,,the ,,connoisseur',s ,,library ,,general ,,editor3 ,,cyril ,,davenport ,,fine ,,books ,illustration3 ,deucalion et ,pyrrha repeuplant la ,terre1 ,suivant l',oracle de ,themis4 ,,fine ,,books ,,by ,,alfred ,w4 ,,pollard ,illustration3 ,the ,connoisseur's ,library ,,new ,,york3 ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons ,,london3 ,,methuen ,,co4 ,,ltd4 #aiab ,,to ,,sir ,,edward ,,maunde ,,thompson1 ,g4,c4,b4 ,,director ,,and ,,principal ,,librarian ,,of ,,the ,,british ,,museum #ahhh-aiji ,,preface ,if the mere taking of trouble ensured good work1 this contribution to the ,connoisseur's ,library should be entitled to the modest praise of being superior to the rest of its author's book-makings1 since it has been ten years on the stocks and much of it has been written two or three times over1 either because the writer's own information had increased or to take account of the successful researches of others4 ,yet in the end defeat in one main point has to be acknowledged4 ,the book was begun with a confident determination to cover the whole ground1 from the beginnings of printing and printed book-illustration down to our own day1 and in the case of printing the survey has been carried through1 however sketchily4 ,but the corresponding survey of book-illustration ends1 with rather obvious marks of compression and fatigue1 about #aghj1 leaving the story of a hundred and thirty years of very interesting picture-work untold4 ,pioneering is always so exciting that recognition of the impossibility of carrying out the full plan of the book within the limits either of the present volume or of the author's working life was not made without sincere regret4 ,the subject1 however1 of the abandoned chapter was not only very large1 but very miscellaneous1 and the survey for it would have had to include at least three other countries 7,france1 ,germany1 and the ,united ,states7 besides our own4 ,to one section1 moreover1 that of illustrations in colour1 a separate volume of this series has already been devoted4 ,the author would1 therefore1 fain console himself with the hope that in one or more other volumes a competent account may be given by some other hand of the wood-engravings1 etchings1 steel-engravings1 and lithographs1 with which books have been decorated since #aghj4 ,the poorness of paper and print with which these modern illustrated books have too often been handicapped has caused collectors to take little interest in them--it even suggested the unworthy excuse for the failure to write the missing chapter that these are not really ,fine ,books1 but only books with fine pictures in them1 and so are outside our subject4 ,but both students and collectors have their duties as well as their delights1 and in view of the high artistic value of quite a large proportion of these modern illustrations1 the preservation of clean and uncropped copies of the books in which they occur and the tribute of careful cataloguing and description are certainly their due4 ,while the desired completeness has not been attained the ground here covered is still very wide1 and for the book as a whole no more can be claimed than that it is a compilation from the best sources--a list of these will be found in the ,bibliography--controlled by some personal knowledge1 the amount of which naturally varies very much from chapter to chapter4 ,the obligations incurred in writing it have thus been great1 and a sad number of these are to fellow-workers and friends--,proctor1 ,john ,macfarlane1 ,w4 ,h4 ,allnutt1 ,konrad ,burger1 ,dr4 ,lippmann1 ,anatole ,claudin1 and the ,prince d',essling--who have died while the book has been in progress4 ,among those still happily alive acknowledgment must specially be made to ,sir ,sidney ,colvin for help received from his masterly introduction to the great monograph on ,early ,engravers and ,engraving in ,england published by the ,trustees of the ,british ,museum2 to ,mr4 ,a4 ,m4 ,hind for use made of the list of engravers and their works in the same book2 to ,mr4 ,campbell ,dodgson for dippings into the wealth of information in his ,catalogue of ,german and ,flemish ,woodcuts in the ,print ,room of the ,british ,museum 7,vols4 ,i and ,,ii72 to ,mr4 ,gordon ,duff for help derived from his three series of ,sandars ,lectures on ,english ,printing1 and to ,mr4 ,evans for information obtained from his ,american ,bibliography4 ,among other obligations the chief is to the writers 7notably ,mr4 ,h4 ,r4 ,plomer7 of numerous papers contributed to the ,transactions of the ,bibliographical ,society and to ,the ,library1 and these are acknowledged with special pleasure4 ,a4 ,w4 ,p4 ,,contents ,,page ,,chapter ,i4 ,,collectors ,,and ,,collecting #a ,,ii4 ,,block-,,books #ai ,,iii4 ,,the ,,invention ,,of ,,printing--,,holland #cb ,,iv4 ,,the ,,invention ,,of ,,printing--,,mainz #dd ,v4 ,,other ,,incunabula #ei ,,vi4 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,printing #hc ,,vii4 ,,early ,,german ,,and ,,dutch ,,illustrated ,,books #ajj ,,viii4 ,,early ,,italian ,,illustrated ,,books #abc ,,ix4 ,,early ,,french ,,and ,,spanish ,,illustrated ,,books #adc ,x4 ,,later ,,foreign ,,books #afe ,,xi4 ,,foreign ,,illustrated ,,books ,,of ,,the #af,,th ,,century #ahj ,,xii4 ,,printing ,,in ,,england 7#adgf-aehj7 #bjd ,,xiii4 ,,english ,,books ,,printed ,,elsewhere ,,than ,,at ,,london #bbd ,,xiv4 ,,english ,,woodcut ,,illustrations #bej ,,xv4 ,,engraved ,,illustrations #bfg ,,xvi4 ,,modern ,,fine ,,printing #big ,,bibliography #cji ,,index #cai ,,list ,,of ,,plates ,i4 ,deucalion and ,pyrrha repeopling the world4 ,from ,ovid's ,metamorphoses1 ,paris1 #agfg ,frontispiece ,,to ,,face ,,page ,,ii4 ,an author 7,caxton87 presenting a book to ,margaret of ,burgundy4 ,fifteenth century engraving inserted in the ,chatsworth copy of the ,recuyell of the ,historyes of ,troye #a 7,from the plate made for the ,bibliographical ,society's edition of ,mr4 ,seymour ,de ,ricci's ,census of ,caxtons47 ,,iii4 ,the ,bona ,inspiratio angeli contra vanam gloriam4 ,from a smaller version of the ,ars ,moriendi4 ,block-book from the ,lower ,rhine1 c4 #adfe #bf ,,iv4 ,leaf #c;a of a fragment of the ,doctrinale of ,alexander ,gallus4 ,one of the so-called ,costeriana #cb ,v4 ,beginning1 with printed capital1 of the ,rationale ,diuinorum ,officiorum of ,gulielmus ,duranti4 ,mainz1 ,fust and ,schoeffer1 #adei #dd ,,vi4 ,leaf #g;b of the first book printed at ,cologne1 ,cicero1 ,de ,officiis1 ,ulrich ,zel1 not later than #adff #fj ,the space left in the sixth line from the foot stands for the words ab ostentatione1 which the printer apparently could not read in his manuscript4 ,the word vacat at the end was inserted to show that the space in the last line was accidental and that nothing had been omitted4 ,,vii4 ,leaf #da;a of ,cicero's ,rhetorica1 ,venice1 ,nicolas ,jenson1 #adgj1 showing spaces left for a chapter heading and capital #hd ,,viii4 ,part of leaf #d;a1 with woodcut1 from the ,geschicht von dem seligen ,kind ,symon of ,tuberinus4 ,augsburg1 ,gunther ,zainer1 about #adge #ajj ,,ix4 ,woodcuts of ,saracens and ,syrians from ,breidenbach's ,sanctae ,peregrinationis in montem ,syon atque in montem ,sinai descriptio4 ,mainz1 ,erhard ,reuwich1 #adhf #aad ,x4 ,woodcut on leaf #a;b of the ,egloga ,theoduli4 ,leipzig1 ,conrad ,kachelofen1 #adhi #aaf ,,xi4 ,page 7sig4 ,h #h verso7 from the ,psalterium ,beatae ,mariae ,virginis of ,nitschewitz1 showing the ,emperor ,frederick and his son ,maximilian4 ,from a press at the ,cistercian ,monastery at ,zinna1 c4 #adic #aah ,,xii4 ,the ,harrowing of ,hell1 with text1 from leaf #d;a of the ,belial of ,jacobus de ,theramo4 ,haarlem1 ,bellaert1 #adhd4 7,size of the original1 #g7a_/d7 ,x #e7 #abj ,,xiii4 ,woodcut of the ,betrayal4 ,from leaf #ad;b of the ,meditatione sopra la ,passione del ,nostro ,signore attributed to ,s4 ,bonaventura4 ,venice1 ,geronimo di ,sancti1 #adhg4 7,size of original1 #f7c_/d7 ,x #e7a_/d77 #abd ,,xiv4 ,woodcut1 ,de ,atheniensibus petentibus regem1 illustrating ,fable xxii4 in the ,aesop printed at ,naples1 by ,francesco ,tuppo1 #adhe #abf ,,xv4 ,woodcut of ,lorenzo ,giustiniano preceded by a crucifer1 from his ,della vita religiosa4 ,venice1 #adid #acj ,,xvi4 ,page with woodcut of the ,procession to ,calvary1 from the ,meditatione sopra la ,passione del ,nostro ,signore attributed to ,s4 ,bonaventura4 ,florence1 ,ant4 ,miscomini1 c4 #adie #ach ,,xvii4 ,titlepage of ,la ,festa di ,san ,giovanni4 ,florence1 ,bart4 di ,libri1 c4 #adie #adj ,,xviii4 ,leaf #e;a1 with woodcut of ,death seizing an ,archbishop and a ,chevalier1 from the ,danse ,macabre4 ,paris1 ,gui ,marchant1 #adia4 7,size of original #h7c_/d7 ,x #f7a_/d77 #add ,,xix4 ,leaf #b;a1 with woodcut of ,adam and ,eve1 from a ,bible en ,francoys4 ,paris1 ,antoine ,verard1 about #aeje4 7,size of original1 #i7c_/d7 ,x #g7 #aej ,,xx4 ,page 7sig4 ,c #f verso71 with woodcut of the ,massacre of the ,innocents1 from the ,grandes ,heures4 ,paris1 ,antoine ,verard1 about #adij4 7,size of original1 #g7g_/h7 ,x #e7a_/d77 #aeb ,,xxi4 ,page 7sig4 ,u #g verso7 from the edition of ,terence1 printed by ,j4 ,trechsel at ,lyon1 #adic #afj ,,xxii4 ,titlepage from the ,improbratio ,alcorani of ,ricoldus4 ,seville1 ,stanislaus ,polonus1 #aejj #afb ,,xxiii4 ,hroswitha presenting her plays to the ,emperor ,otto ,i1 leaf #d;b of the ,opera ,hrosvite4 ,nuremberg1 ,sodalitas ,celtica1 #aeja #ahj ,,xxiv4 ,titlepage of ,jornandes ,de rebus ,gothorum4 ,augsburg1 #aeae #ahf ,,xxv4 ,page 7leaf #bdf;b7 of a ,missale ,romanum1 printed at ,venice by ,gregorius de ,gregoriis1 #aeah #aid ,,xxvi4 ,title-cut from ,les dix premiers livres de l',iliade d',homere1 ,prince des poetes1 traduictz en vers ,francois1 par ,m4 ,hugues ,salel4 ,paris1 ,jehan ,loys for ,vincent ,sertenas1 #aede #bjj ,,xxvii4 ,page from the ,fifteen ,oes4 ,westminster1 ,caxton1 about #adij #bjd ,,xxviii4 ,first page of text from the first edition 7left incomplete7 of ,tyndale's ,new ,testament4 ,cologne1 #aebe #bbd ,,xxix4 ,part of sig4 ,k #e recto1 with woodcut of ,christ raising the ,centurion's ,daughter1 from the ,speculum ,vitae ,christi of ,s4 ,bonaventura4 ,westminster1 ,w4 ,caxton1 about #adhh #bej ,,xxx4 ,titlepage of ,bishop ,fisher's ,funeral ,sermon on ,henry ,,vii4 ,london1 ,w4 de ,worde1 #aeji #bed ,,xxxi4 ,woodcut of the translator presenting his book to the ,duke of ,norfolk1 from ,alexander ,barclay's version of ,sallust's ,jugurtha4 ,london1 ,r4 ,pynson1 about #aebj #bef ,,xxxii4 ,portrait of the ,author1 from ,john ,heywood's ,the ,spider and the ,flie4 ,london1 ,t4 ,powell1 #aeef #bfj ,,xxxiii4 ,woodcut of ,queen ,elizabeth hawking1 from ,turberville's ,the ,booke of ,faulconrie1 #aege #bfd ,,xxxiv4 ,engraving of ,christ in a mandorla from ,bettini's ,monte ,santo di ,dio4 ,florence1 ,nicolaus ,laurentii1 #dgg4 7,size of original1 #aj ,x #g7 #bfh ,,xxxv4 ,last page of preface1 giving the arms of the ,bishop of ,wurzburg1 from the ,wurzburg ,agenda4 ,wurzburg1 ,g4 ,reyser1 #adhb #bgj ,,xxxvi4 ,titlepage of the ,dialogus of ,amadeus ,berrutus4 ,rome1 ,gabriel of ,bologna1 #aeag #bgd ,,xxxvii4 ,engraved portrait of the ,author by ,theodore de ,bry after ,j4 ,j4 ,boissard1 from the ,emblemata of ,denis ,le ,bey4 ,frankfort1 ,de ,bry1 #aeif #bhj ,,xxxviii4 ,page #bb from the ,hieroglyphikes of the ,life of ,man by ,quarles1 the engraving by ,w4 ,marshall1 ,london1 #afch #bhf ,,xxxix4 ,page1 with engraving after ,eisen1 from ,dorat's ,les ,baisers1 ,la ,haye et se vend a ,paris1 ,lambert1 #aggj #bib ,,xl4 ,engraving by ,w4 ,w4 ,rylands after ,samuel ,wale1 from ,walton's ,compleat ,angler4 ,london1 ,t4 ,hope1 #agfj #bif ,illustration3 ,engraving of an ,author1 possibly ,,caxton1 ,presenting a ,book to ,margaret1 ,duchess of ,burgundy1 prefixed to the ,chatsworth copy of the ',recuyell4' ,,fine ,,books ,,chapter ,i ,,collectors ,,and ,,collecting ,from the stray notes which have come down to us about the bibliophiles of the later ,roman ,empire it is evident that book-collecting in those days had at least some modern features4 ,owing to the abundance of educated slave-labour books were very cheap1 almost as cheap as they are now1 and book-collectors could busy themselves about refinements not unlike those in which their successors are now interested4 ,but in the ,middle ,ages books were by no means cheap1 and until quite the close of the fourteenth century there were few libraries in which they could be read4 ,princes and other very wealthy book-buyers took pleasure in possessing finely written and illuminated manuscripts1 but the ruling ideals were mainly literary and scholastic1 the aim 7the quite right and excellent aim7 being to have the best books in as many subjects as possible4 ,after printing had been invented the same ideals continued in force1 the only difference being that they could now be carried out on a larger scale4 ,libraries like those formed in the sixteenth century by ,archbishop ,cranmer and ,lords ,arundel and ,lumley1 or that gathered in ,france by the historian ,de ,thou1 were essentially students' libraries1 and the books themselves and the catalogues of them were often classified so as to show what books had been acquired in all the different departments of human knowledge4 ,even in the sixteenth century1 when these literary ideals were dominant1 we find some examples of another kind4 ,in ,jean ,grolier1 for instance1 we find the book-lover playing the part1 too seldom assumed1 of the discriminating patron of contemporary printing and bookbinding4 ,instead of collecting more old books than he could find time to read1 ,grolier bought the best of his own day1 but of these sometimes as many as four or five copies of the same work that he might have no difficulty in finding one for a friend2 and whatever book he bought he had bound and decorated with simple good taste in ,venice or at home in ,france4 ,it would be an excellent thing if more of our modern collectors1 instead of taking up antiquarian hobbies1 were content to follow ,grolier's example4 ,books always look best when clad in jackets of their own time1 and this in the future will apply to the books of the twentieth century as much as to any others4 ,moreover1 there is more actual binding talent available in ,england just now than at any previous time1 and it is much to be desired that modern ,groliers would give it scope1 not in pulling about old books1 but in binding beautifully those of our own day4 ,grolier found a modest imitator in ,england in the person of ,thomas ,wotton1 but with some at least of the ,elizabethan book-lovers the havoc wrought in the old libraries by the commissioners of ,henry ,,viii and ,edward ,,vi provoked an antiquarian reaction which led them to devote all their energies to collecting1 from the unworthy hands into which they had fallen1 such treasures of ,english literary and bookish art as still remained4 ,putting aside ,john ,leland who worked 7to what extent and with what success is not quite clear7 for ,henry ,,viii1 ,matthew ,parker1 ,archbishop of ,canterbury1 was the earliest of these antiquaries1 to the great benefit of the libraries of ,lambeth ,palace and of ,corpus ,christi ,college1 ,cambridge1 though as to how he came by his books perhaps the less said the better4 ,parker was soon followed by ,sir ,robert ,cotton1 whose success in gathering books and documents illustrating ,english history was so great that his library was sequestered and very nearly altogether taken from him1 on the plea that it contained state papers which no subject had a right to possess4 ,owing to the carelessness and brutality of the previous generation1 ,cotton's opportunities were as great as his zeal in making use of them1 and at the cost of his fortune he laid the foundations of a national library4 ,humbler men imitated him without being able to secure the same permanence for their collections1 more especially ,humphrey ,dyson1 a notary1 who seems to have acquired early printed books and proclamations1 with the same zeal which ,cotton devoted to manuscripts4 ,many of his treasures passed into the hands of ,richard ,smith1 the ,secondary of the ,poultry ,compter1 but at his sale they were scattered beyond recall1 and the unity of one of the most interesting of ,english collections was thus unkindly destroyed4 ,both these men1 and some others of whom even less is known1 worked with a public aim1 and already ,sir ,thomas ,bodley had gone a step further by founding anew the ,university ,library at ,oxford on lines which at once gave it a national importance4 ,this it preserved and developed for over a century and a half1 and has never since lost1 though no national help1 unfortunately1 has ever been given it1 save the right already conceded by the ,stationers' ,company1 of claiming a copy of any new ,english book offered for sale4 ,bodley's munificent donation marked an epoch in the history of ,english book-collecting because its tendency was to make private book-collecting of the kind which was then admired incongruous and even absurd4 ,when there were no public libraries open to scholars1 for a great man to maintain a splendid library in his own house and allow students to read in it was worthy of ,aristotle's ,greek3 megalopsychos1 the man who does everything on a scale that befits his dignity4 ,but in proportion as public collections of books and facilities for obtaining access to them are increased1 the preservation of a library on a large scale in a private house1 where none of the inmates have any desire to use it1 becomes an easy and justifiable object of satire4 ,a man without literary instincts who inherits a fine library is indeed in a parlous state1 for if he keeps it he is as a dog in the manger1 and if he sells it he is held up to opprobrium4 ,that considerations of this kind were beginning to have weight is shown by the rapidity with which during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries one private collection after another drifted into public ownership4 ,in some cases there were intermediate stages4 ,thus ,archbishop ,usher's books were not bequeathed to ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin1 but were purchased for it by the subscriptions of the soldiers of ,cromwell's army in ,ireland4 ,the manuscripts of ,sir ,simeon d',ewes remained in the possession of his family for nearly a century1 were then purchased by ,harley1 and came to the ,british ,museum with ,harley's collection4 ,stillingfleet's manuscripts were in the same temporary ownership2 his printed books came to ,dublin through the public spirit of ,archbishop ,marsh4 ,so again ,bishop ,moore's books were purchased for the ,university ,library at ,cambridge by ,george ,i4 ,thus even when a collector was not inspired by1 or could not afford to indulge1 public motives1 respect for his memory or desire to benefit an institution often brought his books to a safe haven4 ,but more often the munificence was personal and direct4 ,for some cause not quite easy to see the flow of benefactions to ,english libraries has dwindled sadly of late years1#a so that journalists with short memories write of gifts and bequests to ,american libraries as if they were unprecedented4 ,even of late years1 however1 the foundation of the ,john ,rylands ,library1 ,chancellor ,christie's gifts and bequest to the ,victoria ,university1 the ,sandars legacy to the ,university ,library1 ,cambridge1 and ,mr4 ,alfred ,huth's bequest to the ,british ,museum of any fifty books it might choose to select from his fine collection1 show that the stream is not quite dried up1 while for nearly two centuries and a half from the foundation of the ,bodleian it ran with splendid freedom4 ,thus ,archbishop ,williams gave noble gifts of books to ,s4 ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge1 and to the ,chapter ,house ,library at ,westminster ,abbey2 ,selden's books enriched the ,bodleian2 ,laud was a generous benefactor alike to the ,bodleian1 to ,s4 ,john's ,college1 ,oxford1 and to the library of ,lambeth ,palace2 ,sir ,kenelm ,digby gave both to ,bodley and to ,harvard2 ,ralph ,sheldon benefited the ,heralds' ,college2 ,pepys 7through his nephew7 bequeathed his collection to ,magdalene ,college1 ,cambridge2 ,archbishop ,marsh founded a library at ,dublin2 ,richard ,rawlinson gave his manuscripts to the ,bodleian1 and ,harley arranged that his should be offered to the nation4 ,the example of the men who bought under the influence of an intention to bestow their books on some public institution naturally affected others1 and was responsible for a good deal of rather haphazard collecting in the eighteenth century4 ,the private modern library was often confused with the antiquarian collection1 and the antiquarian collection itself was seldom dominated by any central idea4 ,yet collectors who devoted themselves to one subject and knew thoroughly well what they were aiming at were already coming into existence1 and these also1 when their work was done1 were inspired by an honourable ambition to preserve it intact1 and so the libraries were once more enriched4 ,thus ,garrick1 guided by his professional interest1 devoted himself to early plays1 and bequeathed his collection to the ,british ,museum4 ,malone bought the books which were useful to him as a student of ,elizabethan literature1 more especially of ,shakespeare1 and bequeathed them to the ,bodleian1 while ,capell left his similar collection to ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,the library of ,natural ,history books brought together by ,sir ,joseph ,banks and bequeathed by him to the ,british ,museum is another example of well-defined collecting1 though of a different sort4 ,among men who were not themselves specialists the vogue lay in the direction of first editions of the ,greek and ,latin classics and of a few ,italian and ,english authors of special merit1 together with books illustrating the history of printing down to about the year #adhj or #adhe4 ,the early classics seem to have been the indispensable element in any collection of the first rank1 and they appear with monotonous regularity in the libraries of ,george ,,iii1 of the ,rev4 ,clayton ,mordaunt ,cracherode1 and of ,thomas ,grenville1 which all three passed to the ,british ,museum2 in the ,spencer ,collection1 now in the ,john ,rylands ,library1 ,manchester2 and in the ,sunderland ,library1 sold at auction in #ahha-c4 ,when these prizes were secured the collector seems to have felt himself free to follow his individual taste in supplementary purchases1 and the ,grenville ,library is a fine proof of the broader interests of its possessor4 ,two notable collectors1 ,heber1 the last of the great book-gluttons1 and ,william ,henry ,miller1 founder of the famous ,christie-,miller ,library at ,britwell1 cut themselves free from the cult of the editio princeps1 the latter 7despite a taste for modern ,latin verse7 devoting himself to ,english poetry1 while ,heber added to this the literatures of ,france1 ,italy1 and ,spain4 ,despite the exceptions we have mentioned1 in almost all of the collections of the early years of the nineteenth century two different ideals were combined3 the student's ideal of the best books in the best editions1 and the antiquary's ideal of the books by which the history of printing and its kindred arts could be most vividly illustrated4 ,the combination is still common1 for one of a ,beckett's comic histories 7though ,i am not prepared to assert that this is a best book7 still figures as the first entry in many sale catalogues which contain also incunabula assuredly not bought for their literary interest4 ,it is more easy to defend such a medley on the ground of sentiment than of logic4 ,whoever uses books has reason to be grateful to the men who invented or diffused the art of printing1 and may be interested in learning something about them4 ,yet it can hardly be denied that to collect various kinds of books from an antiquarian1 aesthetic1 or any other well-defined point of view1 not directly literary1 is an independent pursuit in its own right1 just as to collect old or beautiful china or silver is an independent pursuit1 whether or no the china or silver be used for eating or drinking from4 ,it will be said1 of course1 that on this view books are no better than china 7or postage stamps71 and there are indeed some strange instances of men who have fallen below their possibilities and have collected books1 and not without success1 despite a most amazing indifference to their contents4 ,this reduces the joy they can get from their hobby to the bare pleasure of collecting for the sake of collecting1 an ignoble delight in indulging acquisitiveness1 redeemed to some extent by the higher pleasure of overcoming difficulties and observing the rules of the game4 ,but the ignorant book-collector1 until he has educated himself1 is like a rose-fancier who cannot distinguish one odour from another4 ,by the time they attract the collector books have become1 or are on the road to becoming1 so precious that their primary usefulness has to be left dormant4 ,to use them constantly for our daily reading would approach the fault which the ,greeks called ,greek3 hubris1 the arrogance which makes a man esteem himself so highly that he thinks nothing too good for his own use4 ,but even when this limitation is recognized1 for those who can appreciate them they preserve all the associations of their primary use1 and it is because these associations are so delightful and so various that the bookman claims that his form of collecting is the best of all4 ,what then are the associations and qualities which give books value in the eyes of a collector8 ,we may answer the question negatively in the first instance by reducing to their proper importance the two qualities which are popularly supposed to be the most attractive to the book-hunter--rarity and age4 ,if a book is otherwise uninteresting1 what is it the better for being rare8 ,in passing it may be noted that unless a book is interesting for other reasons its rarity is necessarily an unknown quantity4 ,sir ,sidney ,lee's ,census of the extant copies of the ,first ,folio ,shakespeare1 a comparatively common book1 but of supreme interest for its associations1 is a striking example of the zeal with which every discoverable copy of a valuable book is now hunted down4 ,those whose business it is to gather such information can tell in the case of dozens of books of much less importance exactly how many copies have been discovered and in whose possession they remain4 ,but in the case of a book of little interest the most that can be said is that it is undescribed1 and it may be undescribed not in the least because it is really rare1 but because no bibliographer has troubled himself to make a note of it4 ,were some real point of interest discovered in it the chances are that the attention thus attracted would speedily bring to light other copies1 as in the case of the school magazine to which ,mr4 ,kipling was found to have contributed4 ,of this the first set catalogued sold for over ,l#ajj1 with the result that so many others were unearthed that the price speedily sank to less than as many shillings4 ,granted1 however1 that it could be proved that a dull book is not merely undescribed1 but absolutely1 what so few works are1 unique1 in what way does this make it of interest to the collector8 ,a great library might buy it for a trifle out of compassion1 or under the idea that its registration in a catalogue might help to piece out a genealogy1 or that it might count as another unit in statistics 7a poor reason71 or justify its purchase in some other haphazard way4 ,but considerations of this kind1 such as they are1 cannot affect private collectors4 ,a really dull book is merely a nuisance1 and whether only one copy of it1 or many1 can be proved to exist1 nobody wants it4 ,if this be so we are justified in saying that1 although as soon as a book is found desirable for any other reason its rarity becomes of paramount importance in determining its price1 ,rarity by itself is of no interest to collectors4 ,the attractiveness bestowed by ,age cannot be treated quite so summarily1 because although the same line of argument can be followed1 it has to be helped out by an explanation arising from a particular case4 ,no collector would value a dull sermon printed in #ahjj any higher than a dull sermon printed in #aijj1 and if we go back two centuries instead of one1 in the case of a book printed in ,london its value is none the greater for the extra hundred years4 ,if1 however1 the sermon chanced to have been printed in #agjj in some provincial town1 its age would distinctly be an element of value4 ,down to #afic printing was only permitted in ,london1 ,oxford1 ,cambridge1 and 7after the outbreak of the ,civil ,war#b7 at ,york4 ,when the restraining ,act was dropped in #afic printing made its way1 not very rapidly1 into one provincial town after another4 ,hence a dull sermon with a provincial imprint may be dear to the heart of some local antiquary as the first-fruit of the press in his neighbourhood4 ,if we go back another sixty years from #agjj we reach another typographic zone1 as we may call it1 within which some slight interest attaches to all examples of ,english printing1 for the end of the year #afdj is the limit of the special catalogues of early books published by the ,british ,museum1 the ,cambridge ,university ,library1 and the ,john ,rylands ,library1 ,manchester4 ,the first and last of these have indexes of printers2 in the second the primary arrangement is typographical4 ,thus all books which are old enough to have been printed before the end of #afdj are thereby invested with some slight interest solely as products of ,english presses4 ,when we get back to before #afjj we are in the period covered by the different editions of the ,typographical ,antiquities of ,joseph ,ames4 ,when we go back another hundred years we are within the fifteenth century2 printing has been introduced into ,england for less than twenty-five years1 and the smallest fragment of a book from one of the early presses at work at ,westminster1 ,oxford1 ,st4 ,albans1 or the ,city of ,london1 is esteemed as of interest and importance4 ,thus if we go far enough back ,age does add to the interest of a book1 but only by bringing it under another influence1 that the interest of an ,english fifteenth century book is due to its importance in the history of printing and not to its antiquity being easily demonstrated by the fact that a contemporary unadorned manuscript of the same work will probably have only a fraction of the value of the printed edition4 ,there are1 of course1 other cases in which age may be said to have some secondary influence1 as in the case of books dealing with social customs1 ballads and the like4 ,but here it is still more evident that the social or literary interest is the primary consideration1 and that this cannot be created1 though it is greatly enhanced1 by ,age4 ,having thus to the best of our ability abated the pride both of ,age and ,rarity1 we come back to our original question as to what are the qualities and associations which give books value in the eyes of a collector4 ,the only good qualities which a book can possess in its own right are those of strength and beauty of form4 ,everything else about it is inherent in no single edition1 though association of ideas may give greater dignity to one edition than to another4 ,type1 paper1 ink1 presswork1 the arrangement of the page1 and also 7though not quite in the same way or to the same extent7 the illustrations1 are all part and parcel of the book itself1 and may be combined1 at least so bookmen believe1 in a really beautiful unity4 ,no doubt as to this students run some risk of losing their sense of proportion4 ,i myself am conscious1 for instance1 that ,i have looked at so many fifteenth century woodcuts1 as compared with other works of art1 that ,i distinctly overrate them4 ,mr4 ,robert ,proctor1 who knew more about fifteenth century books than any other man has ever known1 or is ever likely to know1 once said to me in all seriousness1 that he did not think he had ever seen an ugly one4 ,allowing1 however1 for this very human tendency to set up our own esoteric standard1 there yet remains a more generally recognizable beauty of form which some books possess in a higher degree than others1 and to collect such beautiful books independently of any other kind of attraction would be no unworthy pursuit4 ,as a matter of fact1 bookmen are more inclined to make beauty of form a secondary consideration to which1 as to age and rarity1 they pay attention1 but without adopting it as the basis of their collection4 ,as a secondary consideration the attention collectors pay to beauty can hardly be exaggerated in respect to the condition of copies1 the ratio of an unusually good to an unusually bad copy of the same book1 even if the bad copy have no leaves actually wanting1 being often as ten to one4 ,the unusually bad copy1 indeed1 would often have no selling value at all were it not that it may be useful to students and so win a purchaser at a small price4 ,the collector should leave it severely alone1 partly because such working copies are the rightful perquisite of poor scholars1 partly because1 as he presumably buys books for his pleasure1 he defeats his own object if1 except in the case of the very rarest1 he buys copies at which he cannot look without regretting that their headlines are cut off or the paper rotten through bad cleaning4 ,mr4 ,frederick ,locker recorded in his catalogue that his copy of ,blake's ,songs of ,innocence and of ,experience had been cut down by a previous owner to the dimensions of the old covers of a washing-book4 ,i think it was his chivalry1 his piety toward ,blake's memory1 that induced him to rescue it from this dishonour4 ,had he bought such a poor copy simply because it was cheap1 he would have fallen far below his standard as a collector4 ,putting on one side beauty of form1 the interest of books in the eyes of a collector lies in their associations1 historical1 personal1 or purely literary4 ,for reasons touched on already but which we may now consider more fully1 among historical associations those connected with the history of printing fill a very large place4 ,as we have said before1 the invention of an art by which books were so greatly cheapened and multiplied was an event of almost unique importance in the social history of ,europe1 and everything which throws light on the first discovery1 on the manner in which it was carried from one country and city to another1 and on the methods and lives of the early printers1 is of interest1 and in its degree and measure1 of importance4 ,moreover1 just as foxes are hunted because they show such good sport1 so these early books are collected because the study of them combines in a singular degree the charms of scientific and historical discovery1 with all sorts of literary1 social1 and human side-interests4 ,the claim which ,henry ,bradshaw put forward that antiquarian bibliography must be studied scientifically has been perverted by the unwise into the assertion that bibliography is a ,science1 or as they are sometimes pleased to put it1 an ,exact ,science1 till sensible people are wearied of the silly phrase4 ,but the claim itself is absolutely true1 and the gifts which enabled ,mr4 ,proctor to classify1 exactly or approximately1 any fragment of early printing according to its country1 place1 printer1 and date1 if employed on any other field of scientific inquiry would easily have gained him a ,fellowship of the ,royal ,society1 besides the ,european recognition which1 in his own small field1 was already his before he died4 ,a large proportion of early printed books are without any indication whatever of their place of origin1 printer1 or date4 ,the dates are obscured by the quickness or slowness of individual printers in adopting various improvements--sheet-numbering1 leaf-numbering1 printed capitals1 titlepages1 methods of imposition1 etc4--which thus become uncertain and delusive landmarks4 ,the place of origin is obscured by the existence of almost identical types in different cities and even in different countries4 ,a fortiori the identity of the individual printer may baffle research from types being transferred or copied in all but one or two letters of the fount1 which thus become the sole means of differentiating them4 ,as helps the bibliographer has1 in the first place1 such a classification of the two or three thousand fifteenth century types as he is able to carry in his head4 ,this1 in proportion to its completeness1 enables him to narrow down the field to be investigated4 ,some small typographical peculiarity1 the way in which the illuminator or rubricator has filled the blank spaces1 the note which by good fortune he may have appended in this or some other known copy saying when he finished his work1 similar notes by early purchasers which occasionally give the date of their bargain1 these and other points may all help forward the happy moment of final identification4 ,such a hunt as this may sound alarmingly difficult1 as if it were all over five-barred gates and inconveniently hedged ditches4 ,but facsimiles and other aids have been greatly multiplied of late years2 many a book can be run down and the identification verified in a few minutes1 and the possibility of hunting successfully in one's own library presupposes the purchase of many books giving full information as to their origin4 ,these1 while offering the means of identifying other books1 will themselves raise no questions1 so that the collector's life need not be unceasingly strenuous4 ,the side-interests of these old books are very varied4 ,many of them1 at least to eyes trained to perceive it1 are of great beauty4 ,others1 although the half century during which printing was in its infancy produced few masterpieces of literature1 have real literary interest4 ,more than any other single event the invention of printing hurried on the transition from the medieval world to the modern1 but while many printers in ,italy nearly ruined themselves by the zeal with which they helped forward the classical renaissance1 all over ,europe the medieval books which were still read were seized on for the press1 so that in the books printed between #adgj and #adij we are presented with a conspectus or summary of medieval literature4 ,caxton printed the works of ,chaucer and ,gower and prose renderings of the old romances4 ,the ,italian presses were busy with ,boccaccio1 ,petrarch1 and ,dante4 ,the enormous size of the great ,speculum or ,encyclopaedia of ,vincent de ,beauvais did not deter the printers of ,france and ,germany1 and the ponderous tomes of medieval theology and law seem to have found a ready market4 ,above all1 the highest skill available in the best equipped workshops was employed almost ceaselessly in the production of beautiful and often magnificent editions of the service-books of the ,church for the use both of priests and laity1 and it is hardly possible to dabble much in old books without acquiring an interest in liturgiology4 ,owing to this fact1 that the early presses were so largely occupied with printing the works of the previous three centuries1 there is comparatively little human interest in incunabula on their literary side4 ,instead of authors we have mostly to deal with editors1 an assertive and depreciatory race1 always vaunting their own accuracy and zeal and insisting on the incredible blunders by which previous editions had been deformed past recognition4 ,we receive1 however1 no small compensation in the personal details which many of the early printers give us about themselves4 ,titlepages1 though they occur at haphazard in a few books of the early seventies 7and there is one still earlier example71 did not become common till about #adij1 and even twenty years later we find many books still without them4 ,the information which we now expect to find on a titlepage was given in a paragraph1 mostly at the end of the book1 to which bibliographers have agreed to give the name colophon1 from ,greek3 kolophon1 the ,greek for a finishing stroke4 ,as we have already noted1 in many books no information of this kind is given1 but when printers1 or their proof readers or editors1 took the trouble to write a colophon at all1 they had no reason to confine themselves to the severe brevity and simplicity of statement which marks the modern titlepage4 ,it was in colophons that editors cast stones at their predecessors1 or demanded sympathy for the severity of their own labours1 and it is in colophons that we find the expressions of the printer's piety and pride1 his complaints of his troubles with his workmen and rivals1 his pleas for encouragement1 and occasionally1 penned by another hand1 the record of how he was struck down by death in the midst of his work4 ,i have never heard of any one making a representative collection of books with interesting colophons1 but collecting has taken many worse forms4 ,to lend grace to their colophons1 or sometimes as a substitute for them1 the early printers and publishers often used a woodcut containing their mark1 sign1 or device4 ,like the colophon itself1 this was printed as a token of the master's pride in his work and his desire that it might be recognized as his1 and many printers' marks are very decorative and even beautiful4 ,comparatively neglected until recently1 within the last few years the devices used in various countries have been almost exhaustively reproduced in facsimile1 thus leaving few chances of fresh discovery4 ,the mention of devices brings us to a very interesting section of early printed books1 and one which has attracted only too much attention of recent years1 those decorated with the primitive cuts on wood or metal with which fifteenth century printers endeavoured to imitate the glories of illuminated manuscripts1 or to increase the popularity of their books with not too critical readers4 ,occasionally1 as in the metal cuts in the best editions of the ,french ,horae1 in the ,florentine and ,venetian woodcuts of the last ten years of the century1 and in the best work of other countries1 these early pictures possess real beauty4 ,often they are badly spoilt by the incompetence of the cutters1 who were working without the aid of modern gravers or modern methods of preparing the wood4 ,the early ,german wood-cutters1 whilst their outlines are often less graceful than those of their ,french and ,italian competitors1 had a special gift for characterization1 and the quality of their work is much more uniform1 perhaps because even before the invention of printing with movable types they were an organized craft4 ,but in almost all fifteenth century cuts there is a certain naive simplicity which captivates those who allow themselves to study it1 until they are apt1 as the present writer has confessed is probably true of himself1 to rate it too highly4 ,as is the case with the more ambitious artists in oils of the same periods1 wherever there was any demand for book-illustrators a local school with strongly marked characteristics at once appears4 ,the work of the ,augsburg cutters can be told at a glance from that executed at ,strassburg1 and the styles predominant at ,venice and ,florence1 at ,milan and ,naples are all absolutely distinct4 ,with one or two exceptions we know nothing1 until after #aejj1 of the men who designed or cut these illustrations1 and 7except in the case of those of the ,low ,countries7 hardly any attempt has been made1 or seems possible1 to subdivide the work done in any given locality so as to group it under individual masters4 ,otherwise the problems of fifteenth century book-illustrations are much like the problems of the types with which they harmonize so well1 and the collector can either devote himself to representing as fully as possible the work done in any single district1 or range at large over the ,continent 7as regards fifteenth century illustrations ,england may almost be left out of account7 and collect a few good specimens of each school4 ,it has been made a cause of complaint recently against bibliographers that they know more of the work done at any insignificant fifteenth century press than of the history of printing at any subsequent time4 ,it is not easy to coerce men into taking up any sections of a subject beyond those in which they are interested1 and the supposed culprits have at least this much justification for their neglect of the later work that very little of it repays examination4 ,until #adfe1 save for some possible ,dutch experiments1 ,germany enjoyed the monopoly of printing4 ,from #adfe to about #aecj she shared the primacy in it with ,italy1 though during most of this period ,italy was slightly ahead2 from #aecj to about #aegj ,france was far in advance of the rest of ,europe2 after #aegj there was a higher technical level in the ,low ,countries than elsewhere1 and ,plantin and the ,elzevirs gained individual reputations4 ,but there was very little good taste even in the ,low ,countries1 and from a typographical standpoint the seventeenth century is a ,sahara with hardly any oases4 ,from this wilderness the eighteenth century1 under the guidance of ,france and ,england1 timidly felt its way back to a kind of trim neatness1 but the positive experiments of ,baskerville and the ,didots1 and in ,italy of ,bodoni1 were not very exciting1 and at present are quite out of fashion4 ,in the nineteenth century the work of the ,whittinghams in ,england deserves more attention from collectors than it has received1 and throughout the whole period any one working on historical lines1 with the desire to illustrate the vicissitudes of the art of printing and not merely its successes1 has an ample field4 ,but for positive excellence1 after the period of origins1 the ,french books of the middle of the sixteenth century offer almost the only hunting ground in which the fastidious collector is likely to find an attractive quarry1 and it is no use to try to tell any other tale4 ,of the later book illustrations a somewhat better account may be given4 ,owing to the steady deterioration of paper and presswork1 which was the real cause of the typographical decline1 woodcuts by the end of the sixteenth century had gone quite out of fashion1 the old simple style having been lost and no printer being able to do justice to the finer work on which designers insisted4 ,but copper engravings throve in ,germany and the ,low ,countries1 and when the fashion of engraved frontispieces and titles took root in ,england in the last years of the century it was pursued with considerable success for a couple of generations1 while in the eighteenth century the ,french livres a vignettes attained an extraordinary brilliancy and elegance1 and ,gravelot and other ,french engravers bestowed some of their skill on ,english books4 ,the use of wood1 now worked with the graver and no longer with the knife1 was revived in ,england by ,bewick about #aghd1 and was pursued with varying success for over a century1 great technical skill and1 at least in the sixties1 very fine design being marred by the poverty and often the tawdriness of its typographical setting4 ,despite these drawbacks1 the collectors who are bestowing attention on all this wood-engraved work of the nineteenth century will probably reap their reward4 ,when wood engraving was killed a few years ago by the extraordinary perfection attained1 at a much smaller cost1 by the process block1 its fate was shared by the line-engraved illustrations which had appeared fitfully throughout the century1 and had lingered on in the beautiful work of ,c4 ,h4 ,jeens1 who died in #ahgi1 and in the use of old plates4 ,as the wood engraving was killed by the half-tone block1 so the line engraving disappeared before the photogravure1 and the colour processes now being rapidly perfected threaten to reduce all black and white illustrations to unimportance4 ,in so far1 however1 as the new processes necessitate the use of heavily loaded papers as a condition of their being even tolerably well printed1 the least antiquarian of collectors may be forgiven for neglecting the books illustrated by them4 ,some of them can only be preserved by every plate being backed with sound paper1 and a hundred years hence of all this illustrated work1 much of it really beautiful1 which is now being produced in such quantities1 very little will remain4 ,the modern ,groliers whom we tried to call forth at the beginning of this chapter will need to be experts both in paper and in leather if they are to leave behind them any permanent record of their good taste4 ,but this is only a crowning proof of how urgently they are needed4 ,it would be pleasant to glance briefly at some of the more literary considerations which bring books within the collector's scope4 ,but the scheme of this series restricts the subject of the present volume to books which are prized either for their typographical beauty1 their place in the history of printing1 or the charm of their illustrations4 ,this is in itself so large a field that no more pages must be wasted on introducing it4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,even ,mr4 ,carnegie will only help to found new libraries1 not to make old ones more efficient4 #b ,during the ,civil ,war itself presses were also set up temporarily at ,newcastle-on-,tyne1 at ,shrewsbury1 and perhaps elsewhere4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,block-,,books ,the collector of the time of ,george ,,iii1 whose heart was set on ,typographical ,antiquities1 and who was ambitious enough to wish to begin at the beginning1 must have hungered after a block-book4 ,even in the days of ,bagford1 at the very outset of the eighteenth century1 interest had been aroused in the block-printed editions of the ,speculum ,humanae ,saluationis1 so that ,bagford himself travelled from ,amsterdam to ,haarlem on purpose to see a copy of one of the ,dutch editions1 and set an ,english wood-cutter to work1 with very poor success1 to manufacture a bogus specimen of it1 wherewith to oblige the curious4 ,this1 with a similar imitation of a page in the ,biblia ,pauperum1 was intended to illustrate the ,history of ,printing which ,bagford had the temerity to plan1 although such of his smaller dissertations as have been preserved show conclusively that he was quite incapable of carrying it out4 ,the interest thus early shown in block-books sprang from an entirely reasonable1 but probably incorrect1 view of the part which they had played in the development of printing with movable type4 ,it was known that woodcuts without letterpress were printed in ,germany quite early in the fifteenth century1 the cut of ,s4 ,christopher1 formerly in the ,spencer ,collection1 now in the ,john ,rylands ,library1 bearing the date #adbc4c ,on the other hand1 printing with movable type was practised at ,mainz in the fifties1 and about #adfa ,albrecht ,pfister published at ,bamberg several books with woodcut illustrations and printed letterpress4 ,in the logical order of development nothing could be more reasonable than the sequence3 i4 ,woodcut pictures4 ii4 ,woodcut pictures and woodcut text4 iii4 ,woodcut pictures and text printed from movable type4 ,facts1 however1 do not always arrange themselves with the neatness which commends itself to an a priori historian1 and the most recent students of block-books are unable to discover sufficient justification for the early dates which their predecessors assigned to them4 ,on the old theory1 in order to put it in front of the invention of printing with movable types1 the ,biblia ,pauperum1 which appears to be the oldest of the block-books1 was placed about #adcj or #addj1 and the ,ars ,moriendi and the other chief specimens of block-printing were all supposed to have been produced before #adfj1 the main period of block-printing thus coinciding with the interval between the ,s4 ,christopher of #adbc and ,pfister's activity at ,bamberg about #adfa4 ,positive evidence in favour of this chronology there was none4 ,it rested solely on the idea1 at which bibliographers had jumped1 that the block-books were necessary steps towards the invention of printing1 as they have often been called1 and on what seemed the improbability that any one1 when the art of printing with movable type had once been invented1 would have troubled himself laboriously to cut letterpress on wood4 ,so far from block-printing being unable to co-exist with printing from movable type1 it was not till nearly a century after printing had been invented that block-books finally ceased to be produced4 ,the example generally quoted as the latest#d is the ,opera nova contemplativa per ogni fedel christiano laquale tratta de le figure del testamento vecchio3 le quale figure sonno verificate nel testamento nuovo4 ,as its title implies1 this1 curiously enough1 is an adaptation of the ,biblia ,pauperum1 which was thus the last1 as it may have been the first1 of the block-books4 ,it is undated1 but has the name of its publisher1 ,giovanni ,andrea ,vavassore1 who worked at ,venice about #aecj4 ,the ,opera nova contemplativa was from one point of view a mere survival1 but ,vavassore is not likely to have produced it solely to cause twentieth century antiquaries surprise4 ,he must have had a business reason for having recourse to block-printing1 nor is that reason very hard to find4 ,from the frequency with which the early printers changed and recast their types1 and the short intervals at which popular books printed with types were set up afresh1 it is clear 7#a7 that the type-metal#e employed was much softer and less durable than that now in use1 and that only small impressions#f could be taken from the same setting up2 7#b7 that only a small amount of type was cast at a time1 and that type was quickly distributed and used again1 never kept standing on the chance that another edition would be wanted4 ,now when we come to the illustrations in printed books1 we find the same woodblocks used for five or six successive editions1 and then1 in many cases1 enjoying a second lease of life as job-blocks1 used at haphazard by inferior printers4 ,it is clear1 therefore1 that while it was a much more difficult and laborious business to cut the letterpress of a book on blocks of wood than to set it up with movable types1 when the blocks were once made much more work could be got out of them4 ,in a word1 in the case of a small book for which there was a steady demand1 a printer might be tempted to have it cut as a block-book for the same reasons as might cause a modern publisher to have it stereotyped4 ,the labour of cutting the letterpress on wood was much greater than that now involved in stereotyping1 and the result clumsier4 ,hence it was only to short books intended for unexacting purchasers that the process was applied and with two or three exceptions it was used only for illustrated books with a small amount of text4 ,but within this restricted field it had its own commercial possibilities1 and there is thus nothing surprising in its coexistence with printing from movable type4 ,when the theory that block-books were ,steps towards the ,invention of ,printing is thus opposed by the rival theory that they were forerunners of stereotyped plates1 we are left free to consider1 uncoerced by supposed necessities1 such evidence as exists as to the dates of the specimens of block-printing still extant4 ,putting aside the late ,italian block-book as a mere survival1 we find two#g broadly distinguished groups1 one earlier1 the dates of members of which can only be conjectured1 the other later1 several of which can only be definitely connected with the years #adgj to #adgc4 ,the characteristics of the earlier group are that they are printed 7#a7 with a watery brown ink2 7#b7 always on one side of the paper only2 7#c7 without mechanical pressure2#h 7#d7 two consecutive pages at a time1 so that they cannot be arranged in quires1 but must be folded and stitched separately1 and the book thus formed#i begins and ends with a blank page and has a pair of blank pages between each pair of printed ones4 ,this arrangement in some extant copies has been altered by modern binders1 who have divided the sheets1 mounted each leaf on a guard1 and then gathered them1 at their own will1 into quires4 ,the inconvenient intervention of the blank pages has also sometimes been wrestled with 7at an early date7 by gluing the leaves together1 so that all the leaves1 except the first and last1 are double1 and the printed pages follow each other without interruption4 ,these expedients1 however1 are easily detected1 and the original principle of arrangement is free from doubt4 ,in the later block-books1 on the other hand1 we note one or more of the following characteristics3 7#a7 the use of the thick black ink 7really a kind of paint7 employed in ordinary printing2 7#b7 printing on both sides of the paper2 7#c7 marks of pressure1 showing that the paper has been passed through a printing-press2 7#d7 the arrangement of the blocks in such a way as to permit the sheets to be gathered into quires4 ,in the case of the more popular block-books which went through many issues and editions#aj we can trace the gradual substitution of later characteristics for earlier ones4 ,at what intervals of time these changes were made we have bibliographically no adequate grounds even for guessing4 ,analogies from books printed with movable types may be quoted on both sides4 ,on the one hand1 we find the blocks for book-illustrations enjoying an amazingly long life4 ,thus blocks cut at ,venice and ,florence between #adij and #aejj continued in use for fifteen or twenty years1 were then laid aside1 and reappear between #aeej and #aefj1 certainly the worse for wear1 but yet capable by a lucky chance of yielding quite a fair impression4 ,the fact that one issue of a block-book can be positively assigned to #adgj or #adgc1 thus does not of itself forbid an earlier issue being placed as far back in the fifteenth century as any one may please to propose4 ,on the other hand1 when a printed book was a popular success editions succeeded each other with great rapidity1 and one centre of printing vied with another in producing copies of it4 ,the chief reason for the current disinclination to assume a date earlier than #adej or #adfj for any extant block-book is the total absence of any evidence demanding it4 ,if such evidence were forthcoming1 there would be no inherent impossibility to set against it4 ,but in the absence of such evidence twenty years seems an ample time to allow for the vogue of the block-books1 and 7despite the neatness of the a priori theory of development mentioned at the beginning of this chapter7 this fits in better with the history both of printing and of book-illustration than any longer period4 ,the first attempt to describe the extant block-books was made by ,carl ,heinrich von ,heinecken in #agga1 in his ,idee generale d'une collection d'estampes4 ,this held the field until the publication in #aheh of ,samuel ,legh ,sotheby's ,principia ,typographica3 the block-books issued in ,holland1 ,flanders and ,germany1 during the fifteenth century1 a painstaking and well-illustrated work in three folio volumes4 ,the most recent and probably the final treatment of the subject is that by ,dr4 ,w4 ,l4 ,schreiber1 in ,vol4 ,,iv of his ,manuel de l',amateur de la ,gravure sur bois et sur metal au xve siecle1 published in #aijb 7facsimiles in ,vols4 ,,vii and ,,viii1 #ahie-aijj74 ,dr4 ,schreiber enumerates no fewer than thirty-three works as existing in the form of block-books1 the number of extant issues and editions of them amounting to over one hundred4 ,here it must suffice to offer brief notes on some of the more important4 ,,biblia ,,pauperum ,a series of forty composite pictures1 the central compartment in each representing a scene from the life of ,christ1 while on each side of it is an ,old ,testament type1 and above and below are in each case two half-figures of prophets4 ,the explanatory letterpress is given in the two upper corners and also on scrolls4 ,schreiber distinguishes ten issues and editions1 in addition to an earlier ,german one of a less elaborate design and with manuscript text1 which belongs to a different tradition4 ,the earlier of these ten editions appear to have been made in the ,netherlands4 ,an edition with ,german text was published with the colophon1 ,friederich walther ,mauler zu ,nordlingen vnd ,hans ,hurning habent dis buch mitt einender gemacht1 and a second issue of this 7without the colophon7 is dated #adgj4 ,in the following year another edition1 with copied cuts1 was printed with the device of ,hans ,spoerer4 ,,ars ,,moriendi ,twenty-four leaves1 two containing a preface1 and the remaining twenty-two eleven pictures and eleven pages of explanatory letterpress facing them1 showing the temptations to which the dying are exposed1 and the good inspirations by which they may be resisted1 and1 lastly1 the final agony4 ,the early editions are ascribed to the ,netherlands or district of the ,rhine2 the later to ,germany4 ,there are also editions with ,german text1 one of them signed hanns ,sporer1 and dated #adgc4 ,a set of engravings on copper by the ,master ,e4 ,s4 7copied by the ,master of ,s4 ,erasmus7 may be either imitations or the originals of the earliest of these ,ars ,moriendi designs4 7,see ,lionel ,cust's ,the ,master ,e4 ,s4 and the ,ars ,moriendi47 ,the designs were imitated in numerous printed editions in various countries4 ,in addition to a copy of the edition usually regarded as the earliest extant1 the ,british ,museum possesses one with the same characteristics1 but of a much smaller size 7the blocks measuring #acg by #ajj mm4 instead of #bbf by #afb71 and from this1 as much less known1 a page is here given as an illustration4 ,,cantica ,,canticorum ,sixteen leaves1 each containing two woodcuts1 illustrating the ,song of ,songs as a parable of the ,blessed ,virgin4 ,produced in the ,netherlands4 ,,apocalypsis ,,sancti ,,johannis ,fifty leaves1 or in some editions forty-eight1 showing scenes from the life of ,s4 ,john and illustrations of the ,apocalypse1 mostly with two pictures on each leaf4 ,the early editions are assigned to the ,netherlands1 the later to ,germany4 ,a copy of the edition regarded as the fourth1 lately sold by ,herr ,ludwig ,rosenthal1 bears a manuscript note1 most probably as to the writer1 just possibly as to the book1 entering the household of the ,landgrave ,heinrich of ,hesse in #adfc4 ,illustration3 ,,iii4 ,,ars ,,moriendi1 ,,blockbook1 ,c4 #adfe ,,inspiratio ,,contra ,,vanam ,,gloriam ,,speculum ,,humanae ,,saluationis ,scenes from ,bible history1 arranged in pairs1 within architectural borders1 with explanatory text beneath4 ,no complete xylographic1 or block-printed1 edition is known1 but twenty leaves printed from blocks are found in conjunction with forty-four leaves printed from type1 and have not unreasonably been held to prove the previous production of a complete block-printed edition now lost4 ,in like manner1 the fact that two different types are used in different parts of a ,dutch printed edition has encouraged ,dr4 ,hessels to believe that this mixed edition should be regarded as proving the production of two complete editions1 one in each type4 ,on this theory we have 7#a7 a hypothetical ,latin block-printed edition2 7#b-d7 three ,dutch editions1 each printed in a different type2 7#e7 a ,latin edition1 entirely printed from type2 7#f7 a ,latin edition1 printed partly from type1 partly from some of the blocks of ,no4 #a4 ,the copy of this mixed ,latin edition1 as it is called1 in the ,university ,library at ,munich1 is dated in manuscript #adga1 and the hypothetical complete block-printed edition may be as much earlier than this as any one pleases to imagine4 ,but other bibliographers recognize only four editions and arrange them differently4 ,,antichristus ,thirty-eight leaves1 with two pictures on each leaf1 illustrating the ,legends relating to the ,coming of ,antichrist1 and the ,fifteen ,signs which were to precede the ,last ,judgment4 ,the text is in ,german1 and the block-book was executed in ,germany1 probably about #adgj4 ,,franciscus ,,de ,,retza4 ,,defensorium ,,inviolatae ,,castitatis ,,virginis ,,mariae ,sixteen leaves1 mostly with four pictures and four pieces of explanatory letterpress on each leaf1 concerning marvels in the natural world which were supposed to be equally wonderful with that of the ,virgin ,birth1 and therefore to render faith in this easier4 ,unfortunately the marvels are so very marvellous that they do not inspire belief1 e4g4 one story relates how the sun one day drew up the moisture from the earth with such rapidity that an ox was drawn up with it and subsequently deposited out of a cloud in another field4 ,one edition was issued by a certain ,f4 ,w4 in #adgj1 another at ,ratisbon by ,johann ,eysenhut the following year4 ,,johann ,,muller 7,,johannes ,,regiomontanus74 ,,kalender ,thirty-two leaves1 containing lunar tables1 tables of the eclipses for fifty-six years 7#adge-aecj71 other astronomical information1 and a figure of the human body with notes of the signs of the zodiac by which it was influenced4 ,composed by the famous astronomer1 ,johann ,muller1 and sold by ,hans ,briefftruck1 probably ,hans ,spoerer1 about #adgd-e1 at ,nuremberg and elsewhere4 ,,johann ,,hartlieb4 ,,die ,,kunst ,,chiromantia ,forty-four figures of hands1 with a titlepage and page of text and a printed wrapper4 ,early issues are printed on one side of the paper only1 later on both4 ,the printer appears to have been ,jorg ,schaff1 of ,augsburg1 and the date of issue about #adge4 ,the date #addh found in the book is that of composition1 and it probably circulated in manuscript for many years before being printed4 ,,mirabilia ,,romae ,a ,german guide-book for visitors to ,rome4 ,ninety-two leaves1 printed with black ink on both sides of the leaf1 with only a few illustrations4 ,it was perhaps first published to meet the rush of ,german pilgrims to ,rome at the ,jubilee of ,pope ,sixtus ,,iv1 #adge4 ,the blocks were probably cut in ,germany1 and the printing done at ,rome4 ,some of the ornaments are said to have been used in type-printed editions by ,stephan ,plannck4 ,this suggests that the book may have been published by his predecessor1 ,ulrich ,han4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in addition to these block-books of ,low ,country and ,german origin1 mention must also be made of a very curious ,italian one1 a ,passio domini nostri ,jesu ,christi1 fully described by the ,prince d',essling4 ,the copy of this at ,berlin contains eighteen leaves1 and was probably executed at ,venice about the middle of the fifteenth century4 ,some of the blocks were subsequently used 7after a scroll at the foot had been cut off7 for an edition of the ,devote ,meditatione sopra la ,passione del ,nostro ,signore 7attributed to ,s4 ,bonaventura71 published at ,venice in #adhg by ,jeronimo di ,sancti e ,cornelio suo ,compagno1 and a page from this is reproduced as a frontispiece to our chapter on ,italian ,illustrated ,books4 ,mention has already been made of the ,opera nova contemplativa1 an adaptation of the ,biblia ,pauperum1 printed as a block-book at ,venice about #aecj4 ,the only extant ,french block-book1 if it can be called one1 is that of the ,nine ,worthies 7,les ,neuf ,preux74 ,this consists of three sheets1 the first showing three heathen worthies--,hector1 ,alexander1 and ,julius ,caesar2 the second1 three from the ,old ,testament--,joshua1 ,david1 and ,judas ,maccabaeus2 the third1 three from medieval romance--,arthur1 ,charlemagne1 and ,godfrey of ,boulogne4 ,under each picture are six lines of verse4 ,these three triple woodcuts1 with the woodcut text1 are assigned to about #adee4 ,no ,english block-book has yet been discovered1 nor is it in the least likely that one ever existed1 though there are a few single woodcuts4 99 99 99 99 99 ,block-books possess two permanent attractions in addition to their supposed historical importance in the development of the invention of printing on which doubt is now cast--the attraction of popular literature and the attraction of the illustrated book4 ,as we have seen1 it would not have been worth any one's while to cause a block-book to be laboriously engraved1 or cut1 unless a large and speedy sale could be expected for it4 ,the most famous block-books are nearly all of a religious character1 and they prove a widespread desire for simple instruction as to the incidents of the life of ,christ and the events in the ,old ,testament history which were regarded as prefigurements of them1 as to the dignity of the ,blessed ,virgin and the doctrine of the ,virgin ,birth1 as to the end of the world and the coming of ,antichrist1 and as to the spiritual dangers and temptations of the dying and the means by which they might be resisted4 ,as early specimens of book-illustration the value of the block-books varies very greatly4 ,the majority of them are more curious than beautiful1 but the pictures of the ,cantica ,canticorum1 the ,speculum ,humanae ,saluationis1 and the ,ars ,moriendi have all very great merit4 ,the tall1 slender figures in the ,song of ,songs have a charm as great as any ,dutch book-illustrations of the fifteenth century2 the cuts of the ,speculum are full of vigour1 while the serene dignity of the scenes in the ,ars ,moriendi illustrating the ,inspirations of the ,good ,angel is as impressive as the grotesque force used in depicting the diabolic suggestions4 ,if we must grant1 as the weight of authority now bids us1 that these woodcuts are copies from the copper engravings of the ,master ,e4 ,s41 it can hardly be disputed that the wood-cutter was the better artist of the two4 ,the block-books are a striking example of the difficulty of gleaning where the earlier collectors have reaped1 a difficulty to which we shall often have to call attention4 ,they vary greatly in positive rarity4 ,of the ,biblia ,pauperum and ,ars ,moriendi1 which in their different issues and editions enjoyed the longest life and early attracted attention1 ,dr4 ,schreiber 7if ,i have counted rightly7 was able to enumerate in the one case as many as eighty-three copies--many of them1 it is true1 mere fragments--in the other sixty-one4 ,of the ,apocalypse fifty-seven copies were known to him1 of the ,speculum twenty-nine1 of the ,antichrist thirteen1 of the ,defensorium twelve1 and of the ,mirabilia ,romae six4 ,but of these #bfa copies and fragments no fewer than #bbc are recorded as being locked up in public libraries and museums1 the ownership of thirteen was doubtful1 and only twenty-five are definitely registered as being in the hands of private collectors1 viz4 of the ,apocalypse1 eight copies or fragments2 of the ,biblia ,pauperum1 six2 of the ,speculum and ,ars ,moriendi1 four each2 of the ,defensorium1 two2 and of the ,cantica ,canticorum1 one4 ,the chief owners known to ,dr4 ,schreiber were the ,earl of ,pembroke1 ,baron ,edmond de ,rothschild1 and ,major ,holford1 to whom must now be added ,mr4 ,pierpont ,morgan and ,mr4 ,perrins4 ,no doubt the copies in public institutions are much more easily enumerated than those in private hands1 and probably most of the untraced copies are owned by collectors4 ,but when allowance has been made for this1 it remains obvious that this is no field where an easy harvest can be reaped1 and that the average collector may think himself lucky if he obtains one or two single leaves4 ,the last great opportunity of acquiring such treasures was at the sale in #ahgb of the wonderful collection formed by ,t4 ,o4 ,weigel1#aa at which the ,british ,museum bought a very fine copy of the first edition of the ,ars ,moriendi1 the first edition1 dated #adgj1 of the ,biblia ,pauperum1 in ,german1 a block-book illustrating the virtues of the hymn ,salve ,regina1 and the compassion of the ,blessed ,virgin1 printed at ,regensburg about #adgj1 besides fragments and woodcut single sheets4 ,the foundation of the ,museum collection of block-books had been laid by ,george ,,iii1 added to by ,mr4 ,grenville1 and completed by a series of purchases from #ahch to this final haul of #ahgb1 since when there have been few opportunities for new acquisitions4 ,it is now quite adequate for purposes of study1 though not so rich as that of the ,bibliotheque ,nationale at ,paris4 ,,footnotes3 #c ,the authenticity of a still earlier date1 #adah1 on a cut of the ,blessed ,virgin at ,brussels is disputed4 #d ,the ,libro di ,m4 ,giovanbattista ,palatino1 printed at ,rome in #aedh1 is spoken of by ,mr4 ,campbell ,dodgson as a belated specimen of a block-book4 ,but this was a writing-book1 and hardly counts4 #e ,numerous references in colophons show that the metal mostly used was brass1 e4g4 ,primus in ,adriaca formis impressit aenis ,vrbe libros ,spira genitus de stirpe ,johannes1 and the use of ,chalcographi as a name for printers4 ,but there are one or two references to printing stanneis typis1 with types of tin4 #f ,of the first book printed at ,venice only #ajj copies were struck off1 but the number was trebled in the case of its immediate successors4 ,at ,rome ,sweynheym and ,pannartz mostly printed #bge copies1 only in a few instances as many as #cjj4 ,but at the end of the century ,pynson was printing at least #fjj copies of large books and as many as #ajjj of small ones4 #g ,a very small third group1 earlier than either of these1 consists of woodcuts with manuscript text4 ,the most important of these is a ,german ,biblia ,pauperum quite distinct from those started in the ,netherlands4 #h ,some early woodcuts were printed by pressing the block down on the paper by hand2 for the early block-books1 however1 the usual method seems to have been to press the paper on to the face of the block by rubbing it on the back with a burnisher4 ,the paper was thus quite as strongly indented as if passed through a press1 but the impression is usually less even4 ,the friction on the back of the paper often gives it a polished appearance4 ,as long as this method continued in use it was1 of course1 impossible to print on both sides of the paper4 #i ,it is possible that the earliest specimens of block-printing were intended not to be bound in books but to be pasted on walls4 ,in the case of the ,biblia ,pauperum1 for instance1 the space between the two woodcuts placed on each sheet is so small in some issues that the sheets cannot be bound without concealing part of the pictures4 #aj ,different issues are distinguished by the signs of wear in the blocks1 or occasionally by their being differently arranged1 or with changes made in the blocks4 ,in a different edition we have to deal with a new set of blocks4 #aa ,since this was written the interesting collection formed by ,dr4 ,schreiber himself has been dispersed4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,invention ,,of ,,printing--,,holland ,up to the year #adfe only one firm of printers evinced any appreciation of the uses of advertisement4 ,in #adeg ,johann ,fust and ,peter ,schoeffer1 of ,mainz1 set their names at the end of the liturgical ,psalter which they were issuing from their press1 and stated also the date of its completion1 ,in vigilia ,assumpcionis1 on the vigil of the feast of the ,assumption1 i4e4 ,august #adth4 ,save in the case of a few unimportant books this preference for publicity remained the settled practice of the firm until ,peter ,schoeffer's death early in the sixteenth century1 and later still when it was in the hands of his son ,johann4 ,with other printers at first the tendency was all the other way4 ,albrecht ,pfister placed his name in one or two of the handful of popular illustrated books which he printed at ,bamberg about #adfa4 ,no other book before #adfe contains its printer's name1 and both at ,strassburg and at ,basel the practice of publishing anonymously continued in fashion throughout the 'seventies--in ,strassburg1 indeed1 for the best part of another decade4 ,illustration3 ,,iv4 ,,early ,,dutch ,,press ,,alexander ,,galles1 ,,doctrinale 7#c;a7 ,while printing continued mainly anonymous chroniclers took no note of it1 but in the ten years which began in #adfe the progress of the art was rapid and triumphant4 ,printers1 mostly ,germans1 invaded the chief cities of ,europe1 and boasted in their books of having been the first to practise it in this place or that4 ,curiosity as to the beginnings of the invention was thus aroused1 and from #adgj onwards we meet with numerous attempts1 not always accurate1 to satisfy it4 ,the earliest of these attempts is in a letter from ,guillaume ,fichet1 a ,professor at the ,sorbonne1 who was mainly responsible for bringing the first printers to ,paris1 to his friend ,robert ,gaguin4 ,this is contained in one copy of the second ,paris book1 the ,orthographia of ,gasparinus ,barzizius1 printed in #adgj1 ,fichet having a fondness for giving individuality to special copies by additions of this kind4 ,in this letter he speaks of the great light which he thinks learning will receive from the new kind of bookmen whom ,germany1 like another ,trojan ,horse1 has poured forth4 ,ferunt enim illic1 haut procul a ciuitate ,maguncia1 ,ioannem quendam fuisse cui cognomen bonemontano1 qui primus omnium impressoriam artem excogitauerit1 qua non calamo 7ut prisci quidem illi7 neque penna 7ut nos fingimus7 sed aereis litteris libri finguntur1 et quidem expedite1 polite et pulchre4 ,dignus sane hic uir fuit quem omnes musae1 omnes artes1 omnesque eorum linguae qui libris delectantur1 diuinis laudibus ornent1 eoque magis dis deabusque anteponant1 quo propius ac presentius litteris ipsis ac studiosis hominibus suffragium tulit4 ,si quidem deificantur ,liber et alma ,ceres1 ille quippe dona ,liei inuenit poculaque inuentis acheloia miscuit uuis1 haec chaoniam pingui glandem mutauit arista4 ,atque 7ut poeta utamur altero7 prima ,ceres unco glebam dimouit aratro1 prima dedit fruges alimenta mitia terris4 ,at bonemontanus ille1 longe gratiora diuinioraque inuenit1 quippe qui litteras eiusmodi exculpsit1 quibus quidquid dici1 aut cogitari potest1 propediem scribi ac transcribi posteritatis mandari memoriae possit4 ,the good ,fichet is absurdly rhetorical1 but here in #adgj is a quite clear statement that1 according to report1 there 7i4e4 in ,germany71 not far from#ab the city of ,mainz1 a certain ,john1 surnamed ,gutenberg1 first of all men thought out the printing art1 by which books are fashioned not with a reed or pen1 but with letters of brass1 and thus deserved better of mankind than either ,bacchus or ,ceres1 since by his invention whatever can be said or thought can forthwith be written and transcribed and handed down to posterity4 ,four years later in his continuation of the ,chronica ,summorum ,pontificum1 begun by ,riccobaldus1 ,joannes ,philippi de ,lignamine1 the physician of ,pope ,sixtus ,,iv1 who had set up a press of his own at ,rome1 wrote as one of the events of the pontificate of ,pius ,,ii 7#adeh-fd71 how ,jakob ,gutenberg1 a native of ,strassburg1 and a certain other whose name was ,fust1 being skilled in printing letters on parchment with metal forms1 are known each of them to be turning out three hundred sheets a day at ,mainz1 a city of ,germany1 and ,johann ,mentelin also1 at ,strassburg1 a city of the same province1 being skilled in the same craft1 is known to be printing daily the same number of sheets4#ac ,a little later ,de ,lignamine records the arrival at ,rome of ,sweynheym and ,pannartz1 and also of ,ulrich ,han1 and credits them also with printing three hundred sheets a day4 ,other references follow in later books without adding to our knowledge1 save by proving the widespread recognition in the fifteenth century that printing was invented at ,mainz2 but there is nothing specially to detain us until the publication by ,johann ,koelhoff in #adii of the ,cologne ,chronicle--,die ,cronica van der hilliger ,stat ,coellen--in which occurs a famous passage about printing1 which may be translated or paraphrased as follows3-- ,this right worthy art was invented first of all in ,germany1 at ,mainz1 on the ,rhine4 ,and that is a great honour to the ,german nation that such ingenious men are found there4 ,this happened in the year of our ,lord #addj1 and from that time until #adej the art and all that pertains to it was investigated1 and in #adej1 which was a ,golden ,year1 men began to print1 and the first book that was printed was the ,bible in ,latin1 and this was printed with a letter as large as that now used in missals4 ,although this art was invented at ,mainz1 as far as regards the manner in which it is now commonly used1 yet the first prefiguration 7,vurbyldung7 was invented in ,holland from the ,donatuses which were printed there before that time4 ,and from and out of these the aforesaid art took its beginning1 and was invented in a manner much more masterly and subtler than this1 and the longer it lasted the more full of art it became4 ,a certain ,omnibonus wrote in the preface to a ,quintilian1 and also in other books1 that a ,walloon from ,france1 called ,nicolaus ,jenson1 was the first inventor of this masterly art--a notorious lie1 for there are men still alive who bear witness that books were printed at ,venice before the aforesaid ,nicolaus ,jenson came there1 and began to cut and make ready his letter4 ,but the first inventor of printing was a ,burgher at ,mainz1 and was born at ,strassburg1 and called ,yunker ,johann ,gutenberg4 ,from ,mainz the art came first of all to ,cologne1 after that to ,strassburg1 and after that to ,venice4 ,the beginning and progress of the art were told me by word of mouth by the ,worshipful ,master ,ulrich ,zell of ,hanau1 printer at ,cologne in this present year #adii1 through whom the art came to ,cologne4#ad ,zell1 or his interviewer1 ignores the books printed anonymously at ,strassburg by ,mentelin and ,eggestein1 and also the handful printed by ,albrecht ,pfister at ,bamberg2 he also is misled by ,gutenberg's long residence at ,strassburg into calling him a native of that city2 in other respects1 so far as we are able to check this account1 it is quite accurate4 ,it tells us emphatically that this right worthy art was invented first of all in ,germany1 at ,mainz1 on the ,rhine2 and again1 that the first inventor of printing was a ,burgher at ,mainz named ,junker ,johann ',gudenburch'2 but between these two unqualified statements is sandwiched a reference to a prefiguration which took shape in ,holland in ,donatuses1 printed there before the ,mainz presses were at work1 and much less masterly and subtle than the books which they produced4 ,he connects no name with this ,vorbildung1 and1 unhappily1 he gives no clue as to how it foreshadowed1 and was yet distinct from1 the real invention4 ,sixty-nine years#ae after the appearance of this carefully balanced statement1 the facts as to ,dutch prefigurations which had inspired it moved a ,dutch chronicler1 ,hadrianus ,junius1 in compiling his ,batavia 7not published till #aehh71 to write the well-known passage as to the invention of printing1 which has been summarized as follows3-- ,there lived1 about #addj1 at ,haarlem1 in the market-place opposite the ,town ,hall1 in a respectable house still in existence1 a man named ,lourens ,janszoon ,coster1 i4e4 ,laurence1 son of ,john ,coster4 ,the family name was derived from the hereditary office of ,sacristan1 or ,coster of the ,church--a post both honourable and lucrative4 ,the town archives give evidence of this1 his name appearing therein many times1 and in the ,town ,hall are preserved his seal and signature to various documents4 ,to this man belongs the honour of inventing ,printing1 an honour of which he was unjustly robbed1 and which afterwards was ascribed to another4 ,the said ,laurence ,coster1 one day after dinner1 took a walk in the wood near ,haarlem4 ,while there1 to amuse himself1 he began to cut letters out of some beech-bark4 ,the idea struck him to ink some of these letters and use them as stamps4 ,this he did to amuse his grandchildren1 cutting them in reverse4 ,he thus formed two or three sentences on paper4 ,the idea germinated1 and soon with the help of his son-in-law1 and by using a thick ink1 he began to print whole pages1 and to add lines of print to the block-books1 the text of which was the most difficult part to engrave4 ,junius had seen such a book1 called ,spieghel onzer ,behoudenisse4 ,it should have been said that ,coster was descended from the noble house of ,brederode1 and that his son-in-law was also of noble descent4 ,coster's first efforts were of course very rude1 and to hide the impression of the letters on the back1 they pasted the leaves1 which had one side not printed1 together4 ,his letters at first were made of lead1 which he afterwards changed for tin4 ,upon his death these letters were melted down and made into wine-pots1 which at the time that ,junius wrote were still preserved in the house of ,gerrit ,thomaszoon1 the grandson of ,coster4 ,public curiosity was greatly excited by ,coster's discovery1 and he gained much profit from his new process4 ,his trade1 indeed1 so increased that he was obliged to employ several workmen1 one of whom was named ,john4 ,some say this was ,john ,faust1 afterwards a partner with ,gutenberg1 and others say he was ,gutenberg's brother4 ,this man when he had learnt the art in all its branches1 took the opportunity one ,christmas eve1 when all good people are accustomed to attend ,church1 to break into the rooms used for printing1 and to pack up and steal all the tools and appliances which his master1 with so much care and ingenuity1 had made4 ,he went off by ,amsterdam and ,cologne to ,mainz1 where he at once opened a workshop and reaped rich fruit from this theft1 producing several printed books4 ,the accuracy of this story was attested by a respectable bookbinder1 of great age but clear memory1 named ,cornelis who had been a fellow-servant with the culprit in the house of ,coster1 and indeed had occupied the same bed for several months1 and who could never talk of such baseness without shedding tears and cursing the thief4 ,written nearly a hundred and thirty years after the supposed events which it narrates1 this story is damned by its circumstantiality4 ,it is thus that legends grow1 and it is not difficult to imagine ,haarlem bookmen picking up ideas out of colophons in old books and asking the respectable bookbinder of great age whether it was not thus and thus that things happened4 ,many of the details of the story are demonstrably false2 its one strong point is the bookbinder1 ,cornelis1 for a binder of this name is said to have been employed as early as #adgd and as late as #aead to bind the account-books of ,haarlem ,cathedral1 and in the two years named1 and also in #adgf1 to have strengthened his bindings by pasting inside them fragments of ,donatuses printed on vellum in the type of the ,speculum ,humanae ,saluationis4 ,the fragment in the account-book for #adgd is rubricated1 and must thus either have been sold or prepared for selling1 i4e4 it is not printer's waste1 but may have been bought by ,cornelis for lining his covers in the ordinary way of trade4 ,but we have here a possible link between ,zell's story of early ,dutch ,donatuses and the story of ,junius about ,coster and his servant ,cornelis1 since we find fragments of a ,donatus in the possession of this particular man4 ,there were plenty of such ,donatuses in existence in the ,netherlands about #adgj4 ,in #ahhg ,dr4 ,hessels1 in his ,haarlem the ,birthplace of ,printing1 not ,mentz1 enumerated fragments of twenty different editions1 printed in eight types1 of which the type used in the ,speculum ,humanae ,saluationis 7see p4 #bf7 is one1 while the other seven are linked to it1 or to each other1 in such a way that we may either suppose them to have all belonged to the same printer1 or distribute them among two or more anonymous firms4 ,besides these twenty editions of ,donatus on the ,eight ,parts of ,speech1 ,dr4 ,hessels enumerated eight editions of the ,doctrinale of ,alexander ,gallus#af 7another school book popular in the fifteenth century71 three of the ,distichs of ,dionysius ,cato 7the work from which ,dame ,pertelote quoted to convince ,chantecleer of the futility of dreams71 and one or two editions each of a few other works1 the ,facetiae ,morales of ,laurentius ,valla 7twenty-four leaves71 the ,singularia ,juris of ,ludovicus ,pontanus1 with a treatise of ,pope ,pius ,,ii 7sixty leaves71 and the ,de ,salute ,corporis of ,gulielmus de ,saliceto with other small works 7twenty-four leaves74 ,these latter books offer no very noticeable features2 some of the ,donatus fragments1 on the other hand1 have printing only on one side of the leaf 7whence they are called by the barbarous term anopisthographic1 not printed on the back7 and have a very rude and primitive appearance4 ,this may have been caused in part at least by their having been pasted down1 and possibly scraped1 by binders1 for almost all of them have been found in bindings2 but it counts for something4 ,not one of the books or fragments of which we have been speaking makes any mention of its printer1 or of the place or date at which it was produced4 ,a copy of one of the later books1 the ,de ,salute ,corporis of ,gulielmus de ,saliceto1 was purchased by ,conrad du ,moulin while abbot of the ,convent of ,s4 ,james at ,lille1 a dignity which he held from #adga to #adgd4 ,the earliest ,haarlem account-book which contained ,donatus fragments was for the year #adgd4 ,it is entirely a matter of opinion as to how much earlier than this any of the extant fragments can be dated4 ,there is no reason why some of them should not be later4 ,as to the place or places at which these books were printed1 there is no evidence of any weight4 ,but1 as has been already said1 the whole series can be closely or loosely connected with the types used in editions of the ,speculum ,humanae ,saluationis1 and in #adha ,jan ,veldener1 a wandering printer1 while working at ,utrecht1 introduced into an edition of the ,epistles and ,gospels in ,dutch two woodcuts1 each of which was a half of one of the double pictures in the ,speculum4 ,two years later1 when at ,kuilenburg1 he printed a quarto edition of the ,speculum itself 7,dutch version71 in which he used a large number of the original ,speculum blocks1 all cut up into halves1 so as to fit a small page4 ,as ,veldener 7as far as we know7 used the ,speculum blocks first at ,utrecht1 it is supposed that it was at ,utrecht that he obtained them4 ,if the blocks were for sale at ,utrecht1 this may have been the place at which the earlier editions of the ,speculum were issued1 and thus1 in the absence of any evidence which they were willing to recognize in favour of any other place1 ,henry ,bradshaw and his disciples attributed the whole series of editions of the ,speculum1 ,donatus1 ,doctrinale1 etc41 to ,utrecht1 about1 or not after1 #adga-adgd4 ,bradshaw himself clearly indicated that this attribution was purely provisional4 ,he felt compelled to leave the books at ,utrecht1 so he phrased it1 i4e4 the presumption that ,veldener found the blocks of the ,speculum there constituted a grain of evidence in favour of ,utrecht2 and if a balance is sufficiently sensitive and both scales are empty1 a grain thrown into one will suffice to weigh it down4 ,it would have been better1 in the present writer's opinion1 if the grain had been disregarded1 and no attempt made to assign these books and fragments to any particular place4 ,as it is1 ,bradshaw's attribution of them to ,utrecht has been repeated without any emphasis on its entirely provisional character1 even without any mention of this at all1 and perhaps with a certain humorous enjoyment of the chance of prejudicing the claims of ,haarlem by an unusually rigorous application of the rules as to bibliographical evidence4 ,in the eyes of ,dr4 ,hessels1 on the other hand1 the legend narrated by ,junius offers a sufficient reason for assigning all these books to ,haarlem1 and to ,lourens ,janszoon ,coster as their printer4 ,dr4 ,hessels was even ill-advised enough to point out that1 as there are twenty editions of ,donatus in this group of types1 we have only to allow an interval of a year and a half between each to take back the earliest very close to #addj1 the traditional date of the invention of printing4 ,this is perfectly true1 but as no reason can be assigned for fixing on this particular interval the value of such a calculation is very slight4 ,one result of all this controversy is that the whole series of books and fragments have been dubbed ,costeriana1 and the convenience of having a general name for them is so great that it has been generally adopted1 even by those who have no belief in the theory which it implies4 ,all that is known of ,lourens ,janszoon ,coster is that he resided at ,haarlem from #adcf to #adhc1 and that contemporary references show him to have been a chandler and innkeeper1 without making any mention of his having added printing to his other occupations4 ,it is difficult to claim more for the story told by ,junius than that it represents an unknown quantity of fact with various legendary additions4 ,it is difficult to dismiss it as less than a legend which must have had some element of fact as its basis4 ,in so far as it goes beyond the statements of the ,cologne ,chronicle1 it is supported only by the evidence that ,coster and the venerable bookbinder ,cornelis existed1 and that the latter bound the account-books of ,haarlem ,cathedral4 ,but no indiscretion of ,hadrianus ,junius writing in #aefh can affect the credit of the statements made in the ,cologne ,chronicle in #adii on the authority of ,ulrich ,zell1 and we have now to mention an important piece of evidence in favour of ,zell's accuracy4 ,this is the entry in the diaries of ,jean de ,robert1 ,abbot of ,saint ,aubert1 ,cambrai1 of the purchase in #addf and again in #adea of a copy of the ,doctrinale of ,alexander ,gallus1 jete en moule1 a phrase which1 while far from satisfactory as a description of a book printed from movable type1 cannot possibly refer to editions printed from woodblocks1 even if these existed4 ,the ,doctrinale1 which was in verse1 was a less popular school-book than the ,donatus4 ,it is significant that among the so-called ,costeriana there are eight editions of the one against twenty of the other4 ,where the ,doctrinale was used we may be sure that the ,donatus would be used also1 and in greater numbers1 so that this mention of a mould-casted ,doctrinale as purchased as early as #addf is a real confirmation of ,zell's assertion4 ,we have no sufficient ground for believing that any of the fragments1 either of the one book or the other1 now in existence were produced as early as this4 ,it is of the nature of school-books to be destroyed1 and every improvement in the process of production would help to drive the earlier experiments out of existence4 ,but taking ,zell's statement and the entries in the ,abbot's diaries together1 it seems impossible to deny that there is evidence of some kind of printing being practised in ,holland not long after #addj4 ,an ingenious theory as to the form which these prefigurements may have taken has lately been suggested1 viz4 that the earliest types may have consisted simply of flat pieces of metal1 without any shanks to them1 and that they were set up by being glued upon wood or stiff paper in the order required4 ,they would thus be movable1 but with a very low degree of movability1 so that we can easily understand why short books like the ,donatus and ,doctrinale were continually reprinted without any attempt being made to produce a large work such as the ,bible4 ,it is curious1 however1 that in the description of a ciripagus by ,paulus ,paulirinus1 of ,prag1#ag we have a reference to a ,bible having been printed at ,bamberg super lamellas1 a phrase which might very well refer to types of this kind1 though the sentence is usually explained as referring to either the ,latin or ,german edition of the ,biblia ,pauperum issued by ,albrecht ,pfister4 ,i think it just possible myself that the reference is really to the ,latin ,bible known as the ,thirty-six ,line ,bible1 which seems certainly to have been sold1 if not printed1 at ,bamberg a little before #adfj1 and that ,paulirinus1 having seen books printed super lamellas1 supposed 7wrongly7 that this was printed in that way4 ,but the statement that it was printed in four weeks is against this4 ,whether the ,dutch ,vorbildung of the ,art of ,printing subsequently invented at ,mainz took the form of experiments with shankless types1 or fell short of the fully developed art in some other way1 does not greatly concern the collector4 ,it is in the highest degree improbable that the claim put forward on behalf of the so-called ,costeriana will ever be decisively proved or disproved4 ,they are likely to remain as perpetual pretenders1 and as such will always retain a certain interest1 and a specimen of them always be a desirable addition to any collection which aims at illustrating the history of the invention of printing4 ,such a specimen will not be easy to procure1 because many of the extant fragments have been found in public libraries1 more especially the ,royal ,library at the ,hague1 and have never left their first homes4 ,on the other hand1 the number of fragments known has been considerably increased by new finds4 ,thus there is no reason to regard a specimen as unattainable4 ,,footnotes3 #ab ,dr4 ,hessels supposes that this phrase indicates the ,monastery of ,saint ,victor1 outside ,mainz1 with which ,gutenberg was connected1 and that the report1 therefore1 can be traced to ,gutenberg himself4 ,if so1 we have the very important fact that ,gutenberg himself claimed to be the inventor4 #ac ,iacobus cognomento ,gutenbergo3 patria ,argentinus1 quidam alter cui nomen ,fustus1 imprimendarum litterarum in membranis cum metallicis formis periti1 trecentas cartas quisque eorum per diem facere innotescunt apud ,maguntiam ,germanie ciuitatem4 ,iohannes quoque ,mentelinus nuncupatus apud ,argentinam eiusdem prouincie ciuitatem3 ac in eodem artificio peritus totidem cartas per diem imprimere agnoscitur4444 ,conradus ,suueynem3 ac ,arnoldus pannarcz ,vdalricus ,gallus parte ex alia ,teuthones librarii insignes ,romam uenientes primi imprimendorum librorum artem in ,italiam introduxere trecentas cartas per diem imprimentes4 #ad ,item dese hoichwyrdige kunst vursz is vonden aller eyrst in ,duytschlant tzo ,mentz am ,rijne4 ,ind dat is der duytschscher nacion eyn groisse eirlicheit dat sulche synrijche mynschen syn dae tzo vynden4 ,ind dat is geschiet by den iairen vns heren1 anno domini4 ,m,c,c,c,cxl4 ind van der zijt an bis men schreue4 l4 wart vndersoicht die kunst ind wat dair zo gehoirt4 ,ind in den iairen vns heren do men schreyff4 ,m,c,c,c,cl4 do was eyn gulden iair1 do began men tzo drucken ind was dat eyrste boich dat men druckde die ,bybel zo latijn1 ind wart gedruckt mit eynre grouer schrifft4 as is die schrifft dae men nu ,mysseboicher mit druckt4 ,item wiewail die kunst is vonden tzo ,mentz1 als vursz vp die wijse1 als dan nu gemeynlich gebruicht wirt1 so is doch die eyrste vurbyldung vonden in ,hollant vyss den ,donaten1 die dae selffst vur der tzijt gedruckt syn4 ,ind van ind vyss den is genommen dat begynne der vursz kunst4 ind is vill meysterlicher ind subtilicher vonden dan die selue manier was1 vnd ye langer ye mere kunstlicher wurden4 ,item eynre genant ,omnebonum der schrijfft in eynre vurrede vp dat boich ,quintilianus genoempt4 vnd ouch in anderen meir boicher1 dat eyn ,wale vyss ,vranckrijch1 genant ,nicolaus genson haue alre eyrst dese meysterliche kunst vonden1 mer dat is offenbairlich gelogen4 want ,sij syn noch jm leuen die dat getzuigen dat men boicher druckte tzo ,venedige ee der vursz ,nicolaus genson dar quame1 dair he began schrifft zo snijden vnd bereyden4 ,mer der eyrste vynder der druckerye is gewest eyn ,burger tzo ,mentz4 ind was geboren van ,straiszburch4 ind hiesch joncker ,johan ,gudenburch4 ,item van ,mentz is die vursz kunst komen alre eyrst tzo ,coellen4 ,dairnae tzo ,straisburch1 ind dairnae tzo ,venedige4 ,dat begynne ind vortganck der vursz kunst hait myr muntlich vertzelt d' ,eirsame man ,meyster ,vlrich tzell van ,hanauwe4 boich drucker zo ,coellen noch zertzijt4 anno4 ,m,c,c,c,cxcix4 durch den die kunst vursz is zo ,coellen komen4 #ae ,the first trace of the legend is in a reference to ,coster as having brought the first print into the world in #addf in a manuscript pedigree of the ,coster family compiled about #aeei4 #af ,a page from a fragment of one of these in the ,british ,museum forms the frontispiece to this chapter 7,plate ,,iv74 #ag ,et tempore mei ,pambergae quidam scripsit integrum ,bibliam super lamellas1 et in quatuor septimanis totam ,bibliam super pargameno subtili presignavit scriptura4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,invention ,,of ,,printing--,,mainz ,no contrast could be much greater than that between the so-called ,costeriana and the incunabula printed at ,mainz4 ,annually as a small boy ,i used to be taken to the ,crystal ,palace1 and there a recognized part of the programme in each visit was to spend half an hour in solemnly pedalling backwards and forwards on a semicircular track on a machine miscalled a velocipede4 ,perhaps these clumsy toys really constituted a definite stage in the invention and perfection of the modern bicycle4 ,on the other hand1 whatever may be the historical facts1 there is no reason in the nature of things why the modern bicycle should not have been invented quite independently of them4 ,the relative positions of ,holland and ,germany as regards the invention of printing are very analogous to those of the old velocipede and the bicycle4 ,even if it could be proved decisively that some ,dutch fragment of a ,donatus was earlier than any experiment made at ,mainz or ,strassburg1 it was at ,mainz that the possibility was first demonstrated of producing by print books as beautiful as any written by the scribes1 and it was from ,germany1 not from ,holland1 that printers carried the art which they had proved to be practicable to all parts of ,europe1 including ,holland itself4 ,illustration3 ,v4 ,,mainz1 ,,fust ,,and ,,schoeffer1 #adei ,,duranti1 ,,rationale ,,divinorum ,,officiorum 7#a;a7 ,in the development of the art of printing at ,mainz three men had a share1 though the precise part which each of them played is matter of conjecture rather than knowledge4 ,the first of the three was ,johann ,gutenberg1 the ,johannes ,bonemontanus whom ,fichet1 as early as #adgj1 acclaimed as the first of all men to think out the printing art1 whom the popular verdict has recognized as the inventor1 and whom patriotic ,german bibliographers delight to invest with every virtue that distinguishes themselves4 ,gutenberg's real name was ,gansfleisch1 ,gutenberg being an addition to his mother's surname#ah which he assumed for reasons not known to us4 ,he was born about #adjj1 and just when he attained manhood his family1 which belonged to the patrician party at ,mainz1 was banished and sought refuge at ,strassburg4 ,at ,strassburg ,gutenberg remained till about #addf1 and legal and municipal records1 so far as we can trust to their authenticity1 offer us some tantalizing glimpses of his career there4 ,when the town clerk of ,strassburg came to ,mainz the exile caused him to be arrested for a debt due to his family1 and the matter had to be arranged to avoid a quarrel between the two cities4 ,on the other hand1 ,gutenberg was himself called to account for unpaid duties on wine1 and was sued for a breach of promise of marriage4 ,in #adcg he was the defendant in a much more interesting trial4 ,he had admitted two partners to work an invention with him1 and on one of these partners dying his brother claimed1 unsuccessfully1 to take his place in the partnership4 ,the use of the words presse1 forme1 and trucken in connection with this invention leaves it hardly open to doubt that it was concerned with some kind of printing1 and loans which ,gutenberg negotiated in #adda and #addb were presumably raised for the development of this4 ,about the middle of the decade he returned to ,mainz and there also borrowed money1 presumably again for the same object4 ,at this point we are confronted with five fragmentary pieces of printing1 all but one of them only recently discovered4 ,the latest of these1 according to ,german bibliographers1 is a fragment of an astronomical ,calendar in ,german verse for an unspecified year1 which might be #adbi1 #addh1 or #adfg1 but does not exactly fit any of them2 the earliest is part of a leaf of a ,sibyllenbuch 7originally known as ,das ,weltgericht1 because the text of this fragment deals with the ,last ,judgment74 ,between these two are placed fragments of three editions of ,donatus1 ,de octo partibus orationis1 two found recently in copies of an edition of ,herolt's ,sermones de tempore et sanctis printed at ,strassburg#ai by ,martin ,flach in #adhh and now at ,berlin1 the third one of the minor treasures of the ,bibliotheque ,nationale at ,paris1 where it has lain for over a century4 ,granting that the ,calendar was printed for use in #addh 7it has been argued1 on the other hand1 that its mention of movable festivals was intended to be only approximate71 and that the other four pieces can be proved by typographical evidence to have preceded it1 we may suppose the ,sibyllenbuch to have been printed by ,gutenberg shortly after his return to ,mainz1 i4e4 about #adde1 or shortly before this at ,strassburg4 ,soon after the supposed date of the ,calendar the second of the three protagonists in the development of printing at ,mainz comes on the scene4 ,this was ,johann ,fust1 a goldsmith1 who in or about ,august1 #adej1 lent ,gutenberg eight hundred guilders to enable him to print books1 himself1 nominally or truly1 borrowing the money from another capitalist1 and thereby gaining the right to charge interest on it without breaking the canon law4 ,by about ,december1 #adeb1 the loan was exhausted1 and ,fust made a fresh advance of the same amount4 ,the inner history of the next four years is hid from us1 and the undisputed facts which belong to them have consequently been interpreted in every variety of way that human ingenuity can devise4 ,these facts are that-- 7i7 ,printing was continued with the fount of type used for the ,calendar attributed to #addh1 fragments of more than a dozen different editions of ,donatus printed with it being still extant1 also a prognostication1 ,manung widder die ,durken1 printed in ,december1 #aded1 a ,bull of ,pope ,calixtus widder die ,turcken of #adef1 a medical ,calendar for #adef1 and an undated ,cisianus1 another work of an astronomical character4 7ii7 ,when the pardoners employed by the proctor-general of the ,king of ,cyprus came to ,mainz in the autumn of #aded to raise money by means of a papal ,indulgence1 valid till #cj ,april of the following year1 they were able to substitute two typographically distinct editions for the manuscript copies which they had previously used1 the text of each of these ,indulgences being printed in a separate fount of beautifully clear small type1 while a larger type was used for a few words4 ,in one of these ,indulgences the larger type belongs1 with some differences1 to the same fount as the books named in our last paragraph4 ,this ,indulgence has thirty-one lines1 and four issues of it have been distinguished1 three of them dated #aded 7the earliest of these being the earliest dated piece of printing7 and the fourth #adee4 ,in the other ,indulgence there are only thirty lines1 the large type is neater1 and three issues have been distinguished1 one dated #aded1 the other two #adee4 7iii7 ,in ,november1 #adee1 an action brought by ,fust to recover the #afjj guilders which he had lent ,gutenberg1 with the arrears of interest1 reached its final stage4 ,in this suit the third of the ,mainz protagonists1 ,peter ,schoeffer1 was a witness on the side of ,fust1 and we hear also1 as servants of ,gutenberg1 of ,heinrich ,keffer and ,bertolf von ,hanau1 who may apparently be identified with printers who worked subsequently at ,nuremberg and ,basel4 ,the document which has come down to us and is now preserved at the ,university ,library at ,gottingen is that recording the oath taken by ,fust1 as the successful plaintiff1 in order to obtain judgment for the amount of his claim4 7iv7 ,in ,august1 #adef1 ,heinrich ,cremer1 vicar of the collegiate church at ,mainz1 recorded his completion of the rubrication and binding of a magnificent printed ,bible in two volumes1 now preserved in the ,bibliotheque ,nationale at ,paris1 the type of which used to be thought identical with the larger type of the thirty-line ,indulgence mentioned above1 but is now considered to be only closely similar4 ,for this last undoubted date of rubrication1 ,august1 #adef1 ,german bibliographers have lately substituted a reference to a manuscript date1 #adec1 in another copy of this printed ,bible1 now preserved in the ,buchgewerbe-,museum at ,leipzig1 formerly owned by a well-known ,german collector of the last century1 ,herr ,klemm4 ,while1 however1 this date appears to have been written at a period approximating to that of the production of the book1 its relevance as evidence of the date of printing is highly disputable1 more especially as there appear to be signs of erasure near it4 ,its owner1 ,herr ,klemm1 preserved a discreet silence as to its existence1 and it is certainly not obligatory at present to accept it as valid evidence4 ,in a work which does not pretend to the dignity of a history of printing it is impossible to discuss1 or even to enumerate1 the different theories as to the events of the years #adec-f1 which have been formulated to account for these facts4 ,the edition of the ,bible of which ,heinrich ,cremer rubricated the copy now at ,paris is so fine a book and so great a landmark in typographical history1 that the desire to regard it as the production of the man who is credited with the invention of printing1 ,johann ,gutenberg1 easily becomes irresistible4 ,to refuse to call it the ,gutenberg ,bible may1 indeed1 appear almost pedantic1 though its old name1 the ,mazarine ,bible1 which it gained from the accident of the copy in the ,mazarine ,library at ,paris being the first to attract attention1 still survives1 and it is also known among bibliographers as the ,forty-two ,line ,bible1 a safe uncontroversial title based on the number of lines in most of its columns4 ,whoever printed it appears to have been possessed of ample means and to have been a master of detail and an excellent organizer4 ,under the minute examination to which it has been subjected the book has yielded up some of its secrets1 and we know that it was printed simultaneously on six different presses1 that the body of the type was twice reduced1 forty-two lines finally occupying slightly less space than the forty which had at first formed a column1 that after the printing had begun it was resolved to increase the size of the edition1 and that there is some reason to think that eventually a hundred and fifty copies were printed on paper and thirty on vellum1#bj and that the paper was ordered in large quantities and not in small parcels as it could be paid for4 ,to the present writer it appears that if ,gutenberg had possessed the financial means1 the patience and the organizing power needed to push through this heavy piece of work in the way described1 it is difficult to perceive any reason why the capitalist ,fust should have quarrelled with him1 or to imagine how ,gutenberg exposed himself to such an action as that which ,fust successfully carried against him4 ,on the supposition that the ,bible was completed in or soon after #adec the difficulty becomes almost insuperable1 for it is inconceivable that if ,gutenberg had produced the book within a few months of receiving his second loan from ,fust he should not1 by the autumn of #adee1 have paid his creditor a single guilder1 either for principal or interest4 ,after his quarrel with ,fust1 ,gutenberg apparently had dealings with two other men1 with ,albrecht ,pfister who is found in possession of a later casting of the heavier fount of type in which the ,astrological ,calendar attributed to #addh had been printed1 and with a ,dr4 ,homery4 ,he ended his days as a pensioner at the court of the ,archbishop of ,mainz1 while ,fust1 with the aid of ,peter ,schoeffer1 whom he made his son-in-law1 developed a great business4 ,the inventor who lacks organizing power and whose invention never thrives till it has passed into other hands is no unfamiliar figure1 and such a conception of ,gutenberg perhaps accords better with the known facts of his career than that of a living incarnation of heroism and business ability such as his ,german eulogists love to depict4 ,according to a theory developed by the present writer in an article in ,the ,library for ,january1 #aijg 7,second ,series1 ,vol4 ,,viii71 though no originality is claimed for it1 the key to the situation lies in the assertion#ba made on behalf of ,peter ,schoeffer that his skill in engraving had enabled him to attain results denied to the two ,johns1 ,johann ,gutenberg and ,johann ,fust4 ,according to this theory1 it was ,schoeffer who engraved the two founts of small type used in the two sets of ,indulgences of #aded-e1 and thus demonstrated that the new art could be applied to produce every kind of book and document which had previously circulated in manuscript4 ,fust gave him his daughter ,christina in marriage1 and ,johann ,schoeffer1 the offspring of the alliance1 distinctly tells us that this was in reward for his services4 ,from the first1 or almost the first1 the firm adopted a policy of advertisement which other printers were slow to imitate1 the partners giving their names in their earliest colophons and making no secret of the fact that they were using an adinuentio artificiosa imprimendi ac caracterizandi which enabled them to dispense with the pen4 ,in #adfj1 in the ,catholicon of that year1 the work of an anonymous printer to which we shall have to recur 7see p4 #ea sqq471 the invention is distinctly claimed for ,mainz1 and from #adfg this claim was taken over by ,peter ,schoeffer1 who in the colophons of his subsequent books again and again celebrated ,mainz as the city singled out by divine favour to give the art to the world4 ,the fact that for nearly forty years 7#adfj-ii7 these statements remained unchallenged1 and passed into the contemporary history of the time1 is the strongest evidence in favour of the substantial invention of the art at ,mainz that can be conceived4 ,a single reference in #adiibb to prefigurations of a humbler kind in ,donatuses printed in ,holland and the presentation of a rival theory in #aefh cannot deprive of its due weight the evidence that during all the years when the facts were easily ascertainable judgment in favour of ,mainz was allowed to go by default4 ,but the ,fust and ,schoeffer colophons tell us more than this1 for while they make no mention of ,gutenberg they never claim the invention of printing as their own achievement4 ,it is clear that ,fust could not claim this himself1 and while he was alive his son-in-law did not think fit to put forward1 or allow to be put forward1 any claim on his own behalf4 ,it was only in #adfh1 when both ,gutenberg and ,fust were dead1 that ,schoeffer's corrector1 or reader1 ,magister ,franciscus1 was permitted to assert on his behalf1 in the ,justinian of that year1 that though two ,johns had the better in the race he1 like his namesake ,s4 ,peter1 had entered first into the sepulchre1 i4e4 the inner mysteries of printing4 ,the claim1 thus irreverently put forward1 is deprived of much of its weight by the moment at which it was made2 nevertheless it can hardly have been baseless4 ,the desire to credit ,gutenberg with some really handsome and important piece of printing has caused his name to be connected with two other large folios1 a ,latin ,bible1 of thirty-six lines to a column1 printed in a variety of the type used for the ,sibyllenbuch and the ,kalendar of #addh1 and a ,latin ,dictionary known by the name ,catholicon1 the work of a thirteenth century writer1 ,joannes ,balbus1 of ,genoa4 ,the type of the ,thirty-six ,line ,bible passed into the hands of ,albrecht ,pfister1 of ,bamberg1 who printed a number of popular ,german books with it in #adfa and #adfb4 ,there is considerable evidence1 moreover1 that a large number of copies of the ,bible itself were sold at ,bamberg about #adfj4 ,the greater part of the text appears to have been set up from a copy of the ,forty-two ,line ,bible4 ,where1 when1 and by whom it was printed we can only guess1 but the place was more probably ,bamberg than ,mainz1 and as the type is believed to have been originally ,gutenberg's1 and there is evidence that ,pfister1 when he began printing the popular books of #adfa-b1 was quite inexperienced1 ,gutenberg has certainly a better claim to have printed this volume than any one else who can be suggested4 ,the ,thirty-six ,line ,bible is a much rarer book than the ,forty-two ,line1 but copies are known to exist at the ,british ,museum1 ,john ,rylands ,library1 ,bibliotheque ,nationale1 and ,musee ,plantin1 and at ,greifswald1 ,jena1 ,leipzig1 ,stuttgart1 ,vienna1 and ,wolfenbuttel4 ,a copy is also said to be in private hands in ,great ,britain1 but has not been registered4 ,none has been sold in recent times4 ,besides the more complete copies mentioned above1 various fragments have been preserved and some of these are on vellum4 ,the vellum fragment of leaf #bjd now in the ,british ,museum was at one time used as a book-cover4 ,the ,catholicon is printed in a small type1 not very cleanly cut4 ,it was issued without printer's name1 but with a long colophon1 which has been translated3 ,by the help of the ,most ,high1 at ,whose will the tongues of infants become eloquent1 and who oft-times reveals to the lowly that which ,he hides from the wise1 this noble book ,catholicon1 in the year of the ,lord's ,incarnation #adfj1 in the bounteous city of ,mainz of the renowned ,german nation1 which the clemency of ,god has deigned with so lofty a light of genius and free gift to prefer and render illustrious above all other nations of the earth1 without help of reed1 stilus1 or pen1 but by the wondrous agreement1 proportion and harmony of punches and types has been printed and brought to an end4 ,upon this follow four ,latin verses in honour of the ,holy ,trinity and the ,virgin ,mary and the words ,deo ,gracias4 ,we can imagine an inventor who1 despite his invention1 remained profoundly unsuccessful1 writing the opening words of this colophon1 and it is not easy to see their appropriateness to any one else4 ,it is thus highly probable that ,gutenberg set up this book and refused to follow ,fust and ,schoeffer in their advertising ways4 ,he may even have had a special reason for this1 for among the forty-one copies registered 7almost all in great libraries7 two groups may be distinguished1 one embracing the copies on vellum and the majority of the paper copies1 the other the rest of the paper copies4 ,the groups are distinguished by various differences1 of which the most important is that in the one case the workmen used four and in the other two pins to keep the paper in its place while being printed4 ,an attractive explanation of all this would be that while ,gutenberg set up the book and was allowed to print for himself a certain number of copies1 there was a richer partner in the enterprise whose pressmen pulled the greater part of the edition4 ,but ,dr4 ,zedler1 who has brought together all the available information about the book in his monograph ,das ,mainzer ,catholicon1 has a different explanation4 ,in the same type as the ,catholicon are two small tracts of little interest1 the ,summa de articulis fidei of ,thomas ,aquinas1 and the ,dialogus of ,matthaeus de ,cracovia2 also an ,indulgence of ,pope ,pius ,,ii4 ,in #adfg the type is found in the hands of ,heinrich ,bechtermunze at ,eltvil1 who died while printing a vocabulary4 ,this was completed by his brother ,nicholas1 who also printed three later editions of it4 ,during the years which precede #adeg1 ,johann ,fust and ,peter ,schoeffer1 the one a goldsmith1 the other a clerk in minor orders of the diocese of ,mainz1 are involved in the obscurity and uncertainty which surround ,gutenberg's career4 ,reasons have been offered for believing that it was ,schoeffer who designed the small neat types used in the ,mainz ,indulgences of #aded-e1 and that he with his skill and ,fust with his money pushed the ,forty-two ,line ,bible to a successful completion4 ,if they printed this1 they no doubt printed also a liturgical psalter in the same type1 of which a fragment is preserved at the ,bibliotheque ,nationale at ,paris4 ,but we do not touch firm ground until we come to the famous ,psalter of #adeg1 the colophon of which leaves us in no doubt as to its typographical authorship4 ,this runs3 ,presens psalmorum#bc codex venustate capitalium decoratus ,rubricationibusque sufficienter distinctus ,adinuentione artificiosa imprimendi ac caracterizandi absque calami ulla exaracione sic effigiatus1 ,et ad eusebiam dei industrie est consummatus1 ,per ,iohannem fust ciuem maguntinum1 ,et ,petrum ,schoffer de ,gernszheim ,anno domini ,millesimo 4cccc4lvij4 ,in vigilia ,assumpcionis4 ,the present book of the ,psalms1 decorated with beautiful capitals and sufficiently marked out with rubrics1 has been thus fashioned by an ingenious invention of printing and stamping without any ploughing of a pen1 ,and to the worship of ,god has been diligently brought to completion by ,johann ,fust1 a citizen of ,mainz1 and ,peter ,schoeffer of ,gernsheim1 in the year of the ,lord1 #adeg1 on the vigil of the ,assumption4 ,thus in the ,psalter of #adeg we have the first example of a book informing us when and by whom it was manufactured2 it also illustrates in a very remarkable way the determination of the new partners to produce a volume which should fully rival the best shop-made manuscripts4 ,the effort to print rubrics had already been made in the ,forty-two ,line ,bible1 but the red printing was abandoned in that instance as too troublesome4 ,now it was revived with complete success1 and with the printed rubrics came also printed capitals or initial letters in two colours1 red and blue1 and several different sizes4 ,a good discussion of the manner in which these were printed will be found in the ,catalogue of the ,manuscripts and ,printed ,books exhibited at the ,historical ,music ,loan ,exhibition 7#ahhf7 by ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,j4 ,weale4 ,in an article in the first volume of ,bibliographica ,mr4 ,russell ,martineau showed that part of the edition was printed twice4 ,when ,mr4 ,martineau wrote nine copies were known1 all on vellum1 viz4 7i7 five of an issue of #adc leaves containing the ,psalms and ,canticles only1 these being at the ,british ,museum1 ,royal ,library ,windsor1 ,john ,rylands ,library1 ,bibliotheque ,nationale ,paris1 and ,royal ,library ,darmstadt2 7ii7 four of an issue of #age leaves1 containing also the ,vigils of the ,dead1 these being at the ,bibliotheque ,nationale ,paris1 ,university ,library ,berlin1 ,royal ,library ,dresden1 and ,imperial ,library ,vienna4 ,to these must now be added a copy of the larger issue1 wanting five leaves1 presented in #adfe by ,rene d',anjou to the ,franciscans of ,la ,baumette-les-,angiers and now in the municipal library at ,angers4 ,the distribution of the ,psalms in this #adeg edition is that of the general ,roman use1 but blank spaces were left for the insertion of the characteristic differences of the use of any particular diocese4 ,two years later 7#bi ,august1 #adei7 ,fust and ,schoeffer produced another ,psalter1 in the same types and with the same capitals1 with twenty-three instead of twenty lines to a page4 ,this was stated in the colophon to have been printed ad laudem dei ac honorem sancti ,jacobi1 and was thus apparently commissioned by the ,benedictine monastery of ,s4 ,james at ,mainz4 ,its arrangement is that generally in use at the time in ,german monasteries4 ,thirteen copies of this edition are preserved1 all on vellum1 viz4 four in ,england 7,british ,museum1 ,bodleian1 ,john ,rylands ,library1 and the ,earl of ,leicester's library at ,holkham71 two at ,paris1 one at the ,hague1 five in ,germany1 and one in ,mr4 ,morgan's collection at ,new ,york4 ,this last was bought by ,mr4 ,quaritch at the sale of the library of ,sir ,john ,thorold for ,l#diej4 ,between the production of these two ,psalters ,fust and ,schoeffer printed in the same types on twelve leaves of vellum the ,canon of the ,mass only1 obviously that it might be bought by churches which owned ,missals otherwise in good condition1 but with these much-fingered leaves badly worn4 ,the unique copy of this edition of the ,canon was discovered at the ,bodleian ,library in a ,mainz ,missal of #adic and identified by ,mr4 ,gordon ,duff4 ,it is described by ,mr4 ,duff in his ,early ,printed ,books1 and by ,dr4 ,falk and ,herr ,wallau in ,part ,,iii of the ,publications of the ,gutenberg ,gesellschaft1 with facsimiles of ten pages4 ,in ,october1 #adei1 ,fust and ,schoeffer took an important step forward by printing in small type the ,rationale ,diuinorum ,officiorum of ,gulielmus ,duranti1 a large work explaining the meaning of the various services of the ,church and the ceremonies used in them4 ,the text is printed in double columns with sixty-three lines in each column1 and the type measures #ia mm4 to twenty lines4 ,a copy at ,munich is printed partly on paper1 partly on vellum4 ,all the other forty-two copies described by ,mr4 ,de ,ricci are entirely on vellum4 ,the book has also one large and two smaller capitals printed in two colours1 and the first of these has been reproduced as a frontispiece to this chapter1 together with a piece of the neat small type which1 by demonstrating the possibility of cheap printing1 set up a real landmark4 ,in #adfj ,fust and ,schoeffer gave another proof of their skill in their edition of the ,constitutions of ,pope ,clement ,v with the commentary of ,joannes ,andreae4 ,the text of the ,constitutions is printed in two columns in the centre of each page in a type measuring #aah mm4 to twenty lines1 with the commentary completely surrounding it in the #ia type used in the ,duranti4 ,headings and colophon are printed in red1 and the general effect is extremely rich and handsome4 ,all the fourteen copies known to ,mr4 ,de ,ricci are printed on vellum4 ,in #adfa printing was put to a new use by the publication of a series of eight placards 7one in two editions7 relative to the struggle between the rival archbishops of ,mainz--a papal bull deposing ,diether von ,isenburg1 the ,emperor's confirmation of this1 papal briefs as to the election of ,adolf von ,nassau1 a petition of ,diether's to the ,pope1 and the manifestos of the two archbishops4 ,all these1 and also a bull of the same year as to a crusade against the ,turks1 are printed in the neat #ia type1 and though we may be struck by the difficulty of reading the long lines unrelieved by any headings1 these publications must have been a great advertisement for the new art4 ,in #adfb the archiepiscopal struggle led to ,mainz being sacked1 but on #ad ,august there was completed there perhaps the finest of all the early ,bibles1 printed throughout in the #aah type1 with headings in red and numerous two-line capitals and chapter-numbers in red and blue1 though spaces were left for others to be supplied by hand4 ,three different colophons to this book have been described1 and examples of all of these are in the ,british ,museum4 ,of the sixty-one extant copies registered by ,mr4 ,de ,ricci at least thirty-six are printed on vellum4 ,the ,lamoignon copy bequeathed to the ,museum by ,mr4 ,cracherode has good painted capitals added by hand and is a singularly fine book4 ,the ,bible of #adfb marks the close of the great period of printing at ,mainz4 ,whether six1 seven1 or nine years separate it from the ,forty-two ,line ,bible the time had been splendidly employed4 ,the capacity of the new art had been demonstrated to the full1 and taken as a group these early ,fust and ,schoeffer incunabula have never on their own lines been surpassed4 ,the disaster of the sack of ,mainz and perhaps the financial strain involved in the production of the ,bible almost reduced their press to silence until #adfe1 and it was during these years that their workmen are said to have left them and begun carrying the art into other towns and countries4#bd ,when the partners resumed active work in #adfe they struck out a new line in their ,de ,officiis and ,paradoxa of ,cicero1 but attained no special excellence in such small folios and quartos4 ,fust died about this time1 and ,schoeffer1 left to himself1 displayed no further originality4 ,the ,bible of #adgb1 save for the absence of printed capitals1 is a close copy of that of #adfb4 ,the ,clementine ,constitutions of #adfj were reprinted1 and similar editions were issued of the ,institutes and ,codex of ,justinian1 ,decretals of ,pope ,gregory ,,ix1 etc4 ,for his miscellaneous books ,schoeffer seems rather to have followed the lead of other printers at ,strassburg and ,rome than to have set new fashions himself4 ,in #adhc he printed a ,breslau ,missal1 and this was followed by two reprints and editions for the use of ,cracow1 ,meissen1 ,gnesen1 and ,mainz itself4 ,he also printed the ,hortus ,sanitatis in #adhe1 and in #adij the first of several ,psalters in the style of the editions of #adeg and #adei4 ,in #aejc he was succeeded by his son ,johann4 ,about #adgf-hj a few unimportant books were issued at ,mainz by an anonymous printer known as the ,printer of the ,darmstadt ,prognostication1 from the fact that the first copy of the ,prognostication in question to attract notice was that in the ,darmstadt library4 ,the books of this press attained undeserved notoriety from the forged dates inserted in many of them about #ahjj1 in order to connect them with ,gutenberg4 ,the work of three other printers1 ,johann ,neumeister1 ,erhard ,reuwich1 and ,jacob ,meidenbach is chiefly important in the history of book-illustration1 and will be found mentioned in ,chapter ,,vii4 ,the only other ,mainz printer in the fifteenth century was ,peter von ,friedberg1 who is chiefly notable as having printed a little series of works by ,johannes ,trithemius 7,tritheim or ,trittenheim71 the erudite ,abbot of ,spanheim4 ,after about #adgb ,mainz was easily surpassed as a centre of printing by ,strassburg1 ,cologne1 ,augsburg1 and ,nuremberg4 ,but if no book had been printed there after the sack of the city ten years earlier1 its fame as long as civilization lasts would still be imperishable4 ,,footnotes3 #ah ,her maiden name was ,elsa ,wyrich1 but she lived at the ,hof zum ,gutenberg at ,mainz1 and the name ,gutenberg thus came into the family4 #ai ,it will be noted that this connection with ,strassburg offers just a grain of evidence in favour of the ,donatuses having been printed there rather than at ,mainz4 #bj ,according to the excellent ,catalogue raisonne des premieres impressions de ,mayence of ,mr4 ,seymour de ,ricci1 eleven copies on vellum and thirty on paper can now be located1 but some of these have only one of the two volumes4 ,the vellum copy belonging to ,mr4 ,robert ,hoe sold in #aiaa for #ej1jjj4 #ba ,in the verses by ,magister ,franciscus in the ,justinian of #adfh1 subsequently twice reprinted4 #bb ,in the ,cologne ,chronicle4 ,see supra1 p4 #cd4 #bc ,misprinted spalmorum4 #bd ,it seems reasonable to believe that ,ulrich ,zell1 the first printer at ,cologne1 who was a clerk of the diocese of ,mainz1 and ,sweynheym and ,pannartz1 who introduced printing into ,italy1 owed their training to ,fust and ,schoeffer4 ,,chapter ,v ,,other ,,incunabula ,in ,august1 #adfb1 the struggle between its rival ,archbishops led to ,mainz being sacked4 ,very little more printing was done there until #adfe1 and we need not doubt the tradition that journeymen trained by ,gutenberg and ,fust and ,schoeffer1 finding no work for them at ,mainz1 carried such experience as they had gained to other towns and countries1 where they appear1 after a few years spent in manufacturing presses and types1 in all the glory of prototypographers4 ,but even before #adfb two other cities possessed the art--,bamberg and ,strassburg4 ,at ,bamberg it was practised possibly by ,gutenberg1 who may have printed there the ,thirty-six ,line ,bible about #adeg1 certainly by ,albrecht ,pfister1 who is found in possession of the type of this ,bible1 and may himself have had copies for sale4 ,the books he himself printed at ,bamberg are nine in number1#be and three or four bound volumes seem to have preserved all the remnants of them that we possess1 and all of these have found their way to public libraries4 ,the large and stately folios produced by the early ,strassburg printers have naturally resisted the ravages of time better than the ,bamberg popular books4 ,certainly clumsier than the contemporary ,mainz books1 they yet have a dignity and character of their own which command respect4 ,the first ,strassburg printer1 ,johann ,mentelin1 was at work there in or before #adfj1 and was helped during his life and succeeded after his death 7#adgg7 by his son-in-law1 ,adolf ,rusch1 who never put his name to a book1 and most of whose impressions pass under the name of the ,r-printer1 from the peculiar form of that letter found in one of his types4 ,mentelin himself did not place his name at the end of a book till he had been at work more than a dozen years2 ,heinrich ,eggestein1 who began work about #adfd1 was equally reticent1 and throughout the 'seventies and 'eighties a large proportion of the books printed at ,strassburg were anonymous4 ,heinrich ,knoblochtzer1 who started about #adgf1 combines some of the charm of the earlier printers with greater literary interest and the attraction of illustrations and ornamental capitals and borders4 ,of him we shall have to speak in a later chapter4 ,but after #adhe the bulk of ,strassburg printing was dull and commercial4 ,in the fifteenth century ,basel was not yet1 as it became in #aeja1 a member of the ,swiss ,confederacy1 and typographically its relations with ,mainz1 ,strassburg1 ,nuremberg and other ,german towns were very close4 ,in what year printing began there is not known4 ,there is no dated book from a ,basel press until as late as #adgd1 but the date of purchase1 #adfh1 in a book 7,s4 ,gregory's ,moralia in ,job71 printed by ,berthold ,ruppel1 of ,hanau1 takes us back six years1 and it is possible that ,ruppel was at work even before this4 ,he is identified with reasonable certainty with one of the servants of ,gutenberg mentioned in connection with the lawsuit ended in #adee1 and he printed ,latin ,bibles and other large works such as appealed to the ambition of the ,german prototypographers4 ,illustration3 ,,vi4 ,,cologne1 ,,ulrich ,,zell1 #adfe-ff ,,cicero4 ,,de ,,officiis 7#g;b7 ,the second and more interesting ,basel printer1 ,michael ,wenssler1 seems to have taken ,schoeffer as his model1 and reprinted many of ,schoeffer's editions1 following the wording of his colophons and investing them with the same glories of red ink4 ,whereas1 however1 from about #adgf ,schoeffer's activity was much less conspicuous1 ,wenssler for the next ten years poured out edition after edition of all the heaviest legal and theological works1 until he must have overstocked the market4 ,then he devoted himself almost exclusively to liturgical printing1 but his affairs became hopelessly involved1 and in #adia he fled from his creditors at ,basel1 and became a wandering printer1 finding commissions at ,cluny and ,macon1 and then settling for a time at ,lyon4 ,many of the early printers in ,italy made this mistake of flooding the market with a single class of book1 but ,wenssler is almost the only notable example in ,germany of this lack of business instinct4 ,travelling along the ,rhine from ,mainz in the opposite direction we come to ,cologne1 and here ,ulrich ,zell1 like ,berthold ,ruppel1 a native of ,hanau1 but who calls himself in his books a clerk of the diocese of ,mainz1 enrolled his name on the register of the ,university in ,june1 #adfd1 doubtless for the sake of the business privileges which the ,senate had it in its power to confer4 ,the first dated book from his press1 ,s4 ,john ,chrysostom1 ,super psalmo quinquagesimo 7,psalm li41 according to our ,english reckoning71 was issued in #adff1 but before this appeared he had almost certainly produced an edition of the ,de ,officiis 7see the frontispiece to this chapter1 ,plate ,,vi71 the most popular of ,cicero's works in ,germany1 which ,fust and ,schoeffer had printed in #adfe and reprinted the next year4 ,avoiding the great folios on which the early printers of ,mainz1 ,strassburg1 and ,basel staked their capital1 ,zell's main work was the multiplication of minor theological treatises likely to be of practical use to priests4 ,of these he issued countless editions in small quarto1 along with a comparatively few small folios1 in which1 however1 his skill as a printer is seen to better advantage4 ,he continued in active work until #adid1 gave1 as we have seen 7,chapter ,,iii471 his version of the origin of printing to the compiler of the ,cologne ,chronicle published in #adii1 and was still alive as late as #aejg4 ,zell's earliest rival at ,cologne was ,arnold ther ,hoernen1 who printed from #adgj to #adhb4 ,he may very likely have been self-taught1 for his early work is very uneven1 but he developed into an excellent craftsman4 ,he is the first notable example of a printer getting into touch with a contemporary author1 and regularly printing all his works1 the author in this case being ,werner ,rolewinck1 a ,carthusian of ,cologne1 who wrote sermons and historical works1 including the ,fasciculus ,temporum1 an epitome of history1 which found much favour all over ,europe4 ,ther ,hoernen used to be credited with the honour of having printed the first book with a titlepage1 the ,sermo ad populum predicabilis ,in festo presentacionis ,beatissime ,marie semper virginis of #adgj4 ,schoeffer1 however1 had preceded him by some seven years by devoting a separate page to the title of each of his editions of a ,bull of ,pius ,,ii 7see p4 #ic71 and as neither printer continued the practice these isolated instances must be taken as accidental4 ,in the same book1 ther ,hoernen for the first time placed printed numbers on the leaves1 but this improvement also was not followed up4 ,the third ,cologne typographer1 ,johann ,koelhoff the ,elder1 was the first 7in #adgb7 to place printed signatures on the quires of a book1 so as to show the binder the order in which they were to be arranged4 ,hitherto the quires had been marked by hand1 and this improvement was not suffered to drop for a time like the others1 but quickly spread all over ,europe4 ,at ,augsburg ,gunther ,zainer completed his first book1 an edition of the ,latin ,meditations on the ,life of ,christ taken from the works of ,s4 ,bonaventura1 on the #acth ,march1 #adfh4 ,though he followed this with three heavy books which had found favour at ,mainz and ,strassburg1 ,zainer had the wisdom to strike out a line for himself4 ,augsburg had long been the chief centre of the craftsmen who cut and printed the woodcuts of saints1 for which there seems to have been a large sale in ,germany1 and also the pictures used for playing-cards4 ,the cutters were at first inclined to regard the idea of book-illustrations with suspicion1 as likely to interfere with their existing business4 ,it was decided1 however1 by the local ,abbot of ,,ss4 ,ulrich and ,afra1 an ecclesiastic with typographical tastes1 that illustrated books might be printed so long as members of the wood-cutters' guild were employed in making the blocks4 ,with this as a working agreement1 illustrated books greatly prospered at ,augsburg1 not only ,gunther ,zainer1 but ,johann ,bamler and ,anton ,sorg 7a very prolific printer71 turning them out with much success throughout the 'seventies4 ,at ,nuremberg printing was introduced in #adgj by ,johan ,sensenschmidt1 who for a short time had as his partner ,heinrich ,kefer1 of ,mainz1 another of ,gutenberg's servants4 ,much more important1 however1 was the firm of ,anton ,koberger1 who began work the next year1 and speedily developed the largest business of any printer in ,germany4 ,koberger was able to deal successfully in all the heavy books1 which after #adhj other firms found it wiser to leave alone1 and seems to have employed ,adolf ,rusch at ,strassburg and perhaps other printers elsewhere1 to print for him4 ,he also printed towards the end of the century some very notable illustrated books4 ,next to ,koberger1 ,friedrich ,creussner1 who started in #adgc1 had the largest business in ,nuremberg1 and ,georg ,stuchs made himself a reputation as a missal printer1 a special department from which ,koberger held aloof4 ,at ,speier1 after two anonymous firms had worked in #adga and #adgb without much success1 ,peter ,drach 7#adgg7 developed an important business4 ,at ,ulm ,johann ,zainer1 a kinsman of ,gunther ,zainer1 of ,augsburg1 began in #adgc by printing illustrated books1 which were subsequently taken up in the 'eighties by ,leonhard ,holle1 ,conrad ,dinckmut1 and ,johann ,reger1 while ,zainer himself became a miscellaneous printer4 ,at ,lubeck ,lucas ,brandis produced a universal history called the ,rudimentum ,nouitiorum in #adge and a fine ,josephus1 important liturgical work being subsequently done by ,bartholomaeus ,ghotan1 ,matthaeus ,brandiss and ,stephan ,arndes1 similar work being also produced at ,magdeburg partly by some of these ,lubeck printers4 ,fine liturgical work was also done at ,wurzburg by ,georg ,reyser1 who may previously have printed anonymously at ,speier1 and who started his kinsman ,michel in a similar business at ,eichstatt4 ,at ,leipzig1 where ,marcus ,brandis printed one or two books in #adha1 and the following years1 a sudden development took place about #adij1 and a flood of small educational works was poured out by some half a dozen printers1 of whom ,conrad ,kachelofen and ,martin ,landsberg were the most prolific4 ,presses were also set up in numerous other places1 so that by the end of the century at least fifty ,german cities1 towns and villages had seen a printer at work4 ,in many of these the art took no root1 and in some the printer was only employed for a short time to print one or more books for a particular purpose4 ,but the total output of incunabula in ,germany was very large1 and leaving out of count the fugitive single sheets1 the scanty remnants of which can bear no relation to the thousands which must have been produced1 out of about #be1jjj different books and editions printed in the fifteenth century registered as extant at the time of writing probably nearly a third were produced in ,germany4 ,if1 as is likely1 a large proportion of the eleven thousand undescribed incunabula 7among which1 however1 there must be many duplicates and triplicates7 reported to have been discovered by the agents of the ,german ,royal ,commission for a ,general ,catalogue of ,incunabula are ,german1 this rough estimate must be largely increased1 and it may be proved that ,germany was as prolific as ,italy itself4 ,considerable as was this output of ,german printing at home1 it was probably nearly equalled by the work done by ,german printers in the other countries of ,europe to which they hastened to carry the new art4 ,turning first to ,italian incunabula we find that the first book printed in ,italy has perished utterly4 ,the cruel little ,latin grammar which passed under the name of ,donatus had1 as we have seen1 been frequently printed in ,holland and by the first ,mainz printers1 and there are several later instances of an edition of it being produced as soon as a press was set up1 merely to show the printer's types4 ,this was done by ,conrad ,sweynheym and ,arnold ,pannartz1 the two ,germans who began printing at the monastery of ,saint ,scholastica at ,subiaco1 some forty miles from ,rome1 in #adfe1 or perhaps in the previous year4 ,being a school-book1 the ,donatus was thumbed to pieces1 so that no copy now survives1 and it is only known from the printer's allusion to it as the book unde imprimendi initium sumpsimus in a list of their publications drawn up in #adgb4 ,of the three other books printed by them at ,subiaco1 ,cicero's ,de ,oratore has no printed date1 but a copy described by ,signor ,fumagalli bears a manuscript note dated ,pridie ,kal4 ,octobres ,m4cccclxv41 i4e4 #cj ,september1 #adfe1 the authenticity of which has1 however1 been challenged1 though probably without good reason4 ,the two others both bear printed dates1 the works of ,lactantius1 that of #bi ,october1 #adfe1 and ,s4 ,augustine's ,de ,ciuitate ,dei1 #ab ,june1 #adfg4 ,probably even before this last book was completed the printers were already moving some of their material to ,rome1 where they found shelter in the palace of ,pietro de' ,massimi1 for their edition of the ,epistulae ,familiares of ,cicero was completed there in the same year1 probably in or before ,november4 ,even so it is not certain that this was the first book printed at ,rome1 for ,ulrich ,han1 a native of ,vienna and citizen of ,ingolstadt1 whose later work1 like that of ,michael ,wenssler at ,basel1 shows a tendency to imitate ,schoeffer1 completed an edition of the ,meditationes de vita ,christi of ,cardinal ,turrecremata on the last day of the same year1 and ,mr4 ,proctor 7after the publication of his ,index7 assigned to ,han's press and to an even earlier date than the ,meditationes a bulky edition of the ,epistles of ,s4 ,jerome1 which must certainly have taken a year to print4 ,the career of ,sweynheym and ,pannartz in partnership at ,rome lasted but little over six years1 their latest book bearing the date #ca ,december1 #adgc4 ,already in ,march1 #adgb1 they were in difficulties1 and printed a letter to ,pope ,sixtus ,,iv begging for some pecuniary aid4 ,they had printed1 they said1 no fewer than #aa1dge volumes1 and gave a list of the different books and of the numbers printed of each4 ,four of these editions were of #cjj copies1 the rest of #bge1 and we can see from the list that there had been three editions of the ,lactantius and ,de ,ciuitate ,dei and two each of ,cicero's ,epistulae ,familiares1 ,de ,oratore1 and ,opera ,philosophica1 and also of ,virgil1 so that clearly some of their books had shown a profit4 ,but the list is entirely made up of ,latin classics1 profane and theological1 and by ,march1 #adgb1 printing had been introduced into at least ten other ,italian cities 7,venice1 ,foligno1 ,trevi1 ,ferrara1 ,milan1 ,florence1 ,treviso1 ,bologna1 ,naples1 and ,savigliano71 and in most1 if not all of these1 the one idea of the first printers was to produce as many ,latin classics as possible1 as though no other firm in ,italy were doing the same thing4 ,unable to obtain help from the ,pope1 ,sweynheym and ,pannartz dissolved partnership1 the former devoting himself to engraving maps for an edition of ,ptolemy's ,geographia1 which he did not live to see 7it was printed by ,arnold ,bucking in #adgh71 while ,pannartz resumed business on a somewhat smaller scale on his own account1 and died in #adgf4 ,at ,venice1 the first printer1 ,johann of ,speier1 seems to have had some foreboding of what might happen1 and thoughtfully protected himself against competition by procuring from the ,senate an exclusive privilege for printing at ,venice during the space of five years4 ,this might seriously have retarded the development of the press at ,venice4 ,johann1 however1 after printing two editions of ,cicero's ,epistulae ad familiares and ,pliny's ,historia naturalis in #adfi1 was carried off by death while working on his fourth book1 ,s4 ,augustine's ,de ,ciuitate ,dei1 in #adgj1 and his brother ,wendelin1 or ,vindelinus1 who took over the business1 had no privilege to protect him from competition4 ,in #adgj1 the way thus being left clear1 a ,frenchman1 ,nicolas ,jenson1 set up the second press in ,venice1 and by the beauty of his fine ,roman type speedily attained a reputation which has lasted to this day4 ,another fine printer1 ,christopher ,valdarfer1 produced his first book in the same year4 ,in #adga three other firms 7an ,italian priest1 ,clemente of ,padua1 and two ,germans1 ,adam of ,ammergau and ,franz ,renner of ,heilbronn7 began publishing1 and in #adgb yet seven more 7three ,germans and four ,italians74 ,but the pace was impossible1 and by this time men were rapidly falling out4 ,as we have seen1 ,sweynheym and ,pannartz1 after their ineffectual attempt to obtain a subsidy from the ,pope1 dissolved their partnership at ,rome after #adgc1 and ,ulrich ,han in #adga had taken a moneyed partner1 with whose aid he weathered the storm4 ,at ,venice ,wendelin1 after producing thirty-one books in the previous two years1 reduced his output to six in #adgc1 and soon after seems to have ceased to work for himself4 ,jenson's numbers sank from twenty-eight in #adga-b to six in #adgc-d4 ,valdarfer gave up after #adga1 and is subsequently found at ,milan4 ,other ,venetian printers also dropped out1 and only two new firms began work in #adgc4 ,at ,florence after the first printer ,bernardo ,cennini and his sons had produced a ,virgil in #adga1 and ,johann ,petri of ,mainz ,boccaccio's ,philocolo and ,petrarch's ,trionfi in #adgb1 printing ceased for some years4 ,presses started at ,foligno1 ,trevi1 and ,savigliano came to a speedy end4 ,at ,treviso1 where ,gerardus ,lisa had published four books in #adga1 there was1 according to ,mr4 ,proctor1 a gap from ,december in that year till the same month in #adgd1 though ,dr4 ,copinger quotes one book each for the intervening years4 ,only one book was published at ,ferrara in #adgc4 ,what happened at ,naples is hard to say1 since ,sixtus ,riessinger1 the first printer there1 issued many books without dates4 ,at ,bologna trade seems to have been stationary4 ,at ,milan1 where both ,antonius ,larotus in #adga and ,philippus de ,lavagna in #adgb had begun with extreme caution1 there was healthy progress1 and these two firms continued issuing editions of the classics1 and with the great falling off of competition may have found it profitable to do so4 ,but of the reality of the crisis in the ,italian book trade in #adgb-c1 although little is said of it in histories of printing1 there can be no doubt4 ,when it was over there were symptoms of a similar over-production of some of the great legal commentaries4 ,but this danger was avoided4 ,there was a steady increase in the range of the literature published1 and the bourgeois book-buyer was remembered as well as the aristocratic student4 ,soon there came a great extension1 not only of the home but of the foreign market1 and ,italy settled down to supply the world with books1 a task for which ,venice1 both from its geographical position and its well-established commercial relations1 was peculiarly fitted4 ,but it is the books printed before #adgd that form the real ,italian incunabula4 ,in the subsequent work within the limits of the fifteenth century ,rome took no very important part4 ,ulrich ,han continued to print till #adgh4 ,joannes ,philippi de ,lignamine1 ,papal ,physician and native of ,sicily1 produced some exceptionally interesting books between #adgj and #adgf1 and again in #adha-d1 and ,georg ,lauer1 who worked from #adgj to #adha1 and completed an edition of ,s4 ,jerome's ,letters1 left unfinished by ,pannartz at the time of his death1 showed himself a good craftsman4 ,the later printers1 especially ,stephan ,plannck and ,eucharius ,silber1 had some good types1 but produced few notable books1 the bulk of the ,roman output after #adhj being editions in small quarto of official documents and speeches at the ,papal ,court4 ,to devise any summary description of fifteenth century printing at ,venice is wellnigh impossible4 ,some #aej firms were at work there2 at a low estimate some four thousand extant books and editions must be credited to them1 and these embraced almost every kind of literature for which readers could be found in the fifteenth century1 and many varieties of craftsmanship4 ,from a decorative point of view1 the firm of ,erhard ,ratdolt did exceptionally good work1 and it is also remarkable for specializing mainly on astronomy1 mathematics1 and history4 ,liturgical printing began somewhat late 7there seems to have been a prejudice against printed service books in ,italy1 and ,i can remember none printed at ,rome72 in the fifteenth century ,johann ,hammann or ,herzog and ,johann ,emerich were its chief exponents4 ,franz ,renner produced chiefly ,latin theology1 a department much less predominant at ,venice than in ,germany4 ,several firms1 e4g4 ,jacques ,le ,rouge1 ,baptista de ,tortis1 ,andreas ,torresanus 7father-in-law of ,aldus and a very fine printer71 and ,georgius ,arrivabene devoted themselves like ,jenson first mainly to ,latin classics and then to law2 others1 such as ,filippo di ,pietro mingled ,latin and ,italian classics4 ,filippo's kinsman1 ,gabriele di ,pietro1 was one of the earliest vernacular printers4 ,many firms1 such as that of ,bonetus ,locatellus1 who seems to have had a ,university connection1 and printed all kinds of learned ,latin books1 despised the vernacular altogether4 ,the brothers ,giovanni and ,gregorio dei ,gregorii were perhaps the most prolific and miscellaneous printers in both ,latin and ,italian4 ,johannes ,tacuinus1 a learned printer towards the end of the century1 is notable for adorning his books with pictorial capitals1 mostly of boys at play4 ,aldus ,manutius will be spoken of in a later chapter4 ,while all this activity was displayed at ,venice other cities were not idle4 ,at ,milan upwards of eight hundred incunabula were produced1 mostly by its earliest printer1 ,antonius ,zarotus1 and two ,germans1 ,leonhard ,pachel and ,ulrich ,scinzenzeler4 ,ferrara seems to have been able to support only one press at a time1 and at ,florence it was some years before printing flourished1 but in the last quarter of the century many interesting books were printed there1 both learned and vernacular1 as to the illustrations in which much will have to be said later on4 ,some of the early ,treviso books from the press of ,gerard ,lisa are distinctly pretty4 ,bologna produced about three hundred incunabula4 ,naples probably not so many1 but of much better quality4 ,altogether well over ten thousand ,italian incunabula must still be extant1 and these were produced at no fewer than seventy different places1 though many of these were of no typographical importance1 and only find their way into histories of printing from having sheltered a wandering printer for a few weeks as he was on his way from one large town to another4 ,in ,france also the earliest books were addressed to students of the classics1 though they were produced on a much more limited scale4 ,there the first printers1 three ,germans1 had been invited to set up their presses at ,paris in the ,sorbonne by two of its professors1 ,guillaume ,fichet and ,jean ,heynlin1 of ,stein1 better known in his own day as ,johannes de ,lapide4 ,between the summer of #adgj and the autumn of #adgb eighteen works were printed at the ,sorbonne1 mostly of the kind which would be of use to its students4 ,among them was ,sallust1 three works of ,cicero1 ,virgil's ,bucolics and ,georgics1 the ,satires of ,juvenal and ,persius1 ,terence1 some text books1 the ,speculum ,humanae ,vitae of ,bishop ,roderic of ,zamora1 and the ,orations of ,fichet's patron1 ,cardinal ,bessarion4 ,in ,august1 #adgb1 the ,cardinal arrived in ,france on a fruitless mission to rouse the king to a crusade against the ,turks4 ,he was rebuffed and ordered to leave ,france4 ,fichet accompanied him1 and never returned to ,paris4 ,as early as the previous ,march ,heynlin seems to have been called away1 and now the imported ,german printers1 ,michael ,freiburger1 ,ulrich ,gering1 and ,martin ,crantz1 were left wholly to their own devices4 ,thus abandoned they printed four books of a less special character1 for which they sought princely instead of scholarly patronage1 and then in ,april1 #adgc1 moved from the ,sorbonne and set up for themselves at the sign of the ,soleil d',or in the ,rue ,s4 ,jacques4 ,here they printed still in ,latin1 but a much more popular class of books1 and soon had to contend with two rival firms1 that of ,pieter de ,keysere and ,johann ,stol1 and the printers at the sign of the ,soufflet ,vert or ,green ,bellows4 ,the finest of the subsequent printers was ,jean ,dupre1 who used excellent capitals and issued many illustrated books1 but three prolific printers1 ,antoine ,caillaut1 ,gui ,marchand1 and ,pierre ,levet1 along with many dull books issued some very interesting ones4 ,towards the end of the century an enterprising publisher1 ,antoine ,verard1 kept many of the ,paris printers busy1 and ,paris became noted typographically for its fine illustrated editions of the ,hours of the ,blessed ,virgin1 issued by ,verard1 ,dupre1 ,pigouchet 7and his publisher1 ,simon ,vostre71 and ,thielman ,kerver4 ,but these with the publications of ,verard belong to another chapter4 ,at ,lyon printing was introduced by the enterprise of one of its citizens1 ,barthelemi ,buyer1 who engaged ,guillaume ,leroy 7a native of ,liege7 to print for him1 and subsequently employed other printers as well4 ,the first ,lyon book was a little volume of popular religious treatises1 containing among other things the ,de miseria humanae conditionis of ,pope ,innocent ,,iii4 ,it was completed #ag ,september1 #adgc4 ,until nearly #adij the books printed at ,lyon were mainly popular in character with a considerable proportion of ,french books1 many of them illustrated4 ,from #adij onwards learned ,latin books occur more frequently1 and printing rapidly became as general or miscellaneous as at ,paris itself1 although only a single attempt was made1 unsuccessfully1 to rival the ,paris ,horae4 ,the two cities between them probably produced more than three-fourths of the three thousand incunabula1 which at a rough guess may be attributed to ,french presses1 the share of ,paris being about twice as great as that of ,lyon4 ,according to the stereotyped phrase1 printing was introduced into no fewer than thirty-seven other ,french towns during the fifteenth century1 but as a rule the printers were but birds of passage1 and it was only at ,poitiers 7#adgi7 and ,rouen 7#adhg7 that it took root and flourished continuously1 though on but a small scale4 ,in other towns the struggle to maintain a press continued for several years1 as at ,toulouse1 or was abandoned after the fulfilment of a single commission4 ,in ,holland the first books which bear the name of their printer and date and place of imprint are those produced at ,utrecht by ,nicolaus ,ketelaer and ,gerardus ,leempt1 who began work in #adgc4 ,it is tolerably certain1 however1 that some of the so-called ,costeriana 7see ,chap4 ,,ii7 preceded this date1 and they are at least as likely to have been printed at ,haarlem as at ,utrecht1 there being no decisive evidence in favour of either place4 ,no namable printer appears at ,haarlem until the end of #adhc1 when ,jacob ,bellaert set up a short-lived press there4 ,for some seven years 7#adgg-hd7 excellent work was done at ,gouda by ,gerard ,leeu1 who then moved to ,antwerp4 ,at ,delft1 where a fine ,bible was printed by ,jacob ,jacobszoen and ,mauricius ,yemantszoen in #adgg1 printing was kept up continuously by ,jacobszoen1 ,christian ,snellaert1 and ,hendrik ,eckert till the end of the century1 though there seems to have been only work enough for one firm at a time4 ,at ,zwolle1 ,pieter van ,os1 who began work in #adgi1 was able to maintain himself1 with a brief interval about #adhb1 till past the magic date #aejj4 ,lastly1 at ,deventer1 where ,richardus ,pafraet started in the same year1 an output was speedily attained greater than in any other ,dutch town1 and for the latter years of the century a rival firm1 that of ,jacobus de ,breda1 shared ,pafraet's prosperity4 ,the great majority of the ,deventer books1 however1 belong to the minor literature of ecclesiasticism and education1 and are far from exciting4 ,the beginnings of printing are much more interesting in the ,southern ,netherlands1 which correspond roughly to what we now call ,belgium4 ,here also the first positive date is #adgc1 the year in which ,johann of ,paderborn in ,westphalia1 best known to ,english collectors as ,john of ,westphalia1 printed three books at ,alost4 ,a fourth followed in ,may1 #adgd1 but by the following ,december ,john had removed to ,louvain1 a ,university town1 where he remained doing excellent and abundant work till nearly the end of the century4 ,at ,louvain he had found another printer1 ,jan ,veldener1 already in the field1 and seems to have hustled him away not very honourably4 ,veldener1 however1 was not ruined1 but is subsequently found at ,utrecht and ,kuilenburg1 and again for a short time at ,louvain4 ,at ,bruges the first printers were ,colard ,mansion and ,william ,caxton1 names well known to ,english book-lovers1 though not all the labours of ,mr4 ,william ,blades and ,mr4 ,gordon ,duff have made it quite clear which of the two was the leader4 ,only two ,english books were printed1 the ,recuyell of the ,histories of ,troy and ,the ,game and ,play of the ,chess1 when ,caxton returned to ,england and set up his presses in the ,almonry at ,westminster4 ,whether he had any pecuniary interest in the ,french ,recueil and the ,quatre ,dernieres ,choses1 and whether printings at ,bruges began with the ,recuyell1 or1 as ,mr4 ,proctor contended1 with the ,french ,boccaccio ,de la ruine des nobles hommes et femmes of #adgf1 are points of controversy4 ,from #adgg till his flight from ,bruges to avoid arrest for debt in #adhd1 ,mansion worked steadily by himself1 and the total output of his press amounts to twenty-five ,french works and two in ,latin4 ,at ,brussels the ,brothers of the ,common ,life1 who worked also as printers in other places1 published numerous popular ,latin works between #adgf and #adhg1 about which time their press seems to have stopped4 ,but the removal of ,gerard ,leeu's business from ,gouda to ,antwerp in #adhd soon gave that town a typographical importance which 7except for a few years at the end of the century7 it long maintained4 ,the true incunabula of the ,netherlands are1 of course1 the ,costeriana4 ,whatever view we may take of their date and birthplace1 they were undoubtedly home products1 with a strongly marked individuality4 ,ketelaer and ,leempt1 however1 at ,utrecht1 ,veldener at ,louvain and elsewhere1 ,caxton and ,mansion at ,bruges1 were real pioneers4 ,in a sense this is true also of ,john of ,westphalia and ,gerard ,leeu1 notably of the former1 who had learnt his art in ,italy and by the type which he had brought thence raised the standard of printing in his new home4 ,it is1 indeed1 almost exclusively at ,deventer that we get the dull commercial work which has nothing primitive or individual about it1 and thus1 perhaps because their grand total is so much smaller than in the case of ,germany1 ,italy1 or even ,france1 the special interest of incunabula attaches to rather a high proportion of the early books of the ,netherlands4 ,if this be true of the ,netherlands1 it is even truer of the two countries with which we have still to deal in this rapid survey1 ,spain and ,england4 ,of ,spanish incunabula about seven hundred are now registered2 of ,english1 three hundred is a fairly liberal estimate of the grand total still extant4 ,within the limits of the fifteenth century neither country reached the purely mechanical stage of book production to which so many ,german and ,italian books belong after about #adhe4 ,in ,england1 indeed1 this stage was hardly reached until the general downfall of good printing towards the end of the sixteenth century4 ,the first book printed in ,spain was a thin volume of poems in honour of the ,blessed ,virgin1 written by ,bernardo ,fenollar and others on the occasion of a congress held at ,valentia in ,march1 #adgd4 ,it offers no information itself on any bibliographical point1 but it was presumably printed not long after the congress1 at ,valentia where the congress was held1 and by ,lambertus ,palmart 7or ,palmaert71 who on #ah ,august1 #adgg1 completed there the third part of the ,summa of ,s4 ,thomas ,aquinas and duly described it as impressa ,valentie per magistrum ,lambertum ,palmart ,alemanum1 anno ,m4,,cccc4,,lxxvii1 die vero xviii4 mensis ,augusti4 ,palmart is supposed to have been a ,fleming 7a nationality to which the description ,alemannus is often applied71 but nothing is known of him4 ,he printed a work called ,comprehensorium and the ,bellum ,jugurthinum of ,sallust in ,february and ,july1 #adge1 without putting his name to them1 and these with the ,fenollar and other anonymous books now attributed to him are in roman type4 ,in #adgh he completed a ,catalan ,bible in conjunction with a native ,spaniard1 ,alonzo ,fernandez de ,cordoba1 and thereafter worked by himself until #adij1 using gothic types in these later books4 ,seven other firms worked at ,valentia during the fifteenth century1 but none of these attained much importance4 ,another ,fleming1 of the name of ,matthew or ,matthaeus1 printed the ,manipulus ,curatorum of ,guido de ,monte ,rotherii at ,saragossa in ,october1 #adge1 and five other presses were established there before #aejj1 that of ,paul ,hurus being the most prolific4 ,at ,tortosa a single book 7the ,rudimenta ,grammaticae of ,perottus7 was printed by ,nicolaus ,spindeler and ,pedro ,brun early in #adgg1 and in ,august of the same year ,antonio ,martinez1 ,alonso del ,puerto1 and ,bartolome ,segura completed the first fully dated book 7the ,sacramental of ,sanchez de ,vercial7 at ,seville1 where printing subsequently throve as much as anywhere in ,spain4 ,the following year ,spindeler and ,brun1 having moved from ,tortosa1 introduced printing into ,barcelona1 a date ,,mcccclxviii in a treatise by ,bartholomaeus ,mates1 ,pro condendis orationibus1 being obviously a misprint1 though to what it should be corrected cannot positively be shown4#bf ,at ,salamanca printing was introduced as early as #adha1 and continued more actively after #adib1 mainly for the production of educational works4 ,at ,burgos ,friedrich ,biel1 who had been trained under ,michael ,wenssler at ,basel1 began printing in #adhe1 and a native of the place1 ,juan de ,burgos1 brought out his first book in #adij1 both of these firms doing excellent work4 ,altogether1 twenty-four towns and places in ,spain possessed presses during the fifteenth century1 but in many cases only for a short time4 ,the outline of the story of printing in ,england during the fifteenth century may be very quickly sketched1 fuller treatment being reserved for a later chapter4 ,at ,michaelmas1 #adgf1 ,caxton rented premises in the ,almonry from the ,abbot of ,westminster1 and here he stayed till his death in #adia1 printing1 as far as we know1 about a hundred books and documents4 ,in #adgh a press was set up at ,oxford1 presumably by ,theodoric ,rood of ,cologne1 whose name1 however1 does not appear in any book until #adha4 ,by #adhe ,rood had been joined by an ,english stationer1 ,thomas ,hunte1 but in #adhf or the following year the press was closed after printing1 as far as we know1 only seventeen books4 ,the few books printed at ,oxford were all more or less scholastic in character1 and six out of eight works printed by ,caxton's second rival 7apparently a friendly one71 the ,schoolmaster-,printer at ,st4 ,albans1 belonged to the same class1 his two more popular books being ,caxton's ,chronicles of ,england1 with a new appendix1 and the famous ,book of ,st4 ,albans4 ,of these eight works1 the earliest bearing a date was issued in #adhj1 the latest in #adhf4 ,a more formidable competitor to ,caxton than either the ,oxford or the ,st4 ,albans printer began work in the ,city of ,london in #adhj4 ,this was ,john ,lettou1 i4e4 ,john the ,lithuanian1 who1 as ,mr4 ,gordon ,duff notes1 used type identical save in a single letter with a fount used at ,rome in #adgh by ,johann ,bulle of ,bremen4 ,lettou appears to have been financed in the first instance by a ,londoner1 ,william ,wilcock4 ,in #adhb he was joined by ,william ,machlinia 7presumably a native of ,malines71 and after five law books had been printed in partnership1 ,lettou dropped out1 and ,machlinia continued working by himself1 possibly until as late as #adij or #adia1 when his stock seems to have been taken over by ,richard ,pynson1 a ,norman1 from ,rouen4 ,on ,caxton's death in #adia his business passed into the hands of his foreman1 ,wynkyn de ,worde1 a native of ,lorraine4 ,the only other press started in the fifteenth century was that of ,julyan ,notary1 who worked at first with two partners1 ,i4,b4 and ,i4,h4 ,of these ,i4,b4 was certainly ,jean ,barbier1 and ,i4,h4 probably ,jean ,huvin of ,rouen4 ,we have no information as to the nationality of ,notary1 but if1 as seems probable1 he was a ,frenchman1 printing in ,england for some twenty years after ,caxton's death was wholly in the hands of foreigners4 99 99 99 99 99 ,meagre and bare of details as is this sketch of the beginnings of printing in the chief countries of ,europe1 it should yet suffice to prove that the purely arbitrary date #aejj and the slang word incunabula1 used to invest all fifteenth century impressions with a mystic value1 are misleading nuisances4 ,by the time that printing reached ,england it was beginning to pass into its commercial stage in ,germany and ,italy4 ,in both of these countries1 and in a less degree in ,france1 scores and hundreds of books were printed during the last fifteen years of the century which have little more connection with the invention of printing1 or the story of its diffusion1 than ,english or ,spanish books a century later4 ,from the point of view of the history of literature and thought there is much to be gained from the collection in large libraries of all books printed before #aeja4 ,from the point of view of the history of printing every decade of book-production has its interest1 and the decade #adij to #aejj among the rest4 ,incidentally it may be noted that in respect of book-illustration this particular decade in ,italy is one of exceptional interest4 ,but books of the third generation of ,german or ,italian printers1 men like ,flach1 for instance1 at ,strassburg1 or ,plannck at ,rome1 should not be collected under the idea that they are in any true sense of the word incunabula4 ,what constitutes a true incunable cannot be defined in a sentence4 ,we must consider the country or city as well as the book1 the individual man as well as the art of which he was perhaps a belated exponent4 ,the same piece of printing may have much more value and interest if we can prove that it was produced in one place rather than another4 ,after the publication of his ,index1 ,mr4 ,proctor satisfied himself that some anonymous books in roman type which he had classed as the work of an unidentified press at ,naples were really among the earliest specimens of ,palmart's typography in ,spain1 and one does not need to be a ,spaniard to appreciate the distinction thus added to them4 ,if sentiment is to count for anything we must admit the interest of the first books printed in any country which possesses an important history and literature--if only because we may legitimately be curious to know on what books a printer1 with all the extant literature to choose from1 ventured his capital as likely in that particular country and time to bring him the quickest and most profitable return4 ,that the first large book in ,germany was a ,bible1 the first books in ,italy ,latin classics1 the first produced for the ,english market one that we must call an historical romance1 cannot be regarded as merely insignificant4 ,nor are the differences in the types and appearance of the page unimportant1 for these also help to illustrate national characteristics4 ,if this is true of the early books printed in any country1 it is also true in only slightly less degree of those which first appeared in any great city which afterwards became a centre of printing4 ,strassburg1 ,cologne1 and ,nuremberg1 ,rome1 ,venice1 and ,florence1 ,paris and ,lyon1 ,antwerp and ,london 7if we may be permitted for once to ignore the separate existence of ,westminster71 each has its own individuality1 and in each case it is interesting to see with what wares1 and in what form1 the first printers endeavoured to open its purse-strings4 ,but when we come to towns and townlets some distinction seems needed4 ,i may be misled by secret sympathy with that often scholarly1 too often impecunious figure1 the local antiquary4 ,to him the first book printed in his native townlet1 though by a printer merely stopping on his way between one great city and another1 must needs be of interest1 and it is hard that its price should be forced beyond his reach by the competition between dealers keen to do business with a rich collector to whom the book will have none of the fragrance it would possess for him4 ,typographical itinerancy1 this printing by the roadside1 as we may almost call it1 must needs be illustrated in great collections1 like any other habit of the early printers4 ,but the ordinary private collector can surely dispense with buying books because they have been printed in places which have no associations for him1 of which perhaps he has never heard4 ,as for the individual man1 if we would keep any oases green in what may easily become a sandy desert1 we must surely treasure every trace of his personality4 ,one large element in the charm of incunabula is the human interest of difficulties overcome1 and wherever a craftsman began work by cutting a distinctive type to suit the calligraphic fashion of the neighbourhood1 at whatever date he started1 his books will still have some interest4 ,when he becomes articulate and tells us of his difficulties1 or boasts of how they have been overcome1 we may value his work still higher4 ,as the first book printed at ,florence1 the ,commentary of ,servius on ,virgil needs no added attraction1 and yet how much its charm is enhanced by its printers' addresses to the reader4 ,here is the second of them roughly ,englished3 ,to the ,reader4 ,bernardino ,cennini1 by universal allowance a most excellent goldsmith1 and ,domenico his son1 a youth of very good ability1 have been the printers4 ,pietro1 son of the aforesaid ,bernardo1 has acted as corrector1 and has made a collation with many very ancient copies4 ,his first anxiety was that nothing by another hand should be ascribed to ,servius1 that nothing which very old copies showed to be the work of ,honoratus should be cut down or omitted4 ,since it pleases many readers to insert ,greek words with their own hand1 and in their own fashion1 and these in ancient codices are very few1 and the accents are very difficult to mark in printing he determined that spaces should be left for the purpose4 ,but since nothing of man's making is perfect1 it must needs be accounted enough if these books 7as we earnestly hope7 are found exceptionally correct4 ,the work was finished at ,florence on ,october #e1 #adgb4 ,it is impossible to read a colophon such as this without feeling ourselves in the very atmosphere of the printing house1 with the various members of the printer's family at work around us4 ,blank spaces are found in many early books where ,greek quotations occurred in the manuscripts from which they were printed4 ,but it was not every printer who took so much trouble as ,cennini to justify the omission4 ,as many as twenty-one years later1 when printing in the great towns was becoming merely mechanical1 we find the same personal note in a little grammar-book printed at ,acqui4 ,here the colophon tells us3 ,the ,doctrinale of ,alexander of ,villedieu 7,god be praised67 comes to a happy end4 ,it has been printed amid enough inconveniences1 since of several things belonging to this art the printer1 in making a beginning with it1 could obtain no proper supply1 owing to the plague raging at ,genoa1 ,asti and elsewhere4 ,now this same work has been corrected by the prior ,venturinus1 a distinguished grammarian1 and that so diligently that whereas previously the ,doctrinale in many places seemed by the fault of booksellers too little corrected1 now by the application of his care and diligence it will reach men's hands in the most correct form possible4 ,after this date books will be printed in type of another kind1 and elegantly1 ,i trow2 for both artificers and a sufficiency of other things of which hitherto the putter forth has been in need he now possesses by the gift of ,god1 ,who disposes all things according to the judgement of ,his will4 ,late as he appeared and small as was the town at which he produced his one book--his hopes and promises as to others seem to have come to naught--this man had the true pioneer spirit1 and deserves to be remembered for it4 ,of a different kind1 but no less1 is the interest in what is perhaps my own favourite colophon1 that recording the death of ,gerard ,leeu at ,antwerp1 while engaged in printing an edition of ,the ,chronicles of ,england for the ,english market4 ,here ben endyd the ,cronycles of the ,reame of ,englond1 with their apperteignaunces4 ,enprentyd in the ,duchy of ,braband in the towne of ,andewarpe ,in the yere of our ,lord ,m4cccc4xciij4 ,by maistir ,gerard de leew a man of grete wysedom in all maner of kunnyng3 whych nowe is come from lyfe unto the deth1 which is grete harme for many a poure man4 ,on whos sowle ,god almyghty for hys hygh grace haue mercy4 ,amen4 ,leeu had been killed accidentally by one of his workmen in the course of a dispute1 and this testimonial to him in the colophon1 which reads as if the compositor had slipped it in of his own accord1 is very gracious and touching in its simplicity4 ,just as the possession of a personal colophon brings a book within a circle of interest to which it otherwise would not have approached1 so we may justly value a piece of printing all the more if it chances1 through any accident1 to throw light on the printer's methods4 ,i have felt a peculiar affection for an edition of ,valerius ,maximus1 printed by ,schoeffer in #adga1 ever since ,i discovered that a change in the form of the punctuation at certain points of the book makes it possible to work out the number of presses on which it was being printed1 