these4444 ,st4 ,peter in his second ,epistle alludes to the ,book of ,enoch when he says3 ,for if ,god spared not the angels that sinned1 but cast them down to hell and delivered them into chains of darkness4444 ,bekker must have found it difficult to resist passages so formal4 ,however1 he was even more inflexible on the subject of devils than on that of angels2 he would not be subdued by the ,book of ,enoch1 the seventh man from ,adam2 he maintained that there was no more a devil than there was a book of ,enoch4 ,he said that the devil was imitated from ancient mythology1 that it was an old story revived1 and that we are nothing more than plagiarists4 ,we may at the present day be asked why we call that ,lucifer the evil spirit1 whom the ,hebrew version1 and the book attributed to ,enoch1 named ,samyaza4 ,it is because we understand ,latin better than ,hebrew4 ,but whether ,lucifer be the planet ,venus1 or the ,samyaza of ,enoch1 or the ,satan of the ,babylonians1 or the ,mozazor of the ,indians1 or the ,typhon of the ,egyptians1 ,bekker was right in saying that so enormous a power ought not to be attributed to him as that with which1 even down to our own times1 he has been believed to be invested4 ,it is too much to have immolated to him a woman of quality of ,wrzburg1 ,magdalen ,chaudron1 the curate of ,gaupidi1 the wife of ,marshal d',ancre1 and more than a hundred thousand other wizards and witches1 in the space of thirteen hundred years1 in ,christian states4 ,had ,belthazar ,bekker been content with paring the devil's nails1 he would have been very well received2 but when a curate would annihilate the devil he loses his cure4 ,,belief4 ,we shall see at the article ,certainty that we ought often to be very uncertain of what we are certain of2 and that we may fail in good sense when deciding according to what is called common sense4 ,but what is it that we call believing8 ,a ,turk comes and says to me1 ,i believe that the angel ,gabriel often descended from the empyrean1 to bring ,mahomet leaves of the ,koran1 written on blue vellum4 ,well1 ,mustapha1 and on what does thy shaven head found its belief of this incredible thing8 ,on this3 ,that there are the greatest probabilities that ,i have not been deceived in the relation of these improbable prodigies2 that ,abubeker1 the father-in-law1 ,ali1 the son-in-law1 ,aisha1 or ,aisse1 the daughter1 ,omar1 and ,osman1 certified the truth of the fact in the presence of fifty thousand men--gathered together all the leaves1 read them to the faithful1 and attested that not a word had been altered4 ,that we have never had but one ,koran1 which has never been contradicted by another ,koran4 ,that ,god has never permitted the least alteration to be made in this book4 ,that its doctrine and precepts are the perfection of reason4 ,its doctrine consists in the unity of ,god1 for ,whom we must live and die2 in the immortality of the soul2 the eternal rewards of the just and punishments of the wicked2 and the mission of our great prophet ,mahomet1 proved by victories4 ,its precepts are3 ,to be just and valiant2 to give alms to the poor2 to abstain from that enormous number of women whom the ,eastern princes1 and in particular the petty ,jewish kings1 took to themselves without scruple2 to renounce the good wines of ,engaddi and ,tadmor1 which those drunken ,hebrews have so praised in their books2 to pray to ,god five times a day1 etc4 ,this sublime religion has been confirmed by the miracle of all others the finest1 the most constant1 and best verified in the history of the world2 that ,mahomet1 persecuted by the gross and absurd scholastic magistrates who decreed his arrest1 and obliged to quit his country1 returned victorious2 that he made his imbecile and sanguinary enemies his footstool2 that he all his life fought the battles of the ,lord2 that with a small number he always triumphed over the greater number2 that he and his successors have converted one-half of the earth2 and that1 with ,god's help1 we shall one day convert the other half4 ,nothing can be arrayed in more dazzling colors4 ,yet ,mustapha1 while believing so firmly1 always feels some small shadows of doubt arising in his soul when he hears any difficulties started respecting the visits of the angel ,gabriel2 the sura or chapter brought from heaven to declare that the great prophet was not a cuckold2 or the mare ,borak1 which carried him in one night from ,mecca to ,jerusalem4 ,mustapha stammers2 he makes very bad answers1 at which he blushes2 yet he not only tells you that he believes1 but would also persuade you to believe4 ,you press ,mustapha2 he still gapes and stares1 and at last goes away to wash himself in honor of ,allah1 beginning his ablution at the elbow and ending with the forefinger4 ,is ,mustapha really persuaded--convinced of all that he has told us8 ,is he perfectly sure that ,mahomet was sent by ,god1 as he is sure that the city of ,stamboul exists8 as he is sure that the ,empress ,catherine ,,ii4 sent a fleet from the remotest seas of the ,north to land troops in ,peloponnesus--a thing as astonishing as the journey from ,mecca to ,jerusalem in one night--and that this fleet destroyed that of the ,ottomans in the ,dardanelles8 ,the truth is that ,mustapha believes what he does not believe4 ,he has been accustomed to pronounce1 with his mollah1 certain words which he takes for ideas4 ,to believe is very often to doubt4 ,why do you believe that8 says ,harpagon4 ,i believe it because ,i believe it1 answers ,master ,jacques2 and most men might return the same answer4 ,believe me fully1 my dear reader1 when ,i say one must not believe too easily4 ,but what shall we say of those who would persuade others of what they themselves do not believe8 and what of the monsters who persecute their brethren in the humble and rational doctrine of doubt and self-distrust8 ,,bethshemesh4 ,of the ,fifty ,thousand and ,seventy ,jews ,struck with ,sudden ,death for ,having ,looked ,upon the ,ark2 of the ,five ,golden ,emeroids ,paid by the ,philistines2 and of ,dr4 ,kennicott's ,incredulity4 ,men of the world will perhaps be astonished to find this word the subject of an article2 but we here address only the learned and ask their instruction4 ,bethshemesh was a village belonging to ,god's people1 situated1 according to commentators1 two miles north of ,jerusalem4 ,the ,phnicians having1 in ,samuel's time1 beaten the ,jews1 and taken from them their ,ark of alliance in the battle1 in which they killed thirty thousand of their men1 were severely punished for it by the ,lord3 ,percussit eos in secretiori parte natium1 et ebullierunt vill et agri4444 et nati sunt mures1 et facta est confusio mortis magna in civitate4 ,literally3 ,he struck them in the most secret part of the buttocks2 and the fields and the farmhouses were troubled4444 and there sprung up mice2 and there was a great confusion of death in the city4 ,the prophets of the ,phnicians1 or ,philistines1 having informed them that they could deliver themselves from the scourge only by giving to the ,lord five golden mice and five golden emeroids1 and sending him back the ,jewish ,ark1 they fulfilled this order1 and1 according to the express command of their prophets sent back the ,ark with the mice and emeroids on a wagon drawn by two cows1 with each a sucking calf and without a driver4 ,these two cows of themselves took the ,ark straight to ,bethshemesh4 ,the men of ,bethshemesh approached the ,ark in order to look at it1 which liberty was punished yet more severely than the profanation by the ,phnicians had been4 ,the ,lord struck with sudden death seventy men of the people1 and fifty thousand of the populace4 ,the reverend ,doctor ,kennicott1 an ,irishman1 printed in #agfh a ,french commentary on this occurrence and dedicated it to the bishop of ,oxford4 ,at the head of this commentary he entitles himself ,doctor of ,divinity1 member of the ,royal ,society of ,london1 of the ,palatine ,academy1 of the ,academy of ,gttingen1 and of the ,academy of ,inscriptions at ,paris4 ,all that ,i know of the matter is that he is not of the ,academy of ,inscriptions at ,paris4 ,perhaps he is one of its correspondents4 ,his vast erudition may have deceived him1 but titles are distinct from things4 ,he informs the public that his pamphlet is sold at ,paris by ,saillant and ,molini1 at ,rome by ,monaldini1 at ,venice by ,pasquali1 at ,florence by ,cambiagi1 at ,amsterdam by ,marc-,michel ,rey1 at ,the ,hague by ,gosse1 at ,leyden by ,jaquau1 and in ,london by ,beckett1 who receives subscriptions4 ,in this pamphlet he pretends to prove that the ,scripture text has been corrupted4 ,here we must be permitted to differ with him4 ,nearly all ,bibles agree in these expressions3 seventy men of the people and fifty thousand of the populace--,de populo septuaginta viros1 et quinquaginta millia plebis4 ,the reverend ,doctor ,kennicott says to the right reverend the lord bishop of ,oxford that formerly there were strong prejudices in favor of the ,hebrew text1 but that for seventeen years his lordship and himself have been freed from their prejudices1 after the deliberate and attentive perusal of this chapter4 ,in this we differ from ,dr4 ,kennicott1 and the more we read this chapter the more we reverence the ways of the ,lord1 which are not our ways4 ,it is impossible1 says ,kennicott1 for the candid reader not to feel astonished and affected at the contemplation of fifty thousand men destroyed in one village--men1 too1 employed in gathering the harvest4 ,this does1 it is true1 suppose a hundred thousand persons1 at least1 in that village1 but should the doctor forget that the ,lord had promised ,abraham that his posterity should be as numerous as the sands of the sea8 ,the ,jews and the ,christians1 adds he1 have not scrupled to express their repugnance to attach faith to this destruction of fifty thousand and seventy men4 ,we answer that we are ,christians and have no repugnance to attach faith to whatever is in the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,we answer1 with the reverend ,father ,calmet1 that if we were to reject whatever is extraordinary and beyond the reach of our conception we must reject the whole ,bible4 ,we are persuaded that the ,jews1 being under the guidance of ,god himself1 could experience no events but such as were stamped with the seal of the ,divinity and quite different from what happened to other men4 ,we will even venture to advance that the death of these fifty thousand and seventy men is one of the least surprising things in the ,old ,testament4 ,we are struck with astonishment still more reverential when ,eve's serpent and ,balaam's ass talk2 when the waters of the cataracts are swelled by rain fifteen cubits above all the mountains2 when we behold the plagues of ,egypt1 and the six hundred and thirty thousand fighting ,jews flying on foot through the divided and suspended sea2 when ,joshua stops the sun and moon at noonday2 when ,samson slays a thousand ,philistines with the jaw-bone of an ass4444 ,in those divine times all was miracle1 without exception1 and we have the profoundest reverence for all these miracles--for that ancient world which was not our world2 for that nature which was not our nature2 for a divine book1 in which there can be nothing human4 ,but we are astonished at the liberty which ,dr4 ,kennicott takes of calling those deists and atheists1 who1 while they revere the ,bible more than he does1 differ from him in opinion4 ,never will it be believed that a man with such ideas is of the ,academy of ,medals and ,inscriptions4 ,he is1 perhaps1 of the ,academy of ,bedlam1 the most ancient of all1 and whose colonies extend throughout the earth4 ,,bilhah--,,bastards ,bilhah1 servant to ,rachel1 and ,zilpah1 servant to ,leah1 each bore the patriarch ,jacob two children1 and1 be it observed1 that they inherited like legitimate sons1 as well as the eight other male children whom ,jacob had by the two sisters ,leah and ,rachel4 ,it is true that all their inheritance consisted in a blessing2 whereas1 ,william the ,bastard inherited ,normandy4 ,thierri1 a bastard of ,clovis1 inherited the best part of ,gaul1 invaded by his father4 ,several kings of ,spain and ,naples have been bastards4 ,in ,spain bastards have always inherited4 ,king ,henry of ,transtamare was not considered as an illegitimate king1 though he was an illegitimate child1 and this race of bastards1 founded in the house of ,austria1 reigned in ,spain until ,philip ,v4 ,the line of ,aragon1 who reigned in ,naples in the time of ,louis ,,xii41 were bastards4 ,count de ,dunois signed himself the bastard of ,orleans1 and letters were long preserved of the duke of ,normandy1 king of ,england1 which were signed ,william the ,bastard4 ,in ,germany it is otherwise2 the descent must be pure2 bastards never inherit fiefs1 nor have any estate4 ,in ,france1 as has long been the case1 a king's bastard cannot be a priest without a dispensation from ,rome1 but he becomes a prince without any difficulty as soon as the king acknowledges him to be the offspring of his sire1 even though he be the bastard of an adulterous father and mother4 ,it is the same in ,spain4 ,the bastard of a king of ,england may be a duke but not a prince4 ,jacob's bastards were neither princes nor dukes2 they had no lands1 the reason being that their father had none1 but they were afterwards called patriarchs1 which may be rendered arch-fathers4 ,it has been asked whether the bastards of the popes might be popes in turn4 ,pope ,john ,,xi4 was1 it is true1 a bastard of ,pope ,sergius ,,iii41 and