,a ,,sy/em ,,( ,,logic ,,ratioc9ative ,,& ,,inductive ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,a ,,sy/em ,,( ,,logic ,,ratioc9ative ,,& ,,inductive ,,be+ ,a ,,connect$ ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,evid5ce ,,& ,,! ,,me?ods ,,( ,,sci5tific ,,inve/igation ,,by ,,john ,,/u>t ,,mill ,,9 ,,two ,,volumes ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,sev5? ,,edition ,,london3 ,,longmans1 ,,gre51 ,,read]1 ,,& ,,dy] ,,mdccclxviii ,,cont5ts ,,( ,,! ,,second ,,volume4 ,,book ,,iii4 ,,on ,,induction4--7,cont9u$47 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,( ! ,limits to ! ,explanation ( ,laws ( ,nature2 & ( ,hypo!ses4 #a4 ,c all ! sequ5ces 9 nature be resolvable into "o law8 #c #b4 ,ultimate laws _c be less num]\s ?an ! di/+ui%able feel+s ( our nature #d #c4 ,9 :at s5se ultimate facts c be expla9$ #g #d4 ,! prop] use ( sci5tific hypo!ses #h #e4 ,_! indisp5sabl5ess #af #f4 ,legitimate1 h[ di/+ui%$ f illegitimate hypo!ses #ah #g4 ,"s inquiries app>5tly hypo!tical are really inductive #be ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,( ,progressive ,effects2 & ( ! ,cont9u$ ,action ( ,causes4 #a4 ,h[ a progressive effect results f ! simple cont9uance ( ! cause #bi #b4 --& f ! progressiv5ess ( ! cause #cc #c4 ,d]ivative laws g5]at$ f a s+le ultimate law #cf ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,( ,empirical ,laws4 #a4 ,def9ition ( an empirical law #ch #b4 ,d]ivative laws commonly dep5d on collocations #ci #c4 ,! collocations ( ! p]man5t causes are n r$ucible to any law #da #d4 ,h5ce empirical laws _c be reli$ on beyond ! limits ( actual exp]i5ce #da #e4 ,g5]alizations :i* re/ only on ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t c only be receiv$ z empirical laws #dc #f4 ,signs f :i* an obs]v$ uni=mity ( sequ5ce may be presum$ to be resolvable #dd #g4 ,two k9ds ( empirical laws #dg ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,( ,*ance1 & its ,elim9ation4 #a4 ,! pro( ( empirical laws dep5ds on ! !ory ( *ance #di #b4 ,*ance def9$ & *>act]iz$ #ej #c4 ,! elim9ation ( *ance #ee #d4 ,discov]y ( residual ph5om5a by elim9at+ *ance #eg #e4 ,! doctr9e ( *ances #ei ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,( ! ,calculation ( ,*ances4 #a4 ,f\ndation ( ! doctr9e ( *ances1 z taught by ma!matics #fa #b4 ,! doctr9e t5able #fc #c4 ,on :at f\ndation x really re/s #fd #d4 ,its ultimate dep5d5ce on causation #fh #e4 ,!orem ( ! doctr9e ( *ances :i* relates to ! cause ( a giv5 ev5t #gb #f4 ,h[ applicable to ! elim9ation ( *ance #gd ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,( ! ,ext5sion ( ,d]ivative ,laws to ,adjac5t ,cases4 #a4 ,d]ivative laws1 :5 n casual1 are almo/ always cont+5t on collocations #gh #b4 ,on :at gr\nds !y c be ext5d$ to cases beyond ! b\nds ( actual exp]i5ce #hj #c4 ,^? cases mu/ be adjac5t cases #hb ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,( ,analogy4 #a4 ,v>i\s s5ses ( ! ^w analogy #hf #b4 ,nature ( analogical evid5ce #hg #c4 ,on :at circum/ances its value dep5ds #ia ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,( ! ,evid5ce ( ! ,law ( ,univ]sal ,causation4 #a4 ,! law ( causality does n re/ on an in/9ct #ie #b4 ,b on an induction by simple enum]ation #ajj #c4 ,9 :at cases su* induction is all[able #ajb #d4 ,! univ]sal preval5ce ( ! law ( causality1 on :at gr\nds admissible #aje ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,( ,uni=mities ( ,coexi/5ce n dep5d5t on ,causation4 #a4 ,uni=mities ( coexi/5ce :i* result f laws ( sequ5ce #aaj #b4 ,! prop]ties ( ,k9ds are uni=mities ( coexi/5ce #aaa #c4 ,"s are d]ivative1 o!rs ultimate #aac #d4 ,no univ]sal axiom ( coexi/5ce #aad #e4 ,! evid5ce ( uni=mities ( coexi/5ce1 h[ measur$ #aag #f4 ,:5 d]ivative1 _! evid5ce is t ( empirical laws #aag #g4 ,s also :5 ultimate #aai #h4 ,! evid5ce /rong] 9 proportion z ! law is m g5]al #abj #i4 ,e di/9ct ,k9d mu/ be exam9$ #aba ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,( ,approximate ,g5]alizations1 & ,probable ,evid5ce4 #a4 ,! inf]5ces call$ probable1 re/ on approximate g5]alizations #abd #b4 ,approximate g5]alizations less useful 9 sci5ce ?an 9 life #abd #c4 ,9 :at cases !y may be resort$ to #abf #d4 ,9 :at mann] prov$ #abg #e4 ,) :at precautions employ$ #acj #f4 ,! two modes ( comb9+ probabilities #aca #g4 ,h[ approximate g5]alizations may be conv]t$ into accurate g5]alizations equival5t to !m #acf ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,( ! ,rema9+ ,laws ( ,nature4 #a4 ,propositions :i* ass]t m]e exi/5ce #aci #b4 ,resemblance1 consid]$ z a subject ( sci5ce #ada #c4 ,! axioms & !orems ( ma!matics comprise ! pr9cipal laws ( resemblance #adc #d4 --& ^? ( ord] 9 place1 & re/ on induction by simple enum]ation #ade #e4 ,! propositions ( ari?metic affirm ! modes ( =mation ( "s giv5 numb] #adf #f4 ,^? ( algebra affirm ! equival5ce ( diff]5t modes ( =mation ( numb]s g5]ally #aea #g4 ,! propositions ( geometry are laws ( outw>d nature #aed #h4 ,:y geometry is almo/ entirely d$uctive #aef #i4 ,function ( ma!matical tru?s 9 ! o!r sci5ces1 & limits ( t function #aeh ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,( ! ,gr\nds ( ,disbelief4 #a4 ,improbability & impossibility #afa #b4 ,exam9ation ( ,hume's doctr9e ( miracles #afb #c4 ,! degrees ( improbability correspond to diff]5ces 9 ! nature ( ! g5]alization ) :i* an ass]tion conflicts #aff #d4 ,a fact is n incr$ible because ! *ances are aga9/ x #agj #e4 ,are co9cid5ces less cr$ible ?an o!r facts8 #agb #f4 ,an op9ion ( ,laplace exam9$ #age ,,book ,,iv4 ,,( ,,op]ations ,,subsidi>y ,,to ,,induction4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,( ,obs]vation & ,description4 #a4 ,obs]vation1 h[ f> a subject ( logic #ahc #b4 ,a great "p ( :at seems obs]vation is really inf]5ce #ahd #c4 ,! description ( an obs]vation affirms m ?an is conta9$ 9 ! obs]vation #ahg #d4 --namely an agreem5t among ph5om5a2 & ! comp>ison ( ph5om5a to asc]ta9 su* agreem5ts is a prelim9>y to induction #aij ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,( ,ab/raction1 or ! ,=mation ( ,conceptions4 #a4 ,! comp>ison :i* is a prelim9>y to induction implies g5]al conceptions #aic #b4 --b ^! ne$ n be pre-exi/5t #aid #c4 ,a g5]al conception1 orig9ally ! result ( a comp>ison1 becomes itself ! type ( comp>ison #aih #d4 ,:at is meant by appropriate conceptions #bjj #e4 --& by cle> conceptions #bjc #f4 ,fur!r illu/ration ( ! subject #bje ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,( ,nam+1 z subsidi>y to ,induction4 #a4 ,! fundam5tal prop]ty ( names z an in/rum5t ( ?\ght #bji #b4 ,names are n indisp5sable to induction #baj #c4 ,9 :at mann] subs]vi5t to x #baa #d4 ,g5]al names n a m]e contrivance to economize ! use ( language #bac ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,( ! ,requisites ( a ,philosophical ,language1 & ! ,pr9ciples ( ,def9ition4 #a4 ,fir/ requisite ( philosophical language1 a /eady & det]m9ate mean+ = e g5]al "n #bae #b4 ,names 9 common use h (t5 a loose connotation #bae #c4 --:i* ! logician %\ld fix1 ) z little alt]ation z possible #bah #d4 ,:y def9ition is (t5 a "q n ( words b ( ?+s #bbj #e4 ,h[ ! logician %\ld deal ) ! transitive applications ( words #bbd #f4 ,evil consequ5ces ( ca/+ (f any portion ( ! cu/om>y connotation ( words #bbi ,,*apt] ,v4 ,on ! ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,v>iations 9 ! ,mean+ ( ,t]ms4 #a4 ,h[ circum/ances orig9ally accid5tal become incorporat$ into ! mean+ ( words #bcf #b4 --& sometimes become ! :ole mean+ #bch #c4 ,t5d5cy ( words to become g5]aliz$ #bdj #d4 --& to become specializ$ #bdc ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,! ,pr9ciples ( a ,philosophical ,language fur!r consid]$4 #a4 ,second requisite ( philosophical language1 a "n = e important mean+ #bdh #b4 --viz4 fir/1 an accurate descriptive t]m9ology #bdh #c4 --secondly1 a "n = ea* ( ! m important results ( sci5tific ab/raction #beb #d4 --?irdly1 a nom5clature1 or sy/em ( ! names ( ,k9ds #bee #e4 ,peculi> nature ( ! connotation ( names :i* belong to a nom5clature #beg #f4 ,9 :at cases language may1 & may n1 be us$ me*anically #bei ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,( ,classification1 z subsidi>y to ,induction4 #a4 ,classification z "h treat$ (1 :]e9 diff]5t f ! classification impli$ 9 nam+ #bff #b4 ,!ory ( natural gr\ps #bfg #c4 ,are natural gr\ps giv5 by type1 or by def9ition8 #bga #d4 ,k9ds are natural gr\ps #bgd #e4 ,h[ ! names ( ,k9ds %\ld be con/ruct$ #bhj ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,( ,classification by ,s]ies4 #a4 ,natural gr\ps %\ld be arrang$ 9 a natural s]ies #bhd #b4 ,! arrangem5t %\ld foll[ ! degrees ( ! ma9 ph5om5on #bhe #c4 --:i* implies ! assumption ( a type-species #bhg #d4 ,h[ ! divisions ( ! s]ies %\ld be det]m9$ #bhh #e4 ,zoology af=ds ! complete/ type ( sci5tific classification #bhi ,,book ,v4 ,,on ,,fallacies4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,( ,fallacies 9 ,g5]al4 #a4 ,!ory ( fallacies a necess>y "p ( logic #bie #b4 ,casual mi/akes are n fallacies #big #c4 ,! moral s\rces ( errone\s op9ion1 h[ relat$ to ! intellectual #big ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,classification ( ,fallacies4 #a4 ,on :at crit]ia a classification ( fallacies %\ld be gr\nd$ #cja #b4 ,! five classes ( fallacies #cjb #c4 ,! ref]5ce ( a fallacy to "o or ano!r class is sometimes arbitr>y #cje ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,fallacies ( ,simple ,inspection1 or priori ,fallacies4 #a4 ,"* ( ?is class ( ,fallacies #cji #b4 ,natural prejudice ( mi/ak+ subjective laws = objective1 exemplifi$ 9 popul> sup]/itions #caj #c4 ,natural prejudices1 t ?+s :i* we ?9k ( toge!r mu/ exi/ toge!r1 & t :at is inconceivable mu/ be false #cad #d4 ,natural prejudice1 ( ascrib+ objective exi/5ce to ab/ractions #cba #e4 ,fallacy ( ! ,suffici5t ,reason #cbb #f4 ,natural prejudice1 t ! diff]5ces 9 nature correspond to ! di/9ctions 9 language #cbe #g4 ,prejudice1 t a ph5om5on _c h m ?an "o cause #cbi #h4 ,prejudice1 t ! conditions ( a ph5om5on mu/ resemble ! ph5om5on #ccb ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,fallacies ( ,obs]vation4 #a4 ,non-obs]vation1 & ,mal-obs]vation #cda #b4 ,non-obs]vation ( in/ances1 & non-obs]vation ( circum/ances #cda #c4 ,examples ( ! =m] #cdb #d4 --& ( ! latt] #cdg #e4 ,mal-obs]vation *>act]iz$ & exemplifi$ #ceb ,,*apt] ,v4 ,fallacies ( ,g5]alization4 #a4 ,"* ( ! class #cef #b4 ,c]ta9 k9ds ( g5]alization mu/ always be gr\ndless #cef #c4 ,attempts to resolve ph5om5a radically diff]5t into ! same #ceg #d4 ,fallacy ( mi/ak+ empirical = causal laws #cei #e4 ,po/ hoc1 ergo propt] hoc2 & ! d$uctive fallacy correspond+ to x #cfd #f4 ,fallacy ( ,false ,analogies #cff #g4 ,function ( metaphors 9 reason+ #cgc #h4 ,h[ fallacies ( g5]alization gr[ out ( bad classification #cge ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,fallacies ( ,ratioc9ation4 #a4 ,introductory ,rem>ks #cgg #b4 ,fallacies 9 ! conv]sion & quipoll5cy ( propositions #cgg #c4 ,fallacies 9 ! syllogi/ic process #cgi #d4 ,fallacy ( *ang+ ! premises #cgi ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,fallacies ( ,confusion4 #a4 ,fallacy ( ,ambigu\s ,t]ms #chd #b4 ,fallacy ( ,petitio ,pr9cipii #cif #c4 ,fallacy ( ,ignoratio ,el5*i #dje ,,book ,,vi4 ,,on ,,! ,,logic ,,( ,,! ,,moral ,,sci5ces4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,introductory ,rem>ks4 #a4 ,! backw>d /ate ( ! ,moral ,sci5ces c only be rem$i$ by apply+ to !m ! me?ods ( ,physical ,sci5ce1 duly ext5d$ & g5]aliz$ #dac #b4 ,h[ f> ?is c be attempt$ 9 ! pres5t "w #dae ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,( ,lib]ty & ,necessity4 #a4 ,are human actions subject to ! law ( causality8 #dag #b4 ,! doctr9e commonly call$ ,philosophical ,necessity1 9 :at s5se true #dah #c4 ,inappropriat5ess & p]nici\s effect ( ! t]m ,necessity #dbj #d4 ,a motive n always ! anticipation ( a pleasure or a pa9 #dbd ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,t !re is1 or may be1 a ,sci5ce ( ,human ,nature4 #a4 ,!re may be sci5ces :i* are n exact sci5ces #dbf #b4 ,to :at sci5tific type ! ,sci5ce ( ,human ,nature corresponds #dbi ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,( ! ,laws ( ,m9d4 #a4 ,:at is meant by ,laws ( ,m9d #dcb #b4 ,is !re a sci5ce ( ,psy*ology8 #dcc #c4 ,! pr9cipal inve/igations ( ,psy*ology *>act]iz$ #dce #d4 ,relation ( m5tal facts to physical conditions #ddj ,,*apt] ,v4 ,( ,e?ology1 or ! ,sci5ce ( ! ,=mation ( ,"*4 #a4 ,! ,empirical ,laws ( ,human ,nature #dde #b4 --are m]ely approximate g5]alizations4 ,! univ]sal laws are ^? ( ! =mation ( "* #ddg #c4 ,! laws ( ! =mation ( "* _c be asc]ta9$ by obs]vation & exp]im5t #ddi #d4 --b mu/ be /udi$ d$uctively #ded #e4 ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,e?ology are ! axiomata m$ia ( m5tal sci5ce #dee #f4 ,e?ology *>act]iz$ #dei ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,g5]al ,consid]ations on ! ,social ,sci5ce4 #a4 ,are ,social ,ph5om5a a subject ( ,sci5ce8 #dfa #b4 ,( :at nature ! ,social ,sci5ce mu/ be #dfc ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,( ! ,*emical1 or ,exp]im5tal1 ,me?od 9 ! ,social ,sci5ce4 #a4 ,*>act]s ( ! mode ( ?9k+ :i* d$uces political doctr9es f specific exp]i5ce #dff #b4 ,9 ! ,social ,sci5ce exp]im5ts are impossible #dfh #c4 --! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce inapplicable #dfi #d4 --& ! ,me?ods ( ,agreem5t1 & ( ,concomitant ,v>iations1 inconclusive #dga #e4 ,! ,me?od ( ,residues also inconclusive1 & presupposes ,d$uction #dgb ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,( ! ,geometrical1 or ,ab/ract ,me?od4 #a4 ,*>act]s ( ?is mode ( ?9k+ #dgf #b4 ,examples ( ! ,geometrical ,me?od #dgh #c4 ,! int]e/-philosophy ( ! ,b5?am s*ool #dgi ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,( ! ,physical1 or ,concrete ,d$uctive ,me?od4 #a4 ,! ,direct & ,inv]se ,d$uctive ,me?ods #dhf #b4 ,difficulties ( ! ,direct ,d$uctive ,me?od 9 ! ,social ,sci5ce #dhi #c4 ,to :at ext5t ! diff]5t bran*es ( sociological speculation c be /udi$ ap>t4 ,political ,economy *>act]iz$ #dib #d4 ,political ,e?ology1 or ! sci5ce ( national "* #dig #e4 ,! ,empirical ,laws ( ! ,social ,sci5ce #ejj #f4 ,! ,v]ification ( ! ,social ,sci5ce #ejb ,,*apt] ,x4 ,( ! ,inv]se ,d$uctive1 or ,hi/orical ,me?od4 #a4 ,di/9ction betwe5 ! g5]al ,sci5ce ( ,society1 & special sociological inquiries #ejf #b4 ,:at is meant by a ,/ate ( ,society8 #ejf #c4 ,! ,progressiv5ess ( ,man & ,society #ejh #d4 ,! laws ( ! succession ( /ates ( society c only be asc]ta9$ by ! ,inv]se ,d$uctive ,me?od #eaa #e4 ,social ,/atics1 or ! sci5ce ( ! ,coexi/5ces ( ,social ,ph5om5a #eac #f4 ,social ,dynamics1 or ! sci5ce ( ! ,successions ( ,social ,ph5om5a #eba #g4 ,outl9es ( ! ,hi/orical ,me?od #ebb #h4 ,future prospects ( ,sociological ,inquiry #ebe ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,additional ,elucidations ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,hi/ory4 #a4 ,! subjection ( hi/orical facts to uni=m laws is v]ifi$ by /ati/ics #ebi #b4 --does n imply ! insignificance ( moral causes #ecb #c4 --nor ! inefficacy ( ! *>act]s ( individuals & ( ! acts ( gov]nm5ts #ece #d4 ,! hi/orical importance ( em95t m5 & ( ! policy ( gov]nm5ts illu/rat$ #edj ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,( ! ,logic ( ,practice1 or ,art2 includ+ ,morality & ,policy4 #a4 ,morality n a sci5ce1 b an ,art #edd #b4 ,relation betwe5 rules ( art & ! !orems ( ! correspond+ sci5ce #edd #c4 ,:at is ! prop] function ( rules ( art8 #edf #d4 ,art _c be ,d$uctive #edh #e4 ,e ,art consi/s ( tru?s ( ,sci5ce1 arrang$ 9 ! ord] suitable = "s practical use #edi #f4 ,teleology1 or ! ,doctr9e ( ,ends #eej #g4 ,necessity ( an ultimate /&>d1 or fir/ pr9ciple ( ,teleology #eeb #h4 ,conclusion #eed ,,book ,,iii4 ,,cont9u$4 ,,( ,,induction4 ,9 su* cases ! inductive & d$uctive me?ods ( inquiry may be said to g h& 9 h&1 ! "o v]ify+ ! conclusions d$uc$ by ! o!r2 & ! comb9ation ( exp]im5t & !ory1 :i* may ?us be br\ght to be> 9 su* cases1 =ms an eng9e ( discov]y inf9itely m p[]ful ?an ei!r tak5 sep>ately4 ,?is /ate ( any dep>tm5t ( sci5ce is p]haps ( all o!rs ! mo/ int]e/+1 & t :i* promises ! mo/ to rese>*4--,,sir ,j4 ,,h]s*el1 ,disc\rse on ! ,/udy ( ,natural ,philosophy4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,( ,,! ,,limits ,,to ,,! ,,explanation ,,( ,,laws ,,( ,,nature2 ,,& ,,( ,,hypo!ses4 #a4 ,! prec$+ consid]ations h l$ u to recognise a di/9ction betwe5 two k9ds ( laws1 or obs]v$ uni=mities 9 nature3 ultimate laws1 & :at may be t]m$ d]ivative laws4 ,d]ivative laws are su* z are d$ucible f1 & may1 9 any ( ! modes :i* we h po9t$ out1 be resolv$ into1 o!r & m g5]al ones4 ,ultimate laws are ^? :i* _c4 ,we are n sure t any ( ! uni=mities ) :i* we are yet acqua9t$ are ultimate laws2 b we "k t !re mu/ be ultimate laws2 & t e resolution ( a d]ivative law into m g5]al laws1 br+s u ne>] to !m4 ,s9ce we are cont9ually discov]+ t uni=mities1 n previ\sly kn[n to be o!r ?an ultimate1 are d]ivative1 & resolvable into m g5]al laws2 s9ce 79 o!r words7 we are cont9ually discov]+ ! explanation ( "s sequ5ce :i* 0 previ\sly kn[n only z a fact2 x becomes an int]e/+ "q :e!r !re are any necess>y limits to ?is philosophical op]ation1 or :e!r x may proce$ until all ! uni=m sequ5ces 9 nature are resolv$ into "s "o univ]sal law4 ,= ?is seems1 at fir/ sight1 to be ! ultimatum t[>ds :i* ! progress ( induction1 by ! ,d$uctive ,me?od re/+ on a basis ( obs]vation & exp]im5t1 is t5d+4 ,projects ( ?is k9d 7 univ]sal 9 ! infancy ( philosophy2 any speculations :i* held out a less brilliant prospect1 be+ 9 ^? e>ly times deem$ n wor? pursu+4 ,& ! idea receives s mu* app>5t c\nt5ance f ! nature ( ! mo/ rem>kable a*ievem5ts ( mod]n sci5ce1 t speculators are ev5 n[ frequ5tly appe>+1 :o pr(ess ei!r to h solv$ ! problem1 or to sugge/ modes 9 :i* x may "o day be solv$4 ,ev5 :]e pret5sions ( ?is magnitude are n made1 ! "* ( ! solutions :i* are giv5 or s\ght ( p>ticul> classes ( ph5om5a1 (t5 involves su* conceptions ( :at con/itutes explanation1 z w\ld r5d] ! notion ( expla9+ all ph5om5a :atev] by means ( "s "o cause or law1 p]fectly admissible4 #b4 ,x is !re=e useful to rem>k1 t ! ultimate ,laws ( ,nature _c possibly be less num]\s ?an ! di/+ui%able s5sations or o!r feel+s ( our nature2--^?1 ,i mean1 :i* are di/+ui%able f "o ano!r 9 quality1 & n m]ely 9 quantity or degree4 ,= example2 s9ce !re is a ph5om5on sui g5]is1 call$ col\r1 :i* our consci\sness te/ifies to be n a p>ticul> degree ( "s o!r ph5om5on1 z heat or od\r or motion1 b intr9sically unlike all o!rs1 x foll[s t !re are ultimate laws ( col\r2 t ?\gh ! facts ( col\r may admit ( explanation1 !y nev] c be expla9$ f laws ( heat or od\r alone1 or ( motion alone1 b t h[ev] f> ! explanation may be c>ri$1 !re w always rema9 9 x a law ( col\r4 ,i d n mean t x might n possibly be %[n t "s o!r ph5om5on1 "s *emical or me*anical action = example1 inv>iably prec$es1 & is ! cause (1 e ph5om5on ( col\r4 ,b ?\gh ?is1 if prov$1 w\ld be an important ext5sion ( our k ( nature1 x w\ld n expla9 h[ or :y a motion1 or a *emical action1 c produce a s5sation ( col\r2 & h[ev] dilig5t might be our scrut9y ( ! ph5om5a1 :atev] numb] ( hidd5 l9ks we might detect 9 ! *a9 ( causation t]m9at+ 9 ! col\r1 ! la/ l9k w\ld /ill be a law ( col\r1 n a law ( motion1 nor ( any o!r ph5om5on :atev]4 ,nor does ?is obs]vation apply only to col\r1 z comp>$ ) any o!r ( ! great classes ( s5sations2 x applies to e p>ticul> col\r1 z comp>$ ) o!rs4 ,:ite col\r c 9 no mann] be expla9$ exclusively by ! laws ( ! production ( r$ col\r4 ,9 any attempt to expla9 x1 we _c b introduce1 z "o elem5t ( ! explanation1 ! proposition t "s antec$5t or o!r produces ! s5sation ( :ite4 ,! ideal limit1 !re=e1 ( ! explanation ( natural ph5om5a 7t[>ds :i* z t[>ds o!r ideal limits we are con/antly t5d+1 )\t ! prospect ( ev] completely atta9+ x7 w\ld be to %[ t ea* di/+ui%able v>iety ( our s5sations1 or o!r /ates ( consci\sness1 has only "o sort ( cause2 t1 = example1 :5ev] we p]ceive a :ite col\r1 !re is "s "o condition or set ( conditions :i* is always pres5t1 & ! pres5ce ( :i* always produces 9 u t s5sation4 ,z long z !re are sev]al kn[n modes ( production ( a ph5om5on1 7sev]al diff]5t sub/ances1 = in/ance1 :i* h ! prop]ty ( :it5ess1 & betwe5 :i* we _c trace any o!r resemblance17 s long x is n impossible t "o ( ^! modes ( production may be resolv$ into ano!r1 or t all ( !m may be resolv$ into "s m g5]al mode ( production n hi!rto recognis$4 ,b :5 ! modes ( production are r$uc$ to "o1 we _c1 9 po9t ( simplification1 g any fur!r4 ,?is "o may n1 aft] all1 be ! ultimate mode2 !re may be o!r l9ks to be discov]$ betwe5 ! suppos$ cause & ! effect2 b we c only fur!r resolve ! kn[n law1 by introduc+ "s o!r law hi!rto unkn[n2 :i* w n dim9i% ! numb] ( ultimate laws4 ,9 :at cases1 accord+ly1 has sci5ce be5 mo/ successful 9 expla9+ ph5om5a1 by resolv+ _! complex laws into laws ( great] simplicity & g5]ality8 ,hi!rto *iefly 9 cases ( ! propagation ( v>i\s ph5om5a ?r\gh space3 &1 fir/ & pr9cipally1 ! mo/ ext5sive & important ( all facts ( t description1 ! fact ( motion4 ,n[ ?is is exactly :at might be expect$ f ! pr9ciples "h laid d[n4 ,n only is motion "o ( ! mo/ univ]sal ( all ph5om5a1 x is also 7z might be expect$ f t circum/ance7 "o ( ^? :i*1 app>5tly at lea/1 are produc$ 9 ! greate/ numb] ( ways2 b ! ph5om5on itself is always1 to our s5sations1 ! same 9 e respect b degree4 ,diff]5ces ( duration1 or ( velocity1 are evid5tly diff]5ces 9 degree only2 & diff]5ces ( direction 9 space1 :i* alone has any semblance ( be+ a di/9ction 9 k9d1 entirely disappe> 7s f> z our s5sations are conc]n$7 by a *ange 9 our own position2 inde$ ! v same motion appe>s to u1 accord+ to our position1 to take place 9 e v>iety ( direction1 & motions 9 e diff]5t direction to take place 9 ! same4 ,& aga91 motion 9 a /raight l9e & 9 a curve are no o!rwise di/9ct ?an t ! "o is motion cont9u+ 9 ! same direction1 ! o!r is motion :i* at ea* in/ant *anges its direction4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 accord+ to ! pr9ciples ,i h /at$1 no absurdity 9 suppos+ t all motion may be produc$ 9 "o & ! same way2 by ! same k9d ( cause4 ,accord+ly1 ! greate/ a*ievem5ts 9 physical sci5ce h consi/$ 9 resolv+ "o obs]v$ law ( ! production ( motion into ! laws ( o!r kn[n modes ( production1 or ! laws ( sev]al su* modes into "o m g5]al mode2 z :5 ! fall ( bodies to ! e>?1 & ! motions ( ! planets1 7 br\ght "u ! "o law ( ! mutual attraction ( all p>ticles ( matt]2 :5 ! motions said to be produc$ by magnetism 7 %[n to be produc$ by electricity2 :5 ! motions ( fluids 9 a lat]al direction1 or ev5 contr>y to ! direction ( gravity1 7 %[n to be produc$ by gravity2 & ! l4 ,!re is an abundance ( di/9ct causes ( motion /ill unresolv$ into "o ano!r2 gravitation1 heat1 electricity1 *emical action1 n]v\s action1 & s =?2 b :e!r ! ef=ts ( ! pres5t g5]ation ( savans to resolve all ^! diff]5t modes ( production into "o1 are ultimately successful or n1 ! attempt s to resolve !m is p]fectly legitimate4 ,= ?\gh ^! v>i\s causes produce1 9 o!r respects1 s5sations intr9sically diff]5t1 & are n1 !re=e1 capable ( be+ resolv$ into "o ano!r1 yet 9 s f> z !y all produce motion1 x is q possible t ! imm$iate antec$5t ( ! motion may 9 all ^! diff]5t cases be ! same2 nor is x impossible t ^! v>i\s ag5cies !mselves may1 z ! new doctr9es ass]t1 all ( !m h = _! own imm$iate antec$5t1 modes ( molecul> motion4 ,we ne$ n ext5d our illu/ration to o!r cases1 z = in/ance to ! propagation ( light1 s\nd1 heat1 electricity1 c4 ?r\gh space1 or any ( ! o!r ph5om5a :i* h be5 f\nd susceptible ( explanation by ! resolution ( _! obs]v$ laws into m g5]al laws4 ,en\gh has be5 said to display ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! k9d ( explanation & resolution ( laws :i* is *im]ical1 & t ( :i* ! accompli%m5t is ! great aim ( sci5ce2 & to %[ into :at sort ( elem5ts ! resolution mu/ be effect$1 if at all4 #c4 ,z1 h[ev]1 !re is sc>cely any "o ( ! pr9ciples ( a true me?od ( philosophiz+ :i* does n require to be gu>d$ aga9/ errors on bo? sides1 ,i mu/ ent] a caveat aga9/ ano!r misappreh5sion1 ( a k9d directly contr>y to ! prec$+4 ,m4 ,comte1 among o!r occasions on :i* he has condemn$1 ) "s asp]ity1 any attempt to expla9 ph5om5a :i* are evid5tly primordial1 7mean+1 app>5tly1 no m ?an t e peculi> ph5om5on mu/ h at lea/ "o peculi> & !re=e inexplicable law17 has spok5 ( ! attempt to furni% any explanation ( ! col\r belong+ to ea* sub/ance1 la c\leur lm5taire propre *aque sub/ance1 z ess5tially illusory4 ,no "o1 says he1 9 our "t attempts to expla9 ! p>ticul> specific gravity ( ea* sub/ance or ( ea* /ructure4 ,:y %\ld x be o!rwise z to ! specific col\r1 ! notion ( :i* is und\bt$ly no less primordial8#a ,n[ al?\gh1 z he else:]e obs]ves1 a col\r mu/ always rema9 a diff]5t ?+ f a weight or a s\nd1 v>ieties ( col\r might nev]!less foll[1 or correspond to1 giv5 v>ieties ( weight1 or s\nd1 or "s o!r ph5om5on z diff]5t z ^! are f col\r itself4 ,x is "o "q :at a ?+ is1 & ano!r :at x dep5ds on2 & ?\gh to asc]ta9 ! conditions ( an elem5t>y ph5om5on is n to obta9 any new insight into ! nature ( ! ph5om5on itself1 t is no reason aga9/ attempt+ to discov] ! conditions4 ,! int]dict aga9/ endeav\r+ to r$uce di/9ctions ( col\r to any common pr9ciple1 w\ld h held equally good aga9/ a l attempt on ! subject ( di/9ctions ( s\nd2 :i* nev]!less h be5 f\nd to be imm$iately prec$$ & caus$ by di/+ui%able v>ieties 9 ! vibrations ( ela/ic bodies3 ?\gh a s\nd1 no d\bt1 is q z diff]5t z a col\r is f any motion ( p>ticles1 vibratory or o!rwise4 ,we might add1 t1 9 ! case ( col\rs1 !re are /rong positive indications t !y are n ultimate prop]ties ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( sub/ances1 b dep5d on conditions capable ( be+ sup]9duc$ ^u all sub/ances2 s9ce !re is no sub/ance :i* _c1 accord+ to ! k9d ( light ?r[n ^u x1 be made to assume almo/ any col\r2 & s9ce almo/ e *ange 9 ! mode ( aggregation ( ! p>ticles ( ! same sub/ance1 is att5d$ ) alt]ations 9 its col\r1 & 9 its optical prop]ties g5]ally4 ,! real defect 9 ! attempts :i* h be5 made to acc\nt = col\rs by ! vibrations ( a fluid1 is n t ! attempt itself is unphilosophical1 b t ! exi/5ce ( ! fluid1 & ! fact ( its vibratory motion1 are n prov$2 b are assum$1 on no o!r gr\nd ?an ! facility !y are suppos$ to af=d ( expla9+ ! ph5om5a4 ,& ?is consid]ation leads to ! important "q ( ! prop] use ( sci5tific hypo!ses2 ! connexion ( :i* ) ! subject ( ! explanation ( ! ph5om5a ( nature1 & ( ! necess>y limits to t explanation1 ne$s n be po9t$ out4 #d4 ,an hypo!sis is any supposition :i* we make 7ei!r )\t actual evid5ce1 or on evid5ce av[$ly insuffici5t7 9 ord] to endeav\r to d$uce f x conclusions 9 accordance ) facts :i* are kn[n to be real2 "u ! idea t if ! conclusions to :i* ! hypo!sis leads are kn[n tru?s1 ! hypo!sis itself ei!r mu/ be1 or at lea/ is likely to be1 true4 ,if ! hypo!sis relates to ! cause1 or mode ( production ( a ph5om5on1 x w s]ve1 if admitt$1 to expla9 su* facts z are f\nd capable ( be+ d$uc$ f x4 ,& ?is explanation is ! purpose ( _m1 if n mo/1 hypo!ses4 ,s9ce expla9+1 9 ! sci5tific s5se1 means resolv+ an uni=mity :i* is n a law ( causation1 into ! laws ( causation f :i* x results1 or a complex law ( causation into simpl] & m g5]al ones f :i* x is capable ( be+ d$uctively inf]r$2 if !re d n exi/ any kn[n laws :i* fulfil ?is requirem5t1 we may feign or imag9e "s :i* w\ld fulfil x2 & ?is is mak+ an hypo!sis4 ,an hypo!sis be+ a m]e supposition1 !re are no o!r limits to hypo!ses ?an ^? ( ! human imag9ation2 we may1 if we please1 imag9e1 by way ( acc\nt+ = an effect1 "s cause ( a k9d utt]ly unkn[n1 & act+ accord+ to a law altoge!r fictiti\s4 ,b z hypo!ses ( ?is sort w\ld n h any ( ! plausibility belong+ to ^? :i* ally !mselves by analogy ) kn[n laws ( nature1 & besides w\ld n supply ! want :i* arbitr>y hypo!ses are g5]ally inv5t$ to satisfy1 by enabl+ ! imag9ation to repres5t to itself an obscure ph5om5on 9 a famili> light2 !re is probably no hypo!sis 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce 9 :i* bo? ! ag5t itself & ! law ( its op]ation 7 fictiti\s4 ,ei!r ! ph5om5on assign$ z ! cause is real1 b ! law accord+ to :i* x acts1 m]ely suppos$2 or ! cause is fictiti\s1 b is suppos$ to produce its effects accord+ to laws simil> to ^? ( "s kn[n class ( ph5om5a4 ,an in/ance ( ! fir/ k9d is af=d$ by ! diff]5t suppositions made respect+ ! law ( ! planet>y c5tral =ce1 ant]ior to ! discov]y ( ! true law1 t ! =ce v>ies z ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance2 :i* also sugge/$ itself to ,newton1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 z an hypo!sis1 & 0 v]ifi$ by prov+ t x l$ d$uctively to ,kepl]'s laws4 ,hypo!ses ( ! second k9d are su* z ! vortices ( ,desc>tes1 :i* 7 fictiti\s1 b 7 suppos$ to obey ! kn[n laws ( rotatory motion2 or ! two rival hypo!ses respect+ ! nature ( light1 ! "o ascrib+ ! ph5om5a to a fluid emitt$ f all lum9\s bodies1 ! o!r 7n[ g5]ally receiv$7 attribut+ !m to vibratory motions among ! p>ticles ( an e!r p]vad+ all space4 ,( ! exi/5ce ( ei!r fluid !re is no evid5ce1 save ! explanation !y are calculat$ to af=d ( "s ( ! ph5om5a2 b !y are suppos$ to produce _! effects accord+ to kn[n laws2 ! ord9>y laws ( cont9u$ locomotion 9 ! "o case1 & 9 ! o!r1 ^? ( ! propagation ( undulatory movem5ts among ! p>ticles ( an ela/ic fluid4 ,accord+ to ! =ego+ rem>ks1 hypo!ses are inv5t$ to enable ! ,d$uctive ,me?od to be e>li] appli$ to ph5om5a4 ,b#b 9 ord] to discov] ! cause ( any ph5om5on by ! ,d$uctive ,me?od1 ! process mu/ consi/ ( ?ree p>ts2 induction1 ratioc9ation1 & v]ification4 ,induction1 7! place ( :i*1 h[ev]1 may be suppli$ by a prior d$uction17 to asc]ta9 ! laws ( ! causes2 ratioc9ation1 to compute f ^? laws1 h[ ! causes w op]ate 9 ! p>ticul> comb9ation kn[n to exi/ 9 ! case 9 h&2 v]ification1 by comp>+ ?is calculat$ effect ) ! actual ph5om5on4 ,no "o ( ^! ?ree p>ts ( ! process c be disp5s$ )4 ,9 ! d$uction :i* proves ! id5tity ( gravity ) ! c5tral =ce ( ! sol> sy/em1 all ! ?ree are f\nd4 ,fir/1 x is prov$ f ! moon's motions1 t ! e>? attracts h] ) a =ce v>y+ z ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance4 ,?is 7?\gh p>tly dep5d5t on prior d$uctions7 corresponds to ! fir/1 or purely inductive1 /ep1 ! asc]ta9m5t ( ! law ( ! cause4 ,secondly1 f ?is law1 & f ! k previ\sly obta9$ ( ! moon's mean di/ance f ! e>?1 & ( ! actual am\nt ( h] deflexion f ! tang5t1 x is asc]ta9$ ) :at rapidity ! e>?'s attraction w\ld cause ! moon to fall1 if %e 7 no fur!r (f1 & no m act$ ^u by extrane\s =ces1 ?an t]re/rial bodies are3 t is ! second /ep1 ! ratioc9ation4 ,f9ally1 ?is calculat$ velocity be+ comp>$ ) ! obs]v$ velocity ) :i* all heavy bodies fall1 by m]e gravity1 t[>ds ! surface ( ! e>?1 7sixte5 feet 9 ! fir/ second1 =ty-eight 9 ! second1 & s =?1 9 ! ratio ( ! odd numb]s1 #a1 #c1 #e1 c417 ! two quantities are f\nd to agree4 ,! ord] 9 :i* ! /eps are "h pres5t$1 0 n t ( _! discov]y2 b x is _! correct logical ord]1 z portions ( ! pro( t ! same attraction ( ! e>? :i* causes ! moon's motion1 causes also ! fall ( heavy bodies to ! e>?3 a pro( :i* is ?us complete 9 all its p>ts4 ,n[1 ! ,hypo!tical ,me?od suppresses ! fir/ ( ! ?ree /eps1 ! induction to asc]ta9 ! law2 & cont5ts itself ) ! o!r two op]ations1 ratioc9ation & v]ification2 ! law :i* is reason$ f1 be+ assum$1 in/ead ( prov$4 ,?is process may evid5tly be legitimate on "o supposition1 namely1 if ! nature ( ! case be su* t ! f9al /ep1 ! v]ification1 %all am\nt to1 & fulfil ! conditions (1 a complete induction4 ,we want to be assur$ t ! law we h hypo!tically assum$ is a true "o2 & its lead+ d$uctively to true results w af=d ?is assurance1 provid$ ! case be su* t a false law _c lead to a true result2 provid$ no law1 except ! v "o :i* we h assum$1 c lead d$uctively to ! same conclusions :i* t leads to4 ,& ?is proviso is (t5 realiz$4 ,= example1 9 ! v complete specim5 ( d$uction :i* we j cit$1 ! orig9al major premise ( ! ratioc9ation1 ! law ( ! attractive =ce1 0 asc]ta9$ 9 ?is mode2 by ?is legitimate employm5t ( ! ,hypo!tical ,me?od4 ,newton began by an assumption1 t ! =ce :i* at ea* in/ant deflects a planet f its rectil9eal c\rse1 & makes x describe a curve r\nd ! sun1 is a =ce t5d+ directly t[>ds ! sun4 ,he !n prov$ t if ?is be s1 ! planet w describe1 z we "k by ,kepl]'s fir/ law t x does describe1 equal areas 9 equal times2 &1 la/ly1 he prov$ t if ! =ce act$ 9 any o!r direction :atev]1 ! planet w\ld n describe equal areas 9 equal times4 ,x be+ ?us %[n t no o!r hypo!sis w\ld accord ) ! facts1 ! assumption 0 prov$2 ! hypo!sis became an inductive tru?4 ,n only did ,newton asc]ta9 by ?is hypo!tical process ! direction ( ! deflect+ =ce2 he proce$$ 9 exactly ! same mann] to asc]ta9 ! law ( v>iation ( ! quantity ( t =ce4 ,he assum$ t ! =ce v>i$ inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance2 %[$ t f ?is assumption ! rema9+ two ( ,kepl]'s laws might be d$uc$2 & f9ally1 t any o!r law ( v>iation w\ld give results inconsi/5t ) ^? laws1 & inconsi/5t1 !re=e1 ) ! real motions ( ! planets1 ( :i* ,kepl]'s laws 7 kn[n to be a correct expression4 ,i h said t 9 ?is case ! v]ification fulfils ! conditions ( an induction3 b an induction ( :at sort8 ,on exam9ation we f9d t x con=ms to ! canon ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,x af=ds ! two in/ances1 ,a ,b ,c1 a b c1 & ,b ,c1 b c4 ,a repres5ts c5tral =ce2 ,a ,b ,c1 ! planets plus a c5tral =ce2 ,b ,c1 ! planets ap>t f a c5tral =ce4 ,! planets ) a c5tral =ce give a1 areas proportional to ! times2 ! planets )\t a c5tral =ce give b c 7a set ( motions7 )\t a1 or ) some?+ else in/ead ( a4 ,?is is ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce 9 all its /rictness4 ,x is true1 ! two in/ances :i* ! me?od requires are obta9$ 9 ?is case1 n by exp]im5t1 b by a prior d$uction4 ,b t is ( no consequ5ce4 ,x is immat]ial :at is ! nature ( ! evid5ce f :i* we d]ive ! assurance t ,a ,b ,c w produce a b c1 & ,b ,c only b c2 x is en\gh t we h t assurance4 ,9 ! pres5t case1 a process ( reason+ furni%$ ,newton ) ! v in/ances1 :i*1 if ! nature ( ! case _h admitt$ ( x1 he w\ld h s\ght by exp]im5t4 ,x is ?us p]fectly possible1 & inde$ is a v common occurr5ce1 t :at 0 an hypo!sis at ! beg9n+ ( ! inquiry1 becomes a prov$ law ( nature be=e its close4 ,b 9 ord] t ?is %\ld happ51 we mu/ be able1 ei!r by d$uction or exp]im5t1 to obta9 bo? ! in/ances :i* ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce requires4 ,t we are able f ! hypo!sis to d$uce ! kn[n facts1 gives only ! affirmative in/ance1 ,a ,b ,c1 a b c4 ,x is equally necess>y t we %\ld be able to obta91 z ,newton did1 ! negative in/ance ,b ,c1 b c2 by %[+ t no antec$5t1 except ! "o assum$ 9 ! hypo!sis1 w\ld 9 conjunction ) ,b ,c produce a4 ,n[ x appe>s to me t ?is assurance _c be obta9$1 :5 ! cause assum$ 9 ! hypo!sis is an unkn[n cause1 imag9$ solely to acc\nt = a4 ,:5 we are only seek+ to det]m9e ! precise law ( a cause already asc]ta9$1 or to di/+ui% ! p>ticul> ag5t :i* is 9 fact ! cause1 among sev]al ag5ts ( ! same k9d1 "o or o!r ( :i* x is already kn[n to be1 we may !n obta9 ! negative in/ance4 ,an inquiry1 :i* ( ! bodies ( ! sol> sy/em causes by its attraction "s p>ticul> irregul>ity 9 ! orbit or p]iodic "t ( "s satellite or comet1 w\ld be a case ( ! second description4 ,newton's 0 a case ( ! fir/4 ,if x _h n be5 previ\sly kn[n t ! planets 7 h9d]$ f mov+ 9 /raight l9es by "s =ce t5d+ t[>ds ! int]ior ( _! orbit1 ?\gh ! exact direction 0 d\btful2 or if x _h n be5 kn[n t ! =ce increas$ 9 "s proportion or o!r z ! di/ance dim9i%$1 & dim9i%$ z x increas$2 ,newton's argum5t w\ld n h prov$ 8 conclusion4 ,^! facts1 h[ev]1 be+ already c]ta91 ! range ( admissible suppositions 0 limit$ to ! v>i\s possible directions ( a l9e1 & ! v>i\s possible num]ical relations betwe5 ! v>iations ( ! di/ance1 & ! v>iations ( ! attractive =ce3 n[ among ^! x 0 easily %[n t diff]5t suppositions c\ld n lead to id5tical consequ5ces4 ,accord+ly1 ,newton c\ld n h p]=m$ 8 second great sci5tific op]ation1 t ( id5tify+ t]re/rial gravity ) ! c5tral =ce ( ! sol> sy/em1 by ! same hypo!tical me?od4 ,:5 ! law ( ! moon's attraction _h be5 prov$ f ! data ( ! moon itself1 !n on f9d+ ! same law to accord ) ! ph5om5a ( t]re/rial gravity1 he 0 w>rant$ 9 adopt+ x z ! law ( ^? ph5om5a likewise2 b x w\ld n h be5 all[able = him1 )\t any lun> data1 to assume t ! moon 0 attract$ t[>ds ! e>? ) a =ce z ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance1 m]ely because t ratio w\ld enable him to acc\nt = t]re/rial gravity3 = x w\ld h be5 impossible = him to prove t ! obs]v$ law ( ! fall ( heavy bodies to ! e>? c\ld n result f any =ce1 save "o ext5d+ to ! moon1 & proportional to ! inv]se squ>e4 ,x appe>s1 !n1 to be a condition ( a g5u9ely sci5tific hypo!sis1 t x be n de/9$ always to rema9 an hypo!sis1 b be ( su* a nature z to be ei!r prov$ or disprov$ by comp>ison ) obs]v$ facts4 ,?is condition is fulfill$ :5 ! effect is already kn[n to dep5d on ! v cause suppos$1 & ! hypo!sis relates only to ! precise mode ( dep5d5ce2 ! law ( ! v>iation ( ! effect accord+ to ! v>iations 9 ! quantity or 9 ! relations ( ! cause4 ,) ^! may be class$ ! hypo!ses :i* d n make any supposition ) reg>d to causation1 b only ) reg>d to ! law ( correspond5ce betwe5 facts :i* accompany ea* o!r 9 _! v>iations1 ?\gh !re may be no relation ( cause & effect betwe5 !m4 ,su* 7 ! diff]5t false hypo!ses :i* ,kepl] made respect+ ! law ( ! refraction ( light4 ,x 0 kn[n t ! direction ( ! l9e ( refraction v>i$ ) e v>iation 9 ! direction ( ! l9e ( incid5ce1 b x 0 n kn[n h[2 t is1 :at *anges ( ! "o correspond$ to ! diff]5t *anges ( ! o!r4 ,9 ?is case any law1 diff]5t f ! true "o1 mu/ h l$ to false results4 ,&1 la/ly1 we mu/ add to ^!1 all hypo!tical modes ( m]ely repres5t+1 or describ+1 ph5om5a2 su* z ! hypo!sis ( ! anci5t a/ronom]s t ! heav5ly bodies mov$ 9 circles2 ! v>i\s hypo!ses ( exc5trics1 def]5ts1 & epicycles1 :i* 7 add$ to t orig9al hypo!sis2 ! n9ete5 false hypo!ses :i* ,kepl] made & ab&on$ respect+ ! =m ( ! planet>y orbits2 & ev5 ! doctr9e 9 :i* he f9ally re/$1 t ^? orbits are ellipses1 :i* 0 b an hypo!sis l ! re/ until v]ifi$ by facts4 ,9 all ^! cases1 v]ification is pro(2 if ! supposition accords ) ! ph5om5a !re ne$s no o!r evid5ce ( x4 ,b 9 ord] t ?is may be ! case1 ,i conceive x to be necess>y1 :5 ! hypo!sis relates to causation1 t ! suppos$ cause %\ld n only be a real ph5om5on1 some?+ actually exi/+ 9 nature1 b %\ld be already kn[n to ex]cise1 or at lea/ to be capable ( ex]cis+1 an influ5ce ( "s sort ov] ! effect4 ,9 any o!r case1 x is no evid5ce ( ! tru? ( ! hypo!sis t we are able to d$uce ! real ph5om5a f x4 ,is x1 !n1 nev] all[able1 9 a sci5tific hypo!sis1 to assume a cause2 b only to ascribe an assum$ law to a kn[n cause8 ,i d n ass]t ?is4 ,i only say1 t 9 ! latt] case alone c ! hypo!sis be receiv$ z true m]ely because x expla9s ! ph5om5a3 9 ! =m] case x is only useful by sugge/+ a l9e ( inve/igation :i* may possibly t]m9ate 9 obta9+ real pro(4 ,= ?is purpose1 z is ju/ly rem>k$ by ,m4 ,comte1 x is indisp5sable t ! cause sugge/$ by ! hypo!sis %\ld be 9 its own nature susceptible ( be+ prov$ by o!r evid5ce4 ,?is seems to be ! philosophical import ( ,newton's maxim1 7s (t5 cit$ ) approbation by subsequ5t writ]s17 t ! cause assign$ = any ph5om5on mu/ n only be su* z if admitt$ w\ld expla9 ! ph5om5on1 b mu/ also be a v]a causa4 ,:at he meant by a v]a causa ,newton did n inde$ v explicitly def9e2 & ,dr4 ,:ewell1 :o diss5ts f ! propriety ( any su* re/riction ^u ! latitude ( fram+ hypo!ses1 has _h little difficulty 9 %[+#c t 8 conception ( x 0 nei!r precise nor consi/5t ) itself3 accord+ly 8 optical !ory 0 a signal in/ance ( ! violation ( 8 own rule4 ,x is c]ta9ly n necess>y t ! cause assign$ %\ld be a cause already kn[n2 else h[ c\ld we ev] become acqua9t$ ) any new cause8 ,b :at is true 9 ! maxim is1 t ! cause1 ?\gh n kn[n previ\sly1 %\ld be capable ( be+ kn[n !reaft]2 t its exi/5ce %\ld be capable ( be+ detect$1 & its connexion ) ! effect ascrib$ to x %\ld be susceptible ( be+ prov$1 by indep5d5t evid5ce4 ,! hypo!sis1 by sugge/+ obs]vations & exp]im5ts1 puts u on ! road to t indep5d5t evid5ce if x be really atta9able2 & till x be atta9$1 ! hypo!sis ought n to c\nt = m ?an a conjecture4 #e4 ,?is function1 h[ev]1 ( hypo!ses1 is "o :i* mu/ be reckon$ absolutely indisp5sable 9 sci5ce4 ,:5 ,newton said1 ,hypo!ses non f+o1 he did n mean t he depriv$ himself ( ! facilities ( inve/igation af=d$ by assum+ 9 ! fir/ in/ance :at he hop$ ultimately to be able to prove4 ,)\t su* assumptions1 sci5ce c\ld nev] h atta9$ its pres5t /ate3 !y are necess>y /eps 9 ! progress to some?+ m c]ta92 & ne>ly ev]y?+ :i* is n[ !ory 0 once hypo!sis4 ,ev5 9 purely exp]im5tal sci5ce1 "s inducem5t is necess>y = try+ "o exp]im5t r ?an ano!r2 & ?\gh x is ab/ract$ly possible t all ! exp]im5ts :i* h be5 tri$1 might h be5 produc$ by ! m]e desire to asc]ta9 :at w\ld happ5 9 c]ta9 circum/ances1 )\t any previ\s conjecture z to ! result2 yet1 9 po9t ( fact1 ^? unobvi\s1 delicate1 & (t5 cumbr\s & t$i\s processes ( exp]im5t1 :i* h ?r[n mo/ light ^u ! g5]al con/itution ( nature1 w\ld h>dly ev] h be5 und]tak5 by ! p]sons or at ! "t !y 71 unless x _h seem$ to dep5d on !m :e!r "s g5]al doctr9e or !ory :i* _h be5 sugge/$1 b n yet prov$1 %\ld be admitt$ or n4 ,if ?is be true ev5 ( m]ely exp]im5tal inquiry1 ! conv]sion ( exp]im5tal into d$uctive tru?s c\ld /ill less h be5 effect$ )\t l>ge tempor>y assi/ance f hypo!ses4 ,! process ( trac+ regul>ity 9 any complicat$1 & at fir/ sight confus$ set ( appe>ances1 is necess>ily t5tative3 we beg9 by mak+ any supposition1 ev5 a false "o1 to see :at consequ5ces w foll[ f x2 & by obs]v+ h[ ^! diff] f ! real ph5om5a1 we le>n :at corrections to make 9 our assumption4 ,! simple/ supposition :i* accords ) ! m obvi\s facts1 is ! be/ to beg9 )2 because its consequ5ces are ! mo/ easily trac$4 ,?is rude hypo!sis is !n rudely correct$1 & ! op]ation repeat$2 & ! comp>ison ( ! consequ5ces d$ucible f ! correct$ hypo!sis1 ) ! obs]v$ facts1 sugge/s /ill fur!r correction1 until ! d$uctive results are at la/ made to tally ) ! ph5om5a4 ,"s fact is z yet little und]/ood1 or "s law is unkn[n3 we frame on ! subject an hypo!sis z accordant z possible ) ! :ole ( ! data already possess$2 & ! sci5ce1 be+ ?us enabl$ to move =w>d freely1 always ends by lead+ to new consequ5ces capable ( obs]vation1 :i* ei!r confirm or refute1 unequivocally1 ! fir/ supposition4 ,nei!r induction nor d$uction w\ld enable u to und]/& ev5 ! simple/ ph5om5a1 if we did n (t5 comm5ce by anticipat+ on ! results2 by mak+ a provisional supposition1 at fir/ ess5tially conjectural1 z to "s ( ! v notions :i* con/itute ! f9al object ( ! inquiry4#d ,let any "o wat* ! mann] 9 :i* he himself unravels a complicat$ mass ( evid5ce2 let him obs]ve h[1 = in/ance1 he elicits ! true hi/ory ( any occurr5ce f ! involv$ /atem5ts ( "o or ( _m witnesses3 he w f9d t he does n take all ! items ( evid5ce into 8 m9d at once1 & attempt to weave !m toge!r3 he extemporises1 f a few ( ! p>ticul>s1 a fir/ rude !ory ( ! mode 9 :i* ! facts took place1 & !n looks at ! o!r /atem5ts "o by "o1 to try :e!r !y c be reconcil$ ) t provisional !ory1 or :at alt]ations or additions x requires to make x squ>e ) !m4 ,9 ?is way1 :i* has be5 ju/ly comp>$ to ! ,me?ods ( ,approximation ( ma!maticians1 we arrive1 by means ( hypo!ses1 at conclusions n hypo!tical4#e #f4 ,x is p]fectly consi/5t ) ! _s ( ! me?od1 to assume 9 ?is provisional mann] n only an hypo!sis respect+ ! law ( :at we already "k to be ! cause1 b an hypo!sis respect+ ! cause itself4 ,x is all[able1 useful1 & (t5 ev5 necess>y1 to beg9 by ask+ ourselves :at cause may h produc$ ! effect1 9 ord] t we may "k 9 :at direction to look out = evid5ce to det]m9e :e!r x actually did4 ,! vortices ( ,desc>tes w\ld h be5 a p]fectly legitimate hypo!sis1 if x _h be5 possible1 by any mode ( exploration :i* we c\ld ent]ta9 ! hope ( ev] possess+1 to br+ ! reality ( ! vortices1 z a fact 9 nature1 conclusively to ! te/ ( obs]vation4 ,! hypo!sis 0 vici\s1 simply because x c\ld n lead to any c\rse ( inve/igation capable ( conv]t+ x f an hypo!sis into a prov$ fact4 ,x might *ance to be disprov$1 ei!r by "s want ( correspond5ce ) ! ph5om5a x purport$ to expla91 or 7z actually happ5$7 by "s extrane\s fact4 ,! free passage ( comets ?r\gh ! spaces 9 :i* ^! vortices %\ld h be51 conv9c$ m5 t ^! vortices did n exi/4#f ,b ! hypo!sis w\ld h be5 false1 ?\gh no su* direct evid5ce ( its falsity _h be5 procurable4 ,direct evid5ce ( its tru? !re c\ld n be4 ,! prevail+ hypo!sis ( a lum9if]\s e!r1 9 o!r respects n )\t analogy to t ( ,desc>tes1 is n 9 its own nature entirely cut (f f ! possibility ( direct evid5ce 9 its fav\r4 ,x is well kn[n t ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! calculat$ & ! obs]v$ times ( ! p]iodical return ( ,encke's comet1 has l$ to a conjecture t a m$ium capable ( oppos+ resi/ance to motion is diffus$ ?r\gh space4 ,if ?is surmise %\ld be confirm$1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 by ! gradual accumulation ( a simil> v>iance 9 ! case ( ! o!r bodies ( ! sol> sy/em1 ! lum9if]\s e!r w\ld h made a consid]able advance t[>ds ! "* ( a v]a causa1 s9ce ! exi/5ce w\ld h be5 asc]ta9$ ( a great cosmical ag5t1 possess+ "s ( ! attributes :i* ! hypo!sis assumes2 ?\gh !re w\ld /ill rema9 _m difficulties1 & ! id5tification ( ! e!r ) ! resi/+ m$ium w\ld ev51 ,i imag9e1 give rise to new ones4 ,at pres5t1 h[ev]1 ?is supposition _c be look$ ^u z m ?an a conjecture2 ! exi/5ce ( ! e!r /ill re/s on ! possibility ( d$uc+ f its assum$ laws a consid]able numb] ( ! ph5om5a ( light2 & ?is evid5ce ,i _c reg>d z conclusive1 because we _c h1 9 ! case ( su* an hypo!sis1 ! assurance t if ! hypo!sis be false x mu/ lead to results at v>iance ) ! true facts4 ,accord+ly1 mo/ ?9k]s ( any degree ( sobriety all[1 t an hypo!sis ( ?is k9d is n to be receiv$ z probably true because x acc\nts = all ! kn[n ph5om5a2 s9ce ?is is a condition sometimes fulfill$ tol]ably well by two conflict+ hypo!ses2 :ile !re are probably a ?\s& m :i* are equally possible1 b :i*1 = want ( any?+ analog\s 9 our exp]i5ce1 our m9ds are unfitt$ to conceive4 ,b x seems to be ?\ght t an hypo!sis ( ! sort 9 "q is entitl$ to a m fav\rable reception1 if1 besides acc\nt+ = all ! facts previ\sly kn[n1 x has l$ to ! anticipation & pr$iction ( o!rs :i* exp]i5ce aft]w>ds v]ifi$2 z ! undulatory !ory ( light l$ to ! pr$iction1 subsequ5tly realiz$ by exp]im5t1 t two lum9\s rays might meet ea* o!r 9 su* a mann] z to produce d>kness4 ,su* pr$ictions & _! fulfilm5t are1 inde$1 well calculat$ to impress ! un9=m$1 ^: fai? 9 sci5ce re/s solely on simil> co9cid5ces betwe5 its prophecies & :at comes to pass4 ,b x is /range t any consid]able /ress %\ld be laid ^u su* a co9cid5ce by p]sons ( sci5tific atta9m5ts4 ,if ! laws ( ! propagation ( light accord ) ^? ( ! vibrations ( an ela/ic fluid 9 z _m respects z is necess>y to make ! hypo!sis af=d a correct expression ( all or mo/ ( ! ph5om5a kn[n at ! "t1 x is no?+ /range t !y %\ld accord ) ea* o!r 9 "o respect m4 ,?\gh tw5ty su* co9cid5ces %\ld occur1 !y w\ld n prove ! reality ( ! undulatory e!r2 x w\ld n foll[ t ! ph5om5a ( light 7 results ( ! laws ( ela/ic fluids1 b at mo/ t !y are gov]n$ by laws p>tially id5tical ) ^!2 :i*1 we may obs]ve1 is already c]ta91 f ! fact t ! hypo!sis 9 "q c\ld be = a mom5t t5able4#g ,cases may be cit$1 ev5 9 our imp]fect acqua9tance ) nature1 :]e ag5cies t we h good reason to consid] z radically di/9ct1 produce _! effects1 or "s ( _! effects1 accord+ to laws :i* are id5tical4 ,! law1 = example1 ( ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance1 is ! measure ( ! int5sity n only ( gravitation1 b 7x is believ$7 ( illum9ation1 & ( heat diffus$ f a c5tre4 ,yet no "o looks ^u ?is id5tity z prov+ simil>ity 9 ! me*anism by :i* ! ?ree k9ds ( ph5om5a are produc$4 ,accord+ to ,dr4 ,:ewell1 ! co9cid5ce ( results pr$ict$ f an hypo!sis1 ) facts aft]w>ds obs]v$1 am\nts to a conclusive pro( ( ! tru? ( ! !ory4 ,if ,i copy a long s]ies ( lett]s1 ( :i* ! la/ half doz5 are conceal$1 & if ,i guess ^! aright1 z is f\nd to be ! case :5 !y are aft]w>ds uncov]$1 ?is mu/ be because ,i h made out ! import ( ! inscription4 ,to say1 t because ,i h copi$ all t ,i c\ld see1 x is no?+ /range t ,i %\ld guess ^? :i* ,i _c see1 w\ld be absurd1 )\t suppos+ su* a gr\nd = guess+4#h ,if any "o1 f exam9+ ! great] "p ( a long inscription1 c int]pret ! *>act]s s t ! inscription gives a rational mean+ 9 a kn[n language1 !re is a /rong presumption t 8 int]pretation is correct2 b ,i d n ?9k ! presumption mu* increas$ by 8 be+ able to guess ! few rema9+ lett]s )\t see+ !m3 = we %\ld naturally expect 7:5 ! nature ( ! case excludes *ance7 t ev5 an errone\s int]pretation :i* accord$ ) all ! visible p>ts ( ! inscription w\ld accord also ) ! small rema9d]2 z w\ld be ! case1 = example1 if ! inscription _h be5 design$ly s contriv$ z to admit ( a d\ble s5se4 ,i assume t ! uncov]$ *>act]s af=d an am\nt ( co9cid5ce too great to be m]ely casual3 o!rwise ! illu/ration is n a fair "o4 ,no "o supposes ! agreem5t ) ! ph5om5a ( light ) ! !ory ( undulations to be m]ely =tuit\s4 ,x mu/ arise f ! actual id5tity ( "s ( ! laws ( undulations ) "s ( ^? ( light3 & if !re be t id5tity1 x is reasonable to suppose t its consequ5ces w\ld n end ) ! ph5om5a :i* fir/ sugge/$ ! id5tification1 nor be ev5 conf9$ to su* ph5om5a z 7 kn[n at ! "t4 ,b x does n foll[1 because "s ( ! laws agree ) ^? ( undulations1 t !re are any actual undulations2 no m ?an x foll[$ because "s 7?\gh n s _m7 ( ! same laws agre$ ) ^? ( ! projection ( p>ticles1 t !re 0 actual emission ( p>ticles4 ,ev5 ! undulatory hypo!sis does n acc\nt = all ! ph5om5a ( light4 ,! natural col\rs ( objects1 ! comp\nd nature ( ! sol> ray1 ! absorption ( light1 & its *emical & vital action1 ! hypo!sis leaves z my/]i\s z x f\nd !m2 & "s ( ^! facts are1 at lea/ app>5tly1 m reconcileable ) ! emission !ory ?an ) t ( ,"y & ,fresnel4 ,:o kn[s b t "s ?ird hypo!sis1 includ+ all ^! ph5om5a1 may 9 "t leave ! undulatory !ory z f> beh9d z t has left ! !ory ( ,newton & 8 successors8 ,to ! /atem5t1 t ! condition ( acc\nt+ = all ! kn[n ph5om5a is (t5 fulfill$ equally well by two conflict+ hypo!ses1 ,dr4 ,:ewell makes answ] t he kn[s ( no su* case 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 :]e ! ph5om5a are at all num]\s & complicat$4#i ,su* an affirmation1 by a writ] ( ,dr4 ,:ewell's m9ute acqua9tance ) ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 w\ld c>ry great au?ority1 if he _h n1 a few pages be=e1 tak5 pa9s to refute x1#aj by ma9ta9+ t ev5 ! explod$ sci5tific hypo!ses might always1 or almo/ always1 h be5 s modifi$ z to make !m correct repres5tations ( ! ph5om5a4 ,! hypo!sis ( vortices1 he tells u1 01 by successive modifications1 br\ght to co9cide 9 its results ) ! ,newtonian !ory & ) ! facts4 ,! vortices did n inde$ expla9 all ! ph5om5a :i* ! ,newtonian !ory 0 ultimately f\nd to acc\nt =1 su* z ! precession ( ! equ9oxes2 b ?is ph5om5on 0 n1 at ! "t1 9 ! contemplation ( ei!r p>ty1 z "o ( ! facts to be acc\nt$ =4 ,all ! facts :i* !y did contemplate1 we may believe on ,dr4 ,:ewell's au?ority to h accord$ z accurately ) ! ,c>tesian hypo!sis1 9 its f9ally improv$ /ate1 z ) ,newton's4 ,b x is n1 ,i conceive1 a valid reason = accept+ any giv5 hypo!sis1 t we are unable to imag9e any o!r :i* w acc\nt = ! facts4 ,!re is no necessity = suppos+ t ! true explanation mu/ be "o :i*1 ) only our pres5t exp]i5ce1 we c\ld imag9e4 ,among ! natural ag5ts ) :i* we are acqua9t$1 ! vibrations ( an ela/ic fluid may be ! only "o ^: laws be> a close resemblance to ^? ( light2 b we _c tell t !re does n exi/ an unkn[n cause1 o!r ?an an ela/ic e!r diffus$ ?r\gh space1 yet produc+ effects id5tical 9 "s respects ) ^? :i* w\ld result f ! undulations ( su* an e!r4 ,to assume t no su* cause c exi/1 appe>s to me an extreme case ( assumption )\t evid5ce4 ,i d n mean to condemn ^? :o employ !mselves 9 work+ out into detail ?is sort ( hypo!ses2 x is useful to asc]ta9 :at are ! kn[n ph5om5a1 to ! laws ( :i* ^? ( ! subject ( inquiry be> ! greate/1 or ev5 a great analogy1 s9ce ?is may sugge/ 7z 9 ! case ( ! lum9if]\s e!r x actually did7 exp]im5ts to det]m9e :e!r ! analogy :i* goes s f> does n ext5d /ill fur!r4 ,b t1 9 do+ ?is1 we %\ld imag9e ourselves to be s]i\sly inquir+ :e!r ! hypo!sis ( an e!r1 an electric fluid1 or ! l1 is true2 t we %\ld fancy x possible to obta9 ! assurance t ! ph5om5a are produc$ 9 t way & no o!r2 seems to me1 ,i confess1 unwor?y ( ! pres5t improv$ conceptions ( ! me?ods ( physical sci5ce4 ,& at ! risk ( be+ *>g$ ) want ( mode/y1 ,i _c help express+ a/oni%m5t t a philosoph] ( ,dr4 ,:ewell's abilities & atta9m5ts %\ld h writt5 an elaborate treatise on ! philosophy ( induction1 9 :i* he recognises absolutely no mode ( induction except t ( try+ hypo!sis aft] hypo!sis until "o is f\nd :i* fits ! ph5om5a2 :i* "o1 :5 f\nd1 is to be assum$ z true1 ) no o!r res]vation ?an t if on re-exam9ation x %\ld appe> to assume m ?an is ne$ful = expla9+ ! ph5om5a1 ! sup]flu\s "p ( ! assumption %\ld be cut (f4 ,& ?is )\t ! slighte/ di/9ction betwe5 ! cases 9 :i* x may be kn[n be=eh& t two diff]5t hypo!ses _c lead to ! same result1 & ^? 9 :i*1 = aught we c ev] "k1 ! range ( suppositions1 all equally consi/5t ) ! ph5om5a1 may be inf9ite4#aa #g4 ,x is necess>y1 be=e quitt+ ! subject ( hypo!ses1 to gu>d aga9/ ! appe>ance ( reflect+ ^u ! sci5tific value ( sev]al bran*es ( physical inquiry1 :i*1 ?\gh only 9 _! infancy1 ,i hold to be /rictly inductive4 ,!re is a great diff]5ce betwe5 inv5t+ ag5cies to acc\nt = classes ( ph5om5a1 & endeav\r+1 9 con=mity ) kn[n laws1 to conjecture :at =m] collocations ( kn[n ag5ts may h giv5 bir? to individual facts /ill 9 exi/5ce4 ,! latt] is ! legitimate op]ation ( inf]r+ f an obs]v$ effect1 ! exi/5ce1 9 "t pa/1 ( a cause simil> to t by :i* we "k x to be produc$ 9 all cases 9 :i* we h actual exp]i5ce ( its orig94 ,?is1 = example1 is ! scope ( ! inquiries ( geology2 & !y are no m illogical or vision>y ?an judicial inquiries1 :i* also aim at discov]+ a pa/ ev5t by inf]5ce f ^? ( its effects :i* /ill subsi/4 ,z we c asc]ta9 :e!r a man 0 murd]$ or di$ a natural dea?1 f ! indications exhibit$ by ! corpse1 ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( signs ( /ruggl+ on ! gr\nd or on ! adjac5t objects1 ! m>ks ( blood1 ! foot/eps ( ! suppos$ murd]]s1 & s on1 proce$+ ?r\gh\t on uni=mities asc]ta9$ by a p]fect induction )\t any mixture ( hypo!sis2 s if we f9d1 on & b5ea? ! surface ( our planet1 masses exactly simil> to deposits f wat]1 or to results ( ! cool+ ( matt] melt$ by fire1 we may ju/ly conclude t su* has be5 _! orig92 & if ! effects1 ?\gh simil> 9 k9d1 are on a f> l>g] scale ?an any :i* are n[ produc$1 we may rationally1 & )\t hypo!sis1 conclude ei!r t ! causes exi/$ =m]ly ) great] int5sity1 or t !y h op]at$ dur+ an enorm\s l5g? ( "t4 ,fur!r ?an ?is no geologi/ ( au?ority has1 s9ce ! rise ( ! pres5t enlight5$ s*ool ( geological speculation1 attempt$ to g4 ,9 _m geological inquiries x d\btless happ5s t ?\gh ! laws to :i* ! ph5om5a are ascrib$ are kn[n laws1 & ! ag5ts kn[n ag5ts1 ^? ag5ts are n kn[n to h be5 pres5t 9 ! p>ticul> case4 ,9 ! speculation respect+ ! igne\s orig9 ( trap or granite1 ! fact does n admit ( direct pro(1 t ^? sub/ances h be5 actually subject$ to int5se heat4 ,b ! same ?+ might be said ( all judicial inquiries :i* proce$ on circum/antial evid5ce4 ,we c conclude t a man 0 murd]$1 ?\gh x is n prov$ by ! te/imony ( eye-witnesses t "s p]son :o _h ! int5tion ( murd]+ him 0 pres5t on ! spot4 ,x is en\gh1 = mo/ purposes1 if no o!r kn[n cause c\ld h g5]at$ ! effects %[n to h be5 produc$4 ,! celebrat$ speculation ( ,laplace conc]n+ ! orig9 ( ! e>? & planets1 p>ticipates ess5tially 9 ! inductive "* ( mod]n geological !ory4 ,! speculation is1 t ! atmosph]e ( ! sun orig9ally ext5d$ to ! pres5t limits ( ! sol> sy/em2 f :i*1 by ! process ( cool+1 x has contract$ to its pres5t dim5sions2 & s9ce1 by ! g5]al pr9ciples ( me*anics1 ! rotation ( ! sun & ( its accompany+ atmosph]e mu/ increase 9 rapidity z its volume dim9i%es1 ! increas$ c5trifugal =ce g5]at$ by ! m rapid rotation1 ov]balanc+ ! action ( gravitation1 has caus$ ! sun to ab&on successive r+s ( vapor\s matt]1 :i* are suppos$ to h cond5s$ by cool+1 & to h become ! planets4 ,!re is 9 ?is !ory no unkn[n sub/ance introduc$ on supposition1 nor any unkn[n prop]ty or law ascrib$ to a kn[n sub/ance4 ,! kn[n laws ( matt] au?orize u to suppose t a body :i* is con/antly giv+ out s l>ge an am\nt ( heat z ! sun is1 mu/ be progressively cool+1 & t1 by ! process ( cool+1 x mu/ contract2 if1 !re=e1 we endeav\r1 f ! pres5t /ate ( t lum9>y1 to inf] its /ate 9 a "t long pa/1 we mu/ necess>ily suppose t its atmosph]e ext5d$ mu* f>!r ?an at pres5t1 & we are entitl$ to suppose t x ext5d$ z f> z we c trace effects su* z x might naturally leave beh9d x on retir+2 & su* ! planets are4 ,^! suppositions be+ made1 x foll[s f kn[n laws t successive zones ( ! sol> atmosph]e might be ab&on$2 t ^! w\ld cont9ue to revolve r\nd ! sun ) ! same velocity z :5 !y =m$ "p ( its sub/ance2 & t !y w\ld cool d[n1 long be=e ! sun itself1 to any giv5 temp]ature1 & consequ5tly to t at :i* ! great] "p ( ! vapor\s matt] ( :i* !y consi/$ w\ld become liquid or solid4 ,! kn[n law ( gravitation w\ld !n cause !m to agglom]ate 9 masses1 :i* w\ld assume ! %ape our planets actually exhibit2 w\ld acquire1 ea* ab\t its own axis1 a rotatory movem5t2 & w\ld 9 t /ate revolve1 z ! planets actually d1 ab\t ! sun1 9 ! same direction ) ! sun's rotation1 b ) less velocity1 because 9 ! same p]iodic "t :i* ! sun's rotation occupi$ :5 8 atmosph]e ext5d$ to t po9t4 ,!re is ?us1 9 ,laplace's !ory1 no?+1 /rictly speak+1 hypo!tical3 x is an example ( legitimate reason+ f a pres5t effect to a possible pa/ cause1 accord+ to ! kn[n laws ( t cause4 ,! !ory !re=e is1 z ,i h said1 ( a simil> "* to ! !ories ( geologi/s2 b consid]ably inf]ior to !m 9 po9t ( evid5ce4 ,ev5 if x 7 prov$ 7:i* x is n7 t ! conditions necess>y = det]m9+ ! break+ (f ( successive r+s w\ld c]ta9ly occur2 !re w\ld /ill be a mu* great] *ance ( error 9 assum+ t ! exi/+ laws ( nature are ! same :i* exi/$ at ! orig9 ( ! sol> sy/em1 ?an 9 m]ely presum+ 7) geologi/s7 t ^? laws h la/$ ?r\gh a few revolutions & trans=mations ( a s+le "o among ! bodies ( :i* t sy/em is compos$4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,( ,,progressive ,,effects2 ,,& ,,( ,,! ,,cont9u$ ,,action ,,( ,,causes4 #a4 ,9 ! la/ f\r *apt]s we h trac$ ! g5]al outl9es ( ! !ory ( ! g5]ation ( d]ivative laws f ultimate ones4 ,9 ! pres5t *apt] our att5tion w be direct$ to a p>ticul> case ( ! d]ivation ( laws f o!r laws1 b a case s g5]al1 & s important1 z n only to repay1 b to require1 a sep>ate exam9ation4 ,?is is1 ! case ( a complex ph5om5on result+ f "o simple law1 by ! cont9ual addition ( an effect to itself4 ,!re are "s ph5om5a1 "s bodily s5sations = example1 :i* are ess5tially in/antane\s1 & ^: exi/5ce c only be prolong$ by ! prolongation ( ! exi/5ce ( ! cause by :i* !y are produc$4 ,b mo/ ph5om5a are 9 _! own nature p]man5t2 hav+ begun to exi/1 !y w\ld exi/ = ev] unless "s cause int]v5$ hav+ a t5d5cy to alt] or de/roy !m4 ,su*1 = example1 are all ! facts or ph5om5a :i* we call bodies4 ,wat]1 once produc$1 w n ( itself relapse into a /ate ( hydrog5 & oxyg52 su* a *ange requires "s ag5t hav+ ! p[] ( decompos+ ! comp\nd4 ,su*1 aga91 are ! positions 9 space1 & ! movem5ts1 ( bodies4 ,no object at re/ alt]s its position )\t ! int]v5tion ( "s conditions extrane\s to itself2 & :5 once 9 motion1 no object returns to a /ate ( re/1 or alt]s ei!r its direction or its velocity1 unless "s new ext]nal conditions are sup]9duc$4 ,x1 !re=e1 p]petually happ5s t a tempor>y cause gives rise to a p]man5t effect4 ,! contact ( iron ) moi/ air = a few h\rs1 produces a ru/ :i* may endure = c5turies2 or a projectile =ce :i* laun*es a cannon ball into space1 produces a motion :i* w\ld cont9ue = ev] unless "s o!r =ce c\nt]act$ x4 ,betwe5 ! two examples :i* we h "h giv51 !re is a diff]5ce wor? po9t+ out4 ,9 ! =m] 79 :i* ! ph5om5on produc$ is a sub/ance1 & n a motion ( a sub/ance71 s9ce ! ru/ rema9s = ev] & unalt]$ unless "s new cause sup]v5es1 we may speak ( ! contact ( air a hundr$ ye>s ago z ev5 ! proximate cause ( ! ru/ :i* has exi/$ f t "t until n[4 ,b :5 ! effect is motion1 :i* is itself a *ange1 we mu/ use a diff]5t language4 ,! p]man5cy ( ! effect is n[ only ! p]man5cy ( a s]ies ( *anges4 ,! second foot1 or in*1 or mile ( motion1 is n ! m]e prolong$ duration ( ! fir/ foot1 or in*1 or mile1 b ano!r fact :i* succe$s1 & :i* may 9 "s respects be v unlike ! =m]1 s9ce x c>ries ! body ?r\gh a diff]5t region ( space4 ,n[1 ! orig9al projectile =ce :i* set ! body mov+ is ! remote cause ( all its motion1 h[ev] long cont9u$1 b ! proximate cause ( no motion except t :i* took place at ! fir/ in/ant4 ,! motion at any subsequ5t in/ant is proximately caus$ by ! motion :i* took place at ! in/ant prec$+4 ,x is on t1 & n on ! orig9al mov+ cause1 t ! motion at any giv5 mom5t dep5ds4 ,=1 suppose t ! body passes ?r\gh "s resi/+ m$ium1 :i* p>tially c\nt]acts ! effect ( ! orig9al impulse1 & ret>ds ! motion3 ?is c\nt]action 7x ne$s sc>cely "h be repeat$7 is z /rict an example ( ob$i5ce to ! law ( ! impulse1 z if ! body _h gone on mov+ ) its orig9al velocity2 b ! motion :i* results is diff]5t1 be+ n[ a comp\nd ( ! effects ( two causes act+ 9 contr>y directions1 in/ead ( ! s+le effect ( "o cause4 ,n[1 :at cause does ! body obey 9 its subsequ5t motion8 ,! orig9al cause ( motion1 or ! actual motion at ! prec$+ in/ant8 ,! latt]3 = :5 ! object issues f ! resi/+ m$ium1 x cont9ues mov+1 n ) its orig9al1 b ) its ret>d$ velocity4 ,! motion hav+ once be5 dim9i%$1 all t :i* foll[s is dim9i%$4 ,! effect *anges1 because ! cause :i* x really obeys1 ! proximate cause1 ! real cause 9 fact1 has *ang$4 ,?is pr9ciple is recognis$ by ma!maticians :5 !y enum]ate among ! causes by :i* ! motion ( a body is at any in/ant det]m9$1 ! =ce g5]at$ by ! previ\s motion2 an expression :i* w\ld be absurd if tak5 to imply t ?is =ce 0 an int]m$iate l9k betwe5 ! cause & ! effect1 b :i* really means only ! previ\s motion itself1 consid]$ z a cause ( fur!r motion4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 if we w\ld speak ) p]fect precision1 consid] ea* l9k 9 ! succession ( motions z ! effect ( ! l9k prec$+ x4 ,b if1 = ! conv5i5ce ( disc\rse1 we speak ( ! :ole s]ies z "o effect1 x mu/ be z an effect produc$ by ! orig9al impell+ =ce2 a p]man5t effect produc$ by an in/antane\s cause1 & possess+ ! prop]ty ( self-p]petuation4 ,let u n[ suppose t ! orig9al ag5t or cause1 in/ead ( be+ in/antane\s1 is p]man5t4 ,:atev] effect has be5 produc$ up to a giv5 "t1 w\ld 7unless prev5t$ by ! int]v5tion ( "s new cause7 subsi/ p]man5tly1 ev5 if ! cause 7 to p]i%4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 ! cause does n p]i%1 b cont9ues to exi/ & to op]ate1 x mu/ g on produc+ m & m ( ! effect2 & in/ead ( an uni=m effect1 we h a progressive s]ies ( effects1 aris+ f ! accumulat$ influ5ce ( a p]man5t cause4 ,?us1 ! contact ( iron ) ! atmosph]e causes a portion ( x to ru/2 & if ! cause ceas$1 ! effect already produc$ w\ld be p]man5t1 b no fur!r effect w\ld be add$4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! cause1 namely1 exposure to moi/ air1 cont9ues1 m & m ( ! iron becomes ru/$1 until all :i* is expos$ is conv]t$ into a r$ p[d]1 :5 "o ( ! conditions ( ! production ( ru/1 namely1 ! pres5ce ( unoxidiz$ iron1 has ceas$1 & ! effect _c any long] be produc$4 ,aga91 ! e>? causes bodies to fall t[>ds x1 t is1 ! exi/5ce ( ! e>? at a giv5 in/ant1 causes an unsupport$ body to move t[>ds x at ! succe$+ in/ant3 & if ! e>? 7 annihilat$1 z mu* ( ! effect z is already produc$ w\ld cont9ue2 ! object w\ld g on mov+ 9 ! same direction1 ) its acquir$ velocity1 until int]cept$ by "s body or deflect$ by "s o!r =ce4 ,! e>?1 h[ev]1 n be+ annihilat$1 goes on produc+ 9 ! second in/ant an effect simil> & ( equal am\nt ) ! fir/1 :i* two effects be+ add$ toge!r1 !re results an accel]at$ velocity2 & ?is op]ation be+ repeat$ at ea* successive in/ant1 ! m]e p]man5ce ( ! cause1 ?\gh )\t increase1 gives rise to a con/ant progressive increase ( ! effect1 s long z all ! conditions1 negative & positive1 ( ! production ( t effect1 cont9ue to be realiz$4 ,x is obvi\s t ?is /ate ( ?+s is m]ely a case ( ! ,composition ( ,causes4 ,a cause :i* cont9ues 9 action1 mu/ on a /rict analysis be consid]$ z a numb] ( causes exactly simil>1 successively introduc$1 & produc+ by _! comb9ation ! sum ( ! effects :i* !y w\ld sev]ally produce if !y act$ s+ly4 ,! progressive ru/+ ( ! iron is 9 /rictness ! sum ( ! effects ( _m p>ticles ( air act+ 9 succession ^u correspond+ p>ticles ( iron4 ,! cont9u$ action ( ! e>? ^u a fall+ body is equival5t to a s]ies ( =ces1 appli$ 9 successive in/ants1 ea* t5d+ to produce a c]ta9 con/ant quantity ( motion2 & ! motion at ea* in/ant is ! sum ( ! effects ( ! new =ce appli$ at ! prec$+ in/ant1 & ! motion already acquir$4 ,9 ea* in/ant1 a fre% effect1 ( :i* gravity is ! proximate cause1 is add$ to ! effect ( :i* x 0 ! remote cause3 or 7to express ! same ?+ 9 ano!r mann]7 ! effect produc$ by ! e>?'s influ5ce at ! in/ant la/ elaps$1 is add$ to ! sum ( ! effects ( :i* ! remote causes 7 ! influ5ces ex]t$ by ! e>? at all ! previ\s in/ants s9ce ! motion began4 ,! case1 !re=e1 comes "u ! pr9ciple ( a concurr5ce ( causes produc+ an effect equal to ! sum ( _! sep>ate effects4 ,b z ! causes come into play n all at once1 b successively1 & z ! effect at ea* in/ant is ! sum ( ! effects ( ^? causes only :i* h come into action up to t in/ant1 ! result assumes ! =m ( an asc5d+ s]ies2 a succession ( sums1 ea* great] ?an t :i* prec$$ x2 & we h ?us a progressive effect f ! cont9u$ action ( a cause4 ,s9ce ! cont9uance ( ! cause influ5ces ! effect only by add+ to its quantity1 & s9ce ! addition takes place accord+ to a fix$ law 7equal quantities 9 equal times71 ! result is capable ( be+ comput$ on ma!matical pr9ciples4 ,9 fact1 ?is case1 be+ t ( inf9itesimal increm5ts1 is precisely ! case :i* ! diff]5tial calculus 0 inv5t$ to meet4 ,! que/ions1 :at effect w result f ! cont9ual addition ( a giv5 cause to itself1 & :at am\nt ( ! cause1 be+ cont9ually add$ to itself1 w produce a giv5 am\nt ( ! effect1 are evid5tly ma!matical que/ions1 & to be treat$1 !re=e1 d$uctively4 ,if1 z we h se51 cases ( ! ,composition ( ,causes are seldom adapt$ = any o!r ?an d$uctive inve/igation1 ?is is especially true 9 ! case n[ exam9$1 ! cont9ual composition ( a cause ) its own previ\s effects2 s9ce su* a case is peculi>ly am5able to ! d$uctive me?od1 :ile ! undi/+ui%able mann] 9 :i* ! effects are bl5d$ ) "o ano!r & ) ! causes1 mu/ make ! treatm5t ( su* an in/ance exp]im5tally1 /ill m *im]ical ?an 9 any o!r case4 #b4 ,we %all next adv]t to a r m intricate op]ation ( ! same pr9ciple1 namely1 :5 ! cause does n m]ely cont9ue 9 action1 b und]goes1 dur+ ! same "t1 a progressive *ange 9 ^? ( its circum/ances :i* contribute to det]m9e ! effect4 ,9 ?is case1 z 9 ! =m]1 ! total effect goes on accumulat+ by ! cont9ual addition ( a fre% effect to t already produc$1 b x is no long] by ! addition ( equal quantities 9 equal times2 ! quantities add$ are unequal1 & ev5 ! quality may n[ be diff]5t4 ,if ! *ange 9 ! /ate ( ! p]man5t cause be progressive1 ! effect w g ?r\gh a d\ble s]ies ( *anges1 aris+ p>tly f ! accumulat$ action ( ! cause1 & p>tly f ! *anges 9 its action4 ,! effect is /ill a progressive effect1 produc$ h[ev]1 n by ! m]e cont9uance ( a cause1 b by its cont9uance & its progressiv5ess comb9$4 ,a famili> example is af=d$ by ! increase ( ! temp]ature z summ] advances1 t is1 z ! sun draws ne>] to a v]tical position1 & rema9s a great] numb] ( h\rs above ! horizon4 ,?is in/ance exemplifies 9 a v int]e/+ mann] ! tw(old op]ation on ! effect1 aris+ f ! cont9uance ( ! cause1 & f its progressive *ange4 ,:5 once ! sun has come ne> en\gh to ! z5i?1 & rema9s above ! horizon long en\gh1 to give m w>m? dur+ "o diurnal rotation ?an ! c\nt]act+ cause1 ! e>?'s radiation1 c c>ry (f1 ! m]e cont9uance ( ! cause w\ld progressively increase ! effect1 ev5 if ! sun came no ne>] & ! days grew no long]2 b 9 addition to ?is1 a *ange takes place 9 ! accid5ts ( ! cause 7its s]ies ( diurnal positions71 t5d+ to increase ! quantity ( ! effect4 ,:5 ! summ] sol/ice has pass$1 ! progressive *ange 9 ! cause beg9s to take place ! rev]se way2 b1 = "s "t1 ! accumulat+ effect ( ! m]e cont9uance ( ! cause exce$s ! effect ( ! *anges 9 x1 & ! temp]ature cont9ues to increase4 ,aga91 ! motion ( a planet is a progressive effect1 produc$ by causes at once p]man5t & progressive4 ,! orbit ( a planet is det]m9$ 7omitt+ p]turbations7 by two causes3 fir/1 ! action ( ! c5tral body1 a p]man5t cause1 :i* alt]nately increases & dim9i%es z ! planet draws ne>] to or goes fur!r f its p]ihelion1 & :i* acts at e po9t 9 a diff]5t direction2 &1 secondly1 ! t5d5cy ( ! planet to cont9ue mov+ 9 ! direction & ) ! velocity :i* x has already acquir$4 ,?is =ce also gr[s great] z ! planet draws ne>] to its p]ihelion1 because z x does s its velocity increases2 & less1 z x rec$es f its p]ihelion3 & ?is =ce z well z ! o!r acts at ea* po9t 9 a diff]5t direction1 because at e po9t ! action ( ! c5tral =ce1 by deflect+ ! planet f its previ\s direction1 alt]s ! l9e 9 :i* x t5ds to cont9ue mov+4 ,! motion at ea* in/ant is det]m9$ by ! am\nt & direction ( ! motion1 & ! am\nt & direction ( ! sun's action1 at ! previ\s in/ant3 & if we speak ( ! entire revolution ( ! planet z "o ph5om5on 7:i*1 z x is p]iodical & simil> to itself1 we (t5 f9d x conv5i5t to d17 t ph5om5on is ! progressive effect ( two p]man5t & progressive causes1 ! c5tral =ce & ! acquir$ motion4 ,^? causes happ5+ to be progressive 9 ! p>ticul> way :i* is call$ p]iodical1 ! effect necess>ily is s too2 because ! quantities to be add$ toge!r return+ 9 a regul> ord]1 ! same sums mu/ also regul>ly return4 ,?is example is wor?y ( consid]ation also 9 ano!r respect4 ,?\gh ! causes !mselves are p]man5t1 & indep5d5t ( all conditions kn[n to u1 ! *anges :i* take place 9 ! quantities & relations ( ! causes are actually caus$ by ! p]iodical *anges 9 ! effects4 ,! causes1 z !y exi/ at any mom5t1 hav+ produc$ a c]ta9 motion1 t motion1 becom+ itself a cause1 reacts ^u ! causes1 & produces a *ange 9 !m4 ,by alt]+ ! di/ance & direction ( ! c5tral body relatively to ! planet1 & ! direction & quantity ( ! =ce 9 ! direction ( ! tang5t1 x alt]s ! elem5ts :i* det]m9e ! motion at ! next succe$+ in/ant4 ,?is *ange r5d]s ! next motion some:at diff]5t2 & ?is diff]5ce1 by a fre% reaction ^u ! causes1 r5d]s ! next motion aga9 diff]5t1 & s on4 ,! orig9al /ate ( ! causes might h be5 su*1 t ?is s]ies ( actions modifi$ by reactions w\ld n h be5 p]iodical4 ,! sun's action1 & ! orig9al impell+ =ce1 might h be5 9 su* a ratio to "o ano!r1 t ! reaction ( ! effect w\ld h be5 su* z to alt] ! causes m & m1 )\t ev] br++ !m back to :at !y 7 at any =m] "t4 ,! planet w\ld !n h mov$ 9 a p>abola1 or an hyp]bola1 curves n return+ into !mselves4 ,! quantities ( ! two =ces 71 h[ev]1 orig9ally su*1 t ! successive reactions ( ! effect br+ back ! causes1 aft] a c]ta9 "t1 to :at !y 7 be=e2 & f t "t all ! v>iations cont9ue to recur aga9 & aga9 9 ! same p]iodical ord]1 & mu/ s cont9ue :ile ! causes subsi/ & are n c\nt]act$4 #c4 ,9 all cases ( progressive effects1 :e!r aris+ f ! accumulation ( un*ang+ or ( *ang+ elem5ts1 !re is an uni=mity ( succession n m]ely betwe5 ! cause & ! effect1 b betwe5 ! fir/ /ages ( ! effect & its subsequ5t /ages4 ,t a body 9 vacuo falls sixte5 feet 9 ! fir/ second1 =ty-eight 9 ! second1 & s on 9 ! ratio ( ! odd numb]s1 is z mu* an uni=m sequ5ce z t :5 ! supports are remov$ ! body falls4 ,! sequ5ce ( spr+ & summ] is z regul> & inv>iable z t ( ! approa* ( ! sun & spr+3 b we d n consid] spr+ to be ! cause ( summ]2 x is evid5t t bo? are successive effects ( ! heat receiv$ f ! sun1 & t1 consid]$ m]ely 9 itself1 spr+ might cont9ue = ev]1 )\t hav+ ! slighte/ t5d5cy to produce summ]4 ,z we h s (t5 rem>k$1 n ! conditional1 b ! unconditional inv>iable antec$5t is t]m$ ! cause4 ,t :i* w\ld n be foll[$ by ! effect unless some?+ else _h prec$$1 is n ! cause1 h[ev] inv>iable ! sequ5ce may 9 fact be4 ,x is 9 ?is way t mo/ ( ^? uni=mities ( succession are g5]at$1 :i* are n cases ( causation4 ,:5 a ph5om5on goes on increas+1 or p]iodically increases & dim9i%es1 or goes ?r\gh any cont9u$ & unceas+ process ( v>iation r$ucible to an uni=m rule or law ( succession1 we d n on ?is acc\nt presume t any two successive t]ms ( ! s]ies are cause & effect4 ,we presume ! contr>y2 we expect to f9d t ! :ole s]ies orig9ates ei!r f ! cont9u$ action ( fix$ causes1 or f causes :i* g ?r\gh a correspond+ process ( cont9u\s *ange4 ,a tree gr[s f half an in* high to a hundr$ feet2 & "s trees w g5]ally gr[ to t height1 unless prev5t$ by "s c\nt]act+ cause4 ,b we d n call ! se$l+ ! cause ( ! full-gr[n tree2 ! inv>iable antec$5t x c]ta9ly is1 & we "k v imp]fectly on :at o!r antec$5ts ! sequ5ce is cont+5t1 b we are conv9c$ t x is cont+5t on some?+2 because ! homog5e\sness ( ! antec$5t ) ! consequ5t1 ! close resemblance ( ! se$l+ to ! tree 9 all respects except magnitude1 & ! graduality ( ! gr[?1 s exactly resembl+ ! progressively accumulat+ effect produc$ by ! long action ( "s "o cause1 leave no possibility ( d\bt+ t ! se$l+ & ! tree are two t]ms 9 a s]ies ( t description1 ! fir/ t]m ( :i* is yet to seek4 ,! conclusion is fur!r confirm$ by ?is1 t we are able to prove by /rict induction ! dep5d5ce ( ! gr[? ( ! tree1 & ev5 ( ! cont9uance ( its exi/5ce1 ^u ! cont9u$ repetition ( c]ta9 processes ( nutrition1 ! rise ( ! sap1 ! absorptions & exhalations by ! leaves1 c42 & ! same exp]im5ts w\ld probably prove to u t ! gr[? ( ! tree is ! accumulat$ sum ( ! effects ( ^! cont9u$ processes1 7 we n1 = want ( suffici5tly microscopic eyes1 unable to obs]ve correctly & 9 detail :at ^? effects are4 ,?is supposition by no means requires t ! effect %\ld n1 dur+ its progress1 und]go _m modifications besides ^? ( quantity1 or t x %\ld n sometimes appe> to und]go a v m>k$ *ange ( "*4 ,?is may be ei!r because ! unkn[n cause consi/s ( sev]al compon5t elem5ts or ag5ts1 ^: effects1 accumulat+ accord+ to diff]5t laws1 are comp\nd$ 9 diff]5t proportions at diff]5t p]iods 9 ! exi/5ce ( ! organiz$ be+2 or because1 at c]ta9 po9ts 9 its progress1 fre% causes or ag5cies come 91 or are evolv$1 :i* int]mix _! laws ) ^? ( ! prime ag5t4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,( ,,empirical ,,laws4 #a4 ,sci5tific inquir]s give ! "n ( ,empirical ,laws to ^? uni=mities :i* obs]vation or exp]im5t has %[n to exi/1 b on :i* !y hesitate to rely 9 cases v>y+ mu* f ^? :i* h be5 actually obs]v$1 = want ( see+ any reason :y su* a law %\ld exi/4 ,x is impli$1 !re=e1 9 ! notion ( an empirical law1 t x is n an ultimate law2 t if true at all1 its tru? is capable ( be+1 & requires to be1 acc\nt$ =4 ,x is a d]ivative law1 ! d]ivation ( :i* is n yet kn[n4 ,to /ate ! explanation1 ! :y1 ( ! empirical law1 w\ld be to /ate ! laws f :i* x is d]iv$2 ! ultimate causes on :i* x is cont+5t4 ,& if we knew ^!1 we %\ld also "k :at are its limits2 "u :at conditions x w\ld cease to be fulfill$4 ,! p]iodical return ( eclipses1 z orig9ally asc]ta9$ by ! p]sev]+ obs]vation ( ! e>ly ea/]n a/ronom]s1 0 an empirical law1 until ! g5]al laws ( ! cele/ial motions _h acc\nt$ = x4 ,! foll[+ are empirical laws /ill wait+ to be resolv$ into ! simpl] laws f :i* !y are d]iv$4 ,! local laws ( ! flux & reflux ( ! tides 9 diff]5t places3 ! succession ( c]ta9 k9ds ( wea!r to c]ta9 appe>ances ( sky3 ! app>5t exceptions to ! almo/ univ]sal tru? t bodies exp& by increase ( temp]ature3 ! law t bre$s1 bo? animal & vegetable1 are improv$ by cross+3 t gases h a /rong t5d5cy to p]meate animal membranes3 t sub/ances conta9+ a v high proportion ( nitrog5 7su* z hydrocyanic acid & morphia7 are p[]ful poisons3 t :5 diff]5t metals are fus$ toge!r1 ! alloy is h>d] ?an ! v>i\s elem5ts3 t ! numb] ( atoms ( acid requir$ to neutralize "o atom ( any base1 is equal to ! numb] ( atoms ( oxyg5 9 ! base3 t ! solubility ( sub/ances 9 "o ano!r1 dep5ds#ab 7at lea/ 9 "s degree7 on ! simil>ity ( _! elem5ts4 ,an empirical law1 !n1 is an obs]v$ uni=mity1 presum$ to be resolvable into simpl] laws1 b n yet resolv$ into !m4 ,! asc]ta9m5t ( ! empirical laws ( ph5om5a (t5 prec$es by a long int]val ! explanation ( ^? laws by ! ,d$uctive ,me?od2 & ! v]ification ( a d$uction usually consi/s 9 ! comp>ison ( its results ) empirical laws previ\sly asc]ta9$4 #b4 ,f a limit$ numb] ( ultimate laws ( causation1 !re are necess>ily g5]at$ a va/ numb] ( d]ivative uni=mities1 bo? ( succession & ( coexi/5ce4 ,"s are laws ( succession or ( coexi/5ce betwe5 diff]5t effects ( ! same cause3 ( ^! we _h examples 9 ! la/ *apt]4 ,"s are laws ( succession betwe5 effects & _! remote causes2 resolvable into ! laws :i* connect ea* ) ! int]m$iate l9k4 ,?irdly1 :5 causes act toge!r & comp\nd _! effects1 ! laws ( ^? causes g5]ate ! fundam5tal law ( ! effect1 namely1 t x dep5ds on ! coexi/5ce ( ^? causes4 ,&1 f9ally1 ! ord] ( succession or ( coexi/5ce :i* obta9s among effects1 necess>ily dep5ds on _! causes4 ,if !y are effects ( ! same cause1 x dep5ds on ! laws ( t cause2 if on diff]5t causes1 x dep5ds on ! laws ( ^? causes sev]ally1 & on ! circum/ances :i* det]m9e _! coexi/5ce4 ,if we inquire fur!r :5 & h[ ! causes w coexi/1 t1 aga91 dep5ds on _! causes3 & we may ?us trace back ! ph5om5a high] & high]1 until ! diff]5t s]ies ( effects meet 9 a po9t1 & ! :ole is %[n to h dep5d$ ultimately on "s common cause2 or until1 in/ead ( conv]g+ to "o po9t1 !y t]m9ate 9 diff]5t po9ts1 & ! ord] ( ! effects is prov$ to h aris5 f ! collocation ( "s ( ! primeval causes1 or natural ag5ts4 ,= example1 ! ord] ( succession & ( coexi/5ce among ! heav5ly motions1 :i* is express$ by ,kepl]'s laws1 is d]iv$ f ! coexi/5ce ( two primeval causes1 ! sun1 & ! orig9al impulse or projectile =ce belong+ to ea* planet4#ac ,kepl]'s laws are resolv$ into ! laws ( ^! causes & ! fact ( _! coexi/5ce4 ,d]ivative laws1 !re=e1 d n dep5d solely on ! ultimate laws into :i* !y are resolvable3 !y mo/ly dep5d on ^? ultimate laws1 & an ultimate fact2 namely1 ! mode ( coexi/5ce ( "s ( ! compon5t elem5ts ( ! univ]se4 ,! ultimate laws ( causation might be ! same z at pres5t1 & yet ! d]ivative laws completely diff]5t1 if ! causes coexi/$ 9 diff]5t proportions1 or ) any diff]5ce 9 ^? ( _! relations by :i* ! effects are influ5c$4 ,if1 = example1 ! sun's attraction1 & ! orig9al projectile =ce1 _h exi/$ 9 "s o!r ratio to "o ano!r ?an !y did 7& we "k ( no reason :y ?is %\ld n h be5 ! case71 ! d]ivative laws ( ! heav5ly motions might h be5 q diff]5t f :at !y are4 ,! proportions :i* exi/ happ5 to be su* z to produce regul> elliptical motions2 any o!r proportions w\ld h produc$ diff]5t ellipses1 or circul>1 or p>abolic1 or hyp]bolic motions1 b /ill regul> ones2 because ! effects ( ea* ( ! ag5ts accumulate accord+ to an uni=m law2 & two regul> s]ies ( quantities1 :5 _! correspond+ t]ms are add$1 mu/ produce a regul> s]ies ( "s sort1 :atev] ! quantities !mselves are4 #c4 ,n[ ?is la/-m5tion$ elem5t 9 ! resolution ( a d]ivative law1 ! elem5t :i* is n a law ( causation1 b a collocation ( causes1 _c itself be r$uc$ to any law4 ,!re is 7z =m]ly rem>k$#ad7 no uni=mity1 no norma1 pr9ciple1 or rule1 p]ceivable 9 ! di/ribution ( ! primeval natural ag5ts ?r\gh ! univ]se4 ,! diff]5t sub/ances compos+ ! e>?1 ! p[]s t p]vade ! univ]se1 /& 9 no con/ant relation to "o ano!r4 ,"o sub/ance is m abundant ?an o!rs1 "o p[] acts ?r\gh a l>g] ext5t ( space ?an o!rs1 )\t any p]vad+ analogy t we c discov]4 ,we n only d n "k ( any reason :y ! sun's attraction & ! =ce 9 ! direction ( ! tang5t coexi/ 9 ! exact proportion !y d1 b we c trace no co9cid5ce betwe5 x & ! proportions 9 :i* any o!r elem5t>y p[]s 9 ! univ]se are int]m+l$4 ,! utmo/ disord] is app>5t 9 ! comb9ation ( ! causes2 :i* is consi/5t ) ! mo/ regul> ord] 9 _! effects2 = :5 ea* ag5t c>ries on its own op]ations accord+ to an uni=m law1 ev5 ! mo/ caprici\s comb9ation ( ag5cies w g5]ate a regul>ity ( "s sort2 z we see 9 ! kaleidoscope1 :]e any casual arrangem5t ( col\r$ bits ( glass produces by ! laws ( reflection a beautiful regul>ity 9 ! effect4 #d4 ,9 ! above consid]ations lies ! ju/ification ( ! limit$ degree ( reliance :i* sci5tific inquir]s are accu/om$ to place 9 empirical laws4 ,a d]ivative law :i* results :olly f ! op]ation ( "s "o cause1 w be z univ]sally true z ! laws ( ! cause itself2 t is1 x w always be true except :]e "s "o ( ^? effects ( ! cause1 on :i* ! d]ivative law dep5ds1 is defeat$ by a c\nt]act+ cause4 ,b :5 ! d]ivative law results n f diff]5t effects ( "o cause1 b f effects ( sev]al causes1 we _c be c]ta9 t x w be true "u any v>iation 9 ! mode ( coexi/5ce ( ^? causes1 or ( ! primitive natural ag5ts on :i* ! causes ultimately dep5d4 ,! proposition t coal b$s re/ on c]ta9 descriptions ( /rata exclusively1 ?\gh true on ! e>? s f> z our obs]vation has rea*$1 _c be ext5d$ to ! moon or ! o!r planets1 suppos+ coal to exi/ !re2 because we _c be assur$ t ! orig9al con/itution ( any o!r planet 0 su* z to produce ! diff]5t depositions 9 ! same ord] z 9 our globe4 ,! d]ivative law 9 ?is case dep5ds n solely on laws1 b on a collocation2 & collocations _c be r$uc$ to any law4 ,n[ x is ! v nature ( a d]ivative law :i* has n yet be5 resolv$ into its elem5ts1 9 o!r words1 an empirical law1 t we d n "k :e!r x results f ! diff]5t effects ( "o cause1 or f effects ( diff]5t causes4 ,we _c tell :e!r x dep5ds :olly on laws1 or p>tly on laws & p>tly on a collocation4 ,if x dep5ds on a collocation1 x w be true 9 all ! cases 9 :i* t p>ticul> collocation exi/s4 ,b1 s9ce we are entirely ignorant1 9 case ( its dep5d+ on a collocation1 :at ! collocation is1 we are n safe 9 ext5d+ ! law beyond ! limits ( "t & place 9 :i* we h actual exp]i5ce ( its tru?4 ,s9ce )9 ^? limits ! law has always be5 f\nd true1 we h evid5ce t ! collocations1 :atev] !y are1 on :i* x dep5ds1 d really exi/ )9 ^? limits4 ,b1 kn[+ ( no rule or pr9ciple to :i* ! collocations !mselves con=m1 we _c conclude t because a collocation is prov$ to exi/ )9 c]ta9 limits ( place or "t1 x w exi/ beyond ^? limits4 ,empirical laws1 !re=e1 c only be receiv$ z true )9 ! limits ( "t & place 9 :i* !y h be5 f\nd true by obs]vation3 & n m]ely ! limits ( "t & place1 b ( "t1 place1 & circum/ance3 = s9ce x is ! v mean+ ( an empirical law t we d n "k ! ultimate laws ( causation on :i* x is dep5d5t1 we _c =esee1 )\t actual trial1 9 :at mann] or to :at ext5t ! introduction ( any new circum/ance may affect x4 #e4 ,b h[ are we to "k t an uni=mity1 asc]ta9$ by exp]i5ce1 is only an empirical law8 ,s9ce1 by ! supposition1 we h n be5 able to resolve x into any o!r laws1 h[ d we "k t x is n an ultimate law ( causation8 ,i answ]1 t no g5]alization am\nts to m ?an an empirical law :5 ! only pro( on :i* x re/s is t ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,= x has be5 se5 t by t me?od alone we nev] c arrive at causes4 ,! utmo/ t ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t c d is1 to asc]ta9 ! :ole ( ! circum/ances common to all cases 9 :i* a ph5om5on is produc$3 & ?is aggregate includes n only ! cause ( ! ph5om5on1 b all ph5om5a ) :i* x is connect$ by any d]ivative uni=mity1 :e!r z be+ collat]al effects ( ! same cause1 or effects ( any o!r cause :i*1 9 all ! in/ances we h be5 able to obs]ve1 coexi/$ ) x4 ,! me?od af=ds no means ( det]m9+ :i* ( ^! uni=mities are laws ( causation1 & :i* are m]ely d]ivative laws1 result+ f ^? laws ( causation & f ! collocation ( ! causes4 ,none ( !m1 !re=e1 c be receiv$ 9 any o!r "* ?an t ( d]ivative laws1 ! d]ivation ( :i* has n be5 trac$2 9 o!r words1 empirical laws3 9 :i* light1 all results obta9$ by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t 7& !re=e almo/ all tru?s obta9$ by simple obs]vation )\t exp]im5t7 mu/ be consid]$1 until ei!r confirm$ by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 or expla9$ d$uctively1 9 o!r words acc\nt$ = priori4 ,^! empirical laws may be ( great] or less au?ority1 accord+ z !re is reason to presume t !y are resolvable into laws only1 or into laws & collocations toge!r4 ,! sequ5ces :i* we obs]ve 9 ! production & subsequ5t life ( an animal or a vegetable1 re/+ on ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t only1 are m]e empirical laws2 b ?\gh ! antec$5ts 9 ^? sequ5ces may n be ! causes ( ! consequ5ts1 bo? ! "o & ! o!r are d\btless1 9 ! ma91 successive /ages ( a progressive effect orig9at+ 9 a common cause1 & !re=e indep5d5t ( collocations4 ,! uni=mities1 on ! o!r h&1 9 ! ord] ( sup]position ( /rata on ! e>?1 are empirical laws ( a mu* weak] k9d1 s9ce !y n only are n laws ( causation1 b !re is no reason to believe t !y dep5d on any common cause3 all appe>ances are 9 fav\r ( _! dep5d+ on ! p>ticul> collocation ( natural ag5ts :i* at "s "t or o!r exi/$ on our globe1 & f :i* no inf]5ce c be drawn z to ! collocation :i* exi/s or has exi/$ 9 any o!r portion ( ! univ]se4 #f4 ,our def9ition ( an empirical law includ+ n only ^? uni=mities :i* are n kn[n to be laws ( causation1 b also ^? :i* are1 provid$ !re be reason to presume t !y are n ultimate laws2 ?is is ! prop] place to consid] by :at signs we may judge t ev5 if an obs]v$ uni=mity be a law ( causation1 x is n an ultimate b a d]ivative law4 ,! fir/ sign is1 if betwe5 ! antec$5t a & ! consequ5t b !re be evid5ce ( "s int]m$iate l9k2 "s ph5om5on ( :i* we c surmise ! exi/5ce1 ?\gh f ! imp]fection ( our s5ses or ( our in/rum5ts we are unable to asc]ta9 its precise nature & laws4 ,if !re be su* a ph5om5on 7:i* may be d5ot$ by ! lett] x71 x foll[s t ev5 if a be ! cause ( b1 x is b ! remote cause1 & t ! law1 a causes b1 is resolvable into at lea/ two laws1 a causes x1 & x causes b4 ,?is is a v frequ5t case1 s9ce ! op]ations ( nature mo/ly take place on s m9ute a scale1 t _m ( ! successive /eps are ei!r imp]ceptible1 or v indi/9ctly p]ceiv$4 ,take1 = example1 ! laws ( ! *emical composition ( sub/ances2 z t hydrog5 & oxyg5 be+ comb9$1 wat] is produc$4 ,all we see ( ! process is1 t ! two gases be+ mix$ 9 c]ta9 proportions1 & heat or electricity be+ appli$1 an explosion takes place1 ! gases disappe>1 & wat] rema9s4 ,!re is no d\bt ab\t ! law1 or ab\t its be+ a law ( causation4 ,b betwe5 ! antec$5t 7! gases 9 a /ate ( me*anical mixture1 heat$ or electrifi$71 & ! consequ5t 7! production ( wat]71 !re mu/ be an int]m$iate process :i* we d n see4 ,= if we take any portion :atev] ( ! wat]1 & subject x to analysis1 we f9d t x always conta9s hydrog5 & oxyg52 nay1 ! v same proportions ( !m1 namely1 two ?irds1 9 volume1 ( hydrog51 & "o ?ird oxyg54 ,?is is true ( a s+le drop2 x is true ( ! m9ute/ portion :i* our in/rum5ts are capable ( appreciat+4 ,s9ce1 !n1 ! smalle/ p]ceptible portion ( ! wat] conta9s bo? ^? sub/ances1 portions ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 small] ?an ! smalle/ p]ceptible mu/ h come toge!r 9 e su* m9ute portion ( space2 mu/ h come clos] toge!r ?an :5 ! gases 7 9 a /ate ( me*anical mixture1 s9ce 7to m5tion no o!r reasons7 ! wat] occupies f> less space ?an ! gases4 ,n[1 z we _c see ?is contact or close approa* ( ! m9ute p>ticles1 we _c obs]ve ) :at circum/ances x is att5d$1 or accord+ to :at laws x produces its effects4 ,! production ( wat]1 t is1 ( ! s5sible ph5om5a :i* *>act]ize ! comp\nd1 may be a v remote effect ( ^? laws4 ,!re may be innum]able int]v5+ l9ks2 & we are sure t !re mu/ be "s4 ,hav+ full pro( t corpuscul> action ( "s k9d takes place previ\s to any ( ! great trans=mations 9 ! s5sible prop]ties ( sub/ances1 we c h no d\bt t ! laws ( *emical action1 z at pres5t kn[n1 are n ultimate b d]ivative laws2 h[ev] ignorant we may be1 & ev5 ?\gh we %\ld = ev] rema9 ignorant1 ( ! nature ( ! laws ( corpuscul> action f :i* !y are d]iv$4 ,9 l mann]1 all ! processes ( vegetative life1 :e!r 9 ! vegetable prop]ly s call$ or 9 ! animal body1 are corpuscul> processes4 ,nutrition is ! addition ( p>ticles to "o ano!r1 sometimes m]ely replac+ o!r p>ticles sep>at$ & excret$1 sometimes occasion+ an increase ( bulk or weight1 s gradual1 t only aft] a long cont9uance does x become p]ceptible4 ,v>i\s organs1 by means ( peculi> vessels1 secrete f ! blood1 fluids1 ! compon5t p>ticles ( :i* mu/ h be5 9 ! blood1 b :i* diff] f x mo/ widely bo? 9 me*anical prop]ties & 9 *emical composition4 ,"h1 !n1 are abundance ( unkn[n l9ks to be fill$ up2 & !re c be no d\bt t ! laws ( ! ph5om5a ( vegetative or organic life are d]ivative laws1 dep5d5t on prop]ties ( ! corpuscles1 & ( ^? elem5t>y tissues :i* are comp>atively simple comb9ations ( corpuscles4 ,! fir/ sign1 !n1 f :i* a law ( causation1 ?\gh hi!rto unresolv$1 may be inf]r$ to be a d]ivative law1 is any indication ( ! exi/5ce ( an int]m$iate l9k or l9ks betwe5 ! antec$5t & ! consequ5t4 ,! second is1 :5 ! antec$5t is an extremely complex ph5om5on1 & its effects !re=e1 probably1 9 "p at lea/1 comp\nd$ ( ! effects ( its diff]5t elem5ts2 s9ce we "k t ! case 9 :i* ! effect ( ! :ole is n made up ( ! effects ( its p>ts1 is exceptional1 ! ,composition ( ,causes be+ by f> ! m ord9>y case4 ,we w illu/rate ?is by two examples1 9 "o ( :i* ! antec$5t is ! sum ( _m homog5e\s1 9 ! o!r ( het]og5e\s1 p>ts4 ,! weight ( a body is made up ( ! weights ( its m9ute p>ticles3 a tru? :i* a/ronom]s express 9 its mo/ g5]al t]ms1 :5 !y say t bodies1 at equal di/ances1 gravitate to "o ano!r 9 proportion to _! quantity ( matt]4 ,all true propositions1 !re=e1 :i* c be made conc]n+ gravity1 are d]ivative laws2 ! ultimate law into :i* !y are all resolvable be+1 t e p>ticle ( matt] attracts e o!r4 ,z our second example1 we may take any ( ! sequ5ces obs]v$ 9 meteorology3 = in/ance1 a dim9ution ( ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e 7indicat$ by a fall ( ! b>omet]7 is foll[$ by ra94 ,! antec$5t is "h a complex ph5om5on1 made up ( het]og5e\s elem5ts2 ! column ( ! atmosph]e ov] any p>ticul> place consi/+ ( two p>ts1 a column ( air1 & a column ( aque\s vap\r mix$ ) x2 & ! *ange 9 ! two toge!r manife/$ by a fall ( ! b>omet]1 & foll[$ by ra91 mu/ be ei!r a *ange 9 "o ( ^!1 or 9 ! o!r1 or 9 bo?4 ,we might1 !n1 ev5 9 ! abs5ce ( any o!r evid5ce1 =m a reasonable presumption1 f ! inv>iable pres5ce ( bo? ^! elem5ts 9 ! antec$5t1 t ! sequ5ce is probably n an ultimate law1 b a result ( ! laws ( ! two diff]5t ag5ts2 a presumption only to be de/roy$ :5 we _h made ourselves s well acqua9t$ ) ! laws ( bo?1 z to be able to affirm t ^? laws c\ld n by !mselves produce ! obs]v$ result4 ,!re are b few kn[n cases ( succession f v complex antec$5ts1 :i* h n ei!r be5 actually acc\nt$ = f simpl] laws1 or inf]r$ ) great probability 7f ! asc]ta9$ exi/5ce ( int]m$iate l9ks ( causation n yet und]/ood7 to be capable ( be+ s acc\nt$ =4 ,x is1 !re=e1 highly probable t all sequ5ces f complex antec$5ts are ?us resolvable1 & t ultimate laws are 9 all cases comp>atively simple4 ,if !re 7 n ! o!r reasons already m5tion$ = believ+ t ! laws ( organiz$ nature are resolvable into simpl] laws1 x w\ld be almo/ a suffici5t reason t ! antec$5ts 9 mo/ ( ! sequ5ces are s v complex4 #g4 ,9 ! prec$+ discussion we h recognis$ two k9ds ( empirical laws3 ^? kn[n to be laws ( causation1 b presum$ to be resolvable into simpl] laws2 & ^? n kn[n to be laws ( causation at all4 ,bo? ^! k9ds ( laws agree 9 ! dem& :i* !y make = be+ expla9$ by d$uction1 & agree 9 be+ ! appropriate means ( v]ify+ su* d$uction1 s9ce !y repres5t ! exp]i5ce ) :i* ! result ( ! d$uction mu/ be comp>$4 ,!y agree1 fur!r1 9 ?is1 t until expla9$1 & connect$ ) ! ultimate laws f :i* !y result1 !y h n atta9$ ! highe/ degree ( c]ta9ty ( :i* laws are susceptible4 ,x has be5 %[n on a =m] occasion t laws ( causation :i* are d]ivative1 & comp\nd$ ( simpl] laws1 are n only1 z ! nature ( ! case implies1 less g5]al1 b ev5 less c]ta91 ?an ! simpl] laws f :i* !y result2 n 9 ! same degree to be reli$ on z univ]sally true4 ,! inf]iority ( evid5ce1 h[ev]1 :i* atta*es to ?is class ( laws1 is trifl+1 comp>$ ) t :i* is inh]5t 9 uni=mities n kn[n to be laws ( causation at all4 ,s long z ^! are unresolv$1 we _c tell on h[ _m collocations1 z well z laws1 _! tru? may be dep5d5t2 we c nev]1 !re=e1 ext5d !m ) any confid5ce to cases 9 :i* we h n assur$ ourselves1 by trial1 t ! necess>y collocation ( causes1 :atev] x may be1 exi/s4 ,x is to ?is class ( laws alone t ! prop]ty1 :i* philosoph]s usually consid] z *>act]i/ic ( empirical laws1 belongs 9 all its /rictness2 ! prop]ty ( be+ unfit to be reli$ on beyond ! limits ( "t1 place1 & circum/ance1 9 :i* ! obs]vations h be5 made4 ,^! are empirical laws 9 a m emphatic s5se2 & :5 ,i employ t t]m 7except :]e ! context manife/ly indicates ! rev]se7 ,i %all g5]ally mean to designate ^? uni=mities only1 :e!r ( succession or ( coexi/5ce1 :i* are n kn[n to be laws ( causation4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,( ,,*ance ,,& ,,its ,,elim9ation4 #a4 ,consid]+ !n z empirical laws only ^? obs]v$ uni=mities respect+ :i* ! "q :e!r !y are laws ( causation mu/ rema9 undecid$ until !y c be expla9$ d$uctively1 or until "s means are f\nd ( apply+ ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce to ! case1 x has be5 %[n 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 t until an uni=mity c1 9 "o or ! o!r ( ^! modes1 be tak5 out ( ! class ( empirical laws1 & br\ght ei!r into t ( laws ( causation or ( ! demon/rat$ results ( laws ( causation1 x _c ) any assurance be pron\nc$ true beyond ! local & o!r limits )9 :i* x has be5 f\nd s by actual obs]vation4 ,x rema9s to consid] h[ we are to assure ourselves ( its tru? ev5 )9 ^? limits2 aft] :at quantity ( exp]i5ce a g5]alization :i* re/s solely on ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 c be consid]$ suffici5tly e/abli%$1 ev5 z an empirical law4 ,9 a =m] *apt]1 :5 treat+ ( ! ,me?ods ( ,direct ,induction1 we expressly res]v$ ?is "q1#ae & ! "t is n[ come = endeav\r+ to solve x4 ,we f\nd t ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t has ! defect ( n prov+ causation1 & c !re=e only be employ$ = ! asc]ta9m5t ( empirical laws4 ,b we also f\nd t besides ?is defici5cy1 x lab\rs "u a *>act]i/ic imp]fection1 t5d+ to r5d] unc]ta9 ev5 su* conclusions z x is 9 itself adapt$ to prove4 ,?is imp]fection arises f ,plurality ( ,causes4 ,al?\gh two or m cases 9 :i* ! ph5om5on a has be5 met )1 may h no common antec$5t except ,a1 ?is does n prove t !re is any connexion betwe5 a & ,a1 s9ce a may h _m causes1 & may h be5 produc$1 9 ^! diff]5t in/ances1 n by any?+ :i* ! in/ances _h 9 common1 b by "s ( ^? elem5ts 9 !m :i* 7 diff]5t4 ,we nev]!less obs]v$1 t 9 proportion to ! multiplication ( in/ances po9t+ to ,a z ! antec$5t1 ! *>act]i/ic unc]ta9ty ( ! me?od dim9i%es1 & ! exi/5ce ( a law ( connexion betwe5 ,a & a m ne>ly approa*es to c]ta9ty4 ,x is n[ to be det]m9$1 aft] :at am\nt ( exp]i5ce ?is c]ta9ty may be deem$ to be practically atta9$1 & ! connexion betwe5 ,a & a may be receiv$ z an empirical law4 ,?is "q may be o!rwise /at$ 9 m famili> t]ms3--,aft] h[ _m & :at sort ( in/ances may x be conclud$1 t an obs]v$ co9cid5ce betwe5 two ph5om5a is n ! effect ( *ance8 ,x is ( ! utmo/ importance = und]/&+ ! logic ( induction1 t we %\ld =m a di/9ct conception ( :at is meant by *ance1 & h[ ! ph5om5a :i* common language ascribes to t ab/raction are really produc$4 #b4 ,*ance is usually spok5 ( 9 direct anti!sis to law2 :atev] 7x is suppos$7 _c be ascrib$ to any law1 is attribut$ to *ance4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 c]ta91 t :atev] happ5s is ! result ( "s law2 is an effect ( causes1 & c\ld h be5 pr$ict$ f a k ( ! exi/5ce ( ^? causes1 & f _! laws4 ,if ,i turn up a p>ticul> c>d1 t is a consequ5ce ( its place 9 ! pack4 ,its place 9 ! pack 0 a consequ5ce ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! c>ds 7 %uffl$1 or ( ! ord] 9 :i* !y 7 play$ 9 ! la/ game2 :i*1 aga91 7 effects ( prior causes4 ,at e /age1 if we _h possess$ an accurate k ( ! causes 9 exi/5ce1 x w\ld h be5 ab/ract$ly possible to =etell ! effect4 ,an ev5t occurr+ by *ance1 may be bett] describ$ z a co9cid5ce f :i* we h no gr\nd to inf] an uni=mity3 ! occurr5ce ( a ph5om5on 9 c]ta9 circum/ances1 )\t our hav+ reason on t acc\nt to inf] t x w happ5 aga9 9 ^? circum/ances4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 :5 look$ closely into1 implies t ! enum]ation ( ! circum/ances is n complete4 ,:atev] ! fact be1 s9ce x has occurr$ once1 we may be sure t if all ! same circum/ances 7 repeat$1 x w\ld occur aga92 & n only if all1 b !re is "s p>ticul> portion ( ^? circum/ances1 on :i* ! ph5om5on is inv>iably consequ5t4 ,) mo/ ( !m1 h[ev]1 x is n connect$ 9 any p]man5t mann]3 its conjunction ) ^? is said to be ! effect ( *ance1 to be m]ely casual4 ,facts casually conjo9$ are sep>ately ! effects ( causes1 & !re=e ( laws2 b ( diff]5t causes1 & causes n connect$ by any law4 ,x is incorrect1 !n1 to say t any ph5om5on is produc$ by *ance2 b we may say t two or m ph5om5a are conjo9$ by *ance1 t !y coexi/ or succe$ "o ano!r only by *ance3 mean+ t !y are 9 no way relat$ ?r\gh causation2 t !y are nei!r cause & effect1 nor effects ( ! same cause1 nor effects ( causes betwe5 :i* !re subsi/s any law ( coexi/5ce1 nor ev5 effects ( ! same collocation ( primeval causes4 ,if ! same casual co9cid5ce nev] occurr$ a second "t1 we %\ld h an easy te/ = di/+ui%+ su* f ! co9cid5ces :i* are ! results ( a law4 ,z long z ! ph5om5a _h be5 f\nd toge!r only once1 s long1 unless we knew "s m g5]al laws f :i* ! co9cid5ce might h result$1 we c\ld n di/+ui% x f a casual "o2 b if x occurr$ twice1 we %\ld "k t ! ph5om5a s conjo9$ mu/ be 9 "s way connect$ ?r\gh _! causes4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no su* te/4 ,a co9cid5ce may occur aga9 & aga91 & yet be only casual4 ,nay1 x w\ld be inconsi/5t ) :at we "k ( ! ord] ( nature1 to d\bt t e casual co9cid5ce w soon] or lat] be repeat$1 z long z ! ph5om5a betwe5 :i* x occurr$ d n cease to exi/1 or to be reproduc$4 ,! recurr5ce1 !re=e1 ( ! same co9cid5ce m ?an once1 or ev5 its frequ5t recurr5ce1 does n prove t x is an in/ance ( any law2 does n prove t x is n casual1 or1 9 common language1 ! effect ( *ance4 ,& yet1 :5 a co9cid5ce _c be d$uc$ f kn[n laws1 nor prov$ by exp]im5t to be itself a case ( causation1 ! frequ5cy ( its occurr5ce is ! only evid5ce f :i* we c inf] t x is ! result ( a law4 ,n1 h[ev]1 its absolute frequ5cy4 ,! "q is n :e!r ! co9cid5ce occurs (t5 or seldom1 9 ! ord9>y s5se ( ^? t]ms2 b :e!r x occurs m (t5 ?an *ance w acc\nt =2 m (t5 ?an might rationally be expect$ if ! co9cid5ce 7 casual4 ,we h to decide1 !re=e1 :at degree ( frequ5cy 9 a co9cid5ce1 *ance w acc\nt =4 ,& to ?is !re c be no g5]al answ]4 ,we c only /ate ! pr9ciple by :i* ! answ] mu/ be det]m9$3 ! answ] itself w be diff]5t 9 e diff]5t case4 ,suppose t "o ( ! ph5om5a1 ,a1 exi/s always1 & ! o!r ph5om5on1 ,b1 only occasionally3 x foll[s t e in/ance ( ,b w be an in/ance ( its co9cid5ce ) ,a1 & yet ! co9cid5ce w be m]ely casual1 n ! result ( any connexion betwe5 !m4 ,! fix$ />s h be5 con/antly 9 exi/5ce s9ce ! beg9n+ ( human exp]i5ce1 & all ph5om5a t h come "u human obs]vation h1 9 e s+le in/ance1 coexi/$ ) !m2 yet ?is co9cid5ce1 ?\gh equally inv>iable ) t :i* exi/s betwe5 any ( ^? ph5om5a & its own cause1 does n prove t ! />s are its cause1 nor t !y are 9 anywise connect$ ) x4 ,z /rong a case ( co9cid5ce1 !re=e1 z c possibly exi/1 & a mu* /rong] "o 9 po9t ( m]e frequ5cy ?an mo/ ( ^? :i* prove laws1 does n "h prove a law3 :y8 because1 s9ce ! />s exi/ always1 !y mu/ coexi/ ) e o!r ph5om5on1 :e!r connect$ ) !m by causation or n4 ,! uni=mity1 great ?\gh x be1 is no great] ?an w\ld occur on ! supposition t no su* connexion exi/s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 suppose t we 7 inquir+ :e!r !re be any connexion betwe5 ra9 & any p>ticul> w9d4 ,ra91 we "k1 occasionally occurs ) e w9d2 !re=e ! connexion1 if x exi/s1 _c be an actual law2 b /ill1 ra9 may be connect$ ) "s p>ticul> w9d ?r\gh causation2 t is1 ?\gh !y _c be always effects ( ! same cause 7= if s !y w\ld regul>ly coexi/71 !re may be "s causes common to ! two1 s t 9 s f> z ei!r is produc$ by ^? common causes1 !y w1 f ! laws ( ! causes1 be f\nd to coexi/4 ,h[1 !n1 %all we asc]ta9 ?is8 ,! obvi\s answ] is1 by obs]v+ :e!r ra9 occurs ) "o w9d m frequ5tly ?an ) any o!r4 ,t1 h[ev]1 is n en\gh2 = p]haps t "o w9d bl[s m frequ5tly ?an any o!r2 s t its bl[+ m frequ5tly 9 ra9y wea!r is no m ?an w\ld happ51 al?\gh x _h no connexion ) ! causes ( ra91 provid$ x 7 n connect$ ) causes adv]se to ra94 ,9 ,engl&1 we/]ly w9ds bl[ dur+ ab\t twice z great a portion ( ! ye> z ea/]ly4 ,if1 !re=e1 x ra9s only twice z (t5 ) a we/]ly1 z ) an ea/]ly w9d1 we h no reason to inf] t any law ( nature is conc]n$ 9 ! co9cid5ce4 ,if x ra9s m ?an twice z (t51 we may be sure t "s law is conc]n$2 ei!r !re is "s cause 9 nature :i*1 9 ?is climate1 t5ds to produce bo? ra9 & a we/]ly w9d1 or a we/]ly w9d has itself "s t5d5cy to produce ra94 ,b if x ra9s less ?an twice z (t51 we may draw a directly opposite inf]5ce3 ! "o1 in/ead ( be+ a cause1 or connect$ ) causes1 ( ! o!r1 mu/ be connect$ ) causes adv]se to x1 or ) ! abs5ce ( "s cause :i* produces x2 & ?\gh x may /ill ra9 mu* (t5] ) a we/]ly w9d ?an ) an ea/]ly1 s f> w\ld ?is be f prov+ any connexion betwe5 ! ph5om5a1 t ! connexion prov$ w\ld be betwe5 ra9 & an ea/]ly w9d1 to :i*1 9 m]e frequ5cy ( co9cid5ce1 x is less alli$4 ,"h1 !n1 are two examples3 9 "o1 ! greate/ possible frequ5cy ( co9cid5ce1 ) no in/ance :atev] to ! contr>y1 does n prove t !re is any law2 9 ! o!r1 a mu* less frequ5cy ( co9cid5ce1 ev5 :5 non-co9cid5ce is /ill m frequ5t1 does prove t !re is a law4 ,9 bo? cases ! pr9ciple is ! same4 ,9 bo? we consid] ! positive frequ5cy ( ! ph5om5a !mselves1 & h[ great frequ5cy ( co9cid5ce t mu/ ( itself br+ ab\t1 )\t suppos+ any connexion betwe5 !m1 provid$ !re be no repugnance2 provid$ nei!r be connect$ ) any cause t5d+ to fru/rate ! o!r4 ,if we f9d a great] frequ5cy ( co9cid5ce ?an ?is1 we conclude t !re is "s connexion2 if a less frequ5cy1 t !re is "s repugnance4 ,9 ! =m] case1 we conclude t "o ( ! ph5om5a c "u "s circum/ances cause ! o!r1 or t !re exi/s some?+ capable ( caus+ !m bo?2 9 ! latt]1 t "o ( !m1 or "s cause :i* produces "o ( !m1 is capable ( c\nt]act+ ! production ( ! o!r4 ,we h ?us to d$uct f ! obs]v$ frequ5cy ( co9cid5ce1 z mu* z may be ! effect ( *ance1 t is1 ( ! m]e frequ5cy ( ! ph5om5a !mselves2 & if any?+ rema9s1 :at does rema9 is ! residual fact :i* proves ! exi/5ce ( a law4 ,! frequ5cy ( ! ph5om5a c only be asc]ta9$ )9 def9ite limits ( space & "t2 dep5d+ z x does on ! quantity & di/ribution ( ! primeval natural ag5ts1 ( :i* we c "k no?+ beyond ! b\nd>ies ( human obs]vation1 s9ce no law1 no regul>ity1 c be trac$ 9 x1 enabl+ u to inf] ! unkn[n f ! kn[n4 ,b = ! pres5t purpose ?is is no disadvantage1 ! "q be+ conf9$ )9 ! same limits z ! data4 ,! co9cid5ces occurr$ 9 c]ta9 places & times1 & )9 ^? we c e/imate ! frequ5cy ) :i* su* co9cid5ces w\ld be produc$ by *ance4 ,if1 !n1 we f9d f obs]vation t ,a exi/s 9 "o case out ( e two1 & ,b 9 "o case out ( e ?ree2 !n if !re be nei!r connexion nor repugnance betwe5 !m1 or betwe5 any ( _! causes1 ! in/ances 9 :i* ,a & ,b w bo? exi/1 t is to say w coexi/1 w be "o case 9 e six4 ,= ,a exi/s 9 ?ree cases out ( six3 & ,b1 exi/+ 9 "o case out ( e ?ree )\t reg>d to ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( ,a1 w exi/ 9 "o case out ( ^? ?ree4 ,!re w !re=e be1 ( ! :ole numb] ( cases1 two 9 :i* ,a exi/s )\t ,b2 "o case ( ,b )\t ,a2 two 9 :i* nei!r ,b nor ,a exi/s1 & "o case out ( six 9 :i* !y bo? exi/4 ,if !n1 9 po9t ( fact1 !y are f\nd to coexi/ (t5] ?an 9 "o case out ( six2 &1 consequ5tly1 ,a does n exi/ )\t ,b s (t5 z twice 9 ?ree times1 nor ,b )\t ,a s (t5 z once 9 e twice2 !re is "s cause 9 exi/5ce :i* t5ds to produce a conjunction betwe5 ,a & ,b4 ,g5]aliz+ ! result1 we may say1 t if ,a occurs 9 a l>g] proportion ( ! cases :]e ,b is1 ?an ( ! cases :]e ,b is n2 !n w ,b also occur 9 a l>g] proportion ( ! cases :]e ,a is1 ?an ( ! cases :]e ,a is n2 & !re is "s connexion1 ?r\gh causation1 betwe5 ,a & ,b4 ,if we c\ld asc5d to ! causes ( ! two ph5om5a1 we %\ld f9d1 at "s /age1 ei!r proximate or remote1 "s cause or causes common to bo?2 & if we c\ld asc]ta9 :at ^! are1 we c\ld frame a g5]alization :i* w\ld be true )\t re/riction ( place or "t3 b until we c d s1 ! fact ( a connexion betwe5 ! two ph5om5a rema9s an empirical law4 #c4 ,hav+ consid]$ 9 :at mann] x may be det]m9$ :e!r any giv5 conjunction ( ph5om5a is casual1 or ! result ( "s law2 to complete ! !ory ( *ance1 x is necess>y t we %\ld n[ consid] ^? effects :i* are p>tly ! result ( *ance & p>tly ( law1 or1 9 o!r words1 9 :i* ! effects ( casual conjunctions ( causes are habitually bl5d$ 9 "o result ) ! effects ( a con/ant cause4 ,?is is a case ( ,composition ( ,causes2 & ! peculi>ity ( x is1 t in/ead ( two or m causes int]mix+ _! effects 9 a regul> mann] ) ^? ( "o ano!r1 we h n[ "o con/ant cause1 produc+ an effect :i* is successively modifi$ by a s]ies ( v>iable causes4 ,?us1 z summ] advances1 ! approa* ( ! sun to a v]tical position t5ds to produce a con/ant increase ( temp]ature2 b ) ?is effect ( a con/ant cause1 !re are bl5d$ ! effects ( _m v>iable causes1 w9ds1 cl\ds1 evaporation1 electric ag5cies & ! l1 s t ! temp]ature ( any giv5 day dep5ds 9 "p on ^! fleet+ causes1 & only 9 "p on ! con/ant cause4 ,if ! effect ( ! con/ant cause is always accompani$ & disguis$ by effects ( v>iable causes1 x is impossible to asc]ta9 ! law ( ! con/ant cause 9 ! ord9>y mann]1 by sep>at+ x f all o!r causes & obs]v+ x ap>t4 ,h5ce arises ! necessity ( an additional rule ( exp]im5tal inquiry4 ,:5 ! action ( a cause ,a is liable to be int]f]$ )1 n /eadily by ! same cause or causes1 b by diff]5t causes at diff]5t times1 & :5 ^! are s frequ5t1 or s indet]m9ate1 t we _c possibly exclude all ( !m f any exp]im5t1 ?\gh we may v>y !m2 our res\rce is1 to endeav\r to asc]ta9 :at is ! effect ( all ! v>iable causes tak5 toge!r4 ,9 ord] to d ?is1 we make z _m trials z possible1 pres]v+ ,a inv>iable4 ,! results ( ^! diff]5t trials w naturally be diff]5t1 s9ce ! indet]m9ate modify+ causes are diff]5t 9 ea*3 if1 !n1 we d n f9d ^! results to be progressive1 b1 on ! contr>y1 to oscillate ab\t a c]ta9 po9t1 "o exp]im5t giv+ a result a little great]1 ano!r a little less1 "o a result t5d+ a little m 9 "o direction1 ano!r a little m 9 ! contr>y direction2 :ile ! av]age or middle po9t does n v>y1 b diff]5t sets ( exp]im5ts 7tak5 9 z great a v>iety ( circum/ances z possible7 yield ! same mean1 provid$ only !y be suffici5tly num]\s2 !n t mean or av]age result1 is ! "p1 9 ea* exp]im5t1 :i* is due to ! cause ,a1 & is ! effect :i* w\ld h be5 obta9$ if ,a c\ld h act$ alone3 ! v>iable rema9d] is ! effect ( *ance1 t is1 ( causes ! coexi/5ce ( :i* ) ! cause ,a 0 m]ely casual4 ,! te/ ( ! suffici5cy ( ! induction 9 ?is case is1 :5 any increase ( ! numb] ( trials f :i* ! av]age is /ruck1 does n mat]ially alt] ! av]age4 ,?is k9d ( elim9ation1 9 :i* we d n elim9ate any "o assignable cause1 b ! multitude ( float+ unassignable ones1 may be t]m$ ! ,elim9ation ( ,*ance4 ,we af=d an example ( x :5 we repeat an exp]im5t1 9 ord]1 by tak+ ! mean ( diff]5t results1 to get rid ( ! effects ( ! unavoidable errors ( ea* individual exp]im5t4 ,:5 !re is no p]man5t cause su* z w\ld produce a t5d5cy to error peculi>ly 9 "o direction1 we are w>rant$ by exp]i5ce 9 assum+ t ! errors on "o side w1 9 a c]ta9 numb] ( exp]im5ts1 ab\t balance ! errors on ! contr>y side4 ,we !re=e repeat ! exp]im5t1 until any *ange :i* is produc$ 9 ! av]age ( ! :ole by fur!r repetition1 falls )9 limits ( error consi/5t ) ! degree ( accuracy requir$ by ! purpose we h 9 view4#af #d4 ,9 ! supposition hi!rto made1 ! effect ( ! con/ant cause ,a has be5 assum$ to =m s great & conspicu\s a "p ( ! g5]al result1 t its exi/5ce nev] c\ld be a matt] ( unc]ta9ty1 & ! object ( ! elim9at+ process 0 only to asc]ta9 h[ mu* is attributable to t cause2 :at is its exact law4 ,cases1 h[ev]1 occur 9 :i* ! effect ( a con/ant cause is s small1 comp>$ ) t ( "s ( ! *angeable causes ) :i* x is liable to be casually conjo9$1 t ( itself x escapes notice1 & ! v exi/5ce ( any effect aris+ f a con/ant cause is fir/ le>nt1 by ! process :i* 9 g5]al s]ves only = asc]ta9+ ! quantity ( t effect4 ,?is case ( induction may be *>act]iz$ z foll[s4 ,a giv5 effect is kn[n to be *iefly1 & n kn[n n to be :olly1 det]m9$ by *angeable causes4 ,if x be :olly s produc$1 !n if ! aggregate be tak5 ( a suffici5t numb] ( in/ances1 ! effects ( ^! diff]5t causes w cancel "o ano!r4 ,if1 !re=e1 we d n f9d ?is to be ! case1 b1 on ! contr>y1 aft] su* a numb] ( trials has be5 made t no fur!r increase alt]s ! av]age result1 we f9d t av]age to be1 n z]o1 b "s o!r quantity1 ab\t :i*1 ?\gh small 9 comp>ison ) ! total effect1 ! effect nev]!less oscillates1 & :i* is ! middle po9t 9 its oscillation2 we may conclude ?is to be ! effect ( "s con/ant cause3 :i* cause1 by "s ( ! me?ods already treat$ (1 we may hope to detect4 ,?is may be call$ ! discov]y ( a residual ph5om5on by elim9at+ ! effects ( *ance4 ,x is 9 ?is mann]1 = example1 t load$ dice may be discov]$4 ,( c\rse no dice are s clumsily load$ t !y mu/ always ?r[ c]ta9 numb]s2 o!rwise ! fraud w\ld be in/antly detect$4 ,! load+1 a con/ant cause1 m+les ) ! *angeable causes :i* det]m9e :at ca/ w be ?r[n 9 ea* individual in/ance4 ,if ! dice 7 n load$1 & ! ?r[ 7 left to dep5d entirely on ! *angeable causes1 ^! 9 a suffici5t numb] ( in/ances w\ld balance "o ano!r1 & !re w\ld be no prepond]ant numb] ( ?r[s ( any "o k9d4 ,if1 !re=e1 aft] su* a numb] ( trials t no fur!r increase ( _! numb] has any mat]ial effect ^u ! av]age1 we f9d a prepond]ance 9 fav\r ( a p>ticul> ?r[2 we may conclude ) assurance t !re is "s con/ant cause act+ 9 fav\r ( t ?r[1 or 9 o!r words1 t ! dice are n fair2 & ! exact am\nt ( ! unfairness4 ,9 a simil> mann]1 :at is call$ ! diurnal v>iation ( ! b>omet]1 :i* is v small comp>$ ) ! v>iations aris+ f ! irregul> *anges 9 ! /ate ( ! atmosph]e1 0 discov]$ by comp>+ ! av]age height ( ! b>omet] at diff]5t h\rs ( ! day4 ,:5 ?is comp>ison 0 made1 x 0 f\nd t !re 0 a small diff]5ce1 :i* on ! av]age 0 con/ant1 h[ev] ! absolute quantities might v>y1 & :i* diff]5ce1 !re=e1 mu/ be ! effect ( a con/ant cause4 ,?is cause 0 aft]w>ds asc]ta9$1 d$uctively1 to be ! r>efaction ( ! air1 occasion$ by ! increase ( temp]ature z ! day advances4 #e4 ,aft] ^! g5]al rem>ks on ! nature ( *ance1 we are prep>$ to consid] 9 :at mann] assurance may be obta9$ t a conjunction betwe5 two ph5om5a1 :i* has be5 obs]v$ a c]ta9 numb] ( times1 is n casual1 b a result ( causation1 & to be receiv$ !re=e z "o ( ! uni=mities ( nature1 ?\gh 7until acc\nt$ = priori7 only z an empirical law4 ,we w suppose ! /ronge/ case1 namely1 t ! ph5om5on ,b has nev] be5 obs]v$ except 9 conjunction ) ,a4 ,ev5 !n1 ! probability t !y are connect$ is n measur$ by ! total numb] ( in/ances 9 :i* !y h be5 f\nd toge!r1 b by ! excess ( t numb] above ! numb] due to ! absolute frequ5cy ( ,a4 ,if1 = example1 ,a exi/s always1 & !re=e coexi/s ) ev]y?+1 no numb] ( in/ances ( its coexi/5ce ) ,b w\ld prove a connexion2 z 9 our example ( ! fix$ />s4 ,if ,a be a fact ( su* common occurr5ce t x may be presum$ to be pres5t 9 half ( all ! cases t occur1 & !re=e 9 half ! cases 9 :i* ,b occurs1 x is only ! proportional excess above half1 t is to be reckon$ z evid5ce t[>ds prov+ a connexion betwe5 ,a & ,b4 ,9 addition to ! "q1 ,:at is ! numb] ( co9cid5ces :i*1 on an av]age ( a great multitude ( trials1 may be expect$ to arise f *ance alone8 !re is also ano!r "q1 namely1 ,( :at ext5t ( deviation f t av]age is ! occurr5ce cr$ible1 f *ance alone1 9 "s numb] ( in/ances small] ?an t requir$ = /rik+ a fair av]age8 ,x is n only to be consid]$ :at is ! g5]al result ( ! *ances 9 ! long run1 b also :at are ! extreme limits ( v>iation f ! g5]al result1 :i* may occasionally be expect$ z ! result ( "s small] numb] ( in/ances4 ,! consid]ation ( ! latt] "q1 & any consid]ation ( ! =m] beyond t already giv5 to x1 belong to :at ma!maticians t]m ! doctr9e ( *ances1 or1 9 a phrase ( great] pret5sion1 ! ,!ory ( ,probabilities4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,( ,,! ,,calculation ,,( ,,*ances4 #a4 ,probability1 says ,laplace1#ag has ref]5ce p>tly to our ignorance1 p>tly to our k4 ,we "k t among ?ree or m ev5ts1 "o1 & only "o1 mu/ happ52 b !re is no?+ lead+ u to believe t any "o ( !m w happ5 r ?an ! o!rs4 ,9 ?is /ate ( indecision1 x is impossible = u to pron\nce ) c]ta9ty on _! occurr5ce4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 probable t any "o ( ^! ev5ts1 select$ at pleasure1 w n take place2 because we p]ceive sev]al cases1 all equally possible1 :i* exclude its occurr5ce1 & only "o :i* fav\rs x4 ,! !ory ( *ances consi/s 9 r$uc+ all ev5ts ( ! same k9d to a c]ta9 numb] ( cases equally possible1 t is1 su* t we are equally undecid$ z to _! exi/5ce2 & 9 det]m9+ ! numb] ( ^! cases :i* are fav\rable to ! ev5t ( :i* ! probability is s\ght4 ,! ratio ( t numb] to ! numb] ( all ! possible cases1 is ! measure ( ! probability2 :i* is ?us a fraction1 hav+ = its num]ator ! numb] ( cases fav\rable to ! ev5t1 & = its d5om9ator ! numb] ( all ! cases :i* are possible4 ,to a calculation ( *ances1 !n1 accord+ to ,laplace1 two ?+s are necess>y3 we mu/ "k t ( sev]al ev5ts "s "o w c]ta9ly happ51 & no m ?an "o2 & we mu/ n "k1 nor h any reason to expect1 t x w be "o ( ^! ev5ts r ?an ano!r4 ,x has be5 cont5d$ t ^! are n ! only requisites1 & t ,laplace has ov]look$1 9 ! g5]al !oretical /atem5t1 a necess>y "p ( ! f\ndation ( ! doctr9e ( *ances4 ,to be able 7x has be5 said7 to pron\nce two ev5ts equally probable1 x is n en\gh t we %\ld "k t "o or ! o!r mu/ happ51 & %\ld h no gr\nds = conjectur+ :i*4 ,exp]i5ce mu/ h %[n t ! two ev5ts are ( equally frequ5t occurr5ce4 ,:y1 9 toss+ up a halfp5ny1 d we reckon x equally probable t we %all ?r[ cross or pile8 ,because we "k t 9 any great numb] ( ?r[s1 cross & pile are ?r[n ab\t equally (t52 & t ! m ?r[s we make1 ! m ne>ly ! equality is p]fect4 ,we may "k ?is if we please by actual exp]im5t2 or by ! daily exp]i5ce :i* life af=ds ( ev5ts ( ! same g5]al "*2 or d$uctively1 f ! effect ( me*anical laws on a symmetrical body act$ ^u by =ces v>y+ indef9itely 9 quantity & direction4 ,we may "k x1 9 %ort1 ei!r by specific exp]i5ce1 or on ! evid5ce ( our g5]al k ( nature4 ,b1 9 "o way or ! o!r1 we mu/ "k x1 to ju/ify u 9 call+ ! two ev5ts equally probable2 & if we knew x n1 we %\ld proce$ z mu* at haphaz>d 9 /ak+ equal sums on ! result1 z 9 lay+ odds4 ,?is view ( ! subject 0 tak5 9 ! fir/ edition ( ! pres5t "w3 b ,i h s9ce become conv9c$1 t ! !ory ( *ances1 z conceiv$ by ,laplace & by ma!maticians g5]ally1 has n ! fundam5tal fallacy :i* ,i _h ascrib$ to x4 ,we mu/ rememb] t ! probability ( an ev5t is n a quality ( ! ev5t itself1 b a m]e "n = ! degree ( gr\nd :i* we1 or "s "o else1 h = expect+ x4 ,! probability ( an ev5t to "o p]son is a diff]5t ?+ f ! probability ( ! same ev5t to ano!r1 or to ! same p]son aft] he has acquir$ additional evid5ce4 ,! probability to me1 t an individual ( :om ,i "k no?+ b 8 "n1 w die )9 ! ye>1 is totally alt]$ by my be+ told1 ! next m9ute1 t he is 9 ! la/ /age ( a consumption4 ,yet ?is makes no diff]5ce 9 ! ev5t itself1 nor 9 any ( ! causes on :i* x dep5ds4 ,e ev5t is 9 itself c]ta91 n probable3 if we knew all1 we %\ld ei!r "k positively t x w happ51 or positively t x w n4 ,b its probability to u means ! degree ( expectation ( its occurr5ce1 :i* we are w>rant$ 9 ent]ta9+ by our pres5t evid5ce4 ,be>+ ?is 9 m9d1 ,i ?9k x mu/ be admitt$1 t ev5 :5 we h no k :atev] to guide our expectations1 except ! k t :at happ5s mu/ be "s "o ( a c]ta9 numb] ( possibilities1 we may /ill reasonably judge1 t "o supposition is m probable to u ?an ano!r supposition2 & if we h any int]e/ at /ake1 we %all be/ provide = x by act+ con=mably to t judgm5t4 #b4 ,suppose t we are requir$ to take a ball f a box1 ( :i* we only "k t x conta9s balls bo? black & :ite1 & none ( any o!r col\r4 ,we "k t ! ball we select w be ei!r a black or a :ite ball2 b we h no gr\nd = expect+ black r ?an :ite1 or :ite r ?an black4 ,9 t case1 if we are oblig$ to make a *oice1 & to /ake some?+ on "o or ! o!r supposition1 x w1 z a "q ( prud5ce1 be p]fectly indiff]5t :i*2 & we %all act precisely z we %\ld h act$ if we _h kn[n be=eh& t ! box conta9$ an equal numb] ( black & :ite balls4 ,b ?\gh our conduct w\ld be ! same1 x w\ld n be f\nd$ on any surmise t ! balls 7 9 fact ?us equally divid$2 = we might1 on ! contr>y1 "k1 by au!ntic in=mation1 t ! box conta9$ n9ety-n9e balls ( "o col\r1 & only "o ( ! o!r2 /ill1 if we are n told :i* col\r has only "o1 & :i* has n9ety-n9e1 ! draw+ ( a :ite & ( a black ball w be equally probable to u2 we %all h no reason = /ak+ any?+ on ! "o ev5t r ?an on ! o!r2 ! option betwe5 ! two w be a matt] ( indiff]5ce2 9 o!r words x w be an ev5 *ance4 ,b let x n[ be suppos$ t in/ead ( two !re are ?ree col\rs--:ite1 black1 & r$2 & t we are entirely ignorant ( ! proportion 9 :i* !y are m+l$4 ,we %\ld !n h no reason = expect+ "o m ?an ano!r1 & if oblig$ to bet1 %\ld v5ture our /ake on r$1 :ite1 or black1 ) equal indiff]5ce4 ,b %\ld we be indiff]5t :e!r we bett$ = or aga9/ "s "o col\r1 z1 = in/ance1 :ite8 ,surely n4 ,f ! v fact t black & r$ are ea* ( !m sep>ately equally probable to u ) :ite1 ! two toge!r mu/ be twice z probable4 ,we %\ld 9 ?is case expect n-:ite r ?an :ite1 & s mu* r1 t we w\ld lay two to "o ^u x4 ,x is true1 !re might = aught we knew be m :ite balls ?an black & r$ toge!r2 & if s1 our bet w\ld1 if we knew m1 be se5 to be a disadvantage\s "o4 ,b s also1 = aught we knew1 might !re be m r$ balls ?an black & :ite1 or m black balls ?an :ite & r$1 & 9 su* case ! effect ( additional k w\ld be to prove to u t our bet 0 m advantage\s ?an we _h suppos$ x to be4 ,!re is 9 ! exi/+ /ate ( our k a rational probability ( two to "o aga9/ :ite2 a probability fit to be made a basis ( conduct4 ,no reasonable p]son w\ld lay an ev5 wag] 9 fav\r ( :ite1 aga9/ black & r$2 ?\gh aga9/ black alone1 or r$ alone1 he might d s )\t imprud5ce4 ,! common !ory1 !re=e1 ( ! calculation ( *ances1 appe>s to be t5able4 ,ev5 :5 we "k no?+ except ! numb] ( ! possible & mutually exclud+ cont+5cies1 & are entirely ignorant ( _! comp>ative frequ5cy1 we may h gr\nds1 & gr\nds num]ically appreciable1 = act+ on "o supposition r ?an on ano!r2 & ?is is ! mean+ ( ,probability4 #c4 ,! pr9ciple1 h[ev]1 on :i* ! reason+ proce$s1 is suffici5tly evid5t4 ,x is ! obvi\s "o1 t :5 ! cases :i* exi/ are %>$ among sev]al k9ds1 x is impossible t ea* ( ^? k9ds %\ld be a majority ( ! :ole3 on ! contr>y1 !re mu/ be a majority aga9/ ea* k9d1 except "o at mo/2 & if any k9d has m ?an its %>e 9 proportion to ! total numb]1 ! o!rs collectively mu/ h less4 ,grant+ ?is axiom1 & assum+ t we h no gr\nd = select+ any "o k9d z m likely ?an ! re/ to surpass ! av]age proportion1 x foll[s t we _c rationally presume ?is ( any2 :i* we %\ld d1 if we 7 to bet 9 fav\r ( x1 receiv+ less odds ?an 9 ! ratio ( ! numb] ( ! o!r k9ds4 ,ev51 !re=e1 9 ?is extreme case ( ! calculation ( probabilities1 :i* does n re/ on special exp]i5ce at all1 ! logical gr\nd ( ! process is our k1 su* k z we !n h1 ( ! laws gov]n+ ! frequ5cy ( occurr5ce ( ! diff]5t cases2 b 9 ?is case ! k is limit$ to t :i*1 be+ univ]sal & axiomatic1 does n require ref]5ce to specific exp]i5ce1 or to any consid]ations aris+ out ( ! special nature ( ! problem "u discussion4 ,except1 h[ev]1 9 su* cases z games ( *ance1 :]e ! v purpose 9 view requires ignorance in/ead ( k1 ,i c conceive no case 9 :i* we ought to be satisfi$ ) su* an e/imate ( *ances z ?is2 an e/imate f\nd$ on ! absolute m9imum ( k respect+ ! subject4 ,x is pla9 t1 9 ! case ( ! col\r$ balls1 a v slight gr\nd ( surmise t ! :ite balls 7 really m num]\s ?an ei!r ( ! o!r col\rs1 w\ld suffice to vitiate ! :ole ( ! calculations made 9 our previ\s /ate ( indiff]5ce4 ,x w\ld place u 9 t position ( m advanc$ k1 9 :i* ! probabilities1 to u1 w\ld be diff]5t f :at !y 7 be=e2 & 9 e/imat+ ^! new probabilities we %\ld h to proce$ on a totally diff]5t set ( data1 furni%$ no long] by m]e c\nt+ ( possible suppositions1 b by specific k ( facts4 ,su* data x %\ld always be our endeav\r to obta92 & 9 all inquiries1 unless on subjects equally beyond ! range ( our means ( k & our practical uses1 !y may be obta9$1 if n good1 at lea/ bett] ?an none at all4#ah ,x is obvi\s1 too1 t ev5 :5 ! probabilities are d]iv$ f obs]vation & exp]im5t1 a v slight improvem5t 9 ! data1 by bett] obs]vations1 or by tak+ into full] consid]ation ! special circum/ances ( ! case1 is ( m use ?an ! mo/ elaborate application ( ! calculus to probabilities f\nd$ on ! data 9 _! previ\s /ate ( inf]iority4 ,! neglect ( ?is obvi\s reflection has giv5 rise to misapplications ( ! calculus ( probabilities :i* h made x ! real opprobrium ( ma!matics4 ,x is suffici5t to ref] to ! applications made ( x to ! cr$ibility ( witnesses1 & to ! correctness ( ! v]dicts ( juries4 ,9 reg>d to ! fir/1 common s5se w\ld dictate t x is impossible to /rike a g5]al av]age ( ! v]acity1 & o!r qualifications = true te/imony1 ( mank9d1 or ( any class ( !m2 & ev5 if x 7 possible1 ! employm5t ( x = su* a purpose implies a misappreh5sion ( ! use ( av]ages3 :i* s]ve inde$ to protect ^? ^: int]e/ is at /ake1 aga9/ mi/ak+ ! g5]al result ( l>ge masses ( in/ances1 b are ( extremely small value z gr\nds ( expectation 9 any "o individual in/ance1 unless ! case be "o ( ^? 9 :i* ! great majority ( individual in/ances d n diff] mu* f ! av]age4 ,9 ! case ( a witness1 p]sons ( common s5se w\ld draw _! conclusions f ! degree ( consi/5cy ( 8 /atem5ts1 8 conduct "u cross-exam9ation1 & ! relation ( ! case itself to 8 int]e/s1 8 p>tialities1 & 8 m5tal capacity1 in/ead ( apply+ s rude a /&>d 7ev5 if x 7 capable ( be+ v]ifi$7 z ! ratio betwe5 ! numb] ( true & ! numb] ( errone\s /atem5ts :i* he may be suppos$ to make 9 ! c\rse ( 8 life4 ,aga91 on ! subject ( juries1 or o!r tribunals1 "s ma!maticians h set out f ! proposition t ! judgm5t ( any "o judge1 or juryman1 is1 at lea/ 9 "s small degree1 m likely to be "r ?an wrong1 & h conclud$ t ! *ance ( a numb] ( p]sons concurr+ 9 a wrong v]dict is dim9i%$1 ! m ! numb] is increas$2 s t if ! judges are only made suffici5tly num]\s1 ! correctness ( ! judgm5t may be r$uc$ almo/ to c]ta9ty4 ,i say no?