the order in which the sheets were being set up1 and how quickly the type of the worked pages was distributed4 ,the slowness of the presswork in the simple form of press at first used obliged the printers to keep several presses1 sometimes as many as six1 occupied with different sections of the same book1 and the trouble they were given to make the end of one section join neatly to the beginning of the next has left many traces4 ,any book which thus lets us into the secrets of the early printing offices possesses in a very high degree the charm which should attach to an incunable1 if that hardly used word is to retain1 as it should1 any reference to the infancy of printing4 ,but more will be said as to this aspect of early books in our next chapter4 ,,footnotes3 #be ,two editions of ,boner's ,edelstein1 both illustrated with over a hundred woodcuts1 one dated #adth ,february1 #adfa 7copy at ,wolfenbuttel71 the other undated 7,royal ,library1 ,berlin72 ,die ,historij von ,joseph1 ,danielis1 ,judith1 ,hester1 dated in rhyming verse #adfb nat lang nach ,sand ,walpurgentag 7,rylands ,library and ,bibliotheque ,nationale72 the ,belial seu ,consolatio peccatorum of ,jacobus de ,theramo 7,rylands and ,germanisches ,museum1 ,nuremberg72 two issues of a ,german ,biblia ,pauperum with thirty-four woodcuts 7both at the ,bibliotheque ,nationale1 the first also at ,rylands and ,wolfenbuttel72 the same work in ,latin 7,rylands72 lastly two editions of a poem called ,rechtstreit des ,menschen mit dem ,tode 7both at ,wolfenbuttel1 the second also at the ,bibliotheque ,nationale74 #bf ,in its colophon the book is said to have been a docto viro ,bertolommeo ,mates conditus et per ,p4 ,johannem ,matoses ,christi ministrum presbiterumque castigatus et emendatus sub impensis ,guillermi ros et mira arte impressa per ,johannem ,gherlinc alamanum4 ,gherlinc is only heard of again in #adid1 and then not at ,barcelona4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,printing ,one great cause of changes of fashion in book-collecting is that after any particular class of book has been hotly competed for by one generation of book-lovers1 all the best prizes gradually get locked up in great public or private collections1 and come so seldom into the market that new collectors prefer to take up some other department rather than one in which it is impossible for them to attain any striking success4 ,the first-fruits of printing1 if reckoned strictly chronologically1 are probably as nearly exhausted as any class of book which can be named4 ,no matter how rich a man may be1 the chances of his ever obtaining a copy of the ,thirty-six ,line ,bible1 the #adeg ,psalter1 or the first book printed at ,venice1 are infinitesimally small4 ,other incunabula1 if not hopelessly out of reach even of the very rich1 are only likely to be acquired after many years of waiting and a heavy expenditure when the moment of possible acquisition arrives4 ,many of the books hitherto here mentioned belong to this class4 ,and yet1 from what may be called the logical as opposed to the chronological standpoint1 incunabula little1 if at all1 less interesting are still to be obtained at quite small prices by any one who knows for what to look4 ,any collector who sets himself to illustrate the evolution of the printed book from its manuscript predecessors1 and the ways of the early printers1 will find that he has undertaken no impossible task1 though one which will need considerable pursuit and good taste and judgment in the selection of appropriate specimens4 ,illustration3 ,,vii4 ,,venice1 ,,jenson1 #adgj ,,cicero4 ,,rhetorica 7#da;a7 ,roughly speaking1 it took about a century for printed books to shake off the influence of manuscript and establish their own traditions4 ,the earliest books had no titlepage1 no head-title1 no running title1 no pagination1 and no printed chapter-headings1 also no printed initials or illustrations1 blank spaces being left often for the one and occasionally for the other to be supplied by hand4 ,at the time when printing was invented the book trade in many large cities had attained a high degree of organization1 so that the work of the calligrapher or scribe was clearly distinguished from that of the luminer or illuminator1 and even from that of the rubricator 7rubrisher74 ,take1 for instance1 this ,bury ,st4 ,edmunds bill of #adfg for a ,psalter1 preserved among the ,paston ,letters3 ,for viij hole vynets1 prise the vynet xijd viijs ,item for xxj demi-vynets 444 prise the demi-vynett iiijd vijs ,item for ,psalmes letters xvc and di' 444 the prise of ,c4 iiijd vjs ijd ,item for p'ms letters lxiijc 444 prise of c4 jd vs iijd ,item for wrytynge of a quare and demi 444 prise the quayr xxd ijs vjd ,item for wrytenge of a calender xijd ,item for iij quayres of velym1 prise the quayr xxd vs ,item for notynge of v quayres and ij leves1 prise of the quayr viijd iiis vijd ,item for capital drawynge iijc and di'1 the prise iijd ,item for floryshynge of capytallis1 vc vd ,item for byndynge of the boke xijs ------------ lis ijd ------------ ,it is possible that the work in this case was all done by one man1 though it is equally possible that several were engaged on it1 under the direction of a master-scrivener1 but in either case the fact that vignettes and demi-vignettes1 psalter letters 7i4e4 the small red letters at the beginning of each verse of a psalm1 sometimes called versals71 the mysterious p'ms letters 7possibly the dabs of colour bestowed on small initials71 the writing of the text1 the writing of the calendar1 the musical notation1 and the drawing and flourishing the capitals1 were all charged separately1 at so much a piece or so much a hundred1 shows how distinct each operation was kept4 ,partly1 no doubt1 from policy1 so as not to rouse the wrath of more than one industry at a time1 partly to save themselves trouble and expense1 the earliest printers1 with few exceptions1 set themselves to supplant only the calligrapher1 and sold their books with all the blanks and spaces1 which the most modest or perfunctory scribe could have left to be filled by his kindred craftsmen4 ,no better starting-point for a typographical collection could be desired than fine copies of two well-printed books in which the printer has confined himself severely to reproducing the text1 leaving all headings1 capitals1 and ornaments to be supplied by hand4 ,in one 7as in the page from a book of ,jenson's1 which forms the illustration to this chapter1 ,plate ,,vii7 the blanks should remain blanks 7as more especially in early books printed in ,italy they often did remain71 in the other they should have been filled in with red ink or colours by a rubricator4 ,the owner of two such volumes is really as much at the fountain-head as the possessor of the ,mainz ,indulgences of #aded1 or any still earlier document that may yet be found4#bg ,this is the logical beginning1 and the logic of history is quite as interesting as the chronology4 ,from the starting-point of the book of which the printer printed nothing but the text the collector can advance in many different directions4 ,there was no regular and unbroken progress in the development of the modern form of book1 nor does it matter greatly that the examples of any particular improvement should be either absolutely or nearly the earliest4 ,the main thing is that they should be good illustrations of the special feature for which they are acquired4 ,the problem how to dispense with the aid of a rubricator had to be faced by countless printers in many different towns1 for rubricating by hand must have added very considerably to the cost of a book4 ,the obvious thing to do was to print in red all the headings1 chapter-numbers1 etc41 which the rubricator used to add in that colour4 ,but this was both expensive and troublesome1 as it involved two printings and the placing of the paper in exactly the same position in the press in each4 ,caxton and one or two other early printers tried to avoid this double printing and difficulty of registration by putting on both red and black ink at the same time--very probably1 where they came close together1 they were rubbed on with a finger--but this so often resulted in smudges and lines half of one colour1 half of another1 that it was soon abandoned4 ,double printing was mostly soon abandoned also1 except by the most expert men4 ,it was tried and abandoned by the printer of the ,forty-two ,line ,bible1 though subsequently ,fust and ,schoeffer completely mastered it4 ,between #adgb and #adgd it was tried and abandoned by almost every printer in ,strassburg4 ,the difficulty was generally#bh overcome by substituting1 for red ink used with type of the same size or face as the text1 type of a larger size or heavier face1 which could be printed in black ink with the text and yet stand out sufficiently clearly from it to catch the eye4 ,the need for this differentiation accelerated the tendency to reduce the size of types1 which was doubtless in the first place dictated by a desire for economy4 ,the earlier ,german text-types for ordinary books very commonly measure about #f mm4 a line4 ,to enable small differences to be shown they are quoted in the ,british ,museum ,catalogue of ,incunabula by the measurements of twenty lines1 and many of the early ,mainz and ,strassburg types range closely round the number #abj4 ,these large text-types are often the only ones used in a book1 notes or other accompaniments of the text being clumsily indicated by brackets or spaces4 ,the better printers1 however1 gradually imitated ,fust and ,schoeffer1 and along with their #abj text-types used smaller commentary types measuring about #d to #d7a_/b7 mm4 a line1 or from #hj to #ij mm4 for twenty lines4 ,in the great folio commentaries on the ,canon and ,civil ,law a very fine effect is produced by two short columns of text in large type being placed two-thirds way up the page and then completely surrounded by the commentary in smaller type1 also in double columns4 ,but the economy of using the smaller type for the text of books without commentary was quickly perceived1 and along with #d to #d7a_/b7 mm4 small text-types1 heavy and often rather fantastic types of just twice this size 7#h to #i mm4 a line1 #afj to #ahj mm4 to twenty lines7 came into use for headings1 and the opening words of books and chapters4 ,the same course was followed with respect to headlines1 when it was desired to add these to a book without the aid of a scribe4 ,eggestein printed one book with headlines in red1 but the same heavy type which was used for chapter headings was soon used for headlines1 and also1 with very ugly effect1 for numbering the leaves4 ,in considering what specimens of printing to collect ,englishmen who have been accustomed for more than two centuries to nothing but roman types may well be bewildered1 as they look through any volume of facsimiles1 by the extraordinary variety of the founts4 ,the main reasons for this variety may be sought 7#a7 in the dependence of the first printers on the styles of writing which they found in vogue at the time1 and in the countries and towns where they made their ventures2 and 7#b7 in the different styles considered appropriate to different classes of books--,latin and vernacular1 liturgical and secular1 etc4 ,even now1 when bookhands can hardly be said to exist1 the varieties of handwriting are endless1 and there are strongly marked differences between those of one country and another4 ,in the fifteenth century1 when there was less intercommunication between distant countries1 the differences were even greater4 ,as to this1 however1 it is possible to make some distinctions4 ,the unifying effect of the ,church is seen in the smaller range of variations in the books for liturgical use1 and the fellowship of scholars exercised at least some influence in the same direction4 ,in ,italy1 the home of ancient learning1 the aristocratic bookhand was the fine round minuscules which had been evolved1 by a conscious antiquarian revival1 from the bookhand of the twelfth century1 itself a revival of the ,carlovingian bookhand of the eighth and ninth4 ,sweynheym and ,pannartz1 being ,germans1 failed in the first instance to realize the hopelessness of seeking scholarly favour with any other kind of character1 and their ,subiaco books are printed in a light and pleasing gothic much admired by ,william ,morris1 and used by ,mr4 ,st4 ,john ,hornby for his splendid ,ashendene ,dante4 ,when they started afresh at ,rome in #adfg they gave up their gothic fount and used instead a fine roman character noticeable for its use of the long s at the end of words1 a peculiarity often found in ,italian manuscripts of this period4 ,the early printers at ,venice made no false start1 but all used roman characters from the outset1 ,venetian gothic type making its first appearance in #adgb4 ,that gothic type was used at all in ,italy was due partly to the difficulty found in cutting very small roman type1 so that gothic was used for economy1 partly to the advantages of the heavy gothic face when a contrast was needed between text and commentary4 ,in ,germany roman types were tried by ,adolf ,rusch 7the ,r-printer7 at ,strassburg about #adfd1 and by both ,gunther ,zainer at ,augsburg and ,johann ,zainer at ,ulm1 but met with no favour until in the last years of the century they were reintroduced for the books written or edited by ,brant1 ,locher1 ,wimpheling1 ,peter ,schott1 and the other harbingers of the new learning4 ,in the ,netherlands ,john of ,westphalia started with a round but rather thin roman type brought from ,italy4 ,in ,france the scholarly ideals of the patrons of the first ,paris press were reflected in the use for the books printed at the ,sorbonne of a beautiful roman type1 only injured by the excessive prominence of the serifs4 ,in ,spain also the first books1 those printed at ,valentia by ,lambert ,palmart1 were in roman2 but in both countries gothic types long commanded the favour of the general reader1 while in ,england their supremacy was unchallenged for a third of a century1 no book entirely in roman type appearing until #aejh4 ,as regards the aesthetic value of the different roman types in use during the fifteenth century1 the superiority of the ,italian is so marked that1 with the exception of the first ,french type1 the rest1 from this point of view1 may be neglected4 ,almost all the roman types used in ,italy until late in the 'seventies are either beautiful or at least interesting1 and it is remarkable that some of the most beautiful are found in small places like ,cagli1 ,mondovi1 ,viterbo1 and ,aquila1 or in the hands of obscure printers1 such as the self-taught priest ,clemente of ,padua1 who worked at ,venice in #adga4 ,the pre-eminence of ,jenson's fount is indisputable1 though he often did it injustice by his poor presswork4 ,but those used by ,john and ,wendelin of ,speier1 and at a later date by ,antonio ,miscomini1 were also good1 as also were several of the founts used at ,rome and ,milan4 ,at ,naples and ,bologna1 on the other hand1 some quite early roman founts are curiously hard and heavy4 ,after about #adhj roman types in ,italy enter on a second stage4 ,they no longer have the appearance of being founded directly on handwriting4 ,doubtless the typecutters were so used to their work that they no longer needed models1 but designed new types according to their own ideas4 ,naturally the letters are more uniform and regular than in the earlier founts1 but naturally also they have less charm1 and the ordinary close-set ,venetian type of the end of the century is singularly dull4 ,even the large roman type used by ,aldus to print the ,hypnerotomachia ,poliphili is no real exception1 as the letters are narrow for their height4 ,a far finer fount is the large text type used by the ,silbers at ,rome1 on both sides of #aejj4 ,this is well proportioned and beautifully round1 and it is surprising that it has not yet been imitated by any modern typecutter4 ,when we pass from roman to gothic types there is a bewildering field from which to choose4 ,here again dull commercialism gained the upper hand about #adhj1 and towards the end of the century an ugly upright text-type of #hj mm4 to twenty lines1 with a fantastic headline type of twice its size1 or a little more1 found its way all over ,germany4 ,but types with a twenty-line measurement ranging round #abj mm41 such as those of ,peter ,schoeffer or the ,printer of ,henricus ,ariminensis1 are often extraordinarily handsome4 ,both of ,schoeffer's earlier small types and the small type of ,ulrich ,zell at ,cologne are engagingly neat1 and at the opposite end there is the magnificently round gothic used by ,ulrich ,han at ,rome4 ,most of the finest gothic types were used for ,latin books of law and theology1 the peculiar appropriateness of roman type being considered to be confined to works appealing to classical scholars4 ,in ,germany1 for some time1 not much distinction was observed1 but there was a tendency in classical books to use an f and long s starting from the level of the line1 whereas in most vernacular books the tails of these letters came below the line1 giving a strangely different appearance to the type4 ,in the 'nineties a distinctively cursive type called ,schwabacher1 usually measuring #ic mm4 to twenty lines1 makes its appearance all over ,germany4 ,in ,italy1 both at ,naples and by ,ulrich ,han at ,rome1 a very small text type1 which is certainly cursive in its affinities1 was used at the very outset1 but found no favour4 ,the typical vernacular ,french types are also very often on a slope4 ,the small cursive type cut for ,aldus in #aeja by ,francesco da ,bologna was thus not quite so great a revolution as is sometimes represented4 ,its clearness in proportion to its size1 its extreme compactness1 and the handiness of the small octavos with which it was at first specially connected1 gained for it a great success1 and it gradually1 though only gradually1 usurped the name of italic1 the upright ,italian bookhand being distinguished from it as roman4 ,few treatises on printing or the development of books give any idea of the immense popularity of italics during the sixteenth century4 ,about #aegj they seemed to have established themselves as the fashionable vernacular type both in ,italy and ,france1 and even in ,england whole books were printed in them4 ,in ,switzerland also and ,germany they gained some hold2 but gradually the tide turned1 the upright bookhand regained its predominance1 and italics now survive chiefly for emphasis and quotations--in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries they were often used for proper names--giving to the page on which they occur an unpleasantly spotty appearance4 ,their occasional use in prefaces and dedicatory letters is much more appropriate4 ,the completion of books at first by a colophon1 afterwards by a titlepage1 may be illustrated in the same way as that by which we have traced the evolution of the text from incompleteness to completeness and the development of different classes of types4 ,at least one printer1 ,johann ,mentelin of ,strassburg1 seems to have considered the addition of colophons as the proper business of the rubricator4 ,while printed colophons in his books are exceptionally rare1 several copies have come down to us in which full colophons have been added by hand1 e4g4 in a vellum copy of the ,speculum ,morale in the ,bibliotheque ,nationale1 after praise of the book1 we read3 ,impressumque in inclyta vrbe ,argentinensium ac nitide terse emendateque resertum per honorandum dominum ,dominum ,iohannem ,mentelin artis impressorie magistrum famosissimum4 ,anno a partu virginis salutifero millesimo quadringentesimo septuagesimo sexto4 die mensis nouembris sexta4 ,despite a few instances of this kind1 however1 it is certain that the majority of printers who omitted to print colophons to their books did so1 not in the expectation that they would be supplied by hand1 but in imitation of the manuscript books to which they were accustomed1 in which it is distinctly exceptional to find any mention of the name of the scribe4 ,but the men who took a pride in their new art1 and who thought that their work was good enough to bring more custom to their press if their name were associated with it1 took the opposite course1 and so colophons from #adeg onwards are common in the best books1 and may perhaps be found in about #dj per cent of the incunables that have come down to us4 ,by the men who were skilful in using red ink they were often thus printed1 and whether in red or in black1 they frequently had appended to them the printer's mark or device1 which gave a very decorative finish to the book4 ,nowadays1 when we have been accustomed all our lives to the luxury of titlepages1 it may well seem to us merely perverse to hide the title of a book1 the name of the author1 and information as to where1 when1 and by whom it was printed in a closely set paragraph at the end of the book4 ,but if we think for a moment of how the manuscript books to which the early printers were accustomed had been produced we shall see that it was the most natural thing in the world4 ,a scribe would take his quire of paper or vellum1 and if he were a high-class scribe1 mindful of the need of keeping his text clean1 he would leave his first leaf blank and begin at the top of his second4 ,but here he would begin to write straight away1 sometimes with the first words of his text1 sometimes with a preliminary paragraph1 which may be called the ,incipit1 from the important word in it4 ,in this paragraph he would give either the name of his book or1 almost as commonly1 the name of the first section of it1 introducing the title only incidentally4 ,incipit ,racionale diuinorum officiorum4 ,incipiunt ,constitutiones ,clementis pape ,v una cum apparatu ,ioannis ,andree4 ,marci ,tullii ,ciceronis ,arpinatis consulisque ,romani ac oratorum maximi ,ad ,m4 ,tullium ,ciceronem filium suum ,officiorum liber incipit4 ,incipit epistola sancti ,hieronimi ad ,paulinum presbiterum de omnibus diuine historie libris4 ,that it did not occur to him to devote his blank page to a displayed title of the book he was copying was due to the fact that every medieval manuscript was the direct descendant1 through many or few stages1 of the author's own original draft1 and that this was the most pretentious way and least natural in which any author could begin to write a book4 ,so the scribes imitated the author in his normal beginning1 and the early printers imitated the scribes1 and because an author was more inclined to relieve his feelings at the end of a book than to express them volubly at the beginning1 it was only when books multiplied so greatly that purchasers wanted to see at a glance what was the name of the book at which they were looking that titlepages superseded colophons4 ,the proof of this explanation being the true one is that titlepages become common just about the time 7#adhj to #adij7 that book-production was beginning to be divided up between publishers and printers1 and that the publisher very quickly claimed them for his own4 ,the earliest titlepages1 those of the ,mainz ,bul zu deutsch des bapst ,pius ,,ii 7#adfc71 ,rolewinck's ,sermon for the ,feast of the ,presentation 7,cologne3 ,arnold ther ,hoernen1 #adgj71 the ,flores ,sancti ,augustini 7,cologne1 #adgc71 and the ,kalendarium of ,joannes de ,monteregio and its ,italian translation 7,venice3 ,ratdolt and partners1 #adgf71 were all more or less of the nature of sports4 ,when titlepages came to stay1 a year or two later than the last of these precursors1 they everywhere took the form of labels1 a single sentence containing the short title of the book1 printed sometimes in large1 sometimes in small type1 but with no other information4 ,the label title1 being usually printed high up on the page1 left two-thirds1 or thereabouts1 blank beneath it1 and this space was soon filled1 sometimes by a pictorial woodcut1 sometimes by a mark or device1 which at first might be either that of the printer or publisher1 but gradually came to be much more often the publisher's4 ,the short title and device taken together filled the page sufficiently for decorative purposes1 but they left room for a further paragraph of type to be added if desired1 and the advantage of filling this with the name and address of the firm from whom the book might be obtained was so obvious that the imprint1 as it is rather loosely called1 soon made its appearance and gradually became recognized as an essential part of the titlepage4 ,when printers and publishers lost pride in their work and ceased to care to decorate their titlepages with pictures or devices1 the title was displayed in a series of single lines and made to straggle down the page till it came nearly low enough to meet the imprint4 ,if we go back to the habits of the scribes it is easy to understand another point in the early history of books1 their make-up into quires and the marking of these quires by signatures and catchwords4 ,the word quaire or quire is a shortened form of the ,latin quaternio1 the name devised for four sheets of paper folded down the middle so as to form eight leaves4 ,a gathering of five sheets making ten leaves was called a quinternion1 and this1 though it has yielded no modern word1 was for generations such a popular form that quinterniones was sometimes used as a general expression for manuscripts4 ,gatherings of three sheets1 making six leaves1 were called terniones2 gatherings of two sheets1 making four leaves1 duerniones4 ,a few1 but only a few1 books exist--nearly all of those which ,i have seen are either block-books or thin folios of poetry of the reign of ,charles ,,ii--which are made up in single sheets not placed one within the other1 but following consecutively4 ,but the system of gathering from two to five or more sheets together into quires was practically universal both before and after the invention of printing1 and this for the excellent reason that it reduced the quantity of sewing necessary in binding a book1 and reduced also the risk of the sewing cutting through the paper or vellum1 as it would be very likely to do if there were only a single thickness to resist it4 ,when the scribe had arranged his quire or gathering he wrote first page by page on all the leaves on the left hand until he came to the middle of the quire1 when he proceeded to write page by page on all the leaves on the right hand4 ,thus in a quire of four sheets the left half of the first sheet would be leaf #a1 pages #a and #b1 and the right half would be leaf #h1 pages #ae and #af1 so that the same sheet formed the beginning and end of the quire4 ,in the earliest printed books the quires were printed page by page exactly as the quires of a manuscript had been written4 ,but early in the 'seventies 7,peter ,schoeffer can be proved to have adopted the practice between #adga and ,september1 #adgd7 the advantage was perceived of printing both the pages on the upper or lower side of a sheet at the same time1 i4e4 in a quaternion1 page #af together with page #a4 ,as soon as a printer had learnt to print two folio pages together1 it became easy to print four quarto pages1 or eight octavo pages1 or sixteen sextodecimo pages4 ,in each case the amount of type to be printed at a pull would be approximately the same4 ,it thus ceased to be disadvantageous to print small books1 whereas so long as each page had to be pulled separately it was obviously wasteful to make that page a very small one4 ,even when the printers had learnt how to print two folio pages at the same time the presswork remained very laborious4 ,the earliest presses were worked with only a single screw1 and when the pressman had pulled the lever one way to bring the platen down on the type1 he had to push the lever back again in order to raise the platen and release the paper4 ,thus in order to print a large book quickly four or six sets of pressmen had to work on it at once1 each at a different press4 ,to avoid mistakes1 therefore1 the practice was to allot one section of the book to each press4 ,thus if a book were calculated to run to #bhh leaves1 six presses might begin simultaneously at leaves #a1 #di1 #ig1 #ade1 #aic1 and #bda4 ,what more often happened was that either to follow the natural sections of the book1 or because some of the printers were engaged on other tasks and not ready to begin at once1 the sections were of much less regular lengths1 and we can sometimes prove that the first press was far advanced in its section before the fifth and sixth had begun4 ,now in all these cases1 unless they were reprinting an earlier book1 page for page1 it is obvious that some nice calculations would be needed to make each section end with the end of a quire so as to be able to join on with the beginning of the quire containing the next section without any gap or crowding4 ,hence the striking irregularities in the make-up of many early books4 ,instead of a book being printed in a succession of quinternions or a succession of quaternions we have many a make-up which can only be expressed by a cruelly mathematical formula1 such as this1 which represents the quiring of the ,forty-two ,line ,bible4 a-i#aj2 k#aja lm#aj n#fa2 o-z#aj inverted #baj #aja2 ,a-,f#aj ,g#d3 aa-nn#aj2 oo pp#aj qq#aja2 rr-zz ,,aa-,,cc#aj2 ,,dd#ab ,,ee#aja2 ,,ff ,,gg#aj ,,hh#da ,,ii#aj4 ,in this the index-letter shows the number of leaves in the quire1 a-i#aj being a short way of stating that each of the nine quires a b c d e f g h i has ten leaves in it4 ,in the tenth quire 7k7 there is an extra leaf1 and again in the thirteenth 7n7 the printer found that he had too much copy for six leaves and not enough for eight1 and was therefore obliged to put in an odd one1 because another press had already printed off the beginning of the next quire 7o74 ,not infrequently it would happen that the odd amount of copy for a section was very difficult to fit exactly into a leaf even when the printer had compressed it by using as many contractions as possible1 or eked it out by using no contractions at all4 ,this accounts for the occurrence of a blank space1 large or small1 at the end of some sections without any break in the text1 as the printer was sometimes careful to explain by the printed notice ,hic nihil deficit1 or as in our page from ,ulrich ,zell1 ,vacat4 ,as has been already noted1 in a moment of enthusiasm ,mr4 ,proctor once said to the present writer that it was impossible to find a fifteenth century book that was really ugly4 ,this was certainly putting the case for his beloved incunables a peg too high1 for there were plenty of bad printers before #aejj1 and even such a master as ,jenson was by no means uniformly careful as to the quality of his presswork4 ,but one of the legacies which the early printers received from the scribes was the art of putting their text handsomely on the page1 and the difference which this makes in the appearance of a book is very marked1 little as many modern printers and publishers attend to it4 ,but in the books of the best printers of our own day1 as well as in those of the best of the fifteenth century1 from #fe per cent to #gb per cent of the height of the page is devoted to the text1 from #bh per cent to #ce per cent being reserved for the upper and lower margins1 of which at least two-thirds is for the lower and not more than one-third for the upper4 ,as compared with the height of a page of type the breadth is usually in the proportion of about #de to #gj 7a trifle more in a quarto71 and here again the outer margin is at least twice as great as the inner4 ,thus in a book with a page measuring #aj by #g7a_/d7 inches1 the type-page should measure about #g by #d7c_/d7 inches1 with a lower margin of about #b inches1 an upper of #a inch1 an outer of #a7c_/d7 inches1 and an inner of 7#c_/d7 inch4 ,it will be greatly to the advantage of book-buyers to bear these proportions in mind1 in order to measure how much a book offered to them has been cut down1 and also to be able to instruct their binders as to how to reduce the absurd margins of some modern ,large ,paper copies to more artistic dimensions4 ,whether it is legitimate further to reduce the margins of an old book which has already been mangled by a binder in order to get the proportions better balanced is a nice question of taste4 ,if a two-inch lower margin has been halved and a one-inch upper margin left intact1 if the upper margin is reduced1 the book will become a pleasant working copy instead of an obviously mangled large one1 and the collector must settle in his own conscience whether this be a sufficient justification for snipping off a centimetre of old paper4 ,exactly why the proportions here laid down1 with their limits of variation1 are right for books cannot easily be set forth4 ,it is easiest to see in the case of the relation between the inner and outer margins4 ,as ,william ,morris was never tired of insisting1 the unit in a book is1 not a single page1 but the two pages which can be seen at the same time4 ,the two inner margins separate the two type-pages by a single band of white1 which1 if each inner margin were as large as the outer1 would become insufferably conspicuous4 ,as for the proportions between the lower and upper margins1 the explanation may lie in the angle at which we habitually read books1 or by the need for leaving room for the reader to hold the book in his hands4 ,but whether it be a matter of inherent rightness or merely of long-established convention1 the pleasure of handling a book with correct margins is very great1 and a collector who secures an uncut copy of even a poorly printed book of the period when margins were understood1 will find that it presents quite a pleasing and dignified appearance4 ,and so in regard to other points1 any book which illustrates the relations of the early printers to the scribes1 the difficulties which they experienced in their work and the expedients by which they were surmounted deserves1 whatever its date or present price1 to be reckoned as a real incunable1 and the collector who gets together a few dozen books of this kind will have far better sport for his outlay than he who is tied down too rigorously by chronology4 ,,footnotes3 #bg ,it will be so much the better if the collector can add to them a copy of one of the early books printed at ,rome 7the ,german ones are too rare7 in which there still survives the text of the rubrics1 printed not in their appropriate places1 but on a separate leaf or quire for the guidance of the rubricator4 #bh ,by ,jenson and many early printers in ,italy1 and by ,husner and a few others in ,germany1 the majuscules of the founts used in the text were massed together in headings with admirable effect4 ,but for a time the heavy heading types carried all before them4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,early ,,german ,,and ,,dutch ,,illustrated ,,books ,illustration3 ,,viii4 ,,augsburg1 ,g4 ,,zainer1 ,c4 #adge ,,tuberinus4 ,,geschicht ,,von ,,dem ,,seligen ,,kind ,,symon ,the natural method of illustrating a book printed with type is by means of designs cut in relief1 which can be locked up in the forme with the type1 so that text and illustrations are printed together by a single impression#bi without any special preparation of the paper4 ,so long as the design to be printed stands out clearly on the block it matters nothing whether it be cut on wood or on soft metal4 ,even as between the design cut by hand and the process line-block which has as its basis a photograph taken direct from a pen drawing1 the difference can hardly be said to be one of better and worse4 ,we lose the individuality of the wood-cutter or wood-engraver1 but we are brought into closer touch with the individuality of the artist1 and whether we gain or lose depends on the ability of the artist to dispense with a skilled interpreter4 ,the one requisite for success is that either the artist1 or an interpreter for him1 should recognize the limits within which his work can be effective4 ,the reproductions of the artist's designs will be looked at1 not in isolation1 but as part of an ensemble made up of two pages printed in a type which1 perhaps with a little trouble1 can be ascertained beforehand1 and they will be printed not as proofs on a special press by a special workman on paper chosen solely to suit them1 but with average skill and care in an ordinary press and on paper the choice of which will be dictated by several considerations4 ,whenever relief blocks have been used for any length of time as a method of book-illustration the rivalry of artists has tended to cause these restrictions to be forgotten4 ,in our own day line-blocks have been almost driven out of the field by half-tones1 which cannot be printed without the aid of paper specially coated1 or at least rolled or calendared4 ,shortly before the process line-block was perfected the extreme fineness of the ,american school of wood-engraving had induced a nearly similar result4 ,the successors of ,bewick worked with equal disregard of the need for clearly defined lines1 and when we travel back to the first half of the sixteenth century we find the ,holbeins1 ,burgkmair1 ,weiditz1 and other artists producing designs far too delicate for the conditions under which they were to be reproduced4 ,thus the charm of the woodcuts in books of the fifteenth century is by no means confined to that quaintness which is usually the first thing on which the casual observer comments4 ,the quaintness is usually there1 but along with it is a harmony between print1 paper1 and woodcut which has very rarely since been attained4 ,the claim made in the last paragraph must be understood as applying only to books honestly illustrated with blocks specially made for them4 ,books decorated with a job lot of cuts1 as was often the case1 especially after about #adie1 may accidentally be delightful and often possess some of the charm of a scrapbook4 ,it is good sport1 for instance1 to take one of ,verard's later books and trace the origin of the cuts with which that cheaply liberal publisher made his wares attractive4 ,but the incongruity is mostly manifest1 and collectors might well be more fastidious than they show themselves and refuse to waste the price of a good book with homogeneous illustrations in buying half a dozen dull little volumes with an old ,horae cut at the beginning and the end of each4 ,a second exception must be recognized in the books illustrated by untrained wood-cutters4 ,in ,germany and the ,low ,countries few1 if any1 quite untrained wood-cutters were employed1 and this is true also of ,paris and ,florence4 ,but at ,lyon and other provincial towns in ,france 7the ,abbeville cutters1 who probably came from ,paris1 are strikingly good71 in a few books printed at ,rome and ,venice1 here and there in ,spain1 and in one or two of ,caxton's and several of ,wynkyn de ,worde's books in ,england1 the cutting is so bad that1 though it is possible sometimes to see that excellent designs underlie it1 the effect is either ludicrous or repellent4 ,only fanatics could admire such pictures as we find in the early ,lyonnese ,quatre fils d',aymon 7s4n41 but about #adhj71 in the ,opuscula of ,philippus de ,barberiis printed by ,joannes de ,lignamine 7,rome1 #adha71 in a large number of the cuts of the ,malermi ,bible of #adij 7,venice1 ,g4 ,ragazzo for ,l4 ,a4 ,giunta1 #adij71 in ,los doze trabajos de ,ercules 7,zamora1 #adhc71 in ,caxton's ,aesop or in ,wynkyn de ,worde's ,morte d',arthur 7#aebg74 ,books such as these 7the ,malermi ,bible is on a different footing from the rest owing to the wonderful excellence of the good cuts7 may be bought as curiosities1 or for the light they throw on the state of the book trade when such work could be put on the market1 but no artistic merit can be claimed for them4 ,in ,germany good work began early1 because1 to supply the demand for playing-cards and pictures of saints1 schools of wood-cutters had grown up1 more especially at ,augsburg and at ,ulm4 ,block-books also had come into existence in the district of the lower ,rhine1 and these1 which in their earliest forms can hardly be later than #adfj1 must be divided between the ,low ,countries and ,germany and prove the existence of competent workmen4 ,the earliest type-printed books which possess illustrations are the little handful printed by ,albrecht ,pfister at ,bamberg in and about #adfa1 described in ,chapter ,v1 but it was at ,augsburg in the early seventies that book-illustration first flourished4 ,as has been mentioned in ,chapter ,v1 trade difficulties at first stood in the way1 but by the arbitration of ,melchior ,stanheim1 abbot of the local monastery of ,,ss4 ,ulrich and ,afra1 these were settled on the sensible basis that printers might have as many illustrations in their books as they chose to provide1 but that they must be designed and cut by ,augsburg craftsmen4 ,the series seems to have begun with some tolerably good column-cuts to an edition of the ,lives of the ,saints in ,german1 of which the first part was issued in ,october1 #adga1 and the second in ,april1 #adgb4 ,in ,das guldin spiel of a ,dominican writer1 ,ingold1 finished on #a ,august of the latter year1 we find for the first time real power of characterization4 ,lovers of woodcuts owe some gratitude to the medieval trick of attaching edifying discourses to matters of everyday interest and amusement1 for whereas the edifying discourses themselves could hardly carry illustrations1 hunting1 chess1 or1 as here1 seven games which could be likened to the seven deadly sins1 gave opportunities for showing pictures by which the natural man would be attracted4 ,another important book of this year1 only known to me in ,bamler's plagiarism of it1 was the first edition of the ,belial1 the amazing book which tells the story of ,christ being summoned for the trespass committed in harrowing ,hell4 ,in #adgc the heavy gothic type which ,zainer used in these illustrated books was put at the disposal of the ,abbot of ,,ss4 ,ulrich and ,afra and used to print a ,speculum ,humanae ,saluationis1 to which was added a summary in verse by ,frater ,johannes1 an inmate of his monastery4 ,this book was illustrated by #agf different cuts of ,biblical subjects1 of varying degrees of merit4 ,in the same year1 and again in #adgd1 ,zainer printed an illustrated ,plenarium1 i4e4 the ,epistles and ,gospels for the round of the ,church's year4 ,in or shortly after #adge he printed and illustrated a narrative of great contemporary interest1 the story1 written by one ,tuberinus1 of a child named ,simon1 who was supposed to have been slain by the ,jews out of hatred of the ,christian faith and desire to taste ,christian flesh4 ,the tale appears to contain internal evidence of its untruth1 and the unhappy ,jews who were cruelly executed had much better claims to be regarded as martyrs than das susses ,kind ,simon4 ,but some of the pictures are quite animated1 especially one 7see ,plate ,,viii7 of the hired kidnapper beguiling the child through the streets and then deftly hurrying him into the house of doom with a touch of his knee4 ,in #adge or #adgf1 and again with the date #adgg1 ,zainer produced editions of the ,german ,bible in large folio1 illustrated with great pictorial capitals at the beginning of each book4 ,but his greatest achievement was in an undated book of this period1 the ,speculum ,humanae ,vitae of ,rodericus ,bishop of ,zamora1 in the ,german translation of ,heinrich ,steinhowel4 ,if this ,mirror of ,man's ,life had been written by a man with his eyes open instead of by a vapid rhetorician it should have been one of the most valuable documents for the social life of the fifteenth century1 since it professes to contrast the advantages and evils of every rank and occupation of life1 from the ,pope and the ,emperor down to craftsmen and labourers4 ,there is but little joy to be gained from its text1 but the ,augsburg artist has atoned for many literary shortcomings by his vivid and charming pictures of scenes from the social life of his day1 though it is not to be supposed that ,german judges took bribes quite so openly as he is pleased to represent4 ,in addition to fifty-four woodcuts of this kind1 there is a large genealogical tree of the ,house of ,hapsburg1 which is a triumph of decorative arrangement4 ,two other early ,augsburg printers devoted themselves to illustrated work1 ,johann ,bamler and ,anton ,sorg4 ,the former at first contented himself with prefixing a full-page frontispiece to his books1 as in the ,summa of ,johannes ,friburgensis and ,die vier und zwanzig goldenen ,harfen1 both of #adgb1 and again in the picture of ,s4 ,gregory and ,peter the ,deacon in the ,dialogues of the former printed for the monastery of ,,ss4 ,ulrich and ,afra1 and that of the dying ,empress in the ,historie von den sieben weisen ,meistern of the following year4 ,in the ,belial of #adgc and ,plenarium of #adgd ,bamler was content for most of the cuts to borrow or copy from the editions of ,zainer1 but in the ,alexander der ,grosse of the former year and ,melusine and ,sieben ,todsunden of the latter he himself led the way with some excellent sets of woodcuts1 which were copied by others4 ,again1 in ,das ,buch der ,natur of #adge we find a dozen specially designed full-page cuts1 one to each book1 illustrating man1 the spheres1 beasts1 birds1 mermaids1 serpents1 insects1 etc42 in the ,chronica von allen ,kaisern and ,konigen of #adgf there are four large cuts1 showing ,christ in glory1 the dream of the ,emperor ,sigismund1 the vision of ,s4 ,gregory at ,mass1 and ,s4 ,veronica holding before her the cloth with the imprint of ,christ's face4 ,it was perhaps in this same year that ,bamler issued1 without dating it1 ,jacob ,sprenger's ,die ,rosenkranz ,bruderschaft1 with two very striking cuts1 one of the offering of garlands to ,our ,lady1 the other of ,christ's scourgers looking back mockingly as they leave ,him4 ,a dated edition appeared in #adgg4 ,another book of #adgf with a good set of cuts was the romance of ,apollonius1 ,king of ,tyre4 ,in #adgg ,bamler issued a ,buch der ,kunst1 which1 like the ,buch der ,natur1 went through several editions2 it must be noted1 however1 that there is no such contrast between ,art and ,nature as the short title of this book might suggest1 the full title being ,buch der ,kunst geistlich zu werden4 ,the illustrations for the most part represent a soul in different situations1 but there are also many of ,biblical subjects4 ,the last book of ,bamler's which need be mentioned is the ,turken-,kreuzzuge of ,rupertus de ,sancto ,remigio1 which has an effective frontispiece of the ,pope preaching to the ,crusaders and some vigorous smaller cuts4 ,anton ,sorg began printing in #adge and issued his first illustrated book the next year4 ,he was a prolific printer1 and issued many close imitations of books originated by ,gunther ,zainer and others4 ,the most famous work specially connected with his name is ,ulrich von ,reichenthal's ,das ,conciliumbuch geschehen zu ,costencz 7#adhc71 illustrated with forty-four larger cuts1 all in the first ninety leaves1 and #aaeh coats of arms of the various dignitaries present at the ,council4 ,the larger cuts show the knighting of the ,burgermeister of ,constance1 processions1 a tournament1 and the martyrdom of ,huss 7despite his safe conduct7 and the scattering of his ashes over a field4 ,the later ,augsburg illustrated books1 issued by the elder ,schoensperger1 ,johann ,schobsser1 ,peter ,berger1 and ,hans ,schauer1 though they maintain a respectable level of craftsmanship1 have less interest and individuality than these earlier ones4 ,one ,augsburg printer1 ,erhard ,ratdolt1 who had made himself a reputation by ten years' work at ,venice 7#adgf-hf71 shortly after his return issued a notable illustrated book1 the ,chronica ,hungarorum of ,thwrocz4 ,his main business was the production of missals and other service books1 in some of which he made experiments in colour-printing4 ,at the neighbouring city of ,ulm1 where also the wood-cutters had long been at work1 illustrated books began to be issued in #adgc by ,johann ,zainer1 no doubt a kinsman of ,gunther ,zainer of ,augsburg4 ,his chief books are 7#a7 ,latin and ,german editions of ,boccaccio's ,de claris mulieribus 7#adgc71 with a fine borderpiece of ,adam and ,eve and numerous spirited little pictures which1 though primitive both in conception and execution1 are full of life1 and 7#b7 an ,aesop which was reprinted at ,augsburg and copied elsewhere in ,germany1 and also in ,france1 the ,netherlands1 and ,england4 ,from #adgh onwards he seems to have been in continual financial trouble4 ,he was apparently able1 however1 to find funds to issue two rather notable books about #adij1 the ,prognosticatio of ,lichtenberger1 and a ,totentanz4 ,the blocks of both of these passed to ,meidenbach at ,mainz4 ,most of the forty books of a later printer1 ,conrad ,dinckmut 7#adhb-if71 have illustrations4 ,his ,seelenwurzgarten 7#adhc7 appears at first sight to be a most liberally decorated book1 crowded with full-page cuts1 but of its #acc illustrations only seventeen are different1 one1 representing the tortures of the damned1 being used as many as thirty-seven times1 a deplorable waste of good paper1 which the printer had the good sense to reduce in a later edition4 ,dinckmut's most famous book is a ,german edition of the ,eunuchus of ,terence ain maisterliche vnd wolgesetzte ,comedia zelesen vnd zehoren lustig und kurtzwylig1 die der ,hochgelert vnd gross ,maister und ,poet ,therencius gar subtill mit grosser ,kunnst und hochem ,flyss gesetzt hat4 ,this has twenty-eight nearly full-page cuts in which the characters are well drawn1 the setting for the most part showing the streets of a medieval town4 ,a ,chronik1 by ,thomas ,lirer1 issued about the same time1 was begun to be illustrated on a generous scale with eighteen full-page cuts in the first twenty-eight leaves1 but was hastily finished off with only three more cuts in the remaining thirty-six4 ,they are less carefully executed than those of the ,eunuchus1 but show more variety1 and are on the whole very pleasing4 ,another ,ulm printer1 who began work in #adhb1 ,leonhard ,holl1 printed in that year a magnificent edition of ,ptolemy's ,cosmographia1 with woodcut maps 7one signed ,insculptum est per ,iohanne ,schnitzer de ,armszheim7 and fine capitals4 ,the first of these1 a pictorial ,n1 shows the editor1 ,nicolaus ,germanus1 presenting his book to the ,pope4 ,of later ,ulm books by far the most important are two by ,gulielmus ,caoursin1 published by ,johann ,reger in #adif1 and both concerned with the ,knights of ,st4 ,john of ,jerusalem at ,rhodes4 ,one volume gives their ,stabilimenta or ,constitution1 the other ,obsidionis urbis ,rhodiae descriptio1 an illustrated history of their defence of their island against the ,turks and their subsequent dealings with the infidel1 who at one time were so complaisant as to present them with no less valuable a relic than the arm of their patron1 which was duly honoured with processions and sermons4 ,altogether the two books contain fifty-six full-page pictures1 rather roughly cut1 but full of vigour and bringing the course of the siege and the character of the wild ,turkish horsemen very vividly before the reader4 ,william ,morris was even tempted to conjecture that the designs may have been made by ,erhard ,reuwich1 the illustrator of the ,mainz ,breidenbach1 of which we shall soon have to speak4 ,at ,nuremberg book-illustration begins with the ,ars et modus contemplatiuae vitae1 six leaves of which partake of the nature of a block-book4 ,in or about #adgd ,johann ,muller of ,konigsberg 7whose variant names1 ,johannes ,regiomontanus1 ,johannes de ,monteregio1 have trapped more bibliographers into inconsistencies than those of any other fifteenth century author7 issued calendars and other works with astronomical diagrams1 and prefixed to his edition of the ,philalethes of ,maffeus ,vegius a woodcut 7for which ,dr4 ,schreiber suspects an ,italian origin7 showing ,philalethes in rags and ,truth with no other clothing than a pair of very small wings4 ,in ,june1 #adge1 ,sensenschmidt and ,frisner illustrated their folio edition of ,justinian's ,codex1 with ten charming little column-cuts2 the following month ,sensenschmidt produced a ,heiligenleben1 with more than #bej illustrations1 which1 according to ,dr4 ,schreiber1 are very noteworthy as they stand1 and would have been more so had not the wood-cutter been hurried into omitting the backgrounds in the later cuts1 those to the ,pars aestiualis4 ,sensenschmidt also printed an undated ,german ,bible with pictorial capitals4 ,in #adgg ,creussner issued the travels of ,marco ,polo with a woodcut of the traveller1 and about the same time ,latin and ,german editions of the tract of ,tuberinus on the supposed fate suffered by ,das ,kind ,simon at the hand of the ,jews4 ,in #adha ,anton ,koberger published his first illustrated book1 ,postilla super ,bibliam of ,nicolaus de ,lyra1 with forty-three woodcuts1 which were imitated not only at ,cologne1 but at ,venice1 though their interest is not very great4 ,in his ,german ,bible of #adhc he himself was content to acquire blocks previously used at ,cologne4 ,the next year he prefixed to his edition of the ,reformation der ,stadt ,nuremberg a notable woodcut of ,s4 ,sebald and ,s4 ,laurence in the style of ,michael ,wolgemut4 ,the #beb cuts in his ,heiligenleben of #adhh are mainly improved rehandlings of previous versions2 of his ,schatzbehalter and ,schedel's ,chronicle we speak later on4 ,at ,basel ,martin ,flach was the first printer of illustrated books1 ornamenting his #adgc edition of the ,ackermann von ,bohmen with a woodcut of ,death1 the labourer1 and the dead woman1 his ,cato with the usual picture of a master and scholar1 his ,rosenkranz with a cut of a traveller beseeching the ,virgin's protection from robbers1 and another of a scene in heaven1 and his ,streit der ,seele mit dem ,korper 7these and the two preceding are undated7 with eight illustrations of various moments in the dispute4 ,more important than these are three profusely illustrated books from the press of ,bernhard ,richel4 ,the first of these1 his #adgf ,spiegel ,menschlicher ,behaltnis1 has #bgh woodcuts1 the work of two different hands1 the earlier of the two showing less technical skill1 but much more vigour and originality4#cj ,the other two books are undated editions of the romance of ,melusina1 with sixty-seven cuts1 in which suggestions from the first ,augsburg edition have been improved on by an abler workman1 and a ,mandeville with #adg cuts1 most of which passed into the hands of ,m4 ,hupfuff at ,strassburg1 who used them in #aeja4 ,after this ,richel turned his attention to liturgies1 and is credited by ,dr4 ,schreiber with being the first printer to insert in his ,missals the woodcut of the ,crucifixion1 which thenceforth is so frequently found facing the first page of the ,canon4 ,after the publication of these works illustration seems to have languished for some years at ,basel1 but was taken up again about #adhi by ,johann von ,amerbach1 ,lienhart ,ysenhut1 and ,michael ,furter1 the work of the two latter being mainly imitative4 ,johann ,froben1 who began work about this time1 was too learned a publisher to concern himself with woodcuts1 catering chiefly for students of the ,university4 ,one of the professors1 however1 at the ,university was far from sharing this indifference to pictures4 ,born at ,strassburg1 ,sebastian ,brant was educated at ,basel1 and it was while holding there the ,professorship of ,laws that he ensured the popularity of his ,narrenschiff 7#adid7 by equipping it with #aae admirable illustrations4 ,the original edition from the press of ,johann ,bergmann von ,olpe was published in ,february1 and before the end of the year ,peter ,wagner at ,nuremberg1 ,greyff at ,reutlingen1 ,schoensperger at ,augsburg had all pirated it with copies of the ,basel cuts4 ,when the ,latin translation by ,brant's friend1 ,jakob ,locher1 was published by ,bergmann in #adig1 the success of the book became ,european1 and probably no other illustrated work of the fifteenth century is so well known4 ,probably in the same year as the ,narrenschiff was first issued1 ,bergmann printed for ,brant his ,in laudem gloriosae virginis ,mariae1 with sixteen woodcuts by the same hand4 ,in #adie ,brant supplied him with two works in honour of the ,emperor ,maximilian1 one celebrating the alliance with ,pope ,alexander ,,vi1 illustrated with coats of arms1 the other the ,origo bonorum regum1 with two woodcuts1 in which the ,emperor is shown receiving a sword from heaven4 ,brant was now in high favour with ,maximilian1 and his appointment as a ,syndic and ,imperial ,chancellor at ,strassburg led to his return and a consequent notable quickening of book-illustration in his native city4 ,at ,strassburg ,johann ,mentelin had used woodcuts for diagrams in an undated edition of the ,etymologiae of ,s4 ,isidore1 printed about #adgc1 but the first producer of books pictorially illustrated was ,heinrich ,knoblochtzer1 who worked from #adgf to #adhd1 and issued over thirty books with woodcuts4 ,most of these were copies from other men's work1 e4g4 his ,belial and ,melusina from ,bamler's1 his ,philalethes from the ,nuremberg edition of ,johann ,muller1 his ,aesop and ,historie der ,sigismunda from ,johann ,zainer's1 his ,leben der heiligen drei ,konigen probably from an anonymous edition by ,johann ,pruss4 ,early in his career in #adgg he issued two books on the great subject of the hour1 the death of ,charles the ,bold1 ,peter ,hagenbach und der ,burgundische ,krieg and the ,burgunderkrieg of ,erhard ,tusch1 in both of which he used eight woodcuts1 most of them devoted to incidents of the ,duke's ill-fated campaign4 ,an anonymous edition of the ,euryalus und ,lucretia of ,aeneas ,sylvius 7,pope ,pius ,,ii7 has nineteen cuts1 which were apparently commissioned by ,knoblochtzer1 but he did not secure the services of a sufficiently skilled wood-cutter4 ,it should be said1 however1 that his historiated or pictorial capitals are apparently original and mostly good4 ,to ,johann ,pruss at ,strassburg are now assigned editions in ,high and ,low ,german of the ,lives of the ,fathers and of ,antichrist1 which ,mr4 ,proctor1 though he had a shrewd suspicion of their origin1 left floating about among the ,german adespota4 ,the cuts to the former reach the average of early work2 those to the ,antichrist vary greatly1 that of ,antichrist preaching before a queen being extraordinarily successful as a presentation of a type of coarse spiritual effrontery4 ,the acknowledged work of ,pruss includes editions of the travels of ,mandeville1 of the ,directorium ,humanae ,vitae1 and of the ,flores ,musicae of ,hugo ,reutlingensis1 with a rather famous cut showing how musical notes are produced by the wind1 by a water wheel1 by tapping stones1 and hammering on an anvil4 ,pruss also printed several illustrated editions of the ,hortus ,sanitatis4 ,far more prolific than either of the foregoing ,strassburg printers was ,johann ,reinhard of ,gruningen1 usually called ,gruninger after his birthplace4 ,setting up his press in #adhc1 he began book-illustration two years later with a ,german ,bible with woodcuts copied from those in the ,low ,german ,bibles printed at ,cologne and used in #adhc at ,nuremberg by ,koberger4 ,some minor books followed1 and in #adia he issued the ,antidotarius ,animae of ,nicolaus de ,saliceto1 with rather rude borders to each page and a woodcut of the ,assumption4 ,this1 however1 like some of his earlier illustrated books1 appears to have been a commission1 and in a reprint of #adic the decorations disappear4 ,it was not until #adif1 under the influence of ,sebastian ,brant1 that he undertook any important original illustrated work on his own account4 ,in that year he produced his first illustrated classic1 the comedies of ,terence 7,terentius cum directorio71 with a large woodcut of a theatre and eighty-seven narrow cuts of the dramatis personae1 or of scenery1 used five at a time in #aej different combinations4 ,critically examined1 the cuts are rather unpleasing1 and were regarded at the time as likely to provoke mirth otherwise than by expressing the humorous intent of the playwright1 but another edition and a ,german translation similarly decorated appeared in #adii1 and ,gruninger issued on the same plan a ,horace 7edited by ,locher7 in #adih1 and the ,de consolatione philosophiae of ,boethius in #aeja4 ,his full strength was reserved for the ,virgil of the following year1 which was superintended by ,brant1 and is crowded with wonderful pictures1 in which on the very eve of the ,renaissance ,virgil is thoroughly medievalized4 ,besides these classics1 ,gruninger printed many other illustrated editions1 minor works by ,brant1 medical treatises by ,brunschwig1 an ,evangelienbuch1 a ,legenda ,s4 ,katherinae in ,latin and also in ,german1 editions of the ,hortulus ,animae1 the romance of ,hug ,schapler1 etc41 in the fifteenth century1 and in the sixteenth a sufficient number of illustrated books to bring his total up to about #aej editions4 ,these may be said to form a school by themselves1 distinguished by a certain richness of effect partly due to heavy cutting1 but with less power of characterization and fewer gleams of beauty than are to be found in the best work of other towns1 the figures being often unpleasing and notably lean in the legs4 ,martin ,scott1 ,hupfuff1 and ,kistler were other ,strassburg printers of the fifteenth century who also used illustrations4 ,at ,cologne book-illustration began in #adgd with editions of the ,fasciculus ,temporum of ,werner ,rolewinck1 from the presses of ther ,hoernen and ,nicolaus ,gotz4 ,but with the notable exception of two great ,bibles issued by ,heinrich ,quentell1 illustrated books before #adij are neither important nor numerous4 ,even in #adij the edition of the ,historia ,septem ,sapientum of ,johannes de ,hauteselve1 issued by the elder ,koelhoff1 was adorned with cuts obtained from ,gerard ,leeu at ,antwerp4 ,quentell issued a few stock cuts in one book after another1 and ,johann ,landen1 ,martin von ,werden 7if he be rightly identified with the printer ,retro ,minores71 and ,cornelis von ,zierickzee all used a few cuts1 some of the latter's having a curiously ,italian appearance4 ,but the only important illustrated book1 other than the ,bibles1 is the ,cologne ,chronicle1 issued 7not to his profit1 since he was imprisoned for it7 by the younger ,koelhoff in #adii1 with armorial cuts and a few pictures of kings and queens somewhat too frequently repeated4 ,quentell's ,bibles in ,high and ,low ,german are in curious contrast to all this work4 ,they are illustrated with #abe large oblong pictures1 firmly if rather coarsely cut1 and full of story-telling power1 several successive incidents being sometimes brought into the same picture in true medieval fashion4 ,the book was imitated at ,nuremberg and elsewhere1 and the illustrators of the ,venetian ,malermi ,bible of #adij1 and even ,hans ,holbein himself1 did not disdain to take ideas from it4 ,at ,lubeck a finely decorated edition of the ,rudimentum ,noviciorum1 a universal history1 was issued by ,lucas ,brandis as early as #adge1 with some good pictorial capitals1 and pictures beginning with the ,creation and coming down to the life of ,christ4 ,in #adhd we come to a ,levend ,s4 ,jeronimi1 printed by ,bartholomaeus ,ghotan and illustrated by an anonymous artist whose work can be traced during the next ten years in other books of ,ghotan's1 in several very interesting editions by the unidentified ,poppy-,printer 7so called from his mark71 including a ,dodendantz 7#adhi and #adif71 ,imitatio ,christi1 ,bergitten ,openbaringe 7#adif71 ,reynke de ,vos 7#adih71 ,schakspil1 etc41 and in the splendid ,low ,german ,bible printed in #adid by ,stephan ,arndes1 with cuts which improve on those in the ,cologne editions4 ,illustration3 ,,ix4 ,,mainz1 ,,erhard ,,reuwich1 #adhf ,,breidenbach4 ,,peregrinatio ,,in ,,montem ,,syon ,,saracens ,,and ,,syrians ,at ,mainz1 which led the way so energetically in typography1 book-illustration is not represented at all until #adgi1 and then almost accidentally in the ,meditationes of ,cardinal ,turrecremata1 printed by ,johann ,neumeister ciuem ,moguntinensem1 with thirty-four curious metal-cuts imitating on a smaller scale the woodcuts in the editions printed at ,rome by ,ulrich ,han4 ,two years later these metal-cuts were used by ,neumeister at ,albi1 and they are subsequently found at ,lyon4 ,that this book was printed at ,mainz was made practically certain by the type appearing subsequently in the possession of ,peter von ,friedberg1 but that the cuts were executed at ,mainz seemed to me improbable until the publication of ,dr4 ,schreibers work on ,german illustrated books acquainted me with the existence of an ,agenda ,moguntinensis of #bi ,june1 #adhj1 also attributed to ,neumeister's press1 with a metal-cut of ,s4 ,martin and the beggar1 and the arms not only of ,archbishop ,diether and the province of ,mainz1 but of ,canon ,bernhard von ,breidenbach1 of whom we shall soon hear again4 ,the ,agenda and its metal-cuts are thus firmly fixed as executed at ,mainz1 and the metal-cuts of the ,meditationes must therefore be regarded as ,mainz work also4 ,in #adhf ,mainz atoned for her long delay in taking up illustrated work1 with the ,peregrinationes in ,montem ,syon of the aforesaid ,canon ,bernhard von ,breidenbach1 printed with type of ,schoeffer's1 under the superintendence of ,erhard ,reuwich of ,utrecht1 the illustrator4 ,the text of ,breidenbach's book is full of interest1 for he gives a vivid account of the voyage and of the hardships and extortions to which pilgrims were exposed4 ,in his preface he states that ,reuwich was expressly taken on the expedition to illustrate the narrative1 and he certainly had ample skill to justify the engagement4 ,unfortunately1 far too much of his labour was spent on great maps or views of ,venice1 ,parenzo1 ,rhodes and other places passed on the way4 ,these are certainly interesting1 as they mark all the chief buildings and are very decoratively drawn4 ,but in the text of the book there are just a few sketches from the life1 ,jewish moneylenders and groups of ,saracens1 ,syrians 7see ,plate ,,ix71 ,indians1 etc41 and these are so vivid and vigorous that we may well regret that the labour bestowed on the great maps left time for very few of them4 ,they are interesting1 moreover1 not only as designs1 but also for their cutting1 as they introduce cross-hatching for the first time1 and that very effectively1 and are handled with equal firmness and freedom4 ,at the end of the book is a jest1 a full-page woodcut subscribed ,hec sunt animalia veraciter depicta sicut vidimus in terra sancta1 among the animals thus certified as having been seen personally in the ,holy ,land being a unicorn and a creature 7name unknown--non constat de nomine7 with a great mane of hair and long tail1 which might well serve for the missing link between a man and a gorilla4 ,the frontispiece of the book1 on the other hand1 is a striking design of a woman 7symbolizing the city of ,mainz87 standing on a pedestal surrounded with the arms of ,breidenbach and the two friends who went with him1 decoratively treated1 while above her is a canopy of trelliswork amid which children are joyously climbing4 ,with the ,mainz ,breidenbach we feel that we have passed away from the naive craftsmanship of the earliest illustrated books into a region of conscious art4 ,naturally craftsmanship was not extinguished by the arrival of a single artist4 ,we find it at work again in the charming and little known cut to a ,leipzig edition of the ,eclogues of ,theodulus1 printed in #adia1 which the delight of recent discovery tempts me to show here 7see ,plate ,x71 and at ,mainz itself in the simple cuts to the ,hortus ,sanitatis1 printed by ,meidenbach1 also in #adia1 though here again there is an advance1 as instead of plants and animals drawn out of the illustrator's head merely for decorative effect we find in many of the cuts fairly careful copies made from the life4 ,in ,conrad ,botho's ,cronecken der ,sassen1 printed by ,schoeffer the following year1 most of the armorial illustrations and pictures of the foundation of towns are merely decoratively treated1 but in one cut in which a rather wild-looking ,charlemagne with lean legs is shown seated in a chair of state surmounted by an eagle1 an idol crushed under his feet1 the designer has given free play to his imagination4 ,illustration3 ,x4 ,,leipzig1 ,,conrad ,,kachelofen1 #adhi ,,theodulus4 ,,egloga 7,ib7 ,the transition to different ideals of illustration thus begun at ,mainz was carried on at ,nuremberg1 where ,michael ,wolgemut illustrated two important works1 the ,schatzbehalter in #adia and the famous ,nuremberg ,chronicle in #adic1 this latter with the help of his stepson1 ,wilhelm ,pleydenwurff1 and no doubt also of several inferior designers4 ,the ,schatzbehalter1 of which the text is ascribed to ,stephanus ,fridelinus1 a ,nuremberg ,franciscan1 is one of several examples of a too ambitious scheme of decoration perforce abandoned for lack either of time or of money4 ,in the first half there are ninety-two different full-page woodcuts1 mostly illustrating ,scripture history1 but in some cases allegorical2 in the second half the number is no more than two4 ,the pictures executed before the scheme was thus cut down vary greatly in quality1 from the fine design of ,christ kneeling before the throne of the ,father and pointing to the emblems of the ,passion1 which prepares us for the work which ,durer1 who was then being trained in ,wolgemut's studio1 was soon to execute1 down to the amusing but uninspired craftsmanship of the picture of ,solomon and a selection of his wives banqueting4 ,for the ,liber ,chronicarum of ,hartman ,schedel plans had been much more carefully worked out than for the ,schatzbehalter1 and by studying economy a seemingly profuse system of illustration was maintained to the end4 ,the industry of ,mr4 ,sydney ,cockerell has evolved for us the exact figures as to the illustration of this book4 ,real liberality is shown in the large1 double-page topographical cuts of twenty-six different cities1 for many of which sketches must have been specially obtained1 and not one of these is used a second time2 but twenty-two other large cuts of cities and countries were made to serve for sixty-nine different subjects1 and when we come to figures of emperors1 kings1 and popes we find ninety-six blocks used #eih times1 or on an average half a dozen times apiece4 ,mr4 ,cockerell's grand totals are #ahji pictures printed from #fde different blocks1 so that the repetitions number no fewer than #aafd4 ,both in the designs and their execution there is great inequality1 but no single picture can compare with that of ,christ kneeling before the ,father in the ,schatzbehalter1 and both books1 fine as their best work is1 must be regarded rather as the crown of ,german medieval craftsmanship in book-building than as belonging to the period of self-conscious artistic aim which is heralded by the ,mainz ,breidenbach but really begins with ,durer4 ,with this ,nuremberg work we may perhaps class that in the one book printed at the ,cistercian monastery at ,zinna1 near ,magdeburg1 the ,psalterium ,beatae ,mariae ,virginis1 of ,hermann ,nitschewitz1 the most richly decorated ,german book of the fifteenth century1 executed in honour of the ,emperor ,frederick and his son ,maximilian1 who in the page here shown 7,plate ,,xi7 are both represented4 ,primitive ,dutch and ,flemish book-illustrations when compared with ,german ones exhibit just the general likeness and specific differences which we might expect in the work of such near neighbours4 ,the ,low ,country wood-cutters are on the whole more decorative than the ,germans1 they were more influenced by the work of the engravers on copper1 and they were attracted by different types of the human figure1 the faces and bodies of the men and women they drew being often long and thin1 and often also showing a slightly fantastic touch rarely found in ,german work4 ,unfortunately1 these ,low ,country illustrated books are even rarer than the ,german ones1 far fewer of them have found their way to ,england1 and no attempt has been made to reproduce a really representative selection of them in facsimile4 ,in #ahhd ,sir ,w4 ,m4 ,conway1 as the result of prolonged studies on the ,continent1 wrote an excellent account of these illustrations and the makers of them under the title1 ,the ,woodcutters of the ,netherlands in the ,fifteenth ,century1 which was unhappily allowed to appear without any facsimiles to elucidate the text4 ,thus the study of these ,low ,country illustrated books is still difficult4 ,illustration3 ,,xi4 ,,zinna4 ,,monasterium ,,cisterciense1 ,c4 #adic ,,nitschewitz4 ,,psalterium ,,beatae ,,mariae ,,virginis ,,frederick ,,and ,,maximilian ,in the production of the early block-books 7see ,chapter ,,ii7 the ,low ,countries had played a principal part1 and we meet again with traces of them in later illustrated books1 cuts from the ,biblia ,pauperum being used by ,peter van ,os at ,zwolle in his ,episteln ende ,evangelien of #e ,january1 #adhg1 and one from the ,canticum ,canticorum in his edition of ,mauberne's ,rosetum ,exercitiorum ,spiritualium in #adid4 ,two cut-up pieces from the block-book ,speculum ,humanae ,saluationis were used by ,veldener in his ,episteln ende ,evangelien completed at ,utrecht #ai ,april1 #adha1 and all the old blocks1 each divided in two1 in a new edition of the ,speculum printed at ,kuilenburg #bg ,september1 #adhc1 with twelve new cuts added to them4 ,sir ,w4 ,m4 ,conway has also shown that a set of sixty-four cuts used in a ,boec van der ,houte or ,legend of the ,holy ,cross1 issued by ,veldener at ,kuilenburg earlier in #adhc 7on #f ,march71 must have been obtained by dividing in a similar manner the double cuts of a block-book now entirely lost4 ,the first printer in the ,low ,countries who commissioned a woodcut for a book printed with movable type was ,johann of ,paderborn 7,john of ,westphalia7 at ,louvain1 the cut being a curious little representation of his own head1 shown in white on a black oval4 ,this he used in his ,institutiones of ,justinian of #ba ,november1 #adge1 and a few other books1 and a similar but even better likeness of his kinsman1 ,conrad1 appeared the next year in the ,formulae ,epistularum of ,maneken 7#a ,december1 #adgf74 ,although ,johann of ,paderborn thus led the way in the use of cuts1 he only resorted to them subsequently for a few diagrams1 and towards the end of his career for some half-dozen miscellaneous blocks for devotional books4 ,the portrait of ,johann of ,paderborn being used only as a device1 book-illustration begins1 though on a very small scale1 with ,veldener's edition of the ,fasciculus ,temporum 7#bi ,december1 #adge71 with its handful of poor little cuts modelled on those of the ,cologne editions4 ,five years later ,veldener reprinted the ,fasciculus with a few new cuts1 the originals of which have been found in the ,lubeck ,rudimentum ,noviciorum4 ,the only picture which seems to have been specially designed for him was a folio cut in his ,passionael 7,utrecht1 #ab ,september1 #adhj71 where in delicate simple outline a variety of martyrdoms are shown as taking place in the hollows of a series of hills4 ,mention has already been made of his two ,kuilenburg reprints of block-books4 ,in the same place he issued ,dutch and ,latin ,herbals with cuts copied from ,schoeffer's ,mainz ,herbarius1 and this completes the story of his illustrated ventures4 ,illustration3 ,,xii4 ,,haarlem1 ,,bellaert1 #adhd ,,jacobus ,,de ,,theramo4 ,,belial 7#d;a7 ,,the ,,harrowing ,,of ,,hell ,we come now to ,gerard ,leeu1 who on #c ,june1 #adhj1 issued at ,gouda the first completely illustrated book from a ,dutch press1 the ,dialogus creaturarum moralisatus1 a glorified version of the old bestiaries1 full of wonderful stories of animals4 ,this was illustrated with #aba specially designed cuts 7mostly about four inches by two71 and ,leeu's liberality was rewarded by the book passing through nine editions1 six in ,latin and three in ,dutch1 in eleven years4 ,the first page is decorated with a picture of the ,sun and ,moon1 a large capital1 and an ornamental border of foliage1 but the merit of the book lies in the simple skill with which the craftsman1 working entirely in outline1 has reproduced the humour of the text4 ,to the same hand are attributed ten cuts for ,leeu's vernacular ,gesta ,romanorum 7#cj ,april1 #adha71 four for an undated ,historia ,septem ,sapientum1 and four others1 of the ,four ,last ,things1 which1 to our puzzlement1 appear first in a ,french edition printed by ,arend de ,keysere at ,audenarde1 and then 7#bc ,august1 #adhb7 in a ,dutch one of ,leeu's4 ,in the previous month he had brought out a ,liden ende passie ons ,heeren with thirty-two quarto cuts1 part of a set of sixty-eight made for editions of the ,devote ,ghetiden or ,dutch version of the ,horae1 the first of which 7unless a ,gouda one has perished7 appeared after his removal to ,antwerp4 ,during the following nine years he made good use of his old blocks4 ,for his ,dutch ,aesop of ,october1 #adhe1 and ,latin edition of ,september1 #adhf1 he used cuts copied from the original ,ulm and ,augsburg set4 ,these he bought from ,knoblochtzer of ,strassburg and sold to ,koelhoff of ,cologne4 ,in #adhg he issued an illustrated ,reynard the ,fox1 of which only a fragment survives1 and the pleasant romance of ,paris and ,vienne1 with twenty-five fairly successful cuts1 with the help of which five editions were sold1 the first in ,french1 the next three in ,dutch1 and the last 7#bc ,june1 #adib7 in ,english4 ,according to ,sir ,w4 ,m4 ,conway these ,paris and ,vienne cuts were the work of a ,haarlem craftsman1 who from #adhc to #adhf had worked for ,jacob ,bellaert1 whose press was intimately connected with ,leeu's1 type and cuts passing freely from one to the other4 ,bellaert had begun by using some of ,leeu's ,passion cuts for a ,liden ons ,heeren1 but seems soon to have discovered his ,haarlem wood-cutter1 with whose aid he produced 7#ae ,february1 #adhd7 ,der ,sonderen troest1 ,the ,sinners' ,trust1 a ,dutch version of that remarkable work the ,belial or ,consolatio peccatorum of ,jacobus de ,theramo1 of which the ,augsburg edition has already been mentioned4 ,this begins with a full folio-page cut combining in one panorama the ,fall of ,angels and of ,adam and ,eve1 the ,flood1 the ,egyptians overtaken in the ,red ,sea1 and the ,baptism of ,christ4 ,six of the other cuts fill half-pages and show the ,harrowing of ,hell 7here reproduced1 ,plate ,,xii71 ,devils in consultation1 ,satan kneeling before the ,lord1 the ,last ,judgment1 ,ascension and ,descent of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,the remaining half-page pictures are all composite1 made up of different combinations of eight centre-pieces and seventeen sidepieces4 ,the centre-pieces for the most part represent the different judges before whom the trials are heard1 the side-pieces the messengers and parties to the suit4 ,the combinations are occasionally a little clumsy1 but far less so than in the ,strassburg books printed by ,gruninger in which the same labour-saving device was adopted1 and in excellence of design and delicacy of cutting this ,dutch ,belial ranks high among illustrated incunabula4 ,later in #adhd 7#be ,october7 ,bellaert issued a ,boeck des ,golden ,throens with four-column cuts1 often repeated1 of an ,elder instructing a maiden2 in ,may1 #adhe1 ,le ,fevre's ,jason1 and a little earlier than this an undated edition of the same author's ,recueil des histoires de ,troie1 both in ,dutch and both profusely illustrated2 on ,christmas ,eve in the same year a ,dutch ,de proprietatibus rerum1 and in #adhf versions of ,pierre ,michault's ,doctrinal1 in which a dreamer is shown the schools of virtue and of vice1 and of ,guillaume de ,deguilleville's ,pelerinage de la vie humaine1 the medieval prototype of ,bunyan's ,pilgrim's ,progress4 ,the ,de proprietatibus is the only one of these books of #adhe-f that ,i have seen1 and its full-page cuts are notable both for their own sake and as having been widely copied1 although they illustrate only eleven of the nineteen books4 ,no other ,low ,country printer showed anything like the enterprise of ,leeu and ,bellaert in commissioning long sets of original woodcuts from competent craftsmen1 but several fine illustrated books were produced by other firms4 ,beginning in #adhd ,peter van ,os printed numerous illustrated books at ,zwolle1 few of which attain excellence4 ,yet one of the earliest of them1 the ,sermons of ,s4 ,bernard1 has a frontispiece of the ,virgin and ,child and the ,saint gazing at them which is unequalled by any other single cut in the ,low ,country book in its large pictorial effect4 ,at ,gouda1 in #adhf1 ,gottfried van ,os issued the ,chevalier ,delibere of ,olivier de la ,marche1 with sixteen large cuts1 in which the author's minute instructions for each picture are faithfully carried out with extraordinary freedom and spirit1 though the ambitious designs are more suitable to frescoes than to book-illustrations4 ,about the end of the century the book was reprinted at ,schiedam with the same cuts1 from which facsimiles were made in #ahih by ,dr4 ,lippmann and published by the ,bibliographical ,society4 ,at ,louvain in #adhg ,egidius van der ,heerstraten issued the ,de praeclaris mulieribus of ,boccaccio with copies of the cuts of the ,ulm edition of great interest for the differences in handling revealed when the two are compared4 ,a little later than this another ,louvain printer1 ,ludovicus de ,ravescot1 published the ,de anno die et feria ,dominicae ,passionis of ,petrus de ,rivo1 with a title-cut of the author kneeling before the ,virgin and ,child1 and three large cuts of the ,last ,supper1 ,crucifixion1 and ,resurrection1 somewhat in the temper of the illustrations in the ,cologne ,bibles1 but with characteristic ,low ,country touches4 ,lastly1 mention must be made of the clumsy outline cuts in the ,bruges edition of ,ovid's ,metamorphoses1 issued in #adhd by ,caxton's partner ,colard ,mansion4 ,mansion certainly1 and possibly ,caxton also1 were among the early experimenters with copperplate illustration1 but the story of these will be told in ,chapter ,,xv4 ,,footnotes3 #bi ,dr4 ,schreiber1 in the introduction to ,tome ,v of his ,manuel de l'amateur de la gravure sur bois au xve siecle1 dealing with ,german book-illustrations1 shows that some little difficulty was found at first in effecting this4 ,in ,boner's ,edelstein 7,bamberg1 #adfa71 probably the first illustrated book printed in ,germany1 the cuts were printed after the text4 ,in ,zainer's ,heiligenleben1 the first illustrated book printed at ,augsburg1 the cuts must have been printed first1 as part of the text is sometimes printed over them4 #cj ,a set of proofs of cuts to this book1 previously in the possession of the ,marquis of ,blandford and ,mr4 ,perkins1 was among the favourite possessions of ,william ,morris1 and is now owned by ,mr4 ,morgan4 ,an illustrated ,plenarium1 assigned by ,dr4 ,copinger to ,richel1 appears to be a ghost1 due to some confusion with this ,spiegel4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,early ,,italian ,,illustrated ,,books ,as a frontispiece to this chapter 7,plate ,,xiii7 we give a page from the #adhg edition of the ,devote meditatione sopra la ,passione del ,nostro ,signore1 printed at ,venice by ,jeronimo di ,sancti e ,cornelio suo ,compagno1 the woodcuts in which1 as already mentioned1 are cut down from those in a block-book of some twenty or five-and-twenty years earlier1 and must thus rank as the earliest ,italian illustrations4 ,the illustration of books printed in movable type began in ,italy as early as #adfh1 ,ulrich ,han issuing that year at ,rome an edition of ,cardinal ,turrecremata's ,meditationes1 decorated with thirty-one rude cuts chiefly from the life of ,christ4 ,a few of these have a coarse vigour1 but in the greater number any merit in the original designs 7professedly taken from the frescoes with which the ,cardinal had decorated the cloisters of the ,church of ,santa ,maria sopra ,minerva7 is lost in bad cutting4 ,notwithstanding this the work went through at least three editions 7three new pictures being added to the second and one omitted71 and served as a model for the metal-cuts of ,neumeister's editions at ,mainz and elsewhere1 and for the small neat woodcuts of one by ,plannck4 ,but though ,han's venture was thus successful beyond its deserts1 it took ,italy nearly twenty years to make up its mind to welcome printed illustrations4 ,during this time nothing approaching a style of book-illustration emerges1 though individual books of importance appeared at several towns4 ,thus at ,verona the ,de re militari of ,robertus ,valturius 7written not later than #adfh7 was printed in #adgb by a certain ,joannes of that city1 with over eighty woodcuts of weapons and implements of war1 including a galley which looks more picturesque than seaworthy1 chariots1 and mangonels1 all well drawn and well cut1 but a little spoilt by paper and presswork much less good than was usual at this time4 ,eleven years later ,latin and ,italian editions with practically the same cuts were printed1 also at ,verona1 by ,boninus de ,boninis4 ,the only other early ,veronese book with illustrations is an ,italian version of one of the medieval collections of fables which sought shelter under the name of ,aesop4 ,this1 which has some spirited cuts1 was printed by ,giovanni ,alvise in #adgi4 ,illustration3 ,,xiii4 ,,venice1 ,,geronimo ,,di ,,sancti1 #adhg ,,bonaventura4 ,,meditatione 7#ad;b ,,reduced7 ,,the ,,betrayal ,at ,naples1 ,sixtus ,riessinger printed ,boccaccio's ,libro di ,florio et di ,bianzefiore chiamato ,filicolo in #adgh1 and also 7without date7 an ,italian version of ,ovid's ,heroides1 both with numerous cuts1 some of them by no means devoid of charm4 ,in #adhe an illustrated ,aesop was produced at the expense of a book-loving jurist1 ,francesco ,tuppo1 probably from the press of certain fidelissimi ,germani4 ,the cuts in this1 which are hard and heavy but of considerable merit 7see ,plate ,,xiv71 may possibly be due to a mixture of ,italian and ,german influences1 but are more probably the work of a ,spanish wood-cutter4 ,a picture of an astronomer engaged on his calculations found in the ,arte di ,astrologia of ,granollachs1 probably also printed in #adhe1 may be from the same hand4 ,in the ,aesop each picture is placed in an architectural frame1 in the upper sections of which there are representations sometimes of ,hercules and a lion1 sometimes of his wrestle with ,antaeus1 sometimes of a battle of mounted pygmies4 ,the first page of text also has a fine decorative border1 the design being in white on a black ground4 ,at ,florence an ornamental capital in a ,psalter printed in #adhi is the earliest woodcut in any extant dated book4 ,but engravings on copper had been employed as early as #adgg for three pictures in ,bettini's ,monte ,santo di ,dio1 and in #adha for nineteen in a ,divina ,commedia2 as to these something will be said in ,chapter ,,xv4 ,two books printed at ,milan in #adgi contain illustrations1 the ,summula di pacifica conscientia of ,fra ,pacifico di ,novara1 being ornamented with three engravings2 two of the degrees of consanguinity and the third of a crown bearing the names of the virtues of the ,madonna1 while the ,breuiarium totius juris canonici of ,paolo ,attavanti printed by ,pachel and ,scinzenzeler has a little woodcut1 which purports to be a portrait of the author4 ,in ,venice book-illustration appears to have begun in the office not of a printer1 but of an illuminator4 ,quite a number of books printed by various firms during the years #adgj to #adgb have a woodcut groundwork to their illuminated borders1 and in the ,spencer copy of the ,italian ,bible 7,malermi's translation71 printed in #adga by ,adam of ,ammergau1 the six miniatures of the ,creation1 with which the blanks left on leaves #aa and #ab are filled1 have in the same way rough woodcuts beneath their colouring4#ca ,the workshop in which these decorated borders and miniatures were supplied seems to have closed or given up the practice in #adgc1 and until ,erhard ,ratdolt and his partners ,loslein and ,maler began publishing in #adgf1 no more woodcuts were produced at ,venice4 ,the work of the new firm was decorative rather than pictorial1 consisting mainly of the fine borders and capital letters with which they ornamented their ,calendars 7#adgf1 #adgg1 and #adhb71 their ,appian1 ,gesta ,petri ,mocenici of ,coriolanus ,cepio and ,de situ orbis of ,dionysius ,periegetes1 all in #adgg1 ,arte di ben morire of the following year1 and ,euclid of #adhb4 ,with the exception of the earlier ,calendars1 where the borders to the titlepage 7the first so decorated7 are of flower-vases1 these consist of highly conventionalized foliage 7jasmine8 vine1 oak1 etc47 or strapwork1 some of them unequalled in their own kind until ,william ,morris combined the same skill with a much bolder and richer treatment of his material4 ,illustration properly so called begins with ,georg ,walch's edition 7#adgi7 of the ,fasciculus ,temporum1 a chronological epitome by ,werner ,rolewinck of ,cologne4 ,this has a quaint little view of the ,piazza of ,san ,marco and other pictures1 which ,ratdolt1 not at all handsomely1 proceeded to copy the next year4 ,in #adha ,ratdolt adorned the ,tractatus de ,actionibus oi ,baptista de ,sancto ,blasio with rather a graceful little figure of a woman holding the stem of a tree4 ,in #adhb he produced an edition of the ,poeticon ,astronomicon of ,hyginus with some figures of the planets which1 rude as they were1 served as models for many subsequent editions4 ,in the same year the ,oratoriae artis epitomata of ,jacobus ,publicius was ornamented with some figures including a chessboard1 cut in white on black1 designed to assist the memory4 ,illustration3 ,,xiv4 ,,naples1 ,,francesco ,,tuppo1 #adhe ,,aesop4 ,,fabula ,,xxii41 ,,de ,,atheniensibus ,,petentibus ,,regem ,in the later years of his stay at ,venice1 ,ratdolt seems to have lost interest in book-decoration1 but the popularity of woodcuts steadily increased throughout the 'eighties1 and by the end of the decade was in full tide4 ,in #adhd ,bernardinus ,benalius gave some rough illustrations to the ,fioretti of ,saint ,francis2 in #adhf ,pietro ,cremonese bestowed a formal but quite interesting decorated titlepage on the ,doctrinale of ,alexander ,gallus1 with the title inscribed in a cartouche1 above which rise an urn and lamps4 ,in the same year we have in the ,supplementum ,chronicarum printed by ,bernardinus ,benalius a few cuts of some size translated into an ,italian style from those on the same subject in ,quentell's ,cologne ,bible 7c4 #adhj71 also a little view of ,venice copied in reverse from the ,fasciculus ,temporum4 ,the ,supplementum ,chronicarum was re-issued several times 7the author1 ,jacobus ,philippus ,bergomensis1 bringing the statement of his age up to date in each edition which he revised71 and changes were constantly made in the cuts4 ,in #adhf also came an edition of the ,libro de la divina lege of ,marco del ,monte ,s4 ,maria1 with cuts of ,mount ,sinai and its desert1 notable as having been copied by a much more skilful wood-cutter at ,florence eight years later2 #adhg produced the first of the ,venetian illustrated ,aesops1 the cuts having borders of white scroll-work on a black ground and being influenced by the ,naples edition of #adhe4 ,with this must be mentioned a ,fior di virtu1 with a title cut of a ,friar plucking blossoms from a tree1 which was thought good enough to be copied at ,milan1 but was replaced at ,venice three years later by a delightful picture of a walled garden4 ,it was in #adhg also that there appeared the edition of the ,devote ,meditatione sopra la ,passione1 with cuts taken from the old block-book 7see p4 #abc74 ,in subsequent editions 7of #adhi1 etc47 these were replaced by new woodcuts of varying merit4 ,a later edition still 7#aejj7 has a fine picture of the ,entry into ,jerusalem which ,prince d',essling connects with the ,hypnerotomachia of #adii4 ,in #adhh we come to the first illustrated edition of the ,trionfi of ,petrarch1 printed by ,bernardino de ,novara4 ,this has six large cuts1 showing respectively the triumphs of ,love1 of ,chastity1 ,death1 ,fame1 ,time1 and the ,divinity4 ,all are well designed1 but spoilt by weak cutting4 ,in the same year appeared two other illustrated books1 a ,sphaera ,mundi1 with a few cuts not in themselves of great importance1 and the ,de ,essent et ,essenta of ,s4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 with a striking little picture of a child lighting a fire by means of a burning-glass4 ,by studying these books in conjunction ,prince d',essling has shown that they were designed by one of their printers1 ,johann ,santritter1 and executed by the other1 ,hieronymus de ,sanctis1 and that to the latter may thus be attributed the illustrations 7one at least of them of unusual beauty7 in an ,officium ,beatae ,virginis which issued from his press #bf ,april1 #adid4 ,the information on the last two pages is all epitomized from the ,prince d',essling's great work ,les livres a figures ,venitiens 7#aijg1 etc471 and is quoted here in some detail as showing that from the time of ,erhard ,ratdolt onwards book-illustrations are found with some frequency at ,venice1 a fact for which1 until the ,prince published the results of his unwearying researches1 there was very little evidence available4 ,the event of #adij was the publication by ,lucantonio ,giunta of an edition of ,niccolo ,malermi's ,italian version of the ,bible1 illustrated with #chd cuts1 many of them charming1 measuring about three inches by two4 ,the success of this set a fashion1 and several important folio books in double columns similarly illustrated appeared during the next few years1 a ,vite di ,sancti ,padre in #adia1 ,boccaccio's ,decamerone1 ,masuccio's ,novellino1 and a ,legendario translated from the ,latin of ,jacobus de ,voragine in #adib1 a rival ,italian ,bible and an ,italian ,livy in #adic1 a ,morgante ,maggiore in #adid1 and an ,italian ,terence in #adig1 while in quarto we have a ,miracoli de la ,madonna 7#adia71 ,vita de la ,vergine and ,trabisonda ,istoriata 7#adib71 ,guerrino ,meschino 7#adic71 and several others4 ,in some of these books cuts are found signed with ,f1 in others with ,n1 in others with i or ia2 in the ,malermi ,bible and some other books we sometimes find the signature b or 4b4 ,such signatures1 which at one time aroused keen controversy1 are now believed to have belonged not to the designer1 but to the workshop of the wood-cutters by whom the blocks were cut4 ,in the case of the ,malermi ,bible of #adij workmen of very varying skill were employed1 some of the illustrations to the ,gospels being emptied of all delight by the rudeness of their cutting4 ,where the designer and the cutter are both at their best the result is nearly perfect of its kind1 and it is curious to think that some of these dainty little blocks were imitated from the large1 heavy woodcuts in the ,cologne ,bibles printed by ,quentell some ten years earlier4 ,in the rival ,bible of #adic the best cuts are not so good1 nor the worst so bad as in the original edition of #adij4 ,in the other books 7,i have not seen the ,masuccio7 the cutting is again more even1 but the designs1 though often charming and sometimes amusing1 are seldom as good as the best in the ,bible4 ,most of these books have one or more larger cuts used at the beginning of the text or of sections of it1 and these are always good4 ,two editions of ,dante's ,divina ,commedia1 both published in #adia1 one by ,bernardinus ,benalius and ,matheo ,codeca in ,march1 the other by ,pietro ,cremonese in ,november1 must be grouped with the books just mentioned1 as they are also illustrated with small cuts 7though those in the ,november edition are a good deal larger than the usual column-cuts71 and these are signed in some cases with the letter 4b4 which appears in the ,malermi ,bible of #adij4 ,neither designer has triumphed over the monotonous effect produced by the continual reappearance of the figures of ,dante and his guide1 and the little cuts in the ,march edition are far from impressive4 ,on the other hand it has a good frontispiece1 in which1 after the medieval habit1 the successive incidents of the first canto of the ,inferno are all crowded into the same picture4 ,popular as were the little vignettes1 they were far from exhausting the energies of the ,venetian illustrators of this decade4 ,at the opposite pole from them are the four full-page pictures in the #adic and later editions of the ,fascicolo de ,medicina of ,joannes ,ketham4 ,these represent a physician lecturing1 a consultation1 a dissection1 and a visit of a doctor to an infectious patient1 whom he views by the light of two flambeaux held by pages1 while he smells his pouncet-box4 ,this picture 7in the foreground of which sits a cat1 afterwards cut out to reduce the size of the block7 is perhaps the finest of the four1 but that of the ,dissection has the interest of being printed in several colours4 ,erhard ,ratdolt had made some experiments in colour-printing in the astronomical books which he printed at ,venice1 and at ,augsburg completed the crucifixion cut in some of his missals partly by printed colours1 partly by hand4 ,in #adij a ,venetian printer1 ,johann ,herzog1 had illustrated the ,de ,heredibus of ,johannes ,crispus de ,montibus with a genealogical tree growing out of a recumbent human figure1 and had printed this in brown1 green1 and red4 ,but the dissection in the ,fascicolo di ,medicina was the most elaborate of the ,venetian experiments in colour-printing and apparently also the last4 ,with the illustrations to the ,ketham may be mentioned for its large pictorial effect1 though it comes in a quarto1 the fine cut of the author in the ,doctrina della vita monastica of ,san ,lorenzo ,giustiniano1 first patriarch of ,venice4 ,the figure of ,san ,lorenzo as he walks with a book under his arm and a hand held up in benediction is imitated from that in a picture by ,gentile ,bellini1 but he is here shown 7,plate ,,xv7 preceded by a charming little crucifer1 whose childish face enhances by contrast the austerer benignity of the saint4 ,illustration3 ,,xv4 ,,venice1 ,,anonymous ,,press1 #adid ,,lorenzo ,,giustiniano4 ,,della ,,vita ,,religiosa ,,portrait ,,of ,,the ,,author ,however good the large illustrations in ,venetian books1 the merits of them are rather those of single prints than of really appropriate bookwork4 ,the little column-cuts1 on the other hand1 are almost playful in their minuteness1 and even when most successful produce the effect of a delightful border or tailpiece without quite attaining to the full possibilities of book-illustration4 ,the feverish production of these column-cuts began to slacken1 though it did not cease1 in #adic1 and about that date a few charming full-page pictures are found at the beginning and end of various small quartos4 ,from the treatment of the man's hair and beard it is clear that the delightful frontispiece to the ,fioretti della ,biblia of #adic 7,prince d',essling1 ,i1 #afa7 was the work of the illustrator of the second ,malermi ,bible from which the small cuts in the text are taken4 ,the three cuts to the ,fioretti of ,s4 ,francis1 completed #aa ,june in the same year1 that of the ,chome l'angelo amaestra l'anima of ,pietro ,damiani1 dated in the following ,november1 of an undated ,monte de la ,oratione1 and again of the ,de la confessione of ,s4 ,bernardino of ,siena1 all in the same style1 form a group of singular beauty 7see ,prince d',essling1 ,i1 #bhd sqq42 ,,ii1 #aia1 #aid1 #aie74 ,those of ,s4 ,catherine's ,dialogo de la divina providentia1 #ag ,may1 #adid 7,d',essling1 ,,ii1 #aii sqq471 were probably no less happily designed1 but have lost more in their cutting1 and with these must be grouped the picture of a ,venetian school in the ,regulae ,sypontinae of ,nicolaus ,perottus1 #bi ,march1 #adib 7,d',essling1 ,,ii1 #hf71 used also in the ,de ,structura ,compositionis of ,nicolaus ,ferettus1 printed three years later at ,forli4 ,the style is continued in the ,specchio della fede of ,robertus ,caracciolus1 #aa ,april1 #adie 7,d',essling1 ,,ii1 #bfj71 in the headpiece of the ,commentaria in libros ,aristotelis of ,s4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 #bh ,sept41 #adif1 and in the two admirable pictures of ,terence lecturing to his commentators1 and of a theatre as seen from the back of the stage1 found in the ,terentius cum tribus commentariis of ,july1 #adig 7,d',essling1 ,,ii1 #bie1 and #bgg sqq474 ,still in the same style1 but carelessly designed and poorly cut1 are the illustrations to the well-known ,ovid of ,april1 #adig 7,d',essling1 ,,iii1 #bbj sqq471 and this leads us on to the still more famous ,hypnerotomachia ,poliphili of ,francesco ,colonna1 printed by ,aldus for ,leonardo ,crassus1 a jurisconsult1 in ,december1 #adii1 and finally to the cut of ,christ entering ,jerusalem in the ,devote ,meditatione of the following ,april 7,d',essling1 ,i1 #cgb71 where the hand of the artist of the ,hypnerotomachia is clearly visible1 though he has surrounded his picture with a frame in the ,florentine manner1 which was then beginning to make its influence felt at ,venice4 ,the primacy usually given to the ,hypnerotomachia among all these books is probably in part due to considerations which have little to do with its artistic merit4 ,the story is a kind of archaeological romance which appealed greatly to the dilettante1 for whose benefit ,leonardo ,crassus commissioned ,aldus to print it1 but which was far from exciting the popular interest which shows its appreciation for a book by thumbing it out of existence4 ,the ,hypnerotomachia is probably almost as common a book as the ,nuremberg ,chronicle or the ,first ,folio ,shakespeare1 and thus its merits have become known to all lovers of old books4 ,it is impressive1 moreover1 from its size and the profusion of its #afh illustrations of various sizes1 while the extraordinary variety of these and the excellence of their cutting are further points in its favour4 ,the initial letters of the successive chapters form the sentence ,,poliam ,,frater ,,franciscus ,,colvmna ,,peramavit1 and this with the colophon assigning the completion of the book to ,may-,day1 #adfg1 at ,treviso1 reveals the author as ,francesco ,colonna1 a ,dominican1 who had taught rhetoric at ,treviso and ,padua1 and in #adii1 when his book was printed1 was still alive and an inmate of the convent of ,,ss4 ,giovanni and ,paolo at ,venice4 ,the ,polia whom he so greatly loved has been identified with ,lucretia ,lelio1 daughter of a jurisconsult at ,treviso4 ,the story of the ,hypnerotomachia1 or ,strife of ,love in a ,dream1 as its ,english translator called it1 is greatly influenced by the ,renaissance interest in antique architecture and art which is evident in so many of its illustrations4 ,polifilo's dreams are full1 as the preface-writer says1 of molte cose antiquarie digne di memoria1 tutto quello lui dice hauere visto di puncto in puncto per proprii uocabuli ello descriue cum elegante stilo1 pyramidi1 obelisce1 ruine maxime di edificii1 la differentia di columne1 la sua mensura1 gli capitelli1 base1 epistyli1 etc4 etc4 ,but he is brought also to the palace of ,queen ,eleuterylida1 and while there witnesses the triumphs or festivals of ,europa1 ,leda1 ,danae1 ,bacchus1 ,vertumnus1 and ,pomona1 which provide several attractive subjects for the illustrator4 ,the second part of the book is somewhat less purely antiquarian4 ,lucrezia ,lelio had entered a convent after being attacked by the plague which visited ,treviso from #adfd to #adff1 and so here also ,polia is made to take refuge in the temple of ,diana1 whence1 however1 she is driven on account of the visits of ,polifilo1 with whom1 by the aid of ,venus1 she is ultimately united4 ,one other point to be mentioned is that many of the full-page ,venetian illustrations1 both in quartos and folios1 have quasi-architectural borders to them1 the footpiece being sometimes filled with children riding griffins or other grotesques1 while school-books were often made more attractive to young readers by a border in which a master is flogging a boy duly horsed for the purpose on the back of a schoolfellow4 ,in two of the most graceful of ,venetian borders1 those to the ,herodotus of #adid 7and also in the #adig edition of ,s4 ,jerome's ,epistles7 and ,johann ,muller's epitome of ,ptolemy's ,almagest 7of #adif71 the design is picked out in white on a black ground4 ,a few ,florentine woodcut illustrations have borders of the kind just mentioned in which the design stands out in white on a black ground4 ,in one of these borders there are rather ugly candelabra at the sides1 at the top two lovers facing each other in a circle supported by ,cupids1 at the foot a shield supported by boys standing on the backs of couchant stags4 ,another has mermen at the top1 a shield within a wreath supported by eagles at the foot1 and floral ornaments and armour at the sides4 ,in a third on either side of the shield in the footpiece boys are tilting at each other mounted on boars4 ,in a fourth are shown saints and some of the emblems of the ,passion1 supported by angels4 ,but as a rule1 while nearly all ,florentine woodcuts have borders these are only from an eighth to three-sixteenths of an inch in depth1 and the pattern on them is a leaf or flower or some conventional design of the simplest possible kind4 ,a very few cuts have only a rule round them1 one of the largest a triple rule4 ,a rude cut of the ,crucifixion is found in ,francesco di ,dino's #adij edition of ,cavalca's ,specchio di ,croce surrounded by a rope-work border two-fifths of an inch deep1 and this border1 partly broken away1 also surrounds a really beautiful ,pieta 7,christ standing in a tomb1 ,his cross behind ,him1 ,his hands upheld by angels7 in ,miscomini's #adib edition of ,savonarola's ,trattato dell' ,umilta4 ,when the same publisher used ,dino's ,crucifixion cut1 also in #adib1 for ,savonarola's ,tractato dell' ,amore di ,gesu1 he left it without either border or rule round it1 the only instance of a ,florentine cut so treated in the fifteenth century4 ,dr4 ,paul ,kristeller1 whose richly illustrated monograph on ,early ,florentine ,woodcuts 7,kegan ,paul1 #ahig7 is the standard work on the subject1 suggests with much plausibility that these two cuts1 of the ,crucifixion and the ,pieta1 were originally made for earlier books now lost1 and belong to an older school of wood-cutting1 more akin to that which produced the few extant ,florentine single prints4 ,the earliest work of the new school of illustration is the magnificent cut of the ,virgin in a mandorla appearing to ,s4 ,jacopone da ,todi as he kneels in prayer4 ,this1 surrounded by the triple rule already mentioned1 is prefixed to an edition of ,jacopone's ,laude printed by ,francesco ,buonacorsi and dated #bh ,september1 #adij4 ,apparently the earliest dated cut with a typical ,florentine border is that to the ,lunare of ,granollachs printed by ,lor4 ,morgiani and ,giovanni da ,magonza in ,september1 #adia4 ,it measures more than #f inches by #d1 and is copied1 and transfigured in the process1 from the heavy cut in a ,naples edition of #adhe4 ,two months later the same firm issued the ,soliloquii of ,s4 ,augustine with an extraordinarily fine title-cut of the saint 7the same picture did duty in #adic for ,s4 ,antonino7 writing at a desk in his cell4 ,this has a border1 but with a white ground instead of a black4 ,on #a ,january1 #adia-b1 still from the same firm1 we have surely the prettiest ,arithmetic ever printed1 that of ,filippo ,calandri1 with delightful little pictures and border pieces1 cut in simple outline1 in the ,venetian rather than the ,florentine manner4 ,on #bj ,march1 ,morgiani and his partner produced a new edition of ,bettini's ,monte ,santo di ,dio with the three copperplates of #adha 7see ,chapter ,,xv7 skilfully translated into duly bordered woodcuts1 the first two filling a folio page1 the third somewhat shorter4 ,a ,mandeville with a single cut followed in ,june1 and in ,december the ,trattati of ,ugo ,pantiera1 also with a single cut1 perhaps by the designer of the ,calandri1 since it employs the same trick of representing a master on a much larger scale than a disciple as is found in the picture of ,pythagoras in the earlier book4#cb ,one of the earliest 7and also most delightful7 of the title-cuts of another prolific publisher1 the picture of a lecturer and his pupils in ,antonio ,miscomini's #adib edition of ,landini's ,formulario1#cc measures about #f inches by #d4 ,but after this the period of experiment was at an end1 and with very few exceptions the woodcuts in ,florentine books for the rest of the century all measure either a little over or a little under #c inches by #d1 and are all surrounded by a narrow border with some simple design in white upon a black ground4 ,some pains have been taken to make clear both the experiments as to style1 size1 and borders in the ,florentine book-illustrations of #adij-b1 and the external uniformity in size and borders in the great bulk of the work of the next few years1 because in the first number of the ,burlington ,magazine and subsequently in his fine book on ,florentine ,drawings1 ,mr4 ,bernhard ,berenson put forward with considerable confidence the theory that nine-tenths of the ,florentine book-illustrations of this period were made from designs supplied by a single artist whom he identifies with a certain ,bartolommeo di ,giovanni4 ,this ,bartolommeo contracted in ,july1 #adhh1 with the ,prior of the ,innocents to paint before the end of ,october seven predelle 7,innocenti ,museum1 ,nos4 #fc-gj7 for an altarpiece of the ,adoration of the ,magi1 the commission for which had been given to ,domenico ,ghirlandajo4 ,mr4 ,berenson believes that in addition to these predelle 7the only works with which ,bartolommeo is connected by any evidence other than that of style7 he painted the ,massacre of the ,innocents1 as an episode in ,ghirlandajo's altarpiece at the ,innocenti1 that he must have been one of the more famous painter's apprentices in the years #adha-e1 and subsequently helped him with altarpieces at ,lucca and at the ,accademia at ,florence1 and painted a fresco for the church of ,s4 ,frediano at ,lucca and numerous fronts to the cassoni or ornamental chests1 which were at this period the most decorative articles of ,florentine furniture4 ,as a minor painter ,bartolommeo di ,giovanni#cd is pronounced by ,mr4 ,berenson to have been incapable of producing on the scale of life a figure that can support inspection3 in predelle and cassone-fronts he is feeble1 if vivacious1 and scarcely more than pleasant1 yet with no authenticated work to build on except the predelle in the ,innocenti1 ,mr4 ,berenson does not hesitate to assert that in ,florence between #adij and #aejj few apparently1 if any1 illustrated books were published without woodcuts for which ,alunno di ,domenico#cd furnished the designs1 and on the strength of this assumption bestows on him the praise1 amply deserved by the ,florentine school as a whole1 that he was a book-illustrator1 charming as few in vision and interpretation1 with scarcely a rival for daintiness and refinement of arrangement1 spacing and distribution of black and white4 ,mr4 ,berenson's theories oblige him to credit ,bartolommeo with having copied at least from ,filippo ,lippi1 ,botticelli1 and ,piero di ,cosimo1 as well as from ,ghirlandajo1 and push the licence accorded to connoisseurship to its extreme limit4 ,as ,i have already acknowledged elsewhere1#ce if any one man is to be credited with the whole1 or nearly the whole of the ,florentine book-illustrations of this decade1 a minor artist used to painting predelle and cassone-fronts would be the right kind of man for the task1 but on the very scanty evidence at present available ,i am personally more inclined to attribute such unity as can be traced in these ,florentine cuts to their having all come from one large wood-cutter's shop1 without attempting to trace them back to a single designer4 ,in the year #adib1 when the form of the ,florentine woodcuts had become fairly fixed1 ,savonarola was called to the death-bed of ,lorenzo the ,magnificent1 only to refuse him absolution4 ,his ,amore di ,gesu and ,trattato dell' ,umilta were printed in ,june of that year by ,miscomini1 each decorated with a single cut4 ,during the six years ending with his execution in ,may1 #adih1 some twenty-three different tracts from his pen1 illustrated with one or more woodcuts1 were printed at ,florence1 most of them in several different editions4 ,in the ,de ,simplicitate ,christianae vitae 7#adif7 a friar is shown writing in his cell2 in other cuts we see a friar preaching1 or visiting the convent of the ,murate or ,recluses of ,florence1 or talking with seven ,florentines under a tree1 but in no case has any attempt been made at portraiture4 ,this is true also of the ,compendio di ,revelatione 7#adie71 in which there are some charming cuts showing ,savonarola escorted by four holy women representing ,simplicity1 ,prayer1 ,patience1 and ,faith1 on an embassy to the ,blessed ,virgin4 ,in the first of these they meet the devil attired as a hermit2 in the second they arrive at the gate of the celestial city of which the wall is crowded with saints and angels2 in the third they are ushered forth by ,s4 ,peter4 ,a tract by ,domenico ,benivieni in defence of ,savonarola1 besides a cut of the usual size representing ,benivieni arguing with his opponents1 has a full-page one of the river of blood flowing from ,christ's wounds and sinners cleansing themselves in it and marking their foreheads with the sign of the cross4 ,one of the finest cuts in the ,savonarola series represents a citizen of ,florence in prayer before a crucifix4 ,but almost all of them are good4 ,besides the ,savonarola tracts the miscellaneous religious treatises illustrated with one or more woodcuts are very numerous4 ,in some cases outside models were still sought4 ,one of the most important of these books is the ,meditatione sopra la ,passione attributed to ,s4 ,bonaventura1 of which two undated editions were issued1 one with eight cuts1 the other with twelve1 three of the additional cuts in the second edition--the ,entry into ,jerusalem1 ,christ before ,pilate1 and ,procession to ,calvary 7see ,plate ,,xvi7--being exceptionally fine4 ,the earlier designer probably had the ,venetian edition of #adhi before him1 but used it quite freely4 ,two of the three cuts in the #adid ,florentine edition of the ,libro delli commandamenti di ,dio of ,marco del ,monte ,s4 ,maria are improved copies of those in the ,venetian edition of #adhf4 ,the third cut1 which appears also in the same author's ,tabula della ,salute 7also of #adid71 representing the ,monte della ,pieta1 is copied on a reduced scale from a large copper engraving attributed to ,baccio ,baldini1 of which an example is in the ,print ,room of the ,british ,museum4 ,of the thirty-four cuts in ,cardinal ,capranica's ,arte del benmorire1 eleven are imitated from the well-known series in the ,german block-books4 ,illustration3 ,,xvi4 ,,florence1 ,,miscomini1 ,c4 #adie ,,bonaventura4 ,,meditatione4 ,,the ,,procession ,,to ,,calvary ,for the ,rappresentazioni or miracle-plays in honour of various saints originality was more imperative1 and numerous cuts were designed1 only a few of which have come down to us in editions of the fifteenth century1 most being known as they survive in reprints of the second half of the sixteenth4 ,our example 7,plate ,,xvii7 is from an undated edition of ,la ,festa di ,san ,giovanni1 in which1 as on many other titlepages1 an angel is shown above the title-cut as the speaker of the ,prologue4 ,purely secular literature in the shape of ,novelle was no doubt plentiful1 despite the influence of ,savonarola1 but most of it has perished1 thumbed to pieces by too eager readers4 ,a volume of ,novelle at the ,university ,library1 ,erlangen1 is illustrated with delightful cuts1 and others survive here and there in different libraries4 ,of more pretentious quartos ,angelo ,politiano's ,la ,giostra di ,giuliano di ,medici 7first edition undated1 second #aeac7 is very finely illustrated1 and ,petrarch's ,trionfi 7#adii7 has good versions of the usual six subjects4 ,many of the best of the quartos and all the illustrated folios were financed by a publisher1 ,ser ,piero ,pacini of ,pescia1 who was succeeded early in the sixteenth century by his son ,bernardo4 ,pacini in #adie began his career with a very ambitious venture1 a folio edition of the ,epistole et ,evangelii et ,lectioni as they were read in the ,mass throughout the year4 ,this has a decorative frontispiece1 in the centre of which stand ,,ss4 ,peter and ,paul1 while small cuts of the four evangelists are placed in the corners4 ,the text is illustrated with #add different woodcuts1 besides numerous fancy portraits of evangelists1 prophets1 etc4 ,a few of the cuts are taken from the ,meditationes of ,s4 ,bonaventura1 and one or two1 perhaps1 from other books already published2 but the enormous majority are new1 and from the consistency of the portrait-types of ,christ1 ,s4 ,peter1 ,s4 ,john1 etc41 appear all to have been designed by the same man4 ,some are less successful than others1 but the average is exceptionally high1 and the best cuts are full of movement and life4 ,an ,aesop followed in #adif1 ,pulci's ,morgante ,maggiore in #aejj1 and the ,quatriregio1 a dull poem in imitation of ,dante by ,bishop ,frezzi1 in #aejh4 ,it has been conjectured1 however1 that an earlier edition of the ,quatriregio may have been printed in the fifteenth century with the same illustrations1 and there is considerable reason to doubt whether any fresh cuts in the old style were made at ,florence after the temporary cessation of publishing brought about by the political troubles of #aeja4 ,on the other hand1 the old cuts went on being used1 sometimes in the originals1 sometimes in copies1 throughout the greater part of the sixteenth century1 and it is only in these reprints that many of them are known to survive4 ,at no other ,italian town was there any outburst of book-illustration at all comparable to those at ,venice and ,florence in the last decade of the fifteenth century4 ,at ,ferrara1 after a fine cut of ,s4 ,george and a much ruder one of ,s4 ,maurelius in a ,legenda of the latter saint printed in #adhi1cf no illustration appeared until #adic1 when the ,compilatio of ,alfraganus was adorned with a picture of the astronomer instructing a diminutive hermit4 ,after this1 in #adif we have a fine cut of the ,virgin and ,child in the ,de ingenuis adolescentium moribus1 and in #adig two important folio books1 both from the press of ,lorenzo ,rossi1 the ,de claris mulieribus of ,jacobus ,philippus ,bergomensis 7#bi ,april7 and the ,epistles of ,s4 ,jerome 7#ab ,october74 ,the former of these is distinctly native work1 with the exception of an architectural border1 decorated chiefly with putti and griffins1 etc41 which is thoroughly ,venetian in style1 and was used again in the ,s4 ,jerome4 ,there are two large illustrations1 one showing the author presenting his book to the ,queen of ,hungary and ,bohemia1 the other containing eight scenes from the life of the ,blessed ,virgin4 ,fifty-six cuts in the text are made to serve as portraits of #agb different women1 and under the strain of such repetition individuality perforce disappears4 ,but at the end of the book are seven cuts of ,italian ladies of the fifteenth century3 ,bona of ,lombardy1 ,bianca ,maria of ,milan1 ,catherine ,countess of ,frejus and ,imola1 ,leonora ,duchess of ,ferrara1 ,bianca ,mirandula1 ,genebria ,sforza1 and ,damisella ,trivulzia1 and these1 some of them fair1 some rather forbidding1 appear all to be genuine portraits4 ,the cutting is mostly rather stiff and heavy 7,damisella ,trivulzia is exceptionally tenderly treated71 and much use is made of black grounds4 ,illustration3 ,,xvii4 ,,florence1 ,,bart4 ,,di ,,libri1 ,c4 #adie ,,la ,,festa ,,di ,,san ,,giovanni4 7,,title7 ,in contrast to those in the ,de claris mulieribus1 the cuts in the ,epistulae of ,s4 ,jerome are distinctly ,venetian in style4 ,as one of the two architectural borders is dated #adic1 it is possible that the book was at first intended to be issued at ,venice1 but was transferred to ,ferrara when ,venetian interest in small column-cuts was found to be on the wane4 ,it possesses in all over #afj of these1 those illustrating conventual life in the second part of the book being much the most interesting4 ,at ,milan the ,theorica ,musicae of ,franchino ,gafori1 printed in #adib by ,philippus ,mantegatius1 has a title-cut of a man playing the organ1 and four coarsely cut pictures1 together occupying a page1 showing primitive musical experiments4 ,four years later the same author's ,practica ,musicae was issued by another printer1 ,guillaume ,le ,signerre1 with a title-cut illustrating the different measures and the ,muses and signs of the ,zodiac to which they belong1 and with two fine woodcut borders surrounding the opening pages of ,books ,i and ,,iii1 and ,,ii and ,,iv4 ,in #adih ,le ,signerre produced two much more profusely illustrated books1 the ,specchio dell' ,anima of ,ludovicus ,besalii and an ,aesop1 some of the cuts of the former being used again in #adii in the ,tesoro ,spirituale of ,johannes ,petrus de ,ferrariis4 ,after this he migrated to ,saluzzo1 and in #aejc produced there a fine edition of the ,de ,veritate ,contritionis of ,vivaldus1 with a frontispiece of ,s4 ,jerome in the desert4 ,at ,modena in #adij ,dominicus ,rocociola printed a ,legenda ,sanctorum ,trium ,regum1 with a rather pleasing cut of their ,adoration of the ,holy ,child2 and two years later1 at the same place1 the ,prognosticatio of ,johann ,lichtenberger1 printed by ,pierre ,maufer1 was illustrated with three full-page quarto cuts and forty-two half-page ones1 careful directions for each picture being supplied in the text1 but the cuts being modelled on those in the ,german editions at ,ulm and ,mainz4 ,at ,aquila in #adic an ,aesop was produced1 copied from the ,naples edition of #adhe4 ,at ,pavia in #aeje the ,sanctuarium of ,jacobus ,gualla was illustrated with seventy woodcuts and some excellent initials4 ,at ,saluzzo in #aejh another work by ,vivaldus1 printed by ,jacobus de ,circis and ,sixtus de ,somachis1 was decorated with three large woodcuts of very exceptional merit3 a portrait of the ,marquis ,ludovico ,,ii 7almost too striking for a book-illustration71 a picture of ,s4 ,thomas ,aquinas in his cell1 and another of ,s4 ,louis of ,france4 ,the treatise of ,paulus de ,middelburgo on the date of ,easter1 printed by ,petruzzi at ,fossombrone in #aeac1 contains some very fine borders1 and the ,decachordum ,christianum of ,marcus ,vigerius1 printed at ,fano in #aejg by ,hieronymus ,soncinus1 has ten cuts by ,florio ,vavassore1 surrounded with good arabesque borders4 ,to multiply isolated examples such as these would turn our text into a catalogue4 ,here and there special care was taken over the decoration of a book1 and worthy results produced4 ,but throughout ,italy the best period of illustration had come to an end when the sixteenth century was only a few years old4 ,,footnotes3 #ca ,in the masterly work of the ,prince d',essling on ,les livres a figures ,venitiens1 the discovery of this interesting fact is inadvertently ascribed to ,mr4 ,guppy1 the present librarian of the ,john ,rylands ,library4 ,it was made by his predecessor1 ,mr4 ,gordon ,duff1 a note by whom on the subject was quoted in my ,italian ,book-,illustrations 7p4 #ah71 published in #ahid4 #cb ,the same trick is used in the ,rudimenta astronomica of ,alfraganus1 printed at ,ferrara by ,andreas ,bellfortis in #adic4 #cc ,also used in an undated edition of the ,flores ,poetarum4 #cd ,mr4 ,berenson prefers to call him ,alunno di ,domenico1 ,ghirlandajo's pupil4 #ce ,introduction to the ,roxburghe ,club edition 7presented by ,mr4 ,dyson ,perrins7 of the ,epistole et ,evangelii of #adie4 #cf ,there were two issues or editions of this book in #adhi1 one of which is said to have only the cut of ,s4 ,maurelius4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,early ,,french ,,and ,,spanish ,,illustrated ,,books ,although interrupted by the death of its veteran author1 ,claudin's magnificent ,histoire de l'imprimerie en ,france1 in the three volumes which he lived to complete1 made it for the first time possible for students to trace the early history of book-illustration at ,paris and ,lyon1 the two great centres of printing in ,france4 ,no illustrated books were printed at the ,sorbonne1 nor by its ,german printers when they set up in the rue ,s4 ,jacques1 nor by their rivals there1 ,keysere and ,stoll1 and the ,french printers at the sign of the ,soufflet vert4 ,in ,january1 #adgf-g1 in the first ,french book printed at ,paris1 the ,chroniques de ,france or de ,s4 ,denis1 ,pasquier ,bonhomme so far recognized the possibility of illustration as to leave a space for a miniature on the first page of text1#cg but he used no woodcuts himself1 and his son ,jean suffered himself to be anticipated in introducing them by ,jean ,du ,pre4 ,although he worked on rather narrow lines1 ,du ,pre was the finest of the early ,parisian printers1 and possessed far better taste than the prolific publisher1 ,antoine ,verard1 of whom so much more has been written4 ,his first book1 a ,paris ,missal issued in partnership with ,didier ,huym1 #bb ,september1 #adha1 has a large picture of the ,pere ,eternel and the ,crucifixion4 ,although this is fairly well cut1 it is baldly handled1 and was far surpassed two months later 7#bh ,november7 in a similar missal for the diocese of ,verdun1 by a really fine metal-cut of a priest and other worshippers at prayer at an altar4 ,from the priest's uplifted hands a little figure of a man is rising up to a vision of the ,pere ,eternel1 seen with ,his angels against the background of a sky full of stars4 ,the little figure is the priest's soul1 and the cut 7often confused with pictures of the ,mass of ,s4 ,gregory1 in which the ,host is seen as a figure of ,christ7 illustrates the opening words of the introit3 ,ad te levavi animam meam4 ,in the same ,missal are a number of smaller cuts which look as if they had been prepared for a ,horae1 and may indeed have been used for one now entirely lost4 ,the ,ad te levavi cut reappears in many of the later ,missals of ,du ,pre1 and subsequently of ,wolfgang ,hopyl4 ,du ,pre's first secular book to be illustrated was an edition of ,boccaccio's ,de la ruine des nobles hommes1 completed #bf ,february1 #adhc-d1 and of peculiar interest to ,english bookmen because the woodcuts were acquired by ,richard ,pynson1 and used in his edition of ,lydgate's ,falles of ,princes1 an ,english verse-rendering of the same work4 ,they are well designed and clearly cut1 if rather hard1 and till their ,french origin was discovered were justly praised as some of the very best ,english woodcuts of the fifteenth century4 ,only a few weeks later ,jean ,bonhomme 7#ab ,may1 #adhd7 issued ,maistre ,jacques ,millet's ,l',histoire de la destruction de ,troye la ,grant1 illustrated with a number of cuts rather neater and firmer1 but of much the same kind1 and possibly from the same workshop4 ,they passed almost at once into the possession of ,verard1 and cuts from the series illustrating battles1 landings1 councils1 audiences1 and other romantic commonplaces are found in his ,vegece of #adhh and ,les ,commentaires ,iules ,cesar of about the same date 7see ,macfarlane's ,antoine ,verard1 cuts vi-ix74 ,a new edition of ,millet's book was printed by ,jean ,driard for ,verard #h ,may1 #adih4 ,two of the best of the cuts are those of the lamentation over the dead body of ,hector and the sacrifice of ,polyxena on the tomb of ,achilles4 ,the only other illustrated book published by ,jean ,bonhomme was his edition of the ,livre des ruraulx prouffitz du labeur des champs1 a ,french version of ,crescentius1 with a frontispiece of the translator presenting his book to ,charles ,,vii 7#ae ,october1 #adhf74 ,meanwhile1 a new publisher of illustrated books had arisen1 ,guyot ,marchant1 who in ,september1 #adhe1 issued a ,danse macabre which went through several editions4 ,its grim fantastic pictures 7executed with unusual skill and delicacy1 see ,plate ,,xviii7 of ,death as a grinning skeleton claiming his prey from every class of society seem to have become quickly popular1 and additional cuts were made for later editions1 including one in ,latin 7#ae ,october1 #adij71 in which the ,dance is called ,chorea ab eximio macabro versibus alemanicis edita4 ,a ,danse macabre des femmes followed 7#b ,may1 #adia71 but the figures in this are mostly less good1 as are those of a third part 7the ,debate between ,soul and ,body1 and other pieces71 despite the vivacity with which they represent the tortures of the damned4 ,akin to the ,danse ,macabre is the ,compost et ,kalendrier des ,bergers 7also of #adia71 a medley of weather-lore1 rules for health1 and moral and religious instruction1 liberally illustrated with cuts of shepherds1 of ,moses1 ,christ and the ,apostles1 and of the tortures of the damned4 ,this in its turn was followed1 in #adif1 by a similar book for the ,shepherdesses1 of which a new edition appeared in #adii1 with added pastoral cuts1 some of which have unusual charm4 ,besides ,guyot ,marchant1 ,pierre ,levet began book-illustration in #adhe1 but most of his work was done for ,verard4 ,his earliest venture1 an ,exposition de la salutation angelique1 has a cut of the ,annunciation1 the shading in which suggests that he may have imported a cutter from ,lyon4 ,illustration3 ,,xviii4 ,,paris1 ,,marchand1 #adia ,,danse ,,macabre 7#e;a74 ,,death ,,and ,,the ,,archbishop4 7,,reduced7 ,in #adhf ,jean ,du ,pre was very busy4 ,at ,paris he completed in ,june a ,vie des anciens ,saintz ,peres1 with a large cut of ,s4 ,jerome writing in a stall and the holy fathers passing before him1 also numerous very neat column-cuts and capital letters4 ,meanwhile1 at ,abbeville ,du ,pre was helping ,pierre ,gerard to produce one of the finest ,french books of the fifteenth century1 the magnificent edition of ,s4 ,augustine's ,cite de ,dieu4 ,early in #adhf ,gerard had already printed there an edition of ,la somme rurale1 but this had only a single woodcut1 and it was probably mainly in connection with the illustrations that he now enlisted the help of ,du ,pre4 ,in the first volume of the ,cite de ,dieu 7finished #bd ,november1 #adhf7 there are eleven woodcuts1 in the second 7finished #ab ,april1 #adhf-g7 twelve1 i4e4 a woodcut at the beginning of each of the twenty-two books and a frontispiece of ,s4 ,augustine writing1 and the translator1 ,raoul de ,preules1 presenting his book to the ,king of ,france4 ,the subjects and general design of the cuts correspond with greater or less closeness to those in ,royal ,,ms4 #ad ,d4 #a at the ,british ,museum 7,books ,i-,,xi only71 so that the same original was probably followed by both4 ,one of the most effective pictures is that to ,book ,,xiv1 which shows a man seated in a tree1 offered a crown by an angel and a money-chest by a devil1 while ,death is sawing the tree asunder1 and two dragons wait at its foot4 ,another shows ,s4 ,augustine writing1 while five devils play with his books1 and an angel protects his mitre4 ,the cutting throughout is excellent1 and the pictures1 though sometimes fantastic1 are very effectively drawn4 ,there can be little doubt that they were the work of ,paris craftsmen4 ,as for ,pierre ,gerard1 in #adhg he printed by himself1 still at ,abbeville1 an edition of ,le ,triomphe des ,neuf ,preux1 with rather childishly conventional cuts of the legendary heroes1 but for ,bertrand ,du ,guesclin a portrait which at least faithfully reproduces his bullet head4 ,we find ,du ,pre forming a similar alliance two years later with ,jean ,le ,bourgeois of ,rouen1 for whom he completed at ,paris the second volume of a ,roman des ,chevaliers de la ,table ronde1 #af ,september1 #adhh1 while ,le ,bourgeois was still struggling at ,rouen with ,vol4 ,i1 which ultimately got finished #bd ,november4 ,this has some large cuts of the ,feast at the ,round ,table1 etc4 ,in #adhi ,du ,pre produced a ,legende doree1 a companion volume to his ,vie des ,saintz ,peres of #adhf4 ,but by this time he was already producing ,horae1 which will be spoken of later on1 and ,horae and ,missals were his main occupations for the rest of his career1 though he produced a fine edition of the allegorical romance ,le ,chevalier ,delibere by ,olivier de la ,marche1 ,bonnor's ,arbre des ,batailles 7in which he used some of the same cuts71 #adic1 ,les vigilles du roi ,charles ,,vii and some other secular books4 ,the great ,paris publisher ,antoine ,verard started on his busy career in #adhe1 and the history of book-illustration at ,paris is soon immensely complicated by his doings4 ,many of the printers at ,paris printed for him2 illustrations originally made for other men gravitated into his possession and were used occasionally for new editions of the book for which they had been made1 much more often as stock cuts in books with which they had nothing to do2 while if another firm brought out a successful picture-book1 ,verard imitated the cuts in it with unscrupulous and unblushing closeness4 ,the monograph of my late friend and colleague ,john ,macfarlane#ch describes some #bhj books published by ,verard between #adhe and #aeab1 and like most bibliographical work done at first hand by personal examination of the books themselves gets at the root of the matter1 although the absence of information as to ,verard's predecessors and contemporaries1 such as has since been supplied by ,m4 ,claudin1 prevented the author from pressing home some of his points4 ,thus in his estimate that sets of blocks had been expressly cut to adorn some thirty editions1 ,macfarlane did not make sufficient allowance for the cases in which these apparent sets were themselves not original1 having been acquired by ,verard from earlier owners4 ,nevertheless1 he had no difficulty in finding support for his contention that the illustrations in ,verard's books1 when closely examined1 hardly bear out their reputation4 ,thus he showed that besides being repeatedly used in book after book1 it not uncommonly happens that the same cut is used again and again in the same book1 and gave as an extreme instance of this the repetition no fewer than twenty times of the same cut in the ,merlin of #adih4ci ,he pointed out1 moreover1 that some far-fetched plea is nearly always needed to justify the presence of a cut in any but the work it was designed for4 ,for instance1 in the ,josephus of #adib the spoliation of a country is represented by the burial of a woman1 the death of ,samson by a picture of the ,temple1 and the ,sacrifice of ,isaac helps the reader to conceive the execution of a malefactor1 while a mention of the sea brings out a cut of ,noah's ,ark4 ,however crowded a book may be with cuts1 if the cuts are mostly irrelevant it cannot truly be said to be illustrated1 and the number of ,verard's books which a rigorous application of this principle would condemn is very large4 ,an explanation of at least some of these incongruities may be found in ,verard's early training as an illuminator1 and his habit of preparing special copies on vellum for ,charles ,,viii of ,france1 ,henry ,,vii of ,england1 the ,comte d',angouleme1 and other royal and noble patrons4 ,a woodcut in itself quite inappropriate to the text might save an illuminator some trouble by suggesting the grouping of the figures in a picture1 and a cut of ,saturn devouring his children was actually used in this way in one of the ,henry ,,vii books in the ,british ,museum as a ground plan for an illumination of a ,holy ,family4 ,if ,king ,henry ever held that illumination up to the light he would have had no difficulty in seeing the scythe of ,chronos and the limbs of a child protruding from ,saturn's mouth1 but ,i have never seen a paper copy of this book1 and can only wonder whether the same cut was allowed to appear in it4 ,verard's earliest book was the translation of ,boccaccio's ,decamerone by ,laurent du ,premierfait1 completed #bb ,november1 #adhe1 and illustrated with a single cut of the author writing in an alcove looking out on a garden where the storytellers are seen seated4 ,an edition of ,les dits moraux des philosophes of ,guillaume de ,tignonville 7,caxton's ,dicts and ,sayings of the ,philosophers7 followed in ,april1 #adhf1 and the ,livre des ruraulx prouffitz1 translated from ,crescentius1 with a few small cuts1 not so good as those in the edition just issued by ,jean ,bonhomme1 in the following ,july4 ,his first important illustrated book was the ,cent nouvelles nouvelles1 of ,christmas ,eve1 #adhf1 with two large cuts1 very alike in style1 of an author presenting his book to a king1 and forty column-cuts1 most of them used several times1 occasionally with mutilations intended to erase features unsuitable to the later stories4 ,the next important book was a ,chevalier ,delibere of #h ,august1 #adhh1 with some excellent cuts which reappear frequently in later books4 ,passing over many inferior books1 we come in #adib to a really fine one1 containing four separate treatises3 7#a7 ,art de bien mourir1 illustrated with copies of the old ,german block-book2 7#b7 ,traite des peines d'enfer 7otherwise known as ,l',aiguillon de crainte divine71 with grotesque but striking cuts of the tortures of the damned2 7#c7 ,advenement de antichrist and fifteen ,tokens of ,judgment1 very poorly illustrated compared with the other parts of the book2 and 7#d7 ,l',art de bien vivre1 copiously decorated with scenes from ,bible history1 an oblong set1 illustrating the ,adoration of the ,virgin and ,child1 the ,lord's ,prayer1 ,commandments1 ,apostles1 etc42 7#e7 a very fine set of cuts illustrating the ,sacraments4 ,in ,june1 #adic1 ,verard published in three large folio volumes1 printed for him by ,jean ,morand1 ,les ,croniques de ,france1 with pictures of a coronation1 royal entry into a town1 a king sitting in judgment1 etc4 etc41 the cutting being only of average delicacy1 but good enough to do justice to the vigour of some of the designs4 ,from this point onwards his interest seems more and more to have centred in his illuminated copies1 and almost all the later ,verard illustrations in ,m4 ,claudin's great work are taken from these4 ,along1 however1 with many old cuts in his undated ,bible historiee there are two very fine ones specially made for the work1 one of ,adam and ,eve in ,eden1 a round cut placed1 below the roots of a tree1 in a square of black1 from which it stands out with extraordinary vividness 7see ,plate ,,xix71 and a picture of the ,trinity and the four evangelists4 ,in an undated ,terence en francois1 printed about #aejj1 ,verard availed himself of an idea already exploited by ,gruninger and some of the ,low ,country illustrators1 the use of blocks made up of five or six pieces used in different combinations1 so as to give an effect of great variety at very small expense4 ,many of the individual blocks1 though the figures are not at all ,terentian1 are very charming1 and a few of them were freely copied for the ,english market1 where they may be traced for over a century4 ,about the same time as this ,verard published a ,livre des ,ordonnances de la ,prevoste des ,marchans et ,eschevinage de la ,ville de ,paris1 with numerous small illustrations of different crafts and a most interesting picture of the court of the ,prevoste with its judges and officials4 ,after the first few years of the sixteenth century ,verard seems to have relied more than ever on his stock of old cuts1 and does not seem to have produced any notable new books4 ,illustration3 ,,xix4 ,,paris1 ,,verard1 #aeje ,,bible ,,en ,,francoys 7#b;a74 ,,adam ,,and ,,eve4 7,,reduced7 ,a few books printed or published by less prolific firms remain to be noticed before we speak of the ,horae which form so important a section among ,paris illustrated books as to require separate treatment4 ,one of ,verard's printers was ,pierre ,le ,rouge1 a member of a family which worked also at ,chablis and at ,troyes4 ,in ,july1 #adhh1 and ,february1 #adhh-i1 ,le ,rouge printed pour ,vincent ,commin ,marchand libraire ,la mer des histoires in two great folios with large cuts of the kind ,verard subsequently used in his ,chroniques de ,france1 and on the titlepage a particularly fine capital ,l4 ,philippe ,pigouchet1 mainly a printer of ,horae1 produced in #adii for his usual publisher1 ,simon ,vostre1 a charmingly illustrated edition of a dull poem1 ,le ,chasteau de ,labeur1 attributed to the playwright of ,victor ,hugo's ,notre ,dame de ,paris1 ,pierre ,gringore4 ,wolfgang ,hopyl printed some fine ,missals1 mostly after #aejj2 ,le ,petit ,laurens1 besides working for ,verard1 printed for ,g4 ,marnef ,la nef des folles1 with a few cuts by one of the most skilled of ,paris craftsmen1 and these were rivalled by ,jean ,treperel in an undated ,paris et ,vienne2 ,gillet ,couteau and ,jean ,menard printed a ,danse ,macabre in #adib 7not so good as ,gui ,marchant's7 and a new version of the ,biblia ,pauperum entitled ,les figures du vieil testament et du nouveau2 ,jean ,lambert1 in #adig1 produced ,la nef des folz du monde1 with cuts imitating those in the ,basel editions4 ,it would be easy to mention other books1 but not without turning our pages into a catalogue4 ,we must turn now to the ,paris ,horae4 ,as already noted1 among the pictures in ,jean ,du ,pre's ,verdun ,missal of ,november1 #adha1 there are a set of cuts which seem to have been designed for a ,horae1 though if they were even put to this use no copy of the edition in which they appeared has been recorded4 ,the earliest illustrated ,horae of which copies exist are three editions published by ,verard1 in ,february #adhe-f1 ,august #adhf1 and ,july #adhg1 all of them small and with insignificant cuts1 and all known only from single copies1 of which that of the earliest edition 7in private hands7 is imperfect1 while the woodcuts in the other two1 both at the ,bibliotheque ,nationale1 are heavily coloured4 ,verard's ,horae of #adhf and #adhg are said to have been printed for him by ,jean ,du ,pre1 and in the next group of editions ,du ,pre on his own account seems to have played the chief part1 with ,levet and ,caillaut as subordinate actors4 ,it is probable that the group may have been started by a ,psalter printed by ,levet #bc ,september1 #adhf1 and reprinted #ai ,february1 #adhh-i1 the cuts of these appearing in an undated ,horae ad usum ,romanum1 printed by ,du ,pre1 now in the ,british ,museum4 ,this measures about #d7e_/h7 ,x #c7a_/d7 inches1 and of the same size1 but with different woodcuts1 are another undated ,horae by ,du ,pre in the ,bodleian1 and a third1 with ,caillaut's mark at the end1 in the ,bibliotheque ,nationale4 ,the cuts in all three are delightfully simple and naive1 and those in the ,bodleian ,du ,pre edition show really delicate work4 ,the group1 which comprised other editions only known from fragments1 seems to be continued by two dated respectively #aj ,may1 #adhh1 and #d ,february1 #adhh-i1 each measuring about #e7e_/h7 ,x #c7e_/h7 inches1 the illustrations in which are distinctly stated to have been cut on copper 7les vignettes de ces presentes heures imprimees en cuyvre74 ,the illustrations especially referred to are the borderpieces1 which are of great importance as containing the earliest examples of a series of small ,horae cuts continued from page to page1 in this case depicting incidents in the life of ,christ and their prefigurements1 on the plan of the old block-book ,biblia ,pauperum4 ,lastly1 in #adij1 we have a ,du ,pre ,horae1 with very fine cuts and with some of the miscellaneous borderpieces of the editions just mentioned1 which is of exceptional interest in the history of ,french book-illustration and printing1 since the cuts and borders in it are printed in different colours1 faint red1 blue and green1 two colours 7laid on the same block and printed at the same time7 usually appearing together4 ,the ,british ,museum possesses one of two known copies of this ,horae1 and the late ,prince d',essling bought the other4 ,illustration3 ,,xx4 ,,paris1 ,,verard1 #adij ,,grandes ,,heures 7,,sig4 ,c #f ,,verso74 ,,massacre ,,of ,,the ,,innocents ,in the ,horae of the group we have been describing the subjects of the larger cuts became fairly well settled1 in accordance with the normal contents of the prayer book4 ,for the ,kalendar there is the figure of a man with an indication of the parts of his body presided over by the different planets3 for the sequence of the ,gospels of the ,passion1 sometimes a ,crucifixion1 sometimes a picture of ,s4 ,john2 for the ,hours of the ,blessed ,virgin1 the ,annunciation1 ,visitation1 ,nativity1 ,shepherds1 ,magi1 ,circumcision1 ,massacre of the ,innocents or ,flight into ,egypt1 and ,assumption of the ,blessed ,virgin2 for the ,hours of the ,cross1 a ,crucifixion2 for the ,hours of the ,holy ,spirit1 ,his ,descent at ,pentecost2 for the ,penitential ,psalms1 ,david's fall 7,bathsheba bathing or the death of ,uriah7 or repentance2 for the ,office of the ,dead1 either a ,funeral1 ,dives and ,lazarus1 or the three ,gallants and three ,skeletons 7les trois vifs et trois morts72 for the ,suffrages1 small pictures of various saints4 ,any edition might have one or more additional cuts with less usual subjects1 but those named occur in almost all4 ,passing on1 we come now to ,verard's countermove to ,du ,pre's group1 ,horae measuring #f inches or a little under by about #c7a_/b74 ,editions of these were issued in ,april1 #adhh-i1 and in ,january1 ,february1 and ,april of the following year4 ,the last of these1 completed #aj ,april1 #adhi-ij1 ,i wrongly described1 in an article in ,vol4 ,,iii of ,bibliographica1 as having a titlepage bearing the words ,les figures de la ,bible4 ,it has such a titlepage in the copy in the ,british ,museum1 but ,i have now woke up to the fact that it is a modern fabrication1 added either by an artful bookseller or an artless owner4 ,in these ,horae the borders are made up of four pieces1 one of which extends along most of the outer and lower margins1 and shows children wrestling with each other1 or playing with hobbies or go-carts4 ,on #aj ,july1 #adic1 these are found in a ,horae issued by ,laurens ,philippe4 ,verard could the better afford to part with them1 since in ,august1 #adij1 perhaps earlier1 he had substituted much larger borders1 the subjects in which seem imitated from those of ,du ,pre's metal-cuts1 the printed page now measuring about #h ,x #e inches1 and thus winning for them the title ,grandes ,heures1 by which they are generally known 7see ,plate ,,xx74 ,the large cuts1 of which1 though not all appear in every edition1 thereillustrate the following subjects3-- #a4 ,prayer to the ,virgin2 #b4 ,anatomical ,man2 #c4 ,a chalice the circumference of which represents the measurement of ,christ's wound2 #d4 ,fall of ,angels2 #e4 ,creation of ,eve and ,fall2 #f4 ,controversy in heaven between ,mercy1 ,justice1 ,peace1 and ,reason1 and ,annunciation2 #g4 ,reconciliation of ,joseph and ,mary1 and ,visitation2 #h4 ,nativity and ,adoration by the ,shepherds2 #i4 ,angels and ,shepherds1 ,shepherds dancing2 #aj4 ,magi2 #aa4 ,circumcision2 #ab4 ,massacre of ,innocents2 #ac4 ,coronation of the ,virgin2 #ad4 ,david's choice of punishments2 #ae4 ,hearse in a ,chancel2 #af4 ,invention of the ,cross2 #ag4 ,pentecost4 ,the cutting is good and the pictures are both quaint and decorative1 their larger size enabling them to avoid the overcrowding which had damaged the effect of the earlier sets4 ,these cuts continued in use till #adih1 successive editions in ,may1 ,july1 and ,october of that year1 from the press of ,jean ,poitevin1 showing their gradual replacement by copies of ,philippe ,pigouchet's second set4 ,this famous printer-illustrator was certainly printing as early as #adhh1 though ,mr4 ,proctor in his ,index makes the ,horae for the use of ,paris1 finished #a ,december1 #adia1 his earliest book4 ,although not his earliest book1 ,i still believe that this was ,pigouchet's earliest ,book of ,hours1 and regret that ,m4 ,claudin1 while rejecting supposed editions of #adhf and #adhg1 should have accepted as authentic one of #af ,september1 #adhh1 said to have very rude and archaic cuts1 while owning that he could not trace a copy4 ,until the book can be produced ,i shall continue to believe that this edition of #af ,september1 #adhh1 is a ghost begotten of a double crime1 a bookseller's manipulation of the date of one of ,pigouchet's best-known editions1 that of le xvi iour de ,septembre ,lan ,mil cccc4iiii4xx et xviii1 by omitting the x in xviii1 and a bibliographer's endeavour to make this imaginary edition of #af ,september1 #adhh1 more credible by assuming--and asserting--that its cuts were rude and archaic because over three years earlier than any authenticated ,horae from ,pigouchet's press4 ,his edition of #a ,december1 #adia1 was printed partly for sale by himself1 partly for de ,marnef1 who subsequently owned the blocks4 ,besides the usual illustrations for the ,hours1 it has pictures of ,s4 ,john writing and of the ,betrayal for the ,gospels of the ,passion1 of ,david's choice of punishments for the ,penitential ,psalms1 and of ,les trois vifs et trois morts1 and ,dives and ,lazarus for the ,office for the ,dead2 also a small cut1 with a crible background of the ,vision of ,s4 ,gregory1 and numerous small cuts of saints4 ,the sidepieces1 which are marked with letters to indicate their sequence1 illustrate the ,creation1 the prophecies of the ,sibyls1 and the subjects of the ,biblia ,pauperum4 ,during the years #adia and #adie at least eight or ten ,horae for various uses were printed by ,pigouchet1 mostly for ,simon ,vostre4 ,of most of these a good many copies have survived printed on vellum and often illuminated for wealthy purchasers4 ,the paper copies1 which presumably formed the bulk of each edition1 are now far rarer1 and to students of book-illustration much preferable to the coloured vellum copies4 ,good vellum copies with the pictures and borders uncoloured1 but with their pages brightened by illuminated capitals and coloured paragraph marks1 are the pleasantest to possess4 ,at the end of #adie or early in #adif ,pigouchet began replacing the woodcuts of this series of editions with a new set much more graceful and less stiff1 a few changes being made in the subjects4 ,at the same time he substituted new borderpieces for the old1 among the new blocks being a fine series of the ,dance of ,death1 which were brought into use as they were completed1 so that we can trace the increase of them from month to month1 so frequent now were the editions4 ,in #adig and #adih further additions were made to the large pictures by the addition of new metal cuts with crible backgrounds for the ,anatomical ,man1 chalice1 ,stem of ,jesse1 ,adoration by the ,shepherds1 ,descent from the ,cross1 ,death of ,uriah1 and the ,church ,militant and ,triumphant4 ,by the end of #adii new crible borderpieces had been added1 illustrating the life of ,joseph1 history of the ,prodigal ,son1 history of ,susanna1 ,fifteen ,tokens of ,judgment1 ,christ ,seated in ,judgment1 the ,cardinal ,virtues1 and woodland and hunting scenes4 ,from ,august1 #adih1 to the end of #aejb ,pigouchet's editions were at their finest4 ,meanwhile the cuts of his second set were slavishly copied in editions printed for ,verard4 ,from #adig1 moreover1 he had to face serious competition from ,thielman ,kerver1 who issued closely similar editions with pictures and borders by cutters little1 if at all1 inferior either in technical skill or charm4 ,on #e ,april1 #aejc1 ,jean ,pychore and ,remy de ,laistre completed an edition1 in which ,pigouchet probably had a hand1 with three very large cuts of the ,annunciation1 ,nativity1 and ,adoration by the ,magi1 and eight smaller ones surrounded by architectural framework1 representing ,s4 ,john before the ,latin ,gate1 the ,crucifixion1 the ,emperor ,octavian and the ,sibyl1 the ,massacre of the ,innocents1 ,descent of the ,holy ,spirit1 ,death of the ,virgin1 and ,raising of ,lazarus1 some of them showing strong traces of the influence of ,durer4 ,from this point onwards the ,renaissance spirit became increasingly powerful in these prayer books1 and while in almost all their advances to meet it the work of ,pigouchet himself1 and of ,thielman ,kerver1 continues interesting 7though the mixture of old and new styles in their editions is often confusing71 in the numerous editions poured forth by ,germain and ,gillet ,hardouyn1 many of them printed for them by ,guillaume ,anabat1 and again in those printed by ,nicolas ,higman for ,guillaume ,eustace1 the cuts are very inferior1 so that they look best when most heavily illuminated4 ,in a few editions published by the ,hardouyns spaces appear to have been left for the illuminator to work unaided4 ,in most of these late editions only the pages with cuts have borders1 and these of the nature of picture frames1 as contrasted with the old historiated borders4 ,in #aebe ,geoffroi ,tory1 a native of ,bourges 7born about #adhj71 who at this period of his life was at once a skilled designer1 a scholar1 and a printer1 completed a ,horae which1 though somewhat thin and unsatisfying compared with the richer and more pictorial work of ,pigouchet at his best1 far surpassed any edition produced at ,paris for the previous twenty years4 ,part of the edition was taken up by the great publisher of the day1 ,simon ,colines1 and while the body of the book was only printed once1 differences in the titlepages and colophons and in the arrangement of the almanac and privilege constitute altogether three different issues4 ,whereas the best earlier editions had been printed in gothic letter this is in roman1 and both the borders and the twelve illustrations aim at the lightness and grace necessary to match the lighter type4 ,the vase-like designs of the borders are meaningless1 but the pictures1 despite the long faces and somewhat angular figures1 have a peculiar charm4 ,they were used again1 with some additions1 in a ,horae completed #bj ,october1 #aeca4 ,an edition of #a ,october1 #aebg1 described by ,tory's chief biographer1 ,auguste ,bernard1 as printed1 chez ,simon de ,colines en caracteres romains avec des vignettes de meme genre1 mais beaucoup plus petites1 ,i have never seen4 ,three weeks later ,tory printed in gothic letter a ,paris ,horae with borders of birds and fruits and flowers rather in the style of some of the ,flemish manuscripts4 ,in ,february1 #aebi1 he produced a much smaller ,horae in roman type without borders1 but with some very delicate little cuts1 used again by ,olivier ,mallard1 who married his widow1 in #aedb4 ,tory appears to have died in #aecc1 and attributions of later work to him on the ground of its being marked with a cross of ,lorraine 7i4e4 a cross with two transverse strokes7 should be received with caution1 unless the cuts are found in books by ,tory's widow or her second husband4 ,it is not quite clear that the cross is not the mark of a wood-cutter rather than a designer1 and if it really marks the designer we must believe that it was used by others beside ,tory1 so various is the work on which it is found4 ,illustrated books were published at ,lyon somewhat earlier than at ,paris1 and in point of numbers1 if the comparison be confined to secular books with sets of cuts especially appropriated to them1 the provincial city probably equalled1 if it did not surpass1 the metropolis4 ,but if it must be reckoned to the credit of ,lyon that it had no ,antoine ,verard1 reckless in his use of unsuitable stock cuts1 it must be noted1 on the other hand1 that strikingly good illustrations are rare and bad ones numerous4 ,inasmuch as ,lyon1 before it welcomed the art of printing1 had established some reputation for the manufacture of playing-cards1 the number of rude and badly cut illustrations is indeed surprisingly large4 ,the first ,lyonnese printer to use pictorial woodcuts in a dated book was ,martin ,huss1 who issued a ,miroir de la ,redemption1 #bg ,august1 #adgh1 with the aid of blocks previously used 7#adgf7 by ,bernard ,richel at ,basel2 cuts of surgical instruments appeared in the following ,march1 #adgh-i1 in the ,chirurgia of ,guido de ,cauliaco printed for ,barth4 ,buyer by ,nicolaus ,philippi and ,marcus ,reinhart1 and the same printers' undated ,legende doree with very rude pictures is probably contemporaneous with this4 ,the earliest woodcut of any artistic interest and of ,lyonnese origin is a picture1 occupying a folio-page1 of the ,blessed ,virgin1 with the ,holy ,child in her arms1 standing in front of a curtain4 ,this is found in the ,histoire du ,chevalier ,oben qui vouloist acuplir le voiage de ,s4 ,patrix1 printed by ,leroy about #adhj1 of which the only known copy is at the ,british ,museum4 ,after #adhj all the firms we have named continued to issue illustrated books of varying merit4 ,on #cj ,september1 #adhc1 ,leroy completed a ,livre des ,eneydes with cuts which are often grotesque1 though sometimes neat and sometimes giving evidence of a vigour of design too great for the wood-cutter's skill4 ,in #adhe he found a ,lyonnese cutter able to copy for him the ,paris cuts of ,jean ,bonhomme's edition of the ,destruction de ,troye la ,grant quite competently1 though in a much heavier style4 ,in ,may1 #adhf1 he printed a ,livre des ,sainctz ,anges with a figure of ,christ in a mandorla 7perhaps suggested by the engraving of the same subject in ,bettini's ,monte ,santo di ,dio71 and this1 despite a certain clumsiness in the face1 is quite good4 ,in the same year1 in an edition of ,fierabras1 ,leroy went back to cuts of incredible rudeness1 while about #adij in ,les ,mysteres de la ,saincte ,messe1 we find him employing for a cut of the ,annunciation a skilled craftsman1 signing himself ,i4 ,d4 7,jean ,dalles871 whose work1 though lacking in charm1 is neatness itself4 ,some shaded cuts in his romance of ,bertrand ,du ,guesclin 7undated1 but c4 #adhg7 are among the best work in any book by ,leroy4 ,among his other undated illustrated books are editions of ,pierre de ,provence1 ,melusine1 and the ,roman de la ,rose4 ,nicolaus ,philippi and ,marcus ,reinhart in #adhb illustrated a ,mirouer de la vie humaine 7from the ,latin of ,rodericus ,zamorensis7 with ,augsburg cuts purchased from the stock of ,gunther ,zainer#dj1 and copied a ,paris edition in their ,vie des ,saintz peres hermites and ,german originals in their ,mandeville and ,aesop4 ,their edition of the ,postilla ,guillermi 7c4 #adhb7 has rather a fine ,crucifixion and some primitive but vigorous illustrations of the gospels4 ,martin ,huss issued an undated ,exposition de la ,bible with rude cuts and a ,french ,belial 7version of ,pierre ,ferget71 first printed in ,november1 #adha1 and at least five times subsequently4 ,after his death in #adhb his business was carried on by a kinsman1 ,mathieu ,huss1 who became a prolific publisher of illustrated books1 with cuts of very varying merit4 ,two of his earliest ventures were the ,proprietaire des ,choses 7#b ,november1 #adhb71 a ,french version of the ,de proprietatibus rerum of ,bartholomaeus ,anglicus1 and a ,fasciculus temporum 7#adhc71 both with very rude cuts4 ,during a partnership with ,johann ,schabeler he issued 7about #adhd7 a ,french version of ,boccaccio's ,de casibus illustrium virorum1 the pictures in which are hard1 stiff1 and a little grotesque1 but not without character4 ,of his later books several are illustrated with cuts borrowed or copied from other editions2 but beyond a ,legende doree with shaded column-cuts1 frequently reprinted1 he does not seem to have commissioned any important illustrated book4 ,while the pictorial work of the ,lyonnese presses was thus largely imitative1 at least two very important books were first illustrated there4 ,the earlier of these was the ,roman de la ,rose1 of which the first printed edition1 decorated with eighty-six cuts mostly small and rudely executed1 but which at least have the merit of intelligently following the text1 is now attributed to the press of ,ortuin and ,schenck at ,lyon about #adha4da ,these primitive pictures were quickly copied by a cutter of somewhat greater skill but much less intelligence1 who improved the original designs without troubling to understand them4 ,this new set of cuts was used twice at ,lyon1 by ,jean ,syber 7about #adhe7 and by ,leroy 7about #adhg71 and was then acquired 7less one of the two larger cuts7 by ,jean ,du ,pre of ,paris1 who issued an edition about #adid4 ,about #adig1 and again a few years later1 new editions were issued in which most of the same cuts reappear1 ,jean ,petit having a share in both editions and ,verard in the first1 despite the fact that he had issued a rival edition about #adie4db ,illustration3 ,,xxi4 ,,lyon1 ,,trechsel1 #adic ,,terence 7,,sig4 ,a #g ,,verso7 ,the other famous ,lyonnese illustrated book was an annotated edition of ,terence with pictures prefixed to every scene printed in #adic by ,johann ,trechsel4 ,this has a curious full-page picture at the beginning1 giving the artist's idea of a ,roman theatre1 with a box for the aediles at the side and a ground floor labelled ,fornices4 ,the text is illustrated by #aej half-page cuts1 a little hard1 but with abundance of life 7see ,plate ,,xxi74 ,these certainly influenced the ,strassburg edition of ,gruninger 7#adif71 and through ,gruninger's that published at ,paris by ,verard about #aejj1 and to an even greater extent the illustrated editions issued at ,venice4 ,how eagerly ,lyonnese publishers looked out for books to imitate may be seen from the rival ,lyonnese renderings of ,breidenbach's ,peregrinationes and ,brant's ,narrenschiff4 ,of the ,breidenbach1 ,michel ,topie and ,jac4 de ,herrnberg issued in ,november1 #adhj1 an adaptation by ,nicolas ,le ,huen with copies on copperplate of the maps and on wood of the smaller pictures1 both very well executed4 ,rather over a year later1 in ,february1 #adij1 a translation by frere iehan de ,hersin was published by ,jacques ,maillet with the original ,mainz blocks4 ,as for the ,ship of ,fools1 ,jacques ,sacon1 the leading publisher at the end of the century1 issued an edition of ,locher's ,latin version with close copies of the ,basel cuts in ,june1 #adih1 and in the following ,august a ,french edition was published by ,guillaume ,balsarin with cuts so hastily executed that in many cases all the background has been omitted4 ,a few illustrated incunabula were issued at ,chambery1 and isolated books elsewhere1 but with the exception of ,lyon and ,abbeville no ,french provincial town produced any notable work4 ,in ,spain the fine gothic types and frequent use of woodcut capitals give a very decorative appearance to most of the incunabula1 but pictorial illustrations are rare1 and of the few sets of cuts known to us several are borrowed or copied from ,french or ,german editions4 ,the earliest ,spanish illustrated book known to me is a ,fasciculus ,temporum1 printed by ,bart4 ,segura and ,alfonsus de ,portu at ,seville in #adhj1 with a dozen metal-cuts of the usual stock subjects2 the earliest with original illustrations1 the ,marquis of ,villena's ,trabajos de ,hercules1 printed by ,antonio de ,centenera at ,zamora1 #ae ,january1 #adhc1 with eleven extraordinarily rude cuts of the hero's adventures4 ,in #adhd and #adhe an unidentified printer at ,huete produced editions of the ,copilacion de ,leyes of ,diaz de ,montalvo1 with some striking metal-cut pictorial capitals1 illustrating the subjects of the successive books4 ,in one copy of the #adhd edition ,i have seen a very fine full-page cut1 but could not satisfy myself as to whether this belonged to the book1 or was an insertion4 ,an edition of ,martorell's romance1 entitled ,tirant lo blanch1 printed at ,valentia in #adij by ,nic4 ,spindeler1 has a decorative metal-cut border to the first page of text1 and during the following decade illustrated books become fairly numerous4 ,at ,saragossa ,paul ,hurus issued in #adia a ,spanish version of the ,speculum humanae vitae of ,rodericus ,zamorensis1 with cuts copied from the ,augsburg edition1 another in #adid of ,boccaccio's ,de claris ,mulieribus1 with seventy-two cuts1 copied from the editions printed by ,johann ,zainer at ,ulm1 and four from some other source1 another in #adih of ,breidenbach's ,peregrinatio1 and other books1 not known to me personally1 but which from their titles almost certainly contain copies of foreign cuts4 ,in #aejj1 when his press had been taken over by three partners1 ,coci1 ,hutz1 and ,appentegger1 there issued from it an ,officia quotidiana1 ornamented with some fifty pictures and many hundreds of fine capitals4 ,illustration3 ,,xxii4 ,,seville1 ,,stanislaus ,,polonus1 #aejj ,,ricoldus4 ,,improbatio ,,alcorani4 7,,title7 ,at ,barcelona several illustrated books were printed by ,juan ,rosenbach1 one of the earliest of them1 the ,carcel d',amor of ,diego de ,san ,pedro 7#adic71 having sixteen original cuts1 characteristically ,spanish in tone and showing good craftsmanship4 ,in or about the same year ,friedrich ,biel of ,basel 7usually quoted as ,fadrique de ,basilea1 or ,fadrique ,aleman7 headed an edition of the ,passion de ,christo with a striking metal-cut of ,christ standing upright in the tomb1 watched by the ,b4 ,virgin and ,s4 ,john4 ,for his ,spanish ,aesop of #adif he presumably copied the ,german cuts1 and he certainly did so for his ,exemplario contra enganos of #adih1 the #aaf cuts of which are all careless copies of those in ,pruss's edition of the ,directorium humanae vitae4 ,even when in 7or about7 the next year he was issuing the first edition of the ,celestina or ,tragicomedia de ,calisto y ,melibea1 he could not do so without ,german models1 and based his sixteen little pictures on some of those in ,gruninger's ,terence1 while for his ,stultiferae naues of ,badius ,ascensius he went1 of course1 to the charming ,french cuts of ,de ,marnef4 ,as a rule1 these ,spanish versions of foreign cuts have the interest which always attaches to a free rehandling by a craftsman with a characteristic touch and style of his own4 ,none the less it is refreshing to turn to more original work1 and at least a little of this 7though some one with wider knowledge than myself may further minimize the statement7 is to be found at ,seville4 ,here in #adid ,ungut and ,stanislaus ,polonus issued a ,regimiento de los principes1 translated from the ,latin of ,aegidius ,columna1 with a fine title-cut of a young prince 7his hair is long7 seated in a chair of state1 holding a sword and royal orb4 ,the same partners were responsible for another striking titlepage in #adie1 that of the ,lilio de ,medicina1 ,bernardus de ,gordonio1 where two angels are seen upholding seven lilies in a pot2 they also issued in the same year the ,contemplaciones sobre el ,rosario de ,nuestra ,senora1 a fine and typically ,spanish book1 printed in red and black1 with good capitals1 two large cuts and fifteen smaller ones1 enclosed in borders of white tracery on a black ground4 ,in the last year of the century they issued an ,improbatio ,alcorani with a swart picture of a disputation on the titlepage1 not easily forgotten 7see ,plate ,,xxii74 ,it was at ,seville also that in #adih ,pedro ,brun printed in quarto the romance of the ,emperor ,vespasian1 illustrated with fourteen excellent cuts1 some of them full of life and movement2 but for these a foreign model is quite likely some day to be discovered4 ,on the other hand1 at ,valentia also there was at least a little work indisputably of native origin1 as in the case of the title-cut to the ,de regimine domus of ,s4 ,bernard1 printed by ,nic4 ,spindeler about #adih1 and 7less certainly7 another to the ,obra allaors de ,s4 ,christofol1 issued by ,peter ,trincher in the same year4 ,pictorial title-cuts are not so common in ,spanish books as in those of other countries1 because of the ,spanish fondness for filling the titlepage with an elaborate coat of arms4 ,but nearly all their early bookwork is strong and effective1 and the printer who placed a cut on a titlepage nearly always secured a good one4 ,is it too much to hope that ,dr4 ,conrad ,haebler1 who has already done such admirable work in recording ,spanish incunabula and printing facsimiles of their types1 will some day complete his task by publishing a similar volume of facsimiles of ,spanish cuts8 ,,footnotes3 #cg ,similar spaces were left in the typographically anonymous ,french version of ,valerius ,maximus1 printed about the same date4 #ch ,antoine ,verard4 ,by ,john ,macfarlane4 ,illustrated monographs published by the ,bibliographical ,society4 ,no4 ,,vii4 ,printed at the ,chiswick ,press1 ,september1 #aijj4 #ci ,so in the ,lucain ,suetonne et ,saluste of #adij1 five cuts of battle-scenes1 all borrowed from the ,mer des ,histoires1 printed by ,lerouge in #adhh1 are made to do duty sixty-four times4 #dj ,in #adia these are found at ,saragossa in an edition printed by ,hurus4 #da ,it has also been attributed to ,jean ,croquet at ,geneva1 but there is only a typographical argument for this ascription1 whereas on the side of ,lyon1 in addition to 7rather weaker7 typographical arguments1 we have to reckon with ,lyonnese paper1 the similarity of the illustrations to those of a cutter employed by ,martin ,huss1 and the fact that the book was copied in two editions undoubtedly ,lyonnese4 ,see ,f4 ,w4 ,bourdillon's ,the ,early ,editions of the ,roman de la ,rose 7#aijf74 #db ,only a few of the cuts in this were specially designed for it1 all the later ones being taken from stock in ,verard's most haphazard fashion4 ,,chapter ,x ,,later ,,foreign ,,books ,one of the chief charms of the books of the fifteenth century is that they are so unlike those of our own day4 ,in the first year of its successor a great step was taken towards their modernization by the production of the first of the ,aldine octavos1 and the process went on very rapidly4 ,in the early days of printing all the standard works of the previous three centuries that could by any possibility be considered alive were put on the press4 ,by #aejj men were thinking of new things4 ,new editions of many of the old religious and didactic treatises1 the old poems and romances1 continued to be printed1 though mostly in a form which suggests that they were now intended for a lower class of readers1 but the new publishers would have little to do with them4 ,scholarship1 which till now had been almost confined to ,italy1 spread rapidly to all the chief countries of ,europe1 and amid the devastation which constant war soon brought upon ,italy1 was lucky in being able to find new homes4 ,with the new literary ideals came new forms for books1 and new methods of housing them4 ,before #aejj several publishers had found it worth their while to print editions in five huge volumes of the ,speculum of ,vincent de ,beauvais1 each volume measuring eighteen inches by thirteen and weighing perhaps a dozen pounds1 though paper in those days was not yet made of clay4 ,these great volumes had been cased in thick wooden boards1 covered with stout leather and protected with bosses or centre-pieces and corner-pieces of metal4 ,they were not intended to stand on shelves like modern books1 but were laid on their sides1 singly1 on shelves and desks1 and from pictures which have come down to us we can see that the library furniture of the day included a variety of reading-stands with the most wonderful of screws4 ,the men for whom ,aldus catered wanted books which they could put in their pockets and their saddlebags1 and it was not long before the publishers of ,paris and ,lyon outdid ,aldus in the smallness and neatness of their editions4 ,of course large books continued to be issued4 ,the ,complutensian ,polyglott will not easily be got either into a pocket or a saddlebag1 but it is a good deal smaller than the ,speculum of ,vincent de ,beauvais1 and1 speaking generally1 small folios took the place of large folios1 and octavos the place of quartos1 and in a little time the octavos themselves were threatened by the still smaller sextodecimos4 ,there is1 indeed1 no stop till in the seventeenth century we come to the tiny ,elzevirs1 which remained the last word in book-production until the diamond editions of ,didot and ,pickering4 ,aldus ,manutius1 who led the revolution1 has often been wrongly praised4 ,he can hardly be called a great printer4 ,he burdened ,greek scholarship for three centuries with a thoroughly bad style in ,greek types1 and the cursive substitute which he provided for the fine roman founts for which ,italy had been famous almost drove them from the field4 ,both the ,greek type and the italics were the outcome of confused thinking4 ,they were based upon styles of handwriting which ,aldus and his scholarly friends doubtless found more expeditious than the formal book-hands which had previously been in use4 ,quickness in writing is an excellent thing4 ,but a sloping type takes just as long to set up as an upright one1 and absolutely nothing is gained by the substitution of an imitation of a quicker hand for the imitation of a slower one4 ,aldus had begun publishing at ,venice early in #adiedc with an edition of the ,greek grammar of ,lascaris1 an earlier edition of which1 issued at ,milan in #adgf1 had been the first book wholly in ,greek to obtain the honour of print4 ,the ,idylls of ,theocritus and the poem of ,hesiod called ,works and ,days had been printed at the same place in #adgi and a ,greek ,psalter in #adhg4 ,at ,florence the famous first edition of ,homer was printed 7by ,bartolommeo ,libri7 in #adhh1 and was followed in the years #adid-f 7i4e4 about the time that ,aldus began work7 by five books printed entirely in majuscules on the model of the letters used in inscriptions4 ,among these books were the ,greek ,anthology1 four plays of ,euripides1 and an ,apollonius ,rhodius4 ,the printing of the ,greek classics had thus made a start1 although a slow one4 ,aldus now greatly quickened the pace1 producing his great ,aristotle in four 7or1 as it is sometimes reckoned1 five7 volumes1 between the years #adie and #adih1 and following it up with nine comedies of ,aristophanes in #adih1 ,thucydides1 ,sophocles1 and ,herodotus in #aejb1 ,xenophon's ,hellenics1 and the plays of ,euripides in #aejc and ,demosthenes in #aejd4 ,the service which he thus rendered to ,greek scholarship was incalculable1 but it was accompanied by a very serious drawback1 the evil effects of which lasted for nearly three centuries4 ,the ,greek quotations in many books printed in ,italy before this time had been printed in types imitating the writing in fairly old ,greek manuscripts1 handsome in appearance and fairly free from contractions2 ,aldus is said to have taken as his model the handwriting of his friend ,marcus ,musurus1 with all its crabbed and often fantastic ligatures1 and the simplicity of the ,greek alphabet was thus intolerably complicated4 ,as we have seen1 the introduction of the ,aldine italics1 though in themselves a better fount than the ,greek type1 was almost as mischievous in its effects4 ,on the other hand1 the service which ,aldus rendered to scholarship by his cheap and handy series of the ,latin and ,italian classics was very great4 ,the first book which he printed in his new type was a ,virgil1 and this was quickly followed by works by ,petrarch and ,dante and a whole series of similar editions4 ,aldus had powerful supporters in these ventures1 among them being ,jean ,grolier1 the famous bibliophile1 who for many years was resident in ,italy as ,treasurer of the ,duchy of ,milan4 ,despite this encouragement he did not find printing very profitable1 partly1 no doubt1 on account of the wars in which ,venice was at this time engaged4 ,on the death of ,aldus in #aeae his business was for some time carried on by his father-in-law1 ,andrea de ,torresani1 an excellent printer1 but with little of ,aldus's scholarship4 ,in #aecc1 at the age of twenty-one1 ,paulus ,manutius1 the youngest son of ,aldus1 took over the management of the firm1 and proved himself an even finer scholar than his father4 ,financially he was no more successful1 and when he was made printer to the ,pope the anxiety of carrying on business at ,rome as well as at ,venice only added to his difficulties4 ,on his death in #aegd his son1 ,aldus ,manutius the younger1 succeeded him and worked till #aeig1 but without adding anything to the reputation of the firm1 perhaps because he had been pushed on prematurely in his boyhood1 as is witnessed by his compilation of a volume of elegant extracts at the age of nine4 ,the family of printers and publishers which came nearest to rivalling the fame of the ,aldi in ,italy during the sixteenth century was that of the ,giunta4 ,springing originally from ,florence1 members of it worked for some time simultaneously at ,florence and ,venice1 and ,lucantonio ,giunta1 the earliest member of it to rise into note1 was already one of the foremost publishers at ,venice in the closing years of the fifteenth century1 and subsequently printed for himself instead of always employing other men to print for him4 ,the speciality of this ,venetian firm was at first illustrated books of all kinds1 afterwards the production of large and magnificent missals and other service books of the ,roman ,church1 and these they continued to publish until nearly the end of the sixteenth century4 ,at ,florence1 ,filippo ,giunta competed with ,aldus of ,venice in printing pretty little editions of the classics1 his competition sometimes taking the form of unscrupulous imitation4 ,at ,rome1 ,eucharius ,silber and his successor ,marcellus were the chief printers from #aejj to #aeaf4 ,a little later the ,bladi took their place1 and under the auspices of the ,council of the ,propaganda of the ,faith a press was set up for printing in ,syriac1 ,armenian1 and other ,oriental languages4 ,the output also of the presses in other ,italian cities was still considerable4 ,nevertheless1 from the same causes which