of the famous ,marozia2 but an instance is not a law4 ,,bishop4 ,samuel ,ornik1 a native of ,basle1 was1 as is well known1 a very amiable young man1 who1 moreover1 knew his ,german and ,greek ,new ,testament by heart4 ,at the age of twenty his parents sent him to travel4 ,he was commissioned to carry books to the coadjutor at ,paris in the time of the ,fronde4 ,he arrived at the archbishop's gate and was told by the ,swiss that monseigneur saw no one4 ,my dear fellow1 said ,ornik1 you are very rude to your countrymen2 the apostles allowed every one to approach1 and ,jesus ,christ desired that little children should come unto him4 ,i have nothing to ask of your master2 on the contrary1 ,i bring him something4 ,enter1 then1 said the ,swiss4 ,he waited an hour in the first ante-chamber4 ,being quite artless he attacked with questions a domestic who was very fond of telling all he knew about his master4 ,he must be pretty rich1 said ,ornik1 to have such a swarm of pages and footmen running in and out of the house4 ,i don't know1 answered the other1 what his income is1 but ,i hear ,joli and the ,abb ,charier say that he is two millions in debt4 ,but who is that lady who came out of a cabinet and is passing by8 ,that is ,madame de ,pomereu1 one of his mistresses4 ,she is really very pretty1 but ,i have not read that the apostles had such company in their bedchambers in a morning4 ,ah6 that1 ,i believe1 is monsieur1 about to give audience4 ,say sa grandeur1 monseigneur4 ,well1 with all my heart4444 ,ornik saluted sa grandeur1 presented his books1 and was received with a most gracious smile4 ,sa grandeur said three words to him1 and stepped into his carriage1 escorted by fifty horsemen4 ,in stepping in1 monseigneur dropped a sheath and ,ornik was astonished that monseigneur should carry so large an inkhorn4 ,do you not see1 said the talker1 that it is his dagger8 every one that goes to parliament wears his dagger8 ,ornik uttered an exclamation of astonishment1 and departed4 ,he went through ,france and was edified by town after town4 ,from thence he passed into ,italy4 ,in the papal territories he met a bishop with an income of only a thousand crowns1 who went on foot4 ,ornik1 being naturally kind1 offered him a place in his cambiatura4 ,signor1 you are no doubt going to comfort the sick8 ,sir1 ,i am going to my master4 ,your master8 ,he1 no doubt1 is ,jesus ,christ4 ,sir1 he is ,cardinal ,azolino2 ,i am his almoner4 ,he gives me a very poor salary1 but he has promised to place me with ,donna ,olimpia1 the favorite sister-in-law of nostro signore4 ,what6 are you in the pay of a cardinal8 ,but do you not know that there were no cardinals in the time of ,jesus ,christ and ,st4 ,john8 ,is it possible6 exclaimed the ,italian prelate4 ,nothing is more true2 you have read it in the ,gospel4 ,i have never read it1 replied the bishop2 ,i know only the office of ,our ,lady4 ,i tell you there were neither cardinals nor bishops1 and when there were bishops the priests were almost their equals1 as ,st4 ,jerome1 in several places1 assures us4 ,holy ,virgin said the ,italian1 ,i knew nothing about it2 and what of the popes8 ,there were no popes either4 ,the good bishop crossed himself1 thinking he was with the evil one1 and leaped from the side of his companion4 ,,blasphemy4 ,this is a ,greek word signifying an attack on reputation4 ,we find blasphemia in ,demosthenes4 ,in the ,greek ,church it was used only to express an injury done to ,god4 ,the ,romans never made use of this expression1 apparently not thinking that ,god's honor could be offended like that of men4 ,there scarcely exists one synonym4 ,blasphemy does not altogether convey the idea of sacrilege4 ,we say of a man who has taken ,god's name in vain1 who1 in the violence of anger1 has sworn--as it is expressed--by the name of ,god1 that he has blasphemed2 but we do not say that he has committed sacrilege4 ,the sacrilegious man is he who perjures himself on the gospel1 who extends his rapacity to sacred things1 who imbrues his hands in the blood of priests4 ,great sacrileges have always been punished with death in all nations1 especially those accompanied by bloodshed4 ,the author of the ,institutes au ,droit ,criminel reckons among divine high treasons in the second degree1 the non-observance of ,sundays and holidays4 ,he should have said the non-observance attended with marked contempt1 for simple negligence is a sin1 but not1 as he calls it1 a sacrilege4 ,it is absurd to class together1 as this author does1 simony1 the carrying off of a nun1 and the forgetting to go to vespers on a holiday4 ,it is one great instance of the errors committed by writers on jurisprudence1 who1 not having been called upon to make laws1 take upon themselves to interpret those of the state4 ,blasphemies uttered in intoxication1 in anger1 in the excess of debauchery1 or in the heat of unguarded conversation have been subjected by legislators to much lighter penalties4 ,for instance1 the advocate whom we have already cited says that the laws of ,france condemn simple blasphemers to a fine for the first offence1 which is doubled for the second1 tripled for the third1 and quadrupled for the fourth offence2 for the fifth relapse the culprit is set in the pillory1 for the sixth relapse he is pilloried1 and has his upper lip burned off with a hot iron1 and for the seventh he loses his tongue4 ,he should have added that this was an ordinance of the year #afff4 ,punishments are almost always arbitrary1 which is a great defect in jurisprudence4 ,but this defect opens the way for clemency and compassion1 and this compassion is no other than the strictest justice1 for it would be horrible to punish a youthful indiscretion as poisoners and parricides are punished4 ,a sentence of death for an offence which deserves nothing more than correction is no other than an assassination committed with the sword of justice4 ,is it not to the purpose here to remark that what has been blasphemy in one country has often been piety in another8 ,suppose a ,tyrian merchant landed at the port of ,canope3 he might be scandalized on seeing an onion1 a cat1 or a goat carried in procession2 he might speak indecorously of ,isheth1 ,oshireth1 and ,horeth1 or might turn aside his head and not fall on his knees at the sight of a procession with the parts of human generation larger than life2 he might express his opinion at supper1 or even sing some song in which the ,tyrian sailors made a jest of the ,egyptian absurdities4 ,he might be overheard by the maid of the inn1 whose conscience would not suffer her to conceal so enormous a crime2 she would run and denounce the offender to the nearest shoen that bore the image of the truth on his breast1 and it is known how this image of truth was made4 ,the tribunal of the shoens1 or shotim1 would condemn the ,tyrian blasphemer to a dreadful death1 and confiscate his vessel4 ,yet this merchant might be considered at ,tyre as one of the most pious persons in ,phnicia4 ,numa sees that his little horde of ,romans is a ,collection of ,latin freebooters who steal right and left all they can find--oxen1 sheep1 fowls1 and girls4 ,he tells them that he has spoken with the nymph ,egeria in a cavern1 and that the nymph has been employed by ,jupiter to give him laws4 ,the senators treat him at first as a blasphemer and threaten to throw him headlong from the ,tarpeian rock4 ,numa makes himself a powerful party2 he gains over some seniors who go with him into ,egeria's grotto4 ,she talks to them and converts them2 they convert the senate and the people4 ,in a little time ,numa is no longer a blasphemer1 the name is given only to such as doubt the existence of the nymph4 ,in our own times it is unfortunate that what is blasphemy at ,rome1 at our ,lady of ,loretto1 and within the walls of ,san ,gennaro1 is piety in ,london1 ,amsterdam1 ,stockholm1 ,berlin1 ,copenhagen1 ,berne1 ,basel1 and ,hamburg4 ,it is yet more unfortunate that even in the same country1 in the same town1 in the same street1 people treat one another as blasphemers4 ,nay1 of the ten thousand ,jews living at ,rome there is not one who does not regard the pope as the chief of the blasphemers1 while the hundred thousand ,christians who inhabit ,rome1 in place of two millions of ,jovians who filled it in ,trajan's time1 firmly believe that the ,jews meet in their synagogues on ,saturday for the purpose of blaspheming4 ,a ,cordelier has no hesitation in applying the epithet of blasphemer to a ,dominican who says that the ,holy ,virgin was born in original sin1 notwithstanding that the ,dominicans have a bull from the pope which permits them to teach the maculate conception in their convents1 and that1 besides this bull1 they have in their forum the express declaration of ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas4 ,the first origin of the schism of three-fourths of ,switzerland and a part of ,lower ,germany was a quarrel in the cathedral church of ,frankfort between a ,cordelier1 whose name ,i forget1 and a ,dominican named ,vigand4 ,both were drunk1 according to the custom of that day4 ,the drunken ,cordelier1 who was preaching1 thanked ,god that he was not a ,jacobin1 swearing that it was necessary to exterminate the blaspheming ,jacobins who believed that the ,holy ,virgin had been born in mortal sin1 and delivered from sin only by the merits of her son4 ,the drunken ,jacobin cried out3 ,thou hast lied2 thou thyself art a blasphemer4 ,the ,cordelier descended from the pulpit with a great iron crucifix in his hand1 laid it about his adversary1 and left him almost dead on the spot4 ,to revenge this outrage the ,dominicans worked many miracles in ,germany and ,switzerland2 these miracles were designed to prove their faith4 ,they at length found means to imprint the marks of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ on one of their lay brethren named ,jetzer4 ,this operation was performed at ,berne by the ,holy ,virgin herself1 but she borrowed the hand of the sub-prior1 who dressed himself in female attire and put a glory round his head4 ,the poor little lay brother1 exposed all bloody to the veneration of the people on the altar of the ,dominicans at ,berne1 at last cried out murder6 sacrilege6 ,the monks1 in order to quiet him as quickly as possible administered to him a host sprinkled with corrosive sublimate1 but the excess of the dose made him discharge the host from his stomach4 ,the monks then accused him to the bishop of ,lausanne of horrible sacrilege4 ,the indignant people of ,berne in their turn accused the monks1 and four of them were burned at ,berne on the #acth of ,may1 #aeji1 at the ,marsilly gate4 ,such was the termination of this abominable affair1 which determined the people of ,berne to choose a religion1 bad indeed in ,catholic eyes1 but which delivered them from the ,cordeliers and the ,jacobins4 ,the number of similar sacrileges is incredible4 ,such are the effects of party spirit4 ,the ,jesuits maintained for a hundred years that the ,jansenists were blasphemers1 and proved it by a thousand lettres-de-cachet2 the ,jansenists by upwards of four thousand volumes demonstrated that it was the ,jesuits who blasphemed4 ,the writer of the ,gazettes ,ecclsiastiques pretends that all honest men blaspheme against him1 while he himself blasphemes from his garret on high against every honest man in the kingdom4 ,the gazette-writer's publisher blasphemes in return and complains that he is starving4 ,he would find it better to be honest and polite4 ,one thing equally remarkable and consoling is that never in any country of the earth1 among the wildest idolaters1 has any man been considered as a blasphemer for acknowledging one supreme1 eternal1 and all-powerful ,god4 ,it certainly was not for having acknowledged this truth that ,socrates was condemned to the hemlock1 for the doctrine of a ,supreme ,god was announced in all the ,grecian mysteries4 ,it was a faction that destroyed ,socrates2 he was accused1 at a venture1 of not recognizing the secondary gods1 and on this point it was that he was accused as a blasphemer4 ,the first ,christians were accused of blasphemy for the same reason1 but the partisans of the ancient religion of the empire1 the ,jovians1 who reproached the primitive ,christians with blasphemy1 were at length condemned as blasphemers themselves1 under ,theodosius ,,ii4 ,dryden says3 ,this side to-day1 to-morrow t'other burns1 ,and they're all ,gods ,almighty in their turns4 ,,body4 ,body and matter are here the same thing although there is hardly any such thing as synonym in the most rigorous sense of the word4 ,there have been persons who by this word body have understood spirit also4 ,they have said spirit originally signifies breath2 only a body can breathe1 therefore body and spirit may1 after all1 be the same thing4 ,in this sense ,la ,fontaine said to the celebrated ,duke de la ,rochefoucauld3 ,j'entens les esprits corps et ptris de matire4 ,in the same sense he says to ,madame ,sablire3 ,je subtiliserais un morceau de matire1 ,quintessence d'atome1 extrait de la lumire1 je ne sais quoiplus vif et plus subtil encor4444 ,no one thought of harassing good ,monsieur ,la ,fontaine1 or bringing him to trial for his expressions4 ,were a poor philosopher1 or even a poet1 to say as much nowadays1 how many would there be to fall on him6 ,how many scribblers to sell their extracts for sixpence6 ,how many knaves1 for the sole purpose of making mischief1 to cry philosopher6 peripatetic6 disciple of ,gassendi6 pupil of ,locke1 and the primitive fathers6 damnable6 ,as we know not what a