+ ( ! disreg>d %[n to ! effect produc$ on ! moral position ( ! judges by multiply+ _! numb]s2 ! virtual de/ruction ( _! individual responsibility1 & weak5+ ( ! application ( _! m9ds to ! subject4 ,i rem>k only ! fallacy ( reason+ f a wide av]age1 to cases necess>ily diff]+ greatly f any av]age4 ,x may be true t tak+ all causes "o ) ano!r1 ! op9ion ( any "o ( ! judges w\ld be (t5] "r ?an wrong2 b ! argum5t =gets t 9 all b ! m simple cases1 9 all cases 9 :i* x is really ( mu* consequ5ce :at ! tribunal is1 ! proposition might probably be rev]s$2 besides :i*1 ! cause ( error1 :e!r aris+ f ! intricacy ( ! case or f "s common prejudice or m5tal infirmity1 if x act$ ^u "o judge1 w\ld be extremely likely to affect all ! o!rs 9 ! same mann]1 or at lea/ a majority1 & ?us r5d] a wrong in/ead ( a "r decision m probable1 ! m ! numb] 0 increas$4 ,^! are b samples ( ! errors frequ5tly committ$ by m5 :o1 hav+ made !mselves famili> ) ! difficult =mul :i* algebra af=ds = ! e/imation ( *ances "u suppositions ( a complex "*1 l bett] to employ ^? =mul 9 comput+ :at are ! probabilities to a p]son half in=m$ ab\t a case1 ?an to look out = means ( be+ bett] in=m$4 ,be=e apply+ ! doctr9e ( *ances to any sci5tific purpose1 ! f\ndation mu/ be laid = an evaluation ( ! *ances1 by possess+ ourselves ( ! utmo/ atta9able am\nt ( positive k4 ,! k requir$ is t ( ! comp>ative frequ5cy ) :i* ! diff]5t ev5ts 9 fact occur4 ,= ! purposes1 !re=e1 ( ! pres5t "w1 x is all[able to suppose1 t conclusions respect+ ! probability ( a fact ( a p>ticul> k9d1 re/ on our k ( ! proportion betwe5 ! cases 9 :i* facts ( t k9d occur1 & ^? 9 :i* !y d n occur3 ?is k be+ ei!r d]iv$ f specific exp]im5t1 or d$uc$ f our k ( ! causes 9 op]ation :i* t5d to produce1 comp>$ ) ^? :i* t5d to prev5t1 ! fact 9 "q4 ,su* calculation ( *ances is gr\nd$ on an induction2 & to r5d] ! calculation legitimate1 ! induction mu/ be a valid "o4 ,x is n less an induction1 ?\gh x does n prove t ! ev5t occurs 9 all cases ( a giv5 description1 b only t out ( a giv5 numb] ( su* cases1 x occurs 9 ab\t s _m4 ,! fraction :i* ma!maticians use to designate ! probability ( an ev5t1 is ! ratio ( ^! two numb]s2 ! asc]ta9$ proportion betwe5 ! numb] ( cases 9 :i* ! ev5t occurs1 & ! sum ( all ! cases1 ^? 9 :i* x occurs & 9 :i* x does n occur tak5 toge!r4 ,9 play+ at cross & pile1 ! description ( cases conc]n$ are ?r[s1 & ! probability ( cross is "o-half1 because if we ?r[ (t5 en\gh1 cross is ?r[n ab\t once 9 e two ?r[s4 ,9 ! ca/ ( a die1 ! probability ( ace is "o-six?2 n simply because !re are six possible ?r[s1 ( :i* ace is "o1 & because we d n "k any reason :y "o %\ld turn up r ?an ano!r2 ?\gh ,i h admitt$ ! validity ( ?is gr\nd 9 default ( a bett]2 b because we d actually "k1 ei!r by reason+ or by exp]i5ce1 t 9 a hundr$1 or a million ( ?r[s1 ace is ?r[n ab\t "o-six? ( t numb]1 or once 9 six times4 #d4 ,i say1 ei!r by reason+ or by exp]i5ce2 mean+ specific exp]i5ce4 ,b 9 e/imat+ probabilities1 x is n a matt] ( indiff]5ce f :i* ( ^! two s\rces we d]ive our assurance4 ,! probability ( ev5ts z calculat$ f _! m]e frequ5cy 9 pa/ exp]i5ce1 af=ds a less secure basis = practical guidance1 ?an _! probability z d$uc$ f an equally accurate k ( ! frequ5cy ( occurr5ce ( _! causes4 ,! g5]alization1 t an ev5t occurs 9 t5 out ( e hundr$ cases ( a giv5 description1 is z real an induction z if ! g5]alization 7 t x occurs 9 all cases4 ,b :5 we arrive at ! conclusion by m]ely c\nt+ in/ances 9 actual exp]i5ce1 & comp>+ ! numb] ( cases 9 :i* ,a has be5 pres5t ) ! numb] 9 :i* x has be5 abs5t1 ! evid5ce is only t ( ! me?od ( ,agreem5t1 & ! conclusion am\nts only to an empirical law4 ,we c make a /ep beyond ?is :5 we c asc5d to ! causes on :i* ! occurr5ce ( ,a or its non-occurr5ce w dep5d1 & =m an e/imate ( ! comp>ative frequ5cy ( ! causes fav\rable & ( ^? unfav\rable to ! occurr5ce4 ,^! are data ( a high] ord]1 by :i* ! empirical law d]iv$ f a m]e num]ical comp>ison ( affirmative & negative in/ances w be ei!r correct$ or confirm$1 & 9 ei!r case we %all obta9 a m correct measure ( probability ?an is giv5 by t num]ical comp>ison4 ,x has be5 well rem>k$ t 9 ! k9d ( examples by :i* ! doctr9e ( *ances is usually illu/rat$1 t ( balls 9 a box1 ! e/imate ( probabilities is support$ by reasons ( causation1 /rong] ?an specific exp]i5ce4 ,:at is ! reason t 9 a box :]e !re are n9e black balls & "o :ite1 we expect to draw a black ball n9e times z mu* 79 o!r words1 n9e times z (t51 frequ5cy be+ ! gauge ( int5sity 9 expectation7 z a :ite8 ,obvi\sly because ! local conditions are n9e times z fav\rable1 because ! h& may alight 9 n9e places & get a black ball1 :ile x c only alight 9 "o place & f9d a :ite ball2 j = ! same reason t we d n expect to succe$ 9 f9d+ a fri5d 9 a cr[d1 ! conditions 9 ord] t we & he %\ld come toge!r be+ _m & difficult4 ,?is ( c\rse w\ld n hold to ! same ext5t 7 ! :ite balls ( small] size ?an ! black1 nei!r w\ld ! probability rema9 ! same3 ! l>g] ball w\ld be mu* m likely to meet ! h&4#ai ,x is1 9 fact1 evid5t1 t :5 once causation is admitt$ z an univ]sal law1 our expectation ( ev5ts c only be rationally gr\nd$ on t law4 ,to a p]son :o recognises t e ev5t dep5ds on causes1 a ?+'s hav+ happ5$ once is a reason = expect+ x to happ5 aga91 only because prov+ t !re exi/s1 or is liable to exi/1 a cause adequate to produce x4#bj ,! frequ5cy ( ! p>ticul> ev5t1 ap>t f all surmise respect+ its cause1 c give rise to no o!r induction ?an t p] enum]ationem simplicem2 & ! prec>i\s inf]5ces d]iv$ f ?is1 are sup]s$$1 & disappe> f ! field1 z soon z ! pr9ciple ( causation makes its appe>ance !re4 ,not)/&+1 h[ev]1 ! ab/ract sup]iority ( an e/imate ( probability gr\nd$ on causes1 x is a fact t 9 almo/ all cases 9 :i* *ances admit ( e/imation suffici5tly precise to r5d] _! num]ical appreciation ( any practical value1 ! num]ical data are n drawn f k ( ! causes1 b f exp]i5ce ( ! ev5ts !mselves4 ,! probabilities ( life at diff]5t ages1 or 9 diff]5t climates2 ! probabilities ( recov]y f a p>ticul> disease2 ! *ances ( ! bir? ( male or female (fspr+2 ! *ances ( ! de/ruction ( h\ses or o!r prop]ty by fire2 ! *ances ( ! loss ( a %ip 9 a p>ticul> voyage2 are d$uc$ f bills ( mortality1 returns f hospitals1 regi/]s ( bir?s1 ( %ipwrecks1 c41 t is1 f ! obs]v$ frequ5cy n ( ! causes1 b ( ! effects4 ,! reason is1 t 9 all ^! classes ( facts1 ! causes are ei!r n am5able to direct obs]vation at all1 or n ) ! requisite precision1 & we h no means ( judg+ ( _! frequ5cy except f ! empirical law af=d$ by ! frequ5cy ( ! effects4 ,! inf]5ce does n ! less dep5d on causation alone4 ,we reason f an effect to a simil> effect by pass+ ?r\gh ! cause4 ,if ! actu>y ( an insurance (fice inf]s f 8 tables t among a hundr$ p]sons n[ liv+1 ( a p>ticul> age1 five on ! av]age w atta9 ! age ( sev5ty1 8 inf]5ce is legitimate1 n = ! simple reason t ?is is ! proportion :o h liv$ till sev5ty 9 times pa/1 b because ! fact ( _! hav+ s liv$ %[s t ?is is ! proportion exi/+1 at t place & "t1 betwe5 ! causes :i* prolong life to ! age ( sev5ty1 & ^? t5d+ to br+ x to an e>li] close4#ba #e4 ,f ! prec$+ pr9ciples x is easy to d$uce ! demon/ration ( t !orem ( ! doctr9e ( probabilities1 :i* is ! f\ndation ( its application to inquiries = asc]ta9+ ! occurr5ce ( a giv5 ev5t1 or ! reality ( an individual fact4 ,! signs or evid5ces by :i* a fact is usually prov$1 are "s ( its consequ5ces3 & ! inquiry h+es ^u det]m9+ :at cause is mo/ likely to h produc$ a giv5 effect4 ,! !orem applicable to su* inve/igations is ! ,six? ,pr9ciple 9 ,laplace's ,essai ,philosophique sur les ,probabilits1 :i* is describ$ by him z ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( t bran* ( ! ,analysis ( ,*ances1 :i* consi/s 9 asc5d+ f ev5ts to _! causes4#bb ,giv5 an effect to be acc\nt$ =1 & !re be+ sev]al causes :i* might h produc$ x1 b ( ! pres5ce ( :i* 9 ! p>ticul> case no?+ is kn[n2 ! probability t ! effect 0 produc$ by any "o ( ^! causes is z ! antec$5t probability ( ! cause1 multipli$ by ! probability t ! cause1 if x exi/$1 w\ld h produc$ ! giv5 effect4 ,let ,m be ! effect1 & ,a1 ,b1 two causes1 by ei!r ( :i* x might h be5 produc$4 ,to f9d ! probability t x 0 produc$ by ! "o & n by ! o!r1 asc]ta9 :i* ( ! two is mo/ likely to h exi/$1 & :i* ( !m1 if x did exi/1 0 mo/ likely to produce ! effect ,m3 ! probability s\ght is a comp\nd ( ^! two probabilities4 ,,case ,i4 ,let ! causes be bo? alike 9 ! second respect2 ei!r ,a or ,b1 :5 x exi/s1 be+ suppos$ equally likely 7or equally c]ta97 to produce ,m2 b let ,a be 9 itself twice z likely z ,b to exi/1 t is1 twice z frequ5t a ph5om5on4 ,!n x is twice z likely to h exi/$ 9 ?is case1 & to h be5 ! cause :i* produc$ ,m4 ,=1 s9ce ,a exi/s 9 nature twice z (t5 z ,b2 9 any #cjj cases 9 :i* "o or o!r exi/$1 ,a has exi/$ #bjj times & ,b #ajj4 ,b ei!r ,a or ,b mu/ h exi/$ :]ev] ,m is produc$3 !re=e 9 #cjj times t ,m is produc$1 ,a 0 ! produc+ cause #bjj times1 ,b only #ajj1 t is1 9 ! ratio ( #b to #a4 ,?us1 !n1 if ! causes are alike 9 _! capacity ( produc+ ! effect1 ! probability z to :i* actually produc$ x1 is 9 ! ratio ( _! antec$5t probabilities4 ,,case ,,ii4 ,rev]s+ ! la/ hypo!sis1 let u suppose t ! causes are equally frequ5t1 equally likely to h exi/$1 b n equally likely1 if !y did exi/1 to produce ,m3 t 9 ?ree times 9 :i* ,a occurs1 x produces t effect twice1 :ile ,b1 9 ?ree times1 produces x only once4 ,s9ce ! two causes are equally frequ5t 9 _! occurr5ce2 9 e six times t ei!r "o or ! o!r exi/s1 ,a exi/s ?ree times & ,b ?ree times4 ,a1 ( its ?ree times1 produces ,m 9 two2 ,b1 ( its ?ree times1 produces ,m 9 "o4 ,?us1 9 ! :ole six times1 ,m is only produc$ ?rice2 b ( t ?rice x is produc$ twice by ,a1 once only by ,b4 ,consequ5tly1 :5 ! antec$5t probabilities ( ! causes are equal1 ! *ances t ! effect 0 produc$ by !m are 9 ! ratio ( ! probabilities t if !y did exi/ !y w\ld produce ! effect4 ,,case ,,iii4 ,! ?ird case1 t 9 :i* ! causes are unlike 9 bo? respects1 is solv$ by :at has prec$$4 ,=1 :5 a quantity dep5ds on two o!r quantities1 9 su* a mann] t :ile ei!r ( !m rema9s con/ant x is proportional to ! o!r1 x mu/ necess>ily be proportional to ! product ( ! two quantities1 ! product be+ ! only function ( ! two :i* obeys t law ( v>iation4 ,!re=e1 ! probability t ,m 0 produc$ by ei!r cause1 is z ! antec$5t probability ( ! cause1 multipli$ by ! probability t if x exi/$ x w\ld produce ,m4 ,:i* 0 to be demon/rat$4 ,or we may prove ! ?ird case z we prov$ ! fir/ & second4 ,let ,a be twice z frequ5t z ,b2 & let !m also be unequally likely1 :5 !y exi/1 to produce ,m3 let ,a produce x twice 9 f\r times1 ,b ?rice 9 f\r times4 ,! antec$5t probability ( ,a is to t ( ,b z #b to #a2 ! probabilities ( _! produc+ ,m are z #b to #c2 ! product ( ^! ratios is ! ratio ( #d to #c3 & ?is w be ! ratio ( ! probabilities t ,a or ,b 0 ! produc+ cause 9 ! giv5 in/ance4 ,=1 s9ce ,a is twice z frequ5t z ,b1 out ( twelve cases 9 :i* "o or o!r exi/s1 ,a exi/s 9 #h & ,b 9 #d4 ,b ( its eight cases1 ,a1 by ! supposition1 produces ,m 9 only #d1 :ile ,b ( its f\r cases produces ,m 9 #c4 ,m1 !re=e1 is only produc$ at all 9 sev5 ( ! twelve cases2 b 9 f\r ( ^! x is produc$ by ,a1 9 ?ree by ,b2 h5ce1 ! probabilities ( its be+ produc$ by ,a & by ,b are z #d to #c1 & are express$ by ! fractions #d_/g & #c_/g4 ,:i* 0 to be demon/rat$4 #f4 ,x rema9s to exam9e ! be>+ ( ! doctr9e ( *ances on ! peculi> problem :i* occupi$ u 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 namely1 h[ to di/+ui% co9cid5ces :i* are casual f ^? :i* are ! result ( law2 f ^? 9 :i* ! facts :i* accompany or foll[ "o ano!r are someh[ connect$ ?r\gh causation4 ,! doctr9e ( *ances af=ds means by :i*1 if we knew ! av]age numb] ( co9cid5ces to be look$ = betwe5 two ph5om5a connect$ only casually1 we c\ld det]m9e h[ (t5 any giv5 deviation f t av]age w occur by *ance4 ,if ! probability ( any casual co9cid5ce1 consid]$ 9 itself1 be #a_/m1 ! probability t ! same co9cid5ce w be repeat$ n times 9 succession is #a_/mn4 ,= example1 9 "o ?r[ ( a die ! probability ( ace be+ #a_/f2 ! probability ( ?r[+ ace twice 9 succession w be #a divid$ by ! squ>e ( #f1 or #a_/cf4 ,= ace is ?r[n at ! fir/ ?r[ once 9 six1 or six 9 ?irty-six times1 & ( ^? six1 ! die be+ ca/ aga91 ace w be ?r[n b once2 be+ altoge!r once 9 ?irty-six times4 ,! *ance ( ! same ca/ ?ree times successively is1 by a simil> reason+1 #a_/fc or #a_/baf3 t is1 ! ev5t w happ51 on a l>ge av]age1 only once 9 two hundr$ & sixte5 ?r[s4 ,we h ?us a rule by :i* to e/imate ! probability t any giv5 s]ies ( co9cid5ces arises f *ance2 provid$ we c measure correctly ! probability ( a s+le co9cid5ce4 ,if we c obta9 an equally precise expression = ! probability t ! same s]ies ( co9cid5ces arises f causation1 we %\ld only h to comp>e ! numb]s4 ,?is h[ev]1 c r>ely be done4 ,let u see :at degree ( approximation c practically be made to ! necess>y precision4 ,! "q falls )9 ,laplace's six? pr9ciple1 j demon/rat$4 ,! giv5 fact1 t is to say1 ! s]ies ( co9cid5ces1 may h orig9at$ ei!r 9 a casual conjunction ( causes1 or 9 a law ( nature4 ,! probabilities1 !re=e1 t ! fact orig9at$ 9 ^! two modes1 are z _! antec$5t probabilities1 multipli$ by ! probabilities t if !y exi/$ !y w\ld produce ! effect4 ,b ! p>ticul> comb9ation ( *ances1 if x occurr$1 or ! law ( nature if real1 w\ld c]ta9ly produce ! s]ies ( co9cid5ces4 ,! probabilities1 !re=e1 t ! co9cid5ces are produc$ by ! two causes 9 "q1 are z ! antec$5t probabilities ( ! causes4 ,"o ( ^!1 ! antec$5t probability ( ! comb9ation ( m]e *ances :i* w\ld produce ! giv5 result1 is an appreciable quantity4 ,! antec$5t probability ( ! o!r supposition may be susceptible ( a m or less exact e/imation1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! case4 ,9 "s cases1 ! co9cid5ce1 suppos+ x to be ! result ( causation at all1 mu/ be ! result ( a kn[n cause3 z ! succession ( aces1 if n accid5tal1 mu/ arise f ! load+ ( ! die4 ,9 su* cases we may be able to =m a conjecture z to ! antec$5t probability ( su* a circum/ance1 f ! *>act]s ( ! p>ties conc]n$1 or o!r su* evid5ce2 b x w\ld be impossible to e/imate t probability ) any?+ l num]ical precision4 ,! c\nt]-probability1 h[ev]1 t ( ! accid5tal orig9 ( ! co9cid5ce1 dw9dl+ s rapidly z x does at ea* new trial2 ! /age is soon rea*$ at :i* ! *ance ( unfairness 9 ! die1 h[ev] small 9 itself1 mu/ be great] ?an t ( a casual co9cid5ce3 & on ?is gr\nd1 a practical decision c g5]ally be come to )\t mu* hesitation1 if !re be ! p[] ( repeat+ ! exp]im5t4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! co9cid5ce is "o :i* _c be acc\nt$ = by any kn[n cause1 & ! connexion betwe5 ! two ph5om5a1 if produc$ by causation1 mu/ be ! result ( "s law ( nature hi!rto unkn[n2 :i* is ! case we _h 9 view 9 ! la/ *apt]2 !n1 ?\gh ! probability ( a casual co9cid5ce may be capable ( appreciation1 t ( ! c\nt]-supposition1 ! exi/5ce ( an undiscov]$ law ( nature1 is cle>ly unsusceptible ( ev5 an approximate valuation4 ,9 ord] to h ! data :i* su* a case w\ld require1 x w\ld be necess>y to "k :at proportion ( all ! individual sequ5ces or coexi/5ces occurr+ 9 nature are ! result ( law1 & :at proportion are m]e casual co9cid5ces4 ,x be+ evid5t t we _c =m any plausible conjecture z to ?is proportion1 mu* less appreciate x num]ically1 we _c attempt any precise e/imation ( ! comp>ative probabilities4 ,b ( ?is we are sure1 t ! detection ( an unkn[n law ( nature--( "s previ\sly unrecognis$ con/ancy ( conjunction among ph5om5a--is no uncommon ev5t4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! numb] ( in/ances 9 :i* a co9cid5ce is obs]v$1 ov] & above t :i* w\ld arise on ! av]age f ! m]e concurr5ce ( *ances1 be su* t s great an am\nt ( co9cid5ces f accid5t alone w\ld be an extremely uncommon ev5t2 we h reason to conclude t ! co9cid5ce is ! effect ( causation1 & may be receiv$ 7subject to correction f fur!r exp]i5ce7 z an empirical law4 ,fur!r ?an ?is1 9 po9t ( precision1 we _c g2 nor1 9 mo/ cases1 is great] precision requir$1 = ! solution ( any practical d\bt4#bc ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,( ,,! ,,ext5sion ,,( ,,d]ivative ,,laws ,,to ,,adjac5t ,,cases4 #a4 ,we h _h frequ5t occasion to notice ! inf]ior g5]ality ( d]ivative laws1 comp>$ ) ! ultimate laws f :i* !y are d]iv$4 ,?is inf]iority1 :i* affects n only ! ext5t ( ! propositions !mselves1 b _! degree ( c]ta9ty )9 t ext5t1 is mo/ conspicu\s 9 ! uni=mities ( coexi/5ce & sequ5ce obta9+ betwe5 effects :i* dep5d ultimately on diff]5t primeval causes4 ,su* uni=mities w only obta9 :]e !re exi/s ! same collocation ( ^? primeval causes4 ,if ! collocation v>ies1 ?\gh ! laws !mselves rema9 ! same1 a totally diff]5t set ( d]ivative uni=mities may1 & g5]ally w1 be ! result4 ,ev5 :]e ! d]ivative uni=mity is betwe5 diff]5t effects ( ! same cause1 x w by no means obta9 z univ]sally z ! law ( ! cause itself4 ,if a & b accompany or succe$ "o ano!r z effects ( ! cause ,a1 x by no means foll[s t ,a is ! only cause :i* c produce !m1 or t if !re be ano!r cause1 z ,b1 capable ( produc+ a1 x mu/ produce b likewise4 ,! conjunction !re=e ( a & b p]haps does n hold univ]sally1 b only 9 ! in/ances 9 :i* a arises f ,a4 ,:5 x is produc$ by a cause o!r ?an ,a1 a & b may be dissev]$4 ,day 7= example7 is always 9 our exp]i5ce foll[$ by night2 b day is n ! cause ( night2 bo? are successive effects ( a common cause1 ! p]iodical passage ( ! spectator into & out ( ! e>?'s %ad[1 consequ5t on ! e>?'s rotation1 & on ! illum9at+ prop]ty ( ! sun4 ,if1 !re=e1 day is ev] produc$ by a diff]5t cause or set ( causes f ?is1 day w n1 or at lea/ may n1 be foll[$ by night4 ,on ! sun's own surface1 = in/ance1 ?is may be ! case4 ,f9ally1 ev5 :5 ! d]ivative uni=mity is itself a law ( causation 7result+ f ! comb9ation ( sev]al causes71 x is n altoge!r indep5d5t ( collocations4 ,if a cause sup]v5es1 capable ( :olly or p>tially c\nt]act+ ! effect ( any "o ( ! conjo9$ causes1 ! effect w no long] con=m to ! d]ivative law4 ,:ile1 !re=e1 ea* ultimate law is only liable to fru/ration f "o set ( c\nt]act+ causes1 ! d]ivative law is liable to x f sev]al4 ,n[1 ! possibility ( ! occurr5ce ( c\nt]act+ causes :i* d n arise f any ( ! conditions involv$ 9 ! law itself1 dep5ds on ! orig9al collocations4 ,x is true t 7z we =m]ly rem>k$7 laws ( causation1 :e!r ultimate or d]ivative1 are1 9 mo/ cases1 fulfill$ ev5 :5 c\nt]act$2 ! cause produces its effect1 ?\gh t effect is de/roy$ by some?+ else4 ,t ! effect may be fru/rat$1 is1 !re=e1 no objection to ! univ]sality ( laws ( causation4 ,b x is fatal to ! univ]sality ( ! sequ5ces or coexi/5ces ( effects1 :i* compose ! great] "p ( ! d]ivative laws fl[+ f laws ( causation4 ,:51 f ! law ( a c]ta9 comb9ation ( causes1 !re results a c]ta9 ord] 9 ! effects2 z f ! comb9ation ( a s+le sun ) ! rotation ( an opaque body r\nd its axis1 !re results1 on ! :ole surface ( t opaque body1 an alt]nation ( day & night2 !n if we suppose "o ( ! comb9$ causes c\nt]act$1 ! rotation /opp$1 ! sun ext+ui%$1 or a second sun sup]add$1 ! tru? ( t p>ticul> law ( causation is 9 no way affect$2 x is /ill true t "o sun %9+ on an opaque revolv+ body w alt]nately produce day & night2 b s9ce ! sun no long] does %9e on su* a body1 ! d]ivative uni=mity1 ! succession ( day & night on ! giv5 planet1 is no long] true4 ,^? d]ivative uni=mities1 !re=e1 :i* are n laws ( causation1 are 7except 9 ! r>e case ( _! dep5d+ on "o cause alone1 n on a comb9ation ( causes17 always m or less cont+5t on collocations2 & are h5ce subject to ! *>act]i/ic infirmity ( empirical laws1 t ( be+ admissible only :]e ! collocations are kn[n by exp]i5ce to be su* z are requisite = ! tru? ( ! law1 t is1 only )9 ! conditions ( "t & place confirm$ by actual obs]vation4 #b4 ,?is pr9ciple1 :5 /at$ 9 g5]al t]ms1 seems cle> & indisputable2 yet _m ( ! ord9>y judgm5ts ( mank9d1 ! propriety ( :i* is n que/ion$1 h at lea/ ! semblance ( be+ inconsi/5t ) x4 ,on :at gr\nds1 x may be ask$1 d we expect t ! sun w rise to-morr[8 ,to-morr[ is beyond ! limits ( "t compreh5d$ 9 our obs]vations4 ,!y h ext5d$ ov] "s ?\s&s ( ye>s pa/1 b !y d n include ! future4 ,yet we inf] ) confid5ce t ! sun w rise to-morr[2 & nobody d\bts t we are entitl$ to d s4 ,let u consid] :at is ! w>rant = ?is confid5ce4 ,9 ! example 9 "q1 we "k ! causes on :i* ! d]ivative uni=mity dep5ds4 ,!y are1 ! sun giv+ out light1 ! e>? 9 a /ate ( rotation & int]cept+ light4 ,! induction :i* %[s ^! to be ! real causes1 & n m]ely prior effects ( a common cause1 be+ complete2 ! only circum/ances :i* c\ld defeat ! d]ivative law are su* z w\ld de/roy or c\nt]act "o or o!r ( ! comb9$ causes4 ,:ile ! causes exi/1 & are n c\nt]act$1 ! effect w cont9ue4 ,if !y exi/ & are n c\nt]act$ to-morr[1 ! sun w rise to-morr[4 ,s9ce ! causes1 namely ! sun & ! e>?1 ! "o 9 ! /ate ( giv+ out light1 ! o!r 9 a /ate ( rotation1 w exi/ until some?+ de/roys !m2 all dep5ds on ! probabilities ( _! de/ruction1 or ( _! c\nt]action4 ,we "k by obs]vation 7omitt+ ! inf]5tial pro(s ( an exi/5ce = ?\s&s ( ages ant]ior71 t ^! ph5om5a h cont9u$ = 7say7 five ?\s& ye>s4 ,)9 t "t !re has exi/$ no cause suffici5t to dim9i% !m appreciably2 nor :i* has c\nt]act$ _! effect 9 any appreciable degree4 ,! *ance1 !re=e1 t ! sun may n rise to-morr[1 am\nts to ! *ance t "s cause1 :i* has n manife/$ itself 9 ! smalle/ degree dur+ five ?\s& ye>s1 w exi/ to-morr[ 9 su* int5sity z to de/roy ! sun or ! e>?1 ! sun's light or ! e>?'s rotation1 or to produce an imm5se di/urbance 9 ! effect result+ f ^? causes4 ,n[1 if su* a cause w exi/ to-morr[1 or at any future "t1 "s cause1 proximate or remote1 ( t cause mu/ exi/ n[1 & mu/ h exi/$ dur+ ! :ole ( ! five ?\s& ye>s4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! sun d n rise to-morr[1 x w be because "s cause has exi/$1 ! effects ( :i* ?\gh dur+ five ?\s& ye>s !y h n am\nt$ to a p]ceptible quantity1 w 9 "o day become ov]:elm+4 ,s9ce ?is cause has n be5 recognis$ dur+ su* an int]val ( "t1 by obs]v]s /ation$ on our e>?1 x mu/1 if x exi/1 be ei!r "s ag5t ^: effects develop !mselves gradually & v sl[ly1 or "o :i* exi/$ 9 regions beyond our obs]vation1 & is n[ on ! po9t ( arriv+ 9 our "p ( ! univ]se4 ,n[ all causes :i* we h exp]i5ce (1 act accord+ to laws incompatible ) ! supposition t _! effects1 aft] accumulat+ s sl[ly z to be imp]ceptible = five ?\s& ye>s1 %\ld />t into imm5sity 9 a s+le day4 ,no ma!matical law ( proportion betwe5 an effect & ! quantity or relations ( its cause1 c\ld produce su* contradictory results4 ,! sudd5 developm5t ( an effect ( :i* !re 0 no previ\s trace1 always arises f ! com+ toge!r ( sev]al di/9ct causes1 n previ\sly conjo9$2 b if su* sudd5 conjunction is de/9$ to take place1 ! causes1 or _! causes1 mu/ h exi/$ dur+ ! entire five ?\s& ye>s2 & _! n hav+ once come toge!r dur+ t p]iod1 %[s h[ r>e t p>ticul> comb9ation is4 ,we h1 !re=e1 ! w>rant ( a rigid induction = consid]+ x probable1 9 a degree undi/+ui%able f c]ta9ty1 t ! kn[n conditions requisite = ! sun's ris+ w exi/ to-morr[4 #c4 ,b ?is ext5sion ( d]ivative laws1 n causative1 beyond ! limits ( obs]vation1 c only be to adjac5t cases4 ,if in/ead ( to-morr[ we _h said ?is day tw5ty ?\s& ye>s1 ! inductions w\ld h be5 any?+ b conclusive4 ,t a cause :i*1 9 opposition to v p[]ful causes1 produc$ no p]ceptible effect dur+ five ?\s& ye>s1 %\ld produce a v consid]able "o by ! end ( tw5ty ?\s&1 has no?+ 9 x :i* is n 9 con=mity ) our exp]i5ce ( causes4 ,we "k _m ag5ts1 ! effect ( :i* 9 a %ort p]iod does n am\nt to a p]ceptible quantity1 b by accumulat+ = a mu* long] p]iod becomes consid]able4 ,besides1 look+ at ! imm5se multitude ( ! heav5ly bodies1 _! va/ di/ances1 & ! rapidity ( ! motion ( su* ( !m z are kn[n to move1 x is a supposition n at all contradictory to exp]i5ce t "s body may be 9 motion t[>ds u1 or we t[>ds x1 )9 ! limits ( ^: influ5ce we h n come dur+ five ?\s& ye>s1 b :i* 9 tw5ty ?\s& m may be produc+ effects ^u u ( ! mo/ extraord9>y k9d4 ,or ! fact :i* is capable ( prev5t+ sunrise may be1 n ! cumulative effect ( "o cause1 b "s new comb9ation ( causes2 & ! *ances fav\rable to t comb9ation1 ?\gh !y h n produc$ x once 9 five ?\s& ye>s1 may produce x once 9 tw5ty ?\s&4 ,s t ! inductions :i* au?orize u to expect future ev5ts1 gr[ weak] & weak] ! fur!r we look into ! future1 & at l5g? become inappreciable4 ,we h consid]$ ! probabilities ( ! sun's ris+ to-morr[1 z d]iv$ f ! real laws1 t is1 f ! laws ( ! causes on :i* t uni=mity is dep5d5t4 ,let u n[ consid] h[ ! matt] w\ld h /ood if ! uni=mity _h be5 kn[n only z an empirical law2 if we _h n be5 aw>e t ! sun's light1 & ! e>?'s rotation 7or ! sun's motion71 7 ! causes on :i* ! p]iodical occurr5ce ( daylight dep5ds4 ,we c\ld h ext5d$ ?is empirical law to cases adjac5t 9 "t1 ?\gh n to s great a di/ance ( "t z we c n[4 ,hav+ evid5ce t ! effects _h rema9$ unalt]$ & be5 punctually conjo9$ = five ?\s& ye>s1 we c\ld inf] t ! unkn[n causes on :i* ! conjunction is dep5d5t _h exi/$ undim9i%$ & unc\nt]act$ dur+ ! same p]iod4 ,! same conclusions1 !re=e1 w\ld foll[ z 9 ! prec$+ case2 except t we %\ld only "k t dur+ five ?\s& ye>s no?+ _h occurr$ to defeat p]ceptibly ?is p>ticul> effect2 :ile1 :5 we "k ! causes1 we h ! additional assurance1 t dur+ t int]val no su* *ange has be5 noticeable 9 ! causes !mselves1 z by any degree ( multiplication or l5g? ( cont9uance c\ld defeat ! effect4 ,to ?is mu/ be add$1 t :5 we "k ! causes1 we may be able to judge :e!r !re exi/s any kn[n cause capable ( c\nt]act+ !m2 :ile z long z !y are unkn[n1 we _c be sure b t if we did "k !m1 we c\ld pr$ict _! de/ruction f causes actually 9 exi/5ce4 ,a b$ridd5 savage1 :o _h nev] se5 ! cat>act ( ,niag>a1 b :o liv$ )9 he>+ ( x1 might imag9e t ! s\nd he he>d w\ld endure = ev]2 b if he knew x to be ! effect ( a ru% ( wat]s ov] a b>ri] ( rock :i* is progressively we>+ away1 he w\ld "k t )9 a numb] ( ages :i* may be calculat$1 x w be he>d no m4 ,9 proportion1 !re=e1 to our ignorance ( ! causes on :i* ! empirical law dep5ds1 we c be less assur$ t x w cont9ue to hold good2 & ! f>!r we look into futurity1 ! less improbable is x t "s "o ( ! causes1 ^: coexi/5ce gives rise to ! d]ivative uni=mity1 may be de/roy$ or c\nt]act$4 ,) e prolongation ( "t1 ! *ances multiply ( su* an ev5t1 t is to say1 its non-occurr5ce hi!rto becomes a less gu>antee ( its n occurr+ )9 ! giv5 "t4 ,if1 !n1 x is only to cases :i* 9 po9t ( "t are adjac5t 7or ne>ly adjac5t7 to ^? :i* we h actually obs]v$1 t any d]ivative law1 n ( causation1 c be ext5d$ ) an assurance equival5t to c]ta9ty1 mu* m is ?is true ( a m]ely empirical law4 ,happily1 = ! purposes ( life x is to su* cases alone t we c almo/ ev] h occasion to ext5d !m4 ,9 respect ( place1 x might seem t a m]ely empirical law c\ld n be ext5d$ ev5 to adjac5t cases2 t we c\ld h no assurance ( its be+ true 9 any place :]e x has n be5 specially obs]v$4 ,! pa/ duration ( a cause is a gu>antee = its future exi/5ce1 unless some?+ occurs to de/roy x2 b ! exi/5ce ( a cause 9 "o or any numb] ( places1 is no gu>antee = its exi/5ce 9 any o!r place1 s9ce !re is no uni=mity 9 ! collocations ( primeval causes4 ,:51 !re=e1 an empirical law is ext5d$ beyond ! local limits )9 :i* x has be5 f\nd true by obs]vation1 ! cases to :i* x is ?us ext5d$ mu/ be su* z are presumably )9 ! influ5ce ( ! same individual ag5ts4 ,if we discov] a new planet )9 ! kn[n b\nds ( ! sol> sy/em 7or ev5 beyond ^? b\nds1 b indicat+ its connexion ) ! sy/em by revolv+ r\nd ! sun71 we may conclude1 ) great probability1 t x revolves on its axis4 ,= all ! kn[n planets d s2 & ?is uni=mity po9ts to "s common cause1 antec$5t to ! fir/ records ( a/ronomical obs]vation3 & ?\gh ! nature ( ?is cause c only be matt] ( conjecture1 yet if x be1 z is n unlikely1 & z ,laplace's !ory supposes1 n m]ely ! same k9d ( cause1 b ! same individual cause 7su* z an impulse giv5 to all ! bodies at once71 t cause1 act+ at ! extreme po9ts ( ! space occupi$ by ! sun & planets1 is likely1 unless defeat$ by "s c\nt]act+ cause1 to h act$ at e int]m$iate po9t1 & probably some:at beyond2 & !re=e act$1 9 all probability1 ^u ! suppos$ newly-discov]$ planet4 ,:51 !re=e1 effects :i* are always f\nd conjo9$1 c be trac$ ) any probability to an id5tical 7& n m]ely a simil>7 orig91 we may ) ! same probability ext5d ! empirical law ( _! conjunction to all places )9 ! extreme local b\nd>ies )9 :i* ! fact has be5 obs]v$2 subject to ! possibility ( c\nt]act+ causes 9 "s portion ( ! field4 ,/ill m confid5tly may we d s :5 ! law is n m]ely empirical2 :5 ! ph5om5a :i* we f9d conjo9$ are effects ( asc]ta9$ causes1 f ! laws ( :i* ! conjunction ( _! effects is d$ucible4 ,9 t case1 we may bo? ext5d ! d]ivative uni=mity ov] a l>g] space1 & ) less abatem5t = ! *ance ( c\nt]act+ causes4 ,! fir/1 because in/ead ( ! local b\nd>ies ( our obs]vation ( ! fact itself1 we may include ! extreme b\nd>ies ( ! asc]ta9$ influ5ce ( its causes4 ,?us ! succession ( day & night1 we "k1 holds true ( all ! bodies ( ! sol> sy/em except ! sun itself2 b we "k ?is only because we are acqua9t$ ) ! causes3 if we 7 n1 we c\ld n ext5d ! proposition beyond ! orbits ( ! e>? & moon1 at bo? extremities ( :i* we h ! evid5ce ( obs]vation = its tru?4 ,) respect to ! probability ( c\nt]act+ causes1 x has be5 se5 t ?is calls = a great] abatem5t ( confid5ce1 9 proportion to our ignorance ( ! causes on :i* ! ph5om5a dep5d4 ,on bo? acc\nts1 !re=e1 a d]ivative law :i* we "k h[ to resolve1 is susceptible ( a great] ext5sion to cases adjac5t 9 place1 ?an a m]ely empirical law4 ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,( ,,analogy4 #a4 ,! ^w ,analogy1 z ! "n ( a mode ( reason+1 is g5]ally tak5 = "s k9d ( argum5t suppos$ to be ( an inductive nature1 b n am\nt+ to a complete induction4 ,!re is no ^w1 h[ev]1 :i* is us$ m loosely1 or 9 a great] v>iety ( s5ses1 ?an ,analogy4 ,x sometimes /&s = argum5ts :i* may be examples ( ! mo/ rigor\s ,induction4 ,ar*bi%op ,:ately1 = in/ance1 foll[+ ,f]guson & o!r writ]s1 def9es ,analogy con=mably to its primitive acceptation1 t :i* 0 giv5 to x by ma!maticians1 ,resemblance ( ,relations4 ,9 ?is s5se1 :5 a c\ntry :i* has s5t out colonies is t]m$ ! "m c\ntry1 ! expression is analogical1 signify+ t ! colonies ( a c\ntry /& 9 ! same relation to h] 9 :i* *ildr5 /& to _! p>5ts4 ,& if any inf]5ce be drawn f ?is resemblance ( relations1 z1 = in/ance1 t ob$i5ce or affection is due f colonies to ! "m c\ntry1 ?is is call$ reason+ by analogy4 ,or if x be argu$ t a nation is mo/ b5eficially gov]n$ by an assembly elect$ by ! p1 f ! admitt$ fact t o!r associations = a common purpose1 su* z jo9t-/ock companies1 are be/ manag$ by a committee *os5 by ! p>ties int]e/$2 ?is1 too1 is an argum5t f analogy 9 ! prec$+ s5se1 because its f\ndation is1 n t a nation is l a jo9t /ock company1 or ,p>liam5t l a bo>d ( directors1 b t ,p>liam5t /&s 9 ! same relation to ! nation 9 :i* a bo>d ( directors /&s to a jo9t /ock company4 ,n[1 9 an argum5t ( ?is nature1 !re is no inh]5t inf]iority ( conclusiv5ess4 ,l o!r argum5ts f resemblance1 x may am\nt to no?+1 or x may be a p]fect & conclusive induction4 ,! circum/ance 9 :i* ! two cases resemble1 may be capable ( be+ %[n to be ! mat]ial circum/ance2 to be t on :i* all ! consequ5ces1 necess>y to be tak5 into acc\nt 9 ! p>ticul> discussion1 dep5d4 ,9 ! example la/ giv51 ! resemblance is "o ( relation2 ! fundam5tum relationis be+ ! managem5t by a few p]sons1 ( affairs 9 :i* a mu* great] numb] are int]e/$ along ) !m4 ,n[1 "s may cont5d t ?is circum/ance :i* is common to ! two cases1 & ! v>i\s consequ5ces :i* foll[ f x1 h ! *ief %>e 9 det]m9+ all ! effects :i* make up :at we t]m good or bad adm9i/ration4 ,if !y c e/abli% ?is1 _! argum5t has ! =ce ( a rigor\s induction2 if !y _c1 !y are said to h fail$ 9 prov+ ! analogy betwe5 ! two cases2 a mode ( spee* :i* implies t :5 ! analogy c be prov$1 ! argum5t f\nd$ on x _c be resi/$4 #b4 ,x is on ! :ole m usual1 h[ev]1 to ext5d ! "n ( analogical evid5ce to argum5ts f any sort ( resemblance1 provid$ !y d n am\nt to a complete induction3 )\t peculi>ly di/+ui%+ resemblance ( relations4 ,analogical reason+1 9 ?is s5se1 may be r$uc$ to ! foll[+ =mula3--,two ?+s resemble ea* o!r 9 "o or m respects2 a c]ta9 proposition is true ( ! "o2 !re=e x is true ( ! o!r4 ,b we h no?+ "h by :i* to discrim9ate analogy f induction1 s9ce ?is type w s]ve = all reason+ f exp]i5ce4 ,9 ! /ricte/ induction1 equally ) ! fa9te/ analogy1 we conclude because ,a resembles ,b 9 "o or m prop]ties1 t x does s 9 a c]ta9 o!r prop]ty4 ,! diff]5ce is1 t 9 ! case ( a complete induction x has be5 previ\sly %[n1 by due comp>ison ( in/ances1 t !re is an inv>iable conjunction betwe5 ! =m] prop]ty or prop]ties & ! latt] prop]ty2 b 9 :at is call$ analogical reason+1 no su* conjunction has be5 made out4 ,!re h be5 no opportunities ( putt+ 9 practice ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 or ev5 ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t2 b we conclude 7& t is all :i* ! argum5t ( analogy am\nts to7 t a fact m1 kn[n to be true ( ,a1 is m likely to be true ( ,b if ,b agrees ) ,a 9 "s ( its prop]ties 7ev5 ?\gh no connexion is kn[n to exi/ betwe5 m & ^? prop]ties71 ?an if no resemblance at all c\ld be trac$ betwe5 ,b & any o!r ?+ kn[n to possess ! attribute m4 ,to ?is argum5t x is ( c\rse requisite1 t ! prop]ties common to ,a ) ,b %all be m]ely n kn[n to be connect$ ) m2 !y mu/ n be prop]ties kn[n to be unconnect$ ) x4 ,if1 ei!r by processes ( elim9ation1 or by d$uction f previ\s k ( ! laws ( ! prop]ties 9 "q1 x c be conclud$ t !y h no?+ to d ) m1 ! argum5t ( analogy is put out ( c\rt4 ,! supposition mu/ be t m is an effect really dep5d5t on "s prop]ty ( ,a1 b we "k n on :i*4 ,we _c po9t out any ( ! prop]ties ( ,a1 :i* is ! cause ( m1 or unit$ ) x by any law4 ,aft] reject+ all :i* we "k to h no?+ to d ) x1 !re rema9 sev]al betwe5 :i* we are unable to decide3 ( :i* rema9+ prop]ties1 ,b possesses "o or m4 ,?is accord+ly1 we consid] z af=d+ gr\nds1 ( m or less /r5g?1 = conclud+ by analogy t ,b possesses ! attribute m4 ,!re c be no d\bt t e su* resemblance :i* c be po9t$ out betwe5 ,b & ,a1 af=ds "s degree ( probability1 beyond :at w\ld o!rwise exi/1 9 fav\r ( ! conclusion drawn f x4 ,if ,b resembl$ ,a 9 all its ultimate prop]ties1 its possess+ ! attribute m w\ld be a c]ta9ty1 n a probability3 & e resemblance :i* c be %[n to exi/ betwe5 !m1 places x by s mu* ! ne>] to t po9t4 ,if ! resemblance be 9 an ultimate prop]ty1 !re w be resemblance 9 all ! d]ivative prop]ties dep5d5t on t ultimate prop]ty1 & ( ^! m may be "o4 ,if ! resemblance be 9 a d]ivative prop]ty1 !re is reason to expect resemblance 9 ! ultimate prop]ty on :i* x dep5ds1 & 9 ! o!r d]ivative prop]ties dep5d5t on ! same ultimate prop]ty4 ,e resemblance :i* c be %[n to exi/1 af=ds gr\nd = expect+ an indef9ite numb] ( o!r resemblances3 ! p>ticul> resemblance s\ght w1 !re=e1 be (t5] f\nd among ?+s ?us kn[n to resemble1 ?an among ?+s betwe5 :i* we "k ( no resemblance4#bd ,= example1 ,i might inf] t !re are probably inhabitants 9 ! moon1 because !re are inhabitants on ! e>?1 9 ! sea1 & 9 ! air3 & ?is is ! evid5ce ( analogy4 ,! circum/ance ( hav+ inhabitants is "h assum$ n to be an ultimate prop]ty1 b 7z is reasonable to suppose7 a consequ5ce ( o!r prop]ties2 & dep5d+1 !re=e1 9 ! case ( ! e>?1 on "s ( its prop]ties z a portion ( ! univ]se1 b on :i* ( ^? prop]ties we "k n4 ,n[ ! moon resembles ! e>? 9 be+ a solid1 opaque1 ne>ly sph]ical sub/ance1 appe>+ to conta91 or to h conta9$1 active volcanoes2 receiv+ heat & light f ! sun1 9 ab\t ! same quantity z our e>?2 revolv+ on its axis2 compos$ ( mat]ials :i* gravitate1 & obey+ all ! v>i\s laws result+ f t prop]ty4 ,& ,i ?9k no "o w d5y t if ?is 7 all t 0 kn[n ( ! moon1 ! exi/5ce ( inhabitants 9 t lum9>y w\ld d]ive f ^! v>i\s resemblances to ! e>?1 a great] degree ( probability ?an x w\ld o!rwise h3 ?\gh ! am\nt ( ! augm5tation x w\ld be useless to attempt to e/imate4 ,if1 h[ev]1 e resemblance prov$ betwe5 ,b & ,a1 9 any po9t n kn[n to be immat]ial ) respect to m1 =ms "s additional reason = presum+ t ,b has ! attribute m2 x is cle>1 contra1 t e dissimil>ity :i* c be prov$ betwe5 !m1 furni%es a c\nt]-probability ( ! same nature on ! o!r side4 ,x is n inde$ unusual t diff]5t ultimate prop]ties %\ld1 9 "s p>ticul> in/ances1 produce ! same d]ivative prop]ty2 b on ! :ole x is c]ta9 t ?+s :i* diff] 9 _! ultimate prop]ties1 w diff] at lea/ z mu* 9 ! aggregate ( _! d]ivative prop]ties1 & t ! diff]5ces :i* are unkn[n w on ! av]age ( cases be> "s proportion to ^? :i* are kn[n4 ,!re w1 !re=e1 be a competition betwe5 ! kn[n po9ts ( agreem5t & ! kn[n po9ts ( diff]5ce 9 ,a & ,b2 & accord+ z ! "o or ! o!r may be deem$ to prepond]ate1 ! probability d]iv$ f analogy w be = or aga9/ ,b's hav+ ! prop]ty m4 ,! moon1 = in/ance1 agrees ) ! e>? 9 ! circum/ances already m5tion$2 b diff]s 9 be+ small]1 9 hav+ its surface m unequal1 & app>5tly volcanic ?r\gh\t1 9 hav+1 at lea/ on ! side next ! e>?1 no atmosph]e suffici5t to refract light1 no cl\ds1 & 7x is !re=e conclud$7 no wat]4 ,^! diff]5ces1 consid]$ m]ely z su*1 might p]haps balance ! resemblances1 s t analogy w\ld af=d no presumption ei!r way4 ,b consid]+ t "s ( ! circum/ances :i* are want+ on ! moon are among ^? :i*1 on ! e>?1 are f\nd to be indisp5sable conditions ( animal life1 we may conclude t if t ph5om5on does exi/ 9 ! moon1 7or at all ev5ts on ! ne>] side17 x mu/ be z an effect ( causes totally diff]5t f ^? on :i* x dep5ds "h2 z a consequ5ce1 !re=e1 ( ! moon's diff]5ces f ! e>?1 n ( ! po9ts ( agreem5t4 ,view$ 9 ?is light1 all ! resemblances :i* exi/ become presumptions aga9/1 n 9 fav\r (1 ! moon's be+ inhabit$4 ,s9ce life _c exi/ !re 9 ! mann] 9 :i* x exi/s "h1 ! great] ! resemblance ( ! lun> _w to ! t]re/rial 9 o!r respects1 ! less reason we h to believe t x c conta9 life4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 o!r bodies 9 our sy/em1 betwe5 :i* & ! e>? !re is a mu* clos] resemblance2 :i* possess an atmosph]e1 cl\ds1 consequ5tly wat] 7or "s fluid analog\s to x71 & ev5 give /rong indications ( sn[ 9 _! pol> regions2 :ile ! cold1 or heat1 ?\gh diff]+ greatly on ! av]age f ours1 is1 9 "s p>ts at lea/ ( ^? planets1 possibly n m extreme ?an 9 "s regions ( our own :i* are habitable4 ,to balance ^! agreem5ts1 ! asc]ta9$ diff]5ces are *iefly 9 ! av]age light & heat1 velocity ( rotation1 d5sity ( mat]ial1 int5sity ( gravity1 & simil> circum/ances ( a second>y k9d4 ,) reg>d to ^! planets1 !re=e1 ! argum5t ( analogy gives a decid$ prepond]ance 9 fav\r ( _! resembl+ ! e>? 9 any ( its d]ivative prop]ties1 su* z t ( hav+ inhabitants2 ?\gh1 :5 we consid] h[ immeasurably multitud9\s are ^? ( _! prop]ties :i* we are entirely ignorant (1 comp>$ ) ! few :i* we "k1 we c atta* b trifl+ weight to any consid]ations ( resemblance 9 :i* ! kn[n elem5ts be> s inconsid]able a proportion to ! unkn[n4 ,besides ! competition betwe5 analogy & div]sity1 !re may be a competition ( conflict+ analogies4 ,! new case may be simil> 9 "s ( its circum/ances to cases 9 :i* ! fact m exi/s1 b 9 o!rs to cases 9 :i* x is kn[n n to exi/4 ,amb] has "s prop]ties 9 common ) vegetable1 o!rs ) m9]al products4 ,a pa9t+ ( unkn[n orig91 may resemble1 9 c]ta9 ( its *>act]s1 kn[n works ( a p>ticul> ma/]1 b 9 o!rs x may z /rik+ly resemble ^? ( "s o!r pa9t]4 ,a vase may be> "s analogy to works ( ,grecian1 & "s to ^? ( ,etruscan1 or ,egyptian art4 ,we are ( c\rse suppos+ t x does n possess any quality :i* has be5 asc]ta9$1 by a suffici5t induction1 to be a conclusive m>k ei!r ( ! "o or ( ! o!r4 #c4 ,s9ce ! value ( an analogical argum5t inf]r+ "o resemblance f o!r resemblances )\t any antec$5t evid5ce ( a connexion betwe5 !m1 dep5ds on ! ext5t ( asc]ta9$ resemblance1 comp>$ fir/ ) ! am\nt ( asc]ta9$ diff]5ce1 & next ) ! ext5t ( ! unexplor$ region ( unasc]ta9$ prop]ties2 x foll[s t :]e ! resemblance is v great1 ! asc]ta9$ diff]5ce v small1 & our k ( ! subject-matt] tol]ably ext5sive1 ! argum5t f analogy may approa* 9 /r5g? v ne> to a valid induction4 ,if1 aft] mu* obs]vation ( ,b1 we f9d t x agrees ) ,a 9 n9e out ( t5 ( its kn[n prop]ties1 we may conclude ) a probability ( n9e to "o1 t x w possess any giv5 d]ivative prop]ty ( ,a4 ,if we discov]1 = example1 an unkn[n animal or plant1 resembl+ closely "s kn[n "o 9 ! great] numb] ( ! prop]ties we obs]ve 9 x1 b diff]+ 9 "s few1 we may reasonably expect to f9d 9 ! unobs]v$ rema9d] ( its prop]ties1 a g5]al agreem5t ) ^? ( ! =m]2 b also a diff]5ce correspond+ proportionately to ! am\nt ( obs]v$ div]sity4 ,x ?us appe>s t ! conclusions d]iv$ f analogy are only ( any consid]able value1 :5 ! case to :i* we reason is an adjac5t case2 adjac5t1 n z be=e1 9 place or "t1 b 9 circum/ances4 ,9 ! case ( effects ( :i* ! causes are imp]fectly or n at all kn[n1 :5 consequ5tly ! obs]v$ ord] ( _! occurr5ce am\nts only to an empirical law1 x (t5 happ5s t ! conditions :i* h coexi/$ :5ev] ! effect 0 obs]v$1 h be5 v num]\s4 ,n[ if a new case pres5ts itself1 9 :i* all ^! conditions d n exi/1 b ! f> great] "p ( !m d1 "s "o or a few only be+ want+1 ! inf]5ce t ! effect w occur1 not)/&+ ?is defici5cy ( complete resemblance to ! cases 9 :i* x has be5 obs]v$1 may1 ?\gh ( ! nature ( analogy1 possess a high degree ( probability4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to add t1 h[ev] consid]able ?is probability may be1 no compet5t inquir] into nature w re/ satisfi$ ) x :5 a complete induction is atta9able2 b w consid] ! analogy z a m]e guide-po/1 po9t+ out ! direction 9 :i* m rigor\s inve/igations %\ld be prosecut$4 ,x is 9 ?is la/ respect t consid]ations ( analogy h ! highe/ sci5tific value4 ,! cases 9 :i* analogical evid5ce af=ds 9 itself any v high degree ( probability1 are1 z we h obs]v$1 only ^? 9 :i* ! resemblance is v close & ext5sive2 b !re is no analogy1 h[ev] fa9t1 :i* may n be ( ! utmo/ value 9 sugge/+ exp]im5ts or obs]vations t may lead to m positive conclusions4 ,:5 ! ag5ts & _! effects are out ( ! rea* ( fur!r obs]vation & exp]im5t1 z 9 ! speculations already allud$ to respect+ ! moon & planets1 su* slight probabilities are no m ?an an int]e/+ !me = ! pleasant ex]cise ( imag9ation2 b any suspicion1 h[ev] slight1 t sets an +5i\s p]son at "w to contrive an exp]im5t1 or af=ds a reason = try+ "o exp]im5t r ?an ano!r1 may be ( ! greate/ b5efit to sci5ce4 ,on ?is gr\nd1 ?\gh ,i _c accept z positive doctr9es any ( ^? sci5tific hypo!ses :i* are unsusceptible ( be+ ultimately br\ght to ! te/ ( actual induction1 su*1 = in/ance1 z ! two !ories ( light1 ! emission !ory ( ! la/ c5tury1 & ! undulatory !ory :i* pr$om9ates 9 ! pres5t1 ,i am yet unable to agree ) ^? :o consid] su* hypo!ses to be wor?y ( entire disreg>d4 ,z is well said by ,h>tley 7& concurr$ 9 by a ?9k] 9 g5]al s diametrically oppos$ to ,h>tley's op9ions z ,dugald ,/ew>t71 any hypo!sis :i* has s mu* plausibility z to expla9 a consid]able numb] ( facts1 helps u to dige/ ^! facts 9 prop] ord]1 to br+ new ones to light1 & make exp]im5ta crucis = ! sake ( future inquir]s4#be ,if an hypo!sis bo? expla9s kn[n facts1 & has l$ to ! pr$iction ( o!rs previ\sly unkn[n1 & s9ce v]ifi$ by exp]i5ce1 ! laws ( ! ph5om5on :i* is ! subject ( inquiry mu/ be> at lea/ a great simil>ity to ^? ( ! class ( ph5om5a to :i* ! hypo!sis assimilates x2 & s9ce ! analogy :i* ext5ds s f> may probably ext5d f>!r1 no?+ is m likely to sugge/ exp]im5ts t5d+ to ?r[ light ^u ! real prop]ties ( ! ph5om5on1 ?an ! foll[+ out su* an hypo!sis4 ,b to ?is end x is by no means necess>y t ! hypo!sis be mi/ak5 = a sci5tific tru?4 ,on ! contr>y1 t illusion is 9 ?is respect1 z 9 e o!r1 an imp$im5t to ! progress ( real k1 by lead+ inquir]s to re/rict !mselves arbitr>ily to ! p>ticul> hypo!sis :i* is mo/ accr$it$ at ! "t1 in/ead ( look+ out = e class ( ph5om5a betwe5 ! laws ( :i* & ^? ( ! giv5 ph5om5on any analogy exi/s1 & try+ all su* exp]im5ts z may t5d to ! discov]y ( ult]ior analogies po9t+ 9 ! same direction4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,( ,,! ,,evid5ce ,,( ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,univ]sal ,,causation4 #a4 ,we h n[ complet$ our review ( ! logical processes by :i* ! laws1 or uni=mities1 ( ! sequ5ce ( ph5om5a1 & ^? uni=mities 9 _! coexi/5ce :i* dep5d on ! laws ( _! sequ5ce1 are asc]ta9$ or te/$4 ,z we recognis$ 9 ! comm5cem5t1 & h be5 enabl$ to see m cle>ly 9 ! progress ( ! inve/igation1 ! basis ( all ^! logical op]ations is ! law ( causation4 ,! validity ( all ! ,inductive ,me?ods dep5ds on ! assumption t e ev5t1 or ! beg9n+ ( e ph5om5on1 mu/ h "s cause2 "s antec$5t1 on ! exi/5ce ( :i* x is inv>iably & unconditionally consequ5t4 ,9 ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t ?is is obvi\s2 t me?od av[$ly proce$+ on ! supposition t we h f\nd ! true cause z soon z we h negativ$ e o!r4 ,! ass]tion is equally true ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,t me?od au?orizes u to inf] a g5]al law f two in/ances2 "o1 9 :i* ,a exi/s toge!r ) a multitude ( o!r circum/ances1 & ,b foll[s2 ano!r1 9 :i*1 ,a be+ remov$1 & all o!r circum/ances rema9+ ! same1 ,b is prev5t$4 ,:at1 h[ev]1 does ?is prove8 ,x proves t ,b1 9 ! p>ticul> in/ance1 _c h _h any o!r cause ?an ,a2 b to conclude f ?is t ,a 0 ! cause1 or t ,a w on o!r occasions be foll[$ by ,b1 is only all[able on ! assumption t ,b mu/ h "s cause2 t among its antec$5ts 9 any s+le in/ance 9 :i* x occurs1 !re mu/ be "o :i* has ! capacity ( produc+ x at o!r times4 ,?is be+ admitt$1 x is se5 t 9 ! case 9 "q t antec$5t c be no o!r ?an ,a2 b1 t if x be no o!r ?an ,a x mu/ be ,a1 is n prov$1 by ^! in/ances at lea/1 b tak5 = grant$4 ,!re is no ne$ to sp5d "t 9 prov+ t ! same ?+ is true ( ! o!r ,inductive ,me?ods4 ,! univ]sality ( ! law ( causation is assum$ 9 !m all4 ,b is ?is assumption w>rant$8 ,d\btless 7x may be said7 mo/ ph5om5a are connect$ z effects ) "s antec$5t or cause1 t is1 are nev] produc$ unless "s assignable fact has prec$$ !m2 b ! v circum/ance t complicat$ processes ( induction are sometimes necess>y1 %[s t cases exi/ 9 :i* ?is regul> ord] ( succession is n app>5t to our unaid$ appreh5sion4 ,if1 !n1 ! processes :i* br+ ^! cases )9 ! same category ) ! re/1 require t we %\ld assume ! univ]sality ( ! v law :i* !y d n at fir/ sight appe> to exemplify1 is n ?is a petitio pr9cipii8 ,c we prove a proposition1 by an argum5t :i* takes x = grant$8 ,& if n s prov$1 on :at evid5ce does x re/8 ,= ?is difficulty1 :i* ,i h purposely /at$ 9 ! /ronge/ t]ms x w admit (1 ! s*ool ( metaphysicians :o h long pr$om9at$ 9 ?is c\ntry f9d a ready salvo4 ,!y affirm1 t ! univ]sality ( causation is a tru? :i* we _c help believ+2 t ! belief 9 x is an in/9ct1 "o ( ! laws ( our believ+ faculty4 ,z ! pro( ( ?is1 !y say1 & !y h no?+ else to say1 t ev]ybody does believe x2 & !y numb] x among ! propositions1 r num]\s 9 _! catalogue1 :i* may be logically argu$ aga9/1 & p]haps _c be logically prov$1 b :i* are ( high] au?ority ?an logic1 & s ess5tially inh]5t 9 ! human m9d1 t ev5 he :o d5ies !m 9 speculation1 %[s by 8 habitual practice t 8 argum5ts make no impression ^u himself4 ,into ! m]its ( ?is "q1 consid]$ z "o ( psy*ology1 x w\ld be =eign to my purpose to ent] "h3 b ,i mu/ prote/ aga9/ adduc+1 z evid5ce ( ! tru? ( a fact 9 ext]nal nature1 ! disposition1 h[ev] /rong or h[ev] g5]al1 ( ! human m9d to believe x4 ,belief is n pro(1 & does n disp5se ) ! necessity ( pro(4 ,i am aw>e1 t to ask = evid5ce ( a proposition :i* we are suppos$ to believe in/9ctively1 is to expose oneself to ! *>ge ( reject+ ! au?ority ( ! human faculties2 :i* ( c\rse no "o c consi/5tly d1 s9ce ! human faculties are all :i* any "o has to judge by3 & inasmu* z ! mean+ ( ! ^w evid5ce is suppos$ to be1 some?+ :i* :5 laid be=e ! m9d1 induces x to believe2 to dem& evid5ce :5 ! belief is ensur$ by ! m9d's own laws1 is suppos$ to be appeal+ to ! intellect aga9/ ! intellect4 ,b ?is1 ,i appreh5d1 is a misund]/&+ ( ! nature ( evid5ce4 ,by evid5ce is n meant any?+ & ev]y?+ :i* produces belief4 ,!re are _m ?+s :i* g5]ate belief besides evid5ce4 ,a m]e /rong association ( ideas (t5 causes a belief s int5se z to be un%akeable by exp]i5ce or argum5t4 ,evid5ce is n t :i* ! m9d does or mu/ yield to1 b t :i* x ought to yield to1 namely1 t1 by yield+ to :i*1 its belief is kept con=mable to fact4 ,!re is no appeal f ! human faculties g5]ally1 b !re is an appeal f "o human faculty to ano!r2 f ! judg+ faculty1 to ^? :i* take cognizance ( fact1 ! faculties ( s5se & consci\sness4 ,! legitimacy ( ?is appeal is admitt$ :5ev] x is all[$ t our judgm5ts ought to be con=mable to fact4 ,to say t belief suffices = its own ju/ification is mak+ op9ion ! te/ ( op9ion2 x is d5y+ ! exi/5ce ( any outw>d /&>d1 ! con=mity ( an op9ion to :i* con/itutes its tru?4 ,we call "o mode ( =m+ op9ions "r & ano!r wrong1 because ! "o does1 & ! o!r does n1 t5d to make ! op9ion agree ) ! fact--to make p believe :at really is1 & expect :at really w be4 ,n[ a m]e disposition to believe1 ev5 if suppos$ in/9ctive1 is no gu>antee = ! tru? ( ! ?+ believ$4 ,if1 inde$1 ! belief ev] am\nt$ to an irresi/ible necessity1 !re w\ld !n be no use 9 appeal+ f x1 because !re w\ld be no possibility ( alt]+ x4 ,b ev5 !n ! tru? ( ! belief w\ld n foll[2 x w\ld only foll[ t mank9d 7 "u a p]man5t necessity ( believ+ :at might possibly n be true2 9 o!r words1 t a case might occur 9 :i* our s5ses or consci\sness1 if !y c\ld be appeal$ to1 might te/ify "o ?+1 & our reason believe ano!r4 ,b 9 fact !re is no su* p]man5t necessity4 ,!re is no proposition ( :i* x c be ass]t$ t e human m9d mu/ et]nally & irrevocably believe x4 ,_m ( ! propositions ( :i* ?is is mo/ confid5tly /at$1 great numb]s ( human be+s h disbeliev$4 ,! ?+s :i* x has be5 suppos$ t nobody c\ld possibly help believ+1 are innum]able2 b no two g5]ations w\ld make out ! same catalogue ( !m4 ,"o age or nation believes implicitly :at to ano!r seems incr$ible & inconceivable2 "o individual has n a ve/ige ( a belief :i* ano!r deems to be absolutely inh]5t 9 humanity4 ,!re is n "o ( ^! suppos$ in/9ctive beliefs :i* is really inevitable4 ,x is 9 ! p[] ( e "o to cultivate habits ( ?\ght :i* make him indep5d5t ( !m4 ,! habit ( philosophical analysis1 7( :i* x is ! sure/ effect to enable ! m9d to comm&1 in/ead ( be+ comm&$ by1 ! laws ( ! m]ely passive "p ( its own nature17 by %[+ to u t ?+s are n necess>ily connect$ 9 fact because _! ideas are connect$ 9 our m9ds1 is able to loos5 innum]able associations :i* reign despotically ov] ! undiscipl9$ or e>ly-prejudic$ m9d4 ,& ?is habit is n )\t p[] ev5 ov] ^? associations :i* ! s*ool ( :i* ,i h be5 speak+ reg>d z connate & in/9ctive4 ,i am conv9c$ t any "o accu/om$ to ab/raction & analysis1 :o w fairly ex]t 8 faculties = ! purpose1 w1 :5 8 imag9ation has once le>nt to ent]ta9 ! notion1 f9d no difficulty 9 conceiv+ t 9 "s "o = in/ance ( ! _m firmam5ts into :i* sid]eal a/ronomy n[ divides ! univ]se1 ev5ts may succe$ "o ano!r at r&om1 )\t any fix$ law2 nor c any?+ 9 our exp]i5ce1 or 9 our m5tal nature1 con/itute a suffici5t1 or inde$ any1 reason = believ+ t ?is is n[h]e ! case4 ,7 we to suppose 7:at x is p]fectly possible to imag9e7 t ! pres5t ord] ( ! univ]se 7 br\ght to an end1 & t a *aos succe$$ 9 :i* !re 0 no fix$ succession ( ev5ts1 & ! pa/ gave no assurance ( ! future2 if a human be+ 7 miracul\sly kept alive to witness ?is *ange1 he surely w\ld soon cease to believe 9 any uni=mity1 ! uni=mity itself no long] exi/+4 ,if ?is be admitt$1 ! belief 9 uni=mity ei!r is n an in/9ct1 or x is an in/9ct conqu]able1 l all o!r in/9cts1 by acquir$ k4 ,b !re is no ne$ to speculate on :at might be1 :5 we h positive & c]ta9 k ( :at has be54 ,x is n true z a matt] ( fact1 t mank9d h always believ$ t all ! successions ( ev5ts 7 uni=m & accord+ to fix$ laws4 ,! ,greek philosoph]s1 n ev5 except+ ,ari/otle1 recognis$ ,*ance & ,spontaneity 7,greek3 ty* & ,greek3 to automaton7 z among ! ag5ts 9 nature2 9 o!r words1 !y believ$ t to t ext5t !re 0 no gu>antee t ! pa/ _h be5 simil> to itself1 or t ! future w\ld resemble ! pa/4 ,ev5 n[ a full half ( ! philosophical _w1 includ+ ! v same metaphysicians :o cont5d mo/ = ! in/9ctive "* ( ! belief 9 uni=mity1 consid] "o important class ( ph5om5a1 volitions1 to be an exception to ! uni=mity1 & n gov]n$ by a fix$ law4#bf #b4 ,z 0 obs]v$ 9 a =m] place1#bg ! belief we ent]ta9 9 ! univ]sality1 ?r\gh\t nature1 ( ! law ( cause & effect1 is itself an in/ance ( induction2 & by no means "o ( ! e>lie/ :i* any ( u1 or :i* mank9d 9 g5]al1 c h made4 ,we arrive at ?is univ]sal law1 by g5]alization f _m laws ( inf]ior g5]ality4 ,we %\ld nev] h _h ! notion ( causation 79 ! philosophical mean+ ( ! t]m7 z a condition ( all ph5om5a1 unless _m cases ( causation1 or 9 o!r words1 _m p>tial uni=mities ( sequ5ce1 _h previ\sly become famili>4 ,! m obvi\s ( ! p>ticul> uni=mities sugge/1 & give evid5ce (1 ! g5]al uni=mity1 & ! g5]al uni=mity1 once e/abli%$1 enables u to prove ! rema9d] ( ! p>ticul> uni=mities ( :i* x is made up4 ,z1 h[ev]1 all rigor\s processes ( induction presuppose ! g5]al uni=mity1 our k ( ! p>ticul> uni=mities f :i* x 0 fir/ inf]r$ 0 n1 ( c\rse1 d]iv$ f rigor\s induction1 b f ! loose & unc]ta9 mode ( induction p] enum]ationem simplicem3 & ! law ( univ]sal causation1 be+ collect$ f results s obta9$1 _c itself re/ on any bett] f\ndation4 ,x w\ld seem1 !re=e1 t induction p] enum]ationem simplicem n only is n necess>ily an illicit logical process1 b is 9 reality ! only k9d ( induction possible2 s9ce ! m elaborate process dep5ds = its validity on a law1 itself obta9$ 9 t in>tificial mode4 ,is !re n !n an inconsi/5cy 9 contra/+ ! loos5ess ( "o me?od ) ! rigidity ( ano!r1 :5 t o!r is indebt$ to ! loos] me?od = its own f\ndation8 ,! inconsi/5cy1 h[ev]1 is only app>5t4 ,assur$ly1 if induction by simple enum]ation 7 an invalid process1 no process gr\nd$ on x c\ld be valid2 j z no reliance c\ld be plac$ on telescopes1 if we c\ld n tru/ our eyes4 ,b ?\gh a valid process1 x is a fallible "o1 & fallible 9 v diff]5t degrees3 if !re=e we c sub/itute = ! m fallible =ms ( ! process1 an op]ation gr\nd$ on ! same process 9 a less fallible =m1 we %all h effect$ a v mat]ial improvem5t4 ,& ?is is :at sci5tific induction does4 ,a mode ( conclud+ f exp]i5ce mu/ be pron\nc$ untru/wor?y1 :5 subsequ5t exp]i5ce refuses to confirm x4 ,accord+ to ?is crit]ion1 induction by simple enum]ation--9 o!r words1 g5]alization ( an obs]v$ fact f ! m]e abs5ce ( any kn[n in/ance to ! contr>y--af=ds 9 g5]al a prec>i\s & unsafe gr\nd ( assurance2 = su* g5]alizations are incessantly discov]$1 on fur!r exp]i5ce1 to be false4 ,/ill1 h[ev]1 x af=ds "s assurance1 suffici5t1 9 _m cases1 = ! ord9>y guidance ( conduct4 ,x w\ld be absurd to say1 t ! g5]alizations arriv$ at by mank9d 9 ! outset ( _! exp]i5ce1 su* z ^!1 ,food n\ri%es1 ,fire burns1 ,wat] dr[ns1 7 unwor?y ( reliance4#bh ,!re is a scale ( tru/wor?9ess 9 ! results ( ! orig9al unsci5tific ,induction2 & on ?is div]sity 7z obs]v$ 9 ! f\r? *apt] ( ! pres5t book7 dep5d ! rules = ! improvem5t ( ! process4 ,! improvem5t consi/s 9 correct+ "o ( ^! in>tificial g5]alizations by means ( ano!r4 ,z has be5 already po9t$ out1 ?is is all t art c d4 ,to te/ a g5]alization1 by %[+ t x ei!r foll[s f1 or conflicts )1 "s /rong] induction1 "s g5]alization re/+ on a broad] f\ndation ( exp]i5ce1 is ! beg9n+ & end ( ! logic ( ,induction4 #c4 ,n[ ! prec>i\sness ( ! me?od ( simple enum]ation is 9 an inv]se ratio to ! l>g5ess ( ! g5]alization4 ,! process is delusive & insuffici5t1 exactly 9 proportion z ! subject-matt] ( ! obs]vation is special & limit$ 9 ext5t4 ,z ! sph]e wid5s1 ?is unsci5tific me?od becomes less & less liable to mislead2 & ! mo/ univ]sal class ( tru?s1 ! law ( causation = in/ance1 & ! pr9ciples ( numb] & ( geometry1 are duly & satisfactorily prov$ by t me?od alone1 nor are !y susceptible ( any o!r pro(4 ,) respect to ! :ole class ( g5]alizations ( :i* we h rec5tly treat$1 ! uni=mities :i* dep5d on causation1 ! tru? ( ! rem>k j made foll[s by obvi\s inf]5ce f ! pr9ciples laid d[n 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s4 ,:5 a fact has be5 obs]v$ a c]ta9 numb] ( times to be true1 & is n 9 any in/ance kn[n to be false2 if we at once affirm t fact z an univ]sal tru? or law ( nature1 )\t te/+ x by any ( ! f\r me?ods ( induction1 nor d$uc+ x f o!r kn[n laws1 we %all 9 g5]al err grossly3 b we are p]fectly ju/ifi$ 9 affirm+ x z an empirical law1 true )9 c]ta9 limits ( "t1 place1 & circum/ance1 provid$ ! numb] ( co9cid5ces be great] ?an c ) any probability be ascrib$ to *ance4 ,! reason = n ext5d+ x beyond ^? limits is1 t ! fact ( its hold+ true )9 !m may be a consequ5ce ( collocations1 :i* _c be conclud$ to exi/ 9 "o place because !y exi/ 9 ano!r2 or may be dep5d5t on ! accid5tal abs5ce ( c\nt]act+ ag5cies1 :i* any v>iation ( "t1 or ! smalle/ *ange ( circum/ances1 may possibly br+ into play4 ,if we suppose1 !n1 ! subject-matt] ( any g5]alization to be s widely diffus$ t !re is no "t1 no place1 & no comb9ation ( circum/ances1 b mu/ af=d an example ei!r ( its tru? or ( its falsity1 & if x be nev] f\nd o!rwise ?an true1 its tru? _c dep5d on any collocations1 unless su* z exi/ at all times & places2 nor c x be fru/rat$ by any c\nt]act+ ag5cies1 unless by su* z nev] actually occur4 ,x is1 !re=e1 an empirical law coext5sive ) all human exp]i5ce2 at :i* po9t ! di/9ction betwe5 empirical laws & laws ( nature vani%es1 & ! proposition takes its place among ! mo/ firmly e/abli%$ z well z l>ge/ tru?s accessible to sci5ce4 ,n[1 ! mo/ ext5sive 9 its subject-matt] ( all g5]alizations :i* exp]i5ce w>rants1 respect+ ! sequ5ces & coexi/5ces ( ph5om5a1 is ! law ( causation4 ,x /&s at ! head ( all obs]v$ uni=mities1 9 po9t ( univ]sality1 & !re=e 7if ! prec$+ obs]vations are correct7 9 po9t ( c]ta9ty4 ,& if we consid]1 n :at mank9d w\ld h be5 ju/ifi$ 9 believ+ 9 ! infancy ( _! k1 b :at may rationally be believ$ 9 its pres5t m advanc$ /ate1 we %all f9d ourselves w>rant$ 9 consid]+ ?is fundam5tal law1 ?\gh itself obta9$ by induction f p>ticul> laws ( causation1 z n less c]ta91 b on ! contr>y1 m s1 ?an any ( ^? f :i* x 0 drawn4 ,x adds to !m z mu* pro( z x receives f !m4 ,= !re is probably no "o ev5 ( ! be/ e/abli%$ laws ( causation :i* is n sometimes c\nt]act$1 & to :i*1 !re=e1 app>5t exceptions d n pres5t !mselves1 :i* w\ld h necess>ily & ju/ly %ak5 ! confid5ce ( mank9d 9 ! univ]sality ( ^? laws1 if inductive processes f\nd$ on ! univ]sal law _h n enabl$ u to ref] ^? exceptions to ! ag5cy ( c\nt]act+ causes1 & !reby reconcile !m ) ! law ) :i* !y app>5tly conflict4 ,errors1 moreov]1 may h slipp$ into ! /atem5t ( any "o ( ! special laws1 ?r\gh inatt5tion to "s mat]ial circum/ance3 & in/ead ( ! true proposition1 ano!r may h be5 enunciat$1 false z an univ]sal law1 ?\gh lead+1 9 all cases hi!rto obs]v$1 to ! same result4 ,to ! law ( causation1 on ! contr>y1 we n only d n "k ( any exception1 b ! exceptions :i* limit or app>5tly invalidate ! special laws1 are s f> f contradict+ ! univ]sal "o1 t !y confirm x2 s9ce 9 all cases :i* are suffici5tly op5 to our obs]vation1 we are able to trace ! diff]5ce ( result1 ei!r to ! abs5ce ( a cause :i* _h be5 pres5t 9 ord9>y cases1 or to ! pres5ce ( "o :i* _h be5 abs5t4 ,! law ( cause & effect1 be+ ?us c]ta91 is capable ( imp>t+ its c]ta9ty to all o!r inductive propositions :i* c be d$uc$ f x2 & ! n>r[] inductions may be reg>d$ z receiv+ _! ultimate sanction f t law1 s9ce !re is no "o ( !m :i* is n r5d]$ m c]ta9 ?an x 0 be=e1 :5 we are able to connect x ) t l>g] induction1 & to %[ t x _c be d5i$1 consi/5tly ) ! law t ev]y?+ :i* beg9s to exi/ has a cause4 ,& h5ce we are ju/ifi$ 9 ! seem+ inconsi/5cy1 ( hold+ induction by simple enum]ation to be good = prov+ ?is g5]al tru?1 ! f\ndation ( sci5tific induction1 & yet refus+ to rely on x = any ( ! n>r[] inductions4 ,i fully admit t if ! law ( causation 7 unkn[n1 g5]alization 9 ! m obvi\s cases ( uni=mity 9 ph5om5a w\ld nev]!less be possible1 & ?\gh 9 all cases m or less prec>i\s1 & 9 "s extremely s1 w\ld suffice to con/itute a c]ta9 measure ( probability3 b :at ! am\nt ( ?is probability might be1 we are disp5s$ f e/imat+1 s9ce x nev] c\ld am\nt to ! degree ( assurance :i* ! proposition acquires1 :51 by ! application to x ( ! ,f\r ,me?ods1 ! supposition ( its falsity is %[n to be inconsi/5t ) ! ,law ( ,causation4 ,we are !re=e logically entitl$1 &1 by ! necessities ( sci5tific ,induction1 requir$1 to disreg>d ! probabilities d]iv$ f ! e>ly rude me?od ( g5]aliz+1 & to consid] no m9or g5]alization z prov$ except s f> z ! law ( causation confirms x1 nor probable except s f> z x may reasonably be expect$ to be s confirm$4 #d4 ,! ass]tion1 t our inductive processes assume ! law ( causation1 :ile ! law ( causation is itself a case ( induction1 is a p>adox1 only on ! old !ory ( reason+1 :i* supposes ! univ]sal tru?1 or major premise1 9 a ratioc9ation1 to be ! real pro( ( ! p>ticul> tru?s :i* are o/5sibly inf]r$ f x4 ,accord+ to ! doctr9e ma9ta9$ 9 ! pres5t treatise1#bi ! major premise is n ! pro( ( ! conclusion1 b is itself prov$1 along ) ! conclusion f ! same evid5ce4 ,all m5 are mortal is n ! pro( t ,"l ,palm]/on is mortal2 b our pa/ exp]i5ce ( mortality au?orizes u to inf] bo? ! g5]al tru? & ! p>ticul> fact1 & ! "o ) exactly ! same degree ( assurance z ! o!r4 ,! mortality ( ,"l ,palm]/on is n an inf]5ce f ! mortality ( all m51 b f ! exp]i5ce :i* proves ! mortality ( all m52 & is a correct inf]5ce f exp]i5ce1 if t g5]al tru? is s too4 ,?is relation betwe5 our g5]al beliefs & _! p>ticul> applications holds equally true 9 ! m compreh5sive case :i* we are n[ discuss+4 ,any new fact ( causation inf]r$ by induction1 is rightly inf]r$1 if no o!r objection c be made to ! inf]5ce ?an c be made to ! g5]al tru? t e ev5t has a cause4 ,! utmo/ c]ta9ty :i* c be giv5 to a conclusion arriv$ at 9 ! way ( inf]5ce1 /ops at ?is po9t4 ,:5 we h asc]ta9$ t ! p>ticul> conclusion mu/ /& or fall ) ! g5]al uni=mity ( ! laws ( nature--t x is liable to no d\bt except ! d\bt :e!r e ev5t has a cause--we h done all t c be done = x4 ,! /ronge/ assurance we c obta9 ( any !ory respect+ ! cause ( a giv5 ph5om5on1 is t ! ph5om5on has ei!r t cause or none4 ,! latt] supposition might h be5 an admissible "o 9 a v e>ly p]iod ( our /udy ( nature4 ,b we h be5 able to p]ceive t 9 ! /age :i* mank9d h n[ rea*$1 ! g5]alization :i* gives ! ,law ( ,univ]sal ,causation has gr[n into a /rong] & bett] induction1 "o des]v+ ( great] reliance1 ?an any ( ! subord9ate g5]alizations4 ,we may ev51 ,i ?9k1 g a /ep fur!r ?an ?is1 & reg>d ! c]ta9ty ( t great induction z n m]ely comp>ative1 b1 = all practical purposes1 absolute4 ,! consid]ations :i*1 z ,i appreh5d1 give1 at ! pres5t day1 to ! pro( ( ! law ( uni=mity ( succession z true ( all ph5om5a )\t exception1 ?is "* ( complet5ess & conclusiv5ess1 are ! foll[+3--,fir/1 t we n[ "k x directly to be true ( f> ! greate/ numb] ( ph5om5a2 t !re are none ( :i* we "k x n to be true1 ! utmo/ t c be said be+1 t ( "s we _c positively f direct evid5ce affirm its tru?2 :ile ph5om5on aft] ph5om5on1 z !y become bett] kn[n to u1 are con/antly pass+ f ! latt] class into ! =m]2 & 9 all cases 9 :i* t transition has n yet tak5 place1 ! abs5ce ( direct pro( is acc\nt$ = by ! r>ity or ! obscurity ( ! ph5om5a1 our defici5t means ( obs]v+ !m1 or ! logical difficulties aris+ f ! complication ( ! circum/ances 9 :i* !y occur2 insomu* t1 not)/&+ z rigid a dep5d5ce on giv5 conditions z exi/s 9 ! case ( any o!r ph5om5on1 x 0 n likely t we %\ld be bett] acqua9t$ ) ^? conditions ?an we are4 ,besides ?is fir/ class ( consid]ations1 !re is a second1 :i* /ill fur!r corroborates ! conclusion4 ,al?\gh !re are ph5om5a ! production & *anges ( :i* elude all our attempts to r$uce !m univ]sally to any asc]ta9$ law2 yet 9 e su* case1 ! ph5om5on1 or ! objects conc]n$ 9 x1 are f\nd 9 "s in/ances to obey ! kn[n laws ( nature4 ,! w9d1 = example1 is ! type ( unc]ta9ty & caprice1 yet we f9d x 9 "s cases obey+ ) z mu* con/ancy z any ph5om5on 9 nature ! law ( ! t5d5cy ( fluids to di/ribute !mselves s z to equalize ! pressure on e side ( ea* ( _! p>ticles2 z 9 ! case ( ! trade w9ds1 & ! monsoons4 ,lightn+ might once h be5 suppos$ to obey no laws2 b s9ce x has be5 asc]ta9$ to be id5tical ) electricity1 we "k t ! v same ph5om5on 9 "s ( its manife/ations is implicitly ob$i5t to ! action ( fix$ causes4 ,i d n believe t !re is n[ "o object or ev5t 9 all our exp]i5ce ( nature1 )9 ! b\nds ( ! sol> sy/em at lea/1 :i* has n ei!r be5 asc]ta9$ by direct obs]vation to foll[ laws ( its own1 or be5 prov$ to be closely simil> to objects & ev5ts :i*1 9 m famili> manife/ations1 or on a m limit$ scale1 foll[ /rict laws3 our inability to trace ! same laws on a l>g] scale & 9 ! m recondite in/ances1 be+ acc\nt$ = by ! numb] & complication ( ! modify+ causes1 or by _! inaccessibility to obs]vation4 ,! progress ( exp]i5ce1 !re=e1 has dissipat$ ! d\bt :i* mu/ h re/$ on ! univ]sality ( ! law ( causation :ile !re 7 ph5om5a :i* seem$ to be sui g5]is1 n subject to ! same laws ) any o!r class ( ph5om5a1 & n z yet asc]ta9$ to h peculi> laws ( _! own4 ,?is great g5]alization1 h[ev]1 might reasonably h be51 z x 9 fact 01 act$ on z a probability ( ! highe/ ord]1 be=e !re 7 suffici5t gr\nds = receiv+ x z a c]ta9ty4 ,=1 :atev] has be5 f\nd true 9 innum]able in/ances1 & nev] f\nd to be false aft] due exam9ation 9 any1 we are safe 9 act+ on z univ]sal provisionally1 until an und\bt$ exception appe>s2 provid$ ! nature ( ! case be su* t a real exception c\ld sc>cely h escap$ our notice4 ,:5 e ph5om5on t we ev] knew suffici5tly well to be able to answ] ! "q1 _h a cause on :i* x 0 inv>iably consequ5t1 x 0 m rational to suppose t our inability to assign ! causes ( o!r ph5om5a arose f our ignorance1 ?an t !re 7 ph5om5a :i* 7 uncaus$1 & :i* happ5$ to be exactly ^? :i* we _h hi!rto _h no suffici5t opportunity ( /udy+4 ,x mu/1 at ! same "t1 be rem>k$1 t ! reasons = ?is reliance d n hold 9 circum/ances unkn[n to u1 & beyond ! possible range ( our exp]i5ce4 ,9 di/ant p>ts ( ! /ell> regions1 :]e ! ph5om5a may be entirely unlike ^? ) :i* we are acqua9t$1 x w\ld be folly to affirm confid5tly t ?is g5]al law prevails1 any m ?an ^? special ones :i* we h f\nd to hold univ]sally on our own planet4 ,! uni=mity 9 ! succession ( ev5ts1 o!rwise call$ ! law ( causation1 mu/ be receiv$ n z a law ( ! univ]se1 b ( t portion ( x only :i* is )9 ! range ( our means ( sure obs]vation1 ) a reasonable degree ( ext5sion to adjac5t cases4 ,to ext5d x fur!r is to make a supposition )\t evid5ce1 & to :i*1 9 ! abs5ce ( any gr\nd f exp]i5ce = e/imat+ its degree ( probability1 x w\ld be idle to attempt to assign any4#cj ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,( ,,uni=mities ,,( ,,coexi/5ce ,,n ,,dep5d5t ,,on ,,causation4 #a4 ,! ord] ( ! occurr5ce ( ph5om5a 9 "t1 is ei!r successive or simultane\s2 ! uni=mities1 !re=e1 :i* obta9 9 _! occurr5ce1 are ei!r uni=mities ( succession or ( coexi/5ce4 ,uni=mities ( succession are all compreh5d$ "u ! law ( causation & its consequ5ces4 ,e ph5om5on has a cause1 :i* x inv>iably foll[s2 & f ?is are d]iv$ o!r inv>iable sequ5ces among ! successive /ages ( ! same effect1 z well z betwe5 ! effects result+ f causes :i* inv>iably succe$ "o ano!r4 ,9 ! same mann] ) ^! d]ivative uni=mities ( succession1 a great v>iety ( uni=mities ( coexi/5ce also take _! rise4 ,coord9ate effects ( ! same cause naturally coexi/ ) "o ano!r4 ,high wat] at any po9t on ! e>?'s surface1 & high wat] at ! po9t diametrically opposite to x1 are effects uni=mly simultane\s1 result+ f ! direction 9 :i* ! comb9$ attractions ( ! sun & moon act ^u ! wat]s ( ! ocean4 ,an eclipse ( ! sun to u1 & an eclipse ( ! e>? to a spectator situat$ 9 ! moon1 are 9 l mann] ph5om5a inv>iably coexi/5t2 & _! coexi/5ce c equally be d$uc$ f ! laws ( _! production4 ,x is an obvi\s "q1 !re=e1 :e!r all ! uni=mities ( coexi/5ce among ph5om5a may n be acc\nt$ = 9 ?is mann]4 ,& x _c be d\bt$ t betwe5 ph5om5a :i* are !mselves effects1 ! coexi/5ces mu/ necess>ily dep5d on ! causes ( ^? ph5om5a4 ,if !y are effects imm$iately or remotely ( ! same cause1 !y _c coexi/ except by virtue ( "s laws or prop]ties ( t cause3 if !y are effects ( diff]5t causes1 !y _c coexi/ unless x be because _! causes coexi/2 & ! uni=mity ( coexi/5ce1 if su* !re be1 betwe5 ! effects1 proves t ^? p>ticul> causes1 )9 ! limits ( our obs]vation1 h uni=mly be5 coexi/5t4 #b4 ,b ^! same consid]ations compel u to recognise t !re mu/ be "o class ( coexi/5ces :i* _c dep5d on causation2 ! coexi/5ces betwe5 ! ultimate prop]ties ( ?+s--^? prop]ties :i* are ! causes ( all ph5om5a1 b are n !mselves caus$ by any ph5om5on1 & a cause = :i* c\ld only be s\ght by asc5d+ to ! orig9 ( all ?+s4 ,yet among ^! ultimate prop]ties !re are n only coexi/5ces1 b uni=mities ( coexi/5ce4 ,g5]al propositions may be1 & are1 =m$1 :i* ass]t t :5ev] c]ta9 prop]ties are f\nd1 c]ta9 o!rs are f\nd along ) !m4 ,we p]ceive an object2 say1 = in/ance1 wat]4 ,we recognise x to be wat]1 ( c\rse by c]ta9 ( its prop]ties4 ,hav+ recognis$ x1 we are able to affirm ( x innum]able o!r prop]ties2 :i* we c\ld n d unless x 7 a g5]al tru?1 a law or uni=mity 9 nature1 t ! set ( prop]ties by :i* we id5tify ! sub/ance z wat]1 always h ^? o!r prop]ties conjo9$ ) !m4 ,9 a =m] place1#ca x has be5 expla9$ 9 "s detail :at is meant by ! ,k9ds ( objects2 ^? classes :i* diff] f "o ano!r n by a limit$ & def9ite1 b by an indef9ite & unkn[n1 numb] ( di/9ctions4 ,to ?is we h n[ to add1 t e proposition by :i* any?+ is ass]t$ ( a ,k9d1 affirms an uni=mity ( coexi/5ce4 ,s9ce we "k no?+ ( ,k9ds b _! prop]ties1 ! ,k9d1 to u1 is ! set ( prop]ties by :i* x is id5tifi$1 & :i* mu/ ( c\rse be suffici5t to di/+ui% x f e o!r k9d4#cb ,9 affirm+ any?+1 !re=e1 ( a ,k9d1 we are affirm+ some?+ to be uni=mly coexi/5t ) ! prop]ties by :i* ! k9d is recognis$2 & t is ! sole mean+ ( ! ass]tion4 ,among ! uni=mities ( coexi/5ce :i* exi/ 9 nature1 may h5ce be numb]$ all ! prop]ties ( ,k9ds4 ,! :ole ( ^!1 h[ev]1 are n indep5d5t ( causation1 b only a portion ( !m4 ,"s are ultimate prop]ties1 o!rs d]ivative2 ( "s1 no cause c be assign$1 b o!rs are manife/ly dep5d5t on causes4 ,?us1 pure atmosph]ic air is a ,k9d1 & "o ( its mo/ unequivocal prop]ties is its gase\s =m3 ?is prop]ty1 h[ev]1 has = its cause ! pres5ce ( a c]ta9 quantity ( lat5t heat2 & if t heat c\ld be tak5 away 7z has be5 done f s _m gases 9 ,f>aday's exp]im5ts71 ! gase\s =m w\ld d\btless disappe>1 toge!r ) num]\s o!r prop]ties :i* dep5d on1 or are caus$ by1 t prop]ty4 ,9 reg>d to all sub/ances :i* are *emical comp\nds1 & :i* !re=e may be reg>d$ z products ( ! juxtaposition ( sub/ances diff]5t 9 ,k9d f !mselves1 !re is consid]able reason to presume t ! specific prop]ties ( ! comp\nd are consequ5t1 z effects1 on "s ( ! prop]ties ( ! elem5ts1 ?\gh little progress has yet be5 made 9 trac+ any inv>iable relation betwe5 ! latt] & ! =m]4 ,/ill m /rongly w a simil> presumption exi/1 :5 ! object itself1 z 9 ! case ( organiz$ be+s1 is no primeval ag5t1 b an effect1 :i* dep5ds on a cause or causes = its v exi/5ce4 ,! ,k9ds !re=e :i* are call$ 9 *emi/ry simple sub/ances1 or elem5t>y natural ag5ts1 are ! only ones1 any ( ^: prop]ties c ) c]ta9ty be consid]$ ultimate2 & ( ^! ! ultimate prop]ties are probably mu* m num]\s t we at pres5t recognise1 s9ce e successful in/ance ( ! resolution ( ! prop]ties ( _! comp\nds into simpl] laws1 g5]ally leads to ! recognition ( prop]ties 9 ! elem5ts di/9ct f any previ\sly kn[n4 ,! resolution ( ! laws ( ! heav5ly motions1 e/abli%$ ! previ\sly unkn[n ultimate prop]ty ( a mutual attraction betwe5 all bodies3 ! resolution1 s f> z x has yet proce$$1 ( ! laws ( cry/allization1 ( *emical composition1 electricity1 magnetism1 c41 po9ts to v>i\s pol>ities1 ultimately inh]5t 9 ! p>ticles ( :i* bodies are compos$2 ! comp>ative atomic weights ( diff]5t k9ds ( bodies 7 asc]ta9$ by resolv+1 into m g5]al laws1 ! uni=mities obs]v$ 9 ! proportions 9 :i* sub/ances comb9e ) "o ano!r2 & s =?4 ,?us al?\gh e resolution ( a complex uni=mity into simpl] & m elem5t>y laws has an app>5t t5d5cy to dim9i% ! numb] ( ! ultimate prop]ties1 & really does remove _m prop]ties f ! li/2 yet1 7s9ce ! result ( ?is simplify+ process is to trace up an ev] great] v>iety ( diff]5t effects to ! same ag5ts17 ! fur!r we advance 9 ?is direction1 ! great] numb] ( di/9ct prop]ties we are =c$ to recognise 9 "o & ! same object3 ! coexi/5ces ( :i* prop]ties mu/ accord+ly be rank$ among ! ultimate g5]alities ( nature4 #c4 ,!re are1 !re=e1 only two k9ds ( propositions :i* ass]t uni=mity ( coexi/5ce betwe5 prop]ties4 ,ei!r ! prop]ties dep5d on causes1 or !y d n4 ,if !y d1 ! proposition :i* affirms !m to be coexi/5t is a d]ivative law ( coexi/5ce betwe5 effects1 & until resolv$ into ! laws ( causation on :i* x dep5ds1 is an empirical law1 & to be tri$ by ! pr9ciples ( induction to :i* su* laws are am5able4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! prop]ties d n dep5d on causes1 b are ultimate prop]ties2 !n if x be true t !y inv>iably coexi/1 !y mu/ all be ultimate prop]ties ( "o & ! same ,k9d2 & x is ( ^! only t ! coexi/5ces c be class$ z a peculi> sort ( laws ( nature4 ,:5 we affirm t all cr[s are black1 or t all negroes h woolly hair1 we ass]t an uni=mity ( coexi/5ce4 ,we ass]t t ! prop]ty ( blackness1 or ( hav+ woolly hair1 inv>iably coexi/s ) ! prop]ties :i*1 9 common language1 or 9 ! sci5tific classification t we adopt1 are tak5 to con/itute ! class cr[1 or ! class negro4 ,n[1 suppos+ blackness to be an ultimate prop]ty ( black objects1 or woolly hair an ultimate prop]ty ( ! animals :i* possess x2 suppos+ t ^! prop]ties are n results ( causation1 are n connect$ ) antec$5t ph5om5a by any law2 !n if all cr[s are black1 & all negroes h woolly hair1 ^! mu/ be ultimate prop]ties ( ! ,k9d cr[1 or negro1 or ( "s ,k9d :i* includes !m4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 blackness or woolly hair be an effect dep5d+ on causes1 ^! g5]al propositions are manife/ly empirical laws2 & all t has already be5 said respect+ t class ( g5]alizations may be appli$ )\t modification to ^!4 ,n[1 we h se5 t 9 ! case ( all comp\nds--( all ?+s1 9 %ort1 except ! elem5t>y sub/ances & prim>y p[]s ( nature--! presumption is1 t ! prop]ties d really dep5d ^u causes2 & x is impossible 9 any case :atev] to be c]ta9 t !y d n4 ,we !re=e %\ld n be safe 9 claim+ = any g5]alization respect+ ! coexi/5ce ( prop]ties1 a degree ( c]ta9ty to :i*1 if ! prop]ties %\ld happ5 to be ! result ( causes1 x w\ld h no claim4 ,a g5]alization respect+ coexi/5ce1 or 9 o!r words respect+ ! prop]ties ( ,k9ds1 may be an ultimate tru?1 b x may1 also1 be m]ely a d]ivative "o2 & s9ce1 if s1 x is "o ( ^? d]ivative laws :i* are nei!r laws ( causation1 nor h be5 resolv$ into ! laws ( causation on :i* !y dep5d1 x c possess no high] degree ( evid5ce ?an belongs to an empirical law4 #d4 ,?is conclusion w be confirm$ by ! consid]ation ( "o great defici5cy1 :i* precludes ! application to ! ultimate uni=mities ( coexi/5ce1 ( a sy/em ( rigor\s sci5tific induction1 su* z ! uni=mities 9 ! succession ( ph5om5a h be5 f\nd to admit (4 ,! basis ( su* a sy/em is want+3 !re is no g5]al axiom1 /&+ 9 ! same relation to ! uni=mities ( coexi/5ce z ! law ( causation does to ^? ( succession4 ,! ,me?ods ( ,induction applicable to ! asc]ta9m5t ( causes & effects1 are gr\nd$ on ! pr9ciple t ev]y?+ :i* has a beg9n+ mu/ h "s cause or o!r2 t among ! circum/ances :i* actually exi/$ at ! "t ( its comm5cem5t1 !re is c]ta9ly "s "o comb9ation1 on :i* ! effect 9 "q is unconditionally consequ5t1 & on ! repetition ( :i* x w\ld c]ta9ly aga9 recur4 ,b 9 an inquiry :e!r "s k9d 7z cr[7 univ]sally possesses a c]ta9 prop]ty 7z blackness71 !re is no room = any assumption analog\s to ?is4 ,we h no previ\s c]ta9ty t ! prop]ty mu/ h some?+ :i* con/antly coexi/s ) x2 mu/ h an inv>iable coexi/5t1 9 ! same mann] z an ev5t mu/ h an inv>iable antec$5t4 ,:5 we feel pa91 we mu/ be 9 "s circum/ances "u :i* if exactly repeat$ we %\ld always feel pa94 ,b :5 we are consci\s ( blackness1 x does n foll[ t !re is some?+ else pres5t ( :i* blackness is a con/ant accompanim5t4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 no room = elim9ation2 no ,me?od ( ,agreem5t or ,diff]5ce1 or ( ,concomitant ,v>iations 7:i* is b a modification ei!r ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t or ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce74 ,we _c conclude t ! blackness we see 9 cr[s mu/ be an inv>iable prop]ty ( cr[s1 m]ely because !re is no?+ else pres5t ( :i* x c be an inv>iable prop]ty4 ,we !re=e inquire into ! tru? ( a proposition l ,all cr[s are black1 "u ! same disadvantage z if1 9 our inquiries into causation1 we 7 compell$ to let 91 z "o ( ! possibilities1 t ! effect may 9 t p>ticul> in/ance h aris5 )\t any cause at all4 ,to ov]look ?is gr& di/9ction 01 z x seems to me1 ! capital error 9 ,bacon's view ( inductive philosophy4 ,! pr9ciple ( elim9ation1 t great logical in/rum5t :i* he _h ! imm5se m]it ( fir/ br++ into g5]al use1 he deem$ applicable 9 ! same s5se1 & 9 z unqualifi$ a mann]1 to ! inve/igation ( ! coexi/5ces1 z to t ( ! successions ( ph5om5a4 ,he seems to h ?\ght t z e ev5t has a cause1 or inv>iable antec$5t1 s e prop]ty ( an object has an inv>iable coexi/5t1 :i* he call$ its ,=m3 & ! examples he *iefly select$ = ! application & illu/ration ( 8 me?od1 7 inquiries into su* ,=ms2 attempts to det]m9e 9 :at else all ^? objects resembl$1 :i* agre$ 9 "s "o g5]al prop]ty1 z h>dness or s(tness1 dryness or moi/ness1 heat or coldness4 ,su* inquiries c\ld lead to no result4 ,! objects seldom h any su* circum/ances 9 common4 ,!y usually agree 9 ! "o po9t inquir$ into1 & 9 no?+ else4 ,a great proportion ( ! prop]ties :i*1 s f> z we c conjecture1 are ! likelie/ to be really ultimate1 w\ld seem to be inh]5tly prop]ties ( _m diff]5t ,k9ds ( ?+s1 n alli$ 9 any o!r respect4 ,& z = ! prop]ties :i*1 be+ effects ( causes1 we are able to give "s acc\nt (1 !y h g5]ally no?+ to d ) ! ultimate resemblances or div]sities 9 ! objects !mselves1 b dep5d on "s outw>d circum/ances1 "u ! influ5ce ( :i* any objects :atev] are capable ( manife/+ ^? prop]ties2 z is emphatically ! case ) ^? fav\rite subjects ( ,bacon's sci5tific inquiries1 hotness & coldness2 z well z ) h>dness & s(tness1 solidity & fluidity1 & _m o!r conspicu\s qualities4 ,9 ! abs5ce1 !n1 ( any univ]sal law ( coexi/5ce1 simil> to ! univ]sal law ( causation :i* regulates sequ5ce1 we are ?r[n back ^u ! unsci5tific induction ( ! anci5ts1 p] enum]ationem simplicem1 ubi non rep]itur in/antia contradictoria4 ,! reason we h = believ+ t all cr[s are black1 is simply t we h se5 & he>d ( _m black cr[s1 & nev] "o ( any o!r col\r4 ,x rema9s to be consid]$ h[ f> ?is evid5ce c rea*1 & h[ we are to measure its /r5g? 9 any giv5 case4 #e4 ,x sometimes happ5s t a m]e *ange 9 ! mode ( v]bally enunciat+ a "q1 ?\gh no?+ is really add$ to ! mean+ express$1 is ( itself a consid]able /ep t[>ds its solution4 ,?is1 ,i ?9k1 happ5s 9 ! pres5t in/ance4 ,! degree ( c]ta9ty ( any g5]alization :i* re/s on no o!r evid5ce ?an ! agreem5t1 s f> z x goes1 ( all pa/ obs]vation1 is b ano!r phrase = ! degree ( improbability t an exception1 if any exi/$1 c\ld h hi!rto rema9$ unobs]v$4 ,! reason = believ+ t all cr[s are black1 is measur$ by ! improbability t cr[s ( any o!r col\r %\ld h exi/$ to ! pres5t "t )\t our be+ aw>e ( x4 ,let u /ate ! "q 9 ?is la/ mode1 & consid] :at is impli$ 9 ! supposition t !re may be cr[s :i* are n black1 & "u :at conditions we c be ju/ifi$ 9 reg>d+ ?is z incr$ible4 ,if !re really exi/ cr[s :i* are n black1 "o ( two ?+s mu/ be ! fact4 ,ei!r ! circum/ance ( blackness1 9 all cr[s hi!rto obs]v$1 mu/ be1 z x 71 an accid5t1 n connect$ ) any di/9ction ( ,k9d2 or if x be a prop]ty ( ,k9d1 ! cr[s :i* are n black mu/ be a new ,k9d1 a ,k9d hi!rto ov]look$1 ?\gh com+ "u ! same g5]al description by :i* cr[s h hi!rto be5 *>act]iz$4 ,! fir/ supposition w\ld be prov$ true if we 7 to discov] casually a :ite cr[ among black ones1 or if x 7 f\nd t black cr[s sometimes turn :ite4 ,! second w\ld be %[n to be ! fact if 9 ,au/ralia or ,c5tral ,africa a species or a race ( :ite or grey cr[s 7 f\nd to exi/4 #f4 ,! =m] ( ^! suppositions necess>ily implies t ! col\r is an effect ( causation4 ,if blackness1 9 ! cr[s 9 :i* x has be5 obs]v$1 be n a prop]ty ( ,k9d1 b c be pres5t or abs5t )\t any diff]5ce g5]ally 9 ! prop]ties ( ! object2 !n x is n an ultimate fact 9 ! individuals !mselves1 b is c]ta9ly dep5d5t on a cause4 ,!re are1 no d\bt1 _m prop]ties :i* v>y f individual to individual ( ! same ,k9d1 ev5 ! same infima species1 or l[e/ ,k9d4 ,"s fl[]s may be ei!r :ite or r$1 )\t diff]+ 9 any o!r respect4 ,b ^! prop]ties are n ultimate2 !y dep5d on causes4 ,s f> z ! prop]ties ( a ?+ belong to its own nature1 & d n arise f "s cause extr9sic to x1 !y are always ! same 9 ! same ,k9d4 ,take1 = in/ance1 all simple sub/ances & elem5t>y p[]s2 ! only ?+s ( :i* we are c]ta9 t "s at lea/ ( _! prop]ties are really ultimate4 ,col\r is g5]ally e/eem$ ! mo/ v>iable ( all prop]ties3 yet we d n f9d t sulphur is sometimes yell[ & sometimes :ite1 or t x v>ies 9 col\r at all1 except s f> z col\r is ! effect ( "s extr9sic cause1 z ( ! sort ( light ?r[n ^u x1 ! me*anical arrangem5t ( ! p>ticles1 7z aft] fusion7 c4 ,we d n f9d t iron is sometimes fluid & sometimes solid at ! same temp]ature2 gold sometimes malleable & sometimes brittle2 t hydrog5 w sometimes comb9e ) oxyg5 & sometimes n2 or ! l4 ,if f simple sub/ances we pass to any ( _! def9ite comp\nds1 z wat]1 lime1 or sulphuric acid1 !re is ! same con/ancy 9 _! prop]ties4 ,:5 prop]ties v>y f individual to individual1 x is ei!r 9 ! case ( miscellane\s aggregations1 su* z atmosph]ic air or rock1 compos$ ( het]og5e\s sub/ances1 & n con/itut+ or belong+ to any real ,k9d1#cc or x is 9 ! case ( organic be+s4 ,9 !m1 inde$1 !re is v>iability 9 a high degree4 ,animals ( ! same species & race1 human be+s ( ! same age1 sex1 & c\ntry1 w be mo/ diff]5t1 = example1 9 face & figure4 ,b organiz$ be+s 7f ! extreme complication ( ! laws by :i* !y are regulat$7 be+ m em95tly modifiable1 t is1 liable to be influ5c$ by a great] numb] & v>iety ( causes1 ?an any o!r ph5om5a :atev]2 hav+ also !mselves _h a beg9n+1 & !re=e a cause2 !re is reason to believe t none ( _! prop]ties are ultimate1 b all ( !m d]ivative1 & produc$ by causation4 ,& ! presumption is confirm$1 by ! fact t ! prop]ties :i* v>y f "o individual to ano!r1 also g5]ally v>y m or less at diff]5t times 9 ! same individual2 :i* v>iation1 l any o!r ev5t1 supposes a cause1 & implies1 consequ5tly1 t ! prop]ties are n indep5d5t ( causation4 ,if1 !re=e1 blackness be m]ely accid5tal 9 cr[s1 & capable ( v>y+ :ile ! ,k9d rema9s ! same1 its pres5ce or abs5ce is d\btless no ultimate fact1 b ! effect ( "s unkn[n cause3 & 9 t case ! univ]sality ( ! exp]i5ce t all cr[s are black is suffici5t pro( ( a common cause1 & e/abli%es ! g5]alization z an empirical law4 ,s9ce !re are innum]able in/ances 9 ! affirmative1 & hi!rto none at all 9 ! negative1 ! causes on :i* ! prop]ty dep5ds mu/ exi/ ev]y:]e 9 ! limits ( ! obs]vations :i* h be5 made2 & ! proposition may be receiv$ z univ]sal )9 ^? limits1 & ) ! all[able degree ( ext5sion to adjac5t cases4 #g4 ,if1 9 ! second place1 ! prop]ty1 9 ! in/ances 9 :i* x has be5 obs]v$1 is n an effect ( causation1 x is a prop]ty ( ,k9d2 & 9 t case ! g5]alization c only be set aside by ! discov]y ( a new ,k9d ( cr[4 ,t1 h[ev]1 a peculi> ,k9d1 n hi!rto discov]$1 %\ld exi/ 9 nature1 is a supposition s (t5 realiz$1 t x _c be consid]$ at all improbable4 ,we h no?+ to au?orize u 9 attempt+ to limit ! ,k9ds ( ?+s :i* exi/ 9 nature4 ,! only unlikelihood w\ld be t a new ,k9d %\ld be discov]$ 9 localities :i* !re 0 previ\sly reason to believe _h be5 ?or\ghly explor$2 & ev5 ?is improbability dep5ds on ! degree ( conspicu\sness ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! newly-discov]$ ,k9d & all o!rs1 s9ce new ,k9ds ( m9]als1 plants1 & ev5 animals1 previ\sly ov]look$ or conf\nd$ ) kn[n species1 are /ill cont9ually detect$ 9 ! mo/ frequ5t$ situations4 ,on ?is second gr\nd1 !re=e1 z well z on ! fir/1 ! obs]v$ uni=mity ( coexi/5ce c only hold good z an empirical law1 )9 ! limits n only ( actual obs]vation1 b ( an obs]vation z accurate z ! nature ( ! case requir$4 ,& h5ce x is t 7z rem>k$ 9 an e>ly *apt] ( ! pres5t ,book7 we s (t5 give up g5]alizations ( ?is class at ! fir/ summons4 ,if any cr$ible witness /at$ t he _h se5 a :ite cr[1 "u circum/ances :i* made x n incr$ible t x %\ld h escap$ notice previ\sly1 we %\ld give full cr$5ce to ! /atem5t4 ,x appe>s1 !n1 t ! uni=mities :i* obta9 9 ! coexi/5ce ( ph5om5a1--^? :i* we h reason to consid] z ultimate1 no less ?an ^? :i* arise f ! laws ( causes yet undetect$--are entitl$ to reception only z empirical laws2 are n to be presum$ true except )9 ! limits ( "t1 place1 & circum/ance1 9 :i* ! obs]vations 7 made1 or except 9 cases /rictly adjac5t4 #h4 ,we h se5 9 ! la/ *apt] t !re is a po9t ( g5]ality at :i* empirical laws become z c]ta9 z laws ( nature1 or r1 at :i* !re is no long] any di/9ction betwe5 empirical laws & laws ( nature4 ,z empirical laws approa* ?is po9t1 9 o!r words1 z !y rise 9 _! degree ( g5]ality1 !y become m c]ta92 _! univ]sality may be m /rongly reli$ on4 ,=1 9 ! fir/ place1 if !y are results ( causation 7:i*1 ev5 9 ! class ( uni=mities treat$ ( 9 ! pres5t *apt]1 we nev] c be c]ta9 t !y are n7 ! m g5]al !y are1 ! great] is prov$ to be ! space ov] :i* ! necess>y collocations prevail1 & )9 :i* no causes exi/ capable ( c\nt]act+ ! unkn[n causes on :i* ! empirical law dep5ds4 ,to say t any?+ is an inv>iable prop]ty ( "s v limit$ class ( objects1 is to say t x inv>iably accompanies "s v num]\s & complex gr\p ( di/+ui%+ prop]ties2 :i*1 if causation be at all conc]n$ 9 ! matt]1 argues a comb9ation ( _m causes1 & !re=e a great liability to c\nt]action2 :ile ! comp>atively n>r[ range ( ! obs]vations r5d]s x impossible to pr$ict to :at ext5t unkn[n c\nt]act+ causes may be di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t nature4 ,b :5 a g5]alization has be5 f\nd to hold good ( a v l>ge proportion ( all ?+s :atev]1 x is already prov$ t ne>ly all ! causes :i* exi/ 9 nature h no p[] ov] x2 t v few *anges 9 ! comb9ation ( causes c effect x2 s9ce ! great] numb] ( possible comb9ations mu/ h already exi/$ 9 "s "o or o!r ( ! in/ances 9 :i* x has be5 f\nd true4 ,if1 !re=e1 any empirical law is a result ( causation1 ! m g5]al x is1 ! m x may be dep5d$ on4 ,& ev5 if x be no result ( causation1 b an ultimate coexi/5ce1 ! m g5]al x is1 ! great] am\nt ( exp]i5ce x is d]iv$ f1 & ! great] !re=e is ! probability t if exceptions _h exi/$1 "s w\ld already h pres5t$ !mselves4 ,= ^! reasons1 x requires mu* m evid5ce to e/abli% an exception to "o ( ! m g5]al empirical laws ?an to ! m special ones4 ,we %\ld n h any difficulty 9 believ+ t !re might be a new ,k9d ( cr[2 or a new k9d ( bird resembl+ a cr[ 9 ! prop]ties hi!rto consid]$ di/9ctive ( t ,k9d4 ,b x w\ld require /rong] pro( to conv9ce u ( ! exi/5ce ( a ,k9d ( cr[ hav+ prop]ties at v>iance ) any g5]ally recognis$ univ]sal prop]ty ( birds2 & a /ill high] degree if ! prop]ties conflict ) any recognis$ univ]sal prop]ty ( animals4 ,& ?is is con=mable to ! mode ( judgm5t recomm5d$ by ! common s5se & g5]al practice ( mank9d1 :o are m incr$ul\s z to any novelties 9 nature1 accord+ to ! degree ( g5]ality ( ! exp]i5ce :i* ^! novelties seem to contradict4 #i4 ,/ill1 h[ev]1 ev5 ^! great] g5]alizations1 :i* embrace compreh5sive ,k9ds1 conta9+ "u !m a great numb] & v>iety ( infim species1 are only empirical laws1 re/+ on induction by simple enum]ation m]ely1 & n on any process ( elim9ation1 a process :olly inapplicable to ?is sort ( case4 ,su* g5]alizations1 !re=e1 ought to be gr\nd$ on an exam9ation ( all ! infim species compreh5d$ 9 !m1 & n ( a portion only4 ,we _c conclude 7:]e causation is n conc]n$71 because a proposition is true ( a numb] ( ?+s resembl+ "o ano!r only 9 be+ animals1 t x is !re=e true ( all animals4 ,if1 inde$1 any?+ be true ( species :i* diff] m f "o ano!r ?an ei!r diff]s f a ?ird1 7especially if t ?ird species occupies 9 mo/ ( its kn[n prop]ties a position betwe5 ! two =m]17 !re is "s probability t ! same ?+ w also be true ( t int]m$iate species2 = x is (t51 ?\gh by no means univ]sally1 f\nd1 t !re is a sort ( p>allelism 9 ! prop]ties ( diff]5t ,k9ds1 & t _! degree ( unlik5ess 9 "o respect be>s "s proportion to _! unlik5ess 9 o!rs4 ,we see ?is p>allelism 9 ! prop]ties ( ! diff]5t metals2 9 ^? ( sulphur1 phosphorus1 & c>bon2 ( *lor9e1 iod9e1 & brom9e2 9 ! natural ord]s ( plants & animals1 c4 ,b !re are innum]able anomalies & exceptions to ?is sort ( con=mity2 if inde$ ! con=mity itself be any?+ b an anomaly & an exception 9 nature4 ,univ]sal propositions1 !re=e1 respect+ ! prop]ties ( sup]ior ,k9ds1 unless gr\nd$ on prov$ or presum$ connexion by causation1 ought n to be haz>d$ except aft] sep>ately exam9+ e kn[n sub-k9d includ$ 9 ! l>g] ,k9d4 ,& ev5 !n su* g5]alizations mu/ be held 9 read9ess to be giv5 up on ! occurr5ce ( "s new anomaly1 :i*1 :5 ! uni=mity is n d]iv$ f causation1 c nev]1 ev5 9 ! case ( ! mo/ g5]al ( ^! empirical laws1 be consid]$ v improbable4 ,?us all ! univ]sal propositions :i* x has be5 attempt$ to lay d[n respect+ simple sub/ances1 or conc]n+ any ( ! classes :i* h be5 =m$ among simple sub/ances1 7& ! attempt has be5 (t5 made17 h1 ) ! progress ( exp]i5ce1 ei!r fad$ into inanity1 or be5 prov$ to be errone\s2 & ea* ,k9d ( simple sub/ance rema9s ) its own collection ( prop]ties ap>t f ! re/1 sav+ a c]ta9 p>allelism ) a few o!r ,k9ds1 ! mo/ simil> to itself4 ,9 organiz$ be+s1 inde$1 !re are abundance ( propositions asc]ta9$ to be univ]sally true ( sup]ior g5]a1 to _m ( :i* ! discov]y h]eaft] ( any exceptions mu/ be reg>d$ z extremely improbable4 ,b ^!1 z already obs]v$1 are1 we h e reason to believe1 prop]ties dep5d5t on causation4 ,uni=mities ( coexi/5ce1 !n1 n only :5 !y are consequ5ces ( laws ( succession1 b also :5 !y are ultimate tru?s1 mu/ be rank$1 = ! purpose ( logic1 among empirical laws2 & are am5able 9 e respect to ! same rules ) ^? unresolv$ uni=mities :i* are kn[n to be dep5d5t on causation4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,( ,,approximate ,,g5]alizations1 ,,& ,,probable ,,evid5ce4 #a4 ,9 our inquiries into ! nature ( ! inductive process1 we mu/ n conf9e our notice to su* g5]alizations f exp]i5ce z pr(ess to be univ]sally true4 ,!re is a class ( inductive tru?s av[$ly n univ]sal2 9 :i* x is n pret5d$ t ! pr$icate is always true ( ! subject2 b ! value ( :i*1 z g5]alizations1 is nev]!less extremely great4 ,an important portion ( ! field ( inductive k does n consi/ ( univ]sal tru?s1 b ( approximations to su* tru?s2 & :5 a conclusion is said to re/ on probable evid5ce1 ! premises x is drawn f are usually g5]alizations ( ?is sort4 ,z e c]ta9 inf]5ce respect+ a p>ticul> case1 implies t !re is gr\nd = a g5]al proposition1 ( ! =m1 ,e ,a is ,b2 s does e probable inf]5ce suppose t !re is gr\nd = a proposition ( ! =m1 ,mo/ ,a are ,b3 & ! degree ( probability ( ! inf]5ce 9 an av]age case1 w dep5d on ! proportion betwe5 ! numb] ( in/ances exi/+ 9 nature :i* accord ) ! g5]alization1 & ! numb] ( ^? :i* conflict ) x4 #b4 ,propositions 9 ! =m1 ,mo/ ,a are ,b1 are ( a v diff]5t degree ( importance 9 sci5ce1 & 9 ! practice ( life4 ,to ! sci5tific inquir] !y are valuable *iefly z mat]ials =1 & /eps t[>ds1 univ]sal tru?s4 ,! discov]y ( ^! is ! prop] end ( sci5ce3 its "w is n done if x /ops at ! proposition t a majority ( ,a are ,b1 )\t circumscrib+ t majority by "s common "*1 fitt$ to di/+ui% !m f ! m9ority4 ,indep5d5tly ( ! inf]ior precision ( su* imp]fect g5]alizations1 & ! inf]ior assurance ) :i* !y c be appli$ to individual cases1 x is pla9 t1 comp>$ ) exact g5]alizations1 !y are almo/ useless z means ( discov]+ ult]ior tru?s by way ( d$uction4 ,we may1 x is true1 by comb9+ ! proposition ,mo/ ,a are ,b1 ) an univ]sal proposition1 ,e ,b is ,c1 arrive at ! conclusion t ,mo/ ,a are ,c4 ,b :5 a second proposition ( ! approximate k9d is introduc$1--or ev5 :5 !re is b "o1 if t "o be ! major premise1--no?+ c 9 g5]al be positively conclud$4 ,:5 ! major is ,mo/ ,b are ,d1 !n1 ev5 if ! m9or be ,e ,a is ,b1 we _c inf] t mo/ ,a are ,d1 or ) any c]ta9ty t ev5 "s ,a are ,d4 ,?\gh ! majority ( ! class ,b h ! attribute signifi$ by ,d1 ! :ole ( ! sub-class ,a may belong to ! m9ority4#cd ,?\gh s little use c be made1 9 sci5ce1 ( approximate g5]alizations1 except z a /age on ! road to some?+ bett]1 = practical guidance !y are (t5 all we h to rely on4 ,ev5 :5 sci5ce has really det]m9$ ! univ]sal laws ( any ph5om5on1 n only are ^? laws g5]ally too mu* encumb]$ ) conditions to be adapt$ = e-day use1 b ! cases :i* pres5t !mselves 9 life are too complicat$1 & our decisions require to be tak5 too rapidly1 to admit ( wait+ till ! exi/5ce ( a ph5om5on c be prov$ by :at h be5 sci5tifically asc]ta9$ to be univ]sal m>ks ( x4 ,to be indecisive & reluctant to act1 because we h n evid5ce ( a p]fectly conclusive "* to act on1 is a defect sometimes incid5t to sci5tific m9ds1 b :i*1 :]ev] x exi/s1 r5d]s !m unfit = practical em]g5cies4 ,if we w\ld succe$ 9 action1 we mu/ judge by indications :i*1 ?\gh !y d n g5]ally mislead u1 sometimes d2 & mu/ make up1 z f> z possible1 = ! incomplete conclusiv5ess ( any "o indication1 by obta9+ o!rs to corroborate x4 ,! pr9ciples ( induction applicable to approximate g5]alization are !re=e a n less important subject ( inquiry1 ?an ! rules = ! inve/igation ( univ]sal tru?s2 & might reasonably be expect$ to deta9 u almo/ z long1 7 x n t ^! pr9ciples are m]e coroll>ies f ^? :i* h be5 already treat$ (4 #c4 ,!re are two sorts ( cases 9 :i* we are =c$ to guide ourselves by g5]alizations ( ! imp]fect =m1 ,mo/ ,a are ,b4 ,! fir/ is1 :5 we h no o!rs2 :5 we h n be5 able to c>ry our inve/igation ( ! laws ( ! ph5om5a any f>!r2 z 9 ! foll[+ propositions3 ,mo/ d>k-ey$ p]sons h d>k hair2 ,mo/ spr+s conta9 m9]al sub/ances2 ,mo/ /ratifi$ =mations conta9 fossils4 ,! importance ( ?is class ( g5]alizations is n v great2 =1 ?\gh x frequ5tly happ5s t we see no reason :y t :i* is true ( mo/ individuals ( a class is n true ( ! rema9d]1 nor are able to br+ ! =m] "u any g5]al description :i* c di/+ui% !m f ! latt]1 yet if we are will+ to be satisfi$ ) propositions ( a less degree ( g5]ality1 & to break d[n ! class ,a into subclasses1 we may g5]ally obta9 a collection ( propositions exactly true4 ,we d n "k :y mo/ wood is light] ?an wat]1 nor c we po9t out any g5]al prop]ty :i* discrim9ates wood t is light] ?an wat] f t :i* is heavi]4 ,b we "k exactly :at species are ! "o & :at ! o!r4 ,& if we meet ) a specim5 n con=mable to any kn[n species 7! only case 9 :i* our previ\s k af=ds no o!r guidance ?an ! approximate g5]alization71 we c g5]ally make a specific exp]im5t1 :i* is a sur] res\rce4 ,x (t5 happ5s1 h[ev]1 t ! proposition1 ,mo/ ,a are ,b1 is n ! ultimatum ( our sci5tific progress1 ?\gh ! k we possess beyond x _c conv5i5tly be br\ght to be> ^u ! p>ticul> in/ance4 ,9 su* a case we "k well en\gh :at circum/ances di/+ui% ! portion ( ,a :i* has ! attribute ,b f ! portion :i* has x n1 b h no means1 or h n "t1 to exam9e :e!r ^? *>act]i/ic circum/ances exi/ or n 9 ! individual case4 ,?is is ! situation we are g5]ally 9 :5 ! inquiry is ( ! k9d call$ moral1 t is1 ( ! k9d :i* has 9 view to pr$ict human actions4 ,to enable u to affirm any?+ univ]sally conc]n+ ! actions ( classes ( human be+s1 ! classification mu/ be gr\nd$ on ! circum/ances ( _! m5tal culture & habits1 :i* 9 an individual case are seldom exactly kn[n2 & classes gr\nd$ on ^! di/9ctions w\ld nev] precisely accord ) ^? into :i* mank9d are divid$ = social purposes4 ,all propositions :i* c be fram$ respect+ ! actions ( human be+s z ord9>ily classifi$1 or z classifi$ accord+ to any k9d ( outw>d indications1 are m]ely approximate4 ,we c only say1 ,mo/ p]sons ( a p>ticul> age1 pr(ession1 c\ntry1 or rank 9 society1 h su* & su* qualities2 or1 ,mo/ p]sons :5 plac$ 9 c]ta9 circum/ances act 9 su* & su* a way4 ,n t we d n (t5 "k well en\gh on :at causes ! qualities dep5d1 or :at sort ( p]sons !y are :o act 9 t p>ticul> way2 b we h seldom ! means ( kn[+ :e!r any individual p]son has be5 "u ! influ5ce ( ^? causes1 or is a p]son ( t p>ticul> sort4 ,we c\ld replace ! approximate g5]alizations by propositions univ]sally true2 b ^! w\ld h>dly ev] be capable ( be+ appli$ to practice4 ,we %\ld be sure ( our majors1 b we %\ld n be able to get m9ors to fit3 we are =c$1 !re=e1 to draw our conclusions f co>s] & m fallible indications4 #d4 ,proce$+ n[ to consid]1 :at is to be reg>d$ z suffici5t evid5ce ( an approximate g5]alization2 we c h no difficulty 9 at once recognis+ t :5 admissible at all1 x is admissible only z an empirical law4 ,propositions ( ! =m1 ,e ,a is ,b1 are n necess>ily laws ( causation1 or ultimate uni=mities ( coexi/5ce2 propositions l ,mo/ ,a are ,b _c be s4 ,propositions hi!rto f\nd true 9 e obs]v$ in/ance1 may yet be no necess>y consequ5ce ( laws ( causation1 or ( ultimate uni=mities1 & unless !y are s1 may1 = aught we "k1 be false beyond ! limits ( actual obs]vation3 /ill m evid5tly mu/ ?is be ! case ) propositions :i* are only true 9 a m]e majority ( ! obs]v$ in/ances4 ,!re is "s diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 9 ! degree ( c]ta9ty ( ! proposition1 ,mo/ ,a are ,b1 accord+ z t approximate g5]alization composes ! :ole ( our k ( ! subject1 or n4 ,suppose1 fir/1 t ! =m] is ! case4 ,we "k only t mo/ ,a are ,b1 n :y !y are s1 nor 9 :at respect ^? :i* are1 diff] f ^? :i* are n4 ,h[ !n did we le>n t mo/ ,a are ,b8 ,precisely 9 ! mann] 9 :i* we %\ld h le>nt1 _h su* happ5$ to be ! fact1 t all ,a are ,b4 ,we collect$ a numb] ( in/ances suffici5t to elim9ate *ance1 & hav+ done s1 comp>$ ! numb] ( in/ances 9 ! affirmative ) ! numb] 9 ! negative4 ,! result1 l o!r unresolv$ d]ivative laws1 c be reli$ on solely )9 ! limits n only ( place & "t1 b also ( circum/ance1 "u :i* its tru? has be5 actually obs]v$2 = z we are suppos$ to be ignorant ( ! causes :i* make ! proposition true1 we _c tell 9 :at mann] any new circum/ance might p]haps affect x4 ,! proposition1 ,mo/ judges are inaccessible to bribes1 w\ld be f\nd true ( ,engli%m51 ,fr5*m51 ,g]mans1 ,nor? ,am]icans1 & s =?2 b if on ?is evid5ce alone we ext5d$ ! ass]tion to ,ori5tals1 we %\ld /ep beyond ! limits1 n only ( place b ( circum/ance1 )9 :i* ! fact _h be5 obs]v$1 & %\ld let 9 possibilities ( ! abs5ce ( ! det]m9+ causes1 or ! pres5ce ( c\nt]act+ ones1 :i* might be fatal to ! approximate g5]alization4 ,9 ! case :]e ! approximate proposition is n ! ultimatum ( our sci5tific k1 b only ! mo/ available =m ( x = practical guidance2 :]e we "k1 n only t mo/ ,a h ! attribute ,b1 b also ! causes ( ,b1 or "s prop]ties by :i* ! portion ( ,a :i* has t attribute is di/+ui%$ f ! portion :i* has x n2 we are r m fav\rably situat$ ?an 9 ! prec$+ case4 ,= we h n[ a d\ble mode ( asc]ta9+ :e!r x be true t mo/ ,a are ,b2 ! direct mode1 z be=e1 & an indirect "o1 t ( exam9+ :e!r ! proposition admits ( be+ d$uc$ f ! kn[n cause1 or f any kn[n crit]ion1 ( ,b4 ,let ! "q1 = example1 be :e!r mo/ ,scot*m5 c read8 ,we may n h obs]v$1 or receiv$ ! te/imony ( o!rs respect+1 a suffici5t numb] & v>iety ( ,scot*m5 to asc]ta9 ?is fact2 b :5 we consid] t ! cause ( be+ able to read is ! hav+ be5 taught x1 ano!r mode ( det]m9+ ! "q pres5ts itself1 namely1 by inquir+ :e!r mo/ ,scot*m5 h be5 s5t to s*ools :]e read+ is effectually taught4 ,( ^! two modes1 sometimes "o & sometimes ! o!r is ! m available4 ,9 "s cases1 ! frequ5cy ( ! effect is ! m accessible to t ext5sive & v>i$ obs]vation :i* is indisp5sable to ! e/abli%m5t ( an empirical law2 at o!r times1 ! frequ5cy ( ! causes1 or ( "s collat]al indications4 ,x commonly happ5s t nei!r is susceptible ( s satisfactory an induction z c\ld be desir$1 & t ! gr\nds on :i* ! conclusion is receiv$ are comp\nd$ ( bo?4 ,?us a p]son may believe t mo/ ,scot*m5 c read1 because1 s f> z 8 in=mation ext5ds1 mo/ ,scot*m5 h be5 s5t to s*ool1 & mo/ ,scot* s*ools tea* read+ effectually2 & also because mo/ ( ! ,scot*m5 :om he has kn[n or he>d (1 c\ld read2 ?\gh nei!r ( ^! two sets ( obs]vations may by itself fulfil ! necess>y conditions ( ext5t & v>iety4 ,al?\gh ! approximate g5]alization may 9 mo/ cases be indisp5sable = our guidance1 ev5 :5 we "k ! cause1 or "s c]ta9 m>k1 ( ! attribute pr$icat$2 x ne$s h>dly be obs]v$ t we may always replace ! unc]ta9 indication by a c]ta9 "o1 9 any case 9 :i* we c actually recognise ! exi/5ce ( ! cause or m>k4 ,= example1 an ass]tion is made by a witness1 & ! "q is1 :e!r to believe x4 ,if we d n look to any ( ! individual circum/ances ( ! case1 we h no?+ to direct u b ! approximate g5]alization1 t tru? is m common ?an falsehood1 or1 9 o!r words1 t mo/ p]sons1 on mo/ occasions1 speak tru?4 ,b if we consid] 9 :at circum/ances ! cases :]e tru? is spok5 diff] f ^? 9 :i* x is n1 we f9d1 = in/ance1 ! foll[+3 ! witness's be+ an hone/ p]son or n2 8 be+ an accurate obs]v] or n2 8 hav+ an int]e/ to s]ve 9 ! matt] or n4 ,n[1 n only may we be able to obta9 o!r approximate g5]alizations respect+ ! degree ( frequ5cy ( ^! v>i\s possibilities1 b we may "k :i* ( !m is positively realiz$ 9 ! individual case4 ,t ! witness has or has n an int]e/ to s]ve1 we p]haps "k directly2 & ! o!r two po9ts indirectly1 by means ( m>ks2 z1 = example1 f 8 conduct on "s =m] occasion2 or f 8 reputation1 :i*1 ?\gh a v unc]ta9 m>k1 af=ds an approximate g5]alization 7z1 = in/ance1 ,mo/ p]sons :o are believ$ to be hone/ by ^? ) :om !y h _h frequ5t deal+s1 are really s7 :i* approa*es ne>] to an univ]sal tru? ?an ! approximate g5]al proposition ) :i* we set out1 viz4 ,mo/ p]sons on mo/ occasions speak tru?4 ,z x seems unnecess>y to dwell fur!r on ! "q ( ! evid5ce ( approximate g5]alizations1 we %all proce$ to a n less important topic1 t ( ! cautions to be obs]v$ 9 argu+ f ^! incompletely univ]sal propositions to p>ticul> cases4 #e4 ,s f> z reg>ds ! direct application ( an approximate g5]alization to an individual in/ance1 ?is "q pres5ts no difficulty4 ,if ! proposition1 ,mo/ ,a are ,b1 has be5 e/abli%$1 by a suffici5t induction1 z an empirical law1 we may conclude t any p>ticul> ,a is ,b ) a probability proportion$ to ! prepond]ance ( ! numb] ( affirmative in/ances ov] ! numb] ( exceptions4 ,if x has be5 f\nd practicable to atta9 num]ical precision 9 ! data1 a correspond+ degree ( precision may be giv5 to ! evaluation ( ! *ances ( error 9 ! conclusion4 ,if x c be e/abli%$ z an empirical law t n9e out ( e t5 ,a are ,b1 !re w be "o *ance 9 t5 ( error 9 assum+ t any ,a1 n individually kn[n to u1 is a ,b3 b ?is ( c\rse holds only )9 ! limits ( "t1 place1 & circum/ance1 embrac$ 9 ! obs]vations1 & !re=e _c be c\nt$ on = any sub-class or v>iety ( ,a 7or = ,a 9 any set ( ext]nal circum/ances7 :i* 7 n includ$ 9 ! av]age4 ,x mu/ be add$1 t we c guide ourselves by ! proposition1 ,n9e out ( e t5 ,a are ,b1 only 9 cases ( :i* we "k no?+ except t !y fall )9 ! class ,a4 ,= if we "k1 ( any p>ticul> in/ance i1 n only t x falls "u ,a1 b to :at species or v>iety ( ,a x belongs1 we %all g5]ally err 9 apply+ to i ! av]age /ruck = ! :ole g5us1 f :i* ! av]age correspond+ to t species alone w\ld1 9 all probability1 mat]ially diff]4 ,& s if i1 in/ead ( be+ a p>ticul> sort ( in/ance1 is an in/ance kn[n to be "u ! influ5ce ( a p>ticul> set ( circum/ances4 ,! presumption drawn f ! num]ical proportions 9 ! :ole g5us w\ld probably1 9 su* a case1 only mislead4 ,a g5]al av]age %\ld only be appli$ to cases :i* are nei!r kn[n1 nor c be presum$1 to be o!r ?an av]age cases4 ,su* av]ages1 !re=e1 are commonly ( little use = ! practical guidance ( any affairs b ^? :i* conc]n l>ge numb]s4 ,tables ( ! *ances ( life are useful to insurance (fices1 b !y g a v little way t[>ds in=m+ any "o ( ! *ances ( 8 own life1 or any o!r life 9 :i* he is int]e/$1 s9ce almo/ e life is ei!r bett] or worse ?an ! av]age4 ,su* av]ages c only be consid]$ z supply+ ! fir/ t]m 9 a s]ies ( approximations2 ! subsequ5t t]ms proce$+ on an appreciation ( ! circum/ances belong+ to ! p>ticul> case4 #f4 ,f ! application ( a s+le approximate g5]alization to individual cases1 we proce$ to ! application ( two or m ( !m toge!r to ! same case4 ,:5 a judgm5t appli$ to an individual in/ance is gr\nd$ on two approximate g5]alizations tak5 9 conjunction1 ! propositions may co-op]ate t[>ds ! result 9 two diff]5t ways4 ,9 ! "o1 ea* proposition is sep>ately applicable to ! case 9 h&1 & our object 9 comb9+ !m is to give to ! conclusion 9 t p>ticul> case ! d\ble probability aris+ f ! two propositions sep>ately4 ,?is may be call$ jo9+ two probabilities by way ( ,addition2 & ! result is a probability great] ?an ei!r4 ,! o!r mode is1 :5 only "o ( ! propositions is directly applicable to ! case1 ! second be+ only applicable to x by virtue ( ! application ( ! fir/4 ,?is is jo9+ two probabilities by way ( ,ratioc9ation or ,d$uction2 ! result ( :i* is a less probability ?an ei!r4 ,! type ( ! fir/ argum5t is1 ,mo/ ,a are ,b2 mo/ ,c are ,b2 ?is ?+ is bo? an ,a & a ,c2 !re=e x is probably a ,b4 ,! type ( ! second is1 ,mo/ ,a are ,b2 mo/ ,c are ,a2 ?is is a ,c2 !re=e x is probably an ,a1 !re=e x is probably a ,b4 ,! fir/ is exemplifi$ :5 we prove a fact by ! te/imony ( two unconnect$ witnesses2 ! second1 :5 we adduce only ! te/imony ( "o witness t he has he>d ! ?+ ass]t$ by ano!r4 ,or aga91 9 ! fir/ mode x may be argu$ t ! accus$ committ$ ! crime1 because he conceal$ himself1 & because 8 clo!s 7 /a9$ ) blood2 9 ! second1 t he committ$ x because he wa%$ or de/roy$ 8 clo!s1 :i* is suppos$ to r5d] x probable t !y 7 /a9$ ) blood4 ,in/ead ( only two l9ks1 z 9 ^! in/ances1 we may suppose *a9s ( any l5g?4 ,a *a9 ( ! =m] k9d 0 t]m$ by ,b5?am#ce a self-corroborative *a9 ( evid5ce2 ! second1 a self-infirmative *a94 ,:5 approximate g5]alizations are jo9$ by way ( addition1 we may d$uce f ! !ory ( probabilities laid d[n 9 a =m] *apt]1 9 :at mann] ea* ( !m adds to ! probability ( a conclusion :i* has ! w>rant ( !m all4 ,9 ! e>ly editions ( ?is treatise1 ! jo9t probability aris+ f ! sum ( two indep5d5t probabilities 0 e/imat$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,if1 on an av]age1 two ( e ?ree ,z are ,bs1 & ?ree ( e f\r ,cs are ,bs1 ! probability t some?+ :i* is bo? an ,a & a ,c is a ,b1 w be m ?an two 9 ?ree1 or ?an ?ree 9 f\r4 ,( e twelve ?+s :i* are ,z1 all except f\r are ,bs by ! supposition2 & if ! :ole twelve1 & consequ5tly ^? f\r1 h ! *>act]s ( ,c likewise1 ?ree ( ^! w be ,bs on t gr\nd4 ,!re=e1 out ( twelve :i* are bo? ,z & ,cs1 elev5 are ,bs4 ,to /ate ! argum5t 9 ano!r way2 a ?+ :i* is bo? an ,a & a ,c1 b :i* is n a ,b1 is f\nd 9 only "o ( ?ree sections ( ! class ,a1 & 9 only "o ( f\r sections ( ! class ,c2 b ?is f\r? ( ,c be+ spread ov] ! :ole ( ,a indiscrim9ately1 only "o-?ird "p ( x 7or "o-twelf? ( ! :ole numb]7 belongs to ! ?ird section ( ,a2 !re=e a ?+ :i* is n a ,b occurs only once1 among twelve ?+s :i* are bo? ,z & ,cs4 ,! argum5t w\ld 9 ! language ( ! doctr9e ( *ances1 be ?us express$3 ! *ance t an ,a is n a ,b is #a_/c1 ! *ance t a ,c is n a ,b is #a_/d2 h5ce if ! ?+ be bo? an ,a & a ,c1 ! *ance is #a_/c ( #a_/d #a_/ab4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 be5 po9t$ out to me by a ma!matical fri5d1 t 9 ?is /atem5t ! evaluation ( ! *ances is errone\s4 ,! correct mode ( sett+ out ! possibilities is z foll[s4 ,if ! ?+ 7let u call x ,t7 :i* is bo? an ,a & a ,c1 is a ,b1 some?+ is true :i* is only true twice 9 e ?rice1 & some?+ else :i* is only true ?rice 9 e f\r times4 ,! fir/ fact be+ true eight times 9 twelve1 & ! second be+ true six times 9 e eight1 & consequ5tly six times 9 ^? eight2 bo? facts w be true only six times 9 twelve4 ,on ! o!r h& if ,t1 al?\gh x is bo? an ,a & a ,c1 is n a ,b1 some?+ is true :i* is only true once 9 e ?rice1 & some?+ else :i* is only true once 9 e f\r times4 ,! =m] be+ true f\r times out ( twelve1 & ! latt] once 9 e f\r1 & !re=e once 9 ^? f\r2 bo? are only true 9 "o case out ( twelve4 ,s t ,t is a ,b six times 9 twelve1 & ,t is n a ,b1 only once3 mak+ ! comp>ative probabilities1 n elev5 to "o1 z ,i _h previ\sly made !m1 b six to "o4 ,x may be ask$1 :at happ5s 9 ! rema9+ cases8 s9ce 9 ?is calculation sev5 out ( twelve cases seem to h exhau/$ ! possibilities4 ,if ,t is a ,b 9 only six cases ( e twelve1 & a n-,b 9 only "o1 :at is x 9 ! o!r five8 ,! only supposition rema9+ = ^? cases is t x is nei!r a ,b nor n a ,b1 :i* is impossible4 ,b ?is impossibility m]ely proves t ! /ate ( ?+s suppos$ 9 ! hypo!sis does n exi/ 9 ^? cases4 ,!y are cases t d n furni% any?+ :i* is bo? an ,a & a ,c4 ,to make ?is intelligible1 we w sub/itute = our symbols a concrete case4 ,let !re be two witnesses1 ,m & ,n1 ^: probabilities ( v]acity correspond ) ! ratios ( ! prec$+ example3 ,m speaks tru? twice 9 e ?rice1 ,n ?rice 9 e f\r times4 ,! "q is1 :at is ! probability t a /atem5t1 9 :i* !y bo? concur1 w be true4 ,! cases may be class$ z foll[s4 ,bo? ! witnesses w speak truly six 9 e twelve times2 bo? falsely once 9 twelve times4 ,!re=e1 if !y bo? agree 9 an ass]tion1 x w be true six times1 = once t x w be false4 ,:at happ5s 9 ! rema9+ cases is "h evid5t2 !re w be five cases 9 e twelve 9 :i* ! witnesses w n agree4 ,m w speak tru? & ,n falsehood 9 two cases ( e twelve2 ,n w speak tru? & ,m falsehood 9 ?ree cases1 mak+ 9 all five4 ,9 ^! cases1 h[ev]1 ! witnesses w n agree 9 _! te/imony4 ,b disagreem5t betwe5 !m is exclud$ by ! supposition4 ,!re are1 !re=e1 only sev5 cases :i* are )9 ! conditions ( ! hypo!sis2 ( :i* sev51 v]acity exi/s 9 six1 & falsehood 9 "o4 ,resum+ our =m] symbols1 9 five cases out ( twelve ,t is n bo? an ,a & a ,c1 b an ,a only1 or a ,c only4 ,! cases 9 :i* x is bo? are only sev51 9 six ( :i* x is a ,b1 9 "o n a ,b1 mak+ ! *ance six to "o1 or #f_/g & #a_/g respectively4 ,9 ?is correct1 z 9 ! =m] incorrect computation1 x is ( c\rse presuppos$ t ! probabilities aris+ f ,a & ,c are indep5d5t ( ea* o!r4 ,!re mu/ n be any su* connexion betwe5 ,a & ,c1 t :5 a ?+ belongs to ! "o class x w !re=e belong to ! o!r1 or ev5 h a great] *ance ( do+ s4 ,o!rwise ! n-,bs :i* are ,cs may be1 mo/ or ev5 all ( !m1 id5tical ) ! n-,bs :i* are ,z2 9 :i* la/ case ! probability aris+ f ,a & ,c toge!r w be no great] ?an t aris+ f ,a alone4 ,:5 approximate g5]alizations are jo9$ toge!r 9 ! o!r mode1 t ( d$uction1 ! degree ( probability ( ! inf]5ce1 in/ead ( increas+1 dim9i%es at ea* /ep4 ,f two su* premises z ,mo/ ,a are ,b1 ,mo/ ,b are ,c1 we _c ) c]ta9ty conclude t ev5 a s+le ,a is ,c2 = ! :ole ( ! portion ( ,a :i* 9 any way falls "u ,b1 may p]haps be compris$ 9 ! exceptional "p ( x4 ,/ill1 ! two propositions 9 "q af=d an appreciable probability t any giv5 ,a is ,c1 provid$ ! av]age on :i* ! second proposition is gr\nd$1 0 tak5 fairly ) ref]5ce to ! fir/2 provid$ ! proposition1 ,mo/ ,b are ,c1 0 arriv$ at 9 a mann] leav+ no suspicion t ! probability aris+ f x is o!rwise ?an fairly di/ribut$ ov] ! section ( ,b :i* belongs to ,a4 ,= ?\gh ! in/ances :i* are ,a may be all 9 ! m9ority1 !y may1 also1 be all 9 ! majority2 & ! "o possibility is to be set aga9/ ! o!r4 ,on ! :ole1 ! probability aris+ f ! two propositions tak5 toge!r1 w be correctly measur$ by ! probability aris+ f ! "o1 abat$ 9 ! ratio ( t aris+ f ! o!r4 ,if n9e out ( t5 ,sw$es h light hair1 & eight out ( n9e inhabitants ( ,/ockholm are ,sw$es1 ! probability aris+ f ^! two propositions1 t any giv5 inhabitant ( ,/ockholm is light-hair$1 w am\nt to eight 9 t52 ?\gh x is rigor\sly possible t ! :ole ,sw$i% population ( ,/ockholm might belong to t t5? section ( ! p ( ,sw$5 :o are an exception to ! re/4 ,if ! premises are kn[n to be true n ( a b>e majority1 b ( ne>ly ! :ole1 ( _! respective subjects1 we may g on jo9+ "o su* proposition to ano!r = sev]al /eps1 be=e we rea* a conclusion n presumably true ev5 ( a majority4 ,! error ( ! conclusion w am\nt to ! aggregate ( ! errors ( all ! premises4 ,let ! proposition1 ,mo/ ,a are ,b1 be true ( n9e 9 t52 ,mo/ ,b are ,c1 ( eight 9 n9e3 !n n only w "o ,a 9 t5 n be ,c1 because n ,b1 b ev5 ( ! n9e-t5?s :i* are ,b1 only eight-n9?s w be ,c3 t is1 ! cases ( ,a :i* are ,c w be only #h_/i ( #i_/aj1 or f\r-fif?s4 ,let u n[ add ,mo/ ,c are ,d1 & suppose ?is to be true ( sev5 cases out ( eight2 ! proportion ( ,a :i* is ,d w be only #g_/h ( #h_/i ( #i_/aj1 or #g_/aj4 ,?us ! probability progressively dw9dles4 ,! exp]i5ce1 h[ev]1 on :i* our approximate g5]alizations are gr\nd$1 has s r>ely be5 subject$ to1 or admits (1 accurate num]ical e/imation1 t we _c 9 g5]al apply any measurem5t to ! dim9ution ( probability :i* takes place at ea* illation2 b mu/ be cont5t ) rememb]+ t x does dim9i% at e /ep1 & t unless ! premises approa* v ne>ly inde$ to be+ univ]sally true1 ! conclusion aft] a v few /eps is wor? no?+4 ,a he>say ( a he>say1 or an argum5t f presumptive evid5ce dep5d+ n on imm$iate m>ks b on m>ks ( m>ks1 is wor?less at a v few removes f ! fir/ /age4 #g4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 two cases 9 :i* reason+s dep5d+ on approximate g5]alizations may be c>ri$ to any l5g? we please ) z mu* assurance1 & are z /rictly sci5tific1 z if !y 7 compos$ ( univ]sal laws ( nature4 ,b ^! cases are exceptions ( ! sort :i* are curr5tly said to prove ! rule4 ,! approximate g5]alizations are z suitable1 9 ! cases 9 "q1 = purposes ( ratioc9ation1 z if !y 7 complete g5]alizations1 because !y are capable ( be+ trans=m$ into complete g5]alizations exactly equival5t4 ,fir/3 ,if ! approximate g5]alization is ( ! class 9 :i* our reason = /opp+ at ! approximation is n ! impossibility1 b only ! inconv5i5ce1 ( go+ fur!r2 if we are cognizant ( ! "* :i* di/+ui%es ! cases t accord ) ! g5]alization f ^? :i* are exceptions to x2 we may !n sub/itute = ! approximate proposition1 an univ]sal proposition ) a proviso4 ,! proposition1 ,mo/ p]sons :o h uncontroll$ p[] employ x ill1 is a g5]alization ( ?is class1 & may be trans=m$ into ! foll[+3--,all p]sons :o h uncontroll$ p[] employ x ill1 provid$ !y are n p]sons ( unusual /r5g? ( judgm5t & rectitude ( purpose4 ,! proposition1 c>ry+ ! hypo!sis or proviso ) x1 may !n be dealt ) no long] z an approximate1 b z an univ]sal proposition2 & to :atev] numb] ( /eps ! reason+ may rea*1 ! hypo!sis1 be+ c>ri$ =w>d to ! conclusion1 w exactly indicate h[ f> t conclusion is f be+ applicable univ]sally4 ,if 9 ! c\rse ( ! argum5t o!r approximate g5]alizations are introduc$1 ea* ( !m be+ 9 l mann] express$ z an univ]sal proposition ) a condition annex$1 ! sum ( all ! conditions w appe> at ! end z ! sum ( all ! errors :i* affect ! conclusion4 ,?us1 to ! proposition la/ cit$1 let u add ! foll[+3--,all absolute mon>*s h uncontroll$ p[]1 unless _! position is su* t !y ne$ ! active support ( _! subjects 7z 0 ! case ) ,que5 ,elizabe?1 ,fr$]ick ( ,prussia1 & o!rs74 ,comb9+ ^! two propositions1 we c d$uce f !m an univ]sal conclusion1 :i* w be subject to bo? ! hypo!ses 9 ! premises2 ,all absolute mon>*s employ _! p[] ill1 unless _! position makes !m ne$ ! active support ( _! subjects1 or unless !y are p]sons ( unusual /r5g? ( judgm5t & rectitude ( purpose4 ,x is ( no consequ5ce h[ rapidly ! errors 9 our premises accumulate1 if we are able 9 ?is mann] to record ea* error1 & keep an acc\nt ( ! aggregate z x swells up4 ,secondly3 !re is a case 9 :i* approximate propositions1 ev5 )\t our tak+ note ( ! conditions "u :i* !y are n true ( individual cases1 are yet1 = ! purposes ( sci5ce1 univ]sal ones2 namely1 9 ! inquiries :i* relate to ! prop]ties n ( individuals1 b ( multitudes4 ,! pr9cipal ( ^! is ! sci5ce ( politics1 or ( human society4 ,?is sci5ce is pr9cipally conc]n$ ) ! actions n ( solit>y individuals1 b ( masses2 ) ! =tunes n ( s+le p]sons1 b ( communities4 ,= ! /atesman1 !re=e1 x is g5]ally en\gh to "k t mo/ p]sons act or are act$ ^u 9 a p>ticul> way2 s9ce 8 speculations & 8 practical arrangem5ts ref] almo/ exclusively to cases 9 :i* ! :ole community1 or "s l>ge portion ( x1 is act$ ^u at once1 & 9 :i*1 !re=e1 :at is done or felt by mo/ p]sons det]m9es ! result produc$ by or ^u ! body at l>ge4 ,he c get on well en\gh ) approximate g5]alizations on human nature1 s9ce :at is true approximately ( all individuals is true absolutely ( all masses4 ,& ev5 :5 ! op]ations ( individual m5 h a "p to play 9 8 d$uctions1 z :5 he is reason+ ( k+s1 or o!r s+le rul]s1 /ill1 z he is provid+ = indef9ite duration1 involv+ an indef9ite succession ( su* individuals1 he mu/ 9 g5]al bo? reason & act z if :at is true ( mo/ p]sons 7 true ( all4 ,! two k9ds ( consid]ations above adduc$ are a suffici5t refutation ( ! popul> error1 t speculations on society & gov]nm5t1 z re/+ on m]ely probable evid5ce1 mu/ be inf]ior 9 c]ta9ty & sci5tific accuracy to ! conclusions ( :at are call$ ! exact sci5ces1 & less to be reli$ on 9 practice4 ,!re are reasons en\gh :y ! moral sci5ces mu/ rema9 inf]ior to at lea/ ! m p]fect ( ! physical3 :y ! laws ( _! m complicat$ ph5om5a _c be s completely deciph]$1 nor ! ph5om5a pr$ict$ ) ! same degree ( assurance4 ,b ?\gh we _c atta9 to s _m tru?s1 !re is no reason t ^? we c atta9 %\ld des]ve less reliance1 or h less ( a sci5tific "*4 ,( ?is topic1 h[ev]1 ,i %all treat m sy/ematically 9 ! conclud+ ,book1 to :i* place any fur!r consid]ation ( x mu/ be def]r$4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,,( ,,! ,,rema9+ ,,laws ,,( ,,nature4 #a4 ,9 ! ,fir/ ,book1 we f\nd t all ! ass]tions :i* c be convey$ by language1 express "s "o or m ( five diff]5t ?+s3 ,exi/5ce2 ,ord] 9 ,place2 ,ord] 9 ,"t2 ,causation2 & ,resemblance4#cf ,( ^!1 ,causation1 9 our view ( ! subject1 n be+ fundam5tally diff]5t f ,ord] 9 ,"t1 ! five species ( possible ass]tions are r$uc$ to f\r4 ,! propositions :i* affirm ,ord] 9 ,"t1 9 ei!r ( its two modes1 ,coexi/5ce & ,succession1 h =m$1 ?us f>1 ! subject ( ! pres5t ,book4 ,& we h n[ conclud$ ! exposition1 s f> z x falls )9 ! limits assign$ to ?is "w1 ( ! nature ( ! evid5ce on :i* ^! propositions re/1 & ! processes ( inve/igation by :i* !y are asc]ta9$ & prov$4 ,!re rema9 ?ree classes ( facts3 ,exi/5ce1 ,ord] 9 ,place1 & ,resemblance2 9 reg>d to :i* ! same que/ions are n[ to be resolv$4 ,reg>d+ ! fir/ ( ^!1 v little ne$s be said4 ,exi/5ce 9 g5]al1 is a subject n = our sci5ce1 b = metaphysics4 ,to det]m9e :at ?+s c be recognis$ z really exi/+1 indep5d5tly ( our own s5sible or o!r impressions1 & 9 :at mean+ ! t]m is1 9 t case1 pr$icat$ ( !m1 belongs to ! consid]ation ( ,?+s 9 !mselves1 f :i*1 ?r\gh\t ?is "w1 we h z mu* z possible kept alo(4 ,exi/5ce1 s f> z ,logic is conc]n$ ab\t x1 has ref]5ce only to ph5om5a2 to actual1 or possible1 /ates ( ext]nal or int]nal consci\sness1 9 ourselves or o!rs4 ,feel+s ( s5sitive be+s1 or possibilities ( hav+ su* feel+s1 are ! only ?+s ! exi/5ce ( :i* c be a subject ( logical induction1 because ! only ?+s ( :i* ! exi/5ce 9 individual cases c be a subject ( exp]i5ce4 ,x is true t a ?+ is said by u to exi/1 ev5 :5 x is abs5t1 & !re=e is n & _c be p]ceiv$4 ,b ev5 !n1 its exi/5ce is to u only ano!r ^w = our conviction t we %\ld p]ceive x on a c]ta9 supposition2 namely1 if we 7 9 ! ne$ful circum/ances ( "t & place1 & end[$ ) ! ne$ful p]fection ( organs4 ,my belief t ! ,emp]or ( ,*9a exi/s1 is simply my belief t if ,i 7 transport$ to ! imp]ial palace or "s o!r locality 9 ,pek91 ,i %\ld see him4 ,my belief t ,julius ,cs> exi/$1 is my belief t ,i %\ld h se5 him if ,i _h be5 pres5t 9 ! field ( ,ph>salia1 or 9 ! s5ate-h\se at ,rome4 ,:5 ,i believe t />s exi/ beyond ! utmo/ range ( my vision1 ?\gh assi/$ by ! mo/ p[]ful telescopes yet inv5t$1 my belief1 philosophically express$1 is1 t ) /ill bett] telescopes1 if su* exi/$1 ,i c\ld see !m1 or t !y may be p]ceiv$ by be+s less remote f !m 9 space1 or ^: capacities ( p]ception are sup]ior to m9e4 ,! exi/5ce1 !re=e1 ( a ph5om5on1 is b ano!r ^w = its be+ p]ceiv$1 or = ! inf]r$ possibility ( p]ceiv+ x4 ,:5 ! ph5om5on is )9 ! range ( pres5t obs]vation1 by pres5t obs]vation we assure ourselves ( its exi/5ce2 :5 x is beyond t range1 & is !re=e said to be abs5t1 we inf] its exi/5ce f m>ks or evid5ces4 ,b :at c ^! evid5ces be8 ,o!r ph5om5a2 asc]ta9$ by induction to be connect$ ) ! giv5 ph5om5on1 ei!r 9 ! way ( succession or ( coexi/5ce4 ,! simple exi/5ce1 !re=e1 ( an individual ph5om5on1 :5 n directly p]ceiv$1 is inf]r$ f "s inductive law ( succession or coexi/5ce3 & is consequ5tly n am5able to any peculi> inductive pr9ciples4 ,we prove ! exi/5ce ( a ?+1 by prov+ t x is connect$ by succession or coexi/5ce ) "s kn[n ?+4 ,) respect to g5]al propositions ( ?is class1 t is1 :i* affirm ! b>e fact ( exi/5ce1 !y h a peculi>ity :i* r5d]s ! logical treatm5t ( !m a v easy matt]2 !y are g5]alizations :i* are suffici5tly prov$ by a s+le in/ance4 ,t gho/s1 or unicorns1 or sea-s]p5ts exi/1 w\ld be fully e/abli%$ if x c\ld be asc]ta9$ positively t su* ?+s _h be5 ev5 once se54 ,:atev] has once happ5$1 is capable ( happ5+ aga92 ! only "q relates to ! conditions "u :i* x happ5s4 ,s f>1 !re=e1 z relates to simple exi/5ce1 ! ,inductive ,logic has no knots to untie4 ,& we may proce$ to ! rema9+ two ( ! great classes into :i* facts h be5 divid$2 ,resemblance1 & ,ord] 9 ,space4 #b4 ,resemblance & its opposite1 except 9 ! case 9 :i* !y assume ! names ( ,equality & ,inequality1 are seldom reg>d$ z subjects ( sci5ce2 !y are suppos$ to be p]ceiv$ by simple appreh5sion2 by m]ely apply+ our s5ses or direct+ our att5tion to ! two objects at once1 or 9 imm$iate succession4 ,& ?is simultane\s1 or virtually simultane\s1 application ( our faculties to ! two ?+s :i* are to be comp>$1 does necess>ily con/itute ! ultimate appeal1 :]ev] su* application is practicable4 ,b1 9 mo/ cases1 x is n practicable3 ! objects _c be br\ght s close toge!r t ! feel+ ( _! resemblance 7at lea/ a complete feel+ ( x7 directly arises 9 ! m9d4 ,we c only comp>e ea* ( !m ) "s ?ird object1 capable ( be+ transport$ f "o to ! o!r4 ,& besides1 ev5 :5 ! objects c be br\ght into imm$iate juxtaposition1 _! resemblance or diff]5ce is b imp]fectly kn[n to u1 unless we h comp>$ !m m9utely1 "p by "p4 ,until ?is has be5 done1 ?+s 9 reality v dissimil> (t5 appe> undi/+ui%ably alike4 ,two l9es ( v unequal l5g? w appe> ab\t equal :5 ly+ 9 diff]5t directions2 b place !m p>allel1 ) _! f>!r extremities ev51 & if we look at ! ne>] extremities1 _! inequality becomes a matt] ( direct p]ception4 ,to asc]ta9 :e!r1 & 9 :at1 two ph5om5a resemble or diff]1 is n always1 !re=e1 s easy a ?