produced her political decay ,italy rapidly ceased to be the head-quarters of ,european printing1 yielding this honour to ,france about the end of the first quarter of the century1 and by some thirty or forty years later becoming quite uninfluential4 ,to the ,german printing trade1 also1 the sixteenth century brought a notable decline of reputation4 ,in its first two decades ,johann ,schoeffer 7son of ,peter7 produced some fine books at ,mainz2 at ,strassburg ,gruninger poured forth illustrated books1 and ,johann ,knoblouch and ,matthias ,schurer were both prolific4 ,the importance of ,cologne diminished1 though the sons of ,heinrich ,quentell had a good business4 ,augsburg1 on the other hand1 came to the front1 the elder and younger ,schoensperger1 ,johann and ,silvanus ,otmar1 ,erhard ,oglin1 ,johann ,miller1 and the firm of ,sigismund ,grim and ,marcus ,wirsung all doing important work4 ,at ,nuremberg the chief printing houses were those of ,hieronymus ,holzel1 ,johann ,weissenburger1 and ,friedrich ,peypus4 ,leipzig and ,hagenau both greatly increased their output1 and with the advent of ,luther1 ,wittenberg soon became an important publishing centre4 ,luther's activity alone would have sufficed to make the fortunes of any publisher had it not been for the fact that as each pamphlet from his pen was produced at ,wittenberg by ,hans ,lufft1 or some other authorized printer1 it was promptly pirated in other cities1 often with the retention of the original imprint4 ,many of these ,luther tracts had ornamental borders1 and1 as will be narrated in another chapter1 the ,german book-illustrations of this period were often very finely designed1 but the paper used1 even in important books1 was poor compared to that found in ,german incunabula1 and the presswork too often careless4 ,these defects are found intensified in almost all the ,german books published after this date1 and ,german printing soon lost all its technical excellence1 though the output of its presses continued to be large1 and the great annual fair at ,frankfort during the course of the sixteenth century became the most important event in the book-trade of ,northern ,europe4 ,a little before ,germany gave herself up to theological strife1 the conjunction at ,basel of the great printer ,johann ,froben and the great scholar ,erasmus temporarily raised that city to importance as an intellectual centre4 ,froben had begun printing at ,basel in #adia1 but until he formed his friendship with ,erasmus in #aeac published only a few editions of the ,bible1 some of the papal ,decretals1 the works of ,s4 ,ambrose1 and a few other books of no special interest4 ,from #aeac onwards his output increased rapidly both in quantity and importance1 so that by the time of his death in #aebg he had printed over three hundred books1 including almost all the works of ,erasmus and many books in ,greek4 ,during this period1 also1 border-pieces and initials were designed for him by the two ,holbeins 7,hans and ,ambrosius7 and other skilful artists1 and he was entitled to rank as the greatest printer-publisher in ,europe in succession to ,aldus4 ,after his death in #aebg the supremacy of ,european printing rested for the next generation indisputably with ,france4 ,during the fifteenth century printing in ,france had developed almost entirely on its own lines4 ,vernacular books of every description had poured from the presses of ,paris and ,lyon1 and many of them had been charmingly illustrated in a style worthy of the great ,french school of illustrators of manuscripts4 ,in the first half of the sixteenth century the publication of these popular books--romances1 poetry1 and works of devotion--still continued1 though with some loss of quality1 the print and paper being less good and the illustrations often consisting of a medley of old blocks1 or where new ones were made being executed in a coarser and heavier style4 ,but to the vernacular literature there was now added a learned and scholarly literature which soon rose to great importance4 ,as early as #adib ,johann ,trechsel1 a printer of ,lyon1 had possessed himself of sufficient ,greek type to print quotations in that language1 and in the following year he issued the profusely illustrated edition of ,terence1 the cuts in which were imitated by ,gruninger at ,strassburg4 ,trechsel's press corrector and general editor was a young scholar named ,josse ,bade1 of ,asch1 near ,ghent1 better known by the ,latin form of his name as ,jodocus ,badius ,ascensius1 or ,ascensianus4 ,in #aejc1 after ,trechsel's death1 ,ascensius started business for himself in ,paris1 and his editions of the classics1 well known from the device of a printing-press found on many of their titlepages1 obtained a considerable reputation4 ,almost simultaneously1 in #aejb1 ,henri ,estienne1 the first of a famous family of scholar-printers1 had started in business by an expedient of which we hear a great deal in the annals of ,english printing1 that of marrying a printer's widow4 ,of ,henri ,estienne's three sons the eldest1 ,francois1 became a bookseller1 ,robert a scholar-printer1 and ,charles1 in the first instance1 a physician4 ,in the technical side of his business ,henri had been helped by ,simon de ,colines1 who1 on his employer's death1 in #aebj1 became his widow's third husband1 and carried on the business until #aebf1 when he handed it over to ,robert ,estienne1 and started on his own account in another house in the same street4 ,thus1 just as the co-operation of ,erasmus with ,froben1 which began shortly before the death of ,aldus1 brought the ,basel press into prominence1 so this duplication1 just before the death of ,froben1 of the business of ,henri ,estienne with the two firms of ,robert ,estienne and ,simon de ,colines materially aided the rivalry of ,paris4 ,greek printing1 which by this time had become essential to a printer's reputation for scholarship1 had at last begun there with the publication of a ,greek ,grammar in #aejg1 and had increased somewhat1 though not very rapidly4 ,in #aeci ,francois ,i appointed ,robert ,estienne royal printer for ,latin and ,hebrew1 and ,conrad ,neobar1 a ,german from the diocese of ,cologne1 his printer for ,greek4 ,it was soon after this that plans were formed for the printing of ,greek texts from manuscripts in the royal library1 and the preparation for this purpose of a special fount of ,greek type4 ,neobar died from overwork the following year1 and the office of royal printer in ,greek was added to ,robert ,estienne's other honours1 and with it the supervision of the new ,greek type4 ,for this ,angelus ,vergetius1 a celebrated ,greek calligrapher1 had probably already made the drawings1 and the cutting of the punches was entrusted to ,claude ,garamond4 ,by #aedd a fount of great primer had been completed and a book printed in it1 the ,praeparatio ,euangelica of ,eusebius4 ,a smaller type1 of the size known as pica1 was next put in hand1 and a pocket ,greek ,testament in sextodecimo printed with it in #aedf4 ,lastly1 a third fount1 larger than either of the others1 was produced and used for the text of a folio ,greek ,testament in #aeej1 the other two founts appearing in the prefatory matter and notes4 ,these royal ,greek types became very famous and served as a model to all designers of ,greek characters for nearly two centuries4 ,technically1 indeed1 they are as good as they could be1 showing a great advance in clearness and dignity upon those of ,aldus1 from which nevertheless they inherited the fatal defect of being based on the handwriting of contemporary ,greek scholars1 instead of on the book-hand of a nobler period of ,greek writing4 ,while the name of ,robert ,estienne is thus connected with these royal ,greek types he was himself distinctly a ,latinist1 and his own personal contribution to scholarship was a ,latin ,dictionary 7,thesaurus ,linguae ,latinae7 published in #aecb1 which remained a standard work for two centuries4 ,he published1 too1 as did also ,simon de ,colines1 many very pretty little editions of ,latin classics in sextodecimo1 some in italics1 others in roman type1 thus carrying a step further the triumphant march of the small book1 which ,aldus had only taken as far as octavos4 ,simon de ,colines1 while sharing in work of this kind1 did not neglect other classes of literature1 and1 as has already been noted1 joined with ,geoffroi ,tory1 another scholar-printer1 who was also a scholar-artist1 in producing some remarkable editions of the ,hours of the ,blessed ,virgin4 ,this scholar-artist1 ,geoffroi ,tory1 was a native of ,bourges1 who had been a professor at several of the ,paris colleges and was at one time proof-reader to ,henri ,estienne4 ,his career as a printer began in #aebb and ended with his death in #aecc1 after which his business was carried on by ,olivier ,mallard1 who married his widow4 ,tory printed a few scholarly books and wrote and published a curious work1 to which he gave the name ,champfleury1 on the right forms and proportions of the letters of the alphabet4 ,it is1 however1 by his ,books of ,hours that he is now chiefly remembered4 ,while all this good work was going on in ,paris the printers at ,lyon were no less busy4 ,at the beginning of the century ,aldus had been justly annoyed at the clever counterfeits of his italic octavos which were put on the market at ,lyon4 ,but in ,sebastian ,gryphius 7a ,german1 born in #adia at ,reutlingen7 ,lyon became possessed of a printer who had no need to imitate even ,aldus4 ,after printing one or two works in the four preceding years his press got into full swing in #aebh and1 by the time of his death in #aeef he had issued very nearly a thousand different editions1 mostly in ,latin1 and many of them in the dainty format in sextodecimo which ,estienne and de ,colines were using in ,paris4 ,in #aecd the luckless ,etienne ,dolet1 soon to be burnt as a heretic1 arrived at ,lyon1 and with some friendly help from ,gryphius printed between #aech and #aedd some seventy editions4 ,in #aedf ,jean de ,tournes1 who had been a journeyman in the office of ,gryphius1 started business for himself1 and soon proved a worthy rival to his master4 ,meanwhile excellent popular work was being done by other printers1 such as ,francois ,juste1 ,claude ,nourry1 ,mace ,bonhomme1 and ,guillaume ,roville4 ,from the old ,lyonnese firm of ,trechsel proceeded in #aech two books illustrated by ,holbein 7the ,dance of ,death and ,historiarum ,veteris ,testamenti ,icones1 see p4 #aib71 and numerous other ,lyonnese books were charmingly illustrated and also1 it may be added1 charmingly bound1 a very pretty style of trade bindings being just then in vogue4 ,against the pretty bindings and vignettes and the popular books to which they were applied little or no opposition was raised1 and they continued to be issued till the taste for them died out about #aehj4 ,but against all the scholarly work of the ,french presses the leaders of the ,church took up an attitude of unrelenting hostility4 ,foremost in this opposition1 regretful that their predecessors had introduced printing into ,france1 were the theologians of the ,sorbonne1 who forbade the study of ,hebrew as dangerous and likely to lead to heresy1 and looked with eyes almost as unfriendly on that of ,greek4 ,in #aedf 7just after the iniquitous campaign against the ,vaudois7 ,etienne ,dolet was hanged on a charge of atheism1 and his body cut down and burnt amid a pile of his books4 ,in #aeej1 despite his position as a royal printer1 ,robert ,estienne1 who had just completed his fine folio edition of the ,greek ,testament1 was obliged to seek safety by flying to ,geneva1 and a generation later ,jean de ,tournes the younger1 of ,lyon1 was obliged to follow his example4 ,the kings of ,france and their advisers at this period were determined to be rid of both ,huguenots and ,freethinkers at all costs1 and ,french scholarship and ,french printing were both the recipients of blows from which it took them some generations to recover4 ,when ,robert ,estienne fled to ,geneva1 his brother1 the physician1 ,charles1 was allowed to succeed to his office at ,paris1 and he in turn was followed by a younger ,robert1 who died in #aega4 ,meanwhile ,robert ,i had taken with him a set of matrices of the royal ,greek types1 and with these and other founts printed at ,geneva until his death in #aeei4 ,his son1 ,henri ,estienne ,,ii1 then took over the business1 but was of too restless and roving a disposition to conduct it with success4 ,as a scholar he was even greater than his father1 excelling in ,greek as ,robert had in ,latin1 and producing in #aegb a ,greek dictionary 7,thesaurus ,graecae ,linguae7 which became as famous as the ,latin one which ,robert had published forty years earlier4 ,henri ,estienne the younger died in #aeih1 but the ,estienne tradition was kept up by his son ,paul 7#aeff-afbg7 and grandson ,antoine 7#aeib-afgd71 the latter bringing back into the family the office of royal printer at ,paris1 and printing an edition of the ,septuagint4 ,under the discouraging conditions of the middle of the sixteenth century ,french printers gradually ceased to be scholars and enthusiasts1 but ,christopher ,plantin1 a ,frenchman1 born in the neighbourhood of ,tours in #aead1 built up by his energy and industry a great business at ,antwerp1 the memory of which is preserved in the famous ,plantin ,museum4 ,he had started at ,antwerp in #aedi as a binder1 but about six years later turned his attention to printing1 in consequence 7it is said7 of an accident which disabled him for binding-work4 ,the most famous of his books is the great ,antwerp ,polyglott edition of the ,bible in eight volumes1 published between the years #aefi and #aegc4 ,over this he came so near to ruining himself that the ,spanish ,government granted him special privileges for the production of service-books by way of compensation4 ,the sack of ,antwerp by the ,spaniards in #aegf was another heavy financial blow1 and for a time ,plantin removed to ,leyden1 and also for a time kept a branch business at ,paris4 ,but he ultimately returned to ,antwerp1 and his premises remained in the possession of the descendants of one of his sons-in-law1 ,joannes ,moretus1 until they were purchased in #ahgg for ,l#dh1jjj as the ,musee ,plantin4 ,after ,plantin's death the branch business which he had left at ,leyden was carried on by another of his sons-in-law1 ,franciscus ,raphelengius1 who printed some pretty little editions of the classics and other good books4 ,plantin's own work as a printer was costly and pretentious rather than beautiful1 and the bad style of his ornaments and initials exercised a powerful influence for evil on the printers of the ensuing century4 ,the mention of ,plantin's ,antwerp ,polyglott may remind us that the first ,polyglott edition of the ,bible had been printed between #aead and #aeah at ,alcala1 in ,spain1 under the auspices of ,cardinal ,ximenes4 ,the ,latin name of ,alcala being ,complutum1 this edition is generally quoted as the ,complutensian ,polyglott4 ,among the notable features in it is the use of a singularly fine ,greek type in the ,new ,testament4 ,absolutely different from the ,aldine and all the other ,greek types imitating the rapid handwriting of the ,greek scholars of the sixteenth century1 this was based on the book-hand used in some early manuscript1 possibly the one which the ,pope had lent from the ,vatican to aid ,cardinal ,ximenes in forming his text4 ,it was on this ,greek type that ,mr4 ,robert ,proctor1 shortly before his death1 based his own fount of ,greek1 supplying the majuscules which 7with a single exception7 are wanting in the original and making other improvements1 but keeping closely to his model and thus producing by far the finest ,greek type ever cast4 ,this has been used to print notable editions of the ,oresteia and ,odyssey1 the former at the ,chiswick1 the latter at the ,clarendon ,press4 ,save for the ,complutensian ,polyglott there is nothing striking to record of the ,spanish printing of the sixteenth century1 which retained its massive and archaic character for some decades1 and then became as dull and undistinguished as the printing of all the rest of ,europe tended to be towards the end of the century4 ,the enthusiasm with which the new art had at first been received had died out4 ,printers were no longer lodged in palaces1 monasteries1 and colleges2 ,church and ,state1 which had at first fostered and protected them1 were now jealous and suspicious1 even actively hostile4 ,thriving members of other occupations and professions had at one time taken to the craft4 ,a little later great scholars had been willing to give their help and advice1 and at least a few printers had themselves been men of learning4 ,all this had passed or was passing4 ,printing had sunk to the level of a mere craft1 and a craft in which the hours appear to have been cruelly long and work uncertain and badly paid4 ,in the eighteenth century the ,dutch journeymen were certainly better paid than our own1 and it may be that it was through better pay that they did better work in the seventeenth century also4 ,it seems certain1 moreover1 that the improvements in the construction of printing presses which were introduced in that century originated in ,holland4 ,the primacy of the ,dutch is proved by the large amount of ,dutch type imported into ,england1 and indeed the ,dutch books of the seventeenth century are neater and in better taste than those of other countries4 ,it was in ,holland also that there worked the only firm of printers of this period who made themselves any abiding reputation4 ,the founder of this firm1 ,louis ,elzevir1 was a bookseller and bookbinder at ,leyden1 where1 in #aehc1 he began printing on his own account1 and issued between that year and his death in #afag over a hundred different books of no very special note4 ,no fewer than five of his seven sons carried on his business1 and the different combinations of these and of their successors in different towns are not a little bewildering4 ,bonaventura ,elzevir with his nephew ,abraham issued pretty little editions of the classics in very small type in #abmo and #afmo1 of which the most famous are the ,greek ,testament of #afbd and #afcc1 the ,virgil1 ,terence1 ,livy1 ,tacitus1 ,pliny1 and ,caesar of #afcd-f1 and a similar series of ,french historical and political works and ,french and ,italian classics4 ,after the deaths of ,abraham and ,bonaventura in #afeb the business was carried on by their respective sons ,jean and ,daniel1 who issued famous editions of the ,imitatio ,christi and the ,psalter4 ,meanwhile ,louis ,elzevir 7another grandson of the founder7 had been working at ,amsterdam1 and in #afed was joined there by ,daniel1 the new partnership producing some fine folio editions4 ,other members of the family went on working at ,utrecht and ,leyden until as late as #agab1 so that its whole typographical career extended over a hundred and thirty years4 ,but it is only the little classical editions1 and a ,french cookery book called ,le ,pastissier ,francois1 that are at all famous1 and the fame of these 7the little classics being troublesome to read and having more than a fair share of misprints1 though edited by ,david ,heinsius7 probably rests on a misconception4 ,these small classical editions were the last word for two centuries in that development of the ,small ,book which we have already traced in the ,aldine editions at ,venice1 those of ,de ,colines and ,robert ,estienne of ,paris1 of ,sebastian ,gryphius at ,lyons1 and of the successors of ,plantin at ,antwerp4 ,now the small books of the ,elzevirs were produced at a very important period in the history of bookbinding1 and when we hear of large sums having been paid for an ,elzevir it will mostly turn out that the excellence of its binding has had a good deal to do with the price4 ,the cookery book is an exception1 the value of this1 though often enhanced by a fine binding1 being yet considerable1 even in a shabby jacket4 ,but the interest in this case is due to the antiquarian instincts of book-loving gourmets1 and not in any way to the printing4 ,the little classics1 even when of the right date and with all the right little headpieces and all the right misprints1 have never been worth on their own merits more than a few pounds1 while shabby1 cropped copies have no selling value whatever4 ,,footnote3 #dc ,he was born at ,bassiano in the ,papal ,states in #adej4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,foreign ,,illustrated ,,books ,,of ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century ,illustration3 ,,xxiii4 ,,nuremberg1 ,,sodalitas ,,celtica4 #aeja ,,hroswitha4 ,,opera 7#d;b74 ,,hroswitha ,,and ,,the ,,emperor ,,otho 7,,attributed ,,to ,,durer7 ,as we have already said1 the charm of the woodcut pictures in incunabula lies in their simplicity1 in their rude story-telling power1 often very forcible and direct1 in the valiant effort1 sometimes curiously successful in cuts otherwise contemptibly poor1 to give character and expression to the human face1 and as regards form in the harmony between the woodcuts and the paper and type of the books in which they appear4 ,in the book-illustrations of the sixteenth century the artist is more learned1 more self-conscious1 and his design is interpreted with far greater skill by the better trained wood-cutters of his day4 ,more pains are taken with accessories1 and often perhaps for this reason the cut does not tell its story so quickly as of old4 ,it is now a work of art which demands study1 no longer a signpost explaining itself however rapidly the leaf is turned4 ,lastly1 the artist seems seldom to have thought of the form of the book in which his work was to appear1 of the type with which the text was to be printed1 or even of how the wood-cutter was to interpret his design4 ,book-illustration1 which had offered to the humble makers of playing-cards and pictures of saints new scope for their skill1 became to the artists of the sixteenth century a lightly valued method of earning a little money from the booksellers1 their better work being reserved for single designs1 or in some cases for the copperplates which at first they executed1 as well as drew1 themselves4 ,thus the book-collector is conscious1 on the one hand1 that less pains have been taken to please him1 and on the other that he is separating by his hobby one section of an artist's work from the rest1 in connection with which it ought to be studied4 ,he may even be in some doubt as to where his province ends1 since many of the illustrated books of the sixteenth century1 although they possess a titlepage and are made up in quires1 are essentially not books at all1 the letterpress being confined to explanations of the woodcuts printed either below them or facing them on the opposite pages4 ,the bibliographer himself1 it may be added1 feels somewhat of an intruder in this field1 which properly belongs to the student of art1 although in so far as art is enshrined in books and thus brought within the province of the book-collector1 bibliography cannot refuse to deal with it4 ,although we have taken off our caps in passing to ,erhard ,reuwich and ,michael ,wolgemut for their admirable work1 the one in the ,mainz ,breidenbach1 the other in the ,schatzbehalter and ,nuremberg ,chronicle1 it is ,albrecht ,durer who must be regarded as the inaugurator of the second period of ,german book-illustrations4 ,during his ,wanderjahre ,durer had produced at ,basel for an edition of ,s4 ,jerome's ,epistles1 printed by ,nicolaus ,kesler in #adib 7reprinted #adig71 a rude woodcut of the saint extracting a thorn from his lion's foot4 ,durer's important bookwork begins in #adih1 when his fifteen magnificent woodcuts illustrating the ,apocalypse 7which influenced all later treatments of this theme7 were issued twice over at ,nuremberg1 in one edition with ,german title and text1 in the other with ,latin4 ,stated in their colophons to have been printed by ,albrecht ,durer1 painter1 neither edition bears the name of a professional printer4 ,the types used in each case were those of ,anton ,koberger1 ,durer's godfather1 and the effect of the artist's personal superintendence1 which the colophons attest1 is seen in the excellence of the presswork4 ,the following year ,koberger published an illustrated edition of the ,reuelationes ,sanctae ,birgittae 7,german reprint in #aejb71 and ,durer has been supposed to have helped in this1 but the theory is now discredited4 ,in #aeja he probably contributed two woodcuts to an edition of the comedies of ,hroswitha1 a tenth century nun of the ,benedictine ,abbey at ,gandersheim4 ,conrad ,celtes had unearthed these comedies some years previously in a ,ratisbon library1 and they were now printed under his editorship for the ,sodalitas ,celtica at ,nuremberg4 ,the illustrations to the comedies themselves1 which vie in heaviness with their subjects1 are attributed by ,mr4 ,campbell ,dodgson to ,wolfgang ,traut4#dd ,one of the cuts assigned to ,durer represents ,celtes offering the book to ,frederick ,,iii1 ,elector of ,saxony2 the other shows ,hroswitha herself presenting her plays to the ,emperor ,otto ,i 7see ,plate ,,xxiii74 ,in #aejb ,durer designed another cut of a presentation and an illustration of ,philosophy 7both very feebly rendered by the cutter7 for the ,quatuor libri ,amorum of ,celtes4 ,in #aeaa the ,latin ,apocalypse was reprinted1 and three other sets of woodcuts by ,durer appeared in book form1 in each case with ,latin text by ,benedictus ,chelidonius4 ,one of these commemorated in twenty designs the life of the ,blessed ,virgin 7,epitome in ,diuae ,parthenices ,marie ,historiam ab ,alberto ,durero ,norico per ,figuras digestam cum versibus annexis ,chelidonii71 the other two the ,passion of ,christ1 the ,great ,passion 7,passio domini nostri ,jesu ex hieronymo ,paduano1 ,dominico ,mancino1 ,sedulio et ,baptista ,mantuano per fratrem ,chelidonium collecta cum figuris ,alberti ,dureri ,norici ,pictoris1 in folio7 in twelve large woodcuts1 the ,little ,passion 7,passio ,christi ab ,alberto ,durer ,norembergensi effigiata cu varij generis carminibus ,fratris ,benedicti ,chelidonij ,musophili1 in quarto7 in thirty-seven smaller ones4 ,after this ,durer was caught up by the ,emperor ,maximilian and set to work on some of the various ambitious projects for illustrating his reign1 as to which more will be said later4 ,his later bookwork includes a ,crucifixion and ,s4 ,willibald for an ,eichstatt ,missal 7,nuremberg1 ,h4 ,holzel1 #aeag71 some large designs for the ,etliche vnderricht zu befestigung der ,stett ,schloss vnd flecken 7,nuremberg1 #aebg71 and his own book on the ,proportion of the ,human ,body1 which was issued both in ,german and in a ,latin translation by ,camerarius4 ,several borders and illustrations formerly ascribed to ,durer are now attributed to one of his pupils1 ,hans ,springinklee1 who lived in ,durer's house at ,nuremberg1 where he worked from about #aeac to #aebb4 ,most of ,springinklee's bookwork was done for ,anton ,koberger1 who published some of it at ,nuremberg1 while some was sent to the ,lyon printers1 ,clein1 ,sacon1 and ,marion1 who were in ,koberger's employment4 ,a border of his design bearing the arms of ,bilibaldus ,pirckheimer is found in several works which ,pirckheimer edited 7#aeac-ag74 ,in a ,hortulus ,animae1 printed by ,j4 ,clein for ,koberger at ,lyon1 #aeaf1 fifty cuts are by ,springinklee4 ,the ,hortulus ,animae was as popular in ,germany as the illustrated ,horae in ,france and ,england4 ,in #aeag another edition appeared with ,erhard ,schon as its chief illustrator1 and only a few of ,springinklee's cuts4 ,the next year ,springinklee produced a new set of cuts1 and ,schon's work was less used4 ,springinklee and ,schon were also associated in ,bible illustrations printed for ,koberger by ,sacon at ,lyon1 and to ,springinklee are now assigned two full-page woodcuts in an ,eichstatt ,missal 7,h4 ,holzel1 ,nuremberg1 #aeag71 and a border to the ,reuelationes ,birgittae 7,f4 ,peypus1 ,nuremberg1 #aeag71 formerly ascribed to ,durer4 ,a woodcut of ,johann ,tritheim presenting his ,polygraphia to ,maximilian1 formerly attributed to ,holbein as having been printed at ,basel 7,adam ,petri1 #aeah71 is now also placed to the credit of ,springinklee1 who1 moreover1 worked for the ,weisskunig and probably for other of the artistic commemorations of himself which ,maximilian commissioned4 ,hans ,sebald ,beham is best known as a book-illustrator from his work for ,christian ,egenolph at ,frankfurt am ,main1 which began in #aecc4 ,but he belonged to the ,nuremberg school1 had worked for ten or twelve years for ,merckel1 ,peypus1 ,petreius and other ,nuremberg firms1 and has had the honour of having some of his single cuts attributed to ,durer4 ,his most important books for ,egenolph were the ,biblische ,historien1 a series of small illustrations to the ,bible1 first printed in #aecc1 which went through many editions in ,german and ,latin1 and another series illustrating the ,apocalypse1 of which the first edition appeared in #aeci1 the texts of the ,latin ,historiae and also to the ,apocalypse cuts being supplied by ,georgius ,aemilius4 ,a set of medallion portraits of ,roman emperors by him also appeared in several ,german and ,latin chronicles published by ,egenolph4 ,between the ,nuremberg book-illustrators and those of ,augsburg1 to whom we must now turn1 a connecting link may be found in the person of ,hans ,leonhard ,schaufelein1 born about #adhj1 soon after his father1 a ,nordlingen wool merchant1 had settled at ,nuremberg4 ,he worked under ,durer1 and his earliest book-illustrations were made for ,dr4 ,ulrich ,pinder1 the owner of a private press at ,nuremberg4 ,several unsigned cuts in ,der beschlossen gart des rosenkrantz ,marie 7,pinder1 #aeje71 and thirty out of thirty-four large cuts in a ,speculum ,passionis 7,pinder1 #aejg71 are ascribed to ,schaufelein1 his associate in each book being ,hans ,baldung4 ,about #aeaj ,schaufelein removed to ,augsburg1 and1 despite his return to his paternal home at ,nordlingen where he took up his citizenship in #aeae1 he worked for the chief ,augsburg publishers for the rest of his life1 though between #aebc and #aeca nothing is known as to what he was doing4 ,among the earlier ,augsburg books with illustrations attributed to ,schaufelein are ,tengler's ,der neu ,layenspiegel 7#aeaa71 ,henricus ,suso's ,der ,seusse 7#aeab71 ,heiligenleben 7#aeac71 ,geiler's ,schiff der ,penitentz 7#aead71 and the ,hystori und wunderbarlich legend ,katharine von ,senis 7#aeae71 all published by ,j4 ,otmar4 ,in #aead he had illustrated for ,adam ,petri of ,basel a ,plenarium or ,evangelienbuch1 which went through several editions4 ,another ,evangelienbuch1 printed by ,thomas ,anshelm at ,hagenau in #aeaf1 contains several cuts with ,schaufelein's signature1 but in a different style1 probably partly due to a different wood-cutter2 these were used again in other books4 ,in the ,theuerdank of #aeag about twenty cuts are assigned to ,schaufelein1 some of them bearing his signature4 ,the following year he illustrated ,leonrodt's ,himmelwagen for ,otmar with twenty cuts1 mostly signed1 some of which were used afterwards on the titlepages of early ,luther tracts4 ,after an interval ,schaufelein is found in #aecc working for ,heinrich ,steyner of ,augsburg1 who employed him to illustrate his ,german editions of the classics1 ,thucydides 7#aecc71 ,plutarch 7#aecd71 ,cicero 7#aecd71 ,apuleius 7#aech71 etc4 ,the blocks for some of his cuts subsequently passed into the possession of ,christian ,egenolph of ,frankfort4 ,the first native ,augsburg artist whom we have to notice is ,hans ,burgkmair1 who was born in #adgc1 and began bookwork in #adii by illustrating missals for ,erhard ,ratdolt with pictures of patron saints and of the ,crucifixion4 ,the chief ,augsburg publisher for whom he worked in his early days was ,johann ,otmar1 for whom he illustrated several books by the popular preacher1 ,johann ,geiler von ,kaisersberg 7,predigen teutsch1 #aejh and #aeaj1 ,das ,buch ,granatapfel1 #aeaj1 ,nauicula ,poenitentiae1 #aeaa71 and other devotional and moral works4 ,in #aeae ,hans ,schoensperger the younger employed him to supply a dedication cut and seven designs of the ,passion for a ,leiden ,christi1 and to the ,theuerdank published by ,schoensperger the elder at ,nuremberg in #aeag he contributed thirteen illustrations 7only one signed74 ,he had already been employed 7#aeaj7 on a few of the cuts in the ,genealogy of the ,emperor ,maximilian1 which a wholesome fear lest its accuracy should be doubted caused that self-celebrating monarch to withhold from publication1 and much more largely 7#aead-af7 on the ,weisskunig1 which was first printed1 from the original blocks1 at ,vienna in #agge2 and he was the chief worker 7#aeaf-ah7 on the woodcuts for the ,triumphal ,procession of ,maximilian printed by order of the ,archduke ,ferdinand in #aebf4 ,while these imperial commissions were in progress ,burgkmair designed a few title-cuts for ,johann ,miller1 notably the very fine one 7see ,plate ,,xxiv7 to the ,de rebus ,gothorum of ,jornandes 7#aeae71 showing kings ,alewinus and ,athanaricus in conversation1 and subsequently worked for ,grimm and ,wirsung and for ,h4 ,steiner1 although not nearly to the extent which was at one time supposed1 as most of the illustrations supplied to these firms with which he used to be credited are now assigned to ,hans ,weiditz4 ,jorg ,breu1 who was born and died 7#aecg7 some half-dozen years later than ,burgkmair1 like him illustrated ,missals for ,ratdolt and contributed ,passion-cuts to ,mann's ,leiden ,christi4 ,his most important piece of bookwork was the redrawing of the cuts in ,anton ,sorg's edition of ,reichenthal's ,conciliumbuch for a reprint by ,steiner in #aecf4 ,illustrations by him also occur in a ,melusina 7#aech71 and ,german versions of ,boccaccio's ,de claris mulieribus and ,de ,casibus ,illustrium virorum issued after his death by the same firm4 ,leonhard ,beck contributed largely to the illustration of ,maximilian's literary ventures1 especially the ,theuerdank1 ,weisskunig1 and ,saints of the ,house of ,austria 7published at some date between #aebb and #aeea74 ,illustration3 ,,xxiv4 ,,augsburg1 ,j4 ,,miller1 #aeae ,,jornandes4 ,,de ,,rebus ,,gothorum4 7,,title74 ,,attributed ,,to ,,burgkmair ,we come now to ,hans ,weiditz1 the immense extension of whose work by the attributions of recent years can only be compared to ,mr4 ,proctor's raising of ,bartolommeo de' ,libri from one of the smallest to one of the most prolific of ,florentine printers4 ,only two or three ,augsburg woodcuts bearing his initials are known1 while scores and even hundreds are now assigned to him1 most of which had previously been credited to ,burgkmair4 ,weiditz began bookwork in or before #aeah1 in which year he contributed a title-cut to the ,nemo of ,ulrich von ,hutten1 while in #aeai he made twelve illustrations to the same author's account of ,maximilian's quarrel with the ,venetians4 ,in #aeah he had begun working for the firm of ,grimm and ,wirsung1 and this1 with a few commissions from other ,augsburg publishers1 kept him busy till about #aebc1 when he himself moved to ,strassburg1 whence his family had come1 while in the same year ,grimm and ,wirsung gave up business and sold their blocks to ,steiner4 ,these included not only many title-borders by ,weiditz1 twenty illustrations to two comedies of ,plautus and a set of cuts to the ,deuotissime meditationes de vita et passione ,christi1 and another to a ,german ,celestina1 all published in #aebj1 but a series of some #bfj masterly illustrations to a ,german version of ,petrarch's ,de remediis utriusque fortunae4 ,steiner used some of these cuts in a ,cicero ,de ,officiis of #aeca1 which has in addition sixty-seven important cuts by ,weiditz1 presumably of the same period1 and also in a ,justinus of the same year1 but the work for which they were specially designed did not appear until a year later4 ,needless to say1 selections from both the ,petrarch and the ,cicero sets appear in later work4 ,after removing to ,strassburg1 ,weiditz copied some ,wittenberg ,bible cuts and also ,holbein's ,apocalypse set for ,knoblauch in #aebd4 ,in #aecj he illustrated for ,j4 ,schott the ,herbarium of ,brunfels1 which went through several editions both in ,latin and ,german1 and for this comparatively humble work was praised by name in both editions1 so that until #aijd it was only as the illustrator of the ,herbal that he was known4 ,many of his ,augsburg woodcuts subsequently passed to that persistent purchaser of old blocks1 ,christian ,egenolph of ,frankfort4 ,before passing away from the ,nuremberg and ,augsburg book-illustrators1 it seems necessary to describe briefly1 but in a more connected form1 the literary and artistic enterprises of the ,emperor ,maximilian1 to which so many incidental allusions have been made4 ,the ,emperor's first attempt to glorify himself and his lineage took the form of a ,genealogy for which several antiquaries--,mennel1 ,sunthaim1 ,tritheim1 and ,stabius--made researches4 ,burgkmair made designs of some ninety ancestors and their heraldic coats in #aeji-aa1 and the wood-blocks were cut4 ,it was apparently intended to print them in #aeab1 but the whole project was abandoned1 and the work is now only known from a few sets of proofs1 no one of which is quite complete4 ,after this failure ,maximilian planned a ,triumphal ,arch and ,procession1 the programme for the ,arch being drawn up by ,stabius1 that of the ,procession by ,treitzsaurwein4 ,the plan of the ,arch was largely worked out by ,durer1 with help from ,springinklee1 ,traut1 and ,altdorfer1 whose designs were carried out in #aib woodblocks cut by ,hieronymus ,andrea and his assistants4 ,when the impressions from these are put together they make a design measuring nearly twelve feet by ten4 ,in the centre is the ,gate of ,honour1 to the left and right the gates of ,praise and ,nobility4 ,above the main gate rises a tower on which are displayed the ,emperor's ancestors and their arms1 above the other gates a series of incidents of ,maximilian's life1 surmounted by busts of his imperial predecessors and of contemporary princes4 ,this was printed in #aeag-ah at ,nuremberg1 and in #aebf-h and #aeei at ,vienna4 ,on the ,procession or ,triumph1 ,durer1 ,springinklee1 ,schaufelein1 ,burgkmair1 and ,beck were all engaged4 ,the #ach blocks composing it were cut by ,andrea and ,jost de ,negker in #aeaf-ah1 and it was printed by order of the ,archduke ,ferdinand in #aebf4 ,a ,triumphal ,car designed by ,durer in #aeah1 in connection with the same project1 was published in eight sheets in #aebb4 ,a series of representations of ,saints of the ,house of ,hapsburg had been planned soon after the abandonment of the ,genealogy1 and assumed shape in #aead4 ,from drawings now attributed to ,leonhard ,beck1 #abc woodblocks were made1 and an edition in book form was printed some time after #aebb4 ,the romance of ,theuerdank was written by ,melchior ,pfintzing1 under ,maximilian's direction1 to celebrate his wooing of ,mary of ,burgundy and other exploits4 ,the bulk 7seventy-seven7 of the illustrations in it are now ascribed to ,beck1 seventeen to ,schaufelein1 thirteen to ,burgkmair1 and three1 two1 and one respectively to ,schon1 ,traut1 and ,breu4 ,it was published as a sumptuous folio1 several copies being struck on vellum by the elder ,schoensperger at ,nuremberg in #aeag1 and reprinted two years later4 ,the ,weisskunig1 or ,white ,king1 an account of ,maximilian's parentage1 education1 and exploits1 was dictated by him in fragments to ,treitzsaurwein1 but never fully edited4 ,of the #bdi illustrations about half are by ,burgkmair1 most of the others by ,beck4 ,with the exception of thirteen the blocks were preserved at ,vienna1 and the book was printed there for the first time in #agge4 ,lastly1 the ,freydal1 which was to have given an account of ,maximilian's tourneys and ,mummereien1 is known to us by the preservation of the original miniatures from which the illustrations were to have been made1 but only five blocks out of #bef were actually cut4 ,the patronage of the ,emperor ,maximilian gives special importance to the work done during his lifetime at ,nuremberg and ,augsburg1 but there was no lack of book-illustrations elsewhere4 ,at ,tubingen some of the mathematical works of ,johann ,stoffler were curiously decorated1 and the second edition of his ,ephemerides 7#aecc7 has a fine portrait of the author in his seventy-ninth year4 ,at ,ratisbon1 ,albrecht ,altdorfer was the most important worker for the wood-cutters1 and to him are now attributed thirty-eight cuts illustrating the ,fall and ,redemption of ,man1 published at ,hamburg in #afjd1 under the name of ,durer1 as nunc primum e tenebris in lucem editae4 ,their minute and rather niggling style renders the bad printing which they have mostly received peculiarly destructive to them4 ,another ,ratisbon artist1 ,michael ,ostendorfer1 illustrated a few books published at ,ratisbon itself1 and others printed at ,ingolstadt4 ,at ,wittenberg1 from a little before #aebj1 the influence of ,martin ,luther made itself as much felt as that of ,maximilian at ,augsburg and ,nuremberg4 ,hither1 in #aeje1 had come a ,franconian artist1 ,lucas ,cranach1 who had already illustrated some missals for ,winterburger of ,vienna4 ,numerous pictures of saints1 which he drew for the ,wittenberg ,heiligthumsbuch of #aeji1 are subsequently found dispersed in other works1 such as the ,hortulus ,animae4 ,a few title-cuts on tracts by ,luther and others are assigned to him1 but a great mass of bookwork1 including numerous fine borders1 found in ,wittenberg books of the ,luther period1 while showing abundant traces of the elder ,cranach's influence1 is yet clearly not by him4 ,it has recently been assigned1 with some probability1 to his eldest son1 ,hans4 ,his younger son1 ,lucas ,cranach ,,ii1 also supplied a few borders and illustrations to the ,wittenberg booksellers4 ,georg ,lemberger also produced borders for titlepages and some ,bible cuts1 and two other ,wittenberg ,bible-illustrators of this school were ,erhard ,altdorfer1 brother of ,albrecht1 whose best bookwork is found in a fine ,danish ,bible printed at ,copenhagen in #aeej1 and ,hans ,brosamer1 ,bibles1 or parts of the ,bible1 with whose cuts appeared both at ,wittenberg and at ,frankfort4 ,at ,strassburg1 ,hans ,baldung ,grien1 whose work shows the influence of ,durer1 illustrated the ,granatapfel 7#aeaj7 and other works by ,geiler of ,kaisersberg1 the ,hortulus ,animae printed by ,flach 7#aeaj71 etc4 ,johann ,wachtlin1 who had contributed a ,resurrection to a set of ,passion cuts published by ,knoblauch in #aejf1 illustrated a ,leben ,christi for the same printer in #aejh4 ,we find his work again in the ,feldbuch der ,wundarznei of ,hans von ,gersdorff1 printed by ,schott in #aeag4 ,the work of ,hans ,weiditz for ,strassburg publishers has already been mentioned4 ,it was here also that ,urs ,graf worked for some little time for ,knoblauch1 to whose ,passion set of #aejg he contributed1 and other publishers4 ,in #aeji he is found at ,basel1 where two years later he became a citizen1 supplying ninety-five little woodcuts to an edition of the ,postilla of ,guillermus1 and also designing title borders4 ,as a centre of printing ,basel was now rapidly increasing in importance1 and when ,erasmus allied himself with the foremost ,basel printer1 ,johann ,froben1 for a time the city succeeded1 in point of quality though not of quantity1 to the typographical supremacy which ,venice was fast losing4 ,scholarly works such as approved themselves to ,erasmus and ,froben offered1 of course1 very little scope for book-illustration properly so called1 but the desire for beauty found vent1 not only with them1 but with the other ,basel printers of the day1 ,valentin ,curio1 ,johann ,bebel1 ,adam ,petri1 ,andreas ,cratander1 etc41 in elaborate borders to titlepages1 headpieces and tailpieces1 ornamental capitals and trade devices4 ,the arrival of ,hans ,holbein 7born at ,augsburg in #adig7 at ,basel in #aeaf on his ,wanderjahre supplied a decorator of a skill altogether outshining that shown in the rather tasteless architectural work1 varied with groups of children1 produced by ,urs ,graf1 though ,holbein himself was content to begin in this style4 ,in his most characteristic work the footpiece of the border illustrates some classical scene1 ,mutius ,scaevola and ,porsenna1 the death of ,cleopatra1 or ,quintus ,curtius leaping into the abyss2 less commonly a scriptural one1 such as the death of ,john the ,baptist4 ,the most elaborate of his titlepages was that to the ,tabula of ,cebes 7#aeba71 in which little children crowd through the gate of life to meet all the varied fortunes which life brings4 ,delightful humour is shown in an often used headpiece and tailpiece1 showing villagers chasing a fox and returning home dancing4 ,during #aeag and the following year1 when ,hans ,holbein was absent from ,basel1 his brother ,ambrosius worked there on the same lines1 and decorated1 among other books1 ,more's ,utopia4 ,after his return to ,basel in #aeai1 ,hans ,holbein remained at work there until #aebf1 and it was during this period that his book-illustrations1 properly so called1 were executed1 including those to the ,apocalypse and his two most famous pieces of bookwork1 his ,dance of ,death and ,historiarum ,veteris ,testamenti ,icones1 both of which were first published in #aech at ,lyon by ,melchior and ,gaspar ,trechsel4 ,these 7with perhaps some exceptions7 and many of his other designs#de were cut in wood by ,hans ,lutzelburger who signed a ,holbein titlepage to a ,german ,new ,testament printed by ,thomas ,wolff in #aebc1 and who1 if rightly identified with the ,hans ,formschneider with whose widow the ,trechsels were in correspondence in #aebf and #aebg1 must have died about the time that ,holbein left ,basel4 ,pen copies1 moreover1 of some of the cuts of the ,dance of ,death are preserved at the ,berlin ,museum1 and one of these is dated #aebg1 so that there can be no question that the originals belong to this period of ,holbein's life1 and the ,british ,museum possesses a set of proofs of forty out of the original series of forty-one1 printed on four sheets1 ten on a sheet4 ,it has been conjectured that the occupations of some of the great personages whom ,death is depicted as seizing may have been considered as coming under the offence of scandalum magnatum and so have caused the long delay before the blocks were used1 but as this explanation does not apply to the illustrations to the ,old ,testament it seems inadequate4 ,as published in #aech by the ,trechsels the cuts are accompanied by ,french quatrains from the pen of ,gilles ,corrozet and other appropriate matter1 and have prefixed to them a titlepage reading3 ,les ,simulachres ,historiees ,faces de la ,mort1 autant elegammet pourtraictes que artificiellement imaginees4 ,a ,lyon1 soubz lescu de ,coloigne1 ,m4,d4,,xxxviii4 ,a second edition with ,latin instead of ,french verses was published by ,jean and ,francois ,frellon1 and others followed1 in one of which1 that of #aede1 one1 and in another1 that of #aedg1 eleven additional cuts were printed1 while in #aefb1 when the book was still in ,frellon's hands1 five woodcuts of children make their appearance1 though they have no connection with the original series4 ,that ,holbein's ,old ,testament designs also belong to his ,basel period is shown by copies of them appearing in a ,bible printed by ,froschouer in #aeca1 though the original cuts were not published till seven years later4 ,as printed by the ,trechsels they are eighty-six in number1 and while the cutting of the best is worthy of ,lutzelburger1 their execution is too unequal for it to be certain that the whole series was executed by him4 ,the cuts were also used by the ,trechsels in a ,bible of the same year1 and both the ,bible and the cuts under their own title ,historiarum ,veteris ,testamenti ,icones were republished by the ,frellons4 ,considerations of space forbid more than a bare mention of the ,bambergische ,halssgericht 7#aejh71 with its all too vivid representations of the cruel punishments then in use1 and the illustrated classics published at later dates by ,johann ,schoeffer at ,mainz1 or of the work of ,jakob ,kobel at ,oppenheim with its rather clumsy imitations of ,ratdolt's ,italian ornaments1 or of the illustrated books printed by ,johann ,weissenburger at ,landshut1 or of those from the press of ,hieronymus ,rodlich at ,siemen1 the ,thurnierbuch of #aecj1 ,kunst des ,messens of the following year1 and ,fierabras of #aecc4 ,after about #aece little original book-illustration of any importance was produced in other ,german cities1 but in ,nuremberg and ,frankfurt it continued plentiful1 ,virgil ,solis and ,jobst ,amman working assiduously for the booksellers in both places4 ,in no other country did the first thirty years of the sixteenth century produce so much interesting work as in ,germany4 ,interesting1 moreover1 as this ,german work is in itself1 it is made yet more so by the fact that a sufficient proportion of it is signed to enable connoisseurs to pursue their pleasant task of distributing the unsigned cuts among the available artists4 ,less intrinsically good1 and with very few facilities for playing this fascinating game1 the book-illustrations of other countries have been comparatively little studied4 ,in ,italy the new century brought some evil days to the book trade4 ,printing itself ceased for a time at ,brescia2 at ,florence publishers for many years relied chiefly on their old stock of cuts2 at ,milan1 at ,ferrara and ,pavia a little new work was done4 ,at ,venice the thin delicate outline cuts of the last decade of the fifteenth century ceased to be produced any longer1 though the old blocks sometimes reappear4 ,more often the old designs were either simply copied or imitated in the more heavily shaded style which was now coming into vogue4 ,the interest of some of this shaded work is increased by the occasional appearance on it of a signature4 ,thus in the ,missale ,romanum of #cj ,july1 #aejf1 published by ,stagninus1 some of the cuts in this shaded style bear the same signature1 ia1 as appears on the outline work in the ,ovid of #adig4 ,work done by ia is also sometimes found copied by another cutter calling himself ,,vgo1 whose name is also found on some copies of ,french ,horae cuts in a ,venice ,horae of #aeac4 ,illustration3 ,,xxv4 ,,venice4 ,,greg4 ,,de ,,gregoriis1 #aeah ,,missale ,,romanum 7#bdf;b74 ,,the ,,ascension ,signatures which occur with some frequency between #aeae and #aebi are the z4a41 z4,a41 and ,i4,a4 used by ,zoan ,andrea1 i4e4 ,johannes ,andreas ,vavassore4 ,this ,zoan ,andrea was an assiduous copyist4 ,early in his career 7#aeae-af7 we find him imitating ,durers large illustrations to the ,apocalypse2 in #aeag his title-cut for the ,de modo regendi of ,antonio ,cornazano imitates that of ,burgkmair on the #aeae ,de rebus ,gothorum of ,jornandes4 ,in #aebj he prefixed to a ,livy printed by ,giunta an excellent portrait modelled1 as the ,prince d',essling has shown1 on a sculpture set up at ,padua to the memory either of the historian himself or of one of his descendants2 in #aeba he copied ,marcantonio ,raimondi's engraving of ,horatius ,cocles1 and in the same year another by ,raimondi of ,quintus ,curtius4 ,this was for an edition of ,boiardo1 and for a later edition of #aebd ,zoan ,andrea copied yet another engraving1 that of ,scipio ,africanus4 ,in #aebe he imitated ,holbein's elaborate border to the ,tabula ,cebetis1 applying it to a ,dictionarium ,graecum4 ,about this time also he produced the well-known block-book 7at least three editions known7 ,opera noua contemplatiua1 imitating ,durer's ,little ,passion in some of the cuts4 ,because of the rarity of signed woodcuts in ,italian books ,zoan ,andrea has attracted more attention than the quality of his work deserves4 ,it seems probable that he was the head of a workshop1 and the craftsmanship of the cuts bearing his signature is very unequal4 ,turning to the general course of book-illustration in ,venice as it may be studied in the great work of the ,prince d',essling1 unhappily left without the promised introduction at the time of his lamented death1 we find several different influences at work4 ,as has been already noted1 the shaded work which had begun to make its appearance before #aejj1 as in the frontispiece to the ,epitome ,almagesti of ,regiomontanus 7#adif71 rapidly became the predominant style4 ,we find it combined with some of the charm of the earlier outline vignettes in the small pictures of a ,virgil of #aejg1 and in some of those of another edition in #aejh1 though the larger ones in this are heavy and coarse4 ,the extreme of coarseness is found in an edition of the ,legendario di ,sancti of #aeah1 the woodcuts being more suited to a broadside for a cottage wall than to ,venetian bookwork4 ,the style is seen at its best in the illustrations of a well-known ,horae printed by ,bernardinus ,stagninus in #aejg1 and1 generally speaking1 it is in the ,missals1 ,breviaries1 and ,horae published by ,l4 ,a4 ,giunta1 ,stagninus and the ,de ,gregoriis 7see ,plate ,,xxv7 that the most satisfactory bookwork of this period is found4 ,another style which may be traced in many books of the early years of the century is a rather coarse development of the characteristic ,florentine manner of the fifteenth century4 ,the cuts are as a rule considerably larger than the ,florentine ones1 and the ornamental borders which surround them are much deeper4 ,as in many of the ,florentine cuts1 more use is made of black spaces than was usual at ,venice1 but the cutting as a rule is coarse1 and there is none of the charm of the best ,florentine work4 ,woodcuts in this style are found most frequently on the titlepages of popular books in small quarto1 published by the ,sessas1 who apparently did not see their way to commissioning more than a single illustration to each book4 ,but the influence of the style affected the pictures in a few works of larger size--for instance1 the #aejc edition of the ,chronica ,chronicarum of ,bergomensis1 and the well-known picture of a choir in the ,practica ,musices of ,gafori 7#aeab74 ,despite his connection with the ,hypnerotomachia1 which1 however1 was printed on commission1 ,aldus concerned himself little with book-illustrations1 and if the miserable cuts which he put into his edition of ,hero and ,leander of ,musaeus are fair specimens of what he thought sufficiently good when left to himself1 he was well advised in holding aloof from them4 ,nevertheless1 the popularity which he gained for the small octavos which he introduced in #aeja was an important factor in the development of book-illustration in the sixteenth century4 ,although ,aldus did not illustrate them himself1 it was impossible that the lightly printed handy books which he introduced should remain permanently unillustrated1 and when italic type was ousting roman and small books taking the place of large1 the introduction of smaller illustrations1 depending for their effect on the delicacy of their cutting1 became inevitable4 ,if we take any popular book of the century1 such as the ,sonetti of ,petrarch1 and note the illustrations in successive editions1 we shall find them getting smaller and smaller and more and more lightly cut and lightly printed1 in order to match better with the thin italic types4 ,the new style is seen at its best in the books of #aedj-fj1 the ,petrarch of #aedd printed by ,gabriel ,giolito1 ,boccaccio's ,decamerone printed by ,valgrisi in #aeeb1 ,ovid's ,metamorphoses by ,giolito in #aeec4 ,finally1 book-illustration peters out at ,venice in pictorial capitals1 which take as their subjects any heroes of ,greek and ,roman history and mythology whose names begin with the required letter1 on the principle of the nursery alphabet in which ,a was an ,archer who shot at a frog1 ,b was a ,butcher who had a great dog4 ,to an age which1 not otherwise to its loss1 neglects the study of ,lempriere's ,classical ,dictionary1 many of these puzzle initials are bafflingly obscure1 relieved only by a recurring ,q1 which in almost all alphabets depicts ,quintus ,curtius leaping into the chasm at ,rome4 ,some similar sets of ,old ,testament subjects are much easier4 ,books decorated with capitals of this kind are found as late as the end of the seventeenth century4 ,isolated initials designed on this plan are found also in other countries1 but outside ,italy it is only seldom that we come across anything approaching a set4 ,as to ,french book-illustrations of the sixteenth century1 a competent historian should have much to say1 but the present writer has made no detailed study of them1 and in the absence of any monograph to steal from must be content with recording general impressions1 only here and there made precise by references to books which he has examined4 ,far more than those of ,germany or ,venice1 ,french publishers of the sixteenth century relied on the great stock of woodcuts which had come into existence during the decades #adha-aejj4 ,that they did so may be regarded as some compensation for the exceptional rarity of most of the more interesting ,french incunabula4 ,we have spoken disrespectfully of the little devotional books printed about #aejj with an old ,horae cut on the back of the titlepage or at the end1 but in the popular books printed by the ,lenoirs and other publishers as late as #aecj1 and even later1 cuts will be found from ,millet's ,destruction de ,troie and other incunabula now quite unobtainable1 and it is even possible at times from salvage of this kind to deduce the former existence of fifteenth century editions of which no copy can now be found4 ,after about #aejc the ,french ,horae decline rapidly in beauty and interest1 but many fine missals were issued by ,wolfgang ,hopyl and other firms1 some with one or more striking pictures1 almost all with admirable capitals4 ,among non-liturgical books it is difficult to find any class for which new illustrations were made at all freely4 ,several books of ,chronicles by ,monstrelet1 ,robert ,gaguin1 and others have one or more cuts at the beginning which may have been made for them1 e4g4 a folio cut of ,s4 ,denis and ,s4 ,remy1 with shields of arms found in the ,compendium super ,francorum gestis by ,robert ,gaguin 7this1 however1 dates back to #aejj71 a double cut of ,s4 ,louis blessed by the ,pope and confronting the ,turks 7found in ,gaguin's ,sommaire ,historial de ,france1 c4 #aebc1 and elsewhere71 another double cut of ,clovis baptized and in battle 7,gaguin's ,mer des ,chronicques1 #aecf1 but much earlier71 a spirited battle scene 7,victoire du ,roy contre les ,venitiens1 #aeaj71 etc4 ,but wherever we find illustrations in the text1 there we are sure to light on a medley of old cuts 7e4g4 in ,les grands chronicques de ,france1 #aead1 ,gaguin's ,chronicques1 #aeaf1 and the ,rozier historial1 #aebc71 and it will be odds that ,millet's ,destruction de ,troie will be found contributing its woodcuts of the ,trojan ,war as illustrations of ,french history4 ,when an original cut of this period can be found1 it seldom has the charm of the best work of the last five years of the fifteenth century1 but is usually quite good2 there is1 for instance1 a quite successful metal-cut with crible background of ,justinian in ,council in an edition of his laws printed by ,bocard for ,petit in #aeaf1 and some of the liturgical cuts are admirable4 ,there is thus no reason to impute the falling off in new cuts to lack of artists4 ,it seems clear that the demand for illustrations had for the moment shifted to an uncritical audience who liked 7small blame to them7 the fifteenth century cuts which had delighted more educated people a generation earlier1 and were not at all particular as to their appropriateness4 ,meanwhile the educated book-buyers were learning ,greek and preparing themselves to appreciate the severe1 unillustrated elegance of the books of the ,estiennes1 and new cuts were not needed4 ,the inception of a new style must certainly be connected with the name of ,geoffroi ,tory1 whose best work is to be found in his ,books of ,hours1 which have already been described in an earlier chapter4 ,its predominant note is a rather thin elegance of outline1 in which the height of the figures is usually somewhat exaggerated4 ,tory is supposed to have brought home this style after his visit to ,italy1 but its application to bookwork appears to have been his own idea4 ,there is1 indeed1 a striking resemblance between the little cuts of ,tory's third ,horae set1 dated #h ,february1 #aebi1 and those in an ,aldine ,horae of ,october of the same year1 but to the best of my belief ,tory reckoned his year from #a ,january1 not in the old ,french style from ,easter1 and if so it was ,tory who supplied the ,aldine artist with a model1 which indeed is a logical continuation of his editions of #aebe and #aebg4 ,it is greatly to be regretted that his own ,champfleury of #aebg is so slightly illustrated4 ,the little picture of ,hercules ,gallicus which comes in it is quite delightful4 ,if any guide were in existence to the illustrated ,french books of the thirties in the sixteenth century it would probably be possible to trace the spread of ,tory's influence4 ,in #aecj ,simon ,colines illustrated ,jean ,ruel's ,veterinaria ,medicina with a good enough cut in the old ,french style slightly modified4 ,for the same author's ,de ,natura ,stirpium of #aecf he provided a woodcut1 of an alcove scene in a garden1 the tone of which is quite new4 ,it is evident that ,french publishers were waking up to new possibilities and sending their artists to foreign models1 as a ,perceforest printed for ,gilles ,gourmont in #aeca and a ,meliadus de ,leonnoys for ,denis ,janot in #aecb1 have both of them elaborate title borders in the style which the ,holbeins had made popular at ,basel4 ,the latter is signed 4,f41 a signature found in several later books in the new style4 ,in #aecd we find ,wechel issuing a ,valturius with neat adaptations of the old ,verona illustrations4 ,doubtless there were many other interesting books1 with cuts original or copied of this decade1 but the only one of which ,i have a note is the ,l'amant mal traicte de sa mye 7translated from the ,spanish of ,diego de ,san ,pedro71 printed by ,denis ,janot for ,v4 ,sertenas in #aeci1 in which the title is enclosed in a delicately cut border1 the footpiece of which shows the lovers in a garden4 ,not long after this ,janot printed 7without putting his name or a date7 ,la touche ,naifue pour esprouver ,lamy and le ,flateur of ,antoine ,du ,saix1 in which the rules enclosing the title cut into a pretty oval design of flowers and ribbons4 ,in #aedj we find the new style fully established in the ,hecatongraphie ,cest a dire les descriptions de cent figures hystoires1 a book of emblems1 by ,gilles ,corrozet1 printed by ,denis ,janot1 which ,i only know in the third edition1 that of #aedc4 ,here we find little vignettes1 much smaller than those in the ,malermi ,bible1 with a headline over them and a quatrain in italics beneath1 the whole enclosed in an ornamental frame4 ,the little cuts have the faults inevitable in emblems1 and some of them are poorly cut1 but the best of them are not only wonderfully delicate1 but show a sense of movement and a skill in the manipulation of drapery never reached in the fifteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,,xxvi4 ,,paris1 ,j4 ,,loys ,,for ,v4 ,,sertenas1 #aede ,,homer4 ,l',,iliade ,,en ,,vers ,,francois4 7,,title-,,cut7 ,in #aedc appeared1 again from the press of ,denis ,janot1 imprimeur du ,roy en langue francoise1 another emblem book1 ,le ,tableau de ,cebes de ,thebes1 ancien philosophe disciple de ,socrate3 auquel est paincte de ses couleurs1 la uraye image de la vie humaine1 quelle uoye l'homme doit elire1 pour peruenir a vertu perfaicte science4 ,premieremet escript en ,grec maintenant expose en ,ryme ,francoyse4 ,the ,french rhymester was again the author of the ,hecatongraphie1 and the imprint1 ,a ,paris ,on les uend en la grand sic salle du ,palais en la boutique de ,gilles ,corrozet1 shows that he not only wrote the verses and perhaps inspired the illustrations1 but sold the books as well4 ,in #aede we find this same style of design and cutting on a larger scale in ,les dix premiers livres de l',iliade d',homere1 ,prince des ,poetes1 traduictz en vers ,francois1 par ,m4 ,hugues ,salel1 and printed by ,iehan ,loys for ,vincent ,sertenas4 ,the cuts are in two sizes1 the smaller being surrounded with ,toryesque borders4 ,it is difficult to pass any judgment other than one of praise on such delicate work4 ,nevertheless1 just as the fanfare style of binding used by ,nicolas ,eve1 with its profuse repetition of small tools1 is much more effective on a small book cover than on a large1 so here we may well feel that some bolder and clearer design would be better suited to the illustration of a folio4 ,in the title-cut here shown 7,plate ,,xxvi7 a rather larger style is attempted with good results4 ,the year after the ,homer there appeared at ,paris from the press of ,jacques ,kerver a ,french translation of the ,hypnerotomachia by ,jean ,martin4 ,this is one of the most interesting cases of the rehandling of woodcuts1 the arrangement of the original designs being closely followed1 while the tone is completely changed by the substitution of the tall rather thin figures which had become fashionable in ,french woodcuts for the short and rather plump ones of the ,venetian edition1 and by similar changes in the treatment of landscape4 ,in the second half of the century at ,paris excellent woodcut portraits1 mostly in an oval frame1 are sometimes found on titlepages1 and in other cases decoration is supplied by a neatly cut device4 ,where illustrations are needed for the explanation of works on hunting or any other subjects they are mostly well drawn and cut4 ,but the use of woodcuts in books of imaginative literature became more and more rare4 ,at ,lyon1 as at ,paris1 at the beginning of the century the store of fifteenth century cuts was freely drawn on for popular editions4 ,considerable influence1 however1 was exercised at first by ,italian models1 afterwards by ,germany1 so that while in the early sixteenth century ,latin ,bibles the cuts are mostly copied from ,giunta's ,malermi ,bible1 these were gradually superseded by ,german cuts1 which ,anton ,koberger supplied to the ,lyonnese printers who worked for him4 ,while in ,italy the small octavos popularized by ,aldus continued to hold their own1 in ,france1 from about #aecj1 editions in #cb deg4 came rapidly into fashion1 and about the middle of the century these were especially the vogue at ,lyon1 the publishers often casing them in very gay little trade bindings sometimes stamped in gold1 but often with painted interlacements4 ,the publication by the ,trechsels in #aech of the two ,holbein books1 the ,dance of ,death and illustrations to the ,old ,testament1 must have given an impetus to picture-making at ,lyon1 but this was at first chiefly visible in illustrated ,bibles and ,new ,testaments4 ,gilles ,corrozet1 who had written the verses for both the ,holbein books1 continued his career1 as we have seen1 at ,paris4 ,the most typical ,lyonnese illustrated books were the rival editions of ,ovid's ,metamorphoses in ,french1 one printed by ,mace ,bonhomme in #aeef1 with borders to every page and little cuts measuring about #a7a_/b7 in4 by #b1 and a similar edition 7reissued in ,dutch and ,italian7 of the next year from the press of ,jean de ,tournes1 the borders and little pictures in which are attributed to ,bernard ,salomon4 ,in #aeeg ,de ,tournes issued also the ,devises ,heroiques of ,claude ,paradin1 and he was also the publisher of a ,calendrier ,historial1 a memorandum book charmingly decorated with cuts of the seasons4 ,partly owing to religious troubles the book trade at ,lyon soon after this rapidly declined1 but the ,french style was carried on for a while at ,antwerp by ,christopher ,plantin1 who printed ,paradin's ,devises ,heroiques in #aefb and in #aefd1 and the two following years three books of ,emblems1 those of ,sambucus1 ,hadrianus ,junius1 and ,alciatus himself4 ,his earlier ,horae are also illustrated with woodcuts1 and in at least one edition we find the unusual combination of woodcut borders and copperplate pictures4 ,but although ,plantin never wholly gave up the use of woodcuts1 for his more sumptuous editions he developed a marked preference for copperplates1 and by his example helped to complete the downfall of the woodcut1 which by the end of the sixteenth century had gone almost completely out of fashion4 ,,footnotes3 #dd ,mr4 ,dodgson also ascribes to ,traut the illustrations in the ,legend des heyligen vatters ,francisci 7,nuremberg1 #aeab71 and some of the cuts in the ,theuerdank 7#aeag74 #de ,including perhaps the four sets of decorative capitals attributed to ,holbein1 one ornamental1 the others representing a ,dance of ,peasants1 ,children1 and a ,dance of ,death4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,printing ,,in ,,england 7#adgf-aehj7df ,something has already been written about the earliest ,english books on the scale to which they are entitled in a rapid survey of ,european incunabula4 ,we may now consider them more in detail as befits a book written in ,english4 ,illustration3 ,,xxvii4 ,,westminster1 ,,caxton1 ,c4 #adij ,,the ,,fifteen ,,oes4 ,william ,caxton1 a ,kentishman1 born about #adbj1 had been brought up as a mercer in the city of ,london1 and the relations between the ,english wooltraders and the clothmakers of ,flanders being very intimate1 he had1 as he tells us himself1 passed thirty years of his life 7in round numbers the years from twenty years of age to fifty7 for the most part in ,brabant1 ,flanders1 ,holland1 and ,zealand4 ,during the last few years of this time he had held the important position of ,governor of the ,english merchants at ,bruges1 but about #adfi he surrendered this in order to become secretary to ,edward ,,iv's sister1 ,margaret1 wife of ,charles the ,bold1 ,duke of ,burgundy4 ,some years before this1 ,raoul ,lefevre1 chaplain to the ,duke's predecessor1 had compiled an epitome of the histories of ,troy1 ,le ,recueil des histoires de ,troye1 and in ,march1 #adfi1 ,caxton amused himself by beginning to translate this into ,english4 ,dissatisfied with the result he laid it on one side1 but was bidden by his patroness1 the ,duchess1 to continue his work4 ,this he finished on #ai ,september1 #adga1 while staying at ,cologne4 ,according to a distinct statement by ,wynkyn de ,worde1 whom 7at least as early as #adhj7 he employed as his foreman1 ,caxton printed at ,cologne himself to avaunce the first ,latin edition of the ,de ,proprietatibus ,rerum1 a kind of encyclopaedia on the properties of things1 by an ,english friar of the thirteenth century named ,bartholomew4 ,now the first edition of this work is undoubtedly one printed at ,cologne about #adga or #adgb at an anonymous press which ,bradshaw called that of the printer of the #adgc edition of the ,dialogi decem ,auctorum1 and ,mr4 ,proctor1 less happily1 that of the printer of the ,flores ,sancti ,augustini1 an undated book in the same type4 ,the ,de ,proprietatibus ,rerum is certainly slightly earlier than either of these1 and there are some typographical differences which suggest that between the completion of the one book and the beginning of the other two the press may have changed masters4 ,the ,de ,proprietatibus is by far the largest book of the whole group1 and being by1 or credited to1 an ,english author1 it is highly probable that the well-to-do ex-,governor of the ,english merchants became temporarily a member of the firm for its production and shared in the venture4 ,this is the natural meaning of ,wynkyn de ,worde's statement that ,caxton was the first prynter of this boke1 and is quite as likely to be true as the supposition that he took part in printing it as a kind of amateur journeyman to advance himself in the art4 ,it may be noted1 moreover1 that the books of this anonymous press belong to the less advanced school of printing at ,cologne1 a school technically several years behind that of ,ulrich ,zell1 and this takes the force out of the objection raised by ,william ,blades1 that if ,caxton had learnt printing at ,cologne1 he must have printed better when he made his start4 ,caxton does not seem to have followed up this beginning at all quickly1 and it was not till printing had been brought much nearer to ,bruges by the starting of presses at ,alost in #adgc and at ,louvain in #adgd that he was stirred to action4 ,the first printer at ,louvain was ,jan ,veldener1 who worked there from #adgd to #adgg1 and ,mr4 ,gordon ,duff conjectures that ,caxton may have received some help from him4 ,there is no doubt1 however1 that his partner at ,bruges was ,colard ,mansion1 a skilled calligrapher1 who continued printing there till #adhd1 when he fled from the town1 leaving his rent unpaid4 ,caxton's own account in the ,recuyell of the ,histories of ,troye of how he came to start is that for as moche as in the wrytyng of the same my penne is worn1 myn hande wery and not stedfast1 myn eyen dimmed with ouer-moche lokyng on the whit paper 444 and also because ,i haue promysid to dyuerce gentilmen and to my frendes to adresse to hem as hastily as ,i myght this sayd book4 ,therfore ,i haue practysed lerned at my grete charge and dispence to ordeyne this saide book in prynte after the maner forme as ye may here see4 ,there is nothing here to encourage the idea which ,mr4 ,proctor seems to have entertained that ,colard ,mansion had already begun work on his own account1 and that ,caxton obtained his help for his ,english books4 ,it seems more likely that it was ,caxton who made the start1 and that the first two books printed at ,bruges were both in ,english1 the first being the ,recuyell1 and the second ,the ,game and ,pleye of the ,chesse1 a translation of a moral treatise in which the functions of the chessmen were used as texts for sermonizing1 written in ,latin by ,jacobus de ,cessolis4 ,after this a new type was cut and another didactic book1 ,les ,quatre ,derennieres ,choses1 a treatise of the ,four ,last ,things 7,death1 ,judgment1 ,hell1 and ,heaven7 printed in it in ,french4 ,these three books probably appeared in #adge and the early months of #adgf4 ,by this time ,charles the ,bold was picking a quarrel with the ,swiss1 and his disastrous defeat at ,morat on #ba ,june1 #adgf1 must have powerfully quickened the desire with which we may reasonably credit ,caxton1 of being the first printer in his native land4 ,he made arrangements to rent a shop in the ,sanctuary at ,westminster from the following ,michaelmas and departed for ,england1 taking with him the newer of the two types and leaving the older one to ,colard ,mansion1 who printed with it the original ,french of ,lefevre's ,recueil des histoires de ,troye1 and the same author's ,les ,fais et prouesses du noble et vaillant cheualier ,jason1 and then abandoned it1 having already cut a larger type for his own use4 ,the first dated book produced by ,caxton in ,england was ,the ,dictes or ,sayengis of the ,philosophers1 a translation by ,earl ,rivers 7the brother of ,edward ,,iv's queen7 from a ,french version of an anonymous ,latin book of the fourteenth century4 ,caxton was entrusted by the ,earl with the oversight of the translation1 and contributed to it an amusing ,epilogue1 in which he gives some unfavourable remarks about women attributed to ,socrates1 with his own comments4 ,the ,epilogue is dated #adgg1 and in one copy more minutely1 #ah ,november4 ,though this is the first dated ,english book1 it cannot be said that it was the first book printed in ,england1 as it was probably preceded both by ,caxton's ,english version of ,lefevre's ,jason1 and also by some of the thin quartos in the same type4 ,among the earlier books printed by ,caxton after he set up his press at ,westminster was ,chaucer's ,canterbury ,tales1 of which later on he printed a second edition which he imagined to be from a better text1 and ornamented with clumsy pictures of the pilgrims4 ,he printed also in separate volumes most of ,chaucer's other works1 including his translation of ,boethius1 ,de ,consolatione ,philosophiae2 also ,gower's ,confessio ,amantis1 some of the shorter poems of ,lydgate1 ,malory's ,morte d',arthur1 and several translations of ,french romances 7,charles the ,great1 ,paris and ,vienne1 the ,four ,sons of ,aymon1 etc471 translations of ,aesop and of ,reynard the ,fox1 ,higden's ,polychronicon1 and the ,chronicles of ,england1 the ,golden ,legend 7the name given to the great collection of ,lives of the ,saints by ,jacobus de ,voragine71 several editions of the ,hours of the ,blessed ,virgin1 a ,latin ,psalter1 a decorative edition of the ,prayers called the ,fifteen ,oes with a border to every page 7see ,plate ,,xxvii71 numerous moral treatises and books of devotion1 and several ,indulgences4 ,in all just one hundred books and documents issued from his press1 printed in eight different types 7including that left behind at ,bruges74 ,more than twenty of these books he had translated himself1 and to others he contributed interesting prologues or epilogues4 ,while many printers on the ,continent easily surpassed him in typographical skill1 few published more books which can still be read with pleasure1 and his prefaces and epilogues show a real love of good literature 7especially of ,chaucer7 and abundant good sense1 kindliness1 and humour4 ,caxton died in #adia while engaged on translating into ,english the ,latin ,lives of the ,fathers1 and the account-books of the churchwardens of ,s4 ,margaret's1 ,westminster1 show that he was buried in its churchyard1 four torches being supplied at a cost of two shillings and sixpence1 and another sixpence being charged for the bell4 ,during ,caxton's lifetime only one other ,englishman set up a press1 an anonymous schoolmaster at ,st4 ,albans1 who began work in #adhj 7possibly in #adgi7 and printed till #adhf1 producing first six scholastic books and then two ,english ones4 ,he appears to have borrowed some type from ,caxton1 so that it was presumably with the latter's goodwill that he reprinted his version of the ,chronicles of ,england1 adding thereto an appendix entitled ,fructus ,temporum1 or ,fruits of ,time4 ,it is from ,wynkyn de ,worde's reprint of this edition in #adig that we obtain our only knowledge of the printer1 for we are there told that it was compiled in a booke and also enprynted by one sometyme scolemayster of saynt ,albons1 on whose soule ,god haue mercy4 ,his other popular book was that famous trio of treatises ,of ,haukyng and ,huntyng and also of ,cootarmuris1 commonly known as the ,book of ,st4 ,albans4 ,the second treatise1 which is in metre1 ends with the words ,explicit ,dam ,julyan ,barnes in her boke of huntyng1 and this is the only basis for the popular attribution of all three treatises to a hypothetical ,juliana ,bernes or ,berners1 who is supposed to have been the daughter of ,sir ,james ,berners 7executed in #achh71 and ,prioress of the ,nunnery of ,sopwell1 a dependency of ,st4 ,albans1 of which the list of prioresses has conveniently perished4#dg ,between #adgh and #adhf or '#hg1 some seventeen books were printed at ,oxford by ,theodoric ,rood of ,cologne1 who towards the end of his career was in partnership with an ,english bookseller named ,thomas ,hunte4 ,the earliest of his books1#dh all of which are in ,latin1 was an ,exposition on the ,apostles' ,creed wrongly attributed to ,s4 ,jerome4 ,by the accidental omission of an ,x this is dated ,,mcccclxviii1 i4e4 #adfh1 but such misprints are common in early books1 and no one now maintains that it was printed until ten years later4 ,among the other books printed at ,oxford we may note an edition of ,cicero's ,pro ,milone1 the spurious ,letters of ,phalaris1 and a very large folio1 ,lyndewode's ,provincial ,constitutions of the ,english ,church4 ,that the ,oxford press came to an end so soon and that none was started at ,cambridge during the fifteenth century may be attributed to a statute of ,richard ,,iii's permitting the free importation of books into ,england4 ,although this measure was amply justified by the interests of learning1 it made it practically impossible for any scholastic press to maintain itself in the limited ,english market against the competition of the fine editions which could be imported from ,italy4 ,caxton's press was at ,westminster1 which in the fifteenth century was much more sharply distinguished for business purposes from the city of ,london than it is now4 ,the first press set up within the city itself was that of ,john ,lettou1 whose surname shows him to have been a native of ,lithuania1 which in ,caxton's time1 as in ,chaucer's1 was known in ,england as ,lettowe4 ,mr4 ,gordon ,duff thinks that ,john ,lettou must have learnt to print at ,rome and brought his punches with him to ,england1 as the type with which he started to print here is indistinguishable from one used by a small printer at ,rome1 who bore the curiously ,english name ,john ,bulle1 though he came from ,bremen4 ,lettou printed an ,indulgence in #adhj1 and also a commentary on the ,metaphysics of ,aristotle1 a curiously learned work for a city press1 but which he was commissioned to print by a certain ,william ,wilcocks1 for whom the next year he printed also a commentary on the ,psalms4 ,after #adhb ,lettou was joined by ,william of ,mechlin1 or ,malines1 in ,belgium1 usually known by the ,latin name of his birthplace1 ,machlinia4 ,lettou and ,machlinia printed five law books together1 and then ,lettou disappears and ,machlinia in #adhc started working by himself1 at first at a house near the bridge over the ,fleet1 where he printed eight books1 and then in ,holborn1 where he printed fourteen4 ,when working by himself he printed in addition to law books some works of a more popular character1 a ,book of ,hours1 the ,revelation to a ,monk of ,evesham1#di ,speculum ,christiani 7a devotional work interspersed with ,english verse71 the ,chronicles of ,england1 and several editions of ,a little treatise against the ,pestilence by a certain ,bishop ,canutus of ,aarhus4 ,one of these editions was the first ,english book which has a titlepage4 ,it is printed in two lines1 and reads3-- ,a passing gode lityll boke necessarye behouefull agenst the ,pestilens4 ,the exact date at which ,machlinia died1 or gave up work1 is not known4 ,he was printing in #adhf1 but his books after that are undated4 ,we may take #adij or a little earlier as the year of his disappearance1 and it is practically certain that his stock of books was taken over by ,richard ,pynson from ,normandy1 who probably began printing in #adia or #adib 7his first dated book was finished in ,november of the latter year71 and while he was getting his workshop ready commissioned ,guillaume ,le ,talleur of ,rouen to print two law books for him for sale in ,england4 ,up to the death of ,caxton the only native ,english printer besides himself was the unidentified schoolmaster-printer at ,st4 ,albans1 ,thomas ,hunte1 who joined ,theodoricus ,rood at ,oxford1 being only a stationer4 ,after his death1 for over twenty years there was no native ,englishman at work as a master printer#ej at all4 ,two of the three presses at work were in the hands of ,wynkyn de ,worde of ,lorraine and ,richard ,pynson of ,normandy1 and the third was worked for some time with two ,french partners by ,julyan ,notary1 who was probably a ,frenchman himself1 since in #adih he spells his name as ,notaire4 ,by far the most prolific of these three firms was that of ,wynkyn de ,worde1 who was born1 as his name implies1 at ,worth1 now in ,alsace1 but formerly part of the ,duchy of ,lorraine4 ,he probably came to ,england with ,caxton in #adgf1 since we hear of him as early as #adhj in a legal document about a house4 ,after ,caxton's death ,de ,worde made a cautious start1 only issuing five books in the first two years and not putting his own name in an imprint until #adid4 ,by the end of the century1 however1 he had printed #aaj books of which copies or fragments survive1 and by the time of his death in #aecd the number had risen to #hjj1 an extraordinarily high total1 more especially when it is remembered that the small quarto editions of romances and popular works of devotion1 of which he printed a great many1 were peculiarly likely to be thumbed to pieces1 so that his actual output was probably much greater4 ,as far as his choice of books was concerned he showed himself a mere tradesman1 seldom printing an expensive book unless ,caxton's experience had shown it to be saleable4 ,for two apparent exceptions to this lack of enterprise there were special reasons4 ,the first1 a translation of the ,lives of the ,fathers1 he was almost bound in honour to take up1 since ,caxton had completed it on his death-bed4 ,the second book1 a really fine edition 7issued about #adie7 of ,trevisa's version of the ,de ,proprietatibus ,rerum1 was also1 as we have seen1 connected with ,caxton1 who1 ,de ,worde tells us1 had acted as the fyrst prynter of this boke ,in latin tongue at ,coleyn himself to avaunce4 ,de ,worde's edition is itself notable as being the first book printed on ,english paper1 the manufacturer being ,john ,tate of ,hertford4 ,in #aejj ,de ,worde moved from ,caxton's house at ,westminster to the sign of the ,sun in ,fleet ,street1 perhaps for the greater protection offered by the city against attacks by anti-alien mobs4 ,in #aejh he was appointed printer to the ,countess of ,richmond and ,derby1 mother of ,henry ,,vii1 a very old lady1 who died the following year4 ,de ,worde himself must have been a very old man at his death towards the end of #aecd or early in ,january1 #aece1 as he had by that time been at work in ,england for between fifty and sixty years4 ,towards the end of his life he seems to have had some of his books printed for him by ,john ,skot1 and ,robert ,copland was also employed in his business4 ,the output of ,richard ,pynson was only about half that of ,wynkyn de ,worde1 and his taxable property amounted to only ,l#fj against over ,l#bjj at which ,de ,worde was assessed4 ,nevertheless the fact that for the last twenty-two years of his life 7#aejh-cj7 he was the ,king's ,printer helped to procure him a few important books1 and also kept his workmanship at a considerably higher standard4 ,as already mentioned1 he probably came to ,england about #adij and took over ,machlinia's stock1 employing ,guillaume ,le ,talleur of ,rouen to print two law books for him while his own type was being made4 ,he probably began work with a fine edition of ,chaucer's ,canterbury ,tales1 but his first dated book is an ugly little edition of the ,doctrinale of ,alexander ,gallus1 issued in ,november1 #adib4 ,a copy of this was unearthed a few years ago in the library of ,appleby ,grammar ,school1 and to secure the first dated book printed by ,pynson the ,british ,museum had to pay over ,l#cjj for it4 ,in #adid ,pynson brought out ,lydgate's poem on the ,falles of ,princes1 translated from the ,latin of ,boccaccio1 illustrating it with woodcuts borrowed from ,jean ,du ,pre's ,french edition of the same book4#ea ,in #adie he printed a ,terence4 ,up to the close of the fifteenth century he had printed about eighty-eight books known to ,mr4 ,gordon ,duff1 against the #aaj printed by ,wynkyn de ,worde4 ,in #aejj he moved from the parish of ,s4 ,clement ,dane's1 outside ,temple ,bar1 to the sign of ,s4 ,george1 at the corner of ,chancery ,lane and ,fleet ,street1 the change bringing him inside the city walls4 ,among the best of the books printed by him after this are ,alexander ,barclay's ,ship of ,fools 7#aeji71 a translation of ,sebastian ,brant's ,narrenschiff2 ,fabyan's ,chronicle 7#aeaf71 ,barclay's translation of ,sallust 7about #aebj71 ,henry ,,viii's ,assertio ,septem ,sacramentorum 7#aeba71 and ,lord ,berners' translation of ,froissart's ,chronicles 7#aebb-e74 ,he also printed some fine service-books1 notably a ,sarum ,missal1 called after ,cardinal ,morton who favoured it the ,morton ,missal 7#aejj74 ,mr4 ,duff conjectures that in the ,latin books he printed from #aeah onwards ,pynson was aided by ,thomas ,berthelet4#eb ,julian ,notary's business was on a far smaller scale than those of ,wynkyn de ,worde and ,pynson1 for less than fifty books are known to have been printed by him4 ,he began work in ,london about #adif in partnership with ,jean ,barbier and another printer or bookseller whose initials were ,i4 ,h41 probably ,jean ,huvin of ,rouen4 ,in #adih ,i4 ,h4 had left the firm and ,notary and ,barbier were at ,westminster4 ,in #aejj1 like ,de ,worde and ,pynson1 he changed houses1 moving to just outside ,temple ,bar1 possibly to ,pynson's old house1 giving his new premises the sign of the ,three ,kings4 ,at a later date he had also a bookstall in ,s4 ,paul's ,churchyard1 and ultimately moved his printing office into the city4 ,notary's books were of much the same kind as ,de ,worde's--the ,golden ,legend1 the ,chronicles of ,england1 the ,shepherds' ,calendar1 ,sermons1 ,lives of the ,saints1 etc4 ,he has the