spirit is1 so also we are ignorant of what a body is2 we see various properties1 but what is the subject in which those properties reside8 ,there is nothing but body1 said ,democritus and ,epicurus2 there is no such thing as body1 said the disciples of ,zeno1 of ,elia4 ,berkeley1 bishop of ,cloyne1 is the last who1 by a hundred captious sophisms1 has pretended to prove that bodies do not exist4 ,they have1 says he1 neither color1 nor smell1 nor heat2 all these modalities are in your sensations1 not in the objects4 ,he might have spared himself the trouble of proving this truth for it was already sufficiently known4 ,but thence he passed to extent and solidity1 which are essential to body1 and thinks he proves that there is no extent in a piece of green cloth because the cloth is not in reality green1 the sensation of green being in ourselves only1 therefore the sensation of extent is likewise in ourselves only4 ,having thus destroyed extent he concludes that solidity1 which is attached to it1 falls of itself1 and therefore that there is nothing in the world but our ideas4 ,so that1 according to this doctor1 ten thousand men killed by ten thousand cannon shots are in reality nothing more than ten thousand apprehensions of our understanding1 and when a female becomes pregnant it is only one idea lodged in another idea from which a third idea will be produced4 ,surely1 the bishop of ,cloyne might have saved himself from falling into this excessive absurdity4 ,he thinks he shows that there is no extent because a body has appeared to him four times as large through a glass as to his naked eye1 and four times as small through another glass4 ,hence he concludes1 that1 since a body cannot be at the same time four feet1 sixteen feet1 and but one foot in extent1 there is no extent1 therefore there is nothing4 ,he had only to take any measure and say3 of whatever extent this body may appear to me to be1 it extends to so many of these measures4 ,we might very easily see that extent and solidity were quite different from sound1 color1 taste1 smell4 ,it is quite clear that these are sensations excited in us by the configuration of parts1 but extent is not a sensation4 ,when this lighted coal goes out1 ,i am no longer warm2 when the air is no longer struck1 ,i cease to hear2 when this rose withers1 ,i no longer smell it3 but the coal1 the air1 and the rose have extent without me4 ,berkeley's paradox is not worth refuting4 ,thus argued ,zeno and ,parmenides of old1 and very clever they were2 they would prove to you that a tortoise went along as swiftly as ,achilles1 for there was no such thing as motion2 they discussed a hundred other questions equally important4 ,most of the ,greeks made philosophy a juggle1 and they transmitted their art to our schoolmen4 ,bayle himself was occasionally one of the set and embroidered cobwebs like the rest4 ,in his article1 ,zeno1 against the divisible extent of matter and the contiguity of bodies he ventures to say what would not be tolerated in any six-months geometrician4 ,it is worth knowing how ,berkeley was drawn into this paradox4 ,a long while ago ,i had some conversation with him1 and he told me that his opinion originated in our being unable to conceive what the subject of this extension is1 and certainly1 in his book1 he triumphs when he asks ,hylas what this subject1 this substratum1 this substance is8 ,it is the extended body1 answers ,hylas4 ,then the bishop1 under the name of ,philonous1 laughs at him1 and poor ,hylas1 finding that he has said that extension is the subject of extension1 and has therefore talked nonsense1 remains quite confused1 acknowledges that he understands nothing at all of the matter2 that there is no such thing as body2 that the natural world does not exist1 and that there is none but an intellectual world4 ,hylas should only have said to ,philonous3 ,we know nothing of the subject of this extension1 solidity1 divisibility1 mobility1 figure1 etc42 ,i know no more of it than ,i do of the subject of thought1 feeling1 and will1 but the subject does not the less exist for it has essential properties of which it cannot be deprived4 ,we all resemble the greater part of the ,parisian ladies who live well without knowing what is put in their ragouts2 just so do we enjoy bodies without knowing of what they are composed4 ,of what does a body consist8 ,of parts1 and these parts resolve themselves into other parts4 ,what are these last parts8 ,they1 too1 are bodies2 you divide incessantly without making any progress4 ,in short1 a subtle philosopher1 observing that a picture was made of ingredients of which no single ingredient was a picture1 and a house of materials of which no one material was a house1 imagined that bodies are composed of an infinity of small things which are not bodies1 and these are called monads4 ,this system is not without its merits1 and1 were it revealed1 ,i should think it very possible4 ,these little beings would be so many mathematical points1 a sort of souls1 waiting only for a tenement3 here would be a continual metempsychosis4 ,this system is as good as another2 ,i like it quite as well as the declination of atoms1 the substantial forms1 the versatile grace1 or the vampires4 ,,books4 ,,section ,i4 ,you despise books2 you1 whose lives are absorbed in the vanities of ambition1 the pursuit of pleasure1 or in indolence1 but remember that all the known world1 excepting only savage nations1 is governed by books4 ,all ,africa1 to the limits of ,ethiopia and ,nigritia obeys the book of the ,koran after bowing to the book of the ,gospel4 ,china is ruled by the moral book of ,confucius1 and a great part of ,india by the ,veda4 ,persia was governed for ages by the books of one of the ,zoroasters4 ,in a lawsuit or criminal process1 your property1 your honor1 perhaps your life1 depends on the interpretation of a book which you never read4 ,it is1 however1 with books as with men1 a very small number play a great part1 the rest are confounded with the multitude4 ,by whom are mankind led in all civilized countries8 ,by those who can read and write4 ,you are acquainted with neither ,hippocrates1 nor ,boerhaave1 nor ,sydenham1 but you place your body in the hands of those who can read them4 ,you leave your soul entirely to the care of those who are paid for reading the ,bible1 although there are not fifty of them who have read it through with attention4 ,the world is now so entirely governed by books that they who command in the city of the ,scipios and the ,catos have resolved that the books of their law shall be for themselves alone2 they are their sceptre1 which they have made it high treason in their subjects to touch without an express permission4 ,in other countries it has been forbidden to think in print without letters-patent4 ,there are nations in which thought is considered merely as an article of commerce1 the operations of the human understanding being valued only at so much per sheet4 ,if the bookseller happens to desire a privilege for his merchandise whether he is selling ,rabelais1 or the ,fathers of the ,church1 the magistrate grants the privilege without answering for the contents of the book4 ,in another country the liberty of explaining yourself by books is one of the most inviolable prerogatives4 ,there you may print whatever you please1 on pain of being tiresome1 and of being punished if you have too much abused your natural right4 ,before the admirable invention of printing1 books were scarcer and dearer than jewels4 ,there were scarcely any books in our barbarous nations1 either before ,charlemagne or after him1 until the time of ,charles ,v41 king of ,france1 called the ,wise1 and from this time to ,francis ,i4 the scarcity was extreme4 ,the ,arabs alone had them from the eighth to the thirteenth century of our era4 ,china was full of them when we could neither read nor write4 ,copyists were much employed in the ,roman ,empire from the time of the ,scipios until the irruption of the barbarians4 ,this was a very ungrateful employment4 ,the dealers always paid authors and copyists very ill4 ,it required two years of assiduous labor for a copyist to transcribe the whole ,bible well on vellum1 and what time and trouble to copy correctly in ,greek and ,latin the works of ,origen1 ,clement of ,alexandria and all the others writers called ,fathers6 ,st4 ,hieronymos1 or ,hieronymus1 whom we call ,jerome1 says1 in one of his satirical letters against ,rufinus that he has ruined himself with buying the works of ,origen1 against whom he wrote with so much bitterness and violence4 ,yes1 says he1 ,i have read ,origen1 if it be a crime ,i confess that ,i am guilty and that ,i exhausted my purse in buying his works at ,alexandria4 ,the ,christian societies of the three first centuries had fifty-four gospels1 of which1 until ,diocletian's time scarcely two or three copies found their way among the ,romans of the old religion4 ,among the ,christians it was an unpardonable crime to show the gospels to the ,gentiles2 they did not even lend them to the catechumens4 ,when ,lucian 7insulting our religion of which he knew very little7 relates that a troop of beggars took him up into a fourth story where they were invoking the ,father through the ,son1 and foretelling misfortunes to the emperor and the empire1 he does not say that they showed him a single book4 ,no ,roman historian1 no ,roman author whomsoever makes mention of the gospels4 ,when a ,christian1 who was unfortunately rash and unworthy of his holy religion had publicly torn in pieces and trampled under foot an edict of the ,emperor ,diocletian1 and had thus drawn down upon ,christianity that persecution which succeeded the greatest toleration1 the ,christians were then obliged to give up their gospels and written authors to the magistrates1 which before then had never been done4 ,those who gave up their books through fear of imprisonment1 or even of death1 were held by the rest of the ,christians to be sacrilegious apostates1 they received the surname of traditores1 whence we have the word traitor1 and several bishops asserted that they should be rebaptized1 which occasioned a dreadful schism4 ,the poems of ,homer were long so little known that ,pisistratus was the first who put them in order and had them transcribed at ,athens about five hundred years before the ,christian era4 ,perhaps there was not at this time in all the ,east a dozen copies of the ,veda and the ,zend-,avesta4 ,in #agjj you would not have found a single book in all ,rome1 excepting the missals and a few ,bibles in the hands of papas drunk with brandy4 ,the complaint now is of their too great abundance4 ,but it is not for readers to complain1 the remedy is in their own hands2 nothing forces them to read4 ,nor for authors1 they who make the multitude of books have not to complain of being pressed4 ,notwithstanding this enormous quantity how few people read6 ,but if they read1 and read with advantage1 should we have to witness the deplorable infatuations to which the vulgar are still every day a prey8 ,the reason that books are multiplied in spite of the general law that beings shall not be multiplied without necessity1 is that books are made from books4 ,a new history of ,france or ,spain is manufactured from several volumes already printed1 without adding anything new4 ,all dictionaries are made from dictionaries2 almost all new geographical books are made from other books of geography2 ,st4 ,thomas's ,dream has brought forth two thousand large volumes of divinity1 and the same race of little worms that have devoured the parent are now gnawing the children4 crive qui voudra1 chacun a son mtier ,peut perdre impunment de l'encre et du papier4 ,write1 write away2 each writer at his pleasure ,may squander ink and paper without measure4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,it is sometimes very dangerous to make a book4 ,silhoute1 before he could suspect that he should one day be comptroller-general of the finances1 published a translation of ,warburton's ,alliance of ,church and ,state1 and his father-in-law1 ,astuce the physician1 gave to the public the ,memoirs1 in which the author of the ,pentateuch might have found all the astonishing things which happened so long before his time4 ,the very day that ,silhoute came into office1 some good friend of his sought out a copy of each of these books by the father-in-law and son-in-law1 in order to denounce them to the parliament and have them condemned to the flames1 according to custom4 ,they immediately bought up all the copies in the kingdom1 whence it is that they are now extremely rare4 ,there is hardly a single philosophical or theological book in which heresies and impieties may not be found by misinterpreting1 or adding to1 or subtracting from1 the sense4 ,theodore of ,mopsuestes ventured to call the ,canticle of ,canticles1 a collection of impurities4 ,grotius pulls it in pieces and represents it as horrid1 and ,chatillon speaks of it as a scandalous production4 ,perhaps it will hardly be believed that ,dr4 ,tamponet one day said to several others3 ,i would engage to find a multitude of heresies in the ,lord's ,prayer if this prayer1 which we know to have come from the ,divine mouth1 were now for the first time published by a ,jesuit4 ,i would proceed thus3 ,our ,father1 who art in heaven-- a proposition inclining to heresy1 since ,god is everywhere4 ,nay1 we find in this expression the leaven of ,socinianism1 for here is nothing at all said of the ,trinity4 ,thy kingdom come2 thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven-- another