+ z x might at fir/ appe>4 ,:5 ! two _c be br\ght into juxtaposition1 or n s t ! obs]v] is able to comp>e _! sev]al p>ts 9 detail1 he mu/ employ ! indirect means ( reason+ & g5]al propositions4 ,:5 we _c br+ two /raight l9es toge!r1 to det]m9e :e!r !y are equal1 we d x by ! physical aid ( a foot rule appli$ fir/ to "o & !n to ! o!r1 & ! logical aid ( ! g5]al proposition or =mula1 ,?+s :i* are equal to ! same ?+ are equal to "o ano!r4 ,! comp>ison ( two ?+s ?r\gh ! int]v5tion ( a ?ird ?+1 :5 _! direct comp>ison is impossible1 is ! appropriate sci5tific process = asc]ta9+ resemblances & dissimil>ities1 & is ! sum total ( :at ,logic has to tea* on ! subject4 ,an undue ext5sion ( ?is rem>k induc$ ,locke to consid] reason+ itself z no?+ b ! comp>ison ( two ideas ?r\gh ! m$ium ( a ?ird1 & k z ! p]ception ( ! agreem5t or disagreem5t ( two ideas3 doctr9es :i* ! ,condillac s*ool bl9dly adopt$1 )\t ! qualifications & di/9ctions ) :i* !y 7 /udi\sly gu>d$ by _! illu/ri\s au?or4 ,:]e1 inde$1 ! agreem5t or disagreem5t 7o!rwise call$ resemblance or dissimil>ity7 ( any two ?+s is ! v matt] to be det]m9$1 z is ! case p>ticul>ly 9 ! sci5ces ( quantity & ext5sion2 !re1 ! process by :i* a solution1 if n atta9able by direct p]ception1 mu/ be indirectly s\ght1 consi/s 9 comp>+ ^! two ?+s ?r\gh ! m$ium ( a ?ird4 ,b ?is is f> f be+ true ( all inquiries4 ,! k t bodies fall to ! gr\nd is n a p]ception ( agreem5t or disagreem5t1 b ( a s]ies ( physical occurr5ces1 a succession ( s5sations4 ,locke's def9itions ( k & ( reason+ requir$ to be limit$ to our k (1 & reason+ ab\t1 resemblances4 ,nor1 ev5 :5 ?us re/rict$1 are ! propositions /rictly correct2 s9ce ! comp>ison is n made1 z he repres5ts1 betwe5 ! ideas ( ! two ph5om5a1 b betwe5 ! ph5om5a !mselves4 ,?is mi/ake has be5 po9t$ out 9 an e>li] "p ( our inquiry1#cg & we trac$ x to an imp]fect conception ( :at takes place 9 ma!matics1 :]e v (t5 ! comp>ison is really made betwe5 ! ideas1 )\t any appeal to ! outw>d s5ses2 only1 h[ev]1 because 9 ma!matics a comp>ison ( ! ideas is /rictly equival5t to a comp>ison ( ! ph5om5a !mselves4 ,:]e1 z 9 ! case ( numb]s1 l9es1 & figures1 our idea ( an object is a complete picture ( ! object1 s f> z respects ! matt] 9 h&2 we c1 ( c\rse1 le>n f ! picture1 :atev] c\ld be le>nt f ! object itself by m]e contemplation ( x z x exi/s at ! p>ticul> in/ant :5 ! picture is tak54 ,no m]e contemplation ( gunp[d] w\ld ev] tea* u t a sp>k w\ld make x explode1 nor1 consequ5tly1 w\ld ! contemplation ( ! idea ( gunp[d] d s3 b ! m]e contemplation ( a /raight l9e %[s t x _c inclose a space3 accord+ly ! contemplation ( ! idea ( x w %[ ! same4 ,:at takes place 9 ma!matics is ?us no argum5t t ! comp>ison is betwe5 ! ideas only4 ,x is always1 ei!r indirectly or directly1 a comp>ison ( ! ph5om5a4 ,9 cases 9 :i* we _c br+ ! ph5om5a to ! te/ ( direct inspection at all1 or n 9 a mann] suffici5tly precise1 b mu/ judge ( _! resemblance by inf]5ce f o!r resemblances or dissimil>ities m accessible to obs]vation1 we ( c\rse require1 z 9 all cases ( ratioc9ation1 g5]alizations or =mul applicable to ! subject4 ,we mu/ reason f laws ( nature2 f ! uni=mities :i* are obs]vable 9 ! fact ( lik5ess or unlik5ess4 #c4 ,( ^! laws or uni=mities1 ! mo/ compreh5sive are ^? suppli$ by ma!matics2 ! axioms relat+ to equality1 inequality1 & proportionality1 & ! v>i\s !orems !reon f\nd$4 ,& ^! are ! only ,laws ( ,resemblance :i* require to be1 or :i* c be1 treat$ ap>t4 ,x is true !re are innum]able o!r !orems :i* affirm resemblances among ph5om5a2 z t ! angle ( ! reflection ( light is equal to its angle ( incid5ce 7equality be+ m]ely exact resemblance 9 magnitude74 ,aga91 t ! heav5ly bodies describe equal areas 9 equal times2 & t _! p]iods ( revolution are proportional 7ano!r species ( resemblance7 to ! sesquiplicate p[]s ( _! di/ances f ! c5tre ( =ce4 ,^! & simil> propositions affirm resemblances1 ( ! same nature ) ^? ass]t$ 9 ! !orems ( ma!matics2 b ! di/9ction is1 t ! propositions ( ma!matics are true ( all ph5om5a :atev]1 or at lea/ )\t di/9ction ( orig92 :ile ! tru?s 9 "q are affirm$ only ( special ph5om5a1 :i* orig9ate 9 a c]ta9 way2 & ! equalities1 proportionalities1 or o!r resemblances1 :i* exi/ betwe5 su* ph5om5a1 mu/ necess>ily be ei!r d]iv$ f1 or id5tical )1 ! law ( _! orig9--! law ( causation on :i* !y dep5d4 ,! equality ( ! areas describ$ 9 equal times by ! planets1 is d]iv$ f ! laws ( ! causes2 &1 until its d]ivation 0 %[n1 x 0 an empirical law4 ,! equality ( ! angles ( reflexion & incid5ce is id5tical ) ! law ( ! cause2 = ! cause is ! incid5ce ( a ray ( light ^u a reflect+ surface1 & ! equality 9 "q is ! v law accord+ to :i* t cause produces its effects4 ,?is class1 !re=e1 ( ! uni=mities ( resemblance betwe5 ph5om5a1 are insep>able1 9 fact & 9 ?\ght1 f ! laws ( ! production ( ^? ph5om5a3 & ! pr9ciples ( induction applicable to !m are no o!r ?an ^? ( :i* we h treat$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s ( ?is ,book4 ,x is o!rwise ) ! tru?s ( ma!matics4 ,! laws ( equality & inequality betwe5 spaces1 or betwe5 numb]s1 h no connexion ) laws ( causation4 ,t ! angle ( reflexion is equal to ! angle ( incid5ce1 is a /atem5t ( ! mode ( action ( a p>ticul> cause2 b t :5 two /raight l9es int]sect ea* o!r ! opposite angles are equal1 is true ( all su* l9es & angles1 by :atev] cause produc$4 ,t ! squ>es ( ! p]iodic times ( ! planets are proportional to ! cubes ( _! di/ances f ! sun1 is an uni=mity d]iv$ f ! laws ( ! causes 7or =ces7 :i* produce ! planet>y motions2 b t ! squ>e ( any numb] is f\r times ! squ>e ( half ! numb]1 is true indep5d5tly ( any cause4 ,! only laws ( resemblance1 !re=e1 :i* we are call$ ^u to consid] indep5d5tly ( causation1 belong to ! prov9ce ( ma!matics4 #d4 ,! same ?+ is evid5t ) respect to ! only "o rema9+ ( our five categories1 ,ord] 9 ,place4 ,! ord] 9 place1 ( ! effects ( a cause1 is 7l ev]y?+ else belong+ to ! effects7 a consequ5ce ( ! laws ( t cause4 ,! ord] 9 place1 or1 z we h t]m$ x1 ! collocation1 ( ! primeval causes1 is 7z well z _! resemblance7 9 ea* in/ance an ultimate fact1 9 :i* no laws or uni=mities are traceable4 ,! only rema9+ g5]al propositions respect+ ord] 9 place1 & ! only ones :i* h no?+ to d ) causation1 are "s ( ! tru?s ( geometry2 laws ?r\gh :i* we are able1 f ! ord] 9 place ( c]ta9 po9ts1 l9es1 or spaces1 to inf] ! ord] 9 place ( o!rs :i* are connect$ ) ! =m] 9 "s kn[n mode2 q indep5d5tly ( ! p>ticul> nature ( ^? po9ts1 l9es1 or spaces1 9 any o!r respect ?an position or magnitude1 z well z indep5d5tly ( ! physical cause f :i* 9 any p>ticul> case !y happ5 to d]ive _! orig94 ,x ?us appe>s t ma!matics is ! only dep>tm5t ( sci5ce into ! me?ods ( :i* x /ill rema9s to inquire4 ,& !re is ! less necessity t ?is inquiry %\ld occupy u long1 z we h already1 9 ! ,second ,book1 made consid]able progress 9 x4 ,we !re rem>k$1 t ! directly inductive tru?s ( ma!matics are few 9 numb]2 consi/+ ( ! axioms1 toge!r ) c]ta9 propositions conc]n+ exi/5ce1 tacitly involv$ 9 mo/ ( ! s-call$ def9itions4 ,& we gave :at appe>$ conclusive reasons = affirm+ t ^! orig9al premises1 f :i* ! rema9+ tru?s ( ! sci5ce are d$uc$1 are1 not)/&+ all appe>ances to ! contr>y1 results ( obs]vation & exp]i5ce2 f\nd$1 9 %ort1 on ! evid5ce ( ! s5ses4 ,t ?+s equal to ! same ?+ are equal to "o ano!r1 & t two /raight l9es :i* h once int]sect$ "o ano!r cont9ue to div]ge1 are inductive tru?s2 re/+1 inde$1 l ! law ( univ]sal causation1 only on induction p] enum]ationem simplicem2 on ! fact t !y h be5 p]petually p]ceiv$ to be true1 & nev] once f\nd to be false4 ,b1 z we h se5 9 a rec5t *apt] t ?is evid5ce1 9 ! case ( a law s completely univ]sal z ! law ( causation1 am\nts to ! fulle/ pro(1 s is ?is ev5 m evid5tly true ( ! g5]al propositions to :i* we are n[ adv]t+2 because1 z a p]ception ( _! tru? 9 any individual case :atev]1 requires only ! simple act ( look+ at ! objects 9 a prop] position1 !re nev] c\ld h be5 9 _! case 7:at1 = a long p]iod1 !re 7 9 ! case ( ! law ( causation7 in/ances :i* 7 app>5tly1 ?\gh n really1 exceptions to !m4 ,_! infallible tru? 0 recognis$ f ! v dawn ( speculation2 & z _! extreme famili>ity made x impossible = ! m9d to conceive ! objects "u any o!r law1 !y 71 & /ill are1 g5]ally consid]$ z tru?s recognis$ by _! own evid5ce1 or by in/9ct4 #e4 ,!re is some?+ :i* seems to require explanation1 9 ! fact t ! imm5se multitude ( tru?s 7a multitude /ill z f> f be+ exhau/$ z ev]7 compris$ 9 ! ma!matical sci5ces1 c be elicit$ f s small a numb] ( elem5t>y laws4 ,"o sees n1 at fir/1 h[ x is t !re c be room = su* an inf9ite v>iety ( true propositions1 on subjects app>5tly s limit$4 ,to beg9 ) ! sci5ce ( numb]4 ,! elem5t>y or ultimate tru?s ( ?is sci5ce are ! common axioms conc]n+ equality1 namely1 ,?+s :i* are equal to ! same ?+ are equal to "o ano!r1 & ,equals add$ to equals make equal sums1 7no o!r axioms are requir$1#ch7 toge!r ) ! def9itions ( ! v>i\s numb]s4 ,l o!r s-call$ def9itions1 ^! are compos$ ( two ?+s1 ! explanation ( a "n1 & ! ass]tion ( a fact3 ( :i* ! latt] alone c =m a fir/ pr9ciple or premise ( a sci5ce4 ,! fact ass]t$ 9 ! def9ition ( a numb] is a physical fact4 ,ea* ( ! numb]s two1 ?ree1 f\r1 c41 d5otes physical ph5om5a1 & connotes a physical prop]ty ( ^? ph5om5a4 ,two1 = in/ance1 d5otes all pairs ( ?+s1 & twelve all doz5s ( ?+s1 connot+ :at makes !m pairs1 or doz5s2 & t :i* makes !m s is some?+ physical2 s9ce x _c be d5i$ t two apples are physically di/+ui%able f ?ree apples1 two horses f "o horse1 & s =?3 t !y are a diff]5t visible & tangible ph5om5on4 ,i am n und]tak+ to say :at ! diff]5ce is2 x is en\gh t !re is a diff]5ce ( :i* ! s5ses c take cognizance4 ,& al?\gh a hundr$ & two horses are n s easily di/+ui%$ f a hundr$ & ?ree1 z two horses are f ?ree--?\gh 9 mo/ positions ! s5ses d n p]ceive any diff]5ce--yet !y may be s plac$ t a diff]5ce w be p]ceptible1 or else we %\ld nev] h di/+ui%$ !m1 & giv5 !m diff]5t names4 ,weight is confess$ly a physical prop]ty ( ?+s2 yet small diff]5ces betwe5 great weights are z imp]ceptible to ! s5ses 9 mo/ situations1 z small diff]5ces betwe5 great numb]s2 & are only put 9 evid5ce by plac+ ! two objects 9 a peculi> position--namely1 9 ! opposite scales ( a delicate balance4 ,:at1 !n1 is t :i* is connot$ by a "n ( numb]8 ,( c\rse "s prop]ty belong+ to ! agglom]ation ( ?+s :i* we call by ! "n2 & t prop]ty is1 ! *>act]i/ic mann] 9 :i* ! agglom]ation is made up (1 & may be sep>at$ into1 p>ts4 ,i w endeav\r to make ?is m intelligible by a few explanations4 ,:5 we call a collection ( objects two1 ?ree1 or f\r1 !y are n two1 ?ree1 or f\r 9 ! ab/ract2 !y are two1 ?ree1 or f\r ?+s ( "s p>ticul> k9d2 pebbles1 horses1 in*es1 p\nds weight4 ,:at ! "n ( numb] connotes is1 ! mann] 9 :i* s+le objects ( ! giv5 k9d mu/ be put toge!r1 9 ord] to produce t p>ticul> aggregate4 ,if ! aggregate be ( pebbles1 & we call x two1 ! "n implies t1 to compose ! aggregate1 "o pebble mu/ be jo9$ to "o pebble4 ,if we call x ?ree1 "o & "o & "o pebble mu/ be br\ght toge!r to produce x1 or else "o pebble mu/ be jo9$ to an aggregate ( ! k9d call$ two1 already exi/+4 ,! aggregate :i* we call f\r1 has a /ill great] numb] ( *>act]i/ic modes ( =mation4 ,"o & "o & "o & "o pebble may be br\ght toge!r2 or two aggregates ( ! k9d call$ two may be unit$2 or "o pebble may be add$ to an aggregate ( ! k9d call$ ?ree4 ,e succe$+ numb] 9 ! asc5d+ s]ies1 may be =m$ by ! junction ( small] numb]s 9 a progressively great] v>iety ( ways4 ,ev5 limit+ ! p>ts to two1 ! numb] may be =m$1 & consequ5tly may be divid$1 9 z _m diff]5t ways z !re are numb]s small] ?an itself2 &1 if we admit ( ?rees1 f\rs1 c41 9 a /ill great] v>iety4 ,o!r modes ( arriv+ at ! same aggregate pres5t !mselves1 n by ! union ( small]1 b by ! dismemb]m5t ( l>g] aggregates4 ,?us1 ?ree pebbles may be =m$ by tak+ away "o pebble f an aggregate ( f\r2 two pebbles1 by an equal division ( a simil> aggregate2 & s on4 ,e ari?metical proposition2 e /atem5t ( ! result ( an ari?metical op]ation2 is a /atem5t ( "o ( ! modes ( =mation ( a giv5 numb]4 ,x affirms t a c]ta9 aggregate might h be5 =m$ by putt+ toge!r c]ta9 o!r aggregates1 or by )draw+ c]ta9 portions ( "s aggregate2 & t1 by consequ5ce1 we might reproduce ^? aggregates f x1 by rev]s+ ! process4 ,?us1 :5 we say t ! cube ( #ab is #agbh1 :at we affirm is ?is3 t if1 hav+ a suffici5t numb] ( pebbles or ( any o!r objects1 we put !m toge!r into ! p>ticul> sort ( p>cels or aggregates call$ twelves2 & put toge!r ^! twelves aga9 into simil> collections2 &1 f9ally1 make up twelve ( ^! l>ge/ p>cels2 ! aggregate ?us =m$ w be su* a "o z we call #agbh2 namely1 t :i* 7to take ! mo/ famili> ( its modes ( =mation7 may be made by jo9+ ! p>cel call$ a ?\s& pebbles1 ! p>cel call$ sev5 hundr$ pebbles1 ! p>cel call$ tw5ty pebbles1 & ! p>cel call$ eight pebbles4 ,! conv]se proposition1 t ! cube root ( #agbh is #ab1 ass]ts t ?is l>ge aggregate may aga9 be decompos$ into ! twelve twelves ( twelves ( pebbles :i* x consi/s (4 ,! modes ( =mation ( any numb] are innum]able2 b :5 we "k "o mode ( =mation ( ea*1 all ! re/ may be det]m9$ d$uctively4 ,if we "k t a is =m$ f b & c1 b f a & e1 c f d & f1 & s =?1 until we h includ$ all ! numb]s ( any scale we *oose to select1 7tak+ c>e t = ea* numb] ! mode ( =mation be really a di/9ct "o1 n br++ u r\nd aga9 to ! =m] numb]s1 b introduc+ a new numb]17 we h a set ( propositions f :i* we may reason to all ! o!r modes ( =mation ( ^? numb]s f "o ano!r4 ,hav+ e/abli%$ a *a9 ( inductive tru?s connect+ toge!r all ! numb]s ( ! scale1 we c asc]ta9 ! =mation ( any "o ( ^? numb]s f any o!r by m]ely travell+ f "o to ! o!r along ! *a94 ,suppose t we "k only ! foll[+ modes ( =mation3 #f #d #b1 #d #g - #c1 #g #e #b1 #e #i - #d4 ,we c\ld det]m9e h[ #f may be =m$ f #i4 ,= #f #d #b #g - #c #b #e #b - #c #b #i - #d #b - #c #b4 ,x may !re=e be =m$ by tak+ away #d & #c1 & add+ #b & #b4 ,if we "k besides t #b #b #d1 we obta9 #f f #i 9 a simpl] mode1 by m]ely tak+ away #c4 ,x is suffici5t1 !re=e1 to select "o ( ! v>i\s modes ( =mation ( ea* numb]1 z a means ( asc]ta9+ all ! re/4 ,& s9ce ?+s :i* are uni=m1 & !re=e simple1 are mo/ easily receiv$ & reta9$ by ! und]/&+1 !re is an obvi\s advantage 9 select+ a mode ( =mation :i* %all be alike = all2 9 fix+ ! connotation ( names ( numb] on "o uni=m pr9ciple4 ,! mode 9 :i* our exi/+ num]ical nom5clature is contriv$ possesses ?is advantage1 ) ! additional "o1 t x happily conveys to ! m9d two ( ! modes ( =mation ( e numb]4 ,ea* numb] is consid]$ z =m$ by ! addition ( an unit to ! numb] next bel[ x 9 magnitude1 & ?is mode ( =mation is convey$ by ! place :i* x occupies 9 ! s]ies4 ,& ea* is also consid]$ z =m$ by ! addition ( a numb] ( units less ?an t51 & a numb] ( aggregates ea* equal to "o ( ! successive p[]s ( t52 & ?is mode ( its =mation is express$ by its spok5 "n1 & by its num]ical "*4 ,:at r5d]s ari?metic ! type ( a d$uctive sci5ce1 is ! =tunate applicability to x ( a law s compreh5sive z ,! sums ( equals are equals3 or 7to express ! same pr9ciple 9 less famili> b m *>act]i/ic language71 ,:atev] is made up ( p>ts1 is made up ( ! p>ts ( ^? p>ts4 ,?is tru?1 obvi\s to ! s5ses 9 all cases :i* c be fairly ref]r$ to _! decision1 & s g5]al z to be coext5sive ) nature itself1 be+ true ( all sorts ( ph5om5a1 7= all admit ( be+ numb]$17 mu/ be consid]$ an inductive tru?1 or law ( nature1 ( ! highe/ ord]4 ,& e ari?metical op]ation is an application ( ?is law1 or ( o!r laws capable ( be+ d$uc$ f x4 ,?is is our w>rant = all calculations4 ,we believe t five & two are equal to sev51 on ! evid5ce ( ?is inductive law1 comb9$ ) ! def9itions ( ^? numb]s4 ,we arrive at t conclusion 7z all "k :o rememb] h[ !y fir/ le>n$ x7 by add+ a s+le unit at a "t3 #e #a #f1 !re=e #e #a #a #f #a #g3 & aga9 #b #a #a1 !re=e #e #b #e #a #a #g4 #f4 ,innum]able z are ! true propositions :i* c be =m$ conc]n+ p>ticul> numb]s1 no adequate conception c\ld be ga9$1 f ^! alone1 ( ! ext5t ( ! tru?s compos+ ! sci5ce ( numb]4 ,su* propositions z we h spok5 ( are ! lea/ g5]al ( all num]ical tru?s4 ,x is true t ev5 ^! are coext5sive ) all nature3 ! prop]ties ( ! numb] f\r are true ( all objects t are divisible into f\r equal p>ts1 & all objects are ei!r actually or ideally s divisible4 ,b ! propositions :i* compose ! sci5ce ( algebra are true1 n ( a p>ticul> numb]1 b ( all numb]s2 n ( all ?+s "u ! condition ( be+ divid$ 9 a p>ticul> way1 b ( all ?+s "u ! condition ( be+ divid$ 9 any way--( be+ designat$ by a numb] at all4 ,s9ce x is impossible = diff]5t numb]s to h any ( _! modes ( =mation completely 9 common1 x is a k9d ( p>adox to say1 t all propositions :i* c be made conc]n+ numb]s relate to _! modes ( =mation f o!r numb]s1 & yet t !re are propositions :i* are true ( all numb]s4 ,b ?is v p>adox leads to ! real pr9ciple ( g5]alization conc]n+ ! prop]ties ( numb]s4 ,two diff]5t numb]s _c be =m$ 9 ! same mann] f ! same numb]s2 b !y may be =m$ 9 ! same mann] f diff]5t numb]s2 z n9e is =m$ f ?ree by multiply+ x into itself1 & sixte5 is =m$ f f\r by ! same process4 ,?us !re arises a classification ( modes ( =mation1 or 9 ! language commonly us$ by ma!maticians1 a classification ( ,functions4 ,any numb]1 consid]$ z =m$ f any o!r numb]1 is call$ a function ( x2 & !re are z _m k9ds ( functions z !re are modes ( =mation4 ,! simple functions are by no means num]\s1 mo/ functions be+ =m$ by ! comb9ation ( sev]al ( ! op]ations :i* =m simple functions1 or by successive repetitions ( "s "o ( ^? op]ations4 ,! simple functions ( any numb] x are all r$ucible to ! foll[+ =ms3 x a1 x - a1 a x1 x_/a1 xa1 a root ( x1 log4 x 7to ! base a71 & ! same expressions v>i$ by putt+ x = a & a = x1 :]ev] t sub/itution w\ld alt] ! value3 to :i* p]haps ought to be add$ s9 x1 & arc 7s9 x74 ,all o!r functions ( x are =m$ by putt+ "s "o or m ( ! simple functions 9 ! place ( x or a1 & subject+ !m to ! same elem5t>y op]ations4 ,9 ord] to c>ry on g5]al reason+s on ! subject ( ,functions1 we require a nom5clature enabl+ u to express any two numb]s by names :i*1 )\t specify+ :at p>ticul> numb]s !y are1 %all %[ :at function ea* is ( ! o!r2 or1 9 o!r words1 %all put 9 evid5ce _! mode ( =mation f "o ano!r4 ,! sy/em ( g5]al language call$ algebraical notation does ?is4 ,! expressions a & a#b #c;a d5ote1 ! "o any numb]1 ! o!r ! numb] =m$ f x 9 a p>ticul> mann]4 ,! expressions a1 b1 n1 & 7a b7n1 d5ote any ?ree numb]s1 & a f\r? :i* is =m$ f !m 9 a c]ta9 mode4 ,! foll[+ may be /at$ z ! g5]al problem ( ! algebraical calculus3 ,f be+ a c]ta9 function ( a giv5 numb]1 to f9d :at function ,f w be ( any function ( t numb]4 ,= example1 a b9omial a b is a function ( its two p>ts a & b1 & ! p>ts are1 9 _! turn1 functions ( a b3 n[ 7a b7n is a c]ta9 function ( ! b9omial2 :at function w ?is be ( a & b1 ! two p>ts8 ,! answ] to ?is "q is ! b9omial !orem4 ,! =mula 7a b7n an 7n _/ #a7 a7n - #a7 b 77n7n - #a77 _/ 7#ab77 a7n - #b7 b#b c41 %[s 9 :at mann] ! numb] :i* is =m$ by multiply+ a b into itself n times1 might be =m$ )\t t process1 directly f a1 b1 & n4 ,& ( ?is nature are all ! !orems ( ! sci5ce ( numb]4 ,!y ass]t ! id5tity ( ! result ( diff]5t modes ( =mation4 ,!y affirm t "s mode ( =mation f x1 & "s mode ( =mation f a c]ta9 function ( x1 produce ! same numb]4 ,besides ^! g5]al !orems ( =mul1 :at rema9s 9 ! algebraical calculus is ! resolution ( equations4 ,b ! resolution ( an equation is also a !orem4 ,if ! equation be x#b ax b1 ! resolution ( ?is equation1 viz4 x -7#a_/b7 a root (77#a_/d7 a#b b71 is a g5]al proposition1 :i* may be reg>d$ z an answ] to ! "q1 ,if b is a c]ta9 function ( x & a 7namely x#b ax71 :at function is x ( b & a8 ,! resolution ( equations is1 !re=e1 a m]e v>iety ( ! g5]al problem z above /at$4 ,! problem is--,giv5 a function1 :at function is x ( "s o!r function8 ,& 9 ! resolution ( an equation1 ! "q is1 to f9d :at function ( "o ( its own functions ! numb] itself is4 ,su* z above describ$1 is ! aim & end ( ! calculus4 ,z = its processes1 e "o kn[s t !y are simply d$uctive4 ,9 demon/rat+ an algebraical !orem1 or 9 resolv+ an equation1 we travel f ! datum to ! qusitum by pure ratioc9ation2 9 :i* ! only premises introduc$1 besides ! orig9al hypo!ses1 are ! fundam5tal axioms already m5tion$--t ?+s equal to ! same ?+ are equal to "o ano!r1 & t ! sums ( equal ?+s are equal4 ,at ea* /ep 9 ! demon/ration or 9 ! calculation1 we apply "o or o!r ( ^! tru?s1 or tru?s d$ucible f !m1 z1 t ! diff]5ces1 products1 c41 ( equal numb]s are equal4 ,x w\ld be inconsi/5t ) ! scale ( ?is "w1 & n necess>y to its design1 to c>ry ! analysis ( ! tru?s & processes ( algebra any f>!r2 :i* is also ! less ne$ful1 z ! task has be51 to a v great ext5t1 p]=m$ by o!r writ]s4 ,peacock's ,algebra1 & ,dr4 ,:ewell's ,doctr9e ( ,limits1 are full ( in/ruction on ! subject4 ,! pr(\nd treatises ( a truly philosophical ma!matician1 ,pr(essor ,de ,morgan1 %\ld be /udi$ by e "o :o desires to compreh5d ! evid5ce ( ma!matical tru?s1 & ! mean+ ( ! obscur] processes ( ! calculus2 & ! speculations ( ,m4 ,comte1 9 8 ,c\rs de ,philosophie ,positive1 on ! philosophy ( ! high] bran*es ( ma!matics1 are among ! _m valuable gifts = :i* philosophy is indebt$ to t em95t ?9k]4 #g4 ,if ! extreme g5]ality1 & remot5ess n s mu* f s5se z f ! visual & tactual imag9ation1 ( ! laws ( numb]1 r5d]s x a some:at difficult ef=t ( ab/raction to conceive ^? laws z be+ 9 reality physical tru?s obta9$ by obs]vation2 ! same difficulty does n exi/ ) reg>d to ! laws ( ext5sion4 ,! facts ( :i* ^? laws are expressions1 are ( a k9d peculi>ly accessible to ! s5ses1 & sugge/+ em95tly di/9ct images to ! fancy4 ,t geometry is a /rictly physical sci5ce w\ld d\btless h be5 recognis$ 9 all ages1 _h x n be5 = ! illusions produc$ by two circum/ances4 ,"o ( ^! is ! *>act]i/ic prop]ty1 already notic$1 ( ! facts ( geometry1 t !y may be collect$ f our ideas or m5tal pictures ( objects z effectually z f ! objects !mselves4 ,! o!r is1 ! demon/rative "* ( geometrical tru?s2 :i* 0 at "o "t suppos$ to con/itute a radical di/9ction betwe5 !m & physical tru?s1 ! latt]1 z re/+ on m]ely probable evid5ce1 be+ deem$ ess5tially unc]ta9 & unprecise4 ,! advance ( k has1 h[ev]1 made x manife/ t physical sci5ce1 9 its bett] und]/ood bran*es1 is q z demon/rative z geometry4 ,! task ( d$uc+ its details f a few comp>atively simple pr9ciples is f\nd to be any?+ b ! impossibility x 0 once suppos$ to be2 & ! notion ( ! sup]ior c]ta9ty ( geometry is an illusion1 aris+ f ! anci5t prejudice :i*1 9 t sci5ce1 mi/akes ! ideal data f :i* we reason1 = a peculi> class ( realities1 :ile ! correspond+ ideal data ( any d$uctive physical sci5ce are recognis$ z :at !y really are1 m]e hypo!ses4 ,e !orem 9 geometry is a law ( ext]nal nature1 & might h be5 asc]ta9$ by g5]aliz+ f obs]vation & exp]im5t1 :i* 9 ?is case resolve !mselves into comp>ison & measurem5t4 ,b x 0 f\nd practicable1 & be+ practicable1 0 desirable1 to d$uce ^! tru?s by ratioc9ation f a small numb] ( g5]al laws ( nature1 ! c]ta9ty & univ]sality ( :i* are obvi\s to ! mo/ c>eless obs]v]1 & :i* compose ! fir/ pr9ciples & ultimate premises ( ! sci5ce4 ,among ^! g5]al laws mu/ be includ$ ! same two :i* we h notic$ z ultimate pr9ciples ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,numb] also1 & :i* are applicable to e description ( quantity2 viz4 ,! sums ( equals are equal1 & ,?+s :i* are equal to ! same ?+ are equal to "o ano!r2 ! latt] ( :i* may be express$ 9 a mann] m sugge/ive ( ! inexhau/ible multitude ( its consequ5ces1 by ! foll[+ t]ms3 ,:atev] is equal to any "o ( a numb] ( equal magnitudes1 is equal to any o!r ( !m4 ,to ^! two mu/ be add$1 9 geometry1 a ?ird law ( equality1 namely1 t l9es1 surfaces1 or solid spaces1 :i* c be s appli$ to "o ano!r z to co9cide1 are equal4 ,"s writ]s h ass]t$ t ?is law ( nature is a m]e v]bal def9ition2 t ! expression equal magnitudes means no?+ b magnitudes :i* c be s appli$ to "o ano!r z to co9cide4 ,b 9 ?is op9ion ,i _c agree4 ,! equality ( two geometrical magnitudes _c diff] fundam5tally 9 its nature f ! equality ( two weights1 two degrees ( heat1 or two portions ( duration1 to none ( :i* w\ld ?is pret5d$ def9ition ( equality be suitable4 ,none ( ^! ?+s c be s appli$ to "o ano!r z to co9cide1 yet we p]fectly und]/& :at we mean :5 we call !m equal4 ,?+s are equal 9 magnitude1 z ?+s are equal 9 weight1 :5 !y are felt to be exactly simil> 9 respect ( ! attribute 9 :i* we comp>e !m3 & ! application ( ! objects to ea* o!r 9 ! "o case1 l ! balanc+ !m ) a pair ( scales 9 ! o!r1 is b a mode ( br++ !m into a position 9 :i* our s5ses c recognise defici5cies ( exact resemblance t w\ld o!rwise escape our notice4 ,along ) ^! ?ree g5]al pr9ciples or axioms1 ! rema9d] ( ! premises ( geometry consi/s ( ! s-call$ def9itions1 t is to say1 propositions ass]t+ ! real exi/5ce ( ! v>i\s objects !re9 designat$1 toge!r ) "s "o prop]ty ( ea*4 ,9 "s cases m ?an "o prop]ty is commonly assum$1 b 9 no case is m ?an "o necess>y4 ,x is assum$ t !re are su* ?+s 9 nature z /raight l9es1 & t any two ( !m sett+ out f ! same po9t1 div]ge m & m )\t limit4 ,?is assumption1 7:i* includes & goes beyond ,euclid's axiom t two /raight l9es _c inclose a space17 is z indisp5sable 9 geometry1 & z evid5t1 re/+ on z simple1 famili>1 & univ]sal obs]vation1 z any ( ! o!r axioms4 ,x is also assum$ t /raight l9es div]ge f "o ano!r 9 diff]5t degrees2 9 o!r words1 t !re are su* ?+s z angles1 & t !y are capable ( be+ equal or unequal4 ,x is assum$ t !re is su* a ?+ z a circle1 & t all its radii are equal2 su* ?+s z ellipses1 & t ! sums ( ! focal di/ances are equal = e po9t 9 an ellipse2 su* ?+s z p>allel l9es1 & t ^? l9es are ev]y:]e equally di/ant4#ci #h4 ,x is a matt] ( m ?an curiosity to consid]1 to :at peculi>ity ( ! physical tru?s :i* are ! subject ( geometry1 x is ow+ t !y c all be d$uc$ f s small a numb] ( orig9al premises3 :y x is t we c set out f only "o *>act]i/ic prop]ty ( ea* k9d ( ph5om5on1 & ) t & two or ?ree g5]al tru?s relat+ to equality1 c travel f m>k to m>k until we obta9 a va/ body ( d]ivative tru?s1 to all appe>ance extremely unlike ^? elem5t>y ones4 ,! explanation ( ?is rem>kable fact seems to lie 9 ! foll[+ circum/ances4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 all que/ions ( position & figure may be resolv$ into que/ions ( magnitude4 ,! position & figure ( any object are det]m9$1 by det]m9+ ! position ( a suffici5t numb] ( po9ts 9 x2 & ! position ( any po9t may be det]m9$ by ! magnitude ( ?ree rectangul> co-ord9ates1 t is1 ( ! p]p5dicul>s drawn f ! po9t to ?ree planes at "r angles to "o ano!r1 arbitr>ily select$4 ,by ?is trans=mation ( all que/ions ( quality into que/ions only ( quantity1 geometry is r$uc$ to ! s+le problem ( ! measurem5t ( magnitudes1 t is1 ! asc]ta9m5t ( ! equalities :i* exi/ betwe5 !m4 ,n[ :5 we consid] t by "o ( ! g5]al axioms1 any equality1 :5 asc]ta9$1 is pro( ( z _m o!r equalities z !re are o!r ?+s equal to ei!r ( ! two equals2 & t by ano!r ( ^? axioms1 any asc]ta9$ equality is pro( ( ! equality ( z _m pairs ( magnitudes z c be =m$ by ! num]\s op]ations :i* resolve !mselves into ! addition ( ! equals to !mselves or to o!r equals2 we cease to wond] t 9 proportion z a sci5ce is conv]sant ab\t equality1 x %\ld af=d a m copi\s supply ( m>ks ( m>ks2 & t ! sci5ces ( numb] & ext5sion1 :i* are conv]sant ) little else ?an equality1 %\ld be ! mo/ d$uctive ( all ! sci5ces4 ,!re are also two or ?ree ( ! pr9cipal laws ( space or ext5sion :i* are unusually fitt$ = r5d]+ "o position or magnitude a m>k ( ano!r1 & !reby contribut+ to r5d] ! sci5ce l>gely d$uctive4 ,fir/2 ! magnitudes ( inclos$ spaces1 :e!r sup]ficial or solid1 are completely det]m9$ by ! magnitudes ( ! l9es & angles :i* b\nd !m4 ,secondly1 ! l5g? ( any l9e1 :e!r /raight or curve1 is measur$ 7c]ta9 o!r ?+s be+ giv57 by ! angle :i* x subt5ds1 & vice v]s4 ,la/ly1 ! angle :i* any two /raight l9es make ) ea* o!r at an inaccessible po9t1 is measur$ by ! angles !y sev]ally make ) any ?ird l9e we *oose to select4 ,by means ( ^! g5]al laws1 ! measurem5t ( all l9es1 angles1 & spaces :atsoev] might be accompli%$ by measur+ a s+le /raight l9e & a suffici5t numb] ( angles2 :i* is ! plan actually pursu$ 9 ! trigonometrical survey ( a c\ntry2 & =tunate x is t ?is is practicable1 ! exact measurem5t ( long /raight l9es be+ always difficult1 & (t5 impossible1 b t ( angles v easy4 ,?ree su* g5]alizations z ! =ego+ af=d su* facilities = ! indirect measurem5t ( magnitudes1 7by supply+ u ) kn[n l9es or angles :i* are m>ks ( ! magnitude ( unkn[n ones1 & !reby ( ! spaces :i* !y inclose17 t x is easily intelligible h[ f a few data we c g on to asc]ta9 ! magnitude ( an indef9ite multitude ( l9es1 angles1 & spaces1 :i* we c\ld n easily1 or c\ld n at all1 measure by any m direct process4 #i4 ,su* are ! few rem>ks :i* x seem$ necess>y to make 9 ?is place1 respect+ ! laws ( nature :i* are ! peculi> subject ( ! sci5ces ( numb] & ext5sion4 ,! imm5se "p :i* ^? laws take 9 giv+ a d$uctive "* to ! o!r dep>tm5ts ( physical sci5ce1 is well kn[n2 & is n surpris+1 :5 we consid] t all causes op]ate accord+ to ma!matical laws4 ,! effect is always dep5d5t on1 or is a function (1 ! quantity ( ! ag5t2 & g5]ally ( its position also4 ,we _c1 !re=e1 reason respect+ causation1 )\t introduc+ consid]ations ( quantity & ext5sion at e /ep2 & if ! nature ( ! ph5om5a admits ( our obta9+ num]ical data ( suffici5t accuracy1 ! laws ( quantity become ! gr& in/rum5t = calculat+ =w>d to an effect1 or backw>d to a cause4 ,t 9 all o!r sci5ces1 z well z 9 geometry1 que/ions ( quality are sc>cely ev] indep5d5t ( que/ions ( quantity1 may be se5 f ! mo/ famili> ph5om5a4 ,ev5 :5 sev]al col\rs are mix$ on a pa9t]'s palette1 ! comp>ative quantity ( ea* entirely det]m9es ! col\r ( ! mixture4 ,) ?is m]e sugge/ion ( ! g5]al causes :i* r5d] ma!matical pr9ciples & processes s pr$om9ant 9 ^? d$uctive sci5ces :i* af=d precise num]ical data1 ,i mu/1 on ! pres5t occasion1 cont5t myself3 ref]r+ ! read] :o desires a m ?or\gh acqua9tance ) ! subject1 to ! fir/ two volumes ( ,m4 ,comte's sy/ematic "w4 ,9 ! same "w1 & m p>ticul>ly 9 ! ?ird volume1 are also fully discuss$ ! limits ( ! applicability ( ma!matical pr9ciples to ! improvem5t ( o!r sci5ces4 ,su* pr9ciples are manife/ly inapplicable1 :]e ! causes on :i* any class ( ph5om5a dep5d are s imp]fectly accessible to our obs]vation1 t we _c asc]ta91 by a prop] induction1 _! num]ical laws2 or :]e ! causes are s num]\s1 & int]mix$ 9 s complex a mann] ) "o ano!r1 t ev5 suppos+ _! laws kn[n1 ! computation ( ! aggregate effect transc5ds ! p[]s ( ! calculus z x is1 or is likely to be2 or la/ly1 :]e ! causes !mselves are 9 a /ate ( p]petual fluctuation2 z 9 physiology1 & /ill m1 if possible1 9 ! social sci5ce4 ,! ma!matical solutions ( physical que/ions become progressively m difficult & imp]fect1 9 proportion z ! que/ions dive/ !mselves ( _! ab/ract & hypo!tical "*1 & approa* ne>] to ! degree ( complication actually exi/+ 9 nature2 insomu* t beyond ! limits ( a/ronomical ph5om5a1 & ( ^? mo/ ne>ly analog\s to !m1 ma!matical accuracy is g5]ally obta9$ at ! exp5se ( ! reality ( ! inquiry3 :ile ev5 9 a/ronomical que/ions1 not)/&+ ! admirable simplicity ( _! ma!matical elem5ts1 our feeble intellig5ce becomes incapable ( foll[+ out effectually ! logical comb9ations ( ! laws on :i* ! ph5om5a are dep5d5t1 z soon z we attempt to take into simultane\s consid]ation m ?an two or ?ree ess5tial influ5ces4#dj ,( ?is1 ! problem ( ! ,?ree ,bodies has already be5 cit$1 m ?an once1 z a rem>kable in/ance2 ! complete solution ( s comp>atively simple a "q hav+ va9ly tri$ ! skill ( ! mo/ pr(\nd ma!maticians4 ,we may conceive1 !n1 h[ *im]ical w\ld be ! hope t ma!matical pr9ciples c\ld be advantage\sly appli$ to ph5om5a dep5d5t on ! mutual action ( ! innum]able m9ute p>ticles ( bodies1 z ^? ( *emi/ry1 & /ill m1 ( physiology2 & = simil> reasons ^? pr9ciples rema9 inapplicable to ! /ill m complex inquiries1 ! subjects ( :i* are ph5om5a ( society & gov]nm5t4 ,! value ( ma!matical in/ruction z a prep>ation = ^? m difficult inve/igations1 consi/s 9 ! applicability n ( its doctr9es1 b ( its me?od4 ,ma!matics w ev] rema9 ! mo/ p]fect type ( ! ,d$uctive ,me?od 9 g5]al2 & ! applications ( ma!matics to ! d$uctive bran*es ( physics1 furni% ! only s*ool 9 :i* philosoph]s c effectually le>n ! mo/ difficult & important portion ( _! art1 ! employm5t ( ! laws ( simpl] ph5om5a = expla9+ & pr$ict+ ^? ( ! m complex4 ,^! gr\nds are q suffici5t = deem+ ma!matical tra9+ an indisp5sable basis ( real sci5tific education1 & reg>d+ 7accord+ to ! dictum :i* an old b unau!ntic tradition ascribes to ,plato7 "o :o is ,greek3 agemetrtos1 z want+ 9 "o ( ! mo/ ess5tial qualifications = ! successful cultivation ( ! high] bran*es ( philosophy4 ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,,( ,,! ,,gr\nds ,,( ,,disbelief4 #a4 ,! me?od ( arriv+ at g5]al tru?s1 or g5]al propositions fit to be believ$1 & ! nature ( ! evid5ce on :i* !y are gr\nd$1 h be5 discuss$1 z f> z space & ! writ]'s faculties p]mitt$1 9 ! tw5ty-f\r prec$+ *apt]s4 ,b ! result ( ! exam9ation ( evid5ce is n always belief1 nor ev5 susp5sion ( judgm5t2 x is sometimes disbelief4 ,! philosophy1 !re=e1 ( induction & exp]im5tal inquiry is incomplete1 unless ! gr\nds n only ( belief1 b ( disbelief1 are treat$ (2 & to ?is topic we %all devote "o1 & ! f9al1 *apt]4 ,by disbelief is n "h to be und]/ood ! m]e abs5ce ( belief4 ,! gr\nd = ab/a9+ f belief is simply ! abs5ce or insuffici5cy ( pro(2 & 9 consid]+ :at is suffici5t evid5ce to support any giv5 conclusion1 we h already1 by implication1 consid]$ :at evid5ce is n suffici5t = ! same purpose4 ,by disbelief is "h meant1 n ! /ate ( m9d 9 :i* we =m no op9ion conc]n+ a subject1 b t 9 :i* we are fully p]suad$ t "s op9ion is n true2 insomu* t if evid5ce1 ev5 ( great app>5t /r5g?1 7:e!r gr\nd$ on ! te/imony ( o!rs or on our own suppos$ p]ceptions17 7 produc$ 9 fav\r ( ! op9ion1 we %\ld believe t ! witnesses spoke falsely1 or t !y1 or we ourselves if we 7 ! direct p]cipi5ts1 7 mi/ak54 ,t !re are su* cases1 no "o is likely to dispute4 ,ass]tions = :i* !re is abundant positive evid5ce are (t5 disbeliev$1 on acc\nt ( :at is call$ _! improbability1 or impossibility4 ,& ! "q = consid]ation is :at1 9 ! pres5t case1 ^! words mean1 & h[ f> & 9 :at circum/ances ! prop]ties :i* !y express are suffici5t gr\nds = disbelief4 #b4 ,x is to be rem>k$ 9 ! fir/ place1 t ! positive evid5ce produc$ 9 support ( an ass]tion :i* is nev]!less reject$ on ! score ( impossibility or improbability1 is nev] su* z am\nts to full pro(4 ,x is always gr\nd$ on "s approximate g5]alization4 ,! fact may h be5 ass]t$ by a hundr$ witnesses2 b !re are _m exceptions to ! univ]sality ( ! g5]alization t :at a hundr$ witnesses affirm is true4 ,we may seem to ourselves to h actually se5 ! fact3 b1 t we really see :at we ?9k we see1 is by no means an univ]sal tru?2 our organs may h be5 9 a morbid /ate2 or we may h inf]r$ some?+1 & imag9$ t we p]ceiv$ x4 ,! evid5ce1 !n1 9 ! affirmative be+ nev] m ?an an approximate g5]alization1 all w dep5d on :at ! evid5ce 9 ! negative is4 ,if t also re/s on an approximate g5]alization1 x is a case = comp>ison ( probabilities4 ,if ! approximate g5]alizations lead+ to ! affirmative are1 :5 add$ toge!r1 less /rong1 or 9 o!r words1 f>!r f be+ univ]sal1 ?an ! approximate g5]alizations :i* support ! negative side ( ! "q1 ! proposition is said to be improbable1 & is to be disbeliev$ provisionally4 ,if h[ev] an alleg$ fact be 9 contradiction1 n to any numb] ( approximate g5]alizations1 b to a complet$ g5]alization gr\nd$ on a rigor\s induction1 x is said to be impossible1 & is to be disbeliev$ totally4 ,?is la/ pr9ciple1 simple & evid5t z x appe>s1 is ! doctr9e :i*1 on ! occasion ( an attempt to apply x to ! "q ( ! cr$ibility ( miracles1 excit$ s viol5t a controv]sy4 ,hume's celebrat$ doctr9e1 t no?+ is cr$ible :i* is contradictory to exp]i5ce1 or at v>iance ) laws ( nature1 is m]ely ?is v pla9 & h>mless proposition1 t :atev] is contradictory to a complete induction is incr$ible4 ,t su* a maxim z ?is %\ld ei!r be acc\nt$ a dang]\s h]esy1 or mi/ak5 = a great & recondite tru?1 speaks ill = ! /ate ( philosophical speculation on su* subjects4 ,b does n 7x may be ask$7 ! v /atem5t ( ! proposition imply a contradiction8 ,an alleg$ fact1 accord+ to ?is !ory1 is n to be believ$ if x contradict a complete induction4 ,b x is ess5tial to ! complet5ess ( an induction t x %all n contradict any kn[n fact4 ,is x n !n a petitio pr9cipii to say1 t ! fact ought to be disbeliev$ because ! induction oppos$ to x is complete8 ,h[ c we h a "r to decl>e ! induction complete1 :ile facts1 support$ by cr$ible evid5ce1 pres5t !mselves 9 opposition to x8 ,i answ]1 we h t "r :5ev] ! sci5tific canons ( induction give x to u2 t is1 :5ev] ! induction c be complete4 ,we h x1 = example1 9 a case ( causation 9 :i* !re has be5 an exp]im5tum crucis4 ,if an antec$5t ,a1 sup]add$ to a set ( antec$5ts 9 all o!r respects unalt]$1 is foll[$ by an effect ,b :i* did n exi/ be=e1 ,a is1 9 t in/ance at lea/1 ! cause ( ,b1 or an indisp5sable "p ( its cause2 & if ,a be tri$ aga9 ) _m totally diff]5t sets ( antec$5ts & ,b /ill foll[s1 !n x is ! :ole cause4 ,if ^! obs]vations or exp]im5ts h be5 repeat$ s (t51 & by s _m p]sons1 z to exclude all supposition ( error 9 ! obs]v]1 a law ( nature is e/abli%$2 & s long z ?is law is receiv$ z su*1 ! ass]tion t on any p>ticul> occasion ,a took place1 & yet ,b did n foll[1 )\t any c\nt]act+ cause1 mu/ be disbeliev$4 ,su* an ass]tion is n to be cr$it$ on any less evid5ce ?an :at w\ld suffice to ov]turn ! law4 ,! g5]al tru?s1 t :atev] has a beg9n+ has a cause1 & t :5 none b ! same causes exi/1 ! same effects foll[1 re/ on ! /ronge/ inductive evid5ce possible2 ! proposition t ?+s affirm$ by ev5 a cr[d ( respectable witnesses are true1 is b an approximate g5]alization2 &--ev5 if we fancy we actually saw or felt ! fact :i* is 9 contradiction to ! law--:at a human be+ c see is no m ?an a set ( appe>ances2 f :i* ! real nature ( ! ph5om5on is m]ely an inf]5ce1 & 9 ?is inf]5ce approximate g5]alizations usually h a l>ge %>e4 ,if1 !re=e1 we make our election to hold by ! law1 no quantity ( evid5ce :atev] ought to p]suade u t !re has occurr$ any?+ 9 contradiction to x4 ,if1 inde$1 ! evid5ce produc$ is su* t x is m likely t ! set ( obs]vations & exp]im5ts on :i* ! law re/s %\ld h be5 inaccurately p]=m$ or incorrectly int]pret$1 ?an t ! evid5ce 9 "q %\ld be false1 we may believe ! evid5ce2 b !n we mu/ ab&on ! law4 ,& s9ce ! law 0 receiv$ on :at seem$ a complete induction1 x c only be reject$ on evid5ce equival5t2 namely1 z be+ inconsi/5t n ) any numb] ( approximate g5]alizations1 b ) "s o!r & bett] e/abli%$ law ( nature4 ,?is extreme case1 ( a conflict betwe5 two suppos$ laws ( nature1 has probably nev] actually occurr$ :]e1 9 ! process ( inve/igat+ bo? ! laws1 ! true canons ( sci5tific induction _h be5 kept 9 view2 b if x did occur1 x mu/ t]m9ate 9 ! total rejection ( "o ( ! suppos$ laws4 ,x w\ld prove t !re mu/ be a flaw 9 ! logical process by :i* ei!r "o or ! o!r 0 e/abli%$3 & if !re be s1 t suppos$ g5]al tru? is no tru? at all4 ,we _c admit a proposition z a law ( nature1 & yet believe a fact 9 real contradiction to x4 ,we mu/ disbelieve ! alleg$ fact1 or believe t we 7 mi/ak5 9 admitt+ ! suppos$ law4 ,b 9 ord] t any alleg$ fact %\ld be contradictory to a law ( causation1 ! allegation mu/ be1 n simply t ! cause exi/$ )\t be+ foll[$ by ! effect1 = t w\ld be no uncommon occurr5ce2 b t ?is happ5$ 9 ! abs5ce ( any adequate c\nt]act+ cause4 ,n[ 9 ! case ( an alleg$ miracle1 ! ass]tion is ! exact opposite ( ?is4 ,x is1 t ! effect 0 defeat$1 n 9 ! abs5ce1 b 9 consequ5ce ( a c\nt]act+ cause1 namely1 a direct int]position ( an act ( ! w ( "s be+ :o has p[] ov] nature2 & 9 p>ticul> ( a ,be+1 ^: w be+ assum$ to h end[$ all ! causes ) ! p[]s by :i* !y produce _! effects1 may well be suppos$ able to c\nt]act !m4 ,a miracle 7z 0 ju/ly rem>k$ by ,br[n#da7 is no contradiction to ! law ( cause & effect2 x is a new effect1 suppos$ to be produc$ by ! introduction ( a new cause4 ,( ! adequacy ( t cause1 if pres5t1 !re c be no d\bt2 & ! only antec$5t improbability :i* c be ascrib$ to ! miracle1 is ! improbability t any su* cause exi/$4 ,all1 !re=e1 :i* ,hume has made out1 & ?is he mu/ be consid]$ to h made out1 is1 t 7at lea/ 9 ! imp]fect /ate ( our k ( natural ag5cies1 :i* leaves x always possible t "s ( ! physical antec$5ts may h be5 hidd5 f u17 no evid5ce c prove a miracle to any "o :o did n previ\sly believe ! exi/5ce ( a be+ or be+s ) sup]natural p[]2 or :o believes himself to h full pro( t ! "* ( ! ,be+ :om he recognises1 is inconsi/5t ) 8 hav+ se5 fit to int]f]e on ! occasion 9 "q4 ,if we d n already believe 9 sup]natural ag5cies1 no miracle c prove to u _! exi/5ce4 ,! miracle itself1 consid]$ m]ely z an extraord9>y fact1 may be satisfactorily c]tifi$ by our s5ses or by te/imony2 b no?+ c ev] prove t x is a miracle3 !re is /ill ano!r possible hypo!sis1 t ( its be+ ! result ( "s unkn[n natural cause3 & ?is possibility _c be s completely %ut out1 z to leave no alt]native b t ( admitt+ ! exi/5ce & int]v5tion ( a be+ sup]ior to nature4 ,^?1 h[ev]1 :o already believe 9 su* a be+1 h two hypo!ses to *oose f1 a sup]natural & an unkn[n natural ag5cy2 & !y h to judge :i* ( ! two is ! mo/ probable 9 ! p>ticul> case4 ,9 =m+ ?is judgm5t1 an important elem5t ( ! "q w be ! con=mity ( ! result to ! laws ( ! suppos$ ag5t1 t is1 to ! "* ( ! ,deity z !y conceive x4 ,b1 ) ! k :i* we n[ possess ( ! g5]al uni=mity ( ! c\rse ( nature1 religion1 foll[+ 9 ! wake ( sci5ce1 has be5 compell$ to ackn[l$ge ! gov]nm5t ( ! univ]se z be+ on ! :ole c>ri$ on by g5]al laws1 & n by special int]positions4 ,to :oev] holds ?is belief1 !re is a g5]al presumption aga9/ any supposition ( div9e ag5cy n op]at+ ?r\gh g5]al laws1 or 9 o!r words1 !re is an antec$5t improbability 9 e miracle1 :i*1 9 ord] to outweigh x1 requires an extraord9>y /r5g? ( antec$5t probability d]iv$ f ! special circum/ances ( ! case4 #c4 ,x appe>s f :at has be5 said1 t ! ass]tion t a cause has be5 defeat$ ( an effect :i* is connect$ ) x by a completely asc]ta9$ law ( causation1 is to be disbeliev$ or n1 accord+ to ! probability or improbability t !re exi/$ 9 ! p>ticul> in/ance an adequate c\nt]act+ cause4 ,to =m an e/imate ( ?is1 is n m difficult ?an ( o!r probabilities4 ,) reg>d to all kn[n causes capable ( c\nt]act+ ! giv5 causes1 we h g5]ally "s previ\s k ( ! frequ5cy or r>ity ( _! occurr5ce1 f :i* we may draw an inf]5ce z to ! antec$5t improbability ( _! hav+ be5 pres5t 9 any p>ticul> case4 ,& nei!r 9 respect to kn[n or unkn[n causes are we requir$ to pron\nce on ! probability ( _! exi/+ 9 nature1 b only ( _! hav+ exi/$ at ! "t & place at :i* ! transaction is alleg$ to h happ5$4 ,we are seldom1 !re=e1 )\t ! means 7:5 ! circum/ances ( ! case are at all kn[n to u7 ( judg+ h[ f> x is likely t su* a cause %\ld h exi/$ at t "t & place )\t manife/+ its pres5ce by "s o!r m>ks1 & 79 ! case ( an unkn[n cause7 )\t hav+ hi!rto manife/$ its exi/5ce 9 any o!r in/ance4 ,accord+ z ?is circum/ance1 or ! falsity ( ! te/imony1 appe>s m improbable1 t is1 conflicts ) an approximate g5]alization ( a high] ord]1 we believe ! te/imony1 or disbelieve x2 ) a /rong] or a weak] degree ( conviction1 accord+ to ! prepond]ance3 at lea/ until we h sift$ ! matt] fur!r4 ,s mu*1 !n1 = ! case 9 :i* ! alleg$ fact conflicts1 or appe>s to conflict1 ) a real law ( causation4 ,b a m common case1 p]haps1 is t ( its conflict+ ) uni=mities ( m]e coexi/5ce1 n prov$ to be dep5d5t on causation3 9 o!r words1 ) ! prop]ties ( ,k9ds4 ,x is ) ^! uni=mities pr9cipally1 t ! m>vell\s /ories relat$ by travell]s are apt to be at v>iance3 z ( m5 ) tails1 or ) w+s1 & 7until confirm$ by exp]i5ce7 ( fly+ fi%2 or ( ice1 9 ! celebrat$ anecdote ( ! ,dut* travell]s & ! ,k+ ( ,siam4 ,facts ( ?is description1 facts previ\sly unhe>d ( b :i* c\ld n f any kn[n law ( causation be pron\nc$ impossible1 are :at ,hume *>act]izes z n contr>y to exp]i5ce1 b m]ely uncon=mable to x2 & ,b5?am1 9 8 treatise on ,evid5ce1 d5om9ates !m facts discon=mable 9 specie1 z di/+ui%$ f su* z are discon=mable 9 toto or 9 degree4 ,9 a case ( ?is description1 ! fact ass]t$ is ! exi/5ce ( a new ,k9d2 :i* 9 itself is n 9 ! slighte/ degree incr$ible1 & only to be reject$ if ! improbability t any v>iety ( object exi/+ at ! p>ticul> place & "t %\ld n h be5 discov]$ soon]1 be great] ?an t ( error or m5dacity 9 ! witnesses4 ,accord+ly1 su* ass]tions1 :5 made by cr$ible p]sons1 & ( unexplor$ places1 are n disbeliev$1 b at mo/ reg>d$ z requir+ confirmation f subsequ5t obs]v]s2 unless ! alleg$ prop]ties ( ! suppos$ new ,k9d are at v>iance ) kn[n prop]ties ( "s l>g] k9d :i* includes x2 or 9 o!r words1 unless1 9 ! new ,k9d :i* is ass]t$ to exi/1 "s prop]ties are said to h be5 f\nd disjo9$ f o!rs :i* h always be5 kn[n to accompany !m2 z 9 ! case ( ,pl9y's m51 or any o!r k9d ( animal ( a /ructure diff]5t f t :i* has always be5 f\nd to coexi/ ) animal life4 ,on ! mode ( deal+ ) any su* case1 little ne$s be add$ to :at has be5 said on ! same topic 9 ! tw5ty-second *apt]4#db ,:5 ! uni=mities ( coexi/5ce :i* ! alleg$ fact w\ld violate1 are su* z to raise a /rong presumption ( _! be+ ! result ( causation1 ! fact :i* conflicts ) !m is to be disbeliev$2 at lea/ provisionally1 & subject to fur!r inve/igation4 ,:5 ! presumption am\nts to a virtual c]ta9ty1 z 9 ! case ( ! g5]al /ructure ( organiz$ be+s1 ! only "q requir+ consid]ation is :e!r1 9 ph5om5a s little und]/ood1 !re may n be liabilities to c\nt]action f causes hi!rto unkn[n2 or :e!r ! ph5om5a may n be capable ( orig9at+ 9 "s o!r way1 :i* w\ld produce a diff]5t set ( d]ivative uni=mities4 ,:]e 7z 9 ! case ( ! fly+ fi%1 or ! orni?orhyn*us7 ! g5]alization to :i* ! alleg$ fact w\ld be an exception is v special & ( limit$ range1 nei!r ( ! above suppositions c be deem$ v improbable2 & x is g5]ally1 9 ! case ( su* alleg$ anomalies1 wise to susp5d our judgm5t1 p5d+ ! subsequ5t inquiries :i* w n fail to confirm ! ass]tion if x be true4 ,b :5 ! g5]alization is v compreh5sive1 embrac+ a va/ numb] & v>iety ( obs]vations1 & cov]+ a consid]able prov9ce ( ! doma9 ( nature2 !n1 = reasons :i* h be5 fully expla9$1 su* an empirical law comes ne> to ! c]ta9ty ( an asc]ta9$ law ( causation3 & any alleg$ exception to x _c be admitt$1 unless on ! evid5ce ( "s law ( causation prov$ by a /ill m complete induction4 ,su* uni=mities 9 ! c\rse ( nature z d n be> m>ks ( be+ ! results ( causation1 are1 z we h already se51 admissible z univ]sal tru?s ) a degree ( cr$5ce proportion$ to _! g5]ality4 ,^? :i* are true ( all ?+s :atev]1 or at lea/ :i* are totally indep5d5t ( ! v>ieties ( ,k9ds1 namely1 ! laws ( numb] & ext5sion1 to :i* we may add ! law ( causation itself1 are probably ! only ones1 an exception to :i* is absolutely & p]man5tly incr$ible4 ,accord+ly1 x is to ass]tions suppos$ to be contradictory to ^! laws1 or to "s o!rs com+ ne> to !m 9 g5]ality1 t ! ^w impossibility 7at lea/ total impossibility7 seems to be g5]ally conf9$4 ,violations ( o!r laws1 ( special laws ( causation = in/ance1 are said1 by p]sons /udi\s ( accuracy 9 expression1 to be impossible 9 ! circum/ances ( ! case2 or impossible unless "s cause _h exi/$ :i* did n exi/ 9 ! p>ticul> case4#dc ,( no ass]tion1 n 9 contradiction to "s ( ^! v g5]al laws1 w m ?an improbability be ass]t$ by any cauti\s p]son2 & improbability n ( ! highe/ degree1 unless ! "t & place 9 :i* ! fact is said to h occurr$1 r5d] x almo/ c]ta9 t ! anomaly1 if real1 c\ld n h be5 ov]look$ by o!r obs]v]s4 ,susp5sion ( judgm5t is 9 all o!r cases ! res\rce ( ! judici\s inquir]2 provid$ ! te/imony 9 fav\r ( ! anomaly pres5ts1 :5 well sift$1 no suspici\s circum/ances4 ,b ! te/imony is sc>cely ev] f\nd to /& t te/1 9 cases 9 :i* ! anomaly is n real4 ,9 ! in/ances on record 9 :i* a great numb] ( witnesses1 ( good reputation & sci5tific acquirem5ts1 h te/ifi$ to ! tru? ( some?+ :i* has turn$ out untrue1 !re h almo/ always be5 circum/ances :i*1 to a ke5 obs]v] :o _h tak5 due pa9s to sift ! matt]1 w\ld h r5d]$ ! te/imony untru/wor?y4 ,!re h g5]ally be5 means ( acc\nt+ = ! impression on ! s5ses or m9ds ( ! alleg$ p]cipi5ts1 by fallaci\s appe>ances2 or "s epidemic delusion1 propagat$ by ! contagi\s influ5ce ( popul> feel+1 has be5 conc]n$ 9 ! case2 or "s /rong int]e/ has be5 implicat$--religi\s zeal1 p>ty feel+1 vanity1 or at lea/ ! passion = ! m>vell\s1 9 p]sons /rongly susceptible ( x4 ,:5 none ( ^! or simil> circum/ances exi/ to acc\nt = ! app>5t /r5g? ( ! te/imony2 & :]e ! ass]tion is n 9 contradiction ei!r to ^? univ]sal laws :i* "k no c\nt]action or anomaly1 or to ! g5]alizations next 9 compreh5siv5ess to !m1 b w\ld only am\nt1 if admitt$1 to ! exi/5ce ( an unkn[n cause or an anomal\s ,k9d1 9 circum/ances n s ?or\ghly explor$ b t x is cr$ible t ?+s hi!rto unkn[n may /ill come to light2 a cauti\s p]son w nei!r admit nor reject ! te/imony1 b w wait = confirmation at o!r times & f o!r unconnect$ s\rces4 ,su* ought to h be5 ! conduct ( ! ,k+ ( ,siam :5 ! ,dut* travell]s affirm$ to him ! exi/5ce ( ice4 ,b an ignorant p]son is z ob/9ate 9 8 contemptu\s incr$ulity z he is unreasonably cr$ul\s4 ,any?+ unlike 8 own n>r[ exp]i5ce he disbelieves1 if x flatt]s no prop5sity2 any nurs]y tale is swall[$ implicitly by him if x does4 #d4 ,i %all n[ adv]t to a v s]i\s misappreh5sion ( ! pr9ciples ( ! subject1 :i* has be5 committ$ by "s ( ! writ]s aga9/ ,hume's ,essay on ,miracles1 & by ,bi%op ,butl] be=e !m1 9 _! anxiety to de/roy :at appe>$ to !m a =midable weapon ( assault aga9/ ! ,*ri/ian religion2 & ! effect ( :i* is entirely to conf\nd ! doctr9e ( ! ,gr\nds ( ,disbelief4 ,! mi/ake consi/s 9 ov]look+ ! di/9ction betwe5 7:at may be call$7 improbability be=e ! fact1 & improbability aft] x2 or 7s9ce1 z ,mr4 ,v5n rem>ks1 ! di/9ction ( pa/ & future is n ! mat]ial circum/ance7 betwe5 ! improbability ( a m]e guess be+ "r1 & ! improbability ( an alleg$ fact be+ true4 ,_m ev5ts are altoge!r improbable to u1 be=e !y h happ5$1 or be=e we are in=m$ ( _! happ5+1 :i* are n 9 ! lea/ incr$ible :5 we are in=m$ ( !m1 because n contr>y to any1 ev5 approximate1 induction4 ,9 ! ca/ ( a p]fectly fair die1 ! *ances are five to "o aga9/ ?r[+ ace1 t is1 ace w be ?r[n on an av]age only once 9 six ?r[s4 ,b ?is is no reason aga9/ believ+ t ace 0 ?r[n on a giv5 occasion1 if any cr$ible witness ass]ts x2 s9ce ?\gh ace is only ?r[n once 9 six times1 "s numb] :i* is only ?r[n once 9 six times mu/ h be5 ?r[n if ! die 0 ?r[n at all4 ,! improbability1 !n1 or 9 o!r words1 ! unusualness1 ( any fact1 is no reason = disbeliev+ x1 if ! nature ( ! case r5d]s x c]ta9 t ei!r t or some?+ equally improbable1 t is1 equally unusual1 did happ54 ,nor is ?is all3 = ev5 if ! o!r five sides ( ! die 7 all twos1 or all ?rees1 yet z ace w\ld /ill on ! av]age come up once 9 e six ?r[s1 its com+ up 9 a giv5 ?r[ w\ld be n 9 any way contradictory to exp]i5ce4 ,if we disbeliev$ all facts :i* _h ! *ances aga9/ !m be=eh&1 we %\ld believe h>dly any?+4 ,we are told t ,a4 ,b4 di$ ye/]day3 ! mom5t be=e we 7 s told1 ! *ances aga9/ 8 hav+ di$ on t day may h be5 t5 ?\s& to "o2 b s9ce he 0 c]ta9 to die at "s "t or o!r1 & :5 he di$ mu/ necess>ily die on "s p>ticul> day1 :ile ! prepond]ance ( *ances is v great aga9/ e day 9 p>ticul>1 exp]i5ce af=ds no gr\nd = discr$it+ any te/imony :i* may be produc$ to ! ev5t's hav+ tak5 place on a giv5 day4 ,yet x has be5 consid]$1 by ,dr4 ,campbell & o!rs1 z a complete answ] to ,hume's doctr9e 7t ?+s are incr$ible :i* are contr>y to ! uni=m c\rse ( exp]i5ce71 t we d n disbelieve1 m]ely because ! *ances 7 aga9/ !m1 ?+s 9 /rict con=mity to ! uni=m c\rse ( exp]i5ce2 t we d n disbelieve an alleg$ fact m]ely because ! comb9ation ( causes on :i* x dep5ds occurs only once 9 a c]ta9 numb] ( times4 ,x is evid5t t :atev] is %[n by obs]vation1 or c be prov$ f laws ( nature1 to occur 9 a c]ta9 proportion 7h[ev] small7 ( ! :ole numb] ( possible cases1 is n contr>y to exp]i5ce2 ?\gh we are "r 9 disbeliev+ x1 if "s o!r supposition respect+ ! matt] 9 "q involves on ! :ole a less dep>ture f ! ord9>y c\rse ( ev5ts4 ,yet1 on su* gr\nds z ?is h able writ]s be5 l$ to ! extraord9>y conclusion1 t no?+ support$ by cr$ible te/imony ought ev] to be disbeliev$4 #e4 ,we h consid]$ two species ( ev5ts1 commonly said to be improbable2 "o k9d :i* are 9 no way extraord9>y1 b :i*1 hav+ an imm5se prepond]ance ( *ances aga9/ !m1 are improbable until !y are affirm$1 b no long]2 ano!r k9d :i*1 be+ contr>y to "s recognis$ law ( nature1 are incr$ible on any am\nt ( te/imony except su* z w\ld be suffici5t to %ake our belief 9 ! law itself4 ,b betwe5 ^! two classes ( ev5ts1 !re is an int]m$iate class1 consi/+ ( :at are commonly t]m$ ,co9cid5ces3 9 o!r words1 ^? comb9ations ( *ances :i* pres5t "s peculi> & unexpect$ regul>ity1 assimilat+ !m1 9 s f>1 to ! results ( law4 ,z if1 = example1 9 a lott]y ( a ?\s& tickets1 ! numb]s %\ld be drawn 9 ! exact ord] ( :at are call$ ! natural numb]s1 #a1 #b1 #c1 c4 ,we h /ill to consid] ! pr9ciples ( evid5ce applicable to ?is case3 :e!r !re is any diff]5ce betwe5 co9cid5ces & ord9>y ev5ts1 9 ! am\nt ( te/imony or o!r evid5ce necess>y to r5d] !m cr$ible4 ,x is c]ta91 t on e rational pr9ciple ( expectation1 a comb9ation ( ?is peculi> sort may be expect$ q z (t5 z any o!r giv5 s]ies ( a ?\s& numb]s2 t ) p]fectly fair dice1 sixes w be ?r[n twice1 ?rice1 or any numb] ( times 9 succession1 q z (t5 9 a ?\s& or a million ?r[s1 z any o!r succession ( numb]s fix$ ^u be=eh&2 & t no judici\s play] w\ld give great] odds aga9/ ! "o s]ies ?an aga9/ ! o!r4 ,not)/&+ ?is1 !re is a g5]al disposition to reg>d ! "o z mu* m improbable ?an ! o!r1 & z requir+ mu* /rong] evid5ce to make x cr$ible4 ,su* is ! =ce ( ?is impression1 t x has l$ "s ?9k]s to ! conclusion1 t nature has great] difficulty 9 produc+ regul> comb9ations ?an irregul> ones2 or 9 o!r words1 t !re is "s g5]al t5d5cy ( ?+s1 "s law1 :i* prev5ts regul> comb9ations f occurr+1 or at lea/ f occurr+ s (t5 z o!rs4 ,among ^! ?9k]s may be numb]$ ,d',alemb]t2 :o1 9 an ,essay on ,probabilities to be f\nd 9 ! fif? volume ( 8 ,mlanges1 cont5ds t regul> comb9ations1 ?\gh equally probable accord+ to ! ma!matical !ory ) any o!rs1 are physically less probable4 ,he appeals to common s5se1 or 9 o!r words1 to common impressions2 say+1 if dice ?r[n repeat$ly 9 our pres5ce gave sixes e "t1 %\ld we n1 be=e ! numb] ( ?r[s _h rea*$ t51 7n to speak ( ?\s&s ( millions17 be ready to affirm1 ) ! mo/ positive conviction1 t ! dice 7 false8 ,! common & natural impression is 9 fav\r ( ,d',alemb]t3 ! regul> s]ies w\ld be ?\ght mu* m unlikely ?an an irregul>4 ,b ?is common impression is1 ,i appreh5d1 m]ely gr\nd$ on ! fact1 t sc>cely anybody rememb]s to h ev] se5 "o ( ^! peculi> co9cid5ces3 ! reason ( :i* is simply t no "o's exp]i5ce ext5ds to any?+ l ! numb] ( trials1 )9 :i* t or any o!r giv5 comb9ation ( ev5ts c be expect$ to happ54 ,! *ance ( sixes on a s+le ?r[ ( two dice be+ #a_/cf1 ! *ance ( sixes t5 times 9 succession is #a divid$ by ! t5? p[] ( #cf2 9 o!r words1 su* a concurr5ce is only likely to happ5 once 9 #c1fef1aeh1ddj1jfb1igf trials1 a numb] :i* no dice-play]'s exp]i5ce comes up to a million? "p (4 ,b if1 in/ead ( sixes t5 times1 any o!r giv5 succession ( t5 ?r[s _h be5 fix$ ^u1 x w\ld h be5 exactly z unlikely t 9 any individual's exp]i5ce t p>ticul> succession _h ev] occurr$2 al?\gh ?is does n seem equally improbable1 because no "o c\ld possibly h rememb]$ :e!r x _h occurr$ or n1 & because ! comp>ison is tacitly made1 n betwe5 sixes t5 times & any "o p>ticul> s]ies ( ?r[s1 b betwe5 all regul> & all irregul> successions tak5 toge!r4 ,t 7z ,d',alemb]t says7 if ! succession ( sixes 0 actually ?r[n be=e our eyes1 we %\ld ascribe x n to *ance1 b to unfairness 9 ! dice1 is unque/ionably true4 ,b ?is arises f a totally diff]5t pr9ciple4 ,we %\ld !n be consid]+1 n ! probability ( ! fact 9 itself1 b ! comp>ative probability ) :i*1 :5 x is kn[n to h happ5$1 x may be ref]r$ to "o or to ano!r cause4 ,! regul> s]ies is n at all less likely ?an ! irregul> "o to be br\ght ab\t by *ance1 b x is mu* m likely ?an ! irregul> "o to be produc$ by design2 or by "s g5]al cause op]at+ ?r\gh ! /ructure ( ! dice4 ,x is ! nature ( casual comb9ations to produce a repetition ( ! same ev5t1 z (t5 & no (t5] ?an any o!r s]ies ( ev5ts4 ,b x is ! nature ( g5]al causes to reproduce1 9 ! same circum/ances1 always ! same ev5t4 ,common s5se & sci5ce alike dictate t1 all o!r ?+s be+ ! same1 we %\ld r attribute ! effect to a cause :i* if real w\ld be v likely to produce x1 ?an to a cause :i* w\ld be v unlikely to produce x4 ,accord+ to ,laplace's six? !orem1 :i* we demon/rat$ 9 a =m] *apt]1 ! diff]5ce ( probability aris+ f ! sup]ior efficacy ( ! con/ant cause1 unfairness 9 ! dice1 w\ld aft] a v few ?r[s f> outweigh any antec$5t probability :i* !re c\ld be aga9/ its exi/5ce4 ,d',alemb]t %\ld h put ! "q 9 ano!r mann]4 ,he %\ld h suppos$ t we _h ourselves previ\sly tri$ ! dice1 & knew by ample exp]i5ce t !y 7 fair4 ,ano!r p]son !n tries !m 9 our abs5ce1 & assures u t he ?rew sixes t5 times 9 succession4 ,is ! ass]tion cr$ible or n8 ,"h ! effect to be acc\nt$ = is n ! occurr5ce itself1 b ! fact ( ! witness's ass]t+ x4 ,?is may arise ei!r f its hav+ really happ5$1 or f "s o!r cause4 ,:at we h to e/imate is ! comp>ative probability ( ^! two suppositions4 ,if ! witness affirm$ t he _h ?r[n any o!r s]ies ( numb]s1 suppos+ him to be a p]son ( v]acity1 & tol]able accuracy1 & to pr(ess t he took p>ticul> notice1 we %\ld believe him4 ,b ! t5 sixes are exactly z likely to h be5 really ?r[n z ! o!r s]ies4 ,if1 !re=e1 ?is ass]tion is less cr$ible ?an ! o!r1 ! reason mu/ be1 n t x is less likely ?an ! o!r to be made truly1 b t x is m likely ?an ! o!r to be made falsely4 ,"o reason obvi\sly pres5ts itself :y :at is call$ a co9cid5ce1 %\ld be (t5] ass]t$ falsely ?an an ord9>y comb9ation4 ,x excites wond]4 ,x gratifies ! love ( ! m>vell\s4 ,! motives1 !re=e1 to falsehood1 "o ( ! mo/ frequ5t ( :i* is ! desire to a/oni%1 op]ate m /rongly 9 fav\r ( ?is k9d ( ass]tion ?an ( ! o!r k9d4 ,?us f> !re is evid5tly m reason = discr$it+ an alleg$ co9cid5ce1 ?an a /atem5t 9 itself n m probable1 b :i* if made w\ld n be ?\ght rem>kable4 ,!re are cases1 h[ev]1 9 :i* ! presumption on ?is gr\nd w\ld be ! o!r way4 ,!re are "s witnesses :o1 ! m extraord9>y an occurr5ce might appe>1 w\ld be ! m anxi\s to v]ify x by ! utmo/ c>efulness ( obs]vation be=e !y w\ld v5ture to believe x1 & /ill m be=e !y w\ld ass]t x to o!rs4 #f4 ,indep5d5tly1 h[ev]1 ( any peculi> *ances ( m5dacity aris+ f ! nature ( ! ass]tion1 ,laplace cont5ds1 t m]ely on ! g5]al gr\nd ( ! fallibility ( te/imony1 a co9cid5ce is n cr$ible on ! same am\nt ( te/imony on :i* we %\ld be w>rant$ 9 believ+ an ord9>y comb9ation ( ev5ts4 ,9 ord] to d ju/ice to 8 argum5t1 x is necess>y to illu/rate x by ! example *os5 by himself4 ,if1 says ,laplace1 !re 7 "o ?\s& tickets 9 a box1 & "o only has be5 drawn out1 !n if an eye-witness affirms t ! numb] drawn 0 #gi1 ?is1 ?\gh ! *ances 7 #iii 9 #ajjj aga9/ x1 is n on t acc\nt ! less cr$ible2 its cr$ibility is equal to ! antec$5t probability ( ! witness's v]acity4 ,b if !re 7 9 ! box #iii black balls & only "o :ite1 & ! witness affirms t ! :ite ball 0 drawn1 ! case accord+ to ,laplace is v diff]5t3 ! cr$ibility ( 8 ass]tion is b a small fraction ( :at x 0 9 ! =m] case2 ! reason ( ! diff]5ce be+ z foll[s4 ,! witnesses ( :om we are speak+ mu/1 f ! nature ( ! case1 be ( a k9d ^: cr$ibility falls mat]ially %ort ( c]ta9ty3 let u suppose1 !n1 ! cr$ibility ( ! witness 9 ! case 9 "q to be #i_/aj2 t is1 let u suppose t 9 e t5 /atem5ts :i* ! witness makes1 n9e on an av]age are correct1 & "o incorrect4 ,let u n[ suppose t !re h tak5 place a suffici5t numb] ( draw+s to exhau/ all ! possible comb9ations1 ! witness depos+ 9 e "o4 ,9 "o case out ( e t5 9 all ^! draw+s he w actually h made a false ann\ncem5t4 ,b 9 ! case ( ! ?\s& tickets ^! false ann\ncem5ts w h be5 di/ribut$ imp>tially ov] all ! numb]s1 & ( ! #iii cases 9 :i* ,no4 #gi 0 n drawn1 !re w h be5 only "o case 9 :i* x 0 ann\nc$4 ,on ! contr>y1 9 ! case ( ! ?\s& balls1 7! ann\ncem5t be+ always ei!r black or :ite17 if :ite 0 n drawn1 & !re 0 a false ann\ncem5t1 t false ann\ncem5t mu/ h be5 :ite2 & s9ce by ! supposition !re 0 a false ann\ncem5t once 9 e t5 times1 :ite w h be5 ann\nc$ falsely 9 "o t5? "p ( all ! cases 9 :i* x 0 n drawn1 t is1 9 "o t5? "p ( #iii cases out ( e ?\s&4 ,:ite1 !n1 is drawn1 on an av]age1 exactly z (t5 z ,no4 #gi1 b x is ann\nc$1 )\t hav+ be5 really drawn1 #iii times z (t5 z ,no4 #gi2 ! ann\ncem5t !re=e requires a mu* great] am\nt ( te/imony to r5d] x cr$ible4#dd ,to make ?is argum5t valid x mu/ ( c\rse be suppos$1 t ! ann\ncem5ts made by ! witness are av]age specim5s ( 8 g5]al v]acity & accuracy2 or1 at lea/1 t !y are nei!r m nor less s 9 ! case ( ! black & :ite balls1 ?an 9 ! case ( ! ?\s& tickets4 ,?is assumption1 h[ev]1 is n w>rant$4 ,a p]son is f> less likely to mi/ake1 :o has only "o =m ( error to gu>d aga9/1 ?an if he _h #iii diff]5t errors to avoid4 ,= in/ance1 9 ! example *os51 a mess5g] :o might make a mi/ake once 9 t5 times 9 report+ ! numb] drawn 9 a lott]y1 might n err once 9 a ?\s& times if s5t simply to obs]ve :e!r a ball 0 black or :ite4 ,laplace's argum5t !re=e is faulty ev5 z appli$ to 8 own case4 ,/ill less c t case be receiv$ z completely repres5t+ all cases ( co9cid5ce4 ,laplace has s contriv$ 8 example1 t ?\gh black answ]s to #iii di/9ct possibilities1 & :ite only to "o1 ! witness has nev]!less no bias :i* c make him pref] black to :ite4 ,! witness did n "k t !re 7 #iii black balls 9 ! box & only "o :ite2 or if he did1 ,laplace has tak5 c>e to make all ! #iii cases s undi/+ui%ably alike1 t !re is h>dly a possibility ( any cause ( falsehood or error op]at+ 9 fav\r ( any ( !m1 :i* w\ld n op]ate 9 ! same mann] if !re 7 only "o4 ,alt] ?is supposition1 & ! :ole argum5t falls to ! gr\nd4 ,let ! balls1 = in/ance1 be numb]$1 & let ! :ite ball be ,no4 #gi4 ,consid]$ 9 respect ( _! col\r1 !re are b two ?+s :i* ! witness c be int]e/$ 9 ass]t+1 or c h dreamt or halluc9at$1 or has to *oose f if he answ]s at r&om1 viz4 black & :ite3 b consid]$ 9 respect ( ! numb]s atta*$ to !m1 !re are a ?\s&3 & if 8 int]e/ or error happ5s to be connect$ ) ! numb]s1 ?\gh ! only ass]tion he makes is ab\t ! col\r1 ! case becomes precisely assimilat$ to t ( ! ?\s& tickets4 ,or in/ead ( ! balls suppose a lott]y1 ) #ajjj tickets & b "o prize1 & t ,i hold ,no4 #gi1 & be+ int]e/$ only 9 t1 ask ! witness n :at 0 ! numb] drawn1 b :e!r x 0 #gi or "s o!r4 ,!re are n[ only two cases1 z 9 ,laplace's example2 yet he surely w\ld n say t if ! witness answ]$ #gi1 ! ass]tion w\ld be 9 an enorm\s proportion less cr$ible1 ?an if he made ! same answ] to ! same "q ask$ 9 ! o!r way4 ,if1 = in/ance1 7to put a case suppos$ by ,laplace himself17 he has /ak$ a l>ge sum on "o ( ! *ances1 & ?9ks t by ann\nc+ its occurr5ce he %all increase 8 cr$it2 he is equally likely to h bett$ on any "o ( ! #iii numb]s :i* are atta*$ to black balls1 & s f> z ! *ances ( m5dacity f ?is cause are conc]n$1 !re w be #iii times z _m *ances ( 8 ann\nc+ black falsely1 z :ite4 ,or suppose a regim5t ( #ajjj m51 #iii ,engli%m5 & "o ,fr5*man1 & t ( ^! "o man has be5 kill$1 & x is n kn[n :i*4 ,i ask ! "q1 & ! witness answ]s1 ! ,fr5*man4 ,?is 0 n only z improbable priori1 b is 9 itself z s+ul> a circum/ance1 z rem>kable a co9cid5ce1 z ! draw+ ( ! :ite ball3 yet we %\ld believe ! /atem5t z readily1 z if ! answ] _h be5 ,john ,?ompson4 ,because ?\gh ! #iii ,engli%m5 7 all alike 9 ! po9t 9 :i* !y diff]$ f ! ,fr5*man1 !y 7 n1 l ! #iii black balls1 undi/+ui%able 9 e o!r respect2 b be+ all diff]5t1 !y admitt$ z _m *ances ( int]e/ or error1 z if ea* man _h be5 ( a diff]5t nation2 & if a lie 0 told or a mi/ake made1 ! mis/atem5t 0 z likely to fall on any ,jones or ,?ompson ( ! set1 z on ! ,fr5*man4 ,! example ( a co9cid5ce select$ by ,d',alemb]t1 t ( sixes ?r[n on a pair ( dice t5 times 9 succession1 belongs to ?is sort ( cases r ?an to su* z ,laplace's4 ,! co9cid5ce is "h f> m rem>kable1 because ( f> r>] occurr5ce1 ?an ! draw+ ( ! :ite ball4 ,b ?\gh ! improbability ( its really occurr+ is great]1 ! sup]ior probability ( its be+ ann\nc$ falsely _c be e/abli%$ ) ! same evid5ce4 ,! ann\ncem5t black repres5t$ #iii cases1 b ! witness may n h kn[n ?is1 & if he did1 ! #iii cases are s exactly alike1 t !re is really only "o set ( possible causes ( m5dacity correspond+ to ! :ole4 ,! ann\ncem5t sixes n drawn t5 times1 repres5ts1 & is kn[n by ! witness to repres5t1 a great multitude ( cont+5cies1 e "o ( :i* be+ unlike e o!r1 !re may be a diff]5t & a fre% set ( causes ( m5dacity correspond+ to ea*4 ,x appe>s to me1 !re=e1 t ,laplace's doctr9e is n /rictly true ( any co9cid5ces1 & is :olly inapplicable to mo/3 & t to "k :e!r a co9cid5ce does or does n require m evid5ce to r5d] x cr$ible ?an an ord9>y ev5t1 we mu/ ref]1 9 e in/ance1 to fir/ pr9ciples1 & e/imate afre% :at is ! probability t ! giv5 te/imony w\ld h be5 deliv]$ 9 t in/ance1 suppos+ ! fact :i* x ass]ts n to be true4 ,) ^! rem>ks we close ! discussion ( ! ,gr\nds ( ,disbelief2 & along ) x1 su* exposition z space admits1 & z ! writ] has x 9 8 p[] to furni%1 ( ! ,logic ( ,induction4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,c\rs de ,philosophie ,positive1 ii4 #fef4 #b ,vide supra1 book iii4 *4 xi4 #c ,philosophy ( ,discov]y1 pp4 #ahe et seqq4 #d ,philosophie ,positive1 ii4 #dcd-dcg4 #e ,z an example ( legitimate hypo!sis accord+ to ! te/ "h laid d[n1 has be5 ju/ly cit$ t ( ,br\ssais1 :o1 proce$+ on ! v rational pr9ciple t e disease mu/ orig9ate 9 "s def9ite "p or o!r ( ! organism1 boldly assum$ t c]ta9 fev]s1 :i* n be+ kn[n to be local 7 call$ con/itutional1 _h _! orig9 9 ! muc\s membrane ( ! alim5t>y canal4 ,! supposition 0 inde$1 z is n[ g5]ally admitt$1 errone\s2 b he 0 ju/ifi$ 9 mak+ x1 s9ce by d$uc+ ! consequ5ces ( ! supposition1 & comp>+ !m ) ! facts ( ^? maladies1 he might be c]ta9 ( disprov+ 8 hypo!sis if x 0 ill f\nd$1 & might expect t ! comp>ison w\ld mat]ially aid him 9 fram+ ano!r m con=mable to ! ph5om5a4 ,! doctr9e n[ univ]sally receiv$1 t ! e>? is a natural magnet1 0 orig9ally an hypo!sis ( ! celebrat$ ,gilb]t4 ,ano!r hypo!sis1 to ! legitimacy ( :i* no objection c lie1 & :i* is well calculat$ to light ! pa? ( sci5tific inquiry1 is t sugge/$ by sev]al rec5t writ]s1 t ! bra9 is a voltaic pile1 & t ea* ( its pulsations is a dis*>ge ( electricity ?r\gh ! sy/em4 ,x has be5 rem>k$ t ! s5sation felt by ! h& f ! beat+ ( a bra91 be>s a /rong resemblance to a voltaic %ock4 ,& ! hypo!sis1 if foll[$ to its consequ5ces1 might af=d a plausible explanation ( _m physiological facts1 :ile !re is no?+ to disc\rage ! hope t we may 9 "t suffici5tly und]/& ! conditions ( voltaic ph5om5a to r5d] ! tru? ( ! hypo!sis am5able to obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,! attempt to localize1 9 diff]5t regions ( ! bra91 ! physical organs ( our diff]5t m5tal faculties & prop5sities1 01 on ! "p ( its orig9al au?or1 a legitimate example ( a sci5tific hypo!sis2 & we ought n1 !re=e1 to blame him = ! extremely slight gr\nds on :i* he (t5 proce$$1 9 an op]ation :i* c\ld only be t5tative1 ?\gh we may regret t mat]ials b>ely suffici5t = a fir/ rude hypo!sis %\ld h be5 ha/ily work$ up into ! va9 semblance ( a sci5ce4 ,if !re be really a connexion betwe5 ! scale ( m5tal end[m5ts & ! v>i\s degrees ( complication 9 ! c]ebral sy/em1 ! nature ( t connexion 0 9 no o!r way s likely to be br\ght to light z by fram+1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 an hypo!sis simil> to t ( ,gall4 ,b ! v]ification ( any su* hypo!sis is att5d$1 f ! peculi> nature ( ! ph5om5a1 ) difficulties :i* phr5ologi/s h n %[n !mselves ev5 compet5t to appreciate1 mu* less to ov]come4 ,mr4 ,d>w9's rem>kable speculation on ! ,orig9 ( ,species is ano!r unimpea*able example ( a legitimate hypo!sis4 ,:at he t]ms natural selection is n only a v]a causa1 b "o prov$ to be capable ( produc+ effects ( ! same k9d ) ^? :i* ! hypo!sis ascribes to x3 ! "q ( possibility is entirely "o ( degree4 ,x is unreasonable to accuse ,mr4 ,d>w9 7z has be5 done7 ( violat+ ! rules ( ,induction4 ,! rules ( ,induction are conc]n$ ) ! conditions ( ,pro(4 ,mr4 ,d>w9 has nev] pret5d$ t 8 doctr9e 0 prov$4 ,he 0 n b\nd by ! rules ( ,induction1 b by ^? ( ,hypo!sis4 ,& ^! la/ h seldom be5 m completely fulfill$4 ,he has op5$ a pa? ( inquiry full ( promise1 ! results ( :i* none c =esee4 ,& is x n a wond]ful feat ( sci5tific k & +5uity to h r5d]$ s bold a sugge/ion1 :i* ! fir/ impulse ( e "o 0 to reject at once1 admissible & discussable1 ev5 z a conjecture8 #f ,:ewell's ,phil4 ( ,discov]y1 pp4 #bge1 #bgf4 #g ,:at has mo/ contribut$ to accr$it ! hypo!sis ( a physical m$ium = ! conveyance ( light1 is ! c]ta9 fact t light travels1 7:i* _c be prov$ ( gravitation17 t its communication is n in/antane\s1 b requires "t1 & t x is int]cept$ 7:i* gravitation is n7 by int]v5+ objects4 ,^! are analogies betwe5 its ph5om5a & ^? ( ! me*anical motion ( a solid or fluid sub/ance4 ,b we are n entitl$ to assume t me*anical motion is ! only p[] 9 nature capable ( exhibit+ ^? attributes4 #h ,phil4 ( ,disc4 p4 #bgd4 #i ,p4 #bga4 #aj ,p4 #bea & ! :ole ( ,app5dix ,g4 #aa ,9 ,dr4 ,:ewell's late/ v]sion ( 8 !ory 7,philosophy ( ,discov]y1 p4 #cca7 he makes a concession respect+ ! m$ium ( ! transmission ( light1 :i*1 tak5 9 conjunction ) ! re/ ( 8 doctr9e on ! subject1 is n1 ,i confess1 v intelligible to me1 b :i* goes f> t[>ds remov+1 if x does n actually remove1 ! :ole ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 u4 ,he is cont5d+1 aga9/ ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 t all matt] has weight4 ,sir ,william1 9 pro( ( ! contr>y1 cit$ ! lum9if]\s e!r1 & ! calorific & electric fluids1 :i*1 he said1 we c nei!r d5ude ( _! "* ( sub/ance1 nor clo! ) ! attribute ( weight4 ,to :i*1 cont9ues ,dr4 ,:ewell1 my reply is1 t precisely because ,i _c clo! ^! ag5ts ) ! attribute ( ,weight1 ,i d d5ude !m ( ! "* ( ,sub/ance4 ,!y are n sub/ances1 b ag5cies4 ,^! ,impond]able ,ag5ts1 are n prop]ly call$ ,impond]able ,fluids4 ,?is ,i conceive t ,i h prov$4 ,no?+ c be m philosophical4 ,b if ! lum9if]\s e!r is n matt]1 & fluid matt] too1 :at is ! mean+ ( its undulations8 ,c an ag5cy undulate8 ,c !re be alt]nate motion =w>d & backw>d ( ! p>ticles ( an ag5cy8 ,& does n ! :ole ma!matical !ory ( ! undulations imply !m to be mat]ial8 ,is x n a s]ies ( d$uctions f ! kn[n prop]ties ( ela/ic fluids8 ,?is op9ion ( ,dr4 ,:ewell r$uces ! undulations to a figure ( spee*1 & ! undulatory !ory to ! proposition :i* all mu/ admit1 t ! transmission ( light takes place accord+ to laws :i* pres5t a v /rik+ & rem>kable agreem5t ) ^? ( undulations4 ,if ,dr4 ,:ewell is prep>$ to /& by ?is doctr9e1 ,i h no diff]5ce ) him on ! subject4 ,s9ce ?is *apt] 0 writt51 ! hypo!sis ( ! lum9if]\s e!r has acquir$ a great accession ( app>5t /r5g?1 by be+ adopt$ into ! new doctr9e ( ! ,cons]vation ( ,=ce1 z af=d+ a me*anism by :i* to expla9 ! mode ( production n ( light only1 b ( heat1 & probably ( all ! o!r s-call$ impond]able ag5cies4 ,9 ! pres5t immature /age ( ! great speculation 9 "q1 ,i w\ld n und]take to def9e ! ultimate relation ( ! hypo!tical fluid to x2 b ,i mu/ rem>k t ! ess5tial "p ( ! new !ory1 ! reciprocal conv]tibility & int]*angeability ( ^! great cosmic ag5cies1 is q indep5d5t ( ! molecul> motions :i* h be5 imag9$ z ! imm$iate causes ( ^? diff]5t manife/ations & ( _! sub/itutions = "o ano!r2 & ! =m] doctr9e by no means necess>ily c>ries ! latt] ) x4 ,i confess t ! entire !ory ( ! vibrations ( ! e!r1 & ! movem5ts :i* ^! vibrations are suppos$ to communicate to ! p>ticles ( solid bodies1 seems to me at pres5t ! weake/ "p ( ! new sy/em1 t5d+ r to weigh d[n ?an to prop up ^? ( its doctr9es :i* re/ on real sci5tific induction4 #ab ,?us1 wat]1 ( :i* eight-n9?s 9 weight are oxyg51 dissolves mo/ bodies :i* conta9 a high proportion ( oxyg51 su* z all ! nitrates1 7:i* h m oxyg5 ?an any o!rs ( ! common salts17 mo/ ( ! sulphates1 _m ( ! c>bonates1 c4 ,aga91 bodies l>gely compos$ ( combu/ible elem5ts1 l hydrog5 & c>bon1 are soluble 9 bodies ( simil> composition2 ros91 = in/ance1 w dissolve 9 alcohol1 t> 9 oil ( turp5t9e4 ,?is empirical g5]alization is f> f be+ univ]sally true2 no d\bt because x is a remote1 & !re=e easily defeat$1 result ( g5]al laws too deep = u at pres5t to p5etrate2 b x w probably 9 "t sugge/ processes ( inquiry1 lead+ to ! discov]y ( ^? laws4 #ac ,or 7accord+ to ,laplace's !ory7 ! sun & ! sun's rotation4 #ad ,supra1 book iii4 *4 v4 #g4 #ae ,supra1 book iii4 *4 x4 #b4 #af ,9 ! prec$+ discussion1 ! mean is spok5 ( z if x 7 exactly ! same ?+ ) ! av]age4 ,b ! mean = purposes ( inductive inquiry1 is n ! av]age1 or ari?metical mean1 ?\gh 9 a famili> illu/ration ( ! !ory ! diff]5ce may be disreg>d$4 ,if ! deviations on "o side ( ! av]age are mu* m num]\s ?an ^? on ! o!r 7^! la/ be+ few] b great]71 ! effect due to ! inv>iable cause1 z di/9ct f ! v>iable ones1 w n co9cide ) ! av]age1 b w be ei!r bel[ or above ! av]age1 :i*ev] be ! side on :i* ! greate/ numb] ( ! in/ances are f\nd4 ,?is foll[s f a tru?1 asc]ta9$ bo? inductively & d$uctively1 t small deviations f ! true c5tral po9t are greatly m frequ5t ?an l>ge ones4 ,! ma!matical law is1 t ! mo/ probable det]m9ation ( "o or m inv>iable elem5ts f obs]vation is t 9 :i* ! sum ( ! squ>es ( ! individual ab]rations1 or deviations1 %all be ! lea/ possible4 ,see ?is pr9ciple /at$1 & its gr\nds popul>ly expla9$1 by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 9 8 review ( ,quetelet on ,probabilities1 ,essays1 pp4 #cie et seq4 #ag ,essai ,philosophique sur les ,probabilits1 fif? ,p>is ,edition1 p4 #g4 #ah ,x ev5 appe>s to me t ! calculation ( *ances1 :]e !re are no data gr\nd$ ei!r on special exp]i5ce or on special inf]5ce1 mu/1 9 an imm5se majority ( cases1 break d[n1 f %e] impossibility ( assign+ any pr9ciple by :i* to be guid$ 9 sett+ out ! li/ ( possibilities4 ,9 ! case ( ! col\r$ balls we h no difficulty 9 mak+ ! enum]ation1 because we ourselves det]m9e :at ! possibilities %all be4 ,b suppose a case m analog\s to ^? :i* occur 9 nature3 in/ead ( ?ree col\rs1 let !re be 9 ! box all possible col\rs3 we be+ suppos$ ignorant ( ! comp>ative frequ5cy ) :i* diff]5t col\rs occur 9 nature1 or 9 ! productions ( art4 ,h[ is ! li/ ( cases to be made out8 ,is e di/9ct %ade to c\nt z a col\r8 ,if s1 is ! te/ to be a common eye1 or an educat$ eye1 a pa9t]'s = in/ance8 ,on ! answ] to ^! que/ions w\ld dep5d :e!r ! *ances aga9/ "s p>ticul> col\r w\ld be e/imat$ at t51 tw5ty1 or p]haps five hundr$ to "o4 ,:ile if we knew f exp]i5ce t ! p>ticul> col\r occurs on an av]age a c]ta9 numb] ( times 9 e hundr$ or ?\s&1 we %\ld n require to "k any?+ ei!r ( ! frequ5cy or ( ! numb] ( ! o!r possibilities4 #ai ,prospective ,review = ,febru>y #ahej4 #bj ,if ?is be n s1 :y d we feel s mu* m probability add$ by ! fir/ in/ance1 ?an by any s+le subsequ5t in/ance8 ,:y1 except t ! fir/ in/ance gives u its possibility 7a cause adequate to x71 :ile e o!r only gives u ! frequ5cy ( its conditions8 ,if no ref]5ce to a cause be suppos$1 possibility w\ld h no mean+2 yet x is cle>1 t1 antec$5t to its happ5+1 we might h suppos$ ! ev5t impossible1 i4e41 h believ$ t !re 0 no physical en]gy really exi/+ 9 ! _w equal to produc+ x4444 ,aft] ! fir/ "t ( happ5+1 :i* is1 !n1 m important to ! :ole probability ?an any o!r s+le in/ance 7because prov+ ! possibility71 ! numb] ( times becomes important z an index to ! int5sity or ext5t ( ! cause1 & its indep5d5ce ( any p>ticul> "t4 ,if we took ! case ( a trem5d\s leap1 = in/ance1 & wi%$ to =m an e/imate ( ! probability ( its succe$+ a c]ta9 numb] ( times2 ! fir/ in/ance1 by %[+ its possibility 7be=e d\btful7 is ( ! mo/ importance2 b e succe$+ leap %[s ! p[] to be m p]fectly "u control1 great] & m inv>iable1 & s increases ! probability2 & no "o w\ld ?9k ( reason+ 9 ?is case /raight f "o in/ance to ! next1 )\t ref]r+ to ! physical en]gy :i* ea* leap indicat$4 ,is x n !n cle> t we d n ev] 7let u r say1 t we d n 9 an advanc$ /ate ( our k7 conclude directly f ! happ5+ ( an ev5t to ! probability ( its happ5+ aga92 b t we ref] to ! cause1 reg>d+ ! pa/ cases z an index to ! cause1 & ! cause z our guide to ! future8--,ibid4 #ba ,! writ] la/ quot$ says t ! valuation ( *ances by comp>+ ! numb] ( cases 9 :i* ! ev5t occurs ) ! numb] 9 :i* x does n occur1 w\ld g5]ally be :olly errone\s1 & is n ! true !ory ( probability4 ,x is at lea/ t :i* =ms ! f\ndation ( insurance1 & ( all ^? calculations ( *ances 9 ! bus9ess ( life :i* exp]i5ce s abundantly v]ifies4 ,! reason :i* ! review] gives = reject+ ! !ory1 is t x w\ld reg>d an ev5t z c]ta9 :i* _h hi!rto nev] fail$2 :i* is exce$+ly f> f ! tru?1 ev5 = a v l>ge numb] ( con/ant successes4 ,?is is n a defect 9 a p>ticul> !ory1 b 9 any !ory ( *ances4 ,no pr9ciple ( evaluation c provide = su* a case z t :i* ! review] supposes4 ,if an ev5t has nev] once fail$1 9 a numb] ( trials suffici5t to elim9ate *ance1 x really has all ! c]ta9ty :i* c be giv5 by an empirical law3 x is c]ta9 dur+ ! cont9uance ( ! same collocation ( causes :i* exi/$ dur+ ! obs]vations4 ,if x ev] fails1 x is 9 consequ5ce ( "s *ange 9 t collocation4 ,n[1 no !ory ( *ances w enable u to inf] ! future probability ( an ev5t f ! pa/1 if ! causes 9 op]ation1 capable ( influ5c+ ! ev5t1 h int]m$iately und]gone a *ange4 #bb ,pp4 #ah1 #ai4 ,! !orem is n /at$ by ,laplace 9 ! exact t]ms 9 :i* ,i h /at$ x2 b ! id5tity ( import ( ! two modes ( expression is easily demon/rable4 #bc ,= a full] treatm5t ( ! _m int]e/+ que/ions rais$ by ! !ory ( probabilities1 ,i may n[ ref] to a rec5t "w by ,mr4 ,v5n1 ,fell[ ( ,caius ,college1 ,cambridge1 ,! ,logic ( ,*ance2 "o ( ! mo/ ?\ghtful & philosophical treatises on any subject connect$ ) ,logic & ,evid5ce1 :i* h be5 produc$ 9 ?is or any o!r c\ntry = _m ye>s4 ,"s criticisms conta9$ 9 x h be5 v useful to me 9 revis+ ! correspond+ *apt]s ( ! pres5t "w4 ,9 sev]al ( ,mr4 ,v5n's op9ions1 h[ev]1 ,i d n agree4 ,:at ^! are w be obvi\s to any read] ( ,mr4 ,v5n's "w :o is also a read] ( ?is4 #bd ,!re 0 no great] f\ndation = ?is ?an = ,newton's celebrat$ conjecture t ! diamond 0 combu/ible4 ,he gr\nd$ 8 guess on ! v high refract+ p[] ( ! diamond1 comp>atively to its d5sity2 a peculi>ity :i* _h be5 obs]v$ to exi/ 9 combu/ible sub/ances2 & on simil> gr\nds he conjectur$ t wat]1 ?\gh n combu/ible1 conta9$ a combu/ible +r$i5t4 ,exp]im5t hav+ subsequ5tly %[n t 9 bo? in/ances he guess$ "r1 ! prophecy is consid]$ to h done great hon\r to 8 sci5tific sagacity2 b x is to ?is day unc]ta9 :e!r ! guess 01 9 tru?1 :at !re are s _m examples ( 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 a f>sight$ anticipation ( a law aft]w>ds to be discov]$4 ,! progress ( sci5ce has n hi!rto %[n gr\nd = believ+ t !re is any real connexion betwe5 combu/ibility & a high refract+ p[]4 #be ,h>tley's ,obs]vations on ,man1 vol4 i4 p4 #af4 ,! passage is n 9 ,prie/ley's curtail$ edition4 #bf ,i am happy to be able to quote ! foll[+ excell5t passage f ,mr4 ,bad5 ,p[ell's ,essay on ! ,inductive ,philosophy1 9 confirmation1 bo? 9 reg>d to hi/ory & to doctr9e1 ( ! /atem5t made 9 ! text4 ,speak+ ( ! conviction ( ! univ]sal & p]man5t uni=mity ( nature1 ,mr4 ,p[ell says 7pp4 #ih-ajj71 ,we may rem>k t ?is idea1 9 its prop] ext5t1 is by no means "o ( popul> acceptance or natural gr[?4 ,j s f> z ! daily exp]i5ce ( e "o goes1 s f> inde$ he comes to embrace a c]ta9 p]suasion ( ?is k9d1 b m]ely to ?is limit$ ext5t1 t :at is go+ on ar\nd him at pres5t1 9 8 own n>r[ sph]e ( obs]vation1 w g on 9 l mann] 9 future4 ,! peasant believes t ! sun :i* rose to-day w rise aga9 to-morr[2 t ! se$ put into ! gr\nd w be foll[$ 9 due "t by ! h>ve/ ?is ye> z x 0 la/ ye>1 & ! l2 b has no notion ( su* inf]5ces 9 subjects beyond 8 imm$iate obs]vation4 ,& x %\ld be obs]v$ t ea* class ( p]sons1 9 admitt+ ?is belief )9 ! limit$ range ( 8 own exp]i5ce1 ?\gh he d\bt or d5y x 9 ev]y?+ beyond1 is1 9 fact1 be>+ unconsci\s te/imony to its univ]sal tru?4 ,nor1 aga91 is x only among ! mo/ ignorant t ?is limitation is put ^u ! tru?4 ,!re is a v g5]al prop5sity to believe t ev]y?+ beyond common exp]i5ce1 or especially asc]ta9$ laws ( nature1 is left to ! dom9ion ( *ance or fate or arbitr>y int]v5tion2 & ev5 to object to any attempt$ explanation by physical causes1 if conjecturally ?r[n out = an app>5tly unacc\ntable ph5om5on4 ,! precise doctr9e ( ! g5]alization ( ?is idea ( ! uni=mity ( nature1 s f> f be+ obvi\s1 natural1 or intuitive1 is utt]ly beyond ! atta9m5t ( ! _m4 ,9 all ! ext5t ( its univ]sality x is *>act]i/ic ( ! philosoph]4 ,x is cle>ly ! result ( philosophic cultivation & tra9+1 & by no means ! spontane\s (fspr+ ( any prim>y pr9ciple naturally inh]5t 9 ! m9d1 z "s seem to believe4 ,x is no m]e vague p]suasion tak5 up )\t exam9ation1 z a common prepossession to :i* we are always accu/om$2 on ! contr>y1 all common prejudices & associations are aga9/ x4 ,x is pre-em95tly an acquir$ idea4 ,x is n atta9$ )\t deep /udy & reflection4 ,! be/ in=m$ philosoph] is ! man :o mo/ firmly believes x1 ev5 9 opposition to receiv$ notions2 its acceptance dep5ds on ! ext5t & pr(\ndness ( 8 inductive /udies4 #bg ,supra1 book iii4 *4 iii4 #a4 #bh ,x des]ves rem>k1 t ^! e>ly g5]alizations did n1 l sci5tific inductions1 presuppose causation4 ,:at !y did presuppose1 0 uni=mity 9 physical facts4 ,b ! obs]v]s 7 z ready to presume uni=mity 9 ! coexi/5ces ( facts z 9 ! sequ5ces4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !y nev] ?\ght ( assum+ t ?is uni=mity 0 a pr9ciple p]vad+ all nature3 _! g5]alizations did n imply t !re 0 uni=mity 9 ev]y?+1 b only t z mu* uni=mity z exi/$ )9 _! obs]vation1 exi/$ also beyond x4 ,! induction1 ,fire burns1 does n require = its validity t all nature %\ld obs]ve uni=m laws1 b only t !re %\ld be uni=mity 9 "o p>ticul> class ( natural ph5om5a3 ! effects ( fire on ! s5ses & on combu/ible sub/ances4 ,& uni=mity to ?is ext5t 0 n assum$1 ant]ior to ! exp]i5ce1 b prov$ by ! exp]i5ce4 ,! same obs]v$ in/ances :i* prov$ ! n>r[] tru?1 prov$ z mu* ( ! wid] "o z correspond$ to x4 ,x is f los+ sight ( ?is fact1 & consid]+ ! law ( causation 9 its full ext5t z necess>ily presuppos$ 9 ! v e>lie/ g5]alizations1 t p]sons h be5 l$ into ! belief t ! law ( causation is kn[n priori1 & is n itself a conclusion f exp]i5ce4 #bi ,book ii4 *ap4 iii4 #cj ,"o ( ! mo/ ris+ ?9k]s ( ! new g5]ation 9 ,france1 ,m4 ,ta9e 7:o has giv51 9 ! ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 ! mo/ ma/]ly analysis1 at lea/ 9 "o po9t ( view1 ev] made ( ! pres5t "w71 ?\gh he rejects1 on ?is & simil> po9ts ( psy*ology1 ! intuition !ory 9 its ord9>y =m1 nev]!less assigns to ! law ( causation1 & to "s o!r ( ! mo/ univ]sal laws1 t c]ta9ty beyond ! b\nds ( human exp]i5ce1 :i* ,i h n be5 able to accord to !m4 ,he does ?is on ! fai? ( our faculty ( ab/raction1 9 :i* he seems to recognise an indep5d5t s\rce ( evid5ce1 n inde$ disclos+ tru?s n conta9$ 9 our exp]i5ce1 b af=d+ an assurance :i* exp]i5ce _c give1 ( ! univ]sality ( ^? :i* x does conta94 ,by ab/raction ,m4 ,ta9e seems to ?9k t we are able1 n m]ely to analyse t "p ( nature :i* we see1 & exhibit ap>t ! elem5ts :i* p]vade x1 b to di/+ui% su* ( !m z are elem5ts ( ! sy/em ( nature consid]$ z a :ole1 n incid5ts belong+ to our limit$ t]re/rial exp]i5ce4 ,i am n sure t ,i fully ent] into ,m4 ,ta9e's mean+2 b ,i confess ,i d n see h[ any m]e ab/ract conception1 elicit$ by our m9ds f our exp]i5ce1 c be evid5ce ( an objective fact 9 univ]sal ,nature1 beyond :at ! exp]i5ce itself be>s witness (2 or h[1 9 ! process ( int]pret+ 9 g5]al language ! te/imony ( exp]i5ce1 ! limitations ( ! te/imony itself c be ca/ (f4 #ca ,book i4 *ap4 vii4 #cb ,9 "s cases1 a ,k9d is suffici5tly id5tifi$ by "s "o rem>kable prop]ty3 b mo/ commonly sev]al are requir$2 ea* prop]ty consid]$ s+ly1 be+ a jo9t prop]ty ( t & ( o!r ,k9ds4 ,! col\r & brightness ( ! diamond are common to x ) ! pa/e f :i* false diamonds are made2 its octoh$ral =m is common to x ) alum1 & magnetic iron ore2 b ! col\r & brightness & ! =m toge!r1 id5tify its ,k9d2 t is1 are a m>k to u t x is combu/ible2 t :5 burnt x produces c>bonic acid2 t x _c be cut ) any kn[n sub/ance2 toge!r ) _m o!r asc]ta9$ prop]ties1 & ! fact t !re exi/ an indef9ite numb] /ill unasc]ta9$4 #cc ,?is doctr9e ( c\rse assumes t ! allotropic =ms ( :at is *emically ! same sub/ance are s _m diff]5t ,k9ds2 & su*1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ! ^w ,k9d is us$ 9 ?is treatise1 !y really are4 #cd ,mr4 ,de ,morgan1 9 8 ,=mal ,logic1 makes ! j rem>k1 t f two su* premises z ,mo/ ,a are ,b1 & ,mo/ ,a are ,c1 we may inf] ) c]ta9ty t "s ,b are ,c4 ,b ?is is ! utmo/ limit ( ! conclusions :i* c be drawn f two approximate g5]alizations1 :5 ! precise degree ( _! approximation to univ]sality is unkn[n or undef9$4 #ce ,rationale ( ,judicial ,evid5ce1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bbd4 #cf ,supra1 vol4 i4 p4 #aae4 #cg ,supra1 book i4 *4 v4 #a1 & book ii4 *4 v4 #e4 #ch ,! axiom1 ,equals subtract$ f equals leave equal diff]5ces1 may be demon/rat$ f ! two axioms 9 ! text4 ,if ,a a & ,b b1 ,a - ,b a - b4 ,= if n1 let ,a - ,b a - b c4 ,!n s9ce ,b b1 add+ equals to equals1 ,a a c4 ,b ,a a4 ,!re=e a a c1 :i* is impossible4 ,?is proposition hav+ be5 demon/rat$1 we may1 by means ( x1 demon/rate ! foll[+3 ,if equals be add$ to unequals1 ! sums are unequal4 ,if ,a a & ,b n b1 ,a ,b is n a b4 ,= suppose x be s4 ,!n1 s9ce ,a a & ,a ,b a b1 subtract+ equals f equals1 ,b b2 :i* is contr>y to ! hypo!sis4 ,s aga91 x may be prov$ t two ?+s1 "o ( :i* is equal & ! o!r unequal to a ?ird ?+1 are unequal to "o ano!r4 ,if ,a a & ,a n ,b1 nei!r is a ,b4 ,= suppose x to be equal4 ,!n s9ce ,a a & a ,b1 & s9ce ?+s equal to ! same ?+ are equal to "o ano!r1 ,a ,b3 :i* is contr>y to ! hypo!sis4 #ci ,geomet]s h usually pref]r$ to def9e p>allel l9es by ! prop]ty ( be+ 9 ! same plane & nev] meet+4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 has r5d]$ x necess>y = !m to assume1 z an additional axiom1 "s o!r prop]ty ( p>allel l9es2 & ! unsatisfactory mann] 9 :i* prop]ties = t purpose h be5 select$ by ,euclid & o!rs has always be5 deem$ ! opprobrium ( elem5t>y geometry4 ,ev5 z a v]bal def9ition1 equidi/ance is a fitt] prop]ty to *>act]ize p>allels by1 s9ce x is ! attribute really involv$ 9 ! signification ( ! "n4 ,if to be 9 ! same plane & nev] to meet 7 all t is meant by be+ p>allel1 we %\ld feel no incongruity 9 speak+ ( a curve z p>allel to its asymptote4 ,! mean+ ( p>allel l9es is1 l9es :i* pursue exactly ! same direction1 & :i*1 !re=e1 nei!r draw ne>] nor g f>!r f "o ano!r2 a conception sugge/$ at once by ! contemplation ( nature4 ,t ! l9es w nev] meet is ( c\rse includ$ 9 ! m compreh5sive proposition t !y are ev]y:]e equally di/ant4 ,& t any /raight l9es :i* are 9 ! same plane & n equidi/ant w c]ta9ly meet1 may be demon/rat$ 9 ! mo/ rigor\s mann] f ! fundam5tal prop]ty ( /raight l9es assum$ 9 ! text1 viz4 t if !y set out f ! same po9t1 !y div]ge m & m )\t limit4 #dj ,philosophie ,positive1 iii4 #dad-daf4 #da ,see ! two rem>kable notes 7,a7 & 7,f71 app5d$ to 8 ,inquiry into ! ,relation ( ,cause & ,effect4 #db ,supra1 pp4 #aai1 #abj4 #dc ,a writ] to :om ,i h sev]al times ref]r$1 gives z ! def9ition ( an impossibility1 t :i* !re exi/s 9 ! _w no cause adequate to produce4 ,?is def9ition does n take 9 su* impossibilities z ^!--t two & two %\ld make five2 t two /raight l9es %\ld inclose a space2 or t any?+ %\ld beg9 to exi/ )\t a cause4 ,i c ?9k ( no def9ition ( impossibility compreh5sive en\gh to include all its v>ieties1 except ! "o :i* ,i h giv53 viz4 ,an impossibility is t1 ! tru? ( :i* w\ld conflict ) a complete induction1 t is1 ) ! mo/ conclusive evid5ce :i* we possess ( univ]sal tru?4 ,z to ! reput$ impossibilities :i* re/ on no o!r gr\nds ?an our ignorance ( any cause capable ( produc+ ! suppos$ effects2 v few ( !m are c]ta9ly impossible1 or p]man5tly incr$ible4 ,! facts ( travell+ sev5ty miles an h\r1 pa9less surgical op]ations1 & conv]s+ by in/antane\s signals betwe5 ,london & ,new ,york1 held a high place1 n _m ye>s ago1 among su* impossibilities4 #dd ,n1 h[ev]1 z might at fir/ sight appe>1 #iii times z mu*4 ,a complete analysis ( ! cases %[s t 7always assum+ ! v]acity ( ! witness to be #i_/aj7 9 #aj1jjj draw+s1 ! draw+ ( ,no4 #gi w occur n9e times1 & be ann\nc$ incorrectly once2 ! cr$ibility !re=e ( ! ann\ncem5t ( ,no4 #gi is #i_/aj2 :ile ! draw+ ( a :ite ball w occur n9e times1 & be ann\nc$ incorrectly #iii times4 ,! cr$ibility !re=e ( ! ann\ncem5t ( :ite is #i_/ajjh1 & ! ratio ( ! two #ajjh3aj2 ! "o ann\ncem5t be+ ?us only ab\t a hundr$ times m cr$ible ?an ! o!r1 in/ead ( #iii times4 ,,book ,,iv4 ,,( ,,op]ations ,,subsidi>y ,,to ,,induction4 ,cle> & di/9ct ideas are t]ms :i*1 ?\gh famili> & frequ5t 9 m5's m\?s1 ,i h reason to ?9k e "o :o uses does n p]fectly und]/&4 ,& possibly x is b "h & !re "o :o gives himself ! tr\ble to consid] !m s f> z to "k :at he himself or o!rs precisely mean by !m2 ,i h1 !re=e1 9 mo/ places1 *ose to put det]m9ate or det]m9$1 in/ead ( cle> & di/9ct1 z m likely to direct m5's ?\ghts to my mean+ 9 ?is matt]4--,,locke',s ,essay on ! ,human ,und]/&+2 ,epi/le to ! ,read]4 ,il ne peut y avoir qu'une m?ode p>faite1 qui e/ la m?ode naturelle2 on nomme a9si un arrangem5t dans lequel les tres du mme g5re s]ai5t plus vois9s entre eux que ceux de t\s les autres g5res2 les g5res du mme ordre1 plus que ceux de t\s les autres ordres2 et a9si de suite4 ,cette m?ode e/ l'idal auquel l'hi/oire naturelle doit t5dre2 c> il e/ vid5t que si l'on y p>v5ait1 l'on aurait l'expression exacte et complte de la nature entire4--,,cuvi]1 ,rgne ,animal1 ,introduction4 ,deux gr&es notions philosophiques dom95t la ?orie fondam5tale de la m?ode naturelle proprem5t dite1 savoir la =mation des gr\pes naturels1 et ensuite leur succession hir>*ique4--,,comte1 ,c\rs de ,philosophie ,positive1 #dbme leon4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,( ,,obs]vation ,,& ,,description4 #a4 ,! inquiry :i* occupi$ u 9 ! two prec$+ books1 has conduct$ u to :at appe>s a satisfactory solution ( ! pr9cipal problem ( ,logic1 accord+ to ! conception ,i h =m$ ( ! sci5ce4 ,we h f\nd1 t ! m5tal process ) :i* ,logic is conv]sant1 ! op]ation ( asc]ta9+ tru?s by means ( evid5ce1 is always1 ev5 :5 appe>ances po9t to a diff]5t !ory ( x1 a process ( induction4 ,& we h p>ticul>iz$ ! v>i\s modes ( induction1 & obta9$ a cle> view ( ! pr9ciples to :i* x mu/ con=m1 9 ord] to lead to results :i* c be reli$ on4 ,! consid]ation ( ,induction1 h[ev]1 does n end ) ! direct rules = its p]=mance4 ,some?+ mu/ be said ( ^? o!r op]ations ( ! m9d1 :i* are ei!r necess>ily presuppos$ 9 all induction1 or are in/rum5tal to ! m difficult & complicat$ inductive processes4 ,! pres5t book w be devot$ to ! consid]ation ( ^! subsidi>y op]ations3 among :i* our att5tion mu/ fir/ be giv5 to ^?1 :i* are indisp5sable prelim9>ies to all induction :atsoev]4 ,induction be+ m]ely ! ext5sion to a class ( cases1 ( some?+ :i* has be5 obs]v$ to be true 9 c]ta9 individual in/ances ( ! class2 ! fir/ place among ! op]ations subsidi>y to induction1 is claim$ by ,obs]vation4 ,?is is n1 h[ev]1 ! place to lay d[n rules = mak+ good obs]v]s2 nor is x )9 ! compet5ce ( ,logic to d s1 b ( ! art ( intellectual ,education4 ,our bus9ess ) obs]vation is only 9 its connexion ) ! appropriate problem ( logic1 ! e/imation ( evid5ce4 ,we h to consid]1 n h[ or :at to obs]ve1 b "u :at conditions obs]vation is to be reli$ on2 :at is ne$ful1 9 ord] t ! fact1 suppos$ to be obs]v$1 may safely be receiv$ z true4 #b4 ,! answ] to ?is "q is v simple1 at lea/ 9 its fir/ aspect4 ,! sole condition is1 t :at is suppos$ to h be5 obs]v$ %all really h be5 obs]v$2 t x be an obs]vation1 n an inf]5ce4 ,= 9 almo/ e act ( our p]ceiv+ faculties1 obs]vation & inf]5ce are intimately bl5d$4 ,:at we are said to obs]ve is usually a comp\nd result1 ( :i* "o-t5? may be obs]vation1 & ! rema9+ n9e-t5?s inf]5ce4 ,i affirm1 = example1 t ,i he> a man's voice4 ,?is w\ld pass1 9 common language1 = a direct p]ception4 ,all1 h[ev]1 :i* is really p]ception1 is t ,i he> a s\nd4 ,t ! s\nd is a voice1 & t voice ! voice ( a man1 are n p]ceptions b inf]5ces4 ,i affirm1 aga91 t ,i saw my bro!r at a c]ta9 h\r ?is morn+4 ,if any proposition conc]n+ a matt] ( fact w\ld commonly be said to be kn[n by ! direct te/imony ( ! s5ses1 ?is surely w\ld be s4 ,! tru?1 h[ev]1 is f> o!rwise4 ,i only saw a c]ta9 col\r$ surface2 or r ,i _h ! k9d ( visual s5sations :i* are usually produc$ by a col\r$ surface2 & f ^! z m>ks1 kn[n to be su* by previ\s exp]i5ce1 ,i conclud$ t ,i saw my bro!r4 ,i might h _h s5sations precisely simil>1 :5 my bro!r 0 n !re4 ,i might h se5 "s o!r p]son s ne>ly resembl+ him 9 appe>ance1 z1 at ! di/ance1 & ) ! degree ( att5tion :i* ,i be/[$1 to be mi/ak5 = him4 ,i might h be5 asleep1 & h dream$ t ,i saw him2 or 9 a /ate ( n]v\s disord]1 :i* br\ght 8 image be=e me 9 a wak+ halluc9ation4 ,9 all ^! modes1 _m h be5 l$ to believe t !y saw p]sons well kn[n to !m1 :o 7 dead or f> di/ant4 ,if any ( ^! suppositions _h be5 true1 ! affirmation t ,i saw my bro!r w\ld h be5 errone\s2 b :atev] 0 matt] ( direct p]ception1 namely ! visual s5sations1 w\ld h be5 real4 ,! inf]5ce only w\ld h be5 ill gr\nd$2 ,i %\ld h ascrib$ ^? s5sations to a wrong cause4 ,innum]able in/ances might be giv51 & analys$ 9 ! same mann]1 ( :at are vulg>ly call$ errors ( s5se4 ,!re are none ( !m prop]ly errors ( s5se2 !y are errone\s inf]5ces f s5se4 ,:5 ,i look at a c&le ?r\gh a multiply+ glass1 ,i see :at seems a doz5 c&les in/ead ( "o3 & if ! real circum/ances ( ! case 7 skilfully disguis$1 ,i might suppose t !re 7 really t numb]2 !re w\ld be :at is call$ an optical deception4 ,9 ! kaleidoscope !re really is t deception3 :5 ,i look ?r\gh ! in/rum5t1 in/ead ( :at is actually !re1 namely a casual arrangem5t ( col\r$ fragm5ts1 ! appe>ance pres5t$ is t ( ! same comb9ation sev]al times repeat$ 9 symmetrical arrangem5t r\nd a po9t4 ,! delusion is ( c\rse effect$ by giv+ me ! same s5sations :i* ,i %\ld h _h if su* a symmetrical comb9ation _h really be5 pres5t$ to me4 ,if ,i cross two ( my f+]s1 & br+ any small object1 a m>ble = in/ance1 into contact ) bo?1 at po9ts n usually t\*$ simultane\sly by "o object1 ,i c h>dly1 if my eyes are %ut1 help believ+ t !re are two m>bles in/ead ( "o4 ,b x is n my t\* 9 ?is case1 nor my sight 9 ! o!r1 :i* is deceiv$2 ! deception1 :e!r durable or only mom5t>y1 is 9 my judgm5t4 ,f my s5ses ,i h only ! s5sations1 & ^? are g5u9e4 ,be+ accu/om$ to h ^? or simil> s5sations :51 & only :51 a c]ta9 arrangem5t ( outw>d objects is pres5t to my organs1 ,i h ! habit ( in/antly1 :5 ,i exp]i5ce ! s5sations1 inf]r+ ! exi/5ce ( t /ate ( outw>d ?+s4 ,?is habit has become s p[]ful1 t ! inf]5ce1 p]=m$ ) ! spe$ & c]ta9ty ( an in/9ct1 is conf\nd$ ) intuitive p]ceptions4 ,:5 x is correct1 ,i am unconsci\s t x ev] ne$$ pro(2 ev5 :5 ,i "k x to be incorrect1 ,i _c )\t consid]able ef=t ab/a9 f mak+ x4 ,9 ord] to be aw>e t x is n made by in/9ct b by an acquir$ habit1 ,i am oblig$ to reflect on ! sl[ process ?r\gh :i* ,i le>nt to judge by ! eye ( _m ?+s :i* ,i n[ appe> to p]ceive directly by sight2 & on ! rev]se op]ation p]=m$ by p]sons le>n+ to draw1 :o ) difficulty & lab\r dive/ !mselves ( _! acquir$ p]ceptions1 & le>n afre% to see ?+s z !y appe> to ! eye4 ,x w\ld be easy to prolong ^! illu/rations1 7 !re any ne$ to expatiate on a topic s copi\sly exemplifi$ 9 v>i\s popul> works4 ,f ! examples already giv51 x is se5 suffici5tly1 t ! individual facts f :i* we collect our inductive g5]alizations are sc>cely ev] obta9$ by obs]vation alone4 ,obs]vation ext5ds only to ! s5sations by :i* we recognise objects2 b ! propositions :i* we make use (1 ei!r 9 sci5ce or 9 common life1 relate mo/ly to ! objects !mselves4 ,9 e act ( :at is call$ obs]vation1 !re is at lea/ "o inf]5ce--f ! s5sations to ! pres5ce ( ! object2 f ! m>ks or diagno/ics1 to ! entire ph5om5on4 ,& h5ce1 among o!r consequ5ces1 foll[s ! seem+ p>adox1 t a g5]al proposition collect$ f p>ticul>s is (t5 m c]ta9ly true ?an any "o ( ! p>ticul> propositions f :i*1 by an act ( induction1 x 0 inf]r$4 ,=1 ea* ( ^? p>ticul> 7or r s+ul>7 propositions involv$ an inf]5ce1 f ! impression on ! s5ses to ! fact :i* caus$ t impression3 & ?is inf]5ce may h be5 errone\s 9 any "o ( ! in/ances1 b _c well h be5 errone\s 9 all ( !m1 provid$ _! numb] 0 suffici5t to elim9ate *ance4 ,! conclusion1 !re=e1 t is1 ! g5]al proposition1 may des]ve m complete reliance ?an x w\ld be safe to repose 9 any "o ( ! inductive premises4 ,! logic ( obs]vation1 !n1 consi/s solely 9 a correct discrim9ation betwe5 t1 9 a result ( obs]vation1 :i* has really be5 p]ceiv$1 & t :i* is an inf]5ce f ! p]ception4 ,:atev] portion is inf]5ce1 is am5able to ! rules ( induction already treat$ (1 & requires no fur!r notice "h3 ! "q = u 9 ?is place is1 :5 all :i* is inf]5ce is tak5 away1 :at rema9s4 ,!re rema9s1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! m9d's own feel+s or /ates ( consci\sness1 namely1 its outw>d feel+s or s5sations1 & its inw>d feel+s--its ?\ghts1 emotions1 & volitions4 ,:e!r any?+ else rema9s1 or all else is inf]5ce f ?is2 :e!r ! m9d is capable ( directly p]ceiv+ or appreh5d+ any?+ except /ates ( its own consci\sness--is a problem ( metaphysics n to be discuss$ 9 ?is place4 ,b aft] exclud+ all que/ions on :i* metaphysicians diff]1 x rema9s true1 t = mo/ purposes ! discrim9ation we are call$ ^u practically to ex]cise is t betwe5 s5sations or o!r feel+s1 ( our own or ( o!r p1 & inf]5ces drawn f !m4 ,& on ! !ory ( ,obs]vation ?is is all :i* seems necess>y to be said = ! purposes ( ! pres5t "w4 #c4 ,if1 9 ! simple/ obs]vation1 or 9 :at passes = su*1 !re is a l>ge "p :i* is n obs]vation b some?+ else2 s 9 ! simple/ description ( an obs]vation1 !re is1 & mu/ always be1 mu* m ass]t$ ?an is conta9$ 9 ! p]ception itself4 ,we _c describe a fact1 )\t imply+ m ?an ! fact4 ,! p]ception is only ( "o individual ?+2 b to describe x is to affirm a connexion betwe5 x & e o!r ?+ :i* is ei!r d5ot$ or connot$ by any ( ! t]ms us$4 ,to beg9 ) an example1 ?an :i* none c be conceiv$ m elem5t>y3 ,i h a s5sation ( sight1 & ,i endeav\r to describe x by say+ t ,i see some?+ :ite4 ,9 say+ ?is1 ,i d n solely affirm my s5sation2 ,i also class x4 ,i ass]t a resemblance betwe5 ! ?+ ,i see1 & all ?+s :i* ,i & o!rs are accu/om$ to call :ite4 ,i ass]t t x resembles !m 9 ! circum/ance 9 :i* !y all resemble "o ano!r1 9 t :i* is ! gr\nd ( _! be+ call$ by ! "n4 ,?is is n m]ely "o way ( describ+ an obs]vation1 b ! only way4 ,if ,i w\ld ei!r regi/] my obs]vation = my own future use1 or make x kn[n = ! b5efit ( o!rs1 ,i mu/ ass]t a resemblance betwe5 ! fact :i* ,i h obs]v$ & some?+ else4 ,x is inh]5t 9 a description1 to be ! /atem5t ( a resemblance1 or resemblances4 ,we ?us see t x is impossible to express 9 words any result ( obs]vation1 )\t p]=m+ an act possess+ :at ,dr4 ,:ewell consid]s to be *>act]i/ic ( ,induction4 ,!re is always some?+ introduc$ :i* 0 n includ$ 9 ! obs]vation itself2 "s conception common to ! ph5om5on ) o!r ph5om5a to :i* x is comp>$4 ,an obs]vation _c be spok5 ( 9 language at all )\t decl>+ m ?an t "o obs]vation2 )\t assimilat+ x to o!r ph5om5a already obs]v$ & classifi$4 ,b ?is id5tification ( an object--?is recognition ( x z possess+ c]ta9 kn[n *>act]i/ics--has nev] be5 conf\nd$ ) ,induction4 ,x is an op]ation :i* prec$es all induction1 & supplies x ) its mat]ials4 ,x is a p]ception ( resemblances1 obta9$ by comp>ison4 ,^! resemblances are n always appreh5d$ directly1 by m]ely comp>+ ! object obs]v$ ) "s o!r pres5t object1 or ) our recollection ( an object :i* is abs5t4 ,!y are (t5 asc]ta9$ ?r\gh int]m$iate m>ks1 t is1 d$uctively4 ,9 describ+ "s new k9d ( animal1 suppose me to say t x measures t5 feet 9 l5g?1 f ! =ehead to ! extremity ( ! tail4 ,i did n asc]ta9 ?is by ! unassi/$ eye4 ,i _h a two-foot rule :i* ,i appli$ to ! object1 &1 z we commonly say1 measur$ x2 an op]ation :i* 0 n :olly manual1 b p>tly also ma!matical1 involv+ ! two propositions1 ,five times two is t51 & ,?+s :i* are equal to ! same ?+ are equal to "o ano!r4 ,h5ce1 ! fact t ! animal is t5 feet long is n an imm$iate p]ception1 b a conclusion f reason+2 ! m9or premises alone be+ furni%$ by obs]vation ( ! object4 ,nev]!less1 ?is is call$ an obs]vation or a description ( ! animal1 n an induction respect+ x4 ,to pass at once f a v simple to a v complex example3 ,i affirm t ! e>? is globul>4 ,! ass]tion is n gr\nd$ on direct p]ception2 = ! figure ( ! e>? _c1 by u1 be directly p]ceiv$1 ?\gh ! ass]tion w\ld n be true unless circum/ances c\ld be suppos$ "u :i* its tru? c\ld be s p]ceiv$4 ,t ! =m ( ! e>? is globul> is inf]r$ f c]ta9 m>ks1 z = in/ance f ?is1 t its %ad[ ?r[n ^u ! moon is circul>2 or ?is1 t on ! sea1 or any ext5sive pla91 our horizon is always a circle2 ei!r ( :i* m>ks is incompatible ) any o!r ?an a globul> =m4 ,i ass]t fur!r1 t ! e>? is t p>ticul> k9d ( globe :i* is t]m$ an oblate sph]oid2 because x is f\nd by measurem5t 9 ! direction ( ! m]idian1 t ! l5g? on ! surface ( ! e>? :i* subt5ds a giv5 angle at its c5tre1 dim9i%es z we rec$e f ! equator & approa* ! poles4 ,b ^! propositions1 t ! e>? is globul>1 & t x is an oblate sph]oid1 ass]t1 ea* ( !m1 an individual fact2 9 its own nature capable ( be+ p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses :5 ! requisite organs & ! necess>y position are suppos$1 & only n actually p]ceiv$ because ^? organs & t position are want+4 ,?is id5tification ( ! e>?1 fir/ z a globe1 & next z an oblate sph]oid1 :i*1 if ! fact c\ld h be5 se51 w\ld h be5 call$ a description ( ! figure ( ! e>?1 may )\t impropriety be s call$ :51 in/ead ( be+ se51 x is inf]r$4 ,b we c\ld n )\t impropriety call ei!r ( ^! ass]tions an induction f facts respect+ ! e>?4 ,!y are n g5]al propositions collect$ f p>ticul> facts1 b p>ticul> facts d$uc$ f g5]al propositions4 ,!y are conclusions obta9$ d$uctively1 f premises orig9at+ 9 induction3 b ( ^! premises "s 7 n obta9$ by obs]vation ( ! e>?1 nor _h any peculi> ref]5ce to x4 ,if1 !n1 ! tru? respect+ ! figure ( ! e>? is n an induction1 :y %\ld ! tru? respect+ ! figure ( ! e>?'s orbit be s8 ,! two cases only diff] 9 ?is1 t ! =m ( ! orbit 0 n1 l ! =m ( ! e>? itself1 d$uc$ by ratioc9ation f facts :i* 7 m>ks ( ellipticity1 b 0 got at by boldly guess+ t ! pa? 0 an ellipse1 & f9d+ aft]w>ds1 on exam9ation1 t ! obs]vations 7 9 h>mony ) ! hypo!sis4 ,accord+ to ,dr4 ,:ewell1 h[ev]1 ?is process ( guess+ & v]ify+ our guesses is n only induction1 b ! :ole ( induction3 no o!r exposition c be giv5 ( t logical op]ation4 ,t he is wrong 9 ! latt] ass]tion1 ! :ole ( ! prec$+ book has1 ,i hope1 suffici5tly prov$2 & t ! process by :i* ! ellipticity ( ! planet>y orbits 0 asc]ta9$1 is n induction at all1 0 attempt$ to be %[n 9 ! second *apt] ( ! same book4#a ,we are n[1 h[ev]1 prep>$ to g m into ! he>t ( ! matt] ?an at t e>li] p]iod ( our inquiry1 & to %[1 n m]ely :at ! op]ation 9 "q is n1 b :at x is4 #d4 ,we obs]v$1 9 ! second *apt]1 t ! proposition ! e>? moves 9 an ellipse1 s f> z x only s]ves = ! colligation or connect+ toge!r ( actual obs]vations1 7t is1 z x only affirms t ! obs]v$ positions ( ! e>? may be correctly repres5t$ by z _m po9ts 9 ! circumf]5ce ( an imag9>y ellipse17 is n an induction1 b a description3 x is an induction1 only :5 x affirms t ! int]m$iate positions1 ( :i* !re has be5 no direct obs]vation1 w\ld be f\nd to correspond to ! rema9+ po9ts ( ! same elliptic circumf]5ce4 ,n[1 ?\gh ?is real induction is "o ?+1 & ! description ano!r1 we are 9 a v diff]5t condition = mak+ ! induction be=e we h obta9$ ! description1 & aft] x4 ,= inasmu* z ! description1 l all o!r descriptions1 conta9s ! ass]tion ( a resemblance betwe5 ! ph5om5on describ$ & some?+ else2 9 po9t+ out some?+ :i* ! s]ies ( obs]v$ places ( a planet resembles1 x po9ts out some?+ 9 :i* ! sev]al places !mselves agree4 ,if ! s]ies ( places correspond to z _m po9ts ( an ellipse1 ! places !mselves agree 9 be+ situat$ 9 t ellipse4 ,we h1 !re=e1 by ! same process :i* gave u ! description1 obta9$ ! requisites = an induction by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,! successive obs]v$ places ( ! e>? be+ consid]$ z effects1 & its motion z ! cause :i* produces !m1 we f9d t ^? effects1 t is1 ^? places1 agree 9 ! circum/ance ( be+ 9 an ellipse4 ,we conclude t ! rema9+ effects1 ! places :i* h n be5 obs]v$1 agree 9 ! same circum/ance1 & t ! law ( ! motion ( ! e>? is motion 9 an ellipse4 ,! ,colligation ( ,facts1 !re=e1 by means ( hypo!ses1 or1 z ,dr4 ,:ewell pref]s to say1 by means ( ,conceptions1 in/ead ( be+1 z he supposes1 ,induction itself1 takes its prop] place among op]ations subsidi>y to ,induction4 ,all ,induction supposes t we h previ\sly comp>$ ! requisite numb] ( individual in/ances1 & asc]ta9$ 9 :at circum/ances !y agree4 ,! ,colligation ( ,facts is no o!r ?an ?is prelim9>y op]ation4 ,:5 ,kepl]1 aft] va9ly endeav\r+ to connect ! obs]v$ places ( a planet by v>i\s hypo!ses ( circul> motion1 at la/ tri$ ! hypo!sis ( an ellipse & f\nd x answ] to ! ph5om5a2 :at he really attempt$1 fir/ unsuccessfully & at la/ successfully1 0 to discov] ! circum/ance 9 :i* all ! obs]v$ positions ( ! planet agre$4 ,& :5 he 9 l mann] connect$ ano!r set ( obs]v$ facts1 ! p]iodic times ( ! diff]5t planets1 by ! proposition t ! squ>es ( ! times are proportional to ! cubes ( ! di/ances1 :at he did 0 simply to asc]ta9 ! prop]ty 9 :i* ! p]iodic times ( all ! diff]5t planets agre$4 ,s9ce1 !re=e1 all t is true & to ! purpose 9 ,dr4 ,:ewell's doctr9e ( ,conceptions might be fully express$ by ! m famili> t]m ,hypo!sis2 & s9ce 8 ,colligation ( ,facts by means ( appropriate ,conceptions1 is b ! ord9>y process ( f9d+ by a comp>ison ( ph5om5a1 9 :at consi/s _! agreem5t or resemblance2 ,i w\ld will+ly h conf9$ myself to ^? bett] und]/ood expressions1 & p]sev]$ to ! end 9 ! same ab/95ce :i* ,i h hi!rto obs]v$ f ideological discussions2 consid]+ ! me*anism ( our ?\ghts to be a topic di/9ct f & irrelevant to ! pr9ciples & rules by :i* ! tru/wor?9ess ( ! results ( ?9k+ is to be e/imat$4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 a "w ( su* high pret5sions1 &1 x mu/ also be said1 ( s mu* real m]it1 has re/$ ! :ole !ory ( ,induction ^u su* ideological consid]ations1 x seems necess>y = o!rs :o foll[1 to claim = !mselves & _! doctr9es :atev] position may prop]ly belong to !m on ! same metaphysical gr\nd4 ,& ?is is ! object ( ! succe$+ *apt]4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,( ,,ab/raction1 ,,or ,,! ,,=mation ,,( ,,conceptions4 #a4 ,! metaphysical inquiry into ! nature & composition ( :at h be5 call$ ,ab/ract ,ideas1 or 9 o!r words1 ( ! notions :i* answ] 9 ! m9d to classes & to g5]al names1 belongs n to ,logic1 b to a diff]5t sci5ce1 & our purpose does n require t we %\ld ent] ^u x "h4 ,we are only conc]n$ ) ! univ]sally ackn[l$g$ fact1 t su* notions or conceptions d exi/4 ,! m9d c conceive a multitude ( individual ?+s z "o assemblage or class2 & g5]al names d really sugge/ to u c]ta9 ideas or m5tal repres5tations1 o!rwise we c\ld n use ! names ) consci\sness ( a mean+4 ,:e!r ! idea call$ up by a g5]al "n is compos$ ( ! v>i\s circum/ances 9 :i* all ! individuals d5ot$ by ! "n agree1 & ( no o!rs1 7:i* is ! doctr9e ( ,locke1 ,br[n1 & ! ,conceptuali/s27 or :e!r x be ! idea ( "s "o ( ^? individuals1 clo!d 9 its individualiz+ peculi>ities1 b ) ! accompany+ k t ^? peculi>ities are n prop]ties ( ! class1 7:i* is ! doctr9e ( ,b]keley1 ,mr4 ,bailey1#b & ! mod]n ,nom9ali/s27 or :e!r 7z held by ,mr4 ,james ,mill7 ! idea ( ! class is t ( a miscellane\s assemblage ( individuals belong+ to ! class2 or :e!r1 f9ally1 7:at appe>s to be ! true/ op9ion17 x be any "o or any o!r ( all ^!1 accord+ to ! accid5tal circum/ances ( ! case2 c]ta9 x is1 t "s idea or m5tal conception is sugge/$ by a g5]al "n1 :5ev] we ei!r he> x or employ x ) consci\sness ( a mean+4 ,& ?is1 :i* we may call if we please a g5]al idea1 repres5ts 9 our m9ds ! :ole class ( ?+s to :i* ! "n is appli$4 ,:5ev] we ?9k or reason conc]n+ ! class1 we d s by means ( ?is idea4 ,& ! volunt>y p[] :i* ! m9d has1 ( att5d+ to "o "p ( :at is pres5t to x at any mom5t1 & neglect+ ano!r "p1 enables u to keep our reason+s & conclusions respect+ ! class unaffect$ by any?+ 9 ! idea or m5tal image :i* is n really1 or at lea/ :i* we d n really believe to be1 common to ! :ole class4#c ,!re are1 !n1 su* ?+s z g5]al conceptions1 or conceptions by means ( :i* we c ?9k g5]ally3 & :5 we =m a set ( ph5om5a into a class1 t is1 :5 we comp>e !m ) "o ano!r to asc]ta9 9 :at !y agree1 "s g5]al conception is impli$ 9 ?is m5tal op]ation4 ,& inasmu* z su* a comp>ison is a necess>y prelim9>y to ,induction1 x is mo/ true t ,induction c\ld n g on )\t g5]al conceptions4 #b4 ,b x does n !re=e foll[ t ^! g5]al conceptions mu/ h exi/$ 9 ! m9d previ\sly to ! comp>ison4 ,x is n a law ( our intellect1 t 9 comp>+ ?+s ) ea* o!r & tak+ note ( _! agreem5t we m]ely recognise z realiz$ 9 ! outw>d _w some?+ t we already _h 9 our m9ds4 ,! conception orig9ally f\nd its way to u z ! result ( su* a comp>ison4 ,x 0 obta9$ 79 metaphysical phrase7 by ab/raction f individual ?+s4 ,^! ?+s may be ?+s :i* we p]ceiv$ or ?\ght ( on =m] occasions1 b !y may also be ! ?+s :i* we are p]ceiv+ or ?9k+ ( on ! v occasion4 ,:5 ,kepl] comp>$ ! obs]v$ places ( ! planet ,m>s1 & f\nd t !y agre$ 9 be+ po9ts ( an elliptic circumf]5ce1 he appli$ a g5]al conception :i* 0 already 9 8 m9d1 hav+ be5 d]iv$ f 8 =m] exp]i5ce4 ,b ?is is by no means univ]sally ! case4 ,:5 we comp>e sev]al objects & f9d !m to agree 9 be+ :ite1 or :5 we comp>e ! v>i\s species ( rum9at+ animals & f9d !m to agree 9 be+ clov5-foot$1 we h j z mu* a g5]al conception 9 our m9ds z ,kepl] _h 9 83 we h ! conception ( a :ite ?+1 or ! conception ( a clov5-foot$ animal4 ,b no "o supposes t we necess>ily br+ ^! conceptions ) u1 & sup]9duce !m 7to adopt ,dr4 ,:ewell's expression7 ^u ! facts3 because 9 ^! simple cases ev]ybody sees t ! v act ( comp>ison :i* ends 9 our connect+ ! facts by means ( ! conception1 may be ! s\rce f :i* we d]ive ! conception itself4 ,if we _h nev] se5 any :ite object or _h nev] se5 any clov5-foot$ animal be=e1 we %\ld at ! same "t & by ! same m5tal act acquire ! idea1 & employ x = ! colligation ( ! obs]v$ ph5om5a4 ,kepl]1 on ! contr>y1 really _h to br+ ! idea ) him1 & sup]9duce x ^u ! facts2 he c\ld n evolve x out ( !m3 if he _h n already _h ! idea1 he w\ld n h be5 able to acquire x by a comp>ison ( ! planet's positions4 ,b ?is inability 0 a m]e accid5t3 ! idea ( an ellipse c\ld h be5 acquir$ f ! pa?s ( ! planets z effectually z f any?+ else1 if ! pa?s _h n happ5$ to be invisible4 ,if ! planet _h left a visible track1 & we _h be5 s plac$ t we c\ld see x at ! prop] angle1 we might h ab/ract$ our orig9al idea ( an ellipse f ! planet>y orbit4 ,inde$1 e conception :i* c be made ! in/rum5t = connect+ a set ( facts1 might h be5 orig9ally evolv$ f ^? v facts4 ,! conception is a conception ( some?+2 & t :i* x is a conception (1 is really 9 ! facts1 & might1 "u "s supposable circum/ances1 or by "s supposable ext5sion ( ! faculties :i* we actually possess1 h be5 detect$ 9 !m4 ,& n only is ?is always 9 itself possible1 b x actually happ5s1 9 almo/ all cases 9 :i* ! obta9+ ( ! "r conception is a matt] ( any consid]able difficulty4 ,= if !re be no new conception requir$2 if "o ( ^? already famili> to mank9d w s]ve ! purpose1 ! accid5t ( be+ ! fir/ to :om ! "r "o occurs1 may happ5 to almo/ anybody2 at lea/ 9 ! case ( a set ( ph5om5a :i* ! :ole sci5tific _w are engag$ 9 attempt+ to connect4 ,! hon\r1 9 ,kepl]'s case1 0 t ( ! accurate1 pati5t1 & toilsome calculations by :i* he comp>$ ! results t foll[$ f 8 diff]5t guesses1 ) ! obs]vations ( ,ty*o ,brahe2 b ! m]it 0 v small ( guess+ an ellipse2 ! only wond] is t m5 _h n guess$ x be=e1 nor c\ld !y h fail$ to d s if !re _h n exi/$ an ob/9ate priori prejudice t ! heav5ly bodies mu/ move1 if n 9 a circle1 9 "s comb9ation ( circles4 ,! really difficult cases are ^? 9 :i* ! conception de/9$ to create light & ord] out ( d>kness & confusion1 has to be s\ght = among ! v ph5om5a :i* x aft]w>ds s]ves to arrange4 ,:y1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,:ewell himself1 did ! anci5ts fail 9 discov]+ ! laws ( me*anics1 t is1 ( equilibrium & ( ! communication ( motion8 ,because !y _h n1 or at lea/ _h n cle>ly1 ! ideas or conceptions ( pressure & resi/ance1 mom5tum1 & uni=m & accel]at+ =ce4 ,& :5ce c\ld !y h obta9$ ^! ideas1 except f ! v facts ( equilibrium & motion8 ,! t>dy developm5t ( sev]al ( ! physical sci5ces1 = example ( optics1 electricity1 magnetism1 & ! high] g5]alizations ( *emi/ry1 he ascribes to ! fact t mank9d _h n yet possess$ !mselves ( ! ,idea ( ,pol>ity1 t is1 ! idea ( opposite prop]ties 9 opposite directions4 ,b :at 0 !re to sugge/ su* an idea1 until1 by a sep>ate exam9ation ( sev]al ( ^! diff]5t bran*es ( k1 x 0 %[n t ! facts ( ea* ( !m did pres5t1 9 "s in/ances at lea/1 ! curi\s ph5om5on ( opposite prop]ties 9 opposite directions8 ,! ?+ 0 sup]ficially manife/ only 9 two cases1 ^? ( ! magnet1 & ( electrifi$ bodies2 & !re ! conception 0 encumb]$ ) ! circum/ance ( mat]ial poles1 or fix$ po9ts 9 ! body itself1 9 :i* po9ts ?is opposition ( prop]ties seem$ to be inh]5t4 ,! fir/ comp>ison & ab/raction _h l$ only to ?is conception ( poles2 & if any?+ correspond+ to t conception _h exi/$ 9 ! ph5om5a ( *emi/ry or optics1 ! difficulty n[ ju/ly consid]$ s great1 w\ld h be5 extremely small4 ,! obscurity rose f ! fact1 t ! pol>ities 9 *emi/ry & optics 7 di/9ct species1 ?\gh ( ! same g5us1 ) ! pol>ities 9 electricity & magnetism3 & t 9 ord] to assimilate ! ph5om5a to "o ano!r1 x 0 necess>y to comp>e a pol>ity )\t poles1 su* = in/ance z is exemplifi$ 9 ! pol>ization ( light1 & ! pol>ity ) 7app>5t7 poles1 :i* we see 9 ! magnet2 & to recognise t ^! pol>ities1 :ile diff]5t 9 _m o!r respects1 agree 9 ! "o "* :i* is express$ by ! phrase1 opposite prop]ties 9 opposite directions4 ,f ! result ( su* a comp>ison x 0 t ! m9ds ( sci5tific m5 =m$ ?is new g5]al conception3 betwe5 :i*1 & ! fir/ confus$ feel+ ( an analogy betwe5 "s ( ! ph5om5a ( light & ^? ( electricity & magnetism1 !re is a long int]val1 fill$ up by ! lab\rs & m or less sagaci\s sugge/ions ( _m sup]ior m9ds4 ,! conceptions1 !n1 :i* we employ = ! colligation & me?odization ( facts1 d n develop !mselves f )91 b are impress$ ^u ! m9d f )\t2 !y are nev] obta9$ o!rwise ?an by way ( comp>ison & ab/raction1 &1 9 ! mo/ important & ! mo/ num]\s cases1 are evolv$ by ab/raction f ! v ph5om5a :i* x is _! (fice to colligate4 ,i am f>1 h[ev]1 f wi%+ to imply t x is n (t5 a v difficult ?+ to p]=m ?is process ( ab/raction well1 or t ! success ( an inductive op]ation does n1 9 _m cases1 pr9cipally dep5d on ! skill ) :i* we p]=m x4 ,bacon 0 q ju/ifi$ 9 designat+ z "o ( ! pr9cipal ob/acles to good induction1 g5]al conceptions wrongly =m$1 notiones tem] rebus ab/ract3 to :i* ,dr4 ,:ewell adds1 t n only does bad ab/raction make bad induction1 b t 9 ord] to p]=m induction well1 we mu/ h ab/ract$ well2 our g5]al conceptions mu/ be cle> & appropriate to ! matt] 9 h&4 #c4 ,9 attempt+ to %[ :at ! difficulty 9 ?is matt] really is1 & h[ x is surm\nt$1 ,i mu/ beg ! read]1 once = all1 to be> ?is 9 m9d2 t al?\gh 9 discuss+ ! op9ions ( a diff]5t s*ool ( philosophy1 ,i am will+ to adopt _! language1 & to speak1 !re=e1 ( connect+ facts ?r\gh ! in/rum5tality ( a conception1 ?is te*nical phraseology means nei!r m nor less ?an :at is commonly call$ comp>+ ! facts ) "o ano!r & det]m9+ 9 :at !y agree4 ,nor has ! te*nical expression ev5 ! advantage ( be+ metaphysically correct4 ,! facts are n connect$1 except 9 a m]ely metaphorical acceptation ( ! t]m4 ,! ideas ( ! facts may become connect$1 t is1 we may be l$ to ?9k ( !m toge!r2 b ?is consequ5ce is no m ?an :at may be produc$ by any casual association4 ,:at really takes place1 is1 ,i conceive1 m philosophically express$ by ! common ^w ,comp>ison1 ?an by ! phrases to connect or to sup]9duce4 ,=1 z ! g5]al conception is itself obta9$ by a comp>ison ( p>ticul> ph5om5a1 s1 :5 obta9$1 ! mode 9 :i* we apply x to o!r ph5om5a is aga9 by comp>ison4 ,we comp>e ph5om5a ) ea* o!r to get ! conception1 & we !n comp>e ^? & o!r ph5om5a ) ! conception4 ,we get ! conception ( an animal 7= in/ance7 by comp>+ diff]5t animals1 & :5 we aft]w>ds see a creature resembl+ an animal1 we comp>e x ) our g5]al conception ( an animal2 & if x agrees ) t g5]al conception1 we include x 9 ! class4 ,! conception becomes ! type ( comp>ison4 ,& we ne$ only consid] :at comp>ison is1 to see t :]e ! objects are m ?an two1 & /ill m :5 !y are an indef9ite numb]1 a type ( "s sort is an indisp5sable condition ( ! comp>ison4 ,:5 we h to arrange & classify a great numb] ( objects accord+ to _! agreem5ts & diff]5ces1 we d n make a confus$ attempt to comp>e all ) all4 ,we "k t two ?+s are z mu* z ! m9d c easily att5d to at a "t1 & we !re=e fix ^u "o ( ! objects1 ei!r at haz>d or because x (f]s 9 a peculi>ly /rik+ mann] "s important "*1 &1 tak+ ?is z our /&>d1 comp>e x ) "o object aft] ano!r4 ,if we f9d a second object :i* pres5ts a rem>kable agreem5t ) ! fir/1 induc+ u to class !m toge!r1 ! "q in/antly arises1 9 :at p>ticul> circum/ances d !y agree8 & to take notice ( ^! circum/ances is already a fir/ /age ( ab/raction1 giv+ rise to a g5]al conception4 ,hav+ advanc$ ?us f>1 :5 we n[ take 9 h& a ?ird object we naturally ask ourselves ! "q1 n m]ely :e!r ?is ?ird object agrees ) ! fir/1 b :e!r x agrees ) x 9 ! same circum/ances 9 :i* ! second did8 9 o!r words1 :e!r x agrees ) ! g5]al conception :i* has be5 obta9$ by ab/raction f ! fir/ & second8 ,?us we see ! t5d5cy ( g5]al conceptions1 z soon z =m$1 to sub/itute !mselves z types1 = :atev] individual objects previ\sly answ]$ t purpose 9 our comp>isons4 ,we may1 p]haps1 f9d t no consid]able numb] ( o!r objects agree ) ?is fir/ g5]al conception2 & t we mu/ drop ! conception1 & beg9n+ aga9 ) a diff]5t individual case1 proce$ by fre% comp>isons to a diff]5t g5]al conception4 ,sometimes1 aga91 we f9d t ! same conception w s]ve1 by m]ely leav+ out "s ( its circum/ances2 & by ?is high] ef=t ( ab/raction1 we obta9 a /ill m g5]al conception2 z 9 ! case =m]ly ref]r$ to1 ! sci5tific _w rose f ! conception ( poles to ! g5]al conception ( opposite prop]ties 9 opposite directions2 or z ^? ,s\?-,sea isl&]s1 ^: conception ( a quadrup$ _h be5 ab/ract$ f hogs 7! only animals ( t description :i* !y _h se571 :5 !y aft]w>ds comp>$ t conception ) o!r quadrup$s1 dropp$ "s ( ! circum/ances1 & arriv$ at ! m g5]al conception :i* ,europeans associate ) ! t]m4 ,^! brief rem>ks conta91 ,i believe1 all t is well-gr\nd$ 9 ! doctr9e1 t ! conception by :i* ! m9d arranges & gives unity to ph5om5a mu/ be furni%$ by ! m9d itself1 & t we f9d ! "r conception by a t5tative process1 try+ fir/ "o & !n ano!r until we hit ! m>k4 ,! conception is n furni%$ by ! m9d until x has be5 furni%$ to ! m9d2 & ! facts :i* supply x are sometimes extrane\s facts1 b m (t5 ! v facts :i* we are attempt+ to arrange by x4 ,x is q true1 h[ev]1 t 9 endeav\r+ to arrange ! facts1 at :atev] po9t we beg91 we nev] advance ?ree /eps )\t =m+ a g5]al conception1 m or less di/9ct & precise2 & t ?is g5]al conception becomes ! clue :i* we in/antly endeav\r to trace ?r\gh ! re/ ( ! facts1 or r1 becomes ! /&>d ) :i* we !nce=? comp>e !m4 ,if we are n satisfi$ ) ! agreem5ts :i* we discov] among ! ph5om5a by comp>+ !m ) ?is type1 or ) "s /ill m g5]al conception :i* by an additional /age ( ab/raction we c =m f ! type2 we *ange our pa?1 & look out = o!r agreem5ts3 we recomm5ce ! comp>ison f a diff]5t />t+-po9t1 & s g5]ate a diff]5t set ( g5]al conceptions4 ,?is is ! t5tative process :i* ,dr4 ,:ewell speaks (2 & :i* has n unnaturally sugge/$ ! !ory1 t ! conception is suppli$ by ! m9d itself3 s9ce ! diff]5t conceptions :i* ! m9d successively tries1 x ei!r already possess$ f its previ\s exp]i5ce1 or !y 7 suppli$ to x 9 ! fir/ /age ( ! correspond+ act ( comp>ison2 s t1 9 ! subsequ5t "p ( ! process1 ! conception manife/$ itself z some?+ comp>$ ) ! ph5om5a1 n evolv$ f !m4 #d4 ,if ?is be a correct acc\nt ( ! in/rum5tality ( g5]al conceptions 9 ! comp>ison :i* necess>ily prec$es ,induction1 we %all easily be able to translate into our own language :at ,dr4 ,:ewell means by say+ t conceptions1 to be subs]vi5t to ,induction1 mu/ be cle> & appropriate4 ,if ! conception corresponds to a real agreem5t among ! ph5om5a2 if ! comp>ison :i* we h made ( a set ( objects has l$ u to class !m accord+ to real resemblances & diff]5ces2 ! conception :i* does ?is _c fail to be appropriate1 = "s purpose or o!r4 ,! "q ( appropriat5ess is relative to ! p>ticul> object we h 9 view4 ,z soon z1 by our comp>ison1 we h asc]ta9$ "s agreem5t1 some?+ :i* c be pr$icat$ 9 common ( a numb] ( objects2 we h obta9$ a basis on :i* an inductive process is capable ( be+ f\nd$4 ,b ! agreem5ts1 or ! ult]ior consequ5ces to :i* ^? agreem5ts lead1 may be ( v diff]5t degrees ( importance4 ,if1 = in/ance1 we only comp>e animals accord+ to _! col\r1 & class ^? toge!r :i* are col\r$ alike1 we =m ! g5]al conceptions ( a :ite animal1 a black animal1 c41 :i* are conceptions legitimately =m$2 & if an induction 7 to be attempt$ conc]n+ ! causes ( ! col\rs ( animals1 ?is comp>ison w\ld be ! prop] & necess>y prep>ation = su* an induction1 b w\ld n help u t[>ds a k ( ! laws ( any o!r ( ! prop]ties ( animals3 :ile if1 ) ,cuvi]1 we comp>e & class !m accord+ to ! /ructure ( ! skeleton1 or1 ) ,bla9ville1 accord+ to ! nature ( _! outw>d integum5ts1 ! agreem5ts & diff]5ces :i* are obs]vable 9 ^! respects are n only ( mu* great] importance 9 !mselves1 b are m>ks ( agreem5ts & diff]5ces 9 _m o!r important p>ticul>s ( ! /ructure & mode ( life ( ! animals4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! /udy ( _! /ructure & habits be our object1 ! conceptions g5]at$ by ^! la/ comp>isons are f> m appropriate ?an ^? g5]at$ by ! =m]4 ,no?