distinction of having printed the smallest ,english incunable of which any trace has come down to us1 an edition of the ,hours of the ,blessed ,virgin1 finished in ,april1 #aejj1 measuring only an inch by an inch and a half4 ,he seems to have ceased printing about #aebj1 but was alive in #aebc4 ,summing up the work of these printers who were active before #aejj1 we may note that ,caxton printed #ajj books and editions that have come down to us2 ,de ,worde #aaj before #aejj1 about #hjj altogether2 ,pynson #hh before #aejj1 nearly #djj altogether2 ,notary about #h before #aejj1 and #dh altogether2 ,lettou and ,machlinia about #cj1 ,oxford #ag1 ,st4 ,albans #h4 ,thus the total number of ,english incunabula at present known is about #cfj1 but ,pynson and ,wynkyn de ,worde were both large printers in the sixteenth century4 ,as we have seen1 ,pynson became ,king's ,printer in #aejh4 ,he had been preceded in that office by ,william ,faques1 who like himself was a ,norman1 and was the first to hold the title4 ,he was worthy of the distinction1 for though he only printed eight books and documents that have come down to us1 his work was very good4 ,his dated books belong to the year #aejd1 when he printed a proclamation against clipped money1 with a fine initial ,h and some neat woodcuts of coins2 also a beautiful little ,latin ,psalter4 ,his business was in the heart of the city1 in ,abchurch ,lane4 ,after his death it passed to ,richard ,faques1 who made his name more ,english by spelling it first ,fakes1 then ,fawkes4 ,richard worked in ,s4 ,paul's ,churchyard1 and among his publications were the ,salus corporis salus anime of ,gulielmus de ,saliceto1 a ,sarum ,horae1 ,skelton's ,goodly ,ballad of the ,scottish ,king 7#aeji71 and ,garland of ,laurell 7#aebc71 and lastly1 ,the ,myrroure of ,our ,lady 7#aecj74 ,with ,robert ,copland we come to the first native ,english printer after ,caxton and the schoolmaster of ,st4 ,albans4 ,copland is rather an interesting person1 who made translations and wrote prefaces and addresses to the reader in verse1 besides printing books4 ,his name occurs in the imprints of only twelve books1 spread over twenty-two years1 #aead-ce1 the explanation being that he was probably working for ,de ,worde during this time1 and only occasionally indulged in a private venture4 ,after a long interval he printed two books for ,andrew ,borde in #aedg-h1 and appears to have died while the second was in progress4 ,he was succeeded by ,william ,copland1 probably his son1 who printed numerous romances and other entertaining books1 and died in #aefh or #aefi4 ,at intervals during the years #aeaf-bh1 ,john ,rastell1 an ,oxford graduate1 barrister of ,lincoln's ,inn and brother-in-law of ,sir ,thomas ,more1 issued nine dated law books4 ,in #aebf he printed two jest books1 in #aebi he became involved in religious controversy on the ,protestant side1 and died in poverty and prison in #aecf4 ,altogether some forty books are attributed to him1 including some plays1 which may perhaps rather have been printed by his son ,william4 ,william ,rastell was also a lawyer1 and not sharing his father's ,protestantism1 became a ,judge of the ,queen's ,bench under ,mary1 on whose death he fled to ,louvain4 ,as a printer he worked only from #aecj to #aecd1 printing over thirty books1 including several works by his uncle1 ,sir ,thomas ,more1 and five plays by ,john ,heywood4 ,between #aeah and #aebd ,henry ,pepwell printed a few popular books at the sign of the ,trinity in ,s4 ,paul's ,churchyard2 for the rest of his life he appears to have been only a stationer4 ,john ,skot1 who printed at four different addresses in the city of ,london between #aeba and #aecg1 worked partly for ,de ,worde1 partly on his own account1 printing upwards of thirty books for himself1 a few of them legal1 the rest popular ,english books4 ,two printers began to issue books in #aebc4 ,robert ,bankes1 who turned out a few popular books in his first six years1 was then silent for a time1 and reappears in the religious controversies of #aeci-db1 and ,robert ,redman1 who seems to have followed in ,pynson's footsteps both in ,s4 ,clement's ,without ,temple ,bar and at the sign of the ,george4 ,in his office of ,royal ,printer ,pynson was succeeded by ,thomas ,berthelet1 or ,bartlet1 who had probably worked with him for upwards of ten years before starting on his own account in ,fleet ,street at the sign of ,lucrece in #aebh4 ,we know of altogether about #djj pieces of printing from his press1 but a large proportion of these consists of editions of the ,statutes and ,proclamations4 ,for the ,proclamations some of ,berthelet's bills survive1 and we learn that he charged a penny a piece for them1 and imported his paper from ,genoa4 ,with his official printing must be reckoned his editions of the ,necessary ,doctrine of a ,christian ,man1 issued with the royal sanction on #bi ,may1 #aedc4 ,in order to produce sufficient copies of this he printed it simultaneously eight times over1 all eight editions bearing the same date4 ,of the books which he printed on his own account the place of honour must be given to his handsome edition of ,gower's ,confessio ,amantis in an excellent black-letter type in #aecb1 and the various works of ,sir ,john ,eliot1 all of which came from his press4 ,on the accession of ,edward ,,vi ,berthelet ceased to be ,royal ,printer1 the post being given to ,grafton4 ,berthelet died in ,september1 #aeee1 leaving considerable property4 ,he was buried as an ,esquire with pennon and coat armour and four dozen scutcheons1 and all the craft of printers1 stationers1 and booksellers followed him to his grave4 ,richard ,grafton1 who succeeded ,berthelet as ,royal ,printer1 had a very chequered career4 ,he was originally a member of the ,grocers' ,company1 and1 in conjunction with ,edward ,whitchurch and ,anthony ,marler of the ,haberdashers' ,company1 superintended the printing of the ,english ,bible of #aecg1 probably at ,antwerp1 and that of #aeci by ,francois ,regnault at ,paris4 ,when ,bible-printing was permitted in ,england ,grafton and ,whitchurch shared between them the printing of the six editions of the ,great ,bible during #aedj and #aeda4 ,but when ,cromwell1 ,earl of ,essex1 the chief promoter of ,bible-printing1 was beheaded1 ,grafton was himself imprisoned4 ,in #aedd1 on the other hand1 he and ,whitchurch obtained an exclusive patent for printing ,primers1 and before ,henry ,,viii's death ,grafton was appointed printer to the ,prince of ,wales4 ,thus when ,edward became king ,grafton displaced ,berthelet as ,royal ,printer1 and henceforth had time for little save official work4 ,five editions of the ,homilies and seven of ,injunctions1 all dated #ca ,july1 #aedg1 were issued from his presses2 in #aedh he published ,halle's ,union of ,lancaster and ,york and several editions of the ,order of ,communion and ,statutes2 in #aedi came two ,bibles and five editions of the first ,prayer ,book of ,edward ,,vi2 in #aeej a reprint of ,halle and an edition of ,marbeck's ,book of ,common ,prayer noted2 in #aeea ,wilson's ,rule of ,reason2 in #aeeb six editions of the second ,prayer ,book of ,edward ,,vi1 and more ,statutes4 ,proclamation-work1 of course1 went on steadily throughout the reign1 and on ,edward's death ,grafton printed the enormously long document by which the adherents of ,lady ,jane ,grey tried to justify her claim to the ,crown4 ,he did his work very handsomely1 but on the triumph of ,mary1 though he impartially printed a proclamation for her nine days after ,queen ,jane's1 he naturally lost his post and might easily have lost his head also4 ,for the rest of his life he was mainly occupied in writing his chronicle4 ,but he printed a ,book of ,common ,prayer in #aeei1 and 7according to ,herbert7 a ,bible in #aeff4 ,he died in #aegc4 ,while ,grafton was the ,king's printer for ,english books1 the post of ,royal ,printer in ,latin1 ,greek1 and ,hebrew had been conferred in #aedg on ,reginald or ,reyner ,wolfe4 ,wolfe1 who had come to ,england from ,gelderland1 was at first a bookseller1 and was employed by various distinguished persons as a letter-carrier between ,england and ,germany4 ,when he set up as a printer in #aedb1 with type which he seems to have obtained from a relative at ,frankfort1 he was employed by the great antiquary1 ,john ,leland1 and by ,john ,cheke1 ,professor of ,greek at ,cambridge1 for whom he printed in #aedc two ,homilies of ,s4 ,chrysostom in ,greek and ,latin1 this being the first ,greek work printed in ,england4 ,during ,edward ,,vi's reign he does not seem to have been given much to do in ,latin1 ,greek1 or ,hebrew1 but printed ,cranmer's ,defence of the ,sacrament and ,answer unto a ,crafty ,cavillation4 ,after keeping quiet during ,mary's reign he enjoyed the patronage of ,elizabeth and ,archbishop ,parker1 and lived1 like ,grafton1 till #aegc4 ,though he never worked on a large scale1 ,wolfe certainly raised the standard of printing in ,england4 ,in ,john ,day it is pleasant to come to a native ,englishman who did equally good work1 and that in a larger way of business4 ,day was a ,suffolk man1 born in #aebb at ,dunwich1 a town over which the sea now rolls4 ,he began printing in partnership with ,william ,seres as early as #aedf1 but1 save some fairly good editions of the ,bible1 produced nothing of importance during this period4 ,his first fine book1 published in #aeei1 is ,the ,cosmographicall ,glasse1 a work on surveying1 by ,william ,cunningham4 ,this has a woodcut allegorical border to the titlepage1 a fine portrait of ,cunningham1 a map of ,norwich1 and some good heraldic and pictorial capitals4 ,its text is printed throughout in large italics4 ,the book thus broke away entirely from the old black-letter traditions of ,english printing1 and could compare favourably with the best foreign work4 ,day printed other folios in this style1 and in some of them instead of a device placed a large and striking portrait of himself4 ,in #aefc he printed the first edition of ,acts and ,monumentes of these latter and perillous days touching matters of the ,church1 better known as ,foxe's ,book of ,martyrs4 ,this is a book of over two thousand pages1 and is plentifully illustrated with woodcuts of varying degrees of merit4 ,day by this time had attracted the patronage of ,archbishop ,parker1 and in #aeff printed for him a book called ,a ,testimony of ,antiquitie1 showing the auncient fayth of the ,church of ,england touching the sacrament of the body and bloude of the ,lord here publikely preached and also receaved in the ,saxons tyme1 above #fjj yeares agoe4 ,for this sermon1 attributed to ,archbishop ,aelfric1 some ,anglo-,saxon type1 the first used in ,england1 was specially cut4 ,later on ,day printed at ,lambeth ,palace ,parker's ,de ,antiquitate ,britannicae ,ecclesiae4 ,he also printed ,ascham's ,scholemaster and other important works4 ,he appears1 moreover1 to have possessed a bookbinding business1 or at least to have had binders in his employment who invented a very striking and dignified style of binding4 ,altogether1 ,day is a man of whom ,english bookmen may well be proud4 ,he died in #aehd4 ,richard ,tottell was another printer of some importance4 ,the son of an ,exeter man1 he began printing about #aeec1 and early in his career received a patent which gave him a monopoly of the publication of law books4 ,these1 to do him justice1 he printed very well1 and he also published a number of works of literary interest4 ,chief among these1 and always associated with his name1 is the famous ,songs and ,sonnets of ,wyatt and ,surrey and other ,tudor poets1 edited by ,nicholas ,grimald1 but often quoted1 for no very good reason1 as ,tottell's ,miscellany4 ,to his credit must also be placed editions of ,lydgate's ,falles of ,princes1 ,hawes's ,pastime of ,pleasure1 ,tusser's ,five ,hundreth ,points of ,good ,husbandry1 the works of ,sir ,thomas ,more in #adeh folio pages1 ,gerard ,legh's ,accedens of ,armoury1 numerous editions of ,guevara's ,diall of ,princes1 as translated by ,sir ,thomas ,north1 and a version of ,cicero's ,de ,officiis1 by ,nicholas ,grimald4 ,in #aegc ,tottell petitioned unsuccessfully for a monopoly of paper-making in ,england for thirty years1 in order to encourage him to start a paper-mill4 ,he lived till #aeic4 ,henry ,denham 7#aefd-hi71 ,henry ,bynneman 7#aeff-hc71 and ,thomas ,vautrollier 7#aeff-hh71 and the latter's successor1 ,richard ,field1 were the best printers of the rest of the century4 ,denham was an old apprentice of ,tottell's1 who gave him some important books to print for him4 ,herbert remarks of him3 ,he was an exceeding neat printer1 and the first who used the semicolon with propriety4 ,among his more notable books were ,grafton's ,chronicle 7for ,tottell and ,toy1 #aefi71 editions of the ,olynthiac orations of ,demosthenes in ,english 7#aegj7 and ,latin 7#aega71 ,an ,alvearie or quadruple dictionarie containing foure sundrie tongues1 namelie1 ,english1 ,latine1 ,greeke1 and ,french1 with a pleasing titlepage showing the royal arms and a beehive 7#aehj71 ,thomas ,bentley's ,the ,monument of ,matrons3 containing seuen seuerall ,lamps of ,virginitie1 a work in praise of piety and ,queen ,elizabeth 7#aehb71 ,hunnis's ,seuen ,sobs of a ,sorrowfull ,soule for ,sinne1 a metrical version of the penitential psalms 7#aehe71 and the second edition of ,holinshed's ,chronicles 7#aehg74 ,henry ,bynneman1 though not so high in ,archbishop ,parker's favour as ,john ,day1 was yet recommended by him to ,burghley in #aefi1 and deserved his patronage by much good work4 ,he printed an ,english version of ,epictetus1 ,dr4 ,caius's ,de ,antiquitate ,cantabrigiensis ,academiae 7#aefh71 a handsome book with the text in italics1 according to the fashion of the day1 ,van der ,noodt's ,theatre of ,voluptuous ,worldlings 7#aefi71 a ,latin text of ,virgil believed to be the first printed in ,england 7#aegj71 the ,historia ,brevis of ,thomas ,walsingham 7#aegd71 a handsome folio1 several books by ,gascoigne and ,turberville1 the first edition of ,holinshed's ,chronicles 7#aegg1 published by ,john ,harrison71 and a few books in ,greek4 ,thomas ,vautrollier1 a ,french refugee1 set up a press at ,blackfriars1 at which he printed several editions of the ,prayer ,book in ,latin 7,liber ,precum ,publicarum in ,ecclesia ,anglicana71 and of the ,new ,testament in ,beza's ,latin version1 for which latter he was granted a ten years' privilege in #aegd4 ,in #aegi he printed two very notable works1 ,fenton's translation of the ,history of ,guicciardini and ,sir ,thomas ,north's ,plutarch1 the latter being one of the handsomest of ,elizabethan books4 ,in #aehj and again in #aehd he went to ,edinburgh1 printing several books there in #aehd and #aehe4 ,his second visit is said to have been due to trouble which came upon him for printing the ,spaccio della ,bestia ,triomphante of ,giordano ,bruno4 ,his press at ,blackfriars continued to work during his absence4 ,his daughter ,jakin married ,richard ,field1 who succeeded to his house and business in #aehh1 and continued his excellent traditions4 ,a company of stationers had existed in ,london since #adjc1 and in #aeeg this was reconstituted and granted a ,royal ,charter4 ,the object of the ,crown was to secure greater control over printing1 so that no inconvenient criticisms on matters of ,church or ,state might be allowed to appear4 ,the object of the leading printers and booksellers1 who formed the court of the company1 was to diminish competition1 both illegitimate and legitimate4 ,both objects were to a very considerable degree attained4 ,the quarter of a century which followed the grant of a charter witnessed a great improvement in the ,english standard of book production4 ,up to this time it seems probable that few ,english printers1 who had not the royal patronage1 had found their craft profitable4 ,caxton no doubt did very well for himself--as he richly deserved4 ,he enjoyed the favour of successive kings1 and received good support from other quarters4 ,we may guess1 moreover1 that both as translator and publisher he kept his finger on the pulse of well-to-do book-buyers to an extent to which there is no parallel for the next two centuries4 ,no one else in ,england possessed this skill1 and certainly no one else enjoyed ,caxton's success4 ,the ,act of ,richard ,,iii permitting unrestricted importation of books quickly killed the presses at ,oxford and ,st4 ,albans1 which could not compete with the publications of the learned printers of ,italy1 ,france1 and ,switzerland4 ,until more than half-way through the reign of ,elizabeth the united output of books from ,oxford and ,cambridge amounted to less than a couple of score4 ,for more than twenty years after ,caxton's death there was no undoubted ,englishman as a master printer4 ,mr4 ,gordon ,duff has lately published#ec the assessments of some of the chief stationers and printers from the ,lay ,subsidy ,rolls of #aebc-d4 ,by far the highest of them is the ,l#cjg at which was assessed ,john ,taverner1 a stationer who is only otherwise known as having bound some books for the ,royal ,chapel1 and who was wise enough not to meddle with printing4 ,wynkyn de ,worde1 most commercial of printers1 was assessed at ,l#bja #aas4 #a;d42 a practically unknown stationer named ,neale at ,l#ajj2 ,pynson1 who was ,royal ,printer and did really good work1 at ,l#fj2 three other stationers1 one of whom printed 7,henry ,pepwell71 at ,l#dj apiece2 ,julyan ,notary at ,l#cf #fs4 #h;d42 other printers at ,l#aj 7,robert ,redman71 ,l#f #acs4 #d;d4 7,john ,rastell71 and ,l#d 7,robert ,wyer74 ,it is tolerably clear that there was absolutely no inducement to an ,english stationer to take up printing4 ,in #aecd ,henry ,,viii repealed the ,act of #adhd1 on the plea that native printing was now so good that there was less need to import books from abroad1 the ,king's real reason1 no doubt1 being to make it easier to check the importation of heretical works4 ,mr4 ,duff has written of the ,king's action3 ,the fifty years of freedom from #adhd to #aecd not only brought us the finest specimens of printing we possess1 but compelled the native workman in self-protection to learn1 and when competition was done away with his ambition rapidly died also4 ,once our ,english printing was protected1 it sank to a level of badness which has lasted1 with the exception of a few brilliant experiments1 almost down to our own day4#ed ,as a rule1 whatever ,mr4 ,duff writes about ,english printing is incontrovertible1 but this particular pronouncement seems curiously unfounded4 ,whether we consider what they printed or how they printed it1 the work of the ,english presses from #aece-eg is better1 not worse1 than the work of the corresponding period1 #aeab-cd4 ,there is nothing in the earlier period to compare with the ,great ,bibles1 and the books of ,berthelet and ,reyner ,wolfe are fairly equal to those of ,pynson4 ,if we take #aeeg as a fresh point of departure1 the books issued from then to about #aehj present a still more remarkable advance4 ,while the work of the rest of ,europe deteriorated1 that of ,england1 in the hands of such men as ,day1 ,denham1 and ,bynneman1 improved1 and alike for their typography1 their illustrations and decorations and their scholarship1 they surpass those of any previous period since the days of ,caxton1 and deserve far more attention from collectors than they have yet received4 ,,footnotes3 #df ,for ,english provincial printing after #aejj see ,chapter ,,xiii4 #dg ,a fourth treatise1 that on ,fishing with an ,angle1 is often included in the attribution with even less reason4 ,this was first printed by ,wynkyn de ,worde in #adif1 with the following curious explanation of its being tacked on to the ,book of ,st4 ,albans3 ,and for by cause this present treatyse sholde not come to the hondys of eche ydle persone whyche wolde desire it yf it were enprynted allone by it self put in a lytyll paunflet1 therfore ,i haue compyled it in a greter volume of dyuerse bokys concernynge to gentyll noble men1 to the entent that the forsayd ydle persones whyche sholde haue but lytyll mesure in the sayd dysporte of fyshynge sholde not by this meane utterly destroye it4 #dh ,two points may be noted about ,rood3 7i7 he does not put his name in his earliest books1 and as there is a change of type in his signed work1 it is possible1 though unlikely1 that the books in type #a are from another press2 7ii7 he is not to be identified1 as was once proposed1 with a certain ,theodoricus of ,cologne1 lately proved by ,dr4 ,voullieme to be ,theodoricus ,molner1 a stepson of ther ,hoernen4 #di ,the place-name here is an early misreading for ,eynsham4 #ej ,this statement should perhaps be modified to admit of the possibility that ,julian ,notary was ,english rather than ,french1 as is generally assumed4 #ea ,this and the ,dives and ,pauper of #adic 7which1 until the discovery of the ,doctrinale1 was reckoned ,pynson's first dated book7 and several other of his earliest editions were published partly at the expense of a merchant named ,john ,rushe1 who took six hundred copies of the ,dives and the ,boccaccio at #ds4 apiece4 ,see ,two ,lawsuits of ,richard ,pynson1 by ,h4 ,r4 ,plomer1 in ,the ,library1 second series1 ,vol4 ,x4 #eb ,see ,the ,library1 second series1 ,vol4 ,,viii1 pp4 #bih sqq4 #ec ,in ,the ,library1 second series1 ,vol4 ,,ix1 pp4 #beg-ha4 #ed ,the ,printers1 ,stationers1 and ,bookbinders of ,westminster and ,london1 #adgf-aece 7last paragraph74 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,english ,,books ,,printed ,,elsewhere ,,than ,,at ,,london ,illustration3 ,,xxviii4 ,,cologne1 ,,printer ,,uncertain1 #aebe ,,tyndale',s ,,new ,,testament1 ,,first ,,page ,,of ,,text ,during the fifteenth century presses were set up in more than fifty places in ,germany1 in more than seventy in ,italy1 in nearly forty in ,france1 in more than twenty in the ,netherlands1 in twenty-four in ,spain1 in only three 7counting ,london and ,westminster as one7 in ,england4 ,in ,london and ,westminster over #ccj books are known to have been printed2 in ,oxford and ,st4 ,albans only twenty-five4 ,the reason for this paucity of provincial printing in ,england must be found by the social historian4 ,the beginning of the sixteenth century brought no change in the facts4 ,for thirty years from ,march1 #adhg1 there was no printing-press at ,oxford4 ,in ,december1 #aeag1 a ,latin commentary on the ,posterior ,analytics of ,aristotle appeared with the imprint ,academia ,oxonie1 and in four subsequent books1 printed in #aeah1 the printer of this gave his name as ,johannes ,scolar4 ,a fragment of a sixth book has lately been found at the ,british ,museum4 ,in #aeai ,scolar's place was taken by ,carolus ,kyrforth1 who printed a ,compotus1 or small arithmetic book4 ,a prognostication by ,jaspar ,laet may have been printed apparently either by ,scolar or ,kyrforth4 ,after the appearance of these eight books there was no more printing at ,oxford until a press was started there in #aehe by ,joseph ,barnes1 under the auspices of the ,university4 ,the last book of the ,schoolmaster-printer appeared at ,st4 ,albans in #adhf1 and after this there was no more printing there until #aecd4 ,in that year1 at the request of ,abbot ,catton1 a printer named ,john ,hertfort1 or ,herford1 printed there ,the glorious lyfe and passion of seint ,albon4 ,robert ,catton was succeeded as abbot by ,richard ,stevenage1 and in the years #aecf-h three religious books were printed for him by ,hertfort1 who also printed an ,arithmetic and two other books on his own account1 making seven books in all4 ,then1 in ,october1 #aeci1 ,john ,hertfort fell under suspicion of having printed a little book of detestable heresies1#ee and the ,abbot had to send him to ,london4 ,the abbey itself was suppressed by the ,king the same year1 and ,hertfort1 deprived of his patron1 had no inducement to return4 ,he is next heard of as printing in ,london in #aedd4 ,at ,york a ,directorium was printed by ,hugo ,goes1 and there is a seventeenth century reference to a ,donatus minor and ,accidence from his press4 ,three small books are also known to have been printed by ,ursyn ,mylner in #aead and #aeaf4 ,previous to this1 in or about #aejg1 an ,expositio hymnorum et sequentiarum for use at ,york had been printed at ,rouen by ,pierre ,violette for a stationer named ,gerard ,freez 7also known as ,gerard ,wandsforth71 who died in #aeaj4 ,this ,gerard ,freez had a brother ,frederick1 who is described not only as a bookbinder and stationer1 but as a printer1 and may therefore have printed books which have perished without leaving any trace behind them4 ,but the only extant ,york books of the sixteenth century are the ,directorium of #aejg1 two small service-books of #aeac1 and a little grammatical work in #aeaf4 ,after this there was no more printing in ,york until #afdb4 ,at ,cambridge a stationer named ,john ,laer1 of ,siberch1 i4e4 ,siegburg1 near ,cologne1 settled1 in or about #aebj1 and acted as publisher to an edition of ,croke's ,introductiones in ,rudimenta ,graeca1 printed at ,cologne by ,eucharius ,cervicornus4 ,after this1 in #aeba and #aebb1 ,siberch himself printed nine small books at ,cambridge1 the first of them being a ,latin speech by ,henry ,bullock addressed to ,cardinal ,wolsey4 ,among the other books was a ,dialogue of ,lucian's 7,greek3 peri dipsadon71 for which ,siberch had to use some ,greek type1 and a work on letter-writing 7,de conscribendis epistolis7 by ,erasmus1 with whom he seems to have been on friendly terms4 ,after #aebb no more books were printed at ,cambridge until #aehc4 ,at ,tavistock in #aebe a monk named ,thomas ,richard printed a translation of ,boethius's ,de ,consolatione ,philosophiae for the ryght worschypful esquyer ,mayster ,robert ,langdon4 ,nine years later1 in #aecd1 the same press printed the ,statutes concerning the ,devonshire ,stannaries or ,tin ,mines4 ,these are the only two early books known to have been printed at ,tavistock4 ,at ,abingdon in #aebh1 ,john ,scolar1 presumably the same man who had previously worked a few miles off at ,oxford1 printed a ,portiforium or ,breviary for the use of the monastery4 ,no other early book is known to have been printed there4 ,from #aeci1 when ,john ,hertfort was summoned from ,st4 ,albans1 to the end of the reign of ,henry ,,viii1 we know of no provincial printing in ,england4 ,but on the accession of ,edward ,,vi the extreme ,protestants who had fled from ,england to the ,netherlands1 ,germany1 and ,switzerland1 came flocking back1 and some of them seem to have stopped at ,ipswich4 ,two1 or perhaps three printers1 all in the ,protestant interest1 worked there in the first few months of the new reign4 ,the first of these1 ,anthony ,scoloker1 printed seven books at ,ipswich in #aedg and #aedh1 and then went on to ,london4 ,the second1 ,john ,overton1 brought over with him from ,wesel the text of ,bishop ,bale's ,latin bibliography of the ,illustrious ,writers of ,britain1 printed there by ,theodoricus ,plateanus1 otherwise ,dirick van der ,straten1 and may or may not have printed at ,ipswich two additional sheets1 which he dated there #ca ,july1 #aedh4ef ,the third printer1 ,john ,oswen1 printed at ,ipswich eleven tracts1 mostly controversial1 in or about #aedh1 and then removed to ,worcester4 ,on his arrival at ,worcester late in #aedh1 or early in #aedi1 ,john ,oswen obtained a special privilege from ,edward ,,vi for printing service-books for use in the ,principality of ,wales1 and produced there three editions of the first ,prayer ,book of ,edward ,,vi and a ,new ,testament4 ,besides these1 from #aedi to #aeec he printed eighteen other books1 mostly of controversial theology1 calling himself in his imprints ,printer appoynted by the ,kinges ,maiestie for the ,principalitie of ,wales and the ,marches of the same4 ,on the accession of ,mary1 it being no longer safe to print ,protestant theology1 ,oswen's press ceased working4 ,at ,canterbury in #aedi ,john ,mychell1 or ,mitchell1 who had moved there after producing a few books in ,london1 printed an ,english psalter1 poynted as it shall be songe in churches4 ,during ,edward's reign ,mychell printed at ,canterbury altogether some twenty books and tracts1 mostly more or less controversial treatises on the ,protestant side4 ,on the accession of ,mary he ceased publishing till #aeef1 when his press was employed by ,cardinal ,pole to print his ,articles of ,visitation4 ,the next year1 by the charter granted to the ,stationers' ,company1 printing outside ,london was forbidden1 the prohibition being subsequently relaxed in favour of the two ,universities1 although it was nearly thirty years before they availed themselves of their right4 ,in the previous eighty years only about a hundred books#eg had been produced at the provincial presses1 and in the year in which the charter was granted it can hardly be said that any press outside ,london was in existence4 ,the new regulation stood in the way of development1 but it was a development for which there seems to have been little demand4 ,we may see some slight confirmation of this view in the fact that during ,elizabeth's reign there was very little secret printing1 though there had probably been a good deal under ,mary4 ,the three ,elizabethan secret presses which have been chronicled were3 7#a7 ,a ,puritan press which printed various tracts on ,church government1 written by ,thomas ,cartwright4 ,these were printed secretly in #aegb and #aegc1 first at ,wandsworth1 afterwards at ,hempstead1 near ,saffron ,walden1 in ,essex4 ,the press was seized in ,august1 #aegc1 and the type handed to ,henry ,bynneman1 who1 the next year1 used it to reprint ,cartwright's attack1 interpolating ,whitgift's replies in larger type4 7#b7 ,a ,jesuit press which printed for ,edmund ,campion and ,robert ,parsons in #aehj and #aeha1 first at ,greenstreet ,house in ,east ,ham1 afterwards at ,stonor ,park1 near ,henley4 ,the press was managed by ,stephen ,brinckley1 who was ultimately captured and imprisoned for nearly two years4 7#c7 ,the ,puritan travelling press1 from which issued the famous ,martin ,marprelate tracts in #aehh and #aehi4 ,some of these were printed in ,east ,molesey1 in ,surrey2 others in the house of ,sir ,richard ,knightley at ,fawsley1 near ,daventry1 others in that of ,roger ,wigston of ,wolston ,priory1 between ,coventry and ,rugby4 ,the chief printer of them was ,robert ,waldegrave1 who eventually fled first to ,la ,rochelle1 where he may have printed one of the tracts1 and then to ,edinburgh1 where he became a printer of some importance4 ,while there was thus very little secret printing in ,england1 exiled ,protestants1 ,catholics1 and ,nonconformists all in turn made frequent recourse to foreign presses1 and apparently succeeded in circulating their books in ,england4 ,religious repression1 however1 though the chief1 was not the only cause of ,english books being printed abroad4 ,from a very early time the superior skill of foreign printers had procured them many commissions to print service-books for the ,english market1 alike on account of their greater accuracy1 their experience in printing in red and black1 and the more attractive illustrations which they had at their disposal4 ,not long after #adgj a ,sarum ,breviary was printed abroad1 possibly at ,cologne4 ,caxton employed ,george ,maynyal1 of ,paris1 to print a ,missal 7and probably a ,legenda7 for him in #adhg1 and ,johann ,hamman or ,herzog printed a ,sarum ,missal in #adid as far away as ,venice4 ,when the ,paris printers and publishers had won the admiration of all ,europe by their pretty editions of the ,hours of the ,blessed ,virgin1 they competed with each other for the ,english market4 ,early in the sixteenth century ,wolfgang ,hopyl printed some magnificent ,sarum ,missals and also an ,antiphoner and ,legenda1 besides some very fine editions of ,lyndewood's ,constitutions4 ,breviaries1 ,missals1 and ,primers were also poured out for ,english use by ,francois ,regnault1 and in lesser numbers by nearly a dozen other ,paris firms1 and ,martin ,morin and other printers plied the same trade at ,rouen1 while ,christoffel van ,remunde1 of ,endhoven1 was busy at ,antwerp4 ,the predominance of the foreign editions of these books over those printed in ,england may be estimated from the fact that of #aje ,sarum service-books printed before #aedj in the possession of the ,british ,museum1 one was printed at ,basel1 one at ,venice1 eleven at ,rouen1 twelve at ,antwerp1 as many as fifty-six at ,paris1 and only twenty-four in ,england4#eh ,in addition to service-books1 a good many of the smaller ,latin grammatical works were printed for the ,english market in ,france and the ,low ,countries1 their destination being occasionally stated1 but more often inferred from the appearance in them of ,english explanations of ,latin words or phrases4 ,a few attempts were also made to issue popular ,english works in competition with those produced at home4 ,the most formidable of these rivalries was that of ,gerard ,leeu at ,antwerp1 who1 after printing three entertaining books 7,the ,history of ,jason1 ,knight ,paris and the ,fair ,vienne1 and the ,dialogue of ,salomon and ,marcolphus71 embarked on a more important work1 ,the ,chronicles of ,england1 and might have seriously injured the home trade had he not met his death in a quarrel with a workman while the ,chronicles were still on the press4#ei ,soon after #aejj another ,antwerp printer1 ,adriaen von ,berghen1 in addition to ,holt's ,lac ,puerorum1 published the commonplace book of a ,london merchant which passes under the name of ,arnold's ,chronicle1 and is famous as containing the earliest text of the ,nutbrown ,maid4 ,a little later still1 ,jan van ,doesborch was at work at the same place1 and between #aeje and #aecj produced at least eighteen popular ,english books1 including ,tyll ,howleglas1 ,virgilius the ,magician1 ,robin ,hood1 and an account of recent discoveries entitled1 ,of the new landes and of the people found by the messengers of the kynge of portyngale named ,emanuel4 ,doesborch's books are poorly printed and illustrated1 but his texts are not noticeably worse than those in contemporary editions published in ,england4 ,the reverse is the case with two ,english books produced 7#aejc7 by the famous ,paris publisher1 ,antoine ,verard1 ,the traitte of god lyuyng and good deying and ,the ,kalendayr of ,shyppars4 ,these have the illustrations which book-lovers prize so highly in the ,kalendrier des ,bergers and ,art de bien viure et de bien mourir1 but the translations seem to have been made by a ,scot1 only less ill equipped in ,scottish than in ,french4 ,in a third translation1 from ,pierre ,gringore's ,chasteau de ,labeur1 ,verard was more fortunate1 for the ,castell of ,labour was rendered into 7for that unpoetical period7 very passable verse by ,alexander ,barclay4 ,verard1 however1 had no cause to congratulate himself1 for both ,pynson and ,de ,worde reprinted ,barclay's translation with copies of the woodcuts1 and the other two books in new translations1 so that in future he left the secular ,english market alone4 ,it may be supposed that the ,act of #aecd1 restricting the importation of foreign books into ,england1 finally put an end to competition of the kind which ,leeu1 ,verard1 and ,doesborch had attempted4 ,but isolated ,english books have continued to appear abroad down to our own day1 and form a miscellaneous1 but curious and interesting appendix in the great volume of the ,english book trade4 ,from #aebe onwards1 however1 until nearly the end of the seventeenth century1 compared with the masses of theological books alternately by ,protestant and ,roman ,catholic ,english exiles1 printed in the ,low ,countries1 ,germany1 ,switzerland1 and ,france1 the output of secular work sinks into insignificance4 ,the stream begins with ,tyndale's ,new ,testament1 of which a few sheets were printed at ,cologne 7see ,plate ,,xxviii71 two editions at ,worms1 and half a dozen or more at ,antwerp before it was suffered to appear in ,england4 ,the first ,english ,bible is believed to have been printed 7#aece7 by ,christopher ,froschauer at ,zurich1 the second 7#aecg7 at ,antwerp1 the third 7#aeci7 was begun at ,paris and completed in ,england4 ,besides their ,new ,testaments1 ,tyndale and ,george ,joy published a good many controversial works at ,antwerp4 ,in the next generation the city became one of the strongholds of the ,romanist exiles after the accession of ,elizabeth1 and ,hans de ,laet1 ,john ,fouler1 ,willem ,sylvius1 and ,gillis van ,diest the younger were frequently called on in #aefd-f to provide paper and print for ,stapleton1 ,harding1 ,william ,rastell1 and the other antagonists of ,bishop ,jewel4 ,in #aebh and the following year books by ,tyndale1 ,roy1 and ,frith appeared purporting to be printed by ,hans ,luft at ,malborowe in the land of ,hesse4 ,a later book with this imprint has been shown by ,mr4 ,sayle to have been printed at ,antwerp2 whether these earlier works were really produced at ,marburg1 or1 as has been conjectured1 at ,cologne1 or again at ,hamburg1 is still uncertain4 ,in the 'forties and 'fifties ,christopher ,froschauer printed several ,english ,protestant books at ,zurich1 including ,a faythfull admonycion of a certen trewe pastor and prophete sent unto the germanes1 translated from ,luther's ,warnunge1 with the pleasing imprint at ,grenewych by ,conrade ,freeman in the month of may #aeed4 ,in the 'fifties1 again1 ,jean ,crespin and other ,geneva printers worked for ,john ,knox1 and the ,geneva ,new ,testament was produced there in #aeeh and the ,bible in #aefj4 ,in the 'sixties1 as we have seen1 many treatises attacking ,bishop ,jewel were issued at ,antwerp1 others appeared at ,louvain1 and about the same time 7#aeff71 at ,emden1 ,g4 van der ,erven was printing for exiled ,puritans some of their diatribes against the ,popish aparrell 7i4e4 the surplice7 which ,elizabeth prescribed for the ,english ,church4 ,in #aegd we encounter at ,amsterdam a curious group of nine little books translated out of ,base-,almayne into ,english1 in which ,hendrik ,niclas preached the doctrines of the ,family of ,love4 ,from that time onwards a good deal of theological literature on the ,protestant side was published by ,amsterdam presses4 ,richard ,schilders at ,middelburg was also an extensive publisher of this class of book4 ,presses at ,leyden and ,dort made similar contributions1 but on a smaller scale4 ,on the ,roman ,catholic side the head-quarters of propagandist literature1 as we have seen1 were at first at ,antwerp and ,louvain1 at both of which places ,john ,fouler had presses4 ,in the 'eighties the existence of the ,english college at ,rheims caused several ,catholic books to be printed there1 notably the translation of the ,new ,testament which was made in the college itself4 ,for like reasons much ,catholic literature was published from #afjb onwards at ,st4 ,omer1 and from #afjd onwards at ,douai4 ,books of the same class1 though in smaller numbers1 appeared also at ,paris and ,rouen4 ,individually the books from the presses we have been naming1 both on the ,romanist and the ,puritan side1 are unattractive to look at and dull to read4 ,collectively they form a very curious and interesting episode in ,english bibliography1 which deserves more study than it has yet received1 though ,mr4 ,sayle has made an excellent beginning in his lists of ,english books printed on the ,continent in the third volume of his ,early ,english ,printed ,books in the ,university ,library1 ,cambridge4 ,since then ,mr4 ,steele and ,mr4 ,dover ,wilson have made important contributions to the subject1 but much still remains to be done4 ,it was doubtless the existence of these foreign safety-valves which rendered the course of ,english printing after the grant of a charter to the ,stationers' ,company so smooth and uneventful4#fj ,two violations of the terms of the charter were winked at or authorized1 in some way not known to us1 by the ,crown4 ,the first of these was the printing of a few books for the use of foreign refugees by ,antony de ,solempne at ,norwich4 ,most of these books were in ,dutch1 but in #aefi ,antony ,corranus1 previously pastor of the ,spanish ,protestant congregation at ,antwerp1 published through de ,solempne certain broadside tables ,de ,operibus ,dei in ,latin1 ,french1 ,dutch1 and ,english1 of which copies only of the first and second have been traced4 ,in #aegj another ,english broadside commemorated the execution at ,norwich of ,thomas ,brooke4 ,archbishop ,parker seems to have resented the publication1 unexamined1 of the ,de ,operibus ,dei1 but de ,solempne placed the royal arms and a loyal motto 7,godt bewaer de ,coninginne ,elizabeth7 on some of his books1 and seems in some way or another to have secured the ,queen's protection4 ,mr4 ,allnutt1 to whose exhaustive articles on ,english ,provincial ,printing in the second volume of ,bibliographica all subsequent writers on the subject must needs be indebted1 conscientiously includes among his notes one on the edition of ,archbishop ,parker's ,de ,antiquitate ,ecclesiae ,britannicae printed for him by ,john ,day1 in all probability at ,lambeth ,palace1 where a small staff of book-fashioners worked under the archiepiscopal eye4 ,eton is a good deal farther out of bounds than ,lambeth1 but the employment of the ,king's ,printer1 ,john ,norton1 and a dedication to the ,king saved ,sir ,henry ,savile from any interference when he started printing his fine edition of the works of ,s4 ,john ,chrysostom in the original ,greek4 ,the eight folio volumes of which this consists are dated from #afaj to #afac1 and in these and the two following years five other ,greek books were printed under ,savile's supervision4 ,after this his type was presented to the ,university of ,oxford1 where a fairly flourishing press had been at work since #aehe4 ,that printing at ,oxford made a new start in #aehe was due no doubt to the example of ,cambridge1 which two years earlier had at last acted on a patent for printing granted by ,henry ,,viii in #aecd1 the year1 it will be remembered1 in which restrictions were placed on the importation of foreign books on account of the proficiency in the art to which ,englishmen were supposed to have attained4 ,in the interim ,printers to the ,university seem to have been appointed1 but it was not till #aehc that a press was set up1 whereupon1 as soon as a single book had been printed1 it was promptly seized by the ,stationers' ,company of ,london as an infringement of the monopoly granted by their charter4 ,although the ,bishop of ,london seems to have backed up the ,stationers1 ,lord ,burghley 7the ,chancellor of the ,university7 and the ,master of the ,rolls secured the recognition of the rights of the ,university4 ,forty years later they were again attacked by the ,stationers1 and the ,privy ,council forbade the ,cambridge printer to print ,bibles1 ,prayer ,books1 ,psalters1 ,grammars1 or ,books of ,common ,law1 but in #afbh the judges pronounced strongly in favour of the full rights of the ,university1 and the next year these were recognized with some modifications by the ,privy ,council4 ,up to this time there had been three printers1 ,thomas ,thomas 7#aehc-h71 ,john ,legate 7#aehh-afaj71 and ,cantrell ,legge 7#afjf-bi71 the ,university ,library possessing 7in #aijb7 #cd books and documents printed by the first1 #ajh by the second1 and #ee by the third1 or a total of #aig for a period of forty-six years4 ,from #afbh to #afci the majority of ,cambridge books bear no individual names on them1 but have usually the imprint ,cantabrigiae1 ex ,academiae celeberrimae typographeo4 ,but ,thomas and ,john ,buck and ,roger ,daniel1 in various combinations1 were responsible for a good many publications4 ,while ,burghley was ,chancellor of ,cambridge1 ,dudley1 ,earl of ,leicester1 held the ,oxford ,chancellorship1 and doubtless felt that1 charter or no charter1 it concerned his honour to see that his ,university should be allowed all the privileges possessed by the other4 ,under his auspices a press was started late in #aehd or early in #aehe by ,joseph ,barnes1 an ,oxford bookseller1 to whom the ,university lent ,l#ajj to enable him to procure the necessary equipment1 and on ,leicester's visiting the ,university on #aa ,january1 #aehe1 a ,carmen gratulatorium in four elegiac couplets was presented to him1 printed on an octavo leaf at the new press4 ,the first book to appear was a ,speculum ,moralium ,quaestionum in uniuersam ,ethicen ,aristotelis1 by ,john ,case1 a former fellow of ,s4 ,john's1 with a dedication to ,leicester by the author and another by the printer4 ,in the latter the promise was made ea solum ex his praelis in lucem venient que sapientum calculis approbentur ,sybille foliis sint veriora1 but the remaining publications of the year were a polemical treatise by ,thomas ,billson1 two issues of a ,protestant adaptation of the ,booke of ,christian exercise appertaining to ,resolution1 by ,robert ,persons1 the ,jesuit1 and two sermons4 ,in #aehf no fewer than seventeen books were printed 7a number not again attained for several years71 and among them was an edition of six homilies of ,s4 ,chrysostom1 primitiae typographi nostri in graecis literis preli4 ,after this the press settled down to an average production of from eight to a dozen books a year1 including a fair number of classical texts and translations1 with now and then a volume of verse which brings it into connection with the stream of ,elizabethan literature4 ,among the more interesting books which it produced1 mention may be made of the ,sixe ,idillia of ,theocritus 7#aehh71 poems by ,nicholas ,breton and ,thomas ,churchyard 7#aeib71 ,richard de ,bury's ,philobiblon 7#aeii71 the ,microcosmus of ,john ,davies of ,hereford 7#afjc71 ,captain ,john ,smith's ,map of ,virginia1 with a description of the ,countrey 7#afab71 and ,burton's ,anatomy of ,melancholy 7#afba74 ,in the 'twenties of the seventeenth century the average annual output was still only #ad2 in the 'thirties1 under the fostering care of ,laud1 it had risen as high as #be4 ,in #afda it was but #ai4 ,then1 on the outbreak of the ,civil ,war1 the ,king came to ,oxford1 and under the stress of official publications and royalist controversy the numbers shot up to about #adg in #afdb1 followed by #aai in #afdc1 about #ajj in #afdd1 and #fj in #afde4 ,then they become normal again1 and in #afdi under the ,parliamentary regime sink as low as seven4 ,these statistics are taken from the various works of ,mr4 ,falconer ,madan1 mentioned in our bibliography1 and from the same source we learn that until the nineteenth century the annual average of production1 calculated by periods of ten years1 never exceeded thirty-two4 ,similar causes to those which brought about the sudden increase in the ,oxford output in #afdb led to the establishment of presses at ,newcastle and ,york4 ,in #afci1 when ,charles ,i marched against the ,scots1 his head-quarters were at ,newcastle1 and the ,royal ,printer1 ,robert ,barker1#fa printed there a sermon by the ,bishop of ,durham1 the ,lawes and ,ordinances of ,warre1 and some proclamations4 ,in ,march1 #afdb1 again ,barker was in attendance on the ,king at ,york1 and printed there ,his ,majesties ,declaration to both ,houses of ,parliament1 in answer to that presented to him at ,newmarket1 and some thirty-eight other pieces4 ,another ,london printer1 ,stephen ,bulkley1 was also given employment1 and in the years #afdb-d printed at ,york some twenty-eight different pieces4 ,bulkley also attended the ,king at ,newcastle in #afdf1 when he was in the hands of the ,scots1 and remained printing there and at ,gateshead until the ,restoration1 when he returned to ,york1 where a ,puritan press had in the meantime been set up by ,thomas ,broad4 ,charles ,i left ,york on #af ,august1 #afdb1 and six days later the ,royal ,standard was raised at ,nottingham4 ,his ,majesties ,instructions to his ,commissioners of ,array1 dated at our ,court at ,nottingham1 #bith ,august1 #afdb1 were printed by ,barker at ,york4 ,two days later the ,king ordered that the press should be brought to ,nottingham1 but we next hear of ,barker at ,shrewsbury1 where he served the ,king's immediate needs1 and then remained at work for the rest of the year and the greater part of #afdc reprinting ,oxford editions and publishing other royalist literature4 ,after the capture of ,bristol for the ,king on #b ,august he removed once more and printed there during #afdd and #afde4 ,during the confusion of the ,civil ,war an ,exeter stationer1 ,thomas ,hunt 7the local publisher of ,herrick's ,hesperides71 had a book printed for him--,thomas ,fuller's ,good ,thoughts in ,bad ,times--which is described in the dedication as the ,first ,fruits of the ,exeter ,presse1 and another is said to have been printed there in #afdh4 ,but we hear of no other presses being set up4 ,after the ,restoration printing was allowed to continue at ,york4 ,otherwise provincial printing outside the ,universities was once more non-existent4 ,the arrival of ,william of ,orange caused some broadsides to be printed at ,exeter in #afhh1 and in the same year ,thomas ,tillier printed at ,chester1 not only ,an account of a late ,horrid and ,bloody ,massacre in ,ireland on a single leaf1 but also a handsome folio1 ,the ,academy of ,armory1 for ,randall ,holme1 who rewarded him for any risk he may have run by devising for him a fancy coat4 ,nevertheless1 despite the change of ,government1 the ,act of ,parliament restricting printing to ,london1 ,oxford1 ,cambridge1 and ,york was not allowed to expire till #afie4 ,a press was set up at ,bristol the same year4 ,plymouth and ,shrewsbury followed in #afif1 ,exeter in #afih1 and ,norwich in #agja1 the first provincial newspaper1 ,the ,norwich ,post1 dating from ,september in that year4 ,by #agej about seventy-five provincial towns possessed presses1 cities and small country places starting them at haphazard1 not at all in the order of their importance4 ,the dates for some of the chief are as follows 7all on the authority of ,mr4 ,allnutt73 #agjh1 ,newcastle-upon-,tyne2 #agji1 ,worcester2 #agaj1 ,nottingham2 #agaa1 ,chester2 #agab1 ,liverpool2 #agae1 ,salisbury2 #agaf1 ,birmingham2 #agag1 ,canterbury2 #agah1 ,ipswich1 ,leeds1 and ,taunton2 #agai1 ,manchester and ,derby2 #agbj1 ,northampton2 #agba1 ,coventry and ,hereford2 #agbc1 ,reading2 #agca1 ,bath2 #agcg1 ,sheffield2 #agde1 ,stratford-on-,avon2 #agdh1 ,portsmouth4 ,as a side-consequence of the lapsing of the ,licensing ,act in #afie1 it became possible for any private person to buy a printing press1 hire a journeyman printer1 and start printing any books he pleased4 ,several private presses were thus set up during the second half of the eighteenth century1 the most famous of them being that of ,horace ,walpole at ,strawberry ,hill1 near ,twickenham4 ,walpole started in #ageg by printing two of the ,odes of his friend ,gray1 and at intervals during the next twenty-seven years printed several of his own works1 and a few other books1 of which an edition of ,grammont's ,memoires was the most important4 ,walpole's example was followed by ,george ,allan1 ,m4,p4 for ,durham1 and ,francis ,blomefield1 the historian of ,norfolk2 also in the nineteenth century by ,thomas ,johnes1 who printed his translation of ,froissart in four large quarto volumes at his own house at ,hafod in ,cardiganshire in #ahjc-e1 and followed them up with a ,joinville in #ahjg and a ,monstrelet in #ahaj4 ,between #ahac and #ahbc ,sir ,egerton ,brydges caused a number of interesting literary reprints to be issued for him in limited editions from a press in or near his house at ,lee ,priory in ,kent4 ,the work of both these presses1 like that of ,walpole's1 was perhaps equal to the best commercial printing of its day1 but was not superior to it1 and perhaps the same may be said of the few reprints manufactured1 in still more jealously limited editions1 by ,e4 ,v4 ,utterson between #ahdj and #ahdc at ,beldornie ,house1 ,ryde4 ,sir ,thomas ,phillipps1 who printed numerous antiquarian documents between #ahbb and #ahfb at ,middle ,hill in ,worcestershire1 and between #ahfb and #ahgb at ,cheltenham1 set even less store by typographical beauty and accuracy4 ,the other private presses of the first half of the nineteenth century are not more interesting1 though that of ,gaetano ,polidori at ,park ,village ,east1 near ,regent's ,park1 #ahdj-ej1 has become famous as having printed ,gabriel ,rossetti's ,sir ,hugh the ,heron in #ahdc1 and ,christina ,rossetti's first volume of verse four years later1 ,polidori being the grandfather of the young authors on their mother's side4 ,passing north of the ,tweed1 where the most formidable competitors of the ,london printers now abide1 we find the first ,scottish press at work at ,edinburgh in #aejh4 ,in ,september of the previous year ,andrew ,myllar1 a bookseller who had gained some experience of printing at ,rouen1 and ,walter ,chapman1 a merchant1 had been granted leave to import a press1 chiefly that they might print an ,aberdeen ,breviary1 which duly appeared in #aeji-aj4 ,the books which anticipated it in #aejh were a number of thin quartos1 ,the ,maying or ,disport of ,chaucer1 dated #d ,april1 the ,knightly ,tale of ,golagros and ,gawane1 dated #h ,april1 the ,porteous of ,noblenes1 translated out of franche in scottis be ,maistir ,andrew ,cadiou1 dated #bj ,april1 and eight undated pieces1 three of them by ,dunbar 7,the ,goldyn ,targe1 ,the ,flyting of ,dunbar and ,kennedy1 and the ,twa ,marrit ,wemen and the ,wedo1 with other poems71 the others being the ,ballad of ,lord ,barnard ,stewart1 ,orpheus and ,eurydice1 the ,buke of ,gude ,counsale1 ,sir ,eglamoure of ,artoys1 and ,a ,gest of ,robyn ,hode4 ,all these have survived 7some of them much mutilated7 in a single volume1 and it is at the reader's pleasure to decide whether they represent the harvest of some careful person who bought up all ,chapman and ,myllar's fugitive pieces1 or are merely the remnants of a much larger output4 ,the ,aberdeen ,breviary1 which the printers were encouraged to produce by protection against the importation of ,sarum books from ,england or abroad1 is really handsomely printed in black and red4 ,at the end of one of the four or five copies of it now known is an addendum1 the ,officium ,compassionis ,beatae ,virginis 7commemorated on the ,wednesday in ,holy ,week71 which bears the colophon ,impressum ,edinburgi per ,johannem ,story nomine mandato ,karoli ,stule1 which ,scottish bibliographers assign to about #aebj4 ,a fragment of a ,book of the ,howlat may belong to the same period4 ,thus although ,scottish writers1 such as ,john ,vaus and ,hector ,boece of ,aberdeen1 had to send their books to ,france to be printed1 it is possible that presses were at work in ,edinburgh or elsewhere in ,scotland1 of which nothing is now known4 ,the next printer of whom we have certain information is ,thomas ,davidson1 who in ,february1 #aeda 7#aedb71 produced a handsome edition of ,the ,new ,actis and ,constitutionis of ,parliament maid be the ,rycht ,excellent ,prince ,iames the ,fift4 ,this was his only dated book1 but he issued also a fine edition of ,the hystory and croniklis of ,scotland1 translated by ,johne ,bellenden1 ,archdene of ,murray1 chanon of ,ros1 from the ,latin of ,hector ,boece1 and some smaller works4 ,the next ,scottish printer is ,john ,scot1 whom the best authorities1 despite the fact that he is first heard of in ,edinburgh in #aeci1 refuse to identify with the ,john ,skot who printed in ,london from #aeba to #aecg4 ,whoever he was1 he had no very happy existence1 as notwithstanding some efforts to please the ,protestant party1 the work he did for the ,catholics twice brought him into serious trouble4 ,his first dated book1 ,archbishop ,hamilton's ,catechism1 did not appear till #bi ,august1 #aeeb1 and was printed not at ,edinburgh1 but at ,st4 ,andrews4 ,how he had been employed between #aeci and this date we have no means of knowing4 ,at ,st4 ,andrews ,scot printed ,patrick ,cockburn's ,pia ,meditatio in ,dominicam ,orationem 7#aeee71 and probably also ,lauder's ,dewtis of ,kingis 7#aeef74 ,scot also printed controversial works on the ,catholic side by the ,abbot of ,crosraguell 7,quentin ,kennedy7 and ,ninian ,winzet1 and for the opposite party ,the ,confessione of faith ,professit and ,belevit be the ,protestantes within the ,realme of ,scotland 7#aefa74 ,he issued also two editions 7#aefh and #aega7 of the works of ,sir ,david ,lindesay1 while his undated books include some of ,lindesay's single poems4 ,since ,john ,scot printed mainly on the ,catholic side1 the ,protestant ,general ,assembly in ,december1 #aefb1 started a printer in opposition to him1 ,robert ,lekpreuik1 lending him twa hundreth pounds to help to buy irons1 ink and papper and to fie craftesmen for printing4 ,he had previously1 in #aefa1 like ,scot1 printed the ,confession of the ,faith1 also ,robert ,noruell's ,meroure of an ,christiane and an ,oration by ,beza4 ,the grant allowed him was in connection with an edition of the ,psalms1 which eventually appeared in #aefe1 together with the ,form of ,prayer and ,ministration of the ,sacraments used in the ,english ,church at ,geneva and the ,catechism 7dated #aefd74 ,lekpreuik continued active till #aegd1 and after an interval issued three books in #aeha and perhaps one in #aehb4 ,in ,mr4 ,aldis's ,list he is credited with ninety-one publications 7mostly controversial7 as against four assigned to ,davidson and fifteen to ,scot4 ,during #aega he printed at ,stirling1 and the next two years at ,st4 ,andrews4 ,like ,scot1 he found printing perilous work1 his intermission after the beginning of #aegd being due to imprisonment4 ,thomas ,bassandyne1 who had previously published books at ,edinburgh1 began printing there in #aegb4 ,he produced but ten 7extant7 books and documents in all1 but his name is famous from its connection with the first ,scottish ,bible1 of which he produced the ,new ,testament in #aegf1 the ,old ,testament being added1 and the whole issued by his successor1 ,alexander ,arbuthnot1 in #aegi4 ,besides the ,bible1 only five books were printed by ,arbuthnot4 ,between #aegd and #aehj twenty-six were produced by ,john ,ross1 and on his death ,henry ,charteris1 a bookseller1 took over his material1 and by the time of his death in #aeii had printed forty more4 ,but the best ,edinburgh work towards the end of the century was produced by two craftsmen from ,england1 ,thomas ,vautrollier1 who produced ten books in #aehd-f1 and ,robert ,waldegrave 7#aeij-afjc71 who had to flee from ,england for his share in the ,marprelate tracts1 and during his thirteen years in ,edinburgh issued #aai books4 ,when ,joseph ,ames was desirous of obtaining information about early printing in ,ireland he applied to a ,dr4 ,rutty1 of ,dublin 7apparently a ,quaker71 who could only furnish the name of a single book printed there before #afjj1 this being an edition of the ,book of ,common ,prayer1 which states that it is ,imprinted by ,humphrey ,powell1 printer to the ,kynges ,maiesti1 in his ,highnesse realme of ,ireland dwellyng in the citie of ,dublin in the greate toure by the ,crane4 ,cum ,privilegio ad imprimendum solum4 ,anno ,domini ,,mdli4 ,we know from the records of the ,english ,privy ,council that ,humphrey ,powell1 an inconspicuous ,english printer1 was granted ,l#bj in ,july1 #aeej1 towards his setting up in ,ireland1 and this ,prayer ,book was doubtless the first fruits of his press4 ,powell remained in ,dublin for fifteen years1 but the only other products of his press still in existence are two proclamations1 one issued in #aefa against ,shane ,o',neill1 the other in #aefd against the ,o',connors1 and ,a ,brefe ,declaration of certein ,principall ,articles of ,religion1 a quarto of eight leaves set out by order of ,sir ,henry ,sidney in #aeff4 ,in #aega ,john ,o',kearney1 ,treasurer of ,st4 ,patrick's1 was presented with a fount of ,irish type by ,queen ,elizabeth1 and a ,catechism by him and a broadside poem on the ,last ,judgment1 by ,philip1 son of ,conn ,crosach1 both in ,irish type1 are still extant4 ,but there seems to be no trustworthy information as to where they were printed1 though it was probably at ,dublin4 ,an ,almanac1 giving the longitude and latitude for ,dublin1 for the year #aehg1 appears to have been printed at ,london4 ,but in #aeie ,william ,kearney printed a ,proclamation against the ,earl of ,tyrone and his adherents in ,ireland in the ,cathedrall ,church of the ,blessed ,trinitie1 ,dublin4 ,we reach continuous firm ground in #afjj when ,john ,francke1 or ,franckton 7as he called himself in #afjb and thenceforward71 printed one or more proclamations at ,dublin4 ,in #afjd ,franckton was appointed ,king's ,printer for ,ireland1 and he continued at work till #afah1 when he assigned his patent to ,felix ,kyngston1 ,matthew ,lownes1 and ,thomas ,downes4 ,some four-and-twenty proclamations and upwards of a dozen books and pamphlets from his press are extant1 some of them in ,irish type4 ,in #afbj the office of ,printer-,general for ,ireland was granted for a period of twenty-one years to ,kingston1 ,lownes1 and ,downes1 all of them members of the ,london ,stationers' ,company1 and the usual imprint on the books they issued is that of the ,company 7#afbj-cc7 or ,society 7#afcc-db7 of ,stationers4 ,they seem to have appointed an agent or factor to look after their interests1 and the last of these factors1 ,william ,bladen1 about #afdb took over the business4 ,the earliest allusion to books printed in what afterwards became the ,united ,states of ,america occurs in the diary of ,john ,winthrop1 ,governor of ,massachusetts ,bay1 for ,march1 #afci3 ,a printing house was begun at ,cambridge by one ,stephen ,daye1 at the charge of ,mr4 ,glover1 who died on sea hitherward4 ,the first thing which was printed was the freemen's ,oath2 the next was an almanac made for ,new ,england by ,mr4 ,william ,pierce1 mariner2 the next was the ,psalms newly turned into metre4 ,the ,mr4 ,glover here mentioned was the ,rev4 ,joseph ,glover1 rector of ,sutton in ,surrey from #afbh to #afcf1 who1 after collecting funds for the benefit of ,harvard ,college at ,cambridge1 ,mass41 sailed with his family from ,england in the summer of #afch1 but died on the way4 ,his widow 7,elizabeth ,glover71 shortly after her arrival1 married the ,rev4 ,henry ,dunster1 the first ,president of ,harvard1 and thus1 as had happened in ,paris1 the first press in ,america was set up in a college under clerical auspices4 ,stephen ,day1 the printer whom ,glover had brought from ,england1 is naturally supposed to have been a descendant of ,john ,day1 the great ,elizabethan printer1 but of this there is no evidence4 ,he obtained some grants of land in consideration of his services to the colony1 but did not greatly thrive1 and in #afdh1 or early in #afdi1 was superseded by ,samuel ,green4 ,of the specimens of his press mentioned by ,governor ,winthrop the ,oath of a ,freeman and the ,almanac have perished utterly4 ,of the ,bay ,psalter1 or the ,new ,england ,version of the ,psalms1 as it was subsequently called1 at least eleven copies are known to be extant1 of which five are stated to be perfect4#fb ,it is a small octavo of #adh leaves1 disfigured by numerous misprints1 but with passable presswork4 ,the translation was made by the ,massachusetts clergy1 who prefixed to it ,a discourse declaring not only the lawfullnes but also the necessity of the heavenly ordinance of singing ,scripture ,psalmes in the ,churches of ,god4 ,its titlepage bears the name neither of printer nor of place1 but merely ,imprinted #afdj4 ,there is no doubt1 however1 that it was produced by ,day at ,cambridge1 whereas the edition of #afdg appears to have been printed in ,london4 ,the ,massachusetts records make it probable that ,day printed several books and documents now lost4 ,an imperfect copy of ,harvard ,theses with the imprint ,cantabrigiae ,nov4 ,ang41 ,mens4 #h #afdc is the next production of his press still extant4 ,after this comes an historical document of some interest3 ,a ,declaration of former passages and proceedings betwixt the ,english and the ,narrowgansets1 with their confederates1 wherein the grounds and iustice of the ensuing warre are opened and cleared4 ,published by order of the ,commissioners for the ,united ,colonies4 ,at ,boston the #aa of the sixth month #afde4 ,another broadside of ,harvard ,theses 7for #afdg7 and a couple of almanacs for #afdg and #afdh1 the first of which has the imprint ,cambridge ,printed by ,matthew ,daye and to be solde by ,hez4 ,usher at ,boston4 #afdg1 are the only other remnants of this stage of the press4 ,of ,matthew ,day nothing more is known4 ,samuel ,green appears to have taken over ,day's business without any previous technical training1 so that it is thought that ,day may have helped him as a journeyman4 ,the first book ascribed to ,green is3 ,a ,platform of ,church ,discipline gathered out of the word of ,god3 and agreed upon by the ,elders3 and ,messengers of the ,churches assembled in the ,synod at ,cambridge in ,new-,england4 ,to be presented to the ,churches and ,generals ,court for their consideration and acceptance in the ,lord4 ,the ,eighth ,moneth1 ,anno #afdi4 ,printed by ,s4,g4 at ,cambridge in ,new-,england and are to be sold at ,cambridge and ,boston ,anno ,dom4 #afdi4 ,his next extant piece of work is an almanac for #afej1 his next the third edition 7the second1 as noted above1 had been printed at ,london in #afdg7 of the ,bay ,psalter1 printed by ,samuel ,green at ,cambridge in ,new-,england1 #afea4 ,this was followed in #afeb by ,richard ,mather's ,the ,summe of ,certain ,sermons upon ,genes4 #ae4 #f1 a treatise on ,justification by ,faith1 and then ,green seems to have begun to busy himself with work for the ,corporation in ,england for the ,propagation of the ,gospel amongst the ,indians in ,new ,england1 or ,corporation for the ,indians1 as it is easier to call it4 ,a second press was sent over to enable this work to be undertaken1 and a ,primer by ,john ,eliot 7the ,apostle to the ,indians7 was printed in #afed1 and the ,books of ,genesis and ,matthew the next year1 all three in the ,indian language1 all three now known only from records4 ,the same destruction has befallen an ,indian version of some of the ,psalms mentioned as having been printed in #afeh1 but of another ,indian book of the same year1 ,abraham ,peirson's ,some helps for the ,indians1 shewing them how to improve their natural reason to know the true ,god1 and the true ,christian ,religion1 two issues have been preserved1 one in the ,new ,york ,public ,library1 the other at the ,british ,museum4 ,another edition1 dated the next year1 is also at the ,museum1 though it has escaped the notice of ,mr4 ,evans1 the author of the latest ,american ,bibliography4 ,by this time the ,corporation for the ,indians had sent over a skilled printer1 ,marmaduke ,johnson1 to aid ,green in his work4 ,unfortunately1 despite the fact that he had left a wife in ,england1 ,johnson flirted with ,green's daughter1 and this conduct1 reprehensible anywhere1 in ,new ,england brought down on him fines of ,l#bj and a sentence of deportation1 which1 however1 was not carried out4 ,johnson's initials appears in conjunction with ,green's in ,a ,brief ,catechism containing the doctrine of ,godlines1 by ,john ,norton1 teacher of the ,church at ,boston1 published in #affj1 and the two men's names in full are in the ,indian ,new ,testament of #affa and the complete ,bible of #affc4 ,of the ,new ,testament it is conjectured that a thousand1 or perhaps fifteen hundred copies1 were printed1 of which five hundred were bound separately1 and forty of these sent to ,england4 ,how many copies were printed of the ,old ,testament is not known1 but of the complete ,bible some forty copies are still extant in no fewer than eight variant states produced by the presence or absence of the ,indian and ,english titlepages1 the dedication1 etc41 while of the ,new ,testament about half as many copies may be known4 ,during the progress of the ,indian ,bible ,green had continued his ,english printing on his other press1 and had produced among other things ,propositions concerning the subject of ,baptism collected by the ,boston ,synod1 and bearing the imprint ,printed by ,s4,g4 for ,hezekiah ,vsher at ,boston in ,new ,england #affb4 ,printing at ,boston itself does not appear to have begun until #afge1 when ,john ,foster1 a ,harvard graduate1 was entrusted with the management of a press1 and during that and the six following years printed there a number of books by ,increase ,mather and other ministers1 as well as some almanacs4 ,on his death in #afha the press was entrusted to ,samuel ,sewall1 who1 however1 abandoned it in #afhd4 ,meanwhile1 ,samuel ,green had continued to print at ,cambridge1 and his son1 ,samuel ,green junior1 is found working by assignment of ,sewall and for other ,boston booksellers4 ,in #afij his brother ,bartholomew ,green succeeded him1 and remained the chief printer at ,boston till his death in #agcb4 ,at ,philadelphia1 within three years of its foundation in #afhc1 a ,kalendarium ,pennsilvaniense1 or ,america's ,messinger3 being and sic almanack for the year of grace #afhf1 by ,samuel ,atkins1 was issued with the imprint1 ,printed and sold by ,william ,bradford1 sold also by the ,author and ,h4 ,murrey in ,philadelphia and ,philip ,richards in ,new ,york1 #afhe1 and in the same year there was published anonymously ,thomas ,budd's ,good ,order established in ,pennsilvania ,new ,jersey in ,america1 being a true account of the country2 with its produce and commodities there made4 ,in #afhf ,bradford printed ,an ,epistle from ,john ,burnyeat to ,friends in ,pensilvania and ,a ,general ,epistle given forth by the people of the ,lord called ,quakers2 in #afhg ,william ,penn's ,the excellent privilege of liberty and property being the birthright of the free-born subjects of ,england2 in #afhh a collection including ,bohme's ,the ,temple of ,wisdom1 ,wither's ,abuses ,stript and ,whipt1 and ,bacon's ,essays1 edited by ,daniel ,leeds4 ,in #afhi ,bradford began working for ,george ,keith1 and three years later he was imprisoned for printing ,keith's ,appeal from the ,twenty ,eight ,judges to the ,spirit of ,truth and true ,judgement in all faithful ,friends called ,quakers4 ,in consequence of this persecution ,bradford left ,philadelphia the next year and set up his press at ,new ,york4 ,reinier ,jansen and ,jacob ,taylor are subsequently mentioned as printers at ,philadelphia1 and in #agab ,andrew ,bradford1 son of ,william1 came from ,new ,york and worked there until his death in #agdb4 ,from #agbc he had as a competitor ,samuel ,keimer1 and it was in ,keimer's office that ,benjamin ,franklin began printing in ,philadelphia4 ,his edition of a translation of ,cicero's ,cato ,major on ,old ,age1 by ,j4 ,logan of ,philadelphia1 is said to have been the first rendering of a classic published in ,america4 ,meanwhile1 ,william ,bradford had set up his press in ,new ,york in #afic1 and obtained the appointment of ,government ,printer4 ,his earliest productions there were a number of official ,acts and ,proclamations1 on which he placed the imprint1 ,printed and ,sold by ,william ,bradford1 ,printer to ,king ,william and ,queen ,mary1 at the ,city of ,new ,york4 ,in #agjj he was apparently employed to print an anonymous answer to ,increase ,mather's ,order of the ,gospel1 and a heated controversy arose as to whether the refusal of ,bartholomew ,green to print it at ,boston was due to excessive awe of the ,president of ,harvard or to a more praiseworthy objection to anonymous attacks4 ,bradford remained ,new ,york's only printer until #agbf1 when ,johann ,peter ,zenger set up a press which became notable for the boldness with which it attacked the provincial government4 ,such attacks were not regarded with much toleration1 nor indeed was the press even under official regulation greatly beloved by authority4 ,in #afga ,sir ,william ,berkeley1 ,governor of ,virginia1 in an official document remarked3 ,i thank ,god we have not free schools nor printing2 and ,i hope we shall not have these hundred years4 ,for learning has brought disobedience and heresy and sects into the world2 and printing has divulged them and libels against the government4 ,god keep us from both4 ,eleven years later 7#ba ,february1 #afhb7 there is an entry in the ,virginian records3 ,john ,buckner called before the ,ld ,culpeper and his council for printing the laws of #afhj1 without his excellency's license1 and he and the printer ordered to enter into bond in ,l#ajj not to print anything hereafter1 until his majesty's pleasure shall be known4 ,as a result there was no more printing in ,virginia till about #agbi1 nor are any other towns than those here mentioned known to have possessed presses during the seventeenth century1 the period within which ,american books may claim the dignity of incunabula4 ,,footnotes3 #ee ,mr4 ,duff is no doubt right in his suggestion that this is ,a very declaration of the bond and free wyll of man3 the obedyence of the gospell and what the gospell meaneth1 of which a copy1 with colophon1 ,printed at ,saint ,albans1 is in the ,spencer ,collection at the ,john ,rylands ,library4 ,this increases ,hertfort's total to eight4 #ef ,mr4 ,duff plausibly suggests that ,overton's name in the colophon was merely a device for surmounting the restrictions on the circulation in ,england of books printed abroad4 #eg ,those recorded by ,mr4 ,e4 ,g4 ,duff in his ,sandars ,lectures on ,the ,english ,provincial ,printers1 ,stationers1 and ,bookbinders to #aeeg1 by my reckoning number #aad4 #eh ,this reckoning was made in #ahif1 but the proportion has not been substantially altered4 #ei ,the colophon to the ,chronicles which commemorates ,leeu has already been quoted 7p4 #ha74 #fj ,before the incorporation of the ,company brought ,english printing more easily under supervision1 at least a few books had been issued by ,english printers with spurious foreign imprints1 of which the most impudent was ,at ,rome under the ,castle of ,st4 ,angelo4 #fa ,robert ,barker himself was imprisoned for debt in the ,king's ,bench at ,london in #afce1 and died there in #afdf4 ,what is here written applies to his deputy1 who may have been his son of the same name4 #fb ,the assertion by ,mr4 ,charles ,evans 7,american ,bibliography1 p4 #c7 that one of these1 the ,crowninshield copy1 was privately sold by ,henry ,stevens to the ,british ,museum for ,l#aeg #ajs41 despite its apparent precision1 is an exasperating error4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,english ,,woodcut ,,illustrations ,illustration3 ,,xxix4 ,,westminster1 ,,caxton1 ,c4 #adhh ,,bonaventura4 ,,meditationes4 7,,part ,,of ,,sig4 ,k #e ,,recto7 ,,christ ,,raising ,,the ,,daughter ,,of ,,jairus ,a few illuminated manuscripts of ,english workmanship and a few with illustrations in outline have come down to us from the fifteenth century1 but amid the weary wars with ,france and the still wearier struggles of ,yorkists and ,lancastrians1 the artistic spirit which had been so prominent in ,england in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries seems to have died out altogether4 ,until the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth1 or perhaps we should rather say until the advent of ,john ,day1 few ,english books were illustrated1 and of these few quite a large proportion borrowed or copied their pictures from foreign originals4 ,nevertheless1 ,english illustrated books are rightly sought after by ,english collectors1 and though we may wish that they were better1 we must give the best account of them we can4 ,as we shall see in a later chapter1 there is some probability that an engraving on copper was specially prepared for the first book printed by ,caxton1 ,the ,recuyell of the ,histories of ,troye4 ,for the present1 however1 we must concern ourselves only with illustrations on wood1 or on soft metal cut in relief after the manner of wood1 a difference of more interest to the technical student than to book-lovers4 ,the first ,english books thus illustrated appear in or about #adha1 the year in which ,jean ,du ,pre began the use of cuts in ,paris4 ,england was thus fairly well to the front in point of time2 it is the quality which is to seek4 ,the first of these illustrated books was probably an undated edition of the ,mirrour of the ,world1 a translation of a ,french version of a ,latin ,speculum or ,imago mundi4 ,besides some woodcut diagrams copied from drawings found in the ,french manuscripts1 this has ten little cuts1 seven of the masters of the seven liberal arts1 one of the author1 and two of the ,creation4 ,two of the cuts illustrating the arts were used again almost at once in ,caxton's third edition of the ,parvus et ,magnus ,cato1 a book of moral instruction for children in a series of ,latin distichs4 ,in #adha also ,caxton ornamented the second edition of the didactic treatise1 ,the ,game and ,play of the ,chess 7from the ,latin of ,jacobus de ,cessolis71 with sixteen woodcuts1 representing the characters after which the different pieces and pawns were called4 ,the pictures are clumsy and coarsely cut1 comparing miserably with the charming little woodcuts in the ,italian edition printed at ,florence1 but they illustrate the book1 and may conceivably have increased its sales4 ,in any case1 ,caxton seems1 in a leisurely way1 to have set about producing some more1 since by or about #adhd appeared three of his most important illustrated books1 the ,golden ,legend1 the second edition of ,chaucer's ,canterbury ,tales1 and an ,aesop4 ,the ,golden ,legend is ornamented with eighteen large and thirty-two smaller woodcuts2 the ,aesop with a full-page frontispiece and one hundred and five smaller cuts2 the ,canterbury ,tales with a large cut of the ,pilgrims seated at a round table1 and with some twenty smaller pictures of the different story-tellers on their horses1 some of these being used more than once4 ,for the ,aesop1 like many other foreign publishers1 ,caxton sent his illustrators to the designs made for the ,zainers at ,augsburg and ,ulm1 and quickly imitated all over ,germany1 and the copies he obtained are merely servile and so clumsy as occasionally to attain to unintended humour4 ,foreign influence is also evident in some at least of the cuts in the ,golden ,legend2 on the other hand1 we may be sure that the device of the ,earl of ,arundel on leaf #c verso1 a horse galloping past a tree1 must have been made in ,england4 ,original1 too1 of necessity1 were the illustrations to the ,canterbury ,tales1 for which no foreign models could have been found4 ,but the succession of pilgrims1 each decked with a huge string of praying-beads and mounted on a most ungainly horse1 is grotesque in its cumulation of clumsiness1 though when we find that the miller really has got a kind of bagpipe1 we recognize that the illustrator had at least read his text4 ,apparently ,caxton himself realized that these ,english-made woodcuts were a failure1 for the only two important illustrated books which he issued after this1 the ,speculum ,vitae ,christi1 printed about #adhh 7see ,plate ,,xxix71 and the ,fifteen ,oes of a year or two later1 both seem to be decorated with cuts of ,flemish origin4 ,the ,fifteen ,oes 7a collection of fifteen prayers1 each beginning with ,o71 though ,i have called it important1 is so mainly as proving that ,caxton must have printed a ,horae of the same measurements 7of which it may1 indeed1 have formed a part71 illustrated with a set of very spirited woodcuts1 undoubtedly imported from ,flanders and subsequently found in the possession of ,wynkyn de ,worde4 ,that the cuts in the ,speculum ,vitae ,christi are also ,flemish is a degree less certain1 but only a degree4 ,some of these were used again in the ,royal ,book1 the ,doctrinal of ,sapience1 and the ,book of ,divers ,ghostly ,matters4 ,but the seven books which we have named are the only ones for which ,caxton troubled to procure sets of cuts1 and of these seven sets1 as we have seen1 one was certainly and another probably imported1 one certainly and another probably copied1 and only three are of ,english origin1 and these the rudest and clumsiest4 ,while our chief native printer made this poor record his contemporaries did no better4 ,lettou and ,machlinia used no woodcuts which have come down to us save a small border1 which passed into the possession of ,pynson2 for use at ,oxford two sets of cuts were imported from the ,low ,countries1 one which ,mr4 ,gordon ,duff thinks was originally designed for a ,legenda ,aurea1 the other clearly meant for a ,horae4 ,these were used together in the ,oxford edition of ,mirk's ,liber ,festivalis1 and the cut of the author of the ,legenda ,aurea 7,jacobus de ,voragine7 is used for ,lyndewood in an edition of his ,constitutions4 ,at ,st4 ,albans some poor little cuts were used in the ,chronicles of ,england1 but from the point of view of illustration the anonymous schoolmaster-printer is chiefly memorable for having printed some cuts of coat-armour in the ,book of ,st4 ,albans 7,the ,boke of ,haukyng1 ,huntyng and also of ,cote-armuris7 in colours4 ,wynkyn de ,worde inherited ,caxton's stock of woodcuts1 and early in his career used some of them again in reprints of the ,golden ,legend and ,speculum ,vitae ,christi1 and in his larger ,horae used the full set of cuts which1 while in ,caxton's hands1 is only known from those which appear in the ,fifteen ,oes4 ,about #adib he purchased some ornamental capitals 7,caxton had only used a single rather graceful rustic ,a7 and one or more cuts from ,govaert van ,os of ,gouda4 ,in his #adid edition of ,walter ,hylton's ,scala ,perfectionis 7the first book in which he put his name7 he used a woodblock consisting of a picture of ,christ suckled by ,his mother with a long woodcut inscription1 part of which reads ,sit dulce nomen domini nostri ihesu christi et nomen genitricis virginis marie benedictum1 the whole surrounded by a graceful floral border4 ,in #adie came ,higden's ,polychronicon with a few woodcut musical notes1 the hystorye of the deuoute and right renommed lyues of holy faders lyuynge in deserte 7usually quoted as the ,vitas ,patrum71 with one large cut used six times and forty small ones used as #aee1 and about the same time a handsome edition of ,bartholomaeus ,anglicus's ,de proprietatibus rerum1 with large cuts 7two-thirds of the folio page7 prefixed to each of the twenty-two books1 apparently copied partly from those in a ,dutch edition printed at ,haarlem in #adhe1 partly from the illustrations 7themselves not original7 in a ,french edition printed at ,lyon1 of which ,caxton1 who finished the translation on his death-bed1 had made use4 ,in #adif1 in reprinting the ,book of ,st4 ,albans ,de ,worde added a treatise on ,fishing with an angle1 to which he prefixed a cut of a happy angler hauling up a fish which will soon be placed in a well-filled tub which stands beside him on the bank4 ,this is quite good primitive work and was sufficiently appreciated to be used for numerous later editions1 but soon after this ,de ,worde employed a cutter who served him very badly1 mangling cruelly a set of rather ambitious designs for the ,morte d',arthur of #adih 7several of them used again in the ,recuyell of #aejc71 and also some single cuts used in different books4 ,for the next half-dozen years ,de ,worde relied almost exclusively on old cuts1 but at last found a competent craftsman who enabled him to bring out in ,january1 #aeje-f1 an ,english version of the ,art de bien vivre et de bien mourir with quite neat reductions of the pictures in ,verard's edition of #adib4 ,it was1 no doubt1 the same workman who copied in #aejf the ,verard-,pigouchet cuts in ,pierre ,gringore's ,chasteau de ,labeur as translated by ,alexander ,barclay1 but from the frequent omission of backgrounds it is obvious that in these he was hurried1 and they are by no means so good as those in the #aeje edition by ,pynson with which ,de ,worde was enviously hastening to compete4 ,the ,calendar of ,shepherds was another translation from the ,french1 illustrated with copies of ,french cuts1 while in the prose ,ship of ,fools1 translated by ,henry ,watson from a ,french version of the ,german ,narrenschiff of ,sebastian ,brant1 ,basel originals were reproduced probably from intermediate copies4 ,but when in #aeji ,henry ,,vii died1 ,de ,worde for once seems to have let his craftsman do a bit of original work for a title-cut to a funeral sermon by ,bishop ,fisher4 ,in this 7see ,plate ,,xxx7 the bishop is shown preaching in a wooden pulpit1 immediately below which is the hearse covered by a gorgeous pall on which lies an effigy of the dead king1 while beyond the hearse stands a crowd of courtiers4 ,it is evident that perspective was not the artist's strong point1 as the pavement seems climbing up the wall and the shape of the hearse is quite indeterminate1 but the general effect of the cut is neat and pleasing4 ,that it is an ,english cut is certain4 ,a few months later ,bishop ,fisher preached another funeral sermon1 over ,henry ,,vii's aged mother1 ,margaret ,duchess of ,richmond1 and when ,de ,worde economically wished to use the same woodcut on the titlepage of his edition of this1 there was a craftsman on the spot able to cut out the royal hearse from the block and plug in a representation of an ordinary one1 and the similarity of touch shows that this was done by the original cutter4 ,illustration3 ,,xxx4 ,,london1 ,,wynkyn de ,,worde1 #aeji ,,bishop ,,fisher4 ,,funeral ,,sermon ,,on ,,henry ,,vii4 7,,title7 ,as we have already noted in ,chapter ,,xii1 ,wynkyn de ,worde was singularly unenterprising as a publisher1 and although he lived for nearly a quarter of a century after the accession of ,henry ,,viii1 during all this time he printed no new book which required copious illustration4 ,on the other hand1 he was a man of fixed habits1 and one of these habits came to be the decoration of the titlepage of nearly every small quarto he issued with a woodcut of some kind or other1 the title itself being sometimes printed on a riband above it4 ,when a new picture was absolutely necessary for this purpose it was forthcoming and generally fairly well cut1 but a few stock woodcuts1 a schoolmaster holding a birch for grammatical books1 a knight on horseback for a romance1 etc41 were used again and again1 and often the block was picked out 7we are tempted to say at random1 but that would be an exaggeration7 from one of the sets already described1 which ,de ,worde had commissioned in more lavish days4 ,one of ,richard ,pynson's earliest books was an edition of ,chaucer's ,canterbury ,tales with about a score of woodcuts of the pilgrims obviously influenced by those in ,caxton's second edition1 but in no way an improvement on them4 ,it is true that not only is the miller again allowed his bagpipe1 but a little mill is placed in the corner of the cut to identify him beyond doubt4 ,on the other hand1 the knight's horse is bedecked with the cumbrous skirts used in the tilt-yard1 but which would have become sadly draggled ere much progress had been made along the miry road to ,canterbury4 ,the clerk1 moreover1 is made to carry a bow as if1 instead of having his mind set on ,aristotle1 he were of the lusty sort that loved to get venison where they should not4 ,round most of the cuts there is a heavy edge of black1 as if from an untrimmed block1 which does not improve their appearance4 ,altogether they are poor work1 and it was doubtless his recognition of this that caused ,pynson in future to rely so largely on the purchase or imitation of foreign blocks4 ,for his edition of ,lydgate's ,falles of ,princes1 a verse rendering of ,boccaccio's ,de casibus illustrium virorum1 issued in #adid1 he procured the woodcuts made for the fine ,french edition 7,de la ruine des nobles hommes71 printed at ,paris by ,jean ,du ,pre in #adhc4 ,before #aejj he brought out an ,aesop1 copying as usual the ,german cuts4 ,in #aeje he printed ,alexander ,barclay's version of ,pierre ,gringore's ,chasteau du ,labeur with cuts closely and fairly skilfully copied from those in the ,pigouchet-,verard editions4 ,in #aejf he went further and procured from ,verard the blocks for a new edition of the ,kalendar of ,shepherds1 which1 however1 he caused to be retranslated1 with sundry remarks on the extraordinary ,english of the version published by ,verard4 ,in #aeji he produced in a fine folio ,barclay's free rendering of ,brant's ,narrenschiff1 illustrating this ,english ,ship of ,fools with #aag cuts copied from the originals4 ,in #aeah he procured from ,froben some border-pieces for small quartos1 one showing in the footpiece a boy carried on the shoulders of his fellows1 another an elephant1 a third ,mutius ,scaevola and ,porsenna4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxi4 ,,london1 ,,pynson1 ,c4 #aebj ,,barclay',s ,,version ,,of ,,sallust',s ,,jugurtha4 ,,the ,,translator ,,and ,,the ,,duke ,,of ,,norfolk4 7,,reduced7 ,if ,pynson had dealt largely in illustrated books the borrowings and copyings here recited might seem insignificant4 ,he published1 however1 very little ,english work which can be set against them1 and even of the cuts which pass for ,english the native origin is not always sure4 ,i