proposition tainted with heresy1 for it said again and again in the ,scriptures that ,god reigns eternally4 ,moreover it is very rash to ask that ,his will may be done1 since nothing is or can be done but by the will of ,god4 ,give us this day our daily bread--a proposition directly contrary to what ,jesus ,christ uttered on another occasion3 ,take no thought1 saying what shall we eat8 or what shall we drink8444 for after all these things do the ,gentiles seek4444 ,but seek ye first the kingdom of ,god and ,his righteousness1 and all these things shall be added unto you4 ,and forgive us our debts1 as we forgive our debtors-- a rash proposition1 which compares man to ,god1 destroys gratuitous predestination1 and teaches that ,god is bound to do to us as we do to others4 ,besides1 how can the author say that we forgive our debtors8 ,we have never forgiven them a single crown4 ,no convent in ,europe ever remitted to its farmers the payment of a sou4 ,to dare to say the contrary is a formal heresy4 ,lead us not into temptation-- a proposition scandalous and manifestly heretical1 for there is no tempter but the devil1 and it is expressly said in ,st4 ,james' ,epistle3 ,god is no tempter of the wicked2 ,he tempts no man4--,deus enim intentator malorum est2 ipse autem neminem tentat4 ,you see1 then1 said ,doctor ,tamponet1 that there is nothing1 though ever so venerable1 to which a bad sense may not be given4 ,what book1 then1 shall not be liable to human censure when even the ,lord's ,prayer may be attacked1 by giving a diabolical interpretation to all the divine words that compose it8 ,as for me1 ,i tremble at the thought of making a book4 ,thank ,god1 ,i have never published anything2 ,i have not even--like brothers ,la ,rue1 ,du ,ceveau1 and ,folard--had any of my theatrical pieces played1 it would be too dangerous4 ,if you publish1 a parish curate accuses you of heresy2 a stupid collegian denounces you2 a fellow that cannot read condemns you2 the public laugh at you2 your bookseller abandons you1 and your wine merchant gives you no more credit4 ,i always add to my paternoster1 ,deliver me1 ,o ,god1 from the itch of bookmaking4 ,o ye who1 like myself1 lay black on white and make clean paper dirty6 call to mind the following verses which ,i remember to have read1 and by which we should have been corrected3 ,tout ce fatras fat du chauvre en son temps1 ,linge il devint par l'art des tisserands2 ,puis en lambeaux des pilons le pressrent ,il fut papier4 ,cent cerveaux l'envers ,de visions l'envi le chargrent2 ,puis on le brle2 il vole dans les airs1 ,il est fume aussi bien que la gloire4 ,de nos travaux voil quelle est l'histoire1 ,tout est fume1 et tout nous fait sentir ,ce grand nant qui doit nous engloutir4 ,this miscellaneous rubbish once was flax1 ,till made soft linen by the honest weaver2 ,but when at length it dropped from people's backs1 ',twas turned to paper1 and became receiver ,of all that fifty motley brains could fashion2 ,so now 'tis burned without the least compassion2 ,it now1 like glory1 terminates in smoke2 ,thus all our toils are nothing but a joke-- ,all ends in smoke2 each nothing that we follow ,tells of the nothing that must all things swallow4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,books are now multiplied to such a degree that it is impossible not only to read them all but even to know their number and their titles4 ,happily1 one is not obliged to read all that is published1 and ,caramuel's plan for writing a hundred folio volumes and employing the spiritual and temporal power of princes to compel their subjects to read them1 has not been put in execution4 ,ringelburg1 too1 had formed the design of composing about a thousand different volumes1 but1 even had he lived long enough to publish them he would have fallen far short of ,hermes ,trismegistus1 who1 according to ,jamblicus1 composed thirty-six thousand five hundred and twenty-five books4 ,supposing the truth of this fact1 the ancients had no less reason than the moderns to complain of the multitude of books4 ,it is1 indeed1 generally agreed that a small number of choice books is sufficient4 ,some propose that we should confine ourselves to the ,bible or ,holy ,scriptures1 as the ,turks limit themselves to the ,koran4 ,but there is a great difference between the feelings of reverence entertained by the ,mahometans for their ,koran and those of the ,christians for the ,scriptures4 ,the veneration testified by the former when speaking of the ,koran cannot be exceeded4 ,it is1 say they1 the greatest of all miracles2 nor are all the men in existence put together capable of anything at all approaching it2 it is still more wonderful that the author had never studied1 nor read any book4 ,the ,koran alone is worth sixty thousand miracles 7the number of its verses1 or thereabouts72 one rising from the dead would not be a stronger proof of the truth of a religion than the composition of the ,koran4 ,it is so perfect that it ought not to be regarded as a work of creation4 ,the ,christians do indeed say that their ,scriptures were inspired by the ,holy ,ghost1 yet not only is it acknowledged by ,cardinal ,cajetan and ,bellarmine that errors have found their way into them through the negligence and ignorance of the book-sellers and the rabbis1 who added the points1 but they are considered as a book too dangerous for the hands of the majority of the faithful4 ,this is expressed by the fifth rule of the ,index1 a congregation at ,rome1 whose office it is to examine what books are to be forbidden4 ,it is as follows3 ,since it is evident that if the reading of the ,bible1 translated into the vulgar tongue1 were permitted to every one indiscriminately the temerity of mankind would cause more evil than good to arise therefrom--we will that it be referred to the judgment of the bishop or inquisitor1 who1 with the advice of the curate or confessor1 shall have power to grant permission to read the ,bible rendered in the vulgar tongue by ,catholic writers1 to those to whom they shall judge that such reading will do no harm2 they must have this permission in writing and shall not be absolved until they have returned their ,bible into the hands of the ordinary4 ,as for such book-sellers as shall sell ,bibles in the vulgar tongue to those who have not this written permission1 or in any other way put them into their hands1 they shall lose the price of the books 7which the bishop shall employ for pious purposes71 and shall moreover be punished by arbitrary penalties4 ,nor shall regulars read or buy these books without the permission of their superiors4 ,cardinal ,duperron also asserted that the ,scriptures1 in the hands of the unlearned1 were a two-edged knife which might wound them1 to avoid which it was better that they should hear them from the mouth of the ,church1 with the solutions and interpretations of such passages as appear to the senses to be full of absurdity and contradiction1 than that they should read them by themselves without any solution or interpretation4 ,he afterwards made a long enumeration of these absurdities in terms so unqualified that ,jurieu was not afraid to declare that he did not remember to have read anything so frightful or so scandalous in any ,christian author4 ,jurieu1 who was so violent t in his invectives against ,cardinal ,duperron1 had himself to sustain similar reproaches from the ,catholics4 ,i heard that minister1 says ,pap1 in speaking of him1 teaching the public that all the characteristics of the ,holy ,scriptures on which those pretended reformers had founded their persuasion of their divinity1 did not appear to him to be sufficient4 ',let it not be inferred1' said ,jurieu1 'that ,i wish to take from the light and strength of the characteristics of ,scripture1 but ,i will venture to affirm that there is not one of them which may not be eluded by the profane4 ,there is not one of them that amounts to a proof2 not one to which something may not be said in answer1 and1 considered altogether1 although they have greater power than separately to work a moral conviction--that is1 a proof on which to found a certainty excluding every doubt--,i own that nothing seems to me to be more opposed to reason than to say that these characteristics are of themselves capable of producing such a certainty4 ,it is not then astonishing that the ,jews and the first ,christians1 who1 we find in the ,acts of the ,apostles1 confined themselves in their meetings to the reading of the ,bible1 were1 as will be seen in the article ,heresy1 divided into different sects4 ,for this reading was afterwards substituted that of various apocryphal works1 or at least of extracts from them4 ,the author of the ,synopsis of ,scripture1 which we find among the works of ,st4 ,athanasius1 expressly avows that there are in the apocryphal books things most true and inspired by ,god which have been selected and extracted for the perusal of the faithful4 ,,bourges4 ,our questions have but little to do with geography1 but we shall1 perhaps1 be permitted to express in a few words our astonishment respecting the town of ,bourges4 ,the ,trvoux ,dictionary asserts that it is one of the most ancient in ,europe2 that it was the seat of empire of the ,gauls1 and gave laws to the ,celts4 ,i will not combat the antiquity of any town or of any family4 ,but was there ever an empire of ,gaul8 had the ,celts kings8 ,this rage for antiquity is a malady which is not easily cured4 ,in ,gaul1 in ,germany1 and in the ,north there is nothing ancient but the soil1 the trees1 and the animals4 ,if you will have antiquities go to ,asia1 and even there they are hardly to be found4 ,man is ancient1 but monuments are new2 this has already been said in more articles than one4 ,if to be born within a certain stone or wooden limit more ancient than another were a real good it would be no more than reasonable to date the foundation of the town from the giants' war1 but since this vanity is in no wise advantageous let it be renounced4 ,this is all ,i have to say about ,bourges4 ,,brachmans--,,brahmins4 ,courteous reader1 observe1 in the first place1 that ,father ,thomassin1 one of the most learned men of modern ,europe1 derives the ,brachmans from the ,jewish word barac1 by a c--supposing1 of course1 that the ,jews had a c4 ,this barac1 says he1 signified to fly2 and the ,brachmans fled from the towns--supposing that there were any towns4 ,or1 if you like it better1 ,brachmans comes from barak by a k1 meaning to bless or to pray4 ,but why might not the ,biscayans name the ,brahmins from the word bran8 which expresses--,i will not say what4 ,they had as good a right as the ,hebrews4 ,really1 this is a strange sort of erudition4 ,by rejecting it entirely1 we should know less1 but we should know it better4 ,is it not likely that the ,brahmins were the first legislators1 the first philosophers1 the first divines1 of the earth8 ,do not the few remaining monuments of ancient history form a great presumption in their favor8 since the first ,greek philosophers went to them to learn mathematics2 and the most ancient curiosities1 those collected by the emperors of ,china1 are all ,indian1 as is attested by the relations in ,du ,halde's collection4 ,of the ,shastah1 we shall speak elsewhere4 ,it is the first theological book of the ,brahmins1 written about fifteen hundred years before the ,vedah1 and anterior to all other books4 ,their annals make no mention of any war undertaken by them at any time4 ,the words arms1 killing1 maiming1 are to be found neither in the fragments of the ,shastah that have reached us1 nor in the ,yajurvedah1 nor in the ,kormovedah4 ,at least1 ,i can affirm that ,i have not seen them in either of these two latter collections2 and it is most singular that the ,shastah1 which speaks of a conspiracy in heaven1 makes no mention of any war in the great peninsula between the ,indus and ,ganges4 ,illustration3 ,india was unknown until after ,alexander's conquests4 ,the ,hebrews1 who were unknown until so late a period1 never name the ,brahmins2 they knew nothing of ,india till after ,alexander's conquests and their own settling in that ,egypt of which they had spoken so ill4 ,the name of ,india is to be found only in the book of ,esther1 and in that of ,job1 who was not a ,hebrew4 ,we find a singular contrast between the sacred books of the ,hebrews and those of the ,indians4 ,the ,indian books announce only peace and mildness2 they forbid the killing of animals3 but the ,hebrew books speak of nothing but the slaughter and massacre of men and beasts2 all are butchered in the name of the ,lord2 it is quite another order of things4 ,we are incontestably indebted to the ,brahmins for the idea of the fall of celestial beings revolting against the ,sovereign of ,nature2 and it was probably from them that the ,greeks took the fable of the ,titans2 and lastly1 from them it was that the ,jews1 in the first century of our era1 took the idea of ,lucifer's revolt4 ,how could these ,indians suppose a rebellion in heaven without having seen one on earth8 ,such a leap from the human to the divine nature is difficult of comprehension4 ,we usually step from what is known to what is unknown4 ,a war of giants would not be imagined1 until some men more robust than the rest had been seen to tyrannize over their fellow-men4 ,to imagine the like in heaven1 the ,brahmins must either have experienced violent discords among themselves1 or at least have witnessed them among their neighbors4 ,be that as it may1 it is an astonishing phenomenon that a society of men who had never made war should