+1 o!r ?an ?is1 c be meant by ! appropriat5ess ( a conception4 ,:5 ,dr4 ,:ewell says t ! anci5ts1 or ! s*oolm51 or any mod]n inquir]s1 miss$ discov]+ ! real law ( a ph5om5on because !y appli$ to x an inappropriate in/ead ( an appropriate conception2 he c only mean t 9 comp>+ v>i\s in/ances ( ! ph5om5on1 to asc]ta9 9 :at ^? in/ances agre$1 !y miss$ ! important po9ts ( agreem5t2 & fa/5$ ^u su* z 7 ei!r imag9>y1 & n agreem5ts at all1 or if real agreem5ts1 7 comp>atively trifl+1 & _h no connexion ) ! ph5om5on1 ! law ( :i* 0 s\ght4 ,ari/otle1 philosophiz+ on ! subject ( motion1 rem>k$ t c]ta9 motions app>5tly take place spontane\sly2 bodies fall to ! gr\nd1 flame asc5ds1 bubbles ( air rise 9 wat]1 c43 & ^! he call$ natural motions2 :ile o!rs n only nev] take place )\t ext]nal incitem5t1 b ev5 :5 su* incitem5t is appli$1 t5d spontane\sly to cease2 :i*1 to di/+ui% !m f ! =m]1 he call$ viol5t motions4 ,n[1 9 comp>+ ! s-call$ natural motions ) "o ano!r1 x appe>$ to ,ari/otle t !y agre$ 9 "o circum/ance1 namely1 t ! body :i* mov$ 7or seem$ to move7 spontane\sly1 0 mov+ t[>ds its own place2 mean+ !reby ! place f :5ce x orig9ally came1 or ! place :]e a great quantity ( matt] simil> to itself 0 assembl$4 ,9 ! o!r class ( motions1 z :5 bodies are ?r[n up 9 ! air1 !y are1 on ! contr>y1 mov+ f _! own place4 ,n[1 ?is conception ( a body mov+ t[>ds its own place may ju/ly be consid]$ inappropriate2 because1 ?\gh x expresses a circum/ance really f\nd 9 "s ( ! mo/ famili> in/ances ( motion app>5tly spontane\s1 yet1 fir/1 !re are _m o!r cases ( su* motion1 9 :i* t circum/ance is abs5t3 ! motion1 = in/ance1 ( ! e>? & planets4 ,secondly1 ev5 :5 x is pres5t1 ! motion1 on clos] exam9ation1 w\ld (t5 be se5 n to be spontane\s3 z1 :5 air rises 9 wat]1 x does n rise by its own nature1 b is pu%$ up by ! sup]ior weight ( ! wat] :i* presses ^u x4 ,f9ally1 !re are _m cases 9 :i* ! spontane\s motion takes place 9 ! contr>y direction to :at ! !ory consid]s z ! body's own place2 = in/ance1 :5 a fog rises f a lake1 or :5 wat] dries up4 ,! agreem5t1 !re=e1 :i* ,ari/otle select$ z 8 pr9ciple ( classification1 did n ext5d to all cases ( ! ph5om5on he want$ to /udy1 spontane\s motion2 :ile x did include cases ( ! abs5ce ( ! ph5om5on1 cases ( motion n spontane\s4 ,! conception 0 h5ce inappropriate4 ,we may add t1 9 ! case 9 "q1 no conception w\ld be appropriate2 !re is no agreem5t :i* runs ?r\gh all ! cases ( spontane\s or app>5tly spontane\s motion & no o!rs3 !y _c be br\ght "u "o law3 x is a case ( ,plurality ( ,causes4#d #e4 ,s mu* = ! fir/ ( ,dr4 ,:ewell's conditions1 t conceptions mu/ be appropriate4 ,! second is1 t !y %all be cle>3 & let u consid] :at ?is implies4 ,unless ! conception corresponds to a real agreem5t1 x has a worse defect ?an t ( n be+ cle>2 x is n applicable to ! case at all4 ,among ! ph5om5a1 !re=e1 :i* we are attempt+ to connect by means ( ! conception1 we mu/ suppose t !re really is an agreem5t1 & t ! conception is a conception ( t agreem5t4 ,9 ord]1 !n1 t x may be cle>1 ! only requisite is1 t we %all "k exactly 9 :at ! agreem5t consi/s2 t x %all h be5 c>efully obs]v$1 & accurately rememb]$4 ,we are said n to h a cle> conception ( ! resemblance among a set ( objects1 :5 we h only a g5]al feel+ t !y resemble1 )\t hav+ analys$ _! resemblance1 or p]ceiv$ 9 :at po9ts x consi/s1 & fix$ 9 our memory an exact recollection ( ^? po9ts4 ,?is want ( cle>ness1 or1 z x may be o!rwise call$1 ?is vagu5ess1 9 ! g5]al conception1 may be ow+ ei!r to our hav+ no accurate k ( ! objects !mselves1 or m]ely to our n hav+ c>efully comp>$ !m4 ,?us a p]son may h no cle> idea ( a %ip because he has nev] se5 "o1 or because he rememb]s b little1 & t fa9tly1 ( :at he has se54 ,or he may h a p]fect k & remembrance ( _m %ips ( v>i\s k9ds1 frigates among ! re/1 b he may h no cle> b only a confus$ idea ( a frigate1 because he has nev] be5 told1 & has n comp>$ !m suffici5tly to h rem>k$ & rememb]$1 9 :at p>ticul> po9ts a frigate diff]s f "s o!r k9d ( %ip4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 necess>y1 9 ord] to h cle> ideas1 t we %\ld "k all ! common prop]ties ( ! ?+s :i* we class toge!r4 ,t w\ld be to h our conception ( ! class complete z well z cle>4 ,x is suffici5t if we nev] class ?+s toge!r )\t kn[+ exactly :y we d s1--)\t hav+ asc]ta9$ exactly :at agreem5ts we are ab\t to include 9 our conception2 & if1 aft] hav+ ?us fix$ our conception1 we nev] v>y f x1 nev] include 9 ! class any?+ :i* has n ^? common prop]ties1 nor exclude f x any?+ :i* has4 ,a cle> conception means a det]m9ate conception2 "o :i* does n fluctuate1 :i* is n "o ?+ to-day & ano!r to-morr[1 b rema9s fix$ & inv>iable1 except :51 f ! progress ( our k1 or ! correction ( "s error1 we consci\sly add to x or alt] x4 ,a p]son ( cle> ideas1 is a p]son :o always kn[s 9 virtue ( :at prop]ties 8 classes are con/itut$2 :at attributes are connot$ by 8 g5]al names4 ,! pr9cipal requisites1 !re=e1 ( cle> conceptions1 are habits ( att5tive obs]vation1 an ext5sive exp]i5ce1 & a memory :i* receives & reta9s an exact image ( :at is obs]v$4 ,& 9 proportion z any "o has ! habit ( obs]v+ m9utely & comp>+ c>efully a p>ticul> class ( ph5om5a1 & an accurate memory = ! results ( ! obs]vation & comp>ison1 s w 8 conceptions ( t class ( ph5om5a be cle>2 provid$ he has ! indisp5sable habit1 7naturally1 h[ev]1 result+ f ^? o!r end[m5ts17 ( nev] us+ g5]al names )\t a precise connotation4 ,z ! cle>ness ( our conceptions *iefly dep5ds on ! c>efulness & accuracy ( our obs]v+ & comp>+ faculties1 s _! appropriat5ess1 or r ! *ance we h ( hitt+ ^u ! appropriate conception 9 any case1 ma9ly dep5ds on ! activity ( ! same faculties4 ,he :o by habit1 gr\nd$ on suffici5t natural aptitude1 has acquir$ a read9ess 9 accurately obs]v+ & comp>+ ph5om5a1 w p]ceive s _m m agreem5ts & w p]ceive !m s mu* m rapidly ?an o!r p1 t ! *ances are mu* great] ( 8 p]ceiv+1 9 any in/ance1 ! agreem5t on :i* ! important consequ5ces dep5d4 #f4 ,x is ( s mu* importance t ! "p ( ! process ( inve/igat+ tru?1 discuss$ 9 ?is *apt]1 %\ld be rightly und]/ood1 t ,i ?9k x is desirable to re/ate ! results we h arriv$ at1 9 a some:at diff]5t mode ( expression4 ,we _c asc]ta9 g5]al tru?s1 t is1 tru?s applicable to classes1 unless we h =m$ ! classes 9 su* a mann] t g5]al tru?s c be affirm$ ( !m4 ,9 ! =mation ( any class1 !re is involv$ a conception ( x z a class1 t is1 a conception ( c]ta9 circum/ances z be+ ^? :i* *>act]ize ! class1 & di/+ui% ! objects compos+ x f all o!r ?+s4 ,:5 we "k exactly :at ^! circum/ances are1 we h a cle> idea 7or conception7 ( ! class1 & ( ! mean+ ( ! g5]al "n :i* designates x4 ,! prim>y condition impli$ 9 hav+ ?is cle> idea1 is t ! class be really a class2 t x correspond to a real di/9ction2 t ! ?+s x includes really d agree ) "o ano!r 9 c]ta9 p>ticul>s1 & diff]1 9 ^? same p>ticul>s1 f all o!r ?+s4 ,a p]son )\t cle> ideas1 is "o :o habitually classes toge!r1 "u ! same g5]al names1 ?+s :i* h no common prop]ties1 or none :i* are n possess$ also by o!r ?+s2 or :o1 if ! usage ( o!r p prev5ts him f actually misclass+ ?+s1 is unable to /ate to himself ! common prop]ties 9 virtue ( :i* he classes !m rightly4 ,b x is n ! sole requisite ( classification t ! classes %\ld be real classes1 fram$ by a legitimate m5tal process4 ,"s modes ( class+ ?+s are m valuable ?an o!rs = human uses1 :e!r ( speculation or ( practice2 & our classifications are n well made1 unless ! ?+s :i* !y br+ toge!r n only agree ) ea* o!r 9 some?+ :i* di/+ui%es !m f all o!r ?+s1 b agree ) ea* o!r & diff] f o!r ?+s 9 ! v circum/ances :i* are ( prim>y importance = ! purpose 7!oretical or practical7 :i* we h 9 view1 & :i* con/itutes ! problem be=e u4 ,9 o!r words1 our conceptions1 ?\gh !y may be cle>1 are n appropriate = our purpose1 unless ! prop]ties we comprise 9 !m are ^? :i* w help u t[>ds :at we wi% to und]/&--i4 e41 ei!r ^? :i* g deepe/ into ! nature ( ! ?+s1 if our object be to und]/& t1 or ^? :i* are mo/ closely connect$ ) ! p>ticul> prop]ty :i* we are endeav\r+ to inve/igate4 ,we _c1 !re=e1 frame good g5]al conceptions be=eh&4 ,t ! conception we h obta9$ is ! "o we want1 c only be kn[n :5 we h done ! "w = ! sake ( :i* we want$ x2 :5 we completely und]/& ! g5]al "* ( ! ph5om5a1 or ! conditions ( ! p>ticul> prop]ty ) :i* we conc]n ourselves4 ,g5]al conceptions =m$ )\t ?is ?or\gh k1 are ,bacon's notiones tem] rebus ab/ract4 ,yet su* premature conceptions we mu/ be cont9ually mak+ up1 9 our progress to some?+ bett]4 ,!y are an imp$im5t to ! progress ( k1 only :5 !y are p]man5tly acquiesc$ 94 ,:5 x has become our habit to gr\p ?+s 9 wrong classes--9 gr\ps :i* ei!r are n really classes1 hav+ no di/9ctive po9ts ( agreem5t 7abs5ce ( cle> ideas71 or :i* are n classes ( :i* any?+ important to our purpose c be pr$icat$ 7abs5ce ( appropriate ideas72 & :51 9 ! belief t ^! badly made classes are ^? sanction$ by ,nature1 we refuse to ex*ange !m = o!rs1 & _c or w n make up our g5]al conceptions f any o!r elem5ts2 9 t case all ! evils :i* ,bacon ascribes to 8 notiones tem] ab/ract really occur4 ,?is 0 :at ! anci5ts did 9 physics1 & :at ! _w 9 g5]al does 9 morals & politics to ! pres5t day4 ,x w\ld ?us1 9 my view ( ! matt]1 be an inaccurate mode ( expression to say1 t obta9+ appropriate conceptions is a condition prec$5t to g5]alization4 ,?r\gh\t ! :ole process ( comp>+ ph5om5a ) "o ano!r = ! purpose ( g5]alization1 ! m9d is try+ to make up a conception2 b ! conception :i* x is try+ to make up is t ( ! really important po9t ( agreem5t 9 ! ph5om5a4 ,z we obta9 m k ( ! ph5om5a !mselves1 & ( ! conditions on :i* _! important prop]ties dep5d1 our views on ?is subject naturally alt]2 & ?us we advance f a less to a m appropriate g5]al conception1 9 ! progress ( our inve/igations4 ,we ought n1 at ! same "t1 to =get t ! really important agreem5t _c always be discov]$ by m]e comp>ison ( ! v ph5om5a 9 "q1 )\t ! aid ( a conception acquir$ else:]e2 z 9 ! case1 s (t5 ref]r$ to1 ( ! planet>y orbits4 ,! se>* = ! agreem5t ( a set ( ph5om5a is 9 tru? v simil> to ! se>* = a lo/ or hidd5 object4 ,at fir/ we place ourselves 9 a suffici5tly comm&+ position1 & ca/ our eyes r\nd u1 & if we c see ! object x is well2 if n1 we ask ourselves m5tally :at are ! places 9 :i* x may be hid1 9 ord] t we may !re se>* = x3 & s on1 until we imag9e ! place :]e x really is4 ,& "h too we require to h _h a previ\s conception1 or k1 ( ^? diff]5t places4 ,z 9 ?is famili> process1 s 9 ! philosophical op]ation :i* x illu/rates1 we fir/ endeav\r to f9d ! lo/ object or recognise ! common attribute1 )\t conjecturally invok+ ! aid ( any previ\sly acquir$ conception1 or 9 o!r words1 ( any hypo!sis4 ,hav+ fail$ 9 ?is1 we call ^u our imag9ation = "s hypo!sis ( a possible place1 or a possible po9t ( resemblance1 & !n look1 to see :e!r ! facts agree ) ! conjecture4 ,= su* cases some?+ m is requir$ ?an a m9d accu/om$ to accurate obs]vation & comp>ison4 ,x mu/ be a m9d /or$ ) g5]al conceptions1 previ\sly acquir$1 ( ! sorts :i* be> aff9ity to ! subject ( ! p>ticul> inquiry4 ,& mu* w also dep5d on ! natural /r5g? & acquir$ culture ( :at has be5 t]m$ ! sci5tific imag9ation2 on ! faculty possess$ ( m5tally arrang+ kn[n elem5ts into new comb9ations1 su* z h n yet be5 obs]v$ 9 nature1 ?\gh n contradictory to any kn[n laws4 ,b ! v>iety ( intellectual habits1 ! purposes :i* !y s]ve1 & ! modes 9 :i* !y may be fo/]$ & cultivat$1 are consid]ations belong+ to ! ,art ( ,education3 a subject f> wid] ?an ,logic1 & :i* ?is treatise does n pr(ess to discuss4 ,"h1 !re=e1 ! pres5t *apt] may prop]ly close4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,( ,,nam+1 ,,z ,,subsidi>y ,,to ,,induction4 #a4 ,x does n belong to ! pres5t und]tak+ to dwell on ! importance ( language z a m$ium ( human int]c\rse1 :e!r = purposes ( sympa?y or ( in=mation4 ,nor does our design admit ( m ?an a pass+ allusion to t great prop]ty ( names1 on :i* _! functions z an intellectual in/rum5t are1 9 reality1 ultimately dep5d5t2 _! pot5cy z a means ( =m+1 & ( rivet+1 associations among our o!r ideas3 a subject on :i* an able ?9k]#e has ?us writt53-- ,names are impressions ( s5se1 & z su* take ! /ronge/ hold on ! m9d1 & ( all o!r impressions c be mo/ easily recall$ & reta9$ 9 view4 ,!y !re=e s]ve to give a po9t ( atta*m5t to all ! m volatile objects ( ?\ght & feel+4 ,impressions t :5 pass$ might be dissipat$ = ev]1 are1 by _! connexion ) language1 always )9 rea*4 ,?\ghts1 ( !mselves1 are p]petually slipp+ out ( ! field ( imm$iate m5tal vision2 b ! "n abides ) u1 & ! utt]ance ( x re/ores !m 9 a mom5t4 ,words are ! cu/odi]s ( e product ( m9d less impressive ?an !mselves4 ,all ext5sions ( human k1 all new g5]alizations1 are fix$ & spread1 ev5 un9t5tionally1 by ! use ( words4 ,! *ild gr[+ up le>ns1 along ) ! vocables ( 8 "m-tongue1 t ?+s :i* he w\ld h believ$ to be diff]5t1 are1 9 important po9ts1 ! same4 ,)\t any =mal in/ruction1 ! language 9 :i* we gr[ up tea*es u all ! common philosophy ( ! age4 ,x directs u to obs]ve & "k ?+s :i* we %\ld h ov]look$2 x supplies u ) classifications ready made1 by :i* ?+s are arrang$ 7z f> z ! light ( by-gone g5]ations admits7 ) ! objects to :i* !y be> ! greate/ total resemblance4 ,! numb] ( g5]al names 9 a language1 & ! degree ( g5]ality ( ^? names1 af=d a te/ ( ! k ( ! era1 & ( ! intellectual insight :i* is ! bir?right ( any "o born into x4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 ( ! functions ( ,names1 consid]$ g5]ally1 t we h "h to treat1 b only ( ! mann] & degree 9 :i* !y are directly in/rum5tal to ! inve/igation ( tru?2 9 o!r words1 to ! process ( induction4 #b4 ,obs]vation & ,ab/raction1 ! op]ations :i* =m$ ! subject ( ! two =ego+ *apt]s1 are conditions indisp5sable to induction2 !re c be no induction :]e !y are n4 ,x has be5 imag9$ t ,nam+ is also a condition equally indisp5sable4 ,!re are ?9k]s :o h held t language is n solely1 accord+ to a phrase g5]ally curr5t1 an in/rum5t ( ?\ght1 b ! in/rum5t3 t names1 or some?+ equival5t to !m1 "s species ( artificial signs1 are necess>y to reason+2 t !re c\ld be no inf]5ce1 & consequ5tly no induction1 )\t !m4 ,b if ! nature ( reason+ 0 correctly expla9$ 9 ! e>li] "p ( ! pres5t "w1 ?is op9ion mu/ be held to be an exagg]ation1 ?\gh ( an important tru?4 ,if reason+ be f p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s1 & if x consi/ 9 recognis+ "o fact z a m>k ( ano!r1 or a m>k ( a m>k ( ano!r1 no?+ is requir$ to r5d] reason+ possible1 except s5ses & association3 s5ses to p]ceive t two facts are conjo9$2 association1 z ! law by :i* "o ( ^? two facts raises up ! idea ( ! o!r4#f ,= ^! m5tal ph5om5a1 z well z = ! belief or expectation :i* foll[s1 & by :i* we recognise z hav+ tak5 place1 or z ab\t to take place1 t ( :i* we h p]ceiv$ a m>k1 !re is evid5tly no ne$ ( language4 ,& ?is inf]5ce ( "o p>ticul> fact f ano!r is a case ( induction4 ,x is ( ?is sort ( induction t brutes are capable3 x is 9 ?is %ape t uncultivat$ m9ds make almo/ all _! inductions1 & t we all d s 9 ! cases 9 :i* famili> exp]i5ce =ces our conclusions ^u u )\t any active process ( inquiry on our "p1 & 9 :i* ! belief or expectation foll[s ! sugge/ion ( ! evid5ce1 ) ! promptitude & c]ta9ty ( an in/9ct4#g #c4 ,b ?\gh inf]5ce ( an inductive "* is possible )\t ! use ( signs1 x c\ld nev]1 )\t !m1 be c>ri$ mu* beyond ! v simple cases :i* we h j describ$1 & :i* =m1 9 all probability1 ! limit ( ! reason+s ( ^? animals to :om conv5tional language is unkn[n4 ,)\t language1 or some?+ equival5t to x1 !re c\ld only be z mu* reason+ f exp]i5ce z c take place )\t ! aid ( g5]al propositions4 ,n[1 ?\gh 9 /rictness we may reason f pa/ exp]i5ce to a fre% individual case )\t ! int]m$iate /age ( a g5]al proposition1 yet )\t g5]al propositions we %\ld seldom rememb] :at pa/ exp]i5ce we h _h1 & sc>cely ev] :at conclusions t exp]i5ce w w>rant4 ,! division ( ! inductive process into two p>ts1 ! fir/ asc]ta9+ :at is a m>k ( ! giv5 fact1 ! second :e!r 9 ! new case t m>k exi/s1 is natural1 & sci5tifically indisp5sable4 ,x is1 inde$1 9 a majority ( cases1 r5d]$ necess>y by m]e di/ance ( "t4 ,! exp]i5ce by :i* we are to guide our judgm5ts may be o!r p's exp]i5ce1 little ( :i* c be communicat$ to u o!rwise ?an by language3 :5 x is our own1 x is g5]ally exp]i5ce long pa/2 unless1 !re=e1 x 7 record$ by means ( artificial signs1 little ( x 7except 9 cases involv+ our int5s] s5sations or emotions1 or ! subjects ( our daily & h\rly contemplation7 w\ld be reta9$ 9 ! memory4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to add1 t :5 ! inductive inf]5ce is ( any b ! mo/ direct & obvi\s nature--:5 x requires sev]al obs]vations or exp]im5ts1 9 v>y+ circum/ances1 & ! comp>ison ( "o ( ^! ) ano!r--x is impossible to proce$ a /ep1 )\t ! artificial memory :i* words be/[4 ,)\t words1 we %\ld1 if we _h (t5 se5 ,a & ,b 9 imm$iate & obvi\s conjunction1 expect ,b :5ev] we saw ,a2 b to discov] _! conjunction :5 n obvi\s1 or to det]m9e :e!r x is really con/ant or only casual1 & :e!r !re is reason to expect x "u any giv5 *ange ( circum/ances1 is a process f> too complex to be p]=m$ )\t "s contrivance to make our remembrance ( our own m5tal op]ations accurate4 ,n[1 language is su* a contrivance4 ,:5 t in/rum5t is call$ to our aid1 ! difficulty is r$uc$ to t ( mak+ our remembrance ( ! mean+ ( words accurate4 ,?is be+ secur$1 :atev] passes ?r\gh our m9ds may be rememb]$ accurately1 by putt+ x c>efully into words1 & committ+ ! words ei!r to writ+ or to memory4 ,! function ( ,nam+1 & p>ticul>ly ( ,g5]al ,names1 9 ,induction1 may be recapitulat$ z foll[s4 ,e inductive inf]5ce :i* is good at all1 is good = a :ole class ( cases3 &1 t ! inf]5ce may h any bett] w>rant ( its correctness ?an ! m]e cl++ toge!r ( two ideas1 a process ( exp]im5tation & comp>ison is necess>y2 9 :i* ! :ole class ( cases mu/ be br\ght to view1 & "s uni=mity 9 ! c\rse ( nature evolv$ & asc]ta9$1 s9ce ! exi/5ce ( su* an uni=mity is requir$ z a ju/ification = draw+ ! inf]5ce 9 ev5 a s+le case4 ,?is uni=mity1 !re=e1 may be asc]ta9$ once = all2 & if1 be+ asc]ta9$1 x c be rememb]$1 x w s]ve z a =mula = mak+1 9 p>ticul> cases1 all su* inf]5ces z ! previ\s exp]i5ce w w>rant4 ,b we c only secure its be+ rememb]$1 or give ourselves ev5 a *ance ( c>ry+ 9 our memory any consid]able numb] ( su* uni=mities1 by regi/]+ !m ?r\gh ! m$ium ( p]man5t signs2 :i* 7be+1 f ! nature ( ! case1 signs n ( an individual fact1 b ( an uni=mity1 t is1 ( an indef9ite numb] ( facts simil> to "o ano!r7 are g5]al signs2 univ]sals2 g5]al names1 & g5]al propositions4 #d4 ,& "h ,i _c omit to notice an ov]sight committ$ by "s em95t ?9k]s2 :o h said t ! cause ( our us+ g5]al names is ! inf9ite multitude ( individual objects1 :i*1 mak+ x impossible to h a "n = ea*1 compels u to make "o "n s]ve = _m4 ,?is is a v limit$ view ( ! function ( g5]al names4 ,ev5 if !re 7 a "n = e individual object1 we %\ld require g5]al names z mu* z we n[ d4 ,)\t !m we c\ld n express ! result ( a s+le comp>ison1 nor record any "o ( ! uni=mities exi/+ 9 nature2 & %\ld be h>dly bett] (f 9 respect to ,induction ?an if we _h no names at all4 ,) none b names ( individuals1 7or 9 o!r words1 prop] names17 we might1 by pron\nc+ ! "n1 sugge/ ! idea ( ! object1 b we c\ld n ass]t any proposition2 except ! unmean+ ones =m$ by pr$icat+ two prop] names "o ( ano!r4 ,x is only by means ( g5]al names t we c convey any in=mation1 pr$icate any attribute1 ev5 ( an individual1 mu* m ( a class4 ,rigor\sly speak+ we c\ld get on )\t any o!r g5]al names ?an ! ab/ract names ( attributes2 all our propositions might be ( ! =m su* an individual object possesses su* an attribute1 or su* an attribute is always 7or nev]7 conjo9$ ) su* ano!r attribute4 ,9 fact1 h[ev]1 mank9d h always giv5 g5]al names to objects z well z attributes1 & inde$ be=e attributes3 b ! g5]al names giv5 to objects imply attributes1 d]ive _! :ole mean+ f attributes2 & are *iefly useful z ! language by means ( :i* we pr$icate ! attributes :i* !y connote4 ,x rema9s to be consid]$ :at pr9ciples are to be adh]$ to 9 giv+ g5]al names1 s t ^! names1 & ! g5]al propositions 9 :i* !y fill a place1 may conduce mo/ to ! purposes ( ,induction4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,( ,,! ,,requisites ,,( ,a ,,philosophical ,,language1 ,,& ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,def9ition4 #a4 ,9 ord] t we may possess a language p]fectly suitable = ! inve/igation & expression ( g5]al tru?s1 !re are two pr9cipal1 & sev]al m9or1 requisites4 ,! fir/ is1 t e g5]al "n %\ld h a mean+1 /eadily fix$1 & precisely det]m9$4 ,:51 by ! fulfilm5t ( ?is condition1 su* names z we possess are fitt$ = ! due p]=mance ( _! functions1 ! next requisite1 & ! second 9 ord] ( importance1 is t we %\ld possess a "n :]ev] "o is ne$$2 :]ev] !re is any?+ to be designat$ by x1 :i* x is ( importance to express4 ,! =m] ( ^! requisites is t to :i* our att5tion w be exclusively direct$ 9 ! pres5t *apt]4 #b4 ,e g5]al "n1 !n1 mu/ h a c]ta9 & kn[able mean+4 ,n[ ! mean+ 7z has s (t5 be5 expla9$7 ( a g5]al connotative "n1 resides 9 ! connotation2 9 ! attribute on acc\nt ( :i*1 & to express :i*1 ! "n is giv54 ,?us1 ! "n animal be+ giv5 to all ?+s :i* possess ! attributes ( s5sation & volunt>y motion1 ! ^w connotes ^? attributes exclusively1 & !y con/itute ! :ole ( its mean+4 ,if ! "n be ab/ract1 its d5otation is ! same ) ! connotation ( ! correspond+ concrete3 x designates directly ! attribute1 :i* ! concrete t]m implies4 ,to give a precise mean+ to g5]al names is1 !n1 to fix ) /ead9ess ! attribute or attributes connot$ by ea* concrete g5]al "n1 & d5ot$ by ! correspond+ ab/ract4 ,s9ce ab/ract names1 9 ! ord] ( _! creation1 d n prec$e b foll[ concrete ones1 z is prov$ by ! etymological fact t !y are almo/ always d]iv$ f !m2 we may consid] _! mean+ z det]m9$ by1 & dep5d5t on1 ! mean+ ( _! concrete3 & ?us ! problem ( giv+ a di/9ct mean+ to g5]al language1 is all includ$ 9 t ( giv+ a precise connotation to all concrete g5]al names4 ,?is is n difficult 9 ! case ( new names2 ( ! te*nical t]ms creat$ by sci5tific inquir]s = ! purposes ( sci5ce or art4 ,b :5 a "n is 9 common use1 ! difficulty is great]2 ! problem 9 ?is case n be+ t ( *oos+ a conv5i5t connotation = ! "n1 b ( asc]ta9+ & fix+ ! connotation ) :i* x is already us$4 ,t ?is c ev] be a matt] ( d\bt1 is a sort ( p>adox4 ,b ! vulg> 7includ+ 9 t t]m all :o h n accurate habits ( ?\ght7 seldom "k exactly :at ass]tion !y int5d to make1 :at common prop]ty !y mean to express1 :5 !y apply ! same "n to a numb] ( diff]5t ?+s4 ,all :i* ! "n expresses ) !m1 :5 !y pr$icate x ( an object1 is a confus$ feel+ ( resemblance betwe5 t object & "s ( ! o!r ?+s :i* !y h be5 accu/om$ to d5ote by ! "n4 ,!y h appli$ ! "n ,/one to v>i\s objects previ\sly se52 !y see a new object1 :i* appe>s to !m some:at l ! =m]1 & !y call x a /one1 )\t ask+ !mselves 9 :at respect x is l1 or :at mode or degree ( resemblance ! be/ au?orities1 or ev5 !y !mselves1 require z a w>rant = us+ ! "n4 ,?is r\gh g5]al impression ( resemblance is1 h[ev]1 made up ( p>ticul> circum/ances ( resemblance2 & into ^! x is ! bus9ess ( ! logician to analyse x2 to asc]ta9 :at po9ts ( resemblance among ! diff]5t ?+s commonly call$ by ! "n1 h produc$ 9 ! common m9d ?is vague feel+ ( lik5ess2 h giv5 to ! ?+s ! simil>ity ( aspect1 :i* has made !m a class1 & has caus$ ! same "n to be be/[$ ^u !m4 ,b ?\gh g5]al names are impos$ by ! vulg> )\t any m def9ite connotation ?an t ( a vague resemblance2 g5]al propositions come 9 "t to be made1 9 :i* pr$icates are appli$ to ^? names1 t is1 g5]al ass]tions are made conc]n+ ! :ole ( ! ?+s :i* are d5ot$ by ! "n4 ,& s9ce by ea* ( ^! propositions "s attribute1 m or less precisely conceiv$1 is ( c\rse pr$icat$1 ! ideas ( ^! v>i\s attributes ?us become associat$ ) ! "n1 & 9 a sort ( unc]ta9 way x comes to connote !m2 !re is a hesitation to apply ! "n 9 any new case 9 :i* any ( ! attributes famili>ly pr$icat$ ( ! class d n exi/4 ,& ?us1 to common m9ds1 ! propositions :i* !y are 9 ! habit ( he>+ or utt]+ conc]n+ a class1 make up 9 a loose way a sort ( connotation = ! class-"n4 ,let u take1 = in/ance1 ! ^w ,civiliz$4 ,h[ few c\ld be f\nd1 ev5 among ! mo/ educat$ p]sons1 :o w\ld und]take to say exactly :at ! t]m ,civiliz$ connotes4 ,yet !re is a feel+ 9 ! m9ds ( all :o use x1 t !y are us+ x ) a mean+2 & ?is mean+ is made up1 9 a confus$ mann]1 ( ev]y?+ :i* !y h he>d or read t civiliz$ m51 or civiliz$ communities1 are1 or may be expect$ to be4 ,x is at ?is /age1 probably1 9 ! progress ( a concrete "n1 t ! correspond+ ab/ract "n g5]ally comes into use4 ,"u ! notion t ! concrete "n mu/ ( c\rse convey a mean+1 or 9 o!r words1 t !re is "s prop]ty common to all ?+s :i* x d5otes1 p give a "n to ?is common prop]ty2 f ! concrete ,civiliz$1 !y =m ! ab/ract ,civilization4 ,b s9ce mo/ p h nev] comp>$ ! diff]5t ?+s :i* are call$ by ! concrete "n1 9 su* a mann] z to asc]ta9 :at prop]ties ^! ?+s h 9 common1 or :e!r !y h any2 ea* is ?r[n back ^u ! m>ks by :i* he himself has be5 accu/om$ to be guid$ 9 8 application ( ! t]m3 & ^!1 be+ m]ely vague he>says & curr5t phrases1 are n ! same 9 any two p]sons1 nor 9 ! same p]son at diff]5t times4 ,h5ce ! ^w 7z ,civilization1 = example7 :i* pr(esses to be ! designation ( ! unkn[n common prop]ty1 conveys sc>cely to any two m9ds ! same idea4 ,no two p]sons agree 9 ! ?+s !y pr$icate ( x2 & :5 x is itself pr$icat$ ( any?+1 no o!r p]son kn[s1 nor does ! speak] himself "k ) precision1 :at he means to ass]t4 ,_m o!r words :i* c\ld be nam$1 z ! ^w hon\r1 or ! ^w g5tleman1 exemplify ?is unc]ta9ty /ill m /rik+ly4 ,x ne$s sc>cely be obs]v$1 t g5]al propositions ( :i* no "o c tell exactly :at !y ass]t1 _c possibly h be5 br\ght to ! te/ ( a correct induction4 ,:e!r a "n is to be us$ z an in/rum5t ( ?9k+1 or z a means ( communicat+ ! result ( ?\ght1 x is imp]ative to det]m9e exactly ! attribute or attributes :i* x is to express3 to give x1 9 %ort1 a fix$ & asc]ta9$ connotation4 #c4 ,x w\ld1 h[ev]1 be a complete misund]/&+ ( ! prop] (fice ( a logician 9 deal+ ) t]ms already 9 use1 if we 7 to ?9k t because a "n has n at pres5t an asc]ta9$ connotation1 x is compet5t to any "o to give x su* a connotation at 8 own *oice4 ,! mean+ ( a t]m actually 9 use is n an arbitr>y quantity to be fix$1 b an unkn[n quantity to be s\ght4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is obvi\sly desirable to avail ourselves1 z f> z possible1 ( ! associations already connect$ ) ! "n2 n enjo9+ ! employm5t ( x 9 a mann] :i* conflicts ) all previ\s habits1 & especially n s z to require ! rupture ( ^? /ronge/ ( all associations betwe5 names1 :i* are creat$ by famili>ity ) propositions 9 :i* !y are pr$icat$ ( "o ano!r4 ,a philosoph] w\ld h little *ance ( hav+ 8 example foll[$1 if he 7 to give su* a mean+ to 8 t]ms z %\ld require u to call ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,indians a civiliz$ p1 or ! high] classes 9 ,france or ,engl& savages2 or to say t civiliz$ p live by hunt+1 & savages by agriculture4 ,7 !re no o!r reason1 ! extreme difficulty ( effect+ s complete a revolution 9 spee* w\ld be m ?an a suffici5t "o4 ,! endeav\r %\ld be1 t all g5]ally receiv$ propositions into :i* ! t]m ent]s1 %\ld be at lea/ z true aft] its mean+ is fix$1 z !y 7 be=e2 & t ! concrete "n1 !re=e1 %\ld n receive su* a connotation z %all prev5t x f d5ot+ ?+s :i*1 9 common language1 x is curr5tly affirm$ (4 ,! fix$ & precise connotation :i* x receives1 %\ld n be 9 deviation f1 b 9 agreem5t 7z f> z x goes7 )1 ! vague & fluctuat+ connotation :i* ! t]m already _h4 ,to fix ! connotation ( a concrete "n1 or ! d5otation ( ! correspond+ ab/ract1 is to def9e ! "n4 ,:5 ?is c be done )\t r5d]+ any receiv$ ass]tions inadmissible1 ! "n c be def9$ 9 accordance ) its receiv$ use1 :i* is vulg>ly call$ def9+ n ! "n b ! ?+4 ,:at is meant by ! improp] expression ( def9+ a ?+1 7or r a class ( ?+s--= nobody talks ( def9+ an individual17 is to def9e ! "n1 subject to ! condition t x %all d5ote ^? ?+s4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 supposes a comp>ison ( ! ?+s1 feature by feature & prop]ty by prop]ty1 to asc]ta9 :at attributes !y agree 92 & n unfrequ5tly an op]ation /rictly inductive1 = ! purpose ( asc]ta9+ "s unobvi\s agreem5t1 :i* is ! cause ( ! obvi\s agreem5ts4 ,=1 9 ord] to give a connotation to a "n1 consi/5tly ) its d5ot+ c]ta9 objects1 we h to make our selection f among ! v>i\s attributes 9 :i* ^? objects agree4 ,to asc]ta9 9 :at !y d agree is1 !re=e1 ! fir/ logical op]ation requisite4 ,:5 ?is has be5 done z f> z is necess>y or practicable1 ! "q arises1 :i* ( ^! common attributes %all be select$ to be associat$ ) ! "n4 ,= if ! class :i* ! "n d5otes be a ,k9d1 ! common prop]ties are innum]able2 & ev5 if n1 !y are (t5 extremely num]\s4 ,our *oice is fir/ limit$ by ! pref]5ce to be giv5 to prop]ties :i* are well kn[n1 & famili>ly pr$icat$ ( ! class2 b ev5 ^! are (t5 too num]\s to be all includ$ 9 ! def9ition1 &1 besides1 ! prop]ties mo/ g5]ally kn[n may n be ^? :i* s]ve be/ to m>k out ! class f all o!rs4 ,we %\ld !re=e select f among ! common prop]ties1 7if among !m any su* are to be f\nd17 ^? on :i* x has be5 asc]ta9$ by exp]i5ce1 or prov$ by d$uction1 t _m o!rs dep5d2 or at lea/ :i* are sure m>ks ( !m1 & f :5ce1 !re=e1 _m o!rs w foll[ by inf]5ce4 ,we ?us see t to frame a good def9ition ( a "n already 9 use1 is n a matt] ( *oice b ( discussion1 & discussion n m]ely respect+ ! usage ( language1 b respect+ ! prop]ties ( ?+s1 & ev5 ! orig9 ( ^? prop]ties4 ,& h5ce e enl>gem5t ( our k ( ! objects to :i* ! "n is appli$1 is liable to sugge/ an improvem5t 9 ! def9ition4 ,x is impossible to frame a p]fect set ( def9itions on any subject1 until ! !ory ( ! subject is p]fect3 & z sci5ce makes progress1 its def9itions are also progressive4 #d4 ,! discussion ( ,def9itions1 9 s f> z x does n turn on ! use ( words b on ! prop]ties ( ?+s1 ,dr4 ,:ewell calls ! ,explication ( ,conceptions4 ,! act ( asc]ta9+1 bett] ?an be=e1 9 :at p>ticul>s any ph5om5a :i* are class$ toge!r agree1 he calls 9 8 te*nical phraseology1 unfold+ ! g5]al conception 9 virtue ( :i* !y are s class$4 ,mak+ all[ance = :at appe>s to me ! d>k5+ & mislead+ t5d5cy ( ?is mode ( expression1 sev]al ( 8 rem>ks are s mu* to ! purpose1 t ,i %all take ! lib]ty ( transcrib+ !m4 ,he obs]ves1#h t _m ( ! controv]sies :i* h _h an important %>e 9 ! =mation ( ! exi/+ body ( sci5ce1 h assum$ ! =m ( a battle ( ,def9itions4 ,= example1 ! inquiry conc]n+ ! laws ( fall+ bodies1 l$ to ! "q :e!r ! prop] def9ition ( a uni=m =ce is t x g5]ates a velocity proportional to ! space f re/1 or to ! "t4 ,! controv]sy ( ! vis viva 0 :at 0 ! prop] def9ition ( ! measure ( =ce4 ,a pr9cipal "q 9 ! classification ( m9]als is1 :at is ! def9ition ( a m9]al species4 ,physiologi/s h endeav\r$ to ?r[ light on _! subject by def9+ organization1 or "s simil> t]m4 ,que/ions ( ! same nature are /ill op5 respect+ ! def9itions ( ,specific ,heat1 ,lat5t ,heat1 ,*emical ,comb9ation1 & ,solution4 ,x is v important = u to obs]ve1 t ^! controv]sies h nev] be5 que/ions ( insulat$ & arbitr>y def9itions1 z m5 seem (t5 tempt$ to imag9e !m to h be54 ,9 all cases !re is a tacit assumption ( "s proposition :i* is to be express$ by means ( ! def9ition1 & :i* gives x its importance4 ,! dispute conc]n+ ! def9ition ?us acquires a real value1 & becomes a "q conc]n+ true & false4 ,?us 9 ! discussion ( ! "q1 ,:at is a uni=m =ce8 x 0 tak5 = grant$ t gravity is a uni=m =ce4 ,9 ! debate ( ! vis viva1 x 0 assum$ t 9 ! mutual action ( bodies ! :ole effect ( ! =ce is un*ang$4 ,9 ! zoological def9ition ( species1 7t x consi/s ( individuals :i* h1 or may h1 sprung f ! same p>5ts17 x is presum$ t individuals s relat$ resemble ea* o!r m ?an ^? :i* are exclud$ by su* a def9ition2 or1 p]haps1 t species s def9$ h p]man5t & def9ite diff]5ces4 ,a def9ition ( organization1 or ( "s o!r t]m1 :i* 0 n employ$ to express "s pr9ciple1 w\ld be ( no value4 ,! e/abli%m5t1 !re=e1 ( a "r def9ition ( a t]m1 may be a useful /ep 9 ! explication ( our conceptions2 b ?is w be ! case !n only :5 we h "u our consid]ation "s proposition 9 :i* ! t]m is employ$4 ,= !n ! "q really is1 h[ ! conception %all be und]/ood & def9$ 9 ord] t ! proposition may be true4 ,to unfold our conceptions by means ( def9itions has nev] be5 s]viceable to sci5ce1 except :5 x has be5 associat$ ) an imm$iate use ( ! def9itions4 ,! endeav\r to def9e a ,uni=m ,=ce 0 comb9$ ) ! ass]tion t gravity is a uni=m =ce3 ! attempt to def9e ,accel]at+ ,=ce 0 imm$iately foll[$ by ! doctr9e t accel]at+ =ces may be comp\nd$3 ! process ( def9+ ,mom5tum 0 connect$ ) ! pr9ciple t mom5ta ga9$ & lo/ are equal3 naturali/s w\ld h giv5 9 va9 ! def9ition ( ,species :i* we h quot$1 if !y _h n also giv5 ! *>act]s ( species s sep>at$4444 ,def9ition may be ! be/ mode ( expla9+ our conception1 b t :i* alone makes x wor? :ile to expla9 x 9 any mode1 is ! opportunity ( us+ x 9 ! expression ( tru?4 ,:5 a def9ition is prop\nd$ to u z a useful /ep 9 k1 we are always entitl$ to ask :at pr9ciple x s]ves to enunciate4 ,9 giv+1 !n1 an exact connotation to ! phrase1 an uni=m =ce1 ! condition 0 und]/ood1 t ! phrase %\ld cont9ue to d5ote gravity4 ,! discussion1 !re=e1 respect+ ! def9ition1 resolv$ itself into ?is "q1 ,:at is !re ( an uni=m nature 9 ! motions produc$ by gravity8 ,by obs]vations & comp>isons1 x 0 f\nd1 t :at 0 uni=m 9 ^? motions 0 ! ratio ( ! velocity acquir$ to ! "t elaps$2 equal velocities be+ add$ 9 equal times4 ,an uni=m =ce1 !re=e1 0 def9$1 a =ce :i* adds equal velocities 9 equal times4 ,s1 aga91 9 def9+ mom5tum4 ,x 0 already a receiv$ doctr9e1 t :5 two objects imp+e ^u "o ano!r1 ! mom5tum lo/ by ! "o is equal to t ga9$ by ! o!r4 ,?is proportion x 0 deem$ necess>y to pres]ve1 n f ! motive 7:i* op]ates 9 _m o!r cases7 t x 0 firmly fix$ 9 popul> belief2 = ! proposition 9 "q _h nev] be5 he>d ( by any b ! sci5tifically in/ruct$4 ,b x 0 felt to conta9 a tru?3 ev5 a sup]ficial obs]vation ( ! ph5om5a left no d\bt t 9 ! propagation ( motion f "o body to ano!r1 !re 0 some?+ ( :i* ! "o body ga9$ precisely :at ! o!r lo/2 & ! ^w mom5tum _h be5 inv5t$ to express ?is unkn[n some?+4 ,! settlem5t1 !re=e1 ( ! def9ition ( mom5tum1 involv$ ! det]m9ation ( ! "q1 ,:at is t ( :i* a body1 :5 x sets ano!r body 9 motion1 loses exactly z mu* z x communicates8 ,& :5 exp]im5t _h %[n t ?is some?+ 0 ! product ( ! velocity ( ! body by its mass1 or quantity ( matt]1 ?is became ! def9ition ( mom5tum4 ,! foll[+ rem>ks1#i !re=e1 are p]fectly j3 ,! bus9ess ( def9ition is "p ( ! bus9ess ( discov]y4444 ,to def9e1 s t our def9ition %all h any sci5tific value1 requires no small portion ( t sagacity by :i* tru? is detect$4444 ,:5 x has be5 cle>ly se5 :at ought to be our def9ition1 x mu/ be pretty well kn[n :at tru? we h to /ate4 ,! def9ition1 z well z ! discov]y1 supposes a decid$ /ep 9 our k to h be5 made4 ,! writ]s on ,logic1 9 ! middle ages1 made ,def9ition ! la/ /age 9 ! progress ( k2 & 9 ?is arrangem5t at lea/1 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 & ! philosophy d]iv$ f ! hi/ory1 confirm _! speculative views4 ,= 9 ord] to judge f9ally h[ ! "n :i* d5otes a class may be/ be def9$1 we mu/ "k all ! prop]ties common to ! class1 & all ! relations ( causation or dep5d5ce among ^? prop]ties4 ,if ! prop]ties :i* are fitte/ to be select$ z m>ks ( o!r common prop]ties are also obvi\s & famili>1 & especially if !y be> a great "p 9 produc+ t g5]al air ( resemblance :i* 0 ! orig9al inducem5t to ! =mation ( ! class1 ! def9ition w !n be mo/ felicit\s4 ,b x is (t5 necess>y to def9e ! class by "s prop]ty n famili>ly kn[n1 provid$ t prop]ty be ! be/ m>k ( ^? :i* are kn[n4 ,m4 de ,bla9ville1 = in/ance1 f\nd$ 8 def9ition ( life on ! process ( decomposition & recomposition :i* incessantly takes place 9 e liv+ body1 s t ! p>ticles compos+ x are nev] = two in/ants ! same4 ,?is is by no means "o ( ! mo/ obvi\s prop]ties ( liv+ bodies2 x might escape altoge!r ! notice ( an unsci5tific obs]v]4 ,yet great au?orities 7indep5d5tly ( ,m4 de ,bla9ville1 :o is himself a fir/-rate au?ority7 h ?\ght t no o!r prop]ty s well answ]s ! conditions requir$ = ! def9ition4 #e4 ,hav+ laid d[n ! pr9ciples :i* ought = ! mo/ "p to be obs]v$ 9 attempt+ to give a precise connotation to a t]m 9 use1 ,i mu/ n[ add1 t x is n always practicable to adh]e to ^? pr9ciples1 & t ev5 :5 practicable1 x is occasionally n desirable4 ,cases 9 :i* x is impossible to comply ) all ! conditions ( a precise def9ition ( a "n 9 agreem5t ) usage1 occur v frequ5tly4 ,!re is (t5 no "o connotation capable ( be+ giv5 to a ^w1 s t x %all /ill d5ote ev]y?+ x is accu/om$ to d5ote2 or t all ! propositions into :i* x is accu/om$ to ent]1 & :i* h any f\ndation 9 tru?1 %all rema9 true4 ,indep5d5tly ( accid5tal ambiguities1 9 :i* ! diff]5t mean+s h no connexion ) "o ano!r2 x cont9ually happ5s t a ^w is us$ 9 two or m s5ses d]iv$ f ea* o!r1 b yet radically di/9ct4 ,s long z a t]m is vague1 t is1 s long z its connotation is n asc]ta9$ & p]man5tly fix$1 x is con/antly liable to be appli$ by ext5sion f "o ?+ to ano!r1 until x rea*es ?+s :i* h little1 or ev5 no1 resemblance to ^? :i* 7 fir/ designat$ by x4 ,suppose1 says ,dugald ,/ew>t1 9 8 ,philosophical ,essays1#aj t ! lett]s ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 d5ote a s]ies ( objects2 t ,a possesses "s "o quality 9 common ) ,b2 ,b a quality 9 common ) ,c2 ,c a quality 9 common ) ,d2 ,d a quality 9 common ) ,e2 :ile at ! same "t1 no quality c be f\nd :i* belongs 9 common to any ?ree objects 9 ! s]ies4 ,is x n conceivable1 t ! aff9ity betwe5 ,a & ,b may produce a transf]5ce ( ! "n ( ! fir/ to ! second2 & t1 9 consequ5ce ( ! o!r aff9ities :i* connect ! rema9+ objects toge!r1 ! same "n may pass 9 succession f ,b to ,c2 f ,c to ,d2 & f ,d to ,e8 ,9 ?is mann]1 a common appellation w arise betwe5 ,a & ,e1 al?\gh ! two objects may1 9 _! nature & prop]ties1 be s widely di/ant f ea* o!r1 t no /ret* ( imag9ation c conceive h[ ! ?\ghts 7 l$ f ! =m] to ! latt]4 ,! transitions1 nev]!less1 may h be5 all s easy & gradual1 t1 7 !y successfully detect$ by ! =tunate +5uity ( a !ori/1 we %\ld in/antly recognise1 n only ! v]isimilitude1 b ! tru? ( ! conjecture3 9 ! same way z we admit1 ) ! confid5ce ( intuitive conviction1 ! c]ta9ty ( ! well-kn[n etymological process :i* connects ! ,lat9 preposition e or ex ) ! ,engli% sub/antive /rang]1 ! mom5t t ! int]m$iate l9ks ( ! *a9 are submitt$ to our exam9ation4#aa ,! applications :i* a ^w acquires by ?is gradual ext5sion ( x f "o set ( objects to ano!r1 ,/ew>t1 adopt+ an expression f ,mr4 ,payne ,knight1 calls its transitive applications2 & aft] briefly illu/rat+ su* ( !m z are ! result ( local or casual associations1 he proce$s z foll[s3#ab-- ,b al?\gh by f> ! great] "p ( ! transitive or d]ivative applications ( words dep5d on casual & unacc\ntable caprices ( ! feel+s or ! fancy1 !re are c]ta9 cases 9 :i* !y op5 a v int]e/+ field ( philosophical speculation4 ,su* are ^?1 9 :i* an analog\s transf]5ce ( ! correspond+ t]m may be rem>k$ univ]sally1 or v g5]ally1 9 o!r languages2 & 9 :i*1 ( c\rse1 ! uni=mity ( ! result mu/ be ascrib$ to ! ess5tial pr9ciples ( ! human frame4 ,ev5 9 su* cases1 h[ev]1 x w by no means be always f\nd1 on exam9ation1 t ! v>i\s applications ( ! same t]m h aris5 f any common quality or qualities 9 ! objects to :i* !y relate4 ,9 ! great] numb] ( in/ances1 !y may be trac$ to "s natural & univ]sal associations ( ideas1 f\nd$ 9 ! common faculties1 common organs1 & common condition ( ! human race4444 ,accord+ to ! diff]5t degrees ( intimacy & /r5g? 9 ! associations on :i* ! transitions ( language are f\nd$1 v diff]5t effects may be expect$ to arise4 ,:]e ! association is slight & casual1 ! sev]al mean+s w rema9 di/9ct f ea* o!r1 & w (t51 9 process ( "t1 assume ! appe>ance ( caprici\s v>ieties 9 ! use ( ! same arbitr>y sign4 ,:]e ! association is s natural & habitual z to become virtually indissoluble1 ! transitive mean+s w coalesce 9 "o complex conception2 & e new transition w become a m compreh5sive g5]alization ( ! t]m 9 "q4 ,i solicit p>ticul> att5tion to ! law ( m9d express$ 9 ! la/ s5t5ce1 & :i* is ! s\rce ( ! p]plexity s (t5 exp]i5c$ 9 detect+ ^! transitions ( mean+4 ,ignorance ( t law is ! %oal on :i* "s ( ! mo/ p[]ful intellects :i* h adorn$ ! human race h be5 /r&$4 ,! inquiries ( ,plato into ! def9itions ( "s ( ! mo/ g5]al t]ms ( moral speculation are *>act]iz$ by ,bacon z a f> ne>] approa* to a true inductive me?od ?an is else:]e to be f\nd among ! anci5ts1 & are1 inde$1 almo/ p]fect examples ( ! prep>atory process ( comp>ison & ab/raction3 b1 f be+ unaw>e ( ! law j m5tion$1 he (t5 wa/$ ! p[]s ( ?is great logical in/rum5t on inquiries 9 :i* x c\ld realize no result1 s9ce ! ph5om5a1 ^: common prop]ties he s elaborately endeav\r$ to detect1 _h n really any common prop]ties4 ,bacon himself fell into ! same error 9 8 speculations on ! nature ( heat1 9 :i* he evid5tly conf\nd$ "u ! "n hot1 classes ( ph5om5a :i* _h no prop]ty 9 common4 ,/ew>t c]ta9ly ov]/ates ! matt] :5 he speaks ( a prejudice :i* has desc5d$ to mod]n times f ! s*ola/ic ages1 t :5 a ^w admits ( a v>iety ( significations1 ^! diff]5t significations mu/ all be species ( ! same g5us1 & mu/ consequ5tly include "s ess5tial idea common to e individual to :i* ! g5]ic t]m c be appli$3#ac = bo? ,ari/otle & 8 foll[]s 7 well aw>e t !re are su* ?+s z ambiguities ( language1 & delight$ 9 di/+ui%+ !m4 ,b !y nev] suspect$ ambiguity 9 ! cases :]e 7z ,/ew>t rem>ks7 ! association on :i* ! transition ( mean+ 0 f\nd$ is s natural & habitual1 t ! two mean+s bl5d toge!r 9 ! m9d1 & a real transition becomes an app>5t g5]alization4 ,accord+ly !y wa/$ inf9ite pa9s 9 endeav\r+ to f9d a def9ition :i* w\ld s]ve = sev]al di/9ct mean+s at once3 z 9 an in/ance notic$ by ,/ew>t himself1 t ( causation2 ! ambiguity ( ! ^w :i*1 9 ! ,greek language1 corresponds to ! ,engli% ^w cause1 hav+ sugge/$ to !m ! va9 attempt ( trac+ ! common idea :i*1 9 ! case ( any effect1 belongs to ! effici5t1 to ! matt]1 to ! =m1 & to ! end4 ,! idle g5]alities 7he adds7 we meet ) 9 o!r philosoph]s1 ab\t ! ideas ( ! good1 ! fit1 & ! becom+1 h tak5 _! rise f ! same undue influ5ce ( popul> epi!ts on ! speculations ( ! le>n$4#ad ,among ! words :i* h und]gone s _m successive transitions ( mean+ t e trace ( a prop]ty common to all ! ?+s !y are appli$ to1 or at lea/ common & also peculi> to ^? ?+s1 has be5 lo/1 ,/ew>t consid]s ! ^w ,beautiful to be "o4 ,& 7)\t attempt+ to decide a "q :i* 9 no respect belongs to logic7 ,i _c b feel1 ) him1 consid]able d\bt1 :e!r ! ^w beautiful connotes ! same prop]ty :5 we speak ( a beautiful col\r1 a beautiful face1 a beautiful sc5e1 a beautiful "*1 & a beautiful poem4 ,! ^w 0 d\btless ext5d$ f "o ( ^! objects to ano!r on acc\nt ( a resemblance betwe5 !m1 or m probably1 betwe5 ! emotions !y excit$2 &1 by ?is progressive ext5sion1 x has at la/ rea*$ ?+s v remote f ^? objects ( sight to :i* !re is no d\bt t x 0 fir/ appropriat$2 & x is at lea/ que/ionable :e!r !re is n[ any prop]ty common to all ! ?+s :i*1 consi/5tly ) usage1 may be call$ beautiful1 except ! prop]ty ( agreeabl5ess1 :i* ! t]m c]ta9ly does connote1 b :i* _c be all t p usually int5d to express by x1 s9ce !re are _m agreeable ?+s :i* are nev] call$ beautiful4 ,if su* be ! case1 x is impossible to give to ! ^w ,beautiful any fix$ connotation1 su* t x %all d5ote all ! objects :i* 9 common use x n[ d5otes1 b no o!rs4 ,a fix$ connotation1 h[ev]1 x ought to h2 =1 s long z x has n1 x is unfit to be us$ z a sci5tific t]m1 & is a p]petual s\rce ( false analogies & errone\s g5]alizations4 ,?is1 !n1 con/itutes a case 9 exemplification ( our rem>k1 t ev5 :5 !re is a prop]ty common to all ! ?+s d5ot$ by a "n1 to erect t prop]ty into ! def9ition & exclusive connotation ( ! "n is n always desirable4 ,! v>i\s ?+s call$ beautiful unque/ionably resemble "o ano!r 9 be+ agreeable2 b to make ?is ! def9ition ( beauty1 & s ext5d ! ^w ,beautiful to all agreeable ?+s1 w\ld be to drop altoge!r a portion ( mean+ :i* ! ^w really1 ?\gh indi/9ctly1 conveys1 & to d :at dep5ds on u t[>ds caus+ ^? qualities ( ! objects :i* ! ^w previ\sly1 ?\gh vaguely1 po9t$ at1 to be ov]look$ & =gott54 ,x is bett]1 9 su* a case1 to give a fix$ connotation to ! t]m by re/rict+1 ?an by ext5d+ its use2 r exclud+ f ! epi!t ,beautiful "s ?+s to :i* x is commonly consid]$ applicable1 ?an leav+ out ( its connotation any ( ! qualities by :i*1 ?\gh occasionally lo/ sight (1 ! g5]al m9d may h be5 habitually guid$ 9 ! commone/ & mo/ int]e/+ applications ( ! t]m4 ,= !re is no "q t :5 p call any?+ beautiful1 !y ?9k !y are ass]t+ m ?an t x is m]ely agreeable4 ,!y ?9k !y are ascrib+ a peculi> sort ( agreeabl5ess1 analog\s to t :i* !y f9d 9 "s o!r ( ! ?+s to :i* !y are accu/om$ to apply ! same "n4 ,if1 !re=e1 !re be any peculi> sort ( agreeabl5ess :i* is common ?\gh n to all1 yet to ! pr9cipal ?+s :i* are call$ beautiful1 x is bett] to limit ! d5otation ( ! t]m to ^? ?+s1 ?an to leave t k9d ( quality )\t a t]m to connote x1 & !reby div]t att5tion f its peculi>ities4 #f4 ,! la/ rem>k exemplifies a rule ( t]m9ology1 :i* is ( great importance1 & :i* has h>dly yet be5 recognis$ z a rule1 b by a few ?9k]s ( ! pres5t c5tury4 ,9 attempt+ to rectify ! use ( a vague t]m by giv+ x a fix$ connotation1 we mu/ take c>e n to disc>d 7unless advis$ly1 & on ! gr\nd ( a deep] k ( ! subject7 any portion ( ! connotation :i* ! ^w1 9 h[ev] indi/9ct a mann]1 previ\sly c>ri$ ) x4 ,= o!rwise language loses "o ( its inh]5t & mo/ valuable prop]ties1 t ( be+ ! cons]vator ( anci5t exp]i5ce2 ! keep]-alive ( ^? ?\ghts & obs]vations ( =m] ages1 :i* may be ali5 to ! t5d5cies ( ! pass+ "t4 ,?is function ( language is s (t5 ov]look$ or und]valu$1 t a few obs]vations on x appe> to be extremely requir$4 ,ev5 :5 ! connotation ( a t]m has be5 accurately fix$1 & /ill m if x has be5 left 9 ! /ate ( a vague unanalys$ feel+ ( resemblance2 !re is a con/ant t5d5cy 9 ! ^w1 ?r\gh famili> use1 to "p ) a portion ( its connotation4 ,x is a well-kn[n law ( ! m9d1 t a ^w orig9ally associat$ ) a v complex clu/] ( ideas1 is f> f call+ up all ^? ideas 9 ! m9d1 e "t ! ^w is us$3 x calls up only "o or two1 f :i* ! m9d runs on by fre% associations to ano!r set ( ideas1 )\t wait+ = ! sugge/ion ( ! rema9d] ( ! complex clu/]4 ,if ?is 7 n ! case1 processes ( ?\ght c\ld n take place ) any?+ l ! rapidity :i* we "k !y possess4 ,v (t51 inde$1 :5 we are employ+ a ^w 9 our m5tal op]ations1 we are s f> f wait+ until ! complex idea :i* corresponds to ! mean+ ( ! ^w is consci\sly br\ght be=e u 9 all its p>ts1 t we run on to new tra9s ( ideas by ! o!r associations :i* ! m]e ^w excites1 )\t hav+ realiz$ 9 our imag9ation any "p :atev] ( ! mean+3 ?us us+ ! ^w1 & ev5 us+ x well & accurately1 & c>ry+ on important processes ( reason+ by means ( x1 9 an almo/ me*anical mann]2 s mu* s1 t "s metaphysicians1 g5]aliz+ f an extreme case1 h fanci$ t all reason+ is b ! me*anical use ( a set ( t]ms accord+ to a c]ta9 =m4 ,we may discuss & settle ! mo/ important int]e/s ( t[ns or nations1 by ! application ( g5]al !orems or practical maxims previ\sly laid d[n1 )\t hav+ _h consci\sly sugge/$ to u1 once 9 ! :ole process1 ! h\ses & gre5 fields1 ! ?rong$ m>ket-places & dome/ic he>?s1 ( :i* n only ^? t[ns & nations consi/1 b :i* ! words t[n & nation confess$ly mean4 ,s9ce1 !n1 g5]al names come 9 ?is mann] to be us$ 7& ev5 to d a portion ( _! "w well7 )\t sugge/+ to ! m9d ! :ole ( _! mean+1 & (t5 ) ! sugge/ion ( a v small1 or no "p at all ( t mean+2 we _c wond] t words s us$ come 9 "t to be no long] capable ( sugge/+ any o!r ( ! ideas appropriat$ to !m1 ?an ^? ) :i* ! association is mo/ imm$iate & /ronge/1 or mo/ kept up by ! incid5ts ( life3 ! rema9d] be+ lo/ altoge!r2 unless ! m9d1 by (t5 consci\sly dwell+ on !m1 keeps up ! association4 ,words naturally reta9 mu* m ( _! mean+ to p]sons ( active imag9ation1 :o habitually repres5t to !mselves ?+s 9 ! concrete1 ) ! detail :i* belongs to !m 9 ! actual _w4 ,to m9ds ( a diff]5t description1 ! only antidote to ?is corruption ( language is pr$ication4 ,! habit ( pr$icat+ ( ! "n1 all ! v>i\s prop]ties :i* x orig9ally connot$1 keeps up ! association betwe5 ! "n & ^? prop]ties4 ,b 9 ord] t x may d s1 x is necess>y t ! pr$icates %\ld !mselves reta9 _! association ) ! prop]ties :i* !y sev]ally connote4 ,= ! propositions _c keep ! mean+ ( ! words alive1 if ! mean+ ( ! propositions !mselves %\ld die4 ,& no?+ is m common ?an = propositions to be me*anically repeat$1 me*anically reta9$ 9 ! memory1 & _! tru? und\bt+ly ass5t$ to & reli$ on1 :ile yet !y c>ry no mean+ di/9ctly home to ! m9d2 & :ile ! matt] ( fact or law ( nature :i* !y orig9ally express$ is z mu* lo/ sight (1 & practically disreg>d$1 z if x nev] _h be5 he>d ( at all4 ,9 ^? subjects :i* are at ! same "t famili> & complicat$1 & especially 9 ^? :i* are s 9 z great a degree z moral & social subjects are1 x is a matt] ( common rem>k h[ _m important propositions are believ$ & repeat$ f habit1 :ile no acc\nt c\ld be giv51 & no s5se is practically manife/$1 ( ! tru?s :i* !y convey4 ,h5ce x is1 t ! traditional maxims ( old exp]i5ce1 ?\gh seldom que/ion$1 h (t5 s little effect on ! conduct ( life2 because _! mean+ is nev]1 by mo/ p]sons1 really felt1 until p]sonal exp]i5ce has br\ght x home4 ,& ?us also x is t s _m doctr9es ( religion1 e?ics1 & ev5 politics1 s full ( mean+ & reality to fir/ conv]ts1 h manife/$ 7aft] ! association ( t mean+ ) ! v]bal =mulas has ceas$ to be kept up by ! controv]sies :i* accompani$ _! fir/ introduction7 a t5d5cy to deg5]ate rapidly into lifeless dogmas2 :i* t5d5cy1 all ! ef=ts ( an education expressly & skilfully direct$ to keep+ ! mean+ alive1 are b>ely suffici5t to c\nt]act4 ,consid]+1 !n1 t ! human m9d1 9 diff]5t g5]ations1 occupies itself ) diff]5t ?+s1 & 9 "o age is l$ by ! circum/ances :i* surr\nd x to fix m ( its att5tion ^u "o ( ! prop]ties ( a ?+1 9 ano!r age ^u ano!r2 x is natural & inevitable t 9 e age a c]ta9 portion ( our record$ & traditional k1 n be+ cont9ually sugge/$ by ! pursuits & inquiries ) :i* mank9d are at t "t engross$1 %\ld fall asleep1 z x 71 & fade f ! memory4 ,x w\ld be 9 dang] ( be+ totally lo/1 if ! propositions or =mulas1 ! results ( ! previ\s exp]i5ce1 did n rema91 z =ms ( words x may be1 b ( words t once really convey$1 & are /ill suppos$ to convey1 a mean+3 :i* mean+1 ?\gh susp5d$1 may be hi/orically trac$1 & :5 sugge/$1 may be recognis$ by m9ds ( ! necess>y end[m5ts z be+ /ill matt] ( fact1 or tru?4 ,:ile ! =mulas rema91 ! mean+ may at any "t revive2 & z on ! "o h& ! =mulas progressively lose ! mean+ !y 7 int5d$ to convey1 s1 on ! o!r1 :5 ?is =getfulness has rea*$ its height & begun to produce obvi\s consequ5ces1 m9ds arise :i* f ! contemplation ( ! =mulas r$iscov] ! tru?1 :5 tru? x 01 :i* 0 conta9$ 9 !m1 & ann\nce x aga9 to mank9d1 n z a discov]y1 b z ! mean+ ( t :i* !y h be5 taught1 & /ill pr(ess to believe4 ,?us !re is a p]petual oscillation 9 spiritual tru?s1 & 9 spiritual doctr9es ( any significance1 ev5 :5 n tru?s4 ,_! mean+ is almo/ always 9 a process ei!r ( be+ lo/ or ( be+ recov]$4 ,:oev] has att5d$ to ! hi/ory ( ! m s]i\s convictions ( mank9d--( ! op9ions by :i* ! g5]al conduct ( _! lives is1 or z !y conceive ought to be1 m especially regulat$--is aw>e t ev5 :5 recognis+ v]bally ! same doctr9es1 !y atta* to !m at diff]5t p]iods a great] or a less quantity1 & ev5 a diff]5t k9d1 ( mean+4 ,! words 9 _! orig9al acceptation connot$1 & ! propositions express$1 a complication ( outw>d facts & inw>d feel+s1 to diff]5t portions ( :i* ! g5]al m9d is m p>ticul>ly alive 9 diff]5t g5]ations ( mank9d4 ,to common m9ds1 only t portion ( ! mean+ is 9 ea* g5]ation sugge/$1 ( :i* t g5]ation possesses ! c\nt]p>t 9 its own habitual exp]i5ce4 ,b ! words & propositions lie ready to sugge/ to any m9d duly prep>$ ! rema9d] ( ! mean+4 ,su* individual m9ds are almo/ always to be f\nd3 & ! lo/ mean+1 reviv$ by !m1 aga9 by degrees works its way into ! g5]al m9d4 ,! arrival ( ?is salut>y reaction may h[ev] be mat]ially ret>d$1 by ! %all[ conceptions & incauti\s proce$+s ( m]e logicians4 ,x sometimes happ5s t t[>ds ! close ( ! d[nw>d p]iod1 :5 ! words h lo/ "p ( _! significance1 & h n yet begun to recov] x1 p]sons arise ^: lead+ & fav\rite idea is ! importance ( cle> conceptions & precise ?\ght1 & ! necessity1 !re=e1 ( def9ite language4 ,^! p]sons1 9 exam9+ ! old =mulas1 easily p]ceive t words are us$ 9 !m )\t a mean+2 & if !y are n ! sort ( p]sons :o are capable ( r$iscov]+ ! lo/ signification1 !y naturally en\gh dismiss ! =mula1 & def9e ! "n )\t ref]5ce to x4 ,9 s do+ !y fa/5 d[n ! "n to :at x connotes 9 common use at ! "t :5 x conveys ! smalle/ quantity ( mean+2 & introduce ! practice ( employ+ x1 consi/5tly & uni=mly1 accord+ to t connotation4 ,! ^w 9 ?is way acquires an ext5t ( d5otation f> beyond :at x _h be=e2 x becomes ext5d$ to _m ?+s to :i* x 0 previ\sly1 9 appe>ance caprici\sly1 refus$4 ,( ! propositions 9 :i* x 0 =m]ly us$1 ^? :i* 7 true 9 virtue ( ! =gott5 "p ( its mean+ are n[1 by ! cle>] light :i* ! def9ition diffuses1 se5 n to be true accord+ to ! def9ition2 :i*1 h[ev]1 is ! recognis$ & suffici5tly correct expression ( all t is p]ceiv$ to be 9 ! m9d ( any "o by :om ! t]m is us$ at ! pres5t day4 ,! anci5t =mulas are consequ5tly treat$ z prejudices2 & p are no long] taught z be=e1 ?\gh n to und]/& !m1 yet to believe t !re is tru? 9 !m4 ,!y no long] rema9 9 ! g5]al m9d surr\nd$ by respect1 & ready at any "t to sugge/ _! orig9al mean+4 ,:atev] tru?s !y conta9 are n only1 9 ^! circum/ances1 r$iscov]$ f> m sl[ly1 b1 :5 r$iscov]$1 ! prejudice ) :i* novelties are reg>d$ is n[1 9 "s degree at lea/1 aga9/ !m1 in/ead ( be+ on _! side4 ,an example may make ^! rem>ks m intelligible4 ,9 all ages1 except :]e moral speculation has be5 sil5c$ by outw>d compulsion1 or :]e ! feel+s :i* prompt to x /ill cont9ue to be satisfi$ by ! traditional doctr9es ( an e/abli%$ fai?1 "o ( ! subjects :i* h mo/ occupi$ ! m9ds ( ?9k+ p]sons is ! inquiry1 ,:at is virtue8 or1 ,:at is a virtu\s "*8 ,among ! diff]5t !ories on ! subject :i* h1 at diff]5t times1 gr[n up & obta9$ p>tial curr5cy1 e "o ( :i* reflect$ z 9 ! cle>e/ mirror1 ! express image ( ! age :i* gave x bir?2 !re 0 "o1 accord+ to :i* virtue consi/s 9 a correct calculation ( our own p]sonal int]e/s1 ei!r 9 ?is _w only1 or also 9 ano!r4 ,to make ?is !ory plausible1 x 0 ( c\rse necess>y t ! only b5eficial actions :i* p 9 g5]al 7 accu/om$ to see1 or 7 !re=e accu/om$ to praise1 %\ld be su* z 71 or at lea/ might )\t contradict+ obvi\s facts be suppos$ to be1 ! result ( a prud5tial reg>d to self-int]e/2 s t ! words really connot$ no m1 9 common acceptation1 ?an 0 set d[n 9 ! def9ition4 ,suppose1 n[1 t ! p>tisans ( ?is !ory _h contriv$ to introduce a consi/5t & undeviat+ use ( ! t]m accord+ to ?is def9ition4 ,suppose t !y _h s]i\sly endeav\r$1 & _h succe$$ 9 ! endeav\r1 to bani% ! ^w dis9t]e/$ness f ! language2 _h obta9$ ! disuse ( all expressions atta*+ odium to selfi%ness or comm5dation to self-sacrifice1 or :i* impli$ g5]osity or k9dness to be any?+ b do+ a b5efit 9 ord] to receive a great] p]sonal advantage 9 return4 ,ne$ we say1 t ?is abrogation ( ! old =mulas = ! sake ( pres]v+ cle> ideas & consi/5cy ( ?\ght1 w\ld h be5 a great evil8 :ile ! v inconsi/5cy incurr$ by ! coexi/5ce ( ! =mulas ) philosophical op9ions :i* seem$ to condemn !m z absurdities1 op]at$ z a /imulus to ! re-exam9ation ( ! subject2 & ?us ! v doctr9es orig9at+ 9 ! oblivion into :i* a "p ( ! tru? _h fall51 7 r5d]$ indirectly1 b p[]fully1 in/rum5tal to its revival4 ,! doctr9e ( ! ,col]idge s*ool1 t ! language ( any p among :om culture is ( old date1 is a sacr$ deposit1 ! prop]ty ( all ages1 & :i* no "o age %\ld consid] itself emp[]$ to alt]--bord]s inde$1 z ?us express$1 on an extravagance2 b x is gr\nd$ on a tru?1 frequ5tly ov]look$ by t class ( logicians :o ?9k m ( hav+ a cle> ?an ( hav+ a compreh5sive mean+2 & :o p]ceive t e age is add+ to ! tru?s :i* x has receiv$ f its pr$ecessors1 b fail to see t a c\nt] process ( los+ tru?s already possess$1 is also con/antly go+ on1 & requir+ ! mo/ s$ul\s att5tion to c\nt]act x4 ,language is ! depository ( ! accumulat$ body ( exp]i5ce to :i* all =m] ages h contribut$ _! "p1 & :i* is ! inh]itance ( all yet to come4 ,we h no "r to prev5t ourselves f transmitt+ to po/]ity a l>g] portion ( ?is inh]itance ?an we may ourselves h pr(it$ by4 ,h[ev] mu* we may be able to improve on ! conclusions ( our =efa!rs1 we ought to be c>eful n inadv]t5tly to let any ( _! premises slip ?r\gh our f+]s4 ,x may be good to alt] ! mean+ ( a ^w1 b x is bad to let any "p ( ! mean+ drop4 ,:oev] seeks to introduce a m correct use ( a t]m ) :i* important associations are connect$1 %\ld be requir$ to possess an accurate acqua9tance ) ! hi/ory ( ! p>ticul> ^w1 & ( ! op9ions :i* 9 diff]5t /ages ( its progress x s]v$ to express4 ,to be qualifi$ to def9e ! "n1 we mu/ "k all t has ev] be5 kn[n ( ! prop]ties ( ! class ( objects :i* are1 or orig9ally 71 d5ot$ by x4 ,= if we give x a mean+ accord+ to :i* any proposition w be false :i* has ev] be5 g5]ally held to be true1 x is incumb5t on u to be sure t we "k & h consid]$ all :i* ^?1 :o believ$ ! proposition1 und]/ood by x4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,on ,,! ,,natural ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,v>iations ,,9 ,,! ,,mean+ ,,( ,,t]ms4 #a4 ,x is n only 9 ! mode :i* has n[ be5 po9t$ out1 namely by gradual inatt5tion to a portion ( ! ideas convey$1 t words 9 common use are liable to %ift _! connotation4 ,! tru? is1 t ! connotation ( su* words is p]petually v>y+2 z might be expect$ f ! mann] 9 :i* words 9 common use acquire _! connotation4 ,a te*nical t]m1 inv5t$ = purposes ( art or sci5ce1 has1 f ! fir/1 ! connotation giv5 to x by its inv5tor2 b a "n :i* is 9 e "o's m\? be=e any "o ?9ks ( def9+ x1 d]ives its connotation only f ! circum/ances :i* are habitually br\ght to m9d :5 x is pron\nc$4 ,among ^! circum/ances1 ! prop]ties common to ! ?+s d5ot$ by ! "n1 h naturally a pr9cipal place2 & w\ld h ! sole place1 if language 7 regulat$ by conv5tion r ?an by cu/om & accid5t4 ,b besides ^! common prop]ties1 :i* if !y exi/ are c]ta9ly pres5t :5ev] ! "n is employ$1 any o!r circum/ance may casually be f\nd along ) x1 s frequ5tly z to become associat$ ) x 9 ! same mann]1 & z /rongly1 z ! common prop]ties !mselves4 ,9 proportion z ?is association =ms itself1 p give up us+ ! "n 9 cases 9 :i* ^? casual circum/ances d n exi/4 ,!y pref] us+ "s o!r "n1 or ! same "n ) "s adjunct1 r ?an employ an expression :i* w call up an idea !y d n want to excite4 ,! circum/ance orig9ally casual1 ?us becomes regul>ly a "p ( ! connotation ( ! ^w4 ,x is ?is cont9ual incorporation ( circum/ances orig9ally accid5tal1 into ! p]man5t signification ( words1 :i* is ! cause t !re are s few exact synonymes4 ,x is ?is also :i* r5d]s ! diction>y mean+ ( a ^w1 by univ]sal rem>k s imp]fect an expon5t ( its real mean+4 ,! diction>y mean+ is m>k$ out 9 a broad1 blunt way1 & probably includes all t 0 orig9ally necess>y = ! correct employm5t ( ! t]m2 b 9 process ( "t s _m collat]al associations adh]e to words1 t :oev] %\ld attempt to use !m ) no o!r guide ?an ! diction>y1 w\ld conf\nd a ?\s& nice di/9ctions & subtle %ades ( mean+ :i* diction>ies take no acc\nt (2 z we notice 9 ! use ( a language 9 conv]sation or writ+ by a =eign] n ?or\ghly ma/] ( x4 ,! hi/ory ( a ^w1 by %[+ ! causes :i* det]m9e its use1 is 9 ^! cases a bett] guide to its employm5t ?an any def9ition2 = def9itions c only %[ its mean+ at ! p>ticul> "t1 or at mo/ ! s]ies ( its successive mean+s1 b its hi/ory may %[ ! law by :i* ! succession 0 produc$4 ,! ^w g5tleman1 = in/ance1 to ! correct employm5t ( :i* a diction>y w\ld be no guide1 orig9ally meant simply a man born 9 a c]ta9 rank4 ,f ?is x came by degrees to connote all su* qualities or adv5titi\s circum/ances z 7 usually f\nd to belong to p]sons ( t rank4 ,?is consid]ation at once expla9s :y 9 "o ( its vulg> acceptations x means any "o :o lives )\t lab\r1 9 ano!r )\t manual lab\r1 & 9 its m elevat$ signification x has 9 e age signifi$ ! conduct1 "*1 habits1 & outw>d appe>ance1 9 :omsoev] f\nd1 :i*1 accord+ to ! ideas ( t age1 belong$ or 7 expect$ to belong to p]sons born & educat$ 9 a high social position4 ,x cont9ually happ5s t ( two words1 ^: diction>y mean+s are ei!r ! same or v slightly diff]5t1 "o w be ! prop] ^w to use 9 "o set ( circum/ances1 ano!r 9 ano!r1 )\t its be+ possible to %[ h[ ! cu/om ( s employ+ !m orig9ally grew up4 ,! accid5t t "o ( ! words 0 us$ & n ! o!r on a p>ticul> occasion or 9 a p>ticul> social circle1 w be suffici5t to produce s /rong an association betwe5 ! ^w & "s speciality ( circum/ances1 t mank9d ab&on ! use ( x 9 any o!r case1 & ! speciality becomes "p ( its signification4 ,! tide ( cu/om fir/ drifts ! ^w on ! %ore ( a p>ticul> mean+1 !n retires & leaves x !re4 ,an in/ance 9 po9t is ! rem>kable *ange :i*1 9 ! ,engli% language at lea/1 has tak5 place 9 ! signification ( ! ^w loyalty4 ,t ^w orig9ally meant 9 ,engli%1 z x /ill means 9 ! language f :5ce x came1 fair1 op5 deal+1 & fidelity to engagem5ts2 9 t s5se ! quality x express$ 0 "p ( ! ideal *ivalr\s or knightly "*4 ,by :at process1 9 ,engl&1 ! t]m became re/rict$ to ! s+le case ( fidelity to ! ?rone1 ,i am n suffici5tly v]s$ 9 ! hi/ory ( c\rtly language to be able to pron\nce4 ,! int]val betwe5 a loyal *evali] & a loyal subject is c]ta9ly great4 ,i c only suppose t ! ^w 01 at "s p]iod1 ! fav\rite t]m at c\rt to express fidelity to ! oa? ( allegiance2 until at l5g? ^? :o wi%$ to speak ( any o!r1 & z x 0 probably deem$1 inf]ior sort ( fidelity1 ei!r did n v5ture to use s dignifi$ a t]m1 or f\nd x conv5i5t to employ "s o!r 9 ord] to avoid be+ misund]/ood4 #b4 ,cases are n unfrequ5t 9 :i* a circum/ance1 at fir/ casually incorporat$ into ! connotation ( a ^w :i* orig9ally _h no ref]5ce to x1 9 "t :olly sup]s$es ! orig9al mean+1 & becomes n m]ely a "p ( ! connotation1 b ! :ole ( x4 ,?is is exemplifi$ 9 ! ^w pagan1 paganus2 :i* orig9ally1 z its etymology imports1 0 equival5t to villag]2 ! inhabitant ( a pagus1 or village4 ,at a p>ticul> era 9 ! ext5sion ( ,*ri/ianity ov] ! ,roman empire1 ! adh]5ts ( ! old religion1 & ! villag]s or c\ntry p1 7 ne>ly ! same body ( individuals1 ! inhabitants ( ! t[ns hav+ be5 e>lie/ conv]t$2 z 9 our own day1 & at all times1 ! great] activity ( social int]c\rse r5d]s !m ! e>lie/ recipi5ts ( new op9ions & modes1 :ile old habits & prejudices l+] longe/ among ! c\ntry p3 n to m5tion t ! t[ns 7 m imm$iately "u ! direct influ5ce ( ! gov]nm5t1 :i* at t "t _h embrac$ ,*ri/ianity4 ,f ?is casual co9cid5ce1 ! ^w paganus c>ri$ ) x1 & began m & m /eadily to sugge/1 ! idea ( a wor%ipp] ( ! anci5t div9ities2 until at l5g? x sugge/$ t idea s =cibly t p :o did n desire to sugge/ ! idea avoid$ us+ ! ^w4 ,b :5 paganus _h come to connote hea!nism1 ! v unimportant circum/ance1 ) ref]5ce to t fact1 ( ! place ( resid5ce1 0 soon disreg>d$ 9 ! employm5t ( ! ^w4 ,z !re 0 seldom any occasion = mak+ sep>ate ass]tions respect+ hea!ns :o liv$ 9 ! c\ntry1 !re 0 no ne$ = a sep>ate ^w to d5ote !m2 & pagan came n only to mean hea!n1 b to mean t exclusively4 ,a case /ill m famili> to mo/ read]s is t ( ! ^w villa9 or ville94 ,?is t]m1 z ev]ybody kn[s1 _h 9 ! middle ages a connotation z /rictly def9$ z a ^w c\ld h1 be+ ! prop] legal designation = ^? p]sons :o 7 ! subjects ( ! less on]\s =ms ( feudal bondage4 ,! scorn ( ! semib>b>\s milit>y ari/ocracy = ^! _! abject dep5dants1 r5d]$ ! act ( lik5+ any p]son to ?is class ( p a m>k ( ! greate/ contumely3 ! same scorn l$ !m to ascribe to ! same p all mann] ( hateful qualities1 :i* d\btless also1 9 ! degrad+ situation 9 :i* !y 7 held1 7 (t5 n unju/ly imput$ to !m4 ,^! circum/ances comb9$ to atta* to ! t]m villa91 ideas ( crime & guilt 9 s =cible a mann]1 t ! application ( ! epi!t ev5 to ^? to :om x legally belong$ became an affront1 & 0 ab/a9$ f :5ev] no affront 0 int5d$4 ,f t "t guilt 0 "p ( ! connotation2 & soon became ! :ole ( x1 s9ce mank9d 7 n prompt$ by any urg5t motive to cont9ue mak+ a di/9ction 9 _! language betwe5 bad m5 ( s]vile /ation & bad m5 ( any o!r rank 9 life4 ,^! & simil> in/ances 9 :i* ! orig9al signification ( a t]m is totally lo/--ano!r & an entirely di/9ct mean+ be+ fir/ engraft$ ^u ! =m]1 & f9ally sub/itut$ = x--af=d examples ( ! d\ble movem5t :i* is always tak+ place 9 language3 two c\nt]-movem5ts1 "o ( ,g5]alization1 by :i* words are p]petually los+ portions ( _! connotation1 & becom+ ( less mean+ & m g5]al acceptation2 ! o!r ( ,specialization1 by :i* o!r1 or ev5 ^! same words1 are cont9ually tak+ on fre% connotation2 acquir+ additional mean+1 by be+ re/rict$ 9 _! employm5t to a "p only ( ! occasions on :i* !y might prop]ly be us$ be=e4 ,?is d\ble movem5t is ( suffici5t importance 9 ! natural hi/ory ( language1 7to :i* natural hi/ory ! artificial modifications ought always to h "s degree ( ref]5ce17 to ju/ify our dwell+ a little long] on ! nature ( ! tw(old ph5om5on1 & ! causes to :i* x owes its exi/5ce4 #c4 ,to beg9 ) ! movem5t ( g5]alization4 ,x is unnecess>y to dwell on ! *anges 9 ! mean+ ( names :i* take place m]ely f _! be+ us$ ignorantly1 by p]sons :o1 n hav+ prop]ly ma/]$ ! receiv$ connotation ( a ^w1 apply x 9 a loos] & wid] s5se ?an belongs to x4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is a real s\rce ( alt]ations 9 ! language2 = :5 a ^w1 f be+ (t5 employ$ 9 cases :]e "o ( ! qualities :i* x connotes does n exi/1 ceases to sugge/ t quality ) c]ta9ty1 !n ev5 ^? :o are "u no mi/ake z to ! prop] mean+ ( ! ^w1 pref] express+ t mean+ 9 "s o!r way1 & leave ! orig9al ^w to its fate4 ,! ^w ',squire z /&+ = an own] ( a l&$ e/ate2 ,p>son1 z d5ot+ n ! rector ( ! p>i%1 b cl]gym5 9 g5]al2 ,arti/1 to d5ote only a pa9t] or sculptor2 are cases 9 po9t4#ae ,indep5d5tly1 h[ev]1 ( ! g5]alization ( names ?r\gh _! ignorant misuse1 !re is a t5d5cy 9 ! same direction1 consi/5tly ) a p]fect k ( _! mean+2 aris+ f ! fact1 t ! numb] ( ?+s kn[n to u1 & ( :i* we feel a desire to speak1 multiply fa/] ?an ! names = !m4 ,except on subjects = :i* !re has be5 con/ruct$ a sci5tific t]m9ology1 ) :i* unsci5tific p]sons d n m$dle1 great difficulty is g5]ally f\nd 9 br++ a new "n into use2 & indep5d5tly ( t difficulty1 x is natural to pref] giv+ to a new object a "n :i* at lea/ expresses its resemblance to some?+ already kn[n1 s9ce by pr$icat+ ( x a "n entirely new we at fir/ convey no in=mation4 ,9 ?is mann] ! "n ( a species (t5 becomes ! "n ( a g5us2 z salt1 = example1 or oil2 ! =m] ( :i* words orig9ally d5ot$ only ! muriate ( soda1 ! latt]1 z its etymology indicates1 only olive oil2 b :i* n[ d5ote l>ge & div]sifi$ classes ( sub/ances resembl+ ^! 9 "s ( _! qualities1 & connote only ^? common qualities1 in/ead ( ! :ole ( ! di/9ctive prop]ties ( olive oil & sea salt4 ,! words glass & soap are us$ by mod]n *emi/s 9 a simil> mann]1 to d5ote g5]a ( :i* ! sub/ances vulg>ly s call$ are s+le species4 ,& x (t5 happ5s1 z 9 ^? in/ances1 t ! t]m keeps its special signification 9 addition to its m g5]al "o1 & becomes ambigu\s1 t is1 two names in/ead ( "o4 ,^! *anges1 by :i* words 9 ord9>y use become m & m g5]aliz$1 & less & less expressive1 take place 9 a /ill great] degree ) ! words :i* express ! complicat$ ph5om5a ( m9d & society4 ,hi/orians1 travell]s1 & 9 g5]al ^? :o speak or write conc]n+ moral & social ph5om5a ) :i* !y are n famili>ly acqua9t$1 are ! great ag5ts 9 ?is modification ( language4 ,! vocabul>y ( all except unusually in/ruct$ z well z ?9k+ p]sons1 is1 on su* subjects1 em95tly scanty4 ,!y h a c]ta9 small set ( words to :i* !y are accu/om$1 & :i* !y employ to express ph5om5a ! mo/ het]og5e\s1 because !y h nev] suffici5tly analys$ ! facts to :i* ^? words correspond 9 _! own c\ntry1 to h atta*$ p]fectly def9ite ideas to ! words4 ,! fir/ ,engli% conqu]ors ( ,b5gal1 = example1 c>ri$ ) !m ! phrase l&$ proprietor into a c\ntry :]e ! rights ( individuals ov] ! soil 7 extremely diff]5t 9 degree1 & ev5 9 nature1 f ^? recognis$ 9 ,engl&4 ,apply+ ! t]m ) all its ,engli% associations 9 su* a /ate ( ?+s2 to "o :o _h only a limit$ "r !y gave an absolute "r1 f ano!r because he _h n an absolute "r !y took away all "r1 drove :ole classes ( p to ru9 & despair1 fill$ ! c\ntry ) b&itti1 creat$ a feel+ t no?+ 0 secure1 & produc$1 ) ! be/ int5tions1 a disorganization ( society :i* _h n be5 produc$ 9 t c\ntry by ! mo/ ru?less ( its b>b>ian invad]s4 ,yet ! usage ( p]sons capable ( s gross a misappreh5sion1 det]m9es ! mean+ ( language2 & ! words !y ?us misuse gr[ 9 g5]ality1 until ! in/ruct$ are oblig$ to acquiesce2 & to employ ^? words 7fir/ free+ !m f vagu5ess by giv+ !m a def9ite connotation7 z g5]ic t]ms1 subdivid+ ! g5]a into species4 #d4 ,:ile ! m rapid gr[? ( ideas ?an ( names ?us creates a p]petual necessity = mak+ ! same names s]ve1 ev5 if imp]fectly1 on a great] numb] ( occasions2 a c\nt]-op]ation is go+ on1 by :i* names become on ! contr>y re/rict$ to few] occasions1 by tak+ on1 z x 71 additional connotation1 f circum/ances n orig9ally includ$ 9 ! mean+1 b :i* h become connect$ ) x 9 ! m9d by "s accid5tal cause4 ,we h se5 above1 9 ! words pagan & villa91 rem>kable examples ( ! specialization ( ! mean+ ( words f casual associations1 z well z ( ! g5]alization ( x 9 a new direction1 :i* (t5 foll[s4 ,simil> specializations are ( frequ5t occurr5ce 9 ! hi/ory ev5 ( sci5tific nom5clature4 ,x is by no means uncommon1 says ,dr4 ,p>is1 9 8 ,ph>macologia1#af to f9d a ^w :i* is us$ to express g5]al *>act]s subsequ5tly become ! "n ( a specific sub/ance 9 :i* su* *>act]s are pr$om9ant2 & we %all f9d t "s important anomalies 9 nom5clature may be ?us expla9$4 ,! t]m ,greek3 ,ars5ikon1 f :i* ! ^w ,ars5ic is d]iv$1 0 an anci5t epi!t appli$ to ^? natural sub/ances :i* possess$ /rong & acrimoni\s prop]ties1 & z ! poison\s quality ( ars5ic 0 f\nd to be rem>kably p[]ful1 ! t]m 0 especially appli$ to ,orpim5t1 ! =m 9 :i* ?is metal mo/ usually occurr$4 ,s ! t]m ,v]b5a 7quasi ,h]b5a7 orig9ally d5ot$ all ^? h]bs t 7 held sacr$ on acc\nt ( _! be+ employ$ 9 ! rites ( sacrifice1 z we le>n f ! poets2 b z "o h]b 0 usually adopt$ ^u ^! occasions1 ! ^w ,v]b5a came to d5ote t p>ticul> h]b only1 & x is transmitt$ to u to ?is day "u ! same title1 viz4 ,v]b5a or ,v]va91 & inde$ until lately x enjoy$ ! m$ical reputation :i* its sacr$ orig9 conf]r$ ^u x1 = x 0 worn susp5d$ ar\nd ! neck z an amulet4 ,vitriol1 9 ! orig9al application ( ! ^w1 d5ot$ any cry/all9e body ) a c]ta9 degree ( transp>5cy 7vitrum72 x is h>dly necess>y to obs]ve t ! t]m is n[ appropriat$ to a p>ticul> species3 9 ! same mann]1 ,b>k1 :i* is a g5]al t]m1 is appli$ to express "o g5us1 & by way ( em95ce1 x has ! article ,! prefix$1 z ,! b>k3 ! same obs]vation w apply to ! ^w ,opium1 :i*1 9 its primitive s5se1 signifies any juice 7,greek3 opos1 ,succus71 :ile x n[ only d5otes "o species1 viz4 t ( ! poppy4 ,s1 aga91 ,elat]ium 0 us$ by ,hippocrates to signify v>i\s int]nal applications1 especially purgatives1 ( a viol5t & dra/ic nature 7f ! ^w ,greek3 elaun1 agito1 moveo1 /imulo71 b by succe$+ au?ors x 0 exclusively appli$ to d5ote ! active matt] :i* subsides f ! juice ( ! wild cucumb]4 ,! ^w ,fecula1 aga91 orig9ally meant to imply any sub/ance :i* 0 d]iv$ by spontane\s subsid5ce f a liquid 7f fx1 ! gr\nds or settlem5t ( any liquor72 aft]w>ds x 0 appli$ to ,/>*1 :i* is deposit$ 9 ?is mann] by agitat+ ! fl\r ( :eat 9 wat]2 & la/ly1 x has be5 appli$ to a peculi> vegetable pr9ciple1 :i*1 l />*1 is insoluble 9 cold1 b completely soluble 9 boil+ wat]1 ) :i* x =ms a gelat9\s solution4 ,?is indef9ite mean+ ( ! ^w fecula has creat$ num]\s mi/akes 9 ph>maceutic *emi/ry2 ,elat]ium1 = in/ance1 is said to be fecula1 &1 9 ! orig9al s5se ( ! ^w1 x is prop]ly s call$1 inasmu* z x is procur$ f a vegetable juice by spontane\s subsid5ce1 b 9 ! limit$ & mod]n acceptation ( ! t]m1 x conveys an errone\s idea2 = in/ead ( ! active pr9ciple ( ! juice resid+ 9 fecula1 x is a peculi> proximate pr9ciple1 sui g5]is1 to :i* ,i h v5tur$ to be/[ ! "n ( ,elat94 ,= ! same reason1 mu* d\bt & obscurity involve ! mean+ ( ! ^w ,extract1 because x is appli$ g5]ally to any sub/ance obta9$ by ! evaporation ( a vegetable solution1 & specifically to a peculi> proximate pr9ciple1 possess$ ( c]ta9 *>act]s1 by :i* x is di/+ui%$ f e o!r elem5t>y body4 ,a g5]ic t]m is always liable to become ?us limit$ to a s+le species1 or ev5 individual1 if p h occasion to ?9k & speak ( t individual or species mu* (t5] ?an ( any?+ else :i* is conta9$ 9 ! g5us4 ,?us by cattle1 a /age-coa*man w und]/& horses2 bea/s1 9 ! language ( agriculturi/s1 /&s = ox52 & birds1 ) "s sportsm51 = p>tridges only4 ,! law ( language :i* op]ates 9 ^! trivial in/ances1 is ! v same 9 con=mity to :i* ! t]ms ,greek3 ,!os1 ,deus1 & ,god1 7 adopt$ f ,poly!ism by ,*ri/ianity1 to express ! s+le object ( its own adoration4 ,almo/ all ! t]m9ology ( ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* is made up ( words orig9ally us$ 9 a mu* m g5]al acceptation3 ,ecclesia1 ,assembly2 ,bi%op1 ,episcopus1 ,ov]se]2 ,prie/1 ,presbyt]1 ,eld]2 ,deacon1 ,diaconus1 ,adm9i/rator2 ,sacram5t1 a v[ ( allegiance2 ,evangelium1 good tid+s2 & "s words1 z ,m9i/]1 are /ill us$ bo? 9 ! g5]al & 9 ! limit$ s5se4 ,x w\ld be int]e/+ to trace ! progress by :i* au?or came1 9 its mo/ famili> s5se1 to signify a writ]1 & ,greek3 poits1 or mak]1 a poet4 ,( ! incorporation into ! mean+ ( a t]m1 ( circum/ances accid5tally connect$ ) x at "s p>ticul> p]iod1 z 9 ! case ( ,pagan1 in/ances might easily be multipli$4 ,physician 7,greek3 physikos1 or naturali/7 became1 9 ,engl&1 synonym\s ) a heal] ( diseases1 because until a comp>atively late p]iod m$ical practition]s 7 ! only naturali/s4 ,cl]c1 or cl]icus1 a s*ol>1 came to signify an ecclesia/ic1 because ! cl]gy 7 = _m c5turies ! only s*ol>s4 ,( all ideas1 h[ev]1 ! mo/ liable to cl+ by association to any?+ ) :i* !y h ev] be5 connect$ by proximity1 are ^? ( our pleasures & pa9s1 or ( ! ?+s :i* we habitually contemplate z s\rces ( our pleasures or pa9s4 ,! additional connotation1 !re=e1 :i* a ^w soone/ & mo/ readily takes on1 is t ( agreeabl5ess or pa9fulness1 9 _! v>i\s k9ds & degrees3 ( be+ a good or bad ?+2 desirable or to be avoid$2 an object ( hatr$1 ( dread1 contempt1 admiration1 hope1 or love4 ,accord+ly !re is h>dly a s+le "n1 expressive ( any moral or social fact calculat$ to call =? /rong affections ei!r ( a fav\rable or ( a ho/ile nature1 :i* does n c>ry ) x decid$ly & irresi/ibly a connotation ( ^? /rong affections1 or1 at ! lea/1 ( approbation or c5sure2 insomu* t to employ ^? names 9 conjunction ) o!rs by :i* ! contr>y s5tim5ts 7 express$1 w\ld produce ! effect ( a p>adox1 or ev5 a contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,! baneful influ5ce ( a connotation ?us acquir$1 on ! prevail+ habits ( ?\ght1 especially 9 morals & politics1 has be5 well po9t$ out on _m occasions by ,b5?am4 ,x gives rise to ! fallacy ( "q-begg+ names4 ,! v prop]ty :i* we are inquir+ :e!r a ?+ possesses or n1 has become s associat$ ) ! "n ( ! ?+ z to be "p ( its mean+1 insomu* t by m]ely utt]+ ! "n we assume ! po9t :i* 0 to be made out3 "o ( ! mo/ frequ5t s\rces ( app>5tly self-evid5t propositions4 ,)\t any fur!r multiplication ( examples to illu/rate ! *anges :i* usage is cont9ually mak+ 9 ! signification ( t]ms1 ,i %all add1 z a practical rule1 t ! logician1 n be+ able to prev5t su* trans=mations1 %\ld submit to !m ) a good grace :5 !y are irrevocably effect$1 & if a def9ition is necess>y1 def9e ! ^w accord+ to its new mean+2 reta9+ ! =m] z a second signification1 if x is ne$$1 & if !re is any *ance ( be+ able to pres]ve x ei!r 9 ! language ( philosophy or 9 common use4 ,logicians _c make ! mean+ ( any b sci5tific t]ms3 t ( all o!r words is made by ! collective human race4 ,b logicians c asc]ta9 cle>ly :at x is :i*1 work+ obscurely1 has guid$ ! g5]al m9d to a p>ticul> employm5t ( a "n2 & :5 !y h f\nd ?is1 !y c clo! x 9 su* di/9ct & p]man5t t]ms1 t mank9d %all see ! mean+ :i* be=e !y only felt1 & %all n suff] x to be aft]w>ds =gott5 or misappreh5d$4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,a ,,philosophical ,,language ,,fur!r ,,consid]$4 #a4 ,we h1 ?us f>1 consid]$ only "o ( ! requisites ( a language adapt$ = ! inve/igation ( tru?2 t its t]ms %all ea* ( !m convey a det]m9ate & unmi/akeable mean+4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 z we h already rem>k$1 o!r requisites2 "s ( !m important only 9 ! second degree1 b "o :i* is fundam5tal1 & b>ely yields 9 po9t ( importance1 if x yields at all1 to ! quality :i* we h already discuss$ at s mu* l5g?4 ,t ! language may be fitt$ = its purposes1 n only %\ld e ^w p]fectly express its mean+1 b !re %\ld be no important mean+ )\t its ^w4 ,:atev] we h occasion to ?9k ( (t51 & = sci5tific purposes1 ought to h a "n appropriat$ to x4 ,?is requisite ( philosophical language may be consid]$ "u ?ree diff]5t heads2 t numb] ( sep>ate conditions be+ involv$ 9 x4 #b4 ,fir/3 !re ought to be all su* names1 z are ne$ful = mak+ su* a record ( individual obs]vations t ! words ( ! record %all exactly %[ :at fact x is :i* has be5 obs]v$4 ,9 o!r words1 !re %\ld be an accurate ,descriptive ,t]m9ology4 ,! only ?+s :i* we c obs]ve directly be+ our own s5sations1 or o!r feel+s1 a complete descriptive language w\ld be "o 9 :i* !re %\ld be a "n = e v>iety ( elem5t>y s5sation or feel+4 ,comb9ations ( s5sations or feel+s may always be describ$1 if we h a "n = ea* ( ! elem5t>y feel+s :i* compose !m2 b brevity ( description1 & cle>ness 7:i* (t5 dep5ds v mu* on brevity17 are greatly promot$ by giv+ di/9ctive names n to ! elem5ts alone1 b also to all comb9ations :i* are ( frequ5t recurr5ce4 ,on ?is occasion ,i _c d bett] ?an quote f ,dr4 ,:ewell#ag "s ( ! excell5t rem>ks :i* he has made on ?is important bran* ( our subject4 ,! mean+ ( descriptive te*nical t]ms c be fix$ 9 ! fir/ in/ance only by conv5tion1 & c be made intelligible only by pres5t+ to ! s5ses t :i* ! t]ms are to signify4 ,! k ( a col\r by its "n c only be taught ?r\gh ! eye4 ,no description c convey to a he>] :at we mean by apple-gre5 or ,fr5*-grey4 ,x might1 p]haps1 be suppos$ t1 9 ! fir/ example1 ! t]m apple1 ref]r+ to s famili> an object1 suffici5tly sugge/s ! col\r int5d$4 ,b x may easily be se5 t ?is is n true2 = apples are ( _m diff]5t hues ( gre51 & x is only by a conv5tional selection t we c appropriate ! t]m to "o special %ade4 ,:5 ?is appropriation is once made1 ! t]m ref]s to ! s5sation1 & n to ! p>ts ( ! t]m2 = ^! ent] into ! comp\nd m]ely z a help to ! memory1 :e!r ! sugge/ion be a natural connexion z 9 'apple-gre51' or a casual "o z 9 ',fr5*-grey4' ,9 ord] to d]ive due advantage f te*nical t]ms ( ?is k9d1 !y mu/ be associat$ imm$iately ) ! p]ception to :i* !y belong2 & n connect$ ) x ?r\gh ! vague usages ( common language4 ,! memory mu/ reta9 ! s5sation2 & ! te*nical ^w mu/ be und]/ood z directly z ! mo/ famili> ^w1 & m di/9ctly4 ,:5 we f9d su* t]ms z t9-:ite or p9*beck-br[n1 ! metallic col\r s d5ot$ ought to />t up 9 our memory )\t delay or se>*4 ,?is1 :i* x is mo/ important to recollect ) respect to ! simpl] prop]ties ( bodies1 z col\r & =m1 is no less true ) respect to m comp\nd notions4 ,9 all cases ! t]m is fix$ to a peculi> mean+ by conv5tion2 & ! /ud5t1 9 ord] to use ! ^w1 mu/ be completely famili> ) ! conv5tion1 s t he has no ne$ to frame conjectures f ! ^w itself4 ,su* conjectures w\ld always be insecure1 & (t5 errone\s4 ,?us ! t]m papilionace\s appli$ to a fl[] is employ$ to indicate1 n only a resemblance to a butt]fly1 b a resemblance aris+ f five petals ( a c]ta9 peculi> %ape & arrangem5t2 & ev5 if ! resemblance 7 mu* /rong] ?an x is 9 su* cases1 yet1 if x 7 produc$ 9 a diff]5t way1 z = example1 by "o petal1 or two only1 in/ead ( a '/&>d1' two 'w+s1' & a 'keel' consi/+ ( two p>ts m or less unit$ into "o1 we %\ld be no long] ju/ifi$ 9 speak+ ( x z a 'papilionace\s' fl[]4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! ?+ nam$ is1 z 9 ?is la/ case1 a comb9ation ( simple s5sations1 x is n necess>y1 9 ord] to le>n ! mean+ ( ! ^w1 t ! /ud5t %\ld ref] back to ! s5sations !mselves2 x may be communicat$ to him ?r\gh ! m$ium ( o!r words2 ! t]ms1 9 %ort1 may be def9$4 ,b ! names ( elem5t>y s5sations1 or elem5t>y feel+s ( any sort1 _c be def9$2 nor is !re any mode ( mak+ _! signification kn[n b by mak+ ! le>n] exp]i5ce ! s5sation1 or ref]r+ him1 ?r\gh "s kn[n m>k1 to 8 remembrance ( hav+ exp]i5c$ x be=e4 ,h5ce x is only ! impressions on ! outw>d s5ses1 or ^? inw>d feel+s :i* are connect$ 9 a v obvi\s & uni=m mann] ) outw>d objects1 t are really susceptible ( an exact descriptive language4 ,! c\ntless v>iety ( s5sations :i* arise1 = in/ance1 f disease1 or f peculi> physiological /ates1 x w\ld be 9 va9 to attempt to "n2 = z no "o c judge :e!r ! s5sation ,i h is ! same ) 81 ! "n _c h1 to u two1 real community ( mean+4 ,! same may be said1 to a consid]able ext5t1 ( purely m5tal feel+s4 ,b 9 "s ( ! sci5ces :i* are conv]sant ) ext]nal objects1 x is sc>cely possible to surpass ! p]fection to :i* ?is quality ( a philosophical language has be5 c>ri$4 ,! =mation#ah ( an exact & ext5sive descriptive language = botany has be5 execut$ ) a degree ( skill & felicity1 :i*1 be=e x 0 atta9$1 c\ld h>dly h be5 dreamt ( z atta9able4 ,e "p ( a plant has be5 nam$2 & ! =m ( e "p1 ev5 ! mo/ m9ute1 has _h a l>ge assemblage ( descriptive t]ms appropriat$ to x1 by means ( :i* ! botani/ c convey & receive k ( =m & /ructure1 z exactly z if ea* m9ute "p 7 pres5t$ to him va/ly magnifi$4 ,?is acquisition 0 "p ( ! ,l9nan re=m4444 ',t\rne=t1' says ,dec&olle1 'appe>s to h be5 ! fir/ :o really p]ceiv$ ! utility ( fix+ ! s5se ( t]ms 9 su* a way z always to employ ! same ^w 9 ! same s5se1 & always to express ! same idea by ! same words2 b x 0 ,l9nu :o really creat$ & fix$ ?is botanical language1 & ?is is 8 faire/ claim to glory1 = by ?is fixation ( language he has %$ cle>ness & precision ov] all p>ts ( ! sci5ce4' ,x is n necess>y "h to give any detail$ acc\nt ( ! t]ms ( botany4 ,! fundam5tal ones h be5 gradually introduc$1 z ! p>ts ( plants 7 m c>efully & m9utely exam9$4 ,?us ! fl[] 0 necess>ily di/+ui%$ into ! calyx1 ! corolla1 ! /am5s1 & ! pi/ils2 ! sections ( ! corolla 7 t]m$ petals by ,columna2 ^? ( ! calyx 7 call$ sepals by ,neck]4 ,sometimes t]ms ( great] g5]ality 7 devis$2 z p]ian?1 to include ! calyx & corolla1 :e!r "o or bo? ( ^! 7 pres5t2 p]ic>p1 = ! "p enclos+ ! gra91 ( :atev] k9d x be1 fruit1 nut1 pod1 c4 ,& x may easily be imag9$1 t descriptive t]ms may1 by def9ition & comb9ation1 become v num]\s & di/9ct4 ,?us leaves may be call$ p9natifid1 p9natip>tite1 p9natisect1 p9natilobate1 palmatifid1 palmatip>tite1 c41 & ea* ( ^! words designates diff]5t comb9ations ( ! modes & ext5t ( ! divisions ( ! leaf ) ! divisions ( its outl9e4 ,9 "s cases1 arbitr>y num]ical relations are introduc$ into ! def9ition3 ?us1 a leaf is call$ bilobate1 :5 x is divid$ into two p>ts by a not*2 b if ! not* g to ! middle ( its l5g?1 x is bifid2 if x g ne> ! base ( ! leaf1 x is bip>tite2 if to ! base1 x is bisect4 ,?us1 too1 a pod ( a crucif]\s plant is a siliqua1 if x is f\r times z long z x is broad1 b if x be %ort] ?an ?is x is a silicula4 ,su* t]ms be+ e/abli%$1 ! =m ( ! v complex leaf or frond ( a f]n 7,hym5ophyllum ,wilsoni7 is exactly convey$ by ! foll[+ phrase3--'fronds rigid p9nate1 p9n recurv$ subunilat]al1 p9natifid1 ! segm5ts l9e> undivid$ or bifid sp9uloso-s]rate4' ,o!r *>act]s1 z well z =m1 are convey$ ) ! l precision3 ,col\r by means ( a classifi$ scale ( col\rs4444 ,?is 0 done ) mo/ precision by ,w]n]1 & 8 scale ( col\rs is /ill ! mo/ usual /&>d ( naturali/s4 ,w]n] also introduc$ a m exact t]m9ology ) reg>d to o!r *>act]s :i* are important 9 m9]alogy1 z lu/re1 h>dness4 ,b ,mohs improv$ ^u ?is /ep by giv+ a num]ical scale ( h>dness1 9 :i* talc is #a1 gypsum #b1 calc sp> #c1 & s on4444 ,"s prop]ties1 z specific gravity1 by _! def9ition give at once a num]ical measure2 & o!rs1 z cry/all9e =m1 require a v consid]able array ( ma!matical calculation & reason+1 to po9t out _! relations & gradations4 #c4 ,?us f> ( ,descriptive ,t]m9ology1 or ( ! language requisite = plac+ on record our obs]vation ( individual in/ances4 ,b :5 we proce$ f ?is to ,induction1 or r to t comp>ison ( obs]v$ in/ances :i* is ! prep>atory /ep t[>ds x1 we /& 9 ne$ ( an additional & a diff]5t sort ( g5]al names4 ,:5ev]1 = purposes ( ,induction1 we f9d x necess>y to introduce 79 ,dr4 ,:ewell's phraseology7 "s new g5]al conception2 t is1 :5ev] ! comp>ison ( a set ( ph5om5a leads to ! recognition 9 !m ( "s common circum/ance1 :i*1 our att5tion n hav+ be5 direct$ to x on any =m] occasion1 is to u a new ph5om5on2 x is ( importance t ?is new conception1 or ?is new result ( ab/raction1 %\ld h a "n appropriat$ to x2 especially if ! circum/ance x involves be "o :i* leads to _m consequ5ces1 or :i* is likely to be f\nd also 9 o!r classes ( ph5om5a4 ,no d\bt1 9 mo/ cases ( ! k9d1 ! mean+ might be convey$ by jo9+ toge!r sev]al words already 9 use4 ,b :5 a ?+ has to be (t5 spok5 (1 !re are m reasons ?an ! sav+ ( "t & space1 = speak+ ( x 9 ! mo/ concise mann] possible4 ,:at d>kness w\ld be spread ov] geometrical demon/rations1 if :]ev] ! ^w circle is us$1 ! def9ition ( a circle 7 ins]t$ in/ead ( x4 ,9 ma!matics & its applications1 :]e ! nature ( ! processes dem&s t ! att5tion %\ld be /rongly conc5trat$1 b does n require t x %\ld be widely diffus$1 ! importance ( conc5tration also 9 ! expressions has always be5 duly felt2 & a ma!matician no soon] f9ds t he %all (t5 h occasion to speak ( ! same two ?+s toge!r1 ?an he at once creates a t]m to express !m :5ev] comb9$3 j z1 9 8 algebraical op]ations1 he sub/itutes = 7am bn7 p_/q1 or = a_/b b_/c c_/d c41 ! s+le lett] ,p1 ,q1 or ,s2 n solely to %ort5 8 symbolical expressions1 b to simplify ! purely intellectual "p ( 8 op]ations1 by enabl+ ! m9d to give its exclusive att5tion to ! relation betwe5 ! quantity ,s & ! o!r quantities :i* ent] into ! equation1 )\t be+ di/ract$ by ?9k+ unnecess>ily ( ! p>ts ( :i* ,s is itself compos$4 ,b !re is ano!r reason1 9 addition to t ( promot+ p]spicuity1 = giv+ a brief & compact "n to ea* ( ! m consid]able results ( ab/raction :i* are obta9$ 9 ! c\rse ( our intellectual ph5om5a4 ,by nam+ !m1 we fix our att5tion ^u !m2 we keep !m m con/antly be=e ! m9d4 ,! names are rememb]$1 & be+ rememb]$1 sugge/ _! def9ition2 :ile if in/ead ( specific & *>act]i/ic names1 ! mean+ _h be5 express$ by putt+ toge!r a numb] ( o!r names1 t p>ticul> comb9ation ( words already 9 common use = o!r purposes w\ld h _h no?+ to make itself rememb]$ by4 ,if we want to r5d] a p>ticul> comb9ation ( ideas p]man5t 9 ! m9d1 !re is no?+ :i* cl5*es x l a "n specially devot$ to express x4 ,if ma!maticians _h be5 oblig$ to speak ( t to :i* a quantity1 9 increas+ or dim9i%+1 is always approa*+ ne>]1 s t ! diff]5ce becomes less ?an any assignable quantity1 b to :i* x nev] becomes exactly equal1 in/ead ( express+ all ?is by ! simple phrase1 ! limit ( a quantity1 we %\ld probably h long rema9$ )\t mo/ ( ! important tru?s :i* h be5 discov]$ by means ( ! relation betwe5 quantities ( v>i\s k9ds & _! limits4 ,if in/ead ( speak+ ( mom5tum1 x _h be5 necess>y to say1 ! product ( ! numb] ( units ( velocity 9 ! velocity by ! numb] ( units ( mass 9 ! mass1 _m ( ! dynamical tru?s n[ appreh5d$ by means ( ?is complex idea w\ld probably h escap$ notice1 = want ( recall+ ! idea itself ) suffici5t read9ess & famili>ity4 ,& on subjects less remote f ! topics ( popul> discussion1 :oev] wi%es to draw att5tion to "s new or unfamili> di/9ction among ?+s1 w f9d no way s sure z to inv5t or select suitable names = ! express purpose ( m>k+ x4 ,a volume devot$ to expla9+ :at ! writ] means by civilization1 does n raise s vivid a conception ( x z ! s+le expression1 t ,civilization is a diff]5t ?+ f ,cultivation2 ! compactness ( t brief designation = ! contra/$ quality be+ an equival5t = a long discussion4 ,s1 if we w\ld impress =cibly ^u ! und]/&+ & memory ! di/9ction betwe5 ! two diff]5t conceptions ( a repres5tative gov]nm5t1 we _c m effectually d s ?an by say+ t ,delegation is n ,repres5tation4 ,h>dly any orig9al ?\ghts on m5tal or social subjects ev] make _! way among mank9d1 or assume _! prop] importance 9 ! m9ds ev5 ( _! inv5tors1 until aptly-select$ words or phrases h1 z x 71 nail$ !m d[n & held !m fa/4 #d4 ,( ! ?ree ess5tial p>ts ( a philosophical language1 we h n[ m5tion$ two3 a t]m9ology suit$ = describ+ ) precision ! individual facts obs]v$2 & a "n = e common prop]ty ( any importance or int]e/1 :i* we detect by comp>+ ^? facts3 includ+ 7z ! concretes correspond+ to ^? ab/ract t]ms7 names = ! classes :i* we artificially con/ruct 9 virtue ( ^? prop]ties1 or z _m ( !m1 at lea/1 z we h frequ5t occasion to pr$icate any?+ (4 ,b !re is a sort ( classes1 = ! recognition ( :i* no su* elaborate process is necess>y2 because ea* ( !m is m>k$ out f all o!rs n by "s "o prop]ty1 ! detection ( :i* may dep5d on a difficult act ( ab/raction1 b by its prop]ties g5]ally4 ,i mean1 ! ,k9ds ( ?+s1 9 ! s5se :i*1 9 ?is treatise1 has be5 specially atta*$ to t t]m4 ,by a ,k9d1 x w be rememb]$1 we mean "o ( ^? classes :i* are di/+ui%$ f all o!rs n by "o or a few def9ite prop]ties1 b by an unkn[n multitude ( !m3 ! comb9ation ( prop]ties on :i* ! class is gr\nd$1 be+ a m]e index to an indef9ite numb] ( o!r di/9ctive attributes4 ,! class horse is a ,k9d1 because ! ?+s :i* agree 9 possess+ ! *>act]s by :i* we recognise a horse1 agree 9 a great numb] ( o!r prop]ties1 z we "k1 &1 x _c be d\bt$1 9 _m m ?an we "k4 ,animal1 aga91 is a ,k9d1 because no def9ition t c\ld be giv5 ( ! "n animal c\ld ei!r exhau/ ! prop]ties common to all animals1 or supply premises f :i* ! rema9d] ( ^? prop]ties c\ld be inf]r$4 ,b a comb9ation ( prop]ties :i* does n give evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( any o!r indep5d5t peculi>ities1 does n con/itute a ,k9d4 ,:ite horse1 !re=e1 is n a ,k9d2 because horses :i* agree 9 :it5ess1 d n agree 9 any?+ else1 except ! qualities common to all horses1 & :atev] may be ! causes or effects ( t p>ticul> col\r4 ,on ! pr9ciple t !re %\ld be a "n = ev]y?+ :i* we h frequ5t occasion to make ass]tions ab\t1 !re ought evid5tly to be a "n = e ,k9d2 = z x is ! v mean+ ( a ,k9d t ! individuals compos+ x h an indef9ite multitude ( prop]ties 9 common1 x foll[s t1 if n ) our pres5t k1 yet ) t :i* we may h]eaft] acquire1 ! ,k9d is a subject to :i* !re w h to be appli$ _m pr$icates4 ,! ?ird compon5t elem5t ( a philosophical language1 !re=e1 is t !re %all be a "n = e ,k9d4 ,9 o!r words1 !re mu/ n only be a t]m9ology1 b also a nom5clature4 ,! words ,nom5clature & ,t]m9ology are employ$ by mo/ au?ors almo/ indiscrim9ately2 ,dr4 ,:ewell be+1 z f> z ,i am aw>e1 ! fir/ writ] :o has regul>ly assign$ to ! two words diff]5t mean+s4 ,! di/9ction h[ev] :i* he has drawn betwe5 !m be+ real & important1 8 example is likely to be foll[$2 & 7z is apt to be ! case :5 su* innovations 9 language are felicit\sly made7 a vague s5se ( ! di/9ction is f\nd to h influ5c$ ! employm5t ( ! t]ms 9 common practice1 be=e ! exp$i5cy _h be5 po9t$ out ( discrim9at+ !m philosophically4 ,e "o w\ld say t ! re=m effect$ by ,lavoisi] & ,guyton-,morveau 9 ! language ( *emi/ry consi/$ 9 ! introduction ( a new nom5clature1 n ( a new t]m9ology4 ,l9e>1 lanceolate1 oval1 or oblong1 s]rat$1 d5tate1 or cr5ate leaves1 are expressions =m+ "p ( ! t]m9ology ( botany1 :ile ! names ,viola odorata1 & ,ulex ,europu1 belong to its nom5clature4 ,a nom5clature may be def9$1 ! collection ( ! names ( all ! ,k9ds ) :i* any bran* ( k is conv]sant2 or m prop]ly1 ( all ! l[e/ ,k9ds1 or infim species--^? :i* may be subdivid$ inde$1 b n into ,k9ds1 & :i* g5]ally accord ) :at 9 natural hi/ory are t]m$ simply species4 ,sci5ce possesses two spl5did examples ( a sy/ematic nom5clature2 t ( plants & animals1 con/ruct$ by ,l9nu & 8 successors1 & t ( *emi/ry1 :i* we owe to ! illu/ri\s gr\p ( *emi/s :o fl\ri%$ 9 ,france t[>ds ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,9 ^! two dep>tm5ts1 n only has e kn[n species1 or l[e/ ,k9d1 a "n assign$ to x1 b :5 new l[e/ ,k9ds are discov]$1 names are at once giv5 to !m on an uni=m pr9ciple4 ,9 o!r sci5ces ! nom5clature is n at pres5t con/ruct$ on any sy/em1 ei!r because ! species to be nam$ are n num]\s en\gh to require "o1 7z 9 geometry = example17 or because no "o has yet sugge/$ a suitable pr9ciple = su* a sy/em1 z 9 m9]alogy2 9 :i* ! want ( a sci5tifically con/ruct$ nom5clature is n[ ! pr9cipal cause :i* ret>ds ! progress ( ! sci5ce4 #e4 ,a ^w :i* c>ries on its face t x belongs to a nom5clature1 seems at fir/ sight to diff] f o!r concrete g5]al names 9 ?is--t its mean+ does n reside 9 its connotation1 9 ! attributes impli$ 9 x1 b 9 its d5otation1 t is1 9 ! p>ticul> gr\p ( ?+s :i* x is appo9t$ to designate2 & _c1 !re=e1 be unfold$ by means ( a def9ition1 b mu/ be made kn[n 9 ano!r way4 ,?is op9ion1 h[ev]1 appe>s to me errone\s4 ,words belong+ to a nom5clature diff]1 ,i conceive1 f o!r words ma9ly 9 ?is1 t besides ! ord9>y connotation1 !y h a peculi> "o ( _! own3 besides connot+ c]ta9 attributes1 !y also connote t ^? attributes are di/9ctive ( a ,k9d4 ,! t]m p]oxide ( iron1 = example1 belong+ by its =m to ! sy/ematic nom5clature ( *emi/ry1 be>s on its face t x is ! "n ( a peculi> ,k9d ( sub/ance4 ,x moreov] connotes1 l ! "n ( any o!r class1 "s portion ( ! prop]ties common to ! class2 9 ?is in/ance ! prop]ty ( be+ a comp\nd ( iron & ! l>ge/ dose ( oxyg5 ) :i* iron w comb9e4 ,^! two ?+s1 ! fact ( be+ su* a comp\nd1 & ! fact ( be+ a ,k9d1 con/itute ! connotation ( ! "n p]oxide ( iron4 ,:5 we say ( ! sub/ance be=e u1 t x is ! p]oxide ( iron1 we !reby ass]t1 fir/1 t x is a comp\nd ( iron & a maximum ( oxyg51 & next1 t ! sub/ance s compos$ is a peculi> ,k9d ( sub/ance4 ,n[1 ?is second "p ( ! connotation ( any ^w belong+ to a nom5clature is z ess5tial a portion ( its mean+ z ! fir/ "p1 :ile ! def9ition only decl>es ! fir/3 & h5ce ! appe>ance t ! signification ( su* t]ms _c be convey$ by a def9ition3 :i* appe>ance1 h[ev]1 is fallaci\s4 ,! "n ,viola odorata d5otes a ,k9d1 ( :i* a c]ta9 numb] ( *>act]s1 suffici5t to di/+ui% x1 are enunciat$ 9 botanical works4 ,?is enum]ation ( *>act]s is surely1 z 9 o!r cases1 a def9ition ( ! "n4 ,no1 say "s1 x is n a def9ition1 = ! "n ,viola odorata does n mean ^? *>act]s2 x means t p>ticul> gr\p ( plants1 & ! *>act]s are select$ f among a mu* great] numb]1 m]ely z m>ks by :i* to recognise ! gr\p4 ,b to ?is ,i reply1 t ! "n does n mean t gr\p1 = x w\ld be appli$ to t gr\p no long] ?an :ile ! gr\p is believ$ to be an infima species2 if x 7 to be discov]$ t sev]al di/9ct ,k9ds h be5 conf\nd$ "u ?is "o "n1 no "o w\ld any long] apply ! "n ,viola odorata to ! :ole ( ! gr\p1 b w\ld apply x1 if reta9$ at all1 to "o only ( ! ,k9ds conta9$ !re94 ,:at is imp]ative1 !re=e1 is n t ! "n %all d5ote "o p>ticul> collection ( objects1 b t x %all d5ote a ,k9d1 & a l[e/ ,k9d4 ,! =m ( ! "n decl>es t1 happ5 :at w1 x is to d5ote an infima species2 & t1 !re=e1 ! prop]ties :i* x connotes1 & :i* are express$ 9 ! def9ition1 are to be connot$ by x no long] ?an :ile we cont9ue to believe t ^? prop]ties1 :5 f\nd toge!r1 indicate a ,k9d1 & t ! :ole ( !m are f\nd 9 no m ?an "o ,k9d4 ,) ! addition ( ?is peculi> connotation1 impli$ 9 ! =m ( e ^w :i* belongs to a sy/ematic nom5clature2 ! set ( *>act]s :i* is employ$ to discrim9ate ea* ,k9d f all o!r ,k9ds 7& :i* is a real def9ition7 con/itutes z completely z 9 any o!r case ! :ole mean+ ( ! t]m4 ,x is no objection to say t 7z is (t5 ! case 9 natural hi/ory7 ! set ( *>act]s may be *ang$1 & ano!r sub/itut$ z be+ bett] suit$ = ! purpose ( di/9ction1 :ile ! ^w1 /ill cont9u+ to d5ote ! same gr\p ( ?+s1 is n consid]$ to h *ang$ its mean+4 ,= ?is is no m ?an may happ5 9 ! case ( any o!r g5]al "n3 we may1 9 re=m+ its connotation1 leave its d5otation unt\*$2 & x is g5]ally desirable to d s4 ,! connotation1 h[ev]1 is n ! less = ?is ! real mean+1 = we at once apply ! "n :]ev] ! *>act]s set d[n 9 ! def9ition are f\nd2 & t :i* exclusively guides u 9 apply+ ! t]m1 mu/ con/itute its signification4 ,if we f9d1 contr>y to our previ\s belief1 t ! *>act]s are n peculi> to "o species1 we cease to use ! t]m coext5sively ) ! *>act]s2 b !n x is because ! o!r portion ( ! connotation fails2 ! condition t ! class mu/ be a ,k9d4 ,! connotation1 !re=e1 is /ill ! mean+2 ! set ( descriptive *>act]s is a true def9ition2 & ! mean+ is unfold$1 n inde$ 7z 9 o!r cases7 by ! def9ition alone1 b by ! def9ition & ! =m ( ! ^w tak5 toge!r4 #f4 ,we h n[ analys$ :at is impli$ 9 ! two pr9cipal requisites ( a philosophical language2 fir/1 precision1 or def9it5ess1 & secondly1 complet5ess4 ,any fur!r rem>ks on ! mode ( con/ruct+ a nom5clature mu/ be def]r$ until we treat ( ,classification2 ! mode ( nam+ ! ,k9ds ( ?+s be+ necess>ily subord9ate to ! mode ( arrang+ ^? ,k9ds into l>g] classes4 ,) respect to ! m9or requisites ( t]m9ology1 "s ( !m are well /at$ & illu/rat$ 9 ! ,aphorisms conc]n+ ! ,language ( ,sci5ce1 includ$ 9 ,dr4 ,:ewell's ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces4 ,^!1 z be+ ( second>y importance 9 ! peculi> po9t ( view ( ,logic1 ,i %all n fur!r ref] to1 b %all conf9e my obs]vations to "o m quality1 :i*1 next to ! two already treat$ (1 appe>s to be ! mo/ valuable :i* ! language ( sci5ce c possess4 ,( ?is quality a g5]al notion may be convey$ by ! foll[+ aphorism3 ,:5ev] ! nature ( ! subject p]mits our reason+ processes to be1 )\t dang]1 c>ri$ on me*anically1 ! language %\ld be con/ruct$ on z me*anical pr9ciples z possible2 :ile 9 ! contr>y case1 x %\ld be s con/ruct$ t !re %all be ! greate/ possible ob/acles to a m]ely me*anical use ( x4 ,i am aw>e t ?is maxim requires mu* explanation1 :i* ,i %all at once proce$ to give4 ,& fir/1 z to :at is meant by us+ a language me*anically4 ,! complete or extreme case ( ! me*anical use ( language1 is :5 x is us$ )\t any consci\sness ( a mean+1 & ) only ! consci\sness ( us+ c]ta9 visible or audible m>ks 9 con=mity to te*nical rules previ\sly laid d[n4 ,?is extreme case is n[h]e realiz$ except 9 ! figures ( ari?metic & ! symbols ( algebra1 a language unique 9 its k9d1 & approa*+ z ne>ly to p]fection1 = ! purposes to :i* x is de/9$1 z c1 p]haps1 be said ( any creation ( ! human m9d4 ,its p]fection consi/s 9 ! complet5ess ( its adaptation to a purely me*anical use4 ,! symbols are m]e c\nt]s1 )\t ev5 ! semblance ( a mean+ ap>t f ! conv5tion :i* is r5ew$ ea* "t !y are employ$1 & :i* is alt]$ at ea* r5ewal1 ! same symbol a or x be+ us$ on diff]5t occasions to repres5t ?+s :i* 7except t1 l all ?+s1 !y are susceptible ( be+ numb]$7 h no prop]ty 9 common4 ,!re is no?+1 !re=e1 to di/ract ! m9d f ! set ( me*anical op]ations :i* are to be p]=m$ ^u ! symbols1 su* z squ>+ bo? sides ( ! equation1 multiply+ or divid+ !m by ! same or by equival5t symbols1 & s =?4 ,ea* ( ^! op]ations1 x is true1 corresponds to a syllogism2 repres5ts "o /ep ( a ratioc9ation relat+ n to ! symbols1 b to ! ?+s signifi$ by !m4 ,b z x has be5 f\nd practicable to frame a te*nical =m1 by con=m+ to :i* we c make sure ( f9d+ ! conclusion ( ! ratioc9ation1 our end c be completely atta9$ )\t our ev] ?9k+ ( any?+ b ! symbols4 ,be+ ?us int5d$ to "w m]ely z me*anism1 !y h ! qualities :i* me*anism ought to h4 ,!y are ( ! lea/ possible bulk1 s t !y take up sc>cely any room1 & wa/e no "t 9 _! manipulation2 !y are compact1 & fit s closely toge!r t ! eye c take 9 ! :ole at once ( almo/ e op]ation :i* !y are employ$ to p]=m4 ,^! admirable prop]ties ( ! symbolical language ( ma!matics h made s /rong an impression on ! m9ds ( _m ?9k]s1 z to h l$ !m to consid] ! symbolical language 9 "q z ! ideal type ( philosophical language g5]ally2 to ?9k t names 9 g5]al1 or 7z !y are fond ( call+ !m7 signs1 are fitt$ = ! purposes ( ?\ght 9 proportion z !y c be made to approximate to ! compactness1 ! entire unmean+ness1 & ! capability ( be+ us$ z c\nt]s )\t a ?\ght ( :at !y repres5t1 :i* are *>act]i/ic ( ! a & b1 ! x & y1 ( algebra4 ,?is notion has l$ to sangu9e views ( ! accel]ation ( ! progress ( sci5ce by means :i*1 ,i conceive1 _c possibly conduce to t end1 & =ms "p ( t exagg]at$ e/imate ( ! influ5ce ( signs1 :i* has contribut$ 9 no small degree to prev5t ! real laws ( our intellectual op]ations f be+ rightly und]/ood4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 a set ( signs by :i* we reason )\t consci\sness ( _! mean+1 c be s]viceable1 at mo/1 only 9 our d$uctive op]ations4 ,9 our direct inductions we _c = a mom5t disp5se ) a di/9ct m5tal image ( ! ph5om5a1 s9ce ! :ole op]ation turns on a p]ception ( ! p>ticul>s 9 :i* ^? ph5om5a agree & diff]4 ,b1 fur!r1 ?is reason+ by c\nt]s is only suitable to a v limit$ portion ev5 ( our d$uctive processes4 ,9 our reason+s respect+ numb]s1 ! only g5]al pr9ciples :i* we ev] h occasion to introduce1 are ^!1 ,?+s :i* are equal to ! same ?+ are equal to "o ano!r1 & ,! sums or diff]5ces ( equal ?+s are equal1 ) _! v>i\s coroll>ies4 ,n only c no hesitation ev] arise respect+ ! applicability ( ^! pr9ciples1 s9ce !y are true ( all magnitudes :atev]2 b e possible application ( :i* !y are susceptible1 may be r$uc$ to a te*nical rule2 & su*1 9 fact1 ! rules ( ! calculus are4 ,b if ! symbols repres5t any o!r ?+s ?an m]e numb]s1 let u say ev5 /raight or curve l9es1 we h !n to apply !orems ( geometry n true ( all l9es )\t exception1 & to select ^? :i* are true ( ! l9es we are reason+ ab\t4 ,& h[ c we d ?is unless we keep completely 9 m9d :at p>ticul> l9es ^! are8 ,s9ce additional geometrical tru?s may be introduc$ into ! ratioc9ation 9 any /age ( its progress1 we _c suff] ourselves1 dur+ ev5 ! smalle/ "p ( x1 to use ! names me*anically 7z we use algebraical symbols7 )\t an image annex$ to !m4 ,x is only aft] asc]ta9+ t ! solution ( a "q conc]n+ l9es c be made to dep5d on a previ\s "q conc]n+ numb]s1 or 9 o!r words aft] ! "q has be5 7to speak te*nically7 r$uc$ to an equation1 t ! unmean+ signs become available1 & t ! nature ( ! facts !mselves to :i* ! inve/igation relates c be dismiss$ f ! m9d4 ,up to ! e/abli%m5t ( ! equation1 ! language 9 :i* ma!maticians c>ry on _! reason+ does n diff] 9 "* f t employ$ by close reason]s on any o!r k9d ( subject4 ,i d n d5y t e correct ratioc9ation1 :5 ?r[n into ! syllogi/ic %ape1 is conclusive f ! m]e =m ( ! expression1 provid$ none ( ! t]ms us$ be ambigu\s2 & ?is is "o ( ! circum/ances :i* h l$ "s writ]s to ?9k t if all names 7 s judici\sly con/ruct$ & s c>efully def9$ z n to admit ( any ambiguity1 ! improvem5t ?us made 9 language w\ld n only give to ! conclusions ( e d$uctive sci5ce ! same c]ta9ty ) ^? ( ma!matics1 b w\ld r$uce all reason+s to ! application ( a te*nical =m1 & enable _! conclusiv5ess to be rationally ass5t$ to aft] a m]ely me*anical process1 z is und\bt$ly ! case 9 algebra4 ,b1 if we except geometry1 ! conclusions ( :i* are already z c]ta9 & exact z !y c be made1 !re is no sci5ce b t ( numb]1 9 :i* ! practical validity ( a reason+ c be app>5t to any p]son :o has look$ only at ! =m ( ! process4 ,:oev] has ass5t$ to :at 0 said 9 ! la/ ,book conc]n+ ! case ( ! ,composition ( ,causes1 & ! /ill /rong] case ( ! entire sup]session ( "o set ( laws by ano!r1 is aw>e t geometry & algebra are ! only sci5ces ( :i* ! propositions are categorically true3 ! g5]al propositions ( all o!r sci5ces are true only hypo!tically1 suppos+ t no c\nt]act+ cause happ5s to int]f]e4 ,a conclusion1 !re=e1 h[ev] correctly d$uc$1 9 po9t ( =m1 f admitt$ laws ( nature1 w h no o!r ?an an hypo!tical c]ta9ty4 ,at e /ep we mu/ assure ourselves t no o!r law ( nature has sup]s$$1 or int]m+l$ its op]ation )1 ^? :i* are ! premises ( ! reason+2 & h[ c ?is be done by m]ely look+ at ! words8 ,we mu/ n only be con/antly ?9k+ ( ! ph5om5a !mselves1 b we mu/ be con/antly /udy+ !m2 mak+ ourselves acqua9t$ ) ! peculi>ities ( e case to :i* we attempt to apply our g5]al pr9ciples4 ,! algebraic notation1 consid]$ z a philosophical language1 is p]fect 9 its adaptation to ! subjects = :i* x is commonly employ$1 namely ^? ( :i* ! inve/igations h already be5 r$uc$ to ! asc]ta9m5t ( a relation betwe5 numb]s4 ,b1 admirable z x is = its own purpose1 ! prop]ties by :i* x is r5d]$ su* are s f> f con/itut+ x ! ideal model ( philosophical language 9 g5]al1 t ! m ne>ly ! language ( any o!r bran* ( sci5ce approa*es to x1 ! less fit t language is = its own prop] functions4 ,on all o!r subjects1 in/ead ( contrivances to prev5t our att5tion f be+ di/ract$ by ?9k+ ( ! mean+ ( our signs1 we ought to wi% = contrivances to make x impossible t we %\ld ev] lose sight ( t mean+ ev5 = an in/ant4 ,) ?is view1 z mu* mean+ z possible %\ld be ?r[n into ! =mation ( ! ^w itself2 ! aids ( d]ivation & analogy be+ made available to keep alive a consci\sness ( all t is signifi$ by x4 ,9 ?is respect ^? languages h an imm5se advantage :i* =m _! comp\nds & d]ivatives f native roots1 l ! ,g]man1 & n f ^? ( a =eign or dead language1 z is s mu* ! case ) ,engli%1 ,fr5*1 & ,italian3 & ! be/ are ^? :i* =m !m accord+ to fix$ analogies1 correspond+ to ! relations betwe5 ! ideas to be express$4 ,all languages d ?is m or less1 b especially1 among mod]n ,european languages1 ! ,g]man2 :ile ev5 t is inf]ior to ! ,greek1 9 :i* ! relation betwe5 ! mean+ ( a d]ivative ^w & t ( its primitive is 9 g5]al cle>ly m>k$ by its mode ( =mation2 except 9 ! case ( words comp\nd$ ) prepositions1 :i* are (t51 9 bo? ^? languages1 extremely anomal\s4 ,b all t c be done1 by ! mode ( con/ruct+ words1 to prev5t !m f deg5]at+ into s\nds pass+ ?r\gh ! m9d )\t any di/9ct appreh5sion ( :at !y signify1 is f> too little = ! necessity ( ! case4 ,words1 h[ev] well con/ruct$ orig9ally1 are always t5d+1 l co9s1 to h _! inscription worn (f by pass+ f h& to h&2 & ! only possible mode ( reviv+ x is to be ev] /amp+ x afre%1 by liv+ 9 ! habitual contemplation ( ! ph5om5a !mselves1 & n re/+ 9 our famili>ity ) ! words t express !m4 ,if any "o1 hav+ possess$ himself ( ! laws ( ph5om5a z record$ 9 words1 :e!r deliv]$ to him orig9ally by o!rs1 or ev5 f\nd out by himself1 is cont5t f !nce=? to live among ^! =mul1 to ?9k exclusively ( !m1 & ( apply+ !m to cases z !y arise1 )\t keep+ up 8 acqua9tance ) ! realities f :i* ^! laws 7 collect$--n only w he cont9ually fail 9 8 practical ef=ts1 because he w apply 8 =mul )\t duly consid]+ :e!r1 9 ?is case & 9 t1 o!r laws ( nature d n modify or sup]s$e !m2 b ! =mul !mselves w progressively lose _! mean+ to him1 & he w cease at la/ ev5 to be capable ( recognis+ ) c]ta9ty :e!r a case falls )9 ! contemplation ( 8 =mula or n4 ,x is1 9 %ort1 z necess>y1 on all subjects n ma!matical1 t ! ?+s on :i* we reason %\ld be conceiv$ by u 9 ! concrete1 & clo!d 9 circum/ances1 z x is 9 algebra t we %\ld keep all individualiz+ peculi>ities s$ul\sly out ( view4 ,) ?is rem>k we close our obs]vations on ! ,philosophy ( ,language4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,( ,,classification1 ,,z ,,subsidi>y ,,to ,,induction4 #a4 ,!re is1 z has be5 frequ5tly rem>k$ 9 ?is "w1 a classification ( ?+s1 :i* is insep>able f ! fact ( giv+ !m g5]al names4 ,e "n :i* connotes an attribute1 divides1 by t v fact1 all ?+s :atev] into two classes1 ^? :i* h ! attribute & ^? :i* h x n2 ^? ( :i* ! "n c be pr$icat$1 & ^? ( :i* x _c4 ,& ! division ?us made is n m]ely a division ( su* ?+s z actually exi/1 or are kn[n to exi/1 b ( all su* z may h]eaft] be discov]$1 & ev5 ( all :i* c be imag9$4 ,on ?is k9d ( ,classification we h no?+ to add to :at has previ\sly be5 said4 ,! ,classification :i* requires to be discuss$ z a sep>ate act ( ! m9d1 is altoge!r diff]5t4 ,9 ! "o1 ! arrangem5t ( objects 9 gr\ps1 & di/ribution ( !m into comp>tm5ts1 is a m]e incid5tal effect consequ5t on ! use ( names giv5 = ano!r purpose1 namely t ( simply express+ "s ( _! qualities4 ,9 ! o!r ! arrangem5t & di/ribution are ! ma9 object1 & ! nam+ is second>y to1 & purposely con=ms itself to1 in/ead ( gov]n+1 t m important op]ation4 ,classification1 ?us reg>d$1 is a contrivance = ! be/ possible ord]+ ( ! ideas ( objects 9 our m9ds2 = caus+ ! ideas to accompany or succe$ "o ano!r 9 su* a way z %all give u ! greate/ comm& ov] our k already acquir$1 & lead mo/ directly to ! acquisition ( m4 ,! g5]al problem ( ,classification1 9 ref]5ce to ^! purposes1 may be /at$ z foll[s3 ,to provide t ?+s %all be ?\ght ( 9 su* gr\ps1 & ^? gr\ps 9 su* an ord]1 z w be/ conduce to ! remembrance & to ! asc]ta9m5t ( _! laws4 ,classification ?us consid]$1 diff]s f classification 9 ! wid] s5se1 9 hav+ ref]5ce to real objects exclusively1 & n to all t are imag9able3 its object be+ ! due co-ord9ation 9 our m9ds ( ^? ?+s only1 ) ! prop]ties ( :i* we h actually occasion to make ourselves acqua9t$4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 x embraces all really exi/+ objects4 ,we _c con/itute any "o class prop]ly1 except 9 ref]5ce to a g5]al division ( ! :ole ( nature2 we _c det]m9e ! gr\p 9 :i* any "o object c mo/ conv5i5tly be plac$1 )\t tak+ into consid]ation all ! v>ieties ( exi/+ objects1 all at lea/ :i* h any degree ( aff9ity ) x4 ,no "o family ( plants or animals c\ld h be5 rationally con/itut$1 except z "p ( a sy/ematic arrangem5t ( all plants or animals2 nor c\ld su* a g5]al arrangem5t h be5 prop]ly made1 )\t fir/ det]m9+ ! exact place ( plants & animals 9 a g5]al division ( nature4 #b4 ,!re is no prop]ty ( objects :i* may n be tak51 if we please1 z ! f\ndation = a classification or m5tal gr\p+ ( ^? objects2 & 9 our fir/ attempts we are likely to select = t purpose prop]ties :i* are simple1 easily conceiv$1 & p]ceptible on a fir/ view1 )\t any previ\s process ( ?\ght4 ,?us ,t\rne=t's arrangem5t ( plants 0 f\nd$ on ! %ape & divisions ( ! corolla2 & t :i* is commonly call$ ! ,l9nan 7?\gh ,l9nu also sugge/$ ano!r & m sci5tific arrangem5t7 0 gr\nd$ *iefly on ! numb] ( ! /am5s & pi/ils4 ,b ^! classifications1 :i* are at fir/ recomm5d$ by ! facility !y af=d ( asc]ta9+ to :at class any individual belongs1 are seldom mu* adapt$ to ! ends ( t ,classification :i* is ! subject ( our pres5t rem>ks4 ,! ,l9nan arrangem5t answ]s ! purpose ( mak+ u ?9k toge!r ( all ^? k9ds ( plants :i* possess ! same numb] ( /am5s & pi/ils2 b to ?9k ( !m 9 t mann] is ( little use1 s9ce we seldom h any?+ to affirm 9 common ( ! plants :i* h a giv5 numb] ( /am5s & pi/ils4 ,if plants ( ! class ,p5t&ria1 ord] ,monogynia1 agre$ 9 any o!r prop]ties1 ! habit ( ?9k+ & speak+ ( ! plants "u a common designation w\ld conduce to our rememb]+ ^? common prop]ties s f> z !y 7 asc]ta9$1 & w\ld dispose u to be on ! look-out = su* ( !m z 7 n yet kn[n4 ,b s9ce ?is is n ! case1 ! only purpose ( ?\ght :i* ! ,l9nan classification s]ves is t ( caus+ u to rememb]1 bett] ?an we %\ld o!rwise h done1 ! exact numb] ( /am5s & pi/ils ( e species ( plants4 ,n[1 z ?is prop]ty is ( little importance or int]e/1 ! rememb]+ x ) any p>ticul> accuracy is ( no mom5t4 ,&1 inasmu* z1 by habitually ?9k+ ( plants 9 ^? gr\ps1 we are prev5t$ f habitually ?9k+ ( !m 9 gr\ps :i* h a great] numb] ( prop]ties 9 common1 ! effect ( su* a classification1 :5 sy/ematically adh]$ to1 ^u our habits ( ?\ght1 mu/ be reg>d$ z mis*iev\s4 ,! ends ( sci5tific classification are be/ answ]$1 :5 ! objects are =m$ into gr\ps respect+ :i* a great] numb] ( g5]al propositions c be made1 & ^? propositions m important1 ?an c\ld be made respect+ any o!r gr\ps into :i* ! same ?+s c\ld be di/ribut$4 ,! prop]ties1 !re=e1 accord+ to :i* objects are classifi$1 %\ld1 if possible1 be ^? :i* are causes ( _m o!r prop]ties3 or at any rate1 :i* are sure m>ks ( !m4 ,causes are pref]able1 bo? z be+ ! sure/ & mo/ direct ( m>ks1 & z be+ !mselves ! prop]ties on :i* x is ( mo/ use t our att5tion %\ld be /rongly fix$4 ,b ! prop]ty :i* is ! cause ( ! *ief peculi>ities ( a class1 is un=tunately seldom fitt$ to s]ve also z ! diagno/ic ( ! class4 ,in/ead ( ! cause1 we mu/ g5]ally select "s ( its m prom95t effects1 :i* may s]ve z m>ks ( ! o!r effects & ( ! cause4 ,a classification ?us =m$ is prop]ly sci5tific or philosophical1 & is commonly call$ a ,natural1 9 contradi/9ction to a ,te*nical or ,artificial1 classification or arrangem5t4 ,! phrase ,natural ,classification seems mo/ peculi>ly appropriate to su* arrangem5ts z correspond1 9 ! gr\ps :i* !y =m1 to ! spontane\s t5d5cies ( ! m9d1 by plac+ toge!r ! objects mo/ simil> 9 _! g5]al aspect3 9 opposition to ^? te*nical sy/ems :i*1 arrang+ ?+s accord+ to _! agreem5t 9 "s circum/ance arbitr>ily select$1 (t5 ?r[ into ! same gr\p objects :i* 9 ! g5]al aggregate ( _! prop]ties pres5t no resemblance1 & into diff]5t & remote gr\ps1 o!rs :i* h ! close/ simil>ity4 ,x is "o ( ! mo/ valid recomm5dations ( any classification to ! "* ( a sci5tific "o1 t x %all be a natural classification 9 ?is s5se also2 = ! te/ ( its sci5tific "* is ! numb] & importance ( ! prop]ties :i* c be ass]t$ 9 common ( all objects includ$ 9 a gr\p2 & prop]ties on :i* ! g5]al aspect ( ! ?+s dep5ds1 are1 if only on t gr\nd1 important1 z well z1 9 mo/ cases1 num]\s4 ,b1 ?\gh a /rong recomm5dation1 ?is circum/ance is n a s9e qu non2 s9ce ! mo/ obvi\s prop]ties ( ?+s may be ( trifl+ importance comp>$ ) o!rs t are n obvi\s4 ,i h se5 x m5tion$ z a great absurdity 9 ! ,l9nan classification1 t x places 7:i* by ! way x does n7 ! violet by ! side ( ! oak3 x c]ta9ly dissev]s natural aff9ities1 & br+s toge!r ?+s q z unlike z ! oak & ! violet are4 ,b ! diff]5ce1 app>5tly s wide1 :i* r5d]s ! juxtaposition ( ^? two vegetables s suitable an illu/ration ( a bad arrangem5t1 dep5ds1 to ! common eye1 ma9ly on m]e size & texture2 n[ if we made x our /udy to adopt ! classification :i* w\ld involve ! lea/ p]il ( simil> rappro*em5ts1 we %\ld return to ! obsolete division into trees1 %rubs1 & h]bs1 :i* ?\gh ( prim>y importance ) reg>d to m g5]al aspect1 yet 7comp>$ ev5 ) s petty & unobvi\s a di/9ction z t into dicotyl$ons & monocotyl$ons7 answ]s to s few diff]5ces 9 ! o!r prop]ties ( plants1 t a classification f\nd$ on x 7indep5d5tly ( ! indi/9ctness ( ! l9es ( dem>cation7 w\ld be z completely artificial & te*nical z ! ,l9nan4 ,our natural gr\ps1 !re=e1 mu/ (t5 be f\nd$ n on ! obvi\s1 b on ! unobvi\s prop]ties ( ?+s1 :5 ^! are ( great] importance4 ,b 9 su* cases x is ess5tial t !re %\ld be "s o!r prop]ty or set ( prop]ties1 m readily recognisable by ! obs]v]1 :i* coexi/ )1 & may be receiv$ z m>ks (1 ! prop]ties :i* are ! real gr\ndwork ( ! classification4 ,a natural arrangem5t1 = example1 ( animals1 mu/ be f\nd$ 9 ! ma9 on _! int]nal /ructure1 b 7z has be5 ju/ly rem>k$7 x w\ld be absurd t we %\ld n be able to det]m9e ! g5us & species ( an animal )\t fir/ kill+ x4 ,on ?is gr\nd1 ! pref]5ce1 among zoological classifications1 is probably due to t ( ,m4 de ,bla9ville1 f\nd$ on ! diff]5ces 9 ! ext]nal integum5ts2 diff]5ces :i* correspond1 mu* m accurately ?an might be suppos$1 to ! really important v>ieties1 bo? 9 ! o!r p>ts ( ! /ructure1 & 9 ! habits & hi/ory ( ! animals4 ,?is %[s1 m /rongly ?an ev]1 h[ ext5sive a k ( ! prop]ties ( objects is necess>y = mak+ a good classification ( !m4 ,& z x is "o ( ! uses ( su* a classification t by draw+ att5tion to ! prop]ties on :i* x is f\nd$1 & :i* if ! classification be good are m>ks ( _m o!rs1 x facilitates ! discov]y ( ^? o!rs2 we see 9 :at mann] our k ( ?+s1 & our classification ( !m1 t5d mutually & indef9itely to ! improvem5t ( ea* o!r4 ,we said j n[ t ! classification ( objects %\ld foll[ ^? ( _! prop]ties :i* indicate n only ! mo/ num]\s1 b also ! mo/ important peculi>ities4 ,:at is "h meant by importance8 ,x has ref]5ce to ! p>ticul> end 9 view2 & ! same objects1 !re=e1 may admit ) propriety ( sev]al diff]5t classifications4 ,ea* sci5ce or art =ms its classification ( ?+s accord+ to ! prop]ties :i* fall )9 its special cognizance1 or ( :i* x mu/ take acc\nt 9 ord] to accompli% its peculi> practical end4 ,a f>m] does n divide plants1 l a botani/1 into dicotyl$on\s & monocotyl$on\s1 b into useful plants & we$s4 ,a geologi/ divides fossils1 n l a zoologi/1 into families correspond+ to ^? ( liv+ species1 b into fossils ( ! second>y & ( ! t]ti>y p]iods1 above ! coal & bel[ ! coal1 c4 ,:ales are or are n fi%1 accord+ to ! purpose = :i* we are consid]+ !m4 ,if we are speak+ ( ! int]nal /ructure & physiology ( ! animal1 we mu/ n call !m fi%2 = 9 ^! respects !y deviate widely f fi%es3 !y h w>m blood1 & produce & suckle _! "y z l& quadrup$s d4 ,b ?is w\ld n prev5t our speak+ ( ! :ale fi%]y1 & call+ su* animals fi% on all occasions connect$ ) ?is employm5t2 = ! relations ?us ris+ dep5d ^u ! animal's liv+ 9 ! wat]1 & be+ caught 9 a mann] simil> to o!r fi%es4 ,a plea t human laws :i* m5tion fi% d n apply to :ales1 w\ld be reject$ at once by an intellig5t judge4#ai ,^! diff]5t classifications are all good1 = ! purposes ( _! own p>ticul> dep>tm5ts ( k or practice4 ,b :5 we are /udy+ objects n = any special practical end1 b = ! sake ( ext5d+ our k ( ! :ole ( _! prop]ties & relations1 we mu/ consid] z ! mo/ important attributes1 ^? :i* contribute mo/1 ei!r by !mselves or by _! effects1 to r5d] ! ?+s l "o ano!r1 & unlike o!r ?+s2 :i* give to ! class compos$ ( !m ! mo/ m>k$ individuality2 :i* fill1 z x 71 ! l>ge/ space 9 _! exi/5ce1 & w\ld mo/ impress ! att5tion ( a spectator :o knew all _! prop]ties b 0 n specially int]e/$ 9 any4 ,classes =m$ on ?is pr9ciple may be call$1 9 a m emphatic mann] ?an any o!rs1 natural gr\ps4 #c4 ,on ! subject ( ^! gr\ps ,dr4 ,:ewell lays d[n a !ory1 gr\nd$ on an important tru?1 :i* he has1 9 "s respects1 express$ & illu/rat$ v felicit\sly2 b also1 z x appe>s to me1 ) "s admixture ( error4 ,x w be advantage\s1 = bo? ^! reasons1 to extract ! /atem5t ( 8 doctr9e 9 ! v words he has us$4 ,natural gr\ps1 accord+ to ?is !ory1#bj are giv5 by ,type1 n by ,def9ition4 ,& ?is consid]ation acc\nts = t indef9it5ess & indecision :i* we frequ5tly f9d 9 ! descriptions ( su* gr\ps1 & :i* mu/ appe> s /range & inconsi/5t to any "o :o does n suppose ^! descriptions to assume any deep] gr\nd ( connexion ?an an arbitr>y *oice ( ! botani/4 ,?us 9 ! family ( ! rose-tree1 we are told t ! ovules are v r>ely erect1 ! /igmata usually simple4 ,( :at use1 x might be ask$1 c su* loose acc\nts be8 ,to :i* ! answ] is1 t !y are n ins]t$ 9 ord] to di/+ui% ! species1 b 9 ord] to describe ! family1 & ! total relations ( ! ovules & ! /igmata ( ! family are bett] kn[n by ?is g5]al /atem5t4 ,a simil> obs]vation may be made ) reg>d to ! ,anomalies ( ea* gr\p1 :i* occur s commonly1 t ,mr4 ,l9dley1 9 8 ,introduction to ! ,natural ,sy/em ( ,botany1 makes ! ',anomalies' an article 9 ea* family4 ,?us1 "p ( ! "* ( ! ,rosace is1 t !y h alt]nate /ipulate leaves1 & t ! album5 is oblit]at$2 b yet 9 ,l[ea1 "o ( ! g5]a ( ?is family1 ! /ipul are abs5t2 & ! album5 is pres5t 9 ano!r1 ,neillia4 ,?is implies1 z we h already se51 t ! artificial "* 7or diagnosis1 z ,mr4 ,l9dley calls x17 is imp]fect4 ,x is1 ?\gh v ne>ly1 yet n exactly1 comm5surate ) ! natural gr\p3 & h5ce 9 c]ta9 cases ?is "* is made to yield to ! g5]al weight ( natural aff9ities4 ,^! views1--( classes det]m9$ by *>act]s :i* _c be express$ 9 words1--( propositions :i* /ate1 n :at happ5s 9 all cases1 b only usually1--( p>ticul>s :i* are includ$ 9 a class1 ?\gh !y transgress ! def9ition ( x1 may probably surprise ! read]4 ,!y are s contr>y to _m ( ! receiv$ op9ions respect+ ! use ( def9itions1 & ! nature ( sci5tific propositions1 t !y w probably appe> to _m p]sons highly illogical & unphilosophical4 ,b a disposition to su* a judgm5t arises 9 a great measure f ?is1 t ! ma!matical & ma!matico-physical sci5ces h1 9 a great degree1 det]m9$ m5's views ( ! g5]al nature & =m ( sci5tific tru?2 :ile ,natural ,hi/ory has n yet _h "t or opportunity to ex]t its due influ5ce ^u ! curr5t habits ( philosophiz+4 ,! app>5t indef9it5ess & inconsi/5cy ( ! classifications & def9itions ( ,natural ,hi/ory belongs1 9 a f> high] degree1 to all o!r except ma!matical speculations2 & ! modes 9 :i* approximations to exact di/9ctions & g5]al tru?s h be5 made 9 ,natural ,hi/ory1 may be wor?y our att5tion1 ev5 = ! light !y ?r[ ^u ! be/ modes ( pursu+ tru? ( all k9ds4 ,?\gh 9 a ,natural gr\p ( objects a def9ition c no long] be ( any use z a regulative pr9ciple1 classes are n !re=e left q loose1 )\t any c]ta9 /&>d or guide4 ,! class is /eadily fix$1 ?\gh n precisely limit$2 x is giv51 ?\gh n circumscrib$2 x is det]m9$1 n by a b\nd>y l9e )\t1 b by a c5tral po9t )92 n by :at x /rictly excludes1 b by :at x em95tly includes2 by an example1 n by a precept2 9 %ort1 in/ead ( a ,def9ition we h a ,type = our director4 ,a ,type is an example ( any class1 = in/ance a species ( a g5us1 :i* is consid]$ z em95tly possess+ ! "* ( ! class4 ,all ! species :i* h a great] aff9ity ) ?is type-species ?an ) any o!rs1 =m ! g5us1 & are arrang$ ab\t x1 deviat+ f x 9 v>i\s directions & diff]5t degrees4 ,?us a g5us may consi/ ( sev]al species :i* approa* v ne> ! type1 & ( :i* ! claim to a place ) x is obvi\s2 :ile !re may be o!r species :i* /raggle fur!r f ?is c5tral knot1 & :i* yet are cle>ly m connect$ ) x ?an ) any o!r4 ,& ev5 if !re %\ld be "s species ( :i* ! place is dubi\s1 & :i* appe> to be equally b\nd to two g5]ic types1 x is easily se5 t ?is w\ld n de/roy ! reality ( ! g5]ic gr\ps1 any m ?an ! scatt]$ trees ( ! int]v5+ pla9 prev5t our speak+ intelligibly ( ! di/9ct =e/s ( two sep>ate hills4 ,! type-species ( e g5us1 ! type-g5us ( e family1 is1 !n1 "o :i* possesses all ! *>act]s & prop]ties ( ! g5us 9 a m>k$ & prom95t mann]4 ,! type ( ! ,rose family has alt]nate /ipulate leaves1 wants ! album51 has ! ovules n erect1 has ! /igmata simple1 & besides ^! features1 :i* di/+ui% x f ! exceptions or v>ieties ( its class1 x has ! features :i* make x prom95t 9 its class4 ,x is "o ( ^? :i* possess cle>ly sev]al lead+ attributes2 & ?us1 ?\gh we _c say ( any "o g5us t x mu/ be ! type ( ! family1 or ( any "o species t x mu/ be ! type ( ! g5us1 we are /ill n :olly to seek2 ! type mu/ be connect$ by _m aff9ities ) mo/ ( ! o!rs ( its gr\p2 x mu/ be ne> ! c5tre ( ! cr[d1 & n "o ( ! /raggl]s4 ,9 ?is passage 7! latt] "p ( :i* especially ,i _c help notic+ z an admirable example ( philosophic /yle7 ,dr4 ,:ewell has /at$ v cle>ly & =cibly1 b 7,i ?9k7 )\t mak+ all necess>y di/9ctions1 "o ( ! pr9ciples ( a ,natural ,classification4 ,:at ?is pr9ciple is1 :at are its limits1 & 9 :at mann] he seems to me to h ov]/epp$ !m1 w appe> :5 we h laid d[n ano!r rule ( ,natural ,arrangem5t1 :i* appe>s to me /ill m fundam5tal4 #d4 ,! read] is by ?is "t famili> ) ! g5]al tru? 7:i* ,i re/ate s (t5 on acc\nt ( ! great confusion 9 :i* x is commonly involv$71 t !re are 9 nature di/9ctions ( ,k9d2 di/9ctions n consi/+ 9 a giv5 numb] ( def9ite prop]ties1 plus ! effects :i* foll[ f ^? prop]ties1 b runn+ ?r\gh ! :ole nature1 ?r\gh ! attributes g5]ally1 ( ! ?+s s di/+ui%$4 ,our k ( ! prop]ties ( a ,k9d is nev] complete4 ,we are always discov]+1 & expect+ to discov]1 new ones4 ,:]e ! di/9ction betwe5 two classes ( ?+s is n "o ( ,k9d1 we expect to f9d _! prop]ties alike1 except :]e !re is "s reason = _! be+ diff]5t4 ,on ! contr>y1 :5 ! di/9ction is 9 ,k9d1 we expect to f9d ! prop]ties diff]5t unless !re be "s cause = _! be+ ! same4 ,all k ( a ,k9d mu/ be obta9$ by obs]vation & exp]im5t ^u ! ,k9d itself2 no inf]5ce respect+ its prop]ties f ! prop]ties ( ?