should be sorry to pledge myself1 for instance1 as to the provenance of some neat but rather characterless column-cuts in his edition of the ,speculum ,vitae ,christi 7fifteenth century74 ,the title-cut to the ,traduction and ,mariage of the ,princesse 7,katherine71 printed in #aeja1 is almost certainly ,english in its heaviness and lack of charm1 but despite the fact that they must have been produced in ,london we can hardly say as much of the two far prettier pictures which adorn the ,carmen of ,petrus ,carmelianus on the treaty of marriage between the future ,charles ,v and the ,princess ,mary 7#aejh74 ,in the first of these the ambassadors are being received by ,henry ,,vii1 in the second by the ,princess who is attended by her maids1 and the latter is perhaps the first ,english book-illustration with any touch of grace4 ,unluckily there is a half ,spanish1 half ,low-,country look about it1 which suggests that some member of the ambassadors' suite with an artistic turn may at least have supplied the design1 so that one hesitates to claim it too vigorously as ,english work4 ,we may be more confident about the one good cut 7the rest are a scratch lot7 in the #aeac edition of ,lydgate's ,the hystory sege and dystruccion of ,troy4 ,in this ,henry ,v is shown seated in a large room1 with his suite1 while ,lydgate in his black habit as a ,benedictine presents him with his book4 ,there is a general resemblance between this and another good piece of work1 the picture in ,alexander ,barclay's translation of ,sallust's ,jugurtha 7undated7 of this other black monk offering his book to the ,duke of ,norfolk 7see ,plate ,,xxxi74 ,probably both were from the same hand4 ,it may be noted that the cut of ,barclay was used again in the ,myrrour of good maners conteyning the iiii4 vertues called cardynall compyled in latin by ,domynicke ,mancyn1 of which he was the industrious translator4 ,in ,pynson's #aeaf edition of ,fabyan's ,chronicle1 besides some insignificant column-cuts of kings and some decorative heraldic work1 there is an excellent picture of a disembarkation4 ,in other books we find cuts of a schoolmaster with his pupils1 of an author1 of a woman saint 7,s4 ,bridget1 though used also for ,s4 ,werburga71 etc4 ,towards the end of his career in the collection of ,chaucer's works 7#aebf7 and reprint of ,lydgate's ,falles of ,princes 7#aebg71 ,pynson drew on his stock of miscellaneous blocks rather than allow works with which illustrations had become associated to go forth undecorated4#fc ,but with his purchase of the border-pieces from ,froben in #aeah1 it would seem that he more or less definitely turned his back on pictorial illustration4 ,mr4 ,gordon ,duff has shown that a change comes over the character of his books about this time1 and has suggested that during the latter years of his life his business was to some extent in the hands of ,thomas ,berthelet1 who succeeded him as ,king's ,printer4 ,berthelet himself in the course of his long and prosperous career eschewed illustrations altogether1 while he took some trouble to get good capitals and had a few ornamental borders4 ,it is thus hardly too much to say that from #aeah for some forty years1 until in #aeei ,john ,day published ,cunningham's ,cosmographicall ,glasse1 book-illustration in ,england can only be found lurking here and there in holes and corners4 ,in #aebf ,peter ,treveris issued the ,grete ,herbal with numerous botanical figures2 in #aebi ,john ,rastell printed his own ,pastime of ,people with huge1 semi-grotesque cuts of ,english kings2 a few of ,robert ,copland's books and a few of ,robert ,wyer's have rough cuts of no importance4 ,but when we think of ,pynson's edition of ,lord ,berners' ,froissart1 of ,berthelet's of ,gower's ,confessio ,amantis1 of ,godfray's ,chaucer1 and of ,grafton's edition of ,halle's ,chronicle1 all illustratable books and all unillustrated1 it is evident that educated book-buyers1 wearied of rudely hacked blocks1 often with no relevance to the book in which they were found1 had told the printers that they might save the space occupied by these decorations1 and that the reign of the primitive woodcut in ,english books1 if it can be said ever to have reigned1 was at an end4 ,this emphatic discouragement of book-illustrations during so many years in the sixteenth century was perhaps the best thing that could have happened--next to an equally emphatic encouragement of them4 ,there can have been no reason in the nature of things why ,english book-illustrations should continue over a long period of time to be third-rate4 ,a little help and a little guidance would probably have sufficed to reform them altogether4 ,nevertheless it can hardly be disputed that as a matter of fact they were1 with very few exceptions1 third-rate1 the superiority of ,pynson's to ,wynkyn de ,worde's being somewhat less striking than is usually asserted4 ,in the absence of the needed help and guidance it was better to make a sober dignity the ideal of book-production than to continue to deface decently printed books by the use of job lots of column cuts4 ,the borders and other ornaments used by ,berthelet1 ,reyner ,wolfe1 and ,grafton1 the three principal firms of this period1 are at least moderately good4 ,all three printers indulged in the pleasing heresy of pictorial or heraldic capitals1 ,wolfe in the ,homiliae duae of ,s4 ,chrysostom 7#aedc71 ,grafton in ,halle's ,chronicle entitled ,the ,union of the ,families of ,lancaster and ,york 7#aedh71 and ,berthelet in some of his later proclamations4 ,as regards their devices1 ,grafton's punning emblem 7a tree grafted on a tun71 though in its smallest size it may pass well enough1 was not worthy of the prominence which he sometimes gave it2 but ,wolfe's ,charitas mark1 of children throwing sticks at an apple tree1 is perhaps the most pleasing of ,english devices1 while ,berthelet's ,lucrece1 despite the fact that her draperies have yielded to the ,renaissance temptation of fluttering in the wind rather more than a ,roman lady would have thought becoming at the moment of death1 is of its kind a fine piece of work4 ,as for pictures1 from which ,berthelet1 as far as ,i remember1 was consistent in his abstinence--,wolfe and ,grafton were wisely content to make an exception in favour of ,holbein1 a little medallion cut after his portrait of ,sir ,thomas ,wyatt adorning ,wolfe's edition of ,leland's ,naeniae 7#aedb71 and ,grafton owing to him the magnificent titlepage to the ,great ,bibles in which ,cranmer and ,cromwell1 with a host of other worthies1 are seen distributing ,bibles under the superintendence of ,henry ,,viii4 ,after the fall of ,cromwell his armorial bearings were cut out of the block1 a piece of petty brutality on a level with that which compelled owners of ,prayer ,books and ,golden ,legends to deface them by scratching out the word pope and as much as they could of the service for the day of that certainly rather questionable saint1 ,thomas a ,becket4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxii4 ,,london1 ,t4 ,,powell1 #aeef ,,heywood4 ,,the ,,spider ,,and ,,the ,,fly4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,heywood ,in #aedh we come across a definitely illustrated book1 ,cranmer's ,catechism1 published by ,walter ,lynne1 with a delicately cut titlepage#fd showing figures of ,justice1 ,prudence1 and ,victory1 and also the royal arms1 and in the text numerous small ,biblical pictures1 two of which are signed ,hans ,holbein1 while others have been rashly attributed to ,bernard ,salomon4 ,in #aeef we find ,heywood's ,spider and the ,fly illustrated not only with various woodcuts of spiders' webs1 but with a portrait of the author stiff and ungainly enough in all conscience1 but carrying with it an impression of lank veracity 7see ,plate ,,xxxii74 ,about this time1 moreover1 ,william ,copland was issuing folio and quarto editions of some of the poems and romances which had pleased the readers of the first quarter of the century1 and some of these had the old cuts in them4 ,it is evident that illustrations would have come back in any case--book-buyers can never abstain from them for long together4 ,but it is only fair to connect this return with the name of ,john ,day1 who made a strenuous effort1 which only just failed of success1 to bring up book-illustration to the high level at which he was aiming in printing4 ,day had issued a few books during the reign of ,edward ,,vi1 notably a ,bible with an excellent pictorial capital showing the promoter of the edition1 ,edmund ,becke1 presenting a copy of it to the ,king4 ,as a staunch ,protestant he had been in some danger under ,queen ,mary1 but with the accession of ,elizabeth he came quickly to the front1 thanks to the help of ,archbishop ,parker1 and the edition of ,the ,cosmographicall ,glasse of ,william ,cunningham1 which he issued in #aeei1 is thus1 as we have already suggested1 a real landmark in ,english book-production4 ,in addition to its fine types1 this book is notable for its woodcut diagrams and pictorial capitals1 ornamental titlepage1 large map of ,norwich and1 most important of all1 a strong and vigorous portrait of the author1 his right hand on a globe1 a ,dioscorides with a diagram of a rose lying open before him1 and a wooded landscape being seen in the distance4 ,the whole is enclosed in an oval frame1 round which runs a ,greek motto cut in majuscules1 ,greek3 ,e ,,megale ,,eudaimonie ,,oudeni ,,phthonein 7the great happiness is to envy no man71 with the author's age1 ,,aetatis #bh at the foot4 ,the portrait measures about #f inches by #d7a_/b71 and occupies the whole folio page4 ,it is only too probable that it was the work not of a native ,englishman1 but of some ,dutch refugee1 but here at last in an ,english book was a piece of living portraiture adequately cut on wood1 and with better luck it should have been the first of a long series4 ,john ,day himself did his best to promote a fashion by prefixing a small portrait of ,becon to that author's ,pomander of ,prayer1 #aefa1 and having a much larger one of himself cut the next year1 ,,aetatis ,,svae ,,xxxx1 as the inscription tells us1 adding also his motto1 ,,liefe ,,is ,,deathe ,,and ,,death ,,is ,,liefe1 the spelling in which suggests a ,dutch artist1 though ,dutch spelling about this time was so rampant in ,england that we may hope against hope that this was ,english work4 ,the oval portrait is surrounded with strap-work ornament1 another fashion of the day1 and at the foot of this are the initials ,i4 ,d4 ,on one interpretation these would lead us to believe not only that the work is ,english1 but that ,day himself was the cutter4 ,but bindings from his shop are sometimes signed ,i4 ,d4 ,p4 7,ioannes ,day pegit71 and we must hesitate before attributing to him personal skill not only in printing1 but in binding and wood-cutting as well4 ,the portrait itself is taken side-face and shows a cropped head1 keen eye1 and long beard1 the neck being entirely concealed by a high coat-collar within which is a ruff4 ,the ground to the front of the face is all in deep shadow1 that at the back of the head is left white1 a simple contrast which perhaps makes the general effect more brilliant4 ,day used this portrait as a device in some of his largest folio books--for instance1 his three-volume edition of ,becon's works 7#aefj-d7 and ,foxe's ,book of ,martyrs 7#aefc74 ,the full title of the ,book of ,martyrs1 which we have now reached1 is ,actes and ,monuments of these latter and perillous dayes1 touching matters of the ,church1 wherein ar comprehended and described the great persecutions and horrible troubles1 that have bene wrought and practised by the ,romishe ,prelates1 especially in this ,realm of ,england and ,scotlande1 from the yeare of our ,lorde a thousande unto the tyme nowe present4 ,it bears an elaborate titlepage showing ,protestants and ,catholics preaching1 ,protestants being burnt at the stake contrasted with ,catholics offering the sacrifice of the ,mass1 and finally the ,protestant martyrs uplifted in heaven1 while the ,catholic persecutors are packed off to hell4 ,the text is very unevenly illustrated1 but the total number of woodcuts even in the first edition 7#aefc7 is very considerable1 and as many new pictures were added in the second 7#aegj71 the book was certainly the most liberally illustrated with cuts specially made for it which had yet been produced in ,england4 ,one or two of the smaller cuts1 mostly the head of a martyr praying amid the flames1 are used several times2 of the larger cuts only a very few are repeated1 and1 considering the monotonous subject of the book1 it is obvious that some trouble must have been taken to secure variety in the illustrations4 ,a few of these occupy a whole page1 that illustrating the ,protestant legend of the poisoning of ,king ,john by a fanatic monk being divided into compartments1 while others showing some of the more important martyrdoms are ambitiously designed4 ,the drawing of some of the later pictures is coarse1 but on the whole the designs are good and with a good deal of character in them4 ,the cutting is careful and painstaking1 but hardly ever succeeds in making the picture stand out boldly on the page1 so that the general effect is grey and colourless4 ,as to the personality of the designers and cutters we know nothing4 ,day at one time was anxious to get leave to keep more than the permitted maximum of four foreigners in his employment1 but we have really no sufficient ground for arguing either for an ,english or a foreign origin for these illustrations4 ,a few years after this1 in #aefi1 when the new edition of the ,book of ,martyrs was in preparation1 ,day issued another illustrated book3 ,a christall glasse of christian reformation1 wherein the godly maye beholde the coloured abuses used in this our present tyme4 ,collected by ,stephen ,bateman1 better known as the ,batman uppon ,bartholomew1 i4e4 the editor by whom the ,de ,proprietatibus ,rerum of ,bartholomaeus ,anglicus was newly corrected1 enlarged1 and amended in #aehb4 ,the ,christall glasse of christian reformation is a dull book with dull illustrations1 which are of the nature of emblems1 made ugly by party spirit4 ,a more interesting book by the same author and issued in the same year was ,the travayled ,pylgrime1 bringing newes from all partes of the worlde1 to which ,bateman only put his initials and which was printed not by ,day1 but by ,denham4 ,this1 although ,i cannot find that the fact has been noted1 is largely indebted both for its scheme and its illustrations to the ,chevalier ,delibere of ,olivier de la ,marche1 though the woodcuts go back not to those of the ,gouda and ,schiedam incunabula1 but to the ,antwerp edition of #aeee1 in which these were translated into some of the most graceful of sixteenth century cuts4 ,needless to say1 much of the grace disappears in this new translation1 although the cutting is more effective than in the ,book of ,martyrs4 ,besides these two books by ,stephen ,bateman1 #aefi saw the issue of the first edition of one of ,john ,day's most famous ventures1 ,a ,booke of ,christian ,prayers1 collected out of the ancient writers and best learned in our time1 worthy to be read with an earnest mind of all ,christians1 in these dangerous and troublesome daies1 that ,god for ,christes sake will yet still be mercifull vnto us4 ,from the presence on the back of the titlepage of a very stiff portrait of the ,queen kneeling in prayer 7rather like a design for a monumental brass71 this is usually quoted as ,queen ,elizabeth's ,prayer ,book4 ,it was reprinted in #aegh 7perhaps also earlier71 #aeha1 and #aeij1 and the later editions1 the only ones ,i have seen1 ascribe the compilation to ,r4 ,d41 i4e4 ,richard ,day1 ,john ,day's clergyman son4 ,the book is in appearance a kind of ,protestant ,horae1 having borders to every page divided into compartments as in the ,paris editions1 showing scenes from the life of ,christ1 the cardinal virtues and their opposites1 the works of charity1 and a ,dance of ,death4 ,compared with the best1 or even the second best1 of the ,horae of ,pigouchet or ,kerver1 the book looks cold and colourless1 but the rarity of the early editions shows that it must have been very popular4 ,the only other book issued by ,day with borders to every page was the 7supposititious7 ,certaine select prayers gathered out of ,s4 ,augustines ,meditations1 which he calleth his selfe-talks with ,god1 which went through several editions1 of which the first is dated #aegd4 ,this is a much less pretentious book1 the borders being decorative instead of pictorial1 but it makes rather a pretty little octavo4 ,another #aefi book which has cuts is the edition of ,grafton's ,chronicle of that year1 printed by ,henry ,denham1 but as the cuts look like a job lot1 possibly of ,german origin1 and are only placed at the beginnings of sections in the short first book1 while all the history from #ajff onwards is left unillustrated1 this speaks rather of decadence than progress4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxiii4 ,,london1 ,c4 ,,barker1 #aege ,,turberville4 ,,booke ,,of ,,faulconrie4 ,,queen ,,elizabeth ,,hawking ,in #aeha1 towards the close of his career1 ,day was employed to print ,john ,derrick's ,image of ,ireland1 giving an account of ,sir ,henry ,sidney's campaign against the ,irish wood-karnes4 ,in some few copies this work is illustrated with eight very large woodcuts1 the most ambitious in some respects that had ever been attempted in ,england4 ,the first four are wretchedly cut2 the last four1 showing ,sir ,henry's battle with the rebels and his triumphal return1 are both well designed and well executed4 ,meanwhile1 other printers and publishers had produced a few more illustrated books in the 'seventies4 ,thus in #aege ,henry ,bynneman had printed ,turberville's ,booke of ,faulconrie for ,christopher ,barker4 ,the numerous excellent illustrations of hawks 7and probably those of dogs also7 are taken from ,french books1 but there is a fairly vigorous picture of ,queen ,elizabeth hawking attended by her suite1 badged1 back and front1 with large ,tudor roses1 and this 7see ,plate ,,xxxiii7 looks like ,english work4 ,in a much later edition--that of #afaa--;it is curious to note that the portrait of the ,queen was cut out and one of ,james ,i substituted4 ,in #aegf a rather forbidding woodcut portrait of ,george ,gascoigne was printed 7by ,r4 ,smith7 in that worthy's ,steele ,glas4 ,in #aegg came a very important work1 the famous ,chronicle1 begun on a vast scale by ,reyner ,wolfe and completed for ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland by ,raphael ,holinshed1 now published by ,john ,harrison the elder4 ,this has the appearance of being much more profusely illustrated than the ,book of ,martyrs or any other ,english folio1 but as the cuts of battles1 riots1 executions1 etc41 which form the staple illustrations1 are freely repeated1 the profusion is far less than it seems4 ,the cuts1 moreover1 are much smaller than those in ,foxe's ,martyrs4 ,as a rule they are vigorously designed and fairly well cut1 and if it had come fifty years earlier the book would have been full of promise4 ,but1 as far as pictorial cuts in important books are concerned1 we are nearing the end4 ,in #aegi ,h4 ,singleton published ,spenser's ,shepheardes ,calender with a small cut of no great merit at the head of each aeglogue1 and in the same year ,vautrollier illustrated ,north's ,plutarch with insignificant little busts which derive importance only from the large ornamental frames1 stretching across the folio page1 in which they are set4 ,woodcuts did not cease to be used after this date4 ,they will be found in herbals 7but these were mainly foreign blocks71 military works1 and all books for which diagrams were needed4 ,they continued fashionable for some time for the architectural or other forms of borders to titlepages1 some of them very graceful1 as1 for instance1 that to the early folio editions of ,sidney's ,arcadia2 also for the coats of arms of the great men to whom books were dedicated4 ,they are found also at haphazard in the sixpenny and fourpenny quartos of plays and romances1 and many of the old blocks gradually drifted into the hands of the printers of ballads and chapbooks1 and appear in incongruous surroundings after a century of service4 ,but ,i cannot myself call to mind any important ,english book after #aehj for which a publisher thought it worth his while to commission a new set of imaginative pictures cut on wood1 and that means that woodcut illustration as a vital force in the making of books had ceased to exist4 ,they needed good paper and careful presswork1 and all over ,europe paper and presswork were rapidly deteriorating4 ,they cost money1 and book-buyers apparently did not care enough for them to make them a good investment4 ,the rising popularity of copper engravings for book-illustration on the ,continent probably influenced the judgment of ,english book-lovers1 and although1 as we shall see1 copper engraving was for many years very sparingly used in ,england save for portraits1 frontispieces1 and titlepages1 woodcuts went clean out of fashion for some two centuries4 ,,footnotes3 #fc ,he had apparently returned the blocks borrowed from ,du ,pre for the ,falles of ,princes1 as none of them is used in #aebg1 although one or two are copied4 ,i have not met with all the ,chaucer illustrations1 and it is possible that a few of these are new4 #fd ,used again the same year in a treatise by ,richard ,bonner4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,engraved ,,illustrations ,the good bookman should have no love for plates1 and to do them justice bookmen have shown commendable fortitude in resisting their attractions1 great as these often are4 ,as a form of book-decoration the plate reached its highest development in the ,french livres-a-vignettes of the eighteenth century1 the charm of the best bookwork of ,moreau1 ,eisen1 and their fellows being incontestable4 ,it would1 indeed1 have argued some lack of patriotism if ,french book-lovers had not yielded themselves to the fascination of a method of book-illustration which had thus reached its perfection in their own country1 and they have done so4 ,but as he reads the enthusiastic descriptions of these eighteenth century books by ,m4 ,henri ,beraldi1 a foreign book-lover may well feel 7to borrow the phrase which ,jonson and ,herrick used of the over-dressed ladies of their day7 that the book itself has become its own least part4 ,a book which requires as an appendix an album of original designs1 or of proofs of the illustrations1 or 7worse still7 which has been mounted on larger paper and guarded so that these proofs or designs can be brought into connection with the text1 is on its way to that worst of all fates1 the ,avernus of extra illustration or ,graingerism4 ,when it has reached this1 it ceases to be a book at all and becomes a scrap-album of unharmonized pictures4 ,lack of means may make it easy for a bookman to resist the temptation to supplement the illustrations in a book with duplicates in proof or any like extravagances1 but even then few books which have plates in them fail to bring trouble4 ,if the plates are protected with flimsies1 the owner's conscience may be perturbed with doubts as to whether these may lawfully be torn out4 ,if there are no flimsies1 the leaf opposite a plate often shows a set-off from it and is sometimes specially badly foxed4 ,moreover1 not being an integral part of the book1 the plate presents problems to publishers and binders which are too often left unsolved4 ,it ought to be printed on paper sufficiently wide to allow of a flap or turn-over1 so that the leaf can be placed in the quire and properly sewn4 ,but the flap thus left is not pretty1 and unless very thin may cause the book to gape4 ,thus too often the plate is only glued or pasted into its place1 with the result that it easily comes loose4 ,hence misplacements1 imperfections1 and consequent woe4 ,it is the charm of the earlier books illustrated with incised engravings that the impressions are pulled on the same paper as the rest of the book1 very often on pages bearing letterpress1 and almost always1 even when they chance to occupy a whole page1 the back of which is left blank1 as part of the quire or gathering4 ,the price1 however1 which had to be paid for these advantages was a heavy one1 the trouble not merely of double printing1 as in the case of a sheet printed in red and black1 but of double printing in two different kinds1 one being from a raised surface1 the other from an incised4 ,it is clear that this trouble was found very serious1 as both at ,rome and ,florence in ,italy1 at ,bruges in the ,low ,countries1 at ,wurzburg and ,eichstatt in ,germany1 and at ,lyon in ,france1 the experiment was tried independently and in every case abandoned after one or two books had been thus ornamented4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxiv4 ,,florence1 ,,nicolus ,,laurentii1 #adgg ,,bettini4 ,,monte ,,santo ,,di ,,dio4 ,,christ ,,in ,,glory4 7,,reduced7 ,at ,rome1 after the failure of his printing partnership with ,pannartz1 ,conrad ,sweynheym betook himself to engraving maps to illustrate an edition of ,ptolemy's ,cosmographia1 and this was brought out after his death by ,arnold ,buckinck1 #aj ,october1 #adgh4 ,thirteen months earlier ,nicolaus ,laurentii1 of ,breslau1 had published at ,florence the ,monte ,santo di ,dio of ,antonio ,bettini1 with two full-page engravings and one smaller one4 ,the first of these shows the ladder of ,prayer and the ,sacraments up which1 by the virtues which form its successive rungs1 a cassocked youth is preparing to climb to heaven1 where ,christ stands in a mandorla supported by angels4 ,the second plate is given up entirely to a representation of ,christ in a mandorla1 both drawing and engraving being excellent1 and the little angels who are lovingly upholding the frame being really delightful 7see ,plate ,,xxxiv74 ,the third picture1 printed on a page with text1 is smaller than these and represents the pains of hell4 ,when a second edition of the ,monte ,santo di ,dio was needed in #adia the copperplates were replaced by woodcuts1 a fact which may remind us that not only the trouble of printing1 but the small number of impressions which could be taken from copperplates1 must have been a formidable objection to their use in bookwork4 ,but at the time the first edition may well have been regarded as a success4 ,if so1 it was an unlucky one1 as ,nicolaus ,laurentii was thereby encouraged to undertake a much more ambitious venture1 an annotated ,divina ,commedia with similar illustrations1 and this1 which appeared in #adha1 can only be looked on as a failure4 ,no space was left at the head of the first canto1 and the engraving was printed on the lower margin1 where it is often found cruelly cropped4 ,in subsequent cantos spaces were sometimes left1 sometimes not1 but after the second the engravings are generally founded printed on separate slips and pasted into their places1 and in no copy do they extend beyond canto xix4 ,they used to be assigned to ,botticelli1 but the discovery of his real designs to the ,divina ,commedia has shown that these of #adha were only slightly influenced by them4 ,in ,germany the only copper engravings found in fifteenth century books are the coats of arms of the ,bishops and ,chapters of ,wurzburg and ,eichstatt in the books printed for them at these places by ,georg and ,michel ,reyser respectively4 ,in order more easily to persuade the clergy of these dioceses to buy properly revised service-books to replace their tattered and incorrect manuscript copies1 the ,bishops attached certain indulgences to their purchase1 and as a proof that the recital of these was not a mere advertising trick of the printer permitted him to print their arms at the foot of the notice4 ,these arms1 most charmingly and delicately engraved1 are found in the ,wurzburg ,missals of #adha 7this ,i have not seen7 and #adhd1 and the ,agenda of #adhb 7see ,plate ,,xxxv71 and no doubt also in other early service-books printed by ,georg ,reyser4 ,the ,eichstatt books of his kinsmen ,michel are similarly adorned--for instance1 the ,statuta ,synodalia ,eystettensia of #adhd1 though neither the design nor the engraving is so good4 ,in how many editions by the ,reysers these engraved arms appeared ,i cannot say1 as the books are all of great rarity2 but by #adie1 if not earlier1 they had been abandoned1 for in the ,wurzburg ,missale ,speciale of that year we find the delicate engraving replaced by a woodcut copy of nearly four times the size and less than a fourth of the charm4 ,the only ,french book of the fifteenth century known to me as possessing copper engravings is a very beautiful one1 the version of ,breidenbach's ,peregrinatio ad ,terram ,sanctam1 by ,frere ,nicole le ,huen1 printed at ,lyon by ,michel ,topie and ,jacob ,heremberck in #adhh1 and adorned with numerous excellent capitals4 ,in this all the cuts in the text of the ,mainz editions are fairly well copied on wood1 but the large folding plans of ,venice and other cities on the pilgrims' route are admirably reproduced on copper with a great increase in the delicacy of their lines4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxv4 ,,wurzburg1 ,g4 ,,reyser1 #adhb ,,wurzburg ,,agenda4 7,,end ,,of ,,preface7 ,we come now to a book bearing an earlier date than any of those already mentioned1 but not entitled to its full pride of place because it is doubtful to what extent the engravings connected with it can be reckoned an integral part of it4 ,this is the ,french version of ,boccaccio's ,de casibus illustrium virorum 7,des cas des nobles hommes71 printed at ,bruges by ,colard ,mansion and dated #adgf4 ,as originally printed there was no space left for any pictorial embellishments2 but in at least two copies the first leaf of the prologue has been reprinted so as to leave room for a picture2 in another copy1 which in #ahgh belonged to ,lord ,lothian1 spaces are left also at the beginning of each of the nine books into which the work is divided1 except the first and sixth1 and all the spaces have been filled with copper engravings coloured by hand2 in yet another copy there is a space left also at the beginning of ,book ,,vi4 ,according to the monograph on the subject by ,david ,laing 7privately printed in #ahgh71 the subjects of the engravings are3-- 7#a7 ,prologue1 the ,author presenting his work to his patron1 ,mainardo ,cavalcanti4 7#b7 ,book ,i4 ,adam and ,eve standing before the ,author as he writes4 7#c7 ,book ,,ii4 ,king ,saul on horseback1 and lying dead4 7#d7 ,book ,,iii4 ,fortune and ,poverty4 7#e7 ,book ,,iv4 ,marcus ,manlius thrown into the ,tiber4 7#f7 ,book ,v4 ,the ,death of ,regulus4 7#g7 ,book ,,vi4 ,not known4 7#h7 ,book ,,vii4 ,a combat of six men4 7#i7 ,book ,,viii4 ,the humiliation of the ,emperor ,valerian by ,king ,sapor of ,persia4 7#aj7 ,book ,,ix4 ,brunhilde1 ,queen of the ,franks1 torn asunder by four horses4 ,from the reproductions which ,laing gives in his monograph it is evident that the engraver set himself to imitate the style of the contemporary illuminated manuscripts of the ,bruges school1 and that he used his graver rather to get the designs on to the paper than with any real feeling for the characteristic charm of his own art4 ,my own inclination is to believe that we must look on these plates as a venture of ,colard ,mansion's rather in his old capacity as an illuminator1 anxious to decorate a few special copies1 than as a printer intent on embellishing a whole edition4 ,the engravings may have been made at any time between #adgf and #adhc1 when they were clearly used as models by ,jean ,du ,pre for his ,paris edition1 the wood-blocks for which1 as we have seen1 were subsequently sold or lent to ,pynson4 ,the variations in the number of spaces in different copies may quite as well be due to a mixing of quires as to successive enlargements of the plan1 and the fact that more copies of the engravings have survived apart from than with the book draws attention once more to the difficulty found in printing these incised plates to accompany letterpress printed from type standing in relief4 ,there is still one more engraving connected with an early printed book to be considered1 and though the connection is not fully established1 the facts that the book in question was the first from ,caxton's press1 and that the engraving may possibly contain his portrait1 invite a full discussion of its claims4 ,the plate 7see ,frontispiece to ,chapter ,i1 ,plate ,,ii7 represents an author on one knee presenting a book to a lady who is attended by five maids-of-honour1 while as many pages may be seen standing in various page-like attitudes about the room4 ,a canopy above a chair of state bears the initials ,,cm and the motto ,bien en aveingne1 and it is thus clear that the lady represents ,margaret ,duchess of ,burgundy1 and that the offering of a book which it depicts must have taken place after her marriage with ,charles the ,bold1 #c ,july1 #adfh1 and before the latter's death at ,nancy1 #e ,january1 #adgg4 ,during the greater part of this time ,caxton was in the service of the ,duchess2 the donor of the book is represented as a layman1 and a layman not of noble birth1 since there is no feather in his cap2 he appears also to be approaching middle-age4 ,all these points would be correct if the donor were intended for ,caxton1 and as we know from his own statement that before his ,recuyell of the histories of ,troy was printed he had presented a copy of it 7in manuscript7 to the ,duchess1 probably in or soon after #adga1 until some more plausible original is proposed the identification of the donor with our first printer must remain at least probable4 ,unfortunately1 although the unique copy of the engraving is at present in the ,duke of ,devonshire's copy of the ,recuyell1 it is certain that it is an insertion1 not an original part of the book1 and beyond a high probability that it has occupied its present position since the book was bound for the ,duke of ,roxburghe some time before his sale in #ahab1 nothing is known as to how it came there4 ,a really amazing point is that although the connection of this particular copy with ,elizabeth1 queen of ,edward ,,iv1 caused it to be shown at the ,caxton ,exhibition1 until the appearance of ,mr4 ,montagu ,peartree's article in the ,burlington ,magazine for ,august1 #aije1 no notice had ever been paid to the engraving4 ,analogy with the ,boccaccio suggests that ,caxton had the plate made before he realized the difficulties of impression1 and that some prints were separately struck from it and one of these pasted inside the binding of the ,devonshire copy1 whence it was removed to its present position when the book was rebound4 ,it should be noted that the style of the engraving is quite unlike that of the ,boccaccio prints1 and suggests that ,caxton procured it from a ,dutch rather than a ,bruges engraver1 possibly with the aid of ,veldener1 from whom1 or with whose help1 according to ,mr4 ,duff's suggestion1 he procured his first type4 ,for over a quarter of a century after the engraving of the plans in the ,lyon ,breidenbach printers seem to have held aloof altogether from copperplates4 ,in #aead we find four engraved plans1 of only slight artistic interest1 printed as plates in a topographical work on ,nola by ,ambrogius ,leo1 the printer being ,joannes ,rubeus 7,giovanni ,rossi7 of ,venice4 ,three years later1 in #aeag1 a really charming print is found 7set rather askew in the ,museum copy7 on the titlepage of a thin quarto printed at ,rome1 for my knowledge of which ,i am indebted to my friend1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,m4 ,hind4 ,the book is a ,dialogus1 composed by the ,right ,reverend ,amadeus ,berrutus1 ,governor of the ,city of ,rome1 on the weighty and still disputable question as to whether one should go on writing to a friend who makes no reply1#fe and the plate shows the four speakers1 ,amadeus himself1 ,austeritas1 ,amicitia1 and ,amor1 standing in a field or garden outside a building4 ,the figures1 especially that of ,austeritas1 are charmingly drawn 7see ,plate ,,xxxvi72 the tone of the little picture is delightful1 and it is enclosed in a leafy border1 which reproduces in the subtler grace of engraved work the effect of the little black and white frames which surround the ,florentine woodcuts of the fifteenth century4 ,with the ,dialogus of ,bishop ,berrutus copper engravings as book-illustrations came to an end1 as far as ,i know1 for a period of some forty years4 ,i make this statement thus blankly in the hope that it may provoke contradiction1 and at least some sporadic instances be adduced4 ,but ,i have hunted through descriptions of all the books most likely to be illustrated--,bibles1 ,horae1 editions of ,petrarch's ,trionfi and ,ariosto's ,orlando ,furioso and books of emblems1 and outside ,england 7the necessity of the exception is almost humorous7 ,i have lighted on nothing4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxvi4 ,,rome1 ,,gabriel ,,of ,,bologna1 #aeag ,,berrutus4 ,,dialogus4 7,,title7 ,we may1 perhaps1 trace the revival of engraved illustrations to the influence of ,hieronymus or ,jerome ,cock1 an ,antwerp engraver1 who in ,may1 #aeea1 issued a series of plates from the designs of ,f4 ,faber1 entitled ,praecipua aliquot ,romanae antiquitatis ruinarum monimenta1 without any letterpress save the name of the subject engraved on each plate4 ,cock followed this up in #aeef with twelve engravings from the designs of ,martin van ,veen illustrating the victories of ,charles ,v1 which are also celebrated in verses in ,french and ,spanish4 ,he issued also various other series of ,biblical and antiquarian plates1 which do not concern us1 and in #aeei a set of thirty-two illustrating the funeral of ,charles ,v4 ,for this1 aided by a subsidy1 ,christopher ,plantin acted as publisher1 and we thus get a connection established between engraving and printing4 ,this did not1 however1 bear fruit at all quickly4 ,plantin's four emblem-books of #aefb1 #aefd1 #aefe1 and #aeff were illustrated not with copper engravings1 but with woodcuts2 so was his ,bible of #aeff1 so were his earlier ,horae4 ,that of #aefe has unattractive woodcut borders to every page and small woodcut illustrations of no merit4 ,in #aegj he began the use of engravings for his ,horae1 but in a copy in the ,british ,museum1 printed on vellum almost as thick as cardboard1 he was reduced to pulling the pictures on paper and pasting them in their places4 ,in #aega he illustrated the ,humanae salutis monumenta of his friend ,arias ,montanus with some rather pretty copperplates1 each surrounded with an effective engraved border of flowers and birds1 but for a new ,horae 7on paper7 in #aegc1 for which he had commissioned a set of full-page plates of some merit 7printed with the text on their back71 he had not troubled to procure borders4 ,two years later he produced a really curious edition in which the engraved illustrations 7some of them from the ,humanae salutis monumenta7 are surrounded with woodcut borders1 and in many cases have red underlines1 so that each page must have undergone three printings4#ff ,although woodcuts were considered sufficiently good for ,plantin's ,bible of #aeff1 for his great ,polyglot it was indispensable to have titlepages engraved on copper1 and to the first volume he prefixed no fewer than three1 engraved by ,p4 van der ,heyden after designs by ,p4 van der ,borcht4 ,all of them are emblematical1 the first symbolizing the unification of the world by the ,christian faith and the four languages in which the ,old ,testament was printed in the ,polyglott1 the second the zeal of ,philip ,,ii for the ,catholic faith1 the third the authority of the ,pentateuch4 ,while some volumes had no frontispiece others contained a few illustrations1 and the total number of plates was twenty-eight4 ,some of these were used again in ,plantin's ,bible of #aehc1 and ,raphelengius1 into whose possession the whole set passed in #aeij1 used sixteen of them three years later to illustrate the ,antiquitates ,judaicae of ,arias ,montanus4 ,for his ,missals and ,breviaries as for his ,horae ,plantin sometimes used woodcuts1 sometimes copperplates4 ,for his editions of the works of ,s4 ,augustine and ,s4 ,jerome 7#aegg7 he caused really fine portrait frontispieces to be engraved by ,j4 ,sadeler from the designs of ,crispin van den ,broeck4 ,as regards his miscellaneous secular books he was by no means given to superfluous illustrations1 and1 as we have seen1 continued to use woodcuts contemporaneously with plates4 ,probably his earliest secular engravings 7published in #aeff1 but prepared some years earlier7 are the anatomical diagrams in imitation of those in the ,roman edition of ,valverde mentioned below1 to which he prefixed a better frontispiece than that of his model4 ,in #aegd he produced a fine book of portraits of physicians and philosophers1 ,icones veterum aliquot ac recentium medicorum philosophorumque1 in sixty-eight plates1 with letterpress by ,j4 ,sambucus4 ,the next year he issued another illustrated book1 the ,de rerum usu et abusu of ,bernardus ,furmerius1 sharing the expense of it with ,ph4 ,gallus1 a print-seller1 for whom later on he published several books on commission4 ,from #aegh onwards he printed for ,ortelius1 the great cosmographer4 ,in #aehb he published the ,pegasides of ,y4 ,b4 ,houwaert1 in #aehd ,waghenaer's ,spieghel der ,zeevaerdt1 and other illustrated books followed4 ,but none of them1 little indeed that ,plantin ever produced1 now excite much desire on the part of collectors4 ,of what took place in other countries and cities in the absence of even tentative lists of the books printed after #aece anywhere except in ,england it is difficult to say4 ,in #aefj an anatomical book translated from the ,spanish of ,juan de ,valverde was published at ,rome with engraved diagrams of some artistic merit and a rather poorly executed frontispiece4 ,in #aeff in ,venetia appresso ,rampazetto1 a very fine book of impresas1 or emblematical personal badges1 made its appearance under the title ,le ,imprese ,illustre con espositioni et discorsi del ,sor ,ieronimo ,ruscelli1 dedicated al serenissimo et sempre felicissimo re catolico ,filippo d',austria4 ,this has over a hundred engraved ,imprese of three sizes1 double-page for the ,emperor 7signed ,g4 ,p4 ,f471 full-pagers for kings and other princely personages1 half-pagers for ordinary folk 7if any owner of an impresa may be thus designated71 and all these are printed with letterpress beneath1 or on the back of them1 and very well printed too4 ,in another book of ,imprese1 published in this same year #aeff1 the text1 consisting of sonnets by ,lodovico ,dolce1 as well as the pictures1 is engraved1 or rather etched4 ,this is the ,imprese di diuersi principi1 duchi1 signori1 etc41 di ,batta ,pittoni ,pittore ,vicentino4 ,it exists in a bewildering variety of states1 partly due to reprinting1 partly apparently to the desire to dedicate it to several different people1 one of the ,british ,museum copies being dedicated by ,pittoni to the ,earl of ,arundel and having a printed dedicatory letter and plate of his device preceding that of the ,emperor himself4 ,another noteworthy ,venetian book1 with engraved illustrations1 which ,i have come across is an ,orlando ,furioso of #aehd1 appresso ,francesco de ,franceschi ,senese e compagni1 its engraved titlepage bearing the information that it has been nuouamente adornato di figure di rame da ,girolamo ,porro1 a little-known ,milanese engraver1 who had reissued ,pittoni's ,imprese in #aegh4 ,the illustrations are far too crowded with incident to be successful1 and their unity is often sacrificed to the old medieval practice of making a single design illustrate several different moments of the narrative4 ,their execution is also very unequal4 ,nevertheless1 they are of interest to ,english collectors since1 as we shall see1 they served as models for the plates in ,sir ,john ,harington's version of the ,orlando in #aeia4 ,all of them are full-pagers1 with text on the back1 and the printer was also compliant enough to print at the head of each canto an engraved cartouche within which is inserted a type-printed ,argomento4 ,of sixteenth century engraved book-illustrations in ,france ,i have no personal knowledge4 ,in ,germany1 as might be expected1 they flourished chiefly at ,frankfort1 which in the last third of the century had1 as we have seen1 become a great centre for book-illustration4 ,jost ,amman1 who was largely responsible for its development in this respect1 illustrated a few books with copper engravings1 although he mainly favoured wood4 ,but it is the work of the ,de ,brys1 ,theodor de ,bry and his two sons ,johann ,israel and ,johann ,theodor1 which is of conspicuous importance for our present purpose1 for it was they who originated and mainly carried out the greatest illustrated work of the sixteenth century1 that known to collectors as the ,grands et petits voyages4 ,this not very happy name has nothing to do with the length of the voyages described1 but is derived from the fact that the original series which is concerned with ,america and the ,west ,indies is some two inches taller 7fourteen as compared with twelve7 than a subsequent series dealing with the ,east ,indies4 ,for the idea of such a collection of voyages ,theodor de ,bry was indebted to ,richard ,hakluyt1 whose famous book ,the ,principall ,navigations1 ,voiages1 and ,discoveries of the ,english ,nation1 published in #aehi1 was in preparation when ,de ,bry was in ,england1 where he worked in #aehg-h4 ,the first volume1 moreover1 was illustrated with engravings by ,de ,bry after some of the extraordinarily interesting water-colour drawings made by an ,englishman1 ,john ,white1 in ,virginia1 and now preserved in the ,british ,museum4#fg ,this first part was published in ,latin at ,frankfort by ,j4 ,wechel in #aeij and a second edition followed the same year4 ,a second part describing ,florida followed in #aeia1 a third describing ,brazil in #aeib4 ,by #afjb nine parts had been issued1 all at ,frankfort1 though by different publishers1 the name of ,j4 ,feyrabend being placed on the fourth1 and that of ,m4 ,becker on the ninth4 ,after an interval of seventeen years two more parts of the ,latin edition 7x4 and xi47 were printed at ,oppenheim typis ,h4 ,galleri1 and then an appendix to part xi4 at ,frankfort in #afbj1 where also were issued part xii4 in #afbd and part xiii41 edited by ,m4 ,merian1 in #afcd1 this last being accompanied by an ,elenchus1 or index-volume1 to the whole series4 ,parallel with this ,latin series ran a ,german one with about the same dates4 ,one or two parts were also issued in ,french and at least one in ,english4 ,there is also an appendix of other voyages usually added1 mostly ,french1 and issued at ,amsterdam1 and of nearly every volume of the whole series there were several issues and editions1 all of them with differences in the plates4 ,the ,petits voyages followed a similar course1 beginning in #aeih and ending in #afbh4 ,although the engravings1 many of which are placed unpretentiously amid the text1 vary greatly alike in the interest of their subjects1 the value of the original designs1 and the skill of the engraving1 taken as a whole they have given to these ,grands et petits voyages a unique position among books of travel1 and a small literature has grown up round them to certify the collector as to the best state of each plate and what constitutes a complete set4 ,while the illustrations to the ,voyages formed their chief occupation1 the ,de ,brys found time to engrave many smaller plates for less important books4 ,thus in #aeic ,theodor de ,bry issued an emblem book ,emblemata nobilitati et vulgo scitu digna 7text in ,latin and ,german71 in which each emblem is enclosed in an engraved border1 mostly quite meaningless and bad as regards composition1 but of a brilliancy in the goldsmiths' style which to lovers of bookplates will suggest the best work of ,sherborn or ,french4 ,the plates marked ,b and ,d1 illustrating the lines ,musica mortales divosque oblectat et ornat and ,cum ,cerere et ,baccho ,veneri solemnia fiunt1 are especially fine and the emblems themselves more pleasing than usual4 ,in #aeie there was printed1 again with ,latin and ,german text1 a ,noua ,alphabeti effictio1 historiis ad singulas literas correspondentibus4 ,the motif is throughout scriptural4 ,thus for ,a ,adam and ,eve sit on the crossbar on each side of the letter1 the serpent rests on its peak amid the foliage of the ,tree of ,knowledge4 ,in ,b ,abel1 in ,c ,cain is perched on a convenient part of the letter1 and so on1 while from one letter after another1 fish1 birds1 fruit1 flowers1 and anything else which came into the designer's head hang dangling on cords from every possible point4 ,nothing could be more meaningless or lower in the scale of design1 yet the brilliancy of the execution carries it off4 ,the year after this had appeared ,theodor de ,bry engraved a series of emblems conceived by ,denis ,le ,bey de ,batilly and drawn by ,j4 ,j4 ,boissard4 ,the designs themselves are poor enough1 but the book has a pretty architectural titlepage1 and this is followed by a portrait of ,le ,bey set in an ornamental border of bees1 flowers1 horses1 and other incongruities1 portrait and border alike engraved with the most brilliant delicacy 7see ,plate ,,xxxvii74 ,in the following year1 again1 #aeig1 the two younger ,de ,brys illustrated with line engravings the ,acta ,mechmeti ,saracenorum principis1 and 7at the end of these7 the ,vaticinia ,severi et ,leonis as to the fate of the ,turks1 also the ,david of ,arias ,montanus4 ,the plates are fairly interesting1 but in technical execution fall far below those of their father4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxvii4 ,,frankfort1 ,,de ,,bry1 #aeif ,,le ,,bey4 ,,emblemata4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,author ,,by ,t4 ,,de ,,bry1 ,,after ,j4 ,j4 ,,boissard ,turning now to ,england1 we find engraving in use surprisingly early in some figures of unborn babies in ,the ,birth of ,mankind1 translated from the ,latin of ,roesslin by ,richard ,jonas and printed in #aedj by ,thomas ,raynold1 a physician1 who five years later issued a new edition revised by himself1 again with engravings4 ,in #aede there appeared a much more important medical work1 a ,compendiosa totius anatomie delineatio professedly by ,thomas ,geminus1 a ,flemish surgeon and engraver attached to the ,english ,court4 ,in reality this was a rather shameless adaptation of the ,de ,fabrica ,humani ,corporis of ,vesalius 7,basel1 #aedc71 with engravings copied by ,geminus from the woodcuts of his original4 ,for us its chief interest lies in an elaborate engraved titlepage showing the royal arms surrounded by a wealth of architectural and strapwork ornament in the style1 if not actually the work1 of ,peter ,cock of ,alost1 as has been shown by ,sir ,sidney ,colvin in the invaluable introduction to his ,early ,engravings and ,engravers in ,england 7#aije74 ,in #aeec an ,english translation of the anatomy was published by ,nicholas ,hyll1 and in a second edition of this1 printed in #aeei1 a rather heavy and stiff portrait of ,elizabeth replaces the royal arms1 which were burnished out to make room for it4 ,geminus subsequently produced a much larger portrait of the ,queen1 set in an architectural frame studded with emblematical figures1 and a royal proclamation forbidding unauthorized ,paynters1 ,printers1 and ,gravers to meddle with so great a subject seems to have been provoked by his handiwork4 ,in #aefc ,john ,shute for his work on ,the ,first and ,chief ,groundes of ,architecture produced four amateurish engravings to illustrate four of the five orders1 a woodcut being considered good enough for the fifth4 ,in #aefh we find the first edition of the ,bishops' ,bible adorned with an engraved titlepage in the centre of which1 in an oval1 is a not unpleasing portrait of the ,queen1 holding sceptre and orb1 set in a mass of strapwork1 amid which are seated ,charity and ,faith with the royal arms between them1 while below the portrait a lion and dragon support a cartouche enclosing a text4 ,besides this titlepage1 attributed by ,sir ,sidney ,colvin to ,franciscus ,hogenberg1 before the book of ,joshua there is an engraved portrait of ,leicester1 while the ,blessed is the man of the first ,psalm is heralded by another engraved portrait which shows ,lord ,burghley holding in front of him a great ,b4 ,in #aegc ,remigius ,hogenberg1 brother of ,franciscus1 engraved after a picture by ,john ,lyne a stiff but rather impressive portrait of ,archbishop ,parker1 prefixed to some copies of his ,de ,antiquitate ,ecclesiae ,britanniae4 ,the year before this the second edition of the ,bishops' ,bible had been enriched with a decorative engraved map of the ,holy ,land1 and in #aegd ,archbishop ,parker employed ,john ,lyne to engrave for the ,de ,antiquitate ,academiae ,cantabrigiensis of ,dr4 ,caius 7printed by ,day7 a plate of the arms of the colleges1 a plan of the ,university schools1 and a large map of the town4 ,in #aegi there appeared a work which had occupied the intermediate five years1 a series of maps of ,england from the drawings of ,christopher ,saxton1 engraved by ,augustine ,ryther 7like ,saxton a native of ,leeds71 ,remigius ,hogenberg and others1 and with a fine frontispiece showing the ,queen seated in state beneath an architectural canopy1 which ,sir ,sidney ,colvin thinks may perhaps be the work of ,ryther4 ,ryther was subsequently concerned with other maps1 including the series illustrating the defeat of the ,armada 7,expeditionis ,hispanorum in ,angliam vera descriptio71 and other cartographers got to work who hardly concern us here4 ,two long engraved rolls1 the first by ,marcus ,gheraerts1 representing a procession of the ,knights of the ,garter 7#aegf71 the second by ,theodor de ,bry1 from the designs of ,thomas ,lant1 the funeral of ,sir ,philip ,sidney 7#aehg71 although most safely preserved when bound in book form1 can hardly be reckoned as books4 ,yet over the latter ,i must stop to confess a dreadful sin of my youth1 when ,i jumped to the conclusion that the portrait on the first page stood for ,sidney himself1 whereas it really represents the too self-advertising ,lant4 ,that it appears in the sky1 above the ,black ,pinnace which bore home ,sidney's body1 and itself bears the suggestive motto ,god createth1 ,man imitateth1 ,virtue flourisheth1 ,death finisheth1 may palliate but cannot excuse the crime which enriched an edition of ,astrophel and ,stella with a portrait1 not of ,sidney1 but of the illustrator of his funeral4 ,not until #aeij1 when ,hugh ,broughton's ,concent of ,scripture was accompanied by some apocalyptic plates engraved by ,jodocus ,hondius 7subsequently copied by ,w4 ,rogers71 do we come across what can really be called engraved illustrations in an ,english book1 and these1 which are of little interest1 were speedily eclipsed the next year by ,sir ,john ,harington's ,orlando ,furioso in ,english ,heroical verse with its engraved titlepage and forty-six plates4 ,of these the translator writes in his introduction3 ,as for the pictures1 they are all cut in brasse1 and most of them by the best workemen in that kinde1 that haue bene in this land this manie yeares3 yet ,i will not praise them too much1 because ,i gaue direction for their making1 and in regard thereof ,i may be thought partiall1 but this ,i may truely say1 that 7for mine owne part7 ,i have not seene anie made in ,england better1 nor 7in deede7 anie of this kinde in any booke1 except it were in a treatise1 set foorth by that profound man1 maister ,broughton1 the last yeare1 upon the ,reuelation1 in which there are some #c4 or #d4 pretie figures 7in octauo7 cut in brasse verie workemanly4 ,as for other books that ,i haue seene in this realme1 either in ,latin or ,english1 with pictures1 as ,liuy1 ,gesner1 ,alciats emblemes1 a booke de spectris in ,latin1 7in our tong7 the ,chronicles1 the booke of ,martyrs1 the book of hauking and hunting1 and ,m4 ,whitney's excellent ,emblems1 yet all their figures are cut on wood1 none in metall1 and in that respect inferior to these1 at least 7by the old proverbe7 the more cost1 the more worship4 ,the passage is of considerable interest1 but hardly suggests1 what is yet the fact1 that1 save for the addition on the titlepage of an oval portrait of the translator and a representation of his dog1 all the plates in the book are closely copied from the engravings by ,girolamo ,porro in the ,venice edition of #aehd4 ,the ,english titlepage was signed by ,thomas ,cockson4 ,we are left to conjecture to whom ,harington was indebted for the rest of the plates4 ,although1 as we shall see1 from this time forward a great number of ,english books contain engraved work1 those which can be said to be illustrated during the next sixty years are few enough1 a study of ,mr4 ,a4 ,m4 ,hind's very useful ,list of the ,works of ,native and ,foreign ,line-,engravers in ,england from ,henry ,,viii to the ,commonwealth1#fh tempting me to place the number at about a score4 ,the year after the ,orlando ,furioso came another curious treatise by ,hugh ,broughton1 not printed with type1 but graven in brasse by ,j4 ,h41 whom ,sir ,sidney ,colvin identifies with ,jodocus ,hondius1 a ,fleming who lived in ,england from about #aehj to #aeid1 and may have done the plates in the ,concent of ,scripture and some at least of those in the ,orlando4 ,six years later 7#aeih7 we find ,lomazzo's ,tracte containing the artes of curious ,paintinge with an emblematical titlepage and thirteen plates by ,richard ,haydock1 the translator1 four of the plates being adapted from ,durer's book on ,proportion1 and all of them showing very slight skill in engraving4 ,in #afjb came ,sir ,william ,segar's ,honour1 ,military and ,civil1 with eight plates showing various distinguished persons1 ,english and foreign1 wearing the robes and insignia of the ,garter1 the ,golden ,fleece1 ,s4 ,michael1 etc4 ,three of the plates are signed by ,william ,rogers1 the most distinguished of the ,english ,elizabethan engravers1 and the others are probably his also4 ,most of them are very dignified and effective in the brilliantly printed first states in which they are sometimes found1 but ordinary copies with only the second states are as a rule disappointing4 ,the beginning of the reign of ,james ,i was directly responsible for one ambitious engraved publication1 ,stephen ,harrison's ,the ,archs of ,triumph erected in honor of the ,high and mighty prince ,james1 the first of that name king of ,england and the sixt of ,scotland1 at his ,maiesties ,entrance and passage through his ,honorable ,city ,chamber of ,london vpon the #aeth day of march #afjc #afjd ,invented and published by ,stephen ,harrison ,joyner and ,architect and graven by ,william ,kip4 ,here an engraved titlepage1 with dangling ornaments in the style of the ,de ,bry alphabet1 is followed by seven plates of the seven arches1 the most notable of which 7a pity it was not preserved7 was crowned with a most interesting model of ,jacobean ,london1 to which the engraver has done admirable justice4 ,in #afjh came ,robert ,glover's ,nobilitas politica et civilis1 re-edited two years later by ,t4 ,milles as the ,catalogue of ,honour1 with engraved illustrations 7in the text7 of the robes of the various degrees of nobility1 attributed by ,sir ,sidney ,colvin to ,renold ,elstracke1 the son of a ,flemish refugee1 and also two plates representing the ,king in a chair of state and in ,parliament4 ,after this we come to two works illustrated by an ,english engraver of some note1 ,william ,hole1 ,tom ,coryat's ,crudities 7#afaa71 with a titlepage recalling various incidents of his travels 7including his being sick at sea7 and five plates 7or in some copies1 six71 and ,drayton's ,polyolbion 7#afab1 reissued in #afac with the portrait-plate in a different state71 with a poor emblematic title1 a portrait of ,prince ,henry wielding a lance1 and eighteen decorative maps of ,england4 ,in #afae we come to a really well-illustrated book1 the ,relation of a ,journey1 by ,george ,sandys1 whose narrative of travel in ,turkey1 ,egypt1 and the ,holy ,land1 and parts of ,italy1 is accompanied with little delicately engraved landscapes and bits of architecture1 etc41 by ,francis ,delaram4 ,the work of the decade is brought to a close with two print-selling ventures1 the ,basiliomegalogia of #afah and ,heromegaologia of #afbj4 ,the former of these works describes itself as being the true and lively effigies of all our ,english ,kings from the ,conquest untill this present3 with their severall ,coats of ,armes1 ,impreses and ,devises4 ,and a briefe ,chronologie of their lives and deaths4 ,elegantly graven in copper4 ,printed for ,h4 ,holland and are to be sold by ,comp4ton ,holland over against the ,exchange4 ,the full set of plates numbers thirty-two1 including eight additions to the scheme of the book1 representing the ,black ,prince1 ,john of ,gaunt1 ,anne ,boleyn1 a second version of ,elizabeth1 ,mary ,queen of ,scots1 ,anne of ,denmark1 ,prince ,henry1 and ,prince ,charles4 ,fourteen of the plates1 mostly the earlier ones1 are signed by ,elstracke1 and ,simon ,passe and ,francis ,delaram each contributed four4 ,it need hardly be said that they are of very varying degrees of authenticity as well as merit4 ,several of the later plates are found in more than one state4 ,with the second of the two ventures ,henry ,holland was also concerned1 but the expenses of the book were shared by ,crispin ,passe and an ,arnhem bookseller named ,jansen4 ,its title reads3 ,heromegaologia ,anglica3 hoc est clarissimorum et doctissimorum aliquot ,anglorum qui floruerunt ab anno ,cristi ,,md4 usque ad presentem annum ,,mdcxx4 ,it is in two volumes1 the first containing thirty-seven plates1 the second thirty4 ,two of these represent respectively ,queen ,elizabeth's tomb and the hearse of ,henry ,prince of ,wales4 ,all the rest are portraits of the notable personages of the reigns of ,henry ,,viii and his successors1 some of them based on drawings by ,holbein1 the majority on earlier prints1 and all engraved by ,william ,passe 7younger brother of ,simon7 and his sister ,magdalena4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxviii4 ,,london4 ,j4 ,,marriot1 #afch ,,quarles4 ,,hieroglyphikes ,,of ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,man4 ,,page #bb ,,engraved ,,by ,w4 ,,marshall ,the next decade was far from productive of works illustrated with more than an engraved titlepage and a portrait1 but in #afcj appeared ,captain ,john ,smith's ,true ,travels with several illustrations1 one of them by ,martin ,droeshout2 in #afcd-e came ,wither's ,emblems1 with plates by ,william ,marshall1 and in #afce ,thomas ,heywood's ,hierarchie of the ,blessed ,angels1 with an engraved title by ,thomas ,cecill and plates representing the several orders1 ,seraphim1 ,cherubim1 and ,thrones being entrusted to ,john ,payne1 ,dominations to ,marshall1 ,powers and ,principalities to ,glover1 ,virtues to ,droeshout1 etc4 ,some of the plates record the name of the patron who paid for them1 another suggestion that it was money which stood most in the way of book-illustrating4 ,in #afch ,marshall illustrated ,quarles's ,hieroglyphikes of the ,life of ,man1 with engravings1 most of which seem chiefly made up of a candle1 but in one the candle is being extinguished by ,death egged on by ,time1 and to this not very promising subject 7,plate ,,xxxviii7 ,marshall1 the most unequal engraver of his day1 has brought some of his too rare touches of delicacy and charm4 ,in #afdj ,wenceslaus ,hollar1 whom ,thomas ,earl of ,arundel had discovered at ,cologne 7he was born at ,prague7 and brought to ,england1 published his charming costume book ,ornatus ,muliebris ,anglicanus1 and his larger work1 ,theatrum ,mulierum1 must have been almost ready when ,charles ,i hoisted his standard at ,nottingham1 since it was published in #afdc4 ,after this the ,civil ,war interfered for some time with the book trade4 ,while fully illustrated books were thus far from numerous in the half century which followed the ,orlando ,furioso of #aeia1 the output of engraved titlepages and portraits to be prefixed to books was sufficient to find work for most of the minor engravers4 ,the earlier titlepages were mostly architectural and symbolical1 their purport being sometimes explained in verses printed opposite to them1 headed ,the ,mind of the ,front4 ,william ,rogers engraved a titlepage to ,gerard's ,herbal 7#aeig71 which is never found properly printed1 and others to ,linschoten's ,discourse of ,voyages into ye ,east and ,west ,indies 7#aeih71 ,camden's ,britannia 7#afjj--;a poor piece of work71 and ,moffett's ,theatrum ,insectorum1 this last having only survived in a copy pasted at the head of the author's manuscript at the ,british ,museum4 ,william ,hole did an enlarged title for ,camden's ,britannia 7#afjg71 titles for the different sections of ,chapman's ,homer1 a portrait of ,john ,florio for the ,italian-,english dictionary which he was pleased to call ,queen ,anna's ,new ,world of ,words1 a charming titlepage to a collection of virginal music known as ,parthenia 7#afaa-ab71 another to ,browne's ,britannia's ,pastorals1 and much less happy ones to ,drayton's ,polyolbion 7#afab71 and the ,works of ,ben ,jonson 7#afaf74 ,the best-known titlepages engraved by ,renold ,elstracke are those to ,raleigh's ,history of the ,world 7#afad7 and the ,workes of the ,most ,high and ,mightie ,prince ,james 7#afaf71 the latter a good piece of work which when faced1 as it should be1 by the portrait of the king by ,simon van de ,passe1 makes the most decorative opening to any ,english book of this period4 ,passe himself was responsible for the very imaginative engraved title to ,bacon's ,novum ,organum 7#afbj71 a sea on which ships are sailing and rising out of it two pillars with the inscription3 ,multi pertransibunt et augebitur scientia 7,many shall run to and fro1 and knowledge shall be increased74 ,his son ,william1 besides his work on the ,heromegaologia1 already mentioned1 engraved a complicated title for ,chapman's version of ,the ,batrachomyomachia or ,battle of the ,frogs and ,mice1 humorously called ,the ,crowne of all ,homer's ,worckes4 ,after #afbj the old architectural and symbolical titlepages began to be replaced by titles in compartments1 in which a central cartouche is surrounded by little squares1 each representing some incident of the book4 ,portraits of the author remained much in request1 and nearly a hundred of these were done by ,william ,marshall1 who was employed also on about as many engraved titlepages4 ,as has been noted1 his work was strangely uneven1 and he fully deserved the scorn poured on him by ,milton for the wretched caricature of the poet prefixed to the ,poems of #afde4 ,yet ,marshall could at times do a good plate1 as1 for instance1 that in ,quarles's ,hieroglyphikes already mentioned1 a portrait of ,bacon prefixed to the #afdj ,oxford edition of his ,advancement of ,learning and the charming frontispiece to ,brathwait's ,arcadian ,princess4 ,marshall at his worst fell only a little below the work of ,thomas ,cross2 at his best he rivalled or excelled the good work of ,thomas ,cecill and ,george ,glover4 ,after ,cromwell's strong hand had given ,england some kind of settled government the book market revived1 and some ambitiously illustrated books were soon being published4 ,the too versatile ,john ,ogilby1 dancing-master1 poet1 and publisher1 appeared early in the field1 his version of the ,fables of ,aesop1 adorned with sculpture1 being printed by ,t4 ,warren for ,a4 ,crook in #afea4 ,the next year came ,benlowe's ,theophila1 or ,love's ,sacrifice1 a mystical poem1 some copies of which have as many as thirty-six plates by various hands1 with much more etching than engraving in them4 ,in #afed ,ogilby produced his translation of ,virgil1 a great folio with plates dedicated to noble patrons by ,pierre ,lambart4 ,ogilby's other important ventures were the large ,odyssey of #affe1 and the ,aesop's ,fables of the same year1 with plates by ,hollar1 ,d4 ,stoop1 and ,f4 ,barlow1 and two portraits of the translator engraved respectively by ,pierre ,lambert and ,w4 ,faithorne4 ,faithorne embellished other books of this period1 e4g4 the ,poems of the ,matchless ,orinda 7#affg71 with portraits1 and publishers who could not afford to pay ,faithorne employed ,r4 ,white4 ,the presence of a portrait by ,white in a copy of the first edition of ,bunyan's ,pilgrim's ,progress1 to which it was very far indeed from certain that it really belonged1#fi has once made the book sell for over ,l#adjj1 but save for the sake of completeness his handiwork is not greatly prized by collectors1 nor is there any ,english illustrated book of this period after the ,restoration which is much sought after for the sake of its plates1 although those of ,ogilby's ,virgil were sufficiently well thought of to be used again for ,dryden's version in #afig4 ,meanwhile1 books with illustrations en taille douce were being issued in some numbers both at ,paris and at ,amsterdam4 ,in the former city ,francois ,chauveau 7#afac-gf71 in the latter ,jan and ,casper ,luyken are credited by ,mr4 ,hind 7,a ,short ,history of ,engraving and ,etching1 #aijh7 with having produced hosts of small and undistinguished plates1 and these damning epithets explain how it is that even patriotic ,french collectors like ,eugene ,paillet and ,henri ,beraldi thought it wise to leave the illustrated books of the seventeenth century severely alone4 ,we meet the first advance guard of the brilliant ,french eighteenth century school of book-illustration in #agah1 when a pretty little edition of ,les ,amours de ,daphnis et ,chloe 7as translated by ,bishop ,amyot from the ,greek of ,longus7 made its appearance with twenty-eight plates by ,benoit ,audran1 after the designs of no less a person than the ,regent of ,france1 and duly labelled and dated ,philippus in4 et pinx4 #agad4 ,the plates vary very much in charm1 but that with the underline ,chloe sauve ,daphnis par le son de sa flute certainly possesses it1 and one of the double-plates in the book1 ,daphnis prend ses oyseaux pendant l',hyver pour voir ,chloe1 is really pretty4 ,we find no other book to vie with this until we come to a much larger and more pretentious one1 the works of ,moliere in six volumes1 royal quarto1 published in #agcd4 ,this was illustrated with thirty-three plates1 in the mixture of etching and engraving characteristic of the ,french school of the day1 by ,laurent ,cars1 after pencil drawings by ,francois ,boucher1 and by nearly two hundred vignettes and tailpieces 7not all different7 after ,boucher and others by ,cars and ,francois ,joullain4 ,another edition of this in four volumes with ,boucher's designs reproduced on a smaller scale was published in #agda and reprinted three times within the decade4 ,after the ,moliere1 books and editions which collectors take count of come much more quickly4 ,there was an edition of ,montesquieu's ,le ,temple de ,gnide in #agdb 7imprint3 ,londres71 a ,virgil in #agdc with plates by ,cochin1 engraved by ,cochin pere1 the ,contes of ,la ,fontaine 7,amsterdam1 #agdc-e7 also illustrated by ,cochin1 ,guer's ,moeurs et usages des ,turcs1 with plates after ,boucher 7#agdf71 an edition of the works of ,boileau in five volumes1 with vignettes by ,eisen and tailpieces by ,cochin 7#agdc-e71 and in #agec a ,manon ,lescaut 7imprint3 ,amsterdam7 with some plates by ,j4 ,j4 ,pasquier1 which are stiff1 and others by ,h4 ,gravelot1 which are feeble4 ,in the four-volume edition of the ,fables of ,la ,fontaine 7#agee-i7 with illustrations after ,j4 ,b4 ,oudry1 we come to a very ambitious piece of work1 handsomely carried out1 which a book-lover may yet find it hard to admire4 ,oudry's designs are always adequate1 and have more virility in them than is often found in the work of this school1 and they are competently interpreted by a number of etchers and engravers1 some of whom1 it may be noted1 worked together in pairs on the same plate1 so that we find such signatures as ,c4 ,cochin aqua forti1 ,r4 ,gaillard caelo sculpsit1 and ,grave a l'eau forte par ,c4 ,cochin1 termine au burin par ,p4 ,chenu--a very explicit statement of the method of work4 ,but adequate as the plates may seem1 if they are judged not as book-illustrations but as engravings1 no one could rate them high1 and as a book what is to be said of an edition of ,la ,fontaine's ,fables1 which fills four volumes1 each measuring nearly nineteen inches by thirteen8 ,the bookman can only regard such a work as a portfolio of plates with accompanying text1 and if the plates as plates are only second rate1 enthusiasm has nothing to build on4 ,we return to book-form in #ageg1 when ,boccaccio's ,decamerone was published in ,italian 7imprint3 ,londra7 in five octavo volumes1 with charming vignettes and illustrations mostly by ,gravelot1 although a few are by ,boucher and ,eisen4 ,gravelot1 who was more industrious than successful as an illustrator1 is seen here to advantage1 and deserves some credit for having made his designs not less but more reticent than the stories he had to illustrate4 ,this praise can certainly not be given to the famous #agfb edition of the ,contes of ,la ,fontaine1 the cost of which was borne by the ,fermiers-,generaux 7imprint3 ,amsterdam74 ,the fleurons by ,choffard are throughout delightful and the plates are brilliantly engraved1 but the lubricity of ,eisen's designs is wearisome in the first volume and disgusting in the second1 and possessors of the book are not to be envied4 ,it is to be regretted that the next book we have to notice1 the ,contes ,moraux of ,marmontel 7#c vols41 #agfe71 has very little charm to support its morality1 the plates after ,gravelot being poor1 while the head- and tailpieces1 or rather the substitutes for them1 are wretched4 ,a much better book than either of these last is the edition in ,french and ,latin of ,ovid's ,metamorphoses in four quarto volumes 7#agfg-ga72 with plates after ,boucher1 ,eisen1 ,gravelot1 and ,moreau1 and headpieces by ,choffard at the beginning of each book4 ,the imprint1 ,a ,paris1 chez ,leclerc1 ,quai des ,augustins1 avec approbation et privilege du ,roi1 prepares us to find that the designers have kept their licence within bounds1 and many of the plates have a combined humour and charm which are very attractive4 ,if ,i had to choose a single plate to show ,gravelot at his best1 ,i doubt if prolonged search would find any success more complete than that of the illustration to ,book ,i1 xi41 ,deucalion et ,pyrrha repeuplant la ,terre1 suivant l',oracle de ,themis 7see the frontispiece to this volume1 ,plate ,i71 and though ,eisen was a much better artist than ,gravelot1 his ,apollon gardant les troupeaux d',admet1 dans les campagnes de ,messene 7,,ii1 x47 is certainly one of his prettiest pieces4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxix4 ,,paris1 ,,lambert1 #aggj4 ,,dorat4 ,,les ,,baisers4 ,,page ,,with ,,engraved ,,headpiece ,,after ,,eisen ,during the next few years illustrated books became the fashion1 so that in #aggb ,cazotte wrote ,le diable amoureux1 nouvelle d',espagne1 with the false imprint ,naples 7,paris1 ,lejay7 and six unsigned plates1 said to be by ,moreau after ,marillier1 on purpose to ridicule the craze for putting illustrations into every book4 ,in #agfh the indefatigable ,gravelot had illustrated an edition of the works of ,voltaire1 published at ,geneva1 with forty-four designs4 ,in #agfi ,les ,saisons1 a poem by ,saint ,lambert1 was published at ,amsterdam1 with designs by ,gravelot and ,le ,prince and fleurons by ,choffard4 ,in the same year there was published at ,paris ,meunier de ,queslon's ,les ,graces1 with an engraved title by ,moreau1 a frontispiece after ,boucher1 and five plates after ,moreau4 ,in #aggj came ,voltaire's ,henriade with ten plates and ten vignettes after ,eisen1 and more highly esteemed even than this1 ,dorat's ,les ,baisers 7,la ,haye et ,paris71 with a frontispiece and plate and forty-four head- and tailpieces1 all 7save two7 after ,eisen1 not easily surpassed in their own luxurious style 7see ,plate ,,xxxix74 ,in #agga ,gravelot1 more indefatigable than ever1 supplied designs for twenty plates and numerous head- and tailpieces for an edition of ,tasso's ,gerusalemme ,liberata1 and was honoured1 as ,eisen had been in the ,fermiers-,generaux edition of ,la ,fontaine's ,contes1 by his portrait being prefixed to the second volume4 ,in #aggb a new edition of ,montesquieu's ,le ,temple de ,gnide1 in which the text was engraved throughout1 was illustrated with designs by ,eisen1 brilliantly interpreted by ,le ,mire1 and ,imbert's ,le ,jugement de ,paris was illustrated by ,moreau1 ,with1 fleurons by ,choffard4 ,in #aggc ,le ,temple de ,gnide was versified by ,colardeau1 and illustrated by ,monnet1 and selections from ,anacreon1 ,sappho1 ,bion1 and ,moschus by ,eisen1 while ,moreau and others illustrated the ,chansons of ,laborde in four volumes and the works of ,moliere in six4 ,after this the pace slackened1 and we need no longer cling to the methods of the annalist4 ,moreau illustrated ,saint ,lambert's ,les ,saisons and ,fromageot's ,annales du regne de ,marie ,therese 7both in #agge71 ,marmontel's ,les ,incas 7#aggg71 the seventy-volume ,voltaire 7#aghd-i71 ,paul et ,virginie 7#aghi71 and many other works1 living on to illustrate ,goethe's ,werther in #ahji2 other books were adorned by ,marillier1 ,cochin1 ,duplessis1 ,bertaux1 ,desrais1 ,saint ,quentin1 ,fragonard1 ,gerard1 and ,le ,barbier1 and the fashion survived the ,revolution and lingered on till about #ahbj4 ,we must go back now to ,england1 where at the end of the seventeenth century the requirements of book-illustration were neglected1 partly because of the growing taste for a neat simplicity in books1 partly because the chief ,english engravers all devoted themselves to mezzotint4 ,a few foreigners came over to supply their place1 and ,michael ,burghers1 of ,amsterdam1 illustrated the fourth edition of ,paradise ,lost1 a stately folio1 in #afhh1 with plates which enjoyed a long life and were also imitated for smaller editions4 ,burghers also illustrated the ,oxford almanacs1 and supplied frontispieces to the ,bibles and other large books issued by the ,university ,press up to about #agbj4 ,another ,dutchman who came to ,england not much later 7in about #afij7 was ,michael ,van der ,gucht1 who worked for the booksellers1 as his children did after him4 ,how low book-illustration had fallen in ,england at the beginning of the eighteenth century may be seen by a glance at the wretched plates which disfigure ,rowe's ,shakespeare in #agji1 the first edition on which an editor and an illustrator were allowed to work their wills4 ,the year after this ,louis ,du ,guernier came to ,england1 and was soon engaged in the not too patriotic task of helping ,claude ,du ,bosc to illustrate the victories of ,marlborough4 ,in #agad he and ,du ,bosc were less painfully1 though not very successfully1 employed in making plates for ,pope's ,rape of the ,lock4 ,du ,bosc subsequently worked on the ,religious ,ceremonies of all ,nations 7#agcc71 an ,english edition of a book of ,bernard ,picart's1 and on plates for ,rapin's ,history of ,england 7#agdc71 but he was far from being a great engraver4 ,it is a satisfaction that the plates to the first edition of ,robinson ,crusoe 7#agai7 were engraved by two ,englishmen1 and not very badly4 ,their names are given as ,clark and ,pine1 the ,clark being presumably ,john ,clark 7#afhh-agcf71 who engraved some writing-books1 and the ,pine1 ,john ,pine 7#afij-agef71 who imitated some designs by ,bernard ,picart to the book of ,jonah in #agbj1 and may have been a pupil of his at ,amsterdam4 ,it should1 perhaps1 have been mentioned that two years before ,crusoe an ,english engraver1 ,john ,sturt 7#afeh-agcj71 produced a ,book of ,common ,prayer1 of which the text as well as the pictures was engraved4 ,this is rather a curiosity than a work of art1 the frontispiece being a portrait of ,george ,i made up of the ,creed1 ,lord's ,prayer1 ,ten ,commandments1 ,prayer for the ,royal ,family1 and ,psalm ,,xxi4 written in minute characters1 instead of lines4 ,sturt produced another engraved book1 ,the ,orthodox ,communicant1 in #agba4 ,in #agbc ,william ,hogarth began what might have proved a notable career as a book-illustrator had not he soon found more profitable work4 ,he illustrated the ,travels of ,aubry de la ,mottraye in #agbc1 ,briscoe's ,apuleius 7#agbd71 ,cotterel's translation of ,cassandra 7#agbe71 ,blackwell's ,compendium of ,military ,discipline 7#agbf71 and 7also in #agbf7 ,butler's ,hudibras1 his plates to which1 though grotesque enough1 show plenty of character4 ,for some years after this he worked on frontispieces1 e4g4 to ,leveridge's ,songs 7#agbg71 ,cooke's ,hesiod 7#agbh71 ,j4 ,miller's comedy1 ,the ,humours of ,oxford 7#agbi71 ,theobald's ,perseus and ,andromeda 7#agcj71 and in #agca to a ,moliere1 ,fielding's ,tragedy of ,tragedies1 and ,mitchell's ,highland ,fair4 ,but the success of his set of prints on ,the ,harlot's ,progress diverted him from bookwork1 although many years after he contributed frontispieces to ,vols4 ,,ii and ,,iv of ,tristram ,shandy1 and in #agfa a head-and tailpiece 7engraved by ,grignion7 to a ,catalogue of the ,society of ,arts4 ,in #agcc ,hubert ,gravelot was invited from ,france by ,du ,bosc to help in illustrating ,picart's ,religious ,ceremonies4 ,he illustrated ,gay's ,fables in #agch1 ,richardson's ,pamela in #agdb1 ,theobald's ,shakespeare in #agdj1 and1 mainly after ,hayman1 ,hanmer's in #agdd-f4 ,neither of the sets of ,shakespeare plates deserves any higher praise than that of being neat and pretty1 but at least they were a whole plane above those in ,rowe's edition4 ,the year after ,gravelot came to ,england1 in #agcc1 ,pine produced the first volume of his ,horace1 engraved throughout1 and with head- and tailpieces in admirable taste4 ,the second volume followed in #agcg1 and in #agec the first of an illustrated ,virgil which ,pine did not live to complete4 ,besides his work on ,hanmer's ,shakespeare1 ,francis ,hayman designed illustrations to ,moore's ,fables of the ,female ,sex 7#agdd71 which were well engraved1 some of them by ,charles ,grignion1 a pupil of ,gravelot's1 born in ,england 7#agag71 but of foreign parentage4 ,hayman also illustrated the ,spectator 7#agdg71 ,newton's ,milton 7#agdi-eb71 and later on1 with the aid of ,grignion1 ,smollett's ,don ,quixote 7#agee71 and ,baskerville's edition of ,congreve's ,poems 7#agfa74 ,the plates to the earlier edition of ,don ,quixote1 that of #agch1 had been chiefly engraved by ,gerard van der ,gucht after ,vanderbank1 but two are by ,hogarth4 ,illustration3 ,,xl4 ,,london1 ,t4 ,,hope1 #agfj ,,walton1 ,,compleat ,,angler ,w4 ,w4 ,,rylands ,,after ,s4 ,,wale ,samuel ,wale 7died #aghf71 a pupil of ,hayman1 was also an illustrator1 and in #agfj supplied ,sir ,john ,hawkins with fourteen drawings for his edition of ,walton's ,angler4 ,these were engraved by the luckless ,w4 ,w4 ,rylands1 who was hanged for forgery in #aghc1 and the ,walton thus produced is one of the prettiest and least affected of the illustrated books of its day 7see ,plate ,,xl74 ,wale also drew designs for ,wilkie's ,fables 7#agfh7 and ,goldsmith's ,traveller 7#aggd74 ,he also worked for the magazines which about the middle of the century made rather a feature of engravings1 often as headpieces to music4 ,a few of the isolated books may be named1 thus ,paltock's ,peter ,wilkins 7#agej7 was illustrated very well by ,louis ,peter ,boitard1 who had previously contributed numerous plates to ,spence's ,polymetis1 and in #agea supplied a frontispiece to each of the six books of the ,scribleriad by ,r4 ,o4 ,cambridge4 ,another book which1 like ,peter ,wilkins1 was concerned with flight1 ,lunardi's ,account of the first aerial voyage in ,england 7#aghd71 has a portrait of the author by ,bartolozzi and two plates4 ,for ,baskerville's edition of the ,orlando ,furioso 7,birmingham1 #aggc7 recourse was had to plates by ,de ,launay1 after ,moreau and ,eisen4 ,,footnotes3 #fe ,in quo precipue tractat3 ,an amico sepe ad scribendum prouocato ut scribat1 non respondenti sit amplius scribendum4 #ff ,it was probably from his ,horae plates that ,plantin illustrated the rerum ,sacrarum ,liber of ,laur4 ,gambara in #aegg4 ,they are printed with the text and are of average merit4 #fg ,they were bought to accompany the fine set of ,de ,bry collected by ,mr4 ,grenville1 but have since been transferred to the ,department of ,prints and ,drawings4 #fh ,contributed to the work by ,sir ,sidney ,colvin1 ,early ,engravers and ,engraving in ,england1 already quoted4 #fi ,this was an early proof of the portrait which is found in a slightly different state in copies of the third edition1 and seemed to be an insertion in the first edition rather than an integral part of it4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,modern ,,fine ,,printing ,after the ,restoration1 printing and the book trade generally in ,england became definitely modern in their character1 and the printer practically disappears from view1 his work1 with here and there an exception1 as in the case of ,robert ,foulis or ,john ,baskerville1 being altogether hidden behind that of the publisher1 so that it is of ,herringman and ,bernard ,lintott and ,dodsley that we hear1 not of ,newcomb and ,roycroft4 ,notwithstanding this decline in the printer's importance1 there was a steady improvement in ,english printing4 ,as an art it had ceased at this time to exist4 ,if a publisher wished to make a book beautiful he put in plates4 ,if he wanted to make it more beautiful he put in more or larger plates4 ,if he wanted to make it a real triumph of beauty he engraved the whole book1 letterpress and all1 as in the case of ,sturt's ,prayer ,books and ,pine's ,horace4 ,that a printer by the selection and arrangement of type1 by good presswork and the use of pretty capitals and tailpieces1 could make a book charming to eye and hand1 without any help from an illustrator--such an idea as this had nearly perished4 ,there was little loss in this1 since if any artistic work had been attempted it would assuredly have been bad1 whereas the craftsmen1 when set to do quite plain work1 gradually learnt to do it in a more workmanlike way4 ,in this they were helped by certain improvements in printing which rendered the task of the pressman less laborious4 ,in the middle of the seventeenth century ,william ,blaew1 of ,amsterdam1 invented an improved press1 fabricated nine of these new fashioned presses1 set them all on a row in his ,printing ,house and called each ,press by the name of one of the ,muses4 ,clearly ,blaew was an enthusiast4 ,his chronicler1 ,joseph ,moxon1 was a fairly good ,english printer1 and his description of the equipment of a printing house in the second part of his ,mechanick ,exercises 7#afhc7 contains much information still interesting4 ,we gather from ,moxon that ,blaew's improvements were slowly copied in ,england1 and we know that the ,english printers still continued to buy their best founts from ,holland4 ,thus when ,bishop ,fell1 about #afgj1 was equipping the ,university ,press at ,oxford with better type1 he employed an agent in ,holland to purchase founts for him4 ,english founts of which we have any reason to be proud date from the appearance about #agaf of ,william ,caslon1 who established a firm of type founders which has enjoyed a long and deservedly prosperous career4 ,the next move came from the north4 ,robert ,foulis 7the name was originally spelt ,faulls71 born in #agjg1 the son of a ,glasgow maltster1 had been originally apprenticed to a barber4 ,he was1 however1 a man of bookish tastes1 and1 when already over thirty years of age1 was advised to set up in business as a printer and bookseller4 ,with his brother ,andrew1 five years younger than himself and educated for the ministry1 he went on a book-buying tour on the ,continent1 and on his return started book-selling in #agda1 and printed in that year ,dr4 ,william ,leechman's ,temper1 ,character1 and ,duty of a ,minister of the ,gospel1 and four other books1 including a ,phaedrus and a volume of ,cicero4 ,in ,march1 #agdc1 he was appointed ,printer to the ,university of ,glasgow1 and his edition of ,demetrius ,phalerus de ,elocutione in ,greek and ,latin was the first example of ,greek printing produced at ,glasgow4 ,a ,horace which was hung up in proof in the ,university1 with the offer of a reward for every misprint detected 7in spite of which six remained71 followed in #agdd1 an ,iliad in #agdg1 an edition of ,hardyknute in #agdh1 and a ,cicero in #agdi4 ,in #agej as many as thirty works were printed at the ,foulis press4 ,the next two years were mainly spent in touring on the ,continent1 and on his return ,robert ,foulis unhappily started an ,academy of ,art at ,glasgow1 which he had neither the knowledge nor the taste to direct successfully1 and which sapped his energies without producing any valuable results4 ,an edition of the ,greek text of ,callimachus in #agee was