have invented a sort of war carried on in imaginary space1 or in a globe distant from our own1 or in what is called the firmament--the empyrean4 ,but let it be carefully observed1 that in this revolt of the celestial beings against their ,sovereign1 there were no blows given1 no celestial blood spilled1 no mountains thrown at one another's heads1 no angels deft in twain1 as in ,milton's sublime and grotesque poem4 ,according to the ,shastah1 it was only a formal disobedience of the orders of the ,most ,high1 which ,god punished by relegating the rebellious angels to a vast place of darkness called ,onderah1 for the term of a whole mononthour4 ,a mononthour is a hundred and twenty-six millions of our years4 ,but ,god vouchsafed to pardon the guilty at the end of five thousand years1 and their ,onderah was nothing more than a purgatory4 ,he turned them into ,mhurd1 or men1 and placed them on our globe1 on condition that they should not eat animals1 nor cohabit with the males of their new species1 on pain of returning to the ,onderah4 ,these are the principal articles of the ,brahmin faith1 which has endured without intermission from time immemorial to the present day4 ,this is but a small part of the ancient cosmogony of the ,brahmins4 ,their rites1 their pagods1 prove that among them all was allegorical4 ,they still represent ,virtue in the form of a woman with ten arms1 combating ten mortal sins typified by monsters4 ,our missionaries were acute enough to take this image of ,virtue for that of the devil1 and affirm that the devil is worshipped in ,india4 ,we have never visited that people but to enrich ourselves and calumniate them4 ,the ,metempsychosis of the ,brahmins4 ,the doctrine of the metempsychosis comes from an ancient law of feeding on cow's milk as well as on vegetables1 fruits1 and rice4 ,it seemed horrible to the ,brahmins to kill and eat their feeder2 and they had soon the same respect for goats1 sheep1 and all other animals3 they believed them to be animated by the rebellious angels1 who were completing their purification in the bodies of beasts as well as in those of men4 ,the nature of the climate seconded1 or rather originated this law4 ,a burning atmosphere creates a necessity for refreshing food1 and inspires horror for our custom of stowing carcasses in our stomachs4 ,the opinion that beasts have souls was general throughout the ,east1 and we find vestiges of it in the ancient sacred writings4 ,in the book of ,genesis1 ,god forbids men to eat their flesh with their blood and their soul4 ,such is the import of the ,hebrew text4 ,i will avenge1 says he1 the blood of your souls on the claws of beasts and the hands of men4 ,in ,leviticus he says1 ,the soul of the flesh is in the blood4 ,he does more2 he makes a solemn compact with man and with all animals1 which supposes an intelligence in the latter4 ,in much later times1 ,ecclesiasticus formally says1 ,god shows that man is like to the beasts2 for men die like beasts2 their condition is equal2 as man dies1 so also dies the beast4 ,they breathe alike4 ,there is nothing in man more than in the beast4 ,jonah1 when he went to preach at ,nineveh1 made both men and beasts fast4 ,all ancient authors1 sacred books as well as profane1 attribute knowledge to the beasts2 and several make them speak4 ,it is not then to be wondered at that the ,brahmins1 and after them the ,pythagoreans1 believed that souls passed successively into the bodies of beasts and of men2 consequently they persuaded themselves1 or at least they said1 that the souls of the guilty angels1 in order to finish their purgation1 belonged sometimes to beasts1 sometimes to men4 ,this is a part of the romance of the ,jesuit ,bougeant1 who imagined that the devils are spirits sent into the bodies of animals4 ,thus1 in our day1 and at the extremity of the west1 a ,jesuit unconsciously revives an article of the faith of the most ancient ,oriental priests4 ,the ,self-burning of ,men and ,women among the ,brahmins4 ,the ,brahmins of the present day1 who do all that the ancient ,brahmins did1 have1 we know1 retained this horrible custom4 ,whence is it that1 among a people who have never shed the blood of men or of animals1 the finest act of devotion is a public self-burning8 ,superstition1 the great uniter of contraries1 is the only source of these frightful sacrifices1 the custom of which is much more ancient than the laws of any known people4 ,the ,brahmins assert that their great prophet ,brahma1 the son of ,god1 descended among men1 and had seyeral wives2 and that after his death1 the wife who loved him the most burned herself on his funeral pile1 that she might join him in heaven4 ,did this woman really burn herself1 as it is said that ,portia1 the wife of ,brutus1 swallowed burning coals1 in order to be reunited to her husband8 or is this a fable invented by the priests8 ,was there a ,brahma1 who really gave himself out as a prophet and son of ,god8 ,it is likely that there was a ,brahma1 as there afterwards were a ,zoroaster and a ,bacchus4 ,fable seized upon their history1 as she has everywhere constantly done4 ,no sooner does the wife of the son of ,god burn herself1 than ladies of meaner condition must burn themselves likewise4 ,but how are they to find their husbands again1 who are become horses1 elephants1 hawks1 etc48 ,how are they to distinguish the precise beast1 which the defunct animates8 how recognize him and be still his wife8 ,this difficulty does not in the least embarrass the ,hindoo theologians2 they easily find a distinguo--a solution in sensu composito--in sensu diviso4 ,the metempsychosis is only for common people2 for other souls they have a sublimer doctrine4 ,these souls1 being those of the once rebel angels1 go about purifying themselves2 those of the women who immolate themselves are beatified1 and find their husbands ready-purified4 ,in short1 the priests are right1 and the women burn themselves4 ,this dreadful fanaticism has existed for more than four thousand years1 amongst a mild people1 who would fear to kill a grasshopper4 ,the priests cannot force a widow to burn herself2 for the invariable law is1 that the self-devotion must be absolutely voluntary4 ,the longest married of the wives of the deceased has the first refusal of the honor of mounting the funeral-pile2 if she is not inclined1 the second presents herself2 and so of the rest4 ,it is said1 that on one occasion seventeen burned themselves at once on the pile of a rajah3 but these sacrifices are now very rare2 the faith has become weaker since the ,mahometans have governed a great part of the country1 and the ,europeans traded with the rest4 ,still1 there is scarcely a governor of ,madras or ,pondicherry who has not seen some ,indian woman voluntarily perish in the flames4 ,mr4 ,holwell relates that a young widow of nineteen1 of singular beauty1 and the mother of three children1 burned herself in the presence of ,mrs4 ,russell1 wife of the admiral then in the ,madras roads4 ,she resisted the tears and the prayers of all present2 ,mrs4 ,russell conjured her1 in the name of her children1 not to leave them orphans4 ,the ,indian woman answered1 ,god1 who has given them birth1 will take care of them4 ,she then arranged everything herself1 set fire to the pile with her own hand1 and consummated her sacrifice with as much serenity as one of our nuns lights the tapers4 ,mr4 ,charnock1 an ,english merchant1 one day seeing one of these astonishing victims1 young and lovely1 on her way to the funeral-pile1 dragged her away by force when she was about to set fire to it1 and1 with the assistance of some of his countrymen1 carried her of6 and married her4 ,the people regarded this act as the most horrible sacrilege4 ,why do husbands never burn themselves1 that they may join their wives8 ,why has a sex1 naturally weak and timid1 always had this frantic resolution8 ,is it because tradition does not say that a man ever married a daughter of ,brahma1 while it does affirm that an ,indian woman was married to a son of that divinity8 ,is it because women are more superstitious than men8 ,or is it because their imaginations are weaker1 more tender1 and more easily governed8 ,the ancient ,brahmins sometimes burned themselves to prevent the pains and the languor of old age2 but1 above all1 to make themselves admired4 ,calanus would not1 perhaps1 have placed himself on the pile1 but for the purpose of being gazed at by ,alexander4 ,the ,christian renegade ,peregrinus burned himself in public1 for the same reason that a madman goes about the streets dressed like an ,armenian1 to attract the notice of the populace4 ,is there not also an unfortunate mixture of vanity in this terrible sacrifice of the ,indian women8 ,perhaps1 if a law were passed that the burning should take place in the presence of one waiting woman only1 this abominable custom would be forever destroyed4 ,one word more3 ,a few hundreds of ,indian women1 at most1 have furnished this horrid spectacle2 but our inquisitions1 our atrocious madmen calling themselves judges1 have put to death in the flames more than a hundred thousand of our brethren--men1 women1 and children--for things which no one has understood4 ,let us pity and condemn the ,brahmins2 but let us not forget our miserable selves6 ,truly1 we have forgotten one very essential point in this short article on the ,brahmins1 which is1 that their sacred books are full of contradictions2 but the people know nothing of them1 and the doctors have solutions ready--senses figured and figurative1 allegories1 types1 express declarations of ,birma1 ,brahma1 and ,vishnu1 sufficient to shut the mouth of any reasoner4 ,,bread-,,tree4 ,the bread-tree grows in the ,philippine islands1 and principally in those of ,guam and ,tinian1 as the cocoa-tree grows in the ,indies4 ,these two trees1 alone1 if they could be multiplied in our climate1 would furnish food and drink sufficient for all mankind4 ,the bread-tree is taller and more bulky than our common apple-trees2 its leaves are black1 its fruit is yellow1 and equal in dimensions to the largest apple4 ,the rind is hard2 and the cuticle is a sort of soft1 white paste1 which has the taste of the best ,french rolls2 but it must be eaten fresh1 as it keeps only twenty-four hours1 after which it becomes dry1 sour and disagreeable2 but1 as a compensation1 the trees are loaded with them eight months of the year4 ,the natives of the islands have no other food2 they are all tall1 stout1 well made1 sufficiently fleshy1 and in the vigorous health which is necessarily produced by the use of one wholesome aliment alone3 and it is to negroes that nature has made this present4 ,corn is assuredly not the food of the greater part of the world4 ,maize and cassava are the food of all ,america4 ,we have whole provinces in which the peasants eat none but chestnut bread1 which is more nourishing and of better flavor than the rye or barley bread on which so many feed1 and is much better than the rations given to the soldiers4 ,bread is unknown in all southern ,africa4 ,the immense ,indian ,archipelago1 ,siam1 ,laos1 ,pegu1 ,cochin-,china1 ,tonquin1 part of ,china1 the ,malabar and ,coromandel coasts1 and the banks of the ,ganges1 produce rice1 which is easier of cultivation1 and for which wheat is neglected4 ,corn is absolutely unknown for the space of five hundred leagues on the coast of the ,icy ,sea4 ,the missionaries have sometimes been in great tribulation1 in countries where neither bread nor wine is to be found4 ,the inhabitants told them by interpreters3 ,you would baptize us with a few drops of water1 in a burning climate1 where we are obliged to plunge every day into the rivers2 you would confess us1 yet you understand not our language2 you would have us communicate1 yet you want the two necessary ingredients1 bread and wine4 ,it is therefore evident that your universal religion cannot have been made for us4 ,the missionaries replied1 very justly1 that good will is the one thing needful2 that they should be plunged into the water without any scruple2 that bread and wine should be brought from ,goa2 and that1 as for the language1 the missionaries would learn it in a few years4 ,,buffoonery--,,burlesque--,,low ,,comedy4 ,he was a very subtle schoolman1 who first said that we owe the origin of the word buffoon to a little ,athenian sacrificer called ,bupho1 who1 being tired of his employment1 absconded1 and never returned4 ,the ,areopagus1 as they could not punish the priest1 proceeded against his hatchet4 ,this farce1 which was played every year in the temple of ,jupiter1 is said to have been called buffoonery4 ,this story is not entitled to much credit ,buffoon was not a proper name2 bouphonos signifies an immolator of oxen4 ,the ,greeks never called any jest bouphonia4 ,this ceremony1 frivolous as it appears1 might have an origin wise and humane1 worthy of true ,athenians4 ,once a year1 the subaltern sacrificer1 or more properly the holy butcher1 when on the point of immolating an ox1 fled as if struck with horror1 to put men in mind that in wiser and happier times only flowers and fruits were offered to the gods1 and that the barbarity of immolating innocent and useful animals was not introduced until there were priests desirous of fattening on their blood and living at the expense of the people4 ,in this idea there is no buffoonery4 ,this word buffoon has long been received among the ,italians and the ,spaniards1 signifying mimus1 scurra1 joculator--a mimic1 a jester1 a player of tricks4 ,mnage1 after ,salmasius1 derives it from bocca infiata--a bloated face2 and it is