+s n connect$ ) x by ,k9d1 goes = m ?an ! sort ( presumption usually *>act]iz$ z an analogy1 & g5]ally 9 "o ( its fa9t] degrees4 ,s9ce ! common prop]ties ( a true ,k9d1 & consequ5tly ! g5]al ass]tions :i* c be made respect+ x1 or :i* are c]ta9 to be made h]eaft] z our k ext5ds1 are indef9ite & inexhau/ible2 & s9ce ! v fir/ pr9ciple ( natural classification is t ( =m+ ! classes s t ! objects compos+ ea* may h ! greate/ numb] ( prop]ties 9 common2 ?is pr9ciple prescribes t e su* classification %all recognise & adopt into itself all di/9ctions ( ,k9d1 :i* exi/ among ! objects x pr(esses to classify4 ,to pass ov] any di/9ctions ( ,k9d1 & sub/itute def9ite di/9ctions1 :i*1 h[ev] consid]able !y may be1 d n po9t to ult]ior unkn[n diff]5ces1 w\ld be to replace classes ) m by classes ) few] attributes 9 common2 & w\ld be subv]sive ( ! ,natural ,me?od ( ,classification4 ,accord+ly all natural arrangem5ts1 :e!r ! reality ( ! di/9ction ( ,k9ds 0 felt or n by _! fram]s1 h be5 l$1 by ! m]e pursuit ( _! own prop] end1 to con=m !mselves to ! di/9ctions ( ,k9d1 s f> z ^! _h be5 asc]ta9$ at ! "t4 ,! ,species ( ,plants are n only real ,k9ds1 b are probably1#ba all ( !m1 real l[e/ ,k9ds1 ,infim ,species2 :i* if we 7 to subdivide1 z ( c\rse x is op5 to u to d1 into subclasses1 ! subdivision w\ld necess>ily be f\nd$ on def9ite di/9ctions1 n po9t+ 7ap>t f :at may be kn[n ( _! causes or effects7 to any diff]5ce beyond !mselves4 ,9 s f> z a natural classification is gr\nd$ on real ,k9ds1 its gr\ps are c]ta9ly n conv5tional2 x is p]fectly true t !y d n dep5d ^u an arbitr>y *oice ( ! naturali/4 ,b x does n foll[1 nor1 ,i conceive1 is x true1 t ^! classes are det]m9$ by a type1 & n by *>act]s4 ,to det]m9e !m by a type w\ld be z sure a way ( miss+ ! ,k9d1 z if we 7 to select a set ( *>act]s arbitr>ily4 ,!y are det]m9$ by *>act]s1 b ^! are n arbitr>y4 ,! problem is1 to f9d a few def9ite *>act]s :i* po9t to ! multitude ( indef9ite ones4 ,k9ds are ,classes betwe5 :i* !re is an impassable b>ri]2 & :at we h to seek is1 m>ks :]eby we may det]m9e on :i* side ( ! b>ri] an object takes its place4 ,! *>act]s :i* w be/ d ?is %\ld be *os53 if !y are also important 9 !mselves1 s mu* ! bett]4 ,:5 we h select$ ! *>act]s1 we p>cel out ! objects accord+ to ^? *>act]s1 & n1 ,i conceive1 accord+ to resemblance to a type4 ,we d n compose ! species ,ranunculus acris1 ( all plants :i* be> a satisfactory degree ( resemblance to a model-butt]cup1 b ( ^? :i* possess c]ta9 *>act]s select$ z m>ks by :i* we might recognise ! possibility ( a common p>5tage2 & ! enum]ation ( ^? *>act]s is ! def9ition ( ! species4 ,! "q next arises1 :e!r1 z all ,k9ds mu/ h a place among ! classes1 s all ! classes 9 a natural arrangem5t mu/ be ,k9ds8 ,& to ?is ,i answ]1 c]ta9ly n4 ,! di/9ctions ( ,k9ds are n num]\s en\gh to make up ! :ole ( a classification4 ,v few ( ! g5]a ( plants1 or ev5 ( ! families1 c be pron\nc$ ) c]ta9ty to be ,k9ds4 ,! great di/9ctions ( ,vascul> & ,cellul>1 ,dicotyl$on\s or ,exog5\s & ,monocotyl$on\s or ,endog5\s plants1 are p]haps diff]5ces ( ,k9d2 ! l9es ( dem>cation :i* divide ^? classes seem 7?\gh ev5 on ?is ,i w\ld n pron\nce positively7 to g ?r\gh ! :ole nature ( ! plants4 ,b ! diff]5t species ( a g5us1 or g5]a ( a family1 usually h 9 common only a limit$ numb] ( *>act]s4 ,a ,rose does n seem to diff] f a ,rubus1 or ! ,umbellif] f ! ,ranunculace1 9 mu* else ?an ! *>act]s botanically assign$ to ^? g5]a or ^? families4 ,un5um]at$ diff]5ces c]ta9ly d exi/ 9 "s cases2 !re are families ( plants :i* h peculi>ities ( *emical composition1 or yield products hav+ peculi> effects on ! animal economy4 ,! ,crucif] & ,fungi conta9 an unusual proportion ( nitrog52 ! ,labiat are ! *ief s\rces ( ess5tial oils1 ! ,solane are v commonly n>cotic1 c4 ,9 ^! & simil> cases !re are possibly di/9ctions ( ,k9d2 b x is by no means indisp5sable t !re %\ld be4 ,g5]a & ,families may be em95tly natural1 ?\gh m>k$ out f "o ano!r by prop]ties limit$ 9 numb]2 provid$ ^? prop]ties are important1 & ! objects conta9$ 9 ea* g5us or family resemble ea* o!r m ?an !y resemble any?+ :i* is exclud$ f ! g5us or family4 ,aft] ! recognition & def9ition1 !n1 ( ! infim species1 ! next /ep is to arrange ^? infim species into l>g] gr\ps3 mak+ ^! gr\ps correspond to ,k9ds :]ev] x is possible1 b 9 mo/ cases )\t any su* guidance4 ,& 9 do+ ?is x is true t we are naturally & prop]ly guid$1 9 mo/ cases at lea/1 by resemblance to a type4 ,we =m our gr\ps r\nd c]ta9 select$ ,k9ds1 ea* ( :i* s]ves z a sort ( exempl> ( its gr\p4 ,b ?\gh ! gr\ps are sugge/$ by types1 ,i _c ?9k t a gr\p :5 =m$ is det]m9$ by ! type2 t 9 decid+ :e!r a species belongs to ! gr\p1 a ref]5ce is made to ! type1 & n to ! *>act]s2 t ! *>act]s _c be express$ 9 words4 ,?is ass]tion is inconsi/5t ) ,dr4 ,:ewell's own /atem5t ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( classification1 namely1 t g5]al ass]tions %all be possible4 ,if ! class did n possess any *>act]s 9 common1 :at g5]al ass]tions w\ld be possible respect+ x8 ,except t !y all resemble ea* o!r m ?an !y resemble any?+ else1 no?+ :atev] c\ld be pr$icat$ ( ! class4 ,! tru? is1 on ! contr>y1 t e g5us or family is fram$ ) di/9ct ref]5ce to c]ta9 *>act]s1 & is compos$1 fir/ & pr9cipally1 ( species :i* agree 9 possess+ all ^? *>act]s4 ,to ^! are add$1 z a sort ( app5dix1 su* o!r species1 g5]ally 9 small numb]1 z possess ne>ly all ! prop]ties select$2 want+ "s ( !m "o prop]ty1 "s ano!r1 & :i*1 :ile !y agree ) ! re/ almo/ z mu* z ^! agree ) "o ano!r1 d n resemble 9 an equal degree any o!r gr\p4 ,our conception ( ! class cont9ues to be gr\nd$ on ! *>act]s2 & ! class might be def9$1 ^? ?+s :i* ei!r possess t set ( *>act]s1 or resemble ! ?+s t d s1 m ?an !y resemble any?+ else4 ,& ?is resemblance itself is n1 l resemblance betwe5 simple s5sations1 an ultimate fact1 unsusceptible ( analysis4 ,ev5 ! inf]ior degree ( resemblance is creat$ by ! possession ( common *>act]s4 ,:atev] resembles ! g5us ,rose m ?an x resembles any o!r g5us1 does s because x possesses a great] numb] ( ! *>act]s ( t g5us1 ?an ( ! *>act]s ( any o!r g5us4 ,nor c !re be any real difficulty 9 repres5t+1 by an enum]ation ( *>act]s1 ! nature & degree ( ! resemblance :i* is /rictly suffici5t to include any object 9 ! class4 ,!re are always "s prop]ties common to all ?+s :i* are includ$4 ,o!rs !re (t5 are1 to :i* "s ?+s1 :i* are nev]!less includ$1 are exceptions4 ,b ! objects :i* are exceptions to "o "* are n exceptions to ano!r3 ! resemblance :i* fails 9 "s p>ticul>s mu/ be made up = 9 o!rs4 ,! class1 !re=e1 is con/itut$ by ! possession ( all ! *>act]s :i* are univ]sal1 & mo/ ( ^? :i* admit ( exceptions4 ,if a plant _h ! ovules erect1 ! /igmata divid$1 possess$ ! album51 & 0 )\t /ipules1 x possibly w\ld n be class$ among ! ,rosace4 ,b x may want any "o1 or m ?an "o ( ^? *>act]s1 & n be exclud$4 ,! ends ( a sci5tific classification are bett] answ]$ by includ+ x4 ,s9ce x agrees s ne>ly1 9 its kn[n prop]ties1 ) ! sum ( ! *>act]s ( ! class1 x is likely to resemble t class m ?an any o!r 9 ^? ( its prop]ties :i* are /ill undiscov]$4 ,n only1 !re=e1 are natural gr\ps1 no less ?an any artificial classes1 det]m9$ by *>act]s2 !y are con/itut$ 9 contemplation (1 & by reason (1 *>act]s4 ,b x is 9 contemplation n ( ^? *>act]s only :i* are rigor\sly common to all ! objects includ$ 9 ! gr\p1 b ( ! entire body ( *>act]s1 all ( :i* are f\nd 9 mo/ ( ^? objects1 & mo/ ( !m 9 all4 ,& h5ce our conception ( ! class1 ! image 9 our m9ds :i* is repres5tative ( x1 is t ( a specim5 complete 9 all ! *>act]s2 mo/ naturally a specim5 :i*1 by possess+ !m all 9 ! greate/ degree 9 :i* !y are ev] f\nd1 is ! be/ fitt$ to exhibit cle>ly1 & 9 a m>k$ mann]1 :at !y are4 ,x is by a m5tal ref]5ce to ?is /&>d1 n in/ead (1 b 9 illu/ration (1 ! def9ition ( ! class1 t we usually & advantage\sly det]m9e :e!r any individual or species belongs to ! class or n4 ,& ?is1 z x seems to me1 is ! am\nt ( tru? conta9$ 9 ! doctr9e ( ,types4 ,we %all see pres5tly t :]e ! classification is made = ! express purpose ( a special inductive inquiry1 x is n optional1 b necess>y = fulfill+ ! conditions ( a correct ,inductive ,me?od1 t we %\ld e/abli% a type-species or g5us1 namely1 ! "o :i* exhibits 9 ! mo/ em95t degree ! p>ticul> ph5om5on "u inve/igation4 ,b ( ?is h]eaft]4 ,x rema9s1 = complet+ ! !ory ( natural gr\ps1 t a few words %\ld be said on ! pr9ciples ( ! nom5clature adapt$ to !m4 #e4 ,a ,nom5clature 9 sci5ce1 is1 z we h said1 a sy/em ( ! names ( ,k9ds4 ,^! names1 l o!r class-names1 are def9$ by ! enum]ation ( ! *>act]s di/9ctive ( ! class4 ,! only m]it :i* a set ( names c h beyond ?is1 is to convey1 by ! mode ( _! con/ruction1 z mu* in=mation z possible3 s t a p]son :o kn[s ! ?+1 may receive all ! assi/ance :i* ! "n c give 9 rememb]+ :at he kn[s1 :ile he :o kn[s x n1 may receive z mu* k respect+ x z ! case admits (1 by m]ely be+ told its "n4 ,!re are two modes ( giv+ to ! "n ( a ,k9d ?is sort ( significance4 ,! be/1 b :i* un=tunately is seldom practicable1 is :5 ! ^w c be made to indicate1 by its =mation1 ! v prop]ties :i* x is design$ to connote4 ,! "n ( a ,k9d does n1 ( c\rse1 connote all ! prop]ties ( ! ,k9d1 s9ce ^! are inexhau/ible1 b su* ( !m z are suffici5t to di/+ui% x2 su* z are sure m>ks ( all ! re/4 ,n[1 x is v r>ely t "o prop]ty1 or ev5 any two or ?ree prop]ties1 c answ] ?is purpose4 ,to di/+ui% ! common daisy f all o!r species ( plants w\ld require ! specification ( _m *>act]s4 ,& a "n _c1 )\t be+ too cumbr\s = use1 give indication1 by its etymology or mode ( con/ruction1 ( m ?an a v small numb] ( ^!4 ,! possibility1 !re=e1 ( an ideally p]fect ,nom5clature1 is probably conf9$ to ! "o case 9 :i* we are happily 9 possession ( some?+ ne>ly approa*+ to x2 ! ,nom5clature ( elem5t>y ,*emi/ry4 ,! sub/ances1 :e!r simple or comp\nd1 ) :i* *emi/ry is conv]sant1 are ,k9ds1 &1 z su*1 ! prop]ties :i* di/+ui% ea* ( !m f ! re/ are innum]able2 b 9 ! case ( comp\nd sub/ances 7! simple ones are n num]\s en\gh to require a sy/ematic nom5clature71 !re is "o prop]ty1 ! *emical composition1 :i* is ( itself suffici5t to di/+ui% ! ,k9d2 & is 7) c]ta9 res]vations n yet ?or\ghly und]/ood7 a sure m>k ( all ! o!r prop]ties ( ! comp\nd4 ,all t 0 ne$ful1 !re=e1 0 to make ! "n ( e comp\nd express1 on ! fir/ he>+1 its *emical composition2 t is1 to =m ! "n ( ! comp\nd1 9 "s uni=m mann]1 f ! names ( ! simple sub/ances :i* ent] into x z elem5ts4 ,?is 0 done1 mo/ skilfully & successfully1 by ! ,fr5* *emi/s4 ,! only ?+ left unexpress$ by !m 0 ! exact proportion 9 :i* ! elem5ts 7 comb9$2 & ev5 ?is1 s9ce ! e/abli%m5t ( ! atomic !ory1 x has be5 f\nd possible to express by a simple adaptation ( _! phraseology4 ,b :]e ! *>act]s :i* mu/ be tak5 into consid]ation 9 ord] suffici5tly to designate ! ,k9d1 are too num]\s to be all signifi$ 9 ! d]ivation ( ! "n1 & :]e no "o ( !m is ( su* prepond]ant importance z to ju/ify its be+ s+l$ out to be s indicat$1 we may avail ourselves ( a subsidi>y res\rce4 ,?\gh we _c indicate ! di/9ctive prop]ties ( ! ,k9d1 we may indicate its ne>e/ natural aff9ities1 by incorporat+ into its "n ! "n ( ! proximate natural gr\p ( :i* x is "o ( ! species4 ,on ?is pr9ciple is f\nd$ ! admirable b9>y nom5clature ( botany & zoology4 ,9 ?is nom5clature ! "n ( e species consi/s ( ! "n ( ! g5us1 or natural gr\p next above x1 ) a ^w add$ to di/+ui% ! p>ticul> species4 ,! la/ portion ( ! comp\nd "n is sometimes tak5 f "s "o ( ! peculi>ities 9 :i* t species diff]s f o!rs ( ! g5us2 z ,clematis integrifolia1 ,pot5tilla alba1 ,viola palu/ris1 ,artemisia vulg>is2 sometimes f a circum/ance ( an hi/orical nature1 z ,n>cissus poeticus1 ,pot5tilla torm5tilla 7indicat+ t ! plant 0 =m]ly kn[n by ! latt] "n71 ,exacum ,c&ollii 7f ! fact t ,de ,c&olle 0 its fir/ discov]]72 & sometimes ! ^w is purely conv5tional1 z ,?laspi bursa-pa/oris1 ,ranunculus ?ora2 x is ( little consequ5ce :i*2 s9ce ! second1 or z x is usually call$1 ! specific "n1 c\ld at mo/ express1 indep5d5tly ( conv5tion1 no m ?an a v small portion ( ! connotation ( ! t]m4 ,b by add+ to ?is ! "n ( ! sup]ior g5us1 we may make ! be/ am5ds we c = ! impossibility ( s contriv+ ! "n z to express all ! di/9ctive *>act]s ( ! ,k9d4 ,we make x1 at all ev5ts1 express z _m ( ^? *>act]s z are common to ! proximate natural gr\p 9 :i* ! ,k9d is includ$4 ,if ev5 ^? common *>act]s are s num]\s or s little famili> z to require a fur!r ext5sion ( ! same res\rce1 we might1 in/ead ( a b9>y1 adopt a t]n>y nom5clature1 employ+ n only ! "n ( ! g5us1 b t ( ! next natural gr\p 9 ord] ( g5]ality above ! g5us1 commonly call$ ! ,family4 ,?is 0 done 9 ! m9]alogical nom5clature propos$ by ,pr(essor ,mohs4 ,! names fram$ by him 7 n compos$ ( two1 b ( ?ree elem5ts1 designat+ respectively ! ,species1 ! ,g5us1 & ! ,ord]2 ?us he has su* species z ,rhomboh$ral ,lime ,haloide1 ,octoh$ral ,fluor ,haloide1 ,prismatic ,hal ,b>yte4#bb ,! b9>y con/ruction1 h[ev]1 has be5 f\nd suffici5t 9 botany & zoology1 ! only sci5ces 9 :i* ?is g5]al pr9ciple has hi!rto be5 successfully adopt$ 9 ! con/ruction ( a nom5clature4 ,besides ! advantage :i* ?is pr9ciple ( nom5clature possesses1 9 giv+ to ! names ( species ! greate/ quantity ( indep5d5t significance :i* ! circum/ances ( ! case admit (1 x answ]s ! fur!r end ( imm5sely economiz+ ! use ( names1 & prev5t+ an o!rwise intol]able burd5 on ! memory4 ,:5 ! names ( species become extremely num]\s1 "s artifice 7z ,dr4 ,:ewell#bc obs]ves7 becomes absolutely necess>y to make x possible to recollect or apply !m4 ,! kn[n species ( plants1 = example1 7 t5 ?\s& 9 ! "t ( ,l9nu1 & are n[ probably sixty ?\s&4 ,x w\ld be useless to endeav\r to frame & employ sep>ate names = ea* ( ^! species4 ,! division ( ! objects into a subord9at$ sy/em ( classification enables u to introduce a ,nom5clature :i* does n require ?is enorm\s numb] ( names4 ,ea* ( ! g5]a has its "n1 & ! species are m>k$ by ! addition ( "s epi!t to ! "n ( ! g5us4 ,9 ?is mann] ab\t sev5te5 hundr$ g5]ic names1 ) a mod]ate numb] ( specific names1 7 f\nd by ,l9nu suffici5t to designate ) precision all ! species ( vegetables kn[n at 8 "t4 ,& ?\gh ! numb] ( g5]ic names has s9ce greatly increas$1 x has n increas$ 9 any?+ l ! proportion ( ! multiplication ( kn[n species4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,( ,,classification ,,by ,,s]ies4 #a4 ,?us f>1 we h consid]$ ! pr9ciples ( sci5tific classification s f> only z relates to ! =mation ( natural gr\ps2 & at ?is po9t mo/ ( ^? :o h attempt$ a !ory ( natural arrangem5t1 includ+1 among ! re/1 ,dr4 ,:ewell1 h /opp$4 ,!re rema9s1 h[ev]1 ano!r1 & a n less important portion ( ! !ory1 :i* has n yet1 z f> z ,i am aw>e1 be5 sy/ematically treat$ ( by any writ] except ,m4 ,comte4 ,?is is1 ! arrangem5t ( ! natural gr\ps into a natural s]ies4#bd ,! end ( ,classification1 z an in/rum5t = ! inve/igation ( nature1 is 7z be=e /at$7 to make u ?9k ( ^? objects toge!r1 :i* h ! greate/ numb] ( important common prop]ties2 & :i* !re=e we h (t5e/ occasion1 9 ! c\rse ( our inductions1 = tak+ into jo9t consid]ation4 ,our ideas ( objects are ?us br\ght into ! ord] mo/ conducive to ! successful prosecution ( inductive inquiries g5]ally4 ,b :5 ! purpose is to facilitate "s p>ticul> inductive inquiry1 m is requir$4 ,to be in/rum5tal to t purpose1 ! classification mu/ br+ ^? objects toge!r1 ! simultane\s contemplation ( :i* is likely to ?r[ mo/ light ^u ! p>ticul> subject4 ,t subject be+ ! laws ( "s ph5om5on or "s set ( connect$ ph5om5a2 ! v ph5om5on or set ( ph5om5a 9 "q mu/ be *os5 z ! gr\ndwork ( ! classification4 ,! requisites ( a classification int5d$ to facilitate ! /udy ( a p>ticul> ph5om5on1 are1 fir/1 to br+ into "o class all ,k9ds ( ?+s :i* exhibit t ph5om5on1 9 :atev] v>iety ( =ms or degrees2 & secondly1 to arrange ^? ,k9ds 9 a s]ies accord+ to ! degree 9 :i* !y exhibit x1 beg9n+ ) ^? :i* exhibit mo/ ( x1 & t]m9at+ ) ^? :i* exhibit lea/4 ,! pr9cipal example1 z yet1 ( su* a classification1 is af=d$ by comp>ative anatomy & physiology1 f :i*1 !re=e1 our illu/rations %all be tak54 #b4 ,! object be+ suppos$ to be1 ! inve/igation ( ! laws ( animal life2 ! fir/ /ep1 aft] =m+ ! mo/ di/9ct conception ( ! ph5om5on itself1 possible 9 ! exi/+ /ate ( our k1 is to erect into "o great class 7t ( animals7 all ! kn[n ,k9ds ( be+s :]e t ph5om5on pres5ts itself2 9 h[ev] v>i\s comb9ations ) o!r prop]ties1 & 9 h[ev] diff]5t degrees4 ,z "s ( ^! ,k9ds manife/ ! g5]al ph5om5on ( animal life 9 a v high degree1 & o!rs 9 an insignificant degree1 b>ely suffici5t = recognition2 we mu/1 9 ! next place1 arrange ! v>i\s ,k9ds 9 a s]ies1 foll[+ "o ano!r accord+ to ! degrees 9 :i* !y sev]ally exhibit ! ph5om5on2 beg9n+ !re=e ) man1 & end+ ) ! mo/ imp]fect k9ds ( zoophytes4 ,?is is m]ely say+ t we %\ld put ! in/ances1 f :i* ! law is to be inductively collect$1 into ! ord] :i* is impli$ 9 "o ( ! f\r ,me?ods ( ,exp]im5tal ,inquiry discuss$ 9 ! prec$+ ,book2 ! f\r? ,me?od1 t ( ,concomitant ,v>iations4 ,z =m]ly rem>k$1 ?is is (t5 ! only me?od to :i* rec\rse c be _h1 ) assurance ( a true conclusion1 9 cases 9 :i* we h b limit$ means ( effect+1 by artificial exp]im5ts1 a sep>ation ( circum/ances usually conjo9$4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! me?od is1 t facts :i* increase or dim9i% toge!r1 & disappe> toge!r1 are ei!r cause & effect1 or effects ( a common cause4 ,:5 x has be5 asc]ta9$ t ?is relation really subsi/s betwe5 ! v>iations1 a connexion betwe5 ! facts !mselves may be confid5tly laid d[n1 ei!r z a law ( nature or only z an empirical law1 accord+ to circum/ances4 ,t ! application ( ?is ,me?od mu/ be prec$$ by ! =mation ( su* a s]ies z we h describ$1 is too obvi\s to ne$ be+ po9t$ out2 & ! m]e arrangem5t ( a set ( objects 9 a s]ies1 accord+ to ! degrees 9 :i* !y exhibit "s fact ( :i* we are seek+ ! law1 is too naturally sugge/$ by ! necessities ( our inductive op]ations1 to require any l5g!n$ illu/ration "h4 ,b !re are cases 9 :i* ! arrangem5t requir$ = ! special purpose1 becomes ! det]m9+ pr9ciple ( ! classification ( ! same objects = g5]al purposes4 ,?is w naturally & prop]ly happ51 :5 ^? laws ( ! objects :i* are s\ght 9 ! special inquiry enact s pr9cipal a "p 9 ! g5]al "* & hi/ory ( ^? objects--ex]cise s mu* influ5ce 9 det]m9+ all ! ph5om5a ( :i* !y are ei!r ! ag5ts or ! !atre--t all o!r diff]5ces exi/+ among ! objects are fitt+ly reg>d$ z m]e modifications ( ! "o ph5om5on s\ght2 effects det]m9$ by ! co-op]ation ( "s incid5tal circum/ance ) ! laws ( t ph5om5on4 ,?us 9 ! case ( animat$ be+s1 ! diff]5ces betwe5 "o class ( animals & ano!r may reasonably be consid]$ z m]e modifications ( ! g5]al ph5om5on1 animal life2 modifications aris+ ei!r f ! diff]5t degrees 9 :i* t ph5om5on is manife/$ 9 diff]5t animals1 or f ! int]mixture ( ! effects ( incid5tal causes peculi> to ! nature ( ea*1 ) ! effects produc$ by ! g5]al laws ( life2 ^? laws /ill ex]cis+ a pr$om9ant influ5ce ov] ! result4 ,su* be+ ! case1 no o!r inductive inquiry respect+ animals c be successfully c>ri$ on1 except 9 subord9ation to ! great inquiry into ! univ]sal laws ( animal life4 ,& ! classification ( animals be/ suit$ to t "o purpose1 is ! mo/ suitable to all ! o!r purposes ( zoological sci5ce4 #c4 ,to e/abli% a classification ( ?is sort1 or ev5 to appreh5d x :5 e/abli%$1 requires ! p[] ( recognis+ ! ess5tial simil>ity ( a ph5om5on1 9 its m9ut] degrees & obscur] =ms1 ) :at is call$ ! same ph5om5on 9 ! greate/ p]fection ( its developm5t2 t is1 ( id5tify+ ) ea* o!r all ph5om5a :i* diff] only 9 degree1 & 9 prop]ties :i* we suppose to be caus$ by diff]5ce ( degree4 ,9 ord] to recognise ?is id5tity1 or 9 o!r words1 ?is exact simil>ity ( quality1 ! assumption ( a type-species is indisp5sable4 ,we mu/ consid] z ! type ( ! class1 t among ! ,k9ds includ$ 9 x1 :i* exhibits ! prop]ties con/itutive ( ! class1 9 ! highe/ degree2 conceiv+ ! o!r v>ieties z in/ances ( deg5]acy1 z x 71 f t type2 deviations f x by inf]ior int5sity ( ! *>act]i/ic prop]ty or prop]ties4 ,= e ph5om5on is be/ /udi$ 7ct]is p>ibus7 :]e x exi/s 9 ! greate/ int5sity4 ,x is !re t ! effects :i* ei!r dep5d on x1 or dep5d on ! same causes ) x1 w also exi/ 9 ! greate/ degree4 ,x is !re1 consequ5tly1 & only !re1 t ^? effects ( x1 or jo9t effects ) x1 c become fully kn[n to u1 s t we may le>n to recognise _! small] degrees1 or ev5 _! m]e rudim5ts1 9 cases 9 :i* ! direct /udy w\ld h be5 difficult or ev5 impossible4 ,n to m5tion t ! ph5om5on 9 its high] degrees may be att5d$ by effects or collat]al circum/ances :i* 9 its small] degrees d n occur at all1 requir+ = _! production 9 any s5sible am\nt a great] degree ( int5sity ( ! cause ?an is !re met )4 ,9 man1 = example1 7! species 9 :i* bo? ! ph5om5on ( animal & t ( organic life exi/ 9 ! highe/ degree17 _m subord9ate ph5om5a develop !mselves 9 ! c\rse ( 8 animat$ exi/5ce1 :i* ! inf]ior v>ieties ( animals d n %[4 ,! k ( ^! prop]ties may nev]!less be ( great avail t[>ds ! discov]y ( ! conditions & laws ( ! g5]al ph5om5on ( life1 :i* is common to man ) ^? inf]ior animals4 ,& !y are1 ev51 rightly consid]$ z prop]ties ( animat$ nature itself2 because !y may evid5tly be affiliat$ to ! g5]al laws ( animat$ nature2 because we may fairly presume t "s rudim5ts or feeble degrees ( ^? prop]ties w\ld be recognis$ 9 all animals by m p]fect organs1 or ev5 by m p]fect in/rum5ts1 ?an ours2 & because ^? may be correctly t]m$ prop]ties ( a class1 :i* a ?+ exhibits exactly 9 proportion z x belongs to ! class1 t is1 9 proportion z x possesses ! ma9 attributes con/itutive ( ! class4 #d4 ,x rema9s to consid] h[ ! int]nal di/ribution ( ! s]ies may mo/ prop]ly take place3 9 :at mann] x %\ld be divid$ into ,ord]s1 ,families1 & ,g5]a4 ,! ma9 pr9ciple ( division mu/ ( c\rse be natural aff9ity2 ! classes =m$ mu/ be natural gr\ps3 & ! =mation ( ^! has already be5 suffici5tly treat$ (4 ,b ! pr9ciples ( natural gr\p+ mu/ be appli$ 9 subord9ation to ! pr9ciple ( a natural s]ies4 ,! gr\ps mu/ n be s con/itut$ z to place 9 ! same gr\p ?+s :i* ought to occupy diff]5t po9ts ( ! g5]al scale4 ,! precaution necess>y to be obs]v$ = ?is purpose is1 t ! prim>y divisions mu/ be gr\nd$ n on all di/9ctions indiscrim9ately1 b on ^? :i* correspond to v>iations 9 ! degree ( ! ma9 ph5om5on4 ,! s]ies ( ,animat$ ,nature %\ld be brok5 into p>ts at ! po9ts :]e ! v>iation 9 ! degree ( int5sity ( ! ma9 ph5om5on 7z m>k$ by its pr9cipal *>act]s1 ,s5sation1 ,?\ght1 ,volunt>y ,motion1 c47 beg9s to be att5d$ by conspicu\s *anges 9 ! miscellane\s prop]ties ( ! animal4 ,su* well-m>k$ *anges take place1 = example1 :]e ! class ,mammalia ends2 at ! po9ts :]e ,fi%es are sep>at$ f ,insects1 ,insects f ,mollusca1 c4 ,:5 s =m$1 ! prim>y natural gr\ps w compose ! s]ies by m]e juxtaposition1 )\t r$i/ribution2 ea* ( !m correspond+ to a def9ite portion ( ! scale4 ,9 l mann] ea* family %\ld1 if possible1 be s subdivid$1 t "o portion ( x %all /& high] & ! o!r l[]1 ?\gh ( c\rse contigu\s1 9 ! g5]al scale2 & only :5 ?is is impossible is x all[able to gr\nd ! rema9+ subdivisions on *>act]s hav+ no det]m9able connexion ) ! ma9 ph5om5on4 ,:]e ! pr9cipal ph5om5on s f> transc5ds 9 importance all o!r prop]ties on :i* a classification c\ld be gr\nd$1 z x does 9 ! case ( animat$ exi/5ce1 any consid]able deviation f ! rule la/ laid d[n is 9 g5]al suffici5tly gu>d$ aga9/ by ! fir/ pr9ciple ( a natural arrangem5t1 t ( =m+ ! gr\ps accord+ to ! mo/ important *>act]s4 ,all attempts at a sci5tific classification ( animals1 s9ce fir/ _! anatomy & physiology 7 successfully /udi$1 h be5 fram$ ) a c]ta9 degree ( in/9ctive ref]5ce to a natural s]ies1 & h accord$ 9 _m m po9ts ?an !y h diff]$1 ) ! classification :i* w\ld mo/ naturally h be5 gr\nd$ on su* a s]ies4 ,b ! accordance has n always be5 complete2 & x /ill is (t5 a matt] ( discussion1 :i* ( sev]al classifications be/ accords ) ! true scale ( int5sity ( ! ma9 ph5om5on4 ,cuvi]1 = example1 has be5 ju/ly criticiz$ = hav+ =m$ 8 natural gr\ps ) an undue degree ( ref]5ce to ! mode ( alim5tation1 a circum/ance directly connect$ only ) organic life1 & n l5d+ to ! arrangem5t mo/ appropriate = ! purposes ( an inve/igation ( ! laws ( animal life1 s9ce bo? c>nivor\s & h]bivor\s or frugivor\s animals are f\nd at almo/ e degree 9 ! scale ( animal p]fection4 ,bla9ville's classification has be5 consid]$ by high au?orities to be free f ?is defect2 z repres5t+ correctly1 by ! m]e ord] ( ! pr9cipal gr\ps1 ! successive deg5]acy ( animal nature f its highe/ to its mo/ imp]fect exemplification4 #e4 ,a classification ( any l>ge portion ( ! field ( nature 9 con=mity to ! =ego+ pr9ciples1 has hi!rto be5 f\nd practicable only 9 "o great in/ance1 t ( animals4 ,9 ! case ev5 ( vegetables1 ! natural arrangem5t has n be5 c>ri$ beyond ! =mation ( natural gr\ps4 ,naturali/s h f\nd1 & probably w cont9ue to f9d x impossible to =m ^? gr\ps into any s]ies1 ! t]ms ( :i* correspond to real gradations 9 ! ph5om5on ( vegetative or organic life4 ,su* a diff]5ce ( degree may be trac$ betwe5 ! class ( ,vascul> ,plants & t ( ,cellul>1 :i* includes li*5s1 alg1 & o!r sub/ances ^: organization is simpl] & m rudim5t>y ?an t ( ! high] ord] ( vegetables1 & :i* !re=e approa* ne>] to m]e inorganic nature4 ,b :5 we rise mu* above ?is po9t1 we d n f9d any suffici5t diff]5ce 9 ! degree 9 :i* diff]5t plants possess ! prop]ties ( organization & life4 ,! dicotyl$ons are ( m complex /ructure1 & some:at m p]fect organization1 ?an ! monocotyl$ons3 & "s dicotyl$on\s families1 su* z ! ,composit1 are r m complex 9 _! organization ?an ! re/4 ,b ! diff]5ces are n ( a m>k$ "*1 & d n promise to ?r[ any p>ticul> light ^u ! conditions & laws ( vegetable life & developm5t4 ,if !y did1 ! classification ( vegetables w\ld h to be made1 l t ( animals1 ) ref]5ce to ! scale or s]ies indicat$4 ,al?\gh ! sci5tific arrangem5ts ( organic nature af=d z yet ! only complete example ( ! true pr9ciples ( rational classification1 :e!r z to ! =mation ( gr\ps or ( s]ies1 ^? pr9ciples are applicable to all cases 9 :i* mank9d are call$ ^u to br+ ! v>i\s p>ts ( any ext5sive subject into m5tal co-ord9ation4 ,!y are z mu* to ! po9t :5 objects are to be class$ = purposes ( art or bus9ess1 z = ^? ( sci5ce4 ,! prop] arrangem5t1 = example1 ( a code ( laws1 dep5ds on ! same sci5tific conditions z ! classifications 9 natural hi/ory2 nor c\ld !re be a bett] prep>atory discipl9e = t important function1 ?an ! /udy ( ! pr9ciples ( a natural arrangem5t1 n only 9 ! ab/ract1 b 9 _! actual application to ! class ( ph5om5a = :i* !y 7 fir/ elaborat$1 & :i* are /ill ! be/ s*ool = le>n+ _! use4 ,( ?is ! great au?ority on codification1 ,b5?am1 0 p]fectly aw>e3 & 8 e>ly ,fragm5t on ,gov]nm5t1 ! admirable introduction to a s]ies ( writ+s unequall$ 9 _! dep>tm5t1 conta9s cle> & j views 7z f> z !y g7 on ! mean+ ( a natural arrangem5t1 su* z c\ld sc>cely h occurr$ to any "o :o liv$ ant]ior to ! age ( ,l9nu & ,b]n>d de ,jussieu4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,supra1 book iii4 *4 ii4 #c1 #d1 #e4 #b ,mr4 ,bailey has giv5 by f> ! be/ /atem5t ( ?is !ory4 ,! g5]al "n1 he says1 raises up ! image sometimes ( "o individual ( ! class =m]ly se51 sometimes ( ano!r1 n unfrequ5tly ( _m individuals 9 succession2 & x sometimes sugge/s an image made up ( elem5ts f sev]al diff]5t objects1 by a lat5t process ( :i* ,i am n consci\s4 7,lett]s on ! ,philosophy ( ! ,human ,m9d1 #a/ s]ies1 lett] #bb47 ,b ,mr4 ,bailey mu/ all[ t we c>ry on inductions & ratioc9ations respect+ ! class1 by means ( ?is idea or conception ( "s "o individual 9 x4 ,?is is all ,i require4 ,! "n ( a class calls up "s idea1 ?r\gh :i* we c1 to all int5ts & purposes1 ?9k ( ! class z su*1 & n solely ( an individual memb] ( x4 #c ,i h ent]$ r fully into ?is "q 9 *ap4 xvii4 ( ,an ,exam9ation ( ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,philosophy1 head$ ,! ,doctr9e ( ,concepts or ,g5]al ,notions1 :i* conta9s my la/ views on ! subject4 #d ,o!r examples ( inappropriate conceptions are giv5 by ,dr4 ,:ewell 7,phil4 ,ind4 ,sc4 ii4 #ahe7 z foll[s3--,ari/otle & 8 foll[]s endeav\r$ 9 va9 to acc\nt = ! me*anical relation ( =ces 9 ! lev]1 by apply+ ! inappropriate geometrical conceptions ( ! prop]ties ( ! circle3 !y fail$ 9 expla9+ ! =m ( ! lum9\s spot made by ! sun %9+ ?r\gh a hole1 because !y appli$ ! inappropriate conception ( a circul> quality 9 ! sun's light3 !y speculat$ to no purpose ab\t ! elem5t>y composition ( bodies1 because !y assum$ ! inappropriate conception ( lik5ess betwe5 ! elem5ts & ! comp\nd1 in/ead ( ! g5u9e notion ( elem5ts m]ely det]m9+ ! qualities ( ! comp\nd4 ,b 9 ^! cases !re is m ?an an inappropriate conception2 !re is a false conception2 "o :i* has no prototype 9 nature1 no?+ correspond+ to x 9 facts4 ,?is is evid5t 9 ! la/ two examples1 & is equally true 9 ! fir/2 ! prop]ties ( ! circle :i* 7 ref]r$ to1 be+ purely fanta/ical4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 an error beyond ! wrong *oice ( a pr9ciple ( g5]alization2 !re is a false assumption ( matt]s ( fact4 ,! attempt is made to resolve c]ta9 laws ( nature into a m g5]al law1 t law n be+ "o :i*1 ?\gh real1 is inappropriate1 b "o :olly imag9>y4 #e ,pr(essor ,ba94 #f ,?is s5t5ce hav+ be5 errone\sly und]/ood z if ,i _h meant to ass]t t belief is no?+ b an irresi/ible association1 ,i ?9k x necess>y to obs]ve t ,i express no !ory respect+ ! ultimate analysis ei!r ( reason+ or ( belief1 two ( ! mo/ obscure po9ts 9 analytical psy*ology4 ,i am speak+ n ( ! p[]s !mselves1 b ( ! previ\s conditions necess>y to enable ^? p[]s to ex]t !mselves3 ( :i* conditions ,i am cont5d+ t language is n "o1 s5ses & association be+ suffici5t )\t x4 #g ,mr4 ,bailey agrees ) me 9 ?9k+ t :5ev] f some?+ actually pres5t to my s5ses conjo9$ ) pa/ exp]i5ce1 ,i feel satisfi$ t some?+ has happ5$1 or w happ51 or is happ5+1 beyond ! sph]e ( my p]sonal obs]vation1 ,i may ) /rict propriety be said to reason3 & ( c\rse to reason inductively1 = demon/rative reason+ is exclud$ by ! circum/ances ( ! case4 7,! ,!ory ( ,reason+1 #bnd ed4 p4 #bg47 #h ,novum ,organum ,r5ovatum1 pp4 #ce-cg4 #i ,nov4 ,org4 ,r5ov41 pp4 #ci1 #dj4 #aj ,p4 #bag1 #dto edition4 #aa ,e1 ex1 extra1 extraneus1 trang]1 /rang]4 ,ano!r etymological example sometimes cit$ is ! d]ivation ( ! ,engli% uncle f ! ,lat9 avus4 ,x is sc>cely possible = two words to be> few] outw>d m>ks ( relation%ip1 yet !re is b "o /ep betwe5 !m2 avus1 avunculus1 uncle4 ,s pilgrim1 f ag]3 p] agrum1 p]agr9us1 p]egr9us1 pellegr9o1 pilgrim4 #ab ,p4 #bbf-g4 #ac ,essays1 p4 #bad4 #ad ,ibid4 #bae4 #ae ,su* cases give a cle> insight into ! process ( ! deg5]ation ( languages 9 p]iods ( hi/ory :5 lit]>y culture 0 susp5d$2 & we are n[ 9 dang] ( exp]i5c+ a simil> evil ?r\gh ! sup]ficial ext5sion ( ! same culture4 ,s _m p]sons )\t any?+ des]v+ ! "n ( education h become writ]s by pr(ession1 t writt5 language may almo/ be said to be pr9cipally wield$ by p]sons ignorant ( ! prop] use ( ! in/rum5t1 & :o are spoil+ x m & m = ^? :o und]/& x4 ,vulg>isms1 :i* creep 9 nobody kn[s h[1 are daily depriv+ ! ,engli% language ( valuable modes ( express+ ?\ght4 ,to take a pres5t in/ance3 ! v]b transpire =m]ly convey$ v expressively its correct mean+1 viz4 to become kn[n ?r\gh unnotic$ *annels--to exhale1 z x 71 into publicity ?r\gh invisible pores1 l a vap\r or gas dis5gag+ itself4 ,b ( late a practice has comm5c$ ( employ+ ?is ^w1 = ! sake ( f9]y1 z a m]e synonym ( to happ53 ! ev5ts :i* h transpir$ 9 ! ,crimea1 mean+ ! incid5ts ( ! w>4 ,?is vile specim5 ( bad ,engli% is already se5 9 ! despat*es ( noblem5 & vic]oys3 & ! "t is app>5tly n f> di/ant :5 nobody w und]/& ! ^w if us$ 9 its prop] s5se4 ,x is a great error to ?9k t ^! corruptions ( language d no h>m4 ,^? :o are /ruggl+ ) ! difficulty 7& :o "k by exp]i5ce h[ great x already is7 ( express+ oneself cle>ly ) precision1 f9d _! res\rces cont9ually n>r[$ by illit]ate writ]s1 :o seize & twi/ f its purpose "s =m ( spee* :i* once s]v$ to convey briefly & compactly an unambigu\s mean+4 ,x w\ld h>dly be believ$ h[ (t5 a writ] is compell$ to a circumlocution by ! s+le vulg>ism1 introduc$ dur+ ! la/ few ye>s1 ( us+ ! ^w alone z an adv]b1 only n be+ f9e en\gh = ! rhetoric ( ambiti\s ignorance4 ,a man w say to :i* ,i am n alone b\nd by hon\r b also by law1 unaw>e t :at he has un9t5tionally said is1 t he is n alone b\nd1 "s o!r p]son be+ b\nd ) him4 ,=m]ly if any "o said1 ,i am n alone responsible = ?is1 he 0 und]/ood to mean1 7:at alone 8 words mean 9 correct ,engli%17 t he is n ! sole p]son responsible2 b if he n[ us$ su* an expression1 ! read] w\ld be confus$ betwe5 t & two o!r mean+s2 t he is n only responsible b some?+ m2 or t he is responsible n only = ?is b = some?+ besides4 ,! "t is com+ :5 ,t5nyson's ,,oenone c\ld n say ,i w n die alone1 le/ %e %\ld be suppos$ to mean t %e w\ld n only die b d some?+ else4 ,! blund] ( writ+ pr$icate = pr$ict has become s widely diffus$ t x bids fair to r5d] "o ( ! mo/ useful t]ms 9 ! sci5tific vocabul>y ( ,logic un9telligible4 ,! ma!matical & logical t]m to elim9ate is und]go+ a simil> de/ruction4 ,all :o are acqua9t$ ei!r ) ! prop] use ( ! ^w or ) its etymology1 "k t to elim9ate a ?+ is to ?ru/ x out2 b ^? :o "k no?+ ab\t x1 except t x is a f9e-look+ phrase1 use x 9 a s5se precisely ! rev]se1 to d5ote1 n turn+ any?+ out1 b br++ x 94 ,!y talk ( elim9at+ "s tru?1 or o!r useful result1 f a mass ( details4 ,i suspect t ?is error mu/ at fir/ h aris5 f "s confusion betwe5 to elim9ate & to enucleate4 ,?\gh no su* evil consequ5ces z take place 9 ^! in/ances1 are likely to arise f ! mod]n freak ( writ+ sanatory in/ead ( sanit>y1 x des]ves notice z a *>m+ specim5 ( p$antry engraft$ ^u ignorance4 ,^? :o ?us und]take to correct ! spell+ ( ! classical ,engli% writ]s1 are n aw>e t ! mean+ ( sanatory1 if !re 7 su* a ^w 9 ! language1 w\ld h ref]5ce n to ! pres]vation ( heal?1 b to ! cure ( disease4 #af ,hi/orical ,introduction1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ff-h4 #ag ,hi/ory ( ,sci5tific ,ideas1 ii4 #aaj1 #aaa4 #ah ,hi/4 ,sc4 ,id4 ii4 #aaa-aac4 #ai ,nov4 ,org4 ,r5ov4 pp4 #bhf1 #bhg4 #bj ,hi/4 ,sc4 ,id4 ii4 #abj-abb4 #ba ,i say probably1 n c]ta9ly1 because ?is is n ! consid]ation by :i* a botani/ det]m9es :at %all or %all n be admitt$ z a species4 ,9 natural hi/ory ^? objects belong to ! same species1 :i* are1 or consi/5tly ) exp]i5ce might h be51 produc$ f ! same /ock4 ,b ?is di/9ction1 9 mo/1 & probably 9 all cases1 happily accords ) ! o!r4 ,x seems to be a law ( physiology1 t animals & plants d really1 9 ! philosophical z well z ! popul> s5se1 propagate _! k9d2 transmitt+ to _! desc5dants all ! di/9ctions ( ,k9d 7d[n to ! mo/ special or l[e/ ,k9d7 :i* !y !mselves possess4 #bb ,nov4 ,org4 ,r5ov4 p4 #bgd4 #bc ,hi/4 ,sc4 ,id4 i4 #acc4 #bd ,dr4 ,:ewell1 9 8 reply 7,philosophy ( ,discov]y1 p4 #bgj7 says t he /opp$ %ort (1 or r pass$ by1 ! doctr9e ( a s]ies ( organiz$ be+s1 because he ?\ght x bad & n>r[ philosophy4 ,if he did1 x 0 evid5tly )\t und]/&+ ?is =m ( ! doctr9e2 = he proce$s to quote a passage f 8 ,hi/ory1 9 :i* ! doctr9e he condemns is designat$ z t ( a m]e l9e> progression 9 nature1 :i* w\ld place ea* g5us 9 contact only ) ! prec$+ & succe$+ ones4 ,n[ ! s]ies treat$ ( 9 ! text agrees ) ?is l9e> progression 9 no?+ :atev] b 9 be+ a progression4 ,x w\ld surely be possible to arrange all places 7= example7 9 ! ord] ( _! di/ance f ! ,nor? ,pole1 ?\gh !re w\ld be n m]ely a plurality1 b a :ole circle ( places at e s+le gradation 9 ! scale4 ,,book ,v4 ,,on ,,fallacies4 ,err>e non modo affirm&o et neg&o1 s$ etiam s5ti5do1 et 9 tacit hom9um cogitatione cont+it4--,,hobbes1 ,computatio sive ,logica1 *4 v4 ,il leur semble qu'il n'y a qu' d\t] p> fantaisie1 et qu'il n'y a qu' dire en gnral que notre nature e/ infirme2 que notre esprit e/ ple9 d'aveuglem5t2 qu'il faut avoir un gr& so9 de se dfaire de ses prjugs1 et autres *oses semblables4 ,ils p5s5t que cela suffit p\r ne plus se laiss] sduire ses s5s1 et p\r ne plus se tromp] du t\t4 ,il ne suffit pas de dire que l'esprit e/ foible1 il faut lui faire s5tir ses foiblesses4 ,ce n'e/ pas assez de dire qu'il e/ sujet l'erreur1 il faut lui dc\vrir en quoi consi/5t ses erreurs4--,,malebran*e1 ,re*]*e de la ,vrit4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,( ,,fallacies ,,9 ,,g5]al4 #a4 ,x is a maxim ( ! s*oolm51 t contr>iorum eadem e/ sci5tia3 we nev] really "k :at a ?+ is1 unless we are also able to give a suffici5t acc\nt ( its opposite4 ,con=mably to ?is maxim1 "o consid]able section1 9 mo/ treatises on ,logic1 is devot$ to ! subject ( ,fallacies2 & ! practice is too well wor?y ( obs]vance1 to all[ ( our dep>t+ f x4 ,! philosophy ( reason+1 to be complete1 ought to comprise ! !ory ( bad z well z ( good reason+4 ,we h endeav\r$ to asc]ta9 ! pr9ciples by :i* ! suffici5cy ( any pro( c be te/$1 & by :i* ! nature & am\nt ( evid5ce ne$ful to prove any giv5 conclusion c be det]m9$ be=eh&4 ,if ^! pr9ciples 7 adh]$ to1 !n al?\gh ! numb] & value ( ! tru?s asc]ta9$ w\ld be limit$ by ! opportunities1 or by ! indu/ry1 +5uity1 & pati5ce1 ( ! individual inquir]1 at lea/ error w\ld n be embrac$ in/ead ( tru?4 ,b ! g5]al cons5t ( mank9d1 f\nd$ on _! exp]i5ce1 v\*es = _! be+ f> inde$ f ev5 ?is negative k9d ( p]fection 9 ! employm5t ( _! reason+ p[]s4 ,9 ! conduct ( life--9 ! practical bus9ess ( mank9d--wrong inf]5ces1 incorrect int]pretations ( exp]i5ce1 unless aft] mu* culture ( ! ?9k+ faculty1 are absolutely inevitable3 & ) mo/ p1 aft] ! highe/ degree ( culture !y ev] atta91 su* errone\s inf]5ces1 produc+ correspond+ errors 9 conduct1 are lam5tably frequ5t4 ,ev5 9 ! speculations to :i* em95t intellects h sy/ematically devot$ !mselves1 & 9 ref]5ce to :i* ! collective m9d ( ! sci5tific _w is always at h& to aid ! ef=ts & correct ! ab]rations ( individuals1 x is only f ! m p]fect sci5ces1 f ^? ( :i* ! subject-matt] is ! lea/ complicat$1 t op9ions n re/+ on a correct induction h at l5g?1 g5]ally speak+1 be5 expell$4 ,9 ! dep>tm5ts ( inquiry relat+ to ! m complex ph5om5a ( nature1 & especially ^? ( :i* ! subject is man1 :e!r z a moral & intellectual1 a social1 or ev5 z a physical be+2 ! div]sity ( op9ions /ill preval5t among in/ruct$ p]sons1 & ! equal confid5ce ) :i* ^? ( ! mo/ contr>y ways ( ?9k+ cl+ to _! respective t5ets1 are pro( n only t "r modes ( philosophiz+ are n yet g5]ally adopt$ on ^? subjects1 b t wrong ones are3 t inquir]s h n only 9 g5]al miss$ ! tru?1 b h (t5 embrac$ error2 t ev5 ! mo/ cultivat$ portion ( our species h n yet le>n$ to ab/a9 f draw+ conclusions :i* ! evid5ce does n w>rant4 ,! only complete safegu>d aga9/ reason+ ill1 is ! habit ( reason+ well2 famili>ity ) ! pr9ciples ( correct reason+1 & practice 9 apply+ ^? pr9ciples4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 n unimportant to consid] :at are ! mo/ common modes ( bad reason+2 by :at appe>ances ! m9d is mo/ likely to be s$uc$ f ! obs]vance ( true pr9ciples ( induction2 :at1 9 %ort1 are ! mo/ common & mo/ dang]\s v>ieties ( ,app>5t ,evid5ce1 :]eby p]sons are misl$ into op9ions = :i* !re does n exi/ evid5ce really conclusive4 ,a catalogue ( ! v>ieties ( app>5t evid5ce :i* are n real evid5ce1 is an enum]ation ( ,fallacies4 ,)\t su* an enum]ation1 !re=e1 ! pres5t "w w\ld be want+ 9 an ess5tial po9t4 ,& :ile writ]s :o includ$ 9 _! !ory ( reason+ no?+ m ?an ratioc9ation1 h1 9 consi/5cy ) ?is limitation1 conf9$ _! rem>ks to ! fallacies :i* h _! seat 9 t portion ( ! process ( inve/igation2 we1 :o pr(ess to treat ( ! :ole process1 mu/ add to our directions = p]=m+ x rightly1 w>n+s aga9/ p]=m+ x wrongly 9 any ( its p>ts3 :e!r ! ratioc9ative or ! exp]im5tal portion ( x be 9 fault1 or ! fault lie 9 disp5s+ ) ratioc9ation & induction altoge!r4 #b4 ,9 consid]+ ! s\rces ( unf\nd$ inf]5ce1 x is unnecess>y to reckon ! errors :i* arise1 n f a wrong me?od1 nor ev5 f ignorance ( ! "r "o1 b f a casual lapse1 ?r\gh hurry or inatt5tion1 9 ! application ( ! true pr9ciples ( induction4 ,su* errors1 l ! accid5tal mi/akes 9 ca/+ up a sum1 d n call = philosophical analysis or classification2 !oretical consid]ations c ?r[ no light ^u ! means ( avoid+ !m4 ,9 ! pres5t treatise our att5tion is requir$1 n to m]e inexp]tness 9 p]=m+ ! op]ation 9 ! "r way1 7! only rem$ies = :i* are increas$ att5tion & m s$ul\s practice17 b to ! modes ( p]=m+ x 9 a way fundam5tally wrong2 ! conditions "u :i* ! human m9d p]suades itself t x has suffici5t gr\nds = a conclusion :i* x has n arriv$ at by any ( ! legitimate me?ods ( induction--:i* x has n ev5 c>elessly or ov]ha/ily1 endeav\r$ to te/ by ^? legitimate me?ods4 #c4 ,!re is ano!r bran* ( :at may be call$ ! ,philosophy ( ,error1 :i* mu/ be m5tion$ "h1 ?\gh only to be exclud$ f our subject4 ,! s\rces ( errone\s op9ions are tw(old1 moral & intellectual4 ,( ^!1 ! moral d n fall )9 ! compass ( ?is "w4 ,!y may be class$ "u two g5]al heads2 ,indiff]5ce to ! atta9m5t ( tru?1 & ,bias3 ( :i* la/ ! mo/ common case is t 9 :i* we are biass$ by our wi%es2 b ! liability is almo/ z great to ! undue adoption ( a conclusion :i* is disagreeable to u1 z ( "o :i* is agreeable1 if x be ( a nature to br+ into action any ( ! /rong] passions4 ,p]sons ( timid "* are ! m pr$ispos$ to believe any /atem5t1 ! m x is calculat$ to al>m !m4 ,inde$ x is a psy*ological law1 d$ucible f ! mo/ g5]al laws ( ! m5tal con/itution ( man1 t any /rong passion r5d]s u cr$ul\s z to ! exi/5ce ( objects suitable to excite x4 ,b ! moral causes ( op9ions1 ?\gh ) mo/ p]sons ! mo/ p[]ful ( all1 are b remote causes3 !y d n act directly1 b by means ( ! intellectual causes2 to :i* !y be> ! same relation t ! circum/ances call$1 9 ! !ory ( m$ic9e1 pr$ispos+ causes1 be> to excit+ causes4 ,indiff]5ce to tru? _c1 9 & by itself1 produce errone\s belief2 x op]ates by prev5t+ ! m9d f collect+ ! prop] evid5ces1 or f apply+ to !m ! te/ ( a legitimate & rigid induction2 by :i* omission x is expos$ unprotect$ to ! influ5ce ( any species ( app>5t evid5ce :i* (f]s itself spontane\sly1 or :i* is elicit$ by t small] quantity ( tr\ble :i* ! m9d may be will+ to take4 ,z little is ,bias a direct s\rce ( wrong conclusions4 ,we _c believe a proposition only by wi%+1 or only by dread+1 to believe x4 ,! mo/ viol5t incl9ation to f9d a set ( propositions true1 w n enable ! weake/ ( mank9d to believe !m )\t a ve/ige ( intellectual gr\nds--)\t any1 ev5 app>5t1 evid5ce4 ,x acts indirectly1 by plac+ ! intellectual gr\nds ( belief 9 an incomplete or di/ort$ %ape be=e 8 eyes4 ,x makes him %r9k f ! irksome lab\r ( a rigor\s induction1 :5 he has a misgiv+ t its result may be disagreeable2 & 9 su* exam9ation z he does in/itute1 x makes him ex]t t :i* is 9 a c]ta9 measure volunt>y1 8 att5tion1 unfairly1 giv+ a l>g] %>e ( x to ! evid5ce :i* seems fav\rable to ! desir$ conclusion1 a small] to t :i* seems unfav\rable4 ,x op]ates1 too1 by mak+ him look out eag]ly = reasons1 or app>5t reasons1 to support op9ions :i* are con=mable1 or resi/ ^? :i* are repugnant1 to 8 int]e/s or feel+s2 & :5 ! int]e/s or feel+s are common to great numb]s ( p]sons1 reasons are accept$ & pass curr5t1 :i* w\ld n = a mom5t be li/5$ to 9 t "*1 if ! conclusion _h no?+ m p[]ful ?an its reasons to speak 9 its behalf4 ,! natural or acquir$ p>tialities ( mank9d are cont9ually ?r[+ up philosophical !ories1 ! sole recomm5dation ( :i* consi/s 9 ! premises !y af=d = prov+ *]i%$ doctr9es1 or ju/ify+ fav\rite feel+s3 & :5 any "o ( ^! !ories has be5 s ?or\ghly discr$it$ z no long] to s]ve ! purpose1 ano!r is always ready to take its place4 ,?is prop5sity1 :5 ex]cis$ 9 fav\r ( any widely-spread p]suasion or s5tim5t1 is (t5 decorat$ ) complim5t>y epi!ts2 & ! contr>y habit ( keep+ ! judgm5t 9 complete subord9ation to evid5ce1 is /igmatiz$ by v>i\s h>d names1 z scepticism1 immorality1 coldness1 h>d-he>t$ness1 & simil> expressions accord+ to ! nature ( ! case4 ,b ?\gh ! op9ions ( ! g5]ality ( mank9d1 :5 n dep5d5t on m]e habit & inculcation1 h _! root mu* m 9 ! incl9ations ?an 9 ! intellect1 x is a necess>y condition to ! triumph ( ! moral bias t x %\ld fir/ p]v]t ! und]/&+4 ,e errone\s inf]5ce1 ?\gh orig9at+ 9 moral causes1 involves ! intellectual op]ation ( admitt+ insuffici5t evid5ce z suffici5t2 & :oev] 0 on 8 gu>d aga9/ all k9ds ( inconclusive evid5ce :i* c be mi/ak5 = conclusive1 w\ld be 9 no dang] ( be+ l$ into error ev5 by ! /ronge/ bias4 ,!re are m9ds s /rongly =tifi$ on ! intellectual side1 t !y c\ld n bl9d !mselves to ! light ( tru?1 h[ev] really desir\s ( do+ s2 !y c\ld n1 ) all ! incl9ation 9 ! _w1 pass (f ^u !mselves bad argum5ts = good ones4 ,if ! sophi/ry ( ! intellect c\ld be r5d]$ impossible1 t ( ! feel+s1 hav+ no in/rum5t to "w )1 w\ld be p[]less4 ,a compreh5sive classification ( all ^? ?+s :i*1 n be+ evid5ce1 are liable to appe> su* to ! und]/&+1 w1 !re=e1 ( itself include all errors ( judgm5t aris+ f moral causes1 to ! exclusion only ( errors ( practice committ$ aga9/ bett] k4 ,to exam9e1 !n1 ! v>i\s k9ds ( app>5t evid5ce :i* are n evid5ce at all1 & ( app>5tly conclusive evid5ce :i* d n really am\nt to conclusiv5ess1 is ! object ( t "p ( our inquiry into :i* we are ab\t to ent]4 ,! subject is n beyond ! compass ( classification & compreh5sive survey4 ,! ?+s1 inde$1 :i* are n evid5ce ( any giv5 conclusion1 are manife/ly endless1 & ?is negative prop]ty1 hav+ no dep5d5ce on any positive ones1 _c be made ! gr\ndwork ( a real classification4 ,b ! ?+s :i*1 n be+ evid5ce1 are susceptible ( be+ mi/ak5 = x1 are capable ( a classification hav+ ref]5ce to ! positive prop]ty :i* !y possess1 ( appe>+ to be evid5ce4 ,we may arrange !m1 at our *oice1 on ei!r ( two pr9ciples2 accord+ to ! cause :i* makes !m appe> to be evid5ce1 n be+ s2 or accord+ to ! p>ticul> k9d ( evid5ce :i* !y simulate4 ,! ,classification ( ,fallacies :i* w be attempt$ 9 ! ensu+ *apt]1 is f\nd$ on ^! consid]ations jo9tly4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,classification ,,( ,,fallacies4 #a4 ,9 attempt+ to e/abli% c]ta9 g5]al di/9ctions :i* %all m>k out f "o ano!r ! v>i\s k9ds ( ,fallaci\s ,evid5ce1 we propose to ourselves an altoge!r diff]5t aim f t ( sev]al em95t ?9k]s1 :o h giv51 "u ! "n ( ,political or o!r ,fallacies1 a m]e enum]ation ( a c]ta9 numb] ( errone\s op9ions2 false g5]al propositions :i* happ5 to be (t5 met )2 loci communes ( bad argum5ts on "s p>ticul> subject4 ,logic is n conc]n$ ) ! false op9ions :i* p happ5 to ent]ta91 b ) ! mann] 9 :i* !y come to ent]ta9 !m4 ,! "q is n1 :at facts h at any "t be5 errone\sly suppos$ to be pro( ( c]ta9 o!r facts1 b :at prop]ty 9 ! facts x 0 :i* l$ any "o to ?is mi/ak5 supposition4 ,:5 a fact is suppos$1 ?\gh incorrectly1 to be evid5ti>y (1 or a m>k (1 "s o!r fact1 !re mu/ be a cause ( ! error2 ! suppos$ evid5ti>y fact mu/ be connect$ 9 "s p>ticul> mann] ) ! fact ( :i* x is deem$ evid5ti>y1--mu/ /& 9 "s p>ticul> relation to x1 )\t :i* relation x w\ld n be reg>d$ 9 t light4 ,! relation may ei!r be "o result+ f ! simple contemplation ( ! two facts side by side ) "o ano!r1 or x may dep5d on "s process ( m9d1 by :i* a previ\s association has be5 e/abli%$ betwe5 !m4 ,"s peculi>ity ( relation1 h[ev]1 !re mu/ be2 ! fact :i* c1 ev5 by ! wilde/ ab]ration1 be suppos$ to prove ano!r fact1 mu/ /& 9 "s special position ) reg>d to x2 & if we c\ld asc]ta9 & def9e t special position1 we %\ld p]ceive ! orig9 ( ! error4 ,we _c reg>d "o fact z evid5ti>y ( ano!r1 unless we believe t ! two are always1 or 9 ! majority ( cases1 conjo9$4 ,if we believe ,a to be evid5ti>y ( ,b1 if :5 we see ,a we are incl9$ to inf] ,b f x1 ! reason is because we believe t :]ev] ,a is1 ,b also ei!r always or = ! mo/ "p exi/s1 ei!r z an antec$5t1 a consequ5t1 or a concomitant4 ,if :5 we see ,a we are incl9$ n to expect ,b--if we believe ,a to be evid5ti>y ( ! abs5ce ( ,b--x is because we believe t :]e ,a is1 ,b ei!r is nev]1 or at lea/ seldom1 f\nd4 ,errone\s conclusions1 9 %ort1 no less ?an correct conclusions1 h an inv>iable relation to a g5]al =mula1 ei!r express$ or tacitly impli$4 ,:5 we inf] "s fact f "s o!r fact :i* does n really prove x1 we ei!r h admitt$1 or1 if we ma9ta9$ consi/5cy1 ought to admit1 "s gr\ndless g5]al proposition respect+ ! conjunction ( ! two ph5om5a4 ,= e prop]ty1 !re=e1 9 facts1 or 9 our mode ( consid]+ facts1 :i* leads u to believe t !y are habitually conjo9$ :5 !y are n1 or t !y are n :5 9 reality !y are1 !re is a correspond+ k9d ( ,fallacy2 & an enum]ation ( fallacies w\ld consi/ 9 a specification ( ^? prop]ties 9 facts1 & ^? peculi>ities 9 our mode ( consid]+ !m1 :i* give rise to ?is errone\s op9ion4 #b4 ,to beg91 !n2 ! suppos$ connexion1 or repugnance1 betwe5 ! two facts1 may ei!r be a conclusion f evid5ce 7t is1 f "s o!r proposition or propositions7 or may be admitt$ )\t any su* gr\nd2 admitt$1 z ! phrase is1 on its own evid5ce2 embrac$ z self-evid5t1 z an axiomatic tru?4 ,?is gives rise to ! fir/ great di/9ction1 t betwe5 ,fallacies ( ,inf]5ce1 & ,fallacies ( ,simple ,inspection4 ,9 ! latt] division mu/ be includ$ n only all cases 9 :i* a proposition is believ$ & held = true1 lit]ally )\t any extr9sic evid5ce1 ei!r ( specific exp]i5ce or g5]al reason+2 b ^? m frequ5t cases 9 :i* simple inspection creates a presumption 9 fav\r ( a proposition2 n suffici5t = belief1 b suffici5t to cause ! /rict pr9ciples ( a regul> induction to be disp5s$ )1 & creat+ a pr$isposition to believe x on evid5ce :i* w\ld be se5 to be insuffici5t if no su* presumption exi/$4 ,?is class1 compreh5d+ ! :ole ( :at may be t]m$ ,natural ,prejudices1 & :i* ,i %all call indiscrim9ately ,fallacies ( ,simple ,inspection or ,fallacies priori1 %all be plac$ at ! head ( our li/4 ,fallacies ( ,inf]5ce1 or errone\s conclusions f suppos$ evid5ce1 mu/ be subdivid$ accord+ to ! nature ( ! app>5t evid5ce f :i* ! conclusions are drawn2 or 7:at is ! same ?+7 accord+ to ! p>ticul> k9d ( s\nd argum5t :i* ! fallacy 9 "q simulates4 ,b !re is a di/9ction to be fir/ drawn1 :i* does n answ] to any ( ! divisions ( s\nd argum5ts1 b arises out ( ! nature ( bad ones4 ,we may "k exactly :at our evid5ce is1 & yet draw a false conclusion f x2 we may conceive precisely :at our premises are1 :at alleg$ matt]s ( fact1 or g5]al pr9ciples1 are ! f\ndation ( our inf]5ce2 & yet1 because ! premises are false1 or because we h inf]r$ f !m :at !y w n support1 our conclusion may be errone\s4 ,b a case1 p]haps ev5 m frequ5t1 is t 9 :i* ! error arises f n conceiv+ our premises ) due cle>ness1 t is1 7z %[n 9 ! prec$+ ,book1#a7 ) due fixity3 =m+ "o conception ( our evid5ce :5 we collect or receive x1 & ano!r :5 we make use ( x2 or unadvis$ly1 & 9 g5]al unconsci\sly1 sub/itut+1 z we proce$1 diff]5t premises 9 ! place ( ^? ) :i* we set out1 or a diff]5t conclusion = t :i* we und]took to prove4 ,?is gives exi/5ce to a class ( fallacies :i* may be ju/ly t]m$ 79 a phrase borr[$ f ,b5?am7 ,fallacies ( ,confusion2 compreh5d+1 among o!rs1 all ^? :i* h _! s\rce 9 language1 :e!r aris+ f ! vagu5ess or ambiguity ( our t]ms1 or f casual associations ) !m4 ,:5 ! fallacy is n "o ( ,confusion1 t is1 :5 ! proposition believ$1 & ! evid5ce on :i* x is believ$1 are /eadily appreh5d$ & unambigu\sly express$1 !re rema9 to be made two cross divisions4 ,! ,app>5t ,evid5ce may be ei!r p>ticul> facts1 or =egone g5]alizations2 t is1 ! process may simulate ei!r simple ,induction1 or ,d$uction2 & aga91 ! evid5ce1 :e!r consi/+ ( suppos$ facts or ( g5]al propositions1 may be false 9 itself1 or1 be+ true1 may fail to be> out ! conclusion attempt$ to be f\nd$ on x4 ,?is gives u fir/1 ,fallacies ( ,induction & ,fallacies ( ,d$uction1 & !n a subdivision ( ea* ( ^!1 accord+ z ! suppos$ evid5ce is false1 or true b inconclusive4 ,fallacies ( ,induction1 :]e ! facts on :i* ! induction proce$s are errone\s1 may be t]m$ ,fallacies ( ,obs]vation4 ,! t]m is n /rictly accurate1 or r1 n accurately coext5sive ) ! class ( fallacies :i* ,i propose to designate by x4 ,induction is n always gr\nd$ on facts imm$iately obs]v$1 b sometimes on facts inf]r$3 & :5 ^! la/ are errone\s1 ! error may n be1 9 ! lit]al s5se ( ! t]m1 an in/ance ( bad obs]vation1 b ( bad inf]5ce4 ,x w be conv5i5t1 h[ev]1 to make only "o class ( all ! inductions ( :i* ! error lies 9 n suffici5tly asc]ta9+ ! facts on :i* ! !ory is gr\nd$2 :e!r ! cause ( failure be mal-obs]vation1 or simple non-obs]vation1 & :e!r ! mal-obs]vation be direct1 or by means ( int]m$iate m>ks :i* d n prove :at !y are suppos$ to prove4 ,& 9 ! abs5ce ( any compreh5sive t]m to d5ote ! asc]ta9m5t1 by :atev] means1 ( ! facts on :i* an induction is gr\nd$1 ,i w v5ture to reta9 = ?is class ( fallacies1 "u ! explanation n[ giv51 ! title ( ,fallacies ( ,obs]vation4 ,! o!r class ( inductive fallacies1 9 :i* ! facts are correct1 b ! conclusion n w>rant$ by !m1 are prop]ly d5om9at$ ,fallacies ( ,g5]alization3 & ^!1 aga91 fall into v>i\s subord9ate classes or natural gr\ps1 "s ( :i* w be enum]at$ 9 _! prop] place4 ,:5 we n[ turn to ,fallacies ( ,d$uction1 namely ^? modes ( incorrect argum5tation 9 :i* ! premises1 or "s ( !m1 are g5]al propositions1 & ! argum5t a ratioc9ation2 we may ( c\rse subdivide ^! also into two species simil> to ! two prec$+1 namely1 ^? :i* proce$ on false premises1 & ^? ( :i* ! premises1 ?\gh true1 d n support ! conclusion4 ,b ( ^! species1 ! fir/ mu/ necess>ily fall "u "s "o ( ! heads already enum]at$4 ,= ! error mu/ be ei!r 9 ^? premises :i* are g5]al propositions1 or 9 ^? :i* ass]t individual facts4 ,9 ! =m] case x is an ,inductive ,fallacy1 ( "o or ! o!r class2 9 ! latt] x is a ,fallacy ( ,obs]vation3 unless1 9 ei!r case1 ! errone\s premise has be5 assum$ on simple inspection1 9 :i* case ! fallacy is priori4 ,or f9ally1 ! premises1 ( :i*ev] k9d !y are1 may nev] h be5 conceiv$ 9 s di/9ct a mann] z to produce any cle> consci\sness by :at means !y 7 arriv$ at2 z 9 ! case ( :at is call$ reason+ 9 a circle3 & !n ! fallacy is "o ( ,confusion4 ,!re rema91 !re=e1 z ! only class ( fallacies hav+ prop]ly _! seat 9 d$uction1 ^? 9 :i* ! premises ( ! ratioc9ation d n be> out its conclusion2 ! v>i\s cases1 9 %ort1 ( vici\s argum5tation1 provid$ aga9/ by ! rules ( ! syllogism4 ,we %all call ^!1 ,fallacies ( ,ratioc9ation4 ,we h ?us five di/+ui%able classes ( fallacy1 :i* may be express$ 9 ! foll[+ synoptic table3-- ,fallacies ( ,simple ,inspection #a4 ,fallacies priori4 ( ,inf]5ce f evid5ce di/9ctly conceiv$ ,inductive ,fallacies #b4 ,fallacies ( ,obs]vation4 #c4 ,fallacies ( ,g5]alization4 ,d$uctive ,fallacies #d4 ,fallacies ( ,ratioc9ation4 f evid5ce indi/9ctly conceiv$ #e4 ,fallacies ( ,confusion4 #c4 ,we mu/ n1 h[ev]1 expect to f9d t m5's actual errors always1 or ev5 commonly1 fall s unmi/akeably "u "s "o ( ^! classes1 z to be incapable ( be+ ref]r$ to any o!r4 ,errone\s argum5ts d n admit ( su* a %>ply cut division z valid argum5ts d4 ,an argum5t fully /at$1 ) all its /eps di/9ctly set out1 9 language n susceptible ( misund]/&+1 mu/1 if x be errone\s1 be s 9 "s "o ( ^! five modes unequivocally3 or inde$ ( ! fir/ f\r1 s9ce ! fif?1 on su* a supposition1 w\ld vani%4 ,b x is n 9 ! nature ( bad reason+ to express itself ?us unambigu\sly4 ,:5 a sophi/1 :e!r he is impos+ on himself or attempt+ to impose on o!rs1 c be con/ra9$ to ?r[ 8 sophi/ry into s di/9ct a =m1 x ne$s1 9 a l>ge proportion ( cases1 no fur!r exposure4 ,9 all argum5ts1 ev]y:]e b 9 ! s*ools1 "s ( ! l9ks are suppress$2 =tiori :5 ! argu] ei!r int5ds to deceive1 or is a lame & inexp]t ?9k]1 little accu/om$ to br+ 8 reason+ processes to any te/3 & x is 9 ^? /eps ( ! reason+ :i* are made 9 ?is tacit & half-consci\s1 or ev5 :olly unconsci\s mann]1 t ! error (t5e/ lurks4 ,9 ord] to detect ! fallacy1 ! proposition ?us sil5tly assum$ mu/ be suppli$2 b ! reason]1 mo/ likely1 has nev] really ask$ himself :at he 0 assum+3 8 confut]1 unless p]mitt$ to extort x f him by ! ,socratic mode ( int]rogation1 mu/ himself judge :at ! suppress$ premise ought to be 9 ord] to support ! conclusion4 ,& h5ce1 9 ! words ( ,ar*bi%op ,:ately1 x mu/ be (t5 a matt] ( d\bt1 or r1 ( arbitr>y *oice1 n only to :i* g5us ea* k9d ( fallacy %\ld be ref]r$1 b ev5 to :i* k9d to ref] any "o individual fallacy2 = s9ce1 9 any c\rse ( argum5t1 "o premise is usually suppress$1 x frequ5tly happ5s 9 ! case ( a fallacy1 t ! he>]s are left to ! alt]native ( supply+ ei!r a premise :i* is n true1 or else1 "o :i* does n prove ! conclusion3 e4 g4 if a man expatiates on ! di/ress ( ! c\ntry1 & !nce argues t ! gov]nm5t is tyrannical1 we mu/ suppose him to assume ei!r t 'e di/ress$ c\ntry is "u a tyranny1' :i* is a manife/ falsehood1 or m]ely t 'e c\ntry "u a tyranny is di/ress$1' :i*1 h[ev] true1 proves no?+1 ! middle t]m be+ undi/ribut$4 ,! =m] w\ld be rank$1 9 our di/ribution1 among fallacies ( g5]alization1 ! latt] among ^? ( ratioc9ation4 ,:i* are we to suppose ! speak] meant u to und]/&8 ,surely 7if he und]/ood himself7 j :i*ev] ea* ( 8 he>]s might happ5 to pref]3 "s might ass5t to ! false premise2 o!rs all[ ! uns\nd syllogism4 ,almo/ all fallacies1 !re=e1 might 9 /rictness be br\ght "u our fif? class1 ,fallacies ( ,confusion4 ,a fallacy c seldom be absolutely ref]r$ to any ( ! o!r classes2 we c only say1 t if all ! l9ks 7 fill$ up :i* %\ld be capable ( be+ suppli$ 9 a valid argum5t1 x w\ld ei!r /& ?us 7=m+ a fallacy ( "o class71 or ?us 7a fallacy ( ano!r72 or at fur!/ we may say1 t ! conclusion is mo/ likely to h orig9at$ 9 a fallacy ( su* & su* a class4 ,?us 9 ! illu/ration j quot$1 ! error committ$ may be trac$ ) mo/ probability to a fallacy ( g5]alization2 t ( mi/ak+ an unc]ta9 m>k1 or piece ( evid5ce1 = a c]ta9 "o2 conclud+ f an effect to "s "o ( its possible causes1 :5 !re are o!rs :i* w\ld h be5 equally capable ( produc+ x4 ,yet1 ?\gh ! five classes run into ea* o!r1 & a p>ticul> error (t5 seems to be arbitr>ily assign$ to "o ( !m r ?an to any ( ! re/1 !re is consid]able use 9 s di/+ui%+ !m4 ,we %all f9d x conv5i5t to set ap>t1 z ,fallacies ( ,confusion1 ^? ( :i* confusion is ! mo/ obvi\s *>act]i/ic2 9 :i* no o!r cause c be assign$ = ! mi/ake committ$1 ?an neglect or inability to /ate ! "q prop]ly1 & to appreh5d ! evid5ce ) def9it5ess & precision4 ,9 ! rema9+ f\r classes ,i %all place n only ! cases 9 :i* ! evid5ce is cle>ly se5 to be :at x is1 & yet a wrong conclusion drawn f x1 b also ^? 9 :i*1 al?\gh !re be confusion1 ! confusion is n ! sole cause ( ! error1 b !re is "s %ad[ ( a gr\nd = x 9 ! nature ( ! evid5ce itself4 ,& 9 di/ribut+ ^! cases ( p>tial confusion among ! f\r classes1 ,i %all1 :5 !re c be any hesitation z to ! precise seat ( ! fallacy1 suppose x to be 9 t "p ( ! process 9 :i*1 f ! nature ( ! case1 & ! t5d5cies ( ! human m9d1 an error w\ld 9 ! p>ticul> circum/ances be ! mo/ probable4 ,aft] ^! obs]vations we %all proce$1 )\t fur!r preamble1 to consid] ! five classes 9 _! ord]4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,fallacies ,,( ,,simple ,,inspection2 ,,or ,,priori ,,fallacies4 #a4 ,! tribe ( errors ( :i* we are to treat 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 are ^? 9 :i* no actual inf]5ce takes place at all3 ! proposition 7x _c 9 su* cases be call$ a conclusion7 be+ embrac$1 n z prov$1 b z requir+ no pro(2 z a self-evid5t tru?2 or else z hav+ su* intr9sic v]isimilitude1 t ext]nal evid5ce n 9 itself am\nt+ to pro(1 is suffici5t 9 aid ( ! antec$5t presumption4 ,an attempt to treat ?is subject compreh5sively w\ld be a transgression ( ! b\nds prescrib$ to ?is "w1 s9ce x w\ld necessitate ! inquiry :i*1 m ?an any o!r1 is ! gr& "q ( :at is call$ metaphysics1 viz4 ,:at are ! propositions :i* may reasonably be receiv$ )\t pro(8 ,t !re mu/ be "s su* propositions all are agre$1 s9ce !re _c be an inf9ite s]ies ( pro(1 a *a9 susp5d$ f no?+4 ,b to det]m9e :at ^! propositions are1 is ! opus magnum ( ! m recondite m5tal philosophy4 ,two pr9cipal divisions ( op9ion on ! subject h divid$ ! s*ools ( philosophy f its fir/ dawn4 ,! "o recognises no ultimate premises b ! facts ( our subjective consci\sness2 our s5sations1 emotions1 intellectual /ates ( m9d1 & volitions4 ,^!1 & :atev] by /rict rules ( induction c be d]iv$ f ^!1 x is possible1 accord+ to ?is !ory1 = u to "k2 ( all else we mu/ rema9 9 ignorance4 ,! opposite s*ool hold t !re are o!r exi/5ces1 sugge/$ inde$ to our m9ds by ^! subjective ph5om5a1 b n inf]rible f !m1 by any process ei!r ( d$uction or ( induction2 :i*1 h[ev]1 we mu/1 by ! con/itution ( our m5tal nature recognise z realities2 & realities1 too1 ( a high] ord] ?an ! ph5om5a ( our consci\sness1 be+ ! effici5t causes & necess>y sub/rata ( all ,ph5om5a4 ,among ^! entities !y reckon ,sub/ances1 :e!r matt] or _s2 f ! du/ "u our feet to ! s\l1 & f t to ,deity4 ,all ^!1 accord+ to !m1 are pret]natural or sup]natural be+s1 hav+ no lik5ess 9 exp]i5ce1 ?\gh exp]i5ce is entirely a manife/ation ( _! ag5cy4 ,_! exi/5ce1 toge!r ) m or less ( ! laws to :i* !y con=m 9 _! op]ations1 are1 on ?is !ory1 appreh5d$ & recognis$ z real by ! m9d itself intuitively3 exp]i5ce 7:e!r 9 ! =m ( s5sation or ( m5tal feel+7 hav+ no o!r "p 9 ! matt] ?an z af=d+ facts :i* are consi/5t ) ^! necess>y po/ulates ( reason1 & :i* are expla9$ & acc\nt$ = by !m4 ,z x is =eign to ! purpose ( ! pres5t treatise to decide betwe5 ^! conflict+ !ories1 we are preclud$ f inquir+ into ! exi/5ce1 or def9+ ! ext5t & limits1 ( k priori1 & f *>act]iz+ ! k9d ( correct assumption :i* ! fallacy ( incorrect assumption1 n[ "u consid]ation1 simulates4 ,yet s9ce x is all[$ on bo? sides t su* assumptions are (t5 made improp]ly1 we may f9d x practicable1 )\t ent]+ into ! ultimate metaphysical gr\nds ( ! discussion1 to /ate "s speculative propositions1 & sugge/ "s practical cautions1 respect+ ! =ms 9 :i* su* unw>rant$ assumptions are mo/ likely to be made4 #b4 ,9 ! cases 9 :i*1 accord+ to ! ?9k]s ( ! ontological s*ool1 ! m9d appreh5ds1 by intuition1 ?+s1 & ! laws ( ?+s1 n cognizable by our s5sitive faculty2 ^? intuitive1 or suppos$ intuitive1 p]ceptions are undi/+ui%able f :at ! opposite s*ool are accu/om$ to call ideas ( ! m9d4 ,:5 !y !mselves say t !y p]ceive ! ?+s by an imm$iate act ( a faculty giv5 = t purpose by _! ,creator1 x w\ld be said ( !m by _! oppon5ts t !y f9d an idea or conception 9 _! own m9ds1 & f ! idea or conception1 inf] ! exi/5ce ( a correspond+ objective reality4 ,nor w\ld ?is be an unfair /atem5t1 b a m]e v]sion into o!r words ( ! acc\nt giv5 by _m ( !mselves2 & "o to :i* ! m cle>-sight$ ( !m might1 & g5]ally d1 )\t hesitation1 subscribe4 ,s9ce1 !re=e1 9 ! cases :i* lay ! /ronge/ claims to be examples ( k priori1 ! m9d proce$s f ! idea ( a ?+ to ! reality ( ! ?+ itself1 we _c be surpris$ by f9d+ t illicit assumptions priori consi/ 9 do+ ! same ?+ errone\sly3 9 mi/ak+ subjective facts = objective1 laws ( ! p]cipi5t m9d = laws ( ! p]ceiv$ object1 prop]ties ( ! ideas or conceptions = prop]ties ( ! ?+s conceiv$4 ,accord+ly1 a l>ge proportion ( ! errone\s ?9k+ :i* exi/s 9 ! _w proce$s on a tacit assumption1 t ! same ord] mu/ obta9 among ! objects 9 nature :i* obta9s among our ideas ( !m4 ,t if we always ?9k ( two ?+s toge!r1 ! two ?+s mu/ always exi/ toge!r4 ,t if "o ?+ makes u ?9k ( ano!r z prec$+ or foll[+ x1 t o!r mu/ prec$e x or foll[ x 9 actual fact4 ,& conv]sely1 t :5 we _c conceive two ?+s toge!r !y _c exi/ toge!r1 & t _! comb9ation may1 )\t fur!r evid5ce1 be reject$ f ! li/ ( possible occurr5ces4 ,few p]sons1 ,i am incl9$ to ?9k1 h reflect$ on ! great ext5t to :i* ?is fallacy has prevail$1 & prevails1 9 ! actual beliefs & actions ( mank9d4 ,= a fir/ illu/ration ( x1 we may ref] to a l>ge class ( popul> sup]/itions4 ,if any "o w exam9e 9 :at circum/ances mo/ ( ^? ?+s agree1 :i* 9 diff]5t ages & by diff]5t portions ( ! human race h be5 consid]$ z om5s or progno/ics ( "s int]e/+ ev5t1 :e!r calamit\s or =tunate2 !y w be f\nd v g5]ally *>act]iz$ by ?is peculi>ity1 t !y cause ! m9d to ?9k ( t1 ( :i* !y are !re=e suppos$ to =ebode ! actual occurr5ce4 ,talk ( ! devil1 & he w appe>1 has pass$ into a prov]b4 ,talk ( ! devil1 t is1 raise ! idea1 & ! reality w foll[4 ,9 times :5 ! appe>ance ( t p]sonage 9 a visible =m 0 ?\ght to be no unfrequ5t occurr5ce1 x has d\btless (t5 happ5$ to p]sons ( vivid imag9ation & susceptible n]ves1 t talk+ ( ! devil has caus$ !m to fancy !y saw him2 z1 ev5 9 our m incr$ul\s days1 li/5+ to gho/ /ories pr$isposes u to see gho/s2 & ?us1 z a prop to ! priori fallacy1 !re might come to be add$ an auxili>y fallacy ( mal-obs]vation1 ) "o ( false g5]alization gr\nd$ on x4 ,fallacies ( diff]5t ord]s (t5 h]d or clu/] toge!r 9 ?is fa%ion1 "o smoo?+ ! way = ano!r4 ,b ! orig9 ( ! sup]/ition is evid5tly t :i* we h assign$4 ,9 l mann] x has be5 univ]sally consid]$ unlucky to speak ( mis=tune4 ,! day on :i* any calamity happ5$ has be5 consid]$ an un=tunate day1 & !re has be5 a feel+ ev]y:]e1 & 9 "s nations a religi\s obligation1 aga9/ transact+ any important bus9ess on t day4 ,= on su* a day our ?\ghts are likely to be ( mis=tune4 ,= a simil> reason1 any unt[>d occurr5ce 9 comm5c+ an und]tak+ has be5 consid]$ om9\s ( failure2 & (t51 d\btless1 has really contribut$ to x1 by putt+ ! p]sons engag$ 9 ! ent]prise m or less out ( spirits3 b ! belief has equally prevail$ :]e ! disagreeable circum/ance 01 indep5d5tly ( sup]/ition1 too insignificant to depress ! spirits by any influ5ce ( its own4 ,all "k ! /ory ( ,cs>'s accid5tally /umbl+ 9 ! act ( l&+ on ! ,african coa/2 & ! pres5ce ( m9d ) :i* he conv]t$ ! direful presage into a fav\rable "o by exclaim+1 ,africa1 ,i embrace !e4 ,su* om5s1 x is true1 7 (t5 conceiv$ z w>n+s ( ! future1 giv5 by a fri5dly or a ho/ile deity2 b ?is v sup]/ition grew out ( a pre-exi/+ t5d5cy2 ! god 0 suppos$ to s5d1 z an indication ( :at 0 to come1 some?+ :i* p 7 already dispos$ to consid] 9 t light4 ,s 9 ! case ( lucky or unlucky names4 ,h]odotus tells u h[ ! ,greeks1 on ! way to ,mycale1 7 enc\rag$ 9 _! ent]prise by ! arrival ( a deputation f ,samos1 "o ( ! memb]s ( :i* 0 nam$ ,hegesi/ratus1 ! lead] ( armies4 ,cases may be po9t$ out 9 :i* some?+ :i* c\ld h no real effect b to make p]sons ?9k ( mis=tune1 0 reg>d$ n m]ely z a progno/ic1 b z some?+ approa*+ to an actual cause ( x4 ,! ,greek3 euphmei ( ! ,greeks1 & favete l+uis1 or bona v]ba qus1 ( ! ,romans1 ev9ce ! c>e ) :i* !y endeav\r$ to repress ! utt]ance ( any ^w expressive or sugge/ive ( ill =tune2 n f notions ( delicate polit5ess1 to :i* _! g5]al mode ( conduct & feel+ _h v little ref]5ce1 b f bon fide al>m le/ ! ev5t s sugge/$ to ! imag9ation %\ld 9 fact occur4 ,"s ve/ige ( a simil> sup]/ition has be5 kn[n to exi/ among un$ucat$ p]sons ev5 9 our own day3 x is ?\ght an un*ri/ian ?+ to talk (1 or suppose1 ! dea? ( any p]son :ile he is alive4 ,x is kn[n h[ c>eful ! ,romans 7 to avoid1 by an indirect mode ( spee*1 ! utt]ance ( any ^w directly expressive ( dea? or o!r calamity3 h[ in/ead ( mortuus e/ !y said vixit2 & be ! ev5t =tunate or o!rwise in/ead ( adv]se4 ,! "n ,malev5tum1 ( :i* ,salmasius s sagaci\sly detect$ ! ,!ssalian orig9 7,greek3 ,maloeis1 ,greek3 ,malo5tos71 !y *ang$ into ! highly propiti\s d5om9ation1 ,b5ev5tum2 ,ege/a into ,sege/a2 & ,epidamnus1 a "n s int]e/+ 9 its associations to ! read] ( ,?ucydides1 !y ex*ang$ = ,dyrrha*ium1 to escape ! p]ils ( a ^w sugge/ive ( damnum or detrim5t4 ,if an h>e cross ! highway1 says ,sir ,?omas ,br[ne1#b !re are few above ?reescore t are n p]plex$ !reat2 :i* not)/&+ is b an augurial t]ror1 accord+ to t receiv$ expression1 ,inauspicatum dat it] oblatus lepus4 ,& ! gr\nd ( ! conceit 0 probably no great] ?an ?is1 t a fe>ful animal pass+ by u port5d$ unto u some?+ to be fe>$2 z ^u ! l consid]ation ! meet+ ( a fox presag$ "s future impo/ure4 ,su* sup]/itions z ^! la/ mu/ be ! result ( /udy2 !y are too recondite = natural or spontane\s gr[?4 ,b :5 ! attempt 0 once made to con/ruct a sci5ce ( pr$ictions1 any association1 ?\gh ev] s fa9t or remote1 by :i* an object c\ld be connect$ 9 h[ev] f>-fet*$ a mann] ) ideas ei!r ( prosp]ity or ( dang] & mis=tune1 0 en\gh to det]m9e its be+ class$ among good or evil om5s4 ,an example ( r a diff]5t k9d f any ( ^!1 b fall+ "u ! same pr9ciple1 is ! fam\s attempt on :i* s mu* lab\r & +5uity 7 exp5d$ by ! al*emi/s1 to make gold potable4 ,! motive to ?is 0 a conceit t potable gold c\ld be no o!r ?an ! univ]sal m$ic9e3 & :y gold8 ,because x 0 s preci\s4 ,x mu/ h all m>vell\s prop]ties z a physical sub/ance1 because ! m9d 0 already accu/om$ to m>vel at x4 ,f a simil> feel+1 e sub/ance1 says ,dr4 ,p>is1#c ^: orig9 is involv$ 9 my/]y1 has at diff]5t times be5 eag]ly appli$ to ! purposes ( m$ic9e4 ,n long s9ce1 "o ( ^? %[]s :i* are n[ kn[n to consi/ ( ! excrem5ts ( insects1 fell 9 ! nor? ( ,italy2 ! inhabitants reg>d$ x z manna1 or "s sup]natural panacea1 & !y swall[$ x ) su* avidity1 t x 0 only by extreme address t a small quantity 0 obta9$ = a *emical exam9ation4 ,! sup]/ition1 9 ?is in/ance1 ?\gh d\btless p>tly ( a religi\s "*1 probably 9 "p also arose f ! prejudice t a wond]ful ?+ mu/ ( c\rse h wond]ful prop]ties4 #c4 ,! in/ances ( priori fallacy :i* we h hi!rto cit$ belong to ! class ( vulg> errors1 & d n n[1 nor 9 any b a rude age ev] c\ld1 impose ^u m9ds ( any consid]able atta9m5ts4 ,b ^? to :i* we are ab\t to proce$1 h be51 & /ill are1 all b univ]sally preval5t among ?9k]s4 ,! same disposition to give objectivity to a law ( ! m9d--to suppose t :at is true ( our ideas ( ?+s mu/ be true ( ! ?+s !mselves--exhibits itself 9 _m ( ! mo/ accr$it$ modes ( philosophical inve/igation1 bo? on physical & on metaphysical subjects4 ,9 "o ( its mo/ undisguis$ manife/ations1 x embodies itself 9 two maxims1 :i* lay claim to axiomatic tru?3 ,?+s :i* we _c ?9k ( toge!r1 _c coexi/2 & ,?+s :i* we _c help ?9k+ ( toge!r1 mu/ coexi/4 ,i am n sure t ! maxims 7 ev] express$ 9 ^! precise words1 b ! hi/ory bo? ( philosophy & ( popul> op9ions ab\nds ) exemplifications ( bo? =ms ( ! doctr9e4 ,to beg9 ) ! latt] ( !m3 ,?+s :i* we _c ?9k ( except toge!r1 mu/ exi/ toge!r4 ,?is is assum$ 9 ! g5]ally receiv$ & accr$it$ mode ( reason+ :i* concludes t ,a mu/ accompany ,b 9 po9t ( fact1 because x is involv$ 9 ! idea4 ,su* ?9k]s d n reflect t ! idea1 be+ a result ( ab/raction1 ought to con=m to ! facts1 & _c make ! facts con=m to x4 ,! argum5t is at mo/ admissible z an appeal to au?ority2 a surmise1 t :at is n[ "p ( ! idea1 mu/1 be=e x became s1 h be5 f\nd by previ\s inquir]s 9 ! facts4 ,nev]!less1 ! philosoph] :o m ?an all o!rs made pr(essions ( reject+ au?ority1 ,desc>tes1 con/ruct$ 8 sy/em on ?is v basis4 ,8 fav\rite device = arriv+ at tru?1 ev5 9 reg>d to outw>d ?+s1 0 by look+ into 8 own m9d = x4 ,cr$idi me1 says 8 celebrat$ maxim1 pro regul g5]ali sum]e posse1 omne id quod vald dilucid et di/9ct concipiebam1 v]um esse2 :atev] c be v cle>ly conceiv$1 mu/ c]ta9ly exi/2 t is1 z he aft]w>ds expla9s x1 if ! idea includes exi/5ce4 ,& on ?is gr\nd he inf]s t geometrical figures really exi/1 because !y c be di/9ctly conceiv$4 ,:5ev] exi/5ce is involv$ 9 an idea1 a ?+ con=mable to ! idea mu/ really exi/2 :i* is z mu* z to say1 :atev] ! idea conta9s mu/ h its equival5t 9 ! ?+2 & :at we are n able to leave out ( ! idea _c be abs5t f ! reality4#d ,?is assumption p]vades ! philosophy n only ( ,desc>tes1 b ( all ! ?9k]s :o receiv$ _! impulse ma9ly f him1 9 p>ticul> ! two mo/ rem>kable among !m1 ,sp9oza & ,leibnitz1 f :om ! mod]n ,g]man metaphysical philosophy is ess5tially an emanation4 ,i am inde$ dispos$ to ?9k t ! fallacy n[ "u consid]ation has be5 ! cause ( two-?irds ( ! bad philosophy1 & especially ( ! bad metaphysics1 :i* ! human m9d has nev] ceas$ to produce4 ,our g5]al ideas conta9 no?+ b :at has be5 put into !m1 ei!r by our passive exp]i5ce1 or by our active habits ( ?\ght2 & ! metaphysicians 9 all ages1 :o h attempt$ to con/ruct ! laws ( ! univ]se by reason+ f our suppos$ necessities ( ?\ght1 h always proce$$1 & only c\ld proce$1 by labori\sly f9d+ 9 _! own m9ds :at !y !mselves _h =m]ly put !re1 & evolv+ f _! ideas ( ?+s :at !y _h fir/ involv$ 9 ^? ideas4 ,9 ?is way all deeply-root$ op9ions & feel+s are enabl$ to create app>5t demon/rations ( _! tru? & reasonabl5ess1 z x 7 out ( _! own sub/ance4 ,! o!r =m ( ! fallacy2 ,?+s :i* we _c ?9k ( toge!r _c exi/ toge!r1--includ+ z "o ( its bran*es1 t :at we _c ?9k ( z exi/+ _c exi/ at all1--may ?us be briefly express$3 ,:atev] is inconceivable mu/ be false4 ,aga9/ ?is preval5t doctr9e ,i h suffici5tly argu$ 9 a =m] ,book1#e & no?+ is requir$ 9 ?is place b examples4 ,x 0 long held t ,antipodes 7 impossible because ( ! difficulty :i* 0 f\nd 9 conceiv+ p]sons ) _! heads 9 ! same direction z our feet4 ,& x 0 "o ( ! receiv$ argum5ts aga9/ ! ,cop]nican sy/em1 t we _c conceive s great a void space z t sy/em supposes to exi/ 9 ! cele/ial regions4 ,:5 m5's imag9ations _h always be5 us$ to conceive ! />s z firmly set 9 solid sph]es1 !y naturally f\nd mu* difficulty 9 imag9+ !m 9 s diff]5t1 &1 z x d\btless appe>$ to !m1 s prec>i\s a situation4 ,b !y _h no "r to mi/ake ! limitation 7:e!r natural1 or1 z x 9 fact prov$1 only artificial7 ( _! own faculties1 = an inh]5t limitation ( ! possible modes ( exi/5ce 9 ! univ]se4 ,x may be said 9 objection1 t ! error 9 ^! cases 0 9 ! m9or premise1 n ! major2 an error ( fact1 n ( pr9ciple2 t x did n consi/ 9 suppos+ t :at is inconceivable _c be true1 b 9 suppos+ antipodes to be inconceivable1 :5 pres5t exp]i5ce proves t !y c be conceiv$4 ,ev5 if ?is objection 7 all[$1 & ! proposition t :at is inconceivable _c be true 7 suff]$ to rema9 unque/ion$ z a speculative tru?1 x w\ld be a tru? on :i* no practical consequ5ce c\ld ev] be f\nd$1 s9ce1 on ?is %[+1 x is impossible to affirm ( any proposition1 n be+ a contradiction 9 t]ms1 t x is inconceivable4 ,antipodes 7 really1 n fictiti\sly1 inconceivable to our ance/ors3 !y are inde$ conceivable to u2 & z ! limits ( our p[] ( conception h be5 s l>gely ext5d$1 by ! ext5sion ( our exp]i5ce & ! m v>i$ ex]cise ( our imag9ation1 s may po/]ity f9d _m comb9ations p]fectly conceivable to !m :i* are inconceivable to u4 ,b1 z be+s ( limit$ exp]i5ce1 we mu/ always & necess>ily h limit$ conceptive p[]s2 :ile x does n by any means foll[ t ! same limitation obta9s 9 ! possibilities ( nature1 nor ev5 9 h] actual manife/ations4 ,r m ?an a c5tury & a half ago x 0 a sci5tific maxim1 disput$ by no "o1 & :i* no "o deem$ to require any pro(1 t a ?+ _c act :]e x is n4 ,) ?is weapon ! ,c>tesians wag$ a =midable w> aga9/ ! !ory ( gravitation1 :i*1 accord+ to !m1 involv+ s obvi\s an absurdity1 mu/ be reject$ 9 lim9e3 ! sun c\ld n possibly act ^u ! e>?1 n be+ !re4 ,x 0 n surpris+ t ! adh]5ts ( ! old sy/ems ( a/ronomy %\ld urge ?is objection aga9/ ! new2 b ! false assumption impos$ equally on ,newton himself1 :o 9 ord] to turn ! edge ( ! objection1 imag9$ a subtle e!r :i* fill$ up ! space betwe5 ! sun & ! e>?1 & by its int]m$iate ag5cy 0 ! proximate cause ( ! ph5om5a ( gravitation4 ,x is inconceivable1 said ,newton1 9 "o ( 8 lett]s to ,dr4 ,b5tley1#f t inanimate brute matt] %\ld1 )\t ! m$iation ( some?+ else1 :i* is n mat]ial1 op]ate ^u & affect o!r matt] )\t mutual contact4444 ,t gravity %\ld be innate1 inh]5t1 & ess5tial to matt]1 s t "o body may act on ano!r1 at a di/ance1 ?r\gh a vacuum1 )\t ! m$iation ( any?+ else1 by & ?r\gh :i* _! action & =ce may be convey$ f "o to ano!r1 is to me s great an absurdity1 t ,i believe no man1 :o 9 philosophical matt]s has a compet5t faculty ( ?9k+1 c ev] fall into x4 ,?is passage %\ld be hung up 9 ! cab9et ( e cultivator ( sci5ce :o is ev] tempt$ to pron\nce a fact impossible because x appe>s to him inconceivable4 ,9 our own day "o w\ld be m tempt$1 ?\gh ) equal inju/ice1 to rev]se ! conclud+ obs]vation1 & consid] ! see+ any absurdity at all 9 a ?+ s simple & natural1 to be :at really m>ks ! abs5ce ( a compet5t faculty ( ?9k+4 ,no "o n[ feels any difficulty 9 conceiv+ gravity to be1 z mu* z any o!r prop]ty is1 inh]5t1 & ess5tial to matt]1 nor f9ds ! compreh5sion ( x facilitat$ 9 ! smalle/ degree by ! supposition ( an e!r 7?\gh "s rec5t inquir]s d give ?is z an explanation ( x72 nor ?9ks x at all incr$ible t ! cele/ial bodies c & d act :]e !y1 9 actual bodily pres5ce1 are n4 ,to u x is n m wond]ful t bodies %\ld act ^u "o ano!r )\t mutual contact1 ?an t !y %\ld d s :5 9 contact2 we are famili> ) bo? ^! facts1 & we f9d !m equally inexplicable1 b equally easy to believe4 ,to ,newton1 ! "o1 because 8 imag9ation 0 famili> ) x1 appe>$ natural & a matt] ( c\rse1 :ile ! o!r1 = ! contr>y reason1 seem$ too absurd to be cr$it$4 ,x is /range t any "o1 aft] su* a w>n+1 %\ld rely implicitly on ! evid5ce priori ( su* propositions z ^!1 t matt] _c ?9k2 t space1 or ext5sion1 is inf9ite2 t no?+ c be made out ( no?+ 7ex nihilo nihil fit74 ,:e!r ^! propositions are true or n ?is is n ! place to det]m9e1 nor ev5 :e!r ! que/ions are soluble by ! human faculties4 ,b su* doctr9es are no m self-evid5t tru?s1 ?an ! anci5t maxim t a ?+ _c act :]e x is n1 :i* probably is n n[ believ$ by any educat$ p]son 9 ,europe4#g ,matt] _c ?9k2 :y8 because we _c conceive ?\ght to be annex$ to any arrangem5t ( mat]ial p>ticles4 ,space is inf9ite1 because hav+ nev] kn[n any "p ( x :i* _h n o!r p>ts beyond x1 we _c conceive an absolute t]m9ation4 ,ex nihilo nihil fit1 because hav+ nev] kn[n any physical product )\t a pre-exi/+ physical mat]ial1 we _c1 or ?9k we _c1 imag9e a creation out ( no?+4 ,b ^! ?+s may 9 !mselves be z conceivable z gravitation )\t an int]v5+ m$ium1 :i* ,newton ?\ght too great an absurdity = any p]son ( a compet5t faculty ( philosophical ?9k+ to admit3 & ev5 suppos+ !m n conceivable1 ?is1 = aught we "k1 may be m]ely "o ( ! limitations ( our v limit$ m9ds1 & n 9 nature at all4 ,no writ] has m directly id5tifi$ himself ) ! fallacy n[ "u consid]ation1 or has embodi$ x 9 m di/9ct t]ms1 ?an ,leibnitz4 ,9 8 view1 unless a ?+ 0 n m]ely conceivable1 b ev5 expla9able1 x c\ld n exi/ 9 nature4 ,all natural ph5om5a1 accord+ to him1 mu/ be susceptible ( be+ acc\nt$ = priori4 ,! only facts ( :i* no explanation c\ld be giv5 b ! w ( ,god1 7 miracles prop]ly s call$4 ,je reconnais1 says he1#h qu'il n'e/ pas p]mis de ni] ce qu'on n'ent5d pas2 mais j'aj\te qu'on a droit de ni] 7au mo9s dans l'ordre naturel7 ce qui absolum5t n'e/ po9t intelligible ni explicable4 ,je s\ti5s aussi 444 qu'enf9 la conception des cratures n'e/ pas la mesure du p\voir de ,dieu1 mais que leur conceptivit1 ou =ce de concevoir1 e/ la mesure du p\voir de la nature1 t\t ce qui e/ con=me l'ordre naturel p\vant tre conu ou ent5du p> quelque crature4 ,n cont5t ) assum+ t no?+ c be true :i* we are unable to conceive1 sci5tific inquir]s h frequ5tly giv5 a /ill fur!r ext5sion to ! doctr9e1 & held t1 ev5 ( ?+s n altoge!r inconceivable1 t :i* we c conceive ) ! greate/ ease is likelie/ to be true4 ,x 0 long an admitt$ axiom1 & is n yet entirely discr$it$1 t nature always acts by ! simple/ means1 i4e4 by ^? :i* are mo/ easily conceivable4#i ,a l>ge proportion ( all ! errors ev] committ$ 9 ! inve/igation ( ! laws ( nature1 h aris5 f ! assumption t ! mo/ famili> explanation or hypo!sis mu/ be ! true/4 ,"o ( ! mo/ in/ructive facts 9 sci5tific hi/ory is ! p]t9acity ) :i* ! human m9d clung to ! belief t ! heav5ly bodies mu/ move 9 circles1 or be c>ri$ r\nd by ! revolution ( sph]es2 m]ely because ^? 7 9 !mselves ! simple/ suppositions3 ?\gh1 to make !m accord ) ! facts :i* 7 ev] contradict+ !m m & m1 x became necess>y to add sph]e to sph]e & circle to circle1 until ! orig9al simplicity 0 conv]t$ into almo/ inextricable complication4 #d4 ,we pass to ano!r priori fallacy or natural prejudice1 alli$ to ! =m]1 & orig9at+ z t does1 9 ! t5d5cy to presume an exact correspond5ce betwe5 ! laws ( ! m9d & ^? ( ?+s ext]nal to x4 ,! fallacy may be enunciat$ 9 ?is g5]al =m--,:atev] c be ?\ght ( ap>t exi/s ap>t3 & its mo/ rem>kable manife/ation consi/s 9 ! p]sonification ( ab/ractions4 ,mank9d 9 all ages h _h a /rong prop5sity to conclude t :]ev] !re is a "n1 !re mu/ be a di/+ui%able sep>ate entity correspond+ to ! "n2 & e complex idea :i* ! m9d has =m$ = itself by op]at+ ^u its conceptions ( individual ?+s1 0 consid]$ to h an outw>d objective reality answ]+ to x4 ,fate1 ,*ance1 ,nature1 ,"t1 ,space1 7 real be+s1 nay1 ev5 gods4 ,if ! analysis ( qualities 9 ! e>li] "p ( ?is "w be correct1 names ( qualities & names ( sub/ances /& = ! v same sets ( facts or ph5om5a2 :it5ess & a :ite ?+ are only diff]5t phrases1 requir$ by conv5i5ce = speak+ ( ! same ext]nal fact "u diff]5t relations4 ,n su*1 h[ev]1 0 ! notion :i* ?is v]bal di/9ction sugge/$ ( old1 ei!r to ! vulg> or to ! sci5tific4 ,:it5ess 0 an entity1 inh]+ or /ick+ 9 ! :ite sub/ance3 & s ( all o!r qualities4 ,s f> 0 ?is c>ri$1 t ev5 concrete g5]al t]ms 7 suppos$ to be1 n names ( indef9ite numb]s ( individual sub/ances1 b names ( a peculi> k9d ( entities t]m$ ,univ]sal ,sub/ances4 ,because we c ?9k & speak ( man 9 g5]al1 t is1 ( all p]sons 9 s f> z possess+ ! common attributes ( ! species1 )\t fa/5+ our ?\ghts p]man5tly on "s "o individual p]son2 !re=e man 9 g5]al 0 suppos$ to be1 n an aggregate ( individual p]sons1 b an ab/ract or univ]sal man1 di/9ct f ^!4 ,x may be imag9$ :at havoc metaphysicians tra9$ 9 ^! habits made ) philosophy1 :5 !y came to ! l>ge/ g5]alizations ( all4 ,sub/anti ,secund ( any k9d 7 bad en\gh1 b su* ,sub/anti ,secund z ,greek3 to on1 = example1 & ,greek3 to h51 /&+ = peculi> entities suppos$ to be inh]5t 9 all ?+s :i* exi/1 or :i* are said to be "o1 7 en\gh to put an end to all intelligible discussion2 especially s9ce1 ) a j p]ception t ! tru?s :i* philosophy pursues are g5]al tru?s1 x 0 soon laid d[n t ^! g5]al sub/ances 7 ! only subjects ( sci5ce1 be+ immutable1 :ile individual sub/ances cognizable by ! s5ses1 be+ 9 a p]petual flux1 c\ld n be ! subject ( real k4 ,?is misappreh5sion ( ! import ( g5]al language con/itutes ,my/icism1 a ^w s mu* (t5] writt5 & spok5 ?an und]/ood4 ,:e!r 9 ! ,v$as1 9 ! ,platoni/s1 or 9 ! ,hegelians1 my/icism is nei!r m nor less ?an ascrib+ objective exi/5ce to ! subjective creations ( our own faculties1 to ideas or feel+s ( ! m9d2 & believ+ t by wat*+ & contemplat+ ^! ideas ( its own mak+1 x c read 9 !m :at takes place 9 ! _w )\t4 #e4 ,proce$+ ) ! enum]ation ( priori fallacies1 & endeav\r+ to arrange !m ) z mu* ref]5ce z possible to _! natural aff9ities1 we come to ano!r1 :i* is also ne>ly alli$ to ! fallacy prec$+ ! la/1 /&+ 9 ! same relation to "o v>iety ( x z ! fallacy la/ m5tion$ does to ! o!r4 ,?is1 too1 repres5ts nature z "u incapacities correspond+ to ^? ( our intellect2 b in/ead ( only ass]t+ t nature _c d a ?+ because we _c conceive x done1 goes ! /ill great] l5g? ( av]r+ t nature does a p>ticul> ?+1 on ! sole gr\nd t we c see no reason :y %e %\ld n4 ,absurd z ?is seems :5 s pla9ly /at$1 x is a receiv$ pr9ciple among sci5tific au?orities = demon/rat+ priori ! laws ( physical ph5om5a4 ,a ph5om5on mu/ foll[ a c]ta9 law1 because we see no reason :y x %\ld deviate f t law 9 "o way r ?an 9 ano!r4 ,?is is call$ ! ,pr9ciple ( ! ,suffici5t ,reason2#aj & by means ( x philosoph]s (t5 flatt] !mselves t !y are able to e/abli%1 )\t any appeal to exp]i5ce1 ! mo/ g5]al tru?s ( exp]im5tal physics4 ,take1 = example1 two ( ! mo/ elem5t>y ( all laws1 ! law ( in]tia & ! fir/ law ( motion4 ,a body at re/ _c1 x is affirm$1 beg9 to move unless act$ ^u by "s ext]nal =ce3 because1 if x did1 x mu/ ei!r move up or d[n1 =w>d or backw>d1 & s =?2 b if no outw>d =ce acts ^u x1 !re c be no reason = its mov+ up r ?an d[n1 or d[n r ?an up1 c41 ergo1 x w n move at all4 ,?is reason+ ,i conceive to be entirely fallaci\s1 z inde$ ,dr4 ,br[n1 9 8 treatise on ,cause & ,effect1 has %[n ) great acut5ess & ju/ness ( ?\ght4 ,we h be=e rem>k$1 t almo/ e fallacy may be ref]r$ to diff]5t g5]a by diff]5t modes ( fill+ up ! suppress$ /eps2 & ?is p>ticul> "o may1 at our option1 be br\ght "u petitio pr9cipii4 ,x supposes t no?+ c be a suffici5t reason = a body's mov+ 9 "o p>ticul> direction1 except "s ext]nal =ce4 ,b ?is is ! v ?+ to be prov$4 ,:y n "s int]nal =ce8 ,:y n ! law ( ! ?+'s own nature8 ,s9ce ^! philosoph]s ?9k x necess>y to prove ! law ( in]tia1 !y ( c\rse d n suppose x to be self-evid5t2 !y mu/1 !re=e1 be ( op9ion t1 previ\sly to all pro(1 ! supposition ( a body's mov+ by int]nal impulse is an admissible hypo!sis2 b if s1 :y is n ! hypo!sis also admissible1 t ! int]nal impulse acts naturally 9 "s "o p>ticul> direction1 n 9 ano!r8 ,if spontane\s motion might h be5 ! law ( matt]1 :y n spontane\s motion t[>ds ! sun1 t[>ds ! e>?1 or t[>ds ! z5i?8 ,:y n1 z ! anci5ts suppos$1 t[>ds a p>ticul> place 9 ! univ]se1 appropriat$ to ea* p>ticul> k9d ( sub/ance8 ,surely x is n all[able to say t spontaneity ( motion is cr$ible 9 itself1 b n cr$ible if suppos$ to take place 9 any det]m9ate direction4 ,inde$1 if any "o *ose to ass]t t all bodies :5 uncontroll$ set out 9 a direct l9e t[>ds ! nor? pole1 he might equally prove 8 po9t by ! pr9ciple ( ! ,suffici5t ,reason4 ,by :at "r is x assum$ t a /ate ( re/ is ! p>ticul> /ate :i* _c be deviat$ f )\t special cause8 ,:y n a /ate ( motion1 & ( "s p>ticul> sort ( motion8 ,:y may we n say t ! natural /ate ( a horse left to himself is to amble1 because o!rwise he mu/ ei!r trot1 gallop1 or /& /ill1 & because we "k no reason :y he %\ld d "o ( ^! r ?an ano!r8 ,if ?is is to be call$ an unfair use ( ! suffici5t reason1 & ! o!r a fair "o1 !re mu/ be a tacit assumption t a /ate ( re/ is m natural to a horse ?an a /ate ( ambl+4 ,if ?is means t x is ! /ate :i* ! animal w assume :5 left to himself1 t is ! v po9t to be prov$2 & if x does n mean ?is1 x c only mean t a /ate ( re/ is ! simple/ /ate1 & !re=e ! mo/ likely to prevail 9 nature1 :i* is "o ( ! fallacies or natural prejudices we h already exam9$4 ,s aga9 ( ! ,fir/ ,law ( ,motion2 t a body once mov+ w1 if left to itself1 cont9ue to move uni=mly 9 a /raight l9e4 ,an attempt is made to prove ?is law by say+1 t if n1 ! body mu/ deviate ei!r to ! "r or to ! left1 & t !re is no reason :y x %\ld d "o m ?an ! o!r4 ,b :o c\ld "k1 antec$5tly to exp]i5ce1 :e!r !re 0 a reason or n8 ,might x n be ! nature ( bodies1 or ( "s p>ticul> bodies1 to deviate t[>ds ! "r8 or if ! supposition is pref]r$1 t[>ds ! ea/1 or s\?8 ,x 0 long ?\ght t bodies1 t]re/rial ones at lea/1 _h a natural t5d5cy to deflect d[nw>ds2 & !re is no %ad[ ( any?+ objectionable 9 ! supposition1 except t x is n true4 ,! pret5d$ pro( ( ! law ( motion is ev5 m manife/ly unt5able ?an t ( ! law ( in]tia1 = x is flagrantly inconsi/5t2 x assumes t ! cont9uance ( motion 9 ! direction fir/ tak5 is m natural ?an deviation ei!r to ! "r or to ! left1 b d5ies t "o ( ^! c possibly be m natural ?an ! o!r4 ,all ^! fancies ( ! possibility ( kn[+ :at is natural or n natural by any o!r means ?an exp]i5ce1 are1 9 tru?1 entirely futile4 ,! real & only pro( ( ! laws ( motion1 or ( any o!r law ( ! univ]se1 is exp]i5ce2 x is simply t no o!r suppositions expla9 or are consi/5t ) ! facts ( univ]sal nature4 ,geomet]s h1 9 all ages1 be5 op5 to ! imputation ( endeav\r+ to prove ! mo/ g5]al facts ( ! outw>d _w by sophi/ical reason+1 9 ord] to avoid appeals to ! s5ses4 ,ar*im$es1 says ,pr(essor ,playfair1#aa e/abli%$ "s ( ! elem5t>y propositions ( /atics by a process 9 :i* he borr[s no pr9ciple f exp]im5t1 b e/abli%es 8 conclusion entirely by reason+ priori4 ,he assumes1 inde$1 t equal bodies1 at ! ends ( ! equal arms ( a lev]1 w balance "o ano!r2 & also t a cyl9d] or p>allelopip$ ( homog5e\s matt]1 w be balanc$ ab\t its c5tre ( magnitude4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 are n inf]5ces f exp]i5ce2 !y are1 prop]ly speak+1 conclusions d$uc$ f ! pr9ciple ( ! ,suffici5t ,reason4 ,& to ?is day !re are few geomet]s :o w\ld n ?9k x f> m sci5tific to e/abli% ^! or any o!r premises 9 ?is way1 ?an to re/ _! evid5ce on t famili> exp]i5ce :i* 9 ! case 9 "q might h be5 s safely appeal$ to4 #f4 ,ano!r natural prejudice1 ( mo/ ext5sive preval5ce1 & :i* _h a great %>e 9 produc+ ! errors fall5 into by ! anci5ts 9 _! physical inquiries1 0 ?is3 ,t ! diff]5ces 9 nature mu/ correspond to our receiv$ di/9ctions2 t effects :i* we are accu/om$1 9 popul> language1 to call by diff]5t names1 & arrange 9 diff]5t classes1 mu/ be ( diff]5t natures1 & h diff]5t causes4 ,?is prejudice1 s evid5tly ( ! same orig9 ) ^? already treat$ (1 m>ks m especially ! e>lie/ /age ( sci5ce1 :5 x has n yet brok5 loose f ! trammels ( e-day phraseology4 ,! extraord9>y preval5ce ( ! fallacy among ! ,greek philosoph]s may be acc\nt$ = by _! g5]ally kn[+ no o!r language ?an _! own2 f :i* x 0 a consequ5ce t _! ideas foll[$ ! accid5tal or arbitr>y comb9ations ( t language1 m completely ?an c happ5 among ! mod]ns to any b illit]ate p]sons4 ,!y _h great difficulty 9 di/+ui%+ betwe5 ?+s :i* _! language conf\nd$1 or 9 putt+ m5tally toge!r ?+s :i* x di/+ui%$2 & c\ld h>dly comb9e ! objects 9 nature1 into any classes b ^? :i* 7 made = !m by ! popul> phrases ( _! own c\ntry3 or at lea/ c\ld n help fancy+ ^? classes to be natural1 & all o!rs arbitr>y & artificial4 ,accord+ly1 sci5tific inve/igation among ! ,greek s*ools ( speculation & _! foll[]s 9 ! middle ages1 0 little m ?an a m]e sift+ & analys+ ( ! notions atta*$ to common language4 ,!y ?\ght t by det]m9+ ! mean+ ( words1 !y c\ld become acqua9t$ ) facts4 ,!y took = grant$1 says ,dr4 ,:ewell1#ab t philosophy mu/ result f ! relations ( ^? notions :i* are involv$ 9 ! common use ( language1 & !y proce$$ to seek x by /udy+ su* notions4 ,9 8 next *apt]1 ,dr4 ,:ewell has s well illu/rat$ & exemplifi$ ?is error1 t ,i %all take ! lib]ty ( quot+ him at "s l5g?4 ,! prop5sity to seek = pr9ciples 9 ! common usages ( language may be disc]n$ at a v e>ly p]iod4 ,?us we h an example ( x 9 a say+ :i* is report$ ( ,?ales1 ! f\nd] ( ,greek philosophy4 ,:5 he 0 ask$1 ',:at is ! greate/ ?+8' he repli$ ',place2 = all o!r ?+s are 9 ! _w1 b ! _w is 9 x4' ,9 ,ari/otle we h ! consummation ( ?is mode ( speculation4 ,! usual po9t f :i* he />ts 9 8 inquiries is1 t we say ?us or ?us 9 common language4 ,?us1 :5 he has to discuss ! "q :e!r !re be1 9 any "p ( ! univ]se1 a void1 or space 9 :i* !re is no?+1 he inquires fir/ 9 h[ _m s5ses we say t "o ?+ is 9 ano!r4 ,he enum]ates _m ( ^!2 we say ! "p is 9 ! :ole1 z ! f+] is 9 ! h&2 aga9 we say1 ! species is 9 ! g5us1 z man is includ$ 9 animal2 aga91 ! gov]nm5t ( ,greece is 9 ! k+2 & v>i\s o!r s5ses are describ$ & exemplifi$1 b ( all ^! ! mo/ prop] is :5 we say a ?+ is 9 a vessel1 & g5]ally 9 place4 ,he next exam9es :at place is1 & comes to ?is conclusion1 t 'if ab\t a body !re be ano!r body includ+ x1 x is 9 place1 & if n1 n4' ,a body moves :5 x *anges its place2 b he adds1 t if wat] be 9 a vessel1 ! vessel be+ at re/1 ! p>ts ( ! wat] may /ill move1 = !y are includ$ by ea* o!r2 s t :ile ! :ole does n *ange its place1 ! p>ts may *ange _! place 9 a circul> ord]4 ,proce$+ !n to ! "q ( a void1 he z usual exam9es ! diff]5t s5ses 9 :i* ! t]m is us$1 & adopts z ! mo/ prop]1 place )\t matt]3 ) no useful result4 ,aga91 9 a "q conc]n+ me*anical action1 he says1 ',:5 a man moves a /one by pu%+ x ) a /ick1 we say bo? t ! man moves ! /one1 & t ! /ick moves ! /one1 b ! latt] m prop]ly4' ,aga91 we f9d ! ,greek philosoph]s apply+ !mselves to extract _! dogmas f ! mo/ g5]al & ab/ract notions :i* !y c\ld detect2 = example1 f ! conception ( ! ,univ]se z ,"o or z ,_m ?+s4 ,!y tri$ to det]m9e h[ f> we may1 or mu/1 comb9e ) ^! conceptions t ( a :ole1 ( p>ts1 ( numb]1 ( limits1 ( place1 ( beg9n+ or end1 ( full or void1 ( re/1 or motion1 ( cause & effect1 & ! l4 ,! analysis ( su* conceptions ) su* a view1 occupies1 = in/ance1 almo/ ! :ole ( ,ari/otle's ,treatise on ! ,heav5s4 ,! foll[+ p>agraph m]its p>ticul> att5tion3--,ano!r mode ( reason+1 v widely appli$ 9 ^! attempts1 0 ! doctr9e ( contr>ieties1 9 :i* x 0 assum$1 t adjectives or sub/ances :i* are 9 common language1 or 9 "s ab/ract mode ( conception1 oppos$ to ea* o!r1 mu/ po9t at "s fundam5tal anti!sis 9 nature1 :i* x is important to /udy4 ,?us ,ari/otle says t ! ,py?agoreans1 f ! contra/s :i* numb] sugge/s1 collect$ t5 pr9ciples--,limit$ & ,unlimit$1 ,odd & ,ev51 ,"o & ,_m1 ,"r & ,left1 ,male & ,female1 ,re/ & ,motion1 ,/raight & ,curv$1 ,light & ,d>kness1 ,good & ,evil1 ,squ>e & ,oblong4444 ,ari/otle himself d$uc$ ! doctr9e ( f\r elem5ts & o!r dogmas by oppositions ( ! same k9d4 ,( ! mann] 9 :i*1 f premises obta9$ 9 ?is way1 ! anci5ts attempt$ to d$uce laws ( nature1 an example is giv5 9 ! same "w a few pages fur!r on4 ,ari/otle decides t !re is no void1 on su* argum5ts z ?is4 ,9 a void !re c\ld be no diff]5ce ( up & d[n2 = z 9 no?+ !re are no diff]5ces1 s !re are none 9 a privation or negation2 b a void is m]ely a privation or negation ( matt]2 !re=e1 9 a void1 bodies c\ld n move up & d[n1 :i* x is 9 _! nature to d4 ,x is easily se5 7,dr4 ,:ewell v ju/ly adds7 t su* a mode ( reason+ elevates ! famili> =ms ( language1 & ! intellectual connexions ( t]ms1 to a supremacy ov] facts2 mak+ tru? dep5d ^u :e!r t]ms are or are n privative1 & :e!r we say t bodies fall naturally4 ,! prop5sity to assume t ! same relations obta9 betwe5 objects !mselves1 :i* obta9 betwe5 our ideas ( !m1 is "h se5 9 ! extreme /age ( its developm5t4 ,= ! mode ( philosophiz+1 exemplifi$ 9 ! =ego+ in/ances1 assumes no less ?an t ! prop] way ( arriv+ at k ( nature1 is to /udy nature itself subjectively2 to apply our obs]vation & analysis n to ! facts1 b to ! common notions ent]ta9$ ( ! facts4 ,_m o!r equally /rik+ examples may be giv5 ( ! t5d5cy to assume t ?+s :i* = ! conv5i5ce ( common life are plac$ 9 diff]5t classes1 mu/ diff] 9 e respect4 ,( ?is nature 0 ! univ]sal & deeply-root$ prejudice ( antiquity & ! middle ages1 t cele/ial & t]re/rial ph5om5a mu/ be ess5tially diff]5t1 & c\ld 9 no mann] or degree dep5d on ! same laws4 ,( ! same k9d1 also1 0 ! prejudice aga9/ :i* ,bacon cont5d$1 t no?+ produc$ by nature c\ld be successfully imitat$ by man3 ,calorem solis et ignis toto g5]e diff]re2 ne scilicet hom9es put5t se p] op]a ignis1 aliquid simile iis qu 9 ,natura fiunt1 educ]e et =m>e posse3 & aga91 ,compositionem tantum opus ,hom9is1 ,mi/ionem v]o opus solius ,natur esse3 ne scilicet hom9es sp]5t aliquam ex arte ,corporum naturalium g5]ationem aut trans=mationem4#ac ,! gr& di/9ction 9 ! anci5t sci5tific speculations1 betwe5 natural & viol5t motions1 ?\gh n )\t a plausible f\ndation 9 ! appe>ances !mselves1 0 d\btless greatly recomm5d$ to adoption by its con=mity to ?is prejudice4 #g4 ,f ! fundam5tal error ( ! sci5tific inquir]s ( antiquity1 we pass1 by a natural association1 to a sc>cely less fundam5tal "o ( _! great rival & successor1 ,bacon4 ,x has excit$ ! surprise ( philosoph]s t ! detail$ sy/em ( inductive logic1 :i* ?is extraord9>y man lab\r$ to con/ruct1 has be5 turn$ to s little direct use by subsequ5t inquir]s1 hav+ nei!r cont9u$1 except 9 a few ( its g5]alities1 to be recognis$ z a !ory1 nor hav+ conduct$ 9 practice to any great sci5tific results4 ,b ?is1 ?\gh n unfrequ5tly rem>k$1 has sc>cely receiv$ any plausible explanation2 & "s1 inde$1 h pref]r$ to ass]t t all rules ( induction are useless1 r ?an suppose t ,bacon's rules are gr\nd$ on an insuffici5t analysis ( ! inductive process4 ,su*1 h[ev]1 w be se5 to be ! fact1 z soon z x is consid]$1 t ,bacon entirely ov]look$ ,plurality ( ,causes4 ,all 8 rules tacitly imply ! assumption1 s contr>y to all we n[ "k ( nature1 t a ph5om5on _c h m ?an "o cause4 ,:5 he is inquir+ into :at he t]ms ! =ma calidi aut frigidi1 gravis aut levis1 sicci aut humidi1 & ! l1 he nev] = an in/ant d\bts t !re is "s "o ?+1 "s inv>iable condition or set ( conditions1 :i* is pres5t 9 all cases ( heat1 or cold1 or :atev] o!r ph5om5on he is consid]+2 ! only difficulty be+ to f9d :at x is2 :i* accord+ly he tries to d by a process ( elim9ation1 reject+ or exclud+1 by negative in/ances1 :atev] is n ! =ma or cause1 9 ord] to arrive at :at is4 ,b1 t ?is =ma or cause is "o ?+1 & t x is ! same 9 all hot objects1 he has no m d\bt (1 ?an ano!r p]son has t !re is always "s cause or o!r4 ,9 ! pres5t /ate ( k x c\ld n be necess>y1 ev5 if we _h n already treat$ s fully ( ! "q1 to po9t out h[ widely ?is supposition is at v>iance ) ! tru?4 ,x is p>ticul>ly un=tunate = ,bacon t1 fall+ into ?is error1 he %\ld h fix$ almo/ exclusively ^u a class ( inquiries 9 :i* x 0 especially fatal2 namely1 inquiries into ! causes ( ! s5sible qualities ( objects4 ,= 8 assumption1 gr\ndless 9 e case1 is false 9 a peculi> degree ) respect to ^? s5sible qualities4 ,9 reg>d to sc>cely any ( !m has x be5 f\nd possible to trace any unity ( cause1 any set ( conditions inv>iably accompany+ ! quality4 ,! conjunctions ( su* qualities ) "o ano!r con/itute ! v>iety ( ,k9ds1 9 :i*1 z already rem>k$1 x has n be5 f\nd possible to trace any law4 ,bacon 0 seek+ = :at did n exi/4 ,! ph5om5on ( :i* he s\ght = ! "o cause has (t5e/ no cause at all1 & :5 x has1 dep5ds 7z f> z hi!rto asc]ta9$7 on an unassignable v>iety ( di/9ct causes4 ,& on ?is rock e "o mu/ split1 :o repres5ts to himself z ! fir/ & fundam5tal problem ( sci5ce to asc]ta9 :at is ! cause ( a giv5 effect1 r ?an :at are ! effects ( a giv5 cause4 ,x 0 %[n1 9 an e>ly /age ( our inquiry into ! nature ( ,induction1#ad h[ mu* m ample are ! res\rces :i* sci5ce comm&s = ! latt] ?an = ! =m] inquiry1 s9ce x is ^u ! latt] only t we c ?r[ any direct light by means ( exp]im5t2 ! p[] ( artificially produc+ an effect1 imply+ a previ\s k ( at lea/ "o ( its causes4 ,if we discov] ! causes ( effects1 x is g5]ally by hav+ previ\sly discov]$ ! effects ( causes3 ! greate/ skill 9 devis+ crucial in/ances = ! =m] purpose may only end1 z ,bacon's physical inquiries did1 9 no result at all4 ,0 x t 8 eag]ness to acquire ! p[] ( produc+ = man's b5efit effects ( practical importance to human life1 r5d]+ him impati5t ( pursu+ t end by a circuit\s r\te1 made ev5 him1 ! *ampion ( exp]im5t1 pref] ! direct mode1 ?\gh "o ( m]e obs]vation1 to ! indirect1 9 :i* alone exp]im5t 0 possible8 ,or _h ev5 ,bacon n entirely cle>$ 8 m9d f ! notion ( ! anci5ts1 t r]um cognosc]e causas 0 ! sole object ( philosophy1 & t to inquire into ! effects ( ?+s belong$ to s]vile & me*anical arts8 ,x is wor? rem>k+ t1 :ile ! only effici5t mode ( cultivat+ speculative sci5ce 0 miss$ f an undue contempt ( manual op]ations1 ! false speculative views ?us eng5d]$ gave 9 _! turn a false direction to su* practical & me*anical aims z 7 suff]$ to exi/4 ,! assumption univ]sal among ! anci5ts & 9 ! middle ages1 t !re 7 pr9ciples ( heat & cold1 dryness & moi/ure1 c41 l$ directly to a belief 9 al*emy2 9 a transmutation ( sub/ances1 a *ange f "o ,k9d into ano!r4 ,:y %\ld x n be possible to make gold8 ,ea* ( ! *>act]i/ic prop]ties ( gold has its =ma1 its ess5ce1 its set ( conditions1 :i* if we c\ld discov]1 & le>n h[ to realize1 we c\ld sup]9duce t p>ticul> prop]ty ^u any o!r sub/ance1 ^u wood1 or iron1 or lime1 or clay4 ,if1 !n1 we c\ld effect ?is ) respect to e "o ( ! ess5tial prop]ties ( ! preci\s metal1 we %\ld h conv]t$ ! o!r sub/ance into gold4 ,nor did ?is1 if once ! premises 7 grant$1 appe> to transc5d ! real p[]s ( mank9d4 ,= daily exp]i5ce %[$ t almo/ e "o ( ! di/9ctive s5sible prop]ties ( any object1 its consi/5ce1 its col\r1 its ta/e1 its smell1 its %ape1 admitt$ ( be+ totally *ang$ by fire1 or wat]1 or "s o!r *emical ag5t4 ,! =m ( all ^? qualities seem+1 !re=e1 to be )9 human p[] ei!r to produce or to annihilate1 n only did ! transmutation ( sub/ances appe> ab/ract$ly possible1 b ! employm5t ( ! p[]1 at our *oice1 = practical ends1 seem$ by no means hopeless4#ae ,a prejudice1 univ]sal 9 ! anci5t _w1 & f :i* ,bacon 0 s f> f be+ free1 t x p]vad$ & vitiat$ ! :ole practical "p ( 8 sy/em ( logic1 may ) good reason be rank$ high 9 ! ord] ( ,fallacies ( :i* we are n[ treat+4 #h4 ,!re rema9s "o priori fallacy or natural prejudice1 ! mo/ deeply-root$1 p]haps1 ( all :i* we h enum]at$3 "o :i* n only reign$ supreme 9 ! anci5t _w1 b /ill possesses almo/ undisput$ dom9ion ov] _m ( ! mo/ cultivat$ m9ds2 & "s ( ! mo/ rem>kable ( ! num]\s in/ances by :i* ,i %all ?9k x necess>y to exemplify x1 w be tak5 f rec5t ?9k]s4 ,?is is1 t ! conditions ( a ph5om5on mu/1 or at lea/ probably w1 resemble ! ph5om5on itself4 ,con=mably to :at we h be=e rem>k$ to be ( frequ5t occurr5ce1 ?is fallacy might )\t mu* impropriety h be5 plac$ 9 a diff]5t class1 among ,fallacies ( ,g5]alization3 = exp]i5ce does af=d a c]ta9 degree ( c\nt5ance to ! assumption4 ,! cause does1 9 v _m cases1 resemble its effect2 l produces l4 ,_m ph5om5a h a direct t5d5cy to p]petuate _! own exi/5ce1 or to give rise to o!r ph5om5a simil> to !mselves4 ,n to m5tion =ms actually m\ld$ on "o ano!r1 z impressions on wax & ! l1 9 :i* ! close/ resemblance betwe5 ! effect & its cause is ! v law ( ! ph5om5on2 all motion t5ds to cont9ue itself1 ) its own velocity1 & 9 its own orig9al direction2 & ! motion ( "o body t5ds to set o!rs 9 motion1 :i* is inde$ ! mo/ common ( ! modes 9 :i* ! motions ( bodies orig9ate4 ,we ne$ sc>cely ref] to contagion1 f]m5tation1 & ! l2 or to ! production ( effects by ! gr[? or expansion ( a g]m or rudim5t resembl+ on a small] scale ! complet$ ph5om5on1 z 9 ! gr[? ( a plant or animal f an embryo1 t embryo itself d]iv+ its orig9 f ano!r plant or animal ( ! same k9d4 ,aga91 ! ?\ghts1 or rem9isc5ces1 :i* are effects ( our pa/ s5sations1 resemble ^? s5sations2 feel+s produce simil> feel+s by way ( sympa?y2 acts produce simil> acts by involunt>y or volunt>y imitation4 ,) s _m appe>ances 9 its fav\r1 no wond] if a presumption naturally grew up1 t causes mu/ necess>ily resemble _! effects1 & t l c\ld only be produc$ by l4 ,?is pr9ciple ( fallacy has usually presid$ ov] ! fanta/ical attempts to influ5ce ! c\rse ( nature by conjectural means1 ! *oice ( :i* 0 n direct$ by previ\s obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,! guess almo/ always fix$ ^u "s means :i* possess$ features ( real or app>5t resemblance to ! end 9 view4 ,if a *>m 0 want$1 z by ,ovid's ,m$ea1 to prolong life1 all long-liv$ animals1 or :at 7 e/eem$ su*1 7 collect$ & brew$ into a bro?3-- 444 nec defuit illic ,squamea ,c9yphii t5uis membrana *elydri ,vivacisque jecur c]vi3 quibus insup] addit ,ora caputque novem cornicis scula pass4 ,a simil> notion 0 embodi$ 9 ! celebrat$ m$ical !ory call$ ! ,doctr9e ( ,signatures1 :i* is no less1 says ,dr4 ,p>is1#af ?an a belief t e natural sub/ance :i* possesses any m$ic9al virtue indicates by an obvi\s & well-m>k$ ext]nal "* ! disease = :i* x is a rem$y1 or ! object = :i* x %\ld be employ$4 ,?is outw>d "* 0 g5]ally "s feature ( resemblance1 real or fanta/ical1 ei!r to ! effect x 0 suppos$ to produce1 or to ! ph5om5on ov] :i* its p[] 0 ?\ght to be ex]cis$4 ,?us ! lungs ( a fox mu/ be a specific = a/hma1 because t animal is rem>kable = its /rong p[]s ( respiration4 ,turm]ic has a brilliant yell[ col\r1 :i* indicates t x has ! p[] ( cur+ ! jaundice2 = ! same reason1 poppies mu/ relieve diseases ( ! head2 ,ag>icus ^? ( ! bladd]2 ,cassia fi/ula ! affections ( ! inte/9es1 & ,ari/olo*ia ! disord]s ( ! ut]us3 ! poli%$ surface & /ony h>dness :i* s em95tly *>act]ize ! se$s ( ! ,li?osp]mum (fic9ale 7common gromwell7 7 deem$ a c]ta9 indication ( _! efficacy 9 calcul\s & gravelly disord]s2 = a simil> reason1 ! roots ( ! ,saxifraga granulata 7:ite saxifrage7 ga9$ reputation 9 ! cure ( ! same disease2 & ! ,euphrasia 7eye-bright7 acquir$ fame1 z an application 9 compla9ts ( ! eye1 because x exhibits a black spot 9 its corolla resembl+ ! pupil4 ,! blood-/one1 ! ,heliotropium ( ! anci5ts1 f ! occasional small specks or po9ts ( a blood-r$ col\r exhibit$ on its gre5 surface1 is ev5 at ?is v day employ$ 9 _m p>ts ( ,engl& & ,scotl&1 to /op a ble$+ f ! nose2 & nettle tea cont9ues a popul> rem$y = ! cure ( ,urtic>ia4 ,x is also ass]t$ t "s sub/ances be> ! signatures ( ! hum\rs1 z ! petals ( ! r$ rose t ( ! blood1 & ! roots ( rhub>b & ! fl[]s ( saffron t ( ! bile4 ,! e>ly speculations respect+ ! *emical composition ( bodies 7 r5d]$ abortive by no circum/ance m1 ?an by _! inv>iably tak+ = grant$ t ! prop]ties ( ! elem5ts mu/ resemble ^? ( ! comp\nds :i* 7 =m$ f !m4 ,to desc5d to m mod]n in/ances2 x 0 long ?\ght1 & 0 /\tly ma9ta9$ by ! ,c>tesians & ev5 by ,leibnitz aga9/ ! ,newtonian sy/em1 7nor did ,newton himself1 z we h se51 conte/ ! assumption1 b elud$ x by an arbitr>y hypo!sis71 t no?+ 7( a physical nature at lea/7 c\ld acc\nt = motion1 except previ\s motion2 ! impulse or impact ( "s o!r body4 ,x 0 v long be=e ! sci5tific _w c\ld prevail ^u itself to admit attraction & repulsion 7i4 e4 spontane\s t5d5cies ( p>ticles to approa* or rec$e f "o ano!r7 z ultimate laws1 no m requir+ to be acc\nt$ = ?an impulse itself1 if inde$ ! latt] 7 n1 9 tru?1 resolvable into ! =m]4 ,f ! same s\rce arose ! innum]able hypo!ses devis$ to expla9 ^? classes ( motions :i* appe>$ m my/]i\s ?an o!rs because !re 0 no obvi\s mode ( attribut+ !m to impulse1 z = example ! volunt>y motions ( ! human body4 ,su* 7 ! int]m9able sy/ems ( vibrations propagat$ along ! n]ves1 or animal spirits ru%+ up & d[n betwe5 ! muscles & ! bra92 :i*1 if ! facts c\ld h be5 prov$1 w\ld h be5 an important addition to our k ( physiological laws2 b ! m]e inv5tion1 or arbitr>y supposition ( !m1 c\ld n unless by ! /ronge/ delusion be suppos$ to r5d] ! ph5om5a ( animal life m compreh5sible1 or less my/]i\s4 ,no?+1 h[ev]1 seem$ satisfactory1 b to make out t motion 0 caus$ by motion2 by some?+ l itself4 ,if x 0 n "o k9d ( motion1 x mu/ be ano!r4 ,9 l mann] x 0 suppos$ t ! physical qualities ( objects mu/ arise f "s simil> quality1 or p]haps only "s quality be>+ ! same "n1 9 ! p>ticles or atoms ( :i* ! objects 7 compos$2 t a %>p ta/e1 = example1 mu/ arise f %>p p>ticles4 ,& rev]s+ ! inf]5ce1 ! effects produc$ by a ph5om5on mu/1 x 0 suppos$1 resemble 9 _! physical attributes ! ph5om5on itself4 ,! influ5ces ( ! planets 7 suppos$ to be analog\s to _! visible peculi>ities3 ,m>s1 be+ ( a r$ col\r1 port5d$ fire & slaught]2 & ! l4 ,pass+ f physics to metaphysics1 we may notice among ! mo/ rem>kable fruits ( ?is priori fallacy1 two closely analog\s !ories1 employ$ 9 anci5t & mod]n times to bridge ov] ! *asm betwe5 ! _w ( m9d & t ( matt]3 ! species s5sibiles ( ! ,epicureans1 & ! mod]n doctr9e ( p]ception by means ( ideas4 ,^! !ories are inde$1 probably1 indebt$ = _! exi/5ce n solely to ! fallacy 9 "q1 b to t fallacy comb9$ ) ano!r natural prejudice already adv]t$ to1 t a ?+ _c act :]e x is n4 ,9 bo? doctr9es x is assum$ t ! ph5om5on :i* takes place 9 u :5 we see or t\* an object1 & :i* we reg>d z an effect ( t object1 or r z its pres5ce to our organs1 mu/ ( necessity resemble v closely ! outw>d object itself4 ,to fulfil ?is condition1 ! ,epicureans suppos$ t objects 7 con/antly project+ 9 all directions impalpable images ( !mselves1 :i* ent]$ at ! eyes & p5etrat$ to ! m9d2 :ile mod]n metaphysicians1 ?\gh !y reject$ ?is hypo!sis1 agre$ 9 deem+ x necess>y to suppose t n ! ?+ itself1 b a m5tal image or repres5tation ( x1 0 ! direct object ( p]ception4 ,dr4 ,reid _h to employ a _w ( argum5t & illu/ration to famili>ize p ) ! tru?1 t ! s5sations or impressions on our m9ds ne$ n necess>ily be copies (1 or be> any resemblance to1 ! causes :i* produce !m2 9 opposition to ! natural prejudice :i* l$ p to assimilate ! action ( bodies ^u our s5ses1 & ?r\gh !m ^u our m9ds1 to ! transf] ( a giv5 =m f "o object to ano!r by actual m\ld+4 ,! works ( ,dr4 ,reid are ev5 n[ ! mo/ effectual c\rse ( /udy = deta*+ ! m9d f ! prejudice ( :i* ?is 0 an example4 ,& ! value ( ! s]vice :i* he ?us r5d]$ to popul> philosophy1 is n mu* dim9i%$ al?\gh we may hold1 ) ,br[n1 t he w5t too f> 9 imput+ ! ideal !ory z an actual t5et1 to ! g5]ality ( ! philosoph]s :o prec$$ him1 & especially to ,locke & ,hume3 = if !y did n !mselves consci\sly fall into ! error1 unque/ionably !y (t5 l$ _! read]s into x4 ,! prejudice1 t ! conditions ( a ph5om5on mu/ resemble ! ph5om5on1 is occasionally exagg]at$1 at lea/ v]bally1 into a /ill m palpable absurdity2 ! conditions ( ! ?+ are spok5 ( z if !y 7 ! v ?+ itself4 ,9 ,bacon's model-inquiry1 :i* occupies s great a space 9 ! ,novum ,organum1 ! inquisitio 9 =mam calidi1 ! conclusion :i* he fav\rs is t heat is a k9d ( motion2 mean+ ( c\rse n ! feel+ ( heat1 b ! conditions ( ! feel+2 mean+1 !re=e1 only t :]ev] !re is heat1 !re mu/ fir/ be a p>ticul> k9d ( motion2 b he makes no di/9ction 9 8 language betwe5 ^! two ideas1 express+ himself z if heat1 & ! conditions ( heat1 7 "o & ! same ?+4 ,s ,d>w91 9 ! beg9n+ ( 8 ,zoonomia1 says1 ,! ^w idea has v>i\s mean+s 9 ! writ]s ( metaphysic3 x is "h us$ simply = ^? notions ( ext]nal ?+s :i* our organs ( s5se br+ u acqua9t$ ) orig9ally1 7?us f> ! proposition1 ?\gh vague1 is unexceptionable 9 mean+17 & is def9$ a contraction1 a motion1 or configuration1 ( ! fibres :i* con/itute ! imm$iate organ ( s5se4 ,our notions1 a configuration ( ! fibres6 ,:at k9d ( logician mu/ he be :o ?9ks t a ph5om5on is def9$ to be ! condition on :i* he supposes x to dep5d8 ,accord+ly he says soon aft]1 n t our ideas are caus$ by1 or consequ5t on1 c]ta9 organic ph5om5a1 b our ideas are animal motions ( ! organs ( s5se4 ,& ?is confusion runs ?r\gh ! f\r volumes ( ! ,zoonomia2 ! read] nev] kn[s :e!r ! writ] is speak+ ( ! effect1 or ( its suppos$ cause2 ( ! idea1 a /ate ( m5tal consci\sness1 or ( ! /ate ( ! n]ves & bra9 :i* he consid]s x to presuppose4 ,i h giv5 a v>iety ( in/ances 9 :i* ! natural prejudice1 t causes & _! effects mu/ resemble "o ano!r1 has op]at$ 9 practice s z to give rise to s]i\s errors4 ,i %all n[ g fur!r1 & produce f writ+s ev5 ( ! pres5t or v rec5t times1 in/ances 9 :i* ?is prejudice is laid d[n z an e/abli%$ pr9ciple4 ,m4 ,victor ,c\s91 9 ! la/ ( 8 celebrat$ lectures on ,locke1 enunciates ! maxim 9 ! foll[+ unqualifi$ t]ms4 ,t\t ce qui e/ vrai de l'effet e/ vrai de la cause4 ,a doctr9e to :i*1 unless 9 "s peculi> & te*nical mean+ ( ! words cause & effect1 x is n to be imag9$ t any p]son w\ld lit]ally adh]e3 b he :o c\ld s write mu/ be f> en\gh f see+1 t ! v rev]se might be ! fact2 t !re is no?+ impossible 9 ! supposition t no "o prop]ty :i* is true ( ! effect might be true ( ! cause4 ,)\t go+ q s f> 9 po9t ( expression1 ,col]idge1 9 8 ,biographia ,lit]>ia1#ag affirms z an evid5t tru?1 t ! law ( causality holds only betwe5 homog5e\s ?+s1 i4 e4 ?+s hav+ "s common prop]ty1 & !re=e _c ext5d f "o _w into ano!r1 its opposite3 h5ce1 z m9d & matt] h no common prop]ty1 m9d _c act ^u matt]1 nor matt] ^u m9d4 ,:at is ?is b ! priori fallacy ( :i* we are speak+8 ,! doctr9e1 l _m o!rs ( ,col]idge1 is tak5 f ,sp9oza1 9 ! fir/ book ( ^: ,e?ica 7,de ,deo7 x /&s z ! ,?ird ,proposition1 ,qu res nihil commune int] se hab5t1 e>um una alt]ius causa esse non pote/1 & is !re prov$ f two s-call$ axioms1 equally gratuit\s ) itself3 b ,sp9oza1 ev] sy/ematically consi/5t1 pursu$ ! doctr9e to its inevitable consequ5ce1 ! mat]iality ( ,god4 ,! same conception ( impossibility l$ ! +5i\s & subtle m9d ( ,leibnitz to 8 celebrat$ doctr9e ( a pre-e/abli%$ h>mony4 ,he1 too1 ?\ght t m9d c\ld n act ^u matt]1 nor matt] ^u m9d1 & t ! two1 !re=e1 mu/ h be5 arrang$ by _! ,mak] l two clocks1 :i*1 ?\gh unconnect$ ) "o ano!r1 /rike simultane\sly1 & always po9t to ! same h\r4 ,malebran*e's equally fam\s !ory ( ,occasional ,causes 0 ano!r =m ( ! same conception3 in/ead ( suppos+ ! clocks orig9ally arrang$ to /rike toge!r1 he held t :5 ! "o /rikes1 ,god int]poses1 & makes ! o!r /rike 9 correspond5ce ) x4 ,desc>tes1 9 l mann]1 ^: works are a ri* m9e ( almo/ e description ( priori fallacy1 says t ! ,effici5t ,cause mu/ at lea/ h all ! p]fections ( ! effect1 & = ?is s+ul> reason3 ,si enim ponamus aliquid 9 ide rep]iri quod non fu]it 9 ejus caus1 hoc igitur habet a nihilo2 ( :i* x is sc>cely a p>ody to say1 t if !re be pepp] 9 ! s\p !re mu/ be pepp] 9 ! cook :o made x1 s9ce o!rwise ! pepp] w\ld be )\t a cause4 ,a simil> fallacy is committ$ by ,cic]o 9 8 second book ,de ,f9ibus1 :]e1 speak+ 9 8 own p]son aga9/ ! ,epicureans1 he *>ges !m ) inconsi/5cy 9 say+ t ! pleasures ( ! m9d _h _! orig9 f ^? ( ! body1 & yet t ! =m] 7 m valuable1 z if ! effect c\ld surpass ! cause4 ,animi voluptas oritur propt] voluptatem corporis1 et major e/ animi voluptas quam corporis8 ita fit ut gratulator ltior sit quam is cui gratulatur4 ,ev5 t1 surely1 is n an impossibility3 a p]son's good =tune has (t5 giv5 m pleasure to o!rs ?an x gave to ! p]son himself4 ,desc>tes1 ) no less read9ess1 applies ! same pr9ciple ! conv]se way1 & inf]s ! nature ( ! effects f ! assumption t !y mu/1 9 ?is or t prop]ty or 9 all _! prop]ties1 resemble _! cause4 ,to ?is class belong 8 speculations1 & ^? ( s _m o!rs aft] him1 t5d+ to inf] ! ord] ( ! univ]se1 n f obs]vation1 b by priori reason+ f suppos$ qualities ( ! ,godhead4 ,?is sort ( inf]5ce 0 probably nev] c>ri$ to a great] l5g? ?an x 0 9 "o p>ticul> in/ance by ,desc>tes1 :51 z a pro( ( "o ( 8 physical pr9ciples1 t ! quantity ( motion 9 ! univ]se is inv>iable1 he _h rec\rse to ! immutability ( ! ,div9e ,nature4 ,reason+ ( a v simil> "* is h[ev] ne>ly z common n[ z x 0 9 8 "t1 & does duty l>gely z a means ( f5c+ (f disagreeable conclusions4 ,writ]s h n yet ceas$ to oppose ! !ory ( div9e b5evol5ce to ! evid5ce ( physical facts1 to ! pr9ciple ( population = example4 ,& p seem 9 g5]al to ?9k t !y h us$ a v p[]ful argum5t1 :5 !y h said1 t to suppose "s proposition true1 w\ld be a reflection on ! goodness or wisdom ( ! ,deity4 ,put into ! simple/ possible t]ms1 _! argum5t is1 ,if x _h dep5d$ on me1 ,i w\ld n h made ! proposition true1 !re=e x is n true4 ,put into o!r words x /&s ?us3 ,god is p]fect1 !re=e 7:at ,i ?9k7 p]fection mu/ obta9 9 nature4 ,b s9ce 9 reality e "o feels t nature is v f> f p]fect1 ! doctr9e is nev] appli$ consi/5tly4 ,x furni%es an argum5t :i* 7l _m o!rs ( a simil> "*7 p l to appeal to :5 x makes = _! own side4 ,nobody is conv9c$ by x1 b ea* appe>s to ?9k t x puts religion on 8 side ( ! "q1 & t x is a useful weapon ( (f5ce = w\nd+ an adv]s>y4 ,al?\gh sev]al o!r v>ieties ( priori fallacy might probably be add$ to ^? "h specifi$1 ^! are all aga9/ :i* x seems necess>y to give any special caution4 ,our object is to op51 )\t attempt+ or affect+ to exhau/1 ! subject4 ,hav+ illu/rat$1 !re=e1 ?is fir/ class ( ,fallacies at suffici5t l5g?1 ,i %all proce$ to ! second4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,fallacies ,,( ,,obs]vation4 #a4 ,f ! fallacies :i* are prop]ly ,prejudices1 or presumptions antec$5t to1 & sup]s$+1 pro(1 we pass to ^? :i* lie 9 ! incorrect p]=mance ( ! prov+ process4 ,& z ,pro(1 9 its wide/ ext5t1 embraces "o or m1 or all1 ( ?ree processes1 ,obs]vation1 ,g5]alization1 & ,d$uction2 we %all consid] 9 _! ord] ! errors capable ( be+ committ$ 9 ^! ?ree op]ations4 ,& fir/1 ( ! fir/ m5tion$4 ,a fallacy ( misobs]vation may be ei!r negative or positive2 ei!r ,non-obs]vation or ,mal-obs]vation4 ,x is non-obs]vation1 :5 all ! error consi/s 9 ov]look+1 or neglect+1 facts or p>ticul>s :i* ought to h be5 obs]v$4 ,x is mal-obs]vation1 :5 some?+ is n simply unse51 b se5 wrong2 :5 ! fact or ph5om5on1 in/ead ( be+ recognis$ = :at x is 9 reality1 is mi/ak5 = some?+ else4 #b4 ,non-obs]vation may ei!r take place by ov]look+ in/ances1 or by ov]look+ "s ( ! circum/ances ( a giv5 in/ance4 ,if we 7 to conclude t a =tune-tell] 0 a true prophet1 f n adv]t+ to ! cases 9 :i* 8 pr$ictions _h be5 falsifi$ by ! ev5t1 ?is w\ld be non-obs]vation ( in/ances2 b if we ov]look$ or rema9$ ignorant ( ! fact t 9 cases :]e ! pr$ictions _h be5 fulfill$1 he _h be5 9 collusion ) "s "o :o _h giv5 him ! in=mation on :i* !y 7 gr\nd$1 ?is w\ld be non-obs]vation ( circum/ances4 ,! =m] case1 9 s f> z ! act ( induction f insuffici5t evid5ce is conc]n$1 does n fall "u ?is second class ( ,fallacies1 b "u ! ?ird1 ,fallacies ( ,g5]alization4 ,9 e su* case1 h[ev]1 !re are two defects or errors in/ead ( "o3 !re is ! error ( treat+ ! insuffici5t evid5ce z if x 7 suffici5t1 :i* is a ,fallacy ( ! ?ird class2 & !re is ! insuffici5cy itself2 ! n hav+ bett] evid5ce2 :i*1 :5 su* evid5ce1 or 9 o!r words1 :5 o!r in/ances1 7 to be _h1 is ,non-obs]vation3 & ! errone\s inf]5ce1 s f> z x is to be attribut$ to ?is cause1 is a ,fallacy ( ! second class4 ,x belongs n to our purpose to treat ( non-obs]vation z aris+ f casual inatt5tion1 f g5]al slov5l9ess ( m5tal habits1 want ( due practice 9 ! use ( ! obs]v+ faculties1 or insuffici5t int]e/ 9 ! subject4 ,! "q p]t95t to logic is--,grant+ ! want ( complete compet5cy 9 ! obs]v]1 on :at po9ts is t insuffici5cy on 8 "p likely to lead him wrong8 or r1 :at sorts ( in/ances1 or ( circum/ances 9 any giv5 in/ance1 are mo/ likely to escape ! notice ( obs]v]s g5]ally2 ( mank9d at l>ge4 #c4 ,fir/1 !n1 x is evid5t t :5 ! in/ances on "o side ( a "q are m likely to be rememb]$ & record$ ?an ^? on ! o!r2 especially if !re be any /rong motive to pres]ve ! memory ( ! fir/1 b n ( ! latt]2 ^! la/ are likely to be ov]look$1 & escape ! obs]vation ( ! mass ( mank9d4 ,?is is ! recognis$ explanation ( ! cr$it giv51 9 spite ( reason & evid5ce1 to _m classes ( impo/ors3 to quack doctors1 & =tune-tell]s 9 all ages2 to ! cunn+ man ( mod]n times & ! oracles ( old4 ,few h consid]$ ! ext5t to :i* ?is fallacy op]ates 9 practice1 ev5 9 ! tee? ( ! mo/ palpable negative evid5ce4 ,a /rik+ example ( x is ! fai? :i* ! un$ucat$ portion ( ! agricultural classes1 9 ?is & o!r c\ntries1 cont9ue to repose 9 ! prophecies z to wea!r suppli$ by almanac mak]s3 ?\gh e season af=ds to !m num]\s cases ( completely errone\s pr$iction2 b z e season also furni%es "s cases 9 :i* ! pr$iction is fulfill$1 ?is is en\gh to keep up ! cr$it ( ! prophet1 ) p :o d n reflect on ! numb] ( in/ances requisite = :at we h call$1 9 our inductive t]m9ology1 ! ,elim9ation ( ,*ance2 s9ce a c]ta9 numb] ( casual co9cid5ces n only may b w happ51 betwe5 any two unconnect$ ev5ts4 ,col]idge1 9 "o ( ! essays 9 ! ,fri5d1 has illu/rat$ ! matt] we are n[ consid]+1 9 discuss+ ! orig9 ( a prov]b1 :i*1 diff]5tly word$1 is to be f\nd 9 all ! languages ( ,europe1 viz4 ,=tune fav\rs fools4 ,he ascribes x p>tly to ! t5d5cy to exagg]ate all effects t seem disproportionate to _! visible cause1 & all circum/ances t are 9 any way /rongly contra/$ ) our notions ( ! p]sons "u !m4 ,omitt+ "s explanations :i* w\ld ref] ! error to mal-obs]vation1 or to ! o!r species ( non-obs]vation 7t ( circum/ances71 ,i take up ! quotation f>!r on4 ,un=ese5 co9cid5ces may h greatly help$ a man1 yet if !y h done = him only :at possibly f 8 own abilities he might h effect$ = himself1 8 good luck w excite less att5tion1 & ! in/ances be less rememb]$4 ,t clev] m5 %\ld atta9 _! objects seems natural1 & we neglect ! circum/ances t p]haps produc$ t success ( !mselves1 )\t ! int]v5tion ( skill or =esight2 b we dwell on ! fact & rememb] x1 z some?+ /range1 :5 ! same happ5s to a weak or ignorant man4 ,s too1 ?\gh ! latt] %\ld fail 9 8 und]tak+s f concurr5ces t might h happ5$ to ! wise/ man1 yet 8 failure be+ no m ?an might h be5 expect$ & acc\nt$ = f 8 folly1 x lays no hold on our att5tion1 b fleets away among ! o!r undi/+ui%$ waves 9 :i* ! /ream ( ord9>y life murmurs by u1 & is =gott54 ,_h x be5 z true z x 0 notori\sly false1 t ^? all-embrac+ discov]ies1 :i* h %$ a dawn ( sci5ce on ! art ( *emi/ry1 & give no obscure promise ( "s "o great con/itutive law1 9 ! light ( :i* dwell dom9ion & ! p[] ( prophecy2 if ^! discov]ies1 in/ead ( hav+ be51 z !y really 71 preconc]t$ by m$itation1 & evolv$ out ( 8 own intellect1 _h occurr$ by a set ( lucky accid5ts to ! illu/ri\s fa!r & f\nd] ( philosophic al*emy2 if !y _h pres5t$ !mselves to ,pr(essor ,davy exclusively 9 consequ5ce ( 8 luck 9 possess+ a p>ticul> galvanic batt]y2 if ?is batt]y1 z f> z ,davy 0 conc]n$1 _h itself be5 an accid5t1 & n 7z 9 po9t ( fact x 07 desir$ & obta9$ by him = ! purpose ( ensur+ ! te/imony ( exp]i5ce to 8 pr9ciples1 & 9 ord] to b9d d[n mat]ial nature "u ! inquisition ( reason1 & =ce f h]1 z by torture1 unequivocal answ]s to prep>$ & preconceiv$ que/ions1--yet /ill !y w\ld n h be5 talk$ ( or describ$ z in/ances ( luck1 b z ! natural results ( 8 admitt$ g5ius & kn[n skill4 ,b %\ld an accid5t h disclos$ simil> discov]ies to a me*anic at ,birm+ham or ,%effield1 & if ! man %\ld gr[ ri* 9 consequ5ce1 & p>tly by ! envy ( 8 neighb\rs & p>tly ) good reason1 be consid]$ by !m z a man bel[ p> 9 ! g5]al p[]s ( 8 und]/&+2 !n1 ',o :at a lucky fell[6 ,well1 ,=tune does fav\r fools--t's = c]ta96--,x is always s6' ,& =?) ! exclaim] relates half a doz5 simil> in/ances4 ,?us accumulat+ ! "o sort ( facts & nev] collect+ ! o!r1 we d1 z poets 9 _! diction1 & quacks ( all d5om9ations d 9 _! reason+1 put a "p = ! :ole4 ,?is passage v happily sets =? ! mann] 9 :i*1 "u ! loose mode ( induction :i* proce$s p] enum]ati onem simplicem1 n seek+ = in/ances ( su* a k9d z to be decisive ( ! "q1 b g5]aliz+ f any :i* occur1 or r :i* are rememb]$1 op9ions gr[ up ) ! app>5t sanction ( exp]i5ce1 :i* h no f\ndation 9 ! laws ( nature at all4 ,itaque recte respondit ille1 7we may say ) ,bacon1#ah7 qui cum susp5sa tabula 9 templo ei mon/r>etur eorum1 qui vota solv]ant1 quod naufragii p]iculo elapsi s9t1 atque int]rog&o prem]etur1 anne tum quidem ,deorum num5 agnosc]et1 qusivit d5uo1 ,at ubi sunt illi depicti qui po/ vota nuncupata p]i]unt8 ,eadem ratio e/ f]e omnis sup]/itionis1 ut 9 ,a/rologicis1 9 ,somniis1 ,om9ibus1 ,nemesibus1 et hujusmodi2 9 quibus1 hom9es delectati hujusmodi vanitatibus1 adv]tunt ev5tus1 ubi impl5tur2 a/ ubi fallunt1 licet multo frequ5tius1 tam5 negligunt1 et prt]eunt4 ,& he proce$s to say1 t indep5d5tly ( ! love ( ! m>vell\s1 or any o!r bias 9 ! incl9ations1 !re is a natural t5d5cy 9 ! intellect itself to ?is k9d ( fallacy2 s9ce ! m9d is m mov$ by affirmative in/ances1 ?\gh negative ones are ( mo/ use 9 philosophy2 ,is tam5 humano intellectui error e/ proprius et p]petuus1 ut magis moveatur et excitetur ,affirmativis quam ,negativis2 cum rite et ord9e quum se utrique prb]e debeat2 qu9 contra1 9 omni ,axiomate v]o con/itu5do1 major vis e/ in/anti negativ4 ,b ! greate/ ( all causes ( non-obs]vation is a preconceiv$ op9ion4 ,?is x is :i*1 9 all ages1 has made ! :ole race ( mank9d1 & e sep>ate section ( x1 = ! mo/ "p unobs]vant ( all facts1 h[ev] abundant1 ev5 :5 pass+ "u _! own eyes1 :i* are contradictory to any fir/ appe>ance1 or any receiv$ t5et4 ,x is wor? :ile to recal occasionally to ! oblivi\s memory ( mank9d "s ( ! /rik+ in/ances 9 :i* op9ions t ! simple/ exp]im5t w\ld h %[n to be errone\s1 cont9u$ to be ent]ta9$ because nobody ev] ?\ght ( try+ t exp]im5t4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable ( ^! 