rewarded by an ,edinburgh society with a gold medal1 and other ,greek and ,latin texts followed1 including the ,iliad in #agef1 ,anacreon in #ageg1 ,virgil and the ,odyssey in #ageh1 and ,herodotus in #agfa4 ,among the more notable later books of the firm were an edition of ,gray's ,poems in #agfh1 and a ,paradise ,lost in #aggj4 ,the younger brother died in #agge1 and ,robert1 after a mortifying experience in ,london1 where he sold the old masters he had bought as models for his ,academy for less than a pound over the expenses incurred in the sale1 followed him the next year4 ,the two brothers had raised printing at ,glasgow from insignificance to an excellence which equalled1 and perhaps surpassed1 the standard attained at ,london1 ,oxford or ,cambridge1 or1 indeed1 for the moment1 anywhere in ,europe4 ,this was no small achievement1 and their compatriots and fellow citizens may well show them honour4 ,but they were content to work according to the best standards set by other men without making any positive advance upon them or showing any originality4 ,they avoided the snare of bad ornaments by using none2 their ,greek types were modelled on the ,french royal types associated with the name of the ,etiennes2 their roman types exhibit no special excellence4 ,historically1 their chief importance is that they proved that care and enthusiasm for fine printing was re-awakening1 and that printers with high ideals would not lack support4 ,meanwhile1 in the ,english ,midlands an interesting and creditable1 though wrong-headed1 attempt to improve on existing founts had been made by ,john ,baskerville1 a ,worcestershire man1 born in #agjf1 who worked at ,birmingham1 and in #ageg printed there in his own types a quarto edition of ,virgil which attracted considerable notice4 ,the merit of ,baskerville's type is its distinctness2 its fault is the reappearance in a slightly different form of the old heresy of ,aldus1 that what is good1 or is thought to be good1 in penmanship must necessarily be good in type4 ,in imitation of the ,writing-,masters ,baskerville delighted in making his upstrokes very thin and his downstrokes thick1 and his serifs--that is1 all the little finishing strokes of the letters--sharp and fine4 ,it is probable that his ideals were influenced in this direction by books like ,pine's ,horace 7#agcc-g71 in which1 as already noted1 the letterpress as well as the illustrations and ornament is engraved throughout4 ,these contrasts of light and heavy lines would naturally please an engraver2 but they have no advantage when transferred to type1 only making the page appear restless and spotty4 ,contemporary opinion in ,england was no more than lukewarm in their favour4 ,the ,virgil procured ,baskerville a commission from the ,university of ,oxford to cut a ,greek fount1 but this was generally condemned1 though it had the merit of being free from contractions4 ,editions of ,milton's ,paradise ,lost and ,paradise ,regained 7#ageh71 and other classics1 were more successful1 and ,baskerville was appointed printer to the ,university of ,cambridge for ten years2 but his profits were small1 and when he died in #agge1 in default of an adequate ,english offer1 his types were sold to a ,french society for ,l#cgjj1 and used in printing a famous edition of the works of ,voltaire 7#aghe-i74 ,the most conspicuous exponent of ,baskerville's methods was an ,italian1 ,giovanni ,battista ,bodoni1 born in ,piedmont in #agdj4 ,bodoni settled at ,parma1 and it was at ,parma that he did most of his printing4 ,even more notably than ,baskerville1 he tried to give to the pages which he printed the brilliancy of a fine engraving4 ,he used good black ink 7which is to his credit71 exaggerated the differences between his thick strokes and his thin1 and left wide spaces between his lines so as to let the elegance of his type stand out as brilliantly as possible against the white paper4 ,the judgment of the best modern printers is against these vivid contrasts and in favour of a more closely set page1 the two pages which face each other being regarded as an artistic whole which should not be cut into strips by a series of broad white spaces4 ,bodoni's books1 which used to be highly esteemed1 are now perhaps unduly neglected1 for his work in its own way1 whether he used roman type1 italics1 or ,greek1 is very good1 and his editions of ,virgil1 ,homer1 and the ,imitatio ,christi are very striking books1 though built on wrong lines4 ,bodoni died at ,padua in #ahac4 ,while the names of ,caslon1 the brothers ,foulis1 and ,baskerville in ,great ,britain1 and of ,bodoni in ,italy1 stand out from amid their contemporaries1 the premier place in ,french book-production was occupied by members of the ,didot family4 ,the first of these was ,francois ,didot 7#afhi-ageg72 his eldest son1 ,francois ,ambroise 7#agcj-ahjd71 was a fine printer2 his younger son1 ,pierre 7#agcb-ie71 was also a typefounder and papermaker4 ,in the third generation ,pierre's son ,henri 7#agfe-aheb7 was famous for his microscopic type1 while ,pierre ,,ii 7#agfj-ahec71 the eldest son of ,francois ,ambroise and nephew of ,pierre ,i1 printed some fine editions of ,latin and ,french classics at the press at the ,louvre2 and his brother ,firmin ,didot 7#agfd-ahcf7 won renown both as a typefounder and engraver1 and also as a printer and improver of the art of stereotyping1 besides being a deputy and writer of tragedies4 ,in the fourth generation1 the two sons of ,firmin ,didot1 ,ambroise 7#agij-ahgf7 and ,hyacinthe1 carried on the family traditions4 ,incidentally1 ,ambroise wrote some valuable treatises on wood-engraving and amassed an enormous library1 which1 when sold at auction in #ahhb-d1 realized nearly ,l#abj1jjj4 ,with the names of ,bodoni and the ,didots we may link that of the ,german publisher and printer ,georg ,joachim ,goeschen1 grandfather of the late ,viscount ,goschen4 ,he was born in #ageb1 died in #ahbh1 and worked the greater part of his life at ,leipzig4 ,he brought out pretty illustrated editions1 made experiments with ,greek types1 much on the same lines as ,bodoni1 and devoted his life to the improvement of printing and bookmaking and the spread of good literature1 enjoying the friendship of ,schiller and other eminent ,german writers4 ,coming back to ,england1 we may note the beginning of the ,chiswick ,press in #aghi1 the year of the ,french ,revolution4 ,charles ,whittingham was then only twenty-two 7he had been born at ,coventry in #agfg71 and for his first years as his own master he was content to print hand-bills and do any other jobbing work that he could get4 ,he began issuing illustrated books in #agig1 and after a time the care he took in making ready wood-blocks 7the use of which had been revived by ,bewick7 for printing gained him a special reputation4 ,from about #ahaa to his death in #ahdj he left one branch of his business in the city under the charge of a partner1 while he himself lived and worked at ,chiswick1 whence the name the ,chiswick ,press by which the firm is still best known4 ,his nephew1 ,charles ,whittingham the younger1 was born in #agie1 was apprenticed to his uncle in #ahaj and worked with him until #ahbh4 ,then he set up for himself at ,tooks ,court off ,chancery ,lane1 and came rapidly to the front1 largely from the work which he did for ,william ,pickering1 a well-known publisher of those days4 ,on his uncle's death in #ahdj the younger ,whittingham inherited the ,chiswick business also4 ,four years after this1 in #ahdd1 he led the way in the revival of old-faced types4 ,the examples of ,baskerville at home and of ,bodoni and other printers abroad had not been without effect on ,english printing4 ,brilliancy had been sought at all costs1 and in the attempt to combine economy with it the height of letters had been increased and their breadth diminished so that1 while they looked larger1 more of them could be crowded into a line4 ,the younger ,whittingham had the good taste to see that the rounder1 more evenly tinted type1 which ,caslon had made before these influences had come into play1 was much pleasanter to look at and less trying to the eyes4 ,he was already thinking of reviving it when he was commissioned by ,longmans to print a work of fiction1 ,so much of the ,diary of ,lady ,willoughby as relates to her ,domestic ,history and to the ,eventful ,period of the ,reign of ,charles the ,first1 and it occurred to him that the use of old-faced type would be especially in keeping with such a book4 ,a handsome small quarto was the result1 and the revival of old-faced type proved a great success4 ,not content with reviving old type1 the younger ,whittingham revived also the use of ornamental initials1 causing numerous copies to be cut for him from the initials used in ,french books of the sixteenth century4 ,some of these are good1 some almost bad1 or while good in themselves1 suitable only for use with black-letter founts and too heavy for use with roman letter4 ,still the attempt was in the right direction1 and the books of this period with the imprint of the ,chiswick ,press are worth the attention of collectors interested in the modern developments of printing4 ,during the succeeding forty years there is little by which they are likely to be attracted save the issues of the private press kept and worked by the ,rev4 ,c4 ,h4 ,o4 ,daniel of ,worcester ,college1 ,oxford1 of which he is now ,provost4 ,while he was yet a lad ,mr4 ,daniel had amused himself with printing1 and a thin duodecimo is still extant entitled ,sir ,richard's ,daughter1 ,a ,christmas ,tale of ,olden ,times1 bearing the imprint ,excudebat ,h4 ,daniel3 ,trinity ,parsonage1 ,frome1 #aheb4 ,in #ahgd ,mr4 ,daniel resumed his old hobby at ,oxford1 printing ,notes from a catalogue of pamphlets in ,worcester ,college ,library1 and in #ahgf ,a new ,sermon of the newest ,fashion by ,ananias ,snip1 of which the original is preserved in the library of ,worcester ,college4 ,it was1 however1 in #ahha1 by an edition of thirty-six copies of ,the ,garland of ,rachel by divers kindly hands1 that the ,daniel ,press won its renown4 ,rachel was ,mr4 ,daniel's little daughter1 and the eighteen contributors to her ,garland included ,frederick ,locker1 ,robert ,bridges1 ,austin ,dobson1 ,andrew ,lang1 ,edmund ,gosse1 ,john ,addington ,symonds1 ,lewis ,carrol1 ,w4 ,henley1 and ,margaret ,woods4 ,each poet was rewarded by a copy in which his name was printed on the titlepage1 and the ,garland soon came to be regarded as a very desirable possession4 ,mr4 ,daniel subsequently printed numerous little books by interesting writers 7,robert ,bridges1 ,walter ,pater1 ,canon ,dixon1 and others71 and while neither his types nor his presswork were exceptionally good1 succeeded in investing them all with a charming appropriateness which gives them a special place of their own in the affections of book-lovers4 ,another venture in which a high literary standard was combined with much care for typography was ,the ,hobby-,horse1 a quarterly magazine edited by ,herbert ,p4 ,horne and ,selwyn ,image between #ahhf and #ahib1 after which it appeared fitfully and flickered out4 ,the change in the type1 the setting it close instead of spaced1 and the new initials and tailpieces which may be noted at the beginning of ,vol4 ,,iii 7#ahhh71 constituted a landmark in the history of modern printing of an importance similar to that of the return to old-faced type in ,lady ,willoughby's ,diary4 ,the progress of the movement can be followed 7i7 in the catalogue of the ,exhibition of ,arts and ,crafts ,exhibition ,society1 held at the ,new ,gallery in the autumn of #ahhh1 with an article on printing by ,mr4 ,emery ,walker2 7ii7 in three books by ,william ,morris1 viz4 ,the ,house of the ,wolfings1 ,the ,roots of the ,mountains1 and the ,gunnlaug ,saga1 printed under the superintendence of the author and ,mr4 ,walker at the ,chiswick ,press in #ahhi and #ahij4 ,in #ahia ,william ,morris gave an immense impetus to the revival of fine printing by setting up a press at ,no4 #af ,upper ,mall1 ,hammersmith1 close to his own residence1 ,kelmscott ,house4 ,it was the essence of my undertaking1 he wrote subsequently1 to produce books which it would be a pleasure to look upon as pieces of printing and arrangement of type1 and no one will be inclined to deny that the ,kelmscott ,press books fulfil this aim4 ,the gothic type1 whether in its larger or smaller size 7the ,troy type designed for the reprint of ,caxton's ,recuyell of the ,histories of ,troy1 and the ,chaucer type designed for the great ,chaucer71 will hold its own against any gothic type of the fifteenth century4 ,the ,golden type 7designed for the reprint of ,caxton's ,golden ,legend7 cannot be praised as highly as this4 ,by instinct rather than by conscious thinking it over1 ,morris confessed1 ,i began by getting myself a fount of ,roman type1 and it is no unfair criticism of it to say that it betrays the hand of a man whose natural expression was in gothic letter forcing roman into yielding some of the characteristic gothic charm4 ,the ,golden ,legend would have been a far finer book if it had been printed in the ,chaucer type1 and the ,shelley1 ,keats1 ,herrick and other books which ,morris printed in it to please ,f4 ,s4 ,ellis or other friends cannot stand the test of comparison with ,the ,wood ,beyond the ,world and the other romances which he printed entirely to please himself4 ,but whether he used his roman or his gothic type the exquisite craftsmanship which he put into all his books enabled ,morris to attain his aim1 and his wonderful borders and capitals crown them with the delight which this king of designers took in his work4 ,no other printer since printing began has ever produced such a series of books as the fifty-three which poured from the ,kelmscott ,press during those wonderful seven years1 and no book that has ever been printed can be compared for richness of effect with the ,chaucer which was the crowning achievement of the ,press4 ,morris's example brought into the field a host of competitors and plagiarists and a few workers in the same spirit4 ,by his side throughout his venture had stood ,mr4 ,emery ,walker1 who had no small part in starting the whole movement1 whose help and advice for more than twenty years have been freely at the service of any one who has shown any inclination to do good work1 and who1 whenever good work has been achieved1 will almost always be found to have lent a hand in it4 ,after ,morris's death ,mr4 ,walker joined with ,mr4 ,cobden ,sanderson in producing the ,doves ,press books1 printed1 all of them1 in a single type1 but that type a fine adaptation of ,jenson's and handled with a skill to which ,jenson not only never attained but never aspired4 ,the first book printed in it was the ,agricola of ,tacitus1 and this and ,mr4 ,mackail's lecture on ,morris and other early books are entirely without decoration4 ,woodcut capitals and borders1 it was thought1 had reached their highest possible excellence under the hand of ,william ,morris1 and since not progress but retrogression would be the certain result of any fresh experiments1 decoration of this sort must be abandoned4 ,the reasoning was perhaps not entirely cogent1 since the decoration appropriate to the ,doves type would hardly enter into any direct competition with ,morris's gothic designs4 ,later on1 however1 it was more than justified by the use in the ,paradise ,lost1 the ,bible1 and most subsequent books 7these later ones issued by ,mr4 ,sanderson alone7 of very simple red capitals1 which light up the pages on which they occur with charming effect4 ,similar capitals on a less bold scale1 some in gold1 others in red1 others in blue1 are a conspicuous feature in the masterpieces of the ,ashendene ,press belonging to ,mr4 ,st4 ,john ,hornby4 ,this was started by ,mr4 ,hornby at his house in ,ashendene1 ,herts1 in #ahid1 and was for some time worked by ,mr4 ,hornby himself and his sisters1 with1 as at least one colophon gratefully acknowledges1 some little help of ,cicely ,barclay1 who subsequently1 under a different surname1 appears as a joint proprietor4 ,the early books--the ,journals of ,joseph ,hornby1 ,meditations of ,marcus ,aurelius1 ,prologue to the ,canterbury ,tales1 etc4--are not conspicuously good1 but in #aijb1 in a type founded on that used by ,sweynheym and ,pannartz at ,subiaco1 ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,hornby produced the first volume of an illustrated ,divina ,commedia which cannot be too highly praised4 ,its story is told in the red-printed colophon1 the wording of which is very prettily turned3 ,fine della prima ,cantica appellata ,inferno della ,commedia di ,dante poeta eccellentissimo4 ,impressa nella ,stamperia ,privata di ,ashendene a ,shelley ,house1 ,chelsea1 per opera e spesa di ,st4 ,john ,cicely ,hornby coll' aiuto del loro cugino ,meysey ,turton4 ,le lettere iniziali sono l'opera di ,graily ,hewitt1 le incisioni in legno di ,c4 ,keates secondo disegni fatti da ,r4 ,catterson ,smith sopra gli originali dell' edizione di #adia4 ,finita nel mese di ,dicembre dell' anno del ,signore ,,mcmii1 nel quale dopo dieci secoli di bellezza cadde il gran ,campanile di ,san ,marco dei ,veneziani4 ,the third type happily inspired by the example of ,morris was the ,greek type designed by ,robert ,proctor on the model of that used for the ,new ,testament of the ,complutensian ,polyglott in #aead1 with the addition of majuscules and accents1 both of them lacking in the original4 ,an edition of the ,oresteia of ,aeschylus in this type was being printed for ,mr4 ,proctor at the ,chiswick ,press at the time of his death1 and appeared in #aijd4 ,in #aijh it was followed by an edition of the ,odyssey printed at the ,clarendon ,press4 ,like ,morris's gothic founts1 this ,greek type may or may not be admired1 but that it attains the effects at which it aims can hardly be denied4 ,no page of such richness had ever before been set up by any printer of ,greek4 ,to write of books printed in types which for one reason or another seem less successful than those already named is a less grateful task1 but there are several designers and printers whose work approaches excellence1 and who worked independently of ,morris1 though with less sure touch4 ,foremost among these must be placed ,mr4 ,charles ,ricketts1#gj whose ,vale type1 despite a few blemishes1 is not very far behind the ,golden type of the ,kelmscott ,press1 and whose ornament at its best is graceful1 and that with a lighter and gayer grace than ,morris's1 though it cannot compare with his for dignity or richness of effect4 ,in a later type1 called the ,kinge's ,fount from its use in an edition of ,the ,kinges ,quair 7#aijc71 ,mr4 ,ricketts's good genius deserted him1 for the mixture of majuscule and minuscule forms is most unpleasing4 ,the ,eragny books printed by ,esther and ,lucien ,pissarro on their press at ,epping1 ,bedford ,park1 and the ,brook1 ,chiswick1 were at first 7#ahid-aijc1 ,nos4 #a-af7 printed by ,mr4 ,ricketts's permission in the ,vale type4 ,in ,june1 #aijc1 a ,brook fount designed by ,mr4 ,pissarro was completed1 and ,a ,brief ,account of the ,origin of the ,eragny ,press printed in it4 ,mr4 ,pissarro's books are chiefly notable for their woodcuts1 which are of very varying merit4 ,in the ,united ,states1 in addition to some merely impudent plagiarisms1 several excellent efforts after improved printing were inspired by the ,english movement of which ,morris was the most prominent figure4 ,mr4 ,clarke ,conwell at the ,elston ,press1 ,pelham ,road1 ,new ,rochelle1 ,new ,york1 printed very well1 both in roman and black letter1 his edition of the ,tale of ,gamelyn 7#aija7 in the latter type being a charming little book4 ,mr4 ,berkeley ,updike of the ,merrymount ,press1 ,boston1 and ,mr4 ,bruce ,rogers during his connection with the ,riverside ,press1 ,boston1 have also both done excellent work1 which is too little known in this country4 ,the artistic printing which ,mr4 ,rogers did while working for the ,riverside ,press is especially notable because of the rich variety of types and styles in which excellence was attained4 ,,footnote3 #gj ,like ,proctor1 ,mr4 ,ricketts had no press of his own4 ,his books were printed for him by ,messrs4 ,ballantyne4 ,,select ,,bibliography ,,general ,,works ,,ferguson1 ,j4 ,some ,aspects of ,bibliography4 ,edinburgh1 #aijj4 ,,peddie1 ,r4 ,a4 ,a ,list of ,bibliographical ,books published since the foundation of the ,bibliographical ,society in #ahic 7,bib4 ,soc4 ,transactions1 vol4 x41 pp4 #bce-caa74 ,london1 #aiaj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,bigmore and ,,wyman4 ,a ,bibliography of ,printing4 ,with notes and illustrations1 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahhj4 ,,reed1 ,t4 ,b4 ,a ,list of ,books and ,papers on ,printers and ,printing under the ,countries and ,towns to which they refer4 7,bibliographical ,society47 ,london1 #ahie4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,bibliographical ,,society4 ,transactions4 ,london1 #ahic1 etc4 ,,edinburgh ,,bibliographical ,,society4 ,transactions4 ,edinburgh1 #ahif1 etc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,le ,bibliographe ,moderne4 ,paris1 #ahig1 etc4 ,bibliographica4 #c vols4 ,london1 #ahie-g4 ,centrallblatt fur ,bibliothekswesen4 ,leipzig1 #ahhh1 etc4 ,the ,library4 ,london1 #ahhi1 etc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,zeitschrift fur ,bucherfreunde4 ,bielefeld1 #ahig1 etc4 ,,brunet1 ,j4 ,c4 ,dictionnaire de ,geographie ancienne et moderne a l'usage du libraire et de l'amateur de livre4 ,par un ,bibliophile4 ,paris1 #ahgj4 ,with notes on the introduction of printing into the places named4 ,,crane1 ,w4 ,of the ,decorative ,illustration of ,books ,old and ,new4 ,second edition4 ,london1 #aija4 ,,duff1 ,e4 ,g4 ,early ,printed ,books4 7,books about ,books47 ,london1 #ahic4 #hvo4 ,,humphreys1 ,h4 ,n4 ,masterpieces of the ,early ,printers and ,engravers3 ,series of facsimiles from rare and curious books1 remarkable for illustrative devices1 beautiful borders1 decorative initials1 printers' marks1 and elaborate titlepages4 ,fol4 ,london1 #ahgj4 ,,kristeller1 ,p4 ,kupferstich und ,holzschnitt in vier ,jahrhunderten4 #dto4 ,berlin1 #aije4 ,,lang1 ,a4 ,the ,library4 ,with a chapter on modern ,english illustrated books by ,austin ,dobson1 ,london1 #ahha4 ---- ,second edition4 ,london1 #ahib4 ,,lippmann1 ,f4 ,druckschriften des xv4 bis xviii4 ,jahrhunderts in getreuen ,nachbildungen herausgegeben von der ,direction der ,reichsdruckerei unter ,mitwirkung von ,dr4 ,f4 ,lippmann and ,dr4 ,r4 ,dohme4 ,fol4 ,berlin1 #ahhd-g4 ,,morgan1 ,j4 ,p4 ,catalogue of ,early ,printed ,books from the libraries of ,william ,morris1 ,richard ,bennett1 etc41 now forming portion of the library of ,j4 ,p4 ,morgan4 ,by ,s4 ,aldrich1 ,e4 ,g4 ,duff1 ,a4 ,w4 ,pollard1 ,r4 ,proctor4 #c vols4 ,large #dto4 ,london1 #aijg4 ,with many facsimiles4 ,,rouveyre1 ,e4 ,connaissances necessaires a un bibliophile4 #aj vols4 ,paris1 #ahii4 ,i4--,,collectors ,,and ,,collecting ,,elton1 ,c4 ,i4 and ,m4 ,a4 ,the ,great ,book ,collectors4 ,london1 #ahic4 ,,fletcher1 ,w4 ,y4 ,english ,book-,collectors4 ,london1 #aijb4 ,,quaritch1 ,b4 ,contributions towards a ,dictionary of ,english ,book ,collectors4 ,london1 #ahib-i4 ,,davenport1 ,c4 ,english ,heraldic ,book-,stamps4 ,london1 #aiji4 ,with biographical notes4 ,,guigard1 ,j4 ,nouvel ,armorial du ,bibliophile4 ,guide de l'amateur des livres armories4 #b tom4 ,paris1 #ahij4 ,with biographical notices of many ,french collectors4 99 99 99 99 99 ,book ,prices ,current4 ,london1 #ahic1 etc4 ,american ,book ,prices ,current4 ,new ,york1 #ahie1 etc4 ,,livingston1 ,l4 ,s4 ,auction ,prices of ,books4 #ahhf-aijd4 #d vols4 ,new ,york1 #aije4 ,,lawler1 ,j4 ,book ,auctions in ,england in the ,seventeenth ,century4 ,london1 #ahih4 ,,roberts1 ,w4 ,catalogues of ,english ,book ,sales4 ,london1 #aijj4 ---- ,rare ,books and their ,prices4 ,london1 #ahif4 ,,wheatley1 ,h4 ,b4 ,prices of ,books3 ,an inquiry into the changes in the price of books which have occurred in ,england at different periods4 ,london1 #ahih4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,brunet1 ,j4 ,c4 ,manuel du libraire et de l'amateur de livres1 contenant #ao un nouveau dictionnaire bibliographique1 etc4 ,cinquieme ,edition4 #f vols4 ,paris1 #ahfj-e4 ,,graesse1 ,j4 ,g4 ,t4 ,tresor de livres rares et precieux3 ou ,nouveau ,dictionnaire bibliographique4 #g vols4 ,dresde1 #ahei-fi4 ,these two books mark the close of the fashion of ,general ,collecting4 ,,ii4--,,block-,,books ,,sotheby1 ,s4 ,l4 ,principia typographica4 ,the block-books issued in ,holland1 ,flanders1 and ,germany during the fifteenth century1 etc4 #c vols4 ,fol4 ,london1 #aheh4 ,,schreiber1 ,w4 ,l4 ,livres xylographiques et xylo-chirographiques4 ,fac-similes des livres xylographiques4 7,manuel de l'amateur de la gravure sur bois et sur metal au xve siecle1 tomes #d1 #g1 #h47 #hvo and fol4 ,leipzig1 #ahie1 #aijj1 #aijb4 ,,pilinski1 ,a4 ,monuments de la xylographie 444 reproduits en fac-simile sur les exemplaires de la ,bibliotheque ,nationale1 precedes des notices par ,gustave ,pawlowski4 ,fol4 ,paris1 #ahhb-c4 #a4 ,apocalypse4 #d4 ,ars ,moriendi4 #b4 ,bible des ,pauvres4 #e4 ,oraison ,dominicale4 #c4 ,ars ,memorandi4 #f4 ,cantica ,canticorum4 ,,biblia ,,pauperum4 ,biblia pauperum4 ,nach dem ,einzigen in #ej ,darstellungen herausgegeben von ,p4 ,heitz1 ,w4 ,l4 ,schreiber4 #dto4 ,strassburg1 #aijc4 ,,cust1 ,l4 ,h4 ,the ,master ,e4 ,s4 and the ,ars ,moriendi4 #dto4 ,oxford1 #ahih4 ,,iii4 ,,and ,,iv4--,,the ,,introduction ,,of ,,printing--,,holland ,,and ,,mainz ,,grolier ,,club4 ,a description of the ,early ,printed ,books owned by the ,grolier ,club1 with a brief account of their printers and the history of typography in the fifteenth century4 ,fol4 ,new ,york1 #ahie4 ,quotes numerous early references to the invention of printing1 and gives some facsimiles4 ,,enschede1 ,c4 ,laurens ,jansz4 ,coster de uitvinder van de boekdrukkunst4 ,haarlem1 #aijd4 ---- ,technisch onderzoek naar de uitvinding van de boekdrukkunst4 ,haarlem1 #aija4 ,,hessels1 ,j4 ,h4 ,gutenberg3 ,was ,he the ,inventor of ,printing8 ,london1 #ahhb4 ---- ,haarlem the ,birthplace of ,printing1 not ,mentz4 ,london1 #ahhg4 ---- ,article ,typography in the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica4 ,,gutenberg ,,gesellschaft4 ,veroffentlichungen4 ,mainz1 #aijb1 etc4 #dto4 ,i4 ,,zedler1 ,g4 ,die alteste ,gutenbergtype4 #aijb4 ,,ii4 ,,schwenke1 ,p4 ,die ,donat- und ,kalendertype4 #aijc4 ,,iii4 ,das ,mainzer ,fragment vom ,weltgericht4 ,der ,canon ,missae vom ,jahre4 #adeh4 ,,iv4 ,,zedler4 ,das ,mainzer ,catholicon4 ,v-,,vi4 ,das ,mainzer ,fragment vom ,weltgericht4 ,die ,type ,b#db im ,missale von #adic4 ,die ,missaldrucke ,p4 und ,joh4 ,schoffers4 ,die ,bucheranzeigen ,p4 ,schoffers4 ,,viii-,,ix4 ,,seymour ,,de ,,ricci4 ,catalogue raisonne des premieres impressions de ,mayence 7#adde-fg74 ,,dziatzko1 ,c4 ,was wissen wir von dem ,leben und der ,person ,joh4 ,gutenbergs8 #ahie4 ---- ,gutenberg's fruheste ,druckerpraxis auf ,grund einer 444 ,vergleichung des #db-zeiligen und #cf-zeilgen ,bibel4 7,sammlung1 ,no4 #d47 #ahij4 ,,hessels1 ,j4 ,h4 ,gutenberg3 ,was ,he the ,inventor of ,printing8 ,london1 #ahhb4 ---- ,the ,so-called ,gutenberg ,documents4 7,reprinted from ,the ,library47 ,london1 #aiab4 ,v4--,,other ,,incunabula ,,panzer1 ,g4 ,w4 ,annales ,typographici ab artis inventae origine ad annum ,,md4 7ad annum ,,mdxxxvi74 #aa vols4 #dto4 ,norimbergae1 #agic-ahjc4 ,,hain1 ,l4 ,repertorium ,bibliographicum1 in quo libri omnes ab arte typographica inventa usque ad annum ,,md4 typis expressi ordine alphabetico vel simpliciter enumerantur vel adcuratius recensentur4 ,stuttgartiae et ,tubingae1 #ahbf4 ---- ,indices uberrimi opera ,c4 ,burger4 ,lipsiae1 #ahia4 ,,copinger1 ,w4 ,a4 ,supplement to ,hain's ,repertorium ,bibliographicum4 7,index by ,konrad ,burger47 #c vols4 ,london1 #ahie-aijb4 ,,reichling1 ,d4 ,appendices ad ,hainii ,copingeri ,repertorium ,bibliographicum4 ,additiones et emendationes4 #g pt4 ,monachii1 #aije-aa4 ,,pellechet1 ,m4 ,l4 ,c4 ,catalogue general des ,incunables des bibliotheques publiques de ,france4 ,continued by ,m4 ,l4 ,polain4 ,vols4 i4-iii4 ,paris1 #ahig1 etc4 ,,proctor1 ,r4 ,an ,index to the ,early ,printed ,books in the ,british ,museum1 with notes of those in the ,bodleian ,library1 ,oxford4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahih4 ,,british ,,museum4 ,catalogue of ,books ,printed in the ,fifteenth ,century1 now in the ,british ,museum4 ,vols4 i-ii4 ,block-books and ,germany1 ,mainz-,trier4 #dto4 ,london1 #aijh1 etc4 ,,providence1 ,r4,i4 ,,annmary ,,brown ,,memorial4 ,catalogue of ,books mostly from the ,presses of the ,first ,printers1 showing the progress of printing with movable metal types through the second half of the ,fifteenth ,century4 ,collected by ,rush ,c4 ,hawkins4 ,catalogued by ,a4 ,w4 ,pollard4 #dto4 ,oxford1 #aiaj4 ,,burger1 ,k4 ,monumenta ,germaniae et ,italiae typographica4 ,deutsche und italienische ,inkunabeln in getreuen ,nachbildungen4 ,parts #a-h4 ,fol4 ,berlin1 #ahib1 etc4 ,,gesellschaft ,,fur ,,typenkunde ,,des #ae4 ,,jahrhunderts4 ,veroffentlichungen4 ,fol4 ,uppsala1 #aijg1 etc4 ,,type ,,facsimile ,,society4 ,publications4 7#aijj-d edited by ,r4 ,proctor2 #aijd-h by ,g4 ,dunn47 #dto4 ,oxford1 #aijj1 etc4 ,,woolley ,,photographs4 ,woolley ,photographs4 ,photographs of fifteenth century types of the exact size of the originals1 designed to supplement published examples1 with references to ,robert ,proctor's ,index of ,books in the ,british ,museum and ,bodleian ,library4 ,edited by ,george ,dunn1 with a list of the #ejj photographs4 ,fol4 ,woolley1 #ahii-aije4 ,,haebler1 ,k4 ,typenrepertorium der ,wiegendrucke4 #c vols4 ,leipzig1 #aije1 etc4 #hvo4 ,this supplies the measurement and some guide to the characteristics of every recorded fifteenth century type1 with helps to the identification of the printers of unsigned books by means of the different forms of ,m1 ,qu1 etc4 ,,bernard1 ,a4 ,j4 ,de l',origine et des ,debuts de l',imprimerie en ,europe4 #b vols4 ,paris1 #ahec4 ,valuable for its numerous references to notes and dates in individual copies4 ,,hawkins1 ,,rush ,c4 ,titles of the ,first ,books from the ,earliest ,presses established in different ,cities1 ,towns1 and ,monasteries in ,europe1 before the end of the ,fifteenth ,century4 ,with brief notes upon their printers4 #dto4 ,new ,york1 #ahhd4 ,,claudin1 ,a4 ,histoire de l'imprimerie en ,france4 ,vols4 i4-iii4 #dto4 ,paris1 #aijj1 etc4 ,,thierry-,,poux1 ,o4 ,premiers monuments de l'imprimerie en ,france au xve siecle4 #dj sheets of facsimiles4 ,fol4 ,paris1 #ahij4 ,,holtrop1 ,j4 ,w4 ,monuments typographiques des ,pays-,bas au quinzieme siecle4 #acj plates of facsimiles4 ,fol4 ,la ,haye1 #ahfh4 ,,campbell1 ,m4 ,f4 ,a4 ,g4 ,annales de la ,typographie ,neerlandaise au xve siecle4 7,with four supplements47 ,la ,haye1 #ahgd 7#ahgh-ij74 ,,fumagalli1 ,g4 ,lexicon typographicum ,italiae4 ,dictionnaire geographique d',italie pour servir a l'histoire de l'imprimerie dans ce pays4 ,florence1 #aije4 ,,haebler1 ,k4 ,bibliografia iberica del siglo #ae4 ,la ,haya1 #aijd4 ---- ,the ,early ,printers of ,spain and ,portugal4 ,bibliog4 ,soc4 ,illust4 ,monographs1 #d4 #dto4 ,london1 #ahig4 ---- ,typographie iberique du xve siecle4 ,reproduction en fac-simile de tous les caracteres typographiques employes en ,espagne et en ,portugal jusqu'a #aejj4 ,fol4 ,la ,haye1 #aijb4 ,,vi4--,,the ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,printed ,,book ,,pollard1 ,a4 ,w4 ,an ,essay on ,colophons4 ,with specimens and translations1 by ,a4 ,w4 ,pollard1 and an introduction by ,r4 ,garnett 7,caxton ,club74 ,chicago1 #aije4 ---- ,last ,words on the ,history of the ,titlepage4 #dto4 ,london1 #ahij4 ,,roberts1 ,w4 ,printers' ,marks3 ,a ,chapter in the ,history of ,typography4 ,london1 #ahic4 ,,buchermarken4 ,die ,buchermarken oder ,buchdrucker und ,verlegerzeichen4 #dto4 ,strassburg1 #ahib1 etc4 #a4 ,elsassische ,buchermarken bis ,anfang des #ah4 ,jahrhunderts4 ,herausgeg4 von ,p4 ,heitz1 #ahib4 #b4 ,die ,italienischen ,buchdrucker- und ,verlegerzeichen bis #aebe4 ,herausgeg4 von ,p4 ,kristeller1 #ahic4 #c4 ,die ,basler ,buchermarken bis ,anfang des #ag4 ,jahrhunderts4 ,herausgeg4 von ,p4 ,heitz1 #ahie4 #d4 ,die ,frankfurter ,drucker und ,verlegerzeichen bis ,anfang des #ag4 ,jahrhunderts4 ,herausgeg4 von ,p4 ,heitz1 #ahif4 #e4 ,spanische und ,portugiesische ,bucherzeichen des xv4 und xvi4 ,jahrhunderts4 ,herausgeg4 von4 ,k4 ,k4 ,haebler1 #ahih4 #f4 ,kolner ,buchermarken bis zum ,anfang des xvii4 ,jahrhunderts4 ,herausgeg4 von ,dr4 ,zaretzky1 #ahih4 #g4 ,genfer ,buchdrucker1 und ,verlegerzeichen von xv4 xvi4 und xvii4 ,jahrhundert4 ,von ,p4 ,heitz1 #aijh4 ,,silvestre1 ,l4 ,c4 ,marques typographiques1 ou recueil des monogrammes 444 des libraires et imprimeurs en ,france1 depuis l'introduction de l'imprimerie jusqu'a la fin du xve siecle4 ,paris1 #ahec-fg4 ,,jennings1 ,o4 ,early ,woodcut ,initials4 ,london1 #aijh4 ,,vii4--,,early ,,german ,,and ,,dutch ,,illustrated ,,books ,,dodgson1 ,c4 ,catalogue of early ,german and ,flemish woodcuts preserved in the ,department of ,prints and ,drawings in the ,british ,museum4 ,vols4 i4-ii4 ,london1 #aijc1 #aiaa4 ,,muther1 ,r4 ,die deutsche ,bucherillustration der ,gothik und ,fruhrenaissance 7#adfj-aecj74 #b ,bde4 #dto4 ,munchen1 #ahhd4 ,,schreiber1 ,w4 ,l4 ,catalogue des incunables a figures imprimes en ,allemagne1 en ,suisse en ,autriche-,hongrie et en ,scandinavie1 avec des notes critiques et bibliographiques4 7,manuel de l'amateur de la gravure sur bois et sur metal au xve siecle1 tom4 #e #f47 ,leipzig1 #aiaj4 ,,cockerell1 ,s4 ,c4 ,some ,german ,woodcuts of the ,fifteenth ,century4 #dto4 ,hammersmith1 #ahig4 ,,conway1 ,sir ,w4 ,m4 ,the ,woodcutters of the ,netherlands in the ,fifteenth ,century4 ,cambridge1 #ahhd4 ,,viii4--,,early ,,italian ,,illustrated ,,books ,,lippmann1 ,f4 ,the ,art of ,wood-,engraving in ,italy in the ,fifteenth ,century4 ,london1 #ahhh4 ,,pollard1 ,a4 ,w4 ,italian ,book-,illustrations1 chiefly of the ,fifteenth ,century4 7,portfolio monographs1 #ab47 ,london1 #ahid4 ,,kristeller1 ,p4 ,early ,florentine ,woodcuts4 ,with an annotated list of ,florentine illustrated books4 ,london1 #ahig4 ,,essling1 ,,prince ,d'4 ,les ,missels imprimes a ,venise de #adha a #afjj4 ,description1 illustration1 bibliographie4 ,ouvrage orne de planches sur cuivre et de #bej gravures4 ,fol4 ,paris1 #ahid4 ---- ,etudes sur l'art de la gravure sur bois a ,venise4 ,les livres a figures venitiens de la fin du #ae;e siecle et du commencement du #af;e4 ,fol4 ,paris1 #aijg1 etc4 ,,ix4--,,early ,,french ,,and ,,spanish ,,illustrated ,,books ,,murray1 ,c4 ,f4 ,catalogue of a collection of early ,french ,books in the library of ,c4 ,fairfax ,murray4 ,compiled by ,h4 ,w4 ,davies4 #dto4 ,london1 #aiaj4 ,,vindel1 ,p4 ,bibliografia grafica3 ,reproduccion en facsimil de portadas1 retratos1 colofones y otras curiosidades utiles a los bibliofilos1 que se hallan en obras unicas y libros preciosos o raros4 #b tom4 ,madrid1 #aiaj4 #abbd facsimiles of titlepages1 illustrations1 etc41 of ,spanish books1 unfortunately neither well selected1 nor well arranged1 but still useful4 ,x4--,,later ,,foreign ,,books ,,proctor1 ,r4 ,an index to the ,early ,printed ,books in the ,british ,museum4 ,part ,,ii4 #aeja-bj4 ,germany4 ,london1 #aijc4 ,,nijhoff1 ,w4 ,bibliographie de la typographie neerlandaise des annees #aejj a #aedj4 ,la ,haye1 #aija1 etc4 ---- ,l'art typographique dans les ,pays-,bas1 #aejj-aedj3 ,reproduction en fac-simile des caracteres1 typographiques1 des marques d'imprimeurs1 etc4 ,fol4 ,la ,haye1 #aijb1 etc4 ,,renouard1 ,a4 ,a4 ,annales de l'imprimerie des ,aldes1 ou histoire des trois ,manuces1 et de leurs editions4 ,troisieme edition1 avec notes de la famille des ,juntes1 etc4 #c vols4 ,paris1 #ahcd4 ---- ,annales de l'imprimerie des ,estiennes ou histoire de la famille des ,estiennes et de ses editions4 #b;e edition4 ,paris1 #ahdc4 ,,rooses1 ,,max4 ,christopher ,plantin1 imprimeur anversois4 ,biographie et documents4 #b;e edition4 ,fol4 ,anvers1 #ahif4 ,,willems1 ,a4 ,les ,elzevier4 ,histoire et annales typographiques4 ,bruxelles1 etc41 #ahhj4 ,,goldsmid1 ,e4 ,m4 ,bibliotheca curiosa4 ,a complete catalogue of all the publications of the ,elzevir presses4 ,edinburgh1 #ahhh4 ,,xi4--,,sixteenth ,,century ,,illustrations 999999 ,many of the books entered under ,,vii1 ,,viii1 and ,,ix relate also to this period4 ,,butsch1 ,a4 ,f4 ,die ,bucherornamentik der ,renaissance1 eine ,auswahl stylvoller ,titeleinfassungen1 ,initialen1 ,leisten1 ,vignetten und ,druckerzeichen hervoragender italienischer1 deutscher1 und franzosischer ,officinen aus der ,zeit der ,fruhrenaissance4 #dto4 ,leipzig1 #ahgh4 ,,xii4--,,english ,,printing1 #adgf-aehj ,,hazlitt1 ,w4 ,c4 ,handbook to the ,popular1 ,poetical and ,dramatic ,literature of ,great ,britain1 from the ,invention of ,printing to the ,restoration4 ,london1 #ahfg4 ,,hazlitt1 ,w4 ,c4 ,collections and ,notes4 ,three series with supplements4 ,london1 #ahgf-hi4 ---- ,a ,general ,index to ,hazlitt's ,handbook and his ,bibliographical ,collections1 #ahfg-ahhi4 ,by ,g4 ,t4 ,gray4 ,london1 #ahic4 ,,british ,,museum4 ,catalogue of ,books in the ,library of the ,british ,museum printed in ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland1 and of ,books in ,english printed abroad1 to the year #afdj4 ,mainly by ,g4 ,w4 ,eccles4 #c vols4 ,london1 #ahhd4 ,,duff1 ,e4 ,g4 ,catalogue of ,books in the ,john ,rylands ,library1 ,manchester1 printed in ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland1 and of ,books in ,english printed abroad to the end of the year #afdj4 #dto4 ,manchester1 #ahie4 ,,sayle1 ,c4 ,e4 ,early ,english ,printed ,books in the ,university ,library1 ,cambridge1 #adge-afdj4 ,cambridge1 #aijj-g4 ,the books are arranged under the printers4 ,,ames1 ,j4 ,typographical ,antiquities3 ,being an historical account of printing in ,england2 with some memoirs of our antient printers1 and a register of the books printed by them1 #adga-afjj4 ,with an appendix concerning printing in ,scotland and ,ireland to the same time4 #dto4 ,london1 #agdi4 ---- ,considerably augmented4444 ,by ,w4 ,herbert4 #c vols4 #dto4 ,london1 #aghe-ij4 ---- ,greatly enlarged1 with copious ,notes and ,engravings by ,t4 ,f4 ,dibdin4 ,vols4 i4-iv4 #dto4 ,london1 #ahaj-ai4 ,,duff1 ,e4 ,g4 ,english ,printing on ,vellum to the end of #afjj4 7,bibliographical ,society of ,lancashire47 #dto4 ,aberdeen1 #aijb4 ---- ,a ,century of the ,english ,book ,trade3 ,short notices of all ,printers1 ,stationers1 ,bookbinders1 and others connected with it1 #adeg-aeeg4 #dto4 ,bibliographical ,society1 ,london1 #aije4 ---- ,the ,printers1 ,stationers1 and ,bookbinders of ,westminster and ,london1 #adgf-aece4 7,sandars ,lectures47 ,cambridge1 #ahif4 ---- ,early ,english ,printing3 ,a series of facsimiles of all the types used in ,england during the fifteenth century4 ,fol4 ,london1 #ahif4 ---- 7and others47 ,handlists of ,english ,printers1 #aeja-aeeg4 ,parts #a-c4 #dto4 ,bibliographical ,society1 ,london1 #ahif1 etc4 ,,arber1 ,e4 ,a ,transcript of the ,registers of the ,company of ,stationers of ,london1 #aeed-afdj4 #e vols4 #dto4 ,london1 #ahge-id4 ,,blades1 ,w4 ,the ,life and ,typography of ,william ,caxton4 #b vols4 #dto4 ,london1 #ahfa-c4 ---- ,biography and ,typography of ,caxton4 ,london1 #ahhb4 ,,duff1 ,e4 ,g4 ,william ,caxton4 7,caxton ,club of ,chicago47 #dto4 ,chicago1 #aije4 ,,ricci1 ,,seymour ,,de4 ,a ,census of ,caxtons4 7,bibliographical ,society1 ,illust4 ,monographs1 #ae47 ,london1 #aiji4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,plomer1 ,h4 ,r4 ,a ,short ,history of ,english ,printing1 #adgf-ahih4 7,english ,bookman's ,library47 ,london1 #aijj4 ,,reed1 ,t4 ,b4 ,history of the ,old ,english ,letter ,foundries4 #dto4 ,london1 #ahhg4 ,,xiii4--,,early ,,printing ,,in ,,english ,,outside ,,london ,,allnutt1 ,w4 ,h4 ,english ,provincial ,presses4 7,bibliographica1 ,parts #e-g47 ,london1 #ahie4 ,,duff1 ,e4 ,g4 ,the ,english ,provincial ,printers1 ,stationers1 and ,bookbinders to #aeeg4 7,sandars ,lectures47 ,cambridge1 #aiab4 ,,bowes1 ,r4 ,a ,catalogue of ,books ,printed at or relating to the ,university1 ,town and ,county of ,cambridge1 #aeba-ahic4 ,cambridge1 #ahid4 ,,madan1 ,f4 ,l4 ,oxford ,books4 ,vol4 #a4 ,the ,early ,oxford ,press3 ,a ,bibliography of ,printing and ,publishing at ,oxford #adfh-afdj4 ---- ---- ,vol4 #b4 ,oxford ,literature1 #adej-afdj1 and #afda-afej4 ,oxford1 #ahie1 #aiab4 ---- ,a ,chart of ,oxford ,printing1 #adfh-aijj4 ,with notes and illustrations4 #dto4 ,oxford1 #aijc4 ---- ,a ,brief ,account of the ,university ,press at ,oxford4 ,with illustrations1 together with a chart of ,oxford printing4 #dto4 ,oxford1 #aijh4 ,,davies1 ,r4 ,a ,memoir of the ,york ,press4 ,with notices of ,authors1 ,printers1 and ,stationers in the #afth1 #agth1 and #ahth centuries4 ,westminster1 #ahfh4 ,,dobson1 ,a4 ,horace ,walpole3 ,a ,memoir4 ,with an ,appendix of ,books ,printed at the ,strawberry ,hill ,press4 ,new ,york1 #ahic4 ,,aldis1 ,h4 ,g4 ,a ,list of ,books ,printed in ,scotland before #agjj1 including those ,printed furth of the realm for ,scottish ,booksellers4 ,with brief notes on the ,printers and ,stationers4 #dto4 ,edinburgh ,bibliographical ,society1 ,edinburgh1 #aijd4 ,,dickson1 ,r41 and ,,edmond1 ,t4 ,p4 ,annals of ,scottish ,printing3 from the ,introduction of the ,art in #aejg to the beginning of the #agth ,century4 #dto4 ,cambridge1 #ahij4 ,,dix1 ,e4 ,r4 ,,mcc4 ,a ,list of ,irish ,towns and ,dates of ,earliest ,printing in each4 ,second edition4 ,dublin1 #aiji4 ---- ,the ,earliest ,dublin ,printing4 ,with list of books1 etc41 printed in ,dublin prior to #afja4 ,dublin1 #aija4 ,,gilbert1 ,,sir ,j4 ,t4 ,irish ,bibliography4 ,two papers4 ,with an introduction1 notes1 and appendices by ,e4 ,r4 ,mc,c4 ,dix4 ,dublin1 #aijd4 ,,watkins1 ,g4 ,t4 ,bibliography of ,printing in ,america3 ,books1 etc41 relating to the history of printing in the ,new ,world4 ,boston1 #aijf4 ,,evans1 ,c4 ,american ,bibliography4444 ,a ,chronological ,dictionary of all books1 pamphlets1 and periodical publications printed in the ,united ,states from #afci to #ahbj4 #dto4 ,chicago1 #aijc1 etc4 ,,thomas1 ,j4 ,the ,history of ,printing in ,america4 ,with a ,biography of ,printers1 etc4 ,second edition4 #b vols4 ,albany1 #ahgd4 ,,roden1 ,r4 ,f4 ,the ,cambridge ,press1 #afch-afib3 ,a history of the first printing press in ,english ,america1 together with a bibliographical list of the issues4 ,new ,york1 #aije4 ,,xiv4--,,english ,,woodcut ,,illustrations ,,chatto and ,,jackson4 ,a ,treatise on ,wood ,engravings3 ,historical and ,practical4 ,second edition4 ,london #ahfa4 ,,linton1 ,w4 ,j4 ,the ,masters of ,wood-,engraving4 ,folio4 ,london1 #ahhi4 ,,xv4--,,engraved ,,books--,,illustrations ,,hind1 ,a4 ,m4 ,a ,short ,history of ,engraving and ,etching for the use of ,collectors and ,students4 ,with full bibliography1 classified list1 and index of engravers4 ,second edition1 revised4 ,london1 #aiaa4 ,,colvin1 ,,sir ,s4 ,early ,engraving and ,engravers in ,england1 #aede-afie4 ,fol4 ,british ,museum4 ,london1 #aije4 ,,hind1 ,a4 ,m4 ,list of the ,works of ,native and ,foreign ,line-,engravers in ,england from ,henry ,,viii to the ,commonwealth4 ,british ,museum4 ,london1 #aije4 ,reprinted from ,sir ,s4 ,colvin's work4 ,,cohen1 ,h4 ,guide de l'amateur de livres a gravure du #ah;e siecle1 #f;e edition1 augmentee par ,seymour de ,ricci4 ,paris1 #aiab4 ,,levine1 ,j4 ,bibliography of the #ahth ,century ,art and ,illustrated ,books4 ,london1 #ahih4 ,,beraldi1 ,j4 ,h4 ,estampes et livres1 #ahgb-ahib4 #dto4 ,paris1 #ahib4 ,a catalogue of the compiler's own collection of ,french illustrated books4 ,,xvi4--,,modern ,,fine ,,printing ,,straus1 ,r41 and ,,dent1 ,r4 ,k4 ,john ,baskerville3 ,a ,memoir4 #dto4 ,cambridge1 #aijg4 ,,goschen1 ,,viscount4 ,the ,life and ,times of ,georg ,joachim ,goeschen1 ,publisher and ,printer of ,leipzig1 #ageb-ahbh4 #b vols4 ,london1 #aijc4 ,,werelet1 ,e4 ,etudes bibliographiques sur la famille des ,didot1 imprimeurs1 etc41 #agac-ahfd4 7,extrait de l',histoire du ,livre en ,france47 ,paris1 #ahfd4 ,,warren1 ,a4 ,the ,charles ,whittinghams1 ,printers4 7,grolier ,club47 ,new ,york1 #ahif4 ,,morris1 ,w4 ,a ,note by ,william ,morris on his ,aims in ,founding the ,kelmscott ,press4 ,with a short description of the ,press by ,s4 ,c4 ,cockerell1 and an annotated list of the books printed thereat4 ,hammersmith1 #ahih4 ,,ricketts4 ,a ,bibliography of the ,books issued by ,hacon and ,ricketts4 7,the ,vale ,press47 ,london1 #aijd4 ,,steele1 ,r4 ,the ,revival of ,printing4 ,london1 #aiab4 ,,index ,abbeville1 illustrated books1 #ade sq4 ,aberdeen ,breviary1 printed at ,edinburgh1 #bci sq4 ,abingdon1 printing at1 #bbf ,acqui1 colophon1 #hj ,ad te levavi woodcut1 #add ,aesop1 illustrated editions1 #ajf1 #aaa1 #abj1 #abd1 #abe1 #aci1 #ada1 #afb1 #bea1 #bef1 #bhi ,alcala1 ,cardinal ,ximenes' ,polyglott printed at1 #agf2 ,greek ,testament type imitated by ,proctor1 #cjg ,aldus ,manutius4 ,see ,manutius4 ,alexander ,gallus1 early edition of his ,doctrinale jete en moule1 #db2 colophon of ,acqui ed4 quoted1 #hj sq42 ,venice ed4 of1 #abf2 ,pynson's1 #bac ,alexander of ,villedieu4 ,see ,alexander ,gallus ,allan1 ,george1 private press1 #bch ,allnutt1 ,w41 on ,english provincial printing1 #bcc1 #bch ,alphabeti noua effictio4 ,de ,bry's1 #bhj1 #bhe ,altdorfer1 ,albrecht1 illustrator1 #ahh sq4 -- ,erhard1 ,bible illustrated by1 #aij ,alunno di ,domenico4 ,see ,bartolommeo di ,giovanni ,american colonies1 early printing in1 #bdc-i ,ammann1 ,jost1 book-illustrations1 #aic1 #bgh ,amsterdam1 ,english books printed at1 #bcb2 engravings1 #bhi1 #bib2 presses improved at1 #big ,anabat1 ,guil41 his ,horae1 #aef ,andrea1 ,hieronymus1 wood-cutter1 #ahh ,antichristus1 block-book1 #bg ,antwerp1 printing1 #gb1 #age sq42 woodcuts1 #bjb sq42 ,english books printed1 #bbi sqq42 engraved illustration1 #bgd sqq4 ,apocalypsis ,s4 ,johannis1 block-book1 #bf ,aquila1 good roman type1 #hi2 illustrated ,aesop1 #ada ,arbuthnot1 ,alexander1 ,edinburgh printer1 #bdb ,ariosto1 ,lodovico1 ,orlando ,furioso1 illustrated editions1 #bgg1 #bhc1 #bif ,ars ,moriendi1 block-book1 #be ,art de bien vivre et de bien mourir1 ,verard's edition1 #adi1 ,de ,worde's1 #bed ,arundel1 ,earl of1 ,caxton's cut of his device1 #bea ,ascensius4 ,see ,badius ,ascensius ,ashendene ,press1 #cjf ,audran1 ,benoit1 engraver1 #bij ,augsburg printing1 #fb1 #afi2 book-illustration1 #ajb sqq41 #ahd sqq4 ,augustine1 ,s41 ,abbeville edition of his ,de ,ciuitate ,dei1 #adf 4b41 woodcuts signed1 #abh sq4 ,bacon1 ,francis1 engraved title to ,novum ,organum1 #bhh ,badius ,ascensius1 ,jodocus1 printer at ,lyon and ,paris1 #agj ,bagford1 ,john1 his copies from block-books1 #ai ,bamler1 ,johann1 illustrated books1 #ajd ,bankes1 ,robert1 ,london printer1 #baf ,banks1 ,sir ,joseph1 his natural history books1 #e ,barbier1 ,jean1 partner of ,julyan ,notary1 #bad ,barcelona1 early printing1 #ge2 illustration1 #afb ,barclay1 ,alexander1 translator of ,sallust1 #bag2 of ,gringore's ,chasteau de ,labeur1 #bcj1 #bed1 #bef ,barker1 ,robert1 ,royal ,printer1 #baf sq4 ,barnes1 ,dam ,julyan1 her boke of huntyng1 #bjh -- ,joseph1 ,oxford printer1 #bce ,bartholomaeus ,anglicus1 editions of his ,de ,proprietatibus ,rerum1 #aba1 #aei2 printed by ,caxton1 #bjd2 by ,de ,worde1 #bab1 #bec2 edited by ,s4 ,bateman1 #bfc ,bartolommeo di ,giovanni1 ,mr4 ,berenson's attribution of ,florentine woodcuts to1 #acf ,bartolozzi1 ,f41 portrait of ,lunardi1 #bif ,basel printing1 #fj1 #agj1 book-illustration1 #aji1 #aia sq4 ,basiliologia engravings1 #bhe ,baskerville1 ,john1 ,birmingham printer1 #bii sq4 ,bassandyne1 ,thomas1 ,edinburgh printer1 #bdb ,bateman1 ,stephen1 illustrated books by1 #bfc ,bay ,psalter1 first book printed in ,north ,america1 #bdd sq4 ,beck1 ,leonhard1 illustrator1 #ahf1 #ahh sq4 ,beham1 ,hans ,sebald1 illustrator1 #ahc ,belgium1 early printing1 #gc ,belial siue ,consolatio peccatorum4 ,see ,theramo1 ,jac4 de ,bellaert1 ,jacob1 illustrated books1 #abj sq4 ,bellini1 ,gentile1 woodcut after1 #acj ,benlowes1 ,e41 ,theophila1 #bhi ,berenson1 ,bernhard1 attributes all early ,florentine cuts to ,alunno di ,domenico1 #ace ,berghen1 ,adriaen von1 ,english books printed by1 #bcj ,bergomensis1 ,jac4 ,phil41 his ,supplementum ,cronicarum1 #abf2 ,de claris mulieribus1 #adj ,berkeley1 ,sir ,william1 on free schools and printing1 #bdi ,berrutus1 ,amadeus1 engraving in his ,dialogus1 #bgc ,berthelet1 ,thomas1 connection with ,pynson1 #bac1 #beh2 ,royal ,printer1 #baf1 #bei ,bettini1 ,ant41 illustrated editions of his ,monte ,santo di ,dio1 #abd1 #bfh sq4 ,bible1 ,english1 early editions1 #bag1 #bca sq41 #bfj1 #bha2 ,french ,bible historiee1 #aej2 ,german1 illustrated editions of1 #ajh1 #aab1 #aac1 #aad2 ,indian 7,narraganset71 #bdf sq42 ,italian1 illustrated editions of1 #abe1 #abh2 ,latin1 the #db-line1 #dg sqq41 #if2 the #cf-line1 #ea sq41 #hc2 of #adfb1 #eg2 of #adgb1 #eg2 ,polyglott1 #age1 #agf1 #bge2 ,scottish1 #bdb ,biblia ,pauperum1 block-book1 #be1 #aah2 its plan imitated in ,horae borders1 #aeb1 #aee ,biel1 ,fried41 illustrated books1 #afb ,binneman4 ,see ,bynneman ,birmingham1 ,baskerville's press at1 #bii ,birth of ,mankind1 first ,english book with engravings1 #bhj ,bladen1 ,william1 ,dublin printer1 #bdc ,bladi1 printers at ,rome1 #afi ,blaew1 ,william1 improves printing-press1 #big ,block-books1 #ai-ca1 #aah ,blomefield1 ,francis1 private press1 #bch ,boccaccio1 ,giov41 ,de ,casibus ,illustrium virorum1 #add1 #aei1 #ahf1 #bac1 #bef1 #beh note1 #bgj2 ,de claris mulieribus1 #ajf1 #abb1 #afb1 #ahf2 ,decamerone1 #bia ,bodleian ,library1 effect of its foundation on private book-collecting1 #c ,bodoni1 ,giovanni ,battista1 printer at ,parma1 #cjj ,boec von der ,houte4 ,see ,cross1 the ,holy ,boitard1 ,peter1 illustrator1 #bif ,bonaventura1 ,s41 illustrations to his ,devote ,meditatione1 #abc1 #abe1 #ach ,bonhomme1 ,jean1 his illustrated books1 #add1 #aeh ,book-illustration1 natural method of1 #ajj2 in ,germany and ,holland1 #ajb-bb1 #aha-id2 in ,italy1 #abc-db1 #aid-f2 in ,france and ,spain1 #adc-fd1 #aig-bjb2 in ,england1 #bej-ff2 engraved1 #bfg-if ,borderpieces1 stamped by illuminators1 #abe2 ,venetian1 #abe1 #acc2 ,florentine1 #acc2 other ,italian1 #adj1 #adb2 ,spanish1 #afb2 ,basel1 #aia2 ,london1 #beb1 #bef1 #beh sq41 #bff ,boston1 ,mass41 early printing1 #bdg2 modern1 #cjh ,boucher1 ,francois1 illustrator1 #bij ,bradford1 ,andrew1 printer at ,philadelphia1 #bdh -- ,william1 first printer at ,philadelphia1 #bdg2 and at ,new ,york1 #bdh ,bradshaw1 ,henry1 his claim for bibliography1 #ab2 on the printer of the ,speculum1 #dj ,brandis1 ,lucas1 first ,lubeck printer1 #fd1 #aad ,brant1 ,sebastian1 connected with book-illustration1 #aaj1 #aab1 #afa1 #bac1 #bed1 #bef ,brass1 types made of1 #bab note ,breidenbach1 ,bernhard von1 his arms on a ,mainz ,agenda1 #aad2 his ,peregrinatio in ,montem ,syon1 #aae1 #afa1 #afb1 #bgj ,brinckley1 ,stephen1 ,jesuit printer1 #bbh ,bristol printing1 #bcg sq4 ,british ,museum1 bequests to1 #d-f2 block-books in1 #ca ,brosamer1 ,hans1 ,bibles illustrated by1 #aij ,broughton1 ,hugh1 plates in his ,concent of ,scripture1 #bhc ,bruges early printing1 #gc1 #abb1 #bje sq42 engravings in books printed at1 #bgj-c ,brussels early printing1 #gc ,brydges1 ,sir ,egerton1 private press1 #bci ,buckner1 ,john1 ,virginia printer1 #bdi ,bulkley1 ,stephen1 printer at ,york1 #bcg ,bulle1 ,john1 printer at ,rome1 ,lettou's relation with1 #baj ,bunyan1 ,john1 portrait in ,pilgrim's ,progress1 #bhi ,burghers1 ,michael1 engraver1 #bid ,burgkmair1 ,hans1 illustrator1 #ahe sq41 #ahh sq4 ,burgundy1 ,margaret ,duchess of4 ,see ,margaret ,bynneman1 ,henry1 ,london printer1 #bbj1 #bbh ,cagli1 good roman type1 #hi ,calendar of ,shepherds1 ,french editions1 #ade2 ,english1 #bed1 #bef ,cambridge1 printing at1 #bbe1 #bcd sq41 #cjj ,cambridge1 ,mass41 printing at1 #bdd sq41 #cjh ,canon ,missae1 ,mainz edition of1 #ee2 ,crucifixion woodcut to1 #aji1 #abi ,canterbury1 printing at1 #bbg ,canterbury ,tales4 ,see ,chaucer ,canticum ,canticorum1 block-book1 #bf1 #aah ,caoursin1 ,gulielmus1 woodcuts in books by1 #ajg ,capell1 ,edward1 bequeaths his ,shakespeare books to ,trin4 ,coll41 ,camb41 #e ,capitals1 pictorial and heraldic1 #fi1 #ajd1 #aig1 #bei sqq4 ,carmelianus1 ,petrus1 pictures in his ,carmen1 #beg ,cartwright1 ,thomas1 his tracts printed at a secret press1 #bbh ,caslon1 ,william1 typefounder1 #bih ,catholicon1 possibly printed by ,gutenberg1 #eb ,caxton1 ,william1 #bjd1 #bjh2 press at ,bruges1 #gc1 #bje sq42 at ,westminster1 #gf1 #bjg sq42 method of printing in red1 #hf2 illustrated books1 #bej-b2 possible engraved portrait of1 #bgb sq4 ,cazotte1 ,j41 his ,le diable amoureux1 #bib ,cecill1 ,thomas1 engraver1 #bhf ,cennini1 ,bernardo1 first printer at ,florence1 #fg2 colophon of his ,virgil1 #hj ,cervicornus1 ,eucharius1 printer at ,cologne1 #bbe ,chapman1 ,walter1 printer at ,edinburgh1 #bci ,charteris1 ,henry1 printer at ,edinburgh1 #bdb ,chaucer1 ,geoffrey1 early editions1 #bjg1 #bea1 #bee1 #beh ,chauveau1 ,francois1 engraver1 #bhi ,chess1 ,game and ,play of the1 #bje1 #bea ,chester1 printing at1 #bcg1 etc4 ,chiromantia1 block-book1 #bh ,choffard1 ,p4 ,p41 fleurons by1 #bia sq4 ,christian ,prayers1 ,book of 7,queen ,elizabeth's ,prayer ,book71 #bfd ,christopher1 ,s41 early woodcut of1 #aai ,ciripagus1 meaning of the word1 #dc ,civil ,war1 its effects on ,oxford printing1 #bcf ,clark1 ,john1 engraver1 #bid ,classics1 first editions of the1 #f ,claudin1 ,anatole1 his ,histoire de l',imprimerie en ,france1 #adc ,clement ,v1 #adfj edition of his ,constitutiones1 #ef ,clemente of ,padua1 self-taught printer at ,venice1 #fg1 #hi ,cochin1 ,c41 ,paris engraver1 #bij sq4 ,cock1 ,hieron1 ,antwerp engraver1 #bgd -- ,peter1 ,alost engraver1 #bha ,cockson1 ,thomas1 ,london engraver1 #bhc ,colines1 ,simon1 his ,horae1 #aeg2 relations with the ,estiennes1 #aga2 illustrated books1 #aii ,collectors and ,collecting1 #a-ah1 #hc ,cologne1 printing at1 #fa1 #afi1 #bje1 #bbe1 #bca2 book-illustration at1 #aac ,cologne ,chronicle1 its story of the invention of printing1 #cd ,colonna1 ,francesco4 ,see ,hypnerotomachia ,poliphili ,colophons1 #ad2 specimens quoted1 #hj sq42 in manuscript1 #ia ,colour-printing in incunabula1 #abi sq41 #bec ,columna1 ,aegidius1 his ,regimiento de los principes1 #afc ,colvin1 ,sir ,sidney1 his ,early engravings quoted1 #bha1 #cjj ,complutensian ,polyglott4 ,see ,alcala ,constance1 ,das ,conciliumbuch1 illustrated editions of1 #ajf1 #ahf ,conway1 ,sir ,m41 his ,woodcutters of the ,netherlands ,conwell1 ,clarke1 ,american printer1 #cjh ,copland1 ,robert1 ,london printer1 #bae1 #beh -- ,william1 ,london printer1 #bae1 #bfj ,cornelis1 the bookbinder1 of ,haarlem1 #cg sq41 #da ,corrozet1 ,gilles1 his verses to ,holbein's cuts1 #aib2 other illustrated books by1 #bjj sq4 ,coryat1 ,thomas1 ,crudities1 #bhe ,coster1 ,lourens1 legend of his inventing printing1 #cg sqq4 ,costeriana1 group of books so called1 #ci-da1 #gb ,cotton1 ,sir ,robert1 his collections1 #b ,cranach1 ,lucas1 his bookwork at ,wittenberg1 #aij ,cremer1 ,heinrich1 copy of #db-line ,bible rubricated by1 #dg sq4 ,creussner1 ,f41 ,nuremberg printer1 #fc1 #ajh ,cromwell1 ,thomas1 ,earl of1 arms on title of ,great ,bible1 #bfj ,croquet1 ,jean1 of ,geneva1 first edition of ,roman de la ,rose attributed to1 #afj note ,cross1 the ,holy1 block-book history of1 #aah ,cunningham1 ,william1 his ,cosmographicall ,glasse1 #bah1 #bfa ,dalles1 ,jean1 ,lyonnese wood-cutter1 #aei ,daniel1 ,rev4 ,c4 ,h4 ,o41 private press1 #cjc ,danse ,macabre1 illustrations to1 #ade1 #aea ,dante ,alighieri1 illustrated editions of ,divina ,commedia1 #abi1 #bfi1 #cjf sq4 ,darmstadt ,prognostication1 printer of the1 forged dates in his books1 #eh ,davidson1 ,thomas1 ,edinburgh printer1 #bdj sq4 ,day1 ,john1 ,london printer1 #bah sq41 #bcd2 illustrated books1 #bfj sq4 -- ,matthew1 printer at ,cambridge1 ,mass41 #bde -- ,stephen1 first printer in ,north ,america1 #bdd ,de ,bry1 family of engravers1 #bgh-hj1 #bhb ,defensorium inviolatae castitatis ,virginis ,mariae1 block-book1 #abg ,defoe1 ,daniel1 plates to ,robinson ,crusoe1 #bid ,delaram1 ,francis1 engraver1 #bhe sq4 ,delft1 early printing at1 #gb ,denham1 ,henry1 ,london printer1 #bbj ,derrick1 ,john1 ,image of ,ireland1 #bfd ,deventer1 early printing at1 #gb1 #gd d',ewes1 ,sir ,simeon1 fate of his manuscripts1 #d ,dialogus ,creaturum1 woodcuts in1 #aai ,dictes or ,sayengis of the ,philosophers1 ,caxton's1 #bjg ,didot1 family of printers at ,paris1 #cja ,digby1 ,sir ,kenelm ,digby1 benefactions to libraries1 #e ,dinckmut1 ,conrad1 illustrated books1 #ajf sq4 ,doesborg1 ,jan van1 ,english books printed by1 #bcj ,dolet1 ,etienne1 printer at ,lyon1 #agd ,donatus1 ,aelius1 early editions of his ,de octo partibus orationis1 #ce1 #cf1 #df1 #ea1 #fe ,douay1 ,english ,catholic books printed at1 #bcb ,dorat1 ,c4 ,j41 ,les ,baisers1 #bic ,doves ,press1 #cjf ,downes1 ,thomas1 ,english bookseller1 patentee for ,irish printing1 #bdc ,drach1 ,peter1 ,speier printer1 #fc ,drayton1 ,michael1 ,polyolbion1 #bhe ,dublin1 early printing at1 #bdb sq4 ,du ,bosc1 ,claude1 engraver1 #bid ,dudley1 ,earl of ,leicester1 encourages ,oxford printing1 #bce ,duff1 ,e4 ,g41 on woodcuts in #adga ,bible1 #abe note2 on ,berthelet and ,pynson1 #bac2 on free trade in books1 #bbc2 on a book printed at ,st4 ,albans1 #bbe ,du ,guernier1 ,louis1 engraver1 #bid ,du ,guesclin1 ,bertrand1 woodcut of1 #adf ,du ,moulin1 ,conrad1 buys a ,de ,salute ,corporis1 #ci ,dupre1 ,jean1 fine printer at ,paris1 #ga2 his illustrated books1 #adc sqq41 #afj2 his ,horae1 #aea sq4 ,durer1 ,albrecht1 book-illustrations by1 #aha sq41 #ahh ,dutch printing and book-illustration4 ,see ,holland ,duranti1 ,gulielmus1 ,rationale diuinorum officiorum1 #adei edition1 #ef ,dyson1 ,humphrey1 book-collector1 #c ,edinburgh printing1 #bci-db ,editions1 number of copies in early1 #ba ,edward ,,vi1 woodcut of1 #bfj ,egenolph1 ,christian1 illustrated books1 #ahc1 #ahg ,eichstatt service-books1 engravings in1 #bgj ,eisen1 ,c41 illustrator1 #bia sqq4 ,eliot1 ,john1 books by1 printed at ,cambridge1 ,mass41 #bdf ,elizabeth1 ,queen1 portraits of1 #bfd1 #bfe1 #bha sq42 her ,prayer ,book1 #bfd ,elston ,press1 #cjh ,elstracke1 ,renold1 engraver1 #bhe sq41 #bhh ,elzevir1 family of printers1 #agg sqq4 ,emblem books1 #bge1 #bhj ,emden1 ,puritan books printed at1 #bcb ,england1 printing in1 #gf sq41 #bjd-bh1 #bcc-i1 #cjb-h ,english books printed abroad1 #bbh-cb ,english engraved illustrations1 #bhj-i1 #bic-f ,english woodcut illustrations1 #bej-ff ,engraved illustrations1 #bfg-if ,epistole ed ,evangelii1 illustrated ,florentine ed41 #acf1 #aci ,eragny ,press1 #cjh ,erasmus1 ,desiderius1 his relations with ,froben1 #agj1 #aia ,erven1 ,g4 van der1 printer at ,emden1 #bcb ,e4 ,s41 the ,master1 ,ars moriendi engravings by1 #be ,essling1 ,prince d'1 his ,livres a figures venitiens quoted1 #abe note1 #abg1 #acj sq4 ,estienne1 family of scholar-printers1 #aga sqq4 ,eton1 printing at1 #bcd ,eustace1 ,guil41 his ,horae1 #aef ,exeter1 early printing at1 #bcg ,f1 woodcuts signed1 at ,venice1 #abh2 at ,paris1 #bjj ,fabyan's ,chronicle1 ,pynson's ed41 #beg ,faithorne1 ,w41 engraver1 #bhi ,faques or ,fawkes1 ,richard1 ,london printer1 #bae ,faques1 ,william1 ,royal ,printer1 #bad ,fell1 ,bishop1 buys ,dutch types for ,oxford1 #bih ,ferrara1 early printing at1 #fh1 #gj2 book-illustrations1 #adj ,fichet1 ,guillaume1 letter on invention of printing1 #cc1 #dd2 invites printers to the ,sorbonne1 #gj ,field1 ,richard1 ,london printer1 #bba ,fifteen ,oes1 ,caxton's edition1 #beb ,first books printed in different countries and towns1 their interest1 #gh sq4 ,fisher1 ,bishop1 woodcuts to his funeral sermons1 #bed ,florence1 early printing1 #fg1 #gj1 book-illustration at1 #acc-i1 #bfg2 ,venetian imitation of ,florentine style1 #aif ,florio1 ,john1 engraved portrait1 #bhg ,foliation1 or leaf-numbers1 first used by ther ,hoernen1 #fb ,foster1 ,john1 first printer at ,boston1 ,mass41 #bdg ,fouler1 ,john1 ,english printer at ,antwerp and ,louvain1 #bcb ,foulis1 ,robert and ,andrew1 ,glasgow printers1 #bih ,foxe1 ,john1 his ,actes and ,monuments1 or ,book of ,martyrs1 #bai1 #bfb ,france1 printing in1 #gj-b1 #agj-e1 #bbd2 book-illustration1 #adc-fa1 #aig-bjb1 #bhi-ic ,franciscus1 ,magister1 ,schoeffer's corrector1 #ea ,francke 7or ,franckton71 ,john1 ,dublin printer1 #bdc ,frankfort am ,main1 book-illustration at1 #ahd1 #aic1 #bgh sqq4 ,franklin1 ,benjamin1 printer at ,philadelphia1 #bdh ,freez 7or ,wandsforth71 ,gerard1 ,york printer1 #bbe ,freiburger1 ,gering and ,crantz1 first ,paris printers1 #gj sq4 ,frezzi1 ,bishop1 ,quatriregio1 illustrated editions1 #aci ,froben1 ,johann1 scholarly printer at ,basel1 #agj2 his book-decorations1 #aia ,front1 the ,mind of the1 #bhg ,froschauer1 ,christopher1 ,zurich printer1 his ,english books1 #bca sq4 ,fust1 ,johann1 dealings with ,gutenberg1 #df sqq42 books printed by1 #ec sq41 #hf ,gafori1 ,francesco1 illustrations to his music-books1 #ada1 #aif ,gaguin1 ,robert1 illustrations to his chronicles1 #aih ,game and ,pley of the ,chesse1 #bjf ,garamond1 ,claude1 ,french ,royal ,greek types cut by1 #agb ,garland of ,rachel1 #cjc ,garrick1 ,david1 his collection of plays1 #e ,geiler1 ,johann1 of ,kaisersberg1 illustrations to his books1 #ahe1 #aij ,geminus1 ,thomas1 engraved work1 #bha ,geneva1 ,english books printed at1 #bcb ,gerard1 ,pierre1 first printer at ,abbeville1 #ade ,germany1 printing in1 #dd-fd1 #afi sq41 #bbd2 book-illustration1 #ajb-ag1 #aha-id ,giunta1 family of printers at ,florence and ,venice1 #abh1 #afh sq41 #aie ,giustiniano1 ,lorenzo1 portrait of1 #acj ,glasgow1 fine printing at1 #bih ,glover1 ,rev4 ,joseph1 benefactor of ,harvard ,college1 #bdd ,goes1 ,hugo1 ,york printer1 #bbe ,goeschen1 ,georg ,joachim1 printer at ,leipzig1 #cja ,golden ,legend1 ,caxton's editions1 #bjg1 #bea ,gothic type1 #hh1 #ij sq4 ,gouda1 printing and illustration1 #gb1 #aai1 #abb ,graf1 ,urs1 book-decorations by1 #aia ,grafton1 ,richard1 ,royal ,printer1 #bag1 #bei2 his ,chronicle1 #bfd ,gravelot1 ,h41 engraver at ,paris1 #bia sqq41 and ,london1 #bie ,greek printing in ,italy1 #afg1 #cja2 in ,france1 #aga sqq42 in ,spain1 #agf2 in ,england1 #agf1 #bah1 #bbf1 #bcd1 #cjj1 #cjg ,green1 ,bartholomew1 printer at ,boston1 ,mass41 #bdg sq4 -- ,samuel1 printer at ,cambridge1 ,mass41 #bde sqq4 ,gregorii1 ,giov4 and ,greg4 dei1 printers at ,venice1 #fi1 #aie ,grenewych by ,conrade ,freeman1 spurious imprint1 #bcb ,grenville1 ,thomas1 character of his collection1 #f ,grien1 ,hans ,baldung1 illustrator1 #aij ,grignion1 ,charles1 engraver1 #bif ,gringore1 ,pierre1 ,chasteau de ,labeur1 #aej sq42 ,english editions1 #bcj sq41 #bed ,grolier1 ,jean1 example as a book-buyer1 #b2 supports ,aldus1 #afh ,gruninger1 ,johann1 of ,strassburg1 illustrated books1 #aaa sq4 ,gryphius1 ,sebastian1 ,lyon printer1 #agc ,gutenberg1 ,johann1 claims to the invention of printing1 #cc-f1 #dd sqq42 books he may have printed1 #ea sq4 ,haarlem1 its claims to be the birthplace of printing1 #cg sqq41 #gb ,hakluyt1 ,richard1 ,voyages1 #bgh ,hamman1 ,johann4 ,see ,herzog ,han1 ,ulrich1 early printer at ,rome1 #fe1 #fg sq41 types1 #ij2 printed the first ,italian illustrated book1 #abc ,hardouyn1 ,germain and ,gilles1 their ,horae1 #aef ,harington1 ,sir ,john1 on the plates in his ,orlando ,furioso1 #bhc ,harrison1 ,stephen1 ,archs of ,triumph1 #bhd ,hartlieb1 ,johann1 block-book of ,die ,kunst ,chiromantia1 #bh ,harvard ,college1 printing at1 #bdd sq4 ,haydock1 ,richard1 engraver1 #bhd ,hayman1 ,francis1 illustrator1 #bif ,heber1 ,richard1 character of his collection1 #f ,hempstead 7,essex71 secret printing at1 #bbh ,henry ,v1 woodcut of ,lydgate offering book to1 #beg ,henry ,,vii1 books decorated by ,verard for1 #adh2 woodcut of his funeral1 #bed ,henry ,,viii protects ,english book-trade1 #bbb1 #bcd ,heroologia engravings1 #bhe ,hertfort or ,herford1 ,john1 printer at ,st4 ,albans and ,london1 #bbd sq4 ,herzog1 ,johann1 prints ,sarum ,missal at ,venice1 #bbi ,hessels1 ,dr41 his theories on the invention of printing1 #ch sqq4 ,heynlyn1 ,jean1 superintends first ,paris press1 #gj ,heywood1 ,thomas1 woodcut of1 #bfj2 engravings to his ,hierarchie of the ,blessed ,angels1 #bhf ,higman1 ,nicolas1 ,horae1 #aef ,hind1 ,a4 ,m41 quoted1 #bhd1 #bij ,hobby-,horse1 experiments in printing in1 #cjd ,hogarth1 ,william1 book-illustrations1 #bie sq4 ,hogenberg1 ,franciscus and ,remigius1 engravers1 #bha sq4 ,holbein1 ,ambrosius1 book-decorations1 #aia -- ,hans1 book-decorations and illustrations1 #aia sq41 #bei sq4 ,hole1 ,william1 engraver1 #bhe1 #bhg ,holinshed1 ,raphael1 ,chronicle1 #bfe ,holland1 claims to the invention of printing1 #cb-dc2 printing in1 #gb2 book-illustrations1 #aai-bb ,holland1 ,h41 print-seller1 #bhe ,hollar1 ,wenceslaus1 engraver1 #bhg ,homer1 the ,florentine1 #afg2 in ,french1 #bja2 ,chapman's1 #bhg2 ,ogilby's ,odyssey1 #bhg2 ,proctor's1 #cjg ,hondius1 ,jodocus1 engraver1 #bhc sq4 ,hopyl1 ,wolfgang1 ,missals by1 #aih1 #bbi ,horace1 ,pine's ed41 #bie sq41 #cjj2 ,foulis1 #bih ,horae1 ,paris editions1 #aea-g1 #bfd2 ,plantin's1 #bge ,hornby1 ,c4 ,st4 ,john1 private press1 #hh1 #cjf ,hroswitha1 illustrations to her ,comedies1 #ahb ,hunte1 ,thomas1 ,oxford stationer1 partner in ,rood's press1 #gf1 #bji ,hurning1 ,hans4 ,see ,walther1 ,f41 and ,hans ,hurning ,hurus1 ,paul1 illustrated books1 #afb ,huss1 ,martin1 illustrated books1 #aeh ,huvin1 ,jean1 probable partner 7,i4 ,h47 of ,jul4 ,notary1 #bad ,hylton1 ,walter1 ,scala perfectionis1 ,de ,worde's ed41 #bec ,hypnerotomachia ,poliphili1 #ij1 #aca sq42 ,french version of1 #bja i1 ia41 woodcuts signed1 #abh ,i4,d41 woodcut signed1 #aei ,imprese1 engravings of1 #bgg ,incipits of books1 quoted1 #ic ,incunabula1 study of1 #ab sq42 the word misleading1 #gg2 points of1 #gh sq4 ,indulgences1 printed at ,mainz1 #dg ,ipswich1 printing at1 #bbf ,ireland1 printing in1 #bdb sq4 ,italic type1 #ia1 #bah ,italy1 printing in1 #fe-gj1 #afe-i1 #bbd2 book-illustration in1 #abc-db ,james ,i1 works and portrait1 #bhh ,janot1 ,denis1 printer of ,french illustrated books1 #bjj ,jenson1 ,nicolas1 printer at ,venice1 #fg1 #he ,jesuit press 7#aehj71 #bbh ,jewel1 ,bishop1 books against1 printed at ,antwerp and ,louvain1 #bcb ,johnes1 ,thomas1 private press1 #bch ,johnson1 ,marmaduke1 printer at ,cambridge1 ,mass41 #bdf ,junius1 ,hadrianus1 his story of ,coster1 #cg sq4 ,justinian1 in ,council1 metal-cut of1 #aih ,kearney1 ,william1 ,dublin printer1 #bdc ,kefer1 or ,keffer1 ,heinrich1 servant of ,gutenberg1 #dg1 #fc ,keimer1 ,samuel1 printer at ,philadelphia1 #bdh ,keith1 ,george1 his ,appeal from the ,twenty-eight ,judges1 #bdh ,kerver1 ,thielmann1 ,horae1 #aef ,ketham1 ,johannes1 ,fascicolo di ,medicina1 illustrated1 #abi ,kipling1 ,r41 contribution to a school magazine1 #h ,knoblochtzer1 ,h41 ,strassburg printer1 #fj2 illustrated books1 #aaa ,kobel1 ,jakob1 printer at ,oppenheim1 #aic ,koberger1 ,anton1 largest ,nuremberg printer1 #fc2 illustrated books1 #ajh1 #ahc ,koelhoff1 ,johann1 father and son1 printers at ,cologne1 #aac ,kyngston1 ,felix1 ,english bookseller1 patentee for ,irish printing1 #bdc ,kyrforth1 ,samuel1 ,oxford printer1 #bbd ,laer1 ,john1 of ,siberch4 ,see ,siberch ,la ,fontaine1 ,jean1 illustrated editions of his ,fables and ,contes1 #bij sq4 ,laing1 ,david1 on the ,bruges ,des cas des nobles hommes1 #bga ,la ,marche1 ,olivier de1 illustrations to his ,chevalier ,delibere1 #abb1 #adg1 #adi1 #bfc ,lambeth ,palace1 printing at1 #bcd ,lant1 ,thomas1 engraver1 #bhb ,la ,rochelle1 ,marprelate tract printed at1 #bbh ,laud1 ,archbishop1 benefactions to libraries1 #e ,lauer1 ,georg1 early printer at ,rome1 #fh ,le ,bey1 ,denis1 his ,emblems1 #bhj ,leeu1 ,gerard1 printer at ,gouda and ,antwerp1 #gb2 colophon recording his death quoted1 #ha2 sells cuts to ,koelhoff1 #aac1 #abj2 his illustrated books1 #aai sq42 ,english books printed by1 #bbi sq4 ,legate1 ,john1 ,cambridge printer1 #bce ,legge1 ,cantrell1 ,cambridge printer1 #bce ,le ,huen1 ,nicole1 his adaptation of ,breidenbach1 #afa1 #bgj ,leipzig printing1 #fd1 #afi2 book-illustrations1 #aaf ,lekpreuit1 ,robert1 ,scottish printer1 #bda ,lemberger1 ,georg1 bookwork at ,wittenberg1 #aij ,le ,rouge1 ,pierre1 prints for ,verard1 #aej ,leroy1 ,guil41 first printer at ,lyon1 #ga2 illustrated books1 #aeh sq4 ,le ,signerre1 ,guil41 illustrated books1 #ada ,le ,talleur1 ,guil41 printer at ,rouen1 prints for ,pynson1 #baa sq4 ,lettou1 ,john1 first printer in the ,city of ,london1 #gg1 #baj1 #beb ,leyden1 printing at1 #agf1 #agg ,lignamine1 ,joh4 ,phil4 de1 on the invention of printing1 #cd2 his own press1 #fh ,lirer1 ,thomas1 ,chronik1 illustrated ed41 #ajg ,lisa1 ,gerard1 first printer at ,treviso1 #fg sq41 #gj ,locatellus1 ,bonetus1 ,venice printer1 #fi ,locker-,lampson1 ,f41 his copy of ,blake's ,songs of ,innocence and ,experience1 #aa ,london1 printing in the ,city of1 #gg ,longus1 ,daphnis et ,chloe1 #bij ,louvain1 early printing at1 #gc2 book-illustration1 #abb2 ,english books1 #bcb ,lownes1 ,matthew1 ,english bookseller1 patentee for ,irish printing1 #bdc ,lubeck early printing1 #fd2 book-illustration at1 #aac sq4 ,lucrece1 ,berthelet's device of1 #bei ,lutzelburger1 ,hans1 ,holbein's wood-cutter1 #aib ,luyken1 ,jan and ,casper1 engravers1 #bhi ,lydgate1 ,john1 woodcut of1 #beg4 ,for his ,falles of ,pryncis1 see ,boccaccio1 ,de ,casibus ,lyne1 ,john1 engraver1 #bhb ,lyon1 printing at1 #ga1 #aga1 #agc sq42 illustration1 #aeg-fa1 #bjb ,macfarlane1 ,john1 monograph on ,antoine ,verard1 #adg ,machlinia1 ,william1 printer at ,london1 #gg1 #baj1 #beb ,madan1 ,falconer1 on ,oxford printing1 #bcf ,magdeburg early printing1 #fd ,mainz1 printing as a practical art invented at1 #dd-eh2 book-illustration1 #aad sq4 ,malborow in the land of ,hesse1 doubtful imprint1 #bca ,malermi ,bible4 ,see ,bible1 ,italian ,malone1 ,e41 bequeaths books to the ,bodleian1 #e ,mansion1 ,colard1 ,bruges printer1 #gb1 #abb1 #bje sq41 #bga sq4 ,manutius1 ,aldus1 his work1 #aff-h2 large roman type1 #ij2 italic octavos1 #ia1 #afg1 #aif2 ,hypnerotomachia1 #aca sq42 ,lyonnese counterfeits of his octavos1 #agc -- -- the younger1 #afh -- ,paulus1 #afh ,marchant1 ,gui41 illustrated books1 #ade ,margaret ,duchess of ,burgundy1 ,caxton's patron1 #bjd1 #bgb -- ,duchess of ,richmond1 woodcut of her funeral1 #bee ,margins1 right proportions1 #ig ,marprelate press1 #bbh ,marsh1 ,archbishop1 library founded by1 #d-e ,marshall1 ,william1 engraver1 #bhf sqq4 ,mary1 ,princess1 daughter of ,henry ,,vii1 woodcut of her reception of ,spanish ,embassy1 #beg ,master and ,pupil1 method of depicting1 #ace and note ,maximilian1 the ,emperor1 illustrated books in his honour1 #ahb sq41 #ahe sq41 #ahh sq4 ,maynyal1 ,george1 prints service-books for ,caxton1 #bbi ,mentelin1 ,johann1 first printer at ,strassburg1 #fj2 manuscript colophon of1 #ia sq4 ,merrymount ,press1 ,boston 7,mass471 #cjh ,middelburg1 ,english books printed at1 #bcb ,milan early printing1 #fh sq42 book-illustration1 #abe1 #ada ,miller1 ,w4 ,h41 character of his collection1 #f ,millet1 ,jacques1 illustrations to his ,destruction de ,troye la ,grant1 #add1 #aeh1 #aih ,milton1 ,john1 portrait by ,marshall1 #bhh ,mirabilia ,romae1 block-book1 #bh ,misprinted dates at ,barcelona1 #ge2 at ,oxford1 #bji ,mitchell1 ,john4 ,see ,mychell ,moliere1 ,francois1 illustrations to1 #bij1 #bic ,molner1 ,theodoricus1 confused with ,theod4 ,rood1 #bji ,mondovi1 good roman type1 #hi ,montanus1 ,arias1 relations with ,plantin1 #bge sq4 ,monte ,regio1 ,johannes de4 ,see ,muller ,montesquieu1 ,le ,temple de ,gnide1 #bij1 #bic ,moore1 ,bishop1 fate of his books1 #d ,moreau1 ,french illustrator1 #bib ,morris1 ,william1 admired ,subiaco type1 #hh2 on the double page as the unit in a book1 #ih2 on the illustrator of ,caoursin1 #ajh2 his set of proofs of ,richel's ,spiegel1 #aji note2 his decorative bookwork1 #abf2 the ,kelmscott press1 #cjd sq4 ,moxon1 ,joseph1 his ,mechanick ,exercises1 #bih ,muller1 ,johann1 his ,calendars1 #bg1 #abe2 his work as a printer1 #ajh ,musurus1 ,marcus1 ,aldus copies his ,greek script1 #afg ,mutius ,scaevola1 border representing1 #bef ,mychell 7or ,mitchell71 ,john1 printer at ,canterbury and ,london1 #bbg ,myllar1 ,andrew1 first ,scottish printer1 #bci ,mylner1 ,ursyn1 ,york printer1 #bbe ,n1 woodcuts signed1 #abh ,naples early printing1 #gj2 book-illustration1 #abd ,negker1 ,andrea and ,jost de1 wood-cutters1 #ahh ,neobar1 ,conrad1 printer of ,greek1 #agb ,netherlands4 ,see ,holland2 ,belgium ,neuf ,preux1 ,les1 ,french block-book1 #bi ,neumeister1 ,johann1 printer at ,foligno1 ,mainz1 ,albi1 etc41 #aad ,newcastle1 printing at1 #bcf sq42 ,new ,testament1 ,tyndale's1 #bca2 ,eliot's1 #bdf ,niclas1 ,hendrik1 his books printed at ,amsterdam1 #bcb ,nitschewitz1 ,hermann1 ,psalterium ,b4,m4,v41 #aag ,norwich1 ,dutch books printed at1 #bcc2 other printing at1 #bch ,notary1 ,julyan1 early printer at ,london1 #gg1 #bac sq41 #bbb ,nuremberg1 printing at1 #fc1 #afi2 book-illustration at1 #ajh1 #aaf sq41 #aha-d1 #aic ,nuremberg ,chronicle4 ,see ,schedel ,nut-,brown ,maid1 the earliest text in ,arnold's ,chronicle1 #bcj ,ogilby1 ,john1 illustrated books1 #bhi ,o',kearney1 ,john1 ,irish printing by1 #bdc ,opera nova contemplativa1 ,venetian block-book1 #bj sq41 #bi ,oppenheim1 book-decoration at1 #aic ,ortuin and ,schenck1 printers of ,roman de la ,rose1 #afj ,os1 ,pieter van1 early printer at ,zwolle1 #gb ,ostendorfer1 ,michael1 illustrations by1 #aij ,oswen1 ,john1 printer at ,ipswich and ,worcester1 #bbi sq4 ,overton1 ,john1 printer 787 at ,ipswich1 #bbf ,ovid1 illustrations to his ,metamorphoses1 #bib ,oxford1 printing at1 #gf1 #bji1 #bbd1 #bcd sqq41 #beb1 #cjb sq4 ,pacini1 ,piero and ,bernardo1 publishers of illustrated books at ,florence1 #aci ,paderborn1 ,johann4 ,see ,westphalia1 ,john of ,palmart1 ,lambert1 first printer in ,spain1 #ge1 #gh1 #hi ,paper1 made at ,hertford1 #bab2 ,tottell seeks a monopoly for making1 #bbj ,paris1 printing in1 #gj sqq41 #aga sqq42 book-illustration1 #adc-ef1 #aig-bja1 #bhi-ic ,parker1 ,archbishop1 his efforts to rescue old books1 #b2 patron of ,john ,day1 #bai2 and of ,bynneman1 #bbj2 his ,de ,antiquitate ,brit4 ,eccl4 perhaps printed at ,lambeth1 #bai1 #bcd2 engraved portrait1 #bhb ,parma1 ,baskerville's press at1 #cjj ,passe family1 engravers1 #bhf1 #bhh ,passio domini nostri ,jesu ,christi1 ,venetian block-book1 #bh1 #abc ,paulirinus1 ,paulinus1 on the word ciripagus1 #dc ,pavia1 book-illustration at1 #ada ,peartree1 ,montagu1 article on possible portrait of ,caxton1 #bgc ,pepwell1 ,henry1 ,london printer1 #baf ,pepys1 ,s41 bequest of his books1 #e ,petrarca1 ,f41 illustrated editions of his ,trionfi1 #abg1 #aci ,petri1 ,johann1 early printer at ,florence1 #fg ,pfister1 ,albrecht1 printer of illustrated books at ,bamberg1 #ai1 #cb1 #ea1 #ei ,philadelphia1 first printing at1 #bdg ,philippe1 ,regent of ,france1 engraved illustrations to ,longus1 #bij ,phillipps1 ,sir ,thomas1 private printing by1 #bci ,pigouchet1 ,philippe1 prints ,le ,chasteau de ,labeur1 #aej2 his ,horae1 #aed ,pinder1 ,ulrich1 private press at ,nuremberg1 #ahd ,pine1 ,john1 engraver1 #bid sqq4 ,plantin1 ,christopher1 printer at ,antwerp1 #age sq42 woodcut illustration1 #bjb sq42 engraved1 #bgd sqq4 ,plateanus1 ,theodoricus 7,dirick van der ,straten71 printer at ,wesel1 #bbf ,plates1 troubles arising from in books1 #bfg ,pleydenwurff1 ,wilhelm1 book-illustrations by1 #aaf ,poitiers1 early printing at1 #gb ,polidori1 ,gaetano1 his private press1 #bci ,pope1 erasure of the word1 #bfj ,popish apparel1 ,puritan tracts against1 #bcb ,poppy-printer of ,lubeck1 #aad ,porro1 ,girolamo1 engraves plates for ,orlando ,furioso1 #bgg1 #bhc ,powell1 ,humphrey1 ,english printer in ,dublin1 #bdb ,printing1 changes in the primacy of1 #af1 #afi1 #agj1 #agg2 invention of1 #cb-eh2 early progress of1 in various countries1 #ei-hb2 its technical development1 #hc-ii2 in the sixteenth century1 #afe-gi2 in ,england1 #bjd-bc2 in the provinces of ,england1 #bbd-h1 #bcc-h2 on the ,continent for the ,english market1 #bbi-cc2 private1 #bch sq42 in ,scotland1 #bci sqq42 in ,ireland1 #bdb sq42 in the ,english colonies in ,america1 #bdc sqq4 ,private presses in ,england1 #bch sq41 #cjc sqq4 ,proctor1 ,robert1 found beauty in all incunabula1 #aj1 #ci2 classification of them1 #ab2 ,greek type1 #agf1 #cjg ,provincial printing in ,england1 #i1 #gf1 #bjh sq41 #bbd-g1 #bcd-h ,pruss1 ,johann1 of ,strassburg1 illustrated books1 #aaa1 #afb ,psalms1 the ,new ,england version of the1 #bdd sq4 ,psalter1 ,latin1 of #adeg1 #ed1 #hc2 of #adei1 #ee2 cost of writing and illuminating a manuscript1 #hd ,ptolemy1 ,cosmographia 7or ,geographia71 illustrated editions of1 #ff1 #ajg ,pynson1 ,r41 number of copies in his editions1 #ba2 work as a printer1 #baa1 #bab sq41 #bbb2 book-illustrations1 #bee-i ,quarles1 ,francis1 ,hieroglyphikes of the ,life of ,man1 #bhg ,quentell1 ,heinrich1 of ,cologne1 his illustrated books1 #aac2 his ,bible cuts copied1 #aab1 #aad1 #abf1 #abh ,quinterniones1 a name for manuscripts1 #id ,quire1 origin of the word1 #id ,quiring in old books1 #id sqq42 collection by1 #if sq4 ,r-printer1 the1 of ,strassburg1 #fj ,rappresentazioni1 illustrated ,florentine editions1 #ach ,rarity1 effect on value of books1 #g sq4 ,rastell1 ,john1 lawyer-printer1 #bae1 #bbb1 #beh -- ,william1 printed ,english plays1 #bae ,ratdolt1 ,erhard1 early printer at ,venice1 #fi2 titlepage to his ,calendar1 #ic2 his decorative work at ,venice1 #abe sq42 at ,augsburg1 #ajf2 colour-printing by1 #abi ,rawlinson1 ,richard1 gives manuscripts to the ,bodleian1 #e ,raynold1 ,thomas1 his ed4 of the ,birth of ,mankind1 #bhj ,recuyell of the ,histories of ,troye1 #bjf1 #bed2 engraving in ,chatsworth copy of ,caxton's1 #bgb ,redman1 ,robert1 ,pynson's successor1 #baf1 #bbb ,red printing1 difficulty of1 #hf1 #bbh sq42 colophons in1 #ib ,regiomontanus4 ,see ,muller ,reinhard1 ,johann4 ,see ,gruninger ,retza1 ,fran4 de1 block-book of his ,defensorium1 #bg ,reuwich1 ,erhard1 illustrator of ,breidenbach's ,peregrinatio1 #ajh1 #aae sq4 ,reyser1 ,georg1 first ,wurzburg printer1 #fd1 #bfi sq4 -- ,michel1 first ,eichstatt printer1 #fd1 #bfi sq4 ,rheims1 ,english ,catholic books printed at1 #bcb ,richard ,,iii1 ,statute permitting free importation of books into ,england1 #bji1 #bbb ,richard1 ,thomas1 printer at ,tavistock1 #bbf ,richel1 ,bernhard1 early printer at ,basel1 his illustrated books1 #aji1 #aeh ,ricketts1 ,charles1 the ,vale ,press books1 #cjg ,rodericus ,zamorensis1 illustrated editions of his ,speculum ,humanae ,vitae1 #ajd1 #aei1 #afb ,rodlich1 ,hieronymus1 his illustrated books1 #aic ,rogers1 ,bruce1 fine printer1 #cjh -- ,william1 engraver1 #bhd1 #bhg ,rolewinck1 ,werner1 all his books printed by ther ,hoernen1 #fb2 ,venice editions of his ,fasciculus ,temporum1 #abf2 ,seville ed41 #afa ,roman de la ,rose1 early editions of1 #afj ,roman type1 #hh-ij ,rome1 printing at1 #fe1 #afg2 book-illustration at1 #abc1 #bfh1 #bgc1 #bgf ,rome under the ,castle of ,st4 ,angelo1 spurious imprint1 #bcc ,rood1 ,theodoricus1 printer at ,oxford1 #gf ,ross1 ,john1 ,edinburgh printer1 #bdb ,rouen early printing1 #gb1 #adf2 ,english books1 #bbe1 #bbi ,ruppel1 ,berthold1 of ,hanau1 ,basel printer1 #dg1 #fj ,ruscelli1 ,jerononimo1 his ,imprese1 #bgg ,rusch1 ,adolf1 the ,r-printer1 #fj2 roman type used by1 #hh ,rylands1 ,w4 ,h41 engraver1 #bif ,ryther1 ,augustine1 engraver1 #bhb ,saint ,albans1 printing at1 #gf1 #bjh1 #bbd sq41 #bec ,saint ,andrews1 printing at1 #bda ,saint ,omer1 ,english ,catholic books printed at1 #bcb ,saluzzo1 book-illustration at1 #ada ,sanctis1 ,hieronymus de1 wood-cutter and printer at ,venice1 #abg ,sanderson1 ,cobden1 fine printing by1 #cjf ,sandys1 ,george1 ,relation of a ,journey1 #bhe ,santritter1 ,johann1 illustrator and printer at ,venice1 #abg ,saragossa1 early printing at1 #ge2 illustration1 #afb ,sarum service-books mostly printed abroad1 #bbi2 their importation into ,scotland forbidden1 #bdj ,savonarola1 ,girolamo1 illustrated editions of his tracts1 #acc sq41 #acg ,savile1 ,sir ,henry1 his press at ,eton1 #bcd ,saxton1 ,christopher1 maps by1 #bhb ,sayle1 ,c41 his catalogue of ,english books in ,cambridge ,university ,library1 #bcc ,schatzbehalter4 ,see ,stephan ,schaufelein1 ,hans ,leonhard1 book-illustrations by1 #ahd1 #ahh sq4 ,schedel1 ,hartmann1 his ,liber ,chronicarum1 #aag ,schilders1 ,richard1 ,english books printed by1 #bcb sq4 ,schoeffer1 ,johann1 printer at ,mainz1 #eh1 #afi -- ,peter1 a witness on the side of ,fust1 #dg2 his share in the invention of printing1 #ej sq42 books printed by him1 #ec-h2 his method of printing1 #ha-f1 #ie2 his type1 #ij ,schon1 ,erhard1 illustrations by1 #ahc ,schreiber1 ,w41 his ,manuel de l',amateur1 quoted1 #bd1 #ajj note1 #aad2 his block-books1 #ca ,schwabacher type1 #ij ,scolar1 ,johannes1 printer at ,oxford1 #bbd2 and at ,abingdon1 #bbf ,scoloker1 ,anthony1 printer at ,ipswich and ,london1 #bbf ,scot1 ,john1 ,scottish printer1 #bdj sq4 ,scotland1 printing in1 #bci-db ,secret printing in ,elizabeth's reign1 #bbh ,segar1 ,sir ,w41 ,honour1 ,military and ,civil1 #bhd ,selden1 ,w41 his books go to the ,bodleian1 #e ,sensenschmidt1 ,johann1 first printer at ,nuremberg1 #fc2 his illustrated books1 #ajh ,sessa1 family of printers1 illustrated books1 #aif ,seville1 early printing at1 #ge2 illustration1 #afa1 #afc ,shakespeare1 ,first ,folio1 #h2 illustrations to1 #bid sqq4 ,shrewsbury1 printing at1 #bcg sq4 ,siberch1 ,john ,laer of1 first ,cambridge printer1 #bbe ,sibyllenbuch1 early ,mainz fragment of1 #df ,sidney1 ,sir ,philip1 title-border to #aeih ed4 of his ,arcadia1 #bff2 engraving of his funeral1 #bhb ,siemen1 illustrated books published at1 #aic ,signatures of artists or wood-cutters in ,italian books1 #abh1 #aid2 in ,german books1 #aid2 in ,french books1 #aeg1 #aei ,signatures 7typographic71 first used by ,joh4 ,koelhoff1 #fb2 their origin1 #id2 example of collation by1 #if ,silber1 ,eucharius1 printer at ,rome1 #afi ,simon1 das susses kind1 woodcuts of his history1 #ajc1 #ajh ,small books1 #bad2 stages in their popularity1 #aff1 #agc1 #agh ,smith1 ,richard1 book-collector1 #c ,solempne1 ,antony de1 ,dutch printer at ,norwich1 #bcc ,sorbonne1 first ,paris press at the1 #gj2 roman type used at1 #hi2 persecution of printers by its theologians1 #agd ,sorg1 ,anton1 of ,augsburg1 illustrated books1 #aje ,spaces left blank for headings and capitals1 #he2 for illustrations1 #adc ,spain1 early printing in1 #gd-f1 #agf sq41 #bbd2 book-illustration1 #afa-d ,spanish ,armada1 engravings of1 #bhb ,speculum ,humanae ,saluationis partly block-printed1 #bf1 #ci2 fate of the blocks1 #dj1 #aah2 ,augsburg ed4 of1 #ajc2 ,basel ed4 of 7in ,german71 #aji1 #aej2 ,french ed4 at ,lyons1 #aeh ,speculum ,humanae ,vitae4 ,see ,rodericus ,zamorensis ,speculum ,vitae ,christi1 ,caxton's edition1 #beb sq4 ,speier1 early printing at1 #fc -- ,johann of1 first printer at ,venice1 #ff sq41 #hi -- ,wendelin of1 successor of ,johann1 #fg1 #hi ,spenser1 ,edmund1 woodcuts to his ,shepheardes ,calender1 #bfe ,spindeler1 ,nic41 illustrated books1 #afb sq4 ,spoerer1 ,hans1 block-books printed by1 #be ,springinklee1 ,hans1 illustrator1 #ahc1 #ahh ,stagninus1 ,bernardinus1 his illustrated service-books1 #aie ,stanheim1 ,melchior1 arbitrator on book-illustrating1 #fc1 #ajc ,stationers' ,company1 #bba sq41 #bbg1 #bcc sq4 ,steele1 ,robert1 on ,english books printed abroad1 #bcc ,stephan1 ,p41 ,schatzbehalter1 #aaf ,steyner1 ,hans1 illustrated books by1 #ahe1 #ahg ,stillingfleet1 ,archbishop1 fate of his library1 #d ,stoffler1 ,hans1 mathematical works by1 curiously decorated1 #ahi ,story1 ,john1 ,edinburgh printer1 #bdj ,strassburg1 printing at1 #ei sq41 #afi2 book-illustration at1 #aab sqq41 #ahg1 #aij sq4 ,straten1 ,dirick van der4 ,see ,plateanus ,strawberry ,hill1 ,horace ,walpole's press at1 #bch ,stuchs1 ,g41 ,nuremberg printer1 #fc ,stule1 ,karolus1 ,edinburgh publisher1 #bdj ,sturt1 ,john1 engraver1 #bid sq4 ,subiaco1 books printed at1 #fe ,sweynheym and ,pannartz1 number of copies in their editions1 #ba note1 #ff2 early reference to1 #cd2 books printed by1 #fe sq42 their types1 #hh -- ,conrad1 engraves maps for #adgh ,ptolemy1 #ff1 #bfh ,tacuinus1 ,joannes1 ,venice printer1 #fi ,tate1 ,john1 papermaker1 #bab ,taverner1 ,john1 ,london stationer1 #bbb ,tavistock1 printing at1 #bbf ,terence1 illustrated editions of1 #ajg1 #aab1 #aca1 #aej1 #afj1 #afc1 #bac ,theramo1 ,jacobus de1 illustrated editions of his ,belial1 #aba ,ther ,hoernen1 ,arnold1 second ,cologne printer1 #fb ,thomas1 ,thomas1 ,cambridge printer1 #bce ,thomas a ,becket1 erasure of the service for1 #bfj ,tillier1 ,thomas1 ,chester printer1 #bcg ,tin1 types made of1 #ba note ,titlepage1 early examples of1 #fb1 #ic1 #baj ,tortosa early printing1 #ge ,tory1 ,geoffroi1 printer at ,paris1 #agc2 his ,horae1 #aef sq41 #aii ,tottell1 ,richard1 ,london printer1 #bai ,tournes1 ,jean de1 father and son1 printers at ,lyon1 #agd ,traut1 ,wolfgang1 illustrator1 #ahb1 #ahh ,trechsel family of printers at ,lyon1 #afj1 #aga1 #agd1 #aib sq4 ,treviso1 early printing at1 #fg sq41 #gj ,tuberinus1 his account of the death of das susses kind ,simon1 #ajc1 #ajh ,tubingen1 book-decoration at1 #ahi ,turberville1 ,george1 ,booke of ,faulconrie1 #bfe ,turrecremata1 ,cardinal1 illustrated editions of his ,meditationes1 #aad1 #abc ,tyndale1 ,w41 editions of his ,new ,testament1 #bca ,types1 characteristics of1 in early books1 #hf sq4 ,ugo 7,,vgo71 woodcuts signed1 #aid ,ulm early printing1 #fc sq42 illustrated books1 #ajf sqq4 ,ungut and ,polonus1 illustrated books of1 #afc ,united ,states of ,america1 colonial printing in1 #bdc-i2 modern fine printing1 #cjh ,updike1 ,berkeley1 fine printer1 #cjh ,usher1 ,archbishop1 fate of his library1 #d ,utrecht1 ,costeriana attributed to1 #dj1 #gb ,utterson1 ,e4 ,v41 private printing by1 #bci ,valdarfer1 ,christopher1 printer at ,venice and ,milan1 #fg ,valentia1 early printing at1 #gd sq42 illustration1 #afb ,valturius1 ,r41 ,de re militari1 ,verona editions of1 #abc sq42 ,french version of1 #bjj ,van der ,gucht1 ,michael1 engraver1 #bid ,vautrollier1 ,thomas1 printer at ,london and ,edinburgh1 #bba1 #bdb ,vavassore1 ,giovanni ,andrea1 block-printed ,opera nova ,contemplativa by1 #ba2 woodcuts signed z4a41 etc41 by1 #aid sq4 ,veldener1 ,jan1 early printer at ,louvain1 ,kuilenburg and ,utrecht1 #dj1 #gc1 #aah1 #aai1 #bje ,venice early printing1 #ff sq42 book-illustration1 #abe-cb1 #aid-g1 #bgg ,verard1 ,antoine1 publisher at ,paris1 #adg-ej2 his ,horae1 #aea sq42 his ,english books1 #bcj2 his use of old cuts1 #aja1 #adh1 #afj ,vergetius1 ,angelus1 ,french ,royal ,greek types designed by1 #agb ,verona early book-illustration1 #abc sq4 ,villena1 ,marquis of1 ,trabajos de ,hercules1 #afa ,vincent de ,beauvais1 his ,speculum1 #afe ,violette1 ,pierre1 ,rouen printer1 #bbe ,virgil1 printed by ,b4 ,cennini1 colophon quoted1 #hj2 ,gruninger's1 #aab2 ,leroy's1 #aeh2 ,aldine1 #afg2 first ,english1 #bbf sq42 ,ogilby's1 #bhi2 ,baskerville's1 #cjj ,virginia1 early printing in1 #bdi ,viterbo1 good roman type1 #hi ,voltaire1 edition of his works printed with ,baskerville's type1 #cjj ,vostre1 ,simon1 books printed by ,pigouchet for1 #aej1 #aed sqq4 ,wachtlin1 ,johann1 illustrator1 #aij ,waldegrave1 ,robert1 prints ,marprelate tracts1 #bbh4 ,see prints at ,edinburgh1 #bdb ,wale1 ,samuel1 illustrator1 #bif ,walker1 ,emery1 expert in printing1 #cjd sqq4 ,walpole1 ,horace1 private press1 #bch ,walther1 ,f41 and ,hans ,hurning1 printers of a ,biblia ,pauperum1 #be ,walton1 ,izaak1 illustrations to his ,angler1 #bif ,wandsforth1 ,gerard4 ,see ,freez ,wandsworth1 secret press at1 #bbh ,weiditz1 ,hans1 illustrator1 #ahf sq4 ,wenssler1 ,michael1 ,basel printer1 #fj sq4 ,wesel1 ,bale's ,catalogus printed there1 #bbf ,westphalia1 ,john of1 early printer at ,alost and ,louvain1 #gc2 used roman type1 #hi2 his woodcut portrait1 #aai ,white1 ,john1 his drawings of ,virginia1 #bgh -- ,robert41 engraver1 #bhi ,whittingham1 ,charles 7uncle and nephew71 printers1 #cjb sq4 ,wilcocks1 ,william1 gave commissions to ,wynkyn de ,worde1 #baj ,williams1 ,archbishop1 gifts of books by1 #e ,wilson1 ,j4 ,d41 on ,english books printed abroad1 #bcc ,winthrop1 ,john1 allusion to printing at ,cambridge1 ,mass41 #bdc ,wittenberg1 printing at1 #afi2 illustrations1 #aij ,wolfe1 ,reyner1 ,royal painter1 #bah1 #bei ,wolgemut1 ,michael1 book-illustrator1 #aaf ,woodcuts1 early1 their charm and distinctiveness1 #ae ,worde1 ,wynkyn de1 on ,caxton's printing the ,de proprietatibus1 #bad sq42 on the ,st4 ,alban's printer1 #bjh2 on ,fishing with an ,angle1 #bji note2 his work as a printer1 #baa sq42 his assessment1 #bbb2 book-illustrations1 #bec sq4 ,wurzburg1 early printing at1 #fd -- ,missals1 engravings in1 #bgj ,wyer1 ,robert1 ,london printer1 #bbb ,ximenes1 ,cardinal1 ,polyglott ,bible1 #agf ,york1 printing at1 #bbe1 #bcf sqq4 z4a41 z4,a41 woodcuts signed1 #aid ,zainer1 ,gunther1 first ,augsburg printer1 #fb sq42 used roman type1 #hh2 his illustrated books1 #ajc -- ,johann1 first ,ulm printer1 #fc2 used roman type1 #hh2 his illustrated books1 #ajf ,zarotus1 ,antonius1 first printer at ,milan1 #fh1 #gj ,zell1 ,ulrich1 his story of the invention of printing1 #ce2 the first printer at ,cologne1 #fa ,zenger1 ,joh4 ,peter1 ,new ,york printer1 #bdh ,zinna1 the ,psalterium ,b4,v4,m4 printed at1 #aag ,zoan ,andrea4 ,see ,vavassore1 #aid ,zurich1 ,english books printed at1 #bca sq4 ,zwolle early printing1 #gb2 book-illustrations at1 #abb ,,printed ,,by ,,william ,,brendon ,,and ,,son1 ,,ltd4 ,,plymouth