true that a round face and swollen cheeks are requisite in a buffoon4 ,the ,italians say bufo magro--a meagre buffoon1 to express a poor jester who cannot make you laugh4 ,buffoon and buffoonery appertain to low comedy1 to mountebanking1 to all that can amuse the populace4 ,in this it was--to the shame of the human mind be it spoken--that tragedy had its beginning3 ,thespis was a buffoon before ,sophocles was a great man4 ,in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 the ,spanish and ,english tragedies were all degraded by disgusting buffooneries4 ,the courts were still more disgraced by buffoons than the stage4 ,so strong was the rust of barbarism1 that men had no taste for more refined pleasures4 ,boileau says of ,molire3 ,c'est par-l que ,molire1 illustrant ses crits1 ,peut-tre de son art et emport le prix1 ,si1 moins ami du peuple en ses doctes peintures1 ,il n'et fait quelquefois1 grimacer ses figures1 ,quitt pour le bouffon l'agrable et fin1 ,et sans honte ,terence alli ,tabarin4 ,dans ce sac ridicule o ,scapin s'enveloppe1 ,je ne reconnais plus l'auteur du ,misanthrope4 ,molire in comic genius had excelled1 ,and might1 perhaps1 have stood unparalleled1 ,had he his faithful portraits ne'er allowed ,to gape and grin to gratify the crowd2 ,deserting wit for low grimace and jest1 ,and showing ,terence in a motley vest4 ,who in the sack1 where ,scapin plays the fool1 ,will find the genius of the comic school8 ,but it must be considered that ,raphael condescended to paint grotesque figures4 ,molire would not have descended so low1 if all his spectators had been such men as ,louis ,,xiv41 ,cond1 ,turenne1 ,la ,rochefoucauld1 ,montausier1 ,beauvilliers1 and such women as ,montespan and ,thianges2 but he had also to please the whole people of ,paris1 who were yet quite unpolished4 ,the citizen liked broad farce1 and he paid for it4 ,scarron's ,jodelets were all the rage4 ,we are obliged to place ourselves on the level of our age1 before we can rise above it2 and1 after all1 we like to laugh now and then4 ,what is ,homer's ,battle of the ,frogs and ,mice1 but a piece of buffoonery--a burlesque poem8 ,works of this kind give no reputation1 but they may take from that which we already enjoy4 ,buffoonery is not always in the burlesque style1 ,the ,physician in ,spite of ,himself1 and the ,rogueries of ,scapin1 are not in the style of ,scarron's ,jodelets4 ,molire does not1 like ,scarron1 go in search of slang terms2 his lowest characters do not play the mountebank4 ,buffoonery is in the thing1 not in the expression4 ,boileau's ,lutrin was at first called a burlesque poem1 but it was the subject that was burlesque2 the style was pleasing and refined1 and sometimes even heroic4 ,the ,italians had another kind of burlesque1 much superior to ours--that of ,aretin1 of ,archbishop ,la ,caza1 of ,berni1 ,mauro1 and ,dolce4 ,it often sacrifices decorum to pleasantry1 but obscene words are wholly banished from it4 ,the subject of ,archbishop ,la ,caza's ,capitolo del ,forno is1 indeed1 that which sends the ,desfontaines to the ,bictre1 and the ,deschaufours to the ,place de ,grve3 but there is not one word offensive to the ear of chastity2 you have to divine the meaning4 ,three or four ,englishmen have excelled in this way3 ,butler1 in his ,hudibras1 which was the civil war excited by the ,puritans turned into ridicule2 ,dr4 ,garth1 in his ,dispensary2 ,prior1 in his ,alma1 in which he very pleasantly makes a jest of his subject and ,phillips1 in his ,splendid ,shilling4 ,butler is as much above ,scarron as a man accustomed to good company is above a singer at a pot-house4 ,the hero of ,hudibras was a real personage1 one ,sir ,samuel ,luke1 who had been a captain in the armies of ,fairfax and ,cromwell4 ,see the commencement of the poem1 in the article ,prior1 ,butler1 and ,swift4 ,garth's poem on the physicians and apothecaries is not so much in the burlesque style as ,boileau's ,lutrin3 it has more imagination1 variety1 and naivete than the ,lutrin2 and1 which is rather astonishing1 it displays profound erudition1 embellished with all the graces of refinement4 ,it begins thus3 ,speak1 ,goddess1 since 'tis thou that best canst tell ,how ancient leagues to modern discord fell2 ,and why physicians were so cautious grown ,of others' lives1 and lavish of their own4 ,prior1 whom we have seen a plenipotentiary in ,france before the ,peace of ,utrecht1 assumed the office of mediator between the philosophers who dispute about the soul4 ,this poem is in the style of ,hudibras1 called doggerel rhyme1 which is the stilo ,berniesco of the ,italians4 ,the great first question is1 whether the soul is all in all1 or is lodged behind the nose and eyes in a corner which it never quits4 ,according to the latter system1 ,prior compares it to the pope1 who constantly remains at ,rome1 whence he sends his nuncios and spies to learn all that is doing in ,christendom4 ,prior1 after making a jest of several systems1 proposes his own4 ,he remarks that the two-legged animal1 new-born1 throws its feet about as much as possible1 when its nurse is so stupid as to swaddle it3 thence he judges that the soul enters it by the feet2 that about fifteen it reaches the middle2 then it ascends to the heart2 then to the head1 which it quits altogether when the animal ceases to live4 ,at the end of this singular poem1 full of ingenious versification1 and of ideas alike subtle and pleasing1 we find this charming line of ,fontenelle3 ,il est des hochets pour tout ge4 ,prior begs of fortune to ,give us play-things for old age4 ,yet it is quite certain that ,fontenelle did not take this line from ,prior1 nor ,prior from ,fontenelle4 ,prior's work is twenty years anterior1 and ,fontenelle did not understand ,english4 ,the poem terminates with this conclusion3 ,for ,plato's fancies what care ,i8 ,i hope you would not have me die ,like simple ,cato in the play1 ,for anything that he can say3 ,e'en let him of ideas speak ,to heathens1 in his native ,greek4 ,if to be sad is to be wise1 ,i do most heartily despise ,whatever ,socrates has said1 ,or ,tully writ1 or ,wanley read4 ,dear ,drift1 to set our matters right1 ,remove these papers from my sight2 ,burn ,mat's ,descartes and ,aristotle-- ,here1 ,jonathan1--your master's bottle4 ,in all these poems1 let us distinguish the pleasant1 the lively1 the natural1 the familiar--from the grotesque1 the farcical1 the low1 and1 above all1 the stiff and forced4 ,these various shades are discriminated by the connoisseurs1 who alone1 in the end1 decide the fate of every work4 ,la ,fontaine would sometimes descend to the burlesque style--,phdrus never2 but the latter has not the grace and unaffected softness of ,la ,fontaine1 though he has greater precision and purity4 ,,bulgarians4 ,these people were originally ,huns1 who settled near the ,volga2 and ,volgarians was easily changed into ,bulgarians4 ,about the end of the seventh century1 they1 like all the other nations inhabiting ,sarmatia1 made irruptions towards the ,danube1 and inundated the ,roman ,empire4 ,they passed through ,moldavia and ,wallachia1 whither their old fellow-countrymen1 the ,russians1 carried their victorious arms in #agfi1 under the ,empress ,catherine ,,ii4 ,having crossed the ,danube1 they settled in part of ,dacia and ,moesia1 giving their name to the countries which are still called ,bulgaria4 ,their dominion extended to ,mount ,hmus and the ,euxine ,sea4 ,in ,charlemagne's time1 the ,emperor ,nicephorus1 successor to ,irene1 was so imprudent as to march against them after being vanquished by the ,saracens2 and he was in like manner defeated by the ,bulgarians4 ,their king1 named ,krom1 cut off his head1 and made use of his skull as a drinking-cup at his table1 according to the custom of that people in common with all the northern nations4 ,it is related that1 in the ninth century1 one ,bogoris1 who was making war upon the ,princess ,theodora1 mother and guardian to the ,emperor ,michael1 was so charmed with that empress's noble answer to his declaration of war1 that he turned ,christian4 ,the ,bulgarians1 who were less complaisant1 revolted against him2 but ,bogoris1 having shown them a crucifix1 they all immediately received baptism4 ,so say the ,greek writers of the lower empire1 and so say our compilers after them3 ,et voil justement comme on crit l'histoire4 ,theodora1 say they1 was a very religious princess1 even passing her latter years in a convent4 ,such was her love for the ,greek ,catholic religion that she put to death in various ways a hundred thousand men accused of ,manichism--this being1 says the modest continuator of ,echard1 the most impious1 the most detestable1 the most dangerous1 the most abominable of all heresies1 for ecclesiastical censures were weapons of no avail against men who acknowledged not the church4 ,it is said that the ,bulgarians1 seeing that all the ,manichans suffered death1 immediately conceived an inclination for their religion1 and thought it the best1 since it was the most persecuted one3 but this1 for ,bulgarians1 would be extraordinarily acute4 ,at that time1 the great schism broke out more violently than ever between the ,greek church1 under the ,patriarch ,photius1 and the ,latin church1 under ,pope ,nicholas ,i4 ,the ,bulgarians took part with the ,greek church2 and from that time1 probably1 it was that they were treated in the west as heretics1 with the addition of that fine epithet1 which has clung to them to the present day4 ,in #hga1 the ,emperor ,basil sent them a preacher1 named ,peter of ,sicily1 to save them from the heresy of ,manichism2 and it is added1 that they no sooner heard him than they turned ,manichans4 ,it is not very surprising that the ,bulgarians1 who drank out of the skulls of their enemies1 were not extraordinary theologians any more than ,peter of ,sicily4 ,it is singular that these barbarians1 who could neither write nor read1 should have been regarded as very knowing heretics1 with whom it was dangerous to dispute4 ,they certainly had other things to think of than controversy1 since they carried on a sanguinary war against the emperors of ,constantinople for four successive centuries1 and even besieged the capital of the empire4 ,at the commencement of the thirteenth century1 the ,emperor ,alexis1 wishing to make himself recognized by the ,bulgarians1 their king1 ,joannic1 replied1 that he would never be his vassal4 ,pope ,innocent ,,iii4 was careful to seize this opportunity of attaching the kingdom of ,bulgaria to himself3 he sent a legate to ,joannic1 to anoint him king2 and pretended that he had conferred the kingdom upon him1 and that he could never more hold it but from the holy see4 ,this was the most violent period of the crusades4 ,the indignant ,bulgarians entered into an alliance with the ,turks1 declared war against the pope and his crusaders1 took the pretended ,emperor ,baldwin prisoner1 had his head cut off1 and made a bowl of his skull1 after the manner of ,krom4 ,this was quite enough to make the ,bulgarians abhorred by all ,europe4 ,it was no longer necessary to call them ,manichans1 a name which was at that time given to every class of heretics3 for ,manichan1 ,patarin1 and ,vaudois were the same thing4 ,these terms were lavished upon whosoever would not submit to the ,roman church4 ,,bull4 ,a quadruped1 armed with horns1 having cloven feet1 strong legs1 a slow pace1 a thick body1 a hard skin1 a tail not quite so long as that of the horse1 with some long hairs at the end4 ,its blood has been looked upon as a poison1 but it is no more so than that of other animals2 and the ancients1 who wrote that ,themistocles and others poisoned themselves with bull's blood1 were false both to nature and to history4 ,lucian1 who reproaches ,jupiter with having placed the bull's horns above his eyes1 reproaches him unjustly2 for the eye of a bull being large1 round1 and open1 he sees very well where he strikes2 and if his eyes had been placed higher than his horns1 he could not have seen the grass which he crops4 ,phalaris's bull1 or the ,brazen ,bull1 was a bull of cast metal1 found in ,sicily1 and supposed to have been used by ,phalaris to enclose and burn such as he chose to punish--a very unlikely species of cruelty4 ,the bulls of ,medea guarded the ,golden ,fleece4 ,the bull of ,marathon was tamed by ,hercules4 ,then there were the bull which carried off ,europa1 the bull of ,mithras1 and the bull of ,osiris2 there are the ,bull1 a sign of the zodiac1 and the ,bull's ,eye1 a star of the first magnitude1 and lastly1 there are bull-fights1 common in ,spain4 ,,bull 7,,papal74 ,this word designates the bull1 or seal of gold1 silver1 wax1 or lead1 attached to any instrument or charter4 ,the lead hanging to the rescripts despatched in the ,roman court bears on one side the head of ,st4 ,peter on the right1 and that of ,st4 ,paul on the left2 and1 on the reverse1 the name of the reigning pope1 with the year of his pontificate4 ,the bull is written on parchment4 ,in the greeting1 the pope takes no title but that of ,servant of the ,servants of ,god1 according to the holy words of ,jesus to ,his ,disciples--,whosoever will be chief among you1 let him be your servant4 ,some heretics assert that1 by this formula1 humble in appearance1 the popes mean to express a sort of feudal system1 of which ,god is chief2 whose high vassals1 ,peter and ,paul1 are represented by their servant the pontiff2 while the lesser vassals are all secular princes1 whether emperors1 kings1 or dukes4 ,they doubtless found this assertion on the famous bull ,in cna ,domini1 which is publicly read