0 exhibit$ 9 ! ,cop]nican controv]sy4 ,! oppon5ts ( ,cop]nicus argu$ t ! e>? did n move1 because if x did1 a /one let fall f ! top ( a high t[] w\ld n rea* ! gr\nd at ! foot ( ! t[]1 b at a little di/ance f x1 9 a contr>y direction to ! e>?'s c\rse2 9 ! same mann] 7said !y7 z1 if a ball is let drop f ! ma/-head :ile ! %ip is 9 full sail1 x does n fall exactly at ! foot ( ! ma/1 b ne>] to ! /]n ( ! vessel4 ,! ,cop]nicans w\ld h sil5c$ ^! objectors at once if !y _h tri$ dropp+ a ball f ! ma/-head1 s9ce !y w\ld h f\nd t x does fall exactly at ! foot1 z ! !ory requires3 b no2 !y admitt$ ! spuri\s fact1 & /ruggl$ va9ly to make out a diff]5ce betwe5 ! two cases4 ,! ball 0 no "p ( ! %ip--& ! motion =w>d 0 n natural1 ei!r to ! %ip or to ! ball4 ,! /one1 on ! o!r h&1 let fall f ! top ( ! t[]1 0 a "p ( ! e>?2 & !re=e1 ! diurnal & annul> revolutions :i* 7 natural to ! e>?1 7 also natural to ! /one3 ! /one w\ld1 !re=e1 reta9 ! same motion ) ! t[]1 & /rike ! gr\nd precisely at ! bottom ( x4#ai ,o!r examples1 sc>cely less /rik+1 are record$ by ,dr4 ,:ewell1#bj :]e imag9>y laws ( nature h cont9u$ to be receiv$ z real1 m]ely because no p]son _h /eadily look$ at facts :i* almo/ e "o _h ! opportunity ( obs]v+4 ,a vague & loose mode ( look+ at facts v easily obs]vable1 left m5 = a long "t "u ! belief t a body t5 times z heavy z ano!r falls t5 times z fa/2 t objects imm]s$ 9 wat] are always magnifi$1 )\t reg>d to ! =m ( ! surface2 t ! magnet ex]ts an irresi/ible =ce2 t cry/al is always f\nd associat$ ) ice2 & ! l4 ,^! & _m o!rs are examples h[ bl9d & c>eless man c be ev5 9 obs]vation ( ! pla9e/ & commone/ appe>ances2 & !y %[ u t ! m]e faculties ( p]ception1 al?\gh con/antly ex]cis$ ^u innum]able objects1 may long fail 9 lead+ to any exact k4 ,if ev5 on physical facts1 & ^! ( ! mo/ obvi\s "*1 ! obs]v+ faculties ( mank9d c be to ?is degree ! passive slaves ( _! preconceiv$ impressions1 we ne$ n be surpris$ t ?is %\ld be s lam5tably true z all exp]i5ce atte/s x to be1 on ?+s m ne>ly connect$ ) _! /rong] feel+s--on moral1 social1 & religi\s subjects4 ,! in=mation :i* an ord9>y travell] br+s back f a =eign c\ntry1 z ! result ( ! evid5ce ( 8 s5ses1 is almo/ always su* z exactly confirms ! op9ions ) :i* he set out4 ,he has _h eyes & e>s = su* ?+s only z he expect$ to see4 ,m5 read ! sacr$ books ( _! religion1 & pass unobs]v$ !re91 multitudes ( ?+s utt]ly irreconcileable ) ev5 _! own notions ( moral excell5ce4 ,) ! same au?orities be=e !m1 diff]5t hi/orians1 alike innoc5t ( int5tional misrepres5tation1 see only :at is fav\rable to ,prote/ants or ,ca?olics1 royali/s or republicans1 ,*>les ,i4 or ,cromwell2 :ile o!rs1 hav+ set out ) ! preconception t extremes mu/ be 9 ! wrong1 are incapable ( see+ tru? & ju/ice :5 ^! are :olly on "o side4 ,! influ5ce ( a preconceiv$ !ory is well exemplifi$ 9 ! sup]/itions ( b>b>ians respect+ ! virtues ( m$icam5ts & *>ms4 ,! negroes1 among :om coral1 z ( old among ourselves1 is worn z an amulet1 affirm1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,p>is1#ba t its col\r is always affect$ by ! /ate ( heal? ( ! we>]1 x becom+ pal] 9 disease4 ,on a matt] op5 to univ]sal obs]vation1 a g5]al proposition :i* has n ! smalle/ ve/ige ( tru? is receiv$ z a result ( exp]i5ce2 ! preconceiv$ op9ion prev5t+1 x w\ld seem1 any obs]vation :atev] on ! subject4 #d4 ,= illu/ration ( ! fir/ species ( non-obs]vation1 t ( ,in/ances1 :at has n[ be5 /at$ may suffice4 ,b !re may also be non-obs]vation ( "s mat]ial circum/ances1 9 in/ances :i* h n be5 altoge!r ov]look$--nay1 :i* may be ! v in/ances on :i* ! :ole sup]/ructure ( a !ory has be5 f\nd$4 ,z1 9 ! cases hi!rto exam9$1 a g5]al proposition 0 too ra%ly adopt$1 on ! evid5ce ( p>ticul>s1 true inde$1 b insuffici5t to support x2 s 9 ! cases to :i* we n[ turn1 ! p>ticul>s !mselves h be5 imp]fectly obs]v$1 & ! s+ul> propositions on :i* ! g5]alization is gr\nd$1 or "s at lea/ ( ^? s+ul> propositions1 are false4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 0 "o ( ! mi/akes committ$ 9 ! celebrat$ phlogi/ic !ory2 a doctr9e :i* acc\nt$ = combu/ion by ! extrication ( a sub/ance call$ phlogi/on1 suppos$ to be conta9$ 9 all combu/ible matt]4 ,! hypo!sis accord$ tol]ably well ) sup]ficial appe>ances3 ! asc5t ( flame naturally sugge/s ! escape ( a sub/ance2 & ! visible residuum ( a%es1 9 bulk & weight1 g5]ally falls extremely %ort ( ! combu/ible mat]ial4 ,! error 01 non-obs]vation ( an important portion ( ! actual residue1 namely1 ! gase\s products ( combu/ion4 ,:5 ^! 7 at la/ notic$ & br\ght into acc\nt1 x appe>$ to be an univ]sal law1 t all sub/ances ga9 in/ead ( los+ weight by und]go+ combu/ion2 &1 aft] ! usual attempt to accommodate ! old !ory to ! new fact by means ( an arbitr>y hypo!sis 7t phlogi/on _h ! quality ( positive levity in/ead ( gravity71 *emi/s 7 conduct$ to ! true explanation1 namely1 t in/ead ( a sub/ance sep>at$1 !re 0 on ! contr>y a sub/ance absorb$4 ,_m ( ! absurd practices :i* h be5 deem$ to possess m$ic9al efficacy1 h be5 indebt$ = _! reputation to non-obs]vance ( "s accompany+ circum/ance :i* 0 ! real ag5t 9 ! cures ascrib$ to !m4 ,?us1 ( ! sympa!tic p[d] ( ,sir ,k5elm ,digby3 ,:5ev] any w\nd _h be5 inflict$1 ?is p[d] 0 appli$ to ! weapon t _h inflict$ x1 :i* 01 moreov]1 cov]$ ) o9tm5t1 & dress$ two or ?ree times a day4 ,! w\nd itself1 9 ! meantime1 0 direct$ to be br\ght toge!r1 & c>efully b\nd up ) clean l95 rags1 b above all1 to be let alone = sev5 days1 at ! end ( :i* p]iod ! b&ages 7 remov$1 :5 ! w\nd 0 g5]ally f\nd p]fectly unit$4 ,! triumph ( ! cure 0 decre$ to ! my/]i\s ag5cy ( ! sympa!tic p[d] :i* _h be5 s assidu\sly appli$ to ! weapon1 :]eas x is h>dly necess>y to obs]ve t ! promptness ( ! cure dep5d$ on ! total exclusion ( air f ! w\nd1 & ^u ! sanative op]ations ( nature n hav+ receiv$ any di/urbance f ! (fici\s int]f]5ce ( art4 ,! result1 beyond all d\bt1 furni%$ ! fir/ h9t :i* l$ surgeons to ! improv$ practice ( heal+ w\nds by :at is te*nically call$ ! fir/ int5tion4#bb ,9 all records1 adds ,dr4 ,p>is1 ( extraord9>y cures p]=m$ by my/]i\s ag5ts1 !re is a great desire to conceal ! rem$ies & o!r curative means :i* 7 simultane\sly adm9i/]$ ) !m2 ?us ,oribasius comm5ds 9 high t]ms a necklace ( ,pony root = ! cure ( epilepsy2 b we le>n t he always took c>e to accompany its use ) copi\s evacuations1 al?\gh he assigns to !m no %>e ( cr$it 9 ! cure4 ,9 lat] times we h a good specim5 ( ?is species ( deception1 pres5t$ to u 9 a "w on ,scr(ula by ,mr4 ,morley1 writt51 z we are in=m$1 = ! sole purpose ( re/or+ ! mu* injur$ "* & use ( ! ,v]va92 9 :i* ! au?or directs ! root ( ?is plant to be ti$ ) a y>d ( :ite sat9 rib& ar\nd ! neck1 :]e x is to rema9 until ! pati5t is cur$2 b m>k--dur+ ?is int]val he calls to 8 aid ! mo/ active m$ic9es 9 ! mat]ia m$ica4#bc ,9 o!r cases ! cures really produc$ by re/1 regim51 & amusem5t1 h be5 ascrib$ to ! m$ic9al1 or occasionally to ! sup]natural1 means :i* 7 put 9 requisition4 ,! celebrat$ ,john ,wesley1 :ile he commemorates ! triumph ( sulphur & supplication ov] 8 bodily infirmity1 =gets to appreciate ! resuscitat+ influ5ce ( f\r mon?s' repose f 8 apo/olic lab\rs2 & su* is ! disposition ( ! human m9d to place confid5ce 9 ! op]ation ( my/]i\s ag5ts1 t we f9d him m dispos$ to attribute 8 cure to a br[n pap] plai/] ( egg & brim/one1 ?an to ,dr4 ,fo!rgill's salut>y prescription ( c\ntry air1 re/1 asses' milk1 & horse ex]cise4#bd ,9 ! foll[+ example1 ! circum/ance ov]look$ 0 ( a some:at diff]5t "*4 ,:5 ! yell[ fev] rag$ 9 ,am]ica1 ! practition]s tru/$ exclusively to ! copi\s use ( m]cury2 at fir/ ?is plan 0 deem$ s univ]sally efficaci\s1 t1 9 ! en?usiasm ( ! mom5t1 x 0 triumphantly proclaim$ t dea? nev] took place aft] ! m]cury _h ev9c$ its effect ^u ! sy/em3 all ?is 0 v true1 b x furni%$ no pro( ( ! efficacy ( t metal1 s9ce ! disease 9 its aggravat$ =m 0 s rapid 9 its c>e]1 t x swept away its victims long be=e ! sy/em c\ld be br\ght "u m]curial influ5ce1 :ile 9 its mild] %ape x pass$ (f equally well )\t any assi/ance f art4#be ,9 ^! examples ! circum/ance ov]look$ 0 cognizable by ! s5ses4 ,9 o!r cases1 x is "o ! k ( :i* c\ld only be arriv$ at by reason+2 b ! fallacy may /ill be class$ "u ! head to :i*1 = want ( a m appropriate "n1 we h giv5 ! appellation ,fallacies ( ,non-obs]vation4 ,x is n ! nature ( ! faculties :i* ought to h be5 employ$1 b ! non-employm5t ( !m1 :i* con/itutes ?is ,natural ,ord] ( ,fallacies4 ,:]ev] ! error is negative1 n positive2 :]ev] x consi/s especially 9 ov]look+1 9 be+ ignorant or unm9dful ( "s fact :i*1 if kn[n & att5d$ to1 w\ld h made a diff]5ce 9 ! conclusion arriv$ at2 ! error is prop]ly plac$ 9 ! ,class :i* we are consid]+4 ,9 ?is ,class1 !re is n1 z 9 all o!r fallacies !re is1 a positive mis-e/imate ( evid5ce actually _h4 ,! conclusion w\ld be j1 if ! portion :i* is se5 ( ! case 7 ! :ole ( x2 b !re is ano!r portion ov]look$1 :i* vitiates ! result4 ,= in/ance1 !re is a rem>kable doctr9e :i* has occasionally f\nd a v5t 9 ! public spee*es ( unwise legislators1 b :i* only 9 "o in/ance t ,i am aw>e ( has receiv$ ! sanction ( a philosophical writ]1 namely ,m4 ,c\s91 :o1 9 8 preface to ! ,gorgias ( ,plato1 cont5d+ t puni%m5t mu/ h "s o!r & high] ju/ification ?an ! prev5tion ( crime1 makes use ( ?is argum5t--t if puni%m5t 7 only = ! sake ( example1 x w\ld be indiff]5t :e!r we puni%$ ! innoc5t or ! guilty1 s9ce ! puni%m5t1 consid]$ z an example1 is equally efficaci\s 9 ei!r case4 ,n[ we mu/1 9 ord] to g along ) ?is reason+1 suppose1 t ! p]son :o feels himself "u temptation1 obs]v+ somebody puni%$1 concludes himself to be 9 dang] ( be+ puni%$ likewise1 & is t]rifi$ accord+ly4 ,b x is =gott5 t if ! p]son puni%$ is suppos$ to be innoc5t1 or ev5 if !re be any d\bt ( 8 guilt1 ! spectator w reflect t 8 own dang]1 :atev] x may be1 is n cont+5t on 8 guilt9ess1 b ?reat5s him equally if he rema9s innoc5t1 & h[ !re=e is he det]r$ f guilt by ! appreh5sion ( su* puni%m5t8 ,m4 ,c\s9 supposes t p w be dissuad$ f guilt by :atev] r5d]s ! condition ( ! guilty m p]il\s1 =gett+ t ! condition ( ! innoc5t 7also "o ( ! elem5ts 9 ! calculation7 is1 9 ! case suppos$1 made p]il\s 9 precisely an equal degree4 ,?is is a fallacy ( ov]look+2 or ( non-obs]vation1 )9 ! int5t ( our classification4 ,fallacies ( ?is description are ! great /umbl+-block to correct ?9k+ 9 political economy4 ,! economical work+s ( society af=d num]\s cases 9 :i* ! effects ( a cause consi/ ( two sets ( ph5om5a3 ! "o imm$iate1 conc5trat$1 obvi\s to all eyes1 & pass+1 9 common appreh5sion1 = ! :ole effect2 ! o!r widely diffus$1 or ly+ deep] "u ! surface1 & :i* is exactly contr>y to ! =m]4 ,take1 = in/ance1 ! common notion s plausible at ! fir/ glance1 ( ! enc\ragem5t giv5 to indu/ry by lavi% exp5diture4 ,a1 :o sp5ds 8 :ole income1 & ev5 8 capital1 9 exp5sive liv+1 is suppos$ to give great employm5t to lab\r4 ,b1 :o lives on a small portion1 & inve/s ! rema9d] 9 ! funds1 is ?\ght to give little or no employm5t4 ,= ev]ybody sees ! ga9s :i* are made by ,a's tradesm51 s]vants1 & o!rs1 :ile 8 money is sp5d+4 ,b's sav+s1 on ! contr>y1 pass into ! h&s ( ! p]son ^: /ock he pur*as$1 :o ) x pays a debt he ow$ to "s bank]1 :o l5ds x aga9 to "s m]*ant or manufactur]2 & ! capital be+ laid out 9 hir+ sp9n]s & weav]s1 or c>ri]s & ! crews ( m]*ant vessels1 n only gives imm$iate employm5t to at lea/ z mu* indu/ry z ,a employs dur+ ! :ole ( 8 c>e]1 b com+ back ) increase by ! sale ( ! goods :i* h be5 manufactur$ or import$1 =ms a fund = ! employm5t ( ! same & p]haps a great] quantity ( lab\r 9 p]petuity4 ,b ! obs]v] does n see1 & !re=e does n consid]1 :at becomes ( ,b's money2 he does see :at is done ) ,a's3 he obs]ves ! am\nt ( indu/ry :i* ,a's pr(usion fe$s2 he obs]ves n ! f> great] quantity :i* x prev5ts f be+ f$2 & !nce ! prejudice1 univ]sal to ! "t ( ,adam ,smi?1 t prodigality enc\rages indu/ry1 & p>simony is a disc\ragem5t to x4 ,! common argum5t aga9/ free trade 0 a fallacy ( ! same nature4 ,! pur*as] ( ,briti% silk enc\rages ,briti% indu/ry2 ! pur*as] ( ,lyons silk enc\rages only ,fr5*2 ! =m] conduct is patriotic1 ! latt] ought to be int]dict$ by law4 ,! circum/ance is ov]look$1 t ! pur*as] ( any =eign commodity necess>ily causes1 directly or indirectly1 ! export ( an equival5t value ( "s article ( home production 7beyond :at w\ld o!rwise be export$71 ei!r to ! same =eign c\ntry or to "s o!r2 :i* fact1 ?\gh f ! complication ( ! circum/ances x _c always be v]ifi$ by specific obs]vation1 no obs]vation c possibly be br\ght to contradict1 :ile ! evid5ce ( reason+ on :i* x re/s is irrefragable4 ,! fallacy is1 !re=e1 ! same z 9 ! prec$+ case1 t ( see+ a "p only ( ! ph5om5a1 & imag9+ t "p to be ! :ole3 & may be rank$ among ,fallacies ( ,non-obs]vation4 #e4 ,to complete ! exam9ation ( ! second ( our five classes1 we h n[ to speak ( ,mal-obs]vation2 9 :i* ! error does n lie 9 ! fact t some?+ is unse51 b t some?+ se5 is se5 wrong4 ,p]ception be+ infallible evid5ce ( :atev] is really p]ceiv$1 ! error n[ "u consid]ation c be committ$ no o!rwise ?an by mi/ak+ = conception :at is 9 fact inf]5ce4 ,we h =m]ly %[n h[ intimately ! two are bl5d$ 9 almo/ ev]y?+ :i* is call$ obs]vation1 & /ill m 9 e ,description4#bf ,:at is actually on any occasion p]ceiv$ by our s5ses be+ s m9ute 9 am\nt1 & g5]ally s unimportant a portion ( ! /ate ( facts :i* we wi% to asc]ta9 or to communicate2 x w\ld be absurd to say t ei!r 9 our obs]vations1 or 9 convey+ _! result to o!rs1 we ought n to m+le inf]5ce ) fact2 all t c be said is1 t :5 we d s we ought to be aw>e ( :at we are do+1 & to "k :at "p ( ! ass]tion re/s on consci\sness1 & is !re=e indisputable1 :at "p on inf]5ce1 & is !re=e que/ionable4 ,"o ( ! mo/ celebrat$ examples ( an univ]sal error produc$ by mi/ak+ an inf]5ce = ! direct evid5ce ( ! s5ses1 0 ! resi/ance made1 on ! gr\nd ( common s5se1 to ! ,cop]nican sy/em4 ,p fanci$ !y saw ! sun rise & set1 ! />s revolve 9 circles r\nd ! pole4 ,we n[ "k t !y saw no su* ?+2 :at !y really saw 0 a set ( appe>ances1 equally reconcileable ) ! !ory !y held & ) a totally diff]5t "o4 ,x seems /range t su* an in/ance z ?is1 ( ! te/imony ( ! s5ses plead$ ) ! mo/ entire conviction 9 fav\r ( some?+ :i* 0 a m]e inf]5ce ( ! judgm5t1 &1 z x turn$ out1 a false inf]5ce1 %\ld n h op5$ ! eyes ( ! bigots ( common s5se1 & inspir$ !m ) a m mode/ di/ru/ ( ! compet5cy ( m]e ignorance to judge ! conclusions ( cultivat$ ?\ght4 ,9 proportion to any p]son's defici5cy ( k & m5tal cultivation1 is g5]ally 8 inability to discrim9ate betwe5 8 inf]5ces & ! p]ceptions on :i* !y 7 gr\nd$4 ,_m a m>vell\s tale1 _m a sc&al\s anecdote1 owes its orig9 to ?is incapacity4 ,! n>rator relates1 n :at he saw or he>d1 b ! impression :i* he d]iv$ f :at he saw or he>d1 & ( :i* p]haps ! great] "p consi/$ ( inf]5ce1 ?\gh ! :ole is relat$ n z inf]5ce b z matt]-(-fact4 ,! difficulty ( induc+ witnesses to re/ra9 )9 any mod]ate limits ! int]mixture ( _! inf]5ces ) ! n>rative ( _! p]ceptions1 is well kn[n to exp]i5c$ cross-exam9]s2 & /ill m is ?is ! case :5 ignorant p]sons attempt to describe any natural ph5om5on4 ,! simple/ n>rative1 says ,dugald ,/ew>t1#bg ( ! mo/ illit]ate obs]v] involves m or less ( hypo!sis2 nay1 9 g5]al1 x w be f\nd t1 9 proportion to 8 ignorance1 ! great] is ! numb] ( conjectural pr9ciples involv$ 9 8 /atem5ts4 ,a village apo!c>y 7&1 if possible1 9 a /ill great] degree1 an exp]i5c$ nurse7 is seldom able to describe ! pla9e/ case1 )\t employ+ a phraseology ( :i* e ^w is a !ory3 :]eas a simple & g5u9e specification ( ! ph5om5a :i* m>k a p>ticul> disease2 a specification unsophi/icat$ by fancy1 or by preconceiv$ op9ions1 may be reg>d$ z unequivocal evid5ce ( a m9d tra9$ by long & successful /udy to ! mo/ difficult ( all arts1 t ( ! fai?ful int]pretation ( nature4 ,! univ]sality ( ! confusion betwe5 p]ceptions & ! inf]5ces drawn f !m1 & ! r>ity ( ! p[] to discrim9ate ! "o f ! o!r1 ceases to surprise u :5 we consid] t 9 ! f> great] numb] ( in/ances ! actual p]ceptions ( our s5ses are ( no importance or int]e/ to u except z m>ks f :i* we inf] some?+ beyond !m4 ,x is n ! col\r & sup]ficial ext5sion p]ceiv$ by ! eye t are important to u1 b ! object1 ( :i* ^? visible appe>ances te/ify ! pres5ce2 & :]e ! s5sation itself is indiff]5t1 z x g5]ally is1 we h no motive to att5d p>ticul>ly to x1 b acquire a habit ( pass+ x ov] )\t di/9ct consci\sness1 & go+ on at once to ! inf]5ce4 ,s t to "k :at ! s5sation actually 01 is a /udy 9 itself1 to :i* pa9t]s1 = example1 h to tra9 !mselves by special & long-cont9u$ discipl9e & application4 ,9 ?+s fur!r remov$ f ! dom9ion ( ! outw>d s5ses1 no "o :o has n great exp]i5ce 9 psy*ological analysis is compet5t to break ?is int5se association2 & :5 su* analytic habits d n exi/ 9 ! requisite degree1 x is h>dly possible to m5tion any ( ! habitual judgm5ts ( mank9d on subjects ( a high degree ( ab/raction1 f ! be+ ( a ,god & ! immortality ( ! s\l d[n to ! multiplication table1 :i* are n1 or h n be51 consid]$ z matt] ( direct intuition4 ,s /rong is ! t5d5cy to ascribe an intuitive "* to judgm5ts :i* are m]e inf]5ces1 & (t5 false ones4 ,no "o c d\bt t _m a delud$ vision>y has actually believ$ t he 0 directly inspir$ f ,heav51 & t ! ,almighty _h conv]s$ ) him face to face2 :i* yet 0 only1 on 8 "p1 a conclusion drawn f appe>ances to 8 s5ses1 or feel+s 9 8 int]nal consci\sness1 :i* af=d$ no w>rant = any su* belief4 ,a caution1 !re=e1 aga9/ ?is class ( errors1 is n only ne$ful b indisp5sable2 ?\gh to det]m9e :e!r1 on any ( ! great que/ions ( metaphysics1 su* errors are actually committ$1 belongs n to ?is place1 b1 z ,i h s (t5 said1 to a diff]5t sci5ce4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,fallacies ,,( ,,g5]alization4 #a4 ,! class ( ,fallacies ( :i* we are n[ to speak1 is ! mo/ ext5sive ( all2 embrac+ a great] numb] & v>iety ( unf\nd$ inf]5ces ?an any ( ! o!r classes1 & :i* x is ev5 m difficult to r$uce to sub-classes or species4 ,if ! attempt made 9 ! prec$+ books to def9e ! pr9ciples ( well-gr\nd$ g5]alization has be5 successful1 all g5]alizations n con=mable to ^? pr9ciples might1 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 be br\ght "u ! pres5t class3 :5 h[ev] ! rules are kn[n & kept 9 view1 b a casual lapse committ$ 9 ! application ( !m1 ?is is a blund]1 n a fallacy4 ,to entitle an error ( g5]alization to ! latt] epi!t1 x mu/ be committ$ on pr9ciple2 !re mu/ lie 9 x "s errone\s g5]al conception ( ! inductive process2 ! legitimate mode ( draw+ conclusions f obs]vation & exp]im5t mu/ be fundam5tally misconceiv$4 ,)\t attempt+ any?+ s *im]ical z an exhau/ive classification ( all ! misconceptions :i* c exi/ on ! subject1 let u cont5t ourselves ) not+1 among ! cautions :i* might be sugge/$1 a few ( ! mo/ useful & ne$ful4 #b4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !re are c]ta9 k9ds ( g5]alization :i*1 if ! pr9ciples already laid d[n be correct1 mu/ be gr\ndless3 exp]i5ce _c af=d ! necess>y conditions = e/abli%+ !m by a correct induction4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 are all inf]5ces f ! ord] ( nature exi/+ on ! e>?1 or 9 ! sol> sy/em1 to t :i* may exi/ 9 remote p>ts ( ! univ]se2 :]e ! ph5om5a1 = aught we "k1 may be entirely diff]5t1 or may succe$ "o ano!r accord+ to diff]5t laws1 or ev5 accord+ to no fix$ law at all4 ,su*1 aga91 9 matt]s dep5d5t on causation1 are all univ]sal negatives1 all propositions t ass]t impossibility4 ,! non-exi/5ce ( any giv5 ph5om5on1 h[ev] uni=mly exp]i5ce may z yet h te/ifi$ to ! fact1 proves at mo/ t no cause1 adequate to its production1 has yet manife/$ itself2 b t no su* causes exi/ 9 nature c only be inf]r$ if we are s fooli% z to suppose t we "k all ! =ces 9 nature4 ,! supposition w\ld at lea/ be premature :ile our acqua9tance ) "s ev5 ( ^? :i* we d "k is s extremely rec5t4 ,& h[ev] mu* our k ( nature may h]eaft] be ext5d$1 x is n easy to see h[ t k c\ld ev] be complete1 or h[1 if x 71 we c\ld ev] be assur$ ( its be+ s4 ,! only laws ( nature :i* af=d suffici5t w>rant = attribut+ impossibility 7ev5 ) ref]5ce to ! exi/+ ord] ( nature1 & to our own region ( ! univ]se71 are fir/1 ^? ( numb] & ext5sion1 :i* are p>am\nt to ! laws ( ! succession ( ph5om5a1 & n expos$ to ! ag5cy ( c\nt]act+ causes2 & secondly1 ! univ]sal law ( causality itself4 ,t no v>iation 9 any effect or consequ5t w take place :ile ! :ole ( ! antec$5ts rema9 ! same1 may be affirm$ ) full assurance4 ,b1 t ! addition ( "s new antec$5t might n entirely alt] & subv]t ! accu/om$ consequ5t1 or t antec$5ts compet5t to d ?is d n exi/ 9 nature1 we are 9 no case emp[]$ positively to conclude4 #c4 ,x is next to be rem>k$ t all g5]alizations :i* pr(ess1 l ! !ories ( ,?ales1 ,democritus1 & o!rs ( ! e>ly ,greek speculators1 to resolve all ?+s into "s "o elem5t1 or l _m mod]n !ories1 to resolve ph5om5a radically diff]5t into ! same1 are necess>ily false4 ,by radically diff]5t ph5om5a ,i mean impressions on our s5ses :i* diff] 9 quality1 & n m]ely 9 degree4 ,on ?is subject :at appe>$ necess>y 0 said 9 ! *apt] on ! ,limits to ! ,explanation ( ,laws ( ,nature2 b z ! fallacy is ev5 9 our own times a common "o1 ,i %all t\* on x some:at fur!r 9 ?is place4 ,:5 we say t ! =ce :i* reta9s ! planets 9 _! orbits is resolv$ into gravity1 or t ! =ce :i* makes sub/ances comb9e *emically is resolv$ into electricity1 we ass]t 9 ! "o case :at is1 & 9 ! o!r case :at might1 & probably w ultimately1 be a legitimate result ( induction4 ,9 bo? ^! cases1 motion is resolv$ into motion4 ,! ass]tion is1 t a case ( motion1 :i* 0 suppos$ to be special1 & to foll[ a di/9ct law ( its own1 con=ms to & is includ$ 9 ! g5]al law :i* regulates ano!r class ( motions4 ,b1 f ^! & simil> g5]alizations1 c\nt5ance & curr5cy h be5 giv5 to attempts to resolve1 n motion into motion1 b heat into motion1 light into motion1 s5sation itself into motion2 /ates ( consci\sness into /ates ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 z 9 ! rud] =ms ( ! mat]iali/ philosophy2 vital ph5om5a into me*anical or *emical processes1 z 9 "s s*ools ( physiology4 ,n[ ,i am f> f pret5d+ t x may n be capable ( pro(1 or t x w n be an important addition to our k if prov$1 t c]ta9 motions 9 ! p>ticles ( bodies are among ! conditions ( ! production ( heat or light2 t c]ta9 assignable physical modifications ( ! n]ves may be ! conditions n only ( our s5sations or emotions1 b ev5 ( our ?\ghts2 t c]ta9 me*anical & *emical conditions may1 9 ! ord] ( nature1 be suffici5t to det]m9e to action ! physiological laws ( life4 ,all ,i insi/ ^u1 9 common ) e ?9k] :o ent]ta9s any cle> idea ( ! logic ( sci5ce1 is1 t x %all n be suppos$ t by prov+ ^! ?+s "o /ep w\ld be made t[>ds a real explanation ( heat1 light1 or s5sation2 or t ! g5]ic peculi>ity ( ^? ph5om5a c be 9 ! lea/ degree evad$ by any su* discov]ies1 h[ev] well e/abli%$4 ,let x be %[n1 = in/ance1 t ! mo/ complex s]ies ( physical causes & effects succe$ "o ano!r 9 ! eye & 9 ! bra9 to produce a s5sation ( col\r2 rays fall+ on ! eye1 refract$1 conv]g+1 cross+ "o ano!r1 mak+ an inv]t$ image on ! ret9a1 & aft] ?is a motion--let x be a vibration1 or a ru% ( n]v\s fluid1 or :atev] else y are pleas$ to suppose1 along ! optic n]ve--a propagation ( ?is motion to ! bra9 itself1 & z _m m diff]5t motions z y *oose2 /ill1 at ! end ( ^! motions1 !re is some?+ :i* is n motion1 !re is a feel+ or s5sation ( col\r4 ,:atev] numb] ( motions we may be able to int]polate1 & :e!r !y be real or imag9>y1 we %all /ill f9d1 at ! end ( ! s]ies1 a motion antec$5t & a col\r consequ5t4 ,! mode 9 :i* any "o ( ! motions produces ! next1 might possibly be susceptible ( explanation by "s g5]al law ( motion2 b ! mode 9 :i* ! la/ motion produces ! s5sation ( col\r1 _c be expla9$ by any law ( motion2 x is ! law ( col\r3 :i* is1 & mu/ always rema91 a peculi> ?+4 ,:]e our consci\sness recognises betwe5 two ph5om5a an inh]5t di/9ction2 :]e we are s5sible ( a diff]5ce :i* is n m]ely ( degree1 & feel t no add+ "o ( ! ph5om5a to itself w\ld produce ! o!r2 any !ory :i* attempts to br+ ei!r "u ! laws ( ! o!r mu/ be false2 ?\gh a !ory :i* m]ely treats ! "o z a cause or condition ( ! o!r1 may possibly be true4 #d4 ,among ! rema9+ =ms ( errone\s g5]alization1 sev]al ( ^? mo/ wor?y ( & mo/ requir+ notice h fall5 "u our exam9ation 9 =m] places1 :]e1 9 inve/igat+ ! rules ( correct induction1 we h _h occasion to adv]t to ! di/9ction betwe5 x & "s common mode ( ! incorrect4 ,9 ?is numb] is :at ,i h =m]ly call$ ! natural ,induction ( un9quir+ m9ds1 ! ,induction ( ! anci5ts1 :i* proce$s p] enum]ationem simplicem3 ,?is1 t1 & ! o!r ,a are ,b1 ,i _c ?9k ( any ,a :i* is n ,b1 !re=e e ,a is ,b4 ,z a f9al condemnation ( ?is rude & slov5ly mode ( g5]alization1 ,i w quote ,bacon's emphatic d5unciation ( x2 ! mo/ important "p1 z ,i h m ?an once v5tur$ to ass]t1 ( ! p]man5t s]vice r5d]$ by him to philosophy4 ,inductio qu proc$it p] enum]ationem simplicem1 res pu]ilis e/1 et prec>io concludit 7concludes only by y\r leave1 or provisionally17 et p]iculo exponitur ab in/anti contradictori1 et pl]umque secundum pauciora quam p> e/1 et ex 8 tantummodo qu pr/o sunt pronunciat4 ,at ,inductio qu ad inv5tionem et demon/rationem ,sci5ti>um et ,artium erit utilis1 ,naturam sep>>e debet1 p] rejectiones et exclusiones debitas2 ac de9de po/ negativas tot quot sufficiunt1 sup] affirmativas conclud]e4 ,i h already said t ! mode ( ,simple ,enum]ation is /ill ! common & receiv$ me?od ( ,induction 9 :atev] relates to man & society4 ,( ?is a v few in/ances1 m by way ( mem5to ?an ( in/ruction1 may suffice4 ,:at1 = example1 is to be ?\ght ( all ! common-s5se maxims = :i* ! foll[+ may s]ve z ! univ]sal =mula1 ,:atsoev] has nev] be51 w nev] be4 ,z = example3 negroes h nev] be5 z civiliz$ z :ites sometimes are1 !re=e x is impossible !y %\ld be s4 ,wom51 z a class1 are suppos$ n to h hi!rto be5 equal 9 intellect to m51 !re=e !y are necess>ily inf]ior4 ,society _c prosp] )\t ?is or ! o!r in/itution2 e4g4 9 ,ari/otle's "t1 )\t slav]y2 9 lat] times1 )\t an e/abli%$ prie/hood1 )\t artificial di/9ctions ( rank1 c4 ,"o poor p]son 9 a ?\s&1 educat$1 :ile ! n9e hundr$ & n9ety-n9e rema9 un$ucat$1 has usually aim$ at rais+ himself out ( 8 class1 !re=e education makes p dissatisfi$ ) ! condition ( a lab\r]4 ,booki% m51 tak5 f speculative pursuits & set to "w on some?+ !y "k no?+ ab\t1 h g5]ally be5 f\nd or ?\ght to d x ill2 !re=e philosoph]s are unfit = bus9ess1 c4 c4 ,all ^! are inductions by simple enum]ation4 ,reasons hav+ "s ref]5ce to ! canons ( sci5tific inve/igation h be5 attempt$ to be giv51 h[ev] unsuccessfully1 = "s ( ^! propositions2 b to ! multitude ( ^? :o p>rot !m1 ! enum]atio simplex1 ex 8 tantummodo qu pr/o sunt pronuncians1 is ! sole evid5ce4 ,_! fallacy consi/s 9 ?is1 t !y are inductions )\t elim9ation3 !re has be5 no real comp>ison ( in/ances1 nor ev5 asc]ta9m5t ( ! mat]ial facts 9 any giv5 in/ance4 ,!re is also ! fur!r error1 ( =gett+ t su* g5]alizations1 ev5 if well e/abli%$1 c\ld n be ultimate tru?s1 b mu/ be results ( laws mu* m elem5t>y2 & !re=e1 until d$uc$ f su*1 c\ld at mo/ be admitt$ z empirical laws1 hold+ good )9 ! limits ( space & "t by :i* ! p>ticul> obs]vations t sugge/$ ! g5]alization 7 b\nd$4 ,?is error1 ( plac+ m empirical laws1 & laws 9 :i* !re is no direct evid5ce ( causation1 on ! same foot+ ( c]ta9ty z laws ( cause & effect1 an error :i* is at ! root ( p]haps ! great] numb] ( bad inductions1 is exemplifi$ only 9 its grosse/ =m 9 ! k9d ( g5]alizations to :i* we h n[ ref]r$4 ,^!1 inde$1 d n possess ev5 ! degree ( evid5ce :i* p]ta9s to a well-asc]ta9$ empirical law2 b admit ( refutation on ! empirical gr\nd itself1 )\t asc5d+ to causal laws4 ,a little reflection1 inde$1 w %[ t m]e negations c only =m ! gr\nd ( ! l[e/ & lea/ valuable k9d ( empirical law4 ,a ph5om5on has nev] be5 notic$2 ?is only proves t ! conditions ( t ph5om5on h n yet occurr$ 9 exp]i5ce1 b does n prove t !y may n occur h]eaft]4 ,!re is a bett] k9d ( empirical law ?an ?is1 namely1 :5 a ph5om5on :i* is obs]v$ pres5ts )9 ! limits ( obs]vation a s]ies ( gradations1 9 :i* a regul>ity1 or some?+ l a ma!matical law1 is p]ceptible3 f :i*1 !re=e1 some?+ may be rationally presum$ z to ^? t]ms ( ! s]ies :i* are beyond ! limits ( obs]vation4 ,b 9 negation !re are no gradations1 & no s]ies3 ! g5]alizations1 !re=e1 :i* d5y ! possibility ( any giv5 condition ( man & society m]ely because x has nev] yet be5 witness$1 _c possess ?is high] degree ( validity ev5 z empirical laws4 ,:at is m1 ! m9ut] exam9ation :i* t high] ord] ( empirical laws presupposes1 be+ appli$ to ! subject-matt] ( ^!1 n only does n confirm b actually refutes !m4 ,= 9 reality ! pa/ hi/ory ( ,man & ,society1 in/ead ( exhibit+ !m z immovable1 un*angeable1 incapable ( ev] pres5t+ new ph5om5a1 %[s !m on ! contr>y to be1 9 _m mo/ important p>ticul>s1 n only *angeable1 b actually und]go+ a progressive *ange4 ,! empirical law1 !re=e1 be/ expressive1 9 mo/ cases1 ( ! g5u9e result ( obs]vation1 w\ld be1 n t su* & su* a ph5om5on w cont9ue un*ang$1 b t x w cont9ue to *ange 9 "s p>ticul> mann]4 ,accord+ly1 :ile almo/ all g5]alizations relat+ to ,man & ,society1 antec$5t to ! la/ fifty ye>s1 h err$ 9 ! gross way :i* we h attempt$ to *>act]ize1 namely1 by implicitly assum+ t human nature & society w = ev] revolve 9 ! same orbit1 & exhibit ess5tially ! same ph5om5a2 :i* is also ! vulg> error ( ! o/5tati\sly practical1 ! vot>ies ( s-call$ common s5se1 9 our day1 especially 9 ,great ,brita92 ! m ?9k+ m9ds ( ! pres5t age1 hav+ appli$ a m m9ute analysis to ! pa/ records ( our race1 h = ! mo/ "p adopt$ a contr>y op9ion1 t ! human species is 9 a /ate ( necess>y progression1 & t f ! t]ms ( ! s]ies :i* are pa/ we may inf] positively ^? :i* are yet to come4 ,( ?is doctr9e1 consid]$ z a philosophical t5et1 we %all h occasion to speak m fully 9 ! conclud+ ,book4 ,if n1 9 all its =ms1 free f error1 x is at lea/ free f ! gross & /upid error :i* we previ\sly exemplifi$4 ,b1 9 all except ! mo/ em95tly philosophical m9ds1 x is infect$ ) precisely ! same k9d ( fallacy z t is4 ,= we mu/ rememb] t ev5 ?is o!r & bett] g5]alization1 ! progressive *ange 9 ! condition ( ! human species1 is1 aft] all1 b an empirical law3 to :i*1 too1 x is n difficult to po9t out exce$+ly l>ge exceptions2 & ev5 if ^! c\ld be got rid (1 ei!r by disput+ ! facts or by expla9+ & limit+ ! !ory1 ! g5]al objection rema9s valid aga9/ ! suppos$ law1 z applicable to any o!r ?an :at1 9 our ?ird book1 7 t]m$ ,adjac5t ,cases4 ,= n only is x no ultimate1 b n ev5 a causal law4 ,*anges d inde$ take place 9 human affairs1 b e "o ( ^? *anges dep5ds on det]m9ate causes2 ! progressiv5ess ( ! species is n a cause1 b a summ>y expression = ! g5]al result ( all ! causes4 ,s soon z1 by a q diff]5t sort ( induction1 x %all be asc]ta9$ :at causes h produc$ ^! successive *anges1 f ! beg9n+ ( hi/ory1 9 s f> z !y h really tak5 place1 & by :at causes ( a contr>y t5d5cy !y h be5 occasionally *eck$ or entirely c\nt]act$1 we may !n be prep>$ to pr$ict ! future ) reasonable =esight2 we may be 9 possession ( ! real law ( ! future2 & may be able to decl>e on :at circum/ances ! cont9uance ( ! same onw>d movem5t w ev5tually dep5d4 ,b ?is x is ! error ( _m ( ! m advanc$ ?9k]s1 9 ! pres5t age1 to ov]look2 & to imag9e t ! empirical law collect$ f a m]e comp>ison ( ! condition ( our species at diff]5t pa/ times1 is a real law1 is ! law ( its *anges1 n only pa/ b also to come4 ,! tru? is1 t ! causes on :i* ! ph5om5a ( ! moral _w dep5d1 are 9 e age1 & almo/ 9 e c\ntry1 comb9$ 9 "s diff]5t proportion2 s t x is sc>cely to be expect$ t ! g5]al result ( !m all %\ld con=m v closely1 9 its details at lea/1 to any uni=mly progressive s]ies4 ,& all g5]alizations :i* affirm t mank9d h a t5d5cy to gr[ bett] or worse1 ri*] or poor]1 m cultivat$ or m b>b>\s1 t population increases fa/] ?an subsi/5ce1 or subsi/5ce ?an population1 t inequality ( =tune has a t5d5cy to increase or to break d[n1 & ! l1 propositions ( consid]able value z empirical laws )9 c]ta9 7b g5]ally r n>r[7 limits1 are 9 reality true or false accord+ to times & circum/ances4 ,:at we h said ( empirical g5]alizations f times pa/ to times /ill to come1 holds equally true ( simil> g5]alizations f pres5t times to times pa/2 :5 p]sons ^: acqua9tance ) moral & social facts is conf9$ to _! own age1 take ! m5 & ! ?+s ( t age = ! type ( m5 & ?+s 9 g5]al1 & apply )\t scruple to ! int]pretation ( ! ev5ts ( hi/ory1 ! empirical laws :i* repres5t suffici5tly = daily guidance ! common ph5om5a ( human nature at t "t & 9 t p>ticul> /ate ( society4 ,if examples are want$1 almo/ e hi/orical "w1 until a v rec5t p]iod1 ab\nd$ 9 !m4 ,! same may be said ( ^? :o g5]alize empirically f ! p ( _! own c\ntry to ! p ( o!r c\ntries1 z if human be+s felt1 judg$1 & act$1 ev]y:]e 9 ! same mann]4 #e4 ,9 ! =ego+ in/ances1 ! di/9ction is conf\nd$ betwe5 empirical laws1 :i* express m]ely ! cu/om>y ord] ( ! succession ( effects1 & ! laws ( causation on :i* ! effects dep5d4 ,!re may1 h[ev]1 be incorrect g5]alization :5 ?is mi/ake is n committ$2 :5 ! inve/igation takes its prop] direction1 t ( causes1 & ! result errone\sly obta9$ purports to be a really causal law4 ,! mo/ vulg> =m ( ?is fallacy is t :i* is commonly call$ po/ hoc1 ergo propt] hoc1 or1 cum hoc1 ergo propt] hoc4 ,z :5 x 0 inf]r$ t ,engl& ow$ h] indu/rial pre-em95ce to h] re/rictions on comm]ce3 z :5 ! old s*ool ( f9anci]s1 & "s speculative writ]s1 ma9ta9$ t ! national debt 0 "o ( ! causes ( national prosp]ity3 z :5 ! excell5ce ( ! ,*ur*1 ( ! ,h\ses ( ,lords & ,commons1 ( ! proc$ure ( ! law c\rts1 c41 7 inf]r$ f ! m]e fact t ! c\ntry _h prosp]$ "u !m4 ,9 su* cases z ^!1 if x c be r5d]$ probable by o!r evid5ce t ! suppos$ causes h "s t5d5cy to produce ! effect ascrib$ to !m1 ! fact ( its hav+ be5 produc$1 ?\gh only 9 "o in/ance1 is ( "s value z a v]ification by specific exp]i5ce3 b 9 itself x goes sc>cely any way at all t[>ds e/abli%+ su* a t5d5cy1 s9ce1 admitt+ ! effect1 a hundr$ o!r antec$5ts c\ld %[ an equally /rong title ( t k9d to be consid]$ z ! cause4 ,9 ^! examples we see bad g5]alization po/]iori1 or empiricism prop]ly s call$3 causation inf]r$ f casual conjunction1 )\t ei!r due elim9ation1 or any presumption aris+ f kn[n prop]ties ( ! suppos$ ag5t4 ,b bad g5]alization priori is fully z common3 :i* is prop]ly call$ false !ory2 conclusions drawn1 by way ( d$uction1 f prop]ties ( "s "o ag5t :i* is kn[n or suppos$ to be pres5t1 all o!r coexi/+ ag5ts be+ ov]look$4 ,z ! =m] is ! error ( %e] ignorance1 s ! latt] is especially t ( semi-in/ruct$ m9ds2 & is ma9ly committ$ 9 attempt+ to expla9 complicat$ ph5om5a by a simpl] !ory ?an _! nature admits (4 ,z :5 "o s*ool ( physicians s\ght = ! univ]sal pr9ciple ( all disease 9 l5tor & morbid viscidity ( ! blood1 & imput+ mo/ bodily d]angem5ts to me*anical ob/ructions1 ?\ght to cure !m by me*anical rem$ies2#bh :ile ano!r1 ! *emical s*ool1 ackn[l$g$ no s\rce ( disease b ! pres5ce ( "s ho/ile acid or alkali1 or "s d]ang$ condition 9 ! *emical composition ( ! fluid or solid p>ts1 & conceiv$1 !re=e1 t all rem$ies mu/ act by produc+ *emical *anges 9 ! body4 ,we f9d ,t\rne=t busily engag$ 9 te/+ e vegetable juice1 9 ord] to discov] 9 x "s traces ( an acid or alkal9e +r$i5t1 :i* might conf] ^u x m$ic9al activity4 ,! fatal errors into :i* su* an hypo!sis 0 liable to betray ! practition]1 receiv$ an awful illu/ration 9 ! hi/ory ( ! memorable fev] t rag$ at ,leyd5 9 ! ye> #afii1 & :i* consign$ two-?irds ( ! population ( t city to an untimely grave2 an ev5t :i* 9 a great measure dep5d$ ^u ! ,pr(essor ,sylvius de la ,boe1 :o hav+ j embrac$ ! *emical doctr9es ( ,van ,helmont1 assign$ ! orig9 ( ! di/emp] to a prevail+ acid1 & decl>$ t its cure c\ld alone only be effect$ by ! copi\s adm9i/ration ( absorb5t & te/ace\s m$ic9es4#bi ,^! ab]rations 9 m$ical !ory h _! exact p>allels 9 politics4 ,all ! doctr9es :i* ascribe absolute goodness to p>ticul> =ms ( gov]nm5t1 p>ticul> social arrangem5ts1 & ev5 to p>ticul> modes ( education1 )\t ref]5ce to ! /ate ( civilization & ! v>i\s di/+ui%+ *>act]s ( ! society = :i* !y are int5d$1 are op5 to ! same objection--t ( assum+ "o class ( influ5c+ circum/ances to be ! p>am\nt rul]s ( ph5om5a :i* dep5d 9 an equal or great] degree on _m o!rs4 ,b on ^! consid]ations x is ! less necess>y t we %\ld n[ dwell1 z !y w occupy our att5tion m l>gely 9 ! conclud+ ,book4 #f4 ,! la/ ( ! modes ( errone\s g5]alization to :i* ,i %all adv]t1 is t to :i* we may give ! "n ( ,false ,analogies4 ,?is ,fallacy /&s di/+ui%$ f ^? already treat$ ( by ! peculi>ity1 t x does n ev5 simulate a complete & conclusive induction1 b consi/s 9 ! misapplication ( an argum5t :i* is at be/ only admissible z an inconclusive presumption1 :]e real pro( is unatta9able4 ,an argum5t f analogy1 is an inf]5ce t :at is true 9 a c]ta9 case1 is true 9 a case kn[n to be some:at simil>1 b n kn[n to be exactly p>allel1 t is1 to be simil> 9 all ! mat]ial circum/ances4 ,an object has ! prop]ty ,b3 ano!r object is n kn[n to h t prop]ty1 b resembles ! fir/ 9 a prop]ty ,a1 n kn[n to be connect$ ) ,b2 & ! conclusion to :i* ! analogy po9ts1 is t ?is object has ! prop]ty ,b also4 ,z1 = example1 t ! planets are inhabit$1 because ! e>? is s4 ,! planets resemble ! e>? 9 describ+ elliptical orbits r\nd ! sun1 9 be+ attract$ by x & by "o ano!r1 9 be+ ne>ly sph]ical1 revolv+ on _! axes1 c42 b x is n kn[n t any ( ^! prop]ties1 or all ( !m toge!r1 are ! conditions on :i* ! possession ( inhabitants is dep5d5t1 or are m>ks ( ^? conditions4 ,nev]!less1 s long z we d n "k :at ! conditions are1 !y may be connect$ by "s law ( nature ) ^? common prop]ties2 & to ! ext5t ( t possibility ! planets are m likely to be inhabit$1 ?an if !y did n resemble ! e>? at all4 ,?is non-assignable & g5]ally small increase ( probability1 beyond :at w\ld o!rwise exi/1 is all ! evid5ce :i* a conclusion c d]ive f analogy4 ,= if we h ! slighte/ reason to suppose any real connexion betwe5 ! two prop]ties ,a & ,b1 ! argum5t is no long] "o ( analogy4 ,if x _h be5 asc]ta9$ 7,i purposely put an absurd supposition7 t !re 0 a connexion by causation betwe5 ! fact ( revolv+ on an axis & ! exi/5ce ( animat$ be+s1 or if !re 7 any reasonable gr\nd = ev5 suspect+ su* a connexion1 a probability w\ld arise ( ! exi/5ce ( inhabitants 9 ! planets1 :i* might be ( any degree ( /r5g?1 up to a complete induction2 b we %\ld !n inf] ! fact f ! asc]ta9$ or presum$ law ( causation1 & n f ! analogy ( ! e>?4 ,! "n analogy1 h[ev]1 is sometimes employ$ by ext5sion to d5ote ^? argum5ts ( an inductive "* b n am\nt+ to a real induction1 :i* are employ$ to /r5g!n ! argum5t drawn f a simple resemblance4 ,?\gh ,a1 ! prop]ty common to ! two cases1 _c be %[n to be ! cause or effect ( ,b1 ! analogical reason] w endeav\r to %[ t !re is "s less close degree ( connexion betwe5 !m2 t ,a is "o ( a set ( conditions f :i*1 :5 all unit$1 ,b w\ld result2 or is an occasional effect ( "s cause :i* has be5 kn[n also to produce ,b2 & ! l4 ,any ( :i* ?+s1 if %[n1 w\ld r5d] ! exi/5ce ( ,b by s mu* m probable1 ?an if !re _h n be5 ev5 t am\nt ( kn[n connexion betwe5 ,b & ,a4 ,n[ an error or fallacy ( analogy may occur 9 two ways4 ,sometimes x consi/s 9 employ+ an argum5t ( ei!r ( ! above k9ds ) correctness inde$1 b ov]rat+ its probative =ce4 ,?is v common ab]ration is sometimes suppos$ to be p>ticul>ly incid5t to p]sons di/+ui%$ = _! imag9ation2 b 9 reality x is ! *>act]i/ic intellectual vice ( ^? ^: imag9ations are b>r51 ei!r f want ( ex]cise1 natural defect1 or ! n>r[ness ( _! range ( ideas4 ,to su* m9ds objects pres5t !mselves clo!d 9 b few prop]ties2 & z1 !re=e1 few analogies betwe5 "o object & ano!r occur to !m1 !y almo/ inv>iably ov]rate ! degree ( importance ( ^? few3 :ile "o ^: fancy takes a wid] range1 p]ceives & rememb]s s _m analogies t5d+ to conflict+ conclusions1 t he is mu* less likely to lay undue /ress on any ( !m4 ,we always f9d t ^? are ! greate/ slaves to metaphorical language1 :o h b "o set ( metaphors4 ,b ?is is only "o ( ! modes ( error 9 ! employm5t ( argum5ts ( analogy4 ,!re is ano!r1 m prop]ly des]v+ ! "n ( fallacy2 namely1 :5 resemblance 9 "o po9t is inf]r$ f resemblance 9 ano!r po9t1 ?\gh !re is n only no evid5ce to connect ! two circum/ances by way ( causation1 b ! evid5ce t5ds positively to disconnect !m4 ,?is is prop]ly ! ,fallacy ( ,false ,analogies4 ,z a fir/ in/ance1 we may cite t fav\rite argum5t 9 def5ce ( absolute p[]1 drawn f ! analogy ( pat]nal gov]nm5t 9 a family1 :i* gov]nm5t1 h[ev] mu* 9 ne$ ( control1 is n & _c be controll$ by ! *ildr5 !mselves1 :ile !y rema9 *ildr54 ,pat]nal gov]nm5t1 says ! argum5t1 works well2 !re=e1 despotic gov]nm5t 9 a /ate w "w well4 ,i wave1 z n p]t95t 9 ?is place1 all t c\ld be said 9 qualification ( ! alleg$ excell5ce ( pat]nal gov]nm5t4 ,h[ev] ?is might be1 ! argum5t f ! family to ! /ate w\ld n ! less proce$ on a false analogy2 imply+ t ! b5eficial work+ ( p>5tal gov]nm5t dep5ds1 9 ! family1 on ! only po9t :i* x has 9 common ) political despotism1 namely1 irresponsibility4 ,:]eas x dep5ds1 :5 real1 n on t b on two o!r circum/ances ( ! case1 ! affection ( ! p>5t = ! *ildr51 & ! sup]iority ( ! p>5t 9 wisdom & exp]i5ce2 nei!r ( :i* prop]ties c be reckon$ on1 or are at all likely to exi/1 betwe5 a political despot & 8 subjects2 & :5 ei!r ( ^! circum/ances fails ev5 9 ! family1 & ! influ5ce ( ! irresponsibility is all[$ to "w uncorrect$1 ! result is any?+ b good gov]nm5t4 ,?is1 !re=e1 is a false analogy4 ,ano!r example is ! n uncommon dictum1 t bodies politic h y\?1 maturity1 old age1 & dea?1 l bodies natural3 t aft] a c]ta9 duration ( prosp]ity1 !y t5d spontane\sly to decay4 ,?is also is a false analogy1 because ! decay ( ! vital p[]s 9 an animat$ body c be di/9ctly trac$ to ! natural progress ( ^? v *anges ( /ructure :i*1 9 _! e>li] /ages1 con/itute its gr[? to maturity3 :ile 9 ! body politic ! progress ( ^? *anges _c1 g5]ally speak+1 h any effect b ! /ill fur!r cont9uance ( gr[?3 x is ! /oppage ( t progress1 & ! comm5cem5t ( retrogression1 t alone w\ld con/itute decay4 ,bodies politic die1 b x is ( disease1 or viol5t dea?3 !y h no old age4 ,! foll[+ s5t5ce f ,hook]'s ,ecclesia/ical ,polity is an in/ance ( a false analogy f physical bodies to :at are call$ bodies politic4 ,z !re c\ld be 9 natural bodies no motion ( any?+ unless !re 7 "s :i* move? all ?+s1 & cont9ue? immovable3 ev5 s 9 politic societies !re mu/ be "s unpuni%able1 or else no man %all suff] puni%m5t4 ,!re is a d\ble fallacy "h1 = n only ! analogy1 b ! premise f :i* x is drawn1 is unt5able4 ,! notion t !re mu/ be some?+ immovable :i* moves all o!r ?+s1 is ! old s*ola/ic error ( a primum mobile4 ,! foll[+ in/ance ,i quote f ,ar*bi%op ,:ately's ,rhetoric3 ,x w\ld be admitt$ t a great & p]man5t dim9ution 9 ! quantity ( "s useful commodity1 su* z corn1 or coal1 or iron1 ?r\gh\t ! _w1 w\ld be a s]i\s & la/+ loss2 & aga91 t if ! fields & coal m9es yield$ regul>ly d\ble quantities1 ) ! same lab\r1 we %\ld be s mu* ! ri*]2 h5ce x might be inf]r$1 t if ! quantity ( gold & silv] 9 ! _w 7 dim9i%$ "o-half1 or 7 d\bl$1 l results w\ld foll[2 ! utility ( ^! metals1 = ! purposes ( co91 be+ v great4 ,n[ !re are _m po9ts ( resemblance & _m ( diff]5ce1 betwe5 ! preci\s metals on ! "o h&1 & corn1 coal1 c41 on ! o!r2 b ! important circum/ance to ! suppos$ argum5t is1 t ! utility ( gold & silv] 7z co91 :i* is f> ! *ief7 dep5ds on _! value1 :i* is regulat$ by _! sc>city2 or r1 to speak /rictly1 by ! difficulty ( obta9+ !m2 :]eas1 if corn & coal 7 t5 times z abundant 7i4e4 m easily obta9$71 a bu%el ( ei!r w\ld /ill be z useful z n[4 ,b if x 7 twice z easy to procure gold z x is1 a sov]eign w\ld be twice z l>ge2 if only half z easy x w\ld be ( ! size ( a half-sov]eign1 & ?is 7besides ! trifl+ circum/ance ( ! *eapness or de>ness ( gold ornam5ts7 w\ld be all ! diff]5ce4 ,! analogy1 !re=e1 fails 9 ! po9t ess5tial to ! argum5t4 ,! same au?or notices1 aft] ,bi%op ,cople/on1 ! case ( ,false ,analogy :i* consi/s 9 inf]r+ f ! simil>ity 9 _m respects betwe5 ! metropolis ( a c\ntry & ! he>t ( ! animal body1 t ! increas$ size ( ! metropolis is a disease4 ,"s ( ! false analogies on :i* sy/ems ( physics 7 confid5tly gr\nd$ 9 ! "t ( ! ,greek philosoph]s1 are su* z we n[ call fanciful1 n t ! resemblances are n (t5 real1 b t x is long s9ce any "o has be5 incl9$ to draw f !m ! inf]5ces :i* 7 !n drawn4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 are ! curi\s speculations ( ! ,py?agoreans on ! subject ( numb]s4 ,f9d+ t ! di/ances ( ! planets bore or seem$ to be> to "o ano!r a proportion n v>y+ mu* f t ( ! divisions ( ! mono*ord1 !y inf]r$ f x ! exi/5ce ( an inaudible music1 t ( ! sph]es3 z if ! music ( a h>p _h dep5d$ solely on ! num]ical proportions1 & n on ! mat]ial1 nor ev5 on ! exi/5ce ( any mat]ial1 any /r+s at all4 ,x has be5 simil>ly imag9$ t c]ta9 comb9ations ( numb]s1 :i* 7 f\nd to prevail 9 "s natural ph5om5a1 mu/ run ?r\gh ! :ole ( nature3 z t !re mu/ be f\r elem5ts1 because !re are f\r possible comb9ations ( hot & cold1 wet & dry2 t !re mu/ be sev5 planets1 because !re 7 sev5 metals1 & ev5 because !re 7 sev5 days ( ! week4 ,kepl] himself ?\ght t !re c\ld be only six planets because !re 7 only five regul> solids4 ,) ^! we may class ! reason+s1 s common 9 ! speculations ( ! anci5ts1 f\nd$ on a suppos$ p]fection 9 nature3 mean+ by nature ! cu/om>y ord] ( ev5ts z !y take place ( !mselves )\t human int]f]5ce4 ,?is also is a rude guess at an analogy suppos$ to p]vade all ph5om5a1 h[ev] dissimil>4 ,s9ce :at 0 ?\ght to be p]fection appe>$ to obta9 9 "s ph5om5a1 x 0 inf]r$ 79 opposition to ! pla9e/ evid5ce7 to obta9 9 all4 ,we always suppose t :i* is bett] to take place 9 nature1 if x be possible1 says ,ari/otle3 & ! vague/ & mo/ het]og5e\s qualities be+ conf\nd$ toge!r "u ! notion ( be+ bett]1 !re 0 no limit to ! wildness ( ! inf]5ces4 ,?us1 because ! heav5ly bodies 7 p]fect1 !y mu/ move 9 circles & uni=mly4 ,= !y 7! ,py?agoreans7 w\ld n all[1 says ,gem9us1#cj ( any su* disord] among div9e & et]nal ?+s1 z t !y %\ld sometimes move quick] & sometimes sl[]1 & sometimes /& /ill2 = no "o w\ld tol]ate su* anomaly 9 ! movem5ts ev5 ( a man1 :o 0 dec5t & ord]ly4 ,! occasions ( life1 h[ev]1 are (t5 reasons = m5 go+ quick] or sl[]2 b 9 ! incorruptible nature ( ! />s1 x is n possible t any cause c be alleg$ ( quickness or sl[ness4 ,x is seek+ an argum5t ( analogy v f>1 to suppose t ! />s mu/ obs]ve ! rules ( decorum 9 gait & c>riage1 prescrib$ = !mselves by ! long-be>d$ philosoph]s satiriz$ by ,lucian4 ,z late z ! ,cop]nican controv]sy x 0 urg$ z an argum5t 9 fav\r ( ! true !ory ( ! sol> sy/em1 t x plac$ ! fire1 ! noble/ elem5t1 9 ! c5tre ( ! univ]se4 ,?is 0 a remnant ( ! notion t ! ord] ( nature mu/ be p]fect1 & t p]fection consi/$ 9 con=mity to rules ( prec$5cy 9 dignity1 ei!r real or conv5tional4 ,aga91 rev]t+ to numb]s3 c]ta9 numb]s 7 p]fect1 !re=e ^? numb]s mu/ obta9 9 ! great ph5om5a ( nature4 ,six 0 a p]fect numb]1 t is1 equal to ! sum ( all its factors2 an additional reason :y !re mu/ be exactly six planets4 ,! ,py?agoreans1 on ! o!r h&1 attribut$ p]fection to ! numb] t52 b agre$ 9 ?9k+ t ! p]fect numb] mu/ be someh[ realiz$ 9 ! heav5s2 & kn[+ only ( n9e heav5ly bodies1 to make up ! enum]ation1 !y ass]t$ t !re 0 an anti*?on or c\nt]-e>?1 on ! o!r side ( ! sun1 invisible to u4#ca ,ev5 ,huyg5s 0 p]suad$ t :5 ! numb] ( ! heav5ly bodies _h rea*$ twelve1 x c\ld n admit ( any fur!r increase4 ,creative p[] c\ld n g beyond t sacr$ numb]4 ,"s curi\s in/ances ( false analogy are to be f\nd 9 ! argum5ts ( ! ,/oics to prove ! equality ( all crimes1 & ! equal wret*$ness ( all :o _h n realiz$ _! idea ( p]fect virtue4 ,cic]o1 t[>ds ! end ( 8 ,f\r? ,book ,de ,f9ibus1 /ates "s ( ^! z foll[s4 ,ut1 inquit1 9 fidibus plurimis1 si nulla e>um ita cont5ta num]is sit1 ut conc5tum s]v>e possit1 omnes que incont5t sunt2 sic peccata1 quia discrepant1 que discrepant2 p>ia sunt igitur4 ,to :i* ,cic]o himself aptly answ]s1 que cont+it omnibus fidibus1 ut incont5t s9t2 illud non cont9uo1 ut que incont5t4 ,! ,/oic resumes3 ,ut enim1 inquit1 gub]nator que peccat1 si palc>um navem ev]tit1 et si auri2 item que peccat qui p>5tem1 et qui s]vum1 injuri v]b]at2 assum+1 t because ! magnitude ( ! int]e/ at /ake makes no diff]5ce 9 ! m]e defect ( skill1 x c make none 9 ! moral defect3 a false analogy4 ,aga91 ,quis ignorat1 si plures ex alto em]g]e vel9t1 propius =e eos quidem ad respir&um1 qui ad summam jam aquam approp9quant1 s$ nihilo magis respir>e posse1 quam eos1 qui sunt 9 pr(undo8 ,nihil ergo adjuvat proc$]e1 et progr$i 9 virtute1 quom9us mis]rimus sit1 antequam ad eam p]v5]it1 quoniam 9 aqu nihil adjuvat3 et quoniam catuli1 qui jam despecturi sunt1 cci que1 et ii qui modo nati2 ,platonem quoque necesse e/1 quoniam nondum videbat sapi5tiam1 que ccum animo1 ac ,phal>im fuisse4 ,cic]o1 9 8 own p]son1 combats ^! false analogies by o!r analogies t5d+ to an opposite conclusion4 ,i/a similia non sunt1 ,cato4444 ,illa sunt similia2 hebes acies e/ cuipiam oculorum3 corpore alius languescit3 hi curatione adhibit levantur 9 dies3 alt] valet plus quotidie3 alt] videt4 ,hi similes sunt omnibus1 qui virtuti /ud5t2 levantur vitiis1 levantur erroribus4 #g4 ,9 ^! & all o!r argum5ts drawn f remote analogies1 & f metaphors1 :i* are cases ( analogy1 x is app>5t 7especially :5 we consid] ! extreme facility ( rais+ up contr>y analogies & conflict+ metaphors7 t s f> f ! metaphor or analogy prov+ any?+1 ! applicability ( ! metaphor is ! v ?+ to be made out4 ,x has to be %[n t 9 ! two cases ass]t$ to be analog\s1 ! same law is really op]at+2 t betwe5 ! kn[n resemblance & ! inf]r$ "o !re is "s connexion by means ( causation4 ,cic]o & ,cato might h b&i$ opposite analogies = ev]2 x re/$ ) ea* ( !m to prove by j induction1 or at lea/ to r5d] probable1 t ! case resembl$ ! "o set ( analog\s cases & n ! o!r1 9 ! circum/ances on :i* ! disput$ "q really h+$4 ,metaphors1 = ! mo/ "p1 !re=e1 assume ! proposition :i* !y are br\ght to prove3 _! use is1 to aid ! appreh5sion ( x2 to make cle>ly & vividly compreh5d$ :at x is t ! p]son :o employs ! metaphor is propos+ to make out2 & sometimes also1 by :at m$ia he proposes to d s4 ,= an apt metaphor1 ?\gh x _c prove1 (t5 sugge/s ! pro(4 ,= in/ance1 :5 ,d',alemb]t 7,i believe7 rem>k$ t 9 c]ta9 gov]nm5ts1 only two creatures f9d _! way to ! highe/ places1 ! eagle & ! s]p5t2 ! metaphor n only conveys ) great vividness ! ass]tion int5d$1 b contributes t[>ds sub/antiat+ x1 by sugge/+1 9 a lively mann]1 ! means by :i* ! two opposite *>act]s ?us typifi$ effect _! rise4 ,:5 x is said t a c]ta9 p]son misund]/&s ano!r because ! less] ( two objects _c compreh5d ! great]1 ! application ( :at is true 9 ! lit]al s5se ( ! ^w compreh5d1 to its metaphorical s5se1 po9ts to ! fact :i* is ! gr\nd & ju/ification ( ! ass]tion1 viz4 t "o m9d _c ?or\ghly und]/& ano!r unless x c conta9 x 9 itself1 t is1 unless x possesses all t is conta9$ 9 ! o!r4 ,:5 x is urg$ z an argum5t = education1 t if ! soil is left uncultivat$1 we$s w spr+ up1 ! metaphor1 ?\gh no pro(1 b a /atem5t ( ! ?+ to be prov$1 /ates x 9 t]ms :i*1 by sugge/+ a p>allel case1 put ! m9d ^u ! track ( ! real pro(4 ,=1 ! reason :y we$s gr[ 9 an uncultivat$ soil1 is t ! se$s ( wor?less products exi/ ev]y:]e1 & c g]m9ate & gr[ 9 almo/ all circum/ances1 :ile ! rev]se is ! case ) ^? :i* are valuable2 & ?is be+ equally true ( m5tal products1 ?is mode ( convey+ an argum5t1 indep5d5tly ( its rhetorical advantages1 has a logical value2 s9ce x n only sugge/s ! gr\nds ( ! conclusion1 b po9ts to ano!r case 9 :i* ^? gr\nds h be5 f\nd1 or at lea/ deem$ to be1 suffici5t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 ,bacon1 :o is equally conspicu\s 9 ! use & abuse ( figurative illu/ration1 says t ! /ream ( "t has br\ght d[n to u only ! lea/ valuable "p ( ! writ+s ( ! anci5ts1 z a riv] c>ries fro? & /raws float+ on its surface1 :ile m weighty objects s9k to ! bottom2 ?is1 ev5 if ! ass]tion illu/rat$ by x 7 true1 w\ld be no good illu/ration1 !re be+ no p>ity ( cause4 ,! levity by :i* sub/ances float on a /ream1 & ! levity :i* is synonym\s ) wor?lessness1 h no?+ 9 common except ! "n2 & 7to %[ h[ little value !re is 9 ! metaphor7 we ne$ only *ange ! ^w into buoyancy1 to turn ! semblance ( argum5t involv$ 9 ,bacon's illu/ration aga9/ himself4 ,a metaphor1 !n1 is n to be consid]$ z an argum5t1 b z an ass]tion t an argum5t exi/s2 t a p>ity subsi/s betwe5 ! case f :i* ! metaphor is drawn & t to :i* x is appli$4 ,?is p>ity may exi/ ?\gh ! two cases be app>5tly v remote f "o ano!r2 ! only resemblance exi/+ betwe5 !m may be a resemblance ( relations1 an analogy 9 ,f]guson's & ,ar*bi%op ,:ately's s5se3 z 9 ! prec$+ in/ance1 9 :i* an illu/ration f agriculture 0 appli$ to m5tal cultivation4 #h4 ,to t]m9ate ! subject ( ,fallacies ( ,g5]alization1 x rema9s to be said1 t ! mo/ f]tile s\rce ( !m is bad classification3 br++ toge!r 9 "o gr\p1 & "u "o "n1 ?+s :i* h no common prop]ties1 or none b su* z are too unimportant to all[ g5]al propositions ( any consid]able value to be made respect+ ! class4 ,! mislead+ effect is greate/1 :5 a ^w :i* 9 common use expresses "s def9ite fact1 is ext5d$ by slight l9ks ( connexion to cases 9 :i* t fact does n exi/1 b "s o!r or o!rs1 only slightly resembl+ x4 ,?us ,bacon1#cb 9 speak+ ( ! ,idola or ,fallacies aris+ f notions tem]e et 9qualit] rebus ab/ract1 exemplifies !m by ! notion ( ,humidum or ,wet1 s famili> 9 ! physics ( antiquity & ( ! middle ages4 ,inv5ietur v]bum i/ud1 ,humidum1 nihil aliud quam nota confusa div]s>um actionum1 qu nullam con/antiam aut r$uctionem patiuntur4 ,significat enim1 et quod circa aliud corpus facile se circumfundit2 et quod 9 se e/ indet]m9abile1 nec consi/]e pote/2 et quod facile c$it undique2 et quod facile se dividit et disp]git2 et quod facile se unit et colligit2 et quod facile fluit1 et 9 motu ponitur2 et quod alt]i corpori facile adhret1 idque madefacit2 et quod facile r$ucitur 9 liquidum1 sive colliquatur1 cum antea consi/]et4 ,itaque quum ad hujus nom9is prdicationem et impositionem v5tum sit2 si alia accipias1 flamma humida e/2 si alia accipias1 a] humidus non e/2 si alia1 pulvis m9utus humidus e/2 si alia1 vitrum humidum e/3 ut facile app>eat1 i/am notionem ex aqu tantum1 et communibus et vulg>ibus liquoribus1 absque ull debit v]ificatione1 tem]e ab/ractam esse4 ,bacon himself is n exempt f a simil> accusation :5 inquir+ into ! nature ( heat3 :]e he occasionally proce$s l "o :o seek+ = ! cause ( h>dness1 aft] exam9+ t quality 9 iron1 fl9t1 & diamond1 %\ld expect to f9d t x is some?+ :i* c be trac$ also 9 h>d wat]1 a h>d knot1 & a h>d he>t4 ,! ^w ,greek3 k9sis 9 ! ,greek philosophy1 & ! words ,g5]ation & ,corruption bo? !n & long aft]w>ds1 d5ot$ su* a multitude ( het]og5e\s ph5om5a1 t any attempt at philosophiz+ 9 :i* ^? words 7 us$ 0 almo/ z necess>ily abortive z if ! ^w h>d _h be5 tak5 to d5ote a class includ+ all ! ?+s m5tion$ above4 ,greek3 ,k9sis1 = in/ance1 :i* prop]ly signifi$ motion1 0 tak5 to d5ote n only all motion b ev5 all *ange3 ,greek3 alloisis be+ recognis$ z "o ( ! modes ( ,greek3 k9sis4 ,! effect 01 to connect ) e =m ( ,greek3 alloisis or *ange1 ideas drawn f motion 9 ! prop] & lit]al s5se1 & :i* _h no real connexion ) any o!r k9d ( ,greek3 k9sis ?an t4 ,ari/otle & ,plato lab\r$ "u a cont9ual emb>rassm5t f ?is misuse ( t]ms4 ,b if we proce$ fur!r 9 ?is direction we %all encroa* ^u ! ,fallacy ( ,ambiguity1 :i* belongs to a diff]5t class1 ! la/ 9 ord] ( our classification1 ,fallacies ( ,confusion4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,fallacies ,,( ,,ratioc9ation4 #a4 ,we h n[1 9 our progress ?r\gh ! classes ( ,fallacies1 arriv$ at ^? to :i*1 9 ! common books ( logic1 ! appellation is 9 g5]al exclusively appropriat$2 ^? :i* h _! seat 9 ! ratioc9ative or d$uctive "p ( ! inve/igation ( tru?4 ,on ^! fallacies x is ! less necess>y = u to insi/ at any l5g?1 z !y h be5 mo/ satisfactorily treat$ 9 a "w famili> to almo/ all1 9 ?is c\ntry at lea/1 :o feel any int]e/ 9 ^! speculations1 ,ar*bi%op ,:ately's ,logic4 ,aga9/ ! m obvi\s =ms ( ?is class ( fallacies1 ! rules ( ! syllogism are a complete protection4 ,n 7z we h s (t5 said7 t ! ratioc9ation _c be good unless x be 9 ! =m ( a syllogism2 b t1 by %[+ x 9 t =m1 we are sure to discov] if x be bad1 or at lea/ if x conta9 any fallacy ( ?is class4 #b4 ,among ,fallacies ( ,ratioc9ation1 we ought p]haps to include ! errors committ$ 9 processes :i* h ! appe>ance only1 n ! reality1 ( an inf]5ce f premises2 ! fallacies connect$ ) ! conv]sion & quipoll5cy ( propositions4 ,i believe errors ( ?is description to be f> m frequ5tly committ$ ?an is g5]ally suppos$1 or ?an _! extreme obvi\sness might seem to admit (4 ,= example1 ! simple conv]sion ( an univ]sal affirmative proposition1 ,all ,a are ,b1 !re=e all ,b are ,a1 ,i take to be a v common =m ( error3 ?\gh committ$1 l _m o!r fallacies1 (t5] 9 ! sil5ce ( ?\ght ?an 9 express words1 = x c sc>cely be cle>ly enunciat$ )\t be+ detect$4 ,& s ) ano!r =m ( fallacy1 n sub/antially diff]5t f ! prec$+3 ! errone\s conv]sion ( an hypo!tical proposition4 ,! prop] conv]se ( an hypo!tical proposition is ?is3 ,if ! consequ5t be false1 ! antec$5t is false2 b ?is1 ,if ! consequ5t be true1 ! antec$5t is true1 by no means holds good1 b is an error correspond+ to ! simple conv]sion ( an univ]sal affirmative4 ,yet h>dly any?+ is m common ?an = p1 9 _! private ?\ghts1 to draw ?is inf]5ce4 ,z :5 ! conclusion is accept$1 :i* x s (t5 is1 = pro( ( ! premises4 ,t ! premises _c be true if ! conclusion is false1 is ! unexceptionable f\ndation ( ! legitimate mode ( reason+ call$ a r$uctio ad absurdum4 ,b p cont9ually ?9k & express !mselves1 z if !y also believ$ t ! premises _c be false if ! conclusion is true4 ,! tru?1 or suppos$ tru?1 ( ! inf]5ces :i* foll[ f a doctr9e1 (t5 enables x to f9d acceptance 9 spite ( gross absurdities 9 x4 ,h[ _m philosophical sy/ems :i* _h sc>cely any intr9sic recomm5dation1 h be5 receiv$ by ?\ghtful m5 because !y 7 suppos$ to l5d additional support to religion1 morality1 "s fav\rite view ( politics1 or "s o!r *]i%$ p]suasion3 n m]ely because _! wi%es 7 !reby enli/$ on its side1 b because its lead+ to :at !y deem$ s\nd conclusions appe>$ to !m a /rong presumption 9 fav\r ( its tru?3 ?\gh ! presumption1 :5 view$ 9 its true light1 am\nt$ only to ! abs5ce ( t p>ticul> evid5ce ( falsehood1 :i* w\ld h result$ f its lead+ by correct inf]5ce to some?+ already kn[n to be false4 ,aga91 ! v frequ5t error 9 conduct1 ( mi/ak+ rev]se ( wrong = "r1 is ! practical =m ( a logical error ) respect to ! ,opposition ( ,propositions4 ,x is committ$ = want ( ! habit ( di/+ui%+ ! contr>y ( a proposition f ! contradictory ( x1 & ( att5d+ to ! logical canon1 t contr>y propositions1 ?\gh !y _c bo? be true1 may bo? be false4 ,if ! error 7 to express itself 9 words1 x w\ld run di/9ctly c\nt] to ?is canon4 ,x g5]ally1 h[ev]1 does n s express itself1 & to compel x to d s is ! mo/ effectual me?od ( detect+ & expos+ x4 #c4 ,among ,fallacies ( ,ratioc9ation are to be rank$ 9 ! fir/ place1 all ! cases ( vici\s syllogism laid d[n 9 ! books4 ,^! g5]ally resolve !mselves into hav+ m ?an ?ree t]ms to ! syllogism1 ei!r av[$ly1 or 9 ! cov]t mode ( an undi/ribut$ middlet]m1 or an illicit process ( "o ( ! two extremes4 ,x is n1 inde$1 v easy fully to convict an argum5t ( fall+ "u any "o ( ^! vici\s cases 9 p>ticul>2 = ! reason already m ?an once ref]r$ to1 t ! premises are seldom =mally set out3 if !y 71 ! fallacy w\ld impose ^u nobody2 & :ile !y are n1 x is almo/ always to a c]ta9 degree optional 9 :at mann] ! suppress$ l9k %all be fill$ up4 ,! rules ( ! syllogism are rules = compell+ a p]son to be aw>e ( ! :ole ( :at he mu/ und]take to def5d if he p]si/s 9 ma9ta9+ 8 conclusion4 ,he has x almo/ always 9 8 p[] to make 8 syllogism good by introduc+ a false premise2 & h5ce x is sc>cely ev] possible decid$ly to affirm t any argum5t involves a bad syllogism3 b ?is detracts no?+ f ! value ( ! syllogi/ic rules1 s9ce x is by !m t a reason] is compell$ di/9ctly to make 8 election :at premises he is prep>$ to ma9ta94 ,! election made1 !re is g5]ally s little difficulty 9 see+ :e!r ! conclusion foll[s f ! premises set out1 t we might )\t mu* logical impropriety h m]g$ ?is f\r? class ( fallacies 9 ! fif?1 or ,fallacies ( ,confusion4 #d4 ,p]haps1 h[ev]1 ! commone/1 & c]ta9ly ! mo/ dang]\s fallacies ( ?is class1 are ^? :i* d n lie 9 a s+le syllogism1 b slip 9 betwe5 "o syllogism & ano!r 9 a *a9 ( argum5t1 & are committ$ by *ang+ ! premises4 ,a proposition is prov$1 or an ackn[l$g$ tru? laid d[n1 9 ! fir/ "p ( an argum5tation1 & 9 ! second a fur!r argum5t is f\nd$ n on ! same proposition1 b on "s o!r1 resembl+ x suffici5tly to be mi/ak5 = x4 ,in/ances ( ?is fallacy w be f\nd 9 almo/ all ! argum5tative disc\rses ( unprecise ?9k]s2 & we ne$ only "h adv]t to "o ( ! obscur] =ms ( x1 recognis$ by ! s*oolm5 z ! fallacy dicto secundum quid ad dictum simplicit]4 ,?is is committ$ :51 9 ! premises1 a proposition is ass]t$ ) a qualification1 & ! qualification lo/ sight ( 9 ! conclusion2 or (t5]1 :5 a limitation or condition1 ?\gh n ass]t$1 is necess>y to ! tru? ( ! proposition1 b is =gott5 :5 t proposition comes to be employ$ z a premise4 ,_m ( ! bad argum5ts 9 vogue belong to ?is class ( error4 ,! premise is "s admitt$ tru?1 "s common maxim1 ! reasons or evid5ce = :i* h be5 =gott51 or are n ?\ght ( at ! "t1 b if !y _h be5 ?\ght ( w\ld h %[n ! necessity ( s limit+ ! premise t x w\ld no long] h support$ ! conclusion drawn f x4 ,( ?is nature is ! fallacy 9 :at is call$1 by ,adam ,smi? & o!rs1 ! ,m]cantile ,!ory 9 ,political ,economy4 ,t !ory sets out f ! common maxim1 t :atev] br+s 9 money enri*es2 or t e "o is ri* 9 proportion to ! quantity ( money he obta9s4 ,f ?is x is conclud$ t ! value ( any bran* ( trade1 or ( ! trade ( ! c\ntry altoge!r1 consi/s 9 ! balance ( money x br+s 92 t any trade :i* c>ries m money out ( ! c\ntry ?an x draws into x is a los+ trade2 t !re=e money %\ld be attract$ into ! c\ntry & kept !re1 by prohibitions & b\nties3 & a tra9 ( simil> coroll>ies4 ,all = want ( reflect+ t if ! ri*es ( an individual are 9 proportion to ! quantity ( money he c comm&1 x is because t is ! measure ( 8 p[] ( pur*as+ money's wor?2 & is !re=e subject to ! proviso t he is n deb>r$ f employ+ 8 money 9 su* pur*ases4 ,! premise1 !re=e1 is only true secundum quid2 b ! !ory assumes x to be true absolutely1 & inf]s t increase ( money is increase ( ri*es1 ev5 :5 produc$ by means subv]sive ( ! condition "u :i* alone money c be ri*es4 ,a second in/ance is1 ! argum5t by :i* x us$ to be cont5d$1 be=e ! commutation ( ti!1 t ti!s fell on ! l&lord1 & 7 a d$uction f r5t2 because ! r5t ( ti!-free l& 0 always high] ?an t ( l& ( ! same quality1 & ! same advantages ( situation1 subject to ti!4 ,:e!r x be true or n t a ti! falls on r5t1 a treatise on ,logic is n ! place to exam9e2 b x is c]ta9 t ?is is no pro( ( x4 ,:e!r ! proposition be true or false1 ti!-free l& mu/1 by ! necessity ( ! case1 pay a high] r5t4 ,= if ti!s d n fall on r5t1 x mu/ be because !y fall on ! consum]2 because !y raise ! price ( agricultural produce4 ,b if ! produce be rais$ 9 price1 ! f>m] ( ti!-free z well z ! f>m] ( ti!d l& gets ! b5efit4 ,to ! latt] ! rise is b a comp5sation = ! ti! he pays2 to ! fir/1 :o pays none1 x is cle> ga91 & !re=e enables him1 & if !re be fre$om ( competition =ces him1 to pay s mu* m r5t to 8 l&lord4 ,! "q rema9s1 to :at class ( fallacies ?is belongs4 ,! premise is1 t ! own] ( ti!d l& receives less r5t ?an ! own] ( ti!-free l&2 ! conclusion is1 t !re=e he receives less ?an he himself w\ld receive if ti! 7 aboli%$4 ,b ! premise is only true conditionally2 ! own] ( ti!d l& receives less ?an :at ! own] ( ti!-free l& is enabl$ to receive :5 o!r l&s are ti!d2 :ile ! conclusion is appli$ to a /ate ( circum/ances 9 :i* t condition fails1 & 9 :i*1 by consequ5ce1 ! premise w\ld n be true4 ,! fallacy1 !re=e1 is dicto secundum quid ad dictum simplicit]4 ,a ?ird example is ! opposition sometimes made to legitimate int]f]5ces ( gov]nm5t 9 ! economical affairs ( society1 gr\nd$ on a misapplication ( ! maxim1 t an individual is a bett] judge ?an ! gov]nm5t1 ( :at is = 8 own pecuni>y int]e/4 ,?is objection 0 urg$ to ,mr4 ,wakefield's pr9ciple ( colonization2 ! conc5tration ( ! settl]s1 by fix+ su* a price on unoccupi$ l& z may pres]ve ! mo/ desirable proportion betwe5 ! quantity ( l& 9 culture1 & ! lab\r+ population4 ,aga9/ ?is x 0 argu$1 t if individuals f\nd x = _! advantage to occupy ext5sive tracts ( l&1 !y1 be+ bett] judges ( _! own int]e/ ?an ! legislature 7:i* c only proce$ on g5]al rules7 ought n to be re/ra9$ f do+ s4 ,b 9 ?is argum5t x 0 =gott5 t ! fact ( a p]son's tak+ a l>ge tract ( l& is evid5ce only t x is 8 int]e/ to take z mu* z o!r p1 b n t x might n be = 8 int]e/ to cont5t himself ) less1 if he c\ld be assur$ t o!r p w\ld d s too2 an assurance :i* no?+ b a gov]nm5t regulation c give4 ,if all o!r p took mu*1 & he only a little1 he w\ld reap none ( ! advantages d]iv$ f ! conc5tration ( ! population & ! consequ5t possibility ( procur+ lab\r = hire1 b w\ld h plac$ himself1 )\t equival5t1 9 a situation ( volunt>y inf]iority4 ,! proposition1 !re=e1 t ! quantity ( l& :i* p w take :5 left to !mselves is t :i* is mo/ = _! int]e/ to take1 is true only secundum quid3 x is only _! int]e/ :ile !y h no gu>antee = ! conduct ( "o ano!r4 ,b ! arrangem5t disreg>ds ! limitation1 & takes ! proposition = true simplicit]4 ,"o ( ! conditions (t5e/ dropp$1 :5 :at w\ld o!rwise be a true proposition is employ$ z a premise = prov+ o!rs1 is ! condition ( "t4 ,x is a pr9ciple ( political economy t prices1 pr(its1 wages1 c4 always f9d _! level2 b ?is is (t5 int]pret$ z if x meant t !y are always1 or g5]ally1 at _! level2 :ile ! tru? is1 z ,col]idge epigrammatically expresses x1 t !y are always f9d+ _! level1 :i* might be tak5 z a p>aphrase or ironical def9ition ( a /orm4 ,"u ! same head ( fallacy 7 dicto secundum quid ad dictum simplicit]7 might be plac$ all ! errors :i* are vulg>ly call$ misapplications ( ab/ract tru?s3 t is1 :]e a pr9ciple1 true 7z ! common expression is7 9 ! ab/ract1 t is1 all modify+ causes be+ suppos$ abs5t1 is reason$ on z if x 7 true absolutely1 & no modify+ circum/ance c\ld ev] by possibility exi/4 ,?is v common =m ( error x is n requisite t we %\ld exemplify "h1 z x w be p>ticul>ly treat$ ( h]eaft] 9 its application to ! subjects on :i* x is mo/ frequ5t & mo/ fatal1 ^? ( politics & society4#cc ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,fallacies ,,( ,,confusion4 #a4 ,"u ?is fif? & la/ class x is conv5i5t to arrange all ^? fallacies1 9 :i* ! s\rce ( error is n s mu* a false e/imate ( ! probative =ce ( kn[n evid5ce1 z an indi/9ct1 indef9ite1 & fluctuat+ conception ( :at ! evid5ce is4 ,at ! head ( ^! /&s t multitud9\s body ( fallaci\s reason+s1 9 :i* ! s\rce ( error is ! ambiguity ( t]ms3 :5 some?+ :i* is true if a ^w be us$ 9 a p>ticul> s5se1 is reason$ on z if x 7 true 9 ano!r s5se4 ,9 su* a case !re is n a mal-e/imation ( evid5ce1 because !re is n prop]ly any evid5ce to ! po9t at all2 !re is evid5ce1 b to a diff]5t po9t1 :i* f a confus$ appreh5sion ( ! mean+ ( ! t]ms us$1 is suppos$ to be ! same4 ,?is error w naturally be (t5] committ$ 9 our ratioc9ations ?an 9 our direct inductions1 because 9 ! =m] we are deciph]+ our own or o!r p's notes1 :ile 9 ! latt] we h ! ?+s !mselves pres5t1 ei!r to ! s5ses or to ! memory4 ,except1 inde$1 :5 ! induction is n f individual cases to a g5]ality1 b f g5]alities to a /ill high] g5]alization2 9 t case ! fallacy ( ambiguity may affect ! inductive process z well z ! ratioc9ative4 ,x occurs 9 ratioc9ation 9 two ways3 :5 ! middlet]m is ambigu\s1 or :5 "o ( ! t]ms ( ! syllogism is tak5 9 "o s5se 9 ! premises1 & 9 ano!r s5se 9 ! conclusion4 ,"s good exemplifications ( ?is fallacy are giv5 by ,ar*bi%op ,:ately4 ,"o case1 says he1 :i* may be reg>d$ z com+ "u ! head ( ,ambigu\s ,middle1 is 7:at ,i believe logical writ]s mean by ',fallacia ,figur ,dictionis1'7 ! fallacy built on ! grammatical /ructure ( language1 f m5's usually tak+ = grant$ t p>onym\s 7or conjugate7 words1 i4e4 ^? belong+ to ea* o!r1 z ! sub/antive1 adjective1 v]b1 c4 ( ! same root1 h a precisely correspond+ mean+2 :i* is by no means univ]sally ! case4 ,su* a fallacy c\ld n inde$ be ev5 exhibit$ 9 /rict logical =m1 :i* w\ld preclude ev5 ! attempt at x1 s9ce x has two middlet]ms 9 s\nd z well z s5se4 ,b no?+ is m common 9 practice ?an to v>y cont9ually ! t]ms employ$1 ) a view to grammatical conv5i5ce2 nor is !re any?+ unfair 9 su* a practice1 z long z ! mean+ is pres]v$ unalt]$2 e4g4 'murd] %\ld be puni%$ ) dea?2 ?is man is a murd]]1 !re=e he des]ves to die1' c4 ,"h we proce$ on ! assumption 79 ?is case j7 t to commit murd]1 & to be a murd]]1--to des]ve dea?1 & to be "o :o ought to die1 are1 respectively1 equival5t expressions2 & x w\ld frequ5tly prove a heavy inconv5i5ce to be deb>r$ ?is k9d ( lib]ty2 b ! abuse ( x gives rise to ! ,fallacy 9 "q3 e4g4 projectors are unfit to be tru/$2 ?is man has =m$ a project1 !re=e he is unfit to be tru/$3 "h ! sophi/ proce$s on ! hypo!sis t he :o =ms a project mu/ be a projector3 :]eas ! bad s5se t commonly atta*es to ! latt] ^w1 is n at all impli$ 9 ! =m]4 ,?is fallacy may (t5 be consid]$ z ly+ n 9 ! ,middle1 b 9 "o ( ! t]ms ( ! ,conclusion2 s t ! conclusion drawn %all n be1 9 reality1 at all w>rant$ by ! premises1 ?\gh x w appe> to be s1 by means ( ! grammatical aff9ity ( ! words3 e4g4 to be acqua9t$ ) ! guilty is a presumption ( guilt2 ?is man is s acqua9t$1 !re=e we may presume t he is guilty3 ?is argum5t proce$s on ! supposition ( an exact correspond5ce betwe5 presume & presumption1 :i*1 h[ev]1 does n really exi/2 = 'presumption' is commonly us$ to express a k9d ( slight suspicion2 :]eas1 'to presume' am\nts to actual belief4 ,!re are innum]able in/ances ( a non-correspond5ce 9 p>onym\s words1 simil> to t above in/anc$2 z betwe5 art & artful1 design & design+1 fai? & fai?ful1 c42 & ! m slight ! v>iation ( ! mean+1 ! m likely is ! fallacy to be successful2 = :5 ! words h become s widely remov$ 9 s5se z 'pity' & 'pitiful1' e "o w\ld p]ceive su* a fallacy1 nor c\ld x be employ$ b 9 je/4#cd ,! pres5t ,fallacy is ne>ly alli$ to1 or r1 p]haps1 may be reg>d$ z a bran* (1 t f\nd$ on etymology2 viz4 :5 a t]m is us$1 at "o "t 9 its cu/om>y1 & at ano!r 9 its etymological s5se4 ,p]haps no example ( ?is c be f\nd t is m ext5sively & mis*iev\sly employ$ ?an 9 ! case ( ! ^w repres5tative3 assum+ t its "r mean+ mu/ correspond exactly ) ! /rict & orig9al s5se ( ! v]b 'repres5t1' ! sophi/ p]suades ! multitude1 t a memb] ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons is b\nd to be guid$ 9 all po9ts by ! op9ion ( 8 con/itu5ts2 &1 9 %ort1 to be m]ely _! spokesman2 :]eas law & cu/om1 :i* 9 ?is case may be consid]$ z fix+ ! mean+ ( ! t]m1 require no su* ?+1 b enjo9 ! repres5tative to act accord+ to ! be/ ( 8 own judgm5t1 & on 8 own responsibility4 ,! foll[+ are in/ances ( great practical importance1 9 :i* argum5ts are habitually f\nd$ on a v]bal ambiguity4 ,! m]cantile public are frequ5tly l$ into ?is fallacy by ! phrase1 sc>city ( money4 ,9 ! language ( comm]ce money has two mean+s3 curr5cy1 or ! circulat+ m$ium2 & capital seek+ inve/m5t1 especially inve/m5t on loan4 ,9 ?is la/ s5se ! ^w is us$ :5 ! money m>ket is spok5 (1 & :5 ! value ( money is said to be high or l[1 ! rate ( int]e/ be+ meant4 ,! consequ5ce ( ?is ambiguity is1 t z soon z sc>city ( money 9 ! latt] ( ^! s5ses beg9s to be felt1--z soon z !re is difficulty ( obta9+ loans1 & ! rate ( int]e/ is high1--x is conclud$ t ?is mu/ arise f causes act+ ^u ! quantity ( money 9 ! o!r & m popul> s5se2 t ! circulat+ m$ium mu/ h dim9i%$ 9 quantity1 or ought to be increas$4 ,i am aw>e t1 indep5d5tly ( ! d\ble mean+ ( ! t]m1 !re are 9 facts !mselves "s peculi>ities1 giv+ an app>5t support to ?is error2 b ! ambiguity ( ! language /&s on ! v ?re%old ( ! subject1 & int]cepts all attempts to ?r[ light ^u x4 ,ano!r ambigu\s expression :i* cont9ually meets u 9 ! political controv]sies ( ! pres5t "t1 especially 9 ^? :i* relate to organic *anges1 is ! phrase influ5ce ( prop]ty3 :i* is sometimes us$ = ! influ5ce ( respect = sup]ior intellig5ce1 or gratitude = ! k9d (fices :i* p]sons ( l>ge prop]ty h x s mu* 9 _! p[] to be/[2 at o!r times = ! influ5ce ( fe>2 fe> ( ! wor/ sort ( p[]1 :i* l>ge prop]ty also gives to its possessor1 ! p[] ( do+ mis*ief to dep5d5ts4 ,to conf\nd ^! two1 is ! /&+ fallacy ( ambiguity br\ght aga9/ ^? :o seek to purify ! electoral sy/em f corruption & intimidation4 ,p]suasive influ5ce1 act+ ?r\gh ! consci5ce ( ! vot]1 & c>ry+ 8 he>t & m9d ) x1 is b5eficial--!re=e 7x is pret5d$7 co]cive influ5ce1 :i* compels him to =get t he is a moral ag5t1 or to act 9 opposition to 8 moral convictions1 ought n to be plac$ "u re/ra9t4 ,ano!r ^w :i* is (t5 turn$ into an in/rum5t ( ! fallacy ( ambiguity1 is ,!ory4 ,9 its mo/ prop] acceptation1 !ory means ! complet$ result ( philosophical induction f exp]i5ce4 ,9 t s5se1 !re are errone\s z well z true !ories1 = induction may be incorrectly p]=m$1 b !ory ( "s sort is ! necess>y result ( kn[+ any?+ ( a subject1 & hav+ put "o's k into ! =m ( g5]al propositions = ! guidance ( practice4 ,9 ?is1 ! prop] s5se ( ! ^w1 ,!ory is ! explanation ( practice4 ,9 ano!r & a m vulg> s5se1 !ory means any m]e fiction ( ! imag9ation1 endeav\r+ to conceive h[ a ?+ may possibly h be5 produc$1 in/ead ( exam9+ h[ x 0 produc$4 ,9 ?is s5se only are !ory1 & !ori/s1 unsafe guides2 b because ( ?is1 ridicule or discr$it is attempt$ to be atta*$ to !ory 9 its prop] s5se1 t is1 to legitimate g5]alization1 ! end & aim ( all philosophy2 & a conclusion is repres5t$ z wor?less1 j because t has be5 done1 :i* if done correctly1 con/itutes ! highe/ wor? t a pr9ciple = ! guidance ( practice c possess1 namely1 to compreh5d 9 a few words ! real law on :i* a ph5om5on dep5ds1 or "s prop]ty or relation :i* is univ]sally true ( x4 ,! ,*ur* is sometimes und]/ood to mean ! cl]gy alone1 sometimes ! :ole body ( believ]s1 or at lea/ ( communicants4 ,! declamations respect+ ! inviolability ( *ur* prop]ty are indebt$ = ! great] "p ( _! app>5t =ce to ?is ambiguity4 ,! cl]gy1 be+ call$ ! *ur*1 are suppos$ to be ! real own]s ( :at is call$ *ur* prop]ty2 :]eas !y are 9 tru? only ! manag+ memb]s ( a mu* l>g] body ( proprietors1 & enjoy on _! own "p a m]e usufruct1 n ext5d+ beyond a life int]e/4 ,! foll[+ is a ,/oical argum5t tak5 f ,cic]o ,de ,f9ibus1 book ! ?ird3 ,quod e/ bonum1 omne laudabile e/4 ,quod autem laudabile e/1 omne hone/um e/4 ,bonum igitur quod e/1 hone/um e/4 ,"h ! ambigu\s ^w is laudabile1 :i* 9 ! m9or premise means any?+ :i* mank9d are accu/om$1 on good gr\nds1 to admire or value2 z beauty1 = in/ance1 or good =tune3 b 9 ! major1 x d5otes exclusively moral qualities4 ,9 mu* ! same mann] ! ,/oics endeav\r$ logically to ju/ify z philosophical tru?s1 _! figurative & rhetorical expressions ( e?ical s5tim5t3 z t ! virtu\s man is alone free1 alone beautiful1 alone a k+1 c4 ,:oev] has virtue has ,good 7because x has be5 previ\sly det]m9$ n to call any?+ else good72 b1 aga91 ,good necess>ily includes fre$om1 beauty1 & ev5 k+%ip1 all ^! be+ good ?+s2 !re=e :oev] has virtue has all ^!4 ,! foll[+ is an argum5t ( ,desc>tes to prove1 9 8 priori mann]1 ! be+ ( a ,god4 ,! conception1 says he1 ( an inf9ite ,be+ proves ! real exi/5ce ( su* a be+4 ,= if !re is n really any su* be+1 ,i mu/ h made ! conception2 b if ,i c\ld make x1 ,i c also unmake x2 :i* evid5tly is n true2 !re=e !re mu/ be1 ext]nally to myself1 an ar*etype1 f :i* ! conception 0 d]iv$4 ,9 ?is argum5t 7:i*1 x may be obs]v$1 w\ld equally prove ! real exi/5ce ( gho/s & ( wit*es7 ! ambiguity is 9 ! pron\n ,i1 by :i*1 9 "o place1 is to be und]/ood my w1 9 ano!r ! laws ( my nature4 ,if ! conception1 exi/+ z x does 9 my m9d1 _h no orig9al )\t1 ! conclusion w\ld unque/ionably foll[ t ,i made x2 t is1 ! laws ( my nature mu/ h someh[ evolv$ x3 b t my w made x1 w\ld n foll[4 ,n[ :5 ,desc>tes aft]w>ds adds t ,i _c unmake ! conception1 he means t ,i _c get rid ( x by an act ( my w3 :i* is true1 b is n ! proposition requir$4 ,i c z mu* unmake ?is conception z ,i c any o!r3 no conception :i* ,i h once _h1 c ,i ev] dismiss by m]e volition3 b :at "s ( ! laws ( my nature h produc$1 o!r laws1 or ^? same laws 9 o!r circum/ances1 may1 & (t5 d1 subsequ5tly efface4 ,analog\s to ?is are "s ( ! ambiguities 9 ! free-w controv]sy2 :i*1 z !y w come "u special consid]ation 9 ! conclud+ ,book1 ,i only m5tion memori caus4 ,9 t discussion1 too1 ! ^w ,i is (t5 %ift$ f "o mean+ to ano!r1 at "o "t /&+ = my volitions1 at ano!r "t = ! actions :i* are ! consequ5ces ( !m1 or ! m5tal dispositions f :i* !y proce$4 ,! latt] ambiguity is exemplifi$ 9 an argum5t ( ,col]idge 79 8 ,aids to ,reflection71 9 support ( ! fre$om ( ! w4 ,x is n true1 he says1 t a man is gov]n$ by motives2 ! man makes ! motive1 n ! motive ! man2 ! pro( be+ t :at is a /rong motive to "o man is no motive at all to ano!r4 ,! premise is true1 b only am\nts to ?is1 t diff]5t p]sons h diff]5t degrees ( susceptibility to ! same motive2 z !y h also to ! same intoxicat+ liquid1 :i* h[ev] does n prove t !y are free to be drunk or n drunk1 :atev] quantity ( ! fluid !y may dr9k4 ,:at is prov$ is1 t c]ta9 m5tal conditions 9 ! p]son himself1 mu/ co-op]ate1 9 ! production ( ! act1 ) ! ext]nal inducem5t3 b ^? m5tal conditions also are ! effect ( causes2 & !re is no?+ 9 ! argum5t to prove t !y c arise )\t a cause--t a spontane\s det]m9ation ( ! w1 )\t any cause at all1 ev] takes place1 z ! free-w doctr9e supposes4 ,! d\ble use1 9 ! free-w controv]sy1 ( ! ^w ,necessity1 :i* sometimes /&s only = ,c]ta9ty1 at o!r times = ,compulsion2 sometimes = :at _c be prev5t$1 at o!r times only = :at we h reason to be assur$ w n2 we %all h occasion h]eaft] to pursue to "s ( its ult]ior consequ5ces4 ,a mo/ important ambiguity1 bo? 9 common & 9 metaphysical language1 is ?us po9t$ out by ,ar*bi%op ,:ately 9 ! ,app5dix to 8 ,logic3 ,same 7z well z ,"o1 ,id5tical1 & o!r words d]iv$ f !m17 is us$ frequ5tly 9 a s5se v diff]5t f its prim>y "o1 z applicable to a s+le object2 be+ employ$ to d5ote great simil>ity4 ,:5 sev]al objects are undi/+ui%ably alike1 "o s+le description w apply equally to any ( !m2 & !nce !y are said to be all ( "o & ! same nature1 appe>ance1 c4 ,z1 e4g4 :5 we say '?is h\se is built ( ! same /one ) su* ano!r1' we only mean t ! /ones are undi/+ui%able 9 _! qualities2 n t ! "o build+ 0 pull$ d[n1 & ! o!r con/ruct$ ) ! mat]ials4 ,:]eas sam5ess1 9 ! prim>y s5se1 does n ev5 necess>ily imply simil>ity2 = if we say ( any man t he is greatly alt]$ s9ce su* a "t1 we und]/&1 & inde$ imply by ! v expression1 t he is "o p]son1 ?\gh diff]5t 9 sev]al qualities4 ,x is wor? obs]v+ also1 t ,same1 9 ! second>y s5se1 admits1 accord+ to popul> usage1 ( degrees3 we speak ( two ?+s be+ ne>ly ! same1 b n entirely3 p]sonal id5tity does n admit ( degrees4 ,no?+1 p]haps1 has contribut$ m to ! error ( ,realism ?an inatt5tion to ?is ambiguity4 ,:5 sev]al p]sons are said to h "o & ! same op9ion1 ?\ght1 or idea1 _m m51 ov]look+ ! true simple /atem5t ( ! case1 :i* is1 t !y are all ?9k+ alike1 look = some?+ m ab/ruse & my/ical1 & imag9e !re mu/ be "s ,"o ,?+1 9 ! prim>y s5se1 ?\gh n an individual1 :i* is pres5t at once 9 ! m9d ( ea* ( ^! p]sons2 & !nce readily sprung ,plato's !ory ( ,ideas1 ea* ( :i* 01 accord+ to him1 "o real1 et]nal object1 exi/+ entire & complete 9 ea* ( ! individual objects t are kn[n by "o "n4 ,x is1 inde$1 n a matt] ( inf]5ce b ( au!ntic hi/ory1 t ,plato's doctr9e ( ,ideas1 & ! ,ari/otelian doctr9e 79 ?is respect simil> to ! ,platonic7 ( sub/antial =ms & second sub/ances1 grew up 9 ! precise way "h po9t$ out2 f ! suppos$ necessity ( f9d+1 9 ?+s :i* 7 said to h ! same nature1 or ! same qualities1 some?+ :i* 0 ! same 9 ! v s5se 9 :i* a man is ! same z himself4 ,all ! idle speculations respect+ ,greek3 to on1 to h51 to homoion1 & simil> ab/ractions1 s common 9 ! anci5t & 9 "s mod]n s*ools ( ?\ght1 sprang f ! same s\rce4 ,! ,ari/otelian logicians saw1 h[ev]1 "o case ( ! ambiguity1 & provid$ aga9/ x ) _! peculi> felicity 9 ! inv5tion ( te*nical language1 :5 !y di/+ui%$ ?+s :i* diff]$ bo? specie & num]o1 f ^? :i* diff]$ num]o tantum1 t is1 :i* 7 exactly alike 79 "s p>ticul> respect at lea/7 b 7 di/9ct individuals4 ,an ext5sion ( ?is di/9ction to ! two mean+s ( ! ^w ,same1 namely1 ?+s :i* are ! same specie tantum1 & a ?+ :i* is ! same num]o z well z specie1 w\ld h prev5t$ ! confusion :i* has be5 a s\rce ( s mu* d>kness & su* an abundance ( positive error 9 metaphysical philosophy4 ,"o ( ! mo/ s+ul> examples ( ! l5g? to :i* a ?9k] ( em95ce may be l$ away by an ambiguity ( language1 is af=d$ by ?is v case4 ,i ref] to ! fam\s argum5t by :i* ,bi%op ,b]keley flatt]$ himself t he _h = ev] put an end to scepticism1 a!ism1 & irreligion4 ,x is briefly z foll[s4 ,i ?\ght ( a ?+ ye/]day2 ,i ceas$ to ?9k ( x2 ,i ?9k ( x aga9 to-day4 ,i _h1 !re=e1 9 my m9d ye/]day an idea ( ! object2 ,i h also an idea ( x to-day2 ?is idea is evid5tly n ano!r1 b ! v same idea4 ,yet an int]v5+ "t elaps$ 9 :i* ,i _h x n4 ,:]e 0 ! idea dur+ ?is int]val8 ,x mu/ h be5 some:]e2 x did n cease to exi/2 o!rwise ! idea ,i _h ye/]day c\ld n be ! same idea2 no m ?an ! man ,i see alive to-day c be ! same :om ,i saw ye/]day1 if ! man has di$ 9 ! mean:ile4 ,n[ an idea _c be conceiv$ to exi/ any:]e except 9 a m9d2 & h5ce !re mu/ exi/ an ,univ]sal ,m9d1 9 :i* all ideas h _! p]man5t resid5ce1 dur+ ! int]vals ( _! consci\s pres5ce 9 our own m9ds4 ,x is evid5t t ,b]keley "h conf\nd$ sam5ess num]o ) sam5ess specie1 t is1 ) exact resemblance1 & assum$ ! =m] :]e !re 0 only ! latt]2 n p]ceiv+ t :5 we say we h ! same ?\ght to-day :i* we _h ye/]day1 we d n mean ! same individual ?\ght1 b a ?\ght exactly simil>3 z we say t we h ! same illness :i* we _h la/ ye>1 mean+ only ! same sort ( illness4 ,9 "o rem>kable in/ance ! sci5tific _w 0 divid$ into two furi\sly ho/ile p>ties by an ambiguity ( language affect+ a bran* ( sci5ce :i*1 m completely ?an mo/ o!rs1 enjoys ! advantage ( a precise & well-def9$ t]m9ology4 ,i ref] to ! fam\s dispute respect+ ! vis viva1 ! hi/ory ( :i* is giv5 at l>ge 9 ,pr(essor ,playfair's ,diss]tation4 ,! "q 01 :e!r ! =ce ( a mov+ body 0 proportional 7its mass be+ giv57 to its velocity simply1 or to ! squ>e ( its velocity3 & ! ambiguity 0 9 ! ^w ,=ce4 ,"o ( ! effects1 says ,playfair1 produc$ by a mov+ body is proportional to ! squ>e ( ! velocity1 :ile ano!r is proportional to ! velocity simply3 f :5ce cle>] ?9k]s 7 subsequ5tly l$ to e/abli% a d\ble measure ( ! effici5cy ( a mov+ p[]1 "o be+ call$ vis viva1 & ! o!r mom5tum4 ,ab\t ! facts1 bo? p>ties 7 f ! fir/ agre$3 ! only "q 01 ) :i* ( ! two effects ! t]m =ce %\ld be1 or c\ld mo/ conv5i5tly be1 associat$4 ,b ! disputants 7 by no means aw>e t ?is 0 all2 !y ?\ght t =ce 0 "o ?+1 ! production ( effects ano!r2 & ! "q1 by :i* set ( effects ! =ce :i* produc$ bo? ! "o & ! o!r %\ld be measur$1 0 suppos$ to be a "q n ( t]m9ology b ( fact4 ,! ambiguity ( ! ^w ,inf9ite is ! real fallacy 9 ! amus+ logical puzzle ( ,a*illes & ! ,tortoise1 a puzzle :i* has be5 too h>d = ! +5uity or pati5ce ( _m philosoph]s1 & :i* no less a ?9k] ?an ,sir ,william ,hamilton consid]$ z insoluble2 z a s\nd argum5t1 ?\gh lead+ to a palpable falsehood4 ,! fallacy1 z ,hobbes h9t$1 lies 9 ! tacit assumption t :atev] is inf9itely divisible is inf9ite2 b ! foll[+ solution1 7to ! inv5tion ( :i* ,i h no claim17 is m precise & satisfactory4 ,! argum5t is1 let ,a*illes run t5 times z fa/ z ! tortoise1 yet if ! tortoise has ! />t1 ,a*illes w nev] ov]take him4 ,= suppose !m to be at fir/ sep>at$ by an int]val ( a ?\s& feet3 :5 ,a*illes has run ^! ?\s& feet1 ! tortoise w h got on a hundr$2 :5 ,a*illes has run ^? hundr$1 ! tortoise w h run t51 & s on = ev]3 !re=e ,a*illes may run = ev] )\t ov]tak+ ! tortoise4 ,n[1 ! = ev]1 9 ! conclusion1 means1 = any l5g? ( "t t c be suppos$2 b 9 ! premises ev] does n mean any l5g? ( "t3 x means any numb] ( subdivisions ( "t4 ,x means t we may divide a ?\s& feet by t51 & t quoti5t aga9 by t51 & s on z (t5 z we please2 t !re nev] ne$s be an end to ! subdivisions ( ! di/ance1 nor consequ5tly to ^? ( ! "t 9 :i* x is p]=m$4 ,b an unlimit$ numb] ( subdivisions may be made ( t :i* is itself limit$4 ,! argum5t proves no o!r inf9ity ( duration ?an may be embrac$ )9 five m9utes4 ,z long z ! five m9utes are n expir$1 :at rema9s ( !m may be divid$ by t51 & aga9 by t51 z (t5 z we l1 :i* is p]fectly compatible ) _! be+ only five m9utes altoge!r4 ,x proves1 9 %ort1 t to pass ?r\gh ?is f9ite space requires a "t :i* is inf9itely divisible1 b n an inf9ite "t3 ! conf\nd+ ( :i* di/9ction ,hobbes _h already se5 to be ! gi/ ( ! fallacy4 ,! foll[+ ambiguities ( ! ^w "r 79 addition to ! obvi\s & famili> "o ( a "r & ! adjective "r7 are extract$ f a =gott5 pap] ( my own1 9 a p]iodical3-- ,speak+ morally1 y are said to h a "r to d a ?+1 if all p]sons are morally b\nd n to h9d] y f do+ x4 ,b1 9 ano!r s5se1 to h a "r to d a ?+ is ! opposite ( hav+ no "r to d x1 i4e4 ( be+ "u a moral obligation to =be> do+ x4 ,9 ?is s5se1 to say t y h a "r to d a ?+1 means t y may d x )\t any brea* ( duty on y\r "p2 t o!r p]sons n only ought n to h9d] y1 b h no cause to ?9k worse ( y = do+ x4 ,?is is a p]fectly di/9ct proposition f ! prec$+4 ,! "r :i* y h by virtue ( a duty incumb5t ^u o!r p]sons1 is obvi\sly q a diff]5t ?+ f a "r consi/+ 9 ! abs5ce ( any duty incumb5t ^u y\rself4 ,yet ! two ?+s are p]petually conf\nd$4 ,?us a man w say he has a "r to publi% 8 op9ions2 :i* may be true 9 ?is s5se1 t x w\ld be a brea* ( duty 9 any o!r p]son to int]f]e & prev5t ! publication3 b he assumes !reupon1 t 9 publi%+ 8 op9ions1 he himself violates no duty2 :i* may ei!r be true or false1 dep5d+1 z x does1 on 8 hav+ tak5 due pa9s to satisfy himself1 fir/1 t ! op9ions are true1 & next1 t _! publication 9 ?is mann]1 & at ?is p>ticul> juncture1 w probably be b5eficial to ! int]e/s ( tru? on ! :ole4 ,! second ambiguity is t ( conf\nd+ a "r ( any k9d1 ) a "r to en=ce t "r by resi/+ or puni%+ a violation ( x4 ,p w say1 = example1 t !y h a "r to good gov]nm5t1 :i* is und5iably true1 x be+ ! moral duty ( _! gov]nors to gov]n !m well4 ,b 9 grant+ ?is1 y are suppos$ to h admitt$ _! "r or lib]ty to turn out _! gov]nors1 & p]haps to puni% !m1 = hav+ fail$ 9 ! p]=mance ( ?is duty2 :i*1 f> f be+ ! same ?+1 is by no means univ]sally true1 b dep5ds on an imm5se numb] ( v>y+ circum/ances1 requir+ to be consci5ti\sly weigh$ be=e adopt+ or act+ on su* a resolution4 ,?is la/ example is 7l o!rs :i* h be5 cit$7 a case ( fallacy )9 fallacy2 x involves n only ! second ( ! two ambiguities po9t$ out1 b ! fir/ likewise4 ,"o n unusual =m ( ! ,fallacy ( ,ambigu\s ,t]ms1 is kn[n te*nically z ! ,fallacy ( ,composition & ,division3 :5 ! same t]m is collective 9 ! premises1 di/ributive 9 ! conclusion1 or vice v]s3 or :5 ! middle t]m is collective 9 "o premise1 di/ributive 9 ! o!r4 ,z if "o 7 to say 7,i quote f ,ar*bi%op ,:ately7 ,all ! angles ( a triangle are equal to two "r angles3 ,,abc is an angle ( a triangle2 !re=e ,,abc is equal to two "r angles4444 ,!re is no fallacy m common1 or m likely to deceive1 ?an ! "o n[ be=e u4 ,! =m 9 :i* x is mo/ usually employ$ is to e/abli% "s tru?1 sep>ately1 conc]n+ ea* s+le memb] ( a c]ta9 class1 & !nce to inf] ! same ( ! :ole collectively4 ,z 9 ! argum5t "o sometimes he>s1 to prove t ! _w c\ld d )\t great m54 ,if ,columbus 7x is said7 _h nev] liv$1 ,am]ica w\ld /ill h be5 discov]$1 at mo/ only a few ye>s lat]2 if ,newton _h nev] liv$1 "s o!r p]son w\ld h discov]$ ! law ( gravitation2 & s =?4 ,mo/ true3 ^! ?+s w\ld h be5 done1 b 9 all probability n until "s "o _h aga9 be5 f\nd ) ! qualities ( ,columbus or ,newton4 ,because any "o great man might h _h 8 place suppli$ by o!r great m51 ! argum5t concludes t all great m5 c\ld h be5 disp5s$ )4 ,! t]m great m5 is di/ributive 9 ! premises & collective 9 ! conclusion4 ,su* also is ! fallacy :i* probably op]ates on mo/ adv5tur]s 9 lott]ies2 e4g4 '! ga9+ ( a high prize is no uncommon occurr5ce2 & :at is no uncommon occurr5ce may reasonably be expect$2 !re=e ! ga9+ ( a high prize may reasonably be expect$3' ! conclusion :5 appli$ to ! individual 7z 9 practice x is7 mu/ be und]/ood 9 ! s5se ( 'reasonably expect$ by a c]ta9 individual2' !re=e = ! major premise to be true1 ! middle t]m mu/ be und]/ood to mean1 'no uncommon occurr5ce to "s "o p>ticul> p]son2' :]eas = ! m9or 7:i* has be5 plac$ fir/7 to be true1 y mu/ und]/& x ( 'no uncommon occurr5ce to "s "o or o!r2' & ?us y w h ! ,fallacy ( ,composition4 ,?is is a ,fallacy ) :i* m5 are extremely apt to deceive !mselves2 = :5 a multitude ( p>ticul>s are pres5t$ to ! m9d1 _m are too weak or too indol5t to take a compreh5sive view ( !m1 b conf9e _! att5tion to ea* s+le po9t1 by turns2 & !n decide1 inf]1 & act1 accord+ly3 e4g4 ! imprud5t sp5d?rift1 f9d+ t he is able to af=d ?is1 or t1 or ! o!r exp5se1 =gets t all ( !m toge!r w ru9 him4 ,! debau*ee de/roys 8 heal? by successive acts ( intemp]ance1 because no "o ( ^? acts w\ld be ( itself suffici5t to d him any s]i\s h>m4 ,a sick p]son reasons ) himself1 "o1 & ano!r1 & ano!r1 ( my symptoms1 d n prove t ,i h a fatal disease2 & practically concludes t all tak5 toge!r d n prove x4 #b4 ,we h n[ suffici5tly exemplifi$ "o ( ! pr9cipal ,g5]a 9 ?is ,ord] ( ,fallacies2 :]e1 ! s\rce ( error be+ ! ambiguity ( t]ms1 ! premises are v]bally :at is requir$ to support ! conclusion1 b n really s4 ,9 ! second great ,fallacy ( ,confusion !y are nei!r v]bally nor really suffici5t1 ?\gh1 f _! multiplicity & confus$ arrangem5t1 & /ill (t5] f defect ( memory1 !y are n se5 to be :at !y are4 ,! fallacy ,i mean is t ( ,petitio ,pr9cipii1 or begg+ ! "q2 includ+ ! m complex & n uncommon v>iety ( x1 :i* is t]m$ ,reason+ 9 a ,circle4 ,petitio ,pr9cipii1 z def9$ by ,ar*bi%op ,:ately1 is ! fallacy 9 :i* ! premise ei!r appe>s manife/ly to be ! same z ! conclusion1 or is actually prov$ f ! conclusion1 or is su* z w\ld naturally & prop]ly s be prov$4 ,by ! la/ clause ,i presume is meant1 t x is n susceptible ( any o!r pro(2 = o!rwise1 !re w\ld be no fallacy4 ,to d$uce f a proposition1 propositions f :i* x w\ld itself m naturally be d$uc$1 is (t5 an all[able deviation f ! usual didactic ord]2 or at mo/1 :at1 by an adaptation ( a phrase famili> to ma!maticians1 may be call$ a logical inelegance4#ce ,! employm5t ( a proposition to prove t on :i* x is itself dep5d5t = pro(1 by no means implies ! degree ( m5tal imbecility :i* might at fir/ be suppos$4 ,! difficulty ( compreh5d+ h[ ?is fallacy c\ld possibly be committ$1 disappe>s :5 we reflect t all p]sons1 ev5 ! in/ruct$1 hold a great numb] ( op9ions )\t exactly recollect+ h[ !y came by !m4 ,believ+ t !y h at "s =m] "t v]ifi$ !m by suffici5t evid5ce1 b hav+ =gott5 :at ! evid5ce 01 !y may easily be betray$ into d$uc+ f !m ! v propositions :i* are alone capable ( s]v+ z premises = _! e/abli%m5t4 ,z if1 says ,ar*bi%op ,:ately1 "o %\ld attempt to prove ! be+ ( a ,god f ! au?ority ( ,holy ,writ2 :i* might easily happ5 to "o ) :om bo? doctr9es1 z fundam5tal t5ets ( 8 religi\s cre$1 /& on ! same gr\nd ( famili> & traditional belief4 ,argu+ 9 a circle1 h[ev]1 is a /rong] case ( ! fallacy1 & implies m ?an ! m]e passive reception ( a premise by "o :o does n rememb] h[ x is to be prov$4 ,x implies an actual attempt to prove two propositions reciprocally f "o ano!r2 & is seldom resort$ to1 at lea/ 9 express t]ms1 by any p]son 9 8 own speculations1 b is committ$ by ^? :o1 be+ h>d press$ by an adv]s>y1 are =c$ into giv+ reasons = an op9ion ( :i*1 :5 !y began to argue1 !y _h n suffici5tly consid]$ ! gr\nds4 ,z 9 ! foll[+ example f ,ar*bi%op ,:ately3 ,"s me*anicians attempt to prove 7:at !y ought to lay d[n z a probable b d\btful hypo!sis#cf7 t e p>ticle ( matt] gravitates equally3 ':y8' 'because ^? bodies :i* conta9 m p>ticles ev] gravitate m /rongly1 i4e4 are heavi]3' 'b1 7x may be urg$17 ^? :i* are heavie/ are n always m bulky2' 'no1 b !y conta9 m p>ticles1 ?\gh m closely cond5s$3' 'h[ d y "k t8' 'because !y are heavi]3' 'h[ does t prove x8' 'because all p>ticles ( matt] gravitat+ equally1 t mass :i* is specifically ! heavi] mu/ ne$s h ! m ( !m 9 ! same space4' ,x appe>s to me t ! fallaci\s reason]1 9 8 private ?\ghts1 w\ld n be likely to proce$ beyond ! fir/ /ep4 ,he w\ld acquiesce 9 ! suffici5cy ( ! reason fir/ giv51 bodies :i* conta9 m p>ticles are heavi]4 ,x is :5 he f9ds ?is que/ion$1 & is call$ ^u to prove x1 )\t kn[+ h[1 t he tries to e/abli% 8 premise by suppos+ prov$ :at he is attempt+ to prove by x4 ,! mo/ effectual way1 9 fact1 ( expos+ a ,petitio ,pr9cipii1 :5 circum/ances all[ ( x1 is by *all5g+ ! reason] to prove 8 premises2 :i* if he attempts to d1 he is necess>ily driv5 into argu+ 9 a circle4 ,x is n uncommon1 h[ev]1 = ?9k]s1 & ^? n ( ! l[e/ description1 to be l$1 ev5 9 _! own ?\ghts1 n inde$ into =mally prov+ ea* ( two propositions f ! o!r1 b into admitt+ propositions :i* c only be s prov$4 ,9 ! prec$+ example ! two toge!r =m a complete & consi/5t1 ?\gh hypo!tical1 explanation ( ! facts conc]n$4 ,& ! t5d5cy to mi/ake mutual coh]5cy = tru?2 to tru/ "o's safety to a /rong *a9 ?\gh x has no po9t ( support2 is at ! bottom ( mu* :i*1 :5 r$uc$ to ! /rict =ms ( argum5tation1 c exhibit itself no o!rwise ?an z reason+ 9 a circle4 ,all exp]i5ce be>s te/imony to ! en?rall+ effect ( neat concat5ation 9 a sy/em ( doctr9es1 & ! difficulty ) :i* p admit ! p]suasion t any?+ :i* holds s well toge!r c possibly fall4 ,s9ce e case :]e a conclusion :i* c only be prov$ f c]ta9 premises is us$ = ! pro( ( ^? premises1 is a case ( petitio pr9cipii1 t fallacy includes a v great proportion ( all incorrect reason+4 ,x is necess>y1 = complet+ our view ( ! fallacy1 to exemplify "s ( ! disguises "u :i* x is accu/om$ to mask itself1 & to escape exposure4 ,a proposition w\ld n be admitt$ by any p]son 9 8 s5ses z a coroll>y f itself1 unless x 7 express$ 9 language :i* made x seem diff]5t4 ,"o ( ! commone/ modes ( s express+ x1 is to pres5t ! proposition itself 9 ab/ract t]ms1 z a pro( ( ! same proposition express$ 9 concrete language4 ,?is is a v frequ5t mode1 n only ( pret5d$ pro(1 b ( pret5d$ explanation2 & is p>odi$ :5 ,molire makes "o ( 8 absurd physicians say1 l'opium endormit p>cequ'il a une v]tu soporifique1 or1 9 ! equival5t doggrel1 ,mihi docto doctore1 ,dom&atur causam et rationem qu>e ,opium facit dormire4 ,a quoi respondeo1 ,quia e/ 9 eo ,virtus dormitiva1 ,cujus e/ natura ,s5sus ass\pire4 ,! words ,nature & ,ess5ce are gr& in/rum5ts ( ?is mode ( begg+ ! "q4 ,z 9 ! well-kn[n argum5t ( ! s*ola/ic !ologians1 t ! m9d ?9ks always1 because ! ess5ce ( ! m9d is to ?9k4 ,locke _h to po9t out1 t if by ess5ce is "h meant "s prop]ty :i* mu/ manife/ itself by actual ex]cise at all times1 ! premise is a direct assumption ( ! conclusion2 :ile if x only means t to ?9k is ! di/9ctive prop]ty ( a m9d1 !re is no connexion betwe5 ! premise & ! conclusion1 s9ce x is n necess>y t a di/9ctive prop]ty %\ld be p]petually 9 action4 ,! foll[+ is "o ( ! modes 9 :i* ^! ab/ract t]ms1 ,nature & ,ess5ce1 are us$ z in/rum5ts ( ?is fallacy4 ,"s p>ticul> prop]ties ( a ?+ are select$1 m or less arbitr>ily1 to be t]m$ its nature or ess5ce2 & :5 ?is has be5 done1 ^! prop]ties are suppos$ to be inve/$ ) a k9d ( indefeasibl5ess2 to h become p>am\nt to all ! o!r prop]ties ( ! ?+1 & incapable ( be+ prevail$ ov] or c\nt]act$ by !m4 ,z :5 ,ari/otle1 9 a passage already cit$1 decides t !re is no void on su* argum5ts z ?is3 9 a void !re c\ld be no diff]5ce ( up & d[n2 = z 9 no?+ !re are no diff]5ces1 s !re are none 9 a privation or negation2 b a void is m]ely a privation or negation ( matt]2 !re=e1 9 a void1 bodies c\ld n move up & d[n1 :i* x is 9 _! nature to d4#cg ,9 o!r words2 x is 9 ! nature ( bodies to move up & d[n1 ergo any physical fact :i* supposes !m n s to move1 _c be au!ntic4 ,?is mode ( reason+1 by :i* a bad g5]alization is made to ov]rule all facts :i* contradict x1 is petitio pr9cipii 9 "o ( its mo/ palpable =ms4 ,none ( ! modes ( assum+ :at %\ld be prov$ are 9 m frequ5t use ?an :at are t]m$ by ,b5?am "q-begg+ appellatives2 names :i* beg ! "q "u ! disguise ( /at+ x4 ,! mo/ pot5t ( ^! are su* z h a laudatory or vitup]ative "*4 ,= in/ance1 9 politics1 ! ^w ,innovation4 ,! diction>y mean+ ( ?is t]m be+ m]ely a *ange to some?+ new1 x is difficult = ! def5d]s ev5 ( ! mo/ salut>y improvem5t to d5y t x is an innovation2 yet ! ^w hav+ acquir$ 9 common usage a vitup]ative connotation 9 addition to its diction>y mean+1 ! admission is always con/ru$ z a l>ge concession to ! disadvantage ( ! ?+ propos$4 ,! foll[+ passage f ! argum5t 9 refutation ( ! ,epicureans1 9 ! second book ( ,cic]o de ,f9ibus1 af=ds a f9e example ( ?is sort ( fallacy4 ,et quidem illud ipsum non nimium probo 7et tantum patior7 philosophum loqui de cupiditatibus f9i5dis4 ,an pote/ cupiditas f9iri8 toll5da e/1 atque extrah5da radicitus4 ,quis e/ enim1 9 quo sit cupiditas1 qu9 recte cupidus dici possit8 ,ergo et av>us erit1 s$ f9ite3 adult]1 v]um habebit modum3 et luxuriosus eodem modo4 ,qualis i/a philosophia e/1 qu non int]itum aff]at pravitatis1 s$ sit cont5ta m$iocritate vitiorum8 ,! "q 01 :e!r c]ta9 desires1 :5 kept )9 b\nds1 are vices or n2 & ! argum5t decides ! po9t by apply+ to !m a ^w 7cupiditas7 :i* implies vice4 ,x is %[n1 h[ev]1 9 ! rem>ks :i* foll[1 t ,cic]o did n int5d ?is z a s]i\s argum5t1 b z a criticism on :at he deem$ an inappropriate expression4 ,rem ipsam prorsus probo3 elegantiam desid]o4 ,appellet hc desid]ia natur2 cupiditatis nom5 s]vet alio1 c4 ,b _m p]sons1 bo? anci5t & mod]n1 h employ$ ?is1 or some?+ equival5t to x1 z a real & conclusive argum5t4 ,we may rem>k t ! passage respect+ cupiditas & cupidus is also an example ( ano!r fallacy already notic$1 t ( ,p>onym\s ,t]ms4 ,_m m ( ! argum5ts ( ! anci5t morali/s1 & especially ( ! ,/oics1 fall )9 ! def9ition ( ,petitio ,pr9cipii4 ,9 ! ,de ,f9ibus1 = example1 :i* ,i cont9ue to quote z be+ probably ! be/ extant exemplification at once ( ! doctr9es & ! me?ods ( ! s*ools ( philosophy exi/+ at t "t2 ( :at value z argum5ts are su* pleas z ^? ( ,cato 9 ! ?ird book3 ,t if virtue 7 n happ9ess1 x c\ld n be a ?+ to boa/ (3 ,t if dea? or pa9 7 evils1 x w\ld be impossible n to fe> !m1 & x c\ld n1 !re=e1 be laudable to despise !m1 c4 ,9 "o way ( view+ ^! argum5ts1 !y may be reg>d$ z appeals to ! au?ority ( ! g5]al s5tim5t ( mank9d1 :i* _h /amp$ its approval ^u c]ta9 actions & *>act]s by ! phrases ref]r$ to2 b t su* c\ld h be5 ! mean+ int5d$ is v unlikely1 consid]+ ! contempt ( ! anci5t philosoph]s = vulg> op9ion4 ,9 any o!r s5se !y are cle> cases ( ,petitio ,pr9cipii1 s9ce ! ^w laudable1 & ! idea ( boa/+1 imply pr9ciples ( conduct2 & practical maxims c only be prov$ f speculative tru?s1 namely f ! prop]ties ( ! subject matt]1 & _c1 !re=e1 be employ$ to prove ^? prop]ties4 ,z well might x be argu$ t a gov]nm5t is good because we ought to support x1 or t !re is a ,god because x is our duty to pray to him4 ,x is assum$ by all ! disputants 9 ! ,de ,f9ibus z ! f\ndation ( ! inquiry into ! summum bonum1 t sapi5s semp] beatus e/4 ,n simply t wisdom gives ! be/ *ance ( happ9ess1 or t wisdom consi/s 9 kn[+ :at happ9ess is1 & by :at ?+s x is promot$2 ^! propositions w\ld n h be5 en\gh = !m3--b t ! sage always is1 & mu/ ( necessity be1 happy4 ,! idea t wisdom c\ld be consi/5t ) unhapp9ess1 0 always reject$ z inadmissible3 ! reason assign$ by "o ( ! int]locutors1 ne> ! beg9n+ ( ! ?ird book1 be+1 t if ! wise c\ld be unhappy1 !re 0 little use 9 pursu+ wisdom4 ,b by unhapp9ess !y did n mean pa9 or suff]+2 to t1 x 0 grant$ t ! wise/ p]son 0 liable 9 common ) o!rs3 he 0 happy1 because 9 possess+ wisdom he _h ! mo/ valuable ( all possessions1 ! mo/ to be s\ght & priz$ ( all ?+s1 & to possess ! mo/ valuable ?+ 0 to be ! mo/ happy4 ,by lay+ x d[n1 !re=e1 at ! comm5cem5t ( ! inquiry1 t ! sage mu/ be happy1 ! disput$ "q respect+ ! summum bonum 0 9 fact begg$2 ) ! fur!r assumption1 t pa9 & suff]+1 s f> z !y c coexi/ ) wisdom1 are n unhapp9ess1 & are no evil4 ,! foll[+ are additional in/ances ( ,petitio ,pr9cipii1 "u m or less ( disguise4 ,plato1 9 ! ,sophi/es1 attempts to prove t ?+s may exi/ :i* are incorporeal1 by ! argum5t t ju/ice & wisdom are incorporeal1 & ju/ice & wisdom mu/ be some?+4 ,"h1 if by some?+ be meant1 z ,plato did 9 fact mean1 a ?+ capable ( exi/+ 9 & by itself1 & n z a quality ( "s o!r ?+1 he begs ! "q 9 ass]t+ t ju/ice & wisdom mu/ be some?+3 if he means any?+ else1 8 conclusion is n prov$4 ,?is fallacy might also be class$ "u ambigu\s middlet]m3 some?+1 9 ! "o premise1 mean+ "s sub/ance1 9 ! o!r m]ely "s object ( ?\ght1 :e!r sub/ance or attribute4 ,x 0 =m]ly an argum5t employ$ 9 pro( ( :at is n[ no long] a popul> doctr9e1 ! inf9ite divisibility ( matt]1 t e portion ( matt]1 h[ev] small1 mu/ at lea/ h an upp] & an "u surface4 ,^? :o us$ ?is argum5t did n see t x assum$ ! v po9t 9 dispute1 ! impossibility ( arriv+ at a m9imum ( ?ickness2 = if !re be a m9imum1 its upp] & "u surface w ( c\rse be "o3 x w be itself a surface1 & no m4 ,! argum5t owes its v consid]able plausibility to ?is1 t ! premise does actually seem m obvi\s ?an ! conclusion1 ?\gh really id5tical ) x4 ,z express$ 9 ! premise1 ! proposition appeals directly & 9 concrete language to ! incapacity ( ! human imag9ation = conceiv+ a m9imum4 ,view$ 9 ?is light1 x becomes a case ( ! priori fallacy or natural prejudice1 t :atev] _c be conceiv$ _c exi/4 ,e fallacy ( ,confusion 7x is almo/ unnecess>y to repeat7 w1 if cle>$ up1 become a fallacy ( "s o!r sort2 & x w be f\nd ( d$uctive or ratioc9ative fallacies g5]ally1 t :5 !y mislead1 !re is mo/ly1 z 9 ?is case1 a fallacy ( "s o!r description lurk+ "u !m1 by virtue ( :i* *iefly x is t ! v]bal juggle1 :i* is ! outside or body ( ?is k9d ( fallacy1 passes undetect$4 ,eul]'s ,algebra1 a book o!rwise ( great m]it1 b full1 to ov]fl[+1 ( logical errors 9 respect to ! f\ndation ( ! sci5ce1 conta9s ! foll[+ argum5t to prove t m9us multipli$ by m9us gives plus1 a doctr9e ! opprobrium ( all m]e ma!maticians1 & :i* ,eul] _h n a glimpse ( ! true me?od ( prov+4 ,he says1 m9us multipli$ by m9us _c give m9us2 = m9us multipli$ by plus gives m9us1 & m9us multipli$ by m9us _c give ! same product z m9us multipli$ by plus4 ,n[ "o is oblig$ to ask1 :y m9us multipli$ by m9us mu/ give any product at all8 & if x does1 :y its product _c be ! same z t ( m9us multipli$ by plus8 = ?is w\ld seem1 at ! fir/ glance1 n m absurd ?an t m9us by m9us %\ld give ! same z plus by plus1 ! proposition :i* ,eul] pref]s to x4 ,! premise requires pro(1 z mu* z ! conclusion3 nor c x be prov$1 except by t m compreh5sive view ( ! nature ( multiplication1 & ( algebraic processes 9 g5]al1 :i* w\ld also supply a f> bett] pro( ( ! my/]i\s doctr9e :i* ,eul] is "h endeav\r+ to demon/rate4 ,a /rik+ in/ance ( reason+ 9 a circle is t ( "s e?ical writ]s1 :o fir/ take = _! /&>d ( moral tru? :at1 be+ ! g5]al1 !y deem to be ! natural or in/9ctive s5tim5ts & p]ceptions ( mank9d1 & !n expla9 away ! num]\s in/ances ( div]g5ce f _! assum$ /&>d1 by repres5t+ !m z cases 9 :i* ! p]ceptions are unheal?y4 ,"s p>ticul> mode ( conduct or feel+ is affirm$ to be unnatural2 :y8 because x is abhorr5t to ! univ]sal & natural s5tim5ts ( mank9d4 ,f9d+ no su* s5tim5t 9 y\rself1 y "q ! fact2 & ! answ] is 7if y\r antagoni/ is polite71 t y are an exception1 a peculi> case4 ,b nei!r 7say y7 d ,i f9d 9 ! p ( "s o!r c\ntry1 or ( "s =m] age1 any su* feel+ ( abhorr5ce2 ay1 b _! feel+s 7 sophi/icat$ & unheal?y4 ,"o ( ! mo/ notable specim5s ( reason+ 9 a circle is ! doctr9e ( ,hobbes1 ,r\sseau1 & o!rs1 :i* re/s ! obligations by :i* human be+s are b\nd z memb]s ( society1 on a suppos$ social compact4 ,i wave ! consid]ation ( ! fictiti\s nature ( ! compact itself2 b :5 ,hobbes1 ?r\gh ! :ole ,levia?an1 elaborately d$uces ! obligation ( obey+ ! sov]eign1 n f ! necessity or utility ( do+ s1 b f a promise suppos$ to h be5 made by our ance/ors1 on r5\nc+ savage life & agree+ to e/abli% political society1 x is impossible n to retort by ! "q1 :y are we b\nd to keep a promise made = u by o!rs8 or :y b\nd to keep a promise at all8 ,no satisfactory gr\nd c be assign$ = ! obligation1 except ! mis*iev\s consequ5ces ( ! abs5ce ( fai? & mutual confid5ce among mank9d4 ,we are1 !re=e1 br\ght r\nd to ! int]e/s ( society1 z ! ultimate gr\nd ( ! obligation ( a promise2 & yet ^? int]e/s are n admitt$ to be a suffici5t ju/ification = ! exi/5ce ( gov]nm5t & law4 ,)\t a promise x is ?\ght t we %\ld n be b\nd to t :i* is impli$ 9 all modes ( liv+ 9 society1 namely1 to yield a g5]al ob$i5ce to ! laws !re9 e/abli%$2 & s necess>y is ! promise deem$1 t if none has actually be5 made1 "s additional safety is suppos$ to be giv5 to ! f\ndations ( society by feign+ "o4 #c4 ,two pr9cipal subdivisions ( ! class ( ,fallacies ( ,confusion hav+ be5 dispos$ (2 !re rema9s a ?ird1 9 :i* ! confusion is n1 z 9 ! ,fallacy ( ,ambiguity1 9 misconceiv+ ! import ( ! premises1 nor1 z 9 ,petitio ,pr9cipii1 9 =gett+ :at ! premises are1 b 9 mi/ak+ ! conclusion :i* is to be prov$4 ,?is is ! fallacy ( ,ignoratio ,el5*i1 9 ! wide/ s5se ( ! phrase2 also call$ by ,ar*bi%op ,:ately ! ,fallacy ( ,irrelevant ,conclusion4 ,8 examples & rem>ks are highly wor?y ( citation4 ,v>i\s k9ds ( propositions are1 accord+ to ! occasion1 sub/itut$ = ! "o ( :i* pro( is requir$3 sometimes ! p>ticul> = ! univ]sal2 sometimes a proposition ) diff]5t t]ms2 & v>i\s are ! contrivances employ$ to effect & to conceal ?is sub/itution1 & to make ! conclusion :i* ! sophi/ has drawn1 answ] practically ! same purpose z ! "o he ought to h e/abli%$4 ,we say1 'practically ! same purpose1' because x w v (t5 happ5 t "s emotion w be excit$1 "s s5tim5t impress$ on ! m9d1 7by a dext]\s employm5t ( ?is fallacy71 su* z %all br+ m5 into ! disposition requisite = y\r purpose2 ?\gh !y may n h ass5t$ to1 or ev5 /at$ di/9ctly 9 _! own m9ds1 ! proposition :i* x 0 y\r bus9ess to e/abli%4 ,?us if a sophi/ has to def5d "o :o has be5 guilty ( "s s]i\s (f5ce1 :i* he wi%es to ext5uate1 ?\gh he is unable di/9ctly to prove t x is n su*1 yet if he c succe$ 9 mak+ ! audi5ce laugh at "s casual matt]1 he has ga9$ practically ! same po9t4 ,s also if any "o has po9t$ out ! ext5uat+ circum/ances 9 "s p>ticul> case ( (f5ce1 s z to %[ t x diff]s widely f ! g5]ality ( ! same class1 ! sophi/ if he f9d himself unable to disprove ^! circum/ances1 may d away ! =ce ( !m1 by simply ref]r+ ! action to t v class1 :i* no "o c d5y t x belongs to1 & ! v "n ( :i* w excite a feel+ ( disgu/ suffici5t to c\nt]act ! ext5uation2 e4g4 let x be a case ( peculation1 & t _m mitigat+ circum/ances h be5 br\ght =w>d :i* _c be d5i$2 ! sophi/ical oppon5t w reply1 ',well1 b aft] all1 ! man is a rogue1 & !re is an end ( x2' n[ 9 reality ?is 0 7by hypo!sis7 nev] ! "q2 & ! m]e ass]tion ( :at 0 nev] d5i$1 ought n1 9 fairness1 to be reg>d$ z decisive3 b1 practically1 ! odi\sness ( ! ^w1 aris+ 9 great measure f ! association ( ^? v circum/ances :i* belong to mo/ ( ! class1 b :i* we h suppos$ to be abs5t 9 ?is p>ticul> in/ance1 excites precisely t feel+ ( disgu/1 :i* 9 effect de/roys ! =ce ( ! def5ce4 ,9 l mann] we may ref] to ?is head all cases ( improp] appeal to ! passions1 & ev]y?+ else :i* is m5tion$ by ,ari/otle z extrane\s to ! matt] 9 h& 7,greek3 ex t\ pragmatos74 ,aga91 in/ead ( prov+ t '?is prison] has committ$ an atroci\s fraud1' y prove t ! fraud he is accus$ ( is atroci\s3 in/ead ( prov+ 7z 9 ! well-kn[n tale ( ,cyrus & ! two coats7 t ! tall] boy _h a "r to =ce ! o!r boy to ex*ange coats ) him1 y prove t ! ex*ange w\ld h be5 advantage\s to bo?3 in/ead ( prov+ t ! poor ought to be reliev$ 9 ?is way r ?an 9 t1 y prove t ! poor ought to be reliev$3 in/ead ( prov+ t ! irrational ag5t--:e!r a brute or a madman--c nev] be det]r$ f any act by appreh5sion ( puni%m5t 7z = in/ance a dog f %eep-bit+1 by fe> ( be+ beat571 y prove t ! beat+ ( "o dog does n op]ate z an example to o!r dogs1 c4 ,x is evid5t t ignoratio el5*i may be employ$ z well = ! app>5t refutation ( y\r oppon5t's proposition1 z = ! app>5t e/abli%m5t ( y\r own2 = x is sub/antially ! same ?+1 to prove :at 0 n d5i$ or to disprove :at 0 n ass]t$4 ,! latt] practice is n less common1 & x is m (f5sive1 because x frequ5tly am\nts to a p]sonal affront1 9 attribut+ to a p]son1 op9ions1 c41 :i* he p]haps holds 9 abhorr5ce4 ,?us1 :5 9 a discussion "o p>ty v9dicates1 on ! gr\nd ( g5]al exp$i5cy1 a p>ticul> in/ance ( resi/ance to gov]nm5t 9 a case ( intol]able oppression1 ! oppon5t may gravely ma9ta91 't we ought n to d evil t good may come2' a proposition :i* ( c\rse _h nev] be5 d5i$1 ! po9t 9 dispute be+1 ':e!r resi/ance 9 ?is p>ticul> case 7 do+ evil or n4' ,or aga91 by way ( disprov+ ! ass]tion ( ! "r ( private judgm5t 9 religion1 "o may he> a grave argum5t to prove t 'x is impossible e "o c be "r 9 8 judgm5t4' ,! works ( controv]sial writ]s are seldom free f ?is fallacy4 ,! attempts1 = in/ance1 to disprove ! population doctr9es ( ,mal?us1 h be5 mo/ly cases ( ignoratio el5*i4 ,mal?us has be5 suppos$ to be refut$ if x c\ld be %[n t 9 "s c\ntries or ages population has be5 ne>ly /ation>y2 z if he _h ass]t$ t population always increases 9 a giv5 ratio1 or _h n expressly decl>$ t x increases only 9 s f> z x is n re/ra9$ by prud5ce1 or kept d[n by pov]ty & disease4 ,or1 p]haps1 a collection ( facts is produc$ to prove t 9 "s "o c\ntry ! p are bett] (f ) a d5se population ?an !y are 9 ano!r c\ntry ) a ?9 "o2 or t ! p h become m num]\s & bett] (f at ! same "t4 ,z if ! ass]tion 7 t a d5se population c\ld n possibly be well (f3 z if x 7 n "p ( ! v doctr9e1 & ess5tial to x1 t :]e !re is a m abundant capital !re may be a great] population )\t any increase ( pov]ty1 or ev5 ) a dim9ution ( x4 ,! fav\rite argum5t aga9/ ,b]keley's !ory ( ! non-exi/5ce ( matt]1 & ! mo/ popul>ly effective1 next to a gr9#ch--;an argum5t1 moreov]1 :i* is n conf9$ to coxcombs1 nor to m5 l ,samuel ,johnson1 ^: greatly ov]rat$ ability c]ta9ly did n lie 9 ! direction ( metaphysical speculation1 b is ! /ock argum5t ( ! ,scot* s*ool ( metaphysicians--is a palpable ignoratio el5*i4 ,! argum5t is p]haps z frequ5tly express$ by ge/ure z by words1 & "o ( its commone/ =ms consi/s 9 knock+ a /ick aga9/ ! gr\nd4 ,?is %ort & easy confutation ov]looks ! fact1 t 9 d5y+ matt]1 ,b]keley did n d5y any?+ to :i* our s5ses be> witness1 & !re=e _c be answ]$ by any appeal to !m4 ,8 scepticism relat$ to ! suppos$ sub/ratum1 or hidd5 cause ( ! appe>ances p]ceiv$ by our s5ses3 ! evid5ce ( :i*1 :atev] may be ?\ght ( its conclusiv5ess1 is c]ta9ly n ! evid5ce ( s5se4 ,& x w always rema9 a signal pro( ( ! want ( metaphysical pr(undity ( ,reid1 ,/ew>t1 &1 ,i am sorry to add1 ( ,br[n1 t !y %\ld h p]si/$ 9 ass]t+ t ,b]keley1 if he believ$ 8 own doctr9e1 0 b\nd to walk into ! k5nel1 or run 8 head aga9/ a po/4 ,z if p]sons :o d n recognise an occult cause ( _! s5sations1 c\ld n possibly believe t a fix$ ord] subsi/s among ! s5sations !mselves4 ,su* a want ( compreh5sion ( ! di/9ction betwe5 a ?+ & its s5sible manife/ation1 or1 9 metaphysical language1 betwe5 ! n\m5on & ! ph5om5on1 w\ld be impossible to ev5 ! dulle/ disciple ( ,kant or ,col]idge4 ,x w\ld be easy to add a great] numb] ( examples ( ?is fallacy1 z well z ( ! o!rs :i* ,i h attempt$ to *>act]ize4 ,b a m copi\s exemplification does n seem to be necess>y2 & ! intellig5t read] w h little difficulty 9 add+ to ! catalogue f 8 own read+ & exp]i5ce4 ,we %all !re=e "h close our exposition ( ! g5]al pr9ciples ( logic1 & proce$ to ! supplem5t>y inquiry :i* is necess>y to complete our design4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,supra1 p4 #bjd4 #b ,vulg> ,errors1 book v4 *ap4 #ba4 #c ,ph>macologia1 ,hi/orical ,introduction1 p4 #af4 #d ,! au?or ( "o ( ! ,bridgewat] ,treatises has fall51 z x seems to me1 into a simil> fallacy :51 aft] argu+ 9 r a curi\s way to prove t matt] may exi/ )\t any ( ! kn[n prop]ties ( matt]1 & may !re=e be *angeable1 he concludes t x _c be et]nal1 because et]nal 7passive7 exi/5ce necess>ily involves incapability ( *ange4 ,i believe x w\ld be difficult to po9t out any o!r connexion betwe5 ! facts ( et]nity & un*angeabl5ess1 ?an a /rong association betwe5 ! two ideas4 ,mo/ ( ! priori argum5ts1 bo? religi\s & anti-religi\s1 on ! orig9 ( ?+s1 are fallacies drawn f ! same s\rce4 #e ,supra1 book ii4 *ap4 v4 #f1 & *4 vii4 #a1 #b1 #c4 ,see also ,exam9ation ( ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,philosophy1 *ap4 vi4 & else:]e4 #f ,i quote ?is passage f ,playfair's celebrat$ ,diss]tations on ! ,progress ( ,ma!matical & ,physical ,sci5ce4 #g ,?is /atem5t ,i mu/ n[ correct1 z too unqualifi$4 ,! maxim 9 "q 0 ma9ta9$ ) full conviction by no less an au?ority ?an ,sir ,william ,hamilton4 ,see my ,exam9ation1 *ap4 xxiv4 #h ,n\veaux ,essais sur l',ent5dem5t ,huma9--,avant-propos4 7,,oeuvres1 ,p>is ed4 #ahdb1 vol4 i4 p4 #ai47 #i ,?is doctr9e also 0 accept$ z true1 & conclusions 7 gr\nd$ on x1 by ,sir ,william ,hamilton4 ,see ,exam9ation1 *ap4 xxiv4 #aj ,n t ( ,leibnitz1 b ! pr9ciple commonly appeal$ to "u t "n by ma!maticians4 #aa ,diss]tation1 ut supra1 p4 #bg4 #ab ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 ,book i4 *ap4 i4 #ac ,novum ,organum1 ,aph4 #ge4 #ad ,supra1 book iii4 *4 vii4 #d4 #ae ,x is h>dly ne$ful to rem>k t no?+ is "h int5d$ to be said aga9/ ! possibility at "s future p]iod ( mak+ gold2 by fir/ discov]+ x to be a comp\nd1 & putt+ toge!r its diff]5t elem5ts or +r$i5ts4 ,b ?is is a totally diff]5t idea f t ( ! seek]s ( ! gr& arcanum4 #af ,ph>macologia1 pp4 #dc-e4 #ag ,vol4 i4 *ap4 #h4 #ah ,nov4 ,org41 ,aph4 #df4 #ai ,playfair's ,diss]tation1 sect4 #d4 #bj ,nov4 ,org4 ,r5ov41 p4 #fa4 #ba ,ph>macologia1 p4 #ba4 #bb ,ph>macologia1 pp4 #bc-d4 #bc ,ibid4 p4 #bh4 #bd ,ibid4 p4 #fb4 #be ,ph>macologia1 pp4 #fa-b4 #bf ,supra1 p4 #ahb4 #bg ,elem5ts ( ! ,philosophy ( ! ,m9d1 vol4 ii4 *4 #d1 sect4 #e4 #bh ,?us ,f\rcroy1 says ,dr4 ,p>is1 expla9$ ! op]ation ( m]cury by its specific gravity1 & ! advocates ( ?is doctr9e fav\r$ ! g5]al introduction ( ! prep>ations ( iron1 especially 9 scirrhus ( ! sple5 or liv]1 ^u ! same hypo!tical pr9ciple2 =1 say !y1 :atev] is mo/ =cible 9 remov+ ! ob/ruction mu/ be ! mo/ prop] in/rum5t ( cure2 su* is /eel1 :i*1 besides ! att5uat+ p[] ) :i* x is furni%$1 has /ill a great] =ce 9 ?is case f ! gravity ( its p>ticles1 :i*1 be+ sev5 times specifically heavi] ?an any vegetable1 acts 9 proportion ) a /rong] impulse1 & !re=e is a m p[]ful deob/ru5t4 ,?is may be tak5 z a specim5 ( ! /yle 9 :i* ^! me*anical physicians reason$ & practis$4--,ph>macologia1 pp4 #ch-i4 #bi ,ph>macologia1 pp4 #ci1 #dj4 #cj ,i quote f ,dr4 ,:ewell's ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 #crd ed4 i4 #abi4 #ca ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 i4 #eb4 #cb ,nov4 ,org4 ,aph4 #fj4 #cc ,an advocate1 says ,mr4 ,de ,morgan 7,=mal ,logic1 p4 #bgj71 is sometimes guilty ( ! argum5t dicto secundum quid ad dictum simplicit]3 x is 8 bus9ess to d = 8 cli5t all t 8 cli5t might hone/ly d = himself4 ,is n ! ^w 9 italics frequ5tly omitt$8 ,might any man hone/ly try to d = himself all t c\nsel frequ5tly try to d = him8 ,we are (t5 rem9d$ ( ! two m5 :o /ole ! leg ( mutton2 "o c\ld swe> he _h n got x1 ! o!r t he _h n tak5 x4 ,! c\nsel is do+ 8 duty by 8 cli5t1 ! cli5t has left ! matt] to 8 c\nsel4 ,betwe5 ! unexecut$ int5tion ( ! cli5t1 & ! un9t5d$ execution ( ! c\nsel1 !re may be a wrong done1 &1 if we are to believe ! usual maxims1 no wrong-do]4 ,! same writ] ju/ly rem>ks 7p4 #bea7 t !re is a conv]se fallacy1 dicto simplicit] ad dictum secundum quid1 call$ by ! s*ola/ic logicians1 fallacia accid5tis2 & ano!r :i* may be call$ dicto secundum quid ad dictum secundum alt]um quid 7p4 #bfe74 ,= apt in/ances ( bo?1 ,i mu/ ref] ! read] to ,mr4 ,de ,morgan's able *apt] on ,fallacies4 #cd ,an example ( ?is fallacy is ! popul> error t /rong dr9k mu/ be a cause ( /r5g?4 ,!re is "h fallacy )9 fallacy2 = grant+ t ! words /rong & /r5g? 7 n 7z !y are7 appli$ 9 a totally diff]5t s5se to f]m5t$ liquors & to ! human body1 !re w\ld /ill be involv$ ! error ( suppos+ t an effect mu/ be l its cause2 t ! conditions ( a ph5om5on are likely to resemble ! ph5om5on itself2 :i* we h already treat$ ( z an priori fallacy ( ! fir/ rank4 ,z well might x be suppos$ t a /rong poison w make ! p]son :o takes x1 /rong4 #ce ,9 8 lat] editions1 ,ar*bi%op ,:ately conf9es ! "n ( ,petitio ,pr9cipii to ^? cases 9 :i* "o ( ! premises ei!r is manife/ly ! same 9 s5se ) ! conclusion1 or is actually prov$ f x1 or is su* z ! p]sons y are address+ are n likely to "k1 or to admit1 except z an inf]5ce f ! conclusion3 z1 e4g4 if any "o %\ld inf] ! au!nticity ( a c]ta9 hi/ory1 f its record+ su* & su* facts1 ! reality ( :i* re/s on ! evid5ce ( t hi/ory4 #cf ,no long] ev5 a probable hypo!sis1 s9ce ! e/abli%m5t ( ! atomic !ory2 x be+ n[ c]ta9 t ! integral p>ticles ( diff]5t sub/ances gravitate unequally4 ,x is true t ^! p>ticles1 ?\gh real m9ima = ! purposes ( *emical comb9ation1 may n be ! ultimate p>ticles ( ! sub/ance2 & ?is d\bt alone r5d]s ! hypo!sis admissible1 ev5 z an hypo!sis4 #cg ,hi/4 ,ind4 ,sc4 i4 #cd4 #ch ,& coxcombs vanqui% ,b]keley ) a gr94 ,,book ,,vi4 ,,on ,,! ,,logic ,,( ,,! ,,moral ,,sci5ces4 ,si l'homme peut prdire1 avec une assurance presque entire1 les phnomnes dont il connat les lois2 si lors mme qu'elles lui sont inconnues1 il peut1 d'aprs l'expri5ce1 prvoir avec une gr&e probabilit les vnem5s de l'av5ir2 p\rquoi reg>d]ait-on comme une entreprise *imrique1 celle de trac] avec quelque vraisemblance le tableau des de/9es futures de l'espce huma9e1 d'aprs les rsultats de son hi/oire8 ,le seul fondem5t de croyance dans les sci5ces naturelles1 e/ cette ide1 que les lois gnrales1 connues ou ignores1 qui rgl5t les phnomnes de l'univ]s1 sont ncessaires et con/antes2 et p> quelle raison ce pr9cipe s]ait-il mo9s vrai p\r le dveloppem5t des facults intellectuelles et morales de l'homme1 que p\r les autres oprations de la nature8 ,enf91 puisque des op9ions =mes d'aprs l'expri5ce 444 sont la seule rgle de la conduite des hommes les plus sages1 p\rquoi int]dirait-on au philosophe d'appuy] ses conjectures sur cette mme base1 p\rvu qu'il ne leur attribue pas une c]titude suprieure celle qui peut natre du nombre1 de la con/ance1 de l'exactitude des obs]vations8--,,condorcet1 ,esquisse d'un ,tableau ,hi/orique des ,progrs de l',esprit ,huma94 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,introductory ,,rem>ks4 #a4 ,pr9ciples ( ,evid5ce & ,!ories ( ,me?od are n to be con/ruct$ priori4 ,! laws ( our rational faculty1 l ^? ( e o!r natural ag5cy1 are only le>nt by see+ ! ag5t at "w4 ,! e>li] a*ievem5ts ( sci5ce 7 made )\t ! consci\s obs]vance ( any ,sci5tific ,me?od2 & we %\ld nev] h kn[n by :at process tru? is to be asc]ta9$1 if we _h n previ\sly asc]ta9$ _m tru?s4 ,b x 0 only ! easi] problems :i* c\ld be ?us resolv$3 natural sagacity1 :5 x tri$ its /r5g? aga9/ ! m difficult ones1 ei!r fail$ altoge!r1 or if x succe$$ "h & !re 9 obta9+ a solution1 _h no sure means ( conv9c+ o!rs t its solution 0 correct4 ,9 sci5tific inve/igation1 z 9 all o!r works ( human skill1 ! way ( obta9+ ! end is se5 z x 7 in/9ctively by sup]ior m9ds 9 "s comp>atively simple case1 & is !n1 by judici\s g5]alization1 adapt$ to ! v>iety ( complex cases4 ,we le>n to d a ?+ 9 difficult circum/ances1 by att5d+ to ! mann] 9 :i* we h spontane\sly done ! same ?+ 9 easi] ones4 ,?is tru? is exemplifi$ by ! hi/ory ( ! v>i\s bran*es ( k :i* h successively1 9 ! asc5d+ ord] ( _! complication1 assum$ ! "* ( sci5ces2 & w d\btless receive fre% confirmation f ^?1 ( :i* ! f9al sci5tific con/itution is yet to come1 & :i* are /ill ab&on$ to ! unc]ta9ties ( vague & popul> discussion4 ,al?\gh sev]al o!r sci5ces h em]g$ f ?is /ate at a comp>atively rec5t date1 none n[ rema9 9 x except ^? :i* relate to man himself1 ! mo/ complex & mo/ difficult subject ( /udy on :i* ! human m9d c be engag$4 ,conc]n+ ! physical nature ( man1 z an organiz$ be+1--?\gh !re is /ill mu* unc]ta9ty & mu* controv]sy1 :i* c only be t]m9at$ by ! g5]al ackn[l$gm5t & employm5t ( /rict] rules ( induction ?an are commonly recognis$1--!re is1 h[ev]1 a consid]able body ( tru?s :i* all :o h att5d$ to ! subject consid] to be fully e/abli%$2 nor is !re n[ any radical imp]fection 9 ! me?od obs]v$ 9 ?is dep>tm5t ( sci5ce by its mo/ di/+ui%$ mod]n tea*]s4 ,b ! laws ( ,m9d1 &1 9 ev5 a great] degree1 ^? ( ,society1 are s f> f hav+ atta9$ a simil> /ate ( ev5 p>tial recognition1 t x is /ill a controv]sy :e!r !y are capable ( becom+ subjects ( sci5ce 9 ! /rict s5se ( ! t]m3 & among ^? :o are agre$ on ?is po9t1 !re reigns ! mo/ irreconcileable div]sity on almo/ e o!r4 ,"h1 !re=e1 if any:]e1 ! pr9ciples laid d[n 9 ! prec$+ ,books may be expect$ to be useful4 ,if1 on matt]s s mu* ! mo/ important ) :i* human intellect c occupy itself1 a m g5]al agreem5t is ev] to exi/ among ?9k]s2 if :at has be5 pron\nc$ ! prop] /udy ( mank9d is n de/9$ to rema9 ! only subject :i* ,philosophy _c succe$ 9 rescu+ f ,empiricism2 ! same process ?r\gh :i* ! laws ( _m simpl] ph5om5a h by g5]al ackn[l$gm5t be5 plac$ beyond dispute1 mu/ be consci\sly & delib]ately appli$ to ^? m difficult inquiries4 ,if !re are "s subjects on :i* ! results obta9$ h f9ally receiv$ ! unanim\s ass5t ( all :o h att5d$ to ! pro(1 & o!rs on :i* mank9d h n yet be5 equally successful2 on :i* ! mo/ sagaci\s m9ds h occupi$ !mselves f ! e>lie/ date1 & h nev] succe$$ 9 e/abli%+ any consid]able body ( tru?s1 s z to be beyond d5ial or d\bt2 x is by g5]aliz+ ! me?ods successfully foll[$ 9 ! =m] inquiries1 & adapt+ !m to ! latt]1 t we may hope to remove ?is blot on ! face ( sci5ce4 ,! rema9+ *apt]s are an endeav\r to facilitate ?is mo/ desirable object4 #b4 ,9 attempt+ ?is1 ,i am n unm9dful h[ little c be done t[>ds x 9 a m]e treatise on ,logic1 or h[ vague & unsatisfactory all precepts ( ,me?od mu/ necess>ily appe>1 :5 n practically exemplifi$ 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( a body ( doctr9e4 ,d\btless1 ! mo/ effectual mode ( %[+ h[ ! sci5ces ( ,e?ics & ,politics may be con/ruct$1 w\ld be to con/ruct !m3 a task :i*1 x ne$s sc>cely be said1 ,i am n ab\t to und]take4 ,b ev5 if !re 7 no o!r examples1 ! memorable "o ( ,bacon w\ld be suffici5t to demon/rate1 t x is sometimes bo? possible & useful to po9t out ! way1 ?