at ,rome by a cardinal-deacon every year1 on ,holy ,thursday1 in the presence of the pope1 attended by the rest of the cardinals and bishops4 ,after the ceremony1 his holiness casts a lighted torch into the public square in token of anathema4 ,this bull is1 to be found in ,tome i41 p4 #gad of the ,bullaire1 published at ,lyons in #afgc1 and at page #aah of the edition of #agbg4 ,the oldest is dated #aecf4 ,paul ,,iii41 without noticing the origin of the ceremony1 here says that it is an ancient custom of the sovereign pontiffs to publish this excommunication on ,holy ,thursday1 in order to preserve the purity of the ,christian religion1 and maintain union among the faithful4 ,it contains twenty-four paragraphs1 in which the pope excommunicates3 #a4 ,heretics1 all who favor them1 and all who read their books4 #b4 ,pirates1 especially such as dare to cruise on the seas belonging to the sovereign pontiff4 #c4 ,those who impose fresh tolls on their lands4 #aj4 ,those who1 in any way whatsoever1 prevent the execution of the apostolical letters1 whether they grant pardons or inflict penalties4 #aa4 ,all lay judges who judge ecclesiastics1 and bring them before their tribunal1 whether that tribunal is called an audience1 a chancery1 a council1 or a parliament4 #ab4 ,all chancellors1 counsellors1 ordinary or extraordinary1 of any king or prince whatsoever1 all presidents of chanceries1 councils1 or parliaments1 as also all attorneys-general1 who call ecclesiastical causes before them1 or prevent the execution of the apostolical letters1 even though it be on pretext of preventing some violence4 ,in the same paragraph1 the pope reserves to himself alone the power of absolving the said chancellors1 counsellors1 attorneys-general1 and the rest of the excommunicated2 who cannot receive absolution until they have publicly revoked their acts1 and have erased them from the records4 #bj4 ,lastly1 the pope excommunicates all such as shall presume to give absolution to the excommunicated as aforesaid3 and1 in order that no one may plead ignorance1 he orders3 #ba4 ,that this bull be published1 and posted on the gate of the basilic of the ,prince of the ,apostles1 and on that of ,st4 ,john of ,lateran4 #bb4 ,that all patriarchs1 primates1 archbishops1 and bishops1 by virtue of their holy obedience1 shall have this bull solemnly published at least once a year4 #bd4 ,he declares that whosoever dares to go against the provisions of this bull1 must know that he is incurring the displeasure of ,almighty ,god and of the blessed apostles ,peter and ,paul4 ,the other subsequent bulls1 called also ,in cna ,domini1 are only duplicates of the first4 ,for instance1 the article #ba of that of ,pius ,v41 dated #aefg1 adds to the paragraph #c of the one that we have quoted1 that all princes who lay new impositions on their states1 of what nature soever1 or increase the old ones1 without obtaining permission from the ,holy ,see1 are excommunicated ipso facto4 ,the third bull ,in cna ,domini of #afaj1 contains thirty paragraphs1 in which ,paul ,v4 renews the provisions of the two preceding4 ,the fourth and last bull ,in cna ,domini which we find in the ,bullaire1 is dated ,april #a1 #afgb4 ,in it ,urban ,,viii4 announces that1 after the example of his predecessors1 in order inviolably to maintain the integrity of the faith1 and public justice and tranquillity1 he wields the spiritual sword of ecclesiastical discipline to excommunicate1 on the day which is the anniversary of the ,supper of our ,lord3 #a4 ,heretics4 #b4 ,such as appeal from the pope to a future council2 and the rest as in the three former4 ,it is said that the one which is read now1 is of a more recent date1 and contains some additions4 ,the ,history of ,naples1 by ,giannone1 shows us what disorders the ecclesiastics stirred up in that kingdom1 and what vexations they exercised against the king's subjects1 even refusing them absolution and the sacraments1 in order to effect the reception of this bull1 which has at last been solemnly proscribed there1 as well as in ,austrian ,lombardy1 in the states of the empress-queen1 in those of the ,duke of ,parma1 and elsewhere4 ,in #aehj1 the ,french clergy chose the time between the sessions of the parliament of ,paris1 to have the same bull ,in cna ,domini published4 ,but it was opposed by the procureur-general2 and the ,chambre des ,vacations1 under the presidency of the celebrated and unfortunate ,brisson1 on ,october #d1 passed a decree1 enjoining all governors to inform themselves1 if possible1 what archbishops1 bishops1 or grand-vicars1 had received either this bull or a copy of it entitled ,litter processus1 and who had sent it to them to be published2 to prevent the publication1 if it had not yet taken place2 to obtain the copies and send them to the chamber2 or1 if they had been published1 to summon the archbishops1 the bishops1 or their grand-vicars1 to appear on a certain day before the chamber1 to answer to the suit of the procureur-general2 and1 in the meantime1 to seize their temporal possessions and place them in the hands of the king2 to forbid all persons obstructing the execution of this decree1 on pain of punishment as traitors and enemies to the state2 with orders that the decree be printed and that the copies1 collated by notaries1 have the full force of the original4 ,in doing this1 the parliament did but feebly imitate ,philip the ,fair4 ,the bull ,ausculta ,fili1 of ,dec4 #e1 #acja1 was addressed to him by ,boniface ,,viii41 who1 after exhorting the king to listen with docility1 says to him3 ,god has established us over all kings and all kingdoms1 to root up1 and destroy1 and throw down1 to build1 and to plant1 in ,his name and by ,his doctrine4 ,do not1 then1 suffer yourself to be persuaded that you have no superior1 and that you are not subject to the head of the ecclesiastical hierarchy4 ,whosoever thinks this1 is a madman2 and whosoever obstinately maintains it1 is an infidel1 separated from the flock of the ,good ,shepherd4 ,the pope then enters into long details respecting the government of ,france1 even reproaching the king for having altered the coin4 ,philip the ,fair had this bull burned at ,paris1 and its execution published on sound of trumpet throughout the city1 by ,sunday1 ,feb4 #aa1 #acjb4 ,the pope1 in a council which he held at ,rome the same year1 made a great noise1 and broke out into threats against ,philip the ,fair2 but he did no more than threaten4 ,the famous decretal1 ,unam ,sanctam is1 however1 considered as the work of his council2 it is1 in substance1 as follows3 ,we believe and confess a holy1 catholic1 and apostolic church1 out of which there is no salvation2 we also acknowledge its unity1 that it is one only body1 with one only head1 and not with two1 like a monster4 ,this only head is ,jesus ,christ1 and ,st4 ,peter his vicar1 and the successor of ,st4 ,peter4 ,therefore1 the ,greeks1 or others1 who say that they are not subject to that successor1 must acknowledge that they are not of the flock of ,christ1 since ,he himself has said 7,john1 x1 #af7 'that there is but one fold and one shepherd4' ,we learn that in this church1 and under its power1 are two swords1 the spiritual and the temporal3 of these1 one is to be used by the church and by the hand of the pontiff2 the other1 by the church and by the hand of kings and warriors1 in pursuance of the orders or with the permission of the pontiff4 ,now1 one of these swords must be subject to the other1 temporal to spiritual power2 otherwise1 they would not be ordinate1 and the apostles say they must be so4 7,rom4 xiii1 #a47 ,according to the testimony of truth1 spiritual power must institute and judge temporal power2 and thus is verified with regard to the church1 the prophecy of ,jeremiah 7i4 #aj73 ',i have this day set thee over the nations and over the kingdoms4' ,on the other hand1 ,philip the ,fair assembled the states-general2 and the commons1 in the petition which they presented to that monarch1 said1 in so many words3 ,it is a great abomination for us to hear that this ,boniface stoutly interprets like a ,boulgare 7dropping the l and the a7 these words of spirituality 7,matt41 xvi4 #ai73 ',whatever thou shalt bind on earth1 shall be bound in heaven2' if this signified that if a man be put into a temporal prison1 ,god will imprison him in heaven4 ,clement ,v41 successor to ,boniface ,,viii41 revoked and annulled the odious decision of the bull ,unam ,sanctam1 which extends the power of the popes to the temporalities of kings1 and condemns as heretics all who do not acknowledge this chimerical power4 ,boniface's pretension1 indeed1 ought to be condemned as heresy1 according to this maxim of theologians3 ,not only is it a sin against the rules of the faith1 and a heresy1 to deny what the faith teaches us1 but also to set up as part of the faith that which is no part of it4 7,joan4 ,maj4 m4 #c sent4 dist4 #cg4 q4 #bf47 ,other popes1 before ,boniface ,,viii41 had arrogated to themselves the right of property over different kingdoms4 ,the bull is well known1 in which ,gregory ,,vii4 says to the ,king of ,spain3 ,i would have you to know1 that the kingdom of ,spain1 by ancient ecclesiastical ordinances1 was given in property to ,st4 ,peter and the holy ,roman church4 ,henry ,,ii4 of ,england asked permission of ,pope ,adrian ,,iv4 to invade ,ireland4 ,the pontiff gave him leave1 on condition that he imposed on every ,irish family a tax of one carolus for the ,holy ,see1 and held that kingdom as a fief of the ,roman church4 ,for1 wrote ,adrian1 it cannot be doubted that every island upon which ,jesus ,christ1 the sun of justice1 has arisen1 and which has received the lessons of the ,christian faith1 belongs of right to ,st4 ,peter and to the holy and sacred ,roman church4 ,bulls of the ,crusade and of ,composition4 ,if an ,african or an ,asiatic of sense were told that in that part of ,europe where some men have forbidden others to eat flesh on ,saturdays1 the pope gives them leave to eat it1 by a bull1 for the sum of two rials1 and that another bull grants permission to keep stolen money1 what would this ,african or ,asiatic say8 ,he would1 at least1 agree with us1 that every country has its customs2 and that in this world1 by whatever names things may be called1 or however they may be disguised1 all is done for money4 ,there are two bulls under the name of ,la ,cruzada--the ,crusade2 one of the time of ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 the other of that of ,philip ,v4 ,the first of these sells permission to eat what is called the grossura1 viz41 tripes1 livers1 kidneys1 gizzards1 sweet-breads1 lights1 plucks1 cauls1 heads1 necks1 and feet4 ,the second bull1 granted by ,pope ,urban ,,viii41 gives leave to eat meat throughout ,lent1 and absolves from every crime except heresy4 ,not only are these bulls sold1 but people are ordered to buy them2 and1 as is but right1 they cost more in ,peru and ,mexico than in ,spain2 they are there sold for a piastre4 ,it is reasonable that the countries which produce gold and silver should pay more than others4 ,the pretext for these bulls is1 making war upon the ,moors4 ,there are persons1 difficult of conviction1 who cannot see what livers and kidneys have to do with a war against the ,africans2 and they add1 that ,jesus ,christ never ordered war to be made on the ,mahometans on pain of excommunication4 ,the bull giving permission to keep another's goods is galled the bull of ,composition4 ,it is farmed2 and has long brought considerable sums throughout ,spain1 the ,milanese1 ,naples1 and ,sicily4 ,the highest bidders employ the most eloquent of the monks to preach this bull4 ,sinners who have robbed the king1 the state1 or private individuals1 go to these preachers1 confess to them1 and show them what a sad thing it would be to make restitution of the whole4 ,they offer the monks five1 six1 and sometimes seven per cent41 in order to keep the rest with a safe conscience2 and1 as soon as the composition is made1 they receive absolution4 ,the preaching brother who wrote the ,travels through ,spain and ,italy 7,voyage d',espagne et d',italie71 published at ,paris1 avec privilge by ,jean-,baptiste de l'pime1 speaking of this bull1 thus expresses himself3 ,is it not very gracious to come off at so little cost1 and be at liberty to steal more1 when one has occasion for a larger sum8 ,bull ,unigenitus4 ,the bull ,in cna ,domini was an indignity offered to all ,catholic sovereigns1 and they at length proscribed it in their states2 but the bull ,unigenitus was a trouble to ,france alone4 ,the former attacked the rights of the princes and magistrates of ,europe1 and they maintained those rights2 the latter proscribed only some maxims of piety and morals1 which gave no concern to any except the parties interested in the transient affair2 but these interested parties soon filled all ,france4 ,it was at first a quarrel between the all-powerful ,jesuits and the remains of the crushed ,port-,royal4 ,quesnel1 a preacher of the ,oratory1 refugee in ,holland1 had dedicated a commentary on the ,new ,testament to ,cardinal de ,noailles1 then bishop of ,chlons-sur-,marne4 ,it met the bishop's approbation and was well received by all readers of that sort of books4 ,one ,letellier1 a ,jesuit1 a confessor to ,louis ,,xiv4 and an enemy to ,cardinal de ,noailles1 resolved to mortify him by having the book1 which was dedicated to him1 and of which he had a very high opinion1 condemned at ,rome4 ,this ,jesuit1 the son of an attorney at ,vire in ,lower ,normandy1 had all that fertility of expedient for which his father's profession is remarkable4 ,not content with embroiling ,cardinal de ,noailles with the pope1 he determined to have him disgraced by the king his master4 ,to ensure the success of this design1 he had mandaments composed against him by his emissaries1 and got them signed by four bishops2 he also indited letters to the king1 which he made them sign4 ,these manuvres1 which would have been punished in any of the tribunals1 succeeded at court3 the king was soured against the cardinal1 and ,madame de ,maintenon abandoned him4 ,here was a series of intrigues1 in which1 from one end of the kingdom to the other1 every one took a part4 ,the more unfortunate ,france at that time became in a disastrous war1 the more the public mind was heated by a theological quarrel4 ,during these movements1 ,letellier had the condemnation of ,quesnel's book1 of which the monarch had never read a page1 demanded from ,rome by ,louis ,,xiv4 himself4 ,letellier and two other ,jesuits1 named ,doucin and ,lallemant1 extracted one hundred and three propositions1 which ,pope ,clement ,,xi4 was to condemn4 ,the court of ,rome struck out two of them1 that it might1 at least1 have the honor of appearing to judge for itself4 ,cardinal ,fabroni1 in whose hands the affair was placed1 and who was devoted to the ,jesuits1 had the bull drawn up by a ,cordelier named ,father ,palerno1 ,elio a ,capuchin1 ,terrovi a ,barnabite1 and ,castelli a ,servite1 to whom was added a ,jesuit named ,alfaro4 ,clement ,,xi4 let them proceed in their own way4 ,his only object was to please the king of ,france1 who had long been displeased with him1 on account of his recognizing the ,archduke ,charles1 afterwards emperor1 as ,king of ,spain4 ,to make his peace with the king1 it cost him only a piece of parchment sealed with lead1 concerning a question which he himself despised4 ,clement ,,xi4 did not wait to be solicited2 he sent the bull1 and was quite astonished to learn that it was received throughout ,france with hisses and groans4 ,what6 said he to ,cardinal ,carpegno1 a bull is earnestly asked of me2 ,i give it freely1 and every one makes a jest of it6 ,every one was indeed surprised to see a pope1 in the name of ,jesus ,christ1 condemning as heretical1 tainted with heresy1 and offensive to pious ears1 this proposition3 ,it is good to read books of piety on ,sundays1 especially the ,holy ,scriptures2 and this3 ,the fear of an unjust excommunication should not prevent us from doing our duty4 ,the partisans of the ,jesuits were themselves alarmed at these censures1 but they dared not speak4 ,the wise and disinterested exclaimed against the scandal1 and the rest of the nation against the absurdity4 ,nevertheless1 ,letellier still triumphed1 until the death of ,louis ,,xiv42 he was held in abhorrence1 but he governed4 ,this wretch tried every means to procure the suspension of ,cardinal de ,noailles2 but after the death of his penitent1 the incendiary was banished4 ,the duke of ,orleans1 during his regency1 extinguished these quarrels by making a jest of them4 ,they have since thrown out a few sparks2 but they are at last forgotten1 probably forever4 ,their duration1 for more than half a century1 was quite long enough4 ,yet1 happy indeed would mankind be1 if they were divided only by foolish questions unproductive of bloodshed6 ,c,,sar4 ,it is not as the husband of so many women and the wife of so many men2 as the conqueror of ,pompey and the ,scipios2 as the satirist who turned ,cato into ridicule2 as the robber of the public treasury1 who employed the money of the ,romans to reduce the ,romans to subjection2 as he who1 clement in his triumphs1 pardoned the vanquished2 as the man of learning1 who reformed the calendar2 as the tyrant and the father of his country1 assassinated by his friends and his bastard son2 that ,i shall here speak of ,csar4 ,i shall consider this extraordinary man only in my quality of descendant from the poor barbarians whom he subjugated4 ,you will not pass through a town in ,france1 in ,spain1 on the banks of the ,rhine1 or on the ,english coast opposite to ,calais1 in which you will not find good people who boast of having had ,csar there4 ,some of the townspeople of ,dover are persuaded that ,csar built their castle2 and there are citizens of ,paris who believe that the great chtelet is one of his fine works4 ,many a country squire in ,france shows you an old turret which serves him for a dove-cote1 and tells you that ,csar provided a lodging for his pigeons4 ,each province disputes with its neighbor the honor of having been the first to which ,csar applied the lash2 it was not by that road1 but by this1 that he came to cut our throats1 embrace our wives and daughters1 impose laws upon us by interpreters1 and take from us what little money we had4 ,the ,indians are wiser4 ,we have already seen that they have a confused knowledge that a great robber1 named ,alexander1 came among them with other robbers2 but they scarcely ever speak of him4 ,an ,italian antiquarian1 passing a few years ago through ,vannes in ,brittany1 was quite astonished to hear the learned men of ,vannes boast of ,csar's stay in their town4 ,no doubt1 said he1 you have monuments of that great man8 ,yes1 answered the most notable among them1 we will show you the place where that hero had the whole senate of our province hanged1 to the number of six hundred4 ,some ignorant fellows1 who had found a hundred beams under ground1 advanced in the journals in #agee that they were the remains of a bridge built by ,csar2 but ,i proved to them in my dissertation of #agef that they were the gallows on which that hero had our parliament tied up4 ,what other town in ,gaul can say as much8 ,we have the testimony of the great ,csar himself4 ,he says in his ,commentaries' that we 'are fickle and prefer liberty to slavery4' ,he charges us with having been so insolent as to take hostages of the ,romans1 to whom we had given hostages1 and to be unwilling to return them unless our own were given up4 ,he taught us good behavior4 ,he did well1 replied the virtuoso1 his right was incontestable4 ,it was1 however1 disputed1 for you know that when he vanquished the emigrant ,swiss1 to the number of three hundred and sixty-eight thousand1 and there were not more than a hundred and ten thousand left1 he had a conference in ,alsace with a ,german king named ,ariovistus1 and ,ariovistus said to him3 ',i come to plunder ,gaul1 and ,i will not suffer any one to plunder it but myself2' after which these good ,germans1 who were come to lay waste the country1 put into the hands of their witches two ,roman knights1 ambassadors from ,csar2 and these witches were on the point of burning them and offering them to their gods1 when ,csar came and delivered them by a victory4 ,we must confess that the right on both sides was equal1 and that ,tacitus had good reason for bestowing so many praises on the manners of the ancient ,germans4 ,this conversation gave rise to a very warm dispute between the learned men of ,vannes and the antiquarian4 ,several of the ,bretons could not conceive what was the virtue of the ,romans in deceiving one after another all the nations of ,gaul1 in making them by turns the instruments of their own ruin1 in butchering one-fourth of the people1 and reducing the other three-fourths to slavery4 ,oh6 nothing can be finer1 returned the antiquarian4 ,i have in my pocket a medal representing ,csar's triumph at the ,capitol2 it is in the best preservation4 ,he showed the medal4 ,a ,breton1 a tittle rude1 took it and threw it into the river1 exclaiming3 ,oh6 that ,i could so serve all who use their power and their skill to oppress their fellow-men6 ,rome deceived us1 disunited us1 butchered us1 chained us2 and at this day ,rome still disposes of many of our benefices2 and is it possible that we have so long and in so many ways been a country of slaves8 ,to the conversation between the ,italian antiquarian and the ,breton ,i shall only add that ,perrot d',ablancourt1 the translator of ,csar's ,commentaries1 in his dedication to the great ,cond1 makes use of these words3 ,does it not seem to you1 sir1 as if you were reading the life of some ,christian philosopher8 ,csar a ,christian philosopher6 ,i wonder he has not been made a saint4 ,writers of dedications are remarkable for saying fine things and much to the purpose4 ,,calends4 ,the feast of the ,circumcision1 which the church celebrates on the first of ,january1 has taken the place of another called the ,feast of the ,calends1 of ,asses1 of ,fools1 or of ,innocents1 according to the different places where1 and the different days on which1 it was held4 ,it was most commonly at ,christmas1 the ,circumcision1 or the ,epiphany4 ,in the cathedral of ,rouen there was on ,christmas day a procession1 in which ecclesiastics1 chosen for the purpose1 represented the prophets of the ,old ,testament1 who foretold the birth of the ,messiah1 and--which may have given the feast its name--,balaam appeared1 mounted on a she-ass2 but as ,lactantius' poem1 and the ,book of ,promises1 under the name of ,st4 ,prosper1 say that ,jesus in the manger was recognized by the ox and the ass1 according to the passage ,isaiah3 ,the ox knoweth his owner1 and the ass his master's crib 7a circumstance1 however1 which neither the gospel nor the ancient fathers have remarked71 it is more likely that1 from this opinion1 the ,feast of the ,ass took its name4 ,indeed1 the ,jesuit1 ,theophilus ,raynaud1 testifies that on ,st4 ,stephen's day there was sung a hymn of the ass1 which was also called the ,prose of ,fools2 and that on ,st4 ,john's day another was sung1 called the ,prose of the ,ox4 ,in the library of the chapter of ,sens there is preserved a manuscript of vellum with miniature figures representing the ceremonies of the ,feast of ,fools4 ,the text contains a description of it1 including this ,prose of the ,ass2 it was sung by two choirs1 who imitated at intervals and as the burden of the song1 the braying of that animal4 ,there was elected in the cathedral churches a bishop or archbishop of the ,fools1 which election was confirmed by all sorts of buffooneries1 played off by way of consecration4 ,this bishop officiated pontifically and gave his blessing to the people1 before whom he appeared bearing the mitre1 the crosier1 and even the archiepiscopal cross4 ,in those churches which held immediately from the ,holy ,see1 a pope of the ,fools was elected1 who officiated in all the decorations of papacy4 ,all the clergy assisted in the mass1 some dressed in women's apparel1 others as buffoons1 or masked in a grotesque and ridiculous manner4 ,not content with singing licentious songs in the choir1 they sat and played at dice on the altar1 at the side of the officiator4 ,when the mass was over they ran1 leaped1 and danced about the church1 uttering obscene words1 singing immodest songs1 and putting themselves in a thousand indecent postures1 sometimes exposing themselves almost naked4 ,they then had themselves drawn about the streets in tumbrels full of filth1 that they might throw it at the mob which gathered round them4 ,the looser part of the seculars would mix among the clergy1 that they might play some fool's part in the ecclesiastical habit4 ,this feast was held in the same manner in the convents of monks and nuns1 as ,naud testifies in his complaint to ,gassendi1 in #afde1 in which he relates that at ,antibes1 in the ,franciscan monastery1 neither the officiating monks nor the guardian went to the choir on the day of the ,innocents4 ,the lay brethren occupied their places on that day1 and1 clothed in sacerdotal decorations1 torn and turned inside out1 made a sort of office4 ,they held books turned upside down1 which they seemed to be reading through spectacles1 the glasses of which were made of orange peel2 and muttered confused words1 or uttered strange cries1 accompanied by extravagant contortions4 ,the second register of the church of ,autun1 by the secretary ,rotarii1 which ends with #adaf1 says1 without specifying the day1 that at the ,feast of ,fools an ass was led along with a clergyman's cape on his back1 the attendants singing3 ,he haw6 ,mr4 ,ass1 he haw6 ,ducange relates a sentence of the officialty of ,viviers1 upon one ,william1 who1 having been elected fool-bishop in #adjj1 had refused to perform the solemnities and to defray the expenses customary on such occasions4 ,and1 to conclude1 the registers of ,st4 ,stephen1 at ,dijon1 in #aeba1 without mentioning the day1 that the vicars ran about the streets with drums1 fifes1 and other instruments1 and carried lamps before the pr-chantre of the ,fools1 to whom the honor of the feast principally belonged4 ,but the parliament of that city1 by a decree of ,january #ai1 #aeeb1 forbade the celebration of this feast1 which had already been condemned by several councils1 and especially by a circular of ,march #aa1 #addd1 sent to all the clergy in the kingdom by the ,paris university4 ,this letter1 which we find at the end of the works of ,peter of ,blois1 says that this feast was1 in the eyes of the clergy1 so well imagined and so ,christian1 that those who sought to suppress it were looked on as excommunicated2 and the ,sorbonne doctor1 ,john des ,lyons1 in his discourse against the paganism of the ,roiboit1 informs us that a doctor of divinity publicly maintained at ,auxerre1 about the close of the fifteenth century1 that the feast of ,fools was no less pleasing to ,god than the feast of the ,immaculate ,conception of the ,blessed ,virgin2 besides1 that it was of much higher antiquity in the church4