\gh )\t be+ oneself prep>$ to adv5ture f> into x4 ,& if m 7 to be attempt$1 ?is at lea/ is n a prop] place = ! attempt4 ,9 sub/ance1 :atev] c be done 9 a "w l ?is = ! ,logic ( ! ,moral ,sci5ces1 has be5 or ought to h be5 accompli%$ 9 ! five prec$+ ,books2 to :i* ! pres5t c be only a k9d ( supplem5t or app5dix1 s9ce ! me?ods ( inve/igation applicable to moral & social sci5ce mu/ h be5 already describ$1 if ,i h succe$$ 9 enum]at+ & *>act]iz+ ^? ( sci5ce 9 g5]al4 ,x rema9s1 h[ev]1 to exam9e :i* ( ^? me?ods are m especially suit$ to ! v>i\s bran*es ( moral inquiry2 "u :at peculi> facilities or difficulties !y are !re employ$2 h[ f> ! unsatisfactory /ate ( ^? inquiries is ow+ to a wrong *oice ( me?ods1 h[ f> to want ( skill 9 ! application ( "r ones2 & :at degree ( ultimate success may be atta9$ or hop$ =1 by a bett] *oice or m c>eful employm5t ( logical processes appropriate to ! case4 ,9 o!r words1 :e!r moral sci5ces exi/1 or c exi/2 to :at degree ( p]fection !y are susceptible ( be+ c>ri$2 & by :at selection or adaptation ( ! me?ods br\ght to view 9 ! previ\s "p ( ?is "w1 t degree ( p]fection is atta9able4 ,at ! ?re%old ( ?is inquiry we are met by an objection1 :i*1 if n remov$1 w\ld be fatal to ! attempt to treat human conduct z a subject ( sci5ce4 ,are ! actions ( human be+s1 l all o!r natural ev5ts1 subject to inv>iable laws8 ,does t con/ancy ( causation1 :i* is ! f\ndation ( e sci5tific !ory ( successive ph5om5a1 really obta9 among !m8 ,?is is (t5 d5i$2 & = ! sake ( sy/ematic complet5ess1 if n f any v urg5t practical necessity1 ! "q %\ld receive a delib]ate answ] 9 ?is place4 ,we %all devote to ! subject a *apt] ap>t4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,( ,,lib]ty ,,& ,,necessity4 #a4 ,! "q1 :e!r ! law ( causality applies 9 ! same /rict s5se to human actions z to o!r ph5om5a1 is ! celebrat$ controv]sy conc]n+ ! fre$om ( ! w3 :i*1 f at lea/ z f> back z ! "t ( ,pelagius1 has divid$ bo? ! philosophical & ! religi\s _w4 ,! affirmative op9ion is commonly call$ ! doctr9e ( ,necessity1 z ass]t+ human volitions & actions to be necess>y & inevitable4 ,! negative ma9ta9s t ! w is n det]m9$1 l o!r ph5om5a1 by antec$5ts1 b det]m9es itself2 t our volitions are n1 prop]ly speak+1 ! effects ( causes1 or at lea/ h no causes :i* !y uni=mly & implicitly obey4 ,i h already made x suffici5tly app>5t t ! =m] ( ^! op9ions is t :i* ,i consid] ! true "o2 b ! mislead+ t]ms 9 :i* x is (t5 express$1 & ! indi/9ct mann] 9 :i* x is usually appreh5d$1 h bo? ob/ruct$ its reception1 & p]v]t$ its influ5ce :5 receiv$4 ,! metaphysical !ory ( free w1 z held by philosoph]s1 7= ! practical feel+ ( x1 common 9 a great] or less degree to all mank9d1 is 9 no way inconsi/5t ) ! contr>y !ory17 0 inv5t$ because ! suppos$ alt]native ( admitt+ human actions to be necess>y1 0 deem$ inconsi/5t ) e "o's in/9ctive consci\sness1 z well z humiliat+ to ! pride & ev5 degrad+ to ! moral nature ( man4 ,nor d ,i d5y t ! doctr9e1 z sometimes held1 is op5 to ^! imputations2 = ! misappreh5sion 9 :i* ,i %all be able to %[ t !y orig9ate1 un=tunately is n conf9$ to ! oppon5ts ( ! doctr9e1 b p>ticipat$ 9 by _m1 p]haps we might say by mo/1 ( its support]s4 #b4 ,correctly conceiv$1 ! doctr9e call$ ,philosophical ,necessity is simply ?is3 t1 giv5 ! motives :i* are pres5t to an individual's m9d1 & giv5 likewise ! "* & disposition ( ! individual1 ! mann] 9 :i* he w act might be un]r+ly inf]r$3 t if we knew ! p]son ?or\ghly1 & knew all ! inducem5ts :i* are act+ ^u him1 we c\ld =etell 8 conduct ) z mu* c]ta9ty z we c pr$ict any physical ev5t4 ,?is proposition ,i take to be a m]e int]pretation ( univ]sal exp]i5ce1 a /atem5t 9 words ( :at e "o is int]nally conv9c$ (4 ,no "o :o believ$ t he knew ?or\ghly ! circum/ances ( any case1 & ! *>act]s ( ! diff]5t p]sons conc]n$1 w\ld hesitate to =etell h[ all ( !m w\ld act4 ,:atev] degree ( d\bt he may 9 fact feel1 arises f ! unc]ta9ty :e!r he really kn[s ! circum/ances1 or ! "* ( "s "o or o!r ( ! p]sons1 ) ! degree ( accuracy requir$3 b by no means f ?9k+ t if he did "k ^! ?+s1 !re c\ld be any unc]ta9ty :at ! conduct w\ld be4 ,nor does ?is full assurance conflict 9 ! smalle/ degree ) :at is call$ our feel+ ( fre$om4 ,we d n feel ourselves ! less free1 because ^? to :om we are intimately kn[n are well assur$ h[ we %all w to act 9 a p>ticul> case4 ,we (t51 on ! contr>y1 reg>d ! d\bt :at our conduct w be1 z a m>k ( ignorance ( our "*1 & sometimes ev5 res5t x z an imputation4 ,! religi\s metaphysicians :o h ass]t$ ! fre$om ( ! w1 h always ma9ta9$ x to be consi/5t ) div9e =ekn[l$ge ( our actions3 & if ) div9e1 !n ) any o!r =ekn[l$ge4 ,we may be free1 & yet ano!r may h reason to be p]fectly c]ta9 :at use we %all make ( our fre$om4 ,x is n1 !re=e1 ! doctr9e t our volitions & actions are inv>iable consequ5ts ( our antec$5t /ates ( m9d1 t is ei!r contradict$ by our consci\sness1 or felt to be degrad+4 ,b ! doctr9e ( causation1 :5 consid]$ z obta9+ betwe5 our volitions & _! antec$5ts1 is almo/ univ]sally conceiv$ z involv+ m ?an ?is4 ,_m d n believe1 & v few practically feel1 t !re is no?+ 9 causation b inv>iable1 c]ta91 & unconditional sequ5ce4 ,!re are few to :om m]e con/ancy ( succession appe>s a suffici5tly /r+5t bond ( union = s peculi> a relation z t ( cause & effect4 ,ev5 if ! reason repudiates1 ! imag9ation reta9s1 ! feel+ ( "s m intimate connexion1 ( "s peculi> tie1 or my/]i\s con/ra9t ex]cis$ by ! antec$5t ov] ! consequ5t4 ,n[ ?is x is :i*1 consid]$ z apply+ to ! human w1 conflicts ) our consci\sness1 & revolts our feel+s4 ,we are c]ta9 t1 9 ! case ( our volitions1 !re is n ?is my/]i\s con/ra9t4 ,we "k t we are n compell$1 z by a magical spell1 to obey any p>ticul> motive4 ,we feel1 t if we wi%$ to prove t we h ! p[] ( resi/+ ! motive1 we c\ld d s1 7t wi% be+1 x ne$s sc>cely be obs]v$1 a new antec$5t27 & x w\ld be humiliat+ to our pride1 & 7:at is ( m importance7 p>alys+ to our desire ( excell5ce if we ?\ght o!rwise4 ,b nei!r is any su* my/]i\s compulsion n[ suppos$1 by ! be/ philosophical au?orities1 to be ex]cis$ by any o!r cause ov] its effect4 ,^? :o ?9k t causes draw _! effects aft] !m by a my/ical tie1 are "r 9 believ+ t ! relation betwe5 volitions & _! antec$5ts is ( ano!r nature4 ,b !y %\ld g f>!r1 & admit t ?is is also true ( all o!r effects & _! antec$5ts4 ,if su* a tie is consid]$ to be involv$ 9 ! ^w necessity1 ! doctr9e is n true ( human actions2 b nei!r is x !n true ( inanimate objects4 ,x w\ld be m correct to say t matt] is n b\nd by necessity ?an t m9d is s4 ,t ! free-w metaphysicians1 be+ mo/ly ( ! s*ool :i* rejects ,hume's & ,br[n's analysis ( ,cause & ,effect1 %\ld miss _! way = want ( ! light :i* t analysis af=ds1 _c surprise u4 ,! wond] is1 t ! necess>ians1 :o usually admit t philosophical !ory1 %\ld 9 practice equally lose sight ( x4 ,! v same misconception ( ! doctr9e call$ ,philosophical ,necessity1 :i* prev5ts ! opposite p>ty f recognis+ its tru?1 ,i believe to exi/ m or less obscurely 9 ! m9ds ( mo/ necess>ians1 h[ev] !y may 9 words disav[ x4 ,i am mu* mi/ak5 if !y habitually feel t ! necessity :i* !y recognise 9 actions is b uni=mity ( ord]1 & capability ( be+ pr$ict$4 ,!y h a feel+ z if !re 7 at bottom a /rong] tie betwe5 ! volitions & _! causes3 z if1 :5 !y ass]t$ t ! w is gov]n$ by ! balance ( motives1 !y meant some?+ m cog5t ?an if !y _h only said1 t :oev] knew ! motives1 & our habitual susceptibilities to !m1 c\ld pr$ict h[ we %\ld w to act4 ,!y commit1 9 opposition to _! own sci5tific sy/em1 ! v same mi/ake :i* _! adv]s>ies commit 9 ob$i5ce to !irs2 & 9 consequ5ce d really 9 "s in/ances suff] ^? depress+ consequ5ces1 :i* _! oppon5ts errone\sly impute to ! doctr9e itself4 #c4 ,i am incl9$ to ?9k t ?is error is almo/ :olly an effect ( ! associations ) a ^w2 & t x w\ld be prev5t$1 by =be>+ to employ1 = ! expression ( ! simple fact ( causation1 s extremely inappropriate a t]m z ,necessity4 ,t ^w1 9 its o!r acceptations1 involves mu* m ?an m]e uni=mity ( sequ5ce3 x implies irresi/ibl5ess4 ,appli$ to ! w1 x only means t ! giv5 cause w be foll[$ by ! effect1 subject to all possibilities ( c\nt]action by o!r causes3 b 9 common use x /&s = ! op]ation ( ^? causes exclusively1 :i* are suppos$ too p[]ful to be c\nt]act$ at all4 ,:5 we say t all human actions take place ( necessity1 we only mean t !y w c]ta9ly happ5 if no?+ prev5ts3--:5 we say t dy+ ( want1 to ^? :o _c get food1 is a necessity1 we mean t x w c]ta9ly happ5 :atev] may be done to prev5t x4 ,! application ( ! same t]m to ! ag5cies on :i* human actions dep5d1 z is us$ to express ^? ag5cies ( nature :i* are really uncontrollable1 _c fail1 :5 habitual1 to create a feel+ ( uncontrollabl5ess 9 ! =m] also4 ,?is h[ev] is a m]e illusion4 ,!re are physical sequ5ces :i* we call necess>y1 z dea? = want ( food or air2 !re are o!rs :i*1 ?\gh z mu* cases ( causation z ! =m]1 are n said to be necess>y1 z dea? f poison1 :i* an antidote1 or ! use ( ! /oma*-pump1 w sometimes av]t4 ,x is apt to be =gott5 by p's feel+s1 ev5 if rememb]$ by _! und]/&+s1 t human actions are 9 ?is la/ pr$icam5t3 !y are nev] 7except 9 "s cases ( mania7 rul$ by any "o motive ) su* absolute sway1 t !re is no room = ! influ5ce ( any o!r4 ,! causes1 !re=e1 on :i* action dep5ds1 are nev] uncontrollable2 & any giv5 effect is only necess>y provid$ t ! causes t5d+ to produce x are n controll$4 ,t :atev] happ5s1 c\ld n h happ5$ o!rwise unless some?+ _h tak5 place :i* 0 capable ( prev5t+ x1 no "o surely ne$s hesitate to admit4 ,b to call ?is by ! "n necessity is to use ! t]m 9 a s5se s diff]5t f its primitive & famili> mean+1 f t :i* x be>s 9 ! common occasions ( life1 z to am\nt almo/ to a play ^u words4 ,! associations d]iv$ f ! ord9>y s5se ( ! t]m w adh]e to x 9 spite ( all we c d3 & ?\gh ! doctr9e ( ,necessity1 z /at$ by mo/ :o hold x1 is v remote f fatalism1 x is probable t mo/ necess>ians are fatali/s1 m or less1 9 _! feel+s4 ,a fatali/ believes1 or half believes 7= nobody is a consi/5t fatali/71 n only t :atev] is ab\t to happ51 w be ! infallible result ( ! causes :i* produce x1 7:i* is ! true necess>ian doctr9e17 b moreov] t !re is no use 9 /ruggl+ aga9/ x2 t x w happ5 h[ev] we may /rive to prev5t x4 ,n[1 a necess>ian1 believ+ t our actions foll[ f our *>act]s1 & t our *>act]s foll[ f our organization1 our education1 & our circum/ances1 is apt to be1 ) m or less ( consci\sness on 8 "p1 a fatali/ z to 8 own actions1 & to believe t 8 nature is su*1 or t 8 education & circum/ances h s m\ld$ 8 "*1 t no?+ c n[ prev5t him f feel+ & act+ 9 a p>ticul> way1 or at lea/ t no ef=t ( 8 own c h9d] x4 ,9 ! words ( ! sect :i* 9 our own day has mo/ p]sev]+ly inculcat$ & mo/ p]v]sely misund]/ood ?is great doctr9e1 8 "* is =m$ = him1 & n by him2 !re=e 8 wi%+ t x _h be5 =m$ diff]5tly is ( no use2 he has no p[] to alt] x4 ,b ?is is a gr& error4 ,he has1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 a p[] to alt] 8 "*4 ,its be+1 9 ! ultimate resort1 =m$ = him1 is n inconsi/5t ) its be+1 9 "p1 =m$ by him z "o ( ! int]m$iate ag5ts4 ,8 "* is =m$ by 8 circum/ances 7includ+ among ^! 8 p>ticul> organization72 b 8 own desire to m\ld x 9 a p>ticul> way1 is "o ( ^? circum/ances1 & by no means "o ( ! lea/ influ5tial4 ,we _c1 inde$1 directly w to be diff]5t f :at we are4 ,b nei!r did ^? :o are suppos$ to h =m$ our *>act]s1 directly w t we %\ld be :at we are4 ,_! w _h no direct p[] except ov] _! own actions4 ,!y made u :at !y did make u1 by will+1 n ! end1 b ! requisite means2 & we1 :5 our habits are n too invet]ate1 c1 by simil>ly will+ ! requisite means1 make ourselves diff]5t4 ,if !y c\ld place u "u ! influ5ce ( c]ta9 circum/ances1 we1 9 l mann]1 c place ourselves "u ! influ5ce ( o!r circum/ances4 ,we are exactly z capable ( mak+ our own "*1 if we w1 z o!rs are ( mak+ x = u4 ,yes 7answ]s ! ,ow5ite71 b ^! words1 if we w1 surr5d] ! :ole po9t3 s9ce ! w to alt] our own "* is giv5 u1 n by any ef=ts ( ours1 b by circum/ances :i* we _c help2 x comes to u ei!r f ext]nal causes1 or n at all4 ,mo/ true3 if ! ,ow5ite /ops "h1 he is 9 a position f :i* no?+ c expel him4 ,our "* is =m$ by u z well z = u2 b ! wi% :i* induces u to attempt to =m x is =m$ = u2 & h[8 ,n1 9 g5]al1 by our organization1 nor :olly by our education1 b by our exp]i5ce2 exp]i5ce ( ! pa9ful consequ5ces ( ! "* we previ\sly _h3 or by "s /rong feel+ ( admiration or aspiration1 accid5tally ar\s$4 ,b to ?9k t we h no p[] ( alt]+ our "*1 & to ?9k t we %all n use our p[] unless we desire to use x1 are v diff]5t ?+s1 & h a v diff]5t effect on ! m9d4 ,a p]son :o does n wi% to alt] 8 "*1 _c be ! p]son :o is suppos$ to feel disc\rag$ or p>alys$ by ?9k+ himself unable to d x4 ,! depress+ effect ( ! fatali/ doctr9e c only be felt :]e !re is a wi% to d :at t doctr9e repres5ts z impossible4 ,x is ( no consequ5ce :at we ?9k =ms our "*1 :5 we h no desire ( our own ab\t =m+ x2 b x is ( great consequ5ce t we %\ld n be prev5t$ f =m+ su* a desire by ?9k+ ! atta9m5t impracticable1 & t if we h ! desire1 we %\ld "k t ! "w is n s irrevocably done z to be incapable ( be+ alt]$4 ,& inde$1 if we exam9e closely1 we %all f9d t ?is feel+1 ( our be+ able to modify our own "* if we wi%1 is itself ! feel+ ( moral fre$om :i* we are consci\s (4 ,a p]son feels morally free :o feels t 8 habits or 8 temptations are n 8 ma/]s1 b he !irs3 :o ev5 9 yield+ to !m kn[s t he c\ld resi/2 t 7 he desir\s ( altoge!r ?r[+ !m (f1 !re w\ld n be requir$ = t purpose a /rong] desire ?an he kn[s himself to be capable ( feel+4 ,x is ( c\rse necess>y1 to r5d] our consci\sness ( fre$om complete1 t we %\ld h succe$$ 9 mak+ our "* all we h hi!rto attempt$ to make x2 = if we h wi%$ & n atta9$1 we h1 to t ext5t1 n p[] ov] our own "*1 we are n free4 ,or at lea/1 we mu/ feel t our wi%1 if n /rong en\gh to alt] our "*1 is /rong en\gh to conqu] our "* :5 ! two are br\ght into conflict 9 any p>ticul> case ( conduct4 ,& h5ce x is said ) tru?1 t none b a p]son ( confirm$ virtue is completely free4 ,! application ( s improp] a t]m z ,necessity to ! doctr9e ( cause & effect 9 ! matt] ( human "*1 seems to me "o ( ! mo/ signal in/ances 9 philosophy ( ! abuse ( t]ms1 & its practical consequ5ces "o ( ! mo/ /rik+ examples ( ! p[] ( language ov] our associations4 ,! subject w nev] be g5]ally und]/ood1 until t objectionable t]m is dropp$4 ,! free-w doctr9e1 by keep+ 9 view precisely t portion ( ! tru? :i* ! ^w ,necessity puts out ( sight1 namely ! p[] ( ! m9d to co-op]ate 9 ! =mation ( its own "*1 has giv5 to its adh]5ts a practical feel+ mu* ne>] to ! tru? ?an has g5]ally 7,i believe7 exi/$ 9 ! m9ds ( necess>ians4 ,! latt] may h _h a /rong] s5se ( ! importance ( :at human be+s c d to %ape ! *>act]s ( "o ano!r2 b ! free-w doctr9e has1 ,i believe1 fo/]$ 9 its support]s a mu* /rong] _s ( self-culture4 #d4 ,!re is /ill "o fact :i* requires to be notic$ 79 addition to ! exi/5ce ( a p[] ( self-=mation7 be=e ! doctr9e ( ! causation ( human actions c be fre$ f ! confusion & misappreh5sions :i* surr\nd x 9 _m m9ds4 ,:5 ! w is said to be det]m9$ by motives1 a motive does n mean always1 or solely1 ! anticipation ( a pleasure or ( a pa94 ,i %all n "h inquire :e!r x be true t1 9 ! comm5cem5t1 all our volunt>y actions are m]e means consci\sly employ$ to obta9 "s pleasure1 or avoid "s pa94 ,x is at lea/ c]ta9 t we gradually1 ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( association1 come to desire ! means )\t ?9k+ ( ! end3 ! action itself becomes an object ( desire1 & is p]=m$ )\t ref]5ce to any motive beyond itself4 ,?us f>1 x may /ill be object$1 t1 ! action hav+ ?r\gh association become pleasurable1 we are1 z mu* z be=e1 mov$ to act by ! anticipation ( a pleasure1 namely ! pleasure ( ! action itself4 ,b grant+ ?is1 ! matt] does n end "h4 ,z we proce$ 9 ! =mation ( habits1 & become accu/om$ to w a p>ticul> act or a p>ticul> c\rse ( conduct because x is pleasurable1 we at la/ cont9ue to w x )\t any ref]5ce to its be+ pleasurable4 ,al?\gh1 f "s *ange 9 u or 9 our circum/ances1 we h ceas$ to f9d any pleasure 9 ! action1 or p]haps to anticipate any pleasure z ! consequ5ce ( x1 we /ill cont9ue to desire ! action1 & consequ5tly to d x4 ,9 ?is mann] x is t habits ( hurtful excess cont9ue to be practis$ al?\gh !y h ceas$ to be pleasurable2 & 9 ?is mann] also x is t ! habit ( will+ to p]sev]e 9 ! c\rse :i* he has *os51 does n des]t ! moral h]o1 ev5 :5 ! rew>d1 h[ev] real1 :i* he d\btless receives f ! consci\sness ( well-do+1 is any?+ b an equival5t = ! suff]+s he und]goes1 or ! wi%es :i* he may h to r5\nce4 ,a habit ( will+ is commonly call$ a purpose2 & among ! causes ( our volitions1 & ( ! actions :i* fl[ f !m1 mu/ be reckon$ n only lik+s & av]sions1 b also purposes4 ,x is only :5 our purposes h become indep5d5t ( ! feel+s ( pa9 or pleasure f :i* !y orig9ally took _! rise1 t we are said to h a confirm$ "*4 ,a "*1 says ,novalis1 is a completely fa%ion$ w3 & ! w1 once s fa%ion$1 may be /eady & con/ant1 :5 ! passive susceptibilities ( pleasure & pa9 are greatly weak5$1 or mat]ially *ang$4 ,) ! corrections & explanations n[ giv51 ! doctr9e ( ! causation ( our volitions by motives1 & ( motives by ! desirable objects (f]$ to u1 comb9$ ) our p>ticul> susceptibilities ( desire1 may be consid]$1 ,i hope1 z suffici5tly e/abli%$ = ! purposes ( ?is treatise4#a ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,t ,,!re ,,is1 ,,or ,,may ,,be1 ,a ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,human ,,nature4 #a4 ,x is a common notion1 or at lea/ x is impli$ 9 _m common modes ( spee*1 t ! ?\ghts1 feel+s1 & actions ( s5ti5t be+s are n a subject ( sci5ce1 9 ! same /rict s5se 9 :i* ?is is true ( ! objects ( outw>d nature4 ,?is notion seems to involve "s confusion ( ideas1 :i* x is necess>y to beg9 by cle>+ up4 ,any facts are fitt$1 9 !mselves1 to be a subject ( sci5ce1 :i* foll[ "o ano!r accord+ to con/ant laws2 al?\gh ^? laws may n h be5 discov]$1 nor ev5 be discov]able by our exi/+ res\rces4 ,take1 = in/ance1 ! mo/ famili> class ( meteorological ph5om5a1 ^? ( ra9 & sun%9e4 ,sci5tific inquiry has n yet succe$$ 9 asc]ta9+ ! ord] ( antec$5ce & consequ5ce among ^! ph5om5a1 s z to be able1 at lea/ 9 our regions ( ! e>?1 to pr$ict !m ) c]ta9ty1 or ev5 ) any high degree ( probability4 ,yet no "o d\bts t ! ph5om5a dep5d on laws1 & t ^! mu/ be d]ivative laws result+ f kn[n ultimate laws1 ^? ( heat1 electricity1 vaporization1 & ela/ic fluids4 ,nor c x be d\bt$ t if we 7 acqua9t$ ) all ! antec$5t circum/ances1 we c\ld1 ev5 f ^? m g5]al laws1 pr$ict 7sav+ difficulties ( calculation7 ! /ate ( ! wea!r at any future "t4 ,meteorology1 !re=e1 n only has 9 itself e natural requisite = be+1 b actually is1 a sci5ce2 ?\gh1 f ! difficulty ( obs]v+ ! facts on :i* ! ph5om5a dep5d 7a difficulty inh]5t 9 ! peculi> nature ( ^? ph5om5a7 ! sci5ce is extremely imp]fect2 & 7 x p]fect1 might probably be ( little avail 9 practice1 s9ce ! data requisite = apply+ its pr9ciples to p>ticul> in/ances w\ld r>ely be procurable4 ,a case may be conceiv$1 ( an int]m$iate "* betwe5 ! p]fection ( sci5ce1 & ?is its extreme imp]fection4 ,x may happ5 t ! great] causes1 ^? on :i* ! pr9cipal "p ( ! ph5om5a dep5ds1 are )9 ! rea* ( obs]vation & measurem5t2 s t if no o!r causes int]v5$1 a complete explanation c\ld be giv5 n only ( ! ph5om5on 9 g5]al1 b ( all ! v>iations & modifications :i* x admits (4 ,b inasmu* z o!r1 p]haps _m o!r causes1 sep>ately insignificant 9 _! effects1 co-op]ate or conflict 9 _m or 9 all cases ) ^? great] causes2 ! effect1 accord+ly1 pres5ts m or less ( ab]ration f :at w\ld be produc$ by ! great] causes alone4 ,n[ if ^! m9or causes are n s con/antly accessible1 or n accessible at all1 to accurate obs]vation2 ! pr9cipal mass ( ! effect may /ill1 z be=e1 be acc\nt$ =1 & ev5 pr$ict$2 b !re w be v>iations & modifications :i* we %all n be compet5t to expla9 ?or\ghly1 & our pr$ictions w n be fulfill$ accurately1 b only approximately4 ,x is ?us1 = example1 ) ! !ory ( ! tides4 ,no "o d\bts t ,tidology 7z ,dr4 ,:ewell proposes to call x7 is really a sci5ce4 ,z mu* ( ! ph5om5a z dep5ds on ! attraction ( ! sun & moon is completely und]/ood1 & may 9 any1 ev5 unkn[n1 "p ( ! e>?'s surface1 be =etold ) c]ta9ty2 & ! f> great] "p ( ! ph5om5a dep5ds on ^? causes4 ,b circum/ances ( a local or casual nature1 su* z ! configuration ( ! bottom ( ! ocean1 ! degree ( conf9em5t f %ores1 ! direction ( ! w9d1 c41 influ5ce1 9 _m or 9 all places1 ! height & "t ( ! tide2 & a portion ( ^! circum/ances be+ ei!r n accurately kn[able1 n precisely measurable1 or n capable ( be+ c]ta9ly =ese51 ! tide 9 kn[n places commonly v>ies f ! calculat$ result ( g5]al pr9ciples by "s diff]5ce t we _c expla91 & 9 unkn[n ones may v>y f x by a diff]5ce t we are n able to =esee or conjecture4 ,nev]!less1 n only is x c]ta9 t ^! v>iations dep5d on causes1 & foll[ _! causes by laws ( un]r+ uni=mity2 n only1 !re=e1 is tidology a sci5ce1 l meteorology1 b x is1 :at hi!rto at lea/ meteorology is n1 a sci5ce l>gely available 9 practice4 ,g5]al laws may be laid d[n respect+ ! tides1 pr$ictions may be f\nd$ on ^? laws1 & ! result w 9 ! ma91 ?\gh (t5 n ) complete accuracy1 correspond to ! pr$ictions4 ,& ?is is :at is or ought to be meant by ^? :o speak ( sci5ces :i* are n exact sci5ces4 ,a/ronomy 0 once a sci5ce1 )\t be+ an exact sci5ce4 ,x c\ld n become exact until n only ! g5]al c\rse ( ! planet>y motions1 b ! p]turbations also1 7 acc\nt$ =1 & ref]r$ to _! causes4 ,x has become an exact sci5ce1 because its ph5om5a h be5 br\ght "u laws compreh5d+ ! :ole ( ! causes by :i* ! ph5om5a are influ5c$1 :e!r 9 a great or only 9 a trifl+ degree1 :e!r 9 all or only 9 "s cases1 & assign+ to ea* ( ^? causes ! %>e ( effect :i* really belongs to x4 ,b 9 ! !ory ( ! tides ! only laws z yet accurately asc]ta9$1 are ^? ( ! causes :i* affect ! ph5om5on 9 all cases1 & 9 a consid]able degree2 :ile o!rs :i* affect x 9 "s cases only1 or1 if 9 all1 only 9 a slight degree1 h n be5 suffici5tly asc]ta9$ & /udi$ to enable u to lay d[n _! laws2 /ill less to d$uce ! complet$ law ( ! ph5om5on1 by comp\nd+ ! effects ( ! great] ) ^? ( ! m9or causes4 ,tidology1 !re=e1 is n yet an exact sci5ce2 n f any inh]5t incapacity ( be+ s1 b f ! difficulty ( asc]ta9+ ) complete precision ! real d]ivative uni=mities4 ,by comb9+1 h[ev]1 ! exact laws ( ! great] causes1 & ( su* ( ! m9or ones z are suffici5tly kn[n1 ) su* empirical laws or su* approximate g5]alizations respect+ ! miscellane\s v>iations z c be obta9$ by specific obs]vation1 we c lay d[n g5]al propositions :i* w be true 9 ! ma91 & on :i*1 ) all[ance = ! degree ( _! probable inaccuracy1 we may safely gr\nd our expectations & our conduct4 #b4 ,! sci5ce ( human nature is ( ?is description4 ,x falls f> %ort ( ! /&>d ( exactness n[ realiz$ 9 ,a/ronomy2 b !re is no reason t x %\ld n be z mu* a sci5ce z ,tidology is1 or z ,a/ronomy 0 :5 its calculations _h only ma/]$ ! ma9 ph5om5a1 b n ! p]turbations4 ,! ph5om5a ) :i* ?is sci5ce is conv]sant be+ ! ?\ghts1 feel+s1 & actions ( human be+s1 x w\ld h atta9$ ! ideal p]fection ( a sci5ce if x enabl$ u to =etell h[ an individual w\ld ?9k1 feel1 or act1 ?r\gh\t life1 ) ! same c]ta9ty ) :i* a/ronomy enables u to pr$ict ! places & ! occultations ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,x ne$s sc>cely be /at$ t no?+ approa*+ to ?is c be done4 ,! actions ( individuals c\ld n be pr$ict$ ) sci5tific accuracy1 7 x only because we _c =esee ! :ole ( ! circum/ances 9 :i* ^? individuals w be plac$4 ,b fur!r1 ev5 9 any giv5 comb9ation ( 7pres5t7 circum/ances1 no ass]tion1 :i* is bo? precise & univ]sally true1 c be made respect+ ! mann] 9 :i* human be+s w ?9k1 feel1 or act4 ,?is is n1 h[ev]1 because e p]son's modes ( ?9k+1 feel+1 & act+1 d n dep5d on causes2 nor c we d\bt t if1 9 ! case ( any individual1 our data c\ld be complete1 we ev5 n[ "k en\gh ( ! ultimate laws by :i* m5tal ph5om5a are det]m9$1 to enable u 9 _m cases to pr$ict1 ) tol]able c]ta9ty1 :at1 9 ! great] numb] ( supposable comb9ations ( circum/ances1 8 conduct or s5tim5ts w\ld be4 ,b ! impressions & actions ( human be+s are n solely ! result ( _! pres5t circum/ances1 b ! jo9t result ( ^? circum/ances & ( ! *>act]s ( ! individuals3 & ! ag5cies :i* det]m9e human "* are s num]\s & div]sifi$1 7no?+ :i* has happ5$ to ! p]son ?r\gh\t life be+ )\t its portion ( influ5ce17 t 9 ! aggregate !y are nev] 9 any two cases exactly simil>4 ,h5ce1 ev5 if our sci5ce ( human nature 7 !oretically p]fect1 t is1 if we c\ld calculate any "* z we c calculate ! orbit ( any planet1 f giv5 data2 /ill1 z ! data are nev] all giv51 nor ev] precisely alike 9 diff]5t cases1 we c\ld nei!r make positive pr$ictions1 nor lay d[n univ]sal propositions4 ,inasmu*1 h[ev]1 z _m ( ^? effects :i* x is ( mo/ importance to r5d] am5able to human =esight & control are det]m9$1 l ! tides1 9 an incomp>ably great] degree by g5]al causes1 ?an by all p>tial causes tak5 toge!r2 dep5d+ 9 ! ma9 on ^? circum/ances & qualities :i* are common to all mank9d1 or at lea/ to l>ge bodies ( !m1 & only 9 a small degree on ! idiosyncrasies ( organization or ! peculi> hi/ory ( individuals2 x is evid5tly possible ) reg>d to all su* effects1 to make pr$ictions :i* w almo/ always be v]ifi$1 & g5]al propositions :i* are almo/ always true4 ,& :5ev] x is suffici5t to "k h[ ! great majority ( ! human race1 or ( "s nation or class ( p]sons1 w ?9k1 feel1 & act1 ^! propositions are equival5t to univ]sal ones4 ,= ! purposes ( political & social sci5ce ?is is suffici5t4 ,z we =m]ly rem>k$1#b an approximate g5]alization is1 9 social inquiries1 = mo/ practical purposes equival5t to an exact "o2 t :i* is only probable :5 ass]t$ ( individual human be+s indiscrim9ately select$1 be+ c]ta9 :5 affirm$ ( ! "* & collective conduct ( masses4 ,x is no disp>agem5t1 !re=e1 to ! sci5ce ( ,human ,nature1 t ^? ( its g5]al propositions :i* desc5d suffici5tly into detail to s]ve z a f\ndation = pr$ict+ ph5om5a 9 ! concrete1 are = ! mo/ "p only approximately true4 ,b 9 ord] to give a g5u9ely sci5tific "* to ! /udy1 x is indisp5sable t ^! approximate g5]alizations1 :i* 9 !mselves w\ld am\nt only to ! l[e/ k9d ( empirical laws1 %\ld be connect$ d$uctively ) ! laws ( nature f :i* !y result2 %\ld be resolv$ into ! prop]ties ( ! causes on :i* ! ph5om5a dep5d4 ,9 o!r words1 ! sci5ce ( ,human ,nature may be said to exi/1 9 proportion z ! approximate tru?s1 :i* compose a practical k ( mank9d1 c be exhibit$ z coroll>ies f ! univ]sal laws ( human nature on :i* !y re/2 :]eby ! prop] limits ( ^? approximate tru?s w\ld be %[n1 & we %\ld be enabl$ to d$uce o!rs = any new /ate ( circum/ances1 9 anticipation ( specific exp]i5ce4 ,! proposition n[ /at$ is ! text on :i* ! two succe$+ *apt]s w furni% ! comm5t4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,( ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,m9d4 #a4 ,:at ! ,m9d is1 z well z :at ,matt] is1 or any o!r "q respect+ ,?+s 9 !mselves1 z di/+ui%$ f _! s5sible manife/ations1 x w\ld be =eign to ! purposes ( ?is treatise to consid]4 ,"h1 z ?r\gh\t our inquiry1 we %all keep cle> ( all speculations respect+ ! m9d's own nature1 & %all und]/& by ! laws ( m9d1 ^? ( m5tal ,ph5om5a2 ( ! v>i\s feel+s or /ates ( consci\sness ( s5ti5t be+s4 ,^!1 accord+ to ! classification we h uni=mly foll[$1 consi/ ( ,?\ghts1 ,emotions1 ,volitions1 & ,s5sations2 ! la/ be+ z truly /ates ( ,m9d z ! ?ree =m]4 ,x is usual inde$ to speak ( s5sations z /ates ( body1 n ( m9d4 ,b ?is is ! common confusion1 ( giv+ "o & ! same "n to a ph5om5on & to ! proximate cause or conditions ( ! ph5om5on4 ,! imm$iate antec$5t ( a s5sation is a /ate ( body1 b ! s5sation itself is a /ate ( m9d4 ,if ! ^w m9d means any?+1 x means t :i* feels4 ,:atev] op9ion we hold respect+ ! fundam5tal id5tity or div]sity ( matt] & m9d1 9 any case ! di/9ction betwe5 m5tal & physical facts1 betwe5 ! int]nal & ! ext]nal _w1 w always rema91 z a matt] ( classification3 & 9 t classification1 s5sations1 l all o!r feel+s1 mu/ be rank$ z m5tal ph5om5a4 ,! me*anism ( _! production1 bo? 9 ! body itself & 9 :at is call$ outw>d nature1 is all t c ) any propriety be class$ z physical4 ,! ph5om5a ( m9d1 !n1 are ! v>i\s feel+s ( our nature1 bo? ^? improp]ly call$ physical1 & ^? peculi>ly designat$ z m5tal3 & by ! laws ( m9d1 ,i mean ! laws accord+ to :i* ^? feel+s g5]ate "o ano!r4 #b4 ,all /ates ( m9d are imm$iately caus$ ei!r by o!r /ates ( m9d1 or by /ates ( body4 ,:5 a /ate ( m9d is produc$ by a /ate ( m9d1 ,i call ! law conc]n$ 9 ! case1 a law ( ,m9d4 ,:5 a /ate ( m9d is produc$ directly by a /ate ( body1 ! law is a law ( ,body1 & belongs to physical sci5ce4 ,) reg>d to ^? /ates ( m9d :i* are call$ s5sations1 all are agre$ t ^! h = _! imm$iate antec$5ts1 /ates ( body4 ,e s5sation has = its proximate cause "s affection ( ! portion ( our frame call$ ! n]v\s sy/em2 :e!r ?is affection orig9ate 9 ! action ( "s ext]nal object1 or 9 "s pa?ological condition ( ! n]v\s organization itself4 ,! laws ( ?is portion ( our nature--! v>ieties ( our s5sations1 & ! physical conditions on :i* !y proximately dep5d--manife/ly belong to ! prov9ce ( ,physiology4 ,:e!r ! rema9d] ( our m5tal /ates are simil>ly dep5d5t on physical conditions1 is "o ( ! vexat que/iones 9 ! sci5ce ( human nature4 ,x is /ill disput$ :e!r our ?\ghts1 emotions1 & volitions are g5]at$ ?r\gh ! int]v5tion ( mat]ial me*anism2 :e!r we h organs ( ?\ght & ( emotion1 9 ! same s5se 9 :i* we h organs ( s5sation4 ,_m em95t physiologi/s hold ! affirmative4 ,^! cont5d1 t a ?\ght 7= example7 is z mu* ! result ( n]v\s ag5cy1 z a s5sation3 t "s p>ticul> /ate ( our n]v\s sy/em1 9 p>ticul> ( t c5tral portion ( x call$ ! bra91 inv>iably prec$es1 & is presuppos$ by1 e /ate ( our consci\sness4 ,accord+ to ?is !ory1 "o /ate ( m9d is nev] really produc$ by ano!r3 all are produc$ by /ates ( body4 ,:5 "o ?\ght seems to call up ano!r by association1 x is n really a ?\ght :i* recals a ?\ght2 ! association did n exi/ betwe5 ! two ?\ghts1 b betwe5 ! two /ates ( ! bra9 or n]ves :i* prec$$ ! ?\ghts3 "o ( ^? /ates recals ! o!r1 ea* be+ att5d$1 9 its passage1 by ! p>ticul> /ate ( consci\sness :i* is consequ5t on x4 ,on ?is !ory ! uni=mities ( succession among /ates ( m9d w\ld be m]e d]ivative uni=mities1 result+ f ! laws ( succession ( ! bodily /ates :i* cause !m4 ,!re w\ld be no orig9al m5tal laws1 no ,laws ( ,m9d 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ,i use ! t]m1 at all3 & m5tal sci5ce w\ld be a m]e bran*1 ?\gh ! highe/ & mo/ recondite bran*1 ( ! sci5ce ( physiology4 ,m4 ,comte1 accord+ly1 claims ! sci5tific cognizance ( moral & intellectual ph5om5a exclusively = physiologi/s2 & n only d5ies to ,psy*ology1 or ,m5tal ,philosophy prop]ly s call$1 ! "* ( a sci5ce1 b places x1 9 ! *im]ical nature ( its objects & pret5sions1 almo/ on a p> ) a/rology4 ,b1 aft] all has be5 said :i* c be said1 x rema9s inconte/ible t !re exi/ uni=mities ( succession among /ates ( m9d1 & t ^! c be asc]ta9$ by obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,fur!r1 t e m5tal /ate has a n]v\s /ate = its imm$iate antec$5t & proximate cause1 ?\gh extremely probable1 _c hi!rto be said to be prov$1 9 ! conclusive mann] 9 :i* ?is c be prov$ ( s5sations2 & ev5 7 x c]ta91 yet e "o mu/ admit t we are :olly ignorant ( ! *>act]i/ics ( ^! n]v\s /ates2 we "k n1 & at pres5t h no means ( kn[+1 9 :at respect "o ( !m diff]s f ano!r2 & our only mode ( /udy+ _! successions or coexi/5ces mu/ be by obs]v+ ! successions & coexi/5ces ( ! m5tal /ates1 ( :i* !y are suppos$ to be ! g5]ators or causes4 ,! successions1 !re=e1 :i* obta9 among m5tal ph5om5a1 d n admit ( be+ d$uc$ f ! physiological laws ( our n]v\s organization3 & all real k ( !m mu/ cont9ue1 = a long "t at lea/1 if n always1 to be s\ght 9 ! direct /udy1 by obs]vation & exp]im5t1 ( ! m5tal successions !mselves4 ,s9ce !re=e ! ord] ( our m5tal ph5om5a mu/ be /udi$ 9 ^? ph5om5a1 & n inf]r$ f ! laws ( any ph5om5a m g5]al1 !re is a di/9ct & sep>ate ,sci5ce ( ,m9d4 ,! relations1 inde$1 ( t sci5ce to ! sci5ce ( physiology mu/ nev] be ov]look$ or und]valu$4 ,x mu/ by no means be =gott5 t ! laws ( m9d may be d]ivative laws result+ f laws ( animal life1 & t _! tru? !re=e may ultimately dep5d on physical conditions2 & ! influ5ce ( physiological /ates or physiological *anges 9 alt]+ or c\nt]act+ ! m5tal successions1 is "o ( ! mo/ important dep>tm5ts ( psy*ological /udy4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 to reject ! res\rce ( psy*ological analysis1 & con/ruct ! !ory ( ! m9d solely on su* data z physiology at pres5t af=ds1 seems to me z great an error 9 pr9ciple1 & an ev5 m s]i\s "o 9 practice4 ,imp]fect z is ! sci5ce ( m9d1 ,i d n scruple to affirm1 t x is 9 a consid]ably m advanc$ /ate ?an ! portion ( physiology :i* corresponds to x2 & to disc>d ! =m] = ! latt] appe>s to me an infr+em5t ( ! true canons ( inductive philosophy1 :i* mu/ produce1 & :i* does produce1 errone\s conclusions 9 "s v important dep>tm5ts ( ! sci5ce ( human nature4 #c4 ,! subject1 !n1 ( ,psy*ology1 is ! uni=mities ( succession1 ! laws1 :e!r ultimate or d]ivative1 accord+ to :i* "o m5tal /ate succe$s ano!r2 is caus$ by1 or at lea/1 is caus$ to foll[1 ano!r4 ,( ^! laws1 "s are g5]al1 o!rs m special4 ,! foll[+ are examples ( ! mo/ g5]al laws4 ,fir/3 ,:5ev] any /ate ( consci\sness has once be5 excit$ 9 u1 no matt] by :at cause2 an inf]ior degree ( ! same /ate ( consci\sness1 a /ate ( consci\sness resembl+ ! =m]1 b inf]ior 9 int5sity1 is capable ( be+ reproduc$ 9 u1 )\t ! pres5ce ( any su* cause z excit$ x at fir/4 ,?us1 if we h once se5 or t\*$ an object1 we c aft]w>ds ?9k ( ! object ?\gh x be abs5t f our sight or f our t\*4 ,if we h be5 joyful or griev$ at "s ev5t1 we c ?9k (1 or rememb] our pa/ joy or grief1 ?\gh no new ev5t ( a happy or pa9ful nature has tak5 place4 ,:5 a poet has put toge!r a m5tal picture ( an imag9>y object1 a ,ca/le ( ,indol5ce1 a ,una1 or a ,hamlet1 he c aft]w>ds ?9k ( ! ideal object he has creat$1 )\t any fre% act ( intellectual comb9ation4 ,?is law is express$ by say+1 9 ! language ( ,hume1 t e m5tal impression has its idea4 ,secondly3 ,^! ideas1 or second>y m5tal /ates1 are excit$ by our impressions1 or by o!r ideas1 accord+ to c]ta9 laws :i* are call$ ,laws ( ,association4 ,( ^! laws ! fir/ is1 t simil> ideas t5d to excite "o ano!r4 ,! second is1 t :5 two impressions h be5 frequ5tly exp]i5c$ 7or ev5 ?\ght (7 ei!r simultane\sly or 9 imm$iate succession1 !n :5ev] "o ( ^! impressions1 or ! idea ( x1 recurs1 x t5ds to excite ! idea ( ! o!r4 ,! ?ird law is1 t great] int5sity 9 ei!r or bo? ( ! impressions1 is equival5t1 9 r5d]+ !m excitable by "o ano!r1 to a great] frequ5cy ( conjunction4 ,^! are ! laws ( ideas3 on :i* ,i %all n enl>ge 9 ?is place1 b ref] ! read] to works pr(ess$ly psy*ological1 9 p>ticul> to ,mr4 ,james ,mill's ,analysis ( ! ,ph5om5a ( ! ,human ,m9d1 :]e ! pr9cipal laws ( association1 along ) _m ( _! applications1 are copi\sly exemplifi$1 & ) a ma/]ly h&4#c ,^! simple or elem5t>y ,laws ( ,m9d h be5 asc]ta9$ by ! ord9>y me?ods ( exp]im5tal inquiry2 nor c\ld !y h be5 asc]ta9$ 9 any o!r mann]4 ,b a c]ta9 numb] ( elem5t>y laws hav+ ?us be5 obta9$1 x is a fair subject ( sci5tific inquiry h[ f> ^? laws c be made to g 9 expla9+ ! actual ph5om5a4 ,x is obvi\s t complex laws ( ?\ght & feel+ n only may1 b mu/1 be g5]at$ f ^! simple laws4 ,& x is to be rem>k$1 t ! case is n always "o ( ,composition ( ,causes3 ! effect ( concurr+ causes is n always precisely ! sum ( ! effects ( ^? causes :5 sep>ate1 nor ev5 always an effect ( ! same k9d ) !m4 ,rev]t+ to ! di/9ction :i* occupies s prom95t a place 9 ! !ory ( induction2 ! laws ( ! ph5om5a ( m9d are sometimes analog\s to me*anical1 b sometimes also to *emical laws4 ,:5 _m impressions or ideas are op]at+ 9 ! m9d toge!r1 !re sometimes takes place a process1 ( a simil> k9d to *emical comb9ation4 ,:5 impressions h be5 s (t5 exp]i5c$ 9 conjunction1 t ea* ( !m calls up readily & in/antane\sly ! ideas ( ! :ole gr\p1 ^? ideas sometimes melt & coalesce into "o ano!r1 & appe> n sev]al ideas1 b "o2 9 ! same mann] z1 :5 ! sev5 prismatic col\rs are pres5t$ to ! eye 9 rapid succession1 ! s5sation produc$ is t ( :ite4 ,b z 9 ?is la/ case x is correct to say t ! sev5 col\rs :5 !y rapidly foll[ "o ano!r g5]ate :ite1 b n t !y actually are :ite2 s x appe>s to me t ! ,complex ,idea1 =m$ by ! bl5d+ toge!r ( sev]al simpl] ones1 %\ld1 :5 x really appe>s simple1 7t is1 :5 ! sep>ate elem5ts are n consci\sly di/+ui%able 9 x17 be said to result f1 or be g5]at$ by1 ! simple ideas1 n to consi/ ( !m4 ,our idea ( an orange really consi/s ( ! simple ideas ( a c]ta9 col\r1 a c]ta9 =m1 a c]ta9 ta/e & smell1 c41 because we c1 by int]rogat+ our consci\sness1 p]ceive all ^! elem5ts 9 ! idea4 ,b we _c p]ceive1 9 s app>5tly simple a feel+ z our p]ception ( ! %ape ( an object by ! eye1 all t multitude ( ideas d]iv$ f o!r s5ses1 )\t :i* x is well asc]ta9$ t no su* visual p]ception w\ld ev] h _h exi/5ce2 nor1 9 our idea ( ,ext5sion1 c we discov] ^? elem5t>y ideas ( resi/ance1 d]iv$ f our muscul> frame1 9 :i* x has be5 conclusively %[n t ! idea orig9ates4 ,^! !re=e are cases ( m5tal *emi/ry3 9 :i* x is prop] to say t ! simple ideas g5]ate1 r ?an t !y compose1 ! complex ones4 ,) respect to all ! o!r con/itu5ts ( ! m9d1 its beliefs1 its ab/rus] conceptions1 its s5tim5ts1 emotions1 & volitions2 !re are "s 7among :om are ,h>tley1 & ! au?or ( ! ,analysis7 :o ?9k t ! :ole ( ^! are g5]at$ f simple ideas ( s5sation1 by a *emi/ry simil> to t :i* we h j exemplifi$4 ,^! philosoph]s h made out a great "p ( _! case1 b ,i am n satisfi$ t !y h e/abli%$ ! :ole ( x4 ,!y h %[n t !re is su* a ?+ z m5tal *emi/ry2 t ! het]og5e\s nature ( a feel+ ,a1 consid]$ 9 relation to ,b & ,c1 is no conclusive argum5t aga9/ its be+ g5]at$ f ,b & ,c4 ,hav+ prov$ ?is1 !y proce$ to %[1 t :]e ,a is f\nd1 ,b & ,c 7 or may h be5 pres5t1 & :y !re=e1 !y ask1 %\ld n ,a h be5 g5]at$ f ,b & ,c8 ,b ev5 if ?is evid5ce 7 c>ri$ to ! highe/ degree ( complet5ess :i* x admits (2 if x 7 %[n 7:i* hi!rto x has n1 9 all cases1 be57 t c]ta9 gr\ps ( associat$ ideas n only might h be51 b actually 71 pres5t :5ev] ! m recondite m5tal feel+ 0 exp]i5c$2 ?is w\ld am\nt only to ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 & c\ld n prove causation until confirm$ by ! m conclusive evid5ce ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,if ! "q be :e!r ,belief is a m]e case ( close association ( ideas1 x w\ld be necess>y to exam9e exp]im5tally if x be true t any ideas :atev]1 provid$ !y are associat$ ) ! requir$ degree ( clos5ess1 give rise to belief4 ,if ! inquiry be into ! orig9 ( moral feel+s1 ! feel+ = example ( moral reprobation1 x is necess>y to comp>e all ! v>ieties ( actions or /ates ( m9d :i* are ev] morally disapprov$1 & see :e!r 9 all ^! cases x c be %[n1 or reasonably surmis$1 t ! action or /ate ( m9d _h become connect$ by association1 9 ! disapprov+ m9d1 ) "s p>ticul> class ( hateful or disgu/+ ideas2 & ! me?od employ$ is1 ?us f>1 t ( ,agreem5t4 ,b ?is is n en\gh4 ,suppos+ ?is prov$1 we mu/ try fur!r by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 :e!r ?is p>ticul> k9d ( hateful or disgu/+ ideas1 :5 x becomes associat$ ) an action previ\sly indiff]5t1 w r5d] t action a subject ( moral disapproval4 ,if ?is "q c be answ]$ 9 ! affirmative1 x is %[n to be a law ( ! human m9d1 t an association ( t p>ticul> description is ! g5]at+ cause ( moral reprobation4 ,t all ?is is ! case has be5 r5d]$ extremely probable1 b ! exp]im5ts h n be5 tri$ ) ! degree ( precision necess>y = a complete & absolutely conclusive induction4#d ,x is fur!r to be rememb]$1 t ev5 if all :i* ?is !ory ( m5tal ph5om5a cont5ds = c\ld be prov$1 we %\ld n be ! m enabl$ to resolve ! laws ( ! m complex feel+s into ^? ( ! simpl] ones4 ,! g5]ation ( "o class ( m5tal ph5om5a f ano!r1 :5ev] x c be made out1 is a highly int]e/+ fact 9 psy*ological *emi/ry2 b x no m sup]s$es ! necessity ( an exp]im5tal /udy ( ! g5]at$ ph5om5on1 ?an a k ( ! prop]ties ( oxyg5 & sulphur enables u to d$uce ^? ( sulphuric acid )\t specific obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,:atev]1 !re=e1 may be ! f9al issue ( ! attempt to acc\nt = ! orig9 ( our judgm5ts1 our desires1 or our volitions1 f simpl] m5tal ph5om5a1 x is n ! less imp]ative to asc]ta9 ! sequ5ces ( ! complex ph5om5a !mselves1 by special /udy 9 con=mity to ! canons ( ,induction4 ,?us1 9 respect to ,belief1 psy*ologi/s w always h to inquire1 :at beliefs we h by direct consci\sness1 & accord+ to :at laws "o belief produces ano!r2 :at are ! laws1 9 virtue ( :i* "o ?+ is recognis$ by ! m9d1 ei!r rightly or errone\sly1 z evid5ce ( ano!r ?+4 ,9 reg>d to ,desire1 !y w h to exam9e :at objects we desire naturally1 & by :at causes we are made to desire ?+s orig9ally indiff]5t1 or ev5 disagreeable to u2 & s =?4 ,x may be rem>k$1 t ! g5]al laws ( association prevail among ^! m intricate /ates ( m9d1 9 ! same mann] z among ! simpl] ones4 ,a desire1 an emotion1 an idea ( ! high] ord] ( ab/raction1 ev5 our judgm5ts & volitions :5 !y h become habitual1 are call$ up by association1 accord+ to precisely ! same laws z our simple ideas4 #d4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ^! inquiries x w be natural & necess>y to exam9e1 h[ f> ! production ( "o /ate ( m9d by ano!r is influ5c$ by any assignable /ate ( body4 ,! commone/ obs]vation %[s t diff]5t m9ds are susceptible 9 v diff]5t degrees1 to ! action ( ! same psy*ological causes4 ,! idea1 = example1 ( a giv5 desirable object1 w excite 9 diff]5t m9ds v diff]5t degrees ( int5sity ( desire4 ,! same subject ( m$itation1 pres5t$ to diff]5t m9ds1 w excite 9 !m v unequal degrees ( intellectual action4 ,^! diff]5ces ( m5tal susceptibility 9 diff]5t individuals may be1 fir/1 orig9al & ultimate facts1 or1 secondly1 !y may be consequ5ces ( ! previ\s m5tal hi/ory ( ^? individuals1 or ?irdly & la/ly1 !y may dep5d on v>ieties ( physical organization4 ,t ! previ\s m5tal hi/ory ( ! individuals mu/ h "s %>e 9 produc+ or 9 modify+ ! :ole ( _! m5tal "*1 is an inevitable consequ5ce ( ! laws ( m9d2 b t diff]5ces ( bodily /ructure also co-op]ate1 is ! op9ion ( all physiologi/s1 confirm$ by common exp]i5ce4 ,x is to be regrett$ t hi!rto ?is exp]i5ce1 be+ accept$ 9 ! gross1 )\t due analysis1 has be5 made ! gr\ndwork ( empirical g5]alizations mo/ detrim5tal to ! progress ( real k4 ,x is c]ta9 t ! natural diff]5ces :i* really exi/ 9 ! m5tal pr$ispositions or susceptibilities ( diff]5t p]sons1 are (t5 n unconnect$ ) div]sities 9 _! organic con/itution4 ,b x does n !re=e foll[ t ^! organic diff]5ces mu/ 9 all cases influ5ce ! m5tal ph5om5a directly & imm$iately4 ,!y (t5 affect !m ?r\gh ! m$ium ( _! psy*ological causes4 ,= example1 ! idea ( "s p>ticul> pleasure may excite 9 diff]5t p]sons1 ev5 indep5d5tly ( habit or education1 v diff]5t /r5g?s ( desire1 & ?is may be ! effect ( _! diff]5t degrees or k9ds ( n]v\s susceptibility2 b ^! organic diff]5ces1 we mu/ rememb]1 w r5d] ! pleasurable s5sation itself m int5se 9 "o ( ^! p]sons ?an 9 ! o!r2 s t ! idea ( ! pleasure w also be an int5s] feel+1 & w1 by ! op]ation ( m]e m5tal laws1 excite an int5s] desire1 )\t its be+ necess>y to suppose t ! desire itself is directly influ5c$ by ! physical peculi>ity4 ,z 9 ?is1 s 9 _m cases1 su* diff]5ces 9 ! k9d or 9 ! int5sity ( ! physical s5sations z mu/ necess>ily result f diff]5ces ( bodily organization1 w ( !mselves acc\nt = _m diff]5ces n only 9 ! degree1 b ev5 9 ! k9d1 ( ! o!r m5tal ph5om5a4 ,s true is ?is1 t ev5 diff]5t qualities ( m9d1 diff]5t types ( m5tal "*1 w naturally be produc$ by m]e diff]5ces ( int5sity 9 ! s5sations g5]ally3 z is well po9t$ out 9 an able essay on ,dr4 ,prie/ley1 m5tion$ 9 a =m] *apt]3-- ,! s5sations :i* =m ! elem5ts ( all k are receiv$ ei!r simultane\sly or successively2 :5 sev]al are receiv$ simultane\sly1 z ! smell1 ! ta/e1 ! col\r1 ! =m1 c4 ( a fruit1 _! association toge!r con/itutes our idea ( an object2 :5 receiv$ successively1 _! association makes up ! idea ( an ev5t4 ,any?+1 !n1 :i* fav\rs ! associations ( syn*ron\s ideas1 w t5d to produce a k ( objects1 a p]ception ( qualities2 :ile any?+ :i* fav\rs association 9 ! successive ord]1 w t5d to produce a k ( ev5ts1 ( ! ord] ( occurr5ces1 & ( ! connexion ( cause & effect3 9 o!r words1 9 ! "o case a p]ceptive m9d1 ) a discrim9ate feel+ ( ! pleasurable & pa9ful prop]ties ( ?+s1 a s5se ( ! gr& & ! beautiful1 w be ! result3 9 ! o!r1 a m9d att5tive to ! movem5ts & ph5om5a1 a ratioc9ative & philosophic intellect4 ,n[ x is an ackn[l$g$ pr9ciple1 t all s5sations exp]i5c$ dur+ ! pres5ce ( any vivid impression1 become /rongly associat$ ) x1 & ) ea* o!r2 & does x n foll[1 t ! syn*ron\s feel+s ( a s5sitive con/itution1 7i4e4 ! "o :i* has vivid impressions17 w be m intimately bl5d$ ?an 9 a diff]5tly =m$ m9d8 ,if ?is sugge/ion has any f\ndation 9 tru?1 x leads to an inf]5ce n unimportant2 t :]e nature has end[$ an individual ) great orig9al susceptibility1 he w probably be di/+ui%$ by fondness = natural hi/ory1 a reli% = ! beautiful & great1 & moral en?usiasm2 :]e !re is b a m$iocrity ( s5sibility1 a love ( sci5ce1 ( ab/ract tru?1 ) a defici5cy ( ta/e & ( f]v\r1 is likely to be ! result4 ,we see f ?is example1 t :5 ! g5]al laws ( m9d are m accurately kn[n1 & above all1 m skilfully appli$ to ! detail$ explanation ( m5tal peculi>ities1 !y w acc\nt = _m m ( ^? peculi>ities ?an is ord9>ily suppos$4 ,un=tunately ! reaction ( ! la/ & pres5t g5]ation aga9/ ! philosophy ( ! eighte5? c5tury has produc$ a v g5]al neglect ( ?is great dep>tm5t ( analytical inquiry2 ( :i*1 consequ5tly1 ! rec5t progress has be5 by no means proportional to its e>ly promise4 ,! majority ( ^? :o speculate on human nature1 pref] dogmatically to assume t ! m5tal diff]5ces :i* !y p]ceive1 or ?9k !y p]ceive1 among human be+s1 are ultimate facts1 incapable ( be+ ei!r expla9$ or alt]$1 r ?an take ! tr\ble ( fitt+ !mselves1 by ! requisite processes ( ?\ght1 = ref]r+ ^? m5tal diff]5ces to ! outw>d causes by :i* !y are = ! mo/ "p produc$1 & on ! removal ( :i* !y w\ld cease to exi/4 ,! ,g]man s*ool ( metaphysical speculation1 :i* has n yet lo/ its tempor>y pr$om9ance 9 ,european ?\ght1 has _h ?is among _m o!r injuri\s influ5ces3 & at ! opposite extreme ( ! psy*ological scale1 no writ]1 ei!r ( e>ly or ( rec5t date1 is *>geable 9 a high] degree ) ?is ab]ration f ! true sci5tific _s1 ?an ,m4 ,comte4 ,x is c]ta9 t1 9 human be+s at lea/1 diff]5ces 9 education & 9 outw>d circum/ances are capable ( af=d+ an adequate explanation ( by f> ! greate/ portion ( "*2 & t ! rema9d] may be 9 great "p acc\nt$ = by physical diff]5ces 9 ! s5sations produc$ 9 diff]5t individuals by ! same ext]nal or int]nal cause4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 "s m5tal facts :i* d n seem to admit ( ^! modes ( explanation4 ,su*1 to take ! /ronge/ case1 are ! v>i\s in/9cts ( animals1 & ! portion ( human nature :i* corresponds to ^? in/9cts4 ,no mode has be5 sugge/$1 ev5 by way ( hypo!sis1 9 :i* ^! c receive any satisfactory1 or ev5 plausible1 explanation f psy*ological causes alone2 & !re is great reason to ?9k t !y h z positive1 & ev5 z direct & imm$iate1 a connexion ) physical conditions ( ! bra9 & n]ves1 z any ( our m]e s5sations h4 ,a supposition :i* 7x is p]haps n sup]flu\s to add7 9 no way conflicts ) ! indisputable fact1 t ^! in/9cts may be modifi$ to any ext5t1 or entirely conqu]$1 9 human be+s at lea/1 by o!r m5tal influ5ces1 & by education4 ,:e!r organic causes ex]cise a direct influ5ce ov] any o!r classes ( m5tal ph5om5a1 is hi!rto z f> f be+ asc]ta9$1 z is ! precise nature ( ! organic conditions ev5 9 ! case ( in/9cts4 ,! physiology1 h[ev]1 ( ! bra9 & n]v\s sy/em is 9 a /ate ( su* rapid advance1 & is cont9ually br++ =? su* new & int]e/+ results1 t if !re be really a connexion betwe5 m5tal peculi>ities & any v>ieties cognizable by our s5ses 9 ! /ructure ( ! c]ebral & n]v\s app>atus1 ! nature ( t connexion is n[ 9 a fair way ( be+ f\nd out4 ,! late/ discov]ies 9 c]ebral physiology appe> to h prov$1 t any su* connexion :i* may exi/ is ( a radically diff]5t "* f t cont5d$ = by ,gall & 8 foll[]s1 & t :atev] may h]eaft] be f\nd to be ! true !ory ( ! subject1 phr5ology at lea/ is unt5able4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,( ,,e?ology1 ,,or ,,! ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,! ,,=mation ,,( ,,"*4 #a4 ,! laws ( m9d z *>act]iz$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 compose ! univ]sal or ab/ract portion ( ! philosophy ( human nature2 & all ! tru?s ( common exp]i5ce1 con/itut+ a practical k ( mank9d1 mu/1 to ! ext5t to :i* !y are tru?s1 be results or consequ5ces ( ^!4 ,su* famili> maxims1 :5 collect$ po/]iori f obs]vation ( life1 occupy among ! tru?s ( ! sci5ce ! place ( :at1 9 our analysis ( ,induction1 h s (t5 be5 spok5 ( "u ! title ( ,empirical ,laws4 ,an ,empirical ,law 7x w be rememb]$7 is an uni=mity1 :e!r ( succession or ( coexi/5ce1 :i* holds true 9 all in/ances )9 our limits ( obs]vation1 b is n ( a nature to af=d any assurance t x w\ld hold beyond ^? limits2 ei!r because ! consequ5t is n really ! effect ( ! antec$5t1 b =ms "p along ) x ( a *a9 ( effects1 fl[+ f prior causes n yet asc]ta9$2 or because !re is gr\nd to believe t ! sequ5ce 7?\gh a case ( causation7 is resolvable into simpl] sequ5ces1 &1 dep5d+ !re=e on a concurr5ce ( sev]al natural ag5cies1 is expos$ to an unkn[n multitude ( possibilities ( c\nt]action4 ,9 o!r words1 an empirical law is a g5]alization1 ( :i*1 n cont5t ) f9d+ x true1 we are oblig$ to ask1 :y is x true8 kn[+ t its tru? is n absolute1 b dep5d5t on "s m g5]al conditions1 & t x c only be reli$ on 9 s f> z !re is gr\nd ( assurance t ^? conditions are realiz$4 ,n[1 ! obs]vations conc]n+ human affairs collect$ f common exp]i5ce1 are precisely ( ?is nature4 ,ev5 if !y 7 univ]sally & exactly true )9 ! b\nds ( exp]i5ce1 :i* !y nev] are1 /ill !y are n ! ultimate laws ( human action2 !y are n ! pr9ciples ( human nature1 b results ( ^? pr9ciples "u ! circum/ances 9 :i* mank9d h happ5$ to be plac$4 ,:5 ! ,psalmi/ said 9 8 ha/e t all m5 are li>s1 he enunciat$ :at 9 "s ages & c\ntries is borne out by ample exp]i5ce2 b x is n a law ( man's nature to lie2 ?\gh x is "o ( ! consequ5ces ( ! laws ( human nature1 t ly+ is ne>ly univ]sal :5 c]ta9 ext]nal circum/ances exi/ univ]sally1 especially circum/ances productive ( habitual di/ru/ & fe>4 ,:5 ! "* ( ! old is ass]t$ to be cauti\s1 & ( ! "y impetu\s1 ?is1 aga91 is b an empirical law2 = x is n because ( _! y\? t ! "y are impetu\s1 nor because ( _! age t ! old are cauti\s4 ,x is *iefly1 if n :olly1 because ! old1 dur+ _! _m ye>s ( life1 h g5]ally _h mu* exp]i5ce ( its v>i\s evils1 & hav+ suff]$ or se5 o!rs suff] mu* f incauti\s exposure to !m1 h acquir$ associations fav\rable to circumspection3 :ile ! "y1 z well f ! abs5ce ( simil> exp]i5ce z f ! great] /r5g? ( ! incl9ations :i* urge !m to ent]prise1 engage !mselves 9 x m readily4 ,"h1 !n1 is ! explanation ( ! empirical law2 "h are ! conditions :i* ultimately det]m9e :e!r ! law holds good or n4 ,if an old man has n be5 (t5] ?an mo/ "y m5 9 contact ) dang] & difficulty1 he w be equally incauti\s3 if a y\? has n /rong] incl9ations ?an an old man1 he probably w be z little ent]pris+4 ,! empirical law d]ives :atev] tru? x has1 f ! causal laws ( :i* x is a consequ5ce4 ,if we "k ^? laws1 we "k :at are ! limits to ! d]ivative law3 :ile1 if we h n yet acc\nt$ = ! empirical law--if x re/ only on obs]vation--!re is no safety 9 apply+ x f> beyond ! limits ( "t1 place1 & circum/ance1 9 :i* ! obs]vations 7 made4 ,! really sci5tific tru?s1 !n1 are n ^! empirical laws1 b ! causal laws :i* expla9 !m4 ,! empirical laws ( ^? ph5om5a :i* dep5d on kn[n causes1 & ( :i* a g5]al !ory c !re=e be con/ruct$1 h1 :atev] may be _! value 9 practice1 no o!r function 9 sci5ce ?an t ( v]ify+ ! conclusions ( !ory4 ,/ill m mu/ ?is be ! case :5 mo/ ( ! empirical laws am\nt1 ev5 )9 ! limits ( obs]vation1 only to approximate g5]alizations4 #b4 ,?is h[ev] is n1 s mu* z is sometimes suppos$1 a peculi>ity ( ! sci5ces call$ moral4 ,x is only 9 ! simple/ bran*es ( sci5ce t empirical laws are ev] exactly true2 & n always 9 ^?4 ,a/ronomy1 = example1 is ! simple/ ( all ! sci5ces :i* expla91 9 ! concrete1 ! actual c\rse ( natural ev5ts4 ,! causes or =ces1 on :i* a/ronomical ph5om5a dep5d1 are few] 9 numb] ?an ^? :i* det]m9e any o!r ( ! great ph5om5a ( nature4 ,accord+ly1 z ea* effect results f ! conflict ( b few causes1 a great degree ( regul>ity & uni=mity might be expect$ to exi/ among ! effects2 & su* is really ! case3 !y h a fix$ ord]1 & return 9 cycles4 ,b propositions :i* %\ld express1 ) absolute correctness1 all ! successive positions ( a planet until ! cycle is complet$1 w\ld be ( almo/ unmanageable complexity1 & c\ld be obta9$ f !ory alone4 ,! g5]alizations :i* c be collect$ on ! subject f direct obs]vation1 ev5 su* z ,kepl]'s law1 are m]e approximations3 ! planets1 ow+ to _! p]turbations by "o ano!r1 d n move 9 exact ellipses4 ,?us ev5 9 a/ronomy1 p]fect exactness 9 ! m]e empirical laws is n to be look$ =2 mu* less1 !n1 9 m complex subjects ( inquiry4 ,! same example %[s h[ little c be inf]r$ aga9/ ! univ]sality or ev5 ! simplicity ( ! ultimate laws1 f ! impossibility ( e/abli%+ any b approximate empirical laws ( ! effects4 ,! laws ( causation accord+ to :i* a class ( ph5om5a are produc$ may be v few & simple1 & yet ! effects !mselves may be s v>i\s & complicat$ t x %all be impossible to trace any regul>ity :atev] completely ?r\gh !m4 ,= ! ph5om5a 9 "q may be ( an em95tly modifiable "*2 insomu* t innum]able circum/ances are capable ( influ5c+ ! effect1 al?\gh !y may all d x accord+ to a v small numb] ( laws4 ,suppose t all :i* passes 9 ! m9d ( man is det]m9$ by a few simple laws3 /ill1 if ^? laws be su* t !re is n "o ( ! facts surr\nd+ a human be+1 or ( ! ev5ts :i* happ5 to him1 t does n influ5ce 9 "s mode or degree 8 subsequ5t m5tal hi/ory1 & if ! circum/ances ( diff]5t human be+s are extremely diff]5t1 x w be no wond] if v few propositions c be made respect+ ! details ( _! conduct or feel+s1 :i* w be true ( all mank9d4 ,n[1 )\t decid+ :e!r ! ultimate laws ( our m5tal nature are few or _m1 x is at lea/ c]ta9 t !y are ( ! above description4 ,x is c]ta9 t our m5tal /ates1 & our m5tal capacities & susceptibilities1 are modifi$1 ei!r = a "t or p]man5tly1 by ev]y?+ :i* happ5s to u 9 life4 ,consid]+ !re=e h[ mu* ^! modify+ causes diff] 9 ! case ( any two individuals1 x w\ld be unreasonable to expect t ! empirical laws ( ! human m9d1 ! g5]alizations :i* c be made respect+ ! feel+s or actions ( mank9d )\t ref]5ce to ! causes t det]m9e !m1 %\ld be any?+ b approximate g5]alizations4 ,!y are ! common wisdom ( common life1 & z su* are invaluable2 especially z !y are mo/ly to be appli$ to cases n v dissimil> to ^? f :i* !y 7 collect$4 ,b :5 maxims ( ?is sort1 collect$ f ,engli%m51 come to be appli$ to ,fr5*m51 or :5 ^? collect$ f ! pres5t day are appli$ to pa/ or future g5]ations1 !y are apt to be v mu* at fault4 ,unless we h resolv$ ! empirical law into ! laws ( ! causes on :i* x dep5ds1 & asc]ta9$ t ^? causes ext5d to ! case :i* we h 9 view1 !re c be no reliance plac$ 9 our inf]5ces4 ,= e individual is surr\nd$ by circum/ances diff]5t f ^? ( e o!r individual2 e nation or g5]ation ( mank9d f e o!r nation or g5]ation3 & none ( ^! diff]5ces are )\t _! influ5ce 9 =m+ a diff]5t type ( "*4 ,!re is1 inde$1 also a c]ta9 g5]al resemblance2 b peculi>ities ( circum/ances are cont9ually con/itut+ exceptions ev5 to ! propositions :i* are true 9 ! great majority ( cases4 ,al?\gh1 h[ev]1 !re is sc>cely any mode ( feel+ or conduct :i* is1 9 ! absolute s5se1 common to all mank9d2 & ?\gh ! g5]alizations :i* ass]t t any giv5 v>iety ( conduct or feel+ w be f\nd univ]sally1 7h[ev] ne>ly !y may approximate to tru? )9 giv5 limits ( obs]vation17 w be consid]$ z sci5tific propositions by no "o :o is at all famili> ) sci5tific inve/igation2 yet all modes ( feel+ & conduct met ) among mank9d h causes :i* produce !m2 & 9 ! propositions :i* assign ^? causes1 w be f\nd ! explanation ( ! empirical laws1 & ! limit+ pr9ciple ( our reliance on !m4 ,human be+s d n all feel & act alike 9 ! same circum/ances2 b x is possible to det]m9e :at makes "o p]son1 9 a giv5 position1 feel or act 9 "o way1 ano!r 9 ano!r2 h[ any giv5 mode ( feel+ & conduct1 compatible ) ! g5]al laws 7physical & m5tal7 ( human nature1 has be51 or may be1 =m$4 ,9 o!r words1 mank9d h n "o univ]sal "*1 b !re exi/ univ]sal laws ( ! ,=mation ( ,"*4 ,& s9ce x is by ^! laws1 comb9$ ) ! facts ( ea* p>ticul> case1 t ! :ole ( ! ph5om5a ( human action & feel+ are produc$1 x is on ^! t e rational attempt to con/ruct ! sci5ce ( human nature 9 ! concrete1 & = practical purposes1 mu/ proce$4 #c4 ,! laws1 !n1 ( ! =mation ( "* be+ ! pr9cipal object ( sci5tific inquiry into human nature2 x rema9s to det]m9e ! me?od ( inve/igation be/ fitt$ = asc]ta9+ !m4 ,& ! logical pr9ciples accord+ to :i* ?is "q is to be decid$1 mu/ be ^? :i* preside ov] e o!r attempt to inve/igate ! laws ( v complex ph5om5a4 ,= x is evid5t t bo? ! "* ( any human be+1 & ! aggregate ( ! circum/ances by :i* t "* has be5 =m$1 are facts ( a high ord] ( complexity4 ,n[ to su* cases we h se5 t ! ,d$uctive ,me?od1 sett+ out f g5]al laws1 & v]ify+ _! consequ5ces by specific exp]i5ce1 is alone applicable4 ,! gr\nds ( ?is great logical doctr9e h =m]ly be5 /at$3 & its tru? w d]ive additional support f a brief exam9ation ( ! specialities ( ! pres5t case4 ,!re are only two modes 9 :i* laws ( nature c be asc]ta9$3 d$uctively1 & exp]im5tally3 includ+ "u ! d5om9ation ( exp]im5tal inquiry1 obs]vation z well z artificial exp]im5t4 ,are ! laws ( ! =mation ( "* susceptible ( a satisfactory inve/igation by ! me?od ( exp]im5tation8 ,evid5tly n2 because1 ev5 if we suppose unlimit$ p[] ( v>y+ ! exp]im5t1 7:i* is ab/ract$ly possible1 ?\gh no "o b an ori5tal despot has t p[]1 or if he _h1 w\ld probably be dispos$ to ex]cise x17 a /ill m ess5tial condition is want+2 ! p[] ( p]=m+ any ( ! exp]im5ts ) sci5tific accuracy4 ,! in/ances requisite = ! prosecution ( a directly exp]im5tal inquiry into ! =mation ( "*1 w\ld be a numb] ( human be+s to br+ up & educate1 f infancy to mature age4 ,& to p]=m any "o ( ^! exp]im5ts ) sci5tific propriety1 x w\ld be necess>y to "k & record e s5sation or impression receiv$ by ! "y pupil f a p]iod long be=e x c\ld speak2 includ+ its own notions respect+ ! s\rces ( all ^? s5sations & impressions4 ,x is n only impossible to d ?is completely1 b ev5 to d s mu* ( x z %\ld con/itute a tol]able approximation4 ,"o app>5tly trivial circum/ance :i* elud$ our vigilance1 might let 9 a tra9 ( impressions & associations suffici5t to vitiate ! exp]im5t z an au!ntic exhibition ( ! effects fl[+ f giv5 causes4 ,no "o :o has suffici5tly reflect$ on education is ignorant ( ?is tru?3 & :oev] has n1 w f9d x mo/ in/ructively illu/rat$ 9 ! writ+s ( ,r\sseau & ,helvetius on t great subject4 ,"u ?is impossibility ( /udy+ ! laws ( ! =mation ( "* by exp]im5ts purposely contriv$ to elucidate !m1 !re rema9s ! res\rce ( simple obs]vation4 ,b if x be impossible to asc]ta9 ! influ5c+ circum/ances ) any approa* to complet5ess ev5 :5 we h ! %ap+ ( !m ourselves1 mu* m impossible is x :5 ! cases are fur!r remov$ f our obs]vation1 & altoge!r out ( our control4 ,consid] ! difficulty ( ! v fir/ /ep--( asc]ta9+ :at actually is ! "* ( ! individual1 9 ea* p>ticul> case t we exam9e4 ,!re is h>dly any p]son liv+1 conc]n+ "s ess5tial "p ( ^: "* !re are n diff]5ces ( op9ion ev5 among 8 intimate acqua9tances3 & a s+le action1 or conduct cont9u$ only = a %ort "t1 goes a v little way t[>ds asc]ta9+ x4 ,we c only make our obs]vations 9 a r\gh way1 & en masse2 n attempt+ to asc]ta9 completely 9 any giv5 in/ance1 :at "* has be5 =m$1 & /ill less by :at causes2 b only obs]v+ 9 :at /ate ( previ\s circum/ances x is f\nd t c]ta9 m>k$ m5tal qualities or defici5cies (t5e/ exi/4 ,^! conclusions1 besides t !y are m]e approximate g5]alizations1 des]ve no reliance ev5 z su*1 unless ! in/ances are suffici5tly num]\s to elim9ate n only *ance1 b e assignable circum/ance 9 :i* a numb] ( ! cases exam9$ may happ5 to h resembl$ "o ano!r4 ,s num]\s & v>i\s1 too1 are ! circum/ances :i* =m individual "*1 t ! consequ5ce ( any p>ticul> comb9ation is h>dly ev] "s def9ite & /rongly m>k$ "*1 always f\nd :]e t comb9ation exi/s1 & n o!rwise4 ,:at is obta9$1 ev5 aft] ! mo/ ext5sive & accurate obs]vation1 is m]ely a comp>ative result2 z = example1 t 9 a giv5 numb] ( ,fr5*m51 tak5 indiscrim9ately1 !re w be f\nd m p]sons ( a p>ticul> m5tal t5d5cy1 & few] ( ! contr>y t5d5cy1 ?an among an equal numb] ( ,italians or ,engli%1 simil>ly tak52 or ?us3 ( a hundr$ ,fr5*m5 & an equal numb] ( ,engli%m51 fairly select$1 & arrang$ accord+ to ! degree 9 :i* !y possess a p>ticul> m5tal *>act]i/ic1 ea* numb]1 #a1 #b1 #c1 c41 ( ! "o s]ies1 w be f\nd to possess m ( t *>act]i/ic ?an ! correspond+ numb] ( ! o!r4 ,s9ce1 !re=e1 ! comp>ison is n "o ( k9ds1 b ( ratios & degrees2 & s9ce 9 proportion z ! diff]5ces are slight1 x requires a great] numb] ( in/ances to elim9ate *ance2 x _c (t5 happ5 to any "o to "k a suffici5t numb] ( cases ) ! accuracy requisite = mak+ ! sort ( comp>ison la/ m5tion$2 less ?an :i*1 h[ev]1 w\ld n con/itute a real induction4 ,accord+ly !re is h>dly "o curr5t op9ion respect+ ! *>act]s ( nations1 classes1 or descriptions ( p]sons1 :i* is univ]sally ackn[l$g$ z indisputable4#e ,& f9ally1 if we c\ld ev5 obta9 by way ( exp]im5t a mu* m satisfactory assurance ( ^! g5]alizations ?an is really possible1 !y w\ld /ill be only empirical laws4 ,!y w\ld %[1 inde$1 t !re 0 "s connexion betwe5 ! type ( "* =m$1 & ! circum/ances exi/+ 9 ! case2 b n :at ! precise connexion 01 nor to :i* ( ! peculi>ities ( ^? circum/ances ! effect 0 really ow+4 ,!y c\ld only1 !re=e1 be receiv$ z results ( causation1 requir+ to be resolv$ into ! g5]al laws ( ! causes3 until ! det]m9ation ( :i*1 we c\ld n judge )9 :at limits ! d]ivative laws might s]ve z presumptions 9 cases yet unkn[n1 or ev5 be dep5d$ on z p]man5t 9 ! v cases f :i* !y 7 collect$4 ,! ,fr5* p _h1 or 7 suppos$ to h1 a c]ta9 national "*3 b !y drive out _! royal family & ari/ocracy1 alt] _! in/itutions1 pass ?r\gh a s]ies ( extraord9>y ev5ts = half a c5tury1 & at ! end ( t "t are f\nd to be1 9 _m respects1 greatly alt]$4 ,a long li/ ( m5tal & moral diff]5ces are obs]v$1 or suppos$1 to exi/ betwe5 m5 & wom53 b at "s future1 &1 x may be hop$1 n di/ant p]iod1 equal fre$om & an equally indep5d5t social position come to be possess$ by bo?1 & _! diff]5ces ( "* are ei!r remov$ or totally alt]$4 ,b if ! diff]5ces :i* we ?9k we obs]ve betwe5 ,fr5* & ,engli%1 or betwe5 m5 & wom51 c be connect$ ) m g5]al laws2 if !y be su* z might be expect$ to be produc$ by ! diff]5ces ( gov]nm5t1 =m] cu/oms1 & physical peculi>ities 9 ! two nations1 & by ! div]sities ( education1 occupations1 p]sonal indep5d5ce1 & social privileges1 & :atev] orig9al diff]5ces !re may be 9 bodily /r5g? & n]v\s s5sibility1 betwe5 ! two sexes2 !n1 inde$1 ! co9cid5ce ( ! two k9ds ( evid5ce ju/ifies u 9 believ+ t we h bo? reason$ rightly & obs]v$ rightly4 ,our obs]vation1 ?\gh n suffici5t z pro(1 is ample z v]ification4 ,& hav+ asc]ta9$ n only ! empirical laws1 b ! causes1 ( ! peculi>ities1 we ne$ be "u no difficulty 9 judg+ h[ f> !y may be expect$ to be p]man5t1 or by :at circum/ances !y w\ld be modifi$ or de/roy$4 #d4 ,s9ce1 !n1 x is impossible to obta9 really accurate propositions respect+ ! =mation ( "* f obs]vation & exp]im5t alone1 we are driv5 p]=ce to t :i*1 ev5 if x _h n be5 ! indisp5sable1 w\ld h be5 ! mo/ p]fect1 mode ( inve/igation1 & :i* x is "o ( ! pr9cipal aims ( philosophy to ext5d2 namely1 t :i* tries its exp]im5ts n on ! complex facts1 b on ! simple ones ( :i* !y are comp\nd$2 & aft] asc]ta9+ ! laws ( ! causes1 ! composition ( :i* gives rise to ! complex ph5om5a1 !n consid]s :e!r ^! w n expla9 & acc\nt = ! approximate g5]alizations :i* h be5 fram$ empirically respect+ ! sequ5ces ( ^? complex ph5om5a4 ,! laws ( ! =mation ( "* are1 9 %ort1 d]ivative laws1 result+ f ! g5]al laws ( m9d2 & are to be obta9$ by d$uc+ !m f ^? g5]al laws2 by suppos+ any giv5 set ( circum/ances1 & !n consid]+ :at1 accord+ to ! laws ( m9d1 w be ! influ5ce ( ^? circum/ances on ! =mation ( "*4 ,a sci5ce is ?us =m$1 to :i* ,i w\ld propose to give ! "n ( ,e?ology1 or ! ,sci5ce ( ,"*2 f ,greek3 ?os1 a ^w m ne>ly correspond+ to ! t]m "* z ,i "h use x1 ?an any o!r ^w 9 ! same language4 ,! "n is p]haps etymologically applicable to ! entire sci5ce ( our m5tal & moral nature2 b if1 z is usual & conv5i5t1 we employ ! "n ,psy*ology = ! sci5ce ( ! elem5t>y laws ( m9d1 ,e?ology w s]ve = ! ult]ior sci5ce :i* det]m9es ! k9d ( "* produc$1 9 con=mity to ^? g5]al laws1 by any set ( circum/ances1 physical & moral4 ,accord+ to ?is def9ition1 ,e?ology is ! sci5ce :i* corresponds to ! art ( education2 9 ! wide/ s5se ( ! t]m1 includ+ ! =mation ( national or collective "* z well z individual4 ,x w\ld inde$ be va9 to expect 7h[ev] completely ! laws ( ! =mation ( "* might be asc]ta9$7 t we c\ld "k s accurately ! circum/ances ( any giv5 case z to be able positively to pr$ict ! "* t w\ld be produc$ 9 t case4 ,b we mu/ rememb] t a degree ( k f> %ort ( ! p[] ( actual pr$iction1 is (t5 ( mu* practical value4 ,!re may be great p[] ( influ5c+ ph5om5a1 ) a v imp]fect k ( ! causes by :i* !y are 9 any giv5 in/ance det]m9$4 ,x is en\gh t we "k t c]ta9 means h a t5d5cy to produce a giv5 effect1 & t o!rs h a t5d5cy to fru/rate x4 ,:5 ! circum/ances ( an individual or ( a nation are 9 any consid]able degree "u our control1 we may1 by our k ( t5d5cies1 be enabl$ to %ape ^? circum/ances 9 a mann] mu* m fav\rable to ! ends we desire1 ?an ! %ape :i* !y w\ld ( !mselves assume4 ,?is is ! limit ( our p[]2 b )9 ?is limit ! p[] is a mo/ important "o4 ,?is sci5ce ( ,e?ology may be call$ ! ,exact ,sci5ce ( ,human ,nature2 = its tru?s are n1 l ! empirical laws :i* dep5d on !m1 approximate g5]alizations1 b real laws4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 7z 9 all cases ( complex ph5om5a7 necess>y to ! exactness ( ! propositions1 t !y %\ld be hypo!tical only1 & affirm t5d5cies1 n facts4 ,!y mu/ n ass]t t some?+ w always1 or c]ta9ly1 happ52 b only t su* & su* w be ! effect ( a giv5 cause1 s f> z x op]ates unc\nt]act$4 ,x is a sci5tific proposition1 t bodily /r5g? t5ds to make m5 c\rage\s2 n t x always makes !m s3 t an int]e/ on "o side ( a "q t5ds to bias ! judgm5t2 n t x inv>iably does s3 t exp]i5ce t5ds to give wisdom2 n t su* is always its effect4 ,^! propositions1 be+ ass]tive only ( t5d5cies1 are n ! less univ]sally true because ! t5d5cies may be fru/rat$4 #e4 ,:ile on ! "o h& ,psy*ology is altoge!r1 or pr9cipally1 a sci5ce ( obs]vation & exp]im5t1 ,e?ology1 z ,i h conceiv$ x1 is1 z ,i h already rem>k$1 altoge!r d$uctive4 ,! "o asc]ta9s ! simple laws ( ,m9d 9 g5]al1 ! o!r traces _! op]ation 9 complex comb9ations ( circum/ances4 ,e?ology /&s to ,psy*ology 9 a relation v simil> to t 9 :i* ! v>i\s bran*es ( natural philosophy /& to me*anics4 ,! pr9ciples ( ,e?ology are prop]ly ! middle pr9ciples1 ! axiomata m$ia 7z ,bacon w\ld h said7 ( ! sci5ce ( m9d3 z di/+ui%$1 on ! "o h& f ! empirical laws result+ f simple obs]vation1 & on ! o!r f ! highe/ g5]alizations4 ,& ?is seems a suitable place = a logical rem>k1 :i*1 ?\gh ( g5]al application1 is ( peculi> importance 9 ref]5ce to ! pres5t subject4 ,bacon has judici\sly obs]v$ t ! axiomata m$ia ( e sci5ce pr9cipally con/itute its value4 ,! l[e/ g5]alizations1 until expla9$ by & resolv$ into ! middle pr9ciples ( :i* !y are ! consequ5ces1 h only ! imp]fect accuracy ( empirical laws2 :ile ! mo/ g5]al laws are too g5]al1 & include too few circum/ances1 to give suffici5t indication ( :at happ5s 9 individual cases1 :]e ! circum/ances are almo/ always imm5sely num]\s4 ,9 ! importance1 !re=e1 :i* ,bacon assigns1 9 e sci5ce1 to ! middle pr9ciples1 x is impossible n to agree ) him4 ,b ,i conceive him to h be5 radically wrong 9 8 doctr9e respect+ ! mode 9 :i* ^! axiomata m$ia %\ld be arriv$ at2 ?\gh !re is no "o proposition laid d[n 9 8 works = :i* he has be5 m extravagantly eulogiz$4 ,he enunciates z an univ]sal rule1 t induction %\ld proce$ f ! l[e/ to ! middle pr9ciples1 & f ^? to ! highe/1 nev] rev]s+ t ord]1 & consequ5tly leav+ no room = ! discov]y ( new pr9ciples by way ( d$uction at all4 ,x is n to be conceiv$ t a man ( 8 sagacity c\ld h fall5 into ?is mi/ake1 if !re _h exi/$ 9 8 "t1 among ! sci5ces :i* treat ( successive ph5om5a1 "o s+le in/ance ( a d$uctive sci5ce1 su* z me*anics1 a/ronomy1 optics1 ac\/ics1 c4 n[ are4 ,9 ^? sci5ces x is evid5t t ! high] & middle pr9ciples are by no means d]iv$ f ! l[e/1 b ! rev]se4 ,9 "s ( !m ! v highe/ g5]alizations 7 ^? e>lie/ asc]ta9$ ) any sci5tific exactness2 z1 = example 79 me*anics71 ! laws ( motion4 ,^? g5]al laws _h n inde$ at fir/ ! ackn[l$g$ univ]sality :i* !y acquir$ aft] hav+ be5 successfully employ$ to expla9 _m classes ( ph5om5a to :i* !y 7 n orig9ally se5 to be applicable2 z :5 ! laws ( motion 7 employ$1 9 conjunction ) o!r laws1 to expla9 d$uctively ! cele/ial ph5om5a4 ,/ill1 ! fact rema9s1 t ! propositions :i* 7 aft]w>ds recognis$ z ! mo/ g5]al tru?s ( ! sci5ce1 71 ( all its accurate g5]alizations1 ^? e>lie/ arriv$ at4 ,bacon's greate/ m]it _c !re=e consi/1 z we are s (t5 told t x did1 9 explod+ ! vici\s me?od pursu$ by ! anci5ts ( fly+ to ! highe/ g5]alizations fir/1 & d$uc+ ! middle pr9ciples f !m2 s9ce ?is is nei!r a vici\s nor an explod$1 b ! univ]sally accr$it$ me?od ( mod]n sci5ce1 & t to :i* x owes its greate/ triumphs4 ,! error ( anci5t speculation did n consi/ 9 mak+ ! l>ge/ g5]alizations fir/1 b 9 mak+ !m )\t ! aid or w>rant ( rigor\s inductive me?ods1 & apply+ !m d$uctively )\t ! ne$ful use ( t important "p ( ! ,d$uctive ,me?od t]m$ ,v]ification4 ,! ord] 9 :i* tru?s ( ! v>i\s degrees ( g5]ality %\ld be asc]ta9$1 _c1 ,i appreh5d1 be prescrib$ by any unb5d+ rule4 ,i "k ( no maxim :i* c be laid d[n on ! subject1 b to obta9 ^? fir/1 9 respect to :i* ! conditions ( a real induction c be fir/ & mo/ completely realiz$4 ,n[1 :]ev] our means ( inve/igation c rea* causes1 )\t /opp+ at ! empirical laws ( ! effects1 ! simple/ cases1 be+ ^? 9 :i* fewe/ causes are simultane\sly conc]n$1 w be mo/ am5able to ! inductive process2 & ^! are ! cases :i* elicit laws ( ! greate/ compreh5siv5ess4 ,9 e sci5ce1 !re=e1 :i* has rea*$ ! /age at :i* x becomes a sci5ce ( causes1 x w be usual z well z desirable fir/ to obta9 ! highe/ g5]alizations1 & !n d$uce ! m special ones f !m4 ,nor c ,i discov] any f\ndation = ! ,baconian maxim1 s mu* extoll$ by subsequ5t writ]s1 except ?is3 ,t be=e we attempt to expla9 d$uctively f m g5]al laws any new class ( ph5om5a1 x is desirable to h gone z f> z is practicable 9 asc]ta9+ ! empirical laws ( ^? ph5om5a2 s z to comp>e ! results ( d$uction1 n ) "o individual in/ance aft] ano!r1 b ) g5]al propositions expressive ( ! po9ts ( agreem5t :i* h be5 f\nd among _m in/ances4 ,= if ,newton _h be5 oblig$ to v]ify ! !ory ( gravitation1 n by d$uc+ f x ,kepl]'s laws1 b by d$uc+ all ! obs]v$ planet>y positions :i* _h s]v$ ,kepl] to e/abli% ^? laws1 ! ,newtonian !ory w\ld probably nev] h em]g$ f ! /ate ( an hypo!sis4#f ,! applicability ( ^! rem>ks to ! special case "u consid]ation1 _c admit ( "q4 ,! sci5ce ( ! =mation ( "* is a sci5ce ( causes4 ,! subject is "o to :i* ^? among ! canons ( induction1 by :i* laws ( causation are asc]ta9$1 c be rigor\sly appli$4 ,x is1 !re=e1 bo? natural & advisable to asc]ta9 ! simple/1 :i* are necess>ily ! mo/ g5]al1 laws ( causation fir/1 & to d$uce ! middle pr9ciples f !m4 ,9 o!r words1 ,e?ology1 ! d$uctive sci5ce1 is a sy/em ( coroll>ies f ,psy*ology1 ! exp]im5tal sci5ce4 #f4 ,( ^!1 ! e>li] alone has be51 z yet1 really conceiv$ or /udi$ z a sci5ce2 ! o!r1 ,e?ology1 is /ill to be creat$4 ,b its creation has at l5g? become practicable4 ,! empirical laws1 de/9$ to v]ify its d$uctions1 h be5 =m$ 9 abundance by e successive age ( humanity2 & ! premises = ! d$uctions are n[ suffici5tly complete4 ,except+ ! degree ( unc]ta9ty :i* /ill exi/s z to ! ext5t ( ! natural diff]5ces ( individual m9ds1 & ! physical circum/ances on :i* ^! may be dep5d5t1 7consid]ations :i* are ( second>y importance :5 we are consid]+ mank9d 9 ! av]age1 or en masse17 ,i believe mo/ compet5t judges w agree t ! g5]al laws ( ! diff]5t con/itu5t elem5ts ( human nature are ev5 n[ suffici5tly und]/ood1 to r5d] x possible = a compet5t ?9k] to d$uce f ^? laws ) a consid]able approa* to c]ta9ty1 ! p>ticul> type ( "* :i* w\ld be =m$1 9 mank9d g5]ally1 by any assum$ set ( circum/ances4 ,a sci5ce ( ,e?ology1 f\nd$ on ! laws ( ,psy*ology1 is !re=e possible2 ?\gh little has yet be5 done1 & t little n at all sy/ematically1 t[>ds =m+ x4 ,! progress ( ?is important b mo/ imp]fect sci5ce w dep5d on a d\ble process3 fir/1 t ( d$uc+ !oretically ! e?ological consequ5ces ( p>ticul> circum/ances ( position1 & comp>+ !m ) ! recognis$ results ( common exp]i5ce2 & secondly1 ! rev]se op]ation2 increas$ /udy ( ! v>i\s types ( human nature t are to be f\nd 9 ! _w2 conduct$ by p]sons n only capable ( analys+ & record+ ! circum/ances 9 :i* ^! types sev]ally prevail1 b also suffici5tly acqua9t$ ) psy*ological laws1 to be able to expla9 & acc\nt = ! *>act]i/ics ( ! type1 by ! peculi>ities ( ! circum/ances3 ! residuum alone1 :5 !re proves to be any1 be+ set d[n to ! acc\nt ( cong5ital pr$ispositions4 ,= ! exp]im5tal or po/]iori "p ( ?is process1 ! mat]ials are cont9ually accumulat+ by ! obs]vation ( mank9d4 ,s f> z ?\ght is conc]n$1 ! great problem ( ,e?ology is to d$uce ! requisite middle pr9ciples f ! g5]al laws ( ,psy*ology4 ,! subject to be /udi$ is1 ! orig9 & s\rces ( all ^? qualities 9 human be+s :i* are int]e/+ to u1 ei!r z facts to be produc$1 to be avoid$1 or m]ely to be und]/ood3 & ! object is1 to det]m9e1 f ! g5]al laws ( m9d1 comb9$ ) ! g5]al position ( our species 9 ! univ]se1 :at actual or possible comb9ations ( circum/ances are capable ( promot+ or ( prev5t+ ! production ( ^? qualities4 ,a sci5ce :i* possesses middle pr9ciples ( ?is k9d1 arrang$ 9 ! ord]1 n ( causes1 b ( ! effects :i* x is desirable to produce or to prev5t1 is duly prep>$ to be ! f\ndation ( ! correspond+ ,art4 ,& :5 ,e?ology %all be ?us prep>$1 practical education w be ! m]e trans=mation ( ^? pr9ciples into a p>allel sy/em ( precepts1 & ! adaptation ( ^! to ! sum total ( ! individual circum/ances :i* exi/ 9 ea* p>ticul> case4 ,x is h>dly necess>y aga9 to repeat1 t1 z 9 e o!r d$uctive sci5ce1 v]ification po/]iori mu/ proce$ p>i passu ) d$uction priori4 ,! inf]5ce giv5 by !ory z to ! type ( "* :i* w\ld be =m$ by any giv5 circum/ances1 mu/ be te/$ by specific exp]i5ce ( ^? circum/ances :5ev] obta9able2 & ! conclusions ( ! sci5ce z a :ole1 mu/ und]go a p]petual v]ification & correction f ! g5]al rem>ks af=d$ by common exp]i5ce respect+ human nature 9 our own age1 & by hi/ory respect+ times gone by4 ,! conclusions ( !ory _c be tru/$1 unless confirm$ by obs]vation2 nor ^? ( obs]vation1 unless !y c be affiliat$ to !ory1 by d$uc+ !m f ! laws ( human nature1 & f a close analysis ( ! circum/ances ( ! p>ticul> situation4 ,x is ! accordance ( ^! two k9ds ( evid5ce sep>ately tak5--! consili5ce ( priori reason+ & specific exp]i5ce--:i* =ms ! only suffici5t gr\nd = ! pr9ciples ( any sci5ce s imm]s$ 9 matt]1 deal+ ) su* complex & concrete ph5om5a1 z ,e?ology4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,g5]al ,,consid]ations ,,on ,,! ,,social ,,sci5ce4 #a4 ,next aft] ! sci5ce ( individual man1 comes ! sci5ce ( man 9 society3 ( ! actions ( collective masses ( mank9d1 & ! v>i\s ph5om5a :i* con/itute social life4 ,if ! =mation ( individual "* is already a complex subject ( /udy1 ?is subject mu/ be1 9 appe>ance at lea/1 /ill m complex2 because ! numb] ( concurr5t causes1 all ex]cis+ m or less influ5ce on ! total effect1 is great]1 9 ! proportion 9 :i* a nation1 or ! species at l>ge1 exposes a l>g] surface to ! op]ation ( ag5ts1 psy*ological & physical1 ?an any s+le individual4 ,if x 0 necess>y to prove1 9 opposition to an exi/+ prejudice1 t ! simpl] ( ! two is capable ( be+ a subject ( sci5ce2 ! prejudice is likely to be yet /rong] aga9/ ! possibility ( giv+ a sci5tific "* to ! /udy ( ,politics1 & ( ! ph5om5a ( ,society4 ,x is1 accord+ly1 b ( ye/]day t ! conception ( a political or social sci5ce has exi/$1 any:]e b 9 ! m9d ( "h & !re an insulat$ ?9k]1 g5]ally v ill prep>$ = its realization3 ?\gh ! subject itself has ( all o!rs engag$ ! mo/ g5]al att5tion1 & be5 a !me ( int]e/$ & e>ne/ discussions1 almo/ f ! beg9n+ ( record$ "t4 ,! condition inde$ ( politics1 z a bran* ( k1 0 until v lately1 & has sc>cely ev5 yet ceas$ to be1 t :i* ,bacon animadv]t$ on1 z ! natural /ate ( ! sci5ces :ile _! cultivation is ab&on$ to practition]s2 n be+ c>ri$ on z a bran* ( speculative inquiry1 b only ) a view to ! exig5cies ( daily practice1 & ! fructif]a exp]im5ta1 !re=e1 be+ aim$ at1 almo/ to ! exclusion ( ! lucif]a4 ,su* 0 m$ical inve/igation1 be=e physiology & natural hi/ory began to be cultivat$ z bran*es ( g5]al k4 ,! only que/ions exam9$ 71 :at diet is :olesome1 or :at m$ic9e w cure "s giv5 disease2 )\t any previ\s sy/ematic inquiry into ! laws ( nutrition1 & ( ! heal?y & morbid action ( ! diff]5t organs1 on :i* laws ! effect ( any diet or m$ic9e mu/ evid5tly dep5d4 ,& 9 politics1 ! que/ions :i* engag$ g5]al att5tion 7 simil>3--,is su* an enactm5t1 or su* a =m ( gov]nm5t1 b5eficial or ! rev]se--ei!r univ]sally1 or to "s p>ticul> community8 )\t any previ\s inquiry into ! g5]al conditions by :i* ! op]ation ( legislative measures1 or ! effects produc$ by =ms ( gov]nm5t1 are det]m9$4 ,/ud5ts 9 politics ?us attempt$ to /udy ! pa?ology & !rapeutics ( ! social body1 be=e !y _h laid ! necess>y f\ndation 9 its physiology2 to cure disease1 )\t und]/&+ ! laws ( heal?4 ,& ! result 0 su* z x mu/ always be :5 p]sons1 ev5 ( ability1 attempt to deal ) ! complex que/ions ( a sci5ce be=e its simpl] & m elem5t>y tru?s h be5 e/abli%$4 ,no wond] t :5 ! ph5om5a ( society h s r>ely be5 contemplat$ 9 ! po9t ( view *>act]i/ic ( sci5ce1 ! philosophy ( society %\ld h made little progress2 %\ld conta9 few g5]al propositions suffici5tly precise & c]ta91 = common inquir]s to recognise 9 !m a sci5tific "*4 ,! vulg> notion accord+ly is1 t all pret5sion to lay d[n g5]al tru?s on politics & society is quack]y2 t no univ]sality & no c]ta9ty are atta9able 9 su* matt]s4 ,:at p>tly excuses ?is common notion is1 t x is really n )\t f\ndation 9 "o p>ticul> s5se4 ,a l>ge proportion ( ^? :o h laid claim to ! "* ( philosophic politicians1 h attempt$1 n to asc]ta9 univ]sal sequ5ces1 b to frame univ]sal precepts4 ,!y h imag9$ "s "o =m ( gov]nm5t1 or sy/em ( laws1 to fit all cases2 a pret5sion well m]it+ ! ridicule ) :i* x is treat$ by practition]s1 & :olly unsupport$ by ! analogy ( ! art to :i*1 f ! nature ( its subject1 t ( politics mu/ be ! mo/ ne>ly alli$4 ,no "o n[ supposes x possible t "o rem$y c cure all diseases1 or ev5 ! same disease 9 all con/itutions & habits ( body4 ,x is n necess>y ev5 to ! p]fection ( a sci5ce1 t ! correspond+ art %\ld possess univ]sal1 or ev5 g5]al1 rules4 ,! ph5om5a ( society might n only be completely dep5d5t on kn[n causes1 b ! mode ( action ( all ^? causes might be r$ucible to laws ( consid]able simplicity1 & yet no two cases might admit ( be+ treat$ 9 precisely ! same mann]4 ,s great might be ! v>iety ( circum/ances on :i* ! results 9 diff]5t cases dep5d1 t ! art might n h a s+le g5]al precept to give1 except t ( wat*+ ! circum/ances ( ! p>ticul> case1 & adapt+ our measures to ! effects :i*1 accord+ to ! pr9ciples ( ! sci5ce1 result f ^? circum/ances4 ,b al?\gh1 9 s complicat$ a class ( subjects1 x is impossible to lay d[n practical maxims ( univ]sal application1 x does n foll[ t ! ph5om5a d n con=m to univ]sal laws4 #b4 ,all ph5om5a ( society are ph5om5a ( human nature1 g5]at$ by ! action ( outw>d circum/ances ^u masses ( human be+s3 & if1 !re=e1 ! ph5om5a ( human ?\ght1 feel+1 & action1 are subject to fix$ laws1 ! ph5om5a ( society _c b con=m to fix$ laws1 ! consequ5ce ( ! prec$+4 ,!re is1 inde$1 no hope t ^! laws1 ?\gh our k ( !m 7 z c]ta9 & z complete z x is 9 a/ronomy1 w\ld enable u to pr$ict ! hi/ory ( society1 l t ( ! cele/ial appe>ances1 = ?\s&s ( ye>s to come4 ,b ! diff]5ce ( c]ta9ty is n 9 ! laws !mselves1 x is 9 ! data to :i* ^! laws are to be appli$4 ,9 a/ronomy ! causes influ5c+ ! result are few1 & *ange little1 & t little accord+ to kn[n laws2 we c asc]ta9 :at !y are n[1 & !nce det]m9e :at !y w be at any epo* ( a di/ant future4 ,! data1 !re=e1 9 a/ronomy1 are z c]ta9 z ! laws !mselves4 ,! circum/ances1 on ! contr>y1 :i* influ5ce ! condition & progress ( society1 are innum]able1 & p]petually *ang+2 & ?\gh !y all *ange 9 ob$i5ce to causes1 & !re=e to laws1 ! multitude ( ! causes is s great z to defy our limit$ p[]s ( calculation4 ,n to say t ! impossibility ( apply+ precise numb]s to facts ( su* a description1 w\ld set an impassable limit to ! possibility ( calculat+ !m be=eh&1 ev5 if ! p[]s ( ! human intellect 7 o!rwise adequate to ! task4 ,b1 z be=e rem>k$1 an am\nt ( k q insuffici5t = pr$iction1 may be mo/ valuable = guidance4 ,! sci5ce ( society w\ld h atta9$ a v high po9t ( p]fection1 if x enabl$ u1 9 any giv5 condition ( social affairs1 9 ! condition = in/ance ( ,europe or any ,european c\ntry at ! pres5t "t1 to und]/& by :at causes x _h1 9 any & e p>ticul>1 be5 made :at x 02 :e!r x 0 t5d+ to any1 & to :at1 *anges2 :at effects ea* feature ( its exi/+ /ate 0 likely to produce 9 ! future2 & by :at means any ( ^? effects might be prev5t$1 modifi$1 or accel]at$1 or a diff]5t class ( effects sup]9duc$4 ,!re is no?+ *im]ical 9 ! hope t g5]al laws1 suffici5t to enable u to answ] ^! v>i\s que/ions = any c\ntry or "t ) ! individual circum/ances ( :i* we are well acqua9t$1 d really admit ( be+ asc]ta9$2 & t ! o!r bran*es ( human k1 :i* ?is und]tak+ presupposes1 are s f> advanc$ t ! "t is ripe = its comm5cem5t4 ,su* is ! object ( ! ,social ,sci5ce4 ,t ! nature ( :at ,i consid] ! true me?od ( ! sci5ce may be made m palpable1 by fir/ %[+ :at t me?od is n2 x w be exp$i5t to *>act]ize briefly two radical misconceptions ( ! prop] mode ( philosophiz+ on society & gov]nm5t1 "o or o!r ( :i* is1 ei!r explicitly or m (t5 unconsci\sly1 ent]ta9$ by almo/ all :o h m$itat$ or argu$ respect+ ! logic ( politics s9ce ! notion ( treat+ x by /rict rules1 & on ,baconian pr9ciples1 has be5 curr5t among ! m advanc$ ?9k]s4 ,^! errone\s me?ods1 if ! ^w me?od c be appli$ to errone\s t5d5cies aris+ f ! abs5ce ( any suffici5tly di/9ct conception ( me?od1 may be t]m$ ! ,exp]im5tal1 or ,*emical1 mode ( inve/igation1 & ! ,ab/ract1 or ,geometrical1 mode4 ,we %all beg9 ) ! =m]4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,( ,,! ,,*emical1 ,,or ,,exp]im5tal1 ,,me?od ,,9 ,,! ,,social ,,sci5ce4 #a4 ,! laws ( ! ph5om5a ( society are1 & c be1 no?+ b ! laws ( ! actions & passions ( human be+s unit$ toge!r 9 ! social /ate4 ,m51 h[ev]1 9 a /ate ( society1 are /ill m52 _! actions & passions are ob$i5t to ! laws ( individual human nature4 ,m5 are n1 :5 br\ght toge!r1 conv]t$ into ano!r k9d ( sub/ance1 ) diff]5t prop]ties2 z hydrog5 & oxyg5 are diff]5t f wat]1 or z hydrog51 oxyg51 c>bon1 & azote1 are diff]5t f n]ves1 muscles1 & t5dons4 ,human be+s 9 society h no prop]ties b ^? :i* are d]iv$ f1 & may be resolv$ into1 ! laws ( ! nature ( individual man4 ,9 social ph5om5a ! ,composition ( ,causes is ! univ]sal law4 ,n[1 ! me?od ( philosophiz+ :i* may be t]m$ *emical ov]looks ?is fact1 & proce$s z if ! nature ( man z an individual 7 n conc]n$ at all1 or 7 conc]n$ 9 a v inf]ior degree1 9 ! op]ations ( human be+s 9 society4 ,all reason+ 9 political or social affairs1 gr\nd$ on pr9ciples ( human nature1 is object$ to by reason]s ( ?is sort1 "u su* names z ab/ract !ory4 ,= ! direction ( _! op9ions & conduct1 !y pr(ess to dem&1 9 all cases )\t exception1 specific exp]i5ce4 ,?is mode ( ?9k+ is n only g5]al ) practition]s 9 politics1 & ) t v num]\s class :o 7on a subject :i* no "o1 h[ev] ignorant1 ?9ks himself incompet5t to discuss7 pr(ess to guide !mselves by common s5se r ?an by sci5ce2 b is (t5 c\nt5anc$ by p]sons ) great] pret5sions to in/ruction2 p]sons :o1 hav+ suffici5t acqua9tance ) books & ) ! curr5t ideas to h he>d t ,bacon taught mank9d to foll[ exp]i5ce1 & to gr\nd _! conclusions on facts in/ead ( metaphysical dogmas--?9k t1 by treat+ political facts 9 z directly exp]im5tal a me?od z *emical facts1 !y are %[+ !mselves true ,baconians1 & prov+ _! adv]s>ies to be m]e syllogiz]s & s*oolm54 ,z1 h[ev]1 ! notion ( ! applicability ( exp]im5tal me?ods to political philosophy _c coexi/ ) any j conception ( ^! me?ods !mselves1 ! k9d ( argum5ts f exp]i5ce :i* ! *emical !ory br+s =? z its fruits 7& :i* =m ! /aple1 9 ?is c\ntry especially1 ( p>liam5t>y & hu/+s oratory17 are su* z1 at no "t s9ce ,bacon1 w\ld h be5 admitt$ to be valid 9 *emi/ry itself1 or 9 any o!r bran* ( exp]im5tal sci5ce4 ,!y are su* z ^!2 t ! prohibition ( =eign commodities mu/ conduce to national weal?1 because ,engl& has fl\ri%$ "u x1 or because c\ntries 9 g5]al :i* h adopt$ x h fl\ri%$2 t our laws1 or our int]nal adm9i/ration1 or our con/itution1 are excell5t = a simil> reason3 & ! et]nal argum5ts f hi/orical examples1 f ,a!ns or ,rome1 f ! fires 9 ,smi?field or ! ,fr5* ,revolution4 ,i w n wa/e "t 9 cont5d+ aga9/ modes ( argum5tation :i* no p]son1 ) ! smalle/ practice 9 e/imat+ evid5ce1 c\ld possibly be betray$ into2 :i* draw conclusions ( g5]al application f a s+le unanalys$ in/ance1 or arbitr>ily ref] an effect to "s "o among its antec$5ts1 )\t any process ( elim9ation or comp>ison ( in/ances4 ,x is a rule bo? ( ju/ice & ( good s5se to grapple n ) ! absurde/1 b )1 ! mo/ reasonable =m ( a wrong op9ion4 ,we %all suppose our inquir] acqua9t$ ) ! true conditions ( exp]im5tal inve/igation1 & compet5t 9 po9t ( acquirem5ts = realiz+ !m1 s f> z !y c be realiz$4 ,he %all "k z mu* ( ! facts ( hi/ory z m]e erudition c tea*--z mu* z c be prov$ by te/imony1 )\t ! assi/ance ( any !ory2 & if ^? m]e facts1 prop]ly collat$1 c fulfil ! conditions ( a real induction1 he %all be qualifi$ = ! task4 ,b1 t no su* attempt c h ! smalle/ *ance ( success1 has be5 abundantly %[n 9 ! t5? *apt] ( ! ,?ird ,book4#g ,we !re exam9$ :e!r effects :i* dep5d on a complication ( causes c be made ! subject ( a true induction by obs]vation & exp]im5t2 & conclud$1 on ! mo/ conv9c+ gr\nds1 t !y _c4 ,s9ce1 ( all effects1 none dep5d on s great a complication ( causes z social ph5om5a1 we might leave our case to re/ 9 safety on t previ\s %[+4 ,b a logical pr9ciple z yet s little famili> to ! ord9>y run ( ?9k]s1 requires to be insi/$ on m ?an once1 9 ord] to make ! due impression2 & ! pres5t be+ ! case :i* ( all o!rs exemplifies x ! mo/ /rongly1 !re w be advantage 9 re-/at+ ! gr\nds ( ! g5]al maxim1 z appli$ to ! specialities ( ! class ( inquiries n[ "u consid]ation4 #b4 ,! fir/ difficulty :i* meets u 9 ! attempt to apply exp]im5tal me?ods = asc]ta9+ ! laws ( social ph5om5a1 is t we are )\t ! means ( mak+ artificial exp]im5ts4 ,ev5 if we c\ld contrive exp]im5ts at leisure1 & try !m )\t limit1 we %\ld d s "u imm5se disadvantage2 bo? f ! impossibility ( asc]ta9+ & tak+ note ( all ! facts ( ea* case1 & because 7^? facts be+ 9 a p]petual /ate ( *ange7 be=e suffici5t "t _h elaps$ to asc]ta9 ! result ( ! exp]im5t1 "s mat]ial circum/ances w\ld always h ceas$ to be ! same4 ,b x is unnecess>y to consid] ! logical objections :i* w\ld exi/ to ! conclusiv5ess ( our exp]im5ts1 s9ce we palpably nev] h ! p[] ( try+ any4 ,we c only wat* ^? :i* nature produces1 or :i* are produc$ = o!r reasons4 ,we _c adapt our logical means to our wants1 by v>y+ ! circum/ances z ! exig5cies ( elim9ation may require4 ,if ! spontane\s in/ances1 =m$ by cotempor>y ev5ts & by ! successions ( ph5om5a record$ 9 hi/ory1 af=d a suffici5t v>iation ( circum/ances1 an induction f specific exp]i5ce is atta9able2 o!rwise n4 ,! "q to be resolv$ is1 !re=e1 :e!r ! requisites = induction respect+ ! causes ( political effects or ! prop]ties ( political ag5ts1 are to be met ) 9 hi/ory8 includ+ "u ! t]m1 cotempor>y hi/ory4 ,& 9 ord] to give fixity to our conceptions1 x w be advisable to suppose ?is "q ask$ 9 ref]5ce to "s special subject ( political inquiry or controv]sy2 su* z t frequ5t topic ( debate 9 ! pres5t c5tury1 ! op]ation ( re/rictive & prohibitory comm]cial legislation ^u national weal?4 ,let ?is1 !n1 be ! sci5tific "q to be inve/igat$ by specific exp]i5ce4 #c4 ,9 ord] to apply to ! case ! mo/ p]fect ( ! me?ods ( exp]im5tal inquiry1 ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 we require to f9d two in/ances1 :i* tally 9 e p>ticul> except ! "o :i* is ! subject ( inquiry4 ,if two nations c be f\nd :i* are alike 9 all natural advantages & disadvantages2 ^: p resemble ea* o!r 9 e quality1 physical & moral1 spontane\s & acquir$2 ^: habits1 usages1 op9ions1 laws & in/itutions are ! same 9 all respects1 except t "o ( !m has a m protective t>iff1 or 9 o!r respects int]f]es m ) ! fre$om ( indu/ry2 if "o ( ^! nations is f\nd to be ri*1 & ! o!r poor1 or "o ri*] ?an ! o!r1 ?is w be an exp]im5tum crucis3 a real pro( by exp]i5ce1 :i* ( ! two sy/ems is mo/ fav\rable to national ri*es4 ,b ! supposition t two su* in/ances c be met ) is manife/ly absurd4 ,nor is su* a concurr5ce ev5 ab/ractly possible4 ,two nations :i* agre$ 9 ev]y?+ except _! comm]cial policy1 w\ld agree also 9 t4 ,diff]5ces ( legislation are n inh]5t & ultimate div]sities2 are n prop]ties ( ,k9ds4 ,!y are effects ( pre-exi/+ causes4 ,if ! two nations diff] 9 ?is portion ( _! in/itutions1 x is f "s diff]5ce 9 _! position1 & !nce 9 _! app>5t int]e/s1 or 9 "s portion or o!r ( _! op9ions1 habits1 & t5d5cies2 :i* op5s a view ( fur!r diff]5ces )\t any assignable limit1 capable ( op]at+ on _! indu/rial prosp]ity1 z well z on e o!r feature ( _! condition1 9 m ways ?an c be enum]at$ or imag9$4 ,!re is ?us a demon/rat$ impossibility ( obta9+1 9 ! inve/igations ( ! social sci5ce1 ! conditions requir$ = ! mo/ conclusive =m ( inquiry by specific exp]i5ce4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( ! direct1 we may next try1 z 9 o!r cases1 ! supplem5t>y res\rce1 call$ 9 a =m] place ! ,indirect ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce3 :i*1 in/ead ( two in/ances diff]+ 9 no?+ b ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( a giv5 circum/ance1 comp>es two classes ( in/ances respectively agree+ 9 no?+ b ! pres5ce ( a circum/ance on ! "o side & its abs5ce on ! o!r4 ,to *oose ! mo/ advantage\s case conceivable1 7a case f> too advantage\s to be ev] obta9$17 suppose t we comp>e "o nation :i* has a re/rictive policy1 ) two or m nations agree+ 9 no?+ b 9 p]mitt+ free trade4 ,we ne$ n n[ suppose t ei!r ( ^! nations agrees ) ! fir/ 9 all its circum/ances2 "o may agree ) x 9 "s ( its circum/ances1 & ano!r 9 ! rema9d]4 ,& x may be argu$1 t if ^! nations rema9 poor] ?an ! re/rictive nation1 x _c be = want ei!r ( ! fir/ or ( ! second set ( circum/ances1 b x mu/ be = want ( ! protective sy/em4 ,if 7we might say7 ! re/rictive nation _h prosp]$ f ! "o set ( causes1 ! fir/ ( ! free-trade nations w\ld h prosp]$ equally2 if by reason ( ! o!r1 ! second w\ld3 b nei!r has3 !re=e ! prosp]ity 0 ow+ to ! re/rictions4 ,?is w be all[$ to be a v fav\rable specim5 ( an argum5t f specific exp]i5ce 9 politics1 & if ?is be inconclusive1 x w\ld n be easy to f9d ano!r pref]able to x4 ,yet1 t x is inconclusive1 sc>cely requires to be po9t$ out4 ,:y mu/ ! prosp]\s nation h prosp]$ f "o cause exclusively8 ,national prosp]ity is always ! collective result ( a multitude ( fav\rable circum/ances2 & ( ^!1 ! re/rictive nation may unite a great] numb] ?an ei!r ( ! o!rs1 ?\gh x may h all ( ^? circum/ances 9 common ) ei!r "o or ! o!r ( !m4 ,its prosp]ity may be p>tly ow+ to circum/ances common to x ) "o ( ^? nations1 & p>tly ) ! o!r1 :ile !y1 hav+ ea* ( !m only half ! numb] ( fav\rable circum/ances1 h rema9$ inf]ior4 ,s t ! close/ imitation :i* c be made1 9 ! social sci5ce1 ( a legitimate induction f direct exp]i5ce1 gives b a speci\s semblance ( conclusiv5ess1 )\t any real value4 #d4 ,! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce 9 ei!r ( its =ms be+ ?us completely out ( ! "q1 !re rema9s ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,b we are already aw>e ( h[ little value ?is me?od is1 9 cases admitt+ ,plurality ( ,causes3 & social ph5om5a are ^? 9 :i* ! plurality prevails 9 ! utmo/ possible ext5t4 ,suppose t ! obs]v] makes ! luckie/ hit :i* c\ld be giv5 by any conceivable comb9ation ( *ances3 t he f9ds two nations :i* agree 9 no circum/ance :atev]1 except 9 hav+ a re/rictive sy/em1 & 9 be+ prosp]\s2 or a numb] ( nations1 all prosp]\s1 :i* h no antec$5t circum/ances common to !m all b t ( hav+ a re/rictive policy4 ,x is unnecess>y to g into ! consid]ation ( ! impossibility ( asc]ta9+ f hi/ory1 or ev5 f cotempor>y obs]vation1 t su* is really ! fact3 t ! nations agree 9 no o!r circum/ance capable ( influ5c+ ! case4 ,let u suppose ?is impossibility vanqui%$1 & ! fact asc]ta9$ t !y agree only 9 a re/rictive sy/em z an antec$5t1 & indu/rial prosp]ity z a consequ5t4 ,:at degree ( presumption does ?is raise1 t ! re/rictive sy/em caus$ ! prosp]ity8 ,"o s trifl+ z to be equival5t to none at all4 ,t "s "o antec$5t is ! cause ( a giv5 effect1 because all o!r antec$5ts h be5 f\nd capable ( be+ elim9at$1 is a j inf]5ce1 only if ! effect c h b "o cause4 ,if x admits ( sev]al1 no?+ is m natural ?an t ea* ( ^! %\ld sep>ately admit ( be+ elim9at$4 ,n[1 9 ! case ( political ph5om5a1 ! supposition ( unity ( cause is n only wide ( ! tru?1 b at an immeasurable di/ance f x4 ,! causes ( e social ph5om5on :i* we are p>ticul>ly int]e/$ ab\t1 security1 weal?1 fre$om1 good gov]nm5t1 public virtue1 g5]al intellig5ce1 or _! opposites1 are inf9itely num]\s3 especially ! ext]nal or remote causes1 :i* alone are1 = ! mo/ "p1 accessible to direct obs]vation4 ,no "o cause suffices ( itself to produce any ( ^! ph5om5a2 :ile !re are c\ntless causes :i* h "s influ5ce ov] !m1 & may co-op]ate ei!r 9 _! production or 9 _! prev5tion4 ,f ! m]e fact1 !re=e1 ( our hav+ be5 able to elim9ate "s circum/ance1 we c by no means inf] t ?is circum/ance 0 n in/rum5tal to ! effect 9 "s ( ! v in/ances f :i* we h elim9at$ x4 ,we c conclude t ! effect is sometimes produc$ )\t x2 b n t1 :5 pres5t1 x does n contribute its %>e4 ,simil> objections w be f\nd to apply to ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations4 ,if ! causes :i* act ^u ! /ate ( any society produc$ effects diff]+ f "o ano!r 9 k9d2 if weal? dep5d$ on "o cause1 peace on ano!r1 a ?ird made p virtu\s1 a f\r? intellig5t2 we might1 ?\gh unable to sev] ! causes f "o ano!r1 ref] to ea* ( !m t prop]ty ( ! effect :i* wax$ z x wax$1 & :i* wan$ z x wan$4 ,b e attribute ( ! social body is influ5c$ by innum]able causes2 & su* is ! mutual action ( ! coexi/+ elem5ts ( society1 t :atev] affects any "o ( ! m important ( !m1 w by t alone1 if x does n affect ! o!rs directly1 affect !m indirectly4 ,! effects1 !re=e1 ( diff]5t ag5ts n be+ diff]5t 9 quality1 :ile ! quantity ( ea* is ! mix$ result ( all ! ag5ts1 ! v>iations ( ! aggregate _c be> an uni=m proportion to ^? ( any "o ( its compon5t p>ts4 #e4 ,!re rema9s ! ,me?od ( ,residues2 :i* appe>s1 on ! fir/ view1 less =eign to ?is k9d ( inquiry ?an ! ?ree o!r me?ods1 because x only requires t we %\ld accurately note ! circum/ances ( "s "o c\ntry1 or /ate ( society4 ,mak+ all[ance1 !reupon1 = ! effect ( all causes ^: t5d5cies are kn[n1 ! residue :i* ^? causes are inadequate to expla9 may plausibly be imput$ to ! rema9d] ( ! circum/ances :i* are kn[n to h exi/$ 9 ! case4 ,some?+ simil> to ?is is ! me?od :i* ,col]idge#h describes himself z hav+ foll[$ 9 8 political essays 9 ! ,morn+ ,po/4 ,on e great occurr5ce ,i endeav\r$ to discov] 9 pa/ hi/ory ! ev5t t mo/ ne>ly resembl$ x4 ,i procur$1 :5ev] x 0 possible1 ! contempor>y hi/orians1 memoriali/s1 & pamphlete]s4 ,!n fairly subtract+ ! po9ts ( diff]5ce f ^? ( lik5ess1 z ! balance fav\r$ ! =m] or ! latt]1 ,i conjectur$ t ! result w\ld be ! same or diff]5t4 ,z1 = in/ance1 9 ! s]ies ( essays entitl$ ',a comp>ison ( ,france "u ,napoleon ) ,rome "u ! fir/ ,cs>s1' & 9 ^? :i* foll[$1 'on ! probable f9al re/oration ( ! ,b\rbons4' ,! same plan ,i pursu$ at ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,spani% ,revolution1 & ) ! same success1 tak+ ! w> ( ! ,unit$ ,prov9ces ) ,philip ,,ii4 z ! gr\ndwork ( ! comp>ison4 ,9 ?is inquiry he no d\bt employ$ ! ,me?od ( ,residues2 =1 9 subtract+ ! po9ts ( diff]5ce f ^? ( lik5ess1 he d\btless weigh$1 & did n cont5t himself ) numb]+1 !m3 he d\btless took ^? po9ts ( agreem5t only1 :i* he presum$ f _! own nature to be capable ( influ5c+ ! effect1 &1 all[+ = t influ5ce1 conclud$ t ! rema9d] ( ! result w\ld be ref]able to ! po9ts ( diff]5ce4 ,:atev] may be ! efficacy ( ?is me?od1 x is1 z we long ago rem>k$1 n a me?od ( pure obs]vation & exp]im5t2 x concludes1 n f a comp>ison ( in/ances1 b f ! comp>ison ( an in/ance ) ! result ( a previ\s d$uction4 ,appli$ to social ph5om5a1 x presupposes t ! causes f :i* "p ( ! effect proce$$ are already kn[n2 & z we h %[n t ^! _c h be5 kn[n by specific exp]i5ce1 !y mu/ h be5 le>nt by d$uction f pr9ciples ( human nature2 exp]i5ce be+ call$ 9 only z a supplem5t>y res\rce1 to det]m9e ! causes :i* produc$ an unexpla9$ residue4 ,b if ! pr9ciples ( human nature may be _h rec\rse to = ! e/abli%m5t ( "s political tru?s1 !y may = all4 ,if x be admissible to say1 ,engl& mu/ h prosp]$ by reason ( ! prohibitory sy/em1 because aft] all[+ = all ! o!r t5d5cies :i* h be5 op]at+1 !re is a portion ( prosp]ity /ill to be acc\nt$ =2 x mu/ be admissible to g to ! same s\rce = ! effect ( ! prohibitory sy/em1 & exam9e :at acc\nt ! laws ( human motives & actions w enable u to give ( its t5d5cies4 ,nor1 9 fact1 w ! exp]im5tal argum5t am\nt to any?+1 except 9 v]ification ( a conclusion drawn f ^? g5]al laws4 ,= we may subtract ! effect ( "o1 two1 ?ree1 or f\r causes1 b we %all nev] succe$ 9 subtract+ ! effect ( all causes except "o3 :ile x w\ld be a curi\s in/ance ( ! dang]s ( too mu* caution1 if1 to avoid dep5d+ on priori reason+ conc]n+ ! effect ( a s+le cause1 we %\ld oblige ourselves to dep5d on z _m sep>ate priori reason+s z !re are causes op]at+ concurr5tly ) t p>ticul> cause 9 "s giv5 in/ance4 ,we h n[ suffici5tly *>act]iz$ ! gross misconception ( ! mode ( inve/igation prop] to political ph5om5a1 :i* ,i h t]m$ ! ,*emical ,me?od4 ,s l5g!n$ a discussion w\ld n h be5 necess>y1 if ! claim to decide au?oritatively on political doctr9es 7 conf9$ to p]sons :o _h compet5tly /udi$ any "o ( ! high] dep>tm5ts ( physical sci5ce4 ,b s9ce ! g5]ality ( ^? :o reason on political subjects1 satisfactorily to !mselves & to a m or less num]\s body ( admir]s1 "k no?+ :atev] ( ! me?ods ( physical inve/igation beyond a few precepts :i* !y cont9ue to p>rot aft] ,bacon1 be+ entirely unaw>e t ,bacon's conception ( sci5tific inquiry has done its "w1 & t sci5ce has n[ advanc$ into a high] /age2 !re are probably _m to :om su* rem>ks z ! =ego+ may /ill be useful4 ,9 an age 9 :i* *emi/ry itself1 :5 attempt+ to deal ) ! m complex *emical sequ5ces1 ^? ( ! animal or ev5 ! vegetable organism1 has f\nd x necess>y to become1 & has succe$$ 9 becom+1 a ,d$uctive ,sci5ce--x is n to be appreh5d$ t any p]son ( sci5tific habits1 :o has kept pace ) ! g5]al progress ( ! k ( nature1 c be 9 dang] ( apply+ ! me?ods ( elem5t>y *emi/ry to explore ! sequ5ces ( ! mo/ complex ord] ( ph5om5a 9 exi/5ce4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,( ,,! ,,geometrical1 ,,or ,,ab/ract ,,me?od4 #a4 ,! misconception discuss$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt] is1 z we said1 *iefly committ$ by p]sons n mu* accu/om$ to sci5tific inve/igation3 practition]s 9 politics1 :o r employ ! commonplaces ( philosophy to ju/ify _! practice1 ?an seek to guide _! practice by philosophic pr9ciples3 or imp]fectly educat$ p]sons1 :o1 9 ignorance ( ! c>eful selection & elaborate comp>ison ( in/ances requir$ = ! =mation ( a s\nd !ory1 attempt to f\nd "o ^u a few co9cid5ces :i* !y h casually notic$4 ,! errone\s me?od ( :i* we are n[ to treat1 is1 on ! contr>y1 peculi> to ?9k+ & /udi\s m9ds4 ,x nev] c\ld h sugge/$ itself b to p]sons ( "s famili>ity ) ! nature ( sci5tific rese>*2 :o1--be+ aw>e ( ! impossibility ( e/abli%+1 by casual obs]vation or direct exp]im5tation1 a true !ory ( sequ5ces s complex z are ^? ( ! social ph5om5a1--h rec\rse to ! simpl] laws :i* are imm$iately op]ative 9 ^? ph5om5a1 & :i* are no o!r ?an ! laws ( ! nature ( ! human be+s !re9 conc]n$4 ,^! ?9k]s p]ceive 7:at ! p>tisans ( ! *emical or exp]im5tal !ory d n7 t ! sci5ce ( society mu/ necess>ily be d$uctive4 ,b1 f an insuffici5t consid]ation ( ! specific nature ( ! subject matt]1--& (t5 because 7_! own sci5tific education hav+ /opp$ %ort 9 too e>ly a /age7 geometry /&s 9 _! m9ds z ! type ( all d$uctive sci5ce1 x is to geometry r ?an to a/ronomy & natural philosophy1 t !y unconsci\sly assimilate ! d$uctive sci5ce ( society4 ,among ! diff]5ces betwe5 geometry 7a sci5ce ( coexi/5t facts1 altoge!r indep5d5t ( ! laws ( ! succession ( ph5om5a71 & ^? physical ,sci5ces ( ,causation :i* h be5 r5d]$ d$uctive1 ! foll[+ is "o ( ! mo/ conspicu\s3 ,t geometry af=ds no room = :at s con/antly occurs 9 me*anics & its applications1 ! case ( conflict+ =ces2 ( causes :i* c\nt]act or modify "o ano!r4 ,9 me*anics we cont9ually f9d two or m mov+ =ces produc+1 n motion1 b re/2 or motion 9 a diff]5t direction f t :i* w\ld h be5 produc$ by ei!r ( ! g5]at+ =ces4 ,x is true t ! effect ( ! jo9t =ces is ! same :5 !y act simultane\sly1 z if !y _h act$ "o aft] ano!r1 or by turns2 & x is 9 ?is t ! diff]5ce betwe5 me*anical & *emical laws consi/s4 ,b /ill ! effects1 :e!r produc$ by successive or by simultane\s action1 d1 :olly or 9 "p1 cancel "o ano!r3 :at ! "o =ce does1 ! o!r1 p>tly or altoge!r1 undoes4 ,!re is no simil> /ate ( ?+s 9 geometry4 ,! result :i* foll[s f "o geometrical pr9ciple has no?+ t conflicts ) ! result :i* foll[s f ano!r4 ,:at is prov$ true f "o geometrical !orem1 :at w\ld be true if no o!r geometrical pr9ciples exi/$1 _c be alt]$ & made no long] true by reason ( "s o!r geometrical pr9ciple4 ,:at is once prov$ true is true 9 all cases1 :atev] supposition may be made 9 reg>d to any o!r matt]4 ,n[ a conception1 simil> to ?is la/1 w\ld appe> to h be5 =m$ ( ! social sci5ce1 9 ! m9ds ( ! e>li] ( ^? :o h attempt$ to cultivate x by a d$uctive me?od4 ,me*anics w\ld be a sci5ce v simil> to geometry1 if e motion result$ f "o =ce alone1 & n f a conflict ( =ces4 ,9 ! geometrical !ory ( society1 x seems to be suppos$ t ?is is really ! case ) ! social ph5om5a2 t ea* ( !m results always f only "o =ce1 "o s+le prop]ty ( human nature4 ,at ! po9t :i* we h n[ rea*$1 x _c be necess>y to say any?+ ei!r 9 pro( or 9 illu/ration ( ! ass]tion t su* is n ! true "* ( ! social ph5om5a4 ,!re is n1 among ^! mo/ complex & 7= t reason7 mo/ modifiable ( all ph5om5a1 any "o ov] :i* innum]able =ces d n ex]cise influ5ce2 :i* does n dep5d on a conjunction ( v _m causes4 ,we h n1 !re=e1 to prove ! notion 9 "q to be an error1 b to prove t ! error has be5 committ$2 t s mi/ak5 a conception ( ! mode 9 :i* ! ph5om5a ( society are produc$1 has actually be5 asc]ta9$4 #b4 ,"o num]\s division ( ! reason]s :o h treat$ social facts accord+ to geometrical me?ods1 n admitt+ any modification ( "o law by ano!r1 mu/ = ! pres5t be left out ( consid]ation2 because 9 !m ?is error is complicat$ )1 & is ! effect (1 ano!r fundam5tal misconception1 ( :i* we h already tak5 "s notice1 & :i* w be fur!r treat$ ( be=e we conclude4 ,i speak ( ^? :o d$uce political conclusions n f laws ( nature1 n f sequ5ces ( ph5om5a1 real or imag9>y1 b f unb5d+ practical maxims4 ,su*1 = example1 are all :o f\nd _! !ory ( politics on :at is call$ ab/ract "r1 t is to say1 on univ]sal precepts2 a pret5sion ( :i* we h already notic$ ! *im]ical nature4 ,su*1 9 l mann]1 are ^? :o make ! assumption ( a social contract1 or any o!r k9d ( orig9al obligation1 & apply x to p>ticul> cases by m]e int]pretation4 ,b 9 ?is ! fundam5tal error is ! attempt to treat an art l a sci5ce1 & to h a d$uctive art2 ! irrationality ( :i* w be %[n 9 a future *apt]4 ,x w be prop] to take our exemplification ( ! geometrical !ory f ^? ?9k]s :o h avoid$ ?is additional error1 & :o ent]ta91 s f>1 a ju/] idea ( ! nature ( political inquiry4 ,we may cite1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 ^? :o assume z ! pr9ciple ( _! political philosophy t gov]nm5t is f\nd$ on fe>2 t ! dread ( ea* o!r is ! "o motive by :i* human be+s 7 orig9ally br\ght into a /ate ( society1 & are /ill held 9 x4 ,"s ( ! e>li] sci5tific inquir]s into politics1 9 p>ticul> ,hobbes1 assum$ ?is proposition1 n by implication1 b av[$ly1 z ! f\ndation ( _! doctr9e1 & attempt$ to build a complete philosophy ( politics !reupon4 ,x is true t ,hobbes did n f9d ?is "o maxim suffici5t to c>ry him ?r\gh ! :ole ( 8 subject1 b 0 oblig$ to eke x out by ! d\ble sophism ( an orig9al contract4 ,i call ?is a d\ble sophism2 fir/1 z pass+ (f a fiction = a fact1 &1 secondly1 assum+ a practical pr9ciple1 or precept1 z ! basis ( a !ory2 :i* is a petitio pr9cipii1 s9ce 7z we notic$ 9 treat+ ( t ,fallacy7 e rule ( conduct1 ev5 ?\gh x be s b9d+ a "o z ! obs]vance ( a promise1 mu/ re/ its own f\ndations on ! !ory ( ! subject1 & ! !ory1 !re=e1 _c re/ ^u x4 #c4 ,pass+ ov] less important in/ances1 ,i %all come at once to ! mo/ rem>kable example af=d$ by our own times ( ! geometrical me?od 9 politics2 emanat+ f p]sons :o 7 well aw>e ( ! di/9ction betwe5 sci5ce & art2 :o knew t rules ( conduct mu/ foll[1 n prec$e1 ! asc]ta9m5t ( laws ( nature1 & t ! latt]1 n ! =m]1 is ! legitimate field = ! application ( ! d$uctive me?od4 ,i allude to ! int]e/-philosophy ( ! ,b5?am s*ool4 ,! pr(\nd & orig9al ?9k]s :o are commonly kn[n "u ?is description1 f\nd$ _! g5]al !ory ( gov]nm5t on "o compreh5sive premise1 namely1 t m5's actions are always det]m9$ by _! int]e/s4 ,!re is an ambiguity 9 ?is la/ expression2 =1 z ! same philosoph]s1 especially ,b5?am1 gave ! "n ( an int]e/ to any?+ :i* a p]son likes1 ! proposition may be und]/ood to mean only ?is1 t m5's actions are always det]m9$ by _! wi%es4 ,9 ?is s5se1 h[ev]1 x w\ld n be> out any ( ! consequ5ces :i* ^! writ]s drew f x2 & ! ^w1 !re=e1 9 _! political reason+s1 mu/ be und]/ood to mean 7:i* is also ! explanation !y !mselves1 on su* occasions1 gave ( x7 :at is commonly t]m$ private1 or worldly1 int]e/4 ,tak+ ! doctr9e1 !n1 9 ?is s5se1 an objection pres5ts itself 9 lim9e :i* might be deem$ a fatal "o1 namely1 t s sweep+ a proposition is f> f be+ univ]sally true4 ,human be+s are n gov]n$ 9 all _! actions by _! worldly int]e/s4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is by no means s conclusive an objection z x at fir/ appe>s2 because 9 politics we are = ! mo/ "p conc]n$ ) ! conduct n ( individual p]sons1 b ei!r ( a s]ies ( p]sons 7z a succession ( k+s7 or a body or mass ( p]sons1 z a nation1 an ari/ocracy1 or a repres5tative assembly4 ,& :atev] is true ( a l>ge majority ( mank9d1 may )\t mu* error be tak5 = true ( any succession ( p]sons1 consid]$ z a :ole1 or ( any collection ( p]sons 9 :i* ! act ( ! majority becomes ! act ( ! :ole body4 ,al?\gh1 !re=e1 ! maxim is sometimes express$ 9 a mann] unnecess>ily p>adoxical1 ! consequ5ces drawn f x w hold equally good if ! ass]tion be limit$ z foll[s--,any succession ( p]sons1 or ! majority ( any body ( p]sons1 w be gov]n$ 9 ! bulk ( _! conduct by _! p]sonal int]e/s4 ,we are b\nd to all[ to ?is s*ool ( ?9k]s ! b5efit ( ?is m rational /atem5t ( _! fundam5tal maxim1 :i* is also 9 /rict con=mity to ! explanations :i*1 :5 consid]$ to be call$ =1 h be5 giv5 by !mselves4 ,! !ory goes on to inf]1 q correctly1 t if ! actions ( mank9d are det]m9$ 9 ! ma9 by _! selfi% int]e/s1 ! only rul]s :o w gov]n accord+ to ! int]e/ ( ! gov]n$1 are ^? ^: selfi% int]e/s are 9 accordance ) x4 ,& to ?is is add$ a ?ird proposition1 namely1 t no rul]s h _! selfi% int]e/ id5tical ) t ( ! gov]n$1 unless x be r5d]$ s by acc\ntability1 t is1 by dep5d5ce on ! w ( ! gov]n$4 ,9 o!r words 7& z ! result ( ! :ole71 t ! desire ( reta9+ or ! fe> ( los+ _! p[]1 & :atev] is !reon consequ5t1 is ! sole motive :i* c be reli$ on = produc+ on ! "p ( rul]s a c\rse ( conduct 9 accordance ) ! g5]al int]e/4 ,we h ?us a fundam5tal !orem ( political sci5ce1 consi/+ ( ?ree syllogisms1 & dep5d+ *iefly on two g5]al premises1 9 ea* ( :i* a c]ta9 effect is consid]$ z det]m9$ only by "o cause1 n by a concurr5ce ( causes4 ,9 ! "o1 x is assum$ t ! actions ( av]age rul]s are det]m9$ solely by self-int]e/2 9 ! o!r1 t ! s5se ( id5tity ( int]e/ ) ! gov]n$1 is produc$ & producible by no o!r cause ?an responsibility4 ,nei!r ( ^! propositions is by any means true2 ! la/ is extremely wide ( ! tru?4 ,x is n true t ! actions ev5 ( av]age rul]s are :olly1 or any?+ approa*+ to :olly1 det]m9$ by _! p]sonal int]e/1 or ev5 by _! own op9ion ( _! p]sonal int]e/4 ,i d n speak ( ! influ5ce ( a s5se ( duty1 or feel+s ( philan?ropy1 motives nev] to be ma9ly reli$ on1 ?\gh 7except 9 c\ntries or dur+ p]iods ( great moral debasem5t7 !y influ5ce almo/ all rul]s 9 "s degree1 & "s rul]s 9 a v great degree4 ,b ,i insi/ only on :at is true ( all rul]s1 viz4 t ! "* & c\rse ( _! actions is l>gely influ5c$ 7indep5d5tly ( p]sonal calculation7 by ! habitual s5tim5ts & feel+s1 ! g5]al modes ( ?9k+ & act+1 :i* prevail ?r\gh\t ! community ( :i* !y are memb]s2 z well z by ! feel+s1 habits1 & modes ( ?\ght :i* *>act]ize ! p>ticul> class 9 t community to :i* !y !mselves belong4 ,& no "o w und]/& or be able to decyph] _! sy/em ( conduct1 :o does n take all ^! ?+s into acc\nt4 ,!y are also mu* influ5c$ by ! maxims & traditions :i* h desc5d$ to !m f o!r rul]s1 _! pr$ecessors2 :i* maxims & traditions h be5 kn[n to reta9 an asc5dancy dur+ long p]iods1 ev5 9 opposition to ! private int]e/s ( ! rul]s = ! "t be+4 ,i put aside ! influ5ce ( o!r less g5]al causes4 ,al?\gh1 !re=e1 ! private int]e/ ( ! rul]s or ( ! rul+ class is a v p[]ful =ce1 con/antly 9 action1 & ex]cis+ ! mo/ important influ5ce ^u _! conduct2 !re is also1 9 :at !y d1 a l>ge portion :i* t private int]e/ by no means af=ds a suffici5t explanation (3 & ev5 ! p>ticul>s :i* con/itute ! goodness or badness ( _! gov]nm5t1 are 9 "s1 & no small degree1 influ5c$ by ^? among ! circum/ances act+ ^u !m1 :i* _c1 ) any propriety1 be includ$ 9 ! t]m self-int]e/4 ,turn+ n[ to ! o!r proposition1 t responsibility to ! gov]n$ is ! only cause capable ( produc+ 9 ! rul]s a s5se ( id5tity ( int]e/ ) ! community2 ?is is /ill less admissible z an univ]sal tru?1 ?an ev5 ! =m]4 ,i am n speak+ ( p]fect id5tity ( int]e/1 :i* is an impracticable *im]a2 :i*1 mo/ assur$ly1 responsibility to ! p does n give4 ,i speak ( id5tity 9 ess5tials2 & ! ess5tials are diff]5t at diff]5t places & times4 ,!re are a l>ge numb] ( cases 9 :i* ^? ?+s :i* x is mo/ = ! g5]al int]e/ t ! rul]s %\ld d1 are also ^? :i* !y are prompt$ to d by _! /ronge/ p]sonal int]e/1 ! consolidation ( _! p[]4 ,! suppression1 = in/ance1 ( an>*y & resi/ance to law1--! complete e/abli%m5t ( ! au?ority ( ! c5tral gov]nm5t1 9 a /ate ( society l t ( ,europe 9 ! middle ages1--is "o ( ! /ronge/ int]e/s ( ! p1 & also ( ! rul]s simply because !y are ! rul]s3 & responsibility on _! "p c\ld n /r5g!n1 ?\gh 9 _m conceivable ways x might weak51 ! motives prompt+ !m to pursue ?is object4 ,dur+ ! great] "p ( ! reign ( ,que5 ,elizabe?1 & ( _m o!r mon>*s :o might be nam$1 ! s5se ( id5tity ( int]e/ betwe5 ! sov]eign & ! majority ( ! p 0 probably /rong] ?an x usually is 9 responsible gov]nm5ts3 ev]y?+ t ! p _h mo/ at he>t1 ! mon>* _h at he>t too4 ,_h ,pet] ! ,great1 or ! rugg$ savages :om he began to civilize1 ! true/ incl9ation t[>ds ! ?+s :i* 7 = ! real int]e/ ( ^? savages8 ,i am n "h attempt+ to e/abli% a !ory ( gov]nm5t1 & am n call$ ^u to det]m9e ! proportional weight :i* ought to be giv5 to ! circum/ances :i* ?is s*ool ( geometrical politicians left out ( _! sy/em1 & ^? :i* !y took into x4 ,i am only conc]n$ to %[ t _! me?od 0 unsci5tific2 n to measure ! am\nt ( error :i* may h affect$ _! practical conclusions4 ,x is b ju/ice to !m1 h[ev]1 to rem>k1 t _! mi/ake 0 n s mu* "o ( sub/ance z ( =m2 & consi/$ 9 pres5t+ 9 a sy/ematic %ape1 & z ! sci5tific treatm5t ( a great philosophical "q1 :at %\ld h pass$ = t :i* x really 01 ! m]e polemics ( ! day4 ,al?\gh ! actions ( rul]s are by no means :olly det]m9$ by _! selfi% int]e/s1 x is *iefly z a security aga9/ ^? selfi% int]e/s t con/itutional *ecks are requir$2 & = t purpose su* *ecks1 9 ,engl&1 & ! o!r nations ( mod]n ,europe1 c 9 no mann] be disp5s$ )4 ,x is likewise true1 t 9 ^! same nations1 & 9 ! pres5t age1 responsibility to ! gov]n$ is ! only means practically available to create a feel+ ( id5tity ( int]e/1 9 ! cases1 & on ! po9ts1 :]e t feel+ does n suffici5tly exi/4 ,to all ?is1 & to ! argum5ts :i* may be f\nd$ on x 9 fav\r ( measures = ! correction ( our repres5tative sy/em1 ,i h no?+ to object2 b ,i confess my regret1 t ! small ?\gh highly important portion ( ! philosophy ( gov]nm5t1 :i* 0 want$ = ! imm$iate purpose ( s]v+ ! cause ( p>liam5t>y re=m1 %\ld h be5 held =? by ?9k]s ( su* em95ce z a complete !ory4 ,x is n to be imag9$ possible1 nor is x true 9 po9t ( fact1 t ^! philosoph]s reg>d$ ! few premises ( _! !ory z includ+ all t is requir$ = expla9+ social ph5om5a1 or = det]m9+ ! *oice ( =ms ( gov]nm5t & measures ( legislation & adm9i/ration4 ,!y 7 too highly in/ruct$1 ( too compreh5sive intellect1 & "s ( !m ( too sob] & practical a "*1 = su* an error4 ,!y w\ld h appli$ & did apply _! pr9ciples ) innum]able all[ances4 ,b x is n all[ances t are want$4 ,!re is little *ance ( mak+ due am5ds 9 ! sup]/ructure ( a !ory = ! want ( suffici5t bread? 9 its f\ndations4 ,x is unphilosophical to con/ruct a sci5ce out ( a few ( ! ag5cies by :i* ! ph5om5a are det]m9$1 & leave ! re/ to ! r\t9e ( practice or ! sagacity ( conjecture4 ,we ei!r ought n to pret5d to sci5tific =ms1 or we ought to /udy all ! det]m9+ ag5cies equally1 & endeav\r1 s f> z x c be done1 to include all ( !m )9 ! pale ( ! sci5ce2 else we %all infallibly be/[ a disproportionate att5tion ^u ^? :i* our !ory takes into acc\nt1 :ile we mise/imate ! re/1 & probably und]rate _! importance4 ,t ! d$uctions %\ld be f ! :ole & n f a "p only ( ! laws ( nature t are conc]n$1 w\ld be desirable ev5 if ^? omitt$ 7 s insignificant 9 comp>ison ) ! o!rs1 t !y might1 = mo/ purposes & on mo/ occasions1 be left out ( ! acc\nt4 ,b ?is is f> inde$ f be+ true 9 ! social sci5ce4 ,! ph5om5a ( society d n dep5d1 9 ess5tials1 on "s "o ag5cy or law ( human nature1 ) only inconsid]able modifications f o!rs4 ,! :ole ( ! qualities ( human nature influ5ce ^? ph5om5a1 & !re is n "o :i* influ5ces !m 9 a small degree4 ,!re is n "o1 ! removal or any great alt]ation ( :i* w\ld n mat]ially affect ! :ole aspect ( society1 & *ange m or less ! sequ5ces ( social ph5om5a g5]ally4 ,! !ory :i* has be5 ! subject ( ^! rem>ks is 9 ?is c\ntry at lea/1 ! pr9cipal cotempor>y example ( :at ,i h /yl$ ! geometrical me?od ( philosophiz+ 9 ! social sci5ce2 & our exam9ation ( x has1 = ?is reason1 be5 m detail$ ?an w\ld o!rwise h be5 suitable to a "w l ! pres5t4 ,hav+ n[ suffici5tly illu/rat$ ! two errone\s me?ods1 we %all pass )\t fur!r prelim9>y to ! true me?od2 t :i* proce$s 7con=mably to ! practice ( ! m complex physical sci5ces7 d$uctively inde$1 b by d$uction f _m1 n f "o or a v few1 orig9al premises2 consid]+ ea* effect z 7:at x really is7 an aggregate result ( _m causes1 op]at+ sometimes ?r\gh ! same1 sometimes ?r\gh diff]5t m5tal ag5cies1 or laws ( human nature4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,( ,,! ,,physical1 ,,or ,,concrete ,,d$uctive ,,me?od4 #a4 ,aft] :at has be5 said to illu/rate ! nature ( ! inquiry into social ph5om5a1 ! g5]al "* ( ! me?od prop] to t inquiry is suffici5tly evid5t1 & ne$s only to be recapitulat$1 n prov$4 ,h[ev] complex ! ph5om5a1 all _! sequ5ces & coexi/5ces result f ! laws ( ! sep>ate elem5ts4 ,! effect produc$1 9 social ph5om5a1 by any complex set ( circum/ances1 am\nts precisely to ! sum ( ! effects ( ! circum/ances tak5 s+ly3 & ! complexity does n arise f ! numb] ( ! laws !mselves1 :i* is n rem>kably great2 b f ! extraord9>y numb] & v>iety ( ! data or elem5ts--( ! ag5ts :i*1 9 ob$i5ce to t small numb] ( laws1 co-op]ate t[>ds ! effect4 ,! ,social ,sci5ce1 !re=e 7:i*1 by a conv5i5t b>b>ism1 has be5 t]m$ ,sociology17 is a d$uctive sci5ce2 n1 inde$1 aft] ! model ( geometry1 b aft] t ( ! m complex physical sci5ces4 ,x inf]s ! law ( ea* effect f ! laws ( causation on :i* t effect dep5ds2 n1 h[ev]1 f ! law m]ely ( "o cause1 z 9 ! geometrical me?od2 b by consid]+ all ! causes :i* conjunctly influ5ce ! effect1 & comp\nd+ _! laws ) "o ano!r4 ,its me?od1 9 %ort1 is ! ,concrete ,d$uctive ,me?od2 t ( :i* a/ronomy furni%es ! mo/ p]fect1 natural philosophy a some:at less p]fect example1 & ! employm5t ( :i*1 ) ! adaptations & precautions requir$ by ! subject1 is beg9n+ to reg5]ate physiology4 ,nor does x admit ( d\bt1 t simil> adaptations & precautions are indisp5sable 9 sociology4 ,9 apply+1 to t mo/ complex ( all /udies1 :at is demon/rably ! sole me?od capable ( ?r[+ ! light ( sci5ce ev5 ^u ph5om5a ( a f> inf]ior degree ( complication1 we ought to be aw>e t ! same sup]ior complexity :i* r5d]s ! in/rum5t ( ,d$uction m necess>y1 r5d]s x also m prec>i\s2 & we mu/ be prep>$ to meet1 by appropriate contrivances1 ?is increase ( difficulty4 ,! actions & feel+s ( human be+s 9 ! social /ate1 are1 no d\bt1 entirely gov]n$ by psy*ological & e?ological laws3 :atev] influ5ce any cause ex]cises ^u ! social ph5om5a1 x ex]cises ?r\gh ^? laws4 ,suppos+ !re=e ! laws ( human actions & feel+s to be suffici5tly kn[n1 !re is no extraord9>y difficulty 9 det]m9+ f ^? laws1 ! nature ( ! social effects :i* any giv5 cause t5ds to produce4 ,b :5 ! "q is t ( comp\nd+ sev]al t5d5cies toge!r1 & comput+ ! aggregate result ( _m coexi/5t causes2 & especially :51 by attempt+ to pr$ict :at w actually occur 9 a giv5 case1 we incur ! obligation ( e/imat+ & comp\nd+ ! influ5ces ( all ! causes :i* happ5 to exi/ 9 t case2 we attempt a task1 to proce$ f> 9 :i*1 surpasses ! compass ( ! human faculties4 ,if all ! res\rces ( sci5ce are n suffici5t to enable u to calculate priori1 ) complete precision1 ! mutual action ( ?ree bodies gravitat+ t[>ds "o ano!r2 x may be judg$ ) :at prospect ( success we %\ld endeav\r to calculate ! result ( ! conflict+ t5d5cies :i* are act+ 9 a ?\s& diff]5t directions & promot+ a ?\s& diff]5t *anges at a giv5 in/ant 9 a giv5 society3 al?\gh we might & ought to be able1 f ! laws ( human nature1 to di/+ui% correctly en\gh ! t5d5cies !mselves1 s f> z !y dep5d on causes accessible to our obs]vation2 & to det]m9e ! direction :i* ea* ( !m1 if act+ alone1 w\ld impress ^u society1 z well z1 9 a g5]al way at lea/1 to pron\nce t "s ( ^! t5d5cies are m p[]ful ?an o!rs4 ,b1 )\t dissembl+ ! necess>y imp]fections ( ! priori me?od :5 appli$ to su* a subject1 nei!r ought we1 on ! o!r h&1 to exagg]ate !m4 ,! same objections1 :i* apply to ! ,me?od ( ,d$uction 9 ?is its mo/ difficult employm5t1 apply to x1 z we =m]ly %[$1#i 9 its easie/2 & w\ld ev5 !re h be5 insup]able1 if !re _h n exi/$1 z 0 !n fully expla9$1 an appropriate rem$y4 ,?is rem$y consi/s 9 ! process :i*1 "u ! "n ( ,v]ification1 we h *>act]iz$ z ! ?ird ess5tial con/itu5t "p ( ! ,d$uctive ,me?od2 t ( collat+ ! conclusions ( ! ratioc9ation ei!r ) ! concrete ph5om5a !mselves1 or1 :5 su* are obta9able1 ) _! empirical laws4 ,! gr\nd ( confid5ce 9 any concrete d$uctive sci5ce is n ! priori reason+ itself1 b ! accordance betwe5 its results & ^? ( obs]vation po/]iori4 ,ei!r ( ^! processes1 ap>t f ! o!r1 dim9i%es 9 value z ! subject increases 9 complication1 & ?is 9 s rapid a ratio z soon to become entirely wor?less2 b ! reliance to be plac$ 9 ! concurr5ce ( ! two sorts ( evid5ce1 n only does n dim9i% 9 any?+ l ! same proportion1 b is n necess>ily mu* dim9i%$ at all4 ,no?+ m results ?an a di/urbance 9 ! ord] ( prec$5cy ( ! two processes1 sometimes am\nt+ to its actual inv]sion3 insomu* t in/ead ( d$uc+ our conclusions by reason+1 & v]ify+ !m by obs]vation1 we 9 "s cases beg9 by obta9+ !m conjecturally f specific exp]i5ce1 & aft]w>ds connect !m ) ! pr9ciples ( human nature by priori reason+s1 :i* reason+s are ?us a real ,v]ification4 ,! only ?9k] :o1 ) a compet5t k ( sci5tific me?ods 9 g5]al1 has attempt$ to *>act]ize ! ,me?od ( ,sociology1 ,m4 ,comte1 consid]s ?is inv]se ord] z insep>ably inh]5t 9 ! nature ( sociological speculation4 ,he looks ^u ! social sci5ce z ess5tially consi/+ ( g5]alizations f hi/ory1 v]ifi$1 n orig9ally sugge/$1 by d$uction f ! laws ( human nature4 ,?\gh !re is a tru? conta9$ 9 ?is op9ion1 ( :i* ,i %all pres5tly endeav\r to %[ ! importance1 ,i _c b ?9k t ?is tru? is enunciat$ 9 too unlimit$ a mann]1 & t !re is consid]able scope 9 sociological inquiry = ! direct1 z well z = ! inv]se1 ,d$uctive ,me?od4 ,x w1 9 fact1 be %[n 9 ! next *apt]1 t !re is a k9d ( sociological inquiries to :i*1 f _! prodigi\s complication1 ! me?od ( direct d$uction is altoge!r inapplicable1 :ile by a happy comp5sation x is precisely 9 ^! cases t we are able to obta9 ! be/ empirical laws3 to ^! inquiries1 !re=e1 ! ,inv]se ,me?od is exclusively adapt$4 ,b !re are also1 z w pres5tly appe>1 o!r cases 9 :i* x is impossible to obta9 f direct obs]vation any?+ wor?y ! "n ( an empirical law2 & x =tunately happ5s t ^! are ! v cases 9 :i* ! ,direct ,me?od is lea/ affect$ by ! objection :i* und\bt$ly mu/ always affect x 9 a c]ta9 degree4 ,we %all beg91 !n1 by look+ at ! ,social ,sci5ce z a sci5ce ( direct ,d$uction1 & consid]+ :at c be accompli%$ 9 x1 & "u :at limitations1 by t mode ( inve/igation4 ,we %all1 !n1 9 a sep>ate *apt]1 exam9e & endeav\r to *>act]ize ! inv]se process4 #b4 ,x is evid5t1 9 ! fir/ place1 t ,sociology1 consid]$ z a sy/em ( d$uctions priori1 _c be a sci5ce ( positive pr$ictions1 b only ( t5d5cies4 ,we may be able to conclude1 f ! laws ( human nature appli$ to ! circum/ances ( a giv5 /ate ( society1 t a p>ticul> cause w op]ate 9 a c]ta9 mann] unless c\nt]act$2 b we c nev] be assur$ to :at ext5t or am\nt x w s op]ate1 or affirm ) c]ta9ty t x w n be c\nt]act$2 because we c seldom "k1 ev5 approximately1 all ! ag5cies :i* may coexi/ ) x1 & /ill less calculate ! collective result ( s _m comb9$ elem5ts4 ,! rem>k1 h[ev]1 mu/ "h be once m repeat$1 t k insuffici5t = pr$iction may be mo/ valuable = guidance4 ,x is n necess>y = ! wise conduct ( ! affairs ( society1 no m ?an ( any "o's private conc]ns1 t we %\ld be able to =esee infallibly ! results ( :at we d4 ,we mu/ seek our objects by means :i* may p]haps be defeat$1 & take precautions aga9/ dang]s :i* possibly may nev] be realiz$4 ,! aim ( practical politics is to surr\nd any giv5 society ) ! greate/ possible numb] ( circum/ances ( :i* ! t5d5cies are b5eficial1 & to remove or c\nt]act1 z f> z practicable1 ^? ( :i* ! t5d5cies are injuri\s4 ,a k ( ! t5d5cies only1 ?\gh )\t ! p[] ( accurately pr$ict+ _! conjunct result1 gives u to a c]ta9 ext5t ?is p[]4 ,x w\ld1 h[ev]1 be an error to suppose t ev5 ) respect to t5d5cies1 we c\ld arrive 9 ?is mann] at any great numb] ( propositions :i* w be true 9 all societies )\t exception4 ,su* a supposition w\ld be inconsi/5t ) ! em95tly modifiable nature ( ! social ph5om5a1 & ! multitude & v>iety ( ! circum/ances by :i* !y are modifi$2 circum/ances nev] ! same1 or ev5 ne>ly ! same1 9 two diff]5t societies1 or 9 two diff]5t p]iods ( ! same society4 ,?is w\ld n be s s]i\s an ob/acle if1 ?\gh ! causes act+ ^u society 9 g5]al are num]\s1 ^? :i* influ5ce any "o feature ( society 7 limit$ 9 numb]2 = we might !n insulate any p>ticul> social ph5om5on1 & inve/igate its laws )\t di/urbance f ! re/4 ,b ! tru? is ! v opposite ( ?is4 ,:atev] affects1 9 an appreciable degree1 any "o elem5t ( ! social /ate1 affects ?r\gh x all ! o!r elem5ts4 ,! mode ( production ( all social ph5om5a is "o great case ( ,int]mixture ( ,laws4 ,we c nev] ei!r und]/& 9 !ory or comm& 9 practice ! condition ( a society 9 any "o respect1 )\t tak+ into consid]ation its condition 9 all o!r respects4 ,!re is no social ph5om5on :i* is n m or less influ5c$ by e o!r "p ( ! condition ( ! same society1 & !re=e by e cause :i* is influ5c+ any o!r ( ! contemporane\s social ph5om5a4 ,!re is1 9 %ort1 :at physiologi/s t]m a cons5sus1 simil> to t exi/+ among ! v>i\s organs & functions ( ! physical frame ( man & ! m p]fect animals2 & con/itut+ "o ( ! _m analogies :i* h r5d]$ univ]sal su* expressions z ! body politic & body natural4 ,x foll[s f ?is cons5sus1 t unless two societies c\ld be alike 9 all ! circum/ances :i* surr\nd & influ5ce !m1 7:i* w\ld imply _! be+ alike 9 _! previ\s hi/ory17 no portion :atev] ( ! ph5om5a w1 unless by accid5t1 precisely correspond2 no "o cause w produce exactly ! same effects 9 bo?4 ,e cause1 z its effect spreads ?r\gh society1 comes some:]e 9 contact ) diff]5t sets ( ag5cies1 & ?us has its effects on "s ( ! social ph5om5a diff]5tly modifi$2 & ^! diff]5ces1 by _! reaction1 produce a diff]5ce ev5 9 ^? ( ! effects :i* w\ld o!rwise h be5 ! same4 ,we c nev]1 !re=e1 affirm ) c]ta9ty t a cause :i* has a p>ticul> t5d5cy 9 "o p or 9 "o age w h exactly ! same t5d5cy 9 ano!r1 )\t ref]r+ back to our premises1 & p]=m+ ov] aga9 = ! second age or nation1 t analysis ( ! :ole ( its influ5c+ circum/ances :i* we _h already p]=m$ = ! fir/4 ,! d$uctive sci5ce ( society w n lay d[n a !orem1 ass]t+ 9 an univ]sal mann] ! effect ( any cause2 b w r tea* u h[ to frame ! prop] !orem = ! circum/ances ( any giv5 case4 ,x w n give ! laws ( society 9 g5]al1 b ! means ( det]m9+ ! ph5om5a ( any giv5 society f ! p>ticul> elem5ts or data ( t society4 ,all ! g5]al propositions :i* c be fram$ by ! d$uctive sci5ce1 are !re=e1 9 ! /ricte/ s5se ( ! ^w1 hypo!tical4 ,!y are gr\nd$ on "s supposititi\s set ( circum/ances1 & decl>e h[ "s giv5 cause w\ld op]ate 9 ^? circum/ances1 suppos+ t no o!rs 7 comb9$ ) !m4 ,if ! set ( circum/ances suppos$ h be5 copi$ f ^? ( any exi/+ society1 ! conclusions w be true ( t society1 provid$1 & 9 z f> z1 ! effect ( ^? circum/ances %all n be modifi$ by o!rs :i* h n be5 tak5 into ! acc\nt4 ,if we desire a ne>] approa* to concrete tru?1 we c only aim at x by tak+1 or endeav\r+ to take1 a great] numb] ( individualiz+ circum/ances into ! computation4 ,consid]+1 h[ev]1 9 h[ accel]at+ a ratio ! unc]ta9ty ( our conclusions increases1 z we attempt to take ! effect ( a great] numb] ( concurr5t causes into our calculations2 ! hypo!tical comb9ations ( circum/ances on :i* we con/ruct ! g5]al !orems ( ! sci5ce1 _c be made v complex1 )\t s rapidly-accumulat+ a liability to error z mu/ soon deprive our conclusions ( all value4 ,?is mode ( inquiry1 consid]$ z a means ( obta9+ g5]al propositions1 mu/1 !re=e1 on pa9 ( frivolity1 be limit$ to ^? classes ( social facts :i*1 ?\gh influ5c$ l ! re/ by all sociological ag5ts1 are "u ! imm$iate influ5ce1 pr9cipally at lea/1 ( a few only4 #c4 ,not)/&+ ! univ]sal cons5sus ( ! social ph5om5a1 :]eby no?+ :i* takes place 9 any "p ( ! op]ations ( society is )\t its %>e ( influ5ce on e o!r "p2 & not)/&+ ! p>am\nt asc5dancy :i* ! g5]al /ate ( civilization & social progress 9 any giv5 society mu/ h5ce ex]cise ov] all ! p>tial & subord9ate ph5om5a2 x is n ! less true t diff]5t species ( social facts are 9 ! ma9 dep5d5t1 imm$iately & 9 ! fir/ resort1 on diff]5t k9ds ( causes2 & !re=e n only may ) advantage1 b mu/1 be /udi$ ap>t3 j z 9 ! natural body we /udy sep>ately ! physiology & pa?ology ( ea* ( ! pr9cipal organs & tissues1 ?\gh e "o is act$ ^u by ! /ate ( all ! o!rs3 & ?\gh ! peculi> con/itution & g5]al /ate ( heal? ( ! organism co-op]ates )1 & (t5 prepond]ates ov]1 ! local causes1 9 det]m9+ ! /ate ( any p>ticul> organ4 ,on ^! consid]ations is gr\nd$ ! exi/5ce ( di/9ct & sep>ate1 ?\gh n indep5d5t1 bran*es or dep>tm5ts ( sociological speculation4 ,!re is1 = example1 "o l>ge class ( social ph5om5a1 9 :i* ! imm$iately det]m9+ causes are pr9cipally ^? :i* act ?r\gh ! desire ( weal?2 & 9 :i* ! psy*ological law ma9ly conc]n$ is ! famili> "o1 t a great] ga9 is pref]r$ to a small]4 ,i mean1 ( c\rse1 t portion ( ! ph5om5a ( society :i* emanate f ! indu/rial1 or productive1 op]ations ( mank9d2 & f ^? ( _! acts ?r\gh :i* ! di/ribution ( ! products ( ^? indu/rial op]ations takes place1 9 s f> z n effect$ by =ce1 or modifi$ by volunt>y gift4 ,by reason+ f t "o law ( human nature1 & f ! pr9cipal outw>d circum/ances 7:e!r univ]sal or conf9$ to p>ticul> /ates ( society7 :i* op]ate ^u ! human m9d ?r\gh t law1 we may be enabl$ to expla9 & pr$ict ?is portion ( ! ph5om5a ( society1 s f> z !y dep5d on t class ( circum/ances only2 ov]look+ ! influ5ce ( any o!r ( ! circum/ances ( society2 & !re=e nei!r trac+ back ! circum/ances :i* we d take into acc\nt1 to _! possible orig9 9 "s o!r facts 9 ! social /ate1 nor mak+ all[ance = ! mann] 9 :i* any ( ^? o!r circum/ances may int]f]e )1 & c\nt]act or modify1 ! effect ( ! =m]4 ,a sci5ce may ?us be con/ruct$1 :i* has receiv$ ! "n ( ,political ,economy4 ,! motive :i* sugge/s ! sep>ation ( ?is portion ( ! social ph5om5a f ! re/1 & ! creation ( a di/9ct sci5ce relat+ to !m is1--t !y d ma9ly dep5d1 at lea/ 9 ! fir/ resort1 on "o class ( circum/ances only2 & t ev5 :5 o!r circum/ances int]f]e1 ! asc]ta9m5t ( ! effect due to ! "o class ( circum/ances alone1 is a suffici5tly intricate & difficult bus9ess to make x exp$i5t to p]=m x once = all1 & !n all[ = ! effect ( ! modify+ circum/ances2 especially z c]ta9 fix$ comb9ations ( ! =m] are apt to recur (t51 9 conjunction ) ev]-v>y+ circum/ances ( ! latt] class4 ,political ,economy1 z ,i h said on ano!r occasion1 conc]ns itself only ) su* ( ! ph5om5a ( ! social /ate z take place 9 consequ5ce ( ! pursuit ( weal?4 ,x makes entire ab/raction ( e o!r human passion or motive2 except ^? :i* may be reg>d$ z p]petually antagoniz+ pr9ciples to ! desire ( weal?1 namely1 av]sion to lab\r1 & desire ( ! pres5t enjoym5t ( co/ly indulg5ces4 ,^! x takes1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 into its calculations1 because ^! d n m]ely1 l our o!r desires1 occasionally conflict ) ! pursuit ( weal?1 b accompany x always z a drag or imp$im5t1 & are !re=e insep>ably mix$ up 9 ! consid]ation ( x4 ,political ,economy consid]s mank9d z occupi$ solely 9 acquir+ & consum+ weal?2 & aims at %[+ :at is ! c\rse ( action into :i* mank9d1 liv+ 9 a /ate ( society1 w\ld be impell$1 if t motive1 except 9 ! degree 9 :i* x is *eck$ by ! two p]petual c\nt]-motives above adv]t$ to1 7 absolute rul] ( all _! actions4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( ?is desire1 x %[s mank9d accumulat+ weal?1 & employ+ t weal? 9 ! production ( o!r weal?2 sanction+ by mutual agreem5t ! in/itution ( prop]ty2 e/abli%+ laws to prev5t individuals f encroa*+ ^u ! prop]ty ( o!rs by =ce or fraud2 adopt+ v>i\s contrivances = increas+ ! productiv5ess ( _! lab\r2 settl+ ! division ( ! produce by agreem5t1 "u ! influ5ce ( competition 7competition itself be+ gov]n$ by c]ta9 laws1 :i* laws are !re=e ! ultimate regulators ( ! division ( ! produce72 & employ+ c]ta9 exp$i5ts 7z money1 cr$it1 c47 to facilitate ! di/ribution4 ,all ^! op]ations1 ?\gh _m ( !m are really ! result ( a plurality ( motives1 are consid]$ by political economy z fl[+ solely f ! desire ( weal?4 ,! sci5ce !n proce$s to inve/igate ! laws :i* gov]n ^! sev]al op]ations1 "u ! supposition t man is a be+ :o is det]m9$1 by ! necessity ( 8 nature1 to pref] a great] portion ( weal? to a small]1 9 all cases1 )\t any o!r exception ?an t con/itut$ by ! two c\nt]-motives already specifi$4 ,n t any political economi/ 0 ev] s absurd z to suppose t mank9d are really ?us con/itut$1 b because ?is is ! mode 9 :i* sci5ce mu/ necess>ily proce$4 ,:5 an effect dep5ds on a concurr5ce ( causes1 ^! causes mu/ be /udi$ "o at a "t1 & _! laws sep>ately inve/igat$1 if we wi%1 ?r\gh ! causes1 to obta9 ! p[] ( ei!r pr$ict+ or controll+ ! effect2 s9ce ! law ( ! effect is comp\nd$ ( ! laws ( all ! causes :i* det]m9e x4 ,! law ( ! c5tripetal & t ( ! projectile =ce mu/ h be5 kn[n1 be=e ! motions ( ! e>? & planets c\ld be expla9$1 or _m ( !m pr$ict$4 ,! same is ! case ) ! conduct ( man 9 society4 ,9 ord] to judge h[ he w act "u ! v>iety ( desires & av]sions :i* are concurr5tly op]at+ ^u him1 we mu/ "k h[ he w\ld act "u ! exclusive influ5ce ( ea* "o 9 p>ticul>4 ,!re is1 p]haps1 no action ( a man's life 9 :i* he is nei!r "u ! imm$iate nor "u ! remote influ5ce ( any impulse b ! m]e desire ( weal?4 ,) respect to ^? p>ts ( human conduct ( :i* weal? is n ev5 ! pr9cipal object1 to ^! political economy does n pret5d t its conclusions are applicable4 ,b !re are also c]ta9 dep>tm5ts ( human affairs1 9 :i* ! acquisition ( weal? is ! ma9 & ackn[l$g$ end4 ,x is only ( ^! t political economy takes notice4 ,! mann] 9 :i* x necess>ily proce$s is t ( treat+ ! ma9 & ackn[l$g$ end z if x 7 ! sole end2 :i*1 ( all hypo!ses equally simple1 is ! ne>e/ to ! tru?4 ,! political economi/ inquires1 :at are ! actions :i* w\ld be produc$ by ?is desire1 if )9 ! dep>tm5ts 9 "q x 7 unimp$$ by any o!r4 ,9 ?is way a ne>] approximation is obta9$ ?an w\ld o!rwise be practicable to ! real ord] ( human affairs 9 ^? dep>tm5ts4 ,?is approximation has !n to be correct$ by mak+ prop] all[ance = ! effects ( any impulses ( a diff]5t description1 :i* c be %[n to int]f]e ) ! result 9 any p>ticul> case4 ,only 9 a few ( ! mo/ /rik+ cases 7su* z ! important "o ( ! pr9ciple ( population7 are ^! corrections int]polat$ into ! expositions ( political economy itself2 ! /rictness ( purely sci5tific arrangem5t be+ !reby some:at dep>t$ f1 = ! sake ( practical utility4 ,s f> z x is kn[n or may be presum$1 t ! conduct ( mank9d 9 ! pursuit ( weal? is "u ! collat]al influ5ce ( any o!r ( ! prop]ties ( our nature1 ?an ! desire ( obta9+ ! greate/ quantity ( weal? ) ! lea/ lab\r & self-d5ial1 ! conclusions ( political economy w s f> fail ( be+ applicable to ! explanation or pr$iction ( real ev5ts1 until !y are modifi$ by a correct all[ance = ! degree ( influ5ce ex]cis$ by ! o!r cause4#aj ,ext5sive & important practical guidance may be d]iv$1 9 any giv5 /ate ( society1 f g5]al propositions su* z ^? above indicat$2 ev5 ?\gh ! modify+ influ5ce ( ! miscellane\s causes :i* ! !ory does n take into acc\nt1 z well z ! effect ( ! g5]al social *anges 9 progress1 be provisionally ov]look$4 ,& ?\gh x has be5 a v common error ( political economi/s to draw conclusions f ! elem5ts ( "o /ate ( society1 & apply !m to o!r /ates 9 :i* _m ( ! elem5ts are n ! same2 x is ev5 !n n difficult1 by trac+ back ! demon/rations1 & introduc+ ! new premises 9 _! prop] places1 to make ! same g5]al c\rse ( argum5t :i* s]v$ = ! "o case1 s]ve = ! o!rs too4 ,= example1 x has be5 greatly ! cu/om ( ,engli% political economi/s to discuss ! laws ( ! di/ribution ( ! produce ( indu/ry1 on a supposition :i* is sc>cely realiz$ any:]e out ( ,engl& & ,scotl&1 namely1 t ! produce is %>$ among ?ree classes1 altoge!r di/9ct f "o ano!r1 lab\r]s1 capitali/s1 & l&lords2 & t all ^! are free ag5ts1 p]mitt$ 9 law & 9 fact to set ^u _! lab\r1 _! capital1 & _! l&1 :atev] price !y are able to get = x4 ,! conclusions ( ! sci5ce1 be+ all adapt$ to a society ?us con/itut$1 require to be revis$ :5ev] !y are appli$ to any o!r4 ,!y are inapplicable :]e ! only capitali/s are ! l&lords1 & ! lab\r]s are _! prop]ty1 z 9 slave c\ntries4 ,!y are inapplicable :]e ! almo/ univ]sal l&lord is ! /ate z 9 ,india4 ,!y are inapplicable :]e ! agricultural lab\r] is g5]ally ! own] bo? ( ! l& itself & ( ! capital1 z frequ5tly 9 ,france1 or ( ! capital only1 z 9 ,irel&4 ,b ?\gh x may (t5 be v ju/ly object$ to ! exi/+ race ( political economi/s t !y attempt to con/ruct a p]man5t fabric out ( transitory mat]ials2 t !y take = grant$ ! immutability ( arrangem5ts ( society1 _m ( :i* are 9 _! nature fluctuat+ or progressive1 & enunciate ) z little qualification z if !y 7 univ]sal & absolute tru?s1 propositions :i* are p]haps applicable to no /ate ( society except ! p>ticul> "o 9 :i* ! writ] happ5$ to live2 ?is does n take away ! value ( ! propositions1 consid]$ ) ref]5ce to ! /ate ( society f :i* !y 7 drawn4 ,& ev5 z applicable to o!r /ates ( society1 x mu/ n be suppos$ t ! sci5ce is s incomplete & unsatisfactory z ?is might seem to prove4 ,?\gh _m ( its conclusions are only locally true1 its me?od ( inve/igation is applicable univ]sally2 & z :oev] has solv$ a c]ta9 numb] ( algebraic equations1 c )\t difficulty solve all o!rs ( ! same k9d1 s :oev] kn[s ! political economy ( ,engl&1 or ev5 ( ,york%ire1 kn[s t ( all nations1 actual or possible1 provid$ he h good s5se en\gh n to expect ! same conclusion to issue f v>y+ premises4 ,:oev] is ?or\ghly ma/] ( ! laws :i*1 "u free competition1 det]m9e ! r5t1 pr(its1 & wages1 receiv$ by l&lords1 capitali/s1 & lab\r]s1 9 a /ate ( society 9 :i* ! ?ree classes are completely sep>ate1 w h no difficulty 9 det]m9+ ! v diff]5t laws :i* regulate ! di/ribution ( ! produce among ! classes int]e/$ 9 x1 9 any ( ! /ates ( cultivation & l&$ prop]ty set =? 9 ! =ego+ extract4#aa #d4 ,i w\ld n "h und]take to decide :at o!r hypo!tical or ab/ract sci5ces simil> to ,political ,economy1 may admit ( be+ c>v$ out ( ! g5]al body ( ! social sci5ce2 :at o!r portions ( ! social ph5om5a are 9 a suffici5tly close & complete dep5d5ce1 9 ! fir/ resort1 on a peculi> class ( causes1 to make x conv5i5t to create a prelim9>y sci5ce ( ^? causes2 po/pon+ ! consid]ation ( ! causes :i* act ?r\gh !m1 or 9 concurr5ce ) !m1 to a lat] p]iod ( ! inquiry4 ,!re is h[ev] among ^! sep>ate dep>tm5ts "o :i* _c be pass$ ov] 9 sil5ce1 be+ ( a m compreh5sive & comm&+ "* ?an any ( ! o!r bran*es into :i* ! social sci5ce may admit ( be+ divid$4 ,l !m1 x is directly conv]sant ) ! causes ( only "o class ( social facts1 b a class :i* ex]cises1 imm$iately or remotely1 a p>am\nt influ5ce ov] ! re/4 ,i allude to :at may be t]m$ ,political ,e?ology1 or ! !ory ( ! causes :i* det]m9e ! type ( "* belong+ to a p or to an age4 ,( all ! subord9ate bran*es ( ! social sci5ce1 ?is is ! mo/ completely 9 its infancy4 ,! causes ( national "* are sc>cely at all und]/ood1 & ! effect ( in/itutions or social arrangem5ts ^u ! "* ( ! p is g5]ally t portion ( _! effects :i* is lea/ att5d$ to1 & lea/ compreh5d$4 ,nor is ?is wond]ful1 :5 we consid] ! infant /ate ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,e?ology itself1 f :5ce ! laws mu/ be drawn1 ( :i* ! tru?s ( political e?ology c be b results & exemplifications4 ,yet to :oev] well consid]s ! matt]1 x mu/ appe> t ! laws ( national 7or collective7 "* are by f> ! mo/ important class ( sociological laws4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! "* :i* is =m$ by any /ate ( social circum/ances is 9 itself ! mo/ int]e/+ ph5om5on :i* t /ate ( society c possibly pres5t4 ,secondly1 x is also a fact :i* ent]s l>gely into ! production ( all ! o!r ph5om5a4 ,& above all1 ! "*1 t is1 ! op9ions1 feel+s1 & habits1 ( ! p1 ?\gh greatly ! results ( ! /ate ( society :i* prec$es !m1 are also greatly ! causes ( ! /ate ( society :i* foll[s !m2 & are ! p[] by :i* all ^? ( ! circum/ances ( society :i* are artificial1 laws & cu/oms = in/ance1 are altoge!r m\ld$3 cu/oms evid5tly1 laws no less really1 ei!r by ! direct influ5ce ( public s5tim5t ^u ! rul+ p[]s1 or by ! effect :i* ! /ate ( national op9ion & feel+ has 9 det]m9+ ! =m ( gov]nm5t & %ap+ ! "* ( ! gov]nors4 ,z might be expect$1 ! mo/ imp]fect "p ( ^? bran*es ( social inquiry :i* h be5 cultivat$ z sep>ate sci5ces1 is ! !ory ( ! mann] 9 :i* _! conclusions are affect$ by e?ological consid]ations4 ,! omission is no defect 9 !m z ab/ract or hypo!tical sci5ces1 b x vitiates !m 9 _! practical application z bran*es ( a compreh5sive social sci5ce4 ,9 political economy = in/ance1 empirical laws ( human nature are tacitly assum$ by ,engli% ?9k]s1 :i* are calculat$ only = ,great ,brita9 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,among o!r ?+s1 an int5sity ( competition is con/antly suppos$1 :i*1 z a g5]al m]cantile fact1 exi/s 9 no c\ntry 9 ! _w except ^? two4 ,an ,engli% political economi/1 l 8 c\ntrym5 9 g5]al1 has seldom le>n$ t x is possible t m51 9 conduct+ ! bus9ess ( sell+ _! goods ov] a c\nt]1 %\ld c>e m ab\t _! ease or _! vanity ?an ab\t _! pecuni>y ga94 ,yet ^? :o "k ! habits ( ! ,cont95t ( ,europe are aw>e h[ app>5tly small a motive (t5 outweighs ! desire ( money-gett+1 ev5 9 ! op]ations :i* h money-gett+ = _! direct object4 ,! m highly ! sci5ce ( e?ology is cultivat$1 & ! bett] ! div]sities ( individual & national "* are und]/ood1 ! small]1 probably1 w ! numb] ( propositions become1 :i* x w be consid]$ safe to build on z univ]sal pr9ciples ( human nature4 ,^! consid]ations %[ t ! process ( divid+ (f ! social sci5ce into comp>tm5ts1 9 ord] t ea* may be /udi$ sep>ately1 & its conclusions aft]w>ds correct$ = practice by ! modifications suppli$ by ! o!rs1 mu/ be subject to at lea/ "o important limitation4 ,^? portions alone ( ! social ph5om5a c ) advantage be made ! subjects1 ev5 provisionally1 ( di/9ct bran*es ( sci5ce1 into :i* ! div]sities ( "* betwe5 diff]5t nations or diff]5t times ent] z influ5c+ causes only 9 a second>y degree4 ,^? ph5om5a1 on ! contr>y1 ) :i* ! influ5ces ( ! e?ological /ate ( ! p are mix$ up at e /ep 7s t ! connexion ( effects & causes _c be ev5 rudely m>k$ out )\t tak+ ^? influ5ces into consid]ation7 c\ld n ) any advantage1 nor )\t great disadvantage1 be treat$ indep5d5tly ( political e?ology1 nor1 !re=e1 ( all ! circum/ances by :i* ! qualities ( a p are influ5c$4 ,= ?is reason 7z well z = o!rs :i* w h]eaft] appe>7 !re c be no sep>ate ,sci5ce ( ,gov]nm5t2 t be+ ! fact :i*1 ( all o!rs1 is mo/ mix$ up1 bo? z cause & effect1 ) ! qualities ( ! p>ticul> p or ( ! p>ticul> age4 ,all que/ions respect+ ! t5d5cies ( =ms ( gov]nm5t mu/ /& "p ( ! g5]al sci5ce ( society1 n ( any sep>ate bran* ( x4 ,?is g5]al ,sci5ce ( ,society1 z di/+ui%$ f ! sep>ate dep>tm5ts ( ! sci5ce 7ea* ( :i* ass]ts its conclusions only conditionally1 subject to ! p>am\nt control ( ! laws ( ! g5]al sci5ce7 n[ rema9s to be *>act]iz$4 ,& z w be %[n pres5tly1 no?+ ( a really sci5tific "* is "h possible1 except by ! inv]se d$uctive me?od4 ,b be=e we quit ! subject ( ^? sociological speculations :i* proce$ by way ( direct d$uction1 we mu/ exam9e 9 :at relation !y /& to t indisp5sable elem5t 9 all d$uctive sci5ces1 ,v]ification by ,specific ,exp]i5ce--comp>ison betwe5 ! conclusions ( reason+ & ! results ( obs]vation4 #e4 ,we h se5 t1 9 mo/ d$uctive sci5ces1 & among ! re/ 9 ,e?ology itself1 :i* is ! imm$iate f\ndation ( ! ,social ,sci5ce1 a prelim9>y "w ( prep>ation is p]=m$ on ! obs]v$ facts1 to fit !m = be+ rapidly & accurately collat$ 7sometimes ev5 = be+ collat$ at all7 ) ! conclusions ( !ory4 ,?is prep>atory treatm5t consi/s 9 f9d+ g5]al propositions :i* express concisely :at is common to l>ge classes ( obs]v$ facts3 & ^! are call$ ! empirical laws ( ! ph5om5a4 ,we h1 !re=e1 to inquire1 :e!r any simil> prep>atory process c be p]=m$ on ! facts ( ! social sci5ce2 :e!r !re are any empirical laws 9 hi/ory or /ati/ics4 ,9 /ati/ics1 x is evid5t t empirical laws may sometimes be trac$2 & ! trac+ !m =ms an important "p ( t sy/em ( indirect obs]vation on :i* we mu/ (t5 rely = ! data ( ! ,d$uctive ,sci5ce4 ,! process ( ! sci5ce consi/s 9 inf]r+ effects f _! causes2 b we h (t5 no means ( obs]v+ ! causes1 except ?r\gh ! m$ium ( _! effects4 ,9 su* cases ! d$uctive sci5ce is unable to pr$ict ! effects1 = want ( ! necess>y data2 x c det]m9e :at causes are capable ( produc+ any giv5 effect1 b n ) :at frequ5cy & 9 :at quantities ^? causes exi/4 ,an in/ance 9 po9t is af=d$ by a newspap] n[ ly+ be=e me4 ,a /atem5t 0 furni%$ by "o ( ! (ficial assignees 9 bankruptcy1 %[+ among ! v>i\s bankruptcies :i* x _h be5 8 duty to inve/igate1 9 h[ _m cases ! losses _h be5 caus$ by misconduct ( diff]5t k9ds1 & 9 h[ _m by unavoidable mis=tunes4 ,! result 01 t ! numb] ( failures caus$ by misconduct greatly prepond]at$ ov] ^? aris+ f all o!r causes :atev]4 ,no?+ b specific exp]i5ce c\ld h giv5 suffici5t gr\nd = a conclusion to ?is purport4 ,to collect1 !re=e1 su* empirical laws 7:i* are nev] m ?an approximate g5]alizations7 f direct obs]vation1 is an important "p ( ! process ( sociological inquiry4 ,! exp]im5tal process is n "h to be reg>d$ z a di/9ct road to ! tru?1 b z a means 7happ5+ accid5tally to be ! only1 or ! be/1 available7 = obta9+ ! necess>y data = ! d$uctive sci5ce4 ,:5 ! imm$iate causes ( social facts are n op5 to direct obs]vation1 ! empirical law ( ! effects gives u ! empirical law 7:i* 9 t case is all t we c obta97 ( ! causes likewise4 ,b ^? imm$iate causes dep5d on remote causes2 & ! empirical law1 obta9$ by ?is indirect mode ( obs]vation1 c only be reli$ on z applicable to unobs]v$ cases1 s long z !re is reason to ?9k t no *ange has tak5 place 9 any ( ! remote causes on :i* ! imm$iate causes dep5d4 ,9 mak+ use1 !re=e1 ( ev5 ! be/ /ati/ical g5]alizations = ! purpose ( inf]r+ 7?\gh x be only conjecturally7 t ! same empirical laws w hold 9 any new case1 x is necess>y t we be well acqua9t$ ) ! remot] causes1 9 ord] t we may avoid apply+ ! empirical law to cases :i* diff] 9 any ( ! circum/ances on :i* ! tru? ( ! law ultimately dep5ds4 ,& ?us1 ev5 :]e conclusions d]iv$ f specific obs]vation are available = practical inf]5ces 9 new cases1 x is necess>y t ! d$uctive sci5ce %\ld /& s5t9el ov] ! :ole process2 t x %\ld be con/antly ref]r$ to1 & its sanction obta9$ to e inf]5ce4 ,! same ?+ holds true ( all g5]alizations :i* c be gr\nd$ on hi/ory4 ,n only !re are su* g5]alizations1 b x w pres5tly be %[n t ! g5]al sci5ce ( society1 :i* inquires into ! laws ( succession & coexi/5ce ( ! great facts con/itut+ ! /ate ( society & civilization at any "t1 c proce$ 9 no o!r mann] ?an by mak+ su* g5]alizations--aft]w>ds to be confirm$ by connect+ !m ) ! psy*ological & e?ological laws on :i* !y mu/ really dep5d4 #f4 ,b 7res]v+ ?is "q = its prop] place7 9 ^? m special inquiries :i* =m ! subject ( ! sep>ate bran*es ( ! social sci5ce1 ?is tw(old logical process & reciprocal v]ification is n possible3 specific exp]i5ce af=ds no?+ am\nt+ to empirical laws4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly ! case :]e ! object is to det]m9e ! effect ( any "o social cause among a great numb] act+ simultane\sly2 ! effect1 = example1 ( corn laws1 or ( a prohibitive comm]cial sy/em g5]ally4 ,?\gh x may be p]fectly c]ta91 f !ory1 :at k9d ( effects corn laws mu/ produce1 & 9 :at g5]al direction _! influ5ce mu/ tell ^u indu/rial prosp]ity2 _! effect is yet ( necessity s mu* disguis$ by ! simil> or contr>y effects ( o!r influ5c+ ag5ts1 t specific exp]i5ce c at mo/ only %[ t on ! av]age ( "s great numb] ( in/ances1 ! cases :]e !re 7 corn laws exhibit$ ! effect 9 a great] degree ?an ^? :]e !re 7 n4 ,n[ ! numb] ( in/ances necess>y to exhau/ ! :ole r\nd ( comb9ations ( ! v>i\s influ5tial circum/ances1 & ?us af=d a fair av]age1 nev] c be obta9$4 ,n only we c nev] le>n ) suffici5t au!nticity ! facts ( s _m in/ances1 b ! _w itself does n af=d !m 9 suffici5t numb]s1 )9 ! limits ( ! giv5 /ate ( society & civilization :i* su* inquiries always presuppose4 ,hav+ ?us no previ\s empirical g5]alizations ) :i* to collate ! conclusions ( !ory1 ! only mode ( direct v]ification :i* rema9s is to comp>e ^? conclusions ) ! result ( an individual exp]im5t or in/ance4 ,b "h ! difficulty is equally great4 ,= 9 ord] to v]ify a !ory by an exp]im5t1 ! circum/ances ( ! exp]im5t mu/ be exactly ! same ) ^? contemplat$ 9 ! !ory4 ,b 9 social ph5om5a ! circum/ances ( no two cases are exactly alike4 ,a trial ( corn laws 9 ano!r c\ntry or 9 a =m] g5]ation1 w\ld g a v little way t[>ds v]ify+ a conclusion drawn respect+ _! effect 9 ?is g5]ation & 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,x ?us happ5s1 9 mo/ cases1 t ! only individual in/ance really fitt$ to v]ify ! pr$ictions ( !ory is ! v in/ance = :i* ! pr$ictions 7 made2 & ! v]ification comes too late to be ( any avail = practical guidance4 ,al?\gh1 h[ev]1 direct v]ification is impossible1 !re is an indirect v]ification1 :i* is sc>cely ( less value1 & :i* is always practicable4 ,! conclusion drawn z to ! individual case1 c only be directly v]ifi$ 9 t case2 b x is v]ifi$ indirectly1 by ! v]ification ( o!r conclusions1 drawn 9 o!r individual cases f ! same laws4 ,! exp]i5ce :i* comes too late to v]ify ! p>ticul> proposition to :i* x ref]s1 is n too late to help t[>ds v]ify+ ! g5]al suffici5cy ( ! !ory4 ,! te/ ( ! degree 9 :i* ! sci5ce af=ds safe gr\nd = pr$ict+ 7& consequ5tly = practically deal+ )7 :at has n yet happ5$1 is ! degree 9 :i* x w\ld h enabl$ u to pr$ict :at has actually occurr$4 ,be=e our !ory ( ! influ5ce ( a p>ticul> cause1 9 a giv5 /ate ( circum/ances1 c be entirely tru/$1 we mu/ be able to expla9 & acc\nt = ! exi/+ /ate ( all t portion ( ! social ph5om5a :i* t cause has a t5d5cy to influ5ce4 ,if1 = in/ance1 we w\ld apply our speculations 9 political economy to ! pr$iction or guidance ( ! ph5om5a ( any c\ntry1 we mu/ be able to expla9 all ! m]cantile or indu/rial facts ( a g5]al "*1 app]ta9+ to ! pres5t /ate ( t c\ntry3 to po9t out causes suffici5t to acc\nt = all ( !m1 & prove1 or %[ good gr\nd = suppos+1 t ^! causes h really exi/$4 ,if we _c d ?is1 x is a pro( ei!r t ! facts :i* ought to be tak5 into acc\nt are n yet completely kn[n to u1 or t al?\gh we "k ! facts1 we are n ma/]s ( a suffici5tly p]fect !ory to enable u to assign _! consequ5ces4 ,9 ei!r case we are n1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k1 fully compet5t to draw conclusions1 speculative or practical1 = t c\ntry4 ,9 l mann] if we w\ld attempt to judge ( ! effect :i* any political in/itution w\ld h1 suppos+ t x c\ld be introduc$ into any giv5 c\ntry2 we mu/ be able to %[ t ! exi/+ /ate ( ! practical gov]nm5t ( t c\ntry1 & ( :atev] else dep5ds !reon1 toge!r ) ! p>ticul> "* & t5d5cies ( ! p1 & _! /ate 9 respect to ! v>i\s elem5ts ( social well-be+1 are su* z ! in/itutions !y h liv$ "u1 9 conjunction ) ! o!r circum/ances ( _! nature or ( _! position1 7 calculat$ to produce4 ,to prove 79 %ort7 t our sci5ce1 & our k ( ! p>ticul> case1 r5d] u compet5t to pr$ict ! future1 we mu/ %[ t !y w\ld h enabl$ u to pr$ict ! pres5t & ! pa/4 ,if !re be any?+ :i* we c\ld n h pr$ict$1 ?is con/itutes a residual ph5om5on1 requir+ fur!r /udy = ! purpose ( explanation2 & we mu/ ei!r se>* among ! circum/ances ( ! p>ticul> case until we f9d "o :i*1 on ! pr9ciples ( our exi/+ !ory1 acc\nts = ! unexpla9$ ph5om5on1 or we mu/ turn back1 & seek ! explanation by an ext5sion & improvem5t ( ! !ory itself4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,( ,,! ,,inv]se ,,d$uctive1 ,,or ,,hi/orical ,,me?od4 #a4 ,!re are two k9ds ( sociological inquiry4 ,9 ! fir/ k9d1 ! "q propos$ is1 :at effect w foll[ f a giv5 cause1 a c]ta9 g5]al condition ( social circum/ances be+ presuppos$4 ,z1 = example1 :at w\ld be ! effect ( impos+ or ( repeal+ corn laws1 ( aboli%+ mon>*y or introduc+ univ]sal suffrage1 9 ! pres5t condition ( society & civilization 9 any ,european c\ntry1 or "u any o!r giv5 supposition ) reg>d to ! circum/ances ( society 9 g5]al3 )\t ref]5ce to ! *anges :i* might take place1 or :i* may already be 9 progress1 9 ^? circum/ances4 ,b !re is also a second inquiry1 namely1 :at are ! laws :i* det]m9e ^? g5]al circum/ances !mselves4 ,9 ?is la/ ! "q is1 n :at w be ! effect ( a giv5 cause 9 a c]ta9 /ate ( society1 b :at are ! causes :i* produce1 & ! ph5om5a :i* *>act]ize1 ,/ates ( ,society g5]ally4 ,9 ! solution ( ?is "q consi/s ! g5]al ,sci5ce ( ,society2 by :i* ! conclusions ( ! o!r & m special k9d ( inquiry mu/ be limit$ & controll$4 #b4 ,9 ord] to conceive correctly ! scope ( ?is g5]al sci5ce1 & di/+ui% x f ! subord9ate dep>tm5ts ( sociological speculation1 x is necess>y to fix ! ideas atta*$ to ! phrase1 a ,/ate ( ,society4 ,:at is call$ a /ate ( society1 is ! simultane\s /ate ( all ! great] social facts or ph5om5a4 ,su* are1 ! degree ( k1 & ( intellectual & moral culture1 exi/+ 9 ! community1 & 9 e class ( x2 ! /ate ( indu/ry1 ( weal? & its di/ribution2 ! habitual occupations ( ! community2 _! division into classes1 & ! relations ( ^? classes to "o ano!r2 ! common beliefs :i* !y ent]ta9 on all ! subjects mo/ important to mank9d1 & ! degree ( assurance ) :i* ^? beliefs are held2 _! ta/es1 & ! "* & degree ( _! /hetic developm5t2 _! =m ( gov]nm5t1 & ! m important ( _! laws & cu/oms4 ,! condition ( all ^! ?+s1 & ( _m m :i* w readily sugge/ !mselves1 con/itute ! /ate ( society or ! /ate ( civilization at any giv5 "t4 ,:5 /ates ( society1 & ! causes :i* produce !m1 are spok5 ( z a subject ( sci5ce1 x is impli$ t !re exi/s a natural correlation among ^! diff]5t elem5ts2 t n e v>iety ( comb9ation ( ^! g5]al social facts is possible1 b only c]ta9 comb9ations2 t1 9 %ort1 !re exi/ ,uni=mities ( ,coexi/5ce betwe5 ! /ates ( ! v>i\s social ph5om5a4 ,& su* is ! tru?2 z is inde$ a necess>y consequ5ce ( ! influ5ce ex]cis$ by e "o ( ^? ph5om5a ov] e o!r4 ,x is a fact impli$ 9 ! cons5sus ( ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! social body4 ,/ates ( society are l diff]5t con/itutions or diff]5t ages 9 ! physical frame2 !y are conditions n ( "o or a few organs or functions1 b ( ! :ole organism4 ,accord+ly1 ! in=mation :i* we possess respect+ pa/ ages1 & respect+ ! v>i\s /ates ( society n[ exi/+ 9 diff]5t regions ( ! e>?1 does1 :5 duly analys$1 exhibit uni=mities4 ,x is f\nd t :5 "o ( ! features ( society is 9 a p>ticul> /ate1 a /ate ( _m o!r features1 m or less precisely det]m9ate1 always or usually coexi/s ) x4 ,b ! uni=mities ( coexi/5ce obta9+ among ph5om5a :i* are effects ( causes1 mu/ 7z we h s (t5 obs]v$7 be coroll>ies f ! laws ( causation by :i* ^! ph5om5a are really det]m9$4 ,! mutual correlation betwe5 ! diff]5t elem5ts ( ea* /ate ( society1 is !re=e a d]ivative law1 result+ f ! laws :i* regulate ! succession betwe5 "o /ate ( society & ano!r3 = ! proximate cause ( e /ate ( society is ! /ate ( society imm$iately prec$+ x4 ,! fundam5tal problem1 !re=e1 ( ! social sci5ce1 is to f9d ! laws accord+ to :i* any /ate ( society produces ! /ate :i* succe$s x & takes its place4 ,?is op5s ! great & vex$ "q ( ! progressiv5ess ( man & society2 an idea involv$ 9 e j conception ( social ph5om5a z ! subject ( a sci5ce4 #c4 ,x is "o ( ! *>act]s1 n absolutely peculi> to ! sci5ces ( human nature & society1 b belong+ to !m 9 a peculi> degree1 to be conv]sant ) a subject-matt] ^: prop]ties are *angeable4 ,i d n mean *angeable f day to day1 b f age to age2 s t n only ! qualities ( individuals v>y1 b ^? ( ! majority are n ! same 9 "o age z 9 ano!r4 ,! pr9cipal cause ( ?is peculi>ity is ! ext5sive & con/ant reaction ( ! effects ^u _! causes4 ,! circum/ances 9 :i* mank9d are plac$1 op]at+ accord+ to _! own laws & to ! laws ( human nature1 =m ! *>act]s ( ! human be+s2 b ! human be+s1 9 _! turn1 m\ld & %ape ! circum/ances1 = !mselves & = ^? :o come aft] !m4 ,f ?is reciprocal action !re mu/ necess>ily result ei!r a cycle or a progress4 ,9 a/ronomy also1 e fact is at once effect & cause2 ! successive positions ( ! v>i\s heav5ly bodies produce *anges bo? 9 ! direction & 9 ! int5sity ( ! =ces by :i* ^? positions are det]m9$4 ,b 9 ! case ( ! sol> sy/em1 ^! mutual actions br+ r\nd aga91 aft] a c]ta9 numb] ( *anges1 ! =m] /ate ( circum/ances2 :i* ( c\rse leads to ! p]petual recurr5ce ( ! same s]ies 9 an unv>y+ ord]4 ,^? bodies1 9 %ort1 revolve 9 orbits3 b !re are 7or1 con=mably to ! laws ( a/ronomy1 !re might be7 o!rs :i*1 in/ead ( an orbit1 describe a trajectory--a c\rse n return+ into itself4 ,"o or o!r ( ^! mu/ be ! type to :i* human affairs mu/ con=m4 ,"o ( ! ?9k]s :o e>lie/ conceiv$ ! succession ( hi/orical ev5ts z subject to fix$ laws1 & endeav\r$ to discov] ^! laws by an analytical survey ( hi/ory1 ,vico1 ! celebrat$ au?or ( ! ,sci5za ,nuova1 adopt$ ! =m] ( ^! op9ions4 ,he conceiv$ ! ph5om5a ( human society z revolv+ 9 an orbit2 z go+ ?r\gh p]iodically ! same s]ies ( *anges4 ,?\gh !re 7 n want+ circum/ances t5d+ to give "s plausibility to ?is view1 x w\ld n be> a close scrut9y3 & ^? :o h succe$$ ,vico 9 ?is k9d ( speculations h univ]sally adopt$ ! idea ( a trajectory or progress1 9 lieu ( an orbit or cycle4 ,! words ,progress & ,progressiv5ess are n "h to be und]/ood z synonym\s ) improvem5t & t5d5cy to improvem5t4 ,x is conceivable t ! laws ( human nature might det]m9e1 & ev5 necessitate1 a c]ta9 s]ies ( *anges 9 man & society1 :i* might n 9 e case1 or :i* might n on ! :ole1 be improvem5ts4 ,x is my belief inde$ t ! g5]al t5d5cy is1 & w cont9ue to be1 sav+ occasional & tempor>y exceptions1 "o ( improvem5t2 a t5d5cy t[>ds a bett] & happi] /ate4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n a "q ( ! me?od ( ! social sci5ce1 b a !orem ( ! sci5ce itself4 ,= our purpose x is suffici5t1 t !re is a progressive *ange bo? 9 ! "* ( ! human race1 & 9 _! outw>d circum/ances s f> z m\ld$ by !mselves3 t 9 ea* successive age ! pr9cipal ph5om5a ( society are diff]5t f :at !y 7 9 ! age prec$+1 & /ill m diff]5t f any previ\s age3 ! p]iods :i* mo/ di/9ctly m>k ^! successive *anges be+ int]vals ( "o g5]ation1 dur+ :i* a new set ( human be+s h be5 educat$1 h gr[n up f *ildhood1 & tak5 possession ( society4 ,! progressiv5ess ( ! human race is ! f\ndation on :i* a me?od ( philosophiz+ 9 ! social sci5ce has be5 ( late ye>s erect$1 f> sup]ior to ei!r ( ! two modes :i* _h previ\sly be5 preval5t1 ! *emical or exp]im5tal1 & ! geometrical modes4 ,?is me?od1 :i* is n[ g5]ally adopt$ by ! mo/ advanc$ ?9k]s on ! ,cont95t1 consi/s 9 attempt+1 by a /udy & analysis ( ! g5]al facts ( hi/ory1 to discov] 7:at ^! philosoph]s t]m7 ! law ( progress3 :i* law1 once asc]ta9$1 mu/ accord+ to !m enable u to pr$ict future ev5ts1 j z aft] a few t]ms ( an inf9ite s]ies 9 algebra we are able to detect ! pr9ciple ( regul>ity 9 _! =mation1 & to pr$ict ! re/ ( ! s]ies to any numb] ( t]ms we please4 ,! pr9cipal aim ( hi/orical speculation 9 ,france1 ( late ye>s1 has be5 to asc]ta9 ?is law4 ,b :ile ,i gladly ackn[l$ge ! great s]vices :i* h be5 r5d]$ to hi/orical k by ?is s*ool1 ,i _c b deem !m to be mo/ly *>geable ) a fundam5tal misconception ( ! true me?od ( social philosophy4 ,! misconception consi/s 9 suppos+ t ! ord] ( succession :i* we may be able to trace among ! diff]5t /ates ( society & civilization :i* hi/ory pres5ts to u1 ev5 if t ord] 7 m rigidly uni=m ?an x has yet be5 prov$ to be1 c\ld ev] am\nt to a law ( nature4 ,x c only be an empirical law4 ,! succession ( /ates ( ! human m9d & ( human society _c h an indep5d5t law ( its own2 x mu/ dep5d on ! psy*ological & e?ological laws :i* gov]n ! action ( circum/ances on m5 & ( m5 on circum/ances4 ,x is conceivable t ^? laws might be su*1 & ! g5]al circum/ances ( ! human race su*1 z to det]m9e ! successive trans=mations ( man & society to "o giv5 & unv>y+ ord]4 ,b ev5 if ! case 7 s1 x _c be ! ultimate aim ( sci5ce to discov] an empirical law4 ,until t law c\ld be connect$ ) ! psy*ological & e?ological laws on :i* x mu/ dep5d1 &1 by ! consili5ce ( d$uction priori ) hi/orical evid5ce1 c\ld be conv]t$ f an empirical law into a sci5tific "o1 x c\ld n be reli$ on = ! pr$iction ( future ev5ts1 beyond1 at mo/1 /rictly adjac5t cases4 ,m4 ,comte alone1 among ! new hi/orical s*ool1 has se5 ! necessity ( ?us connect+ all our g5]alizations f hi/ory ) ! laws ( human nature4 #d4 ,b1 :ile x is an imp]ative rule nev] to introduce any g5]alization f hi/ory into ! social sci5ce unless suffici5t gr\nds c be po9t$ out = x 9 human nature1 ,i d n ?9k any "o w cont5d t x w\ld h be5 possible1 sett+ out f ! pr9ciples ( human nature & f ! g5]al circum/ances ( ! position ( our species1 to det]m9e priori ! ord] 9 :i* human developm5t mu/ take place1 & to pr$ict1 consequ5tly1 ! g5]al facts ( hi/ory up to ! pres5t "t4 ,aft] ! fir/ few t]ms ( ! s]ies1 ! influ5ce ex]cis$ ov] ea* g5]ation by ! g5]ations :i* prec$$ x1 becomes 7z is well obs]v$ by ! writ] la/ ref]r$ to7 m & m prepond]ant ov] all o!r influ5ces2 until at l5g? :at we n[ are & d1 is 9 a v small degree ! result ( ! univ]sal circum/ances ( ! human race1 or ev5 ( our own circum/ances act+ ?r\gh ! orig9al qualities ( our species1 b ma9ly ( ! qualities produc$ 9 u by ! :ole previ\s hi/ory ( humanity4 ,s long a s]ies ( actions & reactions betwe5 ,circum/ances & ,man1 ea* successive t]m be+ compos$ ( an ev] great] numb] & v>iety ( p>ts1 c\ld n possibly be comput$ by human faculties f ! elem5t>y laws :i* produce x4 ,! m]e l5g? ( ! s]ies w\ld be a suffici5t ob/acle1 s9ce a slight error 9 any "o ( ! t]ms w\ld augm5t 9 rapid progression at e subsequ5t /ep4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! s]ies ( ! effects !mselves did n1 :5 exam9$ z a :ole1 manife/ any regul>ity1 we %\ld 9 va9 attempt to con/ruct a g5]al sci5ce ( society4 ,we mu/ 9 t case h cont5t$ ourselves ) t subord9ate ord] ( sociological speculation =m]ly notic$1 namely1 ) endeav\r+ to asc]ta9 :at w\ld be ! effect ( ! introduction ( any new cause1 9 a /ate ( society suppos$ to be fix$2 a k suffici5t = ! m common exig5cies ( daily political practice1 b liable to fail 9 all cases 9 :i* ! progressive movem5t ( society is "o ( ! influ5c+ elem5ts2 & !re=e m prec>i\s 9 proportion z ! case is m important4 ,b s9ce bo? ! natural v>ieties ( mank9d1 & ! orig9al div]sities ( local circum/ances1 are mu* less consid]able ?an ! po9ts ( agreem5t1 !re w naturally be a c]ta9 degree ( uni=mity 9 ! progressive developm5t ( ! species & ( its works4 ,& ?is uni=mity t5ds to become great]1 n less1 z society advances2 s9ce ! evolution ( ea* p1 :i* is at fir/ det]m9$ exclusively by ! nature & circum/ances ( t p1 is gradually br\ght "u ! influ5ce 7:i* becomes /rong] z civilization advances7 ( ! o!r nations ( ! e>?1 & ( ! circum/ances by :i* !y h be5 influ5c$4 ,hi/ory accord+ly does1 :5 judici\sly exam9$1 af=d ,empirical ,laws ( ,society4 ,& ! problem ( g5]al sociology is to asc]ta9 ^!1 & connect !m ) ! laws ( human nature1 by d$uctions %[+ t su* 7 ! d]ivative laws naturally to be expect$ z ! consequ5ces ( ^? ultimate ones4 ,x is1 inde$1 h>dly ev] possible1 ev5 aft] hi/ory has sugge/$ ! d]ivative law1 to demon/rate priori t su* 0 ! only ord] ( succession or ( coexi/5ce 9 :i* ! effects c\ld1 consi/5tly ) ! laws ( human nature1 h be5 produc$4 ,we c at mo/ make out t !re 7 /rong priori reasons = expect+ x1 & t no o!r ord] ( succession or coexi/5ce w\ld h be5 s likely to result f ! nature ( man & ! g5]al circum/ances ( 8 position4 ,(t5 we _c d ev5 ?is2 we _c ev5 %[ t :at did take place 0 probable priori1 b only t x 0 possible4 ,?is1 h[ev]1--:i*1 9 ! ,inv]se ,d$uctive ,me?od t we are n[ *>act]iz+1 is a real process ( v]ification1--is z indisp5sable1 z v]ification by specific exp]i5ce has be5 %[n to be1 :]e ! conclusion is orig9ally obta9$ by ! direct way ( d$uction4 ,! empirical laws mu/ be ! result ( b a few in/ances1 s9ce few nations h ev] atta9$ at all1 & /ill few] by _! own indep5d5t developm5t1 a high /age ( social progress4 ,if1 !re=e1 ev5 "o or two ( ^! few in/ances be insuffici5tly kn[n1 or imp]fectly analys$ into _! elem5ts1 & !re=e n adequately comp>$ ) o!r in/ances1 no?+ is m probable ?an t a wrong empirical law w em]ge in/ead ( ! "r "o4 ,accord+ly1 ! mo/ errone\s g5]alizations are cont9ually made f ! c\rse ( hi/ory3 n only 9 ?is c\ntry1 :]e hi/ory _c yet be said to be at all cultivat$ z a sci5ce1 b 9 o!r c\ntries1 :]e x is s cultivat$1 & by p]sons well v]s$ 9 x4 ,! only *eck or corrective is1 con/ant v]ification by psy*ological & e?ological laws4 ,we may add to ?is1 t no "o b a p]son compet5tly skill$ 9 ^? laws is capable ( prep>+ ! mat]ials = hi/orical g5]alization1 by analys+ ! facts ( hi/ory1 or ev5 by obs]v+ ! social ph5om5a ( 8 own "t4 ,no o!r w be aw>e ( ! comp>ative importance ( diff]5t facts1 nor consequ5tly "k :at facts to look =1 or to obs]ve2 /ill less w he be capable ( e/imat+ ! evid5ce ( facts :i*1 z is ! case ) mo/1 _c be asc]ta9$ by direct obs]vation or le>nt f te/imony1 b mu/ be inf]r$ f m>ks4 #e4 ,! ,empirical ,laws ( ,society are ( two k9ds2 "s are uni=mities ( coexi/5ce1 "s ( succession4 ,accord+ z ! sci5ce is occupi$ 9 asc]ta9+ & v]ify+ ! =m] sort ( uni=mities or ! latt]1 ,m4 ,comte gives x ! title ( ,social ,/atics1 or ( ,social ,dynamics2 con=mably to ! di/9ction 9 me*anics betwe5 ! conditions ( equilibrium & ^? ( movem5t2 or 9 biology1 betwe5 ! laws ( organization & ^? ( life4 ,! fir/ bran* ( ! sci5ce asc]ta9s ! conditions ( /ability 9 ! social union3 ! second1 ! laws ( progress4 ,social ,dynamics is ! !ory ( ,society consid]$ 9 a /ate ( progressive movem5t2 :ile ,social ,/atics is ! !ory ( ! cons5sus already spok5 ( z exi/+ among ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! social organism2 9 o!r words1 ! !ory ( ! mutual actions & reactions ( contemporane\s social ph5om5a2 mak+#ab provisionally1 z f> z possible1 ab/raction1 = sci5tific purposes1 ( ! fundam5tal movem5t :i* is at all times gradually modify+ ! :ole ( !m4 ,9 ?is fir/ po9t ( view1 ! provisions ( sociology w enable u to inf] "o f ano!r 7subject to ult]ior v]ification by direct obs]vation7 ! v>i\s *>act]i/ic m>ks ( ea* di/9ct mode ( social exi/5ce2 9 a mann] ess5tially analog\s to :at is n[ habitually practis$ 9 ! anatomy ( ! physical body4 ,?is prelim9>y aspect1 !re=e1 ( political sci5ce1 ( necessity supposes t 7contr>y to ! exi/+ habits ( philosoph]s7 ea* ( ! num]\s elem5ts ( ! social /ate1 ceas+ to be look$ at indep5d5tly & absolutely1 %all be always & exclusively consid]$ relatively to all ! o!r elem5ts1 ) ! :ole ( :i* x is unit$ by mutual int]dep5d5ce4 ,x w\ld be sup]flu\s to insi/ "h ^u ! great & con/ant utility ( ?is bran* ( sociological speculation4 ,x is1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! indisp5sable basis ( ! !ory ( social progress4 ,x may1 moreov]1 be employ$1 imm$iately1 & ( itself1 to supply ! place1 provisionally at lea/1 ( direct obs]vation1 :i* 9 _m cases is n always practicable = "s ( ! elem5ts ( society1 ! real condition ( :i* may h[ev] be suffici5tly judg$ ( by means ( ! relations :i* connect !m ) o!rs previ\sly kn[n4 ,! hi/ory ( ! sci5ces may give u "s notion ( ! habitual importance ( ?is auxili>y res\rce1 by rem9d+ u1 = example1 h[ ! vulg> errors ( m]e erudition conc]n+ ! pret5d$ acquirem5ts ( ! anci5t ,egyptians 9 ! high] a/ronomy1 7 irrevocably dissipat$ 7ev5 be=e s5t5ce _h be5 pass$ on !m by a s\nd] erudition7 f ! s+le consid]ation ( ! inevitable connexion betwe5 ! g5]al /ate ( a/ronomy & t ( ab/ract geometry1 !n evid5tly 9 its infancy4 ,x w\ld be easy to cite a multitude ( analog\s cases1 ! "* ( :i* c\ld admit ( no dispute4 ,9 ord] to avoid exagg]ation1 h[ev]1 x %\ld be rem>k$1 t ^! necess>y relations among ! diff]5t aspects ( society _c1 f _! v nature1 be s simple & precise t ! results obs]v$ c\ld only h aris5 f "s "o mode ( mutual co-ord9ation4 ,su* a notion1 already too n>r[ 9 ! sci5ce ( life1 w\ld be completely at v>iance ) ! /ill m complex nature ( sociological speculations4 ,b ! exact e/imation ( ^! limits ( v>iation1 bo? 9 ! heal?y & 9 ! morbid /ate1 con/itutes1 at lea/ z mu* z 9 ! anatomy ( ! natural body1 an indisp5sable complem5t to e !ory ( ,sociological ,/atics2 )\t :i* ! indirect exploration above spok5 ( w\ld (t5 lead into error4 ,?is is n ! place = me?odically demon/rat+ ! exi/5ce ( a necess>y relation among all ! possible aspects ( ! same social organism2 a po9t on :i*1 9 pr9ciple at lea/1 !re is n[ little diff]5ce ( op9ion among s\nd ?9k]s4 ,f :i*ev] ( ! social elem5ts we *oose to set out1 we may easily recognise t x has always a connexion1 m or less imm$iate1 ) all ! o!r elem5ts1 ev5 ) ^? :i* at fir/ sight appe> ! mo/ indep5d5t ( x4 ,! dynamical consid]ation ( ! progressive developm5t ( civiliz$ humanity1 af=ds1 no d\bt1 a /ill m efficaci\s means ( effect+ ?is int]e/+ v]ification ( ! cons5sus ( ! social ph5om5a1 by display+ ! mann] 9 :i* e *ange 9 any "o "p1 op]ates imm$iately1 or v spe$ily1 ^u all ! re/4 ,b ?is indication may be prec$$1 or at all ev5ts foll[$1 by a confirmation ( a purely /atical k9d2 =1 9 politics z 9 me*anics1 ! communication ( motion f "o object to ano!r proves a connexion betwe5 !m4 ,)\t desc5d+ to ! m9ute int]dep5d5ce ( ! diff]5t bran*es ( any "o sci5ce or art1 is x n evid5t t among ! diff]5t sci5ces1 z well z among mo/ ( ! arts1 !re exi/s su* a connexion1 t if ! /ate ( any "o well m>k$ division ( !m is suffici5tly kn[n to u1 we c ) real sci5tific assurance inf]1 f _! necess>y correlation1 ! contemporane\s /ate ( e "o ( ! o!rs8 ,by a fur!r ext5sion ( ?is consid]ation1 we may conceive ! necess>y relation :i* exi/s betwe5 ! condition ( ! sci5ces 9 g5]al & t ( ! arts 9 g5]al1 except t ! mutual dep5d5ce is less int5se 9 proportion z x is m indirect4 ,! same is ! case :51 in/ead ( consid]+ ! aggregate ( ! social ph5om5a 9 "s "o p1 we exam9e x simultane\sly 9 diff]5t contemporane\s nations2 betwe5 :i* ! p]petual reciprocity ( influ5ce1 especially 9 mod]n times1 _c be conte/$1 ?\gh ! cons5sus mu/ 9 ?is case be ord9>ily ( a less decid$ "*1 & mu/ decrease gradually ) ! aff9ity ( ! cases & ! multiplicity ( ! po9ts ( contact1 s z at la/1 9 "s cases1 to disappe> almo/ entirely2 z = example betwe5 ,we/]n ,europe & ,ea/]n ,asia1 ( :i* ! v>i\s g5]al /ates ( society appe> to h be5 hi!rto almo/ indep5d5t ( "o ano!r4 ,^! rem>ks are foll[$ by illu/rations ( "o ( ! mo/ important1 & until lately1 mo/ neglect$1 ( ! g5]al pr9ciples :i*1 9 ?is division ( ! social sci5ce1 may be consid]$ z e/abli%$2 namely1 ! necess>y correlation betwe5 ! =m ( gov]nm5t exi/+ 9 any society & ! contemporane\s /ate ( civilization3 a natural law1 :i* /amps ! endless discussions & innum]able !ories respect+ =ms ( gov]nm5t 9 ! ab/ract1 z fruitless & wor?less1 = any o!r purpose ?an z a prep>atory treatm5t ( mat]ials to be aft]w>ds us$ = ! con/ruction ( a bett] philosophy4 ,z already rem>k$1 "o ( ! ma9 results ( ! sci5ce ( social /atics w\ld be to asc]ta9 ! requisites ( /able political union4 ,!re are "s circum/ances :i*1 be+ f\nd 9 all societies )\t exception1 & 9 ! greate/ degree :]e ! social union is mo/ complete1 may be consid]$ 7:5 psy*ological & e?ological laws confirm ! indication7 z conditions ( ! exi/5ce ( ! complex ph5om5on call$ a ,/ate4 ,= example1 no num]\s society has ev] be5 held toge!r )\t laws1 or usages equival5t to !m2 )\t tribunals1 & an organiz$ =ce ( "s sort to execute _! decisions4 ,!re h always be5 public au?orities :om1 ) m or less /rictness & 9 cases m or less accurately def9$1 ! re/ ( ! community obey$1 or accord+ to g5]al op9ion 7 b\nd to obey4 ,by foll[+ out ?is c\rse ( inquiry we %all f9d a numb] ( requisites1 :i* h be5 pres5t 9 e society t has ma9ta9$ a collective exi/5ce1 & on ! cessation ( :i* x has ei!r m]g$ 9 "s o!r society1 or recon/ruct$ itself on "s new basis1 9 :i* ! conditions 7 con=m$ to4 ,al?\gh ^! results1 obta9$ by comp>+ diff]5t =ms & /ates ( society1 am\nt 9 !mselves only to empirical laws2 "s ( !m1 :5 once sugge/$1 are f\nd to foll[ ) s mu* probability f g5]al laws ( human nature1 t ! consili5ce ( ! two processes raises ! evid5ce to pro(1 & ! g5]alizations to ! rank ( sci5tific tru?s4 ,?is seems to be affirmable 7= in/ance7 ( ! conclusions arriv$ at 9 ! foll[+ passage2 extract$1 ) "s alt]ations1 f a criticism on ! negative philosophy ( ! eighte5? c5tury1#ac & :i* ,i quote1 ?\gh 7z 9 "s =m] in/ances7 f myself1 because ,i h no bett] way ( illu/rat+ ! conception ,i h =m$ ( ! k9d ( !orems ( :i* sociological /atics w\ld consi/4 ,! v fir/ elem5t ( ! social union1 ob$i5ce to a gov]nm5t ( "s sort1 has n be5 f\nd s easy a ?+ to e/abli% 9 ! _w4 ,among a timid & spiritless race l ! inhabitants ( ! va/ pla9s ( tropical c\ntries1 passive ob$i5ce may be ( natural gr[?2 ?\gh ev5 !re we d\bt :e!r x has ev] be5 f\nd among any p ) :om fatalism1 or 9 o!r words1 submission to ! pressure ( circum/ances z a div9e decree1 did n prevail z a religi\s doctr9e4 ,b ! difficulty ( induc+ a brave & w>like race to submit _! individual arbitrium to any common umpire1 has always be5 felt to be s great1 t no?+ %ort ( sup]natural p[] has be5 deem$ adequate to ov]come x2 & su* tribes h always assign$ to ! fir/ in/itution ( civil society a div9e orig94 ,s diff]5tly did ^? judge :o knew savage m5 by actual exp]i5ce1 f ^? :o _h no acqua9tance ) !m except 9 ! civiliz$ /ate4 ,9 mod]n ,europe itself1 aft] ! fall ( ! ,roman empire1 to subdue ! feudal an>*y & br+ ! :ole p ( any ,european nation into subjection to gov]nm5t 7?\gh ,*ri/ianity 9 ! mo/ conc5trat$ =m ( its influ5ce 0 co-op]at+ 9 ! "w7 requir$ ?rice z _m c5turies z h elaps$ s9ce t "t4 ,n[ if ^! philosoph]s _h kn[n human nature "u any o!r type ?an t ( _! own age1 & ( ! p>ticul> classes ( society among :om !y liv$1 x w\ld h occurr$ to !m1 t :]ev] ?is habitual submission to law & gov]nm5t has be5 firmly & durably e/abli%$1 & yet ! vig\r & manl9ess ( "* :i* resi/$ its e/abli%m5t h be5 9 any degree pres]v$1 c]ta9 requisites h exi/$1 c]ta9 conditions h be5 fulfill$1 ( :i* ! foll[+ may be reg>d$ z ! pr9cipal4 ,fir/3 !re has exi/$1 = all :o 7 acc\nt$ citiz5s1--= all :o 7 n slaves1 kept d[n by brute =ce1--a sy/em ( education1 beg9n+ ) infancy & cont9u$ ?r\gh life1 ( :i* :atev] else x might include1 "o ma9 & incessant +r$i5t 0 re/ra9+ discipl9e4 ,to tra9 ! human be+ 9 ! habit1 & !nce ! p[]1 ( subord9at+ 8 p]sonal impulses & aims1 to :at 7 consid]$ ! ends ( society2 ( adh]+1 aga9/ all temptation1 to ! c\rse ( conduct :i* ^? ends prescrib$2 ( controll+ 9 himself all feel+s :i* 7 liable to militate aga9/ ^? ends1 & enc\rag+ all su* z t5d$ t[>ds !m2 ?is 0 ! purpose1 to :i* e outw>d motive t ! au?ority direct+ ! sy/em c\ld comm&1 & e inw>d p[] or pr9ciple :i* its k ( human nature enabl$ x to evoke1 7 endeav\r$ to be r5d]$ in/rum5tal4 ,! entire civil & milit>y policy ( ! anci5t commonweal?s 0 su* a sy/em ( tra9+2 9 mod]n nations its place has be5 attempt$ to be suppli$1 pr9cipally1 by religi\s tea*+4 ,& :5ev] & 9 proportion z ! /rictness ( ! re/ra9+ discipl9e 0 relax$1 ! natural t5d5cy ( mank9d to an>*y re-ass]t$ itself2 ! /ate became disorganiz$ f )92 mutual conflict = selfi% ends1 neutraliz$ ! en]gies :i* 7 requir$ to keep up ! conte/ aga9/ natural causes ( evil2 & ! nation1 aft] a long] or brief] int]val ( progressive decl9e1 became ei!r ! slave ( a despotism1 or ! prey ( a =eign invad]4 ,! second condition ( p]man5t political society has be5 f\nd to be1 ! exi/5ce1 9 "s =m or o!r1 ( ! feel+ ( allegiance or loyalty4 ,?is feel+ may v>y 9 its objects1 & is n conf9$ to any p>ticul> =m ( gov]nm5t2 b :e!r 9 a democracy or 9 a mon>*y1 its ess5ce is always ! same2 viz4 t !re be 9 ! con/itution ( ! /ate some?+ :i* is settl$1 some?+ p]man5t1 & n to be call$ 9 "q2 some?+ :i*1 by g5]al agreem5t1 has a "r to be :]e x is1 & to be secure aga9/ di/urbance1 :atev] else may *ange4 ,?is feel+ may atta* itself1 z among ! ,jews 7& 9 mo/ ( ! commonweal?s ( antiquity71 to a common ,god or gods1 ! protectors & gu>dians ( _! /ate4 ,or x may atta* itself to c]ta9 p]sons1 :o are deem$ to be1 :e!r by div9e appo9tm5t1 by long prescription1 or by ! g5]al recognition ( _! sup]ior capacity & wor?9ess1 ! rightful guides & gu>dians ( ! re/4 ,or x may connect itself ) laws2 ) anci5t lib]ties or ord9ances4 ,or1 f9ally1 7& ?is is ! only %ape 9 :i* ! feel+ is likely to exi/ h]eaft]17 x may atta* itself to ! pr9ciples ( individual fre$om & political & social equality1 z realiz$ 9 in/itutions :i* z yet exi/ n[h]e1 or exi/ only 9 a rudim5t>y /ate4 ,b 9 all political societies :i* h _h a durable exi/5ce1 !re has be5 "s fix$ po9t3 some?+ :i* p agre$ 9 hold+ sacr$2 :i*1 :]ev] fre$om ( discussion 0 a recognis$ pr9ciple1 x 0 ( c\rse lawful to conte/ 9 !ory1 b :i* no "o c\ld ei!r fe> or hope to see %ak5 9 practice2 :i*1 9 %ort 7except p]haps dur+ "s tempor>y crisis7 0 9 ! common e/imation plac$ beyond discussion4 ,& ! necessity ( ?is may easily be made evid5t4 ,a /ate nev] is1 nor until mank9d are va/ly improv$1 c hope to be1 = any long "t exempt f int]nal diss5sion2 = !re nei!r is nor has ev] be5 any /ate ( society 9 :i* collisions did n occur betwe5 ! imm$iate int]e/s & passions ( p[]ful sections ( ! p4 ,:at1 !n1 enables nations to wea!r ^! /orms1 & pass ?r\gh turbul5t times )\t any p]man5t weak5+ ( ! securities = peaceable exi/5ce8 ,precisely ?is--t h[ev] important ! int]e/s ab\t :i* m5 fell out1 ! conflict did n affect ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! sy/em ( social union :i* happ5$ to exi/2 nor ?reat5 l>ge portions ( ! community ) ! subv]sion ( t on :i* !y _h built _! calculations1 & ) :i* _! hopes & aims _h become id5tifi$4 ,b :5 ! que/ion+ ( ^! fundam5tal pr9ciples is 7n ! occasional disease1 or salut>y m$ic9e1 b7 ! habitual condition ( ! body politic2 & :5 all ! viol5t animosities are call$ =?1 :i* spr+ naturally f su* a situation1 ! /ate is virtually 9 a position ( civil w>2 & c nev] long rema9 free f x 9 act & fact4 ,! ?ird ess5tial condition ( /ability 9 political society1 is a /rong & active pr9ciple ( cohesion among ! memb]s ( ! same community or /ate4 ,we ne$ sc>cely say t we d n mean nationality1 9 ! vulg> s5se ( ! t]m2 a s5seless antipa?y to =eign]s2 indiff]5ce to ! g5]al welf>e ( ! human race1 or an unju/ pref]5ce ( ! suppos$ int]e/s ( our own c\ntry2 a *]i%+ ( bad peculi>ities because !y are national1 or a refusal to adopt :at has be5 f\nd good by o!r c\ntries4 ,we mean a pr9ciple ( sympa?y1 n ( ho/ility2 ( union1 n ( sep>ation4 ,we mean a feel+ ( common int]e/ among ^? :o live "u ! same gov]nm5t1 & are conta9$ )9 ! same natural or hi/orical b\nd>ies4 ,we mean1 t "o "p ( ! community d n consid] !mselves z =eign]s ) reg>d to ano!r "p2 t !y set a value on _! connexion--feel t !y are "o p1 t _! lot is ca/ toge!r1 t evil to any ( _! fell[-c\ntrym5 is evil to !mselves1 & d n desire selfi%ly to free !mselves f _! %>e ( any common inconv5i5ce by sev]+ ! connexion4 ,h[ /rong ?is feel+ 0 9 ^? anci5t commonweal?s :i* atta9$ any durable greatness1 e "o kn[s4 ,h[ happily ,rome1 9 spite ( all h] tyranny1 succe$$ 9 e/abli%+ ! feel+ ( a common c\ntry among ! prov9ces ( h] va/ & divid$ empire1 w appe> :5 any "o :o has giv5 due att5tion to ! subject %all take ! tr\ble to po9t x out4 ,9 mod]n times ! c\ntries :i* h _h t feel+ 9 ! /ronge/ degree h be5 ! mo/ p[]ful c\ntries2 ,engl&1 ,france1 &1 9 proportion to _! t]ritory & res\rces1 ,holl& & ,switz]l&2 :ile ,engl& 9 h] connexion ) ,irel&1 is "o ( ! mo/ signal examples ( ! consequ5ces ( its abs5ce4 ,e ,italian kn[s :y ,italy is "u a =eign yoke2 e ,g]man kn[s :at ma9ta9s despotism 9 ! ,au/rian empire2 ! evils ( ,spa9 fl[ z mu* f ! abs5ce ( nationality among ! ,spani>ds !mselves1 z f ! pres5ce ( x 9 _! relations ) =eign]s3 :ile ! complete/ illu/ration ( all is af=d$ by ! republics ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 :]e ! p>ts ( "o & ! same /ate adh]e s slightly toge!r1 t no soon] does any prov9ce ?9k itself aggriev$ by ! g5]al gov]nm5t ?an x proclaims itself a sep>ate nation4 #f4 ,:ile ! d]ivative laws ( social /atics are asc]ta9$ by analys+ diff]5t /ates ( society1 & comp>+ !m ) "o ano!r1 )\t reg>d to ! ord] ( _! succession2 ! consid]ation ( ! successive ord] is1 on ! contr>y1 pr$om9ant 9 ! /udy ( social dynamics1 ( :i* ! aim is to obs]ve & expla9 ! sequ5ces ( social conditions4 ,?is bran* ( ! social sci5ce w\ld be z complete z x c be made1 if e "o ( ! lead+ g5]al circum/ances ( ea* g5]ation 7 trac$ to its causes 9 ! g5]ation imm$iately prec$+4 ,b ! cons5sus is s complete1 7especially 9 mod]n hi/ory17 t 9 ! filiation ( "o g5]ation & ano!r1 x is ! :ole :i* produces ! :ole1 r ?an any "p a "p4 ,little progress1 !re=e1 c be made 9 e/abli%+ ! filiation1 directly f laws ( human nature1 )\t hav+ fir/ asc]ta9$ ! imm$iate or d]ivative laws accord+ to :i* social /ates g5]ate "o ano!r z society advances2 ! axiomata m$ia ( ,g5]al ,sociology4 ,! empirical laws :i* are mo/ readily obta9$ by g5]alization f hi/ory d n am\nt to ?is4 ,!y are n ! middle pr9ciples !mselves1 b only evid5ce t[>ds ! e/abli%m5t ( su* pr9ciples4 ,!y consi/ ( c]ta9 g5]al t5d5cies :i* may be p]ceiv$ 9 society2 a progressive increase ( "s social elem5ts & dim9ution ( o!rs1 or a gradual *ange 9 ! g5]al "* ( c]ta9 elem5ts4 ,x is easily se51 = in/ance1 t z society advances1 m5tal t5d m & m to prevail ov] bodily qualities1 & masses ov] individuals3 t ! occupation ( all t portion ( mank9d :o are n "u ext]nal re/ra9t is at fir/ *iefly milit>y1 b society becomes progressively m & m engross$ ) productive pursuits1 & ! milit>y _s gradually gives way to ! indu/rial2 to :i* _m simil> tru?s might be add$4 ,& ) g5]alizations ( ?is description1 ord9>y inquir]s1 ev5 ( ! hi/orical s*ool n[ pr$om9ant on ! ,cont95t1 are satisfi$4 ,b ^! & all su* results are /ill at too great a di/ance f ! elem5t>y laws ( human nature on :i* !y dep5d1--too _m l9ks int]v5e1 & ! concurr5ce ( causes at ea* l9k is f> too complicat$1--to enable ^! propositions to be pres5t$ z direct coroll>ies f ^? elem5t>y pr9ciples4 ,!y h1 !re=e1 9 ! m9ds ( mo/ inquir]s1 rema9$ 9 ! /ate ( empirical laws1 applicable only )9 ! b\nds ( actual obs]vation2 )\t any means ( det]m9+ _! real limits1 & ( judg+ :e!r ! *anges :i* h hi!rto be5 9 progress are de/9$ to cont9ue indef9itely1 or to t]m9ate1 or ev5 to be rev]s$4 #g4 ,9 ord] to obta9 bett] empirical laws1 we mu/ n re/ satisfi$ ) not+ ! progressive *anges :i* manife/ !mselves 9 ! sep>ate elem5ts ( society1 & 9 :i* no?+ is indicat$ b ! relation ( fragm5ts ( ! effect to correspond+ fragm5ts ( ! cause4 ,x is necess>y to comb9e ! /atical view ( social ph5om5a ) ! dynamical1 consid]+ n only ! progressive *anges ( ! diff]5t elem5ts1 b ! contemporane\s condition ( ea*2 & ?us obta9 empirically ! law ( correspond5ce n only betwe5 ! simultane\s /ates1 b betwe5 ! simultane\s *anges1 ( ^? elem5ts4 ,?is law ( correspond5ce x is1 :i*1 duly v]ifi$ priori1 w\ld become ! real sci5tific d]ivative law ( ! developm5t ( humanity & human affairs4 ,9 ! difficult process ( obs]vation & comp>ison :i* is "h requir$1 x w\ld evid5tly be a great assi/ance if x %\ld happ5 to be ! fact1 t "s "o elem5t 9 ! complex exi/5ce ( social man is pre-em95t ov] all o!rs z ! prime ag5t ( ! social movem5t4 ,= we c\ld !n take ! progress ( t "o elem5t z ! c5tral *a91 to ea* successive l9k ( :i*1 ! correspond+ l9ks ( all ! o!r progressions be+ app5d$1 ! succession ( ! facts w\ld by ?is alone be pres5t$ 9 a k9d ( spontane\s ord]1 f> m ne>ly approa*+ to ! real ord] ( _! filiation ?an c\ld be obta9$ by any o!r m]ely empirical process4 ,n[1 ! evid5ce ( hi/ory & t ( human nature comb9e1 by a /rik+ in/ance ( consili5ce1 to %[ t !re really is "o social elem5t :i* is ?us pr$om9ant1 & almo/ p>am\nt1 among ! ag5ts ( ! social progression4 ,?is is1 ! /ate ( ! speculative faculties ( mank9d2 includ+ ! nature ( ! beliefs :i* by any means !y h arriv$ at1 conc]n+ !mselves & ! _w by :i* !y are surr\nd$4 ,x w\ld be a great error1 & "o v little likely to be committ$1 to ass]t t speculation1 intellectual activity1 ! pursuit ( tru?1 is among ! m p[]ful prop5sities ( human nature1 or holds a pr$om9at+ place 9 ! lives ( any1 save decid$ly exceptional1 individuals4 ,b1 not)/&+ ! relative weakness ( ?is pr9ciple among o!r sociological ag5ts1 its influ5ce is ! ma9 det]m9+ cause ( ! social progress2 all ! o!r dispositions ( our nature :i* contribute to t progress1 be+ dep5d5t on x = ! means ( accompli%+ _! %>e ( ! "w4 ,?us 7to take ! mo/ obvi\s case fir/17 ! impell+ =ce to mo/ ( ! improvem5ts effect$ 9 ! arts ( life1 is ! desire ( increas$ mat]ial com=t2 b z we c only act ^u ext]nal objects 9 proportion to our k ( !m1 ! /ate ( k at any "t is ! limit ( ! indu/rial improvem5ts possible at t "t2 & ! progress ( indu/ry mu/ foll[1 & dep5d on1 ! progress ( k4 ,! same ?+ may be %[n to be true1 ?\gh x is n q s obvi\s1 ( ! progress ( ! f9e arts4 ,fur!r1 z ! /ronge/ prop5sities ( uncultivat$ or half-cultivat$ human nature 7be+ ! purely selfi% ones1 & ^? ( a sympa!tic "* :i* p>take mo/ ( ! nature ( selfi%ness7 evid5tly t5d 9 !mselves to disunite mank9d1 n to unite !m1--to make !m rivals1 n conf$]ates2 social exi/5ce is only possible by a discipl9+ ( ^? m p[]ful prop5sities1 :i* consi/s 9 subord9at+ !m to a common sy/em ( op9ions4 ,! degree ( ?is subord9ation is ! measure ( ! complet5ess ( ! social union1 & ! nature ( ! common op9ions det]m9es its k9d4 ,b 9 ord] t mank9d %\ld con=m _! actions to any set ( op9ions1 ^! op9ions mu/ exi/1 mu/ be believ$ by !m4 ,& ?us1 ! /ate ( ! speculative faculties1 ! "* ( ! propositions ass5t$ to by ! intellect1 ess5tially det]m9es ! moral & political /ate ( ! community1 z we h already se5 t x det]m9es ! physical4 ,^! conclusions1 d$uc$ f ! laws ( human nature1 are 9 entire accordance ) ! g5]al facts ( hi/ory4 ,e consid]able *ange hi/orically kn[n to u 9 ! condition ( any portion ( mank9d1 :5 n br\ght ab\t by ext]nal =ce1 has be5 prec$$ by a *ange1 ( proportional ext5t1 9 ! /ate ( _! k1 or 9 _! preval5t beliefs4 ,z betwe5 any giv5 /ate ( speculation1 & ! correlative /ate ( ev]y?+ else1 x 0 almo/ always ! =m] :i* fir/ %[$ itself2 ?\gh ! effects1 no d\bt1 react$ pot5tly ^u ! cause4 ,e consid]able advance 9 mat]ial civilization has be5 prec$$ by an advance 9 k3 & :5 any great social *ange has come to pass1 ei!r 9 ! way ( gradual developm5t or ( sudd5 conflict1 x has _h = its precursor a great *ange 9 ! op9ions & modes ( ?9k+ ( society4 ,poly!ism1 ,judaism1 ,*ri/ianity1 ,prote/antism1 ! critical philosophy ( mod]n ,europe1 & its positive sci5ce--ea* ( ^! has be5 a prim>y ag5t 9 mak+ society :at x 0 at ea* successive p]iod1 :ile society 0 b second>ily in/rum5tal 9 mak+ !m1 ea* ( !m 7s f> z causes c be assign$ = its exi/5ce7 be+ ma9ly an emanation n f ! practical life ( ! p]iod1 b f ! previ\s /ate ( belief & ?\ght4 ,! weakness ( ! speculative prop5sity 9 mank9d g5]ally1 has n1 !re=e1 prev5t$ ! progress ( speculation f gov]n+ t ( society at l>ge2 x has only1 & too (t51 prev5t$ progress altoge!r1 :]e ! intellectual progression has come to an e>ly /& = want ( suffici5tly fav\rable circum/ances4 ,f ?is accumulat$ evid5ce1 we are ju/ifi$ 9 conclud+1 t ! ord] ( human progression 9 all respects w ma9ly dep5d on ! ord] ( progression 9 ! intellectual convictions ( mank9d1 t is1 on ! law ( ! successive trans=mations ( human op9ions4 ,! "q rema9s1 :e!r ?is law c be det]m9$2 at fir/ f hi/ory z an empirical law1 !n conv]t$ into a sci5tific !orem by d$uc+ x priori f ! pr9ciples ( human nature4 ,z ! progress ( k & ! *anges 9 ! op9ions ( mank9d are v sl[1 & manife/ !mselves 9 a well-def9$ mann] only at long int]vals2 x _c be expect$ t ! g5]al ord] ( sequ5ce %\ld be discov]able f ! exam9ation ( less ?an a v consid]able "p ( ! duration ( ! social progress4 ,x is necess>y to take into consid]ation ! :ole ( pa/ "t1 f ! fir/ record$ condition ( ! human race1 to ! memorable ph5om5a ( ! la/ & pres5t g5]ations4 #h4 ,! inve/igation :i* ,i h ?us endeav\r$ to *>act]ize1 has be5 sy/ematically attempt$1 up to ! pres5t "t1 by ,m4 ,comte alone4 ,8 "w is hi!rto ! only kn[n example ( ! /udy ( social ph5om5a accord+ to ?is conception ( ! ,hi/orical ,me?od4 ,)\t discuss+ "h ! wor? ( 8 conclusions1 & especially ( 8 pr$ictions & recomm5dations ) respect to ! ,future ( society1 :i* appe> to me greatly inf]ior 9 value to 8 appreciation ( ! ,pa/1 ,i %all conf9e myself to m5tion+ "o important g5]alization1 :i* ,m4 ,comte reg>ds z ! fundam5tal law ( ! progress ( human k4 ,speculation he conceives to h1 on e subject ( human inquiry1 ?ree successive /ages2 9 ! fir/ ( :i* x t5ds to expla9 ! ph5om5a by sup]natural ag5cies1 9 ! second by metaphysical ab/ractions1 & 9 ! ?ird or f9al /ate conf9es itself to asc]ta9+ _! laws ( succession & similitude4 ,?is g5]alization appe>s to me to h t high degree ( sci5tific evid5ce1 :i* is d]iv$ f ! concurr5ce ( ! indications ( hi/ory ) ! probabilities d]iv$ f ! con/itution ( ! human m9d4 ,nor c\ld x be easily conceiv$1 f ! m]e enunciation ( su* a proposition1 :at a flood ( light x lets 9 ^u ! :ole c\rse ( hi/ory2 :5 its consequ5ces are trac$1 by connect+ ) ea* ( ! ?ree /ates ( human intellect :i* x di/+ui%es1 & ) ea* successive modification ( ^? ?ree /ates1 ! correlative condition ( o!r social ph5om5a4#ad ,b :atev] decision compet5t judges may pron\nce on ! results arriv$ at by any individual inquir]1 ! me?od n[ *>act]iz$ is t by :i* ! d]ivative laws ( social ord] & ( social progress mu/ be s\ght4 ,by its aid we may h]eaft] succe$ n only 9 look+ f> =w>d into ! future hi/ory ( ! human race1 b 9 det]m9+ :at artificial means may be us$1 & to :at ext5t1 to accel]ate ! natural progress 9 s f> z x is b5eficial2 to comp5sate = :atev] may be its inh]5t inconv5i5ces or disadvantages2 & to gu>d aga9/ ! dang]s or accid5ts to :i* our species is expos$ f ! necess>y incid5ts ( its progression4 ,su* practical in/ructions1 f\nd$ on ! highe/ bran* ( speculative sociology1 w =m ! noble/ & mo/ b5eficial portion ( ! ,political ,art4 ,t ( ?is sci5ce & art ev5 ! f\ndations are b beg9n+ to be laid1 is suffici5tly evid5t4 ,b ! sup]ior m9ds are fairly turn+ !mselves t[>ds t object4 ,x has become ! aim ( really sci5tific ?9k]s to connect by !ories ! facts ( univ]sal hi/ory3 x is ackn[l$g$ to be "o ( ! requisites ( a g5]al sy/em ( social doctr9e1 t x %\ld expla91 s f> z ! data exi/1 ! ma9 facts ( hi/ory2 & a ,philosophy ( ,hi/ory is g5]ally admitt$ to be at once ! v]ification1 & ! initial =m1 ( ! ,philosophy ( ! ,progress ( ,society4 ,if ! endeav\rs n[ mak+ 9 all ! m cultivat$ nations1 & beg9n+ to be made ev5 9 ,engl& 7usually ! la/ to ent] into ! g5]al movem5t ( ! ,european m9d7 = ! con/ruction ( a ,philosophy ( ,hi/ory1 %all be direct$ & controll$ by ^? views ( ! nature ( sociological evid5ce :i* ,i h 7v briefly & imp]fectly7 attempt$ to *>act]ize2 !y _c fail to give bir? to a sociological sy/em widely remov$ f ! vague & conjectural "* ( all =m] attempts1 & wor?y to take its place1 at la/1 among ! sci5ces4 ,:5 ?is "t %all come1 no important bran* ( human affairs w be any long] ab&on$ to empiricism & unsci5tific surmise3 ! circle ( human k w be complete1 & x c only !reaft] receive fur!r enl>gem5t by p]petual expansion f )94 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,additional ,,elucidations ,,( ,,! ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,hi/ory4 #a4 ,! doctr9e :i* ! prec$+ *apt]s 7 int5d$ to en=ce & elucidate--t ! collective s]ies ( social ph5om5a1 9 o!r words ! c\rse ( hi/ory1 is subject to g5]al laws1 :i* philosophy may possibly detect--has be5 famili> = g5]ations to ! sci5tific ?9k]s ( ! ,cont95t1 & has = ! la/ qu>t] ( a c5tury pass$ out ( _! peculi> doma91 into t ( newspap]s & ord9>y political discussion4 ,9 our own c\ntry1 h[ev]1 at ! "t ( ! fir/ publication ( ?is ,treatise1 x 0 almo/ a novelty1 & ! prevail+ habits ( ?\ght on hi/orical subjects 7 ! v rev]se ( a prep>ation = x4 ,s9ce !n a great *ange has tak5 place1 & has be5 em95tly promot$ by ! important "w ( ,mr4 ,buckle2 :o1 ) *>act]i/ic en]gy1 flung d[n ?is great pr9ciple1 toge!r ) _m /rik+ exemplifications ( x1 into ! ar5a ( popul> discussion1 to be f\ght ov] by a sort ( combatants1 9 ! pres5ce ( a sort ( spectators1 :o w\ld nev] ev5 h be5 aw>e t !re exi/$ su* a pr9ciple if !y _h be5 left to le>n its exi/5ce f ! speculations ( pure sci5ce4 ,& h5ce has aris5 a consid]able am\nt ( controv]sy1 t5d+ n only to make ! pr9ciple rapidly famili> to ! majority ( cultivat$ m9ds1 b also to cle> x f ! confusions & misund]/&+s by :i* x 0 b natural t x %\ld = a "t be cl\d$1 & :i* impair ! wor? ( ! doctr9e to ^? :o accept x1 & are ! /umbl+-block ( _m :o d n4 ,among ! imp$im5ts to ! g5]al ackn[l$gm5t1 by ?\ghtful m9ds1 ( ! subjection ( hi/orical facts to sci5tific laws1 ! mo/ fundam5tal cont9ues to be t :i* is gr\nd$ on ! doctr9e ( ,free ,w1 or 9 o!r words1 on ! d5ial t ! law ( inv>iable ,causation holds true ( human volitions3 = if x does n1 ! c\rse ( hi/ory1 be+ ! result ( human volitions1 _c be a subject ( sci5tific laws1 s9ce ! volitions on :i* x dep5ds c nei!r be =ese51 nor r$uc$ to any canon ( regul>ity ev5 aft] !y h occurr$4 ,i h discuss$ ?is "q1 z f> z seem$ suitable to ! occasion1 9 a =m] *apt]3 & ,i only ?9k x necess>y to repeat1 t ! doctr9e ( ! ,causation ( human actions1 improp]ly call$ ! doctr9e ( ,necessity1 affirms no my/]i\s nexus1 or ov]rul+ fatality3 x ass]ts only t m5's actions are ! jo9t result ( ! g5]al laws & circum/ances ( human nature1 & ( _! own p>ticul> *>act]s2 ^? *>act]s aga9 be+ ! consequ5ce ( ! natural & artificial circum/ances t con/itut$ _! education1 among :i* circum/ances mu/ be reckon$ _! own consci\s ef=ts4 ,any "o :o is will+ to take 7if ! expression may be p]mitt$7 ! tr\ble ( ?9k+ himself into ! doctr9e z ?us /at$1 w f9d x1 ,i believe1 n only a fai?ful int]pretation ( ! univ]sal exp]i5ce ( human conduct1 b a correct repres5tation ( ! mode 9 :i* he himself1 9 e p>ticul> case1 spontane\sly int]prets 8 own exp]i5ce ( t conduct4 ,b if ?is pr9ciple is true ( individual man1 x mu/ be true ( collective man4 ,if x is ! law ( human life1 ! law mu/ be realiz$ 9 hi/ory4 ,! exp]i5ce ( human affairs :5 look$ at en masse1 mu/ be 9 accordance ) x if true1 or repugnant to x if false4 ,! support :i* ?is po/]iori v]ification af=ds to ! law1 is ! "p ( ! case :i* has be5 mo/ cle>ly & triumphantly br\ght out by ,mr4 ,buckle4 ,! facts ( /ati/ics1 s9ce !y h be5 made a subject ( c>eful recordation & /udy1 h yield$ conclusions1 "s ( :i* h be5 v />tl+ to p]sons n accu/om$ to reg>d moral actions z subject to uni=m laws4 ,! v ev5ts :i* 9 _! own nature appe> mo/ caprici\s & unc]ta91 & :i* 9 any individual case no atta9able degree ( k w\ld enable u to =esee1 occur1 :5 consid]able numb]s are tak5 into ! acc\nt1 ) a degree ( regul>ity approa*+ to ma!matical4 ,:at act is !re :i* all w\ld consid] z m completely dep5d5t on individual "*1 & on ! ex]cise ( individual free w1 ?an t ( slay+ a fell[ creature8 ,yet 9 any l>ge c\ntry1 ! numb] ( murd]s1 9 proportion to ! population1 v>ies 7x has be5 f\nd7 v little f "o ye> to ano!r1 & 9 its v>iations nev] deviates widely f a c]ta9 av]age4 ,:at is /ill m rem>kable1 !re is a simil> approa* to con/ancy 9 ! proportion ( ^! murd]s annually committ$ ) e p>ticul> k9d ( in/rum5t4 ,!re is a l approximation to id5tity1 z betwe5 "o ye> & ano!r1 9 ! comp>ative numb] ( legitimate & ( illegitimate bir?s4 ,! same ?+ is f\nd true ( suicides1 accid5ts1 & all o!r social ph5om5a ( :i* ! regi/ration is suffici5tly p]fect2 "o ( ! mo/ curi\sly illu/rative examples be+ ! fact1 asc]ta9$ by ! regi/]s ( ! ,london & ,p>is po/-(fices1 t ! numb] ( lett]s po/$ :i* ! writ]s h =gott5 to direct1 is ne>ly ! same1 9 proportion to ! :ole numb] ( lett]s po/$1 9 "o ye> z 9 ano!r4 ,ye> aft] ye>1 says ,mr4 ,buckle1 ! same proportion ( lett]-writ]s =get ?is simple act2 s t = ea* successive p]iod we c actually =etell ! numb] ( p]sons ^: memory w fail !m 9 reg>d to ?is trifl+1 & z x might appe>1 accid5tal occurr5ce4#ae ,?is s+ul> degree ( regul>ity en masse1 comb9$ ) ! extreme ( irregul>ity 9 ! cases compos+ ! mass1 is a felicit\s v]ification po/]iori ( ! law ( causation 9 its application to human conduct4 ,assum+ ! tru? ( t law1 e human action1 e murd] = in/ance1 is ! concurr5t result ( two sets ( causes4 ,on ! "o "p1 ! g5]al circum/ances ( ! c\ntry & its inhabitants2 ! moral1 educational1 economical1 & o!r influ5ces op]at+ on ! :ole p1 & con/itut+ :at we t]m ! /ate ( civilization4 ,on ! o!r "p1 ! great v>iety ( influ5ces special to ! individual3 8 temp]am5t1 & o!r peculi>ities ( organization1 8 p>5tage1 habitual associates1 temptations1 & s =?4 ,if we n[ take ! :ole ( ! in/ances :i* occur )9 a suffici5tly l>ge field to exhau/ all ! comb9ations ( ^! special influ5ces1 or 9 o!r words1 to elim9ate *ance2 & if all ^! in/ances h occurr$ )9 su* n>r[ limits ( "t1 t no mat]ial *ange c h tak5 place 9 ! g5]al influ5ces con/itut+ ! /ate ( civilization ( ! c\ntry2 we may be c]ta91 t if human actions are gov]n$ by inv>iable laws1 ! aggregate result w be some?+ l a con/ant quantity4 ,! numb] ( murd]s committ$ )9 t space & "t1 be+ ! effect p>tly ( g5]al causes :i* h n v>i$1 & p>tly ( p>tial causes ! :ole r\nd ( ^: v>iations has be5 includ$1 w be1 practically speak+1 inv>iable4 ,lit]ally & ma!matically inv>iable x is n1 & c\ld n be expect$ to be3 because ! p]iod ( a ye> is too %ort to include all ! possible comb9ations ( p>tial causes1 :ile x is1 at ! same "t1 suffici5tly long to make x probable t 9 "s ye>s at lea/1 ( e s]ies1 !re w h be5 introduc$ new influ5ces ( a m or less g5]al "*2 su* z a m vigor\s or a m relax$ police2 "s tempor>y excitem5t f political or religi\s causes2 or "s incid5t g5]ally notori\s1 ( a nature to act morbidly on ! imag9ation4 ,t 9 spite ( ^! unavoidable imp]fections 9 ! data1 !re %\ld be s v trifl+ a m>g9 ( v>iation 9 ! annual results1 is a brilliant confirmation ( ! g5]al !ory4 #b4 ,! same consid]ations :i* ?us /rik+ly corroborate ! evid5ce ( ! doctr9e1 t hi/orical facts are ! inv>iable effects ( causes1 t5d equally to cle> t doctr9e f v>i\s misappreh5sions1 ! exi/5ce ( :i* has be5 put 9 evid5ce by ! rec5t discussions4 ,"s p]sons1 = in/ance1 seem+ly imag9e ! doctr9e to imply1 n m]ely t ! total numb] ( murd]s committ$ 9 a giv5 space & "t1 is entirely ! effect ( ! g5]al circum/ances ( society1 b t e p>ticul> murd] is s too3 t ! individual murd]] is1 s to speak1 a m]e in/rum5t 9 ! h&s ( g5]al causes2 t he himself has no option1 or if he has1 & *ose to ex]cise x1 "s "o else w\ld be necessitat$ to take 8 place3 t if any "o ( ! actual murd]]s _h ab/a9$ f ! crime1 "s p]son :o w\ld o!rwise h rema9$ innoc5t1 w\ld h committ$ an extra murd] to make up ! av]age4 ,su* a coroll>y w\ld c]ta9ly convict any !ory :i* necess>ily l$ to x ( absurdity4 ,x is obvi\s1 h[ev]1 t ea* p>ticul> murd] dep5ds1 n on ! g5]al /ate ( society only1 b on t comb9$ ) causes special to ! case1 :i* are g5]ally mu* m p[]ful3 & if ^! special causes1 :i* h great] influ5ce ?an ! g5]al ones 9 caus+ e p>ticul> murd]1 h no influ5ce on ! numb] ( murd]s 9 a giv5 p]iod1 x is because ! field ( obs]vation is s ext5sive z to include all possible comb9ations ( ! special causes--all v>ieties ( individual "* & individual temptation compatible ) ! g5]al /ate ( society4 ,! collective exp]im5t1 z x may be t]m$1 exactly sep>ates ! effect ( ! g5]al f t ( ! special causes1 & %[s ! net result ( ! =m]3 b x decl>es no?+ at all respect+ ! am\nt ( influ5ce ( ! special causes1 be x great] or small]1 s9ce ! scale ( ! exp]im5t ext5ds to ! numb] ( cases )9 :i* ! effects ( ! special causes balance "o ano!r1 & disappe> 9 t ( ! g5]al causes4 ,i w n pret5d t all ! def5d]s ( ! !ory h always kept _! language free f ?is same confusion1 & h %[n no t5d5cy to exalt ! influ5ce ( g5]al causes at ! exp5se ( special4 ,i am ( op9ion1 on ! contr>y1 t !y h done s 9 a v great degree1 & by s do+ h encumb]$ _! !ory ) difficulties1 & laid x op5 to objections1 :i* d n necess>ily affect x4 ,"s1 = example 7among :om is ,mr4 ,buckle himself71 h inf]r$1 or all[$ x to be suppos$ t !y inf]r$1 f ! regul>ity 9 ! recurr5ce ( ev5ts :i* dep5d on moral qualities1 t ! moral qualities ( mank9d are little capable ( be+ improv$1 or are ( little importance 9 ! g5]al progress ( society1 comp>$ ) intellectual or economic causes4 ,b to draw ?is inf]5ce is to =get t ! /ati/ical tables1 f :i* ! inv>iable av]ages are d$uc$1 7 compil$ f facts occurr+ )9 n>r[ geographical limits & 9 a small numb] ( successive ye>s2 t is1 f a field ! :ole ( :i* 0 "u ! op]ation ( ! same g5]al causes1 & dur+ too %ort a "t to all[ ( mu* *ange !re94 ,all moral causes b ^? common to ! c\ntry g5]ally1 h be5 elim9at$ by ! great numb] ( in/ances tak52 & ^? :i* are common to ! :ole c\ntry h n v>i$ consid]ably1 9 ! %ort space ( "t compris$ 9 ! obs]vations4 ,if we admit ! supposition t !y h v>i$2 if we comp>e "o age ) ano!r1 or "o c\ntry ) ano!r1 or ev5 "o "p ( a c\ntry ) ano!r1 diff]+ 9 position & "* z to ! moral elem5ts1 ! crimes committ$ )9 a ye> give no long] ! same1 b a widely diff]5t num]ical aggregate4 ,& ?is _c b be ! case3 = inasmu* z e s+le crime committ$ by an individual ma9ly dep5ds on 8 moral qualities1 ! crimes committ$ by ! entire population ( ! c\ntry mu/ dep5d 9 an equal degree on _! collective moral qualities4 ,to r5d] ?is elem5t inop]ative ^u ! l>ge scale1 x w\ld be necess>y to suppose t ! g5]al moral av]age ( mank9d does n v>y f c\ntry to c\ntry or f age to age2 :i* is n true1 & ev5 if x 7 true1 c\ld n possibly be prov$ by any exi/+ /ati/ics4 ,i d n on ?is acc\nt ! less agree 9 ! op9ion ( ,mr4 ,buckle1 t ! intellectual elem5t 9 mank9d1 includ+ 9 t expression ! nature ( _! beliefs1 ! am\nt ( _! k1 & ! developm5t ( _! intellig5ce1 is ! pr$om9ant circum/ance 9 det]m9+ _! progress4 ,b ,i am ( ?is op9ion1 n because ,i reg>d _! moral or economical condition ei!r z less p[]ful or less v>iable ag5cies1 b because ^! are 9 a great degree ! consequ5ces ( ! intellectual condition1 & are1 9 all cases1 limit$ by x2 z 0 obs]v$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]4 ,! intellectual *anges are ! mo/ conspicu\s ag5ts 9 hi/ory1 n f _! sup]ior =ce1 consid]$ 9 !mselves1 b because practically !y "w ) ! unit$ p[] belong+ to all ?ree4#af #c4 ,!re is ano!r di/9ction (t5 neglect$ 9 ! discussion ( ?is subject1 :i* x is extremely important to obs]ve4 ,! !ory ( ! subjection ( social progress to inv>iable laws1 is (t5 held 9 conjunction ) ! doctr9e1 t social progress _c be mat]ially influ5c$ by ! ex]tions ( individual p]sons1 or by ! acts ( gov]nm5ts4 ,b ?\gh ^! op9ions are (t5 held by ! same p]sons1 !y are two v diff]5t op9ions1 & ! confusion betwe5 !m is ! et]nally recurr+ error ( conf\nd+ ,causation ) ,fatalism4 ,because :atev] happ5s w be ! effect ( causes1 human volitions among ! re/1 x does n foll[ t volitions1 ev5 ^? ( peculi> individuals1 are n ( great efficacy z causes4 ,if any "o 9 a /orm at sea1 because ab\t ! same numb] ( p]sons 9 e ye> p]i% by %ipwreck1 %\ld conclude t x 0 useless = him to attempt to save 8 own life1 we %\ld call him a ,fatali/2 & %\ld rem9d him t ! ef=ts ( %ipwreck$ p]sons to save _! lives are s f> f be+ immat]ial1 t ! av]age am\nt ( ^? ef=ts is "o ( ! causes on :i* ! asc]ta9$ annual numb] ( dea?s by %ipwreck dep5d4 ,h[ev] univ]sal ! laws ( social developm5t may be1 !y _c be m univ]sal or m rigor\s ?an ^? ( ! physical ag5cies ( nature2 yet human w c conv]t ^! into in/rum5ts ( its designs1 & ! ext5t to :i* x does s makes ! *ief diff]5ce betwe5 savages & ! mo/ highly civiliz$ p4 ,human & social facts1 f _! m complicat$ nature1 are n less1 b m1 modifiable1 ?an me*anical & *emical facts2 human ag5cy1 !re=e1 has /ill great] p[] ov] !m4 ,& accord+ly1 ^? :o ma9ta9 t ! evolution ( society dep5ds exclusively1 or almo/ exclusively1 on g5]al causes1 always include among ^! ! collective k & intellectual developm5t ( ! race4 ,b if ( ! race1 :y n also ( "s p[]ful mon>* or ?9k]1 or ( ! rul+ portion ( "s political society1 act+ ?r\gh its gov]nm5t8 ,?\gh ! v>ieties ( "* among ord9>y individuals neutralize "o ano!r on any l>ge scale1 exceptional individuals 9 important positions d n 9 any giv5 age neutralize "o ano!r2 !re 0 n ano!r ,!mi/ocles1 or ,lu!r1 or ,julius ,cs>1 ( equal p[]s & contr>y dispositions1 :o exactly balanc$ ! giv5 ,!mi/ocles1 ,lu!r1 & ,cs>1 & prev5t$ !m f hav+ any p]man5t effect4 ,moreov]1 = aught t appe>s1 ! volitions ( exceptional p]sons1 or ! op9ions & purposes ( ! individuals :o at "s p>ticul> "t compose a gov]nm5t1 may be indisp5sable l9ks 9 ! *a9 ( causation by :i* ev5 ! g5]al causes produce _! effects2 & ,i believe ?is to be ! only t5able =m ( ! !ory4 ,"l ,macaulay1 9 a celebrat$ passage ( "o ( 8 e>ly essays 7let me add t x 0 "o :i* he did n himself *oose to repr9t71 gives expression to ! doctr9e ( ! absolute inop]ativ5ess ( great m51 m unqualifi$1 ,i %\ld ?9k1 ?an has be5 giv5 to x by any writ] ( equal abilities4 ,he comp>es !m to p]sons :o m]ely /& on a l(ti] height1 & !nce receive ! sun's rays a little e>li]1 ?an ! re/ ( ! human race4 ,! sun illum9ates ! hills :ile x is /ill bel[ ! horizon1 & tru? is discov]$ by ! highe/ m9ds a little be=e x becomes manife/ to ! multitude4 ,?is is ! ext5t ( _! sup]iority4 ,!y are ! fir/ to cat* & reflect a light :i*1 )\t _! assi/ance1 mu/ 9 a %ort "t be visible to ^? :o lie f> b5ea? !m4#ag ,if ?is metaphor is to be c>ri$ out1 x foll[s t if !re _h be5 no ,newton1 ! _w w\ld n only h _h ! ,newtonian sy/em1 b w\ld h _h x equally soon2 z ! sun w\ld h ris5 j z e>ly to spectators 9 ! pla9 if !re _h be5 no m\nta9 at h& to cat* /ill e>li] rays4 ,& s x w\ld be1 if tru?s1 l ! sun1 rose by _! own prop] motion1 )\t human ef=t2 b n o!rwise4 ,i believe t if ,newton _h n liv$1 ! _w mu/ h wait$ = ! ,newtonian philosophy until !re _h be5 ano!r ,newton1 or 8 equival5t4 ,no ord9>y man1 & no succession ( ord9>y m51 c\ld h a*iev$ x4 ,i w n g ! l5g? ( say+ t :at ,newton did 9 a s+le life1 might n h be5 done 9 successive /eps by "s ( ^? :o foll[$ him1 ea* s+ly inf]ior to him 9 g5ius4 ,b ev5 ! lea/ ( ^? /eps requir$ a man ( great intellectual sup]iority4 ,em95t m5 d n m]ely see ! com+ light f ! hill-top1 !y m\nt on ! hill-top & evoke x2 & if no "o _h ev] asc5d$ ?i!r1 ! light1 9 _m cases1 might nev] h ris5 ^u ! pla9 at all4 ,philosophy & religion are abundantly am5able to g5]al causes2 yet few w d\bt1 t _h !re be5 no ,socrates1 no ,plato1 & no ,ari/otle1 !re w\ld h be5 no philosophy = ! next two ?\s& ye>s1 nor 9 all probability !n2 & t if !re _h be5 no ,*ri/1 & no ,/4 ,paul1 !re w\ld h be5 no ,*ri/ianity4 ,! po9t 9 :i*1 above all1 ! influ5ce ( rem>kable individuals is decisive1 is 9 det]m9+ ! cel]ity ( ! movem5t4 ,9 mo/ /ates ( society x is ! exi/5ce ( great m5 :i* decides ev5 :e!r !re %all be any progress4 ,x is conceivable t ,greece1 or t ,*ri/ian ,europe1 might h be5 progressive 9 c]ta9 p]iods ( _! hi/ory ?r\gh g5]al causes only3 b if !re _h be5 no ,mahomet1 w\ld ,arabia h produc$ ,avic5na or ,av]roes1 or ,caliphs ( ,bagdad or ( ,cordova8 ,9 det]m9+1 h[ev]1 9 :at mann] & ord] ! progress ( mank9d %all take place if x take place at all1 mu* less dep5ds on ! "* ( individuals4 ,!re is a sort ( necessity e/abli%$ 9 ?is respect by ! g5]al laws ( human nature2 by ! con/itution ( ! human m9d4 ,c]ta9 tru?s _c be discov]$1 or inv5tions made1 unless c]ta9 o!rs h be5 made fir/2 c]ta9 social improvem5ts1 f ! nature ( ! case1 c only foll[1 & n prec$e1 o!rs4 ,! ord] ( human progress1 !re=e1 may to a c]ta9 ext5t h def9ite laws assign$ to x3 :ile z to its cel]ity1 or ev5 z to its tak+ place at all1 no g5]alization1 ext5d+ to ! human species g5]ally1 c possibly be made2 b only "s v prec>i\s approximate g5]alizations1 conf9$ to ! small portion ( mank9d 9 :om !re has be5 any?+ l consecutive progress )9 ! hi/orical p]iod1 & d$uc$ f _! special position1 or collect$ f _! p>ticul> hi/ory4 ,ev5 look+ to ! mann] ( progress1 ! ord] ( succession ( social /ates1 !re is ne$ ( great flexibility 9 our g5]alizations4 ,! limits ( v>iation 9 ! possible developm5t ( social1 z ( animal life1 are a subject ( :i* little is yet und]/ood1 & are "o ( ! great problems 9 social sci5ce4 ,x is1 at all ev5ts1 a fact1 t diff]5t portions ( mank9d1 "u ! influ5ce ( diff]5t circum/ances1 h develop$ !mselves 9 a m or less diff]5t mann] & into diff]5t =ms2 & among ^! det]m9+ circum/ances1 ! individual "* ( _! great speculative ?9k]s or practical organiz]s may well h be5 "o4 ,:o c tell h[ pr(\ndly ! :ole subsequ5t hi/ory ( ,*9a may h be5 influ5c$ by ! individuality ( ,confucius8 & ( ,sp>ta 7& h5ce ( ,greece & ! _w7 by t ( ,lycurgus8 ,conc]n+ ! nature & ext5t ( :at a great man "u fav\rable circum/ances c d = mank9d1 z well z ( :at a gov]nm5t c d = a nation1 _m diff]5t op9ions are possible2 & e %ade ( op9ion on ^! po9ts is consi/5t ) ! fulle/ recognition t !re are inv>iable laws ( hi/orical ph5om5a4 ,( c\rse ! degree ( influ5ce :i* has to be assign$ to ^! m special ag5cies1 makes a great diff]5ce 9 ! precision :i* c be giv5 to ! g5]al laws1 & 9 ! confid5ce ) :i* pr$ictions c be gr\nd$ on !m4 ,:atev] dep5ds on ! peculi>ities ( individuals1 comb9$ ) ! accid5t ( ! positions !y hold1 is necess>ily incapable ( be+ =ese54 ,und\bt$ly ^! casual comb9ations might be elim9at$ l any o!rs1 by tak+ a suffici5tly l>ge cycle3 ! peculi>ities ( a great hi/orical "* make _! influ5ce felt 9 hi/ory sometimes = sev]al ?\s& ye>s1 b x is highly probable t !y may make no diff]5ce at all at ! end ( fifty millions4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 we _c obta9 an av]age ( ! va/ l5g? ( "t necess>y to exhau/ all ! possible comb9ations ( great m5 & circum/ances1 z mu* ( ! law ( evolution ( human affairs z dep5ds ^u ?is av]age1 is & rema9s inaccessible to u3 & )9 ! next ?\s& ye>s1 :i* are ( consid]ably m importance to u ?an ! :ole rema9d] ( ! fifty millions1 ! fav\rable & unfav\rable comb9ations :i* w occur w be to u purely accid5tal4 ,we _c =esee ! adv5t ( great m54 ,^? :o introduce new speculative ?\ghts or great practical conceptions into ! _w1 _c h _! epo* fix$ be=eh&4 ,:at sci5ce c d1 is ?is4 ,x c trace ?r\gh pa/ hi/ory ! g5]al causes :i* _h br\ght mank9d into t prelim9>y /ate1 :i* :5 ! "r sort ( great man appe>$1 r5d]$ !m accessible to 8 influ5ce4 ,if ?is /ate cont9ues1 exp]i5ce r5d]s x tol]ably c]ta9 t 9 a long] or %ort] p]iod ! great man w be produc$2 provid$ t ! g5]al circum/ances ( ! c\ntry & p are 7:i* v (t5 !y are n7 compatible ) 8 exi/5ce2 ( :i* po9t also1 sci5ce c 9 "s measure judge4 ,x is 9 ?is mann] t ! results ( progress1 except z to ! cel]ity ( _! production1 c be1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 r$uc$ to regul>ity & law4 ,& ! belief t !y c be s1 is equally consi/5t ) assign+ v great1 or v little efficacy1 to ! influ5ce ( exceptional m51 or ( ! acts ( gov]nm5ts4 ,& ! same may be said ( all o!r accid5ts & di/urb+ causes4 #d4 ,x w\ld nev]!less be a great error to assign only a trifl+ importance to ! ag5cy ( em95t individuals1 or ( gov]nm5ts4 ,x mu/ n be conclud$ t ! influ5ce ( ei!r is small1 because !y _c be/[ :at ! g5]al circum/ances ( society1 & ! c\rse ( its previ\s hi/ory1 h n prep>$ x to receive4 ,nei!r ?9k]s nor gov]nm5ts effect all t !y int5d1 b 9 comp5sation !y (t5 produce important results :i* !y did n 9 ! lea/ =esee4 ,great m51 & great actions1 are seldom wa/$3 !y s5d =? a ?\s& unse5 influ5ces1 m effective ?an ^? :i* are se52 & ?\gh n9e out ( e t5 ?+s done1 ) a good purpose1 by ^? :o are 9 advance ( _! age1 produce no mat]ial effect1 ! t5? ?+ produces effects tw5ty times z great z any "o w\ld h dream$ ( pr$ict+ f x4 ,ev5 ! m5 :o = want ( suffici5tly fav\rable circum/ances left no impress at all ^u _! own age1 h (t5 be5 ( ! greate/ value to po/]ity4 ,:o c\ld appe> to h liv$ m entirely 9 va91 ?an "s ( ! e>ly h]etics8 ,!y 7 burnt or massacr$1 _! writ+s extirpat$1 _! memory ana!matiz$1 & _! v names & exi/5ce left = sev5 or eight c5turies 9 ! obscurity ( mu/y manuscripts--_! hi/ory to be ga!r$1 p]haps1 only f ! s5t5ces by :i* !y 7 condemn$4 ,yet ! memory ( ^! m5--m5 :o resi/$ c]ta9 pret5sions or c]ta9 dogmas ( ! ,*ur* 9 ! v age 9 :i* ! unanim\s ass5t ( ,*ri/5dom 0 aft]w>ds claim$ z hav+ be5 giv5 to !m1 & ass]t$ z ! gr\nd ( _! au?ority--broke ! *a9 ( tradition1 e/abli%$ a s]ies ( prec$5ts = resi/ance1 inspir$ lat] ,re=m]s ) ! c\rage1 & arm$ !m ) ! weapons1 :i* !y ne$$ :5 mank9d 7 bett] prep>$ to foll[ _! impulse4 ,to ?is example f m51 let u add ano!r f gov]nm5ts4 ,! comp>atively enlight5$ rule ( :i* ,spa9 _h ! b5efit dur+ a consid]able "p ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 did n correct ! fundam5tal defects ( ! ,spani% p2 & 9 consequ5ce1 ?\gh x did great tempor>y good1 s mu* ( t good p]i%$ ) x1 t x may plausibly be affirm$ to h _h no p]man5t effect4 ,! case has be5 cit$ z a pro( h[ little gov]nm5ts c d1 9 opposition to ! causes :i* h det]m9$ ! g5]al "* ( ! nation4 ,x does %[ h[ mu* !re is :i* !y _c d2 b n t !y c d no?+4 ,comp>e :at ,spa9 0 at ! beg9n+ ( t half c5tury ( lib]al gov]nm5t1 ) :at %e _h become at its close4 ,t p]iod fairly let 9 ! light ( ,european ?\ght ^u ! m educat$ classes2 & x nev] aft]w>ds ceas$ to g on spread+4 ,previ\s to t "t ! *ange 0 9 an inv]se direction2 culture1 light1 intellectual & ev5 mat]ial activity1 7 becom+ ext+ui%$4 ,0 x no?+ to arre/ ?is d[nw>d & conv]t x into an upw>d c\rse8 ,h[ mu* t ,*>les ! ,?ird & ,ar&a c\ld n d1 has be5 ! ultimate consequ5ce ( :at !y did6 ,to t half c5tury ,spa9 owes t %e has got rid ( ! ,inquisition1 t %e has got rid ( ! monks1 t %e n[ has p>liam5ts & 7save 9 exceptional int]vals7 a free press1 & ! feel+s ( fre$om & citiz5%ip1 & is acquir+ railroads & all ! o!r con/itu5ts ( mat]ial & economical progress4 ,9 ! ,spa9 :i* prec$$ t era !re 0 n a s+le elem5t at "w1 :i* c\ld h l$ to ^! results 9 any l5g? ( "t1 if ! c\ntry _h cont9u$ to be gov]n$ z x 0 by ! la/ pr9ces ( ! ,au/rian dyna/y1 or if ! ,b\rbon rul]s _h be5 f ! fir/ :at1 bo? 9 ,spa9 & 9 ,naples1 !y aft]w>ds became4 ,& if a gov]nm5t c d mu*1 ev5 :5 x seems to h done little1 9 caus+ positive improvem5t1 /ill great] are ! issues dep5d5t on x 9 ! way ( w>d+ (f evils1 bo? int]nal & ext]nal1 :i* else w\ld /op improvem5t altoge!r4 ,a good or a bad c\nsellor1 9 a s+le city at a p>ticul> crisis1 has affect$ ! :ole subsequ5t fate ( ! _w4 ,x is z c]ta9 z any cont+5t judgm5t respect+ hi/orical ev5ts c be1 t if !re _h be5 no ,!mi/ocles !re w\ld h be5 no victory ( ,salamis2 & _h !re n1 :]e w\ld h be5 all our civilization8 ,h[ diff]5t aga9 w\ld h be5 ! issue if ,epam9ondas1 or ,timoleon1 or ev5 ,iphicrates1 in/ead ( ,*>es & ,lysicles1 _h comm&$ at ,*roneia4 ,z is well said 9 ! second ( two ,essays on ! ,/udy ( ,hi/ory1#ah 9 my judgm5t ! s\nde/ & mo/ philosophical productions :i* ! rec5t controv]sies on ?is subject h call$ =?2 hi/orical sci5ce au?orizes n absolute1 b only conditional pr$ictions4 ,g5]al causes c\nt = mu*1 b individuals also produce great *anges 9 hi/ory1 & col\r its :ole complexion long aft] _! dea?4444 ,no "o c d\bt t ! ,roman republic w\ld h subsid$ into a milit>y despotism if ,julius ,cs> _h nev] liv$2 7?us mu* 0 r5d]$ practically c]ta9 by g5]al causes73 b is x at all cle> t 9 t case ,gaul w\ld ev] h =m$ a prov9ce ( ! empire8 ,might n ,v>us h lo/ 8 ?ree legions on ! banks ( ! ,rhone8 & might n t riv] h become ! fronti] in/ead ( ! ,rh9e8 ,?is might well h happ5$ if ,cs> & ,crassus _h *ang$ prov9ces2 & x is surely impossible to say t 9 su* an ev5t ! v5ue 7z lawy]s say7 ( ,european civilization might n h be5 *ang$4 ,! ,norman ,conque/ 9 ! same way 0 z mu* ! act ( a s+le man1 z ! writ+ ( a newspap] article2 & kn[+ z we d ! hi/ory ( t man & 8 family1 we c retrospectively pr$ict ) all b infallible c]ta9ty1 t no o!r p]son 7no o!r 9 t age1 ,i presume1 is meant71 c\ld h accompli%$ ! ent]prise4 ,if x _h n be5 accompli%$1 is !re any gr\nd to suppose t ei!r our hi/ory or our national "* w\ld h be5 :at !y are8 ,z is mo/ truly rem>k$ by ! same writ]1 ! :ole /ream ( ,grecian hi/ory1 z cle>$ up by ,mr4 ,grote1 is "o s]ies ( examples h[ (t5 ev5ts on :i* ! :ole de/9y ( subsequ5t civilization turn$1 7 dep5d5t on ! p]sonal "* = good or evil ( "s "o individual4 ,x mu/ be said1 h[ev]1 t ,greece furni%es ! mo/ extreme example ( ?is nature to be f\nd 9 hi/ory1 & is a v exagg]at$ specim5 ( ! g5]al t5d5cy4 ,x has happ5$ only t once1 & w probably nev] happ5 aga91 t ! =tunes ( mank9d dep5d$ ^u keep+ a c]ta9 ord] ( ?+s 9 exi/5ce 9 a s+le t[n1 or a c\ntry sc>cely l>g] ?an ,york%ire2 capable ( be+ ru9$ or sav$ by a hundr$ causes1 ( v slight magnitude 9 comp>ison ) ! g5]al t5d5cies ( human affairs4 ,nei!r ord9>y accid5ts1 nor ! *>act]s ( individuals1 c ev] aga9 be s vitally important z !y !n 74 ,! long] our species la/s1 & ! m civiliz$ x becomes1 ! m1 z ,comte rem>ks1 does ! influ5ce ( pa/ g5]ations ov] ! pres5t1 & ( mank9d en masse ov] e individual 9 x1 pr$om9ate ov] o!r =ces3 & ?\gh ! c\rse ( affairs nev] ceases to be susceptible ( alt]ation bo? by accid5ts & by p]sonal qualities1 ! increas+ prepond]ance ( ! collective ag5cy ( ! species ov] all m9or causes1 is con/antly br++ ! g5]al evolution ( ! race into some?+ :i* deviates less f a c]ta9 & preappo9t$ track4 ,hi/orical sci5ce1 !re=e1 is always becom+ m possible3 n solely because x is bett] /udi$1 b because1 9 e g5]ation1 x becomes bett] adapt$ = /udy4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,( ,,! ,,logic ,,( ,,practice1 ,,or ,,art2 ,,includ+ ,,morality ,,& ,,policy4 #a4 ,9 ! prec$+ *apt]s we h endeav\r$ to *>act]ize ! pres5t /ate ( ^? among ! bran*es ( k call$ ,moral1 :i* are sci5ces 9 ! only prop] s5se ( ! t]m1 t is1 inquiries into ! c\rse ( nature4 ,x is cu/om>y1 h[ev]1 to include "u ! t]m moral k1 & ev5 7?\gh improp]ly7 "u t ( moral sci5ce1 an inquiry ! results ( :i* d n express !mselves 9 ! indicative1 b 9 ! imp]ative mood1 or 9 p]iphrases equival5t to x2 :at is call$ ! k ( duties2 practical e?ics1 or morality4 ,n[1 ! imp]ative mood is ! *>act]i/ic ( art1 z di/+ui%$ f sci5ce4 ,:atev] speaks 9 rules1 or precepts1 n 9 ass]tions respect+ matt]s ( fact1 is art3 & e?ics1 or morality1 is prop]ly a portion ( ! art correspond+ to ! sci5ces ( human nature & society4#ai ,! ,me?od1 !re=e1 ( ,e?ics1 c be no o!r ?an t ( ,art1 or ,practice1 9 g5]al3 & ! portion yet uncomplet$1 ( ! task :i* we propos$ to ourselves 9 ! conclud+ ,book1 is to *>act]ize ! g5]al ,me?od ( ,art1 z di/+ui%$ f ,sci5ce4 #b4 ,9 all bran*es ( practical bus9ess1 !re are cases 9 :i* individuals are b\nd to con=m _! practice to a pre-e/abli%$ rule1 :ile !re are o!rs 9 :i* x is "p ( _! task to f9d or con/ruct ! rule by :i* !y are to gov]n _! conduct4 ,! fir/1 = example1 is ! case ( a judge1 "u a def9ite writt5 code4 ,! judge is n call$ ^u to det]m9e :at c\rse w\ld be intr9sically ! mo/ advisable 9 ! p>ticul> case 9 h&1 b only )9 :at rule ( law x falls2 :at ! legislator has orda9$ to be done 9 ! k9d ( case1 & mu/ !re=e be presum$ to h int5d$ 9 ! individual case4 ,! me?od mu/ "h be :olly & exclusively "o ( ratioc9ation1 or syllogism2 & ! process is obvi\sly1 :at 9 our analysis ( ! syllogism we %[$ t all ratioc9ation is1 namely ! int]pretation ( a =mula4 ,9 ord] t our illu/ration ( ! opposite case may be tak5 f ! same class ( subjects z ! =m]1 we w suppose1 9 contra/ ) ! situation ( ! judge1 ! position ( a legislator4 ,z ! judge has laws = 8 guidance1 s ! legislator has rules1 & maxims ( policy2 b x w\ld be a manife/ error to suppose t ! legislator is b\nd by ^! maxims 9 ! same mann] z ! judge is b\nd by ! laws1 & t all he has to d is to argue d[n f !m to ! p>ticul> case1 z ! judge does f ! laws4 ,! legislator is b\nd to take into consid]ation ! reasons or gr\nds ( ! maxim2 ! judge has no?+ to d ) ^? ( ! law1 except s f> z a consid]ation ( !m may ?r[ light ^u ! int5tion ( ! law-mak]1 :]e 8 words h left x d\btful4 ,to ! judge1 ! rule1 once positively asc]ta9$1 is f9al2 b ! legislator1 or o!r practition]1 :o goes by rules r ?an by _! reasons1 l ! old-fa%ion$ ,g]man tacticians :o 7 vanqui%$ by ,napoleon1 or ! physician :o pref]r$ t 8 pati5ts %\ld die by rule r ?an recov] contr>y to x1 is rightly judg$ to be a m]e p$ant1 & ! slave ( 8 =mulas4 ,n[1 ! reasons ( a maxim ( policy1 or ( any o!r rule ( art1 c be no o!r ?an ! !orems ( ! correspond+ sci5ce4 ,! relation 9 :i* rules ( art /& to doctr9es ( sci5ce may be ?us *>act]iz$4 ,! art proposes to itself an end to be atta9$1 def9es ! end1 & h&s x ov] to ! sci5ce4 ,! sci5ce receives x1 consid]s x z a ph5om5on or effect to be /udi$1 & hav+ inve/igat$ its causes & conditions1 s5ds x back to art ) a !orem ( ! comb9ation ( circum/ances by :i* x c\ld be produc$4 ,art !n exam9es ^! comb9ations ( circum/ances1 & accord+ z any ( !m are or are n 9 human p[]1 pron\nces ! end atta9able or n4 ,! only "o ( ! premises1 !re=e1 :i* ,art supplies1 is ! orig9al major premise1 :i* ass]ts t ! atta9m5t ( ! giv5 end is desirable4 ,sci5ce !n l5ds to ,art ! proposition 7obta9$ by a s]ies ( inductions or ( d$uctions7 t ! p]=mance ( c]ta9 actions w atta9 ! end4 ,f ^! premises ,art concludes t ! p]=mance ( ^! actions is desirable1 & f9d+ x also practicable1 conv]ts ! !orem into a rule or precept4 #c4 ,x des]ves p>ticul> notice1 t ! !orem or speculative tru? is n ripe = be+ turn$ into a precept1 until ! :ole1 & n a "p m]ely1 ( ! op]ation :i* belongs to sci5ce1 has be5 p]=m$4 ,suppose t we h complet$ ! sci5tific process only up to a c]ta9 po9t2 h discov]$ t a p>ticul> cause w produce ! desir$ effect1 b h n asc]ta9$ all ! negative conditions :i* are necess>y1 t is1 all ! circum/ances :i*1 if pres5t1 w\ld prev5t its production4 ,if1 9 ?is imp]fect /ate ( ! sci5tific !ory1 we attempt to frame a rule ( art1 we p]=m t op]ation prematurely4 ,:5ev] any c\nt]act+ cause1 ov]look$ by ! !orem1 takes place1 ! rule w be at fault3 we %all employ ! means & ! end w n foll[4 ,no argu+ f or ab\t ! rule itself w !n help u ?r\gh ! difficulty3 !re is no?+ = x b to turn back & f9i% ! sci5tific process :i* %\ld h prec$$ ! =mation ( ! rule4 ,we mu/ re-op5 ! inve/igation1 to inquire into ! rema9d] ( ! conditions on :i* ! effect dep5ds2 & only aft] we h asc]ta9$ ! :ole ( ^!1 are we prep>$ to trans=m ! complet$ law ( ! effect into a precept1 9 :i* ^? circum/ances or comb9ations ( circum/ances :i* ! sci5ce exhibits z conditions1 are prescrib$ z means4 ,x is true t1 = ! sake ( conv5i5ce1 rules mu/ be =m$ f some?+ less ?an ?is ideally p]fect !ory2 9 ! fir/ place1 because ! !ory c seldom be made ideally p]fect2 & next1 because1 if all ! c\nt]act+ cont+5cies1 :e!r ( frequ5t or ( r>e occurr5ce1 7 includ$1 ! rules w\ld be too cumbr\s to be appreh5d$ & rememb]$ by ord9>y capacities1 on ! common occasions ( life4 ,! rules ( art d n attempt to comprise m conditions ?an require to be att5d$ to 9 ord9>y cases2 & are !re=e always imp]fect4 ,9 ! manual arts1 :]e ! requisite conditions are n num]\s1 & :]e ^? :i* ! rules d n specify are g5]ally ei!r pla9 to common obs]vation or spe$ily le>nt f practice1 rules may (t5 be safely act$ on by p]sons :o "k no?+ m ?an ! rule4 ,b 9 ! complicat$ affairs ( life1 & /ill m 9 ^? ( /ates & societies1 rules _c be reli$ on1 )\t con/antly ref]r+ back to ! sci5tific laws on :i* !y are f\nd$4 ,to "k :at are ! practical cont+5cies :i* require a modification ( ! rule1 or :i* are altoge!r exceptions to x1 is to "k :at comb9ations ( circum/ances w\ld int]f]e )1 or entirely c\nt]act1 ! consequ5ces ( ^? laws3 & ?is c only be le>nt by a ref]5ce to ! !oretic gr\nds ( ! rule4 ,by a wise practition]1 !re=e1 rules ( conduct w only be consid]$ z provisional4 ,be+ made = ! mo/ num]\s cases1 or = ^? ( mo/ ord9>y occurr5ce1 !y po9t out ! mann] 9 :i* x w be lea/ p]il\s to act1 :]e "t or means d n exi/ = analys+ ! actual circum/ances ( ! case1 or :]e we _c tru/ our judgm5t 9 e/imat+ !m4 ,b !y d n at all sup]s$e ! propriety ( go+ ?r\gh 7:5 circum/ances p]mit7 ! sci5tific process requisite = fram+ a rule f ! data ( ! p>ticul> case be=e u4 ,at ! same "t1 ! common rule may v prop]ly s]ve z an admonition t a c]ta9 mode ( action has be5 f\nd by ourselves & o!rs to be well adapt$ to ! cases ( mo/ common occurr5ce2 s t if x be unsuitable to ! case 9 h&1 ! reason ( its be+ s w be likely to arise f "s unusual circum/ance4 #d4 ,! error is !re=e app>5t1 ( ^? :o w\ld d$uce ! l9e ( conduct prop] to p>ticul> cases1 f suppos$ univ]sal practical maxims2 ov]look+ ! necessity ( con/antly ref]r+ back to ! pr9ciples ( ! speculative sci5ce1 9 ord] to be sure ( atta9+ ev5 ! specific end :i* ! rules h 9 view4 ,h[ mu* great] /ill1 !n1 mu/ ! error be1 ( sett+ up su* unb5d+ pr9ciples1 n m]ely z univ]sal rules = atta9+ a giv5 end1 b z rules ( conduct g5]ally2 )\t reg>d to ! possibility1 n only t "s modify+ cause may prev5t ! atta9m5t ( ! giv5 end by ! means :i* ! rule prescribes1 b t success itself may conflict ) "s o!r end1 :i* may possibly *ance to be m desirable4 ,?is is ! habitual error ( _m ( ! political speculators :om ,i h *>act]iz$ z ! geometrical s*ool2 especially 9 ,france1 :]e ratioc9ation f rules ( practice =ms ! /aple commodity ( j\rnalism & political oratory2 a misappreh5sion ( ! functions ( ,d$uction :i* has br\ght mu* discr$it1 9 ! e/imation ( o!r c\ntries1 ^u ! _s ( g5]alization s hon\rably *>act]i/ic ( ! ,fr5* m9d4 ,! common-places ( politics1 9 ,france1 are l>ge & sweep+ practical maxims1 f :i*1 z ultimate premises1 m5 reason d[nw>ds to p>ticul> applications1 & ?is !y call be+ logical & consi/5t4 ,= in/ance1 !y are p]petually argu+ t su* & su* a measure ought to be adopt$1 because x is a consequ5ce ( ! pr9ciple on :i* ! =m ( gov]nm5t is f\nd$2 ( ! pr9ciple ( legitimacy1 or ! pr9ciple ( ! sov]eignty ( ! p4 ,to :i* x may be answ]$1 t if ^! be really practical pr9ciples1 !y mu/ re/ on speculative gr\nds2 ! sov]eignty ( ! p 7= example7 mu/ be a "r f\ndation = gov]nm5t1 because a gov]nm5t ?us con/itut$ t5ds to produce c]ta9 b5eficial effects4 ,inasmu*1 h[ev]1 z no gov]nm5t produces all possible b5eficial effects1 b all are att5d$ ) m or few] inconv5i5ces2 & s9ce ^! _c usually be combat$ by means drawn f ! v causes :i* produce !m2 x w\ld be (t5 a mu* /rong] recomm5dation ( "s practical arrangem5t1 t x does n foll[ f :at is call$ ! g5]al pr9ciple ( ! gov]nm5t1 ?an t x does4 ,"u a gov]nm5t ( legitimacy1 ! presumption is f> r 9 fav\r ( in/itutions ( popul> orig92 & 9 a democracy1 9 fav\r ( arrangem5ts t5d+ to *eck ! impetus ( popul> w4 ,! l9e ( argum5tation s commonly mi/ak5 9 ,france = political philosophy1 t5ds to ! practical conclusion t we %\ld ex]t our utmo/ ef=ts to aggravate1 in/ead ( alleviat+1 :atev] are ! *>act]i/ic imp]fections ( ! sy/em ( in/itutions :i* we pref]1 or "u :i* we happ5 to live4 #e4 ,! gr\nds1 !n1 ( e rule ( art1 are to be f\nd 9 ! !orems ( sci5ce4 ,an art1 or a body ( art1 consi/s ( ! rules1 toge!r ) z mu* ( ! speculative propositions z comprises ! ju/ification ( ^? rules4 ,! complete art ( any matt]1 includes a selection ( su* a portion f ! sci5ce1 z is necess>y to %[ on :at conditions ! effects1 :i* ! art aims at produc+1 dep5d4 ,& ,art 9 g5]al1 consi/s ( ! tru?s ( ,sci5ce1 arrang$ 9 ! mo/ conv5i5t ord] = practice1 in/ead ( ! ord] :i* is ! mo/ conv5i5t = ?\ght4 ,sci5ce gr\ps & arranges its tru?s1 s z to enable u to take 9 at "o view z mu* z possible ( ! g5]al ord] ( ! univ]se4 ,art1 ?\gh x mu/ assume ! same g5]al laws1 foll[s !m only into su* ( _! detail$ consequ5ces z h l$ to ! =mation ( rules ( conduct2 & br+s toge!r f p>ts ( ! field ( sci5ce mo/ remote f "o ano!r1 ! tru?s relat+ to ! production ( ! diff]5t & het]og5e\s conditions necess>y to ea* effect :i* ! exig5cies ( practical life require to be produc$4 ,sci5ce1 !re=e1 foll[+ "o cause to its v>i\s effects1 :ile art traces "o effect to its multipli$ & div]sifi$ causes & conditions2 !re is ne$ ( a set ( int]m$iate sci5tific tru?s1 d]iv$ f ! high] g5]alities ( sci5ce1 & de/9$ to s]ve z ! g5]alia or fir/ pr9ciples ( ! v>i\s arts4 ,! sci5tific op]ation ( fram+ ^! int]m$iate pr9ciples1 ,m4 ,comte *>act]izes z "o ( ^? results ( philosophy :i* are res]v$ = futurity4 ,! only complete example :i* he po9ts out z actually realiz$1 & :i* c be held up z a type to be imitat$ 9 m important matt]s1 is ! g5]al !ory ( ! art ( ,descriptive ,geometry1 z conceiv$ by ,m4 ,monge4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 difficult to und]/& :at ! nature ( ^! int]m$iate pr9ciples mu/ g5]ally be4 ,aft] fram+ ! mo/ compreh5sive possible conception ( ! end to be aim$ at1 t is1 ( ! effect to be produc$1 & det]m9+ 9 ! same compreh5sive mann] ! set ( conditions on :i* t effect dep5ds2 !re rema9s to be tak51 a g5]al survey ( ! res\rces :i* c be comm&$ = realiz+ ?is set ( conditions2 & :5 ! result ( ?is survey has be5 embodi$ 9 ! fewe/ & mo/ ext5sive propositions possible1 ^? propositions w express ! g5]al relation betwe5 ! available means & ! end1 & w con/itute ! g5]al sci5tific !ory ( ! art2 f :i* its practical me?ods w foll[ z coroll>ies4 #f4 ,b ?\gh ! reason+s :i* connect ! end or purpose ( e art ) its means1 belong to ! doma9 ( ,sci5ce1 ! def9ition ( ! end itself belongs exclusively to ,art1 & =ms its peculi> prov9ce4 ,e art has "o fir/ pr9ciple1 or g5]al major premise1 n borr[$ f sci5ce2 t :i* enunciates ! object aim$ at1 & affirms x to be a desirable object4 ,! build]'s art assumes t x is desirable to h build+s2 ar*itecture 7z "o ( ! f9e arts71 t x is desirable to h !m beautiful or impos+4 ,! hygi5ic & m$ical arts assume1 ! "o t ! pres]vation ( heal?1 ! o!r t ! cure ( disease1 are fitt+ & desirable ends4 ,^! are n propositions ( sci5ce4 ,propositions ( sci5ce ass]t a matt] ( fact3 an exi/5ce1 a coexi/5ce1 a succession1 or a resemblance4 ,! propositions n[ spok5 ( d n ass]t t any?+ is1 b enjo9 or recomm5d t some?+ %\ld be4 ,!y are a class by !mselves4 ,a proposition ( :i* ! pr$icate is express$1 by ! words ought or %\ld be1 is g5]ically diff]5t f "o :i* is express$ by is1 or w be4 ,x is true t1 9 ! l>ge/ s5se ( ! words1 ev5 ^! propositions ass]t some?+ z a matt] ( fact4 ,! fact affirm$ 9 !m is1 t ! conduct recomm5d$ excites 9 ! speak]'s m9d ! feel+ ( approbation4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 does n g to ! bottom ( ! matt]2 = ! speak]'s approbation is no suffici5t reason :y o!r p %\ld approve2 nor ought x to be a conclusive reason ev5 ) himself4 ,= ! purposes ( practice1 e "o mu/ be requir$ to ju/ify 8 approbation3 & = ?is !re is ne$ ( g5]al premises1 det]m9+ :at are ! prop] objects ( approbation1 & :at ! prop] ord] ( prec$5ce among ^? objects4 ,^! g5]al premises1 toge!r ) ! pr9cipal conclusions :i* may be d$uc$ f !m1 =m 7or r might =m7 a body ( doctr9e1 :i* is prop]ly ! ,art ( ,life1 9 its ?ree dep>tm5ts1 ,morality1 ,prud5ce or ,policy1 & /hetics2 ! ,"r1 ! ,exp$i5t1 & ! ,beautiful or ,noble1 9 human conduct & works4 ,to ?is art1 7:i*1 9 ! ma91 is un=tunately /ill to be creat$17 all o!r arts are subord9ate2 s9ce its pr9ciples are ^? :i* mu/ det]m9e :e!r ! special aim ( any p>ticul> art is wor?y & desirable1 & :at is its place 9 ! scale ( desirable ?+s4 ,e art is ?us a jo9t result ( laws ( nature disclos$ by sci5ce1 & ( ! g5]al pr9ciples ( :at has be5 call$ ,teleology1 or ! ,doctr9e ( ,ends2#bj :i*1 borr[+ ! language ( ! ,g]man metaphysicians1 may also be t]m$1 n improp]ly1 ! ,pr9ciples ( ,practical ,reason4 ,a sci5tific obs]v] or reason]1 m]ely z su*1 is n an advis] = practice4 ,8 "p is only to %[ t c]ta9 consequ5ces foll[ f c]ta9 causes1 & t to obta9 c]ta9 ends1 c]ta9 means are ! mo/ effectual4 ,:e!r ! ends !mselves are su* z ought to be pursu$1 & if s1 9 :at cases & to h[ great a l5g?1 x is no "p ( 8 bus9ess z a cultivator ( sci5ce to decide1 & sci5ce alone w nev] qualify him = ! decision4 ,9 purely physical sci5ce1 !re is n mu* temptation to assume ?is ult]ior (fice2 b ^? :o treat ( human nature & society inv>iably claim x2 !y always und]take to say1 n m]ely :at is1 b :at ought to be4 ,to entitle !m to d ?is1 a complete doctr9e ( ,teleology is indisp5sable4 ,a sci5tific !ory1 h[ev] p]fect1 ( ! subject matt]1 consid]$ m]ely z "p ( ! ord] ( nature1 c 9 no degree s]ve z a sub/itute4 ,9 ?is respect ! v>i\s subord9ate arts af=d a mislead+ analogy4 ,9 !m !re is seldom any visible necessity = ju/ify+ ! end1 s9ce 9 g5]al its desirabl5ess is d5i$ by nobody1 & x is only :5 ! "q ( prec$5ce is to be decid$ betwe5 t end & "s o!r1 t ! g5]al pr9ciples ( ,teleology h to be call$ 93 b a writ] on ,morals & ,politics requires ^? pr9ciples at e /ep4 ,! mo/ elaborate & well-dige/$ exposition ( ! laws ( succession & coexi/5ce among m5tal or social ph5om5a1 & ( _! relation to "o ano!r z causes & effects1 w be ( no avail t[>ds ! art ( ,life or ( ,society1 if ! ends to be aim$ at by t art are left to ! vague sugge/ions ( ! intellectus sibi p]missus1 or are tak5 = grant$ )\t analysis or que/ion+4 #g4 ,!re is1 !n1 a ,philosophia ,prima peculi> to ,art1 z !re is "o :i* belongs to ,sci5ce4 ,!re are n only fir/ pr9ciples ( ,k1 b fir/ pr9ciples ( ,conduct4 ,!re mu/ be "s /&>d by :i* to det]m9e ! goodness or badness1 absolute & comp>ative1 ( ends1 or objects ( desire4 ,& :atev] t /&>d is1 !re c be b "o3 = if !re 7 sev]al ultimate pr9ciples ( conduct1 ! same conduct might be approv$ by "o ( ^? pr9ciples & condemn$ by ano!r2 & !re w\ld be ne$$ "s m g5]al pr9ciple1 z umpire betwe5 !m4 ,accord+ly1 writ]s on moral philosophy h mo/ly felt ! necessity n only ( ref]r+ all rules ( conduct1 & all judgm5ts ( praise & blame1 to pr9ciples1 b ( ref]r+ !m to "s "o pr9ciple2 "s rule1 or /&>d1 ) :i* all o!r rules ( conduct 7 requir$ to be consi/5t1 & f :i* by ultimate consequ5ce !y c\ld all be d$uc$4 ,^? :o h disp5s$ ) ! assumption ( su* an univ]sal /&>d1 h only be5 enabl$ to d s by suppos+ t a moral s5se1 or in/9ct1 inh]5t 9 our con/itution1 in=ms u1 bo? :at pr9ciples ( conduct we are b\nd to obs]ve1 & also 9 :at ord] ^! %\ld be subord9at$ to "o ano!r4 ,! !ory ( ! f\ndations ( morality is a subject :i* x w\ld be out ( place1 9 a "w l ?is1 to discuss at l>ge1 & :i* c\ld n to any useful purpose be treat$ incid5tally4 ,i %all cont5t myself !re=e ) say+1 t ! doctr9e ( intuitive moral pr9ciples1 ev5 if true1 w\ld provide only = t portion ( ! field ( conduct :i* is prop]ly call$ moral4 ,= ! rema9d] ( ! practice ( life "s g5]al pr9ciple1 or /&>d1 mu/ /ill be s\ght2 & if t pr9ciple be rightly *os51 x w be f\nd1 ,i appreh5d1 to s]ve q z well = ! ultimate pr9ciple ( ,morality1 z = t ( ,prud5ce1 ,policy1 or ,ta/e4 ,)\t attempt+ 9 ?is place to ju/ify my op9ion1 or ev5 to def9e ! k9d ( ju/ification :i* x admits (1 ,i m]ely decl>e my conviction1 t ! g5]al pr9ciple to :i* all rules ( practice ought to con=m1 & ! te/ by :i* !y %\ld be tri$1 is t ( conduciv5ess to ! happ9ess ( mank9d1 or r1 ( all s5ti5t be+s3 9 o!r words1 t ! promotion ( happ9ess is ! ultimate pr9ciple ( ,teleology4#ba ,i d n mean to ass]t t ! promotion ( happ9ess %\ld be itself ! end ( all actions1 or ev5 ( all rules ( action4 ,x is ! ju/ification1 & ought to be ! controll]1 ( all ends1 b is n itself ! sole end4 ,!re are _m virtu\s actions1 & ev5 virtu\s modes ( action 7?\gh ! cases are1 ,i ?9k1 less frequ5t ?an is (t5 suppos$7 by :i* happ9ess 9 ! p>ticul> in/ance is sacrific$1 m pa9 be+ produc$ ?an pleasure4 ,b conduct ( :i* ?is c be truly ass]t$1 admits ( ju/ification only because x c be %[n t on ! :ole m happ9ess w exi/ 9 ! _w1 if feel+s are cultivat$ :i* w make p1 9 c]ta9 cases1 reg>dless ( happ9ess4 ,i fully admit t ?is is true3 t ! cultivation ( an ideal nobl5ess ( w & conduct1 %\ld be to individual human be+s an end1 to :i* ! specific pursuit ei!r ( _! own happ9ess or ( t ( o!rs 7except s f> z includ$ 9 t idea7 %\ld1 9 any case ( conflict1 give way4 ,b ,i hold t ! v "q1 :at con/itutes ?is elevation ( "*1 is itself to be decid$ by a ref]5ce to happ9ess z ! /&>d4 ,! "* itself %\ld be1 to ! individual1 a p>am\nt end1 simply because ! exi/5ce ( ?is ideal nobl5ess ( "*1 or ( a ne> approa* to x1 9 any abundance1 w\ld g fur!r ?an all ?+s else t[>ds mak+ human life happy2 bo? 9 ! comp>atively humble s5se1 ( pleasure & fre$om f pa91 & 9 ! high] mean+1 ( r5d]+ life1 n :at x n[ is almo/ univ]sally1 pu]ile & insignificant--b su* z human be+s ) highly develop$ faculties c c>e to h4 #h4 ,) ^! rem>ks we mu/ close ?is summ>y view ( ! application ( ! g5]al logic ( sci5tific inquiry to ! moral & social dep>tm5ts ( sci5ce4 ,not)/&+ ! extreme g5]ality ( ! pr9ciples ( me?od :i* ,i h laid d[n1 7a g5]ality :i*1 ,i tru/1 is n1 9 ?is in/ance1 synonym\s ) vagu5ess7 ,i h indulg$ ! hope t to "s ( ^? on :om ! task w devolve ( br++ ^? mo/ important ( all sci5ces into a m satisfactory /ate1 ^! obs]vations may be useful2 bo? 9 remov+ errone\s1 & 9 cle>+ up ! true1 conceptions ( ! means by :i*1 on subjects ( s high a degree ( complication1 tru? c be atta9$4 ,%\ld ?is hope be realiz$1 :at is probably de/9$ to be ! great intellectual a*ievem5t ( ! next two or ?ree g5]ations ( ,european ?9k]s w h be5 9 "s degree =w>d$4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,"s argum5ts & explanations1 supplem5t>y to ^? 9 ! text1 w be f\nd 9 ,an ,exam9ation ( ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,philosophy1 *ap4 xxvi4 #b ,supra1 p4 #acg4 #c ,:5 ?is *apt] 0 writt51 ,mr4 ,ba9 _h n yet publi%$ ev5 ! fir/ "p 7,! ,s5ses & ! ,intellect7 ( 8 pr(\nd ,treatise on ! ,m9d4 ,9 ?is1 ! laws ( association h be5 m compreh5sively /at$ & m l>gely exemplifi$ ?an by any previ\s writ]2 & ! "w1 hav+ be5 complet$ by ! publication ( ,! ,emotions & ! ,w1 may n[ be ref]r$ to z incomp>ably ! mo/ complete analytical exposition ( ! m5tal ph5om5a1 on ! basis ( a legitimate ,induction1 :i* has yet be5 produc$4 ,_m /rik+ applications ( ! laws ( association to ! explanation ( complex m5tal ph5om5a1 are also to be f\nd 9 ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]'s ,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology4 #d ,9 ! case ( ! moral s5tim5ts ! place ( direct exp]im5t is to a consid]able ext5t suppli$ by hi/orical exp]i5ce1 & we are able to trace ) a tol]able approa* to c]ta9ty ! p>ticul> associations by :i* ^? s5tim5ts are eng5d]$4 ,?is has be5 attempt$1 s f> z respects ! s5tim5t ( ju/ice1 9 a little "w by ! pres5t au?or1 entitl$ ,utilit>ianism4 #e ,! mo/ fav\rable cases = mak+ su* approximate g5]alizations are :at may be t]m$ collective in/ances2 :]e we are =tunately enabl$ to see ! :ole class respect+ :i* we are inquir+1 9 action at once2 &1 f ! qualities display$ by ! collective body1 are able to judge :at mu/ be ! qualities ( ! majority ( ! individuals compos+ x4 ,?us ! "* ( a nation is %[n 9 its acts z a nation2 n s mu* 9 ! acts ( its gov]nm5t1 = ^? are mu* influ5c$ by o!r causes2 b 9 ! curr5t popul> maxims1 & o!r m>ks ( ! g5]al direction ( public op9ion2 9 ! "* ( ! p]sons or writ+s t are held 9 p]man5t e/eem or admiration2 9 laws & in/itutions1 s f> z !y are ! "w ( ! nation itself1 or are ackn[l$g$ & support$ by x2 & s =?4 ,b ev5 "h !re is a l>ge m>g9 ( d\bt & unc]ta9ty4 ,^! ?+s are liable to be influ5c$ by _m circum/ances3 !y are p>tly det]m9$ by ! di/9ctive qualities ( t nation or body ( p]sons1 b p>tly also by ext]nal causes :i* w\ld influ5ce any o!r body ( p]sons 9 ! same mann]4 ,9 ord]1 !re=e1 to make ! exp]im5t really complete1 we ought to be able to try x )\t v>iation ^u o!r nations3 to try h[ ,engli%m5 w\ld act or feel if plac$ 9 ! same circum/ances 9 :i* we h suppos$ ,fr5*m5 to be plac$2 to apply1 9 %ort1 ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce z well z t ( ,agreem5t4 ,n[ ^! exp]im5ts we _c try1 nor ev5 approximate to4 #f ,to :i*1 says ,dr4 ,:ewell1 we may add1 t x is c]ta9 f ! hi/ory ( ! subject1 t 9 t case ! hypo!sis w\ld nev] h be5 fram$ at all4 ,dr4 ,:ewell 7,philosophy ( ,discov]y1 pp4 #bgg-bhb7 def5ds ,bacon's rule aga9/ ! prec$+ /rictures4 ,b 8 def5ce consi/s only 9 ass]t+ & exemplify+ a proposition :i* ,i _h myself /at$1 viz4 t ?\gh ! l>ge/ g5]alizations may be ! e>lie/ made1 !y are n at fir/ se5 9 _! entire g5]ality1 b acquire x by degrees1 z !y are f\nd to expla9 "o class aft] ano!r ( ph5om5a4 ,! laws ( motion1 = example1 7 n kn[n to ext5d to ! cele/ial regions1 until ! motions ( ! cele/ial bodies _h be5 d$uc$ f !m4 ,?is h[ev] does n 9 any way affect ! fact1 t ! middle pr9ciples ( a/ronomy1 ! c5tral =ce = example1 & ! law ( ! inv]se squ>e1 c\ld n h be5 discov]$1 if ! laws ( motion1 :i* are s mu* m univ]sal1 _h n be5 kn[n fir/4 ,on ,bacon's sy/em ( /ep-by-/ep g5]alization1 x w\ld be impossible 9 any sci5ce to asc5d high] ?an ! empirical laws2 a rem>k :i* ,dr4 ,:ewell's own ,inductive ,tables1 ref]r$ to by him 9 support ( 8 argum5t1 amply be> out4 #g ,vol4 i4 p4 #did to ! end ( ! *apt]4 #h ,biographia ,lit]>ia1 i4 #bad4 #i ,supra1 vol4 i4 p4 #ejj4 #aj ,essays on "s ,unsettl$ ,que/ions ( ,political ,economy1 pp4 #acg-adj4 #aa ,! quotations 9 ?is p>agraph are f a pap] writt5 by ! au?or1 & publi%$ 9 a p]iodical 9 #ahcd4 #ab ,c\rs de ,philosophie ,positive1 iv4 #cbe-i4 #ac ,s9ce repr9t$ entire 9 ,diss]tations & ,discussions1 z ! conclud+ pap] ( ! fir/ volume4 #ad ,?is great g5]alization is (t5 unfav\rably criticis$ 7z by ,dr4 ,:ewell = in/ance7 "u a misappreh5sion ( its real import4 ,! doctr9e1 t ! !ological explanation ( ph5om5a belongs only to ! infancy ( our k ( !m1 ought n to be con/ru$ z if x 0 equival5t to ! ass]tion1 t mank9d1 z _! k advances1 w necess>ily cease to believe 9 any k9d ( !ology4 ,?is 0 ,m4 ,comte's op9ion2 b x is by no means impli$ 9 8 fundam5tal !orem4 ,all t is impli$ is1 t 9 an advanc$ /ate ( human k1 no o!r ,rul] ( ! ,_w w be ackn[l$g$ ?an "o :o rules by univ]sal laws1 & does n at all1 or does n unless 9 v peculi> cases1 produce ev5ts by special int]positions4 ,orig9ally all natural ev5ts 7 ascrib$ to su* int]positions4 ,at pres5t e educat$ p]son rejects ?is explanation 9 reg>d to all classes ( ph5om5a ( :i* ! laws h be5 fully asc]ta9$2 ?\gh "s h n yet rea*$ ! po9t ( ref]r+ all ph5om5a to ! idea ( ,law1 b believe t ra9 & sun%9e1 fam9e & pe/il5ce1 victory & defeat1 dea? & life1 are issues :i* ! ,creator does n leave to ! op]ation ( 8 g5]al laws1 b res]ves to be decid$ by express acts ( volition4 ,m4 ,comte's !ory is ! negation ( ?is doctr9e4 ,dr4 ,:ewell equally misund]/&s ,m4 ,comte's doctr9e respect+ ! second1 or metaphysical /age ( speculation4 ,m4 ,comte did n mean t discussions conc]n+ ideas are limit$ to an e>ly /age ( inquiry1 & cease :5 sci5ce ent]s into ! positive /age4 7,philosophy ( ,discov]y1 pp4 #bbf et seq47 ,9 all ,m4 ,comte's speculations z mu* /ress is laid on ! process ( cle>+ up our conceptions1 z on ! asc]ta9m5t ( facts4 ,:5 ,m4 ,comte speaks ( ! metaphysical /age ( speculation1 he means ! /age 9 :i* m5 speak ( ,nature & o!r ab/ractions z if !y 7 active =ces1 produc+ effects2 :5 ,nature is said to d ?is1 or =bid t2 :5 ,nature's horror ( a vacuum1 ,nature's non-admission ( a break1 ,nature's vis m$icatrix1 7 (f]$ z explanations ( ph5om5a2 :5 ! qualities ( ?+s 7 mi/ak5 = real entities dwell+ 9 ! ?+s2 :5 ! ph5om5a ( liv+ bodies 7 ?\ght to be acc\nt$ = by be+ ref]r$ to a vital =ce2 :51 9 %ort1 ! ab/ract names ( ph5om5a 7 mi/ak5 = ! causes ( _! exi/5ce4 ,9 ?is s5se ( ! ^w x _c be reasonably d5i$ t ! metaphysical explanation ( ph5om5a1 equally ) ! !ological1 gives way be=e ! advance ( real sci5ce4 ,t ! f9al1 or positive /age1 z conceiv$ by ,m4 ,comte1 has be5 equally misund]/ood1 & t1 not)/&+ "s expressions op5 to j criticism1 ,m4 ,comte nev] dream$ ( d5y+ ! legitimacy ( inquiry into all causes :i* are accessible to human inve/igation1 ,i h po9t$ out 9 a =m] place4 #ae ,buckle's ,hi/ory ( ,civilization1 i4 #cj4 #af ,i h be5 assur$ by an intimate fri5d ( ,mr4 ,buckle t he w\ld n h )held 8 ass5t f ^! rem>ks1 & t he nev] int5d$ to affirm or imply t mank9d are n progressive 9 _! moral z well z 9 _! intellectual qualities4 ,9 deal+ ) 8 problem1 he avail$ himself ( ! artifice resort$ to by ! ,political ,economi/1 :o leaves out ( consid]ation ! g5]\s & b5evol5t s5tim5ts1 & f\nds 8 sci5ce on ! proposition t mank9d are actuat$ by acquisitive prop5sities alone1 n because su* is ! fact1 b because x is necess>y to beg9 by treat+ ! pr9cipal influ5ce z if x 0 ! sole "o1 & make ! due corrections aft]w>ds4 ,he desir$ to make ab/raction ( ! intellect z ! det]m9+ & dynamical elem5t ( ! progression1 elim9at+ ! m dep5d5t set ( conditions1 & treat+ ! m active "o z if x 7 an entirely indep5d5t v>iable4 ,! same fri5d ( ,mr4 ,buckle /ates t :5 he us$ expressions :i* seem$ to exagg]ate ! influ5ce ( g5]al at ! exp5se ( special causes1 & especially at ! exp5se ( ! influ5ce ( individual m9ds1 ,mr4 ,buckle really int5d$ no m ?an to affirm emphatically t ! greate/ m5 _c effect great *anges 9 human affairs unless ! g5]al m9d has be5 9 "s consid]able degree prep>$ = !m by ! g5]al circum/ances ( ! age2 a tru? :i*1 ( c\rse1 no "o ?9ks ( d5y+4 ,& !re c]ta9ly are passages 9 ,mr4 ,buckle's writ+s :i* speak ( ! influ5ce ex]cis$ by great individual intellects 9 z /rong t]ms z c\ld be desir$4 #ag ,essay on ,dryd51 9 ,miscellane\s ,writ+s1 i4 #ahf4 #ah ,9 ! ,cornhill ,magaz9e = ,june & ,july #ahfa4 #ai ,x is almo/ sup]flu\s to obs]ve1 t !re is ano!r mean+ ( ! ^w ,art1 9 :i* x may be said to d5ote ! poetical dep>tm5t or aspect ( ?+s 9 g5]al1 9 contradi/9ction to ! sci5tific4 ,9 ! text1 ! ^w is us$ 9 its old]1 & ,i hope1 n yet obsolete s5se4 #bj ,! ^w ,teleology is also1 b inconv5i5tly & improp]ly1 employ$ by "s writ]s z a "n = ! attempt to expla9 ! ph5om5a ( ! univ]se f f9al causes4 #ba ,= an express discussion & v9dication ( ?is pr9ciple1 see ! little volume entitl$ ,utilit>ianism4 ,,! ,,end4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes4 ,spell+ irregul>ities :]e !re 0 no obvi\sly pref]r$ v]sion 7 left z is4 ,v>iants include3 cotempor>y & contempor>y2 commonplaces & common-places2 dep5d5ts & dep5dants2 dream$ & dreamt2 d]ivatives ( enclose & inclose2 e4 g4 & e4g42 i4 e4 & i4e42 mise/imate & mis-e/imate2 recal & recall 7& d]ivatives72 d]ivatives ( p>aphrase & p]iphrase2 subclass & sub-class 7& d]ivatives74 ,*ang$ ,phemom5a to ,ph5om5a on page xv3 ,successions ( ,social ,ph5om5a4 ,*ang$ page ref]5ce = section #d ( ,*apt] ,,xi on page xv ( ! ,table ( ,cont5ts f #eci to #edj4 ,*ang$ ob]v$ to obs]v$ on page #ag3 ! obs]v$ facts4 ,a clos+ d\ble quotation m>k is miss+ on page #ag4 ,x 0 add$ aft] ! s5t5ce t ends ) object ( ! inquiry4 ,*ang$ nev]?less to nev]!less on page #ajd3 ph5om5a w\ld nev]!less4 ,= ! ma!matical =mulas appe>+ on pages #aeb & #aec3 p>5!ses 7 add$ to make ! l9e> =m ( ! =mula correct2 & ! radical sign 0 replac$ by root (4 ,! equal sign 0 pres]v$ 9 arc 7s9 x71 al?\gh x makes m s5se )\t x4 ,page #bdj conta9s ! ^w ',squire4 ,x int5tionally beg9s ) an apo/rophe1 n an unmat*$ s+le quotation m>k1 & 0 left z orig9ally pr9t$4 ,*ang$ eupiditatibus to cupiditatibus on page #dja3 de cupiditatibus f9i5dis4 ,& %ortly !reaft]1 *ang$ eupiditas to cupiditas3 ,an pote/ cupiditas f9iri4 ,& !n a bit fur!r on1 *ang$ he to hc3 hc desid]ia natur4